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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

FROM  THE  LIBRARY 
OF 

ELI  SOBEL 


A    NEW 


CLASSICAL  DICTIONARY 


OF  GREEK  AND  ROMAN 


BIOGRAPHY,  MYTHOLOGY  AND  GEOGRAPHY, 


PARTLY     BASED    UPON     THE 


DICTIONARY  OF  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  BIOGRAPHY  AND  MYTHOLOGY. 


BY  WILLIAM  SMITH,  LL.D., 

BDITOR  OF  THE  DICTIONARIES  OF  GREEK  AND  ROHAN  ANTIQUITIES,  AND  OF  GREEK 
ROMAN  BIOGRAPHY  AND  M7THOLOGT. 


XUbisett,  totti)  numerous  Corrections  anto  dilution*, 


BY  CHARLES  ANTHON,  LL.D., 

PROFESSOR    OF   THE    GREEK   AND   LATIN   LANGUAGES   IN    COLUMBIA    COLLEGE. 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 

PEARL  STREET,  FRANKLIN  SQUARE. 
1860. 


,Y 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thousand 

eight  hundred  and  fifty,  by 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District 
of  New  York. 


SRLE 


DE 
5 


TO 


CHARLES    KING,    LL.  D., 


THE  STAUNCH   FRIEND   OF   CLASSICAL  LEARNING, 

AND 

VHO  HAS  RETAINED  AMID  THE  BUSY  SCENES  OF  PUBLIC  LIFE 

SO  ACCURATE  A  PERCEPTION  OF,  AND  SO  KEEN  A 

RELISH  FOR,  THE  CHARMS  OF 


HE  it  Unman  £ihrattin. 


PREFACE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  EDITOR. 


THE  volume  here  presented  to  the  American  public  is  one  of  a  series  of  Diction 
tries  prepared  under  the  editorial  supervision  of  Dr.  William  Smith,  aided  by  a 
number  of  learned  men,  and  designed  to  present  in  an  English  dress  the  valuable 
historical  and  archaeological  researches  of  the  scholars  of  Germany.  For  it  is  a 
fact  not  to  be  denied,  that  classical  learning  has  found  its  proper  abode  in  the 
latter  country,  and  that  whatever  of  value  on  these  subjects  has  appeared  in 
England  for  many  years  past,  has  been,  with  a  few  honorable  exceptions — rari 
nantes  in  gurgite  vasto — derived  immediately  or  remotely  from  German  sources. 
For  instance,  an  English  "  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  "  desires 
a  "  History  of  Greek  Literature; "  none  but  a  German  can  be  found  competent  to 
prepare  it,  and  when  death  removes  him  in  the  midst  of  his  noble  efforts,  a 
continuator  can  not  be  found  on  English  soil,  and  the  ablest  history  of  Greek 
literature  (as  far  as  it  goes)  remains  a  fragment.  Turn  over  the  pages  of  the  most 
elaborate  and  valuable  English  histories  of  Greece,  and  how  few  names  are  there 
quoted  as  authorities  out  of  the  limits  of  the  land  of  antiquarian  research.  Thirl- 
wall's  and  Grote's  splendid  superstructures  rest  on  Teutonic  foundations.  The 
text-books  used  even  in  the  Universities,  which  claim  a  Bentley  and  a  Person 
among  their  illustrious  dead,  and  where  Gaisford  still  labors  in  a  green  old  age. 
the  Nestor  of  English  scholarship,  are  mere  reprints  from,  or  based  on,  German 
recensions.  The  University  press  sends  forth  an  Aristotle,  an  ^Eschylus,  u 
Sophocles,  and  what  English  alumnus  of  Oxford  or  Cambridge  performs  the  critical 
revision — we  read  on  the  title-page  the  Teutonic  names  of  Bekker,  Dindorf,  &c. 
As  in  every  other  department  of  classical  learning  English  scholarship  is  indebted 
to  German  labors,  so,  until  the  appearance  of  the  present  series  of  dictionaries 
(mostly  the  result  of  German,  erudition),  she  had  nothing  to  put  in  comparison 
with  the  valuable  classical  encyclopedias  of  Germany  but  the  miserable  compeu- 
diums  of  Lempriere  and  Dymock — compilations  in  which  the  errors  were  so  glaring 
and  so  absurd,  that  when  the  American  editor  of  the  present  work  prepared  a 
revised  edition  of  Lempriere,  pruning  away  many  of  its  faults,  correcting  many  of 
its  misstatements,  supplying  many  of  its  deficiencies,  and  introducing  to  his  coun- 
trymen the  latest  results  of  German  scholarship,  his  work  was  immediately 
reprinted,  and  found  extensive  circulation  in  England.  Though  he  had  to  work 
single-handed,  and  amid  many  discouragements  and  disadvantages,  yet  his  labors 
seemed  to  meet  with  favor  abroad,  and  this  approbation  was  distinctly  manifested 
in  the  fact  that  his  last  revision  of  Lempriere  was  republished  in  its  native  land  in 
several  different  forms  and  in  abridgments.  What  he  sought  to  do  unaided,  and 
in  the  intervals  of  laborious  professional  duties,  has  now  been  undertaken  on  a 
more  extended  scale  by  an  association  of  scholars,  both  English  and  foreign.  The 
increased  attention  paid  to  this  department  in  Germany,  the  recent  discoveries 
made  by  travellers  in  more  thorough  explorations,  the  vast  amount  of  literary 


n  PREFACE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  EDITOR. 

material  collected  in  separate  works,  or  scattered  through  the  published  proceed 
ings  of  learned  societies,  at  length  suggested  to  these  scholars  the  propriety  of 
exhibiting  in  one  body  the  latest  results  of  German  learning.  An  able  and  useful 
guide  was  found  at  hand  in  the  learned  and  copious  "  Real-Encyclopadie  der  Alter- 
thumswissenschaft  von  Aug.  Pauly."  Following  in  the  footsteps  of  Pauly  and  his 
fellow-laborers,  and  using  freely  the  materials  and  the  references  of  these  writers, 
as  well  as  other  works  of  standard  excellence  not  otherwise  accessible  to  English 
students,  Dr.  William  Smith,  aided  by  some  twenty-eight  collaborateurx,  English 
and  German,  prepared, 

1st.  A  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  London,  1842,  in  one  vol. 
8vo.,  of  1121  pages;  reprinted  in  a  new  edition,  London,  1850. 

2dly.  A  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology,  in  3  vols. 
8vo.,  of  about  3600  pages ;  to  be  followed  by, 

Sdly.  A  Dictionary  of  Ancient  Geography,  now  in  preparation. 

After  the  completion  of  the  second  of  these  works,  Dr.  W.  Smith  and  his 
brother,  the  Rev.  Philip  Smith,  from  that  work,  from  Pauly's  Encyclopadie,  and 
other  works,  drew  up  a  "Classical  Dictionary  for  Schools"  (of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography,  Mythology,  and  Geography),  which  should  by  its  size  and  price  be. 
accessible  to  all  students,  and  present  in  a  brief  and  convenient  form  the  latest  and 
most  reliable  results  in  these  departments.  The  plan  and  detail  of  the  work  are 
stated  at  length  in  the  preface  of  the  English  editor,  subjoined  to  this,  on  p.  xiii.- 
xv,,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  When  the  printing  of  this  work  commenced, 
the  publishers  of  the  American  edition  immediately  made  an  arrangement  with  the 
English  publishers,  and  purchased  at  a  considerable  cost  the  sheets  in  advance,  to 
be  revised  and  edited  for  circulation  in  this  country ;  and  the  two  books  were  to 
appear  nearly  simultaneously.  The  present  work  is  the  revised  edition  of  the 
English  one,  and  will  be  found,  the  editor  believes,  greatly  improved,  as  well  as 
much  more  complete.  It  is  not,  however  designed  to,  and,  in  the  editor's  opinion, 
will  not  supersede  his  own  "  Classical  Dictionary"  published  in  1841,  since  the 
articles  are  purposely  brief,  and  results  only  are  stated,  without  that  fullness  of 
detail  which  is  desirable  to  the  more  advanced  scholar  and  the  educated  man 
of  leisure ;  but  it  is  intended  for  the  use  of  those  whose  means  will  not  allow  a 
more  expensive,  or  their  scanty  time  the  use  of  a  more  copious  work ;  in  other 
words,  it  is  meant  to  take  the  place,  by  reason  of  its  convenient  size  and  low  price, 
of  Lempriere's  old  dictionary,  which,  with  all  its  absurd  errors  and  defects,  still 
has  a  lingering  existence  in  certain  parts  of  our  country  on  account  of  its  cheapness. 
On  this  head  the  English  editor  speaks  strongly  ;  in  point  of  literary  or  scientific 
value,  Lempriere's  dictionary  is  dead — "  requiescat  in  pace" — and  to  put  it  into  a 
boy's  hands  now  as  a  guide  in  classical  matters  would  be  as  wise  and  as  useful  as 
giving  him  some  mystic  treatise  of  the  Middle  Ages  on  alchemy  to  serve  as  a  texV 
book  in  chemistry.  The  present  work  contains  all  the  names  of  any  value  to  a 
schoolboy  occurring  in  Lempriere,  and  a  great  many  not  in  that  work,  while  the 
information  is  derived  from  the  fountain-head,  and  not  from  the  diluted  stream  of 
French  encyclopedias. 

As  regards  the  plan  pursued  in  revising  the  work,  the  editor  has  been  guided  by 
the  wants  of  the  class  for  whom  it  is  specially  designed  ;  he  has  therefore  inserted 


PREFACE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  EDITOR.  TO 

more  fully  than  in  the  original  the  names  occurring  in  the  authors  most  frequently 
read  by  younger  students,  as  Caesar,  Sallust,  Virgil,  Cicero,  Ovid,  Xenophon,  Hero- 
dotus, Homer,  &c.,  and  has  endeavored  to  give  briefly  such  information  as  a  boy 
meeting  with  any  of  these  names  in  his  author  would  seek  in  a  classical  dictionary. 
For  this  purpose  he  has  used  freely  the  most  recent  and  most  reliable  authorities ; 
he  has  added  brief  notices  from  Dr.  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mytho- 
logy, and  from  his  own  Classical  Dictionary,  of  course,  abridging  to  suit  the 
character  of  the  work  ;  he  has  also,  among  other  works  less  frequently  consulted, 
and  single  books  on  special  topics  unnecessary  to  be  enumerated,  derived  materials 
from  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encyclopedic  (A-F,  H-Italien,  O-Phokyl 
ides),  97  vols.  4to,  from  Kitto's  and  Winer's  Bible  Cyclopaedia,  from  the  indexes 
and  notes  to  the  best  editions  of  the  classic  authors,  especially  the  valuable  index 
to  Groskurd's  translation  of  Strabo,  and  the  Onomasticon  Ciceronianum  and  Pla- 
tonicum  of  Orelli,  from  Gruber's  Mythologisches  Lexicon,  3  vols.  8vo,  from  Man- 
nert's,  Ukert's,  and  especially  Forbiger's  Alte  Geographic,  from  Cramer's  Ancient 
Greece,  Italy,  and  Asia  Minor,  from  numerous  recent  books  of  travel  in  classic  and 
sacred  lands,  from  Grote's  and  Thirlwall's  Greece,  and  Niebuhr's  Rome  and  Lec- 
tures ;  but  particularly  would  he  acknowledge,  in  the  most  explicit  terms,  his  obli- 
gations to  Pauly 's  Real-Encyclopadie  der  Alterthumswissenschaft  (A-Thymna),  and 
to  Kraft  and  Miiller's  improved  edition  of  Funke's  Real-Schullexicon  (of  which, 
unfortunately,  only  the  first  volume,  A-K,  has  appeared) :  from  these  two  works 
he  has  derived  many  of  his  own  articles,  and  has  been  enabled  to  correct  many  of 
those  in  the  English  work  taken  from  the  same  sources.  In  this  connection,  the 
editor  regrets  to  find  that  Dr.  W.  Smith  and  some  of  his  coadjutors  have  studi- 
ously avoided,  in  all  their  dictionaries  hitherto  published,  making  any  direct 
acknowledgment  of  their  indebtedness  to  the  former  of  these  two  works.  Although 
the  plan  and  much  of  the  detail  of  the  works  in  question  are  taken  from  Pauly's, 
there  is  no  indication  of  the  existence  of  such  a  book  in  the  preface  to  the  Diction- 
ary of  Antiquities,  or  to  the  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mythology,  and  this 
omission  has  led  a  distinguished  German  scholar,  in  a  notice  of  the  latter  work  in 
the  Leipziger  Repertorium  for  February,  1846,  to  complain  of  this  conduct  as 
unscholarlike  and  reprehensible :  he  says,  "  Under  this  head  the  editor  (Dr.  W. 
Smith)  ought  not  to  have  omitted  stating  of  how  great  service  to  him  and  several 
of  his  coadjutors  the  '  Encyclopedia  of  Classical  Antiquity,'  begun  by  Aug.  Pauly 
and  continued  after  his  (Pauly's)  death  by  Chr.  Walz  and  W.  TeufTel,  has  been, 
and  especially  since  we  can  show  that  the  above-named  production  of  German 
scholars  has  been  actually  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  English  Dictionary,  although 
the  plan  of  the  latter  is  considerably  altered."  .  ..."  In  regard  to  its  (Smith's 
Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mythology)  relation  to  the  Stuttgard  (Pauly's)  Ency- 
clopaedia, we  have  still  further  to  remark,  that  the  articles  which  have  been  bor- 
rowed from  it,  namely,  by  Dr.  Schmitz  and  the  editor,  have  been  revised,  and  in 
some  respects  considerably  enlarged."  * 

*  "  Hier  hatte  der  Herausgcber  nicht  verschweigen  sollen,  von  wie  grossem  Nutzen  ihm 
und  mehreren  seiner  mitarbeiter  die  von  Aug.  Pauly  begonnenc  und  nach  dcssen  Tode  von 
Ch.  Walz  and  W.  Teuffel  forgesetzte  '  Real-Encyclopadie  der  Classischen  Alterthumswis- 


Tin  PREFACE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  EDITOR. 

The  present  edition  is  called  an  enlarged  and  corrected  one,  and  the  editor  thinks 
he  may  justly  claim  to  have  improved  as  well  as  enlarged  the  work:  his  own  addi- 
tions are  inclosed  in  brackets,  and  amount  to  more  than  1400  independent  articles, 
while  the  additions  to  articles  already  in  the  work,  but  either  too  briefly  or  incor- 
rectly stated,  or  omitting  some  important  matter,  are  not  a  few.  The  editor  has 
bestowed  considerable  care  on  the  department  of  bibliography,  and  under  this  head 
many  additions  will  be  found.  Dr.  Smith  has  been  content  in  most  cases  to  copy 
the  statements  in  the  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mythology,  without  noticing 
many  valuable  books  which  have  appeared  since  the  publication  of  that  work. 
Many  corrections  of  names,  or  erroneous  statements  too  short  to  be  marked  in  the 
text,  will  also  be  found  on  a  comparison  of  the  two  editions  ;  we  have  kept  a  list 
of  these,  and  subjoin  some  of  the  more  important  of  them  here,  that  the  public  may 
see  that  the  revision  of  the  work  has  been  pretty  thorough.  Many  mere  verbal 
alterations  and  corrections  of  oversight  or  carelessness  in  reading  the  proofs  might 
also  be  adduced. 

ABJE  is  said  to  be  in  Phocis,  on  the  boundaries  of  Eubcea  ! 

JEsAcus  !  Thetis  is  used  for  Tethys,  and  the  error  is  very  frequently  repeated,  in  most 
cases  copied  from  the  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mythology,  in  the  present  instance 
adopted  by  Dr.  Schmitz  from  Pauly,  5.  v. 

ALEXANDRIA  :  oftener  la,  rarely  ea.  a  statement  just  the  reverse  of  the  fact,  and  for  cor- 
rection, vide  the  article  in  the  Dictionary. 

ANCJEUS  :  the  Greek  quotation  is  wrong  :  the  line  as  given  by  us  from  the  scholiast  is  a 
.  hexameter  verse,  as  it  is  also  given  by  Thirlwall  in  the  Philological  Museum,  vol.  i.,  page 
107,  quoted  by  Dr.  Schmitz  for  his  authority,  though  he  copies  the  altered  Greek  from 
Pauly. 

ANICS  :  Dryope  is  copied  erroneously  from  the  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mythology, 
and  the  account  of  the  daughters  of  Anius  is  taken  incorrectly  from  Kraft  and  Miillei, 
though  right  in  the  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mythology. 

ANTONIA  1  is  called  husband  of  L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  and  ANTONIA  2,  the  husband 
of  Drusus ;  where  the  editor,  copying  from  the  German  of  Kraft  and  Miiller,  has  taken  Ge- 
mahlin  (wife)  for  Gemahl  (husband)  ;  and  so  again  under 

CRETHEUS,  by  way  probably  of  compensation.  Kraft  and  Miiller's  Gemahl  (husband)  is 
translated  wife,  and  Cretheus  is  made  "  wife  of  Tyro." 

APHRODITOPOLIS,  No.  3,  1,  from  Kraft  and  Miiller,  AphroditopoZwr  Nomos  for  -lites. 

APIS  (the  city)  is  said  to  be  10  stadia  west  of  Parsetonium  for  100,  which  erroneous 
statement,  probably  a  typographical  slip  in  the  German  work,  is  copied  from  Kraft  and . 
Miiller. 

Assus :  ruins  near  Berani,  a  typographical  error  from  Kraft  and  Miiller  for  Beram  or 
Beiram. 

ARCADIA  (p.  70),  the  greatest  river  of  Peloponnesus  is  said  to  be  the  Achelous  !  ! 

ARGONAUTS:  (p.  76)  :  "  And  when  Pollux  was  slain  by  Amyous,"  copied  from  an  article 

senschaft,'  gewesen  ist,  und  zwar  um  so  weniger,  da  wir  diese  Arbeit  deutscher  Gelehrten 
geradezu  als  die  Grundlage  des  englischen  Dictionary  bezeichnen  diirfen,  obschon  der  Plan 
derselben  vielfach  anders  angelegt  ist."  *  *  #  "  Ueber  das  Verhaltniss  zu  der  Stuttgarter 
Encyklopadie  ist  noch  zu  bemerken,  das  die  Artikel,  welche  daher  entlehnt  sind,  namentlich 
von  Schmitz  und  dem  Herausgeber,  aufs  Neue  durchgesehen  und  zum  Theil  schatzbar  erwei- 
tert  sind." 


PREFACE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  EDITOR.  fc 

in  the  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mythology  by  Dr.  L.  Schmitz,  who  has  compiled 
the  account  from  Grotefend's  in  Pauly,  and  falls  into  Grotefend's  unaccountable  blun- 
der of  making  Amycus  slay  Pollux,  though  Apollodorus,  whose  narrative  both  profess  to 
follow,  says  plainly  enough  the  reverse  (Uo^.vdevKrjf  6e,  vxoaxo/ievof  irvKrevaecv  npdf  avrov, 
iritis  icarH  rbv  avxiva  anenTeive,  i.,  9,  20,  $  2),  and  yet  Dr.  Schmitz,  at  the  end  of  his  article, 
quotes  Schanemann,  de  Geogr.  Argonaut. ;  Vkert,  Geographic  der  Griech.  und  Rbmer ;  Mill- 
ler,  Orchomenos,  &c.,  but  says  not  a  word  about  Pauly's  Encyclopadie-  or  Grotefend. 

Other  instances  of  similarity  to  Pauly's  work  are  frequent  in  the  articles  of  this  contri- 
butor, but  this  is  not  the  place  to  point  them  out. 

AULIS  :  a  strange  fatality  seems  to  hang  over  this  unfortunate  place :  the  editors, 
infected  with  the  American  spirit  of  annexation,  transfer  it,  port  and  all,  from  the  main 
land  to  the  island  of  Eubaa  !  ! 

BEBRYCES,  after  Craft  and  Miiller.  for  Bebryces,  or,  at  least,  Bebryces ;  and  in  the 
account  of  their  king,  the  editor,  copying  hastily  from  Pauly,  has  mistaken  the  German 
Ihren  for  Ihrer.  Pauly  has  "  Ihren  Kbnig  Amycus  erschlug  Pollux,"  the  termination  of 
the  accusative  indicating  sufficiently  the  object ;  but  Dr.  Smith,  in  following  the  same 
order  in  English,  has  made  quite  a  difference  in  the  result :  "  whose  king,  Amycus,  slew 
Pollux  !" 

C ;ESAR,  No.  5 :  L.  Caesar  is  called  the  uncle,  and  afterward  nephew,  of  M.  Antony  ii) 
the  same  article. 

CHARES  (at  the  end),  the  colossus,  overthrown  B.C.  224,  and  removed  A.D.  672 ;  ol 
course  it  could  not  have  remained  on  the  ground  923  years,  as  stated. 

CHION  :  thirteen  letters  for  seventeen. 

COCALUS:  it  is  said  that  he  received  Daedalus,  and  afterward  killed  him,  when  Minos 
came  in  pursuit  of  him.  It  was  Minos  that  was  killed ;  the  error  is  taken  from  Dr. 
Schmitz,  in  the  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mythology. 

CRATOS  :  "  Uranus  and  Ge"  for  "  Pallas  and  Styx;"  taken  from  Dr.  Schmitz,  in  the  Dic- 
tionary of  Biography  and  Mythology. 

CYME,  in  ^Eolis  :  it  is  said  to  have  been  Hesiod's  birth-place  !  though,  under  HESIOD,  it 
is  correctly  stated  that  "  we  learn  from  his  own  poem  that  he  was  born  in  the  village  of 
Ascra,  in  Boeotia." 

ERINNYES  :   reference  is  made  to  Eumenida  /  for  a  feminine  plural ;  and  so  again, 
under  Phaethon,  his  sisters  are  called  Heliad<e  /  the  same  error  occurs  under  Tisiphone 
(EumenidfE  /)  and  under  Valens  (the  islands  Sto;chad«  /  for  des)y  in  part  from  the  Diction 
ary  of  Biography  and  Mythology. 

HALESUS  :  he  is  said  to  have  been  slain  by  "  Evander"  for  "  Pallas,"  copied  from  Dr 
Schmitz  in  the  larger  dictionary. 

HALMYRIS  :  we  have  'Afytvptf,  sc.  ^.ifajv  for  Tupvrj. 

HALOSYDNE  :  Thetys  (or  Thetis),  as  usual,  for  Tethys ;  from  Dr.  Schmitz,  in  the  Diction- 
ary of  Biography  and  Mythology. 

HELIOS  :  Phaelusa,  and,  under  Heliades,  Phaeton,  for  "  th." 

HERCULES  (p.  310) :  he  is  said  to  have  taken  Pylos  and  slain  Periclymenus,  a  son  of 
Neleus ;  elsewhere,  all  the  sons  of  Neleus,  except  Nestor. 

ITHOME  :  "  last "  Messenian  war  for  "  first." 

LEANDER  :  "  Herois  "  is  made  the  genitive  of  "  Hero." 

LEONTIADES  :  Spartan  "  exiles  for  "  Theban." 

LEUCIPPUS  :  his  birth-place  is  inferred  to  be  Elis  !  !  because  he  was  of  the  "  Eleatic  " 
school,  instead  of  "  Elea,"  in  Italy  !  copied  from  the  Dictionary  of  Biography  and 
Mythology. 

MAXIMUS  No.  2 :  Dionysius  is  styled  Halicarnasstw  / 


T  PREFACE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  EDITOR. 

MYCEN.E  :  the  treasury  of  Atreus,  in  MycenaB,  is  called  the  treasury  of  Athens  !  and  tne 
tine  error  is  repeated  under  Pelasgi  (near  the  end). 

MYRONIDES  :  Megaro  is  used  for  Megan's. 

NKREUS  :  just  as  Proteus,  in  the  story  of  Ulysses,  for  Menelaus. 

NITRIC  :  vofioc  has  the  feminine  adjective  Nirpiuric !  agreeing  with  it. 

OASIS  :  al  'Oaalrat  is  used  for  ol  'Oaa. 

OGTRIS  :  2000  stadia  —  20  geographical  miles  for  200. 

PADUS  :  Mount  Vesu/a  for  -lus  ! 

PANDA  :  the  Siraces  for  Siract,  as  used  by  Tacitus. 

PASITIGRIS  :  it  is  said  to  be  now  Karoon,  which  name  is  given  to  the  Eulseus,  s.  v. 

PAULINUS  (p.  531) :  "  Nero's"  for  "  Otho's." 

PELOPONNESUS  :  in  the  enumeration  of  its  provinces,  Argolis  is  strangely  omitted. 

PHOCIS  :  Daphnus  is  placed  on  the  Euboean  Sea,  between  the  Locri  Ozolct ! !  and 
Opuntii. 

PHOCIS  :  The  Crisstean  plain  is  placed  in  the  southeast,  on  the  borders  of  Locri  Ozolae  ! 
and  anti-historical  for  ante-historical. 

PICENUM  :  along  the  northern  !  coast  of  the  Adriatic  for  western. 

PIRITHOUS  :  Theseus  is  said  to  have  placed  Helen  at  "  JElhra  !  "  under  the  care  of 
"  Ph&dra  /" 

POSEIDON  (p.  610) :  Pasiphae  is  made  "daughter  !"  of  Minos. 

SASSULA  :  Tiber  for  Tibwr  / 

SCOPAS,  No.  1  :  he  is  put  to  death  B.C.  296,  though  alive  in  B.C.  204 ;  copied  from  thff 
larger  dictionary. 

SILANUS,  No.  6:  the  dates  refer  to  B.C.  for  A.D. 

TAVIUM  :  now  Boghaz-Kieni  for  Kieui  is  a  typographical  error  copied  from  Pauly. 

THEOPHRASTUS  (p.  763)  is  said  to  have  presided  in  the  Academy!  (for  Lyceum),  35  years 

TERENTIA,  the  wife  of  Cicero,  is  called  Tullia,  and  this  error  is  copied  from  the  Diction- 
ary of  Biography  and  Mythology. 

In  some  instances  references  are  made  to  articles  which  are  omitted ;  these  the 
editor  has  been  careful  to  supply,  while  in  other  cases  important  names  have  been 
passed  over  altogether :  a  few  of  these  are  given  in  the  English  work  in  the 
addenda,  and  many  others  not  there  supplied  might  be  quoted,  but  any  one  running 
over  the  additions  marked  with  brackets  can  judge  of  the  extent  of  this  improve- 
ment in  the  American  edition  for  himself.  The  editor  ought  to  add  on  this  point, 
that,  before  receiving  the  page  of  addenda,  he  had  already  inserted  in  their  proper 
places  the  only  important  articles  there  given.  The  biographical  and  mythological 
notices  in  the  present  work,  which  have  been  chiefly  taken  from  the  Dictionary  of 
Biography  and  Mythology,  have  been  compared  with  the  corresponding  ones  in 
that  work,  and  several  errors  are  found  to  have  been  made  in  the  process  of 
abridgment,  e.  g., 

FERONIA  (p.  263)  is  said  to  have  had  her  chief  sanctuary  at  Terracina,  near  Mount 
Soracte  1 !  Now  Terracina  is  in  Latium,  southeast  of  Rome,  while  Mount  Soracte  was  in 
Etruria,  some  distance  north  of  Rome  :  the  larger  dictionary  says,  "  Besides  the  sanctua- 
ries at  Terracina  and  near  Mount  Soracte,  she  had  others  at,"  &c. 

Other  errors  from  the  same  cause  will  be  found  (in  the  English  work,  corrected  in  this) 
under  Octavius  No.  8,  Masinissa,  Orestes,  Tissaphernes,  tie. 

Another  grea^  blemish  in  the  English  work  is  the  utter  carelessness  exhibited  in 


PREFACE  OF  THE  AMERICAN   EDITOR.  n 

the  accentuation  of  the  Greek  names.  If  it  be  desirable  to  have  the  Greek 
accented  at  all,  it  should  be  done  correctly.  The  editor  has  carefully  revised  this 
portion  of  the  work  also,  and  hopes  no  gross  error  will  be  found  uncorrected.  In 
the  historical  and  mythological  names  the  errors  are  copied  from  the  Dictionary 
of  Biography  and  Mythology,  which  exhibits  the  same  carelessness  in  this  respect, 
and  these  errors  are  not  of  that  nature  that  they  might  result  merely  from  haste, 
or  a  disinclination  to  turn  to  the  pages  of  a  lexicon  or  an  author  to  find  the  place 
of  the  accent,  but  such  as  the  slightest  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  Greek 
accentuation  would  indicate  to  the  eye  at  once ;  e.  <?.,  dissyllables  with  long  penult 
and  short  final  syllable  having  the  acute  on  the  penult ;  the  circumflex  placed  on 
the  antepenult ;  the  acute  placed  on  the  penult  of  feminine  adjectives  in  is  and  <x.c; 
or  final  syllable  long  by  nature,  with  circumflex  on  the  penult,  &c. ;  as  instances 
almost  at  random,  Bou&xoVic;,  KXs'avflrjj,  Kr^o'iaj,  'Ap^r/as,  rsvsraioj,  rXa-jxos,  KaX- 
Xif/.e<Jwv,  'ItffA'-jvoff,  'TXo£,  M'tSag,  Kpijvai,  MoipoxXifc,  ©aXarra,  HfXia&g,  &c.  &c.  In 
the  English  edition  the  Greek  names  of  the  Greek  divinities  are  commonly  given, 
but  with  considerable  inconsistency ;  e.  g.,  Ge  is  usually  employed,  though  it  does 
not  occur  in  the  work  as  a  separate  article  at  all,  Gsea  being  the  form  in  the  alpha- 
betical order,  and  this  is  frequently  used  instead  of  Ge  ;  Pluto  or  Aidoneus  some- 
times instead  of  Hades,  Bacchus  interchangeably  with  Dionysius ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  ./Esculapius  and  Hercules,  Ulysses  and  Pollux,  Ajax,  and  other  heroes, 
are  uniformly  written  after  the  Latin  form  of  the  name ;  these  the  editor  has 
allowed  to  stand,  and  so,  too,  he  has  retained  the  Greek  names  of  the  divinities, 
but  has  placed  by  the  side  of  this  form  the  more  usual  one  inclosed  in  parentheses, 
or  has  placed  the  parentheses  around  the  former.  The  change,  familiar  enough  to 
the  Germans  and  those  well  acquainted  with  German  literature,  seems  yet,  among 
us,  too  great  and  radical  a  one  to  be  made  at  once.  Time  may  effect  this,  but  at 
present,  as  a  matter  of  expediency,  "subjudice  Its  est." 

To  impart  additional  value  to  the  work,  and  render  it  still  more  complete  as  a 

classical  guide  and  book  of  reference,  the  editor  has  appended  from  the  Dictionary 

of  Biography  and  Mythology  the  "  Chronological  Tables  of  Greek  and  Roman 

History"  subjoined  to  that  work,  and  which  have  been  drawn  up  with  great  care 

from  the  Fasti  Hellenici  and  Romani  of  Clinton,  the  Griechische  and  Romische 

Zeittafeln  of  Fischer  and  Soetbeer,  and  the  Annales  Veterum  Regnorum  et  Popu- 

lorum  of  Zumpt,  and  in  addition  to  these,  the  "  Tables  of  Weights,  Measures, 

and  Money,"  from  the  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.     With  these 

various  improvements  and  additions,  the  editor  now  presents  the  book  to  the  American 

public,  and  ventures  to  recommend  it  as  a  reliable  guide  to  those,  for  whom  it  is 

designed,  in  the  various  departments  which  on  its  title-page  it  professes  to  comprise. 

In  conclusion,  the  editor  would  be  guilty  of  great  injustice  were  he  not  to 

acknowledge  in  the  warmest  terms  the  obligations  which  he  is  under  to  his  learned 

and  accurate  friend  Professor  Drisler,  whose  very  efficient  co-operation  has  been 

secured  in  the  revisal  and  correction  of  the  entire  work.     Every  article  has  been 

read  over  and  examined  in  common,  and  a  frank  interchange  of  opinions  has  been 

made  wherever  any  point  occurred  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  this.     And 

it  is  on  this  account  that  he  ventures  to  recommend  the  present  volume  with  more 

confidence  to  the  young  student,  than  if  it  bad  been  the  result  merely  of  his  own 

individual  exertions. 

COLUMBIA  COLLKCJE,  December,  1850. 


PREFACE. 


THK  great  progress  which  classical  studies  have  made  in  Europe,  and  more  espe- 
cially in  Germany,  during  the  present  century,  has  superseded  most  of  the  works 
usually  employed  in  the  elucidation  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  It  had  long 
been  felt  by  our  best  scholars  and  teachers  that  something  better  was  required  thau 
we  yet  possessed  in  the  English  language  for  illustrating  the  Antiquities,  Litera- 
ture, Mythology,  and  Geography  of  the  ancient  writers,  and  for  enabling  a  diligent 
student  to  read  them  in  the  most  profitable  manner.  It  was  with  a  view  of  sup- 
plying this  acknowledged  want  that  the  series  of  classical  dictionaries  was  under- 
taken ;  and  the  very  favorable  manner  in  which  these  works  have  been  received 
by  the  scholars  and  teachers  of  this  country  demands  from  the  editor  his  most 
grateful  acknowledgments.  The  approbation  with  which  he  has  been  favored  has 
encouraged  him  to  proceed  in  the  design  which  he  had  formed  from  the  beginning, 
of  preparing  a  series  of  works  which  might  be  useful  not  only  to  the  scholar  and 
the  more  advanced  student,  but  also  to  those  who  were  entering  on  their  classical 
studies.  The  dictionaries  of  "  Grpek  and  Roman  Antiquities  "  and  of  "  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography  and  Mythology,"  which  are  already  completed,  and  the  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography,"  on  which  the  editor  is  now  engaged, 
are  intended  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  more  advanced  scholar ;  but  these  works 
are  on  too  extended  a  scale,  and  enter  too  much  into  details,  to  be  suitable  for  the 
use  of  junior  students.  For  the  latter  class  of  persons  a  work  is  required  of  the 
same  kind  as  Lempriere's  well-known  dictionary,  containing  in  a  single  volume 
the  most  important  names,  biographical,  mythological,  and  geographical,  occurring 
in  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  usually  read  in  our  public  schools.  It  is  invidious 
for  an  author  to  speak  of  the  defects  of  his  predecessors ;  but  it  may  safely  be 
said  that  Lempriere's  work,  which  originally  contained  the  most  serious  mistakes, 
has  long  since  become  obsolete,  and  that  since  the  time  it  was  compiled  we 
have  attained  to  more  correct  knowledge  on  a  vast  number  of  subjects  comprised 
in  that  work. 

The  present  dictionary  is  designed,  as  already  remarked,  chiefly  to  elucidate  the 
Greek  and  Roman  writers  usually  read  in  schools ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  has 
not  been  considered  expedient  to  omit  any  proper  names  connected  with  classical 
antiquity,  of  which  it  is  expected  that  some  knowledge  ought  to  be  possessed  by 
every  person  who  aspires  to  a  liberal  education.  Accordingly,  while  more  space 
has  been  given  to  the  prominent  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  and  to  the  more  dis- 
tinguished characters  of  Greek  and  Roman  history,  other  names  have  not  befin 
omitted  altogether,  but  only  treated  with  greater  brevity.  The  chief  difficulty 
which  every  author  has  to  contend  with  in  a  work  like  the  present  is  the  vastness 
of  his  subject  and  the  copiousness  of  his  materials.  It  has  therefore  been  neces- 
sary in  all  cases  to  study  the  greatest  possible  brevity,  to  avoid  all  discussions, 
and  to  be  satisfied  with  giving  simply  the  results  at  which  the  best  modern  scholars 


»T  PREFACE. 

have  arrived.  The  writer  is  fully  aware  that  in  adopting  this  plan  he  has  fre 
quently  stated  dogmatically  conclusions  which  may  be  open  to  much  dispute  ;  but 
he  has  thought  it  better  to  run  this  risk,  rather  than  to  encumber  and  bewilder  the 
junior  student  with  conflicting  opinions.  With  the  view  likewise  of  economizing 
space,  few  references  have  oeen  given  to  ancient  and  modern  writers.  In  fact,  such 
references  are  rarely  of  service  to  the  persons  for  whom  such  a  work  as  the  pre- 
sent is  intended,  and  serve  more  for  parade  than  for  any  useful  purpose ;  and  it 
has  been  the  less  necessary  to  give  them  in  this  work,  as  it  is  supposed  that  the 
persons  who  really  require  them  will  be  in  possession  of  the  larger  dictionaries. 

The  present  work  may  be  divided  into  the  three  distinct  parts,  Biography,  Myth- 
ology, and  Geography,  on  each  of  which  a  few  words  may  be  necessary. 

The  biographical  portion  may  again  be  divided  into  the  three  departments  of 
History,  Literature,  and  Art.  The  historical  articles  include  all  the  names  of  any 
importance  which  occur  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  from  the  earliest  times 
down  to  the  extinction  of  the  Western  Empire,  in  the  year  476  of  our  era.  Very 
few  names  are  inserted  which  are  not  included  in  this  period,  but  still  there  are 
some  persons  who  lived  after  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  who  could  not  with 
propriety  be  omitted  in  a  classical  dictionary.  Such  is  the  case  with  Justinian, 
whose  legislation  has  exerted  such  an  important  influence  upon  the  nations  of 
Western  Europe ;  with  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  at  whose  court  lived 
Cassiodorus  and  Boethius ;  and  with  a  few  others.  The  lives  of  the  later  Western 
emperors  and  their  contemporaries  are  given  with  greater  brevity  than  the  lives 
of  such  persons  as  lived  in  the  more  important  epochs  of  Greek  and  Reman  his- 
tory, since  the  students  for  whom  the  present  work  is  intended  will  rarely  require 
information  respecting  the  later  period  of  the  empire.  The  Romans,  as  a  general 
rule,  have  been  given  under  the  cognomens,  and  not  under  the  gentile  names ;  but 
in  cases  where  a  person  is  more  usually  mentioned  under  the  name  of  his  gens 
than  under  that  of  his  cognomen,  he  will  be  found  under  the  former.  Thus,  for 
example,  the  two  celebrated  conspirators  against  Caesar,  Brutus  and  Cassius,  are 
given  under  these  names  respectively,  though  uniformity  would  require  either  that 
Cassius  should  be  inserted  under  his  cognomen  of  Longinus,  or  Brutus  under  his 
gentile  name  of  Junius.  But  in  this  as  in  all  other  cases,  it  has  been  considered 
more  advisable  to  consult  utility  than  to  adhere  to  any  prescribed  rule,  which 
would  be  attended  with  practical  inconveniences. 

To  the  literary  articles  considerable  space  has  been  devoted.  Not  only  are  all 
Greek  and  Roman  writers  inserted  whose  works  are  extant,  but  also  all  such  as 
exercised  any  important  influence  upon  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  although  their 
writings  have  not  come  down  to  us.  It  has  been  thought  quite  unnecessary,  how- 
ever, to  give  the  vast  number  of  writers  mentioned  only  by  Athenseus,  Stobaeus, 
the  Lexicographers,  and  the  Scholiasts ;  for,  though  such  names  ought  to  be  found 
in  a  complete  history  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  they  would  be  clearly  out 
of  place  in  a  work  like  the  present.  In  the  case  of  all  writers  whose  works  are 
extant,  a  brief  account  of  their  works,  as  well  as  of  their  lives,  is  given ;  and  at 
the  end  of  each  article  one  or  two  of  the  best  modern  editions  are  specified.  As 
the  present  work  is  designed  for  the  elucidation  of  the  classical  writers,  the  Chris- 
tian writers  are  omitted,  with  the  exception  of  the  more  distinguished  fathers,  who 
form  a  constituent  part  of  the  history  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature.  The 


PREFACE.  XT 

Byzantine  historians  are,  for  the  same  reason,  inserted ;  though  in  their  case,  as 
well  as  in  the  case  of  the  Christian  Fathers,  it  has  been  impossible  to  give  a  com- 
plete account  either  of  their  lives  or  of  their  writings. 

The  lives  of  all  the  more  important  artists  have  been  inserted,  and  an  account 
has  also  been  given  of  their  extant  works.  The  history  of  ancient  art  has  received 
so  little  attention  from  the  scholars  of  this  country,  that  it  has  been  deemed  advi- 
sable to  devote  as  much  space  to  this  important  subject  as  the  limits  of  the  work 
would  allow.  Accordingly,  some  artists  are  noticed  on  account  of  their  celebrity 
in  the  history -of  art,  although  their  names  are  not  even  mentioned  in  the  ancient 
writers.  This  remark  applies  to  Agasias,  the  sculptor  of  the  Borghese  gladiator, 
which  is  still  preserved  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris  ;  to  Agesander,  one  of  the  sculptors 
of  the  group  of  Laocoon ;  to  Glycon,  the  sculptor  of  the  Farnese  Hercules,  and 
to  others.  On  the  contrary,  many  of  the  names  of  the  artists  in  Pliny's  long  list 
are  omitted,  because  they  possess  no  importance  in  the  history  of  art. 

In  writing  the  mythological  articles,  care  has  been  taken  to  avoid,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, all  indelicate  allusions,  as  the  work  will  probably  be  much  in  the  hands  of 
young  persons.  It  is  of  so  much  importance  to  discriminate  between  the  Greek 
and  Roman  mythology,  that  an  account  of  the  Greek  divinities  is  given  under  their 
Greek  names,  and  of  the  Roman  divinities  under  their  Latin  names,  a  practice 
which  is  universally  adopted  by  the  Continental  writers,  which  has  received  the 
sanction  of  some  of  our  own  scholars,  and  which  is,  moreover,  of  such  great 
utility  in  guarding  against  endless  confusions  and  mistakes  as  to  require  no  apology 
for  its  introduction  into  this  work. 

For  the  geographical  articles  the  editor  is  alone  responsible.  The  biographical 
and  mythological  articles  are  founded  upon  those  in  the  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography  and  Mythology,"  but  the  geographical  articles  are  written 
entirely  anew  for  the  present  work.  In  addition  to  the  original  sources,  the  editor 
has  availed  himself  of  the  best  modern  treatises  on  the  subject,  and  of  the  valua- 
ble works  of  travels  in  Greece,  Italy,  and  the  East,  which  have  appeared  within 
the  last  few  years,  both  in  England  and  in  Germany.  It  would  have  been  impos- 
sible to  give  references  to  these  treatises  without  interfering  with  the  general  plan 
of  the  present  work,  but  this  omission  will  be  supplied  in  the  forthcoming  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography."  It  is  hoped  that  in  the  geographical 
portion  of  the  work  very  few  omissions  will  be  discovered  of  names  occurring  in 
the  chief  classical  writers ;  but  the  great  number  of  names  found  only  in  Strabo, 
Pliny,  Ptolemy,  and  the  Itineraries,  have  been  purposely  omitted,  except  in  cases 
where  such  names  have  become  of  historical  celebrity,  or  have  given  rise  to 
important  towns  in  modern  times.  At  the  commencement  of  every  geographical 
article  the  Ethnic  name  and  the  modern  name  have  been  given,  whenever  they 
could  be  ascertained.  In  conclusion,  the  editor  has  to  express  his  obligations  to 
his  brother,  the  Rev.  Philip  Smith,  who  has  rendered  him  valuable  assistance  by 
writing  the  geographical  articles  relating  to  Asia  and  Africa. 

WILLIAM  SMITH. 

LONDON,  August  12th,  1850. 


CLASSICAL    DICTIONARY, 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  MYTHOLOGICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL 


AARASSTJS. 

[AARASSUS  ('Aapaaaof),  a  city  of  Pisidia  ;  more 
correctly,  perhaps,  Arassus,  as  givea  in  some 
MSS.  ;  the  old  Latin  version  of  Strabo  having 
also  Arasum.] 

[ABA  (*A6a),  daughter  of  Zenophanes,  made 
herself  queen  of  Olbe  in  Cilicia;  her  authority 
was  confirmed  by  Antony  and  Cleopatra:  she 
was  subsequently  deposed  and  driven  out.] 

[ABA  (*A6a),  more  usually  Abce,  y.  v.] 

ABAC^ENUM  ('AdaKalvov  or  rtl  'A.6aicaiva  :  'A,fa- 
Kaivivoe  :  ruins  near  Tripi),  an  ancient  town  of 
the  Siculi  in  Sicily,  west  of  Messana,  aud  south 
of  Tyndaris. 

AB^E  (*\6ai  :  'Afiatof  :  ruins  near  Exarcho), 
an  ancient  town  of  Phocis,  on  the  boundaries 
of  Bceotia,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Ar- 
give  Abas,  but  see  ABANTES.  It  possessed  an 
ancient  temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo,  who  hence 
derived  the  surname  of  Abacus.  The  temple 
was  destroyed  by  the  Persians  in  the  invasion 
of  Xerxes,  and  a  second  time  by  the  Boaotians 
in  the  sacred  war  :  it  was  rebuilt  by  Hadrian. 

[ABAIUS,  an  island  in  the  North  or  German 
Ocean,  where  amber  was  said  to  have  been 
washed  up  by  the  waves,  and  used  by  the  in- 
habitants for  fuel  The  more  usual  name  was 
Basilia.] 

or  ABANNI,  a  people  of  Mauretania, 


brought  into  subjection  to  the  Roman  power  by 
Theoaosius,  father  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius.J 

[ABAVTES  (*A6avref),  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Eubcea.  (Horn.,  11^  ii.,  536).  They  are  said 
to  have  been  of  Thracian  origin,  to  have  first 
settled  in  Phocis,  where  they  built  Abo3,  and 
afterward  to  have  crossed  over  to  Euboaa.  The 
Abantes  of  Euboea  assisted  in  colonizing  several 
of  the  Ionic  cities  of  Asia  Minor. 

ABANTIADES  ('ACavriudrj^),  any  descendant  of 
Abas,  but  especially  Perseus,  great-grandson  of 
Abas,  and  Acrisius,  son  of  Abas.  A  female  de- 
scendant of  *Abas,  as  Danae  and  Atalante,  was 
called  Abantias. 

ABANTIAS.     Vid.  ABANTIADES. 

AbA.vriDAS  ('A.6avTida(),  son  of  Paseas,  be- 
came t  f  rant  of  Sieyon,  after  murdering  Cliniaa, 
1 


ABAS. 

the  father  of  Aratus,  B.C.  264,  but  was  soon 
after  assassinated. 

[ABANTIS  ('Afavrtf),  an  early  name  of  Eubcea, 
from  the  Abantes.] 

[ABARBAREA  ('A6ap6apei}),  name  of  a  Naiad, 
mother  of  ^Esepus  and  Pedasus.] 

[ABARIS  ('Aoapif ),  son  of  Seuthes,  was  a  Hy- 
perborean priest  of  Apollo,  and  came  from  the 
country  about  the  Caucasus  to  Greece,  while 
his  own  country  was  visited  by  a  plague.  In 
his  travels  through  Greece  he  carried  with  him 
an  arrow  as  the  symbol  of  Apollo,  and  gav«> 
oracles.  His  history  is  entirely  mythical,  and 
is  related  in  various  ways :  he  is  said  to  have 
taken  no  earthly  food,  and  to  have  ridden  on 
his  arrow,  the  gift  of  Apollo,  through  the  air. 
He  cured  diseases  by  incantations,  and  delivered 
the  world  from  a  plague.  Later  writers  as- 
cribe to  him  several  works ;  but  if  such  works 
were  really  current  in  ancient  times,  they  were 
not  genuine.  The  time  of  his  appearance  in 
Greece  is  stated  differently:  he  may,  perhaps, 
be  placed  about  B.C.  570.  [Abaris  occurs  in 
Nonnus,  Dionys,  11,  132,  but  the  short  quantity 
seems  preferable. — 2.  A  Latin  hero,  who  fought 
on  the  side  of  Turnus  against  ^Eneas :  he  was 
slain  by  Euryalus. — 3.  Called  Caucasiiis  by  Ovid, 
a  friend  of  Phineas,  slain  by  Perseus.] 

[ABARIS  ("Afiaptf  or  \vapif),  a  city  of  Egypt, 
called,  also,  Avaris.  Manetho  places  it  to  the 
east  of  the  Bubastic  mouth  of  the  Nile,  in  the 
Sn'itii'  nome,  while  Mannert  identifies  it  with 
what  was  afterward  called  Peluaium.] 

ABARNIS  ('A&zpvtf  or  'A.6apvof.  'AGapvevf),  a 
town  and  promontory  close  to  Lampsacus  on 
the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Hellespont  [Abarnis 
was  also  the  name  of  the  country  lying  around 
and  adjacent  to  the  city.] 

[  ABARTDS  ("Afioprof),  one  of  the  Codridae,  chosen 
king  of  the  Phocaeans.] 

ABAS  ('A6af).  1.  Son  of  Metanira,  was  chang 
ed  by  Ceres  (Demeter)  into  a  lizard,  because 
he  mocked  the  goddess  when  she  had  come  on 
her  wanderings  into  the  house  of  his  mother, 
and  drank  eagerly  to  quench  her  thirst — 2. 


ABASITU6. 


ABORRHAb. 


Twelth  king  of  Argos,  son  of  Lyuceus  and  Hy- 
permnestra,  grandson  of  Danaiis,  and  father  of 
Acrisius  and  Proetus.  When  he  informed  his 
father  of  the  death  of  Danaiis,  he  was  rewarded 
with  the  shield  of  his  grandfather,  which  was 
sacred  to  Juuo  (Hera).  This  shield  performed 
various  marvels,  and  the  mere  sight  of  it  could 
reduce  a  revolted  people  to  submission.  He  is 
described  as  a  successful  conqueror  and  as  the 
founder  of  the  town  of  Abae  in  Phocis,  and  of 
the  Pelasgic  Argos  in  Thessaly. — [3.  A  centaur, 
son  of  Ixion  and  Nephele,  a  celebrated  hunter, 
one  of  those  who  escaped  the  fury  of  the  Lap- 
thae  in  the  fight  that  arose  at  the  nuptials  of 
Pirithous  and  Deidamia. — 4.  A  follower  of  Per- 
seus, who  slew  Pelates  in  the  contest  with  Phin- 
eus. — 5.  A  warrior  in  the  Trojan  army,  son  of 
Eurydamas,  slain  by  Diomede. — Others  of  this 
name  occur  in  Virgil  and  Ovid,  who  probably 
derived  their  accounts  of  them  from  the  Cyclic 
poets.] 

[ABASITIS  ('AfiaaiTic),  a  district  of  Phrygia 
Major,  on  the  borders  of  Lydia.] 

[ABATOS  ("ACarof ;  now  £iggeh),  a  small  rocky 
island  near  Philse  in  the  Nile,  to  which  priests 
alone  were  allowed  access,  whence  the  name.] 

[ABDAGESES,  a  Parthian  nobleman  who  revolt- 
ed from  his  king  Artabanus,  and  aided  Tiri- 
dates.] 

ABDERA  (rd  *A66ijpa,  Abdera,  33,  and  Abdera, 
crum  :  'Addrjpirrif,  Abdgrites  and  Abderita).  1. 
(Now  Polystilo),  a  town  of  Thrace,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Nestus,  which  flowed  through  the 
town.  According  to  mythology,  it  was  founded 
by  Hercules  in  honor  of  his  favorite  ABDERTJS  ; 
but  according  to  history,  it  was  colonized  by 
Timesius  of  Clazomense  about  B.C.  656.  Time- 
sins  was  expelled  by  the  Thracians,  and  the 
town  was  colonized  a  second  time  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Teos  in  Ionia,  who  settled  there 
after  their  own  town  had  been  taken  by  the 
Persians,  B.C.  544.  Abdera  was  a  flourishing 
town  when  Xerxes  invaded  Greece,  and  con- 
tinued a  place  of  importance  under  the  Romans, 
who  made  it  a  free  city.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  Democritus,  Protagoras,  Anaxarchus,  and 
Dther  distinguished  men ;  but  its  inhabitants, 
notwithstanding,  were  accounted  stupid,  and  an 
"  Abderite"  was  a  term  of  reproach. — 2.  (Now 
Adra),  a  town  of  Hispania  Baetica  on  the  coast, 
founded  by  the  Phoenicians. 

ABDERUS  ("ASdr/pof),  &  favorite  of  Hercules, 
was  torn  to  pieces  by  the  mares  of  Diomedes, 
which  Hercules  had  given  him  to  [guard  while 
he  himself]  pursued  the  Bistones.  Hercules  is 
=<aid  to  have  built  the  town  of  Abdera  in  honor 
of  him. 

ABDSLONYMUS  or  ABDALONIMXJS,  also  called 
Ballonymus,  a  gardener,  but  of  royal  descent, 
was  made  king  of  Sidon  by  Alexander  the  Great. 

ABELLA  or  AVELLA  ('ASeAAa :  Abellanus ;  now 
Avella  Vecchia),  a  town  of  Campania,  not  far  from 
Nola,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Chalcis  in  Eu- 
bcea.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  apples,  whence 
Virgil  (jEn^  vii.,  140)  calls  it  maliftra,  and  for 
its  great  hazel-nuts,  nuces  Avellance. 

ABELLINUM  (Abellinas :  now  Avellino),  a  town 
of  the  Hirpini  in  Samuium,  near  the  sources  of 
the  Sabatus. — [2.  (Now  Marsico  Vetere),  a  town 
of  Lucania,  near  the  sources  of  the  Aciris,  called, 
for  distinction'  sake,  Abellinum  Marsicum.] 


ABGARCS,  ACBARUB,  or  AUGARUS 
"An6apof,  Atiyapof),  a  name  common  to  many 
rulers  of  Edessa,  the  capital  of  the  district  of 
Osrhoene  in  Mesopotamia.  Of  these  rulers,  one 
is  supposed  by  Eusebius  to  have  been  the  author 
of  a  letter  written  to  Christ,  which  he  found  in 
a  church  at  Edessa  and  translated  from  the 
Syriac.  The  letter  is  believed  to  be  spurious. 

ABIA  (fj  A6ia :  near  Zarnata),  a  town  of  Me>- 
senia  pn  the  Messenian  Gulf.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  the  same  town  as  the  Ire  of  the  Iliad 
(ix.,  '292),  and  to  have  acquired  the  name  of 
Abia  in  honor  of  Abia.  the  nurse  of  Hyllus,  a 
son  of  Hercules.  At  a  later  time  Abia  belonged 
to  the  Achaean  League. 

ABII  ("A6iot),  a  tribe  mentioned  by  Homer 
(72.,  xiii.,  6),  and  apparently  a  Thracian  people. 
This  matter  is  discussed  by  Strabo  (p.  296). 

ABILA  (rd  *A6t%a :  'ASihrjvoe,  probably  Nebi 
Abel),  a  town  of  Ccele-Syria,  afterward  called 
Claudiopolis,  and  the  capital  of  the  tetrarchy  of 
Abilene  (Luke  iii.,  1).  The  position  seema 
doubtful.  A  town  of  the  same  name  is  men- 
tioned by  Josephus  as  being  sixty  stadia  east  of 
the  Jordan. — [2.  A  mountain  of  Mauretania: 
Vid.  ABYLA.] 

[ABILENE  ('A6i2,Tivrj),  vid.  ABILA,  No.  1.1 

ABISARES  ('Abiaupris),  also  called  Embisarus, 
an  Indian  king  beyond  the  River  Hydaspes,  sent 
embassies  to  Alexander  the  Great,  who  not  only 
allowed  him  to  retain  his  kingdom,  but  increased 
it,  and  on  his  death  appointed  his  son  his  suc- 
cessor. 

[ABLERUS  ('Afi/lT/pof),  a  Trojan,  slain  by  An- 
tilochus.] 

ABNOBA  MONS,  the  range  of  hills  covered  by 
the  Black  Forest  in  Germany,  not  a  single 
mountain. 

[  ABOBRICA  (now  Bayonne),  a  city  of  Gallsecia  in 
Hispania  Tarraconensis,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Mini  us.] 

[ABOCCIS  (now  Aboo  Simbcl),  a  city  of  ^Ethi- 
opia, on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  with  very 
remarkable  ruins.] 

ABONITICHOS  ('ASuvov  ret^of),  a  town  of  Paph- 
lagonia,  on  the  Black  Sea,  with  a  harbor,  after- 
ward called  lonopolis  ('IwvoTro/Uf),  whence  its 
modern  name  Ineboli,  the  birth-place  of  the  pre- 
tended prophet  ALEXANDER,  of  whom  Lucian  has 
left  us  an  account. 

ABORIGINES,  the  original  inhabitants  of  a 
country,  equivalent  to  the  Greek  avroxBovef. 
But  the  Aborigines  in  Italy  are  not  in  the  Latin 
writers  the  original  inhabitants  of  all  Italy,  but 
the  name  of  the  ancient  people  who  drove  the 
Siculi  out  of  Latium,  and  there  became  the  pro- 
genitors of  the  Latini. 

ABORRHAS  ('A66pfiaf :  now  JKTtabur),  a  branch 
of  the  Euphrates,  which  joins  that  river  on  the 
east  side  near  Arcesium.  It  is  called  the  Arax- 
es  by  Xenophon  (Anab.,  i.,  4,  §  19),  and  was 
crossed  by  'the  army  of  Cyrus  the  Younger  in 
the  march  from  Sardis  to  the  neighborhood  of 
Babylon,  B.C.  401.  A  branch  of  this  river 
which  rises  near  Nisibis,  and  is  now  called  Jakh 
jakhah,  is  probably  the  ancient  Mygioni us.  The 
Khabur  rises  near  Orfah,  and  is  joined  near  the 
Lake  of  Khatuniyah  by  the  Jakbjakhah,  after 
which  the  united  stream  flows  into  the  Eu- 
phrates. The  course  of  the  Khabur  is  very  in- 
correctly represented  in  the  maps. 


ABRADATAS. 


ACACETES. 


ABRADATAS  ('AfyxztJaraf),  a  king  of  Susa,  and 
an  ally  of  the  Assyrians  against  Cyrus,  accord- 
ing to  Xenophon's  Cyropaedia.  His  wife,  Pan- 
thea,  was  taken  on  the  conquest  of  the  Assyrian 
camp.  In  consequence  of  the  honorable  treat- 
ment which  she  received  from  Cyrus,  Abrada- 
tas  joined  the  latter  with  his  forces.  He  fell  in 
the  first  battle  in  which  he  fought  for  him,  while 
fighting  against  the  Egyptians  in  the  army  of 
Croesus  at  Thymbrana,  on  the  Pactolus.  In- 
consolable at  her  loss,  Panthea  put  an  end  to 
her  own  life.  Cyrus  had  a  high  mound  raised 
in  honor  of  them. 

[ABEETTENE  ('A.6p£TTrjvij),  a  region  of  Mysia, 
on  the  borders  of  Bithynia,  said  to  have  been 
so  called  from  the  nymph  Abretia.] 

ABRIXCATUI,  a  people  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis, 
iu  the  neighborhood  of  the  modern  Avranches. 

ABROCOMAS  ('A6po/i6/iaf),  one  of  the  satraps 
»f  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  was  sent  with  an  army 
to  oppose  Cyrus  on  his  march  into  Upper  Asia, 
B.C.  401.  He  retreated  on  the  approach  of  Cy- 
rus, but  did  not  join  the  king  in  time  for  the 
battle  of  Cunaxa. 

[ABB.OCOMES  ('A6po/t6/i^c.  Ton.),  son  of  Darius 
and  Phratagune,  accompanied  the  army  of  Xerx- 
es to  Greece,  and  was  slain  at  Thermopylae.] 

[ABEON  ("Afyiuv),  son  of  the  Attic  orator  Ly- 
curgus. — 2.  Son  of  Callias,  of  the  deme  of  Bate 
in  Attica,  who  wrote  on  the  festivals  of  the 
Greeks.] 

ABRONYCHCS  ('A.6puwxof),  an  Athenian,  who 
served  in  the  Persian  war,  B.C.  480,  and  was 
subsequently  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sparta,  with 
Themistocles  and  Aristides,  respecting  the  for- 
tifications of  Athens. 

ABROTONUM,  mother  of  THEMISTOCLES. 

ABROTONUM  ('A.6porovov :  now  Sabart  or  Old 
Tripoli),  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  between 
the  Syrtes,  founded  by  the  Phoenicians ;  a  colony 
under  the  Romans.  It  was  also  called  Sabrata 
and  Neapolis,  and  it  formed,  with  CEa  and  Lep- 
tis  Magna,  the  African  Tripolis. 

[ABEOMUS  SILO,  a  Latin  poet  of  the  Augustan 
age,  pupil  of  Porcius  Latro.  According  to  Vos- 
sius,  there  were  two  of  this  name,  father  and 
son.] 

[ABEOZELMES  ('A.6po&tyijf),  a  Thracian,  inter- 
preter of  the  Thracian  king  Seuthes,  mentioned 
in  the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon.] 

ABSTETIDES  or  APSYETIDES,  sc.  insulae  ('A^p- 
ridef :  now  Ckerso,  Osero,  Ferosina,  and  Chao\ 
the  name  of  four  islands  off  the  coast  of  Illyn- 
cum,  [the  principal  one  of  which  was  ABSOEUS, 
with  a  town  of  the  same  name.]  According  to 
one  tradition,  Absyrtus  was  slain  in  these  isl- 
ands by  his  sister  MeilCa  and  by  Jason. 

ABSVETUS  or  APSYRTUS  ("A^n/prof),  son  of 
JSe'tes,  king  of  Colchia,  and  brother  of  Medea. 
When  Medea  fled  with  Jason,  she  took  her 
brother  Absyrtus  with  her  ;  and  when  sbe  was 
nearly  overtaken  by  her  father,  she  murdered 
Absyrtus,  cut  his  body  in  pieces  and  strewed 
them  on  the  road,  that  her  father  might  thus  be 
detained  by  gathering  the  limbs  of  his  child. 
Tpmi,  the  place  where  this  horror  was  com- 
mitted, was  believed  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  repvu,  "  to  cut"  According  to  another  tra- 
dition, Absyrtus  did- not  accompany  Medea,  but 
was  sent  out  by  bis  father  in  pursuit  of  her.  He 
overtook  her  in  Corcyra,  where  she  had  been 


kindly  received  by  king  Alcinous,  who  refused 
to  surrender  her  to  Absyrtus.  When  he  over- 
took her  a  second  time  in  certain  islands  off  the 
Illyrian  coast,  he  was  slain  by  Jason.  The  son 
of  ^Eetes,  who  was  murdered  by  Medea,  is  called 
by  some  writers  .<Egialeus. 

ABULITES  ('Afov/Urjyj),  the  satrap  of  Susiana, 
surrendered  Susa  to  Alexander.  The  satrapv 
was  restored  to  him  by  Alexander,  but  he  and 
his  son  Oxyathres  were  afterward  executed  by 
Alexander  for  the  crimes  they  had  committed. " 

ABCENUS  VALENS.     Vid.  VALENS. 

ABCS  (now  Humber),  a  river  in  Britain. 

[Asus  (*A&>f :  now  Aghri-Dagh),  a  mountain 
chain  of  Armenia  Major,  and  believed  by  the 
natives  at  the  present  day  to  be  the  Ararat  of 
Scripture.] 

ABYDENUS  ('AfooV>6f),  a  Greek  historian,  who 
wrote  a  history  of  Assyria.  His  date  is  uncer 
tain :  he  made  use  of  the  works  of  Megasthe- 
nes  and  Berosus,  and  he  wrote  in  the  Ionic  di- 
alect. His  work  was  particularly  valuable  for 
chronology.  The  fragments  of  his  history  have 
been  published  by  Scaliger,  De  Emendations 
Temporutn ;  and  Richter,  Bero&i  Chaldceorum 
Histories,  <fcc.,  Lips.,  1825. 

ABYDOS  ( "A&xJof  :  'AG/vdr/vof).  1.  A  town  ot 
the  Troad  on  the  Hellespont,  and  a  Milesian 
colony.  It  was  nearly  opposite  to  Sestos,  but  a 
little  lower  down  the  stream.  The  bridge  of 
boats  which  Xerxes  constructed  over  the  Hel- 
lespont, B.C.  480,  commenced  a  little  higher  up 
than  Abydos,  and  touched  the  European  shore 
between  Sestos  and  Madytus.  The  site  of  Aby- 
dos is  a  little  north  of  Sultania  or  the  old  castle 
of  Asia,  which  is  opposite  to  the  old  castle  of 
Europe. — 2.  (Ruins  near  Arabat  el  Matfoon  and 
El  Birbeh),  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  near  the  west 
bank  of  the  Nile ;  once  second  only  to  Thebes, 
but  in  Strabo's  time  (A.D.  14)  a  small  village. 
It  had  a  temple  of  Osiris  and  a  Memitonium,  both 
still  standing,  and  an  oracle.  Here  was  found 
the  inscription  known  as  the  Table  of  Abydos, 
which  contains  a  list  of  the  Egyptian  kings. 

ABYLA  or  ABILA  MONS  or  COLUMNA  ('A.6vXij  or 
'Adi/l??  aT7]%j)  or  opof :  now  Jebel  Zatout,  L  e., 
Apes'  Hill,  above  Ceuta),  a  mountain  in  Maure- 
tania  Tingitaua,  forming  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  south  or  African  coast  of  the  Fretum 
Gaditanum.  This  and  Mount  Calpe  (Gibraltar), 
opposite  to  it  on  the  Spanish  coast,  were  called 
the  Columns  of  Hercules,  from  the  fah'.e  that  they 
were  originally  one  mountain,  whick.  was  torn 
asunder  by  Hercules. 

ACACALLIS  ("A/ca/caAA/f),  daughter  of  Minos, 
by  whom  Apollo  begot  a  son,  Miletus,  aa  well  as 
other  childrea  Acacallis  was  in  Crete  a  com- 
mon name  for  a  narcissus. 

ACACKSIUM  ('AKdMjaiov :  'A.KOKIJOIOC),  a  town 
of  Arcadia,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  of  the  same  name, 

ACACESIUS  ('Ajcaxqatof),  a  surname  of  Mer 
cury  (Hermes),  for  which  Homer  uses  the  form 
Acaceles.  Some  writers  derive  it  from  the  Ar- 
cadian town  of  Acacesium,  in  which  he  was  be- 
lieved to  have  been  brought  up  ;  others  from  a 
priv.  and  /coxof,  and  suppose  it  to  mean  "  the 
god  who  does  not  hurt."  The  same  surname 
U  given  to  Prometheus,  whence  it  may  be  in- 
ferred that  its  meaning  is  that  of  benefactor  or 
deliverer  from  eviL 

ACAOKTKS.        Vid  ACACESIUB. 


ACACUS. 


ACOA  LAURENTIA. 


[AoXcus  ('A./taxof),  son  of  Lycaon,  a  king  in  ni,  son  of  Alcmaeon  and  Callirrhoe,  and  brother 

Arcadia,  who  brought  up  Mercury  (Hermes),  of  Amphoterus.  Their  father  -was  murdered  by 
and  founded  Acacesium :  vid.  ACAOESIUS.]  !  Phegeus  when  they  were  very  young,  and  Callir- 

ACADEMIA  ('AKa67//uia  or  'AKandiJuia  :  also  rhoe  prayed  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  make  her  sons 
Academia  in  the  older  Latin  writers),  a  piece  of  grow  quickly,  that  they  might  be  able  to  avenge 
land  on  the  Cephissus,  six  stadia  from  Athens,  the  death  of  their  father.  The  prayer  was  grant- 
originally  belonging  to  the  hero  ACADEMCS,  and  ed,  and  Acarnan  with  his  brother  slew  Phegeus, 
subsequently  a  gymnasium,  which  was  adorned  his  wife,  and  his  two  sons.  The  inhabitants  of 
by  Cimon  with  plane  and  olive  plantations,  Psophis,  where  the  sons  had  been  slain,  pursued 
statues,  and  other  works  of  art  Here  taught  the  murderers  as  far  as  Tegea,  where,  however. 
Plato,  who  possessed  a  piece  of  land  in  the  they  were  received  and  rescued.  They  after- 
neighborhood,  and  after  him  his  followers,  who  ',  ward  went  to  Epirus,  where  Acarnan  founded 
were  hence  called  the  Academici,  or  Academic  the  state  called  after  him  Acarnania. 


philosophers.  When  Sulla  besieged  Athens  in 
B.C.  87,  he  cut  down  the  plane  trees  in  order  to 
construct  his  military  machines  ;  but  the  place 
was  restored  soon  afterward.  Cicero  gave  the 
name  of  Academia  to  his  villa  near  Puteoli, 
where  he  wrote  his  "  Quaestiones  Academicae." 

ACADEMICI.     Vid.  ACADEMIA. 

ACADEIIUS  ('AKudrjfio^),  an  Attic  hero,  who  be- 
trayed to  Castor  and  Pollux,  when  they  invaded 
Attica  to  liberate  their  sister  Helen,  that  she 
was  kept  concealed  at  Aphidnae.  For  this  the 
Tyndarids  always  showed  him  gratitude,  and 
whenever  the  Lacedaemonians  invaded  Attica, 
they  spared  the  land  belonging  to  Academus. 
Vid.  ACADEMIA. 

ACALANDRUS  (now  Salandrella),  a  river  in  Lu- 
cania,  flowing  into  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum. 


[ACALANTHIS 


,  daughter  of  Pierus, 


changed  by  the  muses  into  a  thistle-finch.  Vid. 
PIERUS.] 

[ACAMANTIS  (' A.Kafiavrif),  one  of  the  Attic 
tribes,  so  named  from  the  hero  Acamas  L] 

ACAMAS  ('A/cc/iaf).  1.  Son  of  Theseus  and 
Phaedra,  accompanied  Diomedes  to  Troy  to  de- 
mand the  surrender  of  Helen.  During  his  stay 
at  Troy  he  won  the  affection  of  Laodice,  daughter 
of  Priam,  and  begot  by  her  a  son,  Munitus.  He 
was  one  of  the  Greeks  concealed  in  the  wooden 
horse  at  the  taking  of  Troy.  The  Attic  tribe 
Acamantis  derived  its  name  from  him. — 2.  Son 
of  Antenor  and  Theano,  one  of  the  bravest  Tro- 
jans, slain  by  Meriones. — 3.  Son  of  Eussorus,  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Thracians  in  the  Trojan 
war,  slain  by  the  Telamonian  Ajax. — [4.  Son  of 
Asius,  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Trojans,  slain  by 
Meriones.] 

[ACAMAS  ('\Kufiaf  :  now  Cape  Salizano  or  St. 
Pifano),  a  promontory  at  the  northwest  end  of 
Cyprus.] 


ACARXANIA  ('AKapvavia  :  'Atcapvuv,  -dvof),  the 
most  westerly  province  of  Greece,  was  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  on  the 
west  and  southwest  by  the  Ionian  Sea,  on  the 
northeast  by  Amphilochia,  which  is  sometimes 
included  in  Acarnania,  and  on  the  east  by  JEto- 
lia,  from  which  at  a  later  time  it  was  separated 
by  the  Achelous.  The  name  of  Acarnania  does 
not  occur  in  Homer.  In  the  most  ancient  times 
the  land  was  inhabited  by  the  Taphii,  Teleboae, 
and  Leleges,  and  subsequently  by  the  Curetes, 
who  emigrated  from  ^Etoh'a  and  settled  there. 
At  a  later  time  a  colony  from  Argos,  said  to 
have  been  led  by  ACARNAN,  the  son  of  Alcmaeon, 
settled  in  the  country.  In  the  seventh  century 
B.C.  the  Corinthians  founded  several  towns  on 
the  coast.  The  Acarnanians  first  emerge  from 
obscurity  at  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  B.C.  431.  They  were  then  a  rude  people, 
living  by  piracy  and  robbery,  and  they  always 
remained  behind  the  rest  of  the  Greeks  in  civili- 
zation and  refinement.  •  They  were  good  sling- 
ers,  and  are  praised  for  their  fidelity  and  courage. 
The  different  towns  formed  a  league  with  a 
strategus  at  their  head  in  time  of  war:  the  mem- 
bers of  the  league  met  at  Stratos,  and  subse- 
quently at  Thyrium  or  Leucas.  Under  the 
Romans  Acaruania  formed  part  of  the  province 


of  Macedonia. 

[ACASTE 
Tethys.] 


a  daughter  of  Oceanus  and 


ACASTUS  ("A/ca<Trof),  son  of  Pelias,  king  of 
lolcus,  and  of  Anaxibia  or  Philomache.  He 
was  one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  also  took  part  in 
the  Calydonian  hunt  His  sisters  were  induced 
by  Medea  to  cut  up  their  father  and  boil  him, 
in  order  to  make  him  young  again.  Acast-us, 
in  consequence,  drove  Jason  and  Medea  from 
lolcus,  and  instituted  funeral  games  in  honor 


i 

[  ACAMPSIS  ('AKa/^>tf  :  now  Tschffrak  or  Bilu-  j  of  his  father.  During  these  games  Astydamia, 
mi),  a  river  of  Asia  forming  the  boundary  be-  the  wife  of  Acastus,  also  called  Hippolyte,  first 
tween  Pontus  and  Colchis,  and  so  named  from  saw  Peleus,  whom  Acastus  had  purified  from 
its  impetuous  course,  a  priv.  and  Kd/nrru.  It  was  I  the  murder  of  Eurytion.  When  Peleus,  faithful 
called  by  the  natives  themselves  _£oa».]  to  his  benefactor,  refused  to  listen  to  her  ad- 

ACANTHUS  ('Anavdof  :  'A.Kdv6iof).  1.  (Ruins  dresses,  she  accused  him  to  her  husband  of  iin- 
near  Erso),  a  town  on  the  Isthmus,  which  con-  3  proper  conduct  Shortly  afterward,  when  Acastae 
nects  the  peninsula  of  Athos  with  Chalcidice,  on  1  and  Peleus  were  hunting  on  Mount  Pelion,  and 
the  canal  cut  by  Xerxes  (vid.  ATHOS).  It  was  ]  the  latter  had  fallen  asleep,  Acastus  took  his 
founded  by  the  inhabitants  of  .Andros,  and  con-  sword  from  him,  and  left  him  alone.  He  was,  in 


tinued  to  be  a  place  of  considerable  importance 
from  the  time  of  Xerxes  to  that  of  the  Romans. 
— 2.  (Now  DashurJ,  a  town  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Nile,  120  stadia  south  of  Memphis,  with  a 
temple  of  Osiris. 

[ACANTHUS  ("Axavflof),  a  Lacedaemonian,  victor 
at  Olympia  in  the  diavTiof,  was  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  ran  naked  at  these  games.] 

AOAE.NAN  ('Anapvav,  -dvof),  one  of  the  Epigo- 


consequence,  nearly  destroyed  by  the  Centaurs ; 
but  he  was  saved  by  Chiron  or  Mercury  (Hermes), 
returned  to  Acastus,  and  killed  him,  together 
with  his  wife. — [2.  A  king  of  Dulichium,  men- 
tioned in  the  Odyssey.] 

ACBAHUS.     Vid.  ABGARUS. 

[AccA,  a  companion  of  the  Volscian  heroine 
Camilla.] 

ACCA   LAURENTIA  or   LARENTIA,  a    mythical 


ACCIUS. 

woman  in  early  Roman  story.  According  to 
one  account,  she  was  the  wife  of  the  shepherd 
Faustulus,  and  the  nurse  of  Romulus  and  Remus 
after  they  had  been  taken  from  the  she-wolf. 
Another  account  connects  her  with  the  legend 
of  Hercules,  by  whose  advice  she  succeeded  in 
making  Carutius  or  Tarrutius,  an  Etruscan, 
love  and  marry  her.  After  his  death  she  in- 
herited his  large  property,  which  she  left  to  the 
Roman  people.  Ancus  Marcius,  in  gratitude 
for  this,  allowed  her  to  be  buried  in  the  Vela- 
brum,  and  instituted  an  annual  festival,  the 
Lareutalia,  at  which  sacrifices  were  offered  to 
the  Lares.  According  to  other  accounts,  again, 
she  was  not  the  wife  of  Faustulus,  but  a  pros- 
titute, wh"o,  from  her  mode  of  life,  was  called 
lupa  by  the  shepherds,  and  who  left  the  property 
she  gained  in  that  way  to  the  Roman  people. 
Thus  much  seems  certain,  whatever  we  may 
think  of  the  stories,  that  she  was  of  Etruscan 
origin,  and  connected  with  the  worship  of  the 
Lares,  from  which  her  name  Larentia  seems  to 
be  derived. 

L.  ACCIUS  or  ATTIUS,  an  early  Roman  tragic 
poet  and  the  son  of  a  freedman,  was  born  B.C. 
170,  and  lived  to  a  great  age.  Cicero,  when  a 
young  man,  frequently  conversed  with  him. 
His  tragedies  were  chiefly  imitated  from  the 
Greek,  but  he  also  wrote  some  on  Roman  sub- 
jects (Prcetextata) ;  one  of  which,  entitled  Brutus, 
was  probably  in  honor  of  his  patron,  D.  Brutus. 
We  possess  only  fragments  of  his  tragedies, 
but  they  are  spoken  of  in  terms  of  admiration 
by  the  ancient  writers.  Accius  also  wrote  An- 
"nales  in  verse,  containing  the  history  of  Rome, 
like  those  of  Ennius ;  and  a  prose  work,  Libri 
Didaxcalion,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  his- 
tory of  poetry.  The  fragments  of  his  tragedies 
are  given  by  Bothe,  Poet.  Scenici  Latin^  vol.  v., 
Lip.-..  1834;  and  those  of  the  Didascalia  by 
Madvig,  De  L.  Attii,  Didascaliis  Comment.,  Haf- 
uiae,  1831. 

Acco,  a  chief  of  the  Senones  in  Gaul,  who  in- 
duced his  countrymen  to  revolt  against  Caesar, 
B.C.  53,  by  whom  he  was  put  to  death. 

ACE.      Vid.  PTOLEMAIS. 

[ACERATHS  (' \Kijparof),  a  priest  and  prophet 
sit  Delphi,  who  with  sixty  men  alone  did  not 
abandon  the  place  on  the  approach  of  Xerxes  and 
his  army. — 2.  A  poet  of  the  Greek  anthology.] 

ACERBAS,  a  Tyrian  priest  of  Hercules,  who 
married  Elissa,  the  sister  of  King  Pygmalion. 
He  had  concealed  his  treasures  in  the  earth, 
knowing  the  avarice  of  Pygmalion,  but  he  was 
murdered  by  Pygmalion,  who  hoped  to  obtain 
his  treasures  through  his  sister.  The  prudence 
of  Elissa  saved  the  treasures,  and  she  emigrated 
from  Phoenicia.  In  this  account,  taken  from 
Justin,  Acerbas  is  the  same  person  as  Sichaeus, 
and  Elissa  the  same  as  Dido  in  Virgil  ( ,•/•.'».,  I., 
343,  *"/.).  The  names  in  Justin  are  undoubtedly 
more  correct  than  in  Virgil :  for  Virgil  here,  as  in 
other  cases,  has  changed  a  foreign  name  into  one 
more  convenient  to  him. 

ACERR.S  (Acerranus).  1.  (Now  Acerra),  a 
town  in  Campania  on  the  Clanius,  received 
the  Roman  franchise  in  B.C.  £32.  It  was  de- 
•troyed  by  Hannibal,  but  was  rebuilt  2.  (Now 
Qerra),  a  town  of  the  Insubres  in  Gallia  Trans- 
padana. 

a    surname  of 


ACH.EL 

Apollo,  expressive  of  his  beautiful  hair,  which 
was  never  cut  or  shorn. 

[ACES  ("A/c^ ),  a  river  in  the  interior  of  Asia, 
from  which  the  country  of  the  HyrcaD;*ns,  Par- 
thians,  Chorasmians.  <fcc.,  was  watered  DV  means 
of  canals.  On  the  conquest  of  this  region  by 
the  Persian  king,  the  stoppage  of  this  irrigation 
converted  many  fertile  lands  into  barren  wastes. 
This  river  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  same 
with  the  Ochus  or  Oxus,  and  Wilson  (Ariana,  p. 
129),  following  Gatterer,  inclines  to  the  latter.] 

[ACESAMENUS  (' AK£aa/j.£v6f),  a  king  of  Thrace, 
father  of  Peribcea,  and  said  to  have  founded  the 
city  Acesamenas  in  Macedonia.] 

[ACESANDER  ('\Ksaav6pof),  a  Greek  historian, 
who  wrote  an  account  of  Gyrene.] 

ACESAS  ('A/cwrdf),  a  native  of  Salamis  in  Cy- 
prus, famed  for  his  skill  in  weaving  cloth  with 
variegated  patterns  (polymitarius).  He  and  his 
sou  Helicon  were  the  first  who  made  a  peplus 
for  Minerva  (Athena)  Polias.  They  must  have 
lived  before  the  time  of  Euripides  and  Plato, 
who  mention  this  peplus. 

[AcESiMBROTUS  ('AKeai/tfyoTOf),  an  admiral  of 
the  Rhodians,  and  a  delegate  to  the  conference 
between  T.  Flamininus  and  Philippus.] 

ACESINES  ('A.Keaivrj; :  'AKsalvof).  1.  (Now 
Chenaub),  a  river  in  India,  into  which  the  Hydas- 
pes  flows,  and  which  itself  flows  into  the  Indus. 
— 2.  (Now  Alcantara),  a  river  in  Sicily,  near 
Tauromenium,  called  also  Onobalas. 

[ACESIUS  ('A/c£<7<of),  an  appellation  of  Apollo, 
"  the  healer,"  from  uKsof^aiA 

[ACESTA.      Vid.  SEGESTA.J 

ACESTES  ('A.KeaTTj£),  son  of  a  Trojan  woman 
of  the  name  of  Egesta  or  Segesta,  who  was  sent 
by  her  father  to  Sicily,  that  she  might  not  be 
devoured  by  the  monsters  which  infested  the 
territory  of  Troy.  When  Egesta  arrived  in  Sic- 
ily, the  river-god  Crimisus  begot  by  her  a  son, 
Acestes,  who  was  afterward  regarded  as  the 
hero  who  had  founded  the  town  of  Segesta. 
JSneas,  on  his  arrival  in  Sicily,  was  hospitably 
received  by  Acestes. 

[ACESTODORDS  ('A/cetTTodojOOf),  a  Greek  histo- 
rian from  whom  Plutarch  quotes  some  incidents 
relating  to  the  battle  of  Salamis,  in  his  Life  of 
Themistocles.] 

ACESTOR  ('AxsoTup).  1.  Surnamed  Sacas,  on 
account  of  his  foreign  origin,  was  a  tragic  poet 
at  Athens,  and  a  contemporary  of  Aristophanes. 
— 2.  A  sculptor  of  Cnosus,  who  flourished  about 
B.C.  452.] 

[ACESTOKIDES  ('AKearoptdjie),  a  Corinthian 
chosen  general  by  the  Syracusans,  but  banished 
from  Syracuse  by  Agathocles.] 

ACH.EA  ('A%aia,  from  a^of,  "  grief"),  "  the 
distressed  one,"  a  surname  of  Ceres  (Demeter) 
at  Athens,  so  called  on  account  of  her  sorrow  for 
the  loss  of  her  daughter. 

ACII.KI  (Axaioi),  one  of  the  chief  Hellenic 
races,  were,  according  to  tradition,  descended 
from  Achffius,  who  was  the  son  of  Xuthus  and 
Creusa,  and  grandson  of  Hellen.  The  A  elm 
originally  dwelt  in  Tbessaly,  and  from  thence 
migrated  to  Peloponnesus,  the  whole  of  which 
became  subject  to  them,  with  the  exception 
of  Arcadia,  and  the  country  afterward  called 
Achaia.  As  they  were  the  ruling  nation  in 
Peloponnesus  in  the  heroic  times,  Homer  fre- 
quently given  the  name  of  Achaei  to  the  collect- 

5 


ACH/EMENES. 


ACHATES. 


ivo  Greeks.  On  the  conquest  of  the  greater 
part  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Heraclldae  and  the 
Dorians  eighty  years  after  the  Trojan  war, 
many  of  the  Achaei  under  Tisamenus,  the  son 
of  Orestes,  left  their  country  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus,  then 
called  ./EgialSa,  and  inhabited  by  the  lonians, 
whom  they  expelled  from  the  country,  which 
was  henceforth  called  Achaia.  The  expelled 
lonians  migrated  to  Attica  and  Asia  Minor.  The 
Achaei  settled  in  twelve  cities :  Pellene,  ^Egira, 
JEgse,  Bura,  Helice,  JSgium,  Rhypae,  Patrae, 
Pharae,  Olenus,  Dyme,  and  Tritaea.  These 
cities  are  said  to  have  been  governed  by  Tisa- 
menus and  his  descendants  till  Ogyges,  upon 
whose  death  a  democratical  form  of  govern- 
ment was  established  in  each  state;  but  the 
twelve  states  formed  a  league  for  mutual  de- 
fence and  protection.  In  the  Persian  war  the 
Achaei  took  no  part ;  and  they  had  little  influ- 
ence in  the  affairs  of  Greece  till  the  tune  of 
the  successors  of  Alexander.  In  B.C.  281  the 
Achaei,  who  were  then  subject  to  the  Macedo- 
nians, resolved  to  renew  their  ancient  league  for 
the  purpose  of  shaking  off  the  Macedonian  yoke. 
This  was  the  origin  of  the  celebrated  Achaean 
League.  It  at  first  consisted  of  only  four  towns, 
Dyme,  Patrae,  Tritaea,  and  Pharae,  but  was  sub- 
sequently joined  by  the  other  towns  of  Achaia, 
with  the  exception  of  Olenus  and  Helice.  It 
did  not,  however,  obtain  much  importance  till 
B.C.  251,  when  Aratus  united  to  it  his  native 
town,  Sicyon.  The  example  of  Sicyon  was 
followed  by  Corinth  and  many  other  towns  in 
Greece,  and  the  league  soon  became  the  chief 
political  power  in  Greece.  At  length  the  Achaei 
declared  war  against  the  Romans,  who  destroyed 
the  league,  and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  independ- 
ence of  Greece.  Corinth,  then  the  chief  town 
of  the  league,  was  taken  by  the  Roman  general 
Mummius,  in  B.C.  146,  and  the  whole  of  south- 
ern Greece  made  a  Roman  province  under  the 
name  of  ACHAIA.  The  different  states  composing 
the  Achaean  League  had  equal  rights.  The 
assemblies  of  the  league  were  held  twice  a  year, 
in  the  spring  and  autumn,  in  a  grove  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  Homagyrius  near  ^Egium.  At  these 
assemblies  all  the  business  of  the  league  was 
conducted,  and  at  the  spring  meeting  the  public 
functionaries  were  chosen.  These  were :  1.  A 
strategus  (ffrparj/yof)  or  general,  and  a  hippar- 
chus  (iTrwapxof)  or  commander  of  the  cavalry ; 
2.  A  secretary  (ypa/z/zarevf ) ;  and,  3.  Ten  demi- 
urgi  (drifiiovp-yoi,  also  called  ap^ovref),-who  appear 
to  have  had  the  right  of  convening  the  assembly. 
For  further  particulars,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant~,  art 
Achaicum  Fcedus. 

ACH.SMENES  ('Axai/uvrif).  1.  The  ancestor  of 
the  Persian  kings,  who  founded  the  family  of  the 
Achcemenidce  ('A.xaiji£vi6ai),  which  was  the  no- 
blest family  of  the  Pasargadae,  the  noblest  of  the 
Persian  tribes.  The  Roman  poets  use  the  adjec- 
tive Achcemenius  in  the  sense  of  Persian.  [Some 
writers  identify  him  with  the  Djemschid  of  the 
Oriental  historians.] — 2.  Sou  of  Darius  L,  gover- 
nor of  Egypt,  commanded  the  Egyptian  fleet  in 
the  expedition  of  Xerxes  against  Greece,  B.C. 
480.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle  by 
•  Inarus  the  Libyan,  RC.  460. 

A  CH^EMENIDES   OF    ACHEMENIDES,  SOU   of   Ada- 

mastus  of  Ithaca,  and  a  companion  of  Ulysses, ! 
6 


who  left  him  behind  in  Sicily,  when  he  fled  from 
the  Cyclopes.  Here  he  was  found  by  JSueas, 
who  took  him  with  him. 

ACH^EUS  ('Axatuf).  1.  Son  of  Xuthus,  tho 
mythical  ancestor  of  the  ACH^KL — 2.  Governor 
under  Antiochus  III.  of  all  Asia  west  of  Mount 
Taurus.  He  revolted  against  Antiochus,  but  was 
defeated  by  the  latter,  taken  prisoner  at  Sardis, 
and  put  to  death  B.C.  214.— 3.  Of  Eretria  in 
Eubcea,  a  tragic  poet,  born  B.C.  484.  In  447,  he 
contended  with  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  and 
though  he  subsequently  brought  out  many  dra- 
mas, according  to  some  as  many  as  thirty-four 
or  forty,  he  nevertheless  only  gained  the  prize 
once.  In  the  satyrical  drama  be  possessed 
considerable  merit  The  fragments  of  his  pieces 
have  been  published  by  Urlichs,  Bonn,  1 834 ; 
[and  by  Wagner  in  his  Fragmenta  Tragicorum 
Grcecorum  (in  Didot's  Biblioth.  Graec.),  p.  36-52. 
The  satjric  pieces  have  been  published  sepa- 
rately in  Friebel's  Grcecorum  Satyrographorum 
Fragmenta,  Berlin,  1837. — 4.  A  Greek  tragic 
poet  of  Syracuse,  who  flourished  at  a  later  period 
than  the  foregoing,  belonging  to  the  Alexandrine 
period :  he  was  said  to  have  written  ten  or  four- 
teen tragedies.] 

ACHAIA  ('Axaiof :  'Axatu).  1.  The  northern 
coast  of  the  Peloponnesus,  originally  called  ^Egi- 
alea  (MyidXeia)  or  ^Egialus  (AtytaAof),  i.  e.  the 
coast  land,  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Corinthian  Gulf  and  the  Ionian  Sea,  on  the  south 
by  Elis  and  Arcadia,  on  the  west  by  the  Ionian 
sea,  and  on  the  east  by  Sicyonia.  It  was  a  nar- 
row slip  of  country  sloping  down  from  the  moun- 
tains to  the  sea.  The  coast  is  generally  low,  and 
has  few  good  ports.  Respecting  its  inhabitants, 
vid.  ACHAEI. — 2.  A  district  in  Thessaly,  which 
appears  to  have  been  the  original  seat  of  the 
Achaei.  It  retained  the  name  of  Achaia  in  the 
time  of  Herodotus. — 3.  The  Roman  province  in- 
cluded Peloponnesus  and  northern  Greece  south 
of  Thessaly.  It  was  formed  on  the  dissolution 
of  the  Achaean  League  in  B.  C.  146,  and  Lence 
derived  its  name. 

[ACHAIA,  ('A^afa),  a  city  and  harbor  on  the 
northeastern  coast  of  the  Euxine,  mentioned  by 
Arrian  in  his  Periplus.] 

[ACHAKACA  ('\x"PaKa)>  a  village  near  Nysa  in 
Lydia,  having  a  celebrated  Plutonium,  and  au 
oracular  cave  of  Charon,  where  intimations  were 
given  to  the  sick  respecting  the  cure  of  their 
maladies.] 

[ACHARDEUS  ('A^apdeof :  now  Egorlik),&  river 
of  Asiatic  Sarmatia,  flowing  from  the  Caucasus 
into  the  Palus  Maeotis.] 

ACHARIWE  ('Axapvai :  'A^apvevf,  pi,  'A^a/31%), 
the  principal  demus  of  Attica,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  (Eneis,  sixty  stadia  north  of  Athens,  pos- 
sessed a  rough  and  warlike  population,  who  were 
able  to  furnish  three  thousand  hoplitae  at  the 
commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Their 
land  was  fertile,  and  they  carried  on  considerable 
traffic  in  charcoal.  One  of  the  plays  of  Aristo- 
phanes bears  the  name  of  the  inhabitants  of  this 
demus. 

ACHARE^,  a  town  in  Thessaliotis  in  Thessaly, 
on  the  River  Pamisus. 

[ACHATES,  a  friend  and  companion  of  jEneaa, 
so  remarkable  for  the  fidelity  of  his  attachment, 
that  "  fidus  Achates "  became  subsequently  a 
proverb.] 


ACHATES. 


ACHILLES. 


ACHATES  (now  Dirillo),  a  river  in  southern 
Sicily,  between  Camarina  and  Gela,  in  which  the 
first  agate  is  said  to  have  been  found. 

ACHKLOIDES,  a  surname  of  the  Sirens,  the 
daughters  of  Achelous  and  a  Muse  ;  also  a  sur- 
name of  water  nymphs. 

ACHELOUS  ('A^eA^of :  'A^eAwZof  in  Horn. :  now 
Aspro  Potamo),  more  anciently  called  Thoas, 
Axenus,  and  Thestius,  the  largest  river  in 
Greece.  It  rises  in  Mount  Pindus,  and  flows 
Bcuthward,  forming  the  boundary  between  Acar- 
nania  and  ^Etoliti,  and  falls  into  the  Ionian  Sea 
opposite  the  islands  called  Echinades,  [which 
were  supposed  to  have  been  formed  in  part  by 
the  depositions  of  this  very  rapid  river.J  It  is 
about  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles  in  length. 
The  god  of  this  river  is  described  as  the  offspring 
of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  and  as  the  eldest  of  their 
three  thousand  sons.  He  fought  with  Hercules 
for  Deianira,  but  was  conquered  in  the  contest. 
He  then  took  the  form  of  a  bull,  but  was  again 
overcome  by  Hercules,  who  deprived  him  of 
one  of  his  horns,  which*  however,  he  recovered 
by  giving  up  the  horn  of  Amalthea.  According 
to  Ovid.(J/e<.,  ix.,  87),  the  Naiads  changed  the 
horn  which  Hercules  took  from  Achelous  into 
the  horn  of  plenty.  Achelous  was,  from  the 
earliest  times,  considered  to  be  a  great  divinity 
throughout  Greece,  and  was  invoked  in  prayers, 
sacrifices,  (fee.  On  several  coins  of  Acarnania, 
the  god  is  represented  as  a  bull  with  the  head 
of  an  old  man.  Achelous  was  also  the  name  of 
a  river  in  Arcadia,  and  of  another  in  Phthiotis 
in  Thessaly. 

ACHEMENIDES.       Vid.  AcH^EMENIDES. 

ACHEKON  ('A^e/wji'),  the  name  of  several  riv- 
ers, all  of  which  were,  at  least  at  one  time,  be- 
lieved to  be  connected  with  the  lower  world. — 1. 
[Now  Gurla,  or  River  of  Suli.~\  A  river  in  Thes- 
protia  in  Epirus,  which  flows  through  the  Lake 
Acherusia  into  the  Ionian  Sea — 2.  A  river  in 
Elis,  which  flows  into  the  Alpheus. — 3.  [Proba- 
bly Lese  or  Arconli.]  A  river  in  southern  Italy, 
lit  the  country  of  the  Bruttii,  on  which  Alexan- 
der of  Epirus  perished. — 4.  The  river  of  the 
lower  world,  round  which  the  shades  hover,  and 
jito  which  the  Pyriphlegethon  and  Cocytus  flow. 
In  late  writers  the  name  of  Acheron  is  used,  in 
a  general  sense,  to  designate  the  whole  of  the 
lower  world.  The  Etruscans  were  acquainted 
with  the  worship  of  Acheron  (Acheruns)  from 
very  early  times,  as  we  must  infer  from  their 
Aeneruntici  libri,  which  treated  of  the  deification 
of  souls,  and  of  the  sacrifices  (Acheruntia  sacra) 
by  which  this  was  to  be  effected. 

ACHKHONTIA.  1.  (Now  Acerenza),  a  town  in 
Apulia,  on  a  summit  of  Mount  Vultur,  whence 
Horace  (Carmn  ill,  4,  14)  speaks  of  celsee  nidnm 
Acherontice. — 2.  A  town  on  the  River  Acheron, 
in  the  country  of  the  Bruttii.  Vid.  ACHERON, 
No.  3. 

AcHEBt'siA  ('Axcpovaia  TiifivT)  or  'Axepovaif), 
the  name  of  several  lakes  and  swamps,  which, 
like  the  various  rivers  of  the  name  of  Acheron, 
were  at  the  same  time  believed  to  be  connected 
with  the  lower  world,  until  at  hist  the  Ache- 
rusia came  to  be  considered  to  be  in  the  lower 
world  itself.  The  lake  to  which  this  belief 
teems  to  have  been  first  attached  was  the  Ache- 
rusia in  Thesprotia,  through  which  the  Acheron 
flowed.  Other  lakes  or  swamps  of  the  same 


name  were  near  Hermione  in  Argolis,  between 
Cumae  and  Cape  Misenum  in  Campania,  and 
lastly  in  Egypt,  near  Memphis.  Acherusia  was 
also  the  name  of  a  peninsula,  near  Heraclea  in 
Bithynia,  with  a  deep  chasm,  into  which  Her- 
cules is  said  to  have  descended  to  bring  up  the 
dog  Cerberus. 

ACHETUM,  a  small  town  in  Sicily,  the  site  of 
which  is  uncertain. 

ACHILLA  or  ACHOLLA  ("A^oA/la :  'A^oAAaZof 
AchillitamiB :  now  El  Allah,  ruins),  a  town  on 
the  sea-coast  of  Africa,  in  the  Carthaginian  ter- 
ritory (Byzacena),  a  little  above  the  northern 
point  of  the  Syrtis  Minor. 

ACHILLAS  ('A_£i/,A<2f),  one  of  the  guardians 
of  the  Egyptian  king  Ptolemy  Dionysius,  and 
commander  of  the  troops  when  Pompey  fled  to 
Egypt,  B.C.  48.  It  was  he  and  L.  Septimius 
who  killed  Pompey.  He  subsequently  joined 
the  eunuch  Pothinus  in  resisting  Caesar,  and 
obtained  possession  of  the  greatest  part  of  Alex 
andrea.  He  was  shortly  afterwards  put  t*. 
death  by  Arsinoe,  the  youngest  sister  of  Ptolemy, 
B.C.  47. 

[ACHILLEIS,  a  poem  of  Statius,  turning  on  the 
story  of  Achilles.  Vid.  STATIUS.]  / 

ACHILLES  ('A^i/Ueiif),  the  great  hero  of  the 
Iliad. — Homeric  story.  Achilles  was  the  son  of 
Peleus,  king  of  the  Myrmidones  in  Phthiotis,  in 
Thessaly,  and  of  the  Nereid  Thetis.  From  his 
father's  name,  he  is  often  called  Pelldes,  Pele'ia- 
des,  or  Pellon,  and  from  his  grandfather's,  jEaci- 
des.  He  was  educated  by  Phoenix,  who  taught 
him  eloquence  and  the  arts  of  war,  and  accom- 
panied him  to  the  Trojan  war.  In  the  healing 
art  he  was  instructed  by  Chiron,  the  centaur. 
His  mother,  Thetis,  foretold  him  that  his  fate 
was  either  to  gain  glory  and  die  early,  or  to  live 
a  long  but  inglorious  life.  The  hero  chose  the 
former,  and  took  part  in  the  Trojan  war,  from 
which  he  knew  that  he  was  not  to  return.  In 
fifty  ships,  he  led  his  hosts  of  Myrmidones,  Hel- 
lenes, and  Achseans,  against  Troy.  Here  the 
swift-footed  Achilles  was  the  great  bulwark  of 
the  Greeks,  and  the  worthy  favorite  of  Minerva 
(Athena)  and  Juno  (Hera).  Previous  to  the  dis- 
pute with  Agamemnon,  he  ravaged  the  country 
around  Troy,  and  destroyed  twelve  towns  on 
the  coast  and  eleven  in  the  interior  of  the  coun- 
try. When  Agamemnon  was  obliged  to  give 
up  Chryse'is  to  her  father,  he  threatened  to  take 
away  Briseis  from  Achilles,  who  surrendered 
her  on  the  persuasion  of  Minerva  (Athena),  but 
at  the  same  time  refused  to  take  any  further 
part  in  the  war,  and  shut  himself  up  in  his  tent. 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  on  the  entreaty  of  Thetis,  prom- 
ised that  victory  should  be  on  the  side  of  the 
Trojans,  until  the  Achaeans  should  have  hon- 
ored her  son.  The  affairs  of  the  Greeks  de- 
clined in  consequence,  and  they  were  at  hist 
pressed  so  hard,  that  an  embassy  was  sent  to 
Achilles,  offering  him  rich  presents  and  the  res- 
toration of  Briseis ;  but  in  vain.  Finally,  how- 
ever, he  was  persuaded  by  Patroclus,  his  dear 
est  friend,  to  allow  him  to  make  use  of  his  men, 
his  horses,  and  his  armor.  Patroclus  was  skin, 
and  when  this  news  reached  Achilles,  he  waa 
seized  with  unspeakable  grief.  Thetis  consoled 
him,  and  promised  new  arms,  to  be  made  by 
Vulcan  (Hephaestus),  and  Iris  appeared  to  rouss 
him  from  his  lamentations,  and  exhorted  him 
7 


ACHILLES. 


ACHlLLEUa  DROMOS. 


to  rescue  the  body  of  Patroclus.  Achilles  now 
rose,  and  his  thundering  voice  alone  put  the 
Trojans  to  flight  When  hig  new  armor  was 
brought  to  him,  he  hurried  to  the  field  of  battle, 
disdaining  to  take  any  drink  or  food  until  the 
death  of  his  friend  should  be  avenged.  He 
wounded  and  slew  numbers  of  Trojans,  and  at 
length  met  Hector,  whom  he  chased  thrice 
around  the  walls  of  the  city.  He  then  slew 
him,  tied  his  body  to  his  chariot,  and  dragged 
him  to  the  ships  of  the  Greeks.  After  this,  he 
burned  the  body  of  Patroclus,  together  with 
twelve  young  captive  Trojans,  who  were  sac- 
rificed to  appease  the  spirit  of  his  friend ;  and 
subsequently  gave  up  the  body  of  Hector  to 
Priam,  who  came  in  person  to  beg  for  it  Achil- 
les himself  fell  in  the  battle  at  the  Scaean  gate, 
before  Troy  was  taken.  His  death  itself  does 
not  occur  in  the  Iliad,  but  it  is  alluded  to  in  a 
few  passages  (xxii.,  858 ;  xxi.,  278).  It  is  ex- 
pressly mentioned  in  the  Odyssey  (xxiv.,  36), 
where  it  is  said  that  his  fall — his  conqueror  is 
not  mentioned — was  lamented  by  gods  and  men, 
that  his  remains,  together  with  those  of  Patro- 
clus, were  buried  in  a  golden  urn,  which  Bac- 
chus (Dionysus)  had  given  as  a  present  to  The- 
tis, and  were  deposited  in  a  place  on  the  coast 
of  the  Hellespont,  where  a  mound  WHS  raised 
over  them.  Achilles  is  the  principal  hero  of 
the  Iliad :  he  is  the  handsomest  and  bravest  of 
all  the  Greeks ;  he  is  affectionate  toward  his 
mother  and  his  friends :  formidable  in  battles, 
which  are  his  delight ;  open-hearted  and  without 
fear,  and,  at  the  same  time,  susceptible  of  the 
gentle  and  quiet  joys  of  home.  His  greatest 
passion  is  ambition,  and  when  his  sense  of  hon- 
or is  hurt,  he  is  unrelenting  in  his  revenge  and 
anger,  but  withal  submits  obediently  to  the  will 
of  the  grds. — Later  traditions.  These  chiefly 
consist  in  accounts  which  fill  up  the  history  of 
his  youth  iaiu  death.  His  mother,  wishing  to 
make  her  son  immortal,  is  said  to  have  con- 
cealed him  by  night  in  the  fire,  in  order  to  de- 
stroy the  mortal  parts  he  had  inherited  from  his 
father,  and  by  day  to  have  anointed  him  with 
ambrosia.  But  Peleus  one  njght  discovered  his 
child  in  the  fire,  and  cried  out  in  terror.  Thetis 
left  her  son  and  fled,  and  Peleus  intrusted  him 
to  Chiron,  who  educated  and  instructed  him  in 
the  arts  of  riding,  hunting,  and  playing  the  phor- 
minx,  and  also  changed  his  original  name,  Li- 
gyron,  i.  e^  the  "  whining,"  into  Achilles.  Chi- 
ron fed  his  pupil  with  the  hearts  of  lions  and  the 
marrow  of  bears.  According  to  other  accounts, 
Thetis  endeavored  to  make  Achilles  immortal 
by  dipping  him  in  the  River  Styx,  and  succeed- 
ed with  the  exception  of  the  ankles,  by  which 
she  held  him.  When  he  was  nine  years  old, 
Calchas  declared  that  Troy  could  not  be  taken 
•without  his  aid,  and  Thetis,  knowing  that  this 
war  would  be  fatal  to  him,  disguised  him  as  a 
maiden,  and  introduced  him  among  the  daugh- 
ters of  Lycomedes  of  Scyros,  where  he  was 
sailed  by  the  name  of  Pyrrha  on  account  of  his 
golden  locks.  But  his  real  character  did  not 
remain  concealed  long,  for  one  of  his  compan- 
ions, Deidamia,  became  mother  of  a  son,  Pyr- 
rhus  or  Neoptolemus,  by  him.  Ulysses  at  last 
discovered  his  place  of  concealment,  and  Achil- 
les immediately  promised  his  assistance.  Dur- 
ing the  war  against  Troy,  Achilles  slew  Pen- 
8 


thesilea,  an  Amazon.  He  also  fought  with 
Memnon  and  Troilus.  The  accounts  of  his 
death  differ  very  much,  though  all  agree  in 
stating  that  he  did  not  fall  by  human  hands,  or, 
at  least,  not  without  the  interference  of  the  god 
Apollo.  According  to  some  traditions,  he  was 
killed  by  Apollo  himself;  according  to  others, 
Apollo  assumed  the  appearance  of  Paris  in  kill- 
ing him,  while  others  say  that  Apollo  merely 
directed  the  weapon  of  Paris  against  Achilles, 
and  thus  caused  his  death,  as  had  been  sug- 
gested by  the  dying  Hector.  Others,  again,  re- 
late that  Achilles  loved  Polyxena,  a  daughter  of 
Priam,  and,  tempted  by  the  promise  that  he 
should  receive  her  as  lus  wife,  if  he  would  join 
the  Trojans,  he  went  without  arms  into  the 
temple  of  Apollo  at  Thymbra,  and  was  assas- 
sinated there  by  Paris.  His  body  was  rescued 
by  Ulysses  and  Ajax  the  Telamonian ;  his  ar- 
mor was  promised  by  Thetis  to  the  bravest 
among  the  Greeks,  which  gave  rise  to  a  con- 
test between  the  two  heroes  who  had  rescued 
his  body.  Vid.  AJAX.  After  his  death,  Achil- 
les became  one  of  the  judges  in  the  lower  world, 
and  dwelled  in  the  islands  of  the  blessed,  where 
he  was  united  with  Medea  or  Iphigenia— [2.  A 
son  of  the  Earth  (ynjevrj^),  to  whom  Juno  (Hera) 
fled  for  refuge  from  the  pursuit  of  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
and  who  persuaded  her  to  return  and  marry  that 
deity.  Jupiter  (Zeus),  grateful  for  this  service, 
promised  him  that  all  who  bore  this  name  for 
the  time  to  come  should  be  illustrious  person- 
ages.— 3.  The  preceptor  of  Chiron,  after  whom 
Chiron  named  the  son  of  Peleus. — 4.  The  in 
ventor  of  the  ostracism  in  Athens,  according 
to  one  account. — 5.  Son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Lamia,  so  beautiful  that  Pan  awarded  to  him 
the  prize  of  beauty  over  every  competitor.  Ve- 
nus was  so  offended  at  this,  that  she  inspired 
Pan  with  a  fruitless  passion  for  the  nymph 
Echo,  and  also  wrought  a  hideous  change  in  his 
person.] 

ACHILLES  TATIUS,  or,  as  others  call  him,  Achil- 
les Statius,  an  Alexandrine  rhetorician,  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  or  the  beginning  of 
the  sixth  century  of  our  era.  He  is  the  author 
of  a  Greek  romance  in  eight  books,  containing 
the  adventures  of  two  lovers,  Clitophon  and 
Leucippe,  which  has  come  down  to  us.  The 
best  edition  is  by  Fr.  Jacobs,  Lips.,  1821.  Sui- 
das  ascribes  to  this  Achilles  a  work  on  the 
sphere  (irepl  atyaipat;),  a  fragment  of  which,  pro- 
fessing to  be  an  introduction  to  the  Phaenomena 
of  Aratus,  is  still  extant.  But  this  work  was 
written  at  an  earlier  period.  It  is  printed  in 
Petavius,  Uranologia,  Paris,  1630,  and  Amster- 
dam, 1703. 

ACHILLEUM  ('AxtMeiov),  a  fortified  place  near 
the  promontory  Sigeum  in  the  Troad,  [founded 
by  the  Mytileneans,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 
which  Achilles  was  supposed  to  have  been 
buried.]  There  was  a  place  of  the  same  name 
on  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus,  Straits  of  Kaffa,  on 
the  Asiatic  side. 

ACHILLEUS  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  un- 
der Diocletian,  and  reigned  over  Egypt  for  some 
time.  He  was  taken  by  Diocletian  after  a  siege 
of  eight  months  in  Alexandrea,  and  put  to  death 
A.D.  296. 

ACHILLKLUS  DROMOS  ('A^iJWetof  dpofioq:  now 
;  Tendera  or  Tendra),  a  narrow  tongue  of  land  ID 


ACHILLEUS. 


ACR^EA. 


the  Euxine  Sea,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Borysthenes,  where  Achilles  is  said  to  have 
made  a  race-course.  Before  it  lay  the  cele- 
brated Island  of  Achilles  (In&ula  Achillis)  or 
Leuce  (AEVKTJ),  -where  there  waa  a  temple  of 
Achilles. 

ACHILLEUS  POKTCS  ('Axfafaiof  /U/w?v),  a  har- 
bor in  Laconia,  near  the  promontory  Taenarum. 

ACHILLIDES,  a  patronymic  of  Pyrrhus,  son  of 
Achilles. 

ACHILLIS  INSULA.     Vid.  ACHILLEUS  DEOMOS. 

ACHIBOE  ('Axipoij'),  daughter  of  Nilus  and  wife 
of  Belus,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of 
JSgyptus  and  Danaus. 

ACHIVI,  the  name  of  the  Achaei  in  the  Latin 
writers,  and  frequently  used,  like  Achaei,  to  sig- 
nify the  whole  Greek  nation.  Vid.  ACHAEI. 

ACHOLLA.     Vid.  ACHILLA. 

ACHOLOE.     Vid.  HAEPYLA 

ACHRADINA  or  ACEADINA.     Vid.  SYRACUSE,] 

ACICHORIUS  ('A/ujwptof),  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Gauls,  who  invaded  Thrace  and  Macedonia 
in  B.  C.  280.  In  the  following  year  he  accom- 
panied Brennus  in  his  invasion  of  Greece.  Some 
writers  suppose  that  Brennus  and  Acichorius  are 
the  same  person,  the  former  being  only  a  title, 
and  the  latter  the  real  name. 

ACIDALLA  (mater),  a  surname  of  Venus,  from 
the  well  Acidalius,  near  Orchomenos,  where  she 
used  to  bathe  with  the  Graces. 

[ACIDAS  ('Axtdaf),  a  small  river  of  Triphylian 
Elis,  which  ran  into  the  Anigrus.] 

ACIDINUS,  L.  MANLIUS.  1.  One  of  the  Roman 
generals  in  the  second  Punic  war,  pnetor  ur- 
banus,  B.  C.  210,  served  against  Hasdrubal  in 
207,  and  was  sent  into  Spain  in  206,  where  he 
remained  till  199. — 2.  Surnamed'  FULVIANUS,  be- 
cause he  originally  belonged  to  the  Fulvia  gens, 
praetor  B.  C.  188  in  Nearer  Spain,  and  consul  in 
179  with  his  own  brother  Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus, 
which  is  the  only  instance  of  two  brothers  hold- 
ing the  consulship  at  the  same  time. 

[ACIDON  ('A.KIOUV),  same  as  the  ACIDAS,  q.  vJ] 

ACILIA  GENS,  plebeian.  Its  members  are 
mentioned  under  the  family  names  of  AVIOLA, 
BALBUS,  and  GLABEIO. 

[ACILISENE  ('AKihtojjvT)),  &  district  of  Armenia 
Major,  between  Antitaurus  and  the  Euphrates.] 

(A«MINCUM  or  ACUMINCUM  (now  Peterwara- 
ein),  a  town  in  Lower  Pannonia,  on  the  Danube.] 

[ACINCUM  or  AQUINCUM  (now  Buda  or  Old 
Ofen,)  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  Pannonia,  on 
the  Danube.] 

[AciniPO  (ruins  near  Rondo),  a  town  of  His- 
pania  Baetica,  of  which  some  remarkable  remains 
still  exist] 

[AciEis  ('Axiptf :  now  Agri),  a  river  of  Lu- 
cania,  flowing  into  the  Sinus  Tarentinus.] 

Acis  ('Axtf)  son  of  Faunus  and  SymaeUiis,  was 
beloved  by  the  nymph  Galatea :  Polyphemus 
the  Cyclops,  jealous  of  him,  crushed  him  under 
a  huge  rock.  His  blood,  gushing  forth  from  un- 
der the  rock,  was  changed  by  the  nymph  into 
the  River  Acis  or  Acinius  (now  Fiume  di  Jaci\ 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  JStna.  This  story,  which 
is  related  only  by  Ovid  (Met.,  xiii.,  750,  seq.),  is 
perhaps  no  more  than  a  happy  fiction  suggested 
oy  the  manner  in  which  the  little  river  springs 
forth  from  under  a  rock 

£Acis  ('Axis),  a  river  of  Sicily.  Vid.  the  fore- 
going.] 


[ACMON  ("A/CjMwv).  1.  A  companion  of  Di<v 
medes,  who  was  changed  into  a  bird  for  disre- 
spect to  Venus.  2.  Son  of  Elytius  of  Lyrnea- 
sus,  a  companion  of  ^Eneas.] 

ACMONIA  ('AKftovia :  ' AK/HOV irrjq :  Acmonensis), 
a  city  of  the  Greater  Phrygia. 

ACMONIDES,  one  of  the  three  Cyclopes  in  Ovid, 
is  the  same  as  Pyracmon  in  Virgil,  and  as  Arges 
in  most  other  accounts  of  the  Cyclopes. 

ACCETES  ('AKotTTjf),  son  of  a  poor  fisherman 
of  Maeonia,  who  served  as  a  pilot  in  a  ship. 
After  landing  at  the  Island  of  Naxos,  the  sailors 
brought  with  them  on  board  a  beautiful  boy 
asleep,  whom  they  wished  to  take  with  them  ; 
but  Accetes,  who  recognized  in  the  boy  the  god 
Bacchus,  dissuaded  them  from  it,  but  in  vain. 
When  the  ship  had  reached  the  open  sea,  the 
boy  awoke,  and  desired  to  be  earned  back  to 
Naxos.  The  sailors  promised  to  do  so,  but  did 
not  keep  their  word.  Hereupon  the  god  dis- 
closed himself  to  them  in  his  majesty;  vines 
began  to  twine  round  the  vessel,  tigers  appear- 
ed, and  the  sailors<  seized  with  madness,  jump- 
ed into  the  sea  and  perished.  Acoates  alone 
was  saved  and  conveyed  back  to  Naxos,  where 
he  was  initiated  into  the  Bacchic  mysteries, 
This  is  the  account  of  Ovid  (Met.,  iii.,  582,  <fcc.). 
Other  writers  call  the  crew  of  the  ship  Tyrrhe- 
nian pirates,  and  derive  the  name  of  the  Tyr- 
rhenian Sea  from  them. 

ACONTIUS  ('AKov-iof),  &  beautiful  youth  of  the 
Island  of  Ceos.  On  one  occasion  he  came  to 
Delos  to  celebrate  the  annual  festival  of  Diana, 
and  fell  in  love  with  Cydippe,  the  daughter  of  a 
noble  Athenian.  In  order  to  gain  her,  he  had 
recourse  to  a  stratagem.  While  she  was  sitting 
in  the  temple  of  Diana,  he  threw  before  her 
an  apple,  upon  which  he  had  written  the  words, 
"  I  swear  by  the  sanctuary  of  Diana  to  marry 
Acontius."  The  nurse  took  up  the  apple  and 
handed  it  to' Cydippe,  who  read  aloud  what  was 
written  upon  it,  and  then  threw  the  apple  away. 
But  the  goddess  had  heard  her  vow,  and  the 
repeated  illness  of  the  maiden,  when  she  was 
about  to  marry  another  man,  at  length  compel- 
led her  father  to  give  her  in  marriage  to  Acon- 
tius. This  story  is  related  by  Ovid  (Heroid, 
20,  21),  who  borrowed  it  from  a  lost  poem  of 
Callimachus,  entitled  "  Cydippe." 

AcSEis  ("AKOpcf),  king  of  Egypt,  assisted  Evag- 
oras,  king  of  Cyprus,  against  Artaxerxes,  king 
of  Persia,  about  B.  C.  385.  He  died  about  374, 
before  the  Persians  entered  Egypt>  vhich  was 
in  the  following  year. 

[ACEA  ("A/cpa),  a  name  of  many  places  situ 
ated  on  heights  and  promontories.  1.  A  vil 
lage  on  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus. — 2.  A  town 
in  Eubosa. — 3.  A  town  in  Arcadia. — 4.  ACRA 
LEUCE  (TievKjfl,  a  town  in  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis,  founded  by  Hamilcar  Barcas.] 

ACR.E  ('AKpat).  1.  (Ruins  near  Palazzalo),  a 
town  in  Sicily,  west  of  Syracuse,  and  ten  stadia 
from  the  River  Anapus,  was  founded  by  the  Syr 
acusans  seventy  years  after  the  foundation  01 
their  own  city. — 2.  A  town  in  ^Etolia. 

[ACE.EA  ('A/cpa/a),  a  daughter  of  the  river-god 
Asterion  (near  Mycenae),  one  of  the  nurses  of 
Juno.  A  mountain  in  Argolis,  opposite  to  the 
Heraeum,  was  named  after  her  Acraa.] 

ACE.SA  ('A/cpata)  and  ACE^EUS  are  surnames 
given  to  various  goddesses  and  gods  whose 

9 


ACR^EPHEUS. 

temple*  were  situated  upon  bills,  such  as  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus),  Juno  (Hera),  Venus  (Aphrodite), 
Minerva  (Pallas),  Diana  (Artemis),  and  others. 

ACR.SPHEUS.     Vid.  ACE.BPHIA. 

A<  n.KniiA,  AcB.EPHi.«,  or  ACE^BPIIION  ('Axpai- 
6ia,  '\npaiipiai,  'Axpaiiftiov :  'Axpatyiof,  'Axpai- 
f  toiof :  now  Kardhitza),  a  town  in  Bcetia,  on 
the  Lake  Copais,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Aeraepheus,  the  son  of  Apollo. 

[ACBJSUS.     Vid.  ACE-BA.] 

[  ACRAGAS  ('Acipuyof :  now  Oirgenti  or  Fiume 
di  S.  Biagio),  a  small  river  of  Sicily,  on  which 
was  the  celebrated  city  of  Acragas  or  Agrigen- 
tum.] 

AORAGAS.     Vid.  AGRIGENTUM. 

[AcaiTHoa  ('A.icpdOuf  uxpov,  i.  e.,  *A/cpo? 
'A0<jf :  now  Cape  Monte  Santo),  the  northeast- 
ern promontory  in  the  peninsula  Acte  in  Mace- 
donia.] 

ACBATUS,  a  freedman  of  Nero,  sent  into  Asia 
ami  Achaia  (A.D.  64)  to  plunder  the  temples 
and  take  away  the  statues  of  the  gods. 

ACRL&  ('A.Kpiai  or  'AKpalai),  a  town  in  La- 
tonia,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Eurotas. 

AcRiLua,  a  town  in  Sicily  between  Agrigen- 
tum  and  Acrsa. 

AOKISIONK  ('AKpioiuvij),  &  patronymic  of  Da- 
naii,  daughter  of  Acrisius.  Perseus,  grandson 
of  Acrisius,  was  called,  in  the  same  way,  Acris- 
!5ni£de'8. 

ACBISIUS  (' A.Kptaiof),  son  of  Abas,  king  of  Ar- 
gos,  and  of  Ocalia,  grandson  of  Lynceus,  and 
great  grandson  of  Danaus.  His  twin-brother 
was  Pratus,  with  whom  he  is  said  to  have  quar- 
relled even  in  the  womb  of  his  mother.  Acris- 
fus  expelled  Prcetus  from  his  inheritance ;  but, 
supported  by  his  father-in-law  lobates,  the  Ly- 
cian,  PrcBtus  returned,  and  Acrisius  was  com- 
pelled to  share  his  kingdom  with  his  brother  by 
giving  up  to  him  Tiryns,  while  he  retained  Ar- 
gos  for  himself.  An  oracle  had  declared  that 
Diinae,  the  daughter  of  Acrisius,  would  give 
birth  to  a  son  who  would  kill  his  grandfather. 
For  this  reason  he  kept  Danae  shut  up  in  a  sub- 
terraneous apartment,  or  in  a  brazen  tower, 
but  here  she  became  mother  of  Perseus,  not- 
withstanding the  precautions  of  her  father,  ac- 
cording to  some  accounts  by  her  uncle  Prcetus, 
and  according  to  others  by  Jupiter  (Zeus),  who 
visited  her  in  the  form  of  a  shower  of  gold. 
Acrisius  ordered  mother  and  child  to  be  ex- 
posed on  the  wide  sea  in  a  chest ;  but  the  chest 
floated  toward  the  Island  of  Seriphus,  where 
both  were  rescued  by  Dictys.  As  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  oracle  was  subsequently  ful- 
filled, rid.  PERSEUS. 

AcaiTAS  ('A/cpet  Taf :  now  Cape  Gallo),  the 
most  southerly  promontory  in  Messenia. 

ACBOCERAU.NIA  (rd  'Axponepavvia,  sc.  opr} : 
DOW  Cape  Linguetta),  a  promontory  in  Epirus, 
jutting  out  into  the  Ionian  sea,  was  the  most 
westerly  part  of  the  CERAUMI  MONIES.  The 
coast  of  the  Acroceraunia  was  dangerous  to 
ships,  whence  Horace  (Cam.  1.,  3,  20)  speaks 
of  infames  scopulos  Acroceraunia. 

Aca6c5au»THCS.     Vid.  COEINTHUS. 

ACROLISSUS.     Vid.  Lissrs. 

ACBON.    1.  King  of  the   Caeninenses,  whom 

Romulus  slew  in  battle,  and  whose  arms  he 

dedicated  to  Jupiter  Feretrius  as  Spolia  Opima. 

—2.  An   eminent  physician  of  Agrigentum  in 

10 


ACT^EUS. 

Sicily,  is  said  to  have  been  in  Athens  during 
the  great  plague  (B.C.  430)  in  the  Pelopoune- 
sian  war,  and  to  have  ordered  large  fires  to  be 
kindled  in  the  streets  for  the  purpose  of  purify- 
ing the  air,  which  proved  of  great  service  to 
several  of  the  sick.  This  fact,  however,  is  not 
mentioned  by  Thucydides.  The  medical  sect 
of  the  Empiric!,  in  order  to  boast  of  a  greater 
antiquity  than  the  Dogmatici  (founded  about  B. 
C.  400),  claimed  Acron  as  their  founder,  though 
they  did  not  really  exist  before  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C. — [3.  An  Etrurian  of  Corythus,  an  ally 
of  ^Eneas,  slain  by  Mezentius.] 

AORON,  HELENIUS,  a  Roman  grammarian, 
probably  of  the  fifth  century  A.D.,  wrote  notes 
on  Horace,  part  of  which  are  extant,  and  also, 
according  to  some  critics,  the  scholia  which  we 
have  on  Persius. 

[ACRONIUS  LACUS.     Vid.  BEIGANTINUS  LACUSL] 

AcBOpSus.     Vid.  ATHENA 

ACBOPOLITA  GEOEGIUS  (Fewpytof  'A/cpOTroXt 
Tyf),  a  Byzantine  writer,  was  born  at  Constan- 
tinople in  A.D.  1220,  and  died  in  1282.  He 
wrote  several  works  which  have  come  down 
to  us.  The  most  important  of  them  is  a  his- 
tory of  the  Byzantine  empire,  from  the  taking 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  in  1204,  down 
to  the  year  1261,  when  Michael  Palaeologus  de- 
livered the  city  from  the  foreign  yoke.  Edited 
by  Leo  Allatius,  Paris,  1651 ;  reprinted  at  Ven- 
ice, 1729. 

ACROBEA  (fj  'A.Kpupeia),  a  mountainous  tract 
of  country  in  the  north  of  Elis. 

ACROTATUS  ('A/cp6rarof).  1.  Son  of  Cleome- 
nes  II.,  king  of  Sparta,  sailed  to  Sicily  in  B.C. 
314  to  assist  the  Agrigentines  against  Agatho- 
cles  of  Syracuse.  On  his  arrival  at  Agrigen- 
tum, he  acted  with  such  tyranny  that  the  in- 
habitants compelled  him  to  leave  the  city.  He 
returned  to  Sparta,  and  died  before  his  father, 
leaving  a  son,  Areus. — 2.  Grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  the  son  of  Areus  I.,  king  of  Sparta ; 
bravely  defended  Sparta  against  Pyrrhus,  in  B.C. 
272;  succeeded  his  father  as  king  in  266,  but 
was  killed  in  the  same  year  in  battle  against 
Aristodemus,  the  tyrant  of  Megalopolis. 

ACROTHOUM  or  ACEOTHOI  ('AKpoOuov,  'A/cpo- 
Buoi :  ' A.KpoduiTi}f :  now  Lavra),  afterward  call- 
ed Uranopolis,  a  town  near  the  extremity, of  the 
peninsula  of  Athos. 

ACT^EA  ('A/cra/a),  daughter  of  Nereus  and 
Doris. 

ACTION  ('A/cratuv).  1.  A  celebrated  hunt?- 
man,  sou  of  Aristeus  and  Autonoe,  a  daughter 
of  Cadmus,  was  trained  in  the  art  of  hunting  by 
the  centaur  Chiron.  One  day  as  he  was  hunt- 
ing, he  saw  Diana  (Artemis)  with  her  nymphs 
bathing  in  the  vale  of  Gargaphia,  whereupon 
the  goddess  changed  him  into  a  stag,  in  which 
form  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  his  fifty  dogs  on 
Mount  Cithaeron.  Others  relate  that  he  pro- 
voked the  anger  of  the  goddess  by  boasting 
that  he  excelled  her  in  bunting.  2.  Son  of  Me- 
lissus,  and  grandson  of  Abron,  who  had  fled 
from  Argos  to  Corinth  for  fear  of  the  tyrant 
Pbidon.  Archias,  a  Corinthian,  enamored  with 
the  beauty  of  Actaeon,  endeavored  to  carry  him 
off;  but  in  the  struggle  which  ensued  between 
Melissus  and  Archias,  Actseon  was  killed.  Vid. 
ARCHIAS. 

ACTJSUS  ('AxTatof),  son  of  Erisichthon,  and 


ACTE. 


ADHERBAL. 


the  earliest  king  of  Attica.  He  had  three  daugh- 
ters, Agraulos,  Herse,  and  Pandrosus,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Cecrops,  who  married  Agraulos. 

ACTE,  the  concubine  of  Nero,  -was  originally 
a  slave  from  Asia  Minor.  Nero  at  one  time 
thought  of  marrying  her ;  •whence  he  pretend- 
ed that  she  was  descended  from  King  Attalus. 
She  survived  Nero. 

ACTE  ('AKTT?),  properly  a  piece  of  land  run- 
ning into  the  sea,  and  attached  to  another  larger 
piece  of  land,  but  not  necessarily  by  a  narrow 
neck.  1.  An  ancient  name  of  Attica,  used  espe- 
cially by  the  poets. — 2.  The  eastern  coast  of 
Peloponnesus,  near  Troezen  and  Epidaurus. — 
3.  The  peninsula  between  the  Strymonic  and 
Singitic  gulfs,  on  which  Mount  Athos  is. 

ACTIACUS.     Vid.  ACITUM. 

[Acns,  one  of  the  Heliadae,  who,  according 
to  Diodorus,  migrated  from  Rhodes  to  Egypt, 
founded  Heliopolis,  which  he  named  after  his 
father,  and  taught  the  Egyptians  astrology.  The 
same  writer  states  that  the  Greeks,  having  lost 
by  a  delude  nearly  all  the  memorials  of  previ- 
ous events,  became  ignorant  of  their  claim  to 
the  inventio.i  of  this  science,  and  allowed  the 
Egyptians  to  arrogate  it  to  themselves.  "Wesse- 
ling  considers  this  a  mere  fable,  based  on  the  na- 
tional vanity  of  the  Greeks.] 

ACTISANES  ('A.KTiffdvtif),  a.  king  of  ^Ethiopia, 
who  conquered  Egypt  and  governed  it  with  jus- 
tice, in  the  reign  of  Amasis.  This  Amasis  is 
either  a  more  ancient  king  than  the  contempo- 
rary of  Cyrus,  [or  eke  we  must  read  Ammosis 
for  Ainasis.] 

ACTIUM  ("A-KTtov :  'A.KTiaic6f,  "Ajcriof :  now 
La,  Punta,  not  Azio),  a  promontory,  and  likewise 
a  place  in  Acarnania,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Ambracian  Gulf,  off  which  Augustus  gained  the 
celebrated  victory  over  Antony  and  Cleopatra, 
on  September  2,  B.C.  31.  At  Actium  there  was 
originally  no  town,  but  only  a  temple  of  Apollo, 
who  was  hence  called  Actiacus  and  Actius.  This 
temple  was  beautified  by  Augustus,  who  estab- 
lished, or  rather  revived  a  festival  to  Apollo, 
called  Actia  (vid.  Diet,  of  Ant^  s.  v.),  and  erect- 
ed NICOPOLIS  on  the  opposite  coast,  in  commem- 
oration of  his  victory.  A  few  buildings  sprung 
up  around  the  temple  at  Actium,  but  the  place 
was  only  a  kind  of  suburb  of  Nicopolis. 

[ACTIUS  ("A/criOf),  an  appellation  of  Apollo 
from  his  temple  at  Actium!] 

AOTIUS.     Vid.  ATTICS. 

ACTOR  ("A/crwp).  1.  Son  of  Deion  and  Dio- 
mede,  father  of  Menoetius,  and  grandfather  of 
Patroclus.— 2.  Son  of  Phorbas  and  Hyrmine, 
and  husband  of  Molione, — 3.  A  companion  of 
JSneas,  of  whose  conquered  lance  Turnus  made 
a  boast  This  story  seems  to  have  given  rise 
to  the  proverb  Actorit  tpolium  (Juv,  iL,  100) 
for  any  poor  spoil. 

ACTORIDES  or  AcrSRiON  ('\KTopidiit  or  'A«ro- 
oiuv),  patronymics  of  descendants  of  an  Actor, 
such  as  Patroclus,  Erithus,  Eurytus,  and  Ctea- 
tus. 

ACTUARIUS,  JOANNES,  a  Greek  physician  of 
Constantinople,  probably  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Andronicus  II.  Palteologus,  A.D.  1281-1828. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  medical  works, 
which  are  extant,  [and  most  of  which  have  been 
published  by  Ideler  in  his  "  Physici  et  Medici 
Graeci  Minores,"  Berlin,  1841,  teg.] 


ACCLEO,  CT  an  eminent  Roman  lawyer,  who 
.married  the  sister  of  Helvia,  the  mother  of  Cic- 
ero :  his  son  was  C.  Visellius  Varro ;  whence  it 
would  appear  that  Aculeo  was  only  a  surname 
given  to  the  father  from  his  acuteness,  and  that 
his  full  name  was  C.  Visellius  Varro  Aculeo. 

[ACUMENUS  ('A/cov/zevof),  a  celebrated  physi- 
cian of  Athens,  who  lived  in  the  fifth  century'be- 
fore  Christ,  a  friend  and  companion  of  Socrates.] 

ACUSILAUS  ('A/cov<TiAaof),  of  Argos,  one  of  the 
earlier  Greek  logographers,  flourished  about  B. 
C.  525.  Three  books  of  his  Genealogies  are 
quoted,  which  were,  for  the  most  part,  only  a 
translation  of  Hesiod  into  prose.  He  wrote  in 
the  Ionic  dialect  His  fragments  are  published 
by  Sturz,  Lips.,  1824,  and  in  Didot's  Fragment. 
Histor.  Grcec^  p.  100,  seq. — [2.  An  Athenian, 
who  taught  rhetoric  at  Rome  in  the  time  of 
Galba,  and  having  amassed  there  great  wealth, 
left  it  at  his  death  to  his  countrymen.] 

[An.  This  preposition  was  often  prefixed  by 
the  Romans  to  some  natural  object  on  the  line 
of  their  marches,  to  indicate  their  stopping-place, 
especially  when  encamping  in  any  quarter  where 
they  did  not  find  any  habitation  or  settlement  by 
which  the  spot  might  be  designated.  Sometimes 
the  preposition  was  prefixed  to  the  ordinal  num- 
ber, designating  the  distance  in  miles.  Thus, 
Ad  Aquas  indicated  a  spot  near  which  there  was 
water,  or  an  encampment  near  water ;  Ad  Quar- 
turn,  "  at  the  fourth  mile-stone :"  supply  lapidem, 
<fec.] 

ADA  ("Ada),  daughter  of  Hecatomnus,  king  of 
Caria,  and  sister  of  Mausolus,  Artemisia,  Hi- 
drieus,  and  Pixodarus.  She  was  married  to  her 
brother  Hidrieus,  on  whose  death  (B.C.  344)  she 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Caria,  but  was  ex- 
pelled by  her  brother  Pixodarus  in  340.  When 
Alexander  entered  Caria  in  334,  Ada,  who  was 
in  possession  of  the  fortress  of  Alinda,  surren- 
dered this  place  to  him.  After  taking  Halicar- 
nassus,  Alexander  committed  the  government 
of  Caria  to  her. 

ADAMANTEA.     Vid.  AMALTHEA. 

ADAMANTKTS  ('Adapuvrtof),  a  Greek  physician, 
flourished  about  A.D.  415,  the  author  of  a  Greek 
treatise  on  Physiognomy,  which  is  borrowed  in 
a  great  measure  from  Polemo's  work  on  the 
same  subject  Edited  by  Franzius,  in  Scrip 
tores  Phy&iognomice  Veteres,  1780,  8vo. 

[ADAMAS  ('Ada/zaf),  a  Trojan  hero,  slain  by 
Meriones.] 

[ADAMAS  ('Ada/taf),  a  river  of  India,  where 
diamonds  were  found.  It  is  now  the  Soank, 
but  near  its  mouth  is  called  Brammi. 

[AoiNA  (rd  "Adava  :  'Adavetif  :  now  Adana), 
a  city  in  the  interior  of  Cilicia,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  River  Sarus,  in  a  fruitful  district  of  coun- 
try.] 

ADD&A  (now  Adda),  a  river  of  Gallia  Cisal- 
pina,  which  rises  in  the  Raetian  Alps,  and  flows 
through  the  Lacus  Larius  (now  Lago  di  Como) 
into  the  Po,  about  eight  miles  above  Cremona. 

ADHERBAL  (' ArupGar),  son  of  Micipsa,  and 
grandson  of  Masinissa,  had  the  kingdom  of  Nu- 
midia  left  to  him  by  his  father  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother  Hiempsal  and  Jugurtha,  B.O. 
118.  After  the  murder  of  his  brother  by  Ju- 
gurtha, Adherbal  fled  to  Rome,  and  was  restored 
to  his  share  of  the  kingdom  by  the  Romans  in 
117.  But  he  was  again  stripped  of  his  domiu- 
11 


ADIABENE. 

ions  by  Jugurtha,  and  besieged  in  Cirta,  where 
he  was  treacherously  killed  by  Jugurtha  in  112. 
[According  to  Geseuius,  the  more  Oriental  form 
of  the  name  is  Atherbal,  signifying  "  the  wor- 
shipper of  Baal :"  from  this  the  softer  form  Ad- 
herbal  arose.] 

ADIABENE  ('A.6ia6r}vij),  a  district  of  Assyria, 
east  of  the  Tigris,  and  between  the  River  Lycus, 
called  Zabatus  in  the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon, 
and  the  Caprus,  both  of  which  are  branches  of 
the  Tigris. 

ADIMANTCS  ('Aoe^avrof).  1.  The  commander 
of  the  Corinthian  fleet  when  Xerxes  invaded 
Greece  (B.C.  480),  vehemently  opposed  the  ad- 
vice of  Themistocles  to  give  battle  to  the  Per- 
sians.— 2.  An  Athenian,  one  of  the  command- 
ers at  the  battle  of  ^Egospotami,  B.C.  406,  where 
he  was  taken  prisoner.  He  was  accused  of 
treachery  in  this  battle,  and  is  ridiculed  by  Aris- 
tophanes in  the  "  Frogs." — 3.  The  brother  of 
Plato,  frequently  mentioned  by  the  latter. 

ADIS  ('Adtf :  now  Rhades  ?),  a  considerable 
town  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  in  the  territory  of 
Carthage  (Zeugitana),  a  short  distance  east  of 
Tunis.  Under  the  Romans  it  appears  to  have 
been  supplanted  by  a  new  city,  named  Maxula. 

ADMETE  ('Ad/wyn?).  1.  Daughter  of  Oceanus 
and  Tethys. — 2.  Daughter  of  Eurystheus  and 
Antimache  or  Admete.  Hercules  was  obliged 
by  her  father  to  fetch  for  her  the  girdle  of  Mars 
(Ares),  which  was  worn  by  Hippolyte,  queen  of 
the  Amazons. 

ADMETUS  ("A.dprjTOf).  1.  Son  of  Pheres  and 
Periclymene  or  Clymene,  was  king  of  Pherae  in 
Thessaly.  He  took  part  in  the  Calydonian  hunt 
and  in  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts.  He  sued 
for  the  hand  of  Alcestis,  the  daughter  of  Pelias, 
who  promised  her  to  him  on  condition  that  he 
should  come  to  her  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  lions 
and  boars.  This  task  Admetus  performed  by 
the  assistance  of  Apollo,  who  served  him,  ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  out  of  attachment  to 
him,  or,  according  to  others,  because  he  was 
obliged  to  serve  a  mortal  for  one  year  for  hav- 
ing slain  the  Cyclopes.  On  the  day  of  his  mar- 
riage with  Alcestis,  Admetus  neglected  to  offer 
a  sacrifice  to  Diana  (Artemis),  but  Apollo  recon- 
ciled the  goddess  to  him,  and  at  the  same  time 
induced  the  Moiroe  to  grant  to  Admetus  deliver- 
ance from  death,  if  at  the  hour  of  his  death  his 
father,  mother,  or  wife  would  die  for  him.  Al- 
cestis died  in  his  stead,  but  was  brought  back 
by  Hercules  from  the  lower  world. — 2.  King  of 
the  Molossians,  to  whom  THEMISTOCLES  fled  for 
protection,  when  pursued  as  a  party  to  the  trea- 
son of  Pausanias. 

ADONIS  ('A.duvif),  a  beautiful  youth,  beloved 
by  Venus  (Aphrodite).  He  was,  according  to 
Apollodorus,  a  son  of  Cinyras  and  Medarme,  or, 
according  to  the  cyclic  poet  Panyasis,  a  son  of 
Theias,  king  of  Assyria,  and  Smyrna  (Myrrha). 
The  ancient  story  ran  thus :  Smyrna  had  neg- 
lected the  worship  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  and 
was  punished  by  the  goddess  with  an  unnatural 
love  for  her  father.  With  the  assistance  of  her 
nurse  she  contrived  to  share  her  father's  bed. 
When  he  discovered  the  crime  he  wished  to 
kill  her ;  but  she  fled,  and  on  being  nearly  over- 
taken, prayed  to  the  gods  to  make  her  invisible. 
They  were  moved  to  pity  and  changed  her  into 
a  tree  called  cpvpva.  After  the  lapse  of  nine 
12 


ADRASTIA. 

months  the  tree  burst,  and  Adonis  was  born 
Venus  (Aphrodite)  was  so  much  charmed  with 
the  beauty  of  the  infant,  that  she  concealed  it  in 
a  chest  which  she  intrusted  to  Proserpina  (Per- 
sephone) ;  but  the  hitter  refused  to  give  it  up. 
Zeus  decided  the  dispute  by  declaring  that  dur 
ing  four  months  of  every  year  Adonis  should  be 
left  to  himself,  during  four  months  he  should 
belong  to  Proserpina  (Persephone),  and  during 
the  remaining  four  to  Venus  (Aphrodite).  Ado- 
nis, howeiier,  preferring  to  live  with  Venus 
(Aphrodite),  also  spent  with  her  the  four  months 
over  which  he  had  control.  Adonis  afterward 
died  of  a  wound  which  he  received  from  a  boar 
during  the  chase.  The  grief  of  the  goddess  at 
the  loss  of  her  favorite  was  so  great,  that  the 
gods  of  the  lower  world  allowed  him  to  spend 
six  months  of  every  year  with  Venus  (Aphro- 
dite) upon  the  earth.  The  worship  of  Adonis, 
which  in  later  times  was  spread  over  nearly  all 
the  countries  round  the  Mediterranean,  was,  as 
the  story  itself  sufficiently  indicates,  of  Asiatic, 
or  more  especially  of  Phoanician  origin.  Thence 
it  was  transferred  to  Assyria,  Egypt,  Greece, 
and  even  to  Italy,  though,  of  course,  with  vari- 
ous modifications.  In  the  Homeric  poems  no 
trace  of  it  occurs,  and  the  later  Greek  poets 
changed  the  original  symbolic  account  of  Ado- 
nis into  a  poetical  story.  In  the  Asiatic  religions 
Venus  (Aphrodite)  was  the  passive  or  vegeta- 
tive principle  of  nature.  [Adonis  represented 
the  "sun  as  the  fructifying  principle,  while  the 
boar,  said  to  have  killed  him,  was  the  emblem 
of  winter,  during  which  the  productive  powers 
of  nature  being  suspended,  Venus  (Aphrodite) 
was  said  to  lament  the  loss  of  Adonis  until  he 
was  again  restored  to  life.]  Hence  he  spends 
six  months  in  the  lower  and  six  in  the  upper 
world.  His  death  and  his  return  to  life  were 
celebrated  in  annual  festivals  (Adonia)  at  By- 
blos,  Alexandrea  in  Egypt,  Athens,  and  other 
places. 

ADONIS  ('Aduvif :  now  Nahr  Ibrahim),  a  small 
river  of  Phoenicia,  which  rises  in  the  range  of 
Libanus.  [At  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of 
Adonis,  which  was  in  the  rainy  season,  its  wa- 
ters were  tinged  red  with  the  ochrous  particles 
from  the  mountains  of  Libanus,  and  were  hence 
fabled  to  flow  with  his  blood.] 

ADRAMYTTIUM  (A.6pap.vTT£iov  or  'A.tipa/ivTTiov  : 
'AdpauvTTijvof :  now  Adramyti),  a  town  of  Mys- 
ia,  near  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Adramyttium, 
and  opposite  to  the  Island  of  Lesbos. 

ADEANA  (now  JEder),  a  river  in  Germany, 
which  flows  into  the  Fulda,  near  Cassel. 

ADEANUM  or  HADEANUM  ('Adpavov,  'Adpavov, 
'AdpaviTTjf.  now  Aderno),  a  town  in  Sicily,  on 
the  river  Adranus,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  JEtna, 
was  built  by  Dionysius,  and  was  the  seat  of  tho 
worship  of  the  god  Adranus. 

ADEANUS  (  'A.6pav6f).     Vid.  ADEANUM. 

ADEASTIA  ('Adpaerreia).  1.  A  Cretan  nymph, 
daughter  of  Melisseus,  to  whom  Rhea  intrusted 
the  infant  Jupiter  (Zeus),  to  be  reared  in  the 
Dicteean  grotto. — 2.  A  surname  of  Nemesis,  de- 
rived by  some  writers  from  Adrastus,  who  is 
said  to  have  built  the  first  sanctuary  of  Nemesis 
on  the  River  Asopus,and  by  others  from  a,priv^ 
and  dtdpacneiv,  i.  e.,  the  goddess  whom  none 
can  escape. 

[ADEASTIA  ('Aopacrraa),  a  district  of  Mysia, 


ADRASTUS. 


^EACIDES. 


along  the  Propontis,  through  which  the  Granicus 
flowed,  containing  a  city  of  the  same  name,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  a  King  Adrastus,  in 
which  were  a  temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo  and 
Diana.] 

ADRASTUS  ('A<5paorof).  1.  Son  of  Talaus, 
king  of  Argos,  and  Lysimache,  or  Lysianassa,  or 
Eurynqme.  Adrasttfs  iras  expelled  from  Argos 
by  Amphiaraus,  and  fled  to  Polybus,  king  of 
Sicyon,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of 
Sicyon,  and  instituted  the  Nemean  games.  Af- 
terward he  became  reconciled  to  Amphiaraus, 
and  returned  to  his  kingdom  of  Argos.  He 
married  his  two  daughters,  Deipyle  and  Argia, 
the  former  to  Tydeus  of  Calydou.  and  the  latter 
to  Polynices  of  Thebes,  both  fugitives  from  their 
native  countries.  He  now  prepared  to  restore 
Polynices  to  Thebes,  who  had  been  expelled  by 
his  brother  Eteocles,  although  Amphiaraus  fore- 
told that  all  who  should  engage  in  the  war  should 
perish,  with  the  exception  of  Adrastus.  Thus 
arose  the  celebrated  war  of  the  "  Seven  against 
Thebes,"  in  which  Adrastus  was  joined  by  six 
other  heroes,  viz.,  Polynices,  Tydeus,  Amphia- 
raus, Capaneus,  Hippomedon,  and  Partheno- 
paeus.  Instead  of  Tydeus  and  Polynices  other 
legends  mention  Eteocles  and  Mecisteus.  This 
war  ended  as  unfortunately  as  Amphiaraus  had 
predicted,  and  Adrastus  alone  was  saved  by  the 
swiftness  of  his  horse  Aiion,  the  gift  of  Hercu- 
les. Creon  of  Thebes  refusing  to  allow  the 
bodies  of  the  six  heroes  to  be  buried,  Adrastus 
went  to  Athens  and  implored  the  assistance  of 
the  Athenians.  Theseus  was  persuaded  to  un- 
dertake an  expedition  against  Thebes ;  he  took 
the  city,  and  delivered  up  the  bodies  of  the  fallen 
heroes  to  their  friends  for  burial.  Ten  years 
after  this,  Adrastus  persuaded  the  seven  sons  of 
the  heroes  who  had  fallen  in  the  war  to  make  a 
new  attack  upon  Thebes,  and  the  oracle  now 
promised  success.  This  war  is  known  as  the 
war  of  the  "  Epigoni"  ('ETriyovoi),  or  descend- 
ants. Thebes  was  taken  and  razed  to  the 
ground.  The  only  Argive  hero  that  fell  in  this 
war  was  JSgialeus,  the  son  of  Adrastus:  the 
latter  died  of  grief  at  Megara,  on  his  way  back 
to  Argos,  and  was  buried  in  the  former  city. 
He  was  worshiped  in  several  parts  of  Greece, 
as  at  Megara,  at  Sicyon,  where  his  memory  was 
celebrated  in  tragic  choruses,  and  in  Attica. 
The  legends  about  Adrastus,  and  the  two  wars 
against  Thebes,  furnished  ample  materials  for 
the  epic  as  well  as  tragic  poets  of  Greece. — 2. 
Son  of  the  Phrygian  king  Gordius,  having  un- 
intentionally killed  his  brother,  fled  to  Croesus, 
who  received  him  kindly.  While  hunting,  he 
accidentally  killed  Atys,  the  BOD  of  Croesus,  and 
in  despair  put  an  end  to  his  own  life. — [3.  Son 
of  Merops,  an  ally  of  the  Trojans,  probable 
founder  of  the  city  Adrastia,  g.  v.\ 

ADRIA  or  HADRIA.  1.  (Now  Adria),  also  call- 
ed Atria,  a  town  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  between 
the  mouths  of  the  Po  and  the  Athesia  (now 
Adiye),  from  which  the  Adriatic  Sea  takes  its 
name.  It  was  originally  a  powerful  town  of 
the  Etruscans. — 2.  (Now  Atn),  a  town  of  Pice- 
tiiim  in  Italy,  probably  an  Etruscan  town  origin- 
ally, afterward  a  Roman  colony,  at  which  place 
the  family  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian  lived. 

ADRIA  ('\6piaf,  Ion.  'AdpiTjf.  'Adpiavof)  or 
MAKE  ADRIATIOJM,  also  MARE  SUPERUM,  so  call- 


ed from  the  town  Adria  [No.  1],  was,  in  ita 
widest  signification,  the  sea  between  Italy  on 
the  west,  and  Illvricum,  Epirus,  and  Greece  on 
the  east.  By  the  Greeks  the  name  Adrias  was 
only  applied  to  the  northern  part  of  this  sea,  the 
southern  part  being  called  the  Ionian  Sea. 

[ADRIANOPOLIS.      Vid.  HADRIANOPOLIS.] 

ADRIANUS.     Vid.  HADRIANCS. 

ADRIANUS  ('Adpiavof),  a  Greek  rhetorician, 
born  at  Tyre  in  Phoenicia,  was  the  pupil  of  He- 
rodes  Atticus,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  philos- 
ophy at  Athens  during  the  lifetime  of  his  mas- 
ter. He  was  invited  by  M.  Antoninus  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  about  A.D.  192.  Three  of  his  de- 
clamations are  extant,  edited  by  Walz  in  Rhe 
tores  Greed,  vol.  i.,  p.  526-33,  Stuttg.,  1832. 

[ADRIATTCUM  MARE.     Vid.  ADRIA.] 

ADRUMETUM.     Vid.  HADRUMETUM. 

ADUATUOA,  a  castle  of  the  Eburones  in  Gaul 
probably  the  same  as  the  later  Aduaca  Tongro 
rum  (now  Tongern). 

ADUATUCI  or  ADUATICI,  a  powerful  people  of 
Gallia  Belgica  in  the  time  of  Caesar,  were  the 
descendants  of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutoni,  and 
lived  between  the  Scaldis  (now  Scheldt)  and 
Mosa  (now  Maas). 

ADULA  MONS.     Vid.  ALPES. 

ADULE  or  ADULIS  ('Adovhrj,  "Adov7*,i<;,  and  also 
other  forms :  'AdovMrij^,  Adulitanus :  ruins  at 
Zula),  a  maritime  city  of  ^Ethiopia,  on  a  bay 
of  the  Red  Sea,  called  Adulitauus  Sinus  ('Adov- 
/UrtKOf  /co/lTrof,  Annesley  Bay*).  It  was  believed 
to  have  been  founded  by  slaves  who  fled  from 
Egypt,  and  afterward  to  have  fallen  into  the 
power  of  the  Auxumitae,  for  whose  trade  it 
became  the  great  Emporium.  Cosmas  Indico- 
pleustes  (A.D.  535)  found  here  the  Monumentum 
Adulitanum,  a  Greek  inscription  recounting  the 
conquests  of  Ptolemy  II.  Euergetes  in  Asia  and 
Thrace. 

AoYRMAOHiD.fi  (' Advp/uax'idai),  a  Lybian  peo- 
ple, who  appear  to  have  once  possessed  the 
whole  coast  of  Africa  from  the  Canopic  mouth 
of  the  Nile  to  the  Catabathmus  Major,  but  were 
afterward  pressed  further  inland.  In  their  man- 
ners and  customs  they  resembled  the  Egyptians, 
to  whom  they  were  the  nearest  neighbors. 

^EA  (Ala),  sometimes  with  the  addition  of 
the  word  Colchis,  may  be  considered  either  a 
part  of  Colchis  or  another  name  for  the  country. 
(Herod.,  L,  2.)  [According  to  the  scholium  on 
Apoll.  Rhod.,  the  royal  city  of  ^Eetes,  on  the 
Phasis,  in  Cholcis.] 

^EACES  (AluKTje),  son  of  Syloson,  and  grand- 
son of  ^Eaces,  was  tyrant  of  Samos,  but  was  de- 
prived of  his  tyranny  by  Aristagoras,  when  the 
lonians  revolted  from  the  Persians,  B.C.  500. 
He  then  fled  to  the  Persians,  who  restored  him 
to  the  tyranny  of  Samos,  B.C.  494. 

JElCEUM  (AluKElOv).       Vid.  JEOINA. 

^EACIDES  (Aianidr/f),  a  patronymic  of  the  de- 
scendants of  JSacus,  ns  Peleus,  Telamon,  and 
Phocus,  sons  of  ^Eacus  ;  Achilles,  son  of  Peleue, 
and  grandson  of  uEacus  ;  Pyrrhus,  son  of  Achil- 
les, and  great-grandson  of  jEacus  ;  and  Pyrrhus, 
king  of  Epirus,  who  claimed  to  be  a  descendant 
of  Achilles. 

^EACIDES,  son  of  Arymbas,  king  of  Epirus, 

succeeded   to  the  throne  on  the   death   of  his 

oc ins:' u  Alexander,  who  was  slain  in  Italy,  B.C. 

326.    JSacides  married  Phthia,  by  whom  he  bad 

13 


J3ACUS. 


the  celeornted  PYRRHCS.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  favor  of  Olyrnpias  against  Cassander; 
but  his  subjects  disliked  the  war,  rose  against 
their  king,  and  drove  him  from  the  kingdom. 
He  was  recalled  to  his  kingdom  by  his  subjects 
in  B.C.  313  :  Cassander  sent  an  army  against 
him  under  Philip,  who  conquered  him  the  same 
year  in  two  battles,  in  the  last  of  which  he  was 
killed. 

J5ACU3  (Aiflwof),  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
JSgina,  a  daughter  of  the  river-god  Asopus. 
He  was  born  in  the  Island  of  (Enone  or  GEno- 
pia,  whither  ^Egina  had  been  carried  by  Ju- 
piter (Zeus),  and  from  whom  this  island  was 
afterward  called  JSgina.  Some  traditions  re- 
lated that  at  the  birth  of  JSacus,  JSgina  was  not 
yet  inhabited,  and  that  Jupiter  (Zeus)  changed 
the  ante  (fivpftijKef)  of  the  island  into  men  (Myr- 
midones),  over  whom  ^Eacus  ruled.  Ovid  (Met. 
vii,  620)  relates  the  story  a  little  differently. 
jEacus  was  renowned  in  ail  Greece  for  his  jus- 
tice and  piety,  and  was  frequently  called  upon 
to  settle  disputes  not  only  among  men,  but  even 
among  the  gods  themselves.  He  was  such  a 
favorite  with  the  gods,  that,  when  Greece  was 
visited  by  a  drought,  rain  was  at  length  sent 
upon  the  earth  in  consequence  of  his  prayers. 
Respecting  the  temple  wnich  ^Eacus  erected  to 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  Panhelleuius,  and  the  JEaceum, 
where  he  was  worshiped  by  the  ^Eginetans,  see 
^EGINA.  After  his  death,  JEacus  became  one  of 
the  three  judges  iu  Hades.  The  ^Eginetans  re- 
garded him  as  the  tutelary  deity  of  their  island. 

MJE.A.  (Atai'a).  1.  A  surname  of  Circe,  the 
sister  of  JSetes.  Her  son,  Telegonus,  likewise 
bore  the  surname  ^Eceus.  —  2.  A  surname  of  Ca- 
lypso, who  was  believed  to  have  inhabited  a 
small  island  of  the  name  of  jEsea  in  the  straits 
between  Italy  and  Sicily. 

[JElNES  (A.uivT)f),  a  Locrian,  slain  by  Patro- 
clus,  to  whom  a  grove  (ALUVELOV  Te/tevof)  near 
Opus,  in  Locris,  was  consecrated.] 

[JSXxis  (Aiavff),.  a  celebrated  fountain  near 
Opus,  in  Locris.] 

[^EANTKUM  (AIUVTEIOV),  a  tomb  and  temple  of 
the  Telamonian  Ajax,  on  the  Rhcetean  promon- 
tory in  Troas.] 

.<£ANT!DES  (Alavridrjf),  tyrant  of  Lampsacus, 
to  whom  Hippias  gave  his  daughter  Archedice 
in  marriage.  —  2.  A  tragic  poet  of  Alexandrea, 
one  of  the  tragic  Pleiades.  He  lived  in  the  time 
of  the  second  Ptolemy.] 

[^EAS  (Ataf),  more  commonly  Aous,  q.  vJ] 

^EBURA  (now  Cuervo),  a  town  of  the  Carpe- 
tani,  in  Hispania  Tarracouensis. 

jEficriA  GENS,  patrician,  was  distinguished 
in  the  early  ages  of  the  Roman  republic,  when 
many  of  its  members  were  consuls,  viz.,  in  B.C. 
499,  463,  and  442. 

J2cA  or  &cje.  (JScanus),  a  town  of  Apulia,  on 
the  toad  from  Aquilonia  in  Samnium  to  Venusia. 

^ECULAN-UM  or  ^ECLANUM  a  town  of  the  Hir- 
pmi  in  Samnium,  a  few  miles  south  of  Bene- 
ventum. 


:  no\v  Dipso), 
a  town  on  the  western  coast  of  Eubcea,  north 
of  Chalcis,  with  warm  baths  (still  famous),  sa- 
cred to  Hercules,  which  the  dictator  Sulla  used. 
AKDON  ('Aiydwv),  daughter  of  Pandareus  of 
Ephesus,  wife  of  Zethus,  king  of  Thebes,  and 
mother  of  Itylus.    Envious  of  Niobe,  the  wife  | 
14 


j  of  her  brother  Amphion,  who  had  six  sons  and 

I  six  daughters,  she  resolved  to  kill  the  eldest  of 

|  Niobe's  sons,  but  by  mistake  slew  her  own  son 

I  Itylus.      Jupiter  (Zeus)  relieved  her  grief  by 

changing  her  into  a  nightingale,  whose  melan- 

i  choly  notes   are   represented   by  the   poets   ns 

|  Aedon's  lamentations  about  her  child.     Aedon's 

story  is  related  differently  in  a  later  tradition. 

Moiii  or  HfioCi,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
people  in  Gaul,  lived  between  the  Liger  (now 
Loire)  and  the  Arar  (now  Saone).  They  were 
the  first  Gallic  people  who  made  an  alliance 
with  the  Romans,  by  whom  they  were  called 
"brothers  and  relations."  On  Caesar's  arrival 
in  Gaul,  B.C.  68,  they  were  subject  tc  Ariovis- 
tus,  but  were  restored  by  Caesar  to  their  former 
power.  In  B.C.  52  they  joined  in  the  insurrec- 
tion of  Vercingetorix  against  the  Romans,  but 
were  at  the  close  of  it  treated  leniently  by  Cae- 
sar. Their  principal  town  was  BIBRACTE.  Their 
chief  magistrate,  elected  annually  by  the  priests, 
was  called  Vergobretus. 

^EETES  or  J^ETA  (A/j/r^f),  son  of  Helios  (the 
Sun)  and  Perseis,  and  brother  of  Circe,  Pasi- 
phae,  and  Perses.  His  wife  was  Idyia,  a  daugh- 
ter of  Oceanus,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters, 
Medea  and  Chalciope,  and  one  son,  Absyrtus. 
He  was  king  of  Colchis  at  the  time  when  Phrix- 
us  came  thither  on  the  ram  with  the  golden 
fleece.  For  the  remainder  of  his  history,  see 
ABSYRTUS,  ARGONAUTS,  JASON,  MEDEA,  and 
PHRIXUS. — [2.  This  name  was  also  borne  by 
later  kings  of  Colchis,  as  mentioned  by  Xeno- 
phon  in  the  Anabasis,  and  Strabo,  who  says  it 
was  a  common  appellation  of  the  kings  of  Col- 
chis.] 

-<EETIS,  JEETIAS,  and  JEKTINE,  patronymics  of 
Medea,  daughter  of  ^Eetes. 

./EGA  (fdyrj),  daughter  of  Olenus,  who,  with 
her  sister  Helice,  nursed  the  infant  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  in  Crete,  and  was  changed  by  the  god 
into  the  constellation  Capella. 

MGJE  (A'r/ai :  Alyalog).  1.  A  town  in  Acha 
ia  on  the  Crathis,  with  a  celebrated  temple  of 
Neptune  (Poseidon),  was  originally  one  of  the 
twelve  Achaean  towns,  but  its  inhabitants  sul»- 
sequently  removed  to  ^Egira. — 2.  A  town  in 
Emathia,  in  Macedonia,  the  burial-place  of  the 
Macedonian  kings,  was  probably  a  different 
place  from  EDESSA. — 3.  A  town  in  Euboea  with 
a  celebrated  temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  who 
was  hence  called  ^Egaeus. — 4.  Also  J£>Qjej&  (A.I- 
yalai :  Alyear^f),  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of 
^Eolis  in  Asia  Minor,  north  of  Smyrna,  on  the 
River  Hyllus  :  it  suffered  greatly  from  an  earth- 
quake in  the  time  of  Tiberius. — 5.  (Now  Ayas), 
a  sea-port  town  of  Cilicia  Campestris,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Pyramus. 

[^Eo^EA  (A.lyaia),  an  appellation  of  Venus 
(Aphrodite),  from  her  being  worshiped  in  the 
isles  of  the  ./Egean.] 

EGJJON  (Alyatuv),  son  of  Uranus  by  G&ea. 
^Egaeon  and  his  brothers  Gyges  and  Cottus  are 
known  under  the  name  of  the  Uranids,  and  are 
described  as  huge  monsters  with  a  hundred 
arms  (^/caroy^etpef)  and  fifty  heads.  Most  Avrit- 
ers  mention  the  third  Uranid  under  the  name 
of  Briareus  instead  of  ^Egaeon,  which  is  explain- 
ed by  Homer  (11.,  i.,  403),  who  says  that  men 
called  him  JEgaeon,  but  the  gods  Briareus.  Ac- 
cording to  the  most  ancient  tradition,  JEgaeon 


M  MARE. 


^EGIMIUS. 


aud  his  brothers  conquered  the  Titans  when 
they  made  war  upon  the  gods,  and  secured  the 
victory  to  Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  thrust  the  Titans 
into  Tartarus,  and  placed  ^Egaeon  and  his  broth- 
ers to  guard  them.  Other  legends  represent 
^Egaeon  as  one  of  the  giants  who  attacked  Olym- 
pus ;  and  many  writers  represent  him  as  a  ma- 
rine god  living  in  the  ^Egean  Sea.  ^Egaaon  and 
his  brothers  must  be  regarded  as  personifica- 
tions of  the  extraordinary  powers  of  nature, 
such  as  earthquakes,  volcanic  eruptions,  and  the 
like. 

JEojEcnt  MARE  (rd  Myaiov  nehayof,  6  fdyalof 
TTwrof),  the  part  of  the  Mediterranean  now 
called  the  Archipelago.  It  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  on  the  west 
by  Greece,  and  on  the  east  by  Asia  Minor.  It 
contains  in  its  southern  part  two  groups  of 
islands,  the  Cyclades,  which  were  separated 
from  the  coasts  of  Attica  and  Peloponnesus  by 
the  Myrtoan  Sea,  and  the  Sporades,  lying  off 
the  coasts  of  Caria  and  Ionia.  The  part  of  the 
JSgaean  which  washed  the  Sporades  was  called 
the  Icarian  Sea,  from  the  Island  Icaria,  one  of 
the  Sporades.  The  origin  of  the  name  of  ^Egae- 
an  is  uncertain ;  some  derive  it  from  -<Egaeus, 
the  kiug  of  Athens  who  threw  himself  into  it ; 
others  from  JEgaea,  a  queen  of  the  Amazons, 
who  perished  there:  others  from  ^Egae  in  Eu- 
boea ;  and  others  from  aiyis,  a  squall,  on  account 
of  its  storms. 

MGJEX&  (Myaiof).     Vid.  MGM,  No.  8. 

^EGALEOS  (Alydfauf,  rd  Aiyakeuv  opoj:  now 
Skarmanga),  a  mountain  in  Attica,  opposite  Sal- 
amis,  from  which  Xerxes  saw  the  defeat  of  his 
fleet,  B.C.  480.— [2.  (rd  AlyaMov,  now  Mali), 
a  mountain  of  Messenia,  extending  to  Cory- 
phasium.] 

^EGATES,  the  goat  islands,  were  three  islands 
off  the  west  coast  of  Sicily,  between  Drepanurn 
and  Lilybaeum,  near  which  the  Romans  gained 
a  naval  victory  over  the  Carthaginians,  and 
thus  brought  the  first  Punic  war  to  an  end, 
B.C.  241.  The  islands  were  ^Egusa  (Alyovaaa) 
or  Capraria  (now  Favignana),  Phorbantia  (now 
Levanzo),  and  Hiera  (now  Maretimo). 

./EGERIA  or  EGERIA,  one  of  the  Camense  in 
Roman  mythology,  from  whom  Numa  received 
his  instructions  respecting  the  forms  of  worship 
which  he  introduced.  The  grove  in  which  the 
king  had  his  interviews  with  the  goddess,  and 
in  which  a  well  gushed  forth  from  a  dark  re- 
cess, was  dedicated  by  him  to  the  Camenae. 
The  Roman  legends  point  out  two  distinct 
places  sacred  to  ^Egena,  one  near  Aricia,  and 
the  other  near  Rome,  at  the  Porta  Capena,  in 
the  valley  now  called  Caparella.  JSgeria  was 
regarded  as  a  prophetic  divinitv,  and  also  as  the 
giver  of  life,  whence  she  was  invoked  by  preg- 
nant women.  [Niebuhr  places  the  grove  of 
Egeria  below  8.  Balbina,  near  the  baths  of  Car- 
acalla.  Wagner,  in  a  dissertation  on  this  sub- 
ject, is  in  favor  of  the  valley  of  Ca/arella,  some 
few  miles  from  the  present  gate  of  8.  Sebastian.'] 

JSoESTA.     Vid.  SEGESTA. 

./EGESTUS.     Vid.  ACESTES. 

JSoEus  (AtyefSf).  1.  Son  of  Pandion  and  king 
of  Athens.  He  had  no  children  by  his  first  two 
wives,  but  he  afterward  begot  THESEUS  by 
JSthra  at  Trcezen.  When  Theseus  had  grown 
up  to  manhood,  he  went  to  Athens  and  defeated 


the  fifty  sons  of  his  uncle  Pallas,  who  had  made 
war  upon  JEgeus,  and  had  deposed  him.  uEg- 
eus  was  now  restored.  When  Theseus  went  to 
Crete  to  deliver  Athens  from  the  tribute  it  had 
to  pay  to  Minos,  he  promised  his  father  that  on 
his  return  he  would  hoist  white  sails  as  a  signal 
of  his  safety.  On  approaching  the  coast  of  At- 
tica he  forgot  his  promise,  and  his  father,  per 
ceiving  the  black  sail,  thought  that  his  son  had 
perished,  aud  threw  himself  into  the  sea,  which, 
according  to  some  traditions,  received  from  this 
event  the  name  of  the  ^Egean.  ^Egeus  was  one 
of  the  eponymous  heroes  of  Attica  ;  and  one  of 
the  Attic  tribes  (^Egeis)  derived  its  name  from 
him. — 2.  The  eponymous  hero  8f  the  phyle 
called  the  ^Egida8  at  Sparta,  son  of  CEolycus, 
and  grandson  of  Theras,  the  founder  of  the  col- 
ony in  Thera.  All  the  ^Egeids  were  believed 
to  be  Cadmeans,  who  formed  a  settlement  at 
Sparta  previous  to  the  Dorian  conquest 

J&GIJE,  (Aiyeiai,  Alyaiai),  a  small  town  in  La- 
conia,  not  far  from  Gythium,  the  Auglse  of  Ho- 
mer (11,  ii.,  583). 

^EGIALE  or  JEGIALEA  (Pdyiuhr],  A/ytaAeta), 
daughter  of  Adrastus  and  Amphithea,  or  of 
^Egialeus,  the  son  of  Adrastus,  whence  she  is 
called  Adrastine.  She  was  married  to  Diome- 
des,  who,  on  his  return  from  Troy,  found  her 
living  in  adultery  with  Cometes.  The  hero  at- 
tributed this  misfortune  to  the  anger  of  Veaus 
(Aphrodite),  whom  he  had  wounded  in  the  war 
against  Troy  :  when  ^Egiale  threatened  his  life, 
he  fled  into  Italy. 

^EGIALEA,  ^EGIALOS.     Vid.  AOHAIA  :  SICTON. 

^EGIALECS  (At/m/ler?).  1.  Son  of  Adrastus, 
the  only  one  among  the  Epigoni  that  fell  in  the 
war  against  Thebes.  Via.  ADRASTUS. — 2.  Son 
of  Inachus  and  the  Oceanid  Melia,  from  whom 
the  part  of  Peloponnesus  afterward  called  Acha- 
ia  [was  fabled  to  have]  derived  its  name  JEgia- 
lea :  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  king  of 
Sicyon. — 3.  Son  of  ^Eetes,  and  brother  of  Medea, 
commonly  called  Ab'syrtus. 

^EGIDES  (Aiyeicfyf),  a  patronymic  from  ./Eg- 
eus,  especially  his  son  Theseus. 

jEoiLA  (TU  Alyiha),  a  town  of  Laconia,  with 
a  temple  of  Ceres  (Demeter). 

JEoiLiA  (A.lyiMa :  A.lyi?*,t£v<;).  1.  A  demus 
of  Attica  belonging  to  the  tribe  Antiochis,  cele- 
brated for  its  figs. — 2.  (Now  Cerigotto),  an  island 
between  Crete  and  Cythera. — 3  [^Egilia  (Alyi- 
faia,  Hdt.).]  An  island  west  of  Eubcea  and  op- 
posite Attica. 

./EGIMIUS  (Afyfy/tof),  the  mythical  ancestor  of 
the  Dorians,  whose  king  he  was  when  they  were 
yet  inhabiting  the  northern  parts  of  Thessaly. 
Involved  in  a  war  with  the  Lapithoe,  he  called 
Hercules  to  his  assistance,  and  promised  him 
the  third  part  of  his  territory  if  he  delivered 
him  from  his  enemies.  The  Lapithse  were  con- 
quered. Hercules  did  not  take  the  territory  for 
himself,  but  left  it  to  the  king,  who  was  to  pre- 
serve it  for  the  sons  of  Hercules.  ^Egimiua 
had  two  sons,  Dymas  and  Pamphylus,  who  mi- 
grated to  Peloponnesus,  and  were  regarded  as 
the  ancestors  of  two  branches  of  the  Doric  race 
(Dy manes  and  Pamphy linns),  while  the  third 
branch  derived  its  name  from  Hyllus  (Hylle- 
ans,)  the  son  of  Hercules,  who  had  been  adopt- 
ed by  ./Egimius.  There  existed  in  antiquity  an 
epic  poein  called  ^Eyimius,  which  described  the 


^EGIMURUS. 


^EGOSTHENA. 


war  of  JSgimius  and  Hercules  against  the  La- 
oithte. 

JSoiMtEus  (A/yt/iovpof,  ^EgimSri  Arse,  Plinn 
and  probably  the  Arse  of  Virg.,  ./En.,  i.,  108 ; 
now  Zownnour  or  Zembra),  a  lofty  island,  sur- 
rounded by  cliffs,  off  the  African  coast,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Carthage. 

JSolNA  (Alyiva  :  Atyivj?r»7f :  now  Eghina),  a 
rocky  island  in  the  middle  of  the  Saronic  Gulf, 
about  two  hundred  stadia  in  circumference.  It 
was  originally  called  QSnone  or  GEnopia,  and  is 
said  to  have  obtained  the  name  of  uEgiua  from 
^Egina,  the  daughter  of  the  river-god  Asopus, 
who  was  carried  to  the  island  by  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
and  there  bor4  him  a  sou,  ^Eacus.  As  the  island 
had  then  no  inhabitants,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  changed 
the  ants  into  men  (Myrmidones),  over  whom 
.<Eacus  ruled.  Vid.  ^Excus.  It  was  first  colo- 
nized by  Achaeans,  and  afterward  by  Dorians 
from  Epidaurus,  whence  the  Doric  dialect  and 
customs  prevailed  in  the  island.  It  was  at  first 
closely  connected  with  Epidaurus,  and  was  sub- 
ject to  the  Argive  Phidon,  who  is  said  to  have 
established  a  silver  mint  in  the  island.  It  early 
became  a  place  of  great  commercial  importance, 
jnd  its  silver  coinage  was  the  standard  in  most 
of  the  Dorian  states.  In  the  sixth  century  B.C. 
lEgina  became  independent,  and  for  a  century 
before  the  Persian  war  was  a  prosperous  and 
powerful  state.  The  ^Eginetans  fought  with 
thirty  ships  against  the  fleet  of  Xerxes  at  the 
battle  of  Salamis,  B.C.  480,  and  are  allowed  to 
have  distinguished  themselves  above  all  the 
other  Greeks  by  their  bravery.  After  this  time 
its  power  declined.  In  B.C.  429  the  Athenians 
took  possession  of  the  island  and  expelled  its 
inhabitants,  and  though  a  portion  of  them  were 
restored  by  Lysander  in  B.C.  404,  the  island 
never  recovered  its  former  prosperity.  In  the 
northwest  of  the  island  there  was  a  city  of  the 
same  name,  which  contained  the  JEaceum  or 
temple  of  JSacus,  and  on  a  hill  in  the  northeast 
of  the  island  was  the  celebrated  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus)  Panhellenius,  said  to  have  been  built 
by  JEacus,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  extant 
The  sculptures  which  occupied  the  tympana  of 
the  pediment  of  this  temple  were  discovered  in 
1811,  and  are  now  preserved  at  Munich.  In 
the  half  century  preceding  the  Persian  war,  and 
for  a  few  years  afterward,  JEgina  was  the  chief 
seat  of  Greek  art :  the  most  eminent  artists  of 
the  JEginetan  school  were  GALLON,  ANAXAGOEAS, 
GLAUCIAS,  SIMON,  and  ONATAS. 

[JSaiNA  (tuyiva),  daughter  of  Asopus,  and 
mother  of  JEacus,  q.  v.  and  foregoing  article.] 

^EGISETA  PAOLBS.     Vid.  PAULUS  ^EGINETA. 

JSoiNicH  (Aiyiviov :  Myivieve ;  now  Stagus), 
a  town  of  the  Tymphaei  in  Thessaly,  on  the  con- 
fines of  Athamania. 

./EGIOCITUS  (Atyto^of),  a  surname  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus),  because  he  bore  the  asgis. 

JSoiPAN  (Alfiirav),  that  is,  Goat-Pan,  was, 
according  to  some,  a  being  distinct  from  Pan, 
while  others  regard  him  as  identical  with  Pan. 
His  story  appears  to  be  of  late  origin.  Vid.  PAN. 

JSaiPLANcrus  MONS  (rb  biyiTtl.ayK.Tov  opof), 
a  mountain  in  Megaris. 

.<EG!BA  (AIy«pa:   AtyeipuTj/f),  formerly  Hy- 
peresia  ('TTrepj/ffto),  a  town  in  Achaia  on  a  steep 
bill,  with  a  sea-port  about  twelve  stadia  from 
the  town,     Vid.  &QX,  No.  1. 
16 


[./EGIRUS  (Aiyetpof),  a  village  in  the  island  of 
Lesbos,  supposed  by  some  scholars  to  be  the 
town  of  uEolis  alluded  to  by  Herodotus  under 
the  name  JEgirussa,  but  Herodotus  says  expli- 
citly that  the  towns  there  mentioned  were  on  the 
mam  land.] 

^EGIRUSSA  (Alyipoeaaa,  Aiyipovaoa),  one  of 
the  cities  of  ^Eolis  in  Asia  Minor. 

JSoisTHUS  (Alyiadof),  son  of  Thyestes,  who 
unwittingly  begot  him  by  his  own  daughter  Pe- 
lopia.  Immediately  after  his  birth  he  was  ex- 
posed, but  was  saved  by  shepherds,  and  suckled 
by  a  goat  (<u£),  whence  his  name.  His  uncle 
Atreus  brought  him  up  as  his  son.  When  Pe- 
lopia  lay  with  .her  father,  she  took  from  him  hia 
sword,  which  she  afterward  gave  to  ^Egisthus. 
This  sword  was  the  means  of  revealing  the 
crime  of  Thyestes,  and  Pelopia  thereupon  put 
an  end  to  ner  own  life.  JEgisthus  murdered 
Atreus,  because  he  had  ordered  him  to  slay  his 
father  Thyestes,  and  he  placed  Thyestes  upon 
the  throne,  of  which  he  had  been  deprived  by 
Atreus.  Homer  appears  to  know  notliiug  of 
these  tragic  events ;  and  we  learn  from  him' 
only  that  JEgisthus  succeeded  bis  father  Thy- 
estes in  a  part  of  his  dominions.  According  to 
Homer,  JUgisthus  took  no  part  in  the  Trojan 
war,  and  during  the  absence  of  Agamemnon, 
the  son  of  Atreus,  JEgisthus  seduced  his  wife 
Clytemuestra.  ^lEgisthus  murdered  Agamem- 
non on  his  return  home,  and  reigned  seven 
years  over  Mycenae.  In  the  eighth,  Orestes, 
the  son  of  Agamemnon,  avenged  the  death  of 
his  father  by  putting  the  adulterer  to  death. 
Vid.  AGAMEMNON,  CLYTEMNESTRA,  ORESTES. 

^EGITHALLUS  (AtytflaAAof :  now  C.  di  S.  Teo- 
doro),  a  promontory  in  Sicily,  between  Lily- 
baeum  and  Drepanum,  near  which  was  the  town 
jEgithallum. 

JEGITIUM  (AiyiTiov  :  near  Varndkova,  Leake) 
a  town  in  ^Etolia,  on  the  borders  of  Locris. 

^EGIUM  ( Puyiov :  Aijievf :  now  Vostitza),  a 
town  of  Achaia,  and  the  capital  after  the  de- 
struction of  Helice.  The  meetings  of  tha 
Achaean  League  were  held  at  ^Egium  in  a  grovfc 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  called  Homarium. 

JSGLE  (AZyA??),  that  is,  "  Brightness"  or  "  Splen 
dor,"  is  the  name  of  several  mythological  fe 
males,  such  as,  1.  The  daughter  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Nesera,  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Naiads. — 
2.  A  sister  of  Phaethon. — 3.  One  of  the  Hesper 
ides. — 4.  A  nymph  beloved  by  Theseus,  foi 
whom  he  forsook  Ariadne. — 5.  One  of  the  daugh 
ters  of  ^Esculapius. 

^EGLETES  (A/y/wJr?^),  that  is,  the  radiant  god 
a  surname  of  Apollo, 

JEoocEKUS  (Atyoxepuf),  a  surname  of  Pa& 
descriptive  of  his  figure  with  the  horns  of  t 
goat,  but  more  commonly  the  name  of  one  of 
the  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  Capricornus. 

jEoos-PoTAMoa  (Atydf  7roro//6f  [more  usuall) 
in  good  authors,  Aiyof  iroTapoi ;  in  Latin  writers 
^Effos  F 'lumen  :  Atyof  Trora/ur^f]),  the  "  goat'i 
river,"  a  small  river,  with  a  <«wn  of  the  samt 
name  on  it,  [now  probably  ffalata],  in  the  Thra 
cian  Chersonesus,  flows  into  the  Hellespont 
Here  the  Athenians  were  defeated  by  Lysandei 
B.C.  405. 

^EGOSTHENA  (AiyoaOeva  :  AlyocrQevevf  :  A'tyo 
aBeviTTjc),  a  town  in  Megaris,  on  the  borders  oi 
Bceotia,  with  a  sanctuary  of  Melampi** 


JiGUS. 


vEGYPTUS. 


and  ROSCILLUS,  two  chiefs  of  the  Allo- 
broges,  who  had  served  Caesar  with  fidelity  in 
the  Gallic  war,  deserted  to  Pompev  in  Greece 
(B.C.  48). 

^EGUSA.     Vid.  AGATES. 

^EGTPSUS  or  ^Eavsus,  a  town  of  Moesia  on 
the  Danube. 

[^EGYPTIUS  (Alyvxrcof),  an  Ithacan  hero,  of 
noble  descent  and  much  experience,  who  open- 
ed the  first  assembly  of  the  people  called  after 
the  departure  of  Ulysses  for  Troy.] 

JSuypros  (A«yti;rrof),  a  son  of  Belus  and  An- 
chinoe  or  Acbiroe,  and  twin-brother  of  Danaus. 
Belus  assigned  Libya  tb  Danaus,  and  Arabia  to 
.dSgyptus,  but  the  latter  subdued  the  country  of 
the  Melampodes,  which  he  called  Egypt,  after 
his  own  name.  ^Egyptus  by  his  several  wives 
had  fifty  sons,  and  his  brother  Dauaus  fifty 
daughters.  Danaus  had  reason  to  fear  the  sons 
of  his  brother,  and  fled  with  his  daughters  to 
Argos  in  Peloponnesus.  Thither  he  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  sons  of  jEgyptus,  who  demanded 
his  daughters  for  their  wives,  and  promised 
faithful  alliance.  Danaus  complied  with  their 
request,  and  distributed  his  daughters  among 
them,  but  to  each  of  them  he  gave  a  dagger, 
with  which  they  were  to  kill  their  husbands  in 
the  bridal  night  All  the  sons  of  ^Egyptus  were 
thus  murdered,  with  the  exception  of  Lynceus, 
who  was  saved  by  Hypermnestra.  The  Danaids 
buried  the  heads  of  their  murdered  husbands  in 
Lerna,  and  their  bodies  outside  the  town,  and 
were  afterwards  purified  of  their  crime  by  Mi- 
nerva (Athena)  aud  Mercury  (Hermes)  at  the 
command  of  Jupiter  (Zeus). 

^EGYPTUS  (^  AlyvTirof  :  AfyvTmof,  ^Egyptius : 
DOW  Egypt},  -a  country  in  the  northeastern  cor- 
ner of  Africa,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Med- 
iterranean, on  the  east  by  Palestine,  Arabia  Pe- 
traeo,  and  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  south  by  Ethiopia, 
the  division  between  the  two  countries  being  at 
the  First  or  Little  Cataract  of  the  Nile,  close  to 
Syene  (now  Assouan:  lat.  24°  8'),  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Great  Lybian  Desert.  This  is  the 
extent  usually  assigned  to  the  country ;  but  it 
would  be  more  strictly  correct  to  define  it  as 
that  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Nile  which  lies  be- 
low the  First  Cataract 

1.  Physical  Description  of  Egypt. — The  River 
Nile,  flowing  from  south  to  north  through  a  nar- 
row valley,  encounters,  in  lat  24°  8',  a  natural 
barrier,  composed  of  two  islands  (Philae  and  Ele- 
phantine), and  between  them  a  bed  of  sunken 
rocks,  by  which  it  is  made  to  fall  in  a  series 
of  cataracts,  or  rather  rapids,  (ru  KaTadovira,  6 
(iiicpdf  Kara/fyia/cTjff,  Catarrhactes  Minor,  com- 
pare CATAaanACTEs),  which  have  always  been 
regarded  as  the  southern  limit  assigned  by  na- 
ture to  Egypt.  The  river  flows  due  north  be- 
tween two  ranges  of  hills,  so  near  each  other 
ns  to  leave  scarcely  any  cultivable  land,  as  far 
as  Silsilis  (now  Jebel  Selxcleh),  about  forty  miles 
below  Syene,  where  the  valley  is  enlarged  by 
the  western  range  of  hills  retiring  from  the 
river.  Thus  the  Nile  flows  for  about  five  hun- 
dred miles,  through  a  valley  whose  average 
breadth  is  about  seven  miles,  between  hills 
which  in  one  place  (west  of  Thebes)  attain  the 
height  of  ten  or  twelve  hundred  feet  above  the 
tea,  to  a  point  some  few  miles  below  Memphis, 
where  the  western  range  of  hills  ruos  to  the 


northwest,  and  the  eastern  range  strikes  off  U 
the  east,  aud  the  river  divides  into  branches 
(seven  in  ancient  tinie,  but  now  only  two),  which 
flow  through  a  low  alluvial  land,  called,  from  its 
shape,  the  Delta,  into  the  Mediterranean.  To 
this  valley  and  Delta  must  be  added  the  coun- 
try round  the  great  natural  lake  Mceris  (no\v 
Birket-el-Keroun),  called  Nomos  Arsinoites  (now 
Faiowri),  lying  northwest  of  Heracleopolis,  and 
connected  with  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  by  a  break 
in  the  western  range  of  hills.  The  whole  dis- 
trict thus  described  is  periodically  laid  under 
water  by  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile  from  April 
to  October.  The  river,  in  subsiding,  leaves  be- 
hind a  rich  deposit  of  fine  mud,  which  forms 
the  soil  of  Egypt.  All  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
inundation  is  rock  or  sand.  Hence  Egypt  was 
called  the  "  Gift  of  the  Nile."  The  extent  of  the 
cultivable  land  of  Egypt  is  in  the  Delta  about 
4500  square  miles,  in  the  valley  about  2255,  in 
Faioum  about  340,  and  in  all  about  7095  square 
miles.  The  outlying  portions  of  ancient  Egypt 
consisted  of  three  cultivable  valleys  (called  Oa- 
ses), in  the  midst  of  the  "Western  or  Libyan 
Desert,  a  valley  in  the  western  range  of  hills  on 
the  west  of  the  Delta,  called  Nomos  Nitriotes 
from  the  Natron  Lakes  which  it  contains,  some 
settlements  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  in 
the  mountain  passes  between  it  and  the  Nile, 
and  a  strip  of  coast  on  the  Mediterranean,  ex- 
tending east  as  far  as  Rhinocolura  (now  El- 
Arish),  and  west  as  far  (according  to  some  of 
the  ancients)  as  the  Catabathtnus  Magnus  (long, 
about  25°  10'  E.).  The  only  river  of  Egypt  is 
the  Nile.  Vid.  NILUS.  A  great  artificial  canal 
(the  Bahr-Yussouf,  i.  e,  Joseph's  Canal)  runs 
parallel  to  the  river,  at  the  distance  of  about  six 
miles  from  Diospolis  Parva,  in  the  Thebais,  to 
a  point  on  the  west  mouth  of  the  river  about 
half  way  between  Memphis  and  the  sea.  Many 
smaller  canals  were  cut  to  regulate  the  irriga 
tion  of  the  countiy.  A  canal  from  the  eastern 
mouth  of  the  Nile  to  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea 
was  commenced  under  the  native  kings,  and 
finished  by  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes.  Thero 
were  several  lakes  in  the  country,  respecting 
which  vid.  MCERIS,  MARKOTIS,  BUTOS,  TANK. 
SIRBONIS,  and  LACUS  AMARL 

2.  Ancient  History. — At  the  earliest  period  tc 
which  civil  history  reaches  back,  Egypt  was. 
inhabited  by  a  highly  civilized  agricultural  peo 
pie,  under  a  settled  monarchical  government, 
divided  into  castes,  the  highest  of  which  was 
composed  of  the  priest",  who  were  the  minis 
ters  of  a  religion  based  on  a  pantheistic  worship 
of  nature,  and  having  for  its  sacred  symbols  not 
only  images,  but  also  living  animals  and  even 
plants.  The  priests  were  also  in  possession  of 
all  the  literature  aud  science  of  the  country,  and 
all  the  employments  based  upon  such  knowl- 
edge. The  other  castes  were,  second,  the  sol 
did s  ;  third,  the  husbandmen ;  fourth,  the  art 
ificers  and  tradesmen ;  and  last  held  in  great 
contempt,  the  shepherds  or  herdsmen,  poulter 
ers,  fishermen,  and  servants.  The  Egyptians 
possessed  a  written  language,  which  appears  tc 
have  had  affinities  with  both  the  great  families 
i>f  Language,  the  Semitic  and  the  Indo-Euro 
pean ;  and  the  priestly  caste  had,  moreover 
the  exclusive  knowlege  of  a  sacred  system  oi 
writing,  the  characters  of  which  are  known  by 
17 


jEGYPTUS 

the  name  of  Hieroglyphic*,  iu  contradistinction  j 
to  which  the  common  characters  are  called  En-  \ 
cltorial  (i.e.,  of  the  country).  They  were  ac- 
quainted with  all  the  processes  of  manufacture 
which  are  essential  to  a  highly  civilized  com- 
munity :  they  had  made  great  advances  in  the 
fine  arts,  especially  architecture  and  sculpture 
(for  in  painting  their  progress  was  impeded  by  a 
want  of  knowledge  of  perspective);  they  were 
deterred  from  commercial  enterprise  by  the  poli- 
cy of  the  priests,  but  they  obtaiued  foreign  pro- 
ductions to  a  great  extent,  chiefly  through  the 
Plwenicians,  and  at  a  later  period  they  engaged 
iu  maritime  expeditions  ;  in  science  they  do  not 
seem  to  have  advanced  so  far  as  some  have 
thought,  but  their  religion  led  them  to  cultivate 
astronomy  and  its  application  to  chronology,  and 
the  nature  of  their  country  made  a  knowledge 
of  geometry  (in  its  literal  sense)  indispensable, 
and  their  application  of  its  principles  to  architect- 
ure is  attested  by  their  extant  edifices.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  origin  of  this  remark- 
able people  and  of  their  early  civilization  is  to 
be  traced  to  the  same  Asiatic  source  as  the 
early  civilization  of  Assyria  and  India.  The 
ancient  history  of  Egypt  may  be  divided  into 
four  great  periods  :  (1.)  From  the  earliest  times 
to  its  conquest  by  Cambyses ;  during  which  it 
was  ruled  by  a  succession  of  native  princes,  into 
the  difficulties  of  whose  history  this  is  not  the 
place  to  inquire.  The  last  of  them,  Psammen- 
itus,  was  conquered  and  dethroned  by  Cambyses 
in  B.C.  525,  when  Egypt  became  a  province  of 
the  Persian  empire.  During  this  period  Egypt 
was  but  little  known  to  the  Greeks.  The  Ho- 
meric poems  show  some  slight  acquaintance 
with  the  country  and  its  river  (which  is  also 
called  AiiyuTTTOf,  Od.,  xiv.,  25),  and  refer  to  the 
wealth  and  splendor  of  "  Thebes  with  the  Hund- 
red Gates."  In  the  latter  part  of  the  period 
learned  men  among  the  Greeks  began  to  travel 
to  Egypt  for  the  sake  of  studying  its  institu- 
tions ;  among  others,  it  was  visited  by  Pythag- 
oras, Thales,  and  Solon.  (2.)  From  the  Persian 
conquest  in  B.C.  525,  to  the  transference  of  their 
dominion  to  the  Macedonians  in  B.C.  332.  This 
period  was  one  of  almost  constant  struggles  be- 
tween the  Egyptians  and  their  conquerors,  until 
B.C.  340,  when  Nectanebo  II.,  the  last  native 
ruler  of  Egypt,  was  defeated  by  Darius  Ochus. 
It  was  during  this  period  that  the  Greeks  acquir- 
ed a  considerable  knowledge  of  Egypt.  In  the 
wars  between  Egypt  and  Persia,  the  two  leading 
states  of  Greece,  Athens  and  Sparta,  at  different 
times  assisted  the  Egyptians,  according  to  the 
state  of  their  relations  to  each  other  and  to  Per- 
sia; and,  during  the  intervals  of  those  wars, 
Egypt  was  visited  by  Greek  historians  and  phi- 
losophers, such  as  Hellanicus,  Herodotus,  An- 
axagoras,  Plato,  and  others,  who  brought  back 
to  Greece  the  knowledge  of  the  country  which 
they  acquired  from  the  priests  and  through  per- 
sonal observation.  (3.)  The  dynasty  of  Mace- 
donian kings,  from  the  accession  of  Ptolemy, 
the  son  of  Lagus,  in  B.C.  323,  down  to  B.C.  3o| 
when  Egypt  became  a  province  of  the  Roman 
empire.  When  Alexander  invaded  Egypt  in  B. 
C.  332,  the  country  submitted  to  him  without  a 
struggle  ;  and  while  he  left  it  behind  him  to  re- 
turn to  the  conquest  of  Persia,  he  conferred  upon 
it  the  greatest  benefit  that  was  in  bis  power  bv 
18  '  * 


^EGYPTUS. 

giving  orders  for  the  building  of  Alexandrea  In 
the  partition  of  the  empire  of  Alexander  after 
his  death  in  B.C.  323,  Egypt  fell  to  the  share 
of  Ptolemy,  the  sou  of  Lagus,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  King  iu  B.C.  306,  and  founded  the  dynas- 
ty of  the  Ptolemies,  under  whom  the  country 
greatly  flourished,  and  became  the  chief  seat  of 
Greek  learning.  But  soon  came  the  period  of 
decline.  Wars  with  the  adjacent  kingdom  of 
Syria,  and  the  vices,  weaknesses,  ami  dissen- 
sions of  the  royal  family,  wore  out  the  state, 
till  in  B.C.  81  the  Romans  were  called  upon  to 
interfere  in  the  disputes  for  the  crown,  and  in 
B.C.  55  the  dynasty  of  fhe  Ptolemies  came  to 
be  entirely  dependent  on  Roman  protection,  and 
at  last,  after  the  battle  of  Actium  and  the  death 
of  Cleopatra,  who  was  the  last  of  the  Ptolemies, 
Egypt  was  made  a  Roman  province,  B.C.  30. 
(4.)  Egypt  under  the  Romans,  down  to  its  con- 
quest by  the  Arabs  in  A.D.  638.  As  a  Roman 
province,  Egypt  was  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing portions  of  the  empire.  The  fertility  of  its 
soil,  and  its  position  between  Europe  and  Ara- 
bia and  India,  together  with  the  possession  of 
such  a  port  as  Alexandrea,  gave  it  the  full  bene- 
fit of  the  two  great  sources  of  wealth,  agricul- 
ture and  commerce.  Learning  continued  to 
flourish  at  Alexandrea,  and  the  patriarchs  of  the 
Christian  Church  in  that  city  became  so  power- 
ful as  to  contend  for  supremacy  with  those  of 
Antioch,  Constantinople,  and  Rome,  while  a 
succession  of  teachers,  such  as  Origen  and 
Clement  of  Alexandrea,  conferred  real  lustre 
on  the  ecclesiastical  annals  of  the  country. 
When  the  Arabs  made  their  great  inroad  upon 
the  Eastern  empire,  the  geographical  position 
of  Egypt  naturally  caused  it  to  fall  an  imme- 
diate victim  to  that  attack,  which  its  wealth 
and  the  peaceful  character  of  its  inhabitants  in- 
vited. It  was  conquered  by  Amrou,  the  lieu- 
tenant of  the  Calif  Omar,  in  A.D.  638. 

3.  Political  Geography. — From  the  earliest 
times  the  country  was  divided  into  (1.)  The 
Delta,  or  Lower  Egypt  (TO  AeXra,  rj  KO.TU  x^Pa 
now  El-Bahari,  El-Kebit) ;  (2.)  The  Heptauomis, 
or  Middle  Egypt  ('E.Trravo/itic.,fific:Ta£v  £upa,  now 
Mesr  Mostani) ;  (3.)  The  Thebais,  or  Upper  Egypt, 

jjfiaif,  TI  dvu  X^Pai  now  Said) :  and  it  was  fur- 
ther subdivided  into  thirty-six  nomes  or  govern- 
ments. [Under  the  Ptolemies  the  number  of 
nomes  became  enlarged,  partly  by  reason  of  the 
new  and  improved  state  of  things  in  that  quar- 
ter of  Egypt  where  Alexandrea  was  situated, 
partly  by" the  addition  of  the  Greater  or  Lesser 
Oasis  to  Egypt,  and  partly,  also,  by  the  altera- 
tions which  an  active  commerce  had  produced 
along  the  borders  of  the  Sinus  Arabicus.  A 
change  also  took  place  about  this  same  period 
in  the  three  main  divisions  of  the  country. 
Lower  Egypt,  now  no  longer  confined  itself  to 
the  limits  of  the  Delta,  but  had  its  extent  en- 
larged by  the  addition  of  some  of  the  neighbor 
ing  nomes.  In  like  manner,  Upper  Egypt,  or 
the  Thebais,  received  a  portion  of  what  had 
formerly  been  included  within  the  limits  of  Mid- 
dle Egypt,  so  that  eventually  but  seven  nomes 
remained  to  this  last-mentioned  section  of  the 
country,  which,  therefore,  received  the  name 
of  Heptanomis.  The  number  of  nomes  became 
still  further  increased,  at  a  subsequent  period, 
by  various  subdivisions  of  the  older  ones.  At 


^EGYS. 

\  still  later  period  we  Lear  little  more  of  the 
acmes.  A  new  division  of  the  country  took 
place  uuder  the  Eastern  empire.  An  imperial 
prefect  exercised  sway  not.  only  over  Egypt, 
but  also  over  Libya  as  far  as  Gyrene,  while  a 
Comes  Militaris  had  charge  of  the  forces.  From 
this  time  the  whole  of  Middle  Egypt,  previous- 
ly named  Neptanomis,  bore  the  name  of  Arcadia, 
in  houor  of  Arcadius,  eldest  son  of  Theodosius. 
A  new  province  had  also  arisen,  a  considerable 
time  before  this,  called  Augustamnica,  from  its 
lying  chiefly  along  the  Nile.  It  comprised  the 
eastern  half  of  the  Delta,  together  with  a  por- 
tion of  Arabia,  as  far  as  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and 
also  the  cities  on  the  Mediterranean  as  far  as 
the  frontiers  of  Syria.  Its  capital  was  Pelu- 
sium.J  Respecting  the  Oases,  vid.  OASIS. 

uEGYS  (Atyvf,  Ar/iir^f,  Aiyvevf:  near  Ghior- 
gitza),  a  town  of  Laconia  on  the  borders  of  Ar- 
cadia, 

^ELANA  (Ai/laf a :  At/lav/Tj/f :  now  Akaba),  & 
town  on  the  northern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea,  near 
the  Bahr-el-Akaba,  which  was  called  by  the 
Greeks  jElanltes,  from  the  name  of  the  town.  It 
is  the  Elath  of  the  Hebrews,  and  one  of  the  sea- 
ports of  which  Solomon  possessed  himself,  to 
carry  on  trade  with  Ophir  and  the  remote  East 

.<ELIA  GENS,  plebeian,  the  members  of  which 
are  given  under  their  surnames,  GALLUS,  LAMIA, 
P^KTUS,  SEJANUS,  STLLO,  TUBERO. 

JSuA,  a  name  given  to  Jerusalem  after  its 
restoration  by  the  Roman  emperor  _<Elius  Ha- 
drianus. 

[^ELIA,  a  name  of  females  of  the  JSlia  gens. 
1.  Wife  of  Sulla.— 2.  Pjetlna,  of  the  family  of 
the  Tuberos,  and  wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudius. 
She  was  repudiated  by  him  in  order  to  make' 
way  for  Messalina.] 

^ELIANUS,  CLAUDIUS,  was  born  at  Praneste 
in  Italy,  and  lived  at  Rome  about  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Though 
an  Italian,  he  spoke  and  wrote  Greek  as  well  as 
&  native  Athenian.  He  never  married,  and  lived 
to  the  age  of  sixty.  Two  of  his  works  have 
come  down  to  us :  one  a  collection  of  miscel- 
laneous history  (lioiKi'Xij  'laropia),  in  fourteen 
books,  commonly  called  Varia  Historia;  and 
the  other  a  work  on  the  peculiarities  of  animals 
(Ilept  Z<joi>  i6ioT7iTO(f),  in  seventeen  books,  com- 
monly called  De  Animalium  Natura.  The  for- 
mer work  contains  short  narrations  and  anec- 
dotes, historical,  biographical,  antiquarian,  <tc., 
selected  from  various  authors,  generally  with- 
out their  names  being  given,  and  on  a  great 
variety  of  subjects.  The  latter  work  is  of  the 
same  kind!  scrappy  and  gossipping.  It  is  part- 
ly collected  from  older  writers,  and  partly  the 
result  of  his  own  observations  both  in  Italy  and 
abroad.  There  are  also  attributed  to  him  twen- 
ty letters  on  husbandry  ('A.ypoiKtKal  'ETrtoroAat), 
written  in  a  rhetorical  style  and  of  no  value. — 
Editions  :  Of  the  Varia  Hixtoria,  by  Pcmonius, 
Leyden,  1701 ;  by  Gronorius,  Leyden,  1731 ; 
and  by  Kiihn,  Leipsic,  1780.  Of  the  De  Ani- 
malium Natura,  by  Gronovius,  London,  1744; 
by  J.  Schneider,  Leipsic,  1784;  and  by  Fr.  Ja- 
cobs, Jena,  1832.  Of  the  Letters,  by  Aldus 
Mauutius,  in  the  Collectio  JSpistolarum  Grceca- 
rmii.  Venice,  1499,  4to. 

[JSLIANUS,  Lucius,  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants 
under  the  Roman  empire,  about  267  A.D.,  who 


^ENEADES. 

assumed  the  imperial  purple  in  Gaul,  but  was 
killed  by  his  own  soldiers.] 

^EUANUS  MECCIUS,  an  ancient  physician,  who 
must  have  lived  in  the  secoud  century  after 
Christ,  as  he  is  mentioned  by  Galen  as  the 
oldest  of  his  tutors. 

JELIANUS  TACTICUS,  a  Greek  writer,  who  lived 
in  Rome  and  wrote  a  work  on  the  Military  Tac- 
tics of  the  Greeks  (Ilepi  SrpaTijyiKtiv  TU|C<JV 
'E^riviKuv),  dedicated  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian. 
He  also  gives  a  brief  account  of  the  constitu 
tion  of  a  Roman  army  at  that  time. — Editions  . 
By  Franciscus  Robortellus,  Venice,  1552 ;  and 
by  Elzevir,  Leyden,  1613. 

AELLO,  one  of  the  Harpies.     Vid.  HARPYLE. 

AELLOPUS  ('Ae/lAoTro^f),  a  surname  of  Iris,  the 
messenger  of  the  gods,  by  which  she  is  described 
as  swift-footed  as  a  storm-wind. 

EMILIA.  1.  The  third  daughter  of  L.  _<Emil 
ius  Paulus,  who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cannae,  was 
the  wife  of  Scipio  Africanus  I.  and  the  mother 
of  the  celebrated  Cornelia,  the  mother  of  the 
Gracchi. — 2.  ^Emilia  Lepida.  Vid.  LEPIDA. — 
3.  A  Vestal  virgin,  put  to  death  B.C.  114  for 
having  violated  her  vows  upon  several  occa- 
sions. 

^EMILIA  GENS,  one  of  the  most  ancient  patri- 
cian gentes  at  Rome,  said  to  have  been  descend- 
ed from  Mamercus,  who  received  the  name  of 
^Emilius  on  accouut  of  the  persuasiveness  of 
his  language  (oV  al/ivhiav  Aoyov).  This  Mamer- 
cus  is  represented  by  some  as  the  son  of  Py- 
thagoras, and  by  others  as  the  son  of  Numa. 
The  most  distinguished  members  of  the  gens 
are  given  under  their  surnames,  BARBULA,  LEP- 
IDUS,  MAMERCUS  or  MAMERCINUS,  PAPUS,  PAU- 
LUS, REGILLUS,  SCAURUS. 

^EMILIA  VIA,  made  by  M.  ^Emilius  Lepidus. 
cos.  B.C.  187,  continued  the  Via  Flaminia  from 
Ariminum,  and  traversed  the  heart  of  Cisalpine 
Gaul  through  Bononia,  Mutina,  Parma,  Placeti- 
tia  (where  it  crossed  the  Po)  to  Mediolanum.  It 
was  subsequently  continued  as  far  as  Aquileia. 

^EMILIANUS.  1.  The  son  of  L.  ^Emihus  Pau 
lus  Macedonicus,  was  adopted  by  P.  Cornelius 
Scipio,  the  son  of  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus, 
and  was  thus  called  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  ^Emil- 
ianus  Africanus.  Vid.  SCIPIO. — 2.  The  govern- 
or of  Pannonia  and  Moesia  in  the  reign  of  Gal- 
lus,  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  soldiers  in 
A.D.  253,  but  was  slain  by  them  after  reigning 
a  few  months. — 3.  One  of  the  thirty  tyrants 
(A.D.  259-268),  assumed  the  purple  in  Egypt, 
but  was  taken  prisoner  and  strangled  by  order 
of  Gallienus. 

^EMILIUS  PROBUS.     Vid.  NEPOS,  CORNELIUS. 

[  .KM<'>IM:  INSULT.      Vid.  J I.KMOD.E.] 

^EMONA  or  EMONA  (now  Laibach),  a  fortified 
town  in  Panuouia,  and  an  important  Roman 
colony,  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Argonauts. 

JS.NARIA,  also  called  PITHECUSA  and  INARIMK 
(now  Ischia),  a  volcanic  island  off  the  coast  of 
Campania,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of  Na- 
ples, under  which  the  Roman  poets  represent- 
ed Typhoeus  as  lying. 

yE.NKA  (\lveia :  A.lvei£vc,  A.lveiuTtif),  a  town 
in  Chalcidice,  on  the  Thermaic  Gulf. — [2.  ^ENEA 
VETUS,  a  city  near  the  Achelous,  in  Acarnania, 
in  Strabo'a  time  destroyed :  further  south  was 
jEnla  Nova,  now  in  ruins,  near  Palceo  Catvuna.~\ 
(A.lv£iu6rif),  a  patronymic  from 
19 


AENEAS 


^ENUS. 


J3neas,  given  to  his  son  Ascanius  or  lulus,  and 
to  those  who  were  believed  to  be  descended 
from  him,  such  ns  Augustus,  and  the  Romans 
in  general. 

JSxiiAs  (\lveictf).  1.  Homeric  Story.  ./Eneas 
was  the  son  of  Anchises  and  Venus  (Aphrodite), 
and  born  on  Mount  Ida.  On  his  father's  side 
lie  was  a  great-grandson  of  Tros,  and  thus  near- 
ly related  to  the  royal  house  of  Troy,  as  Priam 
himsslf  was  a  grandson  of  Tros.  He  was  edu- 
cated from  his  infancy  at  Dardanus,  in  the  house 
of  Alcathous,  the  husband  of  his  sister.  At  first 
he  took  no  part  in  the  Trojan  war  ;  and  it  was 
not  till  Acnilles  attacked  him  on  Mount  Ida, 
and  drove  away  his  flocks,  that  he  led  his  Dar- 
danians  against  the  Greeks.  Henceforth  he 
and  Hector  are  the  great  bulwarks  of  the  Tro- 
jans against  the  Greeks,  and  ./Eneas  appears 
beloved  by  gods  and  men.  On  more  than  one 
occasion  he  is  saved  in  battle  by  the  gods : 
Venus  (Aphrodite)  carried  him  off  when  he  was 
wounded  by  Diomedes,  and  Neptune  (Poseidon), 
when  he  was  on  the  point  of  perishing  by  the 
hands  of  Achilles.  Homer  makes  no  allusion 
to  the  emigration  of  ./Eneas  after  the  capture 
of  Troy,  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  evidently  con- 
ceives ./Eneas  and  his  descendants  as  reigning 
at  Troy  after  the  extinction  of  the  house  of 
Priam. — Later  Stories.  The  later  stories  pre- 
sent the  greatest  variations  respecting  the  eon- 
duct  of  ./Eneas  at  the  capture  of  Troy  and  in 
the  events  immediately  following.  Most  ac- 
counts, however,  agree  that  after  the  city  had 
fallen,  he  withdrew  to  Mount  Ida  with  his  friends 
and  the  images  of  the  gods,  especially  that  of 
Pallas  (the  Palladium) ;  and  that  from  thence 
he  crossed  over  to  Europe,  and  finally  settled  in 
Latium  in  Italy,  where  he  became  the  ancestral 
hero  of  the  Romans.  A  description  of  the  wan- 
derings of  ./Eneas  before  he  reached  Latium, 
and  of  the  various  towns  and  temples  he  was 
believed  to  have  founded  during  his  wander- 
ings, is  given  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
(L,  50,  Ac.),  whose  account  is,  on  the  whole,  the 
same  as  the  one  followed  by  Virgil  in  his  ./Eueid, 
although  the  latter  makes  various  embellish- 
ments and  additions,  some  of  which,  such  as 
his  landing  at  Carthage  and  meeting  with  Dido, 
are  irreconcilable  with  mythical  chronology. 
From  Pallene,  where  ./Eneas  stayed  the  winter 
after  the  taking  of  Troy,  he  sailed  with  his  com- 
panions to  Delos,  Cythera,  Boiae  in  Laconia, 
Zacynthus,  Leucas,  Actium,  Ambracia,  and  to 
Dodono,  where  he  met  the  Trojan  Helenus. 
From  Epirus  he  sailed  across  the  Ionian  Sea  to 
Italy,  where  he  landed  at  the  lapygian  promon- 
tory. Thence  he  crossed  over  to  Sicily,  where 
he  met  the  Trojans,  Elymus  and  JEgestus  (Aces- 
tes),  and  built  the  towns  of  Elyme  and  ^Egesta. 
From  Sicily  he  sailed  back  to  Italy,  landed  in 
the  port  of  Palinurus,  came  to  the  Island  of 
Leucasia,  and  at  last  to  the  coast  of  Latium. 
Various  signs  pointed  out  this  place  as  the  end 
of  his  wanderings,  and  he  and  his  Trojans  ac- 
cordingly settled  in  Latium.  The  place  where 
they  had  landed  was  called  Troy.  Latiuus, 
king  of  the  Aborigines,  prepared  for  war,  but 
afterward  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  stran- 
gers, gave  up  to  them  part  of  his  dominions,  and 
with  their  assistance  conquered  the  Rutulians. 
iEneas  founded  the  town  of  Lavinium,  called 
20 


!  after  Lavinia,  the  daughter  of  Latinus,  whom  h« 
married.  A  new  war  then  followed  between 
Latinus  and  Turnus,  in  which  both  chiefs  fell, 
whereupon  ^Eneas  became  sole  ruler  of  the 
!  Aborigines  and  Trojans,  and  both  nations  were 
united  into  one.  Soon  after  this  ./Eneas  fell  in  a 
battle  with  the  Rutulians,  who  were  assisted 
by  Mezentius,  king  of  the  Etruscans.  As  hie 
body  was  not  found  after  the  battle,  it  was  be- 
lieved that  it  had  been  carried  up  to  heaven, 
or  that  he  had  perished  in  the  River  Numicius. 
The  Latins  erected  a  monument  to  him,  with 
the  inscription  To  the  father  and  native  god. 
Virgil  represents  ./Eneas  landing  in  Italy  seven 
years  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  and  comprises  all 
the  events  in  Italy  from  the  landing  to  the  death 
of  Turnus,  within  the  space  of  twenty  days. 
The  story  of  the  descent  of  the  Romans  from 
the  Trojans  through  ./Eneas  was  believed  at  an 
early  period,  but  probably  rests  on  no  historical 
foundation. — 2.  ./ENEAS  SILVIUS,  son  of  Silvius, 
and  grandson  of  Ascanius,  is  the  third  in  the  list 
of  the  mythical  kings  of  Alba  in  Latium :  the  Sil- 
vii  regarded  him  as  the  founder  of  their  house. 

./ENEAS  GAZ^EUS,  so  called  from  Gaza,  his 
birth-place,  flourished  A.D.  487.  He  was  at 
first  a  Platonist  and  a  Sophist,  but  afterward 
became  a  Christian,  when  he  composed  a  dia- 
logue, on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  called 
Theophrastus. — Editions  :  By  Barthius,  Lips., 
1655  ;  By  Boissonade,  Par.,  1836. 

./ENEAS  TACTICUS,  a  Greek  writer,  may  be  the 
same  as  the  ./Eneas  of  Stymphalus,  the  genera] 
of  the  Arcadians,  B.C.  362  (Xen.,  Hell.,  vii.,  3 
§  1) ;  and  he  probably  lived  about  that  period. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  the  art  of  war,  of  which  a 
portion  only  is  preserved,  commonly  called  Com 
mentarius  Poliorceticus,  showing  how  a  siege 
should  be  resisted.  An  epitorqe  of  the  whole 
book  was  made  by  Cineas.  (Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  ix.. 
25.)— Editions :  By  Ernesti,  Lips.,  1763;  by 
Orelli,  Lips,  1818. 

./ENESIDEMUS  (Alvijcidri/tof),  a  celebrated  skep- 
tic, born  at  Cnosus  in  Crete,  probably  lived  a 
little  later  than  Cicero.  He  differed  on  many 
points  from  the  ordinary  skeptics.  The  grand 
peculiarity  of  his  system  was  the  attempt  to 
unite  skepticism  with  the  earlier  philosophy,  to 
raise  a  positive  foundation  for  it  by  accounting 
from  the  nature  of  things  for  the  never-ceasing 
changes  both  in  the  material  and  spiritual  world. 
None  of  the  works  of  ./Enesidemus  have  come 
down  to  us.  To  them  Sextus  Empiricus  wa» 
indebted  for  a  considerable  part  of  his  work. — 
[2.  (Dor.  Alvnaidafioe),  father  of  Theron,  tyrant 
of  Agrigentum.  Vid.  THERON.] 

[ JfeiA.      Vid.  .<ENEA.] 

./ENIANES  (Alviuvef,  Ion.  'Eviijv ef),  an  ancient 
Greek  race,  originally  near  Ossa,  afterward  in 
southern  Thessaly,  between  (Eta  and  Othrys, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Spercheus. 

[^ENI  PONS  (now  Innsbruck),  a  town  of  Raetia, 
on  the  ,/Enus.] 

^ENCS  (AZvof :  Atmof,  A-lvidrrj  • :  now  Eno), 
an  ancient  town  in  Thrace,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Hebrus,  mentioned  in  the  Iliad.  It  was  col- 
onized by  the  ./Eolians  of  Asia  Minor.  Virgil 
(j£n.,  iii.,  18)  supposes  JEnos  to  have  been  built 
by  ./Eneas,  but  he  confounds  it  with  ^ENEA  in 
Chalcidice.  Under  the  Romans  Enos  was  a 
free  town,  and  a  place  of  importance. 


^ENUS. 


J3QUI. 


(now  Inn),  a  river  in  Rsetia,  the  bound- 
ary between  Rsetia  and  Norieura. 

^EOLKS  or  Mui.ii  (A/oP-eZf),  one  of  the  chief 
branches  of  the  Hellenic  race,  supposed  to  be 
descended  from  JSolus,  the  son  of  Hellen.  Vid. 
JSoLus,  No.  1.  They  originally  dwelt  in  Thes- 
saly,  from  whence  they  spread  over  various 
parts  of  Greece,  and  also  settled  in  -<Eolis  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  Island  of  LESBOS. 

^Ei'>Li-E  INSULT  (al  At'oAov  vr/aoi  :  now  Lipari 
Inlands),  %  group  of  islands  northeast  of  Sicily, 
where  uEolus,  the  god  of  the  winds,  reigned. 
Homer  (Od.,  x.,  1)  mentions  only  one  JSolian 
island,  and  Virgil  (u£n^  i.,  52)  accordingly 
speaks  of  only  one  jEolia  (sc.  insula),  where 
jEolus  reigned,  supposed  to  be  Strongyle  or 
Lipara.  These  islands  were  also  called  Hephces- 
fiades  or  Vulcariice,  because  Hephaestus  or  Vul- 
can was  supposed  to  have  had  his  workshop  in 
one  of  them,  called  Hiera.  (Virg,  jEn^  viii., 
415,  seq.)  They  were  also  named  Liparenses, 
from  Lipara,  the  largest  of  them.  The  names 
of  these  islands  were  Lipara  (now  Lipari),  Hiera 
(now  Volcano),  Strougyle  (now  Slromboli),  Phce- 
nieusa  (now  Felicudi),  Ericusa  (now  Alicudi), 
Euonymus  (now  Panaria),  Didyme  (now  Sa- 
lina),  Hicesia  (now  Lisca  Bianco),  Basilidia  (now 
Basiliszo),  Osteodes  (now  Ustica). 

^EOLIDKS  (A.ioM6tif),  a  patronymic  given  to 
the  sons  of  JSolus,  as  Athamas,  Cretheus,  Sis- 
yphus, Salmoneus,  <fec.,  and  to  his  grandsons, 
ns  Cephalus,  Ulysses,  and  Phrixus.  [The  name 
bolides,  applied  by  Virgil  (^En.,  6,  164)  to  Mi- 
senus,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  arisen  from 
the  legendary  connection  between  the  ^Eolian 
and  Campanian  Cumae  ;  others  suppose  that,  as 
Miacuue  played  upon  a  wind-instrument,  the 
poet,  by  11  figurative  genealogy,  makes  him  the 
son  of  the  wind-god  jiEolus.  It  is  much  more 
probable,  however,  that  Virgil  calls  him  ^Eolides 
as  indicating  merely  his  descent  from  a  mortal 
father  named  ^Eolus,  the  same,  probably,  with 
the  one  slain  in  battle  with  the  Latins  (JEn.,  12, 
542,  seq.).]  ^E-ilis  is  the  patronymic  of  the  fe- 
male descendants  of  JEolus,  given  to  his  daugh- 
ters Canace  and  Alcyone. 

JSoLis  (AtoAtf),  or  ^EOLIA,  a  district  of  Mysia 
in  Asia  Minor,  was  peopled  by  JSolian  Greeks, 
whose  cities  extended  from  the  Troad  along  the 
shores  of  the  JSgean  to  the  River  Hermus. 
In  early  times  their  twelve  most  important 
cities  were  independent,  and  formed  a  league, 
the  members  of  which  celebrated  an  annual  fes- 
tival (the  Panatolivm)  at  Cyme.  The  twelve 
cities  comprising  this  league  were  Cyme,  La- 
rissffi,  Neontlchos,  Temnus,  Cilia,  Notium, 
JSgirQsa,  Pitane,  JSgaeae,  Myrina,  Grynga,  and 
Smyrna;  but  SMYRNA  subsequently  became  a 
member  of  the  Ionian  confederacy.  (Herod, 
i,  149,  seq.)  These  cities  were  subdued  by 
Croesus,  and  were  incorporated  in  the  Per- 
sian empire  on  the  conquest  of  Croesus  by 
Cyrus. 

^EOLUS  (AZoAof).  Son  of  Hellen  and  the 
nymph  Orseis,  and  brother  of  Dorus  and  Xu- 
thus.  He  was  the  ruler  of  Thessaly,  and  the 
founder  of  the  -fiolic  branch  of  the  Greek  na- 
tion. His  children  are  said  to  have  been  very 
numerous  ;  but  the  most  ancient  story  men- 
tions only  four  sons,  vi/.,  Sisyphus,  Athnmas, 
Cretheus,  and  Salmoneus.  The  great  extent 


of  country  which  this  race  occupied  probably 
gave  rise  to  the  varying  accounts  about  the 
number  of  his  children.  —  2.  Son  of  Hippotes,  or, 
according  to  others,  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and 
Arne,  a  descendant  of  the  previous  ^Eolus.  His 
story  probably  refers  to  the  emigration  of  a 
branch  of  the  ^Eoh'ans  to  the  west.  His  mother 
was  carried  to  Metapontum  in  Italy,  where  she 
gave  birth  to  JEolus  and  his  brother  Boeotus. 
The  two  brothers  afterward  fled  from  Metapon- 
tum, and  -^Eolus  went  to  some  islands  in  the 
Tyrrhenian-Sea,  which  received  from  him  the 
name  of  the  yEolian  Islands.  Here  he  reigned 
as  a  just  and  pious  king,  taught  the  natives  the 
use  of  sails  for  ships,  and  foretold  them  the  na- 
ture of  the  winds  that  were  to  rise.  In  these 
accounts  JSolus,  the  father  of  the  ^Eolian  race, 
is  placed  in  relationship  with  ^Eolus,  the  ruler 
and  god  of  the  winds.  In  Homer,  however, 
JSolus,  the  son  of  Hippotes,  is  neither  the  god 
nor  the  father  of  the  winds,  but  merely  the 
happy  ruler  of  the  Molina  Island,  to  whom  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  had  given  dominion  over  the  winds, 
which  he  might  soothe  or  excite  according  to  his 
pleasure.  (Od,,  x,  1,  seq.)  This  statement  of 
Homer,  and  the  etymology  of  the  name  of  Mo- 
lus  from  aeAAw,  led  to  J-iolus  being  regarded  in 
later  times  as  the  god  and  king  of  the  winds, 
which  he  kept  inclosed  in  a  mountain.  It  is, 
therefore,  to  him  that  Juno  applies  when  she 
wishes  to  destroy  the  fleet  of  the  Trojans. 
(Virg.,  JSn.,  i.,  78.)  The  ^Eoh'an  Island  of  Ho- 
mer was  in  later  times  believed  to  be  Lipara  or 
Strongyle,  and  was  accordingly  regarded  as  the 
place  in  which  the  god  of  the  winds  dwelt.  Vid. 


(Anreta  :  A(7rearj?f).  1.  A  town  in 
Messenia  on  the  sea-coast,  afterward  THUEIA, 
[as  Strabo  says,  but,  according  to  Pausanias, 
the  later  COHOXE.]  —  2.  A  town  in  Cyprus,  after- 
ward SOLI. 

MPY  (Alirv),  a  town  in  Elis,  situated  on  a 
height,  as  its  name  indicates. 

.^EPYTUS  (A.IITVTOC).  A  mythical  king  of  Ar- 
cadia, from  whom  a  part  of  the  country  was 
called  JSpytis.  —  2.  Youngest  son  of  the  Hera- 
clid  Cresphontes,  king  of  Messenia,  and  of  Mer- 
ope,  daughter  of  the  Arcadian  king  Cypselus. 
When  his  father  and  brothers  were  murdered 
during  an  insurrection,  ^Epytus  alone,  who  was 
with  his  grandfather  Cypselus,  escaped  the  dan- 
ger. The  throne  of  Cresphontes  was,  in  the 
mean  time,  occupied  by  the  Heraclid  Polyphon- 
ies, who  also  forced  Merope  to  become  his  wife. 
When  JSpytus  had  grown  to  manhood,  he  re- 
turned to  his  kingdom,  and  put  Polyphonies  to 
death.  From  him  the  kings  of  Messenia  were 
called  JSpytids  instead  of  the  more  general 
name  Heraclids.  —  8.  Son  of  Hippothous,  king 
of  Arcadia,  and  great-grandson  of  the  ^Epytus 
mentioned  first  —  [4.  Son  of  Neleus,  grandson 
of  Codrus,  founder  of  Priene.] 

^EQUI,  ^EQUICSLI,  ^EQUICOLAE,  JSQuIctfLAia, 
an  ancient  warlike  people  of  Italy,  dwelling  in 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Anio,  in  the  mountains 
forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  Latium,  and 
between  the  Latini,  Sabini,  Hernici,  and  Marsi. 
In  conjunction  with  the  Volsci,  who  were  of  the 
same  race,  they  carried  on  constant  hostilities 
with  Rome,  but  were  finally  subdued  in  B.C. 
3(12.  One  of  their  chief  seats  was  Mount 
21 


FALISCL 


^ESCHINES. 


Algidus,  from  which  they  were  accustomed  to 
make  their  marauding  expeditions. 

.  Ki;i  i  FALISCI.     Vid.  FALEHII. 

^EQUIM^ELIUM.      Vid.  M-fiLius. 

[^EQOUM  TUTICUM.     Vid.  EQUCS  TUTICUS.] 

[AERIA  (now  Mont  Vcnteux),  a  city  of  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  having  an  elevated  and  airy  situa- 
tion.] 

[AERIAS,  an  ancient  king  of  Cyprus,  who  is 
said  to  have  founded  the  temple  of  Venus  (Aph- 
rodite) at  Paphos.] 

AEROPE  ('AepoJny),  daughter  of  Catreus,  king 
of  Crete,  and  grand-daughter  of  Minos.  Her 
lather,  who  had  received  an  oracle  that  he 
should  lose  his  life  by  pne  of  his  children,  gave 
her  and  her  sister  Clymene  to  Nauplius,  who 
was  to  sell  them  in  a  foreign  land.  Aerope  mar- 
ried Plisthenes,  the  son  of  Atreus,  and  became 
bv  him  the  mother  of  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus. 
After  the  death  of  Plisthenes,  Aerope  married 
Atreus  ;  and  her  two  sons,  who  were  educated 
by  Atreus,  were  generally  believed  to  be  his 
sons.  Aerope  was  faithless  to  Atreus,  being 
seduced  by  Thyestes. 

[AEROPUS  ('AtpoTrof),  brother  of  Perdiccas, 
n~ho  was  the  first  Macedonian  king  of  the  race 
of  Temeuus,  B.C.  670.—  2.  Aeropus  I.,  king  of 
Macedonia,  great-grandson  of  Perdiccas,  father 
of  Alcetas.  —  3.  Aeropus  II.,  king  of  Macedonia, 
guardian  of  Orestes,  the  son  of  Archelaus,  whom 
he  murdered,  after  reigning  jointly  with  him  for 
four  years  ;  after  this  he  ruled  for  two  years 
,  alone,  and  was  then  succeeded  by  his  son  Pausa- 
nias.] 

[^EEROPUS  MONS  (now  Trcbusin),  a  mountain 
range  of  Illyricum,  at  the  base  of  which  flows 
the  Aous.] 

^ESACUS  (Ataa/cof),  son  of  Priam  and  Alex- 
irrhoe.  He  lived  far  from  his  father's  court, 
in  the  solitude  of  mountain  forests.  Hespe- 
ria,  however,  t^>e  daughter  of  Cebren,  kindled 
love  in  his  heart,  and  on  one  occasion,  while  he 
was  pursuing  her,  she  was  stung  by  a  viper  and 
died.  jEsacus  in  his  grief  threw  himself  into 
the  sea,  and  was  changed  by  Tethys  into  an 
aquatic  bird.  This  is  the  story  related  by  Ovid 
(met.,  xi.,  761,  seq.},  but  it  is  told  differently  by 
Apolloderus. 

^ESAR,  the  name  of  the  deity  among  the 
Etruscans. 

^ESAR  or  ^ESARUS  (now  Esaro),  a  river  near 
Croton,  in  the  country  of  the  Brutti,  in  Southern 
Italy. 

^ESCHINKS  (Alax'i-vjjf).  1.  The  Athenian  ora- 
tor, born  B.C.  389,  was  the  son  of  Atrometus 
and  Glaucothea.  According  to  Demosthenes, 
his  political  antagonist,  his  parents  were  of  dis- 
reputable character,  and  not  even  citizens  of 
Athens;  but  ^Eschines  himself  says  that  his 
father  was  descended  from  an  honorable  family, 
and  lost  his  property  during  the  Peloponnesian 
war.  In  his  youth,  ^Eschines  appears  to  have 
assisted  his  father  in  his  school  ;  he  next  acted 
as  secretary  to  Aristophon,  and  afterward  to 
Eubulus  ;  he  subsequently  tried  his  fortune  as 
on  actor,  but  was  uusuccesaful  ;  and  at  length, 
after  serving  with  distinction  in  the  army,  came 
forward  as  a  public  speaker,  and  soon  acquired 
great  reputation.  In  847  he  was  sent,  along 
with  Demosthenes,  as  one  of  the  ten  ambassa- 
dors to  negotiate  a  peace  with  Philip:  from  this 


time  he  appears  as  the  friend  of  the  Macedonian 
party  and  as  the  opponent  of  Demosthenes. 
Shortly  afterward  ./Eschines  formed  one  of  the 
second  embassy  sent  to  Philip  to  receive  the 
oath  of  Philip  to  the  treaty  which  had  been  con- 
cluded with  the  Athenians  ;  but,  as  the  delay 
of  the  .ambassadors  in  obtaining  the  ratification 
had  been  favorable  to  the  interests  of  Philip. 
^Eschines,  on  his  return  to  Athens,  was  ac- 
cused by  Timarchus.  He  evaded  the  danger  by 
bringing  forward  a  counter-accusation  against 
Timarchus  (345),  and  by  showing  that  the  moral 
conduct  of  his  accuser  was  such  that  he  had  no 
right  to  speak  before  the  people.  The  speech 
in  which  ^Eschines  attacked  Timarcbus  is  still 
extant:  Timarchus  was  condemned,  and  ^Es- 
chines  gained  a  brilliant  triumph.  In  343,  De- 
mosthenes renewed  the  charge  against  JSschi- 
nes  of  treachery  during  his  second  embassy  to 
Philip.  This  charge  of  Demosthenes  (Kepi  na- 
paTrpeofieiaf)  was  not  spoken,  but  published  as  a 
memorial,  and  ^Eschines  answered  it  in  a  sim- 
ilar memorial  on  the  embassy  (nepl  TrapcmpEO- 
dEiaf),  which  was  likewise  published.  Short- 
ly after  the  battle  of  Chasronea,  in  338,  which 
gave  Philip  the  supremacy  in  Greece,  Ctesiphon 
proposed  that  Demosthenes  should  be  rewarded 
for  his  services  with  a  golden  crown  in  the  the- 
atre at  the  great  Dionysia.  Eschines  availed 
himself  of  the  illegal  form  in  which  this  reward 
was  proposed  to  be  given  to  bring  a  charge 
against  Ctesiphon  on  that  ground,  but  he  did 
not  prosecute  the  charge  till  eight  years  later 
330.  The  speech  which  he  delivered  on  the 
occasion  is  extant,  and  was  answered  by  De- 
mosthenes in  his  celebrated  oration  on  the 
crown  (nepl  GTE&UVOV).  ^Eschines  was  defeat- 
ed, and  withdrew  from  Athens.  He  went  to 
Asia  Minor,  and  at  length  established  a  school 
of  eloquence  at  Rhodes.  On  one  occasion  he 
read  to  his  audience  in  Rhodes  his  speech 
against  Ctesiphon,  [and,  after  receiving  much 
applause,  he  was  desired  to.  read  the  speech  of 
his  antagonist.  When  he  had  done  this,  his 
auditors  expressed  great  admiration  ;  "  but," 
exclaimed  ^Eschines,  "  how  much  greater  would 
have  been  your  admiration  if  you  bad  heard  (De- 
mosthenes) himself!"]  From  Rhodes  he  went 
to  Samos,  where  he  died  in  314.  Besides  the 
three  orations  extant,  we  also  possess  twelve 
letters  which  are  ascribed  to  ^Eschines,  but 
which  are  the  work  of  late  sophists.  —  Editions. 
In  the  editions  of  the  Attic  orators  (vid.  DEMOS- 
THENES), and  by  Bremi,  Zurich,  1823.  —  2.  Au 
Athenian  philosopher  and  rhetorician,  and  a 
disciple  of  Socrates.  After  the  death  of  his 
master,  he  went  to  Syracuse  ;  but  returned  to 
Athens  after  the  expulsion  of  Dionysius,  and 
supported  himself,  receiving  money  for  his  in- 
structions. He  wrote  several  dialogues,  but 
the  three  which  have  come  down  to  us  under 
his  name  are  not  genuine.  —  Editions:  By  Fis- 
cher, Lips,  1786;  by  Bockh,  Heidel.,  1810;  and 
in  many  editions  of  Plato.  —  3.  Of  Neapolis,  a 
Peripatetic  philosopher,  who  was  at  the  head 
of  the  Academy  at  Athens,  together  with  Char- 
madas  and  Clitomachus,  about  B.C.  109.  —  4.  Of 
Miletus,  a  contemporary  of  Cicero,  and  a  dis- 
tinguished orator  in  the  Asiatic  style  of  elo- 
quence. —  [5.  A  distinguished  individual  among 
the  Eretrians,  who  disclosed  to  the  Athenians 


jESCHRION. 


J2SCULAP11TS. 


the  treacherous  designs  of  some  of  his  country- 
men, when  the  former  had  come  to  their  aid 
against  the  Persians. — 6.  An  Acarnanian,  com- 
mander of  a  company  of  light-armed  troops  in 
the  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  under  Aeno- 
phon.] 

JDscHniox  (At(T£p«w).  1.  Of  Syracuse,  whose 
wife  Pippa  was  one  of  the  mistresses  of  Verres, 
and  who  was  himself  one  of  the  scandalous  in- 
struments of  Verres. — 2.  An  iambic  poet,  a  na- 
tive of  Samos.  There  was  an  epic  poet  of  the 
same  name,  who  was  a  native  of  Mytilene  and 
a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  and  who  accompanied  Alex- 
ander on  some  of  his  expeditions.  He  may 
perhaps  be  the  same  person  as  the  Samian. — 
8.  A  native  of  Pergamus,  and  a  physician  in 
the  second  century  after  Christ,  was  one  of 
Galen's  tutors. 

^ESCHYLUS  (A.iffxv%os).  1.  The  celebrated 
tragic  poet,  was  born  at  Eleusis  in  Attica,  B.C. 
525,  so  that  he  was  thirty-five  years  of  age  at 
the  time  of  the  battle  of  Marathon,  and  contem- 
porary with  Simonides  and  Pindar.  His  father 
Euphorion  was  probably  connected  with  the 
worship  of  Ceres  (Demeter),  and  ^Eschylus 
himself  was,  according  to  some  authorities,  ini- 
tiated in  the  mysteries  of  this  goddess.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-five  (B.C.  499),  he  made  his  first 
appearance  as  a  competitor  for  the  prize  of 
tragedy,  without  being  successful.  He,  with 
bis  brothers  Cynaegirus  and  Aminius,  fought  at 
the  battle  of  Marathon  (490),  and  also  at  those 
of  Salamis  (480)  and  Plataea  (479).  In  484  he 
gained  the  prize  of  tragedy  ;  and  in  472  he  gain- 
ed the  prize  with  the  trilogy,  of  which  the  Per- 
6<E,  the  earliest  of  his  extant  dramas,  was  one 
piece.  In  468  he  was  defeated  in  a  tragic  con- 
test by  his  younger  rival,  Sophocles  ;  and  he  is 
said  in  consequence  to  have  quitted  Athens  in 
disgust,  and  to  have  gone  to  the  court  of  Hiero, 
king  of  Syracuse,  where  he  found  Simonides, 
the  lyric  poet  In  467  his  friend  and  patron 
King  Hiero  died ;  and  in  458  it  appears  that 
/Eschylus  was  again  at  Athens,  from  the  fact 
that  the  trilogy  of  the  Oresteia  was  produced 
in  that  year.  In  the  same  or  the  following 
year  he  again  visited  Sicily,  and  he  died  at 
Qela  in  456,  in  the  sixty-ninth  year  of  his  age. 
It  is  said  that  an  eagle,  mistaking  the  poet's 
bald  head  for  a  stone,  let  a  tortoise  fall  upon  it 
to  break  the  shell,  and  so  fulfilled  an  oracle,  ac- 
*ordiug  to  which  JSschylus  was  fated  to  die  by 
a  blow  from  heaven.  The  alterations  made  by 
xEschylus  in  the  composition  and  dramatic  rep- 
resentation of  Tragedy  were  so  great,  that  he 
was  considered  by  the  Athenians  as  the  father 
of  it,  just  as  Homer  was  of  Epic  poetry  and 
Herodotus  of  History.  Even  the  improve- 
ments and  alterations  introduced  by  his  suc- 
cessors were  the  natural  results  and  sugges- 
tions of  those  of  xEschylus.  The  first  and  prin- 
cipal alteration  which  he  made  was  the  intro- 
duction of  a  second  actor  (devTepayuviorijf),  and 
the  consequent  formation  of  the  dialogue  prop- 
erly so  called,  and  the  limitation  of  the  choral 
parts.  The  innovation  was  of  course  adopted 
by  his  contemporaries,  just  as  xEschylus  him- 
oelf  followed  the  example  of  Sophocles,  in  sub- 
sequently introducing  a  third  actor.  But  the 
improvements  of  JEschylus  were  not  limited  to 
the  composition  of  tragedy :  he  added  the  re- 


sources of  art  in  its  exhibition.  Thus  he  is 
said  to  have  availed  himself  of  the  skill  of  Ag- 
atharchus,  who  painted  for  him  the  first  scenes 
which  had  ever  been  drawn  according  to  the 
principles  of  linear  perspective.  He  also  fur- 
nished his  actors  with  more  suitable  and  mag- 
nificent dresses,  with  significant  and  various 
masks,  and  with  the  thick-soled  cothurnus,  to 
raise  their  stature  to  the  height  of  heroes.  He 
moreover  bestowed  so  much  attention  on  the 
choral  dances,  that  he  is  said  to  have  invented 
various  figures  himself,  and  to  have  instructed 
the  choristers  in  them  without  the  aid  of  the 
regular  ballet-masters.  With  him,  also  arose 
the  usage  of  representing  at  the  same  time  a 
trilogy  of  plays  connected  in  subject,  so  that 
each  formed  one  act,  as  it  were,  of  a  great  whole, 
which  might  be  compared  with  some  of  Shaks- 
peare's  historical  plays.  Even  before  the  time 
of  ^Eschylus,  it  had  been  customary  to  contend 
for  the  prize  of  tragedy  with  three  plays  exhibit- 
ed at  the  same  time,  but  it  was  reserved  for  him 
to  show  how  each  of  three  tragedies  might  be- 
complete  in  itself,  and  independent  of  the  rest, 
and  nevertheless  form  a  part  of  an  harmonious 
and  connected  whole.  The  only  example  still 
extant  of  such  a  trilogy  is  the  Oresteia,  as  it 
was  called.  A  satyrical  play  commonly  follow- 
ed each  tragic  trilogy.  xEschylus  is  said  to 
have  written  seventy  tragedies.  Of  these  only 
seven  are  extant,  namely,  the  Persians,  the 
Seven  against  Thebes,  the  Suppliants,  the  Pro- 
metheus, the  Agamemnon,  the  Choephori,  and  Eu- 
menides;  the  last  three  forming,  as  already  re- 
marked, the  trilogv  of  the  Oresteia.  The  Per- 
sians was  acted  in  472,  and  the  Seven  against 
Thebes  a  year  afterward.  The  Oresteia  was  rep- 
resented in  458 ;  the  Suppliants  and  the  Pro- 
metheus were  brought  out  some  time  between 
the  Seven  against  Thebes  and  the  Oresteia.  It 
has  been  supposed  from  some  allusions  in  the 
Suppliants,  that  this  play  was  acted  in  461, 
when  Athens  was  allied  with  Argos. — Editions  : 
By  Schutz,  third  edition,  Hal.  Sax,  1808-21 ;  by 
Wellauer,  Lips,  1823:  by  W.  Dinclorf,  Lips"., 
1827,  and  Oxon.,  1832;  and  by  Scholefield, 
Camb,  1830.  [The  best  edition,  so  far  as  it 
goes,  is  that  by  Blomfield,  which  unfortunately 
was  never  completed,  containing  only  five  of 
the  seven  remaining  tragedies. — 2.  of  Cuidus, 
a  contemporary  of  Cicero,  and  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  rhetoricians  of  Asia  Minor. — 3.  Of 
Rhodes,  was  appointed  by  Alexander  the  Great 
one  of  the  inspectors  of  the  governors  of  that 
country  after  its  conquest,  in  B.C.  332.] 

AESCULAPIUS  (' Aff/cA^Twof),  the  god  of  the  med- 
ical art.  In  the  Homeric  poems  ^Esculapius  is 
not  a  divinity,  but  simply  the  "  blameless  physi- 
cian" (IIJTT/P  ufivfujv),  whose  sons,  Machaon  and 
Podallrius,  were  the  physicians  in  the  Greek 
army,  and  ruled  over  Tricca,  Ithome,  and  CEcha- 
lia.  Homer  says  nothing  of  the  descent  of  ^Es- 
culapius.  The  cominon  fltory  relates  that  he 
was  a  sou  of  Apollo  and  Coronis,  and  that  when 
Coronis  was  with  child  by  Apollo,  she  became 
enamored  with  Ischys,  an  Arcadian.  Apollo, 
informed  of  this  by  a  raven,  which  he  had  set 
to  watcli  her,  or,  according  to  others,  by  his  own 
prophetic  powers,  sent  his  sister  Artemis  to  kill 
Coronis.  Artemis  accordingly  destroyed  Co- 
ronis in  her  own  house  at  Laceiia  iu  Thessaly, 
23 


^ESEPUS. 


.ESOPU&. 


ou  the  shore  of  Lake  B«bia.  According  to  Ovid  j 
(Metn  ii.,  605),  it  was  Apollo  himself  who  killed 
Coronis  and  Ischys.  When  the  body  of  Corouis 
was  to  be  burned,  either  Apollo  or  Mercury 
(Hermes)  saved  the  child  ^Esculupius  from  the 
flames,  and  carried  it  to  Chiron,  who  instructed 
the  boy  in  the  art  of  healing  and  in  hunting. 
There  are  various  other  narratives  respecting 
his  birth,  according  to  some  of  which  he  was 
a  native  of  Epidaurus,  and  this  was  a  common 
opinion  in  later  times.  After  he  had  grown 
up,  reports  spread  over  all  countries,  that  he 
not  only  cured  all  the  sick,  but  called  the  dead 
to  life  again.  But  while  he  was  restoring 
Glaucus  to  life,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  killed  him  with 
a  flash  of  lightning,  as  he  feared  lest  men  might 
contrive  to  escape  death  altogether,  or  because 
Pluto  had  complained  of  ^Esculapius  diminish- 
ing the  number  of  the  dead.  But  on  the 
request  of.  Apollo,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  placed  MBCU- 
lapius  among  the  stars.  .^Esculapius  is  also 
said  to  have  taken  part  in  the  expedition  of  the 
Argonauts  and  in  the  Calydoman  hunt.  He 
was  married  to  Epione,  and  besides  the  two 
sons  spoken  of  by  Homer,  we  also  find  mention 
of  the  following  children  of  his :  laniscus,  Alex- 
enor,  Aratus,  Hygieia,  -*Egle,  laso,  and  Pana- 
ceia,  most  of  whom  are  only  personifications  of 
the  powers  ascribed  to  their  father.  ^Escula- 
pius  was  worshipped  all  over  Greece.  His 
temples  were  usually  built  in  healthy  places,  on 
hills  outside  the  town,  and  near  wells  which 
were  believed  to  have  healing  powers.  These 
temples  were  not  only  places  of  worship,  but 
were  frequented  by  great  numbers  of  sick  per- 
sons, and  may  therefore  be  compared  to  modern 
hospitals.  The  principal  seat  of  his  worship  in 
Greece  was  Epidaurus,  where  he  had  a  temple 
surrounded  with  an  extensive  grove.  Serpents 
were  everywhere  connected  with  his  worship, 
probably  because  they  were  a  symbol  of  pru- 
dence and  renovation,  and  were  believed  to 
have  the  power  of  discovering  herbs  of  won- 
drous powers.  For  these  reasons,  a  peculiar 
kind  of  tame  serpents,  in  which  Epidaurus 
abounded,  was  not  only  kept  in  his  temple,  but 
the  god  himself  frequently  appeared  in  the  form 
of  a  serpent  At  Rome  the  worship  of  JSscu- 
lapius  was  introduced  from  Epidaurus  at  the 
command  of  the  Delphic  oracle  or  of  the  Sybil- 
line  books,  in  B.C.  293,  for  the  purpose  of  avert- 
ing a  pestilence.  The  supposed  descendants  of 
uEsculapius  were  called  by  the  patronymic  name 
Asclepiadce  ('A<7/cAj?7rtd<5at),  and  their  principal 
seats  were  Cos  and  Cnidus.  They  were  an  order 
or  caste  of  priests,  and  for  a  long  period  the 
practice  of  medicine  was  intimately  connected 
with  religion.  The  knowledge  of  medicine  was 
regarded  as  a  sacred  secret,  which  was  trans- 
mitted from  father  to  son  in  the  families  of  the 
Asclepiadze.  Respecting  the  festivals  of  ^Escu- 
apius,  vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq. 

[JSsErcs  (AIa>?7rof),  son  of  Bucolion  and  the 
nymph  Abarbarea,  slain  'by  Euryalus  before 
Iroy.] 

^Esfipus  (AZff^TOf :)  [now  Soklu  according  to 
Leake,  but  usually  considered  the  modern  Satal- 
dere\,  a  river  which  rises  in  the  mountains  of 
Ida,  and  flows  by  a  northerly  course  into  the 
Propontis,  which  it  enters  west  of  Cyzicus  and 
iasl  of  the  Granicus. 
24 


(^Esermnus:  now  Isernia),  a  town 
in  Samnium,  made  a  Roman  colony  in  the  first 
Punic  war. 

J !~ i,-  (now  Esino  or  fiumesino),  a  river  which 
formed  the  boundary  between  Picenum  and 
Umbria,  was  anciently  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  Senones,  and  the  northeastern  boundary 
of  Italy  proper. 

JSsis  or  ^Esiusi  (^Eslnas :  now  Jesi),  a  town 
and  a  Roman  colony  in  Umbria,  on  the  River 
^Esis,  celebrated  for  its  cheese,  ^Eslnas  caseus. 

^ESON  (\lauv),  son  of  Cretheus,  the  founder 
of  lolcus,  and  of  Tyro,  the  daughter  of  Salmo- 
neus,  and  father  of  Jason  and  Promachus.  He 
was  excluded  from  the  throne  by  his  half-brother 
Pelias,  who  endeavored  to  keep  the  kingdom  to 
himself  by  sending  Jason  away  with  the  Argo- 
nauts. Pelias  subsequently  attempted  to  get 
rid  of  uEson  by  force,  but  the  latter  put  an  end 
to  his  own  life.  According  to  Ovid  (Mct^  vii., 
162,  seq.),  JEson  survived  the  return  of  the  Argo- 
nauts, and  was  made  young  again  by  Medea. 

[^ESONIDES  (Aiaovttirif),  a  patronymic  given 
to  the  sons  of  ^Eson,  especially  Jason.] 

^Esopus  (AtffWTrof).  1.  A  writer  of  fables, 
lived  about  B.C.  570,  and  was  a  contemporary 
of  Solon.  He  was  originally  a  slave,  and  re- 
ceived his  freedom  from  his  master  ladmon  the 
Samian.  Upon  this  he  visited  Croesus,  who 
sent  him  to  Delphi,  to  distribute  among  the  citi- 
zens four  minae  apiece ;  but  in  consequence  of 
some  dispute  on  the  subject,  he  refused  to  give 
any  money  at  all,  upon  which  the  enraged  Del- 
phians  threw  him  from  a  precipice.  Plagues 
were  sent  upon  them  from  the  gods  for  the  of- 
fence, and  they  proclaimed  their  willingness  to 
give  a  compensation  for  his  death  to  any  one  who 
could  claim  it.  At  length  ladmou,  the  grandson 
of  ^Esop's  old  master,  received  the  compensa- 
tion, since  no  nearer  connection  could  be  found. 
A  life  of  ^Esop  prefixed  to  a  book  of  fables  pur- 
porting to  be  his,  and  collected  by  Maximus 
Planudes,  a  monk  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
represents  ^Esop  as  a  perfect  monster  of  ugli- 
ness and  deformity ;  a  notion  for  which  there  is 
no  authority  whatever  in  the  classical  authors. 
Whether  ^Esop  left  any  written  works  at  all, 
is  a  question  which  affords  considerable  room 
for  doubt ;  though  it  is  certain  that  fables,  bear- 
ing ^Esop's  name,  were  popular  at  Athens  in  its 
most  intellectual  age.  We  find  them  frequently 
noticed  by  Aristophanes.  They  were  in  prose, 
and  were  turned  into  poetry  by  several  writers. 
Socrates  turned  some  of  them  into  verse  during 
his  imprisonment,  and  Demetrius  Phalereus 
(B.C.  320)  imitated  his  example.  The  only 
Greek  versifier  of  .<Esop,  of  whose  writings  any 
whole  fables  are  preserved,  is  Babrius.  VwL 
BABRITS.  Of  the  Latin  writers  of  jEsopean 
fables,  Phsodrus  is  the  most  celebrated.  Vid. 
PH^EDRUS.  The  Fables  now  extant  in  prose, 
bearing  the  name  of  ^Esop,  are  unquestionably 
spurious,  as  is  proved  by  Bentley  in  his  disser- 
tation on  the  fables  of  Jfesop  appended  to  his 
celebrated  letters  on  Phalaris. — Editions:  By 
Ernesti,  Lips.,  1781 ;  by  De  Furia,  Lips.,  1810 
reprinted  by  Coray  at  Paris,  1810;  and  by 
Schaefer,  Lips.,  1820. — 2.  A  Greek  historian, 
who  wrote  a  life  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The 
original  is  lost,  but  there  is  a  Latin  translation 
of  it  by  Julius  VALERIUS. 


^ESOPUS. 


^ETHIOPIA. 


./Esopus,  CLAUDIUS,  or  CLODIUS,  was  the  great- 1  Caesar,  B.C.  44,  and  from  other  official  documents 
est  tragic  actor  at  Rome,  and  a  contemporary  <  Edited  by  Gronovius,  in  his  edition  of  Pompo 


of  Roscius,  the  greatest  comic  actor;  and  both 
of  them  lived  on  intimate  terms  with  Cicero. 
./Esopus  appeared  for  the  last  time  on  the  stage, 
at  an  advanced  age,  at  the  dedication  of  the 
theatre  of  Pompey  (B.C.  55),  when  his  voice 
failed  him,  and  he  could  not  go  through  with  the 
speech.  ,/Esopus  realized  an  immense  fortune 
by  his  profession,  which  was  squandered  by  his 
eon,  a  foolish  spendthrift.  It  is  said,  for  instance, 
that  this  son  dissolved  in  vinegar  and  drank  a 
pearl  worth  about  £8000,  which  he  took  from 
the  ear-ring  of  Csecilia  Metella. 

JEsryi,  or  ^Esxui,  a  people  dwelling 


on  the  sea-coast,  in  the  northeast  of  Germany, 
probably  in  the  modern  Kurland,  who  collected 
amber,  which  they  called  glessum.  Their  cus- 
toms, says  Tacitus,  resembled  the  Suevic,  and 
their  language  the  British.  They  were  proba- 
bly a  Sarmatian  or  Slavonic  race,  and  not  a 
Germanic. 

./ESULA  (./Esulanus),  a  town  of  the  ./Equi,  on  a 
mountain  between  Prseneste  and  Tibur. 
declive  arvum,  Hor.,  Carm^  iii.,  29.) 

[JSsYETES  (AlffVTJTfis),  &  Trojan  hero,  whose 
son  Alcathous  married  a  daughter  of  Anchises. 
His  tomb  is  alluded  to  by  Homer,  according  to 
whom  it  served  as  a  post  of  observation,  and  is 
said  by  Strabo  to  have  been  five  stadia  distant 
from  Troy,  011  the  road  leading  to  Alexandrea 
Troas.  A  conical  mound  is  still  pointed  out  in 
that  vicinity  as  the  tomb  of  ./Esyetes,  and  bears 
the  appellation  ITdjek-TepeJ] 


(Atatytt>7/n/f),  BH  appellation  of 
Bacchus  (Dionysus),  which  means  "Lord," 
"  King,"  and  under  which  he  was  honored  espe- 
cially at  Aroe  in  Achaia.] 

[JfiieJEA  (AlBaia),  a  city  of  Laconia,] 
-/ETHALIA  (A.Wa%ia,  A/au/lj?),  called  ILVA  (now 
Elba)  by  the  Romans,  a  small  island  in  the  Tus- 
can Sea,  opposite  the  town  of  Populonia,  cele- 
brated for  its  iron  mines.  It  had  on  the  north- 
east a  good  harbor,  "  Argous  Portus"  (now  Porto 
Ferraio),  in  which  the  Argonaut  Jason  is  said  to 
have  landed. 


son  of  Mercury  (Her- 
mes) and  Eupolemia,  the  herald  of  the  Argonauts. 
He  had  received  from  his  father  the  faculty  of 
remembering  every  thing,  even  in  Hades,  and 
was  allowed  to  reside  alternately  in  the  upper 
and  in  the  lower  world.  His  soul,  after  many 
migrations,  at  length  took  possession  of  the  body 
of  Pythagoras,  in  which  it  still  recollected  its 
former  migrations. 

./ETHER  (A.l(hjp),  a.  personified  idea  of  the 
mythical  cosmogonies,  in  which  ^Ether  was  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  elementary  substances  out 
of  which  the  Universe  was  formed.  ./Ether  was 
regarded  by  the  poets  as  the  pure  upper  air, 
the  residence  of  the  gods,  and  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
as  the  Lord  of  the  ./Ether,  or  ./Ether  itself,  per- 


sonified. 

./ETHICES 
people,  near  Mount  Pindus. 


a   Thessalian  or  Epirot 


nius  Mela,  Leyden,  1*722. 
' 


(Aidd.'Xa.  or  AI0t>AAa),  daughter  of 
Laomedon  and  sister  of  Priam,  became  after  the 
fall  of  Troy  the  captive  of  Protesilaus,  [according 
to  a  late  legend,  for  the  Homeric  account  makes 
Protesilaus  to  have  been  the  first  Greek  slain 
before  Troy.  Vid.  PROTESILAUS.] 

[^ETHION,  a  seer  and  friend  of  Phineus,  slain 
at  the  nuptials  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda.  —  - 
2.  Son  of  a  Heliconian  nymph,  fell  in  the  expe- 
dition of  the  Seven  against  Thebes.] 

./ETHIOPES  (A-Wionef,  said  to  be  from  aWu  and 
&<!>,  but  perhaps  really  a  foreign  name  corrupt- 
ed), was  a  name  applied,  (1.)  most  generally  to 
all  black  or  dark  races  of  men  ;  (2.)  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  all  the  regions  south  of  those  with 
which  the  early  Greeks  were  well  acquainted, 
extending  even  as  far  north  as  Cyprus  and  Phoe- 
nicia; (3.)  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Inner  Africa, 
south  of  Mauretania,  the  Great  Desert,  and 
Egypt,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Red  Sea  and 
Indian  Ocean,  and  to  some  of  the  dark  races  of 
Asia  ;  and  (4.)  most  specifically  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  land  south  of  Egypt,  which  was 
called  ./ETHIOPIA. 

./ETHIOPIA  (Aidioma,  A.W.  imip  Alyvirrov  :  At 
Bi  <n}>,  Aidioirevf,  Horn.,  fern.  A.idioirif  :  ^Ethiops  : 
now  2iubia,  Kordofan,  Sennaar,  Abyssinia),  a 
country  of  Africa,  south  of  Egypt,  the  boundary 
of  the  countries  being  at  Syene  (now  Assouan) 
and  the  Smaller  Cataract  of  the  Nile,  and  exttnd- 
ing  on  the  east  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  to  the  south 
and  southwest  indefinitely,  as  far  apparently  as 
the  knowledge  of  the  ancients  extended.  In 
its  most  exact  political  sense  the  word  ^Ethio- 
pia seems  to  have  denoted  the  kingdom  of 
MERGE  ;  but  in  its  wider  sense  it  included  alsc 
the  kingdom  of  the  AXOMIT^E,  besides  several 
other  peoples,  such  as  the  Troglodytes  and  the 
Ichthyophagi  on  the  Red  Sea,  the  Blemmyes 
and  Megabari  and  Nubae  in  the  interior.  The 
country  was  watered  by  the  Nile  and  its  tribu- 
taries, the  Astapus  (Bahr-el-Azrek  or  Blue  Nile) 
and  the  Astaboras  (Atbara  or  Tacazze).  The 
people  of  ./Ethiopia  seem  to  have  been  of  the 
Caucasian  race,  and  to  have  spoken  a  language 
allied  to  the  Arabic.  Monuments  are  found  in 
the  country  closely  resembling  those  of  Egypt, 
but  of  an  inferior  style.  The  religion  of  the 
^Ethiopians  appears  to  have  been  similar  to  that 
of  the  Egyptians,  but  free  from  the  grosser  su- 
perstitions of  the  latter,  such  as  the  worship  of 
animals.  Some  traditions  made  Meroe  the 
parent  of  Egyptian  civilization,  while  others 
ascribed  the  civilization  of  ./Ethiopia  to  Egyptian 
colonization.  So  great  was  the  power  of  the 
./Ethiopians,  that  more  than  once  in  its  history 
Egypt  was  governed  by  ./Ethiopian  kings  ;  and 
even  the  most  powerful  kings  of  Egypt,  though 
they  made  successful  incursions  into  ./Ethiopia, 
do  not  appear  to  have  had  any  extensive  or 
permanent  hold  upon  the  country.  Under  the 
Ptolemies  Grajco-Egyptian  colonies  established 


,/ETHICUS,  HISTER  or  ISTKR,  a  Roman  writer  |  themselves  in  ./Ethiopia,  and  Greek  manners 
of  the  fourth  century  after  Christ,  a  native  of  j  and  philosophy  had  a  considerable  influence  on 
Istria,  the  author  of  a  geographical  work  called  j  the  upper  classes ;  but  the  country  was  never 

subdued.    The  Romans  failed  to  extend   their 
empire  over  Ethiopia,  though  they  made  expo 


C'osmographia.  which  appears  to  have 
been  chiefly  drawn  up  from  the  measurement 


of  the  whole  Roman  world  ordered  by  Julius   ditious  into  the  country,  in  one  of  wh/ch  C.  Pe 

25 


AETHL1US. 

tronius,  prefect  of  Egypt  under  Augustus,  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  Napata,  and  defeated  the  war- 
rior queen  Candace  (B.C.  22).  Christianity  very 
early  extended  to  ^Ethiopia,  probably  in  conse- 
quence ot  the  conversion  of  the  treasurer  of 
Queen  Candace  (Acts,  viii.,  27).  The  history  of 
the  downfall  of  the  great  Ethiopian  kingdom 
of  Meroe  is  very  obscure. 

AETHLIUS  ('Ae0/Uo.f),  first  king  of  Elis,  father 
of  Endymion,  was  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Protogenla,  daughter  of  Deucalion ;  according  to 
others,  a  son  of  -*Eolus. 

[^ETHON  (A.Wuv  from  aldu),  father  of  Tantalus. 
— 2.  Appellation  assumed  by  Ulysses  to  escape 
detection  on  his  return  to  Ithaca. — 3.  Name  of  a 
horse  of  the  Sun ;  also  of  one  of  Pluto's ;  and 
of  Aurora  (Eos),  of  Hector,  and  of  several  other 
heroes.] 

J£THRA  (A.Wpa).  1.  Daughter  of  Pittheus  of 
Trcezen,  -was  mother  of  Theseus  by  ^Egeus. 
She  afterward  lived  in  Attica,  from  whence  she 
was  carried  off  to  Lacedaemon  by  Castor  and 
Pollux,  and  became  a  slave  of  Helen,  with  whom 
she  was  taken  to  Troy.  At  the  capture  of  Troy 
she  was  restored  to  liberty  by  her  grandson 
Acamas  or  Demophon. — 2.  Daughter  of  Oceanus, 
by  whom  Atlas  begot  the  twelve  Hyades  and  a 
son,  Hyas. 

[JJ/rausA  (AlOovaa),  daughter  of  Neptune  and 
Alcyone,  and  mother  by  Apollo  of  Eleuther.] 

[^ETHYIA  (Al&via),  an  appellation  of  Minerva 
(Athena),  as  the  inventress  of  ship-building  or 
navigation.] 

AEXION  CA.ETMV).  1.  A  sculptor  of  Amphipo- 
lis,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C. — 2.  A  celebrated  painter,  whose  best 
picture  represented  the  marriage  of  Alexander 
and  lloxana.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  he 
lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  but 
the  words  of  Lucian  (Herod^  4)  show  that  be 
must  have  lived  about  the  time  of  Hadrian  and 
the  Antonines. 

AETIUS.  1.  [Son  of  Anthas,  king  of  Troazen, 
whose  descendants  founded  Halicarnassus  and 
Myndus.] — 2.  A  celebrated  Roman  general,  de- 
fended the  Western  empire  against  the  barba- 
rians during  the  reign  of  Valeutinian  III.  In 
A.D.  45 1  he  gained  a  great  .victory  over  Attila, 
near  Chalons,  in  Gaul ;  but  he  was  treacherously 
murdered  by  Valentinian  in  454. — 3.  A  Greek 
medical  writer,  born  at  Amida  in  Mesopotamia, 
lived  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  the  beginning  of 
the  sixth  century  after  Christ  His  work  Bi6hia 
'iarpiKa  'E/c/catde/ca, "  Sixteen  Books  on  Medicine," 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  medical  remains  of 
antiquity,  as  being  a  judicious  compilation  from 
many  authors  whose  works  are  lost  The  whole 
of  it  has  never  appeared  in  the  original  Greek, 
but  a  corrupt  translation  of  it  into  Latin  was 
published  by  Cornarius,  Basil,  1642,  often  re- 
printed, and  in  H.  Stephens's  J/ecftcce  Artis  Prin- 
cipes,  Paris,  1567. 

^ETNA  (AZrw/).  1.  (Now  Monte  Gibello),  a 
volcanic  mountain  in  the  northeast  of  Sicily, 
between  Tauromenium  and  Catana.  It  is  said 
to  have  derived  its  name  from  ./Etna,  a  Sicilian 
nymph,  a  daughter  of  Uranus  and  Gaea,  or  of 
Briareus.  Jupiter  (Zeus)  buried  under  it  Ty- 

Shon  or  Enceladus ;  and  in  its  interior  Vulcan 
Elephaestus)  and  the  Cyclopes  forged  the  thun- 
derbolts for  Jupiter  (Zeus).    There  were  seve- 
26 


ral  eruptions  ?f  Mount  ./Etna  in  antiquity.  On* 
occurred  in  B.C.  475,  to  which  yEsehylus  and 
Pindar  probably  allude,  and  another  in  B.C.  425, 
which  Thucydides  says  (iii,  116)  was  the  third 
on  record  since  the  Greeks  had  settled  in  Sicily. 
The  form  of  the  mountain  seems  to  have  been 
much  the  same  in  antiquity  as  it  is  at  present. 
Its  base  covers  an  area  of  nearly  ninety  miles 
in  circumference,  and  its  highest  point  is  10,874 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  circum- 
ference of  the  crater  is  variously  estimated 
from  two  and  a  half  to  four  miles,  and  the  depth 
from  six  hundred  to  eight  hundred  feet. — 2. 
(./Etnenses :  now  S.  Maria  di  Licodia  or  S.  Nic- 
olas di  Arenis),  a  town  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
./Etna,  on  the  road  to  Cataua,  formerly  called 
Inessa  or  Innesa.  It  was  founded  in  B.C.  461, 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Catana,  who  had  been  ex- 
pelled from  their  own  town  by  the  Siculi.  They 
gave  the  name  of  ./Etna  to  Inessa,  because  their 
own  town  Catana  had  been  called  ^Etna  by 
Hiero  I. 

JEsryjEus  (Pdrvaloc),  an  epithet  of  several  godfe 
and  mythical  beings  connected  with  Mount  ./Etna : 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  of  whom  there  was  a  statue 
on  Mount  ^Itna,  and  to  whom  a  festival  was 
celebrated  there,  called  ./Etnea ;  of  Vulcan  (He- 
phaestus) ;  and  of  the  Cyclopes. 

^ETOLIA  (AtrwA/a :  AlrwXof),  a  division  of 
Greece,  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  Acarna- 
nia,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  the  River 
Achelous,  on  the  north  by  PJpirus  and  Thessaly. 
on  the  east  by  the  Ozolian  Locrians,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  entrance  to  the  Corinthian  Gull 
It  was  divided  into  two  parts,  Old  ./Etolia,  from 
the  Achelous  to  the  Evenus  and  Calydon,  and 
New  ./Etolia,  or  the  Acquired  (imKTTirof),  from 
the  Evenus  and  Calydon  to  the  Ozolian  Locri- 
ans. On  the  coast  the  country  is  level  and 
fruitful,  but  in  the  interior  mountainous  and 
unproductive.  The  mountains  contained  many 
wild  beasts,  and  were  celebrated  in  mythology 
for  the  hunt  of  the  Calydonian  boar.  The  couu- 
try  was  originally  inhabited  by  Curetes  and 
Leleges,  but  was  at  an  early  period  colonized 
by  Greeks  from  Elis,  led  by  the  mythical  Mio 
LUS.  The  uEtolians  took  part  in  the  Trojan 
war,  under  their  king,  Thoas.  They  continued 
for  a  long  time  a  rude  and  uncivilized  people, 
living  to  a  great  extent  by  robbery ;  and  even 
in  the  time  of  Thucydides  (B.C.  410)  many  of 
their  tribes  spoke  a  language  which  was  not 
Greek,  and  were  in  the  habit  of  eating  raw  flesh. 
Like  the  other  Greeks,  they  abolished,  at  an 
early  time,  the  monarchical  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  lived  under  a  democracy.  They  ap- 
pear to  have  been  early  united  by  a  kind  of 
league,  but  this  league  first  acquired  political 
importance  about  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C.,  and  became  a  formidable  rival  to  the 
Macedonian  monarchs  and  the  Achaean  League. 
The  ./Etolian  League  at  one  time  included  not 
only  JEtolia  Proper,  but  Acarnania,  part  of  Thes- 
saly, Locris,  and  the  Island  of  Cephallenia ;  and 
it  also  had  close  alliances  with  Elis  and  several 
towns  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and  likewise  with 
Cius  on  the  Propontis.  Its  annual  meetings, 
called  Panatolica,  were  held  in  the  autumn  at 
Thermus,  and  at  them  were  chosen  a  general 
(ffrparvyof),  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  league, 
an  hipparchus  or  master  of  the  horse,  a  secre- 


^ETOLTJS. 


AFRICA. 


tary,  and  a  select  committee  called  apocleti 
(aTronXrjToi).  For  further  particulars  respecting 
the  constitution  of  the  league,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant ^ 
art.  jETOLicuM  FCEDUS.  The  JEtolians  took  the 
side  of  Antiochus  III.  against  the  Romans,  and 
on  the  defeat  of  that  monarch  B.C.  189,  they 
became  virtually  the  subjects  of  Rome.  On 
the  conquest  of  the  Achseans,  B.C.  146,  JEtolia 
was  included  in  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia. 
After  the  battle  of  Actium,  B.C*.  31,  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  population  of  ^Etolia  was  trans- 
planted to  the  city  of  NICOPOLIS,  which  Augus- 
tus built  in  commemoration  of  his  victory. 

JSxoLUS  (AtrwAof),  eon  of  Endymion  and 
Ne'is,  or  Iphianassa,  married  Pronoe,  by  whom 
he  had  two  sons,  Pleuron  and  Calydon.  He 
was  king  of  Elis,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  Pel- 
oponnesus, because  he  had  slain  Apis,  the  son 
of  Jason  or  Salmoneus.  He  went  to  the  coun- 
try near  the  Achelous,  which  was  called  ^Etolia 
after  him. 

J2xoNE  (A.li;uvii  and  Ai^uvrjif  :  Atfwvevf :  now 
Atani  ?),  an  Attic  demus  of  the  tribe  Cecropis 
or  Pandionis.  Its  inhabitants  had  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  mockers  and  slanderers. 

AFEE,  DOMITICS,  of  Nemausus  (Ninnies)  in 
Gaul,  was  the  teacher  of  Quiutilian,  and  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  orators  in  the  reigns  of 
Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero,  but  he 
sacrificed  his  character  by  conducting  accusa- 
tions for  the  government  He  was  consul  suf- 
fectus  in  A.D.  39,  and  died  in  60.  Quintilian 
mentions  several  works  of  his  on  oratory,  which 
are  all  lost 

[AFRANIA  GAIA  or  CAIA,  the  wife  of  the  sen- 
ator Licinius  Buccio,  a  very  litigious  woman, 
who  always  pleaded  her  own  causes  before  the 
praetor.  Hence  her  name  became  proverbial 
for  a  litigious  woman.  She  died  48  B.C.] 

AFRANIUS.  1.  L,  A  Roman  comic  poet,  flour- 
isl.ed  about  B.C.  100.  His  comedies  described 
Roman  scenes  and  manners  (Comcedice  togatce), 
and  the  subjects  were  mostly  taken  from  the 
life  of  the  lower  classes  (Comcedice  tdbernaria). 
They  were  frequently  polluted  with  disgraceful 
amours ;  but  he  depicted  Roman  life  with  such 
accuracy  that  he  is  classed  with  Menander 
(Hor.,  Ep^  ii.,  1,  67).  His  comedies  continued 
to  be  acted  under  the  empire.  The  names  and 
fragments  of  between  twenty  and  thirty  are  still 
preserved :  [these  fragments  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Bothe,  in  the  5th  vol.  of  his  Poelce  Sce- 
nici  Lat^  and  by  Neukirch,  De  Fabula  togata 
Romano.]  2.  L.,  a  person  of  obscure  origin, 
and  a  faithful  adherent  of  Pompey.  He  served 
under  Pompey  against  Sertorius  and  Mithra- 
dates,  and  was,  through  Pompey's  influence, 
made  consul,  B.C.  60.  When  Pompey  obtained 
the  provinces  of  the  two  S  pains  in  his  second 
consulship  (B.C.  55),  he  sent  Afranius  and  Pe- 
treius  to  govern  them,  while  he  himself  remain- 
ed in  Rome.  In  B.C.  49,  Afranius  and  Petreius 
were  defeated  by  Caesar  in  Spain.  Afranius 
thereupon  passed  over  to  Pompey  in  Greece; 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  B.C.  48 ; 
and  subsequently  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus  in 
Africa,  B.C.  46.  He  then  attempted  to  fly  into 
Mauritania,  but  was  taken  prisoner  by  P.  Sit- 
tius,  and  killed 

AFRICA  ('A.<j>piKij :  Africanus),  was  used  by 
the  ancients  in  two  senses,  (1.)  for  the  whole 


continent  of  Africa,  and  (2.)  for  the  portion  of 
Northern  Africa  which  constituted  the  territory 
of  Carthage,  and  which  the  Romans  erected 
into  a  province,  under  the  name  of  Africa  Pro- 
pria.--!.  In  the  more  general  sense  the  name 
was  not  used  by  the  Greek  writers ;  and  ita 
use  by  the  Romans  arose  from  the  extension 
to  the  whole  continent  of  the  name  of  a  part  of 
it  The  proper  Greek  name  for  the  continent 
is  Libya  (Ai^vrf).  Considerably  before  the  his-  , 
torical  period  of  Greece  begins,  the  Phoeni- 
cians extended  their  commerce  over  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  founded  several  colonies  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  of  which  Carthage  was 
the  chief.  Vid.  CARTHAGO.  The  Greeks  knew 
very  little  of  the  country  until  the  foundation 
of  the  Dorian  colony  of  GYRENE  (B.C.  620),  and 
the  intercourse  of  Greek  travellers  with  Egypt 
in  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries ;  and  even  then 
their  knowledge  of  all  but  the  part  near  Gyrene 
was  derived  from  the  Egyptians  and  Phoeni- 
cians, who  sent  out  some  remarkable  expedi- 
tions to  explore  the  country.  A  Phoenician 
fleet,  sent  by  the  Egyptian  king  Pharaoh  Necho 
(about  B.C.  600),  was  said  to  have  sailed  from 
the  Red  Sea,  round  Africa,  and  so  into  the 
Mediterranean :  the  authenticity  of  this  story 
is  still  a  matter  of  dispute.  We  still  possess 
an  authentic  account  of  another  expedition, 
which  the  Carthaginians  dispatched  under  Han- 
no  (about  B.C.  510),  and  which  reached  a  point 
on  the  western  coast  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  far 
as  latitude  ten  degrees  north.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  continent,  the  coast  appears  to  have 
been  very  little  known  beyond  the  southern 
boundary  of  Egypt,  till  the  time  of  the  Ptole- 
mies. In  the  interior,  the  Great  Desert  (Sahara) 
interposed  a  formidable  obstacle  to  discovery ; 
but  even  before  the  time  of  Herodotus,  the 
people  on  the  northern  coast  told  of  individuals 
who  had  crossed  the  Desert  and  had  reached  a 
great  river  flowing  toward  the  east,  with  croc- 
odiles in  it,  and  black  men  living  on  its  banks, 
which,  if  the  story  be  true,  was  probably  the 
differ  in  its  upper  course,  near  Timbuctoo.  That 
the  Carthaginians  had  considerable  intercourse 
with  the  regions  south  of  the  Sahara,  has  been 
inferred  from  the  abundance  of  elephants  they 
kept  Later  expeditions  and  inquiries  extend- 
ed the  knowledge  which  the  ancients  possessed 
of  the  eastern  coast  to  about  ten  degrees  south 
latitude,  and  gave  them,  as  it  seems,  some 
further  acquaintance  with  the  interior,  about 
Lake  Tchad,  but  the  southern  part  of  the  conti 
nent  was  so  totally  unknown,  that  Ptolemy, 
who  finally  fixed  the  limits  of  ancient  geograph- 
ical science,  recurred  to  the  old  notion,  which 
seems  to  have  prevailed  before  the  time  of  He- 
rodotus, that  the  southern  parts  of  Africa  mot 
the  southeastern  part  of  Asia,  and  that  the  In- 
dian Ocean  was  a  vast  lake.  The  greatest  ge- 
ographers who  lived  before  Ptolemy,  namely, 
Eratosthenes  and  Strabo,  had  accepted  the  tra- 
dition that  Africa  was  circtimnavigable.  The 
shape  of  the  continent  they  conceived  to  be  that 
of  a  right-angled  triangle,  having  for  its  hypot- 
enuse a  line  drawn  from  the  Pillars  of  Hercules 
to  the  south  of  the  Red  Sea :  and,  as  to  its  ex- 
tent, they  did  not  suppose  it  to  reach  nearly  so 
far  as  the  equator.  Ptolemy  supposed  the  west- 
ern coast  to  stretch  north  and  south  from  the 
27 


AFRICA. 


AGALLIS 


Pillars  of  Hercules,  and  he  gave  the  continent 
an  indefinite  extent  toward  the  south.  There 
were  also  great  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the 
boundaries  of  the  continent  Some  divided  the 
whole  world  into  only  two  parts,  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  they  were  not  agreed  to  which  of 
these  two  Lybia  (i.  e.,  Africa)  belonged;  and 
those  who  recognized  three  divisions  differed 
again  in  placing  the  boundary  between  Libya 
and  Asia  either  on  the  west  of  Egypt,  or  along 
the  Nile,  or  at  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  and  the  Red 
Sea  :  the  last  opinion  gradually  prevailed.  As 
to  the  subdivision  of  the  country  itself,  Herodo- 
tus- distributes  it  into  ^Egyptus,  ^Ethiopia  (i.  e., 
all  the  regions  south  of  Egypt  and  the  Sahara), 
and  Libya,  properly  so  called;  and  he  subdi- 
vides Libya  into  three  parts,  according  to  their 
physical  distinctions,  namely,  (1.)  the  Inhabit- 
ed Country  along  the  Mediterranean,  in  which 
dwelt  the  Nomad  Libyans  (ol  irapaOahdaaioi  TUV 
vopuduv  A.i(n>uv  :  t/te  Barbary  States);  (2.)  the 
Country  of  Wild  Beasts  (?)  dypiudije),  south  of 
the  former,  that  is,  the  region  between  the  Little 
and  Great  Atlas,  which  still  abounds  in  wild 
beasts,  but  takes  its  name  from  its  prevailing 
vegetation  (Beled-el-Jerid,  i.  e.,  the  Country  of 
Palms),  and,  (3.)  the  Sandy  Desert  (rj  ^;u/i/zof  ; 
the  Sahara),  that  is,  the  table-land  bounded  by 
the  Atlas  on  the  north  and  the  margin  of  the 
Nile  valley  on  the  east,  which  is  a  vast  tract  of 
sand  broken  only  by  a  few  habitable  islands, 
called  Oases.  As  to  the  people.  Herodotus  dis- 
tinguishes four  races,  two  native,  namely,  the 
Libyans  and  Ethiopians,  and  two  foreign,  name- 
ly, the  Phoanicians  and  the  Greeks.  The  Lib- 
yans, however,  were  a  Caucasian  race :  the 
^Ethiopians  of  Herodotus  correspond  to  our  Ne- 
gro races.  The  Phoenician  colonies  were  plant- 
ed chiefly  along,  and  to  the  west  of,  the  great 
recess  in  the  middle  of  the  north  coast,  which 
formed  the  two  SYETES,  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant of  them  being  Carthage  ;  and  the  Greek 
colonies  were  fixed  on  the  coast  along  and  be- 
yond the  east  side  of  the  Syrtes ;  the  chief  of 
them  was  CYRENE,  and  the  region  was  called 
Cyrenaica.  Between  this  and  Egypt  were  Lib- 
yan tribes,  and  the  whole  region  between  the 
Carthaginian  dominions  and  Egypt,  including 
Cyrenaica,  was  called  by  the  same  name  as  the 
whole  continent,  Lybia.  The  chief  native  tribes 
of  this  region  were  the  ADYRMACHID^B,  MAK- 
MARIDJB,  PSYLLI,  and  NASAMONEs.  The  last  ex- 
tended into  the  Carthaginian  territory.  To  the 
west  of  the  Carthaginian  possessions,  the  coun- 
try was  called  by  the  general  names  of  NCMIDIA 
and  MAUEETANIA,  and  was  possessed  partly  by 
Carthaginian  colonies  on  the  coast,  and  partly 
by  Libyan  tribes  under  various  names,  the  chief 
of  which  were  the  NUMID.E,  MASSYLII,  MAS- 
AfiSYLii,  and  MAUEI,  and  to  the  south  of  them 
the  GJETULL  The  whole  of  this  northern  re- 
gion fell  successively  under  the  power  of  Rome, 
and  was  finally  divided  into  provinces  as  fol- 
lows:  (1.)  Egypt';  (2.)  Libya,  including,  (a) 
LibyzB  Nomos  or  Libya  Exterior;  (6)  Marma- 
rica ;  (e)  Cyrenaica ;  (3.)  Africa  Propria,  the 
former  empire  of  Carthage  (see  below,  No.  2) ; 
(4.)  Numidia;  (6.)  Mauretania,  divided  into' 
(a)  Sitifensis;  (b)  Caesariensis ;  (c)  Tingitana: 
these,  with  (6.)  ^Ethiopia,  make  up  the  whole 
of  Africa,  according  to  the  divisions  recognized 
28 


by  the  latest  of  the  ancient  geographers.  The 
northern  district  was  better  known  to  the  Ro- 
mans than  it  is  to  us,  and  was  extremely  pop- 
ulous and  flourishing  ;  and,  if  we  may  judge  by 
the  list  of  tribes  in  Ptolemy,  the  interior  of  the 
country,  especially  between  the  Little  and  Great 
Altars,  must  have  supported  many  more  inhab- 
itants than  it  does  at  present.  Further  infor- 
mation respecting  the  several  portions  of  the 
country  will  be  found  in  the  separate  articles. — 
2.  AFRICA  PROPRIA  or  PROVINCIA,  or  simply  Af- 
rica, was  the  name  under  which  the  Romans, 
after  the  Third  Punic  War  (B.C.  146),  erected 
into  a  province  the  whole  of  the  former  territory 
of  Carthage.  It  extended  from  the  River  Tus- 
ca,  on  the  west,  which  divided  it  from  Numidia, 
to  the  bottom  of  the  Syrtis  Minor,  on  the  south- 
east. It  was  divided  into  two  districts  (regio- 
nes),  namely,  (1.)  Zeugis  or  Zeugitana,  the  dis- 
trict round  Carthage,  (2.)  Byzacium  or  Byza- 
cena,  south  of  Zeugitana,  as  far  as  the  bottom 
of  the  Syrtis  Minor.  It  corresponds  to  the  mod- 
ern regency  of  Tunis.  The  province  was  full 
of  flourishing  towns,  and  was  extremely  fertile, 
especially  Byzacena :  it  furnished  Rome  with 
its  chief  supplies  of  corn.  The  above  limits  are 
assigned  to  the  province  by  Pliny :  Ptolemy 
makes  it  extend  from  the  River  Ampsaga,  on 
the  west,  to  the  borders  of  Cyrenaica,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  Great  Syrtis,  on  the  east,  so  as 
to  include  Numidia  and  Tripolitana. 

AFRICANUS.  a  surname  given  to  the  Scipios 
on  account  of  their  victories  in  Africa.  Vid. 
SCIPIO. 

AFRICANUS.  1.  SEX.  C^ECILIUS,  a  Roman  ju- 
risconsult, lived  under  Antoninus  Pius  (A.D. 
138-161),  and  wrote  Libri  IX.  Qucestionum,from 
which  many  extracts  are  made  in  the  Digest 
— 2.  JULIUS,  a  celebrated  orator  in  the  reign  of 
Nero,  is  much  praised  by  Quintilian,  who  speaks 
of  him  and  Domitius  Afer  as  the  best  orators 
of  their  time. — 3.  SEX.  JULIUS,  a  learned  Chris- 
tian writer  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  Em- 
maus  in  Palestine,  and  afterward  lived  at  Alex- 
andrea.  His  principal  work  was  a  Chronicon 
in  five  books,  from  the  creation  of  the  world, 
which  he  placed  in  5499  B.C.,  to  A.D.  221.  This 
work  is  lost,  but  part  of  it  is  extracted  by  Euse- 
bius  in  his  Chronicon,  and  many  fragments  of 
it  are  preserved  by  Georgius  Syncellus,  Cedre- 
nus,  and  in  the  Paschale  Chronicon.  There 
was  another  work  written  by  Africanus,  enti- 
tled Cesti  (KeaToi),  that  is,  embroidered  girdles, 
so  called  from  the  celebrated  Cestus  of  Venus 
(Aphrodite).  It  treated  of  a  vast  variety  of  sub- 
jects— medicine,  agriculture,  natural  history, 
the  military  art,  <fcc.  The  work  itself  is  lost, 
but  some  extracts  from  it  are  published  by  The- 
venot  in  the  Mathematici  Veteres,  Paris,  1698, 
and  also  in  the  Geoponica. 

AFRICUS  (Kfy  by  the  Greeks),  the  southwest 
wind,  so  called  because  -it  blew  from  Africa, 
frequently  brought  storms  with  it  (creberque  pro- 
cellis  Africus,  Virg.,  jEn.,  i.,  85.) 

[AGACLES  (  'AyaK/% )  a  Myrmidon  hero,  father 
of  Epigeus.] 

[AGALLIS  ('Aya/l/U'?),  of  Corcyra,  a  female 
grammarian,  who  wrote  upon  Homer :  but  from 
two  passages  in  Suidas  some  have  supposed 
that  tne  true  name  is  Anagallis.  \ 


AGAMEDE. 


AGAPENOR. 


),  daughter  of  Augias  and 
wife  of  Mulius,  who,  according  to  Homer  (11^  xi., 
789),  was  acquainted  with  the  healing  powers 
of  all  the  plants  that  grow  upon  the  earth. 

AGAMEDES  ('Aya/«?<Jj7f),  commonly  called  son 
of  Erginus,  king  of  Orchomenus,  and  brother  of 
Trophonius.  though  his  family  connections  are 
related  differently  by  different  writers.  Agame- 
des  and  Trophonius  distinguished  themselves 
as  architects :  they  built  a  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  and  a  treasury  of  Hyrieus,  king  of  Hyria 
in  Boaotia.  The  story  about  this  treasury  re- 
sembles the  one  which  Herodotus  (ii.,  121) 
relates  of  the  treasury  of  the  Egyptian  king 
Rhampsinitus.  In  the  construction  of  the  treas- 
ury of  Hyrieus,  Agamedes  and  TrophoniuB  con- 
trived to  place  one  stone  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  could  be  taken  away  outside,  and  thus 
formed  an  entrance  to  the  treasury,  without 
any  body  perceiving  it.  Agamedes  and  Tro- 
phonius now  constantly  robbed  the  treasury; 
and  the  king,  seeing  that  locks  and  seals  were 
uninjured,  while  his  treasures  were  constantly 
decreasing,  set  traps  to  catch  the  thief.  Aga- 
medes was  thus  ensnared,  and  Trophonius  cut 
off  his  head  to  avert  the  discovery.  After  this 
Trophonius  was  immediately  swallowed  up  by 
the  earth.  On  this  spot  there  was  afterward, 
in  the  grove  of  Lebadfia,  the  cave  of  Agamedes. 
•with  a  column  by  the  side  of  it.  Here  was  also 
the  oracle  of  Trophonius,  and  those  who  con- 
sulted it  first  offered  a  ram  to  Agamedes  and 
invoked  him.  A  tradition  mentioned  by  Cicero 
(Tusc.  Qiuest^  i.,  47)  states  that  Agamedes 
and  Trophonius,  after  building  the  temple  of 
Apollo  at  Delphi,  prayed  to  the  god  to  grant 
them  in  reward  for  their  labor  what  was  best 
for  men.  The  god  promised  to  do  so  on  a  cer- 
tain day,  and  when  the  day  came  the  two  broth- 
ers died. 

AGAMEMNON  ('A.yafiepvuv),  son  of  Plisthenes 
and  Ae'rope  or  Eriphyle,  and  grandson  of  Atreus, 
king  of  Mycenae ;  but  Homer  and  others  call  him 
a  son  of  Atreus  and  grandson  of  Pelops.  Aga- 
memnon and  his  brother  Menelaus  were  brought 
up  together  with  ^Egisthus,  the  son  of  Thyes- 
tes,  in  the  house  of  Atreus.  After  the  murder 
of  Atreus  by  ^Egisthus  and  Thyestes,  who  suc- 
ceeded Atreus  in  the  kingdom  of  Mycenae  (aid. 
./EOISTHUS),  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus  went  to 
Sparta,  where  Agamemnon  married  Clytemnes- 
tra,  the  daughter  of  Tyndareus,  by  whom  he  be- 
came the  father  of  Iphianassa  (Iphigenia),  Chry- 
sothemis,  Laodice  (Electra),  and  Orestes.  The 
manner  in  which  Agamemnon  obtained  the 
kingdom  of  Mycenae  is  differently  related. 
From  Homer,  it  appears  as  if  he  had  peaceably 
succeeded  Thyestes,  while,  according  to  others, 
he  expelled  Tbyespes,  and  usurped  bis  throne. 
He  now  became  the  most  powerful  prince  in 
Greece.  A  catalogue  of  his  dominions  is  given 
in  the  Iliad  (ii.,  669,  <tc.)  When  Homer  attri- 
butes to  Agamemnon  the  sovereignty  over  all 
Argos,  the  name  Argos  signifies  Peloponnesus, 
or  the  greater  part  of  it,  for  the  city  of  Argos 
was  governed  by  Diomedea.  When  Helen,  the 
•wife  of  Menelaus,  was  carried  off  by  Paris,  and 
the  Greek  chiefs  resolved  to  recover  her  by 
force  of  arms,  Agamemnon  was  chosen  their 
commander-in-chief.  After  two  years  of  prepa- 
ration, the  Greek  army  and  fleet  assembled  in 


the  port  of  Aulis  in  Boaotia.  At  this  place  Aga 
memnon  killed  a  stag  which  was  sacred  to  Diana 
(Artemis),  who  in  return  visited  the  Greek  army 
with  a  pestilence,  and  produced  a  calm  which 
prevented  the  Greeks  from  leaving  the  port  In 
order  to  appease  her  wrath,  Agamemnon  con- 
sented to  sacrifice  his  daughter  Iphigenia;  but 
at  the  moment  she  was  to  be  sacrificed,  she  was 
carried  off  by  Diana  (Artemis)  herself  to  Tauris, 
and  another  victim  was  substituted  in  her  place. 
The  cairn  now  ceased,  and  the  army  sailed  to 
the  coast  of  Troy.  Agamemnon  alone  had  one 
hundred  ships,  independent  of  sixty  which  he 
had  lent  to  the  Arcadians.  In  the  tenth  year 
of  the  siege  of  Troy  we  find  Agamemnon  in- 
volved in  a  quarrel  with  Achilles  respecting 
the  possession  of  Briseis,  whom  Achilles  was 
obliged  to  give  up  to  Agamemnon.  Achilles 
withdrew  from  the  field  of  battle,  and  the 
Greeks  were  visited  by  successive  disasters. 
The  danger  of  the  Greeks  at  last  induced  Pa- 
troclus,  the  friend  of  Achilles,  to  take  part  in 
the  battle,  and  .his  fall  led  to  the  reconciliation 
of  Achilles  and  Agamemnon.  Vid.  ACHILLES. 
Agamemnon,  although  the  chief  commander  of 
the  Greeks,  is  not  the  hero  of  the  Iliad,  and  in 
chivalrous  spirit,  bravery,  and  character  alto- 
gether inferior  to  Achilles.  But  he  neverthe- 
less rises  above  all  the  Greeks  by  his  dignity, 
power,  and  majesty:  his  eyes  and  head  are 
likened  to  those  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  his  girdle  to 
that  of  Mars  (Ares),  and  his  breast  to  that  of 
Neptune  (Poseidon).  The  emblem  of  his  power 
is  a  sceptre,  the  work  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus), 
which  Jupiter  (Zeus)  had  once  given  to  Mer- 
cury (Hermes),  and  Mercury  (Hermes)  to  Pe- 
lops, from  whom  it  descended  to  Agamemnon. 
At  the  capture  of  Troy  he  received  Cassandra, 
the  daughter  of  Priam,  as  his  prize.  On  his 
return  home  he  was  murdered  by  ^Egisthus,  who 
had  seduced  Clytemnestra  during  the  absence 
of  her  husband.  The  tragic  poets  make  Cly- 
temnestra alone  murder  Agamemnon  :  her  motive 
is  in  ^Eschylus  her  jealousy  of  Cassandra,  in 
Sophocles  and  Euripides  her  wrath  at  the  death 
of  Iphigenia. 

AGAMEMNONIDES  ('A.yapefi.vovi8r)f),  the  son  of 
Agamemnon,  i.  «.,  Orestes. 

[AGANICE  ('Ayavwej?)  or  AGLAONICE  ('Ay/lao- 
vtKj}),  daughter  of  the  Thessalian  Hegetor :  she 
was  acquainted  with  the  eclipses  of  the  moon, 
and  gave  out  that  she  could  draw  down  the 
moon  itself  from  the  sky.] 

AGANIPPE  ('AyavtTTTTT?),  a  nymph  of  the  well 
of  the  same  name  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Helicon, 
in  Boeotia,  which  was  considered  sacred  to  the 
Muses  (who  were  hence  called  Aganippides),  and 
which  was  believed  to  have  the  power  of  inspir- 
ing those  who  drank  of  it.  [The  nymph  is  called 
a  daughter  of  the  river-god  Permessus.]  The 
fountain  of  Hippocrene  has  the  epithet  Aganippis 
(Ov,  Fast.,  v.,  7),  from  its  being  sacred  to  the 
Muses,  like  that  of  Aganippe. 

AGAPENOB  ('AyaTnyvwp),  a  son  of  Ancaeus, 
king  of  the  Arcadians,  received  sixty  ships  from 
Agamemnon,  in  which  he  led  his  Arcadians  to 
Troy.  On  his  return  from  Troy  he  was  cast  by 
a  storm  on  the  coast  of  Cyprus,  where,  accord- 
ing to  some  accounts,  he  founded  the  town  of 
Paphua,  and  in  it  the  famous  temple  of  Venus 
(Aphrodite). 

29 


AGAPTOLEMUS. 

[AOAPTOLKMUS  (' Aya;rroAt/iOf),  a  son  of 
JSgyptus,  slain  by  the  Danaid  Pirene.] 

[AGAR,  n  city  of  Byzacium  in  Africa  Propria. 
Shaw  regards  it  as  the  modem  Boohadjar,  where 
ruius  of  a  destroyed  city  are  fouud.] 

[AOABA  (now  ~  Agra),  a  city  of  India  intra 
Oaugein,  ou  the  southern  bank  of  the  lomanes 
(now  Dschitmna).] 

[AGARICUS  SINUS  (now  Gulf  of  Artingeri),  a 
gulf  of  India  intra  Gangem.] 

AGARISTA  (' ' A.yapitm)').  1.  Daughter  of  Clis- 
theues,  tyrant  of  Sicyon,  wife  of  Megacles,  and 
mother  of  Cllsthenes,  who  divided  the  Athenians 
into  ten  tribes,  and  of  Hippocrates. — 2.  Daugh- 
ter of  the  above-mentioned  Hippocrates,  and 
grand-daughter  of  No.  1,  wife  of  Xanthippus, 
and  mother  of  Pericles. 

AGASIAS  ('Ayaatof),  a  son  of  Dositheus,  a 
sculptor  of  Ephesus,  probably  a  contemporary 
of  Alexander  the  Great  (B.C.  330),  sculptured 
the  statue  known  by  the  name  of  the  Borghese 
gladiator,  which  is  still  preserved  in  the  gallery 
of  the  Louvre.  This  statue,  as  well  as  the 
Apollo  Belvidere,  was  discovered  among  the 
ruins  of  a  palace  of  the  Roman  emperors  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Antium  (now  Capo  <fAnzo). 
From  the  attitude  of  the  figure,  it  is  clear  that 
the  statue  represents  not  a  gladiator,  but  a  war- 
rior contending  with  a  mounted  combatant  Per- 
haps it  was  intended  to  represent  Achilles  fight- 
ing with  Penthesilga. — [2.  Another  Ephesian 
sculptor,  son  of  Menophilus,  who  exercised  his 
art  iu  Delos,  while  it  was  under  the  Roman 
sway. — 3.  Of  Stymphalus  in  Arcadia,  an  officer 
in  the  army  of  the  ten  thousand,  often  mentioned 
by  Xenophon  in  his  Anabasis.] 

AGASICLES,  AGESICLES,  or  HEGESICLES  ('Ayaa- 
tic%tjf,  'AyriaiK^ijf,  'RyriffiKXr/f),  king  of  Sparta, 
succeeded  his  father  Archidamas  I.,  about  B.C. 
600  or  590. 

[AGASTHEXES  ('AyaoBevrif),  son  of  Augias,  and 
king  in  Elis:  his  son  Polyxeuus  is  mentioned 
among  the  suitors  of  Helen".] 

[AGASTROPHUS  ('Aydarpoijtoc,),  son  of  Preon,  was 
slain  by  Diomedes  before  Troy.] 

[AGASUS  PORTUS  (now  Porto  Greco),  a  harbor 
of  Apulia  on  the  Adriatic.] 

AGATHARCHIDES  ('Ayadapxifyc)  or  AGATHAR- 
CHUS  ('Ayddapxoc),  a  Greek  grammarian,  bora 
at  Cnidos,  lived  at  Alexandrea,  probably  about 
B.C.  130.  He  wrote  a  considerable  number  of 
geographical  and  historical  works  ;  but  we  have 
only  an  epitome  of  a  portion  of  his  work  on  the 
Erythraean  Sea,  which  was  made  by  Photius : 
it  is  printed  in  Hudson's  Geogr.  Script.  Gr.  Mi- 
noret .  [of  his  works  on  Europe  and  Asia  some 
fragments  are  preserved  in  Athenaeus  and  other 
writers,  which  have  been  published  by  Miiller  in 
Didot's  Firof/menta  Historicorum  Grcecorum,  vol. 
Hi.,  p.  190-197.] 

AGATHARCHCS  ('AydOapxoc),  an  Athenian  art- 
ist, said  to  have  invented  scene-painting,  and 
to  have  painted  a  scene  for  a  tragedy  which 
Aschylus  exhibited.  It  was  probably  not  till 
toward  the  end  of  ^Eschylus's  career  that  scene- 
painting  was  introduced,  and  not  till  the  time  of 
Sophocles  that  it  was  generally  made  use  of; 
which  may  account  for  Aristotle's  assertion 
(Poet^  iv,  16)  that  scene-painting  was  intro- 
duced by  Sophocles.— 2.  A  Greek  painter,  a  na- 
tive of  Samoa,  and  son  of  Eudemus  He  was 
30 


AGATHOCLES. 

a  contemporary  of  Alcibiades  and  Zeuxis,  and 
must  not  oo  confounded  with  the  contemporary 
of  ^Eschylus.  —  [3.  A  Syracusau,  who  was  placed 
by  the  Syracusans  over  a  fleet  of  twelve  ships  iu 
B.C.  413,  to  visit  their  allies  and  harass  the 
Athenians.  He  was  one  of  the  commanders,  in 
the  same  year,  in  the  decisive  battle  fought  in 
the  harbor  of  Syracuse.] 

[AGATHA  ('Ayddrj  :  'AyaflaZof  :  now  Agde),  a, 
city  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  on  the  Arauris.] 

AGATHEMKRUS  ('Ayadrjfiepoe),  the  author  of 
"  A  Sketch  of  Geography  in  Epitome"  (1%  yew 


),  probably  lived 
ird  centur     af 


about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  after 
Christ.  The  work  consists  chiefly  of  extracts 
from  Ptolemy  and  other  early  writers.  It  is 
printed  in  Hudson's  Geogr.  Script.  Gr.  Minores, 
[and  by  Hoffman  with  Arrian's  Periplus,  <fcc.. 
Lips,  1842.] 

AGATUIAS  ('Aya6iac.),  a  Byzantine  writer,  born 
about  A.D.  536  at  Myrina  in  ^Eolis,  practiced 
as  an  advocate  at  Constantinople,  whence  he  ob- 
tained the  name  Scholasticus  (which  word  signi- 
fied an  advocate  in  his  time),  and  died  about 
A.D.  582.  He  wrote  many  poems,  of  which 
several  have  come  down  to  us  ;  but  his  prin- 
cipal work  was  his  History  in  five  books,  which 
is  also  extant,  and  is  of  considerable  value.  It 
contains  the  history  from  A.D.  553  to  558,  a 
period  remarkable  for  important  events,  such 
as  the  conquest  of  Italy  by  Narses  and  the  ex- 
ploits of  Belisarius  over  the  Huns  and  other 
barbarians.  The  best  edition  is  by  Niebuhr, 
Bonn,  1828. 

[AGATHINUS  ('AyaOlvoc.'),  an  eminent  Greek 
physician,  born  at  Sparta,  and  flourished  in  the 
first  century  after  Christ  :  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Athenseus  of  Attalia  in  Cilicia,  the  founder  of 
the  Pneumatic  sect:  he  did  not  follow  strictly 
the  tenets  of  his  master,  but  united  with  them 
those  of  others,  and  thus  became  himself  found- 
er of  a  new  medical  sect  called  Hectici  or  Epi- 
synthetici.  —  2.  Of  Elis,  son  of  Thrasybulus,  ac- 
cording to  Bceckh,  an  lamid,  whose  father  was  a 
seer  among  the  Mantineans  iu  the  time  of  Ara- 
tus  :  he  was  a  celebrated  athlete,  and  gained  the 
prize  at  the  Olympic  games.  —  3.  A  Corinthian 
naval  commander,  who  had  charge  of  a  fleet  iu 
the  Corinthian  Gulf.] 

AGATHOOLEA  ('AyaOoK^eia),  mistress  of  Ptole- 
my IV.  Philopator,  king  of  Egypt,  and  sister  of 
his  minister  Agathocles.  She  and  her  brother 
were  put  to  death  on  the  death  of  Ptolemy  (B. 
C.  205). 

AGATHOCLES  ('AyadoK^f/f).  1.  A  Sicilian  raised 
himself  from  the  station  of  a  potter  to  that  of 
tyrant  of  Syracuse  and  king  of  Sicily.  Born  at 
Thermae,  a  town  of  Sicily  subject  to  Carthage, 
he  is  said  to  have  been  exposed  when  an  infant, 
by  his  father,  Carcinus  of  Rhegium,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  succession  of  troublesome  dreams, 
portending  that  he  would  be  a  source  of  much 
evil  to  Sicily.  His  mother,  however,  secretly 
preserved  his  life,  and  at  seven  years  old  he 
was  restored  to  his  father,  who  had  long  re- 
pented of  his  conduct  to  the  child.  By  him  he 
was  taken  to  Syracuse,  and  brought  up  as  a  pot- 
ter. His  strength  and  personal  beauty  recom- 
mended him  to  Damas,  a  noble  Syracusan,  who 
drew  him  from  obscurity,  and  on  whose  death  he 
married  his  rich  widow,  and  so  became  one 


AGATHOD^EMON. 


AGENOR. 


of  the  wealthiest  citizens  in  Syracuse.  His 
ambitious  schemes  then  developed  themselves, 
and  he  was  driven  into  exile.  After  several 
changes  of  fortune,  he  collected  an  army  which 
overawed  both  the  Syracusans  and  Carthaginians, ! 
»nd  was  restored  under  an  oath  that  he  would 
not  interfere  with  the  democracy,  which  oath  he 
Kept  by  murdering  four  thousand  and  banishing 
six  thousand  citizens.  He  was  immediately 
declared  sovereign  of  Syracuse,  under  the  title 
of  Autocrator,  B.C.  317-  In  the  course  of  a  few 
vears  the  whole  of  Sicily  which  was  under  the 
dominion  of  Carthage,  submitted  to  him.  In 
B.C.  310  he  was  defeated  at  Hirnera  by  the 
Carthaginians,  under  Hamilcar,  who  straightway 
laid  siege  to  Syracuse;  whereupon  he  formed 
the  bold  design  of  averting  the  ruin  which  threat- 
ened him,  by  carrying  the  war  into  Africa.  His 
successes  were  most  brilliant  and  rapid.  He 
constantly  defeated  the  troops  of  Carthage,  but 
was  at  length  summoned  from  Africa  by  the 
affairs  of  Sicily,  where  many  cities  had  revolted 
from  him,  B.C.  307.  These  he  reduced,  after 
making  a  treaty  with  the  Carthaginians.  He 
had  previously  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
Sicily.  He  afterward  plundered  the  Lipari 
Isles,  and  also  carried  his  arms  into  Italy,  in 
order  to  attack  the  Bruttii.  But  his  last  days 
were  embittered  by  family  misfortunes.  His 
grandson  Archagathus  murdered  his  son  Aga- 
thocles,  for  the  sake  of  succeeding  to  the  crown, 
and  the  old  king  feared  that  the  rest  of  his  family 
would  share  his  fate.  He  accordingly  sent  his 
wife  Texena  and  her  two  children  to  Egypt,  her 
native  country;  and  his  own  death  followed 
Almost  immediately,  B.C.  289,  after  a  reign  of 
twenty -eight  years,  and  in  the  seventy -second 
fear  of  his  age.  Other  authors  relate  an  incre- 
dible story  of  his  being  poisoned  by  Maeno,  an 
tssociate  of  Archagathus.  The  poison,  we  are 
iold,  was  concealed  in  the  quill  with  which  he 
cleaned  his  teeth,  and  reduced  him  to  so  fright- 
ful a  condition,  that  he  was  placed  on  the  funeral 
pile  and  burned  while  yet  living,  being  unable 
to  give  any  signs  that  he  was  not  dead. — 2.  Of 
Pella,  father  of  Lysimachus. — 3.  Son  of  Lysima- 
chus,  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Dro- 
michsetis,  king  of  the  Getae,  about  B.C.  292,  but 
was  sent  back  to  his  father  with  presents.  In 
287  be  defeated  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  At  the 
instigation  of  his  step-mother,  Arsinoe,  Lysima- 
«hus  cast  him  into  prison,  where  he  was  mur- 
dered (284)  by  Ptolernaeus  Ceraunus. — 1.  Brother 
of  AGATHOCLEA. — 5.  A  Greek  historian,  of  uncer- 
tain date,  wrote  the  history  of  Cyzicus,  which  ' 
was  extensively  read  in  antiquity,  and  is  referred  j 
to  by  Cicero  (De  Div.  i.,  24). 

AGATHOD^BMON  ('Aya6o6ai[iuv  or  'Aya0df  tieof ). 
1.  The  "  Good  Deity,"  in  honor  of  whom  the  ' 
Greeks  drank  a  cup  of  unmixed  wine  at  the  end 
of  every  repast — [2.  A  name  applied  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  Egyptian  Kneph,  and  also  to  a 
•pecies  of  snake  as  his  symbol. — 3.  A  name  given 
by  the  Greek  residents  to  the  Canopic  arm  of 
the  Nile.] — 4.  Of  Alexandrea,  the  designer  of 
some  maps  to  accompany  Ptolemy's  Geography.  ( 
Copies  of  these  maps  are  found  appended  to 
several  MSS.  of  Ptolemy. 

AQATUON  ('AydOuv),  an  Athenian  tragic  poet, 
born  about  B.C.  447,  of  a  rich  and  respectable 
Cimily,  was  a  friend  of  Euripides  and  Plato. 


He  gained  his  first  victory  in  416 :  in  honor  of 
which  Plato  represents  the  Symposium  to  have 
been  given,  which  he  has  made  the  occasion  of 
his  dialogue  so  called.  In  407  he  visited  the 
court  of  Archelaus,  king  of  Macedonia,  where 
his  friend  Euripides  was  also  a  guest  at  the 
same  time.  He  died  about  400,  at  the  age  of 
forty-seven.  The  poetic  merits  of  Agathon 
were  considerable,  but  his  compositions  were 
more  remarkable  for  elegance  and  flowery  orna- 
ments than  force,  vigor,  or  sublimity.  In  the 
Thesmophoriaziisce  of  Aristophanes  he  is  ridi- 
culed for  his  effeminacy,  being  brought  on  the 
stage  in  female  dress.  [The  fragments  of  Aga- 
thon have  been  published  by  Wagner  in  Didot's 
Fragmenta  Tragicorum  Grcec.,  p.  52-61. — 2.  A 
son  of  Priam. — 3.  Son  of  Tyrimmas,  commander 
of  the  Odrysian  cavalry  under  Alexander  the 
Great.] 

AGATHYRNA,  AGATHYRNUM  ('Aydfopva,  -ov : 
'Ayadvpvalof.  now  Agatha),  a  town  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Sicily,  between  Tyndaris  and 
Calacta. 

[AGATHYRNUS  ('Aywfopvof),  son  of  JEolus,  and 
founder  of  the  city  Agathyrna,  q.  D.] 

AGATHYRSI  ('AydBvpaoi),  a  people  in  European 
Sarmatia,  on  the  River  Maris  (now  Marosch)  in 
Transylvania.  From  their  practice  of  painting 
or  tattooing  their  skin,  they  are  called  by  Virgil 
(^W.,  iv.,  146)  picti  Agathyrsi. 

AGAVE  ('Ayavrj),  daughter  of  Cadmus,  wife  of 
Echion,  and  mother  of  Pentheus.  When  Pentheus 
attempted  to  prevent  the  women  from  celebrat- 
ing the  Dionysiac  festivals  on  Mount  Cithaeron, 
he  was  torn  to  pieces  there  by  his  own  mother 
Agave,  who  in  her  phrensy  believed  him  to  be 
a  wild  beast  Vid.  PENTHEUS. — One  of  the  Ne- 
reids, one  of  the  Danaids,  and  one  of  the  Ama- 
zons were  also  called  Agavas. 

AGBATANA.      Vid.  ECBATANA. 

AGDISTIS  ('Ay&ortf),  an  androgynous  deity, 
the  offspring  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Earth,  con 
nected  with  the  Phrygian  worship  of  Attes  or 
Atys.  • 

AGELADAS  ('AyeAadaf),  an  eminent  statuary 
of  Argos,  the  instructor  of  the  three  great  mas- 
ters, Phidias,  Myron,  and  Polycletus.  Many 
modern  writers  suppose  that  there  were  two 
artists  of  this  name:  one  an  Argive,  the  in- 
structor of  Phidias,  born  about  B.C.  540,  the 
other  a  native  of  Sicyon,  who  flourished  about 
B.C.  432. 

AGELAUS  ('AyeAaof).  1.  Son  of  Hercules  and 
Omphale,  and  founder  of  the  house  of  Croesus. — 
2.  Son  of  Damnstor  and  one  of  the  suitors  of 
Penelope,  slain  by  Ulysses. — 3.  A  slave  of  Priam, 
who  exposed  the  infant  Paris  on  Mount  Ida,  in 
consequence  of  a  dream  of  his  mother. — [4.  Son 
of  the  Heraclid  Temenus. — 5.  A  Trojan,  son  of 
Phradmon,  slain  by  Diomedes.] 

AGENDICUM  or  AGEDICUM  (now  Sens),  the  chief 
town  of  the  Senones  in  Gallia  Lugdunensia. 

AGENOR  ('AyT/vup).  1.  Son  of  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon) and  Libya,  king  of  Phoenicia,  twin-bro- 
ther of  Brlus,  and  father  of  Cadmus,  Phcenix, 
Cilix,  Thasus,  Phineus,  and,  according  to  some,  of 
Europa  also.  Virgil  (.J5k,  i.,  838)  calls  Carthage 
the  city  of  Agenor,  since  Dido  was  descended 
from  Agenor. — 2.  Sou  of  lasus,  and  father  of 
Argus  Panoptes,  king  of  Argos. — 3.  Sou  and 
successor  of  Triopas,  in  the  kingdom  of  Argoa 
31 


AGENORIDES. 

—4.  Sou  of  Pleuron  and  Xanthippe,  and  grand- 
son of  JStolus. — 6.  Son  of  Pbegeus,  king  of 
Psophis,  in  Arcadia.  He  and  his  brother  Pron- 
ous  slew  Alcmzeon,  when  he  wanted  to  give  the 
celebrated  necklace  and  peplus  of  Harmonia  to 
Lia  second  wife  Callirrhoe.  Vid.  PHEGEUS.  The 
two  brothers  were  aftenvard  killed  by  Ampho- 
terus  and  Acarnan,  the  eons  of  Alcmaeon  and 
Callirrhoe. — 6.  Son  of  the  Trojan  Antenor  and 
Theano,  one  of  the  bravest  among  the  Trojans, 
engaged  in  single  combat  with  Achilles,  but  was 
rescued  by  Apollo. 

AGKNORIDES  ('A.yijvopi6T]f),  a  patronymic  de- 
aoting  a  descendant  of  an  Agenor,  such  as  Cad- 
xiii*,  Phineus,  and  Perseus. 

AGESAXDER,  a  sculptor  of  Rhodes,  who,  in 
ion  junction  with  Polydorus  and  Athenodorus, 
sculptured  the  group  of  Laocoon,  one  of  the  most 
perfect  specimens  of  art  This  celebrated  group 
was  discovered  in  the  year  1506,  near  the  baths 
of  Titus  on  the  Esquiline  Hill :  it  is  now  preserv- 
ed in  the  museum  of  the  Vatican.  The  artists 
probably  lived  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  and  sculp- 
tured the  group  expressly  for  that  emperor. 

AGESILAUS  ('A.yijai'/,aof),  kings  of  Sparta.  1. 
Son  of  Doryssus.  reigned  forty-four  years,  and 
died  about  B.C.  886.  He  was  contemporary 
with  the  legislation  of  Lycurgus. — 2.  Son  of 
Archidamua  IL,  succeeded  his  half-brother  Agis 
IL,  B.C.  398,  excluding,  on  the  ground  of  spu- 
rious birth,  and  by  the  interest  of  Lysander,  nis 
nephew  LEOTTCHIDES.  From  396  to  394  he 
carried  on  the  war  in  A^ja  Minor  with  great 
success,  and  was  preparing  to  advance  into  the 
heart  of  the  Persian  empire,  -when  he  was 
summoned  home  to  defend  his  country  against 
Thebes,  Corinth,  and  Argos,  which  had  been 
induced  by  Artaxerxes  to  take  up  arms  against 
Sparta.  Though  full  of  disappointment,  he 
promptly  obeyed ;  and  in  the  course  of  the 
same  year  (394),  he  met  and  defeated  at  Coro- 
nea,  in  Bceotia,  the  allied  forces.  During  the 
next  four  years  he  regained  for  his  country 
much  of  its  formes  supremacy,  till  at  length  the 
fatal  battle  of  Leuctra,  371,  overthrew  forever 
the  power  of  Sparta,  and  gave  the  supremacy 
for  a  time  to  Thebes.  For  the  next  few  years 
Sparta  had  almost  to  struggle  for  its  existence 
amid  dangers  without  and  within,  and  it  was 
chiefly  owing  to  the  skill,  courage,  and  presence 
of  mind  of  Agesilaus  that  she  weathered  the 
storm.  In  361  he  crossed  with  a  body  of  Lace- 
daemonian mercenaries  into  Egypt.  Here,  after 
displaying  much  of  his  ancient  skill,  he  died, 
while  preparing  for  his  voyage  home,  in  the  win- 
ter of  361-360,  after  a  life  of  above  eighty  years 
and  a  reign  of  thirty-eight.  His  body  was  em- 
b;ilmed  in  wax,  and  splendidly  buried  at  Sparta. 
In  person  Agesilaus  was  small,  mean-looking, 
nud  lame,  on  which  last  ground  objection  bad 
been  made  to  his  accession,  an  oracle,  curiously 
fulfilled,  having  warned  Sparta  of  evils  awaiting 
her  under  a  "  lame  sovereignty."  In  his  reign, 
indeed,  her  fall  took  place,  but  not  through  him' 
for  he  was  one  of  the  best  citizens  and  generals 
that  Sparta  ever  had. 

[^AGESIMBROTUS,  admiral  of  the  Rhodian  fleet, 
which  aided  the  consul  P.  Sulpicius  in  the  war 
against  Phih'p,  king  of  Macedonia,  B.C.  200.1 

AGESIPOLIS  ('Ay^fftVoXtf),  kings  of  Sparta.     1. 
Succeeded  his  father  Pausaniaa,  while  yet  a 
32 


AGLAOPHON. 

minor,  in  B.C.  894,  and  reigned  fourteen  years. 
As  soon  as  his  minority  ceased,  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  wars  in  which  Sparta  was  then  en- 
gaged with  the  other  states  of  Greece.  In  390 
he  invaded  Argolis  with  success ;  in  385  he  took 
the  city  of  MantinCa;  in  381  he  went  to  the 
assistance  of  Acanthus  and  Apollonia  against  the 
Olynthians,  and  died  in  380  during  this  war  in 
the  peninsula  of  Pallene. — 2.  Son  of  Cleombrotus, 
reigned  one  year  B.C.  371. — 3.  Succeeded  Cleo 
menes  in  B.C.  220,  but  was  soon  deposed  by  his 
colleague  Lycurgus :  he  afterward  took  refuge 
with  the  l! oi nans. 

AGETOE  ('Ayjjrup),  "  tie  leader,"  a  suraami* 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  at  Lacedsemon,  of  Apollo,  and 
of  Mercury  (Hermes),  who  conducts  the  souls  of 
men  to  the  lower  world. 

AGGEJOJS  URBICUS,  a  writer  on  the  science  of 
the  Agrimensores,  may  perhaps  have  lived  at 
the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century  of  our  era. 
His  works  are  printed  in  Goesius,  Rei  Agrarice 
Auctores. 

AGGRAMMES  or  XANDRAMES  (Savdpa/ajf),  the 
ruler  of  the  Gangaridae  and  Prasii  in  India,  when 
Alexander  invaded  India,  B.C.  327. 

AGIAS  ('Ayt'af),  a  Greek  epic  poet,  erroneously 
called  Augias,  a  native  of  Trcezen,  flourished 
about  B.C.  740,  and  was  the  author  of  a  poem 
called  JVosli  (Noaroi),  i.  e^  the  history  of  the  re- 
turn of  the  Achaean  heroes  from  Troy. 

AGINNUM  (now  Agen),  the  chief  town  of  the 
Nitiobriges  in  Gallia  Aquitanica. 

AGIS  (TAytf),  kings  of  Sparta.  1.  Son  of 
Eurysthenes,  the  founder  of  the  family  of  the 
Agidae. — 2.  Son  of  Archidamus  II.,  reigned  B.C. 
427-398.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Pel- 
oponnesian  war,  and  invaded  Attica  several 
times.  While  Aleibiades  was  at  Sparta  he  was 
the  guest  of  Agis,  and  is  said  to  have  seduced 
his  wife  Timaea ;  in  consequence  of  which  Leo- 
tychides,  the  son  of  Agis,  was  excluded  from  the 
throne  as  illegitimate. — 3.  Son  of  Archidamus 
III.,  reigned  B.C.  338-330,  attempted  to  over- 
throw the  Macedonian  power  in  Europe,  while 
Alexander  the  Great  was  in  Asia,  but  was  de- 
feated and  killed  in  battle  by  Antipater  in  330 
— 4.  Sou  of  Eudamidas  IL,  reigned  B.C.  244- 
240.  He  attempted  to  re-establish  the  institu 
tions  of  Lycurgus,  and  to  effect  a  thorough  re- 
form in  the  Spartan  state ;  but  he  was  resisted 
by  his  colleague  Leonidas  II.  and  the  wealthy, 
was  thrown  into  prison,  and  was  there  put  to 
death  by  command  of  the  ephors,  along  with 
his  mother  Agesistrata,  and  his  grandmother 
Archidamia. 

AGIS,  a  Greek  poet  of  Argos,  a  notorious  flat- 
terer of  Alexander  the  Great. 

[AGIZYMBA,  the  name  applied  by  Ptolemy  to 
the  part  of  Africa  lying  under  the  equator,  the 
southernmost  portion  of  that  country  with  which 
the  Greeks  were  acquainted.] 

AGLAIA  ('Ay /lam),  "the  bright  one."  1.  One 
of  the  CHARITES  or  Graces. — 2.  Wife  of  Charopua 
and  mother  of  Nireus,  who  came  from  the  Island 
of  Syrne  against  Troy. 

[AGLAONICE.     Vid.  AGANICE.] 

AGLAOPHEME.     Vid.  SIRENES. 

AGLAOPHON  ('AyAao^wv).  1.  Painter  of  Tha- 
sos,  father  and  instructor  of  Polygnotus  and 
Aristophon,  lived  about  B.C.  500. — 2.  Painter, 
lived  about  B.C.  420,  probably  grandson  of  No.  1. 


AGLAUROS. 


AGRIGENTUM. 


[AGLAUROS.     Vid.  AGRAULOS.] 

AGLAUS  ('A.y7.a6f ),  a  poor  citizen  of  Psophis  in 
Arcadia,  whom  the  Delpkic  oracle  declared  hap- 
pier than  Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  on  account  of 
his  contented  disposition.  Pausanias  places  him 
in  the  time  of  Croesus. 

[AGNIUS  ('Ayvto?),  father  of  the  Argonaut  Ty- 
phys,  the  pilot  of  the  Argo.] 

AGNODICE  ('Ayt-'o&'/c)?),  an  Athenian  maiden, 
was  the  first  of  her  sex  to  learn  midwifery, 
which  a  law  at  Athens  forbade  any  woman  to 
learu.  Dressed  as  a  man,  she  obtained  instruc- 
tion from  a  physician  named  Hierophilus,  and 
afterward  practiced  her  art  with  success.  Sum- 
moned before  the  Ai  eopagus  by  the  envy  of  the 
other  practitioners,  she  was  obliged  to  disclose 
her  sex,  and  was  riot  only  acquitted,  but  obtain- 
ed the  repeal  of  the  obnoxious  law.  This  tale, 
though  often  repeated,  does  not  deserve  much 
credit,  as  it  rests  on  the  authority  of  Hyginus 
alone. 

AGNOJTIDES  ('Ayvwi-W^f),  an  Athenian  dema- 
gogue, induced  the  Athenians  to  sentence  Pho- 
cion  to  death  (B.C.  318),  but  was  shortly  after- 
ward put  to  death  himself  by  the  Athenians. 

AGORACRITUS  (' Ayopa/c/wrof),  a  statuary  of  Pa- 
ros,  flourished  B.C.  440-128,  and  was  the  favorite 
pupil  of  Phidias.  H,is  greatest  work  was  a 
statue  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  which  he  changed 
into  a  statue  of  Nemesis,  and  sold  it  to  the 
people  of  Khamnus,  because  he  was  indignant 
that  the  Athenians  had  given  the  preference  to  a 
statue  by  Alcamenes,  who  was  another  distin- 
guished pupil  of  Phidias. 

AGOR^BA  and  AGOR^EUS  ('Ayopata  and  'Ayo- 
palof).  epithets  of  several  divinities  who  were 
considered  as  the  protectors  of  the  assemblies  of 
the  people  in  the  agora,  such  as  Jupiter  (Zeus),' 
Minerva  (Athena),  Diana  (Artemis),  and  Mer- 
cury (Hermes). 

[AGRA  ('Aypa)  or  Agrae  ("Aypat),  an  Attic  de- 
mus  south  of  Athens  on  the  Ilissus :  it  contained 
a  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis)  Agrotera,  and  a 
temple  of  Ceres  (Demeter).] 

AGR^I  ('A.ypaloi),  a  people  of  ^Etolia,  on  the 
Achelous. 

AGRAULE  (' A.ypav'hij  and  "Ay/nJAj? :  'AypvAeiif), 
an  Attic  demus  of  the  tribe  Erechtheis,  named 
after  AGRAULOS,  No.  2. 

AGRAULOS  ("Aypav/lof,  also  'AyA.owpof).  1. 
Daughter  of  Acteus,  first  king  of  Athens,  and 
wife  of  Cecrops. — 2.  Daughter  of  Ceorops  and 
Agraulos,  is  an  important  personage  in  the  le- 
gends of  Attica,  and  there  were  three  different 
Htories  about  her.  1.  According  to  some  writ- 
ei-s,  Minerva  (Athena)  gave  Erichthonius  in  a 
chest  to  Agraulos  and  her  sister  Herae,  with  the 
command  not  to  open  it ;  but,  unable  to  control 
their  curiosity,  they  opened  it,  and  thereupon 
were  seized  with  madness  at  the  sight  of  Ench- 
thonius,  and  threw  themselves  down  from  the 
Acropolis.  2.  According  to  Ovid  (Met.,  ii.,  710), 
Agraulos  and  her  sister  survived  opening  the 
chest,  but  Agraulos  was  subsequently  punished 
by  being  changed  into  a  stone  by  Mercury  (Her- 
mes), because  she  attempted  to  prevent  the  god 
from  entering  the  house  of  Herse,  when  he  had 
fallen  in  love  with  the  latter.  3.  The  third  le- 
gend relates  that  Athens  was  once  involved  in 
a  long-protracted  war,  and  that  Agraulos  threw 
"herself  down  from  the  Acropolis  because  an 


oracle  had  declared  that  the  Athenians  would 
conquer  if  some  one  would  sacrifice  himself  for 
his  country."  The  Athenians,  in  gratitude,  br.ilt 
her  a  temple  on  the  Acropolis,  in  which  it  De- 
came  customary  for  the  youug  Athenians,  on  re- 
ceiving their  first  suit  of  armor,  to  take  an  oath 
that  they  would  always  defend  their  country  to 
the  last  One  of  the  Attic  demi  (Agraule)  de- 
rived its  name  from  this  heroine,  and  a  festival 
and  mysteries  (Agraulia)  were  celebrated  at 
Athens  in  honor  of  her. 

AGUEUS  ('A-ypevf),  a  hunter,  a  surname  of  Pan 
and  Aristaeus. 

AGRI  DECUMATES,  tithe  lands,  the  name  given 
by  the  Romans  to  a  part  of  Germany,  east  of  the 
Rhine  and  north  of  the  Danube,  which  they  took 
possession  of  when  the  Germans  retired  east- 
ward, and  which  they  gave  to  Gauls  and  subse- 
quently to  their  own  veterans  on  the  payment  of 
a  tenth  of  the  produce  (decuma).  Toward  the 
end  of  the  first  or  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
tury after  Christ,  these  lands  were  incorporated 
in  the  Roman  empire. 

[AGRIANES  ('A.ypidv7)£,  now  Ergene),  a  river  of 
Thrace,  joining  the  Hebrus.] 

[AGRIANES  ('Ay/wavef),  a  Thracian  race  dwell- 
ing around  Mount  Hasmus,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
River  Agrianes,  a  rude  and  warlike  people,  and 
excellent  archers.] 

AGRJCOLA,  Cx.  JULIUS,  born  June  13th,  A.D. 
37,  at  Forum  Julii  (Frejus  in  Provence),  was  the 
son  of  Julius  Graecinus,  who  was  executed  by 
Caligula,  and  of  Julia  Procilla.  He  received  a 
careful  education ;  he  first  served  in  Britain, 
A.D.  60,  under  Suetonius  Paulinus ;  was  quaestor 
in  Asia  in  63  ;  was  governor  of  Aquitama  from 
74  to  76  ;  and  was  consul  in  77,  when  he  be- 
trothed his  daughter  to  the  historian  Tacitus,  and 
in  the  following  year  gave  her  to  him  in  mar- 
riage. In  78  he  received  the  government  of 
Britain,  which  he  held  for  seven  years,  during 
which  time  he  subdued  the  whole  of  the  country 
with  the  exception  of  the  highlands  of  Caledo- 
nia, and  by  his  wise  administration  introduced 
among  the  inhabitants  the  language  and  civiliza- 
tion of  Rome.  He  was  recalled  in  85  through 
the  jealousy  of  Domitian,  and  on  his  return  lived 
in  retirement  till  his  death  in  93,  which,  accord- 
ing to  some,  was  occasioned  by  poison,  adminis- 
tered bv  order  of  Domitian.  His  character  is 
drawn  in  the  brightest  colors  by  his  son-iu-la\r 
Tacitus,  whose  Life  of  Agricola  has  come  dow 
to  us. 

AGRIGENTUM  ('Axpccvof :  'A/cpayavrivoj-,  Agri- 
gentlnus :  now  Girgenti),  a  town  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Sicily,  about  two  and  a  half  miles  from 
the  sea,  between  the  rivers  Acragas  (now  flume 
di  S.  Biagio)  and  Hypsas  (now  Finnic  Drago). 
It  was  celebrated  for  its  wealth  and  populous- 
ness,  and,  till  its  destruction  by  the  Carthagini- 
ans (B.C.  405),  was  one  of  the  most  splendid  cit- 
ies of  the  ancient  world.  It  was  the  birth-place 
of  Empedoeles.  It  waa  founded  by  a  Doric  col- 
ony from  Gela  about  B.C.  579,  was  under  the 
government  of  the  cruel  tyrant  Phalaiis  (about 
660),  and  subsequently  under  that  of  Theron 
(488-472),  whose  praises  are  celebrated  by  Pin- 
dar. After  its  destruction  by  the  Carthaginians, 
it  was  rebuilt  by  Timolcon,  but  it  never  regained 
its  former  greatness.  After  undergoing  manj 
vicissitudes,  it  at  length  came  into  the  power 

33 


AGR1NIUM. 

of  the  Romans  (210),  in  whose  hands  it  remain- 
ed. There  are  still  gigantic  remains  of  the  an- 
cient city,  especially  of  the  Olympifium,  or  tem- 
ple of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  (Zeus). 

Acalxiusi  ('A.}pivtov),  a  town  in  ^Etoh'a,  per- 
liaps  near  the  sources  of  the  Thcrmissus. 

AGRIPPA,  first  a  proenomcn,  and  afterward  a 
cognomen  among  the  Romans,  signifies  a  child 
presented  at  its  birth  with  its  feet  foremost 

AGRIPPA,  HERODES.  L  Called  "Agrippa  the 
Great,"  son  of  Aristobulus  and  Berenice,  and 
grandson  of  Herod  the  Great.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Rome  with  the  future  Emperor  Clau- 
dius, and  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius.  Having 
given  offence  to  Tiberius,  he  was  thrown  into 
prison  ;  but  Caligula,  on  his  accession  (A.D  .37), 
set  him  at  liberty,  and  gave  him  the  tetrar- 
clues  of  Abilene,  Bataiuea,  Trachonitis,  and 
Aurauitis.  On  the  death  of  Caligula  (41),  Agrip- 
pa, who  was  at  the  time  in  Rome,  assisted  Clau- 
dius in  gaining  possession  of  the  empire.  As  a 
reward  for  his  services,  Judaea  and  Samaria 
jFere  annexed  to  his  dominions.  His  govern- 
ment was  mild  and  gentle,  and  he  was  exceed- 
cgly  popular  among  the  Jews.  It  was  probably 
to  increase  his  popularity  with  the  Jews  that 
lie  caused  the  Apostle  James  to  be  beheaded, 
and  Peter  to  be  cast  into  prison  (44).  The 
manner  of  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Csesa- 
rea  in  the  same  year,  is  related  in  Acts,  xii.  By 
his  wife  Cypros  he  had  a  son,  Agrippa,  and  three 
daughters,  Berenice,  Mariamne,  and  Drusilla. — 
2.  Son  of  Agrippa  L,  was  educated  at  the  court 
of  Cladius,  and  at  the  time  of  his  father's  death 
was  seventeen  years  old.  Claudius  kept  him 
at  Rome,  and  sent  Cuspius  Fadus  as  procurator 
of  the  kingdom,  which  thus  again  became  a  Ro- 
man province.  On  the  death  of  Herodes,  king 
of  Chalchis  (48),  his  little  principality  was  given 
to  Agrippa,  who  subsequently  received  an  ac- 
cession of  territory.  Before  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  with  the  Romans,  Agrippa  attempted 
in  vain  to  dissuade  the  Jews  from  rebelling. 
He  sided  with  the  Romans  in  the  war ;  and  af- 
ter the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  he  went  with  his 
sister  Berenice  to  Rome,  and  died  in  the  sev- 
enty-third year  of  his  age,  A.D.  100.  It  was 
before  this  Agrippa  that  the  Apostle  Paul  made 
his  defence,  A.D.  60  (Acts,  xxv.,  xxvi.). 

AGRIPPA,  M.  VIPSAXIUS,  born  in  B.C.  63,  of 
an  obscure  family,  studied  with  young  Octavius 
(afterward  the  Emperor  Augustus)  at  Apollonia 
in  Ulyria;  and  upon  the  murder  of  Caesar  in 
44,  was  one  of  the  friends  of  Octavius,  who  ad- 
vised him  to  proceed  immediately  to  Rome.  In 
the  civil  wars  which  followed,  and  which  ter- 
minated in  giving  Augustus  the  sovereignity  of 
the  Roman  world,  Agrippa  took  an  active  part ; 
and  his  military  abilities,  combined  with  his 
promptitude  and  energy,  contributed  greatly  to 
that  result  In  41,  Agrippa,  who  was  then  prae- 
tor, commanded  part  of  the  forces  of  Augustus 

•  «»      _      T» •       f '  T  -.  n     •• 


in  the  Perusinian  war.      In  38  he  obtained  (Treat   dom,  and  gave  it  to  their  father ;  but  Agrius  an 


successes  in  Gaul  and  Germany ;  in  37  he  was 
consul ;  and  in  36  he  defeated  Sex.  Pompey  by 
sea.  In  33  he  was  sedile,  and  in  this  office  ex- 
pended immense  sums  of  money  upon  great 
public  works.  He  restored  old  aqueducts,  con- 
structed a  new  one,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 


AGRCECIUS. 

mandcd  the  fleet  of  Augustus,  at  the  battle  ol 
Actium;  was  consul  a  second  time  in  28,  and 
a  third  time  in  27,  when  he  built  the  Pantheon. 
In  21  he  married  Julia,  daughter  of  Augustus. 
He  had  been  married  twice  before,  first  to  Pom- 
ponia,  daughter  of  T.  Pomponius  Atticus,  and 
next  to  Marcella,  niece  of  Augustus.  He  con- 
tinued to  be  employed  in  various  military  com- 
mands in  Gaul,  Spain,  Syria,  and  Pannouia,  till 
his  death  in  B.C.  12.  By  his  first  wife  Pompo- 
nia,  Agrippa  had  Vipsania,  married  to  Tiberius . 
the  successor  of  Augustus ;  and  by  his  third 
wife,  Julia,  he  had  two  daughters,  Julia,  married 
to  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus,  and  Agrippiun,  married 
to  Germanieus,  and  three  sons,  Caius  Ca;sar, 
Lucius  Caesar  (vid  CAESAR),  and  Agrippa  Pos- 
tumus,  who  was  banished  by  Augustus  to  the 
Island  of  Planasia,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Ti- 
berius at  his  accession,  A.D.  14. 

AGRIPPINA.  1.  Daughter  of  M.  Vipsanius 
Agrippa  and  of  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus, 
man-led  Germanieus,  by  whom  she  had  nine 
children,  among  whom  was  the  Emperor  Calig- 
ula, and  Agrippiua,  the  mother  of  Nero.  She 
was  distinguished  for  her  virtues  and  heroism, 
and  shared  all  the  dangers  of  her  husband's 
campaigns.  On  his  death  in  A.D.  17,  she  rt- 
turned  to  Italy ;  but  the  favor  with  which  she 
was  received  by  the  people,  increased  the  hatred 
and  jealousy  which  Tiberius  and  his  mother 
Livia  had  long  entertained  toward  her.  For 
some  years  Tiberius  disguised  bis  hatred,  but  at 
length,  under  the  pretext  that  she  was  forming 
ambitious  plans,  he  banished  her  to  the  Island 
of  Pandataria  (A.D.  30),  where  she  died  three 
years  afterward,  (A.D.  33),  probably  by  volun- 
tary starvation. — 2.  Daughter  of  Germanieus  and 
Agrippina  [No.  1.],  and  mother  of  the  Emperor 
Nero,  was  born  at  Oppidum  Ubiorum,  afterward 
called  in  honor  of  her  Colonia  Agrippina,  now 
Cologne.  She  was  beautiful  and  intelligent,  but 
licentious,  cruel,  and  ambitious.  She  was  first 
married  to  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus  (A.D.  28), 
by  whom  she  had  a  son,  afterward  the  Emperor 
Nero;  next  to  Crispus  Passienus;  and  thirdly 
to  the  Emperor  Cladius  (49),  although  she  was 
his  niece.  In  50,  she  prevailed  upon  Claudius 
to  adopt  her  .son,  to  the  prejudice  of  his  own 
son  Britannicus;  and  in  order  to  secure  the 
succession  for  her  son,  she  poisoned  the  em- 
peror in  54.  Upon  the  accession  of  her  son 
Nero,  who  was  then  only  seventeen  years  of 
age,  she  governed  the  Roman  empire  for  a  few 
years  in  his  name.  The  young  emperor  soon 
became  tired  of  the  ascendency  of  his  mother, 
and  after  making  several  attempts  to  shake  off 
her  authority,  he  caused  her  to  be  assassinated 
in  59. 

AGRIPPINENBES.     Vid.  COLONIA  AGRIPFINA. 

AGRICS  ("Ayptof ),  son  of  Porthaon  and  Euryte, 
and  brother  of  O2neus,  king  of  Calydon  in  ^Eto 
lia :  his  six  sons  deprived  (Eneus  of  his  king 


his  sons  were  afterward  slain  by  Diomedes,  tha 
grandson  of  GDneus. 

AGRffiCius  or  AGROTTIUS,  a  Roman  gramma- 
rian, probably  lived  in  the  fifth  century  after 
Christ,  and  wrote  an  extant  work,  De  Ortho- 
graphia  et  Proprietate  et  Differentia  Sermonis, 


of  the  Julian,  in  honor  of  Augustus,  and   also  j  which  is  printed  in  Putschius,  Grammatical  La, 
erected  several  public  buildings.     In  31  he  com-  •  tinee  Auctores  Antiqui,  p.  2266-2275. 


34 


AGROLAS. 


AJAX. 


[  AGROLAS  ('AypoAaf),  of  Sicily,  an  architect, 
who,  with  Hyperbius,  surrounded  the  citadel  of 
Athens  with  walls,  except  that  part  which  was 
afterward  built  by  Cimon.] 

AGRON  ("A.-/puv).  I.  Son  of  Ninus,  the  first 
of  the  Lydiau  dynasty  of  the  Heraclidre. — 2. 
Son  of  Pfeuratus,  king  of  Illyria,  died  B.C.  231, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  wife  Teuta,  though 
be  left  a  son,  Pinnes  or  Pinneus,  by  his  first 
wife,  Triteuta,  whom  he  had  divorced. 

AGBOTERA  ('Ayporepa),  the  huntress,  a  sur- 
name of  Diana  (Artemis).  Vid,  AGRA.  There 
was  a  festival  celebrated  to  her  honor  at  Athens 
under  this  name.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq. 

AGRYLE.      Vid.  AGRAULE. 

[Aousius  T.,  a  faithful  friend  of  Cicero,  who 
adhered  to  him  in  his  banishment,  and  was  the 
sharer  of  all  his  labors  and  sufferings  during 
that  period.] 

AGYIEUS  ('A}i>tei>f),  a  surname  of  Apollo,  as 
the  protector  of  the  streets  and  public  places. 

AGYLLA  ("Ayt'/l/la),  the  ancient  Greek  name 
of  the  Etruscan  town  of  C^ERE. 

AGYRIUM  ('\yvpiov :  'A.yvpivalog,  Agyrinen- 
sis :  now  S.  Filipo  d'Argiro),  a  town  in  Sicily  on 
the  Cyamosorus,  northwest  of  Centuripae  and 
northeast  of  Enna,  the  birth-place  of  the  histo- 
rian Diodorus. 

AGYRRHIUS  ('Ayr/5/itof),  an  Athenian,  after  be- 
ing in  prison  maW  years  for  embezzlement  of 
public  money,  obtained,  about  B.C.  395,  the  res- 
toration of  the  Theoricon,  and  also  tripled  the  pay 
for  attending  the  assembly;  hence  he  became 
so  popular,  that  he  was  appointed  general  in  389. 

AHALA,  SERVILIUS,  the  name  of  several  dis- 
tinguished Romans,  who  held  various  high  of- 
fices in  the  state  from  B.C.  478  to  342.  Of 
these  the  best  known  is  C.  Servilius  Ahala, 
magister  equitum  in  439  to  the  dictator  L.  Cin- 
cinnatus,  when  he  slew  SP.  M^ELIUS  in  the 
forum,  becausa  he  refused  to  appear  before  the 
dictator.  Ahala  was  afterward  brought  to  trial, 
and  only  escaped  condemnation  by  a  voluntary 
exile.  Vid.  SAVIJJL 

AHAUNA  [now  Bargiano  /],  a  town  in  Etruria, 
northeast  of  Volsinii, 

AHENOBARBUS,  DOMITIDS,  the  name  of  a  dis- 
tinguished Roman  family.  They  are  said  to 
have  obtained  the  surname  of  Ahenobarbus,  i. 
e^  "  Brazen- Beard"  or  "  Red-Beard,"  because 
the  Dioscuri  announced  to  one  of  their  ances- 
tors the  victory  of  the  Romans  over  the  Latins 
at  Lake  Rcgillus  (B.C.  496),  and,  to  confirm  the 
Iruth  of  what  they  said,  stroked  his  black  hair 
and  beard,  which  immediately  became  red. — 
1.  CN.,  plebeian  aedile  B.C.  196,  praetor  194,  and 
consul  192,  when  he  fought  against  the  Boii. 
— 2.  CN.,  son  of  No.  1,  consul  suffectus  in  162. 
— 3.  CN,  son  of  No.  2,  consul  122,  conquered 
the  Allobrogea  in  Gaul,  in  121,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Sulga  and  Rhodanus.  He  was  censor  in 
115  with  Cojcilius  Metellus.  The  Via  Domitia 
in  Gaul  was  made  by  him. — 4.  CN.,  son  of  No. 
3.  tribune  of  the  plebs  104,  brought  forward  the 
law  (Lex  Domitia),  by  which  the  election  of  the 
priests  was  transferred  from  the  collegia  to  the 
people.  The  peoph  afterward  elected  him  Pon- 
tificus  Maximus  out  of  gratitude.  He  was  con- 
sul in  'j*',.  aud  censor  in  92,  with  Licinius  Cras- 
•ua  the  orator.  In  his  censorship  he  and  his 
colleague  shut  up  the  schools  of  the  Latin  rhet- 


'  oricians ;  but  otherwise  their  censorship  was 
i  marked  by  their  violent  disputes. — 5.  L.,  broth- 
|  er  of  No.  4,  praetor  in  Sicily,  probably  in  96,  and 
j  consnl  in  94,  belonged  to  the  party  of  Sulla,  and 
|  was  murdered  at  Rome  in  82,  by  order  of  the 
i  younger  Marius. — 6,  ON.,  son  of  No.  4,  married 
Cornelia,  daughter  of  L.  Ciuua,  consul  in  87, 
and  joined  the  Marian  party.  He  was  pro- 
scribed by  Sulla  in  82,  and  fled  to  Africa,  where 
he  was  defeated  and  killed  by  Cn.  Pompey  in 
81. — 7.  L.,  son  of  No.  4,  married  Porcia,  the 
sister  of  M.  Cato,  and  was  a  stanch  and  a  cour- 
ageous supporter  of  the  aristocratical  party. 
He  was  aedile  in  61,  praetor  in  58,  and  consul  in 
64.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in  49 
he  threw  himself  into  Corfinium,  but  was  com- 
pelled by  his  own  troops  to  surrender  to  Cajsar. 
He  next  went  to  Massilia,  and,  after  the  sur- 
render of, that  town,  repaired  to  Pompey  in 
Greece :  he.  fell  in  the  battle  of  Pharsaha  (48), 
where  he  commanded  the  left  wing,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Cicero's  assertion  in  the  second  Philippic, 
by  the  hand  of  Antony. — 8.  CN.,  son  of  No.  7, 
was  taken  with  his  father  at  Corfinium  (49), 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  (48),  and 
returned  to  Italy  in  46,  when  he  was  pardoned 
by  Caesar.  After  Caesar's  death  in  44,  he  com 
manded  the  republican  fleet  in  the  Ionian  Sea 
He  afterward  became  reconciled  to  Antony, 
whom  he  accompanied  in  his  campaign  against 
the  Parthians  in  36.  He  was  consul  in  32,  and. 
deserted  to  Augustus  shortly  before  the  battle 
of  Actium. — 9.  L.,  son  of  No.  8,  married  An- 
tonia,  the  daughter  of  Antony  by  Octavia ;  was 
aedile  in  22,  and  consul  in  16 ;  aud  after  his 
consulship,  commanded  the  Roman  army  in 
Germany  and  crossed  the  Elbe.  He  died  A.  D. 
25. — 10.  CN.,  son  of  No.  9,  consul  A.D.  32,  mar- 
ried Agrippina,  daughter  of  Germanicus,  and 
was  father  of  the  Emperor  Nero.  Vid.  AGRIP- 
PINA. 

AJAX  (Ataf).  1.  Son  of  Telamon,  king  of  Sal- 
amis,  by  Peribcea  or  Eribcea,  and  grandson  of 
^Eacus.  Homer  calls  him  Ajax  the  Telamo- 
nian,  Ajax  the  Great,  or  simply  Ajax,  whereas 
the  other  Ajax,  son  of  Oileus,  is  always  distin- 
guished from  the  former  by  some  epithet.  He 
sailed  against  Troy  in  twelve  ships,  and  is  rep- 
resented in  the  Iliad  as  second  only  to  Achilles 
in  bravery,  and  as  the  hero  most  worthy,  in  the 
absence  of  Achilles,  to  contend  with  Hector. 
In  the  contest  for  the  armor  of  Achilles,  he  was 
conquered  by  Ulysses,  aud  this,  says  Homer, 
was  the  cause  of  his  death.  (Od.  XL,  541,  seq.) 
Homer  gives  no  further  particulars  respecting 
his  death  ;  but  later  poets  relate  that  his  defeat 
by  Ulysses  threw  him  into  an  awful  state  of 
madness;  that  he  rushed  from  his  tent  and 
slaughtered  the  sheep  of  the  Greek  army,  fan- 
cying they  were  his  enemies  ;  and  that  at  length 
he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.  From  his  blood 
there  sprang  up  a  purple  flower  bearing  the  let- 
ters al  on  its  leaves,  which  were  at  once  the 
j  initials  of  his  name  and  expressive  of  a  sigL. 
Homer  does  not  mention  his  mistress  TECMESSA. 
Ajax  was  worshipped  at  Salamis,  and  was  hon- 
ored with  a  festival  (A.luv-eia).  He  was  also 
worshipped  at  Athens,  and  one  of  the  Attic 
tribes  (jEantiis)  was  called  after  him. — 2.  Son 
of  O'ileus,  king  of  the  Locrians,  also  called  the 
lesser  Ajax,  sailed  against  Troy  in  forty  ships. 
35 


AIDES. 


ALBANIA. 


He  is  described  as  small  of  stature,  and  wears 
a  linen  cuirass  (%tvo6upr)£),  but  is  bravo  and  in- 
trepid, skilled  in  throwing  the  spear,  and,  next 
to  Achilles,  the  most  swift-footed  among  the 
Greeks.  On  his  return  from  Troy  bis  vessel 
was  wrecked  on  the  Whirling  Rocks  (Tvpal  irt- 
Tpai) ;  he  himself  got  safe  upon  a  rock  through 
the  assistance  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) ;  but  as 
be  boasted  that  he  wbuld  escape  in  defiance  of 
the  immortals,  Neptune  (Poseidon)  split  the 
rock  with  his  trident,  and  Ajax  was  swallowed 
up  by  the  sea.  This  is  the  account  of  Homer, 
but  his  death  is  related  somewhat  differently  by 
Virgil  and  other  writers,  who  also  tell  us  that 
the  anger  of  Minerva  (Athena)  was  excited 
against  him,  because  on  the  night  of  the  cap- 
ture of  Troy,  he  violated  Cassandra  in  the  tem- 
ple of  the  goddess,  where  she  had  taken  refuge. 
'Die  Opuntian  Locrians  worshipped  Ajax  as  their 
national  hero. 

AIDES  ('Aidrif).     Vid.  HADES. 

AIDONEUS  ('Aiduvevf).  1.  A  lengthened  form 
of  Aides.  Vid.  HADES. — 2.  A  mythical  king  of 
the  Molossians  in  Epirus,  husband  of  Proserpina 
(Persephone),  and  father  of  Core.  When  The- 
seus and  Pirithous  attempted  to  carry  off  Core, 
Aidoneus  had  Pirithous  killed  by  Cerberus,  and 
kept  Theseus  in  captivity  till  he  was  released  by 
Hercules. 

Aius  Locurfus  or  LOQUENS,  a  Roman  divinity. 
A  short  time  before  the  Gauls  took  Rome  (B.C. 
390),  a  voice  was  heard  at  Rome  in  the  Via 
Nova,  during  the  silence  of  night,  announcing  that 
the  Gauls  were  approaching.  No  attention  was 
%t  the  tune  paid  to  the  warning,  but  the  Romans 
afterwards  erected  on  the  spot  where  the  voice 
liad  been  heard,  an  altar  with  a  sacred  inclos- 
ure  arouud  it,  to  Aius  Locutius,  or  the  "  Announc- 
>ug  Speaker." 

ALABANDA  (?/  'A%u6av8a  or  rd.  'Ahufiavda : 
A.Ao6av(5evf  or  'AAdtfavcJof :  now  Arabissar),  an 
inland  town  of  Caria,  near  the  Marsyas,  to  the 
*outh  of  the  Maeander,  was  situated  between  two 
hills :  it  was  a  prosperous  place,  but  one  of  the 
most  corrupt  and  luxurious  towns  in  Asia  Minor. 
Under  the  Romans  it  was  the  seat  of  a  conven- 
tua  juridicus. 

[ALABASTROX  ('AAa6acrrpwv  noXif),  &  city  in 
Upper  or  Middle  Egypt,  in  the  Arabian  mountain 
chain,  and  famed  for  its  artists,  who,  from  the  ala- 
baster dug  in  Mons  Alabantrinus,  carved  all 
kinds  of  vases  and  ornaments.] 

ALABON  ('A2.a6uv),  a  river  and  town  in  Sicily, 
north  of  Syracuse. 

ALAGONIA  ('A/layw/a),  a  town  of  the  Eleuthe- 
ro-Laconians  on  the  frontiers  of  Messenia. 

ALALCOMEN.fi  ('Aha2,KO[tevai :  'A/,aX/co//fvaZof, 
AAa/U-o/ifvtevf).  l.  (Now  Sulinari),  an  ancient 
town  of  BcDotia,  east  of  Coronea,  with  a  temple 
cf  Minerva  (Athena),  who  is  said  to  have  been 
oorn  in  the  town,  and  who  was  hence  called 
Alalcomenlis  ('AXaAKo/zevjjif,  MOJ-).  The  name 
of  the  town  was  derived  either  from  Alalcome- 
nia,  a  daughter  of  Ogyges,  or  from  the  Boeotian 
hero  Alalcomenes. — 2.  A  town  in  Ithaca,  or  in 
the  Island  Asteria,  between  Ithaca  and  Cephal- 
lenia. 

ALALIA.     Vid.  ALEEIA. 

AI.ANI  ('AAavot,  'AXavvoi,i.e^  mountaineers, 
from  the  Sarmatian  word  a/a),  a  great  Asiatic 
people,   included   under  the   general  name  of 
36 


Scythians,  but  probably  a  branch  of  the  Mas 
sagetae.  They  were  a  nation  of  warlike  horse 
mea  They  are  first  found  about  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Caucasus,  in  the  country  called  A  I- 
bania,  which  appears  to  be  only  another  form 
of  the  same  name.  In  the  reign  of  Vespasian 
they  made  incursions  into  Media  and  Armenia ; 
and  at  a  later  time  they  pressed  into  Europe,  as 
far  as  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Danube,  where 
toward  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  they  were 
routed  by  the  Huns,  who  then  compelled  them 
to  become  their  allies.  In  A.D.  406,  some  of  the 
Alani  took  part  with  the  Vandals  in  their  irrup 
tion  into  Gaul  and  Spain,  where  they  gradually 
disappear  from  history. 

ALARICUS,  in  German  Al-ric,  i.e.,  "All-rich," 
elected  king  of  the  Visigoths  in  AJ).  398,  had 
previously  commanded  the  Gothic  auxiliaries  of 
Theodosius.  He  twice  invaded  Italy,  first  in  A.D. 
402-403,  when  he  was  defeated  by  Stilicho  at 
the  battle  of  Pollentia,  and  a  second  time  in  408- 
410 ;  in  his  second  invasion  he  took  and  plundered 
Rome,  24th  of  August,  410.  He  died  shortly 
afterward,  at  Consentia  in  Bruttium,  while  pre- 
paring to  invade  Sicily. 

ALASTOR  ('ATidoTup).  1.  A  surname  of  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus)  as  the  avenger  of  evil,  and  also,  in 
general,  any  deity  who  avenges  wicked  deeds. — 
[2.  Son  of  Neleus  and  Chloris,  was  slain,  toge- 
ther with  his  brothers,  except  Nfestor,  by  Hereu- 
les,  when  that  hero  took  Pylos.] — 3.  A  Lycian, 
and  companion  of  Sarpedon,  slain  by  Ulysses. — 
[4.  A  Greek  who  rescued  Teucer,  the  brother  of 
Ajax,  when  wounded,  and  also  Hypsenor  when 
struck  down  by  Deiphobus.] 

ALBA  SILVJUS,  one  of  the  mythical  kings  of 
Alba,  son  of  Latinus,  reigned  thirty-nine  years. 

ALBA.  1.  (Now  Abla),  a  town  of  the  Bastitani 
in  Spain. — 2.  (Now  Alvannd),  a  town  of  the  Bar- 
duli  in  Spain. — 3.  AUGUSTA  (now  Aulps,  near  Du- 
rance), a  town  of  the  Elicoci  in  Gallia  Narbon- 
ensis.— -4.  FUCENTIA  or  FUCENTIS  (Albenses :  now 
Alba  or  Albi),  a  town  of  the  Marsi,  and  subse- 
quently a  Roman  colony,  was  situated  on  a  lofty 
rock  near  the  Lake  Fucinus.  It  was  a  strong 
fortress,  and  was  used  by  the  Romans  as  a  state 
prison. — 5.  LONGA  (Albani),  the  most  ancient 
town  in  Latium,  is  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Ascanius,  and  to  have  founded  Rome.  It  was 
called  Longa,  from  its  stretching  in  a  long  line 
down  the  Alban  Mount  towards  the  Alban 
Lake,  perhaps  near  the  modern  convent  of  Pal- 
azzolo.  It  was  destroyed  by  Tullus  Hostilius, 
and  was  never  rebuilt :  its  inhabitants  were 
removed  to  Rome.  At  a  later  time  the  surround 
ing  country,  which  was  highly  cultivated  and 
covered  with  vineyards,  was  studded  with  the 
splendid  villas  of  the  Roman  aristocracy  and 
emperors  (Pompey's,  Domitian's,  <fec.),  each  of 
which  was  called  Albanum,  and  out  of  which  a 
new  town  at  length  grew,  also  called  Albauum 
(now  Albano),  on  the  Appian  Road,  ruins  of 
which  are  extant. — 6.  POMPEIA  (Albenses  Pom- 

Kiani :  now  Alba),  a  town  in  Liguria,  founded 
Scipio  Africanus  I,  and  colonized  by  Pom- 
peius   Magnus,  the  birth-place  of  the  Emperor 
Pertinax. 

ALBANIA  ('Ahfiavia:  'AMavoi,  Albani  :  now 
Scfiirwan  and  part  of  Daghestan,  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Georgia),  a  country  of  Asia  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Caspian,  extending  from 


ALBANUM. 


ALBIUM  INGAUNUM. 


the  Rivers  Cyrus  and  Araxes  on  the  south  to 
Mount  Ceraunius  (the  eastern  part  of  the  Cau- 
casus) oh  the  north,  and  bounded  on  the  west 
by  Iberia.  It  was  a  fertile  plain,  abounding  in 
pasture  and  vineyards ;  but  the  inhabitants  were 
nerce  and  warlike.  They  were  a  Scythian  tribe, 
probably  a  branch  of  the  Massagetae,  and  identi- 
cal with  the  ALANL  The  Romans  first  became 
acquainted  with  them  at  the  time  of  the  Mithra- 
datic  war,  when  they  encountered  Pompey  with 
a  large  army. 

ALBANUM.  Vid.  ALBA,  No.  6. 
ALBANUS  LACUS  (now  Lago  di  Albano),  a  small 
lake  about  five  miles  in  circumference,  west  of 
the  Mons  Albanus,  between  Bovillae  and  Alba 
Longa.  is  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  is 
many  hundred  feet  deep.  The  emissarium  which 
the  Romans  bored  through  the  solid  rock  during 
the  siege  of  Veii,  in  order  to  carry  off  the  super- 
fluous water  of  the  lake,  is  extant  at  the  present 
day. 

ALBANGS  MONS  (now  Monte  Cavo  or  Albano}, 
was,  in  its  narrower  signification,  the  mountain 
in  Latium  on  whose  declivity  the  town  of  Alba 
Longa  was  situated.  It  was  the  sacred  mountain 
of  the  Latins,  on  which  the  religious  festivals  of 
the  Latin  League  were  celebrated  (Ferice  Latino:}, 
and  on  its  highest  summit  was  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Latiaris,  to  which  the.  Roman  generals 
ascended  in  triumph,  when  this  honor  was  denied 
them  in  Rome.  The  Mons  Albanus  in  its  wider 
signification  included  the  Mons  ALGIDUS  and  the 
mountains  about  Tusculum. 

ALBI  MONTHS,  a  lofty  range  of  mountains  in 
the  west  of  Crete,  three  hundred  stadia  in  length, 
covered  with  snow  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
ALBICI  ('AMioiKoi,  'A/i&cZf),  a  warlike  Gallic 
people,  inhabiting  the  mountains  north  of  Mas- 
silia. 

ALBINGAUNUM.  Vid.  ALBIUM  INGAUNUM. 
ALBINOVANUS,  C.  PEDO,  a  friend  of  Ovid,  who 
addresses  to  him  one  of  his  epistles  from  Pontus 
(iv.,  10).  Three  Latin  elegies  are  attributed  to 
Albinovanus,  printed  by  Wernsdorf,  in  his  Poetce 
Latini  Jttinores,  voL  iii.,  iv.,  and  by  Meinecke, 
Quedlinburg,  1819. — [2.  ALB.  CELSCS,  a  Latin 
poet,  friend  of  Horace.] 

ALBINOVANUS,  P.  TULLIUS,  belonged  to  the 
Marian  party,  was  proscribed  in  B.C.  87,  but 
was  pardoned  by  Sulla  in  81,  in  consequence  of 
his  putting  to  death  many  of  the  officers  of  Nor- 
banus,  whom  he  had  invited  to  a  banquet  at 
Ariminum. 

ALBISUS  or  ALBUS,  POSTUMIUS,  the  name  of  a 
patrician  family  at  Rome,  many  of  the  members 
of  which  held  the  highest  offices  of  the  state 
from  the  commencement  of  the  republic  to  its 
downfall. — 1.  A.,  surnamed  Regillensit,  dictator 
RC.  498,  when  he  conquered  the  Latins  in  the 
great  battle  near  Lake  Regillus,  and  consul  496, 
in  which  year  some  of  the  annals  placed  the 
battle. — 2.  SP.,  consul  466,  and  a  member  of  the 
first  decemvirate  451.— 8.  SP.,  consul  344,  and 
again  321.  In  the  latter  year  he  marched 
against  the  Samnites,  but  was  defeated  near 
Caudium,  and  obliged  to  surrender  with  hia 
whole  army,  who  were  sent  under  the  yoke. 
The  Senate,  on  the  advice  of  Albinus,  refused 
to  ratify  the  peace  which  he  had  made  with  the 
Samnites,  and  resolved  that  all  persons  who 
had  sworn  to  the  peace  should  be  given  up  to 


the  Samnites,  but  they  refused  to  accept  them. 
— 4.  IA,  consul  234,  and  again  229.  In  216  he 
was  praetor,  and  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Boii. 
— 5.  SP.,  consul  in  186,  when  the  senatus  consul- 
turn  was  passed,  which  is  extant,  for  suppress- 
ing the  worship  of  Bacchus  iu  Rome.  He  died 
in  1*79. — 6.  A.,  consul  180,  when  he  fought  against 
the  Ligurians,  and  censor  174.  He  was  subse- 
quently engaged  in  many  public  missions.  Livy 
calls  him  Luscus,  from  which  it  would  seem 
that  he  was  blind  of  one  eye. — 7.  L..  praetor 
180,  in  Further  Spain,  where  he  remained  two 
years,  and  conquered  the  Vaccaei  and  Lusitani. 
He  was  Consul  in  173,  and  afterward  served 
under  ^Emilius  Paulus  in  Macedonia  in  168. — 
8.  A.,  consul  151,  accompanied  L.  Mummius 
into  Greece  in  146.  He  was  well  acquainted 
with  Greek  literature,  and  wrote  in  that  lan- 
guage a  poem  and  a  Roman  history,  which  is 
censured  by  Polybius. — 9.  SP.,  consul  110,  car- 
ried on  war  against  Jugurtha  in  Numidia,  but 
effected  nothing.  When  Albinus  departed  from 
Africa,  he  left  his  brother  Aulus  in  command, 
who  was  defeated  by  Jugurtha.  Spurius  was 
condemned  by  the  Mamilia  Lex,  as  guilty  of 
treasonable  practices  with  Jugurtha. — 10.  A., 
consul  B.C.  99,  with  M.  Antonius,  is  said  by 
Cicero  to  have  been  a  good  speaker. 

ALBINUS  ('A/Wwof),  a  Platonic  philosopher, 
lived  at  Smyrna  in  the  second  century  after 
Christ,  and  wrote  an  Introduction  to  the  Dia- 
logues of  Plato,  which  contains  hardlv  any  thing 
of  importance. — Editions.  In  the  nrst  edition 
of  Fabricius's  Bibl.  Greec.,  voL  ii.,  and  prefixed 
to  Etwall's  edition  of  three  dialogues  of  Plato, 
Oxon.,  1771 :  and  to  Fischer's  four  dialogues  of 
Plato,  Lips.,'  1783. 

ALBINUS,  CLODIUS,  whose  full  name  was  De- 
cimus  Clodius  Ceionius  Septimius  Albinus,  was 
born  at  Adrumetum  in  Africa.  The  Emperor 
Commodus  made  him  governor  of  Gaul  and 
afterward  of  Britain,  where  he  was  at  the  death 
of  Commodus  in  A.D.  192.  In  order  to  secure 
the  neutrality  of  Albinus,  Septimius  Severus 
made  him  Caesar;  but  after  Severus  had  de- 
feated his  rivals,  he  turned  his  arms  against 
Albinus.  A  great  battle  was  fought  between 
them  at  Lugdunum  (Lyons),  in  Gaul,  the  19th 
of  February,  197,  in  which  Albinus  was  defeated 
and  killed. 

ALBION  or  ALEBION  ('AMtuv,  'AfaGtov),  son 
of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  brother  of  Dercynua 
or  Bergion,  with  whom  he  attacked  Hercules, 
when  he  passed  through  their  country  (Liguria) 
with  the  oxen  of  Geryon.  They  were  slain  by 
Hercules. 

ALBION,  another  name  of  BRITANNIA,  the  white 
land,  from  its  white  cliffs  opposite  the  coast  of 
Gaul:  [more  correctly,  perhaps,  the  high  land, 
from  the  Celtic  root  Alb  or  Alp,  high,  in  refer- 
ence to  its  lofty  coasts,  as  it  lies  facing  GauL] 

ALBIS  (now  Elbt},  one  of  the  great  rivers  in 
Germany,  the  most  easterly  which  the  Romans 
became  acquainted  with,  rises,  according  to 
Tacitus,  in  the  country  of  the  Hermunduri.  The 
Romans  reached  the  Elbe  for  the  first  time  in 
B.C.  9,  under  Dnreus,  and  crossed  it  for  the  first 
time  in  B.O.  3,  under  Domitius  Ahenobarbus, 
The  last  Roman  general  who  saw  the  Elbe  was 
Tiberius,  in  A.D.  5. 

A  i.r.irM  INGAUNUM  or  ALBINGACNUH  (now  Al- 
37 


ALBIUM  INTEMELIUM. 


ALCEST1S. 


benyo),  a  town  of  the  Ingauni  on  the  coast  of 
Ligiiria,  and  a  municipium. 

ALBIUM  INTKMELIUM  or  ALBINTEMELIUM  (now 
Vlntimiglia),  a  town  of  the  Intemelii  on  the 
coast  of  Ligiiria,  and  a  municipium. 

[ALBUCKLLA  or  AEBOCALA  ('Ap6ovKuhi),  Polyb. : 
now  Villa  Fasila),  a  city  of  Ilispania  Tarraco- 
nensis,  southwest  of  Pallantia :  according  to  Poly- 
bius,  it  was  the  largest  city  of  the  Vaccaei,  and 
was  taken  by  Hannibal  after  a  brave  and  long 
resistance.] 

ALBUCIUS  or  ALBUTIUS,  T.,  studied  at  Athens, 
and  belonged  to  the  Epicurean  sect ;  he  was  well 
acquainted  with  Greek  literature,  but  was  satir- 
ized by  Lucilius  on  account  of  his  affecting  on 
every  occasion  the  Greek  language  and  philoso- 
phy. He  was  praetor  in  Sardinia  in  B.C.  105; 
aud  in  103  was  accused  of  repetundae  by  C. 
Julius  Caesar,  and  condemned.  He  retired  to 
Athens,  and  pursued  the  study  of  philosophy. 
[2.  C.  Albucius  Silus.  Vid.  SILUS.] 

ALBULA,  an  ancient  name  of  the  River  TIBER. 

Ai.BL'L.E  AQUA     Vid.  ALBUNEA. 

ALBUNKA  or  ALBUXA,  a  prophetic  nymph  or 
Sibyl,  to  whom  a  grove  was  consecrated  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Tibur  (now  Tivoli},  with  a  foun- 
tain and  a  temple.  This  fountain  was  the 
largest  of  the  Albulae  aquas,  still  called  Acque 
Albule,  sulphureous  springs  at  Tibur,  which 
flow  into  the  Anio.  Near  it  was  the  oracle  of 
vaunus  Fatidicus.  The  temple  is  still  extant  at 
Tivoli. 

ALBURNUS  Moxs,  [now  Monte  di  Postiglione], 
a  mountain  in  Lucania,  covered  with  wood,  be- 
hind Paestum. — [2.  POETUS,  a  harbor  near  Paes- 
tum, at  the  mouth  of  the  Silarus  (now  Sele)]. 

[ALBUS  PORTUS  ("  the  White  Haven,"  now 
Algesiras),  a  town  on  the  coast  of  Baetica  in 
Spain.] 

[Ai*us  Vicus  (ii  \evKi)  Kufiq :  now  lambo  ?),  a 
harbor  in  Arabia,  from  which  Gallus  set  out  on 
his  expedition  into  the  interior.] 

[ALBUTIUS.      Vid.  ALBUCIUS.] 

ALOSUS  ('AAxatof),  son  of  Perseus  and  An- 
dromeda, and  father  of  Amphitryon  and  Anaxo. 
— [2.  Son  of  Hercules  and  a  female  slave  of 
Jardanus,  from  whom  the  Heraclid  dynasty  in 
Lydia,  e.  g^  Candaules  (Myrsilus),  Ac.,  were  de- 
scended. Diodorus  gives  to  this  son  of  Hercules 
the  name  of  Cleolaus. — 3.  Son  of  Androgeus, 
grandson  of  Minos.] 

ALC.«US.  1.  Of  Mytilene  in  Lesbos,  the  earli- 
est of  the  JSolian  lyric  poets,  began  to  flourish 
about  B.C.  611.  In  the  war  between  the  Athen- 
ians and  Mytilenaeans  for  the  possession  of  Sigeum 
(B.C.  606),  he  incurred  the  disgrace  of  leaving 
his  arms  on  the  field  of  battle :  these  arms  were 
hung  up  as  a  trophy  by  the  Athenians  in  the 
temple  of  Pallas  at  Sigeum.  Alcaeus  took  an 
active  part  in  the  struggles  between  the  nobles 
and  people  of  Mytilene :  he  belonged  by  birth  to 
the  nobles,  and  was  driven  into  exile  with  his 
brother  Antimenidas,  when  the  popular  party 
got  the  upper  hand.  He  attempted,  by  force  of 
arms,  to  regain  his  country ;  but  all  his  attempts 
were  frustrated  by  PITTACUS,  who  had  been 
chosen  by  the  people  uEsymnetes,  or  dictator, 
for  the  purpose  of  resisting  him  and  the  other 
exiles.  Alcaeus  and  his  brother  afterward  tra- 
velled into  various  countries :  the  tune  of  his 
death  is  uncertain.  Some  fragments  of  his  poems 
38 


which  remain,  and  the  excellent  imitations  of 
Horace,  enable  us  to  understand  something  of 
their  character.  Those  which  have  received  the 
highest  praise  are  his  warlike  odes,  in  which  he 
tried  to  rouse  the  spirits  of  the  nobles,  the  Alccei 
minaces  Camence  of  Horace  (Curm.,  iv.  9,  7), 
In  others  he  described  the  hardships  of  exile, 
and  his  perils  by  sea  (dura  navis,  dura  fugce, 
mala  dura  belli,  Hor.,  Carm.,  ii.  13,  27).  Alcama 
is  said  to  have  invented  the  well-known  Alcaic 
metre. — Editions :  By  Matthiae,  Alccei  Mytileitcei 
reliquice,  Lips.,  1827 ;  and  by  Bergk,  in  foetce 
Lyrici  Greed,  Lips.,  1843. — 2.  A  comic  poet  at 
Athens,  flourished  about  B.C.  388,  and  exhibited 
plays  of  that  mixed  comedy,  which  formed  the 
transition  between  the  old  and  the  middle. 
[Some  fragments  remain,  which  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Meineke,  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Qrw- 
corum,  voL  i.,  p.  457-461,  edit,  minor.] — 3.  Of 
Messene,  the  author  of  twenty-two  epigrams  in 
the  Greek  Anthology,  written  between  B.C.  219 
and  196.  ^ 

ALCAMENES  ('AX/ca/fevj?f).  1.  Son  of  Teleclus, 
king  of  Sparta,  from  B.C.  779  to  742.— 2.  A 
statuary  of  Athens,  flourished  from  B.C.  444  to 
400,  and  was  the  most  famous  of  the  pupils  of 
Phidias.  His  greatest  work  was  a  statue  of 
Venus  (Aphrodite). 

ALCANDER  ("AA/cavtJpof),  a  young  Spartan,  who 
thrust  out  one  of  the  eyes  of  Lycurgus,  when  his 
fellow-citizens  were  discontented  with  the  laws 
he  proposed.  Lycurgus  pardoned  the  outrage, 
and  thus  converted  Alcander  into  one  of  his 
warmest  friends. — [2.  A  Lycian,  slain  by  Ulysses 
before  Troy. — 3.  A  companion  of  ^Eneas,  slain  by 
Turnus  in  Italy.] 

[ALCANDRA  ('A^Kuvdpa),  wife  of  Polybus,  a 
wealthy  Egyptian  of  Egyptian  Thebes,  by  whom 
Helen  was  kindly  received  and  entertained  on 
her  arrival  in  Egypt] 

[ALCANOR,  a  Trojan,  whose  sons  Pandarus  and 
Bitias  accompanied  ^Eneas  to  Italy. — 2.  A  war- 
rior in  the  army  of  the  Rutulians,  wounded  by 
JSneasJ 

ALCATHOE  or  ALCITHOE  ( 'AA/ca0o7?  or  A/Uiflo?/), 
daughter  of  Minyas,  refused,  with  her  sisters 
Leucippe  and  Arsippe,  to  join  in  the  worship  of 
Bacchus  (Dionysus)  when  it  was  introduced  into 
Boeotia,  and  were  accordingly  changed  by  the 
god  into  bats,  and  their  work  into  vines.  Vid. 
Diet,  of  Ant.,  art.  AGRIOXIA. 

ALOATHOUS  ('AA/ca0oof).  1.  Son  of  Pelops 
and  Hippodamia,  brother  of  Atreus  and  Thyes- 
tes,  obtained  as  his  wife  Euaechme,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Megareus,  by  slaying  the  Cithajronian  lion, 
and  succeeded  his  father-in-law  as  king  of  Me- 
gara.  He  restored  the  walls  of  Megara,  in 
which  work  he  was  assisted  by  Apollo.  The 
stone  upon  which  the  god  used  to  place  his  lyre 
while  he  was  at  work,  was  believed,  even  in 
late  times,  to  give  forth  a  sound,  when  struck, 
similar  to  that  of  a  lyre  (Ov.,  Met.,  viii.,  15). — 
2.  Son  of  -*Esyet«s  and  husband  of  Hippodamia, 
the  daughter  of  Anchises  and  sister  of  ^Eneas, 
was  one  of  the  bravest  of  the  Trojan  leaders 
in  the  war  of  Troy,  and  was  slain  by  Idome- 
neus. — [3.  Son  of  Porthaon  and  Euryte,  killed  by 
Tydeus. — 4.  A  companion  of  ^Eneas,  slain  by 
Caedicus.] 

ALCESTIS  or  ALCESTE  ("A^/c^crrtf  or  'AhKecmj), 
daughter  of  Pelias  and  Anaxibia,  wife  of  Ad- 


ALCETAS. 

inetus,  died  in  place  of  her  husband.      Vld.  AD 
METUS. 

ALCETAS  ('A^Kfraf),  two  kings  of  Epirus.  1. 
Son  of  Tlmrypus,  was  expelled  from  his  king- 
dom, and  was  restored  by  the  elder  Dionysius 
of  Syracuse.  He  was  the  ally  of  the  Atheni- 
ans in  B.C.  373. — 2.  Son  of  Arymbas,  and  grand- 
son of  Alcetas  I.,  reigned  B.C.  313-303,  and 
was  put  to  death  by  his  subjects. 

ALCETAS.  1.  K-ing  of  Macedonia,  reigned 
twenty-nine  years,  and  was  father  of  Amyntas 
I. — 2.  Brother  of  Perdiccas  and  son  of  Orontes, 
was  one  of  Alexander's  generals.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander,  he  espoused  his  brother's  party ; 
and  upon  the  murder  of  the  latter  in  Egypt  in 
321,  he  joined  Eumenes.  He  killed  himself  at 
Termessus  in  Pisidia  in  320,  to  avoid  falling 
into  the  hands  of  Antigonus. 

ALCIBIADES  ('A.^Ki6iu6i]f\ — [1.  Of  Athens, 
father  of  Clinias,  and  grandfather  of  the  cele- 
brated Alcibiades,  deduced  his  descent  from 
Eurysaces,  the  sou  of  Telamonian  Ajax.  He 
joined  Clistheues  in  an  attempt  to  procure  the 
banishment  of  the  Pisistratidae ;  but  was  ban- 
ished with  him  B.C.  512.]— 2.  Son  of  Clinias 
and  Diuomache,  was  born  at  Athens  about  B.C. 
450,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  447,  was 
brought  up  by  his  relation  Pericles.  He  pos- 
sessed a  beautiful  person,  transcendent  abilities, 
and  great  wealth,  which  received  a  large  ac- 
cession through  his  marriage  with  Hipparete, 
the  daughter  of  Hipponicus.  His  youth  was 
disgraced  by  his  amours  and  debaucheries,  and 
Socrates,  who  saw  his  vast  capabilities,  at- 
tempted to  win  him  to  the  paths  of  virtue,  but 
in  vain.  Their  intimacy  was  strengthened  by 
mutual  services.  At  the  battle  of  Potidaea 
(B.C.  432)  his  life  was  saved  by  Socrates,  and 
at  that  of  Delium  (424)  he  saved  the  life  of  Soc- 
rates. He  did  not  take  much  part  in  public  af- 
fairs till  after  the  death  of  Cleon  (422),  but  he 
then  became  one  of  the  leading  politicians,  and 
the  head  of  the  war  party  in  opposition  to  Nic- 
ias. Enraged  at  the  affront  put  upon  him  by 
the  Lacedaemonians,  who  had  not  chosen  to 
employ  his  intervention  in  the  negotiations 
which  ended  in  the  peace  of  421,  and  had  pre- 
ferred Nicias  to  him,  he  induced  the  Athenians 
to  form  an  alliance  with  Argos,  Mantinea,  and 
Elis,  and  to  attack  the  allies  of  Sparta.  In  415 
he  was  foremost  amongst  the  advocates  of  the 
Sicilian  expedition,  which  he  believed  would  be 
a  step  toward  the  conquest  of  Italy,  Carthage, 
and  Peloponnesus.  While  the  preparations  for 
the  expedition  were  going  on,  there  occurred 
the  mysterious  mutilation  of  the  Hermes-busts, 
which  the  popular  fears  connected  in  some  un- 
accountable manner  with  an  attempt  to  over- 
throw the  Athenian  constitution.  Alcibiades 
was  charged  with  being  the  ringleader  in  this 
attempt  He  had  been  already  appointed  along 
with  Nicias  and  Lamacbus  as  commander  of  the 
expedition  to  Sicily,  and  he  now  demanded  an 
investigation  before  he  set  sail.  This,  however, 
his  enemies  would  not  grant,  as  they  hoped  to 
increase  the  popular  odium  against  him  in  his 
absence.  He  was,  therefore,  obliged  to  depart 
for  Sicily ;  but  he  had  not  been  there  long,  be- 
fore he  was  recalled  to  stand  his  trial.  On  his 
return  homeward,  he  managed  to  escape  at 
Thurii,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Sparta,  \k-hare 


ALCIMEDON. 

he  acted  as  the  avowed  enemy  of  his  country. 
At  Athens  sentence  of  death  was  passed  upon 
him,  and  his  property  was  confiscated.  At 
Sparta  he  rendered  himself  popular  by  the  fa- 
cility with  which  he  adopted  the  Spartan  man- 
ners ;  but  the  machinations  of  his  enemy,  AGIS 
II,  induced  him  to  abandon  the  Spartans  and 
take  refuge  with  Tissaphernes  (412),  whose  fa- 
vor he  soon  gained.  Through  his  influence  Tis- 
saphernes deserted  the  Spartans  and  professed 
his  willingness  to  assist  the  Athenians,  who  ac 
cordingly  recalled  Alcibiades  from  banishment 
in  411.  He  did  not  immediately  return  to  Ath- 
ens, but  remained  abroad  for  the  next  four  years, 
during  which  the  Athenians  under  his  com- 
mand gained  the  victories  of  Cynossema,  Aby- 
dos,  and  Cyzicus,  and  get  possession  of  Chal- 
cedon  and  Byzantium.  In  407  he  returned  to 
Athens,  where  he  was  received  with  great  en- 
thusiasm, and  was  appointed  Commander-in- 
chief  of  all  the  land  and  sea  forces.  But  the 
defeat  at  Notium,  occasioned  during  his  absence 
by  the  imprudence  of  his  lieutenant,  Antiochus, 
furnished  his  enemies  with  a  handle  against 
him,  and  he  was  superseded  in  his  command 
(B.C.  406).  He  now  went  into  voluntary  ex- 
ile to  his  fortified  domain  at  Bisanthe  in  the 
Thracian  Chersonesus,  where  he  made  war  on 
the  neighboring  Thracians.  Before  the  fatal 
battle  of  ^Egos-Pot.imi  (405),  he  gave  an  inef- 
fectual warning  to  the  Athenian  generals.  After 
the  fall  of  Athens  (404),  he  was  condemned  to 
banishment,  and  took  refuge  with  Pharnaba- 
zus ;  he  was  about  to  proceed  to  the  court  of 
Artaxerxes,  when  one  night  his  house  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  band  of  armed  men,  and  set  on 
fire.  He  rushed  out  sword  in  hand,  but  fell, 
pierced  with  arrows  (404).  The  assassins  were 
probably  either  employed  by  the  Spartans,  or 
by  the  brothers  of  a  lady  whom  Alcibiades  had 
seduced.  He  left  a  son  by  his  wife  Hipparete, 
named  Alcibiades,  who  never  distinguished  him- 
self. It  was  for  him  that  Isocrates  wrote  the 
speech  Tlepl  rov  Zevyovg. 

ALCIDAMAS  (  'A/Ut(5<///af),  a  Greek  rhetorician 
of  Ekea  in  ^Eolis,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  a  pupil  of 
Gorgias,  and  resided  at  Athens  between  B.C. 
432  and  411.  His  works  were  characterized  by 
pompous  diction,  and  the  extravagant  use  of 
poetical  epithets  and  phrases.  There  are  two 
declamations  extant  which  bear  his  name,  en- 
titled Llysses,  and  On  the  Sophists,  but  they 
were  probably  not  written  by  him. — Editions  : 
In  Reiske's  Oratores  Greed,  vol.  viii.,  and  in 
Bekker's  Oratores  At  lid,  vol.  vii. 

ALCIDAS  ('AAicMaf  Dor  —  'AA/teotyf).  a  Spar- 
tan commander  of  the  fleet  in  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  B.C.  428-427.  In  the  former  year  he  was 
sent  to  Mytilene,  and  in  the  latter  to  Corcyra. 

ALCIDES  ('A/l/cftttyc),  a  name  of  Amphitryon, 
the  son  of  Alcasus,  and  more  especially  of  Her- 
cules, the  grandson  of  Alcseus. 

ALCIMEDE  (' Afactfiefa}),  daughter  of  Phylacus 
and  Clymene,  wife  of  JEaoo,  and  mother  of 
Jason. 

[ALCIMEDON  ('AA/c///e<5wv),  an  Arcadian  hero, 
Father  of  Phillo.  From  him  the  Arcadian  plain 
Aldmedon  derived  its  name. — 2.  Son  of  Laerces, 
one  of  the  commanders  of  the  Myrmidons  un- 
der Achilles. — 3.  One  of  the  Tyrrhenian  sailors, 
who  wished  to  carry  off  from  Naxos  the  god 
39 


ALCIMEDON. 

Bacchus,  who  had  taken  the  form  of  an  infant, 
and  for  this  was  metamorphosed  into  a  dolpliiu.] 

[ALCIMEDON,  an  embosser  or  chaser,  spoken  of 
by  Virgil  (Eclog.,  iii.,  37,  44),  who  mentions  some 
goblets  of  his  workmanship.] 

ALCIJIUS  (Avixus)  ALETHIUS,  the  writer  of 
seven  short  poems,  a  rhetorician  in  Aquitnuia,  in 
Gaul,  is  spoken  of  in  terms  of  praise  by  Sidonius 
ApoUinaris  and  Ausonius. — Editions :  In  Meier's 
Anthologia  Latino,  p.  254-260,  and  in  Wernsdo- 
ri's  foiitce  Latini  Minores,  voL  vi. 

ALCINOUS  ('A/Utvoof).  1.  Son  of  Nausithous, 
and  grandson  of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  is  celebra- 
ted in  the  story  of  the  Argonauts,  and  still  more 
in  the  Odyssey.  Homer  represents  him  as  the 
happy  ruler  of  the  Phamcians  in  the  Island  of 
Scheria,  who  has  by  Arete  five  sons  and  one  daugh- 
ter, Nausicaa.  The  way  in  which  he  received 
Ulysses,  and  the  stories  which  the  latter  related 
to  the  king  about  his  wanderings,  occupy  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  Odyssey  (books  vi  to 
xiii.). — 2.  A  Platonic  philosopher,  who  probably 
lived  under  the  Caesars,  wrote  a  work  entitled 
Epitome  of  the  Doctrines  of  Plato.' — Editions : 
By  Fell,  Oxon,  1667,  and  by  J.  F.  Fischer,  Lips., 
1788,  8vo. 

ALCIPHRON  ('AA/c%>uv),  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  Greek  epistolary  writers,  was  perhaps  a 
contemporary  of  Lucian  about  A.D.  170.  The 
letters  (one  hundred  and  thirteen  in  number,  in 
three  books)  are  written  by  fictitious  person- 
ages, and  the  language  is  distinguished  by  its 
purity  and  elegance.  The  new  Attic  comedy 
was  the  principal  source  from  which  the  author 
derived  his  information  respecting  the  characters 
and  manners  which  he  describes,  and  for  this 
reason  they  contain  much  valuable  information 
about  the  private  life  of  the  Athenians  of  that 
time. — Editions:  By  Bergler,  Lips.,  1715, and  by 
Wagner,  Lips.,  1798. 

[ALCIPFE  ('A^KtTnrri),  a  daughter  of  Mars  and 
Agraulos.  Vid.  HALIEEHOTHIUS.] 

ALCITHOE.     Vid.  ALCATHOE. 

ALCMJEON  ('A.AKfj.aiuv).  1.  Son  of  Amphiaraus 
and  Eriphyle,  and  brother  of  Amphilochus.  His 
mother  was  induced  by  the  necklace  of  Harmo- 
nia, which  she  received  from  Polynices,  to  per- 
suade her  husband  Amphiaraus  to  take  part  in 
the  expedition  against  Thebes ;  and  as  he  knew 
he  should  perish  there,  he  enjoined  his  sons  to  kill 
their  mother  as  soon  as  they  should  be  grown  up. 
Alcmseon  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the  Epi- 
goni  against  Thebes,  and  on  his  return  home 
after  the  capture  of  the  city,  he  slew  his  mother, 
according  to  the  injunction  of  his  father.  For 
this  deed  he  became  mad,  and  was  haunted  by 
the  Erinnyes.  He  went  to  Phegeus  in  Psophis, 
and  being  purified  by  the  latter,  he  married 
his  daughter  Arsinoe  or  Alphesibcea,  to  whom 
he  gave  the  necklace  and  peplus  of  Harmonia. 
But  as  the  land  of  this  country  ceased  to 
bear,  on  account  of  its  harboring  a  matricide, 
he  left  Psophis  and  repaired  to  the  country 
at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Aehelous.  The 
god  Achelous  gave  him  his  daughter  Callirrhoe 
in  marriage ;  and  as  the  latter  wished  to  possess 
the  necklace  and  peplus  of  Harmonia,  Alcmseon 
went  to  Psophis  and  obtained  them  from  Phe- 
geus, under  the  pretext  of  dedicating  them  at 
Delphi ;  but  when  Phegeus  heard  that  the  trea- 
pnres  were  fetched  for  Callirrhoe,  he  caused  his 
40 


ALCMENE. 

sons  to  murder  Alcmaeoa  Alcmaeon  was  wor- 
shipped as  a  hero  at  Thebes,  and  at  Psophis  his 
tomb  was  shown,  surrounded  with  cypresses. — 
[2.  Son  of  Sillus,  and  great  grandson  of  Nestor, 
founder  of  the  celebrated  family  of  the  ALCM^ON- 
ID^  (q.  v.)  in  Athens.] — 3.  Son  of  Megacles,  was 
greatly  enriched  by  Crasus. — 4.  Of  Crotona  in 
Italy,  said;  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Pythagoras, 
though  this  is  very  doubtful.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  person  who  dissected  ani- 
mals, and  he  made  some  important  discoveries 
in  anatomy  and  natural  philosophy.  He  wrote 
several  medical  and  philosophical  works,  which 
arc  lost. 

ALCM^EONID^E  ('AXic/Liaiuvitiai),  a  noble  family 
at  Athens,  members  of  which  fill  a  space  in 
Grecian  history  from  B.C.  750  to  400.  They 
were  a  branch  of  the  family  of  the  Nelidae,  who 
were  driven  out  of  Pylus  in  Messenia  by  the  Do- 
rians, and  settled  at  Athens.  In  consequence  of 
the  way  in  which  Megacles,  one  of  the  family, 
treated  the  insurgents  under  CYLON  (B.C.  612J, 
they  brought  upon  themselves  the  guilt  of  sacn 
lege,  and  were  in  consequence  banished  from 
Athens,  about  595.  About  560  they  returned 
from  exile,  but  were  again  expelled  by  Pisistra- 
tus.  In  548  they  contracted  with  the  Amphic 
tyonic  council  to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Delphi, 
and  obtained  great  popularity  throughout  Greece 
by  executing  the  work  in  a  style  of  magnificence 
which  much  exceeded  their  engagement.  On  the 
expulsion  of  Hippias  in  510,  they  were  again  re- 
stored to  Athens.  They  now  joined  the  popular 
party,  and  Clisthenes,  who  was  at  that  time  the 
head  of  the  family,  gave  a  new  constitution  tc 
Athens.  Vid.  CLISTHENES. 

ALCMAN  ('Afafidv,  [Doric  form  of  the  name, 
which  was  properly]  'A.2,K[iaiuv),  the  chief  lyric 
poet  of  Sparta,  by  birth  a  Lydiau  of  Sardis,  was 
brought  to  Laconia  as  a  slave,  when  very  young, 
and  was  emancipated  by  his  master,  who  dis- 
covered his  genius.  He  probably  flourished 
about  B.C.  631,  and  most  of  his  poems  were  com- 
posed after  the  conclusion  of  the  second  Messenian 
war.  He  is  said  to  have  died,  like  Sulla,  of  the 
morbus  pedicularis.  Alcman's  poems  were  com- 
prised in  six  books  :  many  of  them  were  erotic, 
and  he  is  said  by  some  ancient  writers  to  have 
been  the  inventor  of  erotic  poetry.  His  metres 
were  very  various.  The  Cretic  hexameter  was 
named  Alcmanic  from  his  being  its  inventor.  His 
dialect  was  the  Spartan  Doric,  with  an  inter- 
mixture of  the  ^Eolic.  The  Alexandrean  gram- 
marians placed  Alcman  at  the  head  of  their 
canon  of  the  nine  lyric  poets.  The  fragments 
of  his  poems  are  edited  by  "Welcker,  Gies- 
sen,  1815 ;  and  by  Bergk,  in  Poetce  Lyrici  Greed, 
1843. 

ALCMENE  ('AA/c//^i>>?),  daughter  of  Electryon. 
king  of  Mycenae,  by  Anaxo  or  Lysidice.  The 
brothers  of  Alcmene  were  slain  by  the  sons  of 
Pterelaus ;  and  their  father  set  out  to  avenge 
their  death,  leaving  to  Amphitryon  his  kingdom 
and  his  daughter  Alcmene,  whom  Amphitryon 
was  to  marry.  But  Amphitryon  having  unin- 
tentionally killed  Electryon  before  the  marriage, 
Sthenelus  expelled  both  Amphitryon  and  Alc- 
meue,  who  went  to  Thebes.  But  here,  instead 
of  marrying  Amphitryon,  Alcmene  declared  that 
she  would  only  marry  the  man  who  should 
avenge  the  death  of  her  brothers.  Amphitryon 


ALCON. 


ALETES. 


nndertook  the  task,  and  invited  Creon  of  Thebes 
to  assist  him.  During  his  absence,  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
<n  the  disguise  of  Amphitryon,  visited  Alcmene, 
and,  having  related  in  what  way  he  had  avenged 
the  death  of  her  brothers,  [finally  persuaded  her 
to  a  union].  Amphitryon  himself  returned  the 
next  day  ;  Alcmene  became  the  mother  of  Her- 
cules by  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  of  Iphicles  by  Am- 
phitryon. Vid.  HERCULES.  After  the  death  of 
Amphitryon,  Alcmene  married  Rhadamanthys, 
at  Ocalla  in  Boeotia.  When  Hercules  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  god,  Alcmene,  fearing 
Eurystheus,  fled  with  the  sons  of  Hercules  to 
Athens. 

[ALCON  ("AA/cuv),  son  of  Hippocoon,  a  Calydo- 
oiau  hunter,  slain  by  Hercules. — 2.  Son  of  the 
Athenian  King  Erechtheus,  so  skillful  an  archer, 
that  he  shot  a  serpent  which  had  entwined  itself 
around  his  son,  without  wounding  his  child. 
In  Virgil  (Eel.,  5,  11)  an  Alcon  is  mentioned, 
whom  Servius  calls  a  Cretan,  and  a  companion 
of  Hercules,  and  relates  of  him  nearly  the 
story  just  given. — 3.  A  statuary,  who  made  a 
statue  of  Hercules  at  Thebes,  of  iron,  to 
symbolize  thereby  the  hero's  powers  of  endur- 
ance.] 

ALCYONE  or  HALCYONS  ('AA/cvov??).  1.  A 
Pleiad,  daughter  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  and  be- 
loved by  Neptune  (Poseidon). — 2.  Daughter  of 
/Bolus  and  Enarete  or  JEgiale,  and  wife  of  Ceyx. 
They  lived  so  happily  that  they  were  presump- 
tuous enough  to  call  each  other  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Juno  (Hera),  for  which  Jupiter  (Zeus)  me- 
tamorphosed them  into  birds,  alcyon  and  ceyx, 
Others  relate  that  Ceyx  perished  in  a  shipwreck, 
that  Alcyone  for  grief  threw  herself  into  the 
*ea,  and  that  the  gods,  out  of  compassion, 
changed  the  two  into  birds.  It  was  fabled  that  j 
during  the  seven  days  before,  and  as  many  after, 
the  shortest  day  of  the  year,  while  the  bird 
alcyon  was  breeding,  there  always  prevailed 
calms  at  sea. — [2.  Daughter  of  Idas  and  Marpessa, 
wife  of  Meleager,  called  by  her  parents  Alcyone, 
from  the  plaintive  cries  uttered  by  her  mother 
Marpessa  when  carried  off  by  Apollo.] 

ALCYONEUS  ('\facvovevc.),  a  giant,  killed  by 
Hercules  at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 

[ALCYOKIA  PALUS  ('AA/cuwvta  A///VJ?),  a  lake 
in  Argolis,  of  small  size,  but  unfathomable  depth, 
by  which  Bacchus  descended  to  the  lower  world, 
when  be  sought  to  bring  back  Semele.  It  is  re- 
garded by  Leake  as  a  part  of  Lerna.1 

ALCYONIUM  MARE  (ij  'AX/ctJoi>fc  duhanad),  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf. 

ALEA  ('A^cc),  a  surname  of  Minerva  (Athena), 
under  which  she  was  worshipped  at  Alea,  Man- 
tinea,  and  Tegea.  Her  temple  at  the  hitter  place 
was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  Greece.  It  is 
•aid  to  have  been  built  by  Aleus,  son  of  Apbldas, 
king  of  Tegea,  from  whom  the  goddess  is  sup- 
posed to  have  derived  this  surname. 

ALEA  ('AAca  :  'AAetif ),  a  town  in  Arcadia,  east 
of  the  Stymphalian  Lake,  with  a  celebrated  tem- 
ple of  Minerva  (Athena),  the  ruins  of  which  are 
near  Piali. 

ALKBION.     Vid.  ALBION. 

ALECTO.     Vid.  FURLS. 

[ALECTOR  ('A/i/Krwp),  son  of  Pelops,  an»l  fa- 
ther of  Iphiloche,  who  married  Mcgapenthea ,  son  j 
of  Menelaus. — 2.  Son  of  Anaxagoras,  father  of 
Iphis,  King  of  Argos.] 


[ALECTRYON  ('A?.eKTpvuv),  a  youth  stationed 
by  Mars,  during  his  interview  with  Venus,  at  the 
door  to  guard  against  surprise.  Having  fallen 
asleep,  he  was  changed  by  Mars  into  a  cock 
(dheKTpvuv)  for  his  neglect  of  duty. — 2.  The 
father  of  the  Argonaut  Lei'tus,  called  by  Apollo 
dorus  Alectarl\ 

ALEICS  CAMPUS  or  ALEII  CAMPI  (rb  '\7.i}iov 
irediov),  an  extensive  and  fruitful  plain  of  Cilicia, 
not  far  from  Mallus,  between  the  Rivers  Pyra- 
mus  and  Sarus  (in  Homer's  Lycia,  //.,  6,  201). 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  circumstance  that 
Bellerophou  in  his  old  age  fell  into  melancholy 
and  madness,  and  wandered  about  here  (from 
aXrj,  wandering).  Another  legend  makes  Bel- 
lerophon  to  have  been  thrown  from  Pegas'is  when 
attempting  to  mount  to  heaven,  and  to  have  wan- 
dered about  here  lame  and  blind.] 

ALEMANNI,  or  ALAMANNI,  or  ALAITANI  (from  the 
German  alle  Manner,  all  men),  a  confederacy  of 
German  tribes,  chiefly  of  Suevic  extraction,  be- 
tween the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Main, 
though  we  subsequently  find  them  extending 
their  territories  as  far  as  the  Alps  and  the  Jura. 
The  different  tribes  of  the  confederacy  were  gov- 
erned by  their  own  kings,  but  in  time  of  war 
they  obeyed  a  common  leader.  They  were  brsve 
and  warlike,  and  proved  formidable  enemies  to 
the  Romans.  They  first  came  into  contact  with  the 
Romans  in  the  reign  of  Caracalla,  who  assumed 
the  surname  of  Alemannicus  on  account  of  a  pre- 
tended victory  over  them  (A.D.  214).  They 
were  attacked  by  Alexander  Severus  (284),  and 
by  Maximin  (237).  They  invaded  Italy  in  270, 
but  were  driven  back  by  Aurelian,  and  were 
again  defeated  by  Probus  in  282.  After  this 
time  they  continually  invaded  the  Roman  d^mi- 
nions  in  Germany,  and,  though  defeated  by 
Constantius  I.,  Julian  (357),  Valentinian,  and 
Gratian,  they  gradually  became  more  and 
more  powerful,  and  in  the  fifth  century  were 
in  possession  of  Alsace  and  of  German 
Switzerland. 

ALERIA  ('Afapia  :  'AAa/Ua  in  Herod.)l  one  of 
the  chief  cities  of  Corsica,  on  the  east  of  the 
island,  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Riv^r  Rhota- 
nus  (now  Tavignano),  near  its  mouth.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Phocseans  B.C.  664,  was  plun- 
dered by  L.  Scipio  in  the  first  Puni"  war,  and 
was  made  a  Roman  colony  by  Sulla. 

ALESA.     Vid.  HALESA. 

ALESIA  ('A.%.eaia),  an  ancient  town  of  the  Man 
dubii  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Hercules,  and  situated  on  a  high  hill 
(now  Auxois,  [at  the  foot  of  which  is  a  village 
called  Alise}},  which  was  washed  by  the  two 
rivers  Lutosa  (now  Oze)  and  Osera  (now  Ozer- 
ain).  It  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Caesar,  in 
B.C.  52,  after  a  memorable  siege,  but  was  after- 
ward rebuilt 

ALESI-B  ('Afaaiai),  a  town  in  Laconia,  west  of 
Sparta,  on  the  road  to  Pherse. 

A u>ii  M  ('\?.eimov),  a  town  in  Elis,  not  far 
from  Olympia,  afterward  called  Alesiccum. 

ALKSIUS  MONS  (rd  'ATiyaiov  opof),  &  mountain 
in  Arcadia  with  a  temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
Hippius  and  a  grove  of  Ceres  (Demeter). 

AI.ETES  (fAfo/r77f),  son  of  Hippotes,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  Hercules,  is  said  to  nave  taken  pos- 
session  of  Corinth,  and   to   have   expelled  the 
Sisyphids,   thirty   years  after  the  first  invasion 
41 


ALETIUM. 


ALEXANDER. 


of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Heraclids.  His  family, 
culled  the  Aletidae,  maintained  themselves  at 
Corinth  down  to  the  time  of  Bacchis. — [2.  A 
companion  of  ^Eneas,  who  was  held  in  venera- 
tion on  account  of  his  age  and  wisdom.] 

ALKTICM  (Aletmus),  a  town  of  Calabria. 

ALETRIUM  or  ALATRIUM  (Aletrlnas,  atis :  now 
Alatri),  an  ancient  town  of  the  Hernici,  subse- 
quently a  municipium  and  a  Roman  colony, 
west  of  Sora  and  east  of  Anagnia, 

ALEUAD.*.     Vid.  ALEUAS. 

ALEUAS,  ('Afovaf)  a  descendant  of  Hercules, 
was  the  ruler  of  Larissa  in  Thessaly,  and  the 
reputed  founder  of  the  celebrated  family  of  the 
Aleuadae.  Before  the  time  of  Pisistratus  (B.C. 
560),  the  family  of  the  Aleuadae  appears  to  have 
become  divided  into  two  branches,  the  Aleuadae 
and  the  Scopadae.  The  Scopadae  inhabited  Cran- 
non  and  perhaps  Pharsalus  also,  while  the  main 
branch,  the  Aleuadae,  remained  at  Larissa.  The 
influence  of  the  families,  however,  was  not  con- 
fined to  these  towns,  but  extended  more  or  less 
over  the  greater  part  of  Thessaly.  They  form- 
ed, in  reality,  a  powerful  aristocratic  party  in  op- 
position to  the  great  body  of  the  Thessalians. 
In  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes  (480),  the 
Aleuadae  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Persians, 
and  the  family  continued  to  be  the  predominant 
one  in  Thessaly  for  a  long  time  afterward.  But 
after  the  end  of  the  Poloponnesian  war  (404), 
another  Thessalian  family,  the  dynasts  of  Pherae, 
gradually  rose  to  power  and  influence,  and  gave 
a  gi  3at  shock  to  the  power  of  the  Aleuadae. 
The  most  formidable  of  these  princes  was  Jason 
of  Pherae,  who  succeeded,  after  various  strug- 
gles, in  raising  himself  to  the  dignity  of  Tagus, 
or  supreme  ruler  of  Thessaly.  Vid.  JASON. 

ALEUS.      Vid.  A  I.I.A. 

ALEX  or  HALEX  (now  Alece),  a  small  river  in 
Southern  Italy,  was  the  boundary  between  the 
territory  of  Rhegium  and  of  the  Locri  Epi- 
zephyriL 

[ALEXAMENUS  ('AAe£a//«>6f),  an  ^Etohan  lead- 
er, sent  by  his  countrymen  with  one  thousand 
men  to 'Sparta,  who  slew  Nabis  the  Spartan 
tyrant 

ALEXANDER  ('A.2.e%avdpof),  the  usual  name  of 
Paris  in  the  Iliad. 

ALEXANDER  SEVERUS.     Vid.  SEVERUS. 

ALEXANDER.     1.  Minor  Historical  Persons. 

1.  Son  of  JSROPUS,  a  native  of  the  Macedoni- 
an district  called  Lyncestis,  whence  he  is  usually 
called  Alexander  Lyncestis.  He  was  an  accom- 
plice in  the  murder  of  Philip,  B.C.  336,  but 
was  pardoned  by  Alexander  the  Great  He  ac- 
companied Alexander  to  Asia;  but  in  334  he 
was  detected  in  carrying  on  a  treasonable  cor- 
respondence with  Darius,  was  kept  in  confine- 
ment, and  put  to  death  in  330.  2.  Son  of  AN- 
TONIUS  the  triumvir,  and  Cleopatra,  bom,  with 
his  twin-sister^  Cleopatra,  B.C.  40.  After  the 
battle  of  Actium  they  were  taken  to  Rome  by 
Augustus,  and  were  generously  educated  by 
Octavia,  the  wife  of  Antonius,  with  her  own 
childrea — 3.  Eldest  son  of  ARISTOBULUS  II, 
king  of  Judea,  rose  in  arms  in  B.C.  57,  against 
Hyrcanus,  who  was  supported  by  the  Romans. 
Alexander  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  in  56 
and  55,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Pompey  at  An- 
tioch  in  49. — 4.  Third  son  of  CASSANDER,  king 
of  Macedonia,  by  Thessalonica,  sister  of  Alex- 
42 


I  ander  the  Great  In  his  quarrel  with  his  elder 
'  brother  Autipater  for  the  government  (rid.  AN- 
TIPATER),  he  called  in  the  aid  of  Pyrrhus  of 
Epirus  and  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  by  the  hitter 
of  whom  he  was  murdered  B.C.  294. — 3.  JAN- 
N-srs,  the  eon  of  Joannes  Hyrcanus,  and  broth- 
er of  Aristobulus  I.,  king  of  the  Jews  B.C.  104- 
77.  At  the  commencement  of  his  reign  he  was 
engaged  in  war  with  Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  king  of 
Cyprus ;  and  subsequently  he  had  to  carry  on  for 
six  years  a  dangerous  struggle  with  his  own 
subjects,  to  whom  he  had  rendered  himself  ob 
noxious  by  his  cruelties  and  by  opposing  the 
Pharisees.  He  signalized  his  victory  by  the 
1  most  frightful  butchery  of  his  subjects. — 6.  Sur- 
I  named  Isius,  the  chief  commander  of  tha  JEto- 
!  lians,  took  an  active  part  in  opposing  Philip  of 
Macedonia  (B.C.  198,  197),  and  hi  the  various 
negotiations  with  the  Romans. — 7.  Tyrant  of 
PHERAE,  was  a  relation  of  Jason,  and  succeeded 
either  Polydorus  or  Polyphron,  as  Tagus  of 
Thessaly,  about  B.C.  369.  In  consequence  of 
his  tyrannical  government,  the  Thessalians  ap- 
plied for  aid  first  to  Alexander  II.,  king  of  Mace- 
donia, and  next  to  Thebes.  The  Thebans  sent 
Pelopidas  into  Thessaly  to  succor  the  malcon- 
tents; but  having  ventured  incautiously  within 
the  power  of  the  tyrant,  he  was  seized  by  Alex- 
ander, and  thrown  into  prison  B.C.  368.  The 
Thebans  sent  a  large  army  into  Thessaly  to 
rescue  Pelopidas,  but  they  were  defeated  in  the 
first  campaign,  and  did  not  obtain  their  object 
till  the  next  year,  367.  In  364  Pelopidas  again 
entered  Thessaly  with  a  small  force,  but  was 
slain  in  battle  by  Alexander.  The  Thebans 
now  sent  a  large  army  against  the  tyrant,  and 
compelled  him  to  become  a  dependent  ally  of 
Thebes.  We  afterwards  hear  of  Alexander 
making  piratical  descents  on  many  of  the  Athe- 
nian dependencies,  and  even  on  Attica  itself. 
He  was  murdered  in  367,  by  his  wife  Thebe, 
with  the  assistance  of  her  three  brothers. — 8. 
Son  of  POLYSPERCHON,  the  Macedonian,  was 
chiefly  employed  by  his  father  in  the  command 
of  the  armies  which  he  sent  against  Cassander. 
Thus  he  was  sent  against  Athens  in  B.C.  318, 
and  was  engaged  in  military  operations  during 
the  next  year  in  various  parts  of  Greece.  But 
in  315  he  became  reconciled  to  Cassander,  and 
we  find  him  in  314  commanding  on  behalf  of 
the  latter.  He  was  murdered  at  Sicyon  in  314. 
— 9.  PTOLEMJEUS.  Vid.  PTOLEM^EUS. — 10.  TI- 
BERIUS, born  at  Alexandrea,  of  Jewish  parents, 
and  nephew  of  the  writer  Philo.  He  deserted 
the  faith  of  his  ancestors,  and  was  rewarded 
for  his  apostacy  by  various  public  appointments. 
In  the  reign  of  Claudius  he  succeeded  Fadus  aa 
procurator  of  Judiea  (A.D.  46),  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  Nero  procurator  of  Egypt.  He  was 
the  first  Roman  governor  who  declared  in  favor 
of  Vespasian ;  and  he  accompanied  Titus  in  the 
war  against  Judaea,  and  was  present  at  tb  f  tak- 
ing of  Jerusalem. 

IL  Kings  of  Epirus. 

1.  Son  of  Neoptolemus,  and  brother  of  Olym- 
pias,  the  mother  of  Alexander  the  Great  Phil- 
ip made  him  long  of  Epirus  in  place  of  his  cousin 
uEacides,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  Cleopatra 
in  marriage  (B.C.  336).  In  332,  Alexander,  at 
the  request  of  the  Tarentines,  crossed  over  into 


ALEXANDER. 


ALEXANDER. 


Italy,  to  aid  them  against  the  Lucanians  and 
Bruttii.  After  meeting  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, he  was  defeated  and  slain  in  battle  in  326, 
near  Pandosia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Acheron  in 
Southern  Italy. — 2.  Son  of  Phyrrus  and  Lanas- 
*a,  daughter  of  the  Sicilian  tyrant  Agathocles, 
succeeded  his  father  in  B.C.  272,  and  drove  An- 
higonus  Gonatus  out  of  Macedonia.  He  was 
shortly  afterward  deprived  of  both .  Macedonia 
ind  Epirus  by  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigonus ; 
but  he  recovered  Epirus  by  the  aid  of  the  Acar- 
lanians. 

IIL  Kings  of  Macedonia. 

1.  Son  of  Amyntas  I.,  distinguished  himself 
>n  the  lifetime  of  his  father  by  killing  the  Per- 
sian ambassadors  who  had  come  to  demand  the 
submission  of  Amyntas,  because  they  attempted 
to  offer  indignities  to  the  ladies  of  the  court,  about 
B.C.  507.  He  succeeded  his  father  shortly 
afterward,  was  obliged  to  submit  to  the  Per- 
sians, and  accompanied  Xerxes  in  his  invasion 
of  Greece  (B.C.  480).  He  gained  the  confidence 
of  Mardonius,  who  sent  him  to  Athens  to  propose 
peace  to  the  Athenians,  which  was  rejected. 
He  was  secretly  inclined  to  the  cause  of  the 
Greeks,  and  informed  them  the  night  before  the 
battle  of  PlaUeae  of  the  intention  of  Mardonius  to 
fight  on  the  following  day.  He  died  about  B.C. 
455,  and  was  succeeded  by  Perdiccas  IL — 2. 
Son  of  Amyntas  II.,  whom  he  succeeded, 
reigned  B.C.  269-367.  A  usurper  of  the  name 
of  Ptolomey  Alorites  having  risen  against  him, 
Pelopidas,  who  was  called  in  to  mediate  between 
them,  left  Alexander  in  possession  of  the  king- 
dom, but  took  with  him  to  Thebes  several  hos- 
tages ;  among  whom  was  Philip,  the  youngest 
brother  of  Alexander,  afterward  King  of  Mace- 
donia. Alexander  was  shortly  afterward  mur- 
dered by  Ptolomey  Alorites. — 3.  Suruamed  the 
GREAT,  son  of  Philip  II.  and  Olympias,  was  born 
at  Pella,  B.C.  356.  His  early  education  was 
committed  to  Leonidas  and  Lysiniachus ;  and 
he  was  also  placed  under  the  care  of  Aris- 
totle, who  acquired  an  influence  over  his  mind 
and  character  which  was  manifest  to  the  latest 
period  of  his^life.  At  the  age  of  sixteen,  Alex- 
ander was  intrusted  with  the  government  of 
Macedonia  by  his  father,  while  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  his  kingdom  to  march  against  Byzan- 
tium. He  first  distinguished  himself,  however, 
at  the  battle  of  Chaeronea  (338),  where  the  vic- 
tory was  mainly  owing  to  his  impetuosity  and 
courage.  On  the  murder  of  Philip  (336),  Alex- 
ander ascended  the  throne,  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
and  found  himself  surrounded  by  enemies  on 
every  side.  He  first  put  down  rebellion  in  his 
own  kingdom,  and  then  rapidly  marched  into 
Greece.  His  unexpected  activity  overawed  all 
opposition  ;  Thebes,  which  had  been  most  active 
against  him,  submitted  when  he  appeared  at  its 
gates;  and  the  assembled  Greeks  at  the  Isth- 
mus of  Corinth,  with  the  sole  exception  of  the 
Lacedaemonians,  elected  him  to  the  command 
against  Persia,  which  had  previously  been 
bestowed  upon  his  father.  He  now  directed  his 
arms  against  the  barbarians  of  the  north,  marched 
(early  in  335)  across  Mount  Haemus,  defeated  the 
Triballi,  and  advanced  as  far  as  the  Danube, 
which  he  crossed ;  and,  on  his  return,  subdued 
ie  Illyrians  and  Taulautii.  A  report  of  his 


death  having  reached  Greece,  the  Thebans  once 
more  took  up  arms.  But  a  terrible  punish 
ment  awaited  them.  He  advanced  into  Bceotia 
by  rapid  marches,  took  Thebes  by  assault,  des- 
troyed all  the  buildings,  with  the  exception  of 
the  house  of  Pindar,  killed  most  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, and  sold  the  rest  as  slaves.  Alexander 
now  prepared  for  his  great  expedition  against 
Persia.  In  the  spring  of  334,  he  crossed  the 
Hellespont  with  about  thirty-five  thousand  men. 
Of  these  thirty  thousand  were  foot  and  five 
thousand  horse,  and  of  the  former  only  twelve 
thousand  were  Macedonians.  Alexander's  first 
engagement  with  the  Persians  was  on  the  River 
Granicus  in  Mysia  (May  334),  where  they  were 
entirely  defeated  by  him.  This  battle  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  capture  or  submission  of  the  chief 
towns  on  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Hali 
carnassus  was  not  taken  till  late  in  the  autumn, 
after  a  vigorous  defence  by.Memnon,  the_  ablest 

!  general  of  Darius,  and  whose  death  in  we  fol- 

i  lowing  year  (333)  relieved  Alexander  from  a 
formidable  opponent.  He  now  marched  along 
the  coast  of  Lycia  and  Pamphylia,  and  then 
north  into  Phrygia  and  to  Gordium,  where  he  cut 
or  untied  the  celebrated  Gordian  knot,  which,  it 
was  said,  was  to  be  loosened  only  by  the  con- 
queror of  Asia.  In  333,  he  marched  from  Gor- 

|  dium  through  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor  into 
Cilicia,  where  he  nearly  lost  his  life  at  Tarsus  by 
a  fever,  brought  on  by  his  great  exertions  or 
through  throwing  himself,  when  heated,  into  the 
cold  waters  of  the  Cydnus.  Darius,  meantime, 
had  collected  an  army  of  five  hundred  thousand 
or  six  hundred  thousand  men,  with  thirty  thou- 
sand Greek  mercenaries,  whom  Alexander 
defeated  in  the  narrow  plain  of  Issus.  Darius 
escaped  across  the  Euphrates  by  the  ford  of 
Thapsacus ;  but  his  mother,  wife,  and  children 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Alexander,  who  treated 
them  with  the  utmost  delicacy  and  respect.  Alex- 
ander now  directed  his  arms  against  the  cities 
of  Plwenicia,  most  of  which  submitted ;  but  Tyre 
was  not  taken  till  the  middle  of  332,  after  an 
obstinate  defence  of  seven  months.  Next  fol- 
lowed the  siege  of  Gaza,  which  again  delayed 
Alexander  two  months.  Afterward,  according 
to  Josephus,he  marched  to  Jerusalem,  intending  t« 
punish  the  people  for  refusing  to  assist  him. 
but  he  was  diverted  from  his  purpose  by 
the  appearance  of  the  high-priest,  and  par 
doned  the  people.  This  story  is  not  mentioned 
by  Arrian,  and  rests  on  questionable  evi- 
dence. Alexander  next  marched  into  Egypt 
which  willingly  submitted  to  him,  for  the  Egyp- 
tians had  ever  hated  the  Persians.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  331,  Alexander  founded  at  the  moutL 
of  the  western  branch  of  the  Nile  the  city 
of  ALEXANDREA,  and  about  the  same  time 
visited  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  in  the 
desert  of  Libya,  and  was  saluted  by  the  priests 
as  the  son  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  In  the  spring 
of  the  same  year  (331),  Alexander  set  out 
to  meet  Darius,  who  had  collected  anothei 
army.  He  marched  through  Phoenicia  and 
Syria  to  the  Euphrates,  which  he  crossed 
at  the  ford  of  Thapsacus ;  thence  he  pro- 
ceeded through  Mesopotamia,  crossed  the  Tigis, 
and  at  length  met  with  the  immense  hosts 
of  Darius,  said  to  have  amounted  to  more  than 

i  a   million   of   men,  in    the    plains    of    Gauga 

43 


ALEXANDER. 


ALEXANDER. 


The  battle  was  fought  in  the  month  of 
Octobei,  331,  and  ended  in  the  complete  defeat 
of  the  Persians.  Alexander  pursued  the  fugi- 
tives to  Arbela  (now  JUrbil),  which  place  has 
given  its  name  to  the  battle,  though  distant  about 
fifty  miles  from  the  spot  where  it  was  fought 
Darius,  who  had  left  the  field  of  battle  early  in 
the  day,  fled  to  Ecbatana  (now  Hamadan),  in 
Media.  Alexander  was  now  the  conqueror  of 
Asia,  and  began  to  adopt  Persian  habits  and  cus- 
toms, by  which  he  conciliated  the  affections  of 
his  new  subjects.  From  Arbela  he  marched  to 
Babylon,  Susa,  and  Persepolis,  all  of  which  sur- 
rendered to  him.  He  is  said  to  have  set  fire  to 
the  palace  of  Persepolis,  and,  according  to  some 
accounts,  in  the  revelry  of  a  banquet,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Thais,  an  Athenian  courtesan.  At 
the  beginning  of  330  Alexander  marched  froni 
Persepoli*  into  Media,  in  pursuit  of  Darius, 
wh<  >mJie  followed  through  Rhagae  and  the  passes 
of  th^Elburz  Mountains,  called  by  the  ancients 
the  Caspian  Gates,  into  the  deserts  of  Parthia, 
where  the  unfortunate  king  was  murdered  by 
Bessus,  satrap  of  Bactria,  and  his  associates. 
Alexander  sent  his  body  to  Persepolis,  to  be 
buried  in  the  tombs  of  the  Persian  kings.  Bes- 
sus escaped  to  Bactria,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
King  of  Persia.  Alexander  was  engaged  during 
the  remainder  of  the  year  in  subduing  the 
northern  provinces  of  Asia  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  Indus,  namely,  Hyrcania,  Parthia,  Aria, 
the  Drangae,  and  Sarangae.  It  was  during 
this  campaign  that  PHILOTAS,  his  father  PARME- 
uiojf,  and  other  Macedonians  were  executed  on 
a  charge  of  treasoa  In  329  Alexander  crossed 
the  mountains  of  the  Paropamisus  (now  the 
Hindoo  Koosh),  and  marched  into  Bactria 
against  Bessus,  whom  he  pursued  across  the 
Oxus  into  Sogdiana.  In  this  country  Bessus 
was  betrayed  to  him,  and  was  put  to  death. 
From  the  Oxus  he  advanced  as  far  as  the  Jax- 
artes  (now  the  Sir),  which  he  crossed,  and  de- 
feated several  Scythian  tribes  north  of  that 
river.  After  founding  a  city,  Alexandrea,  on  the 
Jaxartes,  he  retraced  his  steps,  and  returned  to 
Zariaspa  or  Bactra,  where  he  spent  the  winter- 
of  329.  It  was  here  that  he  killed  his  friend 
Clitus  in  a  drunken  revel  In  328,  Alexander 
again  crossed  the  Oxus  to  complete  the  subjuga- 
tion of  Sogdiana,  but  was  not  able  to  effect  it  in 
the  year,  and  accordingly  went  into  winter- 
quarters  at  Nautaca,  a  place  in  the  middle  of 
the  province.  At  the  beginning  of  327,  he  took 
a  mountain  fortress,  in  which  Oxyartes,  a  Bac- 
trian  prince,  had  deposited  his  wife  and  daugh- 
ters. The  beauty  of  Roxana,  one  of  the  latter, 
captivated  the  conqueror,  and  he  accordingly 
made  her  his  wife.  This  marriage  with  one  of 
his  Eastern  subjects  was  in  accordance  with 
the  whole  of  his  policy.  Having  completed  the 
conquest  of  Sogdiana,  he  marched  south  into 
Bactria,  and  made  preparations  for  the  invasion 
of  India.  While  in  Bactria  another  conspiracy 
was  discovered  for  the  murder  of  the  king. 
The  plot  was  formed  by  Hermolaus  with  a 
number  of  the  royal  pages,  and  Calhsthenes, 
a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  was  involved  in  it  All 
the  conspirators  were  put  to  death.  Alex- 
ander did  not  leave  Bactria  till  late  in 
the  spring  of  327,  and  crossed  the  Indus,  pro- 
bably near  the  modem  Attock.  He  met  with 
44 


no  resistance  till  he  reached  the  Hydt^pen, 
where  he  was  opposed  by  Porus,  an  Indian  king, 
whom  he  defeated  after  a  gallant  resistance, 
and  took  prisoner.  Alexander  restored  to  him 
his  kingdom,  and  treated  him  with  distinguished 
honor.  He  founded  two  towns,  one  on  each 
bank  of  the  Hydaspes :  one  called  Bucephala,  in 
honor  of  his  horse  Bucephalus,  who  died  here, 
after  carrying  him  through  so  many  victories  ; 
and  the  other  Nicaea,  to  commemorate  his  vic- 
tory. From  thence  he  marched  across  the 
Acesines  (now  the  Chinab)  and  the  Hydraotes 
(now  the  Ravee),  and  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
Hyphasis  (now  Oarra).  This  was  the  furthest 
point  which  he  reached,  for  the  Macedonians, 
worn  out  by  long  service,  and  tired  of  the  war, 
refused  to  advance  further ;  and  Alexander,  not- 
withstanding his  entreaties  and  prayers,  was 
obliged  to  lead  them  back  He  returned  to  the 
Hydaspes,  where  he  had  previously  given  orders 
for  the  building  of  a  fleet,  and  then  sailed  down 
the  river  with  about  eight  thousand  men,  while 
the  remainder  marched  along  the  banks  in  two 
divisions.  This  was  late  in  the  autumn  of  327. 
The  people  on  each  side  of  the  river  submitted 
without  resistance,  except  the  Malli,  in  the  con- 
quest of  one  of  whose  places  Alexander  was 
severely  wounded.  At  the  confluence  of  the 
Acesines  and  the  Indus,  Alexander  founded  a 
city,  and  left  Philip  as  satrap,  with  a  considera- 
ble body  of  Greeks.  Here  he  built  some  fresh 
ships,  and  continued  his  voyage  down  the  Indus, 
founded  a  city  at  Pattala,  the  apex  of  the  delta 
of  the  Indus,  and  sailed  into  the  Indian  Ocean, 
which  he  reached  about  the  middle  of  326. 
Nearchus  was  sent  with  the  fleet  to  sail  along 
the  coast  to  the  Persian  Gulf  (vid.  NEARCHUS)  ; 
and  Alexander  marched  with  the  rest  of  his 
forces  through  Gedrosia,  in  which  country  his  ar- 
my suffered  greatly  from  want  of  water  and  provi- 
sions. He  reached  Susa  at  the  beginning  of  325. 
Here  he  allowed  himself  and  his  troops  some 
rest  from  their  labors ;  and  anxious  to  form  his 
European  and  Asiatic  subjects  into  one  people, 
he  assigned  to  about  eighty  of  his  generals  Asia- 
tic wives,  and  gave  with  them  rich  dowries. 
He  himself  took  a  second  wife,  Barsine,  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Darius,  and,  according  to 
some  accounts,  a  third,  Parysatis,  the  daughter 
of  Ochus.  About  ten  thousand  Macedonians 
followed  the  example  of  their  king  and  generals, 
and  married  Asiatic  women.  Alexander  also 
enrolled  large  numbers  of  Asiatics  among  his 
troops,  and  taught  them  the  Macedonian  tactics. 
He,  moreover,  directed  his  attention  to  the  in- 
crease of  commerce,  and  for  this  purpose  had 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  made  navigable,  by 
removing  the  artificial  obstructions  which  had 
been  made  in  the  river  for  the  purpose  of  irriga- 
tioa  The  Macedonians,  who  were  discontented 
with  several  of  the  new  arrangements  of 
the  king,  rose  in  mutiny  against  him,  which 
he  quelled  with  some  difficulty.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  same  year  (325),  he  went  to 
Ecbatana,  where  he  lost  his  great  favorite, 
HEPH^ESTION.  From  Ecbatana  he  marched  to 
Babylon,  subduing  in  his  way  the  Cossaei, 
a  mountain  tribe ;  and  before  he  reached 
Babylon  he  was  met  by  ambassadors  from  al- 
most every  part  of  the  known  world.  Al- 
exander entered  Babylon  in  the  spring  of 


ALEXANDER. 


ALEXANDER 


324,  about  a  year  before  his  death,  notwithstand- 
ing the  warnings  of  the  Chaldaeans,  who  pre- 
dicted evil  to  him  if  he  entered  the  city  at  that 
time.  He  intended  to  make  Babylon  the  capital 
of  his  empire,  as  the  best  point  of  communication 
between  his  eastern  and  western  dominions.  His 
schemes  were  numerous  and  gigantic.  His  first 
object  was  the  conquest  of  Arabia,  which  was  to 
be  followed,  it  was  said,  by  the  subjugation  of 
Italy,  Carthage,  and  the  West.  But  his  views 
were  not  confined  merely  to  conquest.  He  or- 
dered a  fleet  to  be  built  on  the  Caspian,  in  order 
to  explore  that  sea.  He  also  intended  to  im- 
prove the  distribution  of  waters  in  the  Babylon- 
ian plain,  and  for  that  purpose  sailed  down  the 
Euphrates  to  inspect  the  canal  called  Palla- 
copas.  On  his  return  to  Babylon  he  was  at- 
tacked by  a  fever,  probably  brought  on  by  his 
recent  exertions  in  the  marshy  districts  around 
Babylon,  and  aggravated  by  the  quantity  of 
wine  he  had  drunk  at  a  banquet  given  to  his 
principal  officers.  He  died  after  an  illness  of 
eleven  days,  in  the  month  of  May  or  June,  B.C. 
323,  at  the  age  of  thirty-two,  after  a  reign  of 
twelve  years  and  eight  mouths.  He  appointed 
QO  one  as  his  successor,  but  just  before  his  death 
he  gave  his  ring  to  Perdiccas.  Roxana  was 
with  child  at  the  time  of  his  death,  and  after- 
Vard  bore  a  son  who  is  known  by  the  name 
of  Alexander  JEgus.  The  history  of  Alexander 
forms  an  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  man- 
kind Unlike  other  Asiatic  conquerors,  his  pro- 
gress was  marked  by  something  more  than 
devastation  and  ruin ;  at  every  step  of  his  course 
the  Greek  language  and  civilization  took  root 
and  flourished ;  and  after  his  death  Greek  king- 
doms were  formed  in  all  parts  of  Asia,  which 
continued  to  exist  for  centuries.  By  his  con- 
quests the  knowledge  of  mankind  was  increased ; 
the  sciences  of  geography,  natural  history,  and 
others,  received  vast  additions ;  and  it  was 
through  him  that  a  road  was  opened  to  India, 
and  that  Europeans  became  acquainted  with  the 
products  of  the  remote  East. — 4.  JScus,  sou  of 
Alexander  the  Great  and  Roxana,  was  born 
shortly  after  the  death  of  his  father,  in  B.C.  323, 
and  was  acknowledged  as  the  partner  of  Philip 
Arrhidaeus  in  the  empire,  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  Perdiccas,  Autipater,  and  Polysperchon 
in  succession.  Alexander  and  his  mother  Roxana 
were  imprisoned  by  Cassander,  when  he  ob- 
tained possession  of  Macedonia  in  316,  and  re- 
mained in  prison  till  311,  when  they  were  put  to 
death  by  Cassander. 

IV.  Kings  of  Syria. 

1.  Surnamed  BALAS,  a  person  of  low  origin, 
pretended  to  be  the  son  of  Antiochus  IV.  Epiph- 
ancs,  and  reigned  in  Syria  B.C.  150-146.  He 
defeated  and  slew  in  battle  Demetrius  L  Soter, 
out  was  afterward  defeated  and  dethroned  by 
Demetrius  IL  Nicator. — 2.  Surnamed  ZEBINA  or 
ZABIXAS,  son  of  a  merchant,  was  set  up  by 
Ptolemy  Physcon  as  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of 
Syria,  shortly  after  the  return  of  Demetrius  IL 
fticator  from  his  captivity  among  the  Partitions, 
B.C.  128.  He  defeated  Demetrius  in  125,  but 
was  afterward  defeated  by  Antiochus  Grypus, 
by  whom  he  was  put  to  death,  122. 
V.  Literary. 

1.  Of  &QJZ,  a  peripatetic  philosopher  at  Rome 


|  in  the  first  century  after  Christ,  was  tutoi  to  th* 
Emperor  Nero. — 2.  The  ^ETOI.IAN,  of  Pleuroo 
in  JEtolia,  a  Greek  poet,  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Ptolemseus  Philadelphus  (B.C.  285-247),  at 
Alexandrea,' where  he  was  reckoned  one  of  the 
seven  tragic  poets  who  constituted  the  tragic 
pleiad.  He  also  wrote  other  poema,  besides 
tragedies.  His  fragments  are  collected  by  Ca- 
pellmann,  Alexaitdri  ^Etoli  Fragmoata,  Jknn, 
1829. — 3.  Of  APHEODISIAS,  in  Caria,  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  commentators  op  Aristotle, 
lived  about  A.D.  200.  About  half  hU  volumin- 
ous works  were  edited  and  translated  into  Latin 
at  the  revival  of  literature ;  there  «re  a  few 
more  extant  in  the  original  Greek,  -which  have 
never  been  printed,  and  an  Arabic  version  is 
preserved  of  several  others.  His  most  impor- 
tant treatise  is  entitled  De  f'ato,  an  inquiry  into 
the  opinions  of  Aristotle  on  the  subject  of  Fate 
and  Free-will :  edited  by  Orelli,  Zurich,  1824. — 
4.  CORNELIUS,  surnamed  POLYHISTOR,  a  Greek 
writer,  was  made  prisoner  during  the  war  of 
Sulla  in  Greece  (B.C.  87-84),  and  sold  as  a  slave 
to  Cornelius  Lentulus,  who  took  him  to  Rome, 
made  him  the  teacher  of  his  children,  and  sub- 
sequently restored  him  to  freedom.  The  sur- 
name of  Polyhistor  was  given  to  him  on  account 
of  his  prodigious  learning.  He  is  said  to  have 
written  a  vast  number  of  works,  all  of  which 
have  perished,  [with  the  exception  of  a  few 
fragments] :  the  most  important  of  them  was 
one  in  forty-two  books,  containing  historical  and 
geographical  accounts  of  nearly  all  countries  of 
the  ancient  world.  [A  list  of  his  works  is  given 
by  Miiller,  who  has  collected  and  published  the 
fragments  of  his  writings  in  the  third  volume  of 
Fragmenta  Hixtoricorum  Grcecorum,  p.  206-244.1 
— 5.  Surnamed  LYCHNUS,  of  Ephesus,  a  Greek 
rhetorician  and  poet,  lived  about  B.C.  30.  A 
few  fragments  of  his  geographical  and  astro 
nomical  poems  are  extant. — 6.  Of  MYNDUS,  in 
Caria,  a  Greek  writer  on  zoology  of  uncertain 
date. — 7.  NUMENIUS,  a  Greek  rhetorician,  who 
lived  in  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
Two  works  are  ascribed  to  him,  one  De  Figurit 
Sentenliarum  et  Elocutionist,  from  which  Aquila 
Romanus  took  hjs  materials  for  his  work  on  the 
same  subject;  and  the  other  On  Show-speeches, 
which  was  written  by  a  later  grammarian  of  the 
name  of  Alexander.  Edited  in  Walz's  Jihetores 
Grteci,  vol.  viii. — 8.  The  PAPHXAGONIAN,  a  cele- 
brated impostor,  who  flourished  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  second  century  after  Christ,  of 
whom  Lucian  has  given  an  amusing  account, 
chiefly  of  the  various  contrivances  by  which  he 
established  and  maintained  the  credit  of  an  ora- 
cle. The  influence  he  attained  over  the  popu- 
lace seems  incredible;  indeed,  the  narrative  of 
Lucian  would  appear  to  be  a  mere  romance, 
were  it  not  confirmed  by  some  medals  of  An 
toninus  and  M.  Aurelius. — 9.  Surnamed  PELO 
PLATON,  a  Greek  rhetorician  of  Selcucia  in 
Cilicia,  was  appointed  Greek  secretaiy  to  M. 
Antoninus,  about  A.D.  174.  At  Athens,  he 
conquered  the  celebrated  rhetorician  Herodes 
Atticus,  in  a  rhetorical  contest.  All  persons,  how- 
ever, did  not  admit  his  abilities  ;  for  a  Corinthian 
of  the  name  of  Sccptos  said  that  he  had  found 
in  Alexander  "  the  clay  (mfi.of),  but  not  Plato," 
alluding  to  his  surname  of  "  Peloplaton." — 10. 
PUILALKTHES,  an  ancient  Greek  physician,  lived 
45 


ALEXANDREA. 


ALGIDUM. 


probably  toward  the  end  of  the  first  ceahny 
B.C.,  and  succeeded  Zeuxis  as  head  of  a  cele- 
brated Herophilean  school  of  medicine,  estab- 
lished in  Phrygin  between  Laodicea  and  Carura. 
— 11.  Of  TRALLES  in  Lydia,  an  emineut  physi- 
cian, lived  in  the  sixth  century  after  Christ,  and 
is  the  author  of  two  extant  Greek  works :  1. 
Libri  JDuodecim  de  Re  Medica  ;  2.  De  Lnml>rici.i. 
ALEXANDREA,  [sometimes  -dria,  though,  as 
Madvig  says  (Cic.,  De  Fin^  v.,  19,  54),  the  Latin 
writers  always  preferred  the  e,  and  this  was  al- 
ways the  form  on  coins  and  inscriptions;  cf. 
Fea,  ad  Hor,  Od.,  iv.,  14,  36]  ('A.Xe^dvdpeta : 
'\XeZav6pevf,  AlexandrinusJ,  the  name  of  sev- 
eral cities  founded  by,  or  in  memory  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great — 1.  (Alcxandrea,  Arab.  Iskan- 
deria),  the  capital  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies, 
ordered  by  Alexander  to  be  founded  in  B.C.  332. 
It  was  built  on  the  narrow  neck  of  land  between 
the  Lake  Mareotis  and  the  Mediterranean,  op- 
posite to  the  Island  of  Pharos,  which  was  joined 
to  the  city  by  an  artificial  dike,  called  Hepta- 
stadium,  which  formed,  with  the  island,  the  two 
harbors  of  the  city,  that  on  the  northeast  of  the 
dike  being  named  the  Great  Harbor  (now  the 
New  Port),  that  on  the  southwest  Euuostos 
(cwoerrof,  the  Old  Port).  These  harbors  com- 
municated with  each  other  by  two  channels  cut 
through  the  Heptastadium,  one  at  each  end  of 
it ;  and  there  was  a  canal  from  the  Eunostos  to 
the  Lake  Mareotis.  The  city  was  built  on  a 
regular  plan,  and  was  intersected  by  two  prin- 
cipal streets,  above  one  hundred  feet  wide,  the 
one  extending  thirty  stadia  from  east  to  west, 
the  other  across  this,  from  the  sea  toward  the 
lake,  to  the  length  of  ten  stadia.  At  the  east- 
ern extremity  of  the  city  was  the  royal  quarter, 
called  Bruchium,  and  at  the  other  end  of  the 
chief  street,  outside  of  the  city,  the  Necropolis 
or  cemetery.  A  great  light-house  was  built  on 
the  Island  of  Pharos  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  (B.C.  283).  Under  the  care  of  the 
Ptolemies,  as  the  capital  of  a  great  kingdom 
and  of  the  most  fertile  country  on  the  earth, 
and  commanding  by  its  position  all  the  com- 
merce of  Europe  with  the  East,  Alexandrea 
soon  became  the  most  wealthy  and  splendid 
city  of  the  known  world.  Greeks,  Jews,  and 
other  foreigners  flocked  to  it,  and  its  population 
probably  amounted  to  three  quarters  of  a  mil- 
lioa  But  a  still  greater  distinction  was  con- 
ferred upon  it  through  the  foundation,  by  the 
first  two  Ptolemies,  of  the  Museum,  an  establish- 
ment in  which  men  devoted  to  literature  were 
maistained  at  the  public  cost,  and  of  the  Library, 
which  contained  ninety  thousand  distinct  works, 
and  four  hundred  thousand  volumes,  and  the  in- 
crease of  which  made  it  necessary  to  establish 
another  library  in  the  Serapeum  (Temple  of 
Serapis),  which  reached  to  forty-two  thousand 
eight  hundred  volumes,  but  which  was  destroyed 
by  the  Bishop  Theophilus,  at  the  time  of  the 
general  overthrow  of  the  heathen  temples  under 
fheodosius  (A.D.  389).  The  Great  Library  suf- 
fered severely  by  fire,  when  Julius  Caesar  was 
besieged  in  Alexandrea,  and  was  finally  destroy- 
ed by  Amrou,  the  lieutenant  of  the  Calif  Omar 
in  A.D.  651.  These  institutions  made  Alex- 
andrea the  chief  centre  of  literary  activity. 
When  Egypt  became  a  Roman  province  (vid. 
./EGYPTUS),  Alexandrea  was  made  the  residence 
•  46 


of  the  Prsefectus  Egypti.  It  retained  its  com- 
mercial and  literary  importance,  and  became 
also  a  chief  seat  of  Christianity  and  theological 
learning.  Its  site  is  now  covered  by  a  mass  of 
ruins,  among  which  are  the  remains  of  the  cis- 
terns by  which  the  whole  city  was  supplied  with 
water,  house  by  house ;  the  two  obelisks  (vulg. 
Cleopatra's  Netdlex),  whicli  adorned  the  gate- 
way of  the  royal  palace,  and,  outside  the  walls., 
to  the  south,  the  column  of  Diocletian  (vulg. 
Pompf.y's  Pillar).  The  modern  city  stands  on 
the  dike  uniting  the  Island  of  Pharos  to  the 
main  land. — 2.  A.  TROAS,  also  TROAS  simply, 
('A.  17  Tpuuf  :  now  Exki&tamboul,  i.  <?.,  the  Old 
City),  on  the  sea-coast,  southwest  of  Troy,  was 
enlarged  by  Antigonus,  hence  called  Antigonla, 
but  afterward  it  resumed  its  first  name.  It 
flourished  greatly,  both  under  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans ;  it  was  made  a  colonia ;  and  both 
Julius  Ca?sar  and  Constantino  thought  of  estab 
lisbing  the  seat  of  empire  in  it. — 3.  A.  AD  ISSUM 
('A.  nartl  'laoov  :  now  hkenderoon,  Scanderoun, 
Alexandrette),  a  sea-port  at  the  entrance  of  Syr- 
ia, a  little  south  of  Issus. — 4.  In  Susiana,  after- 
ward Antiochia,  afterward  Charax  Spasini  (Xa- 
pa%  Tlaaivov  or  27ra<r.),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ti- 
gris, built  by  Alexander ;  destroyed  by  a  flood  ; 
restored  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes :  birth-place 
of  Dionysius  Periegetes  and  Isidorus  Chara- 
cenus. — 5.  A.  ARI^E  ('A.  rj  iv  'Apiotf :  now  He- 
rat),  founded  by  Alexander  on  the  River  Arius, 
in  the  Persian  province  of  Aria,  a  very  flourish- 
ing city,  on  the  great  caravan  road  to  India. — 
6.  A.  ARACHOSI.E  or  ALEXANDROPOLIS  (now  Kan- 
dahar ?),  on  the  River  Arachotus,  was  probably 
not  founded  till  after  the  time  of  Alexander. 
— 7.  A.  BACTRIANA  ('A.  KOTU  Euicrpa  :  probably 
Khooloom,  ruins),  east  of  Bactra  (Balkh). — 8.  A. 
AD  CAUCASUM,  or  apud  Paropamisidas  ('A.  iv 
napoiraftiauSaif),  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Paropam- 
isus  (now  Hindoo  JCoosh),  probably  near  Co.- 
bool. — 9.  A.  ULTIMA  or  ALEXANDRESCHATA  ('A. 
rj  tax<iTi] :  now  Kokand?),  in  Sogdiana,  on  the 
Jaxartes,  a  little  cast  of  Cyropolis  or  Cyrescha- 
ta,  marked  the  furthest  point  reached  by  Alex- 
ander in  his  Scythian  expedition.  These  are  not 
all  the  cities  of  the  name. 

ALEXICACUS  ('AAe^/caKOf),  the  averter  of  evi], 
a  surname  of  several  deities,  but  particularly  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  Apollo,  and  Hercules. 

ALEX!NUS  ('A/te|ivof),  of  Elis,  a  philosopher 
of  the  Dialectic  or  Megarian  school,  and  a  dis- 
ciple of  Eubulides,  li ved  about  the  beginning  of  tho 
third  century  B.C. 

ALEXIS  (*A2.f£«f).  1.  A  comic  poet,  born  at 
Thurii  in  Italy,  and  an  Athenian  citizen.  He 
was  the  uncle  and  instructor  of  Menander,  was 
born  about  B.C.  394,  and  lived  to  the  age  of 
one  hundred  and  six.  Some  of  his  plays,  of 
which  he  is  said  to  have  written  two  hundred 
and  forty-five,  belonged  to  the  Middle,  and  others 
to  the  New  Comedy.  [The  fragments  of  hi* 
plays  have  been  published  by  Meineke,  Frag- 
menta  Comicorum  Grcccorum,  vol.  ii,  p.  688-768, 
edit,  minor.] — 2.  A  sculptor  and  statuary,  one  of 
the  pupils  of  Polycletus. 

ALFENUS  VARUS.     Vid.   VARUS. 

ALGIDUM  or  ALGIDUS  (ruins  near  Cava  ?),  a 
small  but  strongly  fortified  town  of  the  ^Equi  on 
one  of  the  hills  of  Mount  Algidus,  of  which  all 
trace  has  now  disappeared. 


ALGIDUS  MONS. 


ALPES. 


ALGIDUS  Moxs,  a  range  of  mountains  in  La-  i 
°dum,  extending  south  from  Praeneste  to  Mount 
Albanus,  cold,  but  covered  with  wood,  and  con- 
taining good  pasturage  (gelido  Algido ;  Hor., 
Cann.,  i.,  21,  6  :  niyrce  feraci  frondis  in  Algido  ; 
id.,  iv.,  4,  58).  It  was  an  ancient  seat  of  the 
worship  of  Diana.  From  it  the  JEqui  usually 
made  their  incursions  into  the  Roman  territory. 

ALIENUS  C^ECINA.     Vid.  C^ECINA. 

ALIMENTUS,  L.  Crxcius,  a  celebrated  Roman 
annalist,  antiquary,  and  jurist,  was  praetor  in 
Sicily,  B.C.  209,  and  wrote  several  works,  of 
which  the  best  known  was  his  Annales,  which 
contained  an  account  of  the  second  Punic  war 
[His  fragments  have  been  published  in  the 
Scriptores  Historici  Romani  of  Popma,  1620,  and 
more  recently  by  Krause,  in  his  Vitce  ct  Frag- 
menta  veterum  Hist.  Lot.,  Berlin,  1833.] 

ALIXDA  (ra  'A/uvda :  'A/Uvdeiif),  a  fortress 
and  small  town,  southeast  of  Stratonlce,  where 
Ada,  queen  of  Caria,  fixed  her  residence,  when 
she  was  driven  out  of  Halicarnassus  (B.C.  340). 

ALIPHERA  ('A-Xfyeipa,  'AAt'^pa  :  'A.?u<p£ipalof, 
'A.hi<j>ripEi!(; :  ruins  near  Nerovitza),  a  fortified 
town  in  Arcadia,  situated  on  a  mountain  on  the 
borders  of  Elis,  south  of  the  Alpheus,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  the  hero  Alipherus,  son 
of  Lycaon. 

ALIPHERUS,     Vid.  ALIPHERA, 

[ALISIUM  ('A/lctVtov),  a  town  of  Elis,  the  same, 
probably,  with  that  called  ALESLEUM  by  Strabo, 
and  placed  by  him  between  Elis  and  Olympia,] 

ALISO  (now  Elsen),  &  strong  fortress  built  by 
Drusus  B.C.  11,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Luppia 
(now  Lippe)  and  the  Eliso  (now  Alme). 

ALJSOXTIA  (now  Alsitz),  a  river  flowing  into 
the  Mosella  (now  Mosel). 

ALLECTUS,  the  chief  officer  of  Carausius  in 
Britain,  whom  he  murdered  in  A.D.  293.  He 
then  assumed  the  imperial  title  himself,  but  was 
defeated  and  slain  in  296  by  the  general  of  Con- 
stautius. 

ALLIA,  or,  more  correctly,  ALIA,  a  small  river, 
which  rises  about  eleven  miles  from  Rome,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Crustumerium,  and  flows 
into  the  Tiber  about  six  miles  from  Rome.  It 
is  memorable  by  the  defeat  of  the  Romans  by 
the  Gauls  on  its  banks,  July  16th,  B.C.  390 ; 
which  day,  dies  Alliensis,  was  hence  marked  as 
an  uulucky  day  in  the  Roman  calendar. 

ALLIENUS,  A.  1.  A  friend  of  Cicero,  was  the 
legate  of  Q.  Cicero  in  Asia,  B.C.  60,  praetor  in 
49,  and  governor  of  Sicily  on  behalf  of  Caesar  in 
48  and  47. — 2.  A  legate  of  Dolabella,  by  whom 
he  was  sent  into  Egypt  in  43. 

ALLIF.*  or  ALIF^  (Allifanus :  now  Allife),  a 
town  of  Samnium,  on  the  Vulturnus,  in  a  fertile 
country.  It  was  celebrated  for  the  manufacture 
of  its  large  drinking-cups  (Allifana  sc.  pocula, 
Hor.,  Sat.,  iL,  8,  39). 

ALLOBROGES  (nom.  sing.,  Allobrox :  'AA2.6- 
Opoyef ,  'AAAofywyef,  'AXMoptyec. :  perhaps  from 
the  Celtic  aill,  "rock"  or  "mountain,"  and  brog, 
"dwelling,"  consequently  "dwellers  in  the 
mountains"),  a  powerful  people  of  Gaul  dwell- 
ing between  the  Rbodauus  (now  Rtione)  and 
the  Isara  (now  hire),  as  far  as  the  Lake  Leman- 
nus  (now  fake  of  Geneva),  consequently  in  thf1 
modern  Dauphine  and  Savoy.  Their  chief  town 
was  VIENNA  (now  Vienne)  on  the  Rhone.  They 
are  first  mentioned  in  Hannibal's  invasion,  B.C. 


218.  They  were  conquered,  in  B.C.  121,  by  Q 
Fabius  Maximus  Allobrogicus,  and  made  sub- 
jects of  Rome,  but  they  bore  the  yoke  unwill- 
ingly, and  were  always  disposed  to  rebellion. 
In  the  time  of  Ammianus  the  eastern  part  of 
their  country  was  called  Sapaudia,  i.  e.,  Savoy. 

ALMO  (now  Almone),  a  small  river,  rises  near 
Bovillse,  and  flows  into  the  Tiber  south  of  Rome, 
in  which  the  statue  and  sacred  things  of  Cybele 
were  washed  annually. 

ALMOPES  ('AfyiWTref),  a  people  in  Macedonia, 
inhabiting  the  district  Almopia  between  Eordsea 
and  Pelagonia. 

ALOEUS  ('Ahuevf),  son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
and  Canace,  married  Iphimedla,  the  daughter 
of  Triops.  His  wife  was  beloved  by  Neptune 
(Poseidon),  by  whom  she  had  two  sons,  Otus 
and  Ephialtes,  who  are  usually  called  the  Alol- 
dce,  from  their  reputed  father  Aloeus.  They 
were  renowned  for  their  extraordinary  strength 
and  daring  spirit.  When  they  were  nine  years 
old,  the  body  of  each  measured  nine  cubits  in 
breadth  and  twenty -seven  in  height.  At  this 
early  age,  they  threatened  the  Olympian  gods 
with  war,  and  attempted  to  pile  Ossa  upon 
Olympus,  and  Pelion  upon  Ossa.  They  would 
have  accomplished  their  object,  says  Homer, 
had  they  been  allowed  to  grow  up  to  the  age  of 
manhood ;  but  Apollo  destroyed  them  before 
their  beards  began  to  appear  (Od.,  xi.,  305,  scq.). 
They  also  put  the  god  Mars  (Ares)  in  chains, 
and  kept  him  imprisoned  for  thirteen  months 
Other  stories  are  related  of  them  by  later 
writers. 

AL6lD.fi.     Vid.  ALOEUS. 

[ALONE  ('ALuvai :  now  Benidormc  or  Torre  di 
Salinas),  a  town  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  8' 
colony  of  the  Massilians. — 2.  A  town  of  Britain, 
somewhat  south  of  Keswick  ;  by  some  supposed 
to  correspond  to  A?nbleside.] 

ALONTA  ('A/lovra :  now  Terek),  a  river  of  Al- 
bania, in  Sarmatia  Asiatica,  flowing  into  the 
Caspian. 

ALOPE  ('A/Ion-;?),  daughter  of  Cercyon,  be- 
came by  Neptune  (Poseidon)  the  mother  of 
HIPPOTHOUS.  She  was  put  to  death  by  her  fa- 
ther, but  her  body  was  changed  by  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  into  a  well,  which  bore  the  same 
name. 

ALOPE  ('A/lorn/ :  'Ahoxevf,  'AAoirirqc,).  1.  A 
town  in  the  Opuntian  Locris,  opposite  Euboca, 
— 2.  A  town  in  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly  (//.,  ii., 
682). 

ALOPECE  ('AAwTrc/c?/  and  'Ahuireicai :  'AAosre 
KWf),  a  demus  of  Attica,  of  the  tribe  Antiochis, 
eleven  stadia  east  of  Athens,  on  the  Hill  An 
chesmus.  [Here  the  parents  of  Socrates  dwelt, 
who  therefore  belonged  to  this  demus,  as  did 
also  Aristides.] 

ALOPECIA  ('A^unEKia)  or  ALOPECE  (Plin.),  an 
island  in  the  Palus  Maeotis,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Tanais.] 

ALOPECONNESUS  ('A^uireKovv^aog :  'Ahunenov- 
vr'/atoi :  now  Alexi  /),  a  town  in  the  Thracian 
Chersouesus,  founded  by  the  JSolians. 

ALPENUS  ('A^nifvof,  'A^.Tr>jvoi),  a  town  of  the 
Epicncmidii  Locri  at  the  entrance  of  the  pass  of 
ThermopylaB. 

ALPES  (al  'Afaftf,  r/  'AXirif,  rH  'AhireivH  opij, 
TU  'Ahireta  opy ;  probably  from  the  Celtic  Alb  or 
Alp,  "a  height"),  the  mountains   forming  the 
47 


ALPES. 


ALTHAEA. 


boundary  of  Northern  Italy,  are  a  part  of  the 
great  mountain  chain  which  extends  from  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa  across  Europe  to  the  Black  Sea, 
of  •which  the  Apennines  and  the  mountains  of 
the  Grecian  peninsula  may  be  regarded  as  off- 
shoots. Of  the  Alps  proper,  the  Greeks  had 
very  little  knowledge,  and  included  them  under 
the  general  name  of  the  Rhipcean  Mountains. 
The  Romans  first  obtained  some  knowledge  of 
them  by  Hannibal's  passage  across  them:  this 
knowledge  was  gradually  extended  by  their  va- 
rious wars  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  mount- 
ains, who  were  not  finally  subdued  till  the  reign 
of  Augustus.  In  the  time  of  the  emperors  the 
different  parts  of  the  Alps  were  distinguished 
by  the  following  names,  most  of  which  are  still 
retained.  We  enumerate  them  in  order  from 
west  to  east  1.  ALPES  MAKITISL*,  the  Mari- 
time or  Liyurian  Alps,  from  Genua  (now  Genoa), 
where  the  Apennines  begin,  run  west  as  far 
as  the  River  Varus  (now  Var)  and  Mount  Cema 
(now  La  Caillole),  and  then  north  to  Mount  Ve- 
sulus  (now  Monte  Viso),  one  of  the  highest 
points  of  the  Alps. — 2.  ALPES  Com.*  or  COT- 
TIAN/E,  the  Cottian  Alps  (so  called  from  a  King 
Cottius  in  the  time  of  Augustus),  from  Monte 
Viso  to  Mont  Cenis,  contained  Mount  Matrona, 
afterward  called  Mount  Janus  or  Janua  (now 
Mont  Genivre),  across  which  Cottius  construct- 
ed a  road,  which  became  the  chief  means  of 
communication  between  Italy  and  Gaul :  this 
road  leads  from  the  Valley  of  the  Durance  in 
France  to  Segusio  (now  Susa)  and  .the  Valley 
of  the  Dora  in  Piedmont.  The  pass  over  Mont 
Cenis,  now  one  of  the  most  frequented  of  the 
Alpine  passes,  appears  to  have  been  unknown 
'in  antiquity. — 3.  ALPES  GKALS,  also  Saltits 
Graius  (the  name  is  probably  Celtic,  and  has 
nothing  to  do  with  Greece),  the  Graian  Alps, 
from  Mont  Cenis  to  the  Little  St.  Bernard  in- 
clusive, contained  the  Jugum  Cremonis  (now  Le 
Cramont)  and  the  Centronics  Alpes,  apparent- 
ly the  Little  St  Bernard  and  the  surrounding 
mountains.  The  Little  St  Bernard,  which  is 
sometimes  called  Alpis  Graia,  is  probably  the 
pass  by  which  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps ;  the 
road  over  it,  which  was  improved  by  Augustus, 
led  to  Augusta  (now  Aosta)  in  the  territory  of 
the  SalassL— 4.  ALPES  PEXNIN^E,  the  Pennine 
Alps,  from  the  Great  St  Bernard  to  the  Simplon 
inclusive,  the  highest  portion  of  the  chain,  in- 
cluding Mont  Blanc,  Monte  Rosa,  and  Mont 
Cervia  The  Great  St  Bernard  was  called 
Mount  Penninus,  and  on  its  summit  the  inhab- 
itants worshipped  a  deity,  whom  the  Romans 
called  Jupiter  Penninus.  The  name  is  proba- 
bly derived  from  the  Celtic  pen,  "  a  height." — 
5.  ALPES  LEPONTIOHUM  or  LEPONTI.S,  the  Lepon- 
tian  or  Helvetian  Alps,  from  the  Simplon  to  the 
St  Gothard. — 6.  ALPES  R^TIC^:,  the  Haitian 
Alpt,  from  the  St  Gothard  to  the  Orteler  by  the 
pass  of  the  Stelvio.  Mount  Adula  is  usually 
supposed  to  be  the  St.  Gothard,  but  it  must  be 
another  name  for  the  whole  range,  if  Strabo  is 
right  in  stating  that  both  the  Rhine  and  the 
Adda  rise  in  Mount  Adula.  The  Romans  were 
acquainted  with  two  passes  across  the  Rsetian 
Alps,  connecting  Curia  (now  Coire)  and  Milan, 
one  across  the  Spliigen  aud  the  other  across 
Mont  Septimer,  and  both  meeting  at  Clavenna 
(now  Chiavenna). — 7  ALPES  TBLDENTIK^,  the 
48 


mountains  of  Southern  Tyrol,  in  which  the 
A  tlir-is  (now  Adigc)  rises,  with  the  pass  of  the 
Brenner.  —  8.  ALPES  NORICUE,  the  Jboric  Alps, 
northeast  of  the  Tridentiue  Alps,  comprising  the 
mountains  in  the  neighborhood  of  Salzburg.  — 
9.  ALPES  CAIINIC^E,  the  Carnic  Alp&,  cast  of  the 
Tridentiue,  and  south  of  the  Noric,  to  Mount 
Tcrglu.  —  10.  ALPES  JULI^E,  the  Julian  Alps, 
from  Mount  Terglu  to  the  commencement  of 
the  Illyrian  or  Dalmatian  Mountains,  which  arc 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Alpes  Dalmaticae, 
further  north  by  the  name  of  th«  Alpcs  Pan- 
nonicae.  The  Alpes  Juli;e  were  so  called  be- 
cause Julius  Caesar  or  Augustus  constructed 
roads  across  them  :  they  are  also  called  Alpes 
Venetse. 

[ALPHE^EA  ('A/l^eata).  Vid.  ALPHEUS,  near 
the  end.] 

[ALPHENOR  ('A^^vwp),  a  son  of  Amphion  and 


Niobe,  slain  by  Apolo 

ALPHENUS  VARUS.      Vid.  VABUS. 

ALFHESIBCEA  ('Ah<j>eai6oia).  1.  Mother  of  Ado- 
nis. Vid.  ADONIS.  —  2.  Daughter  of  Phegeus, 
married  Alcmaeon.  Vid.  ALCM^EON. 

ALPHEUS  MYTILENJEUS  ('A/l^e/df  ~M.vTi?.r/valof), 
the  author  of  about  twelve  epigrams  in  the 
Greek  Anthology,  was  probably  a  contemporary 
of  the  Emperor  Augustus. 

ALPHEUS  ('AA^etof  :  Doric,  'AP^eof  :  now  Al- 
feo,  Rofco,  Ryfo,  Rufea),  the  chief  river  of  Pel- 
oponnesus, rises  at  Phylace  in  Arcadia,  short- 
ly afterward  sinks  under  ground,  appears  again 
near  Asea,  and  then  mingles  its  waters  with 
those  of  the  Eurotas.  After  flowing  twenty 
stadia,  the  two  rivers  disappear  under  ground  : 
the  Alpheus  again  rises  at  Pegae  in  Arcadia, 
and,  increased  by  many  affluents,  flows  north- 
west through  Arcadia  and  Elis,  not  far  from 
Olympia,  and  falls  into  the  Ionian  Sea.  The 
subterranean  descent  of  the  river,  which  is  con- 
firmed by  modern  travellers,  gave  rise  to  the 
story  about  the  river-god  Alpheus  and  the 
nymph  Arethusa.  The  latter,  pursued  by  Al- 
pheus, was  changed  by  Diana  (Artemis)  into 
the  fountain  of  Arethusa,  in  the  Island  of  Orty- 
gia  at  Syracuse,  but  the  god  continued  to  pur- 
sue her  under  the  sea,  and  attempted  to  mingle 
his  stream  with  the  fountain  in  Ortygia.  Hence 
it  was  said  that  a  cup  thrown  into  the  Alpheus 
would  appear  again  in  the  fountain  of  Arethusa 
in  Ortygia.  Other  accounts  related  that  Diana 
(Artemis)  herself  was  beloved  by  Alpheus  :  the 
goddess  was  worshipped,  under  the  name  of 
Alphecea,  both  in  Elis  and  Ortygia. 

ALPHIUS  AVITUS.      Vid.  Avrrus. 

ALPINUS,  a  name  which  Horace  gives,  in  ridi- 
cule, to  a  bombastic  poet  He  probably  means 
BIBACULCS. 

[ALSA  (now  Ausa),  a  river  of  Italy,  in  the 
territory  of  the  Veneti,  just  west  of  Aquileia 
Here  the  younger  Constantino  lost  his  life  in  a 
battle  against  his  brother  Constantius.] 

ALSIUM  (Alsiensis:  now  Palo),  one  of  the 
most  ancient  Etruscan  towns  on  the  coast  near 
Czere,  and  a  Roman  colony  after  the  first  Punic 
war.  In  its  neighborhood  Pompey  had  a  coun- 
try seat  (  Villa  Alsiensis). 

[ALTES  ("AArj/f),  a  king  of  the  Leleges,  at 
Pedasus,  father  of  Laothoe.] 

ALTH^A  ('AWaia),  daughter  of  the  ^EtoUan 
King  Thestius  and  Eurythemis,  married  (Eneus, 


ALTHAEA. 


AMARDUS. 


kiug  of  Calydon,  by  •whom  she  became  the 
mother  of  several  children,  and  among  others 
of  MELEAGEK,  upon  whose  death  she  killed  her- 
self. 

ALTHAEA  (now  Orgaz  /),"  the  chief  town  of  the 
Olcades  in  the  country  of  the  Oretani,  in  His- 
pania  Tnrraconensis. 

ALTUEMEXES  ('A?^//evi?f  or  'AWatfievtjf),  son 
of  Catreus,  kiug  of  Crete.  In  consequence  of 
an  oracle,  that  Catreus  would  lose  liis  life  by 
one  of  his  children,  Althemenes  quitted  Crete 
and  went  to  Rhodes.  There  he  unwittingly 
killed  his  father,  who  had  come  in  search  of  his 
son. 

ALTIXUM  (Altlnas :  now  Altlno),  a  wealthy 
municipium  in  the  land  of  the  Veneti  in  the 
north  of  Italy,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Silis 
and  on  the  road  from  Patavium  to  Aquileia, 
was  a  wealthy  manufacturing  town,  and  the 
chief  emporium  of  all  the  goods  which  were 
sent  from-  Southern  Italy  to  the  countries  of  the 
north.  Goods  could  be  brought  from  Ravenna 
to  Altinum  through  the  Lagoons  and  the  nu- 
merous canals  of  the  Po,  safe  from  storms  and 
pirates.  There  were  many  beautiful  villas 
around  the  town.  (Mart,  iv.,  25.) 

ALTIS  ("AArtf),  the  sacred  grove  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  at  OLYMPIA. 

AHJXTIUM  or  HALUXTICV  ('AAowriov),  a  town 
on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  not  far  from  Calac- 
ta,  on  a  steep  bill,  celebrated  for  its  wine. 

ALUS  or  HALUS  ("AXof,  "AAof :  'A/lcvf:  rums 
near  JCcfalosi),  a  town  in  Phthiotis  in  Th«saly, 
at  the  extremity  of  Mount  Othrys,  built  by  the 
hero  Athamas. 

ALYATTES  ('AAvurnyf),  king  of  Lydia,  B.C. 
617-560,  succeeded  his  father  Sadyattes,  and 
was  himself  succeeded  by  his  son  Croesus.  He 
carried  on  war  with  Miletus  from  617  to  612, 
and  with  Cyaxares,  king  of  Media,  from  590  to 
585 ;  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  happened  in 
585,  during  a  battle  between  Alyattes  and  Cy- 
axares, led  to  a  peace  between  them.  Alyattes 
drove  the  Cimmerians  out  of  Asia  and  took 
Smyrna.  The  tomb  of  Alyattes,  north  of  Sar- 
dis,  near  the  Lake  Gygaea,  which  consisted  of 
a  large  mound  of  earth,  raised  upon  a  founda- 
tion of  great  stones,  still  exists.  Mr.  Hamilton 
says  that  it  took  him  about  ten  minutes  to  ride 
round  its  base,  which  would  give  it  a  circum- 
ference of  nearly  a  mile. 

ALYBA  ('AP.vfi?),  a  town  on  the  south  coast  of 
(lie  Euxinc.  (Horn,  J7.,  iL,  857.) 

ALYPIUS  ('AMirtoc),  of  Alexandrea,  probably 
lived  in  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
nnd  is  the  author  of  a  Greek  musical  treatise, 
called  "  Introduction  to  Music"  (tlaayujr)  pov- 
CIKTJ),  printed  by  Meibomius  in  Antiques  Musicce 
Auctores  Septem,  AmsteL,  1652. 

ALYZIA  or  ALYZKA,  ('AAi>£Za,  'A%v&ia:  'A7.v- 
Catof :  ruins  in  the  Valley  of  Kandili),  a  town  in 
Acarnauia,  near  the  sea,  opposite  Leucas,  with 
a  harbor  and  a  temple  both  sacred  to  Hercules. 
The  temple  contained  one  of  the  works  of  Ly- 
sippus,  representing  the  labors  of  Hercules, 
which  the  Romans  carried  off. 

AMADOCUS  ('ApadoKOf)  or  MEDOCUS  (M^rfo/cof). 
1.  King  of  the  Odrysos  in  Thrace,  when  Xeno- 
phon  visited  the  country  in  B.C.  400.  He  and 
Seuthes,  who  were  the  most  powerful  Thracian 
kings,  were  frequently  at  variance,  but  were 


reconciled  to  one  another  by  Thrasybulus,  the 
Athenian  commander,  in  390,  and  induced  by 
him  to  become  the  allies  of  Athens. — 2.  A  ruler 
in  Thrace,  who,  in  conjunction  with  Berisades 
and  Cersobleptes,  succeeded  Cotys  in  358. 

AMAGETOBRIA.     Vid.  MAGETOBEIA. 

[AMALCHIUS  OCEANUS,  a  part  of  the  Northern 
Ocean,  extending,  according  to  Hecataeus,  along 
the  coast  of  Scythia.] 

[AMALLOBRIGA  (now  probably  Medina  del  Rio 
Seco),  a  city  of  the  Vaccaei,  in  Hispauia  Tarra- 
conensis.] 

AMALTHEA  ('ApuWeia).  1.  The  nurse  of  the 
infant  Jupiter  (Zeus)  in  Crete.  According  to 
some  traditions,  Amalthea  is  the  goat  which 
suckled  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  which  was  reward- 
ed by  being  placed  among  the  stars.  Vid.  -<EgA. 
According  to  others,  Amalthea  was  a  nymph, 
daughter  of  Oceanus,  Helios,  Haemonius,  or  of 
the  Cretan  king,  Melisseus,  who  fed  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  with  the  milk  of  a  goat.  When  this  goat 
broke  off  one  of  her  horns,  Amalthea  filled  it 
with  fresh  herbs  and  gave  it  to  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
who  placed  it  among  the  stars.  According  to 
other  accounts,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  himself  broke  off 
one  of  the  horns  of  the  goat  Amalthea,  and  gave 
it  to  the  daughters  of  Melisseus,  and  endowed 
it  with  the  wonderful  power  of  becoming  filled 
with  whatever  the  possessor  might  wish.  This 
is  the  story  about  the  origin  of  the  celebrated 
horn  of  Amalthea,  commonly  called  the  Horn  of 
Plenty  or  Cornucopia,  which  was  used  in  later 
times  as  the  symbol  of  plenty  in  general. — 2. 
One  of  the  Sibyls,  identified  with  the  Cumaean 
Sibyl,  who  sold  to  King  Tarquinius  the  cek- 
brated  Sibylline  books. 

AMALTHEUM  or  AMALTHEA,  a  villa"of  Atticua 
on  the  Ri*er  Thyamis  in  Epirus,  was  perhaps 
originally  a  shrine  of  the  nymph  Amalthea, 
which  Atticus  adorned  with  statues  and  bass- 
reliefs,  and  converted  into  a  beautiful  summer 
retreat  Cicero,  in  imitation,  constructed  a 
similar  retreat  on  his  estate  at  Arpiuum. 

AMANTIA  ('A^avria :  Amantlnus,  Amantianus, 
or  Amantes,  pi.:  now  Nivitza),  a  Greek  town 
and  district  in  Ulyricum :  the  town,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Abantes  of  Euboea,  lay  at 
some  distance  from  the  coast,  east  of  Oricum. 

AMANUS  (6  'Apavof,  r^'Afi.avov:  'A/tavirric, 
Amaniensis :  now  Almadaj^  a  branch  of  Mount 
Taurus,  which  runs  from*^re  head  of  the  Gulf 
of  Issus  northeast  to  the  principal  chain  divid- 
ing Syria  from  Cilicia  and  Cappadocia.  There 
were  two  passes  in  it ;  the  one,  called  the  Syr- 
ian Gates  (ai  Svpiai  nvhai,  Syriae  Portae :  now 
Bylan),  near  the  sea;  the  other,  called  the 
Amanian  Gates  (A/iavi6f^  or  'AfiaviKal  irv'h.ai : 
Amanica;  Pylae,  Portae  Amani  Montis :  now 
Danir  Kapu,  \.  e.,  the  Iron  Gate),  further  to  the 
north.  The  former  pass  was  on  the  road  fr?m 
Cilicia  to  Antioch,  the  latter  on  that  to  the  dis- 
trict Commagcue ;  but,  on  account  of  its  great 
difficulty,  the  Litter  pass  was  rarely  used,  until 
the  Romans  made  a  road  through  it.  The  in- 
habitants of  Amanus  were  wild  banditti 

AM  AUDI  or  MARDI  (*A/uap6oi,  Mu/x5ot),apower 
ful,  warlike,  and  predatory  tribe,  who  dwelt  on 
the  south  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

AMARDUS  or  MARDUS  ("A/iapdo<;,  TJlupfof  :  now 
Kizil  Ozien  or  SffidRud),  a  river  flowing  through 
the  country  of  the  Mardi  into  the  Caspian  Sea. 

49 


AMBIANI. 


[AMARI  LACUS  (al  TTixpal  Xifivai :  now  Scheib), 
in  Lower  Egypt,  derived  their  name  from  their 
bitter,  brackish  taste,  which  was  subsequently 
changed  and  rendered'  sweet  by  the  Canal  of 
Ptolemy,  letting  into  them  the  water  of  the 
Nile.] 

AMARYNCEUS  ('Afiapvyicevc.),  a  chief  of  the 
Eleans,  is  said  by  some  writers  to  have  fought 
against  Troy  :  but  Homer  only  mentions  his  sou 
Diores  (Amarunrtdes)  as  taking  part  in  the  Tro- 
jan war. 

AMARYKTHCS  ('AfiupwBof.  'Apapvvdioc.),  n 
town  in  Eubcea,  seven  stadia  from  Eretria,  to 
which  it  belonged,  with  a  celebrated  temple  of 
Diana  (Artemis),  who  was  hence  called  Ama- 
rynthia  or  Amarygia,  and  in  whose  honor  there 
was  a  festival  of  the  name  both  in  Eutxea  and 
Attica.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiy.,  art.  AMARYNTHIA. 

AM ASKXi's  (now  Amaseno),  a  river  in  Latium, 
rises  in  the  Volscian  Mountains,  flows  by  Pri- 
veraum,  and  after  being  joined  by  the  Ufens  (now 
Ufente),  which  flows  from  Setia,  falls  into  the 
sea  between  Circeii  and  Terracina,  though  the 
greater  part  of  its  waters  are  lost  in  the  Pontine 
marshes. 

AMASIA  or  -EA  ('Ajidaeia :  'Afiaaevf :  now 
Amasiah),  the  capital  of  the  kings  of  Pontus, 
was  a  strongly  fortified  city  on  both  banks  of  the 
River  Iris.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  Mithra- 
dates  the  Great  and  of  the  geographer  Strabo. 

AMASIS  ("Apaoif).  1.  King  of  Egypt,  B.C. 
570-526,  succeeded  Apries,  whom  he  dethroned. 
During  bis  long  reign  Egypt  was  in  a  very  pros- 
perous condition,  and  the  Greeks  were  brought 
into  much  closer  intercourse  with  the  Egyptians 
than  had  existed  previously.  Amasis  married 
Ludice,  a  Cyrenaic  lady,  contracted  an  alliance 
with  Cyrene  and  Polycrates  of  Samos,  and  also 
sent  presents  to  several  of  the  Greek  cities. — 
2.  A  Persian,  sent  in  the  reign  of  Cambyses 
(B.C.  525)  against  Cyrene,  took  Barca,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  taking  Cyrene. 

AMASTKIS  ("Afiaffrpie,  Ion.  ' '  A^rjcrpig).  1. 
Wife  of  Xerxes,  and  mother  of  Artaxerxes  L, 
was  of  a  cruel  and  vindictive  character. — 2. 
Also  called  Amastrine,  niece  of  Darius,  the  last 
kbg  of  Persia.  She  married,  1.  Craterus;  2. 
Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Heraclea  in  Bithynia,  B.C. 
822;  and,  3.  Lysiinachus,  B.C.  302.  Having 
been  abandoned  b^Biysimachus  upon  his  mar- 
riage with  Arsinofl^she  retired  to  Heraclea, 
where  she  reigned,  and  was  drowned  by  her 
two  sons  about  288. 

AMASTRIS  ('A/iatrrptr :  'A/wzorptavof :  now 
Amatera),  a  large  and  beautiful  city,  with  two 
harbors,  on  the  coast  of  Paphlagonia,  built  by 
Amastris  after  her  separation  from  Lysimachus 
(about  B.C.  300),  on  the  site  of  the  old  town  of 
Ses&iius,  which  name  the  citadel  retained.  The 
uew  city  was  built  and  peopled  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Cytorus  and  Cromna. 

AMATA,  wife  of  king  Latinus  and  mother  of 
Lavinia,  opposed  Lavinia  being  given  in  mar- 
riage to  ^Eneas,  because  she  had  already  prom- 
ised her  to  Turnus,  When  she  heard  that  Tur- 
mis  had  fallen  in  battle,  she  hung  herself. 

[AMATH!A  (' AfwJSeia),  one  of  the  Nereids 
(Horn.)]. 

AMATHVS,  -UNTIS,  ("A/iadoU;,  -owrof  :  'ApaOov- 
aiof:  now     Limasol),   an  ancient  town  on  the 
south  coast  of  Cyprus,  with  a  celebrated  tern 
50 


pie  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  who  was  hence  called 
AmathMla.  There  were  copper  mines  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  town  (fecundam  Amatliunta 
metalli,  Ov.,  Met.,  x.,  220). — [2.  (Now  Amatah), 
a  fortified  town  of  Peraea  or  Palestine,  beyond 
the  Jordan.] 

AMATIUS,  surnamed  Pscudomariu*,  pretended 
to  be  either  the  son  or  grandson  of  the  great 
MariuB,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Antony  in  B.C. 
44.  Some  call  him  Herophilus. 

AMAZONES  ('Afj.a£6vef ),  a  my thical  race  of  war- 
like females,  are  said  to  have  come  from  the 
Caucasus,  and  to  have  settled  in  the  country 
about  the  River  Thermodon,  where  they  found- 
ed the  city  Themiscyra,  west  of  the  modern 
Trebizond.  Their  country  was  inhabited  only 
by  the  Amazons,  who  were  governed  by  a  queen ; 
but,  in  order  to  propagate  their  race,  they  met 
once  a  year  the  Gargareans  in  Mount  Caucasus. 
The  children  of  the  female  sex  were  brought  up 
by  the  Amazons,  and  each  had  her  right  breast 
cut  off;  the  male  children  were  sent  to  the 
Gargareaus  or  put  to  death.  The  foundation 
of  several  towns  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  the  isl- 
ands of  the  uEgean  is  ascribed  to  them,  e.  g.,  of 
Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Cyme,  Myrina,  and  Paphos. 
The  Greeks  believed  in  their  existence  as  a  real 
j  historical  race  down  to  a  late  period ;  and  hence 
it  is  said  that  Thalestris,  the  queen  of  the  Ama- 
zons, hastened  to  Alexander,  in  order  to  be- 
come a  mother  by  the  conqueror  of  Asia.  This 
belief  of  the  Greeks  may  have  arisen  from  the 
peculiar  way  in  which  the  women  of  some  of 
the  Caucasian  districts  lived,  and  performed 
the  duties  which  in  other  countries  devolve 
upon  men,  as  well  as  from  their  bravery  and 
courage-,  which  are  noticed  as  remarkable  even 
by  modern  travellers.  Vague  and  obscure  re- 
ports about  them  probably  reached  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Western  Asia  and  the  Greeks,  and  these 
reports  were  subsequently  worked  out  and  em- 
bellished by  popular  tradition  and  poetry.  The 
following  are  the  chief  mythical  adventures  with 
which  the  Amazons  are  connected :  they  are  said 
to  have  invaded  Lycia  in  the  reign  of  lobatcs,  but 
were  destroyed  by  Bellerophontes,  who  happen- 
ed to  be  staying  at  the  king's  court.  Vid.  BEL- 
LEROPHONTES, LAOMEDON.  They  also  invaded 
Phrygia,  and  fought  with  the  Phrygians  and 
Trojans  when  Priam  was  a  young  man.  The 
ninth  among  the  labors  imposed  upon  Hercules 
by  Eurystheus  \vas  to  take  from  Hippolyte,  the 
queen  of  the  Amazons,  her  girdle,  the  ensign 
of  her  kingly  power,  which  she  had  received  as 
a  present  from  Mars  (Ares).  Vid.  HERCULES. 
In  the  reign  of  Theseus  they  invaded  Attica. 
Vid.  THESEUS.  Toward  the  end  of  the  Trojan 
war,  the  Amazons,  under  their  Queen  Penthe- 
silea,  came  to  the  assistance  of  Priam ;  but  she 
was  killed  by  Achilles.  The  Amazons  and  their 
battles  are  frequently  represeuted  in  the  re- 
mains of  ancient  Greek  art. 

AMAZONICI  or  -lus  MONS,  a  mountain  range 
parallel  and  near  to  the  coast  of  Pontus,  con 
taining  the  sources  of  the  Thermodon  and  othei 
streams  which  water  the  supposed  country  of 
the  Amazons. 

AMBARRI,  a  people  of  Gaul,  on  the  Arar  (now 
Saone)  east  of  the  ^Edui,  and  of  the  same  stock 
as  the  latter. 

Belgic  people,  between  the  Bello- 


AMBIATINUS. 


AMBUSTTJS. 


vaci  and  Atrebates,  conquered  by  Caesar  in  B. 
C.  57.  Their  chief  town  was  Samarobriva,  aft- 
erward called  Ambiani  :  now  Amiens. 

AMBIATIXUS  Vicus,  a  place  in  the  country  of 
the  Treviri  near  Coblentz,  where  the  Emperor 
Caligula  was  born. 

AMBIBARI,  an  Armoric  people  in  Gaul,  near 
the  modem  Ambieres  in  Normandy. 

[AMBfGATUs,  a  king  of  the  Celts  in  Gaul  in  the 
reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus.] 

AJIBILIATI,  a  Gallic  people,  perhaps  in  Brit- 
tany. 

AMBIORIX,  a  chief  of  the  Eburones  in  Gaul, 
cut  to  pieces,  in  conjunction  with  Cativolcus, 
the  Roman  troops  under  Sabinus  and  Cotta,  who 
were  stationed  for  the  winter  in  the  territories 
of  the  Eburones,  B.C.  54.  He  failed  in  taking 
the  camp  of  Q.  Cicero,  and  was  defeated  on  the 
arrival  of  Caesar,  who  was  unable  to  obtain  pos- 
session of  the  pei-son  of  Ambiorix,  notwithstand- 
ing his  active  pursuit  of  the  latter. 

AMBIVABETI,  the  clientes  or  vassals  of  the 
JSdui,  probably  dwelt  north  of  the  latter. 

AMBIVAHITI,  a  Gallic  people  west  of  the  J/izas, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Namur. 

AMBIVICS  TURPIO.      Vid.  TURPIO. 

AMBLADA  (TU.  *A/*6Aa<5a  :  'A/u6?.adcvf),  a  town 
in  Pisidia,  on  the  borders  of  Caria  ;  famous  for 
its  wine. 

AMBRACIA  ('A.fiirpaKia,  afterward  'A/z6pa/«a  : 
'AfiSpaKtuTijc,  'Ap6paKi£vf,  Ambraciensis  :  now 


Arta),  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Arachthus, 
eighty  stadia  from  the  coast,  north  of  the  Ain- 
bracian  Gulf,  was  originally  included  in  Acar- 
nania,  but  afterward  in  Epirus.  It  was  colo- 
nized by  the  Corinthians  about  B.C.  660,  and  at 
an  early  period  acquired  wealth  and  importance. 
It  became  subject  to  the  kings  of  Epirus  about 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Pyrrhus 
made  it  the  capital  of  his  kingdom,  and  adorned 
it  with  public  buildings  and  statues.  At  a  later 
time  it  joined  the  ^Etolian  League,  was  taken 
by  the  Romans  in  B.C.  189,  and  stripped  of  its 
works  of  art.  Its  inhabitants  were  transplanted 
to  the  new  city  of  NICOPOLIS,  founded  by  Au- 
gustus after  the  battle  of  Actium,  B.C.  31. 
South  of  Ambracia,  on  the  east  of  the  Arach- 
thus, and  close  to  the  sea,  was  the  fort  Atnbracux. 

AMBRAOIUS  SINUS  ('A/nrpaKivdf  or  'A/zfipa/ct/cdf 
KtUjro?:  now  Gulf  of  Arta),  a  gulf  of  the  Ionian 
S«a  between  Epirus  and  Acarnania,  said  by 
Polybius  to  be  three  hundred  stadia  long  and 
one  hundred  wide,  and  with  an  entrance  only 
five  stadia  in  width.  Its  real  length  is  twenty- 
five  miles  and  its  width  ten  :  the  narrowest  part 
of  the  entrance  is  only  seven  hundred  yards,  but 
it«  general  width  is  about  half  a  mile. 

AJIBRONES  ('Apfyuvef),  a  Celtic  people,  who 
joined  the  Cimbri  and  Teutoni  in  their  invasion 
of  the  Roman  dominions,  and  were  defeated  by 
Man  us  near  Aqua;  Sextiae  (now  Aix)  in  B.C.  102. 

AMBUOSIUS,  usually  culled  ST.  AMBROSE,  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  Christian  fathers,  was 
born  in  A.D.  340,  probably  at  Augusta  Treviro- 
rum  (now  Trcves.)  After  a  careful  education 
at  Jtuine,  he  practiced  with  great  success  as  an  | 
advocate  at  Milan  ;  and  about  A.D.  370  was 
appointed  prefect  of  the  provinces  of  Liguriaj 
and  ^Emilia,  whose  seat  of  government  was  \ 
Milan.  On  the  death  of  Auxentius,  biahop  of  j 
Milan,  in  374,  the  appointment  of  his  successor, 


led  to  an  open  conflict  between  the  Ariaus  and 
Catholics.  Ambrose  exerted  his  influence  to 
restore  peace,  and  addressed  the  people  in  a 
conciliatory  speech,  at  the  conclusion  of  which 
a  child  in  the  further  part  of  the  crowd  cried 
out  "Ambrosius  episcopus."  The  words  were 
received  as  an  oracle  from  heaven,  and  Ambrose 
was  elected  bishop  by  the  acclamation  of  the 
whole  multitude,  the  bishops  of  both  parties 
uniting  in  his  election.  It  was  in  vain  that  h€ 
adopted  the  strangest  devices  to  alter  the  de- 
termination of  the  people  ;  nothing  could  make 
them  change  their  mind;  and  at  length  he 
yielded  to  the  express  command  of  the  emper 
or  (Valeutinian  I.),  and  was  consecrated  on  the 
eighth  day  after  his  baptism,  for  at  the  time  of 
his  election  he  was  only  a  catechumen.  Am 
brose  was  a  man  of  eloquence,  firmness,  nud 
ability,  and  distinguished  himself  by  maintain- 
ing and  enlarging  the  authority  of  the  church 
He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Arians,  and 
thus  came  into  open  conflict  with  Justiua,  the 
mother  of  Valentinian  II.,  who  demanded  the 
use  of  one  of  the  churches  of  Milan  for  the  Ari 
ans.  Ambrose  refused  to  give  it;  he  was  sup 
ported  by  the  people ;  and  the  contest  was  at 
length  decided  by  the  miracles  which  are  re 
ported  to  have  attended  the  discovery  of  the 
reliques  of  two  martyrs,  Gervasius  and  Prota- 
sius.  Although  these  miracles  were  denied  by 
the  Ariaus,  the  impression  made  by  them  upon 
the  people  in  general  was  so  strong,  that  Justiua 
thought  it  prudent  to  give  way.  The  state  of 
the  parties  was  quite  altered  by  J;he  death  of 
Justina  in  387,  when  Valeutiuiau  became  a  Cath- 
olic, and  still  more  completely  by  the  victory  of 
Theodosius  over  Maximus  (388).  This  event 
put  the  whole  power  of  the  empire  into  the 
hands  of  a  prince  who  was  a  firm  Catholic,  and 
over  whom  Ambrose  acquired  such  influence, 
that,  after  the  massacre  at  Thessalonica  in  390, 
he  refused  Theodosius  admission  to  the  Church 
of  Milan  for  a  period  of  eight  months,  and  only 
restored  him  after  he  had  performed  a  public 
penance.  The  best  edition  of  the  works  of 
Ambrose  is  that  of  the  Benedictines,  Paris,  1686 
and  1690. 

AMBRYSUS  or  AMPHRYSUS  ('ApSpvaof :  'Aft- 
Gpvaevf.  near  Dhlslomo),  a  town  in  Phocis, 
strongly  fortified,  south  of  Mount  Parnassus: 
in  the  neighborhood  were  numerous  vineyards. 

AMBI'STITS,  FABIUS.  1.  M.,  poutifex  maxi- 
mus  in  the  year  that  Rome  was  taken  by  the 
Gauls,  B.C.  390.  His  three  sons,  Kaeso.  Nu- 
merius,  and  Quintus,  were  sent  as  ambassadors 
to  the  Gauls,  when  the  latter  were  besieging 
Clusium,  and  took  part  in  a  sally  of  the  besieircd 
against  the  Gauls  (B.C  391).  The  Gauls  "de- 
manded that  the  Fabii  should  be  surrendered 
to  them  for  violating  the  law  of  nations ;  and 
upon  the  Senate  refusing  to  give  up  the  guilty 
parties,  they  marched  against  Rome.  The 
three  sons  were  in  the  same  year  elected  con- 
sular tribunes. — 2.  it,  consular  tribune  in  B.C. 
381  and  369,  and  censor  in  363,  had  two  daugh- 
ters, of  whom  the  elder  was  married  to  Ser 
Sulpicius,  and  the  younger  to  C.  Licinius  Stolo, 
the  author  of  the  Liciuian  Rogations.  Accord- 
ing to  the  story  recorded  by  Livy,  the  younger 
Fabia  induced  her  father  to  assist  her  husband 
in  obtaining  the  consulship  for  the  plebeian  cr 
51 


AMEN  ANUS. 


AMMONIUS. 


der,  Into  which  she  had  roamed — 8.  M,  thrice 
consul,  in  B.C.  860,  when  he  conquered  the 
Heruica;  a  second  time  in  356,  when  he  con- 
quered the  Fulisci  and  Tarquiuieuses ;  and  a 
third  time  in  854,  when  he  conquered  the  Ti- 
burtes.  He  was  dictator  in  351.  He  was  the 
father  of  the  celebrated  Q.  Fabius  Maximus 
Rullianus.  Vid.  MAXIMUS. 

AMKXANUS  ('Apevavof,  Dor. 'A/itvaf :  [now  Ju- 
dieello]),  a  river  in  Sicily  near  Catana,  only 
flowed  occasionally  (nunc  fluit,  intcrdum  sup- 
ureasis  fontibus  aret,  Ov.,  Met,  xv.,  280.) 

A  ME'KIA  (Amgrlnus :  now  Amelia),  an  ancient 
town  in  Umbria,  and  a  municipium,  the  birth- 
place of  Sex.  Roscius  defended  by  Cicero,  was 
situate  in  a  district  rich  in  vines  (Virg.,  Georg^ 
,.,  265). 

AMERIOLA,  a  town  in  the  land  of  the  Sabines, 
destroyed  by  the  Romans  at  a  very  early  period. 

AMESTRATUS  ('Ap/arparof :  Amestratlnus : 
•K>W  Mixtretta),  a  town  in  the  north  of  Sicily, 
not  far  from  the  coast,  the  same  as  the  Myttis- 
'ratnm  of  Polybius,  and  the  Amastra  of  Silius 
Italicus,  taken  by  the  Roman?  from  the  Cartha- 
ginians in  the  first  Punic  war. 

AMESTRIS.     Vid.  AMASTRIS. 

AMIDA  (f/  "AfJLioa :  now  Diarbekr),  a  town  in 
Sophene  (Armenia  Major),  on  the  Upper  Tigris. 

AMIJ.CAR.      Vid.  HAMILCAR. 

AMINIAS  ('A/zemaj-),  brother  of  ^Eschylus,  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Salainis  (B.C. 
480) :  he  and  Eumenes  were  judged  to  have 
been  the  bravest  on  this  occasion  among  all  the 
Athenians. 

AMIPSIAS  ('AfiEi^laf),  a  comic  poet  of  Athens, 
contemporary  with  Aristophanes,  whom  he 
twice  conquered  in  the  dramatic  contests,  gain- 
lug  the  second  prize  with  his  Connus  when 
Aristophanes  »was  third  with  the  Clouds  (B.C. 
423),  and  the  first  with  his  Comastce  when  Aris- 
tophanes gained  the  second  with  the  Birds  (B.C. 
414).  [Some  fragments  of  his  plays  remain, 
which  are  collected  in  Meinekes  Fragmenta 
Comicorum  Gracorum,  vol.  i.,  p.  402 — 407,  edit, 
minor.] 

AMISIA  or  AMISIUS  ('A/zacrtof,  Strab.:  now 
Ems),  a  river  in  northern  Germany  well  known 
to  the  Romans,  on  which  Drusus  had  a  naval 
engagement  with  the  Bructeri,  B.C.  12. 

AMISIA  ('Afiiaia  and  'Apuoeia :  now  Emden  /), 
a  fortress  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  of  the 
same  name. 

AMISODARUS  ('\fiiau6apof),  a  king  of  Lycia, 
said  to  have  brought  up  the  monster  Chimsera  : 
uis  sons  Atymnius  and  Maris  were  slain  at 
Troy  by  the  sons  of  Nestor. 

AMISUS  ('A/t/tffof :  A'/iiarjvo^,  Amisenus :  now 
Samsuii},  a  large  city  on  the  coast  of  Ponlus, 
on  a  bay  of  the  Euxine  Sea,  called  after  it 
(Amisenus  Sinus).  Mithradatea  enlarged  it, 
and  made  it  one  of  his  residences. 

AMITERNUM  (Amiternmus :  now  Amatrica  or 
Torre  d'Amiternv),  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns 
of  the  Sabines,  on  the  Aternus,  the  birth-place 
of  the  historian  Sallust. 

AMMIANUB  ('Afi/iiavof),  a  Greek  epigramma- 
tist, but  probably  a  Roman  by  birth,  the  author 
of  nearly  thirty  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthol- 
ogy, lived  under  Trajan  and  Hadrian. 

AMMIANUS  MARCELUNUS,  by  birth  a  Greek, 
and  a  native  of  Syrian  Antioch,  was  admitted 
52 


'  at  an  early  age  among  the  imperial  body  guards 
He  served  many  years  under  Ursiciuus,  one  of 
the  generals  of  Coustautius,  both  in  the  West 
and  East,  and  he  subsequently  attended  the  Em- 
peror Julian  in  his  campaign  against  the  Per- 
sians (A.D.  363).  Eventually  he  established 
himself  at  Rome,  where  he  composed  his  his- 
tory, and  was  alive  at  least  as  late  its  390.  Hie 
history,  written  in  Latin,  extended  from  the 
accession  of  Nerva,  A.D.  96,  the  point  at  which 
the  histories  of  Tacitus  termiuatecl,  to  the  death 
of  Valeus,  A.D.  378,  comprising  a  period  of  two 
hundred  and  eighty-two  years.  It  was  divided 
into  thirty-one  books  of  which  the  first  thirteen 
are  lost.  The  remaining  eighteen  embrace  the 
acts  of  Constantius  from  A.D.  353,  the  seven- 
teenth year  of  his  reign,  together  with  the  Avhole 
career  of  Gallus,  Juliauus,  Jovianus,  Valentin- 
iunus,  and  Valeus.  The  portion  preserved  was 
the  more  important  part  of  the  work,  as  he  was 
a  contemporary  of  the  events  described  in  these 
books.  The  style  of  Ammianus  is  harsh  and 
inflated,  but  his  accuracy,  fidelity,  and  imparti- 
ality deserve  praise. — Editions:  By  Grouovius, 
Lugd.  Bat,  1693;  by  Ernesti,  Lips,  1773;  by 
Wagner  and  Erfurdt,  Lips.,  1808,  3  vols.  8vo. 

[AMMOCHOSTUS  ('A/^o^wcrrof :  now  C.  Grego), 
a  sandy  promontory  near  Salamis  in  Cyprus, 
which  gives  name  by  corruption  to  the  modern 
Farnagusta]  ^ 

AMMON  ("A/z//wv),  originally  an  -<£tbiopiau  or 
Libyan,  afterward  an  Egyptian  divkity.  The 
real  Egyptian  name  was  Amun  or  Amnuin;  the 
Greeks  called  him  Zeus  Ammori,  the  Romans 
Jupiter  Ammon,  and  the  Hebrews  Amon.  The 
most  ancient  seat  of  his  worship  was  Meroe> 
where  he  had  an  oracle :  thence  it  was  intro- 
duced into  Egypt,  where  the  worship  took  the 
firmest  root  at  Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt,  which 
was  therefore  frequently  called  by  the  Greeks 
Diospolis,  or  the  city  of  Zeus.  Another  famous 
seat  of  the  god,  with  a  celebrated  oracle,  was 
in  the  oasis  of  Ammonium  (now  Siwali)  in  the 
Libyan  desert ;  the  worship  was  also  established 
in  Cyrenaica.  The  god  was  represented  either 
in  the  form  of  n  ram,  or  as  a  human  being  with 
the  head  of  a  ram  ;  but  there  are  Borne  repre- 
sentations in  which  he  appears  altogether  as  a 
human  being,  with  only  the  horns  of  a  ram.  It 
seems  clear  that  the  original  idea  of  Ammon 
was  that  of  a  protector  and  leader  of  the  flocks. 
The  ^Ethiopians  were  a  nomad  people,  flocks 
of  sheep  constituted  their  principal  wealth,  and 
it  is  perfectly  in  accordance  with  the  notions 
of  the  ^Ethiopians  as  well  as  Egyptians  to  wor- 
ship the  animal  which  is  the  leader  and  pro- 
tector of  the  flock.  This  view  is  supported  by 
the  various  stories  related  about  Ammon. 

AMMONIUM.     Vid.  OASIS. 

AMMONIUS  ('Afipuviof).  1.  GRAMMATICUS,  of 
Alexaudrea,  left  this  city  on  the  overthrow  of 
the  heathen  temples  in  A.D.  389,  and  settled 
at  Constantinople.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  valu- 
able wcrk  Ou  the  Differences  of  Words  of  like  Sig- 
uificction  (jtepl  6/toiuv  nal  diatyopuv  /le£euv).  Edi- 
tions: By  Valckeuaer,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1739;  by 
Schafer.  Lips.  1822. — 2.  SON  OF  HERMEAS,  stud- 
ied at  Athens  under  Proclus  (who  died  A.D. 
484),  and  was  the  master  of  Simplicius,  Damas- 
cius,  and  others.  He  wrote  numerous  com- 
mentaries in  Greek  on  the  works  of  the  earlier 


AMNISUS 


AMPHIDAMAS. 


philosophers.  His  extant  works  are  Comment- 
aries on  the  Isagoge  of  Porphyry,  or  the  Five 
Predicables,  first  published  at  Venice  in  1500; 
and  On  the  Categories  of  Aristotle  and  De  Inter- 
pretatione,  published  by  Brandis  in  his  edition  of 
the  Scholia  on  Aristotle. — 3.  Of  LAMPRJE,  in  At- 
tica, a  Peripatetic  philosopher,  lived  in  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  and  was  the  in- 
jtructor  of  Plutarch. — 4.  Surnamed  SACCAS,  or 
sack-carrier,  because  his  employment  was  car- 
rying the  corn,  landed  at  Alexandrea,  as  a  pub- 
lic porter,  was  born  of  Christian  parents.  Some 
.vritcrs  assert,  and  others  deny,  that  he  aposta- 
ized  from  the  faith.  At  any  rate,  he  combined 
Ihe  study  of  philosophy  with  Christianity,  and 
is  regarded  by  those  who  maintain  his  apostasy 
is  the  founder  of  the  later  Platonic  School. 
Among  his  disciples  were  Lonjrinus,  Herennius, 
Plotiuus,  and  Ongen.  He  died  A.D.  243,  at  the 
age  of  more  than  eighty  years. — [5.  Of  ALEX- 
ASDREA,  a  pupil  of  Aristarchus,  a  celebrated 
grammarian,  who  composed  commentaries  on 
Homer,  Pindar,  and  others,  none  of  which  are 
extant — 6.  Styled  LITHOTOMUS,  an  eminent  sur- 
geon of  Alexaudrea,  celebrated  for  his  skill  in 
cutting  for  the  stone.] 

AMXISUS  ('A/miTof),  a  town  in  the  north  of 
Crete  and  the  harbor  of  Cnosus,  situated  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  the  nymphs  of  which, 
called  Amnlsiudes,  were  in  the  service  of  Diana 
(Artemis). 

AMOR,  the  god  of  love,  had  no  place  in  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Romans,  who  only  translate  the 
Greek  name  Eros  into  Amor.  Vid.  EROS. 

AMOROUS  ('A/topyof :  'Afiopylvo^ :  now  Amor- 
qo),  an  island  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  one  of 
the  Sporades,  the  birth-place  of  Simonides,  and, 
under  the  Roman  emperors,  a  place  of  banish- 
ment. 

AMORIUM  ('Afiopiov),  a  city  of  Phrygia  Major 
or  Galatia,  on  the  River  Sangarius ;  the  reputed 
birth-place  of  JSsop. 

AiiPE  ("Ayu;rj/,  Herod.)  or  AMPELONE  (Plin.), 
a  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris,  where  Darius 
I.  planted  the  Milesians  whom  he  removed  from 
their  own  city  after  the  Ionian  revolt  (B.C.  494). 
AMPELIUS,  L.,  the  author  of  a  small  work,  en- 
titled Liber  Memorialis,  probably  lived  in  the 
second  or  third  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
His  work  is  a  sort  of  common-place  book,  con- 
taining a  meagre  summary  of  the  most  striking 
natural  objects  and  of  the  most  remarkable 
events,  divided  into  fifty  chapters.  It  is  'gener- 
ally printed  with  Florus,  and  has  been  published 
separately  by  Beck,  Lips.,  1826. 

AMPELCS  ('Aftirfi-Of),  a  promontory  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  peninsula  Sithonia  in  Chalcidicc, 
in  Macedonia,  near  Toronc. — 2.  [A  promontory 
of  Crete,  on  the  eastern  coast  south  of  Sam- 
monium,  with  a  city  of  same  name,  now  prob- 
ably Cape  Sacro. — 3.  A  mountain  ending  in  a 
promontory  in  the  Island  of  Samos,  opposite 
Icaria,  now  Cape  Dominico.] 

AMPHIBIA  ('A/tireXovoia :   now  C.  Espartet), 
the  promontory  at  the  west  end  of  the  south  or 
African  coast  of  the  Fretum  Gaditauum  (now  i 
Straits  of  Gibraltar).    The  natives  of  the  coun- ' 
try  called  it  Cotes  (al  Kwmf). 

AMPHAXITIS  ('A^afmf),  a  district  of  Myg- : 
•Jonia  in  Macedonia,  at  the  mouths  of  the  Axius 
and  Echedorus. 


AMPHEA  ("ApQeia :  'Afi^svg),  &  small  town  ol 
Messenia  on  the  borders  of  Laconia  and  Mes- 
senia,  conquered  by  the"  Spartans  in  the  first 
Messeuian  war. 

[AMPHIALUS  ('ApQiaZoc),  a  Phaeacian,  who 
gained  the  prize  in  the  games,  in  which  Ulysses 
took  part  (Od.,  viii.,  114).] 

[AMPHIANAX  ('A[t<j>&va£),  king  of  Lycia,  who 
received  Proetus  when  driven  out  of  Argolis, 
gave  him  his  daughter  Antea  in  marriage,  and 
restored  him  to  Argos.] 

AMPHIARAUS  ('A/tQiupaof),  son  of  Oicles  and 
Hyperrunestra,  daughter  of  Thestius,  was  de- 
scended on  his  father's  side  from  the  famous 
seer  Melampus,  and  was  himself  a  great  prophet 
and  a  great  hero  at  Argos.  By  his  wife  Eri- 
phyle,  the  sister  of  Adrastus,  he  was  the  father 
of  Alcmaeon,  Amphiaraus,  Eurydice,  and  De- 
monassa.  He  took  part  in  the  hunt  of  the  Caly- 
donian  boar  and  in  the  Argonautic  voyage.  He 
also  joined  Adrastus  in  the  expedition  against 
Thebes,  although  he  foresaw  its  fatal  termina- 
tion, through  the  persuasions  of  his  wife  Eri- 
phyle,  who  had  been  induced  to  persuade  her 
husband  by  the  necklace  of  Harmonia  which 
Polynices  had  given  her.  On  leaving  Argos, 
however,  he  enjoined  on  his  sons  to  punish 
their  mother  for  his  death.  During  the  war 
against  Thebes,  Amphiaraus  fought  bravely, 
but  could  not  escape  his  fate.  Pursued  by  Peri- 
clymenus,  he  fled  toward  the  River  Ismenius, 
and  the  earth  swallowed  him  up,  together  with 
his  chariot,  before  he  was  overtaken  by  his  ene- 
my. Jupiter  (Zeus)  made  him  immortal,  and 
henceforth  he  was  worshipped  as  a  hero,  first 
at  Oropus  and  afterward  in  all  Greece.  His 
oracle  between  Potniae  and  Thebes,  where  he 
was  said  to  have  been  swallowed  up,  enjoyed 
great  celebrity.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art.  ORACU- 
LUM.  Hia  son,  Alcmaeon,  is  called  Amphiara- 
ides. 

AMPHIC.IEA  or  AMPHICLEA  (Afujiiicaia,'  'A/iQi- 

tia:  'A/LKf>iKai£ve :  now  Dhad/ii  or  Oglunitza?), 
a  town  in  the  north  of  Phocis,  with  an  adytum 
of  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  was  called  for  a  long 
time  Ophitea  ('O^ireia),  by  command  of  the  Am- 
phictyons. 

[AMPHICLUS  ("A/^tK/lof),  a  Trojan,  slain  by 
Meges.] 

[AMPHICRATES  ('AptyiKpuTTjf),  an  early  king  of 
Samos,  in  whose  reign  the  Samians  made  war 
on  the  ^Eginetans. — 2.  A  sophist  and  rhetorician 
of  Athens,  who  flourished  about  70  B.C.] 

AMPHICTYON  ('AfiQiKrvuv),  a  son  of  Deucalion 
and  Pyrrha.  Others  represent  him  as  a  king  of 
Attica,  who  expelled  from  the  kingdom  his  fa- 
ther-in-law Cranaus,  ruled  for  twelve  years, 
and  was  then  in  turn  expelled  by  Erichthonius. 
Many  writers  represent  him  as  the  founder  of 
the  amphictyony  of  Thermopylae ;  in  conse- 
quence of  this  belief  a  sanctuary  of  Amphictyon 
was  built  in  the  village  of  Anthela  on  the  Aso- 
pus,  which  was  the  most  ancient  place  of  meet- 
ing of  this  amphictyony. 

AMPHIDXMAS  (' ' Aptyitidfias),  son,  or,  according 
to  others,  brother  of  Lycurgus,  one  of  the  Ar- 
gouauta. — [2.  Son  of  Busiris,  king  of  Egypt, 
slain  by  Hercules  along  with  his  father.  \  id, 
BUSIRIS. — 3.  A  hero  of  Scandia  in  Cythera,  to 
whom  Autolycus  sent  a  helmet  set  round  with 
boar's  tuska,  afterward  burne  by  Merioues  be 
53 


AMPHIDOLI. 


AMPHISSA. 


fore  Troy. — t.  A  king  of  Chalcis  in  Eubccn: 
he  fell  in  battle  against  the  Erythrzeans,  and 
his  sous  celebrated  in  his  honor  funereal  games, 
ut  which  llesiod  gained  the  first  prize  of  poetry, 
viz.,  a  golden  tripod,  which  he  dedicated  to  the 
Muses.] 

[AMPIIIDOLI  ('A//^tdoAot),  a  city  of  Triphylian 
Elis.] 

AMPHILOCHIA  ('A[t<j>i%.oxia),  the  country  of  the 
Amphilochi  ('AftQihoxoi),  an  Epirot  race,  at  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  usually  in- 
cluded in  Acarnania.  Their  chief  town  was 
ARGOS  AMPHILOCHICUM. 

AiiPHiLScaus  ('Ay«0t/lo,£0f),  son  of  Ampliiaraus 
and  Eriphyle,  and  brother  of  Alcmaeon.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  expedition  of  the  Epi- 
<;oui  against  Thebes,  assisted  his  brother  in  the 
murder  of  their  mother  (vid.  ALCM.SON),  and 
afterward  fought  against  Troy.  On  his  return 
fixnn  Troy,  together  with  Mopsus,  who  was,  like 
himself,  a  seer,  he  founded  the  town  of  Mallos 
in  Cilicia.  Hence  he  proceeded  to  his  native 
place,  Argos,  but  returned  to  Mallos,  where  he 
was  killed  in  single  combat  by  Mopsus.  Others 
relate  (Tliuc.,  ii.,  68)  that,  after  leaving  Argos, 
Amphilochus  founded  Argos  Amphilochicum  on 
the  Ambracian  Gulf.  He  was  worshipped  at 
Mallos  in  Cilicia,  at  Oropus,  and  at  Athens. 

AMPHILYTUS  ('A//^iAvrof),  a  celebrated  seer 
iu  the  time  of  Pisistratus  (B.C.  559),  is  called 
both  an  Acarnanian  and  an  Athenian :  he  may 
have  been  an  Acarnanian  who  received  the 
franchise  at  Athens. 

AMFHIMACHUS  ('A/i^o^of).  1.  Son  of  Ctea- 
tus,  grandson  of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  one  of  the 
four  leaders  of  the  Epeans  against  Troy,  was 
slain  by  Hector. — 2.  Son  of  Nomion,  with  his 
brother  Nastes,  led  the  Carians  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Trojans,  and  was  slain  by  Achilles. 

AMPHIMALLA  (rd.  'AfiQipaMa),  a  town  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Crete,  on  a  bay  called  after 
it  (now  Gulf  of  Armiro). 

[AMPHIMARUS  ('Ap<j>i[tapoc),  son  of  Neptune, 
father  of  the  minstrel  Linus  by  Urania.] 

AMPHIMEDON  ({hp.tyifj.iSuv),  of  Ithaca,  a  guest- 
friend  of  Agamemnon,  and  a  suitor  of  Penelope, 
was  skin  by  Telemachus. — [2.  A  Libyan  slain 
at  the  nuptials  of  Perseus.] 

[AMPHINOME  ('A[uf>iv6fi.7)),  one  of  the  Nereids. 
— 2.  Wife  of  JEsou  and  mother  of  Jason,  slew 
herself  when  Pelias  had  slain  her  husband. — 3. 
Daughter  of  Pelias,  married  by  Jason  to  An- 
drsemoa] 

[AMPHINOMUS  ('A/^tVoyUOf),  son  of  Nisus  of 
Dulichium,  one  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope,  slain 
by  Telemachus.] 

AMPHION  ('A/iQiuv).  1.  Son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Antiope,  the  daughter  of  Nycteus  of  Thebes, 
and  twin-brother  of  Zethus.  (Ov.,  Met.,  vL, 
110,  seg.)  Amphion  and  Zethus  were  born 
either  at  Eleuthene  in  Boeotia  or  on  Mount  Ci- 
thseron,  whither  their  mother  had  fled,  and  grew 
up  among  the  shepherds,  not  knowing  their  de- 
scent Mercury  (Hermes)  (according  to  others, 
Apollo,  or  the  Muses)  gave  Amphion  a  lyre, 
who  henceforth  practiced  song  and  music,  while 
his  brother  spent  his  time  in  hunting  and  tend- 
ing the  flocks.  (Hor.,  Ep~,  L,  18,  41.)  Hav- 
ing become  acquainted  with  their  origin,  they 
marched  against  Thebes,  where  Lycus  reigned, 
the  husband  of  then-  mother  Antiope,  whom  he 
54 


had  repudiated,  and  had  then  married  Dirce  in 
her  stead.  They  took  the  city,  anil  as  Lycus 
and  Dirce  had  treated  their  mother  with  great 
cruelty,  the  two  brothers  killed  them  both. 
They  put  Dirce  to  death  by  tying  her  to  a  bull, 
who  dragged  her  about  till  she  perished ;  and 
they  then  threw  her  body  into  a  well,  which 
was  from  this  time  called  the  Well  of  Dirce. 
After  they  had  obtained  possession  of  Thebes, 
they  fortified  it  by  a  wall  It  is  said  that  when 
Amphion  played  his  lyre,  the  stones  moved  of 
their  own  accord  and  formed  the  wall  (movit 
\Amphionlapidescanendo,  Hor.,  Carm.,  iii.,  11). 
Amphiou  afterward  married  Niobe,  who  bore 
him  many  sous  and  daughters,  all  of  whom  were 
killed  by  Apollo.  His  death  is  differently  re- 
I  lated :  some  say,  that  he  killed  himself  from 
j  grief  at  the  loss  of  his  children  (Ov.,  Met.,  vi., 
270),  and  others  tell  us  that  he  was  killed  by 
Apollo  because  he  made  an  assault  on  the  Pyth- 
ian temple  of  the  god.  Amphion  and  liis  broth- 
er were  buried  at  Thebes.  The  punishment  in- 
flicted upon  Dirce  is  represented  in  the  cele- 
brated Farucse  bull,  the  work  of  Apollouius  and 
Tauriscus,  which  was  discovered  in  1546,  and 
placed  in  the  palace  Farnese  at  Rome. — 2.  Son 
of  Jasus  and  father  of  Chloris.  In  Homer,  this 
Amphion,  king  of  Orchomenos,  is  distinct  from 
Amphion,  the  husband  of  Niobe  ;  but  in  earlier 
traditions  they  seem  to  have  been  regarded  as 
the  same  person. — [3.  A  leader  of  the  Epeans 
before  Troy. — 4.  Sou  of  Hyperesius  of  Pallene, 
an  Argonaut. — 5.  A  king  of  Corinth,  father  of 
Labda.] 

AMPHIPOLIS  ('A/z0(7ro/Uf  :  'AfitynroTuTrjf  :  now 
Neokhorio,  in  Turkish  Jeni-Keui),  a  town  in 
Macedonia  on  the  left  or  eastern  bank  of  tne 
Strymon,  just  below  its  egress  from  the  Lake 
Cercinitis,  and  about  three  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  Strymon  flowed  almost  round  the  town, 
nearly  forming  a  circle,  whence  its  name  Am- 
phi-polis.  It  was  originally  called  "Evrea  odoi, 
"the  Nine  Ways,"  and  belonged  to  the  Edoni- 
ans,  a  Thraciau  people.  Aristagoras  of  Miletus 
first  attempted  to  colonize  it,  but  was  cut  off 
with  his  followers  by  the  Edoniaus  in  B.C.  497. 
The  Athenians  made  a  next  attempt  with  ten 
thousand  colonists,  but  they  were  all  destroyed 
by  the  Edonians  in  465.  In  437  the  Athenians 
were  more  successful,  and  drove  the  Edouians 
out  of  the  "  Nine  Ways,"  which  was  henceforth 
called  Arnpbipolis.  It  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  Athenian  possessions,  being  ad- 
vantageously situated  for  trade  on  a  navigable 
river  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  country,  and  near 
the  gold  mines  of  Mount  Pangagus.  Hence  the 
indignation  of  the  Athenians  when  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Brasidas  (B.C.  424)  and  of  Philip 
(358).  Under  the  Romans  it  was  a  free  city, 
and  the  capital  of  Macedonia  prima :  the  Via 
Egnatia  ran  through  it.  The  port  of  Amphip- 
oh's  was  EION. 

AMPHIS  ("Au(f>i(f),  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  of 
the  middle  comedy,  contemporary  with  the  phi- 
losopher Plato.  We  have  the  titles  of  twenty- 
six  of  his  plays,  and  a  few  fragments  of  them. 
[These  fragments  have  been  published  by  Mei- 
neke,  Fragmenta  Camicontm  Gracorum,  vol.  i, 
p.  645-656,  edit,  minor.] 

AMPHISSA  ('Afityiaaa  :  'A/j.(j>iaff£Vf, '  AfiQioaalof  : 
now  Salona),  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  the  Lo 


AMFHISTRATUS. 


AMYCL^E. 


cri  Ozolae  on  the  borders  of  Phocis,  seven  miles 
from  Delphi,  said  to  have  been  named  after 
Arnphissa,  daughter  of  Macareus,  and  beloved 
by  Apollo.  In  consequence  of  the  Sacred  War 
declared  against  Amphissa  by  the  Amphictyons, 
the  town  -was  destroyed  by  Philip,  B.C.  338, 
but  it  was  soon  afterward  rebuilt,  and  under  the 
Romans  was  a  free  state. 

AMPHISTRATUS  ('A/^icrrparof)  and  his  brother 
Rhecas,  the  charioteers  of  the  Dioscuri,  were 
said  to  have  taken  part  in  the  expedition  of  Ja- 
son to  Colchis,  and  to  have  occupied  a  part  of 
that  country  which  was  called  after  them  Heni- 
ochia,  as  Jieniochus  (rjvioxof)  signifies  a  chari- 
oteer. 

[AMPHITHEA  (' AfitjuGea),  wife  of  Autolycus, 
grandmother  of  Ulysses. — 2.  Wife  of  Adrastus.J 

[AMPHITHEMIS  ('A/LujtiOefiif),  son  of  Apollo  and 
Acacallis,  and  father  of  Nasamon  and  Caphau- 
rus  by  Tritonis. — 2.  A  Theban  general,  who  re- 
ceived money  sent  by  the  Persians  into  Greece 
to  excite  disturbances  there,  for  the  purpose  of 
causing  the  recall  of  Agesilaus  from  Asia.] 

[AMPHITHOE  (' ' KfifyiQorf),  one  of  the  Nereids.] 
•  AMPHITRITE  ('A/^trpn-T?),  a  Nereid  or  an 
Oceauid,  wife  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  god- 
dess of  the  sea,  especially  of  the  Mediterranean. 
In  Homer  Amphitrite  is  merely  the  name  of  the 
sea,  and  she  first  occurs  as  a  goddess  in  Hesiod. 
Later  poets  again  use  the  word  as  equivalent  to 
the  sea  in  general  She  became  by  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  the  mother  of  Triton,  Rhode  or  Rhodes, 
and  Benthesicyme. 

AMPIUTROPE  ('A/^trpoTn;  'A[t<j>i-poTraiev(f),  an 
Attic  demus  belonging  to  the  tribe  Antiochis,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  silver-mines  of  Laurium. 

AMPHITRYON  or  AMPHITRUO  ('Aftfarpvuv),  son 
of  Alcaeus,  king  of  Tiryns,  and  Hipponome.  Al- 
Cceus  had  a  brother  Electryon,  who  reigned  at 
Mycenae.  Between  Electryon  and  Ptcrelaus, 
king  of  the  Taphians,  a  furious  war  raged,  in 
which  Electryou  lost  all  his  sons  except  Licym- 
nius,  and  was  robbed  of  his  oxen.  Amphitryon 
recovered  the  oxen,  but  on  his  return  to  Myce- 
nae accidentally  killed  his  uncle  Electryon.  He 
was  now  expelled  from  Mycenae,  together  with 
Alcmcne  the  daughter  of  Electryon,  by  Sthen- 
elus  the  brother  of  Electryon,  and  went  to 
Thebes,  where  he  was  purified  by  Creon.  In 
order  to  win  •  the  hand  of  Alcmene,  Amphitryon 
prepared  to  avenge  the  death  of  Alcmene's 
brothers  on  the  Taphians,  and  conquered  them, 
after  Comaetho,  the  daughter  of  Pterelaus, 
through  her  love  for  Amphitryon,  cut  off  the 
one  golden  hair  on  her  father's  head,  which 
rendered  him  immortal.  During  the  absence 
of  Amphitryon  from  Thebes,  Jupiter  visited 
ALCMENE,  who  became  by  the  god  the  mother 
of  Hercules ;  the  latter  is  called  Amphitryoniadcs 
in  allusion  to  his  reputed  father.  Amphitryon 
fell  in  a  war  against  Erginus,  king  of  the  Mmy- 
ans.  The  comedy  of  Plautus,  called  Amphitruo, 
is  a  ludicrous  representation  of  the  visit  of  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  to  Alcmene  in  the  disguise  of  her 
lover  Amphitryon. 

[AMPHIUS  ("A/i^tof),  son  of  Lelagus,  an  ally 
of  the  Trojans,  slain  by  the  Telamonian  Ajax. 
— 2.  Son  of  Merops,  the  celebrated  seer,  against 
whose  wish  his  two  sons  Amphius  and  Adrastus 
went  to  the  Trojan  war :  they  were  both  slain  by 
Diomedes.] 


I      AMPHOTERUS  ('A/^orfpof).     Vld.  ACARNAN.— - 
;  [2.  A  Trojan  slain  by  Patroclus.] 

AMPHRYSUS  ('A^pvcfos).     1.  A  small  river  in 

Thessaly  which  flowed  into  the  Pagasaean  Gull', 

j  on  the  banks  of  which  Apollo  fed  the  herds  of 

|  Admetus  (pastor  ab  Amphryso,  Virg,  Georg.,  iii., 

2). — 2.   Vid.  AMBRYSUS. 

[Anpius  BALBUS,  T.     Vid.  BALBUS.] 

AMPSAGA  (now  Wad-d-Kabir,  or  tiufjimar),  a 
river  of  Northern  Africa,  which  divided  Numidia 
from  Mauretania  Sitifensis.  It  flows  past  the 
town  of  Cirta  (now  Constantino). 

AMPSANCTUS  or  AMSANCTUS  LACUS  (now  Logo 
d'  Ansanti  or  Mufiti),  a  small  lake  in  Samnium 
near  yEculauum,  from  which  mephitic  vapors 
arose.  Near  it  was  a  chapel  sacred  to  Mephi- 
tis, with  a  cavern  from  which  mephitic  vapors 
also  came,  and  which  was  therefore  regarded  as 
an  entrance  to  the  lower  world.  (Virg.,  ^En., 
vii.,  563,  seq.) 

AMPSIVARII.     Vld.  ANSIBAHII. 

AMPYCUS  ('AfixvKOf).  1.  Son  of  Pelias,  hus- 
band of  Chloris,  and  father  of  the  famous  seer 
Mopsus,  who  is  hence  called  Ampycides.  Pau- 
sanias  calls  him  Ampyx. — 2.  Son  of  lapetus,  a 
bard  and  priest  of  Ceres,  killed  by  Pettalus  at 
the  marriage  of  Perseus. 

AMPYX.  Vid.  AMPYCUS. — [2.  A  friend  of 
Phineus,  changed  to  stone  by  Perseus  by  the 
head  of  Medusa. — 3.  One  of  the  Lapithae,  who 
slew  the  Centaur  (Eclus  at  the  nuptials  of  Pir- 
ithous.] 

AMULIUS.     Vid.  ROMULUS. 

AMYCL^E.  1.  ('A/ivKAai :  'A/uvKhatEvg,  'Afiv- 
K/latof  :  now  Sklavokhori  or  Aia  Kyriaki  /),  an 
ancient  town  of  Laconia  on  the  Eurotas,  in  a 
beautiful  country,  twenty  miles  southeast  of 
Sparta.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Iliad  (iL,  584), 
and  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  ancient 
Lacedasmonian  King  Amyclas,  father  of  Hyacin- 
thus,  and  to  have  been  the  abode  of  Tyndarus, 
and  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  who  are  hence  called 
Amyclcei  fratres.  After  the  conquest  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus by  the  Dorians,  the  Achaaans  main- 
tained themselves  in  Amyclae  for  a  long  time ; 
and  it  was  only  shortly  before  the  first  Messc- 
nian  war  that  the  town  was  taken  and  destroy- 
ed by  the  Lacedaemonians  under  Teleclus.  The 
tale  ran  that  the  inhabitants  had  been  so  often 
alarmed  by  false  reports  of  the  approach  of  the 
enemy,  that  they  passed  a  law  that  no  one 
should  speak  of  the  enemy ;  and  accordingly, 
when  the  Lacedaemonians  at  hist  came,  and  no 
one  dared  to  announce  their  approach,  "  Amy- 
clae perished  through  silence  :"  hence  arose  the 
proverb  Ainyclis  ipsis  taciturnior.  After  its  de- 
struction by  the  Lacedaemonians  Amyclaj  be- 
came a  village,  and  was  only  memorable  by  the 
festival  of  the  Hyaciuthia  (vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.. 
s.  v.)  celebrated  at  the  place  annually,  and  by  the 
temple  and  colossal  statue  of  Apollo,  who  was 
hence  called  Amyclceus. — 2.  (Amyclanus),  an 
ancient  town  of  Latium,  east  of  Terracina,  on 
the  Sinus  Amyclanus,  was,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, an  Achaean  colony  from  Laconia.  In  the 
time  of  Augustus  the  town  had  disappeared  ; 
the  inhabitants  were  said  to  have  deserted  it 
on  account  of  its  being  infested  by  serpents : 
whence  Virgil  (^En.,  x.,  664)  speaks  of  tacita 
Amyclct,  though  some  commentators  suppose 
that  he  transfers  to  this  town  the  epithet  be- 
55 


AMYCLAS. 


ANACREON. 


longing  to  the  Amy  else  in  Laconia  (No.  1).  Near 
Amyclze  was  the  Spelunca  (Sperlonga\or  nat- 
ural grotto,  a  favorite  retreat  of  the  Emperor 
Tiberius. 

AMVCLAS.     Vid.  AMYCL*. 

AMYCLIDES,  a  name  of  Hyacinthus,  as  the  son 
of  Amyclas. 

AMYOUS  (AfivKOf),  son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
and  Bithynis,  king  of  the  Bebryces,  "was  cele- 
brated for  his  skill  in  boxing,  and  used  to  chal- 
lenge strangers  to  box  with  him.  When  the 
Argonauts  came  to  his  dominions,  Pollux  accepted 
the  challenge  and  killed  him. 

[AMYDON  (Apvtiuv),  an  ancient  city  of  Pseonia 
in  Macedonia,  ou  the  Axius,  spoken  of  by  Homer 
(II.,  ii,  849).] 

AMYMONE  ('Afjvfiuvi)),  one  of  the  daughters  of 
Danaus  and  Elephantis.  When  Danaus  ar- 
rived in  Argos,  the  country  was  suffering  from 
a  drought,  and  Dauaus  sent  out  Amymone  to 
fetch  water.  She  was  attacked  by  a  satyr,  but 
was  rescued  from  his  violence  by  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon), who  appropriated  her  to  himself,  and 
then  showed  her  the  wells  at  Lerna.  According 
to  another  account,  he  bade  her  draw  his  trident 
from  the  rock,  from  which  a  three-fold  spring 
gushed  forth,  which  was  called  after  her  the 
Well  and  River  of  Amymone.  Her  son  by  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon)  was  called  Nauplius. 

AMYNANDER  (Apvvavdpos),  king  of  the  Atha- 
manes  in  Epirus,  an  ally  of  the  Romans  in  their 
war  with  Philip  of  Macedonia,  about  B.C.  198, 
but  an  ally  of  Antiochus,  B.C.  189. 

AMYNTAS  ('A/iwraf).  1.  L  King  of  Macedo- 
nia, reigned  from  about  B.C.  540  to  500,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander  I. — 2.  II. 
King  of  Macedonia,  son  of  Philip,  the  brother 
of  Perdiccas  II.,  reigned  B.C.  393-369,  and  ob- 
tained the  crown  by  the  murder  of  the  usurper 
Pausanias.  Soon  after  his  accession  he  was 
driven  from  Macedonia  by  the  Illyrians,  but  was 
restored  to  his  kingdom  by  the  Thessalians. 
On  his  return  he  was  engaged  in  war  with  the 
Olynthians,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  the 
Spartans,  and  by  their  aid  Olynthus  was  reduced 
in  379.  Amyntas  united  himself  also  with  Ja- 
son of  Pherae,  and  carefully  cultivated  the  friend- 
ship of  Athens.  Amyntas  left  by  his  wife  Eu- 
ridice  three  sons,  Alexander,  Perdiccas,  and 
the  famous  Philip. — 3.  Grandson  of  Amyntas 
IL,  was  excluded  by  Philip  from  the  succession 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  Perdiccas  IIL,  in  B.C. 
360.  He  was  put  to  death  in  the  first  year  of 
the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great,  336,  for  a  plot 
against  the  king's  life. — 4.  A  Macedonian  officer 
in  Alexander's  army,  son  of  Andromenes.  He 
and  his  brothers  were  accused  of  being  privy  to 
the  conspiracy  of  Philotas  in  330,  but  were  ac- 
quitted. Some  little  time  after  he  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  a  village. — 5.  A  Macedonian 
traitor,  son  of  Antiochus,  took  refuge  at  the 
court  of  Darius,  and  became  one  of  the  com- 
manders of  the  Greek  mercenaries.  He  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Issus  (B.C.  333),  and 
afterward  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  put  to 
death  by  Mazaces,  the  Persian  governor. — 6.  A 
king  of  Galatia,  supported  Antony,  and  fought 
ou  his  side  against  Augustus  at  the  battle  of 
Actiuzn  (B.C.  31).  He  fell  in  an  expedition 
against  the  town  of  Homonada  or  Homona. — 
7.  A  Greek  writer  of  a  w«»-k  entitled  Stathmi 
56 


I  (SraOftoi)  probably  on  account  of  the  different 
halting-places  of  Alexander  the  Great  iu  his 
Asiatic  expedition. 

AMYNTOK  (Apvvrup),  son  of  Ormeuus  of  Eic- 
on in  Thessaly,  where  Autolycus  broke  into  his 
house,  and  father  of  PHOENIX,  whom  he  cursed  on 
account  of  unlawful  intercourse  with  Jus  mis- 
tress. According  to  Apollodorus  he  was  a  king 
of  Ormenium,  and  was  slain  by  Hercules,  to 
whom  he  refused  a  passage  through  his  douu'n- 
ions,  and  the  hand  of  his  daughter  ASTYDAMIA. 
According  to  Ovid  (Met.,  xii.,  364),  he  was  king 
of  the  Dolopes. 

AMYRT^EUS  (Afivpralof),  an  Egyptian,  as- 
sumed the  title  of  king,  and  joined  Inurus  the 
Libyan  in  the  revolt  against  the  Persians  in 
B.C.  460.  They  at  first  defeated  the  Persians 
(vid.  ACILEMENES),  but  were  subsequently  totally 
defeated,  455.  Amyrtaeus  escaped,  and  main- 
tained himself  as  king  in  the  marshy  districts 
of  Lower  Egypt  till  about  414,  when  the  Egyp- 
tians expelled  the  Persians,  and  Amyrtieus  reign- 
ed six  years. 

AMYRUS  (*A/zt>pof),  a  river  in  Thessaly,  with 
a  town  of  the  same  name  upon  it,  flowing  into 
the  Lake  Bcebeis  :  the  country  around  was  called 
the  'ApvpiKov  nediov. 

AMYTHAON  (Apvdduv),  son  of  Cretheus  and 
Tyro,  father  of  Bias  and  of  the  seer  Melampus, 
who  is  hence  called  Ami/tfidonfus  (Virg.,  Gcorg., 
iu.,  550).  He  dwelt  at  Pylus  iu  Messenia,  and 
is  mentioned  among  those  to  whom  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Olympian  games  was  ascribed. 

ANABON  (Avuduv),  a  district  of  the  Persiau 
province  of  Aria,  south  of  Aria  Proper,  contain- 
ing four  towns,  which  still  exist,  Phra  (now 
Ferrah),  Bis  (now  Beest  or  £ost),  Gari  (now 
Ghore),  Nil  (now  Neh). 

[ANABURA  (TU  'Avu6ovpa),  a  city  of  Pisidia.] 

ANACES  ('Ava/cef).     Vid.  ANAX,  No.  2. 

ANACHARSIS  (Avuxapa^),  a  Scythian  of 
princely  rank,  left  his  native  country  to  travel 
iu  pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  came  to  Athens 
about  B.C.  594.  He  became  acquainted  with  So- 
lon, and  by  his  taleuts  and  acute  observations,  ha 
excited  general  admiration.  The  fame  of  hi» 
wisdom  was  such,  that  he  was  even  reckoned 
by  some  among  the  seven  sages.  He  was  killed 
by  his  brother  Saulius  on  his  return  to  his  native 
country.  Cicero  (Tusc.  Disp.,  v,  82)  quotes 
from  one  of  his  letters,  of  which  several,  but 
spurious,  are  still  extant. 

ANACREOX  (' Avattpeuv),  a  celebrated  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Teos,  an  Ionian  city  in  Asia  Mi- 
nor. He  removed  from  his  native  city,  with 
the  great  body  of  its  inhabitants,  to  Abdera,  in 
Thrace,  when  Teos  was  taken  by  the  Persians 
(about  B.C.  540),  but  lived  chiefly  at  Samos, 
under  the  patronage  of  Polycrates,  in  whose 
praise  he  wrote  many  songs.  After  the  death 
of  Polycrates  (522),  he  went  to  Athens  at  the 
invitation  of  the  tyrant  Hipparchus,  where  he 
became  acquainted  with  Simonides  and  other 
poets.  He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-five,  proba- 
bly about  478,  but  the  place  of  his  death  is  un 
certain.  The  universal  tradition  of  antiquity  rep- 
resents Anacreon  as  a  consummate  voluptuaiy, 
and  his  poems  prove  the  truth  of  the  tradition. 
He  sings  of  love  and  wine  with  hearty  good  will ; 
|  and  we  see  iu  him  the  luxury  of  the  Ionian  in- 
flamed by  the  fervor  of  the  poet.  The  tale  that 


ANACTORIUM. 


ANAXAGORS. 


be  loved  Sappho  is  very  improbable.  Of  hhs 
poems  only  a  few  genuine  fragments  have  come 
down  to  us  :  for  the  "  Odes"  attributed  to  him 
are  now  admitted  to  be  spurious. — Editions :  By 
Fischer,  Lips.,  1793  ;  Bergk,  Lips.,  1834. 

ANACTOBJUM      ('AvOKTOplOV  :      'A-VaKTOptOf),     & 

town  in  Acarnania,  built  by  the  Corinthians, 
upon  a  promontory  of  the  same  name  (near  La 
Madonna)  at  the  entrance  of  the  Ambracian 
Gulf.  Its  inhabitants  were  removed  by  Augus- 
tus after  the  battle  of  Actium  (B.C.  31)  to  Ni- 
copolis. 

ANADTOMENE('Ava<5vo/zevJ7),  the  goddess  rising 
out  of  the  sea,  a  surname  given  to  Venus  (Aph- 
rodite), in  allusion  to  the  story  of  her  being 
born  from  the  foam  of  the  sea  This  surname 
had  not  much  celebrity  before  the  time  of  Apel- 
les,  but  his  famous  painting  of  Aphrodite  Ana- 
dyomene  excited  the  emulation  of  other  art- 
ists, painters  as  well  as  sculptors.  Vid.  APEL- 
LES. 

[ANJJA  or  ANN^EA  ('A.vaia  or  'Avvaia),  a  Ca- 
rian  city  on  the  Ionian  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  op- 
posite the  Island  of  Samos,  deriving  its  name 
from  an  Amazon,  Ancea :  it  was  the  place  of 
refuge  in  the  Peloponnesian  war  for  the  Samian 
exiles.] 

ANAGNIA  (Anagninus :  now  Anagni),  an  an- 
cient town  of  Latium,  the  chief  town  of  the 
Hernici,  and  subsequently  both  a  municipium 
and  a  Roman  colony.  It  lay  in  a  very  beauti- 
ful and  fertile  country  on  a  hill,  at  the  foot  of 
which  the  Via  Lavicana  and  Via  Prctnestina 
united  (now  Compitum  Anagninum).  In  the 
neighborhood  Cicero  had  a  beautiful  estate, 
Ancegninum  (sc.  prccdium). 

ANAGYBUS  ('Avayvpovf,  -ovvrof  :  'A.vayupuaiof, 
'\vayvpovvr66ev  :  ruins  near  Vari),  a  demus  of 
Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Erechtheis,  not, 
as  some  say,  JEantis,  south  of  Athens,  near  the 
Promontory  Zoster. 

ANAITIOA  ('A.vaiTtK7J),  a  district  of  Armenia,  in 
which  the  goddess  Anaitis  was  worshipped ; 
also  called  Acilisene. 

ANAITIS  ('AvaZ-nf)  an  Asiatic  divinity,  whose 
name  is  also  written  Ancea,  Aneitis,  Tanais,  or 
Nancea.  Her  worship  prevailed  in  Armenia, 
Cappadocia,  Assyria,  Persis,  <fcc.,  and  seems  to 
have  been  a  part  of  the  worship  so  common 
among  the  Asiatics,  of  the  creative  powers  of  na- 
ture, both  male  and  female.  The  Greek  writers 
sometimes  identify  Anaitis  with  Diana  (Ar- 
temis), and  sometimes  with  Venus  (Aphro- 
dite). 

ANAMARI  or  -RES,  a  Galh'c  people  in  the  plain 
of  the  Po,  in  whose  laud  the  Romans  founded 
Placentia. 

ANANES,  a  Gallic  people  west  of  the  Trebia, 
between  the  Po  and  the  Apennines. 

ANANICS  ('Avuviof),  a  Greek  iambic  poet, 
contemporary  with  Hipponax,  about  B.C.  640. 
[His  remains  have  been  collected  by  Welcker, 
and  published  at  the  end  of  his  edition  of  Hip- 
ponax, q.  v.] 

ANAPHE  ('A.vu<j>ij :  'AvaQalof.  now  Anaphi, 
Nanfir>),  a  small  island  in  the  south  of  the  ^Ege- 
an  Sea,  east  of  Thera,  with  a  temple  of  Apollo 
JSgletes,  who  was  hence  called  Anaphius. 

ANAPHLYSTCS  ( 'Ava'^Avffrof  :  'Ava^Uariof  : 
now  Anavyso),  an  Attic  dcmus  of  the  tribe  An- 
tiochis  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Attica,  oppo- 


site flie  Island  Eleussa,  called  after  Anaphly* 
tus,  sou  of  Neptune  (Poseidon). 

ANAPUS  (*Ava;rof).  1.  A  river  in  Acarnania 
flowing  into  the  Achelous. — 2.  (Now  Anapo),  a 
river  in  Sicily,  flowing  into  the  sea  south  of  Syr- 
acuse through  the  marshes  of  Lysimelia. 

ANARTES  or  -TI,  a  people  of  Dacia,  north  of  the 
Theiss. 

ANAS  ('Avac  :  now  Guadiana),  one  of  the  chief 
rivers  of  Spain,  rising  in  Celtiberia  in  the  mount- 
ains near  Laminium,  formed  the  boundary  be- 
tween Lusitania  and  Bastica,  and  flowed  into 
the  ocean  by  two  mouths  (now  only  one). 

[ANASSUS  (now  Stella),  a  small  river  in  the 
territory  of  the  Veneti.] 

ANATOLIUS.  1.  Bishop  of  Laodicea,  A.D.  270, 
an  Alexaudrean  by  birth,  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral mathematical  and  arithmetical  works,  of 
which  some  fragments  have  been  preserved. — 
2.  An  eminent  jurist,  was  a  native  of  Berytus, 
and  afterward  P.  P.  ( prtefectus pr&torio)  of  Illyr- 
icum.  He  died  in  A.D.  361.  A  work  on  agri- 
culture, often  cited  in  the  Geoponica,  and  a 
treatise  concerning  Sympathies  and  Antipathies, 
are  assigned  by  many  to  this  Anatolius.  The 
latter  work,  however,  was  probably  written  by 
Auatoh'us  the  philosopher,  who  was  the  master 
of  lamblichus,  and  to  whom  Porphyry  addressed 
Homeric  Questions. — 3.  Professor  of  law  at  Be- 
rytus, is  mentioned  by  Justinian  among  those 
who  were  employed  in  compiling  the  Digest 
He  wrote  notes  on  the  Digest,  and  a  very  concise 
commentary  on  Justinian's  Code.  Both  of 
these  works  are  cited  in  the  Basilica.  He  per- 
ished A.D.  557,  in  au  earthquake  at  Byzantium, 
whither  he  had  removed  from  Berytus. 

ANAURUS  ('Avavpoe),  a  river  of  Thessaly  flow- 
ing into  the  Pagasaean  Gulf.  [It  was  in  this 
stream  that  Jason  lost  his  sandal,  and  thus  ful- 
filled the  words  of  the  oracle.  Vid.  JASON.] 

ANAVA  ("A.vava),  an  ancient,  but  early  decayed 
city  of  Great  Phrygia,  on  the  salt  lake  of  the 
same  name,  between  Celaenae  and  Colossae  (now 
Hagee  Ghio-ul). 

ANAX  ('Ava|).  1.  A  giant,  son  of  Uranus  and 
Gaea,  and  father  of  Asterius. — 2.  An  epithet  of 
the  gods  in  general,  characterizing  them  as  the 
rulers  of  the  world;  but  the  plural  forms, 
*A.va.K£f,  or  "Ava/cref,  or  "Avaxff  TraZdff,  were 
used  to  designate  the  Dioscuri 

ANAXAGORAS  ( 'Avaf ayopof ),  a  celebrated 
Greek  philosopher  of  the  Ionian  school,  was 
born  at  Clazomenae  in  Ionia,  B.C.  500.  He  gave 
up  his  property  to  his  relations,  as  he  in- 
tended to  devote  his  life  to  higher  ends,  and 
went  to  Athens  at  the  age  of  twenty  ;  here  ho 
remained  thirty  years,  and  became  the  intimate 
friend  and  teacher  of  the  most  eminent  men  of 
the  tune,  such  as  Euripides  and  Pericles.  His 
doctrines  gave  offence  to  the  religious  feelings 
of  the  Athenians ;  and  the  enemies  of  Pericles 
availed  themselves  of  this  circumstance  to  ac- 
cuse him  of  impiety,  B.C.  450.  It  was  only 
through  tho  eloquence  of  Pericles  tliat  he  was 
not  put  to  death ;  but  he  was  sentenced  to  pay 
a  fine  of  five  talents,  and  to  quit  Athens.  He 
retired  to  Lampsacus,  whjjre  he  died  in  428,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-two.  Anaxagoras  was  dis- 
satisfied with  the  systems  of  his»  predecessors, 
the  Ionic  philosophers,  and  struck  into  a  new 
path.  The  Ionic  philosophers  had  endeavored 
57 


ANAXANDER 

to  explain  nature  and  its  various  phenomena 
by  regarding  matter  iu  its  different  forms  and 
modifications  as  the  cause  of  all  tilings.  An  uc- 
agoras,  on  the  other  hand,  conceived  the  neces- 
sity of  seeking  a  higher  cause,  independent  of 
matter,  and  this  cause  he  considered  to  be  nous 
(vovc),  that  is,  mind,  thought,  or  intelligence. 
[Editions  of  the  fragments  by  Schaubach,  Lips., 
1827,  and  by  Sckorii,  Bonn,  1829. — 2.  Son  of 
Argeus,  grandson  of  Megapenthes,  monarch  of 
Argos.  He  shared  the  sovereign  power  with 
B.'as  and  Melampus,  who  had  cured  the  Argive 
women  of  madness. — 3.  An  Athenian  orator, 
pupil  of  Isocrates.] 

ANAXANDER  ('AvuS-avdpof),  king  of  Sparta,  son 
of  Eurycrates,  fought  iu  the  second  Messeniau 
war,  about  B.C.  668. 

ANAXANDRIDES  ( 'Avat-avdpidtjf).  1.  Son  of 
Theopompus,  king  of  Sparta. — 2.  King  of  Spar- 
ta, son  of  Leon,  reigned  from  about  B.C.  560  to 
620.  Having  a  barren  wife  whom  he  would  not 
divorce,  the  ephors  made  him  take  with  her  a 
second.  By  her.  he  had  Cleomenes ;  and  after 
this  by  his  first  wife,  Dorieus,  Leonidas,  and 
Cleombrotus. — 3.  An  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  middle  comedy,  a  native  of  Camirus  in 
Rhodes,  began  to  exhibit  comedies  in  B.C.  376. 
Aristotle  held  him  in  high  esteem.  [The  frag- 
ments of  his  plays  are  collected  in  Meineke's 
Fragnirnta  Comicoi~um  Grcec.,  vol.  i.,  p.  574-594, 
edit  minor.] 

ANAXARCBTS  ('Avu%apxof),  a  philosopher  of 
Abdera,  of  the  school  of  Democritus,  accom- 
panied Alexander  into  Asia  (B.C.  384),  and 
gained  his  favor  by  flattery  and  wit.  After  the 
death  of  Alexander  (323),  Anaxarchus  was 
thrown  by  shipwreck  into  the  power  of  Nico- 
creon,  king  of  Cyprus,  to  whom  he  had  given 
mortal  offence,  and  who  had  him  pounded-  to 
death  in  a  stone  mortar. 

ANAXARETE  (' '  Ava^apirrf),  a  maiden  of  Cyprus, 
remained  unmoved  by  the  love  of  Iphis,  who 
at  last,  in  despair,  hung  himself  at  her  door.  She 
looked  with  indifference  at  the  funeral  of  the 
youth,  but  Venus  changed  her  into  a  stone 
statue. 

_  ANAXIBIA  ('Ava!-i6ia),  daughter  of  Plisthenes, 
sister  of  Agamemnon,  wife  of  Strophius,  and 
mother  of  Pylades. — [2.  Daughter  of  Bias,  wife 
of  Pelias  of  lolcos,  and  mother  of  Acastus,  Pi- 
sidice,  Hippothoe,  and  Alcestis.] 

ANAXIBIUS  CAvaS-ifaof),  the  Spartan  admiral 
stationed  at  Byzantium  on  the  return  of  the 
Cyrean  Greeks  from  Asia,  B.C.  400.  In  389  he 
succeeded  Dercyllidas  in  the  command  in  the 
^Egean,  but  fefl  in  battle  against  Iphicrates, 
near  Antandrus,  in  388. 

ANAXIDAMUS  ('Avaftdaftof),  king  of  Sparta, 
son  of  Zeuxidamus,  h'ved  to  the  conclusion  of  the 
second  Messeuian  war,  B.C  668. 

ANAXILAUS  ('Ava$D.aoc),  or  ANAXILAS  ('Ava&- 
Xaf.  1.  Tyrant  of  Rhegium,  of  Messenian  ori- 
gin, took  possession  of  Zancle  in  Sicily  about 
B.C.  494,  peopled  it  with  fresh  inhabitants,  and 
changed  its  name  into  Messene.  He  died  in 
476. — 2.  Of  Byzantium,  surrendered  Byzantium 
to  the  Athenians  in  JB.C.  408.— 3.  An  Athenian 
comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy,  contemporary 
with  Plato  and  Demosthenes.  We  have  a  few 
fragments,  and  the  titles  of  nineteen  of  his  com- 
edies. [His  fragments  are  collected  by  Meineke 
58 


ANC^EUS. 

in  his  Fragmcnta  Comicorum  Grcec.,  voL  ii.,  p. 
667-675,  edit,  minor.] — i.  A  physician  aud 
Pythagorean  philosopher,  born  at  Larissa,  was 
banished  by  Augustus  from  Italy,  B.C.  28,  on  the 
charge  of  magic. 

ANAXIMANDEB  ('Ava^ifiavSpos),  of  Miletus,  was 
born  B.C.  610  and  died  547,  in  his  sixty -fourth 
year.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  philosophers 
of  the  Ionian  school,  aud  the  immediate  success- 
or of  Thales,  its  first  founder.  He  first  used  the 
word  upxh  to  denote  the  origin  of  things,  or 
rather  the  material  out  of  which  they  were 
formed :  he  held  that  this  apxn  was  the  infinite 
(rd  uKEipov),  everlasting,  and  divine,  though  not 
attributing  to  it  a  spiritual  or  intelligent  na- 
ture ;  and  that  it  was  the  substance  into  which 
all  things  were  resolved  on  their  dissolution. 
He  was  a  careful  observer  of  nature,  and  was 
distinguished  by  his  astronomical,  mathemat- 
ical, and  geographical  knowledge:  he  is  said 
to  have  introduced  the  use  of  the  gnomon  into 
Greece. 

ANAXDIENES  ( ' Ava^i/ievrt^ ).  1.  Of  Miletus, 
the  third  in  the  series  of  Ionian  pliilosophers, 
flourished  about  B.C.  544 ;  but  as  he  was  the 
teacher  of  Anaxagoras  B.C.  480,  he  must  have 
h'ved  to  a  great  age.  He  considered  air  to  bo 
the  first  cause  of  all  things,  the  primary  form, 
as  it  were,  of  matter,  into  which  the  other  ele- 
ments of  the  universe  were  resolvable. — 2.  Of 
Lampsacus,  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great 
to  Asia  (B.C.  334),  and  wrote  a  history  of  Philip 
of  Macedonia ;  a  history  of  Alexander  the 
Great ;  and  a  history  of  Greece,  in  twelve  books, 
from  the  earliest  mythical  age  down  to  the 
death  of  Epaminondas.  He  also  enjoyed  great 
reputation  as  a  rhetorician,  and  is  the  author  of  a 
scientific  treatise  on  rhetoric,  the  'fi)TopiKr)  Trpbf 
gavdpov,  usually  printed  among  the  works  of 
Aristotle.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Theophrastus, 
and  published  under  the  name  of  the  latter  a 
work  calumniating  Sparta,  Athens,  and  Thebes, 
which  produced  great  exasperation  against 
Theophrastus.  [The  Ars  Rhetorica,  edited  by 
L.  Spengel,  Turici,  1844 ;  the  fragments  of 
the  history  of  Alexander,  by  Geier,  in  his  "  Scrip- 
tores  Historiarum  Alexandri  M.  estate  suppares," 
Lips.,  1844.] 

[ANAXIPPUS  ('Avu|i7r7rof).  1.  A  general  of 
Alexander  the  Great. — 2.  A  comic  poet  of  the 
new  comedy,  who  flourished  about  B.C.  303.  The 
titles  of  four  of  his  plays  have  come  down  to 
us :  his  fragments  are  collected  by  Meineke, 
Fragm.  Comic  Grcec^  voL  ii.,  p.  1112-1116,  edit. 
minor.,  who  adds  a  fragment  from  Athenseus, 
attributed  to  Anthippus  in  the  ordinary  text, 
but  supposed  to  be  an  error  for  Anaxippus.] 

ANAZARBUS  or  -A  ('Ava£ap66f  or  -u  :  'Ava^ap- 
6evf,  Anazarbenus :  ruins  at  Anasarba  or  Na- 
versa),  a  considerable  city  of  Cilicia  Campestris, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  River  Pyramus,  at  the 
foot  of  a  mountain  of  the  same  name.  Augus- 
tus conferred  upon  it  the  name  of  Caesarea  (ad 
Auazarbum) ;  and,  on  the  division  of  Cilicia 
into  the  two  provinces  of  Prima  and  Secuuda,  it 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  latter.  It  was  al- 
most destroyed  by  earthquakes  in  the  reigns  of 
Justinian  and  Justin.  [It  was  the  birth-place  of 
Dioscorides  and  Oppian.] 

ANC^EUS  ('Ay/caZof).  1.  Son  of  the  Arcadian 
Lycurgus  and  Cleophile  or  Eurynome,  and  fa- 


ANCALITES. 


ANCYRA.. 


tLer  of  Agapenor.  He  was  one  of  the  Argo- ' 
nauts,  and  took  part  in  the  Calydoniau  hunt,  in 
•which  he  was  killed  by  the  boar. — 2.  Son  of 
Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  Astypaloea  or  Alta,  king 
of  the  Leleges  in  Samos,  husband  of  Samia, 
and  father  of  Perilaus,  Enodos,  Samos,  Alither- 
BCS,  and  Parthenope.  He  seeins  to  have  been 
confounded  by  some  mythographers  with  An- 
cseus,  the  son  of  Lycurgus.  The  son  of  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon)  is  also  represented  as  one  of  the 
Argonauts,  and  is  said  to  have  become  the 
helmsman  of  the  ship  Argo  after  the  death  of 
Tiphys.  A  well-known  proverb  is  said  to  have 
originated  with  this  Ancaeus.  He  had  been  told 
by  a  seer  that  he  would  not  live  to  taste  the  wine 
of  his  vineyard ;  and  when  he  was  afterward  on 
the  point  of  drinking  a  cup  of  wine,  the  growth 
of  his  own  vineyard,  he  laughed  at  the  seer, 
who,  however,  answered,  iro'AAa  fisra^v  n&ei 
Kvl.inof  K.al  xeiAsoe  unpov,  "There  is  many  a 
slip  between  the  cup  and  the  Up."  At  the  same 
instant  Ancaeus  was  informed  that  a  wild  boar 
was  near.  He  put  down  his  cup,  went  out 
against  the  animal,  and  was  killed  by  it 

ANCALITES,  a  people  of  Britain,  probably  a 
part  of  the  ATREBATES. 

AXCHARIUS,  Q.,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  B.C.  59, 
took  an  active  part  in  opposing  the  agrarian  law 
of  Caesar.  He  was  praetor  in  56,  and  succeeded 
L.  Piso  in  the  province  of  Macedonia. 

[AXCHEMALUS,  son  of  Rhcetus,  king  of  the 
Marrubii  in  Italy,  was  expelled  by  his  father  for 
criminal  conduct  toward  his  step-mother,  fled 
to  Turnus,  and  was  slain  by  Pallas,  son  of 
Evuuder,  in  the  war  with  ^Eneas.] 

ANCHESMUS  ('Ay^ecr/zof),  a  hill  not  far  from 
Athens,  with  a  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  was 
hence  called  Anchesmius. 

ANCHIALE  and  -LUS  ('Ay^u/l;?).  1.  (Now 
Akiali),  a  town  in  Thrace  on  the  Black  Sea,  on 
the  borders  of  Moesia. — 2.  Also  AXCUIALOS,  an 
ancient  city  of  Cilicia,  west  of  the  Cydnus  near 
the  coast,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Sardana- 
palus. 

[ANCHIALUS  ('Ay^aJlof).  1.  King  of  the  Taphi- 
ans,  father  of  Mentes,  united  in  guest-friendship 
with  Ulysses. — 2.  A  Greek,  slain  by  Hector  be- 
fore Troy. — 3.  A  Phaeaciaa  All  these  are  men- 
tioned in  Homer.] 

ANCHISES  ('Ayx«7J7f),  son  of  Capys  and  The- 
mis, the  daughter  of  Ilus,  king  of  Dardauus  on 
Mount  Ida.  In  beauty  he  equalled  the  immor- 
tal gods,  and  was  beloved  by  Venus  (Aphrodite), 
by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  ^Eneas,  who 
is  hence  called  Anchisiades.  The  goddess  warn- 
ed him  never  to  betray  the  real  mother  of  the 
child ;  but  as  on  one  occasion  he  boasted  of  his 
intercourse  with  the  goddess,  he  was  struck  by 
a  flash  of  lightning,  which,  according  to  some 
traditions,  killed,  but  according  to  others,  only 
blinded  or  lamed  him.  VirgiX  in  his  ^Eneid, 
makes  Auchises  survive  the  capture  of  Troy, 
and  ^Eneas  carries  his  father  on  his  shoulders 
from  the  burning  city.  He  further  relates  that 
Anchises  died  soon  after  the  first  arrival  of 
^Eneas  in  Sicily,  and  was  buried  on  Mount  Eryx. 
This  tradition  seems  to  have  been  believed  in 
Sicily,  for  Anchiscs  had  a  sanctuary  at  Egesta, 
and  the  funeral  games  celebrated  in  Sicily  in  liis 
honor  continued  down  to  a  late  period. 

ANCIIISIA  ('Ayx  ffia),  a  mountain  in  Arcadia, ! 


northwest  of  Mantinea,  where  Auchises  is  said  to 
have  been  buried,  according  to  one  tradition. 

[ANCHURUS  ('A.yxovpo(),  son  of  Midas,  king  of 
Phrygia.  A  large  chasm  having  opened  near 
Celaenae,  Anchurus  threw  himself  into  it,  as 
an  oracle  had  said  that  it  would  not  close  un- 
til he  had  thrcwn  what  he  regarded  as  most 
precious  into  it.  On  this  the  chasm  closed  im- 
mediately.] 

AXCON  (AevKOffvpuv  'Ay/cuv),  a  harbor  and 
town  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Iris  (now  Yeshil 
ermak)  in  Pontus. 

ANCONA  or  ANCOX  ('Ay/ctiv  :  Anconitanus  : 
now  jfncona),  a  town  in  Picenum  on  the  Adri- 
atic Sea,  lying  in  a  bend  of  the  coast  between 
two  promontories,  and  hence  called  Ancon  or  an 
"  elbow."  It  was  built  by  the  Syracusans,  who 
settled  there  about  B.C.  392,  discontented  with 
the  rule  of  the  elder  Dionysius  ;  and  under  the 
Romans,  who  made  it  a  colony,  it  became  one 
of  the  most  important  sea-ports  of  the  Adri- 
atic. It  possessed  an  excellent  harbor,  com- 
pleted by  Trajan,  and  it  carried  on  an  active 
trade  with  the  opposite  coast  of  Illyricum.  The 
town  was  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Venus  and 
its  purple  dye :  the  surrounding  country  pro 
duced  good  wine  and  wheat 

AXCORARIUS  Moxs,  a  mountain  in  Mauretania 
Caesariensis,  south  of  Caesarea,  abounding  in  cit- 
ron trees,  the  wood  of  which  was  used  by  the 
Romans  for  furniture. 

AXCORE.     Vid.  NiCjEA. 

ANCUS  MARCIUS,  fourth  king  of  Rome,  reign- 
ed twenty-four  years,  B.C.  64U-616,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  the  son  of  Nunia's  daughter.  He 
conquered  the  Latins,  took  many  Latin  towns, 
transported  the  inhabitants  to  Rome,  and  gave 
them  the  Aventine  to  dwell  on :  these  conquer- 
ed Latins  formed  the  original  Plebs.  He  also 
founded  a  colony  at  Ostia,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber ;  built  a  fortress  on  the  Jauiculum  as  a 
protection  against  Etruria,  and  united  it  with 
the  city  by  a  bridge  across  the  Tiber ;  dug  the 
ditch  of  the  Quirites,  which  was  a  defence  for 
the  open  ground  between  the  Caelian  and  the 
Palatine ;  and  built  a  prison.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Tarquinius  Priscus. 

ANCYRA  ('\yKvpa :  'A.yKvpavoe,  Ancyranus). 
1.  (Now  Angora),  a  city  of  Galatia  in  Asia  Minor, 
in  39°  6C'  north  latitude.  In  the  tune  of  Au- 
gustus, when  Galatia  became  a  Roman  province, 
Ancyra  was  the  capital :  it  was  originally  the 
chief  city  of  a  Gallic  tribe  named  the  Tectosa- 
ges,  who  came  from  the  south  of  France.  Uu- 
der  the  Roman  empire  it  had  the  name  of  Se- 
baste,  which  in  Greek  is  equivalent  to  Augusta 
in  Latin.  When  Augustus  recorded  the  chief 
events  of  his  life  on  bronze  tablets  a"t  Rome, 
the  citizens  of  Aucyra  had  a  copy  made,  which 
was  cut  on  marble  blocks  and  placed  at  Ancyra 
in  a  temple  dedicated  to  Augustus  and  Rome, 
This  inscription  is  called  the  Monumentum  An- 
cyranum.  The  Latin  inscription  was  first  copied 
by  Tournefort  in  1701,  and  it  has  been  copied 
several  tunes  since.  One  of  the  latest  copies 
has  been  made  by  Mr.  Hamilton,  who  also  copied 
as  much  of  the  Greek  inscription  as  is  legible. 
[Near  this  place  Bajazet  was  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  by  Timur,  or,  as  he  is  commonly  called, 
Tamerlane.] — 2.  A  town  in  Phrygin  Epictetus. 
on  the  borders  of  Mysia. 

59 


ANDANIA. 


('Avdavia  :  'Avdaviri't;,  ' 
[now  Andorossa,  and  the  ruins  near  Crano]),  a 
town  in  Messenia,  between  Megalopolis  and 
Messene,  the  capital  of  the  kings  of  the  race  of 
the  Leleges,  abandoned  by  its  inhabitants  in  the 
second  Messenian  war,  and  from  that  time  only  a 
village. 

AND&O!  vi,  ANDEoivr,  or  ANDES,  a  Gallic  peo- 
ple north  of  the  Loire,  with  a  town  of  the  same 
name,  also  called  Juliomagus,  now  Angers. 

ANDKMATUiracM.     Vid,  LINGONES. 

ANDERA  (ra  'Avdetpa  :  'Avdeipjjvof),  a  city  of 
Mysia,  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Cybele,  sur- 
named  '\v3eip7jvr}. 

ANDERITDM  (now  Anterieux),  a  town  of  the 
Gabali  in  Aquitania. 

ANDES.  1.  Vid.  ANDECAVI.  —  2.  Now  Pic- 
tola),  a  village  near  Mantua,  the  birth-place  of 
VirgiL 

ANoSciDEs  ('A.vfoKidrjf'),  one  of  the  ten  Attic 
orators,  son  of  Leogoras,  was  born  at  Athens 
in  B.C.  467.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family, 
and  was  a  supporter  of  the  oligarchical  party  at 
Athens.  In  436  he  was  one  of  the  commanders 
of  the  fleet  sent  by  the  Athenians  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Corcyreans  against  the  Corinthians. 
In  415  he  became  involved  in  the  charge  brought 
against  Alcibiades  for  having  profaned  the  mys- 
teries and  mutilated  the  Hermae,  and  was  thrown 
into  prison;  but  he  recovered  his  liberty  by 
promising  to  reveal  the  names  of  the  real  per- 
petrators of  the  crime.  He  is  said  to  have  de- 
nounced his  own  father  among  others,  but  to 
have  rescued  him  again  in  the  hour  of  danger. 
But  as  Andocides  was  unable  to  clear  himself 
entirely,  he  was  deprived  of  his  rights  as  a  citi- 
zen, and  left  Athens.  He  returned  to  Athens 
on  the  establishment  of  the  government  of  the 
Four  Hundred  in  411,  but  was  soon  obliged  to 
fly  again.  In  the  following  year  he  ventured 
once  more  to  return  to  Athens,  and  it  was  at 
this  time  that  he  delivered  the  speech,  still  ex- 
tant, On  his  Return,  in  which  he  petitioned  for 
permission  to  reside  at  Athens,  but  in  vain.  He 
was  thus  driven  into  exile  a  third  time,  and 
went  to  reside  at  Elis.  In  403  he  again  return- 
ed to  Athens  upon  the  overthrow  of  the  tyran- 
ny of  the  Thirty  by  Thrasybulus,  and  the  proc- 
lamation of  the  general  amnesty.  He  was  now 
allowed  to  remain  quietly  at  'Athens  for  the 
next  three  years,  but  in  400  his  enemies  ac- 
cused him  of  having  profaned  the  mysteries  : 
he  defended  himself  in  the  oration  still  extant, 
On  the  Mysteries,  and  was  acquitted.  In  394 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sparta  to  con- 
clude a  peace,  and  on  his  return  in  393  he  was 
accused  of  illegal  conduct  during  his  embassy 
(7rapa;rpe<T6etaf)  ;  he  defended  himself  in  the  ex- 
tant speech  On  the  Peace  with  Lacedamon,  but 
was  found  guilty,  and  sent  into  exile  for  the 
fourth  time.  He  seems  to  have  died  soon  aft- 
erwa.-d  in  exile.  Besides  the  three  orations  al- 
ready mentioned,  there  is  a  fourth  against  Alci- 
biades, said  to  have  been  delivered  in  415,  but 
which  is  in  all  probability  spurious—  Editions  : 
In  the  collections  of  the  Greek  orators  ;  also, 
separately  by  Baiter  and  Sauppe,  Zurich,  1838.  ' 

ANDR^EMON    ('\v6palfiuv).      1.     Husband   of 

Gorge,  daughter  of  CEneus,  king  of  Calydon,  in 

^Etolia,  whom  he  succeeded,  and  father  of  Thoas, 

yho  is  hence  called  Andrcemonides.  —  2.  Son  of 

60 


AtfDROGEOS. 

Oxylus,  and  husband  of  Dry  ope,  who  was  moth- 
er of  Amphissus  by  Apollo 

[ANDHIACA  (' A.vdpiaKij :  now  Andraki),  port  of 
Myra  in  Lycia.] 

ANDRISCUS  ('A.v6piaKoe),  a  man  of  low  origin, 
who  pretended  to  be  a  natural  son  of  Perseus, 
king  of  Macedonia,  was  seized  by  Demetrius, 
king  of  Syria,  and  sent  to  Rome.  He  escaped 
from  Rome,  assumed  the  name  of  Philip,  and 
obtained  possession  of  Macedonia,  B.C.  149.  He 
defeated  the  praetor  Juventius,  but  was  conquer- 
ed by  Csecilius  Metellus,  and  taken  to  Rome  to 
adorn  the  triumph  of  the  latter,  148. 

ANDROCLES  ('Avopo/cXjfc),  an  Athenian  dema- 
gogue and  orator.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Alci- 
biades ;  and  it  was  chiefly  owing  to  his  exertions 
that  Alcibiades  was  banished.  After  this  event, 
Androcles  was  for  a  time  at  the  head  of  the 
democratical  party ;  but  in  B.C.  41 1  he  was  put 
to  death  by  the  oligarchical  government  of  the 
Four  Hundred. 

[ANDROCLIDES  (' A.vdpoK%.et6r]f),  a  Theban  offi- 
cer, one  of  those  who  received  money  from  the 
Persians  to  induce  the  Thebans  to  make  war  on 
Sparta,  so  as  to  bring  about  the  recall  of  Agesi- 
laus  from  Asia.] 

ANDROCLUS  [("AvSpoichof).  1.  Son  of  Codrus. 
leader  of  a  colony  of  lonians  to  Asia  Minor,  and 
founder  of  Ephesus.] — 2.  The  slave  of  a  Roman 
consular,  was  sentenced  to  be  exposed  to  the 
wild  beasts  in  the  circus ;  but  a  lion  which  was 
let  loose  upon  him,  instead  of  springing  upon 
his  victim,  exhibited  signs  of  recognition,  and 
began  licking  him.  Upon  inquiry,  it  appeared 
that  Androclus  had  been  compelled  by  the  se- 
verity of  his  master,  while  in  Africa,  to  run 
away  from  him.  Having  one  day  taken  refuge 
in  a  cave  from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  a  lion  enter- 
ed, apparently  in  great  pain,  and,  seeing  him, 
went  up  to  him  and  held  out  his  paw.  Andro- 
clus found  that  a  large  thorn  had  pierced  it, 
which  he  drew  out,  and  the  lion  was  soon  able 
to  use  his  paw  again.  They  lived  together  for 
some  tune  in  the  cave,  the  lion  catering  for  his 
benefactor.  But  at  last,  tired  of  this  savage 
life,  Androclus  left  the  cave,  was  apprehended 
by  some  soldiers,  brought  to  Rome,  and  con- 
demned to  the  wild  beasts.  He  was  pardoned, 
and  presented  with  the  lion,  which  he  used  to 
lead  about  the  city. 

[ANDROCRATES  ('\vdpoKpuTr)f),  an  ancient  hero 
of  the  Platseans,  who  had  a  temple  consecrated 
to  him  at  Plataeoe.] 

ANDROGEOS  ('Av<5p6yewf),  son  of  Minos  and 
Pasiphae,  or  Crete,  conquered  all  his  opponents 
in  the  games  of  the  Panathensea  at  Athens. 
This  extraordinary  good  luck,  however,  became 
the  cause  of  his  destruction^  though  the  mode 
of  his  death  is  related  differently.  According 
to  some  accounts,  JEgeus  sent  the  man  he  dread- 
ed to  fight  against  the  Marathonian  bull,  who 
killed  him ;  according  to  others,  he  was  assas- 
sinated by  his  defeated  rivals  on  his  road  to 
Thebes,  whither  he  was  going  to  take  part  in  a 
solemn  contest.  A  third  account  related  that 
he  was  assassinated  by  JSgeus  himself.  Minos 
made  war  on  the  Athenians  in  consequence  of 
the  death  of  his  son,  and  imposed  upon  them 
the  shameful  tribute,  from  which  they  were  de- 
livered by  THESEUS.  He  was  worshipped  in 
Attica  as  a  hero,  and  games  were  celebrated  in 


ANDROMACHE. 


ANDROSTHENES. 


liis  honor  every  year  in  the  Ceramicus.     Vid.  \ 
Diet,  of  Ant.,~&Ti.  ANDROGEONIA. 

ANDROMACHE  ('Ai> dpo/uixri),  daughter  of  Ee'tion, 
king  of  the  Cilician  Thebe,  and  one  of  the  no- 
blest and  most  amiable  female  characters  in  the 
Iliad.  Her  father  and  her  seven  brothers  were 
slain  by  Achilles  at  the  taking  of  Thebe,  and 
her  mother,  who  had  purchased  her  freedom  by 
a  large  ransom,  was  killed  by  Diana  (Artemis). 
She  was  married  to  Hector,  by  whom  she  had 
a  son,  Scamandrius  (Astyanax),  and  for  whom 
»he  entertained  the  most  tender  love.  On  the 
taking  of  Troy  her  son  was  hurled  from  the 
wall  of  the  city,  and  she  herself  fell  to  the  share 
of  Neoptolemus  (Pyrrhus),  the  son  of  Achilles, 
who  took  her  to  Epirus,  and  to  whom  she  bore 
three  sons,  Molossus,  Pielus,  and  Pergamus. 
She  afterward  married  Helenas,  a  brother  of 
Hector,  who  ruled  over  Chaonia,  a  part  of  Epi- 
rus, and  to  whom  she  bore  Cestriuus.  After  the 
leath  of  Helenus,  she  followed  her  son  Perga- 
mus to  Asia,  where  a  heroum  was  erected  to  her. 

ANDROMACHUS  ('Avdpo/ia^of).  1.  Ruler  of 
Tauromenium  in  Sicily  about  B.C.  344,  and  fa- 
ther of  the  historian  Timaius. — 2.  Of  Crete, 
physician  to  the  Emperor  Nero,  A.D.  54-68 ; 
was  the  first  person  on  whom  the  title  of  Archi- 
ater  was  conferred,  and  was  celebrated  as  the 
inventor  of  a  famous  compound  medicine  and 
antidote  called  Tlieriaca  AndromacJd,  which  re- 
tains its  place  in  some  foreign  Pharmacopoeias 
to  the  present  day.  Andromachus  lias  left  the 
directions  for  making  this  mixture  in  a  Greek 
elegiac  poem,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy-four  lines,  edited  by  Tidiczeus,  Tiguri, 
1607,  and  Leinker,  Norimb.,  1754. — [3.  Son  of 
the  former,  commonly  called  the  Younger,  held 
the  same  office,  that  of  physician  to  Nero,  after 
his  father's  death.  He  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  a  work  on  pharmacy  in 
three  books,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  re- 
main.] 

ANDROMEDA  ('Avdpofiedrj),  daughter  of  the 
./Ethiopian  king  Cepheus  and  Cassiopea  Her 
mother  boasted  that  the  beauty  of  her  daughter 
surpassed  that  of  the  Nereids,  who  prevailed 
on  Neptune  (Poseidon)  to  visit  the  country  by 
an  inundation  and  a  sea-monster.  The  oracle 
of  Ammon  promised  deliverance  if  Andromeda 
was  given  up  to  the  monster;  and  Cepheus, 
obliged  to  yield  to  the  wishes  of  his  people, 
chained  Andromeda  to  a  rock.  Here  she  was 
found  and  saved  by  Perseus,  who.  slew  the  mon- 
ster and  obtained  her  as  his  wife.  Andromeda 
had  previously  been  promised  to  Phiueus,  and 
this  gave  rise  to  the  famous  fight  of  Phiueus 
and  Perseus  at  the  wedding,  in  which  the  for- 
mer and  all  his  associates  were  slain.  (Ov.t 
Met.,  v.,  1,  teg.)  After  her  death,  she  was 
placed  among  the  stars. 

[ANDRON  ('Av6puv),  of  Halicarnassus,  a  Greek 
historian,  who  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Lvyyevaicu, 
of  which  he  himself  made  an  epitome.  Miiller 
assigns  to  this  Androu  a  work,  vepl  •dvaiuv, 
which  some  ascribe  to  the  following.  His  frag- 
ments are  collected  by  Miiller,  Fragm.  Jfist. 
G-rac^  voL  it,  p.  349-352. — 2.  Of  Teos,  author 
of  a  Periplus,  perhaps  the  same  with  the  Teian 
Andron,  son  of  Cebaleus,  whom  Arrian  men- 
tions as  a  companion  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
Mid  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Indian  exploration. 


His  fragments  are  given  by  Miiller,  1.  c^  p. 
348—9. — Two  other  historians  of  this  name  are 
mentioned,  one  of  Alexandrea,  author  of  a 
Chronica,  a  fragment  of  which  is  given  by 
Muller,  p.  352 ;  the  other  of  Ephesus,  author 
of  a  work  entitled  Tripus :  fragments  of  it  are 
given  in  Muller,  p.  347-8. — 3.  An  Athenian,  sou 
of  Androtion,  and  father  of  the  orator  Androtion.] 

ANDRONICUS  ('Avdpovmoe).  1.  CYRRIIESTES, 
so  called  from  his  native  place,  Cyrrha,  proba- 
bly lived  about  B.C.  100,  and  built  the  octagonal 
tower  at  Athens, -.vulgarly  called  "the  Tower 
of  the  Winds."  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant,  p.  616,  2d 
ed.,  where  a  drawing  of  the  building  is  given. 
— 2.  Lmus  ANDROXICUS,  the  earliest  Roman 
poet,  was  a  Greek,  probably  a  native  of  Taren- 
turn,  and  the  slave  of  M.  Livius  Salinator,  by 
whom  he  was  manumitted,  and  from  whom  he 
received  the  Roman  name  Livius.  He  obtain- 
ed at  Rome  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
language.  He  wrote  both  tragedies  and  come- 
dies in  Latin,  and  we  still  possess  the  titles  and 
fragments  of  at  least  fourteen  of  his  dramas,  all 
of  which  were  borrowed  from  the  Greek :  his 
first  drama  was  acted  in  B.C.  240.  He  also 
wrote  an  Odyssey  in  the  Saturniau  verse  and 
Hymns.  ( Vid.  Diintzer,  Livii  Andronici  Frag- 
menta  Collecta,  &c.,  BerL,  1835). — 3.  Of  RHODES. 
a  Peripatetic  philosopher  at  Rome,  about  B.C. 
58.  He  published  a  new  edition  of  the  works 
of  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus,  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  library  of  Apellicon,  and  which 
were  brought  to  Rome  by  Sulla  with  the  rest 
of  Apellicon's  library  in  B.C.  84.  Tyrannic 
commenced  this  task,  but  apparently  did  not  do 
much  toward  it.  The  arrangement  which  An- 
dronicus  made  of  Aristotle's  writings  seems  to 
be  the  one  which  forms  the  basis  of  our  present 
editions.  He  wrote  many  commentaries  upon 
the  works  of  Aristotle  ;  but  none  of  these  is  ex- 
tant, for  the  paraphrase  of  the  Nicomachean 
Ethics,  which  is  ascribed  to  Andronicus  of 
Rhodes,  was  written  by  some  one  else,  and 
may  have  been  the  work  of  Andronicus  Callistus 
of  Thessalonica,  who  was  professor  in  Italy  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

ANDROPOLIS  ('A.vdpuv  iroXif :  now  Chabur),  a 
city  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the  western  bank  of 
the  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  was  the  capital 
of  the  Nomos  Andropolites,  and,  under  the  Ro- 
mans, the  station  of  a  legion. 

ANDROS  ('Avopoj- :  "AvApioc  :  now  Andro),  the 
most  northerly  and  one  of  the  largest  islands  of 
the  Cyclades,  southeast  of  Euboea,  twenty-one 
miles  long  and  eight  broad,  early  attained  import- 
ance, and  colonized  Acanthus  and  Stagira  about 
B.C.  654.  It  was  taken  by  the  Persians  in  their 
invasion  of  Greece,  was  afterward  subject  to  the 
Athenians,  at  a  later  time  to  the  Macedonians, 
and  at  length  to  Attalus  IIL,  king  of  Pergamus, 
on  whose  death  (B.C.  133)  it  passed,  with  the 
rest  of  his  dominions,  to  the  Romans.  It  was 
celebrated  for  its  wine,  whence  the  whole  isl 
and  was  regarded  as  sacred  to  Bacchus  (Diony- 
sus). Its  chief  town,  also  called  Andros,  con- 
tained a  celebrated  temple  of  Bacchus  (Diony- 
sus), and  a  harbor  of  the  name  of  Gaurcleon, 
and  a  Fort  Gaurion. 

[ANDROSTHENES    ('Avopoffftevqf).    of    Thasus, 
one  of  Alexander's  admirals,  sailed  with  Near- 
chus,  and  was  also  sent  by  Alexander  to  ex 
61 


ANDROTION. 


ANNALIS. 


plore  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gul£    He  -wrote 
au  account  of  bis  voyage,  and  also  a  T^f  'Ivdi- 


ANDROTION  ('Avdporiuv).  1.  An  Athenian 
orator,  and  a  contemporary  of  Demosthenes, 
against  -whom  the  latter  deliveped  an  oration, 
which  is  still  extant — 2.  The  author  of  au  At- 
this,  or  a  work  on  the  history  of  Attica.  [Frag- 
ments published  by  Siebehs  with  Philochorus, 
Lips.,  1811,  and  by  Miiller  in  his  Fragm.  Hist. 
Grac.,  voL  i.,  p.  371-377.] 

ANEMORKA,  afterward  ANEMCLKA  ('Avepupeta, 
'\vepuheia;  ' Kvefiupievs),  a  town  on  a  hill  on 
the  borders  of  Phocis  and  Delphi. 

ANEMUEIUM  ('A.vtpovpiov  :  cow  Anamur,  with 
ruius),  a  town  and  promontory  at  the  southern 
point  of  Cilicia,  opposite  to  Cyprus. 

[ANGELION  (' A.fje'h'iuv),  au  artist  always  men- 
tit  >ued  in  connection  with  Teetzeus:  they  were 
pupils  of  Dipcenus  and  Scyllis,  and  flourished 
about  548  B.C.] 

ANGEEOXA  or  ANGEEOXIA,  a  Roman  goddess, 
respecting  whom  we  have  different  statements, 
some  representing  her  as  the  goddess  of  silence, 
others  as  the  goddess  of  anguish  and  fear ;  that 
is,  the  goddess  who  not  only  produces  this  state 
of  miud,  but  also  relieves  men  from  it.  Her 
statue  stood  in  the  temple  of  Yolupia,  with  her 
mouth  bound  and  sealed  up.  Her  festival,  An- 
geronalia,  was  celebrated  yearly  on  the  twelfth 
of  December. 

ANGITES  ('Ayytr^f :  now  Anghista),  a  river 
in  Macedonia,  flowing  into  the  Strymon. 

ANGITIA  or  ANGUITIA,  a  goddess  worshipped 
by  the  Mursians  and  Marrubians,  who  lived 
about  the  shores  of  the  Lake  Fucinus. 

AXGLI  or  ANGLII,  a  German  people  of  the 
race  of  the  Suevi,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe, 
afterward  passed  over  with  the  Saxons  iuto 
Britain,  which  was  called  after  them  England. 
Vid.  SAXONES.  A  portion  of  them  appear  to 
have  settled  in  Angcln  in  Schleswig. 

AXGRIVARII,  a  German  people  dwelling  on 
both  sides  of  the  Visurgis  (now  Weser),  separa- 
ted from  the  Cherusci  by  an  agger  or  mound  of 
earth.  The  name  is  usually  derived  from  An- 
qern,  that  is,  meadows.  They  were  generally 
on  friendly  terms  with  the  Romans,  but  rebelled 
in  A.D.  16,  and  were  subdued.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  first  century  they  extended  their  terri- 
tories southward,  and,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Chamavi,  took  possession  of  part  of  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Bructeri,  south  and  east  of  the  Lippe, 
the  Angaria  or  Engern  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

AxicExus  [PAnScjTOf).  1.  Son  of  Hercules, 
by  Hebe,  after  his  admission  to  the  abode  of  the 
gods.] — 2.  A  freedman  of  Nero,  and  formerly 
his  tutor,  was  employed  by  the  emperor  in  the 
execution  of  many  of  his  crimes :  he  was  after- 
ward banished  to  Sardinia,  where  he  died. 

AXICIUS  GALLUS.     Vid.  GALLUS. 

[Axicius,  C.,  a  senator  and  friend  of  Cicero, 
whose  villa  was  near  the  latter's ;  mentioned 
in  the  letters  of  Cicero.] 

ANIGRUS  ('Aviypof :  now  Mavro-Potamo),  a 
small  river  in  the  Triphylian  Elis,  the  Minye'ius 
(Mivwyfof)  of  Homer  (77.,  xi.,  721),  rises  in  Mount 
Lapithas,  and  flows  into  the  Ionian  Sea  near 
Samicum :  its  waters  have  a  disagreeable  smell, 
and  its  fish  are  not  eatable.  Near  Samicum 
was  a  cave  sacred  to  the  NympM  Anigrides 
62 


de?),  where  persons  with 
cutaneous  diseases  were  cured  by  the  waters 
of  the  river. 

ANIO,  anciently  AMEN  (hence,  gen.,  AniOnis : 
now  Tevcrone  or  L'Aniene),  a  river,  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Tiber,  rises 
in  the  mountains  of  the  Hernici,  near  Treba 
(now  Trevi),  flows  first  northwest  and  then 
southwest  through  narrow  mountain-valleys,  re- 
ceives the  brook  Digentia  (now  Liccnza),  above 
Tibur,  forms  at  Tibur  beautiful  waterfalls  (hence 
prceceps  Anio,  Hor.,  Carm,  i.,  7,  13),  and  flows, 
forming  the  boundary  between  Latium  and  the 
hind  of  the  Sabines,  into  the  Tiber,  three  miles 
above  Rome,  where  the  town  of  Antemufe  stood. 
The  water  of  the  Anio  was  conveyed  to  Rome 
by  two  aqueducts,  the  Anio  vetus  and  Anio  no- 
vus.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  p.  110,  111,  2d  ed. 

[ANITORGIS  or  ANISTORGIS,  a  city  of  Hispania 
Baetica,  near  which  a  battle  was  fought  between 
Hasdrubal  and  the  Scipios.] 

Axius  ('A.vtof),  son  of  Apollo  by  Creiisa,  or 
Rhceo,  and  priest  of  Apollo  at  Delos.  By  Do- 
rippe  he  had  three  daughters,  (Euo,  Spernio, 
and  Elais,  to  whom  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  gave 
the  power  of  producing  at  will  any  quantity  of 
wine,  corn,  and  oil,  whence  they  were  called 
(Enotropce.  When  the  Greeks,  on  their  expedi- 
tion to  Troy,  landed  in  Delos,  Auius  endeavored 
to  persuade  them  to  stay  with  him  for  nine 
years,  as  it  was  decreed  by  fate  that  they  should 
not  take  Troy  until  the  tenth  year ;  and  he 
promised,  with  the  help  of  his  three  daughters, 
to  supply  them  with  all  they  wanted  during  that 
period.  After  the  fall  of  Troy,  JDueas  was 
kindly  received  by  Anius. 

ANNA,  daugter  of  Belus  and  sister  of  Dido. 
After  the  death  of  the  latter,  she  fled  from 
Carthage  to  Italy,  where  she  was  kindly  re- 
ceived by  ><Eneas.  Here  she  excited  the  jeal- 
ousy of  Lavinia,  and  being  warned  in  a  dream 
by  Dido,  she  fled  and  threw  herself  iuto  the 
River  Numicius.  Henceforth  she  was  wor- 
shipped as  the  nymph  of  that  river,  under  the 
name  of  ANNA  PERENNA.  There  are  various 
other  stories  respecting  the  origin  of  her  wor- 
ship. Ovid  relates  that  she  was  considered  by 
some  as  Luna,  by  others  as  Themis,  by  others 
as  lo,  daughter  of  Inachus,  by  others  as  the 
Anna  of  Bovillte,  who  supplied  the  plebs  with 
food,  when  they  seceded  to  the  Mons  Sacer. 
(Ov.,  Fast.,  iii.,  523.)  Her  festival  was  cele- 
brated on  the  1  oth  of  March.  She  was,  in  reali- 
ty, an  old  Italian  divinity,  who  was  regarded  as 
the  giver  of  life,  health,  and  plenty,  as  the  god- 
dess whose  powers  were  most  manifest  at  the 
return  of  spring,  when  her  festival  was  cele- 
brated. The  identification  of  this  goddess  with 
Anna,  the  sister  of  Dido,  is  undoubtedly  of  late 
origin. 

ANNA  COMNENA,  daughter  of  Alexis  I.  Corn- 
nenus  (reigned  A.D.  1081-1118),  wrote  the  life 
of  her  father  Alexis  in  fifteen  books,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  valuable  his- 
tories of  the  Byzantine  literature.  Editions : 
By  Possinus,  Paris,  1651 ;  by  Schopcn,  Bonn, 
1839,  Svo. 

ANNALIS,  a  cognomen  of  the  Yillia  Gens,  first 
acquired  by  L.  Villius,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  in 
B.C.  179,  because  he  introduced  a  law  fixing 
the  year  (annus)  at  wliich  it  was  lawful  for  a 


ANNEIUS. 


ANTEVORTA. 


person  to  be  a  candidate  for  each  of  the  public 
offices. 

ANNEIUS,  M.,  legate  of  M.  Cicero  during  his 
government  of  Cilicia,  B.C.  51. 

[ANNIA,  wife  of  L.  Cinna,  and,  after  his 
death,  of  M.  Piso  Calpurnianus.] 

AXNIANUS,  T.,  a  Roman  poet,  lived  in  the  time 
of  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  and  wrote  Fescennine 
verses. 

AXXICERIS  ('AvviKepie),  a.  Cyrenaic  philoso- 
pher, of  whom  the  ancients  have  left  us  contra- 
dictory accounts.  Many  modern  writers  have 
supposed  that  there  were  two  philosophers  of 
this  name,  the  one  contemporary  with  Plato, 
whom  he  is  said  to  have  ransomed  for  twenty 
minae  from  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  and  the  other 
with  Alexander  the  Great. 

Axxius  CIMBEE.     Vid.  CIMBEK. 

ANXIUS  MILO.     Vid.  MILO. 

AXSEE,  a  poet  of  the  Augustan  age,  a  friend 
of  the  triumvir  Marcus  Antonius,  and  one  of  the 
detractors  of  Virgil.  Hence  Virgil  plays  upon 
his  name  (Eel,  ix.,  36).  Ovid  (Trist^  ii.,  435) 
calls  him  procox. 

ANSIBAEII  or  AMPSIVAEII,  a  German  people, 
originally  dwelt  south  of  the  Bructeri,  between 
the  sources  of  the  Ems  and  the  Weser :  driven 
out  of  their  country  by  the  Chauci  in  the  reign 
of  Nero  (A.D.  59),  they  asked  the  Romans  for 
permission  to  settle  hi  the  Roman  territory  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  the  Yssel,  but  when  their 
request  was  refused  they  wandered  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  country  to  the  Cherusci,  and  were 
at  length  extirpated,  according  to  Tacitus.  We 
find  their  name,  however,  among  the  Franks  in 
the  time  of  Julian. 

ANT^EOPOLIS  ('AvratoTroXif :  near  Gau-el-Ke- 
bir),  an  ancient  city  of  Upper  Egypt  (the  The- 
bais),  on  the  east  side  of  the  Nile,  but  at  some 
distance  from  the  river,  was  the  capital  of  the 
Nomos  Antaeopolites,  and  one  of  the  chief  seats 
of  the  worship  of  Osiris. 

ANTICS  ('Avratof).  1.  Son  of  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon) and  Ge,  a  mighty  giant  and  wrestler  in 
Libya,  whose  strength  was  invincible  so  long 
as  he  remained  in  contact  with  his  mother 
earth.  The  strangers  who  came  to  his  country 
were  compelled  to  wrestle  with  him ;  the  con- 
quered were  slain,  and  out  of  their  skulls  he 
built  a  house  to  Neptune  (Poseidon).  Hercules 
discovered  the  source  of  his  strength,  lifted  him 
from  the  earth,  and  crushed  him  in  the  air. 
The  tomb  of  Anteus  (Anted  collis),  which  form- 
ed a  moderate  hill  in  the  shape  of  a  man  stretch- 
ed out  at  full  length,  was  shown  near  the  town 
of  Tingis  in  Mauretania  down  to  a  late  period. 
— 2.  [A  companion  of  Turnus,  slain  by  ^Eneas.l 

ANTAGORAS  ('Avrayopaf),  of  Rhodes,  flourish- 
ed about  B.C.  270,  a  friend  of  Antigonus  Gona- 
tas  and  a  contemporary  of  Aratus.  He  wrote 
an  epic  poem  entitled  lltebals,  and  also  epi- 
grams, of  which  specimens  are  still  extant  [in 
the  Greek  Anthology.] 

AXTALCIDAS  ('AvraA/aeJaf),  a  Spartan,  son  of 
Leon,  is  chiefly  known  by  the  celebrated  treaty 
concluded  with  Persia  in  B.C.  387,  usually  called 
the  peace  of  Antalcidas,  since  it  was  the  fruit 
of  his  diplomacy.  According  to  this  treaty,  all 
the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor,  together  with 
Clazomense  and  Cyprus,  were  to  belong  to  the 
Persian  king-  the  Athenians  were  allowed  to 


retain  only  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros ;  and 
all  the  other  Greek  cities  were  to  be  hide- 
pendent. 

ANTAXDER  ("Avravdpof).  1.  Brother  of  Agath- 
ocles,  king  of  Syracuse,  wrote  the  life  of  hk 
brother.  [A  fragment,  preserved  by  Diodorus,  is 
given  by  Miiller,  Frag.  Hist.  Graze.,  voL  ii.,  p. 
383. — 2.  General  of  the  Messenians,  and  com- 
mander of  cavalry  in  the  first  Messenian  war 
against  the  Lacedaemonians.] 

AXTAXDRUS  ("Avravdpof :  'Avravdpio? :  now 
Antandro),  a  city  of  Great  Mysia,  on  the  Adra- 
myttian  Gulf,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ida  ;  an 
^Eolian  colony.  Virgil  represents  ^Eneas  as 
touching  here  after  leaving  Troy  (j£n.,  iii.,  106). 

ANTAEADUS  ('Avrupadog :  now  Tortosa),  a 
town  on  the  northern  border  of  Phoenicia,  op- 
posite the  island  of  Aradus. 

ANTEA  or  AXTIA  ("Avreia),  daughter  of  the 
Lycian  king  lobates,  wife  of  Prcetus  of  Argos. 
She  is  also  called  Stheuoboea.  Respecting  her 
love  for  Bellerophontes,  see  BELLEEOPHOXTES. 

[AXTEIUS,  P.,  appointed  governor  of  Syria  55 
A.D.  On  account  of  the  favor  in  which  he  stood 
with  Agrippiua,  he  was  an  object  of  hatred  to 
Nero:  being  accused  of  a  conspiracy,  he  took 
poison,  but,  finding  this  too  slow,  he  opened  his 
veins.] 

ANTEMXJE  (Autemnas,  -atis),  an  ancient  Sa- 
bine  town  at  the  junction  of  the  Anio  and  the 
Tiber,  destroyed  by  the  Romans  in  the  earliest 
times. 

ANTEXOE  ('AvTqvup).  1.  A  Trojan,  son  of 
^Esyetes  and  Cleomestra,  and  husband  of  The- 
ano.  According  to  Homer,  he  was  one  of  the 
wisest  among  the  elders  at  Troy :  he  received 
Menelaus  and  Ulysses  into  his  house  when  they 
came  to  Troy  as  ambassadors,  and  advised  his 
fellow-citizens  to  restore  Helen  to  Menelaus. 
Thus  he  is  represented  as  a  traitor  to  his  coun- 
try, and  when  sent  to  Agamemnon,  just  before 
the  taking  of  Troy,  to  negotiate  peace,  he  con- 
certed a  plan  of  delivering  the  city,  and  even 
the  palladium,  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks. 
On  the  capture  of  Troy,  Antenor  was  spared  by 
the  Greeks.  His  history  after  this  event  is  re- 
lated differently.  Some  writers  relate  that  he 
founded  a  new  kingdom  at  Troy ;  according  to 
others,  he  embarked  with  Mcuelaus  and  Helen, 
was  carried  to  Libya,  and  settled  at  Cyrene ; 
while  a  third  account  states  that  he  went  with 
the  Heneti  to  Thrace,  and  thence  to  the  west- 
ern coast  of  the  Adriatic,  where  the  foundation 
of  Patavium  and  several  other  towns  is  ascribed 
to  him.  The  sons  and  descendants  of  Anteuor 
were  called  AtitenSrldce. — 2.  Son  of  Euphranor, 
an  Athenian  sculptor,  made  the  first  bronze 
statues  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton,  which 
the  Athenians  set  up  in  the  Ceramlcus,  B.C. 
509.  These  statues  were  carried  off  to  Susa  by 
Xerxes,  and  their  place  was  supplied  by  others 
made  either  by  Callias  or  by  Praxiteles.  After 
the  conquest  of  Persia,  Alexander  the  Great 
sent  the  statues  back  to  Athens,  where  they 
were  again  set  up  in  the  Ccramicus. 

ANTEROS.     Vid.  EROS. 

AXTEVOETA,  also  called  POERIMA  or  PEORSA, 
together  with  Postvorta,  are  described  either 
aa  the  two  sisters  or  companions  of  the  Roman 
goddess  Carmenta;  but  originally  they  were 
only  two  attributes  of  the  one  goddess  Car- 
63 


ANTHEA, 


ANTIGONUS. 


menta,  the  former  describing  her  knowledge  of 
the  future,  and  the  latter  that  of  the  past,  anal- 
ogous to  the  two-hended  Janus. 

[ANTUEA  ('AvOeia),  a  city  of  Messenia,  men- 
'doued  by  Homer  (II.,  9,  151);  the  later  TJiuria, 
•>r,  according  to  others,  identical  with  Asine.] 

AXTUKDOX  ('Avdjjduv  :  'Avdqdoviof  :  now  Lu- 
kisi  /).  1.  A  town  of  Boeotia  with  a  harbor,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Eubcean  Sea,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Messapius,  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
a  nymph  Anthedon,  or  from  Anthedon,  son  of 
Glaucus,  who  was  here  changed  into  a  god 
(Ov.,  Jfetn  vii.,  232;  xiii.,  905.)  The  inhabit- 
ants lived  chiefly  by  fishing.  —  [2.  A  sea-port  of 
Argolis  on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  near  the  borders 
of  Corinthia,  called  by  Ptolemy  'AQijvaiuv  fajujv. 
—  3.  A  harbor  in  the  southern  part  of  Palestine, 
afterward  called  'Aypimridf.] 

[ANTHELA  ('Avdt}hri),  a  village  of  Thessaly,  be- 
tween the  entrance  of  the  Asopus  into  the  Ma- 
liac  Gulf  and  Thermopylae,  containing  a  temple 
of  Ceres  :  it  was  one  of  the  places  of  meeting 
of  the  Aniphictyonic  council] 

ANTIIEMIUS,  emperor  of  the  West,  A.D.  467- 
472,  was  killed  ou  the  capture  of  Rome  by  Ri- 
cimer,  who  made  Olybrius  emperor. 

ANTHEMUS  ('Avdepovf  -ovvrjf  :  'Avdepovoioff), 
a  Macedonian  town  in  Chalcidice. 

AXTHEMUSIA  or  ANTHEMUS  ('AvOefiovaia),  a 
city  of  Mesopotamia,  southwest  of  Edessa,  and 
a  little  east  of  the  Euphrates.  The  surround- 
ing district  was  called  by  the  same  name,  mit 
was  generally  included  under  the  name  of  Os- 
RHOENE. 

AXTHENE  ('Avdjjv?)'),  a  place  in  Cynuria,  in  the 
Peloponnesus. 

[ANTHERMUS,  a  statuary  of  Chios,  father  of 
Bupalus  and  Athenis:  as  the  name  is  differently 
given  in  different  MSS.,  Sillig  has  proposed  Ar- 
chennus  instead  of  Anthermus. 

[ANTHEUS  ('Avdeve),   a  Trojan,   a  companion 


ANTHYLLA  ("AvdvTiha),  &  considerable  city  of 
Lower  Egypt,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Canopic 
branch  of  the  Nile,  below  Naucratis,  the  reve- 
nues of  which,  under  the  Persians,  were  as- 
signed to  the  wife  of  the  satrap  of  Egypt,  to 
provide  her  with  shoes. 

ANTIAS,  Q.  VALERIUS,  a  Roman  historian, 
flourished  about  B.C.  80,  and  wrote  the  history 
of  Rome  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  those 
of  Sulla.  He  is  frequently  referred  to  by  Livy, 
who  speaks  of  him  as  the  most  lying  of  all  the 
annalists,  and  seldom  mentions  his  name  with- 
out terms  of  reproach  :  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  Livy's  judgment  is  correct.  [The  frag- 
ments of  his  work  are  collected  by  Krause  in 
his  Vita  et  Fragm.  veterum  Hist.  Rvm.,  Berlin, 
1833,  p.  271-88.] 

A.VTICLEA  ('Av-iK^.eia),  daughter  of  Autolycus, 
wife  of  Laertes,  and  mother  of  Ulysses,  died  of 
grief  at  the  long  absence  of  her  eon.  It  is  said 
that,  before  marrying  Laertes,  she  lived  on  ul- 
timate terms  with  Sisyphus  ;  whence  Euripides 
calls  Ulysses  a  son  of  Sisyphus. 

ANTICLIDES  ('AvTiK^sidric),  of  Athens,  lived 
after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  was 
the  author  of  several  works,  the  most  import- 
ant of  which  was  entitled  Nosti  (Noffrot),  con- 
taining an  account  of  the  return  of  the  Greeks 
from  their  mythical  expeditions. 
64 


[ANTICRAGCS  ('AvTiKpayof :  now  Soumbourtu), 
a  lofty  and  steep  mountain  range  in  Lycia,  run- 
ning in  a  northeast  direction  along  the  coast 
of  the  Sinus  Glaucus.] 

[ANTICRATES  ('AvTiKpun/f),  a  Spartan,  who 
claimed  the  merit  of  having  dealt  the  blow  that 
proved  fatal  to  Epaminondas  at  Mantinea.] 

ANTICYRA,  more  anciently  ANTICIRRHA,  ('Av- 
r'lKippa  or  'Avrinvpa  :  'AvriKvpev^,  'AvriKvpaiof) 
1.  (Now  Aspra  Spitia),  a  town  in  Phocis,  with 
a  harbor  on  a  peninsula  on  the  western  side  of 
the  Sinus  Anticyranus,  a  bay  of  the  Crissaean 
Gulf,  called  in  ancient  times  Cyparissus,  and 
celebrated  for  its  hellebore.  It  continued  to  be 
a  place  of  importance  under  the  Romans. — 2. 
A  town  in  Thessaly,  on  the  Spercheus,  not  far 
from  its  mouth.  Both  towns  were  celebrated 
for  their  hellebore,  the  chief  remedy  in  antiquity 
for  madness  ;  hence  the  proverb,  AvriKippas  ae 
6el,  when  a  person  acted  senselessly,  and  Jfa- 
viget  Anticyram.  (Hor.,  Sat.,  ii,  3,  166.) 

ANTIGENES  ('AvTiyi-vw),  a  general  of  Alexao 
der  the  Great,  on  whose  death  he  obtained  tha 
satrapy  of  Susiana,  and  espoused  the  side  of 
Eumenes.  On  the  defeat  of  the  latter  in  B.C. 
316,  Antigenes  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemy 
Antigonus,  and  was  burned  alive  by  hnn. 

ANTIGENIDAS  ('Avrr/EVidaf),  a  Theban,  a  cele- 
brated flute-player,  and  a  poet,  lived  in  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great. 

ANTIGONE  ('Avriyovrt).  1.  Daughter  of  CEdipus 
by  his  mother  Jocaste,  and  sister  of  Ismene,  and 
of  Eteocles  and  Polynices.  In  the  tragic  story 
of  QSdipns,  Antigone  appears  as  a  noble  maiden, 
with  a  truly  heroic  attachment  to  her  father 
and  brothers.  When  CEdipus  had  blinded  him- 
self, and  was  obliged  to  quit  Thebes,  he  was 
accompanied  by  Antigone,  who  remained  with 
him  till  he  died  in  Colouus,  and  then  returned 
to  Thebes.  After  her  two  brothers  had  killed 
each  other  in  battle,  and  Creon,  the  king  of 
Thebes,  would  not  allow  Polynices  to  be  buried, 
Antigone  alone  defied  the  tyrant,  and  buried  the 
body  of  her  brother.  Creon  thereupon  ordered 
her  to  be  shut  up  in  a  subterranean  cave,  where 
she  killed  herself.  Haemon,  the  son  of  Creon, 
who  was  in  love  with  her,  killed  himself  by  her 
side. — [2.  Daughter  of  the  Trojan  king  Laome- 
don,  changed  by  Juno  (Hera)  into  a  stork,  be- 
cause she  presumed  to  vie  with  her  in  the  beau- 
ty of  her  hair. — 3.  (Historical.)  Daughter  of 
Cassander,  second  wife  of  Ptolemy  Lagus,  and 
mother  of  Berenice.] 

ANTIGONEA  or  -IA  and  -IA  ('Aimywem,  'Avn- 
-yovid).  1.  (Now  Tepeleni),  a  town  in  Epirus 
(Ulyricum),  at  the  junction  of  a  tributary  with 
the  Aous,  and  near  a  narrow  pass  of  the  Acro- 
ceraunian  Mountains.  —  2.  A  Macedonian  town 
in  Chalcidice. — 3.  Vid.  MANTINEA. — 4.  A  town 
on  the  Orontes  in  Syria,  founded  by  Antigonus  as 
the  capital  of  his  empire  (B.C.  306),  but  most 
of  its  inhabitants  were  transferred  by  Seleucus 
to  ANTIOCHIA,  which  was  built  in  its  neighbor- 
flood. — 5.  A  town  in  Bithynia,  afterward  Niccea. 
— 6.  A  town  in  the  Troas.  Vid.  ALEXANDREA, 
No.  2. 

[ANTIGONIS  ('AvTtyovif),  an  Athenian  tribe,  so 
called  in  honor  of  Antigonus,  father  of  Deme 
trius.] 

ANTIGONITS  ('Avrtyovof).  1.  King  of  ASIA, 
surnamed  the  One-eyed  son  of  Philip  of  Elv 


ANTiLIBANUS. 

rniotis,  aiid  father  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  by 
Stratonlce.  He  was  one  of  the  generals  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  iii  the  division  of  the 
empire  after  the  death  of  the  latter  (B.C.  323), 
he  received  the  provinces  of  the  Greater  Phryg- 
ia,  Lycia,  and  Pamphylia.  On  the  death  of 
the  regent  Antipater  in  319,  he  aspired  to  the 
sovereignty  of  Asia.  In  316  he  defeated  and 
put  Eumenes  to  death,  after  a  struggle  of  near- 
ly three  years.  From  315  to  311  he  carried  on 
war,  with  varying  success,  against  Seleucus, 
Ptolemy,  Cassander,  and  Lysimachus.  By  the 
peace  made  in  311,  Antigouus  was  allowed  to 
have  the  government  of  all  Asia ;  but  peace  did 
not  last  more  than  a  year.  After  the  defeat  of 
Ptolemy's  fleet  in  306,  Antigonus  assumed  the 
title  of  king,  and  his  example  was  followed  by 
Ptolemy,  Lysimachus,  and  Seleucus.  In  the 
same  year,  Antigonus  invaded  Egypt,  but  was 
compelled  to  retreat  His  son  Demetrius  car- 
ried on  the  war  with  success  agaiiist  Cassander 
in  Greece ;  but  he  was  compelled  to  return  to 
Asia  to  the  assistance  of  his  father,  against 
whom  Cassander,  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  and  Ly- 
simachus had  formed  a  fresh  confederacy.  An- 
tigonus and  Demetrius  were  defeated  by  Lysim- 
achus at  the  decisive  battle  of  Ipsus  in  Phryg- 
ia,  in  301.  Antigouus  fell  in  the  battle  in  the 
eighty-first  year  of  his  age. — 2.  GONATAS,  son 
of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and  grandson  of  the 
preceding.  He  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
Macedonia,  after  his  father's  death  in  Asia  in 
B.C.  283,  but  he  did  not  obtain  possession  of 
the  throne  till  277.  He  was  driven  out  of  his 
k'ngdom  by  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  in  _273,  but  re- 
covered it  in  the  following  year :  he  was  again 
expelled  by  Alexander,  the  son  of  Pyrrhus,  and 
again  recovered  his  dominions.  He  attempted 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  the  Achjean  League, 
and  died  in  239.  He  was  succeeded  by  Deme- 
trius IL  His  surname  Gonatas  is  usually  de- 
rived from  Gonnos  or  Gonni  in  Thessaly ;  but 
some  think  that  Gonatas  is  a  Macedonian  word, 
signifying  an  iron  plate  protecting  the  knee. 
— 3.  Dosox  (so  called  because  he  was  always 
about  to  give,  but  never  did,)  son  of  Demetrius 
of  Cyrene,  and  grandson  of  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetcs.  On  the  death  of  Demetrius  II.  in  B.C. 
229,  he  was  left  guardian  of  his  son  Philip,  but 
he  married  the  widow  of  Demetrius,  and  became 
King  of  Macedonia  himself.  He  supported  Ara- 
tiis  and  the  Achaean  League  against  Cleomenes, 
king  of  Sparta,  whom  he  defeated  at  Sellasia  in 
2'21,  and  took  Sparta.  On  his  return  to  Mace- 
donia, he  defeated  the  Illyrians,  and  died  a  few 
days  afterward,  220. — 4.  King  of  JUDAEA,  son 
«t  Aristobulus  IL,  was  placed  on  the  throne  by 
the  Parthians  in  B.C.  40,  but  was  taken  prison- 
er by  Sosius,  the  lieutenant  of  Antony,  and  was 
put  to  death  by  the  hitter  in  37. — 5.  Of  CARYS- 
TUS,  lived  at  Alexandrea  about  B.C.  250,  and 
wrote  a  work,  still  extant,  entitled  Historic  Mi- 
rabiles,  wliicli  is  only  of  value  from  its  preserv- 
ing extracts  from  other  and  better  works. — 
Editions:  By  J.  Beckmann,  Lips.,  1791,  and  by 
Westermanu  in  his  Paradoxographi,  Bruns., 
1839. 

ANTIUBANUS    ('\vTt%.t6avof :     now    Jcbcl-es- 

»S7«  ikh  or  Anti-Lebanon),  a  mountain  on   the 

confines    of     Palestine,    Phoenicia,    and    Syria, 

parallel  to  Libauus  (now  Lebanon),  which  it  ex- 

5 


ANTIOCHIA. 

;  ceeds  in  height.     Its  highest  summit  is  Mount 
I  Hermon  (also  Jebel-es-Sheikh). 

ANTILOCHUS  ('AvrtAo^of),  son  of  Nestor  and 
Anaxibia  or  Eurydice,  accompanied  his  father 
to  Troy,  ar.d  distinguished  himself  by  fcis  brav- 
ery. He  was  slain  before  Troy  by  Kernnon  the 
./Ethiopian,  and  was  buried  by  tho  side  of  his 
friends  Achilles  and  Patroclus. 

ANTIMACHUS  ('AvTifiaxoc).  J.  A  Trojan,  per- 
suaded his  countrymen  not  to  surrender  Helen 
to  the  Greeks.  He  had  three  sons,  two  of  whom 
were  put  to  death  by  Menelaus. — 2.  Of  Claroa 
or  Colophon,  a  Greek  epic  and  elegiac  poet,  was 
probably  a  native  of  Claros,  but  was  called  a  Col- 
ophonian,  because  Claros  belonged  to  Colophon. 
(Clarius poeta,  Ov.,  Trist.,  i.,  6,  1.)  He  flourish- 
ed toward  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war : 
his  chief  work  was  an  epic  poem  of  great  length 
called  Thebais  Qr]6ai£  Antimachus  was  one 
of  the  forerunners  of  the  poets  of  the  Alexan- 
drine school,  who  wrote  more  for  the  learned 
than  for  the  public  at  large.  The  Alexandrine 
grammarians  assigned  to  him  the  second  place 
among  the  epic  poets,  and  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
preferred  his  works  even  to  those  of  Homer. 
He  also  wrote  a  celebrated  elegiac  poem  called 
Lyde,  which  was  the  name  of  his  wife  or  mis- 
tress, as  well  as  other  works.  There  was  like- 
wise a  tradition  that  he  made  a  recension  of  the 
text  of  the  Homeric  poems.  [His  fragments 
have  been  collected  and  published  by  Schellen- 
berg,  Halle,  1786 ;  some  additional  fragments 
in  Stoll's  Animadversiones  in  Antimachi  Fragm^ 
Getting.,  1840 ;  the  epic  fragments  in  Diintzer's 
Fragm.  der  JEpisch.  Poes.  der  Griech.  bit  avf  Alex- 
ander, p.  99.] 

[ANTIMCERUS  ('AvTifjoipotf),  a  sopliist  of  Mende 
in  Thrace,  a  pupil  of  Protagoras,  mentioned  by' 
Plato  (Protag.,  315,  A.)] 

ANTINOOPOLIS  ('Avrtvoov  Kohif  or  'AvTtvoeia  : 
ruins  at  Enseneh),  a  splendid  city,  built  by  Ha- 
drian, in  memory  of  his  favorite  AXTINOUS,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  upon  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Besa,  in  Middle  Egypt  (Heptanomis). 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Nomos  Autinoites,  and 
had  an  oracle  of  the  goddess  Besa. 

ANTINOUS  ('Avrivoof).  1.  Son  of  Euplthes 
of  Ithaca,  and  one  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope, 
was  slain  by  Ulysses. — 2,  A  youth  of  extraor- 
dinary beauty,  born  at  Claudiopolis  in  Bithyuia, 
was  the  favorite  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and 
his  companion  in  all  his  journeys.  He  was 
drowned  in  the  Nile,  A.D.  122,  whether  acci- 
dentally or  on  purpose,  is  uncertain.  The  grief 
of  the  emperor  knew  no  bounds.  He  enrolled 
Antinous  among  the  gods,  caused  a  temple  to 
be  erected  to  him  at  Mantinea,  and  founded  the 
city  of  AXTIXOOPOLIS  in  honor  of  him.  A  large 
number  of  works  of  art  of  all  kinds  were  exe- 
cuted in  his  honor,  and  many  of  them  are  still 
extant 

ANTIOCHIA  and  -KA  ('Avrto^eia :  'Avrto;fet!j 
and  -6xcivf>  fcm.  'Avrto^/f  and  -oxiova,  Antio- 
chenus),  the  name  of  several  cities  of  Asia,  six- 
teen of  which  are  said  to  Jnave  been  built  b^ 
Seleucus  L  Nicator,  and  named  in  honor  of  hit 
father  Antiochus.  1.  A.  EPIDAPHXES,  or  AD 
DAFHNEM,  or  AD  ORONTEXI  ('A.  eni  Au0v»? :  BO 
called  from  a  neighboring  grove:  'A.  errl  Q(*n> 
rg  :  ruins  at  Antakia),  the  capital  of  the  Greek 
kingdom  of  Syria,  and  long  the  chief  city  of 
65 


ANTIOCHIA, 


ANTIOCHUS. 


Asia,  and  perhaps  of  the  world,  stood  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Orontcs,  about  twenty  miles  (gcog.) 
from  the  sea,  in  a  beautiful  valley,  about  ten  miles 
long  and  five  or  six  broad,  inclosed  by  the  ranges 
of  Amanys  on  the  northwest,  and  Casius  on  the 
southeast  It  was  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  I 
about  B.C  300,  and  peopled  chiefly  from  the 
neighboring  city  of  ANTIOOMA.  It  flourished  so 
rapidly  as  soon  to  need  enlargement ;  and  other  j 
tdoitiona  were  again  made  to  it  by  Seleucus  II. ; 
Callinicus  (about  B.C.  240),  and  Antiochus  IV. ! 
Epiphanes  (about  B.C.  170).  Hence  it  obtained  ' 
the  name  of  Tetrapolis  (rerpuTro/Uf,  i.  e.  four 
cities).  Besides  being  the  capital  of  the  greatest 
kingdom  of  the  world,  it  had  a  considerable  com- 
merce, the  Orontes  being  navigable  up  to  the 
city,  and  the  high  road  between  Asia  and  Europe  j 
passing  through  it.  Under  the  Romans  it  was 
.  (he  residence  of  the  proconsuls  of  Syria ;  it  was 
favored  and  visited  by  emperors  ;  and  was  made 
a  colonia  with  the  Jus  Italicum  by  Antoninus 
Pius.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  strongholds  of  \ 
the  Christian  faith ;  the  first  place  where  the 
Christian  name  was  used  (Acts,  xi.,  26) ;  the 
centre  of  missionary  efforts  in  the  Apostolic 
age  ;  and  the  see  of  one  of  the  four  chief  bishops, 
who  were  called  Patriarchs.  Though  far  inferior 
to  Alexandrea  as  a  seat  of  learning,  yet  it 
derived  some  distinction  in  this  respect  from  the 
teaching  of  Libanius  and  other  Sophists ;  and 
its  eminence  in  art  is  attested  by  the  beautiful 
gems  and  medals  still  found  among  its  ruins. 
It  was  destroyed  by  the  Persian  King  Chosroes 
(A.D.  640),  but  rebuilt  by  Justinian,  who  gave  it 
the  new  name  The'upolis  (Qeovxofac).  The 
ancient  walls  which  still  surround  the  insignifi- 
cant  modern  town,  are  probably  those  built 
by  Justinian.  The  name  of  Antiochia  was 
also  given  to  the  surrounding  district,  i.  ft,  tjhe 
northwestern  part  of  Syria,  which  bordered •. 
upon  Cilicia. — 2.  A.  AD  M^EANDRUM  ('A.  irpdf  \ 
Maiuvdpu :  ruins  near  Yenishehr),  a  city  of 
Caria,  on  the  Mseander,  built  by  Antiochus  I. 
Soter,  on  the  site  of  the  old  city  of  Pythopolis. 
— 3.  A,  PISIDI^E  or  AD  PISIDIAM  ('A.  Tlioidiaf  or 
;r/>df  Tlioidia),  a  considerable  city  on  the  borders 
of  Phrygia  Paroreios  and  Pisidia;  built  by 
colonists  from  Magnesia ;  declared  a  free  city  by 
the  Romans  after  their  victory  over  Antiochus 
the  Great  (B.C.  189);  made  a  colony  under 
Augustus,  and  called  Caesarea.  It  was  celebra- 
ted for  the  worsliip  and  the  great  temple  of 
Men  Araeus  (Mr/v  'Ap/eatof,  the  Phrygian  Moon- 
god),  which  the  Romans  suppressed. — 4.  A.  MAR- 
C.IANA  ('A.  Mapytav?? :  now  Meru  S/tah-Jehan  ?\  a 
city  in  the  Persian  province  of  Margiana,  on  the 
River  Margus,  founded  by  Alexander,  and  at 
first  called  Alexandrea  ;  destroyed  by  the  bar- 
barians, rebuilt  by  Antiochus  I.  Soter,  and 
called  Antiochia.  It  was  beautifully  situated, 
and  was  surrounded  by  a  wall  seventy  stadia 
(about  eight  miles)  in  circuit.  Among  the  less 
important  cities  of  the  name  were :  (6.)  A.  AD 
TAURUM  in  Comma{,-ene ;  (6.)  A.  AD  CRAGUM  ;  and 
(7.)  A.  AD  PYRAMUM,  in  Cilicia.  The  following 
Antiochs  are  better  known  by  other  names :  A. 
AD  SARUM(V»U  ADANA)  ;  A/CHARACENES  (aid. 
CHARAX)  ;  A.  CALLIERHOE  (vid.  EDESSA)  ;  A.  AD 
IIippUM  (vid.  GADARA)  ;  A.  MIGDOXLA  (aid.  NISI- 
BIS)  ;  in  Cilicia  (vid.  TARSUS)  ;  in  Caria  or  Lydia 
(vid.  TRALLES). 
66 


Avrloxof).  1.  Kings  of  Syria. 
1.  SOTER  (reigned  B.C.  280-261),  was 'the  son 
of  Seleucus  I,  the  founder  of  the  Syrian  king- 
dom of  the  Selcucidas.  He  married  his  step- 
mother Stratouice,  with  whom  he  fell  violently 
in  love,  and  whom  his  father  surrendered  to 
him.  He  fell  in  battle  against  the  Gauls  in  261. 
— 2.  THEOS  (B.C.  261-246),  son  and  successor 
of  No.  1.  The  Milesians  gave  him  his  surname 
of  Theos,  because  he  delivered  them  from  their 
tyrant,  Timarchus.  He  carried  on  war  with 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  King  of  Egypt,  which 
was  brought  to  a  close  by  his  putting  away 
his  wife  Laodice,  and  marrying  Berenice,  the 
daughter  of  Ptolemy.  After  the  death  of  Ptole- 
my, he  recalled  Laodice ;  but,  in  revenge  for  the 
insult  she  had  received,  she  caused  Antioohus 
and  Berenice  tr  be  murdered.  During  the  reign 
of  Autiochus,  Arsaces  founded  the  Parthian 
empire  (25f).  and  Theodotus  established  an 
independent  kingdom  in  Bactria.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Seleucus  Callinicus.  His 
younger  son  Antiochus  Hierax  also  assumed 
the  crown,  and  carried  on  war  some  years  with 
his  brother.  Vid.  SELEUCUS  IL — 3.  The  GREAT 
(B.C.  223-187),  second  son  of  Seleucus  Callini- 
cus, succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
his  brother  Seleucus  Ceraunus,  when  he  was 
only  in  his  fifteenth  year.  After  defeating  (220) 
Molon,  satrap  of  Media,  and  his  brother  Alex- 
ander, satrap  of  Persis,  who  had  attempted  to 
make  themselves  independent,  he  carried  on 
war  against  Ptolemy  Philopator,  king  of  Egypt, 
in  order  to  obtain  Coele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  and 
Palestine,  but  was  obliged  to  cede  these  prov- 
inces to  Ptolemy,  in  consequence  of  his  defeat 
at  the  battle  of  Raphia  near  Gaza,  in  217.  He 
next  marched  against  Achseus,  who  had  revolted 
in  Asia  Minor,  and  whom  he  put  to  death, 
when  he  fell  into  his  hands  in  214.  Vid.  ACHJEVS 
Shortly  after  this  he  was  engaged  for  seven 
years  (212-205)  in  an  attempt  to  regain  the 
eastern  provinces  of  Asia,  which  had  revolted 
during  the  reign  of  Antiochus  III. ;  but  though 
he  met  with  great  success,  he  found  it  hopeless 
to  effect  the  subjugation  of  the  Parthian  and 
Bactrian  kingdoms,  and  accordingly  concluded 
a  peace  with  them.  In  205  he  renewed  his  wai 
against  Egypt  with  more  success,  and  in  198 
conquered  Palestine  and  Coale-Syria,  which  he 
afterward  gave  as  a  dowry  with  his  daughter 
Cleopatra  upon  her  marriage  with  Ptolemy 
Epiphanes.  In  J96  he  crossed  over  into  Europe, 
and  took  possession  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese. 
This  brought  him  into  contact  with  the 
Romans,  who  commanded  him  to  restore  the 
Chersonese  to  the  Macedonian  king;  but  he 
refused  to  comply  with  their  demand,  in 
which  resolution  he  was  strengthened  by  Han- 
nibal, who  arrived  at  his  court  in  195.  Hanni- 
bal urged  him  to  invade  Italy  without  loss  of 
time ;  but  Antiochus  did  not  follow  his  advice, 
and  it  was  not  till  192  that  he  crossed  over  into 
Greece.  In  191  he  was  defeated  by  the  Romans 
at  Thermopylae,  and  compelled  to  return  to 
Asia;  his  fleet  was  also  vanquished  in  two 
engagements.  In  1 90  he  was  again  defeated  by 
the  Romans  under  L.  Scipio  at  Mount  Sipylus, 
near  Magnesia,  and  compelled  to  sue  for  peace, 
which  was  granted  in  188,  on  condition  of  hia 
ceding  all  his  dominions  east  of  Mount  Taurus 


ANTIOCHUS. 

paying  -fifteen  thousand  Euboic  talents  -within 
twelve  years,  giving  up  his  elephants  and  ships 
of  war,  and  surrendering  the  Roman  enemies ; 
but  he  allowed  Hannibal  to  escape.  In  order 
to  raise  the  money  to  pay  the  Romans,  he  at- 
tacked a  wealthy  temple  in  Elymais,  but  was 
killed  by  the  people  of  the  place  (187).  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Seleucus  Philopator. — 4. 
EPIPHANES  (B.C.  175-164),  son  of  Autiochus 
IIL,  was  given  in  hostage  to  the  Romans  in 
188,  and  was  released  from  captivity  in  175 
through  his  brother  Seleucus  Philopator,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  the  same  year.  He  earned  on  j 
war  against  Egypt  from  171-168  with  great  suc- 
cess in  order  to  obtain  Ccele-Syria  and  Pales- 
tine, which  had  been  given  as  a  dowry  with  his 
eister,  and  he  was  preparing  to  lay  siege  to 
Alexandrea  in  168,  when  the  Romans  compelled 
him  to  retire.  He  endeavored  to  root  out  the 
Jewish  religion  and  to  introduce  the  worship 
of  the  Greek  divinities  ;  but  this  attempt  led  to 
a  rising  of  the  Jewish  people,  under  Mattathias 
and  his  heroic  sons  the  Maccabees,  wrhich  An- 
tiochus  was  unable  to  put  down.  He  attempt- 
ed to  plunder  a  temple  in  Elymais  in  164,  but 
he  was  repulsed,  and  died  shortly  afterward  in 
a  state  of  raving  madness,  which  the  Jews  and 
Greeks  equally  attributed  to  his  sacrilegious 
crimes.  His  subjects  gave  him  the  name  of 
Epimanfs  (''  the  madman")  in  parody  of  Epiph- 
anes. — 5.  EUPATOR  (B.C.  164-162),  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Epiphanes.  was  nine  years  old  at  his 
father's  death,  and  reigned  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  Lysias.  He  was  dethroned  and  put  to 
leath  by  Demetrius  Soter,  the  son  of  Seleucus 
Philopator,  who  had  hitherto  lived  at  Rome  as 
i  hostage. — 6.  THEOS,  son  of  Alexander  Balas. 
He  was  brought  forward  as  a  claimant  to  the 
irown  in  144,  against  Demetrius  Nicator  by 
Tryphou,  but  he  was  murdered  by  the  latter, 
who  ascended  the  throne  himself  in  142. — 7. 
SIDKTES  (B.C.  137-128),  so  called  from  Side  in 
Pamphyh'a,  where  he  was  brought  up,  younger 
son  of  Demetrius  Soter,  succeeded  Tryphon. 
He  married  Cleopatra,  wife  of  his  elder  brother 
Demetrius  Nicator,  who  was  a  prisoner  with 
the  Parthians.  He  carried  on  war  against  the 
Parthians,  at  first  with  success,  but  was  after- 
ward defeated  and  slain  in  battle  in  128. — 8. 
GRYPUS,  or  Hook-nosed  (B.C.  125-96),  second 
son  of  Demetrius  Nicator  and  Cleopatra.  He 
was  placed  upon  the  throne  in  125  by  his  moth- 
er Cleopatra,  who  put  to  death  his  elder  broth- 
er Seleucus,  because  ehe  wished  to  have  the 
power  in  her  own  hands.  He  poisoned  his 
mother  in  120,  and  subsequently  carried  on  war 
for  some  tune  with  his  half-brother  A.  IX. 
Cyzicenus.  At  length,  in  112,  the  two  broth- 
ers agreed  to  share  the  kingdom  between  them, 
A.  Cyzicenus  having  Coile-Syria  and  Phoenicia, 
and  A.  Grypus  the  remainder  of  the  provinces. 
Grypus  was  assassinated  in  96. — 9.  CTZICENUS, 
from  Cyzicus,  where  he  was  brought  up,  son  of 
A.  VII.  Sidetes  and  Cleopatra,  reigned  over 
Ccele-Syria  and  Phoenicia  from  112  to  96,  but 
fell  in  battle  in  95  against  Seleucus  Epipbaucs, 
son  of  A.  VIII.  Grypus. — 10.  EUSEBES,  son  of 
A.  IX.  Cyzicenus,  defeated  Seleucus  Epiph- 
aneu,  who  had  slain  his  father  in  battle,  and 
maintained  the  throne  against  the  brothers  of 
Seleucus.  He  succeeded  his  father  Autiochus 


ANTIOPE. 

IX.  in  95. — 11.  EPIPHANES,  son  of  A.  VIII.  Gry 
pus  and  brother  of  Seleucus  Epiphanes,  carried 
on  war  against  A.  X.  Eusebes,  but  was  defeat- 
ed by  the  latter,  and  drowned  in  the  River 
Orontes. — 12.  DIONYSUS,  brother  of  No.  11,  held 
the  crown  for  a  short  tune,  but  fell  in  battle 
against  Aretas,  king  of  the  Arabians.  The  Syr- 
ians, worn  out  with  the  civil  broils  of  the  Se- 
leucidte,  offered  the  kingdom  to  Tigranes,  king 
of  Armenia,  who  united  Syria  to  his  own  domin- 
ions in  83,  and  held  it  till  his  defeat  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  69. — 13.  ASIATICUS,  son  of  A.  X.  Eu- 
sebes, became  King  of  Syria  on  the  defeat  of 
Tigraues  by  Lucullus  in  69 ;  but  he  was  de- 
prived of  it  in  65  by  Pompey,  wrho  reduced  Syria 
to  a  Roman  province.  In  «this  year  the  Seleu- 
cidffi  ceased  to  reign. 

IL  Kings  of  Commagene. 

1.  Made  an  alliance  with  the  Romans  about 
B.C.  64.  He  assisted  Pompey  with  troops  in 
49,  and  was  attacked  by  Antony  in  38.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Mithradates  I.,  about  31. — 2.  Suc- 
ceeded Mithradates  I.,  and  was  put  to  death  at 
Rome  by  Augustus  in  29. — 3.  Succeeded  Mith- 
radates II.,  and  died  in  A.D.  17.  Upon  his 
death,  Commagene  became  a  Roman  province, 
and  remained  so  till  A.D.  38. — 4.  Surnamed 
EPIPHAXES,  apparently  a  son  of  Antiochus  IIL, 
received  his  paternal  dominion  from  Caligula  in 
A.D.  38.  He  was  subsequently  deposed  by 
Caligula,  but  regained  his  kingdom  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Claudius  in  41.  He  was  a  faithful 
ally  of  the  Romans,  and  assisted  them  in  their 
wars  against  the  Parthians  under  Nero,  and 
against  the  Jews  under  Vespasian.  At  length, 
in  72,  he  was  accused  of  conspiring  with  the 
Parthians  against  the  Romans,  was  deprived  of 
his  kingdom,  and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

IIL  Literary. 

1.  Of  MGJE  in  Cilicia,  a  Sophist,  or,  as  he 
liimself  pretended  to  be,  a  Cynic  philosopher. 
He  flourished  about  A.D.  200,  during  the  reign 
of  Severus  and  Caracalla.  During  the  war  of 
Caracalla  against  the  Parthians,  he  deserted  to 
the  Partisans  together  with  Tiridates.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  rhetoricians  of 
his  time,  and  also  acquired  some  reputation  as 
a  writer. — 2.  Of  ASCALON,  the  founder  of  the 
fifth  Academy,  was  a  friend  of  Lucullus  and  the 
teacher  of  Cicero  during  his  studies  at  Athens 
(B.C.  79);  but  he  had  a  school  at  Alexandria 
also,  as  well  as  in  Syria,  where  he  seems  to 
have  ended  his  life.  His  principal  teacher  was 
Philo,  who  succeeded  Plato,  Arcesilas,  and  Car- 
neades,  as  the  founder  of  the  fourth  Academy. 
He  is,  however,  better  known  as  the  adversary 
than  the  disciple  of  Philo;  and  Cicero  mentions 
a  treatise  called  Sosus,  written  by  him  against 
his  master,  in  which  he  refutes  the  skepticism 
of  the  Academics. — 3.  Of  SYRACUSE,  a  Greek 
historian,  lived  about  B.C.  423,  and  wrote  his- 
tories of  Sicily  and  Italy.  [The  fragments  of 
his  writings  are  collected  in  Muller's  J'raymntta 
Hist.  Grax^  voL  i.,  p.  181-184. — i.  Of  ALEX 
AXDHKA,  author  of  a  history  of  the  comic  poets 
of  Greece.] 

Ajm5pE  (' \vri6irij).     1.  Daughter  of  Nycteus 
and  Polyio,  or  of  the  river-god  Asopus  in  Bceo- 
67 


ANTIPATER. 

tia,   became  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  the  mother  of 
Amphion   and   Zethus.      VicL   AMPHION.     Bac- 
chus (Dionysus)  threw  her  into  a  state  of  mad- 1 
ness  on   account  of  the  vengeance   which  her 
sous  had  taken  on  Dirce.     In  this  condition  she  ] 
•wandered    through    Greece,   until    Phocus,   the 
grandson  of  Sisyphus,  cured   and  married  her.  j 
— 2.  An  Amazon,  sister  of  Hippolyte,  wife  of 
Theseus,  and  mother  of  Hippolytus. 

ANTiPATEa  ('Avr/Trarpof).  1.  The  Macedoni- 
an, an  officer  greatly  trusted  by  Philip  and  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  was  left  by  the  latter  regent  in 
Macedonia,  when  he  crossed  over  into  Asia  in 
B.C.  334.  In  consequence  of  dissensions  be- 
tween Olympias  and  Antipater,  the  bitter  was 
summoned  to  Asia  in  .324,  and  Craterus  appoint- 
ed to  the  regency  of  Macedonia,  but  the  death 
of  Alexander  in  the  following  year  prevented 
these  arrangements  from  taking  effect  An- 
tipatcr  now  obtained  Macedonia  again,  and  in 
conjunction  with  Craterus,  who  was  associated 
with  him  in  the  government,  earned  on  war 
against  the  Greeks,  who  endeavored  to  establish 
their  independence.  This  war,  usually  called 
the  Lamian  war,  from  Lamia,  where  Antipater 
was  besieged  in  323,  was  terminated  by  Antip- 
ater's  victory  over  the  confederates  at  Cran- 
non  in  322.  This  was  followed  by  the  submis- 
sion of  Athens  and  the  death  of  DEMOSTHENES. 
In  321  Antipater  passed  over  into  Asia  in  or- 
der to  oppose  Perdiccas;  but  the  murder  of 
I'EEDICCAS  in  Egypt  put  an  end  to  this  war,  and 
left  Autipater  supreme  regent.  Antipater  died 
in  319,  after  appointing  Polygperchon  regent, 
and  his  own  son  CASSANDER  to  a  subordinate 
position. — 2.  Grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
second  son  of  Cassander  and  Thessalonlca. 
After  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Philip  IV. 
(B.C.  295),  great  dissensions  ensued  between 
Antipater  and  his  younger  brother  Alexander 
for  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia.  Antipater,  be- 
lieving that  Alexander  was  favored  by  his  moth- 
er, put  her  to  death.  The  younger  brother  upon 
this  applied  for  aid  at  once  to  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus 
and  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  The  remaining 
history  is  related  differently  ;  but  so  much  is 
certain,  that  both  Antipater  and  Alexander  were 
subsequently  put  to  death,  either  by  Demetri- 
us or  at  his  instigation,  and  that  Demetrius  be- 
came King  of  Macedonia. — 3.  Father  of  Herod 
the  Great,  son  of  a  noble  Idumsean  of  the  same 
name,  espoused  the  cause  of  Hyrcanus  against 
his  brother  Aristobulus.  He  ingratiated  himself 
with  the  Romans,  and  in  B.C.  47  was  appointed  by 
Czesar  procurator  of  Judaea,  which  appointment 
ho  held  till  his  death  in  43,  when  he  was  carried 
off  by  poison,  which  Malichus,  whose  life  he  had 
twice  saved,  bribed  the  cup-bearer  of  Hyrcanus 
to  administer  to  him. — 1.  Eldest  son  of  Herod 
the  Great  by  his  first  wife,  Doris,  brought  about 
the  death  of  his  two  half-brothers,  Alexander 
and  Aristobulus,  in  B.  C.  6,  but  was  himself  con- 
demned as  guilty  of  a  conspiracy  against  his  fa- 
ther's life,  and  was  executed  five  days  before 
Herod's  death. — 5.  Of  Tarsus,  a  Stoic  philoso- 
pher, the  successor  of  Diogenes  and  the  teach- 
er of  Pansetius,  about  B.C.  144. — 6.  Of  Tyre,  a 
Stoic  philosopher,  died  shortly  before  B.C.  45, 
and  wrote  a  work  on  Duties  (De  Ojficiis.) — 7. 
Of  Sidon,  the  author  of  several  epigrams  in  the 
Greek  Anthology,  flourished  about  B.C.  108- 
68 


ANTIPHON. 

100,  and  lived  to  a  great  age. — 8.  Of.Thessu 
lonica,  the  author  of  several  epigrams  in  the 
Greek  Anthology,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
reign  of  Augustus. 

A.NTU'ATKK,  L.  COLICS,  &  Roman  jurist  and 
historian,  and  a  contemporary  of  C.  Gracchus 
(B.C.  123)  and  L.  Crassus,  the  orator,  wrote  A*i- 
nales,  which  were  epitomized  by  Brutus,  ai.d 
which  contained  a  valuable  account  of  the  sec- 
ond Punic  war.  [The  fragments  of  this  work 
have  been  published  by  Krause  in  his  Vitce  et 
Fragmenta  vetenun  Hist.  Roman.  Berlin,  1833. 
p.  182-201.] 

ANTIPATEIA  ('A  vTiirdrpia :  now  Berat  ?),  n 
town  in  Iliyricum  on  the  borders  of  Macedonia, 
on  the  left  bank  of  i.he  Apsus. 

[ArrriPATRis  ('Aj-r'7raTjO<f),  a  city  of  Judaea  be 
tween  Jerusalem  oiid  Cassarea,  in  a  beautiful 
and  fruitful  plain :  it  was  built  on  the  site  of  an 
older  town  called  Capharsaba,  enlarged  by  Her- 
od the  Great,  and  nan  >ed  Antipatris  in  honor  of 
his  father  Antipatei  I 

ANTIPHANES  ('A.v  Quvrjf).  1.  A  comic  poet 
of  the  middle  Attic  comedy,  born  about  B.C.  404, 
and  died  330.  He  wrote  365,  or  at  the  least 
260  plays,  which  were  distinguished  by  ele- 
gance of  language.  [The  fragments  of  his 
plays  are  collected  W  Meineke  in  his  Frag- 
menta Comic.  Grcec.,  vol.  L,  p.  491-574,  edit, 
minor.] — 2.  Of  Berga  in  Thrace,  a  Greek  writ- 
er on  marvelous  and  incredible  things. — 3  An 
epigrammatic  poet,  several  of  whose  epigrams 
are  still  extant  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  lived 
about  the  reign  of  Augustus. —  [4.  Of  Argos,  a 
sculptor,  disciple  of  Polycletus,  and  teaoher  of 
Cleon. — 5.  A  physician  of  Delos,  who  lived 
about  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  A.D.] 

ANTIPHATES  ('AvTi<j>uTt)(f).  1.  King  of  the 
mythical  Lasstrygones  in  Sicily,  who  are  repre- 
sented as  giants  and  cannibals.  They  destroy 
ed  eleven  of  the  ships  of  Ulysses,  who  escaped 
with  only  one  vessel — [2.  Son  of  the  divine1!1 
Melampus,  and  father  of  CEcles,  mentioned  ru 
the  Odyssey. — 3.  A  companion  of  ^Eneas,  son 
of  Sarpedon,  slain  by  Turnus.] 

ANTIPHELLUS  ('AvTi<j>e?J.o<; :  now  Antiphilo), 
a  town  on  the  coast  of  Lycia,  between  Patara 
and  Aperlae,  originally  the  port  of  PHELLUS. 

ANTIPHEMUS  ("Avn'^^of),  the  Rhodian,  found- 
er of  Gela  in  Sicily,  B.C.  690. 

ANTIPHILUS  ('Avrtyt/lof).  1.  Of  Byzantium, 
an  epigrammatic  poet,  author  of  several  excel- 
lent epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  was  n 
contemporary  of  the  Emperor  Nero. — 2.  Of 
Egypt,  a  distinguished  painter,  the  rival  of 
Apelles,  painted  for  Philip  and  Alexander  the 
Great — [3.  An  Athenian  general  in  the  Lami- 
an war,  appointed  in  the  place  of  Leostheues.] 

ANTIPHON  ('A.vTt<j>uv).  1.  The  most  ancient 
of  the  ten  orators  in  the  Alexandrine  canou, 
was  a  son  of  Sophilus  the  Sophist,  and  born  at 
Rhamnus  in  Attica,  in  B.C.  430.  He  belonged 
to  the  oligarchical  party  at  Athens,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  the  establishment  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Four  Hundred  (B.C.  411),  after  the 
overthrow  of  which  he  was  brought  to  trial, 
condemned,  and  put  to  death.  The  oratorical 
powers  of  Antiphon  are  highly  praised  by  the 
ancients.  He  introduced  great  improvements 
in  public  speaking,  and  was  the  first  who  laid 
:  down  theoretical  laws  for  practical  eloquence; 


AOTIPHONUS. 


ANTIUM. 


he  opened  a  school  in  which  he  taught  rhetoric, 
and  the  historian  Thucydides  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  his  pupils.  The  orations  which  he 
composed  were  written  for  others;  and  the 
only  time  that  he  spoke  in  public  himself  was 
when  he  was  accused  and  condemned  to  death. 
This  speech,  which  was  considered  in  antiqui- 
ty a  master-piece  of  eloquence,  is  now  lost. 
(Thuc.,  viil,  68  ;  Cic.,  Brut.,  12.)  We  still  pos- 
sess fifteen  orations  of  Antiphon,  three  of  which 
were  written  by  him  for  others,  and  the  remain- 
ing twelve  as  specimens  for  his  school,  or  ex- 
ercises on  fictitious  cases.  They  are  printed 
"u  the  collections  of  the  Attic  orators,  and  sep- 
arately, edited  by  Baiter  and  Sauppe,  Zurich, 
1838,  and  Matzner,  Berlin,  1838. — 2.  A  tragic 
poet,  whom  many  writers  confound  with  the 
Attic  orator,  lived  at  Syracuse,  at  the  court  of 
the  elder  Dionysius,  by  whom  he  was  put  to 
death. — 3.  Of  Athens,  a  Sophist  and  an  epic 
poet,  wrote  a  work  on  the  interpretation  of 
dreams,  which  is  referred  to  by  Cicero  and 
others.  He  is  the  same  person  as  the  Auti- 
phon  who  was  an  opponent  of  Socrates.  (Xen., 
Afem.,  L,  6.) — [4.  The  youugest  brother  of  Pla- 
to, mentioned  in  the  Parmenides. — 5.  An  Athe- 
nian, who  was  arrested  for  favoring  the  cause 
of  Macedonia,  at  the  instigation  of  Demosthe- 
aes,  and  put  to  death. 

[ANTIPUOXUS  ('Avrt^ovof),  one  of  the  sons  of 
Priam,  accompanied  his  father  when  he  went 
to  solicit  the  body  of  Hector  from  Achilles/] 

[ANTIPHE^E  ('A.vn<l>pa  and  'Avrfypai),  a  city  of 
Africa,  in  the  Libyan  nome,  at  some  distance 
from  the  sea :  it  was  here  that  the  common 
Libyan  wine  was  made,  which  formed  the  drink 
of  the  lower  orders  at  Alexandrea.] 

ANTIPHUS  ("Avmpof).  1.  Son  of  Priam  and 
Hecuba,  slain  by  Agamemnon. — 2.  Son  of  Thes- 
salus,  and  one  of  the  Greek  heroes  at  Troy. — 
[3.  Son  of  Pylaemenes  and  the  nymph  Gygaea, 
ally  of  the  Trojans,  joint  leader  with  his  brother 
Mesthles  of  the  Maeonians  from  Mount  Tmolus. 
— 4.  Son  of  ^Egyptius  of  Ithaca,  a  companion  of 
Ulysses  in  his  wanderings;  devoured  by  Poly- 
phemus.— 5.  Another  Ithacan,  a  friend  of  Te- 
iemacbus.] 

ANTIPOLIS  ('AvrfVo/Uf :  now  Antibes,  pro- 
nounced by  the  inhabitants  Antiboul),  a  town  in 
Gallia  Naroonensis  on  the  coast,  in  the  territory 
of  the  Deciates,  a  few  miles  west  of  Nicaea,  was 
founded  by  Massilia :  the  muria,  or  salt  pickle 
made  of  fish,  prepared  at  this  town,  was  very 
celebrated. 

A.VTIRRHHJM  ('AvTcpfiiov :  now  Castello  di  Ro- 
melia),  a  promontory  on  the  borders  of  ^Etolia 
and  Locris,  opposite  Rhium  (now  Castello  di  Mo- 
rea)  in  Achaia,  with  which  it  formed  the  nar- 
row entrance  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf:  the  straits 
are  sometimes  called  the  Little  Dardanelles. 

ANTISSA  ("A.vriaaa  :  'Avriaaalof :  now  Kolas 
Litnnconas),  a  town  in  Lesbos  with  a  harbor, 
on  the  western  coast  between  Methymna  and 
the  promontory  Sigrium,  was  originally  on  a 
small  island  opposite  Lesbos,  which  was  after- 
ward united  with  Lesbos,  fit  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  poet  Terpander.j  It  was  destroy- 
ed by  the  Romans,  B.C.  168,  and  its  inhabitants 
removed  to  Methymna,  because  they  had  as- 
fisted  Antiochus. 

ANTISTHENES  ('\vria6ivijc).     1.  An  Athenian, 


founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Cynic  philosophers 
His  mother  was  a  Thracian.  In  his  youth  he 
fought  at  Tanagra  (B.C.  426),  and  was  a  disci 
pie  first  of  Gorgias,  and  then  of  Socrates,  whom 
he  never  quitted,  and  at  whose  death  he  was 
present.  He  died  at  Athens,  at  the  age  of  sev- 
enty. He  taught  in  the  Cyuosarges,  a  gymna- 
sium for  the  use  of  Athenians  born  of  foreign 
mothers ;  whence  probably  his  followers  were 
called  Cynics  (KVVIKOI),  though  others  derive 
their  name  from  the  dog-like  neglect  of  all 
forms  and  usages  of  society.  His  writings 
were  very  numerous,  and  chiefly  dialogues  ;  his 
style  was  pure  and  elegant;  and  he  possessed 
considerable  powers  of  wit  and  sarcasm.  Two 
declamations  of  his  are  preserved,  named  Ajax 
and  Ulysses,  which  are  purely  rhetorical.  He 
was  an  enemy  to  all  speculation,  and  thus  was 
opposed  to  Plato,  whom  he  attacked  furiously 
in  one  of  his  dialogues.  His  philosopical  sys- 
tem was  confined  almost  entirely  to  ethics,  and 
he  taught  that  virtue  is  the  sole  thing  necessa- 
ry. He  showed  his  contempt  of  all  the  luxuries 
and  outward  comforts  of  life  by  his  mean  cloth- 
ing and  hard  fare.  From  his  school  the  Stoics 
subsequently  sprung.  In  one  of  his  works  en- 
titled Physicus,  he  contended  for  the  unity  of 
the  Deity.  (Cic.,  Be  Nat.  Deor^  i.,  13.)  [The 
fragments  of  his  writings  have  been  collect- 
ed and  published  by  "Wiuckelmann,  Antisthcnis 
Fragmenta,  Turici,  1842.  —  2.  Of  Rhodes,  a 
Greek  historian,  who  flourished  about  200  B.C. 
He  wrote  a  history  of  his  own  times,  which 
has  perished.] 

ANTISTIUS,  P.,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  B.C.  88, 
a  distinguished  orator,  supported  the  party  of 
Sulla,  and  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  young 
Marius  in  82.  His  daughter  Antistia  was  mar 
ried  to  Pompeius  Magnus. 

ANTISTIUS  LABEO.     Vid.  LABEO. 

ANTISTIUS  VETUS.     Vid.  VETUS. 

ANTITAURUS  ('AvriTavpo? :  now  Ali-Dagli),  a 
chain  of  mountains,  which  strikes  off  northeast 
from  the  main  chain  of  the  Taurus  on  the  south- 
em  border  of  Cappadocia,  in  the  centre  of  which 
district  it  turns  to  the  east  and  runs  parallel  to 
the  Taurus  as  far  as  the  Euphrates,  Its  aver- 
age height  exceeds  that  of  the  Taurus ;  and 
one  of  its  summits,  Mount  Argaeus,  near  Ma- 
zaca,  is  the  loftiest  mountain  of  Asia  Minor. 

ANTIUM  (Antias  :  now  Torre  or  Porto  dAnzo), 
a  very  ancient  town  of  Latium,  on  a  rocky  proin- 
ontoiy  running  out  some  distance  into  the  Tyr- 
rhenian Sea.  It  was  founded  by  Tyrrhenians 
and  Pelasgians,  and  in  earlier  and  even  later 
tunes  was  noted  for  its  piracy.  Although  uuit- 
ed  by  Tarquinius  Superbus  to  the  Latin  League, 
it  generally  sided  with  the  Volscians  against 
Rome.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  B.C. 
468,  and  a  colony  was  sent  thither,  but  it  revolt- 
ed, was  taken  a  second  time  by  the  Romans  in 
B.C.  338,  was  deprived  of  all  its  ships,  the  beaks 
of  which  (Rostra)  served  to  ornament  the  plat- 
form of  the  speakers  in  the  Roman  forum,  was 
]  forbidden  to  have  any  ships  in  future,  and  re- 
ceived another  Roman  colony.  But  it  gradu- 
ally recovered  its  former  importance,  was  allow- 
1  ed  in  course  of  time  again  to  be  used  as  a  sea- 
port, and  in  the  latter  times  of  the  republic  and 
I  under  the  empire,  became  a  favorite  residence 
i  of  many  of  the  Roman  nobles  and  emperors. 

69 


ANTIUS  RESTIO. 


ANTONIUS. 


The  Emperor  Nero  was  born  here,  and  in  the 
remains  of  his  palace  the  celebrated  Apollo  Bel- 
vedere was  found.  Antium  possessed  a  cele- 
brated temple  of  Fortune  ( 0  J)iva,  gratum  quce 
regis  Antium,  Hor.,  Carm^  \.,  85),  of  ^Escula- 
pius,  and  at  the  port  of  Ceno,  a  little  to  the  east 
of  Antium,  a  temple  of  Neptune,  on  which  ac- 
count the  place  is  now  called  Nettuno. 

ANTIUS  RESTIO.     Vid.  RESTIO. 

ANTONIA.  1.  Major,  elder  daughter  of  M. 
Autonius  and  Octavia,  wife  of  L.  Domitius 
Ahenobarbus,  and  mother  of  Cn.  Domitius,  the 
father  of  the  Emperor  Nero.  Tacitus  calls 
this  Antonia  the  younger  daughter. — 2.  Minor, 
younger  sister  of  the  preceding,  wife  of  Drusus, 
the  brother  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  and  mother 
of  Germanicus,  the  father  of  the  Emperor  Calig- 
ula, of  Livia  or  Livilla,  and  of  the  Emperor  Clau- 
dius. She  died  A.D.  38,  soon  after  the  acces- 
sion of  her  grandson  Caligula.  She  was  cele- 
brated for  her  beauty,  virtue,  and  chastity. — 
8.  Daughter  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  married 
first  to  Pompeius  Magnus,  and  afterward  to 
Faustus  Sulla.  Nero  wished  to  marry  her  after 
the  death  of  his  wife  Poppaea,  A.D.  66  ;  and  on 
her  refusal  he  caused  her  to  be  put  to  death  on 
a  charge  of  treason. 

ANTONIA  TUKRIS,  a  castle  on  a  rock  at  the 
northwest  corner  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem, 
wliich  commanded  both  the  temple  and  the  city. 
It  was  at  first  called  Baris :  Herod  the  Great 
changed  its  name  in  honor  of  Marous  Antonius. 
It  contained  the  residence  of  the  "Procurator 
Judaeie. 

AXTOWINI  ITINERARIUM,  the  title  of  an  extant 
work,  which  is  a  very  valuable  itinerary  of  the 
whole  Roman  empire,  in  which  both  the  prin- 
cipal and  the  cross-roads  are  described  by  a  list 
of  all  the  places  and  stations  upon  them,  the 
distances  from  place  to  place  being  given  in 
Roman  miles.  It  is  usually  attributed  to  the 
Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  Antonius,  but  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  commenced  by  order  of 
Julius  Caesar,  and  to  have  been  completed  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  though  it  is  probable  that 
it  received  important  additions  and  revision 
under  one  or  both  of  the  Antonines. — Editions  : 
By  "Wesseling,  Amst.,  1735  ;  by  Parthey  and 
Finder,  Berlin,  1848. 

ANTONINOPOLIS  ('AvruvivoTrohtc  :  -irjjf,  -anus), 
a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  between  Edessa  and 
Dara,  afterward  Maximianapoh's,  and  afterward 
Constantia. 

ANTONINUS,  M.  AURELIUS.     Vid.  AURELIUS,  M. 

ANTONINUS  Pius,  Roman  emperor,  A.D.  138- 
161.  His  name  in  the  early  part  of  his  life,  at 
full  length,  was  Titus  Aurelius  Fulvus  Boionius 
Arrius  Antoninus.  His  paternal  ancestors  came 
from  Nemausus(now  Nismes)  in  Gaul;  but  An- 
toninus himself  was  born  near  Lanuvium,  Sep- 
tember 19th,  A.D.  86.  From  an  early  age  he 
gave  promise  of  his  future  worth.  In  120  he 
was  consul,  and  subsequently  proconsul  of  the 
province  of  Asia:  on  his  return  to  Rome,  he 
lived  on  terms  of  the  greatest  intimacy  with 
Hadrian,  who  adopted  him  on  February  25th, 
138.  Henceforward  he  bore  the  name  of  T. 
^Elius  Hadrianus  Antoninus  Caesar,  and  on  the 
death  of  Hadrian,  July  2d,  ]  38,  he  ascended  the 
throne.  The  Senate  conferred  upon  him  ihe 
title  of  Pius,  or  the  dutifully  affectionate,  because  ! 
70 


'  lie  persuaded  them  to  grant  to  his  father  H&- 
,  driau  the  apotheosis  and  the  other  honors  usual- 
|  ly  paid  to  deceased  emperors,  which  they  had 
at  first  refused  to  bestow  upon  Hadrian.  The 
reign  of  Antoninus  is  almost  a  blank  in  history 
— a  blank  caused  by  the  suspension  for  a  time 
of  war,  violence,  and  crime.  He  was  one  of 
the  best  princes  that  ever  mounted  a  throne, 
and  all  his  thoughts  and  energies  ''vere  dedi 
cated  to  the  happiness  of  his  people.  No  at 
tempt  was  made  to  achieve  new  conquests,  and 
various  insurrections  among  the  Germans,  Da- 
cians,  Jews,  Moors,  ./Egyptians,  and  Britons, 
were  easily  quelled  by  his  legates.  In  all  the 
relations  of  private  life  the  character  of  Anto- 
ninus was  without  reproach.  He  was  faithful 
to  his  wife  Faustina,  notwithstanding  her  profli- 
gate life,  and  after  her  death  loaded  her  memory 
with  honors.  He  died  at  Lorium,  March  7th, 
161,  in  his  seventy -fifth  year.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Marcus  Aurelius,  whom  he  had  adopt- 
ed, when  he  himself  was  adopted  by  Hadrian, 
and  to  whom  he  gave  his  daughter  FAUSTINA 
in  marriage. 

ANTONINUS  LIBERALIS,  a  Greek  grammarian, 
probably  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  Antonines, 
about  A.D.  147,  and  wrote  a  work  on  Meta- 
morphoses (Mera/LiopQuoEuv  avvayuyri)  in  forty- 
one  chapters,  which  is  extant. — Editions :  By 
Verheyk,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1774 ;  by  Koch,  Lips., 
1832 ;  by  Westermaun,  in  his  Mythographi, 
Brunsv.,  1843. 

ANTONIUS.  1.  M.,  the  orator;  born  B.C.  143 ; 
quaestor  in  113 ;  praetor  in  104,  Tvhen  he  fought 
against  the  pirates  in  Cilicia  ;  consul  in  99  ;  and 
censor  in  97.  He  belonged  to  Sulla's  party,  and 
was  put  to  death  by  Marius  and  Cinna  when 
they  entered  Rome  in  87  :  his  head  was  cut  off 
and  placed  on  the  Rostra.  Cicero  mentions 
him  and  L.  Crassus  as  the  most  distinguished 
orators  of  their  age;  and  he  is  introduced  as 
one  of  the  speakers  in  Cicero's  De  Oratore, — 2. 
M.,  suraamed  CRETICUS,  elder  son  of  the  orator, 
and  father  of  the  triumvir,  was  praetor  in  75, 
and  received  the  command  of  the  fleet  and  all 
the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  order  to  clear 
the  sea  of  pirates ;  but  he  did  not  succeed  in 
his  object,  and  used  his  power  to  plunder  the 
provinces.  He  died  shortly  afterward  in  Crete, 
and  was  called  Creticus  in  derision.  —  3.  Cn 
younger  son  of  the  orator,  and  uncle  of  the  tri- 
umvir, was  expelled  the  Senate  in  70,  and  was 
the  colleague  of  Cicero  in  the  praetorship  (65) 
and  consulship  (63).  He  was  one  of  Catiline's 
conspirators,  but  deserted  the  latter  by  Cicero's 
promising  him  the  province  of  Macedonia.  He 
had  to  lead  an  army  against  Catiline,  but,  un- 
willing to  fight  against  lu's  former  friend,  he 
gave  the  command  on  the  day  of  battle  to  his 
legate,  M.  Petreius.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
war,  Antony  went  into  his  province,  which  he 
plundered  shamefully;  and  on  his  return  to 
Rome  in  59,  was  accused  both  of  taking  part  fo 
Catiline's  conspiracy  and  of  extortion  in  his 
province.  He  was  defended  by  Cicero,  but  was 
condemned,  and  retired  to  the  island  of  Cephal- 
lenia.  He  wns  subsequently  recalled,  probably 
by  Caesar,  and  was  in  Rome  at  the  beginning  of 
44.— 4.  M.,  the  TRIUMVIR,  was  son  of  No.  2,  and 
Julia,  the  sister  of  L.  Julius  Caesar,  consul  in 
64,  and  was  born  about  83  B.C.  His  father 


ANTONIUS. 

died  while  he  was  still  young,  and  he  was 
brought  up  by  Cornelius  Lentulus,  who  married 
his  mother  Julia,  and  who  was  put  to  death  by 
Cicero  in  63  as  one  of  Catiline's  conspirators ; 
whence  he  became  a  personal  enemy  of  Cicero. 
Antony  indulged  in  his  earliest  youth  in  every 
kind  of  dissipation,  and  his  affairs  soon  became 
deeply  involved.  In  58  he  went  to  Syria,  where 
he  served  with  distinction  under  A.  Gabinius. 
He  took  part  in  the  campaigns  against  Aristo- 
bulus  in  Palestine  (57,  56),  and  in  the  restora- 
tion of  Ptolemy  Auletes  to  Egypt  in  55.  In  54 
he  went  to  Caesar  in  Gaul,  and  by  the  influence 
of  the  latter  was  elected  quaestor.  As  quaestor 
(52)  he  returned  to  Gaul,  and  served  under 
Caesar  for  the  next  two  years  (52,  51).  He  re- 
turned to  Rome  in  50,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  active  partisans  of  Caesar.  He  was  trib- 
une of  the  plebs  in  49,  and  in  January  fled  to 
Caesar's  camp  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  after  putting 
his  veto  upon  the  decree  of  the  Senate  which 
deprived  Caesar  of  his  command.  He  accom- 
panied Caesar  in  his  victorious  march  into  Italy, 
and  was  left  by  Caesar  in  the  command  of  Italy, 
while  the  latter  carried  on  the  war  in  Spain. 
In  48  Antony  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia.  where  he  commanded  the  left  wing ;  and 
in  47  he  was  again  left  in  the  command  of  Italy 
during  Caesar's  absence  in  Africa.  In  44  he  was 
consul  with  Caesar,  when  he  offered  him  the 
Itingly  diadem  at  the  festival  of  the  Lupercalia. 
After  Caesar's  murder  on  the  15th  of  March, 
Antony  endeavored  to  succeed  to  his  power. 
He  therefore  used  every  means  to  appear  as 
his  representative;  he  pronounced  the  speech 
over  Caesar's  body,  and  read  his  will  to  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  he  also  obtained  the  papers  and  private 
property  of  Caesar.  But  he  found  a  new  and  un- 
expected rival  in  young  Octavianus,  the  adopted 
son  and  great-nephew  of  the  dictator,  who  came 
from  Apollonia  to  Rome,  assumed  the  name 
of  Caesar,  and  at  first  joined  the  Senate  in 
order  to  crush  Antony.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
year  Antony  proceeded  to  Cisalpine  Gaul,  which 
had  been  previously  granted  him  by  the  Senate ; 
but  Dec.  Brutus  refused  to  surrender  the  pro- 
vince to  Antony  and  threw  himself  into  Mutina, 
where  he  was  besieged  by  Antony.  The  Senate 
approved  of  the  conduct  of  Brutus,  declared 
Antony  a  publi*  enemy,  and  intrusted  the  con- 
duct of  the  war  against  him  to  Octavianus. 
Antony  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Mutina,  in 
April,  43,  and  was  obliged  to  cross  the  Alps. 
Both  the  consuls,  however,  had  fallen,  and  the 
Senate  now  began  to  show  their  jealousy  of 
Octavianus.  Meantime  Antony  was  joined  by 
Lepidus  with  a  powerful  army :  Octavianus  be- 
came reconciled  to  Antony ;  and  it  was  agreed 
that  the  government  of  the  state  should  be 
vested  in  Antony,  Octavianus,  and  Lepidus,  under 
the  title  of  Triumviri  Reipublicie  Conatituendw, 
for  the  next  five  years.  The  mutual  friends 
of  each  were  proscribed,  and  in  the  numerous 
executions  that  followed,  Cicero,  who  had  at- 
tacked Antony  in  the  most  unmeasured  manner 
'in  his  Philippic  Orations,  fell  a  victim  to  An- 
tony. In  42,  Antony  and  Octavianus  crushed 
the  republican  party  by  the  battle  of  Philippi, 
in  which  Brutus  and  Cassius  fclL  Antony  then 
went  to  Asia,  which  he  had  received  aa  his 
•hare  of  the  Roman  world.  In  Cilicia  he  met 


ANTONIUS  PRIMUS. 

'  with  Cleopatra,  and  followed  her  to  Egypt,  « 
;  captive  to  her  charms.  In  41  P^ulvia,  the  wife 
;  of  Antony,  and  his  brother  L.  Antonius,  made 
i  war  upon  Octavianus  in  Italy.  .Antony  pre. 
|  pared  to  support  his  relatives,  but  the  war 
i  was  brought  to  a  close  at  the  beginning  of  40, 
i  before  Antony  could  reach  Italy.  The  oppor- 
'  tune  death  of  Fulvia  facilitated  the  reconciliation 
of  Antony  and  Octavianus,  which  was  cemented 
by  Antony  marrying  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Octa- 
vianus. Antony  remained  in  Italy  till  39,  when 
the  triumvirs  concluded  a  peace  with  Sext.  Pom 
pey,  and  he  afterward  went  to  his  provinces 
in  the  East.  In  this  year  and  the  following, 
Ventidius,  the  lieutenant  of  Antony,  defeated  the 
Parthians.  In  37  Antony  crossed  over  to  Italy, 
when  the  triumvirate  was  renewed  for  five  years. 
He  then  returned  to  the  East,  and  shortly  after- 
ward sent  Octavia  back  to  her  brother,  and 
surrendered  himself  entirely  to  the  charms  of 
Cleopatra.  In  36  he  invaded  Parthia,  but  he 
lost  a  great  number  of  his  troops,  and  was 
obliged  to  retreat.  He  was  more  successful 
in  his  invasion  of  Armenia  in  34,  for  he  obtained 
possession  of  the  person  of  Artavasdes,  the 
Armenian  king,  ana  carried  him  to  Alexandrea 
Antony  now  laid  aside  entirely  the  character 
of  a  Roman  citizen,  and  assumed  the  pomp 
and  ceremony  of  an  eastern  despot.  His  con- 
duct, and  the  unbounded  influence  which  Cleo- 
patra had  acquired  over  him,  alienated  many  of 
his  friends  and  supporters ;  and  Octavianus 
thought  that  the  time  had  now  come  for  crush 
ing  his  rival  The  contest  was  decided  by  the 
memorable  sea-fight  off  Actium,  September  2d. 
31,  in  which  Antony's  fleet  was  completely 
defeated.  Antony,  accompanied  by  Cleopatra, 
fled  to  Alexandrea,  where  he  put  an  end  to  his 
own  life  in  the  following  year  (30),  when  Octavi- 
anus appeared  before  the  city. — 5.  C.,  brother  of 
the  triumvir,  was  praetor  in  Macedonia,  B.C.  44, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Marcus  Brutus  in  43,  and 
was  put  to  death  by  Brutus  ha  42,  to  revenge 
the  murder  of  Cicero. — 6.  L.,  youngest  brother 
of  the  triumvir,  was  consul  in  41,  when  he 
engaged  in  war  against  Octavianus  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Fulvia,  his  brother's  wife.  He  was 
unable  to  resist  Octavianus,  and  threw  himself 
into  the  town  of  Perusia,  which  he  was  obliged 
to  surrender  in  the  following  year;  hence  the 
war  is  usually  called  that  of  Perusia.  His  life 
was  spared,  and  he  was  afterwards  appointed  by 
Octavianus  to  the  command  of  Iberia.  Cicero 
draws  a  frightful  picture  of  Lucius's  character. 
He  calls  him  a  gladiator  and  a  robber,  and  heaps 
upon  him  every  term  of  reproach  and  contempt. 
Much  of  this  is  of  course  exaggeration. — 7.  M., 
called  by  the  Greek  writers  Antyllus,  which  is 
probably  only  a  corrupt  form  of  Antonillus 
(young  Antonius),  elder  son  of  the  triumvir  by 
Fulvia,  was  executed  by  order  of  Octavianus, 
after  the  death  of  his  father  in  B.C.  30.— -8.  lu- 
LUS,  younger  son  of  the  triumvir  by  Fulvia,  was 
brought  up  by  his  step-mother  Octavia  at  Romp, 
and  received  great  marks  of  favor  from  Augus- 
tus. He  was  consul  in  B.C.  10,  but  was  put  to 
death  in  2,  in  consequence  of  his  adulterous  inter- 
course with  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus. 
ANTONIUS  FELIX.  Vid.  FELIX. 
ANTONIUS  MUSA.  Vid.  MUSA. 
ANTONIUS  PRIMUS.  Vid.  PRIMUS. 
71 


ANTROK 


APELLA 


AXTRON  ('Avrpuv  and  ol  'Avrpuvef :  'Avrpu- 
vtof :  now  Fano),  a  town  in  Phthiotis  in  Thes- 
saly.  at  the  entrance  of  the  Sinus  Haliacus. 

ANTUNNACUM  ^now  Andernach),  a  town  of  the 
Ubii  on  the  Rhine. 

ANUBIS  ('AvovGif),  an  Egyptian  divinity,  wor- 
shipped in  the  form  of  a  human  being  with  a 
dog's  head.  He  was  originally  worshipped  sim- 
ply as  the  representative  of  the  dog,  which  ani- 
mal, like  the  cat,  was  sacred  in  Egypt ;  but  his 
worship  was  subsequently  mixed  up  with  other 
religious  systems,  and  Anubis  thus  .assumed  a 
symbolical  or  astronomical  character,  at  least 
with  the  learned.  His  worship  prevailed  through- 
out Egypt,  but  lie  was  most  honored  at  Cynopo- 
Ms  in  Middle  Egypt  Later  myths  relate  that 
Anubis  was  the  son  of  Osiris  and  Nephthys, 
born  after  the  death  of  his  father ;  and  that  Isis 
brought  him  up,  and  made  him  her  guard  and 
companion,  who  thus  performed  to  her  the  same 
service  that  dogs  perform  to  men.  In  the  tem- 
ples of  Egypt  Anubis  seems  to  have  been  rep- 
resented as  the  guard  of  other  gods,  and  the 
place  in  the  front  of  a  temple  was  particularly 
sacred  to  him.  The  Greeks  identified  him  with 
their  own  Hermes,  and  thus  speak  of  Hermanu- 
bis  in  the  same  manner  as  of  Zeus  Ammon. 
His  worship  was  introduced  at  Rome  toward 
the  end  of  the  republic,  and,  under  the  empire, 
spread  very  widely  both  in  Greece  and  at  Rome. 

ANXUR.     Vid.  TARRACINA. 

[ANXUR,  an  ally  of  Turnus  iu  Italy,  wounded 
by  ^Eneas.] 

ANXURUS,  an  Italian  divinity,  who  was  wor- 
shipped in  a  grove  near  Auxur  (Tarracina),  to- 
gether with  Feronia.  He  was  regarded  as  a 
youthful  Jupiter,  and  Feronia  as  Juno.  On 
coins  his  name  appears  as  Axur  or  Anxur. 

ANTSIS  ("Avvfftf),  an  ancient  king  of  Egypt, 
iu  whose  reign  Egypt  was  invaded  by  the  Ethi- 
opians uader  their  king,  Sabaco. 

ANYTE  CA.VVTIJ),  of  Tegea,  the  authoress  of 
several  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  flour- 
ished about  B.C.  300,  [a  date  which  some  writ- 
ers, on  mere  conjecture,  have  changed  to  700 
B.C.]  The  epigrams  are  for  the  most  part  iu 
the  (style  of  the  ancient  Doric  choral  songs. 

ANYTUS  ("Avvrof),  a  wealthy  Athenian,  son 
of  Anthemion,  the  most  influential  and  formida- 
ble of  the  accusers  of  Socrates,  B.C.  399  (hence 
Socrates  is  called  Anyti  reus,  Hor.,  Sat.  ii.,  4, 
3).  He  was  a  leading  man  of  the  democratic- 
al  party,  and  took  au  active  part  along  with 
Thrasybulus,  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants.  The  Athenians,  having  repented  of 
their  condemnation  of  Socrates,  sent  Anytus  into 
banishment. 

[ACEDE  ('Aoidrj),  one  of  the  three  oldest  Muses, 
whose  worship  was  introduced  into  Boeotia  by 
the  Alo'idae.] 

AON  ("Auv),  son  of  Neptune,  and  an  ancient 
BfEotian  hero,  from  whom  the  Aones,  au  ancient 
race  iu  Boaotia,  were  believed  to  have  derived 
their  name.  Aonla  was  the  name  of  the  part 
of  Bceotia  near  Phocis,  in  which  were  Mount 
Helicon  and  the  fountain  Aganippe  (Aonice  aquae, 
Ov.,  Fast.,  iiL,  456).  The  Muses  are  also  called 
Aonides,  since  they  frequented  Helicon  and  the 
fountain  of  Aganippe.  (Ov.,  Metn  v.,  333.) 

AONIDES.     Vid.  AON. 

[AORNOS  ("Aopvof),  a  city  of  Bactria,  next  to 
7Ji 


Bactra  in  importance,  having  a  strong  and  lofty 
citadel,  but  taken  by  Alexander  the  Great. 
Wilson  regards  the  name  as  of  Sanscrit  origin 
(from  Awarana),  and  meaning  "  an  inclosure" 
or  "  stockade" — 2.  A  mountain  fastness  of  India 
on  this  side  of  the  Indus,  between  the  Cuphcn 
and  Indus,  to  which  the  inhabitants  of  Bazira 
fled  from  before  Alexander.] 

AORSI  ("Aopoot)  or  ADORSI,  a  powerful  people 
of  Asiatic  Sarmatia,  who  appear  to  have  had 
their  original  settlements  on  the  northeast  of 
the  Caspian,  but  are  chiefly  found  between  the 
Palus  Maeotis  (now  Sea  of  Azof)  and  the  Cas- 
pian, to  the  southeast  of  the  River  Tanais  (now 
Don),  whence  they  spread  far  into  European  Sar- 
matia. They  carried  on  a  considerable  traffic 
in  Babylonian  merchandise,  which  they  fetched 
on  camels  out  of  Media  and  Armenia, 

AGus  or  JSAS  ('Aipof  or  Alaf.  now  Viosa, 
Viussa  or  Vovussd),  the  principal  river  of  the 
Greek  part  of  Illyricum,  rises  in  Mount  Lacmon, 
the  northern  part  of  Piudus,  and  flows  into  the 
Ionian  Sea  near  Apollonia. 

[APAMA  ('Airo/za  or  'Anufir)),  wife  of  Seleucus 
Nicator,  and  mother  of  Antiochus  Sotor.] 

APAMEA  or-Lv  ('AKu/j.eta :  'Arra/uevf,  Apuneus, 
-enus,  -eusis),  the  name  of  several  Asiatic  cities, 
three  of  which  were  founded  by  Seleucus  I.  Ni- 
cator,  and  named  in  honor  of  his  wife  Apama.  1. 
A.  AD  ORONTEM  (now  Famiah),  the  capital  of  the 
Syrian  province  Apamene,  and,  under  the  Ro- 
mans, of  Syria  Secunda,  was  built  by  Seleucus 
Nicator  on  the  site  of  the  older  city  of  PELLA 
in  a  very  strong  position  on  the  River  Orontes 
or  Axius,  the  citadel  being  on  the  left  (west) 
bank  of  the  river,  and  the  city  on  the  right  It 
was  surrounded  by  rich  pastures,  in  which  Se- 
leucus kept  a  splendid  stud  of  horses  and  five 
hundred  elephants. — 2.  In  OSROENE  in  Mesopo- 
tamia (now  Balasir"),  a  town  built  by  Seleucua 
Nicator  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  op- 
posite to  ZEUGMA,  with  which  it  was  connected 
by  a  bridge,  commanded  by  a  castle,  called  Se 
leucia.  In  Pliny's  time  (AD.  77)  it  was  only 
a  ruin. — 3.  A.  CIBOTUS  or  AD  M^EANDRUM  ('A.  tj 
Ki6ur6f,  or  TTpdf  MatavJpov),  a  great  city  of 
Phrygia,  on  the  Maeander,  close  above  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Marsyas.  It  was  built  by  An- 
tiochus I.  Soter,  who  nsqiaed  it  in  honor  of  his 
mother  Apama,  and  peopled  it  with  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  neighboring  Celjeuae.  It  became 
one  of  the  greatest  cities  of  Asia  within  the 
Euphrates ;  and,  under  the  Romans,  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  Conventus  Juridicus.  The  surround- 
ing country,  watered  by  the  Maeander  and  its 
tributaries,  was  called  Apamena  Regio. — 4.  A, 
MYRLEON,  in  Bithyuia.  Vid.  MYRLEA. — 5.  A 
town  built  by  Autiochus  Soter,  in  the  district 
cf  Assyria  called  Sittacene,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Tigris  with  the  Royal  Canal  which  connect- 
ed the  Tigris  with  the  Euphrates,  and  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  island  called  Mcsene, 
which  was  formed  by  this  canal  and  the  two 
rivers. — 6.  A.  MESENES  (now  Kama),  in  Baby- 
lonia, at  the  south  poiut  of  the  same  Island  of 
Mesene,  and  at  the  juuctiou  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates. — 7.  A.  RHAGIANA  ('A.  ij  Trpdf  'Pa- 
-yalf),  a  Greek  city  in  the  district  of  Choarene 
in  Parthia  (formerly  in  Media),  south  of  the 
Caspian  Gates. 

[APELLA,   a  very  common  name   of  liomau 


APELLES. 


APHRODISIAS. 


freedmen :  the  Jews  in  Rome,  mostly  freedmen, 
dwelt  on  the  further  side  of  the  Tiber,  and  were 
regarded  as  superstitious  ;  hence  Apella  came  to 
be  used  proverbially  for  a  superstitious  person. 
(Credat  Sudanis  Apella,  Hor.,  Sat^  i.,  5,  100.)] 

APELLES  ('ATreA/%),  the  most  celebrated  of 
Grecian  painters,  was  born,  most  probably,  at 
Colophon  in  Ionia,  though  some  ancient  writers 
call  him  a  Coan,  and  others  an  Ephesian.  He 
was  the  contemporary  and  friend  of  Alexander 
the  Great  (B.C.  336-323),  whom  he  probably 
accompanied  to  Asia,  and  who  entertained  so 
high  an  opinion  of  him,  that  he  was  the  only 
person  whom  Alexander  would  permit  to  take 
his  portrait.  After  Alexander's  death  he  ap- 
pears to  have  travelled  through  the  western 
parts  of  Asia.  Being  driven  by  a  storm  to 
Alexandrea,  after  the  assumption  of  the  regal 
title  by  Ptolemy  (B.C.  306),  whose  favor  he  had 
uot  gained  while  he  was  with  Alexander,  his 
rivals  laid  a  plot  to  rum  him,  which  he  defeated 
by  an  ingenious  use  of  his  skill  in  drawing.  "We 
are  not  told  when  or  where  he  died.  Through- 
out his  life  Apelles  labored  to  improve  himself, 
especially  in  drawing,  which  he  never  spent  a 
day  without  practicing.  Hence  the  proverb 
Nvlla  dies  sine  linea.  A  list  of  his  works  is 
given  by  Pliny  (xxxv.,  36).  They  are  for  the 
most  part  single  figures,  or  groups  of  a  very  few 
figures.  Of  his  portraits  the  most  celebrated 
was  that  of  Alexander  wielding  a  thunderbolt ; 
but  the  most  admired  of  all  his  pictures  was  the 
"  Venus  Anadyomene"  (r/  uvadvofj.ev7j  'A<ppo6t.TT)), 
or  Venus  rising  out  of  the  sea  The  goddess 
was  wringing  her  hair,  and  the  falling  drops  of 
'water  formed  a  transparent  silver  veil  around 
her  form.  He  commenced  another  picture  of 
Venus,  which  he  intended  should  surpass  the 
Venus  Anadyomene,  but  which  he  left  unfinished 
at  his  death. 

APELLICOX  ('ATre/Ut/cwv),  of  Teos,  a  Peripa- 
tetic philosopher  and  great  collector  of  books. 
His  valuable  library  at  Athens,  containing  the 
autographs  of  Aristotle's  works,  was  carried  to 
Rome  by  Sulla  (B.C.  83) :  Apellicon  had  died 
just  before. 

APEXNINUS  Moxs  (6  'A-xi-vvivog  and  rb  'Airev- 
vivov  opof,  probably  from  the  Celtic  Pen,  "  a 
height"),  the  Apennines,  a  chain  of  mountains 
which  runs  throughout  Italy  from  north  to  south, 
and  forms  the  backbone  of  the  peninsula.  It  is  a 
continuation  of  the  Maritime  Alps  (vid.  ALPES), 
begins  near  Genua,  and  ends  at  the  Sicilian  Sea, 
and  throughout  its  whole  course  sends  off  nu- 
merous branches  in  all  directions.  It  rises  to 
its  greatest  height  in  the  country  of  the  Sabines, 
where  one  of  its  points  (now  Monte  Corno)  is 
9521  feet  above  the  sc-a;  and  further  south,  at 
the  boundaries  of  Samnium,  Apulia,  and  Lu- 
cania,  it  divides  into  two  main  branches,  one 
of  which  runs  east  through  Apulia  and  Calabria, 
and  terminates  at  the  Salentine  promontory, 
and  the  other  west,  through  Bruttium,  termina- 
ting apparently  at  Rhegium  and  the  Straits  of 
Messina,  but  in  reality  continued  throughout 
Sicily.  The  greater  part  of  the  Apennines  is 
composed  of  limestone,  abounding  in  numerous 
caverns  and  recesses,  which,  in  ancient  as  well 
as  modern  times,  were  the  resort  of  numerous 
robbers :  the  highest  points  of  the  mountains 
ar«  covered  wifh  snow,  even  during  most  of  the 


summer  (nivali  vertice  se  attollens  Apenniniu 
Virg.,  jEn.,  xii,  703). 

APEE,  M.,  a  Roman  orator  and  a  native  of 
Gaul,  rose  by  his  eloquence  to  the  rank  of  quaes- 
tor, tribuue,  and  praetor,  successively.  He  is  one 
of  the  speakers  in  the  Dialogue  De  Oratoribus, 
attributed  to  Tacitus. 

APER,  ARRIUS,  praetorian  prefect,  and  son-in- 
law  of  the  Emperor  Numerian,  whom  he  was 
said  to  have  murdered :  he  was  himself  put  to 
death  by  Diocletian  on  his  accession  in  A.D.  284. 

APERAXTIA,  a  town  and  district  of  ^Etolia  uear 
the  Achelous,  inhabited  by  the  Aperantii. 

[APEROPIA  ('A^epoma :  now  J)hoko  or  Bella 
Poulo),  a  small  island  in  the  Argolic  Gulf,  near 
Hydrea.] 

APESAS  ('ATrecraf  : '  now  Fuka  /),  a  mountain 
on  the  borders  of  Phliasia  and  Argolis,  with  a 
temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  was  hence  called 
Apesantius,  and  to  whom  Perseus  here  first  sac- 
rificed. 

APHACA  (r<i  *A0a/ca  :  now  Afka  /),  a  town  of 
Cffile-Syria,  between  Heliopolis  and  Byblus 
celebrated  for  the  worship  and  oracle  of  Venus 
(Aphrodite)  Aphacltis  ('A^a/cmf). 

APHAREUS  ('A<jtapei>f),  son  of  the.  Messenian 
king  Perieres  and  Gorgophone,  and  founder  of 
the  town  of  Arene  in  Messeuia,  which  he  called 
after  his  wife.  His  two  sons,  Idas  and  Lynceus, 
the  ApharetidcB  (Apharela  proles,  Ov.,  Met.,  viii., 
304),  are  celebrated  for  their  fight  with  the  Dios- 
curi, which  is  described  by  Pindar.  (Nem.,  x., 
111.) — [2.  Son  of  Caletor,  slain  by  J3neas  before 
Troy. — 3.  A  centaur,  whose  arm  was  crushed 
by  Theseus  with  the  trunk  of  an  oak  at  the  nup- 
tials of  Pirithoiis.] — 4.  An  Athenian  orator  and 
tragic  poet,  flourished  B.C.  369-342.  After  the 
death  of  his  father,  his  mother  married  the  ora- 
tor Isocrates,  who  adopted  Aphareus  as  his  son. 
He  wrote  thirty-five  or  thirty-seven  tragedies, 
and  gained  four  prizes. 

APHET^E  ('A^tTat  and  'A^erat :  'A^eraZof : 
[now  Fetio  ?]),  a  sea-port  and  promontory  of 
Thessaly,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Sinus  Malia- 
cus,  from  which  the  ship  Argo  is  said  to  have 
sailed. 

APHIDAS  ('A^eMaf),  son  of  Areas,  obtained 
from  his  father  Tegea  and  the  surrounding  ter- 
ritory. He  had  a  son,  Aleus. — [2.  Son  of  Poly- 
pemon,  for  whom  Ulysses,  on  his  return  to  Itha- 
ca, passed  himself  off  to  Eumaeus. — 3.  A  cen 
taur,  slain  by  Theseus  at  the  nuptials  of  Piri 
thous.] 

APHIDNA  ('AQidva  and  "Atfiidvai :  'A$i6vatoc), 
an  Attic  demus  not  far  from  Decelea,  originully 
belonged  to  the  tribe  ^Eantis,  afterward  to  Leon 
tis,  and  last  to  Hadrianis.  It  was  in  ancient 
times  one  of  the  twelve  towns  and  districts  into 
which  Cecrops  is  said  to  have  divided  Attica, 
in  it  Theseus  concealed  Helen,  but  her  brothers, 
Castor  and  Pollux,  took  the  place  and  rescued 
their  sister. 

^ArniDNiTS,  one  of  the  companions  of  ^Eueas, 
slain  by  Turnus.l 

ApimSDisiAS  ('AQpofiiotuc  :  'A<j>po6iain>£ :  Aph- 
rodisicnsis),  the  name  of  several  places  famous 
for  the  worship  of  Aphrodite  (Venus).  1.  A. 
CARI^E  (now  Glicira,  ruins),  on  the  site  of  an 
old  town  of  the  Leleges,  named  Ninoe :  tinder 
the  Romans  a  free  city  and  asylum,  and  a  flour- 
ishing school  of  art. — 2.  VEXEBIS  OTPIDCM  (now 
73 


APHRODISIUM. 


APIDANUS. 


Porto  Cavaliers),  a  town,  harbor,  and  island  on 
the  coast  of  Cilicia,  opposite  to  Cyprus. — 8.  A 
town,  harbor,  and  island  on  the  coast  of  Cyrena- 
icft,  in  North  Africa. — 1.  Vid.  GADES. — [5.  (Now 
Kalsch),  an  island  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  on  the 
coast  of  Carmania,  earlier  called  Catea.] 

[ApuRODlsiL'M  ('A<j>po6iaiov),  a  town  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Cyprus. — 2.  A  village  of  Arca- 
dia, east  of  Megalopolis. — 3.  One  of  the  three 
minor  harbors  into  which  the  Piraeus  was  sub- 
divided.— 1.  A.  PROMONTORIUM,  a  promontory  at 
the  eastern  base  of  the  Pyrenees,  with  a  temple 
of  Aphrodite  (Venus).] 

APHRODITE  ('A^/xxJmy),  one  of  the  great  di- 
vinities of  the  Greeks,  the  goddess  of  love  and 
beauty.  In  the  Iliad  she  is  represented  as  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Dione,  and,  in 
later  traditions,  as  a  daughter  of  Saturn  (Cronos) 
and  Euonyme,  or  of  Uranus  and  Hemera ;  but 
the  poets  most  frequently  relate  that  she  was 
sprung  from  the  foam  (u^pof)  of  the  sea,  whence 
they  derive  her  name.  She  is  commonly  rep- 
resented as  the  wife  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus) ; 
but  she  proved  faithless  to  her  husband,  and 
was  in  love  with  Mars  (Ares),  the  god  of  war, 
to  whom  she  bore  Phobos,  Deimos,  Harmonia, 
and,  according  to  later  traditions,  Eros  and  An- 
teros  also.  She  also  loved  the  gods  Bacchus 
(Dionysus),  Mercury  (Hermes),  and  Neptune 
(Poseidon),  and  the  mortals  ANCHISES,  ADONIS, 
and  BUTES.  She  surpassed  all  the  other  god- 
desses in  beauty,  and  hence  received  the  prize 
of  beauty  from  Paris.  She  likewise  had  the 
power  of  granting  beauty  and  invincible  charms 
to  others,  and  whoever  wore  her  magic  girdle 
immediately  became  an  object  of  love  and  de- 
sire. In  the  vegetable  kingdom  the  myrtle, 
rose,  apple,  poppy,  <fcc.,  were  sacred  to  her. 
The  animals  sacred  to  her,  which  are  often 
mentioned  as  drawing  her  chariot  or  serving 
as  her  messengers,  are  the  sparrow,  the  dove, 
the  swan,  the  swallow,  and  a  bird  called  iynx. 
The  planet  Venus  and  the  spring-month  of  April 
were  likewise  sacred  to  her.  The  principal 
places  of  her  worship  in  Greece  were  the  isl- 
ands of  Cyprus  and  Cythera.  The  sacrifices 
offered  to  her  consisted  mostly  of  incense  and 
garlands  of  flowers,  but  in  some  places  animals 
were  sacrificed  to  her.  Respecting  her  festi- 
vals, vid.  Diet,  of  Antig^  art.  ADONIA,  ANAGOGIA, 
APHUODISIA,  CATAGOGIA.  Her  worship  was  of 
Eastern  origin,  and  probably  introduced  by  the 
Phrenicians  into  the  islands  of  Cyprus,  Cyth- 
era, and  others,  whence  it  spread  all  over 
Greece.  She  appears  to  have  been  originally 
identical  with  Astarte,  called  by  the  Hebrews 
Ashtoreth,  and  her  connection  with  Adonis  clear- 
ly points  to  Syria.  Respecting  the  Roman  god- 
dess Venus,  vid.  VENUS. 

APURODITOPOLIS  ( A.$po6iri)f  7ro/Uf),  the  name 
of  several  cities  in  Egypt.  1.  In  Lower  Egypt : 
(1.)  In  the  Nomos  Leontopolites,  in  the  Delta, 
between  Arthribis  and  Leontopolis ;  (2.)  (Now 
Chybin-el-Koum),  in  the  Nomos  Prosopites,  in 
the  Delta,  on  a  navigable  branch  of  the  Nile, 
between  Naucratis  and  Sais ;  probably  the  same 
as  Atarbechis,  which  is  an  Egyptian  name  of  the 
same  meaning  as  the  Greek  Aphroditopolis. — 
2.  In  Middle  Egypt  or  Heptanomis  (now  Atfyh), 
a  considerable  city  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile ; 
the  chief  city  of  the  Nomos  Aphroditopolites. — 
74 


I  3.  In  Upper  Egypt,  or  the  Thcbais :  (1.)  Vene- 
I  ris  Oppidum  (now  Tachta\  a  little  way  from  tlie 
west  bank  of  the  Nile  ;  the  chief  city  of  the  No- 
mos Aphroditopolites ;  (2.)  In  the  Nomoa  Her- 
monthites  (now  Deir,  northwest  of  Esnch),  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Nile. 

APHTHONICS  ('A<j>66viof),  of  Antioch,  a  Greek 
rhetorician,  lived  about  A.D.  315,  and  wrote  the 
introduction  to  the  study  of  rhetoric,  entitled 
Progymnasmata  {Trpoyvfi.vdap.aTa).  It  was  con- 
structed on  the  basis  of  the  Progymnagmata  of 
Hermogenes,  and  became  so  popular  that  it  was 
used  as  the  common  school-book  in  this  branch 
of  education  for  several  centuries.  On  the  re- 
vival of  letters  it  recovered  its  ancient  popu- 
larity, and  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  was  used  every  where,  but  more  es- 
pecially in  Germany,  as  the  text  book  for  rhet- 
oric. The  number  of  editions  and  translations 
which  were  published  during  that  period  is 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  ancient  writer. 
The  best  edition  is  in  WrJz's  Hhetores  Grceci, 
voL  i  Aphthonius  also  wrote  some  jEsopic 
fables,  which  are  extant. 

APHYTIS  ('AQvrif :  now  Athyto),  a  town  in 
the  peninsula  Pallene  in  Macedonia,  with  a  cele- 
brated temple  and  oracle  of  Jupiter  Ammon. 

APIA  ('Ania,  sc.  yy),  the  Apian  land,  an  an- 
cient name  of  Peloponnesus,  especially  Argolis, 
said  to  have  been  so  called  from  Apis,  a  mythical 
king  of  Argos. 

APICATA,  wife  of  Sejanus,  was  divorced  by 
him,  A.D.  23,  after  she  had  borne  him  throe 
children,  and  put  an  end  to  her  own  life  on  the 
execution  of  Sejanus,  31. 

APICIUS,  the  name  of  three  notorious  gluttons: 
— 1.  The  first  lived  in  the  time  of  Sulla,  and  is 
said  to  have  procured  the  condemnation  of  Ru- 
tilius  Rufus,  B.C.  92. — 2.  The  second  and  most 
renowned,  M.  Gabius  Apicius,  flourished  under 
Tiberius.  [It  is  stated  by  Seneca  that,  after 
having  spent  upon  his  culinary  dainties  one 
hundred  millions  of  sesterces  (segtertium  millies). 
upward  of  three  millions  of  dollars,  he  became 
overwhelmed  with  debts,  and  was  thus  forced, 
for  the  first  time,  to  look  into  his  accounts.  Ho 
found  that  he  would  have  only  ten  millions  of 
sesterces  (sestertium  centies),  a  sum  somewhat 
over  three  hundred  thousand  dollars,  left  after 
paying  his  debts ;]  upon  which,  despairing  of 
being  able  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  hunger  from 
such  a  pittance,  he  forthwith  put  an  end  to  his 
life  by  poison.  But  he  was  not  forgotten.  Sun- 
dry cakes  (Apicia)  and  sauces  long  kept  alive 
his  memory ;  Apion,  the  grammarian,  composed 
a  work  upon  his  luxurious  labors,  and  his  name 
passed  into  a  proverb  in  all  matters  connected 
with  the  pleasures  of  the  table. — 3.  A  contem- 
porary of  Trajan,  sent  to  this  emperor,  when 
he  was  in  Parthia,  fresh  oysters,  preserved  by 
a  skillful  process  of  his  own.  The  treatise  we 
now  possess,  bearing  the  title  CMUI  APICII  de 
Opsoniis  et  Condimentis,  sive  de  Re  Culinaria 
Libri  decem,  is  a  sort  of  Cook  and  Confection 
er*8  Manual,  containing  a  multitude  of  receipts 
for  cookery.  It  was  probably  compiled  at  a  late 
period  by  some  one  who  prefixed  the  name  of 
Apicius,  in  order  to  insure  the  circulation  of  his 
book. — Editions  :  By  Almeloveen,  Amstelod., 
1709  ;  and  by  Bernhold,  Ansbacb,,  1800. 

APIDANUS  ('Airidavof,  Ion.  'Hmdavof),  a  river 


APIOL^E. 


APOLLO. 


in  Thessaly,  which  receives  the   Enlpeus  near ; 
Pharsalus,  and  empties  into  the  Peneus. 

APIOL^E,  a  town  of  Latium,  destroyed  by  Tar- 1 
quinius  Priscus. 

APION  ('ATTLUV),  a   Greek  grammarian,  and  a  . 
native  of  Oasis  Magna  in  Egypt,  studied  at  Alex- ' 
andrea,   and  taught  rhetoric    at  Rome   in  the  j 
reigns  of  Tiberius  and  Claudius.     In  the  reign 
of  Caligula  he  left  Rome,  and  in  A.D.  38  he  was 
sent   by  the  inhabitants   of  Alexandrea  at  the 
head  of  an  embassy  to  Caligula  to  bring  forward 
complaints  against  the  Jews  residing  in  their 
city.     Apion  was  the  author  of  many  works,  ah1 
of  which  are  now  lost  [with  the  exception  of  a 
few  fragments].     Of  these  the  most  celebrated 
were  upon  the  Homeric  poems.     He  is  said  not 
only  to  have  made  the  best  recension  of  the  text 
of  the  poems,  but  to  have  written  explanations  ! 
of  phrases  and  words  in  the  form  of  a  diction- 
ary (Ae£eff  'OfiTjpiKai).    He  also  wrote  a  work  j 
on  Egypt  in  five  books,  and  a  work  against  the 
Jews,  to  which  Josephus  replied  in  his  treatise 
Against  Apion. 

APION,  PTOLEM^US.  Vid.  PTOLEILEUS,  API- 
OX. 

APIS  (TAOTf).  1.  Son  of  Phoroneus  and  La- 
odice,  king  of  Argos,  from  whom  Peloponnesus 
was  called  APIA  :  he  ruled  tyrannically,  and  was 
killed  by  Thelxion  and  Telchis.— 2.  The  Bull  of 
Memphis,  worshipped  with  the  greatest  rever- 
ence as  a  god  among  the  Egyptians.  The  Egyp- 
tians believed  that  he  was  the  offspring  of  a 
young  cow,  fructified  by  a  ray  from  heaven. 
Ttere  were  certain  signs  by  which  he  was  rec- 
ognized to  be  the  god.  It  was  requisite  that 
he  should  be  quite  black,  have  a  white  square 
mark  on  the  forehead,  on  his  back  a  figure  simi- 
lar to  that  of  an  eagle,  have  two  kinds  of  hair  in 
his  tail,  and  on  his  tongue  a  knot  resembling  an 
insect  called  cantharus.  When  all  these  signs 
were  discovered,  the  animal  was  consecrated 
with  great  pomp,  and  was  conveyed  to  Mem- 
phis, where  he  had  a  splendid  residence,  con- 
taining extensive  walks  and  courts  for  his 
amusement.  His  birth-day,  wlu'ch  was  celebrat- 
ed every  year,  was  his  most  solemn  festival :  it 
was  a  day  of  rejoicing  for  all  Egypt  The  god 
was  allowed  to  live  only  a  certain  number  of 
years,  probably  twenty-five.  If  he  had  not  died 
before  the  expiration  of  that  period,  he  was  killed 
and  buried  in  a  sacred  well,  the  place  of  which 
was  unknown  except  to  the  initiated.  But  if 
he  died  a  natural  death,  he  was  buried  publicly 
and  solemnly  ;  and  as  his  birth  filled  ah1  Egypt 
with  joy  and  festivities,  so  his  death  threw  the 
whole  country  into  grief  and  mourning.  The 
worship  of  Apis  was  originally  nothing  but  the 
simple  worship  of  the  bull ;  but  in  the  course  of 
tune,  the  bull,  like  other  animals,  was  regarded 
as  a  symbol,  and  Apis  is  hence  identified  with 
Osiris  or  the  Sun. 

APIS  ('Aj«f :  now  Kasser  Schama  ?)  a  city 
of  Egypt  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  on 
the  border  of  the  country  toward  Libya,  about 
one  hundred  stadia  west  of  Panetonium ;  cele- 
brated for  the  worship  of  the  god  Apis. 

[AIMSAON  ('Airtffuuv),  son  of  Phausius,  slain 
by  Eurypylus  before  Troy. — 2.  Son  of  Hippasus, 
a  leader  of  the  Pseouiaus,  skin  by  Lycomedes 
before  Troy.] 

('A7r66a0//o/),  a  place  in  Argolis, 


on  the  sea,  >ot  far  from  Thyrea,  where  Danaus 
is  said  to  have  landed. 

[APOBATHRA  ('ATroSaOpa  .  now  Boja),  a  place 
near  Sestos,  where  Xerxes's  bridge  of  boats 
ended.] 

APODOTI  and  APODEOT^E  ('A7r6(5wrof  and  !ATTO 
Soroi);  a  pecjple  in  the  southeast  of  ^Etolia,  be- 
tween the  Evenus  and  HyUethus. 

APOLLINAEIS,  SIDONIUS.     Vid.  SIDONIUS. 

[APOLLINARIS,  SULPICIUS.     Vid.  SPLPICIUS.J 

APOLLIMS  PBOMONTORIUM  ('A-n6%Auvo<;  UKOOV  • 
now  Cape  Zibeeb  or  Cape  farina),  a  promontory 
of  Zeugitana  in  Northern  Africa,  forming  the 
western  point  of  the  Gulf  of  Carthage. 

[APOLLINOPOLIS  ('A?r6/l/l6>vof  ;r6/Uf).  1.  MAGNA 
Tro/ltf  /jLEyukri  'A:ro/./U>vof  :  now  Edfou\  the  cap- 
ital of  the  nome  named  after  it,  Apolloniatps,  in 
Upper  Egypt,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile.  The 
people  of  this  city  were  haters  and  destroyers  of 
the  crocodile. — 2.  PARVA  ('ATroAAwVoj-  TJ  fiLKpd : 
now  jSTwss),  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Nile,  in  the  Nomos  Coptites,  between 
Coptos  and  Thebes.] 

APOLLO  ('A-noM-ov),  one  of  the  great  divini- 
ties of  the  Greeks,  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Latona  (Leto),  and  twin-brother  of  Diaua  (Ar 
temis),  was  born  in  the  Island  of  Delos,  whither 
Latona  (Leto)  had  fled  from  the  jealous  Juno 
(Hera).  Vid.  LETO.  After  nine  days'  labor, 
the  god  was  born  under  a  palm  or  olive  tree  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Cynthus,  and  was  fed  by 
Themis  with  ambrosia  and  nectar.  The  pow- 
ers ascribed  to  Apollo  are  apparently  of  different 
kinds,  but  all  are  connected  with  one  another, 
and  may  be  said  to  be  only  ramifications  of  one 
and  the  same,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
_0'  classification.  He  is:  1.  The  god  who  pun- 
ishes, whence  some  of  the  ancients  derived  his 
name  from  dnohXvfii,  destroy.  ( JSsch.,  Again., 
1081.)  As  the  god  who  punishes,  he  is  repre- 
sented with  bow  and  arrows,  the  gift  of  Vulcan 
(Hephaestus) ;  whence  his  epithets,  frcarof,  £/ca- 
epyof,  £Kar7?66Aof,  K/.t>Toro£of  and  upyvporo^of, 
arcitenent,  &c.  All  sudden  deaths  were  be- 
lieved to  be  the  effect  of  the  arrows  of  Apollo ; 
and  with  them  he  sent  the  plague  into  the  camp 
of  the  Greeks. — 2.  The  god  who  affords  help  and__ 
wards  off  evil.  As  he  had  the  power  of  punish- 
ing men,  so  he  was  also  able  to  deliver  men,  if 
duly  propitiated ;  hence  his  epithets,  uKeaiof, 
uKearup,  ti/le^'/ca/cof,  aun/p,  uTrorpoTraioe,  kiri- 
Kovptoe,  larpopavrte,  opifer,  salutifer,  etc.  From 
his  being  the  god  who  afforded  help,  he  is  the 
father  of  ^Esculapius,  the  god  of  the  healing  art, 
and  was  also  identified  in  later  times  with 
Poee'on,  the  god  of  the  healing  art  in  Homer. 
Vid.  P^KON. — 3.  Tlie  god  of  prophecy.  Apollo 
exercised  this  power  in  his  numerous  oracles,  and 
especially  in  that  of  Delphi.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant., 
art.  ORACULCM.  He  had  also  the  power  of 
communicating  the  gift  of  prophecy  both  to 
gods  and  men,  and  all  the  ancient  seera  and  pro 
pheta  are  placed  in  some  relationship  to  him. 
— L  Ttif  god  of  song  and  music.  We  find  him 
in  the  Iliad  (L,  603)  delighting  the  immortal 
gods  with  his  phorminx ;  and  the  Homeric 
bards  derived  their  art  of  song  either  from 
Apollo  or  the  Muses.  Later  traditions  ascribed 
to  Apollo  even  the  invention  of  the  flute  and 
lyre,  while  it  is  more  commonly  related  that  be 
received  the  lyre  from  Mercury  (Hermes).  Re- 

75 


APOLLOCRATES. 


APOLLONIA. 


specting  bis  musical  contests,  vid.  MARSTAS, 
MIDAS. — 5.  Tfte  god  who  protects  the  flocks  and 
cattle  (vofiioc,  tfeoc,  from  vofioc.  or  Ao/u//,  a  meadow 
ar  pasture  laud).  There  are  in  Homer  only  a 
ew  allusions  to  tliis  feature  in  the  character  of 
Apollo,  but  in  later  writers  it  assumes  a  very 
prominent  form,  and  in  the  story  ofcApollo  tend- 
ing the  flocks  of  Admetus  at  Pherae  in  Thessaly, 
the  idea  reaches  its  height. — 6.  The  god  who  de- 
lights in  the  foundation  of  towns  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  civil  constitutions.  Hence  a  town  or 
a  colony  was  never  founded  by  the  Greeks  with- 
out consulting  an  oracle  of  Apollo,  so  that  in 
every  case  he  became,  as  it  were,  their  spiritual 
leader. — 7.  The  god  of  the  Sun.  In  Homer, 
Apollo  and  Helios,  or  the  Sun,  are  perfectly 
distinct,  and  his  identification  with  the  Sun, 
though  almost  universal  among  later  writers, 
was  the  result  of  later  speculations  and  of  for- 
eign, chiefly  Egyptian,  influence.  Apollo  had 
more  influence  upon  the  Greeks  than  any  other 
god.  It  may  safely  be  asserted  that  the  Greeks 
would  never  have  become  what  they  were  with- 
out the  worship  of  Apollo :  in  him  the  brightest 
side  of  the  Grecian  mind  is  reflected.  Respect- 
ing his  festivals,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art.  APOL- 
LONIA,  THARGELIA,  and  others.  In  the  religion 
of  the  early  Romans  there  is  no  trace  of  the 
worship  of  Apollo.  The  Romans  became  ac- 
quainted with  this  divinity  through  the  Greeks, 
and  adopted  all  their  notions  and  ideas  about 
him  from  the  latter  people.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  Romans  knew  of  his  worship  among  the 
Greeks  at  a  very  early  time,  and  tradition  says 
that  they  consulted  his  oracle  at  Delphi,  even 
before  the  expulsion  of  the  kings.  But  the 
first  time  that  we  hear  of  his  worship  at  Rome 
is  in  B.C.  430,  when,  for  the  purpose  of  avert- 
ing a  plague,  a  temple  was  raised  to  him,  and 
soon  after  dedicated  by  the  consul,  C.  Julius. 
A  second  temple  was  built  to  him  in  350.  Dur- 
ing the  second  Punic  war,  in  212,  the  ludi  Apol- 
linares  were  instituted  in  his  honor.  Vid.  Did. 
of  Ant.,  art.  LTJDI  APOLLINARES.  His  worship, 
however,  did  not  form  a  very  prominent  part  in 
the  religion  of  the  Romans  till  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, who,  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  dedicat- 
ed to  him  a  portion  of  the  spoils,  built  or  embel- 
lished his  temple  at  Actium,  and  founded  a  new 
one  at  Rome  on  the  Palatine,  and  instituted 
quinquennial  games  at  Actium.  The  most  beau- 
tiful and  celebrated  among  the  extant  repre- 
sentations of  Apollo  are  the  Apollo  Belvedere 
at  Rome,  which  was  discovered  in  1503  at  Ret- 
tuno,  and  the  Apollino  at  Florence.  In  the 
Apollo  Belvedere,  the  god  is  represented  with 
commanding  but  serene  majesty ;  sublime  intel- 
lect and  physical  beauty  are  combined  in  the 
most  wonderful  manner. 

APOLLOCRATES  (' ATroM.oKpar^c),  elder  son  of 
Dionysius  the  Younger,  was  left  by  his  father  in 
command  of  the  island  and  citadel  of  Syracuse, 
but  was  compelled  by  famine  to  surrender  them 
to  Dion,  about  B.C.  354. 

AFOLLODORCS  ('A7ro/,A6<5wpoc).  l.  Of  AMPHIP- 
OLIB  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  was  intrusted  in  B.C.  331,  together  with 
Menes,  with  the  administration  of  Babylon  and 
of  all  the  satrapies  as  far  as  Cilieia. — 2.  Tyrant 
of  CASSANDREA  (formerly  Potidzea),  in  the  pen- 
insula of  Pallene,  obtained  the  supreme  power 
76 


in  B.C.  379,  and  exercised  it  with  the  utmost 
cruelty.  He  was  conquered  and  put  to  death 
by  Antigonus  Gonatas. — 8.  Of  CARYSTUS,  a 
comic  poet,  probably  lived  B.C.  300-260,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  poets 
of  the  new  Attic  comedy.  It  was  from  him  that 
Terence  took  his  Hecyra  and  Phormio. — 4.  Of 
GELA  in  Sicily,  a  comic  poet  and  a  coutempo 
rary  of  Menander,  lived  B.C.  340-290.  He  is 
frequently  confounded  with  Apollcdorus  of  Ca- 
rystus. — 5.  A  GRAMMARIAN  of  Athens,  son  of 
Asclepiades,  and  pupil  of  Aristarehus  and  Pana> 
tius,  flourished  about  B.C.  140.  He  wrote  a 
great  number  of  worka,  all  of  which  have  per- 
ished with  the  exception  of  his  Bibliotheca. 
This  work  consists  of  three  books,  and  is  by  far 
the  best  among  the  extant  works  of  the  kind. 
It  contains  a  well-arranged  account  of  the  my- 
thology and  the  heroic  age  of  Greece  :  it  begins 
with  the  origin  of  the  gods,  and  goes  down  to 
the  time  of  Theseus,  when  the  work  suddenly 
breaks  off. — Editions :  By  K<>yne,  Gottingeu, 
1803,  2d  ed;  by  Clavier,  Paris,  1805,  with  a 
French  translation ;  and  by  Westermann  in  the 
Mythographi,  Brunswick,  1843.  Of  the  many 
other  works  of  Apollodorus,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant was  a  chronicle  in  iambic  verses,  com- 
prising the  history  of  one  thousand  and  forty 
years,  from  the  destruction  of  Troy  (1184)  down 
to  his  own  time,  B.C.  143. — 6.  Of  PERGAMUS,  a 
Greek  rhetorician,  taught  rhetoric  at  Apollonia  in 
his  advanced  age,  and  had  as  a  pupil  the  young 
Octavius,  afterward  the  Emperor  Augustus. — 7. 
A  painter  of  Athens,  flourished  about  B.C.  408, 
with  whom  commenced  a  new  period  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  art  He  made  a  great  advance  in 
coloring,  and  invented  chiaroscuro. — 8.  An  ar- 
chitect of  Damascus,  lived  under  Trajan  ant' 
Hadrian,  by  the  latter  of  whom  he  was  put  to 
death. — [9.  Of  PHALERUM,  one  of  the  intimate 
friends  of  Socrates,  and  who  was  present  at  his 
death. — 10.  Of  LEMNOS,  a  writer  on  agriculture 
previous  to  the  time  of  Aristotle.] 

APOLLONIA  ('ATroAAwvta  :  'Airo'h\uviu77}<?).  1. 
(NovrPollina  or  Pollona),  an  important  town  in 
Illyria  or  New  Epirus,  not  far  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Aous,  and  sixty  stadia  from  the  sea.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Corinthians  and  Corcyrse- 
ans,  snd  was  equally  celebrated  as  a  place  of 
commerce  and  learning:  many  distinguished 
Romans,  among  others  the  young  Octavius,  af- 
terward the  Emperor  Augustus,  pursued  their 
studies  here.  Persons  travelling  from  Italy  to 
Greece  and  the  East,  usually  landed  either  at 
Apollouia  or  Dyrrhachium ;  and  the  Via  Egnatia, 
the  great  high  road  to  the  East,  commenced  at 
Apollonia,  or,  according  to  others,  at  Dyrrha- 
chium. Vid.  EGNATIA  VIA. — 2.  (Now  Polina), 
a  town  in  Macedonia,  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  be- 
tween Thessalonica  and  Amphipolis,  and  south 
of  the  Lake  of  Bolbe. — 3.  (Now  Sizeboli),  a 
town  in  Thrace  on  the  Black  Sea,  with  two 
harbors,  a  colony  of  Miletus,  afterward  called 
Sozopolis,  whence  its  modern  name :  it  had  a 
celebrated  temple  of  Apollo,  from  which  Lucul- 
lus  carried  away  a  colossus  of  this  god,  and 
erected  it  on  the  Capitol  at  Rome. — 4.  A  castle 
or  fortified  town  of  the  Locri  Ozolse,  near  Nau- 
pactus. — 5.  A  town  in  Sicily,  on  the  northern 
coast,  of  uncertain  site. — 6.  (Now  Abullionle),  a 
town  in  Bithynia,  on  the  Lake  Apolloniatis, 


APOLLONIATIS. 


APOLLONIUS. 


throngh  which  the  River  Rhyndacus  flows. — 7. 
A  town  on  the  borders  of  Mysia  and  Lydia,  be- 
tween Pergamus  and  Sardis. — 8.  A  town  in 
Palestina,  between  Caesarea  and  Joppa. — 9.  A 
town  in  Assyria,  in  the  district  of  Apolloniatis, 
through  which  the  Delas  or  Durus  (now  Diala) 
flows. — (10.  Now  Marza  Susa),  a  town  in  Cy- 
renaica,  and  the  harbor  of  Gyrene,  one  of  the  five 
towns  of  tbe  Peutapolis  in  Libya:  it  was  the 
birth-place  of  Eratosthenes. 

[APOLLONIATIS.     Vid.  ASSYRIA,  1.] 

[APOLLONIDAS  ('ATroA/lwviJaf),  a  Greek  poet, 
under  "whose  name  there  are  thirty-one  pieces 
extant  in  the  Greek  Anthology.  He  flourished 
under  Augustus  and  Tiberius.] 

[APOLLONIDES  ('ATro/lAwwo^f,  Dor.  'A7ro/l/lwv- 
tdaf).  1.  Commander  of  the  cavalry  in  Olyn- 
thus,  who  opposed  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  pre- 
vented the  surrender  of  the  town  to  him.  Philip, 
however,  by  his  agents  in  Olyuthus,  procured 
his  banishment. — 2.  A  Boeotian  officer  in  the 
army  of  Cyrus  the  Younger,  who  was,  after  the 
death  of  Cyrus,  deprived  of  his  office,  and  de- 
graded to  a  menial  condition. — 3.  Of  CHIOS, 
who  betrayed  Chios  to  the  Persian  general 
Memnon  during  Alexander's  eastern  expedi- 
tion :  he  was  afterward  taken  and  put  in  con- 
finement.— 4.  A  Stoic  philosopher,  friend  of  the 
younger  Cato,  with  whom  he  conversed  on  the 
allowableness  of  suicide  before  committing  that 
act  at  Utica. — 5.  A  Greek  physician  and  sur- 
geon, born  at  Cos,  obtained  reputation  and  hon- 
or at  the  Persian  court  under  Artaxerxes  Lou- 
gimanus.  He  became  engaged  in  a  disreputa- 
ble attempt,  and  was  put  to  death  by  torture.] 

APOLLONIS  ('ATro/Dlwvif),  a  city  in  Lydia,  be- 
tween Pergamus  and  Sardis,  named  after  Apol- 
lonis,  the  mother  of  King  Eumenes.  It  was 
one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Asia  which  were 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  the  reign  of  Ti- 
berius (A.D.  17). 

APOLLONIUS  ('ATroZhuviof).  1.  Of  ALABANDA 
in  Caria,  a  rhetorician,  taught  rhetoric  at  Rhodes 
about  B.C.  100.  He  was  a  very  distinguished 
teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  used  to  ridicule  and  de- 
spise philosophy.  He  was  surnamed  6  MaXa/cof. 
and  must  be  distinguished  from  the  following. 
— 2.  Of  ALABANDA,  surnamed  MOLO,  likewise  a 
rhetorician,  taught  rhetoric  at  Rhodes,  and  also 
distinguished  himself  as  a  pleader  in  the  courts 
of  justice.  In  B.C.  81,  when  Sulla  was  dicta- 
tor, Apollonius  came  to  Rome  as  ambassador 
of  the  Rhodians,  on  -which  occasion  Cicero 
heard  him  ;  Cicero  also  received  instruction 
from  Apollonius  at  Rhodes  a  few  years  later. — 
3.  Son  of  ARCHEBULUS,  a  grammarian  of  Alex- 
andrea, in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
and  a  pupil  of  Didymus.  He  wrote  an  Homeric 
Lexicon,  which  is  still  extant,  and,  though  much 
interpolated,  is  a  work  of  great  value. — Edi- 
tion*: By  Villoison,  Paris,  1773  ;  by  H.  Tollius, 
Lugd.  Bat,  1788  :  and  by  Bekker,  Berlin,  1833. 
— 3.  Surnamed  DYSCOLUS,  "  the  ill-tempered," 
a  grammarian  at  Alexandrea,  in  the  reigns  of 
Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius  (A.D.  117-161), 
taught  at  Rome  as  well  as  Alexandrea.  He 
uii'l  his  son  HERODIANUS  are  called  by  Priscian 
the  greatest  of  all  grammarians.  Apollonius  | 
was  the  first  who  reduced  grammar  to  any ! 
thing  like  a  system.  Of  his  numerous  works  ] 
only  four  ar%  extant  1.  Heal  owrufrut  rov  i 


"koyov  fiepuv,  "De  Constructione  Orationis,"  or 
"  De    Ordinatione     sive     Coustructione     Dictio- 
num,"   in   four  books  ;   edited   by   Fr.  Sylburg, 
•  Frankf.,  1590,  and  by   I.   Bekker,  Berlin,  1817. 
j  2.    Hepl  uvruvv/Liias,   "  De   Pronomine  ;"  edited 
I  by   I.  Bekker,  Berlin,  1814.     3.  Ilepl  avvdia^uv, 
"  De  Conjunctionibus,"  and,  4.  Tlepl  kT7ippiip.d-uv, 
"De   Adverbiis,"  printed  in  Bekker's  Anccdot., 
ii.,  p.  477,  Ac.     Among   the  works  ascribed   to 
Apollonius  by  Suidas  there  is  one,  irepl  Kare^teva- 
ftevjjs   iG-opiaf,  on  fictitious  or  forged  histories  . 
this  has  been   erroneously  supposed  to  be  tho 
same   as  the  extant  work  'laropiat  davfjLaa'iai, 
which  purports  to  be  written  by  an  Apollouius 
(published   by     "Westermann,    Paradoxographi, 
Brunswick,  1839);  but  it  is  now  admitted  that 
the  latter  work  was  written  by  an    Apollouius 
who  is  otherwise  unknown. — 5.  PERG^EUS,  from 
Perga  in  Pamphylia,  one  of  the  greatest  mathe- 
maticians  of    antiquity,   commonly   called    the 
"  Great   Geometer,"   was   educated   at  Alexan- 
drea under  the   successors  of  Euclid,  and  flour- 
ished about  B.C.  250-220.      His  most  important 
work  was  a  treatise  on  Conic  Sections  in  eight 
books,  of  which  the  first  four,  with   the   com- 
mentary of  Eutocius,  are  extant  in  Greek ;  and 
all  but  the  eighth  in  Arabic.     We  have  also  in- 
troductory lemmata  to  all  the  eight  by  Pappus 
Edited  by  Halley,  "  Apoll.  Perg.  Conic,  lib.  viii.," 
<fec.,  Oxoa,   1710,  fol.      The  eighth  book  is  a 
conjectural  restoration  founded  on  the  introdue 
tory  lemmata  of  Pappus. — 6.  RHODIUS,  a  pool 
and  grammarian,   son   of  Silleus  or  Illeus   and 
Rhode,  was   born   at  Alexandrea,  or,  according 
to  one  statement,  at  Naucratis,  and  flourished 
in  the  reigns  of  Ptolemy  Philopator  and  Ptolemy 
Epiphanes  (B.C.  222-181).    In  his  youth  he  was 
instructed  by  Calltomchus ;  but  they  afterward 
became  bitter  enemies.     Their  tastes  were  en- 
tirely different ;  for  Apollonius  admired  and  imi- 
tated the   simplicity  of  the   ancient  epic  poets, 
and  disliked  and  despised  the  artificial  and  learn- 
ed  poetry  of  Callimachus.      When  Apollouius 
read  at  Alexandrea  his  poem  on  the  Argonautic 
expedition  (Argonautica),   it  did  not  meet  with 
the  approbation  of  the  audience ;  he  attributed 
its   failure  to  the  intrigues  of  Callimachus,  and 
revenged  himself  by  writing  a  bitter  epigram 
on  Callimachus   which   is  still  extant.     (Anth. 
Grcec.,  xi.,  275.)      Callimachus,  in  return,  attack- 
ed Apollonius  in  his  Ibis,  which  was  imitated  by 
Ovid  in  a  poem  of  the  same  name.     Apollonius 
now  left  Alexandrea  and  went  to  Rhodes,  where 
he  taught  rhetoric  with   so  much  success,  that 
the  Romans  honored  him  with  their  franchise  • 
hence  he  was  called  the  "  Rhodian."     He  after- 
ward returned  to  Alexandrea,  where  he  read  a 
revised  edition   of  his   Arqonautica  with  great 
applause.    He  succeeded   Eratosthenes  as  chiel 
librarian  at  Alexandrea,  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Epiphanes,  about  B.C.  194,  and  appears  to  have 
held  this  office   till  his  death.     The  Argonaut- 
ica,  which  consists  of  four  books,  and  is  still  ex- 
tant gives  a  straightforward  and  simple  descrip- 
tion of  the  adventures  of  the  Argonauts :  it  is  a 
close  imitation  of  the   Homeric   language  and 
style,  but  exhibits  marks  of  art  and  labor,  and 
thus   forms,   notwithstanding    its  many   resem- 
blances, a  contrast  with   the  natural   and  easy 
flow  of  the  Homeric   poems.     Among  the  Ro- 
mans the  "<vork  was  much  read,  and   P.  Teren- 

77 


APOLLONIUS. 

uua  Varro  Atacinus  acquired  great  reputation 
by  his  translation  of  it  The  Argonautica  of 
Valerius  Fluecus  is  only  a  free  imitation  of 
it — Editions :  By  Brunck,  Argentorat,  1780  ; 
by  G.  Schajfcr,  Lips.,  1810-13 ;  by  Wcllauer, 
Lips.,  1828.  Apollonius  wrote  several  other 


APPIANUS. 


the  life  of  Apollonius  was  not  written  with  a 
controversial  aim,  as  the  resemblances,  although 
real,  only  indicate  that  a  few  things  were  bor- 
rowed, and  exhibit  no  trace  of  a  systematic 
parallel  Vid.  PIIILOSTBATUS.  —  8.  Of  TYEE,  u 
Stoic  philosopher,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 


works  which  are  now  lost.  —  7.  TTANEXSIS  or  Ptolemy  Auletes,  wrote  a  history  of  the  Stoic 
TTAX-JHJS,  i.  e~,  of  Tyana  in  Cappadocia,  a  Py-  philosophy  from  the  time  of  Zeno.  —  9.  APOLLO- 
thiigoreau  philosopher,  was  born  about  four  NIUS  and  TAUKISCCS  of  Tralles,  were  two  broth 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  At  a  period  .  ers,  and  the  sculptors  of  the  group  which  is  corn- 
when  there  was  a  general  belief  in  magical  I  monly  known  as  the  Farnese  bull,  representing 
powers,  it  would  appear  that  Apollonius  obtain-  the  punishment  of  Dirce  by  Zethus  and  Amphi- 
ed  great  influence  by  pretending  to  them  ;  and  ,  on.  Vid.  DIRCE.  It  was  taken  from  Rhodes  to 
wo  may  believe  that  his  Life  by  Philostratus  Rome  by  Asinius  Polh'o,  and  afterward  placed  in 
gives  a  just  idea  of  -his  character  and  reputation,  the  baths  of  Caracalla,  where  it  was  dug  up  in 
In  '\\vver  inconsistent  in  its  facts  and  absurd  in  j  the  sixteenth  century,  and  deposited  in  the  Far- 
its  marvels.  Apollonius,  according  to  Philos-  j  nese  palace.  It  is  now  at  Naples.  Apollonius 
tratus,  wns  of  noble  ancestry,  and  studied  first  :  and  Tauriscus  probably  flourished  in  the  first  cen- 
under  Euthydemus  of  Tarsus  ;  but,  being  dis-  tury  of  the  Christian  era. 
gustcd  at  the  luxury  of  the  inhabitants?-  he  re-  APOLLOPHANES  ' 


f),  a  poet  of  the 

tired  to  the  neighboring  town   of  JSgae,  where    old  Attic  comedy,  of  whose  comedies  a  few  frag- 

he   studied  the  whole    circle   of    the   Platonic,  i  ments  are  extant,  lived  about  B.C.  400.      [The 

-  Skeptic,  Epicurean,  and  Peripatetic  philosophy,  ;  fragments  are  collected  in  Meineke's  Fragm.  Com. 


and  ended  by  giving  his  preference  to  the  Pyth-  !  Grcec.,  vol.  i.,  p.  482-484,  edit,  minor.] 
agovean.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  strictest  !  APOXUS  or  APOXI  Foxs  (now  Abano),  warm 
asceticism,  and  subsequently  travelled  through-  medicinal  springs  near  Patavium,  hence  called 
out  the  East,  visiting  Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  Aquae  Patavinae,  were  much  frequented  by  the 
India.  On  his  return  to  Asia  Minor,  we  first  sick. 

hear  of  his  pretensions   to   miraculous   power,  ;      APPIA  or  APIA  ('J&nrfa,  'AJT«Z),  a  city  of  Phry- 
founded,  as  it  would  seem,  on  the  possession  of    gia  Pacatiana. 

some  divine  knowledge  derived  from  the  East  APPIA  VIA,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Roman 
From  Ionia  he  crossed  over  into  Greece,  and  i  roads  (regina  viarum,  Stat,  Silv.,  ii.,  2,  12,),  was 
came  thence  to  Rome,  where  he  arrived  just  ;  commenced  by  Appius  Claudius  Caecus  when 
after  an  edict  against  magicians  had  been  issued  :  censor,  B.C.  319,  and  was  the  great  line  of  corn- 
by  Nero.  He  accordingly  remained  only  a  short  munication  between  Rome  and  Southern  Italy, 
time  at  Rome,  and  next  went  to  Spain  and  Af-  It  issued  from  the  Porta  Capena,  and,  passing 
rica  ?  at  Alexandrea  he  was  of  assistance  to  <  through  Aricia,  Tres  Tabernce,  Appii  Forum, 
Vespasian,  who  was  preparing  to  seize  the  em-  ;  Tarracina,  Fundi,  Formice,  Minturnce,  Sinucssa, 
pire.  The  last  journey  of  Apollonius  was  to  and  Casilinum,  terminated  at  Capua,  but  was 
^Ethiopia,  whence  he  returned  to  settle  in  the  eventually  extended  through  Calatia  and  Cau- 
Ionian  cities.  On  the  accession  of  Domitian,  dium  to  Beneventum,  and  finally  thence  through 
Apollonius  was  accused  of  exciting  an  insur-  Venusia,  Tarentum,  and  Uria,  to  Brundisium. 
rection  against  the  tyrant :  he  voluntarily  sur-  !  APPIANUS  ('Anxiavof),  the  Roman  historian, 
rendered  himself,  and  appeared  at  Rome  before  was  born  at  Alexandrea,  and  lived  at  Rome 
the  emperor ;  but,  as  his  destruction  seemed  during  the  reigns  of  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  An- 
impending,  he  escaped  by  the  exertion  of  his  toninus  Pius.  He  wrote  a  Roman  history 
supernatural  powers.  The  last  years  of  his  life  ('PujtaiKu  or  Pw//ai'/c?}  laTopia)  in  twenty-four 
were  spent  at  Ephesus,  where  he  is  said  to  have  :  books,  arranged,  not  synchronistically,  but  eth- 
proclaimed  the  death  of  the  tyrant  Domitian  at  nographically,  that  is,  he  did  not  relate  the  his- 
the  instant  it  took  place.  Many  of  the  won-  tory  of  the  Roman  empire  as  a  whole  in  chro- 
clers  which  Philostratus  relates  in  connection  I  nological  order,  but  he  gave  a  separate  account 
with  Apollonius  are  a  clumsy  imitation  of  the  j  of  the  affairs  of  each  country,  till  it  was  finally 
Christian  miracles.  The  proclamation  of  the  j  incorporated  in  the  Roman  empire.  The  sub- 
birth  of  Apollouius  to  his  mother  by  Proteus,  !  jects  of  the  different  books  were :  1.  The  king- 
and  the  incarnation  of  Proteus  himself,  the  cho-  !  ly  period.  2.  Italy.  3.  The  Samnites.  4.  The 
rus  of  swans  which  sang  for  joy  on  the  occa-  j  Gauls  or  Celts.  5.  Sicily  and  the  other  islands, 
feion,  the  casting  out  of  devils,  raising  the  dead,  i  6.  Spain.  7.  Hannibal's  wars.  8.  Libya,  Car- 
and  healing  the  sick,  the  sudden  disappearances  '  thage,  and  Numidia.  9.  Macedonia.  10.  Greece 
and  reappearances  of  Apollonius,  his  adventures  !  and  the  Greek  states  in  Asia  Minor.  11.  Syria 
iiwthc  cave  of  Trophonius,  and  the  sacred  voice  j  and  Parthia.  12.  The  war  with  Mithradates, 
which  called  him  at  his  death,  to  which  may  be  1 13-21.  The  civil  wars,  in  nine  books,  froir. 
added  his  claim  as  a  teacher  having:  authority  to  |  those  of  Marius  and  Sulla  to  the  battle  of  Ac 

. .  .  /• j.  v  _         i  i  •*  .  _ 


reform  the  world,  can  not  fail  to  suggest  the 
parallel  passages  in  the  Gospel  history,  [from 
which  they  have  evidently  been  borrowed.] 
We  know,  too,  that  Apollonius  was  one  among 
many  rivals  set  up  by  the  Eclectics  to  our  Sa- 
viour, an  attempt  renewed  by  the  English  free- 
thinkers Blount  and  Lord  Herbert  Still  it  must 
be  allowed  that  the  resemblances  are  very  gen- 
wal  and,  on  the  whole,  it  seems  probable  that 
78 


tium.  22.  'E/carovrafno,  comprised  the  history 
of  a  hundred  years,  from  the  battle  of  Actium 
to  the  beginning  of  Vespasian's  reign.  23.  The 
wars  with  Illyria.  24.  Those  with  Arabia 
We  possess  only  eleven  of  these  complete, 
namely,  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  eleventh, 
twelfth,  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  six- 
teenth, seventeenth,  and  twenty-third :  there 
are  fragments  of  several  of  the*  others.  Th« 


APPIAS. 


APULIA 


Parthian  history,  which  has  come  down  to  us 
:is  part  of  the  eleventh  book,  is  not  a  work  of 
Appian,  but  merely  a  compilation  from  Plu- 
tarch's Lives  of  Antony  and  Crassus.  Appian's 
work  is  a  compilation.  His  style  is  clear  and 
simple  ;  but  he  possesses  few  merits  as  an  his- 
torian, and  he  frequently  makes  the  most  ab- 
surd blunders.  Thus,  for  instance,  he  places 
Saguntum  on  the  north  of  the  Iberus,  and  states 
that  it  takes  only  half  a  day  to  sail  from  Spain 
to  Britaia  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Schweig- 
hauser,  Lips.,  1785. 

APPIAS,  a  nymph  of  the  Appian  well,  which 
was  situated  near  the  temple  of  Venus  Genetrix 
in  the  forum  of  Julius  Caesar.     It  was  surrounded 
by  statues  of  nymphs,  called  Appiades. 
APPII  FORUM.     Vid.  FORUM  APPIL 
[APPIOL.E,  an  old  city  of  Latium,  said  to  have 
been  taken  and  burned  by  Tarquinius  Priscus, 
and  to  have  furnished  from  its  spoils  the  sums 
necessary  for  the  construction  of   the    Circus 
Maximus.] 

[APPIUS  CLAUDIUS.  Vid.  CLAUDIUS.] 
APPULEIUS  or  APULEIUS,  of  Medaura  in  Africa, 
was  born  about  A.D.  130,  of  respectable  parents. 
He  received  the  first  rudiments  of  education  at 
Carthage,  and  afterward  studied  the  Platonic 
philosophy  at  Athens.  He  next  travelled  ex- 
tensively, visitiag  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia,  and 
becoming  initiated  in  most  mysteries.  At  length 
he  returned  home,  but  soon  afterward  undertook 
a  new  journey  to  Alexandrea.  On  his  way 
thither  he  was  taken  ill  at  the  town  of  (Ea,  and 
was  hospitably  received  into  the  house  of  a 
young  man,  Sicinius  Pontianus,  whose  mother, 
a  very  rich  widow  of  the  name  of  Pudentilla, 
he  married.  Her  relatives,  being  indignant  that 
so  much  wealth  should  pass  out  of  the  family, 
impeached  Appuleius  of  gaining  the  affections 
of  Pudentilla  by  charms  and  magic  spells.  The 
cause  was  heard  at  Sabrata  before  Claudius 
Maximus,  proconsul  of  Africa,  AD.  173,  and 
the  defence  spoken  by  Appuleius  is  still  extant. 
Of  his  subsequent  career  we  know  little  :  he 
occasionally  declaimed  in  public  with  great  ap- 
plause. The  most  important  of  the  extant  works 
of  Appuleius  are,  1.  Metamorphoseon  sen  de  Asino 
Aureo  Libri  XL  This  celebrated  romance,  to- 
gether with  the  Asinus  of  Lucian,  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  upon  a  work  bearing  the  same 
title  by  a  certain  Lucius  of  Patrae.  It  seems  to 
have  been  intended  simply  as  a  satire  upon  the 
hypocrisy  and  debauchery  of  certain  orders  of 
priests,  the  frauds  of  juggling  pretenders  to  su- 
pernatural powers,  and  the  general  profligacy 
of  public  morals.  There  are  some,  however, 
who  discover  a  more  recondite  meaning,  and 
especially  Bishop  Warburton,  in  his  Divine  Le- 
gation of  Moses,  who  has  at  great  length  en- 
deavored to  prove  that  the  Golden  Ass  was 
written  with  the  view  of  recommending  the  Pa- 
gan religion  in  opposition  to  Christianity,  and 
especially  of  inculcating  the  importance  of  initia- 
tion into  the  purer  mysteries.  The  well-known 
and  beautiful  episode  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  is  in- 
troduced in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  books. 
This,  whatever  opinion  we  may  form  of  the  prin- 
cipal narrative,  is  evidently  an  allegory,  and  is 
generally  understood  to  shadow  forth  the  pro- 
gress of  the  soul  to  perfection.  II.  Floridorum 
Libri  IV.  An  Anthology,  containing  select  ex- 


|  tracts  from  various  orations   and  dissertations, 

i  collected,  probably,  by  some  admirer.      IIL  De 

I  Deo  Socratis  Liber.     IV.  De  Dogmate  Platonis 

\  Libri  ires.    The  first  book   contains  some  ac- 

j  count  of  the  speculative  doctrines  of  Plato,  the 

second  of  his  morals,  the  third  of  his  logic.     V 

De  Mundo  Liber.    A  translation  of  the  work 

Kepi  Koapov,  at  one  time  ascribed  to  Aristotle. 

VL  Apologia  sive  De  Magia  Liber.    The  oration 

described  above,  delivered  before  Claudius  Max- 

imus.    The  best  edition  of  the  whole  works  of 

Appuleius  is  by  Hildebrand,  Lips.,  1842. 

APPULEIUS  SATURNINUS.     Vid,  SATURXINTJS. 

APRIES  ('ATrplrif,  'ATrpiaf),  a  king  of  Egypt, 
the  Pharaoh-Hophra  of  Scripture,  succeeded  his 
father  Psammis,  and  reigned  B.C.  595-570.  Af- 
ter an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  Cyrene  he  was 
dethroned  and  put  to  death  by  AMASIS. 

APRONIUS.  1.  Q.,  one  of  the  worst  instru- 
ments of  Verres  in  oppressing  the  Sicilians.  — 
2.  L.,  served  under  Drusus  (A.D.  14)  and  Ger- 
manicus  (15)  in  Germany.  In  20  he  was  pro- 
consul of  Africa,  and  prater  of  Lower  Germany, 
where  he  lost  his  life  in  a  war  against  the  Frisii. 
Apronius  had  two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was 
married  to  Plautius  Silvanus,  the  other  to  Len- 
tulus  Gcetulicus,  consul  in  26. 

[APRVSA  (now  Ausa),  a  river  of  Umbria  in 
Italy,  flowing  near  Ariminum.] 

[APSEUDES  ('A.ipev6jjf),  a  Nereid,  mentioned  in 
the  Iliad  of  Homer.] 

APSIL^E  ('A^tAoi),  a  Scythian  people  in  Col- 
chis, north  of  the  River  Phasis. 

APSINES  ('ktjjivijf),  of  Gadara  in  Phoenicia,  a 
Greek  Sophist  and  rhetorician,  taught  rhetoric 
at  Athens  about  A.D.  235.  Two  of  his  works 
are  extant  :  Hepl  TUV  fieptiv  TOV  KO^ITIKOV  7\,6yov 
~£Xvr)>  which  is  much  interpolated  ;  and  Hepl 
TUV  laxfifiariopevuv  Trpo6/i7]fj.uruv,  both  of  which 
are  printed  in  Walz.,  RJietor.  Greed,  vol.  ix.,  p. 
465,  sqq.,  and  p.  534,  sqq. 

[APSINTHII  ('Aipiv6ioi),  a  people  of  Thrace. 
said  by  Herodotus  to  border  on  the  Thraciau 
Chersonesus.] 

APSUS  (now  Crevasta),  a  river  in  Ulyria  (Nova 
Epirus),  which  flows  into  the  Ionian  Sea 

APSYRTUS.     Vid.  ABSYRTUS. 

APTA  JULIA  (now  Apt),  chief  town  of  the  Vul- 
gientes  in  Gallia  Narboneusis,  and  a  Roman 
colony. 

APTERA  ('Asrepa  :  'AnrepaZof  :  now  Palceo- 
kastron  on  the  Gulf  of  Suda),  a  town  on  the  west 
coast  of  Crete,  eighty  stadia  from  Cydouin. 

APUANI,  a  Ligurian  people  on  the  Macra,  were 
subdued  bv  the  Romans  after  a  long  resistance 
and  transplanted  to  Samnium,  B.C.  180. 

APULEIUS.     Vid.  APPULEIUS. 

APULIA  (Apultis),  included,  in  its  widest  sig- 

nification, the  whole  of  the  southeast  of  Italv 

from  the  River  Frento  to  the  promontory  lapy- 

giuni,  and  was  bounded  on  the   north  by  the 

Frentani,  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic,  on  the 

j  south  by  the  Tarentine  Gulf,  and  on  the  west 

1  by  Samnium  and  Lucania,  thus   including  the 

i  modern  provinces  of  Bari,  Otranto,  and  Capi- 

tanata,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.     Apulia,  in  it? 

narrower  sense,  was  the  country  east  of  Sam- 

|  nium  on  both  sides  of  the  Aufidus,  the  Daunin 

and  Peucetia  of  the  Greeks  :  the  whole  of  the 

southeastpart  was  called  Calabria  by  the  Ilo- 

!  mans.      The  Greeks  gave  the  name  of  Dni.nia 

79 


AQU^E. 

to  the  north  part  of  the  country  from  the  Frcnto 
to  the  Aufidus,  of  Peucetia  to  the  country  from 
the  Aufidus  to  Tarentum  and  Brundisiurn,  and 
of  lapygia  or  Mcssapia  to  the  whole  of  the  re- 
maining south  part,  though  they  sometimes  in- 
cluded under  lapygia  all  Apulia  in  its  widest 
meaning.  The  northwest  of  Apulia  is  a  plain, 
but  the  south  part  is  traversed  by  the  east  branch 
of  the  Apennines,  and  has  only  a  small  tract  of 
land  on  the  coast  on  each  side  of  the  mountains. 
The  country  was  very  fertile,  especially  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Tarentum,  and  the  mountains 
afforded  excellent  pasturage.  The  population 
was  of  a  mixed  nature  :  they  were,  for  uie  most 
part,  of  Illyrian  origin,  and  are  said  to  have  set- 
tled in  the  country  under  the  guidance  of  lapyx, 
Daunus,  and  Peucetius,  three  sons  of  an  lllyr- 
iau  king,  Lycaon.  Subsequently  many  towns 
were  founded  by  Greek  colonists.  The  Apu- 
lians  joined  the  Sarnnites  against  the  Romans, 
and  became  subject  to  the  latter  on  the  conquest 
of  the  Samnites. 

AQU^E,  the  name  given  t>y  the  Romans  to 
many  medical  springs  and  bathing-places.  1. 
AUUELI.C  or  COLONIA  AURELIA  AQUEXSIS  (now 
Badcn-Badcn).  2.  CALID.E  or  Sous  (now  Bath) 
in  Britain.  3.  CUTILLE,  mineral  springs  in  Sam- 
nitim  near  the  ancient  town  of  Cutilia,  which 
perished  in  early  times,  and  east  of  Reate. 
There  was  a  celebrated  lake  in  its  neighborhood 
with  a  floating  island,  which  was  regarded  as 
the  umbilicus  or  centre  of  Italy.  Vespasian 
died  at  this  place.  4.  MATTIAC.*  or  FOXTES 
MATTIACI  (now  Wiesbaden),  in  the  land  of  the 
Mattiaci  in  Germany.  5.  PATAVIN^E  (vid.  APOXI 
Foxs).  6.  SEXTLS  (aovr-Aix),  a  Roman  colony 
in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  founded  by  Sextius  Cal- 
vinus,  B.C.  122  ;  its  mineral  waters  were  long 
celebrated,  but  were  thought  to  have  lost  much 
of  their  efficacy  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  Near 
this  place  Marius  defeated  the  Teuton!,  B.C. 
102.  7.  STATIELLJE  (now  Acqui),  a  town  of  the 
Statielli  in  Liguria,  celebrated  for  its  warm 
baths. 


,  in  Africa.  1.  (Now  Meriga,  ruins),  in 
the  interior  of  Mauretania  Caesariensis.  —  2.  CA- 
LID.S  (now  Gurbos  or  Hammam  I'  Enf),  on  the 
Gulf  of  Carthage.  —  3.  REGIME  (now  Hammam 
Tmzza),  in  the  north  part  of  Byzacena.  —  4. 
TACAPITAX.E  (now  Hammat-el-Khabs),  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  Byzacena,  close  to  the 
large  city  of  Tacape  (now  Jfhabs). 

AQUILA.  1.  Of  Pontus,  translated  the  Old 
Testament  into  Greek  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian, 
probably  about  A.D.  130.  Only  a  few  fragments 
remain,  which  have  been  published  in  the  edi- 
tions of  the  Hexapla  of  Origen.  —  2.  JULIUS 
AQUILA,  «i  Roman  jurist  quoted  in  the  Digest, 
probably  lived  under  or  before  the  reign  of  Sep- 
timius  Severus,  A.D.  193-198.—  3.  L.  PONTIUS 
AQUILA,  a  friend  of  Cicero,  and  one  of  Caesar's 
murderers,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Mutina, 
B.C.  43.  —  4.  AQUILA  ROMAXUS,  a  rhetorician  who 
probably  lived  in  the  third  century  after  Christ, 
wrote  a  small  work  entitled  De  Figuris  Senten- 
tiarum  et  Elocutionis,  which  is  usually  printed 
with  Rutilius  Lupus.  —  Editions:  By  Ruhnken, 
Lugd.  Bat,  1768,  reprinted  with  additional  notes 
by  Frotscher,  Lips.,  1831. 

AQUILARIA  (now  Alhowareafi),  a  town  on  the 
coast  of  Zeugitana  in  Africa,  on  the  west  side 
80 


ARA  UBIORUM. 

of  Hermaeum  Promontorium  (now  Cape  Bvn\ 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Carthage 
It  was  a  good  landing-place  in  summer. 

AQUILEIA  (Acjuileiensis :  now  Aquileia  or 
Aglar),  a  town  in  Gullia  Transpadaua,  at  the 
very  top  of  the  Adriatic,  between  the  rivers 
Sontius  and  Natiso,  about  sixty  stadia  from  the 
sea.  It  was  founded  by  the  Romans  in  B.C. 
182  as  a  bulwark  against  the  northern  barbari- 
ans, and  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
the  favorable  omen  of  an  eagle  (aquila)  appear- 
ing to  the  colonists.  As  it  was  the  key  of  Italy 
on  the  northeast,  it  was  made  one  of  the  strong- 
est fortresses  of  the  Romans.  From  its  posi- 
tion it  became  also  a  most  flourishing  place  of 
commerce :  the  Via  ^Emih'a  was  continued  to 
this  town,  and  from  it  all  the  roads  to  Rae- 
tia,  Noricum,  Pannonia,  Istria,  and  Dalmatia 
branched  off.  It  was  taken  and  completely  de- 
stroyed by  Attila  in  A.D.  452 :  its  inhabitants 
escaped  to  the  Lagoons,  where  Venice  was  after- 
ward built. 

AQUILLIA  VIA,  began  at  Capua,  and  ran  south 
through  Nola  and  Nuceria  to  Salcrnum;  from 
thence  it  ran  through  the  very  heart  of  Luca- 
uia  and  the  country  of  the  Bruttii,  passing  Neru- 
lum,  Interamnia,  Cosentia,  Vibo,  and  Medina,  and 
terminated  at  Rhegium. 

AQUILLIUS  or  AQUILIUS.  1.  M',  consul  B.C. 
129,  finished  the  war  against  Aristonicus,  son 
of  Eumenes  of  Pergamus.  On  his  return  to 
Rome  he  was  accused  of  maladministration  in 
his  province,  but  was  acquitted  by  bribing  the 
judges. — 2.  M'.,  consul  in  B.C.  101,  conquered 
the  slaves  in  Sicily,  who  had  revolted  under 
Atheuion.  In  98  he  was  accused  of  maladmin- 
istration in  Sicily,  but  was  acquitted.  In  88  he 
went  into  Asia  as  one  of  the  consular  legates 
in  the  Mithradatic  war :  he  was  defeated,  and 
handed  over  by  the  inhabitants  of  Mytilene  to 
Mithradatcs,  who  put  him  to  death  by  pouring 
molten  gold  down  his  throat. 

AQUILLIUS  GALLUS.     Vid.  GALLUS. 

AQUILOXIA  (Aquilonus),  a  town  of  Samnium, 
east  of  Bovianum,  destroyed  by  the  Romans  in 
the  Samnite  ware. 

AQUIXUM  (Aquinas :  now  Aquino),  a  town  of 
the  Volscians,  east  of  the  River  Melpis,  in  a  fer- 
tile country ;  a  Roman  municipium,  and  after- 
ward a  colony ;  the  birth-place  of  Juvenal ;  cel- 
ebrated for  its  purple  dye.  (Hor.,  Ep.,  i.,  10, 
27.) 

AQUITANIA.  1.  The  country  of  the  Aquitani, 
extended  from  the  Garumna  (now  Garonne)  tc 
the  Pyrenees,  and  from  the  ocean  to  Gallia  Nar- 
boneusis :  it  was  first  conquered  by  Caesar's  le- 
gates, and  again  upon  a  revolt  of  the  inhabitants 
in  the  time  of  Augustus. — 2.  The  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Aquitania,  formed  io  the  reign  of  Au- 
justus,  was  of  much  wider  extent,  and  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Ligeris  (now  Loire), 
on  the  west  by  the  ocean,  on  the  south  by  the 
Pyrenees,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Mous  Ceven- 
na,  which  separated  it  from  Gallia  Narbonensis. 
The  Aquitani  were  one  of  the  three  races  which 
inhabited  Gaul ;  they  were  of  Iberian  or  Span- 
ish origin,  and  differed  from  the  Gauls  and  Bel- 
gians in  language,  customs,  and  physical  pecu- 
liarity. 

ARA  UBIORUM,  a  place  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Bonn  in  Germany,  perhaps  Qodesbcrg :  others 


ARABIA. 


ARABIA. 


'suppose  it  to  be  another  name  of  Colonia  Agrip- 
pina  (now  Cologne). 

ARABIA  (rj  'Apafiia  :  'Apaij>,  pi.  *Apa5e£,  "Apafioi, 
Arabs,  Ai-abus,  pi.  Arabes,  Arabi:  now  Arabia), 
a  country  at  the  southwest  extremity  of  Asia, 
forming  a  large  peninsula,  of  a  sort  of  hatchet- 
shape,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  AEABICUS 
SINUS  (now  Red  Sea),  on  the  south  and  south- 
east by  the  ERYTHR^EUM  MAKE  (now  Gulf  of 
Bab-el-Afaiideb  and  Indian  Ocean),  and  on  the 
northeast  by  the  Persicus  Sinus  (now  Persian 
Gulf).  On  the  north  or  land  side  its  bounda- 
ries were  somewhat  indefinite,  but  it  seems  to 
have  included  the  whole  of  the  desert  country 
between  Egypt  and  Syria  on  the  one  side,  and 
the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  on  the  other  ;  and  it 
was  often  considered  to  extend  even  further  on 
both  sides,  so  as  to  include,  on  the  east,  the 
southern  part  of  Mesopotamia  along  the  left 
bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and  on  the  west,  the 
part  of  Palestine  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  the 
part  of  Egypt  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
eastern  margin  of  the  Nile  valley,  which,  even 
as  a  part  of  Egypt,  was  called  Arabiae  Nomos. 
In  the  stricter  sense  of  the  name,  which  confines 
it  to  the  peninsula  itself,  Arabia  may  be  consid- 
ered as  Ixjunded  on  the  north  by  a  line  from  the 
head  of  the  Red  Sea  (at  Suez)  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Tigris  (now  Skat-el-Arab),  which  just  about 
coincides  with  the  parallel  of  thirty  degrees  north 
latitude.  It  was  divided  into  three  parts :  (1.) 
ARABIA  PETR^EA  (if  Trerpaia  'Apadia:  northwest 
part  of  El-Hejaz),  including  the  triangular  piece 
of  land  between  the  two  heads  of  the  Red  Sea 
(the  peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai)  and  the  country 
immediately  to  the  north  and  northeast,  and 
called,  from  its  capital,  Petra,  while  the  literal 
signification  of  the  name, "  Rocky  Arabia,"  agrees 
also  with  the  nature  of  the  country :  (2.)  ARA- 
BIA DESERTA  (now  El-Jebel),  including  the  great 
Syrian  Desert,  and  a  portion  of  the  interior  of 
the  Arabian  peninsula :  (3.)  ARABIA  FELIX  (now 
El-Nejed,  El-Hejaz,  El- Yemen,  El-Hadramaut, 
Oman,  and  El-Hejer)  consisted  of  the  whole 
country  not  inclnded  in  the  other  two  divisions ; 
the  ignorance  of  the  ancients  respecting  the 
interior  of  the  peninsula  leading  them  to  class 
it  with  Arabia  Felix,  although  it  properly  be- 
longs to  Arabia  Deserta,  for  it  consists,  so  far  as 
it  is  known,  of  a  sandy  desert  of  steppes  and 
table  laud,  interspersed  with  Oases  (  Wadis),  and 
fringed  with  mountains,  between  which  and  the 
sea,  especially  on  the  western  coast,  lies  a  belt 
of  low  land  (called  Teh  amah),  intersected  by 
numerous  mountain  torrents,  which  irrigate  the 
strips  of  land  on  their  banks,  and  produce  that 
fertility  which  caused  the  ancients  to  apply 
the  epithet  of  Felix  to  the  whole  peninsula. 
The  width  of  the  Tehamah  is,  in  some  places 
on  the  western  coast,  as  much  as  from  one  to 
two  days'  journey,  but  on  the  other  sides  it 
is  very  narrow,  except  at  the  eastern  end  of 
the  peninsula  (about  Muskal  in  Oman),  where 
for  a  small  space  its  width  is  again  a  day's 
journey.  The  inhabitants  of  Arabia  were  of 
the  race  called  Semitic  or  Aramajan,  and  closely 
related  to  the  Israelites.  The  northwestern  dis- 
trict (Arabia  Petrsea)  was  inhabited  by  the 
various  tribes  which  constantly  appear  in  Jew- 
Uh  history :  the  Amalekites,  Midiauites,  Edoru- 
ites,  Moabites,  Ammonites,  «tc.  The  Greeks 
6 


and  Romans  called  the  inhabitants  by  the  name 
of  NABATH^EI,  whose  capital  was  Petra.  The 
people  of  Arabia  Deserta  were  called  Arabes 
SceuitaB  C^Kijvlrai),  from  their  dwelling  in  tents, 
and  Arabes  Nomades  (No//ddef),  from  their 
mode  of  life,  which  was  that  of  wandering 
herdsmen,  who  supported  themselves  partly  by 
their  cattle,  and  to  a  great  extent,  also,  by  the 
plunder  of  caravans,  as  their  unchanged  de 
scendants,  the  Bedouins  or  Bedawce,  still  do 
The  people  of  the  Tehamah  were  (and  are)  of 
the  same  race ;  but  their  position  led  them  at 
an  early  period  to  cultivate  both  agriculture 
and  commerce,  and  to  build  considerable  cities. 
Their  chief  tribes  were  known  by  the  follow- 
ing names,  beginning  south  of  the  Nabathaei 
on  the  western  coast :  the  Thamydeni  and  Minaei 
(in  the  southern  part  of  Hejaz),  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Macoraba  (now  Mecca) ;  the  Saba?i 
and  Homeritae,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
peninsula  (now  Yemen);  on  the  southeastern 
coast,  the  Chatramolltse  and  Adramltae  (in  El- 
Hadramaut,  a  country  very  little  known,  even 
to  the  present  day) ;  on  the  eastern  and  north- 
eastern coast,  the  Omamtae  and  Daracheni  (in 
Oman,  and  El-Ahsa  or  El-Hejer).  From  the 
earliest  known  period  a  considerable  traffic 
was  carried  on  by  the  people  in  the  north  (espe 
cially  the  Nabathaei)  by  means  of  caravans, 
and  by  those  on  the  southern  and  eastern  coast 
by  sea,  in  the  productions  of  their  own  country 
(chiefly  gums,  spices,  and  precious  stones),  and 
in  those  of  India  and  Arabia.  Besides  this 
peaceful  intercourse  with  the  neighboring  coun. 
tries,  they  seem  to  have  made  military  expe 
ditions  at  an  early  period,  for  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  Hyksos  or  "  Shepherd-kings,' 
who  for  some  time  ruled  over  Lower  Egypt. 
were  Arabians.  On  the  other  hand,  they  have 
successfully  resisted  all  attempts  to  subjugate 
them.  The  alleged  conquests  of  some  of  the 
Assyrian  kings  could  only  have  affected  small 
portions  of  the  country  on  the  north.  Of  the 
Persian  empire  we  are  expressly  told  that  they 
were  independent  Alexander  the  Great  died 
too  soon  even  to  attempt  his  contemplated 
scheme  of  circumnavigating  the  peninsula  and 
subduing  the  inhabitants.  The  Greek  kings  of 
Syria  made  unsuccessful  attacks  upon  the  Naba- 
thaei. Under  Augustus,  ^Elius  Gallus,  assisted 
by  the  Nabathaei,  made  an  expedition  into  Ara- 
bia Felix,  but  was  compelled  to  retreat  intfl 
Egypt  to  save  his  army  from  famine  and  the 
climate.  Under  Trajan,  Arabia  Petroea  was 
conquered  by  A.  Cornelius  Palma  (A.D.  107), 
and  the  country  of  the  Nabathaei  became  a  Ro- 
man province.  Some  partial  and  temporary 
footing  was  gained  at  a  much  later  period,  on  th« 
southwestern  coast,  by  the  ^Ethiopians;  and 
both  in  this  direction  and  from  the  north  Chris 
tiauity  was  early  introduced  into  the  country, 
where  it  spread  to  a  great  extent,  and  continued 
to  exist  side  by  side  with  the  old  religion  (which 
was  Sabaism,  or  the  worship  of  heavenly  bo- 
dies), and  with  some  admixture  of  Judaism, 
until  the  total  revolution  produced  by  the  rise 
of  Mohammedanism  in  622.  While  maintain 
ing  their  independence,  the  Arabs  of  the  Desert 
have  also  preserved  to  this  day  their  ancient 
form  of  government,  which  is  strictly  patri- 
archal, under  the  heads  of  tribes  and  families 
81 


ARABICUS   SINUS. 

(Emirt  and  Sheiks).  In  the  more  settled  dis- 
tricts, the  patriarchal  authority  passed  into  the 
hands  of  kings,  and  the  people  were  divided 
into  the  several  castes  of  scholars,  warriors, 
n^rieulturists,  merchants,  and  mechanics.  The 
Mohammedan  revolution  lies  beyond  our  limits. 

ARABICUS  SINUS  (6  'Apafanof  *6/l-of:  now 
Red  Sea),  a  long  narrow  gulf  between  Africa 
and  Arabia,  connected  on  the  south  with  the 
Indian  Ocean  by  the  Angustiaa  Divze  (uow  Straits 
of  Bab-el-Mandcb),  and  on  the  north  divided  into 
two  heads  by  the  peninsula  of  Arabia  Petrsea 
(now  Peninsula  of  Sinai),  the  east  of  which  was 
called  Sinus  ^Elanites  or  ^Elaniticus  (now  Gulf 
of  Akaba),  and  the  west  Sinus  Heroopolites  or 
Heroopoliticus  (now  Gulf  of  Suez).  The  upper 
part  of  the  sea  was  known  at  a  very  early  pe- 
riod, but  it  was  not  explored  in  its  whole  ex- 
tent till  the  maritime  expeditions  of  the  Ptole- 
mies. Respecting  its  other  name,  see  ERYTU- 
n.Kv.M  MARE. 

ABABIS  ('Apa6if,  also  'Apu6tof,  *Ap6if,  'Apra- 
tif,  and  'ApTilBcof.  now  Poorally  or  Agbor),  a 
river  of  Gedrosia,  falling  into  the  Indian  Ocean 
1000  stadia  (100  geographical  miles)  west  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Indus,  and  dividing  the  Orltae  on 
its  west  from  the  Arabltae  or  Arbies  on  its 
cast,  who  had  a  city  named  Arbis  on  its  eastern 
bank. 

AEABIT^E.     Vid.  ARABIS. 

[ARABIUS  (Scholasticus),  a  Grecian  poet,  prob- 
ubly  in  the  time  of  Justinian,  who  has  left  seven 
epigrams,  which  are  found  in  the  Anthologia 
(trpca.] 

ARACHNJEUM  ('Apaxvalov),  a  mountain  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  Argolis  and  Corin- 
:hia. 

ARACH.NE,  a  Lydian  maiden,  daughter  of  Id- 
uion  of  Colophon,  a  famous  dyer  in  purple. 
Arachne  excelled  in  the  art  of  weaving,  and, 
proud  of  her  talent,  ventured  to  challenge  Hl- 
uerva  (Athepa)  to  compete  with  her.  Arachue 
produced  a  piece  of  cloth  in  which  the  amours  of 
the  gods  were  woven,  and  as  Minerva  (Athena) 
could  find  no  fault  with  it,  she  tore  the  work  to 
pieces.  Arachne,  in  despair,  hung  herself:  the 
goddess  loosened  the  rope  and  saved  her  life,  but 
the  rope  was  changed  into  a  cobweb  and  Arachne 
herself  into  a  spider  (upuxvn),  the  animal  most 
xlious  to  Miuerva  (Athena).  (Ov.,  Met.  vl,  1, 
>eq.)  This  fable  seems  to  suggest  the  idea  that 
nan  learned  the  art  of  weaving  from  the  spider, 
and  that  it  was  invented  in  Lydia. 

ARACHOSIA  ('Apaxuala :  'Apaxuroi  or  -urai : 
southeastern  part  of  Afghanistan  and  northeast- 
ern part  of  Beloochistan),  one  of  the  extreme  east- 
ern provinces  of  the  Persian  (and  afterward  of  the 
Parthian)  empire,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Indus,  on  the  north  by  the  Paroparnisadse,  on  the 
west  by  Drangiana,  and  on  the  south  by  Gedro- 
sia, It  was  a  fertile  country,  watered  by  the 
River  Arachotus,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name, 
built  by  Semiramis,  and  which  was  the  capital 
of  the  province  until  the  foundation  of  ALEXAN- 
DREA.  The  shortest  road  from  Persia  to  India 
passed  through  Araohosia. 

ARACBOTUS.     Vid.  ARACHOSIA. 

ARACBTBrs  or  ARETHO  ('Apa^Qof  or  'Ape6uv : 

now  Arta),  g.  river  of  Epirus,  rises  in  Mount 

Lacmon  or  the  Tymphean  Mountains,  and  flows 

into  the  Arnbracian  Gulf,  south  of  Ambracia  • 

82 


ARATUS. 

it  is  deep  and  difficult  to  cross,  and  navigable  up 
to  Ambracia. 

[ARACIA  ('ApaKia),  or  Alexandri  Insula  (now 
Charedsch  or  Jfarek),  an  island  in  the  Persian 
Gulf,  opposite  the  coast  of  Persis,  containing  :i 
mountain  sacred  to  Neptune.] 

ARACYNTHUS  (*Apdian>6ot :  now  Zigos),  a  mount- 
ain on  the  southwest  coast  of  ^Etolia,  near  Pleu- 
ron,  sometimes  placed  in  Acaniauia.  Later 
writers  erroneously  make  it  a  mountain  betwei-n 
Boaotia  and,  Attica,  and  hence  mention  it  in  con- 
nection witb  Amphion,  the  Bcrrotiau  hero.  (Pro- 
pert,  iii.,  13,  41 ;  Actcco  (i.  e,  Attico)  Araci/n/ho, 
Virg.,  Ed.,  ii.,  24.) 

ARADUS  (  "ApaJof :  "ApaJtof,  Aradius :  in  Old 
Testament,  Arvad  :  now  Ruad),  an  island  oft' 
the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  at  the  distance  of  twenty 
stadia  (two  geographical  miles),  with  a  city  which 
occupied  the  whole  surface  of  the  island,  seven 
stadia  in  circumference,  which  was  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  exiles  from  Sidon,  and  which 
was  a  very  flourishing  place  under  its  own  kiugs, 
under  the  Seleucidse,  and  under  the  Romans. 
It  possessed  a  harbor  on  the  main  land,  called 
ANTARADUS. 

PHIL^ENORUM.     Vid.  PHII^EXORUM  AR^E. 

('ApaiOvpca),  daughter  of  Aras, 
an  autochthon  who  was  believed  to  have  builC 
Arantea,  the  most  ancient  town  in  Phliasia 
After  her  death,  her  brother  Aoris  called  th« 
country  of  Phliasia  Araethyrea,  in  honor  of  hii 
sister. 

AEAPHEN  ('Apafyjv :  'Apcujryvtof,  '  Apa^voQev : 
now  Rafina),  an  Attic  demus  belonging  to  the 
tribe  jEgeis,  on  the  east  of  Attica,  north  of  the 
River  Erasinus,  not  far  from  its  mouth. 

ARAR  or  AUARIS  (now  Saorte),  a  river  of  GauL 
rises  in  the  Vosges,  receives  the  Dubis  (now 
Doubs)  from  the  east,  after  which  it  becomes 
navigable,  and  flows  with  a  quiet  stream  into  the 
Rhone  at  Lugdunum  (now  Lyon).  In  the  time 
of  Ammianus  (A.D.  370)  it  was  also  called  Sau- 
conna,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  Sanyona,  whence 
its  modern  name  Saone. 

[ARARENE  ('Apapijvtj),  a  barren  district  of 
Arabia  Felix,  inhabited  by  nomad  tribes,  through 
which  JElius  Gallus  had  to  make  his  way  in  his 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  subjugate  Arabia.] 

ARAROS  ('Apapuf),  an  Athenian  poet  of  the 
Middle  Comedy,  son  of  Aristophanes,  flourished 
B.C.  375.  [The  fragments  of  his  comedies  are 
collected  in  Meineke's  Fragm.  Comic.  Grcec.,  voL 
i.,  p.  630-632,  edit,  minor.] 

ARAS.     Vid.  AR^ETHYREA. 

ARASPES  ('Apacrn-^f),  a  Mede,  and  a  friend  of 
the  elder  Cyrus,  is  one  of  the  characters  in  Xen- 
ophon's  Cyrop£edia.  He  contends  with  Cyrus 
that  love  has  no  power  over  him,  but  shortly  af- 
terward refutes  himself  by  falling  in  love  with 
Panthea,  whom  Cyrus  had  committed  to  his 
charge.  Vid.  ABRADATAS. 

ARATUS  ("Aparof).  1.  The  celebrated  general 
of  the  Achaeans,  son  of  Clinias,  was  born  at 
Sicyon,  B.C.  271.  On  the  murder  of  his  father 
by  ABANTIDAS,  Aratus,  who  was  then  a  child,  was 
conveyed  to  Argos,  where  he  was  brought  up. 
When  he  had  reached  the  age  of  twenty,  he 

§aiued  possession  of  his  native  city,  B.C.  251, 
eprived  the  usurper  Nicocles  of  his  power,  and 
!  united   Sicyon   to  the   Achaean    league,,  which 
;  gained,  in  consequence,  a  great    accession  of 


ARAURA. 


ARCADIA. 


power  Vid.  ACHJO.  In  245  he  was  elected 
general  of  the  league,  which  office  he  frequently 
held  in  subsequent  years.  Through  his  influ- 
ence a  great  number  of  the  Greek  cities  joined 
the  league  ;  but  he  excelled  more  in  negotiation 
than  in  war,  and  in  his  war  with  the  yEtoliaus 
and  Spartans  he  was  often  defeated.  In  order 
to  resist  these  enemies,  he  cultivated  the  friend- 
ship of  Antigonus  Doson,  king  of  Macedonia, 
and  of  his  successor  PHjip ;  but  as  Philip  was 
evidently  anxious  to  make  himself  master  of  all 
Greece,  dissensions  arose  between  him  and  Ara- 
tus,  and  the  latter  was  eventually  poisoned  in 
213,  by  the  king's  order.  Divine  honors  were 
paid  to  him  by  his  countrymen,  and  an  annual 
festival  ('Apureia,  vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.)  establish- 
ed. Aratus  wrote  Commentaries,  being  a  his- 
tory of  his  own  times  down  to  B.C.  220,  at 
which  point  POLYBIUS  commenced  his  history. 
— 2.  Of  Soli,  afterward  Pompeiopolis,  in  Cilieia, 
or  (according  to  one  authority)  of  Tarsus,  flour- 
ished B.C.  270,  and  spent  all  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  at  the  court  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  king 
of  Macedonia.  He  wrote  two  astronomical  po- 
ems, entitled  Phenomena  (<^aiv6[ieva),  consisting 
of  732  verses,  and  Dioxemeia  (Aioffrjftsla),  of  422. 
The  design  of  the  Phcenomena  is  to  give  an  in- 
troduction to  the  knowledge  of  the  constella- 
tions, with  the  rules  for  their  risings  and  set- 
tings. The  Diosemeia  consists  of  prognostics 
of  the  weather  from  astronomical  phenomena, 
with  an  account  of  its  effects  upon  animals.  It 
appears  to  be  an  imitation  of  Hesiod,  and  to 
have  been  imitated  by  Virgil  in  some  parts  of 
the  Georgics.  The  style  of  these  two  poems  is 
distinguished  by  elegance  and  accuracy,  but  it 
wants  originality  and  poetic  elevation.  Tliat 
thjy  became  very  popular  both  in  the  Grecian 
aLa  Roman  world  (cum  sole  et  luna  semper  Ara- 
tu<s  erit,  Ov.,  Am^  i.,  15,  16),  is  proved  by  the 
number  of  commentaries  and  Latin  translations. 
Parts  of  three  poetical  Latin  translations  are 
preserved.  One  written  by  Cicero  when  very 
young,  one  by  Caesar  Germauicus,  the  grand- 
son of  Augustus,  and  one  by  Festus  Avienus. 
— Editions.  [Most  copious  and  complete,  by 
Buhle,  Lips.,  1793-1801,  2  vols. ;  later,  with  re- 
vised text},  by  Voss,  Heidelb.,  1824,  with  a  Ger- 
man poetical  version ;  by  Butt  matin,  Berol., 
•1826;  and  by  Bekker,  Berol.,  1828. 

[ARAURA  (now  St.  Tiberi),  earlier  Cessero,  a 
town  of  the  Voloe  Arecomici,  on  the  Arauris, 
in  Gallia  Narbonensia] 

ARAURIS  (now  Jferault),  erroneously  Rauraris 
in  Strabo,  a  river  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  rises 
in  Mount  Cevenna,  and  flows  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

ARAUSIO  (now  Orange,)  a  town  of  the  Cavari 
or  Cavares,  and  a  Roman  colony,  in  Gallia  Nar- 
bonensis,  on  the  road  from  Arelate  to  Vienna : 
it  still  contains  remains  of  an  amphitheatre, 
circus,  acqueduct,  triumphal  arch,  «tc. 

ARAXES  ('ApuS-yc),  the  name  of  several  rivers. 
— 1.  In  Armenia  Major  (now  Eraskh  or  Arat), 
rises  in  Mount  Aba  or  A  bus  (near  Erzerawn), 
from  the  opposite  side  of  which  the  Euphrates  , 
flows ;  and,  after  a  great  bend  southeast,  and 
then   northeast,  joins   the   Cyrus  (now   Kour\  I 
which  flows  down   from  the  Caucasus,  and  falls  j 
with  it  into  the  Caspian  by  two  mouths,  in  about 
89°  20'  north  latitude.    The  lower  part,  past  AR-  j 


TAXATA,  flows  through  a  plain,  which  was  call 
ed  TO  'Apa^rjvbv  xediov.  The  A  raxes  was  pro- 
verbial for  the  force  of  its  current ;  and  hence 
Virgil  (J£H^  viii.,  728)  says  pontem  indignatu* 
Araxes,  with  special  reference  to  the  failure  of 
both  Xerxes  and  Alexander  in  throwing  a  bridge 
over  it  It  seems  to  be  the  Phasis  of  Xeno- 
phon. — 2.  In  Mesopotamia.  Vid.  ABORRHAS. 
— 3.  In  Persis  (now  Bend-Emir),  the  river  on 
which  Persepolis  stood,  rises  in  the  mountains 
east  of  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  flows 
southeast  into  a  salt  lake  (now  Bakhtegan)  not 
far  below  Persepolis. — 4.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  Araxes  of  Herodotus  is  the  same  as  the 
Oxus,  JAXARTES,  or  Volga. — 5.  The  PENEUS,  in 
Thessaly,  was  called  Araxes  from  the  violence 
of  its  torrent  (from  apuaau). 

AKAXUS  (*Apa£of :  now  Cape  Papa),  &  prom- 
ontory of  Achaia,  near  the  confines  of  Elis. 

ARBACES  ('ApBuKTjf),  the  founder  of  the  Medi- 
an empire,  according  to  Ctesias,  is  said  to  have 
taken  Nineveh  in  conjunction  with  Belesis,  the 
Babylonian,  and  to  have  destroyed  the  old  As- 
syrian empire  under  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus, 
B.C.  876.  Ctesias  assigns  twenty-eight  years 
to  the  reign  of  Arbaces,  B.C.  876-848,  and 
makes  his  dynasty  consist  of  eight  kings.  This 
account  differs  from  that  of  Herodotus,  who 
makes  DEIOCES  the  first  king  of  Media,  and  as- 
signs only  four  kings  to  his  dynasty. 

ARBELA  (TU.  'Apfoj/.a  :  now  Erbille),  a  city  of 
Adiabeue  in  Assyria,  between  the  rivers  Lycus 
and  Caprus  ;  celebrated  as  the  head-quarters  of 
Darius  Codomaonus  before  the  last  battle  in 
which  lie  was  overthrown  by  Alexander  (B.C. 
331),  which  is  hence  frequently  called  the  battle 
of  Arbela,  though  it  was  really  fought  near  GAD 
GASIELA,  about  fifty  miles  west  of  Arbela.  The 
district  about  Arbela  was  called  Arbelltis  ('Ap- 
6rj?itTi^). 

ARBIS.      Vid.  ARABIS. 

[ARBITER.      Vid.  PETROXIUS.] 

ARBUCALA  or  ARBOCALA  (now  Villa  Fasila  ?), 
the  chief  town  of  the  Vaccaei  in  Hispania  Tar- 
racoueusis,  taken  by  Hannibal  after  a  long  re- 
sistance. 

ARBCSCULA,  a  celebrated  female  actor  in  pan- 
tomimes in  the  time  of  Cicero. 

ARCA  or  -M  ('Apicy  or  -at :  now  Tell-Arka),  a 
very  ancient  city  in  the  north  of  Phoenicia,  nol 
far  from  the  sea-coast,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Lebanon :  a  colony  under  the  Romans,  named 
Area  Caesarea  or  Casarea  Libani :  the  birth- 
place of  the  Emperor  Alexander  Severus. 

ARCADIA  ('Apuadia :  'ApKaf,  pL  'Ap/cu(Jef),  a 
country  in  the  middle  of  Peloponnesus,  was 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Argolis,  on  the  north  b_v 
Achaia,  on  the  west  by  Elis,  and  on  the  south 
by  Messenia  and  Lacouica.  Next  to  Laconica 
it  was  the  largest  country  in  the  Peloponnesus 
its  greatest  length  was  about  fifty  miles,  its 
breadth  from  thirty-five  to  forty-one  miles.  It 
was  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  mountain, 
which  likewise  traversed  it  in  every  direction 
and  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  Switzerland  of 
Greece.  Its  principal  mountains  were  Cyllene 
and  Erymanthus  in  the  north,  Artemisius  itr  the 
east,  and  Parthenius;  Maenalus,  and  Lycajtis  in 
the  south  and  southwest  The  Alpha  us,  the 
greatest  river  of  Peloponnesus,  rises  in  Arcadia, 
and  flows  through  a  considerable  part  of  th* 
83 


ARCADIUS 


ARCHEDEMUS. 


country,  i  ,-cciving  numerous  affluents.  The 
northern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  country  -were 
barren  and  unproductive ;  the  western  and  j 
southern  were  more  fertile,  with  numerous  val- 
leys where  corn  was  grown.  The  Arcadians, 
said  to  be  descended  from  the  eponymous  hero 
ARCAS,  regarded  thenselves  as  the  most  ancient 
people  in  Greece :  the  Greek  writers  call  them 
indigenous  (avToxOovef)  and  Pelasgians.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  physical  peculiarity  of  the  coun- 
try, they  were  chiefly  employed  in  hunting  and 
the  tending  of  cattle,  whence  their  worship  of« 
Pan,  who  was  especially  the  god  of  Arcadia,  and 
of  Diana  (Artemis).  They  were  a  people  sim- 
ple in  their  habits  and  moderate  in  their  desires : 
they  were  passionately  fond  of  music,  and  cul- 
tivated it  with  great  success  (soli  cantare  pcriti 
Arcades,  Virg.,  Eel.,  x.,  32),  which  circumstance 
\vas  supposed  to  soften  the  natural  roughness 
of  their  character.  The  Arcadians  experienced 
fewer  chapges  than  any  other  people  in  Greece, 
and  retained  possession  of  their  country  upon 
the  conquest  of  the  rest  of  Peloponnesus  by  the 
Dorians.  Like  the  other  Greek  communities, 
they  were  originally  governed  by  kings,  but  are 
said  to  have  abolished  monarchy  toward  the 
close  of  the  second  Messenian  war,  and  to  have 
stoned  to  death  their  last  king  Aristocrates,  be- 
cause he  betrayed  his  allies  the  Messenians. 
The  different  towns  then  became  independent 
republics,  of  which  the  most  important  were 
MAXTINEA,  TEGEA,  ORCHOMENUS,  PSOPHIS,  and 
PHE.NEOS.  Like  the  Swiss,  the  Arcadians  fre- 
quently served  as  mercenaries,  and  in  the  Pelo- 
pounesian  war,  they  were  found  in  the  armies 
of  both  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Athenians. 
The  Lacedaemonians  made  many  attempts  to 
obtain  possession  of  parts  of  Arcadia,  but  these 
attempts  were  finally  frustrated  by  the  battle 
of  Leuctra  (B.C.  371);  and  in  order  to  resist 
all  future  aggressions  on  the  part  of  Sparta, 
the  Arcadianst  upon  the  advice  of  Epami- 
uondas,  built  the  city  of  MEGALOPOLIS,  and  in- 
stituted a  general  assembly  of  the  whole  na- 
tion, called  the  Myrii  (Mvpioi,  vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq., 
s.  v.).  They  subsequently  joined  the  Achaean 
League,  and  finally  became  subject  to  the  Ro- 
mans. 

ARCADIUS,  emperor  of  the  East  (A.D.  395- 
408),  elder  son  of  Theodosius  I.,  was  born  in 
Spain,  A.D.  383.  On  the  death  of  Theodosius 
he  became  emperor  of  the  East,  while  the  West 
was  given  to  his  younger  brother  Honorius. 
Arcadius  possessed  neither  physical  nor  intel- 
lectual vigor,  and  was  entirely  governed  by  un- 
worthy favorites.  At  first  he  was  ruled  by  Ru- 
finus,  the  praefect  of  the  East ;  and  on  the  mur- 
der of  the  latter  soon  after  the  accession  of 
Arcadius,  the  government  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  eunuch  Eutropius.  Eutropius  was  put  to 
death  in  399,  and  his  power  now  devolved  upon 
Gainas,  the  Goth ;  but  upon  his  revolt  and  death 
in  401,  Arcadius  became  entirely  dependent  upon 
his  wife  Eudoxia,  and  it  was  through  her  influ- 
ence that  Saint  Chrysostom  was  exiled  in  404. 
Arcadius  died  on  the  first  of  May,  408,  leaving 
the  empire  to  his  son,  Theodosius  II,  who  was 
a  minor. 

[ARCADIUS  ('Ap/cadVof),  a  Greek  grammarian 
jf  Antioch,  of  uncertain  date,  but  certainly  not 
earlier  than  200  A.D.    He  wrote  a  useful  work 
84 


on  accents  (nepl  TOVUV),  which  is  extant— Edt 
tiont :  By  Barker,  Leipzig,  1820,  and  by  Dindorl^ 
in  his  Grammat.  Greed,  Leipzig,  1823.J 

AKCANUM.      Vid.  AHPINUM. 

ARCAS  ("Ap/caf),  king  and  eponymous  hero  of 
the  Arcadians,  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Cal- 
listo,  grandson  of  Lycaou,  and  father  of  Aphidaa 
and  Elatus.  Areas  was  the  boy  whose  flesh 
his  grandfather  Lycnon  placed  before  Jupitei 
(Zeus),  to  try  his  di\iue  character.  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  upset  the  table  (rpuTrefa)  which  bore  the 
dish,  and  destroyed  the  house  of  Lycaou  by  light- 
ning, but  restored  Areas  to  life.  When  Arcao 
had  grown  up,  he  built  on  the  site  of  his  father's 
house  the  town  of  Trapezus.  Areas  and  his 
mother  were  placed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  among 
the  stars. 

ARCESILAUS  or  ARCESILAS  ('ApxetTiAaof,  'Ap/ce- 
oihaf),  a  Greek  philosopher,  son  of  Seuthes  or 
Scythes,  was  bom  at  Pitaue  in  ^Eolis,  and  flour 
ished  about  B.C.  250.  He  studied  at  first  in 
his  native  town  under  Autolycus,  a  mathema- 
tician and  afterward  went  to  Athens,  where  he 
became  the  disciple  first  of  Theophrastus,  and 
next  of  Polemo  and  of  Grantor.  He  succeeded 
Crates  about  B.C.  241  in  the  chair  of  the  Acad- 
emy, and  became  the  founder  of  the  second  or 
middle  (fieaif)  Academy.  He  is  said  to  have 
died  in  his  seventy-sixth  year  from  a  fit  of 
drunkenness.  His  philosophy  was  of  a  skep- 
tical character,  though  it  did  not  go  so  far  as 
that  of  the  followers  of  Pyrrbon.  He  did  not 
doubt  the  existence  of  truth  in  itself,  only  our 
capacities  for  obtaining  it,  and  he  combated 
most  strongly  the  dogmatism  of  the  Stoics. 

ARCESILAUS  ('ApKecrt/laof).  1.  Son  of  Lycua 
and  Theobule,  leader  of  the  Boeotians  in  the 
Trojan  war,  slain  by  Hector. — 2.  The  name  of 
four  kings  of  Gyrene.  Vid.  BATTUS  and  BAT- 
TIAD^E.  —  [3.  A  Sicilian,  who  accompanied 
Agathocles  to  Africa,  but,  on  the  departure  of 
the  latter  from  that  country,  murdered  his  son 
Archagathus. — 4.  A  sculptor  in  the  first  cen- 
tury B.C.,  who  was  held  in  high  esteem  at 
Rome :  he  was  intimate  with  L.  Lentulus,  and 
was  greatly  commended  by  Varro.] 

ARCESIUS  ('ApKeiaiof),  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Euryodia,  father  of  Laertes,  and  grandfather 
of  Ulysses.  Hence  both  Laertes  and  Ulysses 
are  called  Arcesiades  ('ApKetaiddrif).  . 

ARCH^EOPOLIS  ('Ap^ato-o/ltf),  the  later  capital 
of  Colchis,  near  the  River  Phasis. 

[ARCHAGATHUS.     Vid.  ARCESILAUS,  3.] 

ARCHAKDROPOLIS  ('Apxuvdpov  vro/ltf),  a  city  of 
Lower  Egypt,  on  the  Nile,  between  Canopus 
and  Cercasorus. 

[ARCHEBATES  ('Apje&m/f),  son  of  Lycaon, 
destroyed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  by  lightning.] 

ARCHEDEMUS  ('Ap^ccty/zof ;  Dor.  'Apxeta/tof). 
1.  A  popular  leader  at  Athens,  took  the  first 
step  against  the  generals  who  had  gained  the 
battle  of  Arginusae,  B.C.  406.  The  comic  poets 
called  him  "  blear-eyed"  (j^afiuv),  and  said  that 
he  was  a  foreigner,  and  had  obtained  the  fran- 
chise by  fraud. — 2.  An  JEtolian  (called  Archi- 
damus  by  Livy),  commanded  the  ^Etolian  troops 
which  assisted  the  Romans  in  their  war  with 
Philip  (B.C.  199-197).  He  afterward  took  an 
active  part  against  the  Romans,  and  eventual- 
ly joined  Perseus,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his 
flight  after  his  defeat  in  168.— 3.  Of  Tarsus,  a 


ARCHEDICUS. 


ARCHIAS. 


Stoic  philosopher,  mentioned  by  Cicero,  Seneca, 
and  other  ancient  writers. 


ARCHEDICUS  ('Ap^t&KOf),  an  Athenian  comic 
poet  of  the  new  comedy,  supported  Antipater 
and  the  Macedonian  party. 

ARCHEGETES  ('Ap^yer^f),  a  surname  of 
Apollo,  probably  in  reference  to  his  being  a 
leader  of  colonies.  It  was  also  a  surname  of 
other  gods. 

ARCHELAIS  ('ApxeAaif).  1.  In  Cappadocia 
(now  Akserai),  on  the  Cappadox,  a  tributary  of 
the  Halys,  a  city  founded  by  Archelaus,  the  last 
king  of  Cappadocia,  and  made  a  Roman  colony 
by  the  Emperor  Claudius.  —  2.  A  town  of  Pales- 
tine, near  Jericho,  founded  by  Archelaus,  the 
son  of  Herod  the  Great. 

ARCHELAUS  ('Apj^eAaof).  1.  Son  of  HEROD 
the  Great,  was  appointed  by  his  father  as  his 
successor,  and  received  from  Augustus  Judaea, 
Samaria,  and  Idumaea,  with  the  title  of  ethnarch. 
In  consequence  of  his  tyrannical  government, 
the  Jews  accused  him  before  Augustus  in  the 
tenth  year  of  his  reign  (A.D.  7):  Augustus 
banished  him  to  Vienna  in  Gaul,  where  he  died. 
—2.  King  of  MACEDONIA  (B.C.  413-399),  an  il- 
legitimate son  of  Perdiccas  II.,  obtained  the 
throne  by  the  murder  of  his  half-brother.  He 
improved  the  internal  condition  of  his  kingdom, 
and  was  a  warm  patron  of  art  and  literature. 
His  palace  was  adorned  with  magnificent  paint- 
ings by  Zeuxis;  and  Euripides,  Agathou,  and 
other  men  of  eminence,  were  among  his  guests. 
According  to  some  accounts,  Archelaus  was  ac- 
cidently  slain  in  a  hunting  party  by  his  favorite, 
Cniterus  or  Crateuas  ;  but,  according  to  other 
accounts,  he  was  murdered  by  Craterus.  —  3.  A 
distinguished  general  of  MITHRADATES.  In  B. 
C.  87  he  was  sent  into  Greece  by  Mithradates 
with  a  large  fleet  and  army;  at  first  he  met 
with  considerable  success,  but  was  twice  de- 
feated by  Sulla  in  86,  near  Chferonea  and  Or- 
chomeuos  in  Boeotia,  with  immense  loss.  There- 
upon he  was  commissioned  by  Mithradates  to 
sue  for  peace,  which  he  obtained  ;  but  subse- 
quently being  suspected  of  treachery  by  the 
kii>g,  he  deserted  to  the  Romans  just  before 
the  commencement  of  the  second  Mithradatic 
war,  B.C.  81,  —  4.  Son  of  the  preceding,  was 
raised  by  Pompey,  in  B.C.  63,  to  the  dignity  of 
priest  of  the  goddess  (Enyo  or  Bellona)  at  Co- 
mana  in  Pontus  or  Cappadocia.  In  56  or  65 
Archelaua  became  king  of  Egypt  by  marrying 
Berenice,  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  who, 
after  the  expulsion  of  her  father,  had  obtained 
the  sovereignty  of  Egypt.  Archelaus,  however, 
was  king  of  Egypt  only  for  six  months,  for  Ga- 
binius  marched  with  an  army  into  Egypt  in  or- 
der to  restore  Ptolemy  Auletes,  and  in  the  bat- 
tle which  ensued,  Archelaus  perished.  —  5.  Son 
of  No.  4,  and  his  successor  in  the  office  of  high- 
priest  of  Comana,  was  deprived  of  his  dignity 
by  Julius  Ca»sar  in  47.  —  6.  Son  of  No.  5,  re- 
ceived from  Antony,  in  B.C.  36,  the  kingdom 
of  Cappadocia,  a  favor  which  he  owed  to  the 
charms  of  his  mother  Glaphyra,  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Actiutn,  Octavianus  not  only  left  Arehe- 
laus  in  the  possession  of  his  kingdom,  but  sub- 
sequently added  to  it  a  part  of  Cilicia  and  Lesser 
Armenia.  But,  having  incurred  the  enmity  of 
Tiberius  by  the  attention  which  he  had  paid  to 
f  Caesar  he  was  summoned  to  Rome  soon  after 


the  accession  of  Tiberius  and  accused  of  trea 
i  son.  His  life  was  spared,  but  he  was  obliged 
1  to  remain  at  Rome,  where  he  died  soon  after, 
!  A.D.  17.  Cappadocia  was  then  made  a  Roman 
j  province. — 7.  A  philosopher,  probably  born  at 
i  Athens,  though  others  make  him  a  native  of 
I  Miletus,  flourished  about  B.C.  450.  The  philo- 
sophical system  of  Archelaus  is  remarkable,  as 
forming  a  point  of  transition  from  the  older  to 
the  newer  form  of  philosophy  in  Greece.  Aa  a 
pupil  of  Anaxagoras,  he  belonged  to  the  Ionian 
school,  but  he  added  to  the  physical  system  of 
his  teacher  some  attempts  at  moral  speculation. 
— 8.  A  Greek  poet,  in  Egypt,  lived  under  the 
Ptolemies,  and  wrote  epigrams,  some  of  which 
are  still  extant  in  the  Greek  Anthology. — 9.  A 
sculptor  of  Priene,  son  of  Apollonius,  made  the 
marble  bas-relief  representing  the  Apotheosis  of 
Homer,  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  Coloa- 
na  family  at  Rome,  and  is  now  in  the  Townley 
Gallery  of  the  British  Museum.  He  probably 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Claudius. 

[ARCHELOCHUS  ('Ap^t^-o^of),  son  of  the  Tro- 
jan Antenor ;  slain  by  Ajax.] 

[ARCHEMACHUS  ('Ap^e/io^of),  a  greek  his- 
torian of  Euboea,  who  wrote  a  work  on  his  na- 
tive country  (~u  Ei6oi'/co),  consisting  of  at  least 
three  books.] 

ARCHEMORUS  ('Ap^e/zopof),  or  OPHELTES,  son 
of  the  Nemean  king  Lycurgus  and  Eurydice. 
When  the  Seven  heroes,  on  their  expedition 
against  Thebes,  stopped  at  Nemea  to  obtain 
water,  Hypsipyle,  the  nurse  of  the  child  Ophel- 
tes,  while  showing  the  way  to  the  Seven,  left 
the  child  alone.  In  the  meantime,  the  child 
was  killed  by  a  dragon,  and  buried  by  the  Seven. 
But  as  Amphiaraus  saw  in  this  accident  an 
omen  boding  destruction  to  him  and  his  com- 
panions, they  called  the  child  Archemorus,  that 
is,  "  Forerunner  of  Death,''  and  instituted  the 
Nemean  games  in  honor  of  him. 

[ARCHEPTOLEMCS  ('Ap^eTr-oAc/wf),  son  of  Iph- 
itus,  charioteer  of  Hector,  was  slain  by  Teucer.] 

[ARCHESTRATUS  ('Ap^firrparof),  one  of  the  ten 
generals  appointed  to  supersede  Alcibiades  in 
the  command  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  after  the 
battle  of  Notium,  B.C.  407. — 2.  A  member  of 
the  /Jov/l?/  at  Athens,  who,  during  the  siege  of 
the  city,  after  the  battle  of  JSgospotami,  BC. 
405,  was  thrown  into  prison  for  advising  capitu- 
lation on  the  terms  proposed  by  Sparta.] 

ARCHESTPATUS  ('Ap^ttrrparof),  of  Gela  or  Syr- 
acuse, about  B.C.  350,  wrote  a  poem  on  the  Art 
of  Cookery,  which  was  imitated  or  translated 
by  Ennius  in  his  Carmina  Hedypathetica  or  Hedij- 
pathica  (from  ifdvmiOeia). 

[ARCHETIUS,  a  companion  of  Turnus,  slain  by 
Muestheus.] 

ARCHIAS  ('Ap^/af).  1.  An  Heraclid  of  Corinth, 
left  his  country  iu  consequence  of  the  death  of 
ACTION,  and  founded  Syracuse,  B.C.  734,  by 
command  of  the  Delphic  oracle. — [2.  A  Theban, 
who  betrayed  the  citadel  (Cadmea)  to  the  Spar- 
tan commander  Phoebidas,  B.C.  382.  He  was 
at  the  head  of  the  party  in  the  interest  of  Spar- 
ta, but  was  slain  by  the  Thebau  exiles  under 
Pelopidas. — 3.  Of  THURII,  originally  an  actor, 
was  sent,  B.C.  822.  after  the  battle  of  Cranon, 
t<>  apprehend  the  orators  whom  Antipater  had 
demanded  of  the  Athenians,  and  who  had  fled 
from  Athens.  Vid.  HTPERIDES  and  DEMOSTII& 
85 


ARCHIDAMIA. 


ARCHILOCHUS. 


JCES.  He  was  nicknamed  bv/aiodqpas,  "  exile- 
hunter  ;"  and  ended  his  life,  as  be  deserved,  iu 
poverty  and  disgrace.] — 4.  A.  LICINIUS  AECHIAS, 
u  Greek  poet,  bora  at  Antiocb  iu  Syria,  about 
B.C.  120,  very  early  obtained  celebrity  by  bis 
verses.  In  102  he  caine  to  Rome,  and  \vas  re- 
ceived in  the  most  friendly  way  by  many  of  the 
Roman  nobles,  especially  by  the  Luculli,  from 
whom  be  afterward  obtained  the  gentile  name 
of  Licinius.  After  a  short  stay  at  Rome  he  ac- 
companied L.  Lucullus,  the  elder,  to  Sicily,  and 
followed  him,  in  the  banishment  to  which  he 
was  sentenced  for  his  management  of  the  slave 
war  in  that  island,  to  Heraclea  in  Lucauia,  in 
which  town  Archias  was  enrolled  as  a  citizen  ; 
and  as  this  town  was  a  state  united  with  Rome 
by  &f<edus,  he  subsequently  obtained  the  Ro- 
man franchise  in  accordance  with  the  lex  Plau- 
tia  Papiria  passed  in  B.C.  89.  At  a  later  time 
lie  accompanied  L.  Lucullus  the  younger  to 
the  Mithradatic  war.  Soon  after  his  return,  a 
chaise  was  brought  against  him  in  61  of  as- 
suming the  citizenship  illegally,  and  the  trial 
came  on  before  Q.  Cicero,  who  was  praetor  this 
-year.  He  was  defended  by  his  friend  M.  Cicero 
in  the  extent  speech  Pro  Archia,  in  which  the 
orator,  after  briefly  discussing  the  legal  points 
of  the  case,  rests  the  defence  of  his  client  upon 
his  surpassing  merits  as  a  poet,  which  entitled 
him  to  the  Roman  citizenship.  We  may  pre- 
sume that  Archias  was  acquitted,  though  we 
have  no  formal  statement  of  the  fact.  Archias 
wrote  a  poem  on  the  Cimbric  war  in  honor  of 
Marius ;  another  on  the  Mithradatic  war  in  hon- 
or of  Lucullus ;  and  at  the  time  of  his  trial  was 
engaged  on  a  poem  in  honor  of  Cicero's  con- 
sulship. No  fragments  of  these  works  are  ex- 
tant ;  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  epigrams 
preserved  under  the  name  of  Archias  in  the 
Greek  Anthology  were  really  written  by  him. 

[ARCHIDAMIA  ('Apxi^ufieia),  the  priestess  of 
Ceres  (Demeter)  at  Sparta,  who,  through  love 
of  Aristomenes,  set  him  at  liberty  when  he  had 
beeu  taken  prisoner. — 2.  A  Spartan  woman,  who 
distinguished  herself  'by  her  heroic  spirit  when 
Sparta  was  nearly  taken  by  Pyrrhus  in  B.C. 
272,  and  opposed  the  plan  which  had  been  en- 
tertained of  sending  the  women  to  Crete.] 

ARCHIDAMUS  ("Apjtda/iof),  the  name  of  five 
kings  of  Sparta.  1.  Son  of  Anaxidamus,  con- 
temporary with  the  Tegeatan  war,  which  fol- 
lowed soon  after  the  second  Messenian,  B.C. 
668. — 2.  Son  of  Zeuxidamus,  succeeded  his 
grandfather  Leotychides,  and  reigned  B.C.  469- 
427.  During  his  reign,  B.C.  464,  Sparta  was 
made  a  heap  of  ruins  by  a  tremendous  earth- 
quake ;  and  for  the  next  ten  years  he  was  en- 
gaged in  war  against  the  revolted  Helots  and 
Messenians.  Toward  the  end  of  his  reign  the 
Pelopouuesian  war  broke  out :  he  recommend- 
ed his  countrymen  not  rashly  to  embark  in  the 
war.  and  he  appears  to  have  taken  a  more  cor- 
rect view  of  the  real  strength  of  Athens  than 
any  other  Spartan.  After  the  war  had  been  de- 
clared (B.C.  431)  he  invaded  Attica,  and  held 
the  supreme  command  of  the  Peloponnesian 
forces  till  his  death  in  429. — 3.  Grandson  of  No. 
2,  and  son  of  Agesilaus  IL,  reigned  B.C.  361- 
838.  During  the  lifetime  of  his  father  he  took 
an  active  part  in  resisting  the  Thebans  and  the 
various  other  enemies  of  Sparta,  and  in  367  he 
86 


defeated  the  Arcadians  and  Argives  iu  the 
'•  Tearless  Battle,"  so  called  because  he  had 
won  It  without  losing  a  man.  In  362  he  de- 
feuded  Sparta  against  Epaminoudas.  In  the 
third  Sacred  war  (B.C.  856-346)  he  assisted 
the  Phocians.  In  338  he  went  to  Italy  to  aid 
the  Tarentines  against  the  Lucanians,  and  there 
(  fell  in  battle. — 4.  Grandson  of  No.  3,  and  SOD 
of  Eudomidas  L,  was  king  in  B.C.  296,  when 
he  was  defeated  by  Demetrius  Polr  rcetes. — 6. 
Sou  of  Eudamidas  II.,  and  the  brother  of  Agit, 
;  IV.  On  the  murder  of  Agis,  in  B.C.  240,  Ar 
chidamus  fled  from  Sparta,  but  afterward  ob 
tained  the  throne  by  means  of  Aratus.  He  was. 
however,  slain  almost  immediately  after  his  re 
turn  to  Sparta.  He  was  the  last  king  of  the 
Eurypontid  race. 

AECHIGEXES  ('A.pxiy£Vi]f),  an  eminent  Greek 
physician  born  at  Apamea  in  Syria,  practiced 
at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  A.D.  98-117. 
He  published  a  treatise  on  the  pulse,  on  which 
Galen  wrote  a  Commentary.  He  was  the  most 
eminent  physician  of  the  sect  of  the  Eclectici, 
and  is  mentioned  by  Juvenal  as  well  as  by  other 
writers.  Only  a  few  fragments  of  his  works  re- 
main. 

ARCHILOCHUS  ('Apx&oxof),  of  Paros,  was  one 
of  the  earliest  Ionian  lyric  poets,  and  the  first 
Greek  poet  who  composed  Iambic  verses  accord- 
ing to  fixed  rules.  He  flourished  about  B.C.  714- 
676.  He  was  descended  from  a  noble  family, 
who  held  the  priesthood  in  Paros.  His  graud- 
father  was  Tellis,  his  father  Telesiclts,  and  his 
mother  a  slave,  named  Enipo.  In  the  flower 
of  his  age  (between  B.C.  710  and  700),  Archilo- 
chus  went  from  Paros  to  Thasos  with  a  colony, 
of  which  one  account  makes  him  the  leader. 
The  motive  for  this  emigration  can  only  be  con- 
jectured. It  was  most  probably  the  result  of 
a  political  change,  to  which  cause  was  added, 
in  the  case  of  Archilochus,  a  sense  of  personal 
wrongs.  He  had  been  a  suitor  to  Neobule,  one 
of  the  daughters  of  Lycambes,  who  first  prom- 
ised and  afterward  refused  to  give  his  daughter 
to  the  poet.  Enraged  at  this  treatment,  Archil- 
ochus attacked  the  whole  family  in  an  Iambic 
poem,  accusing  Lycambes  of  perjury,  and  his 
daughters  of  the  most  abandoned  lives.  The 
verses  were  recited  at  the  festival  of  Ceres 
(Demeter),  and  produced  such  an  effect,  that 
the  daughters  of  Lycambes  are  said  to  have 
hung  themselves  through  shame.  The  bitter- 
ness which  he  expresses  in  his  poems  toward 
his  native  island  seems  to  have  arisen  in  part 
also  from  the  low  estimation  in  which  he  was 
held,  as  being  the  son  of  a  slave.  Neither  was 
he  more  happy  at  Thasos.  He  draws  the  most 
melancholy  picture  of  his  adopted  country,  which 
he  at  length  quitted  in  disgust.  While  at  Tha 
sos,  he  incurred  the  disgrace  of  losing  his  shield 
in  an  engagement  with  the  Thracians  of  the  op- 
posite continent ;  but  instead  of  being  ashamed 
of  the  disaster,  he  recorded  it  in  his  verse.  At 
length  he  returned  to  Paros,  and  in  a  war  be- 
tween the  Parians  and  the  people  of  Naxos, 
he  fell  by  the  hand  of  a  Naxian  named  Calondas 
or  Corax.  Archilochus  shared  with  his  con- 
temporaries, Thaletas  and  Terpander,  iu  the 
honor  of  establishing  lyric  poetry  throughout 
Greece.  The  invention  of  the  elegy  is  ascribed 
to  him,  as  well  as  to  Callinus ;  but  it  was  on 


ARCHIMEDES. 


ARCTOS. 


his>  satiric  Iambic  poetry  that  bis  fame  was  : 
founded.  His  Iambics  expressed  the  strongest 
feelings  in  the  most  unmeasured  language.  The 
licence  of  Ionian  democracy  and  the  bitterness 
of  a  disappointed  man  were  united  with  the 
highest  degree  of  poetical  power  to  give  them 
force  and  point  The  emotion  accounted  most 
conspicuous  in  his  verses  was  "  rage,"  ''  Archi- 
lochum  proprio  rabies  armavit  iambo."  (Hor., 
Ars.  Poet.,  79.)  The  fragments  of  Archilochus 
are  collected  in  Bergk's  Poet.  Lyrici  Grate.,  and 
by  Liebel,  Archilochi  Heliguice,lAps^  1812,  8vo; 
['2d  edit,  somewhat  enlarged,  Vienna,  1818,  8vo.] 
ARCHIMEDES  ('Aftxtfiq&tf),  of  Syracuse,  the 
most  famous  of  ancient  mathematicians,  was 
born  B.C.  287.  He  was  a  frieud,  if  not  a  kins- 
man, of  Hiei'O,  though  his  actual  condition  in 
life  does  not  seem  to  have  been  elevated.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  life  he  travelled  into  Egypt, 
where  he  studied  under  Couou  the  Samiau,  a 
mathematician  and  astronomer.  After  visiting 
other  countries,  he  returned  to  Syracuse.  Here 
he  constructed  for  Hiero  various  engines  of  war, 
which,  many  years  afterward,  were  so  far  ef- 
fectual in  the  defence  of  Syracuse  against  Mar- 
cellus  as  to  convert  the  siege  into  a  blockade, 
and  delay  the  taking  of  the  city  for  a  consider- 
able time.  The  accounts  of  the  performances 
of  these  engines  are  evidently  exaggerated  ;  and 
the  story  of  the  burning  of  the  Roman  ships  by 
the  reflected  rays  of  the  sun,  though  very  cur- 
rent in  later  times,  is  probably  a  fiction.  He 
superintended  the  building  of  a  ship  of  extraor- 
dinary size  for  Hiero,  of  which  a  description  is 
given  in  Athenceus  (v.,  p.  206,  d.),  where  he  is 
also  said  to  have  moved  it  to  the  sea  by  the  help 
of  a  screw.  He  invented  a  machine  called,  from 
its  form,  Cochlea,  and  now  known  as  the  water- 
screw  of  Archimedes,  for  pumping  the  water 
out  of  the  hold  of  this  vessel  His  most  cele- 
brated performance  was  the  construction  of  a 
sphere ;  a  kind  of  orrery,  representing  the  move- 
ments of  the  heavenly  bodies.  When  Syracuse 
was  taken  (B.C.  212),  Archimedes  was  killed 
by  the  Roman  soldiers,  being  at  the  time  intent 
upon  a  mathematical  problem.  Upon  his  tomb 
was  placed  the  figure  of  a  sphere  inscribed  in 
a  cy Under.  When  Cicero  was  quaestor  in  Sicily 
(76),  he  found  this  tomb  near  one  of  the  gates 
of  the  city,  almost  hid  among  briers,  and  for- 
gotten by  the  Syracusans.  The  intellect  of  Ar- 
chimedes was  of  the  very  highest  order.  He 
possessed,  in  a  degree  never  exceeded,  unless 
by  Newton,  the  inventive  genius  which  discov- 
ers new  provinces  of  inquiry,  and  finds  new 
points  of  view  for  old  and  familiar  objects ;  the 
clearness  of  conception  which  is  essential  to 
the  resolution  of  complex  phenomena  into  their 
constituent  elements ;  and  the  power  and  habit 
of  intense  and  persevering  thought,  without 
which  other  intellectual  gifts  are  comparatively 
fruitless.  The  following  works  of  Archimedes 
have  come  down  to  us :  1.  On  Equiponderants 
Mid  Centres  of  Gravity.  2.  The  Quadrature  of 
the  Parabola.  8.  On  the  Sphere  and  Cylinder. 
4.  OH  Dimension  of  the  Circle.  6.  On  Spirals. 
8.  On  Conoids  and  Spheroids.  7.  The  Arenarius. 
8.  On  Floating  Bodies.  9.  lemmata.  The  best 
edition  of  his  works  is  by  Torelli,  Oxon.,  1792. 
There  is  a  French  translaiion  of  his  works,  with 
notes,  by  F.  Peyrard,  Paris,  1808,  and  an  En- 


glish translation  of  the  Arenarius  by  G.  Ander- 
son, London,  1784. 

ARCHINUS  ('ApjZvof),  one  of  the  leading  Athe 
nians,  who,  with  Thrasybulus  and  Auytus,  over- 
threw  the  government  of  the  Thirty,  B.C.  403. 

ARCHIPPUS  ("Ap^iTTOf).  an  Athenian  poet  of 
the  old  comedy,  about  B.C.  415.  [The  frag- 
ments of  Archippus  are  collected  in  Meineke's 
Fragm.  Comic.  Grcecor^  vol.  i.,  p.  408-415,  edit 
minor.] 

[ARCHIPPUS,  an  ancient  king  of  the  Marrubil 
in  Italy,  one  of  the  allies  of  Turnus  in  his  war 
with  ./Eneas.] 

ARCHYTAS  ('Ap^firaf).  1.  Of  Amphissa,  a 
Greek  epic  poet,  flourished  about  B.C.  300. — 2 
Of  Tarentum,  a  distinguished  philosopher,  math- 
ematician, general,  and  statesman,  probably  liv 
ed  about  B.C.  400,  and  onward,  so  that  he  was 
contemporary  with  Plato,  whose  life  he  is  said 
to  have  saved  by  his  influence  with  the  tyrant 
Dionysius.  He  was  seven  tunes  the  general  of 
his  city,  and  he  commanded  in  several  cam- 
paigns, in  all  of  which  be  was  victorious.  After 
a  life  which  secured  to  him  a  place  among  the 
very  greatest  men  of  antiquity,  he  was  drowned 
while  upon  a  voyage  ou  the  Adriatic.  (Hor., 
Carm.,  i.,  28.)  As  a  philosopher,  he  belonged 
to  the  Pythagorean  school,  and  he  appears  to 
have  been  himself  the  founder  of  a  new  sect 
Like  the  Pythagoreans  in  general,  he  paid  much 
attention  to  mathematics.  Horace  calls  him 
maris  et  terra  nwneroqne  carentis  arena  Menso- 
rem.  To  bis  theoretical  science  he  added  the 
skill  of  a  pratical  mechanician,  and  constructed 
various  macliines  and  automatons,  among  which 
his  wooden  flying  dove  in  particular  was  the 
wonder  of  antiquity.  He  also  applied  mathe- 
matics with  success  to  musical  science,  and 
even  to  metaphysical  philosophy.  His  influence 
as  a  philosopher  was  so  great,  that  Plato  was 
undoubtedly  indebted  to  him  for  some  of  his 
views ;  and  Aristotle  is  thought  by  some  writers 
to  have  borrowed  the  idea  of  his  categories',  as 
well  as  some  of  his  ethical  principles,  from  Ar- 
chytas.  [The  fragments  of  Archytas  are  pub- 
lished in  part  by  Gale,  Opusc.  Mythol.,  Cantab , 
1671,  Arast,  1688;  and  more  fully  by  OreUi, 
Opusc.  Sentent.  et  Moral^  voL  ii.,  p.  234,  *eqql\ 

ARCONNESUS  (' ' hpadwijcog  :  '  Apuovvijaioc).  1. 
An  island  off  the  coast  of  Ionia,  near  Lebedus, 
also  called  Aspis  and  Maoris. — 2.  (Now  Orak 
Ada),  an  island  oif  the  coast  of  Caria,  opposite 
Halicaruassu?,  of  which  it  formed  the  harbor. 

ARCTINUS  ('ApKTivoc),  of  Miletus,  the  most 
distinguished  among  the  cyclic  poets,  probably 
lived  about  B.C.  776.  Two  epic  poems  were 
attributed  to  him.  1.  The  JEthiopis,  which  was 
a  kind  of  continuation  of  Homer's  Iliad :  its 
chief  heroes  were  Memnon,  king  of  the  ^Ethio- 
pians, and  Achilles,  who  slew  him.  2.  The  De- 
struction of  llion,  which  contained  a  description 
of  the  destruction  of  Troy,  and  the  subsequent 
events  until  the  departure  of  the  Greeks.  TTlie 
fragments  of  Arctinus  have  been  collected  by 
Diibner,  Homeri  Carm.  et  Cycli  Epici  Reliq., 
Paris,  1837,  and  by  Diiutzer,  Die  Fragm.  dex  ep. 
Pocsie  bis  auf  Alex.,  Koln,  1840  ;  and  Nachtrag, 
p.  16,  Kolu,  1841.] 

ARCTOPHYLAX.     \rid,  ARCTOS. 

ARCTOS  ("ApKTOf),  "  the  Bear,"  two  constella- 
tions near  the  North  Pole.  1.  THE  GREAT  BEAR 

87 


ARCTURUS. 


ARES. 


:  Ursa  Major},  also  called  the 
Wagon  (up,a£a :  plaustrum).  The  ancient  Ital- 
ian name  of  this  constellation  was  Septem  Tri- 
ones,  that  is,  the  Seven  Ploughing  Oxen,  also  Hep- 
tentrio,  and  with  the  epithet  Major  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Septentrio  Minor,  or  Lesser  Bear: 
hence  Virgil  (-/£»,  iii.,  356)  speaks  of  yeminos- 
que  Triones.  The  Great  Bear  was  also  called  He- 
lice  (&iKT))  from  its  sweeping  round  in  a  curve. — 
2.  THE  LESSEE  or  LITTLE  BEAR  ("Ap/croj-  juicpa: 
Ursa  Minor),  likewise  called  the  Wagon,  was 
first  added  to  the  Greek  catalogues  by  Thales, 
by  whom  it  was  probably  imported  from  the 
East  It  was  also  called  Phaenice  (QoiviKtj),  from 
the  circumstance  that  it  was  selected  by  the 
Phoenicians  as  the  guide  by  which  they  shaped 
their  course  at  sea,  the  Greek  mariners  with 
less  judgment  employing  the  Great  Bear  for  the 

Eurpose ;  and  Cynosura  (Kwofovpa),  dog's  tail, 
•om  the  resemblance  of  the  constellation  to  the 
upturned  curl  of  a  dog's  tail.  The  constella- 
tion before  the  Great  Bear  was  called  Bootes 
(BouTijf)  Arctophylax  ('ApKTo0v?,.a£),  or  Arcturua 
('Ap/cToiipof,  from  ovpof,  guard) ;  the  two  latter 
names  suppose  the  constellation  to  represent  a 
man  upon  the  watch,  and  denote  simply  the  po- 
sition of  the  figure  in  reference  to  the  Great 
Bear,  while  Bootes,  which  is  found  in  Homer, 
refers  to  the  Wagon,  the  imaginary  figure  of 
Bootes  being  fancied  to  occupy  the  place  of  the 
driver  of  the  team.  At  a  later  time  Arctophylax 
became  the  general  name  of  the  constellation, 
and  the  word  Arcturus  was  confined  to  the  chief 
star  in  it.  All  these  constellations  are  connect- 
ed in  mythology  with  the  Arcadian  nymph  CAL- 
LISTO,  the  daughter  of  Lycaon.  Metamorphosed 
by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  upon  the  earth  into  a  she- 
bear,  Callisto  was  pursued  by  her  son  Areas  in 
the  chase,  and  when  he  was  on  the  point  of  kill- 
ing her,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  placed  them  both  among 
the  stars,  Callisto  becoming  the  Great  Bear,  and 
Areas  the  Little  Bear,  or  Bootes.  In  the  poets 
the  ephithets  of  these  stars  have  constant  refer- 
ence to  the  family  and  country  of  Callisto :  thus 
we  find  them  called  Lycaonis  Arctos ;  Manalia 
Arctos  and  Mcenalis  Ursa  (from  Mount  Mzeualus 
in  Arcadia) :  Erymanthis  Ursa  (from  Mount  Ery- 
manthus  in  Arcadia) :  Parrhasides  stellce  (from 
the  Arcadian  town  Parrhasia).  Though  most 
traditions  identified  Bootes  with  Areas,  others 
pronounced  him  to  be  Icarus  or  his  daughter 
Erigone.  Hence  the  Septentriones  are  called 
Boves  Icarii.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq^  p.  147,  148, 
159,  2d  ed. 

ARCTURCS.  Vid.  ARCTOS. 
ARDEA  (Ardeas,  -atis:  now  Ardea).  1.  The 
chief  town  of  the  Rutuli  in  Latium,  a  little  to 
the  left  of  the  River  Numicus,  three  miles  from 
the  sea,  was  situated  on  a  rock  surrounded  by 
marshes,  in  an  unhealthy  district  It  was  one 
of  the  most  ancient  places  in  Italy,  and  was  said 
to  have  been  the  capital  of  Turnus.  It  was 
conquered  and  colonized  by  the  Romans,  B.C. 
442,  from  which  time  its  importance  declined. 
In  its  neighborhood  was  the  Latin  Aphrodisium 
or  temple  of  Venus,  which  was  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  Ardeates. — 2.  (Now  Arde- 
kdn  /),  an  important  town  in  Persia,  southwest 
of  Persepolis. 

[ARDERICCA  ('ApdepiKKa,  now  Akkerkuf?  Hee- 
ren).     1.  A  town  above  Babylon,  where  the  Eu- 
88 


phrates  was  so  diverted  from  its  course  that  it 
passed  three  times  through  this  place — 2.  A 
town  of  Susiana,  not  far  from  Susa ;  perhaps  the 
same  as  the  Aracca  of  later  writers,  where  Da- 
rius Hystaspis  settled  the  captured  Eretrians.J 

[ARDESCUS  ("Apttycr/cof),  a  river  of  European 
Sarmalia,  flowing  into  the  Ister ;  the  god  of  tbis 
stream  was,  according  to  Hcsiodf  a  son  of  Oce- 
anus  and  Tethys.] 

ARDUENNA  SILVA  (now  the  Ardennes),  a  vast 
forest  in  the  northwest  of  Gaul,  extended  from 
the  Rhine  and  the  Treviri  to  the  Nervii  and 
Remi,  and  north  as  far  as  the  Scheldt :  there 
are  still  considerable  remains  of  this  forest, 
though  the  greater  part  of  it  has  disappeared. 

ARDYS  ("Apdvc,),  sou  of  Gyges,  king  of  Lydia, 
reigned  B.C.  678-629:  he  took  Priene,  and  made 
war  against  Miletus. 

AREA  or  ARETIAS  ('Apeta  or  'AprjTiai;  vf/aoe, 
i.  e.,  the  island  of  Ares :  now  Keraxunt  Ada), 
also  called  Chalceritis,  an  island  off  the  coast 
of  Pontus,  close  to  PharnacGa,  celebrated  in  the 
legend  of  the  Argonauts. 

[AREGONIS  ('Ap^yov/f),  wife  of  Ampycus,  and 
mother  of  Mopsus.] 

[AREILYCUS  (JApr}i7\.vKOc.),  a  Trojan  warrior, 
slain  by  Patroclus.j 

AREITHOUS  ('Apnidooe).  1.  King  of  Arne  in 
Bceotia,  and  husband  of  Philomedusa,  is  called 
in  the  Iliad  (vii.,  8)  KopwiyTqc.,  because  he  fought 
with  a  club :  he  fell  by  the  hand  of  the  Arcadian 
Lycurgus. — [2.  Charioteer  of  Rhigmus,  slain 
by  Achilles.] 

A.RELATE,  ARELAS,  or  ARELATUM  (Arelatensis 
now  Aries),  a  town  in  Gallia  Narbouensis,  at 
the  head  of  the  delta  of  the  Rhone  on  the  left 
bank,  and  a  Roman  colony  founded  by  the  sol- 
diers of  the  sixth  legion,  Colonia  Arelate  Sexta- 
norum.  It  is  first  mentioned  by  Caesar,  and  un- 
der the  emperors  it  became  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  towns  on  this  side  of  the  Alps.  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  built  an  extensive  suburb  on 
the  right  bank,  which  he  connected  with  the 
original  city  by  a  bridge.  The  Roman  remains 
at  Aries  attest  the  greatness  of  the  ancient  city  : 
there  are  still  to  be  seen  an  obelisk  of  granite, 
and  the  ruins  of  an  aqueduct,  theatre,  amphi- 
theatre, palace  of  Constantine,  and  a  large  Ro- 
man cemetery. 

[ARELLIUS  Fuscus.     Vid.  Fuscus.] 

AREMORICA.     Vid.  ARMORICA. 

ARENACUM  (now  Arnheim  or  jfirt  ?),  a  town 
of  the  Batavi  in  Gallia  Belgica. 

[AREN^E  MONTHS  (now  Arenas  Gordas),  high 
sand  hills  in  Hispania  Bsetica,  between  the  Bae- 
tis  and  Uriura.] 

[ARENE  ('ApijvT/).  1.  Daughter  of  the  Spartan 
king  CEbalus,  wife  of  Aphareus. — 2.  A  city  of 
Elis,  on  the  River  Minye'ius,  said  to  have  been 
named  after  the  foregoing :  it  was  the  residence 
of  Aphareus.] 

AREOPAGUS.     Vid.  ATHENE 

ARES  ("Ap?7f),  (the  Latin  Mars),  the  Greek 
god  of  war  and  one  of  the  great  Olympian  gods, 
is  represented  as  the  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and 
Hera  (Juno).  The  character  of  Ares  (Mars)  in 
Greek  mythology  will  be  best  understood  by 
comparing  it  with  that  of  other  divinities  who 
are  likewise  in  some  way  connected  with  war. 
Athena  (Minerva)  represents  thoughtfuluess  and 
wisdom  in  the  affairs  of  war,  and  protects  men 


ARES1AS. 


AREVA. 


and  their  habitations  during  its  ravages.  Ares 
(Mars),  on  the  other  hand,  is  nothing  but  the 
personification  of  bold  force  and  strength,  and 
not  so  much  the  god  of  war  as  of  its  tumult,  con- 
fusion, and  horrors.  His  sister  Eris  calls  forth 
war,  Zeus  (Jupiter)  directs  its  course,  but  Ares 
(Mars)  loves  war  for  its  own  sake,  and  delights 
in  the  din  and  roar  of  battles,  in  the  slaughter 
of  men,  and  the  destruction  of  towns.  He  is 
not  even  influenced  by  party  spirit,  but  some- 
times assists  the  one,  and  sometimes  the  other 
side,  just  as  his  inclination  may  dictate ;  whence 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  calls  him  d/l/lo7rp6<7a>l/lof.  (II.,  v., 
389.)  This  savage  and  sanguinary  character  of 
Ares  (Mars)  makes  him  hated  by  the  other 
gods  and  by  his  own  parents.  It  was  contrary 
to  the  spirit  of  the  Greeks  to  represent  a  being 
like  Ares  (Mare),  with  all  his  overwhelming 
physical  strength,  as  always  victorious ;  and 
when  he  comes  in  contact  with  higher  powers, 
he  is  usually  conquered.  He  was  wounded  by 
Diomedes,  who  was  assisted  by  Athena  (Miner- 
va), and  in  his  fall  he  roared  like  ten  thousand 
warriors.  The  gigantic  Aloldae  had  likewise 
conquered  him,  and  kept  him  a  prisoner  for  thir- 
teen months,  until  he  was  delivered  by  Hermes 
(Mercury).  He  was  also  conquered  by  Hercules, 
with  whom  he  fought  on  account  of  his  son  Cyc- 
nus,  and  was  obliged  to  return  to  Olympus. 
This  fierce  and  gigantic,  but,  withal,  handsome 
god,  loved  and  was  beloved  by  Aphrodite  (Ve- 
nus). Vid.  APHRODITE.  When  Aphrodite  (Ve- 
nus) loved  Adonis,  Ares  (Mars),  in  his  jealousy, 
metamorphosed  himself  into  a  boar,  and  killed 
bis  rival.  Vid.  ADOXIS.  According  to  a  late 
tradition,  Ares  (Mars)  slew  Halirrhothius,  the 
son  of  Poseidon  (Neptune),  when  he  was  on  the 
point  of  violating  Alcippe,  the  daughter  of  Ares 
(Mars).  Hereupon  Poseidon  (Neptune)  accused 
Ares  (Mars)  in  the  Areopagus,  where  the  Olym- 
pian gods  were  assembled  in  court.  Ares  (Mars) 
was  acquitted,  and  this  event  was  believed  to 
have  given  rise  to  the  name  Areopagus.  The 
warlike  character  of  the  tribes  of  Thrace  led  to 
the  belief  that  the  god's  residence  was  in  that 
country,  and  here  and  in  Scytliia  were  the  prin- 
cipal seats  of  his  worship.  In  Scythia  he  was 
worshipped  under  the  form  of  a  sword,  to  which 
not  only  horses  and  other  cattle,  but  men  also, 
were  sacrificed.  In  Greece  itself  the  worship  of 
Ares  (Mars)  was  not  very  general  All  the 
stories  about  Ares  (Mars),  and  his  worship  in  the 
countries  north  of  Greece,  seem  to  indicate  that 
his  worship  was  introduced  into  the  latter  coun- 
try from  Thrace.  The  Romans  identified  their 
god  Mars  with  the  Greek  Ares.  Vid.  MARS. 

[A RES i AS  ('Apeataf),  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants 
in  Athens  under  the  Spartan  ascendency.] 

ARKSTOR  ('Aptarup),  father  of  Argus,  the 
guardian  of  lo,  who  is  therefore  called  Arestor- 
idea. 

ARET.KUS  ('AperaZof),  the  Cappadocian,  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  Greek 
physicians,  probably  lived  in  the  reign  of  Ves- 
pasian. He  wrote  in  Ionic  Greek  a  general 
treatise  on  diseases  in  eight  books,  which  is  still 
extant  The  best  edition  is  by  C.  G.  Kiihn, 
Lips.,  1828. 

[ARETAON  ('Aperawv),  a  Trojan,  slain  by  Teu- 
ccr.] 

ARKTAS  ('Aofrac\  the  name  of  several  kings 


of  Arabia  Petraea.  1.  A  contemporary  of  Pom- 
pey,  invaded  Judaea  in  B.C.  65,  in  order  to  place 
Hyrcanus  on  the  throne,  but  was  driven  back  by 
the  Romans,  who  espoused  the  cause  of  Aristobu- 
lus.  His  dominions  were  subsequently  invaded 
by  Scaurus,  the  lieutenant  of  Pompey. — 2.  The 
father-in-law  of  Herod  Antipas,  invaded  Judeea 
because  Herod  had  dismissed  the  daughter  of 
Aretas  in  consequence  of  his  connection  with 
Herodias.  This  Aretas  seems  to  have  been 
the  same  who  had  possession  of  Damascus 
at  the  time  of  the  conversion  of  the  Apostle 
Paul,  A.D.  31. 

ARETE  ('Apjyn?).  1.  Wife  of  Alcinous,  king 
of  the  Phseacians,  received  Ulysses  with  hospi- 
tality.— 2.  [ARETE,  in  Greek  'Aperj?'],  daughter 
of  the  elder  Dionysios  and  Aristomache,  wife  of 
Thearides,  and  after  his  death  of  her  uncle 
Dion.  After  Dion  had  fled  from  Syracuse, 
Arete  was  compelled  by  her  brother  to  marry 
Timocrates,  one  of  his  friends ;  but  she  was 
again  received  by  Dion  as  his  wife  when  he  had 
obtained  possession  of  Syracuse,  and  expelled 
the  younger  Dionysius.  After  the  assassiuation 
of  Dion  in  353,  she  was  drowned  by  his  enemies. 
— 3.  Daughter  of  Aristippus,  the  founder  of  the 
Cyrenaic  school  of  philosophy,  was  instructed 
by  him  in  the  principles  of  his  system,  which 
she  transmitted  to  her  son,  the  younger  Aris- 
tippus. 

ARETHUSA  ('Apidovaa),  one  of  the  Nereids,  and 
the  nymph  of  the  famous  fountain  of  Arethusa, 
in  the  island  of  Ortygia,  near  Syracuse.  For 
details,  see  ALPHEUS.  Virgil  (Eclog.,  iv.,  1 ;  x.,  1) 
reckons  her  among  the  Sicilian  nymphs,  and  as 
the  divinity  who  inspired  pastoral  poetry.  There 
were  several  other  fountains  in  Greece  which 
bore  the  name  of  fArethusa,  of  which  the  most 
important  was  one  in  Ithaca,  now  Lebado,  and 
another  in  Eubcea,  near  Chalcis. 

ARETHUSA  ('ApeBovaa :  now  Er-Re&turi).  1.  A 
town  and  fortress  on  the  Orontes,  in  Syria :  in 
Strabo's  time,  the  seat  of  a  petty  Arabian  prin- 
cipality.— [2.  a  city  of  Macedonia,  between  Am 
phipolis  and  the  Lake  Bolbe. — 3.  A  bituminous 
lake  in  Greater  Armenia,  through  which  the 
Tigris  was  said  to  flow  without  mingling  its 
waters,  at  no  great  distance  from  its  source. 
Strabo  gives  as  the  Oriental  names  of  this  lake, 
Arsene  and  Thospilis.] 

ARETIAS.     Via.  AREA. 

ARETIUM.     Vid.  ARRETIUJI. 

[ARETUS  ('Ap^rof).  1.  Son  of  Priam,  skin  by 
Automedoa — 2.  Son  of  Nestor.] 

AREUS  ('Apevf),  two  kings  of  Sparta.  1.  Suc- 
ceeded his  grandfather,  Cleomenes  II.,  since  his 
father  Acrotatus  had  died  before  him,  and 
reigned  B.C.  309-265.  He  made  several  un- 
successful attempts  to  deliver  Greece  from  the 
dominion  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  and  at  length 
fell  in  battle  against  the  Macedonians  in  265, 
and  was  succeeded  by  bis  son  Aorotatus. — 
2.  Grandson  of  No.  1,  reigned  for  eight  years 
(the  duration  of  his  life)  under  the  guardianship 
of  his  uncle  Leonidas  IL,  who  succeeded  him 
about  B.C.  256. 

[ARKUS  ('ApeZof),  of  Alexandria,  a  Stoic  or 
Pythagorean  philosopher,  who  enjoyed  in  a  high 
degree  the  confidence  of  Augustus,  and  was  said 
to  have  been  bis  instructor  in  philosophy.] 

[AfifivA  (now  Alaiuon,  or,  according  to  Floro.?, 
89 


AREVAC^E. 


ARGONAUTS. 


Ucfro),  a  tributary  of  tho  Durius,  in  Hispania 
Tarniconensis.] 

AREVACJB  or  AEEVACI,  the  most  powerful 
tribe  of  the  Celtiberians  in  Spain,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Tagus,  derived  their  uame  from 
the  River  Areva  (q.  v.). 

AEG.EUS  ('ApyaZof).  1.  King  of  Macedonia, 
Ben  and  successor  of  Perdiccas  I.,  the  founder  of 
the  dynasty. — 2.  A  pretender  to  the  Macedonian 
crown,  dethroned  Perdiccas  II,  and  reigned  two 
years. 

AEG^US  MONS  ('ApyaZof  :  now  Erdjish-Dagh), 
a  lofty  snow-capped  mountain  nearly  in  the  cen- 
tre of  Cappadocia ;  an  offset  of  the  Anti-Taurus. 
At  its  foot  stood  the  celebrated  city  of  Mazaca 
or  Caesarea. 

ARGANTHONIUS  ('Apyav6uviof),  king  of  Tartes- 
sus  in  Spain,  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  is  said  to 
have  reigned  eighty  years,  and  to  have  lived  one 
hundred  and  twenty. 

ARGANTHONIUS  or  ARGANTHUS  MONS  (TO  'Ap- 
•yavduviov  opof :  now  Katirli),  a  mountain  in 
Bithynia,  running  out  into  the  Propontis,  forming 
the  Promontorium  Posidium  (Cape  Bouz),  and 
separating  the  bays  of  Cios  and  Astacus. 

.  [AEGE  ('Apyr)),  a  Hyperborean  maiden,  who 
came  with  Opis  to  Delos.J 

ARGEXNUM  or  ARGINUM  ("Apyevvov,  'Apytvov  : 
now  Cape  Blanco).  1.  A  promontory  on  the 
Ionian  coast,  opposite  to  Chios. — [2.  A  promon- 
tory of  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  now  Capo 
San  Alessio.] 

[ARGENNUSA,  an  island  with  a  city  of  same 
name  between  the  promontory  of  Argennum, 
and  the  Ionian  coast,  and  the  promontorium  Po- 
sidium  in  the  island  of  Chios.] 

[ARGENTANUM  (now  San  Marco),  a  city  of 
Bruttium.] 

[ARGENTAEIA  or  ARGENTUA!RIA,  also  ARGENTO- 
VARIA  (now  Arzenheim),  the  capital  city  of  Gal- 
lia  Belgica,  where  Gratian  defeated  the  Ale- 
manui  A.D.  378.] 

AEGENTEUS  (now  Argens),  a  small  river  in 
Gallia  Narbonensis,  which  flows  into  the  Medi- 
terranean near  Forum  Julii. 

ARGENTORATUM  or  -TUB  (now  Stra&sburg),  an 
important  town  on  the  Rhine,  in  Gallia  Belgica, 
the  head-quarters  of  the  eighth  legion,  and  a 
Roman  inunicipium.  In  its  neighborhood  Ju- 
lian gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Aleman- 
ni,  A.D.  357.  It  was  subsequently  called  Strate- 
burgum  and  Stratisburgum,  whence  its  modern 
name. 

ARGES.     Vid.  CYCLOPES. 

ARGIA  ('Apyetd).  1.  Daughter  of  Adrastus  and 
Amphithea,  and  wife  of  Polynices. — [2.  Daugh- 
ter of  Autesion,  wife  of  the  Spartan  king  Ans- 
todemus,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of 
Eurysthenes  and  Procles.] 

AEGIA  ('Ap-yeia).     Vid.  AEGOS. 

[AEGILEONIS  ('Apyifauv'cc,),  a  Spartan  female, 
mother  of  the  celebrated  general  Brasidas.] 

ARGILETUM,  a  district  in  Rome,  which  extend- 
ed from  the  south  of  the  Quirinal  to  the  Capito- 
line  and  the  Forum.  It  was  chiefly  inhabited 
by  mechanics  and  booksellers.  The  origin  of 
the  name  is  uncertain :  the  most  obvious  deri- 
vation is  from  argilla,  "potter's  clay  ;"  but  the 
more  common  explanation  in  antiquity  was  Argi- 
letum,  "  death  of  Argus,"  from  a  hero  Argus  who 
was  buried  there. 
90 


ARGILUS  ("Apyihoc.  :  'ApyiXiof),  &  town  iu  Bi- 
saltia,  the  eastern  part  of  Mygdouia,  in  Mace- 
donia, between  Amphipolis  and  Bromiscus,  a  col 
ony  of  Audros. 

ARGINCS^E  ('Apyivovaai  or  'Apyivovaaai),  three 
small  islands  off  the  coast  of  ^Eolis,  opposite 
Mytilene  iu  Lesbos,  celebrated  for  the  naval  vic- 
tory of  the  Athenians  over  the  Lacedremoniaus 
under  Callicratidas,  B.C.  406. 

[AHGiSpE  ('ApyioTTt)),  a  nymph,  mother  of  the 
Thracian  bard  Thamyris  by  Plulammon.] 

ARGIPIIONTES  ('ApyetQovTijf),  "  the  slayer  of 
Argus,"  a  surname  of  HERMES. 

AEGIPP^EI  ('Apynrnaloi),  a  Scythian  tribe  in 
Sarmatia  Asiatica,  who  appear,  from  the  descrip- 
tion of  them  by  Herodotus  (iv.,  23),  to  have  been 
of  the  Calmuc  race. 

ARGISSA.     Vid.  ARGURA. 

AEGITHEA,  the  chief  town  of  Athamauia,  in 
Epirus. 

ARGIVA,  a  surname  of  Hera  or  Juno,  from  Ar- 
gos,  where,  as  well  as  in  the  whole  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, she  was  especially  honored.  Vid.  ARGOS. 

AEGIVI.     Vid.  ARGOS. 

AEGO.     Vid.  AEGONAUT^E. 

[AEGOLICUS  SINUS.     Vid.  ARGOS.] 

ARGOLIS.     Vid.  ARGOS. 

ARGONAUTS  ('Apyovavrat),  the  Argonauts, 
"  the  sailors  of  the  Argo,"  were  the  heroes  who 
sailed  to  ^Ea  (afterward  called  Colchis)  for  the 
purpose  of  fetching  the  golden  fleece.  The 
story  of  the  Argonauts  is  variously  related  by 
the  ancient  writers,  but  the  common  tale  ran  as 
follows :  In  lolcus  in  Thessaly  reigned  Pelias, 
who  had  deprived  his  half-brother  j*Eson  of  the 
sovereignty.  In  order  to  get  rid  of  JASON,  the 
son  of  jEson,  PELIAS  persuaded  Jason  to  fetch 
the  golden  fleece,  which  was  suspended  on  an 
oak-tree  in  the  grove  of  Ares  (Mars)  in  Colchis, 
and  was  guarded  day  and  night  by  a  dragon. 
Jason  willingly  undertook  the  enterprise,  and 
commanded  Argus,  the  son  of  Phrixus,  to  build 
a  ship  with  fifty  oars,  which  was  called  Argo 
('Apyw)  after  the  name  of  the  builder.  Jason 
was  accompanied  by  all  the  great  heroes  of  the 
age,  and  their  number  is  usually  said  to  have 
been  fifty.  Among  these  were  Hercules,  Cas- 
tor and  Pollux,  Zetes  and  Calais,  the  sons  of 
Boreas,  the  singer  Orpheus,  the  seer  Mopsus, 
Philammou,  Tydeus,  Theseus,  Amphiaraus,  Pe- 
leus,  Nestor,  Admetus,  <fec.  After  leaving  lol- 
cus they  first  landed  at  Lemncs,  where  they 
united  themselves  with  the  women  of  the  island, 
who  had  just  before  murdered  their  fathers  and 
husbands.  From  Lemnos  they  sailed  to  the 
Doliones  at  Cyzicus,  where  King  Cyzicus  re- 
ceived them  hospitably.  They  left  the  coun- 
try during  the  night,  and  being  thrown  back 
on  the  coast  by  a  contrary  wind,  they  were 
taken  for  Pelasgians,  the  enemies  of  the  Do- 
liones,  and  a  struggle  ensued,  in  which  Cyzi- 
cus was  slain ;  but,  being  recognized  by  the 
Argonauts,  they  buried  him,  and  mourned  over 
his  fate.  They  next  landed  in  Mysia,  where 
they  left  behind  Hercules  and  Polyphemus,  who 
had  gone  into  Jhe  country  in  search  of  Hylas, 
whom  a  nymph  had  carried  off  while  he  was 
fetching  water  for  his  companions.  In  the 
country  of  the  Bebryces,  King  Amycus  chal- 
lenged the  Argonauts  to  fight  with  him;  and 
when  he  was  killed  by  Pollux,  [the  Bebryces, 


ARGONAUTS. 


A  RGOS. 


to  avenge  the  death  of  their  'king,  made  an 
attack  on  Pollux,  but  the  Argonauts,  having 
seized  their  arms,  repulsed  them,  and  slew  many 
in  their  flight ;  they  then]  sailed  to  Salmydes- 
BUS  in  Thrace,  where  the  -seer  Phineus  was  tor- 
mented by  the  Harpies.  When  the  Argonauts 
consulted  him  about  their  voyage,  he  promised 
them  his  advice  on  condition  of  their  delivering 
him  from  the  Harpies.  This  was  done  by  Zetes 
and  Calais,  two  sons  of  Boreas ;  and  Phineus 
now  advised  them,  before  sailing  through  the 
Symplegades,  to  mark  the  flight  of  a  dove,  and 
to  judge  from  its  fate  what  they  themselves 
would  have  to  do.  When  they  approached  the 
Symplegades,  they  sent  out  a  dove,  which,  in  its 
rapid  flight  between  the  rocks,  lost  only  the  end 
of  its  tail  The  Argonauts  now,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Juno  (Hera),  followed  the  example  of 
the  dove,  sailed  quickly  between  the  rocks,  aud 
succeeded  in  passing  without  injury  to  their  ship, 
with  the  exception  of  some  ornaments  at  the 
stern.  Henceforth  the  Symplegades  stood  im- 
movable in  the  sea.  On  their  arrival  at  the 
country  of  the  Mariandyni,  the  Argonauts  were 
kindly  received  by  their  king,  Lycus.  The  seer 
Idinoii  and  the  helmsman  Tiphys  died  here,  and 
the  place  of  the  latter  was  supplied  by  Ancasus. 
They  now  sailed  along  the  coast  until  they  arriv- 
ed at  the  mouth  of  the  I^iver  Phasis.  The  Col- 
chian  king  ^Eetes  promised  to  give  up  the  golden 
fleece  if  Jason  alone  would  yoke  to  a  plough 
two  fire  breathing  oxen  with  brazen  feet,  and 
sow  the  teeth  of  the  dragon  which  had  not  been 
used  by  Cadmus  at  Thebes,  and  which  he  had 
received  from  Minerva  (Athena).  The  love  of 
Medea  furnished  Jason  with  means  to  resist 
fire  and  steel,  on  condition  of  his  taking  her  as 
his  wife ;  and  she  taught  him  how  he  was  to 
kill  the  warriors  that  were  to  spring  up  from 
the  teeth  of  the  dragon.  While  Jason  was 
engaged  upon  his  task,  ^Eetes  formed  plans  for 
burning  the  ship  Argo  and  for  killing  all  the 
Greek  heroes.  But  Medea's  magic  powers  lulled 
to  sleep  the  dragon  who  guarded  the  golden 
fleece  ;  and  after  Jason  had  taken  possession  of 
the  treasure,  he  and  his  Argonauts,  together 
with  Medea  and  her  young  brother  Absvrtus, 
embarked  by  night  and  sailed  away.  ^Ee'tes 
pursued  them ;  but,  before  he  overtook  them, 
Medea  murdered  her  brother,  cut  him  into  pieces, 
and  threw  his  limbs  overboard,  that  her  father 
might  be  detained  in  his  pursuit  by  collecting 
the  limbs  of  his  child  JEe'tes  at  last  returned 
home,  but  sent  out  a  great  number  of  Colchiaus, 
threatening  them  with  the  punishment  intended 
for  Medea  if  they  returned  without  her.  While 
the  Colchiaus  were  dispersed  in  all  directions, 
the  Argonauts  had  already  reached  the  mouth 
of  the  River  Eridanus.  But  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
angry  at  the  murder  of  Absyrtus,  raised  a  storm 
which  cast  the  ship  from  ite  course.  When 
driven  on  the  Absyrtian  Islands,  the  ship  began 
to  speak,  and  declared  that  the  anger  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  would  not  cease  unless  they  sailed  toward 
Ausonia,  and  got  purified  by  .Circe.  They  now 
sailed  along  the  coasts  of  the  Ligyans  and  Celts, 


being  allured  by  them.  Butes,  however,  swam 
to  them,  but  Venus  (Aphrodite)  carried  him  tc 
Lilybaeum.  Thetis  and  the  Nereids  conducted 
them  through  Scylla  aud  Charybdis  and  between 
the  whirling  rocks  (ireTpai  xlMjKTai)  ;  aud,  sail- 
ing by  the  Thracian  island  with  its  oxen  of 
Helios,  they  came  to  the  Phseacian  island  'if 
Corcyra,  where  they  were  received  by  Alciuous. 
In  the  mean  time,  some  of  the  Colchiaus,  not 
being  able  to  discover  the  Argonauts,  had  settled 
at  the  foot  of  the  Ceraunian  Mountains  ;  others 
occupied  the  Absyrtian  islands  near  the  coast  of 
Illyricum  ;  and  a  third  band  overtook  the  Argo- 
nauts in  the  island  of  the  Phfeacians.  But  as 
their  hopes  of  recovering  Medea  were  deceived 
by  Arete,  the  queen  of  Alcinous,  they  settled  in 
the  island,  and  the  Argonauts  continued  their 
voyage.  During  the  night  they  were  overtaken 
by  a  storm  ;  but  Apollo  sent  brilliant  flashes  of 
lightning,  which  enabled  them  to  discover  a 
neighboring  island,  which  they  called  Anapha 
Here  they  erected  an  altar  to  Apollo,  and  solemn 
rites  were  instituted,  which  continued  to  be  ob- 
served down  to  very  late  times.  Their  attempt 
to  land  in  Crete  was  prevented  by  Talus,  who 
guarded  the  island,  but  was  killed  by  the  arti- 
fices of  Medea.  From  Crete  they  sailed  to 
^Egina,  and  from  thence  between  Euboja  and 
Locris  to  lolcus.  Respecting  the  events  sub- 
sequent to  their  arrival  in  lolcus,  vid,  ^EsoN, 
MEDEA,  JASOX,  PELIAS.  The  story  of  the  Argo- 
nauts probably  arose  out  of  accounts  of  com- 
mercial enterprises  winch  the  wealthy  Miuyans, 
who  lived  in  the  neighborhood  of  lolcus,  made 
to  the  coasts  of  the  Euxine.  The  expedition  of 
the  Argonauts  is  related  by  Pindar  in  the  fourth 
Pythian  ode,  by  Apollouius  Rhodius  in  his 
Argonautica,  and  by  his  Roman  imitator,  Vale- 


rius Flaccus. 

ARGOS  (rd  "Apyof,  -e 


),  is  said  by  Strabo  (p. 


372)  to  have  signified  a  plain  in  the  language  of 
the  Macedonians  and  Thessalians,  and  it  may 
therefore  contain  the  same  root  as  the  Latin 
word  offer.  In  Homer  we  find  mention  of  the 
Pelasgic  Argos,  that  is,  a  town  or  district  of 
Thessaly,  and  of  the  Achaean  Argos,  by  which 
he  means  sometimes  the  whole  Peloponnesus 
sometimes  Agamemnon's  kingdom  of  Argos,  of 
which  Mycenje  was  the  capital,  and  sometimes 
the  town  of  Argos.  As  Argos  frequently  sig- 
nifies the  whole  Peloponnesus,  the  most  import 
ant  part  of  Greece,  so  the  'Apyeloi  often  occur 
in  Homer  as  a  name  of  the  whole  body  of  the 
Greeks,  in  which  sense  the  Roman  poets  also 
use  Argivi.  —  1.  AEGOS,  a  district  of  Peloponne- 
sus, called  Argolis  (t/  'ApyoMf)  by  Herodotus,  but 
more  frequently  by  other  Greek  writers  either 
Argos,  Argla  (ij  'Apyeia),  or  Argolice  (#  'Apyo- 
Ai/c>7).  Under  the  Romans  Argolis  became  the 
usual  name  of  the  country,  while  the  word  Argos 
or  Argi  was  confined  to  the  town.  Argolis,  un- 
der the  Romans,  signified  the  country  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Corinthian  territory,  on  the 
west  by  Arcadia,  on  the  south  by  Laconia,  and 
included  toward  the  east  the  whole  Acte  or  pen 
insula  between  the  Saronic  and  Argolic  gulfs  ; 


and  through  the  sea  of  Sardinia,  and,  continuing  1  but,  during  the  time  of  Grecian  independence, 
their  course  along  the  coast  of  Tyrrhenia,  they  Argolis  or  Argos  was  only  the  country  lying 
arrived  in  the  Island  of  ^Eaca,  where  Circe  pun-  round  the  Argolicus  Sinus  (now  Chilf  of  Nauplia), 
fled  them.  When  they  were  passing  by  the  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Arcadian  Mountains, 
Sirens,  Orpheus  sang  to  prevent  the  Argouauts  I  aud  separated  on  'Lo  north  by  a  range  of  niount- 

ai 


ARGOS. 


ARIA. 


ains  from  Corinth,  Cleonae,  and  Phlius.  Argolis, 
as  understood  by  the  Romans,  was,  for  the  most 
part,  a  mountainous  and  unproductive  country  : 
the  only  extensive  plain  adapted  for  agriculture 
was  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Argos. 
Its  rivers  were  insignificant,  and  mostly  dry  in 
summer :  the  most  important  was  the  Inachus. 
The  country  was  divided  into  the  districts  of  Ar- 

g"a  or  Argos  proper,  EPIDAURIA,  TRCEZENIA,  and 
ERMIONIS.  The  original  inhabitants  of  the 
country  were,  according  to  mythology,  the  Cy- 
nurii ;  but  the  main  part  of  the  population  con- 
listed  of  Pelasgi  and  Acluei,  to  whom  Dorians 
were  added  after  the  conquest  of  Peloponnesus 
by  the  Dorians.  See  below,  No.  2. — 2.  ARGOS,  or 
AKGI,  -ORUM,  in  the  Latin  writers,  now  Argo,  the 
capital  of  Argolis,  and,  next  to  Sparta,  the  most 
important  town  of  Peloponnesus,  situated  in  a 
level  plain  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  Inachus.  It 
had  an  ancient  Pelasgic  citadel,  called  Larissa, 
and  another  built  subsequently  on  another  height 
(duas  arces  habent  Aryi,  Liv,  xxxiv.,  25).  It 
possessed  numerous  temples,  and  was  particu- 
larly celebrated  for  the  worship  of  Juno  (Hera), 
whose  great  temple,  Herceum,  lay  between  Argos 
and  Mycenae.  The  remains  of  the  Cyclopian 
walls  of  Argos  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  city  is 
said  to  have  been  built  by  INACHUS  or  his  son 
PHORONEUS,  or  grandson  ARGUS.  The  descend- 
ants of  InacLus,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the 
Pelasgian  kings,  reigned  over  the  country  for 
nine  generations,  but  were  at  length  deprived 
of  the  sovereignty  by  DANAUS,  who  is  said  to 
have  coma  from  Egypt  The  descendants  of 
Danaus  were  in  their  time  obliged  to  submit  to 
the  Achaean  race  of  the  Pelopidze.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  Pelopidse  Mycenae  became  the  capi- 
tal of  the  kingdom,  and  Argos  was  a  dependent 
state.  Thus  Mycenae  was  the  royal  residence 
of  Atreus  and  of  his  son  Agamemnon ;  but  under 
Orestes  Argos  again  recovered  its  supremacy. 
Upon  the  conquest  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Do- 
rians Argos  fell  to  the  share  of  Temenus,  whose 
descendants  ruled  over  the  country ;  but  the 
great  bulk  of  the  population  continued  to  be 
Achaean.  All  these  events  belong  to  Mythol- 
ogy ;  and  Argos  first  appears  in  history  about 
B.C.  750,  as  the  chief  state  of  Peloponnesus, 
under  its  ruler  PHIDON.  After  the  time  of  Phi- 
don  its  power  declined,  and  it  was  not  even  able 
to  maintain  its  supremacy  over  the  other  towns 
of  Argolis.  Its  power  was  greatly  weakened 
by  its  wars  with  Sparta.  The  two  states  long 
contended  for  the  district  of  Cynuria,  which  lay 
between  Argolis  and  Laconia,  and  which  the 
Spartans  at  length  obtained  by  the  victory  of 
their  three  hundred  champions,  about  B.C.  550. 
In  B.C.  524,  Cleomenes,  the  Spartan  king,  de- 
feated the  Argives  with  such  loss  near  Tiryns 
that  Sparta  was  left  without  a  rival  in  Pelopon- 
nesus. In  consequence  of  its  weakness  and  of 
its  jealousy  of  Sparta,  Argos  took  no  part  in  the 
Persian  war.  In  order  to  strengthen  itself,  Ar- 
gos attacked  the  neighboring  towns  of  Tiryns, 
Mycenae,  <fec.,  destroyed  them,  and  transplanted 
their  inhabitants  to  Argos.  The  introduction 
of  so  many  new  citizens  was  followed  by  the 
abolition  of  royalty  and  of  Doric  institutions, 
and  by  the  establishment  if  a  democracy,  which 
continued  to  be  the  form  of  government  till  later 
times,  when  the  city  fell  under  the  power  of 
92 


tyrants.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  Argos  sided 
with  Athens  against  Sparta.  In  B.C.  243  it 
joined  the  Achaaan  League,  and  on  the  conquest 
of  the  latter  by  the  Romans,  146,  it  became  a 
part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia.  At  un 
early  time  Argos  was  distinguished  by  its  culti- 
vation of  music  and  poetry  (vid.  SACADAS,  TEL- 
ESILLA)  ;  but  at  the  time  of  the  intellectual 
greatness  of  Athens,  literature  and  science  seem 
to  have  been  entirely  neglected  at  Argos.  It 
produced  some  great  sculptors,  of  whom  AGKLA- 
DAS  and  POLYCLETUS  are  the  most  celebrated. 

ARGOS  AMPHILSCHICUM  ("Apyof  rd  'A/i^tAogl 
KOV),  the  chief  town  of  Amphilochia  in  Acarna- 
nia,  situated  on  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  and  found- 
ed by  the  Argive  AMPHILOCHUS, 

ARGOS  HIPPIUM.     Vid.  ARPI. 

[ARGOS  PELASGICUM  ("Apyof  rd  Tlehacryiicov), 
an  ancient  city  and  district  of  Thessaly,  men- 
tioned by  Homer ;  but  in  Strabo's  time  the  city 
no  longer  existed.] 

ARGOUS  PORTDS  (now  Porto  Ferraio\  a  town 
and  harbor  in  the  Island  of  Ilva  (now  Elba). 

ARGURA  ("Ap-yovpa),  a  town  in  Pelasgiotis  in 
Thessaly,  called  Argissa  by  Homer  (11.,  ii.,  738). 

ARGUS  ("Apyof).  1.  Son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Niobe,  third  king  of  Argos,  from  whom  Argos 
derived  its  name. — 2.  Suruamed  Panoples,  "  the 
all-seeing,"  because  he  had  a  hundred  eyes,  sou 
of  Agenor,  Arestor,  Inachus,  or  Argus.  Juno 
(Hera)  appointed  him  guardian  of  the  cow  into 
which  lo  had  been  metamorphosed  ;  but  Mercury 
(Hermes),  at  the  command  of  Jupiter  "(Zeus), 
put  Argus  to  death,  either  by  stoning  him,  or  by 
cutting  off  his  head  after  sendinj  him  to  sleep 
by  the  sweet  notes  of  his  flute.  Juno  (Hera) 
transplanted  his  eyes  to  the  tail  of  the  peacock, 
her  favorite  bird. — 3.  The  builder  of  the  Argo, 
son  of  Phrixus,  Arestor,  or  Poly  bus,  was  sent  by 
^Ee'tes,  his  grandfather,  after  the  death  of  Phrix- 
us, to  take  possession  of  his  inheritance  in  Greece. 
On  his  voyage  thither  he  suffered  shipwreck,  was 
found  by  Jason  in  the  Island  of  Aretias,  and  car- 
ried back  to  Colchis. 

ARGYRA  ('Apyvpa),  a  town  in  Achaia  near  Pa- 
trae,  with  a  fountain  of  the  same  name. 
•  ARGYRIPA.     Vid.  ARPL 

ARIA  ('Apeia,  'Apia :  'Apetoc,  "Aptnf  :  the  east- 
ern part  of  Khorassan,  and  the  western  and  north- 
western part  of  Afghanistan),  the  most  import- 
ant of  the  eastern  provinces  of  the  ancient  Per- 
sian Empire,  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Paropamisadae,  on  the  north  by  Margiana  and 
Hyrcania,  on  the  west  by  Parthia,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  great  desert  of  Carmania.  It  was 
a  vast  plain,  bordered  on  the  north  and  east  by 
mountains,  and  on  the  west  and  south  by  sandy 
deserts  ;  and,  though  forming  a  part  of  the  great 
sandy  table-land,  now  called  the  Desert  of  Iran, 
it  contained  several  very  fertile  oases,  especially 
in  its  northern  part,  along  the  base  of  the  Sari- 
phi  (now  Kohistan  and  HazaraK)  Mountains, 
which  was  watered  by  the  river  ARIUS  or  -AS 
(now  Herirood),  on  which  stood  the  later  capital 
Alexandrea  (now  Herat).  The  river  is  lost  in 
the  sand.  The  lower  course  of  the  great  river 
ETYMANDRUS  (now  Helmund)  also  belonged  to 
Aria,  and  the  lake  into  which  it  falls  was  called 
ARIA  LACUS  (now  Zurrah).  From  Aria  was  de 
rived  the  name  under  which  all  the  eastern  pro 
vinces  were  included.  Vid.  ARIANA. 


ARIA  LACUS. 


ARIB^EUS. 


ARIA  LACUS.     Vid.  ARIA. 
ARIABIGNES  (' '  Apiaftiyvrjc),  son  of  Darius  Hya 
taspis,   one   of    the   commanders    of   the    fleet 
of  Xerxes,  fell  in  the  battle  of  Salamis,  B.C. 
480. 

ARIADNE  (Apiddvrj),  daughter  of  Minos  and 
Pasiphae  or  Greta,  fell  in  love  with  Theseus 
when  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  convey  the 
tribute  of  the  Athenians  to  Minotaurus,  and 
gave  him  the  clew  of  thread  by  means  of  which 
he  found  his  way  out  of  the  Labyrinth,  and 
which  she  herself  had  received  from  Vulcan 
(Hephaestus).  Theseus,  in  return,  promised  to 
marry  her,  and  she  accordingly  left  Crete  with 
him ;  but  on  their  arrival  in  the  Island  of  Dia 
(Naxos),  she  was  killed  by  Diana  (Artemis). 
This  is  the  Homeric  account  (Od.,  xi.,  322); 
but  the  more  common  tradition  related  that 
Theseus  left  Ariadne  in  Naxos  alive,  either  be- 
cause he  was  forced  by  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  to 
leave  her,  or  because  he  was  ashamed  to  bring 
a  foreign  wife  to  Athens.  Bacchus  (Dionysus) 
found  her  at  Naxos,  made  her  his  wife,  and 
placed  .among  the  stars  the  crown  which  he 
gave  her  at  their  marriage.  There  are  several 
circumstances  in  the  story  of  Ariadne  which 
offered  the  happiest  subjects  for  works  of  art, 
and  some  of  the  finest  ancient  works,  on  gems 
as  well  as  paintings,  are  still  extant,  of  which 
Ariadne  is  the  subject. 

ARLSUS  ('Apialof)  or  ARID^EUS  ('Apidalof), 
the  friend  of  Cyrus,  commanded  the  left  wing 
of  the  army  at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  B.C.  401. 
After  the  death  of  Cyrus  he  purchased  his  par- 
don from  Artaxerxes  by  deserting  the  Greeks. 

ARIAMNES  (' ApiujLtvTjf),  the  name  of  two  kings 
of  Cappadocia,  one  the  father  of  Ariarathes  I., 
and  the  other  the  sou  and  successor  of  Ariara- 
thes II. 

ARIANA  ('Apiav?j :  now  Iran),  derived  from 
ARIA,  from  the  specific  sense  of  which  it  must 
be  carefully  distinguished,  was  the  general  name 
of  the  eastern  provinces  of  the  ancient  Persian 
Empire,  and  included  the  portion  of  Asia  bound- 
ed on  the  west  by  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
from  the  Caspian  to  the  mouth  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  on  the  south  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  on  the 
east  by  the  Indus,  and  on  the  uotlh  by  the  great 
chain  of  mountains  called  by  the  general  name 
of  the  Indian  Caucasus,  embracing  the  provin- 
ces of  Parthia,  Aria,  the  Paropamisadae,  Ara- 
chosia,  Drangiana,  Gedrosia,  and  Carmania 
(now  Jihorassan,  Afghanistan,  Beloochistan,  and 
Kinnan).  But  the  name  was  oftei  extended  to 
the  country  as  far  west  as  the  margin  of  the 
Tigris  valley,  so  as  to  include  Media  and  Persis, 
and  also  to  the  provinces  north  of  the  Indian 
Caucasus,  namely,  Bactria  and  Sogdiana  (now 
Bokhara).  The  knowledge  of  the  ancients  re- 
specting the  greater  part  of  this  region  was  con- 
fined to  what  was  picked  up  in  the  expeditions 
of  Alexander  and  the  wars  of  the  Greek  kings 
of  Syria,  and  what  was  learned  from  merchant 
caravans. 

[ARIAXTAS,  a  king  of  the  Scythians,  who,  in 
order  to  take  a  census  of  his  subjects,  ordered 
each  to  bring  him  an  arrow-head.  So  great  a 
number  was  collected,  that  he  caused  a  bronze 
vessel  to  be  made  from  them,  and  this  he  pre- 
served as  a  memorial.] 

[ARIAPITHES,  a  king  of  the  Scythians,  who , 


was  treacherously   murdered  by  Spargapithea 
king  of  the  Agathyrsi.] 

[ARIARATHKA  (' Apiapudeta),  a  city  of  Cappa- 
docia, founded  by  the  Cappadociau  king  Ariara- 
thes IV. :  it  lay  between  Sebastia  and  Comana 
Aurea.] 

ARIARATHES  ('Apiapadrjc:),  the  name  of  several 
kings  of  Cappadocia. — 1.  Son  of  Ariamnes  I., 
assisted  Ochus  in  the  recovery  of  Egypt,  B.C. 
350.  Ariarathes  was  defeated  by  "Perdiccas, 
and  crucified  322.  Eumenes  then  obtained 
possession  of  Cappadocia. — 2.  Son  of  Holopher- 
nes,  and  nephew  of  Ariarathes  I.,  recovered 
Cappadocia  after  the  death  of  Eumenes,  B.C. 
315.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ariamnes  II. — 3. 
Son  of  Ariamnes  II.,  and  grandson  of  No.  2, 
married  Stratonice,  daughter  of  Antiochus  II., 
king  of  Syria. — 4.  Son  of  No.  3,  reigned  B.C 
220-162.  He  manned  Antiochis,  the  daughter 
of  Antiochus  III.,  king  of  Syria,  and  assisted 
Antiochus  in  his  war  against  the  Romans. 
After  the  defeat  of  Antiochus,  Ariarathes  sued 
for  peace  in  188,  which  he  obtained  on  favorable 
terms.  In  183-179,  he  assisted  Eumenes  in  his 
war  against  Pbarnaces. — 5.  Son  of  No.  4,  pre- 
viously called  Mithradates,  reigned  B.C.  IBS- 
ISO.  He  was  sumamed  Philopator,  and  was 
distinguished  by  the  excellence  of  his  character 
and  his  cultivation  of  philosophy  and  the  liberal 
arts.  He  assisted  the  Romans  in  their  war 
against  Aristonicus  of  Pergarnus,  and  fell  ia 
this  war,  130. — 6.  Son  of  No.  5,  reigned  B.C. 
130-96.  He  married  Laodice,  sister  of  Mithra- 
dates VI,  king  of  Poutus,  and  was  put  to  death 
by  Mithradates  by  means  of  Gordius.  On  his 
death  the  kingdom  was  seized  by  Nicomedes, 
king  of  Bithynia.  who  married  Laodice,  the 
widow  of  the  late  king.  But  Nicomedes  was 
soon  expelled  by  Mithradates,  who  placed  upon 
the  throne, — 7.  Son  of  No.  6.  He  was,  how- 
ever, also  murdered  by  Mithradates  in  a  short 
time,  who  now  took  possession  of  his  kingdom. 
The  Cappadocians  rebelled  against  Mithradates, 
and  placed  upon  the  throne, — 8.  Second  son  of 
No.  6 ;  but  he  was  speedily  driven  out  of  the 
kingdom  by  Mithradates,  and  shortly  afterward 
died.  Both  Mithradates  and  Nicomedes  at- 
tempted to  give  a  king  to  the  Cappadocians ;  but 
the  Romans  allowed  the  people  to  choose  whom 
they  pleased,  and  their  choice  fell  upon  Ario- 
barzanes. — 9.  Son  of  Ariobarzanes  II.,  reigned 
B.C.  42-36.  He  was  deposed  and  put  to  death 
by  Antony,  who  appointed  Archelaus  as  his  sue 
cessor. 

RIASP^:  or  AGRIASF^E  ('ApidaTrat,  .  'Aypida- 

t),  a  people  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Per- 
sian province  of  Draugiana,  on  the  very  borders 
of  Gedrosia,  with  a  capital  city^,  Ariaspe  ('Apt 
dairy).  In  return  for  the  services  which  they 
rendered  to  the  army  of  Cyrus  the  Great  when 
he  marched  through  the  desert  of  Carmauia, 
they  were  honored  with  the  name  of  Eiiepyi- 
rat,  and  were  allowed  by  the  Persians  to  re- 
tain their  independence,  which  was  confirmed 
to  them  by  Alexander  as  the  reward  of  similar 
services  to  himself. 

[ARIASPES  ('AptuoTr^f),  called  by  Justin  (10, 
1)  Ariarates,  son  of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon.j 

[ARIB^BUS  ('ApiGaiof),  king  of  the  Cappndo- 
cians,  was  slain  by  the  Hvrcanians  in  the  time 

93 


ARICIA. 


ARIOVISTUS. 


of  the  elder  Cyrus,  according  to  Xenophon  in  I  times  expelled  from  his  kingdom  by  Mithr.ula- 
his  Cyroptcdia.]  i  tes,  but  was  finally  restored  by  Pompey  iu  63, 

AUICIA  (Ariclnus:  now  Ariccla  or  Jficcia),  an  !  shortly  before  his  death. — 2.  Surnamed  Pkilo- 
uncieut  towu  of  Latiuin,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alban  pator,  succeeded  his  father  in  63.  The  time  of 
Mount,  on  the  Appian  Way,  sixteen  miles  from  his  death  is  not  known,  but  it  must  have  been 
Rome.  It  was  a  member  of  the  Latin  confed-  before  51,  in  which  year  his  son  was  reigning, 
erncy,  was  subdued  by  the  Romans,  with  the  i  — 3.  Surnamed  Euscbes  and  Philoromceus,  son 
other  Latin  towns,  in  B.C.  388,  and  received  of  No.  2,  whom  he  succeeded  about  61.  He  as- 
the  Roman  franchise.  In  its  neighborhood  was  sisted  Pompey  against  Caesar  in  48,  but  was 
the  celebrated  grove  and  temple  of  Diana  Ari-  j  nevertheless  pardoned  by  Czesar,  who  even  en- 
cina,  on  the  borders  of  the  Lacus  Nemorensis  j  larged  his  territories.  He  was  slain  in  42  by 
(now  Nemi).  Diana  was  worshipped  here  with  i  Cassius,  because  he  was  plotting  against  him 
barbarous  customs :  her  priest,  called  rex  nemo-  j  in  Asia. 

relists,  was  always  a  runaway  slave,  who  obtain-  i  ARION  ('Apiuv).  1.  Of  Methymna  iu  Lesbos, 
ed  his  office  by  killing  his  predecessor  in  single :.  an  ancient  Greek  bard  and  celebrated  player 
combat  The  priest  was  obliged  to  fight  with  on  the  cithara,  is  called  the  inventor  of  the 
any  slave  who  succeeded  in  breaking  off  a  :  dithyrambic  poetry  and  of  the  name  dithyramb. 


branch  of  a  certain  tree  in  the  sacred  grove. 
ARID^EUS,     Vid.  ARI^EUS,  ARRHID.EUS. 
[ABIDOLIS  ('Apidu/.ic),  tyrant  of  Alabanda  in 


He  lived  about  B.C.  625,  and  spent  a  great  part 
of  his  life  at  the  court  of  Periauder.  tyrant  01 
Corinth.  Of  his  life  scarcely  any  thing  is  known 


Caria,  accompanied   Xerxes   in   his   expedition    beyond  the  beautiful  story  of  his  escape  from 
against  Greece,  and  was  taken  captive  by  the    the  sailors  with  whom  he  sailed  [from  Taren 


Greeks  off  Artemisium,  B.C.  480.] 

ARII,  is  the  name  applied  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  province  of  ARIA,  but  it  is  probably,  also, 


turn  in  Italy]  to  Corinth.  On  one  occasion, 
thus  runs  the  story,  Arion  went  to  Sicily  to  take 
part  in  some  musical  contest  He  won  the 


a  form  of  the  generic  name  of  the  whole  Per- ,  prize,  and,  laden  with  presents,  he  embarked  iu 
sian  race,  derived  from  the  root  ar,  which  means  \  a  Corinthian  ship  to  return  to  his  friend  Peri- 
noble,  and  which  forms  the  first  syllable  of  a  ander.  The  rude  sailors  coveted  his  treasures, 
>reat  number  of  Persian  names.  Compare  i  and  meditated  his  murder.  After  trying  in  vain 
AIOVEI.  to  save  his  life,  he  at  length  obtained  permission 

ARIMASPI  ('Apiftaa-oi),  a  people  in  the  north  once  more  to  play  on  the  cithara.  In  festal  at- 
of  Scythia,  of  whom  a  fabulous  account  is  given  tire,  he  placed  himself  in  the  prow  of  the  ship, 
by  Herodotus  (iv.,  27).  The  germ  of  the  fable  |  and  invoked  the  gods  in  inspired  strains,  and 
is  perhaps  to  be  recognized  in  the  fact  that  the  then  threw  himself  into  the  sea.  But  many 
Ural  Mountains  abouud  in  gold.  song-loving  dolphins  had  assembled  round  the 


ARIMAZES  ('Api/i,u£i}f)  or  ARIOMAZES  ('Apio/td- 
fof),  a  chief  in  Sogdiana,  whose  fortress  was 
taken  by  Alexander  in  B.C.  328.  In  it  Alex- 
ander found  Roxana,  the  daughter  of  the  Bac- 
triau  chief  Oxyartes,  whom  he  made  his  wife. 


vessel,  and  one  of  them  now  took  the  bard  on 
its  back  and  carried  him  to  TaeniSrus,  from 
whence  he  returned  to  Corinth  in  safety,  and 
related  his  adventure  to  Periauder.  Upou  the 
arrival  of  the  Corinthian  vessel,  Periander  in- 


ARIMI  ('ApiLtoi.)  and  ARIMA  (TU  'Api/m,  sc.  oprj),  i  quired  of  the  sailors  after  Ariou,  who  replied 
the  names  of  a  mytliical  people,  district,  and  that  he  had  remained  behind  at  Tarentum  ;  but 
range  of  mountains  in  Asia  Minor,  which  the  when  Arion,  at  the  bidding  of  Periander,  came 
old  Greek  poets  made  the  scene  of  the  punish-  forward,  the  sailors  owned  their  guilt,  and  were 
nieut  of  the  monster  Typhoeus.  Vigil  (j£n.,  punished  according  to  their  desert  In  the  times 
ix.,  716)  has  misunderstood  the  dv  'Apipoif  of  i  of  Herodotus  and  Pausanias  there  existed  at 


Homer  (//.,  ii.,  783),  and  made  Typhoeus  lie  be 
neath  luarime,  an  island  off  the  const  of  Italy, 
namely,  Pithecusa  or  yEuaria  (now  Ixchia). 
ARIJIIXUM  (Arimineusis  :  now  Rimini),  a  town 


Tsenarus  a  bras*  monument,  representing  Arion 
riding  on  a  dolphin.  Arion  and  his  cithara  (lyre) 
were  placed  among  the  stars.  A  fragment  of  a 
hymn  to  Neptune  (Poseidon),  ascribed  to  Ariou, 


in  Umbria,  on  the  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  little  j  is  contained  in  Bergk's  Poeta.  Lyrici  Greed,  p. 
River  Ariminus  (now  Marocchid).  It  was  origin-  566,  <tc. — 2.  A  fabulous  horse,  which  Neptune 
ally  inhabited  by  TJmbrians  and  Pelasgians,  was  (Poseidon)  b*got  by  Ceres  (Demeter) ;  for,  in 
afterward  in  the  possession  of  the  Senones,  and  ,  order  to  escape  from  the  pursuit  of  Neptune 
was  colonized  by  the  Romans  in  B.C.  268,  from  (Poseidon),  the  goddess  had  metamorphosed 
which  time  it  appears  as  a  flourishing  place,  herself  into  a  mare,  and  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
After  leaving  Cisalpine  Gaul,  it  was  the  first  deceived  her  by  assuming  the  figure  of  a  horse, 
towu  which  a  person  arrived  at  in  the  northeast  There  were  many  other  traditions  respecting 
of  Italia  proper.  .  the  origin  of  this  horse,  but  all  make  Neptune 

ARIOBARZANES  ('Aptodap&vqf;).  I.  Kings  or '  (Poseidon)  its  father,  though  its  mother  is  dif- 
Satrapn  of  Pontus. — 1.  Betrayed  by  his  son  ferent  in  the  various  legends. 
Mithradates  to  the  Persian  king  about  B.C.  i  ARIOVISTUS,  a  German  chief,  who  crossed  the 
Son  of  Mithradates  I.,  reigned  B.C.  Rhine  at  the  request  of  the  Sequani,  when  they 
363-337.  He  revolted  from  Artaxerxes  iu  362,  were  hard  pressed  by  the  JSdui.  He  subdued 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  king-  the  ^Edui,  but  appropriated  to  himself  part  of 
dom  of  Pontus.— 3.  Son  of  Mithradates  III.,  the  territory  of  the  Seqnani,  and  threatened  to 
reigned  266-240,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mith-  take  still  more.  The  Sequani  now  united  with 
radates  IV.  II.  Kings  of  Cappadocia. — 1.  Sur-  the  JSdui  in  imploring  the  help  of  Caesar,  who 
named  Philoromceus,  reigned  B.C.  93-63,  and  defeated  Ariovistus  about  fifty  miles  from  the 
was  elected  king  by  the  Cappadocians,  under  Rhine,  B.C.  68.  Ariovistus  escaped  across  the 
the  direction  of  the  Romans.  He  was  several  river  iu  a  small  boat. 
94 


ARIPHON. 


ARISTARCHUS. 


[ARIPHO.V  ('ApiQuv).  1.  The  father  of  Xan- 
thippus,  and  grandfather  of  Pericles. — 2.  Of  Sic- 
yon,  a  Greek  poet,  author  of  a  beautiful  paean  to 
Health,  preserved  by  Athenaeus :  it  is  given  in 
Bergk's  Poetce  Lyr'ici  Greed,  p.  841.] 

[ARISBE  ('ApictBji).  1.  Daughter  of  Merops, 
first  wife  of  Priam,  to  whom  she  bore  ^Esacus. 
— 2.  Daughter  of  Teucer,  wife  of  Dardauus, 
from  whom  the  town  Arisbe,  in  Troas,  was  said 
to  be  named.] 

[ARISBE  ('Apia/ty,  now  Mussa  Koi).  1.  A  town 
of  Troas,  on  the  Selleis,  not  far  from  Abydus, 
founded  by  the  Lesbians,  or,  according  to  Anax- 
imenes  of  Lampsacus,  by  the  Milesians,  the  ear- 
lier town  having  been  destroyed  by  Achilles  in 
the  Trojan  war.  It  was  occupied  by  the  army  of 
Alexander  after  the  passage  of  the  Hellespont : 
at  a  later  pei-iod  it  was  captured  by  the  Gauls, 
and  in  Strabo's  time  it  no  longer  existed.  It 
appears  to  have  been  subsequently  rebuilt,  and 
to  have  become  a  considerable  place  under  the 
later  emperors. — 2.  A  city  of  Lesbos,  made  trib- 
utary at  an  early  period  by  the  Methyniuaeans  : 
it  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.] 

[ARISBUS  ("AptaGof),  a  river  of  Thrace,  flow- 
ing into  the  Hebrus.] 

ARIST^XETUS  ('ApiaTaiveroc),  the  reputed  au- 
thor of  two  books  of  Love  Letters,  taken  almost 
entirely  from  Plato,  Lucian,  Philostratus,  and 
Plutarch.  Of  the  author  nothing  is  known. 
The  best  edition  is  by  Boissonade,  Paris,  1822. 

AaisTwfiNus  (' Apiffraivoc),  of  Megalopolis, 
sometimes  called  Aristcenetus,  was  frequently 
strategus  or  general  of  the  Achasan  League  from 
B.C.  198  to  185.  He  was  the  political  opponent 
of  Philopoemen.  and  a  friend  of  the  Romans. 

ARISTJETJS  ('Apiaraiof),  a  divinity  worshipped 
in  various  parts  of  Greece,  was  once  a  mortal, 
who  became  a  god  through  the  benefits  he  had 
conferred  upon  mankind.  The  different  ac- 
counts about  him  seem  to  have  arisen  in  differ- 
ent places  and  independently  of  one  another,  so 
that  they  referred  to  several  distinct  beings, 
who  were  subsequently  identified  and  united 
into  one.  He  is  described  either  as  a  son  of 
Uranus  and  Ge,  or,  according  to  a  more  general 
tradition,  as  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Gyrene.  His 
mother  Cyreue  had  been  carried  off  by  Apollo 
from  Mount  Pelion  to  Libya,  where  she  gave 
birth  to  Aristaaus.  Aristseus  subsequently  went 
to  Thebes  in  Boeotia ;  but  after  the  unfortunate 
death  of  his  son  ACTION,  he  left  Thebes,  and 
visited  almost  all  the  Greek  colonies  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  Finally  he  went 
to  Thrace,  and  after  dwelling  for  pome  time 
near  Mount  Haemus,  where  he  founded  the  town 
of  Aristeeon,  he  disappeared.  Ariataeus  is  one 
of  the  most  beneficent  divinities  in  ancient  my- 
thology :  he  was  worshipped  as  the  protector 
of  flocks  and  shepherds,  ot  vine  and  olive  plant- 
ations ;  he  taught  men  to  keep  bees,  and  avert- 
ed from  the  fields  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun 
and  other  causes  of  destruction. 

ARISTAGORAS  ('Apiara-yapae).  1.  Of  Miletus, 
brother-in-law  of  Histiaeus,  was  left  by  the  latter, 
during  his  stay  at  the  Persian  court,  in  charge 
j>f  the  government  of  Miletua,  Having  failed 
in  an  attempt  upon  Naxos  (B.C.  501),  which  he 
had  promised  to  subdue  for  the  Persians,  anil 
fearing  the  consequences  of  his  failure,  lie  in 
the  Ionian  cities  to  revolt  from  Persia. 


He  applied  for  assistance  to  the  Spartans  and 
Athenians :  the  former  refused,  but  the  latter 
sent  him  twenty  ships  and  some  troops.  In 
499  his  army  captured  and  burned  Sardis,  but 
was  finally  chased  back  to  the  coast  The 
Athenians  now  departed ;  the  Persians  con- 
quered most  of  the  Ionian  cities ;  and  Aristag 
oras,  in  despair,  fled  to  Thrace,  where  he  waf 
slain  by  the  Edonians  in  497. — [2.  Son  of  Her- 
aclides,  tyrant  of  Cyme  in  JSolis,  one  of  the  Io- 
nian chiefs  left  by  Darius  to  guard  the  bridge 
over  the  Danube. — 3.  Tyrant  of  Cyzicus,  also 
in  the  service  of  the  Persian  king,  and  left  by 
him  as  one  of  the  guards  of  the  bridge  over  the 
Danube. — 4.  A  Greek  author,  who  composed  a 
work  on  Egypt,  flourished  uear  the  time  of  Pla- 
to.— 5.  A  comic  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  of  whom 
a  few  slight  fragments  remain,  given  by  Mei- 
neke,  Fragm.  Comic.  Grcec^  voL  i.,  p.  427—128, 
edit  minor.] 

ARISTAXDER  ('  ^oiaravdpof),  the  most  celebra- 
ted soothsayer  ot  \  lexander  the  Great,  wrote  a 
work  on  prodigies. 

ARISTARCHUS  ('Apiarap^of).  1.  An  Atheniau, 
one  of  the  leaders  in  the  revolution  of  the  "  Four 
Hundred,"  B.C.  411.  He  was  afterward  put  to 
death  by  the  Athenians,  not  later  than  406.—  2.  A 
Lacedaemonian,  succeeded  Oleander  as  harmost 
of  Byzantium  in  400,  and  in  various  ways  ill 
treated  the  Greeks  of  Cyrus's  army,  who  had 
recently  returned  from  Asia. — 3.  Of  TEGEA,  a 
tragic  poet  at  Athens,  contemporary  with  Eu- 
ripides, flourished  about  B.C.  454,  and  wrote 
seventy  tragedies. — 4.  Of  SAMOS,  an  eminent 
mathematician  and  astronomer  at  Alexandrea, 
flourished  between  B.C.  280  and  264.  He  em- 
ployed himself  in  the  determination  of  some  of 
the  most  important  elements  of  astronomy  ;  but 
none  of  his  works  remain,  except  a  treatise  on 
the  magnitudes  and  distances  of  the  sun  and 
moon  (Kepi  [teyeOtiv  Kal  uTroaTrjfJ.u~uv  qXtov  Kat 
ffeljyiic).  Edited  by  Wallis,  Oxon,  1688,  and 
reprinted  in  vol.  iii.  of  his  works.  There  is  a 
French  translation,  and  an  edition  of  the  text, 
Paris,  1810. — 5.  Of  SAMOTHRACE,  the  celebrated 
grammarian,  flourished  B.C.  156.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  school  of  Aristophanes  of  Byzan- 
tium, at  Alexandrea,  where  he  himself  founded 
a  grammatical  and  critical  school.  At  an  ad- 
vanced age  he  left  Alexandrea  and  went  to 
Cyprus,  where  he  is  said  to  have  died  at  the 
age  of  72,  of  voluntary  starvation,  because  he 
was  suffering  from  incurable  dropsv.  Aiistar- 
chus  was  the  greatest  critic  of  antiquity.  His 
labors  were  chiefly  devoted  to  the  Greek  poets, 
but  more  especially  to  the  Homeric  poems,  of 
which  he  published  a  recension,  which  has  been 
the  basis  of  the  text  from  his  time  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  The  great  object  of  his  critical  labors 
was  to  restore  the  genuine  text  of  the  Homeric 
poems,  and  to  clear  it  of  all  later  interpolations 
and  corruptions.  He  marked  those  verses  which 
he  thought  spurious  with  an  obelos,  and  those 
which  he  considered  as  particularly  beautiful 
with  an  asterisk.  He  divided  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  into  twenty-four  books  each.  He  did 
not  confine  himself  to  a  recension  of  the  text, 
but  also  explained  and  interpreted  the  poems : 
he  opposed  the  allegorical  interpretation  which 
was  then  beginning  to  find  favor,  and  which  at 
a  later  time  became  very  general.  His  gram- 
95 


ARISTEAS. 


ARISTIPPUS. 


matical  principles  were  attacked  by  many  of  bis 
contemporaries :  tbe  most  eminent  of  bis  oppo- 
nents was  CRATES  of  Mallus. 

ARISTEAS  (AptoTtaf).  1.  Of  Proconnesus,  an 
epic  poet  of  wbose  life  we  bave  only  fabulous 
accounts.  His  date  is  quite  uncertain :  some 
place  him  in  the  time  of  Croesus  and  Cyrus ; 
but  other  traditions  make  him  earlier  than  Ho- 
mer, or  a  contemporary  and  teacher  of  Homer. 
The  ancient  writers  represent  him  as  a  magi- 
cian, who  rose  after  his  death,  and  whose  soul 
could  leave  and  re-enter  ita  body  according  to 
its  pleasure.  He  was  connected  with  the  wor- 
ship of  Apollo,  which  he  was  said  to  have  in- 
troduced at  Metapontum.  He  is  said  to  have 
travelled  through  the  countries  north  and  east 
of  the  Euxine,  and  to  have  visited  the  Issedones, 
Arimaspae,  Cimmcrii,  Hyperborei,  and  other 
mythical  nations,  and  after  his  return  to  have 
written  an  epic  poem  in  three  books,  called  Tlte 
Arimaspla  (rei  'Api/tuaTreia).  This  work  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  by  the  ancients,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  say  who  was  the  real  author  of 
it. — [2.  Of  Chios,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the 
army  of  the  Ten  Thousand. — 3.  An  Argive, 
who  invited  Pyrrhus  to  Argos,  B.C.  272,  as  his 
rival  Aristippus  was  supported  by  Antigonus 
Gonatas.] 

ARISTEAS  or  ARIST^EUS,  an  officer  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  (B.C.  285-247),  the  reputed  author 
of  a  Greek  work,  giving  an  account  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  translation  of  the  Septuagint 
was  executed,  but  which  is  generally  admitted 
by  the  best  critics  to  be  spurious.  Printed  at 
Oxford,  1692,  8vo. 

ARISTIDES  ('ApiaTeid^f).  1.  An  Athenian,  son 
of  Lysimachus,  surnamed  the  "  Just,"  was  of  an 
ancient  and  noble  family.  He  was  the  political 
disciple  of  Clisthenes,  and  partly  on  that  ac- 
count, partly  from  personal  character,  opposed 
from  the  first  to  Themistocles.  Aristides  fought 
as  the  commander  of  his  tribe  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  B.C  490  ;  and  next  year,  489,  he  was 
arcbon.  In  483  or  482  he  suffered  ostracism, 
probably  in  consequence  of  the  triumph  of  the 
maritime  and  democratic  policy  of  his  rival.  He 
was  still  in  exile  in  480  at  the  battle  cf  Salamis, 
where  he  did  good  service  by  dislodging  the 
enemy,  with  a  band  raised  and  armed  by  him- 
self, from  the  islet  of  PsytUileia.  He  was  re- 
called from  banishment  after  the  battle,  was  ap- 
pointed general  in  the  following  year  (479),  and 
commanded  the  Athenians  at  the  battle  of  Pla- 
tffiae.  In  477,  when  the  allies  had  become  dis- 
gusted with  the  conduct  of  Pausanias  and  the 
Spartans,  he  and  his  colleague  Cimon  had  the 
glory  of  obtaining  for  Athens  the  command  of  the 
maritime  confederacy  ;  and  to  Aristides  was  by 
general  consent  intrusted  the  task  of  drawing 
up  its  laws  and  fixing  its  assessments.  This 
first  tribute  (06pof)  of  460  talents,  paid  into  a 
common  treasury  at  Delos,  bore  his  name,  and 
was  regarded  by  the  allies  in  after  times  as 
marking  their  Saturnian  age.  This  is  his  last 
recorded  act  He  died  after  471,  the  year  of 
tbe  ostracism  of  Themistocles,  and  very  likely 
in  468.  He  died  so  poor  that  he  did  not  leave 
enough  to  pay  for  his  funeral :  his  daughters 
•were  portioned  by  the  state,  and  his  son,  Ly- 
simachus,  received  a  grant  of  land  and  of  money. 
— 2.  The  author  of  a  work  entitled  Milesiaca. 
96 


which  was  probably  a  romance,  having  Milettn 
for  its  scene.  It  was  written  in  prose,  and  was 
of  a  licentious  character.  It  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  L.  Cornelius  Sisenna,  a  contemporary 
of  Sulla,  and  it  seems  to  have  become  popular 
with  the  Romans.  Aristides  is  reckoned  as 
the  inventor  of  the  Greek  romance,  and  the 
title  of  his  work  gave  rise  to  the  term  Milesian, 
as  applied  to  works  of  fiction.  His  age  and 
country  are  unknown,  but  the  title  of  his  work 
is  thought  to  favor  the  conjecture  that  he  was  a 
native  of  Miletus. — 3.  Of  THEBES,  a  celebrated 
Greek  painter,  flourished  about  B.C.  360-330. 
The  point  in  which  he  most  excelled  was  in 
depicting  the  feelings,  expressions,  and  pas- 
sions which  may  be  observed  in  common  life. 
His  pictures  were  so  much  valued,  that,  long 
after  his  death,  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus,  offer- 
ed six  hundred  thousand  sesterces  for  one  of 
them. — 4.  JEuus  ARISTIDES,  surnamed  THEO- 
DORUS,  a  celebrated  Greek  rhetorician,  was  born 
at  Adrian!,  in  Mysia,  in  A.D.  117.  He  studied 
under  Herodes  Atticus  at  Athens,  and  subse- 
quently travelled  through  Egypt,  Greece,  and 
Italy.  The  fame  of  his  talents  and  acquire- 
ments was  so  great,  that  monuments  were 
erected  to  his  honor  in  several  towns  which  he 
had  honored  with  his  presence.  Shortly  before 
his  return  he  was  attacked  by  an  illness  which 
lasted  for  thirteen  years,  but  this  did  not  prevent 
him  from  prosecuting  his  studies.  He  subse- 
quently settled  at  Smyrna,  and  when  this  city 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  178, 
he  used  his  influence  with  the  emperor,  M.  Au- 
relius,  to  induce  him  to  assist  in  rebuilding  the 
town.  The  Smyrnaeans  showed  their  gratitude 
to  Aristides  by  offering  him  various  honors  and 
distinctions,  most  of  which  he  refused  :  he  ac- 
cepted only  the  office  of  priest  of  jEsculapius 
(Asclepius),  which  he  held  until  his  death,  about 
A.D.  180.  The  works  of  Aristides  which  have 
come  down  to  us  are  fifty-five  orations  and  dec- 
lamations, and  two  treatises  on  rhetorical  sub- 
jects of  little  value.  His  orations  are  much  su- 
perior to  those  of  the  rhetoricians  of  his  time 
His  admirers  compared  him  to  Demosthenes, 
and  even  Aristides  did  not  think  himself  much 
inferior.  This  vanity  and  self-sufficiency  made 
him  enemies  and  opponents ;  but  the  number 
of  his  admirers  was  far  greater,  and  several 
learned  grammarians  wrote  commentaries  on 
his  orations,  some  of  which  are  extant.  The 
best  edition  of  Aristides  is  by  W.  Dindorf,  Lips., 
1829. — 5.  QUINTILIANUS  ARISTIDES,  the  author 
of  a  treatise  in  three  books  on  music,  probably 
lived  in  the  first  century  after  Christ.  His  work 
is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  ancient 
musical  treatises  :  it  is  printed  in  the  collection 
of  Meibomius  entitled  Antiques  Musicce  Auctoret 
Septem,  Amst,  1652. 

ARISTION  ('Apianuv),  a  philosopher  either  of 
the  Epicurean  or  Peripatetic  school,  made  him- 
self tyrant  of  Athens  through  the  influence  of 
Mithradates.  He  held  out  against  Sulla  in  B. 
C.  87 ;  and  when  the  city  was  taken  by  storm, 
he  was  put  to  death  by  Sulla's  orders. 

AKISTIPPCS  ('Ap'.OTimrof).  1.  Son  of  Aritades. 
born  at  Cyrene,  dnd  founder  of  the  Cyrenaic 
school  of  philosophy,  flourished  about  B.C.  370. 
The  fame  of  Socrates  brought  him  to  Athens, 
and  he  remained  with  that  philosopher  almost 


ARISTIUS   FUSCCIS. 


ARISTOCRATES. 


ap  to  the  time  of  his  execution,  B.C.  399 
Though  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  he  wanderec 
both  in  principle  and  practice  very  far  from  the 
teaching  and  example  of  his  great  master.  He 
was  luxurious  in  his  mode  of  living ;  he  in- 
dulged in  sensual  gratifications  and  the  society 
of  the  notorious  Lais ;  and  he  took  money  for 
his  teaching  (being  the  first  of  the  disciples  of 
Socrates  who  did  so).  He  passed  part  of  his 
life  at  the  court  of  Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Syra- 
cuse ;  bul.  he  appears  at  last  to  have  returned  to 
Gyrene,  and  there  to  have  spent  his  old  age, 
The  anecdotes  which  are  told  of  him,  however, 
do  not  give  us  the  notion  of  a  person  who  was 
the  mere  slave  of  his  passions,  but  rather  of  one 
who  took  a  pride  in  extracting  enjoyment  from 
all  circumstances  of  every  kind,  and  in  con- 
trolling adversity  and  prosperity  alike.  They 
illustrate  and  confirm  the  two  statements  of 
Horace  (Ep^  L,  1,  18),  that  to  observe  the  pre- 
cepts of  Aristippus  is  mihi  res,  non  me  rebus  sub- 
jungere,  and  (L,  17,  23)  that  omnis  Aristippum 
decuit  color  et  status  et  res.  Thus,  when  re- 
proached for  his  love  of  bodily  indulgences,  he 
answered  that  there  was  no  shame  in  enjoy- 
ing them,  but  that  it  would  be  disgraceful  if  he 
could  not  at  any  time  give  them  up.  To  Xeno- 
phon  and  Plato  he  was  very  obnoxious,  as  we 
see  from  the  Memorabilia  (iL,  1),  where  he  main- 
tains an  odious  discussion  against  Socrates  in 
defence  of  voluptuous  enjoyment,  and  from  the 
Pluedo,  where  his  absence  at  the  death  of  Soc- 
rates, though  he  was  only  at  JSgina,  two  hund- 
red stadia  from  Athens,  is  doubtless  mentioned 
as  a  reproach.  He  imparted  his  doctrine  to  his 
daughter  Arete,  by  whom  it  was  communicated 
to  her  son,  the  younger  Aristippus. — [2.  ARIS- 
TIPPCS,  an  Aleuad,  of  Larissa  in  Thessaly,  re- 
ceived money  and  troops  from  Cyrus,  to  resist  a 
faction  opposed  to  him,  and  for  the  ulterior 
purposes  of  Cyrus,  to  whom  he  sent  the  troops 
under  command  of  Menon. — 3.  An  Argive,  who 
obtained  the  supreme  power  in  Argos  through 
the  aid  of  Antigen*  Gonatas,  about  B.C.  272. — 
4.  An  Argive,  tyrant  of  Argos  after  the  the  mur- 
der of  Aristomachus  L  Aratus  made  many  at- 
tempte  to  deprive  bun  of  his  tyranny,  but  at  first 
without  success:  he  fell  at  length  in  a  battle 
against  Aratus,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  tyran- 
ny by  Aristomachus  IL  Vid.  AKISTOMACHUS, 
Nos.  3  and  4.] 

[Afiisxius  FuscCs.     Vid.  Fuscus.  No.  2.] 

AEISTO,  T.,  a  distinguished  Roman  jurist,  lived 
under  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  was  a  friend  of 
the  younger  Pliny.  His  works  are  occasionally 
mentioned  in  the  Digest,  but  there  is  no  di- 
rect extract  from  any  of  them  in  that  compi- 
latioa  He  wrote  notes  on  the  Libri  Potle- 
riorum  of  Labeo,  on  Cassius,  whose  pupil  he  had 
been,  and  on  Sabinus. 

AEISTO.     Vid.  ARISTOX. 

AaisTost'LUs  ('Apiffro&wAof),  princes  of  Ju- 
daa.  1.  Eldest  son  of  Joannes  Hyrcanus,  as- 
sumed the  title  of  King  of  Judaea  on  the  death 
of  his  father  in  B.C.  107.  He  put  to  death  his 
brother  Antigonus  in  order  to  secure  his  power, 
but  died  in  the  following  year,  106. — 2.  Younger 
BOD  of  Alexander  Jannaaus  and  Alexandra. 
After  the  death  of  hia  mother  in  B.C.  70,  there 
wa»  a  civil  war  for  some  years  between  Aristo- 
oulns  and  his  brother  Hyrcanus  for  the  posses- 
7 


sion  of  the  crown.  At  length,  in  B.C.  63,  Ariato- 
bulus  was  deprived  of  the  the  sovereignty  by 
Pompey,  and  carried  away  as  a  prisoner  to 
Rome.  In  57  he  escaped  from  his  confinement 
at  Rome  with  his  son  Antigonus,  and,  return- 
ing to  Judaea,  renewed  the  war ;  but  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  sent  back  to  Rome  by  Ga 
binius.  In  49  he  was  released  by  Julius  Caesar, 
who  sent  him  into  Judaea,  but  he  was  poisoned 
on  the  way  by  some  of  Pompey's  party. — 3. 
Grandson  of  No.  2,  son  of  Alexander,  and  broth- 
er of  Herod's  wife  Mariamne.  He  was  made 
high-priest  by  Herod  when  he  was  only  seven- 
teen years  old,  but  was  afterward  drowned  at 
Jericho,  by  order  of  Herod,  B.C.  35. — 4.  Son  of 
Herod  the  Great  by  Mariamne,  was  put  to  death 
in  B.C.  6,  with  his  brother  Alexander,  by  order 
of  their  father,  whose  suspicions  had  been  excit- 
ed against  them  by  their  brother  ANTIPATER. — 
5.  Surnamed  "  the  Younger,"  son  of  Aristobulus 
and  Berenice,  and  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great. 
He  was  educated  at  Rome  with  his  two  brothers, 
Agrippa  L  and  Herod  the  future  king  of 
Chalcis.  He  died,  as  he  had  lived,  in  a  private 
station. — 6.  Son  of  Herod,  long  of  Chalcis, 
grandson  of  No.  4,  and  great-grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great.  In  A.D.  55,  Nero  made  him  king 
of  Armenia  Minor,  and  in  61  added  to  his  do- 
minions some  portion  of  the  Greater  Armenia 
which  had  been  given  to  Tigranes.  He  joined 
the  Romans  in  the  war  against  Antiochus,  king 
of  Commagene,  in  73. 

ABISTOBULUS.  1.  Of  Cassandrea,  served  un- 
der Alexander  the  Great  in  Asia,  and  wrote  a 
history  of  Alexander,  which  was  one  of  the 
chief  sources  used  by  Arrian  in  the  composition 
of  his  work. — 2.  An  Alexandrine  Jew,  and  a 
Peripatetic  philosopher,  lived  B.C.  170,  under 
Ptolemy  VL  Philometor.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  author  of  commentaries  upon  the  books 
of  Moses,  the  object  of  which  was  to  prove  that 
the  Greek  philosophy  was  taken  from  the  books 
of  Moses ;  but  it  is  now  admitted  that  this  work 
was  written  by  a  later  writer,  whose  object  was 
to  induce  the  Greeks  to  pay  respect  to  the  Jew- 
ish literature. 

ABISTOCLES  ('ApiaTOK^f/f).  1.  Of  Rhodes,  a 
Greek  grammarian  and  rhetorician,  a  contem- 
porary of  Strabo. — 2.  Of  Pergamus,  a  Sophist 
and  rhetorician,  and  a  pupil  of  Herodes  Atticus, 
lived  under  Trajan  and  Hadrian. — 3.  Of  Mes- 
sene,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher,  probably  lived 
about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  after 
Christ  He  wrote  a  work  on  philosophy,  some 
fragments  of  which  are  preserved  by  Eusebius. 
— 1.  Sculptors.  There  were  two  sculptors  of 
this  name:  Aristoclcs  the  elder,  who  is  called 
both  a  Cydonian  and  a  Sicyonian,  probably  be- 
cause he  was  born  at  Cydonia  and  practiced  his 
art  in  Sicyon ;  and  Aristocles  the  younger,  of 
Sicyon,  grandson  of  the  former,  son  of  Cleretas, 
and  brother  of  Canachus.  These  artists  founded 
a  school  of  sculpture  at  Sicyon,  which  se- 
cured an  hereditary  reputation,  and  of  which 
we  have  the  heads  for  several  generations,  name- 
ly, Aristocles,  Cleoataa,  Aristocles  and  Cana- 
chus, Synnoon,  Ptolichus,  Sostratus,  and  Pantias. 
The  elder  Aristocles  probably  lived  about  B.C. 
600-568  ;  the  younger  about  540-508. — [5.  Ear- 
ier  name  of  Plato.  Vid.  PLATO.] 
AKISTOCBATES  ('\piaTOKpdrrif).  1.  Last  King 
97 


ARISTODEMUS. 


ARISTOMENES. 


of  Arcadia,  was  the  leader  of  the  Arcadians  in 
the  second  Messenian  war,  when  they  assisted 
the  Messenians  against  the  Spartans.  Having 
been  bribed  by  the  Spartans,  he  betrayed  the 
Messenians,  and  was,  m  consequence,  stoned  to 
death  by  the  Arcadians  about  B.C.  668,  who 
uow  abolished  the  kingly  office. — 2.  An  Atheni- 
an of  wealth  and  influence,  son  of  Scelh'as,  was 
one  of  the  Athenian  generals  at  the  battle  of 
Arginusae,  B.C.  406,  and  on  his  return  to  Athens 
was  brought  to  trial  and  executed. 

AKISTODKMUS  ('Apiffrodf/fiof).  1.  A  descend- 
ant of  Hercules,  son  of  Aristomachus,  and  fa- 
ther of  Eurysthenes  and  Procles.  According 
to  some  traditions,  Aristodemus  was  killed  at 
Naupactus  ty  a  flash  of  lightning,  just  as  he 
was  setting  out  on  his  expedition  into  Pelopon- 
nesus ;  but  a  Lacedaemonian  tradition  related 
that  Aristodemus  himself  came  to  Sparta,  was 
the  first  king -of  his  race,  and  died  a  natural 
death. — 2.  A  Messenian,  one  of  the  chief  heroes 
in  the  first  Messenian  war.  As  the  Delphic 
oracle  had  declared  that  the  preservation  of  the 
Messenian  state  demanded  that  a  maiden  of  the 
house  of  the  JSpytids  should  be  sacrificed,  Aris- 
todemus offered  lus  own  daughter.  In  order  to 
save  her  life,  her  lover  declared  that  she  was 
with  child  by  him  ;  but  Aristodemus,  enraged  at 
this  assertion,  murdered  his  daughter,  and  open- 
ed her  body  to  refute  the  calumny.  Aristode- 
mus was  afterward  elected  king  in  place  of 
Euphaes,  who  had  fallen  in  battle  against  the 
Spartans.  He  continued  the  war  against  the 
Spartans,  till  at  length,  finding  further  resist- 
ance hopeless,  he  put  an  end  to  his  life,  on  the 
tomb  of  his  daughter,  about  B.C.  723. — 3.  Ty- 
rant of  Cumae  in  Campania,  at  whose  court  Tar- 
quinius  Superbus  died,  B.C.  496. — 4.  One  of  the 
three  hundred  Spartans  at  Thermopylae  (B.C. 
480),  was .  not  present  at  the  battle  in  which  his 
comrades  fell,  either  in  consequence  of  sick- 
ness, or  because  he  had  been  sent  on  an  errand 
from  the  camp.  The  Spartans  punished  him 
with  Atlmia,  or  civil  degradation.  Stung  with 
this  treatment,  he  met  his  death  at  Plataeae  in 
the  following  year  (479),  after  performing  the 
wildest  feats  of  valor. — 5.  A  tragic  actor  of 
Athens  in  the  time  of  Demosthenes,  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  his 
time,  and  advocated  peace  with  Macedonia. 
He  was  employed  by  the  Athenians  in  the  ne- 
gotiations with  Philip,  with  whom  he  was  a 
great  favorite. — 6.  Of  Miletus,  a  friend  and  flat- 
terer of  Antigonus,  king  of  Asia,  who  sent  him 
into  Greece  in  B.C.  315,  in  order  to  promote 
his  interests  there. — 7.  There  were  many  lit- 
erary persons  of  this  name  referred  to  by  the 
ancient  grammarians,  whom  it  is  difficult  to  dis,- 
tiuguish  from  one  another.  Two  were  natives 
of  Nysa  in  Caria,  both  grammarians,  one  a  teach- 
er of  Pompey,  and  the  other  of  Strabo.  There 
was  also  an  Aristodemus  of  Etis,  and  another 
of  Thebes,  who  are  quoted  as  writers.  [The 
fragments  of  these  writers  are  collected  and 
published  together  by  Miiller,  Fragm.  Histor. 
Grax.,  vol.  iii,  p.  307-311.] 

ARISTOGITON  ('ApiaToyei.Tuv).  1.  The  con- 
spirator against  the  sous  of  Pisistratus.  Vid. 
HAEMODICS. — 2.  An  Athenian  orator  and  ad- 
versary of  Demosthenes,  Hypendes,  and  Dinar- 
shus.  He  was  often  accused  by  Demosthenes 
98 


and  others,  and  defended  himself  in  .\  numoer 
of  orations  which  are  lost.  Among  the  extant 
speeches  of  Demosthenes  there  are  two  against 
Aristogiton,  and  among  those  of  Dinarchus  there 
is  one. 

ARISTOMACHE  ('AptoTo/nuxn).  [1.  One  of  the 
daughters  of  Priam,  and  wife  of  Critolaus.] — 
2.  Daughter  of  Hipparinus  of  Syracuse,  sister 
of  Dion,  and  wife  of  the  elder  Dionysius,  who 
married  her  and  Doris  of  Locri  on  the  same  day. 
She  afterward  perished  with  her  daughter 
ABETE. 

AEISTOMACHUS  (  Aptcrro/fo^of).  1.  Son  of  Ta- 
laus  and  brother  of  Adrastus. — 2.  Son  of  Cleo- 
demus  or  Cleodaeus,  grandson  of  Hyllus,  great- 
grandson  of  Hercules,  and  father  of  Tem<jnus, 
Cresphontes,  and  Aristodemus.  He  fell  in  bat- 
tle when  he  invaded  Peloponnesus ;  but  his 
three  sons  were  more  successful,  and  conquer- 
ed Peloponnesus. — 3.  Tyrant  of  Argos,  under 
the  patronage  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  was  as- 
sassinated, and  succeeded  by  Aristippus  II. — 4. 
Tyrant  of  Argos,  succeeded  Aristippus  IL :  he 
resigned  his  power  upon  the  death  of  Demetri- 
us in  B.C.  229,  and  induced  Argos  to  join  the 
Achaean  League.  He  afterward  deserted  the 
Achaeans,  and  again  assumed  the  tyranny  of  Ar- 
gos ;  but  the  city  having  been  taken  by  Antigo- 
nus Doson,  Aristomachus  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Achseans,  and  was  by  them  put  to  death. 

AEISTOMENES  ('A.ptGTOfievrj<;).  1.  The  Messe- 
nian, the  hero  of  the  second  war  with  Sparta, 
belongs  more  to  legend  than  to  history.  Ho 
was  a  native  of  Andania,  and  was  sprung  from 
the  royal  line  of  JSpytus.  Tired  of  the  yoke  of 
Sparta,  he  began  the  war  in  B.C.  685,  thirty- 
nine  years  after  the  end  of  the  first  war.  Soon 
after  its  commencement,  he  so  distinguished 
himself  by  his  valor  that  he  was  offered  the 
throne,  but  refused  it,  and  received  the  office 
of  supreme  commander.  After  the  defeat  of 
the  Messeniaus  in  the  third  year  of  the  war, 
through  the  treachery  of  Aristocrates,  the  Ar- 
cadian leader,  Aristomenes  retreated  to  the 
mountain  fortress  of  Ira,  and  there  maintained 
the  war  eleven  years,  constantly  ravaging  the 
land  of  Laconia.  In  one  of  his  incursions,  how- 
ever, the  Spartans  overpowered  him  with  su- 
perior numbers,  and  carrying  him,  with  fifty  oi 
his  comrades,  to  Sparta,  cast  them  into  the 
pit  (/cea<5af)  where  condemned  criminals  were 
thrown.  The  rest  perished  ;  "not  so  Aristome- 
nes, the  favorite  of  the  gods;  for  legends  told 
how  an  eagle  bore  him  up  on  its  wings  as  he 
fell,  and  a  fox  guided  him  on  the  third  day  from 
the  cavern.  But  having  recurred  the  anger  of 
the  Twin  Brothers,  his  country  was  destined  to 
ruin.  The  city  of  Ira,  which  he  had  so  long 
successfully  defended,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Spartans;  Aristomenes,  after  performing  prodi- 
gies of  valor,  was  obliged  to  leave  his  country, 
which  was  again  compelled  to  submit  to  the 
Spartans,  B.C.  668.  He  afterward  settled  at 
lalysus  in  Rhodes,  where  he  died.  Damagetus, 
king  of  lalysus,  had  been  enjoined  by  the  Del- 
phic oracle  "  to  marry  the  daughter  of  the  best 
of  the  Greeks,"  and  he  therefore  took  to  wife 
the  daughter  of  Aristomenes,  who  accompanied 
him  to  Rhodes.  The  Rhodians  honored  Aris- 
tomenes as  a  hero,  and  from  him  were  descend- 
ed the  illustrious  family  of  the  Diagoridae. — 2. 


ARISTOK 


ARISTOPHANES. 


An  Acarnanian,  who  governed  Egypt  with  jus- 
tice and  wisdom  during  the  minority  of  Ptole- 
my V.  Epiphanes,  but  was  put  to  death  by  Ptole- 
my in  192. — 3.  A  comic  poet  of  Athens,  flour- 
ished during  the  Peloponnesian  war :  [of  his 
comedies  only  a  few  fragments  remain,  which  are 
collected  in  Meineke's  Fragm.  Comic.  Grcec^  voL 
i.,  p.  415-7,  edit  minor.] 

ARISTON  ('\pia-uv).  1.  Of  Chios,  a  Stoic 
philosopher,  and  a  disciple  of  Zeno,  flourished 
about  B.C.  260.  Though  he  professed  himself 
a  Stoic,  yet  he  differed  from  Zeno  in  several 
points,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  small 
school  He  is  said  to  have  died  of  a  coup  de 
soleil. — 2.  A  Peripatetic  philosopher  of  lufis  in 
the  Island  of  Ceos,  succeeded  Lycon  as  head 
of  the  Peripatetic,  school  about  B.C.  230.  He 
wrote  several  philosophical  works  which  are 
lost. — 3.  Of  Alexandrea,  a  Peripatetic  philoso- 
pher and  a  contemporary  of  Strabo,  wrote  a 
work  on  the  Nile ;  [and  another,  nepl  'Adjjvaiuv 
u~oiK.iaf,  as  Vossius  has  shown,  with  whom  also 
Miiller  agrees,  who  has  given  the  fragments  of 
these  works,  in  his  J*ragm.  Hist.  Grcec^  voL  iii., 
p.  324-5.] 

A.s.isTOHA.UTM('A.piaTovavTai),&towu  in  Achaia, 
the  harbor  of  Pallene. 

ARISTONICCS  ('ApioroviKOc.).  1.  [A  tyrant  of 
Methymna,  in  Lesbos,  who  oppressed  the  Les- 
bians. He  was  subsequently  taken  prisoner  by 
the  naval  commanders  of  Alexander  at  Chios, 
given  up  to  the  M^ethymneans,  and  by  them 
cruelly  put  to  death.] — 2.  A  natural  son  of  Eu- 
menes  IL  of  Pergamus.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Attalus  III.,  B.C.  133,  who  left  his 
kingdom  to  the  Romans,  Aristonicus  laid  claim 
to  the  crown.  At  first  he  met  with  considerable 
success.  He  defeated  in  131  the  consul  P.  Li- 
cinius  Crassus  ;  but -in  130  he  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  M.  Perperna,  was  carried  to 
Rome  by  M'.  Aquillius  in  129,  and  was  there  put 
to  death. — 3.  An  Alexandrine  grammarian,  a 
contemporary  of  Strabo,  and  the  author  of  sev- 
eral works,  most  of  which  related  to  the  Homeric 
poems. 

ARISTONYMUS  ('ApiffTuwpoe),  a  comic  poet  'and 
contemporary  of  Aristophanes  and  Amipsias,  [of 
whose  plays  scarcely  any  thing  survives :  two  or 
three  fragments  are  given  in  Meineke's  Fragm. 
Comic.  Grcec.,  voL  L,  p.  401-2,  edit,  minor.] 

ARISTSPHANES  ('A/>t(Tro0av>7f).  1.  The  cele- 
brated comic  poet,  was  born  about  B.C.  444,  and 
probably  at  Athens.  His  father  Philippus  had 
possessions  in  ^Egina,  and  may  originally  have 
come  from  that  island,  whence  a  question*  arose 
whether  Aristophanes  was  a  genuine  Athenian 
citizen :  his  enemy  Cleon  brought  against  him 
more  than  one  accusation  to  deprive  him  of  his 
civic  rights  (£eviaf  ypa<j>ai),  but  without  success. 
He  had  three  sons,  Philippus,  Araros,  and  Ni- 
costratus,  but  of  his  private  history  we  know- 
nothing.  He  probably  died  about  B.C.  380.  The 
comedies  of  Aristophanes  are  of  the  highest  his- 
torical interest,  containing  as  they  do  an  admi- 
rable series  of  caricatures  on  the  leading  men 
of  the  day,  and  a  contemporary  commentary  on 
the  evils  existing  at  Athens.  Indeed,  the  cari- 
cature is  the  only  feature  in  modern  social  life 
which  at  nil  resembles  them.  Aristophanes  was 
a  bold  and  often  a  wise  patriot.  He  had  the 
strongest  affection  for  Athens  and  longed  to  see 


her  restored  to  the  state  in  which  sLe  was  flour 
ishing  in  the  previous  generation,  and  almost  in 
his  own  childhood,  before  Pericles  became  the 
head  of  the  government,  and  when  the  age  of 
Miltiades  and  Aristides  had  but  just  passed 
away.  The  first  great  evil  of  his  own  time 
against  which  he  inveighs  is  the  Pelopounesian 
war,  which  he  regards  as  the  work  of  Pericles. 
To  this  fatal  war,  among  a  host  of  evils,  he  as- 
cribes the  influence  of  demagogues  like  Cleon 
at  Athens.  Another  great  object  of  his  indig 
nation  was  the  recently  adopted  system  of  edu 
cation,  which  had  been  introduced  by  the  Soph- 
ists, acting  on  the  speculative  and  inquiring 
turn  given  to  the  Athenian  mind  by  the  Ionian 
and  Eleatic  philosophers,  and  the  extraordinary 
intellectual  development  of  the  age  following 
the  Persian  war.  The  new  theories  introduced 
by  the  Sophists  threatened  to  overthrow  the 
foundations  of  morality,  by  making  persuasion, 
and  not  truth,  the  object  of  man  in  his  intercourse 
with  his  fellows,  and  to  substitute  a  universal 
skepticism  for  the  religious  creed  of  the  people. 
The  worst  effects  of  such  a  system  were  seen  in 
Alcibiades,  who  combined  all  the  elements  which 
Aristophanes  most  disliked,  heading  the  war 
party  in  politics,  and  protecting  the  sophistical 
school  in  philosophy  and  also  in  literature.  Of 
this  latter  school — the  literary  and  poetical  Soph- 
ists— Euripides  was  the  chief,  whose  works 
are  full  of  that  [isTeupoaotyia  which  contrasts  so 
offensively  with  the  moral  dignity  of  JEschylus 
and  Sophocles,  and  for  which  Aristophanes  in- 
troduces him  as  soaring  in  the  air  $p  write  his 
tragedies.  Another  feature  of  the  times  was 
the  excessive  love  for  litigation  at  Athens,  the 
consequent  importance  of  the  dicasts,  and  dis- 
graceful abuse  of  their  power,  all  of  which  enor- 
mities are  made  by  Aristophanes  objects  of  con- 
tinual attack.  But  though  he  saw  what  were 
the  evils  of  his  tune,  he  had  not  wisdom  to  find 
a  remedy  for  them,  except  the  hopeless  and  un- 
desirable one  of  a  movement  backward ;  and 
therefore,  though  we  allow  him  to  have  been 
honest  and  bold,  we  must  deny^  him  the  epithet 
of  great.  The  following  is  a  list  of  his  extant 
comedies,  with  the  year  in  which  they  were 
performed :  425.  Acharnians.  Produced  in  the 
name  of  Callistratus.  First  prize. — 424.  'Imrels, 
Knights  or  Horsemen.  The  first  play  produced 
in  the  name  of  Aristophanes  himself.  First 
prize ;  second  Cratiuus. — 423.  Clouds.  First 
prize,  Cratinus  ;  second,  Amipsias. — 422.  Wasps. 
Second  prize. — Clouds  (second  edition),  failed  in 
obtaining  a  prize.  Some  writers  place  this  B.C. 
411,  and  the  whole  subject  is  very  uncertain. 
— 419.  Peace.  Second  prize;  Eupolis,  first — 
Birds.  Second  prize ;  Amipsias,  farst ;  Phryu- 
ichus,  third. — til.  Lysistrata. — Tliesmophoria- 
susce.  During  the  Oligarchy. — 408.  First  Plu- 
tus. — 405.  Frogs.  First  prize  ;  Phryuichus,  sec 
ond ;  Plato,  third.  Death  of  Sophocles. — 892. 
Ecclesiazusa. — 388.  Second  edition  of  the  Plu- 
tus. — The  last  two  comedies  of  Aristophanes 
were  the  ^Eolosicon  and  Cocalus,  produced  about 
B.C.  387  (date  of  the  peace  of  Antalcidas)  by  Ar- 
nros,  one  of  his  sons.  Suidas  tells  us  that  Aris- 
tophanes was  the  author,  in  all,  of  fifty-four  plays. 
As  a  poet  Aristophanes  possessed  merits  of  the 
lighest  order.  His  works  contain  snatches  of 
lyric  poetry  which  are  quite  noble,  and  some  oi 
99 


ARISTOPHOK 


ARtSTOTELES. 


uia  choruses,  particularly  one  in  the  Kuighte,  in 
which  the  horses  are  represented  as  rowing  tri- 
remes in  an  expedition  against  Corinth,  are  writ- 
ten with  a  spirit  and  humor  unrivalled  in  Greek, 
and  are  not  very  dissimilar  to  English  ballads. 
He  was  a  complete  master  of  the  Attic  dialect, 
and  in  his  hands  the  perfection  of  that  glorious 
language  is  wonderfully  shown.  No  flights  are 
too  bold  for  the  range  of  his  fancy :  animals  of 
every  kind  are  pressed  into  his  service ;  frogs 
chaunt  choruses,  a  dog  is  tried  for  stealing  a 
cheese,  and  an  iambic  verse  is  composed  of  the 
grunta  of  a  pig. — Editions :  The  best  of  the  col- 
lective plays  are  by  Invernizzi,  completed  by 
Beck  and  Dindorf,  13  vols.,  Lips.,  1794-1826; 
by  Bekker,  5  vols.  8vo,  Lond,  1829  ;  [and  by  Din- 
dorf, 4  vols.,  in  7  parts,  8vo,  Oxford,  1835-38]. — 
2.  Of  Byzantium,  son  of  Apelles,  and  one  of  the 
most  eminent  Greek  grammarians  at  Alexan- 
drea.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Zenodotus  and  Era- 
tosthenes, and  teacher  of  the  celebrated  Aristar- 
chus.  He  lived  about  B.C.  264,  in.  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  II  and  Ptolemy  IIL,  and  had  the  su- 
preme management  of  the  library  at  Alexandrea. 
Aristophanes  was  the  first  who  introduced  the 
use  of  accents  in  the  Greek  language.  He  de- 
voted liimself  chiefly  to  the  criticism  and  inter- 
pretation of  the  Greek  poets,  and  more  espe- 
cially of  Homer,  of  whose  works  he  made  a  new 
and  critical  edition  (diopduaif).  The  philoso- 
phers Plato  and  Aristotle  likewise  engaged  his 
attention,  and  of  the  former,  as  of  several  of  the 
poets,  he  made  new  and  critical  editions.  All 
we  possess  ^bf  his  numerous  works  consists  of 
fragments  scattered  through  the  Scholia  on  the 
poets,  some  arguments  to  the  plays  of  the  tragic 
poets  and  of  Aristophanes,  and  a  part  of  his 
Ae^etf,  which  is  printed  in  Boissonade's  edition 
of  Herodian's  Partitiones,  London,  1819,  p.  283- 
289.  [A  collection  of  all  the  extant  fragments 
of  Aristophanes  has  been  made  by  Nauck,  Halle, 
J848,8vo.] 

AEISTOPHON  ('ApioroQuv).  1.  Of  the  demus 
of  Azenia  in  Attica,  one  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed Athenian  orators  about  the  close  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war.  The  number  of  laws  which  he 
proposed  may  be  inferred  from  his  own  state- 
ment, as  preserved  by  ^Eschines,  that  he  was 
accused  seventy-five  times  of  having  made  ille- 
gal proposals,  but  that  he  had  always  come  off 
victorious.  In  B.C.  354  he  accused  Iphicrates 
and  Timotheus,  and  in  the  same  year  he  came 
forward  in  the  assembly  to  defend  the  law  of 
Leptines  against  Demosthenes.  The  latter 
treats  him  with  great  respect,  and  reckons  him 
among  the  most  eloquent  orators. — 2.  Of  the 
demus  of  Colyttus,  a  contemporary  of  Demos- 
thenes, and  an  orator  of  great  distinction  and 
influence.  It  was  this  Aristophon  whom  ffis- 
cbines  served  as  a  clerk,  and  in  whose  service 
he  was  trained  for  his  public  career.  Vid.  JE&- 
CHINES. — 3.  A  comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy ; 

(the  fragments  of  his  plays  remaining  are  col- 
ected  by  Meineke,  in  his  Fragm  Comic.  Grcec., 
vol.  ii,  p.  675-^679,  ed.  minor.]— 4.  A  painter  of 
some  distinction,  son  and  pupil  of  Aglaophon, 
and  brother  of  Polygnotus. 

AKISTOTELES  ('AptcroreA^f),  the  philosopher, 

wzis  born  at  Stagira,  a  town  in  Chalcidice  in 

Macedonia,  B.C.  384.    His  father,  Nicomachus, 

was  physician  in  ordinary  to  Amyntas  II   king 

00 


of  Macedonia,  and  the  author  of  several  treatises 
on  subjects  connected  with  natural  science :  his 
mother,  Phasstis  (or  Phiestias),  was  descended 
from  a  Chalcidian  family.  The  studies  and  oc- 
cupation of  his  father  account  for  the  early  in- 
clination manifested  by  Aristotle  for  the  inves- 
tigation of  nature,  an  inclination  which  is  per- 
ceived throughout  his  whole  life.  He  lost  his 
father  before  he  had  attained  his  seventeenth 
year,  and  he  was  intrusted  to  the  guardianship 
of  one  Proxenus  of  Atarneus  in  Mysia,  who  was 
settled  in  Stagira.  In  367  he  went  to  Athens 
to  pursue  his  studies,  and  there  became  a  pupil 
of'  Plato  upon  the  return  of  the  latter  from  Sici- 
ly about  365.  Plato  soon  distinguished  him 
above  all  his  other  disciples.  He  named  him 
the  "  intellect  of  his  school,"  and  his  house  the 
house  of  the  "  reader."  Aristotle  lived  at 
Athens  for  twenty  years,  till  847.  During  the 
whole  of  this  period  the  good  understanding 
which  subsisted  between  teacher  and  scholar 
continued,  with  some  trifling  exceptions,  undis- 
turbed, for  the  stories  of  £he  disrespect  and  in 
gratitude  of  the  latter  toward  the  former  are 
nothing  but  calumnies  invented  by  his  enemies. 
During  the  last  ten  years  of  his  first  residence 
at  Athens,  Aristotle  gave  instruction  in  rhetoric, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to 
Isocrates.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  publish- 
ed his  first  rhetorical  writings.  Upon  the  death 
of  Plato  (347)  Aristotle  left  Athens ;  perhaps  he 
was  offended  by  Plato  having  appointed  Speu- 
sippus  as  his  successor  in  the  Academy.  He 
first  repaired  to  his  friend  Hermlas  at  Atarneus, 
where  he  married  Pythias,  the  adoptive  daugh 
ter  of  the  prince.  On  the  death  of  HERMIAS. 
who  was  killed  by  the  Persians  (344),  Aristotle 
fled  from  Atarneus  to  Mytilene.  Two  years 
afterward  (342)  he  accepted  an  invitation  from 
Philip  of  Macedonia  to  undertake  the  instruc 
tion  of  his  son  Alexander,  then  thirteen  year» 
of  age.  Here  Aristotle  was  treated  with  the 
most  marked  respect.  His  native  city,  Stagira, 
which  had  been  destroyed  by  Philip,  was  re- 
built at  his  request,  and  Philip  caused  a  gym- 
nasium (called  Nymphseum)  to  be  built  there  in 
a  pleasant  grove  expressly  for  Aristotle  and  his 
pupils.  Several  of  the  youths  of  the  Macedo- 
nian nobles  were  educated  by  Aristotle  along 
with  Alexander.  Aristotle  spent  seven  years 
in  Macedonia,  but  Alexander  enjoyed  his  in- 
struction without  interruption  for  only  four. 
Still,  with  such  a  pupil,  even  this  short  period 
was  sufficient  for  a  teacher  like  Aristotle  to 
fulfill  the  highest  purposes  of  education,  and  to 
create  in  his  pupil  that  sense  of  the  noble  and 
great  which  distinguishes  Alexander  from  all 
those  conquerors  who  have  only  swept  like  a 
hurricane  through  the  world.  On  Alexander's 
accession  to  the  throne  in  335,  Aristotle  return- 
ed to  Athens.  Here  he  found  his  friend  Xenoc- 
rates  president  of  the  Academy.  He  himself 
had  the  Lyceum,  a  gymnasium  sacred  to  Apollo 
Lyceus,  assigned  to  him  by  the  state.  He  soon 
assembled  round  him  a  large  number  of  distin- 
guished scholars,  to  whom  he  delivered  lectures 
on  philosophy  in  the  shady  walks  (nepiiraToi] 
which  surrounded  the  Lyceum,  while  walking 
up  and  down  (irfpnraruv),  and  not  sitting,  whicl 
was  the  general  practice  of  the  philosophers 
From  one  or  other  of  these  circumstances  th« 


ARISTOTELES. 


AR1STOTELES. 


name  Peripatetic  is  derived,  -which  was  after- 
ward given  to  his  school.  He  gave  two  dif- 
ferent courses  of  lectures  every  day.  Those 
which  he  delivered  in  the  morning  (iudivoe  ire- 
oiirarof  )  to  a  narrower  circle  of  chosen  (esote- 
ric) hearers,  and  which  were  called  acroamatic 
or  acroatic,  embraced  subjects  connected  with 
the  more  abstruse  philosophy  (theology),  phys- 
ics, and  dialectics.  Those  which  he  delivered 
in  the  afternoon  (ietfavdf  TreptTrarof),  and  intend- 
ed for  a  more  promiscuous  circle  (which,  accord- 
ingly, he  called  exoteric),  extended  to  rhetoric, 
sophistics,  and  politics.  He  appears  to  have 
taught  not  so  much  in  the  way  of  conversation 
as  in  regular  lectures.  His  school  soon  became 
the  most  celebrated  at  Athens,  and  he  continued 
to  preside  over  it  for  thirteen  years  (335^-323). 
During  this  time  he  also  composed  the  greater 
part  of  his  works.  In  these  labors  he  was  as- 
sisted by  the  truly  kingly  liberality  of  his  former 
pupil,  who  not  only  presented  him  with  800 
talents,  but  also  caused  large  collections  of  nat- 
ural curiosities  to  be  made  for  him,  to  which 
posterity  is  indebted  for  one  of  his  most  excel- 
lent works,  the  History  of  Animals.  Meanwhile 
various  causes  contributed  to  throw  a  cloud 
over  the  latter  years  of  the  philosopher's  life. 
In  the  first  place  he  felt  deeply  the  death  of  his 
wife  Pythias,  who  left  behind  her  a  daughter  of 
the  same  name :  he  lived  subsequently  with  a 
friend  of  his  wife's,  the  slave  Herpylh's,  who 
bore  him  a  son,  Nicomachus.  But  a  source  of 
still  greater  grief  was  an  interruption  of  the 
friendly  relation  in  which  he  had  hitherto  stood 
to  his  royal  pupiL  This  was  occasioned  by  the 
conduct  of  CALLISTBENES,  the  nephew  and  pupil 
of  Aristotle,  who  had  vehemently  and  injudi- 
ciously opposed  the  changes  in  the  conduct  and 
policy  of  Alexander.  Still  Alexander  refrain- 
ed from  any  expression  of  hostility  towards  his 
former  instructor,  although  their  former  cordial 
connection  no  longer  subsisted  undisturbed. 
The  story  that  Aristotle  had  a  share  in  poison- 
ing the  king  is  a  fabrication  of  a  later  age ; 
and,  moreover,  it  is  certain  that  Alexander  died 
a  natural  death.  After  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der (323),  Aristotle  was  looked  upon  with  suspi- 
cion at  Athens  as  a  friend  of  Macedonia ;  but 
as  it  was  not  easy  to  bring  any  political  accusa- 
tion against  him,  he  was  accused  of  impiety 
(uffefietaf)  by  the  hierophant  Eurymedon.  He 
withdrew  from  Athens  before  his  trial,  and  es- 
caped in  the  beginning  of  322  to  Chalcis  in  Eu- 
bcea,  where  he  died  in  the  course  of  the  same 
year,  in  the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age,  of  a 
chronic  disease  of  the  stomach.  J 1  in  body  was 
transported  to  his  native  city  Stagira,  and  his 
memory  was  honored  there,  like  that  of  a  hero, 
by  yearly  festivals.  He  bequeathed  to  Theo- 
jjhrastus  his  well-stored  library  and  the  origi- 
nals of  his  writings.  In  person  Aristotle  was 
short  and  of  slender  make,  with  small  eyes, 
and  a  lisp  in  his  pronunciation,  using  L  for  A', 
and  with  a  sort  of  sarcastic  expression  in  his 
countenance.  He  exhibited  remarkable  atten- 
tion to  external  appearance,  and  bestowed  much 
care  on  his  dress  and  person.  He  is  described 
as  having  been  of  weak  health,  which,  consid- 
ering the  astonishing  extent  of  his  studies, 
shows  all  the  more  the  energy  of  his  mind.  The 
numerous  works  of  Aristotle  may  be  divided 


into  the  following  classes,  according  to  the  sub- 
jects of  which  they  treat :  we  only  mention  the 
most  important  in  each  class.  I.  DIALECTICS 
AND  LOGIC.  The  extant  logical  writings  are 
comprehended  as  a  whole  under  the  title  Or- 
ganon  ("Opyavov,  i.  e.,  instrument  of  science). 
They  are  occupied  with  the  investigation  of  the 
method  by  which  man  arrives  at  knowledge. 
An  insight  into  the  nature  and  formation  of  con- 
clusions, and  of  proof  by  me;ms  of  conclusions, 
is  the  common  aim  and  centre  of  all  the  sep- 
arate six  works  composing  the  Organon  :  these 
separate  works  are,  1.  Karqyopiat,  Prcedicamen- 
ta,  in  which  Aristotle  treats  of  the  (ten)  com- 
prehensive generic  ideas,  under  which  all  the 
attributes  of  things  may  be  subordinated  as 
species. — 2.  Hepl  eppriveiac.,  J)e  Interpretatione, 
concerning  the  expression  of  thought  by  means 
of  speech. — 3,  4.  'Ava^vriKu  fcporepa  and  varepa, 
Analytica,  each  in  two  books,  on  the  theory  of 
conclusions,  so  called  from  the  resolution  of 
the  conclusion  into  its  fundamental  component 
parts. — 5.  TOTTIKU,  De  Locis,  in  eight  books,  of 
the  general  points  of  view  (TOTTOI),  from  which 
conclusions  may  be  drawn. — 6.  Ilepl  ao<piaTiKuv 
kheyxuv,  concerning  the  fallacies  which  only 
apparently  prove  something.  The  best  edition 
of  the  Organon  is  by  Waitz,  Lips.,  1844.  IL 
THEORETICAL  PHILOSOPHY,  consisting  of  Meta- 
physics, Mathematics,  and  Physics,  on  all  of 
which  Aristotle  wrote  works.  1.  The  Meta- 
physics, in  fourteen  books  (ruv  uera  ra  <j>vaiKu), 
originally  consisted  of  distinct  treatises,  inde- 
pendent of  one  another,  and  were  put  together 
as  one  work  after  Aristotle's  death.  The  title, 
also,  is  of  late  origin,  and  was  given  to  the  work 
from  its  being  placed  after  (fiera)  the  Physics 
(ra  (jivaiKu).  The  best  edition  is  by  Braudis, 
Berol.,  1823. — 2.  In  Mathematics  we  have  two 
treatises  by  Aristotle:  (1.)  He  pi  ardfiuv  ypau- 
uuv,  i.  e.,  concerning  indivisible  lines;  (2.)  M?;- 
XaviKa  irpo6%ijfj.aTa,  Mechanical  Problems. — o. 
In  Physics  we  have,  (1.)  Physics  (Qvattcf/  dicpou- 
fftf,  called  also,  by  others,  irepl  apxtiv),  in  eight 
books.  In  these  Aristotle  develops  the  general 
principles  of  natural  science  (Cosmology).  (2.) 
Concerning  t/ie  Heaven  (irepl  ovpavov),  in  four 
books.  (3.)  On  Production  and  Destruction  (jrepl 
yeveaeuf  nal  tydopHc,,  de  Generatione  et  Corrup- 
tione),  in  two  books,  develop  the  general  laws 
of  production  and  destruction.  (4.)  On  Meteor- 
ology (uereupohoytKii,  de  Meteoris),  in  four  books. 
(5.)  On  the  Universe  (irepl  noauov,  de  Mundo),  a 
letter  to  Alexander,  treats  the  subject  of  the 
last  two  works  in  a  popular  tone  and  a  rhetor- 
ical style  altogether  foreign  to  Aristotle.  The 
whole  is  probably  a  translation  of  a  work  with 
the  same  title  by  Appuleius.  (6.)  The  History 
of  Animals  (irepl  fauv  laropid),  in  nine  books, 
treats  of  all  the  peculiarities  of  this  division  of 
the  natural  kingdom,  according  to  genem,  class- 
es, and  species,  especially  giving  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  each  animal  according  to  its  ex- 
ternal and  internal  vital  functions,  according 
to  the  manner  of  ita  copulation,  its  mode  of 
life,  and  ita  character.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Schneider,  Lips.,  1811.  The  observations  in 
this  work  are  the  triumph  of  ancient  sagacity, 
anil  have  been  confirmed  by  the  results  of  the 
most  recent  investigations  (Cuvier).  (7.)  On 
the  parts  of  Animals  (^epl  &uv  popiuv),  in  four 
101 


ARISTOTELES. 


ARISTOTELES. 


books,  in  which  Aristotle,  after  describing  the 
phenomena  in  each  species,  develops  the  causes 
of  these  phenomena  by  means  of  the  idea  to  be 
formed  of  the  purpose  which  is  manifested  in 
the  formation  of  the  animal  (8.)  On  the  Gen- 
eration of  Animals  (trepl  £uuv  -yeveoeuc.)  in  five 
books,  treats  of  the  generation  of  animals  and 
the  organs  of  generation. — (9.)  De  Incessu  Ani- 
malium  (irepi  £uuv  iropeiac.).  (10.)  Tlirce  books 
on  the  Soul  (irepl  V^AW)-  Aristotle  defines  the 
soul  to  be  the  "  internal  formative  principle  of  a 
body  which  may  be  perceived  by  the  senses,  and 
is  capable  of  life."  Best  edition  by  Trendelen- 
burg,  Jenoe,  1833.  Several  anatomical  works 
of  Aristotle  have  been  lost  He  was  the  first 
person  who,  in  any  special  manner,  advocated 
anatomical  investigations,  and  showed  the  ne- 
cessity of  them  for  the  study  of  the  natural 
sciences.  He  frequently  refers  to  investiga- 
tions of  his  own  on  the  subject.  III.  PRACTI- 
CAL PHILOSOPHY  or  POLITICS.  All  that  falls 
within  the  sphere  of  practical  philosophy  is  com- 
prehended in  three  principal  works  :  the  Ethics, 
the  Politics,  and  the  (Economics.  1.  The  Ni- 
comachean  Ethics  ('HdiKa  NiKOfiu^eia),  in  ten 
books.  Aristotle  here  begins  with  the  highest 
and  most  universal  end  of  life,  for  the  individ- 
ual as  well  as  for  the  community  in  the  state. 
This  is  happiness  (evdaifiovia) ;  and  its  condi- 
tions are,  on  the  one  hand,  perfect  virtue  ex- 
hibiting itself  in  the  actor,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  corresponding  bodily  advantages  and  fa- 
vorable external  circumstances.  Virtue  is  the 
readiness  to  act  constantly  and  consciously  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  the  rational  nature  of 
man  (6p06f  Aoyof).  The  nature  of  virtue  shows 
itself  in  its  appearing  as  the  medium  between 
two  extremes.  In  accordance  with  this,  the 
several  virtues  are  enumerated  and  character- 
ized. Best  editions  by  ZelL,  Heidelb.,  1820; 
Coray,  Paris,  1822;  Cardwell,  Oxon.,  1828; 
Michelet,  BeroL,  1848,  2d  edition.— 2.  The  Eu- 
demean  Ethics  ('HBiKu  Eidjy/zeta),  in  several  books, 
of  which  only  books  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  and  vii.  are  in- 
dependent, while  the  remaining  books  iv.,  v., 
and  vi.  agree  word  for  word  with  books  v.,  vi., 
and  vii.  of  the  Nicomacheon  Ethics.  This  eth- 
ical work  is  perhaps  a  recension  of  Aristotle's 
lectures,  edited  •  by  Eudemus. — 3.  'HBinu  Me- 
ya7.a,  in  two  books. — 4.  Politics  (TlofariKo),  in 
eight  books.  The  Ethics  conduct  us  to  the  Pol- 
itics. The  connection  between  the  two  works 
is  so  close,  that  in  the  Ethics  by  the  word  tare- 
oov  reference  is  made  by  Aristotle  to  the  Poli- 
tics, and  in  the  latter  by  irporepov  to  the  Ethics. 
The  Politics  show  how  happiness  is  to  be  attain- 
ed for  the  human  community  in  the  state  ;  for  the 
object  of  the  state  is  not  merely  the  external 
preservation  of  h'fe,  "but  happy  life,"  as  it  is  at- 
tained by  "  means  of  virtue"  (apery,  perfect  de- 
velopment of  the  whole  man).  Hence,  also,  eth- 
ics form  the  first  and  most  general  foundation 
of  political  h'fe,  because  the  state  cannot  attain 
its  highest  object  if  morality  does  not  prevail 
among  its  citizens.  The  house,  the  family,  is 
the  element  of  the  state.  Accordingly,  Aristo- 
tle begins  with  the  doctrine  of  domestic  econo- 
my, then  proceeds  to  a  description  of  the  differ- 
ent forms  of  government,  after  which  he  gives 
a  delineation  of  the  most  important  Hellenic 
constitutions,  and  then  investigates  which  'of 
102 


the  constitutions  is  the  best  (the  ideal  of  a  state) 
The  doctrine  concerning  education,  as  the  most 
important  condition  of  this  best  state,  forms  the 
conclusion.  Best  editions,  by  Schneider,  Fran 
cof.  ad.  Viadr.,  1809 ;  Coray,  Paris,  1821 ;  Gott 
ling,  Jense,  1824;  Stahr,  with  a  German  trans 
lation,  Lips.,  1837  ;  Barthelemy  St.  Hilaire,  with 
a  French  translation,  Pacis,  1837, — 5.  (Economics 
(o'tKovofitKu),  in  two  books,  of  which  only  the  first 
is  genuine.  IV.  WORKS  ON  ART,  which  have 
for  their  subject  the  exercise  of  the  creative 
faculty,  or  Art.  To  these  belong  the  Poetics  and 
Rhetoric.  1.  The  Poetics  (Hepl  TroiTjTtKr/f).  Aris- 
totle penetrated  more  deeply  than  any  of  the 
ancients  into  the  essence  of  Hellenic  art.  He 
is  the  father  of  the  (esthetics  of  poetry,  as  he  is 
the  cpmpleter  of  Greek  rhetoric  as  a  science. 
The  greatest  part  of  the  treatise  contains  a 
theory  of  Tragedy  ;  nothing  else  is  treated  of, 
with  the  exception  of  the  epos  ;  comedy  is 
merely  alluded  to.  Best  editions,  by  Tyrwbitt, 
Oxon.,  1794;  Hermann,  Lips.,  1802;  Grafenhan, 
Lips.,  1821 ;  Bekker,  BeroL,  1832 ;  Hitter,  Co- 
lon., 1839. — 2.  The  Rhetoric  (rexvtl  pyTopini}),  in 
three  books.  Rhetoric,  as  a  science,  according 
to  Aristotle,  stands  side  by  side  with  Dialectics. 
The  only  thing  which  makes  a  scientific  treat- 
ment of  rhetoric  possible  is  the  argumentation 
which  awakens  conviction  :  he  therefore  directs 
his  chief  attention  to  the  theory  of  oratorical 
argumentation.  The  second  main  division  of 
the  work  treats  of  the  production  of  that  favor- 
able disposition  in  the  hearer,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  orator  appears  to  him  to  be  worthy 
of  credit  The  third  part  treats  of  oratorical 
expression  and  arrangement.  According  to  a 
story  current  in  antiquity,  Aristotle  bequeathed 
his  library  and  MSS.  to  Theophrastus,  his  suc- 
cessor in  the  Academy.  Cn  the  death  of  Theo- 
phrastus, the  libraries  and  MSS.,  both  of  Aris 
totle  and  Theophrastus,  are  said  to  have  come 
into  the  hands  of  his  relation  and  disciple,  Ne- 
leus  of  Scepsis.  This  Neleus  sold  both  libraries 
to  Ptolemy  II,  king  of  Egypt,  for  the  Alexan- 
drine library  ;  but  he  retained  for  himself,  as 
an  heir-loom,  the  original  MSS.  of  the  works  of 
these  two  philosophers.  The  descendants  of 
Neleus,  who  were  subjects  of  the  King  of  Per- 
gamus,  knew  of  no  other  way  of  securing  them 
from  the  search  of  the  Attali,  who  wished  to 
rival  the  Ptolemies  in  forming  a  large  library, 
than  concealing  them  in  a  cellar,  where  for  a 
couple  of  centuries  they  were  exposed  to  the 
ravages  of  damp  and  worms.  It  was  not  till 
the  beginning  of  the  century  before  the  birth  of 
Christ  that  a  wealthy  book-collector,  the  Athe- 
nian Apellicon  of  Teos,  traced  out  these  valua- 
ble relics,  bought  them  from  the  ignorant  heirs, 
and  prepared  from  them  a  new  edition  of  Aris- 
totle's works.  After  the  capture  of  Athens, 
Sulla  conveyed  Apellicon's  library  to  Rome,  B. 
0.  84.  Vid.  APELLICON.  From  this  story  an 
error  arose,  which  has  been  handed  down  from 
the  time  of  Strabo  to  the  present  day.  It  was 
concluded  from  this  account  that  neither  Aris- 
totle nor  Theophrastus  had  published  their  writ- 
ings, with  the  exception  of  some  exoteric  works, 
which  had  no  important  bearing  on  their  sys- 
tem, and  that  it  was  not  till  200  years  later 
that  they  were  brought  to  light  by  the  above- 
mentioned  Apellicon,  and  published  to  the  phi? 


ARISTOXENUS. 

oeophical  world.  That,  however,  was  by  no 
means  the  cause.  Aristotle,  indeed,  did  not  pre- 
pare a  complete  edition,  as  we  call  it,  of  his 
writings.  Nay,  it  is  certain  that  death  overtook 
him  before  he  could  finish  some  of  his  works 
and  put  the  finishing  hand  to  others.  Never- 
theless, :t  can  not  be  denied  that  Aristotle  des- 
tined all  his  works  for  publication,  and  published 
several  in  his  life-time.  This  is  indisputably 
certain  with  regard  to  the  exoteric  writings. 
Those  which  had  not  been  published  by  Aristo- 
tle himself,  were  given  to  the  world  by  Theo- 
phrastus  and  his  disciples  in  a  complete  form. 
— Editions :  The  best  edition  of  the  complete 
works  of  Aristotle  is  by  Bekker,  Berlin,  1831- 
1840,  4lo,  text  in  2  vols.,  and  a  Latin  translation 
in  one  volume.  This  edition  has  been  reprint- 
ed at  Oxford  in  11  vols.  8vo.  There  is  a  ste- 
reotyped edition  published  by  Tauchnitz,  Leip- 
zig, 1832,  16mo,  in  16  vols.,  and  another  edition 
of  the  text  by  Weise,  in  one  volume,  Leipzig, 
1843. — [2.  One  of  the  thirty  tyrants  established 
in  Athens  B.C.  404 :  he  would  also  appear  to 
have  been  one  of  the  400,  and  to  have  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  scheme  of  fortifying  Eetionea, 
and  admitting  the  Spartans  into  the  Piraeeus, 
B.C.  411.  In  B.C.  405  he  was  living  in  banish- 
ment, and  is  mentioned  by  Xenophon  as  being 
with  Lysander  during  the  siege  of  Athens. — 3. 
Of  Sicily,  a  rhetorician,  who  wrote  against  the 
Panegyricus  of  Isocrates. — 4.  Of  Athens,  an 
orator  and  statesman,  under  whose  name  some 
forensic  orations  were  known  in  the  time  of  Di- 
ogenes Laertius,  which  were  •'distinguished  for 
their  elegance. — 5.  Of  Argos,  a  Megaric  or  dia- 
lectic philosopher,  belonged  to  the  party  at  Ar- 
gos which  was  hostile  to  Cleomenes  of  Sparta.] 

ARISTOXENUS  ('Api<rr6£evof).  1.  Of  Tarentum, 
a  Peripatetic  philosopher  and  a  musician,  flour- 
ished about  B.C.  318.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
Aristotle,  whom  he  appears  to  have  rivalled  in 
the  variety  of  his  studies.  According  to  Suidas, 
he  produced  works  to  the  number  of  453  upon 
music,  philosophy,  history — in  short,  every  de- 
partment of  literature.  We  know  nothing  of 
his  philosophical  opinions  except  that  he  held 
the  soul  to  be  a  harmony  of  the  body  (Cic.,  Tusc., 
i,  10),  a  doctrine  which  had  been  already  dis- 
cussed by  Plato  in  the  Phcedo.  Of  his  numer- 
ous works,  the  only  one  extant  is  his  Elements 
of  Harmony  (dpnoviK.il  aroi^ela),  in  three  books, 
edited  by  Meibomius,  in  the  Antiques  Musicce 
Aitctoret  Septem,  Amst,  1652. — [2.  Of  Selinus 
in  Sicily,  a  Greek  poet,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  wrote  in  anapaestic  metres. — 3. 
A  celebrated  Greek  physician,  who  flourished 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
was  the  author  of  a  work  He  pi  rf/f  'Hpo<j>tt.ov 
Alpeoeuf,  De  Herophili  Secta.~\ 

ARISTUS  (*Api<rrof).  1.  Of  Salamis  in  Cyprus, 
wrote  a  history  of  Alexander  the  Great — 2.  An 
Academic  philosopher,  a  contemporary  and  friend 
of  Cicero,  and  teacher  of  M.  Brutus. 

ARIUS,  river.     Vid.  ARIA. 

[ARIUS  ("Apaof).  1.  A  Pythagorean  or  Stoic 
philosopher  of  Alexandrea,  an  instructor  of  Au- 
gustus in  philosophy  ;  highly  esteemed  by  Augus- 
tus, who  declared,  after  the  capture  of  Alexan- 
drea, that  he  spared  the  city  chiefly  for*  the  sake 
of  Arius.  Besides  philosophy,  he  also  taught 
rhetoric,  and  wrote  on  that  art — 2.  The  cele- 


ARMENIA. 

brated  heretic,  born  shortly  after  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  A.D.  In  the  religious  dispute! 
at  Alexandrea,  A.D.  306,  Arius  at  first  took  th« 
part  of  Meletius,  but  afterward  became  reconcil 
ed  to  the. Bishop  of  Alexandrea,  the  opponent  of 
Meletius,  who  made  Arius  deacon.  Soon  after 
this  he  was  excommunicated  by  Peter  of  Alex- 
audrea,  but  was  restored  by  his  successor  Achil- 
las, and  ordained  priest  A.D.  313.  In  318  the 
celebrated  controversy  with  Bishop  Alexander 
broke  out,  a  controversy  which  has  had  a  great- 
er and  more  lasting  influence  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Christian  religion  than  any  other. 
So  fierce  did  the  dispute  become,  that  the  Em- 
peror Constantino  was  forced  to  convoke  a  gen- 
eral council  at  Nicsea  (N^e),  A.D.  326,  at  which 
upward  of  three  hundred  bishops  were  present 
The  errors  of  Arius  were  condemned ;  and  he 
was  compelled  to  go  into  exile  into  Illyricum, 
where  he  remained  until  recalled  by  the  em- 
peror in  330,  and  allowed  to  return  to  Alexan- 
drea, through  the  influence  of  Eusebius  of  Nico- 
media.  His  ever-wakeful  opponent,  however, 
Athanasius,  was  not  so  Easily  deceived  as  the 
emperor,  and,  notwithstanding  the  order  of  Con- 
stantine,  refused  to  receive  him  into  the  com- 
munion of  the  Church.  This  led  to  a  renewed 
application  to  the  emperor ;  and  when  Arius 
finally  seemed  on  the  point  of  triumphing  over 
his  sturdy  orthodox  opponents,  he  was  removed 
suddenly  by  the  hand  of  death,  A.D.  336.] 

ARIUSIA  (TJ  'A.piovaia  x&pa),  a  district  on  the 
north  coast  of  Chios,  where  the  best  wine  in 
the  island  was  grown  (Ariusiwn  Vinwn,  Virg., 
Eel,  v.,  71.) 

AaiiENE  ('Ap/UEvri  or  -qvrj :  now  Akliman),  & 
town  on  the  coast  of  Paphlagonia,  where  the 
10,000  Greeks,  during  their  retreat,  rested  five 
days,  entertained  by  the  people  of  Sinope,  a  lit- 
tle to  the  west  of  which  Armene  stood. 

ARMENIA  ('A.pfievia  :  'Ap/teviof,  Armenius :  now 
Armenia),  a  country  of  Asia,  lying  between  Asia 
Minor  and  the  Caspian,  is  a  lofty  table-land, 
backed  by  the  chain  of  the  Caucasus,  watered 
by  the  rivers  Cyrus  and  Araxes,  containing  the 
sources  also  of  the  Tigris  and  of  the  Euphrates, 
the  latter  of  which  divides  the  country  into  twc 
unequal  parts,  which  were  called  Major  and  Mi- 
nor. 1.  ARMENIA  MAJOU  or  PROPRIA  ('A.  j)  fie 
ydTii}  or  ij  I6iu<;  Kahovfievt) :  now  Erzeroum,  Kars, 
Van,  aud  Erivan),  was  bounded  on  the  north- 
east and  north  by  the  Cyrus  (now  Kur),  which 
divided  it  from  Albania  and  Iberia ;  on  the  north- 
west and  west  by  the  Moschici  Mountains  (the 
prolongation  of  the  chain  of  the  Anti-Tau- 
rus), and  the  Euphrates  (now  frat),  which  di- 
vided it  from  Colchis  and  Armenia  Minor ;  and 
on  the  south  and  southeast  by  the  mountains 
called  Masius,  NipHatcs,  and  Gordiaei  (the  pro- 
longation of  the  Taurus),  and  the  lower  course 
of  the  ARAXES,  which  divided  it  from  Mesopo 
tamia,  Assyria,  and  Media:  on  the  east  the 
country  comes  to  a  point  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Cyrus  and  Araxes.  It  is  intersected  by 
chains  of  mountains,  between  which  i-un  the 
two  great  rivers  ARAXES,  flowing  east  into 
the  Caspian,  and  the  Arsauias  (now  Murad),  or 
south  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  flowing  west  into 
the  main  stream  (now  Frat)  just  above  Mount 
Masius.  The  eastern  extremity  of  the  chain  ol 
mountains  wliich  separates  the  basins  of  these 
103 


ARMENIUS  MONS. 


ARNISSA. 


twc  rivers,  ami  which  is  an  offshoot  of  the  Anti- 
Taurus,  forms  the  Ararat  of  Scripture.  In  the 
south  of  the  country  is  the  great  lake  of  Van, 
Arsissa  Palus,  inclosed  by  mountain  chains 
which  connect  Ararat  with  the  southern  range 
of  mountains. — 2.  ARMENIA  MINOR  ('A.  pixpu  or 
Ppaxvrepa),  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Euphrates,  which  divided  it  from  Armenia  Ma- 
jor, on  the  north  and  northwest  by  the  mount- 
ains Scodlses,  Paryadres,  and  Anti-Taurus,  di- 
viding it  from  Pontus  and  Cappadocia,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Taurus,  dividing  it  from  Comma- 
gene  in  Northern  Syria,  so  that  it  contained  the 
country  east  and  south  of  the  city  of  Siwas  (the 
ancient  Cabira  or  Seb^te)  as  far  as  the  Euphra- 
tes and  the  Taurus.  ^The  boundaries  between 
Armenia  Minor  and  Cappadocia  varied  at  dif- 
ferent times ;  and,  indeed,  the  whole  country  up 
to  the  Euphrates  is  sometimes  called  Cappado- 
cia, and,  on  the  other  hand;  the  whole  of  Asia 
Minor  east  of  the  Halys  seems  at  one  time  to 
have  been  included  under  the  name  of  Armenia. 
The  people  of  Armenia  claimed  to  be  aboriginal ; 
and  there  can  be  little'  doubt  that  they  were  one 
of  the  most  ancient  families  of  that  branch  of 
the  human  race  which  is  called  Caucasian. 
Their  language,  though  possessing  some  re- 
warkable  peculiarities  of  its  own,  was  nearly 
allied  to  the  Indo-Germanic  family ;  and  their 
manners  and  religious  ideas  were  similar  to 
those  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  but  with  a 
greater  tendency  to  the  personification  of  the 
powers  of  nature,  as  in  the  goddess  Analtis, 
whose  worship  was  peculiar  to  Armenia.  They 
had  commercial  dealings  with  Assyria  and  Phoe- 
nicia. In  the  time  of  Xenophon  they  had  pre- 
served a  great  degree  of  primitive  simplicity, 
but  four  hundred  years  later  Tacitus  gives  an 
unfavorable  view  of  their  character.  The  ear- 
liest Armenian  traditions  represent  the  country 
as  governed  by  native  kings,  who  had  perpetu- 
ally to  maintain  their  independence  against  at- 
tacks from  Assyria.  They  were  said  to  have 
been  conquered  by  Semiramis,  but  again  threw 
off  the  yoke  at  the  time  of  the  Median  and  Baby- 
lonian revolt.  Their  relations  to  the  Medes  and 
Persians  seem  to  have  varied  between  success- 
ful resistance,  unwilling  subjection,  and  friendly 
alliance.  A  body  of  Armenians  formed  a  part 
of  the  army  which  Xexes  led  against  Greece  ; 
and  they  assisted  Darius  Codomannus  against 
Alexander,  and  in  this  war  they  lost  their  king, 
and  became  subject  to  the  Macedonian  empire 
(B.C.  328).  After  another  interval  of  success- 
ful revolt  (B.C.  317-274),  they  submitted  to  the 
Greek  kings  of  Syria ;  but  when  Antiochus  the 
Great  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  (B.C.  190), 
the  country  again  regained  its  independence,  and 
it  was  at  this  period  that  it  was  divided  into  the 
two  kingdoms  of  Armenia  Major  and  Minor, 
under  two  different  dynasties,  founded  respect- 
ively by  the  nobles  who  headed  the  revolt, 
Artaxias  and  Zariadras.  Ultimately,  Armenia 
Minor  was  made  a  Roman  province  by  Trajan ; 
?jid  Armenia  Major,  after  being  a  perpetual  ob-' 
ject  of  contention  between  the  Romans  and  the 
Parthians,  was  subjected  to  the  revived  Persian 
empire  by  its  first  king,  Artaxerxes  (Ardeshir), 
in  A.D.  226. 

ARMENIUS  MONS  (TO  'Apfitvtov  opof),  a  branch 
of  the  Anti-Taurus  chain  in  Armenia  Micor. 
104 


ARMINIUS  (the  Latinized  form  of  Hermann, 
"the  chieftain"),  son  of  Sigimon,  "the  con- 
queror," and  chief  of  the  tribe  of  the  Cheruaci, 
who  inhabited  the  country  to  the  north  of  the 
Hartz  Mountains,  now  forming  the  south  of 
Hanover  and  Brunswick.  He  was  born  in  B.C. 
18;  and  in  his  youth  he  led  the  warriors  of 
his  tribe  as  auxiliaries  of  the  Roman  legions  in 
Germauy,  where  he  learned  the  language  and 
military  discipline  of  Rome,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  freedom  of  the  city,  and  enrolled  among 
the  equites.  In  A.D.  9,  Armiuius,  who  was  now 
twenty-seven  years  old,  and  had  succeeded  his 
father  as  chief  of  his  tribe,  persuaded  his  coun- 
trymen to  rise  against  the  Romans,  who  were 
now  masters  of  this  part  of  Germany,  and  which 
seemed  destined  to  become,  like  Gaul,  a  Roman 
province.  His  attempt  was  crowned  with  suc- 
cess.  Quintilius  Varus,  who  was  stationed  in 
the  country  with  three  legions,  was  destroyed 
with  almost  all  his  troops  (vid.  VARUS)  ;  and  the 
Romans  had  to  relinquish  all  their  possessions 
beyond  the  Rhine.  In  14,  Armiuius  had  to  de- 
fend his  couutiy  against  Germanicus.  At  first 
he  was  successful ;  the  Romans  were  defeated, 
and  Germanicus  withdrew  toward  the  Rhine 
followed  by  Arminius.  But  having  been  com- 
pelled by  his  uncle,  Inguiomer,  against  his  own 
wishes,  to  attack  the  Romans  in  their  intrench- 
ed camp,  his  army  was  routed,  and  the  Romans 
made  good  their  retreat  to  the  Rhine.  It  was 
in  the  course  of  this  campaign  that  Thusnelda, 
the  wife  of  Arminius,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans,  and  waff  reserved,  with  the  infant  boy 
to  whom  she  soon  after  gave  birth  in  her  captiv- 
ity, to  adorn  the  triumph  of  Germanicus  at  Rome. 
In  16,  Arminius  was  again  called  upon  to  resist 
Germanicus,  but  he  was  defeated,  and  his  coun- 
try was  probably  only  saved  from  subjection  by 
the  jealousy  of  Tiberius,  who  recalled  Germani 
cus  in  the  following  year.  At  length  Arminius 
aimed  at  absolute  power,  and  was,  in  conse- 
quence, cut  off  by  his  own  relations  in  the  thirty- 
seventh  year  of  his  age,  A.D.  19. 

ARMORICA  or  AREMORICA,  the  name  of  the 
northwest  coast  of  Gaul  from  the  Ligeris  (now 
Loire)  to  the  Sequana  (now  Seine),  derived  from 
the  Celtic  ar,  air,  "  upon,"  and  muir,  mor,  "  the 
sea."  The  Armoncce  civitates  are  enumerated 
by  Caesar  (B.  G.,  vii.,  75). 

ARNA  (Arnas,  -atis  :  now  Civitclla  cHArno),  & 
town  in  Umbria,  near  Perusia. 

ARN^E  ("Apvai),  a  town  in  Chalcidice  in  Mace- 
donia, south  of  Aulon  and  Bromiscus. 

[ARNJEUS  ('Apvalof),  the  proper  name  of  the 
beggar  Irus,  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey.  Vid. 
IRUS.] 

ARNE  ("Apvy).  1.  A  town  in  Bceotia,  mention- 
ed by  Homer  (fl,.,  ii.,  507),  supposed  by  Pausa 
nias  to  be  the  same  as  Chseronea,  but  placed  by 
others  near  Acraephium,  on  the  east  of  the  Lake 
Copais. — [2.  A  town  of  Magnesia  in  Thessaly,  on 
lihe  Maliac  Gulf,  said  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  Arne,  a  daughter  of  JEolus. — 3.  A  foun- 
tain in  the  territory  of  Mantinea  in  Arcadia.] 

[ARNE  ('Apvi)).  1.  A  daughter  of  JSolus.  Vid. 
the  foregoing,  No.  2. — 2.  The  betrayer  of  her 
native  country  to  King  Minos,  and,  on  this  LO 
count,  changed  into  a  jackdaw.]  • 

ARNISSA  ('Apvicea :  now  Ostrova  ?)  a  ton  n  in 
Eordtea  in  Macedonia. 


ARNOB1US. 


ARRIAffUS. 


AUNOBIUS.  1.  The  elder,  a  native  of  Africa, 
lived  about  A.D.  300,  in  the  reigu  of  Diocletian. 
He  -was  first  a  teacher  of  rhetpric  at  Sicca  in 
Africa,  but  afterward  embraced  Christianity; 
and,  to  remove  all  doubts  as  to  the  reality  of  his 
conversion,  he  wrote,  while  yet  a  catechumen, 
his  celebrated  work  against  the  Pagans,  in  seven 
books  (Libri  septem  adversus  Gentes),  which  we 
still  possess.  The  best  editions  are  by  Orelli, 
Lips,  1816,  [and  by  Hildebrand,  Halle,  1844].— 
2.  The  Younger,  lived  about  A.D.  460,  and  was 
probably  a  bishop  or  presbyter  in  Gaul.  He 
wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Psalms,  still  extant, 
which  shows  that  he  was  a  Semi-Pelagian. 

AENON  ("Apvuv :  now  Wad-el  Mojib),  a  con- 
siderable river  of  East  Palestine,  rising  in  the 
Arabian  Desert,  and  flowing  west  through  a 
rocky  valley  into  the  Lacus  Asphaltites  (now 
Dead  Sea).  The  surrounding  district  was  call- 
ed Arnonas ;  and  in  it  the  Romans  had  a  mili- 
tary station,  called  Castra  Arnonensia. 

AEMJS  (now  Arno),  the  chief  river  of  Etruria, 
rises  in  the  Apennines,  flows  by  Pisae,  and  falls 
into  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  It  gave  the  name  to 
the  Tribus  Arniensis,  formed  B.C.  387. 

AEOA  ('A-poa  or  'Apbi)\  the  ancient  name  of 
PATE.E. 

[AEOANIUS  ('Apouvtof),  a  river  of  Arcadia,' 
rises  in  Mount  Cyllene,  loses  itself  in  some 
natural  cavities  near  Pheneus,  then  reappears 
at  the  foot  of  Penteleion,  and  joins  the  Ladon. 
The  same  name  was  given  to  two  other  streams, 
one  a  tributary  likewise  of  the  Ladon,  the  other 
a  tributary  of  the  Erymanthus.] 

AEOMATA  (r&  'Apw/zara,  'Apufiu.Tuvu.Kpov :  now 
Cape  Gitardafui'j,  the  easternmost  promontory 
of  Africa,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Ara- 
bian Gulf:  the  surrounding  district  was  also 
called  Aromata  or  Aromatophora  Regio,  with  a 
town  'Apupuruv  kpnopiov :  so  named  from  the 
"abundance  of  spices  which  the  district  produced. 

AEPI  (Arpanus :  now  Arpi),  an  inland  town 
in  the  Dauuian  Apulia,  founded,  according  to 
tradition,  by  Diomedes,  who  called  it  "Apyog  ITT- 
mov,  from  which  its  later  names  of  Arayrippa 
or  Arqyrlpa  and  Arpi  are  eaid  to  have  arisen 
(Ille  (Diomedes)  urbem  Arayripam,  patria  cog- 
nomine  aentis,  Virg.,  ^En.,  xi.,  246).  During  the 
time  of  its  independence  it  was  a  flourishing 
commercial  town,  using  Salapia  as  its  harbor. 
It  was  friendly  to  the  Romans  in  the  Samnite 
wars,  but  revolted  to  Hannibal  after  the  battle 
of  Cannae,  B.C.  216 :  it  was  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  213,  deprived  of  its  independence,  and 
never  recovered  its  former  prosperity. 

[AEPINA  ('Apmva),  an  ancient  place  in  Elis, 
near  the  Alphgus,  so  called  from  a  daughter  of 
the  Asopus :  near  it  flowed  the  River  Arpina- 
tes.] 

AEPINUM  ( Arplnas,  -atis :  now  Arpino),  a  town 
of  Latium,  on  the  small  river  Fibrenus  (now  Fl- 
breno),  originally  belonging  to  the  Volscians  and 
afterward  to  the  Samnites,  from  whom  the  Ro- 
mans wrested  it,  was  a  Roman  municipium, 
and  received  the^'w*  suffragii,  or  right  of  voting 
in  the  Roman  comitia,  B.C.  188.  It  was  the 
birth-place  of  Marius  and  Cicero ;  the  latter  of 
whom  was  born  in  his  father's  villa,  situated 
on  a  small  island  formed  by  the  River  Fibrenus. 
Cicero's  brother  Quintus  had  an  estate  south  of 
Arpiuum,  culled  Arcannm, 


\      [AEEABO  (in  Ptolemy  Napa66v,  now  JRaab),  a 

;  river  in  Pannonia,  a  tributary  of  the  Danube. 
At  its  mouth  lay  the  city  and  fortress  Arrabo, 

•  now  Raab.] 

AEEETIUSI  or  AEETIDM  (Arretinus :  now  Arez- 
zo),  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  twelve 
cities  of  Etruria,  was  situated  in  the  northeast 
of  the  country  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  and 
possessed  a  fertile  territory  near  the  sources  of 
the  Arnus  and  the  Tiber,  producing  good  wine 
and  corn.  It  was  thrice  colonized  by  the  Ro- 
mans, whence  we  read  of  Arretini  Veteres,  M- 
denates,  Julienses.  It  was  particularly  cele- 
brated for  its  pottery,  which  was  of  red  ware. 
The  Cilnii,  from  whom  Maecenas  was  descend- 
ed, were  a  noble  family  of  Arretium.  The 

j  ruins  of  a  city  two  or  three  miles  to  the  south- 
east of  Arezzo,  on  a  height  called  Poggio  di  San 
Cornelia,  or  Castel  Secco,  are  probably  the  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  Arretium. 

ABEHAPACHITIS  (AppaTraxlrig),  a  district  of 
Assyria,  between  the  rivers  Lycus  and  Choatras. 
AEEHTB^EUS  (' ' Appidalo^),  chieftain  of  the  Mace 
donians  of  Lyncus,  revolted  against  King  Per- 
diccas  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  It  was  to 
reduce  him  that  Perdiccas  sent  for  Brasidaa 
(B.C.  424),  and  against  him  took  place  the  un- 
successful joint  expedition,  in  which  Perdiccas 
deserted  Brasidas,  and  Brasidas  effected  hia 
bold  and  skillful  retreat 

ABHHUXSCS  (' ' Appidalof)  or  AEID.EOS  ('Apt 
6alof ).  1 .  A  half-brother  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
son  of  Philip  and  a  female  dancer,  Philinna  of 
Larissa,  was  of  imbecile  understanding.  He 
was  at  Babylon  at  the  time  of  Alexander's  death, 
B.C.  323,  and  was  elected  king  under  the  name 
of  Philip.  The  young  Alexander,  the  infant 
son  of  Roxana,  was  associated  with  him  in  the 
government.  In  322  Arrhidseus  married  Euryd- 
ice.  On  their  return  to  Macedonia,  Eurydice 
attempted  to  obtain  the  supreme  power  in  op- 
position to  Polysperchon ;  but  Arrhidaeus  and 
Eurydice  were  made  prisoners,  and  put  to  death 
by  order  of  Olympias,  317. — 2.  One  of  Alexan- 
der's generals,  obtained  the  province  of  the  Hel 
lespontine  Phrygia  at  the  division  of  the  prov- 
inces in  321  at  Triparadisus,  but  was  deprived 
of  it  by  Antigonus  in  319. 

AEEIA.  1.  Wife  of  Caecina  Paetus.  When  her 
husband  was  ordered  by  the  Emperor  Claudius 
to  put  an  end  to  his  life,  A.D.  42,  and  hesitated 
to  do  so,  Arria  stabbed  herself,  handed  the  dag- 
ger to  her  husband,  and  said,  "  Paetus,  it  does 
not  paia  me." — 2.  Daughter  of  the  preceding, 
and  wife  of  Thrasea, 

AEEIANUS  ('Apf>iav6f).  1.  Of  Nicomedia  in 
Bithynia,  born  about  A.D.  90,  was  a  pupil  and 
friend  of  Epictetus,  and  first  attracted  attention 
as  a  philosopher  by  publishing  at  Athens  the 
lectures  of  his  master.  In  124  he  gained  the 
friendship  of  Hadrian  during  his  stay  in  Greece, 
and  received  from  the  emperor  the  Roman  citi- 
zenship ;  from  this  time  he  assumed  the  name 
of  Flavius.  In  186  he  was  appointed  proefect  of 
Cappadocia,  which  was  invaded  the  year  after 
by  the  Alani  or  Massagetaa,  whom  he  defeated 
Under  Antoninus  Pius,  in  1 46,  Arrian  was  con 
sul ;  and  about  150  he  withdrew  from  public  life, 
and  from  this  time  lived  in  his  native  town  of  Ni- 
comedia, as  priest  of  Ceres  (Demeter)  and  Pros- 
erpina (Persephonej.  He  died  at  an  advanced 
105 


ARRIBAS. 


ARSACES. 


age  in  the  reign  of  M.  Aurelius.  Arrian  was 
oue  of  the  most  active  and  best  writers  of  his 
time.  He  was  a  close  imitator  of  Xenophon, 
both  in  the  subjects  of  his  works  and  in  the 
stylo  in  which  they  were  written.  He  regard- 
ed his  relation  to  Epictetus  as  similar  to  that  of 
Xeuophon  to  Socrates  ;  and  it  was  his  endeavor 
to  carry  out  that  resemblance.  With  this  view 
he  published,  1.  The  philosophical  lectures  of 
his  master  (&ia.Tpi6al  'EmKTrjrov),  in  eight  books, 
the  first  half  of  which  is  still  extant  Edited  in 
Schweighauser's  Epictetece  Philosophies  Monu- 
ttienta,  vol.  iii.,  ana  in  Corae's  Uupepya  'EA/>j?i>. 
Bitihiod.,  voL  viii. — 2.  An  abstract  of  the  prac- 
tical philosophy  of  Epictetus  ^EyxsipiSiov  'Ext- 
KTJJTOV),  which  is  still  extant.  This  celebrated 
work  maintained  its  authority  for  many  cen- 
turies, both  with  Christians  and  Pagans.  The 
best  editions  are  those  of  Schweighauser  and 
Corae,  in  the  collections  above  referred  to.  He 
also  published  other  works  relating  to  Epictetus, 
which  are  now  lost  His  original  works  are : 
8.  A  treatise  on  the  chase  (KvvriyriTiKof),  which 
forms  a  kind  of  supplement  to  Xenophon's  work 
ou  the  same  subject,  and  is  printed  in  most  edi-, 
tions  of  Xenophon's  works.— 4.  The  History  of 
the  Asiatic  expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great 
('A.vd6aGi<;  'Afal-uvdpov),  in  seven  books,  the 
most  important  of  Arrian's  works.  This  great 
work  reminds  the  reader  of  Xenophon's  Anab- 
asis, not  only  by  its  title,  but  also  by  the  ease 
and  clearness  of  its  style.  It  is  also  of  great 
value  for  its  historical  accuracy,  being  based 
upon  the  most  trustworthy  histories  written  by 
the  contemporaries  of  Alexander,  especially 
those  of  Ptolemy,  the  son  of  Lagus,  and  of  Aris- 
tobulus,  the  son  of  Aristobulus. — 5.  On  India 
('\v6iK7j  or  T&  'IvdiKu),  which  may  be  regarded 
as  a  continuation  of  the  Anabasis,  at  the  end  of 
which  it  is  usually  printed.  This  work  is  writ- 
ten in  the  Ionic  dialect,  probably  in  imitation 
of  Ctesias  of  Cnidus,  whose  work  on  the  same 
subject  Arrian  wished  to  supplant  by  a  more 
trustworthy  and  correct  account.  The  best 
editions  of  the  Anabasis  are  by  Ellendt,  Regi- 
montii,  1832,  and  by  C.  W.  Kriiger,  Berlin 
1835-49,  2  vols. ;  of  the  Indica  by  Schmieder, 
Halle,  1798. — 6.  A  description  of  a  voyage  round 
the  coasts  of  the  Euxine  (TrepiK^ovf  KOVTOV  Ei>£- 
ELVOV),  which  had  undoubtedly  been  made  by  Ar- 
rian himself  during  his  government  of  Cappa- 
docia.  This  Periplus  has  come  down  to  us,  to- 
gether with  a  Periplus  of  the  Erythraean,  and  a 
Periplus  of  the  Euxine  and  the  Palus  Maeotis, 
both  of  which  also  bear  the  name  of  Arrian,  but 
they  belong  undoubtedly  to  a  later  period.  The 
best  editions  are  in  Hudson's  Geographi  Minores, 
vol.  i.,  and  in  Gail's  and  Hoffmann's  collections 
of  the  minor  Geographers. — 7.  A  work  on  Tac- 
tics (Aoyof  rafcrtKof  or  TE^VTJ  TO.KTIKT}),  of  which 
we  possess  at  present  only  a  fragment :  printed 
in  Blancard's  collection  of  the  minor  works  of 
Arrian.  Arrian  also  wrote  numerous  other 
works,  all  of  which  are  now  lost. — 2.  A  Roman 
jurisconsult,  probably  lived  under  Trajan,  and 
is  perhaps  the  same  person  with  the  orator  Ar- 
rianus,  who  corresponded  with  the  younger 
Pliny.  He  wrote  a  treatise  De  Interdictis,  of 
which  the  second  book  is  quoted  in  the  Digest. 

ARRIBAS,  ARRYBAS,  ARYMBAS,  or  THARRYTAS 
('A/5/5i'6crf,  'Afipvdaf,  'A.pvu6ac,  or  0a<Wv7o?),  a  de- 
106 


scendant  of  Achilles,  and  one  of  tho  cnrly  kings 
of  the  Molossiaus  in  Epirus.  Ho  is  said  to  have 
been  educated  at  Athens,  and  on  his  return  to 
his  native  country  to  have  framed  for  the  Mo- 
lossians  a  code  of  laws,  and  established  a  regu- 
lar constitution. 

ARRICS.,  Q.  1.  Praetor  B.C.  72,  defeated 
Crixus,  the  leader  of  the  runaway  slaves,  but 
was  afterward  conquered  by  Spartncus.  In  71, 
Arrius  was  to  have  succeeded  Veres  as  pro- 
praetor in  Sicily,  but  died  on  his  way  to  Sicily 
— 2.  A  son  of  the  preceding,  was  an  unsuccess- 
ful candidate  for  the  consulship  B.C.  59.  He 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Cicero. 

ARRIUS  APER.      Vid.  APER. 

ARRUNTICS,  L.  1.  Proscribed  by  the  trium- 
virs in  B.C.  43,  but  escaped  to  Sextus  Pompey 
in  Sicily,  and  was  restored  to  the  state  with 
Pompey.  He  subsequently  commanded  the  left 
wing  of  the  fleet  of  Octavianus  at  the  battle  of 
Actium,  31,  and  was  consul  in  22. — 2.  Son  of 
the  preceding,  consul  A.D.  6.  Augustus  de- 
clared in  his  last  illness  that  Arruntius  was  not 
unworthy  of  the  empire,  and  would  have  bold- 
ness enough  to  seize  it,  if  an  opportunity  pre- 
sented. This  rendered  him  an  object  of  sus- 
picion to  Tiberius.  He  was  charged  in  A.D. 
37  as  an  accomplice  in  the  crimes  of  Albucilla, 
and  put  an  end  to  his  own  life. 

ARSA  (now  Azunga),  a  town  in  Hispania  Bae- 
tica. 

ARSACES  ('A.pauKr}f),  the  name  of  the  founder 
of  the  Parthian  empire,  which  was  also  borne 
by  all  his  successors,  who  were  hence  called 
the  ArsacidoB, — 1.  He  was  of  obscure  origin, 
and  seems  to  have  come  from  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Ochus.  He  induced  the  Parthiaus  to  re- 
volt from  the  Syrian  empire  of  th-a  Seleucidae, 
and  he  became  the  first  monarch  of  the  Parthi- 
ans.  This  event  probably  took  place  about 
B.C.  250,  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  II. ;  but  the 
history  of  the  revolt,  as  well  as  of  the  events 
which  immediately  followed,  is  stated  very  dif- 
ferently by  different  historians.  AVsaces  reign- 
ed only  two  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Tiridates. — 2.  TIRIDATES,  reigned  thir- 
ty-seven years,  B.C.  248-211,  and  defeated  Se- 
leucus  Callinicus,  the  successor  of  Autiochus  II. 
— 3.  ARTABANUS  I.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
attacked  by  Antiochus  IIL  (the  Great),  who, 
however,  was  unable  to  subdue  his  country,  and 
at  length,  recognized  him  asking  about  210. — 
4.  PRIAPATIUS,  son  of  the  preceding,  reigned  fif- 
teen years,  and  left  three  sons,  Phraates,  Mith- 
radates,  and  Artabanus. — 5.  PHRAATES  L,  sub- 
dued the  Mardi,  and,  though  he  had  many  sons, 
left  the  kingdom  to  bis  brother  Mithradates. — 
6.  MITHRADATES  I.,  son  of  Arsaces  IV.,  greatly 
enlarged  the  Parthian  empire  by  his  conquests. 
He  defeated  Demetrius  Nicator,  king  of  Syria, 
and  took  him  prisoner  in  138.  Mithradates 
treated  Demetrius  with  respect,  and  gave  him 
his  daughter  Rhodogune  in  marriage.  Mithra 
dates  died  during  the  captivity  of  Demetrius, 
between  138  and  130. — 7.  PHRAATES  II,  son  of 
the  preceding,  carried  on  war  against  Antiochus 
VII.  Sidetes,  whom  Phraates  defeated  aud  slew 
in  battle,  B.C.  128.  Phraates  himself  was 
shortly  after  killed  in  battle  by  the  Scythians, 
who  had  been  invited  by  Antiochus  to  assist 
him  against  Phraates,  but  who  did  not  arrive 


ARSACES 


ARSACES. 


toll  after  the  fall  of  the  former. — 8.  AETABANCS 
IL,  youngest  brother  of  Arsaces  VI,  and  young- 
est son  of  Arsaces  IV.,  fell  in  battle  against  the 
Thogarii  or  Tochari,  apparently  after  a  short 
reign. — 9.  MITHEADATES  IL,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, prosecuted  many  wars  with  success,  and 
added  many  nations  to  the  Parthian  empire, 
whence  he  obtained  the  surname  of  Great.  It 
was  in  his  reign  that  the  Romans  first  had  any 
official  communication  with  Parthia.  Mithra- 
dates  sent  an  ambassador  to  Sulla,  who  had 
come  into  Asia  B.C.  92,  and  requested  alliance 
with  the  Romans. — 10.  (  MNASCIEES  ? )  Noth- 
ing is  known  of  the  successor  of  Arsaces  IX. 
Even  his  name  is  uncertain — 11.  SANATEOCES, 
reigned  seven  years,  and  died  about  B.C.  70. — 
12.  PHEAATES  IIL  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
lived  at  the  tune  of  the  war  between  the  Ro- 
mans and  Mithradates  of.  Pontus,  by  both  of 
whom  he  was  courted.  He  contracted  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Romans,  but  he  took  no  part  in 
the  war.  At  a  later  period  misunderstandings 
arose  between  Pompey  and  Phraates,  but  Pom- 
pey  thought  it  more  prudent  to  avoid  a  war  with 
the  Parthians,  although  Phraates  had  invad- 
ed Armenia,  and  Tigranes,  the  Armenian  king, 
implored  Pompey's  assistance.  Phraates  was 
murdered  soon  afterward  by  his  two  sons,  Mith- 
radates and  Orodes. — MITHEADATES  III.,  son  of 
the  preceding,  succeeded  his  father  during  the 
Armenian  war.  On  his  return  from  Armenia, 
Mithradates  was  expelled  from  the  throne  on 
account  of  his  cruelty,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Orodes.  Mithradates  afterward 
made  war  upon  his  brother,  but  was  taken  pris- 
oner and  put  to  death. — 14.  Orodes  I.,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  the  Parthian  king  whose 
general  Surenas  defeated  Crassus  and  the  Ro- 
mans, B.C.  53.  Vid.  CEASSUS.  After  the  death 
of  Crassus,  Orodes  gave  the  command  of  the 
army  to  his  son  Pacorus,  who  entered  Syria  in 
51  with  a  small  force,  but  was  driven  back  by 
Crassius.  In  50  Pacorus  again  crossed  the  Eu- 
phrates with  a  much  larger  army,  and  advanced 
as  far  as  Antioch,  but  was  defeated  near  Anti- 
gonea  by  Cassius.  The  Parthians  now  remained 
quiet  for  some  years.  In  40  they  crossed  the 
Euphrates  again,  under  the  command  of  Paco- 
rus and  Labienus,  the  son  of  T.  Labieuus.  They 
overran  Syria  and  part  of  Asia  Minor,  but  were 
defeated  in  39  by  Ventidius  Bassus,  one  of  An- 
tony's legates:  Labienus  was  [taken  and  put 
to  death  by  Ventidius  after  the  battle],  and  the 
Parthians  retired  to  their  own  dominions.  In 
38,  Pacorus  again  invaded  Syria,  but  was  com- 
pletely defeated  and  fell  in  the  battle.  This 
defeat  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  aged  king 
Orodes,  who  shortly  afterward  surrendered  the 
crown  to  his  son  Phraates  during  his  life-time. 
— 15.  PHKAATES  IV.,  commenced  his  reign  by 
murdering  his  father,  his  thirty  brothers,  and 
his  own  son,  who  was  grown  up,  that  there 
might  be  none  of  the  royal  family  whom  the 
Parthians  could  place  upon  the  throne  in  his 
stead.  In  consequence  of  his  cruelty,  many  of 
the  Parthian  nobles  fled  to  Antony  (37),  who 
invaded  Parthia  in  36,  but  was  obliged  to  retreat 
after  losing  a  great  part  of  his  army.  A  few 
years  afterward  the  cruelties  of  Phraates  pro- 
duced a  rebellion  against  him ;  he  was  driven 
out  of  the  country,  and  Tiridates  proclaimed 


king  u  his  stead.  Phraates,-  however,  was  soon 
restored  by  the  Scythians,  and  Tiridates  fled  to 
Augustus,  carrying  with  him  the  youngest  son 
of  Phraates.  Augustus  restored  his  son  to 
Phraates  on  condition  of  his  surrendering  the 
Roman  standards  and  prisoners  taken  hi  the 
war  with  Crassus  and  Antony.  They  were 
given  up  in  20  ;  their  restoration  caused  univer- 
sal joy  at  Rome,  and  was  celebrated  not  only 
by  the  poets,  but  by  festivals  and  commemmora- 
tive  monuments.  Phraates  also  sent  to  Augus- 
tus as  hostages  his  four  sons,  with  their  wives 
and  children,  who  were  carried  to  Rome.  In 
A.D.  2,  Phraates  was  poisoned  by  his  wife  Ther 
musa  and  her  son  Phraataces. — 16.  PHEAATA- 
CES,  reigned  only  a  short  time,  as  he  was  ex- 

?elled  by  his  subjects  on  account  of  his  crimes, 
he  Parthian  nobles  then  elected  as  king  £)ro- 
des,  who  was  of  the  family  of  the  Arsacidae. — 
17.  OEODES  IL,  also  reigned  only  a  short  time, 
as  he  was  killed  by  the  Parthj§ns  on  account 
of  his  cruelty.     Upon  his  death  the  Parthians 
applied  to  the  Romans  for  Vonones,  one    of 
the  sons  of  Phraates  IV.,  who  was  according- 
ly granted  to   them. — 18.  VONONES  I.,  son  of 
Phraates  IV.,  was  also  disliked  by  his  subjects, 
who  therefore  invited  Artabanus,  King  of  Media, 
to  take  possession  of  the  kingdom.    Artabanus 
drove  Vonones  out  of  Parthia,  who  resided  first 
in  Armenia,  next  in  Syria,  and  subsequently  in 
Cilicia.    He   was  put  to  death  in  A.D.  19,  ac 
cording  to  some  accounts  by  order  of  Tiberius 
on  account  of  his  great  wealth. — 19.   AETABA- 
NUS    III.,  obtained  the  Parthian  kingdom  soon 
after  the  expulsion  of  Vonones,  about  A.D.  ]  6. 
Artabapus  placed  Arsaces,  one  of  his  sons,  over 
Armenia,  and  assumed  a  hostile  attitude  toward 
the  Romans.    His  subjects,  whom  he  oppressed, 
dispatched  an  embassy  to  Tiberius  to  beg  him 
to  send  Parthia  Phraates,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Phraates  IV.    Tiberius  willingly  complied  with 
the  request ;  but  Phraates,  upon  arriving  in  Sy- 
ria, was  carried  off  by  a  disease,  A.D.  35.     As 
soon  as  Tiberius  heard  of  his  death,  he  set  up  Ti- 
ridates, another  of  the  Arsacidae,  as  a  claimant 
of  the  Parthian  throne :  Artabanus  was  obliged 
to  leave  his    kingdom,    and    fly  for  refuge  to 
the    Hyrcanians    and    Carmauians.      Hereupon 
Vitellius,  the  governor  of    Syria,    crossed    the 
Euphrates,  and  placed  Tiridates  on  the  throne. 
Artabanus  was,    however,  recalled   next    year 
(36)  by  bis  fickle  subjects.    He  was  once  more 
expelled  by  bis  subjects,  and  once  more  restored. 
He  died  soon  after  his  last  restoration,  leaving 
two  sons,  Bardanes  and  Gotarzes,  whose   civil 
wars  are  related   differently  by  Josephus  and 
Tacitus. — 20.   GOTAEZES,  succeeded   his    father, 
Artabanus  III.,  but  was  defeated  by  bis  brother 
Bardanes  and  retired  into  Hyrcania. — 21.  BAE 
I  DANES,  brother  of    the  preceding,  was  put  to 
I  death  by  his  subjects  in  47,  whereupon  Gotarzes 
1  again  obtained  the  crown.     But,  as  he  ruled 
|  with  cruelty,  the  Parthians  secretly  begged  the 
;  Emperor  Claudius  to  send  them  from  Rome  Mc- 
|  heraates,  grandson  of  Phraates  IV.    Claudius 
I  complied  with  their    request,  and  commanded 
'  the  governor  of  Syria  to  assist  Meherdates,  but 
!  the  latter  was  defeated  in  battle,  and  taken  pris- 
'  oner  by  Gotarzes. — 22.  VONONES  IL,  succeeded 
1  Gotarzes  about  60.     His  reign  was  short. — 23. 
•  VOLOGKSES  L,  son  of  Vonones  II.  or  Artabanua 
107 


ARSACES. 


ARSINOE. 


IIL      Soon  after    his   accession  he   conquered 
Armenia,  -which  he  gave  to  his  brother  Tindates. 
In  65  he  gave  up  Armenia  to  the  Romans,  but 
in  58  he  again  placed  his  brother  over  Armenia, 
and  declared  war  against  the  Romans.      This 
war  terminated  in   favor  of  the  Romans :  the 
Parthians  were  repeatedly  defeated  by  Domitiua 
Corbulo,  and  Tindates  was  driven  out  of  Ar- 
menia.   At  length,  in  62,  peace  was  concluded 
between  Vologeses  and  the  Romans  on  condi- 
tion that  Nero  would  surrender  Armenia  to  Ti- 
ridates,  provided  the  latter  would  come  to  Rome 
and   receive  it  as  a  gift  from  the  Roman  em- 
peror.   Tiridates  came  to  Rome  in   63,  where 
he   was  received  with  extraordinary  splendor, 
and  obtained  from  Nero  the  Armenian  crown. 
Vologeses  afterward  maintained  friendly  rela- 
tions with  Vespasian,  and  seems  to  have  lived 
till  the  reign  of  Domitian. — 24.   PACSRCS,   suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Vologeses  I,  and  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Pomitian  and  Trajan. — 25.  CHOS- 
ROES or  OsR<5Es,  succeeded  his  brother  Pacorus 
during  the  reign  of  Trajan.    His  conquest  of 
Armenia  occasioned  the  invasion  of  Parthia  by 
Trajan,  who  stripped  it  of  many  of  its  provinces, 
»nd  made  the  Parthians  for  a  time  subject  to 
Rome.       Vid.  TRAJANUS.    Upon  the  death  of 
Trajan  in  A.D.  117,  the  Parthians  expelled  Par- 
thamaspates,  whom  Trajan  had  placed  upon  the 
throne,  and  recalled  their  former  king,  Chosroes. 
Hadrian  relinquished  the   conquests  of  Trajan, 
and  made  the  Euphrates,  as  before,  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Roman  empire.    Chosroes  died 
during  the  reign  of  Hadrian. — 26.  VOLOGESES 
II.,   succeeded  his  father  Chosroes,  and  reigned 
from  about  122  to  149. — 27.  VOLOGESES  IIL,  be- 
gan to  reign  in  149.    He  invaded  Syria  in  162, 
but  the  generals  of  the  Emperor  Verus  drove 
him  back  into  his  own  dominions,  invaded  Mes- 
opotamia and   Assyria,  and  took  Seleucia  and 
Ctesiphon ;  and  Vologeses  was  obliged  to  pur- 
chase a  peace  by  ceding  Mesopotamia  to  the 
Romans.    From  this  time  to  the  downfall  of  the 
Parthian  empire,  there  is  great  confusion  in  the 
list  of  kings. — 28.  VOLOGESES  IV.,  probably  as- 
cended the  throne  in  the  reign  of  Commodus. 
His  dominions  were  invaded  by  Septimus  Seve- 
rus,  who  took  Ctesiphon  in  199.    On  the  death 
of  Vologeses  IV.,  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Caracalla,  Parthia  was  torn  asunder,  by  contests 
for  the  crown  between  the  sons  of  Vologeses. 
— 29.  VOLOGESES  V.,  son  of  Vologeses  IV.,  was 
attacked  by  Caracalla  in  215,   and  about  the 
same  time  was  dethroned  by  his  brother  Arta- 
banus.—30.  ARTABANUS  IV.,  the  last,  king  of  Par- 
thia.   The  war  commenced  by  Caracalla  against 
Vologeses,  was  continued    against  Artabanus; 
but  Macrinus,  the  successor  of  Caracalla,  con- 
cluded peace  with  the  Parthians..  In  this  war 
Artabanus  had  lost  the  best  of  his  troops,  and 
the  Persians  seized  the  opportunity  of  recover- 
ing   their  long-lost  independence.      They  were 
led  by  Artaxerxes  (Ardeshir),  the  son  of  Sassan, 
and  defeated  the  Parthians  in  three  great  bat- 
tles, in  the  last  of  which  Artabanus  was  taken 
prisoner  and  killed,  A.D.  226.    Thus  ended  the 
Parthian  empire  of  the  Arsacidae,  after  it  had 
existed    four    hundred    and  seventy-six    years. 
The   Parthians  were  now  obliged  to  submit  to 
Artaxerxes,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sas- 
sanidae,  which  continued  to  reign  till  A.D.  651. 
\Q8 


ARSACIA  ('ApcaKi a :  ruins  southeast  of   Tehe- 
ran), a  great  city  of  Media,  south  of  the  Cas- 
pice    Portae,  originally  named  Rhagae  ('Payai) ; 
I  rebuilt  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  called  Euro- 
|  pus  (EvpuTTo?) ;  again  destroyed  in  the  Parthian 
wars,  and  rebuilt  by  Arsaces,  who  named  it  after 
himself. 

ARSACIDJS,  the  name  of  a  dynasty  of  Parthian 
kings.  Vid.  ARSACES.  It  was  also  the  name  of 
a  dynasty  of  Armenian  kings,  who  reigned  in  Ar 
menia  from  B.C.  149  to  A.D.  428.  This  dynasty 
was  founded  by  AKTAXIAS  I,  who  was  related  to 
the  Parthian  Arsacidae. 

[ARSAMENES  ('A-paajtevrif),  son  of  Darius  Hys 
taspis,  a  commander  in  the  army  of  Xerxes.] 

[ARSAMES  ('Apadfujs).  1.  Father  of  Hystaspes, 
and  grandfather  of  Darius. — 2.  Son  of  Darius, 
and  Artystone,  daughter  of  Cyrus,  commanded 
the  Arabians  and  ^Ethiopians,  who  lived  above 
Egypt,  in  the  army  of  Xerxes. — 3.  An  illegiti- 
mate son  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  murdered  by 
his  brother  Artaxerxes  Ochus.— -4.  A  Persian 
Satrap  of  Lydia  under  Darius  Codomannus :  by 
not  securing  the  Cilician  passes,  he  afforded 
Alexander  an  opportunity  of  a  ready  passage 
into  Upper  Asia  from  Asia  Minor.] 

ARSAMOSATA  ('Apua/iuaara,  also  wrongly  ab- 
breviated 'A.pfiuaara :  now  Shemshat),  a  town 
and  strong  fortress  in  Armenia  Major,  between 
the  Euphrates  and  the  sources  of  the  Tigris,  near 
the  most  frequented  pass  of  the  Taurus. 

ARSANIAS,  -ros,  or  -us  ('A.paavia<;,  <fec.),  the 
name  of  two  rivers  of  Great  Armenia. — 1.  (Now 
Murad),  the  southern  arm  of  the  Euphrates 
Vid.  ARMENIA. — 2.  (Now  Arslanf),  a  small 
stream  rising  near  the  sources  of  the  Tigris 
and  flowing  west  into  the  Euphrates  near  Mel- 
itene. 

AR&ENARIA  or  -ENN-  ('ApaT/vapia  :  now  Ar- 
zaw,  ruins),  a  town  in  Mauretania  Ceesariensis, 
three  miles  (Remap)  from  the  sea :  a  Roman 
colony. 

ARSENE.     Vid.  ARZANENE. 

ARSES,  NARSES,  or  OARSES  ("Apaqc,  Nupaijf, 
or  'Ouparjf),  youngest  son  of  King  Artaxerxes  III  . 
Ochus,  was  raised  to  the  Persian  throne  by  the 
eunuch  Bagoas  after  he  had  poisoned  Artaxerxes 
B.C.  339,  but  he  was  murdered  by  Bagoas  in  the 
third  year  of  his  reign,  when  he  attempted  to  free 
himself  from  the  bondage  in  which  he  was  kept 
After  the  death  of  Arses,  Bagoas  made  Darius 
IIL  king. 

ARSIA  (now  Arsa),  &  river  in  Istria,  forming 
the  boundary  between  Upper  Italy  and  LUyri- 
cum,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name  upon  it. 

ARSIA  SILVA,  a  wood  in  Etruria,  celebrated 
for  the  battle  between  the  Tarquins  and  the 
Romans. 

ARSINOE  ('Apaivoi)).  I.  Mythological.  1.  The 
daughter  of  Phegeus,  and  wife  of  Alcmaeon. 
As  she  disapproved  of  the  murder  of  Alcmaeon, 
the  sons  of  Phegeus  put  her  into  a  chest  and 
carried  her  to  Agapenor  at  Tegea,  where  they 
accused  her  of  having  killed  Alcmseon.  Vid. 
ALCMAEON,  AGENOR. — 2.  Nurse  of  Orestes,  saved 
the  latter  from  the  hands  of  Clytemnestra,  and 
carried  him  to  Strophius,  father  of  Pylades. 
Some  accounts  call  her  Laodamia. — 3.  Daughter 
of  Leucippus  and  Philodice,  became  by  Apollo 
mother  of  Eriopis  and  ./Esculapius.  IL  Histori- 
cal. 1.  Mother  of  Ptolemy  I.,  was  a  concubine 


ARSINOE. 


ARTANES. 


of  Philip,  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  J 
married  Lagus  while  she  was  pregnant  with 
Ptolemy. — 2-  Daughter  of  Ptolemy  I.  and  Ber- 
enice, married  Lysimachus,  king  of  Thrace,  in 
B.C.  300  ;  after  the  death  of  Lysimachus  in  281, 
she  married  her  half-brother,  Ptolemy  Cerau- 
nus,  who  murdered  her  children  by  Lysima- 
chus ;  and,  lastly,  in  279,  she  married  her  own 
brother  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus.  Though  Ar- 
sinoe  bore  Ptolemy  no  children,  she  was  ex- 
ceedingly beloved  by  him :  he  gave  her  name 
to  several  cities,  called  a  district  (yop.6^)  of 
Egypt  Arsinoites  after  her,  and  honored  her 
memory  in  various  ways. — 3.  Daughter  of  Ly- 
simachus,  married  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus 
soon  after  his  accession,  B.C.  285.  In  conse- 

?uence  of  her  plotting  against  her  namesake 
No.  2.],  when  Ptolemy  fell  in  love  with  her, 
she  was  banished  to  Coptos,  in  Upper  Egypt. 
She  had  by  Ptolemy  three  children,  Ptolemy  III. 
Evergetes,  Lysimachus,  and  Berenice. — 4.  Also 
called  Eurydice  and  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  Ptol- 
emy III.  Evergetes,  wife  of  her  brother  Ptol- 
emy IV.  Philopator,  and  mother  of  Ptolemy  V. 
Epiphanes.  She  was  killed  by  Philammon  by 
order  of  her  husband. — 5.  Daughter  of  Ptolemy 
XI.  Auletes,  escaped  from  Caesar  when  he  was 
besieging  Alexandrea  in  B.C.  47,  and  was  rec- 
ognized as  queen  by  the  Alexandreans.  After 
the  capture  of  Alexandrea  she  was  carried  to 
Rome  by  Caesar,  and  led  in  triumph  by  him  in 
46.  She  was  afterward  dismissed  by  Caesar, 
and  returned  to  Alexandrea;  but  her  sister 
Cleopatra  persuaded  Antony  to  have  her  put  to 
death  in  41. 

ARSINOE  ('Apaivorj :  'Apoivoevf  or  -oJJTjjf),  the 
name  of  several  cities  of  the  times  of  the  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander,  each  called  after  one  or 
other  of  the  persons  of  the  same  name  (see 
above). — 1.  In  JStotia,  formerly  Kuvuira. — 2. 
On  the  northern  coast  of  Cyprus,  on  the  site  of 
the  older  city  of  Marium  (M.dpiov),  which  Ptol- 
emy I.  had  destroyed. — 3.  A  port  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Cyprus. — 4.  (Now  Famagosta),  on 
the  southeastern  coast  of  Cyprus,  between  Sal- 
umis  and  Leucolla. — 5.  In  Cflicia,  east  of  Ane- 
murium. — 6.  (Now  Ajeroud  or  Suez),  in  the  No- 
mos  Heroopolites  in  Lower  Egypt,  near  or  upon 
the  head  of  the  Sinus  Heroopolites  or  western 
branch  of  the  Red  Sea  (now  Gulf  of  Suez).  It 
was  afterward  called  Cleopatris. — 7.  (Now  Me- 
dirttt-el-Faioum,  ruins),  the  chief  city  of  the  No- 
mos  Arsinoites  in  the  Heptanomis  or  Middle 
Egypt  (vid.  ^EGYPTOS,  p.  18,  b);  formerly  called 
Cr6c6dllopolis  (Kponodeftuv  -iroXtf),  and  the  dis- 
trict Nomos  Crocodilopolites,  from  its  being  the 
chief  seat  of  the  Egyptian  worship  of  the  croc- 
odile. This  noinos  also  contained  the  Lake  Moa- 
ns and  the  Labyrinth. — 8.  In  Cyrenaica,  also 
called  Taucheira. — 9.  On  the  coast  of  the  Trog- 
lodyte on  the  Red  Sea,  east  of  Egypt.  Its 
prooable  position  is  a  little  below  the  parallel  of 
Thebes.  Some  other  cities  called  Arsiuoe  are 
better  known  by  other  names,  such  as  EPHESUB 
in  Ionia  and  PATARA  in  Lycia. 

[AR8iN6os  ('Apaivoof),  father  of  Heoamede ; 
ruler  of  Tenedos.] 

[ARS!TES  ('Apairrif),  satrap  of  the  Helles- 
pontine  Phrygia  when  Alexander  the  Great  in- 
vaded Asia :  after  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  at 
the  Granicus  he  put  himself  to  death.] 


ARSISSA  or  MANTIANA  ('Apaiaaa,  57 
now  Van),  a  great  lake  abounding  in  fish,  in 
the  south  of  Armenia  Major.     Vid.  ARMENIA. 

ARTABAMJS  ('ApruSavof).  1.  Son  of  Hystas- 
pes  and  brother  of  Darius,  is  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  reign  of  his  nephew  Xerxes  as  a 
wise  and  frank  counsellor. — 2.  An  Hyrcanian, 
commander  of  the  body-guard  of  Xerxes,  as- 
sassinating this  king  in  B.C.  465,  with  the  view 
of  setting  himself  upon  the  throne  of  Persia,  but 
was  shortly  afterward  killed  by  Artaxerxes  — 
3.  L,  II.,  Ill,  IV.,  kings  of  Parthia.  Vid.  ARSA- 
CES  IIL,  VIII.,  XIX.,  XXX. 

[ARTABAZANES  CApra6a^dvr]f),  oldest  son  of 
Darius  Hystaspis,  half-brother  of  Xerxes,  and 
called,  also,  Anabignes.  Vid.  ARIABIGNES] 

ARTABAZUS  ('Aprofafof).  1.  A  Mede,  acts  a 
prominent  part  in  Xenophon's  account  of  Cyrus 
the  Elder. — 2.  A  distinguished  Persian,  a  son 
of  Pharnaces,  commanded  the  Parthians  and 
Choasmians  in  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  into 
Greece,  B.C.  480.  He  served  under  Mardonius 
in  479,  and  after  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  at 
Plataeas,  he  fled  with  forty  thousand  men,  and 
reached  Asia  in  safety. — 3.  A  general  of  Ar- 
taxerxes I.,  fought  against  Inarus  in  Egypt, 
B.C.  462. — 4.  A  Persian  general,  fought  uudei 
Artaxerxes  II.  against  Datames,  satrap  of  Cap 
padocia,  B.C.  362.  Under  Artaxerxes  III.,  Ar- 
tabazus,  who  was  then  satrap  of  Western  Asia 
revolted  in  B.C.  356,  but  was  defeated  and 
obliged  to  take  refuge  with  Philip  of  Macedonia. 
He  was  afterward  pardoned  by  Artaxerxes,  and 
returned  to  Persia ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  most 
faithful  adherents  of  Darius  III.  Codomannus, 
who  raised  him  to  high  honors.  On  the  death 
of  Darius  (330)  Artabazus  received  from  Alex- 
ander the  satrapy  of  Bactria.  One  of  his 
daughters,  Barsine,  became  by  Alexander  the 
mother  of  Hercules ;  a  second,  Ai-tocama,  mar- 
ried Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus ;  and  a  third,  Ar- 
tonis,  married  Eumenes. 

ARTABRI,  afterward  AROTREB^K,  a  Celtic  peo- 
ple in  the  northwest  of  Spain,  near  the  Promon- 
tory Nerium  or  Celticum,  also  called  Artabrum 
after  them  (now  Cape  Finisterre). 

ARTACE  ('ApTaKT) :  now  Artakt),  a  sea-port 
town  of  the  peninsula  of  Cyzicus,  in  the  Pro 
pontis :  also  a  mountain  in  the  same  peninsula. 

ARTACHJKES  ('Apra^at^f),  a  distinguished  Per- 
sian in  the  army  of  Xerxes,  died  while  Xerxea 
was  at  Athos.  The  mound  which  the  king 
raised  over  him  is  still  in  existence. 

[ARTACIE  ('ApraKiij),  a  fountain  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  mythic  Laestrygones.] 

ARTACOANA  ('Apranoava  or  -Ktlvva :  now  Sekh- 
vanf),  the  ancient  capital  of  ARIA,  not  far  from 
the  site  of  the  later  capital,  ALEXANDREA. 

ART^EI  ('ApTalot),  was,  according  to  Herodo- 
tus (vi.,  61),  the  old  native  name  of  the  Per- 
sians. It  signifies  noble,  and  appears  in  the 
form  Apra,  as  the  first  part  of  a  large  number 
of  Persian  proper  names.  Compare  ARIL 

[ARTAGERA  or  ARTAGER,*  ('Aprayjypai),  a 
mountain  fortress  in  southern  Armenia,  on  the 
Euphrates.] 

[ARTAOERSES  ('Apra-yepa^f),  &  commander  in 
j  the  army  of  Artaxerxes.] 

!      [ARTANES  ('Apruvw),  son  of  Hystaspes  and 
brother  of  Darius,  fought  and  fell  at  the  battle 
I  of  Thermopylae.] 

109 


ARTANES. 

AaxANES  ('AprufT/f).  1.  A  river  in  Thrace, 
falling  into  the  Ister. — 2.  A  river  in  Bithyuia. 

[ABTAOZUS  ('Apruo£bf),  a  friend  and  supporte 
of  the  younger  Cyrus.] 

ARTAPHERNES  ('ApTa<j>epvi}f).  1.  Son  of  Hys 
taspes  and  brother  of  Darius.  He  was  satrap 
of  Sardis  at  the  time  of  the  Ionian  revolt,  B.C 
600.  Vid.  ARISTAGORAS. — 2.  Son  of  the  former 
commanded,  along  with  Datis,  the  Persian  army 
of  Darius,  which  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  B.C.  490.  Artaphernes  commandec 
the  Lydians  and  Mysians  in  the  invasion  of 
Greece  by  Xerxes  in  480. — [3.  A  Persian,  sent 
by  Artaxerxes  I.  to  Sparta  with  a  letter,  ar 
rested  on  hia  way  by  Aristides  and  taken  to 
Athens,  where  his  letter  was  translated  :  the 
Athenians  endeavored  to  turn  this  to  their  ad- 
vantage, and  sent  Artaphernes  in  a  galley,  with 
their  ambassadors, 'to  Ephesus.] 

ARTAUNUM  (now  Scdburg,  near  Homburg?),  a 
Roman  fortress  in  Germany  on  Mount  Taunus, 
built  by  Drusus  and  restored  by  Germanicus. 

ARTAVASDES  ('ApTaovuad^g  or  'ApTaGuodr/e)  or 
ARTABAZES  ('Aprafia^f)-  !'•  King  of  the  Great- 
er Armenia,  succeeded  his  father  Tigranes.  In 
the  expedition  of  Crassus  against  the  Parthians, 
B.C.  54,  Artavasdes  was  an  ally  of  the  Romans ; 
but  after  the  defeat  of  the  latter,  he  concluded 
a  peace  with  the  Parthian  king.  In  36  he  joined 
Antony  in  his  campaign  against  the  Parthians, 
and  persuaded  him  to  invade  Media,  because  he 
W'is  at  enmity  with  his  namesake  Artavasdes, 
king  of  Media ;  but  he  treacherously  deserted 
Antony  in  the  middle  of  the  campaign.  Antony 
accordingly  invaded  Armenia  in  34,  contrived 
to  entice  Artavasdes  into  his  camp,  where  he 
was  immediately  seized,  carried  him  to  Alex- 
andrea  and  led  him  in  triumph.  He  remained 
in  captivity  till  30,  when  Cleopatra  had  him 
killed  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  and  sent  his 
head  to  his  old  enemy,  Artavasdes  of  Media,  in 
hopes  of  obtaining  assistance  from  the  latter. 
This  Artavasdes  was  well  acquainted  with 
Greek  literature,  and  wrote  tragedies,  speeches, 
and  historical  works. — 2.  King  of  Armenia, 
probably  a  grandson  of  No.  1,  was  placed  upon 
the  throne  by  Augustus,  but  was  deposed  by 
the  Armenians. — 3.  King  of  Media  Atropatene, 
and  an  enemy  of  Artavasdes  I.,  king  of  Arme- 
nia. Antony  invaded  his  country  in  36,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Armenian  king,  but  he  was 
obliged  to  retire  with  great  loss.  Artavasdes 
afterward  concluded  a  peace  with  Antony,  and 
gave  his  daughter  lotape  in  marriage  to  Alex- 
ander, the  son  of  Antony.  Artavasdes  was 
subsequently  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Par- 
ihians  and  Armenians.  He  died  shortly  before 
20  B.C. 

ARTAXATA  or  -x  (r£  'Apru^ara  or  -Ziara: 
ruins  at  Ardachat,  above  Nakshivari),  the  later 
capital  of  Great  Armenia,  built  by  ARTAXIAS, 
under  the  advice  of  Hannibal,  on  a  peninsula, 
suiTounded  by  the  River  Araxes.  After  being 
burned  by  the  Romans  under  Corbulo  (A.D.  58), 
it  was  restored  by  Tiridates,  and  called  Nero- 
ma  (Nepwveia).  It  was  still  standing  in  the 
fourth  century. 

ARTAXERXES  or  ARTOXERXES  ('Apra^ep^  or 

'A0To$£p$T]c),  the  name  of  four  Persian  kings,  is 

compounded  of  Arta,  which  means  "honored," 

and  Xerxes,   which   is  the   same   as  the  Zend 

110 


ARTAXERXER 

ksathra,    "a    king :"    consequently    Artaxerxei 
means    "the     honored     king."       1.     Surnamed 
LONGIMANUS,  from  the  circumstance  of  his  right 
hand  being  longer  than    his  left,  reigned  B.C. 
465-426.     He  ascended  the  throne  after  his  fa- 
ther, Xerxes  I,  had  been  murdered  by  Arta- 
banus,  and  after  he  himself  had  put  to  death  his 
brother  Darius  at  the  instigation  of  Artabanus. 
His  reigs  was  disturbed  by  several  dangerous  in- 
surrections of  the  satraps.    The  Egyptians  also 
revolted  in  460,  under  Inarus,  who  was  support- 
ed by  the  Athenians.      The   first  army  which 
Artaxerxes  sent  under  bis  brother  Acluemenes 
was  defeated  and  Achsemencs  slain.    The  sec- 
ond army  which  he  sent,  under  Artabazus  and 
Megabyzus,  was  more  successful.      Inarus  was 
defeated  in  456  or  455,  but  Amyrtseus,  another 
chief  of  the   insurgents,  maintained  himself  in 
the  marshes  of  Lower  Egypt    At  a  later  period 
(449)  the   Athenians   under  Cimon  sent  assist- 
ance to  Amyrtseus;  and  even  after  the  death 
of  Cimon,  the   Athenians   gained  two  victories 
over  the  Persians,  one  by  land  and  the  other  by 
sea,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus. 
After  this  defeat  Artaxerxes  is  said  to  have  con- 
cluded peace  with  the  Greeks  on  terms  very  ad- 
vantageous to  the  latter.    Artaxerxes  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his    son   Xerxes   II. — 2.    Surnamed 
MNEMON,  from  his  good  memory,  succeeded  his 
father,  Darius   II,   and   reigned  B.C.  405-359. 
Cyrus,  the  younger  brother  of  Artaxerxes,  who 
was  satrap  of  Western  Asia,  revolted  against 
iis  brother,  and,  supported  by  Greek  mercena- 
ries, invaded  Upper  Asia.    In  the  neighborhood 
of  Cunaxa,  near  Babylon,  a  battle  was  fought 
setween  the    armies   of  the  two   brothers,  in 
which  Cyrus  fell,  B.C  401.     Vid.  CYRUS.    Tis- 
saphernes  was   appointed   satrap   of   Western 
Asia  in  the  place  of  Cyrus,  and  was  actively 
engaged  in  wars  with  the  Greeks.     Vid.  THIM- 
BRON,  DERCYLLIDAS,  AGESILAUS.     Notwithstaud- 
ng  these  perpetual  conflicts  with  the  Greeks, 
the  Persian  empire  maintained  itself  by  the  dis- 
union among  the  Greeks  themselves,  which  was 
"omented  and  kept  up  by  Persian  money.    The 
jeace  of  Antalcidas,  in  B.C.  388,  gave  the  Per- 
iians  even  greater  power  and   influence   than 
hey  had  possessed   before.      Vid.  ANTALCIDAS. 
3ut  the  empire  was  suffering  from  internal  dis- 
urbances,  and  Artaxerxes  had  to  carry  on  fre- 
[uent  wars  with  tributary  princes  and  satraps, 
who  endeavored  to  make  themselves  independ- 
ent   Thus  he  maintained  a  long  struggle  against 
Ivagoras  of  Cyprus,  from  385  to  376 ;  he  also 
iad  to  carry  on  war  against  the  Cardusians,  on 
he  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea ;  and  his  attempts 
o  recover  Egypt  were  unsuccessful.     Toward 
the  end  of  his  reign  he  put  to  death  his  eldest 
on  Darius,  who  had  formed  a  plot  to  assassi- 
nate him.    His  last  days  were  still  further  em- 
jittered  by  the  unnatural  conduct  of  his  son 
3chus,  who  caused  the  destruction  of  two  of 
is  brothers,  in  order  to  secure  the  succession 
or  himself.      Artaxerxes    was    succeeded    by 
3chus,  who    ascended    the    throne    under  the 
lame  of  Artaxerxes  III. — 3.  Also  called  OCHUS, 
eigned  B.C.  359-338.     In  order  to  secure  his 
hrone,  he  began  his  reign  with  a  merciless  ex- 
irpation  of  the  members  of  his  family.      He 
limself  was  a  cowardly  and  reckless  despot  ; 
and  the  great   advantages   which  the  Persiau 


ARTAXIAS. 


ARTEMIS. 


arms  gained  during  bis  reign  were  owing  only  to 
his  Greek  generals  and  mercenaries.  These  ad- 
vantages consisted  in  the  conquest  of  the  revolted 
satrap  Artabazus  (vid.  AETABAZUS,  No.  4),  and  in 
the  reduction  of  Phoenicia,  of  several  revolted 
towns  in  Cyprus,  and  of  Egypt,  350.  The  reins 
of  government  were  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
eunuch  Eagoas  and  of  Mentor  the  Rhodiau.  At 
last  he  was  poisoned  by  Bagoas,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  youngest  son,  ARSES. — 4.  The 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  SASSANID.S. 

ARTAXIAS  ('A/>ra£'a?)  or  ARTAXES  ('Ap-a^f), 
the  name  of  three  kings  of  Armenia.  1.  The 
founder  of  the  Armenian  kingdom,  was  one  of 
the  generals  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  but  revolt- 
ed from  him  about  B.C.  188,  and  became  an  in- 
dependent sovereign.  Hannibal  took  refuge  at 
the  court  of  Artaxias,  and  he  superintended  the 
building  of  ARTAXATA,  the  capital  of  Armenia. 
A  rtaxias  was  conquered  and  taken  prisoner  by 
Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes  about  165. — 2.  Son 
of  Artavasdes,  was  made  king  by  the  Armeni- 
ans when  his  father  was  taken  prisoner  by  An- 
tony in  34.  lu  20,  Augustus,  at  the  request  of 
the  Armenians,  sent  Tiberius  into  Acgaenia  in 
order  to  depose  Artaxias  and  place  Tigranes  on 
the  throne,  but  Artaxias  was  put  to  death  before 
Tiberius  reached  the  country.  Tiberius,  however, 
took  the  credit  to  himself  of  a  successful  expedi- 
tion, whence  Horace  (Epist,  i.  12,  26)  says, 
Claudi  virtute  Nerohis  Armenius  cecidit. — 3.  Son 
of  Polemon,  king  of  Pontus,  was  proclaimed  king 
of  Armenia  by  Germanicus  in  A.D.  18.  He  died 
about  35. 

ARTAYCTES  ('ApTavKTj]f),  Persian  governor  of 
Sestus  on  the  Hellespont,  when  the  town  was  ta- 
ken by  the  Greeks  in  B.C.  478,  met  with  an  igno- 
minious death  on  account  of  the  sacrilegious  acts 
which  he  had  committed  against  the  tomb  of  the 
hero  Protesilaus. 

[ARTAYNTE('Aprawr7/),  a  daughter  of  Masistes, 
the  brother  of  Xerxes  I.,  who  gave  her  in  mar- 
riage to  his  son  Darius,  while  he  himself  was  se- 
cretly in  love  with  her :  this,  becoming  known  to 
Amastris,  brought  down  her  vengeance  on  the 
mother  of  Artaynte,  whom  she  suspected  of  hav- 
ing been  the  cause  of  the  king's  passion.] 

[ARTAYNTES  ('ApravvTtjf),  one  of  the  generals 
in  the  army  .of  Xerxes ;  after  the  battle  of  Sala- 
mis,  he,  with  several  other  generals,  sailed  to 
Samos  to  watch  the  louinns;  but,  after  the  de- 
feat of  the  Persians  at  Platzeae  and  Mycale,  he 
abandoned  his  post  and  returned  to  Persia.] 

ARTEMiDOttua  ('AprcfMupot;).  1.  Surnamed 
ARISTOPHANIUS,  from  his  being  a  disciple  of  the 
celebrated  grammarian  Aristophanes,  was  him- 
self a  grammarian,  and  the  author  of  several 
works  now  lost. — 2.  Of  CNIDUS,  a  friend  of  Ju- 
lius Ca?sar,  was  a  rhetorician,  and  taught  the 
Greek  language  at  Rome. — 3.  DALDIANUS,  a  na- 
tive of  Ephesus,  but  called  Daldianus,  from 
Daldis  in  Lydia,  his  mother's  birth-place,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  the  geographer  Artemidorus. 
He  lived  at  Rome  in  the  reigns  of  Antoninus 
Pius  aud  M.  Aurelius  (A.D.  138-180),  and  wrote 
a  work  on  the  interpretation  of  dreams  ('Ovetpo- 
KptTiKu),  in  five  books,  which  is  still  extant  The 
object  of  the  work  is  to  prove  that  the  future 
is  revealed  to  man  in  dreams,  and  to  clear  the 
science  of  interpreting  them  'from  the  abuses 
with  which  the  fashion  of  the  time  had  sur- 


rounded it.  The  style  is  simple,  correct,  and 
elegant  The  best  edition  is  by  Reiff,  Lips., 
1805. — 4.  Of  EPHESUS,  a  Greek  geographer, 
lived  about  B.C.  100.  He  made  voyages  round 
the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  Red  Sea, 
and  apparently  even  in  the  Southern  Ocean.  He 
also  visited  Iberia  and  Gaul.  The  work,  in 
which  he  gave  the  results  of  his  investigations, 
consisted  of  eleven  books,  of  which  Marcianus 
afterward  made  an  abridgment.  The  original 
work  is  lost;  but  we  possess  fragments  of  Mar- 
cianus's  abridgment,  which  contain  the  peri- 
plus  of  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  and  accounts  of 
Bithynia  and  Paphlagonia.  These  fragments 
are  printed  in  Hudson's  Geographi  Minores, 
voL  i. 

ARTEMIS  ('\pTepif),  the  Latin  Diana,  one  of 
the  great  divinities  of  the  Greeks.  According 
to  the  most  ancient  account,  she  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Leto  (Latona),  and  the 
twin-sister  of  Apollo,  born  with  him  in  the  isl- 
and of  Delos.  She  was  regarded  in  various 
points  of  view  by  the  Greeks,  which  must  be 
carefully  distinguished.  1.  Artemis  (Diana),  as 
the  sister  of  Apollo,  is  a  kind  of  female  Apollo, 
that  is,  ehe  as  a  female,  divinity  represented 
the  same  idea  that  Apollo  did  as  a  male  divini- 
ty. As  sister  of  Apollo,  Artemis  (Diana)  is, 
like  her  brother,  armed  with  a  bow,  quiver,  and 
arrows,  and  sends  plagues  and  death  among 
men  and  animals.  Sudden  deaths,  but  more 
especially  those  of  women,  are  described  as  the 
effect  of  her  arrows.  As  Apollo  was  not  only 
a  destructive  god,  but  also  averted  evils,  so  Ar- 
temis (Diana)  likewise  cured  and  alleviated  the 
sufferings  of  mortals.  In  the  Trojan  war  she 
sided,  like  Apollo,  with  the  Trojans.  She  was 
more  especially  the  protectress  of  the  young; 
and  from  her  watching  over  the  young  of  fe- 
males, she  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  goddess 
of  the  flocks  and  the  chase.  In  this  manner 
she  also  became  the  huntress  among  the  im- 
mortals. Artemis  (Diana),  like  Apollo,  is  un- 
married ;  she  is  a  maiden  divinity  never  con- 
quered by  love.  She  slew  ORION  with  her  ar- 
rows, according  to  one  account,  because  he 
made  an  attempt  upon  her  chastity ;  and  she 
changed  ACTION  into  a  stag  simply  because 
he  had  seen  her  bathing.  With  her  brother 
Apollo,  she  slew  the  children  of  NIOBE,  who 
had  deemed  herself  superior  to  Leto  (Latona). 
When  Apollo  was  regarded  as  identical  with 
the  sun  or  Helios,  nothing  was  more  natural 
than  that  his  sister  should  be  regarded  as  Se- 
lene or  the  moon,  aud  accordingly  the  Greek 
Artemis  is,  at  least  in  later  times,  the  goddess 
of  the  moon.  Hence  Artemis  (Diana)  is  repre- 
sented in  love  with  the  fair  youth  ENDYMIOX, 
whom  she  kissed  in  his  sleep,  but  this  legend 
properly  relates  to  Selene  or  the  Moon,  and  is 
foreign  to  the  character  of  Artemis  (Diana), 
who,  as  we  have  observed,  was  a  goddess  un- 
moved by  love. — 2.  The  Arcadian  Artemis  is  a 
goddess  of  the  nymphs,  and  was  worshipped  as 
;  such  in  Ai'cadia  in  very  early  times.  She  hunt- 
j  ed  with  her  nymphs  on  the  Arcadian  Mount- 
ains, and  her  chariot  was  drawu  by  four  staga 
with  golden  antlers.  There  was  no  connection 
between  the  Arcadian  Artemis  and  Apollo  — 
8.  T/ie  Taurian  Artemi».  The  worship  of  this 
,  goddess  was  connected,  at  least  in  early  times, 
111 


TKMISIA. 


ARYAXDES. 


with. human  sacrifices.  According  to  the  Greek 
legend  there  was  in  Taurus  a  goddess,  whom 
the  Greeks  for  some  reason  identified  with  their 
own  Artemis  (Diana),  and  to  whom  all  strangers 
thrown  on  the  coast  of  Tauris  were  sacrificed. 
Iphigenia  and  Orestes  brought  her  image  from 
thence,  and  landed  at  Brauron  in  Attica,  whence 
the  goddess  derived  the  name  of  Brauronia. 
The  Brauronian  Artemis  was  worshipped  at 
Athens  and  Sparta,  and  in  the  latter  place  the 
boys  were  scourged  at  her  altar  till  it  was  be 
sprinkled  with  their  blood.  This  cruel  cere- 
mony was  believed  to  have  been  introduced  by 
Lycurgus,  instead  of  the  human  sacrifices  which 
had  antil  then  been  offered  to  her.  Iphigenia, 
who  was  at  first  to  have  been  sacrificed  to  Ar- 
temis (Diana),  and  who  then  became  her  priest- 
ess, was  afterward  identified  with  the  goddess, 
who  was  worshipped  in  some  parts  of  Greece, 
as  at  Hermione,  under  the  name  of  Iphigenia. 
Some  traditions  stated  that  Artemis  made  Iphi- 
genia immortal,  in  the  character  of  Hecate,  the 
goddess  of  the  moon. — 4.  The  Epkesian  Artemis 
(Diana)  was  a  divinity  totally  distinct  from  the 
Greek  goddess  of  the  same  name.  She  seems 
to  have  been  the  personification  of  the  fructify- 
ing and  all-nourishing  powers  of  nature.  She 
was  an  ancient  Asiatic  divinity,  whose  worship 
the  Greeks  found  established  in  Ionia  when 
they  settled  there,  and  to  whom  they  gave  the 
name  of  Artemis.  Her  original  character  is 
sufficiently  clear  from  the  fact  that  her  priests 
were  eunuchs,  and  that  her  image  in  the  mag- 
nificent temple  of  Ephesus  represented  her  with 
many  breasts  (irohv/taarof).  The  representations 
of  the  Greek  Artemis  in  works  of  art  are  differ- 
ent, according  as  she  is  represented  either  as  a 
huntress  or  as  the  goddess  of  the  moon.  As 
the  huntress,  she  is  tall,  nimble,  and  has  small 
hips;  her  forehead  is  high,  her  eyes  glancing 
freely  about,  and  her  hair  tied  up,  with  a  few 
locks  floating  down  her  neck;  her  breast  is 
covered,  and  the  legs  up  to  the  knees  are  naked, 
the  rest  being  covered  by  the  chlamys.  Her  at- 
tributes are  the  bow,  quiver,  and  arrows,  or  a 
spear,  stags,  and  dogs.  As  the  goddess  of  the 
moon,  she  wears  a  long  robe  which  reaches 
down  to  her  feet,  a  veil  covers  her  head,  and 
above  her  forehead  rises  the  crescent  of  the 
moon.  In  her  hand  she  often  appears  holding  a 
torch.  The  Romans  identified  their  goddess  DI- 
ANA with  the  Greek  Artemis. 

ARTEMISIA  ('Apre/ua/a).  1.  Daughter  of  Lyg- 
damis,  and  queen  of  Halicarnassus  in  Caria,  ac- 
companied Xerxes,  in  his  invasion  of  Greece, 
with  five  ships,  and  in  the  battle  of  Salamis 
(B.C.  480)  greatly  distinguished  herself  by  her 
prudence  and  courage,  for  which  she  was  after- 
ward highly  honored  by  the.  Persian  king. — 2. 
Daughter  of  Hecatomnus,  and  sister,  wife,  and 
successor  of  the  Carian  prince  Mausolus,  reigned 
B.C.  352-350.  She  is  renowned  in  history  for 
jier  extraordinary  grief  at  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band Mausolus.  She  is  said  to  have  mixed  his 
ashes  in  her  daily  drink ;  and  to  perpetuate  his 
memory,  she  built  at  Halicarnassus  the  celebra- 
ted monument,  Mausoleum,  which  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  seven  wonder*  of  the  world,  and 
the  name  of  which  subsequently  became  the 
generic  term  for  any  splendid  sepulchral  monu- 
ment 

112 


ARTEMISIUM  ('ApTepioiov),  properly  a  temple 
of  Artemis.  1.  A  tract  of  country  on  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Eubcea,  opposite  Magnesia,  so  called 
from  the  temple  of  Artemis  (Diana)  belonging  to 
the  town  of  Hestisea:  off  this  coast  the  Greeks 
defeated  the  fleet  of  Xerxes,  B.C.  480.— 2.  A 
promontory  of  Caria,  near  the  Gulf  Glaucus,  so 
called  from  the  temple  of  Artemis  it  its  neigh- 
borhood. 

ARTEMITA  ('ApTtfura}.  1.  (Now  Shereban?), 
a  city  on  the  Sillas.  in  the  district  of  Apollonia- 
tis  in  Assyria. — 2.  A  city  of  Great  Armenia, 
south  of  the  Lake  Arsissa. 

ARTEMON  ('Aprejuuv),  a  Lacedaemonian,  built 
the  military  engines  for  Pericles  in  his  war 
against  Samos  in  B.C.  441.  There  were  also 
several  writers  of  this  name,  whose  works  are 
lost. 

[ARTIM  AS  ('Apriftaf),  a  Persian  satrap,  men- 
tioned in  the  Anabasis.] 

[Aaxiscus  ("Aprianof :  now  Bujuk-Dere),  a 
river  of  Thrace,  a  tributary  of  the  Hebrus.] 

[AETONTES  ('ApTovrqe),  son  of  Mardonius.] 

ARTORIUS,  M.,  a  physician  at  Rome,  was  the 
friend  au^J  physician  of  Augustus,  whom  he  at- 
tended in  his  campaign  against  Brutus  and  Cas- 
sius,  B.C.  42.  He  was  drowned  at  sea  shortly 
after  the  battle  of  Actium,  31. 

ARVERNI,  a  Gallic  people  in  Aquitania,  in  the 
country  of  the  Mons  Cebenna,  in  the  modem 
Auvergne.  In  early  times  they  were  the  most 
powerful  people  in  the  south  of  Gaul:  they 
were  defeated  by  Domitius  Ahenobarbus  and 
Fabius  Maximus  in  B.C.  121,  but  still  possessed 
considerable  power  in  the  time  of  Ctesar  (58). 
Their  capital  was  Jfemossus,  also  named  Augus- 
tonemetum  or  Arverni  on  the  Elaver  (now  Allier), 
with  a  citadel,  called  at  least  in  the  Middle  Ages 
Clarus  Mons,  whence  the  name  of  the  modern 
town,  Clermont. 

ARVIXA,  a  cognomen  of  the  Cornelia  gens, 
borne  by  several  of  the  Cornelii,  of  whom  the 
most  important  was  A.  Cornelius  Cossus  Arvina, 
consul  B.C.  343  and  322,  and  dictator  320.  He 
commanded  the  Roman  armies  against  the  Sam- 
mites,  wbcfm  he  defeated  in  several  battles. 

ARUNS,  an  Etruscan  word,  was  regarded  by 
the  Romans  as  a  proper  name,  but  perhaps  sig- 
nified a  younger  son  in  general  1.  Younger 
brother  of  Lucumo,  i.  e.,  L.  Tarquiuius  Priscus. 
— 2.  Younger  brother  of  L.  Tarquinius  Superbus, 
was  murdered  by  his  wife. — 3.  Younger  son  of 
Tarquinius  Superbus,  fell  in  combat  with  Brutus. 

4.  Son  of  Porsena,  fell  in  battle  before  Aricio. 

5.  Of  Clusium,  invited  the  Gauls  across  the 
Alps. 

ARUNTIUS.     Vid.  ARRUNTIUS. 

ARUSIANXIS,  MESSUS  or  MESSIUS,  a  Roman  gram- 
marian, lived  about  A.D.  450,  arid  wrote  a  Latin 
phrase  book,  entitled  Quadriga,  vel  Exempla  El- 
ocutionum  ex  Virgilio,  Sallustio,  Terentio,  et  Ci- 
cerone per  literas  digesta..  It  is  called  Quadriga 
from  its  being  composed  from  four  authors.  The 
best  edition  is  by  Lindemann,  in  his  Corpus 
Orammaticorum  Latin^  voL  L,  p.  199. 

ARXATA  ('Ap^ara  :  now  Nakshivan),  the  capi- 
tal of  Great  Armenia,  before  the  building  of  Ar- 
taxata,  lay  lower  down  upon  the  Araxes,  on  the 
confines  of  Media. 

ARYANDES  ('Apvuvdijc),  a  Persian,  who  iraa 
appointed  by  Cambyses  governor  of  Egypt,  but 


ARTTHAS. 

was  put  to  death  by  Darius,  because  he  coined 
silver  money  of  the  purest  metal,  in  imitation 
of  the  gold  money  of  that  monarch 

[ARYBAS  or  ARYMBA&.     Vid.  ARRIBAS.] 

ARYCANDA  ('Apwavda),  a  email  town  of  Ly- 
cia,  east  of  Xanthus,  on  the  River  Arycandus, 
a  tributary  of  the  Limyrus. 

ARZANEXE  ('ApZavTjvq),  a  district  of  Armenia 
Major,  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Tigris,  on 
the  west  by  the  Nymphius,  and  containing  in  it 
the  Lake  Arssne  ('Apaqvij :  now  JZrzen).  It 
formed  part  of  GORDYENE. 

[ARZEN  or  -ES,  or  ATRAXUTZIN  ('Ap^r/v,  "A/o£ef, 
'ArpdvovT&v  :  now  Erzerouni),  a  strong  fortress 
in  Great  Armenia,  near  the  sources  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Araxes,  founded  in  the  fifth 
century. 

AS^EI  ('Aoaloi),  a  people  of  Sarmatia  Asialica, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Tanais  (now  Don). 

ASANDER  ("Aaavdpof).  1.  Son  of  Philotas, 
brother  of  Parmenion,  and  one  of  the  generals 
of  Alexander  the  Great  After  the  death  of 
Alexander  in  323,  he  obtained  Caria  for  his  sat- 
rapy, and  took  an  active  part  in  the  wars  which 
followed.  He  joined  Ptolemy  and  Cassa^der  in 
their  league  against  Antigonus,  but  was  de- 
feated by  Antigonus  in  313. — 2.  A  general  of 
Pharnaces  II,  king  of  Bosporus.  He  put  Phar- 
naces  to  death  in  47,  after  the  defeat  of  the 
latter  by  Julins  Caesar,  in  hopes  of  obtaining  the 
kingdom.  But  Caesar  conferred  the  kingdom 
upon  Mithradates  of  Pergamus,  with  whom 
Asander  carried  on  war.  Augustus  afterward 
confirmed  Asander  in  the  sovereignty.  [He 
died  of  voluntary  starvation  in  his  ninety-third 
year.] 

[ASBOLUS  (*A<ifoAof),  a  centaur,  famed  for  his 
skill  in  prophesying  from  the  flight  of  birds; 
fought  against  the  Lapithse  at  the  nuptials  of 
Pirithous.  He  was  crucified  by  Hercules.1 

ASBYST^E  (' AafjvffToi),  a  Libyan  people,  in  the 
north  of  Cyrenaica.  Their  country  was  called 
'\a6varif. 

ASCA  ("Aetna),  a  city  of  Arabia  Felix. 

ASCALABUS,  son  of  Misme,  respecting  whom 
the  eame  story  is  told  which  we  also  find  relat- 
ed of  ABAS,  son  of  Metanira.  Vid.  ABAS,  No.  1. 

ASCALAPHUS  ('Aff/taAa^of).  1.  Son  of  Mars 
(Ares)  and  Astyoche,  led,  with  his  brother  lal- 
menus,  the  Minyans  of  Orchomenos  against 
Troy,  and  was  slain  by  De'iphobus. — 2.  Son  of 
Acheron  and  Gorgyra  or  Orphne.  When  Pro- 
serpina (Persephone)  was  in  the  lower  world, 
and  Pluto  gave  her  permission  to  return  to  the 
upper,  providing  she  had  not  eaton  any  thing, 
Ascalaphut  declared  that  she  had  eaten  part  of 
a  pomegrarate.  Ceres  (Demeter)  punished  him 
by  burying  him  under  a  huge  stone,  and  when 
this  stone  was  subsequently  removed  by  Her- 
cules, Pron«rpina  (Persephone)  changed  him 
into  an  owl  (dff/cuAa^of),  by  sprinkling  him  with 
water  from  the  River  Phlegethon. 

ASCALON  ('AanaTiuv :  'AoKa?MveiTijf ;  now 
Askaldn),  cne  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Philis- 
tines, on  tb»  coast  of  Palestine,  between  Azotus 
and  Gaza. 

ASCANIA  (ri  'Aaxavia  M/ivy).  1.  (Now  Lake 
of  Jznik),  i  Bithynia,  a  great  fresh-water  lake, 
at  the  eaet'  TU  end  of  which  stood  the  city  of  Ni- 
caea  (now  fmik).  The  surrounding  district  was 
also  callerl  Ascania. — 2.  (Now  Lake  of  Burdur), 
8 


ASCONItJS  PEDIANUS. 

j  a  salt-water  lake  on  the  borders  of  Phrygia  ana 
!  Pisidia,  which  supplied  the  neighboring  country 
with  salt 

ASCAXIUS  ('AaKuviof).  [I.  An  ally  of  the  Tro- 
jans from  the  Phrygian  Ascania.— 2.  Son  of 
Hippotion,  also  an  ally  of  the  Trojans.] — 3.  Son 
of  JSneas  by  Creusa.  According  to  some  tra- 
ditions, Ascanius  remained  in  Asia  after  the  fall 
of  Troy,  and  reigned  either  at  Troy  itself  or  at 
!  some  other  town  in  the  neighborhood.  Accord- 
ing to  other  accounts,  he  accompanied  his  father 
to  Italy.  Other  traditions,  again,  gave  the  name 
of  Ascanius  to  the  son  of  ^Eneas  and  Lavinia. 
Livy  states  that  on  the  death  of  his  father  Asca- 
nius was  too  young  to  undertake  the  govern- 
ment, and  that,  after  he  had  attained  the  age  of 
manhood,  he  left  Lavinium  in  the  hands  of  his 
mother,  and  migrated  to  Alba  Longa.  Here  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Silvius.  Some  writ- 
ers relate  that  Ascanius  was  also  called  Ilus  or 
lulus.  The  gens  Julia  at  Rome  traced  its  origin 
from  lulus  or  Ascanius. 

ASCIBURGIUM  (now  Asburg,  near  Mors),  an  an- 
cient place  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  found- 
ed, according  to  fable,  by  Ulysses. 

ASCII  (dcKioi,  i.  e.,  shadowless),  a  term  applied 
to  the  people  living  about  the  equator,  between 
the  tropics,  who  have,  at  certain  times  of  the 
year,  the  sun  in  their  zenith  at  noon,  when,  con* 
sequently,  erect  objects  can  cast  no  shadow. 

ASCLEPIADJJ,  the  reputed  descendants  of  A  a- 
clepius  (JSsculapius).  Vid.  ^ESCULAPIUS. 

ASCLEPIADES  ('AaK^TTLudrif).  1.  A  lyric  poet, 
who  is  said  to  have  invented  the  metre  called 
after  him  (Metrum  Asclepiadeum),  but  of  whose 
life  no  particulars  are  recorded. — 2.  Of  Tragilua 
in  Thrace,  a  contemporary  and  disciple  of  Isoc- 
rates,  about  B.C.  360,  wrote  a  work  called 
Tpayudov/tEva  in  six  books,  being  an  explana- 
tion of  the  subjects  of  the  Greek  tragedies 
[The  fragments  of  this  work  are  published  in 
Muller's  Fragm.  Hist.  Grcec^  voL  iii,  p.  301-6. 
— 3.  Of  Samos,  a  bucolic  poet,  who  nourished 
just  before  the  time  of  Theocritus,  as  he  is 
mentioned  as  his  teacher:  several  epigrams  in 
the  Anthology  are  ascribed  to  him.] — 4.  Of 
Myrlga  in  Bithynia,  in  the  middle  of  the  first 
century  B.C.,  wrote  several  grammatical  works  ; 
[and  a  history  of  Bithynia,  in  ten  books  :  a  few 
fragments  of  this  lust  work  are  collected  in 
Muller's  Fragm.  Hist.  Orcec^  voL  iii.,  p.  300-1.] 
— 5.  There  were  a  great  many  physicians  of  this 
name,  the  most  celebrated  of  whom  was  a  na- 
tive of  Bithynia,  who  came  to  Rome  in  the 
middle  of  the  first  century  B.C.,  where  he  ac 
quired  a  great  reputation  by  his  successful  cures 
Nothing  remains  of  his  writings  but  a  few  frag 
merits  published  by  Gum  pert,  AsclcpiadisBithyn-i 
Fragmenta,  Vinar.,  1794. 

ASCLEPIODORUS  ('AovtAjfTTtodwpof).  1.  A  gen 
eral  of  Alexander  the  Great,  afterward  madt 
satrap  of  Persia  by  Antigonus,  B.C.  317. — 2.  A 
celebrated  Athenian  painter,  a  contemporary  of 
Apelles. 

ASCLKPIUS.       Vid.  JSSCCLAPIUS. 

ASCONIUS  PEDIANUS,  Q,  a  Roman  gramma 
rian,  bora  at  Patavium  (now  Padua),  about  B.C 
2,  lost  his  sight  in  his  seventy-third  year,  in  tin 
reign  of  Vespasian,  and  died  in  his  eighty-fiftl 
year,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  His  most  import 
ant  work  was  a  Commentary  on  the  speeches 
113 


ASCORDUS. 


ASIA. 


of  Cicero,  and  we  still  possess  fragments  of 
his  Commentaries  on  the  Divinatio,  the  first 
two  speeches  against  Verres,  and  a  portion  of 
the  third,  the  speeches  for  Cornelius  (i,  ii.), 
the  speech  In  toga  Candida,  for  Scaurus,  against 
Piso,  and  for  Milo.  They  are  written  in  very 

Eure  language,  and  refer  chiefly  to  points  of 
istory  and  antiquities,  great  pains  being  be- 
stowed on  the  illustration  of  those  constitutional 
forms  of  the  senate,  the  popular  assemblies,  and 
the  courts  of  justice,  which  were  fast  falling 
into  oblivion  under  the  empire.  This  character, 
however,  does  not  apply  to  the  notes  on  the 
Verrine  orations,  which  were  probably  written 
by  a  later  grammarian.  Edited  in  the  fifth  vol- 
ume of  Cicero's  works  by  Orelli  and  Baiter. 
There  is  a  valuable  essay  on  Asconius  by  Mad- 
vig,  Hafnise,  1828. 

ASCOEDDS,  a  river  in  Macedonia,  which  rises 
in  Mount  Olympus,  and  flows  between  Agassa 
and  Dium  into  the  Thermaic  Gulf. 

ASCEA  ('AaKpa  :  'Aff/cpatof),  a  town  in  Boeo- 
tia,  on  Mount  Helicon,  where  Hesiod  resided, 
who  had  removed  thither  with  his  father  from 
Cyme  in  JSolis,  and  who  is  therefore  called 
AscrcEut. 

AsciJLUM.  1.  PICKNUM  ( Asculanus :  now  As- 
coli),  the  chief  town  of  Picenum  and  a  Roman 
municipium,  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  in 
the  Social  War  (B.C.  89),  but  was  afterward 
rebuilt. — 2.  AptJLuir  (Asculinus :  now  Ascoli  di 
Satriano),  a  town  of  Apulia,  in  Daunia,  on  the 
confines  of  Samnium,  near  which  the  Romans 
were  defeated  by  Pyrrhus,  B.C.  279. 

ASCUEIS  (now  JEzero),  a  lake  in  Mount  Olym- 
pus in  Perrhaebia  in  Thessaly,  near  Lapathus. 

ASDEUBAL.     Vid.  HASDEUBAL. 

ASEA  (fi  'Acrea),  a  town  in  Arcadia,  not  far 
from  Megalopolis. 

ASELLIO,  P.  SEMPBONIUS,  tribune  of  the  sol- 
diers under  P.  Scipio  Africanus  at  Numantia, 
B.C.  133.  wrote  a  Roman  history  from  the  Pu- 
nic wars  inclusive  to  the  times  of  the  Gracchi. 

ASELLUS,  TIB.  CLAUDIUS,  a  Roman  eques,  was 
deprived  of  his  horse  by  Scipio  Africanus  Minor, 
when  censor,  B.C.  142,  and  in  his  tribuneship 
of  the  plebs  in  139  accused  Scipio  Africanus  be- 
fore the  people. 

ASIA  ('A«7ta),  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys, 
wife  of  Japetus,  and  mother  of  Atlas,  Prome- 
theus, and  Epimetheus.  According  to  some 
traditions,  the  continent  of  Asia  derived  its 
name  from  her. 

ASIA  ('Aaia :  'Aaievf,  -lavoe,  -turrjf,  -<m/c6{ : 
now  Asia),  also  in  the  poets  Asia  ('flcr/f),  one  of 
the  three  great  divisions  which  the  anciente 
made  of  the  known  world.  It  is  doubtful  wheth- 
er the  name  is  of  Greek  or  Eastern  origin ;  but, 
in  either  case,  it  seems  to  have  been  first  used 
by  the  Greeks  for  the  western  part  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, especially  the  plains  watered  by  the  river 
Cavster,  where  the  Ionian  colonists  first  settled ; 
and  thence,  as  their  geographical  knowledge 
advanced,  they  extended  it  to  the  whole  coun- 
try east,  northeast,  and  southeast.  The  first 
knowledge  which  the  Greeks  possessed  of  the 
opposite  shores  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  dates  before 
the  earliest  historical  records.  The  legends 
respecting  the  Argonautic  and  the  Trojan  ex- 
peditions, and  other  mythical  stories,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  allusions  to  commercial  and  other 
114 


intercourse  with  the  people  of  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Egypt,  on  the  other  hand,  indicate  a 
certain  degree  of  knowledge  of  the  coast  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Phasis,  at  the  eastern  extrem- 
ity of  the  Black  Sea,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Nile. 
This  knowledge  was  improved  and  increased 
by  the  colonization  of  the  western,  northern, 
and  southern  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  by  the 
relations  into  which  these  Greek  colonies  were 
brought,  first  with  the  Lydian,  and  then  with 
the  Persian  empires,  so  that,  in  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century  B.C.,  Herodotus  was  able  to 
give  a  pretty  complete  description  of  the  Per- 
sian empire,  and  some  imperfect  accounts  of  tho 
parts  beyond  it ;  while  some  knowledge  of 
southern  Asia  was  obtained  by  way  of  Egypt ; 
and  its  northern  regions,  with  their  wandering 
tribes,  formed  the  subject  of  marvellous  stories 
which  the  traveller  heard  from  the  Greek  colo- 
nists on  the  northern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  conquests  of  Alexander,  besides  the  per- 
sonal acquaintance  which  they  enabled  the 
Greeks  to  form  with  those  provinces  of  the  Per- 
sian empire  hitherto  only  known  to  them  by 
report^extended  their  knowledge  over  the  re- 
gions watered  by  the  Indus  and  its  four  great 
tributaries  (the  Punjab  and  Scinde) ;  the  lower 
course  of  the  Indus  and  the  shores  between  its 
mouth  and  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  were 
explored  by  Nearchus;  and  some  further  knowl- 
edge was  gained  of  the  nomad  tribes  which 
roamed  (as  they  still  do)  over  the  vast  steppes 
of  Central  Asia  by  the  attempt  of  Alexander  to 
penetrate,  on  the  northeast,  beyond  the  Jaxartes 
(now  Sihoun) ;  while,  on  all  points,  the  Greeks 
were  placed  in  advanced  positions  from  which  to 
acquire  further  information,  especially  at  Alex- 
andrea,  whither  voyagers  constantly  brought  ac- 
counts of  the  shores  of  Arabia  and  India,  as  far 
as  the  island  of  Taprobane,  and  even  beyond 
this,  to  the  Malay  peninsula  and  the  coasts  of 
Cochin  China.  On  the  east  and  north  the  wars 
and  commerce  of  the  Greek  kingdom  of  Syria 
carried  Greek  knowledge  of  Asia  no  further, 
except  in  the  direction  of  India  to  a  small  ex- 
tent, but  of  course  more  acquaintance  was  gain- 
ed with  the  countries  already  subdued,  until  the 
conquests  of  the  Parthians  shut  out  the  Greeks 
from  the  country  east  of  the  Tigris  valley ;  a 
limit  which  the  Romans,  in  their  turn,  were 
never  able  to  pass.  They  pushed  their  arms, 
however,  further  north  than  the  Greeks  had 
done,  into  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  and  they 
gained  information  of  a  great  caravan  route  be- 
tween India  and  the  shores  of  the  Caspian, 
through  Bactria,  and  of  another  commercial 
track  leading  over  Central  Asia  to  the  distant 
regions  of  the  Seres.  This  brief  sketch  will 
show  that  all  the  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  respecting  Asia  was  con- 
fined to  the  countries  which  slope  down  south- 
ward from  the  great  mountain  chain  formed  by 
the  Caucasus  and  its  prolongation  beyond  the 
Caspian  to  the  Himalayas :  of  the  vast  elevated 
steppes  between  these  mountains  and  the  cen- 
tral range  of  the  Altai  (from  which  the  northern 
regions  of  Siberia  again  slope  down  to  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean)  they  only  knew  that  they  were  in- 
habited by  nomad  tribes,  except  the  country 
directly  north  of  Ariana,  where  the  Persian  em- 
pire had  extended  beyond  the  mountain  chain, 


ASIA. 


ASOPIS. 


and  wl.ere  the  Greek  kingdom  of  Baetria  had  'ly,  Mysia,  Lydia,  and  Caria  on  the  west;  Lycra, 
been  subsequently  established.  The  notions  of  '  Pamphylia,  and  Cilicia  on  the  south ;  Bithynia, 
the  ancients  respecting  the  size  and  form  of  i  Paphlagonia,  and  Pontus  on  the  north ;  and 
Asia  were  such  as  might  be  inferred  from  what  Phrygia,  Pisidia,  Galatia,  and  Cappadocia  in  the 
has  been  stated.  Distances  computed  from  the  centre :  see,  also,  the  articles  TEOAS,  J&OLIA, 
accounts  of  travellers  are  always  exaggerated ;  IONIA,  DOEIA,  LYCAONIA,  ISAURIA,  PERGAMUS, 
and  hence  the  southern  part  of  the  continent  HALTS,  SANGARIUS,  TAURUS,  <tc. — 3.  ASIA  PKO- 
was  supposed  to  extend  much  further  to  the  PHIA  ('A.  TJ  I6iu$  /caAov/zevT/),  or  simply  ASIA,  the 
east  than  it  really  does  (about  60°  of  longitude  Roman  province,  formed  out  of  the  kingdom  of 
too  much,  according  to  Ptolemy),  while  to  the  Pergamus,  which  was  bequeathed  to  the  Ro- 
north  and  northeastern  parts,  whicli  were  quite  mans  by  ATTALUS  III.  (B.C.  130),  and  the  Greek 
unknown,  much  too  small  an  extent  was  assign-  cities  on  the  west  coast,  and  the  adjacent  isl- 
ed.  However,  all  the  ancient  geographers,  ex-  ands,  with  Rhodes.  It  included  the  districts  of 
cept  Pliny,  agreed  in  considering  it  the  largest  Mysia,  Lydia,  Caria,  and  Phrygia,  and  was  gov- 
of  the  three  divisions  of  the  world,  and  all  be-  erned  at  first  by  propraetors,  afterward  by  pro- 
lieved  it  to  be  surrounded  by  the  ocean,  with  consuls.  Under  Constantino  the  Great  a  new 
the  curious  exception  of  Ptolemy,- who  recurred  division  was  made,  and  Asia  only  extended 
to  the  early  notion,  which  we  find  in  the  poets, '  along  the  coast  from  the  Promontorium  Lectura 
that  the  eastern  parts  of  Asia  and  the  south-  to  the  mouth  of  the  Maeander. 


eastern  parts  of  Africa  were  united  by  land 
which  inclosed  the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  east 
and  south.  The  different  opinions  about  the 
boundaries  of  Asia  on  the  side  of  Africa  are 


[ASIATICUS,  a  surname  of  the  Scipios  and  Ya- 
lerii.] 

[ASIDATES  ('A<rt(5dT7?f),  a  Persian  nobleman, 
whose  castle  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  Xen- 


mentioned  under  AFKICA  :  on  the  side  of  Europe   ophon,  but  who  was  afterward  captured  with  all 
the  boundary  was  formed  by  the  River*Tanais  !  his  property.] 

(now  Don),  the  Palus  Maeotis  (now  Sea  of  Azof),  I  [  ASINA,  a  surname  of  the  Scipios.] 
Pontus  Euxinus  (now  Slack  Sea),  Propontis  !  ]ASIN^EUS  SINUS,  another  name  of  the  Messeul- 
(now  Sea  of  Marmara),  and  the  ^Egean  (now  acus  Sinus.  Vid.  ASINE,  No.  3.] 
Archipelago).  The  most  general  division  of  '  ASINARUS  ('Aaivapoc.  :  now  f'iume  di  Noto  or 
Asia  was  into  two  parts,  which  were  different  \  t'reddo  ?),  a  river  on  the  east  side  of  Sicily,  on 
at  different  times,  and  known  by  different  names,  j  which  the  Athenians  were  defeated  by  the  Syra- 
To  the  earliest  Greek  colonists  the  River  Halys,  i  cusans,  B.C.  413:  the  Syracusans  celebrated  here 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Lydian  kingdom,  \  an  annual  festival  called  Asinaria. 
formed  a  natural  division  between  Upper  and  i  ASINE  ('Aaivrj :  'Aoivaloc).  1.  (Now  Passawa\ 
Lower  Asia  (%  uvu  'A.,  or  ru  avu  'A<r«7f,  and  f/ !  a  town  in  Laconica,  on  the  coast  between  Taena- 
KUTU  'A.,  or  TU  KO.TU  T>/f  'AoiTjf,  or  'A.  f/  £vrdf  rum  and  Gythium. — 2.  (Now  Phurnos),  a  town 
A./.VOC.  norauov) ;  and  afterward  the  Euphrates ,  in  Argolis,  west  of  Hermione,  was  built  by  the 
was  adopted  as  a  more  natural  boundary.  An-  i  Dryopes,  who  were  driven  out  of  the  town  by 
other  division  was  made  by  the  Taurus  into  A.  \  the  Argives  after  the  first  Messeaian  war,  and 
intra  Taurum,  i.  e.,  the  part  of  Asia  north  and  |  built  No.  3. — 3.  (Now  Saratza?),  an  important 
northwest  of  the  Taurus,  and  A.  extra  Taurum,  \  town  in  Messenia,  near  the  Promontory  Acritas, 
all  the  rest  of  the  continent  ('A.  h>rd(  TOV  Tail-  on  the  Messenian  Gulf,  which  was  hence  also 
pov,  and  'A.  i/crdf  TOV  Tavpov).  The  division 
ultimately  adopted,  but  apparently  not  till  the 


fourth  century  of  our  era,  was  that  of  Asia  Ma- 
jor and  Asia  Minor.  1.  ASIA  MAJOR  ('A.  17 
f/ey«7.7/)  was  the  part  of  the  continent  east  of 
the  Tanais,  the  Euxiue,  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
from  the  Euxine  at  Trapezus  (now  Trebizond)  to 
the  Gulf  of  Issus,  and  the  Mediterranean :  thus 
it  included  the  countries  of  Sarmatica  Asiatica, 
with  all  the  Scythian  tribes  to  the  east,  Colchis, 
Iberia,  Albania,  Armenia,  Syria,  Arabia,  Babylo- 
nia, Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  Media,  Susiana,  Per- 
sis,  Ariana,  Hyrcania,  Margiana,  Bactriana,  Sog- 
diana,  India,  the  land  of  the  Sinse  and  Serica ; 
respecting  which,  see  the  several  articles. — 
2.  ASIA  MINOR  ('Aala  r,  fiiKpd  :  now  Anatolia), 
was  tin-  peninsula  on  the  extreme  west  of  Asia, 
bounded  by  the  Euxine,  JSgean,  and  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  north,  west,  and  south  ;  and  on  the 
east  by  the  mountains  on  the  west  of  the  upper 
course  of  the  Euphrates.  It  was,  for  the  most 
part,  a  fertile  country,  intersected  with  mount- 
ains and  rivers,  abounding  in  minerals,  possess- 
ing excellent  harbors,  and  peopled,  from  the 
earliest  known  period,  by  a  variety  of  tribes 
fnun  Asia  and  from  Europe.  For  particulars 
respecting  the  country,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  separate  articles  upon  the  parts  into 


called  the  Asinaean  Gurf. 

ASINIA  GENS,  plebeian,  came  from  Teate,  the 
chief  town  of  the  Marrucini  ;  and  the  first  per- 
son of  the  name  mentioned  is  Herius  Asinius,  the 
leader  of  the  Marrucini  in  the  Marsic  war,  B.C. 
90.  The  Asinii  are  given  under  their  surnames, 
GALLUS  and  Pomo. 

Aslus  ('Afftof).  1.  Son  of  Hyrtacus  of  Arisbe, 
and  father  of  Acamas  and  Phaenops,  an  ally  of 
the  Trojans,  slain  by  Idomeueus.  —  2.  Son  of  Dy- 
mas  and  brother  of  Hecuba,  whose  form  Apollo 
assumed  when  he  roused  Hector  to  fight  against 
Patroclus.  —  [3.  Son  of  Imbrasus,  accompanied 
JSneas  to  Italy.]  —  4.  Of  Samos,  one  of  the  earli- 
est Greek  poets,  lived  probably  about  B.C.  700. 
He  wrote  epic  and  elegiac  poems,  which  have 
perished  with  the  exception  of  a  few  fragments  ; 
[and  these  have  been  published  with  the  frag- 
ments of  Callinus  and  Tyrtaeus,  by  Bach  ;  in  the 
Minor  Epic  Poets,  in  Didot's  Bill.  Graze,  ;  and 
by  Bergk,  in  his  Poet.  Lyrici  Grate.] 

A-M  n:  .r.\,  a  district  and  city  of  Serica,  in  the 
north  of  Asia,  near  mountains  called  ASMIR^I 
MONTES,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  Altai 
range,  and  the  city  to  be  Khamil,  in  the  centre 
of  Chinese  Tartary. 

[Asopis  ('A 


which  it  was  divided  by  the  later  Greeks,  name- 1  of  Mentor.] 


1.  Daughter  of  the  river- 
god  Asopus.  —  2.  Daughter  of  Thespius,  mother 


115 


ASOPUS. 


ASPHALTITES  LACUS. 


ABOFUS  ('AffWTrof).  1.  (Now  BasUikos),  a  riv- 
er in  Peloponnesus,  rises  near  Phlius,  and  flows 
through  the  Sicyoniau  territory  into  the  Corinth- 
ian Gulf.  Asopus,  the  god  of  this  river,  was 
•on  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  husband  of  Metope, 
and  father  of  Evadne,  Eubcea,  aud  JBginn,  each 
of  whom  was  therefore  colled  Anopis  ('AawTrtf). 
When  Jupiter  (Zeus)  carried  off  ^Egina,  Aso- 
pus attempted  to  fight  with  him,  but  he  was 
smitten  by  the  thunderbolt  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and 
from  that  time  the  bed  of  the  river  contained 
pieces  of  charcoal  By  JSgina  Asopus  became 
the  grandfather  of  JEacus,  who  is  therefore 
called  Asopiades. — 2.  (Now  Asopo),  a  river  in 
Bceotia,  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Plataeae,  flows  through  the  south  of 


Boeotia,  and  falls  into 
Delphinium  in  Attica. 


the   Eubcean  Sea  near 
[On  the  banks  of  this 


surrender  Aspasia  to  him.  The  request  could 
not  be  refused  as  coming  from  the  king  elect  ; 
Artaxerxes,  therefore,  gave  her  up  ;  but  he  soon 
after  took  her  away  again,  and  made  her  a  priest- 
ess of  a  temple  at  Ecbatana,  where  strict  celibacj 
was  requisite. 

AspAsn.     Vid.  Asm. 

ASPASIUS  ('AffTrutrtof).  1.  A  peripatetic  phi- 
losopher, lived  about  A.D.  80,  aud  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  most  of  the  works  of  Aristotle 
A  portion  of  his  commentaries  on  the  Nico 
macheau  Ethics  is  still  preserved.  —  2.  Of  Byb- 
lus,  a  Greek  sophist,  lived  about  A.D.  180,  and 
wrote  commentaries  on  Demosthenes  aud  JE&- 
chines,  of  which  a  few  extracts  are  preserved  ; 
[the  extracts  relating  to  him  are  collected  by 
Miiller,  in  the-  third  volume  of  Didot's  Fragmenta 
Historicorum  Gracoruw,  p.  576.  —  3.  Of  Tyre,  a 
rhetorician  aud  historian,  who,  according  to  Sui- 
das,  wrote  a  history  of  Epirus  and  of  things  in 
it  in  twenty  books  ;  but  Miiller  (Fragmenta  His- 
toricorum  Grcecorum,  p.  676),  with  much  proba- 
bility, suggests  Tvpov  for  'Hiretpov,  and  so  the 
account  would  be  of  Tyre.  —  4.  Of  Ravenna,  a 
distinguished  sophist  and  rhetorician,  who  lived 
about  225  A.D.,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  Seve- 


river  was  fought  the  famous  battle  of  Plataeae.] 
— 3.  A  river  in  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly.  rises  in 
Mount  (Eta,  and  flows  into  the  Maliac  Gulf  near 
Thermopylae. — 4.  A  river  in  Phrygia,  flows  past 
Laodicea  into  the  Lycus. — 5.  (Now  Esapo),  a 
town  in  Laconica,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Laco- 
uian  Gulf. 

ASPADANA  ('AaTtaduva :  now  Ispahan?),  a  town 
of  the  district  Paraetacene  in  Persis. 

[ASPALIS  ('A(T7raA«f),  daughter  of  Argasus, 
concerning  whom  an  interesting  legend  is  pre- 
served in  Antoninus  Liberalis.] 

[ASPAR,  a  Numidian,  sent  by  Jugurtha  to  Boc- 
chus  in  order  to  learn  his  designs,  when  the  lat- 
ter had  sent  for  Sulla.  He  was,  however,  de- 
ceived by  Bocchus.] 

ASPARAGIUM  (now  Isvarpar),  a  town  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Dyrrhachium,  in  Illyria. 

ASPASIA  ('\airaaia).  1.  The  elder,  of  Miletus, 
daughter  of  Axiochus,  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  Greek  Hetserae  (aid.  Diet,  of  Antiq^  s.  v.), 
came  to  reside  at  Athens,  and  there  gained  and 
fixed  the  affections  of  Pericles,  not  more  by  her 
beauty  than  by  her  high  mental  accomplish- 
ments. Having  parted  with  his  wife,  Pericles 
attached  himself  to  Aspasia  during  the  rest  of 
his  life  as  closely  as  was  allowed  by  the  law, 
which  forbade  marriage  with  a  foreign  woman 
under  severe  penalties.  The  enemies  of  Peri- 
cles accused  Aspasia  of  impiety  (doMeta),  and 
it  required  all  the  personal  influence  of  Pericles, 
who  defended  her,  and  his  most  earnest  en- 
treaties and  tears,  to  procure  her  acquittal  The 
house  of  Aspasia  was  the  centre  of  the  best 
literary  and  philosophical  society  of  Athens,  and 
was  frequented  even  by  Socrates.  On  the  death 
of  Pericles  (B.C.  429),  Aspasia  is  said  to  have 
attached  herself  to  one  Lysicles,  a  dealer  in  cat- 
tle, and  to  have  made  him,  by  her  instructions, 
a  first-rate  orator.  The  son  of  Pericles  by  As- 
pasia was  legitimated  by  a  special  decree  of  the 
people,  and  took  his  father's  name. — 2.  The 
Younger,  a  Phocaean,  daughter  of  Hermotimus, 
was  the  favorite  concubine  of  Cyrus  the  Young- 
er, -who  called  her  Aspasia  after  the  mistress 
of  Pericles,  her  previous  name  having  been  Mil- 
to  [from  [ufaof,,  vermilion,  being  so  called  on 

account  of  the  brilliancy  of  her  complexion.]  j  of  two  submerged  plains,  an  elevated  and  a  de 
After  the  death  of  Cyrus  at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa  i  pressed  one,  the  former  averaging  thirteen,  the 
(B.C.  401),  she  fell  into  the  hands  of  Artaxerxes,  j  latter  thirteen  hundred  feet  Jbelow  the  surface, 
who  likewise  became  deeply  enamored  of  her.  I  The  shallow  portion  is  to  the  south ;  the  deeper, 
When  Darius,  son  of  Artaxerxes,  was  appointed  i  which  is  also  the  larger,  to  the  north.  This 
successor  to  the  throne,  he  asked  his  father  to  I  southern 
116 


rus.     His  works  are  now  lost.] 

ASPKNDUS  ("AoTTEvdof  :  'AffTrevdtof,  Aspendius: 
now  Dashashkehr  or  Manaugaf),  a  strong  and 
flourishing  city  of  Pamphylia,  on  the  small  navi- 
gable river  Eurymedon,  sixty  stadia  (six  geo- 
graphical miles)  from  its  mouth  :  said  to  have 
been  a  colony  of  the  Argives. 

ASPEE,  ^EMILJUS,  a  Roman  grammarian,  who 
wrote  commentaries  on  Terence  and  Virgil, 
must  be  distinguished  from  another  gramma- 
rian, usually  called  Asper  Junior,  the  author  of 
a  small  work  entitled  Ars  Grammatica,  printed 
in  the  Grammat.  Lat.  Auctvres,  by  Putschius, 
Hanov.,  1605. 

ASPHALTITES  LACUS  or  MARE  MOETUUM  ('A.a- 
^aArmf  or  "ZoSofurig  "kip>r\,  or  jj  daAuaaa  q  v  en- 
pa),  the  great  salt  and  bituminous  lake  in  the 
southeast  of  Palestine,  which  receives  the 
water  of  the  Jordan,  [is  of  an  irregular  oblong 
figure,  about  forty  miles  long  and  eight  miles 
broad/|  It  has  no  visible  outlet,  and  its  surface 
is  [a  little  more  than  thirteen  hundred  feet]  b«- 
low  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  [It  is  called 
the  Dead  Sea  from  the  desolation  prevailing 
along  its  shores,  as  well  as  from  the  belief  that 
no  living  creature  can  exist  in  its  waters.]  Al- 
though the  tales  about  birds  dropping  down  dead 
as  they  fly  over  it  are  now  proved  to  be  fabu- 
lous, (Vet  the  waters  and  the  surrounding  soil 
are  so  intensely  impregnated  with  salt  and  sul- 
phur that  no  tree  or  plants  grow  on  its.  banks  : 
and  it  is  doubted,  with  great  probability,  whether 
any  fish  live  in  its  waters,  for  these,  when  ex- 
amined by  a  powerful  microscope,  have  beet 
found  to  contain  no  animalcule  or  animal  matter 
whatever.  This  sea  has  been  very  recently  ex- 
plored for  the  first  time  with  accuracy  by  Lieu 
tenant  Lynch  of  the  United  States  navy,  who 
has  proved  that  the  bottom  of  the  eea  consist* 


and  shallow  portion  would  apoear  to 


ASPIL 


ASTAPA. 


have  been  originally  the  fertile  plain  of  Siddim, 
in  which  the  guilty  cities  stood. 

ASPII  or  ASPASII  ('Aa-toi,  'Aairdatoi),  an  In- 
dian tribe,  in  the  district  of  the  Paropamisadae, 
between  the  rivers  Choes  (now  Kama)  and  Indus, 
in  the  northeast  of  Afghanistan  and  the  north- 
west of  the  Punjab. 

ASPIS  ('A<7<rtf).  1.  CLTPEA  (now  KlibiaK).  a 
city  on  a  promontory  of  the  same  name,  near  the 
northeastern  point  of  the  Carthaginian  territory, 
founded  by  Agathocles,  and  taken  in  the  first 
Panic  war  by  the  Romans,  who  called  it  Clypea, 
the  translation  of  'AffTTif. — 2.  (Now  Marsa-Zaff- 
ran  ?  ruins),  in  the  African  Tripolitana,  the  best 
harbor  on  the  coast  of  the  Great  Syrtis. — 3.  Vid. 
AKCONXESCS. 

ASPLEDOX  (JAoTrhrjSuv :  'AoirTiTjtioviof),  or  SPLE- 
DO>*,  a  town  of  the  Minyae,  in  Bceotia,  on  the 
River  Melas,  near  Orchomenus;  built  by  the 
mythical  Aspledon,  son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
and  Midea. 

ASSA  ("Aaaa  :  'Aaaalof),  a  town  in  Chalcidice, 
in  Macedonia,  on  the  Singitic  Gulf. 

ASSACEM  ('AcraaKTivoi).  an  Indian  tribe,  in  the 
district  of  the  Paropamisadae,  between  tb&  rivers 
Cophen  (now  Cabool)  and  Indus,  in  the  northwest 
of  the  Punjab. 

ASSAEACUS  ('AaaupaKOf),  king  of  Troy,  son  of 
Tros,  father  of  Capys,  grandfather  of  Anchises, 
and  great-grandfather  of  JEneas.  Hence  the  Ro- 
mans, as  descendants  of  JEneas,  are  called  doinus 
Assaraci  (Virg.,  JFn.,  L,  284). 

ASSESCS  ('Aaaijootf),  a  town  of  Ionia,  near  Mi- 
letus, with  a  temple  of  Minerva  (Athena),  sur- 
iiamed  'Aaaqaia. 

AssoErs  ('AuCTWpof  or  'Aaauptov  :  'Aacuplvot; : 
now  Asaro),  a  small  town  in  Sicily,  between 
Euna  and  Agyrium. 

ASSDS  ("AffffOf:  "A<7<7tof,  'Affcrevf :  now  Asso, 
ruins  near  Beiram).  1.  A  flourishing  city  in  the 
Troad,  on  the  Adramyttian  Gulf,  opposite  to 
Lesbos :  afterward  called  Apollonia :  the  birth- 
place of  Cleanthes  the  Stoic. — [2.  A  tributary  of 
the  Cephisus,  in  Phocis  and  Bceotia.]  » 

ASSYBIA  ('Aaavpia  :  'Aacyfiof,  Assyrius :  now 
Kurdistan).  1.  The  country  properly  so  called, 
in  the  narrowest  sense,  was  a  district  of  West- 
ern Asia,  extending  along  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Tigris,  which  divided  it  on  the  west  and 
northwest  from  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia, 
and  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Mount 
Niphates  and  Mount  Zagrus,  which  separated 
it  from  Armenia  and  Media,  and  on  the  south- 
east by  Susiana.  It  was  watered  by  several 
streams,  flowing  into  the  Tigris  from  the  east ; 
two  of  which,  the  Lycus  or  Zabatus  (now  Great 
Zab),  and  the  Caprus,  or  Zabas,  or  Anzabas  (now 
Little  Zab),  divided  the  country  into  three  parts : 
that  between  the  Upper  Tigris  and  the  Lycus 
was  called  Aturia  (a  mere  dialectic  variety  of 
Assyria),  was  probably  the  most  ancient  seat 
of  the  monarchy,  ana  contained  the  capital, 
Nineveh  or  NINUS;  that  between  the  Lycus 
and  the  Caprus  was  called  Adiabene;  and  the 
part  southeast  of  the  Caprus  contained  the  dis- 
tricts of  Apolloniatis  and  Sittncene.  Another 
division  into  districts,  given  by  Ptolemy,  is  the 
following:  Arrhapachitis,  Calacine,  Adiabene, 
ArbelitU,  Apolloniatis,  and  Sittacene. — 2.  In  a 
wider  eeuae  the  name  was  applied  to  the  whole 
country  watered  by  the  Euphrates  and  the  Ti- 


gris, between  the  mountains  of  Armenia  on  the 
north,  those  of  Kurdistan  on  the  east,  and  the 
Arabian  Desert  on  the  west,  so  as  to  include, 
besides  Assyria  proper,  Mesopotamia  and  Bab- 
ylonia; nay,  there  is  sometimes  an  apparent 
confusion  between  Assyria  and  Syria,  which 
gives  ground  for  the  supposition  that  the  terms 
were  originally  identical. — 3.  By  a  further  ex- 
tension the  word  is  used  to  designate  the  As- 
syrian Empire  in  its  widest  sense.  The  early 
history  of  this  great  monarchy  is  too  obscure  to 
be  given  here  in  any  detail;  and,  indeed,  it  is 
only  just  now  that  new  means  of  investigating 
it  are  being  acquired.  The  germ  of  this  empire 
was  one  of  the  first  great  states  of  which  we 
have  any  record,  and  was  probably  a  powerful 
and  civilized  kingdom  as  early  as  Egypt.  Its 
reputed  founder  was  Ninus,  the  builder  of  the 
capital  city ;  and  in  its  widest  extent  it  included 
the  countries  just  mentioned,  with  Media,  Per- 
sia, and  portions  of  the  countries  to  the  east 
and  .northeast,  Armenia,  Syria,  Phoenicia,  and 
Palestine,  except  the  kingdom  of  Judah;  and, 
'beyond  these  limits,  some  of  the  Assyrian  kings 
made  incursions  into  Arabia  and  Egypt.  The 
fruitless  expedition  of  Sennacherib  against  the 
latter  country  and  the  miraculous  destruction 
of  his  army  before  Jerusalem  (B.C.  7i4),  so 
weakened  the  empire,  that  the  Medcs  revolted 
and  formed  a  separate  kingdom,  and  at  last,  in 
B.C.  606,  the  governor  of  Babylonia  united  with 
Cyaxares,  the  king  of  Media,  to  conquer  Assj  r- 
ia,  which  was  divided  between  them,  Assyria 
Proper  falling  to  the  share  of  Media,  and  the 
rest  of  the  empire  to  Babylon.  The  Assyrian 
king  and  all  his  family  perished,  and  the  city  of 
Ninus  was  razed  to  the  ground.  Compare 
BABYLON  and  MEDIA.  It  must  be  noticed  as  a 
caution,  that  some  writers  confound  the  Assyr- 
ian and  Babylonian  empires  under  the  former 
name. 

ASTA  (Astensis).  1.  (Now  Asti  in  Piedmont), 
an  inland  town  of  Liguria  on  the  Tanarus,  a  Ro- 
man colony. — 2.  (Now  Mesa  de  Asia),  a  town  in 
Hispania  Bsetica,  near  Gades,  a  Roman  colony 
with  the  surname  Regia. 

ASTABOEAS  ('Aara66pac  :  now  Atbarah  or  Ta- 
cazza)  and  ASTAPUS  ('Aordirovf ,  now  Bahr-el-Az- 
rek  or  Blue  River),  two  rivers  of  ^Ethiopia,  hav- 
ing their  sources  in  the  highlands  of  Abyssinia, 
and  uniting  in  about  17°  north  latitude  to  form 
the  Nile.  The  land  inclosed  by  them  was  the 
so-called  island  of  MEEOE. 

ASTACUS  ('AcrraKOf).  1.  A  Theban,  father  of 
Ismarus,  Leades,  Asphodicus,  and  Melanippus. 
— [2.  Son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  the  nymph 
Olbia,  reputed  founder  of  the  city  ASTACCS,  q.  v, 

2-] 

ASTACUS  (*A(7ra/cof :  'AaTOKtjvof).  1.  (Now 
Dragomestre),  a  city  of  Acarnania,  on  the  Ache- 
loiis. — 2.  A  celebrated  city  of  Bithynia,  at  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  Sinus  Astacenut  ('Aara 
KTjvdf  /coATi-of),  a  bay  of  the  Propontis,  was  a  col 
ony  from  Megara,  but  afterward  received  fresh 
colonists  from  Athens,  who  called  the  place  Olbia 
("O?.6ia).  It  was  destroyed  by  Lysimachus,  but 
rebuilt  on  a  neighboring  site,  at  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  gulf,  by  Nicomedes  L,  who  named 
his  new  city  NICOMEDIA. 

AsrXpA  (now  Extepa),  a  town  in  Hispauia 
Baetica. 

117 


ASTAPUS. 


ASTYDAMIA. 


ASTAPUS.     VuL  ASTABORAS. 
AOTARTE,     Vid.  APHRODITE  and  STRIA  DBA. 
ASTELEPHUS  ('A<77e/le0of),  a  river  of  Colchis, 
one  hundred  and  twenty  stadia  (twelve  geograph- 
ical miles)  south  of  Sebastopolis. 

[ASTER  ('Aarijp),  a  skillful  archer,  one  of  the 
garrison  of  Methone  in  Macedonia,  who,  when 
Philip  was  besieging  that  city,  aimed  an  arrow  at 
him,  with  this  inscription  on  it,  'Aarfp  4>tAt7r7iy 
ftavdaiftov  jre^nei  /3c/lof,  and  deprived  him  of  an 
eye.  Philip  sent  back  an  arrow  into  the  town 
with  the  inscription  on  it,  'Acfrspa  Qihimrof,  fjv 
hdGy,  upEfirjaETai.  When  the  place  was  taken, 
Philip  crucified  Aster.] 

AsTBRiA('A(7r£pta),  daughter  of  the  Titan  Cceus 
and  Phoebe,  sister  of  Leto  (Latona),  wife  of  Perses, 
and  mother  of  Hecate.  In  order  to  escape  the 
embraces  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  she  is  said  to  have 
taken  the  form  of  a  quail  (ortyx,  oprv£,)  and  to 
have  thrown  herself  down  from  heaven  into  the 
sea,  where  she  was  metamorphosed  into  the 
island  Asteria  (the  island  which  had  fallen  from 
heaven  like  a  star),  or  Ortygia,  afterward  called 
Delos. 

[ASTERIA.     Vid.  ASTERIS.] 

ASTERION  or  ASTERIUS  ('AcTEpiuv  or  'Affre/HOf). 
1.  Son  of  Teutamus,  and  king  of  the  Cretans, 
married  Europa  after  she  had  been  carried  to 
Crete  by  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  brought  up  the 
three  sous,  Minos,  Sarpedon,  and  Rhadamanthys, 
whom  she  had  by  the  father  of  the  gods. — 2.  Son 
of  Cometes,  Pyremus,  or  Priscus,  by  Antigone, 
daughter  of  Pheres,  was  one  of  the  Argonauts. — 
[3.  Son  of  Minos,  slain  by  Theseus. — 4.  A  small 
river  of  Argolis,  the  god  of  which  was  father  of 
Astraea.] 

ASTERIS  or  ASTERIA  ('Aorepif,  'Aarepia),  a 
small  island  between  Ithaca  and  Cephallenia. 

ASTERIUM  ('Aaripiov),  a  town  in  Magnesia,  in 
Thessaly. 

[ASTERIUS  ('Aareotof).  1.  Son  of  Hyperasius, 
an  Argonaut. — 2.  Son  of  Neleus,  brother  of  Nes- 
tor. Vid.  also  ASTERION.] 

ASTEROP^EUS  ('ACTTfpojratof),  son  of  Pelegon, 
leader  of  the  Pseonians,  and  an  ally  of  the  Tro- 
jans, was  slain  by  Achilles. 

[ASTEROPE  ('AoTEpoTTTi),  daughter  of  the  river- 
god  Cebren,  wife  of  ^Esacus.1 

[ASTEROPEA  ('AcfTEpoTTEia).  1.  Daughter  of 
Pelias. — 2.  Daughter  of  Deius  in  Phocis,  sister 
of  Cephalus.] 

ASTIGI  (now  Eciga),  a  town  in  Hispania  Baetica, 
on  the  River  Singulis,  a  Roman  colony  with  the 
surname  Augv&ta  tlrma. 

[ASTRABACUS  (' AarpudaKOf)  &  son  of  Irbus, 
brother  of  Alopecus,  of  the  family  of  the  Eurys- 
thenidse,  an  ancient  Laconian  hero,  who  had  a  he- 
roum  in  Sparta,  and  was  worshipped  as  a  god.] 

ASTR^A  ('Aarpala)  daughter  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Themis,  or,  according  to  others,  of  Astra?us 
and  Eos.  During  the  Golden  Age,  this  star- 
bright  maiden  lived  on  earth  and  among  men, 
whom  she  blessed  ;  but  when  that  age  had  passed 
away,  Astraea,  who  tarried  longest  among  men, 
withdrew,  and  was  placed  among  the  stars,  where 
she  was  called  Tiap6t-vof  or  Virgo.  Her  sister 
Atot>f,  or  Pudititia,  left  the  earth  along  with  her 
(ad  superos  Astrcea  recessit,  hoc  (Pudicitia)  coniite, 
Juv..  vi,  19.) 

ASTR.*US   ('Aarpalof),  a   Titan,  son   of  Crius 
and   Eurybia,    husband  of    Eos  (Aurora),   and  I 
U8 


father  of  the  winds  Zephyrus,  Boreas,  and  No- 
tus,  Eosphorus  (the  morning  star),  and  all  the 
stars  of  heaven.  Ovid  (Met.,  xiv.,  545)  calls 
the  winds  Astrcci  (adj.)  fratrcs,  the  "Astraean 
brothers." 

ASTURA.  1.  (Now  La  Stura),  a  river  in  La- 
tium,  rises  in  the  Alban  Mountains,  and  flows 
between  Antium  and  Circeii  into  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea.  At  its  mouth  it  formed  a  small  island  with 
a  town  upon  it,  also  called  Astura  (now  Torre 
d'Astura) :  here  Cicero  had  an  estate. — 2.  (Now 
Ezla\  a  river  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  flowing 
into  the  Durius. 

ASTURES,  a  people  in  the  northwest  of  Spain, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Cantabri  and  Vac- 
caei,  on  the  weet  by  the  Gallaeci,  on  the  north  by 
the  Ocean,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Vettones,  thus 
inhabiting  the  modern  Asturias  and  the  northern 
part  of  Leon  and  Valladolid.  They  contained 
twenty-two  tribes  and  two  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  freemen,  and  were  divided  into  the 
Augustani  and  Transmontani,  the  former  of  whom 
dwelt  south  of  the  mountains  as  far  as  the  Durius, 
and  the  latter  north  of  the  mountains  down  to 
the  sea-coast  The  country  of  the  Astures  was 
mountainous,  rich  in  minerals,  and  celebrated  for 
its  horses :  the  people  themselves  were  rude  and 
warlike.  Their  chief  town  was  Asturica  Augusta 
(now  Astorga). 

ASTYAGES  ('Aarvdyrif),  son  of  Cyaxares,  last 
king  of  Media,  reigned  B.C.  594-559.  Alarmed 
by  a  dream,  he  gave  his  daughter  Mandane  in 
marriage  to  Cambyses,  a  Persian  of  good  family. 
Another  dream  induced  him  to  send  Harpagua 
to  destroy  the  offspring  of  this  marriage.  The 
child,  the  future  conqueror  of  the  Medes,  was 
given  to  a  herdsman  to  expose,  but  he  brought  it 
up  as  his  own.  Years  afterward,  circumstances 
occurred  which  brought  the  young  Cyrus  under 
the  notice  of  Astyages,  who,  on  inquiry,  discov- 
ered his  parentage.  He  inflicted  a  cruel  punish- 
ment on  Harpagus,  who  waited  his  time  for  re- 
venge. When  Cyrus  had  grown  up  to  man's 
estate,  Harpagus  induced  him  to  instigate  the 
Persians  to  revolt,  and,  having  been  appointed 
general  of  the  Median  forces,  he  deserted  with 
the  greater  part  of  them  to  Cyrus.  Astyagea 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  Cyrus  mounted  the  throne. 
He  treated  the  captive  monarch  with  mildness, 
but  kept  him  in  confinement  till  his  death.  This 
is  the  account  of  Herodotus,  and  is  to  be  prefer- 
red to  that  of  Xenophon,  who  makes  Cyrus  the 
grandson  of  Astyages,  but  says  that  Astyages 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cyaxares  II.,  on  whose 
death  Cyrus  succeeded  peaceably  to  the  vacant 
throne. 

ASTYANAX  ('AarvdvaS;),  son  of  Hector  and  An- 
dromache :  his  proper  name  was  Scamandrius, 
but  he  was  called  Astyanax  or  "  lord  of  the  city" 
by  the  Trojans,  on  account  of  the  services  of  his 
father.  After  the  taking  of  Troy  the  Greeks 
burled  him  down  from  the  walls,  that  he  might 
not  restore  the  kingdom  of  Troy. 

ASTYDAMAS  (' AaTvSdfiaf),  a  tragic  poet,  son  of 
Morsimus  and  of  a  sister  of  the  poet  jilschylus, 
and  a  pupil  of  Isocrates,  wrote  two  hundred  and 
forty  tragedies,  and  gained  the  prize  fifteen  times. 
His  first  tragedy  was  acted  B.C.  399. 

ASTYDAMIA  ('AcrvdufiEia).  1.  Daughter  of 
Amyntor,  and  mother  of  Tlepolemus  by  Hercu 
les. — 2.  Wife  of  AcAsius. 


1° 


ASTYLUS. 

« 

[ ASTYLUS  ("Aom/lof),  of  Crotona,  a  distin- 
guished athlete,  gained  several  prizes  at  the 
Olympic  games.] 

ASTYNOME  ('ACTTWO/.??),  daughter  of  Chryses, 
better  known  under  her  patronym'e  CHEYSEIS. 

[ASTYNOUS  (' Aarvvoof).  1.  Son  of  Phaethon, 
father  of  Sandacus. — 2.  Son  of  Protiaou,  a  Tro- 
jan, slain  by  Neoptolemus.— 3.  A  Trojan,  slain 
by  Diomedes.] 

ASTYOCHE  or  ASTYOCHIA  ('Aoruoxi]  or  'Aarvo- 
Xfio).  1.  Daughter  of  Actor,  by  whom  Mars 
(Ares)  begot  Ascalaphus  and  lalmenus. — 2. 
Daughter  of  Phylas,  king  of  Ephyra  in  Thes- 
protia,  became  by  Hercules  the  mother  of  Tle- 
polemus. 

ASTYOCHUS  ('Aarvoxos),  the  Lacedaemonian 
admiral  in  B.C.  412,  commanded  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  where  he  was  bribed  by  the 
Persians  to  remain  inactive. 

ASTYPAL^EA  ('Aarvndhaia :  'Aarvira^atevf, 
'AoruirahaiaTTif :  now  Stampalia).  1.  One  of  the 
Sporades,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Grecian 
archipelago,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name, 
founded  by  the  Megarians,  which  was  under  the 
Romans  a  libera  civitas.  Astypalela  regna,  i.  e, 
Astypalcea,  Ov.,  Met.,  vii.,  461.)  The  inhabit- 
ants worshipped  Achilles. — [2.  A  point  of  land 
in  Attica,  near  Sunium. — 3.  A  point  of  land  in 
Caria,  near  Myndus. — 4.  An  ancient  city  in  the 
island  Cos,  which  the  inhabitants  abandoned, 
and  built  the  city  Cos  instead.] 

ASTYRA  (rti  "Aarvpa),  &  town  of  Mysia,  north- 
west of  Adramyttium,  on  a  marsh  connected 
with  the  sea,  with  a  grove  sacred  to  Diana  (Ar- 
temis), surnamed  'AarvpivTj  or  -rjvrj. 

ASYCHIS  ("Acrvxif),  an  ancient  king  of  Egypt, 
succeeded  Mycerinus. 

ATABULUS,  the  name  in  Apulia  of  the  parching 
southeast  wind,  the  Sirocco,  which  is  at  present 
called  Allino  in  Apulia. 

ATABYRIS  or  ATABYRIUM  ('Arafivpiov),  the 
highest  mountain  in  Rhodes  on  the  southwest 
of  that  island,  on  which  was  a  celebrated  temple 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Atabyrius,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Althaemenes,  the  grandson  of  Minos. 

[ATACINUS.     Vid.  ATAX.] 

AT  A  GIS.     Vid.  ATHESIS. 

ATALANTA  ('Ara/lavr??).  1.  The  Arcadian  Ata- 
lanta,  was  a  daughter  of  lasus  (lasion  or  lasius) 
and  Clymene.  Her  father,  who  had  wished  for 
a  son,  was  disappointed  at  her  birth,  and  ex- 
posed her  on  the  Parthenian  (virgin)  hill,  where 
she  was  suckled  by  a  she-bear,  the  symbol  of 
Diana  (Artemis).  After  she  had  grown  up  she 
lived  in  pure  maidenhood,  slew  the  centaurs 
who  pursued  her,  and  took  part  in  the  Caly- 
donian  hunt.  Her  father  subsequently  recog- 
nized her  as  his  daughter ;  and  when  be  desired 
her  to  marry,  she  required  every  suitor  who 
wanted  to  win  her  to  contend  with  her  first  in- 
the  foot-race.  If  he  conquered  her,  he  was  to 
be  rewarded  with  her  hand  ;  if  not,  he  was  to 
be  put  to  death.  This  she  did  because  she  was 
the  most  swift-footed  of  mortals,  and  because 
the  Delphic  oracle  had  cautioned  her  against 
marriage.  She  conquered  many  suitors,  but 
was  at  length  overcome  by  Milanion  with  the 
assistance  of  Venus  (Aphrodite).  The  goddess 
had  given  him  three  golden  apples,  and  during 
the  race  he  dropped  them  one  after  the  other : 
their  beauty  charmed  Atalanta  BO  much  that 


ATEIUS 

she  could  not  abstain  from  gathering  them,  and 
Milanipn  thus  gained  the  goal  before  her.  She 
accordingly  became  his  wife.  They  were  sub- 
sequently both  metamorphosed  into  lions,  be- 
cause they  had  profaned  by  their  embraces  the 
sacred  grove  of  Jupiter  (Zeus).— 2.  The  Boeotian 
Atalanta.  The  same  stories  are  related  of  her 
as  of  the  Arcadian  Atalanta,  except  that  her 
parentage  and  the  localities  are  described  dif- 
ferently. Thus  she  is  said  to  have  been  &  daugh- 
ter of  Schoanus,  and  to  have  been  married  to 
Hippomenes.  Her  foot-race  is  transferred  to 
the  Boeotian  Onchestus,  and  the  sanctuary  which 
the  newly-married  couple  profaned  by  their  love 
was  a  temple  of  Cybele,  who  metamorphosed 
them  into  lions,  and  yoked  them  to  her  chariot. 

ATALANTE  ('Ara^uvTrj :  'Ara/lavraiOf).  1.  A 
small  island  in  the  Euripus,  on  the  coast  of  the 
Opuntian  Locri,  with  a  small  town  of  the  same 
name. — [2.  A  small  island  on  the  coast  of  At- 
tica, near  the  Piraeus.] — 3.  A  town  of  Macedo- 
nia, on  the  Axius,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gor- 
tynia  and  Idomene. 

ATARANTES  ('Arapavrj?f),  a  people  in  the  east 
of  Libya,  described  by  Herodotus  (iv.,  184). 

ATARBECHIS.     Vid.  APHRODITOPOLIS. 

ATARNEUS  ('Arapvevf  :  now  Dikeli),  a  city  on 
Mount  Cane,  on  the  coast  of  Mysia,  opposite  to 
Lesbos :  a  colony  of  the  Chians :  the  residence 
of  the  tyrant  Hermias,  with  whom  Aristotle  re- 
sided some  time :  destroyed  before  the  time  of 
Phny. 

ATAULPHUS,  ATHACLPHUS,  ADAULPHUS  (t.  «., 
Athaulf,  "  sworn  helper,"  the  same  name  as  that 
which  appears  in  later  history  under  the  form 
of  Adolf  or  Adolphus),  brother  of  Alaric's  wife. 
He  assisted  Alaric  in  his  invasion  of  Italy,  and 
on  the  death  of  that  monarch  in  A.D.  410,  he 
was  elected  king  of  the  Visigoths.  He  then 
made  a  peace  with  the  Romans,  married  Pla- 
cidia,  sister  of  Honorius,  retired  with  his  nation 
into  the  south  of  Gaul,  and  finally  withdrew  into 
Spain,  where  he  was  murdered  at  Barcelona. 

ATAX  (now  Aude),  originally  called  Narbo,  a 
river  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  rises  in  the  Pyre- 
nees, and  flows  by  Narbo  Martius  into  the  Lacus 
Rubresus  or  Rubrensis,  which  is  connected  with 
the  sea.  From  this  river  the  poet  P.  Teren- 
tius  Varro  obtained  the  surname  Atacinus.  Vid. 
VARRO. 

ATE  ("Arj/),  daughter  of  Eris  or  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
was  an  ancient  'Greek  divinity,  who  led  both 
gods  and  men  into  rash  and  inconsiderate  ac- 
tions. She  once  even  induced  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
at  the  birth  of  Hercules,  to  take  an  oath  by 
which  Juno  (Hera)  was  afterward  enabled  to 
give  to  Eurystheus  the  power  which  had  been 
destined  for  Hercules.  When  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
discovered  his  rashness,  lie  hurled  Ate  from 
Olympus,  and  banished  her  forever  from  the 
abodes  of  the  gods.  In  the  tragic  writers  Ate 
appears  in  a  different  light :  she  avenges  evil 
deeds  and  inflicts  just  punishments  upon  the 
offenders  and  their  posterity,  so  that  her  char- 
acter is  almost  the  same  as  that  of  Nemesis  and 
Erinnys.  She  appears  most  prominent  in  the 
dramas  of  JSschylus,  and  least  in  those  of  Eu- 
ripides, with  whom  the  idea  of  Dike  (justice)  is 
more  fully  developed. 

ATSIUS,  surnamed  Pratextatus  and  Philolo- 
gut,  a  celebrated  grammarian  at  Rome,  about 
119 


ATEIUS   CAPITO. 


ATHENA. 


B.C.  40,  and  a  friend  of  Sallust,  for  whom  he 
drew  up  an  Epitome  (Breviarium)  of  Romau 
History.  After  the  death  of  Sallust  Ateius  lived 
on  intimate  terma  with  Asinius  Pollio,  whom 
he  assisted  in  his  literary  pursuits. 

ATEIUS  CAPITO.     Via.  CAPITO. 

ATELLA  (Atelltaus ;  now  Aversa),  a  town  in 
Campania,  between  Capua  and  Neapolis,  orig- 
inally inhabited  by  the  Oscans,  afterward  a  Ro- 
man municipium  and  a  colony.  It  revolted  to 
Hannibal  (B.C.  216)  after  the  battle  of  Cannae, 
and  the  Romans,  in  consequence,  transplanted 
its  inhabitants  to  Calatia,  and  peopled  the  town 
by  new  citizens  from  Nuceria.  Atella  owes 
its  celebrity  to  the  Atellance  Fabulce  or  Oscan 
farces,  which  took  their  name  from  this  town. 
(  Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq^  p.  347,  second  edition.) 

ATEKNUU  (now  Pescara),  a  town  in  Central 
Italy,  on  the  Adriatic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Aternus  (now  Pescara),  was  the  common  harbor 
of  the  Vestini,  Marrucini,  and  Peligni. 

ATERNUS.     Vid.  ATEENUM. 

ATESTE  (Atestinus :  now  Este),  a  Roman  col- 
ony in  the  country  of  the  Veneti,  in  Upper  Italy. 

ATHACUS,  a  town  in  Lyncestis,  hi  Macedonia. 

ATHAMANIA  ('AOafiavia :  'A.6apuv,  -dvof),  a 
mountainous  country  in  the  south  of  Epirus,  on 
the  west  side  of  Pindus,  of  which  Argithea  was 
the  chief  town.  The  Athamanes  were  a  Thes- 
salian  people,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  Thes- 
saly  by  the  Lapithae.  They  were  governed  by 
independent  princes,  the  last  of  whom  was  AMY- 

NANDEB. 

ATHAMAS  ('Aflujuaf),  son  of  JEolus  and  Ena- 
rete,  and  king  of  Orchomenus  in  Bceotia.  At 
the  command  of  Juno  (Hera),  Athamas  married 
Nephele,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of 
PHKIXUS  and  Helle.  But  he  was  secretly  in 
love  with  the  mortal  Ino,  the  daughter  of  Cad- 
mus, by  whom  he  begot  Learchus  and  Meli- 
certes;  and  Nephele,  on  discovering  that  Ino 
had  a  greater  hold  on  his  affections  than  her- 
self, disappeared  in  anger.  Having  thus  incur- 
red the  anger  both  of  Juno  (Hera)  and  of  Neph- 
ele,  Athamas  was  seized  with  madness,  and  in 
this  state  killed  his  own  son,  Learchus :  Ino 
threw  herself  with  Melicertes  into  the  sea,  and 
both  were  changed  into  marine  deities,  Ino  be- 
coming Leucothea,  and  Melicertes  Palzemon. 
Athamas,  as  the  murderer  of  his  son,  was  oblig- 
ed to  flee  from  Bceotia,  and  settled  in  Thessaly. 
Hence  we  have  Athamanttades,  son  of  Athamas, 
i.  e.,  Pakemon ;  and  Athamantis,  daughter  of 
Athamas,  i.  e,  Helle. 

ATHANAGIA  (now  Agramunt  ?),  the  chief  town 
of  the  Ilergete^in  Hispania  Tarraconensis. 

ATHANAEICOS,  king  of  the  Visigoths  during 
their  stay  in  Dacia.  In  A.D.  367-369  he  carried 
on  war  with  the  Emperor  Valens,  with  whom 
he  finally  concluded  a  peace.  In  874  Athanaric 
was  defeated  by  the  Huns,  and,  after  defending 
himself  for  some  time  in  a  stronghold  in  the 
mountains  of  Dacia,  was  compelled  to  fly  in 
380,  and  take  refuge  in  the  Roman  territory. 
He  died  in  381. 

ATHANASIUS  ('Adavuciof),  ST.,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Christian  fathers,  was  born  at 
Alexandrea  alxmt  A.D.  296,  and  was  elected 
archbishop  of  the  city  on  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der in  326.  The  history  of  his  episcopate  is 
full  of  stirring  iuci  dents  and  strange  transitions 
120 


of  fortune.  He  was  the  great  champion  of  the 
orthodox  faith,  as  it  has  been  expounded  at  the 
Council  at  Nice  in  352,  and  was  therefore  ex- 
posed to  persecution  whenever  the  Arians  got 
the  upper  hand  in  the  state.  He  was  thrice 
driven  from '  his  see  into  exile  through  their 
machinations,  and  thrice  recalled.  He  died  in 
373.  The  Athanasian  creed  was  not  composed 
by  Athauasius:  its  real  author  is  unknown. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  by  Moutfaucon, 
Paris,  1698,  reprinted  at  Padua,  1777. 

ATHENA  ('Aft^T?  or  'Adrjvu).  (Roman  Minerva), 
one  of  the  great  divinities  of  the  Greeks.  Ho- 
mer calls  her  a  daughter  of  Zeus  (Jupiter),  with- 
out any  allusion  to  the  manner  of  her  birth  ;  but 
later  traditions  related  that  she  was  born  from 
the  head  of  Zeus  (Jupiter),  and  some  added  that 
she  sprang  forth  with  a  mighty  war-shout  and 
in  complete  armor.  The  most  ancient  tradi- 
tion, as  preserved  by  Hesiod,  stated  that  Metis, 
the  first  wife  of  Zeus  (Jupiter),  was  the  mother 
of  Athena  (Minerva),  but  that  Metis,  when  preg- 
nant with  her,  was,  on  the  advice  of  Gsea  and 
Uranus,  swallowed  up  by  Zeus  (Jupiter),  and 
that  Zeus  (Jupiter)  afterward  gave  birth  him- 
self to  Athena  (Minerva),  who  sprang  from  his 
head.  Another  set  of  traditions  regarded  her 
as  the  daughter  of  Pallas,  the  winged  giant, 
whom  she  afterward  killed  on  account  of  his  at- 
tempting to  violate  her  chastity ;  and  a  third  set 
carried  her  to  Libya,  and  called  her  a  daughter 
of  Poseidon  (Neptune)  and  Tritonis.  These  va- 
rious traditions  about  Athena  (Minerva)  arose, 
as  in  most  other  cases,  from  local  legends  and 
identifications  of  the  Greek  Athena  with  other 
divinities.  But,  according  to  the  general  belief 
of  the  Greeks,  she  was  the  daughter  of  Zeus 
(Jupiter);  and  if  we  take  Metis  to  ha\e  been 
her  mother,  we  have  at  once  the  clew  to  the 
character  which  she  bears  in  the  religion  of 
Greece ;  for,  as  her  father  was  the  most  power- 
ful and  her  mother  the  wisest  among  the  gods, 
so  Athena  was  a  combination  of  the  two,  a  god- 
dess in  whom  power  -and  wisdom  were  harmo- 
niously blended.  From  this  fundamental  idea 
may  be  derived  the  various  aspects  under  which 
she  apppears  in  the  ancient  writers.  She  seems 
to  have  oeen  a  divinity  of  a  purely  ethical  char- 
acter ;  her  power  and  wisdom  appear  in  her 
being  the  preserver  of  the  state  and  of  every 
thing  which  gives  to  the  state  strength  and 
prosperity.  As  the  protectress  of  agriculture, 
Athena  (Minerva)  is  represented  as  inventing 
the  plough  and  rake ;  she  created  the  oh' ve-tree 
(vid.  below),  taught  the  people  to  yoke  oxen  to 
the  plough,  took  care  of  the  breeding  of  horses, 
and  instructed  men  how  to  tame  them  by  the 
bridle,  her  own  invention.  Allusions  to  this 
feature  of  her  character  are  contained  in  the 
epithets  [iovdeia,  poa.pp.ia,  aypfya,  tmria,  or  ^aA- 
ivlng.  She  is  also  represented  as  the  patron 
of  various  kinds  of  science,  industry,  and  art, 
and  as  inventing  numbers,  the  trumpet,  the 
chariot,  and  navigation.  She  was  further  be- 
lieved to  have  invented  nearly  every  kind  of 
work  in  which  women  were  employed,  and  she 
herself  was  skilled  in  such  work.  Hence  we 
have  the  tale  of  the  Lydian  maiden  Arachne, 
who  ventured  to  compete  with  Athena  (Mi- 
nerva) in  the  art  of  weaving.  Vid.  AKACHNS. 
Athena  (Minerva),  is,  in  fact,  the  patroness  of 


ATHENA. 


ATHENE. 


both  the  useful  and  elegant  arts.  Hence  she 
is  called  epydvij,  and  later  writers  make  her  the 
goddess  of  all  wisdom,  knowledge,  and  art,  and 
represent  her  as  sitting  on  the  right  hand  of  her 
father  Zeus  (Jupiter),  and  supporting  him  with 
her  counsel  She  is  therefore  characterized  by 
various  epithets  and  surnames,  expressing  the 
keenness  of  her  sight  or  the  vigor  of  her  intel- 
lect, such  as  dxTitertf,  ofdaZfiiTif,  6%vdepKr;f, 
yhavKumf,  TroAv&JuAof,  iro^vfujri^,  and  pixovlrtf. 
As  the  patron  divinity  of  the  state,  she  was  at 
Athens  the  protectress  of  the  phratries  and 
houses  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  state.  The 
festival  of  the  Apaturia  had  a  direct  reference 
to  this  particular  point  in  the  character  of  the 

fc^ddess.  (Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant^  art.  APATURIA.) 
he  also  maintained  the  authority  of  the  law, 
justice,  and  order  in  the  courts  and  the  assem- 
bly of  the  people.  This  notion  was  as  ancient 
as  the  Homeric  poems,  in  which  she  is  described 
as  assisting  Ulysses  against  the  lawless  conduct 
of  the  suitors.  (#<£,  xiii.,  394.)  She  was  be- 
lieved to  have  instituted  the  ancient  court  of 
the  Areopagus,  and  in  cases  where  the  votes  of 


the  judges  were  equally  divided,  she  gave  the  ! 
casting  one  in  favor  of  the  accused.    The  epi- 
thets which  have  reference  to  this  part  of  the 


goddess's  character  are  a^ifaowoq,  the  avenger, 
fiovhala,  and  dyvpala.  As  Athena  (Minerva) 
promoted  the  internal  prosperity  of  the  state, 
so  she  also  protected  the  state  from  outward  en- 
emies, and  thus  assumes  the  character  of  a  war- 
like divinity,  though  in  a  very  different  sense 
from  Ares  (Mars),  Eris,  or  Enyo.  According  to 
Homer,  she  does  not  even  keep  arms,  but  bor- 
rows them  from  Zeus  (Jupiter) ;  she  preserves 
men  from  slaughter  when  prudence  demands  it, 
and  repels  Ares's  (Mars)  savage  love  of  war, 
and  conquers  him.  The  epithets  which  she  de- 
rives from  her  warlike  character  are  ayeheia, 
%a<f>pia,  u7i.Kijj.dxi],  %aoac6o<;,  and  others.  In 
times  of  war,  towns,  fortresses,  and  harbors  are 
under  her  especial  care,  whence  she  is  desig- 
nated as  kpvai'KTo'h.is,  uTiahnoftevrjif,  Tro/Uuf,  TTO- 
faovxof,  ufcpala,  uKpia,  K^dov^of,  irvhairic,  irpo- 
uaxopfta,  and  the  like.  In  the  war  of  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter) against  the  giants,  she  assisted  her  father 
and  Hercules  with  her  counsel,  and  also  took  an 
active  part  in  it,  for  she  buried  Enceladus  under 
the  island  of  Sicily,  and  slew  Pallas.  In  the 
Trojan  war  she  sided  with  the  Greeks,  though 
on  their  return  home  she  visited  them  with 
storms,  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
Locrian  Ajax  had  treated  Cassandra  in  her  tem- 
ple. As  a  goddess  of  war  and  the  protectress 
of  heroes,  Athena  (Minerva)  usually  appears  in 
armor,  with  the  aegis  and  a  golden  staff.  The 
character  of  Athena  (Minerva),  as  we  have 
traced  it,  holds  a  middle  place  between  the 
male  and  female,  whence  she  is  a  virgin  divin- 
ity, whose  heart  is  inaccessible  to  the  passion  of  : 
love.  Tiresias  was  deprived  of  sight  for  having 
seen  her  in  the  bath;  and  Hephaestus  (Vulcan), 
who  made  an  attempt  upon  her  chastity,  was 
obliged  to  take  to  flight  For  this  reason,  the 
ancient  traditions  always  describe  the  goddess ' 
as  dressed ;  and  when  Ovid  makes  her  appear  i 
naked  before  Paris,  he  abandons  the  genuine 
•tory.  Athena  (Minerva)  was  worshipped  hi  all 
parts  of  Greece.  Her  worship  was  introduced  ! 
from  the  aoruent  towns  on  the  Lake  Copais  at  a 


very  early  period  into  Attica,  where  she  became 
the  great  national  divinity  of  the  city  and  the 
country.  Here  she  was  regarded  as  the  $eu  <T<J- 
retpa,  iiyieta,  and  -xaiuvia..  The  tale  ran  that  in 
the  reign  of  Cecrops  both  Poseidon  (Neptune) 
and  Athena  (Minerva)  contended  for  the  posses- 
sion of  Athens.  The  gods  resolved  that  which- 
ever of  them  produced  a  gift  most  useful  to 
mortals  should  have  possession  of  the  land. 
Poseidon  (Neptune)  struck  the  ground  with 
his  trident,  and  straightway  a  horse  appeared. 
Athena  (Minerva)  then  planted  the  olive.  The 
gods  thereupon  decreed  that  the  olive  was  more 
useful  to  man  than  the  horse,  and  gave  the  city 
to  the  goddess,  from  whom  it  was  called  Athense. 
At  Athens  the  magnificent  festival  of  the  Pana- 
thencea  was  celebrated  in  honor  of  the  goddess. 
At  this  festival  took  place  the  grand  procession, 
which  was  represented  on  the  frieze  of  the  Par- 
thenon. (  Via.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art.  PANATHEJJ.EA.) 
At  Lindus,  in  Rhodes,  her  worship  was  likewise 
very  ancient.  Respecting  its  introduction  into 
Italy,  and  the  modifications  which  her  character 
underwent  there,  vid.  MINERVA.  Among  the 
things  sacred  to  her  we  may  mention  the  owl, 
serpent,  cock,  and  olive-tree,  which  she  was 
said  to  have  created  in  her  contest  with  Posei- 
don (Neptune)  about  the  possession  of  Attica. 
The  sacrifices  offered  to  her  consisted  of  bulls, 
rams,  and  cows.*  Athena  (Minerva)  was  fre- 
quently represented  in  works  of  art,  in  which 
we  generally  find  some  of  the  following  charac- 
teristics :  1.  The  helmet,  which  she  usually 
wears  on  her  head,  but  in  a  few  instances  car- 
ries in  her  hand.  It  is  generally  ornamented 
in  the  most  beautiful  manner  with  griffins, 
heads  of  rams,  horses,  and  sphinxes.  2.  The 
aegis,  which  is  represented  on  works  of  art,  not 
as  a  shield,  but  as  a  goat-skin,  covered  with 
scales,  set  with  the  appalling  Gorgon's  head,  and 
surrounded  with  tassels.  (  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant. 
art  ^Eois.)  2.  The  round  Argolic  shield,  in  the 
centre  of  which  the  head  of  Medusa  likewise 
appears.  4.  Objects  sacred  to  her,  such  as  an 
olive-branch,  a  serpent,  an  owl,  a  cock,  and  a 
lance.  Her  garment  is  usually  the  Spartan 
tunic  without  sleeves,  and  over  it  she  wears 
a  cloak,  the  peplus,  or,  though  rarely,  the 
chlamys. 

ATHENE  ('Aftyvai,  also  'Afhjvrj  in  Homer :  'A.dj}- 
valof,  jj  'A.6r}vaia,  Atheniensis:  now  Athens),  the 
capital  of  Attica,  about  thirty  stadia  from  the 
sea,  on  the  southwest  slope  of  Mount  Lycabet- 
tus,  between  the  small  rivers  Cephisus  on  the 
west  and  Ilissus  on  the  east,  the  latter  of  which 
flowed  close  by  the  walls  of  the  town.  The 
most  ancient  part  of  it  the  Acropolis,  is  said  to 
have  been  built  by  the  mythical  Cecrops,  but 
the  city  itself  is  said  to  have  owed  its  origin  to 
Theseus,  who  united  the  twelve  independent 
states  or  townships  of  Attica  into  one  state,  ana 
made  Athens  their  capital  The  city  was  burn- 
ed by  Xerxes  in  B.C.  480,  but  was  soon  rebuilt 
under  the  administration  of  Themistocles,  and 
was  adorued  with  public  buildings  by  Cimon 
and  especially  by  Pericles,  in  whose  time  (B.C. 
460-429)  it  reacted  its  greatest  splendor.  Its 
beauty  was  chiefly  owing  to  its  public  buildings 
for  the  private  houses  were  mostly  insignificant, 
and  its  streets  badly  laid  out  Toward  the  end 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  it  contained  ten  thou- 
121 


ATHENE. 


ATHENE. 


•and  houses  (Xen.,  Mem.,  iii.,  6,  §  14),  which,  at 
the  rate  of  twelve  inhabitants  to  a  house,  would 
give  a  population  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand,  though  some  writers  make  the  in- 
habitants as  many  as  one  hundred  and  eighty 
thousand.  Under  the  Romans  Athens  continued 
to  be  a  great  and  flourishing  city,  and  retained 
many  privileges  and  immunities  when  Southern 
Greece  was  formed  into  the  Roman  province 
'of  Achaia.  It  suffered  greatly  on  its  capture 
by  Sulla,  B.C.  86,  and  was  deprived  of  many 
of  its  privileges.  It  was  at  that  time,  and  also 
during  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era, 
one  of  the  chief  seats  of  learning,  and  tlie 
Romans  were  accustomed  to  send  their  sons  to 
Athens,  as  to  a  University,  for  the  completion 
of  their  education.  Hadrian,  who  was  very 
partial  to  Athens,  and  frequently  resided  in  the 
city  (A.D.  122,  128),  adorned  it  with  many  new 
buildings,  and  his  example  was  followed  by 
Herodes  Atticus,  who  spent  large  sums  of  mon- 
ey upon  beautifying  the  city  in  the  reign  of  M. 
Aurelius.  Athens  consisted  of  two  distinct 
parts :  I.  The  City  (rd  uarv),  properly  so  called, 
divided  into,  1.  The  Upper  City  or  Acropolis  (% 
avu  Tro/ltf,  ci/cpoTToAif,),  and,  2.  The  Lower  City 
(TJ  KUTU  Tro/ltf),  surrounded  with  walls  by  The- 
mistocles.  II.  The  three  harbor-towns  of  Pi- 
raeus, Munychia,  and  Phalerum,  also  surrounded 
with  walls  by  Themistocles,  aud  connected  with 
the  city  by  means  of  the  long  walls  (TO,  /taupa 
re£f?)>  built  under  the  administration  of  Per- 
icles. The  long  walls  consisted  of  the  wall  to 
Phalerum  on  the  east,  thirty-five  stadia  long 
(about  four  miles),  and  of  the  wall  to  Piraeus  on 
the  west,  forty  stadia  long  (about  four  and  a 
half  miles) ;  between  these  two,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  latter  and  parallel  to  it,  another 
wall  was  erected,  thus  making  two  walls  leading 
to  the  Piraeus  (sometimes  called  rd  ani^rf),  with 
a  narrow  passage  between  them.  There  were, 
therefore,  three  long  walls  in  all ;  but  the  name 
of  Long  Walls  seems  to  have  been  confined  to 
the  two  leading  to  the  Piraeus,  while  the  one 
leading  to  Pbalerum  was  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  the  Phalerian  Wall  (rd  $ahrjpiKov  Tel- 
XOf).  The  entire  circuit  of  the  walls  was  one 
hundred  and  seventy-four  and  a  half  stadia 
(nearly  twenty-two  miles),  of  which  forty-three 
stadia  (nearly  five  and  a  half  miles)  belonged  to 
the  city,  seventy-five  stadia  (nine  and  a  half 
miles)  to  the  long  walls,  and  fifty-six  and  a  half 
stadia  (seven  miles)  to  Piraeus,  Munychia,  and 
Phalerum. — 1.  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  THE  ACROPOLIS 
OB  UPPER  CITY.  The  Acropolis,  also  called  Ce- 
cropia,  from  its  reputed  founder,  was  a  steep 
rock  in  the  middle  of  the  city,  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  high,  eleven  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
long,  and  five  hundred  broad :  its  sides  were 
naturally  scarped  on  all  sides  except  the  west- 
ern end.  It  was  originally  surrounded  by  an 
ancient  Cyclopian  wall,  said  to  have  been  built 
by  the  Pelasgians ;  at  the  time  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  only  the  northern  part  of  this  wall 
remained,  and  this  portion  was  still  called  the 
Pelasgic  Wall ;  while  the  southern  part,  which 
had  been  rebuilt  by  Cimon,  was  called  the  Ci- 
monian  Wall.  On  the  western  end  of  the  Acro- 
polis, where  access  is  alone  practicable,  were 
the  magnificent  PROPYLJEA,  '•  the  Entrances,"  i 
built  by  Pericles,  before  the  right  wing  of  which 
122 


was  the  small  temple  of  Nu«?  "A^repof.    Th* 
summit  of  the  Acropolis  was  covered  with  tern 
pies,  statues  of  bronze  and  marble,  and  variou* 
other  works  of  art.     Of  the  temples,  the  grand- 
est was  the  PARTHENON,  sacred  to  the  "  Virgin'1 
goddess  Athena   (Minerva);    aud  north  of  the 
Parthenon  was  the  magnificent  ERECHTHEUM,  con- 
taining three  separate  temples,  one  of  Athena 
Polias  (Ilo/Uuf),  or  the  "  Protectress  of  the  State," 
the  Erechtheum  proper,  or  sanctuary  of  Erecb- 
theus,  and   the   Pandrosium,  or   sanctuary^    of 
Pandrosos,  the  daughter  of  Cecrops.    Between 
the  Parthenon  and  Erechthfiuin  was  the  colossal 
statue  of  Athena  Promachos  (IIpo/<a^'Of),  or  the 
"  Fighter  in  the  Front,"  whose  helmet  and  spea. 
was   the  first  object  on   the  Acropolis  visible 
from  the  sea. — 2.  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  THE  LOWEB 
CITY.    The  lower  city  was  built  in  the  plain 
round  the   Acropolis,  but  the  plain  also  con- 
tained several  hills,  especially  in  the  southwest- 
ern part. — WALLS.     The  ancient  walls  embraced 
a  much  greater  circuit  than  the  modern  ones. 
On   the    west  they  included    the    hill   of    the 
Nymphs  and  the  Pnyx,  on  the  south  they  ex- 
tended a  little  beyond  the  Ilissus,  aud  on  the 
east  they  crossed  the  Ilissus,  near  the  Lyceum, 
which   was   outside   the  walls. — GATES.    Their 
number  is  unknown,  and  the  position  of  many  of 
them   is  uncertain ;  but  the  following  list  con- 
tains the  most  important     On  the  west  side 
were,  1.  Dipylum  (kiirvhov,  more  anciently  Qpia- 
aiai  or  Kepaftutai),  the  most  frequented  gate  of 
the  city,  leading  from  the  inner  Ceramicus  to 
the  outer  Ceramicus,  and  to  the  Academy. — 2. 
The  Sacred  Gate  (at  'lepal  Ilvhai),  where  the  sa- 
cred road  to  Eleusis  began. — 3.   The  Knight'i, 
Gate  (al  'Imrddeg  TT.),  probably  between  the  hill 
of  the  Nymphs  and  the  Pnyx. — 4.   The  Pircean 
Gate  (i)  IleipalK?)  TT.),  between  the  Puyx  and  the 
Museum,  leading  to  the  carriage  road  (d^a^rof) 
between  the  Long  "Walls  to  the  Piraeus. — 5.  Tht 
Melitian  Gate  (al  MeAmJef  TT.),  so  called  because 
it  led  to  the  demus  Melite,  within  the  city.     On 
the  south  side,  going  from  west  to  east, — 6.  The 
Gate  of  the  Dead  (at  'Hpiat  TT.),  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Museum,  placed  by  many  authori- 
ties on  the  north  side. — 7.  The  Jtonian  Gate  (ai 
'\Tuvlai  TT.),  near  the  Ilissus,  where  the  road  to 
Phalerum  began.     On  the  east  side,  going  from 
south  to  north, — 8.  The  Gate  of  Diochares  (ai 
Afo^apouf  TT.),  leading  to  the  Lyceum. — 9.  Tht 
Diomean  Gate  (rj  biofieia  TT.),  leading  to  Cyno- 
sarges  and  the  demus  Diomea.    On  the  north 
side, — 10.  TheAcharnian  Gate(al  'A%apviKal  TT.) 
leading   to   the    demus   Acharnae. — CHIEF   DIS- 
TRICTS.     The  inner  Ceramicus  (Kepa/teiKotf),  or 
"  Potter's  Quarter,"  in  the  west  of  the  city,  ex- 
tending north  as  far  as  the  gate  Dipylum,  by 
which  it  was  separated  from  the  outer  Cerami- 
cus ;  the  southern  part  of  the  inner  Ceramicus 
contained  the  Agora  (uyopd),  or  "  market-place," 
the  only  one  in  the  city  (for  there  were  not  two 
market  places,  as  some  suppose),  lying  south- 
west of  the  Acropolis,  and  between  the  Acrop- 
olis, the  Areopagus,  the  Pnyx,  and  the  Muse- 
um.     The   demus  Melite,   south   of   the   inner 
Ceramicus,  and  perhaps  embracing  the  hill  of 
the  Museum.      The   demus  Scambonidce,   west 
of  the  inner  Ceramicus,  between  the  Pnyx  and 
the  Hill  of  the  Nymphs      The  Collytus,  south 
of  Melile.     Cede,  a  district  south  of  Collytus 


ATHENE. 


ATHEIS^EUS. 


and  the  Museum,  along  the  Ilissus,  in  which 
were  the  graves  of  Cimon  and  Thucydides. 
Limnce,  a  district  east  of  Melite  and  Collytus, 
between  the  Acropolis  and  the  Ilissus.  Diomea, 
a  district  in  the  east  of  the  city,  near  the  gate 
of  the  same  name  and  the  Cynosarges.  Agree, 
a  district  south  of  Diomea. — HILLS.  The  Areop- 
agus (Apeiov  nuyoc.  or  "Apeto?  Ttuyof),  the  "  Hill 
of  Ares"  (Mars),  west  of  the  Acropolis,  which 
gave  its  name  to  the  celebrated  council  that 
held  its  sittings  there  (vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.  «.  v.), 
was  accessible  on  the  south  side  by  a  flight  of 
steps  cut  out  of  the  rock  The  Hill  of  the 
Nymphs,  northwest  of  the  Areopagus.  The 
Pnyx  (Ilvv!;),  a  semicircular  hill,  southwest  of 
the  Areopagus,  where  the  assemblies  of  the 
people  were  held  in  earlier  times,  for  afterward 
the  people  usually  met  in  the  Theatre  of  Diony- 
sus (Bacchus.)  (  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.  p.  440,  b,  2d 
ed.)  The  Museum,  south  of  the  Pnyx  and  the 
Areopagus,  on  which  was  the  monument  of 
Philopappus,  and  where  the  Macedonians  built  a 
fortress. — STREETS.  Of  these  we  have  little  in- 
formation. "VVe  read  of  the  Pircean  Street,  which 
led  from  the  Piraean  gate  to  the  Agora ;  of  the 
Street  of  the  Hermce,  which  ran  along  the  Agora 
between  the  Stoa  Basileos  and  Stoa  Pcecil6 ;  of 
the  Street  of  the  Tripods,  on  the  east  of  the 
Acropolis,  &c. — PUBLIC  BUILDINGS.  1.  Temples. 
Of  these  the  most  important  was  the  Olym- 
pieum  (Ohvpnieiov),  or  Temple  of  the  Olym- 
pian Zeus  (Jupiter),  southeast  of  the  Acropolis, 
near  the  Ilissus  and  the  fountain  Callirrhoe, 
which  was  long  unfinished,  and  was  first  com- 
pleted by  Hadrian.  Theseum  (Qrjaelov),  or  Tem- 
ple of  Theseus,  on  a  hill  north  of  the  Areopagus, 
now  converted  into  the  Museum  of  Athens. 
The  Temple  of  Ares  (Mars),  south  of  the  Areop- 
agus and  west  of  the  Acropolis.  Metroum  (Mrj- 
Tptjjov),  or  temple  of  the  mother  of  the  gods, 
east  of  the  Agora,  and  south  of  the  Acropolis, 
near  the  Senate  House,  and  the  Odeum  of  He- 
rodes  Atticus.  Besides  these,  there  was  a  vast 
number  of  other  temples  in  all  parts  of  the  city. 
— 2.  The  Senate  House  (j3ov%,£vr>jpiov),  at  the 
south  end  of  the  Agora. — 3.  The  Tholus  (tfoAof ), 
a  round  building  close  to  the  Senate  House, 
which  served  as-  the  new  PrytanSum,  in  which 
the  Prytanes  took  their  meals  and  offered  their 
sacrifices.  (  Vid.  Did.  of  Ant.  s.  v.) — 4.  The 
Prytaneum  (HpvTavEtov),  at  the  northeastern 
foot  of  the  Acropolis,  where  the  Prytanes  used 
more  anciently  to  take  their  meals,  and  where 
the  laws  of  Solon  were  preserved. — 5.  Stoce 
(aroai),  or  Halls,  supported  by  pillars,  and  used 
as  places  of  resort  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  of 
which  there  were  several  in  Athens.  (  Vid.  Diet, 
of  Ant.,  p.  944,  2d  ed.)  In  the  Agora  there 
were  three  :  the  Stoa  Basilgos  (OTOU  Paaifaioe), 
the  court  of  the  King-Archon,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Agora ;  the  Stoa  Pcecile  (OTOU  noiKi^rj),  so 
called  because  it  was  adorned  with  fresco  paint- 
ings of  the  battle  of  Marathon  and  other  achieve- 
ments by  Polyguotus,  Lycon,  and  others ;  and  the 
Stoa  Eleutherius  (prod  kAev0t'piof),  or  Hall  of  Zeus 
Eleutherius,  both  on  the  south  side  of  the  Agora. — 
6.  Tliealres.  The  Theatre  of  Dion, ysus  (Bacchus), 
on  the  southeastern  slope  of  the  Acropolis,  was 
the  great  theatre  of  the  state  (vid.  Diet,  of  Ant. 
p.  1120,  2d  ed.) ;  besides  this  there  were  three 
Odia  (udela),  for  contests  in  vocal  and  instru- 


mental music  (vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v.),  an  an 
cient  one  near  the  fountain  Callirrhoe,  a  second 
built  by  Pericles,  close  to  the  theatre  of  Diony- 
sus (Bacchus),  on  the  southeastern  slope  of  the 
Acropolis,  and  a  third  built  by  Herodes  Atticus, 
in  honor  of  his  wife  Regilla,  on  the  southwestern 
slope  of  the  Acropolis,  of  which  there  are  still 
considerable  remains. — 7.  Stadium  (TO  Sradiov), 
south  of  the  Ilissus,  in  the  district  Agrae. — 8 
Monuments.  The  Monument  of  Andronicus, 
Ci/rrhestes,  formerly  called  the  Tower  of  the 
',  Winds,  an  octagonal  building  north  of  the  Acro- 
polis, still  extant,  was  an  horologium.  ( Vid. 
Diet,  of  Ant^  p.  616,  2d  ed.)  The  Choragic  Mon- 
j  ument  of  Lysicrates,  frequently  but  erroneously 
I  called  the  Lantern  of  Demosthenes,  still  extant, 
in  the  Street  of  the  Tripods.  The  Monument  of 
|  Harmodius  and  Aristoglton  in  the  Agora,  just 
before  the  ascent  to  the  Acropolis. — SUBURBS. 
I  The  Outer  Ceramlcus  (6  !£<•>  icahovuevotf),  north- 
;  west  of  the  city,  was  the  finest  suburb  of  Athens : 
•  here  wene  buried  the  Athenians  who  had  fallen 
;  in  war,  and  at  the  further  end  of  it  was  the 
!  ACADEMIA,  six  stadia  from  the  city.  Cynosarges 
I  (TO  Kwoaapyef),  east  of  the  city,  before  the  gate 
;  Diomea,  a  gymnasium  sacred  to  Hercules, 
i  where  Antisthenes,  the  founder  of  the  Cynic 
I  school,  taught.  Lyceum  (TO  AVKEIOV),  southeast 
of  the  Cynosarges,  a  gymnasium  sacred  to 
j  Apollo  Lyceus,  where  Aristotle  and  the  Peripa- 
tetics taught. 

ATHENE  ('AdTJvai :  now  Atenah),  a  sea-port 
town  of  Pontus,  named  from  its  temple  of 
Athena  (Minerva). 

ATHEN^UM  (Adrjvaiov),  in  general  a  temple  of 
Athena,  or  any  place  consecrated  to  the  goddess 
!  The  name  was  especially  given  to  a  school 
I  founded  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  at  Rome  about 
A.D.  133,  for  the  promotion  of  literary  and  sci- 
entific studies.  It  was  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Forum,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Aveutiue 
I  Hill :  it  had  a  staff  of  professors  paid  by  the 
government,  and  continued  in  repute  till  the  fifth 
century  of  our  era.  (  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  «.  v.) — 
ATHENAEUM  was  also  the  name  of  a  town  in  Ar- 
cadia, not  far  from  Megalopolis,  and  of  a  place 
in  Athamania  in  Epirus. 

ATHENJJUS  (*A0??v<uof).  1.  A  contemporary 
of  Archimedes,  the  author  of  an  extant  work 
TLepl  tJinxo.vr](ulTuv  (on  warlike  engines),  ad- 
dressed to  Marcellus  (probably  the  conqueror  of 
Syracuse) ;  printed  in  Thevenot's  Mathematici 
Veteres,  Paris,  1693. — 2.  A  learned  Greek  gram- 
marian, of  Naucratis  in  Egypt,  lived  about  A.D. 
230,  first  at  Alexandrea  and  afterward  at  Rome. 
His  extant  work  is  entitled  the  Deipnosophistce 
(Aeim>oao<j>ioTai),  i.  e.,  the  Banquet  of  the  Learned, 
in  fifteen  books,  of  which  the  first  two  books, 
and  parts  of  the  third,  eleventh,  and  fifteenth, 
exist  only  in  an  Epitome.  The  work  may  be 
considered  one  of  the  earliest  collections  of 
what  are  called  Ana,  being  an  immense  mass  of 
anecdotes,  extracts  from  the  writings  of  poets 
historians,  dramatists,  philosophers,  orators,  and 
physicians,  of  facts  in  natural  history,  criticisms 
and  discussions  on  almost  every  conceivable  sub 
ject,  especially  on  gastronomy.  Athenaeus  re 
presents  himself  as  describing  to  his  friend  Ti- 
mocrates  a  full  account  of  the  conversation  at  a 
banquet  at  Rome,  at  which  Galen,  the  physician, 
and  Ulpian,  the  jurist,  were  among  the  guest* 
123 


ATHENAGORAS. 


ATLAS. 


— Editions :  By  Casaubon,  Genev.,  1597 ;  by 
Schweighauser,  Argentorati,  1801-1807  ;  and  by 
W.  Dindorf,  Lips.,  1827. — 3.  A  celebrated  phy 
sician,  founder  of  the  medical  sect  of  the  Pneu 
matici,  was  born  at  Attalia  in  Cilicia,  and  prac- 
ticed at  Rome  about  A.D.  60. 

ATHENAGORAS  ('A&rjvayopaf),  an  Athenian  phi- 
losopher, converted  to  the  Christian  religion  in 
the  second  century  of  our  era,  is  the  author  of 
two  extant  works,  An  Apology  for  Christians, 
addressed  to  the  emperors  M.  Aurelius  and  his 
son  Commodus,  and  a  treatise  in  defence  of  the 
tenet  of  the  resurrectioa — Editions :  By  Fell, 
Oxon.,  1682;  Rechenberg,  Lips^  1684-85;  De- 
chair,  Oxon,  1706. 

ATHENAIS  ('Adyvatf).  Surnamed  Philostor- 
yus,  wife  of  Ariobarzanes  II.,  king  of  Cappa- 
docia,  and  mother  of  Ariobarzanes  III.  —  2. 
Daughter  of  Leontius,  afterward  named  Eu- 
DOCIA. 

ATHENION  ('A.6riviuv).  1.  A  Cilician,  one  of  the 
commanders  of  the  slaves  in  the  second  servile 
war  in  Sicily,  maintained  his  ground  for  some 
time  successfully,  and  defeated  L.  Licinius  Lu- 
cullus,  but  was  at  length  conquered  and  killed  in 
B.C.  101  by  the  consul  M'.  Aquillius. — [2.  A 
comic  poet  of  Athens,  of  whose  plays  only  one 
fragment  has  been  preserved;  it  is  printed  in 
Meineke's  Fragmenta  Comic.  Grcec^  voL  iL,  p. 
*  165-6,  edit,  minor. — 3.  A  painter,  born  at  Mar- 
onea  in  Thrace.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Glaucion  of 
Corinth,  and  gave  promise  of  high  excellence, 
but  died  young.] 

ATHENODORUS  ('Adijvodupof).  1.  Of  Tarsus,  a 
Stoic  philosopher  surnamed  Cordylio,  was  the 
keeper  of  the  library  at  Pergamus,  and  after- 
ward removed  to  Rome,  where  he  lived  with  M. 
Cato,  at  whose  house  he  died. — 2.  Of  Tarsus,  a 
Stoic  philosopher,  surnamed  Cananites,  from 
Cana  in  Cilicia,  the  birth-place  of  his  father, 
whose  name  was  Sandon.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Posidonius  at  Rhodes,  and  afterward  taught  at 
Apollonia  in  Epirus,  where  the  young  Octavius 
subsequently  the  Emperor  Augustus)  was  one 
of  his  disciples.  He  accompanied  the  latter  to 
Rome,  and  became  one  of  his  intimate  friends 
and  advisers.  In  his  old  age  he  returned  to 
Tarsus,  where  he  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-two. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  works,  which  are 
not  extant — 3.  A  sculptor,  the  son  and  pupil  of 
Agesander  of  Rhodes,  whom  he  assisted  in  exe- 
cuting the  group  of  Laocoon.  Vid.  AGESANDER. 

ATHESIS  (now  Adige  or  JEtsch),  rises  in  the 
Rsetian  Alps,  receives  the  ATAGIS  (now  Jt!isach), 
flows  through  Upper  Italy  past  Verona,  and 
falls  into  the  Adriatic  by  many  mouths. 

ATHJIONE  ('ABftovr/,  also  'K6p.ovia  and  "A0//0- 
v ov :  'AOpovevf,  fern.  'Adfiovif),  an  Attic  demus 
belonging  to  the  tribe  Cecropis,  afterward  to  the 
tribe  Attalis. 

ATHOS  (*A0uf,  also  'Aduv :  'Adut-njf :  now 
Haghion  Oros,  Monte  Santo,  L  e.,  Holy  Mountain), 
the  mountainous  peninsula,  also  called  Acte, 
which  projects  from  Chalcidice  in  Macedonia. 
At  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  the  mountain  I 
rises  abruptly  from  the  sea  to  a  height  of  6349  j 
feet :  ttere  is  no  anchorage  for  ships  at  its  base, ' 
and  the  voyage  around  it  was  so  dreaded  by ' 
mariners  that  Xerxes  had  a  canal  cut  through 
the  isthmus,  which  connects  the  peninsula  with  ' 
the  main  land,  to  afford  a  passage  to  his  fleet 
124 


Vid.  ACANTHUS.  The  isthmus  is  about  one  ana  a 
half  miles  across ;  and  there  are  most  distinct 
traces  of  the  canal  to  be  seen  in  the  present 
day ;  so  that  we  must  not  imitate  the  skepticism 
of  Juvenal  (x^  174),  and  of  many  modern  writ- 
ers, who  refused  to  believe  that  the  canal  was 
ever  cut  The  peninsula  contained  several  flour- 
ishing cities  in  antiquity,  and  is  now  studded 
with  numerous  monasteries,  cloisters,  and  chapels, 
whence  it  derives  its  modern  name.  In  these 
monasteries  some  valuable  MSS.  of  ancient  au- 
thors have  been  discovered. 

ATHRIBIB  ('A.0pi6if),  a  city  in   the  Delta  of 
Egypt ;  capital  of  the  Nomos  Athribltes. 

[ATHRULLA  ("AdpovMa :  now  Jathrib  or  Me- 
dina), a  city  of   Arabia  Felix,  conquered  by 
^Elius  Gallus.] 
ATIA,  mother  of  AUGUSTUS. 
ATILIA  or  ATILLIA  GENS,  the  principal  mem- 
bers of  which  are  given  under  their  surnames, 
CALATINUS,  REGULUS,  and  SEBRANUS. 

ATILICINUS,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  probably 
lived  about  A.D.  60,  is  referred  to  in  the  Digest 
ATILIUS.  1.  L,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Ro- 
man jurists  who  gave  public  instruction  in  law, 
probably  lived  about  B.C.  100.  He  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables. — 2. 
M.,  one  of  the  early  Roman  poets,  wrote  both 
tragedies  and  comedies,  but  apparently  a  greater 
number  of  the  latter  than  of  the  former. 

ATINA  (Atlnas,  -atis :  now  Atina),  a  town  of 
the  Volsci  in  Latium,  afterward  a  Roman  colony. 
ATINTANES  ("ArivTuvef),  an  Epirot  people  in 
Dlyria,  on  the  borders  of  Macedonia :  their  coun- 
try, Atintania,  was  reckoned  part  of  Macedonia. 
ATJLUS  VARUS.  Vid.  VARUS. 
ATLANTICUM  MARE.  Vid.  OCEANUS. 
ATLANTIS  ('Arhavric,  sc.  r^aof),  according  to 
an  ancient  tradition,  a  great  island  west  of  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  in  the  Ocean,  opposite  Mount 
Atlas  :  it  possessed  a  numerous  population,  and 
was  adorned  with  every  beauty ;  its  powerful 
Drinces  invaded  Africa  and  Europe,  but  were 
lefeated  by  the  Athenians  and  their  allies :  its 
nhabitants  afterward  became  wicked  and  im- 
Dious,  and  the  island  was  in  consequence  swal- 
owed  up  in  the  ocean  in  a  day  and  a  night 
This  legend  is  given  by  Plato  in  the  Timceux 
and  is  said  to  have  been  related  to  Solon  by  the 
Egyptian  priests.  The  Canary  Islands,  or  the 
Azores,  which  perhaps  were  visited  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, may  have  given  rise  to  the  legend ;  bul 
some  modern  writers  regard  it  as  indicative  of  a 
vague  belief  in  antiquity  in  the  existence  of  the 
western  hemisphere.  'i  . 

ATLAS  ('ArAaf),  son  of  lapetus  and  Clymene, 
and  brother  of  Prometheus  and  Epimetheus. 
3e  made  war  with  the  other  Titans  upon  Jupi- 
;er  (Zeus),  and  being  conquered,  was  condemned 
o  bear  heaven  on  his  head  and  hands :  accord- 
ng  to  Homer,  Atlas  bears  the  long  columns 
which  keep  asunder  heaven  and  earth.  The 
myth  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  idea  that 
ofty  mountains  support  the  heavens.  Later 
traditions  distort  the  original  idea  still  more,  by 
making  Atlas  a  man  who  was  metamorphosed 
into  a  mountain.  Thus  Ovid  (Met.,  iv,  626, 
seq.)  relates  that  Perseus  came  to  Atlas  and 
asked  for  shelter,  which  was  refused,  where- 
upon Perseus,  by  means  of  the  head  of  Medusa, 
chauged  him  into  Mount  Atlas,  on  which  rested 


ATLAS  MONS. 


ATROPATES. 


heaven  with  all  its  stars.  Others  go  still  fur- 
ther, and  represent  Atlas  as  a  powerful  king, 
who  possessed  great  knowledge  of  the  courses 
of  the  stars,  and  who  was  the  first  who  taught 
men  that  heaven  had  the  form  of  a  globe. 
Hence  the  expression  that  heaven  rested  on  his 
shoulders  was  regarded  as  a  merely  figurative 
mode  of  speaking.  At  first,  the  story  of  Atlas 
referred  to  one  mountain  only,  which  was  be- 
lieved to  exist  on  the  extreme  boundary  of  the 
earth ;  but,  as  geographical  knowledge  extend- 
ed, the  name  of  Atlas  was  transferred  to  other 
places,  and  thus  we  read  of  a  Mauretanian,  Ital- 
ian, Arcadian,  and  even  of  a  Caucasian  Atlas. 
The  common  opinion,  however,  was,  that  the 
heaven-bearing  Atlas  was  in  the  northwest  of 
Africa.  See  below.  Atlas  was  the  father  of 
the  Pleiades  by  Pleione  or  by  Hesperis ;  of  the 
Hyades  and  Hesperides  by  ^Ethra  ;  and  of  (Eno- 
maus  and  Mala  by  Sterope.  Dione  and  Calyp- 
so, Hyas  and  Hesperus,  are  likewise  called  his 
children.  Atlantiades,  a  descendant  of  Atlas,  es- 
pecially Mercury,  his  grandson  by  Maia  (comp. 
Mercuri  facunde  nepos  Atlantis,  Hor.,  Carm.,  i., 
10),  and  Hermaphroditus,  son  of  Mercury.  At- 
lantias  and  Atlantis,  a  female  descendant  of  At- 
las, especially  the  Pleiads  and  Hyads. 

ATLAS  MONS  ("Ar/taf :  now  Atlas),  was  the 
general  name  of  the  great  mountain  range 
which  covers  the  surface  of  northern  Africa, 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  Great  Desert 
(now  Sahara),  on  the  north  and  south,  and  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Lesser  Syrtis  on  the  west  and 
east ;  the  mountain  chains  southeast  of  the 
Lesser  Syrtis,  though  connected  with  the  Atlas, 
do  not  properly  belong  to  it,  and  were  called 
by  other  names.  The  northern  and  southern 
ranges  of  this  system  were  distinguished  by  the 
uames  of  ATLAS  MINOR  and  ATLAS  MAJOK,  and 
a  distinction  was  made  between  the  three  re- 
gions into  which  they  divided  the  country.  Vid. 
AFRICA,  p.  28,  a. 

ATOSSA  ("Aroffaa),  daughter  of  Cyrus,  and  wife 
successively  of  her  brother  Cambyses,  of  Smer- 
dia  the  Magian,  and  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  over 
whom  she  possessed  great  influence.  She  bore 
Darius  four  sons,  Xerxes,  Masistes,  Acliaemenes, 
and  Hystaspes. 

ATRJJ  or  HATEA  ("Arpat,  ra  "Arpa  :  'AT/w?v6f, 
Atrenus:  now  Hadr,  southwest  of  Mosul),  a 
strongly-fortified  city  on  a  high  mountain  in  Mes- 
opotamia, inhabited  by  people  of  the  Arab  race. 

SEMPRONICS,  .ATRATINUS.  1.  A-,  consul  B.C. 
497  and  491. — 2.  L,  consul  444  and  censor 
443. — 3.  C,  consul  423,  fought  unsuccessfully 
against  the  Volsciuns,  and  was  in  consequence 
condemned  to  pay  a  heavy  fine. — 4.  L.,  accused  ] 
Marcus  Caelius  Kufus,  whom  Cicero  defended, 
67  B.C. 

ATRAX  ('Arpal :  'Arpa/ctof).  1.  A  town  in 
Pelasgiotis  in  Thessaly,  inhabited  by  the  Per-  ] 
rluebi,  so  called  from  the  mythical  Atrax,  son  of 
PeneuB  and  Bura,  and  father  of  Hippodamia  and  j 
CuMiis.  [It  was  famed  for  its  green  marble, 
known  by  the  name  of  Atracium  Marmor. — 
2>  A  small  river  of  Pelasgiotis  in  Thessaly,  a 
tributary  of  the  PeneusJ 

ATREBATES,  a  people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  in  the 
modern  Artois,  which  is  a  corruption  of  their ; 
name.  In  Caesar's  time  (B.C.  67)  they  num- 
bered 15,000  warriors  ;  their  capital  was  NEMK-  • 


TOCENNA.  Part  of  them  crossed  over  to  Britain, 
where  they  dwelt  in  the  upper  valley  of  thb 
Thames,  Oxfordshire  and  Berkshire. 

ATREUS  ('Arpevf),  son  of  Pelops  and  Hippo- 
damia, grandson  of  Tantalus,  and  brother  of 
Thyestes  and  Nicippe.  Vid.  PELOPS.  He  was 
first  married  to  Cleola,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Plisthenes ;  then  to  Ae'rope,  the  widow 
of  his  son  Plistheues,  who  was  the  mother  of 
Agamemnon,  Menelaus,  and  Auaxibia,  either  by 
Phsthenes  or  by  Atreus  (vid.  AGAMEMNON)  ;  and 
lastly  to  Pelopia,  the  daughter  of  his  brother 
Thyestes.  The  tragic  fate  of  the  house  of  Tan 
talus  afforded  ample  materials  to  the  tragic 
poets  of  Greece,  who  relate  the  details  in  vari- 
ous ways.  In  consequence  of  the  murder  of 
their  half-brother  Chrysippus,  Atreus  and  Th) 
estes  were  obliged  to  take  to  flight ;  they  were 
hospitably  received  at  Mycenae;  and,  after  the 
death  of  Eurystheus,  Atreus  became  king  of 
Mycence.  Thyestes  seduced  Ae'rope,  the  wife 
of  Atreus,  and  was,  in  consequence,  banished  by 
his  brother :  from  his  place  of  exile  he  sent 
Plisthenes,  the  son  of  Atreus,  whom  he  had 
brought  up  as  his  own  child,  in  order  to  slay 
Atreus ;  but  Plisthenes  fell  by  the  hands  of 
Atreus,  who  did  not  know  that  he  was  his  own 
son.  In  order  to  take  revenge,  Atreus,  pretend- 
ing to  be  reconciled  to  Thyestes,  recalled  him 
to  Mycenae,  killed  his  two  sons,  and  placed  their 
flesh  before  their  father  at  a  banquet,  who  un- 
wittingly partook  of  the  horrid  meal.  Thyestes 
fled  with  horror,  and  the  gods  cursed  Atreus 
and  his  house.  The  kingdom  of  Atreus  was 
now  visited  by  famine,  and  the  oracle  advised 
Atreus  to  call  back  Thyestes.  Atreus,  who 
went  out  in  search  of  him,  came  to  King  Thes- 
protus,  and  as  he  did  not  find  him  there,  he  mar- 
ried his  third  wife,  Pelopia,  the  daughter  of  Thy- 
estes, whom  Atreus  believed  to  be  a  daughter 
of  Thesprotus.  Pelopia  was  at  the  time  with 
child  by  her  own  father.  This  child,  ^Egisthus, 
afterward  slew  Atreus,  because  the  latter  had 
commanded  him  to  slay  his  own  father  Thy- 
estes. Vid.  ^EGISTHUS.  The  treasury  of  Atreus 
and  his  sons  at  Mycenae,  which  is  mentioned  by 
Pausanias,  is  believed  by  some  to  exist  still  • 
but  the  ruins  which  remain  are  above  groundt 
whereas  Pausanias  speaks  of  the  building  an 
under  ground. 

ATRIA.     Vid.  ADRIA. 

ATRIDES  ('A-rpeidijc),  a  descendant  of  Atre**, 
especially  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus. 

ATRSPATENE  ('ATpOTrarrjvrj),  or  Media  Atrojja- 
tia  ('ArpoTrarta  or  -or  l/Lrjdia),  the  northwestern 
part  of  Media,  adjacv^t  to  Armenia,  named  after 
Atrophies,  a  native  of  the  country,  who,  having 
been  made  its  governor  by  Alexander,  founded 
there  a  kingdom,  which  long  remained  inde- 
pendent alike  of  the  Seleucidaa,  the  Parthians, 
and  the  Romans,  but  was  at  last  subdued  by  the 
Parthians. 

ATROP!TES  ('ArpoTrarjjf),  a  Persian  satrap, 
fought  at  the  battle  of  Gaugamela,  B.C.  331,  and 
after  the  death  of  Darius  was  made  satrap  of 
Media  by  Alexander.  His  daughter  was  mar- 
ried to  Perdiccas  in  324  ;  and  he  received  from 
his  father-in-law,  after  Alexander's  death,  the 
province  of  the  Greater  Media.  In  the  north- 
west of  the  country,  called  after  him,  Media 
Atropateue,  he  established  an  independent  king- 
125 


ATROPOS. 


ATTICUS   HERODES. 


dom,  which  continued  to  exist  down  to  tbe  time  ' 
of  the  Emperor  Augustus. 

AxaSpos.     Vid.  MOIEA 

ATT  A,  T.  QCIXTIUS,  a  Roman  comic  poet,  died 
B.C.  78.      His   surname   Atta  was  given  him  ! 
from  a  defect  in  his  feet,  to  which  circumstance 
Horace  probably  alludes  (En.,  ii.,  1,  79).     His  \ 
plays  were  very  popular,  and  were  acted  even  ! 
in  the  time  of  Augustus.     [The  fragments   of 
Atta  are  collected  by  Bothe,  Poet.  Scenic.  Lot.,  \ 
vol.  v.,  P.  iL,  p.  97-102;  cf.  Weichert,  Poet. 
Lat.  Reliquiae,  p  345.] 

ATTAGIXUS  ('ArrayZvof),   son    of    Phrynon,   a 
Theban,  betrayed  Thebes  to  Xerxes,  B.C.  480. 
After  the    battle  of   Plateae  (479)  the  other! 
Greeks  required  Attaginus  to  be  delivered  up 
to  them,  but  he  made  his  escape. 

ATTALIA  ('ArraAeia,  'Arra/lewr^f  or  -arjfr). —  j 
1.   A  city   of  Lydia,   formerly   called  Agroira  j 
('Aypofcpa). — 2.  (Now  Laara),   a    city  on    the  ( 
coast  of  Pamphylia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Riv-  ( 
er  Catarrhactes,  founded  by  Attains  II.  Phila- 
delphus,  and  subdued  by  the  Romans  under  P. 
Servilius  Isauricus.  • 

ATTALUS  ("Arra/lof).  1.  A  Macedonian,  uncle 
of  Cleopatra,  whom  Philip  married  in  B.C.  337. 
At  the  nuptials  of  his  niece,  Attalus  offered  an 
insult  to  Alexander,  and,  on  the  accession  of  the 
latter,  was  put  to  death  by  his  order  in  Asia 
Minor,  whither  Philip  had  previously  sent  him 
to  secure  the  Greek  ^cities  to  his  cause. — 2.  Son 
of  Androinenes  the  Stymphsean,  and  one  of 
Alexander's  officers.  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander (B.C.  323),  he  served  under  Perdiccas, 
whose  sister,  Atalante,  he  had  married  ;  and 
after  the  death  of  Perdiccas  (821),  he  joined  Al- 
cetas,  the  brother  of  Perdiccas ;  but  their  united 
forces  were  defeated  in  Pisidia  by  Antigouus 
in  320. — 3.  Kings  of  Pergamus. — (I.)  Son  of 
Attalus,  a  brother  of  Philetaerus,  succeeded  his 
cousin,  Eumenes  I.,  and  reigned  B.C.  241-197. 
He  took  part  with  the  Romans  against  Philip 
and  the  Achseans.  He  was  a  wise  and  just 
prince,  and  was  distinguished  by  liis  patronage 
of  literature. — (II.)  Surnamed  Philadelphia,  sec- 
ond son  of  Attalus  I.,  succeeded  his  brother  Eu- 
meues  II.,  and  reigned  159-138.  Like  his  father, 
he  was  an  ally  of  the  Romans,  and  he  also  en- 
couraged the  arts  and  sciences. — (III.)  Sur- 
named Philometor,  son  of  Eumenes  II.,  and 
Stratouice,  succeeded  his  uncle  Attalus  IL,  and 
reigned  138.-133.  He  is  known  to  us  chiefly  for 
the  extravagance  of  his  conduct  and  the  murder 
of  his  relations  and  friends.  In  his  will  he 
made  the  Romans  his  heirs ;  but  his  kingdom 
was  claimed  by  Aristonicus.  Vid.  AEISTONI- 
cus. — 4.  Roman  emperor  of  the  West,  was 
raised  to  the  throne  by  Alaric,  but  was  deposed 
by  the  latter,  after  a  reign  of  one  year  (AD. 
409,  410),  on  account  of  his  acting  without  Ala- 
ric's  advice. — 5.  *A  Stoic  philosopher  in  the  reign 
of  Tiberius,  was  one  of  the  teachers  -of  the  phi- 
losopher Seneca,  who  speaks  of  him  in  the 
highest  terms. 

ATTEGUA,  a  town  in  Hispania  Baetica,  of  un- 
certain site. 

ATTHIS  or  ATTIS  ("Ar&f  or  "Arrif),  daughter 
of  Cranaus,  from  whom  Attica  was  believed  to 
have  derived  its  name.  Tbe  two  birds  into 
which  Philomele  and  her  sister  Procne  were 
metamorphosed  were  likewise  called  Attis. 
126 


ATTICA  (^  'ATTIKJJ  sc.  yJi),  a  division  of  Greece, 
has  the  form  of  a  triangle,  two  sides  of  which 
are  washed  by  the  ^Egean  Sea,  while  the  third 
is  separated  from  Boaotia  on  the  north  by  the 
mountains  Cithaeron  and  Parnes.  Megaris, 
which  bounds  it  on  the  northwest,  was  formerly 
a  part  of  Attica.  In  ancient  times  it  was  called 
Acte  and  Actice  ('A/cn?  and  'Aim/cr/),  or  the 
"coastland"  (vid.  ACTE),  from  which  the  later 
form  Attica  is  said  to  have  been  derived ;  but, 
according  to  traditions,  it  derived  its  name  from 
Atthis,  the  daughter  of  the  mythical  king  Cra- 
naus ;  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  Alt-ica  may 
contain  the  root  Alt  or  Ath,  which  we  find  in 
Atthis  and  Athence.  Attica  is  divided  by  many 
ancient  writers  into  three  districts.  1.  The 
Highlands  (ij  diapaia,  also  6petvr}  '\TTIKIJ),  the 
northeast  of  the  country,  containing  the  range 
of  Parnes  and  extending  south  to  the  Promon- 
tory Cynosura ;  the  only  level  part  of  this  dis- 
trict was  the  small  plain  of  Marathon  opening 
to  the  sea.  2.  The  Plain  (^  Ttedidc,,  TO  irediov), 
the  northwest  of  the  country,  included  both  the 
plain  round  Athens  and  the  plain  round  Eleusis, 
and  extended  south  to  the  Promontory  Zoster. 
3.  The  Sea-coast  District  (TJ  irapaMa),  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  country,  terminating  in  the  Prom- 
ontory Sunium.  Besides  these  three  divisions 
we  also  read  of  a  fourth.  The  Midland  District 
(//cffoyam),  still  called  Mesogia,  an  undulating 
plain  in  the  middle  of  the  country,  bounded  by 
Mount  Pentelicus  on  the  north,  Mount  Hymet- 
tus  on  the  west,  and  the  sea  on  the  east.  The 
soil  of  Attica  is  not  very  fertile;  the  greater 
part  of  it  is  not  adapted  for  growing  corn ;  but  it 
produces  olives,  figs,  and  grapes,  especially  the 
two  former,  in  great  perfection.  The  country 
is  dry ;  the  chief  river  is  the  Cephisus,  which 
rises  in  Parnes  and  flows  through  the  Athenian 
plain.  The  abundance  of  wild  flowers  in  the 
country  made  the  honey  of  Mount  Hymettus 
very  celebrated  in  antiquity.  Excellent  marble 
was  obtained  from  tbe  quarries  of  Pentelicus, 
northeast  of  Athens,  and  a  considerable  supply 
of  silver  from  the  mines  of  Laurium,  near  Su- 
nium. The  area  of  Attica,  including  the  island 
of  Salaniis,  which  belonged  to  it,  contained  be- 
tween seven  hundred  and  eight  hundred  square 
miles;  and  its  population  in  its  flourishing  pe- 
riod was  probably  about  five  hundred  thousand, 
of  which  nearly  four  fifths  were  slaves.  Attica 
is  said  to  have  been  originally  inhabited  by  Pe- 
lasgians.  Its  most  ancient  political  division 
was  into  twelve  independent  states,  attributed 
to  CECKOPS,  who,  according  to  some  legends, 
came  from  Egypt.  Subsequently  Ion,  the  grand- 
son of  Hellen,  divided  the  people  into  four  tribes, 
Oeleontes,  Hopletes,  Argades  and  ^Efficores ;  and 
Theseus,  who  united  the  twelve  independent 
states  of  Attica  into  one  political  body,  and 
made  Athens  the  capital,  again  divided  the  na- 
tion into  three  classes,  the  Eupatridce,  Geomori, 
and  Demiurgi.  Clisthenes  (B.C.  510)  abolished 
the  old 'tribes  and  created  ten  new  ones,  accord- 
ing to  a  geographical  division:  these  tribes 
were  subdivided  into  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
four  demi  or  townships.  (For  details,  vid.  Diet, 
of  Ant.,  art.  TKIBUS). 

ATTICUS  HERODES,  TIBEKIUS  CLAUDIUS,  a  cel- 
ebrated Greek  rhetorician,  born  about  A.D.  104, 
at  Marathon  in  Attica.  He  taught  rhetoric  both 


ATTICUS. 


AUCHET^E. 


at  Athens  and  at  Rome,  and  his  school  was 
frequented  by  the  most  distinguished  men  of  ! 
the  age.  The  future  emperors  M.  Aurelius  and 
L.  Verus  were  among  his  pupils,  and  Antoni- 
nus Pius  raised  him  to  the  consulship  in  143. 
He  possessed  immense  wealth,  a  great  part  of 
which  he  spent  in  embellishing  Athens.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  seventy-six,  in  180.  He 
wrote  numerous  works,  none  of  which  have 
come  down  to  us,  with  the  exception  of  an  ora- 
tion, entitled  Hepi  •xoKirdaq,  the  genuineness  of 
which,  however,  is  very  doubtful  It  is  printed 
in  the  collections  of  the  Greek  orators,  and  by 
Fiorillo,  in  Herodis  Attici  qua.  supersunt,  Lips., 
1801.  ^ 

ATTICUS,  T.  POMPONIUS,  a  Roman  eques,  born 
at  Rome  B.C.  109.     His  proper  name,  after  his 
adoption  by  Q.  Caecilius,  the  brother  of  his  moth- 
er, was  Q.  Caecilius  Pomponiauus  Atticus.    His 
surname,  Atticus,   was  given   him  on   account 
of  his  long  residence  in  Athens  and  his  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  Greek  language  and  lit- 
erature.   He  was  educated  along  with  L.  Tor- 
quatus,  the  younger  C.  Marius,  and  M.  Cicero. 
Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  be- 
tween Marius  and  Sulla,  he  resolved  to  take  no 
part  in  the  contest,  and  accordingly  removed  to 
Athens.     During  the  remainder  of  his  life  he 
kept  aloof  from   all  political  affaire,  and  thus 
lived  on  the  most  intimate  terms  with  the  most 
distinguished  men  of  all  parties.    He  was  equal- 
ly the  friend  of  Caesar  and  Pompey,  of  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  of  Antony  and  Augustus :  but  his 
most  intimate    friend  was   Cicero,  whose  cor- 
respondence with  him,  beginning  in  68  and  con- 
tinued down  to  Cicero's  death,  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  remains  of  antiquity.     He  pur- 
chased  an   estate   at  Buthrotum  in  Epirus,  in 
which  place,  as  well  as  at  Athens  and  Rome,  he 
spent   the  greater  part  of  his   time,   engaged 
in  literary  pursuits  and  commercial  undertak- 
ings.    He  died  in  32,  at  the  age  of  77,  of  volun- 
tary starvation,  when  he  found  that  he  was  at- 
tacked by  an  incurable  illness.     His  wife  Pilia 
to  whom  he  was  married  in  56,  when  he  was  fifty- 
three  years  of  age,  bore  him  only  one  child,  a 
daughter,  Pomponia  or  Csecilia,  whom  Cicero 
sometimes  calls  Attica  and  Atticula.     She  was 
married  in  the  life-time  of  her  father  to  M.  Vip- 
sauius  Agrippa.     The  sister  of  Atticus,  Pom- 
pon ia,  was  married  to  Q.  Cicero,  the  brother  of 
the  orator.     The   life  of  Atticus  by  Cornelius 
Nepos  is  to  be  regarded  rather  as  a  panegyric 
upon  an  intimate  friend,  than,  strictly  speaking, 
a  biography.     In  philosophy  Atticus  belonged 
to  the  Epicurean  sect     He  was  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  whole  circle  of  Greek  and 
Roman  literature.     So  high  an  opinion  was  en- 
tertained of  his  taste  and  critical  acumen,  that 
many  of  his  friends,  especially  Cicero,  were  ac- 
customed to  send  him  their  works  for  revision 
and  correction.    None  of  his  own  writings  have 
cuim;  down  to  us. 

ATTILA  ('Arr/yAaf  or  'ArrtXaf,  German  Etzel, 
Hungarian  Ethele\  king  of  the  Huns,  attained 
in  A.D.  434,  with  his  brother  Bleda  (in  German 
Blodel),  to  the  sovereignty  of  all  the  northern 
tribes  between  the  frontier  of  Gaul  and  the  fron- 
tier of  China,  and  to  the  command  of  an  army 
of  at  least  five  hundred  thousand  barbarians. 
He  gradually  concentrated  upon  himself  the 


awe  and  fear  of  the  whole  ancient  world,  which 
ultimately   expressed  itself  by  affixing  to  his 
name  the  well-known  epithet  of  "  the  Scourge 
of    God."     His   career   divides  itself  into   two 
parts.     The  first  (A.D.  445-450)  consists  of  the 
ravage  of  the  Eastern  empire  between  the  Eux- 
ine  and  the  Adriatic  and  the  negotiations  with 
Theodosius  II.,  which  followed  upon  it.     They 
were  ended  by  a  treaty,  which  ceded  to  Attila  a 
large  territory  south  of  the  Danube  and  an  an- 
nual tribute.     The  second  part  of  his  career  was 
the  invasion  of  the  Western  empire  (450-452) 
He  crossed  the  Rhine  at  Strassburg,  but  was 
defeated  at  Chalons  by  Ae'tius,  and  Theodoric, 
king  of  the  Visigoths,  in  451.    He  then  cross- 
ed the  Alps,  and  took  Aquileia  in  452,  after  a 
siege  of  three  months,  but  he  did  not  attack 
Rome,  in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  his  inter- 
view with  Pope  Leo  the  Great.    He  reerossed 
the  Alps  toward  the  end  of  the  year,  and  died 
in  453,  on  the  night  of  his  marriage  with  a  beau- 
tiful girl,  variously  named  Hilda,  Ildico,  Mycolth, 
by  the  bursting  of  a  blood-vessel.     In  person 
Attila  was,  like  the  Mongolian  race  in  general,  a 
short>  thick-set  man,  of  stately  gait,  with  a  large 
head,  dark  complexion,  flat  nose,  thin  beard,  and 
bald  with  the  exception  of  a  few  white  hairs,  his 
eyes  small,  but  of  great  brilliancy  and  quickness 
ATTILIUS.     Vid.  ATILIUS. 
ATTIUS.      Vid.  Accics. 
ATTIUS  or  ATTUS  NAVIUS.     Vid.  NAVIUS. 
ATTIUS  TULLIUS.     Vid.  TULLIUS. 
[Anus  CLAUSUS.     Vid.  APPIUS  CLAUDIUS.  J 
ATUJJIA  ('A.Tovpid).     Vid.  ASSYBIA. 
ATURUS  (now  Adour),  a  river  in  Aquitania, 
rises  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  flows  through  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  T arbelli  into  the  ocean. 

ATYMNIUS  ('Arv/mof  or  "Art^vof).  1.  Son  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Cassiopea,  a  beautiful  boy, 
beloved  by  Sarpedon.  Others  call  him  son  of 
Phoenix. — [2.  Son  of  the  Lycian  king  Amisoda- 
rus,  came  as  an  ally  of  the  Trojans  to  the  war, 
was  slain  by  Nestor.] 

ATYS,  ATTYS,  ATTES,  ATTIS,  or  ATTIN  ("Art»f, 
"A.TTVf,  'A.TTIJC,  " ATTIC,   or  "Arrtv).     1.  Son   of 
Nana,  and  a  beautiful  shepherd  of  the  Phrygian 
town  Celaenae.     He  was  beloved  by  Cybele,  but 
as  he  proved  unfaithful  to  her,  he  was  thrown 
by  her  into  a  state  of  madness,  in  which  he  un- 
manned himself.     Cybele  thereupon  changed  him 
into  a  fir-tree,  which  henceforth  became  sacred 
j  to  her,  and  she  commanded  that,  in  future,  her 
j  priests  should  be  eunuchs.     Such  is  the  accouut 
in  Ovid  (Fast.,  iv.,  221),  but  his  story  is  related 
:  differently  by  other  writers.    Atys  was  worship 
ped  in  the  temples  of  Cybele  in  common  with 
!  this  goddess.     His  worship  appears  to  have  been 
I  introduced  into  Greece  at  a  comparatively  late 
I  period.     It  is  probable  that  the  mythus  of  Atys 
I  represents  the  twofold  character  of  nature,  the 
i  mule  and  female  concentrated  in  one. — 2.  Son 
!  of  Manes,  king  of  the  Maeouians,  from  whose 
sou  Lydus,  his  son  and  successor,  the  Mseoui- 
ans  were  afterward  called  Lydians. — 3.  A  Latin 
chief,  son  of  Alba,  aud  father  of  Capys,  from 
whom  the  Atia  Gens  derived  its  origin,  and  from 
1  whom  Augustus  was  believed  to  be  descended  on 
his  mother's  side. — 4.  Son  of  Croesus,  slain  by 
ADKASTUS. 

[AUCUKT^B  (AvxuTai),  a    Scythian   people  at 
|  the  sources  of  the  Hypauis  (now  £og).\ 
127 


AUFIDENA. 


AUGTJST1NUS. 


(Aufidfinas,  -&t\a :  now  Alfideno),  a  '  of  Sp.  Maelius  in  this  year  was  appeased  by  Au- 
town  iu  Samnmm,  on  the  River  Sagrus.  j  guriuus,  who  is  said  to  have  gone  over  to  the 

AUFIDICS.  1.  CN.,  a  learned  historian,  cele-  pleba  from  the  patricians,  and  to  have  been 
brated  by  Cicero  for  the  equanimity  with  which  chosen  by  the  tribunes  one  of  their  body.  Au- 
he  bore  blindness,  was  quaestor  B.C.  119,  tribu-  gurinus  lowered  the  price  of  corn  in  three  mark- 
ous  plebis  114,  and  finally  praetor  108. — 2  T.,  a  fet  days,  fixing  as  the  maximum  an  as  for  a  mo- 
jurist,  quaestor  B.C.  86,  and  afterward  proprietor  dius.  The  people,  in  their  gratitude,  presented 
in  Asia. — 3.  BASSUS.  Vid.  BASSUS. — 4.  LURCO.  him  with  an  ox  having  its  horns  gilt,  and  erect- 
Vid.  LURCO. — 5.  ORESTES.  Vid.  ORESTES.  |  ed  a  statue  to  his  honor  outside  the  Porta  Tri- 

AUFIDUS  (now  Ofanto),  the  principal  river  of  gemiua,  for  which  every  body  subscribed  an  ounce 
Apulia,  rises  in  the  Apennines,  in  the  territory  of  brass. 

of  the  Hirpini  in  Samnium,  flows  at  first  with  AUGUSTA,  the  name  of  several  towns  founded 
a  rapid  current  (hence  violens  and  acer,  Hor.,  or  colonked  by  Augustus.  1.  A.  ASTURICA, 
Carm.,  iii.,  30,  10 ;  Sat^  i ,  1,  58),  and  then  more  |  Vid.  ASTURES. — 2.  A.  EMERITA  (now  Merida),  in 
slowly  (stagna  Aufida,  Sil.  ItaL,  x,  171)  into  the  Lusitania,  on  the  Anas  (now  Guadiana),  colo- 
Adriatic.  Venusia,  the  birth-place  of  Horace,  nized  by  Augustus  with  the  veterans  (emerit) 


was  on  the  Aufidus. 

AUGARUS.        Vld.  ACBARUS. 

AUGE  or  AUGIA  (A.vyi}  or  Avyeia),  daughter  of 
Aleus  and  Neaera,  was  a  priestess  of  Athena 
(Minerva),  and  mother  by  Hercules  of  TELEPHUS 
She   afterward  married  Teuthras,  king  of  th 
Mysians. 

AUGEAS  or  AUGIAS  (Avyeaj-  or  Aiyeta?),  son 
of  Phorbas  or  Helios  (the  Sun),  and  king  of  th 
Epgans  in  Elis.    He  had  a  herd  of  three  thou 
sand  oxen,  whose  stalls  had  not  been  cleanse 
for  thirty  years.    It  was  one  of  the  labors  im 
posed  upon  Hercules  by  Eurystheus  to  cleanse 
these  stalls  in  one  day.    As  a  reward  the  hen 
was  to  receive  the  tenth  part  of  the  oxen  ;  bu 
when  he  had  accomplished  his  task  by  leading 
the  rivers  Alpheus  and  Peneus  through  the  sta 
bles,  Augeas  refused  to  keep  his  promise.    Her 
cules  thereupon  killed  him  and  his  sons,  with 
the  exception  of  Phyleus,  who  was  placed  on 
the  throne  of  his  father.     Another  tradition  rep- 
resents Augeas  as  dying  a  natural  death  at  an 
advanced  age,  and  as  receiving  heroic  honors 
from  Oxylus. 

[AucEas 


),  a  Grecian  comic  poet  of 
the  middle  comedy  at  Athens:  of  his  plays 
only  a  few  titles  remain.  For  the  Cyclic  poet 
whose  name  is  sometimes  thus  given,  vid.  A.GI- 


AS.1 


(Avyeiai),  name  of  two  cities  men- 
tioned in  the  Iliad ;  one  was  in  Laconia,  the 
other  in  Locris.] 

AUGILA  (rd,  Avyiha :  now  AujilaK),  an  oasis 
in  the  Great  Desert  of  Africa,  about  three  and 
a  half  degrees  south  of  Gyrene,  and  ten  days' 
journey  west  of  the  Oasis  of  Ammon,  abound- 
ing in  date  palms,  to  gather  the  fruit  of  which 
a  tribe  of  the  Nasamones,  called  Augila?  (A6- 
•yifau),  resorted  to  the  Oasis,  which  at  other 


times  was  uninhabited. 
AUGURIXUS,  GENUCIUS. 


1.  T,  consul  B.C.  451, 


and  a  member  of  the  first  decemvirate  in  the 


same  year.- 
sul  445. 


-2.  M-,  brother  of  the  preceding,  con- 


AUGURINUS,  MINUCIUS.  1.  M,  consul  B.C. 
497  and  491.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  de- 
fence of  Coriolanus,  who  was  brought  to  trial 
in  491,  but  was  unable  to  obtain  his  acquittal. 
— 2.  L.,  consul  458,  carried  on  war  against  the 
/Equians,  and  was  surrounded  by  the  enemy  on 
Mount  Algidus,  but  was  delivered  by  the  dicta- 
tor Cincinnatus. — 3.  L.,  was  appointed  prefect 
>f  the  corn-market  (prafectus  annonae)  439,  as 
<he  people  were  suffering  from  grievous  famine, 
by  the  assassination 


The 


ferment  occasioned 
12S 


of  the  fifth  and  tenth  legions,  was  a « place  of 
considerable  importance. — 3.  A.  FIRMA.  Vid, 
ASTIGI.— 4.  A.  PRETORIA  (now  Aosta  [contract- 
ed from  Augusta],  a  town  of  the  Salassi  in  Up- 
per Italy,  at  the  foot  of  the  Graian  and  Pennine 
Alps,  colonized  by  Augustus  with  soldiers  of 
the  praetorian  cohorts.  The  modern  town  still 
contains  many  Roman  remains,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  the  town  gates  and  a  tri- 
umphal arch. — 5.  A.  RAURACORUM  (now  Augst), 
the  capital  of  the  Rauraci,  colonized  by  Munatiua 
Plancus  under  Augustus,  was  on  the  left  of  the 
Rhine  near  the  modern  Basle :  the  ruins  of  a  Ro- 
man amphitheatre  are  still  to  be  seen. — 6.  A.  Su- 
ESSONUM  (now  Soissons),  the  capital  of  the  Sues- 
sones  in  Gallia  Belgica,  probably  the  Noviodu- 
nurn  of  Caesar. — 7.  A.  TAURINORUM  (now  Turin), 
more  anciently  called  Taurasia,  the  capital  of 
the  Taurini  on  the  Po,  was  an  important  town 
in  the  time  of  Hannibal,  and  was  colonized  by 
Augustus. — 8.  A.  TREVIROEUM.  Vid.  TREYIRL 
— 9.  TRICASTIXORUM  (now  Aouste),  the  capital 
of  the  Tricastini  in  Gallia  Narbonensis. — 10,  A. 
VINDKLICORUM  (now  Auffsburff),  capital  of  Viu- 
delicia  or  Ra3tia  Secunda  on  the  Licus  (now 
Lech),  colonized  by  Drusus  under  Augustus,  after 
the  conquest  of  Raetia,  about  B.C.  14. 

AUGUSTINUS,  AURELIUS,  usually  called  ST. 
AUGUSTINE,  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Latin 
fathers,  was  born  A.D.  354,  at  Tagaste,  an  in- 
land town  in  Numidia.  His  mother  was  a  sin- 
cere Christian,  who  exerted  herself  in  training 
up  her  son  in  the  practice  of  piety,  but  for  a  long 
time  without  effect.  He  studied  rhetoric  at 
Carthage,  where  he  embraced  the  Manichaean 
heresy,  to  which  he  adhered  for  nine  years. 
He  afterward  became  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  at 
Carthage,  but  in  383  he  went  to  Italy,  and  in 
Milan  was  led  by  the  preaching  and  conversa- 
ion  of  Ambrose  to  abandon  his  Manichaaan  er- 
rors and  embrace  Christianity.  He  was  bap- 
iized  by  Ambrose  in  387,  and  then  returned  to 
Africa,  where  he  passed  the  next  three  years 
n  seclusion,  devoting  himself  to  religious  ex- 
ercises. In  391  he  was  ordained  a  priest  by 
Valerius,  then  bishop  of  Hippo,  and  in  395  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Hippo.  His  history, 
rom  the  time  of  his  elevation  to  the  see  of  Hip- 
x>,  is  so  closely  implicated  with  the  Donatistic 
md  Pelagian  controversy,  that  it  would  be  irn- 
•racticable  to  pursue  its  details  within  our  lim- 
ts.  He  died  at  Hippo  in  430,  when  the  city 
was  besieged  by  the  Vandals.  Of  his  numerous 
works  the  two  most  interesting  are,  1.  His  Con- 
fessions,  in  thirteen  books,  written  iu  397,  con- 


AUGUSTOBONA. 


AUGUSTUS. 


tnining  au  account  of  bis  early  life-  2.  DC  Cuii- 
tate  Dei,  iu  twenty-two  books,  commenced  about 
413,  and  not  finished  before  426.  The  first  ten 
books  contain  a  refutation  of  the  various  sys- 
tems of  false  religion,  the  last  twelve  present  a 
systematic  view  of  the  true  religion.  The  best 
edition  of  the  collected  works  of  Augustine  is 
the  Benedictine,  11  vols.  M,  Paris,  1679-1700: 
[this  valuable  edition  was  reprinted  at  Paris,  in 
II  vols.,  imperial  8  vo.,  1836-39. 

AUGUSTOBONA  (now  Troyes),  afterward  called 
Tricassce,  the  capital  of  the  Trieasii  or  Tricasses, 
iu  Gallia  Lugdunensis. 

AUGUSTODUXUSC.        Vid.  BlBRACTE. 
AUGUSTONEMETUM.       Vid.    AfiVERNI. 

AUGUSTORITUM.     Vid.  LEMOVICES. 

AUGUSTULUS,ROMDLUS,  last  Roman  emperor  of 
the  "West,  was  placed  upon  the  throne  by  his  fa- 
ther Orestes  (A.D.  475),  after  the  latter  had  de- 
posed the  Emperor  Jnlius  Nepos.  In  476  Ores- 
tes was  defeated  by  Odoacer  and  put  to  death : 
Romulus  Augustulus  was  allowed  to  live,  but 
was  deprived  of  the  sovereignty. 

AUGUSTUS,  the  first  Roman  emperor,  was  born 
on  the  23d  of  September,  B.C.  63,  and  was  the 
son  of  C.  Octav  us  by  Atia,  a  daughter  of  Ju- 
lia, the  sister  of  C.  Julius  Caesar.  His  original 
uame  was  C.  Octavius,  and,  after  his  adoption 
by  his  great-uncle,  G.  Julius  Ccesar  Octavianus, 
but  for  the  sake  of  brevity  we  shall  call  him 
Augustus,  though  this  was  only  a  title  given 
him  by  the  senate  and  the  people  in  B.C.  27,  to 
express  their  veneration  for  him,  Augustus 
lost  his  father  at  four  years  of  age,  but  his  edu- 
cation was  conducted  with  great  care  by  his 
grandmother  Julia,  and  by  his  mother  and  step- 
father, L.  Marcius  Philippus,  whom  his  mother 
married  soon  after  his  father's  death.  C.  Julius 
Caesar,  who  had  no  male  issue,  also  watched 
over  his  education  with  solicitude.  He  joined 
bis  uncle  in  Spain  in  45.  in  the  campaign  against 
the  sons  of  Pompey,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
same  year  was  sent  by  Caesar  to  Apollonia  in 
niyricum,  where  some  legions  were  stationed, 
that  he  might  acquire  a  more  thorough  practical 
training  in  military  affairs,  and.  at  the  same  time, 
prosecute  his  studies.  He  was  at  Apellonia 
when  the  news  reached  him  of  his  uncle's  mur- 
der at  Rome  in  March,  44,  and  he  forthwith  set 
out  for  Italy,  accompanied  by  Agrippa  and  a  few 
other  friends.  On  landing  near  Brundisium  at 
the  beginning  of  April,  he  heard  that  Caesar  had 
adopted  him  in  his  testament  and  made  him  his 
heir.  He  now  assumed  the  name  of  Caesar, 
and  was  so  saluted  by  the  troops.  On  reaching 
Rome  about  the  beginning  of  May,  he  demanded 
nothing  but  the  private  property  which  Caesar 
had  left  him,  but  declared  that  lie  was  resolved 
to  avenge  the  murder  of  his  benefactor.  The 
state  of  parties  at  Rome  was  most  perplexing ; 
and  one  can  not  but  admire  the  extraordinary 
tact  and  prudence  which  Augustus  displayed, 
and  the  skill  with  which  a  youth  of  scarcely 
twenty  contrived  to  blind  the  most  experienced 
statesmen  in  Rome,  and  eventually  to  carry  all 
bU  designs  into  effect  Augustus  had  to  con- 
tend against  the  republican  party  as  well  as 
against  Antony ;  for  the  latter  foresaw  that  Au- 
gustus would  stand  in  the  way  of  his  views,  and 
had  therefore  attempted,  though  without  suc- 
cess, to  prevent  Augustus  from  accepting  the 
a 


inheritance  which  his  uncle  had  left  him.  Au 
gustus,  therefore,  resolved  to  crush  Antony  first 
as  the  more  dangerous  of  his  two  enemies,  anc 
accordingly  made  overtures  to  the  republicaL 
party.  These  were  so  well  received,  especialh 
when  two  legions  went  over  to  him,  that  the 
senate  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  praetor 
and  gent  him,  with  the  two  consuls  of  the  year 
C.  Vibius  Pansa  and  A.  Hirtius,  to  attack  An- 
tony, who  was  besieging  D.  Brutus  in  Mutiun 
Antony  was  defeated  and  obliged  to  fly  across 
the  Alps;  and  the  death  of  the  two  consult 
gave  Augustus  the  command  of  all  their  troops 
The  Senate  now  became  alarmed,  and  determ- 
ined to  prevent  Augustus  from  acquiring  fur- 
ther power.  But  he  soon  showed  that  he  did 
not  intend  to  become  the  senate's  servant  Sup 
ported  by  his  troops,  he  marched  upon  Rome  and 
demanded  the  consulship,  which  the  terrifieo 
senate  was  o"bliged  to  give  him.  He  was  elect 
ed  to  the  office  along  with  Q.  Pedius,  and  tht 
murderers  of  the  dictator  were  outlawed.  He 
now  marched  into  the  north  of  Italy,  profess- 
edly against  Antony,  who  had  been  joined  by 
Lepidus,  and  who  was  descending  from  the  Alps 
along  with  the  latter  at  the  head  of  seventeen 
legions.  Augustus  and  Antony  now  became 
reconciled ;  and  it  was  agreed  that  the  empire 
should  be  divided  between  Augustus,  Antony, 
and  Lepidus,  under  the  title  of  triumviri  rei 
publicce  constituendte,  and  that  this  arraagement 
should  last  for  the  uext  five  years.  They  pub- 
lished a  proscriptio,  or  list  of  all  their  enemies, 
whose  lives  were  to  be  sacrificed  and  their 
property  confiscated :  upward  of  two  thousand 
equities  and  three  hundred  senators  were  put  to 
death.  Among  whom  was  Cicero.  Soon  after- 
ward Augustus  and  Antony  crossed  over  to 
Greece,  and  defeated  Brutus  and  Cassius  at  the 
dicisive  battle  of  Philippi  in  42,  by  which  the 
hopes  of  the  republican  party  were  ruined.  The 
triumvirs  thereupon  made  a  new  division  of  the 
provinces.  Lepidus  obtained  Africa,  and  Au- 
gustus returned  to  Italy  to  reward  his  veterans 
with  the  lands  he  had  promised  them.  Here  a 
new  war  awaited  him  (41),  excited  by  Fulvia, 
the  wife  of  Antony.  She  was  supported  by  L 
Antonius,  the  consul  and  brother  of  the  trium- 
vir, who  threw  himself  into  the  fortified  town  of 
Perugia,  which  Augustus  succeeded  in  taking 
in  40.  Antony  now  made  preparations  for  war, 
but  the  opportune  death  of  Fulvia  led  to  a  rec- 
onciliation between  the  triumvirs,  who  con- 
cluded a  peace  at  Brundisium.  A  new  division 
of  the  provinces  was  again  made:  Augustus 
obtained  all  the  parts  of  the  empire  west  of  the 
town  of  Scodra  in  Illyricum,  and  Antony  the 
eastern  provinces,  while  Italy  was  to  belong  to 
them  in  commoa  Antony  married  Octavia,  the 
sister  of  Augustus,  in  order  to  cement  their  al- 
liance. In  39  Augustus  concluded  a  peece  with 
Sextus  Pompey,  whose  fleet  gave  him  the  com- 
mand of  the  sea,  and  enabled  him  to  prevent 
corn  from  reaching  Rome.  But  this  peace  was 
only  transitory.  As  long  as  Pompey  was  inde- 
pendent, Augustus  could  not  hope  to  obtain  the 
dominion  of  the  West,  and  he  therefore  eagerly 
availed  himself  of  the  pretext  that  Pompey  al 
lowed  piracy  to  go  on  in  the  Mediterranean  for 
the  purpose  of  declaring  war  against  him.  In 
36  the  contest  came  to  a  final  issue.  The  fleet 
129 


AUGUSTUS. 


AULON. 


of  Augustus,  under  the  command  of  Marcus 
Agrippa,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  that  of 
Pompey,  who  abandoned  Sicily  and  fled  to  Asia. 
Lepidus,  who  had  landed  in  Sicily  to  support  Au- 
gustus, was  impatient  of  the  subordinate  part 
which  he  had  hitherto  played,  and  claimed  the 
island  for  himself;  but  he  was  easily  subdued 
by  Augustus,  stripped  of  his  power,  and  sent  to 
Rome,  where  he  resided  for  the  remainder  of 
oTs  life,  being  allowed  to  retain  the  dignity  of 
pontifex  maximus.  In  35  and  34  Augustus  was 
engaged  in  war  with  the  Illyrians  and  Dalma- 
tians. Meantime,  Antony  "had  repudiated  Oc- 
tavia,  and  had  alienated  the  minds  of  the  Ro- 
man people  by  his  arbitrary  and  arrogant  pro- 
ceedings in  the  East.  Augustus  found  that  the 
Romans  were  quite  prepared  to  desert  his  rival, 
and  accordingly,  in  32,  the  senate  declared  war 
against  Cleopatra,  for  Antony  was  looked  upon 
only  as  her  infatuated  slave.  The  remainder 
of  the  year  was  occupied  by  preparations  for 
war  on  both  sides.  In  the  spring  of  81,  Au- 
gustus passed  over  to  Epirus,  and  in  Septem- 
ber in  the  same  year  his  fleet  gained  a  bril- 
liant victory  over  Antony's  near  the  promontory 
of  Actium  in  Acarnania.  In  the  following  year 
(30)  Augustus  sailed  to  Egypt  Antony  and 
Cleopatra,  who  had  escaped  in  safety  from  Ac- 
tium, put  an  end  to  their  lives  to  avoid  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror ;  and  Augustus 
now  became  the  undisputed  master  of  the  Ro- 
man Avorld.  He  returned  to  Rome  in  29,  and 
after  restoring  order  in  all  parts  of  the  govern- 
ment, he  proposed  in  the  senate  to  lay  down  his 
powers,  but  pretended  to  be  prevailed  upon  to 
remain  at  the  head  of  affairs  for  ten  years  long- 
er. This  plan  was  afterward  repeated  several 
times,  and  he  apparently  allowed  himself  to  be 
always  persuaded  to  retain  his  power  either  for 
ten  or  five  years  more.  He  declined  all  honors 
and  distinctions  which  were  calculated  to  re- 
mind the  Romans  of  kingly  power ;  but  he  ac- 
cepted in  33  the  imperium  proconsulare  and  the 
tribunitia  potestas  for  life,  by  which  his  inviola- 
bility was  legally  established,  while  by  the  impe- 
rium proconsulare  he  became  the  highest  au- 
thority in  all  the  Roman  provinces.  On  the 
death  of  Lepidus  in  12  he  became  pontifex  max- 
imus ;  but,  though  he  had  thus  united  in  his  own 
person  all  the  great  offices  of  state,  yet  he  was 
too  prudent  to  show  to  the  Romans  by  any  dis- 
play of  authority  that  he  was  the  sole  master. 
He  had  no  ministers,  in  our  sense  of  the  word ; 
but  on  state  matters,  which  he  did  not  choose  to 
be  discussed  in  public,  he  consulted  his  per- 
sonal friends,  C.  Cilnius  Maecenas,  M.  Vipsanius 
Agrippa,  M.  Valerius  Messalla  Corvinus,  and 
Asinius  Pollio.  The  people  retained  their  re- 
publican privileges,  though  they  were  mere 
forms :  they  still  met  in  their  assemblies,  and 
elected  consuls  and  other  magistrates,  but  only 
such  persons  were  elected  as  had  been  propos- 
ed or  recommended  by  the  emperor.  The  al- 
most uninterrupted  festivities,  games,  distribu- 
tions of  corn,  and  the  like,  made  the  people  for- 
get the  substance  of  their  republican  freedom, 
and  obey  contentedly  their  new  ruler.  The 
wars  of  Augustus  were  not  aggressive,  but  were 
chiefly  undertaken  to  protect  the  frontiers  of 
the  Roman  dominions.  Most  of  them  were  car- 
ried on  by  his  relations  and  friends,  but  he  con- 
130 


ducted  some  of  them  in  person.  Thus,  in  27. 
he  attacked  the  warlike  Cantabri  and  Astures 
in  Spain,  whose  subjugation,  however,  was  not 
completed  till  19,  by  Agrippa.  In  21  Augustus 
travelled  through  Sicily  and  Greece,  and.  spent 
the  winter  following  at  Samos.  Next  year 
(20)  he  went  to  Syria,  where  he  received  from 
Phraates,  the  Parthian  monarch,  the  standards 
and  prisoners  which  had  been  taken  from  Craa- 
sus  and  Antony.  In  16  the  Romans  suffered' a 
defeat  on  the  Lower  Rhine  by  some  German 
tribes ;  whereupon  Augustus  went  himself  to 
Gaul,  and  spent  four  years  there,  to  regulate 
the  government  of  that  province,  and  to  make 
the  necessary  preparations  for  defending  it 
against  the  Germans.  In  9  he  again  went  to 
Gaul,  where  he  received  German  ambassadors, 
who  sued  for  peace ;  and  from  this  time  for- 
ward, he  does  not  appear  to  have  again  taken 
any  active  part  in  the  wars  that  were  carried 
on.  Those  in  Germany  were  the  most  formid- 
able, and  lasted  longer  than  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus. He  died  at  Nola,  on  the  29th  of  August, 
A.D.  14,  at  the  age  of  seventy-six.  Augustus 
was  first  married,  though  only  nominally,  to 
Clodia,  a  daughter  of  Clodius  and  Fulvia.  His 
second  wife,  Scribonia,  bore  him  his  only  daugh- 
ter, Julia.  His  third  wife  was  Livia  Drusilla, 
the  wife  of  Tiberius  Nero.  Augustus  had  at 
first  fixed  on  M.  Marcellus  as  his  successor,  the 
son  of  his  sister  Octavia,  who  was  married  to 
his  daughter  Julia.  After  his  death  Julia  was 
married  to  Agrippa,  and  her  two  sons,  Caiua 
and  Lucius  Caesar,  were  now  destined  by  Au- 
gustus as  his  successors.  On  the  death  of  these 
two  youths,  Augustus  was  persuaded  to  adopt 
Tiberius,  the  son  of  Livia,  and  to  make  him  his 
colleague  and  successor.  Vid.  TIBERIUS. 

AULERCI,  a  powerful  Gallic  people  dwelling 
between  the  Sequana  (now  Seine)  and  the  Liger 
(now  Loire),  were  divided  into  three  great  tribes. 
1.  A.  EBUROVICES,  near  the  coast,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine,  in  the  modern  Normandy : 
their  capital  was  Mediolanum,  afterward  called 
Eburovices  (now  JEvreux). — 2.  A.  CENOMANI, 
southwest  of  the  preceding,  near  the  Liger; 
their  capital  was  Subdinnum  (now  le  Mans).  At 
an  early  period  some  of  the  Cenomani  crossed 
the  Alps  and  settled  in  Upper  Italy. — 3.  A.  BRAN- 
NOVICES,  east  of  the  Ceuomani,  near  the  ^Edui, 
whose  clients  they  were.  The  Diablintes  men- 
tioned by  Caesar  are  said  by  Ptolemy  to  have 
been  likewise  a  branch  of  the  Aulerci. 

[AULESTES,  a  Tyrrhenian,  an  ally  of  ^Eneas, 
slain  by  Messapus.J 

AULIS  (Ai/U'f),  a  harbor  in  Bceotia,  on  the  Eu- 
ripus,  where  the  Greek  fleet  assembled  before 
sailing  against.Troy :  it  had  a  temple  of  Artemis 
(Diana). 

AULON  (AvAwv :  At>Awvm7f).  1.  A  district 
and  town  on  the  borders  of  Elis  and  Messenia, 
with  a  temple  of  ^Esculapius,  who  hence  had 
the  surname  Aulonius. — 2.  A  town  in  Chalcid- 
ice  in  Macedonia,  on  the  Strymonic  Gulf. — 3. 
(Now  Melons),  a  fertile  valley  near  Tarentum, 
celebrated  for  its  wine  (amicus  AuLon  fertili 
Baccho;  Hor.,  Carm.,  il,  6,  18.) — [4.  REGIUS 
(AvAuv  6  /3aaihiKo<;),  a  valley  of  Syria,  not  far 
from  Damascus. — 5.  The  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
extending  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  includ- 
ing tba  Dead  Sea  the  southern  part  of  it 


AULUS   GELLIUS. 


M.  AURELITJS  ANTONINUS. 


IB  the  fertile  plain  of  Jericho. — 6.  Cilicius,  the 
strait  between  Cyprus  and  the  coast  of  Cilicia.] 

[AULUS  GELLIUS.     Vid.  GELLIUS.] 

AURANITIS  (A-vpavlrif :  now  Hauran),  a  dis- 
trict south  of  Damascus  and  east  of  Iturasa  and 
Batauaea,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan,  be- 
longing either  to  Palestine  or  to  Arabia. 

AUREA  CHERSONESUS  (TJ  Xovaij  Xspaovrjaof), 
';he  name  given  by  the  late  geographers  to  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  [or,  as  others  maintain,  to  the 
southern  part  of  PeouJ]  They  also  mention  an 
A  urea  Regio  beyond  the  Ganges,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  country  round  Ava. 

AURELIA,  the  wife  of  C.  Julius  Caesar,  by  whom, 
she  became  the  mother  of  C.  Julius  Caesar,  the 
dictator,  and  of  two  daughters.  She  carefully 
watched  over  the  education  of  her  children,  and 
always  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  success  of 
her  son.  She  died  in  B.C.  54,  while  Caesar  was 
in  Gaul. 

AUBELIA  GE.VS,  plebeian,  of  which  the  most 
important  members  are  given  under  their  family 
names,  GOTTA,  ORESTES,  and  SCAURUS. 

AURELIA  ORESTILLA,  a  beautiful  but  profligate 
woman,  whom  Catiline  married.  As  Aurelia  at 
first  refused  to  marry  him  because  he  had  a 
grown-up  son  by  a  former  marriage,  Catiline  is 
said  to  have  killed  his  own  offspring  in  order  to 
remove  this  impediment  to  their  union. 

AURELIA  VIA,  the  great  coast  road  from  Rome 
to  Transalpine  Gaul,  at  first  extended  no  further 
than  Pisa;,  but  was  afterward  continued  along 
the  coast  to  G-enua  and  Forum  Julii  in  Gaul. 

AURELIANI.     Vid.  GENABUM. 

AURELIANUS,  Roman  emperor,  A.D.  270-275, 
was  born  about  A.D.  212,  at  Sirmium,  in  Pan- 
nouia.  He  entered  the  army  as  a  common  sol- 
dier, and  by  his  extraordinary  bravery  was  rais- 
ed to  offices  of  trust  and  honor  by  Valerian  and 
Claudius  II.  On  the  death  of  the  latter,  he  was 
elected  emperor  by  the  legions  at  Sirmium.  His 
reign  presents  a  succession  of  brilliant  exploits, 
which  restored  for  a  while  their  ancient  lustre 
to  the  arms  of  Rome.  He  first  defeated  the 
Goths  and  Vandals,  who  had  crossed  the  Dan- 
ube, and  were  ravaging  Pannonia.  He  next 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Alemanni  and 
other  German  tribes :  but  they  succeeded,  not- 
withstanding, in  crossing  the  Alps.  Near  Pla- 
centia  they  defeated  the  Romans,  but  were 
eventually  overcome  by  Aurelian  in  two  deci- 
sive engagements  in  Umbria.  After  crushing 
a  formidable  conspiracy  at  Rome,  Aurelian  next 
turned  his  arms  against  Zenobia,  queen  of  Pal- 
myra, whom  he  defeated,  took  prisoner,  and 
carried  with  him  to  Rome.  Vid,  ZENOBIA.  On 
his  return  he  marched  to  Alexandria  and  put 
Firm  us  to  death,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of 
emperor.  He  then  proceeded  to  the  West, 
where  Gaul,  Britain,  and  Spain  were  still  in  the 
hands  of  Tetricus,  who  had  been  declared  em- 
peror a  short  time  before  the  death  of  Gallicnus. 
Tetricus  surrendered  to  Aurelian  in  a  battle 
fought  near  Chalons.  Vid.  TKTRICUS.  The  em- 
peror now  devoted  his  attention  to  domestic  im- 
provements and  reforms.  Many  works  of  public 
utility  were  commenced:  the  most  important 
of  all  was  the  erection  of  a  new  line  of  strongly 
fortified  walls,  embracing  a  much  more  ample 
circuit  than  the  old  ones,  which  had  long  since 
fallen  into  ruin;  but  this  vast  plan  waa  not 


completed  until  the  reign  of  Probus.  After  a 
short  residence  in  the  city,  Aurelian  visited  the 
provinces  on  the  Danube.  He  now  entirely 
abandoned  Dacia,  which  had  been  first  con- 
quered by  Trajan,  and  made  the  southern  bunk 
of  the  Danube,  as  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  the 
boundary  of  the  empire.  A  large  force  was  now 
collected  in  Thrace  in  preparation  for  an  expe- 
dition against  the  Persians ;  but  while  the  em- 
peror was  on  the  march  between  Heraclea  and 
Byzantium,  he  was  killed  by  some  of  his  officers. 
They  had  been  induced  to  conspire  against  him 
by  a  certain  Mnestheus,  the  freedman  of  the  em 
peror  and  his  private  secretary,  who  had  betray 
ed  his  trust,  and,  fearful  of  punishment,  had,  by 
means  of  forged  documents,  organized  the  con- 
spiracy. 

AURELIANUS,  C^ELIUS  or  C(ELIUS,  a  very  cel- 
ebrated Latin  physician,  was  a  native  of  Nu- 
midia,  and  probably  lived  in  the  fourth  century 
after  Christ.  Of  bis  writings  we  possess  three 
books  On  Acute  Diseases.  "  Celerum  Passionum" 
(or  "  De  Morbis  Acutis"),  and  five  books  On 
Chronic  Diseases,  "Tardarum  Passionum"  (or 
"  De  Morbis  Chronicis").  Edited  by  Amman, 
AmsteL,  1709. 

AURELIUS  ANTONINUS,  M.,  Roman  emperor, 
A.D.  161-180,  commonly  called  "the  philoso- 
pher," was  born  at  Rome  on  the  20th  of  April, 
A.D.  121.  He  was  adopted  by  Antoninus  Pius 
immediately  after  the  latter  had  been  himself 
adopted  by  Hadrian,  received  the  title  of  Caesar, 
and  married  Faustina,  the  daughter  of  Pius 
(138).  On  the  death  of  the  latter  in  161,  he 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  but  he  admitted  to  an 
equal  share  of  the  sovereign  power  L.  Ceionius 
Commodus,  who  had  been  adopted  by  Pias  at 
the  same  time  as  Marcus  himself.  The  two 
emperors  henceforward  bore  respectively  the 
names  of  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus  and  L.  Aure- 
lius  Verus.  Soon  after  their  accession  Verus 
was  dispatched  to  the  East,  and  for  four  years 
(A.D.  162-165)  carried  on  war  with  great  suc- 
cess against  Vologeses  III.,  king  of  Parthia, 
over  whom  his  lieutenants,  especially  Avidius 
Cassius,  gained  many  victories.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  war  both  emperors  triumphed, 
and  assumed  the  titles  of  Armeniacus,  Parthicus 
Maximus,  and  Medicus.  Meantime  Italy  was 
threatened  by  the  numerous  tribes  dwelling 
along  the  northern  limits  of  the  empire,  from 
the  sources  of  the  Danube  to  the  Illyrian  border. 
Both  emperors  set  out  to  encounter  the  foe; 
and  the  contest  with  the  northern  nations  was 
continued  with  varying  success  during  the 
whole  life  of  M.  Aurelius.  whose  head-quarters 
were  generally  fixed  in  Paunonia.  After  the 
death  of  Verus  in  169,  Aurelius  prosecuted  the 
war  against  the  Marcomanni  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  in  consequence  of  his  victories  over 
them,  he  assumed  in  172  the  title  of  Germani- 
cus,  which  he  also  conferred  upon  his  sou  Com- 
modus. In  174  he  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Quadi,  mainly  through  a  violent  storm, 
which  threw  the  barbarians  into  confusion. 
This  storm  is  said  to  have  been  owing  to  the 
prayers  of  a  legion  chiefly  composed  of  Chris- 
tians. It  has  given  rise  to  a  famous  contro- 
versy among  the  historians  of  Christianity  upon 
what  is  commonly  termed  the  Miracle  of  the 
Thundering  Legion.  The  Marcomanni  and  the 
131 


AURELIUS   VICTOR. 


AUTOLYCUS. 


other  northern  barbarians  concluded  a  peace 
with  Aurclius  in  175,  who  forthwith  set  out  for 
the  East,  where  Avidius  Cassius,  urged  on  by 
Faustina,  the  unworthy  wife  of  Aurelius,  had 
risen  iu  rebellion  and  proclaimed  himself  em- 
peror. But  before  Aurelius  reached  the  East, 
Cassius  had  been  slain  by  his  own  officers.  On 
his  arrival  in  the  East,  Aurelius  acted  with  the 
greatest  clemency ;  none  of  the  accomplices  of 
Cassius  were  put  to  death ;  and  to  establish 
perfect  confidence  in  all,  he  ordered  the  papers 
of  Cassius  to  be  destroyed  without  suffering 
them  to  be  read.  During  this  expedition,  Faus- 
tina, who  had  accompanied  her  husband,  died, 
according  to  some,  by  her  own  hands.  Aure- 
lius returned  to  Rome  toward  the  end  of  176 ; 
but  in  178  he  set  out  again  for  Germany,  where 
the  Marcomanni  and  their  confederates  had 
again  renewed  the  war.  He  gained  several 
victories  over  them,  but  died,  in  the  middle  of 
the  war,  on  March  17th,  180,  in  Pannonia,  either 
at  Vindobona  (now  Vienna)  or  at  Sirmium,  in 
the  fifty-niuth  year  of  his  age  and  twentieth  of 
his  reign.  The  leading  feature  in  the  charac- 
ter of  M.  Aurelius  was  his  devotion  to  philoso- 
phy and  literature.  When  only  twelve  years 
old,  he  adopted  the  dress  and  practiced  the  aus- 
terities of  the  Stoics,  and  he  continued  through- 
out his  life  a  warm  adherent  and  a  bright  orna- 
ment of  the  Stoic  philosophy.  We  still  possess 
a  work  by  M.  Aurelius,  written  in  the  Greek 
language,  and  entitled  To  efr  kavrov,  or  Medita- 
tions, in  twelve  books.  It  is  a  sort  of  common- 
place book,  in  which  were  registered  from  time 
to  time  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  author 
upon  moral  and  religious  topics,  without  an  at- 
tempt at  order  or  arrangement.  No  remains  of 
antiquity  present  a  nobler  view  of  philosophical 
heathenism.  The  best  edition  of  the  Meditations 
is  by  Gataker,  Cantab.,  1652,  and  Lond.,  1697. 
The  chief,  and  perhaps  the  only  stain  upon  the 
memory  of  Aurelius  is  his  two  persecutions  of 
the  Christians;  in  the  former  of  which,  166,  the 
martyrdom  of  Polycarp  occurred,  and  in  the  lat- 
ter,  177,  that  of  Irenaeus.  Aurelius  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  son  Commodus. 

AURELIUS  VICTOE.     Vid.  Victor. 

AUREOLUS,  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  (A.D. 
260-267),  who  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus  du- 
ring the  feeble  rule  of  Gallienus.  Aureolus  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions  of  Illyria  in 
'267,  and  made  himself  master  of  Northern  Italy, 
but  he  was  defeated  and  slain  in  battle  in  268, 
by  Claudius  II.,  the  successor  of  Gallienus. 

[AURINIA,  a  prophetess,  held  in  great  venera- 
tion by  the  Germans,  spoken  of  in  connection 
with  Veleda  by  Tacitus.  J 

AURORA.   Vid.  Eos. 

AURUNCL     Vid.  ITALIA. 

AURUNCULEIUS  CoTTA.        Vid.  CoTTA. 

AUSA.     Vid.  AUSETAM. 

[AUSAR  (A.vaap,  now  Serchio),  a  river  of  Etru- 
ria,  which  anciently  joined  the  Arnus;  but  at 
present  they  both  flow  into  the  sea  by  different 
channels.] 

Ausci  or  Auscn,  a  powerful  people  in  Aquita- 
nia  who  possessed  the  Latin  franchise ;  their  cap- 
ital was  called  Climberrum  or  Elimberrum,  also 
Augusta  and  Ausci  (now  Auch). 

ACSETANI,  a  Spanish  people  in  the  modem 
Catalonia :  their  capital  was  Ausa  (now  Vique). 
132 


AUSON  (A.VOUV),  son  of  Ulysses  and  Calypso  or 
Circe,  from  whom  the  country  of  the  Auruncans 
was  believed  to  have  been  called  Ausonia. 

AUSONES,  AUSONIA.     Vid.  ITALIA. 

AUSONIUS,  DECIMUS  MAGNUS,  a  Roman  poet, 
born  at  Burdigala  (now  Bourdcaux),  about  A.D 
310,  taught  grammar  and  rhetoric  with  such 
reputation  at  his  native  town  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed tutor  of  Gratian,  son  of  the  Emperor 
Valentinian,  and  was  afterward  raised  to  the 
highest  honors  of  the  state.  He  was  appointed 
by  Gratian  praefectus  of  Latium,  of  Libya,  and 
of  Gaul,  and  in  379  was  elevated  to  the  consul- 
ship. After  the  death  of  Gratian  in  383,  he 
retired  from  public  life,  and  ended  his  days  in  a 
country  retreat  near  Bourdeaux,  perhaps  about 
890.  It  is  most  probable  that  lie  was  a  Chris- 
tian and  not  a  heathen.  His  extant  works  are, 
1.  Epigrammatum  Liber,  a  collection  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  epigrams. — 2.  Ephemeris,  con- 
taining an  account  of  the  business  and  proceed- 
ings of  a  day. — 3  Parentalia,  a  series  of  short 
poems,  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  deceased 
friends  and  relations,  and  commemorating  theii 
virtues. — 4.  Professorex,  notices  of  the  Profes- 
sors of  Bordeaux. — 5.  Epitaphia  Heroum,  epi- 
taphs on  the  heroes  who  fell  in  the  Trojan  war 
and  a  few  others. — 6.  A  metrical  catalogue  of 
the  first  twelve  Caesars. — 7.  Tetrasticha,  on  the 
Caesars  from  Julius  to  Elagabalus. — 8.  Clara 
Urbes,  the  praises  of  fourteen  illustrious  cities. 
— 9.  Ludus  Septem  Sapientum,  the  doctrines  of 
the  seven  sages  expounded  by  each  in  his  own 
person. — 10.  Idyllia,  a  collection  of  twenty 
poems. — 11.  Eclogarium,  short  poems  connected 
with  the  Calendar,  etc. — 12.  JKpistolcs,  twenty- 
five  letters,  some  in  verse  and  some  in  prose. — 
1 3.  Gratiarum  Actio  pro  Consulate,  in  prose,  ad- 
dressed to  Gratian. — 14.  Periochce,  short  argu- 
ments to  each  book  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. — 
15.  Tres  Prcefatiunculoe.  Of  these  works  the 
Idyls  have  attracted  most  notice,  and  of  them  the 
most  pleasing  is  the  Mosella,  or  a  description  of 
the  River  Moselle.  Ausonius  possesses  skill  in 
versification,  but  is  destitute  of  all  the  higher  at- 
tributes of  a  poet  The  best  edition  of  his  com- 
plete works  is  by  Tollius,  Amstel.,  1671. 

AUSTER,  called  Notus  (Norjf)  by  the  Greeks, 
the  south  wind,  or  strictly  the  southwest  wind,  is 
personified  as  the  god  of  the  south  wind,  son  of 
Astrasus  and  Eos  (Aurora).  It  frequently  brought 
with  it  fogs  and  rain  ;  but  at  certain  seasons  of 
the  year  it  was  a  dry,  sultry  wind  (hence  called 
plumbeus  Auster,  Hor.,  Sat.,  ii.,  6, 18),  injurious 
both  to  man  and  to  vegetation,  the  Sirocco  of  the 
modern  Italians. 

AUTARIAT^E  (AiiTapiurat),  an  Illyrian  people 
in  the  Dalmatian  mountains,  extinct  in  Strabo'k 
time. 

AUTESIODOHUM,  -URUM  (now  Auzerre),  a  town 
of  the  Senones  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis. 

AUTESION  (AvTeaiuv),  son  of  Tisamenus,  father 
of  Theras  and  Argia,  left  Thebes  at  the  command 
of  an  oracle,  and  joined  the  Dorians  in  Pelopon- 
nesus. 

AUTOCHTHONES  (avroxOovcs').  Vid,  ABORIGI- 
NES. 

AUTOLOLES,  or  -M  (A.vTo?.6?iai)  a  Gaetulian  tribe 
on  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  south  of  the  Atlaa 
Mountains. 

AUTOLYCUS  (Airo/n/cof).    1.  Son  of  Mercury 


AUTOMALA. 

(Hermes)  and  Chione,  father  of  Auticlea,  and 
thus  maternal  grandfather  of  Ulysses.  He  lived 
on  Mount  Parnassus,  and  was  renowned  for  his 
cunning  and  robberies.  Ulysses,  when  staying 
with  him  on  one  occasion,  was  wounded  by  a 
boar  011  Parnassus,  and  it  was  by  the  scar  of 
this  wound  that  he  was  recognized  by  his  aged 
nurse  when  he  returned  from  Troy. — 2.  A  Thes- 
saliar,  son  of  De'imachus,  one  of  the  Argonauts, 
and  the  founder  of  Sinope. — 3.  A  mathematician 
of  Pitane  in  JSolis,  lived  about  B.C.  340,  and 
wrote  two  astronomical  treatises,  which  are  the 
most  ancient  existing  specimens  of  the  Greek 
mathematics. — 1.  On  the  Motion  of  the  Sphere 
(Trepl  Kivovfievrif  a<j>aipaf). — 2.  On  the  risings  and 
settings  of  the  fixed  stars  (xepl.  E-ITLTO^UV  not 
6vaeuv).  Edited  by  Dasypodius  in  his  Sphceri- 
cce  Doctrince  Propositiones,  Argent,  1572. 

AUTOMALA  (ra  AvTOftaZa),  a  fortified  place  on 
the  Great  Syrtis  in  Northern  Africa. 

AUTOMEDON  (\vTope6uv).  1.  Son  of  Diores, 
the  charioteer  and  companion  of  Achilles,  and, 
after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  companion  of 
his  son  Pyrrhus.  Hence  Automedon  is  the 
name  of  any  skillful  charioteer.  (Cic.,  pro  Hose. 
Am.,  35;  Juv.,  L,  61.) — 2.  Of  Cyzicus,  a  Greek 
poet,  twelve  of  whose  epigrams  are  in  the  Greek 
Anthology,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nerva,  A.D. 
96-98. 

AUTOMOLI  (AvrojUoAot),  as  a  proper  name,  was 
applied  to  the  Egyptian  soldiers,  who  were  said 
to  have  deserted  from  Psammetichus  into  ^Ethi- 
opia, where  they  founded  the  kingdom  of  MERGE. 

AUTONOE  (\.i>Tovon).  1.  Daughter  of  Cadmus 
and  Harmouia,  wife  of  Aristaeus,  and  mother 
of  Actaeon.  With  her  sister  Agave,  she  tore 
Pentheus  to  pieces  in  their  Bacchic  fury:  her 
tomb  was  shown  in  the  territory  of  Megara. — 
[2.  A  handmaid  of  Penelope,  mentioned  in  the 
Odyssey.]  ,.  -.  < 

AUTRIGONES,  a  people  in  Hispania  Tarraco- 
nensis,  between  the  ocean  (Bay  of  Biscay)  and 
the  upper  course  of  the  Iberus :  their  chief  town 
was  FLAVIOBRIGA. 

AUTRONIUS  P-iETUS.       Vid.  FOETUS. 

AUXESIA  (A.i>£i}oia\  the  goddess  who  grants 
growth  and  prosperity  to  the  fields,  honored  at 
Trcezen  and  Epidaurus,  was  another  name  for 
Proserpina  (Persephone).  Damia,  who  was 
honored  along  with  Auxesia  at  Epidaurus  and 
Trazen,  was  only  another  name  for  Ceres  (De- 
meter.) 

AUXIMUM  (Auximaa,  -Stis :  now  Osimo),  an 
important  town  of  Picenum  in  Italy,  and  a  Ro- 
man colony. 

AuxCicE  or  Ax-  (Ai/tovfti)  or  'Afw//»?,  and  other 
forme :  Av^ovfurai  or  'A^u/urai,  Ac. :  now  Ax- 
um,  ruins  southwest  of  Adowa),  the  capital  of  a 
powerful  kingdom  in  ./Ethiopia,  to  the  southwest 
of  Meroe,  in  Habesh  or  Abyssinia,  which  either 
first  arose  or  first  became  known  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  in  the  early  part  of  the  second  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  It  grew  upon  the  decline  of 
the  kingdon  of  Meroe,  and  extended  beyond  the 
Straits  of  Bdb-el-Mandeb  into  Arabia.  Being  a 
mountainous  region,  watered  by  the  numerous 
upper  streams  of  the  Astaboras  and  Astapus, 
and  intersected  by  the  caravan  routes  from  the 
interior  of  Africa  to  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Gulf 
of  Bab-el-Maudeb,  the  country  possessed  great 
internal  resources  and  a  flourishing  commerce. 


AVIENUS,   RUFUS. 

AUZEA,  or  -IA,  or  AUDIA  (now  Sur-Guzlwi.  01 
Hamza,  ruins),  a  city  in  the  interior  of  Maure 
tania  Csesariensis  ;  a  Roman  colony  under  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  Antoninus. 

AVALITES  (AicArn/f :  now  Zeilali),  an  emp<t- 
rium  in  Southern  ^Ethiopia,  on  a  bay  of  the 
Erythraean  Sea,  called  Avalites  Sinus  ('A.  /co/l- 
Trof ),  probably  the  Grulf  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  or  its 
innermost  part,  south  of  the  Straits.  A  people, 
Avatitae,  are  also  mentioned  in  these  parts. 

AVARICUM.       Vid.  BlTCRIGES. 

AVELLA.     Vid.  ABELLA. 

AVENIO  (now  Avignon),  a  town  of  the  Cavares, 
in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhone. 

AVEXTICUM  (now  Avenckes),  the  chief  town  of 
the  Helvetii,  and  subsequently  a  Roman  colony 
with  the  name  Pia  flavia  Constans  Emerita,  of 
which  nuns  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  modem 
town. 

AVENTINENSIS,  GENUCius.  1.  L.,  consul  B.C. 
365,  and  again  362,  was  killed  in  battle  against 
the  Hernicans  in  the  latter  of  these  years,  and 
his  army  routed. — 2.  C.v.,  consul  363. 

AVENTINUS,  son  of  Hercules  and  the  priestess 
Rhea. 

AVENTINUS  MONS.     Vid.  ROMA. 

AVERNUS  LACCS  (ft  "Aopvof  ?.iuvT]:  now  Lago 
Averno),  a  lake  close  to  the  promontory  which 
runs  out  into  the  sea  between  Cumae  and  Pu 
teoli.  This  lake  fills  the  crater  of  an  extiuct 
volcano :  it  is  circular,  about  one  and  a  half 
miles  in  circumference,  is  very  deep,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  high  banks,  which  in  antiquity  were 
covered  by  a  gloomy  forest  sacred  to  Hecate. 
From  its  waters  mephitic  vapors  arose,  which 
are  said  to  have  killed  the  birds  that  attempted 
to  fly  over  it,  from  which  circumstance  its 
Greek  name  was  supposed  to  be  derived  (from 
a,  priv.,  and  opvtf).  The  lake  was  celebrated 
in  mythology  on  account  of  its  connection  with 
the  lower  world.  On  its  banks  dwelt  the  Cim- 
merians in  constant  darkness,  and  near  it  was 
the  cave  of  the  Cumaean  Sibyl,  through  which 
^Eneas  descended  to  the  lower  world.  Agrippn, 
in  the  time  of  Augustus,  cut  down  the  forest 
which  surrounded  the  lake,  and  connected  tho 
latter  with  the  Lucrine  Lake ;  he  also  caused 
a  tunnel  to  be  made  from  the  lake  to  Cumaa,  of 
which  a  considerable  part  remains,  and  is  known 
under  the  title  of  Grotta  di  Sibylla.  The  Lu 
crine  Lake  was  filled  up  by  an  eruption  in  1530, 
so  that  Avernus  is  again  a  separate  lake. 

AVIANUS,  FLAVIUS,  the  author  of  forty-two 
./Esopic  fables  in  Latin  elegiac  verse,  which  are 
of  very  little  merit  both  as  respects  the  matter 
and  the  style.  The  date  of  Avianus  is  uncer- 
tain ;  he  probably  h'ved  in  the  third  or  fourth 
century  of  the  Christian  era. — Editions:  By 
Cannegieter,  AmsteL,  1731 ;  by  Nodell,.Amstel., 
1787  ;  and  by  Lachmann,  Berol,  1845. 

[Avioius  CASSIUS.     Vid.  CASSIUS.] 

AVIKNUS,  RCFUS  FESTUS,  a  Latin  poet  toward 
the  end  of  tho  fourth  century  of  the  Christian 
era.  His  poems  are  chiefly  descriptive,  and  are 
some  of  the  best  specimens  of  the  poetry  of 
that  age.  His  works  are,  1.  Descriptio-  Orbis 
Terra,  also  called  Metaphrasis  Pcriegeseos  Dio- 
nysii,  in  1394  hexameter  lines,  derived  directly 
from  the  xepiqyijoif  of  Dionysius,  and  containing 
a  succinct  account  of  the  most  remarkable  ob 
133 


AVIONES. 


BABYLON. 


jccts  in  the  physical  and  political  geography  of 
the  known  world. — 2.  Ora  Maritima,  a  fragment 
in  703  iambic  trimeters,  describing  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  from  Marseilles  to  Cadiz. 
— 3.  Aratea  Phenomena  and  Aratea  Prognostic^ 
both  in  hexameter  verse,  the  first  containing 
1325,  the  second  552  lines,  being  a  paraphrase 
of  the  two  works  of  Aratus.  The  poems  are 
edited  by  Wernsdorf,  in  his  Poetce  Latini  Alino- 
res,  vol.  v.,  pt  iL,  which,  however,  does  not  in- 
clude the  Aratea :  [reprinted,  with  the  addition 
of  the  Aratea,  by  Lemaire,  in  the  fifth  volume  of 
his  Poetce  Latini  Minorca,  Paris,  1824-26.] 

AVIONES,  a  people  in  the  north  of  Germany, 
whose  position  is  uncertain. 

AVITUS,  ALPHIUS,  a  Latin  poet  under  Augustus 
and  Tiberius,  the  fragments  of  some  of  whose 
poems  are  preserved  in  the  Anthologia  Latina. 

AVITUS,  GLUENTIUS.     Vid.  CLUENTIUS. 

AVITUS,  M.  M^ECILIUS,  Emperor  of  the  West, 
was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  assistance  of 
Theodoric  IL,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  in  A.D. 
455 ;  but,  after  a  year's  reign,  was  deposed  by 
Riciraer. 

[AXANTOS,  another  name  of  Uxantis  (now 
Ouessant),  on  the  northwestern  coast  of  Gallia.] 

[AXELLODUNUM  (now  Brugh  ?),  a  castle  of  the 
Brigautes  in  Britannia.] 

AXENUS.     Vid.  EUXINDS  PONTUS. 

AXIA  (now  Castell  cFAsso),  a  fortress  in  the 
territory  of  Tarquinii  in  Etruria. 

AXION  ('A&'wv),  son  of  Phegeus,  brother  of 
Temenus,  along  with  whom  he  killed  Alcmaeon. 

[Axiomcus  ('A^iovtKOf),  an  Athenian  poet  of 
the  middle  comedy,'  of  whose  plays  only  a  few 
fragments  have  been  preserved  in  Athenaeus : 
these  are  published  collectively  in  Meineke's 
Fragmenta  Comic.  Grcec.,  voL  ii.,  p.  769-72,  edit, 
minor.] 

AXIOTHEA  ('A&o0ea),  a  maiden  of  Phlius,  who 
came  to  Athens,  and,  putting  on  male  attire,  was 
for  some  time  a  hearer  of  Plato,  and  afterward 
of  Speusippus. 

Axius,  Q^  an  intimate  friend  of  Cicero  and 
Varro,  one  of  the  speakers  in  the  third  book  of 
Varro's  De  Re  Rustica. 

Axius  ('Aftof :  now  Wardar  or  Vardhari),  the 
chief  river  in  Macedonia,  rises  in  Mount  Scar- 
dus,  receives  many  affluents,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  the  Erigon,  and  flows  southeast 
through  Macedonia  into  the  Thermaic  Gulf.  As 
a  river-god,  Axius  begot  by  Peribcea  a  Son,  Pel- 
agon,  the  father  of  ASTEROP.SUS. 

AXONA  (now  Aisne),  a.  river  in  Gallia  Belgica 
which  falls  into  the  Isara  (now  Oise). 

Axt?ME.     Vid.  AUXUME. 

[Axes  ('A£df),  capital  of  a  small  kingdom  in 
Crete.] 

[AXVLUS  (*Afu/lof),  a  Thracian  prince,  men- 
tioned in  the  Iliad,  son  of  Teuthranus,  slain  by 
Diomedes.] 

AZAN  ('Afav),  son  of  Areas  and  the  nymph 
Erato,  brother  of  Aphidas  and  Elatus.  The  part 
of  Arcadia  which  he  received  from  his  father 
was  called  Azania :  it  was  on  the  borders  of 
Elis. 

AZANI  ('A&voi  :  'Afcv'iTric.),  a  town  of  Phrygia, 
on  the  River  Rhyndacus,  and  twenty  miles  south- 
west of  Cotyaeium  (now  Kiutayah).  The  ruins  of 
columns,  capitals,  and  other  architectural  frag- 
ments are  scattered  over  the  ground.  There 
134 


are  also  the  remains  of  a  splendid  temple  and 
of  a  theatre.  This  ancient  site  was  discovered 
by  Mr.  KeppeL 

AZANIA  or  BARBARIA  ('Afavta,  EapCapia  :  now 
Ajari),  the  region  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Afri- 
ca, south  of  Aromata  Promontorium  (now  Cape 
Onardafui),  as  far  as  Rhaptum  Promontorium 
(now  Cape  Formosa  /). 

AZENIA  ('A$7i>/a :  'A£ijvi£vf),  a  demus  in  the 
southwest  of  Attica,  near  Sunium,  belonging  to 
the  tribe  Hippothoontis. 

AZEUS  ('AfetJf),  son  of  Clymenus  of  Orchome- 
nos,  brother  of  Erginus,  Stratius,  Arrhon,  and 
Pyleus,  father  of  Actor  and  grandfather  of  As- 
tyoohe. 

[AziRis  ("Aftptf  in  Hdt.,  or  "A£t/Uf  in  Call. : 
now  Temmineh),  a  city  of  Marmarica  in  Africa, 
opposite  to  the  island  of  Platea,  and  founded  by 
the  Theraeans.] 

AZORUS  or  AZORIUM  ("A&pof,  'A&ptov  :  'A£u- 
pirrjc,,  'A&pidrqf,  'Afepevf),  a  town  in  the  north 
of  Thessaly,  on  the  western  slope  of  Olympus, 
formed,  with  Doliche  and  Pythium,  the  PerrhsB- 
bian  Tripolis. 

AZOTUS  ("Afiurof :  'Afurtof :  now  Ashdod  or 
Ashdoud),  a  city  of  Palestine,  near  the  sea-coast 
nine  miles  northeast  of  Ascalon.  It  was  one 
of  the  free  cities  of  the  Philistines,  which  were 
included  within  the  portion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 

B. 

BABRIUS  (DuSpiof),  a  Greek  poet,  probably  in 
the  tune  of  Augustus,  turned  the  fables  of  ^Esop 
into  verse,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  were 
known  till  within  the  last  few  years,  when  a 
manuscript  containing  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  fables  was  discovered  on  Mount  Athos. 
Edited  by  Lachmann,  Berol.,  1845;  by  Orelli 
and  Baiter,  Turic,,  1845  :  by  -Lewis,  Lond.,  1847. 

BABYLON  (BafoAwv :  Ba6vAwviOf,  fern.  Bafiv- 
huvif :  Babel  in  Old  Testament :  ruins  at  and 
around  Hillah),  one  of  the  oldest  and  greatest 
cities  of  the  ancient  world,  the  capital  of  a  great 
empire,  was  built  on  both  sides  of  the  River 
Euphrates,  in  about  32°  28'  north  latitude  Its 
foundation,  and  the  establishment  of  a  kingdom 
by  Nimrod,  with  the  city  for  a  capital,  are 
among  the  first  recorded  facts  subsequent  to 
the  Deluge  (Gen.,x.,  9,  10;  xi,  1-10).  Secu- 
lar history  ascribes  its  origin  to  Belus  (L  e., 
the  god  Baal),  and  its  enlargement  and  decora- 
tion to  Ninus,  or  his  wife  Semiramis ;  or,  accord 
ing  to  another  tradition,  the  country  was  sub 
dued  by  Ninus,  and  the  city  was  subsequently 
built  by  Semiramis,  who  made  it  the  capital  of 
the  Assyrian  empire.  At  all  events,  it  is  pretty 
clear  that  Babylon  was  subject  to  the  Assyr- 
ian kings  of  Nineveh  from  a  very  early  period  ; 
and  the  time  at  which  the  governors  of  Babylon 
first  succeeded  in  making  themselves  virtually 
independent,  can  not  be  determined  with  any 
certainty  until  we  know  more  of  the  history 
of  the  early  Assyrian  dynasties.  Compare  NA- 
BONASSAR.  The  Babylonian  empire  begins  with 
the  reign  of  Nabopolassar,  the  father  of  Nebu 
chadnezzar,  who,  with  the  aid  of  the  Median 
king  Cyaxares,  overthrew  the  Assyrian  mon- 
archy, and  destroyed  Nineveh  (B.C.  606),  and 
soon  afterward  defended  his  kingdom  against 
the  aggressions  (at  first  successful)  of  Necno 


BABYLON. 


BACCHIAD^E. 


king  of  Egypt,  in  the  battle  of  Circesium,  B.C. 
604.  Under  his  son  and  successor,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (B.C.  604-562),  the  Babylouian  empire 
reached  its  height,  and  extended  from  the  Eu- 
phrates to  Egypt,  and  from  the  mountains  of 
Armenia  to  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  After  his 
death  it  again  declined,  until  it  was  overthrown 
by  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  the  Medes  and 
Persians  under  Cyrus  (B.C.  538),  who  made  the 
city  one  of  the  capitals  of  the  Persian  empire, 
the  others  being  Susa  and  Ecbatana.  Under 
his  successors  the  city  rapidly  sank.  Darius  I. 
dismantled  its  fortifications,  in  consequence  of  a 
revolt  of  its  inhabitants ;  Xerxes  carried  off 
the  golden  statue  of  Belus,  and  the  temple  in 
which  it  stood  became  a  ruin.  After  the  death 
of  Alexander,  Babylon  became  a  part  of  the 
Syrian  kingdom  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  who  con- 
tributed to  its  decline  by  the  foundation  of  SE- 
LEUCIA  on  the  Tigris,  which  soon  eclipsed  it 
At  the  commencement  of  our  era,  the  greater 
part  of  the  city  was  in  ruins ;  and  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  all  its  visible  remains  consist  of  mounds 
of  earth,  ruined  masses  of  brick  walls,  and  a 
few  scattered  fragments.  Its  very  site  has 
been  turned  into  a  dreary  marsh  by  repeated  in- 
undations from  the  river.  The  city  of  Babylon 
had  reached  the  summit  of  its  magnificence  in 
the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  It  formed  a 
square,  each  side  of  which  was  one  hundred 
and  twenty  stadia  (twelve  geographical  miles) 
in  length.  The  walls,  of  burned  brick,  were 
two  hundred  cubits  high  and  fifty  thick ;  in 
them  were  two  hundred  and  fifty  towers  and 
sixty  bronze  gates  ;  and  they  were  surrounded 
by  a  deep  ditch.  The  Euphrates,  which  divided 
the  city  into  two  equal  parts,  was  embanked 
with  walls  of  brick,  the  openings  of  which,  at 
the  ends  of  the  transverse  streets,  were  closed  by 
gates  of  bronze.  A  bridge,  built  on  piers  of 
hewn  stone,  united  the  two  quarters  of  the  city ; 
and  at  each  end  of  it  stood  a  royal  palace  :  these 
erections  were  ascribed  to  Serniramis.  Of  two 
other  public  buildings  of  the  greatest  celebrity, 
the  one  was  the  temple  of  Belus,  rising  to  a 
great  height,  and  consisting  of  eight  stories, 
gradually  diminishing  in  width,  and  ascended  by 
a  flight  of  steps,  which  womnd  round  the  whole 
building  on  the  outside ;  in  the  uppermost  story 
was  the  golden  statue  of  Belus,  with  a  golden 
altar  and  other  treasures :  this  building  also 
was  ascribed  to  Semiramis.  The  other  edifice 
referred  to  was  the  "  hanging  gardens"  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  laid  out  upon  terraces  which 
were  raised  above  one  another  on  arches.  The 
houses  of  the  city  were  three  or  four  stories  in 
height,  and  the  streets  were  straight,  intersect- 
ing one  another  at  right  angles.  The  buildings 
were  almost  universally  constructed  of  bricks, 
some  burned,  and  some  only  sun-dried,  cemented 
together  with  hot  bitumen,  and  in  some  cases 
with  mortar.  The  Babylonians  were  certainly  a 
Semitic  race;  but  the  ruling  class,  to  which  the 
kings,  and  priests,  and  the  men  of  learning  be- 
longed, were  the  Chaldxans,  whose  origin  and  [ 
affinities  are  somewhat  doubtful ;  the  most ! 
probable  opinion,  however,  is  that  they  were  a  ' 
tribe  of  invaders,  who  descended  from  the  ' 
mountains  on  the  borders  of  Armenia,  and  con-  ! 
quered  the  Babylonians.  The  religion  of  the  ' 
Chaldfflans  was  Sabaism,  or  the  worship  of  the 


heavenly  bodies,  not  purely  so,  but  symbolized 
in  the  forms  of  idols,  besides  whom  they  had 
other  divinities,  representing  the  powers  of  na 
ture.  The  priests  formed  a  caste,  and  culti- 
vated science,  especially  astronomy ;  in  which 
they  knew  the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  five  of  the  planets,  the  calculation  of 
eclipses  of  the  moon,  the  division  of  the  zodiac 
into  twelve  constellations,  and  of  the  year  into 
twelve  months,  and  the  measurement  of  time  by 
the  sun-dial.  They  must  also  have  had  other  in- 
struments for  measuring  time,  such  as  the  water- 
clock,  for  instance ;  and  it  is  highly  probable 
that  the  definite  methods  of  determining  such 
quantities,  which  the  Chaldaean  astronomers  in- 
vented, were  the  origin  of  the  systems  of 
weights  and  measures  used  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Their  buildings  prove  their  knowledge 
of  mechanics ;  and  their  remains,  slight  as  they 
are,  show  considerable  progress  in  the  fine  arts. 
The  Babylonian  government  was  an  unlimited 
monarchy ;  the  king  appears  to  have  lived  in 
almost  total  seclusion  from  his  people,  sur- 
rounded by  his  court ;  and  the  provinces  were 
administered  by  governors,  like  the  Persian  sa- 
traps, responsible  only  to  the  monarch,  whose 
commands  they  obeyed  or  defied  according  to 
his  strength  or  weakness.  The  position  of  the 
city  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Euphrates,  by 
which  it  was  connected  with  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  at  the  meeting  of  natural  routes  between 
Eastern  Asia  and  India  on  the  one  side,  and 
Europe,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Arabia 
on  the  other,  made  it  the  seat  of  a  flourish- 
ing commerce,  and  of  immense  wealth  and  lux- 
ury. The  district  around  the  city,  bounded  by 
the  Tigris  on  the  east,  Mesopotamia  on  the 
north,  the  Arabian  Desert  ou  the  west,  and  ex 
tending  to  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the 
south,  was  known  in  later  times  by  the  name  of 
BABYLONIA  (now  Irak  Arabi),  sometimes  also 
called  Chaldsea.  But  compare  CHALD^EA.  This 
district  was  a  plain,  subject  to  continual  inunda- 
tions from  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  which 
were  regulated  by  canals,  the  chief  of  which 
was  the  Naarmalcha,  i.  e.,  Royal  River  or  Canal 
(norafibf  /JacrZAetof,  diupvg  (3aai%iKtj,  flumen  re- 
gium),  which  extended  from  the  Tigris  at  Se- 
leucia  due  west  to  the  Euphrates,  and  was  navi- 
gable. The  country  was  fertile,  but  deficient 
in  trees. 

BABYLON  (Ba.6v2.uv :  near  Fostat  or  Old  Cairo), 
a  fortress  in  Lower  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of, 
the  Nile,  exactly  opposite  to  the  pyramids,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  canal  which  connected 
the  Nile  with  the  Red  Sea.  Its  origin  was  as- 
cribed by  tradition  to  a  body  of  Babylonian  de- 
serters. It  first  became  an  important  place 
under  the  Romans.  Augustus  made  it  the  sta- 
tion of  one  of  the  three  Egyptian  legions. 

BABYLONIA.      Vid.  BABYLON. 

BACCH^  (BuKxai),  also  called  Mcenades  and 
Thyiade*.  1.  The  female  companions  of  Diony- 
sus or  Bacchus  in  his  wanderings  through  the 
East,  are  represented  as  crowned  with  vine 
leaves,  clothed  with  fawn  skins,  and  carrying  in 
their  hands  the  thyrsus  (vid.  Diet,  of  Ant^  -i.  v.). 
— 2.  Priestesses  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  who,  by 
wine  and  other  exciting  causes,  worked  them- 
selves up  to  phrensy  at  the  Dionysiac  festivals. 

BACCHIAD^E  (BaK^iudat),  an  Heraclid  clan,  de- 
'35 


BACCHIUM. 

rived  their  names  from  Bacchis,  king  of  Corinth, 
and  retained  the  supreme  rule  in  that  state,  first 
under  a  monarchical  form  of  government,  and 
next  as  a  close  oligarchy,  till  their  deposition  by 
Cypselus,  about  B.C.  C57.  They  were,  for  the 
most  part,  driven  into  banishment,  and  are  said 
to  have  taken  refuge  in  different  parts  of  Greece 
and  even  Italy. 

[BACCHIUM  (BuK^elov),  an  island  in  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  lying  before  the  harbor  of  the  city  Phoca)a, 
beautifully  adorned  with  temples  and  works  of 
art,  which  were  destroyed  by  the  Romans  under 
J5milius,  B.C.  190.] 

BACCHIUS  (Ba/c^eZof).  1.  The  author  of  a  short 
musical  treatise  called  elaayuyi}  Texvrif  uovaiKyf, 
printed  by  Meibomius,  in  the  Antiques  Nuaicce 
Auctores  Septem,  Arnst,  1652. — 2.  Of  Tanagra  in 
Boeotia,  one  of  the  earliest  commentators  on  the 
writings  of  Hippocrates  :  his  writings  have  per- 
ished.— 3.  Of  Miletus,  the  author  of  a  work  on 
agriculture. 

BACCHUS.     Vid.  DIONYSUS. 

BACCHYLIDES  (BaKXvMdrjf),  one  of  the  great  ly- 
ric poets  of  Greece,  born  at  lulis  in  Ceos,  and  ne- 
S*iew  as  well  as  fellow-townsman  of  Simonides. 
e  flourished  about  B.C.  470,  and  lived  a  long 
time  at  the  court  of  Hiero  in  Syracuse,  together 
with  Simonides  and  Pindar.  He  wrote  in  the 
Doric  dialect  Hymns,  Paeans,  Dithyrambs,  <fec. ; 
but  all  his  poems  have  perished,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  fragments,  and  two  epigrams  in 
the  Greek  Antho'ogy.  The  fragments  have 
been  published  by  iS'eue,  Bacchylidis  Cei  Frag- 
menta,  Berol.,  1523,  and  by  Bergk,  Poetce  Lyrici 
GrcEci,  p.  820. 

BACENIS  SILVA,  a  forest  which  separated  the 
Suevi  from  the  Cherusci,  probably  the  western 
part  of  the  Thuringian  Forest. 

BACIS  (BaKif),  the  name  of  several  prophets, 
of  whom  the  most  celebrated  was  the  Boeotian 
seer,  who  delivered  his  oracles  in  hexameter 
verse  at  Heleon  in  Bceotia.  In  later  times  there 
existed  a  collection  of  his  oracles,  similar  to  the 
Sibylline  books  at  Rome. 

BACTRA  or  ZAEIASPA  (rd  Bu/crpa,  TO.  Zapiaona 
and  j]  ZapiuGTrrj :  now  Balkh),  the  capital  of 
BACTRIA,  appears  to  have  been  founded  by  the 
early  Persian  kings,  but  not  to  have  been  a  con- 
siderable city  till  the  time  of  Alexander,  who 
settled  in  it  his  Greek  mercenaries  and  his  dis- 
abled Macedonian  soldiers.  It  stood  at  the 
northern  foot  of  the  Mount  Paropamisus  (the 
Hindoo  Koosli),  on  the  River  Bactrus  (now  Adir- 
siah  or  Dehas),  about  twenty-five  miles  south  of 
its  junction  with  the  Oxus.  It  was  the  centre  of 
a  considerable  traffic.  The  existing  ruins,  twenty 
miles  in  circuit,  are  all  of  the  Mohammedan 
period. 

BACTRIA  or  -IANA  (Battrpiavij :  'BuKTpoi,  -101, 
•tavoi :  now  Bokhara),  a  province  of  the  Persian 
empire,  bounded  on  the  south  by  Mount  Paropa- 
misus,  which  separated  it  from  Ariana,  gn  the 
east  by  the  northern  branch  of  the  same  range, 
which  divided  it  from  the  Sacae,  on  the  northeast 
by  the  Oxus,  which  separated  it  from  Sogdiana, 
and  on  the  west  by  Margiana.  It  was  inhab- 
ited by  a  rude  and  warlike  people,  who  were 
Bubdued  by  Cyrus  or  his  next  successors.  It 
was  included  in  the  conquests  of  Alexander, 
and  formed  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleu- 
cidie  until  B.C.  255,  when  Theodotus,  its  gov- 
136 


BAGOAS. 

ernor,  revolted  from  Antiochus  II.,  and  founded 
the  Greek  kingdom  of  Bactrin,  which  lasted 
till  B.C.  184  or  125,  when  it  was  overthrown 
by  the  Parthians,  with  whom,  during  its  whole 
duration,  its  kings  were  sometimes  at  war,  and 
sometimes  in  alliance  against  Syria.  This  Greek 
kingdom  extended  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
province  of  Bactria,  and  included  at  least  a 
part  of  Sogdiana.  Bactria  was  watered  by 
the  Oxus  aud  its  tributaries,  and  contained 
much  fertile  land;  and  much  of  the  com- 
merce between  Western  Asia  and  India  passed 
through  it 

[BACTRUS  (Ba/crpof),  a  river  of  Bactria.  Vid. 
BACTRIA.] 

[BACUNTIUS  (now  Bosnuth),  a  river  of  Lower 
Pannonia,  which  empties  into  the  Savus  near 
Sirmium.] 

BADUHENN^E  Lucus,  a  wood  in  "Western  Fries 
land. 

B^EBIA  GENS,  plebeian,  the  most  important 
members  of  which  are  given  under  their  sur- 
names, DIVES,  SULCA,  TAMPHILUS. 

B^ECULA,  a  town  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis, 
west  of  Castulo,  in  the  neighborhood  of  silver 
mines. 

Vid.  BELON.] 

(now  Porto  Barbate),  a  harbor  on 
Junonis  Promontorium,  not  far  from  Gades,  in 
Hispania  Baetica.] 

B^TERR^S  (now  Beziers)  also  called  BITERREN- 
sis  URBS,  a  town  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the 
Obris,  not  far  from  Narbo,  and  a  Roman  colony : 
its  neighborhood  produced  good  wine. 

BAETICA.     Vid.  HISPANIA. 

B^ETIS  (now  Guadalquiver),  a  river  in  South- 
em  Spain,  formerly  called  TARTESSUS,  and  by  the 
inhabitants  CERTIS,  rises  in  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis, in  the  territory  of  the  Oretani,  flows  south- 
west through  Bretica,  to  which  it  gives  its  name, 
past  the  cities  of  Corbuda  and  Hispalis,  and  falle 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  two  mouths,  north  of 
Gades. 

[B^rruniA  (Batrwpta),  the  northwestern  part 
of  Baetica,  between  the  Anas  and  Monnt  Ma- 
rianus.] 

BAGACUM  (now  Bavai),  the  chief  town  of  the 
Nervii  in  Gallia  Belglca :  there  are  many  Roman 
remains  in  the  modern  town. 

BAGAUD<E,  a  Gallic  people,  who  revolted  under 
Diocletian,  and  were  with  difficulty  subdued  by 
Maximian,  A.D.  286. 

[BAGISTANUS  MONS  (rd  'Baylaravov  opof),  a 
mountain  range  in  Media,  southeast  of  Ecbat- 
ana,  and  made  by  the  Greeks  sacred  to  Jupi- 
ter :  the  region  around  was  called  Bagistana.. 
This  mountain  is  now  more  correctly  termed 
the  "  sacred  rock  of  Behistun."  According  to 
the  ancients,  it  had  the  figure  of  Semiramis  cut 
upon  it,  with  a  Syrian  inscription ;  but  Major 
Rawlinson  has  shown  that  the  inscription  on 
the  rock  was  executed  by  order  of  Darius  Hys- 
taspis.] 

BAGOAS  (Baywaf),  a  eunuch,  highly  trusted 
and  favored  by  Artaxerxes  IIL  (Ochus),  whom 
he  poisoned  B.C.  338.  He  was  put  to  death  by 
Darius  III.  Codomannus,  whom  he  had  attempted 
likewise  to  poison,  336.  The  name  Bagoas  fre 
quently  occurs  in  Persian  history,  and  is  some- 
times used  by  Latin  writers  as  synonymous  with 
a  eunuch. 


BAGRADAS. 


BARBARI. 


BAGRADAS  (^aypdSac,  :  now  Mejerdah),  a  river 
of  Northern  Africa,  falling  into  the  Gulf  of  Car- 
thage near  Utica. 

BALE  (Baianus),  a  town  in  Campania,  on  a 
small  bay  west  of  Naples,  and  opposite  Puteoli, 
was  situated  in  a  beautiful  country,  which 
abounded  in  warm  mineral  springs.  The  baths 
of  Baiae  were  the  most  celebrated  in  Italy,  and 
the  town  itself  was  the  favorite  watering-place 
of  the  Romans,  who  flocked  thither  in  crowds 
for  health  and  pleasure ;  it  was  distinguished 
by  licentiousness  and  immorality.  The  whole 
country  was  studded  with  the  palaces  of  the 
Roman  nobles  and  emperors,  which  covered 
the  coast  from  Baias  to  Puteoli :  many  of  these 
palaces  were  built  out  into  the  sea.  (Hor., 
Carm.,  ii.,  18,  20.)  The  site  of  ancient  Baiae 
is  now,  for  the  most  part,  covered  by  the  sea. 

[BALA.Y.EA,  (Bahavaia :  now  Banias),  a  city  of 
Syria,  on  the  coast,  north  of  Aradus,  by  Ste- 
phanus  Byzantinus  assigned  to  Phoenicia.] 

[BALBILLUS,  made  governor  of  Egypt  by  Nero, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  that  province.] 

BALBIXUS,  D.  GAELICS,  was  elected  emperor 
by  the  senate  along  with  M.  Clodius  Pupienus 
Maximus,  after  the  murder  of  the  two  Gordians 
in  Africa  at  the  beginning  of  A.D.  238  ;  but  the 
new  emperors  were  slain  by  the  soldiers  at 
Rome  in  June  in  the  same  year. 

BALBUS,  M'.  ACILIUS,  the  name  of  two  con- 
suls, one  in  B.C.  150,  and  the  other  in  114. 

BALBUS,  T.  AMPIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
63,  was  a  supporter  of  Pompey,  whom  he  join- 
ed in  the  civil  war  B.C.  49.  He  was  pardoned 
by  Caesar  through  the  intercession  of  Cicero, 
who  wrote  to  him  .on  the  occasion  (ad 


BALBDS,  M.  ATIUS,  of  Aricia,  married  Julia, 
the  sister  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  bore  him  a 
daughter,  Atia,  the  mother  of  Augustus  Caesar. 

BALBUS,  L.  CORNELIUS.  1.  Of  Gades,  served 
under  Q.  Metellus  and  Pompey  against  Serto- 
rius  in  Spain,  and  received  from  Pompey  the 
Roman  citizenship.  He  accompanied  Pompey 
on  his  return  to  Rome,  B.C.  71,  and  was  for  aj 
long  time  one  of  his  most  intimate  friends.  At 
the  same  time  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Caesar, 
who  placed  great  confidence  in  him.  As  the 
friend  of  Caesar  and  Pompey,  he  had  numerous 
enemies,  who  accused  him  in  56  of  having  ille- 
gally assumed  the  Roman  citizenship;  he  was 
defended  by  Cicero,  whose  speech  has  come 
down  to  us,  and  was  acquitted.  In  the  civil 
war,  49,  Balbus  did  not  take  any  open  part 
against  Pompey ;  but  he  attached  himself  to  | 
Caesar,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Oppius,  had 
the  entire  management  of  Caesar's  affairs  at 
Rome.  After  the  death  of  Caesar  (44)  he  was 
equally  successful  in  gaining  the  favor  of  Octa- 
vianus,  who  raised  him  to  the  consulship  in  40. 
Balbus  wrote  a  diary  (Epliemeris),  which  has 
not  come  down  to  us,  of  the  most  remarkable 
occurrences  in  Caesar's  life.  He  took  care  that 
Caesar's  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  war  should 
be  continued ;  and  we  accordingly  find  the  eighth 
book  dedicated  to  him. — 2.  Nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, received  the  Roman  franchise  along 
with  his  uncle.  He  served  under  Cassar  in  the 
civil  war ;  he  was  quaestor  to  Asiuius  Pollio  in 
Further  Spain  in  B.C.  43,  and  while  there  add- 
ed to  his  native  town,  Gades,  a  suburb ;  many 


years  afterward  he  was  proconsul  of  Africa,  and 
triumphed  over  the  Garamantes  in  19.  He 
built  a  magnificent  theatre  at  Rome,  which  was 
dedicated  in  13. 

BALBUS,  LUCILIUS.  1.  L.,  a  jurist,  and  broth- 
er of  the  following.— 2.  Q.,  a  Stoic  philosopher, 
and  a  pupil  of  Panaetius,  is  introduced  by  Cicero 
as  one  of  the  speakers  in  his  De  Natura  Deorum. 

BALBUS,  OCTAVIUS,  a  contemporary  of  Cicero, 
bore  a  high  character  as  a  judex ;  he  was  put 
to  death  by  the  triumvirs,  B.C.  43. 

BALBUS,  SP.  THORIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs 
about  B.C.  Ill,  proposed  an  agrarian  law.  Vid. 
Did.  of  Ant^  art.  LEX  T?ORIA. 

BALEAB.ES  (Ba/Ura/wdef,  BaAtapufej),  also  call 
ed  GYMNlsLfi  (TvpiTjaiai)  by  the  Greeks,  two 
islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  off  the  coast  of 
Spain,  distinguished  by  the  epithets  Major  and 
Minor,  whence  their  modern  names  Majorca  and 
Minorca.  They  were  early  known  to  the  Car- 
thaginians, who  established  settlements  there 
for  th«  purposes  of  trade ;  they  afterward  re- 
ceived colonies  from  Rhodes  ;  and  their  popula- 
tion was  at  a  later  time  of  a  very  mixed  kind. 
Their  iuhabitants,  also  called  Baleares,  were 
celebrated  as  slingers,  and  were  employed  as 
such  in  the  armies  of  the  Carthaginians  and 
Romans.  In  consequence  of  their  piracies  they 
provoked  the  hostility  of  the  Romans,  and  were 
finally  subdued,  B.C.  123,  by  Q.  Metellus,  who 
assumed,  accordingly,  the  surname  Balearicus. 

BALISTA,  prefect  of  the  praetorians  under  Va- 
lerian, whom  he  accompanied  to  the  East.  Aft- 
er the  defeat  and  capttu-e  of  thaft  emperor  (A. 
D.  260),  he  rallied  a  body  of  Roman  troops  and 
defeated  the  Persians  in  Cilicia.  His  subse- 
quent career  is  obscure ;  he  is  mentioned  as 
one  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  and  was  probably  put 
to  death,  about  264,  by  Odenathus. 

[BALIUS  (BuAtof),  one  of  the  horses  of  Achil- 
les, offspring  of  Zephyrus  and  the  harpy  Po- 
darge.] 

[BALSA  and  BALSA  FELIX  (now  Tavira),  a  city 
of  Lusitania. 

BAMBALIO,  M.  FULVIUS,  father  of  Fulvia,  the 
wife  of  M.  Antonius,  the  triumvir,  received  the 
nickname  of  Bambalio,  on  account  of  a  hesitancy 
in  his  speech. 

BAMBYCE.     Vid.  HIERAPOLIS. 

BANASA  (now  Mamora  ?  ruins),  a  city  of  Mau- 
retauia  Tingitana,  on  the  River  Subur  (now 
Sebou),  near  the  western  coast:  a  colony  un- 
der Augustus,  Valentia  Banasa. 

BANDUSLE  FONS  (now  Sambuco),  a  fountain  in 
Apulia,  six  miles  from  Venusia.  (Hor.,  Carm., 
iii,  13.) 

BANTIA  (Bantinus:  now  Banzi  or  Vami),  a 
town  in  Apulia,  near  Venusia,  in  a  woody  dis- 
trict (naltus  Bantini,  Hor.  Cartn^  iii.,  4,  15): 
[near  this  place  Marcellus  fell  a  victim  to  the 
well-laid  plans  of  Hannibal] 

[BAPHYUAS  (Ba(jn>paf),  a  river  of  Pieria,  in 
Macedonia,  empties  into  the  Thermaic  Gulf.] 

BARBANA  (now  Bojana),  a  river  in  Illyria, 
flows  through  the  Palus  Labeatis. 

BARBARI  (Bupfiapoi),  the  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  all  foreigners  whose  language  was 
not  Greek,  and  who  were  therefore  regarded  by 
the  Greeks  as  an  inferior  race.  The  Romans 
applied  the  name  to  all  people  who  spoke  neither 
Greek  nor  Latin. 

137 


BARBARIA. 


BASSUS. 


BARBARIA.     Vid.  AZANIA. 

[BARBARIUH  PROMONTORIUM  (no\*  Cabo  de  JSs- 
picltel\  a  promontory  of  Lusitania,  just  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Tagus.] 

BARBATIO,  commander  of  the  household  troops 
under  Gallus,  whom  he  arrested  by  command  of 
Coustantius,  A.D.  354.  In  355  he  was  made 
general  of  the  infantry,  and  sent  into  Gaul  to 
assist  Julian  against  the  Alemauui.  He  was 
put  to  death  by  Constantius  in  359. 

BARBATUS,  M.  HORATIUS,  consul  B.C.  449  with 
"Valerius  Publicola  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
decemvirs.  Vid.  PUBLICOLA. 

BARLESULA,  a  city  and  river  (now  Guadiaro) 
in  Hispauia  Baatica,  on  the  coast,  north  of  Calpe.j 

BARBOSTHKNES,  a  mountain  east  of  Sparta. 

BARBULA,  iEMiuus.  1.  Q^  consul  B.C.  317, 
when  he  subdued  Apulia,  and  consul  again  in 
311,  when  he  fought  against  the  Etruscans. — 2. 
L.,  consul  in  281,  carried  on  war  against  the  Ta- 
rentines,  Samnites,  and  Sallentines. — 3.  M.,  consul 
in  230,  carried  on  war  against  the  Liguria/is. 

BARCA,  the  surname  of  HAMILCAR,  the*  father 
of  Hannibal,  is  probably  the  same  as  the  Hebrew 
Barak,  which  signifies  lightning.  His  family 
was  distinguished  subsequently  as  the  "  Barciue 
family,"  and  the  democratical  party,  which  sup- 
ported this  family,  as  the  "  Barcine  party." 

BAHCA  or  -E  (Bap/c?? :  BapKiTTjc,  Bap/caZof,  Bar- 
caeus).  1.  (Now  Merjeh,  ruins),  the  second  city 
of  Cyrenaica,  in  northern  Africa,  one  hundred 
stadia  (ten  geographical  miles)  from  the  sea, 
appears  to  have  been  at  first  a  settlement  of  a 
Libyan  tribejlthe  Barcaei,  but  about  B.C.  560 
was  colonized  by  the  Greek  seceders  from  Cy- 
rene,  and  became  so  powerful  as  to  make  the 
western  part  of  Cyrenaica  virtually  independent 
of  the  mother  city.  In  B.C.  510  it  was  taken 
by  the  Persians,  who  removed  most  of  its  inhab- 
itants to  Bactria,  and  under  the  Ptolemies  its 
ruin  was  completed  by  the  erection  of  its  port 
into  a  new  city,  which  was  named  PTOLEMAIS, 
and  which  took  the  place  of  Barca  as  one  of  the 
cities  of  the  Cyrenaic  Pentapolis. — 2.  A  town  in 
Bactria,  peopled  by  the  removed  inhabitants  of 
the  Cyrenaic  Barca. 

BARCINO  (now  Barcelona),  &  town  of  the  Lale- 
tani,  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  afterward  a 
Roman  colony  :  the  town  was  not  large,  but  it 
possessed  an  excellent  harbor. 

BARDANES.     Vid.  ARSACES  XXL 

BARDYUS  or  BARDTLLIS  (BupdvZif,  Bup  JvAAtf), 
an  Illyrian  chieftain,  carried  on  frequent  wars 
•with  the  Macedonians,  but  was  at  length  de- 
ieated  and  slain  in  battle  by  Philip,  the  father 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  B.C.  359. 

BAREA  SORANUS,  consul  suffectus  in  A.D.  52 
under  Claudius,  and  afterward  proconsul  of  Asia, 
was  a  man  of  justice  and  integrity.  He  was 
accused  of  treason  in  the  reign  of  Nero  and  wa» 
condemed  to  death,  together  with  his  daughter 
Servilia.  The  chief  witness  against  him  was 
P.  Egnatius  Celer,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  and  the 
teacher  of  Soranus.  (  Vid.  Juv.,  iii.,  116.) 

BARGUBII,  a  people  in  the  northeast  of  Spain, 
between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Iberus. 

[BARGYLIA  or  BARGYLL&  (Bapyv^ia,  rd ;  Bap- 
•yvAtar^f,  BapyvfaijTiKof),  a  city  of  Caria,  lying 
on  the  gulf,  named  from  it,  Bargylieticus  Sinus, 
and  named  by  the  Carians  Andanus  (*A.vdavof) ; 
famed  for  a  statue  of  Diana.] 
138 


BARIUM  (Barinus :  now  Bari),  g  town  in  A  pu- 
lia,  on  the  Adriatic,  a  munioipium,  and  celebrated 
for  its  fisheries  (Barium  piscotum,  Hor.,  Sat^  i, 
5,  97). 

BARSAEXTES  (Baoaatvrrjf )  or  BARZAENTUS  (Bap- 
faevrof),  satrap  of  the  Arachoti  and  Draugse, 
took  part  in  the  murder  of  Darius  III,  and  after- 
ward fled  to  India,  where  he  was  seized  by  the 
inhabitants  and  delivered  up  to  Alexander,  who 
put  him  to  death. 

BARSINE  (Bapo'ivy).  1.  Daughter  of  Artaba- 
zus,  and  wife  of  Memnon  the  Rhodian,  subse- 
quently married  Alexander  the  Great,  to  whom 
she  l>oro  a  son,  Hercules.  She  and  her  son  were 
put  to  death  by  Polysperchon  in  309. — 2.  Also 
called  STATIRA,  elder  daughter  of  Darius  III, 
whom  Alexander  married  at  Susa,  B.C.  324. 
Shortly  after  Alexander's  death  she  was  mur- 
dered by  Roxana. 

[BARYGAZA  (Bapvyafa,  now  Baroatgch),  &  city 
of  India,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  River 
Nomad  us,  possessing  an  active  and  extensive 
land  and  sea  trade  with  Bactria,  Arabia,  and 
Africa.] 

[BARZAENTES  (Bapfcevrrif).    Vid.  BARSAENTES.] 

BASANITIS.     Vid.  BATAN^EA. 

BASILIA  (now  Basel  or  Bale),  &  town  on  the 
Rhine,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  Valentinian 
built  a  fortress. — [2.  An  island.  Vid.  ABALUS.] 

BASILINA,  the  mother  of  Julian  the  apostate, 
being  the  second  wife  of  Julius  Constantius,  bro- 
ther of  Constantine  the  Great. 

BASILIUS  (Baaiheioc),  commonly  called  Basil 
the  Great,  was  born  A.D.  329,  at  Caesarea.  He 
studied  at  Antioch  or  Constantinople  under  Li- 
bauius,  and  subsequently  continued  his  studies 
for  four  years  (351-355)  at  Athens,  chiefly  under 
the  sophists  Himerius  and  Proseresius.  Among 
his  fellow-students  were  the  Emperor  Julian 
and  Gregory  Nazianzen,  the  latter  of  whom  be- 
came his  most  intimate  friend.  After  acquiring 
the  greatest  reputation  as  a  student  for  bis 
knowledge  of  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  science, 
he  returned  to  Caesarea,  where  he  began  to 
plead  causes,  but  soon  abandoned  his  profes- 
sion and  devoted  himself  to  a  religious  life.  He 
now  led  an  ascetic  life  for  many  years;  he 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in  370  in  place 
of  Eusebius;  he  died  in  379.  The  best  edition 
of  his  works  is  by  Gamier,  Paris,  1721-1730, 
3  vols.  folio. 

BASILUS,  L.  MJNUCIUS,  served  under  Cassar  in 
Gaul,  and  commanded  part  of  Cesar's  fleet  in 
the  civil  war.  He  was  one  of  Cesar's  assassins 
(B.C.  44),  and  in  the  following  year  was  mur- 
dered by  his  own  slaves. 

[BASSAMA,  a  city  of  Illyria,  not  far  from  Lis- 
sus.] 

BASSAREUS  (Baaaapsvf),  a  surname  of  Bacchus 
(Dionysus),  probably  derived  from  /iaoaapif,  a 
fox  skin,  worn  by  the  god  himself  and  the 
Maenads  in  Thrace. 

BASSUS,  AUFIDIUS,  an  orator  and  historian 
under  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  wrote  an  account 
of  the  Roman  wars  in  Germany,  and  a  work 
upon  Roman  history  of  a  more  general  character, 
which  was  continued  in  thirty -one  books  by  the 
elder  Pliny. 

BASSUS,  Q.  Cfflcnlus,  a  Roman  eques,  and  an 
adherent  of  Pompey,  fled  to  Tyre  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Pharsalia,  B.C.  48.  Shortly  afterward  he 


BASSUS,  CJESIUS. 


BATTIAD^E. 


obtained  possession  of  Tyre,  and  was  joined  by 
most  of  the  troops  of  Sextus  Caesar,  the  govern- 
or of  Syria,  who  had  been  killed  by  his  own  sol- 
diers at  the  instigation  of  Bassus.  He  subse- 
quently settled  down  in  Apamea,  where  he  main- 
tained himself  for  three  years  (46-43)  against 
C.  Antistius  Vetus,  and  afterward  against  Sta- 
tius  Murcus  and  Marcius  Crispus.  On  the  ar- 
rival of  Cassius  in  Syria  in  43,  the  troops  of 
Bassus  went  ;ver  to  Cassius. 

BASSUS,  CJESIDS,  a  Roman  lyric  poet,  and  a 
friend  of  Persius,  who  addresses  his  sixth  satire 
to  him,  was  destroyed,  -"along  with  his  villa,  in 
A.D.  79,  by  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  which 
overwhelmed  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 

BASSUS,  SALEIUS,  a  Roman  epic  poet  of  con- 
siderable merit,  contemporary  with  Vespasian. 

BASTARN.E  or  EASTERNS,  a  warlike  German 
people,  who  migrated  to  the  country  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube.  They  are  first  mentioned 
in  the  wars  of  Philip  and  Perseus  against  the 
Romans,  and  at  a  later  period  they  frequently 
devastated  Thrace,  and  were  engaged  in  wars 
with  the  Roman  governors  of  the  province  of 
Macedonia.  In  B.C.  30  they  were  defeated  by 
Marcus  Crassus,  and  driven  across  the  Danube ; 
and  we  find  them,  at  a  later  time,  partly  settled 
between  the  Tyras  (now  Dniester)  and  Borys- 
thenes  (now  Dnieper],  and  partly  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube,  under  the  name  of  Peucini,  from 
their  inhabiting  the  island  of  Peuce,  at  the 
mouth  of  this  river. 

[BASTI  (now  Baza),  a  city  of  the  BASTITANI.] 

BASTITANI  (also  BASTETANI,  BASTULI),  a  peo- 
ple in  Hispauia  Baetica.  on  the  coast. 

[BATA  (Bara,  TU),  a  city  and  port  of  Sarmatia 
Asiatica.  on  the  Euxiue,  opposite  Sinope.] 

BATAN^EA  or  BASANITIS  (Qaravaia,  Baaavlrif : 
in  the  Old  Testament,  Bashan,  Basan),  a  district 
of  Palestine,  east  of  the  Jordan,  extending  from 
the  river  Jabbok  on  the  south  to  Mount  Her- 
mon,  in  the  Antilibanus  chain,  on  the  north. 
The  s  and  T  are  mere  dialectic  varieties. 

BAT  A  vi  or  BATAVI  (Lucan.,  i.,  431),  a  Celtic 
people  who  abandoned  their  homes  in  conse- 
quence of  civil  dissensions  before  the  time  of 
Julius  Caesar,  and  settled  in  the  island  formed 
by  the  Rhine,  the  Waal,  and  the  Maas,  which 
island  was  called  after  them,  Insula  Batavorum. 
They  were  for  a  long  time  allies  of  the  Romans 
in  their  wars  against  the  Germans,  fcnd  were  of 
great  service  to  the  former  by  their  excellent 
cavalry ;  but  at  length,  exasperated  by  the  op- 
pressions of  the  Roman  officers,  thev  rose  in 
revolt  under  Claudius  Civilis  in  A.D.  69,  and 
were  with  great  difficulty  subdued.  On  their 
eubjugation  they  were  treated  by  the  Romans 
with  mildness,  and  were  exempt  from  taxation. 
Their  country,  which  also  extended  beyond  the 
island  south  of  the  Maas  and  the  Waal,  was 
called  at  a  later  time,  BATAVIA.  Their  chief 
towns  were  Lugdunum  (now  Lcyden)  and  Ba- 
tavoduntm  (now  Wyk-Durstad?),  between  the 
Maas  and  the  WaaL  The  Canine/ate*  or  Can- 
ninefatet  were  a  branch  of  the  Batavi,  and 
dwelt  in  the  west  of  the  island. 

BATAVODURUM.     Vid.  BATAVL 

[BATEA  (Bureta).  1.  A  Naiad,  mother  by  (Eba- 
lus  of  Tyndareus,  Hippocoon,  and  Icarion. — 2. 
Daughter  of  Teucer,  wife  of  Dardanus,  mother 
of  Ilus  and  Erich thoni  us.] 


BATHVCLES  (BaOvul.r/c),  a  celebrated  artist  ol 
Magnesia  on  the  Mseander,  constructed  for  the 
Lacedaemonians  the  colossal  throne  of  the  Amy- 
clasan  Apollo.  He  probably  flourished  about  the 
time  of  Solon,  or  a  little  later. 

BATHTLLUS.  1.  Of  Samos,  a  beautiful  youth 
beloved  by  Anacreon. — 2.  Of  Alexandrea.  the 
freedman  and  favorite  of  Maecenas,  brought  to 
perfection,  together  with  Py lades  of  Cilieia,  the 
imitative  dance  or  ballet  called  Pantomimus. 
Bathyllus  excelled  in  comic,  and  Pylades  in 
tragic  personifications. 

[BATHYS  POKTUS  (Baft)f  fapjv),  the  large  deep 
harbor  of  Aulis,  in  which  the  Grecian  fleet  as- 
sembled before  sailing  to  Troy.] 

BATN^E  (Barvat :  BarvaZof).  1.  (Now  Saruj), 
a  city  of  Osroene  in  Mesopotamia,  east  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  southwest  of  Edessa,  at  about 
equal  distances ;  founded  by  the  Macedonians, 
and  taken  by  Trajan ;  celebrated  for  its  an- 
nual fair  of  Indian  and  Syrian  merchandise. — 
2.  (Now  Dahal),  a  city  of  Cyrrhestice,  in  Syria, 
between  Bercea  and  Hierapolis. 

BATO  (Barwv).  1.  The  charioteer  of  Amphi- 
araus,  was  swallowed  up  by  the  earth  along 
with  AMPHIARAUS. — 2.  The  name  of  two  leaders 
of  the  Pannonians  and  Dalmatians  in  their  in- 
surrection of  the  reign  of  Augustus,  A.D.  6. 
Tiberius  and  Germanicus  were  both  sent  against 
them,  and  obtained  some  advantages  over  them, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  Pannonians  and 
Dalmatians  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Romans 
in  A.D.  8.  But  the  peace  was  of  short  dura- 
tion. The  Dalmatian  Bato  put  'his  namesake 
to  death,  and  renewed  the  war.  Tiberius  now 
finally  subdued  Dalmatia ;  Bato  surrendered  to 
him  in  A.D.  9,  upon  promise  of  pardon ;  he  ac- 
companied Tiberius  to  Italy,  and  his  life  was 
spared. 

BATTIAD.E  (Ba-ma&u),  kings  of  Gyrene  dur- 
ing eight  generations.  1.  BATTUS  I.,  of  Thera, 
led  a  colony  to  Africa  at  the  command  of  the 
Delphic  oracle,  and  founded  Gyrene  about  B.C. 
631.  He  was  the  first  king  of  Cyreue ;  his  gov- 
ernment was  gentle  and  just,  and  after  his  death 
in  599  he  was  worshipped  as  a  hero. — 2.  ARCES- 
ILAUS  L,  son  of  No.  1,  reigned  B.C.  599-583. 
— 3.  BATTUS  II,  surnamed  "the  Happy,"  eon 
of  No.  2,  reigned  B.C.  583-560  ?  In  his  reign 
Cyrene  received  a  great  number  of  colonists 
from  various  parts  of  Greece ;  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  increased  strength  of  his  king- 
dom, Battus  was  able  to  subdue  the  neighboring 
Libyan  tribes,  and  to  defeat  Apries,  king  of 
Egypt  (570),  who  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Libyans. — 4.  ARCESILAUS  II.,  son  of  No.  3,  sur- 
named "  the  Oppressive,"  reigned  about  B  C. 
560-550.  In  consequence  of  dissensions  be- 
tween himself  and  his  brothers,  the  latter  with- 
drew from  Cyrene  and  founded  Barca.  He 
was  strangled  by  his  brother  or  friend  Learchus. 
— 5.  BATTUS  IIL,  or  "  the  Lame,"  son  of  No. 
4,  reigned  about  B.C.  560-530.  In  his  time, 
Demonax,  a  Mantinean,  gave  a  new  constitu- 
tion to  the  city,  whereby  the  royal  power  was 
reduced  within  very  narrow  limits. — 6.  ARCES- 
ILAUS IIL,  son  of  No.  5,  reigned  about  B.C. 
530-614,  was  driven  from  Cyreue  in  an  attempt 
to  recover  the  ancient  royal  privileges,  but  re- 
covered his  kingdom  with  the  aid  of  Samiau 
auxiliaries.  He  endeavored  to  strengthen  him 
139 


BATTIADES. 


BELLEROPHON. 


self  by  making  submission  to  Cambyses  in  525 
He  was,  however,  again  obliged  to  leave  Cy- 
»ene ;  he  fled  to  Alazir,  king  of  Barca,  whose 
daughter  he  had  married,  and  was  there  slain 
by  the  Barcaeans  and  some  Cyrenaean  exiles. 
— 7.  BATTUS  IV.,  probably  son  of  No.  6,  of 
whose  life  we  have  no  accounts. — 8.  ARCESI- 
LAUS  IV.,  probably  son  of  No.  7,  whose  victory 
in  the  chariot-race  at  the  Pythian  games,  B.C. 
466,  is  celebrated  by  Pindar  in  his  fourth  and 
fifth  Pythian  odes.  At  his  death,  about  450,  a 
popular  government  was  established. 

[BATTIADES,  a  patronymic  of  Callimachus,  from 
his  father  BattusJ 

BATTUS  (Barrof),  a  shepherd  whom  Mercury 
(Hermes)  turned  into  a  stone  because  he  broke  a 
promise  which  he  made  to  the  god. 

BATULUM,  a  town  in  Campania  of  uncertain 
site. 

BAUCIS.     Vid.  PHILEMON. 

BAULI  (now  Bacolo),  a  collection  of  villas  rather 
than  a  town,  between  Misenum  and  Baiac,  in 
Campania. 

[BAUTIS,  BAUTES,  or  BAUTISUS,  (now  Hoangho), 
a  river  of  Serica.] 

BAVIUS  and  M^vlus,  two  malevolent  poe- 
tasters, who  attacked  the  poetry  of  Virgil  and 
Horace. 

BAZIRA  or  BEZIRA  (Bd&pa :  Ba&poi :  now  Ba- 
jour,  northwest  of  Peshamtr),  a  city  in  the  Pa- 
ropamisus,  taken  by  Alexander  on  his  march  into 
India. 

BEBUYCES  (Qiftpvueg).  1.  A  mythical  people  in 
Bithynia,  said  to  be  of  Thracian  origin,  whose 
king,  Amycus,  was  slain  by  Pollux  (p.  90,  b.) — 
2.  An  ancient  Iberian  people  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  north  and  south  of  the  Pyrenees : 
they  possessed  numerous  herds  of  cattle. 

BEDRIACUM,  a  small  place  in  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
between  Cremona  and  Verona,  celebrated  for  the 
defeat  both  of  Otho  and  of  the  Vitellian  troops, 
A.D.  69. 

BELBINA  (BeA&va :  BeMivirrif).  1.  (Now  St. 
George  cTArbori),  an  island  in  the  ./Egaean  Sea, 
off  the  south  coast  of  Attica. — 2.  Vid.  BELE- 
MttU. 

BELEMINA  (Befepiva,  now  Belemia),  also  called 
Belmina  and  Belbina,  a  town  in  the  northwest 
of  Laconia,  on  the  borders  of  Arcadia.  The  sur- 
rounding district  was  called  Belminatis  and  Bel- 
binatis. 

BELESIS  or  BEL^SYS  (Be/Uffif ,  BeAetrrf),  a  Chal- 
dean priest  at  Babylon,  who  is  said,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Arbaces  the  Mede,  to  have  overthrown 
the  old  Assyrian  empire.  Vid.  ARBACES.  Bele- 
sis afterward  received  the  satrapy  of  Babylon 
from  Arbaces. 

BELG.E,  one  of  the  three  great  people  into 
which  Caesar  divides  the  population  of  Gaul. 
They  were  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Rhine, 
on  the  west  by  the  ocean,  on  the  south  by  the 
Sequana  (now  Seine)  and  Matrona  (now  Marne), 
and  on  the  east  by  the  territory  of  the  TrevirL 
They  were  of  German  origin,  and  had  settled  in 
the  country,  expelling  or  reducing  to  subjection 
the  former  inhabitants.  They  were  the  bravest 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Gaul,  were  subdued  by 
Caesar  after  a  courageous  resistance,  and  were  the 
first  Gallic  people  who  threw  off  the  Roman  do- 
minion. The  Belgae  were  subdivided  into  the 
tribes  of  the  NKavn,  BELLOVACL,  REMI,  SUES- 


SIONES,  MORINL,  MENAPII,  ADUATICI,  and  other* 
and  the  collective  forces  of  the  whole  nation 
were  more  than  a  million. 

BELGICA.     Vid.  GALLIA. 

BELGIUM,  the  name  generally  applied  to  the 
territory  of  the  BELLOVACI,  and  of  the  tribes  de- 
pendent upon  the  latter,  namely,  the  Atrebates, 
Ambiani,  Velliocasses,  Aulerci,  and  Caletl  Bel- 
gium did  not  include  the  whole  country  inhab- 
ited by  the  Belgae,  for  we  find  the  Nervii,  Rcrni, 
Ac.,  expressly  excluded  from  it  (Caes.,  B.  (?,  v. 
24.) 

[BELGIUS  or  BOLGIUS  (B6/lytOf),  a  leader  of  the 
Gauls,  who  invaded  Macedonia  and  Illyria  in 
B.C.  280.  He  defeated  the  Macedonians  in  a 
great  battle,  in  which  their  king,  Ptolemy  Cerau- 
nus,  was  slain.] 

[BELIDES,  patronymic  of  Palamedes,  as  de- 
scended from  JBelus.] 

BELISARIUS,  the  greatest  general  of  Justinian, 
was  a  native  of  Illyria,  and  of  mean  extraction 
In  A.D.  534  he  overthrew  the  Vandal  kingdom 
in  Africa,  which  had  been  established  by  Gen- 
seric  about  one  hundred  years  previously,  and 
took  prisoner  the  Vandal  king  Gelimer,  whom 
he  led  in  triumph  to  Constantinople.  In  535- 
540,  Belisarius  carried  on  war  against  the  Goths 
in  Italy,  and  conquered  Sicily,  but  he  was  re- 
called by  the  jealousy  of  Justinian.  In  541-544 
he  again  carried  on  war  against  the  Goths  in 
Italy,  but  was  again  recalled  by  Justinian,  leav- 
ing his  victories  to  be  completed  by  his  rival, 
Narses,  in  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Gothic 
kingdom,  and  the  establishment  of  the  exarchate 
of  Ravenna  The  last  victory  of  Belisarius  was 
gained  in  repelling  an  inroad  of  the  Bulgarians, 
559.  In  563,  he  was  accused  of  a  conspiracy 
against  the  life  of  Justinian;  according  to  a 
popular  tradition,  he  was  deprived  of  his  pro- 
perty, his  eyes  were  put  out,  and  he  wandered 
is  a  beggar  through  Constantinople;  but  ac- 
cording to  the  more  authentic  account,  he  was 
merely  imprisoned  for  a  year  in  his  own  palace, 
and  then  restored  to  his  honors.  He  died  in 
565. 

BELLER5PHON    Or    BELLER5FHONTE8    (BfvUf/30- 

<j>uv  or  Be/Uepo$6vr»7f),  son  of  the  Corinthian 
dng  Glaucus  and  Eurymede,  and  grandson  of 
Sisyphus,  was  originally  called  Hipponous,  and 
•eceived  the  name  Bellerophon  from  slaying  the 
Corinthian  Bellerus.  To  be  purified  from  the 
murder  he  fled  to  Proetus,  whose  wife  Antfia  fell 
n  love  with  the  young  hero;  but  as  her  offers 
were  rejected  by  him,  she  accused  him  to  her 
lusband  of  having  made  improper  proposals  to 
icr.  Proetus,  unwilling  to  If  ill  him  with  his 
own  hands,  sent  him  to  his  father-in-law,  lo- 
mtes,  king  of  Lycia,  with  a  letter,  in  which  the 
atter  was  requested  to  put  the  young  man  to 
death.  lobates  accordingly  sent  him  to  kill  the 
monster  Chimaera,  thinking  that  he  was  sure 
o  perish  in  the  contest  After  obtaining  pos- 
session of  the  winged  horse,  PEGASUS,  Beller- 
ophon rose  with  him  in  the  air,  and  killed  the 
Dhimaera  with  his  arrows.  lobates,  thus  dis- 
appointed, sent  Bellerophon  against  the  Soly- 
mi,  and  next  against  the  Amazons.  In  these 
contests  he  was  also  victorious;  and  on  his  re- 
turn to  Lycia,  being  attacked  by  the  bravest 
Lycians,  whom  lobates  had  placed  in  ambush 
for  the  purpose,  Bellerophon  slew  them  all.  To- 


BELLERUS. 


BERENICE. 


bates,  now  seeing  that  it  was  hopeless  to  kill ' 
the  hero,  gave  him  his  daughter  (Philonoe,  An- 
ticlea,  or  Cassandra)  in  marriage,  and  made  him  | 
his  successor  on   the   throne.     Bellerophon    be- ! 
came  the  father  of  Isander,   Hippolochus,  and  ; 
Laodamla.    At  last  Bellerophon  drew  upon  him- 
self the  hatred  of  the  gods,  and,  consumed  by 
grief,  wandered  lonely  through  the  Aleian  field, 
avoiding   the   paths  of  men.    This  is  all  that 
Homer  says  respecting  Bellerophon'a  later  fate  : 
some  traditions  related  that  he  attempted  to  fly 
to  heaven  upon  Pegasus,  but  that  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
sent  a  gad-fly  to  sting  the  horse,  which  threw 
off  the  rider  upon  the  earth,  who  became  lame 
or  blind   in  consequence.     (Horace,  Carm^  iv., 
11,  26.) 

[BELLEEUS,  a  Corinthian.  Via.  BELLEEO- 
PHON.] 

BELLI,  a  Celtiberian  people  in  Hispania  Tar- 
raconensis. 

[BELLIENUS,  L.  1.  Uncle  of  Catiline,  proprae- 
tor in  Africa  B.C.  104. — 2.  Originally  a  slave  of 
Demetrius,  was  the  occasion  of  an  insurrection 
in  Intenielium  during  the  civil  war  between 
Caesar  and  Pompey.] 

BELLONA,  the  Roman  goddess  of  war,  was 
probably  a  Sabine  divinity.  She  is  frequently 
mentioned  by  the  Roman  poets  as  the  compan- 
ion of  Mars,  or  even  as  his  sister  or  his  wife, 
and  is  described  as  armed  with  a  bloody  scourge. 
(Virg.,  .JSk,  viii,  703.)  During  the  Samnite 
ware  in  B.C.  296,  Appius  Claudius  .Caecus  vowed 
a  temple  to  her,  which  was  erected  in  the  Cam- 
pus Martius.  Her  priests,  called  Bellonarii, 
wounded  their  own  arms  or  legs  when  they 
offered  sacrifices  to  her. 

BELLOVACI,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Belgae, 
dwelt  in  the  modern  Beauvais,  between  the 
Seine,  Oise,  Somme,  and  Bresle.  In  Caesar's 
time  they  could  bring  one  hundred  thousand 
men  into  the  field,  but  they  were  subdued  by 
Caesar  with  the  other  Belgae. 

BELOX  or  B^LON  (BeAtiv,  BatAwv,  near  Bolo- 
nia,  ruins),  a  sea-port  town  in  Hispania  Baetica, 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  (now  Barbate),  the 
usual  place  for  crossing  over  to  Tingis  in  Mau- 
retania. 

BELUS  (B^/lof),-  son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
and  Libya  or  Eurynome,  twin  brother  of  Age- 
nor,  and  father  of  JSgyptus  and  Danaus.  He 
was  believed  to  be  the  ancestral  hero  and  na- 
tional divinity  of  several  Eastern  nations,  from 
whom  the  legends  about  him  were  transplanted 
to  Greece,  and  there  became  mixed  up  with 
Greek  myths. 

BELUS  (BJyAof  :  now  Nahr  Naman),  a  river  of 
Phoenicia,  rising  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Carmel, 
and  falling  into  the  sea  close  to  the  south  of 
Ptolemais  (now  Acre),  celebrated  for  the  tradi- 
tion that  its  fine  sand  first  led  the  Phoenicians 
to  the  invention  of  glass. 

BENACCS  LACUS  (now  Logo  di  Garcia),  a  lake 
in  the  north  of  Italy  (Galha  Transpadana),  out 
of  which  the  Mincius  flows. 

BENEVENTUM  (now  Benevento),  a  town  in  Sam- 
nium,  on  the  Appia  Via,  at  the  junction  of  the 
two  valleys  through  which  the  Sabatus  and 
Calor  flow,  formerly  called  Maleventum  on  ac- 
count, it  is  said,  of  its  bad  air.  It  was  one  of 
the  most  ancient  towns  in  Italy,  having  been 
founded,  according  to  tradition,  by  Diomede. 


In  the  Samnite  wars  it  was  subdued  by  the  Ro- 
mans, who  sent  a  colony  thither  in  B.C.  268, 
aad  changed  its  name  Maleventum  into  Bene 
ventum.  It  was  colonized  a  second  time  by  Au- 
gustus, and  was  hence  called  Colvnia  Julia  Coi«- 
cordia  Augusta  Felix.  The  modern  town  has 
several  Roman  remains,  among  others  a  tri- 
umphal arch  of  Trajan. 

BEEECYNTIA  (BsptKWTia),  a  surname  of  Cyb- 
ele,  which  she  derived  from  Mount  Berecyn- 
tus  where  she  was  worshipped. 

[BEEECYNTCS  MONS  (Bepe«wrof),  a  mount- 
ain in  Phrygia,  sacred  to  Cybele.  Vid.  the 
foregoing.] 

BEEENICE  (BepeviKrj),  a  Macedonic  form  of 
Pherenlce  (^epevucrj),  i.  e^  "  Bringing  Victory." 
1.  First  the  wife  of  [Philip,  son  of  Amyntas,  a 
Macedonian  officer],  and  afterward  of  Ptolemy 
L  Soter,  who  fell  in  love  with  her  when  she 
came  to  Egypt  in  attendance  on  his  bride  Eu- 
rydice,  Antipater's  daughter.  She  was  cele- 
brated for  her  beauty  and  virtue,  and  was  the 
mother  of  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus.— 2.  Daugh 
ter  of  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus,  and  wife  of  An 
tiochus  Theos,  king  of  Syria,  who  divorced  La 
odice  in  order  to  marry  her,  B.C.  249.  On  the 
death  of  Ptolemy,  B.C.  247,  Antiochus  recalled 
Laodice,  who,  notwithstanding,  caused  him  to 
be  poisoned,  and  murdered  Berenice  and  her 
son. — 3.  Daughter  of  Magas,  king  of  Cyrene, 
and  wife  of  Ptolemy  III.  Euergetes.  She  was 
put  to  death  by  her  son  Ptolemy  IV.  Pbilopator 
on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  221.  The  fa- 
m'ous  hair  of  Berenice,  which  she  dedicated  for 
her  husband's  safe  return  from  his  Syrian  ex- 
pedition in  the  temple  of  Arsinoe  at  Zephyrium, 
was  said  to  have  become  a  constellation.  It 
was  celebrated  by  Callimachus  in  a  poem,  of 
which  we  have  a  translation  by  Catullus. — 4. 
Otherwise  called  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  Ptole- 
my VIIL  Lathyrus,  succeeded  her  father  on  the 
throne  B.C.  81,  and  married  Ptolemy  X.  (Alex- 
ander II.),  but  was  murdered  by  her  husband 
nineteen  days  after  her  marriage. — 5.  Daughter 
of  Ptolemy  XI.  Auletes,  and  eldest  sister  of  the 
famous  Cleopatra,  was  placed  on  the  throne  by 
the  Alexandrines  when  they  drove  out  her  fa- 
ther, B.C.  58.  She  afterward  married  Archelaus, 
but  was  put  to  death,  with  her  husband,  when 
Gabinius  restored  Auletes,  55. — 6.  Sister  of  Her- 
od the  Great,  married  Aristobulus,  who  was  put 
to  death  B.C.  6.  She  afterward  went  to  Rome, 
where  she  spent  the  remainder  of  her  life.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Agrippa  I. — 7.  Daughter  of 
Agrippa  I.,  married  her  uncle  Herod,  king  of 
Chalcis,  by  whom  she  had  two  sons.  After  the 
death  of  Herod,  A.D.  48,  Berenice,  then  twenty 
years  old,  lived  with  her  brother  Agrippa  II.,  not 
without  suspicion  of  an  incestuous  commerce 
with  him.  She  gained  the  love  of  Titus,  who 
was  only  withheld  from  making  her  his  wife  by 
fear  of  offending  the  Romans  by  such  a  step. — 
[8.  Wife  of  Mithradates  the  Great,  put  to  death 
by  him  with  his  other  wives,  to  prevent  their 
falling  alive  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans.] 

BKUE.NICE  (Bepevucr/ :  BepeviKevf),  the  name 
of  several  cities  of  the  period  of  the  Ptolemies. 
1.  Formerly  Eziongeber  (ruins  near  Akabah),  in 
Arabia,  at  the  head  of  the  Sinus  JSlanites,  or 
eastern  branch  of  the  Red  Sea. — 2.  In  Upper 
Egypt  (for  so  it  was  considered,  though  it  lay 
141 


BERGISTANI. 


BIBACULUS. 


a  little  south  of  the  parallel  of  Syene),  on  the 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  on  a  gulf  called  Sinus 
Inimiiiuhw  (uKudaprof  xoATrof,  now  Foul  Bay), 
where  its  ruins  are  still  visible.  It  was  named 
after  the  mother  of  Ptolemy  IL  Philadelphia, 
who  built  it,  and  made  a  road  hence  to  Coptos, 
so  that  it  became  a  chief  emporium  for  the  com- 
merce of  Egypt  with  Arabia  and  India.  Under 
the  Romans  it  was  the  residence  of  a  pnefectus. 
— 3.  B.  PANCHavsos  (B.  Ilu-yxpv°0f  or  ij  KOTO, 
Sufiaf),  on  the  Red  Sea  coast  in  ^Ethiopia,  con- 
siderably south  of  the  above. — 4  B.  EPIDIRES 
(B.  M  Aet/%),  on  the  Promontory  Dira,  on  the 
western  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea 
(now  Straits  of  Bab-el- Mandeb). — 5.  (Now  Ben 
Ghazi,  ruins),  in  Cyrenaica,  formerly  HESPERIS 
('Eairepif),  the  fabled  site  of  the  Gardens  of  the 
Hesperides.  It  took  its  later  name  from  the 
wife  of  Ptolemy  IIL  Euergetes,  and  was  the 
westernmost  of  the  five  cities  of  the  Libyan 
Pentapolis.  There  were  other  cities  of  the 
name. 

BERGISTANI,  a  people  in  the  northeast  of  Spain, 
between  the  Iberus  and  the  Pyrenees,  whose 
capital  was  Bergium. 

[BERGIUM  (now  Bambcrg  ?).  1.  A  place  in  the 
country  of  the  Hermunduri,  in  Germania  Magna. 
— 2.  Vid.  BERGISTANI.] 

BERGOMUM  (Bergomas,  -atis :  now  Bergamo), 
&  town  of  the  Orobii  in  Gallia  Cisalpina.  be- 
tween Comum  and  Brixia,  afterward  a  muni- 
cipium. 

[BEEMIUS  MONS  (Bepjuov  opof :  now  Xero  Li- 
vadho),  a  mountain  of  Macedonia,  a  continuation 
of  the  great  range  of  Olympus.] 

BEROE  (Bepoij).  1.  A  Trojau  woman,  wife  of 
Doryclus,  one  of  the  companions  of  ./Eneas, 
whose  form  Iris  assumed  when  she  persuaded 
the  women  to  set  fire  to  the  ships  of  ^Eneas  in 
Sicily. — [2.  The  nurse  of  Semele,  whose  form 
Juuo  (Hera)  assumed  for  the  purpose  of  per- 
suading Semele  to  request  Jupiter  to  visit  her 
in  all  his  divine  majesty. — 3.  One  of  the  ocean 
nymphs.] 

BERO:A  (Eepoia,  also  T&eppoia,  Bepoj? :  Eepoievf, 
Bepotatof).  1.  (Now  Verria),  one  of  the  most 
ancient  towns  of  Macedonia,  on  one  of  the  low- 
er ranges  of  Mount  Bermius,  and  on  the  As- 
trseus,  a  tributary  of  the  Haliacmon,  southwest 
of  Pella,  and  about  twenty  miles  from  the  sea. 
— 2.  (Now  Beria),  a  town  in  the  interior  of 
Thrace,  was  under  the  later  Roman  empire, 
together  with  Philippopolis,  one  of  the  most 
important  military  posts. — 3.  (Now  Aleppo  or 
Haleb),  a  town  in  Syria  near  Antioch,  enlarged 
by  Seleucus  Nicator,  who  gave  (it  the  Macedo- 
nian name  of  Bercea.  It  is  called  Helbon  or 
Chclbon  in  Ezekiel  (xxvii.,  18),  and  Chalcp  in 
the  Byzantine  writers,  a  name  still  retained  in 
the  modern  Haleb,  for  which  Europeans  have 
substituted  Aleppo. 

BEROSUS  (Bripuaos,  or  Rripuooof),  a  priest  of 
Belus  at  Babylon,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Antio- 
chus  IL  (B.C.  261-246),  and  wrote  in  Greek  a 
history  of  Babylonia,  in  nine  books  (called  Ba- 
GvhuviKu,  and  sometimes  Xa/Wai'/ea  or  laropiat 
Xa/Wai/cat).  It  embraced  the  earh'est  traditions 
about  the  human  race,  a  description  of  Babylo- 
nia and  its  population,  and  a  chronological  list 
of  its  kings  down  to  the  time  of  the  great  Cyrus. 
Berosus  says  that  he  derived  the  materials  for 
142 


his  work  from  the  archives  in  the  temple  of 
Belus.  The  work  itself  is  lost,  but  considerable 
fragments  of  it  are  preserved  in  Josephus, 
Eusebius,  Syucellus,  and  the  Christian  fathers . 
the  best  editions  of  the  fragments  are  by  Rich- 
ter,  Lips.,  1825,  and  in  Didot's  Fragmcnta  Histor- 
icorum  Gracorum,  voL  ii.,  Paris,  1 848. 

BERYTUS  (BrjpvTof :  BjjpvTiof :  now  Beirut, 
ruins),  one  of  the  oldest  sea-ports  of  Phoenicia, 
stood  on  a  promontory  near  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Magoras  (now  Nahr  Beirut),  half  way  be- 
tween Byblus  and  Sidon.  It  was  destroyed  by 
the  Syrian  king  Try phon  (B.C.  140),  and  restored 
by  Agrippa  under  Augustus,  who  made  it  a  col- 
ony. It  afterward  became  a  celebrated  seat  of 
learning. 

1! f.-  \.     Vid.  ANTINOOPOLIS. 

BESSI,  a  fierce  and  powerful  Thracian  people, 
who  dwelt  along  the  •whole  of  Mount  HUMMUS  as 
far  as  the  Euxine.  After  the  conquest  of  Mace 
donia  by  the  Romans  (B.C.  168),  the  Bessi  were 
attacked  by  the  hitter,  and  subdued  after  a  se 
vere  struggle. 

BESSUS  (Br/aaof),  satrap  of  Bactria  under  Da 
rius  III.,  seized  Darius  soon  after  the  battle  of 
Arbela,  B.C.  331.  Pursued  by  Alexander  in  the 
following  year,  Bessus  put  Darius  to  death,  and 
fled  to  Bactria,  where  he  assumed  the  title  of 
king.  He  was  betrayed  by  two  of  his  followers 
to  Alexander,  who  put  him  to  death. 

BESTIA,  CALPURNIUS.  1.  L.,  tribune  of  the 
plebs  B.C.  121,  and  consul  111,  when  he  carried 
on  war  against  Jugurtha,,  but,  having  received 
large  bribes,  he  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Nu 
midian.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  he  was,  in  con- 
sequence, accused  and  condemned. — 2.  L.,  one  of 
the  Catilinarian  conspirators,  B.C.  63,  was  at 
the  time  tribune  of  the  plebs  designatus,  and 
not  actually  tribune,  as  Sallust  says.  In  59  he 
was  aedile,  and  in  57  was  an  unsuccessful  candi- 
date for  the  praetorship,  notwithstanding  his  bri- 
bery, for  which  offence  he  was  brought  to  trial 
in  the  following  year,  and  condemned,  although 
he  was  defended  by  Cicero. 

BETASII,  a  people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  between 
the  Tungri  and  Nervii,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Beets  in  Brabant. 

[BEVUS  (Bevoc),  a  river  of 'Macedonia,  an  af 
fluent  of  the  Erigon.] 

BEZIRA.     Vid.  BAZIRA. 

BIAXOR.  1.  Also  called  Ocnus  or  Aucnus, 
son  of  Tiberis  and  Manto,  is  said  to  have  built 
the  town  of  Mantua,  and  to  have  called  it  after 
his  mother. — 2.  A  Bithynian,  the  author  of 
twenty-one  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology, 
lived  under  Augustus  and  Tiberius. 

BiAs(B«zf.)  1.  Son  of  Amythaon,  and  brother 
of  the  seer  Melampus.  He  married  Pero, 
daughter  of  Neleus,  whom  her  father  had  re- 
fused to  give  to  any  one  unless  he  brought  him 
the  oxen  of  Iphiclus.  These  Melampus  obtained 
by  his  courage  and  skill,  and  so  won  the  princess 
for  his  brother.  Melampus  also  gained  for  Bias 
a  third  of  the  kingdom  of  Argos,  in  consequence 
of  his  curing  the  daughters  of  Prcetus  and  the 
other  Argive  women  of  their  madness. — 2.  Of 
Priene  in  Ionia,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece, 
flourished  about  B.C.  550. 

BiBActfi-us,  M.  FURIUS,  a  Roman  poet,  born 
at  Cremona  B.C.  103,  wrote  iambics,  epigrams, 
and  a  poem  on  Caesar's  Gaulish  wars  •  the  open 


BIBRACTE. 


BITHYNIA. 


ing  line  in  the  latter  pf-em  is  parodied  by  Horace  ' 
(furius  hibernas  cana  nive  conspuet  Alpes,  Sat.,  ; 
ii.,  5,  41).     It  is  probable  that  Bibaculus  also 
wrote  a  poem  entitled  jEthiopis,  containing  an 
account  of  the  death  of  Memnon  by  Achilles, 
and  that  the  turgidus  Alpinus  of  Horace  (Sat.,  | 
L,  10,  36)  is  no  other  than  Bibaculus.     The  at- 
tacks of  Horace  against  Bibaculus  may  probably  | 
be  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  poems  of  Bibaculus 
contained  insults  against  the  Caesars.   (Tac.,  Ann., 
iv.,  34.) 

BIBRACTE  (now  Auturi),  the  chief  town  of  the 
.JSdui  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  afterward  Augus- 
todunum. 

BIBEAX  (now  Bievre),  a  town  of  the  Remi  in 
Gallia  Belgica,  not  far  from  the  Aisne. 

BIBOLUS  CALPURNIUS.  1.  L.,  curule  aedile  B. 
C.  65,  praetor  62,  and  consul  59,  in  each  of  which 
years  he  had  C.  Julius  Caesar  as  his  colleague. 
He  was  a  stanch  adherent  of  the  aristocratical 
party,  but  was  unable  in  his  consulship  to  re- 
sist the  powerful  combination  of  Caesar,  Pom- 
pey,  and  Crassus.  After  an  ineffectual  attempt 
fx>  oppose  Caesar's  agrarian  law,  he  withdrew 
from  the  popular  assemblies  altogether ;  whence 
it  was  said  in  joke  that  it  was  the  consulship 
of  Julius  and  Caesar.  In  51  Bibulus  was  pro- 
consul of  Syria ;  and  in  the  civil  war  he  com- 
manded Pompey's  fleet  in  the  Adriatic,  and 
died  (48)  while  holding  this  command  off  Cor- 
cyra.  He  married  Porcia,  the  daughter  of  Cato 
Uticensis,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons,  two  of 
whom  were  murdered  by  the  soldiers  of  Gabin- 
ius,  in  Egypt,  50. — 2.  L.,  son  of  No.  1,  was  a 
youth  at  his  father's  death,  and  was  brought  up 
by  M.  Brutus,  who  married  his  mother  Porcia. 
He  fought  with  Brutus  at  the  battle  of  Philippi 
in  42,  but  he  was  afterward  pardoned  by  Anto- 
ny, and  was  intrusted  by  the  latter  with  im- 
portant commands.  He  died  shortly  before  the 
battle  of  Actium. 

[BICUKDIUM  (now  Erfurt  /),  a  city  of  the  Che- 
rusci  in  Germany.] 

BIDIS  (Bidlnus,  Bidensis),  a  small  town  in  Si- 
cily, west  of  Syracuse. 

BIGERRA  (now  Becerra  ?),  a  town  of  the  Ore- 
lani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis. 

BIGERRIONES  or  BiGERRi,  a  people  in  Aquita- 
nia,  near  the  Pyrenees. 

BILBILIS  (now  Baubola),  a  town  of  the  Celti- 
beri  in  Hispauia  Tarraconensis,  and  a  munici- 
pium  with  the  surname  Augusta,  on  the  River 
Salo,  also  called  Bilbilis  (now  Xalori),  was  the 
birth-place  of  the  poet  Martial,  and  was  cele- 
brated for  its  manufactories  in  iron  and  gold. 

BILL^ECH  (BtX^atof :  now  Filbas),  a  river  of 
Bithynia,  rising  in  the  Hypii  Montes,  and  falling 
into  the  Pontus  Euxinus  twenty  stadia  (two 
geographical  miles)  east  of  Tium.  Some  made 
it  the  boundary  between  Bithynia  and  Paphla- 
gonia. 

BINGIUM  (now  Bingen),  a  town  on  the  Rhine, 
in  Gallia  Belgica. 

BION  (Biuv).  1.  Of  Smyrna,  a  bucolic  poet, 
flourished  about  B.C.  280,  and  spent  the  last 
years  of  his  life  in  Sicily,  where  he  was  poison- 
ed. He  was  older  than  Moschus,  who  laments 
his  untimely  death,  and  calls  himself  the  pupil 
of  Bion.  (Mosch.,  Id.,  iii.)  The  style  of  Biou 
is  refined,  and  his  versification  fluent  nnd  ele- 
gant, but  he  is  inferior  to  Theocritus  in  strength 


and  depth  of  feeling. — Editions,  including  Mos 
chus,  by  Jacobs,  Gotha,  1795  ;  Wakefield,  Lon- 
don, 1795;  and  Manso,  Leipzig,  1807. — 2.  Of 
Borysthenes,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper, 
flourished  about  B.C.  250.  He  was  sold  as  a 
slave,  when  young,  and  received  his  liberty  from 
his  master,  a  rhetorician.  He  studied  at  Athens, 
and  embraced  the  later  Cyrenaic  philosophy, 
as  expounded  by  THEODORCS,  the  Atheist.  He 
lived  a  considerable  time  at  the  court  of  Antig 
onus  Gonatas,  king  of  Macedonia.  Bion  was 
noted  for  his  sharp  sayings,  whence  Horace 
speaks  of  persons  delighting  Bioneis  semnonibiis 
et  sale  nigro.  (Epist.,  ii.,  2,  60.) — [3.  Of  Soli  in 
Cilicia,  author  of  a  work  on  ^Ethiopia  (A.Wio- 
7rt/ca),  of  which  a  few  fragments  remain ;  he 
wrote  also  a  treatise  on  agriculture. — 4.  A  math 
ematician  of  Abdera,  the  first  who  maintained 
that  there  were  certain  regions  where  the  night 
lasted  six  months,  and  the  day  the  other  six 
months  of  the  year.] 

[BIRTHA  (ruins  at  Biradsjik),  a  city  of  Osrho- 
ene,  on  the  Euphrates.] 

[BISALT^E  (BtuaArai).     Vld.  BISALTIA.] 

BISALTIA  (Biaahria  :   Bi<7aAr^f),  a  district  in 
Macedonia,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Stry- 
|  moa    The  Bisaltae  were  Thracians,  and  at  the 
!  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes  (B.C.  480)  they 
i  were  ruled  by  a  Thracian  prince,  who  was  in- 
1  dependent  of  Macedonia ;    but  at  the  time  of 
the  Peloponnesian  war  we  find  them  subject  to 
Macedonia. 

[BISALTIS,  female  patronymic  from  Bisaltcs,  i. 
e.,  THEOPHANE.] 

BISANTHE  (Biauvdrj :  Biaavdijvof :  now  Ro- 
dosto),  subsequently  Rhcedestum  or  Rhcedestus,  a 
town  in  Thrace  on  the  Propontis,  with  a  good 
harbor,  was  founded  by  the  Samians,  and  was 
in  later  times  one  of  the  great  bulwarks  of  the 
neighboring  Byzantium. 

BISTONES  (B«TTov£f)  a  Thracian  people  be- 
tween Mount  Rhodope  and  the  ^Egean  Sea,  en 
the  Lake  BISTONIS,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ab- 
dera, through  whose  land  Xerxes  marched  on 
his  invasion  of  Greece  (B.C.  480).  From  the 
worship  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  in  Thrace  the 
Bacchic  women  are  called  Bistoriides.  (Hor., 
Carm.,  ii.,  19,  20.) 

BITHYNIA  (Bi&vvta  :  Biffovog),  a  district  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  on  the  west  by  Mysia,  on  the 
north  by  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  on  the  east  by 
Paphlagonia,  and  on  the  south  by  Phrygia  Epic- 
tetus,  was  possessed  at  an  early  period  by  Thra- 
cian tribes  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  Stry- 
mon,  called  Thyni  (Qvvoi)  and  Bithyui  (Btdvvoi), 
of  whom  the  former  dwelt  on  the  coast,  the 
latter  in  the  interior.  The  earlier  inhabitants 
were  the  BEBRTCES,  CAUCONES,  and  MYGDONES. 
and  the  northeastern  part  of  the  district  was 
possessed  by  the  MARIANDTNL  The  country 
was  subdued  by  the  Lydians,  and  afterward  be- 
came a  part  of  the  Persian  empire  under  Cyrus, 
and  was  governed  by  the  satraps  of  Phrygia. 
During  the  decline  of  the  Persian  empire,  the 
northern  part  of  the  country  became  independ- 
ent, under  native  princes  called  lirapxoi,  who 
resisted  Alexander  and  his  successors,  and  es 
tablished  a  kingdom,  which  is  usually  considei 
ed  to  begin  with  Zipoates  (about  B.C.  287)  or  his 
sou  Nicomedes  I.  (B.C.  278),  and  which  lasted 
till  the  death  of  Nicomedes  IIL  (B.C.  74),  who 
143 


BITHYNIUM. 


BODIOCASSES 


bequeathed  his  kingdom,  to  the  Romans.  By 
them  it  was  first  attached  to  the  province  of 
Asia,  afterward  to  that  -of  Pontus,  and,  under 
Augustus,  it  was  made  a  proconsular  province. 
Several  changes  were  made  in  its  boundaries 
under  the  later  emperors.  It  was  a  fertile 
country,  intersected  with  wooded  mountains,  the 
highest  of  which  was  the  Mysian  Olympus,  on 
its  southern  border.  Ita  chief  rivers  were  the 
SAXGAB.IUS  and  the  BILL&US. 

BITHYNIUM  (BiOvviov),  afterward  CLAUDIOFO- 
Lis,  an  inland  city  of  Bithynia,  the  birth-place  of 
Hadrian's  favorite  Antinoiis. 

BITON  (Biruv).  1.  A  mathematician,  the  au- 
thor of  an  extant  work  on  Military  Machines  (na- 
Taaneval  iro'kefUKuv  dpyuvuv  not  Karane'XTiKuv), 
whose  history  is  unknown.  The  iflork  is  printed 
in  Vet.  Mathem,  Op.,  Paris,  1693,  p.  105,  seq.  — 
[2.  A  friend  of  Xenophon,  who,  with  Euclides, 
showed  him  kindness,  and  relieved  his  wants  at 
Ophrynium,  on  his  return  from  Babylonia.] 

BITON  and  CLEOBIS  (KAeo&f),  sons  of  Cydippe, 
a  priestess  of  Juno  (Hera)  at  Argos.  They  were 
celebrated  for  their  affection  to  their  mother, 
whose  chariot  they  once  dragged  during  a  fes- 
tival to  the  temple  of  Juno  (Hera),  a  distance 
of  forty-five  stadia.  The  priestess  prayed  to 
the  goddess  to  grant  them  what  was  best  for 
mortals  ;  and  during  the  night  they  both  died 
while  asleep  in  the  temple. 

Bmjfrus,  in  inscriptions  BETULTCS,  king  of 
the  Arverni  in  Gaul,  joined  the  Allobroges  in 
their  war  against  the  Banians.  Both  the  Ar- 
verni and  Allobroges  were  defeated  B.C.  121,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Isara,  by 
Q.  Fabius  Maximus.  Bituitus  was  subsequently 
taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  Rome. 

BITUBIGES,  a  numerous  and  powerful  Celtic 
people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  had  in  early  times 
the  supremacy  over  the  other  Celts  in  Gaul. 
(Liv.,  v,  34.)  They  were  divided  into,  1.  Brr. 
CUBI,  separated  from  the  Carnutes  and  jEdui 
by  the  Liger,  and  bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Lemovices,  in  the  country  of  the  modern  Bour- 
ges  :  their  capital  was  AVAEICUM.  2.  BIT.  Vi- 
visci  or  UBISCI  on  the  Garumna  :  their  capital 

Was  BURDIGALA. 

BLADUS,  BLANDUS,  or  BLACDDS  (B/lu-,  BAuv-, 
B/law5of  :  BAavdj?j>6f  :  Blaudesius),  a  city  of 
Phrygia,  near  the  borders  of  Mysia  and  Lydia. 

BL^SUS,  C.  SEMPRONIUS,  consul  with  Cn.  Ser- 
vilius  Caepio,  B.C.  253,  in  the  first  Punic  war. 
The  two  consuls  sailed  to  the  coast  of  Africa, 
and  on  their  return  were  overtaken  off  Cape 
Palinurus  by  a  tremendous  storm,  in  which  one 
hundred  and  fifty  ships  perished. 

BL^BSUS,  JUNIUS,  governor  of  Pannonia  at  the 
death  of  Augustus,  A.D.  14,  when  the  formid- 
able insurrection  of  the  legions  broke  out  in 
that  province.  He  obtained  the  government  of 
Africa  in  21,  where  he  gained  a  victory  over 
Tacfarinas.  Ou  the  fall  of  his  uncle  Sejanus  in 
31,  he  was  deprived  of  the  priestly  offices  which 
he  held,  and  in  36  put  an  end  to  his  own  life,  to 
avoid  falling  by  the  hand  of  the  executioner. 

BLANDA.  1.  (Now  Blanos),  a  town  of  the 
Lacetani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis.  —  2.  (Now 
St.  Biasio),  a  town  in  Lucania. 

[BLANDUSIA  TONS.      Vid.  BANDUSIA.] 

BLASCON  (now  Erescou),  a  small  island  in  the 
Qallicus  Sinus,  off  the  town  of  Agatha 
144 


BLASIO,  M.  HELVICS,  praetor  B.C.  197,  defeated 
the  Celtiberi  in  Spain,  and  took  Illiturgi. 
[BLAUDUS  (Bhafdos).     Vid.  BLADCS.] 

BLAVIA  (now  £laye),  a  town  of  the  Santoneb 
in  Gallia  Aquitauica,  on  the  Garumna. 

BLEMYES  (BAe/wef,  BXc////D£f),  an  ^Ethiopian 
people  on  the  borders  of  Upper  Egypt,  to  wliich 
their  predatory  incursions  were  very  troublesome 
in  the  times  of  the  Roman  emperors. 

[BLENDIUM  (now  Santander  ?),  a  port  of  the 
Cantabri  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis.] 

BLEKA  (Blerunus  :  now  Bieda),  a  town  in 
Etruria,  on  the  Via  Clodia,  between  Formn 
Clodii  and  Tuscania  :  there  are  many  remains  of 
the  ancient  town  at  Bieda. 

BLOSICS  or  BLOSSIUS,  the  name  of  a  noble 
family  in  Campania.  One  of  this  family,  C. 
Blosius  of  Cumae,  was  a  philosopher,  a  disciple 
of  Antipater  of  Tarsus,  and  a  friend  of  Tiberius 
Gracchus.  After  the  death  of  Gracchus  (B.C. 
133)  he  fled  to  Aristonicus,  king  of  Pergamus, 
and  on  the  conquest  of  Aristonicus  by  the  Ro- 
mans, Blosius  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  for  fear 
of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 

BOADICEA,  queen  of  the  Iceni  in  Britain,  hav 
ing  been  shamefully  treated  by  the  Romans, 
who  even  ravished  her  two  daughters,  excited 
an  insurrection  of  the  Britons  against  their  op- 
pressors during  the  absence  of  Suetonius  Pau- 
linus,  the  Roman  governor,  on  an  expedition  U> 
the  island  of  Mona.  She  took  the  Roman  colo- 
nies of  Camalodunum,  Londim'um,  and  other 
places,  and  slew  nearly  seventy  thousand  Ro- 
mans and  their  allies.  She  was  at  length  de- 
feated with  great  loss  by  Suetonius  Pauliuus,  and 
put  an  end  to  her  own  fife,  A.D.  61. 

BOM  or  BAVO  (now  Bua),  an  island  on  the 
coast  of  Dalmatia,  used  by  the  later  Roman  em- 
perors as  a  place  of  exile  for  state  criminals.] 

BOAGEICS  (Boayptof,  now  Terremotto),  a  river 
in  Locris,  also  called  MANES,  flows  past  Thro- 
nium  into  the  Sinus  Maliacus. 

[BOBIUM  (now  Bobbio),  a  castrum  of  the  Li- 
gurians,  on  the  Trebia.] 

[BOCCHAR.  1.  A  brave  king  of  the  Mauri  in 
Africa,  a  contemporary  of  Masinissa.  —  2.  An 
officer  of  King  Syphax,  who  fought  against 
Masinissa.] 

BOCCHUS  (Bo/c^of).  1.  King  of  Mauretania, 
and  father-in-law  of  Jugurtha,  with  whom  at 
first  he  made  war  against  the  Romans,  but 
whom  he  afterward  delivered  up  to  Sulla,  the 
quaestor  of  Marius,  B.C.  106.  —  2.  Son  of  the 
preceding,  reigned  along  with  his  brother  Bo- 
gud  over  Mauretania.  Bocchus  and  Bogud  as- 
sisted Caasar  in  his  war  against  the  Pompeiaus 
in  Africa,  B.C.  46  :  and  in  45  Bogud  joined 
Caesar  in  his  war  in  Spain.  After  the  murder 
of  Caesar,  Bocchus  sided  with  Octaviauus,  and 
Bogud  with  Antony.  When  Bogud  was  in 
Spain  in  38,  Bocchus  usurped  the  sole  govern- 
ment of  Mauretania,  in  which  he  was  confirmed 
by  Octavianus.  He  died  about  33,  whereupon 
his  kingdom  .became  a  Roman  province.  Bogud 
had  previously  betaken  himself  to  Antony,  and 
was  killed  on  the  capture  of  Methone  by  Agrip- 
pa  in  31. 

[BODEBIA  (Bodspia  elf^txn?,  Ptol).  Vid.  Bo 
DOTKIA.] 

BODENCTJS  or  BODINCUS.     Vid.  PADUS. 

BODIOCASSES,  a  people  in  Gallia  Lugdunen 


BODOTRIA. 


BOIL 


sis       their    capital    was    AUGUSTODURUM    (now 


BODOTRIA  or  BODERIA  ^ESTUARIUM  (now  Firth 
of  Forth),  an  aestuary  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Scotland. 

[BODUOGNATUS,  leader  of  the  Nervii  in  Gallia, 
in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar.] 

B<E.£  (Botai :  Boidnjf :  now  Valka),  a  town 
in  the  south  of  Laconica,  near  Cape  Malea. 

[BCEATICUS  Sixus,  to  the  east,  or,  rather,  the 
eastern  part,  of  the  Laconicus  Sinus,  so  called 
from  tho  town  of  Bceae,  and  now  Gulf  of  Vatka.] 

BCEBE  (Bo/&7 :  Botfctif),  a  town  in  Pelasgio- 
tis  in  Thessaly,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
Lake  BCGBEIS  (Boi6rjif,  now  Bio),  into  which 
several  rivers  of  Thessaly  flow. 

BOEDEOMIUS  (Boqdpoptof ),  "  the  helper  in  dis- 
tress," a  surname  of  Apollo  at  Athens,  because 
he  had  assisted  the  Athenians.  Vid.  Diet,  of 
Antn  art.  BOEDEOMIA. 

[BCEO  (Boiu),  a  Grecian  poetess  of  Delphi, 
composed  a  hymn,  of  which  Pausanias  has  pre- 
served a  few  lines.] 

BCEOTIA  (Boiuria  :  Boiurof  :  part  of  Livadia), 
a  district  of  Greece,  bounded  north  by  Opun- 
tian  Locris,  east  by  the  Euboean  Sea,  south  by 
Attica,  Megaris,  and  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  and 
west  by  Phocis.  It  is  nearly  surrounded  by 
mountains,  namely,  Helicon  and  Parnassus  on 
the  west,  Cithaeron  and  Parnes  on  the  south, 
the  Opuntian  mountains  on  the  north,  and  a 
range  of  mountains  along  the  whole  sea-coast 
on  the  east  The  country  contains  several 
fertile  plains,  of  which  the  two  most  important 
were  the  valley  of  the  Asopus  in  the  south,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  were  called  Parasopii,  and 
the  valley  of  the  Cephisus  in  the  north  (the 
upper  part  of  which,  however,  belonged  to  Pho- 
ck),  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  called  Epi- 
ccphisii.  In  the  former  valley  the  chief  towns 
were  THEB.*,  TANAGEA,  THESPL<E,  and  PLA- 
IM.X.  ;  in  the  latter  the  chief  towns  were  OE- 
CHOMEJTUS,  CH^ERONEA,  CORONEA,  LEBADEA,  and 
HALIARTUS  ;  the  latter  valley  included  the  Lake 
COPAIS.  The  surface  of  Boeotia  is  said  to  be 
one  thousand  and  eighty  square  miles.  The  at- 
mosphere was  damp  and  thick,  to  which  cir- 
cumstance some  of  the  ancients  attributed  the 
dullness  of  the  Boeotian  intellect,  with  which 
the  Athenians  frequently  made  merry ;  but  the 
deficiency  of  the  Boeotians  in  this  respect  was 
more  probably  owing,  as  has  been  well  re- 
marked, to  the  extraordinary  fertility  of  their 
country,  which  probably  depressed  their  intel- 
lectual and  moral  energies.  In  the  earliest 
times  Bceotia  was  inhabited  by  various  tribes, 
the  Aones  (whence  the  country  was  called 
Aonia),  Temmices,  Hyantes,  Thracians,  Lele- 
ges,  <tc.  Orchomenus  was  inhabited  by  the 
powerful  tribe  of  the  Minyans,  and  Thebes  by 
the  Cadmeans,  the  reputed  descendants  of  CAD- 
MUS. The  Boeotians  were  an  JDolian  people, 
who  originally  occupied  Arne  in  Thessaly,  from 
which  they  were  expelled  by  the  Thessalians 
sixty  years  after  the  Trojan  war,  and  migrated 
into  the  country  called  after  them  Boeotia,  partly 
expelling  and  partly  incorporating  with  them- 
selves the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  land. 
Boeotia  was  then  divided  into  fourteen  inde- 
pendent states,  which  formed  a  league,  with 
Thebes  at  its  head.  The  chief  magistrates  of 
10 


the  confederacy  were  the  Bceotarchs,  elected 
annually,  two  by  Thebes  and  one  by  each  of 
the  other  states ;  but  as  the  number  of  states 
was  different  at  different  times,  that  of  the 
Bceotarchs  also  varied.  The  government  in 
most  states  was  an  aristocracy.  Vid.  Diet,  of 
Ant.,  art  BCEOTAECHES. 

BOETHIUS,  whose  full  name  was  ANICIUS  MAN- 
LIUS  SEVEEINUS  BOETHIUS,  a  Roman  statesman 
and  author,  was  born  between  A.D.  470  and  475. 
He  was  famous  for  his  general  learning,  and  es- 
pecially for  his  knowledge  of  Greek  philosophy, 
which,  according  to  a  common  account  (though 
of  doubtful  authority),  he  studied  under  Proems 
at  Athens.  He  was  consul  in  510,  and  was 
treated  with  great  distinction  by  Theodoric  the 
Great ;  but  having  incurred  the  suspicions  of 
the  latter  by  advocating  the  cause  of  the  Ital- 
ians against  the  oppressions  of  the  Goths,  he 
was  put  to  death  by  Theodoric  about  524.  Du- 
ring his  imprisonment  he  wrote  his  celebrated 
work  De  Consolatione  Philosophice,  in  five  books, 
which  is  composed  alternately  in  prose  and 
verse.  The  diction  is  pure  and  elegant,  and 
the  sentiments  are  noble  and  exalted,  showing 
that  the  author  had  a  real  belief  in  prayer  and 
Providence,  though  he  makes  no  reference  to 
Christianity.  Boethius  was  the  last  Roman  of 
any  note  who  understood  the  language  and 
studied  the  literature  of  Greece.  He  translated 
many  of  the  works  of  the  Greek  philosophers, 
especially  of  Aristotle,  and  wrote  commenta 
ries  upon  them,  several  of  which  have  come 
down  to  us.  He  also  wrote  a  commentary,  in 
six  books,  upon  the  Topica  of  Cicero,  which  is 
also  extant.  In  the  ignorance  of  Greek  writer* 
which  prevailed  from  the  sixth  to  the  four 
teenth  century,  Boethius  was  looked  upon  as 
the  head  and  type  of  all  philosophers,  as  Au- 
gustin  was  of  all  theology,  and  Virgil  of  all  lit- 
erature ;  but  after  the  introduction  of  the  works 
of  Aristotle  into  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, Boethius's  fame  gradually  died  away. 
The  best  edition  of  his  collective  works  was 
printed  at  Basel,  15*70;  the  last  edition  of  his 
De  Consolatione  is  by  Obbarius,  Jenae,  1843. 

BOETHUS  (Boi]66f).  1.  A  Stoic  philosopher  of 
uncertain  date,  wrote  several  works,  from  ono 
of  which  Cicero  quotes. — 2.  A  Peripatetic  phi 
losopher,  was  a  native  of  Sidon  in  Phoenicia,  a 
disciple  of  Andronicus  of  Rhodes,  and  an  in 
structor  of  the  philosopher  Strabo.  He  there 
fore  flourished  about  B.C.  30.  He  wrote  sev 
eral  works,  all  of  which  are  now  lost — [3.  A 
native  of  Tarsus,  who  gained  the  favor  of  An 
tony  by  celebrating  in  verse  the  defeat  of  Brutus 
and  Cassius  at  Philippi.] 

BCEUM  (Boiov,  Botof,  Bolov  :  Boiurrjf),  an  an- 
cient town  of  the  Dorian  Tetrapolis. 

BOGUD.     Vid.  BOCCHUS,  No.  2. 

Bon,  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Celtic 
tribes,  said  to  have  dwelt  originally  in  Gaul 
(Transalpina),  but  in  what  part  of  the  country 
is  uncertain.  At  an  early  time  they  migrated 
in  two  great  swarms,  one  of  which  crossed  the 
Alps  and  settled  in  the  country  between  the  Po 
and  the  Apennines  ;  the  other  crossed  the  Rhine 
and  settled  in  the  part  of  Germany  called  Boi- 
hemum  (now  Bohemia)  after  them,  and  between 
the  Danube  and  the  Tyrol.  The  Boii  in  Italy 
long  carried  on  a  fierce  struggle  with  the  Ro 
145 


BOIODURUM. 


BOREUS  MONS. 


mans,  but  they  were  at  length  subdued  by  the 
consul  P.  Scipio  in  B.C.  191,  and  •were  subse- 
quently incorporated  in  the  province  of  Oallia 
Cisalpina.  Ihe  Boii  in  Germany  maintained 
their  po\\  cr  longer,  but  were  at  length  subdued 
by  the  Marcomanni,  and  expelled  from  the  coun- 
try. We  find  32,000  Boil  taking  part  in  the 
Helvetian  migration  ;  and  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Helvetians  (B.C.  68),  Caesar  allowed  these 
Boii  to  dwell  among  the  J2dui. 

[BoiODtRUJi,  (now  Innstadf),  a  town  of  Vin- 
delicia,  at  the  junction  of  the  JEnus  (now  Inn) 
and  the  Danube.] 

BOIORK.  1.  A  chieftain  of  the  Boii,  fought 
against  the  Romans  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  B.C. 
194.  —  [2.  King  of  the  Cimbri,  fought  against  the 
Romans  under  Marius,  and  fell  in  battle  near 
Verona,  B.C.  1C1.] 

BOLA,  BOL.E,  or  VOL.E  (Bolanus),  an  ancient 
town  of  the  jEqui,  belonging  to  the  Latin  league, 
not  mentioned  in  later  times. 

BOLANUS,  VETTIUS,  governor  of  Britain  in 
A.D.  69,  is  praised  by  Statius  in  the  poem  (Silv., 
v.,  2)  addressed  to  Crispinus,  the  son  of  Bo- 
lanus. 

BOLBE  (BohSi):  now  Bcshelc),  a  lake  in  Mace- 
donia, empties  itself  by  a  short  river  into  the 
Strymonic  Gulf  near  Bromiscus  and  Aulon  :  the 
lake  is  now  about  twelve  miles  in  length,  and 
six  or  eight  in  breadth.  There  was  a"  town  of 
the  same  name  upon  the  lake. 

BOLBITINE    (BohfilTlVTJ  :       BoWlTLVTjTTJf  :      HOW 

Rosetta),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  near  the  mouth 
of  a  branch  of  the  Nile  (the  westernmost  but 
one),  which  was  called  the  Bolbitine  mouth  (TO 
BoA6irivov  arofid). 

[BOLERIUM  PROMONTORICM,  the  southwest 
point  of  Britannia,  now  Lands  End,  in  Corn- 
wall.] 

BOLINE  (RoTuvi]  :  Bo/UvaZof),  a  town  in  Achaia, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  Augustus  transplanted 
to  Patrae. 

BOLISSUS  (Bo/.t<r<Tof  :  BoXioatoe,  now  Volisso), 
a  town  on  the  western  coast  of  Chios. 

BOMILCAR  (Bo/u'A/cap,  Boa/uA/eap).  1.  Com- 
mander, with  Hanno,  of  the  Carthaginians 
against  Agathocles,  when  the  latter  invaded 
Africa,  B.C.  310.  In  3G8  he  attempted  to  seize 
the  government  of  Carthage,  but  failed,  and  was 
crucified.  —  2.  Commander  of  the  Carthaginian 
supplies  sent  to  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of 
Cannae,  216.  He  afterward  attempted  to  re- 
lieve Syracuse  when  besieged  by  Marcellus, 
but  was  unable  to  accomplish  any  thing.  —  3.  A 
Numidian,  deep  in  the  confidence  of  Jugurtha. 
When  Jugurtha  was  at  Rome,  109,  Bomilcar 
effected  for  him  the  assassination  of  Massiva. 
In  107  he  plotted  against  Jugurtha. 

BOMIUS  MONS,  (B(j/«of  and  ol  Bw//ot),  the  west- 
ern part  of  Mount  (Eta  in  JEtolia,  inhabited  by 
the  Bomienses 


BONA  DEA,  a  Roman  divinity,  is  described  as 
the  sister,  wife,  or  daughter  of  Faunus,  and  was 
herself  called  fauna,  Falua,  or  Oma.  She  was 
worshipped  at  Rome  as  a  chaste  and  prophetic 
divinity;  she  revealed  her  oracles  only  to  fe- 
males, as  Faunus  did  only  to  males.  Her  festi- 
val was  celebrated  every  year  on  the  first  of 
Jlay,  in  the  house  of  the  consul  or  praetor,  as 
the  sacrifices  on  that  occasion  were  offered  on 
behalf  of  the  whole  Roman  people.  The  eo- 
146 


lemnities  were  conducted  by  the  Vestals,  and 
no  male  person  was  allowed  to  be  in  the  house 
at  one  of  the  festivals.  P.  Clodius  profaned  the 
sacred  ceremonies  by  entering  the  house  of 
Caesar  in  the  disguise  of  a  woman,  B.C.  62. 

BONIFACICS,  a  Roman  general,  governor  of 
Africa  under  Valentinian  III.  Believing  that 
the  Empress  Placidia  meditated  his  destruction, 
he  revolted  against  the  emperor,  and  invited 
Genseric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  to  settle  in  Afri- 
ca. In  430  he  was  reconciled  to  Placidia,  and 
attempted  to  drive  the  Vandals  out  of  Africa, 
but  without  success.  He  quitted  Africa  in  431, 
and  in  432  he  died  of  a  wound  received  in  com- 
!  bat  with  his  rival  Aetius. 

BONNA  (now  Bonn),  a  town  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  in  Lower  Germany,  and  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Ubii,  was  a  strong  fortress  of  the 
Romans  and  the  regular  quarters  of  a  Roman 
legioa  Here  Drusus  constructed  a  bridge 
across  the  Rhine. 

BONONIA  (Bononiensis).  1.  (Now  Bologna), 
a  town  in  Gallia  Cispadana,  originally  called 
FELSINA,  was  in  ancient  times  an  Etruscan  city, 
and  the  capital  of  northern  Etruria.  It  after- 
ward fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Boii,  but  it  waa 
colonized  by  the  Romans  on  the  conquest  of  the 
Boii,  B.C.  191,  and  its  name  of  Felsina  was  then 
changed  into  Bononia.  It  fell  into  decay  in  the 
civil  wars,  but  it  was  enlarged  and  adorned  by 
Augustus,  32. — 2.  (Now  Boulogne),  a  town  in  the 
north  of  Gaul.  Vid.  GESORIACPS. — 3.  (Now  Ba- 
nostor  ?),  a  town  of  Pannonia,  on  the  Danube. 

BONOSUS,  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  served  with  dis- 
tinction under  Aurelian,  and  usurped  the  imperi- 
al title  in  Gaul  in  the  reign  of  Probus.  He  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  Probus,  A.D.  280  or  281. 

BOOTES.     Vid.  ARCTURUS. 

BORBETOMAGUS  (now  Worms),  also  called  VAN- 
GIONES,  at  a  later  time  WORMATIA,  a  town  of  the 
Vangiones,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  in  Up- 
per Germany. 

BSREAS  (Bopeaf  or  Eopdf),  the  north  wind,  or, 
more  strictly,  the  wind  from  the  north-north- 
east, was,  in  mythology,  a  son  of  Astrseus  and 
Eos,  and  brother  of  Hesperus,  Zephyrus,  and 
Notus.  He  dwelt  in  a  cave  of  Mount  Haemus. 
in  Thrace.  He  carried  off  Orithyia,  daughtei 
of  Erechtheus,  king  of  Attica,  by  whom  he  begot 
Zetes,  Calais,  and  Cleopatra,  wife  of  Phineus 
who  are  therefore  called  Boreadce.  In  4he  Per 
sian  war,  Boreas  showed  his  friendly  disposition 
toward  the  Athenians  by  destroying  the  ships 
of  the  barbarians.  According  to  an  Homeric 
tradition  (H,,  xx.,  223),  Boreas  begot  twelve 
horses  by  the  mares  of  Erichthonius,  which  is 
commonly  explained  as  a  figurative  mode  of 
expressing  the  extraordinary  swiftness  of  those 
horses.  Boreas  was  worshipped  at  Athens, 
where  a  festival,  Borea&ni,  was  celebrated  in 
his  honor. 

BORKITM  (Bopeiov).  1.  (Now  Malin  Head),  the 
northern  promontory  of  Hibernia  (now  Ireland). 
— 2.  (Now  Has  Teyonas),  a  promontory  on  the 
western  coast  of  Cyrenaica,  forming  the  eastern 
headland  of  the  Great  Syrtis. — 3.  The  northern 
extremity  of  the  island  of  Taprobane  (now 
Ceylon). 

BORKUS  MONS  (Bopeiov  opof),  &  mountain  in 
Arcadia,  on  the  borders  of  Laconia,  containing 
the  sources  of  the  rivers  Alpheus  and  Eurotas, 


BOREUS  PORTUS. 


BRANCHID^E. 


BOEECS  FOETUS  (Bopeiof  Atpfv),  &  harbor  in 
the  island  of  Tenedos,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of 
the  same  name. 

BOKSIPPA  (TU  Bopanrrca  :  Bopaimri}v6s :  now 
Boursa),  a  city  of  Babylonia,  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Euphrates,  a  little  south  of  Babylon, 
celebrated  for  its  manufactures  of  linen,  and  as 
the  chief  residence  of  the  Chaldean  astrologers. 
The  Greeks  held  it  sacred  to  Apollo  and  Diana 
(Artemis). 

BORYSTHEXES  (BopvadevTjf  :  now  Dnieper),  af- 
terward DAXAPRIS,  a  river  of  European  Sarma- 
tia,  flows  into  the  Euxine,  but  its  sources  were 
unknown  to  the  ancients.  Near  its  mouth,  and 
at  its  junction  with  the  Hypanis,  lay  the  town 
BOEYSTHEXES  or  BoRYSTHEXis  (now  Kudak), 
also  called  OLBIA,  OLBIOPOLIS,  and  MILETOPOLIS, 
a  colony  of  Miletus,  and  the  most  important 
Greek  city  on  th%  north  of  the  Euxine.  (Eth- 
nic, Bopvodevirrjc,  'OAStOTro/UT^f.) 

BOSPORUS  (BotTTropof),  i.  e.,  Ox-ford,  the  name 
of  any  straits  among  the  Greeks,  but  especially 
applied  to  the  two  following:  1.  THE  THRACI- 
AX  BOSPORUS,  (now  Channel  of  Constantinople), 
unites  the  Propontis,  or  Sea  of  Marmara,  with 
the  Euxine,  or  Black  Sea.  According  to  the 
legend,  it  was  called  Bosporus  from  lo,  who 
crossed  it  in  the  form  of  a  heifer.  At  the  en- 
trance of  the  Bosporus  were  the  celebrated 
SYMPLEGADES.  Darius  constructed  a  bridge 
across  the  Bosporus  when  he  invaded  Scythia. 
— 2.  THE  CIMMERIAN  BOSPORUS  (uow  Straits  of 
Kaffa)  unites  the  Palus  Maeotis,  or  Sea  of  Azof, 
with  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea.  It  formed,  with 
the  Tanais  (now  Don),  the  boundary  between 
Asia  and  Europe,  and  it  derived  its  name  from 
the  CIHMEBII,  who  were  supposed  to  have  dwelt 
in  the  neighborhood.  On  the  European  side  of 
the  Bosporus,  the  modern  Crimea,  the  Milesians 
founded  the  town  of  Panticapaeum,  also  called 
Bosporus,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Panticapaeum 
subsequently  founded  the  town  of  Phanagoria 
on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Straits.  These  cities, 
being  favora^pr  situated  for  commerce,  soon  be- 
came places  of  considerable  importance  ;  and  a 
kingdom  gradually  arose,  of  which  Panticapae- 
um was  the  capital,  and  which  eventually  in- 
cluded the  whole  of  the  Crimea.  The  first 
kings  we  read  of  were  the  Archaenactidae,  who 
reigned  forty-two  years,  from  B.C.  480  to  438. 
They  were  succeeded  by  Spartacus  I.  and  his 
descendants.  Several  of  these  kings  were  in 
close  alliance  •with  the  Athenians,  who  obtained 
annually  a  large  supply  of  corn  from  the  Bos- 
porus. The  hist  of  these  kings  was  Pterisades, 
who,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Scythians,  vol- 
untarily ceded  his  dominions  to  Mithradates  the 
Great  On  the  death  of  Mithradates,  his  son 
Pharnaces  was  allowed  by  Pompey  to  succeed 
to  the  dominion  of  Bosporus  ;  and  we  subse- 
quently find  a  series  of  kings,  who  reigned  in 
the  country  till  a  late  period,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Roman  emperors. 

BOSTAR  (BuffTup,  Buerrapof).  1.  A  Cartha- 
ginian general,  who,  with  Hamilcar  and  Has- 
drubal,  the  son  of  Hanno,  fought  against  M. 
Atilius  Regulus,  in  Africa,  B.C.  266,  but  was 
defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to  Rome, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  perished  in  consequence 
of  the  barbarous  treatment  which  he  received 
fnun  the  sons  of  Regulus. — 2.  A  Carthaginian 


general,  under  Hasdrubal,  in  Spain,  set  at  lib- 
erty the  Spanish  hostages  kept  at  Saguntum, 
hoping  thereby  to  secure  the  affections  of  the 
Spaniards. 

BOSTRA  (ra  Boarpa,  Old  Testament  Bozrah : 
BoaTijvof  and  -aZoj  :  now  Busrah,  ruins),  a  city 
of  Arabia,  in  an  Oasis  of  the  Syrian  Desert,  a 
little  more  than  ten  degrees  south  of  Damascus- 
It  was  enlarged  and  beautified  by  Trajan,  who 
made  it  a  colony.  Under  the  later  emperors  it 
was  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric. 

BOTTIA,     BoTTIjEA,     BoTTI^EIS     (BoTTia,      BoTTl- 

aia,  BoTTiaug :  Borrialof),  a  district  in  Macedo- 
nia, on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Axius,  ex 
tended  in  the  time  of  Thucydides  to  Pieria  on 
the  west.  It  contained  the  towns  of  Pella  and 
Ichnae  near  the  sea.  The  Bottisei  were  a  Thra- 
cian  people,  who,  being  driven  out  of  the  coun- 
try by  the  Macedonians,  settled  in  that  part  of 
the  Macedonian  Chalcidice,  north  of  Olynthus, 
which  was  called  Bottice  (BOTTIKT/). 

BOTTICE.     Vid.  BOTTIA. 

[BOVENXA  (now  Cabrera},  a  small  island  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  Sardinia.] 

BOVIAXUM  (Bovianius  :  now  Bojano),  the  chief 
town  of  the  Pentri  in  Samnium,  was  taken  by 
the  Romans  in  the  Samnite  wars,  and  was  col 
onized  by  Augustus  with  veterans. 

BOVILL.E  (Bovillensis),  an  ancient  town  in 
Latium,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alban  Mountain,  on 
the  Appian  Way,  about  ten  miles  from  Rome. 
Near  it  Clodius  was  killed  by  Milo  (B.C.  52) ; 
and  here  was  the  sacrarium  of  the  Julia  gens. 

BEACARA  AUGUSTA  (now  Braga),  the  chief 
town  of  the  Callaici  Bracarii,  in  Hispania  Tar- 
raconensis  :  at  Braga  there  are  the  ruins  of  an 
amphitheatre,  aqueduct,  <fec. 

BRACHMAN^E  or  -i  (Bpax/tuvee),  is  a  name  used 
by  the  ancient  geographers,  sometimes  for  a 
caste  of  priests  in  India  (the  Brahmins),  some- 
times, apparently,  for  all  the  people  whose  re- 
ligion was  Brahminism,  and  sometimes  for  a 
particular  tribe. 

BR'ACHODES  or  CAPUT  VADA  (Bpaxudnf  uapa  . 
now  Ras  Kapoudiah),  a  promontory  on  the  coast 
of  Byzacena,  in  Northern  Africa,  forming  the 
northern  headland  of  the  Lesser  Syrtis. 

BRACK YLLES  or  BEACHYLLAS  (Bpa^vAAj/f,  Bpa- 
XvMac),  a  Boeotian,  supported  the  Macedonian 
interests  in  the  reigns  of  Antigonus  Doson  and 
Philip  V.  At  the  battle  of  Cyuoscephalse,  B.C. 
197,  he  commanded  the  Boeotian  troops  in  Phil- 
ip's army,  and  was  murdered  in  196  at  Thebes 
by  the  Roman  party  in  that  city. 

[BEADANUS  (now  Brandano),  a  river  of  Lu- 
cania,  which  falls  iito  the  Sinus  Tarentinus :  it 
forms  the  boundary  between  Lucania  and  Apu- 
lia.] 

BRANCH!!!.*:  (al  Bpay^tdat :  now  Jeronda, 
ruins)  afterward  DIDYMA  or  -i  (TO  &i6vfta,  ol 
Ai<5v/uo(),  a  place  on  the  sea-coast  of  Ionia,  a 
little  south  of  Miletus,  celebrated  for  its  temple 
and  oracle  of  Apollo,  surnamed  Didymeus  (At- 
dvyufiif).  This  oracle,  which  the  lonians  held 
in  the  highest  esteem,  was  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Bronchus,  son  of  Apollo  or  Smicrus 
of  Delphi,  and  a  Milesian  woman.  The  reputed 
1  descendants  of  this  Branchus,  the  Branchiddo 
;  (ol  Bpay^Wat),  were  the  hereditary  ministers  of 
j  this  oracle.  TheY  delivered  up  the  treasures 
1  of  the  temple  to  Darius  or  Xerxes ;  and,  when 
147 


BRANCHUS. 


BRITANNIA. 


Xerxes  returucd  from  Greece,  the  Branchidse, 
tearing  the  revenge  of  the  Greeks,  begged  him 
to  remove  them  to  a  distant  part  of  his  empire. 
They  were  accordingly  settled  in  Bactria  or 
Sogdiana,  where  their  descendants  are  said  to 
have  been  punished  by  the  army  of  Alexander 
for  the  treason  of  their  forefathers.  The  tem- 
ple, called  Didymaeum,  which  was  destroyed  by 
Xerxes,  was  rebuilt,  and  its  ruins  contain  some 
beautiful  specimens  of  the  Ionic  order  of  archi- 
tecture. 

BRANCHUS  (Bpdyxof).     Vid.  BRANCHIDA 

BRANNOVICES.     Vid.  AULERCI. 

[BRANODONUM  (now  Brancaster),  a  city  of  the 
Iceni  or  Simeni  in  Britannia  Romana.] 

[BRANOGENIUM  (now  Worcester)  or  BRANONI- 
UM,  a  town  of  the  Boduni  in  Britannia  Romana.] 

BRASIDAS  (Bpaaidaf),  son  of  Tellis,  the  most 
distingushed  Spartan  in  the  first  part  of  the  Pel- 
oponnesian  war.  In  B.C.  424,  at  the  head  of 
a  small  force,  he  effected  a  dexterous  march 
through  the  hostile  country  of  Thessaly,  and 
joined  Perdiccas  of  Macedonia,  who  had  prom- 
ised co-operation  against  the  Athenians.  By 
Iiis  military  skill,  and  the  confidence  which  his 
character  inspired,  he  gained  possession  of 
many  of  the  cities  in  Macedonia  subject  to 
Athens  ;  his  greatest  acquisition  was  Amphip- 
olis.  In  422  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over 
Cleon,  who  had  been  sent,  with  an  Athenian 
force,  to  recover  Amphipolis,  but  he  was  slain 
in  the  battle.  He  was  buried  within  the  city, 
and  the  inhabitants  honored  him  as  a  hero  by 
yearly  sacrifices  and  by  games.  Vid.  Diet,  of 
Ant.,  art.  BRASIDEIA. 

BRATUSPANT!UM  (now  Bratuspante,  near  Bre- 
teuil ),  the  chief  town  of  the  Bellovaci  in  Gallia 
Belgica. 

BRAURON  (Bpavpuv  :  Bpavpuviof  :  now  Vrao- 
na  or  Vrana),  a  demus  in  Attica,  on  the  eastern 
coast,  on  the  River  Erasinus,  with  a  celebrated 
temple  of  Diana  (Artemis),  who  was  hence 
called  Brauronia,  and  in  whose  honor  the  fes- 
tival Brauronia  was  celebrated  in  this  place. 
Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v. 

BREGETIO  (near  Szdny,  ruins,  east  of  Co- 
morn),  a  Roman  municipium  in  Lower  Panno- 
nia  on  the  Danube,  where  Valentinian  I.  died. 

BRENNUS.  1.  The  leader  of  the  Senonian 
Gauls,  who,  in  B.C.  890,  crossed  the  Apennines, 
defeated  the  Romans  at  the  Allia,  and  took 
Rome.  After  besieging  the  Capitol  for  six 
months,  he  quitted  the  city  upon  receiving  one 
thousand  pounds  of  gold  as  a  ransom  for  the 
Capitol,  and  returned  home  safe  with  his  booty. 
But  it  was  subsequently  related  in  the  popular 
legends  that  Camillus  and  a  Roman  army  ap- 
peared at  the  moment  the  gold  was  being 
weighed,  that  Brennus  was  defeated  by  Camil- 
lus, and  that  he  himself  and  his  whole  army 
were  slain  to  a  man. — 2.  The  chief  leader  of 
the  Gauls  who  invaded  Macedonia  and  Greece, 
B.C.  280,  279.  In  280  Ptolemy  Ceraunus  was 
defeated  by  the  Gauls  under  Belgius,  and  slain 
in  battle  ;  and  Brenuus  in  the  following  year 
penetrated  into  the  south  of  Greece,  but  he  was 
defeated  near  Delphi,  most  of  his  men  were 
slain,  and  he  himself  put  an  end  to  his  own  life. 

BREUCI,  a  powerful  people  of  Pannonia,  near 
the  confluence  of  the   Savus   and  the  Danube, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  insurrection  of  the 
148 


Pannonians  and    Dalmatians    against    the  Ro 
mans,  A.D.  6. 

BREUNI,  a  Raetian  people,  dwelt  in  the  Tyrol 
near  the  Brenner.  (Hor.,  Carm.,  iv.,  14,  11.) 

BRIAREUS.      Vid.  ^EG^KON. 

BRIUINN-LE  (BptKiwlat),  a  place  in  Sicily  not 
far  from  Leontini. 

BRIGAXTES,  the  most  powerful  of  the  British 
tribes,  inhabited  the  whole  of  the  north  of  the 
island  from  the  Abus  (now  Hwnber)  to  the  Ro- 
man wall,  with  the  exception  of  the  southeast 
corner  of  Yorkshire,  which  was  inhabited  by  the 
Parisii.  The  Brigantes  consequently  inhabited 
the  greater  part  of  Yorkshire,  and  the  whole  of 
Lancashire,  Durham,  Westmoreland,  and  Cum- 
berland. Their  capital  was  EBORACUM.  They 
were  conquered  by  Petilius  Cerealis  in  the  reign 
of  Vespasian.  There  was  alro  a  tribe  of  Bri- 
gantes in  the  south  of  Ireland^  between  the  riv- 
ers Birgus  (now  Barrow)  and  Dabrona  (now 
Blackwater),  in  the  counties  of  Waterford  and 
Tipperary. 

BRIGANTII,  a  tribe  in  Viudelicia,  on  the  Lake 
BRIGANTINUS,  noted  for  their  robberies. 

BRIGANTINUS  LACUS  (now  Bodensee  or  Lake 
of  Constance),  also  called  VENETUS  and  ACRO- 
NIUS,  through  which  the  Rhine  flows,  was  in- 
habited by  the  Helvetii  on  the  south,  by  the 
Raetii  on  the  southeast,  and  by  the  Vindelici  on 
the  north.  Near  an  island  on  it,  probably  Rei- 
chenau,  Tiberius  defeated  the  Yindelici  in  a 
naval  engagement. 

BRIGANTIUM.  1.  (Now  Brianpon),  a  town  of 
the  Segusiani  in  Gaul,  at  the  foot  of  the  Cottian 
Alps. — 2.  (Now  Corunna),  a  sea-port  town  of 
the  Lucenses,  in  Gall«ecia  in  Spain,  with  a  light- 
house, which  is  still  used  for  the  same  purpose, 
having  been  repaired  in  1791,  and  which  is  now 
called  La  Torre  de  Hercules. — 3.  (Now  Bregenz\ 
a  town  of  the  Brigantini  Vindeliei,  on  the  Lake 
of  Constance. 

BRILESSUS  (BpiXriaaof),  a  mountain  in  Attica, 
northeast  of  Athens. 

BRIMO  (Bpipu),  "  the  angry  or  A  terrifying," 
a  surname  of  Hecate  and  Proserpina  (Perseph- 
one.) 

BRINIATES,  a  people  in  Liguria,  south  of  the 
Po,  near  the  modern  Brignolo. 

BRISEIS  (Bpiarjif),  daughter  of  Brises  of  Lyr- 
nessus,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Achilles,  but  was 
seized  by  Agamemnon.  Hence  arose  the  dire 
feud  between  the  two  heroes.  Vid.  ACHILLES. 
Her  proper  name  was  Hippodamaa. 

BRITANNIA  (ff  BperraviK^  or  BpcraviKij,  sc. 
vqaoc. ,  T)  BpETTavia  or  Bperavta  :  Bperravot,  Bpe 
ravoi,  Britanni,  Brittones),  the  island  of  England 
and  Scotland,  which  was  also  called  ALBION 
Miov,  'Ahoviuv,  Insula  Albionum).  HIBERNIA 
or  Ireland  is  usually  spoken  of  as  a  separate 
island,  but  it  is  sometimes  included  under  the  gen- 
eral name  of  the  INSULT  BRITANNIOS  Bpt-ra- 

al  vfiaoi),  which  also  comprehended  the  small- 
er islands  around  the  coast  of  Great  Britain.  The 
etymology  of  the  word  Britannia  is  uncertain, 
but  it  is  derived  by  most  writers  from  the  Celtic 
word  brith  or  brit,  "  painted,"  with  reference  to 
the  custom  of  the  inhabitants  of  staining  their 
bodies  with  a  blue  color :  whatever  may  be  the 
etymology  of  the  word,  it  is  certain  that  it  was 
used  by  the  inhabitants  themselves,  since  in  the 
Gaelic  the  inhabitants  are  called  Brython,  and 


BRITANNIA. 

Cheir  language  Brythoneg.  The  name  Albion  is 
probably  derived  from  the  white  cliffs  of  the 
island  [for  the  more  correct  derivation,  vid.  AL- 
BION] ;  but  writers  who  derived  the  names  of 
all  lands  and  people  from  a  mythical  ancestor, 
connected  the  name  with  one.  Albion,  the  son 
of  Neptune.  The  Britons  were  Celts,  belong- 
ing to  that  branch  of  the  race  called  Cymry, 
and  were  apparently  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
of  the  country.  Their  manners  and  customs 
were  in  general  the  same  as  the  Gauls ;  but, 
separated  more  than  the  Gauls  from  intercourse 
with  civilized  nations,  they  preserved  the  Celtic 
religion  in  a  purer  state  than  in  Gaul,  and  hence 
Druidism,  according  to  Ccesar,  was  transplanted 
from  Gaul  to  Britain.  The  Britons  also  retained 
many  of  the  barbarous  Celtic  customs,  which 
the  more  civilized  Gauls  had  laid  aside.  They 
painted  their  bodies  with  a  blue  color  extracted 
from  woad,  in  order  to  appear  more  terrible  in 
battle,  and  they  had  wives  in  common.  At  a 
later  time  the  Belgae  crossed  over  from  Gaul,  and 
settled  on  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts,  driv- 
ing the  Britons  into  the  interior  of  the  island. 
It  was  not  till  a  late  period  that  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  obtained  any  knowledge  of  Britain.  In 
early  times  the  Phoenicians  visited  the  Scilly 
Islands  and  the  coast  of  Cornwall  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  tin ;  but  whatever  knowledge 
they  acquired  of  the  country  they  jealously  kept 
secret,  and  it  only  transpired  that  there  were 
CASSITERIDES,  or  Tin  Islands,  in  the  northern 
parts  of  the  ocean.  The  first  certain  know- 
ledge which  the  Greeks  obtained  of  Britain  was 
from  the  merchants  of  Massilia,  /ibout  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  especially  from  the 
voyages  of  PYTHEAS,  who  sailed  round  a  great 
part  of  Britain.  From  this  time  it  was  gener- 
ally believed  that  the  island  was  in  the  form  of 
a  triangle,  an  error  wliich  continued  to  prevail 
even  at  a  later  period.  Another  important  mis- 
take, which  likewise  prevailed  for  a  long  time, 
was  the  position  of  Britain  in  relation  to  Gaul 
and  Spam.  As  the  northwestern  coast  of  Spain 
was  supposed  to  extend  too  far  to  the  north,  and 
the  western  coast  of  Gaul  to  run  northeast,  the 
lower  part  of  Britain  was  believed  to  lie  between 
Spain  and  Gaul.  The  Romans  first  became  per- 
sonally acquainted  with  the  island  by  Csesar'e 
invasion.  He  twice  landed  in  Britain  (B.C. 
55,  54),  and  though  on  the  second  occasion  he 
conquered  the  greater  part  of  the  southeast 
of  the  island,  yet  he  did  not  take  permanent 
possession  of  any  portion  of  the  country,  and 
nfter  his  departure  the  Britons  continued  as  in- 
dependent as  before.  The  Romans  made  no 
further  attempts  to  conquer  the  island  for  nearly 
one  hundred  years.  In  the  reign  of  Claudius 
(A.D.  43),  they  again  landed  in  Britain,  and  per- 
manently subdued  the  country  south  of  the 
Thames.  They  now  began  to  extend  their  con- 
quests over  the  other  parts  of  the  island ;  and  the 
great  victory  (61)  of  Suetonius  Paulinus  over 
the  Britons  who  had  revolted  under  BOADICEA, 
etill  further  consolidatsd  the  Romai  dominions. 
In  the  rvign  of  Vespasian,  Petilius  Ocrealis  and 
Julius  Frontinus  made  several  successful  expe- 
ditions against  the  SILURES  and  the  BRIGANTES  ; 
and  the  conquest  of  South  Britain  was  at  length 
finally  completed  by  Agricola,  who  in  seven 
campaigns  (78-84)  subdued  the  whole  of  the 


BRITANNIA. 

island  as  far  north  as  the  Frith  of  Forth  and  the 
Clyde,  between  which  he  erected  a  series  of 
forts  to  protect  the  Roman  dominions  from  the 
incursions  of  the  barbarians  in  the  north  of 
Scotland.  The  Roman  part  of  Britain  was  now 
called  Britannia  Romana,  and  the  northern  part, 
inhabited  by  the  Caledonians,  Britannia  Barbara 
or  Caledonia.  The  Romans,  however,  gave  up 
the  northern  conquests  of  Agricola  in  the  reign  * 
of  Hadrian,  and  made  a  rampart  of  turf  from 
the  ^Estuarium  Ituna  (now  Solicay  Frith)  to  the 
German  Ocean,  which  formed  the  northern 
boundary  of  their  dominions.  In  the  reign  of 
Antoninus  Pius  the  Romans  again  extended  their 
boundary  as  far  as  the  conquests  of  Agricola, 
and  erected  a  rampart  connecting  the  Forth  and 
the  Clyde,  the  remains  of  which  are  now  called 
Grimes  Dike,  Grime  in  the  Celtic  language  sig- 
nifying great  or  powerful.  The  Caledonians 
afterward  broke  through  this  wall ;  and  in  con- 
sequence of  their  repeated  devastations  of  the 
Roman  dominions,  the  Emperor  Severus  went 
to  Britain  in  208,  in  order  to  conduct  the  war 
against  them  in  person.  He  died  in  the  island 
at  Eboracum  (now  York)  in  211,  after  erecting 
a  solid  stone  wall  from  the  Solway  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Tyne,  a  little  north  of  the  rampart  of 
Hadrian.  After  the  death  of  Severus,  the  Ro- 
mans relinquished  forever  all  their  conquests 
north  of  this  wall.  In  287  Carausius  assumed 
the  purple  in  Britain,  and  reigned  as  emperor, 
independent  of  Diocletian  and  Maximian,  till 
his  assassination  by  Allectus  in  293.  Allectue 
reigned  three  years,  and  Britain  was  recovered 
for  the  emperors  in  296.  Upon  the  resignation 
of  the  empire  by  Diocletian  and  Maximian  (305), 
Britain  fell  to  the  share  of  Constantius,  who 
died  at  Eboracum  in  306,  and  his  son  Constau- 
tine  assumed  in  the  island  the  title  of  Cassar. 
Shortly  afterward,  the  Caledonians,  who  now 
appear  under  the  names  of  Picts  and  Scots, 
broke  through  the  wall  of  Severus,  and  the 
Saxons  ravaged  the  coasts  of  Britain ;  and  the 
declining  power  of  the  Roman  empire  was  un- 
able to  afford  the  province  any  effectual  assist- 
ance. In  the  reign  of  Valentinian  I,  Theodo- 
sius,  the  father  of  the  emperor  of  that  name, 
defeated  the  Picts  and  Scots  (367) ;  but  in  the 
reign  of  Honorius,  Constantine,  who  had  been 
proclaimed  emperor  in  Britain  (407),  withdrew 
all  the  Roman  troops  from  the  island,  in  order 
to  make  himself  master  of  GauL  The  Britons 
were  thus  left  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the 
Picts  and  Scots,  and  at  length,  in  447,  they 
called  in  the  assistance  of  the  Saxons,  who  be- 
came the  masters  of  Britain.  The  Roman  do- 
minions of  Britain  formed  a  single  province  till 
the  time  of  Severus,  and  were  governed  by  a 
legatus  of  the  emperor.  Severus  divided  the 
country  into  two  provinces,  Britannia  Superior 
and  Inferior,  of  which  the  latter  contained  the 
earliest  conquests  of  the  Romans  in  the  south 
of  the  island,  and  the  former  the  later  conquests 
in  the  north,  the  territories  of  the  Silures,  Bri 
gautes,  Ac.  Upon  the  new  division  of  the  prov 
inces  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  Britain  was 
governed  by  a  vicariits,  subject  to  the  prafectvs 
prattorio  of  Gaul,  and  was  divided  into  four  prov- 
inces: (1.)  Britannia  Prima,  the  country  south 
of  the  Thames;  (2.)  Britannia Secunda,  Wales; 
(3.)  Maxima  Catariensis,  the  country  between 
149 


BRITANNICUS. 


BRUTUS. 


the  Thames  and  the  Humber ;  (4.)  Flavia  Ccesar- 
iensit,  the  country  between  the  Humber  and  the 
Roman  walL  Besides  these,  there  was  also  a 
fifth  province,  Valentia,  which  existed  for  a  short 
time,  including  the  conquests  of  Theodosius  be- 
yond the  Roman  walL 

BRITANNICUS,  son  of  the  Emperor  Claudius 
and  Messalina,  was  born  A.D.  42.  Agrippina, 
the  second  wife  of  Claudius,  induced  the  em- 
peror to  adopt  her  own  son,  and  give  him  pre- 
cedence oyer  Britannicus.  This  son,  the  Emper- 
or Nero,  ascended  the  throne  in  54,  and  caused 
Britannicus  to  be  poisoned  in  the  following  year. 

[BRITOMARIS,  a  leader  of  the  Galli  Senones, 
who  caused  the  Roman  ambassadors  to  be  put 
to  death,  and  their  bodies  to  be  mangled  with 
every  possible  indignity :  this  act  brought  upon 
him  and  his  people  the  vengeance  of  the  Ro- 
mans.] 

BRITOMARTIS  (BptroftapTif,  usually  derived 
from  Pptrvf,  sweet  or  blessing,  and  //aprtf,  a 
maiden),  was  a  Cretan  nymph,  daughter  of  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus)  and  Carme,  and  beloved  by  Minos,  who 
pursued  her  nine  months,  till  at  length  she 
leaped  into  the  sea  and  'was  changed  by  Diana 
(Artemis)  into  a  goddess.  She  seems  to  have 
been  originally  a  Cretan  diviuity  who  presided 
over  the  sports  of  the  chase ;  on  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  worship  of  Diana  (Artemis)  into 
Crete  she  was  naturally  placed  in  some  relation 
with  the  latter  goddess ;  and  at  length  the  two 
divinities  became  identified,  and  Britomartis  is 
called  in  one  legend  the  daughter  of  Latona  (Le- 
to).  At  ^Egina  Britomartis  was  worshipped  un- 
der the  name  of  Aphaea. 

[BRITONES.     Via.  BRITANNIA.] 

[BRIVATES  PORTUS  (now  Say  de  Pinnebe ;  ac- 
cording to  D'Anville,  Brest),  a  harbor  of  the 
Namnetes  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis.] 

BRIXELLUM  (Brixellanus :  now  Bregella  or 
Brescella),  a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po,  in 
Gallia  Cisalpina,  where  the  Emperor  Otho  put 
himself  to  death,  A.D.  69. 

BRIXIA  (Brixianus :  now  Brescia),  a  town  in 
Gallia  Cisalpina,  on  the  road  from  Comum  to  I 
Aquileia,  through  which  the  River  Mella  flowed 
(flaws  quam  molli  percurrit  flumine  Mella,  Ca- 
tolL,  Ixvii.,  33).  It  was  probably  founded  by 
the  Etruscans,  was  afterward  a  town  of  the 
Libui  and  then  of  the  Cenomani,  and  finally 
became  a  Roman  municipium  with  the  rights  of 
a  colony, 

Bfiomius  (Bpopiof),  a  surname  of  Bacchus 
(Dionysus),  i.  e.,  the  noisy  god,  from  the  noise  of 
the  Bacchic  revelries  (from  Bpe//«). 

BRONTES.     Vid.  CYCLOPES. 

BRUCHIDM.     Vid.  ALEXANDREA. 

BRUCTERI,  a  people  of  Germany,  dwelt  on  each 
side  of  the  Amisia  (now  Ems),  and  extended 
south  as  far  as  the  Luppia  (now  lAppe).    The 
Bructeri  joined  the  Batavi  in  their  revolt  against  j 
the  Romans  in  A.D.  69,  and  the  prophetic  virgin, ! 
VELEDA,  who  had  so  much  influence  among  the  | 
German  tribes,  was  a  native  of  their  country.  I 
A  few  years  afterward  the  Bructeri  were  almost  j 
annihilated  by  the    Chamavi    and    AngrivariL 
(Tac.,  Germ.,  33.) 

BRUNDUSIUM  or  BRUNDISIUM  (BpsvTJjaiav,  Bpev- 
reaiov :  Brundusinus :  now  Brindisi),  a  town  in  '• 
Calabria,  on  a  small  bay  of  the  Adriatic,  form- 
ing an  excellent  harbor,  to  which  the  place  owed 
150 


its  importance,  fhe  Appia  Via  terminated  at 
Brundisium,  and  it  was  the  usual  place  of  em- 
barkation for  Greece  and  the  East.  It  was  an 
ancient  town,  and  probably  not  of  Greek  origin, 
although  its  foundation  is  ascribed  by  some 
writers  to  the  Cretans,  and  by  others  to  Diome- 
des.  It  was  at  first  governed  by  kiugs  of  its 
own,  but  was  conquered  and  colonized  by  the 
Romans,  B.C.  245.  The  poet  Pacuvius  was  born 
at  this  town,  and  Virgil  died  here  on  his  return 
from  Greece,  B.C.  19. 

IBRUTIDIUS  NIGER.     Vid.  NIGER.] 
BRUTTIANUS  LUSTRICUS.   Vid.  LUSTRICUS.] 
BRUTTIUS.     1.  A  Roman  knight,  for  whom  Ci- 
cero wrote  a  letter  of  introduction  to  M'.  Acilius 
Glabrio,  proconsul  in  Sicily  in   B.C.  46. — 2.  A 
philosopher,  with  whom  M.  Cicero  the  younger 
studied  at  Athens  in  B.C.  44.] 

[BRUTTIUS  SURA.     Vid.  SUKA.] 

BRUTTIUM,  BRUTTIUS,  and  BRUTTIORUM  AGEK 
(Bperria:  Bruttius),  more  usually  called  BRUT- 
TII,  after  the  inhabitants,  the  southern  extremi- 
ty of  Italy,  separated  from  Lucania  by  a  line 
drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Laus  to  Thurii, 
and  surrounded  on  the  other  three  sides  by  the 
sea.  It  was  the  country  called  in  ancient  times 
CEnotria  and  Italia.  The  country  is  mountain- 
ous, as  the  Apennines  run  through  it  down  to 
the  Sicilian  Straits ;  it  contained  excellent  pas- 
turage for  cattle,  and  the  valley  produced  good 
corn,  olives,  and  fruit.  The  earliest  inhabitants 
of  the  country  were  (Enotrians.  Subsequently 
some  Lucanians,  who  had  revolted  from  their 
countrymen  in  Lucania,  took  possession  of  the 
country,  and  were  hence  called  Bruttii  or  Bret- 
tii,  which  word  is  said  to  mean  "  rebels"  in  the 
language  of  the  Lucanians.  This  people,  how 
ever,  inhabited  only  the  interior  of  the  land ; 
the  coast  was  almost  entirely  in  the  possession  of 
the  Greek  colonies.  At  the  close  of  the  second 
Punic  war,  in  which  the  Bruttii  had  been  the 
allies  of  Hannibal,  they  lost  their  independence, 
and  were  treated  by  the  Romans  with  great  se- 
verity. They  were  declared  to  be  public  slaves, 
and  were  employed  as  lictors  and  servants  of  the 
magistrates. 

BRUTUS,  JUNIUS.  1.  L.,  son  of  M.  Junius  and 
of  Tarquinia,  the  sister  of  Tarquinius  Superbus, 
His  elder  brother  was  murdered  by  Tarquinius, 
and  Lucius  escaped  his  brother's  fate  only  by 
feigning  idiocy,  whence  he  received  the  sur- 
name of  Brutus.  After  Lucretia  had  stabbed 
herself,  Brutus  roused  the  Romans  to  expel  the 
Tarquins ;  and  upon  the  banishment  of  tLe  lat- 
ter, he  was  elected  first  consul  with  Tarquinius 
Collatinus.  He  loved  his  country  better  than 
his  children,  and  put  to  death  his  two  sons,  who 
had  attempted  to  restore  the  Tarquins.  He  fell 
in  battle  the  same  year,  fighting  against  Aruns, 
the  son  of  Tarquinius.  Brutus  was  the  great 
hero  in  the  legends  about  the  expulsion  of  the 
Tarquins,  but  we  have  no  means  of  determin- 
ing what  part  of  the  account  is  historical. — 2. 
D.,  surnamed  SC^EVA,  magister  equitnm  to  the 
dictator  Q.  Publilius  Philo,  B.C.  339,  and  consul 
in  325,  when  he  fought  against  the  Vestini. — 
3.  D.,  surnamed  SC^EVA,  consul  292,  conquered 
the  Faliscans. — 4.  M.,  tribune  of  the  plebs  1 95, 
praetor  191,  when  he  dedicated  the  temple  of 
the  Great  Idaeau  Mother,  one  of  the  ambassa- 
dors sent  into  Asia  189,  and  consul  178,  when 


BRUTUS. 


BUCEHIALA. 


he  eubdued  the  Istri.  He  was  again  one  of  the 
ambassadors  sent  into  Asia  in  171. — 5.  P.,  trib- 
une of  the  plebs  195,  curule  aedile  192,  praetor 
190,  propraetor  in  Further  Spain  189. — 6.  D., 
Burnamed  GALI^ECCS  (CALLECUS)  or  CALLAICUS, 
consul  138,  commanded  in  Further  Spain,  and 
conquered  a  great  part  of  Lusitania,  From  his 
•victory  over  the  Gallaeci  he  obtained  his  sur- 
name. He  was  a  patron  of  the  poet  L.  Accius, 
and  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Roman  literature. 
— 7.  D.,  son  of  No.  6,  consul  77,  and  husband 
of  Sempronia,  who  carried  on  an  intrigue  with 
Catiline. — 8.  D.,  adopted  by  A.  Postumius  Al- 
binus,  consul  99,  and  hence  called  Brutus  Albi- 
nus.  He  served  under  Caesar  in  Gaul  and  in 
the  civil  war.  He  commanded  Caesar's  fleet  at 
the  siege  of  Massilia,  49,  and  was  afterward 
placed  over  Further  GauL  On  his  return  to 
Rome  Brutus  was  promised  the  praetorship  and 
the  government  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  for  44.  Nev- 
ertheless, he  joined  the  conspiracy  against  Cae- 
sar. After  the  death  of  the  latter  (44)  he  went 
into  Cisalpine  Gaul,  which  he  refused  to  sur- 
render to  Antony,  who  had  obtained  this  prov- 
ince from  the  people.  Antony  made  war  against 
him,  and  kept  him  besieged  in  Mutina,  till  the 
siege  was  raised  in  April,  43,  by  the  consuls 
Hirtius  and  Pansa,  and  Octavianus.  But  Bru- 
tus only  obtained  a  short  respite.  Antony  was 
preparing  to  march  against  him  from  the  north 
with  a  large  army,  and  Octavianus,  who  had 
deserted  the  senate,  was  marching  against  him 
from  the  south.  His  only  resource  was  flight, 
but  he  was  betrayed  by  Camillus,  a  Gaulish 
chief,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Antony,  43. — 9. 
M.,  praetor  88,  belonged  to  the  party  of  Marius, 
and  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  in  82,  that  he 
might  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  Pompey,  who 
commanded  Sulla's  fleet — 10.  L.,  also  called 
DAMASIPPUS,  praetor  82,  when  the  younger  Ma- 
rius was  blockaded  at  Praeneste,  put  to  death 
at  Rome  by  order  of  Marius  several  of  the  most 
eminent  senators  of  the  opposite  party. — 11.  M., 
married  Servilia,  the  half-sister  of  Cato  of 
Utica.  He  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  83,  and  in 
77  he  espoused  the  cause  of  Lepidus,  and  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  forces  in  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  where  he  was  slain  by  command  of  Pom- 
pey.— 12.  M^  the  so-called  tyrannicide,  son  of 
No.  11  and  Servilia.  He  lost  his  father  when  he 
was  only  eight  years  old,  and  was  trained  by  his 
uncle  Cato  in  the  principles  of  the  aristocratical 
party.  Accordingly,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war,  49,  he  joined  Pompey,  although  he 
was  the  murderer  of  his  father.  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Pharsalia,  48,  he  was  not  only  pardoned 
by  Caesar,  but  received  from  him  the  greatest 
marks  of  confidence  and  favor.  Caesar  made 
him  governor  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  in  46,  and  prae- 
tor in  44,  and  also  promised  him  the  govern- 
ment of  Macedonia.  But,  notwithstanding  all 
the  obligations  he  was  under  to  Caesar,  he  was 
persuaded  br  Cassius  to  murder  his  benefactor 
under  the  delusive  idea  of  again  establishing  the 
republic.  Vid.  < '  i.-  \K.  After  the  murder  of 
Csesar  Brutus  spent  a  short  time  in  Italy,  and 
then  took  possession  of  the  province  of  Mace- 
donia. He  was  joined  by  Cassius,  who  com- 
manded in  Syria,  and  their  united  forces  were 
opposed  to  those  of  Octavianus  and  Antony. 
Two  battles  were  fought  in  the  neighborhood 


1  of  Philippi  (42),  in  the  former  of  which  Brutus 

j  was    victorious,  though   Cassius    was   defeated. 

|  but  in  the  latter  Brutus  also  was  defeated  and 

I  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.     Brutus's  wife  was 

I  POKCIA,  the  daughter  of  Cato.     Brutus  was  an 

1  ardent  student  of  literature  and  philosophy,  but 

he  appears  to  have  been  deficient  in  judgment 

!  and  original  power.    He  wrote  several  works, 

all  of  which  have  perished.     He  was  a  literary 

friend  of  Cicero,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  Tus- 

culance  Disputationes,  De  Finibus,  and  Orator, 

and  who  has  given  the  name  of  Brutus  to  his 

!  dialogue  on  illustrious  orators. 

BEYAXIS  (Bpvagif),  an  Athenian  statuary  in 
stone  and  metal,  lived  B.C.  372-312,  [one  of 
the  artists  engaged  in  adorning  the  tomb  of 
Mausolus  with  bas  reliefs.] 

BEYGI  or  BEYGES  (Bpvyoi,  Bpiyef),  a  barbar- 
ous people  in  the  north  of  Macedonia,  probably 
of  Illyrian  or  Thracian  origin,  who  were  still  in 
Macedonia  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  war.  The 
Phrygians  were  believed  by  the  ancients  to  have 
been  a  portion  of  this  people,  who  emigrated  to 
Asia  in  early  times.  Vid.  PHEYGIA. 

[BaysiLE  (Bpvaeai),  a  city  of  Laconia,  south- 
west from  Amyclas,  on  the  Eurotas,  contained 
a  temple  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus).  It  had  been 
destroyed  before  the  time  of  Pausanias.] 

[BUBAEES  (Bovfidpr/f),  son  of  Megabazus,  sent 
as  a  special  messenger  to  Macedonia,  but  al- 
lowed himself  to  be  bribed  to  neglect  his  duty. 
In  conjunction  with  Artachaees,  Bubares  super- 
intended the  construction  of  the  canal  which 
Xerxes  made  across  the  isthmus  of  Athos.  Vid. 
ATHOS.] 

BUBASSUS  (Bv6aaao(),  an  ancient  city  of  Caria, 
east  of  Cnidus,  which  gave  name  to  the  bay 
(Bubassius  Sinus)  and  the  peninsula  (TI  Xepao- 
vrjaoQ  i]  Bv6aaoijj)  on  which  it  stood.  Ovid 
speaks  of  Bubasldes  nurus  (Met.,  ix.,  643.) 

BUBASTIS  (BovfiaoTif),  daughter  of  Osiris  and 
Isis,  an  Egyptian  divinity,  whom  the  Greeks 
identified  with  Diana  (Artemis),  since  she  was 
the  goddess  of  the  moon.  The  cat  was  sacred 
to  her,  and  she  was  represented  in  the  form  of 
a  cat,  or  of  a  female  with  the  head  of  a  cat 

BUBASTIS  or  -us  (BovSaarif  or  -of ;  Bovdaarl- 
TTjf :  ruins  at  Tel  Basta),  the  capital  of  the  No- 
mos  Bubastltes  in  Lower  Egypt,  stood  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile, 
and  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  Bubas- 
tis,  whose  annual  festival  was  kept  here.  Un- 
der the  Persians  the  city  was  dismantled,  and 
lost  much  of  its  importance. 

BUBULCUS,  C.  JuNits,  consul  B.C.  317,  a  sec- 
ond time  in  313,  and  a  third  time  in  311 ;  in  the 
last  of  these  years  he  carried  on  the  war  against 
the  Samnites  with  great  success.  He  was  cen- 
sor in  309,  and  dictator  in  302,  when  he  defeat- 
ed the  ^Equians;  in  his  dictatorship  he  dedi- 
cated the  temple  of  Safety  which  he  had  vowed 
in  his  third  consulship.  The  wallo  of  this  tem- 
ple were  adorned  with  paintings  by  C.  Fabius 
Pictor. 

BCcMpiiALA  or  -!A  (BovKtyala  or  -uZeta  :  [now 
probably  Mung,  near]  Jhelv.ni),  a  city  on  the  Hy- 
daspes  (now  Jhelum),  in  Northern  India  (the 
Punjab),  built  by  Alexander  after  his  battle  witb 
Porus,  in  memory  of  his  favorite  chai-ger  Bu- 
cephalus, whom  he  buried  here.  It  stood  at 
the  place  where  Alexander  crossed  the  river 
151 


BUCEPHALUS. 


BUTES. 


tnd  where  General  Gilbert  crossed  it  (Februaiy 
1849)  after  the  battle  of  Goojerat 

BUCEPHALUS  (BovKe0a/,of),the  celebrated  horse 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  Philip  purchased 
for  thirteen  talents,  and  which  no  one  was  able 
to  break  in  except  the  youthful  Alexander. 
This  horse  carried  Alexander  through  his  Asi- 
atic campaigns,  and  died  in  India  B.C.  327. 
Vid.  BUCEPHALA. 

[BUCILIANUS,  called  BUCOLIANUS  by  Appian, 
one  of  the  friends  of  Caesar  who  afterward  con- 
spired against  him :  he  was  one  of  Caesar's  mur- 
derers.] 

[BUCOLICUM  OSTIUM,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Nile,  the  same  as  the  Phatneticum  Ostium. 
Vid.  NILUS.] 

[BuconoN  (BovKO^iuv).  1.  A  son  of  Laome- 
don  and  the  nymph  Calybe. — 2.  A  prince  of  Ar- 
cadia, son  of  Lycaon,  grandson  of  Cypselus.l 

[BuconoN  (BovKohiuv,  if),  a  small  city  of  Ar- 
cadia] 

BUDALIA,  a  town  in  Lower  Pannonia,  near  Sir- 
mium,  the  birth-place  of  the  Emperor  Decius. 

BUDINI  (Bovdlvoi),  a  Scytliian  people,  who 
dwelt  north  of  the  Sauromatae,  in  the  steppes  of 
Southern  Russia.  Herodotus  (iv.,  108)  calls  the 
nation  yhavKov  TE  ical  irvppdv,  which  some  inter- 
pret "with  blue  eyes  and  red  hair,"  and  others 
"painted  blue  and  red."  [In  their  territory  was 
a  mountain  called  BUDINUS,  near  the  sources  of 
the  Borysthenes.] 

BUDORON  (Bovoopov),  a  fortress  in  Salamis,  on 
a  promontory  of  the  same  name,  opposite  Me- 
gara, 

BULIS  (BotiAif)  and  SPEETHIAS  (^TrepBirjf),  two 
Spartans,  voluntarily  went  to  Xerxes  and  offer- 
ed themselves  for  punishment  to  atone  for  the 
murder  of  the  heralds  whom  Darius  had  sent  to 
Sparta;  but  they  were  dismissed  uninjured  by 
the  king. 

Buus  (Boi/lif :  BotJ/ltof ),  a  town  in  Phocis,  on 
the  Corinthian  Gulf,  and  on  the  borders  of 
Bceotia. 

Bums  (Bullinus,  Bullio,  -onis,  Bulliensis),  a 
town  of  Illyria,  on  the  coast,  south  of  Apollonia, 
capital  of  the  Bulliones. 

BUPALUS  and  his  brother  ATHENIS,  sculptors 
of  Chios,  lived  about  B.C.  500,  and  are  said  to 
have  made  caricatures  of  the  poet  Hipponax, 
which  the  poet  requited  by  the  bitterest  satires. 

[BUPHAGIUM  (Bovfydyiov),  a  small  town  of  Ar- 
cadia, on  the  Buphagus,  which  flows  between 
the  territories  of  Megalopolis  and  Heraea.] 

[BUPHRAS  (BovQpuf),  a  mountain  in  Messenia, 
uear  Pylos. 

[BUPORTHMUS  (Bovirop6fj.o<f),  &  mountain  in  Ar- 
golis,  between  Hermione  and  Trcezene:  on  it 
was  a  temple  of  Ceres  and  Proserpina,  and  one 
of  Bacchus.] 

BupRA8iUM(Boi>7rpu(T40J> :  -oievfj-aiuv,  -ffidr/f), 
an  ancient  town  in  Eh's,  mentioned  in  the  Iliad, 
which  had  disappeared  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 

BURA  (Bovpa :  Bovpaloc,  Bovptoc :  ruins  near 
Kalavrytra),  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Achaia, 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  together  with  He- 
lice,  but  subsequently  rebuilt. 

BURDIGALA  (Bovpoiyaha :  now  Bordeaux),  the 
capital  of  the  Bituriges  Vivisci  in  Aquitania,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Garumna  (now  Garonne), 
was  a  place  of  great  commercial  importance, 
and  at  a  later  time  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  lit- 
152 


erature  and  learning.     It  was  the  birth-place  of 
the  poet  Ausonius. 

BUHGUNDIONES  or  BuRGUNDii,  a  powerful  na- 
tion of  Germany,  dwelt  originally  between  the 
Viadus  (now  Oder)  and  the  Vistula,  and  were  of 
the  same  race  as  the  Vandals  or  Goths.  They 
pretended,  however,  to  be  descendants  of  the 
Romans,  whom  Drusus  and  Tiberius  had  left  in 
Germany  as  garrisons,  but  this  descent  was  evi- 
dently iu vented  by  them  to  obtain  more  easi- 
ly from  the  Romans  a  settlement  west  of  the 
Rhine.  They  were  driven  out  of  their  original 
abodes  between  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula  by 
the  Gepidoe,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  mi- 
grated west  and  settled  in  the  country  on  the 
Main,  where  they  carried  on  frequent  wars  with 
their  neighbors  the  Alemanni.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury they  settled  west  of  the  Alps  in  Gaul, 
where  they  founded  the  powerful  kingdom  of 
Burgundy.  Their  chief  towns  were  Geneva 
and  Lyons. 

BURII,  a  people  of  Germany,  dwelt  near  the 
sources  of  the  Viadus  (now  Oder)  and  Vistula, 
and  joined  the  Marcomanui  in  their  war  against 
the  Romans  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 

BURROS,  AFRANIUS,  was  appointed  by  Clau- 
dius praefectus  praetorio  A.D.  52,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  Seneca,  conducted  the  education 
of  Nero.  He  opposed  Nero's  tyrannical  acts, 
and  was  at  length  poisoned  by  command  of  the 
emperor,  63. 

BURSA.     Vid.  PLANCUS. 

BURSAO  (Bursaoeusis,  Bursavolensis),  n  town 
of  the  Autrigonae  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis. 

BUSIRIS  (Bovaipis),  king  of  Egypt,  son  of  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon)  and  Lysianassa,  is  said  to  have 
sacrificed  all  foreigners  that  visited  Egypt 
Hercules,  on  his  arrival  in  Egypt,  was  likewise 
seized  and  led  to  the  altar,  but  he  broke  his 
chains  and  slew  Busiris.  This  myth  seems  to 
point  out  a  time  when  the  Egyptians  were  ac- 
customed to  offer  human  sacrifices  to  their 
deities. 

BUSIRIS  (Bovatpi<; :  BovaipiTtjf).  1.  (Now 
Abousir,  ruins),  the  capital  of  the  Nomos  Busi- 
rites  in  Lower  Egypt,  stood  just  in  the  middle 
of  the  Delta,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile, 
and  had  a  great  temple  of  Isis,  the  remains  of 
which  are  still  standing. — 2.  (Now  Abousir,  near 
Jizeh),  a  small  town  a  little  northwest  of 
Memphis. 

[BUTAS  (Bovraf),  a  Greek  poet  of  uncertain 
age,  who  wrote  in  elegiac  verse  an  account  of 
early  Roman  history.  Some  lines  on  the  fabu- 
lous origin  of  the  Lupercalia  are  preserved  in 
Plutarch's  Life  of  Romulus.] 

BUTEO,  FABIUS.  1.  N,  consul  B.C.  24*7,  in 
the  first  Punic  war,  was  employed  in  the  siege 
of  Drepanum. — 2.  M.,  consul  245,  also  in  the 
first  Punic  war.  In  216  he  was  appointed  die 
tator  to  fill  up  the  vacancies  in  the  senate  oc- 
casioned by  the  battle  of  Cannae. — 3.  Q.,  praetor 
181,  with  the  province  of  Cisalpine  Gaul.  In 
179  he  was  one  of  the  triumvirs  for  founding  a 
Latin  colony  in  the  territory  of  the  Pisani. 

BUTES  (Bovrj?f).  1.  Son  of  either  Teleon,  01 
Pandion,  or  Amycus,  and  Zeuxippe.  He  was 
one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  priest  of  Minerva 
(Athena)  and  of  the  Erechthean  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon). The  Attic  family  of  the  Butadae  or 
Eteobutadsa  derived  their  origin  from  him ;  and 


BUTHROTUM. 


CABILLONUM. 


in  the  Erechtheum  on  the  Acropolis  there  was 
an  altar  dedicated  to  Butes. — [2.  An  Argive, 
who  went  with  Tlepolemus,  son  of  Hercules, 
to  Rhodes :  when  the  latter  sailed  for  Troy, 
he  gave  over  the  island  to  Butes. — 3.  Armor- 
bearer  of  Anchises,  afterward  given  as  a  com- 
panion to  lulus  by  his  father  ^Eneas.  Apollo 
assumed  his  form  to  dissuade  lulus  from  con- 
tinuing the  fight — 4.  A  Trojan  companion  of 
JEneas,  slain  by  Camilla.] 

BUTHROTUX  ( BovBpurov  :  Bov6puriof :  now  Bu- 
trinto),  a  town  of  Epirus,  on  a  small  peninsula 
opposite  Corcyra,  was  a  flourishing  sea-port,  and 
was  colonized  by  the  Romans. 

BUTO  (Bovrw),  an  Egyptian  divinity,  worship- 
ped principally  in  the  town  of  BUTO.  She  was 
the  nurse  of  Horus  and  Bubastis,  the  children  of 
Osiris  and  Isis,  and  she  saved  them  from  the 
persecutions  of  Typhon  by  concealing  them  in 
the  floating  island  of  Chemmis.  The  Greeks 
identified  her  with  Leto,  and  represented  her 
as  the  goddess  of  night  The  shrew-mouse, 
{jjivya^rf)  and  the  hawk  were  sacred  to  her. 

BUTO  (Bovru,  BOVTIJ,  or  Bovrof  :  ~BovTotrri^  : 
now  Baltim  ?  ruins),  the  chief  city  of  the  Nomos 
Chemmites  in  Lower  Egypt,  stood  near  the  Se- 
bennytic  branch  of  the  Nile,  on  the  Lake  of 
Buto  (EOVTIKJ)  7JifiVTi,  also  2e6evwriK^),  and  was 
celebrated  for  its  oracle  of  the  goddess  Buto,  in 
honor  of  whom  a  festival  was  held  at  the  city 
every  year. 

BUXENTUJI  (Buxentlnus,  Buxentius:  now  Po- 
licastro),  originally  Pyxus  (TLv^ovff),  a  town  on 
the  west  coast  of  Lueania  and  on  the  River 
BUXENTIUS,  was  founded  by  Micythus,  tyrant 
of  Messana,  B.C.  471,  and  was  afterward  a  Ro- 
man colony. 

BYBLINI  MONTES  (ri  Bvdhiva  opn),  the  mount- 
ains  whence  the  Nile  is  said  to  flow  in  the  myth- 
ical geography  of  ^Eschylus  (Prom.,  811). 

BYBLIS  (Bu6AZf),  daughter  of  Miletus  and  Ido- 
thea,  was  in  love  with  her  brother  Caunus, 
whom  she  pursued  through  various  lands,  till  at 
length,  worn  out  with  sorrow,  she  was  changed 
into  a  fountain. 

BYBLUS  (Bt)6Aof  :  Bt?6Atof  :  now  Jebeil),  a  very 
ancient  city  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  between 
Berytus  and  Tripolis,  a  little  north  of  the  River 
Adonis.  It  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of 
Adonis.  It  was  governed  by  a  succession  of 
petty  princes,  the  last  of  whom  was  deposed  by 
Pompey. 

BYLAZORA  (BvZd&pa  :  now  Bilias),  a  town  in 
Pseonia,  in  Macedonia,  on  the  River  Astycus. 

BYRSA  (Bvpaa),  the  citadel  of  CARTHAGO. 

BYZACIUM  or  BYZACENA  REGIO  (Bufu/ttov,  Bv- 
Ca/cJf  x&pa  :  southern  part  of  Tunis),  the  south- 
ern portion  of  the  Roman  province  of  Africa. 
Vid.  AFRICA,  p.  28,  b. 

BYZANTINI  SCRIPTORES,  the  general  name  df 
the  historians  who  have  given  an  account  of 
the  Eastern  or  Byzantine  empire  from  the  time 
of  Constantino  the  Great,  A.D.  325,  to  the  de- 
struction of  the  empire,  1453.  They  all  wrote 
in  Greek,  and  may  be  divided  into  different 
classes.  1.  The  historians  whose  collected 
Works  form  an  uninterrupted  history  of  the  By- 
cantine  empire,  and  whose  writings  are  there- 
fore called  Corpus  Histories  Byzantince.  They 
are,  (l.J  ZONARAS,  who  begins  with  the  creation 
of  the  world,  and  brings  his  history  down  to 


1188.  (2.)  NICEPHORUS  ACOMINATUS,  whose  h» 
tory  extends  from  1188  to  1206.  (3.)  NICEFHO- 
RUS  GREGOBAS,  whose  history  extends  from 
1204  to  1331.  (4.)  LAONICUS  CHALCONDYLES, 
whose  history  extends  from  1297  to  1462 :  his 
work  is  continued  by  an  anonymous  writer  to 
1565. — 2.  The  ehronographers,  who  give  a  brief 
chronological  summary  of  universal  history  from 
the  creation  of  the  world  to  their  own  times. 
These  writers  are  very  numerous :  the  most 
important  of  them  are  GEORGIUS  SYNCELLUS, 
THEOPHANES,  NICEPHORUS,  CEDRENUS,  SIMEON 
METAPHRASTES,  MICHAEL  GLYCAS,  the  authors 
of  the  Chronicon  Paschale,  <fcc. — 3.  The  writers 
who  have  treated  of  separate  portions  of  Byzan- 
tine history,  such  as  ZOSIMUS,  PROCOPIUS,  AGA- 
THIAS,  ANNA  COMNENA,  <fcc.— 4.  The  writers  who 
have  treated  of  the  constitution,  antiquities, 
•fee.,  of  the  empire,  such  as  LAURENTIUS  LYDUS, 

CONSTANTINUS    VI.    PoRPHYROGENNETUS.      A    Col 

lection  of  the  Byzantine  writers  was  published 
at  Paris  by  command  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  36  vols. 
fol.,  1645-1711.  A  reprint  of  this  edition,  with 
additions,  was  published  at  Venice,  in  23  vols. 
fol.,  1727-1733.  A  new  edition  of  the  Byzantine 
writers  was  commenced  by  Niebuhr,  Bonn,  1828, 
8vo,  and  is  still  in  course  of  publication. 

BYZANTIUM  (Bv&vriov  :  Bv&vTiof,  Byzantius : 
now  Constantinople),  a  town  on  the  Thracian 
Bosporus,  founded  by  the  Megarians,  B.C.  658, 
is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Byzas, 
the  leader  of  the  colony  and  the  son  of  Neptune 
(Poseidon).  It  was  situated  on  two  hills,  was 
forty  stadia  in  circumference,  and  its  acropolis 
stood  on  the  site  of  the  present  seraglio.  Its 
favorable  position,  commanding  as  it  did  the 
entrance  to  the  Euxine,  soon  rendered  it  a  place 
of  great  commercial  importance.  It  was  taken 
by  Pausanias  after  the  battle  of  Plataeae,  B.C. 
479  ;  and  it  was  alternately  in  the  possession 
of  the  Athenians  and  Lacedaemonians  during 
the  Peloponnesian*  war.  The  Lacedzemonians 
were  expelled  from  Byzantium  by  Thrasybulus 
in  390,  and  the  city  remained  independent  for 
some  years.  Afterward  it  became  subject  in 
succession  to  the  Macedonians  and  the  Romans. 
In  the  civil  war  between  Pescennius  Niger  and 
Severus,  it  espoused  the  cause  of  the  former  : 
it  was  taken  by  Severus  A.D.  196,  after  a  siege 
of  three  years,  and  a  considerable  part  of  it  de- 
stroyed. A  new  city  was  built  by  its  side  (330) 
by  Constantine,  who  made  it  the  capital  of  the 
empire,  and  changed  its  name  into  CONSTANTI- 
NOPOLIS. 

[BYZAS  (Bvfaf),  mythic  founder  of  Byzanti- 
um, q.  ».] 

0. 

CAB!LIA  or  -is  (Ka6aMa,  KataAtf :  Kafaheiif, 

fiaAtof),  a  small  district  of  Asia  Minor,  be- 
tween Lycia  and  Pamphylia,  with  a  town  of  the 
same  name. 

CABASA  or  -us  (KMaaof :  Ka6aaiTi)f),  the  chief 
city  of  the  Nomos  Cabasites,  in  Lower  Egypt 

CABILLONUM  [or  CABALLINUM  (Kafia'kxivov : 
now  I  Chdlons-sur-Saone),  %  town  of  the  JSdui, 
on  the  Arar  (now  Saone),  in  Gallia  Lugdunen 
sis,  was  a  place  of  some  commercial  activity 
when  Csesar  was  in  Gaul  (B.C.  53).  At  a  later 
time  the  Romans  kept  a  small  fleet  here. 
153 


CABIRA. 


CADYTIS. 


CABIRA  (rd  KuGcipa  :  now  Sivas),  a  place  in 
Poutus,  ou  the  borders  of  Armenia,  near  Mount 
Paryadres  :  a  frequent  residence  of  Mithradates, 
•who  was  defeated  here  by  Lucullus,  B.C.  71. 
Potnpey  made  it  a  city,  and  named  it  Diospolis. 
Under  Augustus  it  was  called  Sebaste. 

CAB!RI  (Kufaipot),  mystic  diviuities  who  oc- 
cur in  various  parts  of  the  ancient  world.  The 
meaning  of  their  name,  their  character  and  na- 
ture, are  quite  uncertain.  They  were  chiefly 
worshipped  at  Samothrace,  Leranos,  and  Im- 
bros,  and  their  mysteries  at  Samothrace  were 
solemnized  with  great  splendor.  Vid,  Diet,  of 
Ant.,  art.  CABEIRIA.  They  were  also  worship- 
ped at  Thebes,  Anthedon,  Pergamus,  and  else- 
where. Most  of  the  early  writers  appear  to 
have  regarded  them  as  the  children  of  Vulcan 
(Hephaestus),  and  as  inferior  divinities  dwelling 
in  Samothrace,  Lemnos,  and  Imbros.  Later 
writers  identify  them  with  Ceres  (Demeter), 
Proserpina  (Persephone),  and  Rhea,  and  regard 
their  mysteries  as  solemnized  in  honor  of  one 
of  these  goddesses.  Other  writers  identify  the 
Cabiri  with  the  Dioscuri  (Castor  and  Pollux), 
and  others,  again,  with  the  Roman  penates ;  but 
the  latter  notion  seems  to  have  arisen  with  those 
writers  who  traced  every  ancient  Roman  institu- 
tion to  Troy,  and  thence  to  Samothrace. 

CABYLE  (Ka&v^rj :  Ka^vTujvof :  now  Golowitza), 
a  town  in  the  interior  of  Thrace,  conquered  by 
M.  Lucullus,  probably  the  Goloe  of  the  Byzan- 
tine writers. 

CACUS,  son  of  Vulcan,  was  a  huge  giant,  who 
inhabited  a  cave  on  Mount  Aventine,  and  plun- 
dered the  surrounding  country.  When  Her- 
cules came  to  Italy  with  the  oxen  which  he  had 
taken  from  Geryon  in  Spain,  Cacus  stole  part 
of  the  cattle  while  the  hero  slept ;  and,  as  he 
dragged  the  animals  into  his  cave  by  their  tails, 
it  was  impossible  to  discover  their  traces.  But 
when  the  remaining  oxen  passed  by  the  cave, 
those  within  began  to  belief,  and  were  thus 
discovered,  whereupon  Cacus  was  shun  by  Her- 
cules. In  honor  of  his  victory,  Hercules  dedi- 
cated the  ara  maxima,  which  continued  to  exist 
ages  afterward  in  Rome. 

CACYPARIS  (Kanvirapie  or  KaKoirapif ;  now 
Cassibili),  a  river  in  Sicily,  south  of  Syracuse. 

CADENA  (T&  Kddijva),  a  strong  city  of  Cappa- 
docia,  the  residence  of  the  last  king,  Archelaiis. 

CADI  (Ku6oi :  Kaiijv.og :  now  Kodus),  a  city 
of  Phrygia  Epictetus,  on  the  borders  of  Lydia. 

CADMEA.     Vid.  THEBJB. 

CADMUS  (Kadpof).  1.  Son  of  Agenor,  king  of 
Phoenicia,  and  of  Telephassa,  and  brother  of 
Europa.  Another  legend  makes  him  a  native 
of  Thebes  in  Egypt.  When  Europa  was  car- 
ried off  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  Crete,  Agenor  sent 
Cadmus  in  search  of  his  sister,  enjoining  him 
not  to  return  without  her.  Unable  to  find  her, 
Cadmus  settled  b  Thrace,  but,  having  consult- 
ed the  oracle  at  Delphi,  he  was  commanded  by 
the  god  to  follow  a  cow  of  a  certain  kind,  and 
to  build  a  town  on  the  spot  where  the  cow 
should  sink  down  with  fatigue.  Cadmus  found 
the  cow  in  Phocis,  and  followed  her  into  Bceotia, 
where  she  sank  down>  on  the  spot  on  which  Cad- 
mus built  Cadmea,  afterward  the  citadel  of 
Thebes.  Intending  to  scrifice  the  cow  to  Mi- 
nerva (Athena),  he  sent  some  persons  to  the 
neighboring  well  of  Mars  (Ares)  to  fetch  water. 
154 


;  This  well  was  guarded  by  a  dragon,  a  son  of 
,  Mars  (Ares),  who  killed  the  men  sent  by  Cad- 
I  mus.  Thereupon  Cadmus  slew  the  dragon, 
'  and,  on  the  advice  of  Minerva  (Atheua),  sowed 
!  the  teeth  of  the  monster,  out  of  which  armed 
I  men  grew  up,  called  Sparti  or  the  Sown,  who 
I  killed  each  other,  with  the  exception  of  five, 
who  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Thebans.  Mi- 
\  nerva  (Athena)  assigned  to  Cadmus  the  govern- 
ment of  Thebes,  and  Jupiter  (Zeus)  gave  him 
!  Harmonia  for  his  wife.  The  marriage  solem- 
i  nity  was  honored  by  the  presence  of  all  the 
j  Olympian  gods  in  the  Cadmea.  Cadmus  gave 
to  Harmonia  the  famous  peplus  and  necklace 
I  which  he  had  received  from  Vulcan  (Hephaes- 
tus) or  from  Europa,  and  he  became  by  her  the 
j  father  of  Autonoe,  Ino,  Semele,  Agave,  and 
Polydorus.  Subsequently  Cadmus  and  Har- 
mouia  quitted  Thebes,  and  went  to  the  Enche- 
liaus :  this  people  chose  Cadmus  as  their  king, 
and  with  his  assistance  they  conquered  the  11- 
lyrians.  After  this  Cadmus  had  another  son, 
whom  he  called  Illyrius.  In  the  end,  Cadmus 
and  Harmonia  were  changed  into  serpents,  and 
were  removed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  Elysium. 
Cadmus  is  said  to  have  introduced  into  Greece, 
from  Phoenicia  or  Egypt,  an  alphabet  of  sixteen 
letters,  and  to  have  been  the  first  who  worked 
the  mines  of  Mount  Pangaeon  in  Thrace.  The 
story  of  Cadmus  seems  to  suggest  the  immigra- 
tion of  a  Phoenician  or  Egyptian  colony  into 
Greece,  by  means  of  which  the  alphabet,  the 
art  of  mining,  and  civilization,  came  into  the 
country.  But  many  modern  writers  deny  the 
existence  of  any  such  Phoenician  or  Egyptian 
colony,  and  regard  Cadmus  as  a  Pelasgian  di- 
vinity.— 2.  Of  Miletus,  a  son  of  Pandion,  tht- 
earliest  Greek  historian  or  logographer,  liverl 
about  B.C.  540.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  foun- 
dation of  Miletus  and  the  earliest  history  of 
Ionia  generally,  in  four  books,  but  the  work  ex- 
tant in  antiquity  under  the  latter  name  was  con- 
sidered a  forgery. 

CADMUS  (Kud/aof).  1.  (iTow  Mount  £aba),  a 
mountain  in  Caria,  on  the  borders  of  Phrygia, 
containing  the  sources  of  the  rivers  Cadmus 
and  Lycus. — 2.  A  small  river  of  Phrygia,  flowing 
north  into  the  Lycus. 

CADURCI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  in  the 
country  now  called  Querci  (a  corruption  of  Ca- 
durci),  were  celebrated  for  their  manufactories  01 
linen,  coverlets,  <fec.  Their  capital  was  DIVONA, 
afterward  CIVITAS  CADURCORUM,  now  Cahors, 
where  are  the  remains  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre 
and  of  an  aqueduct  A  part  of  the  town  still 
bears  the  name  les  Cadurcas. 

CADUSII  (Kadovaioi)  or  GEUK  (Tfjl.ai),  a  pow- 
erful Scythian  tribe  in  the  mountains  southwest 
of  the  Caspian,  on  the  borders  of  Media  Atro- 
patene.  Under  the  Medo-Persian  empire  they 
were  troublesome  neighbors,  but  the  Syrian 
kings  appear  to  have  reduced  them  to  tributary 
auxiliaries. 

CADYTIS  (KudvTtcf),  according  to  Herodotus,  a 
great  city  of  the  Syrians  of  Palestine,  not  much 
smaller  than  Sardis,  was  taken  by  Necho,  king 
of  Egypt,  after  his  defeat  of  the  *'  Syrians"  at 
Magdolus.  It  is  now  pretty  well  established 
that  by  Cadytis  is  meant  Jerusalem,  and  that 
the  battle  mentioned  by  Herodotus  is  that  in 
which  Necho  defeated  and  slew  King  Josiah  at 


CECILIA. 

Megidd->,  B.C.  608.  (Compare  Herod.,  ii.,  159  ; 
ill,  6,  with  2  Kings,  xxiii.,  and  2  Chron.,  xxxv., 
xxxvi.). 

CECILIA.  1.  CAIA,  the  Roman  name  of  TAX- 
AQtnL,  wife  of  Tarquinius  Priscus. — [2.  ME- 
TELLA,  daughter  of  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  Mace- 
donicus,  consul  B.C.  143,  married  C.  Servilius 
Vatia,  and  was  by  him  mother  of  P.  Servili- 
us Vatia  Isauricus,  consul  B.C.  79 ;  a  second 
daughter  married  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica, 
consul  B.C.  111. — 3.  Daughter  of  L.  Csecilius 
Metellus  Calvus,  married  to  L.  Liciuius  Lucul- 
lus,  and  by  him  mother  of  the  celebrated  Lucul- 
lus,  the  conqueror  of  Mithradates. — 4.  Daugh- 
ter of  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  Balearicus,  consul 
B.C.  123,  was  wife  of  Ap.  Claudius  Pulcher.] — 
5.  METELLA,  daughter,  of  L.  Metellus  Dalmati- 
cus,  consul  B.C.  119,  was  first  married  to  ^Emil- 
ius  Scaurus,  consul  in  115,  and  afterward  to 
the  dictator  Sulla.  She  fell  ill  in  81,  during  the 
celebration  of  Sulla's  triumphal  feast ;  and,  as 
her  recovery  was  hopeless,  Sulla,  for  some  re- 
ligious reasons,  sent  her, a  bill  of  divorce,  and 
bad  her  removed  from  his  house,  but  honored 
her  memory  with  a  splendid  funeral. — 6.  Daugh- 
ter of  T.  Pomponius  Atticus,  called  Caeeilia, 
because  her  father  took  the  name  of  his  uncle, 
Q.  Caecilius,  by  whom  he  was  adopted.  She 
was  married  to  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa.  Vid. 
ATTICUS. 

CJKCILIA  GENS,  plebeian,  claimed  descent 
from  C^ECULUS,  the  founder  of  Praeneste,  or 
Caecas,  the  companion  of  ^Eueas.  Most  of  the 
Caecilii  are  mentioned  under  their  cognomens, 
BAS&.TS,  MEIELLUS,  RUFUS  :  for  others,  see  be- 
low. 

CvEciilus.  1.  Q.,  a  wealthy  Roman  eques, 
who  adopted  his  nephew  Atticus  in  his  will,  and 
left  the  latter  a  fortune  of  ten  millions  of  ses- 
terces.— 2.  C^ECILICS  CALACTIXUS,  a  Greek  rhet- 
orician at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  was 
a  native  of  Cale  Acte  in  Sicily  (whence  his 
name  Calactinus).  He  wrote  a  great  number 
of  works  on  rhetoric,  grammar,  and  historical 
subjects.  All  these  works  are  now  lost ;  but 
they  were  in  great  repute  with  the  rhetori- 
cians and  critics  of  the  imperial  period. — 3.  CJE- 
CILIUS  STATICS,  a  Roman  comic  poet,  the  im- 
mediate predecessor  of  Terence,  was  by  birth  an 
Insubrian  Gaul,  and  a  native  of  Milan.  Being  a 
slave,  he  bore  the  servile  appellation  of  Statius, 
which  was  afterward,  probably  when  he  receiv- 
ed his  freedom,  converted  into  a  sort  of  cogno 
men,  and  he  became  known  as  Caecilius  Sta- 
tius. He  died  B.C.  168.  We  have  the  titles 
of  forty  of  Ids  dramas,  but  only  a  few  fragments 
of  them  are  preserved.  They  appear  to  have 
belonged  to  the  class  of  Palliate,  that  is,  were 
free  translations  or  adaptations  of  the  works  of 
Greek  writers  of  the  new  comedy.  The  Ro- 
mans placed  Caecilius  in  the  first  rank  of  comic 
poets,  classing  him  with  Plautus  and  Terence. 
[The  best  edition  of  the  fragments  is  by  Speii- 
gel,  Monachii,  1 829,  4to ;  they  are  given  also 
in  Hot  he's  Poetee  Scenici  Latini,  vol.  v.,  p.  128, 
teqq.] 

CJJCINA,  the  name  of  a  family  of  the  Etrus- 
ean  city  of  Volaterrae,  probably  derived  from  the 
River  Cfficina,  which  flows  by  the  town.  1.  A. 
C.+II-IVA,  whom  Cicero  defended  in  a  law-suit, 
B.C.  69. — 2.  A.  C.SCINA,  son  of  the  preceding, 


JJ5D1UUS. 

published  a  libi.llous  work  against  Caesar,  and 
was,  in  consequence,  sent  into  exile  after  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia,  B.C.  48.  He  afterward 
joined  the  Pompcians  in  Africa,  and  upon  the 
defeat  of  the  latter  in  46,  he  surrendered  to 
Caesar,  who  spared  his  life.  Cicero  wrote  sev- 
eral letters  to  Caecina,  and  speaks  of  him  as  a 
man  of  ability.  Caecina  was  the  author  of  a 
work  on  the  Etrusca  Disciplina. — 3.  A.  C^ECINA 
SEVERUS,  a  distinguished  general  in  the  reigns 
of  Augustus  and  Tiberius.  He  was  governor 
of  Mcesia  in  A.D.  6,  when  he  fought  against  the 
two  Batos  in  the  neighboring  provinces  of  Dal- 
matia  and  Pannonia.  Vid.  BATO.  In  15  he 
fought  as  the  legate  of  Gennanicus  against 
Arminius,  and,  in  consequeuce  of  his  success, 
received  the  insignia  of  a  triumph. — 4.  CAECINA 
Tuscus,  son  of  Nero's  nurse,  appointed  govern- 
or of  Egypt  by  Nero,  but  banished  for  making 
use  of  the  baths  which  had  been  erected  in  an- 
ticipation of  the  emperor's  arrival  in  Egypt  He 
returned  from  banishment  on  the  death,  of  Nero, 
A.D.  68. — 5.  A.  CAECINA  ALIENUS,  was  quaes- 
tor in  Baetica  in  Spain  at  Nero's  death,  and  was 
one  of  the  foremost  in  joining  the  party  of  Gal- 
ba. He  was  rewarded  by  Galba  with  the  com- 
mand of  a  legion  in  Upper  Germany  ;  but  being 
detected  in  embezzling  some  of  the  pubh'c  mon- 
ey, the  emperor  ordered  him  to  be  prosecuted. 
Caeciua,  in  revenge,  joined  Vitellius,  and  was 
sent  by  the  latter  into  Italy  with  an  army  of 
thirty  thousand  men  toward  the  end  of  68. 
After  ravaging  the  country  of  the  Helvetii,  he 
crossed  the  Alps  by  the  pass  of  the  Great  St 
Bernard,  and  laid  siege  to  Placentia,  from  which 
he  was  repulsed  by  the  troops  of  Otho,  who  had 
succeeded  Galba.  Subsequently  he  was  joined 
by  Fabius  Valens,  another  general  of  Vitellius, 
and  their  united  forces  gained  a  victory  over 
Otho's  army  at  Bedriacum.  Vitellius  having 
thus  gained  the  throne,  Caecina  was  made  con- 
sul on  the  first  of  September,  69,  and  was  short- 
ly afterward  sent  against  Antoninus  Primus,  the 
general  of  Vespasian.  But  he  again  proved  a 
traitor,  and  espoused  the  cause  of  Vespasian. 
Some  years  afterward  (79)  he  conspired  against 
Vespasian,  and  was  slain  by  order  of  Titus. — 
6.  DECIUS  ALBIMUS  CAECINA,  a  Roman  satirist 
in  the  time  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius. 

C^ECINUS  (KaiKivof  or  KacKivof),  a  river  iu 
Bruttium,  flowing  into  the  Sinus  Scylacius  by 
the  town  C^ECINUM. 

CJECUBUS  AGER,  a  marshy  district  in  Latium, 
bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Amyclae,  close  to  Fundi, 
celebrated  for  its  wine  (Ccecubttm)  iu  the  age  of 
Horace.  In  the  time  of  Pliny  the  reputation 
of  this  wine  was  entirely  gone.  Vid.  Diet,  of 
Ant^  p.  1207,  a,  second  edition. 

C.«cCu;8,  an  ancient  Italian  hero,  son  of  Vul 
can,  is  said  to  have  founded  Praeneste. 

[C^oicius,  M.  1.  A  Roman  centurion,  was 
elected  commander  by  the  Romans  that  had  fled 
to  Veii  after  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  the 
Gauls,  B.C.  390 :  he  is  said  to  have  carried  to 
Camillus  the  decree  of  the  senate  appointing 
him  to  the  command. — 2.  C.,  one  of  the  legates 
of  the  consul  L.  Papirius  Cursor,  commanded 
the  cavalry  in  the  great  battle  with  the  Sam- 
nites,  B.C.  293.] 

1 1 '  i  Mi  rs,  two  mythical  personages  men- 
tioned in  the  vEneid  of  Virgil.] 

155 


C.ELES. 


CAESAR. 


or  COLICS  VIBENNA,  the  leader  of  an 
Etruscan  army,  is  said  to  have  come  to  Rome 
in  the  reign  either  of  Romulus  or  of  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  and  to  have  settled  with  his  troops  on 
the  hill  called  after  him  the  Caelian. 

C.SLIUS  or   CffiLius.       1.    ANTIPATER.       Vid. 

AXTIPATER.  -  2.      AURELIANUS.          Vid.     AURELIA- 

NUS.  —  3.  CALDDB.    Vid.   CALDUS.  —  4.  RUFOS.    Vid, 
RUFUS. 

CjfiLius  or  CCELIUS  Mows.     Vid.  ROMA. 

C.*.v.£  (Kaivai:  now  Senn),  a  city  of  Meso- 
potamia, on  the  west  bank  of  the  Tigris,  oppo- 
site the  mouth  of  the  Lycus. 

CJEXE,  CJJNETOLIS,  or  NEAPSLIS  (Kcuvi)  iroX 
N«7  7ro/Uf  :  now  Keneh),  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  a  little  below  Cop- 
tos,  and  opposite  to  Tentyra. 

CJZNEUS  (Kaivevf),  one  of  the  Lapittue,  son 
of  Elatus  or  Coronus,  was  originally  a  maiden 
named  C.ENIS,  who  was  beloved  by  Neptune 
(Poseidon),  and  was  by  this  god  changed  into  a 
man,  and  rendered  invulnerable.  As  a  man, 
he  took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition  and 
the  Calydonian  hunt  In  the  battle  between 
the  Lapithae  and  the  Centaurs  at  the  marriage 
of  Pirithous,  he  was  buried  by  the  Centaurs 
under  a  mass  of  trees,  as  they  were  unable  to 
kill  him,  but  he  was  changed  into  a  bird.  In 
the  lower  world  Caeneus  recovered  his  female 
form.  (Virg.  jEn.,  vi.,  448.) 

C.SNI  or  C.SNICI,  a  Thracian  people  between 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Panysus. 

C^BNINA  (Caeninensis),  a  town  of  the  Sabines 
in  Latium,  whose  king,  Acron,  is  said  to  have 
carried  on  the  first  war  against  Rome.  After 
their  defeat,  most  of  the  inhabitants  removed  to 
Rome. 


alvvf  :  now  Capo  di  Cavallo  or  Coda 
di  Volpe),  a  promontory  of  Bruttium  opposite 
Sicily. 

C.EPARIUS,  M.,  of  Tarracina,  one  of  Catiline's 
conspirators,  was  to  induce  the  shepherds  in 
Apulia  to  rise:  he  escaped  from  the  city,  but 
was  overtaken  in  his  flight,  and  was  executed 
with  the  other  conspirators,  B.C.  63. 

CJSPIO,  SERVILIUS.  1.  CN.,  consul  B.C.  253, 
in  the  first  Punic  war,  sailed  with  his  colleague, 
C.  Sempronius  Blaesus,  to  the  coast  of  Africa.  — 
2.  CN.,  curule  aedile  207,  praetor  205,  and  con- 
sul 203,  when  he  fought  against  Hannibal  near 
Croton,  in  the  south  of  Italy.  He  died  in  the 
pestilence  in  174.  —  3.  CN.,  son  of  No.  2.  curule 
aedile  179,  praetor  174,  with  Spain  as  his  pro- 
vince, and  consul  in  169.  —  4.  Q.,  son  of  No.  3, 
consul  142,  was  adopted  by  Q.  Fabius  Maximus. 
Vid.  MAXIMUS.  —  5.  CN.,  son  of  No.  3,  consul  141, 
and  censor  125.  —  6.  CN.,  son  of  No.  3,  consul 
140,  carried  on  war  against  Viriathus  in  Lusi- 
tania,  and  induced  two  of  the  friends  of  Viria- 
thus to  murder  the  latter  —  7.  Q,  son  of  No.  6, 
was  consul  106,  when  he  proposed  a  law  for 
restoring  the  judicia  to  the  senators,  of  which 
they  had  been  deprived  .by  the  Sempronia  lex 
of  C.  Gracchus.  He  was  afterward  sent  into 
Gallia  Narbonensis  to  oppose  the  Cimbri,  and 
was  in  105  defeated  by  the  Cimbri,  along  with 
the  consul  Ca  Mallius  or  Manlius,  on  which  oc- 
casion eighty  thousand  soldiers  and  forty  thou- 
sand camp-followers  are  said  to  have  perished. 
Caepio  survived  the  battle,  but  ten  years  after- 
156 


ward  (95)  he  was  brought  to  trial  by  the  tribune 
C.  Norbanus  on  account  of  his  misconduct  in 
this  war.  He  was  condemned  and  cast  into 
prison,  where,  according  to  one  account,  he 
died,  but  it  was  more  generally  stated  that  he 
escaped  from  prison  and  lived  in  exile  at  Smyr- 
na— 8.  Q^  quaestor  urbanus  100,  opposed  the 
lex  frumentaria  of  Saturninus.  In  91  he  op- 
posed the  measures  of  Drusus,  and  accused  two 
of  the  most  distinguished  senators,  M.  Scaurns 
and  L.  Philippus.  He  fell  in  battle  in  the  Social 
War,  90. 

C.SPIO,  FANNIUS,  conspired  with  Murena  against 
Augustus  B.C.  22,  and  was  put  to  death. 

C^ERE  (Ceerites,  Caeretes,  Cseretani :  now  Cer- 
vetri),  called  by  the  Greeks  AGYLLA  ("AyvA/la : 
poet  Agyllina  urbs,  Virg,  jEn^  vii.  652),  a  city 
in  Etruria,  situated  on  a  small  river  (Caeritis 
amnis),  west  of  Veii,  and  fifty  stadia  from  the 
coast  It  was  an  ancient  Pelasgic  city,  the 
capital  of  the  cruel  Mezentius,  and  was  after- 
ward one  of  the  twelve  Etruscan  cities,  with  a 
territory  extending  Apparently  as  far  as  the 
Tiber.  In  early  times  Caere  was  closely  allied 
with  Rome ;  and  when  the  latter  city  was  taken 
by  the  Gauls,  B.C.  390,  Caere  gave  refuge  to  the 
Vestal  virgins.  It  was  from  this  event  that  the 
Romans  traced  the  origin  of  their  word  ccerimo- 
nia.  The  Romans,  out  of  gratitude,  are  said  to 
have  conferred  upon  the  Caerites  the  Roman 
franchise  without  the  suffragium,*  though  it  is 
not  improbable  that  the  Caerites  enjoyed  this 
honor  previously.  In  353,  however,  Caere  join- 
ed Tarquinii  in  making  war  against  Rome,  but 
was  obliged  to  purchase  a  truce  with  Rome  for 
one  hundred  years  by  the  forfeiture  of  half  of 
its  territory.  From  this  time  Caere  gradually 
sunk  in  importance,  and  was  probably  destroy- 
ed in  the  wars  of  Marius  and  Sulla.  It  was  re- 
stored by  Drusus,  who  made  it  a  municipium ; 
and  it  continued  to  exist  till  the  thirteenth  cen 
tury,  when  part  of  the  inhabitants  removed  to 
a  site  about  three  miles  off,  on  which  they  be- 
stowed the  same  name  (now  Ceri),  while  the 
old  town  was  distinguished  by  the  title  of  Veins 
or  Ccere  Vetere,  corrupted  into  Cervetri  which  is 
a  small  village,  with  one  hundred  or  two  bund- 
red  inhabitants.  Here  have  been  discovered, 
within  the  last  few  years,  the  tombs  of  the  an 
cient  Caere,  many  of  them  in  a  state  of  complete 
preservation.  The  country  round  Caere  pro 
duced  wine  and  a  great  quantity  of  corn,  and  in 
its  neighborhood  were  warm  baths,  which  were 
much  frequented.  Caere  used  as  ite  sea-port  the 
town  of  PYRGI. 

C^ERELLIA,  a  Roman  lady  frequently  mention- 
ed in  the  correspondence  of  Cicero  as  distin 
guished  for  her  acquirements  and  her  love  of 
philosophy. 

[CAERITES.        Vid.  C^ERE.] 

CAESAR,  the  name  of  a  patrician  family  of  the 
Julia  gens,  which  traced  its  origin  to  lulus,  the 
son  of  ./Eneas.  Vid.  JULIA  GENS,  Various  ety- 
mologies of  the  name  are  given  by  the  ancient 
writers;  but  it  is  probably  connected  with  the 


The  Caerites  appear  to  have  been  the  first  body  of 
Roman  citizens  who  did  not  enjoy  the  suffrage.  Thus, 
•when  a  Roman  citizen  was  struck  out  of  his  tribe  by  the 
censors  and  made  an  serarian,  he  was  said  to  become 
one  of  the  Caerites,  since  he  had  lost  the  suffrage  :  hence 
we  find  the  expressions  in  tabulas  Ceeritum  referre  and 
arariumfacere  used  as  synonymous. 


CAESAR,  JULIUS. 

Latin  word  cces-ar-ies,  and  the  Sanscrit  kesa, 
"  hair,"  for  it  is  in  accordance  with  the  Roman 
custom  for  a  surname  to  be  given  to  an  indi- 
vidual from  some  peculiarity  in  his  personal  ap- 
pearance. The  name  was  assumed  by  Augus- 
tus as  the  adopted  son  of  the  dictator  C.  Julius 
Caesar,  and  was  by  Augustus  handed  down  to 
his  adopted  son  Tiberius.  It  continued  to  be 
used  by  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero,  as  mem- 
bers either  by  adoption  or  female  descent  of 
Caesar's  family ;  but,  though  the  family  became 
extinct  with  Nero,  succeeding  emperors  still 
retained  the  name  as  part  of  their  titles,  and  it 
was  the  practice  to  prefix  it  to  their  own  name, 
as,  for  instance,  Imperator  Caesar  Domitianus  Au- 
gustus. When  Hadrian  adopted  ^Elius  Verus, 
he  allowed  the  latter  to  take  the  title  of  Caesar ; 
and  from  this  time,  though  the  title  of  Augustus 
continued  to  be  confined  to  the  reigning  prince, 
that  of  Caesar  was  also  granted  to  the  second 
person  in  the  state  and  the  heir  presumptive  to 
the  throne. 

C^ESAK,  JULIUS.  1.  SEX,  praetor  B.C.  208. 
with  Sicily  as  his  province. — 2.  SEX.,  curule 
aedile  165,  when  the  Hecyra  of  Terence  was 
exhibited  at  the  Megalesian  games,  and  consul 
167. — 3.  L.,  consul  90,  fought  against  the  Socii, 
and  in  the  course  of  the  same  year  proposed  the 
Lex  Julia  de  Civitate,  which  granted  the  citizen- 
ship to  the  Latins  and  the  Socii  who  had  re- 
mained faithful  to  Rome.  Caesar  was  censor 
in  89 ;  he  belonged  to  the  aristocratical  party, 
and  was  put  to  death  by  Marius  in  87. — 4.  C., 
surnamed  STRABO  VOPISCUS,  brother  of  No.  8, 
was  curule  aedile  90,  was  a  candidate  for  the 
consulship  in  88,  and  was  shun  along  with  his 
brother  by  Marius  in  87.  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  orators  and  poets  of  his  age,  and  is  one  of 
the  speakers  in  Cicero's  dialogue  De  Orators. 
Wit  was  the  chi*f  characteristic  of  his  oratory ; 
but  he  was  deficient  in  power  and  energy.  The 
names  of  two  of  his  tragedies  are  preserved,  the 
Adrastus  and  Tecmessa. — 5.  L.,  son  of  No.  8, 
and  uncle  by  his  sister  Julia  of  M.  Antony  the 
triumvir.  He  was  consul  64,  and  belonged,  like 
his  father,  to  the  aristocratical  party.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  deserted  this  party  afterward: 
we  find  him  in  Gaul  in  52  as  one  of  the  legates 
of  C.  Caesar,  and  he  continued  in  Italy  during 
the  civil  war.  After  Caesar's  death  (44)  he 
sided  with  the  senate  in  opposition  to  his  nephew 
Antony,  and  was,  in  consequence,  proscribed  by 
the  latter  in  43,  but  obtained  bis  pardon  through 
the  influence  of  his  sister  Julia. — 6.  L.,  son  of 
No.  6,  usually  distinguished  from  his  father  by 
the  addition  to  his  name  of  Jilius  or  adolescent. 
He  joined  Pompey  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
uivil  war  in  49,  and  was  sent  by  Pompey  to 
Caesar  with  proposals  of  peace.  In  the  course 
of  the  same  year  he  crossed  over  to  Africa, 
where  the  command  of  Clupea  was  intrusted  to 
him.  In  46  he  served  as  proquaestor  to  Cato  in 
Utica,  and  after  the  death  of  Cato  he  surren- 
dered to  the  dictator  Caesar,  and  was  shortly 
afterward  put  to  death,  but  probably  not  by  the  j 
dictator's  orders. — 7.  C.,  the  father  of  the  dic- 
tator, was  praetor,  but  in  what  year  is  uncertain, ! 
and  died  suddenly  at  Pisae  in  84. — 8.  SEX,  j 
brother  of  No.  7,  was  consul  91. — 9.  C.,  the  DIC- 
TATOR, son  of  No.  7  and  of  Aurelia,  was  born  on 
the  12th  of  July,  100,  in  the  consulship  of -C. ' 


CAESAR,  JULIUS. 

Marius  (VI.)  and  L.  Valerius  Flaccus,  and  wae 
consequently  six  years  younger  than  Pompey 
and  Cicero.  He  had  nearly  completed  his  fifty- 
sixth  year  at  the  time  of  his  murder,  on  the  loth 
of  March,  44.  Caesar  was  closely  connected 
with  the  popular  party  by  the  marriage  of  his 
aunt  Julia  with  the  great  Marius ;  and  in  83, 
though  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  he  married 
Cornelia,  the  daughter  of  L.  Cinna,  the  chief 
leader  of  the  Marian  party.  Sulla  commanded 
him  to  put  away  his  wife,  but  he  refused  to 
obey  him,  and  was  consequently  proscribed. 
He  concealed  himself  for  some  time  in  the 
country  of  the  Sabines,  till  his  friends  obtained 
his  pardon  from  Sulla,  who  is  said  to  have  ob- 
served, when  they  pleaded  his  youth,  "  that  that 
boy  would  some  day  or  other  be  the  ruin  of  the 
aristocracy,  for  that  there  were  many  Mariuses 
in  him."  Seeing  that  he  was  not  safe  at  Rome, 
he  went  to  Asia,  where  he  served  his  first  cam- 
paign under  M.  Minucius  Thermus,  and,  at  the 
capture  of  Mytilene  (80),  was  rewarded  with  a 
civic  crown  for  saving  the  life  of  a  fellow-sol- 
dier. On  the  death  of  Sulla  in  78,  he  returned 
to  Rome,  and  in  the  following  year  gained  great 
renown  as  an  orator,  though  he  was  only  twen- 
ty-two years  of  age,  by  his  prosecution  of  Cn. 
Dolabella  on  account  of  extortion  hi  his  prov- 
ince of  Macedonia,  To  perfect  himself  in  ora- 
tory, he  resolved  to  study  in  Rhodes  under 
Apollonius  Molo,  but  on  his  voyage  thither  he  . 
was  captured  by  pirates,  and  only  obtained  his 
liberty  by  a  ransom  of  fifty  talents.  At  Mile- 
tus he  manned  some  vessels,  overpowered  the 
pirates,  and  conducted  them  as  prisoners  to 
Pergamus,  where  he  crucified  them,  a  punish- 
ment with  which  he  had  frequently  threatened 
them  in  sport  when  he  was  their  prisoner.  He 
then  repaired  to  Rhodes,  where  he  studied  un- 
der Apollonius,  and  shortly  afterward  returned 
to  Rome.  He  now  devoted  all  his  energies 
to  acquire  the  favor  of  the  people.  His  lib- 
erality was  unbounded,  and  as  his  private  for- 
tune was  not  large,  he  soon  contracted  enor- 
mous debts.  But  he  gained  his  object,  and 
became  the  favorite  of  the  peeple.  and  was 
raised  by  them  in  succession  to  the  high  offices 
of  the  state.  He  was  quaestor  in  68,  and  aedile 
in  65,  when  he  spent  enormous  sums  upon  the 
pubh'c  games  and  buildings.  He  was  said  by 
many  to  have  been  privy  to  Catiline's  con- 
spiracy in  63,  but  thftre  is  no  satisfactory  evi 
dence  of  liis  guilt,  and  it  is  improbable  that  he 
would  have  embarked  in  such  a  rash  scheme.  In 
the  debate  in  the  senate  on  the  punishment  of 
the  conspirators,  he  opposed  their  execution  in  a 
very  able  speech,  which  made  such  an  impres- 
sion, that  their  lives  would  have  been  spared  but 
for  the  speech  of  Cato  in  reply.  In  the  course 
of  this  year  (63),  Caesar  was  elected  Pon- 
tifex  Maximus,  defeating  the  other  candidates, 
Q.  Catulus  and  Servilius  Isauricus,  who  had 
both  been  consuls,  and  were  two  of  the  most 
illustrious  men  in  the  state.  In  62  Caesar 
was  praetor,  and  took  an  active  part  in  support- 
ing the  tribune  Metellus  in  opposition  to  his  col- 
league Cato ;  in  consequence  of  the  tumults 
that  ensued,  the  senate  suspended  both  Caesar 
and  Metellus  from  their  offices,  but  were  obliged 
to  reinstate  him  in  his  dignity  after  a  few  days, 
In  the  following  veai  (61)  Ca>sar  went  as  TIV- 
157 


CAESAR,  JULIUS. 

praetor  into  Further  Spain,  where  be  gained 
great  victories  over  the  Lusitanians.  On  his 
return  to  Rome  he  became  a  candidate  for  the 
consuls}  lip,  and  was  elected,  notwithstanding 
the  strenuous  opposition  of  the  aristocracy,  who 
succeeded,  however,  in  carrying  the  election  of 
Bibulus  as  his  colleague,  who  was  one  of  the 
warmest  supporters  of  the  aristocracy.  After 
his  election,  out  before  he  entered  upon  the 
consulship,  he  formed  that  coalition  with  Pom- 
pey  and  M.  Crassus,  usually  known  by  the  name 
of  the  first  triumvirate.  Pompey  had  become 
estranged  from  the  aristocracy  since  the  senate 
had  opposed  the  ratification  of  his  acts  in  Asia 
and  an  assignment  of  lands  which  he  had  prom- 
ised to  his  veterans.  Crassus,  in  consequence 
of  liis  immense  wealth,  was  one  of  the  most 
powerful  men  at  Rome,  but  was  a  personal  ene- 
my of  Pompey.  They  were  reconciled  by 
means  of  Caesar,  and  the  three  entered  into  an 
agreement  to  support  one  another,  and  to  divide 
the  power  in  the  state  between  them.  In  59 
Cassar  was  consul,  and  being  supported  by  Pom- 
pey and  Crassus,  he  was  able  to  carry  all  his 
measures.  Bibulus,  from  whom  the  senate  had 
expected  so  much,  could  offer  no  effectual  oppo- 
sition, and,  after  making  a  vain  attempt  to 
resist  Caesar,  shut  himself  up  in  his  own  house, 
and  did  not  appear  again  in  public  till  the  ex- 
piration of  his  consulship.  Caesar's  first  meas- 
ure was  an  agrarian  law,  by  which  the  rich 
Campanian  plain  was  divided  among  the  poorer 
citizens.  He  next  gained  the  favor  of  the  equi- 
tes  by  relieving  them  from  one  third  of  the 
sum  which  they  had  agreed  to  pay  for  the  farm- 
ing of  the  taxes  in  Asia.  He  then  obtained  the 
confirmation  of  Pompey's  acts.  Having  thus 
gratified  the  people,  the  equites,  and  Pompey, 
he  was  easily  able  to  obtain  for  himself  the  prov- 
inces which  he  wished.  By  a  vote  of  the  peo- 
ple, proposed  by  the  tribune  Vatinius,  the  prov- 
inces of  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  Illyricum  were 
granted  to  Caesar,  with  three  legions,  for  five 
years ;  and  the  senate  added  to  his  government 
the  province  of  Transalpine  Gaul,  with  another 
legion,  for  five  years  also,  as  they  saw  that  a 
bUl  would  be  proposed  to  the  people  for  that 
purpose  if  they  did  not  grant  the  province  them- 
selves. Caesar  foresaw  that  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  different  parties  at  Rome  must  event- 
ually be  terminated  by  the  sword,  and  he  had 
therefore  resolved  to  obtain  an  army,  which  he 
might  attach  to  himself  by  victories  and  re- 
wards. In  the  course  of  the  same  year  Caesar 
united  himself  more  closely  to  Pompey  by  giving 
him  his  daughter  Julia  in  marriage.  During  the 
next  nine  years  Caesar  was  occupied  with  the 
subjugation  of  GauL  He  conquered  the  whole 
of  Transalpine  Gaul,  which  had  hitherto  been 
independent  of  the  Romans,  with  the  exception 
of  the  southeastern  part  called  Provincia;  he 
twice  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  twice  landed  in 
Britain,  which  had  bt  in  previously  unknown  to 
the  Romans.  In  his  first  campaign  (58)  Caesar 
conquered  the  Helvetii,  who  had  emigrated 
from  Switzerland  with  the  intention  of  settling 
in  Gaul.  He  next  defeated  Ariovistus,  a  Ger- 
man king,  who  had  taken  possession  of  part  of 
the  territories  of  the  .K<Uii  and  Sequani,  and 
pursued  him  as  far  as  the  Rhine.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  campaign  Cassar  went  into  Cisal- 
J58 


CAESAR,  JULIUS. 

I  pine  Gaul  to  attend  to  the  civil  duties  of  hia 
'  province,   and    to  keep  up    his   communication 
|  with  the  various  parties  at  Rome.     During  the 
whole  of  his  campaigns  in  Gaul,  he  spent  the 
greater  part  of  the  winter  in  Cisalpine  GauL 
In  his   second  campaign  (57)  Caesar  carried  on 
war  with  the  Belgai,  who  dwelt  in  the  northeast 
of  Gaul,  between  the  Sequana  (now  Seine)  and 
the  Rhine,  and  after  a  severe  struggle  completely 
subdued  them.     Caesar's  third  campaign  in  Gaul 
(56)  did  not  commence  till  late  in  the  year.     He 
was   detained  some  months  in    the   north    of 
Italy  by  the  state  of  affairs  at  Rome.    At  Luca 
(now  Lucca)  he  had  interviews  with  most  of  the 
leading  men  at  Rome,  among  others  with  Pom- 
I  pey  and  Crassus,  who  visited  him  in  April.    He 
|  made   arrangements  with  them  for  the  contin- 
j  uance  of  their  power :   it  was  agreed  between 
j  them  that  Crassus  and  Pompey  should  be  the  cou- 
j  suls  for  the  following  year ;  that  Crassus  should 
|  have  the  province  of  Syria,  Pompey  the  two 
j  Spains ;    and   that   Caesar's  government,  which 
would  expire  at  the  end  of  54,  should  be  prolong- 
ed for  five  years  after  that  date.     After  making 
these  arrangements  he  crossed  the  Alps,  and  car- 
ried on  war  with  the  Veneti  and  the  other  states 
in  the  northwest  of  Gaul,  who  had  submitted  to 
Crassus,  Caesar's  legate,  in  the  preceding  year, 
but  who  had  now  risen  in  arms  against  the  Ro- 
mans.    They  were  defeated  and  obliged  to  sub- 
!  mit  to  Caesar,  and  during  the  same  time  Crassus 
j  conquered    Aquitania.       Thus,    in    three    cam- 
I  paigns,  Caesar  subdued  the  whole  of  Gaul ;   but 
I  the  people  made  several   attempts  to   recover 
their  independence ;  and  it  was  not  till  their  re- 
volts had  been  again  and  again  put  down  by  Cae- 
sar, and  the  flower  of  the  nation  had  perished  in 
battle,  that  they  learned  to  submit  to  the  Ro- 
man yoke.     In  his  fourth  campaign  (55)  Caesar 
crossed  the  Rhine  in  order  to  Strike  terror  into 
the    Germans,  but  he   only   remained   eighteen 
days  on  the  further  side  of  the  river.    Late  in 
the  summer  he  invaded  Britain,  but  more  with 
the  view  of  obtaining  some  knowledge  of  the 
island  from  personal  observation  than  with  the 
intention  of  permanent  conquest  at  present.     He 
sailed   from  the   port  Itius  (probably  Witsand, 
between  Calais   and  Boulogne),  and   effected  a 
I  landing   somewhere  near  the   South  Foreland, 
after  a  severe  struggle  with  the  natives.    The 
late  period  of  the  year  compelled  him  to  return 
to  Gaul  after  remaining  only  a  short  time  in  the 
island.     In  this   year,  according  to  his  arrange- 
ment with  Pompey  and  Crassus,  who  were  now 
consuls,  his  government  of  the  Gauls  and  Illyri- 
cum was    prolonged    for    five    years,   namely, 
from  the  first  of  January,  53,  to  the  end  of  De- 
|  cember,  49.     Caesar's  fifth   campaign  (54)  was 
I  chiefly  occupied  with  his    second   invasion  of 
Britain.     He  landed  in  Britain  at  the  same  place 
as  in  the  former  year,  defeated  the  Britons  in  a 
series  of  engagements,  and  crossed  the  Tamesis 
(now   Thames).      The    Britons    submitted,   and 
promised  to  pay  an  annual  tribute;  but  their 
}  subjection  was  only  nominal,  for  Csesar  left  no 
garrisons  or  military  establishments  behind  him, 
and  Britain  remained  nearly  one  hundred  years 
longer  independent  of  the  Romans.     During  the 
winter,  one  of  the   Roman   legions,  which  had 
been  stationed,  under  the  command  of  T.  Tituri- 
us  Sabinus  and  L.  Aurunculeius  Gotta,  in  the 


CAESAR,  JULIUS. 


CJiSAR,  JULIUS. 


country  of  the  Eburones,  was  cut  to  pieces  by 
Ambiorix  and  the  Eburones.  Ambiorix  then 
proceeded  to  attack  the  camp  of  Q.  Cicero,  the 
brother  of  the  orator,  who  was  stationed  with 
a  legion  among  the  Nervii ;  but  Cicero  defend- 
ed himself  with  bravery,  and  was  at  length  re- 
lieved by  Caesar  in  person.  In  September  of 
this  year,  Julia,  Caesar's  only  daughter  and  Pom- 
pey's  wife,  died  in  childbirth.  In  Caesar's  sixth 
campaign  (53)  several  of  the  Gallic  nations  re- 
volted, but  Caesar  soon  compelled  them  to  re- 
turn to  obedience.  The  Treviri,  who  had  re- 
volted, had  been  supported  by  the  Germans,  and 
Caesar  accordingly  again  crossed  the  Rhine,  but 
made  no  permanent  conquests  on  the  further 
side  of  the  river.  Caesar's  seventh  campaign 
(52)  was  the  most  arduous  of  all.  Almost  all 
the  nations  of  Gaul  rose  simultaneously  in  re- 
volt, imd  the  supreme  command  was  given  to 
Vercingetorix,  by  far  the  ablest  general  that 
Caesar  had  yet  encountered.  After  a  most  se- 
vere struggle,  in  which  Caesar's  military  genius 
triumphed  over  every  obstacle,  the  war  was 
brought  to  a  conclusion  by  the  defeat  of  the 
Gauls  before  Alesia  and  the  surrender  of  this 
city.  The  eighth  and  ninth  campaigns  (51,  50) 
were  employed  in  the  final  subjugation  of  Gaul, 
which  had  entirely  submitted  to  Caesar  by  the 
middle  of  50  Meanwhile,  an  estrangement  had 
taken  place  between  Caesar  and  Pompey.  Cae- 
sar's brilliant  victories  had  gained  him  fresh 
popularity  and  influence,  and  Pompey  saw  with 
ill-disguised  mortification  that  he  was  becoming 
the  second  person  in  the  state.  He  was  thus 
led  to  join  again  the  aristocratical  party,  by  the 
assistance  of  which  he  could  alone  hope  to  re- 
tain his  position  as  the  chief  man  in  the  Roman 
state.  The  great  object  of  this  party  was  to  de- 
prive Caesar  of  his  command,  and  to  compel  him 
to  come  to  Rome  as  a  private  man  to  sue  for 
the  consulship.  They  would  then  have  formal- 
ly accused  him,  and  as  Pompey  was  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  city  at  the  head  of  an  army,  the 
trial  would  have  been  a  mockery,  and  his  con- 
demnation would  have  been  certain.  Caesar  of- 
fered to  resign  his  command  if  Pompey  would  do 
the  same ;  but  the  senate  would  not  listen  to  any 
compromise.  Accordingly,  on  the  1st  of  Janua- 
ry, 49,  the  senate  passed  a  resolution  that  Caesar 
should  disband  his  army  at  a  certain  day,  and 
that  if  he  did  not  do  so,  he  should  be  regarded 
as  an  enemy  of  the  state.  Two  of  the  tribunes, 
.M.  Autouius  and  Q.  Cassius,  put  their  veto 
upon  this  resolution,  but  their  opposition  was  set 
at  naught,  and  they  fled  for  refuge  to  Caesar's 
camp.  Under  the  plea  of  protecting  the  tribunes, 
Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon,  which  separated 
bis  province  from  Italy,  and  marched  toward 
Rome.  Pompey,  who  bad  been  intrusted  by 
the  senate  with  the  conduct  of  the  war,  soon 
discovered  how  greatly  he  had  overrated  his 
own  popularity  and  influence.  His  own  troops 
deserted  to  his  rival  in  crowds  ;  town  after  town 
in  Italy  opened  its  gates  to  Cajsar,  whose  march 
was  like  a  triumphal  progress.  The  only  town 
which  offered  Caesar  any  resistance  was  Cor- 
fiuiuin,  into  which  L.  Domitius  Alienobarbus  had 
tin-own  himself  with  a  strong  force;  but  even 
this  place  was  obliged  to  surrender  at  the  end 
of  a  few  days.  Meantime,  Pompey,  with  the 
magistrates  and  senators,  had  fled  from  Rome  to 


Capua,  and  now,  despairing  of  opposing  Caesai 
in  Italy,  he  marched  from  Capua  to  Brundisium, 
and  on  the  17th  of  March  embarked  for  Greece. 
Caesar  pursued  Pompey  to  Brundisium,  but  he 
was  unable  to  follow  him  to  Greece  for  want  of 
ships.  He  therefore  marched  back  from  Brun- 
disium,  and  repaired  to  Rome,  having  thus  in 
three  months  become  master  of  the  whole  of 
Italy.  After  remaining  a  short  time  in  Rome, 
he  set  out  for  Spain,  where  Pompey's  legates, 
Afranius,  Petreius,  and  Varro,  commanded  pow- 
erful armies.  After  defeating  Afranius  and  Pe- 
treius, and  receiving  the  submission  of  Varro, 
Caessir  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  had  mean- 
time been  appointed  dictator  by  the  prajtor  M. 
Lepidus.  He  resigned  the  dictatorship  at  the 
end  of  eleven  days,  after  holding  the  consular 
comitia,  in  which  he  himself  and  P.  Servilius 
Vatia  Isauricus  were  elected  consuls  for  the 
next  year.  At  the  beginning  of  January,  48, 
Caesar  crossed  over  to  Greece,  where  Pompey 
had  collected  a  formidable  army.  At  first  the 
campaign  was  in  Pompey's  favor ;  Caesar  was 
repulsed  before  Dyrrhachium  with  considerable 
loss,  and  was  obliged  to  retreat  toward  Thes- 
saly.  In  this  country,  on  the  plains  of  Pharsalus 
or  Pharsalia,  a  decisive  battle  was  fought  be- 
tween the  two  armies  on  the  9th  of  August, 
48,  in  which  Pompey  was  completely  defeated. 
Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  pursued  by  Caesar,  but 
he  was  murdered  before  Caesar  arrived  in  the 
country.  Vid.  POMPEIUS.  His  head  was  brought 
to  Caesar,  who  turned  away  from  the  sight,  shed 
tears  at  the  untimely  death  of  his  rival,  and  put 
his  murderers  to  death.  When  the  news  of  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia  reached  Rome,  various  hon- 
ors were  conferred  upon  Caesar.  He  was  ap- 
pointed dictator  for  a  whole  year  and  consul  for 
nve  years,  and  the  tribunician  power  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  for  life.  He  declined  the  con- 
sulship, but  entered  upon  the  dictatorship  in 
September  in  this  year  (48),  and  appointed  M. 
Antony  his  master  of  the  horse.  On  his  arrival 
in  Egypt,  Caesar  became  involved  in  a  war, 
which  gave  the  remains  of  the  Pornpeiau  party 
time  to  rally.  This  war,  usually  called  the  Alex- 
andrine war,  arose  from  the  determination  of 
Caesar  that  Cleopatra,  whose  fascinations  had 
won  his  heart,  should  reign  in  common  with  her 
brother  Ptolemy  ;  but  this  decision  was  opposed 
by  the  guardians  of  the  young  king,  and  the  war 
which  thus  broke  out  was  not  brought  to  a  close 
till  the  latter  end  of  March,  47.  It  was  soon  af- 
ter this  that  Cleopatra  had  a  sou  by  Caesar.  Vid. 
CLARION.  Caesar  returned  to  Rome  through 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and  on  his  march  through 
Pontus  attacked  Pharnaces,  the  sou  of  Mithra- 
dates  the  Great,  who  had  assisted  Pompey.  He 
defeated  Pharnaces  near  Zela  with  such  ease, 
that  he  informed  the  senate  of  his  victory  by 
the  words  Veni,  vidi,  vici.  He  readied  Rome 
in  September  (47),  was  appointed  consul  for  the 
following  year,  and  before  the  end  of  September 
set  sail  for  Africa,  where  Scipio  aud  Cato  had 
collected  a  large  army.  The  war  was  termina- 
ted by  the  defeat  of  the  Pompeiiui  army  at  the 
battle  of  Thapsus,  on  the  6th  of  April,  46.  Cato, 
unable  to  defend  Utica,  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life.  Caesar  returned  to  Rome  in  the  latter  end 
of  July.  He  was  now  the  undisputed  mastei 
of  the  Roman  world,  but  be  used  his  victory 
159 


CAESAR,  JULIUS. 

with  the  greatest  moderatioa  Unlike  other 
conauerora  iu  civil  wars,  he  freely  forgave  all 
ytt»  nad  borne  arms  against  him,  and  declared 
viiac  he  would  make  no  difference  between  Pom- 
peians  and  Caesarians.  His  clemency  was  one 
of  the  brightest  features  of  his  character.  At 
Rome  all  parties  seemed  to  vie  in  paying  him 
honor:  the  dictatorship  was  bestowed  on  him 
for  ten  years,  and  the  censorship,  under  the  new 
title  of  Prcefectua  Morum,  for  three  years.  He 
celebrated  his  victories  in  Gaul,  Egypt,  Pontus, 
sind  Africa  by  four  magnificent  triumphs.  Caesar 
now  proceeded  to  correct  the  various  evils  which 
had  crept  into  the  state,  and  to  obtain  the  en- 
actment of  several  laws  suitable  to  the  altered 
condition  of  the  commonwealth.  The  most  im- 
portant of  his  measures  this  year  (46)  was  the 
reformation  of  the  calendar.  As  the  Roman 
year  was  now  three  months  in  advance  of  the 
real  time,  Caesar  added  ninety  days  to  this  year, 
and  thus  made  the  whole  year  consist  of  four 
hundred  and  forty-five  days ;  and  he  guarded 
against  a  repetition  of  similar  errors  for  the 
future  by  adapting  the  year  to  the  sun's  course. 
Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art.  CALENDABIUM.  Mean- 
time the  two  sons  of  Pompey,  Sextus  and  Cneius, 
had  collected  a  new  army  in  Spain.  Caesar  set 
out  for  Spain  toward  the  end  of  the  year,  and 
brought  the  war  to  a  close  by  the  battle  of 
Munda,  on  the  17th  of  March,  45,  in  which  the 
enemy  were  only  defeated  after  a  most  obsti- 
nate resistance.  Cn.  Pompey  was  killed  shortly 
afterward,  but  Sextus  made  good  his  escape. 
Caesar  reached  Rome  in  September,  and  entered 
the  city  in  triumph.  Fresh  honors  awaited  him. 
His  portrait  was  to  be  struck  on  coins ;  the 
month  of  Quintilis  was  to  receive  the  name  of 
Julius  in  his  honor ;  he  received  the  title  of  im- 
perator  for  life ;  and  the  whole  senate  took  an 
oath  to  watch  over  his  safety.  To  reward  his 
followers,  Caesar  increased  the  number  of  sen- 
ators and  of  the  public  magistrates,  so  that  there 
were  to  be  sixteen  praetors,  forty  quaestors,  and 
six  aediles.  He  began  to  revolve  vast  schemes 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Roman  world.  Among 
his  plans  of  internal  improvement,  he  proposed 
to  frame  a  digest  of  all  the  Roman  laws,  to  es- 
tablish public  libraries,  to  drain  the  Pomptine 
marshes,  to  enlarge  the  harbor  of  Ostia,  and  to 
dig  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  To 
protect  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  empire,  he 
meditated  expeditions  against  the  Parthians  and 
the  barbarous  tribes  on  the  Danube,  and  had 
already  begun  to  make  preparations  for  his  de- 
parture to  the  East  Possessing  royal  power, 
lie  now  wished  to  obtain  the  title  of  king,  and 
Antony  accordingly  offered  him  the  diadem  in 
public  on  the  festival  of  the  Lupercalia  (the  15th 
of  February) ;  but,  seeing  that  the  proposition 
was  not  favorably  received  by  the  people,  he 
declined  it  for  the  present.  But  Caesar's  power 
was  not  witnessed  without  envy.  The  Roman 
aristocracy,  who  had  been  so  long  accustomed 
to  rule  the  Roman  world  and  to  pillage  it  at 
their  pleasure,  could  ill  brook  a  master,  and  re- 
solved to  remove  him  by  assassination.  The 
conspiracy  against  Caesar's  life  had  been  set 
afoot  by  Cassius,  a  personal  enemy  of  Caesar's, 
and  there  were  more  than  sixty  persons  privy 
to  it  Many  of  these  persons  had  been  raised 
by  Caesar  to  wealth  and  honor ;  and  some  of  j 
160 


CAESAR,  C.  AND  L. 

them,  such  as  M.  Brutus,  lived  with  him  on 
terms  of  the  most  intimate  friendship.  It  has 
been  the  practice  of  rhetoricians  to  speak  of  the 
murder  of  Caesar  as  a  glorious  deed,  and  to  rep- 
resent Brutus  and  Cassius  as  patriots ;  but  the 
mask  ought  to  be  stripped  off  these  false  pa- 
triots ;  they  cared  not  for  the  republic,  but  only 
for  themselves ;  and  their  object  in  murdering 
Caesar  was  to  gain  power  for  themselves  and 
their  party.  Caesar  had  many  warnings  of  hie 
approaching  fafe,  but  he  disregarded  them  all, 
and  fell  by  the  daggers  of  his  assassins  on  the 
Ides  or  15th  of  March,  44.  At  an  appointed 
signal  the  conspirators  surrounded  him ;  Casca 
dealt  the  first  blow,  and  the  others  quickly  drew 
their  swords  and  attacked  him ;  Caesar  at  first 
defended  himself,  but  when  he  saw  that  Brutus, 
his  friend  and  favorite,  had  also  drawn  his  sword, 
he  exclaimed  Tu  quoque  Brute  I  pulled  his  toga 
over  his  face,  and  sunk  pierced  with  wounds  at 
the  foot  of  Pompey's  statue.  Julius  Caesar  was 
the  greatest  man  of  antiquity.  He  was  gifted 
by  nature  with  the  most  various  talents,  and 
was  distinguished  by  the  most  extraordinary  at- 
tainments in  the  most  diversified  pursuits.  He 
was  at  one  and  the  same  time  a  general,  a  states- 
man, a  lawgiver,  a  jurist,  an  orator,  a  poet,  a 
historian,  a  philologer,  a  mathematician,  and  an 
architect  He  was  equally  fitted  to  excel  in  all, 
and  has  given  proofs  that  he  would  have  sur- 
passed almost  all  other  men  in  any  subject  to 
which  he  devoted  the  energies  of  his  extraordi 
nary  mind.  During  the  whole  of  his  busy  lift 
he  found  time  for  literary  pursuits,  and  was  the 
author  of  many  works,  the  majority  of  whicL 
has  been  lost  The  purity  of  his  Latin  and  the 
clearness  of  his  style  were  celebrated  by  th* 
ancients  themselves,  and  are  conspicuous  in  hi? 
Commentarii,  which  are  his  only  works  that  hav< 
come  down  to  us.  They  relate  the  history  of 
the  first  seven  years  of  the  Gallic  war  in  seven 
books,  and  the  history  of  the  Civil  war  down  to 
the  commencement  of  the  Alexandrine  in  three 
books.  Neither  of  these  works  completed  the 
history  of  the  Gallic  and  Civil  wars.  The  his- 
tory of  the  former  was  completed  in  an  eighth 
book,  which  is  usually  ascribed  to  Hirtius,  and 
the  history  of  the  Alexandrine,  African,  and 
Spanish  wars  were  written  in  three  separate 
books,  which  are  also  ascribed  to  Hirtius,  but 
their  authorship  is  uncertain.  The  lost  works 
of  Caesar  are,  1.  Anticato,  in  reply  to  Cicero's 
Cato,' which  Cicero  wrote  in  praise  of  Cato  after 
the  death  of  the  latter  in  46.  2.  DC  Analog-ia, 
or,  as  Cicero  explains  it,  De  Ratione  Latine  lo- 
quendi,  dedicated  to  Cicero,  contained  investi- 
gations on  the  Latin  language,  and  were  writ- 
ten by  Caesar  while  he  was  crossing  the  Alps. 
3.  Libri  Auspiciorum,  or  Auguralia.  4.  De  Astris. 
5.  Apophthegmata,  or  Dicta  collectanea,  a  collec 
tion  of  good  sayings.  6.  Poemata.  Two  of 
these,  written  in  his  youth,  Laudet  Hercvlis  and 
OSdipus,  were  suppressed  by  Augustus.  Of  the 
numerous  editions  of  Caesar's  Commentaries,  the 
best  are  by  Oudendorp,  Lugd.  Bat,  1737,  Stutt- 
gard,  1822  ;  by  Morus,  Lips.,  1780 ;  by  Oberlin 
Lips.,  1805,  1819 ;  [and  by  Herzog,  Lips.,  1831- 
34,  2  vols. ;  and  of  the  Gallic  "War  separately 
by  Nipperdey,  Lips.,  1849.] 

C.  CAESAR  and  L.  C^SSAB,  the  sons  of  M.  Vipsa- 
nius  Agrippa  and  Julia,  and  the  grandson  of  Au 


C^SARAUGUSTA. 


CALAMUS. 


gustus.  L.  CaBsar  died  at  Massilia,  on  bis  waj 
U>  Spain,  A.D.  2,  and  C.  Caesar  in  Lycia,  A.D.  4, 
of  a  wound  which  he  had  received  in  Armenia. 

C-iESARAUGUSTA  (now  Zarayoza  or  tiaragossd), 
more  anciently  SALDUBA,  a  town  of  the  Edetani, 
on  the  Iberus,  in  Hispauia  Tarracouensis,  was 
colonized  by  Augustus  B.C.  27,  and  was  the 
seat  of  a  Couventus  Juridicus.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  poet  Prudentius. 

CJESAREA  (Kaiaupeta :  Kaiaapevf :  CaBsarien- 
sis),  a  name  given  to  several  cities  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  in  honor  of  one  or  other  of  the  Cae- 
sars. 1.  C^ESAREA  AD  ARG.EUM,  formerly  MA- 
ZACA,  also  EUSEBIA  (K.  i]  Tr/jof  TU  'Apyaiu,  TO. 
Mu£oxa,  EvceGeia :  now  Kesarieh,  ruins),  one  of 
the  oldest  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  stood  upon 
Mount  Argfcus,  about  the  centre  of  Cappadocia, 
in  the  district  (prsefectura)  called  Cilicia.  It 
was  the  capital  of  Cappadocia,  and  when  that 
country  was  made  a  Roman  province  by  Tibe- 
rius (A.D.  18),  it  received  the  name  of  Caesarea. 
It  was  ultimately  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. — 
2.  C.  PHILIPM  or  PANEAS  (K.  #  t&ucKOV,  New 
Testament ;  K.  Tiaveidf  :  now  Banias),  a  city  of 
Palestine  at  the  southern  foot  of  Mount  Hermon, 
on  the  Jordan,  just  below  its  source  (vid.  PA- 
NIUM),  built  by  Philip  the  tetrarch,  B.C.  3  :  King 
Agrippa  called  it  Neronias,  but  it  soon  lost  this 
name. — 3.  C.  PAI^ESTIX^E,  formerly  STRATONIS 
TURRIS  (ZrpuTuvoe  irvpyof :  now  Kaisariyeh, 
ruins),  an  important  city  of  Palestine,  on  the 
sea-coast,  just  above  the  boundary  line  between 
Sajnaria  and  Galilee.  It  was  surrounded  with 
a  wall  and  decorated  with  splendid  buildings  by 
Herod  the  Great  (B.C.  13),  who  called  it  Caes- 
urea,  in  honor  of  Augustus.  He  also  made  a 
splendid  harbor  for  the  city.  Under  the  Ro- 
mans it  was  the  capital  of  Palestine  and  the 
residence  of  the  procurator.  Vespasian  made 
it  a  colony,  and  Titus  conferred  additional  fa- 
vora  upon  it;  hence  it  was  called  Colonia  Fla- 
via. — 1.  C.  MAURETAXLE,  formerly  IOL  ('Io)/l 
Kaiodpeia :  now  Zershell,  ruins),  a  Phoenician 
city  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  with  a  harbor, 
the  residence  of  King  Juba,  who  named  it  Caes- 
area,  in  honor  of  Augustus.  When  Claudius 
erected  Mauretania  into  a  Roman  province,  he 
made  Caesarea  a  colony,  and  the  capital  of  the 
middle  division  of  the  province,  which  was 
thence  called  Mauretauia  Caesariensis. — 5.  C. 
AD  AXAZARBUIL  Vid.  AXAZARBUS.  There  are 
several  others,  which  are  better  known  by  other 
names,  and  several  which  are  not  important 
enough  to  be  mentioned  here. 

CLARION-,  BOD  of  C.  Julius  C;esar  and  Cleo- 
patra, originally  called  Ptolemaeua  as  an  Egyp- 
tian prince,  was  born  B.C.  47.  In  42  the  tri- 
umvirs allowed  him  to  receive  the  title  of  King 
of  Egypt,  and  in  34  Antony  conferred  upon  him 
the  title  of  king  of  kings.  After  the  death  of 
his  mother  in  30,  he  was  executed  by  order  of 
Augustus. 

C^ESARODCNUM  (now  Tour*),  chief  town  of 
the  Turonea  or  Turoni,  subsequently  called  Tu- 
RONL,  on  the  Liger  (now  Loire),  in  Gallia  Lugdu- 
nensis. 

C.BSAROMAGUS.  1.  (Now  Eeauvais),  chief 
town  of  the  Bellovaci  in  Gallia  Belgioa. — 2. 
(Now  Chelmxford),  a  town  of  the  Trinobantes 
in  Britain. 

C.&SK.VA  (Caesenas,  -atis :  now  Cesena),  a  town 
11 


in  Gallia  Cispadana,  on  the  Via  ^Emilia,  not  far 
1  from  the  Rubicon. 

&ESEXXIUS  LHXTO.     Vid.  LENTO. 

CjfiSEXXIUS  P^TCS.       Vid.  P^XTUS. 

C^ESETIUS  FLAVUS.     Vid.  FLAVUS. 
C^ESIA,  a  surname  of  Minerva,  a  translation 
of  the  Greek  y?*avKume. 

C^KSIA  SILVA  (now  Hdaernwald),  a  forest,  in 
i  Germany  between  the  Lippe  and  the  YsseL 

C^ESOXIA,  first  the  mistress  and  afterward 
i  the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Caligula,  was  a  woman 
:  of  the  greatest  licentiousness,  and  was  put  u 
;  death  with  Caligula,  together  with  her  daughter 
!  A.D.  41.  __ 

C^fisoxius,  M.,  a  judex  at  the  trial  of  Oppi- 
anicus  for  the  murder  of  Cluentius,  B.C.  74,  and 
aedile  with  Cicero  in  69. 

CAICUS  (Kainof :  now  Aksou  or  JBakir),  a  river 
of  Mysia,  rising  in  Mount  Temnus,  and  flowing 
past  Pergamus  into  the  Cumaean  Gulf. 

[CAICUS.  1.  Son  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys, 
god  of  the  Mysian  river. — 2.  A  companion  of 
^Eneas  in  his  voyage  from  Troy  to  Italy.] 

CAIETA  (CaieUnus :  now  Gaeta),  a  town  in 
Latium,  on  the  borders  of  Campania,  forty  stadia 
south  of  Formiae,  situated  on  a  promontory  of 
the  same  name,  and  on  a  bay  of  the  sea  called 
after  it  SINTJS  CAIETANUS.  It  possessed  an  ex 
cellent  harbor  (Cic.,  pro  Leg.  J/<zn,  12),  and  was 
said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Caieta,  the 
nurse  of  ^Eneas,  who,  according  to  some  tradi 
tions,  was  buried  at  this  place. 

CAIUS,  the  jurist     Via.  GAIUS. 

CAIUS  CJESAR.     Vid'.  CALIGULA. 

CALABER,     Vid.  QUINTUS  SMTRX^EUS. 

CALABRIA  (Calabri),  the  peninsula  in  the 
southeast  of  Italy,  extending  from  Tarentum 
to  the  Promontorium  lapygium,  formed  part 
of  APULIA,  q.  v. 

CALACTA  (Kail#  'A/tr^ :  KaZanrivof :  ruins 
near  Caronia),  a  town  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Sicily,  founded  by  Ducetius,  a  chief  of  the  Siceli, 
about  B.C.  447.  Calacta  was,  as  its  name  im- 
ports, originally  the  name  of  the  coast  (He- 
rod., vi.,  22.) 

CALACT!NUS.     Vid.  C^ECILIUS  CALACTMUS. 

[CALAGORRIS  (now  Cazeres),  a  small  town  of 
the  Convenae  in  Aquitania,  southwest  of  Tolosa.] 

CALAGURRIS  (Calagurritanus:  now  Calahor- 
ra),  a  town  of  the  Vascones  and  a  Roman  rau- 
nicipium  in  Hispauia  Tarraconeusis,  near  the 
Iberus,  memorable  for  its  adherence  to  Serto- 
rius  and  for  its  siege  by  Pompey  and  his  gen- 
erals, in  the  course  of  which  mothers  killed  and 
salted  their  children,  B.C.  71.  (Juv.,  XT.,  93.) 
It  was  the  birth-place  of  Quiutilian. 

CALAIS,  brother  of  Zetes.      Vid.  ZETES. 

CALAMA.  1.  (Now  Kalma,  ruins),  an  import 
ant  town  in  Numidia,  between  Cirta  and  Hippo 
Regius,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Rubricatug 
(now  Seibous). — 2.  (Now  Jialat-al-  Wad)  a  town 
in  the  west  of  Mauretania  Csesariensis,  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Malva,  near  its  mouth. 

t'\i  \MINI:.  in  Lydia,  a  lake  with  floating 
islands,  sacred  to  the  uympha. 

CALAMIS  (Kulajuf),  a  statuary  and  embosser 
at  Athena,  of  great  celebrity,  was  a  contempo- 
rary of  Phidias,  and  flourished  B.C.  467-429. 

I'A LAMCS  (KaA<z//o£  :  now  El-Kulmon),  a  towr 
on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  a  little  south,  of  Trip 
olis. 

161 


CALANUS. 


CALIGULA. 


CALANCS  (Kd/.avof),  an  Indian  gymnosophist, 
followed  Alexander  the  Great  from  India,  and 
having  been  taken  ill,  burned  himself  alive  in 
the  presence  of  the  Macedonians,  three  months 
before  the  death  of  Alexander  (B.C.  323),  to 
whom  he  hud  predicted  his  approaching  end. 

CALASIUIES  (KaAa<rt/Hff),  one  of  the  two  di- 
visions (the  other  being  the  Hennotybii)  of  the 
warrior-caste  of  Egypt  Their  greatest  strength 
was  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  and  ; 
their  chief  abode  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Delta.  They  formed  the  king's  body  guard 

CALATIA  (Calatinus :  now  C'ajazzo),  a  town 
in  Samuium,  on  the  Appia  Via,  between  Capua 
and  Beneveotum,  was  conquered  by  the  Romans 
BC.  313,  and  was  colonized  by  Julius  Caesar 
with  his  veterans. 

CALATINUS,  A.  ATILIUS,  consul  B.C.  258,  in 
the  first  Punic  war,  carried  on  the  war  with 
success  in  Sicily.  He  was  consul  a  second 
time,  254,  when  he  took  Panormus;  aud  was 
dictator,  249,  when  he  again  carried  on  the  war 
in  Sicily,  which  was  the  first  instance  of  a  dic- 
tator commanding  an  army  out  of  Italy. 

CALAUREA,  -IA  (Ka^aipeta,  Kal.avpia  :  KaAav- 
fjeirr/f  :  now  Poro),  a,  small  island  in  the  Saronic 
Gulf,  off  the  coast  of  Argolis,  and  opposite  Trce- 
zen,  possessed  a  celebrated  temple  of  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon),  which  was  regarded  as  an  in- 
violable asylum.  Hither  Demosthenes  fled  to 
escape  Antipater,  and  here  he  took  poison,  B.C. 
322.  This  temple  was  the  place  of  meeting  of 
an  ancient  Amphictyonia.  Vid.  Diet  of  Ant., 
p.  79,  b,  second  edition. 

CALAVIUS,  the  name  of  a  distinguished  family 
at  Capua,  the  most  celebrated  member  of  which 
was  Pacuvius  Calavius,  who  induced  his  fellow- 
citizens  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Hannibal  after 
the  battle  of  Cannae,  B.C.  216. 

CALBIS  (6  KuMif),  also  Indus  (now  Quingui 
or  Tanas),  a  considerable  river  of  Caria,  which 
rises  in  Mount  Cadmus,  above  Cibyra,  and  after 
receiving  (according  to  Pliny)  sixty  small  rivers 
and  one  hundred  mountain  torrents,  falls  into 
the  sea  west  of  Caunus  and  opposite  to  Rhodes. 

CALCHAS  (Ku/l^af),  son  of  Tbestor  of  Mycenae 
or  Megara,  the  wisest  soothsayer  among  the 
Greeks  at  Troy,  foretold  the  length  of  the  Tro- 
jan war,  explained  the  cause  of  the  pestilence 
which  raged  iu  the  Greek  army,  and  advised 
the  Greeks  to  build  the  wooden  horse.  An  or- 
acle had  declared  that  Calchas  should  die  if  he 
met  with  a  soothsayer  superior  to  himself;  and 
this  came  to  pass  at  Claros,  near  Colophon,  for 
here  Calchas  met  the  soothsayer  Morsus,  who 
predicted  things  which  Calchas  could  not. 
Thereupon  Calchas  died  of  grief.  After  his 
death  he  had  an  oracle  in  Daunia. 

CALDUS,  C.  CJELIUS.  1.  Rose  from  obscurity 
by  his  oratory,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
107,  when  he  proposed  a  lex  tabellaria,  and  con- 
sul 94.  In  the  civil  war  between  Sulla  and  the 
party  of  Marius,  he  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
latter,  83. — 2.  Grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
Cicero's  quaestor  in  Cilicia,  50. 

CALK  (now  Oporto),  a  port- town  of  the  Cal- 
laeci  in  Hispania   Tarraconensis,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Durius.     From  Porto  Cale  the  name  of 
the  country  Portugal  is  supposed  to  have  come. 
CALEDONIA.      Vid.  BBITANMA. 
CALENTUM,  a  town  probably  of  the  Calenses 
162 


Emauici  .n  Hispania  Baetica,  celebrated  for  ita 
manufacture  of  bricks  so  light  as  to  swim  upoc 
water. 

CALENCS,  Q.  FVFIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C 
61,  when  he  succeeded  in  saving  P.  Clodius 
from  condemnation  for  his  Violation  of  the  mys- 
teries of  the  Bona  Dea.  In  59  he  was  praetor, 
and  from  this  time  appears  as  an  active  partisan 
of  Caesar.  In  51  he  was  legate  of  Caesar  in 
Gaul,  and  served  under  Caesar  in  the  civil  war 
In  49  he  joined  Caesar  at  Brundisium  and  ac- 
companied him  to  Spain,  and  in  48  he  was  sent 
by  Caesar  from  Epirus  to  bring  over  the  re- 
mainder of  the  troops  from  Italy,  but  most  of 
his  ships  were  taken  by  Bibulus.  After  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia  (48)  Calenus  took  many  cities 
in  Greece.  In  47  he  was  made  consul  by  Cae- 
sar. After  Caesar's  death  (44)  Calcuus  joined 
M.  Antony,  and  subsequently  had  the  command 
of  Antony's  legions  in  the  north  of  Italy.  At 
the  termination  of  the  Perusiuian  war  (41)  Ca- 
lenus died,  and  Octavianus  was  thus  enabled  to 
obtain  possession  of  his  army. 

GALES  or  -EX  (KaA?7f  or  -T]t; :  now  HalaUf),  a 
river  of  Bitbynia,  southwest  of  Heraclfia  Pon 
tica.  (Thuc.,  iv.,  75.) 

CALES  (-is,  usually  PI.  Cales,  -ium :  Calenus : 
now  Calvi),  chief  town  of  the  Calcni,  an  Auso- 
nian  people  in  Campania,  on  the  Via  Latina,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Calais,  son  of  Boreas, 
and  therefore  called  Thre'icia  by  the  poets.  Ca- 
les was  taken  and  colonized  by  the  Romans, 
B.C.  335.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  excellent 
wine. 

CALETES  or  -i,  a  people  in  Belgic  Gaul,  neat 
the  mouth  of  the  Seine:  their  capital  was  Ju 
LIOBOXA. 

CALETOR  (Ka?.?;rw/)),  son  of  Clytius,  slain  at 
Troy  by  the  Telamouian  Ajax. 

CALIDIUS.  1.  Q.,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
99,  carried  a  law  for  the  recall  of  Q.  Metellus 
Numidicus  from  banishment.  He  was  praetor 
79,  and  had  the  government  of  one  of  the  Spains, 
and  on  his  return  was  accused  by  Q.  Lollius, 
and  condemned. — 2.  M.,  son  of  the  preceding, 
distinguished  as  an  orator.  In  57  he  was  prae- 
tor, and  supported  the  recall  of  Cicero  from  ban- 
ishment. In  51  he  was  an  unsuccessful  can- 
didate for  the  consulship,  and  on  the  breaking 
out  of  the  civil  war,  49,  he  joined  Caesar,  who 
placed  him  over  Gallia  Togata,  where  he  died 
in  48. 

CALIGULA,  Roman  emperor,  A.D.  37-41,  son 
of  Germanicus  aud  Agnppina,  was  born  A.D. 
12,  and  was  brought  up  among  the  legions  in 
Germany.  His  real  name  was  G'aius  Ccesar, 
and  he  was  always  called  Caius  by  his  contem- 
poraries :  Caligula  was  a  surname  given  him 
by  the  soldiers  from  his  wearing  in  his  boyhood 
small  caligce,  or  soldiers'  boots.  Having  es- 
caped the  fate  of  his  mother  and  brother,  he 
gained  the  favor  of  Tiberius,  who  raised  him  to 
offices  of  honor,  and  held  out  to  him  hopes  of 
the  succession.  On  the  death  of  Tiberius  (37), 
which  was  either  caused  or  accelerated  by  Ca- 
ligula, the  latter  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He 
was  saluted  by  the  people  with  the  greatest  en- 
thusiasm as  the  son  of  Germanicus.  His  first 
acts  gave  promise  of  a  just  aud  beneficent  reign. 
He  pardoned  all  the  persons  who  had  appeared 
as  witnesses  or  accusers  against  his  family ;  he 


CALING^E. 


CALLIAS. 


released  all  the  state-prisoners  of  Tiberius ;  he ! 
restored  to  the  magistrates  full  power  of  juris-  • 
diction,  without  appeal  to  his  person,  and  prom- : 
ised  the  senate  to  govern  according  to  the  laws. 
Toward  foreign  princes  he  behaved  with  great 
generosity.     He   restored   Agrippa,   the  grand- 
son of  Herod,  to  his  kingdom  of  Judaea,  and 
Antiochus  IV.  to  his  kingdom  of  Commagene. 
But  at  the  end  of  eight  months  the  conduct  of 
Caligula  became  suddenly  changed.     After  a 
serious  illness,  which    probably  weakened  his 
mtutal  powers,  he  appears  as  a  sanguinary  and  \ 
licentious  madman.     He  put  to  death  Tiberius, 
the  grandson  of  his  predecessor,  compelled  his 
grandmother  Antonia    and  other  members  of 
his  family  to  make  away  with  themselves,  often  | 
caused  persons  of  both  sexes  and  of  all  ages  to  i 
be  lortured  to  death  for  his  amusement  while  ' 
taking  his  meals,  and  on   one  occasion,  during ; 
the   exhibition  of  the  games  in  the  circus,  he  j 
ordered  a  great  number  of  the  spectators  to  be  j 
seized  and  to  be  thrown  before  the  wild  beasts. 
Such  was  his  love  of  blood  that  he  wished  the 
Roman  people  had  only  one  head,  that  he  might 
cut  it  off  with  a  blow.     His  licentiousness  was 
as  great  as  his   cruelty.     His  marriages  were  j 
disgracefully  contracted  and  speedily  dissolved ;  i 
.  and  the  only  woman  who  exercised  a  permanent  j 
influence  over  him  was  his  last  wife   Cassonia.  J 
In  his  madness  he   considered  himself  a  god ; 
he  even  built  a  temple  to  himself  as  Jupiter  La- 
tiaris,  and   appointed   priests   to  attend  to  his 
worship.     He  sometimes  officiated  as  his  own 
priest,   making  his  horse    Incitatus,  which    he 
afterward    raised    to    the    consulship,  his    col- 
league.     His     monstrous    extravagances    soon 
exhausted  the   coffers   of  the  state.      One    in- 
stance may  show  the  senseless  way  in  which  he 
spent  his  money.     He  constructed  a  bridge  of 
boats   between   Baiae   and    Puteoli,   a    distance 
of  about  three  miles,  and  after  covering  it  with 
earth,  he  built  houses  upon  it.     When  it  was 
finished,  he  gave  a  splendid  banquet  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  bridge,  and  concluded  the  entertain- 
ment by  throwing  numbers  of  the  guests  into 
the  sea.     To  replenish  the  treasury,  he  exhaust- 
ed Italy  and  Rome  by  his  extortions,  and  then 
marched  into  Gaul  in  40,  which  he  plundered  in 
all  directions.     With  his  troops  he  advanced  to 
the  ocean,   as  if  intending  to  cross  over  into 
Britain ;  he  drew  them  up  in  battle  array,  and 
then   gave   them  the   signal — to   collect  shells, 
which  he  called  the  spoils  of  conquered  Ocean. 
The  Roman  world  at  length  grew  tired  of  such 
a  mad  tyrant      Four  months  after  his  return  to 
the  city,  on  the  24th  of  January,  41,  he  was 
murdered  by  Cassius  Chajrea,  tribune  of  a  pra;- 
toriuu   cohort,   Cornelius    Sabinus,   and    others. 
His  wife  Csesonia  and  his  daughter  were  like- 
wise put  to  death. 

CALINC^E,  a  numerous  people  of  India  intra 
Qangem,  on  the  eastern  coast,  below  the  mouths 
of  the  Gauges. 

CALINIPAXA  (now  Canonge?  a  little  above  27° 
north  latitude),  a  city  on  the  Ganges,  north  of 
its  confluence  with  the  Jomanes  (now  Jumna), 
said  to  have  been  the  furthest  point  in  India 
reached  by  Seleucus  Nicator. 

CALI.AICI,  CALLJECI.     Vid.  GALL^BCL 

[CALLAS  (K<CUoA  a  river  of  Eubcea,  flowing 
from  Mount  Telethnus  into  the  sea  near  Oreus.] 


CALLATIS  (KaAAortf,  Ka/larif  :  KaAanavo?  : 
now  Kollat,  Kollati),  a  town  of  Moesia,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  originally  a  colony  of  Miletus,  and 
afterward  of  Heraclea, 

[CALLIADES  (KaAAtocto/f),  archon  eponymus 
at  Athens  at  the  time  of  the  second  Persian  in- 
vasion, B.C.  480.] 

[CALLIANASSA  (Kahliuvaaaa),  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Nereus,  mentioned  in  the  Iliad.] 

CALLIARUS  (KaAAmpoj-),  a  town  in  Lociis, 
mentioned  by  Homer. 

CALLIAS  and  HIPPONICUS  (KaAAtaf,  'Imrovi- 
KOf),  &  noble  Athenian  family,  celebrated  foi 
their  wealth.  They  enjoyed  the  hereditary  dig- 
nity of  torch-bearer  at  the  Eleusinian  myste- 
ries, and  claimed  descent  from  Triptolennis. 

I.  HIPPONICUS  L,  acquired  a  large  fortune  by 
fraudulently  making  use  of  the  information  he 
had  received  from  Solon  respecting  the  intro- 
duction  of    his    oeiffdxQeia,   B.C.    594.      (Plut, 
Sol.,  15.) — 2.  CALLIAS  L,  son  of  Phsenippus,  an 
opponent  of  Pisistratus,  and  a  conqueror  at  the 
Olympic  and  Pythian  games. — 3.  HIPPONICUS  II., 
surnamed   Ammon,  son  of  No.  2.— 4.   CALLIAS 

II,  son  of  No.  3,  fought  at  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon, 490.     He  was  afterward  ambassador  from 
Athens  to  Artaxerxes,  and,  according  to  some 
accounts,  negotiated  a  peace  with  Persia,  449, 
on  terms  most  humiliating  to  the  latter.     On 
his  return  to  Athens  he  was  accused  of  having 
taken  bribes,  and  was  condemned  to  a  fine  of 
fifty  talents. — 5.   HIPPONICUS  III,  son  of  No.  4, 
one  of  the  Athenian  generals  in  their  incursion 
into  the   territory  of  Tanagra,  426,  also   com- 
manded at  the  battle  of  Delium,  424,  where  he 
was  killed.     It  was  his  divorced  wife,  and  not 
his  widow,  whom  Pericles  married.      His  daugh- 
ter Hipparete  was  married  to  Alcibiades,  with 
a  dowry  of  ten  talents :   another  daughter  was 
married  to  Theodorus,  and  became  the  mother  _ 
of  Isocrates  the  orator. — 6.   CALLIAS  III.,  son  of 
No.  5,  by  the  lady  who  married  Pericles,  dissi 
pated  all  his  ancestral  wealth  on  sophists,  flat- 
terers, and  women.     The  scene  of  Xenophon's 
Banquet,  and  also  that  of  Plato's  Protagoras,  is 
laid  at  his  house.      He  is  said  to  have  ultimately 
reduced  himself  to  absolute  beggary.     In  400  he 
was  engaged  in  the  attempt  to  crush  Andocides. 
In  392  he  commanded  the  Athenian  heavy-arm- 
ed troops,  when  Iphicrates  defeated  the  Spar- 
tans ;  and  in  37 1  he  was  one  of  the  envoys  em- 
powered to  negotiate  peace  with  Sparta. 

CALLIAS.  1.  A  wealthy  Athenian,  who,  on 
condition  of  marrying  Cimon's  sister,  Elpinice, 
paid  for  him  the  fine  of  fifty  talents  whicn  had 
been  imposed  on  Miltiades.  He  appears  to  have 
been  unconnected  with  the  nobler  family  of 
Callias  and  Hipponicus. — 2.  Tyrant  of  Chalcis 
in  Eubcea,  and  the  rival  of  Plutarchus,  tyrant  of 
Eretria.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Athenians 
under  Phocion,  B.C.  350,  and  thereupon  betook 
himself  to  the  Macedonian  court;  but  as  he 
could  not  obtain  aid  from  Philip,  he  formed  an 
alliance  with  tbo  Athenians,  and  by  their  meana 
obtained  the  supremacy  in  the  island. — 3.  A 
poet  of  the  old  comedy,  flourished  B.C.  412  ;  the 
names  of  six  of  his  comedies  are  preserved 
[The  fragments  of  his  plays  are  given  in  Mei- 
neke's  Fragm,  Comic.  Orcec.,  voL  i.,  p.  417- 
421,  edit  minor.] — 4.  Of  Syracuse,  a  Greek  his- 
torian, was  a  contemporary  of  Agathoclee,  and 
163 


CALLIBIUS. 


CALLIOPIUS. 


wrote  a  history  of  Sicily  in  twenty-two  books,  j  APOLLONIUS,  No.  6.  He  is  said  to  have  written 
embracing  the  reign  of  Agathocles,  B.C.  817-  eight  hundred  works,  in  prose  and  in  verse,  ou 
289.  [A  few  fragments  remain,  which  have  an  infinite  variety  of  subjects,  but  of  these  we 
been  collected  by  JVluller  in  his  Fragm.  Hist,  possess  ouly  some  of  his  poems,  which  are  char- 
Grcec.,  vol.  ii,  p.  382-3.]  acterized  rather  by  labor  and  learning  than  by 

[CALLIBIUS  (Ka3,/,<6<of).  1.  The  commander  real  poetical  genius.  Hence  Ovid  (Am.,  i.,  15, 
of  the  Spartan  garrison  at  Athens  in  the  time  of  |  14)  says  of  Callimachus,  Quamvis  ingenio  non 
the  thirty  tyrants,  B.C.  404.  He  allowed  the  valet,  arte  valet.  The  extant  works  of  Callima- 
tyrants  to  make  free  use  of  his  soldiers  in  car-  j  chus  are  six  Hymns  in  hexameter  verse,  five  in 
rying  out  their  abitrary  measures  in  return  for  j  the  Ionic  dialect,  and  one,  on  the  bath  of  Pal- 
the  deference  paid  him  by  those  tyrants. — 2.  One  |  las,  in  the  Doric  dialect,  and  seventy-two  Epi- 
of  the  leaders  of  the  democratic  party  at  Tegea, '  grams,  which  belong  to  the  best  specimens  of 
B.C.  370,  failing,  in  a  peaceable  attempt,  to  |  this  kind  of  poetry,  and  were  incorporated  in 
unite  the  Arcadian  towns  into  one  body,  had  re- i  the  Greek  Anthology*  at  an  early  time.  We 
course  to  arms ;  though  at  first  defeated  by  the  j  have  ouly  a  few  fragments  of  his  elegies,  which 
oligarchical  party,  he  afterward  triumphed  over  enjoyed  great  celebrity,  and  were  imitated  by 
them,  and  put  the  most  obnoxious  to  death.]  the  Roman  poets,  the  most  celebrated  of  whose 

CALLICRATES  (Ka?J.iKp<iTT)f).  1.  An  Achaean,  imitations  is  the  De  Coma  Berenices  of  Catullus. 

Of  the  lost  poems  of  Callimachus  the  most  im- 
portant were,  Alria,  Causes,  an  epic  poem  in 


exerted  all  bis  influence  in  favor  of  the  Romans. 
')n  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans, 
S.C.  168,  Callicrates  pointed  out  one  thousand 
Achaeans  as  having  favored  the  cause  of  Per- 
seus, who  were  taken  to  Rome,  and  among 
them  was  the  historian  Polybius.  Callicrates 
died  at  Rhodes,  149.  —  [2.  Name  given  by  Nepos 
to  the  murderer  of  Dion,  called  Callippus  by 
Oiodorus  and  Plutarch.  Vid.  CALLIPPUS.]  —  3. 
One  of  the  architects  of  the  Parthenon  on 
'.he  Acropolis  of  Athens,  —  4.  A  Lacedaemonian 
sculptor,  made  ants  and  other  animals  ont  of 
ivory,  so  small  that  one  could  not  distinguish 
the  different  limbs.  —  [5.  A  Greek  historian  in 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Aurelian,  a  native  of 
Tyre.  He  wrote  the  history  of  Aurelian,  and 
is  called  by  Vopiscus  the  most  learned  Greek 
writer  of  his  time.] 
CALLICRATIDAS 


,  a  Spartan, 
succeeded  Lysander  as  admiral  of  the  Lacedae- 
monian fleet,  B.C.  406,  took  Methymna,  and  shut 
up  Conon  in  Mytilene  ;  but  the  Athenians  sent 
out  a  fleet  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  sail,  and  de- 
feated Callicratidas  off  the  Arginusae.  Calli- 
cratidas  fell  in  the  battle.  Callicratidas  was  a 
plain,  blunt  Spartan  of  the  old  school.  Witness 
nis  answer,  when  asked  what  sort  of  men  the 
lonians  were  :  "  Bad  freemen,  but  excellent 
slaves." 

CALLIDROMUS  or  -UM  (KalMdpopof),  part  of  the 
range  of  Mount  (Eta,  near  Thermopylae. 

CALLIF.E  (Callifanus  :  now  Calvisi),  a  town 
in  Samnium,  perhaps  in  the  territory  of  Allifae. 

CALLIMACHUS  (KaA/l<//a^of).  1.  The  Athenian 
polemarch,  commanded  the  right  wing  at  Mara- 
thon, where  he  was  slain,  after  behaving  with 
much  gallantry,  B.C.  490.  This  is  the  last  re- 
corded instance  of  the  polemarch  performing 
the  military  duties  which  his  name  implies.  — 
2.  A  celebrated  Alexandrine  grammarian  and 
poet,  was  a  native  of  Gyrene  in  Africa,  and  a 
descendant  of  the  Battiadae,  whence  he  is  some- 
times called  Battiades.  He  lived  at  Alexandrea 
in  the  reigns  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  and  Eu- 
ergetes,  and  was  chief  librarian  of  the  famous 
library  of  Alexandrea  from  about  B.C.  260  until 
his  death  about  240.  He  founded  a  celebrated 
grammatical  school  at  Alexandrea,  and  among 
his  pupils  were  Eratosthenes,  Aristophanes  of 
Byzantium,  and  Apollonius  Rhodius.  We  have 
no  other  particulars  of  the  life  of  Callimachus 
except  his  enmity  with  his  former  pupil  Apollo- 


four  books,  on  the  causes  of  the  various  myth- 
ical stories,  <fcc.,  and  an  epic  poem  entitled  He- 
cate, the  name  of  an  aged  woman  who  received 
Theseus  hospitably  when  he  went  out  to  fight 
against  the  Marathonian  bull.  —  Editions:  By 
Spanheim,  Ultraj.,  1697,  re-edited  by  Ernesti, 
Lugd.  Batav.,  1761,  2  vols.  8vo;  by  Blomfield, 
Lond.,  1815  ;  by  Volger,  Lips.,  1817.  —  3.  An  ar- 
chitect and  statuary,  of  uncertain  country,  who 
is  said  to  have  invented  the  Corinthian  column, 
and  who  must  have  lived  before  B.C.  396.  He 
was  so  anxious  to  give  his  works  the  last  touch 
of  perfection  that  he  lost  the  grand  and  sublime, 
whence  Dionysius  compares  him  to  the  orator 
Lysias.  Callimachus  was  never  satisfied  with 
himself,  and  therefore  received  the  ephithct  KO- 
hich  Pliny  interprets  as  calumniator 


sui,  [where  Sillig  conjectures,  after  some  MSS., 
that  Ka~aTrj£iT£xvoc,  must  be  read  instead  of  na- 
KtZoTExvoc.,  but  the  latter  seems  to  be  supported 
by  the  translation  in  Pliny.  —  4.  One  of  the  gen- 
erals of  Mithradates,  who,  by  his  skill  in  engi- 
neering, defended  the  town  of  Arnisus,  in  Pon- 
tus,  for  a  considerable  time  against  the  Romans 
in  B.C.  71,  and  when  unable  to  defend  it  longer, 
set  it  on  fire  :  he  afterward  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Lucullus  at  the  capture  of  Nisibis,  and  was 
put  to  death  by  him  in  revenge  for  the  burning 
of  Amisus.] 

CALLIMKDON  (Ka/Ut//e<Jw%>),  one  of  the  orators 
at  Athens  in  the  Macedonian  interest,  and  a 
friend  of  Phocion,  was  condemned  to  death  by 
the  Athenians  in  his  absence,  B.C.  317. 

CALLINICUS  SELEUCUS.     Vid.  SELEUCUS. 

CALLINUS   KaAtoof,  of  Ephesus,  the  earliest 


Greek  elegiac  poet,  probably  flourished  about 
B.C.  700.  Only  one  of  his  elegies  is  extant, 
consisting  of  twenty-one  lines,  in  which  he  ex- 
horts his  countrymen  to  courage  and  persever- 
ance against  their  enemies.  Printed  in  Bergk'a 
Poetce  Lyrici  Greed,  p.  303. 


Vid.  Mc&a. 


a  considerable  city  in 


'us  Rhodius,  which  is  related  elsewhere. 
164 


Vii 


CALLIPE. 

CALLIOPE 

the  west  of  Parthia,  founded,  or  else  enlarged, 
by  Seleucus  Nicator. 

[CALLIOPIUS,  a  grammarian,  probably  of  tho 
ninth  century,  who  is  thought  to  have  revised 
and  corrected  the  text  of  the  plays  of  Terence  • 
it  has  been  maintained  by  some  writers  that 
the  name  is  a  mere  epithet,  and  does  not  denote 
any  individual.] 


CALLIPHON. 


GALLIUM. 


CALLIPHON  (KaJJ^tyuv),  a  Greek  philosopher, 
and  probably  a  disciple  of  Epicurus,  is  condemn- 
ed by  Cicero  as  making  the  chief  good  of  man 
to  consist  in  a  union  of  virtue  (honestas)  and 
bodily  pleasure  (rjdovrj,  voluptas). 

CALLIPOLIS  (KaUfaofas :  KaAAfTro^mff).  1. 
(Now  Gzllipoli),  a  Greek  town  on  the  Tarentine 
Gulf  in  Calabria. — 2.  A  town  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Sicily,  not  far  from  ^Etna. — 3.  (Now 
Gallipoli),  a  town  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese, 
opposite  Lampsacus. — 4.  A  town  in  ^Etolia. 
rid.  GALLIUM. 

[CALLIPPID^E  (KaMnnridai),  a  nation  sprung 
from  a  union  of  Greeks  and  Scythians,  dwelling 
on  the  Hypanis,  in  the  vicinity  of  Olbia.] 

CALLIPPIDES  (KaWiirnidTjf),  of  Athens,  a  cele- 
brated tragic  actor,  a  contemporary  of  Alcibiades, 
and  Agesilaus. 

CALLJPPUS  (KdWuirirof).  1.  An  Athenian,  ac- 
companied Dion  to  Syracuse,  where  he  mur- 
dered the  latter,  B.C.  353.  Callippusnow  usurp- 
ed the  government  of  Syracuse,  but  was  ex- 
pelled the  city  at  the  end  of  thirteen  months, 
and,  after  wandering  about  Sicily  with  his  mer- 
cenaries, was  at  length  put  to  death  by  his  own 
friends. — 2.  An  astronomer  of  Cyzicus,  came  to 
Athens,  where  he  assisted  Aristotle  in  rectify- 
ing and  completing  the  discoveries  of  Eudoxus. 
Callippus  invented  the  period  or  cycle  of  sev- 
enty-six years,  called  after  him  the  Callippic, 
which  commenced  B.C.  330. 

CALLIRRHOE  (KaAAt/5/5oi/).  1.  Daughter  of 
Oeeanus,  wife  of  Chrysaor,  and  mother  of  Ge- 
ryoues  and  Echidna. — 2.  Daughter  of  Achelous 
and  wife  of  Alcmaeon,  induced  her  husband  to 
procure  her  the  peplus  and  necklace  of  Harmo- 
uia,  by  which  she  caused  his  death.  Vid.  ALC- 
M^KON. — 3.  Daughter  of  Scamauder,  wife  of 
Tros,  and  mother  of  Ilus  and  Ganymedes. 

CALLIRRHOE  (KaMififiori).  1.  Afterward  call- 
ed ENNEACRCNIIS  (Eweu/cpowof),  or  the  "Nine 
Springs,"  because  its  water  was  distributed  by 
nine  pipes,  was  the  most  celebrated  well  in 
Athens,  and  still  retains  its  ancient  name  Cal- 
lirrhoe.  It  was  situated  in  the  southeastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  city,  between  the  Olympieum  and 
the  llissus. — [2.  A  fountain  and  bathing-place  in 
Peraea,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  with 
warm  springs,  which  were  accounted  healthy.] 

[CALLISTE  (KahXioTjj),  one  of  the  Sporades 
Islands,  the  later  Thera.] 

CALLISTHENES  (K.a^Ma6tvtjf),  of  Olynthus,  a 
relation  and  a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  accompanied 
Alexander  the  Great  to  Asia.  In  his  intercourse 
with  Alexander  he  was  arrogant  and  bold,  and 
took  every  opportunity  of  exhibiting  his  inde- 
pendence. He  expressed  his  indignation  at 
Alexander's  adoption  of  Oriental  customs,  and 
especially  at  the  requirement  of  the  ceremony 
of  adoratioa  He  thus  rendered  himself  so  ob- 
noxious to  the  king,  that  he  was  accused  of 
being  privy  to  the  plot  of  Hermolaus  to  assassin- 
ate Alexander ;  and,  after  being  kept  in  chains 
for  seven  months,  was  either  put  to  death  or 
died  of  disease,  Callisthenes  wrote  an  account 
of  Alexander's  expedition ;  a  history  of  Greece, 
in  ten  books,  from  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  to 
the  seizure  of  the  Delphic  temple  by  Philome- 
las (B.C.  387-357) ;  and  other  works,  all  of 
which  have  perished. 

CALIJSTO  (Ka/.?,taTu),   an   Arcadian    nymph, 


i  hence  called  Noiiacrlna  virgo  (Ov.,  Met^  ii.,  409) 
j  from  Nonacris,  a  mountain  in  Arcadia,  was 
daughter  either  of  Lycaon,  or  of  Nycteus,  or  of 
Ceteus,  and  a  companion  of  Diana  (Artemis)  in 
the  chase.  She  was  beloved  by  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
who  metamorphosed  her  into  a  she-bear  that 
Juno  (Hera)  might  not  become  acquainted  with 
the  amour.  But  Juno  (Hera)  learned  the  truth, 
and  caused  Diana  (Artemis)  to  sky  Callisto  dur 
ing  the  chase.  Jupiter  (Zeus)  placed  Callisto 
among  the  stars  under  the  name  of  Arctos,  or 
the  Bear.  ARCAS  was  her  son  by  Jupiter  (Zeus). 
According  to  Ovid,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  overcame  the 
virtue  of  Callisto  by  assuming  the  form  of  Diana 
(Artemis);  Juno  (Hera)  then  metamorphosed 
Callisto  into  a  bear ;  and  when  Areas,  during  the 
chase,  was  on  the  point  of  killing  his  mother, 
Jupiter  placed  both  among  the  stars.  Vid.  ARC- 
TOS. According  to  K.  O.  Miiller,  Callisto  is 
merely  another  form  of  Calliste,  a  surname  of 
Diana  (Artemis),  and  she  is  therefore  the  same 
as  this  goddess.  The  she-bear  was  the  symbol 
of  the  Arcadian  Diana  (Artemis). 

CALLISTRATIA  (Ka/lAiffrpana),  a  town  in  Paph- 
lagouia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Euxine,  near  the 
Promontorium  Carambis. 

CALLISTRATUS  (KaA/Uffrparof).  1.  An  Athe- 
nian orator,  son  of  Callicrates  of  Aphidna.  His 
oratory  was  greatly  admired  by  Demosthenes, 
and  his  speech  on  the  affair  of  Oropus,  B.C.  366, 
is  said  to  have  excited  the  emulation  of  De- 
mosthenes, and  to  have  caused  the  latter  to  de- 
vote himself  to  oratory.  After  taking  an  active 
part  in  public  affairs,  generally  in  favor  of  Spar- 
ta, Callistratus  was  condemned  to  death  by  the 
Athenians  in  361,  and  went  into  banishment  to 
Methone  in  Macedonia.  He  ultimately  returned 
to  Athens,  and  was  put  to  death.  During  his 
exile  he  is  said  to  have  founded  the  city  of 
Datum,  afterward  Philippi. — [2.  Son  of  Empe- 
dus,  commander  of  a  body  of  Athenian  cavalry 
in  Sicily  during  the  expedition  of  Nicias.  After 
cutting  his  way  through  the  enemy's  forces,  he 
was  finally  slain  in  an  attack  on  those  who  were 
plundering  the  Athenian  camp. — 3.  One  of  the 
body  of  knights  under  the  command  of  Lysiina- 
chus,  who  were  employed  by  the  government  of 
the  ten  to  keep  in  check  the  exiles  under  Thra- 
sybulus  in  the  Piraeus ;  but  be  was  taken  by  the 
latter  and  put  to  death  in  revenge  for  the  out- 
rages committed  by  Lysimachus.] — 4.  A  Greek 
grammarian,  and  a  disciple  of  Aristophanes  of 
Byzantium,  [who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  before  Christ.  He  appears  to 
have  devoted  himself  principally  to  the  study 
of  the  great  poets  of  Greece,  such  as  Homer, 
Pindar,  the  tragedians,  Aristophanes,  and  some 
others ;  and  the  results  of  his  studies  were  em- 
bodied in  commentaries  upon  those  poets,  which 
are  now  lost] — 6.  A  Roman  jurist,  frequently 
cited  in  the  Digest,  wrote  at  least  as  late  as  the 
reign  (A.D.  198-211)  of  Severus  and  Antoninus 
(»'.  «,  Septimius  Severus  and  Caracalla). 

CALLISTUS,  C.  JULIUS,  a  freedman  of  Caligula, 
possessed  great  influence  in  the  reigns  of  Calig- 
ula and  Claudius,  and  is  the  person  to  whom 
the  physician  Scribonius  Largus  dedicates  hia 
work. 

GALLIUM  (KaAXtov :  Ka/Wtevf),  called  CALLIPO- 
i.is  by  Livy  (xxxvi.,  30),  a  town  in  ^Etolia,  in  th« 
valley  of  the  Spercheus,  southwest  of  Hypata 
165 


CALLIXENUS. 


CAMARINA. 


CALLIXENUS  (KoAA/fevoj),  the  leader  in  the 
prosecution  of  the  Athenian  generals  who  had 
conquered  at  the  Arginusae,  B.C.  406.  Not  long 
after  the  execution  of  the  generals,  the  Athe- 
nians repented  of  their  unjust  sentence,  and 
decreed  the  institution  of  criminal  accusations 
against  Oallixenus,  but  he  escaped  from  Athens. 
On  the  restoration  of  democracy,  403,  Callixenus 
took  advantage  of  the  general  amnesty,  and  re- 
turned to  Athens,  but  no  man  would  give  him 
either  water  or  light  for  his  fire,  and  he  perished 
miserably  of  hunger. 

GALLON  (KaA/lwv).  1.  An  artist  of  ^Egina, 
flourished  B.C.  516.— 2.  An  artist  of  Elis,  lived 
before  B.C.  436. 

CALOB.  1.  A  river  in  Samnium,  flows  past 
Beueventum,  and  falls  into  the  Vulturous. — 2. 
(Now  Calore),  a  river  in  Lucauia,  falls  into  the 
Silarus. 

CALPE  (KaAjn? :  now  Gibraltar),  a  mountain 
in  the  south  of  Spain,  on  the  Straits,  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Mediterranean.  This  and  Mount 
Abyla,  opposite  to  it,  on  the  African  coast,  were 
called  the  Columns  of  Hercules.  Vid.  ABYLA. 

CALPE  (Ka/lTrj/ :  now  Kirpeli),  a  river,  prom- 
ontory, and  town  on  the  coast  of  Bithynia,  be- 
tween the  rivers  Psilis  and  Sangarius. 

CALPUBNIA,  daughter  of  L.  Calpurnius  Piso, 
consul  B.C.  58,  and  last  wife  of  the  dictator 
Caesar,  to  whom  she  was  married  in  59.  The 
reports  respecting  the  conspiracy  against  Cae- 
sar's life  filled  Calpurnia  with  the  liveliest  ap- 
prehensions ;  she  in  vain  entreated  her  husband 
not  to  leave  home  on  the  Ides  of  March,  44. 

CALPURNIA  GENS,  plebeian,  pretended  to  be 
descended  from  Calpus,  a  son  of  Numa.  It  was 
divided  into  the  families  of  BESTIA,  BIBULUS, 
FLAMMA,  and  Piso. 

CALPURNICS,  T.  SICULUS,  the  author  of  eleven 
Eclogues  in  Latin  verse,  which  are  close  imita- 
tions of  Virgil,  perhaps  lived  about  A.D.  290. — 
Editions  ;  In  the  Poetce  Latini  Minores  of  "Werns- 
dorff;  and  by  Glaeser,  Getting.,  1842. 

[CALUS,  more  correctly  CAUS,  (Kaoiif),  a  city 
of  Arcadia,  on  the  River  Ladon.  containing  a 
temple  of  JSsculapius.] 

CALVA,  a  surname  of  Venus  at  Rome,  prob- 
ably in  honor  of  the  Roman  women,  who  are 
said,  during  the  war  with  the  Gauls,  to  have 
cut  off  their  hair  for  the  purpose  of  making 
bow-strings. 

CALVENTIOS,  an  Insubrian  Gaul,  of  the  town 
of  Placentia,  whose  daughter  married  L.  Piso, 
the  father  of  L.  Piso  Csesoninus,  consul  B.C. 
58.  In  his  speech  against  the  latter,  Cicero  up- 
braids him  with  the  low  origin  of  his  mother,  and 
calls  him  Ccesoninus  Semiplacentinus  Calvenlius. 

CALVINUS,  DOMITIUS.  1.  CN.,  curule  sedile 
B.C.  299,  consul  283,  and  dictator  and  censor 
280.  In  his  consulship  he,  together  with  his 
colleague  Dolabella,  defeated  the  Gauls  and 
Etruscans,  and  hence  received  the  surname 
Maximus. — 2.  CN.,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  59, 
when  he  supported  Bibulus  against  Caesar, 
praetor  56,  and  consul  53,  through  the  influence 
of  Pompey.  In  the  civil  war  he  joined  Caesar. 
In  49  he  fought  under  Curio  in  Africa ;  and  in 
48  he  fought  under  Caesar  in  Greece,  and  com- 
manded the  centre  of  Caesar's  army  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Pharsalia.  In  47  he  had  the  command  of 
Asia,  and  in  46  he  fought  in  Africa  against  the 
166 


Pompeian  party.  After  Caesar's  death  (44)  he 
fought  under  Octavianus  and  Antony  against  the 
republicans.  In  40  he  was  consul  a  second 
time,  and  in  39  went  as  proconsul  to  Spain, 
where  he  defeated  the  revolted  Cerretani. 

CALVINUS,  L.  SEXTIUS,  consul  B.C.  124,  de- 
feated the  Salluvii  and  other  people  in  Transal- 
pine Gaul,  and  in  123  founded  the  colony  of 
Aquae  Sextiae  (now  Aix). 

CALVIXUS,  T.  VETCBIUS,  twice  consul,  B.C. 
334  and  321.  In  his  second  consulship  he  and 
his  colleague  Sp.  Postumius  Albiuus  were  de- 
feated by  the  Sabiues  at  Claudium.  For  details, 
vid.  ALBINUS,  No.  3. 

CALVISIUS  SABINUS.     Vid.  SABINUS. 
CALVUS,  LICINIUS.     Vid.  LICINIUS. 
[CALYBE,   a    priestess   of   Juno,   whose  form 
Allecto  assumed  when  she  excited   Turnus  to 
war  against  ./Eneas.] 

CALYCADNUS  (Ka/lwcaoVof.  1.  (Now  Ghiuk 
Sooyoo),  a  considerable  river  of  Cilicia  Tracheia, 
navigable  as  far  up  as  Seleucia. — 2.  The  prom- 
ontory of  this  name,  mentioned  by  Polybius 
(xxii.,  26)  and  Livy  (xxxviii.,  38),  appears  to 
be  the  same  as  ANEMUKIUM. 

CALYPN^E  (KaTivdvai  VT/GOI).  1.  Two  small 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Troas,  between  Tenedos 
and  the  Promontorium  Lecturn. — 2.  A  group  of 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Caria,  northwest  of 
Cos,  belonging  to  the  Sporades.  The  largest 
of  them  was  called  Calydna,  and  afterward  Ca- 
lymna  (now  Kalimno). 

CALYDON  (Kahvduv  :  K.a%v66vio<f),  an  ancient 
town  of  JStolia,  on  the  Evenus,  in  the  land  of 
the  Curetes,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  jEto- 
lus  or  his  son  Calydon.  The  surrounding  coun- 
try produced  wine,  oil,  and  corn ;  and  in  the 
mountains  in  the  neighborhood  the  celebrated 
bunt  of  the  Calydonian  boar  took  place.  The 
inhabitants  were  removed  by  Augustus  to  Ni- 
COPOLIS. 

CALYMNA.  Vid.  CALYDN^E,  No.  2. 
CALYNDA  (KaAwda :  Ka/lwdeuf),  a  city  of 
Caria,  east  of  Caunus,  and  sixty  stadia  (six 
eographical  miles)  from  the  sea.  The  Calyn- 
dians  formed  a  part  of  the  fleet  of  Xerxes,  un- 
der their  king  Damasithymus :  afterward  they 
were  subject  to  the  Caunians;  and  both  cities 
were  added  by  the  Romans  to  the  territory  of 
Rhodes. 

CALYPSO  (KaAt^u),  daughter  of  Oceanus  and 

Tethys,  or  of  Nereus,  or,  according  to  Homer, 

of  Atlas,  was  a  nymph  inhabiting  the  island  of 

Dgygia,   on   which    Ulysses   was    shipwrecked. 

Dalypso  loved  the  unfortunate  hero,  and  prom- 

ed"^  him  immortality  if  he  would  remain  with 

icr.    Ulysses  refused,  and  after  she  had  detaiu 

d  him  seven  years,  the  gods  compelled  her  to 

allow  him  to  continue  his  journey  homeward. 

CAMALODUNUM   (now    Colchester),   the   capital 
f  the  Trinobantes  in  Britain,  and  the  first  Ro- 
man colony  in  the  island,  founded  by  the  Em- 
peror Claudius,  A.D.  43. 

CAMARINA  (Kaudpiva  :  Kapapivalof :  now  Ca- 
merina),  a  town  on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Hipparis,  founded  by  Syra- 
cuse, B.C.  599.  It  was  several  times  destroy- 
ed by  Syracuse;  and  in  the  first  Punic  war  it 
was  taken  by  the  Romans,  and  most  of  the  in- 
habitants sold  as  slaves.  Scarcely  any  vestiges 
of  the  ancient  town  remain.  In  the  neighbor 


CAMBUN1  MONTES. 


CAMISA. 


hood  was  a  marsh,  which  the  inhabitants  drain- 
ed contrary  to  the  command  of  au  oracle,  and 
thus  opened  a  way  to  their  enemies  to  take  the 
town :  hence  arose  the  proverb  pi  IUVEL  Kaftapi- 
vav,  ne  moveas  Camarinam. 

CAMBVNI  MONTIS  (now  Holutza),  the  mount- 
ains which  separate  Macedonia  and  Thessaly. 

CAMBYSESE  (Kau6var]vri\  a  district  of  Armenia 
Major,  on  the  borders  of  Iberia  and  Colchis. 

CAMBYSES  (K.a/i6vm)f).  1.  Father  of  CYRUS 
the  Great — 2.  Second  king  of  Persia,  succeed- 
ed his  father  Cyrus,  and  reigned  B.C.  529-522. 
In  525  he  conquered  Egypt;  but  an  army  which 
he  sent  against  the  Ammoniaus  perished  in  the 
sands,  and  the  forces,  which  he  led  in  person 
against  the  ^Ethiopians  south  of  Egypt,  were 
compelled  by  failure  of  provisions  to  return.  On 
his  return  to  Memphis  he  treated  the  Egyptians 
with  great  cruelty ;  he  insulted  their  religion, 
and  slew  their  god  Apis  with  his  own  hands. 
He  also  acted  tyrannically  toward  his  own  fam- 
ily and  the  Persians  in  general.  He  caused  his 
own  brother  Smerdis  to  be  murdered ;  but  a 
Magian  personated  the  deceased  prince,  and  set 
up  a  claim  to  the  throne.  Vid.  SMERDIS.  Cam- 
byses  forthwith  set  out  from  Egypt  against  this 
pretender,  but  died  in  Syria,  at  a  place  named 
Ecbatana,  of  an  accidental  wound  in  the  thigh, 
522. 

CAMBYSES  (Kapfrvow).  1.  (Now  lor  a),  a  river 
of  Iberia  and  Albania,  which,  after  uniting  with 
the  Alazon  (now  Alasan),  falls  into  the  Cyrus. 
—2.  A  small  river  of  Media,  falling  into  the 
Caspian  between  the  Araxes  and  the  Amardus. 

CAMEN^E  (not  Camoence),  also  called  Casmence, 
Garments.  The  name  is  connected  with  carmen, 
a  "prophecy."  The  Camenae  accordingly  were 
prophetic  nymphs,  and  they  belonged  to  the  re- 
ligion of  ancient  Italy,  although  later  traditions 
represent  their  worship  as  introduced  into  Italy 
from  Arcadia,  and  some  accounts  identify  them 
with  the  Muses.  The  most  important  of  these 
goddesses  was  CARMENTA  or  CARMENTIS,  who 
had  a  temple  -at  the  foot  of  the  Capitoline  Hill, 
and  altars  near  the  porta  Carmentalis.  Re- 
specting festivals,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art.  CAR- 
MENTALIA,  The  traditions  which  assigned  a 
Greek  origin  to  her  worship  state  that  her  orig- 
inal name  was  Nicostrate,  and  that  she  was  by 
Mercury  (Hermes)  the  mother  of  EVANDER,  with 
whom  she  fled  to  Italy. 

CAMEBIA  (Camerinus),  an  ancient  town  of 
Latium,  conquered  by  Tarquinius  Priscus. 

CAMERINUM  or  CAMAHLNUM,  more  anciently 
GAMERS  (Camertes :  now  Camerino),  a  town  in 
Umbria,  on  the  borders  of  Picenum,  an  ally  of 
the  Romans  against  the  Etruscans,  B.C.  308, 
and  also  an  ally  of  the  Romans  in  the  second 
Punic  war,  subsequently  a  Roman  colony. 

CAMERKVUS,  the  name  of  a  patrician  family 
of  the  Sulpicia  gens,  the  members  of  which  fre- 
quently held  the  consulship  in.  the  early  times 
of  the  republic  (B.C.  500,  490,  461,  893,  345). 
After  B.C.  345  the  Camerini  disappear  from  his- 
tory for  400  years,  but  they  are  mentioned  again 
as  one  of  the  noblest  Roman  families  in  the 
early  times  of  the  empire. 

CAM  Kit  i  N  rs.  a  Roman  poet,  contemporary  with 
Ovid,  wrote  a  poem  on  the  capture  of  Troy  by 
Hercules. 

CAMICUS  (Ka/wKof :  Ka/wxioj-),  an  ancient  town 


of  the  Sicani,  on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  on 
a  river  of  the  same  name,  occupied  the  site  of 
the  citadel  of  AGRIGENTUM. 

CAMILLA,  daughter  of  King  Metabus,  of  the 
Volscian  town  of  Privernum,  was  one  of  the 
swift-footed  servants  of  Diana,  accustomed  to 
the  chase  and  to  war.  She  assisted  Turnua 
against  ./Eneas,  and,  after  slaying  numbers  of 
the  Trojans,  was  at  length  killed  by  Aruns. 

CAMILLUS,  FURIUS.  1.  M.,  one  of  the  great 
heroes  of  the  Roman  republic.  He  was  censor 
B.C.  403,  in  which  year  Livy  erroneously  places 
his  first  consular  tribunate.  He  was  consular 
tribune  for  the  first  time  in  401,  and  for  the  sec- 
ond time  in  398.  In  396  he  was  dictator,  when 
he  gained  a  glorious  victory  over  the  Faliscans 
and  Fidenates,  took  Veii,  and  entered  Rome  in 
triumph,  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  white 
horses.  In  394  he  was  consular  tribune  for  the 
third  time,  and  reduced  the  Faliscans.  The 
story  of  the  schoolmaster  who  attempted  to  be- 
tray the  town  of  Falerii  to  Camillus  belongs  to 
this  campaign.  In  391  Camillus  was  accused 
of  having  made  an  unfair  distribution  of  the 
booty  of  Veii,  and  went  voluntarily  into  exile 
to  Ardea.  Next  year  (390)  the  Gauls  took 
Rome,  and  laid  siege  to  Ardea  The  Romans 
in  the  Capitol  recalled  Camillus,  and  appointed 
him  dictator  in  his  absence.  Camillus  hastily 
collected  an  army,  attacked  the  Gauls,  and  de- 
feated them  completely.  Vid.  BRENNUS.  His 
fellow-citizens  saluted  him  as  the  second  Rom- 
ulus. In  389  Camillus  was  dictator  a  third 
time,  and  defeated  the  Volscians,  ^Equians, 
and  other  nations.  In  386  he  was  consular 
tribune  for  the  fourth,  in  384  for  the  fifth,  and 
in  381  for  the  sixth  time.  In  368  he  was  ap 
pointed  dictator  a  fourth  time  to  resist  the  roga- 
tions of  C.  Licinius  Stolo.  Next  year,  367,  he 
was  dictator  a  fifth  time,  and,  though  eighty 
years  of  age,  he  completely  defeated  the  Gauls. 
He  died  of  the  pestilence,  365.  Camillus  was 
the  great  general  of  his  age,  and  the  resolute 
champion  of  the  patrician  order.  His  history 
has  received  much  legendary  and  traditional 
fables,  and  requires  a  careful  critical  sifting. — 
2.  SP.,  son  of  No.  1,  first  praetor  367. — 3.  L., 
also  son  of  No.  1,  was  dictator  350,  in  order  to 
hold  the  comitia,  and  consul  349,  when  he  de- 
feated the  Gauls. — 1.  L.,  son  of  No.  2,  consul 
338,  when  he  took  Tibur,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  his  colleague  Msenius,  completed  the  sub- 
jugation of  Latium.  In  325  he  was  consul  a 
second  time. — 5.  M.,  proconsul  of  Africa  iu  the 
reign  of  Tiberius,  defeated  the  Numidian  Tac- 
farinas,  A.D.  17. — 6.  M.,  surnamed  SCRIBONI- 
ANCS,  consul  A.D.  32,  under  Tiberius.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  Claudius  he  was  le- 
gate of  Dalmatia,  where  he  revolted,  but  was 
conquered,  42,  sent  into  exile,  and  died  53. 

CAMIRUS  (Kupeipof :  Ka/ieipevc),  a  Dorian 
town  on  the  western  coast  of  the  island  of 
Rhodes,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Camirus, 
son  of  Cercaphus  and  Cydippo,  and  the  princi- 
pal town  in  the  island  before  the  foundation  of 
Rhodes.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  the  poet  Pi- 
Bander. 

CAMISA  (Kufttaa),  a  fortress  in  Cappadocia 
twenty-three  Roman  miles  east  of  Sebaste,  [de 
stroyed  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  but  rebuilt  at  a 
later  period.] 

16" 


CAMISSARES. 


CANJE. 


[CAM ISSARES,  a  Carinn,  father  of  •  the  cele- 
brated Datames,  was  made  satrap  of  part  of 
Cilicia  bordering  on  Cappadocia  by  Artaxcrxes 
M nemon :  he  fell  in  the  war  of  Artaxerxes 
against  the  Cadusii,  B.C.  385.] 

CAMOJN.IE.     Vid.  CAMENA 

CAMPANIA  (Campanus :  now  Terra  dl  Lavoro), 
district  of  Italy,  the  name  of  which  is  proba- 
bly derived  from  campus,  "  a  plain,"  was  bound- 
ed on  the  northwest  by  Latium,  north  and  east  by 
Samnium,  southeast  by  Lucania,  and  south  and 
southwest  by  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  It  was  sep- 
arated from  Latium  by  the  River  Liris,  and  from 
Lucania  at  a  later  time  by  the  River  Silarus, 
though  in  the  time  of  Augustus  it  did  not  ex- 
tend further  south  than  the  promontory  of  Mi- 
nerva. In  still  earlier  times  the  Ager  Campa- 
nits  included  only  the  country  rouud  Capua. 
The  country  along  the  coast  from  the  Liris  to 
the  Promontory  of  Minerva  is  a  plain  inclosed 
by  the  Apennines,  which  sweep  round  it  in  the 
form  of  a  semicircle.  Campania  is  a  volcanic 
country,  to  which  circumstance  it  was  mainly 
indebted  for  its  extraordinary  fertility,  for  which 
it  was  celebrated  in  antiquity  above  all  other 
lands.  It  produced  corn,  wine,  oil,  and  every 
kind  of  fruit  in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  in 
many  parts  crops  could  be  gathered  three  times 
in  the  year.  The  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  beauty 
of  the  scenery,  and  the  softness  of  the  climate, 
the  heat  of  which  was  tempered  by  the  delicious 
breezes  of  the  sea,  procured  for  Campania  the 
epithet  Felix,  a  name  which  it  justly  deserved. 
It  was  the  favorite  retreat  in  summer  of  the  Ro- 
man nobles,  whose  villas  studded  a  considerable 
part  of  its  coast,  especially  in  the  neighborhood 
of  BAI^E.  The  principal  river  was  the  VULTUR- 
NUS:  the  minor  rivers  were  the  LIRIS,  SAVO, 
CLANIUS,  SEBETHUS,  SARNUS,  and  SILARUS.  The 
chief  lakes  were  LUCRIXUS,  ACUERUSIA,  AVER- 
NUS,  and  LITERNA,  most  of  them  craters  of  ex- 
tinct volcanoes.  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  the 
country  were  the  AUSONES  and  Osci  or  OPICI. 
They  were  subsequently  conquered  by  the  Etrus- 
cans, who  became  the  masters  of  almost  all  the 
country.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  we  find 
three  distinct  people,  besides  the  Greek  popula- 
tion of  CUM^E:  1.  The  Campani,  properly  so  call- 
ed, a  mixed  race,  consisting  of  Etruscans  and 
the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country,  dwell- 
ing along  the  coast  from  Sinuessa  to  Psestum. 
They  were  the  ruling  race :  their  history  is 
given  under  CAPUA,  their  chief  city.  2.  SIDI- 
CINI,  an  Ausonian  people,  in  the  northwest  of 
the  country,  on  the  borders  of  Samnium.  3.  Pi- 
CENTINI,  in  the  southeast  of  the  country. 

[CAMPANUS,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Tungri 
in  the  war  of  Civilis  against  the  Romans  in  A. 
D.fl.] 

CAMPE  (KujUTn?),  a  monster  which  guarded  the 
Cyclopes  in  Tartarus,  was  killed  by  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  when  he  wanted  the  assistance  of  the 
Cyclopes  against  the  Titans.  • 

[CAMPI  CANINI,  a  tract  of  country  in  the  land 
of  the  Rffiti,  corresponding  to  the  moderm  Tessin 
valley.] 

[CAMPI  DIOMEDEI  or  DIOMEDIS,  a  district  of 
Apulia.  Vid.  DIOMEDES  and  CANUSIUM.] 

CAMPI  LAPIDEI  (irediov  Xi6ti6e( :  now  la  Crau), 
"  Plain  of  Stones"  in  the  south  of  Gaul,  east  of 
the  Rhone,  near  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the 
168 


road  from  Aries  to  Marseilles.  These  stones 
were  probably  deposited  by  the  Rhone  and  the 
Drueutia  (now  Durance)  when  their  course  wai 
different  from  what  it  is  at  present.  This  sin- 
gular plain  was  known  even  to  ^Eschylus,  who 
says  that  Jupiter  (Zeus)  rained  down  these 
stones  from  heaven  to  assist  Hercules  in  his 
fight  with  the  Ligurians,  after  the  hero  had  shot 
away  all  his  arrows.  A  sweet  herbage  grows 
underneath  and  between  the  stones,  and  con 
sequently,  in  ancient  as  well  as  in  modern  times, 
flocks  of  sheep  were  pastured  on  this  plain. 

CAMPI  MAORI  (Ma«poi  Kuutroi),  the  "  Long 
Plains,"  a  tract  of  country  between  Parma  and 
Modena,  celebrated  for  the  wool  of  its  sheep. 
There  appears  to  have  been  a  place  of  the  same 
name,  where  annual  meetings  of  the  neighbor- 
ing people  were  held  even  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 

[CAMPI  PHLEGR^I,  a  volcanic  district  of  Cam- 
pania, extending  from  Puteoli  to  Cumoe,  and 
containing  Mount  Vesuvius.] 

CAMPI  RAUDII,  a  plain  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
near  Verona,  where  Marius  and  Catulus  defeat- 
ed the  Cimbri,  B.C.  101. 

[CAMpontJNUM  (Kafivodovvov :  now  Kempten), 
a  city  of  ancient  Rsetia.] 

CAMPUS  MAHTIUS,  the  "  Plain  of  Mars,"  fre- 
quently called  the  CAMPUS  simply,  was,  in  its 
widest  signification,  the  open  plain  at  Rome 
outside  the  city  walls,  lying  between  the  Tiber 
and  the  hills  Capitolinus,  Quirinal,  and  Pincius ; 
but  it  was  more  usually  used  to  signify  the 
northwest  portion  of  the  plain  lying  in  the  bend 
of  the  Tiber,  which  nearly  surrounded  it  on 
three  sides.  The  southern  portion  of  the  plain, 
hi  the  neighborhood  of  the  Circus  Flaminius, 
was  called  CIRCUS  FLAMINIUS,  or  CAMPUS  FLA- 
MINIUS, or  PEATA  FLAMINIA.  The  Campus  Mar- 
tius  is  said  to  have  belonged  originally  to  the 
Tarquins,  and  to  have  become  the  property  of 
the  state,  and  to  have  been  consecrated  to  Mars 
upon  the  expulsion  of  the  kings.  Here  the  Ro- 
man youths  were  accustomed  to  perform  their 
gymnastic  and  warlike  exercises,  and  here  the 
comitia  of  the  centuries  were  held.  At  a  later 
time  it  was  surrounded  by  porticoes,  temples,  and 
other  public  buildings.  It  was  included  within 
the  city  walls  by  Aurelian.  Some  modern  writ- 
ers make  three  divisions  of  the  Campus  Mar- 
tius,  and  suppose  that  there  was  a  portion  of 
the  plain  lying  between  the  Campus  Martius 
proper  and  the  Circus  Flaminius,  called  CAM- 
PUS TIBKRINUS  or  CAMPUS  MINOR,  but  this  sup- 
position does  not  rest  on  sufficient  evidence. 
The  Campus  Minor  mentioned  by  Catullus  (lv., 
3)  probably  refers  to  another  Campus  altogether. 
Respecting  the  other  Campi,  vid.  ROMA. 

CANACE  (KavaKt}),  daughter  of  ^Eolus  and 
Enarete,  bore  several  children  to  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon). 

CANACHUS  (Kdvaxof).  1.  A  Sicyonian  artist, 
flourished  B.C.  540-508,  and  executed,  among 
other  works,  a  colossal  statue  of  Apollo  Phile- 
sius  at  Miletus,  which  was  earned  to  Ecbatana 
by  Xerxes,  479. — 2.  A  Sicyonian  artist,  proba- 
bly grandson  of  the  former,  from  whom  he  is 
not  distinguished  by  the  ancients.  He  and  Pa- 
trocles  cast  the  statues  of  two  Spartans,  who 
had  fought  in  the  battle  of  ^Egospotamos,  B.C. 
405. 

CAN.*  (Kuvat :  now  Kanot-Koi),  a  sea-port 


CANASTRUM. 


CAPANEUb. 


of  ^Eolis,  in  Asia  Minor,  opposite  to  Lesbos. 
[Near  this  was  the  Promontory  Canae,  the  term- 
ination of  a  range  of  mountains  called  by  this 
same  name  ;  also  named  Herod.  jEga.] 

CANASTRUM  or  CANASTRJEUM  (Kdvaarpov,  Ka- 
vaaTpaiovt  sc.  uKpuiijpiov,  $  Kavaarpairi  aaprj : 
now  Cape  Paillari),  the  southeastern  extremity 
of  the  peninsula  Pallene  in  Macedonia. 

CANDACE  (Kav6uKj}),  a  queen  of  the  ^Ethio- 
pians of  Meroe,  invaded  Egypt  B.C.  22,  but  was 
driven  back  and  defeated  by  Petronius,  the  Ro- 
man governor  of  Egypt  Her  name  seems  to 
have  been  common  to  all  the  queens  of  ./Ethio- 
pia. 

CANDAULES  (Kavdav/liff),  also  called  Myrsilus, 
last  Heraclid  king  of  Lydia.  His  wife  compel- 
led Gyges  to  put  her  husband  to  death,  in  con- 
sequence of  personal  exposure.  Gyges  then 
married  the  queen  and  mounted  the  throne,  B. 
C.  716. 

CANDAVIA,  CANDAVII  MONIES  (now  Crasta), 
the  mountains  separating  Illyricum  from  Mace- 
donia, across  which  the  Via  Egnatia  ran. 

CANDIDUM  PROMONTORIUM  (now  Ras-el-Abiad, 
Cape  Bianco'),  northwest  of  Hippo  Zaritus,  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Zeugitana,  in  Africa,  forms 
the  western  headland  of  the  Sinus  Hipponensis. 

[CANENS,  daughter  of  Janus,  married  Picus, 
king  of  Latium  in  Italy.  Vid.  Picus.] 

CANICOLA,     Vid.  CANIS. 

CANIDIA,  whose  real  name  was  Gratidia,  was 
a  Neapolitan  female,  held  up  by  Horace  to  con- 
tempt as  an  old  sorceress.  (Epod.,  5,  17  ;  Sat., 
L,  8.) 

CANINIUS  GALLUS.     Vid.  GALLUS. 

CANINIUS  REBILUS.     Vid.  REBILUS. 

CANIS  (Kvuv),  the  constellation  of  the  Great 
Dog.  The  most  important  star  in*  this  constel- 
lation was  specially  named  Canis  or  Canicula, 
and  also  Slrlus.  About  B.C.  400  the  heliacal 
rising  of  Sirius  at  Athens,  corresponding  with 
the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  the  sign  Leo,  mark- 
ed the  hottest  season  of  the  year,  and  this  ob- 
servation being  taken  on  trust  by  the  Romans, 
without  considering  whether  it  suited  their  age 
and  country,  the  Canes  Caniculares  became  pro- 
verbial among  them,  as  the  Dog  Days  are  among 
ourselves.  The  constellation  of  the  Little  Dog 
was  called  Procyon  (Upoicvuv),  literally  trans- 
lated Ante  cancm,  Antecanis,  because  in  Greece 
this  constellation  rises  heliacally  before  the 
Great  Dog.  When  Bootes  was  regarded  as 
Icarius  (vid.  ARCTOS),  Procyon  became  Maera, 
the  dog  of  Icarius. 

CANN.K  (Cannensis :  now  Canne),  a  village  in 
Apulia,  northeast  of  Canusium,  situated  in  an 
extensive  plain  east  of  the  Aufidus  and  north  of 
the  small  river"  Vergellus,  memorable  for  the 
defeat  of  the  Romans  by  Hannibal,  B.C.  216. 

CANNINEFATES.     Vid.  BATAVI. 

CANOBUS  or  CANOPUS  (Kuvu6o$  or  Kavurrof), 
according  to  Grecian  story,  the  helmsman  of 
Mcnelaus,  who,  on  his  return  from  Troy,  died 
in  K,'ypt,  and  was  buried  on  the  site  of  the  town 
of  Cauobue,  which  derived  its  name  from  him. 

CANOBUS  or  CANOPUS  {Kui>w6of,  Kdvuirof  :  Ka- 
wGiTtif :  ruins  west  of  Aboukir),  an  important 
city  on  the  coast  of  Lower  Egypt,  near  the  west 
ernmost  mouth  of  the  Nile,  which  was  hence 
called  the  Canopic  Mouth  (rd  Kavudindv  orofia). 
it  was  one  hundred  and  twenty  stadia  (twelve 


geographical  miles)  east  of  Alexandrea,  and 
was  (at  least  at  one  tune)  the  capital  of  the 
Nomos  Menelaites.  It  had  a  great  temple  of 
Serapis,  and  a  considerable  commerce ;  and  its 
inhabitants  were  proverbial  for  their  luxurv 
(KavuGiafiof).  After  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  city  rapidly  declined. 

CANTABRI,  a  people  in  the  north  of  Spaia 
The  Romans  originally  gave  this  name  to  all 
the  people  on  the  northern  coast  of  Spain ;  but 
when  they  became  better  acquainted  with  the 
country,  the  name  was  restricted  to  the  people 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Astures  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Autrigones.  The  Cantabri  were  a 
fierce  and  warlike  people,  and  were  only  sub- 
dued by  Augustus  after  a  struggle  of  several 
years  (B.C.  25-19). 

CANTHARUS  (KuvBapof).  1.  A  statuary  and 
embosser  of  Sicyon,  flourished  about  B.C.  268. — 
[2.  CANTHARCS.  a  comic  poet  of  Athens,  proba- 
bly of  the  old  comedy,  of  whom  a  few  frag- 
ments are  extant,  collected  in  Meineke's  Fragm. 
Comic.  Graze.,  vol.,  i.,  p.  462-3.] 

[CANTHARUS  (KuvBapof),  one  of  the  three  sub- 
divisions of  the  Piraeus,  the  harbor  of  Athens, 
so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  Kuvdapof.] 

CANTHUS  (Kuv Oof),  an  Argonaut,  son  of  Cane- 
thus  or  of  Abas  of  Euboaa,  was  slain  in  Libya 
by  Cephalion  or  Caphaurus. 

CANTIUM  (Cantii :  now  Kent),  a  district  of 
Britain  nearly  the  same  as  the  modern  Kent, 
but  included  LONDINIUM  :  [the  eastern  extremity 
of  this  district  formed  the  Cantium  Promontori- 
um,  now  North  Foreland] 

CANULEIUS,  C.,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  445, 
proposed  the  law  establishing  connubium,  or  the 
right  of  intermarriage,  between  the  patricians 
and  plebs.  He  also  proposed  that  the  people 
should  have  the  right  of  choosing  the  consuls 
from  either  the  patricians  or  the  plebs ;  but  this 
proposal  was  not  carried,  and  it  was  resolved 
instead,  that  military  tribunes,  with  consular 
power,  should  be  elected  from  either  order  in 
place  of  the  consuls. 

CANtrsiUM  (Canusinus:  now  Canosa),  a  town 
in  Apulia,  on  the  Aufidus,  and  on  the  high  road 
from  Rome  to  Brundisium,  founded,  according 
to  tradition,  by  Diomede,  whence  the  surround- 
ing country  was  called  Campus  Diomedis.  It 
was,  at  all  events,  a  Greek  colony,  and  both 
Greek  and  Oscan  were  spoken  there  in  the  time 
of  Horace.  (Canusini  more  bilinguis,  Hor.,  Sat., 
i.,  10,  30.)  Canusium  was  a  town  of  consid- 
erable importance,  but  suffered  greatly,  like 
most  of  the  other  towns  in  the  south  of  Italy, 
during  the  second  Punic  war.  Here  the  re- 
mains of  the  Roman  army  took  refuge  after 
their  defeat  at  Cannae,  B.C.  216.  It  was  cele- 
brated for  its  mules  and  its  woollen  manufac- 
tures, but  it  had  a  deficient  supply  of  water. 
(Hor.,  Sat.,  i,  5,  91.)  There  are  still  ruins  of 
the  ancient  town  near  Canosa. 

CANUTIUS  or  CANNUTIUS.  1.  P.,  a  distin 
guished  orator,  frequently  mentioned  in  Cice 
ro's  oration  for  Cluentius. — 2.  Ti.,  tribune  of 
the  plebs  B.C.  44,  a  violent  opponent  of  Antony 
and,  after  the  establishment  of  the  triumvirate, 
of  Octavianus  also.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at 
the  capture  of  Perusia,  and  was  put  to  death  by 
Octavianus,  40. 

CAPANEUB  (Ka^avevf),  son  of  Hipponous  and 
169 


CAPARA. 


CAP1TOL1UM. 


Astynome  or  Laodice,  and  father  of  Sthenelus, 
was  one  of  the  seven  heroes  who  marched  from 
Argos  against  Thebes.  He  was  struck  by  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  with  lightning,  as  he  was  scaling 
the  walls  of  Thebes,  because  he  had  dared  to 
defy  the  god.  While  his  body  was  burning,  his 
wife,  Evadne,  leaped  into  the  flames  and  de- 
stroyed herself. 

[CAPARA  (now  las  Vcntas  da  Caparra),  a  city 
of  Lusitauia,  in  the  territory  of  the  Vettones.] 

CAPELLA,  the  star.     Vid.  CAPRA. 

CAPELLA,  MARTIANUS  MINEUS  FELIX,  a  native 
of  Carthage,  probably  flourished  toward  the 
close  of  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  work  in  nine  books,  composed  in  a 
medley  of  prose  and  various  kinds  of  verse,  after 
the  fashion  of  the  Satyra  Menippea  of  Varro. 
It  is  a  sort  of  encyclopaedia,  and  was  much  es- 
teemed in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  first  two 
books,  which  are  an  introduction  to  the  rest, 
consist  of  an  allegory,  entitled  the  Nuptials  of 
Philology  and  Mercury,  while  in  the  remaining 
seven  are  expounded  the  principles  of  the  seven 
liberal  arts,  Grammar,  Dialectics,  Rhetoric,  Ge- 
ometry, Arithmetic,  Astronomy,  and  Music,  in- 
cluding Poetry. — Editions :  By  Hugo  Grotius, 
Lugd.  Bat,  1599  ;  and  by  K«pp,  Fraucf.,  1836. 

CAPENA  (Capenas,  -atis:  now  Civitucola,  an 
uninhabited  hill),  an  ancient  Etruscan  town 
founded  by  and  dependent  on  Veii,  submitted 
to  the  Romans  B.C.  395,  the  year  after  the  con- 
quest of  Veii,  and  subsequently  became  a  Ro- 
man rnuuicipium.  In  its  territory  was  the  cel- 
ebrated grove  and  temple  of  Feronia,  on  the 
small  river  Capenas.  Vid.  FERONIA. 

CAPENA  PORTA.     Vid.  ROMA. 

[CAPENAS  (now  Taglia  Fosso),  a  small  river 
of  Etruria.  Vid.  CAPENA.] 

CAPER,  FLA  vies,  a  Roman  grammarian  of  un- 
certain date,  whose  works  are  quoted  repeat- 
edly by  Priscian,  and  of  whom  we  have  two 
short  treatises  extant:  printed  by  Putschius, 
Grammat.  Latin.  Auct.  Antiqu.,  p.  2239-2248, 
Hanov.,  1605. 

[CAPERNAUM  (KaKepvaovp,  now  Tell-Hum),  a 
place  in  Galilee,  on  the  northern  shore  of  Lake 
Tiberias.] 

CAPETUS  SILVIUS.     Vid.  SILVIUS. 

CAPHAREUS  (Ka^jjpevf :  now  Capo  d'Oro),  a 
rocky  and  dangerous  promontory  on  the  south- 
east of  Eubcea,  where  the  Greek  fleet  is  said  to 
have  been  wrecked  on  its  return  from  Troy. 

[CAPHAURUS  (K.u<j>avpof),  son  of  Amphithemis 
and  the  nymph  Tritonis,  slew  the  Argonaut 
Can  thus.] 

[CAPHIRA  (K.d<j>eipa),  daughter  of  Oceanus,  is 
said  to  have  reared  Neptune  (Poseidon)  in 
Rhodes.] 

CAPHY^E  (KaQvai :  KaQvevc;,  KaQvurris),  & 
town  hi  Arcadia,  northwest  of  Orchomenus. 

CAPITO,  C.  ATEIUS.  1.  Tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  55,  when  he  opposed  the  triumvirs. — 2. 
Son  of  No.  1,  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  was  ap- 
pointed Curator  aquarum  publicarum  in  A.D.  13, 
and  held  this  office  till  his  death,  22.  He  gained 
the  favor  of  both  Augustus  and  Tiberius  by 
flattery  and  obsequiousness.  He  wrote  numer- 
ous legal  works,  which  are  cited  in  the  Digest 
and  elsewhere.  Capito  and  his  contemporary 
Labeo  were  reckoned  the  highest  legal  author- 
ities of  their  day,  and  were  the  founders  of  two 
170 


legal  schools,  to  which  most  of  the  great  jurists 
belonged.  The  schools  took  their  respective 
names  from  distinguished  disciples  of  those  ju- 
rists. The  followers  of  Capito  •were  called 
from  Masurius  Sabinus,  Sabiniani ;  and  after- 
ward from  Cassius  Lougiuus  Cassiani.  The 
followers  of  Labeo  took  from  Proculus  the  name 
Proculciani. 

CAPITO,  C.  FONTEIUS.  1.  A  friend  of  M.  Anto- 
ny, accompanied  Maecenas  to  Bruudisiurn,  B.C. 
37,  when  the  latter  was  sent  to  effect  a  reconcil- 
iation between  Octavianus  and  Antony.  (Hor. 
Sat.,  i.,  5,  32.)  Capito  remained  with  Antony, 
and  went  with  him  to  the  East. — [2.  C.  Fou- 
teius,  son  of  No.  1,  was  consul  in  A.D.  12,  to- 
gether with  Germanicus,  and  afterward  had,  as 
proconsul,  the  administration  of  the  province 
of  Asia;  he  was  accused  subsequently  on  ac- 
count of  his  conduct  in  Asia,  but  was  acquitted.] 

CAPITOLINUS,  JULIUS,  one  of  the  ticriptores 
Histories  Augustce,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Diocle- 
tian (A.D.  284-305),  and  wrote  the  lives  of  nine 
emperors :  1.  Antoninus  Pius ;  2.  M.  Aurelius ; 
3.  L.  Verus ;  4.  Pertinax ;  5.  Clodius  Albinus ; 
6.  Opilius  Macrinus  ;  7.  The  two  Maximini ;  8. 
The  three  Gordiani ;  9.  Maximus  and  Balbiuus. 
The  best  editions  of  the  Scriptores  Histories  Au- 
gustce are  by  Sahnasius,  Par.,  1620  ;  Schreve- 
lius,  Lugd.  Bat,  1671. 

CAPITOLINUS,  MANLIUS.     Vid.  MANLIUS. 

CAPITOLINUS  MONS.     Vid.  CAPITOLIUM,  ROMA. 

CAPITOLINUS,  PETILLIUS,  was,  according  to 
.the  Scholiast  on  Horace  (Sat.,  i.,  4,  94),  intrust- 
ed with  the  care  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  on  the 
Capitol  (whence  he  was  called  Capitolinus),  and 
was  accused  of  having  stolen  the  crown  of  Ju 
piter,  but  was  acquitted  by  the  judges  in  conse- 
quence of  hie  being  a  friend  of  Augustus.  The 
surname  Capitolinus  appears,  however,  to  have 
been  a  regular  family-name  of  the  gens. 

CAPITOLINUS,  QUINTIUS.     Vid.  QUINTIUS. 

CAPITOLIUM,  the  temple  »f  Jupiter  Optimus 
Maximus  at  Rome,  was  situated  on  the  Mons 
Capitolinus,  which  derived  its  name  from  the 
temple.  This  hill  is  in  figure  an  irregular  ob- 
long, with  two  more  elevated  summits  at  the 
northern  and  southern  ends.  The  northern 
summit,  which  is  somewhat  higher  and  steeper, 
was  the  ARX  or  citadel  of  Rome,  and  is  now 
occupied  by  the  church  of  Ara  Celi  ;  while  the 
southern  summit,  which  is  now  covered  in  pail 
by  the  Palazzo  Caffarelli,  was  the  site  of  the 
CAPITOLIUM.  The  temple  is  said  to  have  been 
called  the  Capitolium,  because  a  human  head 
(caput)  was  discovered  in  digging  the  founda- 
tions. The  building  of  it  was  commenced  by 
Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  it  was  finished  by  Tar- 
quinius  Superbus,  but  was  not  dedicated  till  the 
third  year  of  the  republic,  B.C.  507,  by  the  con 
sul  M.  Horatius.  It  was  burned  down  in  the 
civil  wars,  83,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Sulla,  and  was 
dedicated  by  Q.  Catulus,  69.  It  was  burned 
down  a  second  time  by  the  soldiers  of  Vitellius, 
A.D.  69,  and  was  rebuilt  bv  Vespasian  ;  but  it 
was  burned  down  a  third  time  in  the  reign  of 
Titus,  80,  and  was  again  rebuilt  by  Domitiac 
with  greater  splendor  than  before.  The  Capi 
tol  contained  three  cells  under  the  same  roof 
the  middle  cell  was  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  benct 
described  as  "  media  qui  sedet  sede  Deus"  (Ov. 
ex  Pont.,  iv,  9,  32),  and  on  either  side  were 


CAPPADOCIA. 


CAPSA. 


the  cells  of  his  attendant  deities,  Juno  and  Mi- 
uerva.  The  Capitol  -was  one  of  the  most  im- 
posing buildings  at  Rome,  and  was  adorned  as 
befitted  the  majesty  of  the  king  of  the  gods.  It 
was  in  the  form  of  a  square,  namely,  two  hund- 
red feet  on  each  side,  and  was  approached  by 
a  flight  of  one  hundred  steps.  The  gates  were 
of  bronze,  and  the  ceilings  and  tiles  gilt  The 
gilding  alone  cost  Dornitian  twelve  thousand 
talents.  In  the  Capitol  were  kept  the  Sibylline 
books.  Here  the  consuls,  upon  entering  on  their 
office,  offered  sacrifices  and  took  their  vows  ; 
and  hither  the  victorious  general,  who  entered 
the  city  in  triumph,  was  carried  in  his  triumphal 
car,  to  return  thanks  to  the  father  of  the  gods. 
Although  the  words  Arx  Capitoliumque  are  prop- 
erly used  to  signify  the  whole  hill,  yet  we  some- 
times find  the  term  Arx  applied  alone  to  the 
whole  hill,  since  the  hill  itself  constituted  a  nat- 
ural citadel  to  the  city,  and  sometimes  the  term 
Uapitoliwn  to  the  whole  hill,  on  account  of  the 
importance  and  reverence  attaching  to  the  tem- 
ple. Moreover,  as  the  Capitol  was  nearly  as 
defensible  as  the  Arx,  it  is  sometimes  called 
Arx  Tarpeia  or  Capitolina,  but  the  epithet  Tar- 
peia  or  Capitolina  is  applied  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  Arx  properly  so  called. 

CAPPADOCIA  (KaKTradoKia  :  Kamrudo^,  Cappa- 
dox),  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  to  which  different 
boundaries  were  assigned  at  different  times. 
Under  the  Persian  empire  it  included  the  whole 
country  inhabited  by  a  people  of  Syrian  origin, 
who  were  called  (from  their  complexion)  White 
Syrians  (Aevnoavpoi),  and  also  Cappadoces, 
which  appears  to  have  been  a  word  of  Persian 
origin.  Their  country  seems  to  have  embraced 
the  whole  northeastern  part  of  Asia  Minor  east 
of  the  Halys  and  north  of  the  Taurus.  After- 
ward (but  whether  under  the  Persians  or  after 
the  Macedonian  conquest,  is  a  disputed  point) 
the  country  was  divided  into  two  parts,  which 
were  named  respectively  from  their  proximity 
to  the  Euxine  and  to  the  Taurus,  the  northern 
part  being  called  Cappadocia  ad  Pontum,  and 
then  simply  PONTUS,  the  southern  part  Cappa- 
docia ad  Taurum,  and  then  simply  Cappadocia  : 
the  former  was  also  called  Cappadocia  Minor, 
and  the  latter  Cappadocia  Major.  Under  the 
Persian  Empire,  the  whole  country  was  govern- 
ed by  a  line  of  hereditary  satraps,  who  traced 
their  descent  from  Anaphas,  an  Achsemenid,  one 
of  the  seven  chieftains  that  slew  the  pseudo- 
Smerdis,  and  who  soon  raised  themselves  to 'the 
position  of  tributary  kings.  After  a  temporary 
suspension  of  their  power  during  the  wars  be- 
tween the  successors  of  Alexander,  when  Aria- 
rathes  I.  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Perdiccas 
(B.C.  822),  the  kings  of  southern  Cappadocia  (re- 
specting the  other  part,  vid.  Foxxus)  recovered 
their  independence  under  Ariarathes  II.,  whose 
history  and  that  of  his  successors  will  be  found 
under  AKIARATHES  and  ARIOBARZANES.  In  A.D. 
17,  Archelaus,  the  last  king,  died  at  Rome,  and 
Tiberius  made  Cappadocia  a  Roman  province. 
rid.  ARCHELAUS,  No.  6.  Soon  afterward  the 
districts  of  Cataonia  and  Melitene,  which  had 
before  belonged  to  Cilicia,  were  added  to  Cap- 
padocia, and  the  province  then  comprised  the 
ten  praefectunB  of  Melitene,  Cataonia,  Cilicia, 
Tyanitis,  Garsauritis,  Laviuiaseue,  Snrgarau- 
Beue,  Sarauraveue,  Chamanene,  and  Morimene 


There  were  other  divisions  under  the  later  em- 
perors. Cappadocia  was  a  rough  and  generally 
sterile  mountain  region,  bordered  by  the  chains 
of  the  PARYADRES  on  the  north,  the  SCYDISSES 
on  the  east,  and  the  TAURUS  on  the  south,  and 
intersected  by  that  of  the  ANTI-TAUBUS,  on  the 
side  of  whose  central  mountain,  ARG.EUS,  stood 
the  capital  Mazaca,  afterward  C^ESAREA  AD  AR- 
GJEUM.  Its  chief  rivers  were  the  HALYS  and  the 
MELAS.  Its  fine  pastures  supported  abundance 
of  good  horses  and  mules. 

CAPPADOX  (Kamrddol; :  now  Konax),  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Halys,  rising  in  Mount  Lithrus,  in 
the  chain  of  Paryadres,  and  forming  the  north- 
western boundary  of  Cappadocia,  on  the  side  of 
Galatia. 

CAPRA  or  CAPELLA  (At|),  the  brightest  star 
in  the  constellation  of  the  Auriga  or  Charioteer, 
is  sometimes  called  Olenia  Capella,  because  it 
rested  on  the  shoulder  (enl  7%  ulisvqe)  of  .the 
Auriga.  This  star  was  said  to  have  been  orig- 
inally the  nymph  or  goat  who  nursed  the  infant 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  in  Crete.  Vid.  JEoA,  AMALTHEA. 
Its  heliacal  rising  took  place  soon  before  the 
winter  solstice,  and  thus  it  was  termed  signwn 
pluviale. 

CAPRARIA  or  CAPRASIA.  1.  (Now  Capraja),  a 
small  island  off  the  coast  of  Etruria,  between 
Populonia  and  the  northern  extremity  of  Cor- 
sica, inhabited  only  by  wild  goats,  whence  its 
name :  called  by  the  Greeks  AtyiAoi>. — 2.  (Now 
Cabrera),  a  small  island  off  the  south  of  the  Ba- 
learis  Major  (now  Majorca),  dangerous  to  ships, 
— 3.  Vid.  LEGATES. — i.  Vid.  FORTUNATE  IXSULA 

CAPRICE  (now  Capri),  a  small  island,  nine 
miles  in  circumference,  off  Campania,  at  the 
southern  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Puteoli,  and 
two  and  a  half  miles  from  the  Promontory  of 
Minerva,  from  which  the  island  had  been  sepa- 
rated by  an  earthquake.  It  is  composed  of  cal- 
careous rocks,  which  rise  to  two  summits,  the 
highest  of  which  is  between  one  thousand  six 
hundred  and  one  thousand  seven  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  scenery  is  beautiful,  and 
the  climate  soft  and  genial.  According  to  tra- 
dition, it  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Tele- 
bose,  but  afterward  belonged  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Neapolis,  from  whom  Augustus  either  pur- 
chased it  or  obtained  it  in  exchange  for  the 
island  Pithecusa,  Here  Tiberius  lived  the  last 
ten  years  of  his  reign,  indulging  in  secret  de- 
bauchery, and  accessible  only  to  his  creatures. 
He  erected  many  magnificent  buildings  on  the 
island,  the  chief  of  which  was  the  villa  Jovis, 
and  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen. 

CAPRIA  (Kaxpia),  a  large  salt  lake  in  Pam- 
phylia,  near  the  coast,  between  Perge  and  As- 
pendus. 

UAPRICORNUS  (Atyo/cepuf),  the  Goat,  a  sign  of 
the  zodiac,  between  the  Archer  and  the  Water- 
man, is  said  to  have  fought  with  Jupiter  against 
the  Titans. 

CAFRUS  (Kunpof).  1.  (Now  Little  Zab),  a 
river  of  Assyria,  rising  in  Mount  Zagros  (now 
Mountains  of  Kurdutan),  and  flowing  soulbw«|t 
into  the  Tigris,  opposite  to  Caenae. — 2.  A  little 
river  of  Phrygia,  rising  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Cadmus,  and  flowing  north  into  the  Lycus. 

CAPSA  (Capsetanus :  now  Ghafsah),  a  strong 
and  ancient  city  in  the  southwest  of  Byzacena,  in 
Northern  Africa,  in  a  fertile  oasis,  surrounded  by 
171 


CAPUA. 


CARAUSIUS. 


a  sandy  desert  abounding  in  serpents.  Its  fo^in- 
ilation  was  ascribed  by  tradition  to  the  Libyan 
Hercules.  In  the  war  with  Jugurtha,  who  used 
it  as  a  treasure-city,  it  was  destroyed  by  Marius ; 
but  it  was  afterward  rebuilt  and  erected  into  a 
colony. 

CAPITA  (Capuauus,  Capuensis,  but  more  com- 
monly Campanus :  now  Capua),  originally  call- 
ed VULTURXUM,  the  chief  city  of  Campania  after 
the  fall  of  CUM.E,  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  Capys.  Vid.  CAPYS,  No.  2.  Capua 
was  either  founded  or  colonized  by  the  Etrus- 
cans, according  to  some,  fifty  years  before  the 
foundation  of  Rome,  and  it  became  at  an  early 
period  the  most  prosperous,  wealthy,  and  luxu- 
rious city  in  the  south  of  Italy.  In  B.C.  420  it 
was  conquered  by  the  warlike  Samnites ;  aud 
the  population,  which  had  always  been  of  a 
mixed  nature,  now  consisted  of  Ausonians,  Os- 
caus,  Etruscans,  and  Samnites.  At  a  later  time, 
Capua,  again  attacked  by  the  Samnites,  placed 
itself  under  the  protection  of  Rome,  343.  It 
revolted  to  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of  Cannae, 
216,  but  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  211,  was 
fearfully  punished,  aud  never  recovered  its  for- 
mer prosperity.  It  was  now  governed  by  a 
praefectus,  who  was  sent  annually  to  the  city 
from  Rome.  It  received  a  Roman  colouy  by 
the  lex  agraria  of  Julius  Ctcsar,  69,  and  under 
Nero  a  colony  of  veterans  was  settled  there. 
It  was  subsequently  destroyed  by  the  barbarians 
who  invaded  Italy.  The  modern  town  of  Capua 
is  built  about  three  miles  from  the  ancient  one, 
*ke  site  of  which  is  indicated  by  the  ruins  of  an 
amphitheatre. 

CAPUT  VADA  PROMONTORIUM.  Vid.  BRACHO- 
DES. 

CAPYS  (Kurrof).  1.  Son  of  Assaracus  and 
Hieromnemone,  and  father  of  Anchises. — 2.  A 
companion  of  ^Eneas,  from  whom  Capua  was 
said  to  have  derived  its  name. 

CAPYS  SILVIUS,      Vid.  SILVIUS. 

CAPYTIUM  or  CAPITIUM  (now  Capizzi),  called 
by  Cicero  Capitina  Civitas,  a  town  in  Sicily 
near  Mount  ./Etna. 

CAR  (Ka'p),  son  of  Phoroneus,  and  king  of 
Megara,  from  whom  the  acropolis  of  this  town 
was  called  Caria. 

[CARA  (now  Cares,  near  Puente  la  Reyna),  a 
city  of  the  Vascones  in  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis.] 

CARACALLA,  emperor  of  Rome  A.D.  211-217, 
was  son  of  Septimius  Severus  and  his  second 
wife  Julia  Domna,  and  was  born  at  Lyons  A.D. 
188.  He  was  originally  called  Bassianus  after 
his  maternal  grandfather,  but  afterward  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus,  which  became  his  legal 
name,  and  appears  on  medals  and  inscriptions. 
Caracalla  was  a  nickname  derived  from  a  long 
tunic  worn  by  the  Gauls,  which  he  adopted  as 
his  favorite  dress  after  he  became  emperor.  In 
198,  Caracalla,  when  ten  years  old,  was  declar- 
ed Augustus,  and  in  the  same  year  accompanied 
his  father  Severus  in  the  expedition  against  the 
Pfrthians.  He  returned  with  Severus  to  Rome 
in  202,  and  married  Plautilla.  daughter  of  Plau- 
tianus,  the  praetorian  prsefect  In  208  he  went 
with  Severus  to  Britain ;  and  on  the  death  of 
the  latter  at  York,  211,  Caracalla  and  his  brother 
Geta  succeeded  to  the  throne,  according  to  their 
father's  arrangements.  Caracalla's  first  object  j 
172 


was  to  obtain  the  sole  government  by  the  mur- 
der of  his  brother ;  and  after  making  sever.''! 
unsuccessful  attempts  upon  the  life  of  Geta,  hj 
at  length  pretended  to  be  reconciled  with  him, 
and  having  thus  thrown  him  off  his  guard,  he 
caused  him  to  be  murdered  in  the  arms  of  his 
mother,  212.  The  assassination  of  Geta  was 
followed  by  the  execution  of  many  of  the  most 
distinguished  men  of  the  state,  whom  Caracalla 
suspected  of  favoring  his  brother's  cause :  the 
celebrated  jurist  Papinian  was  one  of  his  vic- 
tims. His  cruelties  and  extravagances  knew 
no  bounds ;  and  after  exhausting  Italy  by  his 
extortions,  he  resolved  to  visit  the  different 
provinces  of  the  empire,  which  became  the 
scenes  of  fresh  atrocities.  In  214  he  visited 
Gaul,  Germany,  Dacia,  and  Thrace  ;  and,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  campaign  against  the  Alemanni, 
he  assumed  the  surname  Alemannicus.  In  215 
he  went  to  Syria  and  Egypt ;  his  sojourn  at 
Alexandrea  was  marked  by  a  general  slaughtei 
of  the  inhabitants,  in  order  to  avenge  certain 
sarcastic  pleasantries  in  which  they  had  iudul- 
j  ged  against  himself  and  his  mother.  In  216  he 
crossed  the  Euphrates,  laid  waste  Mesopotamia, 
and  returned  to  Edessa,  where  he  wintered. 
Next  year  he  again  took  the  field,  intending  to 
cross  the  Tigris,  but  was  murdered  near  Edessa 
by  Macrinus,  the  prsetorian  prasfect.  Caracalla 
gave  to  all  free  inhabitants  of  the  empire  the 
name  and  privileges  of  Roman  citizens. 

CARACTACCS,  king  of  the  Silures  in  Britain, 
bravely  defended  his  country  against  the  Ro- 
mans, in  the  reign  of  Claudius.  He  was  at 
length  defeated  by  the  Romans,  and  fled  for  pro- 
tection to  Cartismandua,  queen  of  the  Briguu- 
tes  ;  but  she  betrayed  him  to  the  Romans,  who 
carried  him  to  Rome,  A.D.  5-1.  When  brought 
before  Claudius,  he  addressed  the  emperor  in  so 
noble  a  manner  that  the  latter  pardoned  him 
and  his  friends. 

CARALIS  or  CARALES  (Caralitanus :  DOW  Gag- 
liari),  the  chief  town  of  Sardinia,  with  an  excel- 
lent harbor,  situated  on  the  SINUS  CARALITA- 
NUS and  on  a  promontory  of  the  same  name 
(now  Capo  S.  Slid).  It  was  founded  by  the 
Carthaginians ;  under  the  Romans  it  was  the 
residence  of  the  praetor,  and  at  a  later  period 
enjoyed  the  Roman  franchise. 

C&RAMBIS  (K.dpafj.6if  uxpa :  now  Eerempe),  a 
promontory,  with  a  city  of  the  same  name,  on 
the  coast  of  Paphlagoma,  almost  exactly  oppo- 
site the  Kriu  Metopou,  or  southern  promontory 
of  the  Chersonesus  Taurica  (now  Crimea).  An 
imaginary  line  joining  these  two  headlands 
would  make  an  almost  equal  division  of  the 
Euxine,  which  was  hence  called  didvfiij  fidl-aava. 
(Soph,  Antig^  978.) 

CARANUS  (Kapavof).  1.  Of  Argos,  a  descend- 
ant of  Hercules,  and  a  brother  of  Phidon,  is  said 
to  have  settled  at  Edessa  in  Macedonia  with  an 
Argive  colony  about  B.C.  750,  and  to  have  be 
come  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Macedonian 
kings. — 2  Son  of  Philip  aud  half-brother  of  Al- 
exander the  Great — 3.  A  general  of  Alexander 
the  Great 

CARAUSIUS,  born  among  the  Menapii  in  Gaul, 
was  intrusted  by  Maxinnan  with  the  command 
of  the  fleet  which  was  to  protect  the  coasts  of 
Gaul  against  the  ravages  of  the  Franks.  But 
Maximian,  having  become  dissatisfied  with  the 


CARBO,   PAPIRIUS. 

conduct  of  Carausius  in  this  command,  gave 
orders  for  the  execution  of  the  latter.  Carau- 
sius forthwith  crossed  over  to  Britain,  where 
he  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus,  A.D.  287.  Af-  j 
ter  several  ineffectual  attempts  to  subdue  him, 
Diocletian  and  Maximian  acknowledged  him  as 
their  colleague  in  the  empire,  and  he  continued  to 
reign  in  Britain  till  293,  when  he  was  murdered 
by  his  chief  officer,  Allectus. 

CAEBO,  PAPIRIUS.  1.  C.,  a  distinguished  ora- 
tor, and  a  man  of  great  talents,  but  of  no  prin- 
ciple. He  commenced  public  life  as  one  of  the 
three  commissioners  or  triumvirs  for  carrying 
into  effect  the  agrarian  law  of  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus. His  tribuneship  of  the  plebs,  B.C.  131, 
was  characterized  by  the  most  vehement  oppo- 
sition to  the  aristocracy  ;  and  he  was  thought 
even  to  have  murdered  Scipio  Africanus,  the 
champion  of  the  aristocratical  party,  129.  But 
after  the  death  of  C.  Gracchus  (121),  he  sud- 
denly deserted  the  popular  party,  and  in  his  con- 
sulship (120)  actually  undertook  the  defence 
of  Opimius,  who  had  murdered  C.  Gracchus. 
In  119  Carbo  was  accused  by  L.  Licinius  Cras- 
sus,  who  brought  a  charge  against  him,  and  as 
he  foresaw  his  condemnation,  he  put  an  end  to 
his  life. — 2.  CN,  consul  113,  was  defeated  by 
the  Cimbri  near  Noreia,  and  being  afterward  ac- 
cused by  Marcus  Antonius,  he  put  an  end  to  his 
own  life. — 3.  C.,  with  the  surname  AEVIXA,  son 
of  No.  1,  was  a  supporter  of  the  aristocracy. 
In  his  tribuneship  (90),  Carbo  and  his  colleague, 
Marcus  Plautius  Silvanus,  carried  a  law  (Lex 
Papiria  Plautia),  giving  the  Roman  franchise  to 
the  citizens  of  the  federate  towns.  Carbo  was 
murdered  in  82,  by  the  praetor  Brutus  Damasip- 
pus,  at  the  command  of  the  younger  Marius.  Vid. 
BEUTUS,  No.  10. — 4.  CN.,  son  of  No.  2,  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Marian  party.  He  was 
thrice  consul,  namely,  in  85,  84,  and  82.  In  82 
he  carried  on  war  against  Sulla  and  his  generals, 
but  was  at  length  obliged  to  abandon  Italy :  he 
fled  to  Sicily,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
put  to  death  by  Pompey  at  Lilybaeum  in  the 
course  of  the  same  year. 

CAECASO  (now  Carcassone),  a  town  of  the  Tec- 
tosages  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  [possessing  the  Jus 
Latii,  used  by  Caesar  in  his  Gallic  wars  as  a 
place  of  arms.] 

CAECATHIOCEETA  (KapnadionepTa  :  now  Kart- 
purt  or  Diarbekr),  the  capital  of  the  district  of 
Sophene  in  Armenia  Major. 

CAHCINCJS  (Kapnivos).  1.  A  tragic  poet  and  a 
contemporary  of  Aristophanes  (Nub.,  1263 ;  Pax, 
794). — 2.  A  younger  tragic  poet,  lived  about 
B.C.  380 ;  [Suidas  attributed  to  him  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  tragedies,  but  we  possess  the  titles 
and  fragments  of  nine  only,  and  some  fragments 
of  uncertain  dramas  :  all  that  remains  of  this 
poet  has  been  collected  and  published  in  Wag- 
ner's Tragic.  Grose.  Fragm.  (Didot's  Bibliotheca), 
p.  84-88.] 

CAEDAMVLE  (Kapia/ivhri :  KapdapvMTrjf.)  1. 
A  town  in  Messenia,  one  of  the  seven  towns  prom- 
bed  by  Agamemnon  to  Achilles. — 2.  An  island 
near,  or  perhaps  a  town  in,  Chios. 

CAEUKA,  a  Roman  divinity  protecting  the 
binges  of  doors  (cardo),  was  a  nymph  beloved 
by  Janus,  who  rewarded  her  for  her  favors  by 
^giving  her  the  protection  of  the  hinges  of  doors, 
'and  the  power  of  preventing  evil  demons  from 


CARIA. 

entering  houses.     Ovid  (Fast.,  vi.,  101,  seq.)  coil 
founds  this  goddess  with  CAENA. 

CAEDIA  (Kapdia ;  KapSiavof),  a  town  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Melas,  fouuded  by  Miletus  and  Clazom- 
erue,  and  subsequently  colonized  by  the  Athe- 
nians under  Miltiades.  It  was  destroyed  by  Ly- 
simachus,  who  built  the  town  of  LYSIMACHIA  in 
its  immediate  neighborhood.  Cardia  was  the 
birth-place  of  Eumenes  and  of  the  historian 
Hieronymus. 

CAEDUCHI  (KapdoUxot),  a  powerful  and  warlike 
people  in  the  southeast  of  Greater  Armenia,  on 
the  northeastern  margin  of  the  Tigris  valley, 
probably  the  same  as  the  Toptivaloi  and  Topdvqvoi 
of  the  late  geographers  and  the  Kurds  of  mod- 
em times.  They  dwelt  in  the  mountains  which 
divided  Assyria  on  the  northeast  from  Armenia 
(Mountains  of  Kurdistan),  and  were  never  thor- 
oughly subdued  by  the  Persians,  Greeks,  or  Ro- 
mans. 

CAEESUS  (Kuprjoof),  a  town  of  the  Troad,  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name  flowing  into  the  ^Esepus : 
destroyed  before  the  tune  of  Strabo :  [the  sur- 
rounding district  was  called  CAEESENE.] 

[CAEFULENUS,  D,  called  CAESULEIUS  by  Ap- 
pian,  served  under  Julius  Caesar  in  the  Alexan- 
drine war,  B.C.  47,  in  which  he  is  spoken  of  as  a 
man  of  great  military  skill  He  subsequently 
took  an  active  part  in  the  war  against  Antony, 
and  fell  in  the  battle  of  Mutina.] 

CAEIA  (Kapia  :  Kup,  pL  oi  Kopec),  a  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  in  its  southwestern  corner,  bound- 
ed on  the  north  and  northeast  by  the  mountains 
Messogis  and  Cadmus,  which  divided  it  from 
Lydia  and  Phrygia,  and  adjacent  to  Phrygia  and 
Lycia  on  the  east  and  southeast  It  is  inter- 
sected by  low  mountain  chains  running  out  far 
into  the  sea  in  long  promontories,  the  northern- 
most of  which  was  called  Mycale  or  Trogilium 
(opposite  to  Samos) ;  the  next  Posidium  (on 
which  stood  Miletus  and  Branchidae) ;  the  next 
is  the  long  tongue  of  land  terminated  by  the  two 
headlands  of  Zephyrium  and  Termerium  (with 
Halicarnassus  on  its  southern  side);  next  the 
Cnidian  Chersonesus,  terminated  by  the  Cape 
Triopium  and  the  city  of  Cnidus ;  then  the  Rho- 
dian  Chersonesus,  the  southern  point  of  which 
was  called  Cynossetna,  opposite  to  Rhodes ;  and, 
lastly,  Pedalium  or  Artemisium,  forming  the 
western  headland  of  the  Bay  of  Glaucus.  The 
chief  gulfs  formed  by  these  promontories  were 
the  Maeandrian,  between  Trogilium  and  Posidi- 
um ;  the  lassian,  between  Posidium  and  Zephy- 
rium ;  and  the  Ceraunian  or  Dorian,  between 
Termerium  and  Triopium.  The  valleys  between 
these  mountain  chains  were  well  watered  and 
fertile.  The  chief  river  was  .  the  Mseander,  be- 
tween the  chains  of  Messogis  and  Latmus,  to  the 
south  of  which  the  country  was  watered  by  its 
tributaries,  the  Marsyas,  Harpasus,  and  Mosy- 
nus,  besides  some  streams  flowing  west  and 
south  into  the  sea,  the  most  considerable  of 
which  was  the  Calbis.  Vid.  the  articles.  The 
chief  products  of  the  country  were  corn,  wine, 
oil,  and  figs  ;  for  the  last  of  which,  Caunus,  on 
the  southern  coast,  was  very  famous.  An  ex- 
tensive commerce  was  carried  on  by  the  Greek 
colonies  on  the  coast.  Even  before  the  great 
colonization  of  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  Dorian 
settlements  existed  on  the  Triopian  and  Cuidian 
173 


CARLSLE. 


CARNUTES. 


promontoriss,  and  this  part  of  Caria,  with  the 
ndjaceut  islands,  received  at  that  time  other 
Dorian  colonies,  and  obtained  the  name  of  DO- 
BIS  ;  while  to  the  north  of  the  lassian  Gulf  the 
coast  was  occupied  by  Ionian  colonies,  and  thus 
ionned  the  southern  part  of  IONIA.  The  inhab- 
itants of  the  rest  of  the  country  were  Carians 
(Kupef)  a  wide-spread  race  of  the  Indo- Ger- 
manic stock,  nearly  allied  to  the  Lydians  and 
Mysians,  which  appears,  in  the  earliest  times 
of  which  we  know  any  thing,  to  have  occupied 
the  greater  part  of  the  western  coast  of  Asia 
Minor  and  several  islands  of  the  J2gean,  in  con 
junction  with  the  LELEGES,  from  whom  the  Ca- 
rians are  not  easily  distinguishable.  The  con- 
nection between  the  Cariaus,  Lydians,  and'My- 
eiaus  is  attested  by  their  common  worship  of 
Zeus  Carios  at  Mylasa  :  the  Carians  had  also  a 
common  sanctuary  of  Zeus  Chrysaoreus.  Their 
language  was  reckoned  by  the  Greeks  as  a  bar- 
barian tongue  (L  «.,  unintelligible),  though  it 
early  received  an  intermixture  of  Greek.  The 
people  were  considered  mean  and  stupid,  even 
for  slaves.  The  country  was  governed  by  a 
race  of  native  princes,  who  fixed  their  abode  at 
Halicarnassus  after  ite  exclusion  from  the  Do- 
rian confederacy.  Vid.  HALICARNASSUS.  These 
princes  were  subject  allies  of  Lydia  and  Persia, 
and  some  of  them  rose  to  great  distinction  in 
war  and  peace.  Vid.  ARTEMISIA,  MAUSOBUS, 
and  ADA.  After  the  Macedonian  conquest,  the 
southern  portion  of  the  country  became  subject 
to  Rhodes  (vid.  RHODCS),  and  the  northern  part 
to  the  kings  of  PERGAMUS.  Under  the  Romans, 
Caria  formed  a  part  of  the  province  of  ASIA. 
CABINS  Via.  ROMA. 

C  \RINUS,  M.  AURELIUS,  the  elder  of  the  two 
sous  of  Carus,  was  associated  with  his  father 
in  the  government,  A.D  283,  and  remained  in 
the  west,  while  his  father  and  brother  Numeri- 
aims  proceeded  to  the  east  to  carry  on  war 
agaiust  the  Persians.  On  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  the  course  of  the  same  year,  Carinus  and 
Numerianus  succeeded  to  the  empire.  In  284 
j^umerianus  was  slain,  and  Carinus  marched 
into  McBsia  to  oppose  Diocletian,  who  had  been 
proclaimed  emperor.  A  decisive  battle  was 
fought  near  Margum,  in  which  Carinus  gained 
the  victory,  but,  in  the  moment  of  triumph,  he 
was  slain  by  some  of  his  own  officers,  whose 
wives  he  had  seduced,  285.  Carinus  was  one 
of  the  most  profligate  and  cruel  of  the  Roman 
emperors. 

CARMANA  (Kup/tava  :  now  Kerman,  ruins),  the 
capital  of  Carmania  Propria,  3°  longitude  east 
of  Persepolis. 

CARMANIA  (Kapfiavia :  Kapfidvioe,  Kappav'iTrje : 
now  Kinnan),  a  province  of  the  ancient  Persian 
empire  bounded  on  the  west  by  Persis,  on  the 
north  by  Parthia,  on  the  east  by  Gedrosia,  and 
on  the  south  by  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  was  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  C.  Propria  and  C.  Deserta, 
the  former  of  which  was  well  watered  by  sev- 
eral small  streams,  and  abounded  in  corn,  wine, 
and  cattle.  The  country  also  yielded  gold,  silver, 
copper,  salt,  and  cinnabar.  The  people  were  akin 
to  the  Persians. 

CARMANOR  (Kapfidvap),  a  Cretan,  said  to  have 
purified  Apollo  and  Diana  (Artemis)  after  slay- 
ing the  monster  Python. 

and   -UM  (Kup^Aof:   now    Jebel- 
174 


i  Elyat),    a  range   of    mountains    in    Palestine, 

branching  off,  oc  the  northern  border  of  Sama- 

j  ria,  from  the  central  chain  (which  extends  south 

j  and  north  between  the  Jordan  and  the  Mediter- 

I  rancan),  aud  running  north  and  northwest  through 

the  southwest  part  of  Galilee,  till  it  terminates'in 

the  promontory  of  the   same  name  (now  Cape 

Carmel),  the  height  of  which  is  twelve  hundred 

feet  above  the  Mediterranean. 

CARMENTA,  CARMENTIS.      Vid.  CAMI-.X.K. 
CARMO  (now   Carmona),   &  fortified  town  in 
Hispauia  Baetica,  northeast  of  Hispalis. 

CARNA,  a  Roman  divinity,  whose  name  is 
probably  connected  with  caro,  flesh,  for  she  was 
regarded  as  the  protector  of  the  physical  well- 
being  of  man.  Her  festival  was  celebrated  on  the 
first  of  June,  and  was  believed  to  have  been  in- 
stituted by  Brutus  in  the  first  year  of  the  repub- 
lic. Ovid  confounds  this  goddess  with  CARDEA. 

CARNEADES  (Kapveudrif),  a  celebrated  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Cyrene  about  B.C.  213,  was  the 
founder  of  the  Third  or  New  Academy  at  Athens. 
In  155  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  with  Diogenes  and 
Critolaus,  by  the  Athenians,  to  deprecate  the 
fine  of  five  hundred  talents  which  had  been  im- 
posed on  the  Athenians  for  the  destruction  of 
Oropus.  At  Rome  he  attracted  great  notice 
from  his  eloquent  declamations  on  philosophical 
subjects,  and  it  was  here  that  he  first  delivered 
his  famous  orations  on  Justice.  The  first  ora- 
tion was  in  commendation  of  the  virtue,  and  the 
next  day  the  second  answered  all  the  arguments 
of  the  first,  and  showed  that  justice  was  not  a 
virtue,  but  a  matter  of  compact  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  civil  society.  Thereupon  Cato  moved 
the  senate  to  send  the  philosopher  home  to  his 
school,  and  save  the  Roman  youth  from  his  de- 
moralizing doctrines.  Carneades  died  in  129,  at 
the  age  of  eighty-five.  He  was  a  strenuous  op- 
ponent of  the  Stoics,  and  maintained  that  neither 
our  senses  nor  our  understanding  supply  us  with 
a  sure  criterion  of  truth. 

CARNEUS  (Kapvelof),  a  surname  of  Apollo,  un- 
der which  he  was  worshipped  by  the  Dorians, 
is  derived  by  some  from  Carnus,  a  son  of  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus)  and  Latona  (Leto),  and  by  others  from 
Carnus,  an  Acarnanian  soothsayer.  The  latter 
was  murdered  by  HIPPOTES,  and  it  was  to  pro- 
pitiate Apollo  that  the  Dorians  introduced  his 
worship  under  the  surname  of  Carneus.  The  fes- 
tival of  the  Carnea,  in  honor  of  Apollo,  was  one 
of  the  great  national  festivals  of  the  Spartans. 
Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant^  s.  v. 

CARNI,  a  Celtic  people,  dwelling  north  of  the 
Veneti  in  the  Alpes  Canvcae.  Vid.  p.  48,  b. 

CARNUNTUM  (Kapvoff,  -ovvrof  :  ruins  between 
Deutsch-Altenburg  and  Petronell),  an  ancient 
leltic  town  in  Upper  Pannonia  on  the  Danube, 
east  of  Vindobona  (now  Vienna),  and  subsequent- 
y  a  Roman  municipium  or  a  colony.  It  was  one 
of  the  chief  fortresses  of  the  Romans  on  the  Dan- 
ube, and  was  the  residence  of  the  Emperor  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  during  his  wars  with  the  Marcoman- 
ni  and  Quadi.  It  was  the  station  of  the  Roman 
leet  on  the  Danube  and  the  regular  quarters  of 
;he  fourteenth  legion.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Germans  in  the  fourth  century,  but  was  rebuilt, 
and  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Hungarians  in 
the  Middle  Ages. 

CARNUS.      Vid.  CARNEUS. 

CARNUTES  or  -i,  ft  powerful  people  in  Galh'r 


CARP  ASIA. 


CARTHAGO. 


Lugduuensis,  between  the  Ligcr  and  Sequana : 
their  capital  was  GENABUM. 

CARP  ASIA  (Kap'Traaia  :  now  Karpass),  a  town 
in  the  southeast  of  Cyprus. 

CARPATES,  also  called  ALPES  BASTARJUC^E  (now 
Carpathian  Mountains),  the  mountains  separat- 
ing Dacia  from  Sarmatia. 

.  CARPATHUS  (Kupiradoc :  now  Scarpanto),  an 
island  between  Crete  and  Rhodes,  in  the  sea 
named  after  it  Mare  Carpathium :  its  chief  towns 
were  Posidium  and  Nisyrus. 

[CARPEXTORACTE  (now  Carpentras,  with  many 
Roman  remains),  a  city  of  the  Memini  in  Gallia 
Narboneusis,  at  a  late  period  also  called  Colonia 
Julia  Meminorum.] 

CARPETAXI,  a  powerful  people  in  Hispauia 
Tarraconensis,  with  a  fertile  territory  on  the  riv- 
ers Anas  and  Tagus,  in  the  modern  Castille  and 
Estrcmadura :  their  capital  was  TOLETCM. 

CARPI  or  CARPIANI,  a  German  people  between 
the  Carpathian  Mountains  and  the  Danube. 

[CARPIS  (Ku'p;nf),  a. tributary  of  the  Ister,  on 
the  southern  side.] 

CARR.E  or  CARRH^J  (Ka/5/5at :  Haran  or  Char  ran 
of  Scripture :  now  Harran),  a  city  of  Osroene  in 
Mesopotamia,  not  far  from  Edessa.  It  was  here 
that  Crassus  met  his  death  after  his  defeat  by 
the  Parthians,  B.C.  63. 

CARRIXAS  or  CARINAS.  1.  C.,  one  of  the  com- 
manders of  the  Marian  party,  fought  B.C.  83 
against  Pompey,  and  in  82  against  Sulla  and  his 
generals.  After  the  battle  at  the  Colline  gate 
at  Rome,  in  which  the  Marian  army  was  defeat- 
ed, Carrinas  took  to  flight,  but  was  seized  and 
put  to  death. — 2.  C.,  sou  of  No.  1,  was  sent  by 
Caesar,  in  45,  into  Spain  against  Sextus  Pom- 
peius,  but  he  did  not  accomplish  any  thing.  In 
43  he  was  consul,  and  afterward  served  as  one 
of  the  generals  of  Octavianus  against  Sextus 
Pompeius  in  Sicily  in  36,  and  as  proconsul  in 
Gaul  in  31. — 3.  SECUNDUS,  a  rhetorician,  expelled 
by  Caligula  from  Rome  because  he  had,  by  way 
of  exercise,  declaimed  against  tyrants  in  his 
school. 

[CARRCCA,  a  town  of  Hispania  Baetica,  north- 
ward from  Munda.] 

CARSEOLI  (Carseolanus  :  now  Carsoli),  a  town 
of  the  JCqui  in  Latium,  colonized  by  the  Romans 
at  an  early  period. 

CARSCI^E  (Carsulauus:  now  Monte  Castrilli), 
a  town  in  Umbria,  originally  of  considerable  im- 
portance, but  afterward  declined. 

[CAHTALO.     Vid.  CARTHALO.] 

CARTEIA  (also  called  Carthaea,  Carpia,  Car- 
pessus,  Kaprrjia  :  now  Crantia),  more  anciently 
f  ARTESSOS,  a  celebrated  town  and  harbor  in  the 
eouth  of  Spain,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  which 
Mount  Caipe  forms  one  side,  founded  by  the 
PluEnicians,  and  colonized  B.C.  170  by  four  thou- 
sand Roman  soldiers,  whose  mothers  were  Span- 
ish women. 

CARTENNA  or  CARTIXXA  (now  Tenncz\  a  colony 
on  the  coast  of  Mauretania  Ctesariensis  in  north- 
ern Africa,  founded  by  Augustus. 

CARTU^A  (Kapdaia  :  now  Poles,  ruins),  a  town 
on  the  south  side  of  the  island  of  Ceos,  where 
considerable  ruins  are  found  at  the  present  day. 

CARTHAGO,  MAGNA  CARTHAGO  (Kapxyiuv : 
Kapxqfiovtoc,  Carthaginiensis,  Pcenus :  ruins 
near  El-Marta,  northeast  of  Tunis),  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  cities  of  the  ancient  world, 


stood  in  the  recess  of  a  large  bay  (Sinus  Car- 
thaginiensis), inclosed  by  the  headlands  Apolli- 
nis  and  Mercurii  (now  Cape  Farina  and  Cape 
Bon),  in  the  middle  and  northernmost  part  of 
the  north  coast  of  Africa,  in  latitude  about  36° 
55'  north,  and  longitude  about  10°  20'  east 
The  coast  of  this  part  of  Africa  has  been  mud) 
altered  by  the  deposits  of  the  River  Bagradaa 
and  the  sand  which  is  driven  seaward  by  the 
northwest  winds.  In  ancient  times  Carthage 
stood  upon  a  peninsula  surrounded  by  the  sea 
on  all  sides  except  the  west ;  but  now  the  whole 
space  between  the  northern  side  of  this  penin- 
sula and  the  southern  side  of  the  Apollinis  Prom- 
ontorium  (now  Cape  Farina)  is  filled  up  and 
converted  into  a  marsh ;  Utica,  which  was  OB 
the  sea-shore,  being  left  some  miles  inland  ;  and 
the  course  of  the  Bagradas  itself  being  turned 
considerably  north  of  its  original  channel,  so 
that,  instead  of  flowing  about  half  way  between 
Utica  and  Carthage,  it  now  runs  close  to  the 
ruins  of  Utica,  and  falls  into  the  sea  just  under 
Cape  Farina.  The  northeastern  and  southeast- 
ern sides  of  the  peninsula  are  still  open  to  the 
sea,  which  has,  indeed,  rather  encroached  here, 
for  ruins  are  found  under  water.  The  southern 
side  of  the  peninsula  was  formed  by  an  inclosed 
bay,  connected  with  the  sea  only  by  a  narrow 
opening  (now  called  the  Goletta,  or,  in  Arabic, 
Haket-el-  Wad,  i.  e.,  Throat  of  the  River),  which 
still  forms  the  port  of  Tunis  (ancient  Tunes), 
which  stands  at  its  furthest  end ;  but  it  is  nearly 
choked  up  with  the  deposit  of  the  sewers  of  the 
city.  The  circuit  of  the  old  peninsula  may  be 
estimated  at  about  thirty  miles;  the  width  ol 
the  isthmus  is  three  miles.  The  greatest  cir- 
cumference of  the  city  itself  was  probably  about 
fifteen  miles.  The  original  city  appears  to  have 
stood  on  the  northeastern  part  of  the  peninsula, 
between  Ras  Wiammart  and  Ras  Bousaid  (now 
Cape  Carthage),  where  the  remains  of  cisterns 
are  seen  under  water :  these,  and  the  aqueduct, 
whose  ruins  may  be  traced  for  fifty-two  miles 
to  Zaghwan,  are  the  only  remains  of  the  ok" 
city.  Its  port,  called  Cothon,  was  on  the  north 
west  side  of  the  peninsula,  where  a  little  village 
(now  inland)  still  retains  the  name  of  El-Marsa, 
i.  e.,  the  Port.  The  Roman  city,  which  was 
built  after  the  destruction  of  the  original  Car- 
thage, lay  to  the  south  of  it  The  Tyrian  col- 
ony of  Carthage  was  founded,  according  to  tra- 
dition, about  one  hundred  years  before  the  build- 
ing of  Rome,  that  is,  about  B.C  853.  There 
were  several  more  ancient  Phoenician  colonies 
along  the  same  coast,  between  two  of  which, 
Utica  and  Tuues,  the  new  settlement  was  fixed, 
about  twenty-seven  miles  (Roman)  from  the 
former,  and  ten  from  the  latter.  The  mythical 
account  of  its  foundation  is  given  under  DIDO. 
The  part  of  the  city  first  built  was  called,  in  the 
Phoenician  language,  Betzura  or  Bosra,  i.  e., 
a  castle,  which  was  corrupted  by  the  Greeks  into 
Byrsa  (Bv/xra),  i.  e.,  a  hide,  and  hence  probably 
arose  the  story  of  the  way  in  which  the  natives 
were  cheated  out  of  the  ground.  As  the  city 
grew,  the  Byrsa  formed  the  citadel :  it  stood  on 
a  low  hill ;  but  its  site  can  no  longer  be  identi- 
fied, as  there  are  several  such  Itills  within  the 
circuit  of  the  ancient  city.  The  Cothon,  or  Port, 
is  said  to  have  been  excavated,  and  the  quarter 
of  the  city  adjoining  to  it  built  forty  years  later, 
175 


CARTHAGO. 


CARTHAGO. 


B.C.  813.  This  Cothon  was  the  inner  harbor, 
and  was  used  for  ships  of  war:  the  outt-r  har- 
bor, divided  from'  it  by  a  tongue  of  land  throe 
hundred  feet  wide,  was  the  station  for  the  mer- 
chant ships.  The  fortifications  of  the  city  con- 
sisted of  a  single  wall  on  the  side  toward  the 
sea,  where  the  steep  shore  formed  a  natural  de- 
fence, and  a  triple  wall  of  great  height,  with  bat 
tlementa  and  towers,  on  the  land  side ;  on  this 
side  were  barracks  for  forty  thousand  soldiers, 
and  stables  for  three  hundred  elephants  and 
four  thousand  horses.  Beyond  the  fortifica- 
tions was  a  large  suburb,  called  Magara  or  Ma 
galia,  containing  many  beautiful  gardens  and 
villas.  The  aqueduct  already  mentioned  is 
supposed,  on  good  grounds,  to  have  been  built 
at  an  early  period  of  the  existence  of  the  city. 
The  most  remarkable  buildings  mentioned  witn- 
in  the  city  were  the  temple  of  the  god  whom 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  identified  with  jEscu- 
lapiua,  and  that  of  Apollo  (Baal  or  the  Sun)  in 
the  market-place.  The  population  of  Carthage, 
at  the  time  of  the  third  Punic  war,  is  stated  at 
seven  hundred  thousand.  The  constitution  of 
Carthage  was  a  municipal  oligarchy,  somewhat 
resembling  that  of  Venice.  The  two  chief  mag- 
istrates, called  Suffetes  (probably  the  same  word 
as  the  Hebrew  Shophetim,  i.  e,  Judges)  appear 
to  have  been  elected  for  life;  the  Greek  and 
Roman  writers  call  them  kings.  The  generals 
and  foreign  governors  were  usually  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  suffetes,  but  the  two  offices  were 
sometimes  united  in  the  same  person.  The 
governing  body  was  a  senate,  partly  hereditary 
and  partly  elective,  within  which  there  was  a 
select  body  of  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and 
four,  called  Gerusia,  whose  chief  office  was 
to  control  the  magistrates,  and  especially  the 
generals  returning  from  foriegn  service,  who 
might  be  suspected  of  attempts  -to  establish  a 
tyranny.  The  Gerusia  was  first  formed  about 
B.C.  400,  when  the  power  of  the  house  of  Mago 
excited  suspicion;  and  its  efficacy  was  shown 
in  the  defeat  of  the  attempts  made  by  Hanno 
(B.C.  340)  and  Hamilcar  (B.C.  306)  to  seize 
the  supreme  power.  Its  members  are  said  by 
Aristotle  to  have  been  elected  by  the  pentar- 
chies,  bodies  of  which  we  have  very  little  infor- 
mation, but  which  appear  to  have  been  commit- 
tees of  five,  chosen  from  the  most  eminent 
members  of  the  senate,  and  intrusted  with  the 
control  of  the  various  departments  of  the  gov- 
ernment Important  questions,  especially  those 
on  which  the  senate  and  the  suffetes  disagreed, 
were  referred  to  a  general  assembly  of  the  cit- 
izens; but  concerning  the  mode  of  proceeding 
in  this  assembly,  and  the  extent  of  its  powers, 
we  know  very  little.  It  seems  to  have  elected 
the  magistrates,  the  senate  having  either  the 
power  of  previous  nomination  or  of  a  veto,  it  is 
not  clear  which.  The  generals  were  chosen  by 
the  gerusia,  and  approved  by  the  assembly  of 
the  citizens.  The  general  tone  of  social  mo- 
rality at  Carthage  appears  to  have  been  high, 
at  least  during  its  earlier  history :  there  was  a 
censorship  of  public  morals,  under  the  care  of 
the  gerusia;  and  all  the  magistrates  were  re- 
quired, during  their  term  of  office,  to  abstain 
from  wine:  the  magistrates  were  also  unpaid. 
Their  punishments  were  very  severe,  and  the 
usual  mode  of  inflicting  death  was  bv  crucifix- 
176 


ion.  The  religion  of  Caithage  was  that  of  the 
mother  country:  especial  mention  is  made  of 
the  cruel  rites  of  their  tutelar  deity  Melcnrth 
(i.  e.,  king  of  the  city,  no  doubt  the  same  as  Mo- 
loch), which  were  abolished  by  the  treaty  with 
Gelon  of  Syracuse,  B  C.  480 ;  and  also  of  the 
worship  of  Ashtaroth  and  Astarte,  and  ^Escu- 
lapius.  The  chief  occupations  of  the  people 
were  commerce  and  agriculture :  in  the  formei 
they  rivalled  the  mother  city,  Tyre ;  and  the 
latter  they  pursued  with  such  success  that  the 
country  around  the  city  was  one  of  the  best 
cultivated  districts  in  the  ancient  world,  and  a 
great  work  on  agriculture,  in  twenty-eight 
books,  was  composed  by  Mago,  a  suffete.  The 
revenues  of  the  state  were  derived  from  the 
subject  provinces ;  and  its  army  was  composed 
of  mercenaries  from  the  neighboring  couutry, 
among  whom  the  Numidian  cavalry  were  espe- 
cially distinguished.  Of  the  History  of  Carthage 
.&  brief  sketch  will  suffice,  as  the  most  import- 
ant portions  of  it  are  related  in  the  ordinary  his- 
tories of  Rome.  The  first  colonists  preserved 
the  characters  of  peaceful  traders,  and  main- 
tained friendly  relations  with  the  natives  of  the 
country,  to  whom  they  long  continued  to  pay  a 
rent  or  tribute  for  the  ground  on  which  the  city 
was  built  Gradually,  however,  as  their  com- 
merce brought  them  power  and  wealth,  they 
were  enabled  to  reduce  the  natives  of  the  dis- 
trict round  the  city,  first  to  the  condition  of  al- 
lies, and  then  to  that  of  tributaries.  Mean- 
while, they  undertook  military  expeditions  at 
sea,  and  possessed  themselves,  first  of  the  small 
islands  near  their  own  coast,  and  afterward  of 
Malta,  and  the  Lipari  and  Balearic  Islands:  they 
also  sent  aid  to  Tyre,  when  it  was  besieged  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  (B.C.  600),  and  took  part  in 
wars  between  the  Etruscans  and  the  Phocaean 
colonies.  On  the  coast  of  Africa  they  founded 
numerous  colonies,  from  the  Pillars  of  Hercules 
to  the  bottom  of  the  Great  Syrtis,  where  they 
met  the  Greek  colonists  of  Cyrenaica:  the 
people  of  these  colonies  became  intermixed 
with  the  Libyans  around  them,  forming  a  pop- 
ulation who  are  called  Libyo-Phosnicians.  In 
connection  with  their  commercial  enterprises, 
they  no  doubt  sent  forth  various  expeditions 
of  maritime  discovery,  among  which  we  have 
mention  of  two,  which  were  undertaken  during 
the  long  peace  which  followed  the  war  with 
Gelon  in  B.C.  480,  to  explore  the  western  coasts 
of  Europe  and  Africa  respectively.  The  record 
of  the  latter  expedition,  under  Hanno,  is  still 
preserved  to  us  iu  a  Greek  translation,  (vid. 
HANNO),  from  which  we  learn  that  it  reached 
probably  as  far  south  as  10°  north  latitude,  if 
not  further.  The  relations  of  the  Carthaginians 
with  the  interior  of  Northern  Africa  appear  to 
have  been  very  extensive,  but  the  country  actu 
ally  subject  to  them,  and  which  formed  the  true 
Carthaginian  territory,  was  limited  to  the  dis- 
trict contained  between  the  River  Tusca  (now 
Zain)  on  the  west,  and  the  lake  and  river  Tri- 
on,  at  the  bottom  of  the  Lesser  Syrtis,  on  the 
south,  corresponding  very  nearly  to  the  modern 
regency  of  Tunis;  and  even  within  this  ter- 
ritory there  were  some  ancient  Phoenician  col- 
onies, which,  though  in  alliance  with  Carthage, 
preserved  their  independent  municipal  govern- 
ment, such  as  Hippo  Zaritus,  Utica,  Hadrume- 


CARTHAGO. 


CARUS,  M.   AURELIUS. 


turn,  and  Leptis.  The  first  great  development  I  chi,  which  remained  in  a  feeble  condition  till  the 
of  the  power  of  Carthage  for  foreign  conquest  times  of  Julius  and  Augustus,  under  whom  a 
was  made  by  Mago  (about  B.C.  550-500),  who  '  new  city  was  built  south  of  the  former,  on  the 
is  said  to  have  first  established  a  sound  disci-  j  southeastern  side  of  the  peninsula,  with  the 
pline  in  the  armies  of  the  republic,  and  to  have  j  name  of  COLOXIA  CARTHAGO.  It  soon  grew  so 
freed  the  city  from  the  tribute  which  it  still  much  as  to  cover  a  great  part  (if  not  the  whole) 
paid  to  the  Libyans.  His  sons,  Hasdrubal  and  '  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Tyrian  city  :  it  became 
Hamilcar,  reduced  a  part  of  the  island  of  Sar-  the  first  city  of  Africa,  and  occupied  an  inaport- 
dinia,  where  the  Carthaginians  founded  the  |  ant  place  in  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  in  civil 
colonies  of  Caralis  and  Sulci ;  and  by  this  time  ;  history.  It  was  taken  by  the  Vandals  in  A.D. 
the  fame  of  Carthage  had  spread  so  far,  that  439,  retaken  by  Belisarius  in  A.D.  533,  and  de- 
Darius  is  said  to  have  sent  to  ask  her  aid  stroyed  by  the  Arab  conquerors  in  A.D.  698. 
against  the  Greeks,  which,  however,  was  re-  j  Respecting  the  territory  of  Carthage  under  the 
fused.  The  Carthaginians,  however,  took  ad-  I  Romans,  vid.  AFRICA,  No.  2. 
vantage  of  the  Persian  war  to  attempt  the  con-  |  CARTHAGO  NOVA  (Kapxyduv  TJ  via :  now  Car- 
quest  of  Sicily,  whither  Hamilcar  was  sent  with  j  thagend),  a  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  His- 
a  great  force,  in  B.C.  480,  but  his  army  was  de-  pania  Tarraconensis,  founded  by  the  Cartha- 
stroyed  and  himself  killed  in  a  great  battle  tin-  '  ginians  under  Hasdrubal,  B.C.  243,  and  subse- 
der  the  walls  of  Himera,  in  which  the  Sicilian  '  quently  conquered  and  colonized  by  the  Roman?, 
Greeks  were  commanded  by  Gelon,  the  tyrant  ;  from  which  time  its  full  name  was  Colonia  Vic- 
of  Syracuse,  and  which  was  said  to  have  been  j  trix  Julia  Nova  Carthago.  It  is  situated  on  a 
fought  on  the  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Salamis.  \  promontory  running  out  into  the  sea,  and  pos- 
Their  next  attempt  upon  Sicily,  in  B.C.  410,  led  j  sesses  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world : 
to  a  protracted  war,  which  resulted  in  a  treaty  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  was  a  small  island 
between  the  Syracusans,  under  Timoleon,  and  called  SCOMBRARIA,  from  the  great  number  of 
the  Carthaginians,  by  which  the  latter  were  scombri  or  mackerel  caught  here,  from  which 
confirmed  in  the  possession  of  the  western  part  such  famous  pickle  was  made.  In  ancient  times 
of  the  island,  as  far  as  the  River  Halicus.  From  Carthago  Nova  was  one  of  the  most  important 
B.C.  310-307  there  was  another  war  between  cities  in  all  Spain ;  its  population  was  uumer- 
Syracuse  and  the  Carthaginians,  which  was  ous,  its  trade  flourishing,  and  its  temples  and 
chiefly  remarkable  for  the  bold  step  "taken  by  '  other  public  buildings  handsome  and  imposing. 
Agathocles.  who  invaded  the  Carthaginian  ter-  It  was,  together  with  Tarraco,  the  residence  of 
ritory  in  Africa,  and  thus,  though  unable  to  the  Roman  governor  of  the  province.  In  the 
maintain  himself  there,  set  an  example  which  j  neighborhood  were  valuable  silver  mines ;  and 
was  followed  a  century  later  by  Scipio,  with  the  country  produced  an  immense  quantity  of 
fatal  results  to  Carthage.  Passing  over  the  Spartum  or  broom,  whence  the  town  bore  the 
wars  with  PYRRHUS  and  HIERO,  we  come  to  the  surname  Spartaria,  and  the  country  was  called 
long  struggle  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  Campus  Spartarius. 

known  as  the  Punic  Wars,  which  are  fully  re-  [CARTHALO.  1.  Commander  of  the  Cartha 
lated  in  the  histories  of  Rome.  Vid.  also  HA-  ginian  fleet  in  the  first  Punic  war. — 2.  The  Car 
MILCAG,  The  first  lasted  from  B.C.  265-242,  thaginian  commander  of  the  cavalry  in  the  army 
and  resulted  in  the  loss  to  Carthage  of  Sicily  of  Hannibal.  He  was  slain  by  a  Roman  soldier 
and  the  Lipari  Islands.  It  was  followed  by  a  after  laying  down  his  arms  at  the  capture  of 
fierce  contest  of  some  years  between  Carthage  Tarentum  by  the  Romans.] 
and  her  disbanded  mercenaries,  which  is  called  [GARTISMAXDUA  or  CARTIMANDUA,  queen  of  the 
the  Libyan  War,  and  which  was  terminated  by  Brigautes  in  Britannia,  betrayed  to  the  Romans 
Hamilcar  Barcas.  After  a  hollow  peace,  during  Caractacus,  who  had  fled  to  her  for  protection 
which  the  Romans  openly  violated  the  last  when  defeated  by  the  propraetor  Ostorius,  A.D 
treaty,  and  the  Carthaginians  conquered  Spain  50.  She  afterward  repudiated  her  husband 
as  far  as  the  Ibcrus  (now  Ebro),  the  Second  Pu-  j  Venutius,  and  gave  her  hand  and  kingdom  to 
uic  War,  the  decisive  contest  between  the  two  i  his  armor-bearer,  Vellocatus.  Venutius,  sup- 
rival  states,  which  were  too  powerful  to  /  co-  i  ported  by  a  great  portion  of  the  Brigantes,  took 
exist,  began  with  the  siege  of  Saguntum  (B.C.  j  up  arms,  and  finally  succeeded  in  regaining  the 
218),  and  terminated  (B.C.  201)  with  a  peace  by  sovereignty,  though  Cartismandua  was  rescued 
which  Cartilage  was  stripped  of  all  her  power.  '  and  protected  by  the  Romans.] 
Vid.  HANMBAL,  SCIPIO.  Her  destruction  was  CARL'RA  (r£  Kapovpa  :  now  Sarikivi),  a  Phry- 
DOW  only  a  question  of  time,  and,  though  she  gian  city,  in  the  territory  of  Caria,  on  the  left, 
scrupulously  observed  the  terms  of  the  last  bank  of  the  Mseander,  celebrated  for  its  hot 
peace  for  fifty  years,  in  spite  of  every  provoca-  i  springs  and  its  temple  of  Men  Cams, 
lion  from  the  Romans  and  their  ally  Masinissa,  CARUS,  M.  AURELIUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D 
tin-  king  of  Numidia,  a  pretext  was  at  length  i  282-283,  probably  born  at  Narbo  in  Gaul,  wa» 
found  for  a  new  war  (B.C.  149).  which  lasted  j  prsefectus  praetorio  under  Probus,  and  on  the 
only  three  years,  during  which  the  Carthagini-  murder  of  the  latter  was  elected  emperor 
ans,  driven  to  despair  by  the  terms  proposed  to  After  defeating  the  Sarmatians,  Carus  invaded 
till-in,  sustained  a  siege  so  destructive,  that  out  |  the  Persian  dominions,  took  Seleucia  and  Ctes- 


of  seven  hundred  thousand  persons  who  were 
living  in  the  city  at  its  commencement,  only  fifty 
thousand  surrendered  to  the  Romans.  The  city 
was  razed  to  the  ground,  and  remained  in  ruins 
for  thirty  years.  At  the  end  of  that  time  a  col- 
ony was  established  on  the  old  site  by  the  Grac- 
12 


iphon,  and  was  preparing  to  push  his  conquest* 
beyond  the  Tigris,  when  he  was  struck  dead  by 
lightning,  toward  the  close  of  283.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  sons  CARINLS  and  NUMERIA 
NUB.  Carus  was  a  victorious  general  and  abl» 
ruler. 

177 


CARUSA 


CASPII  MONTIS. 


CAR€SA  (ij  Kapovoa  :  now  Kerzeh),  a  city  on 
the  coast  of  Paphlagonia,  south  of  Siuope. 

CARVENTUM,  a  town  of  the  Volsci,  to  which 
the  CARVEXTANA  A  ax,  mentioned  by  Livy,  be- 
longed ;  a  town  of  the  Volsci,  between  Signia 
and  the  sources  of  the  Trerus. 

CARVILIUS  MAXIMDS.  1.  Sr.,  twice  consul, 
B.C.  293  and  273,  both  times  with  L.  Papirius 
Cursor.  In  their  first  consulship  they  gained 
brilliant  victories  over  the  Samnites,  and  in 
their  second  they  brought  the  Samnite  war  to  a 
close. — 2.  Sr.,  son  of  the  preceding,  twice  con- 
sul, 234  and  228,  was  alive  at  the  battle  of  Can- 
nae, 216,  after  which  he  proposed  to  fill  up  the 
vacancies  in  the  senate  from  the  Latins.  This 
Oarvilius  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  person 
at  Rome  who  divorced  his  wife. 

CARY^E  (Kapvai :  Kapvurijc,  fern.  Kapvdrif),  a 
town  in  Laconia,  near  the  borders  of  Arcadia, 
originally  belonged  to  the  territory  of  Tegea  in 
Arcadia.  It  possessed  a  temple  of  Artemis 
(Diana)  Caryati?,  and  an  annual  festival  in  hon- 
or of  this  goddess  was  celebrated  here  by  the 
Lacedaemonian  maidens  with  national  dances. 
Respecting  the  female  figures  in  architecture 
called  Caryatides,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v. 

CAKYANDA  (ra  Kapvavda  :  Kapvavdevf  :  now 
Kara.koyo.il),  a  city  of  Caria,  on  a  little  island, 
once  probably  united  with  the  main  land,  at  the 
northwestern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  on 
which  Halicarnassus  sto9d.  It  once  belonged 
to  the  Ionian  league ;  and  it  was  the  birth-place 
of  the  geographer  Scylax. 

CARYATIS.     Vid.  CARY.S. 

CARYSTIUS  (Kapvarioc),  &  Greek  grammarian 
of  Pergamus,  lived  about  B.C.  120,  and  wrote 
numerous  works,  all  of  which  are  lost. 

CARYSTIJS  (Kiipvarof  :  KapvaTiof :  now  Karysto 
or  Castel  Rosso),  a  town  on  the  southern  coast 
of  Euboea.  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Oche,  founded 
by  Dryopes  ;  called,  according  to  tradition,  after 
Oarystus,  sou  of  Chiron.  In  the  neighborhood 
was  excellent  marble,  which  ivas  exported  in 
large  quantities,  and  the  mineral  called  Asbes- 
tos was  also  found  here. 

CASCA,  P.  SERVILIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  B. 
C.  44,  was  one  of  the  conspirators  against  Cae- 
sar, and  aimed  the  first  stroke  at  his  assassina- 
tion. He  fought  in  the  battle  of  Philippi  (42), 
and  died  shortly  afterward.  C.  Casca,  the  broth- 
er of  the  preceding,  was  also  one  of  the  con- 
spirators against  Coesar. 

[CASCANTUM  (now  Cascante),  a  municipium 
of  the  Vascones  in  Hispania  Tarraconeusis.] 

CASCELLIUS,  A.,  an  eminent  Roman  jurist 
(Hor.,  Ar.  Poet.,  371),  contemporary  with  Cae- 
sar and  Augustus,  was  a  man  of  stern  repub- 
lican principles,  and  spoke  freely  against  the 
proscriptions  of  the  triumvirs. 

CASILISUM  (Casilinas,  -atis),  a  town  in  Cam- 
pania, on  the  Vulturnus,  and  on  the  same  site  as 
the  modern  Capua,  celebrated  for  its  heroic  de- 
fence against  Hannibal  B.C.  216.  It  received 
Roman  colonists  by  the  Lex  Julia,  but  had 
greatly  declined  in  the  time  of  Pliny. 

CASI.VUM  (Caslnas,  -atis :  now  St.  Oermano), 
a  town  in  Latiuin,  on  the  River  CASINUS,  and 
on  the  Via  Latina,  near  the  borders  of  Cam- 
pania ;  colonized  by  the  Romans  '.n  the  Samnite 
wars ;  subsequently  a  municipium ;  its  citadel, 
•ontaining  a  temple  of  Apollo,  occupied  the  same 
178 


site  as  the  celebrated  convent  Monte  C'asstnv 
the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  are  found  at  Si 
Gerinano. 

[CASINUS,  a  small  river  on  the  borders  of  La- 
tium  and  Campania,  emptying  into  the  Liris.l 

CASIOTJS.      Vid.  CASIUS. 

CASIUS.  1.  (Now  Ran  Jiasaroun),  a  mountain 
on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  east  of  Pelusium,  with  a 
temple  of  Jupiter  on  its  summit.  Here  also  was 
the  grave  of  Pompey.  At  the  foot  of  the  mount- 
ain, on  the  land  side,  on  the  high  road  from  Egypt 
to  Syria,  stood  the  town  of  Casium  (now  An- 
lieh).  The  surrounding  district  was  called  Ca- 
siotis. — 2.  (Now  Jebel  Okrali),  a  mountain  on  the 
coast  of  Syria,  south  of  Antioch  and  the  Orontes, 
five  thousand  three  hundred  and  eighteen  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  name  of  Casio- 
tis  was  applied  to  the  district  on  the  coast  south 
of  Casius,  as  far  as  the  northern  border  of 
Pho3nicia. 

CASMENA,  -JE  (^.aafievr],  Herod. :  lS.aap.evai, 
Thuc.:  Kaapevalof),  a  town  in  Sicily,  founded 
by  Syracuse  about  B.C.  643. 

CASPERIA  or  CASPERULA,  a  town  of  the  Sa- 
bines,  northwest  of  Cures,  on  the  River  Himella 
(now  Aspra). 

CASPI^E  PORT^E  or  PYLJE  (Kuamai  Trvhai,  i.  e., 
the  Caspian  Gates),  the  principal  pass  from  Me- 
dia into  Parthia  and  Hyreania,  through  the  CAS- 
PII MONTES,  was  a  deep  ravine,  made  practica- 
ble by  art,  but  still  so  narrow  that  there  was 
only  room  for  a  single  wagon  to  pass  between 
the  lofty  overhanging  walls  of  rock,  from  the 
sides  of  which  a  constant  drip  of  salt  water  fell 
upon  the  road.  The  Persians  erected  iron  gates 
across  the  narrowest  part  of  the  pass,  and  main- 
tained a  guard  for  its  defence.  This  pass  was 
near  the  ancient  Rhagae  or  Arsacia ;  but  there 
were  other  passes  through  the  mountains  round 
the  Caspian,  which  are  called  by  the  same  name, 
especially  that  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Cas- 
pian, through  the  Caucasus,  near  Derbent,  which 
was  usually  called  Albauiaa  or  Caucasian  Portae. 
The  Caspian  Gates,  being  the  most  important 
pass  from  Western  to  Central  Asia,  were  re- 
garded by  many  of  the  ancients  as  a  sort  of  cen- 
tral point,  common  to  the  boundaries  between 
Western  and  Eastern  Asia,  and  Northern  and 
Southern  Asia ;  and  distances  were  reckoned 
from  them. 

CASPII  (Kacinot),  the  name  of  cwtaiu  Scythi- 
an tribes  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  is  used  rather 
loosely  by  the  ancient  geographers.  The  Cas- 
pii  of  Strabo  are  on  the  west  side  of  the  sea, 
and  their  country,  Caspiane,  forms  a  part  of 
Albania.  Those  of  Herodotus  and  Ptolemy  are 
in  the  east  of  Media,  on  the  borders  of  Parthia, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  CASPII  PYL^E. 
Probably  it  would  not  be  far  wrong  to  apply  the 
name  generally  to  the  people  round  the  south 
western  and  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian  in 
and  about  the  CASPII  MONTES, 

CASPII  MONTES  (rii  KuffTua  opt) :  now  Elburz 
Mountains)  or  CASPIUS  MONS,  is  a  name  applied 
generally  to  the  whole  range  of  mountains 
which  surround  the  Caspian  Sea,  on  the  south 
and  southwest,  at  the  distance  of  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  miles  from  its  shore,  on  the  borders  of 
Armenia,  Media,  Hyreania,  and  Parthia ;  and 
more  specifically  to  that  part  of  this  range  south 
of  the  Caspian,  ii  which,  was  the  pass  called 


CASPIBL 


CASSANDREA. 


CASPUS  PYI^E.  The  term  was  also  loosely  ap- 
plied to  other  mountains  near  the  Caspian,  espe- 
cially, by  Strabo,  to  the  eastern  part  of  the  Cau- 
casus, between  Colchis  and  the  Caspian. 

CASPIRI  or  CASPIR.SI  (KdaTteipoi,  Kaampcuoi), 
a  people  of  India,  whose  exact  position  is  doubt- 
ful :  they  are  generally  placed  in  Cashmeer  and 
Nepaul. 

CASPIUM  MAKE  (f/  Kaa-ta  ddl.aaoa,  the  Cas- 
pian Sea),  also  called  HYRCAXUM,  ALBANUM,  and 
SCYTHICUM,  all  names  derived  from  the  people 
who  lived  on  its  shores,  is  a  great  salt-water 
lake  in  Asia,  according  to  the  ancient  division 
of  the  continents,  but  now  on  the  boundary  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia.  Its  average  width 
from  east  to  west  is  about  two  hundred  and  ten 
miles,  and  its  length  from  north  to  south,  in  a 
straight  line,  is  about  seven  hundred  and  forty 
miles ;  but  as  its  northern  part  makes  a  great 
bend  to  the  east,  its  true  length,  measured  along 
a  curve  drawn  through  its  middle,  is  about  nine 
hundred  miles ;  its  area  is  about  one  hundred 
and  eighty  thousand  square  miles.  The  notions 
of  the  ancients  about  the  Caspian  varied  very 
much;  and  it  is  curious  that  two  of  the  erro- 
neous opinions  of  the  later  Greek  and  Roman 
geographers,  namely,  that  it  was  united  both 
with  the  Sea  of  Aral  and  with  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
expressed  what,  at  some  remote  period,  were 
probably  real  facts.  Their  other  error,  that  its 
greatest  length  lay  west  and  east,  very  likely 
arose  from  its  supposed  union  witli  the  Sea  of 
Aral  Another  consequence  of  this  error  was 
the  supposition  that  the  rivers  Oxus  and  Jax- 
artes  flowed  into  the  Caspian.  That  the  former 
really  did  so  at  some  time  subsequent  to  the 
separation  of  the  two  lakes  (supposing  that  they 
were  once  united)  is  pretty  well  established; 
but  whether  this  has  been  the  case  within  the 
hiftoricul  period  can  not  be  determined  (vid. 
Oxus).  The  country  between  the  two  lakes 
has  evidently  been  greatly  changed,  and  the 
sand-hills  which  cover  it  have  doubtless  been 
accumulated  by  the  force  of  the  east  winds 
bringing  down  sand  from  the  steppes  of  Tar- 
tary.  Both  lakes  have  their  surface  considera- 
bly below  that  of  the  Black  Sea,  the  Caspian 
being  nearly  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and 
the  Aral  about  two  hundred  feet,  lower  than  the 
level  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  both  are  still  sink- 
ing by  evaporation.  Moreover,  the  whole  coun- 
try between  and  around  them  for  a  considera- 
ble distance  in  a  depression,  surrounded  by  lofty 
mountains  on  every  side,  except  where  the  val- 
l<-v  <>f  the  Irtish  and  Obi  stretches  away  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  Besides  a  number  of  smaller 
streams,  two  great  rivers  flow  into  the  Cas- 
pian; the  Rha  (now  Volga)  on  the  north,  and 
the  united  Cyrus  and  Araxcs  (now  Kour)  on 
the  west ;  but  it  loses  more  by  evaporation  than 
it  receives  from  these  rivers. 

[CASFIUS  Moxs  (rb  Kdaniov  5pof).  Vid.  GAS- 
PI!  MONTHS,  j 

CASSANDANE  (K.aanav6dvr)),  wife  of  Cyrus  the 
Great  and  mother  of  Cambyses. 

CASSANDER  ( Kuaaavtipof ),  sou  of  Antipater. 
His  father,  on  his  death-bed  (B.C.  319),  appoint- 
ed Polyspcrchon  regent,  and  conferred  upon 
Cassander  only  tho  secondary  dignity  of  chili- 
arch.  Being  dissatisfied  with  this  arrange-  i 
meat,  Cassondcr  strengthened  himself  by  au 


j  alliance  with  Ptolemy  and  Antigonus,  and  en- 
I  tered  into  war  with  Polysperchon.  In  318  Cas- 
!  sander  obtained  possession  of  Athens  and  most 
I  of  the  cities  in  the  south  of  Greece.  In  317  he 
was  recalled  to  Macedonia  to  oppose  Olympias. 
;  He  kept  her  besieged  in  Pydna  throughout  the 
j  winter  of  317,  and  on  her  surrender  in  the  spring 
of  the  ensuing  year  he  put  her  to  death.  The 
way  now  seemed  open  to  him  to  the  throne  of 
Macedon.  He  placed  Roxana  and  her  young 
son,  Alexander  ^Egus,  in  custody  at  Amphipo* 
lis,  not  thinking  it  safe  as  yet  to  murder  them ; 
and  he  connected  himself  with  the  regal  family 
by  a  marriage  with  Thessalonica,  half-sister  to 
Alexander  the  Great.  In  315  Cassander  joined 
Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  and  Lysimachus  in  their 
war  against  Autigonus,  of  whose  power  they 
had  all  become  jealous.  This  war  was,  upou 
the  whole,  unfavorable  to  Cassander,  who  lost 
most  of  the  cities  in  Greece.  By  the  general 
peace  of  311,  it  was  provided  that  Cassander 
was  to  retain  his  authority  in  Europe  till  Alexan- 
der ^Egus  should  be  grown  to  mauhood.  Cas- 
sander thereupon  put  to  death  the  young  kiii^ 
and  his  mother  Roxana.  In  310  the  war  was 
renewed,  and  Hercules,  the  sou  of  Alexander 
by  Barsine,  was  brought  forward  by  Polysper- 
chon as  a  claimant  to  the  Macedonian  throne ; 
but  Cassander  bribed  Polysperchon  to  murder 
the  youug  prince  and  his  mother,  309.  In  306 
Cassauder  took  the  title  of  king,  when  it  was 
assumed  by  Antigonus,  Lysimachus,  and  Ptole- 
my. In  the  following  years,  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes,  the  son  of  Antigonus,  carried  on  the  war 
in  Greece  with  great  success  against  Cassan- 
der ;  but  in  302  Demetrius  was  obliged  to  pass 
into  Asia,  to  support  his  father ;  and  next  year, 
301,  the  decisive  battle  of  Ipsus  was  fought,  in 
which  Antigonus  and  Demetrius  were  defeated, 
and  the  former  slain,  and  which  gave  to  Cas- 
sander Macedonia  and  Greece.  Cassander  died 
of  dropsy  in  297,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Philip. 

CASSANDRA  (Kaaffdvdpa),  daughter  of  Priam 
and  Hecuba,  and  twin-sister  of  Helenus.  She 
and  her  brother,  when  young,  were  left  asleep 
in  the  sanctuary  of  Apollo,  when  their  ears  were 
purified  by  serpents,  so  that  they  could  under- 
stand the  divine  sounds  of  nature  and  the  voices 
of  birds.  Cassandra  sometimes  used  to  sleep 
afterward  in  the  same  temple ;  and  when  she 
grew  up,  her  beauty  won  the  love  of  Apollo, 
The  god  conferred  upon  her  the  gift  of  prophecy, 
upon  her  promising  to  comply  with  his  desires ; 
but  when  she  had  become  possessed  of  the  pro- 
phetic art,  she  refused  to  fulfill  her  promise. 
Thereupon  the  god,  in  anger,  ordained  that  no 
oue  should  believe  her  prophecies.  She  pre- 
dicted to  the  Trojans  the  ruiu  that  threatened 
them,  but  no  one  believed  her ;  she  was  looked 
upon  as  a  mad  woman,  and  according  to  a  late 
account,  was  shut  up  and  guarded.  On  the 
capture  of  Troy  she  fled  into  the  sanctuary  of 
Minerva  (Athena),  but  was  torn  away  from  the 
statue  of  tho  goddess  by  Ajax,  son  of  Oileus, 
and,  according  to  some  accounts,  was  even 
ravished  by  him  in  the  sanctuary.  On  the  di- 
vision of  the  booty,  Cassandra  foil  to  the  lot  of 
Agamemnon,  who  took  her  with  him  to  My- 
cenaj.  Here  she  was  killed  by  Clytemuestra. 
^id.  POTIB^EA. 

179 


CASSIA   GENS. 


CASSIUS. 


CASSIA  GENS.     Vid.  CASSIUS. 

CASSIEPKA,  CASSIOPEA,  or  CASSIOPE  (Kaame- 
Teia,  KaaatoKEta,  Kaaaionij),  -wife  of  Cepheus  in 
^Ethiopia,  and  mother  of  Andromeda,  whoso 
beauty  she  extolled  above  that  of  the  Nereids. 
Vid.  ANDROMEDA,  She  was  afterward  placed 
among  the  stars. 

CASSIODORUS,  MAGNUS  AUEELIUS,  a  distin- 
guished statesman,  and  one  of  the  few  men  of 
learning  at  the  downfall  of  the  Western  Em- 
pire, was  born  about  A.D.  468,  at  Scylacium  in 
Bruttium,  of  an  ancient  and  wealthy  Roman 
family.  He  enjoyed  the  full  confidence  of  The- 
odoric  the  Great  and  his  successors,  and  under 
a  variety  of  different  titles  he  conducted  for  a 
long  series  of  years  the  government  of  the  Os- 
trogothic  kingdom.  At  the  age  of  seventy  he 
retired  to  the  monastery  of  Viviers,  which  he 
had  founded  in  his  native  province,  and  there 
passed  the  last  thirty  years  of  his  life.  His 
time  was  devoted  to  study  and  to  the  composi- 
tion of  elementary  treatises  on  history,  meta- 
physics, the  several  liberal  arts,  and  divinity, 
while  his  leisure  hours  were  employed  in  the 
construction  of  philosophical  toys,  such  as  sun- 
dials, water-clocks,  <fec.  Of  his  numerous  writ- 
ings the  most  important  is  his  Variarum  (Epis- 
tolarum)  Libri  XII.,  an  assemblage  of  state 
papers  drawn  up  by  Cassiodorus  in  accordance 
with  the  instructions  of  Theodoric  and  his  suc- 
cessors. The  other  works  of  Cassiodorus  are 
of  less  value  to  us.  The  principal  are,  1.  Chro- 
licon,  a  summary  of  Universal  History ;  2.  De 
Orthographia  Liber ;  3.  De  Arte  Grammatica  ad 
Donati  Mentem ;  4.  De  Artibus  ac  Disciplinis 
Libcralium  Literarum,  much  read  in  the  Middle 
Ages ;  5.  De  Anima  ;  6.  Libri  XII.  De  Rebus 
Gestis  Gothorum,  known  to  us  only  through  the 
abridgment  of  Jornandes ;  7.  De  Institutione 
Divinarum  Literarum,  an  introduction  to  the 
profitable  study  of  the  Scriptures.  There  are 
also  several  other  ecclesiastical  works  of  Cas- 
siodorus extant.  The  best  edition  of  his  collected 
works  is  by  D.  Garet,  Rouen,  16*79,  2  vols.  fol., 
reprinted  at  Venice,  1729. 

CASSIOPE  (Kaoaiorrr]),  a  town  in  Corcyra,  on  a 
promontory  of  the  same  name,  with  a  good  har- 
bor and  a  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus). 

CASSIOPEA.     Vid.  CASSIEPEA. 

CASSITERIDES.     Vid.  BRITANNIA,  p.  149,  a. 

CASSIUS,  the   name  of  one   of  the  most   dis- 
tinguished of  the  Roman  gentes,  originally  pa- ' 
trician,  afterwards  plebeian.     1.  SP.  CASSIUS  Vis- 
CELLINUS,  thrice  consul :  first,  B.C.  502,  when  he  | 
conquered  the   Sabines ;    again,   493,  when   he  j 
made  a   league  with  the   Latins ;    and,  lastly, ; 
486,'  when  he  made  a  league  with  the  Herni- : 
cans,  and  carried   his  celebrated  agrarian  law, 
the  first  which  was  proposed  at  Rome.     It  prob- ! 
ably  enacted  that  the  portion  of  the  patricians 
in  the  public  land  should  be  strictly  defined,  and  : 
that  the  remainder  should  be  divided  among  the  i 
plebeians.     In  the  following   year  he  was   ac- ' 
cused  of  aiming  at  regal  power,  and  was  put  to  | 
death.    The  manner  of  his  death  is  related  dif- ! 
ferently,  but  it  is  most  probable  that  he  was  ac- 
cused before  the  comitia  curiata  by  the  quas-  j 
tores  parricidii,  and  was  sentenced  to  death  by  ] 
his  fellow-patricians.    His  house  was  razed  to  the  i 
ground,  and  his  property  confiscated.    His  guilt  • 
is  doubtful ;  he  had  made  himself  hateful  to  the  ! 
180 


patricians  by  his  agrarian  law,  and  it  is  most 
likely  that  the  accusation  was  invented  for  the 
purpose  of  getting  rid  of  a  dangerous  oppo- 
nent. He  left  three  sons  ;  but,  as  all  the  subse- 
quent Cassii  are  plebeians,  his  sons  were  per- 
haps expelled  from  the  patrician  order,  or  may 
have  voluntarily  passed  over  to  the  plebeians,  on 
account  of  the  murder  of  their  father. — 2.  C. 
CASS.  LONOINUS,  consul  171,  obtained  as  his  pro- 
vince Italy  and  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  without  the 
authority  of  the  senate  attempted  to  march 
into  Macedonia  through  Illyricum,  but  was 
obliged  to  return  to  Italy.  In  154  he  was  cen- 
sor with  M.  Messala ;  and  a  theatre,  which  these 
censors  had  built,  was  pulled  down  by  order  of 
the  senate,  at  the  suggestion  of  P.  Scipio  Na- 
sica,  as  injurious  to  public  morals. — 3.  Q.  CAS& 
LONGINUS,  praetor  urbanus  B.C.  167,  and  consul 
164,  died  in  his  consulship. — 4.  L.  CASS.  LON- 
GINUS RAVILLA,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  137,  when 
he  proposed  a  law  for  voting  by  ballot  (tabella- 
ria  lex);  consul  127,  and  censor  125.  He  was 
very  severe  and  just  as  a  judex. — 5.  L.  CASS. 
LONGINUS,  praetor  111,  when  he  brought  Jugur- 
tha  to  Rome ;  consul  107,  with  C.  Marius,  and 
received  as  his  province  Gallia  Narbouensis,  in 
order  to  oppose  the  Cimbri,  but  was  defeated 
and  killed  by  the  Tigurini. — 6.  L.  CASS.  LONGI- 
NUS, tribune  of  the  plebs  104,  brought  forward 
many  laws  to  diminish  the  power  of  the  aris- 
tocracy.— 7.  C.  CASS.  LONGINUS  VARUS,  consul 
73,  brought  forward  with  his  colleague  M.  Te- 
rentius,  a  law  (lex  Tcrentia  Cassia),  by  which 
corn  was  to  be  purchased  and  then  sold  in  Rome 
at  a  small  price.  In  72  he  was  defeated  by 
Spailacus  near  Mutina ;  in  66  he  supported  the 
Manih'an  law  for  giving  the  command  of  the 
Mithradatic  war  to  Pompey ;  and  in  his  old  age 
was  proscribed  by  the  triumvirs  and  killed,  *43. 
— 8.  C.  CASS.  LONGINUS,  the  murderer  of  Julius 
Caesar.  In  53  he  was  quaestor  of  Crassus  in  his 
campaign  against  the  Parthians,  in  which  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  prudence 
and  military  skill.  After  the  deatli  of  Crassus, 
he  collected  the  remains  of  the  Roman  ariny, 
and  made  preparations  to  defend  Syria  against 
the  Parthians.  In  52  he  defeated  the  Parthians, 
who  had  crossed  the  Euphrates,  and  in  51  he 
again  gained  a  still  more  important  victory  over 
them.  Soon  afterward  he  returned  to  Rome. 
In  49  he  was  tribune  of  the  plebs,  joined  the 
aristocratical  party  in  the  civil  war,  and  fled 
with  Pompey  from  Rome.  In  48  he  commanded 
the  Pompeian  fleet ;  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia 
he  went  to  the  Hellespont,  where  he  accidentally 
fell  in  with  Caesar,  and  surrendered  to  him.  He 
was  not  only  pardoned  by  Caesar,  but  in  44  was 
made  praetor,  and  the  province  of  Syria  was 
promised  him  for  the  next  year.  But  Cassiue 
had  never  ceased  to  be  Caesar's  enemy  ;  it  was 
he  who  formed  the  conspiracy  against  the  dicta- 
tor's life,  and  gained  over  M.  Brutus  to  the  plot. 
After  the  death  of  Caasar,  on  the  14th  of  March, 
44  (vid.  C-fiSAn),  Cassius  remained  in  Italy  for  a 
few  months,  but  in  July  he  went  to  Syria,  which 
he  claimed  as  his  province,  although  the  senate 
had  given  it  to  Dolabella,  and  had  conferred 
upon  Cassius  Cyrcne  in  its  stead.  He  defeated 
Dolabella,  who  put  an  end  to  his  own  life ;  and, 
after  plundering  Syria  and  Asia  most  unmerci- 
fully, he  crossed  over  to  Greece  with  Brutus  in 


CASSIUS. 


CASTELLUM. 


42,  in  order  to  oppose  Octavianus  and  Antony. 
At  the  battle  of  Philippi,  Caseius  was  defeated 
by  Antony,  "while  Brutus,  who  e"~ymanded  the 
other  wing  of  the  army,  drove  C*tavianus  off 
the  field ;  but  Cassius,  ignorant  of  the  success 
of  Brutus,  commanded  his  freedman  to  put  an 
end  to  his  life.  Brutus  mourned  over  his  com- 
panion, calling  him  the  last  of  the  Romans. 
Cassius  \vas  married  to  Junia  Tertia  or  Ter- 
tulla,  half-sister  of  M.  Brutus.  Cassius  was 
well  acquainted  with  Greek  and  Roman  litera- 
ture ;  he  was  a  follower  of  the  Epicurean  phi- 
losophy ;  his  abilities  were  considerable,  but  he 
was  vain,  proud,  and  revengeful. — 9.  L.  CASS. 
LONGINUS,  brother  of  No.  8,  assisted  M.  Late- 
rensis  in  accusing  Cn.  Plancius,  who  was  de- 
fended by  Cicero  in  54.  He  joined  Caesar  at 
the  commencement  of  the  civil  war,  and  was 
one  of  Caesar's  legates  in  Greece  in  48.  In  4-i 
he  was  tribune  of  the  plebs,  but  was  not  one  of 
the  conspirators  against  Caesar's  life.  He  sub- 
sequently espoused  the  side  of  Octavianus,  in 
opposition  to  Antony  ;  and  on  their  reconcilia- 
tion in  43,  he  fled  to  Asia :  he  was  pardoned  by 
Antony  in  41. — 10.  Q.  CASS.  LONGINUS,  the  fra- 
tcr  (as  Cicero  calls  him,  by  which  he  probably 
means  first-cousin)  of  No.  8.  In  54  he  went  as 
the  quasstor  of  Pompey  into  Spain,  where  he 
was  universally  hated  on  account  of  his  rapaci- 
ty and  cruelty.  In  49  he  was  tribune  of  the 
plebs,  and  a  warm  supporter  of  Cassar,  but  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  city  and  take  refuge  in 
Caesar's  camp.  In  the  same  year  he  accom- 
panied Ccesar  to  Spain,  and  after  the  defeat  of 
Afranius  and  Petreius,  the  legates  of  Pompey, 
Caesar  left  him  governor  of  Further  Spain.  His 
cruelty  and  oppressions  excited  an  insurrection 
against  him  at  Corduba,  but  this  was  quelled  by 
Cassius.  Subsequently  two  legions  declared 
against  him,  and  M.  Marcellus,  the  quaestor,  put 
himself  at  their  head.  He  was  saved  from  this 
danger  by  Lepidus,  and  left  the  province  in  47, 
but  his  ship  sank,  and  was  lost,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Iberus. — 11.  L.  CASS.  LONGINUS,  a  com- 
petitor with  Cicero  for  the  •  consulship  for  63  ; 
was  one  of  Catiline's  conspirators,  and  under- 
took  to  set  the  city  on  fire  ;  he  escaped  the  fate 
of  his  comrades  by  quitting  Rome  oefore  .their 
apprehension. — 12.  L.  CASS.  LONGINUS,  consul 
A.D.  30,  married  to  Drusilla,  the  daughter  of 
Germanic  us,  with  whom  her  brother  Caligula 
afterward  lived.  Cassius  was  proconsul  in  Asia 
A.D.  40,  and  was  commanded  by  Caligula  to  be 
brought  to  Rome,  because  an  oracle  had  warned 
the  emperor  to  beware  of  a  Cassius  :  the  oracle 
was  fulfilled  in  the  murder  of  the  emperor  by 
Cassius  Chaerea. — 13.  C.  CASS.  LONGINUS,  the 
celebrated  jurist,  governor  of  Syria  A.D.  50,  in 
the  reign  of  Claudius.  He  was  banished  by 
Nero  in  A.D.  66,  because  he  had,  among  his  an- 
cestral images,  a  statue  of  Cassius,  the  mur- 
derer of  Caesar.  He  was  recalled  from  banish- 
ment by  Vespasian.  Cassius  wrote  ten  books 
on  the  civil  law  (Libri  Juris  Civilit),  and  Com- 
mentaries on  Vitelliua  and  Urscius  Ferox,  which 
are  quoted  in  the  Digest  He  was  a  follower 
of  the  school  of  Ateius  Capito  ;  and  as  he  re- 
duced the  principles  of  Capito  to  a  more  scien- 
tific form,  the  adherents  of  this  school  received 
the  name  of  Cassiani. — 14.  L.  CASS.  HKMINA,  a 
lionmu  annalist,  lived  about  B.C.  140,  and  wrote 


j  a  history  of  Rome  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
I  end  of  the  third  Punic  r?ar. — 15.  CASS.  PABMEN 
sis,  so  called  from  Parma,  his  birth-place,  was 
one  of  the  murderers  of  Caesar,  B.C.  43 ;  took 
an  active  part  in  the  war  against  the  triumvirs ; 
and,  after  the  death  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  car- 
ried over  the  fleet  which  he  commanded  to 
Sicily,  and  joined  Sextus  Pompey ;  upon  the  de- 
feat of  Pompey  he  surrendered  himself  to  An- 
tony, whose  fortunes  he  followed  until  after  the 
battle  of  Actium,  when  he  went  to  Athens,  and 
was  there  put  to  death  by  the  command  of  Oc- 
tavianus, B.C.  30.  Cassius  was  a  poet,  and  his 
productions  were  prized  by  Horace  (-£/>.  i.,  4, 
3).  He  wrote  two  tragedies,  entitled  Thyestes 
and  Brutus,  epigrams,  and  other  works. — 16. 
CASS.  ETEUSCUS,  a  poet  censured  by  Horace 
(Sat.,  i.,  10,  61),  must  not  be  confounded  with 
No.  15. — 17.  CASS.  AVIDIUS,  an  able  general  of 
M.  Aurelius,  was  a  native  of  Syria.  In  the  Par- 
thian war  (A.D.  162-165)  he  commanded  the 
Roman  army  as  the  general  of  Verus,  and  after 
defeating  the  Parthians  he  took  Seleucia  and 
Ctesiphoa  He  was  afterward  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  all  the  Eastern  provinces,  and  discharg- 
ed his  trust  for  several  years  with  fidelity ;  but 
in  A.D.  175  he  proclaimed  himself  emperor. 
He  reigned  only  a  few  months,  and  was  slain 
by  his  own  officers  before  Marcus  Aurelius  ar- 
rived in  the  East  Vid.  p.  132,  a. — 18.  DIONTSICS 
CASSIUS,  of  Utica,  a  Greek  writer,  lived  about 
B.C.  40,  and  translated  into  Greek  the  work  of 
the  Carthaginian  Mago  on  agriculture. — 19. 
CASS.  FELIX,  a  Greek  physician,  probably  lived 
under  Augustus  and  Tiberius  ;  wrote  a  small 
work  entitled  'larpiKal  'Airopiai  nal  Tlpod/.tjuara 
QvaiKu,  Qucestiones  Medico:  et  Problemata  Nattt- 
ralia  :  printed  in  Meier's  Physici  et  Medici  Grccci 
Minores,  Berol,  1841. — 20.  CASS.  CH^EEA.  Vid. 
CILEBEA. — 21.  CASS.  DION.  Vid.  DION  CASSI 
us. — 22.  CASS.  SEVEEUS.  Vid.  SEVEEUS. 

CASSIVELAUNUS,  a  British  chief,  ruled  over  the 

I  country  north  of   the  Tamesis    (now  Thames), 

and  was  intrusted  by  the  Britons  with  the  su- 

!  preme  command  on  Caesar's  second  invasion  of 

j  Britain,  B.C.  54.    He  was  defeated  by  Caesar, 

and  was  obliged  to  sue  for  peace. 

CASSOPE  (Kaaauirri :  KaaauTraloi; :  now  Cas- 
sopo  or  Agioi  Saranta),&  town  in  Thesprotia,  near 
the  coast 

CASTABALA  (ra  KaaTufaha).  1.  [Now  Dsjakcl 
or  Chokel ;  according  to  Leake,  Nigde~\,  a  city 
of  Cappadocia,  near  Tyana,  celebrated  for  its 
temple  of  Artemis  (Diana)  Perasia. — 2.  A  town 
in  Cilicia  Campestris,  near  Issus. 

CASTALIA  (Kaora/U'a),  a  celebrated  fountain 
on  Mount  Parnassus,  in  which  the  Pytbia  used 
to  bathe  ;  sacred  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  who 
were  hence  called  CASTALIDES  ;  said  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  Castalio,  daughter  of 
Achelous,  who  threw  herself  into  the  fountain 
when  pursued  by  Apollo. 

[CASTELLUM  often  occurs  as  the  designation  of 
a  place:  1.  CASTELLUM  CATTOEUM  (now  C'assel), 
a  place  in  the  territory  of  the  Catti  in  Germa- 
ny.— 2.  CASTELLUM  DEUSI  ET  GEEMANICI  (now 
Altkmiigstein),  a  fortress  built  by  Drusus  and 
Germanic  us  in  the  territory  of  the  Mattiaci. — 
3.  CASTELLUM  MENAPIOEUM  "(now  Kestel),  a  for- 
tress of  the  Meuapii  in  Gallia  Belgica,  on  the 
Meuse. — 1.  CASTELLUM  MOEINOBUM  (now  Mouitf 
181 


CASTHAN^EA. 


CATELAUNI. 


Oassel),  a  fortress  of  the  Morini  in  Qallia  Bel- 
gica.] 

[CASTHAN.EA  (K.av8avaia),  a  city  of  Magnesia 
in  Thessaly,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pclion  (Hdt.) ; 
elsewhere  it  is  written  Castancea.  Erom  this 
place  chestnuts,  Castaneat  nuces,  were  said  to 
have  derived  their  name.] 

[CASTIANIRA  (KaaTiaveipa),  wife  of  Priam, 
and  mother  of  Gorgythion,  famed  for  her  beau- 

ty.l 

[CASTICUS,  mentioned  in  Caesar  as  having 
seized  the  government  of  the  Sequani,  at  the 
instigation  of  Orgetorix,  about  B  C.  50.] 

CASTOR,  brother  of  Pollux.     Vid.  DIOSCURI. 

CASTOR  (Kuarup.)  1.  A  Greek  grammarian, 
surnamed  Philorumceus,  probably  lived  about  B.C. 
150,  and  wrote  several  books;  a  portion  of  his 
Tixyi]  fitjTopiKij  is  still  extant,  and  printed  in 
Walz's  Rhetores  Greed,  vol.  iii.,  p.  712.  seq. — 2. 
Grandson  of  Deiotarus.  Vid.  DEIOTARUS. 

CASTRA,  a  "  camp,"  the  name  of  several 
towns,  which  were  originally  the  stationary 
quarters  of  the  Roman  legions.  1.  CONSTANTIA, 
in  Gaul,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Sequaua  (now 
Seine) — 2.  HANNIBALIS,  in  Bruttium,  on  the 
southeastern  coast,  north  of  Scylacium,  arose 
out  of  the  fortified  camp  which  Hannibal  main- 
tained there  during  the  latter  years  of  the  sec- 
ond Punic  war. — 3.  HERCULIS,  in  Batavia,  per- 
haps near  Heussen. — 4.  MINERV^E  (now  Castro), 
in  Calabria,  with  a  temple  of  Minerva,  south  of 
Hydruntum  ;  the  most  ancient  town  of  the  Sa- 
Icutiui,  subsequently  colonized  by  the  Romans ; 
its  harbor  was  called  Portus  Veneris  (now  Porto 
Badisco.) — 5.  VETERA  (now  Xanteri),  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  on  the  Rhine  :  many  Roman  remains 
have  been  found  at  Xanten. — 6.  CORNELIA,  (now 
Gellali),  a  place  in  the  Carthaginian  territory 
(Zeugitana)  in  northern  Africa,  where  Scipio  Af- 
ricauus  the  elder  established  his  camp  when  he 
invaded  Africa  in  the  second  Punic  war.  It 
was  between  Utica  and  Carthage,  on  the  north- 
ern side  of  the  River  Bagradas,  but  its  site  is  now 
south  of  the  river,  in  consequence  of  the  altera- 
tions described  under  CARTHAGO. 

CASTRUM.  1.  INUI,  a  town  of  the  Rutuli,  on 
the  coast  of  Latium,  confounded  by  some  writers 
with  No.  2. — 2.  NOVUM  (now  Torre  di  Chiaruc- 
cia),  a  town  in  Etruria,  and  a  Roman  colony  on 
the  coast. — NOVUM  (now  Giulia  Nova),  a  town 
in  Picenum,  probably  at  the  mouth  of  the  small 
river  Batinum  (now  Salinello),  colonized  by  the 
Romans  B.C.  264,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
first  Punic  war. — [4.  CASTRUM  TIBERII,  a  land- 
ing-place on  an  island  in  the  Lacus  Brigantinus, 
used  by  Tiberius  as  a  place  of  arms  during  his 
war  with  the  Vindelici.] 

CASTULO  (KaaraZuv :  now  Cazlond),  a  town 
of  the  Oretani,  on  the  Bsetis,  and  near  the  fron- 
tiers of  Bsetica,  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  which 
bore  a  great  resemblance  to  Parnassus,  was  under 
the  Romans  an  important  place,  a  municipium 
with  the  Jus  Latii,  and  included  in  the  jurisdiction 
of  Carthago  Nova  :  its  inhabitants  were  called 
Ctetari  venales.  In  the  mountains  (Saltus  Castu- 
lonensis)  in  the  neighborhood  were  silver  and  lead 
mines.  The  wife  of  Hannibal  was  a  native  of 
Castulo. 

CASUENTUS  (now  Basiento),  a  river  in  Luca- 
nia,  flows  into  the  sea  near  Metapontum. 

[CASUS  (KuffOf :  now    Caso),  one  of  the  Spo- 
182 


rades  Insulae,   south  of  Carpathos,  containing  a 
city  with  the  same  name  as  the  island.] 

CASYSTES  (Kaavarrif :  now  Chimnch),  a  fine 
sea-port  on  the  coast  of  Ionia ;  the  harbor  of 
ERYTHR^E. 

CATAHATUNI'S  MAGNUS  (Karcr&zfywf,  i.  e.,  de- 
scent :  now  Marsa  Sollern,  i.  e.,  Port  of  l/ie  Lad- 
der), a  mountain  aud  sea-port,  at  the  bottom  of 
a  deep  bay  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa 
(about  25°  5'  east  longitude),  was  generally  con- 
sidered the  boundary  between  Egypt  and  Cy- 
reuaica.  Ptolemy  distinguishes  from  tliis  a 
place  called  Catabathmus  Parvus,  in  the  interior 
of  Africa,  near  the  borders  of  Egypt,  above  Parre- 
tonium. 

CATADUPA  or-i  (TO  KarudovTra,  ol  Karutiovnoi), 
a  name  given  to  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  and  also 
to  the  parts  of  ^Ethiopia  in  their  neighborhood. 
Vid.  NILUS. 

CATALAUNI  or  CATELAUNI,  a  people  in  Gaul  in 
the  modern  Champagne,  mentioned  only  by  later 
writers :  their  capital  was  DUROCATELAUNI  or 
CATELAUNI  (now  Chalons  sur  Marnc),  in  the 
neighborhood  of  which  Attila  was  defeated  by 
Ae'tius  and  Theodoric,  A.D.  451. 

CATAM!TUS,  the  Roman  name  for  Ganymedes, 
of  which  it  is  only  a  corrupt  form. 

CATANA  or  CATINA  (KaruvT) :  Karavalof :  now 
Catania),  an  important  town  in  Sicily,  on  the 
eastern  coast,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  yEtua,  found- 
ed B.C.  730  by  Naxos,  which  was  itself  founded 
by  the  Chalcidians  of  Eubcaa.  In  B.C.  476  it 
was  taken  by  Hiero  I.,  who  removed  its  inhabit- 
ants to  Leontini,  and  settled  five  thousand  Syr- 
acusans  and  five  thousand  Pelopounesians  in 
the  town,  the  name  of  which  he  changed  into 
^Etna.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Hiero  (4tt7),  the 
former  inhabitants  of  Cataua  again  obtained 
possession  of  the  town,  and  called  it  by  its  orig- 
inal name,  Catana.  Subsequently  Catana  was 
conquered  by  Dionysius,  was  then  governed  by 
native  tyrants,  next  became  subject  to  Agath- 
ocles,  and  finally,  in  the  first  Punic  war,  fell  un- 
der the  dominion  of  Rome.  It  was  colonized  by 
Augustus  with  some  veterans.  Catana  frequent- 
ly suffered  from  earthquakes  and  eruptions  of 
Mount  ./Etna.  It  is  now  one  of  the  most  flourish 
ing  cities  in  Sicily. 

CATAONIA  (Karaovia),  a  district  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Cappadocia,  to  which  it  was  first 
added  under  the  Romans,  with  Melitcne,  which 
lies  east  of  it.  These  two  districts  form  a  large 
aud  fertile  plain,  lying  between  the  Anti-Taurus 
and  the  Taurus  and  Amauus,  and  watered  bv 
the  River  Pyramus.  Cataonia  had  no  large 
towns,  but  several  strong  mountain  fortresses. 

CATARRHACTES  (Kara/fyia/crw).  1.  (Now  Du 
den-Soo),  a  river  of  Pamphylia,  which  descends 
from  the  mountains  of  Taurus  in  a  great  broken 
waterfall  (whence  its  name,  from  KaTafifo'iyvvfu), 
and  which,  after  flowing  beneath  the  earth  in 
two  parts  of  its  course,  falls  into  the  sea  east 
of  Attalia. — 2.  The  term  is  also  applied,  first  by 
Strabo,  to  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  which  are 
distinguished  as  C.  Major  and  C.  Minor  (vid  Ni- 
LUS),  in  which  use  it  must,  of  course,  be  regarded 
as  a  common  noun,  equivalent  to  the  Latin  cata- 
racta,  but  whether  derived  from  the  name  of  the 
Pamphylian  river,  or  at  once  from  the  Greek 
verb,  can  not  be  determined. 

CATELAUNI.     Vid.  CATALAUNL 


CATH^EI. 


CATILINA. 


CATH^I  (KaOaloi),  a  great  and  warlike  people 
of  India  iutra  Gangem,  upon  whom  Alexander 
made  war.  Some  of  the  best  Orientalists  sup- 
pose the  name  to  be  that,  not  of  a  tribe,  but  of 
the  warrior  caste  of  the  Hindoos,  the  Kshatriyas. 

CATILIXA,  L.  SERGICS,  the  descendant  of  an 
ancient  patrician  family  which  had  suuk  into 
poverty.  His  youth  and  early  manhood  were 
stained  by  every  vice  and  crime.  He  first  ap- 
pears in  history  as  a  zealous  partisan  of  Sulla  ; 
and  during  the  horrors  of  the  proscription,  he 
killed,  with  his  own  hand,  his  brother-in-law, 
Q.  Caecilius,  a  quiet,  inoffensive  man,  and  put  to 
death  by  torture  M.  Marius  Gratidianus,  the 
kinsman  and  fellow-townsman  of  Cicero.  He 
was  suspected  of  an  intrigue  with  the  vestal 
Fabia,  sister  of  Terentia,  and  was  sa^d  and  be- 
lieved to  have  made  away  with  his  first  wife, 
and  afterward  with  his  son,  in  order  that  he 
might  marry  Aurelia  Orestilla,  who  objected  to 
the  presence  of  a  grown-up  step-child ;  but,  not- 
withstanding this  infamy,  he  attained  to  the  dig- 
nity of  praetor  in  B.C.  68,  was  governor  of  Africa 
during  the  following  year,  and  returned  to 
Rome  in  66,  in  order  to  sue  for  the  consulship. 
The  election  for  65  was  carried  by  P.  Autronius 
Paatus  and  P.  Cornelius  Sulla,  both  of  whom 
were  soon  after  convicted  of  bribery,  and  their 
places  supplied  by  their  competitors  and  accu- 
sers, L.  Aurelius  Cotta  and  L.  Manlius  Torqua- 
tus.  Catiline  had  been  disqualified  for  becom- 
ing a  candidate,  in  consequence  of  an  impeach- 
ment for  oppression  in  his  province,  preferred 
by  P.  Cloclius  Pulcher,  afterward  so  celebrated 
as  the  enemy  of  Cicero.  Exasperated  by  their 
disappointment,  Autronius  and  Catiline  formed 
a  project,  along  with  Cn.  Piso,  to  murder  the 
new  consuls  when  they  entered  upon  their 
office  upon  the  first  of  January.  This  design  is 
said  to  have  been  frustrated  solely  by  the  im- 
patience of  Catiline,  who,  upon  the  appointed 
day,  gave  the  signal  prematurely,  before  the 
whole  of  the  armed  agents  had  assembled.  En- 
couraged rather  than  disheartened  by  a  failure 
which  had  so  nearly  proved  a  triumph,  Catiline 
uow  determined  to  organize  a  more  extensive 
conspiracy,  in  order  to  overthrow  the  existing 
government,  and  to  obtain  for  himself  and  his 
followers  all  places  of  power  and  profit.  Hav- 
ing been  acquitted  in  65  upon  his  trial  for  ex- 
tortion, he  was  left  unfettered  to  mature  his 
plans.  The  time  was  propitious  to  his  schemes. 
The  younger  nobility  were  thoroughly  demoral- 
ized, with  ruined  fortunes,  and  eager  for  any 
change  which  might  relieve  them  from  their 
embarrassments  ;  the  Roman  populace  were 
restless  and  discontented,  ready  to  follow  at  the 
bidding  of  any  demagogue  ;  while  many  of  the 
veterans  of  Sulla,  who  had  squandered  their  ill- 
gotten  wealth,  were  now  anxious  for  a  renewal 


of  those  scenes  of  blood  which  they  had  found  trol  of  affairs  at  Rome  in  the  hands  of  Lentulua 


BO  profitable.  Among  such  men  Catiline  soon 
obtained  numerous  supporters ;  and  his  great 
mental  and  physical  powers,  which  even  his 
enemies  admitted,  maintained  his  ascendency 
over  his  adherents.  The  most  distinguished 
men  who  joined  him,  and  were  present  at  a 
meeting  of  the  conspirators  which  he  called  in 
June,  64,  were  P.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Sura,  who 


in  the  senate,  which  he  was  now  seeking  tc 
recover  by  standing  a  second  time  for  the  pras- 
torship ;  C.  Cornelius  Cethegus,  distinguished 
throughout  by  his  headstrong  impetuosity  and 
sanguinary  violence ;  P.  Autronius,  spoken  of 
above ;  L.  Cassius  Longinus,  at  this  time  a 
competitor  for  the  consulship ;  L.  Vargunteius, 
who  had  been  one  of  the  colleagues  of  Cicero 
in  the  quaestorship,  and  had  subsequently  been 
condemned  for  bribery ;  L.  Calpurnius  Bestia, 
tribune  elect ;  Publius  and  Servius  Sulla,  nepb 
ews  of  the  dictator ;  II.  Porcius  Laeca,  <fcc 
The  first  object  of  Catiline  was  to  obtain  the 
consulship  for  himself  and  C.  Antonius,  whose 
co-operation  he  confidently  anticipated.  But  in 
this  object  he  was  disappointed :  Cicero  and 
Antonius  were  elected  consuls.  This  disap- 
pointment rendered  him  only  more  vigorous  in 
the  prosecution  of  his  designs ;  more  adherents 
were  gained,  and  troops  were  levied  in  various 
parts  of  Italy,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Faesulae,  under  the  superintendence  of  C.  Haii- 
lius,  one  of  the  veteran  centurions  of  Sulla. 
Meantime  Cicero,  the  consul,  was  unrelaxing 
in  his  efforts  to  preserve  the 
threatened  danger.  Through 
Fulvia,  the  mistress  of  Curius,  one  of  the  con- 
spirators, he  became  acquainted  with^  every  cir- 
cumstance as  soon  as  it  occurred,  and  was  en- 
abled to  counteract  all  the  machinations  of  Cat- 
iline. Cicero,  at  the  same  time,  gained  over 
his  colleague  Antonius  by  promising  him  the 
province  of  Macedonia.  At  length  Cicero  open- 
ly accused  Catiline,  and  the  senate,  now  aware 
of  the  danger  which  threatened  the  state,  passed 
the  decree,  "  that  the  consuls  should  take  care 
that  the  republic  received  no  harm,"  in  virtue  of 
which  the  consuls  were  invested  for  the  time 
being  with  absolute  power,  both  civil  and  mili- 


tary. 


In  the  consular  elections  which  followed 
afterward,   Catiline  was    again    rejected 


On  the  night  of  the  6th  of  November,  B.C 
63,  he  met  the  ringleaders  of  the  conspiracy  at 
the  dwelling  of  M.  Porcius  Laeca,  and  informed 
them  that  he  had  resolved  to  wait  no  longc;1, 
but  at  once  to  proceed  to  open  action.  Cicero, 
informed  as  usual  of  these  proceedings,  sum- 
moned the  senate  on  the  8th  of  November,  and 
there  delivered  the  first  of  his  celebrated  ora- 
tions against  Catiline,  in  which  he  displayed  a 
most  intimate  acquaintance  with  all  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  conspirators.  Catiline,  who 
was  present,  attempted  to  justify  himself,  but 
scarcelv  had  he  commenced  when  his  words 
were  drowned  by  the  shouts  of  "  enf  my"  and 
"  parricide"  which  burst  from  the  whole  as- 
sembly. Finding  that  he  could  at  present  ef- 
fect nothing  at  Rome,  lie  quitted  the  city  in  the 
night  (8th-9th  November),  and  proceeded  to  the 
camp  of  Manlius,  after  leaving  the  chief  con- 


and  Cethegus.  On  the  9th,  when  the  flight  of 
Catiline  was  known,  Cicero  delivered  his  sec- 
ond speech,  addressed  to  the  people  in  the  fo- 
rum, in  which  he  justified  his  recent  conduct 
The  senate  declared  Catiline  and  Manlius  pub- 
lic enemies,  and  soon  afterward  Cicero  obtained 
legal  evidence  of  the  guilt  of  the  conspirators 
within  the  city,  through  the  ambassadors  of  the 


had  been  consul  in  B.C.  71,  but,  having  been   Allobroges.    These  men  hail  been  solicited  by 
passed  over  by  the  censors,  had  lost  his  seat !  Lentulus  to  join  the  plot,  and  to  induce  their 


CATILLU3. 

own  countrymen  to  take  part  in  the  insurrec- 
tion. The}  revealed  what  they  had  beard  to 
Q.  Fabius  Sanga,  the  patron  of  their  state,  who 
in  his  turn  acquainted  Cicero.  By  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  latter,  the  ambassadoi-s  affected 
great  zeal  in  the  undertaking,  and  having  ob- 
tained a  written  agreement,  signed  by  Lentu- 
lus,  Cethegus,  and  Statilius,  they  quitted  Home 
goon  after  midnight  on  the  Sd  of  December,  but 
were  arrested  on  the  Milvian  bridge  by  Cice- 
-o's  order.  Cicero  instantly  summoned  the 
eaders  of  the  conspiracy  to  his  presence,  and 
conducted  them  to  the  senate,  which  was  as- 
sembled in  the  temple  of  Concord  (4th  of  De- 
cember). He  proved  the  guilt  of  the  conspira- 
tors by  the  testimony  of  witnesses  and  their 
own  signatures.  They  were  thereupon  con- 
signed to  the  charge  of  certain  senators.  Cic- 
ero then  summoned  the  people,  and  delivered 
what  is  called  his  third  oration  against  Catiline, 
in  which  he  informed  them  of  all  that  had  taken 
place.  On  the  following  day,  the  nones  (5th) 
of  December,  the  day  so  frequently  referred  to 
by  Cicero  in  after  tunes  with  pride,  the  senate 
was  called  together  to  deliberate  respecting  the 
punishment  of  the  conspirators.  After  an  ani- 
mated debate,  of  which  the  leading  arguments 
are  expressed  in  the  two  celebrated  orations 
assigned  by  Sallust  to  Caesar  and  to  Cato,  a  de- 
cree was  passed  that  Lentulus  and  the  con- 
spirators should  be  put  to  death.  The  sentence 
was  executed  the  same  night  in  the  prison. 
Cicero's  speech  in  the  debate  in  the  senate  is 
preserved  in  liis  fourth  oration  against  Catiline. 
The  consul  Antonius  was  then  sent  against 
Catiline,  and  the  decisive  battle  was  fought 
early  in  62.  Antonius,  however,  unwilling  to 
fight  against  his  former  associate,  gave  the  com- 
mand on  the  day  of  battle  to  his  legate,  M.  Pe- 
treius.  Catiline  fell  in  the  engagement,  after 
fighting  with  the  most  daring  valor.  The  history 
of  Catiline's  conspiracy  has  been  written  by 
Sallust 

[CATILLUS  (Virg.,  JEn^  vii.,  670)  and  CATILUS 
(Hor.,  Od.,  i.,  18,  2),  son  of  Amphiaraus,  with  his 
brothers  Coras  and  Tiburtus  migrated  to  Italy, 
and  there  founded  the  city  Tibur  (now  Tivoli), 
on  the  Anio.l 

CATIUS.  [1.  Q.  CATIUS,  plebeian  aedile  B.C. 
210  with  L.  Porcius  Liciuius ;  served  under  C. 
Claudius  Nero  against  Hasdrubal,  B.C.  207  ;  and 
was  subsequently  sent  to  Delphi  to  present  to 
the  temple  there  some  of  the  booty  obtained  in 
the  victory  over  Hasdrubal.] — 2.  An  Epicurean 
philosopher,  a  native  of  Gallia  Transpadana 
(Insuber),  composed  a  treatise  in  four  books 
on  the  nature  of  things  and  on  the  chief  good 
(de  Rerum  Natura  et  de  summo  Bono) ;  died  B.C. 
45. 

CATO,  DIONYSIUS,  the  author  of  a  small  work, 
entitled  Disticha  de  Moribus-  ad  Filium,  consist- 
ng  of  a  series  of  sententious  moral  precepts. 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  author  or  the  time 
when  he  lived,  but  many  writers  place  him 
under  the  Antonines.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Arntzenius,  Amsterdam,  1754. 

CATO,  PORCIUS.  1.  M.,  frequently  uurnamed 
CEXSORIUS  or  CENSOR,  also  CATO  MAJOR,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  his  great-grandson  Cato  Uti- 
censis  (vid.  No.  S).  Cato  was  born  at  Tuscu- 
lum,  B.C.  234,  and  was  brought  up  at  his  fa- 
184 


CATO,  PORCIUS. 

j  tlier's  farm,  situated  in  the  Sabine  territory 
I  In  217  he  served  his  first  campaigu,  in  his  seven- 
j  teenth  year,  and  during  the  remaining  years  of 
!  the  second  Punic  war  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself  by  his  courage  and  military  abilities. 
In  the  intervals  of  war  he  returned  to  his  Sa- 
bine farm,  which  he  had  inherited  from  his  fa- 
ther, and  there  led  the  same  frugal  <md  simple 
life,  which  characterized  him  to  his  last  days. 
Encouraged  by  L.  Valerius  Flaccus,  a  young 
nobleman  in  the  neighborhood,  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  became  a  candidate  for  office.  He 
obtained  the  quaestorship  in  204,  and  served  un- 
der the  proconsul  Scipio  Africauus  in  Sicily  and 
Africa.  From  this  time  we  may  date  the  enmi- 
tv  which  Cato  always  displayed  toward  Scipio  ; 
their  habite  and  views  of  life  were  entirely  dif- 
ferent ;  and  Cato,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  de- 
nounced in  the  strongest  terms  the  luxury  and 
extravagance  of  his  commander.  On  his  voy- 
age home  he  is  said  to  have  touched  at  Sardinia, 
and  to  have  brought  the  poet  Eunius  from  the 
island  to  Italy.  In  199  he  was  ^gedile,  and  in 
198  praetor ;  he  obtained  Sardinia  as  his  prov- 
ince, which  he  governed  with  justice  and  econ- 
omy. He  had  now  established  a  reputation  for 
pure  morality  and  strict  virtue.  In  195  he  was 
consul  with  his  old  friend  and  patron  L.  Valerius 
Flaccus.  He  carried  on  war  in  Spain  with  the 
greatest  success,  and  received  the  honor  of  a 
triumph  on  his  return  to  Rome  in  194.  In  191 
he  served,  under  the  consul  M'.  Acilius  Glabrio, 
in  the  campaign  against  Antiochus  k  Greece, 
and  the  decisive  victory  at  Thermopylae  was 
mainly  owing  to  Cato.  From  this  time  Cato's 
military  career,  which  had  been  a  brilliant  one, 
appears  to  have  ceased.  He  now  took  an  act- 
ive part  in  civil  affairs,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  vehement  opposition  to  the  Roman 
nobles,  who  introduced  into  Rome  Greek  luxu- 
ry and  refinement.  It  was  especially  against 
the  Scipios  that  his  most  violent  attacks  were 
directed,  aud  whom  he  pursued  with  the  bitterest 
animosity.  He  obtained  the  condemnation  of 
L.  Scipio,  the  conqueror  of  Antiochus,  and  com- 
pelled his  brother  P.  Scipio  to  quit  Rome  in  or- 
der to  avoid  the  same  fate.  Vid.  SCIPIO.  In 
184  he  was  elected  censor  with  L.  Valerius 
Flaccus,  having  been  rejected  in  his  applica- 
tion for  the  office  in  189.  His  censorship  was 
a  great  epoch  in  his  life.  He  applied  himself 
strenuously  to  the  duties  of  his  office,  regard- 
less of  the  enemies  he  was  making  ;  but  all  his 
efforts  to  stem  the  tide  of  luxury  which  was 
now  setting  in  proved  unavailing.  His  strong 
national  prejudices  appear  to  have  diminished 
in  force  as  he  grew  older  and  wiser.  He  ap- 
plied himself  in  old  age  to  the  study  of  Greek 
literature,  with  which  in  youth  he  had  no  ac- 
quaintance, although  he  was  not  ignorant  of  the 
Greek  language.  But  his  conduct  continued  to 
be  guided  by  prejudices  against  classes  and  na- 
tions, whose  influence  he  deemed  to  be  hostile 
to  the  simplicity  of  the  old  Roman  character. 
He  had  an  antipathy  to  physicians,  because  they 
were  mostly  Greeks,  and  therefore  unfit  to  be 
trusted  with  Roman  lives.  When  Athens  sent 
Carueades,  Diogenes,  and  Critolaus  as  ambas- 
sadors to  Rome,  he  recommended  the  senate  to 
send  them  from  the  city  on  account  of  the  dan- 
gerous doctrines  taught  by  Carneades.  Vid 


CATO,  PORCIUS 


CATTL 


CAR.VEADES.     Cato  retained  his  bodily  and  men-  < 
tal  vigor  in  his  old  age.     In  the  year  before  his 
death  he  was  one  of  the  chief  instigators  of  the 
third  Punic  war.     He  had  been  one  of  the  Ro-  j 
man  deputies  sent  to  Africa  to  arbitrate  between 
Masinissa   and  the   Carthaginians,  and  he  was  ! 
BO  struck  with  the  flourishing  condition  of  Car- ; 
thage  that  on  his   return  home  he   maintained  j 
that  Home  would  never  be  safe  as  long  as  Car- . 
thage  was  in  existence.     From  this  time  forth,  '• 
•whenever  he  was  palled  upon  for  his   vote  in , 
the  senate,  though  the  subject  of  debate  bore  no 
relation  to  Carthage,  his  words  were  Delenda 
c&t   Carthago.     Very  shortly  before  his  death, 
he  made  a  powerful  speech  in  accusing  Galba ! 
on  account  of  his  cruelty  and  perfidy  in  Spain.  | 
He  died  in  149,  at  the  age  of  eighty-five.     Cato  j 
•wrote  several  works,  of  which  only  the  De  Re  \ 
Ruxtica  has  come  down  to  us,  though  even  this 
work  is  not  exactly  in  the  form  in  which  it  pro- 
ceeded from  his  pen :  it  is  printed  in  the  Scrip- 
tores  Rel   Rusticce,    edited    by  Gesner  (Lips., 
1773-4),   and   Schneider  (Lips.,    1794-7).     His 
most  important  work  was  eutitted  Origines,  but 
only  fragments  of  it  have  been  preserved,      The 
first  book  contained  the  history  of  the  Roman 
kings ;  the  second  and  third  treated  of  the  origin 
of  the  Italian  towns,  and  from  these  two  books 
the  whole  work  derived  its  title.     The  fourth 
book   treated  of  the  first  Punic  war,  the  fifth 
book  of  the  second  Punic  war,  and  the   sixth 
and  seventh  continued  the  narrative  to  the  year 
of  Cato's  death. — 2.  if.,  son  of  No.  1,  by  his  first 
wife  Lieinia,  and  thence  called  Licinianus,  was 
distinguished   as   a  jurist.     In  the  war  against 
Perseus,  168,  he  fougljt  with  great  bravery  un- 
der the  consul  ^Emih'us    Paulus,  whose  daugh- 
ter, ^Emilia  Tertia,  he  afterward  married.     He 
died  when   praetor  designates,   about    152. — 3. 
ML,  son  of  No.  1,  by   his  second  wife  Salonia, 
and  thence  called  Salonianus,   was  born   154, 
when   his   father  had  completed  his   eightieth 
year. — 4.  M.,   son  of  No.  2,  consul   118,  died  in 
Africa  in  the  same  year. — 5.  C.,  also  son  of  No. 

2,  consul  114,  obtained  Macedonia  as  his  prov- 
ince,    and    fought    unsuccessfully    against    the 
Scordisci.       He  was    accused   of    extortion   in 
Macedonia,  and  was   sentenced   to  pay  a  fine. 
He  afterward  went  to  Tarraco  in  Spain,  and  be- 
came a  citizen  of  that  town. — 6.  M.,  son  of  No. 

3,  tribunus   plebis,  died  when   a  candidate   for 
the   praetorship. — 7.  L.,   also  son  of  No.  3,   con- 
eul  89,  was  killed  in  battle  against  the  Socii. — 
8.  M.,  son  of  No.  6,  by  Livia,  great-grandson  of 
Cato  the  Censor,  and  surnamed  UTICKNSIS  from 
Utica,  the  place  of  his  death,  was  born  B.C.  95. 
In  early  childhood  he  lost  both  his  parents,  and 
was  brought  up  in   the  house  of   his  mother's 
brother,  M.  Livius  Drusus,  along  with  his  sister 
Porcia  and  the  children  of  his  mother  by  her 
second  husband,  M.  Scrvilius  Caepio.     In  early 
years    he    discovered   a   stern    and  unyielding 
character;    he  applied  himself  wilh  great  zeal 
to  the  study  of  oratory  and  philosophy,  and  be- 
came a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Stoic  school ; 
and  among  the  profligate  nobles  of  the  age  be 
Boon  became  conspicuous  for  his  rigid  morality. 
He   served   his   first  campaign  as  a  volunteer, 
72,  in  the  servile  war  of  Spartacus,  and  after- 
ward, about  67,  as   tribunus  militum  in   Mace- 
donia.    In  65  he  was  qutestor  when  he  coiroct- 


ed  numerous  abuses  wbi<h  had  crept  into  (hs 
administration  of  the  treasury.  In  63  he  was 
tribune  of  the  plebs,  and  supported  Cicero  in 
proposing  that  the  Catilinarian  conspirators 
should  euffer  death.  Vid.  CATILIXA.  He  now 
became  one  of  the  chief  leaders  of  the  aristo- 
cratical  party,  and  opposed  with  the  utmost  ve- 
hemence the  measures  of  Caesar,  Pompey,  and 
Crassus.  In  order  to  get  rid  of  him,  he  was 
sent  to  Cyprus  in  58  with  the  task  of  uniting 
that  island  to  the  Roman  dominions.  He  return 
ed  in  56,  and  continued  to  oppose  the  triumvirs ; 
but  all  his  efforts  were  vain,  and  he  was  reject- 
ed when  he  became  a  candidate  for  the  prajtor- 
ship.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  (49). 
he  was  intrusted,  as  propraetor,  with  the  de 
fence  of  Sicily;  but,  on  the  landing  of  Curio 
with  an  overwhelming  force,  he  abandoned  the 
island  and  joined  Pompey  in  Greece.  After 
Pompey's  victory  at  Pyrrachium,  Cato  was  left 
in  charge  of  the  camp,  and  thus  was  not  present 
at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  (48).  After  this  bat- 
tle he  set  sail  for  Corcyra,  and  thence  crossed 
over  to  Africa,  where  he  joined  Metellus  Scipio, 
after  a  terrible  march  across  the  desert  The 
army  wished  to  be  led  by  Cato ;  but  he  yielded 
the  command  to  the  consular  Scipio.  In  oppo- 
sition to  the  advice  of  Cato,  Scipio  fought  with 
Caesar,  and  was  utterly  routed  at  Thapsus  (April 
6th,  46).  All  Africa  now,  with  the  exception 
of  Utica,  submitted  to  Caesar.  Cato  wanted 
the  Romans  in  Utica  to  stand  a  siege ;  but  when 
he  saw  that  they  were  inclined  to  submit,  he 
resolved  to  die  rather. than  fall  alive  into  the 
hands  of  the  conqueror.  Accordingly,  after 
spending  the  greater  part  of  the  night  in  perus- 
ing Plato's  Phaedo  several  times,  he  stabbed  him- 
self below  the  breast.  In  falling,  he  overturned 
an  abacus :  his  friends,  hearing  the  noise,  ran 
up,  found  him  bathed  iu  blood,  and,  while  he  was 
fainting,  dressed  his  wound.  When,  however, 
he  recovered  feeling,  he  tore  open  the  bandages, 
let  out  his  entrails,  and  expired  at  the  age  of 
49.  Cato  soon  became  the  subject  of  biography 
and  panegyric.  Shortly  after  his  death  appear- 
ed Cicero's  Cato,  which  provoked  Caesar's  Anti- 
cato.  In  Lucan  the  character  of  Cato  is  a  per- 
sonification of  godlike  virtue.  In  modern  times 
the  closing  events  of  his  life  have  been  often 
dramatized ;  and  few  dramas  have  gained  more 
celebrity  than  the  Cato  of  Addison. — 9.  M,  a 
I  son  of  No.  8,  fell  at  the  battle  of  Philippi,  42.  ^ 

CATO,  VALERIUS,  a  distinguished  grammarian 
j  and  poet,  lost  his  property  in  his  youth  during 
;  the  usurpation  of  Sulla.  He  is  usually  consid- 
!  ered  the  author  of  an  extant  poem  in  one  hund- 
|  red  and  eighty-three  hexameter  verses,  entitled 
Dim;  edited' by  Putsch,  Jena,  1828. 

[CATREUS  (Karpevf)  or  CRETEUS,  son  of  Minos 
and  Greta.] 

CATTI   or   CHATTI,   whose  name  is   connected 
with  the  old  German  word  cat  or  cad,  "  war," 
I  one  of  the  most  important  nations  of  Germany, 
I  bounded   by  the  Visurgis  (now  Wescr)  on   the 
east,  the  Agri  Decumates  on  the  south,  nud  the 
i  Rhine  tm  the  west,  in   the  modern  Hesse  and 
the   adjacent  countries.      They  were  a  branch 
of  the  Hermiones,  and  are  first  mentioned  by 
Caesar  under    the    erroneous   name    of    Suevi. 
Although  defeated  by  Drusus,  Germanicus,  and 
other  Roman  generals,  they  were   never  com 
18/5 


CATUALDA. 


CAUCASUS. 


pletcly  subjugated  by  the  Romans;  and  their 
power  was  greatly  augmented  on  the  decline  of 
the  CheruscL  Their  capital  was  MATTIUM. 

[CATUALDA,  a  noble  youth  of  the  Gotones,  in 
the  time  of  Tiberius,  who  drove  Maroboduus 
from  the  throne  of  the  Marcomanui,  and  was 
himself  driven  out  in  turn  by  the  Hermunduri 
under  the  command  of  Vibilius.] 

CATULLUS,  VALERIUS,  a  Roman  poet,  born  at 
Verona  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  B.C.  87. 
Catullus  inherited  considerable  property  from 
his  father,  who  was  the  friend  of  Julius  Cae- 
sar ;  but  he  squandered  a  great  part  of  it  by  in- 
dulging freely  in  the  pleasures  of  the  metropo- 
lis. In  order  to  better  his  fortunes,  he  went  to 
Bithyuia  in  the  train  of  the  pnetor  Mcmmius, 
but  it  appears  that  the  speculation  was  attend- 
ed with  little  success.  It  was  probably  during 
this  expedition  that  his  brother  died  in  the 
Troad — a  loss  which  he  deplores  in  the  affect- 
ing elegy  to  Hortalus.  On  his  return  he  con- 
tinued to  reside  at  Rome  or  at  his  country-seats 
on  the  promontory  of  Sirmio  and  at  Tibur.  He 
probably  died  about  B.C.  47.  The  extant  works 
of  Catullus  consist  of  one  hundred  and  sixteen 
poems,  on  a  variety  of  topics,  and  composed  in 
different  styles  and  metres.  Some  are  lyrical, 
others  elegies,  and  others  epigrams ;  while  the 
Nuptials  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  in  four  hundred 
and 'nine  hexameter  lines,  is  an  heroic  poem. 
Some  of  his  poems  are  translations  or  imitations 
from  the  Greek,  as,  for  instance,  his  De  Coma 
Berenices,  which  was  taken  from  '  Callimachus. 
In  consequence  of  the  intimate  acquaintance 
which  Catullus  displays  with  Greek  literature 
and  mythology,  he  was  called  doctus  by  Tibul- 
lus,  Ovid,  and  others.  Catullus  adorned  all  he 
touched,  and  his  shorter  poems  are  character- 
ized by  original  invention  and  felicity  of  expres- 
eioa — Editions:  By  Volpi,  Patav.,  1710;  by 
Doering,  Altona,  1834.  2d  ed. ;  and  by  Lach- 
mann,  BeroL,  1829. 

CATULUS,  LUTATIUS,  1.  C.,  consul  B.C.  242, 
defeated  as  proconsul  in  the  following  year  the 
Carthaginian  fleet  off  the  Agates  Insula?,  and 
thus  brought  the  first  Punic  war  to  a  close,  241. 
— 2.  Q.,  consul  102  with  C.  Marius  IV.,  and  as 
proconsul  next  year  gained  along  with  Marius 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  Cimbri  near  Vercel- 
lae  (now  Vercelli),  in  the  north  of  Italy.  Catu- 
lus  claimed  the  entire  honor  of  this  victory,  and 
asserted  that  Marius  did  not  meet  with  the  ene- 
my till  the  day  was  decided ;  but  at  Rome  the 
whole  merit  was  given  to  Marius.  Catulus  be- 
longed to  the  aristocratical  party ;  he  espoused 
the  cause  of  Sulla ;  was  included  by  Marius  in 
the  proscription  of  87 ;  and  as  escape  was  im- 
possible, put  an  end  to  his  life  by  the  vapors 
of  a  charcoal  fire.  Catulus  was  well  acquaint- 
ed with  Greek  literature,  and  famed  for  the 
grace  and  purity  with  which  he  spoke  and  wrote 
his  own  language.  He  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral orations,  of  an  historical  work  on  his  own  j 
consulship  and  the  Cimbric  war,  and  of  poems ;  j 
but  all  these  have  perished  with  the  exception  | 
of  two  epigrams. — 3.  Q.,  son  of  No.  2,  a  distin- 
guished leader  of  the  aristocracy,  also  won  the 
respect  and  confidence  of  the  people  by  his  up- 
right character  and  conduct.  Being  consul  with  ! 
M.  Lepidus  in  78,  he  resisted  the  efforts  of  his 
colleague  to  abrogate  the  acts  of  Sulla,  and  the  I 
186 


following  spring  he  defeated  Lepidus  in  the  bat- 
tle of  the  Milviau  bridge,  and  forced  him  to  take 
refuge  in  Sardinia.  He  opposed  the  Gabinim: 
and  Manilian  laws  which  conferred  extraordi- 
nary powers  upon  Pompey  (67  and  66).  He 
was  censor  with  Crassus  in  65,  and  died  in  60. 

CATUIUGES,  a  Liguriau  people  in  Gnllia  Nar- 
bonensis,  near  the  Cottiau  Alps :  their  chief 
towns  were  EBUEODUNUM  and  CATUUIQ^E  or 
CATORIMAGUS  (now  Charges} 

CATUS  DECIANUS,  procurator  of  Britain  in  the 
reign  of  Nero,  was  by  his  extortion  one  of  the 
chief  causes  of  the  revolt  of  the  people  under 
Boadicea,  A.D.  62.  He  fled  to  Gaul. 

CAUCA  (now  Coca),  a  town  of  the  Vaccaei  in 
Hispania  Tarraconcnsis ;  birth-place  of  the  Em 
peror  Theodosius  I. 

[CAUCALUS  (Kci/caJlof).  of  Chios,  a  rhetori- 
cian, brother  of  the  historian  Theopompus, 
wrote  a  eulogium  on  Hercules,  which  uo  longer 
exists.] 

CAUCASIA  PYL^E.     Vid.  CAUCASUS. 

CAUCASUS,  CAUCASII  MOOTES  (6  KavKaaof,  TO 
KavKuaiov  opofy  rd  Kavnuoia  opij :  now  Cauca- 
sus). 1.  A  great  chain  of  mountains  in  Asia, 
extending  west-northwest  and  east-southeast 
from  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Poutus  Euxiuus 
(now  Black  Sea)  to  the  western  shore  of  the 
Caspian.  Its  length  is  about  seven  hundred 
miles ;  its  greatest  breadth  one  hundred  and 
twenty,  its  least  sixty  or  seventy.  Its  greatest 
height  exceeds  that  of  the  Alps,  its  loftiest 
summit  (now Mount  Elbrooz,  nearly  in  43°  north 
latitude  and  43°  east  longitude)  being  gixtecu 
thousand  eight  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
to  the  east  of  this  are  t  several  other  summits 
above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  which,  in  the 
Caucasus,  is  from  ten  to  eleven  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  western  part  of  the  chain 
is  much  lower,  no  summit  west  of  Mount  El- 
brooz rising  above  the  snow  line.  At  both  ex 
tremities  the  chain  sinks  down  to  low  hills. 
There  are  tw.o  chief  passes  over  the  chain,  both 
of  which  were  known  to  the  ancients :  the  one, 
between  its  eastern  extremity  and  the  Caspian, 
near  Derbent,  was  called  Albania?  and  some- 
times CASPI^E  PYL^E  ;  the  other,  nearly  in  the 
centre  of  the  range,  was  called  Caucasia  Pylae 
(now  Pass  of  Dariel).  In  ancient  times,  as  is 
stiU  the  case,  the  Caucasus  was  inhabited  by  a 
great  variety  of  tribes,  speaking  different  lan- 
guages (Strabo  says,  at  least  seventy),  but  all 
belonging  to  that  family  of  the  human  7-ace 
which  has  peopled  Europe  and  Western  Asia, 
and  which  has  obtained  the  name  of  Caucasian 
from  the  fact  that  in  no  other  part  of  the  world 
are  such  perfect  examples  of  it  found  as  among 
the  mountaineers  of  the  Caucasus.  That  the 
Greeks  had  some  vague  knowledge  of  the  Cau- 
casus in  very  early  times,  is  proved  by  the 
myths  respecting  Prometheus  and  the  Argo- 
nauts, from  which  it  seems  that  the  Caucasus 
was  regarded  as  at  the  extremity  of  the  earth, 
on  the  border  of  the  River  Oceanus.  The  ac- 
count which  Herodotus  gives  is  good  as  far  us 
it  goes  (L,  203) ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  march 
of  Pompey,  in  the  Mithradatie  War,  extended 
to  the  banks  of  the  Cyrus  and  Araxes,  ar  d  to 
the  foot  of  the  great  chain,  that  means  were  ob- 
tained for  that  accurate  description  of  the  Cau- 
casus which  Strabo  gives  in  his  eleventh  book. 


CAUCL 


CECROPS. 


The  country  about  the  east  part  of  the  Cauca- 
sus was  called  ALBANIA  :  the  rest  of  the  chaiu 
divided  IBERIA  and  COLCHIS,  on  the  south,  from 
SARMATIA  ASIATICA  on  the  north. — 2.  When  the 
soldiers  of  Alexander  advanced  to  that  great 
range  of  mountains  which  formed  the  northern 
boundary  of  Ariana,  the  Paropamisus,  they  sup- 
posed that  they  had  reached  the  great  Cauca- 
sian chain  at  the  extremity  of  the  world  men- 
tioned by  the  early  poets,  and  they  applied  to 
it  the  name  of  Caucasus  ;  afterward,  for  the  sake 
of  distinction,  it  was  called  Caucasus  Indicus. 
Vid.  PAROPAMISUS. 

CAUCI.     Vid.  CHAUCI. 

CAUCONES  (Kawuvee),  the  name  of  communi- 
ties both  in  Greece  and  Asia,  but  whether  of  the 
same  or  different  tribes  cannot  be  determined 
with  certainty.  The  Caucones  in  the  northwest 
of  Greece,  in  Elis  and  Achaia,  were  supposed  by 
the  ancient  geographers  to  be  an  Arcadian 
people.  The  Caucones  in  the  northwest  of  Asia 
Minor  are  mentioned  by  Homer  as  allies  of  the 
Trojans,  and  are  placed  in  Bithynia  and  Paphla- 
gouia  by  the  geographers  who  regarded  them 
as  Pelasgians,  as  though  some  thought  them  Scy- 
thians. 

CAUDIUM  (Caudinus),  a  town  in  Samnium,  on 
the  road  from  Capua  to  Beneventum.  In  the 
neighborhood  were  the  celebrated  FURCUL^K 
CAUDIN^S,  or  Caudine  Forks,  narrow  passes  in  the 
mountains,  where  the  Roman  army  surrendered 
to  the  Samnites,  and  was  sent  under  the  yoke, 
B.C.  321 :  it  is  now  called  the  valley  of  Ar- 
paia. 

CAULON  or  CAULONIA  (Cauloniata :  now  Castel 
Vetere),  a  town  in  Bruttium,  northeast  of  Locri, 
originally  called  Aulon  or  Aulonia  ;  founded  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Croton  or  by  the  Achaeans ; 
destroyed  by  Dionysius  the  elder,  who  removed 
its  inhabitants  to  Syracuse,  and  gave  its  territory 
to  Locri ;  afterward  rebuilt,  but  again  destroyed 
hi  the  war  with  Pyrrhus ;  rebuilt  a  third  time, 
and  destroyed  a  third  time  in  the  second  Punic 
war.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  worship  of  the 
Delphian  Apollo.  Its  name  is  preserved  in 
the  hill  Caulone,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Castel 
Vetere. 

CAUNUS.     Vid.  BYBLIS. 

CAUNUS  (i)  Kawof :  Kavviof :  now  Kaigues), 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Caria,  on  its  southern 
coast,  a  little  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Calbis,  in  a 
very  fertile  but  unhealthy  situation.  It  had  a 
citadel  called  Imbros,  an  inclosed  harbor  for  ships 
of  war,  and  safe  roads  for  merchant  vessels.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Cretans.  Its  dried  figs 
(Cauneas  ficus)  were  highly  celebrated.  The 
painter  Protogenes  was  bom  here. 

[CAURA  (now  Coring  a  town  of  Hispania 
Baetica,  between  the  Baetis  and  Anas.] 

CAURUS,  the  Argestes  ('Apyear^f)  of  the 
Greeks,  the  northwestern  wind,  is  in  Italy  a 
stormy  wind. 

CAVARES  or  -i,  a  people  in  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
east  of  the  Rhone,  between  the  Druentia  and  the 
I-.ira. 

CAVARINUS,  a  Senonian,  whom  Caesar  made 
kiiiL,'  of  his  people,  was  expelled  by  his  subjects 
and  compelled  to  fly  to  Caesar,  B.C.  54. 

CAYSTRUS  (Kdvarpof,  Ion.  Kavarpuf :  now 
Kara  Su,  i.  e.,  the  Black  River,  or  Kuchuk-Mein- 
der,  i.  e.,  Little  Mceander),  a  celebrated  river  of 


]  Lydia  and  Ionia,  rising  in  the  Cilbiani  Mountaim 

1  (the   eastern   part  of   Tmolus),  and  flowing  be- 

j  tween  the  ranges  of  Tmolus  and  Messogis  into 

I  the  ^Egean,  a  little  northwest  of  Ephesus.     To 

I  this  day  it  abounds  in  swans,  as  it  did  in  Ho- 

;  mer's  time.     The  valley  of  the  Caystrus  is  called 

I  by  Homer  "  the  Asian  meadow,"  and  is  probably 

the  district  to  which  the  name  of  Asia  was  first 

applied.    There  was  an  inland  town  of  the  same 

name  on  its  southern  bank. 

[CEA.     Vid.  CEOS.] 

CEBENNA  MONS  or  GEBENNA  (TO  Kefi/ievov  opof  : 
now  Cevennes),  mountains  in  the  south  of  Gaul, 
two  thousand  stadia  in  length,  extending  north  as 
far  as  Lugdunum,  and  separating  the  Arverni 
from  the  Helvii :  Caesar  found  them  in  the  winter 
covered  with  snow  six  feet  deep. 

CEBES  (K.e6rj<;),  of  Thebes,  a  disciple  and  friend 
of  Socrates,  was  present  at  the  death  of  his 
teacher.  He  wrote  three  philosophical  works, 
one  of  which,  entitled  Hiva$  or  Picture  [com- 
monly cited  by  its  Latin  title,  Cebetis  Tabula,  i.e., 
Picat],  is  extant.  This  work  is  an  allegorical 
picture  ef  human  life,  which  is  explained  by  an 
old  man  to  a  circle  of  youths.  The  drift  of  the 
book  is  to  show  that  only  the  development  of 
our  mind  and  the  possession  of  real  virtue  can 
make  us  happy.  Few  works  have  enjoyed  a 
greater  popularity.  Of  the  numerous  editions,  the 
best  are  by  Schweighaiiser,  Argent.,  1806,  and 
by  Goraes  in  his  edition  of  Epictetus,  Paris, 
1826. 

[CEBREN  (K.£6pijv),  a  river  of  the  Troad,  said  to 
have  been  so  called  from  Cebren,  father  of  Aste- 
rope.  Vid.  CEBRENE.] 

CEBEENE  (K.e6p^v7) :  KeSpf/viof  and  KeGpqvievf), 
a  city  in  the  Troad,  on  mount  Ida,  which  fell  into 
decay  when  Antigonus  transplanted  its  inhab- 
itants to  Alexandrea  Tros.  A  little  river,  which 
flowed  past  it,  was  called  Cebren  (Kefipijv) 
and  the  surrounding  district  Cebrenia  (Ke- 
Spijvia). 

[CEBRIONES  (KE6ptovr]f),  a  son  of  Priam  by  a 
female  slave  ;  charioteer  of  Hector,  and  slam  by 
Patroclus.] 

CECROPIA.     Vid.  ATHENE,  p.  122,  a. 
CECHOPS  (KeKpoip),  a  hero  of  the  Pelasgic  race, 
said  to  have  been  the  first  king  of  Attica.    He 
was  married  to  Agraulos,  daughter  of  Actaeus, 
by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Erysichthon,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  as  king  of  Athens,  and  three  daugh- 
ters,  Agraulos,  Herse,  and  Pandrosos.     In    his 
reign  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  Minerva  (Athena) 
contended  for  the  possession  of  Attica,  but  Ce-.- 
crops  decided  in  favor  of  the  goddess.      Vid. 
ATHENA.     Cecrops    is    said    to    have    founded 
Athens,  the  citadel  of  which  was  called  Cecropia 
after  him,  to   have   divided  Attica  into  twelve 
communities,  and  to  have  introduced  the  first 
elements  of  civilized  life ;  he  instituted  marriage, 
abolished  bloody  sacrifices,  and  taught  his  sub- 
[  jects  how  to  worship  the  gods.     He  is  sometimes 
|  called  titQvtif  or  geminus,  an  epithet  which  some 
•  explain    by    his    having    instituted     marriage, 
i  while  others  suppose  it  to  have  reference  to  the 
legends,   in   which   the   upper  part  of  his  body 
j  was  represented  as  that  of  a  man,  and  the  lower 
part  as   that  of  a  serpent.    The  later  Greek 
writers  describe  Cecrops  as  a  native  of  Sais  in 
Egypt,   who  led   a    colony  of    Egyptians    into 
Attica,   and   thus  introduced    from  Egypt  the 
187 


CECRYPHALIA. 


CELTJE. 


arts  of  civilized  life ;  but  this  account  is  rejected 
Ly  some  of  the  ancients  themselves,  and  by  thi 
ablest  modern  critics. 

CECRYPHALIA  (KeKpv<f>dXeia),  a  small  island  in 
the  Saronic  Gulf,  between  ^Egina  and  Epidau 
rue. 

CEDRE-E  (Kedpeai  or  -etai,  Kedpeurrje  or  - 
a  town  of  Caiia,  on  the  Caremic  Gulf. 

CEDRKNUS,  GEOEGIUS,  a  By/autine  writer,  of 
whose  life  nothing  is  known,  the  author  of  an 
Historical  work,  which  begins  with  the  creation 
of  the  world,  and  goes  down  to  A.D.  1057.  The 
last  edition  is  by  Bekkcr,  Bonn,  1838-39. 

[CELADON  (Kehdduv),  a  tributary  of  the  Al- 
pheus  in  Elis.] 

[CELADON.  1.  An  Egyptian,  slain  at  the  nup- 
tials of  Perseus. — 2.  One  of  the  Lapithse,  slain  at 
the  nuptials  of  Pirithous.] 

CEL^KN^E  (K&cuvai,  KehcuviTijf),  the  greatest 
city  of  southern  Phrygia,  before  the  rise  of  its 
neighbor,  Apamea  Cibotus,  reduced  it  to  insigni- 
ficance. It  lay  at  the  sources  of  the  rivers 
Masander  and  Marsyas.  In  the  midst  of  it  was 
a  citadel  built  by  Xerxes,  on  a  precipitous-  rock, 
at  the  foot  of  which,  in  the  Agora  of  the  city, 
the  Marsyas  took  its  rise,  and  near  the  river's 
source  was  a  grotto  celebrated  by  tradition  as 
the  scene  of  the  punishment  of  Mursyas  by 
Apollo.  Outside  of  the  city  was  a  royal  palace, 
with  pleasure  gardens  and  a  great  park  (irapu- 
<5eiaof)  full  of  game,  which  was  generally  the 
residence  of  the  satrap.  The  Maaander  took  its 
rise  in  the  very  palace,  and  flowed  through  the 
park  and  the  city,  below  which  it  received  the 
Marsyas. 

CEL^ENO  (Kehatvu).  1.  A  Pleiad,  daughter  of 
Atlas  and  Pleione,  beloved  by  Neptune  (Posei- 
don).— 2.  One  of  the  Harpies.  Vid.  HAEPYI.E. 
CELEIA  (now  Cilly),  an  important  town  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  Noricum,  and  a  Roman 
colony  with  the  surname  Claudia,  was  in  the 
Middle  Ages  the  capital  of  a  Slavonic  state  call- 
ed Zellia ;  hence  the  modern  name  of  the  town, 
which  possesses  Roman  remains. 

CELENDERIS  (KeMvdepte :  now  Khelindreh),  a 
sea-port  town  of  Cilicia,  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Sandarus  the  Syrian,  and  afterwards  col- 
onized by  the  Samians. 

CELENNA,  a  town  of  Campania,  mentioned  by 
Virgil  (jEn.,  vii.,  133),  but  nowhere  else.] 

CELER,  together  with  Severus,  the  architect  of 
Xero's  immense  palace,  the  golden  house.    He 
AIK!   Severus  began  digging  a  canal  from  the 
Lake  Avernus  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber. 
CELER,  P.  EGNATIUS.     Vid.  BAEEA. 
CELETRUM  (now  Kastoria),  a  town  in  Mace- 
Ionia,  on  a  peninsula  of  the  Lacus  Castoris,  pro- 
Oably  the  same  town  afterward  called  DIOCLE- 

flANOPOLIS. 

CELEUS  (KeAeof,)  king  of  Eleusis,  husband  of 
Metanira,  and  father  of  Demophon  and  Triptole- 
mus.  He  received  Ceres  (Demeter)  with  hospi- 
tality at  Eleusis  when  she  was  wandering  in 
eearch  of  her  daughter.  The  goddess,  in  return, 
wished  to  make  his  son  Demophon  immortal,  and 
placed  him  in  the  fire  in  order  to  destroy  his 
mortal  parts ;  but  MetarJra  screamed  aloud  at 
the  sight,  and  Demophon  was  destroyed  by  the 
flames.  Ceres  (Demeter)  then  bestowed  great 
favors  upon  Triptolemus.  Vid.  TRIPTOLEMDS. 
Celeus  is  described  as  thft  first  priest  and  his 
188 


I  daughters    as    the    first    priestesses  of    Ceres 
(Demeter)  at  Eleusis. 

CELSA  (now  Velilla,  ruins  near  Xelsa),  a  town 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  Iberus,  with  a 
stone  bridge  over  this  river,  and  a  Roman  colony 
with  the  name  Victrix  Julia  Celsa. 

CELSUS.  1.  One  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  usurped 
the  purple  in  Africa,  and  was  slain  on  the  seventh 
day  of  his  reign,  A.D,  265. — 2.  An  Epicurean 
philosopher,  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Antonines, 
and  was  a  friend  of  Lucian.  He  is  supposed  to 
be  the  same  as  the  Celsus  who  wrote  the  work 
against  Christianity  called  Aoyof  uXrid^g,  which 
acquired  so  much  notoriety  from  the  answer 
written  to  it  by  Origen.  Vid.  ORIGENES. — 3.  A. 
CORNELIUS  CELSUS,  probably  lived  under  the 
reigns  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius.  He  wrote 
several  works  of  which  only  one  remains  entire, 
his  treatise  De  Medicina,  "  On  Medicine,"  in 
eight  books.  The  first  two  books  are  principally 
occupied  by  the  consideration  of  diet,  and  the 
general  principles  of  therapeutics  and  pathology ; 
the  remaining  books  are  devoted  to  the  consider- 
ation of  particular  diseases  and  their  treatment ; 
the  third  and  fourth  to  internal  diseases ;  the 
fifth  and  sixth  to  external  diseases  and  to 
pharmaceutical  preparations ;  and  the  last  two 
to  those  diseases  which  more  particularly  belong 
to  surgery.  The  work  has  been  much  valued 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day. — Edi- 
tions: ByMilligan,  Edinb.,  1826;  by  Ritter  and 
Albers,  Colon.  adRhen.,  1835.— 4.  JULIUS  CELSUS, 
a  scholar  at  Constantinople  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury after  Christ,  made  a  recension  of  the  text 
of  Caesar's  Commentaries.  Many  modern 
writers  have  attributed  to  him  the  life  of 
3aesar,  which  was,  in  reality,  written  by 
Petrarch. — 5.  P.  JUVENTIUS  CELSUS,  two  Roman 
jurists,  father  and  son,  both  of  whom  are  cited 
n  the  Digest  Very  little  is  known  of  the  elder 
Celsus.  The  younger  Celsus,  who  was  the 
more  celebrated,  lived  under  Nerva  and  Trajan, 
jy  whom  he  was  highly  favored.  He  wrote 
Digesta  in  thirty-nine  books,  Epistolce,  Quces- 
tiones,  and  Institutiones  in  seven  books. — 6.  P. 
DARIUS  CELSUS,  an  able  general,  first  of  Galba 
and  afteward  of  Otho.  After  the  defeat  of 
Otho's  army  at  the  battle  of  Bedriacum,  Celsus 
was  pardoned  by  Vitellius,  and  was  allowed 
>y  him  to  enter  on  the  consulship  in  July  (A.D. 
59). 

CELT^E,  a  powerful  race,  which  occupied   a 

great  part  of  Western  Europe.     The  Greek  and 

ioman  writers  call  them  by  three  names,  which 

are  probably  only  variations  of  one  name,  name- 

y,  CELINE  (Kefoai,  KeArot),  GALAT^E  (Fa/lurat), 

and  GALLI  (Fa/Wot).     Their  name  was  originally 

;iven  to  all  the  people  of  Northern  and  West- 

rn  Europe  who  were  not  Iberians,  and  it  was 

not  till   the  time   of  Caesar  that  the    Romans 

made  any  distinction  between  the  Celts  and  the 

Germans:  the  name  of  Celts  then  began  to  be 

confined  to  the  people  between  the  Pyrenees 

and  the  Rhine.    The  Celts  belonged  to  the  great 

ndo-Germanic  race,  as  their  language  proves. 

l,ike  the  other  Indo-Germanic  races  they  came 

rom  the  East,  and,  at  a  period  long  antecedent 

jO  all  historical  records,  settled  in  the  west  of 

iurope.     The  most  powerful  part  of  the  nation 

appears  to  have  taken  up  their  abode  in  the  cen- 

;re  of  the  country  called  after  them  GALLIA,  be- 


CELTIBERI. 


CENTAURI. 


tween  the  Garumna  in  the  south  and  the  Se- 
quana  and  Matroua  in  the  north.  From  this 
country  they  spread  over  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, and  they  appear  in  early  times  as  a  migra- 
tory race,  ready  to  abandon  their  homes,  and 
settle  in  any  district  which  their  swords  could 
win.  Besides  the  Celts  in  Gallia,  there  were 
eight  other  different  settlements  of  the  nation, 
which  may  be  distinguished  by  the  following 
names:  1.  Iberian  Celts,  who  crossed  the  Pyr- 
enees and  settled  in  Spain.  Vid.  CELTIBERL — 
2.  British  Celts,  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Britain.  Vid.  BRITANNIA. — 3.  Belgic  Celts,  the 
earliest  inhabitants  of  Gallia  Belgica,  at  a  later 
time  much  mingled  with  Germans. — 4.  Italian 
Celts,  who  crossed  the  Alps  at  different  periods, 
and  eventually  occupied  the  greater  part  of  the 
North  of  Italy,  which  was  called  after  them 
GALLIA  CISALPINA. — 5.  Celts  in  the  Alps  and  on 
the  Danube,  namely,  the  Helvetii,  Gothini,  Osi, 
Vindelici,  Rseti,  Norici,  and  Garni. — 6.  lllyrian 
Celts,  who,  under  the  name  of  Scordisci,  settled 
on  Mount  Scordus. — 7.  Macedonian  and  Thra- 
cian  Celts,  who  had  remained  behind  in  Mace- 
donia when  the  Celts  invaded  Greece,  and  who 
are  rarely  mentioned. — 8.  Asiatic  Celts,  the  To- 
listoboii,  Trocmi,  and  Tectosages,  who  founded 
the  kingdom  of  GALATIA.  Some  ancient  writ- 
ers divided  the  Celts  into  two  great  races,  one 
consisting  of  the  Celts  in  the  south  and  centre 
of  Gaul,  in  Spain,  and  in  the  north  of  Italy,  who 
were  the  proper  Celts,  and  the  other  consisting 
of  the  Celtic  tribes  on  the  shores  of  the  ocean 
and  in  the  east  as  far  as  Scythia,  who  were 
called  Gauls :  to  the  latter  race  the  Cimbri  be- 
longed, and  they  are  considered  by  some  to  be 
identical  with  the  Cimmerii  of  the  Greeks. 
This  two-fold  division  of  the  Celts  appears  to 
correspond  to  the  two  races  into  which  the  Celts 
are  at  present  divided  in  Great  Britain,  namely, 
the  Gael  and  the  Kymry,  who  differ  in  language 
and  customs,  the  Gael  being  the  inhabitants  of 
Ireland  and  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  the 
Kymry  of  Wales.  The  Celts  are  described  by 
the  ancient  writers  as  men  of  large  stature,  of 
fair  complexion,  and  with  flaxen  or  red  hair. 
They  were  brave  and  warlike,  impatient  of  con- 
trol, and  prone  to  change.  They  fought  with 
long  swords ;  their  first  charge  in  battle  was 
the  most  formidable,  but  if  firmly  resisted  they 
usually  gave  way.  They  were  long  the  terror 
of  the  Romans :  once  they  took  Rome,  and  laid 
it  in  ashes  (B.C.  390).  For  details  respecting 
their  later  history  and  political  organization, 
vid.  GALLIA. 

CELTIBERI  (Kefoidr/pfe),  a  powerful  people  in 
Spain,  consisting  of  Celta,  who  crossed  the  Pyr- 
enees at  an  early  period,  and  became  mingled 
with  the  Iberians,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the 
country.  They  dwelt  chiefly  in  the  central  part 
of  Spain,  in  the  highlands  which  separate  the 
Iberus  from  the  rivers  which  flow  toward  the 
west,  and  in  which  the  Tagus  and  the  Dm  ins 
rise.  They  were  divided  into  various  tribes,  the 
ABEVAC^,  BERONES,  and  PELENDONES,  which 
were  the  three  most  important,  the  LUSONES, 
BELLI,  DITTANI,  <fec.  Their  chief  towns  were 
SEGOBRKJA,  NUMANTIA,  BILMLIS,  <tc.  Their 
country,  called  CELTIBEUIA,  was  mountainous 
and  unproductive.  They  were  a  brave  and  war- 
like people,  and  proved  formidable  enemies  to 


I  the  Romans.  They  submitted  to  Scipio  Africa- 
nus  in  the  second  Punic  war,  but  the  oppres 
;  sions  of  the  Roman  governors  led  them  to  rebel, 
and  for  many  years  they  successfully  defied  the 
I  power  of  Rome.  They  were  reduced  to  sub- 
mission on  the  capture  of  Numantia  by  Scipio 
I  Africanus  the  younger  (B.C.  134),  but  they 
again  took  up  arms  under  Sertorius.  and  it  was 
not  till  his  death  (72)  that  they  began  to  adopt 
the  Roman  customs  and  language. 

CELTICI.  1.  A  Celtic  people  in  Lusitania,  be- 
tween the  Tagus  and  Anas. — 2.  A  Celtic  people 
in  Gallaecia,  near  the  promontory  Nerium,  which 
was  called  Celticum  after  them  (now  Gape  Fin- 
ifterre). 

CEN^EUII  (Ktjvalov  unpov  :  now  Kanaia  or  Li- 
tar),  the  northwestern  promontory  of  Eubcea, 
opposite  Thermopylae,  with  a  temple  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  Cenzeus. 

CENCHRK^E  (Key^peai).  1.  (Now  Kenkri),  the 
eastern  harbor  of  Corinth,  on  the  Saronic  Gulf, 
important  for  the  trade  and  commerce  with  the 
East. — 2.  A  town  in  Argolis,  south  of  Argos,  on 
the  road  to  Tegea. 

[CENCHRIUS  (Key^/MOf),  a  river  of  Ionia,  flow- 
ing through  the  territory  of  Ephesus.] 

CENOMANI,  a  powerful  Gallic  people,  original- 
ly a  branch  of  the  AULERCI,  crossed  the  Alps  at 
an  early  period,  and  settled  in  the  north  of  Italy 
in  the  country  of  Brixia,  Verona,  and  Mantua 
and  extended  north  as  far  as  the  confines  of 
Rastia.  They  were  at  constant  feud  with  th< 
neighboring  tribes  of  the  Insubres,  Boii,  etc.,  ane 
hence  usually  assisted  the  Romans  in  their  wan 
with  these  people. 

CENSORINUS.  1.  One  of  the  thirty  tyranta 
assumed  the  purple  at  Bologna  A.D.  270,  but 
was  shortly  afterward  put  to  death  by  his  own 
soldiers. — 2.  Author  of  a  treatise  entitled  de  Die 
Natali,  Avhich  treats  of  the  generation  of  man. 
of  his  natal  hour,  of  the  influence  of  the  stars 
and  genii  upon  his  career,  and  discusses  the 
various  methods  employed  for  the  division  and 
calculation  of  time.  The  book  is  dedicated  to 
Q.  Cerellius,  and  was  composed  A.D.  238.  A 
fragment  de  Metris  and  lost  tracts  de  Accentibus 
and  de  Geometria  are  ascribed  to  this  Censori- 
ous. —  Editions :  By  Havercamp,  Lug.  Bat., 
1743;  by  Gruber,  Noremb.,  1805. 

CENSORINUS,  MARCIUS.  1.  C.,  son  of  C.  Mar- 
cius  Rutilus,  first  plebeian  dictator  (B.C.  356), 
was  originally  called  Rutilus,  and  was  the  first 
member  of  the  family  who  had  the  surname 
Censorinus.  He  was  consul  in  B.C.  310,  and 
conducted  the  war  in  Samuium.  He  was  censor 
294,  and  a  second  time  266,  the  only  instance  in 
which  a  person  held  the  office  of  censor  twice. 
— 2.  L.,  consul  149,  the  first  year  of  the  third 
Punic  war,  conducted  the  war  against  Carthage 
with  his  colleague  M'.  Manilius. — 3.  C.,  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Marian  party,  fought  against 
Sulla  in  the  battle  near  the  Colline  gate,  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death  by  Sulla's  order. 
Censorinus  was  one  of  the  orators  of  his  time, 
and  versed  in  Greek  literature. — 4.  L.,  a  parti- 
san of  M.  Antony,  praetor  43,  and  consul  39. — 
6.  C,  consul  B.C.  8,  died  in  Asia  A.D.  2,  while 
in  attendance  upcn  C.  Caesar,  the  grandson  of 
Augustus. 

CEXTAURI  (Ki-vravpot),  that  is,  the  Bull-killers, 
were  an  ancient  race,  inhabiting  Mount  Pel  ion 
189 


CENTIMANI. 


CEPHALUS. 


ID  Thessaly.  They  led  a  wild  and  savage  life, 
and  are  hence  called  <j>f/pef  or  tir/pif  in  Homer. 
In  later  accounts  they  w^-e  represented  as  half 
horses  and  half  men.  Their  origin  is  variously 
related.  According  to  the  most  aucicut  account, 
Ccutaurus,  the  offspring  of  Ixiou  and  a  cloud, 
begot  the  Hippocentuurs  by  mixing  with  Mag- 
ne.-ian  mares.  From  most  accounts  it  would 
appear  that  the  Centaurs  and  Hippoceutaurs 
were  originally  regarded  as  two  distinct  classes 
of  beings,  although  the  name  of  Centaurs  is  ap- 
plied to  both  by  ancient  as  well  as  modern  wri- 
ters. The  Centaurs  are  particularly  celebrated 
in  ancient  story  for  their  tight  with  the  Lapithte, 
which  arose  at  the  marriage-feast  of  Pinthous. 
This  fight  is  sometimes  placed  in  connection 
with  a  combat  of  Hercules  with  the  Centaurs. 
It  ended  by  the  Centaurs  being  expelled  from 
their  country,  and  taking  refuge  on  Mount  Pin- 
dus,  on  the  frontiers  of  Epirus.  Chiron  is  the 
most  celebrated  among  the  Centaurs.  Vid. 
CumoN.  We  know  that  hunting  the  bull  on 
horseback  was  a  national  custom  in  Thessaly, 
and  that  the  Thessalians  were  celebrated  riders. 
Hence  may  have  arisen  the  fable  that  the  Cen- 
taurs were  half  men  and  half  horses,  just  as  the 
Americans,  when  they  first  saw  a  Spaniard  on 
horseback,  believed  horse  and  man  to  be  one 
being.  The  Centaurs  were  frequently  repre- 
sented in  ancient  works  of  art,  and  generally  as 
men  from  the  head  to  the  loius,  while  the  re- 
mainder of  the  body  is  that  of  a  horse  with  its 
four  feet  and  tail. 

[UENTIMANI  ('E/caroy^eipef),  "  the  hundred- 
handed,''  the  three  giants  Cottus,  ^Egceon  or 
Briareus,  and  Gyges,  sons  of  Coelus  (Uranus) 
and  Terra  (Ge).  They  had  a  hundred  hands  and 
fifty  heads,  and  were  of  extraordinary  strength 
uud  terrible  size.  They  helped  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
conquer  the  Titans,  and  had  to  guard  the  latter 
when  cast,  fettered,  into  Tartarus.] 

CKNTRITES  (Kevrpirrjc :  now  Bcdlis),  a  small 
river  of  Armenia,  which  it  divided  from  the  land 
of  the  Carduchi,  north  of  Assyria.  It  rises  in 
the  mountains  south  of  the  Arsissa  Palus  (now 
Lake  Van),  and  flows  into  the  Tigris. 

[CENTKONES  (Ki-vrpuve^),  an  Alpine  nation  in 
Gallia  Narboneusis,  through  whose  country  ran 
the  public  route  from  Italy  to  Lugdunum  in 
Gallia.] 

CENTUMALUS,  FULVIUS.  1.  CN.,  legate  of  the 
dictator  M.  Valerius  Corvus  B.C.  301 ;  consul 
298,  when  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Sam- 
uites  ;  and  propraetor  295,  when  he  defeated  the 
Etruscans. — 2.  CN.,  consul  229,  defeated  the 
lllyriaus  subject  to  the  queen  Teuta. — 3.  CN., 
curule  anlile  214;  prajtor  213,  with  Suessula 
as  his  province;  and  consul  211;  in  the  next 
year  he  was  defeated  by  Hannibal  near  Her- 
donia  in  Apulia,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle. — 
4.  M.,  praetor  urbanus  192,  superintended  the 
preparations  for  the  war  against  Antiochus  the 
Great. 

CENTUM  CELINE  (now  Civita  Vecchia),  a  sea- 
port town  in  Etruria,  first  became  a  place  of  im- 
portance under  Trajan,  -who  built  a  villa  here 
and  constructed  an  excellent  harbor.  It  was 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  the  ninth  century, 
but  was  rebuilt  on  its  ancient  site,  and  was 
heuee  called  Civita  Vecchia. 

CKNTURIP.*  (ra  Krvrupnta,  al  KevTovpnrai : 
190 


,  in  Thuc.  of  Kevropnrec.,  Centuripl 
uus:  now  Ceiiiorbi),  an  ancient  town  ol  the  Si- 
culi  in  Sicily,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  ^Etua,  on  tho 
road  from  Catana  to  Panormus,  and  not  far  from 
the  River  Symsethus ;  in  its  neighborhood  a 
great  quantity  of  corn  was  grown,  and  it  became 
under  the  Romans  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
cities  in  the  island. 

CEOS,  also  CEA  or  O«A  (Kewf,  Ion.  Keof :  KeZof, 
Ion.  Kijiof,  Ceus :  now  Zea),  an  island  in  the 
^Egeau  Sea,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  between  the 
Attic  promontory  Suuium  and  the  island  Cyth- 
nus,  celebrated  for  its  fertile  soil  and  its  genial 
climate.  It  was  inhabited  by  louians,  and  orig- 
inally contained  four  towns,  lulis,  Carthfea,  Co- 
ressus,  and  Poeeessa ;  but  the  two  latter  perish 
ed  by  an  earthquake.  Simonides  was  a  native 
of  lulis  in  Ceos,  whence  we  read  of  the  Cece 
munera  nenice.  (Hor.,  Carin.,  ii.,  1,  38.) 

CEPHALE  (KeQahij),  an  Attic  demus,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Erasinus,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  Acamantis. 

CEPHALLENIA  (Ke^aX^via,  KeQafyvia :  Ke- 
<j>a?.2.7jv,  pi.  KEQahAqvef :  now  Cephalonia),  called 
by  Homer  SAME  (2u^»?)  or  SAMOS  (Zu/^of),  the 
largest  island  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  separated  from 
Ithaca  on  the  east  by  a  narrow  channel,  con 
tains  348  square  miles.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  inhabited  by  Taphiaus,  and  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  the  mythical  CEPHALUS. 
Even  in  Homer  its  inhabitants  are  called  Ce- 
phallenes,  and  are  the  subjects  of  Ulysses ;  but 
the  name  Cephallenia  first  occurs  in  Herodotus. 
The  island  is  very  mountainous  (nainaXoEaar/) ; 
and  the  highest  mountain,  called  ^Euos,  on 
which  stood  a  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  rises 
more  than  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 
Cephallenia  was  a  tetrapolis,  containing  the  four 
towns  SAME,  PALE,  CRANH,  and  PJBONI.  It 
never  attained  political  importance.  In  the  Per- 
sian wars  the  inhabitants  of  Pale  are  alone  men- 
tioned. In  the  Peloponnesian  war  Cephallenia 
surrendered  to  the  Athenians.  Same  ventured 
to  oppose  the  Romans,  but  was  taken  by  M.  Ful- 
vius  B.C.  189.  In  modern  times  the  island  was 
for  a  long  while  in  possession  of  the  Venetians, 
but  is  now  one  of  the  seven  Ionian  islands  un- 
der the  protection  of  Great  Britain. 

CEPHALCEDIUM  (Ke^a/lot'foov :  Cephaloedita- 
nus :  now  Cefali  or  Cephalu),  a  town  on  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Sicily,  in  the  territory  of  Himera. 

CEPJUALUS  (Ke<paylof).  1.  Son  of  Mercury 
(Hermes)  and  Herse,  was  carried  off  by  Aurora 
(Eos),  who  became  by  him  the  mother  of  Titho- 
nus  in  Syria. — 2.  Son  of  Deion  and  Diomede, 
and  husband  of  Procris  or  Procne,  daughter  of 
Erechtheus,  whom  he  tenderly  loved.  He  was 
beloved  by  Aurora  (Eos),  but  as  he  rejected  her 
advances  from  love  to  his  wife,  she  advised  him 
to  try  the  fidelity  of  Procris.  The  goddess  then 
metamorphosed  him  into  a  stranger,  and  sent 
him  with  rich  presents  to  his  house.  Procris 
was  tempted  by  the  brilliant  presents  to  yield 
to  the  stranger,  who  then  discovered  himself  to 
be  her  husband,  whereupon  she  fled  in  shame 
to  Crete.  Diana  (Artemis)  made  her  a  present 
of  a  dog  and  a  spear,  which  were  never  to  miss 
their  object,  and  then  sent  her  back  to  Cepha 
lus  in  the  disguise  of  a  youth.  lu  order  to  ob- 
tain this  dog  and  spear,  Cephalus  promised  tc 
love  the  vouth,  who  then  made  herself  knowu 


CEPHEUS. 

to  him  as  Irs  wife  Procris.  This  led  to  a  rec- 
onciliation between  them.  Procris,  however, 
still  feared  the  love  of  Aurora  (Eos,)  and  there- 
fore jealously  watched  Cephulus  when  he  went 
out  hunting,  but  on  one  occasion  he  killed  her 
by  accident  with  the  never-erring  spear.  A 
somewhat  different  version  of  the  same  story 
is  given  by  Ovid.  (Met.,  vii.,  685,  seq.)  Sub- 
sequently Cephalus  fought  with  Amphitryon 
against  the  Teleboaue,  upon  the  conquest  of 
whom  he  was  rewarded  with  the  island  which 
he  called  after  his  own  name  Cephallenia.  —  3. 
A  Syracusan,  and  father  of  the  orator  Lysias, 
came  to  Athens  at  the  invitation  of  Pericles. 
He  is  one  of  the  speakers  in  Plato's  Republic. 
—  4.  An  eminent  Athenian  orator  of  the  Colly- 
tean  demus,  flourished  B.C.  402. 

CEPHEUS  (K^evf).  1.  King  of  ^Ethiopia,  son 
of  Bolus,  husband  of  Cassiepea,  and  father  of 
Andromeda,  was  placed  among  the  stars  after 
his  death.  —  2.  Sou  of  Aleus  and  Nesera  or  Cle- 
obule,  one  of  the  Argonauts.  He  was  king  of 
Tegea  in  Arcadia,  and  perished,  with  most  of 
his  sons,  in  an  expedition  against  Hercules. 

CEPHISIA  or  CEPHISSIA  (KriQicria.  more  correct 
than  Kri<j>iaaia  :  K.r]$iai£vs  '•  now  Kivisia),  one 
of  the  twelve  Cecropiau  towns  of  Attica,  and 
afterward  a  demus  belonging  to  the  tribe  Erech- 
theis,  northeast  of  Athens,  on  the  western  slope 
of  Mount  Pentelicus. 

CEPHISODORUS  (Kr/tyictodupoe').  1.  An  Athe- 
nian comic  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  flourished 
B.C.  402.  [A  few  fragments  of  his  comedies 
are  given  by  Meinecke,  Fragm.  Com.  Grcec^  vol. 
i.,  p.  484-6.]  —  2.  An  Athenian  orator,  a  disci- 
ple of  Isocrates,  wrote  an  apology  for  Isocrates 
against  Aristotle,  entitled  al  irpbf  ' 


CEPHISODOTUS  (KrjQiaodoTOf).  1.  An  Atheni- 
an general  and  orator,  is  mentioned  on  various 
occasions  from  B.C.  371  to  355.  —  2.  An  Athe- 
nian sculptor,  whose  sister  was  the  first  wife 
of  Phocion,  flourished  372.  He  belonged  to  that 
younger  school  of  Attic  artists  who  had  aban- 
doned the  stern  and  majestic  beauty  of  Phidias, 
and  adopted  a  more  animated  and  graceful 
style.  —  3.  An  Athenian  sculptor,  usually  called 
the  Younger,  a  son  of  the  great  Praxiteles, 
flourished  300. 

CEPUISOPHON  (KrjQtaoQuv),  a  friend  of  Eurip- 
ides, is  said  not  only  to  have  been  the  chief 
'ictor  in  his  dramas,  but  also  to  have  aided  him 
with  his  advice  in  the  composition  of  them. 

CEPHISUS  or  CEPHISSUS  (K^(pia6f,  Krj<j>iaa6f). 
1.  (Now  Mavronero),  the  chief  river  in  Phocis 
and  Bceotia,  rises  near  Lila?a  in  Phocis,  flows 
through  a  fertile  valley  in  Phocis  and  Bceotia, 
and  falls  into  the  Lake  Copais,  which  is  hence 
called  Cephisit  in  the  Iliad  (v.,  709).  Vid.  Co- 
PAI&  —  2.  The  largest  river  in  Attica,  rises  in  ! 
tfie  western  slope  of  Mount  Pentelicus,  and 
lows  past  Athens  on  the  west  into  the  Saronic 
Gulf  near  Phalerum.  —  [3.  Another  river  of  At- 
tica, in  the  territory  of  Eleusis,  called,  for  dis- 
tinction's sake,  C.  Eleusinius.]  —  4.  There  was 
il-  >  a  river  of  this  name  in  Argolis,  Salamis, 
Sicyouia,  and  Scyros. 

[CEPI  (K.J/TTOI,  i.  e.,  the  Gardens),  a  city  of 
Asiatic  Sarmatia,  on  the  island  formed  by  an 
arm  (if  the  River  Anticites  and  the  Mwotis  (now 
'-he  inland  Taman)  :  it  was  a  settlement  of  the 


CERCIDAS. 

Milesians,  and  probably  called  Ki/iroi  from  ita 
pleasant  situation. 

CER  (Kt/p),  the  personified  necessity  of  death 
(K.7Jp  or  Kr/pee  davd-oio).  The  K?ipeg  are  de- 
scribed by  Homer  as  formidable,  dark  and  hate- 
ful, because  they  carry  off  men  to  the  joyless 
house  of  Hades.  According  to  Hesiod,  they  are 
the  daughters  of  Nyx  (Night)  and  sisters  of  the 
Mosrae,  and  punish  men  for  their  crimes. 

CERAMUS  (#  Kepauoe :  now  Keramo),  a  Dorian 
seaport  town  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Cnid- 
ian  Chersonesus,  on  the  coast  of  Caria,  from 
which  the  Ceramic  Gulf  (6  Kepa/m/cdf  Ko7^oq: 
now  Gulf  of  Kos,  or  Golfo  di  Staneo)  took  its 
name.  Vid.  CARIA. 

CERASUS  (Kepaaovg :  KepaaovvTio<f)  [ruins  near 
Skefte ;  the  modern  Kheresoun  is  the  ancient 
Pharnacia,  q.  v.]  :  a  flourishing  colony  of  Sinope, 
on  the  coast  of  Poutus,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of 
the  same  name  ;  chiefly  celebrated  as  the  place 
from  which  Europe  obtained  both  the  cherry 
and  its  name.  Lucullus  is  said  to  have  brought 
back  plants  of  the  cherry  with  him  to  Rome, 
but  this  refers  probably  only  to  some  particular 
sorts,  as  the  Romans  seem  to  have  had  the  tree 
much  earlier.  Cerasus  fell  into  decay  after  the 
foundation  of  Pharnacia. 

CERATA  (TU  Kepara),  the  Horns,  a  mountain 
on  the  frontiers  of  Attica  and  Megaris. 

CERAUNII  MONTES  (Kspavvia  oprj :  now  JOiim 
ara),  a  range  of  mountains  extending  from  the 
frontier  of  Illyricum  along  the  coast  of  Epirus, 
derived  their  name  from  the  frequent  thunder- 
storms which  occurred  among  them  (/cepawof). 
These  mountains  made  the  coast  of  Epirus 
dangerous  to  ships.  They  were  also  called  Acro- 
ceraunia,  though  this  name  was  properly  ap- 
plied to  the  promontory  separating  the  Adriatic 
and  Ionian  Seas.  The  inhabitants  of  these 
mountains  were  called  Ceraunii. 

CERBERUS  (Kepfiepot;),  the  dog  that  guarded 
the  entrance  of  Hades,  is  mentioned  as  early  as 
the  Homeric  poems,  but  simply  as  "the  dog," 
and  without  the  name  of  Cerberus.  (//.,  viii., 
368  ;  Od.,  xi.,  623.)  Hesiod  calls  him  a  son  of 
Typhaon  and  Echidna,  and  represents  him  with 
fifty  heads.  Later  writers  describe  him  as  a 
monster  with  only  three  heads,  with  the  tail  of 
a  serpent,  and  with  serpents  round  his  neck. 
Some  poets,  again,  call  him  many-headed  or 
hundred-headed.  The  den  of  Cerberus  is  usu- 
ally placed  on  the  further  side  of  the  Styx,  at 
the  spot  where  Charon  landed  the  shades  of  th$ 
departed. 

CERCASORUM,  or  -us,  or  -ESURA  (Kepnuaupof 
Trotaf,  Herod. :  Kepucaovpa,  Strab. :  now  El-Ar- 
kas),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the  western  bank 
of  the  Nile,  at  the  point  where  the  river  divided 
into  its  three  principal  branches,  the  eastern 
or  Pelusiac,  the  western  or  Canopic,  and  the 
northern  between  them. 

CERCKT.*  or  -n  (Kfp/ctrat,  probably  the  Cir 
cassians),  a  people  of  Sarmatia  Asiatica,  beyond 
the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  on  the  eastern  const 
of  the  Palus  M&otis  (now  Sea  of  Azov). 

CERCETIUS,  a  mountain  in  Thessaly,  part  of 
the  range  of  Pindus. 

[CERCIDAS  (Kfp/uo"df),  a  poet,  philosopher,  and 
legislator  for  his  native  city,  Megalopolis.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Diogenes,  whose  death  he  re- 
corded in  some  Meliambic  lines.  He  appears  to 
191 


CERCINA. 


CETHEGUS,  CORNELIUS. 


be  the  same  person  as  Cercidas  the  Arcadian, 
who  is  mentioned  by  Demosthenes  among  those 
Greeks  who,  by  their  cowardice  and  corruption, 
enslaved  their  states  to  Philip.] 

CERCINA  and  CEBCINITIS  (Kepniva,  KtpmvlT 
now  Karkenah  7*,  Ramlah  and  Gherbd)  two  low 
islands  off  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Lesser  Syrtis,  united  by  a  bridge, 
and  possessing  a  fine  harbor.  Cercina  was  the 
larger,  and  had  on  it  a  town  of  the  same  name. 

CERCINE  (Kepnivrj :  now  Kara-dagh),  a  mount- 
ain in  Macedonia,  between  the  Axius  and  Stry- 
mon,  forming  the  boundary  between  Sintice  and 
Poeonia. 

CERCINITIS  (KepKivlrif),  a  lake  in  Macedonia, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon,  through  which 
this  river  flows. 

CERCINIUH,  a  towa  in  Thessaly,  on  the  Lake 
Boabeis. 

CERCO,  Q.  LUTATIUS,  consul  with  A.  Manlius 
Torquatus  B.C.  241,  in  which  year  the  first 
Punic  war  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  victory 
of  C.  Lutatius  Catulus  at  the  ./Egates.  Cerco, 
in  conjunction  with  his  colleague,  subdued  the 
Falisci  or  people  of  Falerii,  who  revolted  from 
the  Romans. 

CERCOPES  (KepKunef),  droll  and  thievish 
gnomes,  robbed  Hercules  in  his  sleep,  and  were 
taken  prisoners  by  him,  and  either  given  to  Om- 
phale,  or  killed,  or  set  free  again.  Some  placed 
them  at  Thermopylae  (Herod.,  vii,  216) ;  but  the 
comic  poem  Cercopes,  which  bore  the  name  of 
Homer,  probably  placed  them  at  (Echalia  in  Eu- 
boaa.  Others  transferred  them  to  Lydia,  or  the 
islands  called  Pithecusae,  which  derived  their 
name  from  the  Cercopes  who  were  changed  into 
monkeys  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  for  having  deceived 
him. 

CERCOPS  (KepKuift).  1 .  One  of  the  oldest  Or- 
phic poets,  also  called  a  Pythagorean,  was  the 
author  of  an  epic  poem  "  on  the  descent  of  Or- 
pheus to  Hades." — 2.  Of  Miletus,  the  contem- 
porary and  rival  of  Hesiod,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  author  of  an  epic  poem  called  jEgimius, 
which  is  also  ascribed  to  Hesiod. 

CERCYOX  (Kepicvuv),  son  of  Neptune  (Posei- 
don) or  Vulcan  (Hephaestus),  a  cruel  tyrant  at 
Eleusis,  put  to  death  his  daughter  ALOPE,  and 
killed  all  strangers  whom  he  overcame  in  wrest- 
ling ;  he  was,  in  the  end,  conquered  and  slain  by 
Theseus. 

CERDYLIUM  (Kepdvhiov)  a  small  town  in  Mac- 
edonia, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Strymon,  op- 
posite Amphipolis. 

CEREALIS,  PETILIUS.  1.  Served  under  Vettius 
Bolanus,  in  Britain,  A.D.  61 ;  was  one  of  the 
generals  who  supported  the  claim  of  Vespasian 
to  the  empire,  69  ;  suppressed  the  revolt  of  Ci- 
vilis  on  the  Rhine,  70 ;  and  was  governor  of 
Britain,  71,  wfaen  he  conquered  a  great  part  of 
the  Brigantes. — [2.  C.  ANICIUS,  consul  designatus 
A..D.  65,  proposed  in  the  senate,  after  the  detec- 
tion of  Piso's  conspiracy,  that  a  temple  should 
be  built  to  Nero  as  quickly  as  possible  at  the 
public  expense.  Next  year  he  fell  under  Ne- 
ro's suspicions,  was  condemned,  and  put  him- 
self to  death.] 

CEREAT.S,  (now  Cerretano),  a  town  of  the 
Hernici  in  Latium,  between  Sora  and  Anagnia. 

CERES.     Vid.  DEMETER, 

CERILLI  (Cirella  Vecchid),  a  town  in  Bruttium, 
192 


on  the  coast,  a  little  south  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Laus. 

CERIJJTHUS  (KqpivOoc),  a  town  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Eubcea,  on  the  River  Budorus. 

CEENE  (Kepvt] :  Kepvalof.  now  probably  Ar- 
guin\  an  island  off  the  western  coast  of  Africa, 
to  which  the  Phoauicians  appear  to  have  traded. 
Its  position  is  uncertain,  and  Strabo  even  denied 
its  existence. 

CERON,  a  fountain  in  Histiaeotis  in  Thessaly 
said  to  have  made  all  the  sheep  black  which 
drank  of  it 

CERRETAiNi,  au  Iberian  people  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  inhabited  the  modern  Cerdagne 
in  the  Pyrenees,  and  were  subsequently  divid- 
ed into  the  two  tribes  of  the  Juliana  and  Augus- 
tani ;  they  were  celebrated  for  their  hams. 

CERSOBLEPTES  (KcpffofiAeTrr^f),  son  of  Cotys, 
king  of  Thrace,  on  whose  death,  in  B.C.  358,  he 
inherited  the  kingdom  in  conjunction  with  Beri- 
sades  and  Amadocus,  who  were  probably  his 
brothers.  As  an  ally  of  the  Athenians,  Cerso- 
bleptes  became  involved  in  war  with  Philip,  by 
whom  he  was  frequently  defeated,  and  was  at 
length  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  tributary, 
343. 

CERSUS  (Kepaof :  now  Merkes),  a  river  of  Ci- 
licia,  flowing  through  the  Pylae  Syro-Cilicue, 
into  the  eastern  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Issus. 

[CERTUIA,  a  fortified  town  of  the  Celtiberi  in 
Hispania  Tarraconensis,  captured  by  Tiberius 
Gracchus.] 

CERTONIUM  (Keproviov),  a  town  in  Mysia,  men- 
tioned only  by  Xenophon  (Anab.,  vii.,  8,  §  8). 

CERVIDIUS  SO^EVOLA.      Vid.  SCLEVOLA. 

[CERYNITES,  a  river  of  Achaia,  flowing  from 
the  mountain  Cerynea  in  Arcadia] 

CERYX  (Kijpv%),  an  Attic  hero,  son  of  Mercury 
(Hermes)  and  Aglauros,  from  whom  the  priestly 
family, of  the  Ceryces  at  Athens  derived  their 
origin. 

[CESTRINE  (Kfarpivr}),  a  district  of  Epirus, 
said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Cestrinus, 
q. ».] 

[CESTRIISIIS  (KforpZvof),  son  of  Hellenus  and 
Andromache,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  sov- 
ereignty of  Epirus.] 

OESTRUS  (Kecrrpof:  now  Ak-su),  a  consider- 
able river  of  Pamphylia,  flowing  from  the  Tau- 
rus southward  into  the  Mediterranean.  It  was 
navigable  in  its  lower  course  at  least  as  far  as 
the  city  of  Perge,  which  stood  on  its  western 
bank,  sixty  stadia  (ten  geographical  miles)  above 
its  mouth. 

CETEI  (Kjfraot),  a  people  of  Mysia,  the  old  in- 
habitants of  the  country  about  Pergamus,  mer 
tioued  by  Homer  (Od.,  xi.,  521).  Their  name 
is  evidently  connected  with  that  of  the  River 
CETIUS. 

CETHEGUS,  CORNELIUS,  an  ancient  patrician 
family.  They  seem  to  have  kept  up  an  old 
fashion  of  wearing  their  arms  bare,  to  which 
Lucan  (ii.,  543)  alludes  when  he  describes  the 
associate  of  Catiline  by  the  words  exsertique  ma- 
nus  vesana  Cethegi.  [Horace,  however,  by  his 
cinctuti  Cethegi  (Art  Poet.,  50),  refers  to  the 
earlier  members  of  the  family.]  1.  M.,  curulo 
ffidile  and  pontifex  maximus  B.C.  213  ;  praetor 
211,  when  he  had  the  charge  of  Apulia;  censor 
209,  and  consul  204.  In  the  next  year  he  com- 
manded as  proconsul  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  where 


CETIUS. 


CHALCEDON 


ne  defeated  Mago,  brother  of  Hannibal  He 
died  196.  His  eloquence  was  rated  very  high, 
so  that  Enuius  gave  him  the  name  of  Suadce  me- 
dulla, and  Horace  twice  refers  to  him  as  an  an- 
cient authority  for  the  usage  of  Latin  words 
(Epist.,  iL,  2,  116;  Ars.  Poet.,  50).— 2.  C,  com- 
manded in  Spain  as  proconsul  200 ;  was  aedile 
199;  consul  197,  when  he  defeated  the  Insu- 
brians  and  Cenomanians  in  Cisalpine  Gaul ;  and 
censor  194. — 3.  P.,  curule  aedile  187,  praetor  185, 
and  consul  181.  The  grave  of  Nurna  was  dis- 
covered in  his  consulship. — 4.  M.,  consul  160, 
when  he  drained  a  part  of  the  Pontiue  Marshes. 
— 5.  P.,  a  friend  of  Marius,  proscribed  by  Sulla 
88,  but  in  83  went  over  to  Sulla  and  was  par- 
doned.— 6.  C.,  one  of  Catiline's  «rew,  was  a 
profligate  from  his  early  youth.  When  Catiline 
left  Rome,  63,  after  Cicero's  first  speech,  Cethe- 
gus  stayed  behind  under  the  orders  of  Lentulus. 
His  charge  was  to  murder  the  leading  senators  ; 
but  the  tardiness  .of  Lentulus  prevented  .any 
thing  being  done.  Cethegus  was  arrested  and 
condemned  to  death  with  the  other  conspira- 
tors. 

CETIUS  (K^retof),  a  small  river  of  Mysia,  flow- 
ing from  the  north  through  the  district  of  Ela- 
itis,  and  falling  into  the  Caicus  close  to  Per- 
gamus. 

[CETO  (KrjTu),  daughter  of  Pontus  and  Gaea 
^Terra),  wife  of  Phorcys  ;  mother  of  the  Graese 
and  of  the  Gorgons.] 

CEUTRO.VES  or  CENTRONES,  a  people  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  dependents  of  the  Nervii. 

CEYX  (Kjyiif),  king  of  Trachys,  husband  of 
Alcyone.  His  death  is  differently  related.  Vid. 
ALCYONE.  He  was  the  father  of  Hippasus,  who 
fell  fighting  as  the  ally  of  Hercules. 

[CHAA  (X.ua :  now  Chaiappa),  a  city  of  Tri- 
phylian  Elis,  in  the  plain  of  ^Epasium :  it  was 
probably  the  <beid  of  Homer  (IL,  vii.,  135).  Vid. 
PJUEIA.J 

CHABORAS.     Vid.  ABORRHAS. 

CHABRIAS  (KaBptaf),  a  celebrated  Athenian 
general.  In  B.C.  392  he  succeeded  Iphicrates 
in  the  command  of  the  Athenian  forces  at  Cor- 
inth. In  388  he  assisted  Evagoras  in  Cyprus 
against  the  Persians.  In  378  he  was  one  of  the 
commanders  of  the  forces  sent  to  the  aid  of 
Thebes  against  Agesilaus,  when  he  adopted  for 
the  first  time  that  manoeuvre  for  which  he  be- 
came so  celebrated,  ordering  his  men  to  await 
the  attack  with  their  spears  pointed  against  the 
enemy  and  their  shields  resting  on  one  knee. 
A  statue  was  afterward  erected  at  Athens  to 
Chabrias  in  this  posture.  In  376  he  gained  an 
important  victory  off  Naxos  over  the  Lacedae- 
monian fleet  under  the  command  of  Pollis.  In 
361  he  took  the  command  of  the  naval  force  of 
Tachos,  king  of  Egypt,  who  was  in  rebellion 
against  Persia.  In  358  he  was  sent  as  the 
Athenian  commander  in  Thrace,  but  was  com- 
pelled by  Charidemus  to  make  a  peace  unfavor- 
able to  Athens.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Social  war  in  357,  Cbabrias  commanded  the 
Athenian  fleet  At  the  siege  of  Chios  be  sailed 
into  the  harbor  before  the  rest  of  the  fleet,  and, 
when  his  ship  was  disabled,  be  refused  to  save 
his  life  by  abandoning  it.  and  fell  fighting. 

CHOREA,  C.  CARSIUS,  tribune  of  the   prasto- 
rian  cohorts,  formed  the  conspiracy  by  which 
thfc  Emperor  Caligula  was  slain,  A.D.  41.     Cha> 
18 


.  rea  was  put  to  death  by  Claudius  upon  his  ac- 
cession. 

[CH^ERECRATES  (Xtupe/cpar^f),  a  disciple  of 
|  Socrates,  who  is  well  spoken  of  by  Xeuophon 
I  in  an  enumeration  of  those  whose  lives  testi- 
j  fied  to  the  excellence  of  the  instruction  of  Soc 
|  rates  (Mem.,  L,  2.  §  48).] 

CH^EREMON  (Xaipq/iav).  1.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  later  tragic  poets  at  Athens, 
flourished  B.C.  380.  He  is  erroneously  called 
a  comic  poet  by  some  writers.  There  are  three 
epigrams  ascribed  to  Chaeremon  in  the  Greek 
Anthology.  [The  fragments  of  his  plays  havf 
been  collected  and  published  by  Bartseh,  Mb 
ffunt.,  1843,  4to.] — 2.  Of  Alexandrea,  a  Stoic 
philosopher,  chief  librarian  of  the  Alexandrean 
library,  was  afterward  called  to  Rome,  and  be- 
came the  preceptor  of  Nero,  in  conjunction  with 
Alexander  of  ^Egae.  He  wrote  a  history  of 
Egypt,  on  Hieroglyphics,  on  Comets,  and  a 
grammatical  work.  Martial  (xi.,  56)  wrote  an 
epigram  upon  him.  [The  fragments  of  Chae- 
remon are  given  by  Miiller,  Fragm.  Hist.  Grcec., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  495-99.] 

CH^EREPHON  (Xaipetytiv),  a  well-known  dis- 
ciple of  Socrates,  was  banished  by  the  thirty 
tyrants,  and  returned  to  Athens  on  the  restora- 
tion of  democracy,  B.C.  403.  He  was  dead 
when  the  trial  of  Socrates  took  place,  399. 

[CH^ERIPPUS  (X.aipnnrof),  a  Greek,  a  friend  oi 
Cicero  and  his  brother  Quintus,  whom  he  ac- 
companied to  his  province  of  Asia.] 

CHjEROXEA  (Xatpuveia  :  Xaipuvevf  :  now  Ca- 
purna),  the  Homeric  ARNE  according  to  Pausa- 
nias,  a  town  in  Boeotia  on  the  Cephisus,  near 
the  frontier  of  Phocis,  memorable  for  the  defeat 
of  the  Athenians  by  the  Boeotians,  B.C.  447, 
still  more  for  Philip's  victory  over  the  Greeks, 
338,  and  for  Sulla's  victory  over  the  army  oi 
Mithradates,  86.  Chaeronea  was  the  birth-place 
of  Plutarch.  Several  remains  of  the  ancient 
city  are  to  be  seen  at  Capurna,  more  particu- 
larly a  theatre  excavated  in  the  rock,  an  aque- 
duct, and  the  marble  lion  (broken  in  pieces), 
which  adorned  the  sepulchre  of  the  Boeotians 
who  fell  at  the  battle  of  Chaeronea. 

CHAL^UM  (Xuhaiov :  XaAaZof),  a  port-town 
of  the  Locri  Ozolae  on  the  Crissaean  Gulf,  on 
the  frontiers  of  Phocis. 

CHALASTRA  (Xa/luorpa,  in  Herod.  XaXcorprj : 
XaAacToaZof :  now  Culacia),  a  town  in  Mygdo- 
nia  in  Macedonia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Axius. 

CHALCE,  or  -M,  or  -IA  (XuXKrj,  X«'/Ua<,  Xa^Kia 
XaA/caZof  or  -Irw.  now   Charki),  an  island  ol 
the  Carpathian  Sea,  near  Rhodes,  with  a  town 
of  the  same  name,  and  a  temple  of  Apollo. 

CHALCEDON  (Xa/U^dwi',  more  correctly  Ka^xn- 
duv  :  Xa?j<7]66viof  :  ruins,  now  Chalkedon,  Greek ; 
Kadi-Kioi,  Turk.),  a  Greek  city  of  Bithynia,  on 
the  coast  of  the  Propontis  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Bosporus,  nearly  opposite  to  Byzantium,  was 
founded  by  a  colony  from  Megara  in  B.C.  685. 
After  a  long  period  of  independence  (only  in- 
terrupted by  its  capture  by  the  Persians  and  its 
recovery  by  the  Athenians),  it  became  subject 
to  the  kings  of  Bithynia,  and  suffered  by  the 
transference  of  most  of  its  inhabitants  to  the 
city  of  Nicomedia  (B.C.  140).  The  Romans 
restored  its  fortifications,  and  made  it  the  chief 
city  of  the  province  of  Bithyuia,  or  Pontica 
193 


CHALCIDICE. 


CHAONES. 


Prima.  Afte;  various  fortunes  under  the  em- 
pire, it  was  entirely  destroyed  by  the  Turks. 
T'.ie  fourth  oecumenical  council  of  the  Church 
met  here,  A.D.  451. 

CHALCIDICE  (XaTiKidiKtj).  1.  A  peninsula,  in 
Macedonia,  between  the  Thermaic  and  Strymo- 
uic  gulfs,  runs  out  into  the  sea  like  a  three-prong- 
ed fork,  terminating  in  three  smaller  peninsulas, 
PALLENE,  SITHONIA,  and  ACTE  or  ATHOS.  It  de- 
rived its  name  from  Chalcidian  colonists.  Vid. 
CHALCIS,  No.  1. — [2.  A  district  of  Syria.  Vid. 
CHALCIS,  Ho.  3.] 

CHALCIDICS,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  who  lived 
probably  in  the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  translated  into  Latin  the  Timaeus  of  Plato, 
on  which  he  likewise  wrote  a  voluminous  com- 
mentary;  edited  by  Meursius,  Leyden,  1617, 
and  by  Fabricius,  Hamburg,  1718,  at  the  end  of 
the  second  volume  of  the  works  of  Hippolytus. 

CHALCKECUS  (Xa/UtotKoc),  "the  goddess  of 
the  brazen  house,"  a  surname  of  Minerva  (Athe- 
na) at  Sparta,  from  the  brazen  temple  which  she 
had  in  that  city. 

CHALCIS  (XaX/ctf  :  XaA/udeiif,  Chalcidensis). 
1.  (Now  Egripo  or  Negroponte),  the  principal 
town  of  Euboea,  situated  on  the  narrowest  part 
of  the  Euripus,  and  united  with  the  main  land  by 
a  bridge.  It  was  a  very  ancient  town,  original- 
ly inhabited  by  Abantes  or  Curetes,  and  colo- 
nized by  Attic 'lonians  under  Cothus.  Its  flour- 
ishing condition  at  an  early  period  is  attested 
by 'the  numerous  colonies  which  it  planted  in 
various  parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  found- 
ed so  many  cities  in  the  peninsula  in  Macedonia 
between  the  Strymonic  and  Thermaic  Gulfs,  that 
the  whole  peninsula  was  called  Chalcidice.  In 
Italy  it  founded  Cumae,  and  in  Sicily  Naxos. 
Chalcis  was  usually  subject  to  Athens  during 
the  greatness  of  the  latter  city,  and  afterward 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Macedonians,  An- 
tiochus,  Mithradates,  and  the  Romans.  It  was 
a  place  of  great  military  importance,  as  it  com- 
manded the  navigation  between  the  north  and 
south  of  Greece,  and  hence  it  was  often  taken 
and  retaken  by  the  different  parties  contending 
for  the  supremacy  in  Greece.  The  orator  Isants 
and  the  poet  Lycophron  were  born  at  Chalcis, 
and  Aristotle  died  here. — 2.  (Now  Galata),  a 
town  in  ^Etolia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Evenus, 
situated  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  Chalcis, 
and  hence  also  called  Hypochalcis. — 3.  (Now 
Kinnesrin,  ruins),  a  city  of  Syria,  in  a  fruitful 
plain,  near  the  termination  of  the  River  Chalus ; 
the  chief  city  of  the  district  of  Chalcidice,  which 
lay  to  the  east  of  the  Orontes. — 4.  A  city  of 
Syria,  on  the  Belus,  in  the  plain  of  Marsyas. 

CHALCOCONDYLES,  or,  by  contraction,  CHAL- 
CONDYLES,  LAONICUS  or  NICOLAUS,  a  Byzantine 
historian,  flourished  A.D.  1446,  and  wrote  a  his- 
tory of  the  Turks  and  of  the  later  period  of  the 
Byzantine  empire,  from  the  year  1298  down  to 
the  conquest  of  Corinth  and  the  invasion  of  the 
Peloponnesus  by  the  Turks  in  1463,  thus  in- 
cluding the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453  ; 
edited  by  Fabrot,  Paris,  1650.  [It  is  also  in- 
cluded in  the  new  edition  of  the  Byzantine  his- 
torians, and  edited  by  Imm.  Bekker,  Bonn, 
1843.] 

[CHALCODON  (Xa/Uwdwv),  king  of  the  Abantes 
in  Eubcea,  father  of  Elpenor,  and  one  of  the 
suitors  of  Helen.] 
194 


[CHALCON  (XaA\.>v),  a  Myrmidon  father  of 
Bathycles.] 

CUALD..EA  (XaWaio :  Xa/l<5a«>f),  in  the  nar- 
rower sense,  was  a  province  of  Babylonia,  about 
the  lower  course  of  the  Euphrates,  the  border 
of  the  Arabian  Desert,  and  the  head  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  It  was  intersected  by  numerous 
canals,  and  was  extremely  fertile.  In  a  wider 
sense,  the  term  is  applied  to  the  whole  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  even  to  the  Babylonian  empire,  on  ac- 
count of  the  supremacy  which  the  Chaldaoans 
acquired  at  Babylon.  Vid.  BABYLON.  Xeno- 
phon  mentions  Chaldaeans  in  the  mountains 
north  of  Mesopotamia ;  and  we  have  other 
statements  respecting  this  people,  from  which 
it  is  very  difficult  to  deduce  a  clear  view  of  their 
early  history.  The  most  probable  opinion  is, 
that  their  original  scat  was  in  the  mountains 
of  Armenia  and  Kurdistan,  whence  they  de- 
scended into  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  and 
Babylonia.  Respecting  the  Chaldaeans  as  the 
ruling  class  in  the  Babylonian  monarchy,  vid. 
BABYLON. 

[CHALONITIS  (Xa/WZrff),  a  district  in  the 
southeast  of  Assyria,  around  Mount  Zagros, 
with  a  city  called  Chala.] 

CHALUS  (XaAof :  now  Koweik),  a  river  of 
Northern  Syria,  flowing  south  past  Bercea  and 
Chalcis,  and  terminating  in  a  marshy  lake. 

CHALYBES  (XaAufcf),  a  remarkable  Asiatic 
people,  about  whom  we  find  various  statements 
in  the  ancient  writers.  They  are  generally 
represented,  both  in  the  early  poetic  legends 
and  in  the  historical  period,  as  dwelling  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  about  The- 
miscrya  and  the  Thermodon  (and  probably  to  a 
wider  extent,  for  Herodotus  clearly  mentions 
them  among  the  nations  west  of  the  Halys), 
and  occupying  themselves  in  the  working  of 
iron.  Xenophon  mentions  Chalybes  in  the 
mountains  on  the  borders  of  Armenia  and  Me 
sopotamia,  who  seem  to  be  the  same  people 
that  he  elsewhere  calls  Chaldaeans  ;  and  sev- 
eral of  the  ancient  geographers  regarded  the 
Chalybes  and  Chaldaei  as  originally  the  same 
people. 

CHALYBON  (Xa?.v6uv :  Old  Testament  Hel- 
bon,)  a  considerable  city  of  Northern  Syria, 
probably  the  same  as  BEROIA.  The  district 
about  it  was  called  Chalybonitis. 

CHAMELEON  (Xa/zat/lewv),  a  Peripatetic  phi- 
losopher of  Heraclea  on  the  Pontus,  one  of  the 
immediate  disciples  of  Aristotle,  wrote  works 
on  several  of  the  ancient  Greek  poets,  and  like- 
wise on  philosophical  subjects. 

CHAMAVI,  a  people  in  Germany,  who  were 
compelled  by  the  Roman  conquests  to  change 
their  abodes  several  times.  They  first  appear 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Rhine,  but  afterward 
migrated  east,  defeated  the  Bructeri,  and  set- 
tled between  the  Weser  and  the  Harz.  At  a 
later  time  they  dwelt  on  the  Lower  Rhine,  and 
are  mentioned  as  auxiliaries  of  the  Franks. 

CHAONES  (Xctoyfc),  a  Pelasgian  people,  one  of 
the  three  communities  which  inhabited  EPIRUS 
were  at  an  early  period  in  possession  of  the 
whole  of  the  country,  but  subsequently  dwelt 
along  the  coast  from  the  River  Thyamis  to  the 
Acroceraunian  promontory,  which  district  was 
therefore  called  CHAONIA.  By  the  poets  Chao 
nius  is  used  as  equivalent  to  Epiroi 


CHAOS. 


CHARIS. 


CHAOS  (Xuof),  the  vacant  and  infinite  space 
which  existed,  according  to  the  ancient  cosmog- 
onies, previous  to  the  creation  of  the  world,  and 
out  of  which  the  gods,  men,  and  all  things  arose. 
Chaos  was  called  the  mother  of  Erebos  andjNyx. 

CHAEADRA  (Xapudpa  :  Xapadpalof).  1.  A  town 
in  Phocis,  on  the  River  Charadrus,  situated  on 
an  eminence  not  far  from  Likea. — 2.  A  town  in 
Epirus,  northwest  of  Ambracia. — 3.  A  town  in 
Msssenia,  built  by  Pelops. 

CHARADRUS  (Xdpatipoe).  1.  A  small  river  in 
Phocis,  a  tributary  of  the  Cephisus. — 2.  A  small 
river  in  Argolis,  a  tributary  of  the  Inachus. — 3. 
A  small  river  in  Messenia,  rises  near  CEchalia. 
— [4.  A  small  stream  of  Achaia,  near  Argyre, 
now  Velvitfi.] 

CHARAX  (Xupa|),  of  Pergamus,  an  historian, 
wrote  a  work  in  forty  books,  called  'E^JJVIKU, 
aud  another  named  Xpoviitd.  [The  fragments 
of  his  works  have  beeu  collected  by  Miiller, 
Frayin.  Hist.  Grrcec.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  636-45.] 

CHARAX  (Xupof ,  i.  e.,  a  palisaded  camp :  Xapa- 
Kyvof).  the  name  of  several  cities,  which  took 
their  origin  from  military  stations.  The  most  re- 
markable of  them  stood  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ti- 
gris. Vid.  ALEXANDREA,  No.  4.  There  were 
others,  which  only  need  a  bare  mention,  in  the 
Chersonesus  Taurica,  in  Northern  Media,  near 
Celaeuie  in  Phrygia,  in  Corsica,  and  on  the  Great 
Syrtis  in  Africa,  and  a  few  more. 

CHARAXUS  (Xupafof)  of  Mytilene,  son  of  Sca- 
maudrouymus  and  brother  of  Sappho,  fell  in 
love  with  KHODOPIS. 

CHARES  (Xa'p^f).  1.  An  Athenian  general, 
who  for  a  long  .series  of  years  contrived  by  pro- 
fuse corruption  to  maintain  his  influence  with 
the  people,  in  spite  of  his  very  disreputable 
character.  In  B.C.  367  he  was  sent  to  the  aid 
of  the  Phliasians,  who  were  hard  pressed  by  the 
Arcadians  and  Argives,  and  he  succeeded  in 
relieving  them.  In  the  Social  war,  after  the 
death  of  Chabrias,  356,  he  had  the  command  of 
the  Athenian  fleet  along  with  Iphicrates  and 
Timotheus.  His  colleagues  having  refused,  in 
consequence  of  a  storm,  to'  risk  an  engagement, 
Chares  accused  them  to  the  people,  and  they 
were  recalled.  Being  now  left  in  the  sole  com- 
mand, and  being  in  want  of  money,  he  entered 
iuto  the  service  of  Artabazus,  the  revolted  sa- 
trap of  Western  Asia,  but  was  recalled  by  the 
Athenians  on  the  complaint  of  Artaxerxes  III. 
In  the  Olyuthian  war,  349,  he  commanded  the 
mercenaries  sent  from  Athens  to  the  aid  of 
Olyuthus.  In  340  he  commanded  the  force 
scut  to  aid  Byzantium  against  Philip;  but  he 
efl'ected  nothing,  aud  was  acccordingly  super- 
seded by  Phocion.  In  338  he  waa  one  of  the 
Athviiiiiu  commanders  at  the  battle  of  Chaaro- 
nea.  When  Alexander  invaded  Asia  in  834, 
Chares  was  living  at  Sigeum ;  and  in  333  he 
commanded  for  Darius  at  Mytilene. — 2.  Of  Myt- 
ilcne,  an  officer  at  the  court  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  wrote  a  history  of  Alexander  in  ten 
books.  [His  fragments  are  given  by  Geier  in 
his  Scriptores  Hist.  Alexandri,  Lips.,  1844,  p. 
2U3-308.J— 3.  Of  Liudus  in  Rhodes,  a  statuary 
in  bronze,  the  favorite  pupil  of  Lysippus,  flour- 
ttnd  B.C.  290.  His  chief  work  was  the  statue 
of  the  Sun,  which,  under  the  name  of  "The 
Colossus  of  Rhodes,"  was  celebrated  as  one  of 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  Its  height 


was  upward  of  one  hundred  and  five  English 
feet ;  it  was  twelve  years  in  erecting,  B.C.  292- 
280,  and  cost  three  hundred  talents.  It  stood 
at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  of  Rhodes,  but 
there  is  no  authority  for  the  statement  that  its 
legs  extended  over  the  mouth  of  the  harbor.  It 
was  overthrown  and  broken  to  pieces  bv  an 
earthquake  fifty-six  years  after  its  erection,  B. 
C.  224.  The  fragments  remained  on  the  ground 
eight  hundred  and  ninety-six  years,  till  they 
were  sold  by  the  general  of  the  Calif  Othman 
IV.  to  a  Jew  of  Emesa,  who  carried  them  away 
on  nine  hundred  camels,  A.D.  672. 

CHARICLES  (Xa/u/cA;/f).  1.  An  Athenian  dem- 
agogue, son  of  Apollodorus,  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  appointed  to  investigate  the  af- 
fair of  the  mutilation  of  the  Hermae,  B.C.  415  ; 
was  one  of  the  commanders  of  the  Athenian 
fleet,  413;  aud  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants  on  the 
capture  of  Athens  by  Lysander,  404. — 2.  An 
eminent  physician  at  Rome,  attended  the  Em- 
peror Tiberius. 

CHARICLO  (XapixAw).  1.  A  nymph,  daughter 
of  Apollo,  wife  of  the  Centaur  Chiron,  and  moth- 
of  Carystus  aud  Ocyroe. — 2.  A  nymph,  wife  of 
Eueres  and  mother  of  Tiresias. 

CHARIDEMUS  (Kapidrj/iof).     1.  Of  Oreus  in  Eu 
boaa,  of  mean  origin,  became  the  captain  of  a 
i  band  of  mercenaries,  and  served  in  this  capa- 
city under  the  Athenian  generals  Iphicrates  and 
;  Timotheus.    He  next  entered  the  service  of  the 
satrap  Artabazus,  who  had  revolted  against  Ar- 
j  taxerxes  III.,  and  subsequently  of  Cotys,  king 
i  of  Thrace,  whose  daughter  he  married.     On  the 
j  murder  of  Cotys,  358,  Charidemus  adhered  to 
i  the  cause  of  his  son  Cersobleptes,  and  on  be- 
i  half  of  the  latter  carried  on  the  struggle  with 
I  the  Athenians  for  the  possession  of  the  Cherso- 
j  nesus.     In  349  he  was  appointed  by  the  Atheni- 
ans commander  in  the  Olynthian  war,  but  next 
year  was  superseded  and  replaced  by  Chares. 
— 2.  An  Athenian,  one  of  the  orators  whose  sur- 
render  was  required  by  Alexander  in  B.C.  335, 
!  after  the  destruction  of  Thebes,   fled   to    Asia, 
'  and  took  refuge  with  Darius,  by  whose  orders 
he  was  put  to  death,  333,  shortly  before  the  bat- 
;  tie  of  Issus. 

CHARILAUS  or  CHARILLUS  (Xap/Aaof,   Xap*A- 
AOJ-),  king  of  Sparta,  son  of  Polydectes,  is  said 
to  have  received  his  name  from  the  general  joy 
i  excited  by  the  justice  of  his   uncle   Lycurgus 
when  he  placed  him,  yet  a  new-born  infant,  on 
the  royal  seat,  and  bade  the  Spartans  acknowl- 
edge him  for  their  king.     He   carried   on  war 
;  against  Argos  and  Tegea ;  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Tegeans,  but  was  dismissed  with- 
|  out  ransom  on  giving  a  promise  (which  he  did 
not  keep)  that  the  Spartans  should  abstain  in 
I  future  from  attacking  Tegea, 

CUARIS  (Xu/Hf),  the  personification  of  Grace 

and  Beauty.     In  the  Iliad  (xviii.,  382)  Charis 

is  described  as  the  wife  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus), 

but  in  the  Odyssey  Venus  (Aphrodite)  appears 

as  the  wife  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus),  from  which 

we  may  infer,  if  not  the  identity  of  Aphrodite 

j  and  Charis,  at  least  a  close  connection   in  the 

1  notions    entertained   about    the   two   divinities. 

The  idea  of  personified  grace  and  beauty  was 

at  an  early  period  divided  iuto  a  plurality  of  be 

ings,  and  even  in  the  Homeric  poems  the  plural 

Charites  occurs  several  times.     The   Charites, 

195 


CHARISIUS. 


CHAUCL 


called  Gratia  by  the  Romans,  are  usually  de- 
scribed as  the  daughters  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and 
as  three  in  Dumber,  namely,  Euphrosyne,  Aglaia, 
and  Thalia.  The  names  of  the  Charites  suffi- 
ciently express  their  character.  They  were  the 
goddesses  who  enhanced  the  enjoyments  of  life 
by  refinement  and  gentleness.  They  are  most- 
ly described  as  in  the  service  of  other  divini- 
ties, and  they  lend  their  grace  and  beauty  to 
every  thing  that  delights  and  elevates  gods  and 
men.  The  gentleness  and  gracefulness  which 
they  impart  to  man's  ordinary  pleasures  are  ex- 
pressed by  their  moderating  the  exciting  in- 
fluence of -wine  (Hor.,  Carm.,  iii.,  19,  15),  and  by 
their  accompanying  Venus  (Aphrodite)  and  Cu- 
pid (Eros).  Poetry,  however,  is  the  art  which 
is  especially  favored  by  them,  and  hence  they 
are  the  friends  of  the  Muses,  with  whom  they 
live  together  in  Olympus.  In  early  times  the 
Charites  were  represented  dressed,  but  after- 
ward their  figures  were  always  naked :  speci- 
mens of  both  representations  of  the  Chaiites 
are  still  extant.  They  appear  unsuspicious 
maidens  in  the  full  bloom  of  life,  and  they  usu- 
ally embrace  each  other. 

CHARISIUS.  1.  ACRELIUB  ARCADIUS,  a  Ro- 
man jurist,  lived  in  the  reigu  of  Constantino 
the  Great,  and  wrote  three  works,  De  Testibus, 
De  Muneribus  civilibus,  and  De  Officio  Prafecti 
prcetorio,  all  of  which  are  cited  in  the  Digest. — 
•2.  FLAVIUS  SOSIPATER,  a  Latin  grammarian,  who 
flourished  A.D.  400,  author  of  a  treatise  in  five 
books,  drawn  up  for  the  use  of  his  son,  entitled 
Institutiones  Grammatical,  which  has  come  down 
to  us  in  a  veiy  imperfect  state.  Edited  by 
Putschius  in  Grammaticce  Latince  Auctores  An- 
tiqui,  Hanov.,  1605,  and  by  Lindemanu,  in  Cor- 
pus Grammat.  Latin.  Veterum,  Lips.,  1840. 

CHARITES.     Vid.  CHARTS. 

CHARITOX  (Xapiruv),  of  Aphrodisias,  a  town 
of  Caria,  the  author  of  a  Greek  romance,  in 
eight  books,  on  the  Loves  of  Chaereas  and  Cal- 
lirrhoe.  The  name  is  probably  feigned  (from 
Xupif  and  ' A^podirij),  as  the  time  and  position 
of  the  author  certainly  are.  He  represents  him- 
self as  the  secretary  of  the  orator  Athenagoras, 
evidently  referring  to  the  Syracusan  orator 
mentioned  by  Thucydides  (vi.,  35,  36)  as  the 
political  opponent  of  Hermocrates.  Nothing  is 
known  respecting  the  real  life  or  the  time  of 
the  author ;  but  he  probably  did  not  live  earlier 
tliau  the  fifth  century  after  Christ  Edited  by 
D'Orville,  3  vols.,  Amst,  1750,  with  a  valuable 
commentary;  reprinted  with  additional  notes 
by  Beck,  Lips.,  1783. 

CHARMANDE  (Xapftavdrj :  near  Haditha  or  Hit), 
a  great  city  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the  Euphrates. 

[CHARMADAS,  otherwise  called  Charmides. 
Vid.  CHAIIMIDES,  No.  2.] 

CHARMIDES  (Xapftidrjf).  1.  An  Athenian,  sou 
of  Glaucon,  cousin  to  Critias,  and  uncle  by  the 
mother's  side  to  Plato,  who  introduces  him  in 
the  dialogue  which  bears  his  name  as  a  very 
young  man  at  the  commencement  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war.  In  B.C.  404  he  was  one  of  the 
Ten,  and  was  slain  fighting  against  Thrasybu- 
lus  at  the  Piraeus. — 2.  Called  also  CHARMADAS 
by  Cicero,  a  frieud  of  Philo  of  Larissa,  in  con- 
junction with  whom  he  is  said  by  some  to  have 
been  the  founder  of  a  fourth  academy.  He 
flourished  B.C.  100. 
196 


[CHARMINUS  (Xapplvof),  a  naval  commaudei 
of  the  Athenians,  who  was  defeated  by  the 
Spartan  admiral  Astyochus  near  Syme,  B.C. 
411,  with  a  loss  of  six  ships. — 2.  A  Lacedaemo- 
nian, «vas  sent  by  Thibrou,  the  Spartan  harmost 
in  Asia,  to  the  Greeks  who  had  served  under 
Cyrus,  then  at  Selymbria  and  in  the  service  of 
Seuthes,  to  induce  them  to  enter  the  Lacedaemo- 
nian service  against  Persia.  B.C.  399.] 

CHARON  (Kupuv).  1.  Son  of  Erebos,  con- 
veyed in  his  boat  the  shades  of  the  dead  across 
the  rivers  of  the  lower  world.  For  this  service 
he  was  paid  with  an  obolus  or  dauaee,  which 
coin  was  placed  in  the  mouth  of  every  corpse 
previous  to  its  burial.  He  is  represented  as  an 
aged  man  with  a  dirty  beard  and  a  mean  dress. 
— 2.  A  distinguished  Theban,  concealed  Pe- 
lopidas  and  his  fellow-conspirators  in  his  house 
when  they  returned  to  Thebes  with  the  view  of 
delivering  it  from  the  Spartans,  B.C.  379. — 3 
An  historian  of  Lampsacus,  nourished  B.C.  464, 
and  wrote  works  on  .^Ethiopia,  Persia,  Greece, 
<fec.,  the  fragments  of  which  are  collected  by 
Miiller,  Fragm.  Histor.  Grcec^  voL  i.,  p.  32-35, 
Paris,  1841. 

CHARONDAS  (XcpuveJaf),  a  law-giver  of  Catana, 
who  legislated  for  his  own  and  the  other  cities 
of  Chalcidian  origin  in  Sicily  and  Italy.  His 
date  is  uncertain.  He  is  said  by  some  to  have 
been  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras ;  and  he  must 
have  lived  before  the  time  of  Anaxilaus,  tyrant 
of  Rhegium,  B.C.  494-476,  for  the  Rhegians 
used  the  laws  of  Charondas  till  they  were  abol- 
ished by  Anaxilnus.  The  latter  fact  sufficiently 
refutes  the  common  account  that  Charondas 
drew  up  a  code  of  laws  for  Thurii,  since  this 
city  was  not  founded  till  443.  A  tradition  re- 
lates that  Charondas  one  day  forgot  to  lay  aside 
his  sword  before  he  appeared  in  the  assembly, 
thereby  violating  one  of  his  own  laws,  and  that, 
on  being  reminded  of  this  by  a  citizen,  he  ex- 
claimed, "  By  Zeus,  I  will  establish  it,"  and  im- 
mediately stabbed  himself.  The  laws  of  Cha- 
rondas were  probably  in  verse. 

CHAROPS  (Xupoip).  1.  A  chief  among  the 
Epirots,  sided  with  the  Romans  in  their  war 
with  Philip  V.,  B.C.  198.— 2.  A  grandson  of  the 
above.  He  received  his  education  at  Rome, 
and  after  his  return  to  his  own  country  adhered 
to  the  Roman  cause ;  but  he  is  represented  by 
Polybius  as  a  monster  of  cruelty.  He  died  at 
Bruudisium,  157. — [3.  Son  of  the  Trojan  Hip- 
pasus,  slain  by  Ulysses. — 4.  Son  of  an  .dEschy- 
lus,  who  was  the  first  decennial  archon  in  Ath- 
ens, B.C.  752.] 

CHARYBDIS.      Vid.  SOYLLA. 

CHASUARI,  or  CHASCARII,  or  CHATTUARII,  a 
people  of  Germany,  allies  or  dependents  of  the 
Cherusci.  Their  position  is  uncertain.  They 
dwelt  north  of  the  Ciiatti;  and  in  later  times 
they  appear  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Maas 
as  a  part  of  the  Franks. 

CIIATTI.     Vid.  CATTL 

CHAUCI  or  CAUCI,  a  powerful  people  in  the 
northeast  of  Germany,  between  the  Amisia  (now 
Ems)  and  the  Albis  (now  Elbe),  divided  by  the 
Visurgis  (now  Weser),  which  flowed  through 
their  territory,  into  Majores  and  Minores,  the 
former  west  and  the  latter  east  of  that  river. 
They  are  described  by  Tacitus  as  the  noblest 
and  the  justest  of  the  German  tribes.  They 


CHELIDON. 


CHIMERA. 


formed  an  alliance  with  the  Romans  A.D.  5,  and 
assisted  the  latter  in  their  wars  against  the  Che- 
rusei  ;  but  this  alliance  did  not  last  long.  They 
were  at  war  with  the  Romans  in  the  reigns  of 
Claudius  and  Nero,  but  were  never  subdued. 
They  are  mentioned  for  the  last  time  in  the 
third  century,  when  they  devastated  Gaul,  but 
their  name  subsequently  became  merged  in  the 
general  name  of  Saxons. 

CHELIDON,  the  mistress  of  C.  Verres,  often 
mentioned  by  Cicero. 

CHELIDOXIS  (Xe/udovie),  wife  of  Cleonymus, 
to  whom  she  proved  unfaithful  in  consequence 
of  a  passion  for  Acrotatus,  son  of  Areus  I. 

CHKLiDoxLE  INSUI^E  (Xe%i66viai  vrjaoi  :  now 
Khelidoni),  a  group  of  five  (Strabo  only  mentions 
three)  small  islands,  surrounded  by  dangerous 
shallows,  off  the  promontory  called  Hiera  or 
Chelidonia  (now  Khelidoni),  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Lycia. 

CHELONATAS  (XeAuvdrac  :  now  Cape  Tornese), 
a  promontory  in  Elis,  opposite  Zacynthus,  the 
most  westerly  point  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

CHEMMIS,  afterward  PANOPOLIS  (Xefifiif,  Ila- 
voiroAif  :  Xepfii-ijf  :  ruins  at  Ekhmim).  1.  A 
great  city  of  the  Thebais,  or  Upper  Egypt,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  celebrated  for  its 
manufacture  of  linen,  its  stone-quarries,  and  its 
temples  of  Pan  and  Perseus.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  poet  Nonnus.  —  [2.  An  island  hi  a 
deep  bike  near  the  city  Buto,  in  Lower  Egypt, 
containing  a  spacious  temple  of  Apollo.  He- 
rodotus, in  speaking  of  it,  says  that  the  Egyp- 
tians told  him  that  it  was  a  floating  island,  but 
that  he,  for  his  part,  never  saw  it  float  about 
or  even  move.] 

CHENOBOSCIA  (Xr/vo6offKia  :  ruins  at  Katees- 
Said),  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Nile,  opposite  Diospolis  Parva. 

CHEOPS  (Xioijj),  an  early  king  of  Egypt,  god- 
less and  tyrannical,  reigned  fifty  years,  and 
built  the  first  and  largest  pyramid  by  the  com- 
pulsory labor  of  his  subjects. 

CHEPHREN  (Xe^ptjv),  king  of  Egypt,  brother 
and  successor  of  Cheops,  whose  example  of 
tyranny  he  followed,  reigned  fifty  -six  years,  and 
built  the  second  pyramid.  The  Egyptians  so 
hated  the  memory  of  these  brothers,  that  they 
called  the  pyramids,  not  by  their  name,  but  by 
that  of  Philition,  a  shepherd  who  at  that  time 
fed  his  flocks  near  the  place. 

CHERSIPHROX  (Xepotypuv)  or  CTESIPHON,  an 
architect  of  Cnosus  in  Crete,  in  conjunction 
with  his  son  Metagenes,  built,  or  commenced 
building,  the  great  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis) 
at  Ephesus.  He  flourished  B.C.  560. 

CHERSONESUS  (Xepaovijaog,  Att.  Xefifiovijoof), 
"  a  land-island,"  that  is,  "  a  peninsula"  (from 
"laud,"  and  vr/oof,  "island").  1.  CH. 


THRACICA  (now  Penimnda  of  the  Dardanelles  or 
of  Gallipoli),  usually  called  at  Athens  "The 
Chersonesus"  without  any  distinguishing  epi- 
thet, the  narrow  slip  of  land,  four  hundred  and 
twenty  stadia  in  length,  running  between  the 
Hellespont  and  the  Gulf  of  Meloe,  and  connect- 
ed with  the  Thracian  main  land  by  an  isthmus, 
which  was  fortified  by  a  wall  thirty-six  stadia 
across,  near  Cardia.  The  Chersonese  was  col- 
onized by  the  Athenians  under  Miltiades,  the 
contemporary  of  Pisistratus.  —  2.  TAURICA  or 
SOYTHICA  (now  Crimea),  the  peninsula  between 


the  Pontus  Euxinus,  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus, 
and  the  Palus  Maeotis,  united  to  the  main  land 
by  an  isthmus  forty  stadia  in  width.  The  an- 
cients compared  this  peninsula  with  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus both  in  form  and  size.  It  produced  a 
great  quantity  of  corn,  which  was  exported  to 
Athens  and  other  parts  of  Greece.  The  east- 
ern part  of  the  peninsula  was  called  Tpijxeij  or 
the  Rugged  (Herod.,  iv.,  99).  Respecting  the 
Greek  kingdom  established  in  this  country,  see 
BOSPORUS.  There  was  a  town  on  the  south- 
ern coast  of  this  peninsula  called  Chersonesus, 
founded  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Pontic  Hera- 
clea,  and  situated  on  a  small  peninsula,  called 

iKpa  Xep.,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  larger, 
of  which  it  formed  a  part. — 3.  CIMBRICA  (now 
Jutland).  Vid.  CIMBRI. — [4.  CHERSONESUS  Au- 
HEA.  Vid.  AUREA  CHERSONESUS.] — 5.  (Now 
Cape  Chersonisi),  a  promontory  in  Argolis,  be- 
tween Epidaurus  and  Trcezen. — 6.  (Now  Cher- 
sonetso),  a  town  in  Crete,  on  the  Promontory 
Zephyriutn,  the  harbor  of  Lyctus  in  the  interior. 

CHERUSCI,  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
tribes  of  ancient  Germany.  The  limits  of  their 
territory  cannot  be  fixed  with  accuracy,  since 
the  ancients  did  not  distinguish  between  the 
Cherusci  proper  and  the  nations  belonging  to 
the  league,  of  which  the  Cherusci  were  at  the 
head.  The  Cherusci  proper  dwelt  on  both  sides 
of  the  Visurgis  (now  Weser),  and  their  territo- 
ries extended  to  the  Harz  and  the  Elbe.  They 
were  originally  in  alliance  with  the  Romans, 
but  they  subsequently  formed  a  powerful  league 
of  the  German  tribes  for  the  purpose  of  expell- 
ing the  Romans  from  the  country,  and  under 
the  chief  Arminius  they  destroyed  the  army  of 
Varus  and  drove  the  Romans  beyond  the  Rhine, 
A.D.  9.  In  consequence  of  internal  dissensions 
among  the  German  tribes  the  Cherusci  soon  lost 
their  influence.  Their  neighbors,  the  CATTI, 
succeeded  to  their  power. 

CHESIUM  (Xyaiov),  a  promontory  of  Sarno», 
with  a  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis),  who  was 
worshipped  here  under  the  surname  of  Xijciuf. 
Near  it  was  a  little  river  Chesius,  flowing  past 
a  town  of  the  same  name. 

CHILON  (Xeihuv,  Xihuv.)  1.  Of  Lacedsemon, 
son  of  Damagetus,  and  one  of  the  Seven  Sages, 
flourished  B.C.  590.  It  is  said  that  he  died  of 
joy  when  his  son  gained  the  prize  for  boxing 
at  the  Olympic  games.  The  institution  of  the 
Ephoralty  is  erroneously  ascribed  by  some  to 
Chilon. — [2.  A  Spartan  of  the  royal  house  of 
the  Eurypoutids,  who,  on  the  death  of  Cleome- 
nes  III.,  being  passed  over  in  the  selection  of 
king,  excited  a  revolution  and  slew  the  ephori ; 
but,  the  people  not  sustaining  him,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  take  refuge  in  Achaia.] 

( 'm M .1:1;  \  (Xifiaipa),  a  fire-breathing  monster, 
the  fore  part  of  whoso  body  was  that  of  a  lion, 
the  hind  part  that  of  a  dragon,  and  the  middle 
that  of  a  goat.  According  to  Hesiod,  she  was  a 
daughter  of  Typhaon  and  Echidna,  and  had  three 
heads,  one  of  each  of  the  three  animals  before 
mentioned.  She  made  great  havoc  in  Lycin 
and  the  surrounding  countries,  and  was  at 
length  killed  by  Bellcrophon.  Virgil  places  her, 
together  with  other  monsters,  at  the  entrance 
of  Orcus.  The  origin  of  the  notion  of  this  fir* 
breathing  monster  must  probably  be  sought  for 
in  the  volcano  of  the  name  of  Chimcera,  near 
197 


CHIMERION. 


CHUARENE. 


Phaselis,  in  Lycia.  In  the  works  of  art  recent- 
ly discovered  in  Lycia,  we  find  several  repre- 
sentations of  the  Chiinoera  in  the  simple  form 
of  a  species  of  lion  still  occurring  in  that  country. 

CHIMEKION,  a  promontory  and  harbor  of  Thes- 
protia  in  Epirus. 

CHION  (Xiuv),  of  Heraclea  on  the  Pontus,  a 
disciple  of  Plato,  put  to  death  Clearchus,  the 
tyrant  of  his  native  town,  and  was  in  conse- 
quence killed,  B.C.  353.  There  are  extant 
thirteen  letters  which  are  ascribed  to  Chion, 
but  which  are  undoubtedly  of  later  origin.  Ed- 
ited by  Coberus,  Lips.,  and  Dresd.,  1765,  and  by 
Orelli,  in  his  edition  of  Memnon,  Lips.,  1816. 

CHIONE  (Xiovq).  1.  Daughter  of  Boreas  and 
Orithyia,  became  by  Neptune  (Poseidon)  the 
mother  of  Eumolpus.  —  2.  Daughter  of  Daeda- 
lion,  beloved  by  Apollo  and  Mercury  (Hermes), 
gave  birth  to  twins,  Autolycus  and  Philammou, 
the  former  a  son  of  Mercury  (Hermes)  and  the 
latter  of  Apollo.  She  was  killed  by  Diana  (Ar- 
temis) for  having  compared  her  beauty  to  that 
of  the  goddess. 

CHIONIDES  (Xiuvidrif  and  XioviSrjs),  an  Athe- 
nian poet  of  the  old  comedy,  flourished  B.C. 
460,  and  was  the  first  poet  who  gave  the  Athe- 
nian comedy  that  form  which  it  retained  down 
to  the  time  of  Aristophanes.  [His  fragments 
are  given  by  Meineke,  Comic  Grose.  Fragm., 
vol.  i.,  p.  3-5,  edit,  minor. 

CHIOS  (XZof  :  XZof,  Chlus  :  now  Greek  Kliio, 
Italian  Scio,  Turkish  Saki-Anddssi,  i.  e.,  Mastic- 
island),  one  of  the  largest  and  most  famous 
islands  of  the  JSgean,  lay  opposite  to  the  pen- 
insula of  Clazomenae,  on  the  coast  of  Ionia, 
and  was  reckoned  at  nine  hundred  stadia  (nine- 
ty geographical  miles)  in  circuit.  Its  length 
from  north  to  south  is  about  thirty  miles,  its 
greatest  breadth  about  ten,  and  the  width  of 
the  strait,  which  divides  it  from  the  main  land, 
about  eight  It  is  said  to  have  borne,  in  the 
earliest  times,  the  various  names  of  JEthalia, 
Macris,  and  Pityusa,  and  to  have  been  inhab- 
ited by  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgians  and  Leleges.  It 
was  colonized  by  the  lonians  at  the  time  of 
their  great  migration,  and  became  an  import- 
ant member  of  the  Ionian  league  ;  but  its  pop- 
ulation was  mixed.  It  remained  an  independ- 
ent and  powerful  maritime  state,  under  a  demo- 
cratic form  of  government,  till  the  great  naval 
defeat  of  the  Ionian  Greeks  by  the  Persians, 
B.C.  494,  after  which  the  Chians,  who  had 
taken  part  in  the  fight  with  one  hundred  ships, 
were  subjected  to  the  Persians,  and  their  island 
was  laid  waste  and  their  young  women  carried 
off  into  slavery.  The  battle  of  Mycale,  479, 
freed  Chios  from  the  Persian  yoke,  and  it  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Athenian  league,  in 
which  it  was  for  a  long  time  the  closest  and 
most  favored  ally  of  Athens  ;  but  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  revolt,  in  412,  led  to  its  conquest 
and  devastation.  It  recovered  its  independence, 
with  Cos  and  Rhodes,  in  358,  and  afterward 
shared  the  fortunes  of  the  other  states  of  IONIA. 
Chios  is  covered  with  rocky  mountains,  clothed 
with  the  richest  vegetation.  It  was  celebrated 
for  ite  wine,  which  was  among  the  best  known 
to  the  ancients,  its  figs,  gum-mastic,  and  other 
natural  products,  also  for  its  marble  and  pottery, 
and  for  the  beauty  of  its  women;  and  the  lux- 
urious life  of  its  inhabitants.  Of  all  the  states 
198 


which  aspired  to  the  honor  of  being  the  biilh- 
place  of  Homer,  Chios  [alone,  with  any  plausi- 
bility, contested  the  claim  with  Smyrna,  though 
the  latter  is  generally  considered*  by  modern 
critics  to  have  the  best  claim  :  Vid.  HOMEKUS  ;] 
and  it  numbered  among  its  natives  the  trage- 
dian Ion,  the  historian  Theopompus,  the  poet 
Theocritus,  and  other  eminent  men.  Ite  chief 
city,  Chios  (now  Khio),  stood  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  island,  at  the  foot  of  its  highest  mountain, 
Pelinaaus  :  the  other  principal  places  in  it  were 
Posidium,  Phuuae,  Notium,  Elasus,  and  Leuco- 


CIIIBISOPHUS  (Xetpiffo^of),  a  Lacedaemonian, 
was  sent  by  the  Spartans  to  aid  Cyrus  in  his 
expedition  against  his  brother  Artaxerxes,  B.C. 
401.  After  the  battle  of  Cunaxa  and  the  sub- 
sequent arrest  of  the  Greek  generals,  Chiriso- 
phus  was  appointed  one  of  the  new  generals, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  Xenophon,  had  the 
chief  conduct  of  the  retreat. 

CHIEON  (Xeipuv),  the  wisest  and  justest  of  all 
the  Centaurs,  son  of  Saturn  (Cronos)  and  Phily- 
ra,  and  husband  of  Na'is  or  Cbariclo,  lived  on 
Mount  Pelion.  He  was  instructed  by  Apollo 
and  Diana  (Artemis),  and  was  renowned  for  his 
skill  in  hunting,  medicine,  music,  gymnastics, 
and  the  art  of  prophecy.  All  the  most  distin- 
guished heroes  of  Grecian  story,  as  Peleus, 
Achilles,  Diomedes,  <fec.,  are  described  as  the 
pupils  of  Chiron  in  these  arts.  His  friendship 
with  Peleus,  who  was  his  grandson,  is  particu- 
larly celebrated.  Chiron  saved  him  from  the 
other  Centaurs,  who  were  on  the  point  of  kilb'ng 
him,  and  he  also  restored  to  him  the  sword 
which  Acastus  had  concealed.  Chiron  further 
informed  him  in  what  manner  he  might  gain 
possession  of  Thetis,  who  was  destined  to  marry 
a  mortal  Hercules,  too,  was  his  friend  ;  but 
one  of  the  poisoned  arrows  of  this  hero  was 
nevertheless  the  cause  of  his  death.  While 
fighting  with  the  other  Centaurs,  one  of  the 
poisoned  arrows  of  Hercules  struck  Chiron. 
who,  although  immortal,  would  not  live  any 
longer,  and  gave  his  immortality  to  Prometh 
eus.  According  to  others,  Chiron,  in  looking  at 
one  of  the  arrows,  dropped  it  on  his  foot,  and 
wounded  himself.  Jupiter  (Zeus)  placed  Chiron 
among  the  stars. 

CHITONE  (Xtruvij),  a  surname  of  Diana  (Arte- 
mis), derived  either  from  the  Attic  demus  of 
Chitone,  or  because  the  goddess  is  represented 
with  a  short  chiton. 

CHLOE  (X/loty),  the  Blooming,  a  surname  of 
Ceres  (Demeter)  as  the  protectress  of  the  green 
fields  :  hence  Sophocles  ((Ed.  Col.,  1600)  calls 
her  Aj^'rjfp  ev^Aoof. 

[CHLOREUS,  a  priest  of  Cybele,  followed  ^Eneas 
from  Troy  into  Italy,  and  was  slain  by  Turnus.] 

CHLORIS  (XAw/s/f).  1.  Daughter  of  the  The- 
ban  Amphion  and  Niobe  :  she  and  her  brother 
Amyclas  were  the  only  children  of  Niobe  not 
killed  by  Apollo  and  Diana  (Artemis).  She  is 
often  confounded  with  No.  2.  —  2.  Daughter  of 
Amphion  of  Orchomenos,  wife  of  Neleus,  king 
of  Pylos,  and  mother  of  Nestor.  —  3.  Wife  of 
Zephyrus,  and  goddess  of  flowers,  identical  with 
the  Roman  Flora, 

CHOABENE  (Xoapyvij),  a  fertile  valley  in  the 
west  of  Parthia,  on  the  borders  of  Media,  be- 
tween two  ranges  of  the  Casoii  Montes 


CHOASPES. 

CHOASPES  (Xouanrjc).  Now  Kerah  or  Ka- 
ra-Su),  a  river  of  Susiana,  falling  into  the  Tigris. 
Ite  water  was  so  pure  that  the  Persian  kings 
used  to  cany  it  with  them  in  silver  vessels 
when  on  foreign  expeditions.  It  is  "wrongly 
identified  by  some  geographers  with  the  EULJK- 
us. — 2.  (Now  Attock),  a  river  in  the  Paropamisus, 
falling  into  the  Cophes  (now  Cabul),  apparently 
identical  with  the  Suastus  of  Ptolemy  and  the 
Gurasus  of  Arrian  ;  and  if  so,  the  Choes  of  Arriau 
is  probably  the  Kama ;  but  the  proper  naming 
of  these  rivers  is  very  difficult. 

CIKERADES  (Xoipddef),  two  small  rocky  islands 
off  the  coast  of  Italy,  near  Tarentum. 

CHOBRILUS  (Xoiptf.of  or  Xo/ptAAof).  1.  Of 
Athens,  a  tragic  poet,  contemporary  with  Thes- 
pis,  Phrynichus,  and  ^Eschylus,  exhibited  trage- 
dies for  forty  years,  B.C.  623—483,  and  gainsd 
the  prize  thirteen  tunes. — 2.  Of  Samos,  the  au- 
thor of  an  epic  poem  on  the  Persian  wars  :  the 
chief  action  of  the  poem  appears  to  have  been 
the  battle  of  Salamis.  He  was  born  about  470, 
and  died  at  the  court  of  Archelaus,  king  of  Ma- 
cedonia, consequently  not  later  than  399,  which 
was  the  last  year  of  Archelaus.  [The  frag- 
ments of  Choerilus  are  given  by  Nake,  Choerili 
Samii  Fragmenta,  Lips.,  1817.] — 3.  Of  lasoe,  a 
worthless  epic  poet  in  the  train  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  is  said  to  have  received  from  Alexander  a 
gold  stater  for  every  verse  of  his  poem.  (Hor, 
Ep^  ii,  1,  232;  Art.  Poet.,  357.) 

CHOES.     Vid.  CHOASPES,  No.  2. 

CHOLUDM  (XoAfaldai  or  ~X.o7M.6ai :  XoWcidrrf, 
•idj/f),  a  demus  in  Attica  belonging  either  to  the 
tribe  Leontis  or  Acamantis. 

CHONIA  (Xuvla),  the  name  in  early  times  of 
a  district  in  the  south  of  Italy,  inhabited  by  the 
CHO.VES  (Xuvef),  an  CEuotrian  people,  who  de- 
rived their  name  from  the  town  of  CHOME 
(Xuvij).  Chonia  appears  to  have  included  the 
southeast  of  Lucauia,  and  the  whole  of  the 
east  of  Bruttium  as  far  as  the  promontory  Ze- 
phyrium, 

CUORASMII  (Xupuafuot),  a  people  of  Sogdiana, 
who  inhabited  the  banks  and  islando  of  the  lower 
course  of  the  Oxus.  They  were  a  branch  of  the 
Sa«e  or  Massagetae. 

CHOSROES.  1.  King  of  Parthk.  Vid.  ARSA- 
CE8,  No.  25.— 2.  King  of  Persia.  Vid  SASSANI- 

DJB. 

[CHROMIS  (Xpofiif),  son  of  Midon,  was,  with 
Euuomus,  leader  of  the  Mysiatis  in  the  Trojan 
war.  Three  or  four  other  persons  of  this  name 
are  mentioned  in  the  .JSneid  of  Virgil  and  in 
Ovid.] 

[CHROMIUS  (Xpofiiof).  1.  Son  of  Neleus  and 
Chloris ;  slain  by  Hercules. — 2.  Son  of  Priam, 
slam,  together  with  his  brother  Echemon,  by 
Diomedes. — 3.  Son  of  Agesidamus,  a  Syracusan, 
conqueror  at  the  Nemean  games.  Two  or  three 
other  persons  of  this  name  of  no  importance  are 
mentioned  in  the  Iliad] 

CHRYSA  or  -K  (Xpvaa,  -17),  a  city  on  the  coast 
of  the  Troad,  near  Thebes,  with  a  temple  of 
Apollo  Smintheus ;  celebrated  by  Homer,  but 
destroyed  at  an  early  period,  and  succeeded  by 
another  city  of  the  same  name,  on  a  height 
further  from  the  sea,  near  Hamaxitos.  This 
eecoud  city  fell  into  decay  in  consequence  of 
the  removal  of  its  inhabitants  to  ALEXANDREA 


CHRYSOGONUS. 

CHRYSAXTAS  (XpvadvTaf),  described  by  Xeno- 
phon  in  the  Cyropaedia  as  a  brave  and  wise  Per- 
sian, high  in  the  favor  of  Cyrus,  who  rewarded 
him  with  the  satrapy  of  Lydia  and  Ionia. 

[CHRYSANTHIS  (Xpvaavdif),  an  Argive  female, 
who  informed  Ceres,  when  she  came  to  Argos,  of 
the  abduction  of  her  daughter.] 

CHRYSAOR  (Xpvauup).  1.  Son  of  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  and  Medusa,  husband  of  Callirrhoe, 
and  father  of  Geryones  and  Echidna. — 2.  The  god 
(or  goddess)  with  the  golden  sword,  a  surname  of 
several  divinities,  as  Apollo,  Diana  (Artemis),  and 
Ceres  (Demeter). 

CHRYSAS  (Xpvaas:  now  Dittaino),  a  small 
river  in  Sicily,  an  affluent  of  the  Symsethus,  was 
worshipped  as  a  god  in  Assorus,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  which  there  was  a  Fanum  Chrysce. 

CURYSEIS  (Xpvarjtg ),  daughter  of  Chryses,  priest 
of  Apollo  at  Chrysa,  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Achilles  at  the  capture  of  Lyrnessus  or  the  Hy- 
poplacian  Thebe.  In  the  distribution  of  the  booty 
she  was  given  to  Agamemnon.  Her  father  Chry- 
ses came  to  the  camp  of  the  Greeks  to  solicit  her 
ransom,  but  was  repulsed  by  Agamemnon  with 
harsh  words.  Thereupon  Apollo  sent  a  plague 
into  the  camp  of  the  Greeks,  and  Agamemnon 
was  obliged  to  restore  her  to  her  father  to  ap- 
pease the  anger  of  the  god.  Her  proper  name 
was  Astynome. 

CHRYSES.     Vid.  CURYSEIS. 

CHRYSIPPUS  (Xpvauriroc).  1.  Son  of  Pelops 
and  Axioche,  was  hated  by  his  step-mother  Hip- 
podamia,  who  induced  her  sons  Atreus  and  Thy- 
estes  to  kill  him. — 2.  A  Stoic  philosopher,  son 
of  Apollonius  of  Tarsus,  born  at  Soli  in  Cilicia, 
B.C.  200.  When  young,  he  lost  his  paternal 
property  and  went  to  Athens,  where  he  became 
the  disciple  of  the  Stoic  Cleanthes.  Disliking 
the  Academic  skepticism,  he  became  one  of  the 
most  strenuous  supporters  of  the  principle  that 
knowledge  is  attainable  and  may  be  established 
on  certain  foundations.  Hence,  though  not  the 
founder  of  the  Stoic  school,  he  was  the  first  per- 
son who  based  its  doctrines  on  a  plausible  sys- 
tem of  reasoning,  so  that, it  was  said,  "  if  Chry- 
sippus  had  not  existed,  the  Porch  could  not 
have  been."  He  died  207,  aged  seventy-three. 
He  possessed  great  acuteness  and  sagacity,  and 
his  industry  was  so  great  that  he  is  said  to  have 
seldom  written  less  than  five  hundred  lines  a 
day,  and  to  have  left  behind  him  seven  hundred 
and  five  works.  [His  fragments  have  been  col- 
lected by  Baguet,  De  Chrysippi  vita  ct  reliquiit, 
Lovanu,  1822,  4to.] — 3.  Of  Cuidos,  a  physician, 
sometimes  confounded  with  the  Stoic  philoso- 
pher, but  he  lived  about  a  century  earlier.  He 
was  son  of  Erineus,  and  pupil  of  Eudoxus  of 
Cnidos :  his  works,  which  are  not  now  extant, 
are  quoted  by  Galen. — [4.  A  learned  freedman 
of  Cicero,  who  ordered  him  to  attend  upon  his 
son  in  B.C.  52 ;  but  as  he  left  young  Marcus 
without  the  knowledge  of  his  patron,  Cicero  de- 
termined to  declare  his  manumission  void.  He 
afterward  appears,  however,  to  have  been  in 
favor  again  with  his  patron.  5.  A  freedman  of 
the  architect  Cyrus,  and  himself  also  an  archi- 
tect] 

CHRYSOCKRAS,  the  "  Golden  Horn,"  the  prom- 
ontory on  which  part  of  Constantinople  was 
built. 

L.  CORNELIUS,  a  favorite  freed- 
199 


CHRYSOPOLIS. 

man  of  Sulla,  and  a  man  of  profligate  character, 
was  the  false  accuser  of  Sextus  Roscius,  whom 
Cicero  defended,  B.C.  80. 

CHBVSOI-OLIS  (Xpvooirofaf  .  now  Scutari)  a  for- 
tified place  on  the  Bosporus,  opposite  to  Byzan- 
tium, at  the  spot  where  the  Bosporus  was  gener- 
ally crossed.  It  was  originally  ,the  port  of  Chal- 
ecdon. 

CHRYSORRHOAS  (Xpvaoppoaf :  now  Barradd), 
also  called  BARDINES,  a  river  of  Coale-Syria,  flow- 
ing from  the  eastern  side  of  Auti-Libanus,  past 
Damascus,  into  a  Lake  now  called  Bahr-el-Merj. 

CURYSOSTOMUS,  JOANNES  (X.pvff6aro/io£,  "gold- 
en-mouthed,"  so  surnamed  from  the  power  of 
his  eloquence,)  usually  called  ST.  CHRYSOSTOM, 
was  born  at  Antioch,  of  a  noble  family,  A.D. 
347.  He  received  instruction  in  eloquence  from 
Libanius;  and  after  being  ordained  deacon  (381) 
and  presbyter  (386)  at  Antioch,  he  became  so 
celebrated  as  a  preacher  that  he  was  chosen 
archbishop  of  Constantinople  on  the  death  of 
Nectarius,  397.  Chrysostom  soon  gave  great 
offence  at  Constantinople  by  the  simplicity  of 
his  mode  of  living,  by  the  sternness  with  which 
he  rebuked  the  immorality  of  the  higher  classes, 
and  by  the  severity  which  he  showed  to  the 
worldly-minded  monks  and  clergy.  Among  his 
enemies  was  the  Empress  Eudoxia ;  and  they 
availed  themselves  of  a  dispute  which  had 
arisen  between  Chrysostom  and  Theophilus, 
patriarch  of  Alexandrea,  to  accuse  Chrysostom 
of  Origenism,  and  to  obtain  his  deposition  by  a 
synod  held  at  Chalcedon  in  403.  But  the  same 
causes  which  had  brought  on  Chrysostom  the 
hatred  of  the  higher  orders  had  made  him  the 
idol  of  the  people.  A  few  days  after  he  had  left 
the  city  an  earthquake  happened,  which  the 
enraged  people  considered  as  a  proof  of  the  di- 
vine anger  at  his  banishment.  Eudoxia,  fear- 
ing a  popular  insurrection,  recalled  him,  but  two 
months  after  his  return  he  again  excited  the 
anger  of  the  empress,  and  was  banished  a  sec- 
ond time  to  the  desolate  town  of  Cucusus  on 
the  Iwrders  of  Isauria  and  Cilicia.  He  met  with 
much  sympathy  from  -other  churches,  and  his 
cause  was  advocated  by  Innocent,  bishop  of 
Rome  ;  but  all  this  excited  jealousy  at  Constan- 
tinople, and  he  was  ordered  to  be  removed  to 
Pityus  in  Pontus.  He  died  on  the  journey  at 
Comana  in  Pontus,  407,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of 
his  age.  His  bones  were  brought  back  to  Con- 
stantinople in  438,  and  he  received  tlie  honor  of 
canonization.  His  works  are  most  voluminous. 
They  consist  of,  1.  Homilies,  Sermons  on  differ- 
ent parts  of  Scripture  and  points  of  doctrine  and 
g'actice.  2.  Commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.  3. 
pistles.  4.  Treatises  on  various  subjects,  e.  g^ 
the  Priesthood,  Providence,  <fec.  5.  Liturgies. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  by  Montfaucon, 
Paris,  1718-38,  13  vols.  folio:  [reprinted  Paris, 
1836-40,  13  vols.  royal  8vo.] 

[CiiRVSOTHEMis  (Xptxrotfe/tHf),  a  daughter  of 
Agamemnon,  offered  by  him  in  marriage  to 
Achilles  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation."] 

CHTHONIUS  (X06vtof)  and  CHTHONIA  (Xdovia), 
epithets  of  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  the  lower 
world  (from  %Quv,  "  the  earth"),  as  Hades,  Hec- 
ate, Demeter,  Persephone,  <tc. 

CHYTRI  (Xtirpot).     1.  (Now  Chytri,)  a  town  in 
Cyprus,  on  the  road  from  Cerynia  to  Salamis. — 
2.  Warm  springs  at  Salamis. 
200 


CICERO,  TULLIUS. 

CIA  CA,  a  border  fortress  of  the  Romans  in  Lea 
ser  Armenia. 

CIBAI.E  or  CIBALIS,  a  town  in  Pannonia,  on  the 
Lake  Hiulcas,  between  the  Dravus  and  Savus, 
near  which  Constantine  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  Licinius,  A.D.  314:  the  birth-place  of  Val- 
eutinian  and  Gratian. 

CIBOTCS.  Vid.  ALEXANDREA,  No.  1  ;  APAMEA 
No.  3. 


CIBYRA  (Kiljvpa:  Kifopurqe  :  now  Cibyr&ta), 
1.  MAONA  (ij  peyuXri  :  ruins  at  Buruz  or  Aron- 
don  ?),  a  great  city  of  Phrygia  Magna,  in  the  fer- 
tile district  of  Milyas,  on  the  borders  of  Caria, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Lydians,  but 
afterward  peopled  by  the  Pisidians.  In  Strabo's 
time  four  native  dialects  were  spoken  in  it  be- 
sides Greek,  namely,  those  of  the  Lydians,  the 
Pisidians,  the  Milyje,  and  the  Solymi.  Under 
its  native  princes,  the  city  ruled  over  a  large 
district  called  Cibyratis  (  Ki&vpurie),  and  could 
send  into  the  field  an  army  of  thirty  thousand 
men.  In  B.C.  83  it  was  added  to  the  Roman 
empire,  and  was  made  the  seat  of  a  conventus 
jundicus.  After  being  nearly  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  it  was  restored  by  Tiberius,  under 
the  names  Czesarea  and  Civitas  Cibyratica. 
The  city  was  very  celebrated  for  its  manufac- 
tures, especially  in  iron.  —  2  PARVA  (K.  fwtpd  : 
now  Ibura),  a  city  of  Pamphylia,  on  the  borders 
of  Cilicia. 

CICEREICS,  C.,  secretary  of  the  elder  Scipio 
Africanus,  was  a  candidate  for  the  prsetorship, 
B.C.  174,  along  with  Scipio's  son,  but  resigned 
in  favor  of  the  latter.  He  was  pnetor  in  the 
following  year,  and  conquered  the  Corsicans,  but 
was  refused  a  triumph.  In  172  and  167  he  was 
one  of  the  ambassadors  sont  to  the  Ulyrian  king 
Gentius,  and  in  168  he  dedicated  on  'the  Alban 
Mount  a  temple  to  Juno  Moneta. 

CICERO,  TULUUS.  1.  M.,  grandfather  of  the 
orator,  lived  at  his  native  town  Arpinum,  which 
received  the  full  Roman  franchise  in  B.C.  188. 
—  2.  M.,  son  of  No.  1,  also  lived  at  Arpinum,  and 
died  64.  —  3.  L.,  brother  of  No.  2.  was  a  friend 
of  Marcus  Antonius  the  orator.  —  4.  L.,  son  of 
No.  3,  school-fellow  of  the  orator,  died  68,  much 
regretted  by  his  cousin.  —  5.  M.,  the  orator,  eld- 
est son  of  No.  2  and  Helvia,  was  born  on  the 
third  of  January,  B.C.  106,  at  the  family  resi- 
dence in  the  vicinity  of  Arpinum.  He  was  edu- 
cated along  with  his  brother  Quiutus,  and  the 
two  brothers  displayed  such  aptitude  for  learn- 
ing that  his  father  removed  with  them  to  Rome. 
where  they  received  instruction  from  the  best 
teachers  in  the  capital.  One  of  their  most  cele- 
brated teachers  was  the  poet  Archias  of  Autioch. 
After  receiving  the  manly  gown  (91)  the  young 
Marcus  was  placed  under  the  care  of  Q.  Mu- 
cius  Scsevola,  the  augur,  from  whom  he  learn- 
ed the  principles  of  jurisprudence.  In  89  he 
served  his  first  and  only  campaign  under  On. 
Pompeius  Strabo  in  the  Social  war.  During  the 
civil  wara  between  Marius  and  Sulla,  Cicero 
identified  himself  with  neither  party,  but  de- 
voted his  time  to  the  study  of  law,  philosophy, 
and  rhetoric.  He  received  instruction  in  phi 
losopby  from  Phaedrus  the  Epicurean,  Philo,  the 
chief  of  the  New  Academy,  and  Diodotus  the 
Stoic,  and  in  rhetoric  from  Molo  the  Rhodiaa 
Having  carefully  cultivated  his  powers,  Cicero 
came  forward  as  a  pleader  in  the  forum  as  soon 


CICERO. 


CICERO. 


as  tranquillity  was  restored  by  the  final  over- 
throw of  the  Marian  party.  His  first  extant 
speech  was  delivered  in  81,  when  he  was  twen- 
ty-six years  of  age,  on  behalf  of  P.  Quintius. 
Next  year  (80)  he  defended  Sextus  Roscius  of 
Ameria,  charged  with  parricide  by  Chrysogonus, 
a  favorite  freedman  of  Sulla.  Shortly  afterward 
(79)  Cicero  went  to  Greece,  ostensibly  for  the 
improvement  of  his  health,  which  was  very  del- 
icate, but  perhaps  because  he  dreaded  the  re- 
sentment of  Sulla.  He  first  went  to  Athens, 
where  he  remained  six  months,  studying  phi- 
losophy under  Antiochus  of  Ascalon,  and  rhet- 
oric under  Demetrius  Syrus ;  and  here  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Pomponius  Atticus,  who  re- 
mained his  firm  friend  to  the  close  of  his  life. 
From  Athens  he  passed  over  to  Asia  Minor,  re- 
ceiving instruction  from  the  most  celebrated 
rhetoricians  in  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia;  and 
finally  passed  some  time  at  Rhodes  (78),  where 
he  once  more  placed  himself  under  the  care  of 
Molo.  After  an  absence  of  two  years,  Cicero 
returned  to  Rome  (77),  with  his  health  firmly 
established,  and  his  oratorical  powers  greatly 
unproved.  He  again  came  forward  as  an  orator 
in  the  forum,  and  soon  obtained  the  greatest 
distinction.  His  success  in  the  forum  paved  for 
him  the  way  to  the  high  offices  of  state.  In  75 
he  was  quaestor  in  Sicily  under  Sex.  Peducaeus, 
praetor  of  Lilybaeum,  and  discharged  the  duties 
of  his  office  with  an  integrity  and  impartiality 
which  secured  for  him  the  affections  of  the  pro- 
vincials. He  returned  to  Rome  in  74,  and  for 
the  next  four  years  was  engaged  in  pleading 
causes.  In  70  he  distinguished  himself  by  the 
impeachment  of  VEKRES,  and  in  69  he  was  cu- 
rule  aedile.  In  66  he  was  praetor,  and  while 
holding  this  office  he  defended  Cluentius  in  the 
speech  still  extant,  and  delivered  his  celebrated 
oration  in  favor  of  the  Manilian  law,  which  ap- 
pointed Pompey  to  the  command  of  the  Mith- 
radatic  war.  Two  years  afterward  he  gained 
the  great  object  of  his  ambition,  and,  although 
a  novus  homo,  was  elected  consul  with  C.  Anto- 
uius  as  a  colleague.  He  entered  upon  the  office 
on  the  first  of  January,  63.  Hitherto  Cicero 
had  taken  little  part  in  the  political  struggles  of 
his  time.  As  far  as  he  had  interfered  in  public 
affairs,  he  had  sided  with  the  popular  party, 
which  had  raised  him  to  power ;  but  he  appears 
never  to  have  had  any  real  sympathy  with  that 
party ;  and  as  soon  as  he  had  gained  the  high- 
est office  in  the  state  he  deserted  his  former 
friends,  and  connected  himself  closely  with  the 
aristocracy.  The  consulship  of  Cicero  was  dis- 
tinguished by  the  outbreak  of  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline,  which  was  suppressed  and  finally 
crushed  by  Cicero's  prudence  and  energy.  Vid. 
CATILI.VA.  For  this  service  Cicero  received  the 
highest  honors ;  he  was  addressed  as  "  father 
of  his  country,"  and  thanksgivings  in  his  name 
were  voted  to  the  gods.  But  as  soon  as  he  had 
laid  down  the  consulship,  the  friends  of  the  con- 
spirators, who  had  been  condemned  to  death  by 
the  senate,  and  wliose  sentence  had  been  car- 
ried into  execution  by  Cicero,  accused  him  loud- 
ly of  having  put  Roman  citizens  to  death  ille- 
gally. Cicero  had  clearly  been  guilty  of  a  vio- 
lation of  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Ro- 
man constitution,  which  declared  that  no  citizen 
could  be  put  t<  death  until  sentence '  by  the 


whole  body  of  the  people  assembled  in  the  co 
)  mitia.  Cicero's  enemies  were  not  slow  in  avail- 
ing themselves  of  this  vulnerable  point  The 
;  people,  whose  cause  he  had  deserted,  soon  be- 
\  gan  to  show  unequivocal  signs  of  resentment 
;  against  him.  Shortly  afterward  (62)  he  mor- 
I  tally  offended  Clodius  by  bearing  witness  against 
i  him,  when  the  latter  was  accused  of  a  violation 
of  the  mysteries  of  the  Bona  Dea.  Clodius 
vowed  deadly  vengeance  against  Cicero.  To 
accomplish  his  purpose  more  securely,  Clodius 
was  adopted  into  a  plebeian  family,  was  then 
elected  tribune  of  the  plebs,  and  as  tribune  (58) 
brought  forward  a  bill,  interdicting  from  fire  and 
water  (i.  e.,  banishing)  any  one  who  should  be 
found  to  have  put  a  Roman  citizen  to  death  un- 
tried. The  triumvirs,  Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Cras- 
sus,  left  Cicero  to  his  fate ;  and  despairing  of 
offering  any  successful  opposition  to  the  meas- 
ure of  Clodius,  Cicero  voluntarily  retired  from 
Rome  before  it  was  put  to  the  vote,  and  crossed 
over  to  Greece.  He  took  up  his  residence  at 
Thessalonica  in  Macedonia.  Here  he  gave  way 
to  unmanly  despair;  and  his  letters  during  this 
period  are  filled  with  groans,  sobs,  and  tears. 
Meanwhile  his  friends  at  Rome  had  not  deserted 
him ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  vehement  oppo- 
sition of  Clodius,  they  obtained  his  recall  from 
banishment  in  the  course  of  next  year.  In  Au- 
gust, 67,  Cicero  landed  at  Brundisium,  and  in 
September  he  was  again  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
received  with  distinguished  honor.  Taught  by 
experience,  Cicero  would  no  longer  join  the  sen- 
ate in  opposition  to  the  triumvirs,  and  retired  to 
a  great  extent  from  public  life.  In  52  he  was 
compelled,  much  against  his  will,  to  go  to  the 
East  as  governor  of  Cilicia.  Here  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  bis  integrity  and  impartial 
administration  of  justice,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
made  himself  ridiculous  by  the  absurd  vanity 
which  led  him  to  assume  the  title  of  imperator 
and  to  aspire  to  the  honors  of  a  triumph  on  ac- 
count of  his  subduing  some  robber  tribes  in  his 
province.  He  returned  to  Italy  toward  the  end 
of  50,  and  arrived  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome 
on  the  fourth  of  January,  49,  just  as  the  civil  war 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey  broke  out  After 
long  hesitating  which  side  to  join,  he  finally  de- 
termined to  throw  in  his  lot  with  Pompey,  and 
crossed  over  to  Greece  in  June.  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Pharsalia  (48),  Cicero  abandoned  the 
Pompeian  party  and  returned  to  Brundisium, 
where  he  lived  in  the  greatest  anxiety  for  many 
months,  dreading  the  vengeance  of  Caesar.  But 
his  fears  were  groundless:  he  was  not  only 
pardoned  by  Caesar,  but,  when  the  latter  landed 
at  Brundisium  in  September,  47,  he  greeted 
Cicero  with  the  greatest  kindness  and  respect, 
and  allowed  him  to  return  to  Rome.  Cicero 
now  retired  into  privacy,  and  during  the  next 
three  or  four  years  composed  the  greater  part 
of  his  philosophical  and  rhetorical  works.  The 
murder  of  Caesar  on  the  15th  of  Mnrch,  44, 
again  brought  Cicero  into  public  life.  He  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  republican  party,  and 
in  his  Philippic  orations  attacked  M.  Antony 
with  unmeasured  vehemence.  But  this  proved 
his  ruia  On  the  formation  of  the  triumvirate 
between  Octavianus,  Antony,  and  Lepidus  (27th 
of  November,  48),  Cicero's  name  was  in  the 
list  of  the  proscribed.  Cicero  was  warned  of 
201 


CICERO. 

his  danger  while  at  his  Tusculau  villa,  and  em- 
barked at  Antium,  intending  to  escape  by  sea, 
but  was  driven  by  stress  of  weather  to  Circeii, 
from  whence  he  coasted  along  to  Formite,  where 
he  landed  at  his  villa.    From  Formiee  his  at- 
tendants carried  him  in  a  litter  toward  the  shore, 
but  were  overtaken  by  the  soldiers  before  they 
could  reach  the  coast.     They  were  ready  to  de- 
fend their  master  with  their  lives,  but  Cicero 
commanded  them  to  desist,  and,  stretching  for- 
ward, called  upon  his    executioners    to  strike. 
They  instantly  cut  off  his  head  and  hands,  which 
were  conveyed  to  Rome,  and,  by  the  orders  of 
Antony,  nailed  to  the  Rostra.     Cicero  perished 
on  the  7th  of  December,  43,  and,  at  the  time  of 
his  death,  had  nearly  completed  his  sixty-fourth 
year.      By  his  first  wife,  Terentia,  Cicero  had 
two  children,  a  daughter,  TULLIA,  whose  death 
in  45  caused  him  the  greatest  sorrow,  and   a 
son  Marcus.      Vid.  No.  7.    His   wife   Terentia, 
to  whom  he  had  been  united  for  thirty  years, 
he  divorced  in  46,  in  consequence,  it  would   ap- 
pear, of  some  disputes  connected  with  pecuni- 
ary  transactions ;  and  soon  afterward  he  mar- 
ried a  young  and  wealthy  maiden,  PUBLILIA,  his 
ward,  but,  as  might  have  been  anticipated,  found 
little  comfort  in  this  new  alliance,  which  was 
speedily  dissolved.    As  a  statesman  and  a  citi- 
zen Cicero  can  not  command  our  respect     He 
did  good  Service  to  his  country  by  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  ;  but  this  was 
almost  the  only  occasion   on  which   he  showed 
vigor  and  decision  of  character.     His  own  let- 
ters condemn  him.     In  them  his  inordinate  van- 
ity,  pusillanimity,   and    political  tergiversation 
appear  in  the  clearest  colors.     It  is  as  an  author 
that  Cicero  deserves  the  highest  praise.     In  his 
works  the  Latin  language  appears  in  the  great- 
est perfection.     They  may  be  divided  into  the 
following  subjects:    I.    RHETORICAL  WORKS:    1. 
Rhetoricorum  s.  De  Inventions  Rhetorica  Libri  II. 
This  appears  to  have  been  the  earliest  of  Cic- 
ero's prose  works.     It  was  intended  to  exhibit 
in  a  systematic  form  all  that  was  most  valuable 
in  the  works  of  the   Greek  rhetoricians,  but  it 
was  never  completed. — 2.  De  Partitione  Orato- 
rio, Dialogue.    A  catechism  of  Rhetoric,  accord- 
ing to  the  method  of  the  middle  Academy,  by 
way   of  question  and  answer,  drawn  up  by  Cic- 
ero for  the  instruction  of  his  son  Marcus,  writ- 
ten in  46. — 3.  De  Oratore  ad  Quintum  Fratrem 
Libri  III.     A   systematic  work  on  the  art  of 
Oratory,   written  in  55  at  the  request  of  his 
brother  Quintus.     This  is  the  most  perfect  of 
Cicero's  rhetorical  works.    Best  edition  by  El- 
lendt,  Regiomont.,  1840. — 4.  Brutus  s.  De  Claris 
Oratoribus.     It  contains  a  critical  history  of  Ro- 
man eloquence,   from  the  earliest  times   down 
to  Hortensius    inclusive.      Editions  by  Meyer, 
Halfe,  1838,  and  by  Ellendt,  Regiomont,  1844.— 
6.  Ad  M.  Brutwn  Orator,  in  which  Cicero  gives 
his  views  of    a  faultless    orator:    written  45. 
Edited  by  Meyer,   Lips.,  1827.— 6.  De  Optimo 
Genere  Oratorum.    An  introduction  to  Cicero's 
translation  of    the   orations   of    ^Eschines   and 
Demosthenes  in  the    case  of    Ctesiphon:    the 
translation  itself  has  been  lost. — 7.    Topica  ad 
C.  Trebatium.     An  abstract  of  the  Topics  of  Ar- 
istotle, illustrated  by  examples  derived  chiefly 
from  Roman  law  instead  of  from  Greek  philos- 
ophy :  it  was  written  in  July,  44. — ^.  Rhetorico- 
202 


CICERO. 

rum  ad  0.  Ilercnnium  Libri  IV.    The  author  of 
this  work  is  uncertain,  but  it  was  certainly  not 
written  by  Cicero. — IL  PHILOSOPHICAL  WOUKS. 
i.  POLITICAL  PHILOSOPHY  :  1.  De  Republica  Libri 
VI.    A  work  on  the  best  form  of  government 
and   the   duty  of  the  citizen,  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue   founded   on    the  Republic  of    Plato  ; 
written  in  54.  .This  work  disappeared  in  the 
tenth  or  eleventh  century  of  our  era  with  the 
exception  of  the  episode  of  the  Somnium  Scipi- 
onis,  which  had  been  preserved  by  Macrobius ; 
but  in  1822,  Angelo  Mai  found  among  the  Pa- 
limpsests in  the  Vatican  a  portion  of  the  lost 
i  treasure.      Thus  the  greater  part  of   the   first 
'  and  second  books,  and  a  few  fragments  of  the 
others    were    discovered.      Editions    by    Mai, 
Rome,  1822,  and  by  Creuzer  and  Moser,  Frank!, 
1826.— 2.  De  Legibus  Libri  III.    A    dialogue, 
founded  on  the  Laws  of  Plato ;  probably  writ- 
ten 52.     A  portion  of  the  three  books  is  lost, 
and  it  originally  consisted  of  a  greater  number. 
Edited  by  Moser  and  Creuzer,  Frankfort,  1824, 
and  by  Bake,  Lugd.  Bat,  1842. — n.  PHILOSOPHY 
OF  MORALS  :  1.  De  Ofiiciis  Libri  III.    Writteu 
in  44  for  the  use  of  his  son  Marcus,  at  that  time 
residing  at  Athens.     The  first  two  books  were 
chiefly  taken  from  Panaetius,  and  the  third  book 
was  founded  upon  the  work  of  the  Stoic  Hecato ; 
but  the  illustrations    are  taken   almost   exclu- 
sively from  Roman  history  and  Roman  litera- 
ture.   Edited  by  Beier,  Lips.,  1820-1821,  2  vols. 
— 2.  Cato  Major  s.  De  Senectute,  addressed  to  At- 
ticus,  and  written   at  the  beginning  of  44 :    it 
points  out  how  the  burden  of  old  age  may  be 
most  easily  supported. — 3.  Lcelius  s.  De  Amici- 
tia,  written  after  the  preceding,  to  which  it  may 
be  considered   as  forming  a  companion :    also 
addressed  to  Atticus.    [Edited  by  Beier,  Lips., 
1828,  and  by  Seyffert,  Brandenburg,  1844.] — i. 
De    Gloria  Libri   II.,  written  44,  is  now  lost, 
though  Petrarch  possessed  a  MS.  of  the   work. 
— 5.  De  Consolatione  s.  De  Luctu  minuendo,  writ- 
ten 45,  soon    after   the  death  of  his  daughter 
Tullia,  is   also    lost. — in.  SPECULATIVE   PHILOS- 
OPHY :  1.  Academicorum  Libri  II.,  a  treatise  upon 
the  Academic    philosophy,   written  45.     Edited 
by  Goerenz,  Lips.,  1810,  and  Orelli,  Turic.,  1827. 
— 2.  De  Finibus  Bonorum  et  Malorum  Libri  V. 
Dedicated  to  M.  Brutus,  in  which  are  discussed 
the  opinions  of  the  Epicureans,  Stoics,  and  Per- 
ipatetics, on  the  Supreme  Good,  that  is,  ihejinis, 
or  end,  toward  which  all  our  thoughts  and  ac- 
tions are,  or  ought  to  be,  directed.      Written  in 
45.    Edited  by  Otto,  Lips.,  1831,  and  by  Mad- 
vig,  Copenhagen,  1839. — 3.  Tusculanarum  Dis- 
putationum  Libri  V.    This  work,  addressed  to 
M.  Brutus,  is  a  series  of  discussions  on  various 
important  points  of  practical  philosophy,  sup 
posed  to  have  been  held  in  the  Tusculanum  of 
Cicero.      Written  in  45.      Edited  by  Kuhner, 
Jenas,  1846,  third  edition,  and  by  Moser,  Hannov., 
3  vols.,  1836-1837. — 4.   Paradoxa,  six  favorite 
Paradoxes  of   the  Stoics  explained  in   familiar 
language,  written  early  in  46.      [Edited  by  Mo- 
ser, Gottingen,  1846.] — 5.  Hortensius  s.  De  Phi- 
losophia,  a  dialogue  in  praise  of  philosophy,  of 
which  fragments  only  are  extant,  written  hi  45. 
— 6.  Jlmceus  s.  De  Universe,  a  translation  of  Pla- 
to's  Timseus,  of  which  we  possess  a  fragment 
— rv.  THEOLOGY  :  1.  De  Natura  Deorum  Libri 
III.      An  account  of  the  speculations  of  the 


OICERO. 

Epicureans,  the  Stoics,  and  the  Academicians, 
on  the  existence,  attributes,  and  providence  of 
a  Divine  Being;  dedicated  to  M.  Brutus,  and 
written  early  in  44 ;  edited  by  Moser  and  Creu- 
zer,  Lips.,  1818. — 2.  De  Divinat/one  Libri  II.,  a 
continuation  of  the  preceding  work.  It  presents 
the  opinions  of  the  different  schools  of  philoso- 
phy vipnn  the  reality  of  the  science  of  divina- 
tioa  Written  in  44,  after  the  death  of  Cassar  ; 
edited  by  Creuzer,  Kayser,  and  Moser,  Frankf., 
1828. — 3.  De  Fato  Liber  Singularis,  only  a  frag- 
ment— III.  ORATIONS,  The  following  is  a  list 
of  Cicero's  extant  speeches,  with  the  date  at 
which  each  was  delivered.  Some  account  of 
each  oration  is  given  separately  with  the  biog- 
raphy of  the  person  principally  concerned.  1. 
Pro  P.  Quintio,  B.C.  81.— 2.  Pro  Sex.  Roscio 
Amerino,  80. — 3.  Pro  Q.  Roscio  Comoedo,  76. 
— 4.  Pro  M.  Tullio,  71—  5.  In  Q.  Caecilium,  70. 
— 6.  In  Verrem  Actio  I,  5th  of  August,  70. — 7. 
In  Verrem  Actio  II.  Not  delivered. — 8.  Pro 
M.  Fonteio,  69. — 9.  Pro  A.  Czecina,  69,  proba- 
bly.— 10.  Pro  Lege  Manilia,  66. — 11.  Pro  A. 
Cluentio  Avito,  66. — 12.-  Pro  C.  Cornelio,  55. 
— 13.  Oratio  in  Toga  Candida,  64. — 14.  De  Lege 
Agraria,  three  orations,  63. — 15.  Pro  C.  Rabirio, 
63. — 16.  In  Catilinam,  four  orations,  63. — 17. 
Pro  Murena,  63. — 18.  Pro  P.  Cornelio  Sulla,  62. 
— 19.  Pro  A.  Licinio  Archia,  61. — 20.  Pro  L. 
Valerio  Flacco,  59. — 21.  Post  Reditum  in  Senatu, 
5th  of  September,  57. — 22.  Post  Reditum  ad 
Quirites,  6th  or  7th  of  September,  57.— 23.  Pro 
Domo  sua  ad  Pontifices,  29th  of  September,  57. 
— 24.  De  Haruspicum  Reaponsis,  56. — 25.  Pro 
P.  Sextio,  55.— 26.  In  Vatinium,  56.— 27.  Pro 
M.  Caelio  Rufo,  56.— 28.  Pro.  L.  Cornelio  Balbo, 
56. — 29.  De  Provinciis  Consularibus,  56. — 30. 
In  L.  Pisonem,  55. — 3^.  Pro  Cn.  Plancio,  55. 
— 32.  Pro  C.  Rabirio  Postumo,  54.— 33.  Pro  M. 
^Emilio  Scauro,  54. — 34.  Pro  T.  Annio  Milone, 
52.— 35.  Pro  M.  Marcello,  47.— 36.  Pro  Q.  Li- 
gario,  46. — 37.  Pro  Rege  Deiotaro,  45. — 38. 
Orationea  Philippicae,  fourteen  orations  against 
M.  Antonius,  44  and  43. — IV.  EPISTLES.  Cicero, 
during  the  most  important  period  of  his  life, 
maintained  a  close  correspondence  with  Atticus, 
and  with  a  wide  circle  of  literary  and  political 
friends  and  connections.  We  now  have  up- 
ward of  eight  hundred  letters,  undoubtedly  gen- 
uine, extending  over  a  space  of  twenty-six  years, 
and  commonly  arranged  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  1.  Epistolarum.  ad  Familiares  s.  Ephtola- 
rum  ad  Diver  sot  Libri  XVl^  a  series  of  four 
hundred  and  twenty-six  epistles,  commencing 
with  a  letter  to  Pompey,  written  in  62,  and 
terminating  with  a  letter  to  Caasius,  July,  43. 
They  are  not  placed  in  chronological*  order,  but 
those  addressed  to  the  same  individuals,  with 
their  replies,  where  these  exist,  are  grouped  to- 
gether, without  reference  to  the  date  of  the  rest — 
2.  Epittolarum  ad  T.  Pomponium  Atticum  Libri 
XVI.,  a  series  of  three  hundred  and  ninety-six 
epistles  addressed  to  Atticus,  of  which  eleven 
were  written  in  68,  67,  65,  and  62,  the  remain- 
der after  the  end  of  62,  and  the  last  in  Novem- 
ber, 44.  They  are,  for  the  most  pai"t,  in  chro- 
nological order,  although  dislocations  occur  here 
and  there. — 3.  Epistolarum  ad  Q.  Fratrem  Libri 
///,  a  series  of  twenty-nine  epistles  addressed 
to  his  brother,  the  first  written  in  69,  the  last  in 
64. — 4.  We  find  in  most  editions  Epistolarum  ad 


CIC11RHUS,  MESSIUS. 

Brutum  Liber,  a  series  of  eighteen  epistles,  all 
written  after  the  death  of  Caesar.  To  these  are 
added  eight  more,  first  published  by  Cratander. 
The  genuineness  of  these  two  books  is  doubt- 
ful The  most  useful  edition  of  Cicero's  letters 
is  by  Schiitz,  6  vols.  8vo,  1809-1812,  in  which 
they  are  arranged  in  chronological  order.  Cicero 
also  wrote  a  great  number  of  other  works  ou 
historical  and  miscellaneous  subjects,  all  of 
which  are  lost  He  composed  several  poems, 
most  of  them  in  his  earlier  years,  but  two  at  a 
later  period,  containing  a  history  of  his  consul- 
ship, and  an  account  of  his  exile  and  recall.  A 
line  in  one  of  his  poems  contained  the  unlucky 
jingle  so  well  known  to  us  •  from  Juvenal  (x., 
122),  0  fortunatam  natam  me  conmle  JRotnam. 
The  best  edition  of  the  collected  works  of  Cicero 
is  by  Orelli,  Turic.,  1826-1837,  9  vols.  8vo,  in 
thirteen  parts. — 6.  Q.,  brother  of  the  orator,  was 
born  about  102,  and  was  educated  along  with 
his  brother.  In  67  he  was  sedile,  in  62  praetor, 
and  for  the  next  three  years  governed  Asia  as 
propraetor.  He  returned  to  Rome  in  58,  and 
warmly  exerted  himself  to  procure  the  recall 
of  his  brother  from  banishment.  In  55  he  went 
to  Gaul  as  legatus  to  Caesar,  whose  approbation 
he  gained  by  his  military  abilities  and  gallantry  : 
he  distinguished  himself  particularly  by  the  re- 
sistance he  offered  to  a  vast  host  of  Gauls,  who 
had  attacked  his  camp,  when  ne  was  stationed 
for  the  winter  with  one  legion  in  the  country 
of  the  Nervii.  In  51  he  accompanied  his  broth- 
er as  legate  to  Cilicia ;  and  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  civil  war  in  49  he  joined  Pompey.  After 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia  he  was  pardoned  by  Cae- 
sar. He  was  proscribed  by  the  triumvirs,  and 
was  put  Jo  death  in  43.  Quintus  wrote  several 
works,  which  are  all  lost,  with  the  exception 
of  an  address  to  his  brother,  entitled  De  Peti- 
tione  Considatus.  Quintus  was  married  to  Pom 
ppnia,  sister  of  Atticus;  but,  from  incompati- 
bility of  temper,  their  union  was  an  unhappy 
one. — 7.  M.,  only  son  of  the  orator  and  his  wife 
Terentia,  was  born  65.  He  accompanied  his 
father  to  Cilicia,  and  served  it  Pompey's  army 
in  Greece,  although  he  was  then  only  sixteen 
years  of  age.  In  45  he  was  sent  to  Athens  to 
pursue  his  studies,  but  there  fell  into  irregular 
and  extravagant  habits.  On  the  death  of  Cae- 
sar (44)  he  joined  the  republican  party,  served 
as  military  tribune  under  Brutus 'in  Macedonia, 
and  after  the  battle  of  Philippi  (42)  fled  to  Sex 
Pompey  in  Sicily.  When  peace  was  concluded 
between  the  triumvirs  and  Pornpey  in  39,  Cicero 
returned  to  Rome,  was  favorably  received  by 
Octavianus,  who  at  length  assumed  him  as  his 
colleague  in  the  consulship  (B.C.  30,  from  13th 
of  September).  By  a  singular  coincidence,  the 
dispatch  announcing  the  capture  of  the  fleet  of 
Antony,  which  was  immediately  followed  by 
his  death,  was  addressed  to  the  new  consul  in  bia 
official  capacity,  and  thus,  says  Plutarch,  "  the 
divine  justice  reserved  the  completion  of  An- 
tony's punishment  for  the  house  of  Cicero." — 8. 
Q^  son  of  No.  6,  and  of  Pomponia,  sister  of  Atti- 
cus, was  born  66  or  67,  ana  perished  with  hia 
father  in  the  proscription,  43. 

CICUYRUS  (Kf^upof),  called  EPHYRA  ('E0t>/»/) 
in  Homer,  a  town  of  Thesprotia  in  Epirus,  be- 
tween the  Acherusian  Lake  and  the  sea. 

[CiciRRBCs,  MESSIUS,  a  native  of  Canipanin, 
203 


CICONES. 

a  character  introduced  by  Hoi-ace  (fifth  satire  of 
the  first  book)  iu  a  ridiculous  controversy  with 
the  slave  Sarmeutus.] 

CICONES  (KiKovef),  a  Thracian  people  on  the 
Hebrus,  and  near  the  coast. 

[CICYNETHUS  (KiKwijOof :  now  Pontiko),  an 
island  and  city  in  the  Pagasaeus  Sinus.] 

CICYNNA  (KiKvwa  :  Kinvvvevf),  a  demus  of  At- 
tica, belonging  to  the  tribe  Cecropis,  and  after- 
ward to  the  tribe  Acamantis. 

CILICIA  (Kifania :  KtAtf ,  fern.  Kihtaaa),  a  dis- 
trict iu  the  southeast  of  Asia  Minor,  bordering 
to  the  east  on  Syria,  to  the  north  on  Cappadocia 
and  Lycaonia,  to  the  northwest  and  west  on 
Pisidia  and  Pamphylia.  On  all  sides,  except 
the  west,  it  is  inclosed  by  natural  boundaries, 
namely,  the  Mediterranean  on  the  south,  Mount 
Amanus  on  the  east,  and  Mount  Taurus  on  the 
north.  The  western  part  of  Cilicia  is  intersected 
by  the  offshoots  of  the  Taurus,  while  in  its  east- 
ern part  the  mountain  chains  inclose  much 
larger  tracts  of  level  country :  and  hence  arose 
the  division  of  the  country  into  C.  Aspera  (K.  j? 
rpaxeia,  or  rpajetwn?),  and  C.  Campestris  (K. 
TI  Ttetiidf);  the  latter  was  also  called  Cilicia 
Propria  (#  Idiuf  K.)  Numerous  rivers,  among 
which  are  the  PYRAMTJS,  SARUS,  CYDNUS,  CALY- 
CADNUS,  and  smaller  mountain  streams,  descend 
from  the  Taurus.  The  eastern  division,  through 
which  most  of  the  larger  rivers  flow,  was  ex- 
tremely fertile,  and  the  narrower  valleys  of 
Cilicia  Aspera  contained  some  rich  tracts  of 
laud;  the  latter  district  was  famed  for  its  fine 
breed  of  horses.  The  first  inhabitants  of  the 
country  are  supposed  to  have  been  of  the  Syr- 
ian race.  The  mythical  story  derived  their 
name  from  Cilix,  the  son  of  Agenor,  who  start- 
ed, with  his  brothers  Cadmus  and  Phoenix,  for 
Europe,  but  stopped  short  on  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  peopled  with  his  followers  the  plain 
of  Cilicia.  The  country  remained  independent 
till  the  time  of  the  Persian  Empire,  under  which 
it  formed  a  satrapy,  but  appears  to  have  been 
still  governed  by  its  native  princes.  Alexan- 
der subdued  it  on  his  march  into  Upper  Asia ; 
and,  after  the  division  of  his  empire,  it  formed 
a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae ;  its 
plains  were  settled  by  Greeks,  and  the  old  in- 
habitants were  for  the  most  part  driven  ba«k 
into  the  mountains  of  C.  Aspera,  where  they 
remained  virtually  independent,  practicing  rob- 
bery by  land  and  piracy  by  sea,  till  Pompey 
drove  them  from  the  sea  in  his  war  against  the 
pirates,  and,  having  rescued  the  level  country 
from  the  power  of  Tigranes,  who  had  overrun  it, 
he  erected  it  into  a  Roman  province,  B.C.  67-66. 
The  mountain  country  was  not  made  a  province 
till  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  The  people  bore  a 
low  character  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
The  Carians,  Cappadocians,  and  Cilicians  were 
called  the  three  bad  K's. 

CiucLE  PYL,E  or  PORTVE  (al  IKAai  1%  Ki- 
?.iKtaf  :  now  JKolinboghaz),  the  chief  pass  between 
Cappadocia  and  Cilicia,  through  the  Taurus,  on 
the  road  from  Tyana  to  Tarsus.  This  was  the 
way  by  which  Alexander  entered  Cilicia. 

CILICIUM  MAKE  (TJ  KihiKia  ddhaaaa),  the  north- 
eastern portion  of  the  Mediterranean,  between 
Cilicia  and  Cyprus,  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Issus. 

CILIX  (KtAt£),  son  of  Agenor  and  Telephassa, 

was,  with  his    brothers,  Cadmus  and   Phoenix, 

204 


CIMBRI. 

sent  out  by  their  father  in  search  of  Europa, 
who  had  been  carried  off  by  Jupiter  (Zeusl 
Cilix  settled  in  the  country  caUed  after  him  Ci- 
licia. 

CILLA  (Ki'/Ua)  a  small  town  in  the  Troad,  on 
the  River  Cilleus,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cillaeus,  in 
the  range  of  Gargarus,  celebrated  for  its  temple 
of  Apollo  surnamed  Cilloeus.  Its  foundation  was 
ascribed  to  Pelops. 

CILNII,  a  powerful  family  in  the  Etruscan 
town  of  Arretium,  were  driven  out  of  their  na- 
tive town  in  B.C.  801,  but  were  restored  by  the 
Romans.  The  Cilnii  were  nobles  or  Lucumones 
in  their  state,  and  some  of  them  in  ancient  times 
may  hatfe  held  even  the  kingly  dignity.  (Com- 
pare Hor.,  Carm,  i.,  1.)  The  name  has  been  ren- 
dered chiefly  memorable  by  C.  Cilnius  Maecenas. 
Vid.  MAECENAS. 

[CiLo  or  CHILO,  P.  MAGIUS.  1.  A  friend  and 
client  of  M.  Claudius  Marcellus,  whom  he  mur- 
dered at  the  Piraeus,  B.C.  45,  at  the  instiga- 
tion, as  some  asserted,  of  Caesar,  but  more  prob- 
ably from  auger  at  being  refused  a  sum  of  mon- 
ey which  Gilo  wished  to  obtain  from  Marcellus 
to  relieve  him  from  his  embarrassments. — 2.  Ju- 
NIUS,  procurator  of  Pontus  in  the  reign  of  Claud- 
ius, brought  the  Bosporan  Mithradates  to  Rome 
in  A.D.  50,  and  received  afterward  the  consular 
insignia.] 

CIMBER,  C.  ANNIUS,  had  obtained  the  praetor 
ship  from  Caesar,  and  was  one  of  Antony's  sup 
porters,  B.C.  43,  on  which  account  he  is  attacked 
by  Cicero.  He  was  charged  with  having  killed 
his  brother,  whence  Cicero  calls  him  ironically 
Philadelphus. 

CIMBER,  L.  TILLIUS  (not  Tullius),  a  friend  of 
Caesar,  who  gave  him  the  province  of  Bithynia, 
but  subsequently  one  of  Caesar's  murderers,  B. 
C.  44.  On  the  fatal  day,  Cimber  was  foremost 
in  the  ranks,  under  pretext  of  presenting  a 
petition  "to  Caesar  praying  for  his  orother's  re- 
call from  exile.  After  the  assassination,  Cini 
ber  went  to  his  province  and  raised  a  fleet, 
with  which  he  rendered  service  to  Cassius  and 
Brutus. 

CIMBRI,  a  Celtic  people,  probably  of  the  same 
race  as  the  Cymry.  Via.  CELT^E.  They  art 
generally,  but  incorrectly,  supposed  to  have  in 
habited  the  peninsula  which  was  called  aftei 
them  CHERSONESUS  CIMBRICA  (now  Jutland); 
the  greatest  uncertainty,  however,  prevailed 
among  the  ancients  respecting  their  original 
abode.  In  conjunction  with  the  Teutoui  and 
Ambroues,  they  migrated  south,  with  their 
wives  and  children,  toward  the  close  of  the 
second  century  B.C.;  and  the  whole  host  is 
said  to  haue  contained  three  hundred  thousand 
fighting  men  They  defeated  several  Roman 
armies,  and  caused  the  greatest  alarm  at  Rome 
[n  B.C.  113  they  defeated  the  consul  Papirius 
Carbo  near  Noreia,  and  then  crossed  over  into 
Gaul,  which  they  ravaged  in  all  directions.  In 
109  they  defeated  the  consul  Junius  Silanus.  in 
107  the  consul  Cassius  Longinus,  who  fell  in 
;he  battle,  and  in  105  they  gained  their  most 
Brilliant  victory  near  the  Rhone  over  the  united 
armies  of  the  consul  Cu.  Mallius  and  the  pro- 
consul Servilius  Csepio.  Instead  of  crossing 
he  Alps,  the  Cimbri,  fortunately  for  Rome, 
marched  into  Spain,  where  they  remained  two 
or  three  years.  The  Romans  meantime  had 


CIMINUS. 


CINEAS. 


been  making  preparations  to  resist  their  for- 
midable foes,  and  had  placed  their  troops  under 
the  command  of  Manus.  The  barbarians  re- 
turned to  Gaul  in  102.  In  that  year  the  Teutoni 
were  defeated,  and  cut  to  pieces  by  Marius,  near 
AqucC  Sextiae  (now  Aix)  in  Gaul ;  and  next  year 
(101)  the  Cimbri  and  their  allies  were  likewise 
destroyed  by  Marius  and  Catulus,  in  the  deci- 
sive battle  of  the  Campi  Raudii,  near  Vercellse, 
in  the  north  of  Italy.  In  the  time  of  Augustus, 
the  Cimbri,  who  were  then  a  people  of  no  im- 
portance, sent  an  embassy  to  the  emperor. 

CIMINUS  or  CIMINIUS  Moxs  (now  Monte  Citni- 
no,  also  Monte  Fogliano),  a  range  of  mountains 
in  Etruria,  thickly  covered  with  wood,  (Saltus 
Cimiuius,  Silva  Cimiuia),  near  a  lake  of  the 
same  name,  northwest  of  Tarquiuii,  between 
the  Lacus  Vulsiniensis  and  Soracte. 

[CiMMERicuM(K</z^£/>«i6v,  Strab. ;  TU  Kiftfiepca 
reixr],  Herod. ;  and  Kifi/nepiKi)  Kupi],  Strab. :  now 
Eski-Krimm),  a  village  in  the  Tauric  or  Cim- 
merian Chersouesus,  west  of  Kaffa  :  in  its  neigh- 
borhood was  Mons  Cimmerius  (now  Aghirmisch- 


CIMMERII  (Kipfiepioi),  the  name  of  a  mythical 
and  of  an  historical  people.  The  mythical  Cim- 
merii,  mentioned  by  Homer,  dwelt  in  the  fur- 
thest west  on  the  ocean,  enveloped  in  constant 
mists  and  darkness.  Later  writers  sought  to 
localize  them,  and  accordingly  placed  them 
either  in  Italy  near  the  Lake  Avernus,  or  in 
Spain,  or  in  the  Tauric  Chersonesus.  The  his- 
torical Cimmerii  dwelt  on  the  Palus  Maaotis 
(now  Sea  o/"  Azov),  in  the  Tauric  Chersonesus, 
and  in  Asiatic  Sarmatia.  Driven  from  their 
abodes  by  the  Scythians,  they  passed  into  Asia 
Minor  on  the  northeast,  and  penetrated  west  as 
far  as  ^Eolis  and  Ionia.  They  took  Sardis  B.C. 
635  in  the  reign  of  Ardys,  king  of  Lydia,  but 
they  were  expelled  from  Asia  by  Alyattes,  the 
grandson  of  Ardys. 

CIMMEEIUS  BOSPORUS.     Vid.  BOSPORUS. 

CIMOLUS  (Kifiu^of  :  KifiuTitof  :  now  Cimoli  or 
Argentiere),  an  island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  one 
of  the  Cyclades,  between  Siphnos  and  Melos, 
celebrated  for  its  fine  white  earth,  used  by  full- 
ers for  cleaning  cloths. 

CIMON  (Kipuv).  1.  Son  of  Stesagoras,  and 
father  of  Miltiades,  victor  at  Marathon,  gained 
three  Olympic  victories  with  his  four-horse 
chariot,  and  after  his  third  victory  was  secretly 
murdered  by  order  of  the  sons  of  Pisistratus.— 
2.  Grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  the 
great  Miltiades.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
(B.C.  489),  he  was  imprisoned  because  he  was 
unable  to  pay  his  fine  of  fifty  taleuts,  which 
was  eventually  paid  by  Callias  on  his  marriage 
with  Elpinice,  Cimon's  sister.  Cimon  first  dis- 
tinguished himself  on  the  invasion  of  Greece  by 
Xerxes  (480),  and  after  the  battle  of  Plata:® 
was  brought  forward  by  Aristides.  He  fre- 
quently commanded  the  Athenian  fleet  in  their 
aggressive  wars  against  the  Persians.  Ills 
most  brilliant  success  was  in  466,  when  he  de- 
feated a  large  Persian  fleet,  and  ou  the  same 
day  landed  and  routed  their  land  forces  also  on 
the  River  Eurvmedon  in  Pamphylia,  The 
death  of  Aristides  and  the  banishment  of  The- 
mistocles  left  Cimon  without  a  rival  at  Athens 
for  some  years.  But  his  influence  gradually 
declined  as  that  of  Pericles  increased.  In  461 


Cimon  marched  at  the  head  of  some  Athenian 
troops  to  tho  assistance  of  the  Spartans,  who 
were  hard  j-Tessed  by  their  revolted  subjects. 
!  The  Athenians  were  deeply  mortified  by  the  in- 
sulting manner  in  which  their  offers  of  assist- 
ance were  declined,  and  were  enraged  with 
Cimou,  who  had  exposed  them  to  this  insult 
His  enemies,  in  consequence,  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining his  ostracism  this  year.  He  was  sub- 
sequently recalled,  in  what  year  is  uncertain, 
and  through  his  intervention  a  five  years'  truce 
was  made  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  450. 
In  449  the  war  was  renewed  with  Persia;  Ci- 
mon received  the  command,  and  with  two  hund- 
red ships  sailed  to  Cyprus :  here,  while  be? 
sieging  Citium,  illness  or  the  effects  of  a  wound 
carried  him  off.  Cimon  was  of  a  cheerful  con- 
vivial temper,  frank  and  affable  in  his  manners. 
Having  obtained  a  great  fortune  by  his  share  of 
the  Persian  spoils,  he  displayed  unbounded  lib- 
erality. His  orchards  and  gardens  were  thrown 
open ;  his  fellow  demusmen  were  free  daily  to 
his  table,  and  his  public  bounty  verged  on  os- 
tentation. With  the  treasure  he  brought  from 
Asia  the  southern  wall  of  the  citadel  was  built, 
and  at  his  own  private  charge  the  foundation  of 
the  long  walls  to  the  Piraeus  was  laid  down. — 
3.  Of  Cleonae,  a  painter  of  great  renown,  flour- 
ished about  B.C.  460,  and  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  painter  of  perspective. 

CINADON  (Ktvuduv),  the  chief  of  a  conspiracy 
against  the  Spartan  peers  (opoioC)  in  the  first 
year  of  Agesilaus  II.  (B.C.  398-397).  The  plot 
was  discovered,  and  Cinadon  and  the  other  con- 
spirators were  put  to  death. 

CIJMSTHON  (Kivai6uv),  of  Lacedaemon,  one  of 
the  most  fertile  of  the  Cyclic  poets,  flourished 
B.C.  765. 

CINARA  or  CINARUS  (now  Zina.ro),  a  small 
island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  east  of  Naxos,  cele- 
brated for  its  artichokes  (Kivdpa). 

CINCINNATUS,  L.  QUINTIUS,  a  favorite  hero  of 
the  old  Roman  republic,  and  a  model  of  old  Ro- 
I  man  frugality  and  integrity.  He  lived  on  his 
farm,  cultivating  the  land  with  his  own  hand. 
In  B.C.  460  he  was  appointed  consul  suffectus 
in  the  room  of  P.  Valerius.  In  458  he  was 
called  from  the  plough  to  the  dictatorship,  in 
order  to  deliver  the  Roman  consul  and  army 
from  the  perilous  position  in  which  they  had 
been  placed  by  the  ^Equians.  He  saved  the 
Roman  army,  defeated  the  enemy,  and,  after 
holding  the  dictatorship  only  sixteen  days,  re- 
turned to  his  farm.  In  439,  at  the  age  of  eighty, 
he  was  a  second  time  appointed  dictator  to  op- 
pose the  alleged  machinations  of  Sp.  Moelius. 
Several  of  the  descendants  of  Cincinnatus  held 
the  consulship  and  consular  tribunate,  but  none 
of  them  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  require  a 
separate  notice. 

CINCIUS  ALIMENTUS.      Vid.  ALIMENTUS. 

CINEAS  (Kivfotf).  [1.  A  Thessalian  prince, 
contemporary  with  and  an  ally  of  the  Pisistra 

•  tids,  born  at  Conium  in  Phrygia.] — 2.  A  Thes- 
salian, the  friend  and  minister  of  Pyrrhus,  king 

!  of  Epirus.     He  was  the  most  eloquent  man  of 

his  day,  and  reminded  his  hearers  of  Deraos- 

!  thcnes,  whom  he   heard  speak  in  his    youth. 

•  Pyrrhus  prized  his  persuasive  powers  so  highly, 
that  "  the  words  of  Cineas  (he  was  wont  to  say) 

;  had  won  him  more  cities  than  his  own  arms " 
205 


CINESIAS. 


CIRTA. 


The  most  famous  passage  iu  his  life  is  his  em- 
bassy to  Rome,  with  proposals  of  peace  from 
Pyrrhus,  after  the  battle  of  Heraclea  (B.C.  280). 
Oineas  spared  no  arts  to  gain  favor.  Thanks 
to  his  wonderful  memory,  on  the  day  after  his 
arrival  be  was  able  (we  are  told)  to  address  all 
the  senators  and  knights  by  name.  The  senate, 
however,  rejected  his  proposals  mainly  through 
the  dying  eloquence  of  old  App.  Claudius  Caecus. 
The  ambassador  returned  and  told  the  king  that 
there  was  no  people  like  that  people  —  thejr  city 
was  a  temple,  their  senate  an  assembly  of  kings. 
Two  years  after  (278),  when  Pyrrhus  was  about 
to  cross  over  into  Sicily,  Cineas  was  again  sent 
to  negotiate  peace.  He  appears  to  have  died 
in  Sicily  shortly  afterward. 

CufEsiAS  (Kivijaiac),  a  dithyrambic  poet  of 
Athens,  of  no  merit,  ridiculed  by  Aristophanes 
and  other  comic  poets.  But  he  had  his  re- 
venge, for  he  succeeded  in  procuring  the  abo- 
lition of  the  Choragia,  as  far  as  regarded  com- 
edy, about  B.C.  390. 

CINGA  (now  Cinca),  a  river  in  Hispania  Tar- 
raconensis,  falls  with  the  Sicoris  into  the  Iberus. 

CINGKTORIX.  1.  A  Gaul,  one  of  the  first  men 
in  the  city  of  the  Treviri  (now  Treves,  Trier),  at- 
tached himself  to  the  Romans,  though  sou-in- 
law  to  ludutiomarus,  the  head  of  the  independ- 
ent party.  When  this  leader  had  been  put  to 
death  by  Caesar,  he  became  chief  of  his  native 
city.  —  [2.  Caesar  (B.  G.,  v.,  22)  mentions  anoth- 
er Cingetorix,  a  chief  of  the  Kentish  Britons.] 

CINGULUM  (Ciugulanus  :  now  Cingolo),  a  town 
in  Picenum,  on  a  rock,  built  by  Labienus  shortly 
before  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  B.C. 


INNA,  CORNELIUS.  1.  L.,  the  famous  leader 
of  the  popular  party  during  the  absence  of  Sulla 
in  the  East  (B.C.  87-84).  In  87  Sulla  allowed 
Cinua  to  be  elected  consul  with  Cu.  Octavius, 
on  condition  of  his  taking  an  oath  not  to  alter 
the  constitution  as  then  existing.  But  as  soon 
as  Sulla  had  left  Italy,  he  began  his  endeavor 
to  overpower  the  senate,  and  to  recall  Marius 
and  his  party.  He  was,  however,  defeated  by 
his  colleague  Octavius  in  the  forum,  was  obliged 
to  fly  the  city,  and  was  deposed  by  the  senate 
from  the  consulate.  But  he  soon  returned  ; 
with  the  assistance  of  Marius,  who  came  back 
to  Italy,  he  collected  a  powerful  army,  and  laid 
siege  to  Rome.  The  capture  of  the  city,  and 
the  massacre  of  Sulla's  friends  which  followed, 
more  properly  belong  to  the  life  of  MARIUS.  For 
the  next  three  years  (86,  85,  84)  Cinna  was 
consul.  In  84  Sulla  prepared  to  return  from 
Greece  ;  and  Cinna  was  slain  by  his  own  troops, 
when  he  ordered  them  to  cross  over  from  Italy 
to  Greece,  where  he  intended  to  encounter 
Sulla.  —  2.  L.,  son  of  No.  1,  joined  M.  Lepidus 
in  his  attempt  to  overthrow  the  constitution  of 
Sulla,  78;  and  on  the  defeat  and  death  of  Lep- 
idus in  Sardinia,  he  went  with  M.  Perperna  to 
join  Sertorius  in  Spain.  Caesar  procured  his 
recall  from  exile.  He  was  made  praetor  by 
Caesar  in  44,  bu/;  was,  notwithstanding,  one  of 
the  enemies  of  the  dictator.  Though  he  would 
not  join  the  conspirators,  he  approved  of  their 
act;  and  so  great  was  the  rage  of  the  mob 

against  him,   that  they  nearly  murdered  him. 

Vid.  below,  CINNA,  HELVIUS. 
CINNA,  C.  HELVIUS,  a  poet  of  considerable  re- 
206 


nown,  the  friend  of  Catullus.  In  B.C.  44  h 
was  tribune  of  the  plebs,  when  he  was  murder 
ed  by  the  mob,  who  mistook  him  for  his  name- 
sake Cornelius  Cinna,  though  he  was  at  the 
time  walking  in  Caesar's  funeral  procession. 
His  principal  work  was  an  epic  poem  entitled 
Smyrna. 

CINNAMUS,  JOANNES  ('luavvr/f  Klvvafiof),  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  Byzantine  historians, 
lived  under  the  Emperor  Manuel  Comnenus 
(who  reigned  A.D.  1143-1180),  and  wrote  the 
history  of  this  emperor  and  of  his  father  Calo- 
Joannes,  in  six  books,  which  have  come  down 
to  us.  Edited  by  Du  Cange,  Paris,  1670,  fol, 
and  by  Meineke,  Bonn,  1836,  8vo. 

CINYPS  or  CINYPHUS  (K.lvin{>,  Kivixjtof.  now 
Wad-Khakan  or  Kinifo),  a  small  river  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  between  the  Syrtes, 
forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  proper  ter- 
ritory of  the  African  Tripolis.  The  district 
about  it  was  called  by  the  same  name,  and  was 
famous  for  its  fine-haired  goats. 

CINYRAS  (Kivvpaf),  son  of  Apollo,  king  of  Cy- 
prus, and  priest  of  the  Paphian  Venus  (Aphro- 
dite), which  latter  office  remained  hereditary  in 
his  family,  the  Cinyradae.  He  was  married  to 
Metharne,  the  daughter  of  the  Cyprian  king 
Pygmalion,  by  whom  he  had  several  children, 
and  among  them  was  Adonis.  According  to 
some  traditions,  he  unwittingly  begot  Adonis  by 
his  own  daughter  Smyrna,  and  killed  himself  on 
discovering  the  crime  he  had  committed.  Ac- 
cording to  other  traditions,  he  had  promised  to 
assist  Agamemnon  ;  but  as  he  did  not  keep  his 
word,  he  was  cursed  by  Agamemnon,  and  per- 
ished in  a  contest  with  Apollo. 

CIPUS  or  CIPPUS,  GENUCIUS,  a  Roman  praetor, 
on  whose  head  it  is  said  that  horns  suddenly 
grew,  as  he  was  going  out  of  the  gates  of  the 
city,  and,  as  the  haruspices  declared  that  if  he 
returned  to  the  city  he  would  be  king,  he  im- 
posed voluntary  exile  upon  himself. 

CIRCE  (KtpKT?),  a  mythical  sorceress,  daughter 
of  Helios  (the  Sun)  by  the  Oceanid  Perse,  and 
sister  of  JEe'tes,  lived  in  the  island  of  JE&a. 
Ulysses  tarried  a  whole  year  with  her,  after  she 
had  changed  several  of  his  companions  into  pigs. 
By  Ulysses  she  became  the  mother  of  Agrius 
and  Telegonus.  The  Latin  poets  relate  that 
she  metamorphosed  Scylla,  and  Pious,  king  of 
the  Ausonians. 

CIRCEII  (Circeiensis :  now  Circello,  and  the 
ruins  Citta  Vecchia),  an  ancient  town  of  Latium, 
on  the  Promontory  CIRCEIUM,  founded  by  Tar 
quinius  Superbus,  never  became  a  place  of  im 
portance,  in  consequence  of  its  proximity  t<> 
the  unhealthy  Pontme  marshes.  The  oysters 
caught  off  Circeii  were  celebrated.  (Hor.,  Sat. 
ii.,  4,  33 ;  Juv.,  iv.,  140.)  Some  writers  sup 
pose  Circe  to  have  resided  on  this  promontory 
and  that  hence  it  derived  its  name. 

CIRCESIUM  (KipKqciov :  now  Kerkesiah),  a  city 
of  Mesopotamia,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, at  the  mouth  of  the  Aborrhas  :  the  ex- 
treme border  fortress  of  the  Roman  empire. 

CIRCUS.     Vid.  ROMA. 

CIRPHIS  (Kt/s0£f),  a  town  in  Phocis,  on  a 
mountain  of  the  same  name,  which  is  separated 
by  a  valley  from  Parnassus. 

CIRRHA.     Vid.  CRISSA. 

CIKTA,  afterward  CONSTANTINA  (ruins  at  Con 


CISPIUS. 


CLAUDIA. 


vtantineh),  a  city  of  the  glassy lii  in  Numidia, 
fifty  Roman  miles  from  the  sea ;  the  capital  of 
Syphax,  and  of  Masinissa  and  his  successors. 
Its  position  on  a  height,  surrounded  by  the  River 
Ampsagas,  made  it  almost  impregnable,  as  the 
Romans  found  in  the  Jugurthine,  and  the  French 
in  the  Algerine  wars.  It  was  restored  by  Con- 
stautine  the  Great,  in  honor  of  whom  it  received 
its  later  name. 

[Cispius,  M.  1.  Tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  57, 
the  year  in  which  Cicero  was  recalled  from  ban- 
ishment, took  an  active  part  in  Cicero's  favor. 
He  was  afterward  defended  by  Cicero  when  ac- 
cused of  bribery  (ambitus),  but  could  not  obtain 
a  verdict  in  his  favor. — 2.  L.,  one  of  Caesar's  offi- 
cers in  the  African  war,  commanded  part  of  the 
fleet,  B.C.  46.] 

[CissA  (KiCTCTa),  a  city  of  the  Jacetani  in  His- 
pauia  Tarraconensis  ;  called  by  Livy  (xxi.,  60) 
tjcissum  (where  for  Scissis  Alschefski  writes  Cis- 
sis),  and  probably  the  Cinna  of  Ptolemy.] 

CISSEUS  (Kiaaevf).  1.  A  king  in  Thrace,  and 
father  of  Theano,  or,  according  to  others,  of  Hec- 
uba, who  is  hence  called  CISSEIS  (Kttrcr^tf). — [2. 
Son  of  Melampus,  fought  on  the  side  of  Turaus, 
and  was  slain  by  JSneas.] 

CISSIA  (Ktocia),  a  very  fertile  district  of  Susi- 
ana,  on  the  Choaspes.  The  inhabitants  (Kiaaioi) 
were  a  wild  free  people,  resembling  the  Persians 
in  their  manners. 

Cissus  (Kidffof),  a  town  in  Macedonia,  on  a 
mountain  of  the  same  name,  south  of  Thessalon- 
"ca,  to  which  latter  place  its  inhabitants  were 
transplanted  by  Cassander. 

CISTHENE  (Kiodyvq).  1.  A  town  on  the  coast 
of  ilvsia,  on  the  promontory  of  Pyrrha,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Adramyttium. — 2.  (Now  Castel-Rosso), 
un  island  and  town  on  the  coast  of  Lycia. — 3.  In 
the  mythical  geography  of  JEschylus  (Prom., 
799)  the  "  plains  of  Cisthene"  are  made  the  abode 
of  the  Gorgons. 

CITU^EEON  (KiOatpuv  :  now  Cithceron,  and  its 
highest  summit  Elatia),  a  lofty  range  of  mount- 
ains, separated  Boeotia  from  Megaris  and  Attica. 
It  was  covered  with  wood,  abounded  in  game, 
ami  was  the  scene  of  several  celebrated  legends 
in  mythology.  It  was  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  Cithaeron,  a  mythical  king  of  Bceo- 
tia.  Its  highest  summit  was  sacred  to  the 
Citliairouiau  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  here  was  cele- 
brated the  festival  called  Dcedala.  Vid.  Diet, 
of  A  ttt.  .-.  v. 

CITIIABISTA,  a  sea-port  town  (now  Ceireste), 
and  a  promontory  (now  Cape  dAigle)  in  Gallia 
Narbouensis,  near  Massilia. 

Ciiiuie  (Kinov  :  Kirievf).  1.  (Ruins  near  Lar 
neca),  one  of  the  nine  chief  towns  of  Cyprus, 
with  a  harbor  and  salt-works,  two  hundred  sta- 
dia from  Salami-,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tetius : 
here  Cimon,  the  celebrated  Athenian,  died,  and 
/••no,  the  founder  of  the  Stoic  school,  was  born. 
— 2.  A  town  in  Macedonia,  on  a  mountain  Citiua, 
northwest  of  Bercea. 

Ciua  (Ktof  :  Ktof  or  Ketof,  Ciauus :  now  Ghio, 
also  (Jlieinlio  and  Kemlik).  1.  An  ancient  city  iu 
Bith) tiiu,  on  a  bay  of  the  Propoutis  called  Cia- 
nus  Sinus,  was  colonized  by  the  Milesians,  and 
became  a  place  of  much  commercial  importance. 
It  joined  the  JStolian  league,  and  was  destroyed 
by  Philip  1IL,  king  of  Macedonia,  but  was  re- 
bi'ilt  by  Prusiaa,  king  of  Bithyuia,  from  whom 


it  was  called  PRUSIAS. — [2.  A  river  of  Lowei 
Mffisia,  flowing  into  the  Ister  or  Danube.] 

[CivicA  CEREALIS,  under  the  Emperor  Domi- 
tian,  proconsul  of  Asia :  he  was  put  to  death  by 
the  emperor's  orders,  just  before  A.D.  90.] 

CIVILIS,  CLAUDIUS,  sometimes  called  JuiiuSi 
the  leader  of  the  Batavi  in  their  revolt  from 
Rome,  A.D.  69-70.  He  was  of  the  Batavian 
royal  race,  and,  like  Hannibal  and  Sertorius,  had 
lost  an  ey«.  His  brother,  Julius  Paulus,  was 
put  to  death  on  a  false  charge  of  treason  by 
Fonteius  Capito  (A.D.  67  or  68),  who  sent  Civins 
hi  chains  to  Nero  at. Rome,  where  he  was  heard 
and  acquitted  by  Galba.  He  was  afterward 
prefect  of  a  cohort,  but  under  Vitellius  he  be- 
came an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  army,  and 
with  difficulty  escaped  with  his  life.  He  vowed 
vengeance.  His  countrymen,  who  were  shame- 
fully treated  by  the  officers  of  Vitellius,  were 
easily  induced  to  revolt,  and  they  were  joined  by 
the  Canninefates  and  Frisii.  He  took  up  arms 
under  pretence  of  supporting  the  cause  of  Ves- 
pasian, and  defeated  in  succession  the  generals  of 
Vitellius  in  Gaul  and  Germany,  but  he  continued 
in  open  revolt  even  after  the  death  of  Vitellius. 
In  70  Civilis  gained  fresh  victories  over  the  Ro- 
mans, but  was  at  length  defeated  in  the  course 
of  the  year  by  Petilius  Cerealis,  who  had  been 
sent  into  Germany  with  an  immense  army. 
Peace  was  concluded  with  the  Batavi  on  terms 
favorable  to  the  latter,  but  we  do  not  know  what 
became  of  Civilis. 

CIZARA  (Kifcpa),  a  mountain  fortress  in  the 
district  of  Phazemonitis  in  Pontus ;  once  a  royal 
residence,  but  destroyed  before  Strabo's  time. 

CLADAUS  (KAudaof  or  KAatJeof),  a  river  in 
Elis,  flows  into  the  Alpheus  at  Olyinpia. 

CLAMPETIA,  called  by  the  Greeks  LAMPETIA 
(Aa/zTrerta,  Aa//7rema),  a  town  of  Bruttium,  on 
the  western  coast :  in  ruins  in  Pliny's  time. 

CLANIS.  1.  (Now  Chiano),  a  river  of  Etruria, 
rises  south  of  Arretium,  forms  two  small  lakes 
near  Clusium,  west  of  Lake  Trasimeuus,  and 
flows  into  the  Tiber  east  of  Vulsiuii.— 2.  The 
more  ancient  name  of  the  Liris. — 3.  (Now  Glan 
in  Steiermark),  a  river  in  the  Noric  Alps. 

CLANIUS.     Vid.  LITERNUS. 

CLARUS  (fy  Khdpof  :  ruins  near  Zillc),  a  small 
town  on  the  Ionian  coast,  near  Colophon,  with  a 
celebrated  temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo,  sur- 
uamed  Clarius. 

[CLARUS,  one  of  the  companions  of  ./Eneas.] 

CLAKUS,  SEX.  ERUCIUS,  a  friend  of  the  younger 
Pliny,  fought  under  Trajan  in  the  East,  nud  took 
Seleucia,  A.D.  115.  His  son  Sextus  was  a  pa- 
tron of  literature,  and  was  consul  under  Antoni- 
nus Pius,' A.D.  146. 

CLASSICUS,  JULIUS,  a  distinguished  man  of  the 
Treviri,  was  prefect  of  nn  ata  of  the  Treviri  in 
the  Roman  army  under  Vitellius,  A.D.  69,  but 
afterward  joined  Civilis  in  his  rebellion  against 
the  Romans.  Vid.  CIVILIS. 

CLASTIDIUM  (now  Ccuteggio  or  Schiatcggio),  a 
fortified  town  of  the  Auaues  in  Gallia  Cispadaua, 
not  far  from  the  Po,  on  the  road  from  Dertoua 
to  Placentia. 

CLATERNA,  a  fortified  town  in  Gallia  Cispa- 
dima,  not  far  from  Bononia :  its  name  is  retained 
iu  the  small  river  Quaderna. 

CLAUDIA.  1.  QUIXTA,  a  Roman  matron,  not  a 
Vestal  Virgin,  as  is  frequently  stated.  When 
207 


CLAUDIA   GENS. 


CLAUDIUS. 


the  vessel  conveying  the  image  of  Cybele  from 
Pessiuus  to  Rome  bad  stuck  fast  in  a  shallow  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  the  soothsayers  announced 
that  only  a  chaste  woman  could  move  it.  Clau- 
dia, who  had  been  accused  of  incontinence,  took 
hold  of  the  rope,  and  the  vessel  forthwith  fol- 
lowed her,  B.C.  204.— 2.  Or  CLODIA,  eldest  of 
the  three  sisters  of  P.  Clodius  Pulcher,  the  en- 
emy of  Cicero,  married  Q.  Marcius  rex. — 3.  Or 
CI.ODIA,  second  sister  of  P.  Clodius,  quarried  Q 
Metellus  Celer,  but  became  infamous  for  her  de- 
Iraucheries,  and  was  suspected  of  having  poison- 
ed her  husband.  Cicero  in  his  letters  frequently 
calls  her  Boumf. — 4.  Or  CLODIA,  youngest  sister 
of  P.  Olodius,  married  L.  Lucullus,  to  whom  she 
proved  unfaithful.  All  three  sisters  are  said  to 
nave  had  incestuous  intercourse  with  their  broth- 
er Publius. 

CLAUDIA  GENS,  patrician  and  -plebeian.  The 
patrician  Claudii  were  of  Sabine  origin,  and 
came  to  Rome  in  B.C.  504,  when  they  were  re- 
ceived among  the  patricians.  Vid.  CLAUDIUS, 
No.  1.  They  were  noted  for  their  pride  and 
haughtiness,  their  disdain  for  the  laws,  and  their 
hatred  of  the  plebeians.  They  bore  various  sur- 
names, which  are  given  under  CLAUDIUS,  with  the 
exception  of  those  with  the  cognomen  NERO,  who 
are  better  known  under  the  latter  name.  The 
Plebeian  Claudii  were  divided  into  several  fam- 
ilies, of  which  the  most  celebrated  was  that  of 
MARCELLUS. 

CLAUDIANUS,  CLAUDIUS,  the  last  of  the  Latin 
classic  poets,  flourished  under  Theodosius  and  his 
wus  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  He  was  a  native 
of  Alexandrea,  and  removed  to  Rome,  where  we 
find  him  in  A.D.  395.  He  enjoyed  the  patron- 
age of  the  all-powerful  Stilicho,  by  whom  he 
was  raised  to  offices  of  honor  and  emolument. 
A  statue  was  erected  to  his  honor  in  the  Forum 
of  Trajan  by  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  the  inscrip- 
tion on  which  was  discovered  at  Rome  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  He  also  enjoyed  the  patron- 
age of  the  Empress  Serena,  through  whose  inter- 
position he  gained  a  wealthy  wife.  The  last  his- 
torical allusion  in  his  writings  belongs  to  404 ; 
whence  it  is  supposed  that  he  may  have  been  in- 
volved in  4he  misfortunes  of  Stilicho,  who  was 
put  to  death  in  408.  He  was  a  heathen.  His 
extant  works  are,  1.  The  three  panegyrics  on  the 
third,  fourth,  and  sixth  consulships  of  Honorius. 
2.  A  poem  on  the  nuptials  of  Honorius  and  Ma- 
ria. 3.  Four  short  Fescennine  lays  on  the  same 
subject.  4.  A  panegyric  on  the  consulship  of 
Probinus  and  Olybrius.  5.  The  praises  of  Stili- 
eho,  in  two  books,  and  a  panegyric  on  his  consul- 
ship, in  one  book.  6.  The  praises  of  Serena,  the 
wife  of  Stilicho.  7.  A  panegyric  on  the  consul- 
ship of  Flavius  Mallius  Theodorus.  8.  The  Epi- 
thalamium  of  Palladius  and  Celerina.  9.  An 
invective  against  Rufinus,  in  two  books.  10.  An 
'nvective  against  Eutropius,  in  two  books.  11. 
De  Bello  Gildonico,  the  first  book  of  an  histor- 
ical poem  on  the  war  in  Africa  against  Gildo. 
12.  De  Bello  Getico,  an  historical  poem  on  the 
successful  campaign  of  Stilicho  against  Alaric 
and  the  Goths,  concluding  with  the  battle  of  Pol- 
leu  tia.  13.  Raptus  Proserpina,  three  books  of 
an  unfinished  epic  on  the  rape  of  Proserpina 
14.  Gigantamachia,  a  fragment  extending  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty -eight  lines  only.  15.  Five 
short  epistles.  16.  Eidyllia  a  collection  of  seven 
208 


poems,  chiefly  on  subjects  connected  with  natural 
history.  17.  Epigrammata,  a  collection  of  sho.it 
occasional  pieces.  The  Christian  hymns  found 
among  his  poems  in  most  editions  are  certainly 
spurious.  The  poems  of  Claudian  are  distin- 
guished by  purity  of  language  and  real  poetical 
genius.  The  best  edition  is  by  Burmann,  Amst, 
1760. 

CLAUDIOPOLIS  (K3.av6i67rol.if},  the  name  of 
some  cities  called  after  the  Emperor  Claudius, 
the  chief  of  which  were,  1.  In  Bithynia  (vie?. 
BITUYNIUM).  2.  A  colony  in  the  district  of  Ca- 
taonia,  in  Cappadocia. 

CLAUDIUS,    patrician.       Vid.    CLAUDIA    GENS. 
1.  APP.  CLAUDIUS  SABINCS  REGILLEXSIS,  a  Sabine 
of  the  town  of  Regillum  or  Regilli,  who  in  his 
own  country  bore  the  name  of  Attus  Clausus, 
being  the  advocate  of  peace  with  the  Romans, 
when  hostilities   broke   out    between   the   two 
nations,  withdrew  with  a  large  train  of  follow- 
ers to  Rome,  B.C.  504.     He  was  received  into 
the  ranks  of  the  patricians,  and  lands  beyond  the 
Anio  were  assigned  to  his  followers,  who  were 
formed  into   a  new  tribe  called  the  Claudian. 
He  exhibited  the  characteristics  which  marked 
his   descendants,   and   showed   the   most  bitter 
hatred  toward  the  plebeians.      He  was  consul 
495,  and  his  conduct  toward  the  plebeians  led 
to  their  secession  to  the  Mons  Sacer,  494. — 2. 
APP.  CL.  SAB.  REGILL.,  son  of  No.  1,  consul  471, 
treated  the  soldiers  whom  he  commanded  with 
such   severity  that    his    troops    deserted  him. 
Next  year  he  was  impeached  by  two  of  the 
tribunes,  but,  according  to  the  common  story, 
he  died  or  killed  himself  before  the  trial. — 3. 
C.  CL.   SAB.  REGILL.,  brother  of  No.  2,  consul 
460,  when  App.  Herdonius  seized  the  Capitol. 
Though   a   stanch  supporter  of  the  Patricians, 
he  warned  the  decemvir  Appius  against  an  im- 
moderate use  of  his  power.     His  remonstrances 
being  of  no  avail,   he  withdrew   to   Regillum, 
but  returned  to  defend  Appius  when  impeached. 
— 4.  APP.  CL.  CRASSUS  REGILL.  SAB.,  the  decem- 
vir, commonly  considered  son  of  No.  2,  but  more 
probably  the  same  person.     He  was  consul  451, 
and  on  the   appointment  of  the   decemvirs  in 
that  year,  he    became  one  of  them,  and   was 
reappointed  the  following  year.     His  real  char- 
acter now  betrayed  itself  in  the.  most  tyrannous 
conduct  toward  the  plebeians,  till  his  attempt 
against  Virginia   led  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
decemvirate.     Appius  was  impeached  by  Vir- 
ginius,  but  did  not  live  to  abide  his  trial.     He 
either  killed  himself,   or  was  put  to  death  in 
prison  by  order  of  the  tribunes. — 5.  APP.  CLAU- 
DIUS CjEcus,  became  blind  before  his  old  age. 
In  his  censorship  (312),  to  which  he  was  elected 
without  having  been  consul  previously,  he  built 
the  Appian  aqueduct,  and  commenced  the  Appi- 
an  road,  which  was  continued  to  Capua.     He 
retained  the  censorship  four  years  in  opposition 
to  the  law  which  limited  the  length  of  the  office 
to  eighteen  months.    He  was  twice  consul  in 
307  and  296 ;  and  in  the  latter  year  he  fought 
against  the  Samnites  and   Etruscans.      In  his 
old  age,  Appius,  by  bis  eloquent  speech,  induced 
the  senate  to  reject  the  terms  of  peace  which 
Diueas  had  proposed  on  behalf  of  Pyrrhus.     Ap- 
pius was  the  earliest   Roman  writer  in   prose 
ind  verse  whose  name  has  come   down  to  us. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  known  to  Cicero 


CLAUDIUS. 


CLAUDIUS. 


through  the  Greek,  and  he  also  wrote  a  legal  j 
treatise,  De  Usurpationibus.  He  left  four  sons  ; 
and  five  daughters.  [Some  fragments  of  his 
speeches  are  given  by  Meyer,  Oratorum  Roma- 
norum,  Fragmenta,  Zurich,  1842,  p.  105-6.]— 6. 
Arp.  CL.  CAUDEX,  brother  of  No.  5,  derived  his 
surname  from  his  attention  to  naval  affairs.  He 
was  consul  264,  and  conducted  the  war  against 
the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily. — 7.  P.  CL.  PULCHEE, 
son  of  No.  5,  consul  249,  attacked  the  Cartha- 
ginian fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Drepanum,  in  defi- 
ance of  the  auguries,  and  was  defeated,  with  the 
loss  of  almost  all  his  forces.  He  was  recalled 
and  commanded  to  appoint  a  dictator,  and  there- 
upon named  M.  Claudius  Glycias  or  Glicia,  the 
son  of  a  freedman,  but  the  nomination  was  im- 
mediately superseded.  He  was  impeached  and 
condemned. — 8.  C.  CL.  CENTHO  or  CENTO,  son 
of  No.  5,  consul  240,  and  dictator  213.— 9.  TIB. 
CL.  NEBO,  son  of  No.  5.  An  account  of  his  de- 
scendants is  given  under  NEED. — 10.  APP.  CL. 
PULCHEE,  son  of  No.  7,  aedile  217,  fought  at  Can- 
nae 216,  and  was  praetor  215,  when  he  was  sent 
into  Sicily.  He  was  consul  212,  and  died  211 
of  a  wound  which  he  received  in  a  battle  with 
Hannibal  before  Capua. — 11.  APP.  CL.  PCLCHEE, 
son  of  No.  10,  served  in  Greece  lor  some  years 
under  Flamininus,  Baebius,  and  Glabrio  (197- 
191).  He  was  praetor  187  and  consul  185,  when 
he  gained  some  advantages  over  the  Ingaunian 
Ligurians.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Greece  184  and  176.  — 12.  P.  CL.  PULCHEE, 
brother  of  No.  11,  curule  aedile  189,  praetor  188, 
and  consul  184. — 13.  C.  CL.  PULCHEE,  brother 
of  Nos.  11  and  12,  praetor  180  and  consul  177, 
when  he  defeated  the  Istrians  and  Ligurians. 
He  was  censor  160  with  Tiberius  Sempronius 
Gracchus.  He  died  167. — 14.  APP.  CL.  CENTO, 
ffidile  178  and  praetor  175,  when  he  fought  with 
success  against  the  Celtiberi  in  Spain.  He 
afterward  served  in  Thessaly  (173),  Macedonia 
(172),  and  Illyricum  (170).— 15.  APP.  CL.  PUL- 
CHEE, son  of  No.  11,  consul  143,  defeated  the 
Salassi,  an  Alpine  tribe.  On  his  return  a  tri- 
umph was  refused  him;  and  when  one  of  the 
tribunes  attempted  to  drag  him  from  his  car, 
his  daughter  Claudia,  one  of  the  Vestal  Virgins, 
walked  by  his  side  up  to  the  Capitol  He  was 
censor  136.  He  gave  one  of  his  daughters  in 
marriage  to  Tiberius  Gracchus,  and  in  133,  with 
Tiberius  and  C.  Gracchus,  was  appointed  trium- 
vir for  the  division  of  the  lands.  He  died 
shortly  after  Tiberius  Gracchus. — 16.  C.  CLAU- 
DIUS PULCHEE,  curule  aedile  99,  praetor  in  Sicily 
95,  consul  in  92. — 17.  APP.  CL.  PULCHEE,  consul 
79,  and  afterward  governor  of  Macedonia. — 18. 
APP.  CL.  PULCHEE,  praetor  89,  belonged  to  Sulla's 
party,  and  perished  in  the  great  battle  before 
Rome  82. — 19.  APP.  CL.  PULCUEE,  eldest  son 
of  No.  18.  In  70  he  served  in  Asia  under  his 
brother-in-law  Lueullus;  in  57  he  was  praetor, 
and  though  he  did  not  openly  oppose  Cicero's 
recall  from  banishment,  he  tacitly  abetted  the 
proceedings  of  his  brother  Publius.  In  56  he 
was  proprietor  in  Sardinia ;  and  in  54  was  con- 
sul with  L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  when  a  re-  j 
conciliation  was  brought  about  between  him  and 
Cicero,  through  the  intervention  of  Pompcy. 
In  53  he  went  as  proconsul  to  Cilicia,  which  he 
governed  with  tyranny  and  rapacity.  In  51  he 
«a*  succeeded  in  the  government  by  Cicero, 


whose  appointment  Appius  received  with  dis- 
pleasure. On  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  im- 
peached by  Dolabella,  but  was  acquitted.  In  50 
he  was  censor  with  L.  Piso,  and  expelled  sev- 
eral of  Caesar's  friends  from  the  senate.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  49,  he  fled 
with  Pompey  from  Italy,  and  died  in  Greece 
before  the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  He  was  an  au 
gur,  and  wrote  a  work  on  the  augural  discipline 
which  he  dedicated  to  Cicero.  He  was  also 
distinguished  for  his  legal  and  antiquarian 
knowledge. — 20.  C.  CL.  PULCHEE,  second  sou 
of  No.  18,  was  a  legatus  of  Caesar,  58,  praetor 
56,  and  propraetor  in  Asia  55.  On  his  return  he 
was  accused  of  extortion  by  M.  Servilius,  who 
was  bribed  to  drop  the  prosecution.  He  died 
shortly  afterward. — 21.  P.  CL.  PULCHEE,  usu- 
ally called  CLODIUS  and  not  Claudius,  the  young- 
est son  of  No.  18,  the  notorious  enemy  of  Ci- 
cero, and  one  of  the  most  profligate  characters 
of  a  profligate  age.  In  70  he  served  under  his 
brother-in-law,  L.  Lueullus,  in  Asia ;  but,  dio- 
pleased  at  not  being  treated  by  Lueullus  with 
the  distinction  he  had  expected,  he  encouraged 
the  soldiers  to  mutiny.  He  then  betook  himself 
to  his  other  brother-in-law,  Q.  Marcius  Rex, 
proconsul  in  Cilicia,  and  was  intrusted  by  him 
with  the  command  of  the  fleet.  He  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  pirates,  who,  however,  dismiss 
ed  him  without  ransom,  through  fear  of  Pom- 
pey. He  next  went  to  Antioch,  and  joined  the 
Syrians  in  making  war  on  the  Arabians.  On 
his  return  to  Rome  in  66  he  impeached  Catiline 
for  extortion  in  his  government  of  Africa,  but 
was  bribed  by  Catiline  to  let  him  escape.  In 
64  he  accompanied  the  propraetor  L.  Murena 
to  Galh'a  Transalpina,  where  he  resorted  to  the 
most  nefarious  methods  of  procuring  money. 
In  62  he  profaned  the  mysteries  of  "the  Bona 
Dea,  which  were  celebrated  by  the  Roman  ma- 
trons in  the  house  of  Caesar,  who  was  then  prae- 
tor, by  entering  the  house  disguised  as  a  female 
musician,  in  order  to  meet  Pompeia,  Caesar's 
wife,  with  whom  he  had  an  intrigue.  He  was 
discovered,  and  next  year,  61,  when  quaestor, 
was  brought  to  trial,  but  obtained  an  acquittal 
by  bribing  the  judges.  He  had  attempted  to 
prove  an  alibi,  but  Cicero's  evidence  showed 
that  Clodius  was  with  him  in  Rome  only  three 
hours  before  he  pretended  to  have  been  at  In- 
teramna,  Cicero  attacked  Clodius  in  the  senate 
with  great  vehemence.  In  order  to  revenge 
himself  upon  Cicero,  Clodius  was  adopted  into  a 
plebeian  family  that  he  might  obtain  the  formid- 
able power  of  a  tribune  of  the  plebs.  He  was 
tribune  58,  and,  supported  by  the  triumvirs  Cae- 
sar, Pompey,  and  Crassus,  drove  Cicero  into 
exile ;  but,  notwithstanding  all  his  efforts,  he 
was  unable  to  prevent  the  recall  of  Cicero  in 
the  following  year.  Vid.  CICEEO.  In  56  Clo- 
dius was  aedile,  and  attempted  to  bring  his  ene- 
my Milo  to  trial.  Each  nad  a  large  gang  of 
gladiators  iu  his  pay,  and  frequent  fights  took 
place  in  the  streets  of  Rome  between  the  two 
parties.  In  53,  when  Clodius  was  a  candidate 
for  the  pnetorship,  and  Milo  for  the  consulship, 
the  contests  between  them  became  more  vio- 
lent and  desperate  than  ever.  At  length,  on  the 
20th  of  January,  52,  Clodius  and  Milo  met,  ap 
parently  by  accident,  on  the  Appian  Road  near 
Bovillae.  An  affray  ensued  between  their  fol 
209 


CLAUDIUS. 


CLEANTHE3. 


lowers,  in  which  Clodius  was  murdered.  The 
mob  was  infuriated  at  the  death  of  their  favor- 
ite ;  and  such  tumults  followed  at  the  burial  of 
Clodius,  that  Pompey  was  appointed  sole  con- 
sul in  order  to  restore  order  to  the  state.  For 
the  proceedings  which  followed,  vid.  MILO.  The 
second  wife  of  Clodius  was  the  notorious  FIJI/VIA. 
— 22.  AFP.  CL.  PULCHEE,  the  elder  son  of  No. 
20,  was  one  of  the  accusers  of  Milo  on  the  death 
of  P.  Clodius,  52. — 23.  AFP.  CL.  PULCHER,  broth- 
er of  No.  22,  joined  his  brother  in  prosecuting 
Milo.  As  the  two  brothers  both  bore  the  prae- 
nomen  Appius,  it  is  probable  that  one  of  them 
was  adopted  by  their  uncle  Appius.  Vid.  No. 
19. — 24.  SEX.  CLODIUS,  probably  a  descendant 
of  a  freedman  of  the  Claudia  gens,  was  a  man 
of  low  condition,  and  the  chief  instrument  of  P. 
Clodius  in  all  his  acts  of  violence.  On  the  death 
of  the  latter  in  62,  he  urged  on  the  people  to 
revenge  the  death  of  their  leader.  For  his  acts 
of  violence  on  this  occasion,  he  was  brought  to 
trial,  was  condemned,  and  after  remaining  in 
exile  eight  years,  was  restored  in  44  by  M.  An- 
tonius. 

CLAUDIUS  I.,  Roman  emperor  A.D.  41 — 54. 
His  full  name  was  TIB.  CLAUDIUS  DRUSUS  NERO 
GERMANJCUS.  He  was  the  younger  son  of  Dru- 
sus,  the  brother  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  and 
of  Antonia,  and  was  born  on  August  1st,  B.C. 
10,  at  Lyons  in  Gaul.  In  youth  he  was  weak 
and  sickly,  and  was  neglected  and  despised  by 
his  relatives.  When  he  grew  up  he  devoted 
the  greater  part  of  his  time  to  literary  pursuits, 
but  was  not  allowed  to  take  any  part  in  public- 
u flairs.  He  had  reached  the  age  of  fifty,  when 
he  was  suddenly  raised  by  the  soldiers  to  the 
imperial  throne  after  the  murder  of  Caligula. 
Claudius  was  not  cruel,  but  the  weakness  of  his 
character  made  him  the  slave  of  his  wives  and 
freedmen,  and  thus  led  him  to  consent  to  acts 
of  tyranny  which  he  would  never  have  com- 
mitted of  his  own  accord.  He  was  married 
four  times.  At  the  time  of  his  accession  he 
was  married  to  his  third  wife,  the  notorious 
Valeria  Messalina,  who  governed  him  for  some 
years,  together  with  the  freedman  Narcissus, 
Pallas,  and  others.  After  the  execution  of  Mes- 
salina, A.D.  48,  a  fate  which  she  richly  merited, 
Claudius  was  still  more  unfortunate  in  choosing 
for  his  wife  his  niece  Agrippina.  She  prevailed 
upon  him  to  set  aside  his  own  son,  Britannicus, 
and  to  adopt  her  son,  Nero,  that  she  might  secure 
the  succession  for  the  latter.  Claudius  soon  after 
regretted  this  step,  and  was,  in  consequence, 
poisoned  by  Agrippina,  54.  Several  public 
works  of  great  utility  were  executed  by  Claudi- 
us. He  built,  for  example,  the  famous  Claudian 
aquasduct  (now  Aqua  Claudia),  the  port  of  Os- 
tia,  and  the  emissary  by  which  the  water  of 
Lake  Fucinus  was  carried  into  the  River  Liris. 
In  his  reign  the  southern  part  of  Britain  was 
made  a  Roman  province,  and  Claudius  himself 
wect  to  Britain  in  43,'  where  he  remained,  how- 
ever, only  a  short  time,  leaving  the  conduct  of 
the  war  to  his  generals.  Cladius  wrote  sev- 
eral historical  works,  all  of  which  have  perish- 
ed. Of  these,  one  of  the  most  important  was  a 
history  of  Etruria,  in  the  composition  of  which 
he  made  use  of  genuine  Etruscan  sources. 

CLAUDIUS    II.  (M.   AURELIUS    CLAUDIUS,   sur- 
named  GOTHICUS),  Roman  emperor  A.D   268- 
210 


270,  was  descended  from  an  obscure  family  in 
Dardania  or  Illyria,  and  by  his  military  talent* 
rose  to  distinction  under  Decius,  Valerian,  and 
Gallienus.  He  succeeded  to  the  empire  on  the 
death  of  Gallienus  (268),  and  soon  after  his  ac- 
cession defeated  the  Alemanni  in  the  north 
of  Italy.  Next  year  he  gained  a  great  victory 
over  an  immense  host  of  Goths  near  Naissus  in 
Dardania,  and  received,  in  consequence,  the 
surname  Gothicus.  He  died  at  Sirmium  in  270, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Aui  elian. 

CLAZOMEN^E  (al  K.%afr[tevai ;  KAafo/zevtof :  now 
Kelismari),  an  important  city  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
a  member  of  the  Ionian  Dodecapolis,  lay  on  the 
northern  coast  of  the  Ionian  peninsula,  upon  the 
Gulf  of  Smyrna.  The  city  was  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Colophonians  under  Para- 
lus,  on  the  site  of  the  later  town  of  Chytrium, 
but  to  have  been  removed  further  east,  as  a  de- 
fence against  the  Persians,  to  a  small  island, 
which  Alexander  afterward  united  to  the  main 
land  by  a  causeway.  It  was  one  of  the  weaker 
members  of  the  Ionian  league,  and  was  chiefly 
peopled,  not  by  lonians,  but  by  Cleonseans  and 
Phhasians.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  a  free 
city.  It  had  a  considerable  commence,  and  was 
celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Apollo,  Diana  (Arte- 
mis), and  Cybele,  and  still  more  as  the  birth- 
place of  Auaxagoras. 

CLEANDER  (KXeavdpoe).  1.  Tyrant  of  Gela, 
reigned  seven  years,  and  was  murdered  B.C. 
498.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Hippo- 
crates, one  of  whose  sons  was  also  called  Ole- 
ander. The  latter  was  deposed  by  Gelon  when 
he  seized  the  government,  491. — 2.  A  Lacedae- 
monian, harmost  at  Byzantium,  400,  when  the 
Greek  army  of  Cyrus  under  Xenophon  return- 
ed from  Asia. — 3.  One  of  Alexander's  officers, 
was  put  to  death  by  Alexander  in  Carmania, 
325,  in  consequence  of  his  oppressive  govern- 
ment in  Media. — 4.  A  Phrygian  slave,  and  sub- 
sequently the  profligate  favorite  and  minister 
of  Commodus.  In  a  popular  tumult,  occasion- 
ed by  a  scarcity  of  corn,  he  was  torn  to  death 
by  the  mob. 

[CLEANDRIDAS  (Kfaavdpidaf),  a  Spartan  gen- 
eral, who  had  to  flee  from  his  native  land  for 
having  acted  treacherously  in  a  war  with  Athens. 
He  was  condemned  to  death,  but  fled  to  THURII 
in  Italy.] 

[CLEANOR  (K/leuvwp),  an  Arcadian  of  Orchom- 
enus,  served  in  the  Greek  army  of  Cyrus  the 
younger;  he  took  an  active  part  iu  conducting 
the  retreat  along  with  Xenophon,  after  the  as- 
sassination of  Clearchus  and  the  other  generals.] 

CLEANTHES  (K^Euvdjjf).  1.  A  Stoic,  born  at 
Assos  iu  Troas  about  B.C.  300.  He  entered 
life  as  a  boxer,  and  had  only  four  drachmas  of 
his  own  when  he  began  to  study  philosophy. 
He  first  placed  himself  under  Crates,  and  then 
under  Zeno,  whose  disciple  he  continued  for 
nineteen  years.  In  order  to  support  himself, 
he  worked  all  night  at  drawing  water  from  gar- 
dens: but  as  he  spent  the  whole  day  in  philo- 
sophical pursuits,  and  had  no  visible  means  of 
support,  he  was  summoned  before  the  Areop- 
agus to  account  for  his  way  of  living.  The 
judges  were  so  delighted  by  the  evidence  of  in- 
dustry which  he  produced,  that  they  voted  him 
ten  minae,  though  Zeno  would  not  permit  him  to 
accept  them.  He  was  naturally  slow,  but  his  iron 


CLEAROHUS. 

industry  overcame  all  difficulties;  and  on  the 
death  of  Zeno  iu  263,  Cleanthes  succeeded  him 
in  his  school.  He  died  about  220,  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  of  voluntary  starvation.  A  hymn  of  his 
to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  is  still  extant,  and  contains 
some  striking  sentiments:  edited  by  Sturz,  1785, 
and  Mersdorf,  Lips.,  1835. — 2.  An  ancient  painter 
of  Corinth,  [mentioned  among  the  inventors  of 
that  art  by  Pliny  and  Athenagoras.] 

CLEAECHUS  (KAeap^of).  1.  A  Spartan,  distin- 
guished himself  in  several  important  commands 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  Peloponnesiau  war, 
and  ut  the  close  of  it  persuaded  the  Spartans  to 
send  him  as  general  to  Thrace,  to  protect  the 
Greeks  in  that  quarter  against  the  Thracians. 
But  having  been  recalled  by  the  ephors,  and  re- 
fusing to  obey  their  orders,  he  was  condemned  to 
death.  He  thereupon  crossed  over  to  Cyrus,  col- 
lected for  him  a  large  force  of  Greek  mercenaries, 
and  marched  with  him  into  Upper  Asia,  401,  in 
order  to  dethrone  his  brother  Artaxerxes,  being 
the  only  Greek  who  was  aware  of  the  prince's 
real  object.  After  the  battle  of  Cunaxa  and  the 
death  of  Cyrus,  Clearchus  and  the  other  Greek 
generals  were  made  prisoners  by  the  treachery 
of  Tissaphernes,  and  were  put  to  death. — 2.  A 
citizen  of  Heraclea  on  the  Euxine,  obtained  the 
tyranny  of  his  native  town,  B.C.  365,  by  putting 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  popular  party.  He 
governed  with  cruelty,  and  was  assassinated  353, 
after  a  reign  of  twelve  years.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Plato  and  of  Isocrates — 3.  Of 
Soli,  one  of  Aristotle's  pupils,  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  works,  none  of  which  are  extant,  on  a 
great  variety  of  subjects. — 4.  An  Athenian  poet 
of  the  new  comedy,  whose  time  is  unknown. 
[His  fragments  are  given  by  Meineke,  Comic. 
Grcec.  Fragm.,  vol.  ii,  p.  1168-9.] 

[CLEARIDAS  (KAeapfrfaf),  a  brave  young  Spar- 
tan, made  governor  of  Amphipolis  by  Brasidas ; 
he  took  part  in  the  battle  before  Amphipolis  be- 
tween the  Spartans  and  Athenians,  in  which  both 
Brasidas  ana  Cleou  were  killed.  He  afterward 
had  the  charge  of  surrendering  the  city  to  the 
Athenians,  but  gave  it,  in  fact,  to  the  Ampliipo- 
litans.] 

CLEMENS.  1.  T.  FLAVTOS,  cousin  of  the  Em- 
peror Domitian,  by  whom  he  was  put  to  death. 
He  appears  to  have  been  a  Christian. — 2.  RO- 
MANES, bishop  of  Rome  at  the  end  of  the  first 
century,  probably  the  same  as  the  Clement 
whom  St.  Paul  mentions  (Phil.,  iv.,  3).  He 
wrote  two  epistles  iu  Greek  to  the  Corinthian 
Church,  of  which  the  first  and  part  of  the  sec- 
ond are  extant  The  second,  however,  is  prob- 
ably not  genuine.  The  Recognitiones,  which 
bear  the  name  of  Clement,  were  not  written  by 
him.  The  epistles  are  printed  in  the  Patres 
Apostolici,  of  which  the  most  convenient  edi- 
tions are  by  Jacobson,  Oxford,  1838,  and  by 
Hefele,  Tubingen,  1839. — 3.  ALEXANDBINUS,  so 
called  from  his  long  residence  at  Alexandrea, 
was  ardently  devoted  in  early  life  to  the  study 
of  philosophy,  which  had  a  great  influence  upon 
his  views  of  Christianity.  He  embraced  Chris- 
tianity through  the  teaching  of  Pnutaeuus  at 
Alexandrea,  was  ordained  presbyter  about  A.D. 
190,  and  died  about  220.  Hence  he  flourished 
Milder  the  reigns  of  Severus  and  Caracalla,  193- 
217.  His  three  principal  works  constitute  parts  of 
»  whole.  In  the  Hortatory  Address  to  the  Greeks 


CLEOMEDES.        • 

nporpETTTLKof,  <fec.)  his  design  was  to  con- 
vince the  heathens  and  to  convert  them  to  Chris- 
tianity. The  Pedagogue  (Hatdaywyof)  takes  up 
the  new  convert  at  the  point  to  which  he  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  brought  by  the  hortatory  ad- 
dress, and  furnishes  him  with  rules  for  the  regu- 
lation of  his  conduct  The  Stromata  (Srpu/wreZf ) 
are  in  eight  books:  the  title  (Stromata,  i.  e., 
patch-work)  indicates  its  miscellaneous  charac- 
ter. It  is  rambling  and  discursive,  but  cou- 
tains  much  valuable  information  on  many  points 
of  antiquity,  particularly  the  history  of  philos- 
ophy. The  principal  information  respecting 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics  is  contained  in  the 
fifth  book.  The  object  of  the  work  was  to  de- 
lineate the  perfect  Christian  or  Gnostic,  after  he 
had  been  instructed  by  the  Teacher,  and  thus 
prepared  by  sublime  speculations  in  philosophy 
and  theology. — Editions:  By  Potter,  Oxon.,  1715, 
fol,  2vols.;  by  Klotz,  Lipe.,  1830-34,  12mo,  4 
vols. 

CLEOBIS.     Vid.  BITON. 

CLEOBULINE  (KAeofiouAo'v)  or  CLEOBULE  (K?.e- 
o6ov?.Tj),  daughter  of  Cleobulus  of  Lindus,  cele- 
brated for  her  skill  in  riddles,  of  which  she  com- 
posed a  number  in  hexameter  verse ;  to  her  is 
ascribed  a  well-known  one  on  the  subject  of  the 
year :  "  A  father  has  twelve  children,  and  each 
of  these  thirty  daughters,  on  one  side  white,  and 
on  the  other  side  black,  and  though  immortal 
they  all  die." 

CLEOBULUS  (Oeo&wAof),  one  of  the  Seven 
Sages,  of  Lindus  in  Rhodes,  son  of  Evagoras, 
lived  about  B.C.  580.  He  wrote  lyric  poems,  as 
well  as  riddles,  in  verse ;  he  was  said  by  some  to 
have  been  the  author  of  the  riddle  on  the  year, 
generally  attributed  to  his  daughter  Cleobulinc 
He  was  greatly  distinguished  for  strength  and 
beauty  of  person. 

CLEOCHARES  (KAeo^ap^f),  a  Greek  orator  of 
Myrlea  in  Bithynia,  contemporary  with  the  oratoi 
Detnochares  and  the  philosopher  Arcesilas,  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  third  century  B.C. 

[CLEOD^EUS  (Oeodatof),  son  of  the  Heraclid 
Hyllus,  who,  at  the  head  of  the  Heraclids,  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  conquer  the  Pelopon- 
nesus.] 

CLEOMBROTUS  (KAe6/t6porof).  1.  Son  of  Anax- 
andrides,  king  of  Sparta,  became  regent  after  the 
battle  of  Thermopylae,  B.C.  480,  for  Plistarchus, 
infant  son  of  Leonidas,  but  died  in  the  same  year, 
and  was  succeeded  iu  the  regency  by  bis  son 
Pausauias. — 2.  I.  King  of  Sparta,  son  of  Pausa- 
nias,  succeeded  his  brother  Agesipolis  I,  and 
reigned  B.C.  380-371.  He  commanded  the  Spar- 
tan troops  several  times  against  the  Thebans,  and 
fell  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra  (371),  after  fighting 
most  bravely. — 3.  II.  King  of  Sparta,  son-in-law 
of  Leonidas  II.,  iu  whose  place  he  waa  made 
king  by  the  party  of  Aois  IV.  about  248.  On 
the  return  of  Leouidas,  Cleombrotus  was  de- 
posed and  banished  to  Tegea,  about  240. — 4.  An 
Academic  philosopher  of  Ambracia,  said  to  have 
killed  himself  after  reading  the  Phaidon  of  Plato ; 
not  that  he  had  any  sufferings  to  escape  from, 
but  that  he  might  exchange  this  life  for  a 
better. 

CLEOMEDKS  (KAeo/^'efyf).  1.  Of  the  island  As 
typaloca,  an  athlete  of  gigantic  strength. — 2.  A 
Greek  mathematician,  probably  lived  in  the  sec- 
ond and  third  centuries  of  the  Christian  era 


•        CLEOMENES. 

the  author  of  a  Greek  treatise  in  two  books  on 
the  Circular  Theory  qf  the  Heavenly  Bodies  (Kvv- 
/1<A%  Beupiaf  Mereapuv  WidXia  6i>o),  which  is 
still  extant  It  is  rather  an  exposition  of  the  sys- 
tem of  the  universe  than  of  the  geometrical  prin- 
ciples of  astronomy :  edited  by  Balfour,  Burdigal., 
1605  ;  by  Bake,  Lugd.  Bat,  1820 ;  and  by  Schmidt, 
Lips,  1832. 

CLEOMENES  (KAfo/un^f).  1.  King  of  Sparta, 
ron  of  Auaxandrides,  reigned  B.C.  620-491. 
He  was  a  man  of  an  enterprising  but  wild  char- 
acter. His  greatest  exploit  was  his  defeat  of 
the  Argives,  in  which  six  thousand  Argive  citi- 
zens fell;  but  the  date  of  this  event  is  doubt- 
ful. In  510  he  commanded  the  forces  by  whose 
assistance  Hippias  was  driven  from  Athens,  and 
not  long  after  he  assisted  Isagoras  and  the  aris- 
tocratical  party  against  Clisthenes.  By  bribing 
the  priestess  at  Delphi,  he  effected  the  deposi- 
tion of  his  colleague  DEMARATUS,  491.  Soon 
afterward  he  was  seized  with  madness  and  kill- 
ed himself. — 2.  King  of  Sparta,  son  of  Cleom- 
brotus  I.,  reigned  370-309  ;  but  during  this  long 
period  we  have  no  information  about  him  of  any 
importance. — 3.  King  of  Sparta,  son  of  Leouidas 
II,  reigned  236-222.  While  still  young,  he 
married  Agiatis,  the  widow  of  Agis  IV.;  and 
following  the  example  of  the  latter,  he  endeav- 
ored to  restore  the  ancient  Spartan  constitu- 
tion, and  to  regenerate  the  Spartan  character. 
He  was  endowed  with  a  noble  mind,  strength- 
ened and  purified  by  philosophy,  and  possessed 
great  energy  of  purpose.  His  first  object  was 
to  gain  for  Sparta  her  old  renown  in  war ;  and 
for  that  purpose  he  attacked  the  Achaeans,  and 
carried  on  war  with  the  league  with  great  suc- 
cess. Having  thus  gained  military  renown,  he 
felt  himself  sufficiently  strong  in  the  winter  of 
226-225  to  put  the  ephors  to  death  and  restore 
the  ancient  constitution.  The  Achaeans  now  call- 
ed in  the  aid  of  Antigonus  Doson,  king  of  Mace- 
donia, and  for  the  next  three  years  Cleomenes 
carried  on  war  against  their  united  forces.  He 
was  at  length  completely  defeated  at  the  battle 
of  Sellasia  (222),  and  fled  to  Egypt,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  Ptolemy  Euergetes, 
but  on  the  death  of  that  king  he  was  imprisoned 
by  his  successor  Philopator.  He  escaped  from 
prison,  and  attempted  to  raise  an  insurrection, 
but  finding  no  one  join  him,  he  put  himself  to 
death,  220. 

CLEOMENES.  1.  A  Greek  of  Naucratis  in 
Egypt,  appointed  by  Alexander  the  Great  no- 
march  of  the  Arabian  district  (vofiof)  of  Egypt, 
and  receiver  of  the  tribute  from  the  districts  of 
Egypt,  B.C.  331.  His  rapacity  knew  no  bounds, 
and  he  collected  immense  wealth  by  his  extor- 
tions. After  Alexander's  death  he  was  put  to 
death  by  Ptolemy,  who  took  possession  of  his 
treasures. — 2.  A  sculptor,  son  of  Apollodorus  of. 
Athens,  executed  the  celebrated  statue  of  the 
Venus  de  Medici,  as  appears  from  an  inscription 
on  the  pedestal.  He  lived  between  B.C.  363 
and  146. 

CLEON  (KAeuv)  son  of  Cleaenetus,  was  origi- 
nally a  tanner,  and  first  came  forward  in  public 
as  an  opponent  of  Pericles.  On  the  death  of 
this  great  man,  B.C.  429,  Cleon  became  the  fa- 
vorite of  the  people,  and  for  about  six  years  of 
the  Peloponnesian  war  (428-422)  was  the  head 
of  the  party  opposed  to  peace.  He  is  repre- 
212 


CLEOPATRA. 

sented  by  Aristophanes  as  a  demagogue  ot  the 
lowest  kind,  mean,  ignorant,  cowardly,  and  ve- 
nal ;  and  this  view  of  his  character  is  confirmed 
by  Thucydides.  But  much  weight  can  not  be 
attached  to  the  satire  of  the  poet ;  and  the  usual 
impartiality  of  the  historian  may  have  been 
warped  by  the  sentence  of  his  banishment,  if  it 
be  true,  as  has  been  conjectured  with  great 
probability,  that  it  was  through  Cleon  that  Thu 
cydides  was  sent  into  exile.  Cleon  may  be 
considered  as  the  representative  of  the  middle 
classes  of  Athens,  and  by  his  ready,  though  some- 
what coarse  eloquence,  gained  great  influence 
over  them.  In  427  he  strongly  advocated  iu 
the  assembly  that  the  Mytilenaeans  should  be 
put  to  death.  In  424  he  obtained  his  greatest 
glory  by  taking  prisoners  the  Spartans  in  the 
island  of  Sphactena,  and  bringing  them  in  safety 
to  Athens.  Puffed  up  by  this  success,  he  ob- 
tained the  command  of  an  Athenian  army,  to 
oppose  Brasidas  in  Thrace ;  but  he  was  defeated 
by  Brasidas,  under  the  walls  of  Amphipolis,  and 
fell  in  the  battle,  422.  The  chief  attack  of  Aris- 
tophanes upon  Cleon  was  in  the  Knights  (424), 
in  which  Cleon  figures  as  an  actual  dramatis 
persona,  and,  in  default  of  an  artificer  bold 
enough  to  make  the  mask,  was  represented  by 
the  poet  himself  with  his  face  smeared  with  wine 
lees. 

CLEON.*:  (Kheuvai:  K/Uuvaiof).  1.  An  an- 
cient town  iu  Argolis,  on  the  road  from  Corinth 
to  Argos,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name  which 
flows  into  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  and  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Apesas;  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Cleones,  son  of  Pelops. — 2.  A  town  in  the  penin- 
sula Athos  in  Chalcidice. — 3.  Vid.  HYAMPOLIS. 

CLEONYMUS  (Kl.euwfiof).  1.  An  Atheaian,  fre- 
quently attacked  by  Aristophanes  as  a  pestilent 
demagogue. — 2.  A  Spartan,  son  of  Sphodrias, 
much  beloved  by  Archidamus,  the  son  of  Agesi- 
laus:  he  fell  at  Leuctra,  B.C.  371. — 3.  Younger 
son  of  Cleomenes  II,  king  of  Sparta,  was  exclu- 
ded from  the  throne  on  his  father's  death,  309. 
in  consequence  of  his  violent  and  tyrannical 
temper.  In  303  he  crossed  over  to  Italy  to  as- 
sist the  Tarentines  against  the  Lucanians.  He 
afterward  withdrew  from  Italy,  and  seized  Cor- 
cyra;  and  in  272  he  invited  Pyrrhus  to  attempt 
the  conquest  of  Sparta  Vid.  ACROTATUS. — [4.  A 
Thebau,  celebrated  for  his  victories  at  the  Isth 
mian  games.] 

CLEOPATRA  (KfaonaTpa).  1.  (Myth.)  Daughter 
of  Idas  and  Marpessa,  and  wife  of  Meleager,  is 
said  to  have  hanged  herself  after  her  husband's 
death,  or  to  have  died  of  grief.  Her  real  name 
was  Alcyone. — 2.  (Hist.)  Niece  of  Attalus,  mar- 
ried Philip,  B.C.  337,  on  whose  murder  she  was 
put  to  death  by  Olympias. — 3.  Daughter  of  Philip 
xnd  Olympias,  and  sister  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
married  Alexander,  king  of  Epirus,  336.  It  was 
at  the  celebration  of  her  nuptials  that  Philip  was 
murdered.  Her  husband  died  326.  After  the 
death  of  her  brother  she  was  sought  in  marringe 
by  several  of  his  generals,  and  at  length  prom- 
ised to  marry  Ptolemy ;  but,  having  attempted 
;o  escape  from  Sardis,  where  she  had  been  kept 
for  years  in  a  state  of  honorable  captivity,  she 
was  assassinated  by  Antigonus. — 4.  Daughter 
of  Antiochus  III.  the  Great,  married  Ptolemy 
V.  Epiphanes,  193. — 5.  Daughter  of  Ptolemy  V. 
Epiphanes  and  No.  4,  married  her  brother  Ptol- 


CLEOPATRA. 


CLLNIAS. 


emy  VL  Philometor,  and  on  his  death,  146,  her 
other  brother  Ptolemy  VI.  Physcon.  She  was 
soon  afterward  divorced  by  Physcon,  and  fled 
into  Syria. — 6.  Daughter  of  Ptolemy  VI.  Phil- 
ometor and  of  No.  5,  married  first  Alexander 
Balas  (150),  the  Syrian  Usurper,  and  on  his  death 
Demetrius  Nieator.  During  the  captivity  of  the 
latter  in  Parthia,  jealous  of  the  connection  which 
he  there  formed  with  Rhodogune,  the  Parthian 
princess,  she  married  Antiochus  VII.  Sidetes, 
his  brother,  and  also  murdered  Demetrius  on 
his  return.  She  likewise  murdered  Seleucus, 
her  son  by  Nicator,  who,  on  his  father's  death, 
assumed  the  government  without  her  consent 
Her  other  son  by  Nicator,  Antiochus  VIII.  Gry- 
pus,  succeeded  to  the  throne  (125)  through  her 
influence ;  and  he  compelled  her  to  drink  the 
poisou  which  she  had  prepared  for  him  also. 
Vid.  ANTIOCHUS  VIIL  She  had  a  son  by  Side- 
tes, Antiochus  IX.,  eurnamed  Cyzicenus. — 7. 
Another  daughter  of  Ptolemy  VI.  Philometor 
aud  No.  5,  married  her  uncle  Physcon  when 
the  latter  divorced  her  mother.  On  the  death 
of  Physcon  she  reigned  in  conjunction  with  her 
elder  son,  Ptolemy  VIIL  Lathyrus,  and  then  in 
conjunction  with  her  younger  son  Alexander. 
She  was  put  to  death  by  the  latter  in  89. — 8. 
Daughter  of  Ptolemy  Physcon  and  No.  7,  mar- 
•ied  first  her  brother  Ptolemy  VIIL  Lathyrus, 
aud  next  Antiochus  IX.  Cyzicenus.  She  was 
put  to  death  by  Tryphaena,  her  own  sister,  wife 
of  Antiochus  Grypus. — 9.  Usually  called  SELENE, 
another  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Physcon,  married 
first  her  brother  Lathyrus  (on  her  sister  No.  8 
being  divorced) ;  secondly,  Antiochus  XL  Epiph- 
anes  ;  and  thirdly,  Antiochus  X.  Eusebes. — 10. 
Daughter  of  Ptolemy  VIIL  Lathyrus,  usually 
called  Berenice.  Vid.  BEEENICE,  No.  4 — 11. 
Eldest  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  celebrated 
for  her  beauty  and  fascination,  was  seventeen 
at  the  death  of  her  father  (£l),  who  appointed 
her  heir  of  his  kingdom  in  conjunction  with  her 
younger  brother,  Ptolemy,  whom  she  was  to 
marry.  She  was  expelled  from  the  throne  by 
Pothmus  and  Achillas,  his  guardians.  She  re- 
treated into  Syria,  and  there  collected  an  army, 
with  which  she  was  preparing  to  enter  Egypt, 
when  Caesar  arrived  in  Egypt  in  pursuit  of 
Pompey,  47.  Her  charms  gained  for  her  the 
support  of  Caesar,  who  replaced  her  on  the 
throne  in  conjunction  with  her  brother.  This 
led  to  the  Alexandrine  war,  in  the  course  of 
which  young  Ptolemy  perished.  Cleopatra  thus 
obtained  the  undivided  rule.  She  was,  how- 
ever, associated  by  Caesar  with  another  brother 
of  the  same  name,  and  still  quite  a  child,  to 
whom  she  was  also  nominally  married.  She 
had  a  son  by  Caesar,  called  C.ESARIOX,  and  she 
afterward  followed  him  to  Rome,  where  she  ap- 
pears to  have  been  at  the  time  of  his  death,  44. 
She  then  returned  to  Egypt,  and  in  41  she  met 
Antony  in  Cilicia.  She  was  now  in  her  twenty- 
eighth  year,  and  in  the  perfection  of  matured 
beauty,  which,  in  conjunction  with  her  talents 
and  eloquence,  completely  won  the  heart  of  An- 
tony, wno  henceforth  appears  as  her  devoted 
lover  and  slave.  He  returned  with  her  to  Egypt, 
but  was  obliged  to  leave  her  for  a  short  time, 
b  order  to  marry  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Octavi- 
anus.  But  Octavia  was  never  able  to  gain  his 
affections  ;  he  soon  deserted  liis  wife  and  re- 


turned to  Cleopatra,  upon  whom  he  conferred 
the  most  extravagant  titles  and  honors.  In  the 
war  between  Octavianus  and  Antony,  Cleopatra 
accompanied  her  lover,  and  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Actium  (31),  in  the  midst  of  which  she 
retreated  with  her  fleet,  and  thus  hastened  the 
loss  of  the  day.  She  fled  to  Alexandrea,  where 
she  was  joined  by  Antony.  Seeing  Antony's 
fortunes  desperate,  she  entered  into  negotia- 
tions with  Augustus,  and  promised  to  make 
away  with  Antony.  She  fled  to  a  mausoleum 
she  had  built,  and  then  caused  a  report  of  her 
death  to  be  spread.  Antony,  resolving  not  to 
survive  her,  stabbed  himself,  and  was  drawn  up 
into  the  mausoleum,  where  he  died  in  her  arms. 
She  then  tried  to  gain  the  love  of  Augustus,  but 
her  charms  failed  in  softening  his  colder  heart 
Seeing  that  he  was  determined  to  carry  her  cap- 
tive to  Rome,  she  put  an  end  to  her  own  life, 
either  by  the  poison  of  an  asp,  or  by  a  poisoned 
comb,  the  former  supposition  being  adopted  by 
most  writers.  She  died  in  the  thirty-ninth  year 
of  her  age  (B.C.  30),  and  with  her  ended  the 
dynasty  of  the  Ptolemies  in  Egypt,  which  was 
now  made  a  Roman  province. — 12.  Daughter 
of  Antony  and  No.  11,  born  with  her  twin  brother 
Alexander  in  40,  along  with  whom  she  was  cai  - 
ried  to  Rome  after  the  death  of  her  parents.  Au 
gustus  married  her  to  Juba,  king  of  Numidia 
— 13.  A  daughter  of  Mithradates,  married  Ti- 
granes,  king  of  Armenia. 

CLEOPATEIS.     Vid.  AmsiNOx,  No.  6. 

CLEOPHON  (K^eo^wv),  an  Athenian  demagogue, 
of  obscure,  and,  according  to  Aristophanes,  of 
Thracian  origin,  vehemently  opposed  peace  with 
Sparta  in  the  latter  end  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war.  During  the  siege  of  Athens  by  Lysander, 
B.C.  404,  he  was  brought  to  trial  by  the  aris- 
tocratical  party,  and  was  condemned  and  put  to 
death. 

[CLEOPOMPUS  (Kfeoirofnroc),  son  of  Clinias,  a 
leader  of  the  Athenians  in  the  Peloponnesian 
war.] 

[CLEOSTHENES  (KJieoadevtif).  1.  One  of  the 
Spartan  ephors. — 2.  An  Epidamnian,  a  celebrat- 
ed Olympian  victor  in  the  chariot-race.] 

CLEOSTEATUS  (Kfooorparof),  an  astronomer 
of  Tenedos,  said  to  have  introduced  the  divi- 
sion of  the  zodiac  into  signs,  probably  lived  be- 
tween B.C.  548  and  432. 

CLEVUM,  also  GLEVUM  and  GLEBON  (now  Glou- 
cester), a  Roman  colony  in  Britain. 

CLIDES  (al  K/leZfof :  now  Cape S.  Andre),  "the 
Keys,"  a  promontory  on  the  northeast  of  Cy- 
prus, with  two  islands  of  the  same  name  lying 
off  it 

CLIMAX  (KAZ/*o£  ;  now  Ekder),  the  name  ap- 
plied to  the  western  termination  of  the  Taurus 
range,  which  extends  along  the  western  coast  of 
the  Pamphylian  Gulf,  north  of  Phaselis  in  Lycia. 
Alexander  made  a  road  between  it  and  the  sea. 
There  were  other  mountains  of  the  same  name  in 
Asia  and  Africa. 

CLIMBEEEUM.     Vid.  Ausoi. 

CLixiAS  (Ktemaf)  1.  Father  of  the  famous 
Alctbiades,  fought  at,  Artemisium  B.C.  480,  in 
a  ship  built  and  manned  at  his  own  expense : 
he  fell  447,  at  the  battle  of  Coronea.— 2.  A 
younger  brother  of  the  famous  Alcibiades. — 3. 
Father  of  Aratus  of  Sicyon,  was  murdered  by 
Abantidas,  who  seized  the  tyranny,  264.— 4.  A 
213 


CLIO. 

Pythagorean  philosopher  of  Tarentum,  a  con- 
temporary and  friend  of  Plato.  [A  fragment 
of  his  writings,  preserved  by  Stoba>us,  is  given  in 
Orelli's  Opusc.  Grcec.  Vett.  Sent.,  ii.,  p.  324.] 

Ciao.     Vid.  MUSA 

CLISTHKNES  (K.faiodf:VT!c\  1.  Tyrant  of  Sic- 
yon.  In  B.C.  695,  he  aided  the  Amphictyons 
in  the  sacred  war  against  Cirrha,  which  ended, 
after  ten  years,  in  the  destruction  of  the  guilty 
city.  He  also  engaged  in  war  with  Argos.  His 
death  can  not  be  placed  earlier  than  582,  in 
which  year  he  won  the  victory  in  the  chariot- 
race  at  the  Pythian  games.  His  daughter  Aga- 
rista  was  given  in  marriage  to  Megacles  the 
Alcmseonid. — 2.  An  Athenian,  son  of  Megacles 
and  Agarista,  and  grandson  of  No.  1,  appears 
as  the  head  of  the  AJcmaeomd  clan  on  the  bau- 
ishment  of  the  Pisistratidae.  Finding,  how- 
ever, that  he  could  not  cope  with  his  political 
rival  Isagoras  except  through  the  aid  of  the 
commons,  he  set  himself  to  increase  the  power 
of  the  hitter.  The  principal  change  which  he 
introduced  was  the  abolition  of  the  four  ancient 
tribes  and  the  establishment  of  ten  new  ones 
in  their  stead,  B.C.  510.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
instituted  ostracism.  Isagoras  and  his  party 
called  in  the  aid  of  the  Spartans,  but  Clisthenes 
and  his  friends  eventually  triumphed. — 3.  An 
Athenian,  whose  foppery  and  effeminate  profli- 
gacy brought  him  under  the  lash  of  Aristophanes. 

[CLITAGOEA  (K/letrayopa),  a  lyric  poetess  of 
Laconia  or  Thessaly,  mentioned  in  the  Vespae  of 
Aristophanes.] 

CLITARCHUS  (KAci'rap^of).  1.  Tyrant  of  Ere- 
tria  in  Euboea,  was  supported  by  Philip  against 
the  Athenians,  but  was  expelled  from  Eretria 
by  Phocion,  B.C.  341. — 2.  Son  of  the  historian 
Dinon,  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  in  his 
Asiatic  expedition,  and  wrote  a  history  of  it. 
This  work  was  deficient  in  veracity  and  inflated 
in  style,  but  appears  nevertheless  to  have  been 
much  read.  [The  fragments  of  his  history  are 
collected  by  Geier,  Alex.  Hist.  Scrip.,  p.  160 — 90.] 

CLITEENUM  or  CLITEENIA  (Clitemlnus),  a  town 
of  the  Frentani,  in  the  territory  of  Larinum, 

CLITOMACHUS  (OetTojizajof).  1.  A  Cartha- 
ginian by  birth,  and  called  Hasdrubal  in  his 
own  language,  came  to  Athena  in  the  fortieth 
year  of  his  age,  and  there  studied  under  Car- 
neades,  on  whose  death  he  became  the  head  of 
the  New  Academy,  B.C.  129.  Of  his  works, 
which  amounted  to  four  hundred  books,  only  a 
few  titles  are  preserved.  His  main  object  in 
writing  them  was  to  make  known  the  philosophy 
of  his  master  Carneades.  When  Carthage  was 
taken  in  146,  he  wrote  a  work  to  console  his 
unfortunate  countrymen. — [2.  A  Theban  athlete, 
who  gained  several  victories  at  the  Olympian 
and  Pythian  games. — 3.  Of  ^Egina,  an  athlete 
who  conquered  in  wrestling  at  the  Isthmian 
games.] 

CLITOE  or  CUTOEIUM  (K/letrwp :  KAetroptof : 
ruins  near  Mazi),  a  town  in  the  north  of  Arcadia, 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  a  tributary  of  the 
Aroanius :  there  was  a  fountain  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, the  waters  of  which  are  said  to  have  given 
to  persons  who  drank  of  them  a  dislike  for  wine. 
(Ov.,  Met.,  xv.,  322.)  • 

CLITUMNUS  (now  Clitum.no),  a  small  river  in 
Umbria,  springs  from  a  beautiful  rock  in  a  grove 
of  cypress-trees,  where  was  a  sanctuary  of  the 
214 


CLUENTIUS   HABITUS. 

god  Olitumnus,  and  falls  into  the  Tinia,  a  tributq 
ry  of  the  Tiber. 

CLITUS  (KAetrof  or  K/l«r6f).  [1.  (Mytholog- 
ical) A  Trojan,  son  of  Pisenor,  slain  by  Teucer 
— 2.  Son  of  Mantius,  carried  off  by  Aurora  oc 
account  of  his  beauty.]-1— 3.  (Historical)  Son  of 
Bardylis,  king  of  Illyria,  defeated  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  B.C.  335.— 4  A  Macedonian,  one  of 
Alexander's  generals  and  friends,  surnamed  the 
Black  (MtAaf).  He  saved  Alexander's  life  at 
the  battle  of  Granicus,  334.  In  328  he  was 
slain  by  Alexander  at  a  banquet  when  both 
parties  were  heated  with  wine,  and  Clitus  had 
provoked  the  king's  resentment  by  insolent  laii 
guage.  Alexander  was  inconsolable  at  his 
friend's  death. — 5.  Another  of  Alexander's  offi- 
cers, surnamed  the  White  (Aev/c6f),  to  distin 
guish  him  from  the  above. — 6.  An  officer  who 
commanded  the  Macedonian  fleet  for  Antipater 
hi  the  Lamian  war,  323,  and  defeated  the  Athe- 
nian fleet  In  321  he  obtained  from  Antipater 
the  satrapy  of  Lydia,  from  which  he  was  ex- 
pelled by  Antigonus,  319.  He  afterward  com- 
manded the  fleet  of  Polysperchon,  and  was  at 
first  successful,  but  his  ships  were  subsequently 
destroyed  by  Antigonus,  and  he  was  killed  on 
shore,  318. 

CLOACINA  or  CLUACINA,  the  "  Purifier"  (from 
cloare  or  clucre,  "  to  wash"  or  "  purify"),  a  sur- 
name of  Venus  at  Rome. 

[CLOANTHES,  one  of  the  followers  of  JEneas, 
from  whom  the  Roman  Cluentii  pretended  to  de- 
duce the  origin  of  their  name  and  family.] 

[CLODIA.     Vid.  CLAUDIA.] 

CLODIUS,  another  form  of  the  name  Claudiu*, 
just  as  we  find  both  caudex  and  codex,  claustrum 
and  clostrum,  cauda  and  coda.  Vid.  CLAUDIUS. 

CLODIUS  ALBINUS.     Vid.  ALBINUS. 

CLODIUS  MACEE.     Vid.  MACEE. 

CLGSLIA,  a  Roman  virgin,  one  of  the  hostages 
given  to  Porsena,  Is  said  to  have  escaped  from 
the  Etruscan  camp,  and  to  have  swum  across 
the  Tiber  to  Rome.  She  was  sent  back  by  the 
Romans  to  Porsena,  who  was  so  struck  with  her 
gallant  deed  that  he  not  only  set  her  at  liberty, 
but  allowed  her  to  take  with  her  a  part  of  the 
hostages.  Porsena  also  rewarded  her  with  a 
horse  adorned  with  splendid  trappings,  and  the 
Romans  with  the  statue  of  a  female  on  horseback, 
which  was  erected  in  the  Sacred  Way. 

CLCELIA  or  CLUILIA  GENS,  of  Alban  origin,  said 
to  have  been  received  among  the  patricians  on 
the  destruction  of  Alba.  A  few  of  its  members, 
with  the  surname  Siculus,  obtained  the  consulship 
in  the  early  years  of  the  republic. 

CLONAS  (KAovtZf),  a  poet,  and  one  of  the  earli- 
est musicians  of  Greece,  either  an  Arcadian  or  a 
Bceotian,  probably  lived  about  B.C.  620. 

CLONIUS  (Owiof).  1.  A  leader  of  the  Boeo- 
tians in  the  war  against  Troy,  slain  by  Agenor. 
— [2.  A  companion  of  ^Eneas,  slain  by  Turnus, 
— 3.  Another  companion  of  ^Eneas,  slain  by 
Messapus.] 

[CLONUS,  an  artist  mentioned  by  Virgil  as  the 
maker  of  a  belt  presented  to  Pallas,  son  of  Evan- 
der,  on  which  were  represented  in  gold  the  fifty 
daughters  of  Danaus.] 

CLOTA  ^ESTUAEIUM  (now  Frith  of  Clyde),  on 
the  western  coast  of  Scotland. 

JLOTHO.     Vid.  MoiE.fi. 

CLUENTIUS  HABITUS,  A.,  of  Larinum,  accused 


CLUNIA. 

in  B.C.  H  his  own  step-father,  Statius  Albius 
Oppianicus,  of  having  attempted  to  procure  his 
death  by  poison.  Oppiauicus  was  condemned, 
and  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  judges 
had  been  bribed  by  Clueutius.  In  66,  Clueutius 
was  himself  accused  by  young  Oppianicus,  son 
of  Statiua  Albius,  who  had  died  in  the  interval, 
of  three  distinct  acts  of  poisoning.  He  was  de- 
fended by  Cicero  in  the  oration  still  extant. 

CLUNIA  (ruins  on  a  hill  between  Coruna  del 
Con.de  and  Pennalba  de  Castro),  a  town  of  the 
Arevacae  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  and  a  Tlo- 
man  colony. 

CLUPEA  or  CLYPEA.      Vid.  ASPIS. 

CLCSIUM  (Cluslnus :  now  Chiusi),  one  of  the 
most  powerful  of  the  twelve  Etruscan  cities, 
situated  on  an  eminence  above  the  River  Clanis, 
and  southwest  of  the  LACUS  CLUSINUS  (now 
Logo  di  Chiusi).  It  was  more  anciently  called 
GAMERS  or  CAMARS,  whence  we  may  conclude 
that  it  was  founded  by  the  Umbrian  race  of  the 
Camertes.  It  was  the  royal  residence  of  Por- 
sena,  and  in  its  neighborhood  was  the  celebrated 
sepulchre  of  this  king  in  the  form  of  a  labyrinth, 
of  which  such  marvellous  accounts  have  come 
down  to  us.  (  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant^  art.  LABYRIN- 
THUS.)  Subsequently  Clusium  was  in  alliance 
with  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  regarded  as 
a  bulwark  against  the  Gauls.  Its  siege  by  the 
Gauls,  B.C.  391,  led,  as  is  well  known,  to  the 
capture  of  Rome  itself  by  the  Gauls.  Clusium 
probably  became  a  Roman  colony,  since  Pliny 
speaks  of  Clusini  Veteres  et  Novi.  In  its  neigh- 
borhood were  warm  baths.  (Hor.,  Ep.,  L,  15, 
9.) 

CLUSIUS  (now  Chiese),  a  river  in  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  a  tributary  of  the  Ollius,  forming  the 
boundary  between  the  Cenomani  and  Insubres. 

CLUVIUS,  a  family  of  Campa"hia*  origin,  of 
which  the  most  important  person  was  M.  CLU- 
VIUS RUFUS,  consul  suffectus  A.D.  45,  and  gov- 
ernor of  Spain  under  Galba,  A.D.  69,  on  whose 
death  he  espoused  the  cause  of  Vitellius.  He 
was  an  historian,  and  wrote  an  account  of  the 
times  of  Nero,  Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius. 

CLYMENE  (KAv/ztw?).  1.  Daughter  of  Ocea- 
nus  and  Tethys,  and  wife  of  lapetus,  to  whom 
she  bore  Atlas,  Prometheus,  and  others. — 2. 
Daughter  of  Iphis  or  Minyas,  wife  of  Phylacus 
or  Cephalus,  to  whom  she  bore  Iphiclus  and 
Alcimede.  According  to  Hesiod  and  others,  she 
was  the  mother  of  Phaethon  by  Helios. — 3.  A 
relative  of  Menelaus  and  a  companion  of  He- 
lena, with  whom  she  was  carried  off  by  Paris. 
— [4.  Daughter  of  Catreus,  mother  of  Palame- 
des. — 5.  One  of  the  Nereids  enumerated  by  Ho- 
mer (//.,  xviii.,  47.)] 

[CLYMENUS.  1.  King  of  the  Minyoe,  in  Or- 
chomenos ;  he  was  slain  by  the  Thebans  at  a 
festival  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  at  Thebes. — 2. 
Son  of  Caeueus,  king  of  Arcadia,  married  Epi- 
caste  of  Argos,  by  whom  he  had  Harpalyce  and 
several  other  children. — 3.  A  companion  of 
Phineus  at  the  nuptials  of  Perseus.] 

[CLYSONYMUS  (Kl.vauvvjiof),  sou  of  Ampbida- 
mas  of  Opus,  was  unintentionally  slain  by  Pa- 
troclus,  who  had  to  seek  refuge  on  this  account 
at  the  court  of  Peleus.] 

CLYT^KMNKSTRA  (K^vraiffv^arpa),  daughter  of 
Tyudareus  and  Leda,  sister  of  Castor,  and  half 
tiiter  of  Pollux  and  Helena.  She  was  married 


CNOSUS. 

to  Agamemnon.  During  her  husband's  absence 
at  Troy  she  lived  in  adultery  with  ^Egisthus, 
and  on  his  return  to  Mycenae  she  murdered 
him  with  the  help  of  ^Egisthus,  Vid.  AGAMEM 
NON.  She  was  subsequently  put  to  death  by 
her  son  Orestes,  who  thus  avenged  the  murder 
of  his  father.  For  details,  vid.  ORESTES. 

[CLYTIE  (Khv-ia,  Ion.  KAur«?).  1.  Daughter 
of  Oceanus  and  Tethys. — 2.  A  female  beloved 
by  Apollo,  died  from  grief  at  the  unfaithfulness 
of  that  god,  and  was  changed  by  him  into  a  he- 
liotrope.— 3.  Mother  of  King  Chalcon  in  the 
island  of  Cos.] 

[CLYTIUS  (Kfomof).  1.  Son  of  Laomedon, 
brother  of  Priam. — 2.  Son  of  Alcmaeon  and 
father  of  Piraeus. — 3.  Son  of  the  CEchalian  king 
Eurytus,  slain  by  ^Eetes  in  the  Argonautic  ex- 
pedition.— 4.  A  partisan  of  Phineus,  slain  by 
Theseus. — 5.  One  of  the  companions  of  ^Encas, 
son  of  JSolus,  slain  by  Turnus.  Two  other  he- 
roes of  this  name  are  mentioned  in  the  ^Eneid.] 

[CLYTOMEDES  (KAvro/z^tJjyf),  son  of  Enops, 
conquered  by  Nestor  in  boxing.] 

[CLYTONEUS  (K^vrovrjof),  son  of  King  Alci- 
nous,  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries  in  run- 
ning.] 

.  CNEMIS  (Kvtj/iif),  a  range  of  mountains  on  the 
frontiers  of  Phocis  and  Locris,  from  which  the 
northern  Locrians  were  called  EpicnemidiL  A 
branch  of  these  mountains  runs  out  into  the  sea, 
forming  the  promontory  CNEMIDES  (K.vrtfu6eg) 
with  a  town  of  the  same  name  upon  it,  oppo- 
site the  promontory  Cenaeum  in  Eubcea. 

CNEPH  (KvrjQ)  or  CXUPHIS  (l&oixfiie),  an  Egyp- 
tian divinity,  worshipped  in  the  form  of  a  ser 
pent,  and  regarded  as  the  creator  of  the  world. 

CNIDUS  or  GNIDUS  (Kvi6oe :  Kvidiog :  ruins 
at  Cape  Krio),  a  celebrated  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
on  the  promontory  of  Triopium,  on  the  coast  of 
Caria,  was  a  Lacedaemonian  colony,  and  the 
chief  city  of  the  Dorian  Hexapolis.  It  was 
built  partly  on  the  main  land  and  partly  on  an 
island  joined  to  the  coast  by  a  causeway,  and 
had  two  harbors.  It  had  a  considerable  com- 
merce ;  and  it  was  resorted  to  by  travellers 
from  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world,  that  they 
might  see  the  statue  of  Venus  (Aphrodite)  by 
Praxiteles,  which  stood  in  her  temple  here. 
The  city  possessed  also  temples  of  Apollo  and 
Neptune  (Poseidon.)  The  great  naval  defeat 
of  Pisander  by  Conon  (B.C.  394)  took  place  off 
Cnidus.  Among  the  celebrated  natives  of  the 
city  were  Ctesias,  Eudoxus,  Sostratus,  and 
Agatharchides.  It  is  said  to  have  been  also 
called,  at  an  early  period,  Triopia,  from  its 
founder  Triopas,  and,  in  later  times,  Stadia. 

CNOSUS  or  GNOSUS,  subsequently  CNOSSUS  or 
GNOSSUS  (Kvuffof,  Tvuauf,  Kvuaaof,  Tvuaaof : 
Kvuoioc,  Kvuaffiof  :  now  Makro  Teikho),  an  an- 
cient town  of  Crete,  and  the  capital  of  King  Mi- 
nos, was  situated  in  a  fertile  country  on  the 
River  C-ERATUS  (wLich  was  originally  the  name 
of  the  town),  at  a  short  distance  from  the  north- 
ern coast  It  was  at  any  early  time  colonized  by 
Dorians,  and  from  it  Dorian  institutions  spread 
over  the  island.  Its  power  was  weakened  by 
the  growing  importance  of  Gortyn  and  Cydo- 
nia ;  and  these  towns,  when  united,  were  morf 
than  a  match  for  Cnosus.  Cuosus  is  frequent 
ly  mentioned  by  the  poets  in  consequence  of 
its  connection  with  Minos,  Ariadne,  the  Mi 
215 


COBUS. 

notaur,  and  the  Labyrinth ;  and  the  adjective 
Cuosius  is  frequently  used  as  an  equivalent  to 
Cretaa 

COBUS  or  COHIBCS  (Kt>6of),  a  river  of  Asia, 
flowing  from  the  Caucasus  into  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Euxine. 

COCALUS  (KckaAof),  a  mythical  king  of  Sicily, 
who  kindly  received  Daedalus  on  his  flight  from 
Crete ;  and,  [when  Minos  subsequently  came 
thither  in  pursuit  of  him,  put  that  monarch  to 
death.]  According  to  others,  [Minos]  was  killed 
by  the  daughters  of  Cocalus. 

COCCEIUS  NEBVA.      Vid.  NEBVA. 

COCHE  (Kaxrj),  a  city  on  the  Tigris,  near  Cte- 
aiphon. 

COOINTHUM  or  COCINTCM  (now  Punta  di  Stilo), 
a  promontory  on  the  southeast  of  Bruttium,  in 
Italy,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name  upon  it. 

COCLES,  HORATIUS,  that  is,  Horatius  the  "  one- 
3yed,"  a  hero  of  the  old  Roman  lays,  is  said  to 
aave  defended  the  Sublician  bridge  along  with 
Sp.  Lartius  and  T.  Hermipius  against  the  whole 
Etruscan  army  under  Porsena,  while  the  Ro- 
mans broke  dosvn  the  bridge  behind  them. 
When  the  work  was  nearly  finished  Horatius 
sent  back  his  two  companions.  As  soon  as  the 
bridge  was  quite  destroyed,  he  plunged  into  the 
stream  and  swam  across  to  the  city  in  safety 
amid  the  arrows  of  the  enemy.  The  state  rais- 
ed t>  statue  to  his  honor,  which  was  placed  in 
the  comitium,  and  allowed  him  as  much  laud  as 
he  could  plough  round  in  one  day.  Polybius 
relates  that  Horatius  defended  the  bridge  alone, 
and  perished  in  t^e  river. 

COCOSSATES,  a  people  in  Aquitania  in  Gaul, 
mentioned  along  with  the  Tarbelli. 

COCYLIUM  (KoKvhiov),  au  ^Eolian  city  in  My- 
sia,  whose  inhabitants  (Ko/cu/Urat)  are  mention- 
ed by  Xenophon,  but  which  was  abandoned  be- 
fore Pliny's  time. 

COCYTUS  (KuKvrof)  a.  river  in  Epirus,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Acheron.  Like  the  Acheron,  the 
Cocytus  was  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the 
lower  world,  and  hence  came  to  be  described  as 
a  river  in  the  lower  world.  Homer  (Od.,  x., 
513)  make  the  Cocytus  a  tributary  of  the  Styx; 
but  Virgil  (^En.,  vi.,  295)  represents  the  Ache- 
ron as  flowing  into  the  Cocytus. 

CODANUS  SINUS,  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
Baltic,  whence  the  Danish  islands  are  called 
CODANONIA. 

CODOMANNUS.        Vid.  DABIUS. 

CODRUS  (K66pof).  1.  Son  of  Melanthus,  and 
last  king  of  Athens.  When  the  Dorians  invad- 
ed Attica  from  Peloponnesus  (about  B.C.  1068 
according  to  mythical  chronology),  an  oracle 
declared  that  they  should  be  victorious  if  the 
life  of  the  Attic  king  was  spared.  Codrus  there- 
upon resolved  to  sacrifice  himself  for  his  coun- 
try. He  entered  the  camp  of  the  enemy  in  dis- 
guise, commenced  quarrelling  with  the  soldiers, 
and  was  slain  in  the  dispute.  When  the  Dori- 
ans discovered  the  death  of  the  Attic  king,  they 
returned  home.  Tradition  adds,  that  as  no  one 
was  thought  worthy  to  succeed  such  a  patriotic 
king,  the  kingly  dignity  was  abolished,  and  Me- 
don,  sou  of  Codrus,  was  appointed  archon  for  life 
instead. — 2.  A  Roman  poet,  ridiculed  by  Virgil. 
Juvenal  also  speaks  of  a  wretched  poet  of  the 
same  name.  The  name  is  probably  fictitious, 
and  appears  to  have  been  applied  by  the  Roman 
216 


COLANICA 

poets  to  those  poetasters  who  annoyed  other 
people  by  reading  their  productions  to  them. 

COSLA  (TO.  Kolha  T%  Ev&KOf),  "  the  Hollows 
of  Eubcea,"  the  western  coast  of  Eubcea,  be- 
tween the  promontories  Caphareus  and  Cher- 
sonesus,  very  dangerous  to  ships:  here  a  part 
of  the  Persian  fleet  was  wrecked,  B.C.  480. 

COSLE  (KoiAij),  an  Attic  demus  belonging  to 
the  tribe  Hippothooutis,  a  little  way  beyond  the 
Melitian  gate  at  Athens:  here  Cimon  and  Thu 
cydides  were  buried. 

CCELESYRIA  (?)  Koihri  Iivpia,  i.  e.,  Hollow  Syr- 
ia), was  the  name  given  after  the  Macedonian 
conquest  to  the  great  valley  (El-Bukaa)  between 
the  two  ranges  of  Mount  Lebanon  (Libauus 
and  Anti-Libanus),  in  the  south  of  Syria,  bor- 
dering upon  Phoenicia  on  the  west,  and  Pales- 
tine on  the  south.  In  the  wars  between  the 
Ptolemies  and  the  Seleucidse,  the  name  was  ap- 
plied to  the  whole  of  the  southern  portion  of 
byria,  which  became  subject  for  some  time  to 
the  kings  of  Egypt;  but,  under  the  Romans, 
when  Phoenicia  and  Judaea  were  made  distinct 
provinces,  the  name  of  Ccelesyria  was  confined 
to  Ccelesyria  proper,  together  with  the  district 
east  of  Anti-Libanus,  about  Damascus,  and  a 
portion  of  Palestine  east  of  the  Jordan ;  and 
this  is  the  most  usual  meaning  of  the  term. 
Under  the  later  emperors  it  was  considered  as 
a  part  of  Phoenicia,  and  was  called  Pbcenice 
Libanesia.  The  country  was  for  the  most  part 
fertile,  especially  the  eastern  district  about  the 
River  Chrysorrhoas :  the  valley  of  Ccelesyria 
proper  was  watered  by  the  Leontes.  The  in- 
habitants were  a  mixed  people  of  Syrians,  Phce- 
nicians,  and  Greeks,  called  Syrophcenicians  (2v- 

pO(j>OiVlKEf). 

GOBLETS  or  CCELALETJE,  a  people  of  Thrace, 
divided  into^Majores  and  Minores,  in  the  district 
CCELETICA,  between  the  Hebrus  and  the  Gulf  of 
Melas. 

CCELIUS.     Vid.  CJELIUS. 

CCELOSSA  (KotAwcraa),  a  mountain  in  the  Sicy- 
onian  territory,  near  Phlius,  an  offshoot  of  the 
Arcadian  mountain  Cyllene. 

CCELUS  (KoZAof  /U/i77i>)  or  COXA  (KoZAc),  a  sea- 
port town  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  near 
which  was  the  Kwdf  ar/fta,  or  the  grave  of  Hec- 
uba. Vid.  CYNOSSEMA. 

CCENUS  (Kolvog),  son-in-law  of  Parmenion, 
one  of  the  ablest  generals  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  died  on  the  Hyphasis,  B.C.  327. 

CCENYRA  (Koivvpa),  a  place  in  the  island  Tha- 
6os,  opposite  Samothrace. 

[CCERANUS  (Koipavoc).  1.  A  Lycian,  slain  by 
Ulysses  in  the  Trojan  war. — 2.  Charioteer  of 
Meriones,  slain  by  Hector. — 3.  A  Stoic  philoso- 
pher, flourished  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Nero.] 

[CCEUS  (Koiof),  son  of  Uranus  (Ccelus)  and 
Gaea  (Terra),  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the 
Titans.] 

GOES  (K(j7/f),  of  Mytilene,  dissuaded  Darius 
Hystaspis,  in  his  Scythian  expedition,  from 
breaking  up  his  bridge  of  boats  over  the  Danube. 
For  this  good  counsel  he  was  rewarded  by  Da- 
rius with  the  tyranny  of  Mytilene.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Ionian  revolt,  B.C.  501,  he 
was  stoned  to  death  by  the  Mytilenaeans. 

[COLANICA  (now  Lanark),  a  city  of  the  Dum- 
nii  in  Britannia  Barbara.] 


COLAPIS. 


COLUMELLA,  L.  JUNIUS. 


COLAPIS  (K6Aui/»  in  Dion  Cass. :  novf  Kulpa),  a  '  51,  when  a  Roman  colony  was  planted  in  the> 
river  in  Pannonia,  flows  into  the  Savus:  on  it  j  town  by  the  Emperor  Claudius,  at  the  instigation 
dwelt  the  COLAPIANL  of  bis  wife  Agrippina,  who  was  born  here,  and 

COLCHIS  (KoA^tf :  KoA^of),  a  country  of  Asia,    from  whom  it  derived  its  new  name.     Its  inhab- 

__j .  ..t    itants  received  the  jus  Itah'cum.     It  soon  became 

a  large  and  flourishing  city,  and  was  the  capital 
of  Lower  Germany.  At  Cologne  there  are  still 
several  Roman  remains,  an  ancient  gate  with  the 
inscription  G.  G.  A.  A.,  i  e,  Oolonia  Claudia 
Augusta  Agrippinensis,  the  foundations  of  the 


[comprising  the  modern  Mingrelia  and  part  of 
Imireti'],  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Euxine,  on 
the  north  by  the  Caucasus,  on  the  east  by  Iberia ; 
on  the  south  and  southwest  the  boundaries  were 
somewhat  indefinite,  and  were  often  considered 
to  extend  as  far  as  Tmpetus  (now  Trebizond). 
The  land  of  Colchis  (or  ^Ea)  and  its  river  Phasis 
are  famous  in  the  Greek  mythology.  Vid.  AE- 
GONAUT>E.  The  name  of  Colchis  is  first  mentioned 
by  JEscbylus  and  Pindar.  The  historical  ac- 
quaintance of  the  Greeks  with  the  country  may 
be  ascribed  to  the  commerce  of  the  Milesians. 
It  was  a  very  fertile  country,  and  yielded  tim- 
ber, pitch,  hemp,  flax,  and  wax,  as  articles  of 
commerce  ;  but  it  was  most  famous  for  its  man- 
ufactures of  linen,  on  account  of  which,  and  of 
certain  physical  resemblances,  Herodotus  sup- 
posed the  Colchians  to  have  been  a  colony  from 
Egypt  The  land  was  governed  by  its  native 
princes  until  Mithradates  Eupator  made  it  sub- 
ject to  the  kingdom  of  Pontus.  After  the  Mith- 
radatic  war  it  was  overrun  by  the  Romans,  but 
they  did  not  subdue  it  till  the  time  of  Trajan. 
Under  the  later  emperors  the  country  was  called 
Lazica,  from  the  name  of  one  of  its  principal 
tribes,  the  Lazi. 

COLIAS  (KuAtaf),  a  promontory  on  the  western 
coast  of  Attica,  twenty  stadia  south  of  Phalerum, 
with  a  temple  of  Aphrodite,  where  some  of  the 
Persian  ships  were  cast  after  the  battle  of  Sa- 
laniis.  Colias  is  usually  identified  with  the 
cape  called  the  Three  Towers,  (Tpelf  Hvpyoi), 
but  it  ought  to  be  placed  southeast,  near  "Aytof 
Koafidf. 

COLLATIA  (Collatinus).  1.  (Now  Castellaccio), 
a  Sabine  town  in  Latiura,  near  the  right  bank 
of  the  Anio,  taken  by  Tarquinius  Priscus. — 2.  A 
town  in  Apulia,  only  mentioned  under  the  em- 
pire. 

COLLATINUS,  L.  TAKQUINIUS,  son  of  Egerius,  and 
nephew  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  derived  the  sur- 
name Collatinus  from  the  town  Collatia,  of  which 
his  father  had  been  appointed  governor.  He 
was  married  to  Lucretia,  and  it  was  the  rape  of 
the  latter  by  Sextus  Tarquinius  that  led  to  the 
dethronement  of  Tarquimus  Superbus.  Collati- 
nus and  L.  Junius  Brutus  were  the  first  consuls ; 
but,  as  the '  people  could  not  endure  the  rule  of 
any  of  the  hated  race  of  the  Tarquins,  Collatinus 
resigned  his  office,  and  retired  from  Rome  to  La- 
viniutn. 

COLLINA  POETA.       Vid.  RoMA. 

COLLYTUS  (KoAAvrof,  also  KoAvrrof :  KoAAu- 
:viV),  a  demus  in  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe 
^Egeis,  was  included  within  the  walls  of  Athens, 
and  formed  one  of  the  districts  into  which  the 
city  was  divided:  it  was  the  demus  of  Plato, and 
the  residence  of  Timon  the  misanthrope. 

COI.OK  (KoAo;?),  a  lake  in  Lydia,  generally 
called  Gygcea.  Vid.  GYS^A  PALUS.] 

C6 Lox.t:  (KoAwvoi),  a  small  town  in  the  Troad, 
mentioned  in  Greek  history,  but  destroyed  before 
the  time  of  Pliny. 

COLOSIA  AGEIPPINA  or  AGRIPPINENSIS  (now 


Vid.  NOVIODUMJM. 
,  -VITTJC,  - 


Roman  walls.  <fcc. 

COLONIA  EQUESTBIS. 

COLONUS  (Ko/luvof  : 

a  demus  of  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  JSgeis; 
afterward  to  the  tribe  Antiochis,  ten  stadia,  or  a 
little  more  than  a  mile,  northwest  of  Aliens; 
near  the  Academy,  lying  on  and  round  a  hill  ; 
celebrated  for  a  temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
(hen'ce  called  KoAwvof  iTnreiof),  a  grove  of  the 
Eumenides,  and  the  tomb  of  CEdipus.  Sophocles, 
who  was  a  native  of  this  demus,  has  described 
the  scenery  and  religious  associations  of  the  spot 
in  his  CEdipus  Coloneus.  There  was  a  hill  at 
Athens  called  Colonus  Agoraeus  (KoZuvdf  6 


COLOPHON  (KoAo^wv  :  ruins  at  Zille),  one  of 
the  twelve  Ionian  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  was  said 
to  have  been  fouuded  by  Mopsus,  a  grandson  of 
Tiresias.  It  stood  about  two  miles  from  the 
coast,  on  the  River  Halesus,  which  was  famous 
for  the  coldness  of  its  water,  between  Lebedus 
and  Ephesus,  one  hundred  and  twenty  stadia 
(twelve  geographical  miles)  from  the  former,  and 
seventy  stadia  (seven  geograpical  miles)  from  the 
latter:  its  harbor  was  called  Notium.  It  was 
one  of  the  most  powerful  members  of  the  Ionian 
confederacy,  possessing  a  considerable  fleet  and 
excellent  cavalry  ;  but  it  suffered  greatly  in  war, 
being  taken  at  different  times  by  the  Lydians, 
the  Persians,  Lysimachus,  and  the  Cilician  pi 
rates.  It  was  made  a  free  city  by  the  Romans, 
after  their  war  with  Antiochus  the  Great  Be- 
sides claiming  to  be  the  birth-place  of  Homer, 
Colophon  was  the  native  city  of  Mimnermus, 
Hermesianax,  and  Meander.  It  was  also  cele- 
brated for  the  oracle  of  Apollo  Clarius  hi  its 
neighborhood.  Vid.  CLAKOS. 

COLOS&E  (KoAoffcrat,  afterward  KoAaacrat  :  Ko- 
Strab.,  Ko/locriraet)?,  New  Testament; 


ruins  at  Khonas),  a  city  of  Great  Phrygia,  on  the 
River  Lycus,  once  of  great  importance,  but  so  re- 
duced by  the  rise  of  the  neighboring  cities  of  La- 
odicea  and  Hierapolis  that  the  later  geographers 
do  not  even  mention  it  and  it  might  have  been 
forgotten  but  for  its  place  in  the  early  history 
of  the  Christian  Church.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it 
was  called  Xuvai,  and  hence  the  modern  name 
of  the  village  on  its  site. 

CoLOTEs(KoAw7T7f).  1-  Of  Lampsacus,  a  hear- 
er of  Epicurus,  against  whom  Plutarch  wrote  two 
of  his  works.  —  2.  A  sculptor  of  Paros,  flourished 
B.C.  444,  and  assisted  Phidias  in  executing  the 
colossus  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  at  Olympia.  —  [3.  A 
painter  of  Teos,  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Ti- 
manthes,  B.C.  396.1 

i  '»i  i  M  i.i.i.  \.  L.  JUNIUS  MODEB.£TUS,  a  native  of 
Gades  in  Spain,  and  a  contemporary  of  Seneca. 
We  have  no  particulars  of  his  life  ;  it  appears, 


Cologne  on  the  Rhine),  originally  the  chief  town  from  his  own  account,  that  at  some  period  of  hia 
of  the  Ubii,  and  called  Oppidum  or  Civilcu  Ubio-  life  he  visited  Syria  and  Cilicia  ;  but  Rome  aj> 
rum,  was  a  place  of  small  importance  till  A.D.  I  pears  to  have  been  his  ordinary  residence.  He 

217 


COLUMNS   HERCULIS. 


COMUM. 


wrote  a  work  upon  agriculture  (De  Re  Rustled), 
iu  twelve  books,  which  is  still  extant.  It  treats 
not  only  of  agriculture  proper,  but  of  the  culti- 
vation of  the  vine  and  the  olive,  of 'gardening,  of 
rearing  cattle,  of  bees,  «tc.  The  tenth  book, 
which  treats  of  gardening,  is  composed  iu  dacty- 
lic hexameters,  and  forms  a  sort  of  supplement 
to  the  Georgics.  There  is  also  extant  a  work 
De  Arboribus,  in  one  book.  The,  style  of  Colu- 
mella  is  easy  and  ornate.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  by  Schneider,  in  the  Scriptorcs  Rci  Rus- 
ticce,  4  vols.  8vo,  Lips.,  1794. 

COLUMNS  HEECOLIS.     Vid.  ABTLA,  CALPE. 

COLUTHOS  (Koforflof),  a  Greek  epio  poet  of 
Lycopolis  in  Egypt,  h'ved  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixth  century  of  our  era.  He  is  the  author 
of  an  extant  poem  on  "the  Rape  of  Helen" 
('EAcvjff  dpirapt),  consisting  of  three  hundred  and 
ninety-two  hexameter  lines.  Edited  by  Bekker, 
Berl,  1816,  and  Schaefer,  Lips.,  1825. 

[COLYMBAS  (Ko^.vfi6uf),  one  of  the  daughters 
of  Pierus.  Vid.  PIEBIDES.] 

COLTTTUS.        Vid.  COLLTTCS. 

COMANA  (Kufiava).  1.  C.  Pontica  (ruins  at 
Guminik),  a  flourishing  city  of  Pontus,  upon  the 
River  Iris,  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Diana 
(Artemis)  Taurica,  the  foundation  of  which  tra- 
dition ascribed  to  Orestes.  The  high-priests  of 
this  temple  took  rank  next  after  the  king,  and 
their  domain  was  increased  by  Pompey  after  the 
Mithradatic  war. — 2.  CAPPADOCIJE,  or  C.  CHKTSE 
(now  Boston),  lay  in  a  narrow  valley  of  the  Anti- 
Taurus,  in  Cataonia,  and  was  also  celebrated  for 
a  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis)  Taurica,  the  found- 
ation of  which  was  likewise  ascribed  by  tradition 
to  Orestes. 

[COMARUS  (Kofiapof),  a  harbor  of  Epirus,  on 
the  Ambracius  Sinus,  in  the  district  of  Molossis.] 

COMBREA  (Kuftdpeid),  a  town  in  the  Macedonian 
district  of  Crossaea. 

.  [COMETES  (Ko/zj/7T7f).  1.  Father  of  the  Argo- 
naut Asterion  — 2.  One  of  the  Lapithae,  slain  at 
the  marriage  festival  of  Pirithous.] 

COMINIUM,  a  town  in  Samnium,  destroyed  by 
the  Romans  in  the  Samnite  wars. 

[COMINIUS,  P.  1.  A  Roman  knight,  who,  with 
his  brother  L.  or  C.,  accused  C.  Cornelius  of  ina- 
jestas,  B.C.  66 :  the  matter  did  not  come  to  trial, 
but  next  year  they  renewed  the  accusation,  and 
Cornelius,  who  was  defended  by  Cicero,  was  ac- 
quitted. The  speech  delivered  by  Cominius  was 
extant  in  the  time  of  Asconius,  who  praises  it ; 
Cominius  is  also  well  spoken  of  by  Cicero  as  a 
lively  and  clear  speaker. — 2.  One  of  Caesar's  offi- 
cers, taken  prisoner  near  Thapsus,  in  crossing 
over  to  Africa,  B.C.  4*7.] 

COMMAGEXE  (Konfia-yijv}]),  the  northeastern- 
most  district  of  Syria,  was  bounded  on  the  east 
and  southeast  by  the  Euphrates,  on  the  north 
and  northwest  by  the  Taurus,  and  on  the  south 
by  Cyrrhestice.  It  formed  a  part  of  the  Greek 
kingdom  of  Syria,  after  the  fall  of  which  it  main- 
tained its  independence  under  a  race  of  kings  who 
appear  to  have  been  a  branch  of  the  family  of  the 
Seieucidae,  and  was  not  united  to  the  Roman 
Empire  till  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  Under  Con- 
etantine,  if  not  earlier,  it  was  made  a  part  of 
Cyrrhestice.  The  district  was  remarkable  for  its 

rtility. 

COMMIUS,  king  of  the  Atrebates,  was  advanced 
to  that  dignity  by  Caesar,  who  had  great  confi- 
218    ' 


|  dence  iu  him.  He  was  sent  by  Caesar  to  Brit- 
ain to  accompany  the  ambassadors  of  the  Brit- 
ish states  on  their  return  to  their  native  coun- 
try, but  he  was  cast  into  chains  by  the  Britons, 
and  was  not  released  till  the  Britons  had  been 
defeated  by  Caesar,  and  found  it  expedient  to  sue 
for  peace.  In  B.C.  62  he  joined  the  other  Gauls 
iu  their  great  revolt  against  the  Romans,  and 
continued  in  arms  even  after  the  capture  of  Ale- 
sia. 

COMMODUS,  L.  CEIONIUS,  was  adopted  by  Ha 
drian,  A.D.  136,  when  he  took  the  name  of  L 
JSuus  VEEUS  CAESAR.  His  health  was  weak ;  he 
died  on  the  first  of  January,  138,  and  was  iuberreo 
in  the  mausoleum  of  Hadrian.  His  son,  L.  Aure 
lius  Verus,  was  the  colleague  of  Antoninus  Pius 
in  the  empire.  Vid.  VERUS. 

COMMODUS,  L.  AURELIUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D 
180-192,  sou  of  M.  Aurelius  and  the  youngei 
Faustina,  was  born  at  Lanuvium  161,  and  wa» 
thus  scarcely  twenty  when  he  succeeded  to  the 
empire.  He  was  an  unworthy  son  of  a  noble 
father.  Notwithstanding  the  great  care  which 
his  father  had  bestowed  upon  his  education,  he 
turned  out  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  and  licen- 
tious tyrants  that  ever  disgraced  a  throne.  It 
was  after  the  suppression  of  the  plot  against  his 
life,  which  had  been  organized  by  his  sister  Lu- 
cilla,  183,  that  he  first  gave  uncontrolled  sway 
to  his  ferocious  temper.  He  resigned  the  gov- 
ernment to  various  favorites,  who  followed  each 
other  in  rapid  succession  (Perennis,  Cleander, 
Laetus,  and  Eclectus),  and  abandoned  himself 
without  interruption  to  the  most  shameless  de- 
bauchery. But  he  was  at  the  same  time  the 
slave  of  the  most  childish  vanity,  and  sought  to 
gain  popular  applause  by  fighting  as  a  gladiator, 
and  slew  many  thousands  of  wild  beasts  in  the 
amphitheatre  with  bow  and  spear.  Jn  consequence 
of  these  exploits  he  assumed  the  name  of  Hercu- 
les, and  demanded  that  he  should  be  worshipped 
as  that  god,  191.  In  the  following  year  his  con- 
cubine Marcia  found  on  his  tablets,  while  he  was 
asleep,  that  she  was  doomed  to  perish,  aloHg 
with  Laetus  and  Eclectus,  and  other  leading  men 
in  the  state.  She  forthwith  administered  poison 
to  him ;  but,  as  its  operation  was  slow,  Narcissus, 
a  celebrated  athlete,  was  introduced,  and  by  him 
Commodus  was  strangled  on  the  31st  of  Decem- 
ber, 192. 

COMNENA.     Vid.  ANNA  COMNENA. 

COMPIAJTUM  (now  Alcala  de  Hendtes),  a  town 
of  the  Carpetani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  be- 
tween Segovia  and  Bilbilis. 

COMPSA  (Compsanus :  now  Conza);  a  town  of 
the  Hirpini  in  Samnium,  near  the  sources  of  the 
Aufidus. 

COMUM  (Comensis:  now  Como),  a  town  in 
Gallia  Cisalpina,  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  western  branch  of  the  Lacus  Larius  (now 
Lago  di  Como).  It  was  originally  a  town  of  the 
Insubrian  Gauls,  and  was  colonized  by  Pom- 
peius  Strabo,  by  Cornelius  Scipio,  and  by  Julius 
Caasar.  Caesar  settled  there  six  thousand  col- 
onists, among  whom  were  five  hundred  distin- 
guished Greek  families;  and  this  new  popula 
tion  so  greatly  exceeded  the  number  of  the  old 
inhabitants,  that  the  town  was  called  Nowm 
Comum,  a  name,  however,  which  it  did  not  re- 
tain. Comum  was  a  place  of  importance,  and 
carried  on  considerable  commerce  with  tlia 


COMUS. 

north.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  iron  manufac- 
tories; it  was  the  birth-place  of  the  younger 
Pliny. 

[COMUS  (Kw/iOf),  in  later  antiquity  god  of  fes- 
*    live  mirth  and  joy,  was  represented  as  a  winged 
youth.] 

[Coxclxi,  a  people  of  Hispania  among  the 
Cantabri ;  said  by  Horace  to  delight  in  the  blood 
of  horses  (0<L,  3,  4,  34):  their  chief  city  was 
Concana  (now  Santillana  or  0m*).] 

CONCOE.DIA,  a  Roman  goddess,  the  personifi 
cation  of  concord,  had  several  temples  at  Borne. 
The  earliest  was  built  by  Camillus  in  commem- 
oration of  the  reconciliation  between  the  patri- 
cians and  plebeians,  after  the  enactment  of  the 
lacinian  rogations,  B.C. '  367.  In  this  temple 
th«  senate  frequently  met.  Concordia  is  rep- 
resented on  coins  as  a  matron,  holding  in  her 
left  hand  a  cornucopia,  and  in  her  right  either 
an  olive  branch  or  a  patera. 

COKDATE,  the  name  of  many  Celtic  towns, 
said  to  be  equivalent  in  meaning  to  Confluentes, 
i.  e^  the  union  of  two  rivers. 

[Coxnmcxcic.     Vid.  NAMXETES.] 

[COXDOCHATES,  a  navigable  tributary  of  the 
Ganges  in  India  intra  Gaugem.] 

CONDEUSI,  a  German  people  in  Gallia  Belgica, 
the  dependents  of  the  Treviri,  dwelt  between 
the  Eburones  and  the  Treviri  in  the  district  of 
Cotulros,  on  the  Maas  and  Ourthe. 

CONFUJEXTES  (now  Coblenz),  a  town  in  Ger- 
many, at  the  confluence  of  the  Moselle  and  the 
Rhine. 

[Coxii,  a  people  of  Hispania,  west  of  the  Co- 
lumns Herculis.] 

[CONIMBRIGA  (now  Coimbra),  a  town  of  Lusi- 
tauia.] 

COMSALUS  (KoviffaAof),  a  deity  worshipped 
at  Athens  along  with  Priapus. 

[CoxisTOBGis  (Koviarup-yif),  the  ancient  capi- 
tal of  the  Conii  in  Lusitaniai] 

[CoxxA,  Coxxi,  or  COXIUM  (Koviov  ironic, 
HierocL,  not  far  from  the  modern  Altun-Tash), 
&  city  of  Phrygia  Palatiana.] 

Coxox  (Kovov).  1.  A  distinguished  Athenian 
general,  held  several  important  commands  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  After 
the  defeat  of  the  Athenians  by  Lysander  at  ^Egos 
Potami  (B.C.  405),  Conon,  who  was  one  of  the 
generals,  escaped  with  eight  ships,  and  took  ref- 
uge with  Evagoras  in  Cyprus,  where  he  remain- 
ed for  some  years.  He  was  subsequently  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  Persian  fleet 
along  with  Pharnabazus,  and  in  this  capacity 
was  able  to*  render  the  most  effectual  service 
to  his  native  country.  In  394  he  gained  a  de- 
cisive victory  over  Pisander,  the  Spartan  ad- 
miral, off  Cnidus.  After  clearing  the  JSgean 
of  the  Spartans,  he  returned  to  Athens  in  393, 
and  commenced  restoring  the  long  walls  and  the 
fortifications  of  Piraeus.  When  the  Spartans 
.  opened  their  negotiations  with  Tiribazus,  the 
Persian  satrap,  Conon  was  sent  by  the  Atheni- 
ans to  counteract  the  intrigues  of  Antalcidas, 
but  was  thrown  into  prison  by  Tiribazus.  Ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  he  was  sent  into  the 
interior  of  Asia,  and  there  put  to  death ;  but 
according  to  the  most  probable  account,  he 
escaped  to  Cyprus,  where  he  died. — 2.  Son  of 
Timotheus,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  lived 
about  318. — 3.  Of  Samoa,  a  distinguished  mathe- 1 


CON8TANTIA, 

matician  and  astronomer,  lived  in  the  time  of 
the  Ptolemios  Philadelphus  and  Euergetes  (B. 
C.  283-222),  and  was  the  friend  of  Archimedes, 
who  praises  him  in  the  highest  terms.  None 
of  his  works  are  preserved. — 4.  A  grammarian 
of  the  age  of  Augustus,  author  of  a  work  enti- 
tled AiTiyTjaeie,  a  collection  of  fifty  narratives  re- 
lating to  the  mythical  and  heroic  period.  An 
epitome  of  the  work  is  preserved  by  Photius. 
— [Editions ;  By  Teucher,  Lips,  1802;  and  by 
Westermann  in  Scriptores  Poeticce  Historian 
Graci,  Brunsvigae,  1843.] 

CONOPA  (Kuvuira  :  KuvuTtevf,  -mrrjf,  watof), 
a  village  in  ^Etolia,  on  the  Achelous,  enlarged 
by  Arsinoe,  wife  of  Ptolemy  II,  and  called  after 
her  name. 

COXSEXTES  Dn,  the  twelve  Etruscan  gods 
who  formed  the  council  of  Jupiter.  They  con- 
sisted of  six  male  and  six  female  divinities :  we 
do  not  know  the  names  of  all  of  them,  but  it  is 
certain  that  Juno,  Minerva,  Summanus,  Vulcan, 
Saturn,  and  Mars  were  among  them. 

COXSEXTIA  (Consentinus :  now  Cosenza),  chief 
town  of  the  Bruttii  on  the  River  Crathis :  here 
Alaric  died. 

COXSEXTIUS,  P.,  a  Roman  grammarian,  prob- 
ably flourished  in  the  fifth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  and  is  the  author  of  two  extant  gram- 
matical works,  one  published  in  the  Collection 
of  grammarians  by  Putscbius,  Hanov,  1605  (De 
Duabus  Partibus  Orationis,  Nomine  et  Verbo), 
and  the  other  (De  Barbarismis  et  Metaplasmis) 
by  Buttmann,  BeroL,  1817. 

CoxsiDics  LOXGUS,  C.  1.  Proprsetorin  Africa, 
left  his  province  shortly  before  the  breaking  out 
of  the  civil  war  B.C.  49,  intrusting  the  govern- 
ment to  Q.  Ligarius.  He  returned  to  Africa 
soon  afterward,  and  held  Adrumetum  for  the 
Pompeian  party.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Pom- 
peians  at  Thapsus,  he  attempted  to  fly  into 
Mauretania,  but  was  murdered  by  the  Gaetuli- 
ans. — [2.  Q.  C.  GALLCS,  a  contemporary  of 
Cicero,  one  of  the  judges  in  the  case  of  Verres, 
praised  by  Cicero  for  his  integrity  and  knowl- 
edge of  law. — 3.  P.,  served  under  Caesar  in  his 
first  campaign  in  Gaul,  B.C.  58,  and  is  spoken 
of  as  an  experienced  soldier.] 

[COXSILINCM  (now  Consignano),  a  city  of  the 
Bruttii,  north  of  Locri.] 

COXSTAXS,  youngest  of  the  three  sons  of  Con- 
stantino the  Great  and  Fausta,  received  after 
his  father's  death  (A.D.  337)  Illyricum,  Italy, 
and  Africa  as  his  share  of  the  empire.  After 
successfully  resisting  his  brother  Constantino, 
who  was  slain  in  invading  his  territory  (340), 
Constans  became  master  of  the  whole  West. 
His  weak  and  profligate  character  rendered  him 
an  object  of  contempt,  and  he  was  slam  in  350 
by  the  soldiers  of  the  usurper  MAGXENTIUS. 

COXSTANTIA.  1.  Daughter  of  Constant! us 
Chlorus  and  half-sister  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  married  to  Lacinius,  the  colleague  of 
Constantine  in  the  empire. — 2.  Daughter  of 
Constantius  II.  and  grand-daughter  of  Coustan- 
tine  the  Great,  married  the  Emperor  Gratiau. 

COXSTAXTIA,  the  name  of  several  cities,  all  of 
which  are  either  of  little  consequence,  or  better 
known  by  other  names.  1.  In  Cyprus,  named 
after  Constantius  (vid.  SALAMIS).  2.  In  Phoe- 
nicia, after  the  same  (vid.  AXTAEADUS).  3.  In 
Palestine,  the  port  of  GAZA,  named  after  the 
219 


CONSTANTINA. 

sister  of  Constantino  the  Great,  anc  also  calle 
Majuma.  4.  In  Mesopotamia.  Vld.  ANTONI 
NOPOLIB. 

CONSTANTINA,  daughter  of  Constantine  th 
Great  and  Fausta,  married  to  Hannibalianus 
and  after  the  death  of  the  latter  to  Gallus  Caesar 

CONSTANTINA,  the  city.     Vid.  CIRTA. 

CONSTANTINOPOLIS  (KuVffTaVTlVOV    IToXlf  :    HOW 

Constantinople),  built  on  the  site  of  the  ancien' 
BYZANTIUM  by  Constantine  the  Great,  who  call 
ed  it  after  his  own  name,  and  made  it  the  capr 
tal  of  the  Roman  empire.  It  was  solemnly  con- 
secrated A.D.  330.  It  was  built  in  imitation  of 
Rome.  Thus  it  covered  seven  hills,  was  di- 
vided into  fourteen  regiones,  and  was  adorned 
with  various  buildings  in  imitation  of  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Western  world.  Its  extreme  length 
was  about  three  Roman  miles;  and  its  walls 
included  eventually  a  circumference  of  thirteen 
or  fourteen  Roman  miles.  It  continued  the 
capital  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  East  till  its 
capture  by  the  Turks  in  1453.  An  account  of 
its  topography  and  history  does  not  fall  within 
the  scope  of  the  present  work. 

CONSTANTINUS.  1.  I.  Surnamed  "  the  Great," 
Roman  emperor  A.D.  306-337,  eldest  son  of 
the  Emperor  Constautius  Chlorus  and  Helena, 
was  born  A.D.  272,  at  Naissus  (now  Nissa),  a 
town  in  Upper  Mcesia.  He  was  early  trained  to 
arms,  and  served  with  great  distinction  under 
Galerius  in.  the  Persian  war.  Galerius  became 
jealous  of  him  and  detained  him  for  some  time 
in  the  East ;  but  Constantine  at  last  contrived 
to  join  his  father  in  Gaul  just  in  time  to  accom- 
pany him  to  Britain  on  has  expedition  against 
the  Picts,  306.  His  father  died  at  York  in  the 
same  year,  and  Constantine  laid  claim  to  a 
share  of  the  empire.  Galerius,  who  dreaded  a 
struggle  with  the  brave  legions  of  the  West, 
acknowledged  Constantine  as  master  of  the 
countries  beyond  the  Alps,  but  with  the  title 
of  Csesar  only.  The  commencement  of  Con- 
stantine's  reign,  however,  is  placed  in  this  year, 
though  he  did  not  receive  the  title  of  Augustus 
till  308.  Constantine  took  up  his  residence  at 
Treviri  (now  Tr&vet),  where  the  remains  of  his 
palace  are  still  extant  He  governed  with  jus- 
tice and  firmness,  beloved  by  his  subjects,  and 
feared  by  the  neighboring  barbarians.  It  was 
not  long,  however,  before  he  became  involved 
in  war  wkh  his  rivals  in  the  empire.  In  the 
same  year  that  he  had  been  acknowledged  Cae- 
sar (306),  Maxentius,  the  son  of  Maximian,  had 
seized  the  imperial  power  at  Rome.  Cousten- 
tine  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  Maxen- 
ius  by  marrying  his  sister  Fausta,  But  in  310 
Maximian  formed  a  plot  against  Constantine, 
and  was  put  to  death  by  his  son-in-law  at  Mas- 
silia.  Maxentius  resented  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther, and  began  to  make  preparations  to  attack 
Constantine  in  Gaul.  Constantiue  anticipated 
his  movements,  and  invaded  Italy  at  the  head 
of  a  large  amry.  The  struggle  was  brought  to 
a  close  by  the  defeat  of  Maxentius  at  the  village 
of  Saxa  Rubra,  near  Rome,  on  the  27th  of  Octo- 
ber, 312.  Maxentius  tried  to  escape  over  the 
Milvian  bridge  into  Rome,  but  perished  in  the 
river.  It  was  in  this  campaign  that  Constan- 
tine is  said  to  have  been  converted  to  Christian- 
ity. On  his  march  to  Rome,  either  at  Autun  in 
Gaul,  or  near  Andernach  on  the  Rhine  or  at 
220 


CONSTANTINUS. 

Verona,  he  is  said  to  have  seen  in  the  sky  a 
luminous  cross   with   the   inscription   kv   rmirtfi 
VIKO,  Br  THIS,  CONQUER.  ;    and  on  the  night  be- 
fore the  last  and  decisive  battle  with  Maxen- 
tius, a  vision  is  said  to  have  appeared  to  Con- 
stantine in  his  sleep,  bidding  him  inscribe  the 
shields  of  his  soldiers  with  the  sacred  monogram 
of  the  name  of  Christ.    The  tele  of  the  cross 
seems  to  have  grown  out  of  that  of  the  vision, 
and  even  the  latter  is  not  entitled  to  credit    It 
was  Constantino's  interest  to  gain  the  affections 
of  his  numerous  Christian  subjects  in  his  strug- 
gle with  his  rivals;  and  it  was  probably  only 
self-interest  which  led  him   at  nrst  to   adopt 
Christianity.    But,  whether  sincere  or  not  in  his 
conversion,  his  conduct  did  little  credit  to  the 
religion  which  he  professed.    The  miracle' of 
his  conversion  was  commemorated  by  the  im- 
perial standard  of  the  Labarum,  at  the  summit 
of  which  was  the  monogram  of  the  name  of 
Christ.    Constantino,  by  his  victory  over  Max- 
entius, became  the  sole   master  of  the  West. 
Meantime  important  events  took  place  in  the 
East    On  the  death  of  Galerius  in  311,  Licini- 
us  and  Maximinus  had   divided  the   East  be- 
tween them ;  but  in  313  a  war  broke  out  be- 
tween them,  Maximinus  was  defeated,  and  died 
at  Tarsus.    Thus  there  were  only  two  emper- 
ors left,  Licinius  in  the  East  and  Constantine  in 
the  West ;  and  between  them  also  war  broke 
out  in  314,  although  Licinius  had  married  in  the 
preceding    year   Constantia,  the   half-sister    of 
Constantine.    Licinius  was   defeated  at  Cibalis 
in  Pannonia  and  afterward  at  Adrianople.    Peace 
was  then  concluded  on  condition  that  Licinius 
should  resign  to  Constantino  Illyricum,  Mace- 
donia, and  Achaia,  314.    This  peace  continued 
undisturbed  for  nine  years,  during  which  time 
Constantine    was    frequently    engaged    in  wai 
with   the   barbarians   on   the   Danube   and  the 
Rhine.    In  these  wars  his  son  Crispus  greatly 
distinguished  himself.    In  323  the  war  between 
Constantine  and  Licinius  was  renewed.    Licin- 
ius was  again  defeated  in  two  great  battles, 
first  near  Adrianople,  and  again  at  Chalcedon. 
He  surrendered  himself  to  Constantine  on  con- 
dition of  having  his  b'fe  spared,  but  he  was  short- 
ly afterward  put  to  death  at  Thessalonica  by  or- 
der of  Constantine.    Constantine  was  now  sole 
master  of  the  empire.     He  resolved  to  remove 
;he  seat  of  empire  to  Byzantium,  which  he  call- 
id  after  his  own  name  Constantinople,  or  the 
city  of  Constantine.    The  new  city  was  solemn 
y  dedicated  in  330.      Constantine  reigned  in 
leace  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.'  In  325  he 
supported  the  orthodox  bishops  at  the  great 
Christian  council  of  Nicaea  (Nice),  which   con- 
demned  the   Arian    doctrine   by   adopting   the 
word  dpoovaiov.    In  324  he  put  to  death  his 
eldest  son  Crispus  on  a  charge  of  treason,  the 
;ruth  of  which,  however,  seems  very  doubtful. 
He  died  in  May,  337,  and  was  baptized  shortly 
jefore  his  death  by  Eusebius.    His  three  sons 
Constantine,    Constentius,    and     Constans    suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  empire. — 2.  IL  Roman  em- 
jeror  337-340,  eldest  of  the  three  sons  of  Con- 
itantine  the  Great  by  Fausta,  received  Gaul, 
Britain,  Spain,  and  part  of  Africa  at  his  father's 
death.     Dissatisfied  with  his  share  of  the  em- 
jire,  he  made  war  upon  his  younger  brother 
ionstans,  who  governed  Italy,  but  was  defeat- 


CONSTANTIUS. 

ed  and  slain  near  Aquileia. — 3.  A  usurper,  who 
assumed  the  purple  in  Britain  in  the  reign  of 
Arcadius  and  Honorius,  407.  He  also  obtained 
possession  of  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  former  country.  He  reigned 
four  years,  but  was  defeated  in  411  by  Constan- 
tius,  the  general  of  Honorius,  was  taken  prisoner 
and  carried  to  Ravenna,  where  he  was  put  to 
death. — 4.  Constantino  is  likewise  the  name  of 
many  of  the  later  emperors  of  Constantinople. 
Of  these  Constantino  V1L  Porphyrogenitus, 
who  reigned  911-959,  was /celebrated  for  his 
literary  works,  many  of  which  have  come  down 
to  us. 

CONSTANTIUS.  1.  I.  Surnamed  CHLOBCS,  "  the 
pale,"  Roman  emperor  A.D.  305-306,  was  the 
son  of  Eutropius,  a  noble  Dardanian,  and  of 
Claudia,  daughter  of  Crispus,  brother  of  Clau- 
dius II.  He  was  one  of  the  two  Caesars  ap- 
pointed by  Maximian  and  Diocletian  in  292, 
and  received  the  government  of  Britain,  Gaul, 
and  Spain,  with  Treviri  (now  Treves),  as- his  resi- 
dence. At  the  same  time  he  married  Theodora, 
the  daughter  of  the  wife  of  Maximian,  divorcing 
for  that  purpose  his  wife  Helena.  As  Caesar  he 
rendered  the  empire  important  services.  His 
first  effort  was  to  reunite  Britain  to  the  empire, 
which,  after  the  murder  of  Carausius,  was  gov- 
erned by  Allectus.  After  a  struggle  of  three 
vears  (293-296)  with  Allectus,  Constantius 
established  his  authority  in  Britain.  He  was 
equally  successful  against  the  Alemanni,  whom 
he  defeated  with  great  loss.  Upon  the  abdica- 
tion of  Diocletian  and  Maximian  in  305,  Con- 
stantius and  Galerius  became  the  Augusti. 
Constantius  died  fifteen  months  afterward  (July, 
306),  at  Eboracum  (now  York),  in  Britain,  on  an 
expedition  against  the  Picte,  in  which  he  was 
accompanied  by  his  sou  Constantino,  afterward 
the  Great,  who  succeeded  him  in  his  share  of 
the  government — 2.  II.  Roman  emperor  337- 

361,  third  son  of  Constantino  the  Great  by  his 
second  wife  Fausta.    On  the   death  of  his  fa- 
ther in  337,  he  received  the  East  as  his  share 
of  the  empire.     Upon  his  accession  he  became 
involved  in   a   serious  war  with  the   Persians, 
which  was  carried  on  with  a  few  interruptions 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  reign.    This  war 
prevented  him  from  taking  any  part  in  the  strug- 
gle between  his  brothers  Constantino  and  Con- 
stans,  which  ended  in  tlie  defeat  and  death  of 
the  former,  and  the  accession  of  the  latter  to 
the  sole  empire  of  the  West,  340.     After  the 
death  of  Coustans  in  350,  Constantius  marched 
into   the   West  in  order  to  oppose  Magnentius 
and  Vetranio,  both  of  whom  liad  assumed  the 
purple.     Vetranio  submitted  to  Constantius,  and 
Maguentius  was  finally  crushed  in   353.    Thus 
the  whole  empire  again  became  subject  to  one 
rnler.     In  354  Constantius  put  to  death  bis  cous- 
in Gallus,  whom  he  had  left  in  command  of  the 
East,  while  he  marched  against  the  usurpers  in 
the  Went     In  355   Constantius    made    Julian, 
the  brother  of  Gallus,  Caesar,  and  sent  him  into 
Gaul  to  oppose  the  barbarians.     In  360  Julian 
was   proclaimed   Augustus  by  the   soldiers  at 
Paris.    Constantius  prepared   for  war  and  set 
out  for  Europe,  but  died  on  his  march  in  Cilicia, 

362.  He  was  succeeded  by  Julian. — 3.  HI.  A 
distinguished  general  of  Honorius,  emperor  of 
the  West  A.D.  421.    He  defeated  the  usurper 


COPTOS. 

Constantino  in  411,  aud  also  fought  successfully 
against  the  barbarians.  He  was  rewarded  for 
these  services  with  the  hand  of  Placidia,  the  sis- 
ter of  Honorius.  In  421  he  was  declared  Augus- 
tus by  Honorius,  but  died  in  the  seventh  month 
of  his  reign. 

CONSUS,  an  ancient  Roman  divinity,  who  was 
identified  by  some  in  later  times  with  Neptune. 
Hence  Livy  (i.,  9)  calls  him  Neptunus  Equestris. 
He  was  regarded  by  some  as  the  god  of  secret 
deliberations,  but  he  was  most  probably  a  god 
of  the  lower  world.  Respecting  his  festival  of 
the  Consualia,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v. 

[CONTESTANT,  a  people  of  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis,  in  the  eastern  part  of  modern  Murcia  and 
western  part  of  Valencia :  in  their  territory  lay 
Carthago  Nova.] 

CONTREBIA,  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  the  Celti- 
beri  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  southeast  of  Sar- 
agossa. 

CONVENE,  a  people  in  Aquitania  near  the  Pyr- 
enees and  on  both  sides  of  the  Garumna,  a  mixed 
race  which  had  served  under  Sertorius,  and  were 
settled  in  Aquitania  by  Pompey.  They  possessed 
the  Jus  Latiu  Their  chief  town  was  LDGDUNUM 
(now  St.  Bertrand  de  Comminges),  situated  on  a 
solitary  rock:  in  its 'neighborhood  were  celebra- 
ted warm  baths,  AQU^E  CONVENARCM  (now  Bag 
neres). 

COP.*  (KuTrai :  Kwrrotcvf  :  near  Topoglia),  an 
ancient  town  in  Bceotia,  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  Lake  Copais,  which  derived  its  name  from 
this  place.  It  was  originally  situated  on  an  isl- 
and m  the  lake,  which  island  was  subsequently 
connected  with  the  main  land  by  a  mole. 

COPAIS  (Kuiratc  Tuuvrj),  a  lake  in  Bceotia,  and 
the  largest  lake  in  Greece,  formed  chiefly  by  the 
River  Cephisus,  the  waters  of  which  are  emptied 
into  the  Euboean  Sea  by  several  subterraneous 
canals,  called  Katabothra  by  the  modern  Greeks. 
The  lake  was  originally  called  CEPHISIS,  under 
which  name  it  occurs  in  Homer,  and  subsequent- 
ly different  parts  of  it  were  called  after  the 
towns  situated  on  it,  Haliartus,  Orchomenus, 
Onch'estus,  Copze,  <fec. ;  but  the  name  Copais 
eventually  became  the  most  common,  because 
near  Copae  the  waters  of  the  lake  are  the  deep- 
est and  are  never  dried  up.  In  the  summer  the 
greater  part  of  the  lake  is  dry,  and  becomes  a 
green  meadow,  in  which  cattle  are  pastured. 
The  eels  of  this  lake  were  much  prized  in  an- 
tiquity, and  they  retain  their  celebrity  in  modern 
times. 

COPHEN  or  COPHES  (Ku^v,  Arrian.,  Kotyjyf, 
Strab. :  now  Cabul),  the  only  grand  tributary  river 
which  flows  into  the  Indus  from  the  west  It 
waa  the  boundary  between  India  and  Ariana. 

COPONIUS,  C.,  praetor  B.C.  49,  fought  on  the 
side  of  Pompey ;  he  was  proscribed  by  the  tri- 
umvirs in  43,  but  his  wife  obtained  his  pardon 
from  Antony  by  the  sacrifice  of  her  honor. 

COPEATES  (Koirpdryf :  now  Abzal),  a  river  of 
Susiana,  flowing  from  the  north  into  the  Pasitigris 
on  its  western  side. 

COPBEUS  (Ko?rpevf),  son  of  Pelops,  who,  after 
murdering  Iphitus,  fled  from  Elis  to  Mycenae., 
where  he  was  purified  by  Eurystheus. 

COPTOS  (KoTrrof :  ruins  at  Koft),  a  city  of  the 
Thebnis  or  Upper  Egypt  lay  a  little  to  the  east 
of  the  Nile,  some  distance  below  Thebes.     Un- 
der the  Ptolemies  it  was  the  central  point  of 
221 


CORA. 


CORINNA. 


the  commerce  with  Arabia  and  India,  by  way  of 
Berenice  and  Myos-Hormos.  It  was  destroyed 
by  Diocletian,  but  again  became  a  considerable 
place.  The  neighborhood  \vas  celebrated  for  its 
emeralds  and  other  precious  stones,  and  produced 
also  a  light  wine. 

CORA  (Corauus:  now  Cori),  an  ancient  town  in 
Latiuin,  in  the  Volscian  Mountains,  southeast  of 
VeiitrjE,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Argive 
Corax.  At  Cori  there  are  remains  of  Qyclopian 
walls  and  of  an  ancient  temple. 

CORACESIUM  (KopaKijffiov  :  now  Alaya),  a  very 
strong  city  of  Cilicia  Aspera,  on  the  borders  of 
Pamphylia,  standing  upon  a  steep  rock,  and 
possessing  a  good  harbor.  It  was  the  only 
place  in  Cilicia  which  opposed  a  successful  re- 
sistance to  Alexander,  and,  after  its  strength 
had  been  tried  more  than  once  in  the  wars  of 
the  Seleucidae,  it  became  at  last  the  head-quar- 
ters of  the  Cilician  pirates,  and  was  taken  by 
Pompey. 

[CORALIUS  (Kwpa/Uof,  also  Kovdpiof).  1.  A 
river  of  Thessaly,  flowing  into  the  Peneus. — 2.  A 
river  of  Bosotia,  near  Coronea,  flowing  into  the 
Copais  Lacus.] 

CoRASsLE  (Kopaoaiai),  a  group  of  .small  islands 
in  the  Icarian  Sea,  southwest  of  Icaria.  They 
must  not  be  confounded,  as  tMfey  often  are,  with 
the  islands  CORSE.*  or  CORSI^E  (Kopaeat  or  K6p- 
aiai),  off  the  Ionian  coast,  and  opposite  the  prom- 
ontory Ampelos  in  Samoa. 

CORAX  (K6pa£),  a  Sicilian  rhetorician,  who  ac- 
quired so  much  influence  over  the  citizens  by  his 
oratorical  powers  that  he  became  the  leading 
mau  in  Syracuse  after  the  expulsion  of  Thrasybu- 
lus,  B.C.  467.  He  wrote  the  earliest  work  on  the 
art  of  rhetoric,  and  his  treatise  (entitled  Tfyvrj) 
was  celebrated  in  antiquity. 

[CORAX  (K6pa£).  1.  (Now  Coraca  or  Vardhu&i 
according  to  Leake),  a  mountain  in  ^Etolia,  uear 
Naupactus. — 2.  (Now  Cape  Aynda  /),  a  promon- 
tory of  Chersonesus  Taurica.] 

[CORBIO.  1.  (Now  Her  go),  a  city  of  Hispania 
Tarraconensis. — 2.  A  city  in  the  territory  of  the 
^Equi  in  Latium,  captured  by  Coriolanus ;  at  a 
later  period  by  ths  Volsci,] 

CORBULO,  CN.  DOMITIUS,  a  distinguished  general 
under  Claudius  and  Nero.  In  A.D.  47  he  carried 
on  war  in  Germany  with  success,  but  his  fame 
rests  chiefly  upon  his  glorious  campaigns  against 
the  Parthians  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  Though  be- 
loved by  the  army,  he  continued  faithful  to  Ne- 
ro, but  his  only  reward  was  death.  Nero,  who 
had  become  jealous  of  his  fame  and  influence, 
invited  him  to  Corinth.  As  soon  as  he  landed  at 
Cenchreae,  he  was  informed  that  orders  had  been 
issued  for  bia  death,  whereupon  he  plunged 
his  sword  into  his  breast,  exclaiming,  "  Well  de- 
served !" 

CoRci'RA  (KepKvpa,  later  Kopnvpa :  KepKvp- 
alof :  now  Corfu,  from  the  Byzantine  KopvQu),  an 
island  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Epirus, 
about  thirty-eight  miles  in  length,  but  of  very 
unequal  breadth.  It  is  generally  mountainous, 
but  possesses  many  fertile  valleys.  Its  two 
chief  towns  were  Corcyra,  the  modern  town  of 
Corfu,  in  the  middle  of  the  eastern  coast,  and 
Caasiope,  north  of  the  former.  The  ancients 
universally  regarded  this  island  as  the  Homeric 
SCHERIA  (%x£pin),  where  the  enterprising  and 
sea-loving  Phseacians  dwelt,  governed  by  their 
222 


king  Alcinous.  The  island  is  said  to  have  alss 
borne  the  name  of  DREPANE  (ApeTruvrj),  or  the 
"  Sickle,"  in  ancient  times.  About  B.C.  700  it  wai 
colonized  by  the  Corinthians  under  Cheraicrates. 
one  of  the  Bacchiadae,  who  drove  out  the  Libur- 
nians,  who  were  then  inhabiting  the  island.  It 
soon  became  rich  and  powerful  by  its  extensive 
commerce ;  it  founded  many  colonies  on  the  oppo- 
site coast,  Epidamuus,  Apollonia.  Leucas,  Anac- 
torium;  and  it  exercised  such  influence  in  the 
Ionian  and  Adriatic  Seas  as  to  become  a  formi- 
dable rival  to  Corinth.  Thus  the  two  states  early 
became  involved  in  war,  and  about  B.C.  664  a 
battle  was  fought  between  their  fleets,  which  is 
memorable  as  the  most  ancient  sea-fight  on  re- 
cord. At  a  later  period,  Corcyra,  by  invoking 
the  aid  of  Athens  against  the  Corinthians,  became 
one  of  the  proximate  causes  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  431.  Shortly  afterward  her  power  declined 
in  consequence  of  civil  dissensions,  in  which  both 
the  aristocratical  and  popular  parties  were 
guilty  of  .the  most  horrible  atrocities  against  each 
other.  At  last  it  became  subject  to  the  Ro- 
mans with  the  rest  of  Greece.  Corfu  is  at  pres- 
ent one  of  the  seven  Ionian  islands  under  the 
protection  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment. 

CORCVRA  NIGRA  (now  Curzola,  in  Slavonic 
Karkar),  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Illyricum,  sur- 
named  the  "  Black  "  on  account  of  its  numerous 
forests,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  more  celebrated 
Corcyra.  It  contained  a  Greek  town  of  the  same 
name,  founded  by  Cuidos. 

CORDUBA  (now  Cordova),  one  of  the  largest  cit- 
ies in  Spain,  and  the  capital  of  Bsetica,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Baetis ;  made  a  Roman  colony 
B.C.  152,  and  received  the  surname  Patricia,  be- 
cause some  Roman  patricians  settled  there ;  ta- 
ken by  Caesar  in  46  because  it  aided  with  the 
Pompeians ;  birth-place  of  the  two  Senecaa  and 
of  Lucan.  In  the  Middle  Agea  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Moors,  but  is  now  a  decay- 
ing place  with  55,000  inhabitants. 

CORDUENE.        Vid.    GORDYENE. 

CORDCS,  CREMCTIUS,  a  Roman  historian  under 
Augustus  and  Tiberius,  was  accused  in  A.D.  25 
of  having  praised  Brutus  and  denominated  Cas- 
sius  "  the  last  of  the  Romana."  As  the  empe- 
ror had  determined  upon  his  death,  he  put  an 
end  to  his  own  life  by  starvation.  His  works 
were  condemned  to  be  burned,  but  some  copies 
were  preserved  by  his  daughter  Marcia  and  by 
his  friends. 

CORE  (KopT/),  the  Maiden,  a  name  by  which  Per- 
sephone is  often  called.  Vid.  PERSEPHONE. 

CORESSUS  (Kopeaaof).  1.  A  lofty  mountain  in 
Ionia,  forty  stadia  (four  geographical  miles)  from 
Ephesus,  with  a  place  of  the  same  name  at  its 
foot. — 2.  A  town  in  the  island  of  Ceos.  Vid. 
CEOS. 

COBFINIUM  (Corfiniensis),  chief  town  of  the  Pe- 
ligni  in  Samnium,  not  far  from  the  Aternus,  strong- 
ly fortified,  and  memorable  as  the  place  which 
the  Italians  in  the  Social  war  destined  to  be  the 
new  capital  of  Italy  in  place  of  Rome,  on  which 
account  it  was  called  Italica. 

CORINNA  (Koptvva)  a  Greek  poetess,  of  Tana- 
gra  in  Bceotia,  sometimes  called  the  Theban  on 
account  of  her  long  residence  in  Thebes.  She 
flourished  about  B.C.  490,  and  was  a  contempo- 
rary of  Pindar,  whom  she  is  said  to  have  in- 


CORINTHIACUS   ISTHMUS. 


CORIOLANUS. 


structed,  and  over  \vhom  she  gained  a  victory 
.  at  the  public  games  at  Thebes.  Her  poems 
were  written  in  the  ^Eolic  dialect  They  were 
collected  in  five  books,  and  were  chiefly  lyrical. 
Only  a  few  fragments  have  been  preserved; 
[published  in  the  collections  of  Schneidewin, 
Poetic  Elegiaci,  Getting.,  1839,  and  of  Bergk,  Poe- 
tce  Lyrici  Greed,  Lips.,  1843.] 

CORIXTUIACUS  ISTHMUS  ('Ia6ji.de  Kjpivdov), 
often  called  simply  the  ISTHMUS,  lay  between  the 
Corinthian  and  Saronic  Gulfs,  and  connected  the 
Peloponnesus  with  the  main  land  or  Hellas  prop- 
er. In  its  narrowest  part  it  was  forty  stadia  or 
five  Roman  miles  across  :  here  was  the  temple 
of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  and  here  the  Isthmian 
games  were  celebrated  ;  and  here,  also,  was  the 
JJiolcos  (AtoP.icof),  or  road  by  which  ships  were 
dragged  across  from  the  Bay  of  Selwenus  to  the 
harbor  of  Lechaeum.  Pour  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts were  made  to  dig  a  canal  across  the 
Isthmus,  namely,  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  Ju- 
lius Caesar,  Caligula,  and  Nero. 

CORIXTHIACUS  SINUS  (Kopiv6iaKdc  or  KopivOioe, 
KoATrof  :  now  Gulf  of  Lepanto),  the  gulf  between 
the  north  of  Greece  and  Peloponnesus,  begins, 
according  to  some,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ache- 
lous  in  JEtolia  and  the  promontory  Araxus  in 
Achaia,  according  to  others  at  the  straits  be- 
tween Rhium  and  Antirrhium.  In  early  times 
it  was  called  the  Crissaean  Gulf  (Kpiaaalof  «6A- 
TOf),  and  its  eastern  part  the  Alcyonian  Sea  (rj 


CORIXTHUS  (KopivOoe  :  Kopivdioe),  called  iu 
Homer  EPHYBA  ('E^vprj),  a  city  on  the  above- 
mentioned  isthmus.  •  Its  territory,  called  Co- 
UINTUIA  (Kopivdia),  embraced  the  greater  part 
of  the  Isthmus,  with  the  adjacent  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus  :  it  was  bounded  north  by  Mega- 
ris  and  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  south  by  Argolis, 
west  by  Sicyonia  and  Phliasia,  and  east  by  the 
Saronic  Gulf.  In  the  north  and  south  the  coun- 
try is  mountainous,  but  in  the  centre  it  is  a  plain 
with  a  solitary  and  steep  mountain  rising  from 
it,  the  ACROCORINTHUS  ('AKpon6piv6of),  nineteen 
hundred  feet  in  height,  which  served  as  the  cit- 
adel of  Corinth.  The  city  itself  was  built  on 
the  northern  side  of  this  mountain;  and  the 
walls,  which  included  the  Acrocorinthus,  were 
eighty-six  stadia  in  circumference.  It  had  two 
harbors,  CENCHRBUE  and  SCHCENUS  on  the  east, 
or  Saronic  Gulf,  and  one,  LECHAEUM,  on  the  west 
or  Corinthian  Gulf.  Its  favorable  position  be- 
tween two  seas,  the  difficulty  of  carrying  goods 
round  Peloponnesus,  and  the  facility  with  which 
they  could  be  transported  across  the  Isthmus, 
raised  Corinth  in  very  early  times  to  great  com- 
mercial prosperity,  and  made  it  the  emporium 
of  the  trade  between  Europe  and  Asia.  Its 
navy  was  numerous  and  powerful.  At  Corinth 
the  first  triremes  were  built,  and  the  first  sea- 
fight  on  record  was  between  the  Corinthians 
and  their  colonists  the  Corcyrteans.  Its  great- 
ness at  an  early  period  is  attested  by  numerous 
colonies,  Ambracia,  Corcyra,  Apollonia,  Poti- 
daea,  <tc.  It  was  adorned  with  magnificent 
buildings,  and  in  no  other  city  of  Greece,  except 
Athens,  were  the  fine  arts  prosecuted  with  so 
much  vigor  and  success.  Its  commerce  brought 
great  wealth  to  its  inhabitants;  but  with  their 
wealth,  they  became  luxurious  and  licentious. 
Thus  the  worship  of  Venus  (Aphrodite)  pre- 


vailed in  this  city,  and  in  her  temples  a  vast 
number  of  courtesans  was  maintained.  Corinth 
was  originally  inhabited  by  the  ^Eolic  race. 
Here  ruled  the  ^Eolic  Sisyphus  and  his  des'eend- 
ants.  On  the  conquest  of  Peloponnesus  by  the 
Dorians,  the  royal  power  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Heraclid  Aletes.  The  conquering  Dori- 
ans became  the  ruling  class,  and  the  ^Eolian  in- 
habitants subject  to  them.  After  Aletes  and 
his  descendants  had  reigned  for  five  generations, 
royality  was  abolished,  and  in  its  stead  was  es- 
tablished an  oligarchical  form  of  government, 
confined  to  the  powerful  family  of  the  Bacchia- 
dae.  This  family  was  expelled  B.C.  655  by  CYP- 
SELUS,  who  became  tyrant,  and  reigned  thirty 
years.  He  was  succeeded,  625,  by  his  son  PE 
RIANDER,  who  reigned  forty  years.  On  the 
death  of  the  latter,  685,  his  nephew  Psamineti- 
chus  reigned  for  three  years,  and  on  his  fall  in 
581,  the  government  again  became  an  aristocra- 
cy. In  the  Peloponnesian  war  Corinth  was  one 
of  the  bitterest  enemies  of  Athens.  In  346  Ti- 
inophanes  attempted  to  make  himself  master  of 
the  city,  but  he  was  slain  by  his  brother  Timo- 
leon.  It  maintained  its  independence  till  the 
time  of  the  Macedonian  supremacy,  when  its 
citadel  was  garrisoned  by  Macedonian  troops. 
This  garrison  was  expelled  by  Aratus  in  243, 
whereupon  Corinth  joined  the  Achaean  league, 
to  which  it  continued  to  belong  till  it  was  taken 
and  destroyed  in  146  by  L.  Mummius,  the  Ro- 
man consul,  who  treated  it  in  the  most  bar- 
barous manner.  Its  inhabitants  were  sold  as 
slaves ;  its  works  of  art,  which  were  not  de- 
stroyed by  the  Roman  soldiery,  were  conveyed 
to  Rome ;  its  buildings  were  razed  to  th« 
ground ;  and  thus  was  destroyed  the  lumen  to 
tilts  Grcecias,  as  Cicero  calls  the  city.  For  a 
century  it  lay  in  ruins ;  only  the  buildings  on 
the  Acropolis  and  a  few  temples  remained  stand- 
ing. In  46  it  was  rebuilt  by  Caesar,  who  peopled 
it  with  a  colony  of  veterans  and  descendants 
of  freedmen.  It  was  now  called  Colonia  Julia 
Corinthus  ;  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Achaia,  and  soon  recovered  much 
of  its  ancient  prosperity,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
it  became  noted  for  its  former  licentiousness,  as 
we  see  from  St  Paul's  epistles  to  the  inhabit- 
ants. The  site  of  Corinth  is  indicated  by  seven 
Doric  columns,  which  are  the  only  remains  of 
the  ancient  city. 

CORIOLANUS,  the  hero  of  one  of  the  most  beaik 
tiful  of  the  early  Roman  legends.  His  original 
name  was  C.  or  Cn.  Marcius,  and  he  received 
the  surname  Coriolanus  from  the  heroism  he 
displayed  at  the  capture  of  the  Volscian  town 
of  Corioli.  His  haughty  bearing  toward  the 
commons  excited  their  fear  and  dislike,  and 
when  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  consulship 
they  refused  to  elect  him.  After  this,  when 
there  was  a  famine  in  the  city,  and  a  Greek 
prince  sent  corn  from  Sicily,  Coriolanus  ad- 
vised that  it  should  not  be  distributed  to  the 
commons,  unless  they  gave  up  their  tribunes. 
For  this  he  was  impeached  and  condemned  to 
exile,  B.C.  491.  He  now  took  refuge  among 
the  Volscians,  and  promised  to  assist  them  in 
war  against  the  Romans.  Attius  Tullius,  the 
king  of  the  Volscians,  appointed  Coriolunus 
general  of  the  Volscian  army.  Coriolanus  took 
many  towns,  and  advanced  unresisted  till  he 
223 


CORIOLL 


CORONUS. 


came  to  the  fossa  Cluilia,  or  Cluilian  dike  close 
to  Rome,  489.  Here  he  encamped,  and  the  Ro- 
mans, in  alarm,  sent  to  him  embassy  after  em- 
bassy, consisting  of  the  most  distinguished  men 
of  the  state.  But  he  would  listen  to  none  of 
them.  At  length  the  noblest  matrons  of  Rome, 
headed  by  Veturia,  the  mother  of  Coriolanus, 
and  Volumnia,  his  wife,  with  his  two  little  chil 
dren,  came  to  his  tent.  His  mother's  reproach- 
es, and  the  tears  of  bis  wife  and  the  other  ma- 
trons, bent  his  purpose.  He  led  back  his  army, 
and  lived  in  %xile  among  the  Volscians  till  his 
death,  though  other  traditions  relate  that  he  was 
killed  by  the  Volscians  on  his  return  to  their 
country. 

CORIOLI  (Coriolanus),  a  town  in  Latium,  cap- 
ital of  the  Volsoi,  from  the  capture  of  which,  in 
B.C.  493,  C.  Marcius  obtained  the  surname  of 
Coriolanus. 

CORMASA  (Kopnaoa),  an  inland  town  of  Pam- 
phylia  or  of  Pisidia,  taken  by  the  consul  Man- 
lius. 

CORNELIA.  1.  One  of  the  noble  women  at 
Rome,  guilty  of  poisoning  the  leading  men  of  the 
state,  B.C.  331.— 2.  Elder  daughter  of  P.  Scipio 
Africanus  the  elder,  married  to  P.  Scipio  Nasica. 
— 3.  Younger  sister  of  No.  2,  married  to  Ti. 
Sempronius  Gracchus,  censor  169,  was  by  him 
the  mother  of  the  two  tribunes  Tiberius  and 
Caius.  She  was  virtuous  and  accomplished, 
and  united  in  her  person  the  severe  virtues  of 
the  old  Roman  matron,  with  the  superior  knowl- 
edge and  refinement  which  then  began  to  pre- 
vail in  the  higher  classes  at  Rome.  She  super- 
intended with  the  greatest  care  the  education 
of  her  sons,  whom  she  survived.  She  was  al- 
most idolized  by  the  people,  who  erected  a 
statue  to  her,  with  the  inscription  CORNELIA, 
MOTHER  OF  THE  GRACCHI. — 4.  Daughter  of  L. 
Cinna,  married  to  C.  Caesar,  afterward  dictator. 
She  bore  him  his  daughter  Julia,  and  died  in 
his  quaestorship,  68. — 5.  Daughter  of  Metellus 
Scipio,  married  first  to  P.  Crassus,  the  son  of 
the  triumvir,  who  perished  in  the  expedition 
against  the  Parthians,  53.  Next  year  she  mar- 
ried Pompey  the  Great,  by  whom  she  was 
tenderly  loved.  She  accompanied  Pompey  to 
Egypt  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  and  saw  him 
murdered.  She  afterward  returned  to  Rome, 
and  received  from  Caesar  the  ashes  of  her  hus- 
band, which  she  preserved  on  his  Alban  estate. 
^  CORNELIA  ORESTILLA.  Vid.  ORESTILLA. 

CORNELIA  GENS,  the  most  distinguished  of  all 
the  Roman  gentes.  All  its  great  families  be- 
longed to  the  patrician  order.  The  names  of 
the  patrician  families  are,  ARVINA,  CETHEGUS, 
CINNA,  Cossus,  DOLABELLA,  LENTULUS,  MALU- 
GINENSIS,  MAMMULA,  MERULA,  RUFINUS,  SCIPIO, 
SISENNA,  and  SULLA.  The  names  of  the  ple- 
beian families  are  BALBDS  and  GALLUS,  and  we 
also  find  various  cognomens,  as  CHRYSOGONUS, 
•fee.,  given  to  freedmen  of  this  gens. 

CORNELIUS  NEPOS.     Vid.  NEPOS. 

CORNICULUM  (Corniculanus),  a  town  in  La- 
tium, in  the  mountains  north  of  Tibur,  taken  and 
destroyed  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  celebrated 
as  the  residence  of  the  parents  of  Servius  Tul- 
lius. 

CORNIFICIUS.     1.  Q.,  a  friend  of  Cicero,  was 
tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  69,  and  one  of  Cic- 
•ro'a    competitors    for    the    consulship    in    64 
224 


When  the  Catilinarian  conspirators  were  a> 
rested,  Cethegus  was  committed  to  his  care. — . 
2.  Q^  son  of  No.  1.  In  the  civil  war  (48)  he 
was  quaestor  of  Caesar,  who  sent  him  into  Illyr- 
icum  with  the  title  of  proprietor :  he  reduced 
this  province  to  obedience.  In  45  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Caesar  governor  of  Syria,  and  in  44 
governor  of  the  province  of  Old  Africa,  where 
he  was  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  death.  He  main- 
tained this  province  for  the.  senate,  but  on  the 
establishment  of  the  triumvirate  was  defeated 
and  slain  in  battle  by  T.  Sextius.  Cornificius 
was  well  versed  in  literature.  Many  have  at- 
tributed to  him  the  authorship  of  the  "  Rhetor- 
ica  ad  Herennium,"  usually  printed  with  Cic- 
cero's  works ;  but  this  is  only  a  conjecture.  The 
Cornificius  who  is  mentioned  by  Quiutilian  as 
the  author  of  a  work  on  rhetoric  was  probably 
a  different  person  from  the  one  we  are  speaking 
of. — 3.  L.,  one  of  the  generals  of  Octavianus  in 
the  war  against  Sex.  Pompey,  and  consul  35. 
CORNUS,  a  town  on  the  west  of  Sardinia. 
CORNUTUS,  L.  ANN^EUS,  a  distinguished  Stoic 
philosopher,  was  born  at  Leptis  in  Libya.  He 
came  to  Rome,  probably  as  a  slave,  and  was 
emancipated  by  the  Annaei.  He  was  the  teach- 
er and  friend  of  the  poet  Persius,  who  has  ded- 
icated his  fifth  satire  to  him,  and  who  left  him 
his  library  and  money.  He  was  banished  by 
Nero,  A.D.  68,  for  having  too  freely  criticised 
the  literary  attempts  of  the  emperor.  He  wrote 
a  large  number  of  works,  all  of  which  are  lost : 
the  most  important  of  them  was  on  Aristotle's 
Categories. — [Editions :  by  Osann,  Cornutut 
(Phurnutus)  de  Natura  Dcorum,  Getting.,  1844.] 

CoRffiBUs  (Kopoifiof).  1.  A  Phrygian,  son  of 
Mygdon,  loved  Cassandra,  and  for  that  reason 
fought  on  the  side  of  the  Trojans  :  he  was  slain 
by  Neoptolemus  or  Diomedes. — 2.  An  Elean, 
who  gained  the  victory  in  the  stadium  at  the 
Olympic  games,  B.C.  7.76 :  from  this  time  the 
Olympiads  begin  to  be  reckoned. 

CORONE  (KopuvTj:  Kopuvevf,  -vaievf  :  now  Co- 
•on),  a  town  in  Messenia  on  the  western  side 
i  the  Messenian  Gulf,  founded  B.C.  371  by  the 
Vfessenians  after  their  return  to  their  native 
country,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Thebans : 
t  possessed  several  public  buildings,  and  in  its 
neighborhood  was  a  celebrated  temple  of  Apollo. 

CORONEA  (Kopuveia :    Kopuvalog,   Kopuveto?, 

of).  1.  (Near  modern  Camari),  a  town  in 
Bceotia,  southwest  of  the  Lake  Copais,  situate 
on  a  height  between  the  rivers  Phalarus  and 
oralius ;  a  member  of  the  Boeotian  league  ;  in 
ts  neighborhood  was  the  temple  of  Athena  Iton- 
a,  where  the  festival  of  the  Pambceotia  wafc 
jelebrated.  Near  Coronea  the  Bceolians  gained 
a  memorable  victory  over  the  Athenians  under 
Tolmides,  B.C.  447 ;  and  here  Agesilaus  de- 
:eated  the  allied  Greeks,  394. — 2.  A  town  in 
Phthiotis  in  Thessaly. 

CORONIS  (Kopuvif).  1.  The  mother  of  ^Esco- 
LAPIUS. — 2.  Daughter  of  Phoroneus,  king  of  Pho- 
cis,  metamorphosed  by  Minerva  (Athena)  into  a 
crow  when  pursued  by  Neptune  (Poseidon). 

[CORONTA  (Kopovra),  a  city  of  Acarnania,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Achelous.] 

[CORONUS  (Kopuvof).  1.  Son  of  Caeneus,  and 
one  of  the  princes  of  the  Lapithae  ;  slain  by  Her 
cules. — 2.  Son  of  Thersander,  grandson  of  Sis- 
yphus, reputed  founder  of  CORONEA.] 


CORSES. 


COS. 


COKSE.E.      VvL  COEASSLE. 

CORSIA  (Kopaeia,  also  Kopaiai),  a  town  in 
Bffiotia,  on  the  borders  of  Phocis. 

CORSICA,  called  CYENUS  by  the  Greeks  (Kvp- 
vor :  Kvpviog,  Kvpvalof,  Corsus :  now  Corsica), 
an  island  north  of  Sardinia,  spoken  of  by  the 
ancients  as  one  of  the  seven  large  islands  in 
the  Mediterranean.  The  ancients,  however, 
exaggerate  for  the  most  part  the  size  of  the 
island  ;  its  greatest  length  is  one  hundred  and 
sixteen  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about 
Sfty-one.  It  is  mountainous,  and  was  not  much 
cultivated  in  antiquity.  A  range  of  mountains 
running  from  south  to  north  separates  it  into 
two  parts,  of  which  the  eastern  half  was  more 
cultivated,  while  the  western  half  was  covered 
almost  entirely  with  wood.  Honey  and  wax 
were  the  principal  productions  of  the  island; 
but  the  honey  had  a  bitter  taste,  from  the  yew- 
trees  with  which  the  island  abounded  (Cyrne- 
as  taxos,  Virg.,  Ed^  ix.,  30).  The  inhabitants 
were  a  rude  mountain  race,  addicted  to  robbery, 
and  paying  little  attention  to  agriculture.  Even 
iu  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire  their  charac- 
ter had  not  much  improved,  as  we  see  from  the 
description  of  Seneca,  who  was  banished  to  this 
island.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  appear  to 
have  beeu  Iberians ;  but  in  early  times  Ligu- 
rians,  Tyrrhenians,  Carthaginians,  and  even 
Greeks  (aid.  ALERIA),  settled  in  the  island.  It 
was  subject  to  the  Carthaginians  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  first  Punic  war,  but  soon 
afterward  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
and  subsequently  formed  a  part  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Sardinia.  The  Romans  founded 
several  colonies  in  the  island,  of  which  the  most 
important  were  MARIANA  and  ALERIA. 

COUSOTE  (KopauTjj :  ruins  at  Ersey),  a  city  of 
Mesopotamia,  on  the  Euphrates,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Mascas  or  Saocoras  (now  Wady-el-Seba), 
which  Xenophon  found  already  deserted. 

COUTO.VA  (Cortouensis :  now  Cortona\  one 
of  the  twelve  cities  of  Etruria,  lay  northwest  of 
theTrasimene  Lake,  and  was  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient cities  in  Italy.  It  is  said  to  have  beeu  orig- 
inally called  Corythus  from  its  reputed  found- 
er Corythus,  who  is  represented  as  the  father 
of  Dardanus.  It  is  also  called  Croton,  Cothor- 
nia,  Cyrtonium,  <fec.  The  Creston  mentioned 
by  Herodotus  (i.,  67)  was  probably  Creston  in 
Thrace  and  not  Cortona,  as  many  modern  writ- 
ers have  supposed.  Cortona  is  said  to  have 
beeu  originally  founded  by  the  Umbrians,  then 
to  have  been  conquered  by  the  Pelasgians,  and 
subsequently  to  have  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  Etruscans.  It  was  afterward  colonized  by 
til-  Romans,  but  under  their  dominion  sunk  into 
insignificance.  The  remains  of  the  Pelasgie 
walls  of  this  city  are  some  of  the  most  remark- 
able in  all  Italy :  there  is  one  fragment  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  length,  composed 
of  blocks  of  enormous  magnitude. 

CoRUNfANius,  TL,  consul  B.C.  280,  with  P. 
Valerius  Laevinus,  fought  with  success  against 
the  Etruscans  and  Pyrrhus.  He  was  the  first 

B'ebeian  who   was  created  pontifcx  maximus. 
e  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  his 
age,  possessed  a    profound  knowledge  of  pon- 
tifical and  civil  law,  and  was  the  first  person  at 
Borne  who  gave  regular  instruction  in  law. 

MESS4LA.        Fit/.  M  ESS  ALA. 

15 


Coavus,  M.  VALERIUS,  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious men  iu  the  early  history  of  Rome.  He 
obtained  the  surname  of  Corvus,  or  "  Raven,'' 
because,  when  serving  as  military  tribune  under 
Camillus,  B.C.  349,  he  accepted  the  challenge 
of  a  gigantic  Gaul  to  single  combat,  and  was 
assisted  in  the  conflict  by  a  raven  which  settled 
upon  his  helmet,  and  flew  in  the  face  of  the  bar- 
barian. He  was  six  times  consul  B.C.  348,  346, 
343,  335,  300,  299,  and  twice  dictator,  342,  301, 
and  by  his  military  abilities  rendered  the  most 
memorable  services  to  his  country.  His  most 
brilliant  victories  were  gained  in  his  third  con- 
sulship, 343,  when  he  defeated  the  Satuuites  at 
Mount  Gaurus  and  at  Suessula ;  and  in  his  other 
consulships  he  repeatedly  defeated  the  Etrus- 
cans and  other  enemies  of  Rome.  He  reached 
the  age  of  one  hundred  years,  and  is  frequently 
referred  to  by  the  later  Roman  writers  as  a 
memorable  example  of  the  favors  of  fortune. 

CORYBANTES,  priests  of  Cybele  or  Rhea  in 
Phrygia,  who  celebrated  her  worship  with  en- 
thusiastic dances,  to  the  sound  of  the  drum  auu 
the  cymbal.  They  are  often  identified  with  the 
Curetes  and  the  Idsean  Dactyli,  and  thus  arc 
said  to  have  been  the  nurses  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
in  Crete.  They  were  called  Galli  at  Rome. 

CORYCIA  (KupvKia  or  Kupvuie),  a  nymph  who 
became  by  Apollo  the  mother  of  Lycorus  or  Ly 
coreus,  and  from  whom  the  Corycian  cave  in 
Mount  Parnassus  was  believed  to  have  derived 
its  name.  The  Muses  are  sometimes  called  by 
the  poets  Corycides  Nymphce. 

CORYCUS  (KupvKoc:  Kupvxtof,  Coryeius).  1. 
(Now  JtCoraka),  a  high  rocky  hill  on  the  coast  of 
Ionia,  forming  the  southwestern  promontory  of 
the  Erythraean  peninsula. — 2.  A  city  of  Pam- 
phylia,  near  Phaselis  and  mount  Olympus :  colo- 
nized afresh  by  Attalus  II.  Philadelpbus ;  taken, 
and  probably  destroyed,  by  P.  Servilius  Isauri- 
cus. — 3.  (Ruins  opposite  the  island  of  Khorgos), 
a  city  in  Cilicia  Aspera,  with  a  good  harbor, 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Lamus  and  the  Ca- 
lycadnus.  Twenty  stadia  (two  geographical 
miles)  from  the  city  was  a  grotto  or  glen  in  the 
mountains,  called  the  Corycian  Cave  (Kupvuiov 
uvrpov),  celebrated  by  the  poets,  and  also  famous 
for  its  saffron.  At  the  distance  of  one  hundred 
stadia  (ten  geographical  miles)  from  Corycus 
was  a  prpmoutory  -of  the  same  name. 

CORYDALLUS  (KopvdaTi^of :  Kopvdalfovf),  a 
demus  in  Attica  belonging  to  the  tribe  Hippo- 
thoontis,  situate  on  the  mountain  of  the  same 
name,  which  divides  the  plain  of  Athens  from 
that  of  Eleusis. 

CoRYriiAsiuM  (Kopv^uaiov),  a  promontory  in 
Messeuia,  inclosing  the  harbor  of  Pylos  on  the 
north,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name  upon  it 
(now  Old  Navaritw). 

CORYTHUS  (KopvOof).  1.  An  Italian  hero,  son 
of  Jupiter,  husband  of  Electra,  and  father  of 
lasius  and  Dardanus,  is  said  to  have  founded 
Corythus  (now  Cort<ma\ — [2.  Sou  of  Marmarus, 
wounded  Pelates  with  a  javelin  at  the  marriage 
festival  of  Perseus.] 

Cos,  Coos,  Cous  (Kwf,  Kowf  :  K<0of,  Coils :  now 
Kos,  Stanco),  one  of  the  islands  called  Sporades, 
lay  off  the  coast  of  Caria,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Co 
ramie  Gulf,  opposite  to  Halicarnassus.  In  early 
times  it  was  called  Meropis  and  Nymphaea.  It 
was  colonized  by  ^Eoliaus,  but  became  a  mem- 
225 


COSA. 

her  01  the  Dorian  confederacy.  Its  chief  city 
Cos,  stoood  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  island, 
in  a  beautiful  situation,  and  had  a  good  harbor. 
Near  it  stood  the  Asclepieum,  or  temple  of  As- 
clepius  (^Esculapius),  to  whom  the  island  was 
sacred,  and  from  whom  its  chief  family,  the  As- 
clepiadae,  claimed  their  descent.  The  island 
was  very  fertile ;  its  chief  productions  were 
wiue,  ointments,  and  the  light  transparent  dress- 
es called  "  Cooe  vestes."  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  the  physician  Hippocrates,  who  was  an  As- 
clcpiad,  of  the  poet  Philetas,  and  of  the  painter 
Apelles,  whose  pictures  of  Antigonus  and  of 
Venus  Auadyomene  adorned  the  Asclepieura. 
Under  the  Romans,  Cos  was  favored  by  Clau- 
dius, who  made  it  a  free  state,  and  by  Antoni- 
nus Pius,  who  rebuilt  the  city  of  Cos  after  its 
destruction  by  an  earthquake. 

COSA  or  COSSA  (Cossanus).  1.  (Now  Anse- 
donia,  about  five  miles  southeast  of  Orbetello),  a 
city  of  Etruria,  near  the  sea,  with  a  good  har- 
bor, called  Herculis  Portus,  was  a  veiy  ancient 
place,  and  after  the  fall  of  Falerii  one  of  the 
twelve  Etruscan  cities.  It  was  colonized  by 
the  Romans  B.C.  273,  and  received  in  197  an 
addition  of  one  thousand  colonists.  There  are 
still  extensive  ruins  of  its  walls  and  towers, 
built  of  polygonal  masonry. — 2.  A  town  in  Lu- 
cauia,  near  ThuriL — [3.  (Now  Coxa),  or  COSAS, 
a  river  of  Latium,  near  Frusino.] 

Coscxmcs.  1.  C.,  praetor  in  the  Social  war, 
B.C.  89,  defeated  the  Samnites. — 2.  C.,  prater 
in  the  consulship  of  Cicero,  63  ;  governed  in  the 
following  year  the  province  of  Further  Spain ; 
was  one  of  the  twenty  commissioners  in  59,  to 
curry  into  execution  the  agrarian  law  of  Julius 
CtBsar,  but  died  in  this  year. — 3.  C.,  tribune  of 
the  plebs  59,  zedile  57,  and  one  of  the  judices  at 
the  trial  of  P.  Sextius,  56. 

COSMAS  (Koff/idf),  commonly  called  INDICO- 
PLEUSTES  (Indian  navigator),  an  Egyptian  monk, 
flourished  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  about  A.D. 
535.  In  early  life  he  followed  the  employment 
of  a  merchant,  and  visited  many  foreign  coun- 
tries, of  which  he  gave  an  account  in  his  To- 
Toypa^t'a  XpiaTiaviKi],  Topographia  Christiana, 
in  twelve  books,  of  which  the  greater  part  is 
extant. 

COSROES.  1.  King  of  Parthia.  Vid,  ARSA- 
CES,  No.  25. — 2.  King  of  Persia.  Vid.  SASSA- 
NID..E. 

COSS..EA  (Kocraa/a),  a  district  in  and  about 
Mount  Zagros,  on  the  northeast  side  of  Susiana, 
and  on  the  confines  of  Media  and  Persia,  in- 
habited by  a  rude,  warlike,  predatory  people, 
the  Cosaaei  (Kooaaloi),  whom  the  Persian  kings 
never  subdued,  but,  on  the  contrary,  purchased 
their  quiet  by  paying  them  tribute.  Alexander 
conquered  them  (B.C.  325-324),  and  with  dif- 
ficulty kept  them  in  subjection ;  after  his  death 
they  soon  regained  their  independence.  Their 
name  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the 
modern  name  of  Susiana,  Khuzistan,  and  is  pos- 
sibly connected  with  the  Gush  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment 

Cossus,  CORNELIUS,  the  name  of  several  il- 
lustrious Romans  in  the  early  history  of  the 
republic.  Of  these  the  most  celebrated  was 
Ser.  Cornelius  COSSMS,  consul  B.C.  428,  who 
killed  Lar  Tolumnius,  the  king  of  the  Veii,  in 
•ingle  combat,  and  dedicated  his  spoils  in  the 
226 


COTYLUS. 

temple  of  Jupiter  Feretrius — the  second  of  the 
three  instances  in  which  the  spolia  opima  were 
won. 

COSSUTIUS,  a  Roman  architect,  who  rebuilt, 
at  the  expense  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  tern 
pie  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  (Zeus)  at  Athens, 
about  B.C.  168,  in  the  most  magnificent  Corinth- 
ian style. 

COSYRA  (now  Pantelaria),  also  written  Cos- 
syra,  Cosyrus,  Cosura,  Cossura,  a  small  island 
in  the  Mediterranean  near  Malta. 

COTHON.     Vid.  CARTHAGO. 

COTISO,  a  king  of  the  Dacians,  conquered  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus  by  Lentulus. 

COTTA,  AURELIUS.  1.  C.,  consul  B.C.  252  and 
248,  in  both  of  which  years  he  fought  in  Sicily 
against  the  Carthaginians  with  success. — 2.  C., 
consul  200,  fought  against  the  Boii  and  the  other 
Gauls  in  the  north  of  Italy. — 3.  L,  tribune  of 
the  plebs  154,  and  consul  144. — 4.  L.,  consul 
119,  opposed  C.  Mariua,  who  was  then  tribune 
of  the  plebs. — 5.  C.,  was  accused  under  the  lex 
Varia,  91,  of  supporting  the  claims  of  the  Italian 
allies,  and  went  into  voluntary  exile.  He  re- 
turned to  Rome  when  Sulla  was  dictator,  82 ; 
and  in  75  he  was  consul  with  L.  Octavius.  He 
obtained  the  government  of  Gaul,  and  died  im- 
mediately after  his  return  to  Rome.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  orators  of  his 
time,  and  is  introduced  by  Cicero  as  one  of  the 
speakers  in  the  De  Oratore,  and  the  De  Natura 
Deorum,  in  the  latter  of  which  works  he  main- 
tains the  cause  of  the  Academics. — 6.  M.,  broth- 
er of  No.  5,  consul  74,  with  L.  Licinius  Lucul- 
lus,  obtained  Bithynia  for  his  province,  and  was 
defeated  by  Mithradates  near  Chalccdon. — 7. 
L.,  brother  of  Nos.  5  and  6,  praetor  70,  when  he 
:arried  the  celebrated  law  (lex  Aurelia  judicia- 
ria)  which  intrusted  the  judicia  to  the  senators, 
equites,  and  tribuni  aerarii.  He  was  consul  65 
with  L.  Manlius  Torquatus,  after  the  consuls 
elect,  P.  Sulla  and  P.  Autronius  Paetus,  had 
been  condemned  of  ambitus.  He  supported 
Cicero  during  his  consulship,  and  proposed  his 
recall  from  exile.  In  the  civil  war  he  joined 
Caesar,  whom  he  survived. 

COTTA,  L.  AURUNCULKIUS,  one  of  Caesar's  le- 
gates in  Gaul,  perished  along  with  Sabinus  in 
the  attack  made  upon  them  by  Ambiorix,  B.C. 
54.  Vid.,  AMBIORIX. 

COTTIUS,  son  of  Donuus,  king  of  several  Li- 
gurian  tribes  in  the  Cottian  Alps,  which  derived 
their  name  from  him.  Vid.  ALPES.  He  sub- 
mitted to  Augustus,  who  granted  him  the  sover- 
eignty over  twelve  of  the  tribes,  with  the  title  of 
Prtefectus.  Cottius  thereupon  made  roads  over 
the  Alps,  and  erected  (B.C.  8)  at  Segusio  (now 
Suza)  a  triumphal  arch  in  honor  of  Augustus, 
extant  at  the  present  day.  His  authority  was 
transmitted  to  his  son,  upon  whom  Claudius 
conferred  the  title  of  king.  On  his  death  his 
kingdom  was  made  a  Roman  province  bjr  Nero. 

COTTUS,  a  giant  with  one  hundred  hands,  son 
of  Uranus  (Coelus)and  Gsea  (Terra). 

[COTYAEUM  or  COTIAEUM  (KoTvueiov  or  Ko- 
riutiov  :  now  Kiutayah),  a  city  of  Phrygia  Epic- 
tetus  on  the  Thymbris.] 

COTYLA,  L.  VARIUS,  one  of  Antony's  most  in- 
timate friends,  fought  on  his  side  at  Mutina,  B. 
C  43. 

CoTYi.us(K6n>?i,of),  the  highest  peak  of  Mount 


COTYORA. 

Ida  in  the  Troad,  containing  the  sources  of  the 
rivers  Scamander,  Granicus,  and  ^Esepus. 

COTYORA  (Korvupa),  a  colony  of  Sinope,  in 
the  territory  of  the  Tibareni,  on  the  coast  of 
Pontus  Polemouiacus,  at  the  west  end  of  a  bay 
of  the  same  name,  celebrated  as  the  place  where 
the  ten  thousand  Greeks  embarked  for  Sinope. 
The  foundation  of  Pharnacia  reduced  it  to  in- 
significance. 

COTYS  or  COTTTTO  (KoTVf  or  KOTVTTU),  a 
Thracian  divinity,  whose  festival,  the  Cotyttia 
(vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v.),  resembled  that  of  the 
Phrygian  Cybele,  and  was  celebrated  with  licen- 
tious revelry,  lu  later  times  her  worship  was 
introduced  at  Athens  and  Corinth.  Those  who 
celebrated  her  festival  were  called  Saptfe,  from 
the  purifications  which  were  originally  connect- 
ed with  the  solemnity. 

COTYS  (Koruc).  1.  King  of  Thrace  B.C.  382- 
358,  was  for  a  short  time  a  friend  of  the  Atheni- 
ans, but  carried  on  war  with  them  toward  the 
close  of  his  reign.  He  was  cruel  and  sanguin- 
ary, and  was  much  addicted  to  gross  luxury 
and  drunkenness.  He  was  murdered  by  two 
brothers  whose  father  he  had  injured. — 2.  King 
of  the  Odrysae  in  Thrace,  assisted  Perseus 
against  Rome,  B.C.  168.  His  son  was  taken 
prisoner  and  carried  to  Rome,  whereupon  lie 
sued  for  peace  and  was  pardoned  by  the  Ro- 
maus. — 3.  A  king  of  Thrace,  who  took  part 
against  Caesar  with  Pompey,  48. — 4.  King  of 
Thrace,  son  of  Rhoometalces,  in  the  reigns  of 
Augustus  and  Tiberius.  He  carried  on  war 
with  his  uncle  Rhescuporis,  by  whom  he  was 
murdered,  A.D.  19.  Ovid,  during  his  exile  at 
Tomi,  addressed  an  epistle  to  him  (Ex  Pont., 
ii,  9).^ 

CRAGUS  (Kpayof),  a  mountain  consisting  of 
eight  summits,  being  a  continuation  of  Taurus 
to  the  west,  and  formiug,  at  its  extremity,  the 
southwestern  promontory  of  Lycia  (now  Yedy- 
Booroon,  i.  e.,  Seven  Capes).  Some  of  its  sum- 
mits show  traces  of  volcanic  action,  and  the  an- 
cients had  a  tradition  to  the  same  effect.  At 
its  foot  was  a  town  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
sea-shore,  between  Pydna  and  Patara.  Paral- 
lel to  it,  north  of  the  River  Glaucus,  was  the 
chain  of  Anticragus.  The  greatest  height  of 
Cragus  exceeds  three  thousand  feet 

[CRAMBUSA  (KpujtGovaa).  1.  A  city  of  Lycia, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Lycian  Olympus,  one  hundred 
stadia  (ten  geographical  miles)  from  Phaselis. 
— 2.  An  island  on  the  coast  of  Cilicia,  not  far 
from  the  promontory  Corycus.] 

CRANAK  (KpavuTj),  the  island  to  which  Paris 
first  carried  Helen  from  Peloponnesus  (Horn., 
//.,  iii.,  445),  is  said  by  some  to  be  an  island 
off  Gythium  in  Laconia,  by  others  to  be  the  isl- 
and Helena  off  Attica,  and  by  others,  again,  to 
be  Cythera.  • 

CRANAUS  (Kpavaof),  king  of  Attica,  the  son- 
in-law  and  successor  of  Cecrops.  He  was  de- 
prived of  his  kingdom  by  his  son-in-law  Am- 
phictyon. 

CEANII  or  CRANIUM  (Kpuvioi,  Kpaviov :  Kpd- 
vfof :  now  Krania,  near  Argostoli),  a  town  of 
Cepballenia,  on  the  southern  coast 

CRANON  or  CRANNON  (Kpavuv,  Kpavvuv : 
Kparvwvtof  ^now  Sarliki  or  Tzeres),  in  ancient 
times  EPHYUA,  a  town  in  Pelasgiotis  in  Thessa- 
ly,  nut  far  from  Larissa. 


CRASSUS,  LICINIUS. 

GRANTOR  (KpuvTup),  of  Soli  in  Cilicia,  an 
Academic  philosopher,  studied  at  Athens  under 
Xenocrates  and  Polemo,  and  flourished  B.C. 
300.  He  was  the  author  of  several  works,  all 
of  which  are  lost,  and  was  the  first  who  wrote 
commentaries  on  Plato's  works.  Most  of  his 
writings  related  to  moral  subjects  (Hor.,  Kp., 
i.,  2,  4).  One  of  his  most  celebrated  works  was 
On  Grief,  of  which  Cicero  made  great  use  in 
the  third  book  of  his  Tusculan  Disputations,  and 
in  the  Consolatio,  which  he  composed  on  the 
death  of  his  daughter  Tullia. 

CRASSIPES  FURIUS,  Cicero's  son-in-law,  the 
second  husband  of  Tullia,  whom  he  married  B. 
C.  56,  but  from  whom  he  was  shortly  afterward 
divorced. 

CRASSUS,  LICINIUS.  1.  P.,  praetor  B.C.  176, 
and  consul  171,  when  he  carried  on  the  war 
against  Perseus. — 2.  C.,  brother  of  No.  1.,  prae- 
tor 172,  and  consul  168. — 3.  C.,  probably  son  of 
No.  2,  tribune  of  the  plebs  145,  was  distinguish- 
ed as  a  popular  leader. — 4.  P.,  surnamed  Dives 
or  Rich,  elected  pontifex  maximus  212,  curule 
aedile  211,  praetor  208,  and  consul  205,  with 
Scipio  Africanus,  when  he  carried  on  war 
against  Hannibal  in  the  south  of  Italy.  He 
died  183. — 5.  P.,  surnamed  Dives  Mucianus,  son 
of  P.  Mucius  Scsevola,  was  adopted  by  the  son 
of  No.  4.  In  131  he  was  consul  and  pontifex 
maximus,  and  was  the  first  priest  of  that  rank 
who  went  beyond  Italy.  He  carried  on  war 
against  Aristonicus  in  Asia,  but'  was  defeated 
and  slain.  He  was  a  good  orator  and  jurist. — 
6.  M,  surnamed  Agclastus,  because  he  is  said 
never  to  have  laughed,  was  grandfather  of  Cras 
sus  the  triumvir. — 7.  P.,  surnamed  Dives,  son 
of  No.  5,  and  father  of  the  triumvir.  He  was 
the  proposer  of  the  lex  Licinia,  to  prevent  ex- 
cessive expense  in  banquets,  but  in  what  year 
is  uncertain.  He  was  consul  97,  and  carried  on 
war  in  Spain  for  some  years.  He  was  censor 
89  with  L.  Julius  Caesar.  In  .the  civil  war  he 
took  part  with  Sulla,  and  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life  when  Marius  and  Cinna  returned  to  Rome  at 
the  end  of  87. — 8.  M.,  surnamed  Dives,  the  trium- 
vir, younger  son  of  No.  7.  His  life  was  spared 
by  Cinna  after  the  death  of  his  father;  but, 
fearing  Cinna,  he  afteward  escaped  to  Spain, 
where  he  concealed  himself  for  eight  months 
On  the  death  of  Cinna  in  84,  he  collected  some 
forces  and  crossed  over  into  Africa,  whence  he 
passed  into  Italy  in  83  and  joined  Sulla,  on 
whose  side  he  fought  against  the  Marian  party. 
On  the  defeat  of  the  latter,  he  was  rewarded 
by  donations  of  confiscated  property,  and  thus 
greatly  increased  his  patrimony.  His  ruling  pas- 
sion was  money,  and  he  devoted  all  his  energies 
to  its  accumulation.  He  was  a  keen  and  saga 
cious  speculator.  He  bought  multitudes  of 
slaves,  and,  in  order  to  increase  their  value,  had 
them  instructed  in  lucrative  arts.  He  worked 
silver  mines,  cultivated  farms,  and  built  houses, 
which  he  let  at  high  rents.  In  71  he  was  ap- 
pointed praetor  in  order  to  carry  on  the  war 
against  Spartacus  and  the  gladiators ;  he  de- 
feated Spartacus,  who  was  slain  in  the  battle, 
and  he  was  honored  with  an  ovation.  In  70 
Crnssus  was  consul  with  Pompey ;  he  enter- 
tained the  populace  at  a  banquet  of  ten  thousand 
tables,  and  distributed  corn  enough  to  supply  the 
family  of  every  citizen  for  three  months.  He 
227 


CRASTINUS. 


CRATHIS. 


did  not,  however,  co-operate  cordially  with  Pom- 
pey,  of  whose  superior  influence  he  was  jealous. 
He  was  afterward  reconciled  to  Pompey  by  Cffi- 
•ar's  mediation,  and  thus  was  formed  between 
them,  in  60,  the  so-called  triumvirate.  ( Vid. 
p.  158,  a.)  In  55  Crassus  was  again  consul 
with  Pompey,  and  received  the  province  of 
Syria,  where  he  hoped  -both  to  increase  his 
wealth  and  to  acquire  military  glory  by  attack- 
ing the  Parthians.  He  set  out  for  his  province 
before  the  expiration  of  his  consulship,  and  con- 
tinued his  march  notwithstanding  the  unfavor- 
able omens  which  occurred  to  him  at  almost 
every  step.  After  crossing  the  Euphrates  in 
54,  he  did  not  follow  up  the  attack  upon  Parthia, 
but  returned  to  Syria,  where  he  passed  the  win- 
ter. In  63  he  again  crossed  the  Euphrates ;  he 
was  misled  by  a  crafty  Arabian  chieftain  to 
march  into  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  where 
he  was  attacked  by  Surenas,  the  general  of  the 
Parthian  king,  Orodes.  In  the  battle  which  fol- 
lowed Crassus  was  defeated  with  immense 
slaughter,  and  retreated  with  the  remainder  of 
his  troops  to  Carrhae  (the  Haran  of  Scripture). 
The  mutinous  threats  of  his  troops  compelled 
him  to  accept  a  perfidious  invitation  from  Sure- 
nas,  who  offered  a  pacific  interview,  at  which 
he  was  slain,  either  by  the  enemy,  or  by  some 
friend  who  desired  to  .save  him  from  the  dis- 
grace of  becoming  a  prisoner.  His  head  was 
cut  off  and  sent  to  Orodes,  who  caused  melted 
gold  to  be  poured  into  the  mouth  of  his  fallen 
enemy,  saying,  "  Sate  thyself  now  with  that 
metal  of  which  in  life  thou  wast  so  greedy." — 9. 
M,  surnamed  Dives,  son  of  No.  8,  served  un- 
der Caesar  in  Gaul,  and,  at  the  breaking  out  of 
the  civil  war  in  49,  was  praefect  in  Cisalpine 
Gaul. — 10.  P.,  younger  son  of  No  8,  was  Cae- 
sar's legate  in  Gaul  from  58  to  55.  In  54  he 
followed  his  father  to  Syria,  and  fell  in  the  bat- 
tle against  the  Parthians. — 11.  L.,  the  celebrated 
orator.  At  the  age  of  twenty -one  (B.C.  119), 
he  attracted  great  notice  by  his  prosecution  of 
C.  Carbo.  He  was  consul  in  95  with  Q.  Scae- 
vola,  when  he  proposed  a  law  to  compel  all  who 
were  not  citizens  to  depart  from  Rome :  the 
rigor  of  the  law  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
Social  war.  He  was  afterward  proconsul  of 
Gaul.  In  92  he  was  censor,  when  he  caused 
the  schools  of  the  Latin  rhetoricians  to  be  closed. 
He  died  in  91,  a  few  days  after  opposing  in  the 
senate  the  consul  L.  Philippus,  an  enemy  of  the 
aristocracy.  Crassus  was  fond  of  elegance  and 
luxury.  His  house  upon  the  Palatium  was  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  at  Rome,  and  was  adorn- 
ed with  costly  works  of  art.  As  an  orator  he 
surpassed  all  his  contemporaries.  In  the  treat- 
ise De  Oratore  Cicero  introduces  him  as  one  of 
the  speakers,  and  he  is  understood  to  express 
Cicero's  own  statements.  [The  fragments  of 
his '  orations  are  collected  and  pubh'shed  by 
Meyer,  Oratorum  Raman.  Fragmenta,  p.  291-317, 
Zurich,  1842.] 

CRASTINUB,  one  of  Caesar's  veterans,  com- 
menced the  battle  of  Pharsalia  B.C.  48,  and 
died  fighting  bravely  in  the  foremost  line. 

[CRAT^BIS  (Kparau'f),  according  to  one  leg«sid, 
the  mother  of  Scylla ;  goddess  of  sorcerers  and 
enchanters.] 

[CRAT^MENES  (KparaiuevTis),  a  native  of  Chal- 
318.  founded  the  city  of  Zancle  in  Sicily.] 
228 


CRATERUS  (Kparepof).  1.  A  distinguished  gen- 
eral of  Alexander  the  Great,  on  whose  death 
(B.C.  323)  he  received,  in  common  with  Antip 
ater,  the  government  of  Macedonia  and  Greece 
He  arrived  in  Greece  in  time  to  render  effectual 
assistance  to  Autipater  in  the  Lamian  war.  At 
the  close  of  this  war  he  married  Phila,  the 
daughter  of  Antipater.  Soon  after,  he  accom 
panied  Antipater  in  the  war  against  the  &tn- 
lians,  and  in  that  against  Perdiccas  in  Asia  He 
fell  in  a  battle  against  Eumenes  in  321. — 2. 
Brother  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  compiled  histor- 
ical documents  relative  to  the  history  of  Attica. 
— 3.  A  Greek  physician,  who  attended  the  fam- 
ily of  Atticus,  mentioned  also  by  Horace  (Satn 
ii.,  3,  161). 

CRATES  (KpdrTjf).  1.  An  Athenian  poet  of  the 
old  comedy,  began  to  flourish  B.C.  449,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  comic  poets. 
He  excelled  chiefly  in  mirth  and  fun,  and  was 
the  first  Attic  poet  who  brought  drunken  per- 
sons on  the  stage.  [His  fragments  are  collect- 
ed and  edited  by  Meineke,  Comic.  Grcec.  Fraym.. 
voL  i.,  p.  78-86,  edit  minor.]— 2.  Of  Tralles,  an 
orator  or  rhetorician  of  the  school  of  Isocrates. 
— 3.  Of  Thebes,  a  pupil  of  the  Cynic  Diogenes, 
and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Cynic 
philosophers,  flourished  about  320.  Though 
heir  to  a  large  fortune,  he  renounced  it  all,  and 
lived  and  died  as  a  true  Cynic,  disregarding  all 
external  pleasures,  and  restricting  himself  to 
the  most  absolute  necessaries.  He  received 
the  surname  of  the  "  Door-opener,"  because  it 
was  his  practice  to  visit  every  house  at  Athens 
and  rebuke  its  inmates.  He  married  Hippar- 
chia,  the  daughter  of  a  family  of  distinction, 
who  threatened  to  commit  suicide  when  her 
parents  opposed  her  union  with  the  philosopher. 
He  wrote  several  works  which  are  lost,  for  the 
epistles  e»tant  under  his  name  are  not  genuine. 
—4.  Of  Athens,  the  pupil  and  friend  of  Polemo, 
and  his  successor  in  the  chair  of  the  Academy, 
about  270.  He  was  the  teacher  of  Arcesilaiis, 
Theodorus,  and  Bion  Borysth«mtes. — 5.  Of 
Mallus  in  Cilicia,  a  celebrated  grammarian.  He 
was  brought  up  at  Tarsus,  whence  he  removed 
to  Pergamos,  where  he  founded  the  Pergamene 
school  of  grammar,  in  opposition  to  the  Alexnn- 
drean.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Ho- 
meric poems,  in  opposition  to  Aristarchus,  and 
supported  the  system  of  anomaly  (avuual.ia) 
against  that  of  analogy  (avaXoyia).  He  also 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  other  Greek  poets, 
and  works  on  other  subjects,  of  which  only  frag- 
ments have  come  down  to  us.  In  157  he  was 
sent  by  Attalus  as  an  ambassador  to  Rome, 
where  he  introduced  far  the  first  time  the  study 
of  grammar.  [His  fragments  have  been  pub- 
lished by  C.  F.  Wegener,  De  Aula  AttalicaLitt, 
Artiumque  fautrice,  vol.  i.,  Havniae,  1836.] 

[CRATESIPPIDAS  (Kparrianrnidaf),  a  Lacedae- 
monian admiral,  seized  the  citadel  of  Chios,  and 
effected  the  restoration  of  the  Chian  exiles ;  he 
was  succeeded  by  Lysander.] 

CRATHIS  (KpuOtf).  1.  (Now  Grata),  a  river 
in  Achaia,  rises  in  a  mountain  of  the  same  name 
in  Arcadia,  receives  the  Styx  flowing  down  from 
Nonacris,  and  falls  into  the  Corinthian  Gulf  near 
^Egae. — 2.  (Now  Crati),  a  river  in  lower  Italy, 
forming  the  boundary  on  the  east  oetween  Lu- 
i  cania  and  Bruttii,  and  falling  into  the  sea  neai 


CRATINUS. 


CRETA. 


Sybaris.  At  its  mouth  was  a  celebrated  tem- 
ple of  Minerva :  its  waters  were  fabled  to  .dye 
the  hair  blonde. 

CRATINUS  (Kparlvog).  1.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Athenian  poets  of  the  old  com- 
edy, was  born  B.C.  519,  but  did  not  begin  to 
exhibit  till  454,  when  he  was  sixty-five  years 
of  age.  He  exhibited  twenty-one  plays,  and 
gained  uine  victories.  He  was  the  poet  of  the 
old  comedy.  He  gave  it  its  peculiar  character, 
and  he  did  not,  like  Aristophanes,  live  to  see  its 
decline.  Before  his  time  the  comic  poets  had 
aimed  at  little  beyond  exciting  the  laughter  of 
their  audience  :  he  was  the  first  who  made  com- 
edy a  terrible  weapon  of  personal  attack,  and 
the  comic  poet  a  severe  censor  of  public  and 
private  vice.  He  is  frequently  attacked  by  Ar- 
istophanes, who  charges  him  with  habitual  in- 
temperance, an  accusation  which  was  admitted 
by  Cratinus  himself,  who  treated  the  subject  in 
a  very  amusing  way  in  his  Hvrivrj.  This  play 
was  acted  in  423,  when  the  poet  was  ninety-six 
years  of  age :  it  gained  the  prize  over  the  Con- 
nut  of  Amipsias  and  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes. 
Cratiuus  died  in  the  following  year  at  the  age 
of  ninety-seven.  [His  fragments  are  given  by 
Meiueke,  Comic,  (jfrvec.  Fragm.,  vol.  i.,  p.  7—78, 
edit  minor.] — 2.  The  younger,  an  Athenian  poet 
of  the  midale  corned}',  a  contempoi-ary  of  Plato 
the  philosopher,  flourished  as  late  as  324.  [His 
fragments  are  given  by  ileineke,  Comic.  Grcec. 
Fraqm^  vol.  ii.,  p.  684—7,  edit,  minor.] 

CEATIPPUS  (Kpurnnrof).  1.  A  Greek  historian 
and  contemporary  of  Thucydides,  whose  work 
he  completed. — 2.  A  Peripatetic  philosopher  of 
Mytileue,  a  coutemporary  of  Pompey  and  Cic- 
ero, the  latter  of  whom  praises  him  highly.  He 
accompanied  Pompey  in  his  flight  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Pharsalia,  B.C.  48.  He  afterward  settled 
at  Athens,  where  young  M.  Cicero  was  his  pupil 
in  44.  Through  the  influence  of  Cicero,  Cratip- 
pus  obtained  from  Caesar  the  Roman  citizenship. 

CEATOS  (Kparof),  the  personification  of 
strength,  a  son  of  [Pallas  and  the  Oceanid 
Styx,  represented  as  placed  near  the  throne  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  for  having  aided  him  against  the 
Titans.] 

CRATYLUS  (KparvAof),  a  Greek  philosopher,  a 
pupil  of  Heraclitus,  and  one  of  Plato's  teachers. 
Plato  introduces  him  as  one  of  the  speakers  in 
the  dialogue  which  bears  his  name. 

CREMKRA,  a  small  river  in  Etruria,  which  falls 
into  the  Tiber  a  little  above  Rome:  memorable 
for  the  death  of  the  three  hundred  Fabii. 

CREMNA  (Kpr/pva  :  ruin?  at  Gherme),  a  strong- 
.y  fortified  city  of  Pisidia,  built  on  a  precipitous 
:ock  in  the  Taurus  range,  and  noted  for  repeated 
obstinate  defences :  a  colony  under  Augustus. 

Ciih.MM  (Kpijpvot),  an  emporium  of  the  free 
Scythians  on  the  western  side  of  the  Palus 
Maiotis. 

CREJCONA  (Cremonensis:  now  Cremona),  a 
Roman  colony  in  the  north  of  Italy,  north  of  the 
Po,  and  at  no  great  distance  from  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Addua  and'  the  Po,  was  founded,  to- 
gether with  Placentia,  B.C.  219,  as  a  protection 
against  the  Gauls  and  Hannibal's  invading  army. 
It  soon  became  a  place  of  great  importance,  and 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities  in  the  north 
of  Italy  ;  but,  having  espoused  the  cause  of  Vi- 
lelliua,  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  troops  of 


Vespasian,  A.D.  69.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Vespa- 
sian, but  never  recovered  its  former  greatness. 

CREMONIS  JUGUM.     Vid.  ALPES. 

CREMUTIUS  CORDUS.     Vid.  CORDUS. 

[CREN.E  (Kprjvai,  i.  e.,  the  springs :  now  Ar- 
myro),  a  place  near  Afgos  Amphilochicum  in 
Acarnania.] 

[CRENIDES  (KpTjvidef),  earlier  name  of  the  city 
Philippi.  Vid.  PHILIPPI.] 

CREON  (Kpeuv).  1.  King  of  Corinth,  son  of 
Lycaathus,  whose  daughter,  Glauce  or  Creusa, 
married  Jason.  Medea,  thus  forsaken,  sent 
Glauce  a  garment  which  burned  her  to  death 
when  she  put  it  on ;  the  palace  took  fire,  and  Cre- 
on  perished  in  the  flames. — 2.  Son  of  Meno2cus, 
and  brother  of  Jocaste,  the  wife  of  Laius.  After 
the  death  of  Laius,  Creon  governed  Thebes  for  a 
short  time,  and  then  surrendered  the  kingdom 
to  CEdipu*,  who  had  delivered  the  country  from 
the  Sphinx.  Vid.  CEDipus.  When  Eteocles  and 
Polynices,  the  sons  of  (Edipus,  fell  in  battle 
by  each  other's  hands,  Creon  became  king  of 
Thebes.  His  cruelty  in  forbidding  burial  to  the 
corpse  of  Polynices,  and  his  sentencing  Antig- 
one to  death  for  disobeying  his  orders,  occa- 
sioned the  death  of  his  own  son  Haemon.  For 
details,  vid.  ANTIGONE. — [3.  Father  of  Lycome- 
des,  mentioned  in  the  Iliad. — 4.  Father  of  Sco- 
pas,  who  ruled  in  Thessalian  Cranon.] 

[CREONTIADES,  patronymic  from  Creon,  as  Ly- 
comedes,  <fec.  Via.  CREON,  No.  3.] 

CREOPHYLUS  (K/oeu^vAof),  of  Chios,  one  of  the 
earliest  epic  poets,  said  to  have  been  the  friend 
or  eon-in-law  of  Homer.  The  epic  poem  Ofta- 
Tiia  or  O^o^i'af  uhuaif,  ascribed  to  him,  reluted 
the  contest  which  Hercules,  for  the  sake  of  lolc, 
undertook  with  Eurytus,  and  the  capture  of 
CEchalia. 

CRESPHONTES  (KpyatpovTyc),  an  Heraclid,  son 
of  Aristomachus,  and  one  of  the  conquerors  of 
Peloponnesus,  obtained  Messenia  for  his  share. 
During  an  insurrection  of  the  Messenians,  he 
and  two  of  his  sons  were  slain.  A  third  son, 
^Epytus,  avenged  his  death.  Vid.  yEprrus. 

CRESTONIA  (Kpr/aTuvia :  17  KpTjaTuviKr/),  a  dis- 
trict in  Macedonia  between  the  Axius  and  Stry- 
mon,  near  Mount  Cercine,  inhabited  by  the 
CRESTON^EI  (KpqaTuvaloi),  a  Thracian  people : 
their  chief  town  was  CRESTON  or  CRESTONE 
(Kprjaruv,  'K.prjCTuvri),  founded  by  the  Pelns- 
gians.  This  town  is  erroneously  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  be  the  same  as  CORTONA  in  Italy 

CRETA  (Kptj-ni :  Kpriralof :  Creticus :  now 
Candia),  one  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  nearly  equidistant  from  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  but  always  reckoned  as  part 
of  Europe.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is 
about  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles :  its  breadth 
is  very  unequal,  being  in  the  widest  part  about 
thirty-five  miles,  and  in  the  narrowest  only  six. 
A  range  of  mountains  runs  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  island  from  east  to  west,  sending 
forth  .-purs  north  and  south :  in  the  centre  of 
the  island  rises  Mount  Ida  far  above  all  the 
others.  Vid.  IDA.  The  rivers  of  Crete  are  nu- 
merous, but  are  little  more  than  mountain-tor- 
rents, and  are  for  the  most  part  dry  in  summer. 
The  country  was  celebrated  in  antiquity  for  its 
fertility  and  salubrity.  Crete  was  inhabited  at 
an  early  period  by  a  numerous  and  civilized 
population.  Homer  speaks  of  its  hundred  cities 
229 


CRETEUS. 


CRiTIAS. 


f,  Jl.  ii.,  649) ;  and,  before  tbc 
Trojan  war,  mythology  told  of  a  kiug  MINOS 
who  resided  at  Cnosus,  and  ruled  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  island.  He  is  said  to  have 
given  laws  to  Crete,  and  to  have  been  the  first 
prince  who  had  a  navy,  with  which  he  sup- 
pressed piracy  in  the  uEgean.  After  his  de- 
scendants had  governed  the  island  for  some 
generations,  royalty  was  abolished,  and  the 
cities  became  independent  republics,  of  which 
Cnosus  and  Gortyna  were  the  most  important, 
and  exercised  a  kind  of  supremacy  over  the  rest. 
The  ruling  class  were  the  Dorians,  who  settled 
iu  Crete  about  sixty  years  after  the  Dorian  con- 
quest of  Peloponuesus,  and  reduced  the  former 
inhabitants,  the  Pelaegians  and  Achaeans,  to  sub- 
jection. The  social  and  political  institutions  of 
the  island  thus  became  Dorian,  and  many  of 
the  ancients  supposed  that  the  Spartan  consti- 
tution was  borrowed  from  Crete.  The  chief 
magistrates  in  the  cities  were  the  Coani,  ten  in 
number,  chosen  from  certain  families :  there 
was  also  a  Gerusia,  or  senate ;  and  an  Ecclesia, 
or  popular  assembly,  which,  however,  had  very 
little  power.  (For  details,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art 
Cosmi.)  At  a  later  time  the  power  .of  the  aris- 
tocracy was  overthrown,  and  a  democratical 
form  of  government  established.  The  ancient 
Doric  customs  likewise  disappeared,  and  the 
people  became  degenerate  in  their  morals  and 
character.  The  historian  Polybius  accuses  them 
of  numerous  vices,  and  the  Apostle  Paul,  quot- 
ing the  Cretan  poet  Epimenides,  describes  them 
us  "  always  liars,  evil  beasts,  slow  bellies"  (Titus, 
i.,  12).  The  Cretans  were  celebrated  as  arch- 
ers, aud  frequently  served  as  mercenaries  in  the 
armies  of  other  nations.  The  island  was  con- 
quered by  Q.  Metellus,  who  received  in  conse- 
quence the  surname  Creticus  (B.C.  68-66),  and 
it  became  a  Roman  province.  Crete  and  Cy- 
reuaica  subsequently  formed  one  province. 

CRETEUS  or  CATREUS  (Kp^reiJf),  son  of  Minos 
by  Pasiphae  or  Crete,  and  father  of  Althemenes. 

CUETHEUS  (KpqOevf),  son  of  ^Eolus  and  En- 
arete,  husband  of  Tyro,  and  father  of  JEson, 
Pheres,  Amythaon,  and  Hippolyte  :  he  was  the 
founder  of  lolcus. 

[CRETHON  (KpyBuv),  son  of  Diocles  of  Pherae, 
slain  by  ^Eneas  before  Troy.] 

CRETOPOLIS  (K/a^rojro/Uf),  a  town  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Milyas  in  Asia  Minor,  assigned  some- 
times to  Pisidia,  sometimes  to  Pamphylia. 

CREUSA  (Kpeovaa).  1.  A  Naiad,  daughter  of 
Oceauus,  became  by  Peneus  the  mother  of  Hyp- 
seus  and  Stilbe. — 2.  Daughter  of  Erechtheus 
and  Praxithea,  wife  of  Xuthus,  and  mother  of 
Achaeus  and  Ion.  She  is  said  to  have  been  be- 
loved by  Apollo,  whence  Ion  is  sometimes  call- 
ed her  son  by  this  god. — 3.  Daughter  of  Priam 
and  Hecuba,  wife  of  J£neas,  and  mother  of  As- 
cauius.  She  perished  on  the  night  of  the  cap- 
ture of  Troy,  having  been  separated  from  her 
Lusband  in  the  confusion. — 4.  (Or  Glance),  a 
Jaughter  of  Creon,  who  fell  a  victim  to  the  ven- 
geance of  Medea.  Vid.  CKEON,  No.  1. 

CREUSIS  or  CREUSA  (Kpevaif,  Kpeovaa  :  Kpev- 
Gievf),  a  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Boeotia, 
the  harbor  of  Thespiae. 

CRIMISA    or     CRIMISSA    (Kpiftiaa,    tUpi/ucaa : 
now  Capo  dell'  Alice),  a  promontory  on  the  east 
*rn  coast  of  Bruttium,  with  a  town  of  the  same 
230 


name  upon  it,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Phi- 
loctetes,  a  little  south  of  the  River  CRIMISUS. 

CuiMlsus  or  CRIMISSUS  (Kpifiioof,  Kpi/tiaaof), 
a  river  in  the  west  of  Sicily,  falls  into  the 
Hypsa :  on  its  banks  Timoleon  defeated  the 
Carthaginians,  B.C.  339. 

CRINAGORAS  (Kpivayopacf),  of  Mytileue,  the  au- 
thor of  fifty  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology, 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 

[CRISPINA,  wife  of  the  Emperor  Commodus 
having  proved  unfaithful,  she  was  banished  to 
Caprcie,  aud  there  put  to  death.] 

[CRISPINILLA,  CALVIA,  a  Roman  female  of  rank, 
notorious  for  her  intrigues  at  the  court  of  Nero ; 
she  is  called  by  Tacitus  Nero's  instructor  io 
voluptuousness.  Notwithstanding  her  intrigues 
and  plots,  she  managed  to  escape  with  impu- 
nity, and  even  to  be  in  favor  in  the  succeeding 
reigns  of  Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius.] 

CRISPINUS,  a  person  ridiculed  by  Horace  (Sat., 
i.,  1.  120),  is  said  to  have  written  bad  verses  on 
the  Stoic  philosophy,  and  to  have  been  surnamed 
Aretalogus. 

CRISPUS,  FLAVIUS  JULIUS,  eldest  son  of  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  was  appointed  Caesar  A.D. 
317,  and  gained  great  distinction  in  a  campaign 
against  the  Franks  and  in  the  war  with  Licin- 
ius;  but,  having  excited  the  jealousy  of  his 
step-mother  Fausta,  he  was  put  to  death  by  his 
father,  326. 

CRISPUS  PASSIENUS,  husband  of  Agrippina,  and 
step-father  of  the  Emperor  Nero,  was  distin- 
guished as  an  orator. 

CRISPUS,  VIBIUS,  of  Vercelli,  a  contemporary 
of  Quintilian,  and  a  distinguished  orator.  [The 
few  fragments  that  remain  of  his  speeches  have 
been  collected  by  Meyer,  Oral.  Roman.  Fragm., 
p.  585-588.] 

CRISSA  or  CRISA  (Koioaa,  Kplaa:  Kptaaalos), 
and  CIRRHA  (Kcpfia:  Kt/5/5aZof),  towns  in  Phocis, 
regarded  by  some  ancient,  as  well  as  by  some 
modern  writers,  as  the  same ;  but  it  seems  most 
probable  that  Crissa  was  a  town  inland  south- 
west of  Delphi,  and  that  Cirrha  was  its  port  on 
the  Crissaean  Gulf.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
towns  levied  contributions  upon  the  pilgrims 
frequenting  the  Delphic  oracle,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  Amphictyons  declared  war  against 
them,  B.C.  595,  and  eventually  destroyed  them. 
Their  territory,  the  rich  Crissaean  plain,  was 
declared  sacred  to  the  Delphic  god,  and  was  for- 
bidden to  be  cultivated.  The  cultivation  of  thu 
plain  by  the  inhabitants  of  Amphissa  led  to  the 
Sacred  war,  in  which  Philip  was  chosen  general 
of  the  Amphictyons,  338.  Crissa  remained  in 
ruins,  but  Cirrha  was  afterward  rebuilt,  and  be 
came  the  harbor  of  Delphi. 

CRITIAS  (Kpiriaf).  1.  Son  of  Dropides,  a  con- 
temporary and  relation  of  Solon's. — 2.  Son  ot 
Callaeschrus,  and  grandson  of  the  above,  wa>- 
one  of  the  pupils  of  Socrates,  by  whose  instruc 
tions  he  profited  but  little  in  a  moral  point  of 
view.  He  was  banished  from  Athens,  and  on 
his  return  he  became  leader  of  the  oligarchical 

Earty.  He  was  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants  estab- 
shed  by  the  Spartans  B.C.  404,  and  was  con- 
spicuous above  all  his  colleagues  for  rapacity 
and  cruelty.  He  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Mil- 
nychia  in  the  same  year,  fighting  against  Thra- 
sybulus  and  the  exiles.  He  was  a  distinguish- 
ed orator,  and  some  of  his  speeches  were  ex- 


CRITOLAUS 


CROION. 


tant  in  the  time  of  Cicero.  H  s  also  wrote  po- 
ems, dramas,  and  other  works.  Some  frag- 
ments of  his  elegies  are  still  extant,  [and  have 
been  collected  by  Bach,  Critice  carmina,  etc.,  qiue 
supersunt,  Lips.,  1827.] 

CRITOLAUS  (KptroAaof).  1.  Of  Phaselis  in 
Lycia,  studied  philosophy  at  Athens  under  Aris- 
ton  of  Ceos,  whom  he  succeeded  as  the  head  of 
the  Peripatetic  school.  In  B.C.  155  he  was  sent 
by  the  Athenians  as  ambassador  to  Rome  with 
Carncades  and  Diogenes.  Vid.  CARNEADES. 
He  lived  upward  of  eighty-two  years,  but  we 
have  no  further  particulars  of  his  life. — 2.  Gen- 
eral of  the  Achaean  League,  147,  distinguished 
by  his  bitter  enmity  to  the  Romans.  He  was 
defeated  by  Metellus.  and  was  never  heard  of 
after  the  battle. 

CRITON  (Kpiruv).  1.  Of  Athens,  a  friend  and 
disciple  of  Socrates,  whom  he  supported  with 
his  fortune.  He  had  made  every  arrangement 
for  the  escape  of  Socrates  from  prison,  and  tried, 
in  vain,  to  persuade  him  to  fly,  as  we  see  from 
Plato's  dialogue  named  after  him.  Criton  wrote 
seventeen  dialogues  on  philosophical  subjects, 
which  are  lost. — [2.  A  comic  poet  of  the  new 
comedy,  of  whose  plays  a  few  fragments  remain, 
collected  by  Meineke,  Comic.  Grcec.  Fragm., 
ToL  ii.,  p.  1153-4,  edit,  minor.] — 3.  A  physician 
at  Rome  in  the  first  or  second  century  after 
Christ,  perhaps  the  person  mentioned  by  Mar- 
tial (Epigr^  xL,  60,  6) :  he  wrote  several  medi- 
cal works. 

CUIU-METOPON  (Kplov  HKTU-OV),  i.  e.,  "  Ram's 
Front."  1.  A  promontory  at  the  sotath  of  the 
Tauric  Chersonesus. — 2.  (Now  Capo  Krio),  a 
promontory  at  the  southwest  of  Crete. 

CRICS  (KpZof).  one  of  the  Titans,  son  of  Ura- 
nus (Ccelus)  and  Ge  (Terra). 

CROCODILOPOLIS  (KpoKodeihuv  7ro/Uf).  1.  (Now 
Embeshunda  ?),  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  in  the  No- 
mos  Aphroditopolites. — 2.  Vid.  ARSINOE,  No.  7. 

CROCUS,  the  beloved  friend  of  Smilax,  was 
changed  by  the  gods  into  a  saffron  plant. 

CROCYLEA  (rtl  Kpo/cvAfta),  according  to  Homer 
(//.,  ii.,  633),  a  place  in  Ithaca,  but  according  to 
Strabo,  in  Leucas  in  Acarnania. 

[CROCYLIOX  (Koo/uvUov),  according  to  Thucyd- 
ides  (3,  96),  a  place  in  JEtolia,  otherwise  un- 
known.] 

CRCESUS  (Kpotcrof),  hist  king  of  Lydia,  son  of 
Alyattes,  reigned  B.C.  660-546,  but  was  proba- 
bly associated  in  the  kingdom  during  his  fa- 
ther's life.  The  early  part  of  his  reign  was 
most  glorious.  He  subdued  all  the  nations  be- 
tween the  ^Egean  and  the  River  Halys,  and 
made  the  Greeks  in  Asia  Minor  tributary  to  him. 
The  fame  of  his  power  and  wealth  drew  to  his 
court  at  Sardis  all  the  wise  men  of  Greece,  and 
among  them  Solon,  whose  interview  with  the 
king  was  celebrated  in  antiquity.  In  reply  to 
the  question  who  was  the  happiest  man  he  had 
ever  seen,  the  sage  taught  the  king  that  no  man 
should  be  deemed  happy  till  he  had  finished  bis 
life  in  a  happy  way.  Alarmed  at  the  growing 
power  of  the  Persians,  Croesus  sent  to  consult 
the  oracle  of  Arx>llo  at  Delphi  whether  he 
•hould  inarch  against  the  Persians.  Upon  the 
reply  of  the  oracle,  that,  if  he  marched  against 
the  Persians,  he  would  overthrow  a  g^eat  em- 
pire, he  collected  a  vast  army  and  marched  | 
against  Cyrus.  Near  Sinope  au  indecisive  bat- ' 


tie  was  fought  between  the  two  armies ;  where- 
upon he  returned  to  Sardis,  and  disbanded  his 
forces,  commanding  them  to  reassemble  in  the 
following  spring.  But  Cyrus  appeared  unex- 
pectedly before  Sardis ;  Croesus  led  out  the 
forces  still  remaining  with  him,  but  was  defeat- 
ed, and  the  city  was  taken  after  a  siege  of  four- 
teen days.  Cro3sus,  who  was  taken  alive,  was 
condemned  to  be  burned  to  death.  As  he  stood 
before  the  pyre,  the  warning  of  Solon  came  to 
his  mind,  and  he  thrice  uttered  the  name  of  So- 
lon. Cyrus  inquired  who  it  was  that  he  called 
on ;  and,  upon  hearing  the  story,  repented  of  his 
purpose,  aud  not  only  spared  the  hie  of  Croesus, 
but  made  him  his  friend.  Crcesus  survived  Cy- 
rus, and  accompanied  Cambyses  in  his  expedi 
tion  against  Egypt. 

CROMMYON  or  CROMYON  (Kpoppvuv,  Kpo/j.vuv\ 
a  town  in  Megaris,  on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  after 
ward  belonged  to  Corinth ;  celebrated  in  my- 
thology on  account  of  its  wild  sow,  which  was 
slain  by  Theseus. 

[CROMXA  (Kpufiva),  a  town  and  fortress  on 
the  coast  of  Paphlagonia,  between  Cytorus  and 
Amastris.] 

[CROMNI  or  CROMI  (Kpu/uvot,  and  in  Pausanias 
KpG5//ot),  a  stronghold  in  Arcadia,  on  the  borders 
of  Messenia,  in  the  district  named  from  it  CRO 
Mlxis  (Kpufurif)  its  inhabitants  were  removed 
to  Megalopolis.] 

CRONIUS  MONS  (Kpoviov  opof),  a  mountain  in 
Elis,  near  Olympia,  with  a  temple  of  Cronus 
(Saturn.) 

CRONUS  (Kpovoc),  the  youngest  of  the  Titans, 
son  of  Coalus  (Uranus)  and  Terra  (Ge),  father 
by  Rhea  of  Hestia,  Ceres  (Demeter),  Juno 
(Hera),  Pluto  (Hades),  Neptune  (Poseidon),  and 
Jupiter  (Zeus).  At  the  instigation  of  his  moth- 
er, Saturn  (Cronus)  unmanned  his  father  for 
having  thrown  the  Cyclopes,  who  were  likewise 
his  children  by  Terra  (Ge),  into  Tartarus.  Out 
of  the  blood  thus  shed  sprang  up  the  Erinnyes. 
When  the  Cyclopes  were  delivered  from  Tar- 
tarus, the  government  of  the  world  was  taken 
from  Coelus  (Uranus)  and  given  to  Saturn  (Cro- 
nus), who  in  his  turn  lost  it  through  Jupiter 
(Zeus),  as  was  predicted  to  him  by  Terra  (Ge) 
and  Coelus  (Uranus.)  Vid.  ZEUS.  The  Romans 
identified  their  Saturnus  with  Cronus.  Vid. 
SATURNUS. 

CROPIA  (Kpuireia),  an  Attic  demus  belonging 
to  the  tribe  Leontis. 

[CROSSJEA  (Kpoaaaid),  a  district  of  Macedonia, 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Thermnicus  Sinus: 
it  was  also  called  Kpovaif .] 

ROTON  or  CROTONA  (Crotonieusis,  Crotonen- 
eis,  Crotoniata  :  now  Crotona),  a  Greek  city  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Bruttium,  on  the  River 

sums,  and  in  a  very  healthy  locality,  was 
founded  by  the  Achaeans  under  Myscellus  of 
ffi,  assisted  by  the  Spartans,  B.C.  710.  Its 
extensive  commerce,  the  virtue  of  its  inhabit- 
ants, and  the  excellence  of  its  institutions,  made 
it  the  most  powerful  and  flourishing  town  in  the 
south  of  Italy.  It  owed  much  of  its  greatness 
to  Pythagoras,  who  established  his  school  here. 
Gymnastics  were  cultivated  here  in  greater  per- 
fection than  in  any  other  Greek  city  ;  and  one 
of  ita  citizens,  Mflo,  was  the  most  celebrated 
athlete  in  Greece.  It  attained  its  greatest  pow- 
er by  the  destruction  of  Syuaris  in  510;  but  « 
231 


CRUSTUMERIA. 


CUM^E. 


iubsequently  declined  in  consequence  of  the 
severe  defeat  it  sustained  from  the  Locrians  on 
the  River  Sagras.  It  suffered  greatly  in  the 
wars  with  Diouysius,  Aguthocles,  and  Phyrrhus ; 
and  in  the  second  Punic  war  a  considerable  part 
of  it  had  ceased  to  be  Inhabited.  It  received  a 
colony  from  the  Romans  in  195. 

CRUSTUMERIA,  -RIUM,  also  CRUSTUMIUM  (Crus- 
tuminus),  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  situated  in  the 
mountains  near  the  sources  of  the  Allia,  was 
conquered  both  by  Romulus  and  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  and  is  not  mentioned  in  later  times. 

CTEATUS.     Vid.  MOLIONES. 

CTESIAS  (Krijaiaf),  of  Cuidus  in  Caria,  a  con- 
temporary of  Xeuophon,  was  private  physician 
of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  whom  he  accompanied 
in  his  war  against  his  brother  Cyrus,  B.C.  401. 
He  lived  seventeen  years  at  the  Persian  court, 
and  wrote  in  the  louic  dialect  a  great  work  on 
the  history  of  Persia  (UepoiKu),  in  twenty-three 
books.  The  first  six  contained  the  history  of 
the  Assyrian  monarchy  down  to  the  foundation 
of  the  kingdom  of  Persia."  The  next  seven  con- 
tained the  history  of  Persia  down  to  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Xerxes,  and  the  remaining  ten  car- 
ried the  history  down  to  the  time  when  Ctesias 
left  Persia,  i.  e.,  to  the  year  398.  All  that  is 
now  extant  is  a  meagre  abridgment  in  Photius 
and  a  number  of  fragments  preserved  in  Diodo- 
rus  and  other  writers.  The  work  of  Ctesias 
was  compiled  from  Oriental  sources,  and  its 
statements  are  frequently  at  variance  with  those 
of  Herodotus.  Ctesias  also  wrote  a  work  on 
India  ('IvJt/tu)  in  one  book,  of  which  we  possess 
an  abridgment  in  Photius.  This  work  con- 
tains numerous  fables,  but  it  probably  gives  a 
faithful  picture  of  India,  as  it  was  conceived  by 
the  Persians.  The  abridgment  which  Photius 
made  of  the  Persica  and  Indica  of  Ctesias  has 
been  printed  separately  by  Lion,  Gottingen, 
1823,  and  by  Bahr,  Frankfort,  1824. 

CTESIBIUS  (KrrjaXtof),  celebrated  for  his  me- 
chanical inventions,  lived  at  Alexandrea  in  the 
reigns  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  and  Euergetes, 
about  B.C.  250.  His  father  was  a  barber,  but 
his  own  taste  led  him  to  devote  himself  to  me- 
chanics. He  is  said  to  have  invented  a  clepsy- 
dra or  water-clock,  a  hydraulic  organ  (•Mpavs.if), 
and  other  machines,  and  to  have  been  the  first 
to  discover  the  elastic  force  of  air  and  apply  it 
as  a  moving  power.  He  was  the  teacher,  and 
has  been  supposed  to  have  been  the  father  of 
Hero  Alexandrinus.  —  [2.  A  Greek  historian, 
who  probably  lived  at  the  time  of  the  first  Ptole- 
mies ;  according  to  Apollodorus,  he  lived  to  the 
age  of  one  hundred  and  four  years,  but  accord- 
ing to  Lucian,  to  tie  age  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-four.] 

CTESIPHON  (Kr^crt^wv),  son  of  Leosthenes  of 
Anaphlystus,  was  accused  by  ^Eschines  for  hav- 
ing proposed  the  decree  that  Demosthenes 
should  be  honored  -with  the  crown.  Vid.  Ms- 

CHINE& 

CTKSIPHON  <(K.TTiai<j>iJv  :  Kr^o-i^wvrtof :  ruins 
at  Takti  JTesra),  a  city  of  Assyria,  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  three  Roman  miles  from  Se- 
leucia  on  the  western  bank,  first  became  an  im- 
portant place  under  the  Parthians,  whose  kings 
used  it  for  some  time  as  a  winter  residence, 
and  afterward  enlarged  and  fortified  it,  and ! 
made  it  the  capital  of  their  empire.  It  is  said 
232 


to  nave  contained  at  least  one  hundred  thousand 
inhabitants.  In  the  wars  of  the  Romans  with 
the  Parthians  and  Persians,  it  was  taken,  first 
by  Trajan  (A.D.  115),  and  by  several  of  the  later 
emperors,  but  Julian  did  not  venture  to  attack 
it,  even  after  his  victory  over  the  Persians  be- 
fore the  city. 

CTESIPPUS  (Krj;ffi7r7rof).  1.  Two  sons  of  Her- 
cules, one  by  Deianira,  and  the  other  by  Asty- 
damia. — 2.  Son  of  Polytherses  of  Same,  one  of 
the  suitors  of  Penelope,  killed  by  Philoetius,  the 
cow^herd. — [3.  A  Greek  historian,  of  uncertain 
date ;  Plutarch  quotes  his  history  of  the  Scyth- 
ians, but  nothing  further  is  known  of  him. — 4.  A 
pupil  of  Socrates,  who  is  often  mentioned  by 
Plato.] 

[CTESIUS  (Kr^aiOf),  son  of  Ormenus,  and 
father  of  Eumaeus,  whom  the  Phoenicians  car- 
ried off  from  him,  and  sold  to  Laertes  in  Ithaca.] 

[CTIMKNE  (K.Tip.Evri),  sister  of  Ulysses,  young- 
est child  of  Laertes.] 

[Cucusus  (KovKovaof)  or  Cocusus  (KOKKOV- 
aof),  a  place  in  Cappadocia,  to  which  St.  Chry- 
sostom  was  banished.  Vid.  CHRYSOSTOMUS.] 

[CUBA  (now  Coo),  a  tributary  of  the  Durius, 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis.] 

CULARO,  afterward  called  GRATIANOPOLIS 
(now  Grenoble)  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Gra- 
tian,  a  town  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the  Isara 
(now  here.) 

CULLEO  or  CULEO,  Q.  TERENTIUS.  1.  A  sen- 
ator of  distinction,  was  taken  prisoner  in  the 
second  Punic  war,  and  obtained  his  liberty  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  war  B.C.  201.  To  show 
his  gratitude  to  P.  Scipio,  he  followed  his  tri- 
umphal car,  wearing  the  pileus  or  cap  of  liberty, 
like  an  emancipated  slave.  In  187  he  was  prae- 
tor peregrinus,  and  in  this  year  condemned  L. 
Scipio  Asiaticus,  on  the  charge  of  having  mis- 
appropriated the  money  gained  in  the  war  with 
Antiochus. — 2.  Tribune  of  the  plebs,  58,  exerted 
himself  to  obtain  Cicero's  recall  from  banish- 
ment In  the  war  which  followed  the  death  of 
Cffisar  (43),  Culleo  was  one  of  the  legates  of 
Lepidus. 

CUM.*  (Kt'/ij? :  Kvpalof,  Cumanus).  1.  A  town 
in  Campania,  and  the  most  ancient  of  the  Greek 
colonies  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  was  founded  by 
Cyme  in  ^Eolis,  in  conjunction  with  Chalcis  and 
Eretria  in  Eubcea.  Its  foundation  is  placed  in 
B.C.  1050,  but  this  date  is  evidently  too  early. 
It  was  situated  on  a  steep  hill  of  Mount  Gaurus, 
a  little  north  of  the  promontory  Misenum.  It 
became  in  early  times  a  great  and  flourishing 
city ;  its  commerce  was  extensive  ;  its  terri- 
tory included  a  great  part  of  the  righ  Carnpa- 
nian  plain;  its  population  was  at  least  sixty 
thousand ;  and  its  power  is  attested  by  its  col- 
onies in  Italy  and  Sicily,  Puteoli,  Palseopotia 
afterward  Neapolis,  Zancle  afterward  Messana. 
But  it  had  powerful  enemies  to  encounter  in 
the  Etruscans  and  the  Italian  nations.  It  was 
also  weakened  by  internal  dissensions,  and  one 
of  its  citizens,  Aristodemus,  made  himself  ty- 
rant of  the  place.  Its  power  became  so  mueh 
reduced  that  it  was  only  saved  from  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Etruscans  by  the  assistance  of 
Hiero,  who  annihilated  the  Etruscan  fleet,  474. 
It  maintained  its  independence  till  417,  Avheu  it 
was  taken  by  the  Campanians,  and  most  of  its 
inhabitants  sold  as  slaves.  From  this  tim« 


CUNAXA. 


CURTIUS. 


CAPL'A  became  the  chief  city  of  Campania ;  and 
although  Cumae  was  subsequently  a  Roman 
muuicipium  and  a  colony,  it  continued  to  de- 
cline in  importance.  At  hist  the  Acropolis  was 
the  only  part  of  the  town  that  remained,  and 
this  was  eventually  destroyed  by  Narses  in  his 
wars  with  the  Goths.  Cuinae  was  celebrated 
as  the  residence  of  the  earliest  Sibyl,  and  as 
the  place  where  Tarquinius  Superbus  died.  Its 
ruins  are  still  to  be  seen  between  the  Lago  di 
Patria  and  Fusaro. — [2.  A  city  of  JEolis.  Vid. 
CYME.] 

CUNAXA  (Kovva^a),  a  small  town  in  Babylo- 
nia, on  the  Euphrates,  famous  for  the  battle 
fought  here  between  the  younger  Cyrus  and 
his  brother  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  in  which  the 
former  was  killed  (B.C.  401).  Its  position  is 
uncertain.  Plutarch  (Artax^  8)  places  it  five 
hundred  stadia  (fifty  geographical  miles)  above 
Babylon ;  Xenophon,  who  does  not  mention  it 
by  name,  makes  the  battle  field  three  hundred 
and  sixty  stadia  (thirty-six  geographical  miles) 
from  Babyloa 

[CuxEus.  1.  Ager  (now  Algarve),  the  south- 
ern part  of  Lusitania,  where  the  Conii  dwelt, 
from  whom  it  was  probably  so  called,  and  not 
from  its  wedge-like  shape. — 2.  Promontorium  (now 
Cabo  di  8.  Maria),  the  southern  point  of  the 
Cuneus  Ager.] 

[CUPENCUS,  a  Virgilian  hero,  one  of  the  follow- 
ers of  Turnus,  slain  by  ^Eneas.] 

[CUPIDO.      Vid.  EROS.] 

CUPIEXSIUS,  attacked  by  Horace  (Sat.,  L,  2,  36), 
s  said  by  the  Scholiast  to  have  been  a  friend  of 
Augustus,  but  is  probably  a  fictitious  name. 

CUPRA  (Cuprensis).  1.  MARTTIMA  (now  Ma- 
rano,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Monecchia),  a  town  in 
Picenum,  with  an  ancient  temple  of  Juno,  found- 
ed by  the  Pelasgians  and  restored  by  Hadrian. — 
2.  MOXTAXA,  a  town  near  No.  1,  in  the  mount- 
ains. 

CURES  (Gen.  Curium),  an  ancient  town  of  the 
Sabines,  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  T.  Ta- 
tius  and  Numa  Pompilius :  from  this  town  the 
Romans  are  said  to  have  derived  the  name  of 
Quirites. 

CURETES  (KovpijTiif),  &  mythical  people,  said 
to  be  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Acarnania 
and  Italia ;  the  latter  country  was  called  Cu- 
retis  from  them.  They  also  occur  in  Crete  as 
the  priests  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  are  spoken  of 
in  connection  with  the  Corybantes  and  Idaean 
DactylL.  The  infant  Jupiter  (Zeus)  was  intrusted 
to  their  care  by  Rhea ;  and  by  clashing  their 
weapons  in  a  warlike  dance,  they  drowned  the 
cries  of  the  child,  and  prevented  his  father  Sat- 
urn (Cronus)  from  ascertaining  the  place  where 
be  was  concealed. 

CURIAS.      Vid,  CURIUM. 

CURIATII,  a  celebrated  Alban  family.      Three 
brothers  of  this  family  fought  with  three  Roman 
brothers,  the  Horatii,  and  were  conquered  by  | 
the  latter.    In  consequence  of  their  defeat,  Alba 
became  subject  to  Rome. 

CURIATIUS  MATERXUS.     Vid.  MATERXUS, 

CURIO,  C.  SCRIBONIUS.  1.  Praetor  B.C.  121, 
was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  orators  of  his 
time. — 2.  Son  of  No.  1,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
90  ;  afterward  served  under  Sulla  in  Greece ; 
was  przetor  82 :  consul  76  ;  and  after  his  con- 
sulship obtained  the  province  of  Macedonia, 


where  he  carried  on  war  against  the  barbarian* 
as  far  north  as  the  Danube.  He  was  a  personal 
enemy  of  Caesar,  and  supported  P.  Clodius  when 
the  latter  was  accused  of  violating  the  sacra  of 
the  Bona  Dea.  In  57  he  was  appointed  ponti- 
fex  maximus,  and  died  53.  He  had  some  rep- 
utation as  an  orator,  and  was  a  friend  of  Cicero. 
— 3.  Son  of  No.  2,  also  a  friend  of  Cicero,  was 
a  most  profligate  character.  He  was  married 
to  Fulvia,  afterward  the  wife  of  Antony.  He 
at  first  belonged  to  the  Pompeian  party,  by 
whose  influence  he  was  made  tribune  of  the 
plebs,  50 ;  but  he  was  bought  over  by  Cossar, 
and  employed  his  power  as  tribune  against  his 
former  friends.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  (49),  he  was  sent  by  Caesar  to  Sicily 
with  the  title  of  propraetor.  He  succeeded  in 
driving  Cato  out  of  the  island,  aud  then  crossed 
over  to  Africa,  where  he  was  defeated  and  slain 
by  Juba  and  P.  Attius  Varus. 

CURIOSOLIT^E,  a  Gallic  people  on  the  ocean 
in  Armorica,  near  the.Veneti,  in  the  country  of 
the  modern  Corseidt,  near  St  Halo. 

CURIUM  (Kovpcov  :  Kovptevf  :  ruins  near  Pis- 
copia),  a  town  on  the  southern  coast  of  Cyprus, 
near  the  promontory  CURIAS,  west  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Lycus. 

CURIUS  DEXTATUS.     Vid.  DEXTATUS. 

CURIUS,  AT.  1.  An  intimate  friend  of  Cicero 
and  Atticus,  lived  for  several  years  as  a  nego- 
tiator at  Patrae  in  Peloponnesus.  In  his  will  he 
left  his  property  to  Atticus  and  Cicero.  Sev- 
eral of  Cicero's  letters  are  addressed  to  him. — 
[2.  Q.,  a  Roman  senator,  who  was  candidate 
for  the  consulship  B.C.  64,  but  lost  his  election, 
and  for  his  vices  was  ejected  from  the  senate : 
he  joined  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  andgtt  was 
through  his  mistress  Fulvia,  to  whom  he  related 
their  designs,  that  Cicero  obtained  the  informa- 
tion which  enabled  him  to  crush  the  conspiracy.] 

CURSOR,  L.  PAPIRIUS.  1.  A  distinguishea 
Roman  general  in  the  second  Samnite  war,  was 
five  times  consul  (B.C.  333,  320,  319,  315,  313), 
and  twice  dictator  (325,  309).  He  frequently 
defeated  the  Samnites,  but  his  greatest  victory 
over  them  was  gained  in  his  second  dictator- 
ship. Although  a  great  general,  he  was  not 
popular  with  the  soldiers  on  account  of  his  se- 
verity.— 2.  Son  of  No.  1,  was,  like  his  father,  a 
distinguished  general.  In  both  his  consulships 
(293,  272)  he  gained  great  victories  over  the 
Samnites,  and  in  the  second  he  brought  the 
third  Samnite  war  to  a  close. 

CURTIUS,  METTUS  or  METTIUS,  a  distinguish- 
ed Sabine,  fought  with  the  rest  of  his  nation 
against  Romulus.  According  to  one  tradition, 
the  Locus  Curtius,  which  was  part  of  the  Roman 
forum,  was  called  after  him ;  because  iu  the 
battle  with  the  Romans  he  escaped  with  diffi- 
culty from  a  swamp,  into  which  his  horse  had 
plunged.  But  the  more  usual  tradition  respect- 
ing the  name  of  the  Lacus  Curtius  related  that 
in  B.C.  362  the  earth  in  the  forum  gave  way,  and 
a  great  chasm  appeared,  which  the  soothsayers 
declared  could  only  be  filled  up  by  throwing  into 
it  Rome's  greatest  treasure  ;  that  thereupon  M. 
Curtius,  a  noble  youth,  mounted  his  steed  in  full 
armor ;  and  declaring  that  Rome  possessed  no 
greater  treasure  than  a  brave  and  gallant  citizen, 
leaped  into  the  abyss,  upon  which  the  earth  closed 
over  xiiin 

233 


CURTIUS   MONTANUS. 


CYCNUS. 


Ctnrlus  Mo.vrANUS.  Vid.  MONTAM  >. 
CUKTIUS  KUFUS,  Q^  the  Roman  historian  of 
Alexander  the  Great  Respecting  his  life,  and 
the  time  at  which  he  lived,  nothing  is  known 
with  certainty.  Some  critics  place  him  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Vespasian,  and  others  as  late  as 
Constantine :  but  the  earlier  date  is  more  prob- 
able than  the  later.  The  work  itself,  entitled 
De  Kebus  Gcatis  Alexandra  Magni,  consisted  of 
ten  books,  but  the  first  two  are  lost,  and  the  re- 
maining eight  are  not  without  considerable 
gaps.  It  is  written  in  a  pleasing  though  some- 
what declamatory  style.  It  is  taken  from  good 
sources,  but  the  author  frequently  shows  his 
ignorance  of  geography,  chronology  and  tactics. 
The  best  editions  are  by  Zumpt,  Berlin,  1826, 
small  edition;  Miitzell,  Berlin,  1843;  [and  by 
Zumpt,  Berlin,  1849,  with  copious  comment- 
ary.] 

CUTILLE  AQU^E.  Vid.  AQU^E,  No.  3. 
CYANE  (Kvuvrj),  a  Sicilian  nymph  and  play- 
mate of  Proserpina  (Persephone),  changed  into  a 
fountain  through  grief  at  the  loss  of  the  goddess. 
CYANIDE  INSULTS  (Kvuvetu  vfiaoi  or  irerpai, 
now  Vrek-Jaki),  two  small  rocky  islands  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Thracian  Bosporus  into  the 
Euxine,  the  PLANCT^E  (II/lay/cr<u)  and  SYMPLE- 
GADES  CZvfj,ir/i.7iyd6£f)  of  mythology,  so  called 
because  they  are  said  to  have  been  once  mova- 
ble and  to  have  rushed  together,  and  thus  de- 
stroyed every  ship  that  attempted  to  pass 
through  them.  After  the  ship  Argo  had  passed 
through  them  in  safety,  they  became  stationary. 
Vid.  p.  91,  a 

CYAXARES  (Kva^dprif),  king  of  Media  B.C. 
634-594,  son  of  Phraortes,  and  grandson  of 
Deiocft.  He  was  the  most  warlike  of  the  Me- 
dian kings,  and  introduced  great  military  re- 
forms. He  defeated  the  Assyrians,  who  had 
slain  his  father  in  battle,  and  he  laid  siege  to 
Ninus  (Nineveh).  But  while  he  was  before 
the  city,  he  was  defeated  by  the  Scythians,  who 
held  the  dominion  of  Upper  Asia  for  tw,enty- 
eight  years  (634-607),  but  were  at  length  driven 
out  of  Asia  by  Cyaxares.  After  the  expulsion 
of  the  Scythians,  Cyaxares  again  turned  his 
arms  against  Assyria,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
King  of  Babylon  (probably  the  father  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar), he  took  and  destroyed  Ninus  in 
606.  He  subsequently  carried  on  war  for  five 
years  against  Alyattes,  king  of  Lydia.  Vid. 
ALYATTES.  Cyaxares  died  in  594,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Astyages.  Xenophon  speaks 
of  a  Cyaxares  IL,  king  of  Media,  son  of  Astya- 
ges, respecting  whom,  vid.  CYRUS. 
CYBELE.  Vid.  RHEA. 

CYBISTRA  (ra  Kt>6f<rrpa),  an  ancient  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  several  times  mentioned  by  Cicero 
(Ep.  ad  Fam.,  xv.,  2,  4 ;  ad  Alt.,  v.,  18,  20),  who 
describes  it  as  lying  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus, 
in  the  part  of  Cappadocia  bordering  on  Cilicia. 
Strabo  places  it  three  hundred  stadia  (thirty  geo- 
graphical miles)  from  Tyana.  Mention  is  made 
of  a  place  of  the  same  name  (now  Kara  Hissar), 
between  Tyana  and  Csesarea  ad  Argaeum ;  but 
this  latter  can  hardly  be  believed  to  be  identical 
with  the  former. 

CYCLADES  (K.VK^u6ef),  a  group  of  islands  in 
the   uEgean  Sea,  so  called  because  they  lay  in 
a  circle  (b>  /ctJ/cAu)  around  Delos,  the  most  im- 
portant of  them.    According  to  Strabo  they  were 
234 


twelve  in  number  ;  but  their  number  is  increas- 
ed by  other  writers.  The  most  important  of 
them  were  DELOS,  CEOS,  CVTHNOS,  SERIPHOS, 
RHENIA,  SIPHNOS,  CIMOLOS,  NAXOS,  PAEOS,  Sv 
ROS,  MYCONOS,  TENDS,  AXDROS. 

CYCLOPES  (KwcAwTref),  that  is,  creatures  with 
round  or  circular  eyes,  are  described  differently 
by  different  writers.  Homer  speaks  of  them  as 
a  gigantic  and  lawless  race  of  shepherds  in  Si- 
cily, who  devoured  human  beings  and  cared 
nought  for  Jupiter  (Zeus) :  each  of  them  had 
only  one  eye  in  the  centre  of  his  forehead  :  the 
chief  among  them  was  POLYPHEMUS.  Accord- 
ing to  Hesiod,  the  Cyclopes  were  Titans,  sons 
of  Ccelus  (Uranus)  and  Terra  (Ge),  were  three 
in  number,  ARGES,  STEROPES,  and  BRONTES,  and 
each  of  them  had  only  one  eye  on  his  forehead. 
They  were  thrown  into  Tartarus  by  Saturn  (Cro- 
nus), but  were  released  by  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and, 
in  consequence,  they  provided  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
with  thunderbolts  and  lightning,  Pluto  with  a 
helmet,  and  Neptune  (Poseidon)  with  a  trident 
They  were  afterward  killed  by  Apollo  for  having 
furnished  Jupiter  (Zeu&)  with  the  thunderbolts 
to  kill  ^Esculapius.  A  still  later  tradition  re- 
garded the  Cyclopes  as  the  assistants  of  Vulcan 
(Hephaestus).  Volcanoes  were  the  work-shops 
of  that  god,  and  Mount  ^Etna  in  Sicily  and  the 
neighboring  isles  were  accordingly  considered 
as  their  abodes.  As  the  assistants  of  Vulcan 
(Hephaestus),  they  make  the  metal  armor  and 
ornaments  for  gods  aud  heroes.  Their  number 
is  no  longer  confined  to  three  ;  and  besides  the 
names  mentioned  by  Hesiod,  we  also  find  those 
of  PYRACMON  and  ACAMAS.  The  name  of  Cy- 
clopian  walls  was  given  to  the  walls  built  of 
great  masses  of  unhewn  stone,  of  which  speci- 
mens are  still  to  be  seen  at  Mycenae  and  other 
parts  of  Greece,  and  also  in  Italy.  They  were 
probably  constructed  by  the  Pelasgians ;  and 
later  generations,  being  struck  by  their  gran- 
deur, ascribed  their  building  to  a  fabulous  race 
of  Cyclopes. 

CYCNUS  (KVKVOS).  1.  Son  of  Apollo  by  Hyrie. 
lived  in  the  district  between  Pleuron  and  Caly- 
don,  and  was  beloved  by1  Phyllius ;  but  as  Phyl- 
lius  refused  him  a  bull,  Cycnus  leaped  into  a 
lake  and  was  metamorphosed  into  a  swan. — 2. 
3on  of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  was  king  of  Colonee 
in  Troas,  and  father  of  Tenes  and  Hemithea. 
His  second  wife,  Philonome,  fell  in  love  with 
Tenes,  her  step-son,  and  as  he  refused  her  of- 
fers, she  accused  him  to  his  father,  who  threw 
Tenes  with  Hemithea  in  a  chest  into  the  sea. 
Tenes  escaped  and  became  king  of  Tenedos. 
Vid.  TENES.  In  the  Trojan  war  both  Cycnus 
and  Tenes  assisted  the  Trojans,  but  both  were 
slain  by  Achilles.  As  Cycnus  could  not  be 
wounded  by  iron,  Achilles  strangled  him  with 
the  thong  of  his  helmet,  or  killed  him  with  a 
stone.  When  Achilles  was  going  to  strip  Cyc 
nus  of  his  armor,  the  body  disappeared,  and  wa* 
changed  into  a  ewan. — 3.  Son  of  Mars  (Aresj 
and  Pelopia,  slain  by  Hercules  at  Itone. — 4.  Sow 
of  Mars  (Ares)  and  Pyrene,  likewise  killed  by 
Hercules. — 5.  Son  of  Sthenelus,  king  of  the 
Ligurians,  and  a  friend  and  relation  of  Phaethou 
While  he  was  lamenting  the  fate  of  Phae'thon  on 
the  banks  of  the  Eridanus,  he  was  metamorph- 
osed by  Apollo  into  a  swan,  and  placed  among 
the  stars. 


CYDIAS. 


CYNOSURA. 


CTDIAS.  1.  A  celebrated  painter  from  the  island 
of  Cythuus,  B.C.  864,  whose  picture  of  the  Ar- 
gonauts was  exhibited  in  a  porticus  by  Agrippa  \ 
at  Rome. — [2.  An  Athenian  orator,  a  contempo- 
rary of  Demosthenes ;  an  oration  of  his,  irepi 
T%  ~Lu.fj.ov  K^,r/povxiaf,  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle. 
— 3.  An  early  Greek  poet,  classed  by  Plutarch 
with  Mimnermus  and  Archilochus.  His  frag- 
ments are  given  in  the  collections  of  Schnei de- 
win  and  Bergk.] 

CYDIPPE.     Vid.  ACONTITJS. 

Groses  (Kvdvof.  now  Tersoost-Chai),  a  river 
of  Cilicia  Campestris,  rising  in  the  Taurus,  and 
flowing  through  the  midst  of  the  city  of  Tarsus, 
•where  it  is  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  wide 
(Kinneir:  Xeuophon  says  two  plethra=two 
hundred  and  two  feet).  It  was  celebrated  for 
the  clearness  and  coldness  of  its  water,  which 
was  esteemed  useful  in  gout  and  nervous  dis- 
eases, but  by  bathing  in  which  Alexander  nearly 
lost  his  life.  At  its  mouth  the  river  spread  into 
a  lagune,  which  formed  the  harbor  of  Tarsus, 
but  which  is  now  choked  with  sand.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  river  was  called  Hierax. 

CYDONIA,  more  rarely  CYDOXIS  (Kvduvia,  Kvfiu- 
vlf  :  KvduviuTTjs  :  now  Khanid),  one  of  the  chief 
cities  of  Crete,  the  rival  and  opponent  of  CNO- 
BUS  and  GORTYNA,  was  situated  on  the  north- 
western coast  and  derived  its  name  from  the 
CYDONES  (Kvduvef),  a  Cretan  race,  placed  by 
Homer  in  the  western  part  of  the  island.  At  a 
later  time  a  colony  of  Zacynthians  settled  in 
Cydonia ;  they  were  driven  out  by  the  Samians 
auout  B.C.  524 ,  and  the  Samians  were  in  their 
turn  expelled  by  the  ^Eginetans.  Cydonia  was 
the  place  from  which  quinces  (Cydonia  mala) 
were  first  brought  to  Italy,  and  its  inhabitants 
were  some  of  the  best  Cretan  archers  (Gydonio 
arcu,  Hor.,  Cartn.,  iv.,  19,  17). 

[CYDEAEA  (K.vdpapa),  a  city  on  the  borders  of 
Phrygia  and  Lydia,  where  a  monument  was  set 
up  by  Croesus  to  mark  the  boundaries.] 

CYLLAEUS  (KvAhapoc),  a  beautiful  centaur, 
killed  at  the  wedding  feast  of  Pirithous.  The 
horse  of  Castor  was  likewise  called  Cyllarus. 

CYLLENE  (Kv^jjvjj).  1.  (Now  Zyria),  the 
highest  mountain  in  Peloponnesus  on  the  front- 
iers of  Arcadia  and  Achaia,  sacred  to  Hermes 
(Mercury),  who  had  a  temple  on  the  summit, 
was  said  to  have  been  born  there,  and  was  hence 
called  Cyllenius!— 2.  (Now  Clriarenza),  a  sea- 
port town  of  Elis. 

CYLON  (KvAuv),  an  Athenian  of  noble  family, 
married  the  daughter  of  Theagenes,  tyrant  of 
Megara,  and  gained  an  Olympic  victory  B.C. 
640.  Encouraged  by  the  Delphic  oracle,  he 
seized  the  Acropolis,  intending  to  make  him- 
self tyrant  of  Athens.  Pressed  by  famine,  Cy- 
1"M  and  his  adherents  were  driven  to  take  refuge 
at  the  altar  of  Minerva  (Athena),  whence  they 
were  induced  to  withdraw  by  the  archon  Meg- 
ncles,  the  Alcmaeonid,  on  a  promise  that  their 
lives  should  be  spared.  But  their  enemies  put 
them  to  death  as  soon  as  they  had  them  in  their 
power. 

CYME  (Kv/tr) :  Kvpalof :  now  Sandakli),  the 
largest  of  the  JEolian  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  stood 
upon  the  coast  of  JSolis,  on  a  bay  named  after 
it  Curnaus  (also  Elaiticus)  Sinus  (6  Kvpalof 
Ko/i7rof :  now  Gulf  of  Sandakli),  and  had  a  good 
Uiu  bor.  It  was  founded  by  a  colony  of  Locrians 


from  Mount  Phricius,  and  hence  it  had  the  epi- 
thet QpiKuvif.  It  was  the  native  place  of  Epho- 
rus,  and  the  mother  city  of  Side  in  Pamphylia 
and  of  Cumae  in  Campauia. 

[CYMODOCE  (K.vu.odoKr]'),  one  of  the  Nereids 
(Horn,  and  Hes.) ;  in  Virgil,  one  of  those  nymphs 
into  whom  Cybele  metamorphosed  the  ships  of 
.iEneas.] 

[CYMOTHOE  (K.v/j.odorf),  one  of  the  Nereids.] 

CYNA.     Vid.  CYNANE. 

CYN^EGIEUS  (Kvvaiyeipoe),  brother  of  the  poet 
^Eschylus,  distinguished  himself  by  his  valor  at 
the  battle  of  Marathon,  B.C.  490.  According 
to  Herodotus,  when  the  Persians  were  endeav- 
oring to  escape  by  sea,  Cynaegirus  seized  one 
of  their  ships  to  keep  it  back,  but  fell  with  his 
right  hand  cut  off.  In  the  later  versions  of  the 
story,  Cynaegirus  is  made  to  perform  still  more 
heroic  deeds. 

CYIWETBJ^  (KvvaiBa :  Kvvaidevf,  -daievf),  a 
town  in  tW  north  of  Arcadia,  whose  inhabit- 
ants, uulike  the  other  Arcadians,  had  a  dislike 
to  music,  to  which  circumstance  Polybius  at- 
tributes their  rough  and  demoralized  character. 

CYNANE,  CYNA,  or  CYNNA  (Kwavq,  Kiiva,  Kw- 
va),  half-sister  to  Alexander  the  Great,  daugh- 
ter of  Philip  by  Audata,  an  Illyrian  woman. 
She  was  married  to  her  cousin  Amyntas ;  and 
after  the  death  of  Alexander  she  crossed  over 
to  Asia,  intending  to  marry  her  daughter  Euryd- 
iee  to  Arrbidaeus,  who  had  been  chosen  king. 
Her  project  alarmed  Perdiccas,  by  whose  order 
she  was  put  to  death. 

CYNESII  or  CYNETES  (Kvvjjaiot,  Kw^ref),  a 
people,  according  to  Herodotus,  dwelling  in  the 
extreme  west  of  Europe,  beyond  the  Celts,  ap 
parently  in  Spain. 

[CYNICI.     Vid.  DIOGENES,  ANTISTHENES.] 

CYNISCA  (Rvviaica),  daughter  of  Archidamut 
IL,  king  of  Sparta,  was  the  first  woman  whr 
kept  horses  for  the  games,  and  the  first  who 
gained  an  Olympic  victory. 

CYNOPOLIS  (Kwdf  vro/Uf :  now  Samallouf),  a 
city  of  the  Heptanomis,  or  Middle  Egypt,  on  an 
island  in  the  Nile ;  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship 
of  Anubis.  There  was  a  city  of  the  same  name 
in  the  Delta. 

CYNOS  (Kwof:  Kwtof,  KwaZof),  the  chief 
sea-port  in  the  territory  of  the  Locri  Opuntii. 

CYNOSAEGES  (TO  Kwooapyef),  a  gymnasium, 
sacred  to  Hercules,  outside  Athens,  east  of  th* 
city,  and  before  the  gate  Diomga,  for  the  use  of 
those  who  were  not  of  pure  Athenian  blood . 
here  taught  Antisthenes,  the  founder  of  the 
Cynic  school 

CYNOSCEPHALJS  (Kwof  Ketya?*ai),  "  Dogs' 
Heads."  1.  Two  hills  near  Scotussa  in  Thes- 
aaly,  where  Flaminius  gained  his  celebrated 
victory  over  Philip  of  Macedonia,  B.C.  197. — 
2.  A  hill  between  Thebes  and  Thespias,  in  Bo> 
otia. 

CYNOSSKMA  (Kvvdf  af/pa),  "Dog's  Tomb,"  ?• 
promontory  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  neai 
Madytus,  so  called  because  it  was  supposed  to 
be  the  tomb  of  Hecuba,  who  had  been  previous- 
ly changed  into  a  dog. 

CYNOSCEA  (Kwofovpa),  an  Idaean  nymph,  and 
one  of  the  nurses  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  placed 
her  among  the  stars.  Vid.  AECTOS. 

CYSOSCEA  (Kwofovpa),  "  Dog's  Tail,"  a  prom- 
ontory in  Attica,  south  of  Marathon. 
235 


CYNTHIA. 


CYRENAICA. 


CYNTHIA  and  CYNTHIUS  (Kwdia  and  Kt'v0/of), 
surnames  respectively  of  Diaua  (Artemis)  and 
Apollo,  which  they  derived  from  Mount  Cyuthus 
in  the  island  of  Delos,  their  birth-place. 

CYNCRIA  (Kvvovpia  :  Kvvovpiof),  a  district  on 
the  frontiers  of  Argolis  and  Laconia,  for  the 
possession  of  -which  the  Argives  and  Spartans 
carried  on  frequent  -wars,  and  which  the  Spar- 
tans at  length  obtained  about  B.C.  650.  Vid. 
p.  92,  a.  The  inhabitants  were  lonians. 

CYPARISSIA  (Kvnapiaata).  1.  A  town  in  Mes- 
senia,  on  the  western  coast,  south,  of  the  River 
Cyparissus,  and  on  a  promontory  and  bay  of  the 
same  name.  Homer  (77,  ii,  693)  speaks  of  a 
town  CYPARISSEIS  (Kvrrapiffa^eif)  subject  to 
Nestor,  which  is  probably  the  same  as  the  pre- 
ceding, though  Strabo  places  it  in  Triphylia. — 
2.  A  town  in  Laconia,  on  a  peninsula  near  the 
Asopus. 

CYPARISSUS  (Kvnuptaaof),  son  of-Telephus, 
beloved  by  Apollo  or  Silvanus.  Hlmng  inad- 
vertently killed  his  favorite  stag,  he  was  seized 
with  immoderate  grief,  and  metamorphosed  into 
a  cypress. 

CYPARISSUS  (Kvirdpiaaof),  a  small  town  in 
Phocis,  on  Parnassus,  near  Delphi. 

CYPHANTA  (r<i  K.v<j>avTa),  a  town  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Laconia,  near  Prasise. 

CYPRIA,  CYPRIS,  surnames  of  Venus  (Aphro- 
dite), from  the  island  of  CYPRUS. 

CYPRIANUS,  a  celebrated  father  of  the  Church, 
was  a  native  of  Africa  He  was  a  heathen  by 
birth,  and  before  his  conversion  to  Christianity 
he  taught  rhetoric  with  distinguished  success. 
He  was  converted  about  A.D.  246,  was  ordain- 
ed a  presbyter  247,  and  was  raised  to  the  bish- 
opric of  Carthage  248.  When  the  persecution 
of  Decius  burst  forth  (250),  Cyprian  fled  from 
the  storm,  and  remained  two  years  in  retire- 
ment. A  few  years  afterward  the  emperor  Vale- 
rian renewed  the  persecution  against  the  Chris- 
tians. Cyprian  was  banished  by  Paternus  the 
proconsul  to  the  maritime  city  of  Curubis,  where 
he  resided  eleven  months.  He  was  then  recall- 
ed by  the  new  governor,  Galerius  Maximus,  and 
was  beheaded  in  a  spacious  plain  without  the 
walla  A.D.  258.  He  wrote  several  works  which 
have  come  down  to  us.  They  are  characterized 
by  lucid  arrangement,  and  eloquent,  though  de- 
clamatory style.  The  best  editions  are  by  Fell, 
Oxford,  1682,  foL,  to  which  are  subjoined  the 
Annales  Cyprianici  of  Pearson ;  and  that  com- 
menced by  Baluze,  and  completed  by  a  monk 
of  the  fraternity  of  St  Maur,  Paris,  1726,  fol. 
[A  convenient  and  useful  edition  is  that  pub- 
lished in  the  collection  of  Caillau  and  Guillon, 
Paris,  1829,  8vo.] 

CYPRUS  (Kinrpoc :  Kvirpiof  :  now  Cyprus,  call- 
ed by  the  Turks  Kebris),  a  large  island  in  the 
Mediterranean,  south  of  Cilicia,  and  west  of 
Syria.  It  is  called  by  various  names  in  the 
poets,  Cerastia  or  Cerastis,  Macaria,  Sphecia, 
Acamantis,  Amatkusia,  and  also  Paphos.  The 
island  is  of  a  triangular  form :  its  length  from 
east  to  west  is  about  one  hundred  and  forty 
miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  which  is  in  the 
western  part,  is  about  fifty  miles  from  north  to 
south,  but  it  gradually  narrows  towards  the  east 
A  range  of  mountains,  called  Olympus  by  the 
ancients,  runs  through  the  whole  length  of  the 
island  from  east  to  west,  and  rises  in  one  part 
236 


more  than  seven  thousand  feet  in  height.  The 
plains  are  chiefly  in  the  south  of  the  island,  and 
were  celebrated  in  ancient  as  well  as  in  modern 
times  for.  their  fertility.  The  largest  plain,  call- 
ed the  Salaminian  plain,  is  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  island,  near  Salamis.  The  rivers  are  lit- 
tle more  than  mountain  torrents,  mostly  dry  in 
summer.  Cyprus  was  colonized  by  the  PhcBni- 
cians  at  a  very  early  period ;  and  Greek  colo- 
nies were  subsequently  planted  in  the  island, 
according  to  tradition  soon  after  the  Trojan 
war.  We  read  at  first  of  nine  independent 
states,  each  governed  by  its  own  king,  SALAMIS, 
CITIUM,  AMATHUS,  CURIUM,  PAPHOS,  MARIUM, 
SOLI,  LAPETHUS,  CERYNIA.  The  island  was  sub- 
dued by  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt,  about  B.C.  540. 
Upon  the  downfall  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy,  it 
became  subject  to  the  Persians ;  but  EVAGORAS 
of  Salamis,  after  a  severe  struggle  with  the  Per- 
sians, established  its  independence  about  385, 
and  handed  down  the  sovereignty  to  his  sou 
NICOCLES.  It  eventually  fell  to  the  share  of  the 
Ptolemies  in  Egypt,  and  was  governed  by  them, 
sometimes  united  to  Egypt,  and  sometimes  by 
separate  princes  of  the  royal  family.  In  58  the 
Romans  made  Cyprus  one  of  their  provinces, 
and  sent  M.  Cato  to  take  possession  of  it.  Cy- 
prus was  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  worship 
of  Aphrodite  (Veuus),  who  is  hence  called  Cy- 
pris  or  Cypria,  and  whose  worship  was  intro- 
duced into  the  island  by  the  Phoenicians. 

CYPSELA  (TO.  KwpsTia :  KvipeAlvof,  -Tnjvdg.  1. 
A  town  in  Arcadia,  on  the  frontiers  of  Laconia. 
— 2.  (Now  Ipsalla),  a  town  in  Thrace,  on  the 
Hebrus  and  Uie  Egnatia  Via. 

CYPSELUS  (Kv^eAof).  1.  Father  of  Merope 
and  grandfather  of  jEpytus.  Vid.  ^EPYTUS. — 
2.  Of  Corinth,  son  of  JEetion.  The  mother  of 
Cypselus  belonged  to  the  house  of  the  Bacchia- 
dae, that  is,  to  the  Doric  nobility  of  Corinth. 
According  to  tradition,  she  married  ^Eetion,  be- 
cause, being  ugly,  she  met  with  no  one  among 
the  Bacchiadae  who  would  have  her  as  his  wife. 
As  the  oracle  of  Delphi  had  declared  that  her 
son  would  prove  formidable  to  the  ruling  party 
at  Corinth,  the  Bacchiadae  attempted  to  murder 
the  child.  But  his  mother  concealed  him  in  a 
chest  (Kvip&T)),  from  which  he  derived  his  name 
Cypselus.  When  he  had  grown  up  to  manhood, 
he  expelled  the  Bacchiadae,  with  the  help  of  the 
people,  and  then  established  himself  as  tyrant. 
He  reigned  thirty  years,  B.C.  655-625,  ana  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Periander.  The  cele- 
brated chest  of  Cypselus,  consisting  of  cedar 
wood,  ivory,  and  gold,  and  richly  adorned  with 
figures  in  relief,  is  described  at  length  by  Pau- 
sanias  (v.,  17,  <fcc.). 

CYRAUNIS  (Kvpavyif),  an  island  off  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Africa,  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (iv, 
95) ;  probably  the  same  as  CERCINE. 

CYRENAICA  (r)  T&vprjvaia,  ij  Kvprjvairj  x<*>ptl,  He- 
rod. :  now  Dernah  or  Jebel-Akhdar,  i.  e.,  th« 
Green  Mountain,  the  northeastern  part  of  Trip- 
oli), a  district  of  Northern  Africa,  between  Mar- 
marica  on  the  east  and  the  Regio  Syrtica  on 
the  west,  was  considered  to  extend  in  its  widest 
limits  from  the  Philaenorum  Arae  at  the  bottom 
of  the  Great  Syrtis  to  the  Chersonesus  Magna 
or  northern  headland  of  the  Gulf  of  Platea  (now 
Gulf  of  Bomba),  or  even  to  the  Catabathmua 
Magnus  (now  Marsa  Sollum) ;  but  the  part  ac- 


CYRENAICA. 


CYRILLUS. 


tually  possessed  and  cultivated  by  the  Greek 
colonists  can  only  be  considered  as  beginning 
at  the  northern  limit  of  the  sandy  shores  of  the 
Great  Syrtis,  at  Boreum  Promontorium  (now 
Rat  Teyonas,  south  of  Sen-G/iazi),  between 
which  and  the  Chersonesus  Magna  the  country 
projects  into  the  Mediterranean  in  the  form  of 
a  segment  of  a  circle,  whose  chord  is  above 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  long  and  its  arc 
above  two  hundred.  From  its  position,  forma- 
tion, climate,  and  soil,  this  region  is  perhaps 
one  of  the  most  delightful  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe.  Its  centre  is  occupied  by  a  moderately 
elevated  table-land,  whose  edge  runs  parallel 
to  the  coast,  to  which  it  sinks  down  in  a  suc- 
cession of  terraces,  clothed  with  verdure,  inter- 
sected by  mountain  streams  running  through 
ravines  filled  with  the  richest  vegetation,  ex- 
posed to  the  cool  sea-breezes  from  the  north, 
and  sheltered  by  the  mass  of  the  mountain  from 
the  sands  and  hot  winds  of  the  Sahara.  These 
slopes  produced  the  choicest  fruits,  vegetables, 
and  flowers,  and  some  very  rare  plants,  such 
as  the  silphium,  yielding  the  dirdf  Kvprjvalof. 
The  various  harvests,  at  the  different  eleva- 
tions, lasted  for  eight  mouths  of  the  year.  With 
these  physical  advantages,  the  people  naturally 
became  prone  to  luxury.  Their  country  was, 
however,  exposed  to  actual  ravages  by  locusts. 
The  belt  of  mountainous  land  extends  inward 
from  the  coast  about  seventy  or  eighty  miles. 
The  first  occupation  of  this  by  the  Greeks,  of 
which  we  have  any  clear  account,  was  effected 
by  BATTUS,  who  led  a  colony  from  the  island  of 
Thera,  and  first  established  himself  on  the  isl- 
and of  Platea  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
district,  and  afterward  built  CYREXE  (B.C.  631), 
where  he  founded  a  dynasty,  which  ruled  over 
the  country  during  eight  reigns,  though  with 
comparatively  little  power  over  some  of  the 
other  Greek  cities.  Of  these  the  earliest  found- 
ed were  TEOCHIRA  and  HESPERIS,  then  BARCA, 
a  colony  from  Gyrene  ;  and  these,  with  Cyreue 
itself  and  ita  port  APOLLOXIA,  formed  the  orig- 
inal Libyan  Pentapolis,  though  tliis  name  seems 
not  to  have  come  into  general  use  till  under  the 
Ptolemies.  The  comparative  independence  of 
Barca,  and  the  temporary  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try by  the  Persians  under  Cambyses,  diminish- 
ed the  power  of  the  later  kings  of  Cyrene,  and 
at  last  the  dynasty  was  overthrown  and  a  re- 
p'lblic  established  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.  When  Alexander  invaded  Egypt, 
the  Cyrenaeans  formed  an  alliance  with  him ; 
but  their  country  was  made  subject  to  Egypt  by 
Ptolemy,  the  son  of  Lagus.  It  appears  to  have 
flourished  under  the  Ptolemies,  who  pursued 
their  usual  policy  of  raising  new  cities  at  the 
expense  of  the  ancient  ones,  or  restoring  the 
latter  under  new  names.  Thus  Hesperis  be- 
came Berenice,  Teuchira  was  called  Arsinoe', 
Barca  was  entirely  eclipsed  by  its  port,  which 
was  raised  into  a  city  under  the  name  of  Ptole- 
mais,  and  Cyrene  suffered  from  the  favors  be- 
stowed upon  its  port  A  po!  Ionia.  The  country 
was  now  usually  called  Pentapolis,  from  the  five 
cities  of  Cyren«,  Apollonia,  Ptolemais,  Arsinoe, 
and  Berenice.  In  B.C.  96  the  last  Egyptian 
governor,  Apion,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Ptole- 
my Physcon,  made  the  country  over  to  the  Ro- 
mans, who  at  first  gave  tho  cities  their  free- 


dom, and  afterward  formed  the  district  under 
the  name  of  Cyrenaica,  with  the  island  of  Crete, 
into  a  province.  Under  Constantino  Cyrenaica 
was  separated  from  Crete,  and  made  a  distinct 
province  under  the  name  of  Libya  Superior. 
The  first  great  blow  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
country  was  given  by  the  murderous  conflict 
which  ensued  on  an  insurrection  of  the  Jews 
(who  had  long  settled  here  in  great  nun  ibers)  in 
the  reign  of  Trajan.  As  the  Roman  empire  de- 
clined, the  attacks  of  the  native  Libyan  tribes 
became  more  frequent  and  formidable,  and  the 
sufferings  caused  by  their  inroads  and  by  lo- 
custs, plague,  and  earthquakes,  are  most  pathet- 
ically described  by  Synesius,  bishop  of  Ptole- 
ma'is,  in  the  fifth  century.  In  the  seventh  cen- 
tury the  country  was  overrun  by  the  Persians, 
and  soon  afterward  it  fell  a  final  prey  to  the 
great  Arabian  invasion. 

GYRENE  (KvprjvTj),  daughter  of  Hypseus,  moth- 
er of  Aristaeus  by  Apollo,  was  carried  by  the 
god  from  Mount  Pelion  to  Libya,  where  the  city 
of  Cyrene  derived  its  name  from  her. 

CYRENE  (Kvprjvri :  Kvprivalof :  now  Ghrennah, 
with  very  large  ruins),  the  chief  city  of  CYRE- 
NAICA in  Northern  Africa,  was  founded  by  Bat- 
tus  (B.C.  631)  over  a  fountain  consecrated  to 
Apollo,  and  called  Gyre  (Kvpi) :  'Aw6?^uvof 
Kprivrf),  which  supplied  the  city  with  water,  and 
then  ran  down  to  the  sea  through  a  beautiful 
ravine.  The  city  stood  eighty  stadia  (eight 
geographical  miles)  from  the  coast,  <  >u  the  edge 
of  the  upper  of  two  terraces  of  table-land,  at 
the  height  of  eighteen  hundred  feet  above  the 
sea,  in  one  of  the  finest  situations  in  the  world. 
The  road  which  connected  it  with  its  harbor, 
Apollouia,  still  exists,  and  the  ruins  of  Cyrene, 
though  terribly  defaced,  are  very  extensive, 
comprising  streets,  aqueducts,  temples,  thea- 
tres, tombs,  paintings,  sculpture,  and  inscrip- 
tions. In  the  face  of  the  terrace  on  which  the 
city  stands  is  a  vast  subterranean  necropolis. 
For  the  history  of  th-e  city  and  surrounding 
country,  vid.  CYRENAICA.  Among  its  celebrated 
natives  were  the  philosopher  Aristippus,  the 
poet  Callimachus,  and  the  Christian  bishop  and 
orator  Synesius. 

[CYRENIUS.     Vid.  QUIBINIUS.] 

CYRESCHATA  or  CYRSPOLIS  (Kupeo^ara,  Kvpa, 
Kvpov  irohif ),  a  city  of  Sogdiana,  on  the  Jaxartes, 
the  furthest  of  the  colonies  founded  by  Cyrus, 
and  the  extreme  city  of  the  Persian  empire : 
destroyed,  after  many  revolts,  by  Alexander. 
Its  position  is  doubtful,  but  it  was  probably  not 
far  from  Alexandreschata  (now  Kokand). 

[CYRXUS  (Kvpvof),  Greek  name  of  Corsics. 
Vid.  CORSICA.] 

[CYROPOLIS (Kvpov  irofaf).     Vid.  CYBESCHATA.] 

CYRILLUS  (KvpMof).  1.  Bishop  of  Jerusa- 
lem, A.D.  351-386,  was  a  firm  opponent  of  the 
Arians,  by  whose  influence  he  was  biiuished 
three  times  from  Jerusalem.  His  works  are 
not  numerous.  The  most  important  are  lec- 
tures to  catechumens,  <ko,  and  a  letter  to  the 
Emperor  Constautius,  giving  an  account  of  the 
luminous  cross  which  appeared  at  Jerusalem, 
351.  The  best  editions  are  by  Miles,  Oxford, 
1703,  fol,  and  by  Touttee,  Paris,  1720,  fol.— 
2.  Bishop  of  Alexandrea  A.D.  412-444,  of  which 
city  he  was  a  native.  He  was  fond  of  power, 
and  of  a  restless  and  turbulent  spirit  He  per- 
237 


CYRRHESTICE. 


CYRUS. 


scented  tbe  Jews,  whom  he  expelled  from  Alex 
audrea ;  and  after  a  long-protracted  struggle  he 
procured  tbe  desposition  of  Nestorius,  bishop  of 
Coustautiuople.  He  was  the  author  of  a  large 
number  of  works,  many  of  which  are  extant 
but  in  a  literary  view  they  are  almost  worthless 
The  best  edition  is  by  Aubert,  Paris,  1638,  6 
vols.,  foL 

CYRRHEBTICE  (KvfifieaTiKtj),  the  name  given 
under  the  Seleucidae  to  a  province  of  Syria,  ly- 
ing between  Commagene  on  the  north  and  the 
plain  of  Antioch  on  the  south,  between  Mount 
Amanus  on  the  west  and  the  Euphrates  on  the 
east.  After  the  time  of  Constantine,  it  was 
united  with  Commagene  into  one  province,  un- 
der the  name  of  Euphratesia. 

CTRRHUS  or  CYRUS  (Kiy5/5of,  Kvpof :  now 
Korus  /),  a  city  of  Syria,  founded  under  the  Se- 
leucidae, and  called  after  the  city  of  the  same 
name  in  Macedonia ;  chiefly  remarkable  as  the 
residence  and  see  of  Theodoret,  who  describes 
its  poverty,  which  he  did  much  to  relieve. 
Justinian  rebuilt  the  walls,  and  erected  an 
aqueduct 

CYRRHCS,  a  town  in  Macedonia,  near  Pella. 

CYRUS  (Kvpof).  1.  THE  ELDER,  the  founder 
of  the  Persian  empire.  The  history  of  his  life 
was  overlaid  in  ancient  times  with  fables  and 
romances,  and  is  related  differently  by  Herodo- 
tus, Ctesias,  and  Xenophon.  The  account  of 
Herodotus  best  preserves  the  genuine  Persian 
legend,  afld  is  to  be  preferred  to  those  of  Ctesias 
and  Xenophon.  It  is  as  follows :  Cyrus  was 
the  son  of  Cambyses,  a  noble  Persian,  and  of 
Mandane,  daughter  of  the  Median  king  Astyages. 
In  consequence  of  a  dream,  which  seemed  to 
portend  that  his  grandson  should  be  master  of 
Asia,  Astyages  sent  for  his  daughter  when  she 
was  pregnant ;  and,  upon  her  giving  birth  to  a 
son,  he  committed  it  to  Harpagus,  his  confiden- 
tial attendant,  with  orders  to  kill  it  Harpagus 
gave  it  to  a  herdsman  of  Astyages,  who  was  to 
expose  it  But  the  wife  of  the  herdsman  hav- 
ing brought  forth  a  still-born  child,  they  substi- 
tuted the  latter  for  the  child  of  Mandane,  who 
was  reared  as  the  son  of  the  herdsman.  When 
he  was  ten  years  old,  his  true  parentage  was 
discovered  by  tbe  following  incident  In  the 
sports  of  his  village,  the  boys  chose  him  for 
their  king.  One  of  the  boys,  the  son  of  a  noble 
Median  named  Artembares,  disobeyed  his  com- 
mands, and  Cyrus  caused  him  to  be  severely 
scourged.  Artembares  complained  to  Astyages, 
who  sent  for  Cyrus,  in  whose  person  and  cour- 
age he  discovered  his  daughter's  son.  The 
herdsman  and  Harpagus,  being  summoned  be- 
fore the  king;  told  him  the  truth.  Astyages  for- 
gave the  herdsman,  but  revenged  himself  on 
Harpagus  by  serving  up  to  him  at  a  banquet  the 
flesh  of  his  own  soa  As  to  his  grandson,  by 
the  advice  of  the  Magians,  who  assured  him  that 
his  dreams  were  fulfilled  by  the  boy's  having 
been  a  king  in  sport,  he  sent  him  back  to  his 
parents  in  Persia  When  Cyrus  grew  up,  he 
conspired  with  Harpagus  to  dethrone  his  grand- 
father. He  induced  the  Persians  to  revolt  from 
the  Median  supremacy,  and  at  their  head  march- 
ed against  Astyages.  The  latter  had  given  the 
command  of  his  forces  to  Harpagus,  who  de- 
serted to  Cyrus.  Astyages  thereupon  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  but  wus  defeat- 
238 


ed  by  Cyrus  and  taken  prisoner,  B.C.  569.    The 
Medes  accepted  Cyrus  for  their  king,  and  thus 
the  supremacy   which  they  had  held  passed  to 
the  Persians.     It  was  probably  at  this  time  that 
Cyrus  received  that  name,  which  is  a  Persian 
word  (Kohr),  signifying  the  Sun.     Cyrus  now 
proceeded  to  conquer  the  other  parts  of  Asia. 
In  526  he  overthrew  the  Lydiau  monarchy,  and 
took    Croesus    prisoner.       Vid.    CRCESUS.      The 
Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor  were  subdued  by  his 
general  Harpagus.     He    next  turned  his  arms 
against  the  Assyrian  empire,  of  which  Babylon 
was  then  the  capital.     After  defeating  the  Baby- 
lonians in  battle,  he  laid  siege  to  the  city,  and 
after  a  long  time  he  took  it  by  diverting  the 
course  of  the  Euphrates,  which  flowed  through 
the  midst  of  it,  so  that  his  soldiers  entered  Bab- 
ylon by  the  bed  of  the  river.    This  was  in  538. 
Subsequently  he  crossed  the  Araxes,  with  the 
intention  of  subduing  the  Massagetee,  a  Scythian 
people,  but  he  was  defeated  and  skin  in  battle. 
Tomyris,  the  queen  of  the  Massagetae,  cut  off  his 
head,  and  threw  it  into  a  bag  filled  with  human 
blood,  that  he  might  satiate  himself  (she  said) 
with  blood.     He  was  killed  in  529.     He  was 
succeeded   by   his    son    CAMBYSES.      Xenophon 
represents  Cyrus  as  brought  up  at  his  grand- 
father's court,  as  serving  in  the  Median  army 
under  his  uncle  Cyaxares  II.,  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Astyages,    of  whom    Herodotus  and 
Ctesias  know  nothing ;    as    making    war  upon 
Babylon  simply  as  the  general  of  Cyaxares ;  as 
marrying  the    daughter    of   Cyaxares ;   and  at 
length  dying  quietly  in  his  bed,  after  a  sage  and 
Socratic  discourse  to  his  children  and  friends. 
Xenophou's  account  is  preserved  in  the   Cyro- 
padla,  in  which  he  draws  a  picture  of  what  a 
wise  and  just  prince  ought  to  be.     The  work 
must  not  be  regarded  as  a  genuine  history.     In 
he  East  Cyrus  was  long  regarded  as  the  great- 
est hero  of  antiquity,  and  hence  the  fables  by 
which  his  history  is  obscured.     His  sepulchre 
at  Pasargadae  was    visited    by    Alexander  the 
jreat     The  tomb  has  perished,  but  the  name 
s  found  on  monuments  at  Murgbab,  north  of 
Persepolis. — 2.  THE  YOUNGER,  the  second  of  the 
our  sons  of  Darius  Nothus,  king  of  Persia,  and 
)f  Parysatis,  was  appointed  by  his  father  com- 
nander  of  the  maritime  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
satrap  of  Lydia,  Phrygia,  and  Cappadocia,  B.C. 
407.     He  assisted  Lysander  and  the  Lacedae- 
monians with  large  sums  of  money  in  their  war 
against  the  Athenians.     Cyrus  was  of  a  daring 
and  ambitious  temper.      On    the   death  of  his 
ather  and  the  accession  of  his  elder  brother  Ar- 
axerxes   Mnemon,   404,   Cyrus   formed  a   plot 
against  the  life  of  Artaxerxes.     His  design  was 
betrayed  by  Tissaphernes  to  the  king,  who  con- 
temned him  to  death ;  but,  on  the  intercession 
of  Parysatis,  he  spared  his  life   and  sent  him 
back  to  his  satrapy.     Cyrus  now  gave  himself 
up  to  the  design  of  dethroning  his  brother.     He 
collected  a  powerful  native  army,  but  he  placed 
his  chief  reliance  on  a  force  of  Greek  merce- 
naries.    He  set  out  from  Sardis  in  the  spring 
of  401,  and,  having  crossed  the  Euphrates  at 
Thapsacus,  marched  down  the  river  to  the  plain 
of  Cunaxa,  five  hundred  stadia  from  Babylon. 
Here  he  found   Artaxerxes  prepared  to  meet 
him.    Artaxerxes  had  from  four  hundred  thou- 
sand to  a  million  of  men ;  Cyrus  had  about  one 


CYRUS. 


DACIA. 


hundred  thousand  Asiatics  and  thirteen  thou- 
sand Greeks.  The  battle  was  at  first  altogether 
in  favor  of  Cyrus.  His  Greek  troops  OQ  the 
right  routed  the  Asiatics  who  were  opposed  to 
them ;  and  he  himself  pressed  forward  in  the 
centre  against  his  brother,  and  had  even  wound- 
ed him,  when  he  was  killed  by  one  of  the  king's 
body-guard.  Artaxerxes  caused  his  head  and 
right  hand  to  be  struck  off,  and  sought  to  have 
it  believed  that  Cyrus  had  fallen  by  his  hand. 
The  character  of  Cyrus  is  drawn  by  Xenophon 
in  the  brightest  colors.  It  is  enough  to  say  that 
his  ambition  was  gilded  by  all  those  brilliant 
qualities  which  win  men's  hearts. — 3.  An  archi- 
tect at  Rome,  who  died  on  the  same  day  as 
Clodius,  52. 

CYRUS  (Kvpof :  now  Kour),  one  of  the  two 
great  rivers  of  Armenia,  rises  in  the  Caucasus, 
flows  through  Iberia,  and  after  forming  the 
boundary  between  Albania  and  Armenia,  unites 
with  the  Araxes,  and  falls  into  the  western  side 
of  the  Caspian.  There  were  small  rivers  of  the 
same  name  in  Media  and  Persia. 

CYTA  or  CYT^EA  (K.v~a,  Ktram :  KvraZof,  Kt>- 
rauvf).  &  town  in  Colchis  on  the  River  Phasis, 
where  Medea  was  said  to  have  been  born. 

CYTHERA  (Kvffjjpa :  KvOrjpioc :  now  Cerigo),  a 
mountainous  island  off  the  southwestern  point 
of  Laeonia,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name  in 
the  interior,  the  harbor  of  which  was  called 
SCANDKA  (S/cardeta).  It  was  colonized  at  an 
early  time  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  introduced 
the  worship  of  Venus  (Aphrodite)  into  the  isl- 
and, for  which  it  became  celebrated.  This  god- 
dess was  hence  called  CYTHEREA,  CYTHEREIS  ; 
and,  according  to  some  traditions,  it  was  in  the 
neighborhood  of  this  island  that  she  first  rose 
from  the  foam  of  the  sea.  The  Argives  subse- 
quently took  possession  of  Cythera,  but  were 
driven  out  of  it  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  who 
added  it  to  their  dominions. 

CYTHERIS,  a  celebrated  courtesan,  the  mis- 
tress of  Antony,  and  subsequently  of  the  poet 
Gallus,  who  mentioned  her  in  his  poems  under 
the  name  of  Lycoris. 

[CYTHERIUS  (K.v6ijpios),  a  river  of  Pisatis  in 
Elis,  a  tributary  of  the  Alpheus.] 

CYTHERUS  (Kvdijpof :  Kvdrjpiof),  one  of  the 
twelve  ancient  towns  of  Attica,  and  subsequent- 
ly a  dcmus,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Pandionis. 

CYTH.VUS  (Kvdvof :  KvOvioc :  now  Thermia), 
an  island  in  the  J2gsean  Sea,  one  of  the  Cycla- 
des,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name,  celebrated 
for  its  cheese,  and  also  for  its  warm  springs, 
whence  its  modern  name. 

CYTINIUM  (Kvrivtov :  KvTtviuTijf),  one  of  the 
four  cities  in  Doris,  on  Parnassus. 

CVTORUS  or  -UM  (Kirwpof  or  -ov  :  now  Kidros), 
a  town  on  the  coast  of  Paphlagonia,  between 
Amastris  and  the  promontory  Carambis,  was  a 
commercial  settlement  of  the  people  of  Sinope. 
It  stood  upon  or  near  the  mountain  of  the  same 
name,  which  is  mentioned  by  the  Romans  as 
abounding  in  box-trees. 

CYZICUS  (KvCt/cof),  son  of  JSneus  and  ^Enete, 
the  daughter  of  Eusorus,  or  son  of  Eusorus,  or 
son  of  Apollo  by  Stilbe.  He  was  king  of  the 
Doliones  at  Cyzicus  on  the  Propontis.  For  his 
connection  with  the  Argonauts,  vid.  p.  90,  b. 

^Cvzlcus  (Kt'^KOf:  Kvfutyvof :  ruins  at  Sal 
Kit  or  Chizico),  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 


]x>werful  of  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor, 
stood  upon  an  island  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Propontis  (now  Sea  of  Marmara).  This  island, 
the  earlier  name  of  which  was  Arctonnesus 
('ApKTuv  vf/aof),  lay  close  to  the  shore  of  Mys- 
ia,  to  which  it  was  united  by  two  bridges,  and 
afterward  (under  Alexander  the  Great)  by  a 
mole,  which  has  accumulated  to  a  considerable 
isthmus.  The  city  of  Cyzicus  stood  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  island,  at  the  northern  end 
of  the  isthmus,  on  each  side  of  which  it  had  a 
port.  Tradition  ascribed  the  foundation  of  the 
city  to  the  Doliones,  a  tribe  of  Thessalian  Pelas- 
gians,  who  had  been  driven  from  their  homes 
by  the  ^Eolians.  It  was  said  to  have  been  aft- 
erward colonized  by  the  Milesians.  It  was  one 
of  the  finest  cities  of  the  ancient  world  for  the 
beauty  of  its  situation  and  the  magnificence  of 
its  buildings  :  it  possessed  an  extensive  com- 
merce, and  was  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of 
its  laws  and  government.  Its  staters  were 
among  the  most  esteemed  gold  coins  current  in 
Greece.  It  took  no  conspicuous  place  in  his- 
tory till  about  twenty-two  years  after  the  peace 
of  Antalcidas,  when  it  made  itself  independent 
of  Persia.  It  preserved  its  freedom  under  Al- 
exander and  his  successors,  and  was  in  alliance 
with  the  kings  of  Pergamus,  and  afterward  with 
the  Romans.  Its  celebrated  resistance  against 
Mithradates,  when  he  besieged  it  by  sea  and 
land  (B.C.  75),  was  of  great  service  to  the  Ro- 
mans, and  obtained  for  it  the  rank  of  a  "  libera 
civitas,"  which  it  lost  again  under  Tiberius. 
Under  Constantino  it  became  the  chief  city  of 
the  new  province  of  Hellespontus.  It  was  great- 
ly injured  by  an  earthquake  in  A.D.  443,  and 
finally  ruined  by  its  conquest  by  the  Arabians 
in  675. 


D. 


Vid.  DAHJE. 

[DABAR,  son  of  Massugrada,  of  the  family  of 
Masinissa,  sent  by  Bocchus  to  Sulla  to  negoti 
ate  the  peace  which  ended  in  the  surrender  of 
Jugurtha.] 

[DABRONA  (now  Blackwater),  a  river  of  Hi 
bernia,] 

DACHINABADES  (Aa^tvaCaJ^f),  a  general  name 
for  the  southern  part  of  the  Indian  peninsula, 
derived  from  the  Sanscrit  dak&hina,  the  south 
wind,  and  connected  with  the  modern  name 
Dcccan. 

DACIA  (Dacus),  as  a  Roman  province,  was 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Danube,  which 
separated  it  from  Mcesia,"  on  the  north  by  the 
Carpathian  Mountains,  on  the  west  by  the  Riv- 
er Tysin  (now  Thciss),  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Rjver  Hierasus  (now  Pruth),  thus  comprehend- 
ing the  modern  Transylvania,  Wallachia,  Molda- 
via, and  part  of  Hungary.  The  Daci  were  of 
the  same  race  and  spoke  the  same  language  as 
the  Geto,  and  are  therefore  usually  said  to  bo 
of  Thracian  origin.  They  were  a  brave  and 
warlike  people.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  they 
crossed  the  Danube  and  plundered  the  allies  of 
Rome,  but  were  defeated  and  driven  back  into 
their  own  country  by  the  generals  of  Augustus. 
In  the  reign  of  Domitian  they  became  so  formi- 
dable under  their  king  DECEBALUS,  that  the  Ro- 
mans were  obliged  to  purchase  a  peace  of  them 
239 


DACTYLI. 


DALMATIA. 


by  the  payment  of  tribute.  Trajan  delivered 
the  empire  from  this  disgrace ;  he  crossed  the 
Danube,  and  after  a  war  of  five  years  (A.D.  101- 
106),  conquered  the  country,  made  it  a  Roman 
province,  and  colonized  it  with  inhabitants  from 
all  parts  of  the  empire.  At  a  later  period  Dacia 
was  invaded  by  the  Goths  ;  and  as  Aurelian  con- 
sidered it  more  prudent  to  make  the  Danube 
the  boundary  of  tie  empire,  he  resigned  Dacia 
to  the  barbarians,  removed  the  Roman  inhabit- 
ants to  Mcesia,  and  gave  the  name  of  Dacia  (Au- 
reliani)  to  that  part  of  the  province  along  the 
Danube  where  they  were  settled. 

DACTVLI  (AuKrvloi),  fabulous  beings,  to  whom 
the  discovery  of  iron  and  the  art  of  working  it 
by  means  of  fire  were  ascribed.  Their  name 
Dactyls,  that  is,  Fingers,  is  accounted  for  in 
various  ways  :  by  their  number  being  five  or 
ten,  or  by  the  fact  of  their  serving  Rhea  just  as 
the  fingers  serve  the  hand,  or  by  the  story  of 
their  having  lived  at  the  foot  (kv  6a.KTv?.oif)  of 
Mount  Ida  in  Phrygia  as  the  original  seat  of  the 
Dactyls,  whence  they  are  usually  called  Idaean 
Dactyls.  In  Phrygia  they  were  connected  with 
the  worship  of  Rhea.  They  are  sometimes  con- 
founded or  identified  with  the  Curetes,  Cory- 
bantes,  Cabiri,  and  Telchines.  This  confusion 
with  the  Cabiri  also  accounts  for  Samothrace 
being  in  some  accounts  described  as  their  resi- 
dence. Other  accounts  transfer  them  to  Mount 
Ida  in  Crete,  of  which  island  they  are  said  to 
have  been  the  original  inhabitants.  Their  num- 
ber appears  to  have  been  originally  three  :  Cel- 
mis  (the  smelter),  Damnameneus  (the  hammer), 
and  Acmon  (the  anvil).  Their  number  was  aft- 
erward increased  to  five,  ten  (five  male  and  five 
female),  fifty-two,  and  one  hundred. 

DADASTANA  (TJ  Aadaaruva :  now  Torbaleh  or 
Kcstabeg  ?},  a  fortress  on  the  borders  of  Bithynia 
and  Galatia,  where  the  Emperor  Jovian  died 
suddenly,  A.D.  364. 

[DADIC^K  (AaoY/cat),  a  tribe  of  the  Persian 
empire,  who  formed  part  of  the  seventh  satrapy 
of  Darius.] 

D^EDALA  (TO  Aa«Ja/la),  a  city  in  Asia  Minor, 
upon  the  Gulf  of  Glaucus,  on  the  borders  of 
Caria  and  Lycia.  The  same  name  was  given 
to  a  mountain  overhanging  the  towa 

[D^EDALIOH  (Aatda/U'wv),  son  of  Lucifer,  and 
father  of  Chione,  who  was  slain  by  Diana. 
Dffidation,  out  of  grief  at  her  death,  threw  him- 
self from  Parnassus,  but  was  changed  into  a 
falcon.] 

DAEDALUS  (Ao/daP.of).     1.  A  mythical  person- 
age, under  whose  name  the  Greek  writers  per- 
sonified the  earliest  development  of  the  arts  of 
sculpture    and    architecture,    especially   among 
the  Athenians  and  Cretans.     The  ancient  writ- 
ers generally  represent  Daedalus  as  an  Athenian, ' 
of  the  royal  race  of  the  Erecbthidae.      Others 
called  him  a  Cretan,  on  account  of  the  long  time  . 
he  lived  in  Crete.     He  is  said  to  have  been  the  ! 
son  of  Motion,  the  son  of  Eupalamus,  the  son 
of  Erechtheus.      Others  make  him  the  son  of 
Eupalamus  or  of   Palamaon.      His  mother  is 
called  Alcippe,  or  Iphinoe,  or  Phrasimede.    He ! 
devoted  himself  to  sculpture,  and  made  great ' 
improvements  in   the   art      He  instructed  his ! 
eister's  son,  Calos,  Talus,  or  Perdix,  who  soon ; 
came  to  surpass  him  in  skill  and  ingenuity,  and : 
Daedalus  killed  him  through  envy.     Vid.  PEKDIX.  ' 
240 


Being  -condemned  to  death  by  the  Areopagus 
for  this  murder,  he  went  to  Crete,  where  the 
fame  of  his  skill  obtained  for  him  the  friendship 
of  Minos.  He  made  the  well-known  wooden 
cow  for  Pasiphae  ;  and  when  Pasiphae'  gave 
birth  to  the  Minotaur,  Daedalus  constructed  the 
labyrinth  at  Cnosus  in  which  the  monster  was 
kept.  For  his  part  in  this  affair,  Daedalus  was 
imprisoned  by  Minos  ;  but  Pasiphae  released 
him,  and,  as  Minos  had  seized  all  the  ships  on 
the  coast  of  Crete,  Daedalus  procured  wings  for 
himself  and  his  son  Icarus,  and  fastened  them 
on  with  wax  Daedalus  himself  flew  safe  over 
the  ^Egean,  but,  as  Icarus  flew  too  near  the 
sun,  the  wax  by  which  his  wings  were  fastened 
on  was  melted,  and  he  dropped  down  and  was 
drowned  in  that  part  of  the  ^Egean  which  was 
called  after  him  the  Icarian  Sea.  Daedalus  fled 
to  Sicily,  where  he  was  protected  by  Cocalus, 
the  king  of  the  Sicani.  When  Minos  heard 
where  Daedalus  had  taken  refuge,  he  sailed  with 
a  great  fleet  to  Sicily,  where  he  was  treacher 
ously  murdered  by  Cocalus  or  his  daughters.  Ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  Daedalus  first  alighted 
in  his  flight  from  Crete  at  Cumae  in  Italy,  where 
he  erected  a  temple  to  Apollo,  in  which  he  ded- 
icated the  wings  with  which  he  had  fled  from 
Crete.  Several  other  works  of  art  were  attrib- 
uted to  Daedalus,  in  Greece,  Italy,  Libya,  and 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean.  They  belong 
to  the  period  when  art  began  to  be  developed. 
The  name  of  Dcedala  was  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  the  ancient  wooden  statues,  ornamented  with 
gilding  and  bright  colors  and  real  drapery,  which 
were  the  earliest  known  forms  of  the  images  of 
the  gods,  after  the  mere  blocks  of  wood  or  stone, 
which  were  at  first  used  for  symbols  of  them. — 
2.  Of  Sicyon,  a  statuary  in  bronze,  son  and  dis- 
ciple of  Patrocles,  flourished  B.C.  400. 

in.*  (Auct),  a  great  Scythian  people,  who 
led  a  nomad  life  over  a  great  extent  of  country 
on  the  east  of  the  Caspian,  in  Hyrcania  (which 
still  bears  the  name  of  Daghestari),  on  the  banks 
of  the  Margus,  the  Oxus,  and  even  the  Jaxartes. 
Some  of  them  served  as  cavalry  and  horse- 
archers  in  the  armies  of  Darius  Codomannus, 
Alexander,  and  Antiochus  the  Great,  and  they 
also  made  good  foot-soldiers. 

DAIMACHUS  (Aat//a^of),  of  Plataese,  was  sent 
by  Seleucus  as  ambassador  to  Sandrocottus, 
king  of  India,  about  B.C.  312,  and  wrote  a  work 
on  India,  which  is  lost. 

[DAIPHANTUS  (Aatyavrof),  a  Theban,  slain  at 
Mantinea ;  his  bravery  and  skill  were  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  Epaminondas,  when  mortally 
wounded,  named  him  as  the  one  best  qualified 
to  succeed  to  the  command.] 

DALMATIA  or  DELMATIA  (Aafyiarta :  AatyaTjjc, 
more  anciently  AaAyuarcif :  now  Dalmata),  a 
part  of  the  country  along  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  Adriatic  Sea  included  under  the  general 
name  of  Illyricum,  was  separated  from  Libur- 
nia  on  the  north  by  the  Titius  (now  Xerka),  and 
from  Greek  Illyria  on  the  south  by  the  Drilo 
(now  Drino),  and  extended  inland  to  the  Bebian 
mountains  and  the  Drinus,  thus  nearly  corre- 
sponding to  the  modern  Dalmatia.  The  capital 
was  DALMINIUM  or  DELMIXIUM,  from  which  the 
country  derived  its  name.  The  next  most  5m- 
pertant  town  was  SALOXA,  the  residence  of  Dio- 
cletian. The  Dalmatians  were  a  brave  and 


DALMATIUS. 


DAMOCRITITS. 


warlike  people  and  gave  much  trouble  to  the 
Romans.  In  B.C,  119  their  country  was  over- 
run by  L.  Metellus,  who  assumed,  in  conse- 
quence, the  surname  Dalmaticus,  but  they  con- 
tinued independent  of  the  Romans.  In  39  they 
were  defeated  by  Asinius  Pollio,  of  whose  Dal- 
maticus triumphus  Horace  speaks  (Carm,,  ii.,  1, 
16) ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  year  23  that  they 
were  finally  subdued  by  Statilius  Taurus.  They 
took  part  in  the  great  Pannonian  revolt  under 
their  leader  Bato ;  but,  after  a  three  years'  war, 
were  again  reduced  to  subjection  by  Tiberius, 
A.D.  9. 

DALMATICS.     Vid.  DELMATIUS. 

DALMI.NII-M.     Vid.  DALMATIA. 

DAMAGETUS  (Aajua/^rof),  king  of  lalysus  in 
Rhodes,  married,  in  obedience  to  the  Delphic  ora- 
cle,  the  daughter  of  Aristomenes  of  Messeue,  and 
from  this  marriage  sprang  the  family  of  the  Dia- 
ijoridae,  who  were  celebrated  for  their  victories  at 
Olympia.  Vid,  ARISTOMENES. 

[DAMAGON  (Aa/zaywv),  a  Spartan,  who,  with  Le- 
on and  Alcidas,  superintended  the  planting  of  the 
Lacedaemonian  colony  Heraclea  in  Phthiotis,  B.C. 
426.] 

DAMALIS  or  Bous  (Ao/mAif,  q  BotJf),  a  small 
place  in  Bithynia,  on  the  shore  of  the  Thracian 
Bosporus,  north  of  Chalcedon ;  celebrated  by  tra- 
dition as  the  landing-place  of  lo,  the  memory  of 
whose  passage  was  preserved  by  a  bronze  cow 
set  up  here  by  the  Chalcedonians. 

DAMARA.TUS.     Vid.  DEMARATUS. 

[DAMASCEXUS,  IUCOLAUS,     Vid.  NICOLAUS.] 

DAMASCIUS  (Aa/*u<j/ctoc),  the  Syrian,  of  Damas- 
cus, whence  he  derived  his  name,  the  last  of 
the  renowned  teachers  of  the  Neo- Platonic  phi- 
losophy at  Athens,  was  born  about  A.D.  480.  He 
first  studied  at  Alexandrea  and  afterward  at 
Athens,  under  Marinus  and  Zenodotus,  whom 
he  succeeded.  When  Justinian  closed  the  hea- 
then schools  of  philosophy  at  Athens  in  529, 
Dumascius  emigrated  to  King  Chosroes  of  Per- 
sia. He  afterward  returned  to  the  west,  since 
Chosroe's  had  stipulated  in  a  treaty  that  the 
heathen  adherents  of  the  Platonic  Philosophy 
should  be  tolerated  by  the  Byzantine  emperor. 
The  only  work  of  Damascius  which  has  been 
printed  is  entitled  "  Doubts  and  Solutions  of  the 
first  Principles,''  edited  by  Kopp,  Francofl,  1828, 
8vo. 

DAMASCUS  (//  Aa/zaoxof :  Aa/taaictjvoe  :  now  Da- 
mcshk,  Damascus,  Esh-Sltam),  OEM;  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  of  the  world,  mentioned  as  exist- 
iug  in  the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen.,  xiv.,  15), 
stood  in  the  district  afterward  called  Cosle-Syr- 
ia,  upon  both  banks  of  the  River  Chrysorrhoas 
or  Bardines  (now  Burada),  the  waters  of  whicli, 
drawn  off  by  canals  and  aqueduct*,  fertilized  the 
plain  around  the  city.  This  plain  is  open  on  the 
south  and  east,  and  sheltered  on  the  west  and 
north  by  an  offshoot  of  the  Antilibanus;  its 
fruits  were  celebrated  in  ancient,  as  in  modern 
times ;  and  altogether  the  situation  of  the  city 
is  one  of  the  finest  on  the  globe.  In  the  earli- 
est tunes,  except  during  the  short  period  for 
which  David  subjected  it  to  the  Hebrew  mon- 
archy, Damascus  was  the  seat  of  an  independ- 
ent kingdom,  called  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  which 
was  subdued  by  the  Assyrians,  and  passed  suc- 
cessively under  the  dominion  «>f  the  Babyloni- 
ans, the  Persians,  the  Greek  kings  of  Svria,  and 
16 


I  the  Romans,  the  last  of  whom  obtained  possession 

I  of  it  after  the  conquest  of  Tigranes,  and  assigned 

I  it  to  the  province  of  Syria.     It  flourished  great- 

i  ly  under  the  emperors,  and  is  called  by  Julian 

\  (Epist.  24)  "  the  Eye  of  all  the  East"     Diocle- 

tian established  in  it  a  great  factory  'for  arms  ; 

and  hence  the  origin  of  the  fame  of  Damascus 

blades.     Its  position  on  one  of  the  high  roads 

from  Lower  to  Upper  Asia  gave  it  a  consider 

able  trade.     The  surrounding  district  was  calle'l 


DAMASIPPUS,  L.  JUNIUS  BRUTUS.  Vid.  BRUTUS 
No.  10. 

DAMASIPPUS  LICIXIUS.  1.  A  Roman  senator, 
fought  on  the  side  of  the  Pompeians  in  Africa, 
and  perished  B.C.  47.  —  2.  A  contemporary  of 
Cicero,  who  mentions  him  as  a  lover  of  statues, 
and  speaks  of  purchasing  a  garden  from  Dama- 
sippus.  He  is  probably  the  same  person  as  the 
Damasippus  ridiculed  by  Horace.  (Sat.,  iL,  8,  16, 
64.)  It  appears  from  Horace  that  Damasippus 
had  become  bankrupt,  in  consequence  of  which 
he  intended  to  put  an  end  to  himself;  but  he  was 
prevented  by  the  Stoic  Stertinius,  and  then  turned 
Stoic  himself,  or  at  least  affected  to  be  one  by  bis 
long  beard.  The  Damasippus  mentioned  by  Juv- 
enal (Sat^  viii.,  147,  151,  167)  is  a  fictitious  name, 
under  which  the  satirist  ridiculed  some  noble 
lover  of  horses. 

[DAMASITHVMUS  (kapaatOvftof),  son  of  Can- 
daules,  prince  of  Calynda  in  Caria,  followed 
Xerxes  to  Greece,  and  perished  at  the  battle  of 
Salamis.] 

DAMASTES  (AaudaTTif),  of  Sigfium,  a  Greek  his- 
torian, and  a  contemporary  of  Herodotus  and 
Hellauicus  of  Lesbos  :  his  works  are  lost. 

[DAMASTOUIDES  (Aa/zaffropuS^f),  patronymic 
from  Danmstor,  as  Tlepolemus  in  the  Iliad,  and 
Agelaus  in  the  Odyssey.] 

[DAMASUS  (Au/^auof).  1.  A  Trojan,  slain  by 
Polypcetes.  —  2.  D.  SCOMBRUS,  a  celebrated  rheto- 
rician of  Tralles  in  Cilicia.] 

DAMIA.     Vid,  AUXESIA. 

DAMXOXII.  1.  Or  DUMNONII  or  DUMMJNII,  a 
powerful  people  in  the  southwest  of  Britain,  in 
habiting  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  and  the  western 
part  of  Somersetshire,  from  whom  was  called  the 
promontory  DAMNONIUM,  also  OCRINUM,  (now  Gape 
Lizard)  in  Cornwall  —  2.  Or  DAMNII,  a  people  in 
north  Britain,  inhabiting  parts  of  modern  Perth, 
Arayle,  Stirling,  and  Dumbarton-shires. 

DAMO  (Aa/iu),  a  daughter  of  Pythagoras  and 
Theano,  to  whom  Pythagoras  intrusted  his  writ- 
ings, and  forbade  her  to  give  them  to  any  one. 
This  command  she  strictly  observed,  although 
she  was  in  extreme  poverty,  and  received  many 
requests  to  sell  them. 

DAMOCLES  (Aa/*OK/.//f),  a  Syracusan,  one  of  the 
companions  and  flatterers  of  the  elder  Dionysius. 
Damocles  having  extolled  the  great  felicity  of 
Dionysius  on  account  of  his  wealth  and  power, 
the  tyrant  invited  him  to  try  what  his  happiness 
really  was,  and  placed  him  at  a  magnificent  ban- 
quet, in  the  midst  of  which  Damocles  saw  a  naked 
sword  suspended  over  his  head  by  a  single  horse- 
hair —  a  sight  which  quickly  dispelled  all  his  vis- 
ions of  happiness.  The  story  is  alluded  to  by 
I  Horace.  (Carm.,  iii.,  1,  17.) 

[DAMOCRITVS  (Ao/Z(kp<rof),  of  Calydon,  a  gen- 
]  eral  of  the  JStolian  league,  B.C.  200,  opposed  the 
i  Romans  and  sided  with  the  Macedonians;  ha 
241 


DAMON. 

subsequently  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
and  was  thrown  into  prison,  from  which  he  es- 
caped by  night,  but,  being  pursued,  threw  him- 
self on  his  own  sword.] 

DAMON  (Au/iuv).  1.  Of  Athens,  a  celebrated 
musician  and  sophist.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Lam- 
prus  and  Agathocles,  and  the  teacher  of  Pericles, 
with  whom  he  lived  on  the  most  intimate  terms. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  taught  Socrates,  but  this 
statement  is  more  doubtful.  In  his  old  age  he 
was  banished  from  Athens,  probably  on  account 
of  the  part  he  had  taken  in  politics. — 2.  A  Pytha- 
gorean, and  friend  of  PHINTIAS  (not  Pythias). 
When  the  latter  was  condemned  to  die  for  a  plot 
against  Dionysius  I.  of  Syracuse,  he  asked  leave 
of  the  tyrant  to  depart  for  the  purpose  of  arrang- 
ing his  domestic  affairs,  promising  to  find  a  friend 
who  would  be  pledge  for  his  appearance  at  the 
time  appointed  for  his  punishment  To  the  sur- 
prise  of  Dionysius,  Damon  unhesitatingly  offered 
himself  to  be  put  to  death  instead  of  his  friend, 
should  he  fail  to  return.  Phintias  arrived  just  in 
time  to  redeem  Damon,,  and  Dionysius  was  so 
struck  with  this  instance  of  firm  friendship  on 
both  sides,  that  he  pardoned  the  criminal,  and 
entreated  to  be  admitted  as  a  third  into  their 
bond  of  brotherhood. 

DAMOXENTJS  (Aa/wfevof),  an  Athenian  comic 
poet  of  the  new  comedy,  and  perhaps  partly  of 
the  middle.  [Some  fragments  remain,  which 
have  been  collected  by  Meineke,  Comic.  Grcec. 
Fragm.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1 149-53,  edit,  minor.] 

DANA  (Auva),  a  great  city  of  Cappadocia  (Xen., 
Anab.,  i.,  2,  §  20),  probably  the  same  as  the  later 
TYANA. 

DANAE  (kavdr])  daughter  of  Acrisius  ana 
mother  of  Perseus.  Vid.  ACRISIUS.  An  Italian 
legend  related  that  Danae  came  to  Italy,  built 
the  town  of  Ardea,  and  married  Pilumnus,  by 
whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Daunus,  the  an- 
cestor of  Turnus. 

DANAI.     Vid.  DANAUS. 

DANAIDES  (AavaWe?),  the  fifty  daughters  of 
Danaus.  Vid.  DANAUS. 

DANALA  (TU  Aava/la),  a  city  in  the  territory  of 
the  Trocmi,  in  the  northeast  of  Galatia,  notable 
in  the  history  of  the  Mithradatic  War  as  the 
place  where  Lucullus  resigned  the  command  to 
Pompey. 

DANAPEIS.     Vid.  BORYSTHENES. 

DANASTRIS.     Vid.  TTRAS. 

DANAUS  (Aavaof),  son  of  Belus  and  twin- 
brother  of  ^Egyptus.  Belus  had  assigned  Libya 
to  Danaus,  but  the  latter,  fearing  his  brother 
and  his  brother's  sons,  fled  with  his  fifty  daugh- 
ters to  Argos.  Here  he  was  elected  king  by 
the  Argives,  in  place  of  Gelanor,  the  reigning 
monarch.  The  story  of  the  murder  of  the  fifty 
eons  of  ^Egyptus  by  the  fifty  daughters  of  Da- 
naus (the  Danaides)  is  given  under  ^GTPTUS. 
There  was  one  exception  to  the  murderous 
deed.  The  life  of  Lynceus  was  spared  by  bis 
wife  Hypermnestra ;  and,  according  to  the  com- 
mon tradition,  he  afterward  avenged  the  death 
of  his  brothers  by  killing  his  father-in-law,  Da- 
naus. According  to  the  poets,  the  Danaides 
were  punished  in  Hades  by  being  compelled 
everlastingly  to  pour  water  into  a  sieve  (inane 
lymphce  doliumfundo  pcreuntis  imo,  Hor.,  Carm., 
iii.,  11,  26)  From  Danaus  the  Argives  were 
called  Danai,  which  name,  like  that  of  the  Ar- 
242 


DAPHNE. 


gives,  was  often  applied  by  the  poet*  to  the  cot 
lective  Greeks. 

[DANDARII  ( bavddpioC)  and  DANDAEID^E,  a  peopla 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Palus  Maeotis  and  the  Euxine, 
traces  of  whose  name  appear  to  remain  in  the 
modern  DRANDI.] 

DANUBIUS  (now  Danube,  in  German  Donau), 
also  DANUVIUS  on  coins  and  inscriptions,  called 
ISTER  ("lorpof)  by  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  chief 
rivers  of  Europe,  rises  in  the  Black  Forest,  and, 
after  flowing  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
seventy  miles,  falls  into  the  Black  Sea,  It  is 
mentioned  by  Hesiod,  but  the  Greeks  knew  very 
little  about  it  According  to  Herodotus,  it  rises 
at  the  city  Pyrene,  among  the  Celts,  and  flows 
through  the  whole  of  Europe.  The  Romans  first 
obtained  some  accurate  information  concerning 
the  river  at  the  commencement  of  the  empire. 
Tiberius,  in  his  campaign  against  the  Vindelicians, 
visited  the  sources  of  the  Danube,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Tacitus,  rises  in  MOUNT  ABNOBA.  The 
Danube  formed  the  northern  boundary  of  the  em- 
pire, with  the  exception  of  the  time  that  DACIA 
was  a  Roman  province.  In  the  Roman  period, 
the  upper  part  of  the  river,  from  its  source  as  far 
as  Vienna,  was  called  Danubius,  while  the  lower 
part  to  its  entrance  in  the  Black  Sea  was  named 
Ister. 

DAORSI  or  DAORIZI  (Aa6pt£bt),  a  tribe  in  Dal- 
matia. 

DAPHNE  PELUSLE  (Aa^vat  al  Hetyvatai :  now 
Safnas),  a  border  fortress  of  Lower  Egypt 
against  Arabia  and  Syria,  stood  on  the  right 
hand  of  the  Nile,  sixteen  Roman  miles  southwest 
of  Pelusium.  Many  Jews  settled  here  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babyloni- 
ans. 

DAPHNE  (Au^vjy).  1.  Daughter  of  the  river- 
god  Ladon  in  Arcadia,  by  Ge  (the  earth),  or  of 
the  river-god  Peneus  m  Thessaly.  She  wae 
extremely  beautiful  and  was  loved  by  Apollo 
and  Leucippus,  son  of  (Enomaus,  but  she  re- 
jected both  their  suits.  In  order  to  win  her, 
Leucippus  disguised  himself  as  a  maiden,  but 
Apollo's  jealousy  caused  bis  discovery,  and  he 
was  killed  by  the  companions  of  Daphne.  Apol- 
lo now  pursued  Daphne,  and  she  was  on  the 
point  of  being  overtaken  by  him :  she  prayed  for 
aid,  and  was  metamorphosed  into  a  laurel-tree 
(6u<j>vj]),  which  became,  in  consequence,  the  fa- 
vorite tree  of  Apollo. — 2.  Daughter  of  Tiresias, 
better  known  under  the  name  of  Manto.  Vid. 
MANTO. 

DAPHNE  (&<i(pvi)).  1.  (Now  Beit-el-Moie,  or 
Babyla?}  a  beautiful  spot,  five  miles  south  of 
Antioch  in  Syria,  to  which  it  formed  a  sort  of 
park  or  pleasure  garden.  Here  was  a  grove  of 
laurels  and  cypresses,  eighty  stadia  in  circuit, 
watered  by  fresh  springs,  and  consecrated  by 
Seleucus  Nicator  to  Apollo,  to  whom  also  a 
magnificent  temple  was  built  by  Antioehus 
Epiphanes,  and  adorned  with  a  splendid  statue 
of  the  god  by  Bryaxis.  To  this  temple  were 
attached  periodical  games  and  the  privilege  of 
asylum.  Daphne  was  a  royal  residence  of  the 
Seleucidse  and  of  the  later  Roman  emperors, 
and  a  favorite  resort  of  the  people  of  Antioeh, 
who,  however,  carried  the  pleasures  they  en- 
joyed here  so  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  mod- 
eration, that  the  phrase  Daphnici  mores  passed 
into  a  provp"b.  It  was  from  this  place  that  An- 


DAPHNIS 


DARIUS. 


tioch  received  its  distinguishing  name,  'A.  fal 
&<i(j>vrif.  —  2.  A  place  in  Upper  Galilee,  on  the 
Lake  Semechouitis. 

DAPHNIS  (Aa^vtf).  1.  A  Sicilian  hero,  to 
whom  the  invention  of  bucolic  poetry  is  ascribed. 
He  was  son  of  Mercury  (Hermes)  by  a  nymph. 
His  mother  placed  him  when  an  infant  in  a 
charming  valley  in  a  laurel  grove,  from  which 
he  received  the  name  of  Daphnis.  He  -was 
brought  up  by  nymphs  ;  was  taught  by  Pan  to 
play  on  the  flute  ;  he  became  a  shepherd,  and 
tended  his  flocks  on  Mount  JElim  winter  and 
summer.  A  Naiad  fell  in  love  with  him,  and 
made  him  swear  that  he  would  never  love  any 
other  maiden,  threatening  him  with  blindness 
if  he  broke  his  oath.  For  a  time  the  handsome 
shepherd  resisted  the  numerous  temptations  to 
which  he  was  exposed,  but  at  last  he  forgot 
himself,  having  been  made  intoxicated  by  a 
priucess.  The  Naiad  accordingly  punished  him 
with  blindness,  or,  as  others  relate,  changed  him 
into  a  stone.  Previous  to  this  time  he  had  com- 
posed bucolic  poetry,  and  with  it  delighted  Di- 
ana (Artemis)  during  the  chase.  After  having 
Become  blind,  he  invoked  his  father  to  help 
nim.  The  god  accordingly  raised  him  up  to 
heaven,  and  caused  a  well  to  gush  forth  on  the 
spot  whe&e  this  happened.  The  well  bore  the 
name  of  Daphuis,  and  at  it  the  Sicilians  offered 
an  annual  sacrifice.  —  [2.  Tyrant  of  Abydos,  one 
of  those  who  were  left  by  Darius  in  charge  of 
the  bridge  of  boats  over  the  Danube,  and  who 
refused  to  destroy  the  bridge  as  urged  by  Milti- 
ades.] 

DAPHNUS  (Aa0voj)f  -OVVTO$  :  Acujrvovoioc),  a. 
town  of  the  Locri  Opuatii  on  the  coast,  in  earlier 
times  belonging  to  Phocis. 

DARADAX  (Aapudag  :  now  Abu-Ghalgal  ?),  a 
river  of  Upper  Syria,  flowing  into  the  Euphrates, 
thirty  parasungs  from  the  River  Chalos,  and  fif- 
teen from  Thapsacus. 

[DARDANES  (AapSavelf),  a  people  of  Media,  on 
the  Gyndes,  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (L,  189), 
otherwise  unknown.] 

DARDANI  (Aupdavoi  :  AapdavtuTai,  Strab.),  a 
people  in  Upper  Mcesia,  who  also  occupied  part 
of  lllyricum,  and  extended  as  far  as  the  frontiers 
of  Macedonia. 

DARDANIA  (bap&av'id),  a  district  of  the  Troad, 
lyiug  along  the  Hellespont,  southwest  of  Abydos, 
and  adjacent  on  the  land  side  to  the  territories 
of  Ilium  and  Scepsis.  Its  people  (Aupdavot)  ap- 
pear in  the  Trojan  war,  and  their  name  is  often 
interchanged  with  that  of  the  Trojans,  especially 
by  the  Roman  poets.  Vid.  DAEDANUS. 

DARDANUS  (Aupdavof).  1.  Son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Electra.  His  native  place  in  the  various 
traditions  is  Arcadia,  Crete,  Troas,  or  Italy.  Dar- 
danus  is  the  mythical  ancestor  of  the  Trojans,  and 
through  them  of  the  Romans.  The  Greek  tradi- 
tions usually  make  him  a  king  in  Arcadia  He 
first  emigrated  to  Samothrace,  and  afterward 
passed  over  to  Asia,  where  he  received  a  tract 
of  land  from  King  Teucer,  on  which  he  built  the 
town  of  Dardania.  He  married  Batea,  daughter 
of  Teucer,  or  Arisbe  of  Crete,  by  whom  he  be- 
came the  father  of  Erichthonius.  His  grandson 
wus  Tros,  who  removed  to  Troy  the  Palladium, 
which  had  belonged  to  his  grandfather.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Italian  traditions,  Dardauus  was  the 
sou  of  Corythus,  an  Etruscan  prince  of  Corythus 


(now  Cortona),  or  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  by  the  wife 
of  Corythus ;  and,  as  in  the  Greek  tradition,  he 
afterward  emigrated  to  Phrygia. — [2.  A  Stoic 
philosopher,  who,  with  Mnesarchus,  stood  at 
the  head  of  the  Stoic  school  at  Athens;  con- 
temporary with  the  Academic  Antiochus  of 
Ascalou.j 

DARDANUS  (TI  Aupdavof :  Aapdavevf),  also  -UM 
and  -IUM,  a  Greek  city  in  the  -Tread  on  the  Hel- 
lespont, near  the  Promontorium  Dardanis  or 
Dardanium  and  the  mouth  of  the  River  Rhodius, 
twelve  Roman  miles  from  Ilium,  and  nine  (or 
seventy  stadia)  from  Abydus.  It  was  built  by 
^Eolian  colonists,  at  some  distance  from  the  site 
of  the  ancient  city  Dardania  (Aapdavii)),  which  is 
mentioned  by  Homer  (//.,  ii.,  216)  as  founded  by 
Dardanus  before  the  building  of  Ilium.  The  Ro- 
mans, after  the  war  with  Antiochus  the  Great, 
made  Dardanus  and  Ilium  free  cities,  as  an  act 
of  filial  piety.  The  peace  between  Sulla  and 
Mithradates  was  made  here,  B.C.  84.  From 
Dardanus  arose  the  name  of  the  Castles  of  the 
Dardanelles,  after  which  the  Hellespont  is  now 
called. 

DARES  (Aa'p»?f).  1.  A  priest  of  Vulcan  (He- 
phaestus) at  Troy,  mentioned  in  the  Iliad  (v.,  9), 
to  whom  was  ascribed  in  antiquity  an  Iliad, 
which  was  believed  to  be  more  ancient  than 
the  Homeric  poems.  This  work,  which  was 
undoubtedly  the  composition  of  a  sophist,  is 
lost ;  but  there  is  extant  a  Latin  work  in  prose 
in  forty-four  chapters,  on  the  destruction  of  Troy, 
bearing  the  title  Daretis  Phrygii  de  Excidio 
Trojce  Historia,  and  purporting  to  be  a  transla- 
tion of  the  work  of  Dares  by  Cornelius  Nepos. 
But  the  Latin  work  is  evidently  of  much  later 
origin  ;  it  is  the  production  of  a  person  of  little 
education  and  of  bad  taste ;  and  it  is  suppost-d 
by  some  to  have  been  written  even  as  late  as 
the  twelfth  century.  It  is  usually  printed  with 
Dictys  Cretensis :  the  best  edition  is  by  Deder- 
ich,  Bonn,  1837,  8vo. — [2.  A  Trojan,  companion 
of  ^Eneas,  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  boxing ; 
vanquished  and  driven  from  the  field  by  the  aged 
Entellus.] 

DARIUS  (Aapctof).  1.  King  of  Persia,  B.C. 
521—485,  was  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  satrap  of 
the  province  of  Persia,  and  of  the  royal  family 
of  the  Achaemenidae.  He  was  one  of  the  seven 
Persian  chiefs  who  destroyed  the  usurper  SMER- 
DIS.  The  seven  chiefs  agreed  that  the  one  of 
them  whose  horse  neighed  first  at  an  appointed 
time  and  place,  should  become  king;  and  as 
the  horse  of  Darius  neighed  first,  he  was  de- 
clared king.  He  married  Atossa  and  Artystone, 
the  two  daughters  of  Cyrus,  and  Parmys,  the 
daughter  of  Cyrus's  son  Smerdis,  and  Phaedime, 
the  daughter  of  Otanes,  one  of  the  seven  chiefs. 
He  then  began  to  set  in  order  the  affairs  of  his 
vast  empire,  which  he  divided  into  twenty  sa- 
trapies, assigning  to  each  its  amount  of  tribute. 
Persis  proper  was  exempted  from  all  taxes,  ex- 
cept those  which  it  had  formerly  been  used  to 
pay.  It  was  in  the  reign  of  Darius  that  the  con- 
solidation of  the  empire  was  effected,  for  Cyrus 
and  Cambyses  bad  been  engaged  in  continual 
wars.  A  few  years  after  his  accession  the 
Babylonians  revolted,  but  after  a  siege  of  twenty 
months,  Babylon  was  taken  by  a  stratagem  of 
ZOPYRUS,  about  516.  The  reduction  of  Babylon 
was  followed  by  the  invasion  of  Scythia  (about 
243 


DASCON. 


DACELEA. 


608)  Darius  crossed  the  Danube,  nud  marched 
for  iiito  the  interior  of  modern  Russia;  but, 
after  losing  a  large  number  of  men  by  famine, 
and  being  unable  to  meet  with  the  enemy,  he 
was  obliged  to  retreat.  On  his  return  to  Asia, 
be  sent  part  of  his  forces,  under  Megabazus,  to 
subdue  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  which  thus  be- 
came subject  to  the  Persian  empire.  The  most 
important  event  in-the  reign  of  Darius  was  the 
commencement  of  the  great  war  between  the 
Persians  and  the  Greeks.  The  history  of  this 
war  belongs  to  the  biographies  of  other  men. 
In  501  the  Ionian  Greeks  revolted ;  they  were 
assisted  by  the  Athenians,  who  burned  Sardis, 
ami  thus  provoked  the  hostility  of  Darius. 
Vid.  ARISTAGORAS,  HISTI/EUS.  In  492  Mar- 
donius  was  sent  with  a  large  army  to  invade 
Greece,  but  he  lost  a  great  part  of  his  fleet 
olf  Mount  Athos,  and  the  Thracians  destroyed 
a  vast  number  of  his  land  forces.  Vid.  MAR- 
UONIUS.  He  was,  in  consequence,  recalled,  and 
Datis  and  Artaphernes  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  invading  army.  They  took  Eretria 
iu  Eubrea,  and  landed  in  Attica,  but  were  de- 
feated at  Marathon  by  the  Athenians  under  the 
c. mi  maud  of  Miltiades.  Vid.  MILTIADES.  Da- 
rius now  resolved  to  call  out  the  whole  force  of 
bis  empire  for  the  purpose  of  subduing  Greece ; 
but,  after  three  years  of  preparation,  his  atten- 
tion was  called  off  by  the  rebellion  a"  Egypt. 
He  died  in  485,  leaving  the  execution  of  his 
plans  to  his  son  Xerxes. — II.  King  of  Persia, 
424-405,  named  OCHUS  ('fl^of),  before  his  ac- 
cession, and  then  surnamed  Nonius  (No0of),  or 
the  Bastard,  from  his  being  one  of  the  bastard 
sons  of  Artaxerxes  I.  Darius  obtained  the 
crown  by  putting  to  death  his  brother  SOGDIA- 
NUS,  who  had  murdered  Xerxes  II.  He  mar- 
ried Parysatis,  daughter  of  Xerxes  I.,  by  whom 
he  had  two  sons,  Artaxerxes  II.,  who  succeeded 
him,  and  Cyrus  the  younger.  Darius  was  gov- 
erned by  eunuchs,  and  the  weakness  of  his  gov- 
ernment was  shown  by  repeated  insurrections 
of  his  satraps.  In  414  the  Persians  were  ex- 
pelled from  Egypt  by  Amyrtseus,  who  reigned 
there  six  years,  and  at  whose  death  (408)  Da- 
rius was  obliged  to  recognize  his  son  Pausiris 
as  his  successor. — III.  Last  king  of  Persia,  336- 
331,  named  CODOMANNUS  before  his  accession, 
was  the  son  of  Arsames  and  Sisygambis,  and  a 
descendant  of  Darius  II.  He  was  raised  to  the 
throne  by  Bngoas,  after  the  murder  of  ARSES. 
The  history  of  his  conquest  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  of  his  death,  is  given  in  the  life  of 
ALEXANDER. 

[DASCON  (AUOKUV),  a  Syracusan,  founder  of 
Camarina.] 

DASCON  (Aaa/cuv :  Aa<j/cuvtof),  a  fortress  near 
Syracuse,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name. 

[DASCYLES  (baoicvhw),  father  of  Gyges.] 

DASCYLIUM  (Aa<7/ctJ/Uov  or  -elov:  AaoKvhiTtjf : 
now  Diaskili),  a  town  of  Bithynia,  on  the  Propon- 
tis,  near  a  lake  called  Dascylitis. 

DASEA  (Aaata,  also  Aacreat :  Aaaear^f),  a  small 
town  in  Arcadia,  near  Megalopolis. 

DASSARETII  or  DASSARIT^,  DASSARETJK  (Aaerora- 
oqrioi,  AaaaaptTut),  &  people  in  Greek  Illyria,  on 
the  borders  of  Macedonia:  their  chief  town  was 
LYCHNIDUS  (Ai^v/rJof),  on  a  hill,  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Lake  LYCHNITIS,  which  -was  so  called 
after  the  town. 

244 


DATAMES  (Aaru^f),  a  distinguished  Persian 
general,  a  Cariau  by  birth,  son  of  Camissares 
by  a  Scythian  mother.  He  succeeded  his  father 
as  satrap  of  Cilicia,  under  Artaxerxes  II.  (Mne- 
mou),  but,  iu  consequence  of  the  machinations  of 
his  enemies  at  the  Persian  court,  he  threw  off 
his  allegiance  to  the  king,  and  made  common 
cause  with  the  other  satraps  who  had  revolted 
from  Persia.  He  defeated  the  generals  who 
were  sent  against  him,  but  was  assassinated 
by  Mithradates,  son  of  Ariobarzanes,  about 
B.C.  362.  Cornelius  Nepos,  who  has  written 
his  life,  calls  him  the  bravest  and  most  able  of 
all  barbarian  generals,  except  Hamilcar  and 
Hannibal. 

DATIS  (Atmf),  a  Mede,  commanded,  along  with 
Artaphernes,  the  Persian  army  of  Darius,  which 
was  defeatei  at  Marathon,  B.C.  490. 

DATUM  or  DATUS  (Aarov,  Aurof :  Aar^vof ; 
now  Eski-Cavalld),  &  Thraoian  town  on  the  Stry- 
monic  Gulf,  subject  to  Macedonia,  with  gold 
mines  in  Mount  Pangasus  in  the  neighborhood, 
whence  came  the  proverb  a  '  Datum  of  good 
things." 

DAULIS  or  DAULIA  (Aov?'r,  -fe!ti,  AavA«a:  Aav- 
/Uetif,  Aaii/ltof :  now  Dai,fw),  an  ancient  town  in 
Phocis,  on  the  road  from  ChaeronRa  and  Orcho- 
menus  to  Delphi,  situated  on  a  lofty  hill :  cele- 
brated in  mythology  as  the  residence  of  the 
Thracian  king  TEREUS,  and  as  the  scene  of  the 
tragic  story  of  PHILOMELA  and  PROCNE.  Hence 
DAULIAS  (Aai>/liaf)  is  the  surname  both  of  Procne 
and  Philomela. 

DAUNIA.     Vid.  APULIA. 

DAUNUS  (Aawof).  I.  Son  of  Lycaon,  and 
brother  of  lapyx  and  Peucetius.  The  three 
brothers  crossed  over  from  Illyria,  and  settled 
in  Apulia,  which  was  divided  into  three  parts, 
and  named  after  them.  The  poets  sometimes 
gave  the  name  of  Daunia  to  the  whole  of  Apu- 
lia: Horace  (Carm.,  i.,  22,  14)  uses  the  adjec 
tive  Daunias  (sc.  terra). — 2.  Son  of  Pilumnus 
and  Danae,  wife  of  Venilia,  and  ancestor  of  Tur- 
nus. 

[DECAPOLIS  (Af/cuTro^tf),  in  Palestine,  east  of 
the  Jordan,  an  association  composed  of  the  ten 
cities,  Philadelphia,  Damascus,  Raphana,  Scytho- 
polis,  Gadara.  Hippon,  Dion,  Pell  a,  Galasa,  and 
Canatha,  which,  not  being  inhabited  by  Jews, 
formed  a  confederation  for  mutual  protection 
against  the  Asmonean  princes  of  Judaea.] 

DECEBALUS  (AfKcfia/lof),  a  celebrated  king  of 
the  Dacians  during  the  reigns  of  Domitian  and 
Trajan.  For  four  years  (A.D  86-90)  he  car 
ried  on  war  against  the  Romans  with  such  suc- 
cess, that  Domitian  was  at  length  glad  to  con- 
clude peace  with  him  by  the  payment  of  an  an- 
nual tribute.  Trajan  refused  to  continue  this 
disgraceful  payment,  and  renewed  the  war. 
He  defeated  the  Dacians,  and  compelled  Dece- 
balus  to  sue  for  peace,  which  was  granted  (101— 
103).  But  in  104  the  war  broke  out  again;  De- 
cebalus  was  again  defeated,  and  put  an  end  to 
his  life ;  and  Dacia  became  a  Roman  province, 
106. 

DECELEA  or  -IA  (Ae/ceAeia:  Aeicefavf :  now 
Biala- Castro),  a  demus  of  Attica,  belonging  to 
the  tribe  Hippothoontis,  lay  northwest  of  Athens, 
on  the  borders  of  Bceotia,  near  the  sources  of 
the  Cephisus.  In  the  niueteerth  year  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War  (B.C.  413),  the  Peloponne- 


DECENTIUS   MAGNUS. 


DEIPHOBUS. 


siana  under  Agis  seized  and  fortified  Decelea,  and 
thereby  annoyed  the  Athenians  in  many  ways 
during  the  remainder  of  the  war. 

DECENTICS  MAGNUS,  brother  or  cousin  of  Mag- 
nentius,  by  whom  he  was  created  Caesar,  A.D. 
351.  After  the  death  of  MAGXENTIUS,  he  put  an 
end  to  his  own  life,  353. 

DECETIA  (now  Desize),  a  city  of  the  JSdui,  in 
Gallia  Lugdunensis,  on  an  island  in  the  Liger 
(now  Loire). 

DECIATES,  a  Ligurian  people  on  the  coast  and 
about  the  sources  of  the  Druentia  (now  Durance). 
Their  chief  city,  Deciatum  (AsKitjTOv),  lay  be- 
tween Nicaea  and  Antipolis. 

DECIDIUS  SAXA.     Vid.  SAXA. 

DECIUS  Mtrs,  P.,  plebeians.  1.  Consul  B.C. 
340  with  T.  Manlius  Torquatus  in  the  great 
Latin  war.  Each  of  the  consuls  had  a  vision 
in  the  night  before  fighting  with  the  Latins,  an- 
nouncing that  the  general  of  one  side  and  the 
army  of  the  other  were  devoted  to  death.  The 
consuls  thereupon  agreed  that  the  one  whose 
wing  first  began  to  waver  should  devote  him- 
self and  the  army  of  the  enemy  to  destruction. 
Decius  commanded  the  left  wing,  which  began 
to  give  way,  whereupon  he  devoted  himself  and 
the  army  of  the  enemy  to  destruction,  accord- 
ing to  the  formula  prescribed  by  the  pontifex 
maximus,  then  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the 
enemy,  and  was  slaiq,  leaving  the  victory  to  the 
Romans.  —  2.  Son  of  the  preceding,  four  times 
consul,  312,  308,  297,  and  295,  In  his  fourth 
consulship  he  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the 
battle  of  Sentinum,  where  he  was  opposed  to 
the  Gauls,  and  when  his  troops  began  to  give 
way,  he  imitated  the  example  of  his  father,  de- 
voted himself  and  the  enemy  to  destruction,  and 
fell  as  a  sacrifice  for  his  nation.  —  3.  Son  of  No. 
2,  consul  279,  in  the  war  against  Pyrrhus.  Ac- 
cording to  some,  he  sacrificed  himself  in  battle 
like  his  father  and  grandfather,  but  this  is  not 
true,  for  he  survived  the  war  with  Pyrrhus. 

DECIUS,  a  Roman  emperor,  A.D.  249-251, 
whose  full  name  was  C.  MESSIUS  QUINTUS  TRA- 
JANUS  DECIUS,  was  born  at  Bubalia,  in  Pannonia. 
He  was  sent  by  the  Emperor  Philippus  in  249 
to  restore  subordination  in  the  army  of  Mcesia, 
but  the  troops  compelled  him  to  accept  the  pur- 
ple under  threats  of  death.  Decius  still  assured 
Philippus  of  his  fidelity  ;  but  the  latter  not  trust- 
ing these  professions,  hastened  to  meet  his  rival 
in  the  field,  was  defeated  near  Verona,  and  slain. 
The  short  reign  of  Decius  was  chiefly  occupied 
in  warring  against  the  Goths.  He  fell  in  battle 
against  the  Goths  together  with  his  son  in  251. 
In  his  reign  the  Christians  were  persecuted  with 
great  severity. 

DECIMATES  AGRI.     Vid.  AGUI  DECUMATES. 

DEiANfBA  (&7jidveipa),  daughter  of  Althosa  by 
cither  (Eneus,  or  Bacchus,  (Diosysus),  or  Dex- 
amenus,  and  sister  of  Meleager.  Achelous  and 
Hercules  both  loved  De'iamra,  and  fought  for 
the  possession  of  her.  Hercules  was  victorious, 
and  she  became  his  wife.  She  was  the  unwill- 
ing cause  of  her  husband's  death  by  presenting 
him  with  the  poisoned  robe  which  the  centaur 
Nessus  gave  her.  In  despair,  she  put  an  end  to 
her  own  life.  For  details,  vid.  HERCULES. 

[DKICOON  (ATJIKOUV),  a  Trojan  hero,  friend  of 
ifineas,  slain  by  Agamemnon.] 

(Aijlddiieia).     1.  Daughter  of  Lyco- 


'  medes  in  the  island  of  Scyrus.     When  Achilles 

I  was  concealed  there  in  maiden's  attire,  she  be- 

j  came  by  him  the  mother  of  Pyrrhus  or  Neop- 

tolemusJ  —  2.  Wife  of  Pirithous,   commonly  call- 

ed HIPPODAMIA.  —  [3.  Daughter  of  Bellerophon, 

wife  of  Euander,  and  mother  of  Sarpedon  ;  she 

is  called  by  Homer  (H.,  vi.,  197)  Laodamia.1  — 

4.  Sister  of  Pyrrhus,  married  Demetrius  Polior- 

cetes. 

DEIOCES  (AqioKrjg),  first  king  of  Media,  after 
the  Medes  had  thrown  off  the  supremacy  of  the 
Assyrians,  was  the  son  of  Phraortes,  and  reign- 
ed B.C.  709-656.  He  built  the  city  of  Ecbat- 
ana,  which  he  made  the  royal  residence.  His  ad- 
ministration of  justice  was  severe,  and  he  kept  a 
body  of  spies  and  informers  throughout  the 
whole  country.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
PHRAORTES 

[DE'IOCHUS  (A^to^of),  a  Greek,  slain  before 
Troy  by  Paris.] 

Dlio.v  (brjiuv),  son  of  ^Eolus  and  Enarete, 
king  in  Phocis,  husband  of  Diomcde,  and  father 
of  Asteropia,  JEnetus,  Actor,  Phylacus,  and 
Cephalus. 

DEIONE  (krjiuvri),  mother  of  Miletus,  who  is 
hence  called  DEIOMDES.  (Ov.,  Met.,  ix.,  442.) 

[DEIONEUS  (briioveve).  1.  Father  of  Dia,  the 
wife  of  Ixion,  by  whom  he  was  thrown  into  a  pit 
filled  with  fire,  and  there  perished.  —  2.  A  son  of 
Eurytus  of  (Echalia,  whom  Theseus  married  to 
Perigune,  the  daughter  of  Sink.] 

[DEIOPEA,  a  beautiful  nymph,  whom  Juno 
promised  to  ^Eolus  if  he  would  aid  her  in  destroy- 
ing the  fleet  of  ./Eneas.] 

[DEIOPITES  (AjyioTrZr^f),  a  son  of  Priam,  slain 
by  Ulysses  (II.,  xi.,  420)  ;  Apollodorus  calls  hiiu 


DEIOTARUS  (A^torapof).  1.  Tetrarch  of  Gala- 
tia,  adhered  firmly  to  the  Romans  in  their  wars 
in  Asia  against  Mithradates,  and  was  rewarded 
bv  the  senate  with  the  title  of  king,  and  the  ad- 
dition of  Armenia  Minor  to  his  dominions.  In 
the  civil  war  he  sided  with  Pompey,  and  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  B.C.  48.  In 
47  he  applied  to  Domitius  Calvinus,  Caasar's  le- 
gate in  Asia,  for  aid  against  Pharnaces,  who 
had  taken  possession  of  Armenia  Minor.  When 
Caesar,  in  the  same  year,  came  into  Asia  from 
Egypt,  Deiotarus  received  him  with  submission, 
and  endeavored  to  excuse  the  aid  he  had  given 
to  Pompey.  Caesar  deprived  him  of  part  of  his 
dominions,  but  allowed  him  to  retain  his  regal 
title.  Two  years  afterward  (45)  his  grandson 
Castor  accused  him  of  having  formed  a  design 
against  Caesar's  life,  when  he  received  Caesar 
in  Gnlatia.  Ho  was  defended  by  Cicero  before 
Cojsar,  in  the  house  of  the  latter  at  Rome,  in 
the  speech  (pro  Rege  Deiotaro)  still  extant.  The 
result  of  the  trial  is  not  knowa  After  Cassar's 
death  he  obtained  from  Antony  the  restitution 
of  his  dominions  by  paying  Fulvia  a  large  sum 
of  money.  In  42  he  joined  the  party  of  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  and  died  shortly  afterward  at  a  great 
age.  —  2.  Son  and  sucressor  of  the  above.  In  the 
war  between  Antony  and  Octavianus  he  took  part 
with  the  former,  but  went  over  from  him  to  the 
enemy  in  the  battle  of  Actium,  31. 

D&fpHOBE  (&ijl<l>66ii),  the  Sibyl  at  Cumse.daugh- 
ter  of  Glaucus.  Vid.  SIBYLLA. 

KIPHOBUS  (&tityo6o£).     1.  A  son  of  Priam  and 
Hecuba,  and,  next  to  Hector,  the  bravest  among 
245 


DEIPHONTES. 


DELPHI 


the  1  rojans.  He  always  supported  Paris  in  bis 
refusal  to  deliver  up  Helen  to  the  Trojans  ;  aud 
he  married  her  after  the  deatli  of  Paris.  Ac- 
eordiugly,  on  the  fall  of  Troy,  the  vengeance  of 
the  Greeks  -was  chiefly  directed  against  him. 
His  house  was  one  of  the  first  committed  to 
the  flames,  aud  he  was  slain  and  fejirfully  man- 
gled by  Menelaus,  [the  marks  of  which  mutila- 
tion his  shade  still  bore  in  the  lower  world  when 
encountered  by  ./Eneas;  who,  before  leaving 
Troy,  had  erected  a  cenotaph  to  his  memory 
on  Cape  Rhceteuin. — 2.  Son  of  Hippolytus  in 
Amyclee,  who  purified  Hercules  of  the  murder 
of  Iphitus.] 

DEIPHONTES  (Aj^ovn/f),  son  of  Antimachus, 
and  husband  of  Hyrnetho,  the  daughter  of  Tem- 
enus  the  Heraclid,  became  king  of  Argos  after 
Temenus  had  been  murdered  by  his  own  sons. 
Pausanias  (a,  19)  gives  a  different  account 

[DEIPYLE  (Ai/wri)^),  daughter  of  Adrastus, 
king  of  Argos,  wife  of  Tydeus,  and  mother  of 
Diomcdes.] 

[DEI'PYLUS  (A^Tm/lof),  a  Greek,  companion  of 
Diomedes  in  the  Trojan  war.] 

[DEIPYKUS  (A^tVvjoof),  a  Greek  warrior,  slain 
by  Helenus  before  Troy.] 

DiLiUM  (Ar/Atov  :  now  Dhilessi),  a  town  on 
the  coast  of  Boeotia,  in  the  territory  of  Tanagra, 
near  the  Attic  frontier,  named  after  a  temple  of 
Apollo,  similar  to  that  at  Delos.  The  Athenians 
used  it  as  a  fortress  in  the  early  part  of  the  Pe- 
loponnesian  War,  and  in  B.C.  424  they  were  de- 
feated here  by  the  Boeotians. 

DELIUS  and  DELIA  (  A^/Uof,  Arjhia),  surnames 
of  Apollo  and  Diana  (Artemis)  respectively, 
from  the  island  of  DELOS. 

DELLIUS,  Q.,  a  Roman  eques,  who  frequently 
changed  sides  in  the  civil  wars.  In  B.C.  44  he 
joined  Dolabella  in  Asia,  afterward  went  over 
to  Cassius,  and  then  united  himself  to  M.  Antony. 
He  deserted  to  Octavianus  shortly  before  the  bat- 
tle of  Actium,  31.  He  appears  to  have  become 
a  personal  friend  of  Octavianus  and  Maecenas, 
and  is  therefore  addressed  by  Horace  in  one  of 
his  Odes  (ii.,  3).  He  wrote  a  history  of  Antony's 
war  against  the  Partisans,  in  which  he  had  him- 
self fought. 

DELMATIUS  or  DALMATICS.  1.  Son  of  Con- 
stantinus  Chlorus  and  his  second  wife  Theodora. 
From  his  half-brother,  Constantine  the  Great,  he 
received  the  title  of  censor :  he  died  before  A.D. 
835. — 2.  Son  of  the  preceding,  was  created  Caesar 
by  Constantine  the  Great,  335  ;  and,  upon  the  di- 
vision of  the  empire,  received  Thrace,  Macedonia, 
and  Achaia  as  his  portion.  He  was  put  to  death 
in  337  on  the  death  of  Constantine. 

DELOS  or  DELUS  (#  A^Aof :  A^/Uof :  now  JDelo, 
Deli,  Dili,  or  Sdilli)  the  smallest  of  the  islands 
called  Cyclades,  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  lay  in  the 
strait  between  Rhenea  and  Myconus.  It  was 
also  called,  in  earlier  times,  Asteria,  Ortygia, 
and  Chlnmydia.  According  to  a  legend,  found- 
ed, perhaps,  on  some  tradition  of  its  late  volcanic 
origin,  it  was  called  out  of  the  deep  by  the  tri- 
dent of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  but  was  a  floating 
island  until  Jupiter  (Zeus)  fastened  it  by  ada- 
mantine chains  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  that 
it  might  be  a  secure  resting-place  to  Latona 
(Leto)  for  the  birth  of  Apollo  and  Diana  (Arte- 
mis). Apollo  afterward  obtained  possession  of 
Delos  by  giving  Calauria  to  Neptune  Posei- 
246 


don)  in  exchange  for  it ;  and  it  became  tne  most 
holy  seat  of  the  worship  of  Apollo.  Such  is  the 
mythical  story :  we  learn  from  history  that  Dc- 
los  was  peopled  by  the  lonians,  for  whom  it  was 
the  chief  centre  of  political  and  religious  union 
in  the  time  of  Homer :  it  was  also  the  seat  of 
an  Amphictyony,  comprising  the  surrounding 
islands.  In  the  time  of  Pisistratus,  Delos  be- 
came subject  to  the  Athenians  :  it  was  made 
the  common  treasury  of  the  Greek  confederacy 
for  carrying  on  the  war  with  Persia;  but  the 
transference  of  the  treasury  to  Athens,  and  the 
altered  character  of  the  league,  reduced  the  isl- 
and to  a  condition  of  absolute  political  depend- 
ence upon  Athens.  It  still  possessed,  how- 
ever, a  very  extensive  commerce,  which  was 
increased  by  the  downfall  of  Corinth,  when  De- 
los became  the  chief  emporium  for  the  trade  in 
slaves ;  and  it  was  one  of  the  principal  seats  of 
art  in  Greece,  especially  for  works  in  bronze, 
of  which  metal  one  of  the  most  esteemed  mix- 
tures was  called  the  Delian.  An  especial  sanc- 
tity was  attached  to  Delos  from  its  connection 
with  the  worship  of  Apollo  ;  and  the  peculiar 
character  assigned  to  the  island  by  the  tradi- 
tions of  its  origin  was  confirmed  by  the  remark- 
able fact  that,  though  of  volcanic  origin,  and  in 
the  midst  of  islands  very  subject  to  earthquakes, 
Delos  enjoyed  an  almost  entire  exemption  from 
such  visitations,  so  that  its  being  shaken  by  an 
earthquake  was  esteemed  a  marked  prodigy. 
The  city  of  Delos  stood  on  the  west  side  of  the 
island,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cynthus  (whence 
the  god's  surname  of  Cynthius),  near  a  little 
river  called  Inopus.  It  contained  a  temple  of 
Latona  (Leto),  and  the  great  temple  of  Apollo. 
The  latter  was  built  near  the  harbor,  and  pos- 
sessed an  oracle.  Though  enriched  with  offer- 
ings from  all  Greece,  and  defended  by  no  forti- 
fications, it  was  so  protected  from  plunder  by 
the  sanctity  of  the  place,  that  even  the  Per- 
sians when  sailing  against  Greece,  not  only 
passed  it  by  uninjured,  but  sent  rich  presents 
to  the  god.  With  this  temple  were  connected 
games,  called  Delia,  which  were  celebrated 
every  four  years,  and  were  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Theseus.  A  like  origin  is  ascribed 
to  the  sacred  embassy  (deupia)  which  the  Athe- 
nians sent  to  Delos  every  year.  Vid.  Diet, 
of  Ant^  art.  THEORI.  The  temple  and  oracle 
were  visited  by  pilgrims  from  every  quarter, 
even  from  the  regions  of  Scythia.  The  great- 
est importance  was  attached  to  the  preser- 
vation of  the  sanctity  of  the  island.  It  was 
twice  purified  by  the  Athenians ;  once  under  Pi- 
sistratus, when  all  tombs  within  sight  of  the 
temple  were  taken  away  ;  and  again  in  B.C. 
426,  when  all  human  and  animal  remains  were 
removed  entirely  from  the  island,  which  was 
henceforth  forbidden  to  be  polluted  by  births  or 
deaths,  or  by  the  presence  of  dogs  :  all  persona 
about  to  die  or  to  bring  forth  children  were  to 
be  removed  to  the  adjacent  island  of  Rhenea 
Delos  continued  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and 
under  the  rule  of  the  Athenians,  who  were  con- 
firmed in  the  possession  of  it  by  the  Romans, 
until  the  Mithradatic  War,  when  Meuophanes, 
one  of  the  generals  of  Mithradntes,  inflicted 
upon  it  a  devastation  from  which  it  never  again 
recovered. 

DELPHI  (ol  AeA^ot :  Ac Ae/>6f  :  Delphicus :  now 


DELPHI. 


DEMARATUS 


Kastri),  a  small  town  in  Phocis,  but  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  in  Greece,  on  account  of  its 
oracle  of  Apollo.  It  was  sixteen  stadia  in  cir- 
cumference, was  situated  on  a  steep  declivity 
on  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Parnassus,  and 
its  site  resembled  the  cavea  of  a  great  theatre. 
It  was  shut  in  on  the  north  by  a  barrier  of  rocky 
mountains,  which  were  cleft  in  the  centre  into 
two  great  cliffs  with  peaked  summits,  between 
which  issued  the  waters  of  the  Castalian  spring. 
It  was  originally  called  PYTHO  (Hv6u),  by  which 
name  it  is  alone  mentioned  in  Homer.  The 
origin  of  the  name  of  Delphi  is  uncertain.  The 
ancients  derived  it  from  an  eponymous  hero, 
Delphus,  a  descendant  of  Deucalion ;  but  it  has 
been  conjectured  that  Delphi  is  connected  with 
adelphos,  "  brother,"  and  that  it  was  indebted 
for  its  name  to  the  twin  peaks  mentioned  above. 
Delphi  was  colonized  at  an  early  period  by  Doric 
settlers  from  the  neighboring  town  of  Lycorea, 
on  the  heights  of  Parnassus.  The  government 
was  an  oligarchy,  and  was  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
distinguished  families  of  Doric  origin.  From 
them  were  taken  the  chief  magistrates,  the 
priests,  and  a  senate  consisting  of  a  very  few 
members.  Delphi  was  regarded  as  the  central 
point  of  the  whole  earth,  and  was  hence  called 
the  "  navel  of  the  earth."  It  was  said  that  two 
eagles  sent  forth  by  Jupiter,  one  from  the  east 
and  another  from  the  west,  met  at  Delphi  at 
the  same  time.  Delphi  was  the  principal  seat 
of  the  worship  of  Apollo.  Besides  the  great 
temple  of  Apollo,  it  contained  numerous  sanc- 
tuaries, statues,  and  other  works  of  art  The 
Pythian  games  were  also  celebrated  here,  and 
it  was  one  of  the  two  places  of  meeting  of  the 
Amphictyonic  council  The  temple  of  Apollo 
was  situated  at  the  northwestern  extremity  of 
the  town.  The  first  stone  temple  was  built  by 
Trophonius  and  Agamcdes ;  and  when  this  was 
burned  down  B.C.  648,  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  Am- 
phictyons  with  still  greater  splendor.  The  ex- 
pense was  defrayed  by  voluntary  subscriptions, 
to  which  even  Aniasis,  king  of  Egypt,  contribu- 
ted. The  architect  was  Spintharus  of  Corinth  ; 
the  Alcmseonid*  contracted  to  build  it,  and  lib- 
erally substituted  Parian  marble  for  the  front 
of  the  building,  instead  of  the  common  stone 
which  they  had  agreed  to  employ.  The  temple 
contained  immense  treasures ;  for  not  only 
were  rich  offerings  presented  to  it  by  kings  and 
private  persons,  who  had  received  favorable  re- 
plies from  the  oracle,  but  many  of  the  Greek 
states  bad  in  the  temple  separate  tftesauri,  in 
which  they  deposited,  for  the  sake  of  security, 
many  of  their  valuable  treasures.  The  wealth 
of  the  temple  attracted  Xerxes,  who  sent  part 
of  his  army  into  Phocis  to  obtain  possession  of 
its  treasures,  but  the  Persians  were  driven  back 
by  the  god  himself,  according  to  the  account  of 
the  Delphians.  The  Phocians  plundered  the 
temple  to  support  them  in  the  war  against 
Thebes  and  the  other  Greek  states  (357-346) ; 
and  it  was  robbed  at  a  later  time  by  Brennus 
and  by  Sulla.  In  the  centre  of  the  temple  there 
waa  a  smull  opening  (xuapa)  in  the  ground,  from 
winch,  from  time  to  tune,  an  intoxicating  vapor 
arose,  which  was  believed  to  come  from  the  well 
of  Caneotis.  No  traces  of  this  chasm  or  of  the 
mfphitio  exhalations  are  now  any  where  ob- 
eer/able.  Over  this  chasm  there  utood  a  tripod, 


on  which  the  priestess,  called  Pythia,  took  her 
seat  whenever  the  oracle  was  to  be  consulted. 
The  words  which  she  uttered  after  inhaling  the 
vapor  were  believed  to  contain  the  revelations 
of  Apollo.  They  were  carefully  written  down 
by  the  priests,  and  afterward  communicated  in 
hexameter  verse  to  the  persons  who  had  come 
to  consult  the  oracle.  If  the  Pythia  spoke  in 
prose,  her  words  were  immediately  turned  into 
verse  by  a  poet  employed  for  the  purpose.  The 
oracle  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  its  hav- 
ing thrown  into  convulsions  some  goats  which 
had  strayed  to  the  mouth  of  the  cave.  For  de- 
tails respecting  the  oracle  and  its  influence  in 
Greece,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant^  art.  ORACULUM. 

[DELPHICUS,  appellation  of  Apollo,  from  Del- 
phi (Ovid.,  Met.,  ii.,  543).] 

DELPHIXES.     Vid.  DELPHINICS. 

DELPHINIUM  (Astyiviov).  1.  A  temple  of  Apol- 
lo Delphinius  at  Athens,  said  to  have  been  built 
by  ^Egeus,  in  which  the  Ephetae  sat  for  trying 
cases  of  intentional,  but  justifiable  homicide. — 
2.  The  harbor  of  Oropus  in  Attica,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Boaotia,  called  6  iepdf  fapijv. — 3.  A  town 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island  Chios. 

DELPHINIUS  (Ae/l^owf),  a  surname  of  Apollo, 
derived  either  from  his  slaying  the  dragon  Del- 
phines  (usually  called  Python),  or  because  in 
the  form  of  a  dolphin  (cJeA^tf),  or  riding  on  a  dol- 
phin, he  showed  the  Cretan  colonists  the  way 
to  Delphi. 

DELPHUS  (Ae/l$6f).  1.  Son  of  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon) and  Melantho,  to  whom  the  foundation 
of  Delphi  was  ascribed. — 2.  Son  of  Apollo  and 
Celseno,  who  is  also  said  to  have  founded  Delphi 

DELTA.     Vid.  J£GYFTUS. 

DEMADES  (Aj^ao^f,  a  contraction  of  Aj/^eattyf), 
an  Athenian  orator,  was  of  very  low  origin,  but 
rose  by  his  talents  to  a  prominent  position  at 
Athens.  He  belonged  to  the  Macedonian  party, 
and  was  a  bitter  enemy  of  Demosthenes.  H,e 
was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Chaeronea, 
B.C.  338,  but  was  dismissed  by  Philip  with  dis- 
tinguished marks  of  honor.  After  Phih'p's  death 
he  was  the  subservient  supporter  of  Alexander, 
but,  notwithstanding,  frequently  received  bribes 
from  the  opposite  party.  He  was  put  to  death 
by  Antipater  in  318,  because  the  latter  had  dis- 
covered a  letter  of  Demades,  urging  the  enemies 
of  Antipater  to  attack  him.  Demades  was  a 
man  without  principle,  and  lived  in  a  most  prof- 
ligate and  dissolute  manner.  But  he  was  a 
brilliant  orator.  He  always  spoke  extempore, 
and  with  such  irresistible  force,  that  lie  was  a 
perfect  match  for  Demosthenes  himsdf.  There 
is  extant  a  large  fragment  of  an  oration  bearing 
the  name  of  Demades  (irepl  dutieKatTiaf),  in 
which  he  defends  his  conduct  during  the  period 
of  Alexander's  reign.  It  is  printed  in  the  col- 
lections of  the  Attic  orators,  but  its  genuinenesi 
is  doubtful.  Cicero  and  Quintilian  both  state 
that  Demades  left  no  orations  behind  him. 

[DEMARATA,  daughter  of  Hiero,  king  of  Syra- 
cuse, married  to  Andranodorus,  the  guardian  of 
Hicronymus,  on  whose  assassination  she  en- 
deavored to  persuade  her  husband  to  seize  on 
the  sovereign  power:  she  was  afterward  put 
to  death.] 

DEMARATUS  (A^apaTOf,  Dor.  Aa/iaparof).  1. 
King  of  Sparta,  reigned  from  about  B.C.  510  to 
491.  He  waa  at  variance  with  his  unscrupu- 
247 


DEMET^E. 


DKMKTER. 


lous  colleague  Cleomenes,  who  at  length  accus- 
ed him  before  the  Ephors  of  being  an  illegiti- 
mate son  of  Ariston,  and  obtained  his  deposition 
by  bribing  the  Delphic  oracle,  B.C.  491.  Dema- 
ratus  thereupon  repaired  to  the  Persian  court, 
where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Darius.  He 
accompanied  Xerxes  in  his  invasion  of  Greece, 
and  recommended  the  king  not  to  rely  too  con- 
fidently upon  his  countless  hosts.  His  family 
continued  long  in  Asia. — 2.  A  merchant-noble 
of  Coriuth,  and  one  of  the  Bacchiadae.  Wken 
the  power  of  his  clan  had  been  overthrown  by 
Cypselus,  about  B.C.  657,  he  fled  from  Corinth, 
and  settled  at  Tarquinii  in  Etruria,  where  he 
married  an  Etruscan  wife,  by  whom  he  had  two 
sons,  Aruns  and  Lucumo,  afterward  L.  Tarquiu- 
ius  Prisons. 

DEMET^E,  a  people  of  Britain,  in  the  southwest 
of  Wales:  their  chief  towns  were  Maridunum 
(now  Carmarthen)  and  Luentinum. 

DEMETER  (AijpiJTrip),  the  Roman  Ceres,  one 
of  the  great  divinities  of  the  Greeks,  was  the 
goddess  of  the  earth,  and  her  name  probably  sig- 
nified Mother-Earth  (yi)  ppr/p).  She  was  the 
protectress  of  agriculture  and  of  all  the  fruits 
of  the  earth.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Cronus 
(Saturn)  and  Rhea,  and  sister  of  Zeus  (Jupiter), 
by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Perseph- 
one (Proserpina).  Zeus  (Jupiter),  without  the 
knowledge  of  Demeter  (Ceres),  had  promised 
Persephone  (Proserpina)  to  Aidoneus  (Pluto); 
and  while  the  unsuspecting  maiden  was  gather- 
ing flowers  in  the  Nysian  plain  in  Asia,  the 
earth  suddenly  opened,  and  she  was  carried  off 
by  Aidoneus  (Pluto).  Her  mother,  who  heard 
only  the  echo  of  her  voice,  immediately  set  out 
in  search  of  her  daughter.  For  nine  days  she 
wandered  about  without  obtaining  any  tidings 
of  her,  but  on  the  tenth  she  met  Hecate,  who 
told  her  that  she  had  heard  the  cries  of  Perseph- 
qpe  (Proserpina),  but  did  not  know  who  had 
carried  her  off.  Both  then  hastened  to  Helios 
(the  Sun),  who  revealed  to  them  that  it  was  Ai- 
doneus (Pluto)  who  had  carried  off  Perseph- 
one (Proserpina)  with  the  consent  of  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter). Thereupon  Demeter  (Ceres),  in  her  an- 
ger, avoided  Olympus,  and  dwelt  upon  earth 
among  men,  conferring  blessings  wherever  she 
was  kindly  received,  and  severely  punishing 
those  who  repulsed  her.  In  this  manner  she 
came  to  Celeus  at  Eleusis.  Vid.  CELEUS.  As 
the  goddess  still  continued  angry,  and  did  not 
allow  the  earth  to  produce  any  fruits,  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter) first  sent  Iris  and  then  all  the  gods  to  per- 
suade Demeter  (Ceres)  to  return  to  Olympus. 
But  she  was  deaf  to  all  their  entreaties,  and  re- 
fused to  return  to  Olympus,  and  to  restore  fer- 
tility to  the  earth,  till  she  had  seen  her  daughter 
agaia  Zeus  (Jupiter)  accordingly  sent  Hermes 
(Mercury)  into  Erebus  to  fetch  back  Persepho- 
ne (Proserpina).  Aidoueus  (Pluto)  consented, 
but  gave  Persephone  (Proserpina)  part  of  a : 
pomegranate  to  eat.  Hermes  (Mercury)  then 
took  her  to  Eleusis  to  her  mother,  who  received  ! 
her  with  unbounded  joy.  At  Eleusis  both  wore 
joined  by  Hecate,  who  henceforth  became  the  \ 
attendant  of  Persephone  (Proserpina).  Deme- 
tcr  (Ceres)  now  returned  to  Olympus  with  her 
daughter ;  but  as  the  latter  had  eaten  hi  the  I 
lower  world,  she  was  obliged  to  spend  one  third  | 
of  the  year  with  Aidoneus  (Pluto),  but  was  al- 
248 


lowed  to  continue  with  her  mother  the  remain- 
der of  the  year.  The  earth  now  brought  fortih 
fruit  again.  Before  Demeter  (Ceres)  left  Eleu- 
sis, she  instructed  Triptolemus,  Diocles,  Eumol- 
pus,  and  Celeus  in  the  mode  of  her  worship  and 
m  the  mysteries.  This  is  the  ancient  legend  as 
preserved  in  the  Homeric  hymn,  but  it  is  va- 
riously modified  in  later  traditions.  In  the  Latin 
poets  the  scene  of  the  rape  is  near  Enna  in 
Sicily ;  and  Ascalaphus,  who  had  alone  seen 
Persephone  (Proserpina)  eat  any  thing  in  the 
lower  world,  revealed  the  fact,  and  was,  in 
consequence,  turned  into  an  owl  by  Demeter 
(Ceres).  Vid.  ASCALAPHUS.  In  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  there  is  no  mention  of  this  legend, 
and  there  appears  no  connection  between  Deme- 
ter (Ceres)  and  Persephone  (Proserpina).  The 
meaning  of  the  legend  is  obvious.  Persephone 
(Proserpina),  who  is  carried  off  to  the  lower 
world,  is  the  seed-corn,  which  remains  concealed 
in  the  ground  part  of  the  year;  Persephone 
(Proserpina),  who  returns  to  her  mother,  is  the 
corn  which  rises  from  the  ground  and  nourishes 
men  and  animals.  Later  philosophical  writers, 
and  perhaps  the  mysteries  also,  referred  the 
disappearance  and  return  of  Persephone  (Pro- 
serpina) to  the  burial  of  the  body  of  man  and 
the  immortality  of  his  soul.  The  other  legends 
about  Demeter  (Ceres)  are  of  less  importance. 
To  escape  the  pursuit  of  Poseidon  (Neptune), 
she  changed  herself  into  a  mare,  but  the  god 
effected  his  purpose,  and  she  became  the  mother 
of  the  celebrated  horse  Arioa  Vid.  ARION,  No. 
2.  According  to  some  traditions,  she  also  bore 
to  Poseidon  (Neptune)  a  daughter  Despcena  (». 
e.,  Persephone).  She  fell  in  love  with  lasion, 
and  lay  with  him  in  a  thrice-ploughed  field  in 
Crete :  their  offspring  was  Plutus  ( Wealth)  Vid. 
IASION.  She  punished  with  fearful  hunger  Ery- 
sichthon,  who  had  cut  down  her  sacred  grove. 
Vid.  ERYSICHTHON.  The  chief  seats  of  the  wor- 
ship of  Demeter  (Ceres)  and  Persephone  (Pro- 
serpina) were  Attica,  Arcadia  and  Sicily.  In 
Attica  she  was  worshipped  with  great  splendor. 
The  Athenians  pretended  that  agriculture  was 
first  practiced  in  then*  country,  and  that  Trip- 
tolemus of  Eleusis,  the  favorite  of  Demeter  (Ce 
res),  was  the  first  who  invented  the  plough  ana 
sowed  corn.  Vid.  TRIPTOLEMUS.  Every  yeai 
at  Athens  the  festival  of  the  Eleu&inia  was  eel 
ebrated  in  honor  of  these  goddesses.  The  fes- 
tival of  the  Thesmophoria  was  also  celebrated 
in  her  honor  as  well  at  Athens  as  at  other  parts 
of  Greece:  it  was  intended  to  commemorate 
the  introduction  of  the  laws  and  the  regulations 
of  civilized  life,  which  were  ascribed  to  Deme- 
ter (Ceres),  since  agriculture  is  the  basis  of 
civilization.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ani^  arts.  ELEUSINIA, 
THESMOPHORIA.  In  works  of  art  Demeter  (Ce- 
res) was  represented  sometimes  in  a  sitting 
attitude,  sometimes  walking,  and  sometimes 
riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  horses  or  dragons, 
but  always  in  full  attire.  Around  her  head  she 
wore  a  garland  of  corn-ears  or  a  simple  riband, 
and  in  her  hand  she  held  a  sceptre,  corn-ears,  or 
a  poppy,  sometimes  also  a  torch  and  the  mystic 
basket.  The  Romans  received  from  Sicily  the 
worship  of  Demeter  (Ceres),  to  whom  they  gav«~ 
the  name  of  Ceres.  The  first  temple  of  Ceres 
at  Rome  was  vowed  by  the  dictator  A.  Postu- 
mius  Albinus,  B.C.  496,  for  the  purpose  01 


DEMETRIAS. 


DEMETRIUS. 


averting  a  famine  with  which  Rome  was  threat- 
ened during  a  war  with  the  Latins.  The  Ro- 
mans instituted  a  festival  with  games  in  honor 
of  her  (vid.  Diet,  of  Ant^  s.  v.,  CEREALIA).  She 
was  looked  upon  by  the  Romans  much  in  the 
same  light  as  Tellus.  Pigs  were  sacrificed  to 
both  divinities  in  the  seasons  of  sowing  and  in 
harvest  time,  and  also  at  the  burial  of  the  dead. 
Her  worship  acquired  considerable  political  im- 
portance at  Rome.  The  property  of  traitors 
against  the  republic  was  often  made  over  to  her 
temple.  The  decrees  of  the  senate  were  de- 
posited in  her  temple  for  the  inspection  of  the 
tribunes  of  the  people.  If  we  further  consider 
that  the  aediles  had  the  special  superintendence 
of  this  temple,  it  is  very  probable  that  Ceres, 
whose  worship  was,  like  the  plebians  them- 
selves, introduced  into  Rome  from  without,  had 
some  peculiar  relations  to  the  plebeian  order. 
DEMKTRIAS  (&ripr)Tpius :  Ai^rptevf.  1.  A 


town  in  Magnesia  in  Thessaly,  on  the  inner- 
most recess  of  the  Pagasaean  Bay,  founded  by 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and  peopled  by  the  in- 
habitants of  lojcus  and  the  surrounding  towns : 
it  soon  became  one  of  the  most  important  towns 
in  the  north  of  Greece,  and  is  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  wars  between  the  Macedonians 
and  Romans. — 2.  A  town  in  Assyria,  not  far 
from  Arbela. — 3.  An  Athenian  tribe,  added  to 
the  ten  old  tribes,  B.C.  307,  and  named  in  honor 
of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 
DEMETRICS 


1.  A  Greek  of  the 
island  of  Pharos  in  the  Adriatic.  He  was  a  gen- 
eral of  Teuta,  the  Illyriau  queen,  and  treacher- 
ously surrendered  Corcyra  to  the  Romans,  who 
rewarded  him  with  a  great  part  of  the  dominions 
of  Teuta,  B.C.  225.  Subsequently  he  ventured 
on  many  acts  of  piratical  hostility  against  the 
Romans,  thinking  that  they  were  too  much  oc- 
cupied with  the  Gallic  war  and  the  impending 
danger  of  Hannibal's  invasion  to  take  notice  of 
him.  The  Romans,  however,  immediately  sent 
the  consul  L.  JSmilius  Paulus  over  to  Illyria 
(219),  who  took  Pharos  itself,  and  obliged  De- 
metrius to  fly  for  refuge  to  Philip,  king  of  Mac- 
edonia. At  the  court  of  this  prince  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life. — 2.  Younger  son  of 
Philip  V.,  king  of  Macedonia,  was  sent  as  a 
hostage  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Cynosceph- 
alae  (198).  Five  years  afterward  he  was  restor- 
ed to  his  father,  who  subsequently  sent  him  as 
his  ambassador  to  Rome.  But,  having  incurred 
the  jealousy  of  his  father  and  his  brother,  Per- 
seus, by  the  favorable  reception  he  had  met 
with  from  the  Romans,  he  was  secretly  put  to 
death  by  his  father's  order. 

L  Kings  of  Macedonia.     1.  Surnamed  POLIOB- 
CETES  (llofaopKi}r7Js),   or   the  Besieger,   son  of 


Antigonus,  king  of  Asia,  and  Stratonice.  At  an 
early  age  he  gave  proofs  of  distinguished  brav- 
ery. He  accompanied  his  father  in  his  cam- 
paigns against  Eumencs  (B.C.  317,  316),  and  a 

few  years  afterward  was  left  by  his  father  in  |  Demetrius  arrived  with  his  army.  He  was  re 
the  command  of  Syria,  which  he  had  to  defend  I  ceived  with  apparent  friendliness,  but  mutual 
against  Itolemy.  In  312  he  was  defeated  by  jealousies  quickly  arose.  Demetrius  caused  th« 


ful  fleet  and  army  to  wrest  Greece  from  Cas- 
sander  and  Ptolemy.  He  met  with  great  suc- 
cess. At  Athens  he  was  received  with  enthu- 
siasm by  the  people  as  their  liberator.  Deme- 
trius the  Phalerean,  who  had  governed  the  city 
for  Cassaqder,  was  expelled,*  and  the  fort  at 
Munychia  taken.  Demetrius  took  up  his  abode 
for  the  winter  at  Athens,  where  divine  honors 
were  paid  him  under  the  title  of  "  the  Preserv- 
er" (6  2wr;/p).  He  was  recalled  from  Athens  by 
his  father  to  take  the  command  of  the  war  in 
Cyprus  against  Ptolemy.  Here  also  he  was 
successful,  and  in  a  great  naval  battle  he  anni- 
hilated the  fleet  of  Ptolemy  (306).  Next  year 
(305)  he  laid  siege  to  Rhodes,  because  the  Rho- 
dians  had  refused  to  support  him  against  Ptol- 
emy. It  was  in  consequence  of  the  gigantic 
machines  which  Demetrius  constructed  to  as- 
sail the  walls  of  Rhodes  that  he  received  the 
surname  of  Poliorcetes.  But  all  his  exertions 
were  unavailing,  and  after  the  siege  had  lasted 
above  a  year,  he  at  length  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  Rhodians  (304).  Demetrius  then  cross- 
ed over  to  Greece,  which  had  meanwhile  been 
almost  conquered  by  Cassander.  He  soon  c< im- 
pelled Cassander  to  evacuate  all  Greece  south 
of  Thermopylae,  and  for  the  next  two  years  con- 
tinued to  prosecute  the  war  with  success.  But 
in  302  he  was  obh'ged  to  return  to  Asia  in  order 
to  support  his  father  Antigonus.  In  301  their 
combined  forces  were  totally  defeated  by  those 
of  Lysimachus  and  Seleucus  in  the  battle  of 
Ipsus,  and  Antigonus  himself  slain.  Demetrius, 
to  whose  impetuosity  the  loss  of  the  battle 
would  seem  to  be  in  great  measure  owing,  fled 
to  Ephesus,  and  from  thence  set  sail  for  Athens ; 
but  the  Athenians  declined  to  receive  him  into 
their  city.  The.  jealousy  of  his  enemies  soon 
changed  the  face  of  his  affairs;  and  Ptolemy 
having  entered  into  a  closer  union  with  Lysim- 
achus, Seleucus  married  Stratonice,  daughter 
of  Demetrius.  By  this  alliance  Demetrius  ob- 
tained possession  of  Cilicia,  and  he  had  never 
lost  Cyprus,  Tyre  and  Sidon.  In  297  he  de- 
termined to  make  an  effort  to  recover  his  do- 
minions in  Greece.  He  appeared  with  a  fleet 
on  the  coast  of  Attica,  but  was  at  first  unsuc- 
cessful The  death  of  Cassander,  however,  in 
the  course  of  the  same  year,  gave  a  new  turn  to 
affairs.  Demetrius  made  himself  master  of 
JSgina,  Salamis,  and  finally  of  Athens,  after  a 
long  blockade  (295).  In  294  he  marched  into 
Peloponnesus  against  the  Spartans,  and  was  on 
the  point  of  taking  their  city  when  he  was  sud- 
denly called  away  by  the  state  of  affairs  in  Mac- 
edonia. Here  the  dissensions  between  Antip- 
ater  and  Alexander,  the  two  sons  of  Cassander, 
had  led  Alexander  to  call  in  foreign  aid  to  his 
support :  and  he  sent  embassies  at  once  to  De- 
metrius and  to  Pyrrhus.  Pyrrhus  was  the  near- 
est at  hand,  and  had  already  defeated  Autipatei 
and  established  Alexander  on  the  throne,  when 


Ptolemy  near  Gaza,  but  soon  after  retrieved  his 
disaster  in  part  by  defeating  one  of  the  generals 
ol  I'tolemy.  In  311  a  general  peace  was  con- 
cluded among  the  successors  of  Alexander,  but 


young  king  to  be  assassinated  at  a  banquet,  and 
was  thereupon  acknowledged  as  king  by  the 
Macedonian  army.  Demetrius  kept  poesessios 
of  Macedonia  for  seven  years  (294-287).  Hit 


it  was  onlv  of  sbort  duration.      In  307  Deme-  j  reign  was  a  scries  of  wars.     In  292  he  marchec 
triuB  was  dispatched  by  his  father  with  a  power- 1  against  the  Thebans,  who  had  risen  against  him 

249 


DEMETRIUS. 


DEMETRIUS. 


and  took  their  city.  la  291  he  took  advantage 
of  the  captivity  of  Lysimachus  among  the  Getaj 
to  invade  Thrace ;  but  he  "was  recalled  by  the 
news  of  a  fresh  insurrection  in  Bceotia.  He 
repulsed  Pyrrhus,  who  had  attempted  by  invad- 
ing Thessaly  to  effect  a  diversion  in  favor  of  the 
Boeotians,  and  again  took  Thebes  after  a  long 
siege  (290).  In  289  he  carried  on  -war  against 
Pyrrhus  and  the  JEtolians,  but  he  concluded 
peace  with  Pyrrhus  that  he  might  march  into 
Asia  with  the  view  of  recovering  his  father's 
dominions.  His  adversaries,  however,  fore- 
stalled him.  In  287  Ptolemy  sent  a  powerful 
fleet  against  Greece,  while  Pyrrhus  (notwith- 
standing his  recent  treaty)  on  the  one  side,  and 
Lysimachus  on  the  other,  simultaneously  in- 
vaded Macedonia.  Demetrius  was  deserted  by 


recovered  bis  kingdom;  but  having,  like  hlr 
father,  rendered  himself  odious  to  his  subjects 
by  bis  vices  and  cruelties,  he  was  driven  out 


Syria  by  Tryphon,  who  set  up  Antiochus,  the 
smt  son  of  Alexander  Balas,  as  a  pretender 


of 

infant 

against  him.  Demetrius  retired  to  Babylon,  and 
from  thence  marched  against  the  Partbians,  by 
whom  he  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  138. 
He  remained  as  a  captive  in  Parthia  ten  years, 
but  was  kindly  treated  by  the  Parthian  king 
Mithradates  (Arsaces  VI),  who  gave  him  his 
daughter  Rhodoguue  in  marriage.  Meanwhile 
his  brother,  Antiochus  VII.  Sidetes,  having  over- 
thrown the  usurper  Tryphon,  engaged  in  war 
with  Parthia,  in  consequence  of  which  Phraates, 
the  successor  of  Mithradates,  brought  forward 
Demetrius,  and  sent  him  into  Syria  to  operate 


bis  own  troops,  who  proclaimed  Pyrrhus  king 'a  diversion  against  his  brother.     In  the   same 


of  Macedonia.  He  then  crossed  over  to  Asia, 
and,  after  meeting  with  alternate  success  and 
misfortune,  was  at  length  obliged  to  surrender 
himself  prisoner  to  Seleucus  (286).  That  king 


year  Antiochus  fell  in  battle,  and  Demetrius 
again  obtained  possession  of  the  Syrian  throne, 
128.  Having  engaged  in  an  expedition  against 
Egypt,  Ptolemy  Physcon  set  up  against  him  the 


kept  him  in  confinement,  but  did  not  treat  him  j  pretender  Alexander  Zebina,  by  whom  he  was 
with  harshness.  Demetrius  died  in  the  third  j  defeated  and  compelled  to  fly.  His  wife  Cleo- 
year  of  bis  imprisonment  and  the  fifty-sixth  of  patra,  who  could  not  forgive  him  his  marriage 
his  age  (283).  He  was  one  of  the  most  remark-  with  Rhodogune  in  Parthia,  refused  to  afford 


able  characters  of  his  age :  in  restless  activity 
of  mind,  fertility  of  resource,  and  daring  prompt- 
itude in  the  execution  of  his  schemes,  he  has, 


him  refuge  at  Ptolemais,  and  he  fled  to  Tyre, 
where  he  was  assassinated,  125. — 3.  EUC^EUS, 
son  of  Antiochus  VIIL  Grypus,  and  grandson  of 


perhaps,  never  been  surpassed.  His  besetting '  Demetrius  II.  During  the  civil  wars  that  fol- 
sin  was  his  unbounded  licentiousness.  Besides  lowed  the  death  of  Antiochus  Grypus  (96),  De- 
Lamia  and  his  other  mistresses,  he  was  regu-  metrius  and  his  brother  Philip  for  a  time  held 


lavly  married  to  four  wives,  Phila,  Eurydice, 
Deidamia,  and  Ptolemais,  by  whom  he  left  four 
sons.  The  eldest  of  these,  Antigonus  Gonalas, 
eventually  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  of  Mac- 
edonia.— 3.  Sou  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  succeed- 
ed his  father,  and  reigned  B.C.  239-229.  He 
carried  on  war  against  the  ^Etoh'ans,  and  was 
opposed  to  the  Achaean  League.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Antigonus  Doson. 

II.  Kings  of  Syria.  1.  SOTEE  (reigned  B.C. 
162-150),  was  the  son  of  Seleucus  IV.  Philop- 
ater,  and  grandson  of  Antiochus  the  Great 
While  yet  a  child,  he  had  been  sent  to  Rome 
by  his  father  as  a  hostage,  and  remained  there 
during  the  whole  of  the  reign  of  Antiochus  IV. 
Epiphanes.  After  the  death  of  Antiochus,  being 
now  twenty-three  years  old,  he  demanded  of  the 
senate  to  be  set  at  liberty ;  but,  as  his  request 
was  refused  by  the  senate,  he  fled  secretly  from 
Rome,  by  the  advice  of  the  historian  Polybius, 
and  went  to  Syria.  The  Syrians  declared  in 
his  favor ;  and  the  young  king  Antiochus  V. 
Eupator,  with  his  tutor  Lysias,  was  seized  by 
his  own  guards  and  put  to  death.  By  valuable 
presents  Demetrius  obtained  from  the  Romans 
bis  recognition  as  king ;  but,  having  alienated 
his  own  subjects  by  Ms  luxury  and  intemper- 
ance, they  sided  with  an  impostor  of  the  name 
of  Balas,  who  took  the  title  of  Alexander.  By 
bun  Demetrius  was  defeated  in  battle  and  slam. 
He  left  two  sons,  Demetrius  Nicator  and  Anti- 
ochus Sidetes,  both  of  whom  subsequently  as- 
cended the  throne. — 2.  NICATOE  (B.C.  146-142, 
and  again  128-125),  son  of  Demetrius  Soter. 
He  had  been  sent  by  his  father  for  safety  to 
Cnidus  when  Alexander  Balas  invaded  Syria, 
and,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  he  continued 
in  exile  for  some  years.  With  the  assistance 


the  whole  of  Syria.  But  war  broke  out  between 
them;  Demetrius  was  taken  prisoner  and  sent 
to  Parthia,  where  he  remained  in  captivity  till 
bis  death. 

III.  Literary.  1.  Of  ADKAMYTTIUM,  surnamed 
Ixion,  a  Greek  grammarian  of  the  time  of  Au 
gustus,  lived  partly  at  Pergamus  and  partly  at 
Alexandrea,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  Homei 
and  Hesiod  and  other  works. — 2.  MAGNES,  thai 
is,  of  Magnesia,  a  Greek  grammarian,  and  a 
contemporary  of  Cicero  and  Atticus.  He  wrote 
a  work  on  concord  (Hept  6ftuvoia^),  and  anothei 
on  poets  and  other  authors  who  bore  the  same 
name  (Hepl  ofiuvv/tuv  KOIIJTUV  not  cvy-ypaQEuv) 
— 3.  PHALEEEUS,  so  called  from  his  birth-place 
the  Attic  demos  of  Phalerus,  where  he  was  born 
about  RC.  345.  His  parents  were  poor,  but  by 
his  talents  and  perseverance  he  rose  to  the 
highest  honors  at  Athens,  and  became  distin- 
guished both  as  an  orator,  a  statesman,  a  phi- 
losopher, and  a  poet.  He  was  educated,  to- 
gether with  the  poet  Menander,  in  the  school 
of  Theophrastus.  He  began  his  public  careei 
about  325,  and  acquired  great  reputation  by  his 
eloquence.  In  317  the  government  of  Athens 
was  intrusted  to  him  by  Cassander,  and  he  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  his  office  for  ten  years 
with  such  general  satisfaction,  that  the  Athe- 
nians conferred  upon  him  the  most  extraordi 
nary  distinctions,  and  erected  no  less  than  three 
hundred  and  sixty  statues  to  his  honor.  But 
during  the  latter  period  of  his  administration  he 
seems  to  have  become  intoxicated  with  his  good 
fortune,  and  he  abandoned  himself  to  dissipa- 
tion. When  Demetrius  P»liorcetes  approached 
Athens  in  307,  Demetrius  Phalereus  was  obliged 
to  take  flight,  and  his  enemies  induced  the  Athe 
nians  to  pass  sentence  of  death  upon  him.  He 


of  Ptolemy  Pbilometor  he  defeated  Balas  and  went  to  Ptolemy  Lagi  at  Alexandrea,  with  whoa 
250 


DEMU. 


DEMOCRITUS 


he  lived  for  many  years  on  the  ;*st  terms  ;  anc. 
it  was  probably  owing  to  the  influence  of  .De- 
metrius that  the  Great  Alexandrine  library  was 
formed.  His  successor,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
was  hostile  towards  Demetrius,  because  he  had 
advised  his  father  to  appoint  another  of  his  sons 
as  his  successor.  He  banished  Demetrius  to 
Upper  Egypt,  where  he  is  said  to  have  died  from 
the  bite  of  a  snake.  Demetrius  Phalereus  was 
the  last  among  the  Attic  orators  worthy  of  the 
name  ;  but  even  his  orations  bore  evident  marks 
of  the  decline  of  oratory,  and  were  characterized 
rather  by  grace  and  elegance  than  by  force  and 
sublimity;  His  numerous  writings,  the  greater 
part  of  which  was  probably  composed  in  Egypt, 
embraced  subjects  of  the  most  varied  kinds ; 
but  none  of  them  has  come  down  to  us,  for  the 
work  on  elocution  (nepl  tpfujveias),  extant  under 
his  name,  is  probably  the  work  of  an  Alexan- 
drine Sophist  of  the  name  of  Demetrius.  [Best 
edition  by  Fr.  Goeller,  Lips.,  1837.]— 4.  Of  SCEP- 
SIS, a  Greek  grammarian  of  the  time  of  Aris- 
tarchus,  wrote  a  learned  commentary  on  the 
Catalogue  in  the  second  book  of  the  Iliad. — 5. 
Of  SUNIUM,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  lived  from  the 
reign  of  Caligula  to  that  of  Domitian,  and  was 
banished  from  Rome  in  consequence  of  the 
freedom  with  which  he  rebuked  the  powerful. 

[DEMO  (Ajjfiu),  a  daughter  of  Celeus  and  Met- 
unira.] 

[DEMO  (AT?/UWV).  1.  Author  of  an  Atthis,  or 
history  of  Attica,  and  probably,  also,  of  a  work  on 
proverbs :  his  fragments  are  collected  in  Siebe- 
lis,  Phanodemi,  Demonis,  &c.,  Fragmenfy,  Lips., 
1812;  and  by  Miiller,  Fragm.  Hist.  Gfcec.,  vol. 
L,  p.  378-83. — 2.  Son  of  Demosthenes's  sister, 
of  the  demos  of  Pasania  in  Attica,  distinguished 
himself  as  an  orator ;  he  belonged,  like  his 
uncle,  to  the  anti-Macedonian  party.] 

DEMOCEDES  (Ajy/zoKT/d^f),  a  celebrated  physi- 
cian of  Crotona.  He  practiced  medicine  suc- 
cessively at  JSgina,  Athens,  and  Samos.  He 
was  taken  prisoner,  along  with  Polycrates,  in 
B.C.  522,  and  was  sent  to  Susa  to  the  court  of 
Darius.  Here  he  acquired  great  reputation  by 
curing  the  king's  foot,  and  the  breast  of  the  queen 
Atossa.  Notwithstanding  his  honors  at  the  Per- 
sian court,  he  was  always  desirous  of  returning 
to  his  native  country.  In  order  to  effect  this, 
be  pretended  to  enter  into  the  views  and  inter- 
ests of  the  Persians,  and  procured  by  means  of 
Atossa  that  he  should  be  sent  with  some  nobles 
to  explore  the  coast  of  Greece,  and  ascertain  in 
what  parts  it  might  be  most  successfully  at- 
tacked. When  they  arrived  at  Tarentum,  the 
king,  Aristophilides,  out  of  kindness  to  Dem- 
ocedes,  seized  the  Persians  as  spies,  which  af- 
forded the  physician  an  opportunity  of  escap- 
ing to  Crotona.  Here  he  settled,  and  married 
the  daughter  of  the  famous  wrestler  Milo, 
the  Persians  having  followed  him  to  Crotona, 
and  in  vain  demanded  that  he  should  be  re- 
stored. 

DKMOCHARES  (A»?/zo^ap»;f),  an  Athenian,  son 
of  the  sister  of  Demosthenes.  He  was  proba- 
bly trained  by  his  uncle  in  oratory,  and  inherit- 
ed his  patriotic  sentiments.  After  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Athenian  democracy  in  B.C.  307  by 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  Demochares  was  at  the 
head  of  the  patriotic  party,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  public  affairs  for  the  next  twenty  or  thirty 


years.  He  left  behind  him  several  orations,  and 
an  extensive  history  of  his  own  times. 

DEMOCLES  (A^o/cAifc),  an  Attic  orator,  and  an 
opponent  of  Demochares. 

[DEMOCOON  (Aj7//o/c6cjv),  a  son  of  Priam  by  a 
female  slave;  came  from  Abydus  to  assist  his 
father  against  the  Greeks,  but  was  slain  by 
Ulysses.] 

DEMOcaATES  (Aj7/iOKpar7?f),  a  Pythagorean  ph'  • 
losopher,  of  whose  life  nothing  is  known,  the 
author  of  an  extant  collection  of  moral  maxims, 
called  the  golden  sentences  (yvuiiai  ^pvo-ct). 
They  are  printed  with  DEMOI-HILUS,  No.  3. 

DEMOCEITOS  (Aj/^o/cptrof),  a  celebrated  Greek 
philosopher,  was  born  at  Abdera,  in  Thrace, 
about  B.C.  460.  His  father,  Hegesistratus — or, 
as  others  called  him,  Damasippus  or  Athenoc- 
ritus — was  possessed  of  so  large  a  property  that 
he  was  able  to  entertain  Xerxes  on  his  march 
through  Abdera.  Democritus  spent  the  inherit- 
ance which  his  father  left  him  on  travels  into 
distant  countries,  which  he  undertook  to  satis- 
fy his  extraordinary  thirst  for  knowledge.  He 
travelled  over  a  great  part  of  Asia,  and  spent 
some  time  in  Egypt.  The  many  anecdotes  pre- 
served about  Democritus  show  that  he  was  a 
man  of  a  most  sterling  and  honorable  charac- 
ter. His  diligence  was  incredible :  he  lived  ex- 
clusively for  his  studies,  and  his  disinterested- 
ness, modesty,  and  simplicity  are  attested  by 
many  features  which  are  related  of  him.  Not- 
withstanding the  great  property  he  had  inherit- 
ed from  his  father,  he  died  in  poverty,  but  high- 
ly esteemed  by  his  fellow-citizens.  He  died  in 
261  at  a  very  advanced  age.  There  is  a  tradi- 
tion that  he  •  deprived  himself  of  his  sight,  that 
he  might  be  less  disturbed  in  his  pursuits ;  but 
this  tradition  is  one  of  the  inventions  of  a  later 
age,  which  was  fond  of  piquant  anecdotes.  It 
is  more  probable  that  he  may  have  lost  his  sight 
by  too  severe  application  to  study.  This  loss, 
however,  did  not  disturb  the  cheerful  disposi- 
tion of  his  mind,  which  prompted  him  to  look, 
in  all  circumstances,  at  the  cheerful  side  of 
things,  which  later  writers  took  to  mean  that 
he  always  laughed  at  the  follies  of  men.  His 
knowledge  was  most  extensive.  It  embraced 
not  only  the  natural  sciences,  mathematics, 
mechanics,  grammar,  music,  and  philosophy, 
but  various  other  useful  arts.  His  works  were 
composed  in  the  Ionic  dialect,  though  not  with- 
out some  admixture  of  the  local  peculiarities  of 
Abdera.  They  are  nevertheless  much  praised 
by  Cicero  on  account  of  the  liveliness  of  their 
style,  and  are  in  this  respect  compared  even 
with  the  works  of  Plato.  The  fragments  of 
them  are  collected  by  Mullach,  Democriti  Ab- 
deritce  Operum  Fragmenta,  Berlin,  1843.  Leu- 
cippus  appears  to  have  had  most  influence  upou 
the  philosophical  opinions  of  Democritus,  and 
these  two  philosophers  were  the  founders  of 
the  theory  of  atoms.  In  order  to  explain  the 
creation  of  all  existing  things,  Democritus  main- 
tained that  there  was  in  infinite  space  an  infinite 
number  of  atoms  or  elementary  particles,  homo- 
geneous in  quality,  but  heterogeneous  in  form 
He  further  taught  that  these  atoms  combine 
with  one  another,  and  that  all  things  arise  from 
the  infinite  variety  of  the  form,  order,  nn^  posi- 
tion of  the  atoms  in  forming  combinations.  The 
cause  of  these  combinations  he  called  chance 
251 


DEMODOCUS. 

I  ri'xri),  in  opposition  to  the  vorif  of  Anaxagoras ; 
out  he  did  not  use  the  word  chance  in  its  vul- 
gar acceptation,  but  to  signify  the  necessary 
succession  of  cause  and  effect  In  his  ethical 
philosophy  Democritus  considered  the  acquisi- 
tion of  peace  of  mind  (evdvpia)  as  the  end  and 
ultimate  object  of  our  actions. 

DiiMonocus  (Aj?yu6(5o/cof).  1.  The  celebrated 
bard  at  the  court  of  Alcinoiis,  who  sang  of  the 
loves  of  Mars  (Ares)  and  Venus  (Aphrodite), 
while  Ulysses  sat  at  the  banquet  of  Alcinoiis. 
He  is  also  mentioned  aa  the  bard  who  advised 
Agamemnon  to  guard  Clytsemnestra,  and  to  ex- 
pose jEgisthus  in  a  desert  island.  Later  writ- 
ers, who  looked  upon  this  mythical  minstrel  as 
an  historical  person,  related  that  he  composed 
a  poem  on  the  destruction  of  Troy,  and  on  the 
marriage  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  and  Venus 
(Aphrodite). — [2.  A  Trojan  warrior,  who  came 
with  ^Eneas  to  Italy  ;  he  was  slain  by  Halesus. 
— 3.  A  friend  of  Socrates,  father  of  Theages, 
mentioned  in  the  Theages  of  Plato.] 

[DEMOLEON  (A^oAewv).  1.  A  Centaur,  slain 
by  Theseus  at  the  nuptials  of  Pirithous. — 2.  A 
brave  Trojan,  son  of  Antenor,  slain  by  Achilles.] 

[DEMOLEUS,  a  Greek,  slain  by  ^Eneas  on  the 
banks  of  the  Simois,  and  whose  coat  of  mail 
^(Eneas  offered  as  the  second  prize  at  the  games 
celebrated  by  him  in  Sicily.] 

[DEMON  (Aj?/zwi>).      Vid.  DEMO.] 

DEMONAX  (A7?/i<Dva|),  of  Cyprus,  a  Cynic  phi- 
losopher in  the  time  of  Hadrian.  We  owe  our 
knowledge  of  his  character  to  Lucian,  who  has 
painted  it  in  the  most  glowing  colors,  represent- 
ing him  as  almost  perfectly  wise  and  good. 
Demonax  appears  to  have  been  free  from  the 
austerity  and  moroseness  of  the  Beet,  though  he 
valued  their  indifference  to  external  things.  He 
was  nearly  one  hundred  years  old  at  the  time 
of  his  death. 

DEMONESI  INSULT  (A?7//wj/ffo/.),  a  group  of  isl- 
ands in  the  Propontis  (now  Sea  of  Marmara), 
belonging  to  Bithynia ;  of  these  the  most  im- 
portant were  Pity  odes  and  Chalcitis,  also  call- 
ed Demonesus. 

DEMOPHILXJS  (ArifioQihof).  1.  Son  of  Ephorus, 
continued  his  father's  history  by  adding  to  it  the 
history  of  the  Sacred  War. — 2.  An  Athenian 
comic  poet  of  the  new  comedy,  from  whose 
'Ovayof  Plautus  took  his  Asinaria. — 3.  A  Pyth- 
agorean philosopher,  of  whose  life  nothing  is 
known,  wrote  a  work  entitled  ftlov  -frepuirzia, 
part  of  which  is  extant  in  the  form  of  a  selec- 
tion, entitled  yvw/zt/cd  6fioLu/j.ara.  Best  edition 
by  Orelli,  in  his  Opusc.  Grcec.  Vet.  Sentent^  Lips., 
1819. 

DEMOPHON  or  DEMOPHOOS  (A^o^tjv  or  Arjfio- 
<t*'iav).  1.  Son  of  Celeus  and  Metanlra,  whom 
Ceres  (Demeter)  wished  to  make  immortal. 
For  details,  via.  CELEUS. — 2.  Son  of  Theseus 
and  Phaedra,  accompanied  the  Greeks  against 
Troy,  and  there  procured  the  liberation  of  his 
grandmother  .^EthVa,  who  lived  with  Helen  as  a 
slave.  On  his  return  from  Troy  he  gained  the 
love  of  Phyllis,  daughter  of  the  Thracian  king 
Sithnn,  and  promised  to  marry  her.  Before  the 
nuptials  were  celebrated,  he  went  to  Attica  to 
settle  his  affairs,  and  as  he  tarried  longer  than 
Phyllk  had  expected,  she  thought  that  she  was 
forgotten,  and  put  an  end  to  her  life ;  but  she 
was  metamorphosed  into  a  tree.  Deinophon 
252 


DEMOSTHENEJs. 

became  king  of  Athens.  He  marched  out  against 
Diomedes,  who,  on  his  return  from  Troy,  bad 
landed  on  the  coast  of  Attica,  and  was  ravaging 
it  He  took  the  Palladium  from  Diomedes,  but 
had  the  misfortune  to  kill  an  Athenian  in  the 
struggle.  For  this  murder  he  was  summoned 
before  the  court  M  HaAXadiu — the  first  time 
that  a  man  was  tried  by  that  court. — [3.  A  com- 
panion of  ^Eneas,  slain  by  Camilla  in  Italy.] 

DEMOSTHENES  (AriftoaftevTjs).  1.  Son  of  Alci- 
sthenes,  a  celebrated  Athenian  general  in  the 
Peloponnesian  War.  In  B.C.  426  he  was  sent 
with  a  fleet  to  ravage  the  coast  of  Peloponne- 
sus :  he  afterward  landed  at  Naupactus,  and 
made  a  descent  into  ^Etolia ;  he  was  at  first 
unsuccessful,  and  was  obliged  to  retreat ;  but 
he  subsequently  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over 
the  Ambraciots.  In  425,  though  not  in  office, 
he  sailed  with  the  Athenian  fleet,  and  was  al- 
lowed by  the  Athenian  commanders  to  remain 
with  five  ships  at  Pylos,  which  he  fortified  in 
order  to  assail  the  Lacedaemonians  in  their  own 
territories.  He  defended  Pylos  against  all  the 
attempts  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  till  he  was  re- 
lieved by  an  Athenian  fleet  of  forty  ships.  The 
Spartans,  who  in  their  siege  of  the  place  had 
occupied  the  neighboring  island  of  Sphacteria, 
were  now  cut  off  and  blockaded.  Later  in  the 
same  year  he  rendered  important  assistance  to 
Cleon,  in  making  prisoners  of  the  Spartans  in 
the  island  of  Sphacteria,  though  the  whole  glory 
of  the  success  was  given  to  Cleon.  In  413  lie 
was  sent  with  a  large  fleet  to  Sicily,  to  assist 
Nicias.  JFortune  was  unfavorable  to  the  Athe- 
nians. Demosthenes  now  counselled  an  inme- 
diate  departure,  but  Nicias  delayed  returuiug 
till  it  was  too  late.  The  Athenian  fleet  was  de- 
stroyed, and  when  Demosthenes  and  Nicias  at- 
tempted to  retreat  by  land,  they  were  obliged 
to  surrender  to  the  enemy  with  all  their  forces 
Both  commanders  were  put  to  death  by  the 
Syracusans.  2.  The  greatest  of  Athenian  ora- 
tors, was  the  son  of  Demosthenes,  and  was  born 
in  the  Attic  demos  of  Pseania.  about  B.C.  385. 
At  seven  years  of  age  he  lost  his  father,  who 
left  him  and  his  younger  sister  to  the  care  of 
three  guardians,  Aphobus  and  Demophon,  two 
relations,  and  Therippides,  an  old  friend.  These 
guardians  squandered  the  greater  part  of  the 
property  of  Demosthenes,  and  neglected  bis  ed- 
ucation to  a  great  extent.  He  nevertheless  re 
ceived  instruction  from  the  orator  legeus ;  but  it 
is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether  he  was  taught 
by  Plato  and  Isocrates,  as  some  of  the  ancients 
stated.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  Demosthenes 
called  upon  his  guardians  to  render  him  an  ac- 
count of  their  administration  of  his  property ; 
but  by  intrigues  they  contrived  to  defer  the  busi- 
ness for  two  years.  At  length,  in  364,  Demos- 
thenes accused  Aphobus  before  the  archon,  and 
obtained  a  verdict  in  his  favor.  Aphobus  was 
condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of  ten  talents.  Em 
boldened  by  this  success,  Demosthenes  ven 
tured  to  come  forward  as  a  speaker  in  the  pub 
lie  assembly.  His  first  effort  was  unsuccessful 
and  he  is  said  to  have  been  received  with  ridi- 
cule; but  he  was  encouraged  to  persevere  by 
the  actor  Satyrus,  who  gave  him  instruction  in 
action  and  declamation.  In  becoming  an  ora 
tor,  Demosthenes  had  to  struggle  hard  against  the 
greatest  physical  disadvantages.  His  voice 


DEMOSTHENES. 


DEMOSTHENES. 


was  weak  and  his  utterance  defective  ;  he  could 
not  pronounce  the  p,  find  constantly  stammered, 
whence  he  derived  the  nickname  of  Bara^of. 
It  was  only  owing  to  the  most  unwearied  exer- 
tions that  he  succeeded  in  overcoming  the  ob- 
stacles which  nature  had  placed  in  his  way. 
Thus  it  is  said  that  he  spoke  with  pebbles  in 
his  mouth,  to  cure  himself  of  stammering ;  that 
he  repeated  verses  of  the  poets  as  he  ran  up 
lull,  to  strengthen  bis  voice ;  that  lie  declaim- 
ed on  the  sea-shore,  to  accustom  himself  to  the 
noise  and  confusion  of  the  popular  assembly ; 
that  he  lived  for  months  in  a  cave  under  ground, 
engaged  in  constantly  writing  out  the  history 
of  Thucydides,  to  form  a  standard  for  h'n  own 
style.  These  tales  are  not  worthy  of  much 
credit ;  but  they  nevertheless  attest  the  com- 
mon tradition  of  antiquitv  respecting  the  great 
efforts  made  by  Demosthenes  to  attain  to  ex- 
cellence as  an  orator.  It  was  about  355  that 
Demosthenes  began  to  obtain  reputation  as  a 
speaker  in  the  public  assembly.  It  was  in  this 
year  that  he  delivered  the  oration  against  Lep- 
tines,  and  from  this  time  we  have  a  series  of 
his  speeches  on  public  affairs.  His  eloquence 
soon  gained  him  the  favor  of  the  people.  The 
influence  which  he  acquired  he  employed  for  the 
good  of  his  country,  and  not  for  his  own  ag- 
grandizement He  clearly  saw  that  Philip  had 
resolved  to  subjugate  Greece,  and  he  therefore 
devoted  all  his  powers  to  resist  the  aggressions 
of  the  Macedonian  monarch.  For  fourteen 
years  he  continued  the  struggle  against  Philip, 
and  neither  threats  nor  bribes  could  turn  him 
from  his  purpose.  It  is  true  he  failed  ;  but  the 
failure  must  not  be  considered  his  fault.  The 
history  of  his  struggle  is  best  given  in  the  life 
of  Philip.  Vid.  PHILIPPUS.  It  is  sufficient  to 
relate  here  that  it  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
battle  of  Chaeronea  (338),  by  which  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece  was  crushed.  Demosthe- 
nes was  present  at  the  battle,  and  fled  like 
thousands  of  others.  His  enemies  reproached 
him  with  his  flight,  and  upbraided  him  as  the 
cause  of  the  misfortunes  of  his  country ;  but 
the  Athenians  judged  better  of  his  conduct,  re- 
quested him  to  deliver  the  funeral  oration  upon 
those  who  had  fallen  at  Chseronea,  and  cele- 
brated the  funeral  feast  in  his  house.  At  this 
time  many  accusations  were  brought  against 
him.  Of  these  one  of  the  most  formidable  was 
the  accusation  of  Ctesiphon  by  ^Eschines,  but 
which  was  in  reality  directed  against  Demos- 
thenes himself.  ^E-chines  accused  Ctesiphon 
for  proposing  that  Demosthenes  should  be  re- 
warded for  his  services  with  a  golden  crown  in 
the  theatre.  ^Eachines  maintained  that  the 
proposal  was  not  only  made  an  an  illegal  form, 
but  that  the  conduct  of  Demosthenes  did  not 
give  him  any  claim  to  such  a  distinction.  The 
trial  was  delayed  for  reasons  unknown  to  us  till 
330,  when  Demosthenes  delivered  his  oration 
on  the  crown  (nepl  areQuvov).  yEschiues  was 
defeated  and  withdrew  from  Athens.  Vid.  JEa- 
CHINKS.  Meantime  important  events  had  taken 
place  in  Greece.  The  death  of  Philip  in  386 
roused  the  hopes  of  the  patriots,  and  Demosthe-  j 
nes,  although  ne  had  lost  his  daughter  only  seven  : 
dav  s  before,  was  the  first  to  proclaim  the  joyful ; 
tidings  of  the  king's  death,  and  to  call  upon  the 
Greeks  to  unite  their  strength  against  Macedo- 1 


nia.     But  Alexander's  energy,  and  the  frightful 
vengeance  which  he  took  upon  Thebes,  compel- 
led Athens  to  submit  and  sue  for  peace.     Alex- 
ander demanded  the  surrender  of  Demosthenes 
and  the  other  leaders  of  the  popular  party,  and 
with  difficulty  allowed  them  to  remain  at  Athens. 
During  the  life  of  Alexander,  Athens  made  no 
;  open  attempt  to  throw  off  the  Macedonian  su- 
!  premacy.     In  325  Harpalus  fled  from  Babvlon 
j  with  the  treasure  intrusted  to  his  care  by  Alex- 
i  ander,  and  came  to  Athens,  the  protection  of 
\  which  he  purchased    by    distributing  his  gold 
!  among  the  most  influential  demagogues.     The 
reception  of  such  an  open  rebel  was  viewed  as 
an  act  of  hostility  toward  Macedonia  itself ;  and 
accordingly  Antipater  called  upon  the  Athenians 
to  deliver  up  the  rebel  and  to  try  those  who  had 
accepted  his  bribes.     Demosthenes  was  one  of 
those  who  were  suspected  of  having  received 
money  from  Harpalus.     His  guilt  is  doubtful ; 
but  he  was  condemned,  and  thrown  into  prison, 
from  which,  however,  he   escaped,  apparently 
with  the    connivance   of  the    Athenian  magis- 
trates.    He  now  resided  partly  at  Troezeue  and 
partly  in  ^Egina,  looking  daily  across  the  sea 
toward  his  beloved  native  laud.     But  his  exile 
did  not  last  long.     On  the  death  of  Alexander 
(323)  the  Greek  states  rose  in  arms  against  Ma- 
cedonia.     Demosthenes  was  recalled  from  ex- 
ile ;  a  trireme   was  sent  to  ^Egina  to  fetch  him. 
and  his   progress   to   the    city   was  a  glorious 
triumph.     But  in  the  following  year  (322)  the 
confederate  Greeks  were  defeated  by  Antipa- 
ter at  the  battle  of  Cranon,  and  were  obliged 
to  sue  for  peace.     Antipater  demanded  the  sur- 
render of  Demosthenes,  who  thereupon  fled  to 
the  island  of  Calauria,  and  took  refuge  in  the 
temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon).     Here  he  was 
pursued  by  the    emissaries    of   Antipaier ;   he 
thereupon  took  poiswn,  which  he  had  for  some 
time  carried  about  his  person,  and  died  in  the 
temple,  322.     There   existed  sixty-five  orations 
of  Demosthenes  in  antiquity ;  but  of  these  only 
sixty-one  have  come  down  to  us,  including  the 
letter  of  Philip,  which  is  strangely  enough  count- 
ed as  an  oration.     Several  of  the  orations,  how- 
ever, are  spurious,  or  at  least  of  very  doubtful 
authenticity.     Besides  these  orations,  there  are 
fifty-six  Exordia  to  public  orations,  and  six  letters 
which  bear  the  Dame  of  Demosthenes,  but  are 
probably  spurious.     The  oration  may  be  divided 
into  the  following  classes:    (L)  Seventeen  Po- 
litical Orations  (/loyot  av/j.6ov%£VTiKoi),  of  which 
the  twelve  Philippic  orations  are  the  most  im- 
portant    They  bear  the  following  titles :  1.  The 
first  Philippic,  delivered  352.     2-4.  The  three 
Olynthiac  orations,  delivered  349.     5.    On   the 
Peace,  349.     6.  The  second  Philippic,  314.     7. 
On  Halouesus,  343,  not  genuine,  probably  writ 
ten  by  Hegesippus.      8.  On  the  affairs  of  the 
Chersonesus,  342.     9.  The  third  Philippic,  842. 
10.  The  fourth  Philippic,  not  genuine,  341.     11 
On  the  letter  of  Philip,  840,  also  spurious.     12 
The  letter  of  Philip.— (II.)  Forty-two  Judicial 
Oration*  (Aoyot  6iKaviKoi\,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are,  Against  Midias,   written  355,  but 
never  delivered ;    Against    Leptiues,    355 ;   On 
the  dishonest  conduct  of  jEschines  during  his 
embassy  to   Philip   (Hrpl  r;}f   Uapairpeadciaf), 
342;    On   the   Crown,   330.— (III).  Two  Show 
Specchet  (Xoyoi  liridfiKTiKoi),  namely  the  ETM-, 
253 


DEMOSTRATUS. 


DEUCALION. 


r«dtof  and  'EpurtKof,  both  of  which  are  spuri- 
ous. The  orations  of  Demosthenes  are  con- 
tainer] in  the  collections  of  the  Attic  orators  by 
Reiske,  Lips.,  1770-1776 ;  [Demosthenes  separ- 
ately, with  additions  by  Schaeffer,  Lond.,  1822- 
3,  9  vols.  8vo] ;  Bekker,  Oxon,  1823  ;  Dobson, 
Lond.,  1828 ;  Baiter  and  Sauppe,  Turic.,  1845. 

[DEMOSTRATDS  (AijfiooTpaTOf),  an  Athenian  or- 
ator and  popular  leader,  at  whose  proposal  Al- 
cibiades,  Nicias,  and  Lamachus  were  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  Sicilian  expedition.] 

[DEMUCHCS  (Aijjiovxof),  son  of  Philetor,  slain 
by  Achilles  before  Troy.J 

DENSELET.S  or  DEXTHELET^K  (Acv^X^rat),  a 
Thir.cian  people  on  the  Haemus,  between  the 
Strymon  and  Nessus. 

DE.VTATUS,  M'.  CURIUS,  a  favorite  hero  of  the 
Roman  republic,  was  celebrated  in  later  times 
as  a  noble  specimen  of  old  Roman  frugality  and 
virtue.  He  was  of  Sabine  origin,  and  the  first 
of  his  family  who  held  any  high  offices  of  state 
(consequently  a  homo  novus).  He  was  consul 
B.C.  290  with  P.  Cornelius  Rufinus.  The  two 
consuls  defeated  the  Samnites,  and  brought  the 
Samnite  wars  to  a  close.  In  the  same  year 
Dentatus  also  defeated  the  Sabines,  who  appear 
to  have  supported  the  Samnites.  In  283  he 
fought  as  praetor  against  the  Senones.  In  275 
he  was  consul  a  second  time,  and  defeated  Pyr- 
rhus  near  Beneventum  and  in  the  Arusiman 
plain  so  completely  that  the  king  was  obliged  to 
quit  Italy.  The  booty  which  he  gained  was  im- 
meuse,  but  he  would  keep  nothing  for  himself. 
In  274  he  was  consul  a  third  time,  and  con- 
quered the  Lucanians,  Samnites,  and  Bruttians, 
who  still  continued  in  arms  after  the  defeat  of 
Pyrrhus.  Deutatus  now  retired  to  his  small 
farm  in  the  country  of  the  Sabiues,  and  culti- 
vated the  laud  with  his  own  hands.  Once  the 
Samnites  sent  an  embassy  to  him  with  costly 
presents  ;  they  found  him  sitting  at  the  hearth 
and  roasting  turnips.  He  rejected  their  pres- 
ents, telling  them  that  he  preferred  ruling  over 
those  who  possessed  gold  to  possessing  it  him- 
self. He  was  censor  in  272,  and  in  that  year 
executed  public  works  of  great  importance.  He 
commenced  the  aquseduct  which  carried  the 
water  from  the  River  Anio  into  the  city  (Ani- 
eneis  Vetus) ;  and  by  a  canal  he  carried  off  the 
water  of  the  Lake  Veliuus  into  the  River  Nar, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  inhabitants  of 
Reate  gained  a  large  quantity  of  excellent  hind. 

DEO  (A^w),  another  name  for  Ceres  (Deme- 
ter) :  hence  her  daughter  Proserpina  (Perseph- 
one) is  called  by  the  patronymic  DEOIS  and  DE- 

OlNE. 

DERBE  (Mp&rj  :&ep6r}TTK,  AepfoZof),  a  town  in 
Lycaonia,  on  the  frontiers  of  Isauria,  It  is  first 
mentioned  as  the  residence  of  the  tyrant  Antip- 
ater  of  Derbe,  a  friend  of  Cicero,  whom  Amyn- 
tas  put  to  death. 

DERBICC^  or  DERBICES  (Atp&'/c/cat  or  Aep6i- 
Atef),  a  Scythian  people  in  Margiana,  dwelling  on 
the  Oxus,  near  its  entrance  into  the  Caspian  Sea. 
They  worshipped  the  earth  as  a  goddess,  neither 
sacrificed  or  ate  any  female  animals,  and  killed 
and  ate  all  their  old  men  above  seventy  years 
of  age. 

[DERCENMJS,  an  early  king  of  Laurentum,  in 
Latium ;  according  to  some,  the  same  with  La- 
tinos.] 

254 


DERCETIS,  DERCETO  .(Aepxertf,  Aep/cerw),  also 
called  Atargatis,  a  Syrian  goddess.  She  offend- 
ed Venus  (Aphrodite),  who,  in  consequence,  in- 
spired her  with  love  for  a  youth,  to  whom  sho 
i  bore  a  daughter  Semiramis ;  but,  ashamed  of  her 
fraility*  she  killed  the  youth,  exposed  her  child 
in  a  desert,  and  threw  herself  into  a  hike  near 
Ascalon.  Her  child  was  fed  by  doves,  and  she 
herself  was  changed  into  a  fish.  The  Syrians 
thereupon  worshipped  her  as  a  goddess.  The 
upper  part  of  her  statue  represented  a  beautiful 
woman,  while  the  lower  part  terminated  in  the 
tail  of  a  fish.  She  appears  to  be  the  same  as 
Dagon  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  as  a 
deity  of  the  Philistines. 

DERCYLLIDAS  (Aepxt)AAt(5a?),  a  Spartan,  sue 
ceeded  Thimbron,  B.C.  399,  in  the  command  of 
the  army  which  was  employed  in  the  protection 
of  the  Asiatic  Greeks  against  Persia.  He  car- 
ried on  the  war  with  success.  Tissaphernea 
and  Pharnabazus  were  at  length  glad  to  sue  for 
peace.  In  396  he  was  superseded  by  Agesilaus. 
[DERDAS  (Aepoof).  1.  A  Macedonian  chief- 
tain, who  joined  with  Philip,  brother  of  Perdie- 
cas  II.,  in  rebellion  against  him. — 2.  A  prince 
ofElymeain  Macedonia  in  the  time  of  Amyn- 
tas  II. ;  sided  with  the  Spartans  in  their  war 
with  Olynthus,  through  fear  of  the  growing 
power  of  that  city.] 

DERTONA  (now  Tortona),  an  important  town 
in  Liguria,  and  a  Roman  colony  with  the  sur- 
name Julia,  on  the  road  from  Genua  to  Placentia. 
DERTOSA  (now  Tortosa),  a  town  of  the  Ilerca- 
ones,  on  the  Iberus,  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis, 
and  a  Roman  colony. 

DESPCENA  (Asairoiva),  the  mistress,  a  surname 
of  several  divinities,  as  Venus  (Aphrodite),  Ce- 
res (Demeter),  and  more  especially  Proserpina 
(Persephone),  who  was  worshipped  under  this 
name  in  Arcadia. 

DEUCALION  (Aetwa/ltwv).      1.   Son  of  Prome- 
theus and  Clymene,  king  of  Phthia,  in  Thessaly. 
When  Jupiter  (Zeus),  after  the  treatment  he 
had  received  from  Lycaon,  had  resolved  to  de- 
j  stroy  the  degenerate  race  of  men,  Deucalion 
I  and  his  wife  Pyrrha  were,  on  account  of  their 
;  piety,  the  only  mortals  saved.    On  the  advice 
of  his  father,  Deucalion   built  a  ship,  in  which 
he  and  his  wife  floated  in  safety  during  the  nine 
days'  flood,  which  destroyed  all  the  other  in- 
habitants of  Hellas.     At  last  the  ship  rested  on 
Mount  Parnassus    in    Phocis,    or,    according  to 
other  traditions,  on  Mount  Othrys  in  Thessaly, 
on  Mount  Athos.  or   even   on  JEtna  in  Sicily. 
When   the    waters    had     subsided,    Deucalion 
offered  up  a  sacrifice  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Phyxius 
(<£ii£tof),  and  he  and  his  wife  then  consulted  the 
sanctuary  of  Themis  how  the  race  of  man  might 
be   restored.      The  goddess   bade   them  cover 
their  heads  and  throw  the  bones  of  their  mother 
behind  them.     After  some  doubts  and  scruples 
respecting  the  meaning  of  this  command,  they 
I  agreed  in  interpreting  the  bones  of  their  mother 
j  to  mean  the  stones  of  the  earth.     They  accord- 
ingly threw  stones  behind  them,  and  from  those 
thrown  by  Deucalion  there  sprang  up  men,  from 
I  those   thrown   by   Pyrrha,   women.    Deucalion 
then  descended  from  Parnassus,  and  built  hia 
:  first  abode  at  Opus  or  at  Cynus.     Deucalion  be- 
came by  Pyrrha  the  father  of  Hellen,  Amphic- 
tyon,  Protogenia,  and  others. — 2.  Son  of  Minos 


DEVA. 


DIC^EARCHUS. 


and  Pasiphae,  father  of  Idomeneus,  was  an  Ar- 
gonaut, and  one  of  the  Calydonian  hunters. — 
[3.  A  Trojan,  slain  by  Achilles.] 

DEVA.  1.  (Now  Chester),  the  principal  town 
of  the  Cornavii  in  Britain,  on  the  Seteia,  (now 
Dee),  and  the  head-quarters  of  the  Legio  XX. 
Victrix. — 2.  (Now  Dee},  an  estuary  in  Scotland, 
on  which  stood  the  town  Devana,  near  the  mod- 
em Aberdeen. 

DEXAMKNTS  (Aefa/^evof),  a  Centaur,  who  lived 
in  Bura  in  Achaia.  According  to  others,  he 
was  King  of  Olenus,  and  father  of  De'iamra,  who 
13  usually  represented  as  daughter  of  (Eneus. 

DEXIPPUS  (Ae^-7rof).  2.  Called  also  Dioxip- 
pus,  a  physician  of  Cos,  one  of  the  pupils  of 
Hippocrates,  lived  about  B.C.  380,  and  attended 
the  children  of  Hecatomnus,  prince  of  Caria. — 
2.  P.  HEREXXIUS,  a  Greek  rhetorician  and  his- 
torian, was  a  native  of  Attica,  and  held  the 
highest  offices  at  Athens.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  fighting  against  the  Goths  when  they 
invaded  Greece  in  A.D.  262.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  three  historical  works :  1.  A  history  of 
Macedonia  from  the  time  of  Alexander.  2.  A 
chronological  history  from  the  mythical  ages 
down  to  the  accession  of  Claudius  Gothicus, 
A.D.  268.  3.  An  account  of  the  war  of  the 
Goths  or  Scythians,  in  which  Dexippus  himself 
had  fought  The  fragments  of  Dexippus,  which 
are  considerable,  are  published  by  Bekker  and 
Niebuhr  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Scriptores 
Histories  Byzantince,  Bonn,  1829,  8vo. — 3.  A  dis- 
ciple of  the  philosopher  lamblichus,  lived  about 
A.D.  350,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Cat- 
egories of  Aristotle,  of  which  a  Latin  transla- 
tion appeared  at  Paris,  1549,  8vo,  and  at  Ven- 
ice, 1546,  foL,  after  the  work  of  Porphyry  In 
Prcedicam.  Arist 

DIA  (Aia),  daughter  of  Deioneus  and  wife  of 
Ixion.  By  Ixion,  or,  according  to  others,  by 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  she  became  the  mother  of  Pir- 
ithous. 
DIA  (AZa) 


his  own  victories  and  those  of  his  sons  and 
grandsons,  in  the  Grecian  games.  His  fame 
was  celebrated  by  Pindar  in  the  seventh  Olym- 
pic ode.  He  was  victor  in  boxing  twice  in  the 
Olympian  games,  four  times  in  the  Isthmian, 
;wice  in  the  Nemean,  and  once  at  least  in  the 
Pythian.  He  had,  therefore,  the  high  honor  of 
jeing  a  KEpiodoviitrif,  that  is,  one  who  had  gained 
rowns  at  all  the  four  great  festivals.  When 
an  old  man,  he  accompanied  his  sons,  Acusilaiis 
and  Damagetus,  to  Olympia.  The  young  men, 
laving  both  been  victorious,  carried  their  fa- 
iier  through  the  assembly,  while  the  specta- 
tors showered  garlands  upon  him,  and  congrat- 
ulated him  as  having  reached  the  summit  of  hu- 
man happiness.  He  gained  his  Olympic  victory 
B.C.  464.  —  2.  Surnamed  the  ATHEIST  ("A0eo?), 
Greek  philosopher  and  poet,  was  the  son  of 
Teleclides,  and  was  born  in  the  island  of  Melos, 
one  of  the  Cyclades.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
Democritus  of  Abdera,  and  in  his  youth  he  ac- 
quired considerable  reputation  as  a  lyric  poet. 
He  was  at  Athens  as  early  as  B.C.  424,  for 
Aristophanes  in  the  Clouds  (v.  830),  which  were 
performed  in  that  year,  alludes  to  him  as  a  well- 
known  character.  In  consequence  of  his  at- 
tacks upon  the  popular  religion,  and  especially 
upon  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  he  was  formally 
accused  of  impiety  B.C.  411,  and,  fearing  the 
results  of  a  trial,  fled  from  Athens.  He  was 
condemned  to  death  in  his  absence,  and  a  re- 
ward set  upon  his  head.  He  first  went  to  Pal- 
lene,  and  afterward  to  Corinth,  where  he  died. 
One  of  the  works  of  Diagoras  was  entitled 
Aoyot,  in  which  he  probably  attacked 


1.  The  ancient  name  of  Naxos. — 


2.  An  island  near  Amorgos.  —  3.  (Now  Stan- 
dia),  a  small  island  off  Crete,  opposite  the  har- 
bor of  Cnosus. — 4.  An  island  m  the  Arabian 
Gulf,  on  the  western  coast  of  Arabia. 

DlABLINTES.        Vid.  AULERCI. 

DIACBIA  (ij  AtaKpia),  a  mountainous  district 
in  the  northeast  of  Attica,  including  the  plain 
of  Marathon.  Vid.  ATTICA.  The  inhabitants 
of  this  district  (Ata/cpteZf,  Ata/cptot),  formed  one 
of  the  three  parties  into  which  the  inhabitants 
of  Attica  were  divided  in  the  time  of  Solon 
they  were  the  most  democratical  of  the  three 
parties 

DIADUMEXIANUS  or  DtADUMKxus,  son  of  the 
Emperor  Macrinus,  received  the  title  of  Czesar 
when  his  father  was  elevated  to  the  purple,  A.D 
217,  and  was  put  to  death  in  the  following  year 
about  the  same  time  with  Macrinus. 

DI^EUS  (Afatof),  of  Megalopolis,  general  of  the 
Achaean  league  B.C.  149  and  147,  took  an  ac 
tive  part  in  the  war  against  the  Romans.  On 
the  death  of  Critolaiis  in  146,  he  succeeded  tp 
the  command  of  the  Achajans,  but  was  defeatet 


the  Phrygian  divinities. 

DIANA,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  whom  the 
Romans  identified  with  the  Greek  Artemis. 
Her  worship  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  at 
Rome  by  Servius  Tullius,  who  dedicated  a  tem- 
ple to  her  on  the  Aventine  ;  and  she  appears  to 
have  been  originally  worshipped  only  by  the 
plebeians.  At  Rome  Diana  was  the  goddess 
of  light,  and  her  name  contains  the  same  root 
as  the  word  dies.  As  Dianus  (Janus),  or  the  god 
of  light,  represented  the  sun,  so  Diana,  the  god- 
dess of  light,  represented  the  moon.  The  at- 
tributes of  the  Greek  Artemis  were  afterward 
ascribed  to  the  Roman  Diana.  Vid.  ARTEMIS. 

DIANIUM.  1.  (Now  Gianuti),  a  small  island 
in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  opposite  the  Gulf  of 
Cosa.  —  2.  (Now  Denia),  called  HEMEROSCOPION 
('H/zepo<7K07r«ov)  by  Strabo,  a  town  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  on  a  promontory  of  the  same 
name  (now  Cape  Martin),  founded  by  the  Mas- 
silians.  Here  stood  a  celebrated  temple  of  Di- 
ana, from  which  the  town  derived  its  name; 
and  here  Sertorius  kept  most  of  his  military 


stores. 

DIC.SA  (At«a<a), 
Lake  Bistonis. 

DIC-EARCIIIA. 

DIC.SARCHUS 


a  town  in  Thrace,  on  the 

Vid.  PUTEOLI. 

a  celebrated  Peri- 


patetic philosopher,  geographer,  and  historian, 
was  born  at  Messana  in  Sicily,  but  passed  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  in  Greece  Proper,  and 


by  Mummius  near  Corinth,  whereupon  he  put  I  especially  in  Peloponnesus.  He  was  a  disciple 
an  end  to  his  own  life,  after  slaying  his  wife  to  |  of  Aristotle  and  a  friend  of  Theophrastus.  He 
prevent  her  falling  into  the  enemy's  power.  wrote  a  vast  number  of  works,  of  which  only 

DIAGORAS  (Atayopaf).     1.  Son  of  Damagetus,   fragments    are   extant.      His    most  important 
of  lalyaus  in  Rhodes,  was  very  celebrated  for  t  work  was   entitled   Btof   1%  'EAXudof :   it  con- 

255 


DICE. 


DIDO. 


fained  an  account  of  the  geography,  history,  am 
moral  and  religious  condition  of  Greece.  Se 
Fuhr,  Dicccarchi  Messenii  quce  supcrsunt  compo 
tita  et  illustrate,,  Darmstadt,  1841. 

DICE  (&IK.TJ),  the  personification  of  justice,  a 
daughter  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Themis,  and  th 
sister  of  Eunomia  and  Eirene.  She  was  con 
sidercd  as  one  of  the  Hone,  and  is  frequently 
called  the  attendant  or  counsellor  (xdpeopof  or 
f werfpof)  of  Jupiter  (Zeus).  In  the  tragedians 
she  appears  as  a  divinity  who  severely  punishes 
all  wrong,  •watches  over  the  maintenance  of 
justice,  and  pierces  the  hearts  of  the  unjusl 
with  the  sword  made  for  her  by  ^Esa.  In  this 
capacity  she  is  closely  connected  with  the  Erin- 
nyes,  though  her  business  is  not  only  to  punish 
injustice,  but  also  to  reward  virtue. 

DICT^EUS.     Vid.  DICTF, 

DICTAMXUM  (A//cra//voi>),  a  town  on  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Crete,  with  a  sanctuary  of  Dictynna, 
from  whom  the  town  itself  was  also  called  Dic- 
tynna, 

DICTE  (&IKTI]  :  now  Lasthi),  a  mountain  in 
the  east  of  Crete,  where  Jupiter  (Zeus)  is  said 
to  have  been  brought  up.  Hence  he  bore  the 
surname  Dictceus.  The  Roman  poets  frequent- 
ly employ  the  adjective  Dictaeus  as  synonymous 
with  Cretan. . 

DICTYNNA  (  AIKTVVVO),  a  surname  both  of  Bri- 
tomartis and  Diana,  which  two  divinities  were 
subsequently  identified.  The  name  is  connect- 
ed with  MKTVOV,  a  hunting-net,  and  was  borne 
by  Britomartis  and  Diana  as  goddesses  of  the 
chase.  One  tradition  related  that  Britomartis 
was  so  called  because,  when  she  had  thrown 
herself  into  the  sea  to  escape  the  pursuit  of 
Minos,  she  was  saved  in  the  nets  of  fishermen. 

[DICTYS  (A/KTVf).  1.  A  Tyrrhenian,  changed 
by  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  into  a  dolphin. — 2.  A 
Cectaur,  slain  at  the  nuptials  of  Pirithoiis. — 3. 
Son  of  Peristhenes  or  of  Magnes  and  a  Naiad, 
who,  with  his  brother  Polydectes,  preserved  Da- 
naii  and  her  son  Perseus  in  the  island  Seriphus.] 

DICTYS  CRETENSIS,  the  reputed  author  of  an 
extant  work  in  Latin  on  the  Trojan  war,  divided 
into  six  books,  and  entitled  Ephemeris  Belli  Tro- 
jani,  professing  to  be  a  journal  of  the  leadinu 
events  of  the  war.  In  the  preface  to  the  work 
we  are  told  that  it  was  composed  by  Dictys  of 
Cnosus,  who  accompanied  Idomeueus  to  the 
Trojan  war,  and  was  inscribed  in  Phoenician 
characters  on  tablets  of  lime-wood  or  paper 
made  from  the  bark.  The  work  was  buried  in 
the  same  grave  with  the  author,  and  remained 
undisturbed  till  the  sepulchre  was  burst  open  by 
an  earthquake  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  and  the 
work  was  discovered  in  a  tin  case.  It  was  car- 
ried to  Rome  by  Eupraxis,  whose  slaves  had 
discovered  it,  and  it  was  translated  into  Greek 
by  order  of  Nero.  It  is  from  this  Greek  version 
that  the  extant  Latin  work  professes  to  have 
been  translated  by  a  Q.  Septimius  Romanus. 
Although  its  alleged  origin  and  discovery  are 
quite  unworthy  of  credit,  it  appears  neverthe- 
less to  be  a  translation  from  a  Greek  work, 
which  we  know  to  have  been  extant  under  the 
name  of  Dictys,  since  it  is  frequently  quoted  by 
the  Byzantine  writers.  The  work  was  proba- 
bly written  in  Greek  by  Eupraxis  in  the  reign 
of  Nero,  but  at  what  time  the  Latin  translation 
•was  executed  is  quite  uncertain.  The  work 
256 


contains  a  history  of  the  Trojan  war,  its  caus«i 
and  consequences,  from  the  birth  of  Paris  down 
to  the  death  of  Ulysses.  The  compiler  not  un- 
frequently  differs  widely  from  Homer,  adding 
many  particulars,  and  recording  many  events  of 
which  we  find  no  trace  elsewhere.  All  miracu- 
lous events  and  supernatural  agency  are  entirely 
excluded.  The  compilations  ascribed  to  Dictys 
and  Dares  (vid.  DAKES)  are  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  the  history  of  modern  literature, 
since  they  are  the  chief  fountains  from  which 
the  legends  of  Greece  first  flowed  into  the  ro- 
mances of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  then  mingled 
with  the  popular  tales  and  ballads  of  England, 
France,  and  Germany.  The  best  edition  of  Dic- 
tys is  by  Dederich,  Bonn,  1835. 

DIDIUS.  1.  T,  praetor  in  Macedonia  B.C.  100 
where  he  defeated  the  Scordiscans,  consul  98, 
and  subsequently  proconsul  in  Spain,  where  he 
defeated  the  Celtiberians.  He  fell  in  the  Mar- 
sic  war,  89. — 2.  C.,  a  legate  of  Caesar,  fell  in 
battle  in  Spain  fighting  against  the  sons  of  Pom- 
pey,  46. — 3.  M.  DIDIUS  SALVIUS  JULIANUS,  bought 
the  Roman  empire  of  the  praetorian  guards, 
when  they  put  up  the  empire  for  sale  after  the 
death  of  Pertinax,  A.D.  193.  Flavius  Sulpicia- 
nus,  prsefect  of  the  city,  and  Didius  bid  against 
each  other,  but  it  was  finally  knocked  down  to 
Didius  upon  his  promising  a  donative  to  each 
soldier  of  twenty-five  thousand  sesterces.  Did- 
ius, however,  held  the  empire  for  only  two 
months,  from  March  28th  to  June  1st,  and  was 
murdered  by  the  soldiers  when  Severus  was 
marching  against  the  city. 

DIDO  (AfJw),  also  called  ELISSA,  the  reputed 
founder  of  Carthage.  She  was  daughter  of  the 
Tyrian  king  Belus  or  Agenor  or  Mutgo,  and 
sister  of  Pygmalion,  who  succeeded  to  the  crown 
after  the  death  of  his  father.  Dido  was  married 
to  her  uncle,  Acerbas  or  Sichasus,  a  priest  of 
Hercules,  and  a  man  of  immense  wealth.  He 
was  murdered  by  Pygmalion,  who  coveted  his 
treasures ;  but  Dido  secretly  sailed  from  Tyre 
with  the  treasures,  accompanied  by  some  noble 
Tyrians,  who  were  dissatisfied  with  Pygmalion's 
rule.  She  first  went  to  Cyprus,  where  she  car- 
ried off  eighty  maidens  to  provide  the  emigrants 
with  wives,  and  then  crossed  over  to  Africa. 
Eere  she  purchased  as  much  land  as  might  be 
covered  with  the  hide  of  a  bull ;  but  she  order- 
ed the  hide  to  be  cut  up  into  the  thinnest  possi- 
j\e  strips,  and  with  them  she  surrounded  a  spot 
on  which  she  built  a  citadel  called  Byrsa  (from 
8vpcra,  i.  e.,  the  hide  of  a  bull).  Around  this  fort 
the  city  of  Carthage  arose,  and  soon  became  a 
xnverful  and  flourishing  place.  The  neighbor- 
ng  king  Hiarbas,  jealous  of  the  prosperity  of  the 
new  city,  demanded  the  hand  of  Dido  in  mar- 
riage, threatening  Carthage  with  war  in  case  of 
•efusaL  Dido  had  vowed  eternal  fidelity  to  her 
ate  husband  ;  but,  seeing  that  the  Carthaginians 
expected  her  to  comply  with  the  demands  of 
liarbas,  she  pretended  to  yield  to  their  wishes, 
and  under  pretence  of  soothing  the  manes  of 
Acerbas  by  expiatory  sacrifices,  she  erected  a 
uneral  pile,  on  which  she  stabbed  herself  in 
>resence  of  her  people.  After  her  death  she 
vas  worshipped  by  the  Carthaginians  as  a  di- 
vinity. Virgilrhas  inserted  in  his  ^Eneid  the 
egend  of  Dido  with  various  modifications.  Ac- 
cording to  the  common  chronology,  there  was 


DIDYMA. 

an  interval  of  more  than  three  hundred  years 
between  the  capture  of  Troy  (B.C.  1184)  and 
the  foundation  of  Carthage  (B.C.  853) ;  but  Vir- 
gil nevertheless  makes  Dido  a  contemporary  of 
^Eneas,  with  whom  she  falls  in  love  on  his  arri- 
val in  Africa.  When  ^Eneas  hastened  to  seek 
the  new  home  which  tke  gods  had  promised  him, 
Dido,  in  despair,  destroyed  herself  on  a  funeral 
pile. 
DIDYMA.  Vid.  BRANCHID^E. 

DlDYME.       Vid.  J&QU.J&   lNSUL.fi. 

DIDYMUS  (Aidv/Liof),  a  celebrated  Alexandrine 
grammarian,  a  contemporary  of  Julius  Caesar 
and  Augustus,  was  a  follower  of  the  school  of 
Aristarchus,  and  received  the  surname  ^aA/cev- 
repof  on  account  of  his  indefatigable  and  un- 
wearied application  to  study.  He  is  said  to 
have  written  four  thousand  works,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  were  commentaries  on  Homer. 
The  greater  part  of  the  extant  Scholia  minora  on 
Homer  was  at  one  time  considered  the  work  of 
Didymus,  but  is  really  taken  from  the  commen- 
taries of  Didymus  and  of  other  grammarians. 

DlESPITER.       Vid.  JUPITER. 

DIGENTIA  (now  Licenza),  a  small  stream  in 
Latium,  beautifully  cool  and  clear,  which  flows 
into  the  Auio  near  the  modern  Vicovaro.  It 
flowed  through  the  Sabiue  farm  of  Hornce. 
Near  its  source,  which  was  al*o  called  Digentia 
(fons  etiam  rivo  dare  nomen  idoneus,  Hor.,  Ep., 
i.,  16,  12),  stood  the  house  of  Horace  (vicinu» 
tcctojugis  aqua  fons,  Hor.,  Sat.,  ii.,  6,  2). 

DIMALLUM,  a  town  in  Greek  Blyria. 

DINARCHUS  (Aeivapio f),  the  last  and  least  im- 
portant of  the  ten  Attic  orators,  was  born  at 
Corinth  about  B.C.  361.  He  was  brought  up  at 
Athens,  and  studied  under  Theophrastus.  As 
he  was  a  foreigner,  he  could  not  come  forward 
himself  as  an  orator,  and  was  therefore  obliged 
to  content  himself  with  writing  orations  for 
others.  He  belonged  to  the  friends  of  Phocion 
and  the  Macedonian  party.  When  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  advanced  against  Athens  in  307,  Di- 
oarchus  fled  to  Chalcis  in  Eubcea,  and  was  not 
allowed  to  return  to  Athens  till  292,  where  he 
died  at  an  advanced  age.  Only  three  of  his 
speeches  have  come  down  to  us  :  they  all  refer 
to  the  question  about  HARFALUS.  They  are 

Printed  in  the  collections  of  the  Attic  orators, 
1*1  separately  by  Maetzner,  Berlin,  1842,  8vo.] 

DlNDYMENE.       Vid.  DlNDYMCS. 

DlNDYMUS   Or    DlNDYMA,  -DRUM  (  AoxfytiOf :     T(l 

^iv&vfjLa).  1.  A  mountain  in  Phrygia,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Galatia,  near  the  town  Pessinus, 
eacred  to  Cybele,  the  mother  of  the  gods,  who 
u  hence  called  Dindymene. — 2.  A  mountain  in 
Mysia,  near  Cyzicus,  also  sacred  to  Cybele. 

[DiNiAS  (Aeivtof ),  a  Greek  historian  of  uncer- 
tain date,  who  wrote  a  work  on  Argolis  ('Apyo- 
AIKO)  :  a  few  fragments  are  collected  by  Miiller, 
Fragm.  Hist  Grcec.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  24-26.J 

DiNocRATKS  (beivoKpuTw) ,  a  distinguished 
Macedonian  architect  in  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great  He  was  the  architect  of  the  new 
temple  of  Diana  (Artemis)  at  Ephesus,  which 
was  built  after  the  destruction  of  the  former 
temple  by  Herostratus.  He  was  employed  by 
Alexander,  whom  he  accompanied  into  Egypt, 
in  the  building  of  Alexandrea.  He  formed  a 
design  for  cutting  Mount  Athos  into  a  statue  of 
Alexander ;  but  the  king  forbade  the  execution 
17 


DIOCLETIANUS,  VALERIUS. 

of  the  project.  The  right  hand  of  the  figure 
was  to  have  held  a  city,  and  in  the  left  there 
would  have  been  a  basin,  in  which  the  water  of 
all  the  mountain  streams  was  to  pour,  and 
thence  into  the  sea.  He  commrnenced  the  erec- 
tion of  a  temple  to  Arsinoe,  the  wife  of  Ptolemy 
IL,  of  which  the  roof  was  to  be  arched  with 
loadstones,  so  that  her  statue,  made  of  iron,  might 
appear  to  float  in  the  air,  but  he  died  before 
completing  the  work. 

[DINOMACHE  (beivofidxij),  daughter  of  Mega- 
cles,  granddaughter  of  Chsthenes,  and  mother  of 
Alcibiades.] 

DINOMACHUS  (Aefvo/zo^of),  a  philosopher,  who 
agreed  with  CALLIPHON  in  considering  the  chief 
good  to  consist  in  the  union  of  virtue  with  bod 
ily  pleasure. 

DINOMENES  (&eivo[i£vj]$).  1.  A  statuary,  whose 
statues  of  lo  and  Callisto  stood  in  the  Acropolis 
at  Athens  in  the  time  of  Pausanias :  he  flour 
ished  B.C.  400.— [2.  Father  of  Hiero,  Gelon,  and 
Thrasybulus,  born  at  JEtna,  a  city  of  Sicily. — 

3.  One  of  the  guards  of  Hieronymus  of  Syracuse, 
whom  he  aided  in  assassinating ;   he  was  after- 
ward elected  one  of  the  generals  of  the  Syracu- 
sans.] 

DINON  (Aeivav,  Aivav),  father  of  the  historian 
Clitarchus,  wrote  himself  a  history  of  Persia, 
[to  which  If  epos  refers  as  the  mo^t  trustworthy 
authority  on  the  subject:  the  fragments  of  his 
work  are  collected  by  Miiller,  Fragm.  Hist.  Grcec., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  88-95.] 

Dio.     Vid.  DION. 

DIOC^ESAREA  (AioKaiaupeia :  now  Sefurieh), 
more  anciently  SEPPHORIS  (2e7r0up<f),  m  Gali- 
lee, was  a  small  place  until  Herodes  Antipas 
made  it  the  capital  of  Galilee,  under  the  name 
of  Diocaesarea.  It  was  destroyed  in  the  fourth 
century  by  Gallus,  on  account  of  an  insurrection 
which  had  broken  out  there. 

DIOCLEA  or  DOCLEA  (A6/c/lea),  a  place  in  Dal- 
matia,  near  Salona,  the  birth-place  of  Diocletian. 

DIOCLES  (AtoK^f).  1.  A  brave  Athenian,  who 
lived  in  exile  at  Megara.  Once  in  a  battle  he 
protected  with  hit?  shield  a  youth  whom  he  loved, 
but  he  lost  liis  own  life  in  consequence.  The 
Megarians  rewarded  him  with  the  honors  of  a 
hero,  and  instituted  the  festival  of  the  Dioclea, 
which  they  celebrated  in  the  spring  of  every 
year. — 2.  A  Syracusan,  the  leader  of  the  popu- 
lar party  in  opposition  to  Hermocrates.  In  B.C. 
412  he  was  appointed  with  several  others  to 
draw  up  a  new  code  of  laws.  This  code,  which 
was  almost  exclusively  the  work  of  Diocles, 
became  very  celebrated,  and  was  adopted  by 
many  other  Sicilian  cities. — 3.  Of  Carystus  in 
Eubcea,  a  celebrated  Greek  physician,  lived  in 
the  fourth  century  B.C.  He  wrote  several  med- 
ical works,  of  which  only  some  fragments  re- 
main;  [edited  by  Frtenkel,  Berlin  1840,  8vo. — 

4.  Of  Preparethus,  the  earliest  Greek  historian 
who  wrote  about  the  foundation  of  Rome,  and 
whom  Q.  Fabius  Pictor  is  said  to  have  followed 
in  a  great  many  points.] 

DiocLETiAxop<5u9.     Vid.  CELETRUM. 

DIOCLETIANUS,  VALERIUS,  Roman  emperoi 
A.D.  284-305,  was  born  near  Salona,  in  Dalma- 
tis,  in  245,  of  most  obscure  parentage.  From 
his  mother,  Doclea,  or  Dioclea,  who  received 
her  name  from  the  village  where  she  dwelt,  he 
inherited  the  appellation  of  Doclcs  or  Dioclet, 
257 


DiODOUUS. 


DIOGENES. 


which,  after  his  assumption  of  the  purple,  was 
expanded  into  Diocletianus,  and  attached  as  a 
cognomen  to  the  high  patrician  name  of  Vale- 
rius. Having  entered  the  army,  he  served  with 
high  reputation  under  Probus  and  Aurelian,  fol- 
lowed Carus  to  the  Persian  war,  and,  after  the 
fate  of  Numerianus  became  known  at  Chalcedon, 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  troops,  284.  He 
slew  with  his  own  hands  Arrius  Aper,  who  was 
arraigned  of  the  murder  of  Numerianus,  in  or- 
der, according  to  some  authorities,  that  he  might 
fulfil  a  prophecy  delivered  to  him  in  early  youth 
by  a  Gaulish  Druidess,  that  he  should  mount  a 
throne  as  soon  as  he  had  slain  the  wild  boar 
(Aper).  Next  year  (285)  Diocletian  carried  on 
war  against  Cariuus,  on  whose  death  he  became 
undisputed  master  of  the  empire.  But  as  the 
attacks  of  the  barbarians  became  daily  more  for- 
midable, he  resolved  to  associate  with  himself 
a  colleague  in  the  empire,  and  accordingly  se- 
lected for  that  purpose  Maximianus,  who  was  in- 
vested with  the  title  of  Augustus  in  286. 
Maximian  had  the  care  of  the  Western  Empire, 
and  Diocletian  that  of  the  Eastern.  But  as  the 
dangers  which  threatened  the  Roman  dominions 
from  the  attacks  of  the  Persians  in  the  East,  and 
the  German  and  other  barbarians  in  the  West, 
became  still  more  imminent,  Diocletian  made  a 
still  further  division  of  the  empire.  In  292,  Con- 
stantius  Chlorus  and  Galerius  were  proclaimed 
Caesars,  and  the  government  of  the  Roman 
world  was  divided  between  the  two  Augusti 
and  the  two  Caesars.  Diocletian  had  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  East,  with  Nicomedia  as  his  resi- 
dence ;  Maximian,  Italy  and  Africa,  with  Milan 
as  his  residence ;  Constantius,  Britain,  Gaul,  and 
Spain,  with  Treves  as  his  residence ;  Gale- 
rius, Illyricum,  and  the  whole  line  of  tl\e  Dan- 
ube, with  Sirmium  as  his  residence.  The  wars 
in  the  reign  of  Diocletian  are  related  in  the  lives 
of  his  colleagues,  since  Diocletian  rarely  com- 
manded the  armies  in  person.  It  is  sufficient 
to  state  here  that  Britain,  which  had  maintained 
its  independence  for  some  years  under  CAEAU- 
sivs  and  ALLECTUS,  was  restored  to  the  empire 
(296) ;  that  the  Persians  were  defeated  and 
obliged  to  sue  for  peace  (298);  and  that  the 
Marcommani  and  other  barbarians  in  the  north 
were  also  driven  back  from  the  Roman  domin- 
ions. But  after  an  anxious  reign  of  twenty-one 
years  Diocletian  longed  for  repose.  Accord- 
ingly, on  the  first  of  May,  305,  he  abdicated  at 
Nicomedia,  and  compelled  his  reluctant  col- 
league Maximian  to  do  the  same  at  Milan.  Dio- 
cletian retired  to  his  native  Dalmatia,  and  passed 
the  remaining  eight  years  of  his  life  near  Salona 
in  philosophic  retirement,  devoted  to  rural  pleas- 
ures and  the  cultivation  of  his  garden.  He  died 
313.  One  of  the  most  memorable  events  in  the 
reign  of  Diocletian  was  his  fierce  persecution  of 
the  Christians  (303)  to  which  he  was  instigated 
by  his  colleague  Galerius. 

DIODORUS  (Ato&jpof).  1.  Suraamed  CEONUS, 
of  lasus  in  Caria,  lived  at  Alexandrea  in  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  who  is  said  to  have 
given  him  the  surname  of  Cronus  on  account 
of  his  inability  to  solve  at  once  some  dialectic 
problem  proposed  by  Stilpo,  when  the  t^  o  phi- 
losophers were  dining  with  the  king.  *  lodorus 
is  said  to  have  taken  that  disgrace  sc  much  to 
heart,  that,  after  his  return  from  the  repast,  and 
258 


writing  a  treatise  on  the  problem,  he  died  in 
despair.  According  to  another  account,  he  de- 
rived his  surname  from  hia  teacher  Apollonius 
Crohus.  He  belonged  to  the  Megaric  school 
of  philosophy,  of  which  he  was  the  head.  Ha 
was  celebrated  for  his  great  dialectic  skill,  for 
which  he  is  called  6  dmAe/crt/cof,  or  dia^^KTtKu- 
rarof. — 2.  SICULUS,  of  Agyrium  hi  Sicily,  was  a 
contemporary  of  Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus, 
In  order  to  collect  materials  for  his  history,  he 
travelled  over  a  great  pail  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  lived  a  long  time  at  Rome.  He  spent  alto- 
gether thirty  years  upon  his  work.  It  was  en- 
titled Bt&UoftJ/cj?  iaropcKij,  Tfie  Historical  Libra- 
ry, and  was  a  universal  history,  embracing  the 
period  from  the  earliest  mythical  ages  down  to 
the  beginning  of  Caesar's  Gallic  wars.  It  wae 
divided  into  three  great  sections,  and  into  forty 
books.  The  first  section,  which  consisted  of 
the  first  six  books,  contained  the  history  of  the 
mythical  times  previous  to  the  Trojan  war. 
The  second  section,  which  consisted  of  eleven 
books,  contained  the  history  from  the  Trojan 
war  down  to  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
The  third  section,  which  contained  the  remain- 
ing twenty-three  books,  treated  of  the  history 
from  tie  death  of  Alexander  down  to  the  begin 
ning  of  Caesar's  Gallic  wars.  Of  this  work  only 
the  following  portions  are  extant  entire :  the 
first  five  books,  which  contain  the  early  history 
of  the  Eastern  nations,  the  Egyptians,  ^Ethio- 
pians, and  Greeks;  and  from  book  eleven  to 
book  twenty,  containing  the  history  from  the 
second  Persian  war,  B.C.  480,  down  to  302. 
Of  the  remaining  portion  there  are  extant  a 
number  of  fragments  and  the  Excerpta,  which 
are  preserved  partly  in  Photius,  and  partly  in 
the  Eclogse  made  at  the  command  of  Constan- 
tine  Porphyrogenitus.  The  work  of  Diodorus 
is  constructed  upon  the  plan* of  annals,  and  the 
events  of  each  year  are  placed  one  after  the 
other,  without  any  internal  connection.  In  com- 
piling his  work  Diodorus  exercised  no  judgment 
or  criticism.  He  simply  collected  what  he  found 
in  his  different  authorities,  and  thus  jumbled  to- 
gether history,  mythus,  and  fiction :  he  fre- 
quently misunderstood  authorities,  and  not  sel- 
dom contradicts  in'  one  passage  what  he  has 
stated  in  another.  But,  nevertheless,  the  com- 
pilation is  of  great  importance  to  us,  on  account 
of  the  great  mass  of  materials  which  are  there 
collected  from  a  number  of  writers  whose  works 
have  perished.  The  best  editions  are  by  Wes- 
seling,  Amsterd.,  1746,  2  vols.  foL,  reprinted  at 
Bipont,  1793,  <fcc.,  11  vols.  8vo;  and  by  Din- 
dorf,  Lips.,  1828,  6  vols.  8vo. — 3.  Of  Sinope,  an 
Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy, 
flourished  353. — 4.  Of  Tyre,  a  peripatetic  phi- 
losopher, a  disciple  and  follower  of  Critolaiis, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  the  head  of  the  Peripa- 
tetic school  at  Athens.  He  flourished  B.C.  110. 

DIODOTUS  (Atodorof),  a  Stoic  philosopher  and 
a  teacher  of  Cicero,  in  whose  house  he  lived  for 
many  years  at  Rome.  In  his  later  years, 
Diodotus  became  blind :  he  died  in  Cicero's 
house,  B.C.  59,  and  left  to  his  friend  a  property 
of  about  one  hundred  thousand  sesterces. 

DIOGENES  (Awyev^f).  1.  Of  APOLLONIA  in 
Crete,  an  eminent  natural  philosopher,  lived  iu 
the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and  was  a  pupil  of  An 
aximenes.  B»  wrote  a  work  iu  the  Ionic  dia 


DIOGENES. 


DIOMEDES. 


lect,  entitled  Hepl  ^vaeuf,  On  Nature,  in  which 
he  appears  to  have  treated  of  physical  science 
in  the  largest  sense  of  the  words. — 2.  The  BABY- 
LONIAN, a  Stoic  philosopher,  was  a  native  of 
Seleucia  in  Babylonia,  was  educated  at  Athens 
under  Chrysippus,  and  succeeded  Zeno  of  Tar- 
sus as  the  head  of  the  Stoic  school  at  Athens. 
He  was  one  of  the  three  ambassadors  sent  by 
ti.e  Athenians  to  Rome  in  B.C.  155.  Vid.  CAK- 
XKADES,  CKITOLAUS,  He  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty-eight — 3.  The  CYNIC  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Sinope,  in  Pontus,  about  B.C.  412.  His 
father  was  a  banker  named  Icesias  or  Icetas, 
who  was  convicted  of  some  swindling  transac- 
tion, in  consequence  of  which  Diogenes  quitted 
Siuope  and  went  to  Athens.  His  youth  is  said 
to  have  been  spent  in  dissolute  extravagance ; 
but  at  Athens  his  attention  was  arrested  by  the 
character  of  Autisthenes,  who  at  first  drove  him 
away.  Diogenes,  however,  could  not  be  pre- 
vented from  attending  him  even  by  blows,  but 
told  him  that  he  would  find  no  stick  hard  enough 
to  keep  him  away.  Antisthenes  at  last  relented, 
and  his  pupil  soon  plunged  into  the  most  frantic 
excesses  of  austerity  and  moroseness.  In  sum- 
mer he  used  to  roll  in  hot  sand,  and  in  winter 
to  embrace  statues  covered  with  snow ;  he  wore 
coarse  clothing,  lived  on  the  plainest  food,  slept 
in  porticoes  or  in  the  street,  and  finally,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  story,  took  up  his  residence 
in  a  tub  belonging  to  the  Ifetroum,  or  temple 
of  the  Mother  of  the  Gods.  The  truth  of  this 
latter  tale  has,  however,  been  reasonably  dis- 
puted. In  spite  of  his  strange  eccentricities, 
Diogenes  appears  to  have  been  much  respected 
at  Athens,  and  to  have  been  privileged  to  re- 
buke any  thing  of  which  he  disapproved.  He 
seems  to  have  ridiculed  and  despised  all  intel- 
lectual pursuits  which  did  not  directly  and  ob- 
viously tend  to  some  immediate  practical  good. 
He  abused  literary  men  for  reading  about  the 
evils  of  Ulysses,  and  neglecting  their  own  ;  mu- 
sicians for  stringing  the  lyre  harmoniously  while 
they  left  their  minds  discordant ;  men  of  science 
for  troubling  themselves  about  the  moon  and 
stars,  while  they  neglected  what  lay  immedi- 
ately before  them ;  orators  for  learning  to  say 
what  was  right,  but  not  to  practice  it)  On  a 
voyage  to  ^Egiua  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  pi- 
rates, and  carried  to  Crete  to  be  sold  as  a  slave. 
Here,  when  he  was  asked  what  business  he 
understood,  he  answered,  "  How  to  command 
men."  He  was  purchased  by  Xeniades  of  Cor- 
inth, over  whom  he  acquired  such  influence 
that  he  soon  received  from  him  his  freedom, 
was  intrusted  with  the  care  of  his  children,  and 
passed  his  old  age  in  his  house.  During  his 
residence  at  Corinth  his  celebrated  interview 
with  Alexander  the  Great  is  said  to  have  taken 
place.  The  conversation  between  them  began 
by  the  king's  saying,  "  I  am  Alexander  the 
Great ;"  to  which  the  philosopher  replied,  "  And 
I  am  Diogenes  the  Cynic."  Alexander  then 
asked  whether  he  could  oblige  him  in  any  way, 
and  received  no  answer  except,  "  Yes,  you  can 
stand  out  of  the  sunshine."  We  are  further 
told  that  Alexander  admired  Diogenes  so  much 
that  he  said,  "  If  I  were  not  Alexander,  I  should 
wi~h  to  be  Diogenes."  Diogenes  died  at  Cor- 
inth at  the  age  of  nearly  ninety,  B.C.  323. — 4. 
LAKETIUS  of  Laerte  iii  Cilicia,  of  whose  life  we 


'  have  no  particulars,  probably  lived  in  the  second 
century  after  Christ.  He  wrote  the  Lives  of 
the  Philosophers  in  ten  books :  the  work  is  en 
titled  irepl  fiiuv,  do-yftdruv,  not  aTrnQdeyftuTuv  TUV 
in  tyiXooofyiq,  evdoKiprjauvTuv.  According  to  some 
allusions  which  occur  in  it,  he  wrote  it  for  a 
lady  of  rank,  who  occupied  herself  with  phi- 
losophy, and  who,  according  to  some,  was  Ar- 
ria,  the  friend  of  Galen.  In  this  work  Diogenes 
divides  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks  into  the 
Ionic  —  which  commences  with  Anaximauder 
and  ends  with  Clitomachus,  Chrysippus,  and 
Theophrastus —  and  the  Italian,  which  was 
founded  by  Pythagoras,  and  ends  with  Epicu- 
rus. He  reckons  the  Socratic  school,  with  its 
various  ramifications,  as  a  part  of  the  Ionic  phi- 
losophy, of  which  he  treats  in  the  first  seven 
books.  The  Eleatics,  with  Heraclitus  and  the 
Skeptics,  are  included  in  the  Italian  philosophy, 
which  occupies  the  eighth  and  ninth  books.  Epi- 
curus and  his  philosophy  are  treated  of  in  the 
tenth  book  with  particular  minuteness,  which 
has  led  some  writers  to  the  belief  that  Diogenes 
himself  was  an  Epicurean.  The  work  is  of 
great  value  to  us,  as  Diogenes  made  use  of  a 
great  number  of  writers  on  the  history  of  phi- 
losophy, whose  works  are  now  lost ;  but  it  is 
put  together  without  plan,  criticism,  or  connec- 
tion, and  the  author  had  evidently  no  concep- 
tion of  the  real  value  and  dignity  of  philosophy. 
The  best  editions  are  by  Meibom,  Amsterd, 
1692,  2  vols.  4to,  and  Hiibuer  [and  Jacobitz, 
with  the  commentary  of  Casaubou],  Lips.,  4 
vols.  8vo,  1828-1833. — 5.  CENOMAUS,  a  tragic 
poet,  who  began  to  exhibit  at  Athens  B.C.  404. 

DIOGENIANUS  (Aioyeveiavof),  of  Heraclea  on 
the  Pontus,  a  distinguished  grammarian  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  wrote  a  Greek  Lexicon,  from 
which  the  Lexicon  of  Hesychius  seems  to  have 
been  almost  entirely  taken.  A  portion  of  it  is 
still  extant,  containing  a  collection  of  proverbs 
first  printed  by  Schottus,  with  the  proverbs  of 
Zenobius  and  Suidas,  Antv.,  1612,  4to,  and  sub- 
sequently in  other  editions  of  the  Paroemiographi 
Greed. 

DIOMEA  (ri  Ato/iaa :  AIO/UEIEVC,  Ato/ievf).  a 
demus  in  Attica  belonging  to  the  tribe  ^Egcis, 
with  a  temple  of  Hercules ;  the  Diomean  gate  in 
Athens  led  to  this  demus.  Vid.  p.  122,  b. 

DiOMEDE.fi  INSULT,  five  small  islands  in  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  north  of  the  promontory  Garganum 
in  Apulia,  named  after  Diomedes.  Vid.  DIO- 
MEDES. The  largest  of  these,  called  Diomedea 
Insula  or  Trimerus  (now  Tremiti),  was  the  place 
where  Julia,  the  grand-daughter  of  Augustus, 
died. 

DIOMEDES  (Ato^ctyf).  1.  Son  of  Tydeus  and 
Dei'pyle,  whence  he  is  constantly  called  Tydides 
(TvdetdTjf),  succeeded  Adrastus  as  king  of  Ar- 
gos. — Homeric  Story.  Tydeus  fell  in  the  expedi- 
tion against  Thebes,  while  his  son  Diomedes 
was  yet  a  boy ;  but  Diomedes  was  afterward 
one  of  the  Epigoui  who  took  Thebea  He  went 
to  Troy  with  eighty  ships,  and  was,  next  to 
Achilles,  the  bravest  hero  in  the  Greek  army. 
He  enjoyed  the  especial  protection  of  Minerva 
(Athena) ;  he  fougnt  against  the  most  distin- 
guished of  the  Trojans,  such  as  Hector  and 
^Encas,  and  even  with  the  gods  who  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Trojans.  He  thus  wounded 
both  Venus  (Aphrodite)  and  Mars  (Ares). — LaUr 
259 


DIOMEDES. 


DION  CASSTTTS. 


Stories.  Diauiedes  and  Ulyssog  (tarried  off  the 
palladium  from  the  city  of  Troy,  since  it  was 
believed  that  Troy  could  not  be  taken  so  long 
as  the  palladium  was  within  its  walls.  Diome- 
des  carried  the  palladium  with  him  to  Argos ; 
but,  according  to  others,  it  was  taken  from  him 
by  Demophon  in  Attica,  where  he  landed  one 
night  on  his  return  from  Troy,  without  knowing 
where  he  was.  Vid.  DEMOPUOX.  Another  tra- 
dition stated  that  Diomedes  restored  the  pal- 
ladium to  ^Eneas.  On  his  arrival  in  Argos 
Diomedes  found  his  wife  ^Egialea  living  in  adul- 
tery with  Hippolytus,  or,  according  to  others, 
with  Cometes  or  Cyllabarus.  This  misfortune 
befell  him  through  the  anger  of  Venus  (Aphro- 
dite), whom  he  had  wounded  before  Troy.  He 
therefore  quitted  Argos,  either  of  his  own  ac- 
cord, or  he  was  expelled  by  the  adulterers,  and 
went  to  JStolia.  He  subsequently  attempted  to 
return  to  Argos,  but  on  his  way  home  a  storm 
threw  him  on  the  coast  of  Daunia  in  Italy,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  Daunus,  the  king  of 
the  country.  Diomedes  assisted  Daunus  in  his 
war  against  the  Messapians,  married  Euippe, 
the  daughter  of  Daunus,  and  settled  in  Daunia, 
where  he  died  at  an  advanced  age.  He  was 
buried  in  one  of  the  islands  off  Cape  Garganum, 
which  were  called  after  him  the  Diomedean 
Islands.  His  companions  were  inconsolable  at 
his  loss,  and  were  metamorphosed  into  birds 
(Avcs  Diomedece),  which,  mindful  of  their  origin, 
used  to  fly  joyfully  toward  the  Greek  ships,  but 
to  avoid  those  of  the  Romans.  According  to 
others,  Diomedes  returned  to  Argos,  or  disap- 
peared in  one  of  the  Diomedean  islands,  or  in 
the  country  of  the  Heneti.  A  number  of  towns 
iu  the  eastern  part  of  Italy,  such  as  Beneventum, 
Argos  Hippiou  (afterward  Argyripa  or  Arpi), 
Venusia,  Canusium,  Venafrum,  Brundisium,  <fcc., 
were  believed  to  have  been  founded  by  Diome- 
des. A  plain  of  Apulia,  near  Salapia  and  Canu- 
sium, was  called  Diomedei  Campi  after  him.  He 
was  worshipped  as  a  divine  being,  especially  in 
Italy,  where  statues  of  him  existed  at  Argyripa, 
Metapontum,  Thurii,  and  other  places. — 2.  Son 
of  Mars  (Ares)  and  Gyrene,  king  of  the  Bistones 
in  Thrace,  killed  by  Hercules  on  account  of  his 
mares,  which  he  fed  with  human  flesh. 

DIOMEDES,  a  Latin  grammarian,  probably  lived 
in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  after  Christ,  and  is 
the  author  of  an  extant  work,  De  Oratione  et 
Partibus  Orationis  et  Vario  Genere  Metrorum 
libri  III.,  printed  in  the  Grammaticce  Latince 
Amtorcs  Antiqiti  of  Putschius,  4to,  Hanov.,  1605 ; 
[and  in  the  Scriptores  rei  metricae  of  Gaisford, 
Oxford,  1837,  8vo  ;  but  only  the  3d  book.] 

DIOMEDON  (A£o//eoW),  an  Athenian  command- 
er during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  was  one 
of  the  commanders  at  the  battle  of  Arginusae 
(B.C.  406),  and  was  put  to  death,  with  five  of  his 
colleagues,  on  his  return  to  Athens. 

DION  (At'wv),  a  Syracusan,  son  of  Hipparinus, 
and  a  relation  of  Dionysius.  His  sister  Aris- 
tomache  was  the  second  wife  of  the  elder  Di- 
onysius; and  Dion  himself  was  married  to 
Arete,  the  daughter  of  Dionysius  by  Aristom- 
ache.  Dion  was  treated  by  Dionysius  with  the 
greatest  distinction,  and  was  employed  by  him 
in  many  services  of  trust  and  confidence.  Of 
this  close  connection  and  favor  with  the  tyrant 
be  seems  to  have  availed  himself  to  amass  great 
260 


wealth  He  made  no  opposition  to  the  succe« 
sion  of  the  younger  Dionysius  to  his  father's 
power,  but  he  became  an  object  of  suspicion  to 
the  youthful  tyrant,  to  whom  he  also  made  him- 
self personally  disagreeable  by  the  austerity  of 
his  manners.  Dion  appears  to  have  been  nat- 
urally a  man  of  a  proud  and  stern  character,  and 
having  become  an  ardent  disciple  of  Plato  when 
that  philosopher  visited  Syracuse  in  the  reign 
of  the  elder  Dionysius,  he  carried  to  excess  the 
austerity  of  a  philosopher,  and  viewed  with  uu 
disguised  contempt  the  debaucheries  and  dis- 
solute pleasures  of  his  nephew.  From  these  he 
endeavored  to  withdraw  him  by  persuading  him 
to  invite  Plato  a  second  time  to  Syracuse ;  but 
the  philosopher,  though  received  at  first  with 
the  utmost  distinction,  failed  in  obtaining  a  per- 
manent hold  on  the  mind  of  Dionysius  ;  and  the 
intrigues  of  the  opposite  party,  headed  by  Phi- 
listus,  were  successful  in  procuring  the  banish- 
ment of  Dion.  Dion  retired  to  Athens,  where 
he  lived  in  habitual  intercourse  with  Plato  and 
his  disciples ;  but  Plato  having  failed  in  pro- 
curing his  recall  (for  which  purpose  he  had  a 
third  time  visited  Syracuse),  and  Dionysius  hav- 
ing confiscated  his  property,  and  compelled  his 
wife  to  marry  another  person,  he  determined 
on  attempting  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrant  by 
force.  He  sailed  from  Zacynthus  with  only  a 
small  force,  and  obtained  possession  of  Syracuse 
without  opposition  during  the  absence  of  Dio- 
nysius in  Italy.  Dionysius  returned  shortly  aft- 
erward, but  found  himself  obliged  to  quit  Syra- 
cuse and  sail  away  to  Italy,  leaving  Dion  un- 
disputed master  of  the  city,  B.C.  356.  His 
despotic  conduct,  however,  soon  caused  great 
discontent,  and  the  people  complained  with  jus- 
tice that  they  had  only  exchanged  one  tyrant 
for  another.  He  caused  his  chief  opponent, 
Heraclides,  to  be  put  to  death,  and  confiscated 
the  property  of  his  adversaries.  Callippus,  an 
Athenian,  who  had  accompanied  him  from 
Greece,  formed  a  conspiracy  against  him,  and 
caused  him  to  be  assassinated  in  his  own  house, 
353. 

DION  CASSIUS,  the  historian,  was  the  son  of 
a  Roman  senator,  Cassius  Apronianus,  and  was 
born  A.D.  155,  at  Nicaea  in  Bithynia.  He  also 
bore  the  surname  Cocceianus,  which  he  derived 
from  the  orator  Dion  Chrysostomus  Cocceianus, 
his  maternal  grandfather.  He  was  educated 
with  great  care ;  he  accompanied  his  father  to 
Cilicia,  of  which  he  had  the  administration , 
and  after  his  father's  death  he  went  to  Rome, 
about  180.  He  was  straightway  made  a  sena- 
tor, and  frequently  pleaded  in  the  courts  of  jus- 
tice. He  was  sedile  and  quaestor  under  Corn- 
modus,  and  praetor  under  Septimius  Severus, 
194.  He  accompanied  Caracalla  on  his  journey 
to  the  East ;  he  was  appointed  by  Macriuus  to 
the  government  of  Pergamus  and  Smyrna,  218  ; 
was  consul  about  220 ;  proconsul  of  Africa  224, 
under  Alexander  Severus,  by  whom  he  was 
sent  as  legate  to  Dalmatia  in  226,  and  to  Pan- 
nonia  in  227.  In  the  latter  province  he  restored 
strict  discipline  among  the  troops,  which  ex- 
cited the  discontent  of  the  praetorians  at  Rome, 
who  demanded  his  life  of  Alexander  Severus. 
But  the  emperor  protected  him  and  raised  him 
to  his  second  consulship,  229.  Dion,  however, 
retired  to  Campania,  and  shortly  afterward  ob- 


DION   CHRYSOSTOMTJS. 


tamed  permission  of  the  emperor  to  return  to 
his  native  town  Nicaea,  were  he  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  and  died.  Dion  wrote  several 
historical  works,  but  the  most  important  was  a 
History  of  Rome  ('Pufj.atKj)  ia-opia),  in  eighty 
books,  from  the  landing  of  ^Eneas  in  Italy  to 
A.D.  229,  the  year  in  which  Dion  returned  to 
Nicaea.  Unfortunately,  only  a  comparatively 
email  portion  of  this  work  has  come  down  to 
us  entire.  Of  the  first  thirty-four  books  we  pos- 
sess only  fragments ;  but  since  Zonaras,  in  his 
Annals,  chiefly  followed  Dion  Cassius,  we  may 
regard  the  Annals  of  Zonaras  as  to  some  extent 
iin  epitome  of  Dion  Cassius.  Of  the  thirty-fifth 
book  we  possess  a  considerable  fragment,  and 
from  the  thirty-sixth  book  to  the  fifty-fourth  the 
work  is  extant  complete,  and  embraces  the  his- 
tory from  the  wars  of  Lucullus  and  Cn.  Pom- 
pey  against  Mithradates,  down  to  the  death  of 
Agrippa,  B.C.  10.  Of  the  remaining  books  we 
have  only  the  epitomes  made  by  Xipbilinus  and 
others.  Dion  Cassius  treated  the  history  of  the 
republic  with  brevity,  but  gave  a  more  minute 
account  of  those  events,  of  which  he  had  been 
himself  an  eye-witness.  He  consulted  original 
authorities,  and  displayed  great  judgment  and 
discrimination  in  the  use  of  them.  He  had  ac- 
quired a  thorough  knowledge  of  his  subject,  and 
his  notions  of  the  ancient  Roman  institutions 
were  far  more  correct  than  those  of  his  prede- 
cessors, such  as  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus. 
The  best  editions  are  by  Reimarus,  Hamb., 
1750-52,  2  vols.  fol,  and  by  Sturz,  Lips.,  1824. 
9  vols.  8vo. 

Diox  CHRYSOSTOMUS,  that  is,  the  golden- 
mouthed,  a  surname  given  to  him  on  account 
of  his  eloquence.  He  also  bore  the  surname 
Cocceiauus,  which  he  derived  from  the  Emperor 
Cocceius  Nerva,  with  whom  he  was  very  in- 
timate. He  was  born  at  Prusa,  in  Bithynia, 
about  the  middle  of  the  first  century  of  our  era. 
He  received  a  careful  education,  increased  his 
knowledge  by  travelling  in  different  countries, 
and  came  to  Rome  in  the  time  of  Vespasian, 
but,  having  incurred  the  suspicions  of  Domitian, 
was  obliged  to  leave  the  city.  On  the  advice 
of  the  Delphic  oracle,  he  put  on  a  beggar's  dress, 
and  in  this  condition  visited  Thrace,  Mysia, 
Scytliia,  and  the  country  of  the  Getae.  After 
the  murder  of  Domitian,  A.D.  96,  Dion  used  his 
influence  with  the  army  stationed  on  the  fron- 
tier in  favor  of  his  friend  Nerva,  and  seems  to 
have  returned  to  Rome  immediately  after  his  ac- 
cessioa  Trajan  also  entertained  the  highest 
esteem  for  Dion,  and  showed  him  the  most 
marked  favor.  Dion  died  at  Rome  about  A.D. 
1 17.  Dion  Chrysostora  is  the  most  eminent  of 
the  Greek  rhetoricians  and  sophists  in  the  time 
of  the  Roman  empire.  There  are  extant  eighty 
of  his  orations ;  but  they  are  more  like  essays 
on  political,  moral,  and  philosophical  subjects 
than  real  orations,  of  which  they  have  only  the 
form.  We  find  among  them  Aoyot  ircpl  fiaatX- 
£«if  or  Xoyot  paa&iKoi,  four  orations  addressed 
to  Trajan  on  the  virtues  of  a  sovereign ;  Atoyc- 
vijf  1}  nepl  TvpawUof,  on  the  troubles  to  which 
men  expose  themselves  by  deserting  the  path 
of  nature,  and  on  the  difficulties  which  a  sover- 
eign lias  to  encounter ;  essays  on  slavery  and 
freedom ;  on  the  means  of  attaining  eminence 
as  an  orator ;  political  discourses  addressed  to 


various  towns ;  on  subjects  of  ethics  and  prac 
tical  philosophy ;  and,  lastly,  orations  on  myth- 
ical subjects  and  show-speeches.  All  these 
orations  are  written  in  pure  Attic  Greek,  and, 
although  tainted  with  the  rhetorical  embellish- 
ments of  the  age,  are  distinguished  by  their  re 
fined  and  elegant  style.  The  best  editions  are 
by  Reiske,  Lips.,  1784,  2  vols.,  and  by  Emperius, 
Bruns.,  1844. 

DION^EA.     Vid.  DIONE. 

DIONE  (&.IUVTJ),  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Te 
thys,  or  of  Coelus  (Uranus)  and  Terra  (Ge),  or 
of  yEther  and  Terra  (Ge).  She  was  beloved  by 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  by  whom  she  became  the  moth- 
er of  Aphrodite  (Venus).  She  received  her 
daughter  in  Olympus  when  she  was  wounded 
by  Diomedes.  Venus  (Aphrodite)  is  hence  call- 
ed DION^EA,  and  this  epithet  is  frequently  ap- 
plied to  any  tiling  sacred  to  Venus  (Aphrodite.). 
Hence  we  find  Dionceum  antrum  (Hor.,  Carm.,  ii., 
1,  39),  and  Dionceus  Ccesar  (Virg.,  Ed.,  ix.,  47), 
because  Caesar  claimed  descent  from  Venus,  who 
is  sometimes  also  called  Dione. 

DIONYSIUS  (Aiovvaiof).  I.  Historical.  1.  The 
Elder,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  son  of  Hermocrates, 
born  B.C.  430.  He  was  born  in  a  private  but 
not  low  station,  and  began  life  as  a  clerk  in  a 
public  office.  He  was  one  of  the  partisans  of 
Hermocrates,  the  leader  of  the  aristocratical  par 
ty,  and  was  severely  wounded  in  the  attempt 
which  Hermocrates  made  to  effect  by  force 
his  restoration  from  exile.  He  subsequently 
.served  in  the  great  war  against  the  Carthaginians, 
who  had  invaded  Sicily  under  Hannibal,  the  son 
of  Gisco,  and  successively  reduced  and  destroyed 
Selinus,  Himera,  and  Agrigentum.  These  dis- 
asters, and  especially  the  failure  of  the  Syra- 
cusan  general,  Daphnaeus,  to  relieve  Agrigen- 
tum, had  created  a  general  spirit  of  discontent 
and  alarm,  of  which  Dionysius  skillfully  availed 
himself.  He  succeeded  in  procuring  a  decree 
for  deposing  the  existing  generals,  and  appoint- 
ing others  in  their  stead,  among  whom  was 
Dionysius  himself,  B.C.  406.  His  efforts  were 
from  this  time  directed  toward  supplanting  his 
new  colleagues  and  obtaining  the  sole  direction 
of  affairs.  These  efforts  were  crowned  with 
success.  In  the  following  year  (405),  the  other 
generals  were  deposed,  and  Dionysius,  though 
only  twenty-five  years  of  age,  was  appointed 
sole  general,  with  full  powers.  From  this  pe- 
riod we  may  date  the  commencement  of  liis 
reign,  or  tyranny,  which  continued  without  in- 
terruption for  thirty-eight  years.  His  first  step 
was  to  procure  the  appointment  of  a  body  gunrd, 
which  he  speedily  increased  to  the  number  of 
one  thousand  men ;  at  the  same  time,  he  in- 
duced the  Syracusans  to  double  the  pay  of  all 
the  troops,  and  took  every  means  to  ingratiate 
himself  with  the  mercenaries.  By  his  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  Hermocrates,  he  sec'ired 
to  himself  the  support  of  all  the  remaining  par- 
tisans of  that  leader.  He  converted  the  island 
of  Ortygia  into  a  strong  fortress,  in  which  he 
took  up  his  own  residence.  After  concluding 
a  peace  with  Carthage,  and  putting  down  a 
formidable  insurrection  in  Syracuse,  he  begau 
to  direct  his  arms  against  the  other  cities  of 
Sicily.  Naxos,  Catana,  and  Leontiui  success- 
ively fell  into  his  power,  either  by  force  or 
treachery.  For  several  years  after  this  he 
2G1 


D10JSTSIUS. 


DIONYSIUS. 


made  preparations  for  renewing  tbe  war  with 
Qirthagc.  In  397  he  declared  war  against  Car- 
thage. At  first  he  met  with  great  success,  but  in 
395  his  fleet  was  totally  defeated,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  shut  himself  up  within  the  walls  of 
Syracuse,  where  he  was  besieged  by  the  Car- 
thaginians both  by  sea  and  land.  A  pestilence 
shortly  after  broke  oat  in  the  Carthaginian  camp, 
and  greatly  reduced  the  enemy,  whereupon  Di- 
onysius  suddenly  attacked  the  enemy  both  by 
sea  and  land,  defeated  the  army,  and  burned 
great  part  of  their  fleet  The  Carthaginians 
were  now  obliged  to  withdraw.  In  393  they  re- 
newed the  war  with  no  better  success,  and 
in  392  they  concluded  a  peace  with  Dionysius. 
This  treaty  left  Dionysius  at  leisure  to  continue 
the  ambitious  projects  in  which  he  had  previous- 
ly engaged  against  the  Greek  cities  in  Italy. 
He  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Lucanians,  and 
crossed  over  into  Italy.  He  subdued  Caulonia, 
Hipponium  and  Rhegium,  387.  He  was  in 
close  alliance  with  the  Locrians  ;  and  his  power- 
ful fleets  gave  him  the  command  both  of  the 
Tyrrhenian  and  Adriatic  Seas.  He  was  now  at 
.  the  summit  of  his  greatness,  and  during  the 
twenty  years  that  elapsed  from  this  period  to 
his  death,  he  possessed  an  amount  of  power 
and  influence  far  exceeding  those  enjoyed  by 
any  other  Greek  before  the  time  of  Alexander. 
During  this  time  he  was  twice  engaged  again 
in  war  with  Carthage,  namely,  in  383,  when  a 
treaty  was  concluded,  by  which  the  River  Haly- 
cus  was  fixed  as  the  boundary  of  the  two  pow- 
ers ;  and  again  in  368,  in  the  middle  of  which 
war  Dionysius  died  at  Syracuse,  367.  His  last 
illness  is  said  to  have  been  brought  on  by  ex- 
cessive feasting ;  but,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, his  death  was  hastened  by  his  medical 
attendants,  in  order  to  secure  the  succession  for 
his  son.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife,  Dio- 
nysius had  married  almost  exactly  at  the  same 
time — some  said  even  on  the  same  day — Doris, 
u  Locrian  of  distinguished  birth,  and  Aristom- 
ache,  a  Syracusan,  the  daughter  of  his  supporter 
Hipparinus,  and  the  sister  of  Dion.  By  Doris 
he  had  three  children,  of  which  the  eldest  was 
the  successor,  Dionysius.  The  character  of 
Dionysius  has  been  drawn  in  the  blackest  colors 
by  many  ancient  writers  ;  he  appears,  indeed,  to 
have  become  a  sort  of  type  of  a  tyrant,  in  its 
worst  sense.  In  his  latter  years  he  became  ex- 
tremely suspicious,  and  apprehensive  of  treach- 
ery even  from  his  nearest  friends,  and  is  said  to 
have  adopted  the  most  excessive  precautions 
to  guard  against  it.  Many  of  these  stories  have, 
however,  an  air  of  great  exaggeration.  (Cic., 
Tusc.,  v.,  20.)  He  built  the  terrible  prison  call- 
ed Lautumue,  which  was  cut  out  of  the  solid 
rock  in  the  part  of  Syracuse  named  Epipolae. 
Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art  LAUTUMIA  Dionysius 
was  fond  of  literature  and  the  arts.  He  adorn- 
ed Syracuse  with  splendid  temples  and  other 
public  edifices,  so  as  to  render  it  unquestiona- 
bly the  greatest  of  all  Greek  cities.  He  was 
himself  a  poet,  and  repeatedly  contended  for 
the  prize  of  tragedy  at  Athens.  Here  he  sev- 
eral tunes  obtained  the  second  and  third  prizes  ; 
nd,  finally,  just  before  his  death,  bore  away 
the  first  prize  at  the  Lenaea,  with  a  play  called 
"  The  Ransom  of  Hector."  He  sought,  tho  so- 
ciety of  men  distinguished  in  literature  and 
262 


[  plu'losophy,  entertaining  the  poet  Philoxenus  at 
his  table,  and  inviting  Plato  to  Syracuse.  He, 
however,  soon  after  Bent  the  latter  away  from 
Sicily  in  disgrace ;  and  though  the  story  of  his 
having  caused  him  to  be  sold  as  a  slave,  as  well 
as  that  of  his  having  sent  Philoxenus  to  the 
stone  quarries  for  ridiculing  his  bad  verses,  are 
probably  gross  exaggerations,  they  may  well 
have  been  so  far  founded  in  fact  that  his  in- 
tercourse with  these  persons  was  interrupted 
by  some  sudden  burst  of  capricious  violence. — 
2.  The  Younger,  son  of  the  preceding,  succeed- 
ed his  father  as  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  B.C.  367. 
He  was  at  this  time  under  thirty  years  of  age  ; 
he  had  been  brought  up  at  his  father's  court  in 
idleness  and  luxury,  and  studiously  precluded 
from  taking  any  part  in  public  affairs.  The  as- 
cendency which  Dion,  and,  through  his  means, 
Plato,  obtained  for  a  time  over  his  mind,  wjis 
undermined  by  flatterers  and  the  companions  of 
his  pleasures.  Yet  his  court  was  at  thi»  time  a 
great  place  of  resort  for  philosophers  and  men 
of  letters :  besides  Plato,  whom  he  induced  by 
the  most  urgent  entreaties  to  pay  him  a  second 
visit,  Aristippus  of  Cyrene,  Eudoxus  of  Cnidus, 
Speusippus,  and  others,  are  stated  to  have  spent 
some  time  with  him  at  Syracuse ;  and  he  culti 
vated  a  friendly  intercourse  with  Archytas  and 
the  Pythagoreans  of  Magna  Grjecia.  Dion,  who 
had  been  banished  by  Dionysius,  returned  to 
Sicily  in  357,  at  the  head  of  a  small  force,  with 
the  avowed  object  of  dethroning  Dionysius. 
The  latter  was  absent  from  Syracuse  at  the 
time  that  Dion  landed  in  Sicily  ;  but  he  instant- 
ly returned  to  Syracuse,  where  the  citadel  still 
held  out  for  him.  But,  finding  it  impossible  to 
retain  his  power,  he  sailed  away  to  Italy  with 
his  most  valuable  property,  and  thus  lost  the 
sovereignty  after  a  reign  of  twelve  years,  356. 
He  now  repaired  to  Locri,  the  native  city  of  his 
mother,  Doris,  where  he  was  received  in  the 
most  friendly  manner ;  but  he  made  himself 
tyrant  of  the  city,  and  is  said  to  have  treated 
the  inhabitants  with  the  utmost  cruelty.  After 
remaining  at  Locri  ten  years,  he  availed  him- 
self of  the  internal  dissensions  at  Syracuse  to 
recover  possession  of  his  power  in  that  city, 
346.  The  Locrias  took  advantage  of  his  ab- 
sence to  revolt  against  him,  and  wreaked  their 
vengeance  in  the  most  cruel  manner  on  his  wife 
and  daughters.  He  continued  to  reign  in  Syra- 
cuse for  the  next  three  years,  till  Timoleon 
came  to  Sicily  to  deliver  the  Greek  cities  of  the 
island  from  the  tyrants.  As  he  was  unable  to 
resist  Timoleon,  he  surrendered  the  citadel  into 
the  hands  of  the  latter  on  condition  of  being  al- 
lowed to  depart  in  safety  to  Corinth,  343.  Here 
be  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  a  private 
condition,  and  is  said  to  have  frequented  low  com- 
pany, and  sunk  gradually  into  a  very  degraded 
and  abject  state.  According  to  some  writers, 
lie  was  reduced  to  support  himself  by  keeping  a 
school ;  others  say  that  he  became  one  of  the  at- 
tendants on  the  rites  of  Cybele,  a  set  of  mendi- 
cant priests  of  the  lowest  class. — 3.  Tyrant  of 
Heraclea  on  the  Euxine,  son  of  Clearchus,  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Timotheus  in  the  tyranny 
about  B.C.  338.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
mildest  and  justest  of  all  the  tyrants  that  had  ever 
lived.  He  married  Amastns,  niece  of  Darius. 
In  306  he  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  died 


*  g  DIOiyYSHJS. 

•hortly  afterward  at  the  age  of  55.    He  is  said 
to  have  been  choked  by  his  own  fat. 

II.  Literary.  1.  Suruarued  AEEOPAGITA,  be- 
cause he  was  one  of  the  council  of  the  Areopa- 
gus, was  converted  by  St.  Paul's  preaching  at 
Athens.  There  are  extant  several  "works  under 
his  name,  which,  however,  could  scarcely  have 
been  written  before  the  fifth  century  of  our  era. 
— 2.  CYTO.  Vid.  CATO.— -3.  Surnamed  CHALCUS 
(6  Xa/Uotif),  an  Attic  poet  and  orator,  who  de- 
rived his  surname  from  his  having  advised  the 
Athenians  to  com  brass  money  for  the  purpose 
of  facilitating  traffic.  Of  his  oratory  we  know 
nothing;  but  his  poems,  chiefly  elegies,  are 
often  referred  to  and  quoted.  He  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  colony  to  Thurii  in  Italy,  B.C. 
444. — 4.  Of  HALICAENASSUS,  a  celebrated  rhet- 
orician, came  to  Rome  about  B.C.  29,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  himself  acquainted  with  the 
Latin  language  and  literature.  He  lived  at 
Rome  on  terms  of  friendship  with  many  dis- 
tinguished men,  such  as  Q.  ^Eh'us  Tubero,  and 
the  rhetorician  Caecilius;  and  he  remained  in 
the  city  for  twenty-two  years,  till  his  death, 
B.C.  7.  His  principal  work,  which  he  composed 
at  Rome  at  the  later  period  of  his  life,  was  a  his- 
tory of  Rome  in  twenty-two  books,  entitled  Tu- 
uaiKr/ '  A.pxaio'Xoyia.  It  contained  the  history  of 
Rome  from  the  mythical  times  down  to  B.C. 
264,  in  which  year  the  history  of  Polybius  be- 
gins with  the  Punic  wars.  The  first  nine  books 
alone  are  complete ;  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
we  have  the  greater  part ;  and  of  the  remain- 
ing nine  we  possess  nothing  but  fragments  and 
extracts.  Diouysius  treated  the  early  history 
of  Rome  with  great  minuteness.  The  eleven 
books  extant  do  not  carry  the  history  beyond 
B.C.  441,  so  that  the  eleventh  book  breaks  off 
very  soon  after  the  decemviral  legislation. 
This  peculiar  minuteness  in  the  early  history, 
however,  was,  in  a  great  measure,  the  conse- 
quence of  the  object  he  had  proposed  to  him- 
self, and  which,  as  he  himself  states,  was  to  re- 
move the  erroneous  notions  which  the  Greeks 
entertained  with  regard  to  Rome's  greatness. 
Dionysius  had  no  clear  notions  about  the  early 
constitution  of  Rome,  and  was  led  astray  by  the 
nature  of  the  institutions  which  he  saw  in  his 
own  day,  and  thus  makes  innumerable  mis- 
takes in  treating  of  the  history  of  the  constitu- 
tion. He  introduces  numerous  speeches  in  his 
work,  which,  though  written  with  artistic  skill, 
nevertheless  show  that  Dionysius  was  a  rhet- 
orician, not  an  historian,  and  still  less  a  states- 
man. Dionysius  also  wrote  various  rhetorical 
and  critical  works,  which  abound  with  the  most 
exquisite  remarks  and  criticisms  on  the  works 
of  the  classical  writers  of  Greece.  They  show 
that  he  was  a  greater  critic  than  historian.  The 
following  are  the  extant  works  of  this  class : 
1.  Tfyvq  6r)TopiKTi,  addressed  to  one  Echecrates, 
part  of  which  is  certainly  spurious.  2.  II.1 ,'/ 
avvtiiaeuc  ^vofidruv,  treats  of  oratorical  power, 
and  on  the  combination  of  words  according  to 
the  different  styles  of  oratory.  3.  Tuv  upxaiuv 
npiaif,  contains  characteristics  of  poets,  from 
Homer  down  to  Euripides,  of  some  historians, 
tuch  as  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Philistus,  Xen- 
ophon,  and  Theopompus,  and,  lastly,  of  some 
philosophers  and  orators.  4.  Ilepl  ruv  upxaiuv 
iinop.vriiMiTLafioi,  contains  criticisms  on 


DIONISIUS. 

the  most  eminent  Greek  orators,  of  which  we 
now  possess  only  the  first  three  sections,  on 
Lysias,  Isocrates,  and  Isseus.  The  other  three 
sections  treated  of  Demosthenes,  Hyperides, 
and  ^Eschines ;  but  they  are  lost,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  first  part  of  the  fourth  section, 
which  treated  of  the  oratorical  power  of  Demos- 
thenes. 5.  'E7r4<7-o/l$  Trpoj-  'Aju/zatov,  a  letter  to 
his  friend  Ammasus,  in  which  he  shows  that 
most  of  the  orations  of  Demosthenes  had  been 
delivered  before  Aristole  wrote  his  Rhetoric, 
and  consequently  that  Demosthenes  had  de- 
rived no  instruction  from  Aristotle.  6.  'ETUCT- 
TO^JJ  Tr/jdf  Tvalov  Hofiirq'iov,  was  written  by  Di- 
onysius with  a  view  of  justifying  the  unfavora- 
ble opinion  which  he  had  expressed  upon  Plato, 
and  which  Pompey  had  censured.  7.  Hepl  TOV 
GfovKvdidov  ^apa/cr^pof  nal  ruv  TMIKUV  TOV  avy- 
ypa$£u<;  ldiu[j.uTuv,  was  written  by  Dionysius  at 
the  request  of  his  friend  Tubero,  for  the  purpose 
of  explaining  more  minutely  what  he  had  writ- 
ten on  Thucydides.  As  Dionysius  ip  this  work 
looks  at  the  great  historian  from  his  rhetorical 
point  of  view,  his  judgment  is  often  unjust  and 
incorrect  8.  Hepl  TUV  TOV  Qovnv6i6ov  I6iu/j.d- 
TUV,  addressed  to  Ammaeus.  9.  Aeivapxof,  a 
very  valuable  treatise  on  the  life  and  orations  of 
Dinarchus.  The  best  editions  of  the  complete 
works  of  Dionysius  are  by  Sylburg,  Fraukf., 
1586,  2  vols.  fol,  reprinted  at  Leipzig,  1691 ; 
by  Hudson,  Oxon.,  1704,  2  vols.  fol. ;  and  by 
Reiske,  Lips.,  1774,  6  vols.  8vo. — 5.  Of  HEEA- 
CLEA,  son  of  Theophantus,  was  a  pupil  of  Zeno, 
and  adopted  the  tenets  of  the  Stoics ;  but,  in 
consequence  of  a  most  painful  complaint,  he 
abandoned  the  Stoic  philosophy,  and  joined  the 
Eleatics,  whose  doctrine,  that  ?;doj#/  and  the 
absence  of  pain  was  the  highest  good,  had  more 
charms  for  him  than  the  austere  ethics  of  the 
Stoa  This  renunciation  of  his  former  creed 
drew  upon  him  the  aickname  of  peradepevof, 
i.  e.,  the  renegade.  He  died  in  his  eightieth 
year  of  voluntary  starvation.  He  wrote  several 
works,  all  of  which  are  lost  Cicero  censures 
him  for  having  mixed  up  verses  with  his  prose, 
and  for  his  want  of  elegance  and  refinement. — 
6.  Of  MAGNESIA,  a  distinguished  rhetorician, 
taught  in  Asia  between  B.C.  79  and  77,  when 
Cicero  visited  the  East. — 7.  Of  MILETUS,  one 
of  the  earliest  Greek  historians,  and  a  contem- 
porary of  Hecataeus,  wrote  a  history  of  Persia. — 
8.  of  MYTILENE,  surnamed  Scytobrachion,  taught 
at  Alexandrea  in  the  first  century  B.C.  He 
wrote  a  prose  work  on  the  Argonauts,  which 
was  consulted  by  Diodorus  Siculus. — 9.  Sur- 
named PERIEGETES,  from  his  being  the  author 
of  a  irepi^yrjaig  rr/£  yijf,  which  is  still  extant ; 
probably  lived  about  A.D.  300.  The  work  con- 
tains a  description  of  the  whole  earth,  in  hex- 
ameter verse,  and  is  written  in  a  terse  and  ele- 
gant style.  It  enjoyed  great  popularity  in  an- 
cient times.  Two  translations  or  paraphrases 
of  it  were  made  by  Romans,  one  by  Rufus  Fes- 
tus  Avienus  (vid.  AVIENUS),  and  the  other  by 
the  grammarian  Priscian.  Vid.  PEISCIANUS. 
The  best  edition  of  the  .original  is  by  Bernhardy, 
Lips.,  1828. — 10.  Of  SINOPE,  an  Athenian  comic 
poet  of  the  middle  comedy. — 11.  Surnamed 
THRAX,  from  his  father  being  a  Thraciau,  was 
himself  a  native  either  of  Alexandrea  or  By- 
zantium. He  is  also  called  a  Rhodiaa,  becausa 
263 


DIONTSODORUS. 


DIONYSUS. 


at  oue  time  he  resided  at  Rhodes,  and  gave  in- 
structions there.  He  also  taught  at  Rome,  about 
B.C.  80.  He  was  a  very  celebrated  grammarian  ; 
but  the  only  one  of  his  works  •which  has  come 
down  to  us  is  a  small  treatise  entitled  TEX?*] 
ypapjiaTiKjj,  which  became  the  basis  of  all  subse- 
quent grammars,  and  was  a  standard  book  in 
grammar  schools  for  many  centuries. 

IIL  Artists.  1.  Of  Argos,  a  statuary,  flour- 
ished B.C.  476.  —  2.  Of  Colophon,  a  painter,  con- 
temporary with  Polygnotus  of  Thasos,  whose 
works  he  imitated  in  every  other  respect  except 
in  grandeur.  Aristotle  (Poet^  2)  says  that  Po- 
lygnotus painted  the  likenesses  of  men  better 
than  the  originals,  Pauson  made  them  worse,  and 
Dionysius  just  like  them  (6/iotovf).  It  seems 
from  this  that  the  pictures  of  Dionysius  were  de- 
ficient in  the  ideal. 

[DioNYsScoaus  (  Aiovvaotiupos),  a  Boeotian,  who 
is  mentioned  by  Diodorus  Siculus  as  the  author 
of  a  history  of  Greece  which  came  down  to  the 
time  of  Philip  of  Macedon.] 

DiONYSOpftLis  (biovvaov  TroAif),  a  town  in 
Phrygia,  belonging  to  the  conventus  juridicus  of 
Apamea,  founded  by  Attalus  and  Eumenes. 

DIONYSOS  (Atowtrof  or  Atuvtxrof),  the  youth- 
ful, beautiful,  but  effeminate  god  of  wine.  He 
is  also  called,  both  by  Greeks  and  Romans,  BAC- 
CHUS (BuK^of),  that  is,  the  noisy  or  riotous  god, 


which  was  originally  a  mere  epithet  or  surname 
of  Dionysus,  and  does  not  occur  till  after  the 
time  of  'Herodotus.  According  to  the  common 
tradition,  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  was  the  son  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Semele,  the  daughter  of 
Cadmus  of  Thebes,  though  other  traditions 
give  him  a  different  parentage  and  a  different 
birth-place.*  It  was  generally  believed  that 
when  Semele  was  pregnant,  she  was  persuaded 
by  Juno  (Hera),  who  appeared  to  her  in  disguise, 
to  request  the  father  of  the  gods  to  appear  to 
her  in  the  same  glory  ana1  majesty  in  which  he 
was  accustomed  to  approach  his  own  wife  Juno 
(Hera).  Jupiter  (Zeus)  unwillingly  complied, 
and  appeared  to  her  in  thunder  and  lightning. 
Semele  was  terrified  and  overpowered  by  the 
sight,  and  being  seized  by  the  flames,  she  gave 
premature  birth  to  a  child.  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
saved  the  child  from  the  flames,  sowed  him  up 
in  his  thigh,  and  thus  preserved  him  till  he  came 
to  maturity.  Various  epithets  which  are  given 
to  the  god  refer  to  that  occurrence,  such  as 
Tvpiyevqc,  fii)poppa$ri<;,  fj.r}poTpa<f>7Jf,  and  ignigena; 
After  the  birth  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  intrusted  him  to  Mercury  (Hermes),  or, 
according  to  others,  to  Proserpina  (Persephone) 
or  Rhea,  who  took  the  child  to  Ino  and  Athamas 
at  Orchomenos,  and  persuaded  them  to  bring 
him  up  as  a  girl.  Juno  (Hera)  was  now  urged 
on  by  her  jealousy  to  throw  Ino  and  Athamas 
into  a  state  of  madness.  Jupiter  (Zeus),  in 
order  to  save  his  child,  changed  him  into  a  ram, 
and  carried  him  to  the  nymphs  of  Mount  Nysa, 
who  brought  him  up  in  a  cave,  and  were  after- 
ward rewarded  by  Jupiter  (Zeus),  by  being 
placed  as  Hyades  among  the  stars.  Mount 
Nysa,  from  which  the  god  was  believed  to  have 
derived  his  name,  was  placed  in  Thrace;  but 
mountains  of  the  same  name  are  found  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  ancient  world  where  he  was 
worshipped,  and  where  he  was  believed  to 
Lave  introduced  the  cultivation  of  the  vine. 
264 


Various  other  nymphs  are  also  said  to  hav* 
reared  him.  When  he  had  grown  up,  June 
(Hera)  drove  him  mad,  in  which  state  ne  wan- 
dered about  through  various  parts  of  the  earth. 
He  first  went  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  hospita- 
bly received  by  King  Proteus.  He  thence  pro 
ceeded  through  Syria,  where  he  flayed  Damas- 
cus alive  for  opposing  the  introduction  of  the 
vine.  He  then  traversed  all  Asia,  teaching  the 
inhabitants  of  the  different  countries  of  Asia  the 
cultivation  of  the  vine,  and  introducing  among 
them  the  elements  of  civilization.  The  most 
famous  part  of  his  wanderings  in  Asia  is  his 
expedition  to  India,  which  4s  said  to  have  lasted 
several  years.  On  his  return  to  Europe  he 
passed  through  Thrace,  but  was  ill  received 
by  Lycurgus,  king  of  the  Edones,  and  leaped 
into  the  sea  to  seek  refuge  with  Thetis,  whom 
he  afterward  rewarded  for  her  kind  reception 
with  a  golden  urn,  a  present  of  Vulcan  (He- 
phaestus). All  the  host  of  Bacchantic  women 
and  Satyrs  who  had  accompanied  him  were 
taken  prisoners  by  Lycurgus,  but  the  women 
were  soon  sefe  free  again.  The  country  of  the 
Edones  thereupon  ceased  to  bear  fruit,  and  Ly- 
curgus became  mad  and  killed  his  own  son, 
whom  he  mistook  for  a  vine.  After  this  his 
madness  ceased,  but  the  country  still  remained 
barren,  and  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  declared  that 
it  would  remain  so  till  Lycurgus  died.  The 
Edones,  in  despair,  took  their  king  and  put  him 
in  chains,  and  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  had  him 
torn  to  pieces  by  horses.  He  then  returned  to 
Thebes,  where  he  compelled  the  women  to  quit 
their  houses,  and  to  celebrate  Bacchic  festivals 
on  Mount  Citbaeron,  or  Parnassus.  Pentheus, 
who  then  ruled  at  Thebes,  endeavored  to  check 
the  riotous  proceedings,  and  went  out  to  the 
mountains  to  seek  the  Bacchic  women ;  but  his 
own  mother,  Agave,  in  her  Bacchic  fury,  mis- 
took him  for  an  animal,  and  tore  him  to  pieces. 
Bacchus  (Dionysus)  next  went  to  Argos,  where 
the  people  first  refused  to  acknowledge  him, 
but,  after  punishing  the  women  with  phrensy, 
he  was  recognized  as  a  god,  and  temples  were 
erected  to  him.  His  last  feat  was  performed 
on  a  voyage  from  Icaria  to  Naxos.  He  hired  a 
ship  which  belonged  to  Tyrrhenian  pirates ;  but 
the  men,  instead  of  landing  at  Naxos,  steered  to- 
ward Asia  to  sell  him  there  as  a  slave.  There- 
upon the  god  changed  the  masts  and  oars  into 
serpents,  and  himself  into  a  lion ;  ivy  grew 
around  the  vessel,  and  the  sound  of .  flutes  was 
heard  on  every  side ;  the  sailors  were  seized 
with  madness,  leaped  into  the  sea,  and  were 
metamorphosed  into  dolphins.  After  he  had 
thus  gradually  established  his  divine  nature 
throughout  the  world,  he  took  his  moth'er  out  of 
Hades,  called  her  Thyone,  and  rose  with  her 
into  Olympus.  Various  mythological  beings  are 
described  as  the  offspring  of  Dionysus  (Bac- 
chus) ;  but  among  the  women,  both  mortal  and 
immortal,  who  won  his  love,  none  is  more  fa 
mous  in  ancient  history  than  Ariadne.  Vid.  ARI- 
ADNE. The  extraor3inary  mixture  of  traditions 
respecting  the  history  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus) 
seems  evidently  to  have  arisen  from  the  tradi- 
tions of  different  times  and  countries,  referring 
to  analagous  divinities,  and  transferred  to  the 
Greek  Dionysus.  The  worship  of  Dionysus 
(Bacchus)  was  no  part  of  the  original  religion 


DIONYSUS. 


DIOPHANTUS. 


of  Greece,  and  his  mystic  worship  is  compara- 
tively of  late  origin.  In  Homer  he  does  not 
appear  as  one  of  the  great  divinities,  and  the 
story  of  his  birth  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  the  Bac- 
chic orgies  are  not  alluded  to  in  any  way ;  Dio- 
nysus (Bacchus)  is  there  simply  described  as 
the  god  who  teaches  man  the  preparation  of 
wine,  whence  he  is  called  the  "drunken  god" 
(natvofuvoe),  and  the  sober  king  Lycurgus  will 
not,  for  this  reason,  tolerate  him  in  his  king- 
dom. (Honx,  Iln  vi,  132 ;  Od,  xviil,  406 ; 
comp.  xi.,  325.)  As  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
spread  in  Greece,  the  worship  of  Dionysus  (Bac- 
chus) likewise  spread  further ;  the  mystic  wor- 
ship was  developed  by  the  Orphici,  though  it 
probably  originated  in  the  transfer  of  Phrygian 
and  Lydian  modes  of  worship  to  that  of  Diony- 
sus (Bacchus).  After  the  tune  of  Alexander's 
expedition  to  India,  the  celebration  of  the  Bac- 
chic festivals  assumed  more  and  more  their  wild 
and  dissolute  character.  As  far  as  the  nature 
and  origin  of  the  god  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  are  con- 
cerned, he  appears  in  all  traditions  as  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  productive,  overflowing,  and 
intoxicating  power  of  nature,  which  carries  man 
away  from  his  usual  quiet  and  sober  mode  of 
living.  Wine  is  the  most  natural  and  appropri- 
ate symbol  of  that  power,  and  it  is  therefore 
called  "  the  fruit  of  Dionysus."  Dionysus  (Bac- 
chus) is,  therefore,  the  god  of  wine,  the  inventor 
and  teacher  of  its  cultivation,  the  giver  of  joy, 
and  the  disperser  of  grief  and  sorrow.  As  the 
god  of  wine,  he  is  also  both  an  inspired  and  an 
inspiring  god,  that  is,  a  god  who  has  the  power 
of  revealing  the  future  to  man  by  oracles. 
Thus  it  is  said  that  he  had  as  great  a  share  in 
the  Delphic  oracle  as  Apollo,  and  he  himself 
had  an  oracle  in  Thrace.  Now,  as  prophetic 

Kwer  is  always  combined  with  the  healing  art, 
onysus  (Bacchus)  is,  like  Apollo,  called  laTpof, 
or  vytaTTft,  and  is  hence  invoked  as  a  #cdf  au-njp 
against  ragiug  diseases.  The  notion  of  his  being 
the  cultivator  and  protector  of  the  vine  was 
easily  extended  to  that  of  his  being  the  pro- 
tector of  trees  in  general,  which  is  alluded  to 
in  various  epithets  and  surnames  given  him  by 
the  poets  of  antiquity,  and  he  thus  comes  into 
close  connection  with  Ceres  (Demeter).  This 
character  is  still  further  developed  in  the  notion 
of  his  being  the  promoter  of  civilization,  a  law- 
giver, and  a  lover  of  peace.  As  the  Greek  dra- 
ma had  grown  out  of  the  dithyrambic  choruses 
at  the  festivals  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus),  he  was 
also  regarded  as  the  god  of  tragic  art,  and  as 
the  protector  of  theatres.  The  orgiastic  wor- 
ship of  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  seems  to  have  been 
first  established  in  Thrace,  and  to  have  thence 
spread  southward  to  Mount  Helicon  and  Par- 
nassus, to  Thebes,  Naxos,  and  throughout  Greece, 
Sicily,  and  Italy,  though  some  writers  derived 
it  from  Egypt.  Respecting  his  festivals  and 
the  mode  of  their  celebration,  and  especially  the 
introduction  and  suppression  of  his  worship  at 
Rome,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  atf.  DIOXYSIA.  In  the 
earliest  times  the  Graces^  or  Charities  were  the 
companions  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus).  This  cir- 
cumstauce  points  out  the  great  change  which 
took  place  in  the  course  of  time  in  the  mode  of 
his  •worship,  for  afterward  we  find  liim  accom- 
panied in  liis  expeditions  and  travels  by  Bac- 
cLautic  women,  called  Lena-,  Maenadee,  Thyi- 


]  ades,  Mimallones,  Clodones,  BassaraB  or  Bass 
rides,  all  of  whom  are  represented  in  works  c 

j  art  as  raging  with  madness  or  enthusiasm,  k 

j  vehement  motions,  their  heads  thrown  back 
ward,  with  dishevelled  hah*,  and  carrying  in 
their  hands  thyrsus-staffs  (entwined  with  ivy, 
and  headed  with  pine-cones),  cymbals,  swords, 
or  serpents.  Sileni,  Pans,  satyrs,  centaurs,  and 
other  beings  of  a  like  kind,  are  also  the  constant 
companions  of  the  god.  The  temples  and  stat- 
ues of  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  were  very  numerous 
ia  the  ancient  world.  The  animal  most  com- 
monly sacrificed  to  him  was  the  ram.  Among 
the  things  sacred  t»  him,  we  may  notice  the 
vine,  ivy,  laurel,  and  asphodel;  the  dolphin, 
serpent,  tiger,  lynx,  panther,  and  ass ;  but  he 
hated  the  sight  of  an  owl  In  later  works  of 
art  he  appears  in  four  different  forms :  1.  As  an 
infant  handed  over  by  Mercury  (Hermes)  to  his 
nurses,  or  fondled  and  played  with  by  satyrs 
and  Bacchae.  2.  As  a  manly  god  with  a  beard, 
commonly  called  the  Indian  Bacchus.  He  there 
appears  in  the  character  of  a  wise  and  dignified 
Oriental  monarch ;  his  beard  is  long  and  soft, 
and  his  Lydian  robes  (fiaaadpa)  are  long  and 
richly  folded.  3.  The  youthful  or  so-called 
Theban  Bacchus  was  carried  to  ideal  beauty  by 
Praxiteles.  The  form  of  his  body  is  manly  and 
with  strong  outlines,  but  still  approaches  to  the 
female  form  by  its  softness  and  roundness. 
The  expression  of  the  countenance  is  languid, 
and  shows  a  kind  of  dreamy  longing ;  the  head, 
with  a  diadem,  or  a  wreath  of  vine  or  ivy,  leans 
somewhat  on  one  side ;  his  attitude  is  easy, 
like  that  of  a  man  who  is  absorbed  in  sweet 
thoughts,  or  slightly  intoxicated.  He  is  often 
seen  leaning  on  his  companions,  or  riding  on  a 
panther,  ass,  tiger,  or  lion.  The  finest  statue 
of  this  kind  is  in  the  villa  Ludovisi.  4.  Bacchus 
with  horns,  either  those  of  a  ram  or  of  a  bull. 
This  representation  occurs  chiefly  on  coins,  but 
never  in  statues. 

DIOPHAMS  (Ato^uvjyf).  1.  Of  Mytilene,  a  dis- 
tinguished Greek  rhetorician,  came  to  Rome, 
where  he  instructed  Tiberius  Gracchus,  and  be- 
came his  intimate  friend.  After  the  murder  of 
Gracchus,  Diophanes  was  also  put  to  death. — 
2.  Of  Nicsea,  in  Bithynia,  in  the  first  century  B.C., 
abriged  the  agricultural  work  of  Cassius  Diony- 
sius  for  the  use  of  King  Deiotarus. 

DIOPHANTUS  (Afo^avrof).  1.  An  Attic  orator 
and  contemporary  of  Demosthenes,  with  whom 
he  opposed  the  Macedonian  party. — 2.  Of  Alex- 
andrea,  the  only  Greek  writer  on  Algebra.  His 
period  is  unknown ;  but  he  probably  ought  not 
to  be  placed  before  the  end  of  the  fifth  century 
of  our  era.  He  wrote  Arithmetica  ic  thirteen 
books,  of  which  only  six  are  extant,  and  one 
book,  De  Multangulit  Numerit,  on  polygonal 
numbers.  These  books  contain  u  system  of 
reasoning  on  numbers  by  the  aid  of  general 
symbols,  and  with  some  use  of  symbols  of  opera- 
tion ;  so  that,  though  the  demonstrations  are 
very  much  conducted  in  words  at  length,  and 
arranged  so  as  to  remind  us  of  Euclid,  there  is 
no  question  that  the  work  is  algebraical ;  not  a 
treatise  on  algebra,  but  an  algebraical  treatise 
on  the  relations  of  integer  numbers,  and  on  the 
solution  of  equations  of  more  than  one  variable 
in  integers.  Ed'tions  by  Bachet  de  Meziriac, 

I  P  iris,  1621,  and   by  Fermat,  Toulouse,  1670,  foL 
265 


DIOPITHES 


DIOSCUKL 


DiorlTHES  ( Atoiretdrie ).  1.  A  half-fanatic, 
half-impostor,  who  made  at  Athens  an  appar- 
ently thriving  trade  of  oracles :  he  was  much 
satirized  by  the  comic  poets. — 2.  An  Athenian 
general,  father  of  the  poet  Menander,  was  sent 
out  to  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  about  B.C. 
344,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  Athenian  settlers 
or  nhijpovxoi.  In  the  Chersonese  he  became 
involved  in  disputes  with  the  Cardiaus,  who  were 
supported  by  Philip.  The  latter  sent  a  letter 
of  remonstrance  to  Athens,  and  Diopithes  was 
arraigned  by  the  Macedonian  party,  but  was 
defended  by  Demosthenes  in  the  oration,  still 
extant,  on  the  Chersonese,  B.C.  341,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  was  permitted  to  retain  his 
command. 

[DIORES  (Aiwp7?f),  son  of  Amarynceus,  leader 
of  the  Epei  before  Troy :  slain  by  Plrus. — 2. 
Father  of  Automedon,  who  was  the  armor- 
bearer  of  Achilles. — 3.  Son  of  Priam,  brother 
of  Amycus,  slain  with  his  brother  in  Italy  by 
Turnus. — 4.  A  Trojan,  companion  of  ^Eneas, 
gained  one  of  the  prizes  in  the  funeral  games 
in  honor  of  Anchises.J 

DIOSCORIDIS  INSDLA  (AioaKopidov  vr/oof :  now 
Socotra),  an  island  off  the  southern  coast  of 
Arabia,  near  the  Promontory  Syagrus.  The 
island  itself  was  marshy  and  unproductive,  but 
it  was  a  great  commercial  emporium ;  and  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  was  inhabited  by 
Arabian,  Egyptian,  and  Greek  merchants. 

DIOSCORIDES  (AiOCT/copW^f).  1.  A  disciple  of 
Isocrates,  and  a  Greek  grammarian,  wrote  upon 
Homer. — 2.  The  author  of  39  epigrams  in  the 
Greek  Anthology,  seems  to  have  lived  in  Egypt 
about  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes. — 3.  PE- 
DACIUS  or  PEDANIUS,  of  Anazarba  in  Cilicia,  a 
Greek  physician,  probably  lived  in  the  second 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  He  has  left  be- 
hind him  a  Treatise  on  Materia  Medica  (Tlepl 
"TAijf  'larpiKijf),  in  five  books,  a  work  of  great 
labor  and  research,  and  which  for  many  ages 
was  received  as  a  standard  production.  It  con- 
sists of  a  description  of  all  the  articles  then 
used  in  medicine,  with  an  account  of  their  sup- 
posed virtues.  The  other  works  extant  under 
the  name  of  Dioscorides  are  probably  spurious. 
The  best  edition  is  by  Sprengel,  Lips.,  1829, 
1830,  2  vols.  8vo.— 4.  Surnamed  PHACAS  on  ac- 
count of  the  moles  or  freckles  on  his  face,  prob- 
ably lived  in  the  first  century  B.C. 

DIOSCURI  (Atdf  Kovpot),  that  is,  sons  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus),  the  well-known  heroes  CASTOR  (Kacrrwp) 
and  POLLUX  or  Polydeuces  (TLohvdsvKTjc).  The 
two  brothers  were  sometimes  called  CASTORES 
by  the  Romans.  According  to  Homer,  they 
were  the  sons  of  Leda  and  Tyndareus,  king  of 
Lacedsemon,  and  consequently  brothers  of  Helen. 
Hence  they  are  often  called  by  the  patronymic 
Tyndurldce.  Castor  was  famous  for  his  skill 
in  taming  and  managing  horses,  and  Pollux 
for  his  skill  in  boxing.  Both  had  disappeared 
from  the  earth  before  the  Greeks  went  against 
Troy.  Although  they  were  buried,  says  Ho- 
mer, yet  they  came  to  life  every  other  day, 
and  they  enjoyed  honors  like  those  of  the  gods. 
According  to  other  traditions,  both  were  the 
sons  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Leda,  and  were  born 
at  the  same  tune  with  their  sister  Helen  out  of 
an  egg.  Vld.  LEDA.  According  to  others,  again, 
Pollux  and  Helen  only  were  children  of  Jupiter 
266 


(Zeus),  and  Castor  was  the  son  of  Tyudureu*, 
Hence  Pollux  was  immortal,  while  Castor  waa 
subject  to  old  age  and  death  like  every  othei 
mortal.  They  were  born,  according  to  djtlerent 
traditions,  at  different  places,  such  as  Amy- 
cloe,  Mount  Tayggtus,  the  island  of  Peplnos,  01 
Thalamae.  The  fabulous  life  of  the  Dioscuri  is 
marked  by  three  great  events.  1.  Their  expo 
dition  against  Athens.  Theseus  had  carried  off 
their  sister  Helen  from  Sparta,  and  kept  her 
in  confinement  at  Aphidnae,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  his  mother  ^Ethra.  While  Thes 
eus  was  absent  from  Attica,  the  Dioscuri  march- 
ed into  Attica,  and  ravaged  the  country  round 
the  city.  Academus  revealed  to  them  that 
Helen  was  kept  at  Aphidnse  ;  the  Dioscuri  took 
the  place  by  assault,  carried  away  their  sister 
Helen,  and  made  ^Ethra  their  prisoner.  2. 
Tlieir  part  in  the  expedition  of  the  Argonaute,&$ 
they  had  before  taken  part  in  the  Calydonian 
hunt.  During  the  voyage  of  the  Argonauts,  it 
once  happened  that  when  the  heroes  were  de- 
tained by  a  vehement  storm,  and  Orpheus  prayed 
to  the  Samothracian  gods,  the  storm  suddenly 
subsided,  and  stars  appeared  on  the  heads 
of  the  Dioscuri.  On  their  arrival  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Bebryces,  Pollux  fought  against 
Amycus,  the  gigantic  son  of  Neptune  (Posei 
don),  and  conquered  him.  During  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition  they  founded  the  town  of 
Dioscurias.  3.  Tfieir  battle  with  tJie  sons  of 
Aphareus.  Once  the  Dioscuri,  in  conjunction 
with  Idas  and  Lynceus,  the  sons  of  Aphareus, 
had  carried  away  a  herd  of  oxen  from  Arcadia. 
Idas  appropriated  the  herd  to  himself,  and  drove 
it  to  his  home  in  Messene.  The  Dioscuri  then 
invaded  Messene,  drove  away  the  cattle  of 
which  they  bad  been  deprived,  and  much  more 
in  addition.  Hence  arose  a  war  between  the 
Dioscuri  and  the  sons  of  Aphareus,  which  was 
carried  on  in  Messene  or  Laconia.  Castor,  the 
mortal,  fell  by  the  hands  of  Idas,  but  Pollux 
slew  Lynceus,  and  Jupiter  (Zeus)  killed  Idas 
by  a  flash  of  lightning.  Pollux  then  returned 
to  his  brother,  whom  he  found  breathing  his 
last,  and  he  prayed  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  be  per- 
mitted to  die  with  him.  Jupiter  (Zeus)  gave 
him  the  option  either  to  live  as  his  immortal 
son  in  Olympus,  or  to  share  his  brother's  fate, 
and  to  live  alternately  one  day  under  the  earth, 
and  the  other  in  the  heavenly  abodes  of  the 
gods.  According  to  a  different  form  of  the 
story,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  rewarded  the  attachment 
of  the  two  brothers  by  placing  them  among  the 
stars  as  Gemini.  These  heroic  youths  received 
divine  honors  at  Sparta.  Their  worship  spread 
from  Peloponnesus  over  Greece,  Sicily,  and  Italy. 
Their  principal  characteristic  was  that  of 
•&eot  auTripes,  that  is,  mighty  helpers  of  man, 
whence  they  were  sometimes  called  dvaxcf  or 
dvaKTEf,  They  were  worshipped  more  espe- 
cially as  the  protectors  of  travellers  by  sea,  for 
Neptune  (Poseidon)  had  rewarded  their  brotherly 
love  by  giving  them  power  over  winds  and 
waves,  that  they  might  assist  the  shipwrecked 
(fratres  Helena,  lucida  sidera,  Hor.,  Carm^  i., 
3).  Whenever  they  appeared  they  were  seen 
riding  on  magnificent  white  steeds.  They  were 
regarded  as  presidents  of  the  public  games. 
They  were  further  believed  to  have  invented 
the  war-dance  and  warlike  music,  and  poeta 


DIOSCURIAS. 


DODONA. 


and  bards  were  favored  by  them.  Owing  to 
their  warlike  character,  it  was  customary  at 
Sparta  for  the  two  kings,  whenever  they  went 
to  war,  to  be  accompanied  by  symbolic  repre- 
sentations of  the  Dioscuri  (66itava).  Respecting 
their  festivals,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  arts.  ANACEIA, 
DIOSCURIA.  Their  usual  representation  in  works 
of  art  is  that  of  two  youthful  horsemen  with 
egg-shaped  helmets,  crowned  with  stars,  arid 
with  spears  in  their  hands.  At  Rome,  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Dioscuri  was  introduced  at  an  early 
time.  They  were  believed  to  have  assisted 
the  Romans  against  the  Latins  in  the  battle  of 
Lake  Regillus ;  and  the  dictator,  A.  Postumius 
Albinus,  during  the  battle  vowed  a  temple  to 
them.  It  was  erected  in  the  Forum,  on  the 
spot  where  they  had  been  seen  after  the  battle, 
opposite  the  temple  of  Vesta.  It  was  conse- 
crated on  the  15th  of  July,  the  anniversary  of 
the  battle  of  Regillus.  The  equites  regarded 
the  Dioscuri  as  their  patrons.  From  the  year 
B.C.  305,  the  equites  went  every  year,  on  the 
15th  of  July,  in  a  magnificent  procession  on 
horseback,  from  the  temple  of  Mars  through 
the  main  streets  of  the  city,  across  the  Forum, 
aud  by  the  ancient  temple  of  the  Dioscuri. 

DIOSCURIAS  (Aiof/eofprnf :  Aiofnovpievf  :  now 
hkuria  or  Isgaur),  an  important  town  in  Col- 
chis, on  the  River  Anthemus,  northwest  of  the 
Phasis,  founded  by  the  Milesians,  was  a  great 
emporium  for  all  the  surrounding  people :  under 
the  Romans  it  was  called  Sebastopolis. 

Dios-HiERON(Atdf  'lepov  :  Atofiepiriif),  a  small 
town  on  the  coast  of  Ionia,  between  Lebedus 
aud  Colophon. 

DIOSPOLIS  (AiofTToAff :  AcofiroAiTTje).  1.  D. 
MAGNA,  the  later  name  of  Thebes  in  Egypt 
Vid.  THEBES. — 2.  D.  PARVA,  called  by  Pliny  Jo- 
vis  Oppidum,  the  capital  of  the  Nomos  Diospo- 
Utes  in  Upper  Egypt. — 3.  A  town  in  Lower 
Egypt,  in  the  Delta,  near  Mendes,  in  the  midst 
of  marshes. — 4.  (Now  Ludd,  Lydd),  the  name 
given  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  to  the 
LYDDA  of  the  Scriptures. — 5.  A  town  in  Pontus, 
originally  called  CABIRA. 

DIOVIS,  an  ancient  Italian  (Umbrian)  name  of 
Jupiter. 

DIPHILOS  (A^f/bf),  one  of  the  principal  Athe- 
nian comic  poets  of  the  new  comedy,  and  a  con- 
temporary of  Menander  and  Philemon,  was  a 
native  of  Sinope.  He  is  said  to  have  exhibited 
one  hundred  plays.  Though,  in  point  of  time, 
Diphilus  belonged  to  the  new  comedy,  his  poetry 
seems  to  have  had  more  of  the  character  of  the 
middle.  This  is  shown,  among  other  indica- 
tions, by  the  frequency  with  which  he  chose 
mythological  subjects  for  his  plays,  and  by  his 
bringing  on  the  stage  the  poets  Archilochus, 
Hipponax,  and  Sappho.  The  Roman  comic 
poets  borrowed  largely  from  Diphilus.  The 
C'aiina  of  Plautus  is  a  translation  of  his  K/??poi> 
fievoi.  His  2,vvcnro0vjjoKovTef  was  translated  by 
Plautus  in  the  lost  play  of  the  Commorientet,  and 
was  partly  followed  by  Terence  in  his  Adelphi. 
The  Rudem  of  Plautus  is  also  a  translation  of 
a  play  of  Diphilus,  but  the  title  of  the  Greek 
play  is  not  knowa  [The  fragments  of  Diphilus 
are  edited  by  Meineke,  Fragm.  Comic 
vol.  ii.,  p.  1066-96,  edit,  minor."] 

DIP<ENUS  and  SCYLLIS  (AtTrou'Of  Kal  S/ 
Tery  ancient  Greek  statuaries,  who  are  always , 


mentioned  together,  flourished  about  B.C.  560. 
They  were  natives  of  Crete,  whence  they  went 
to  Sicyon,  which  was  for  a  long  time  the  chief 
seat  of  Grecian  art  Their  disciples  were  Tec- 
taeus  and  Angelion,  Learchus  of  Rhegium,  Dory- 
clidas  anrl  his  brother  Medon,  Dontas,  and  The- 
ocles,  who  were  all  four  Lacedaemonians.  Di- 
posnus  and  Scyllis  are  sometimes  called  sons  of 
Daedalus,  by  which  we  are  only  to  understand 
that  they  belonged  to  the  Daedalian  style  of  art 
Vid.  D.EDALUS. 

DIR^E,  a  name  of  the  Furise.     Vid.  ETTMENIDES. 

DIRCK  (Aip/cT?),  daughter  of  Helios  and  wife 
of  Lycus.  Her  story  is  related  under  AMPHION. 

[DIRE  or  DERE  (Ae(p^).     Vid.  BERENICE,  No.  4.] 

DIRPHYS  (AipQvc),  a  mountain  iu  Eubcea. 

Dis,  contracted  from  Dives,  a  name  some- 
times given  to  Pluto,  and  hence  also  to  the  low- 
er world. 

DIUM  (Aioz> :  Atevf ,  AiaaTrjs).  !•  An  important 
town  in  Macedonia,  on  the  Thermaic  Gulf,  so 
called  after  a  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus).  Here 
were  placed  the  equestrian  statues  by  Lysippus 
of  the  Macedonians  who  had  fallen  at  the  battle 
of  the  Granicus. — 2.  A  town  in  Chalcidice  in 
Macedonia,  on  the  Strymonic  Gulf. — 3.  A  town 
in  Eubcea,  not  far  from  the  promontory  Cenaeum. 

DIVICO,  the  leader  of  the  Helvetians  in  the 
war  against  L.  Cassius  in  B.C.  107,  was  at  the 
head  of  the  embassy  sent  to  Julius  Caesar,  near- 
ly fifty  years  later,  B.C.  58,  when  he  was  pre- 
paring to  attack  the  Helvetians. 

DIVITIACOS,  an  JSduan  noble  and  brother  of 
Dumnorix,  was  a  warm  adherent  of  the  Romans 
and  of  Caesar,  who,  in  consideration  of  his  en- 
treaties, pardoned  the  treason  of  Dumnorix  in 
B.C.  58.  In  the  same  year  he  took  the  most 
prominent  part  among  the  Gallic  chiefs  in  re- 
questing Caesar's  aid  against  Ariovistus ;  he 
had  some  time  before  gone  even  to  Rome  to  ask 
the  senate  for  their  interference,  but  without 
success.  During  this  visit  he  was  the  guest  of 
Cicero. 

DIVODIJRUM  (now  Metz,)  subsequently  Medio- 
matrici,  and  still  later  Metis  or  Mettis,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Mediomatrici  in  Gailia  Belgica. 

DIVONA.     Vid.  CADURCI. 

DIYLLUS  (Afo/lAof),  an  Athenian,  who  wrote  a 
history  of  Greece  and  Sicily  in  twenty-six  or 
twenty-seven  books,  from  the  seizure  of  the 
Delphic  temple  by  Philomelus.  The  exact  pe- 
riod at  which  he  nourished  can  not  be  ascertain- 
ed, but  he  belongs  to  the  age  of  the  Ptolemies. 

DOBERUS  (Aofivpof),  a  town  in  Paeonia  in  Ma- 
cedonia, east  of  the  River  Echedorus. 

DOCIMIA  or  DOCIMKUM  (AoKifiia,  Aoni/jieiov  :  Ao 
Kifievf,  AoKifiTjvof),  a  town  in  Phrygia,  not  far 
from  Synnada  :  in  its  neighborhood  were  cele- 
brated marble  quarries. 

DODONA  (AuiJoii'v),  the  most  ancient  oracle  in 
Greece,  was  situated  in  Epirus,  and  probably  at 
the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Joan- 
nina,  near  Kattritza.  It  was  founded  by  Pe- 
lasgians,  and  was  dedicated  to  Jupiter  (Zeus). 
The  responses  of  the  oracle  were  given  from 
lofty  oaka  or  beech  trees,  probably  from  n  grove 
consisting  of  these  trees.  The  will  of  the  god 
was  declared  by  the  wind  rustling  through  the 
trees ;  and,  in  order  to  render  the  sounds  more 
distinct,  brazen  vessels  were  suspended  on  the 
branches  of  the  trees,  which,  being  set  in  motion 
267 


DOLABELLA,  CORNELIUS. 


DOMITIANUS. 


by  tbe  wind,  came  in  contact  with  oue  another. 
These  sounds  were  in  early  time*  interpreted 
by  men,  but  afterward,  when  the  worship  of 
Dione  became  connected  with  that  of  Jupiter 
(Z*us),  by  two  or  three  aged  women,  who  were 
called  irefeiudef  or  ir&aiac,  because  pigeons 
•were  said  to  have  brought  the  command  to  found 
the  oracle.  There  were,  however,  alsr  priests, 
called  Selli  or  Helli,  who  had  the  maLagement 
of  the  temple.  The  oracle  of  Dodona  had  less 
influence  in  historical  times  than  in  the  heroic 
ag*.  It  was  chiefly  consulted  by  the  neighbor- 
ing tribes,  the  ^Etolians,  Acarnanians,  and  Epi- 
rots,  and  by  those  who  would  not  go  to  Delphi 
on  account  of  its  partiality  for  the  Dorians.  In 
B.C.  219,  the  temple  was  destroyed  by  the  ^Eto- 
lians,  and  the  sacred  oaks  cut  down.  But  the 
town  continued  to  exist,  and  we  hear  of  a  bishop 
of  Dodona  in  the  council  of  Ephesus. 

DOLABELLA,     CORNELIUS.         1.     P.,     COHSUl     B.C. 

283,  conquered  the  Senones.  —  2.  CN.,  curule 
uedile  165,  in  which  year  he  and  his  colleague, 
Sextus  Julius  Caesar,  had  the  Hecyra  of  Terence 
performed  at  the  festival  of  the  Megalesia.  In 
169  he  was  consul.  —  3.  CN.,  a  partisan  of  Sulla, 
by  whom  he  was  made  consul,  81.  He  after- 
ward received  Macedonia  for  his  province.  In 
77  he  was  accused  by  the  young  Julius  Caesar 
of  having  been  guilty  of  extortion  in  his  prov- 
ince, but  he  was  acquitted.—  4  CN.,  praetor  ur- 
banus  81,  when  the  cause  of  P.  Quintius  was 
tried  :  Cicero  charges  him  with  having  acted  on 
that  occasion  unjustly.  The  year  after  he  had 
Cilicia  for  his  province  ;  C.  Malleolus  was  his 
quaestor,  and  the  notorious  Verres  his  legate. 
Dolabella  not  only  tolerated  the  extortions  and 
robberies  committed  by  them,  but  shared  in 
their  booty.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  Dolabella 
was  accused  by  M.  ^Emih'us  Scaurus  of  extor- 
tion in  his  province,  and  on  that  occasion  Verres 
deserted  his  accomplice  and  furnished  the  accus- 
er with  all  the  necessary  information.  Dola- 
bella was  condemned,  and  went  into  exile.  — 
5.  P,  the  son-in-law  of  Cicero,  whose  daughter 
Tullia  he  married  after  divorcing  his  wife  Fabia, 
51.  He  was  one  of  the  most  profligate  men  of 
his  age,  and  his  conduct  caused  Cicero  great 
uneasiness.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
war  he  joined  Caesar,  and  fought  on  his  side  at 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia  (48),  in  Africa  (46),  and 
in  Spain  (45).  Caesar  raised  him  to  the  consul- 
ship in  44,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of 
Antony.  After  the  murder  of  Caesar,  he  forth- 
with joined  the  assassins  of  his  benefactor  ;  but 
when  Antony  gave  him  the  province  of  Syria, 
with  the  command  against  the  Parthians,  all  his 
republican  enthusiasm  disappeared  at  once.  On 
his  way  to  his  province  he  plundered  the  cities 
of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and  at  Smyrna  he 
murdered  Trebonius,  who  had  been  appointed 
by  the  senate  proconsul  of  Asia.  When  his 
proceedings  became  known  at  Rome,  he  was 
declared  a  public  enemy  ;  and  Cassius,  who  had 
received  Syria  from  the  senate,  marched  against 
him.  Dolabella  threw  himself  into  Laodicea, 
•which  was  besieged  by  Cassius,  who  at  length 
succeeded  in  taking  it.  Dolabella,  in  order  not 
to  fall  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  ordered 
one  of  his  soldiers  to  kill  him,  48. 

DOUCHE  (AoAt^j?).     1.  The  ancient  name  of  I 

the  island  Icarus.  —  2.  A  town  in  Thessaly,  on  the  : 

268 


western  slope  of  Olympus.  —  3.  A  town  in  Com- 
magene,  between  Zeugma  and  Germauicia,  also 
called  Dolichene,  celebrated  for  the  worship  ot 
Jupiter.  —  4.  Or  Dulichium.  Vid.  ECHINADES. 

DOLICHISTE  (AoA<£«rrj7  :  now  Kakava),  an  isl- 
and off  the  coast  of  Lycia,  opposite  the  prom- 
ontory Chimaera. 

DOLIONES  (Ao/Uovef),  a  Pelasgic  people  in 
Mysia,  who  dwelt  between  the  rivers  JSsepus 
and  Rhyndacus,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cyz- 
icus,  which  was  called  after  them  Dolionis. 

DOLON  (Ao/uv),  a  Trojan,  sent  by  night  to  spy 
the  Grecian  camp,  was  taken  prisoner  by  Uly  s- 
ses  and  Diomedes,  compelled  to  give  intelli- 
gence respecting  the  Trojans,  and  then  slain  by 
Diomedes.  The  tenth  book  of  the  Iliad  was 
therefore  called  Ao/luveta  or  Ao/Wo^ovia. 

DOLONCI  (AoAoy/cot),  a  Thracian  people  in  the 
Thracian  Chersonesus.  Vid.  MILTIADES. 

DOLOPES  (AoAoTrcf),  a  powerful  people  in 
Thessaly,  dwelt  on  the  Enipeus,  and  fought  be- 
fore Troy.  (Horn,  //.,  ix,  484.)  At  a  later 
time  they  dwelt  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pindus  ; 
and  their  country,  calle'd  DOLOPIA  (AoAoTrm), 
was  reckoned  part  of  Epirus. 

DOMITIA.  1.  Sister  of  Cn.  Domitius  Aheno- 
barbus  (vid.  AHENOBARBUS,  No.  10),  and  conse- 
quently an  aunt  of  the  Emperor  Nero.  She  was 
the  wife  of  Crispus  Passienus,  and  was  mur- 
dered in  her  old  age  by  Nero,  who  wished  to  get 
possession  of  her  property.  —  2.  LEPIDA,  sister  of 
the  preceding,  wife  of  M.  Valerius  Messala  Bar- 
batus,  and  mother  of  Messalina,  was  put  to 
death  by  Claudius  at  the  instigation  of  Agrip- 
pina.  —  3.  LONGINA,  daughter  of  Domitius  Cor- 
bulo,  was  first  married  to  L.  Lamia  ^Emiliauus, 
and  afterward  to  the  Emperor  Domitian.  In 
consequence  of  her  adulterous  intercourse  with 
Paris,  an  actor,  Domitian  repudiated  her,  but 
was  afterward  reconciled  to  her.  She  was 
privy  to  Domitian's  murder. 

DOMITIA  GENS,  plebeian,  was  divided  into  the 
two  illustrious  families  of  AHENOBAB.BUS  and 
CALVINUB. 

DOMITIANUS,  or,  with  his  full  name,  T.  FLAVIUS 
DOMITIANUS  AUGUSTUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D. 
81-96,  was  the  younger  son  of  Vespasian,  and 
was  born  at  Rome  A.D.  51.  When  Vespasian 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions  in  the 
East  (69),  Domitian,  who  was  then  at  Rome, 
narrowly  escaped,  being  murdered  by  Vitellius, 
and  concealed  himself  until  the  victory  of  his 
father's  party  was  decided.  After  the  fall  of 
Vitellius,  Domitian  was  proclaimed  Caesar,  and 
obtained  the  government  of  the  city  till  the  re- 
turn of  his  father.  In  this  short  time  he  gave 
full  proofs  of  his  sanguinary  and  licentious  tem- 
per. Vespasian  intrusted  Donritian  with  no 
public  affairs,  and  during  the  ten  years  of  his 
reign  (69-79),  Domitian  lived  as  a  private  per- 
son on  an  estate  near  the  Alban  Mount,  sur- 
rounded by  a  number  of  courtesans,  and  devot- 
ing a  great  part  of  bis  time  to  the  composition 
of  poetry  and  the  recitation  of  his  productions. 
During  the  reign  of  his  brother  Titus  (79-81), 
he  was  also  not  allowed  to  take  any  part  in  pub- 
lic affairs.  On  the  death  of  Titus  (81),  which 
was  in  all  probability  the  work  of  Domitian,  he 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  soldiers.  Dur- 
ing the  first  few  years  of  his  reign  he  kept  a 
strict  superintendence  over  the  governors  of 


provinces,  enacted  several  useful  laws,  endeav-  j 
ored  to  correct  the  licentious  conduct  of  the 
nigher  classes ;  and  though  he  indulged  him- 
self in  strange  passions,  his  government  was 
much  better  than  had  been  expected.  But  his 
conduct  was  soon  changed  for  the  worse.  His 
wars  were  mostly  unfortunate ;  and  his  want 
of  success  both  wounded  his  vanity  and  excited 
his  fears,  and  thus  led  him  to  delight  in  the  mis- 
fortunes and  sufferings  of  others.  In  83  he  un- 
dertook an  expedition  against  the  Chatti,  which 
was  attended  with  no  result,  though  on  his  re- 
turn to  Rome  in  the  following  year  he  celebra- 
ted a  triumph,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Ger- 
manicus.  In  85,  Agricola,  ^hose  success  and 
merits  excited  his  jealousy,  was  recalled  to 
Rome.  Vid.  AGRICOLA.  From  86  to  90  he  had 
to  carry  on  war  with  Decebalus  and  the  Daci- 
ans,  who  defeated  the  Romau  armies,  and  at 
length  compelled  Domitian  to  purchase  peace 
on  very  humiliating  terms.  Vid.  DECEBALUS. 
It  was  after  the  Dacian  war  especially  that  he 
gave  full  sway  to  his  cruelty  and  tyranny.  No 
man  of  distinction  was  safe  unless  he  would 
degrade  himself  to  flatter  the  tyrant.  The  silent 
fear  which  prevailed  in  Rome  and  Italy  during 
the  latter  years  of  Domitian's  reign  are  briefly 
but  energetically  described  by  Tacitus  in  the 
introduction  to  his  Life  of  Agricola,  and  his  vices 
and  tyranny  are  exposed  in  the  strongest  colors 
by  the  withering  satire  of  Juvenal.  All  the 
philosophers  who  lived  at  Rome  were  expelled. 
Christian  writers  attribute  to  him  a  persecution 
of  the  Christians  likewise,  but  there  is  some 
doubt  upon  the  matter ;  and  the  belief  seems 
to  have  arisen  from  the  strictness  with  which 
he  exacted  the  tribute  from  the  Jews,  and  which 
may  have  caused  much  suffering  to  the  Chris- 
tians also.  Many  conspiracies  had  been  formed 
against  his  life,  but  had  been  discovered.  At 
length  three  officers  of  his  court,  Parthenius, 
Sigerius,  and  Eutellus,  whom  Domitian  intended 
to  put  to  death,  assisted  by  Domitia,  the  empe- 
ror's wife,  had  him  murdered  by  Stephanus,  a 
freedman,  on  the  18th  of  September,  96. 
DOMITIUS  AFER^  Vid.  AFEE. 

DoMITICS  CORBULO.       Vid.  CORBULO. 

DOMITIUS  MARSUS.     Vid.  MARSUS. 

DOMITIUS  ULPIANUS.      Vid.  ULPIAXUS. 

DOMNA,  JULIA,  of  Emesa,  was  born  of  humble 
parents,  and  married  the  Emperor  Septimius 
Sevcrus  when  he  was  in  a  private  station.  She 
was  beautiful  and  profligate,  but,  at  the  same 
time,  gifted  with  strong  powers  of  mind,  and 
fond  of  literature  and  of  the  society  of  literary 
men.  She  had  great  influence  over  her  hus- 
band, and  after  his  death  was  intrusted  by  her 
sou  Caracalla  with  the  administration  of  the 
most  important  affairs  of  state.  After  the  mur- 
der of  Caracalla,  she  was  at  first  kindly  treated 
by  Macrinus ;  but,  having  incurred  the  suspi- 
cions of  Macrinus,  and  being  commanded  to 
quit  Antioch,  she  put  an  end  to  her  own  life  by 
voluntary  starvation,  A.D.  217. 

DoNAToa.  1.  A  celebrated  grammarian,  who 
taught  at  Rome  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, and  was  the  preceptor  of  Saint  Jerome. 
His  most  famous  work  is  a  system  of  Latin 
Grammar,  which  has  formed  the  ground-work 
of  most  elementary  treatises  upon  the  same  sub- 
ject, from  his  own  time  to  the  present  day.  It 


DORIb. 

has  been  usually  published  in  the  form  ol  two 
separate  tracts:  1.  Ars  a.JEditio  Prima,  de  lite- 
ris,  syllabi  s,pedibus,  et  tonis  ;  2.  Editio  Secvnda, 
de  octo  partibus  oration is ;  to  which  are  com- 
monly annexed  De  barbarismo,  De  solcecismo,  De 
ceteris  vitiis  ;  De  metaplasmo,  De  sthematibus  ; 
De  tropis  ;  but  in  the  recent  edition  of  Linde- 
mann  (in  Corpus  Cframm.  Latin^  Lips.,  1831) 
these  are  all  combined  under  one  general  title, 
Donati  Ars  Grammatica  tribus  libriscomprekensa. 
"We  also  possess  introductions  (enarrationes)  and 
scholia,  by  Donatus,  to  five  out  of  the  six  plays 
of  Terence,  those  to  the  Heautontiinorumenos 
having  been  lost.  They  are  attached  to  all  com- 
plete editions  of  Terence. — 2.  TIBERIUS  CLAU- 
DIUS, the  author  of  a  life  of  Virgil  in  twenty -five 
chapters,  prefixed  to  many  editions  of  Virgil. 
Nothing  is  known  with  regaird  to  this  Donatus  ; 
but  it  has  been  conjectured  4hat  some  gramma- 
rian, who  flourished  about  the  commencement 
of  the  fifth  century,  may  have  drawn  up  a  bi- 
ography which  formed  the  ground-work  of  the 
piece  we  now  possess. 

DONUSA  or  DONUSIA  (Aovovaia :  Aovwatof  : 
now  Stenosa),  one  of  the  smaller  Sporades  in 
the  ^Egean  Sea,  south  of  Naxos,  subject  to  the 
Rhodians  in  early  times.  It  produced  green 
marble,  whence  Virgil  (^En^  iii.,  126)  calls  the 
island  viridis.  Under  the  Roman  emperors  it 
was  used  as  a  place  of  banishment. 

DORA,  DORUS,  DORUM  (ru  Awpa,  Awpof  :  Aw- 
PITT/S),  called  DOR  in  the  Old  Testament,  the 
most  southerly  town  of  Phoenicia  on  the  coast, 
on  a  kind  of  peninsula  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Carmel.  It  was  an  ancient  town,  formerly  the 
residence  of  a  Canaanitish  king,  and  afterward 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Manasseh.  Under  tUfe 
Seleucidffi  it  was  a  strong  fortress,  and  was  in- 
cluded in  Ccele-Syria.  It  subsequently  fell  into 
decay,  but  was  restored  and  again  made  a  forti- 
fied place  by  the  Roman  general  Gabinius. 

DORIEUS  (Aupievf).  1.  Eldest  son  of  Anaxan 
drides,  king  of  Sparta,  by  his  first  wife,  was, 
however,  born  after  the  son  of  the  second  mar- 
riage, Cleomenes,  and  therefore  excluded  from 
the  immediate  succession.  Vid.  ANAXAXDRIDES. 
On  the  accession  of  Cleomenes  to  the  throne. 
Dorieus  left  Sparta  to  establish  for  himself  a 
kingdom  elsewhere.  He  led  his  colony  first  to 
Libya ;  but,  driven  away  thence,  he  passed  over 
to  Eryx  in  Sicily,  where  he  fell  in  a  battle  with 
the  Egestaeaus  and  Carthaginians,  about  B.C. 
508. — 2.  Son  of  Diagoras  of  Rhodes  (vid.  DIAG- 
ORAS),  was  celebrated  for  his  victories  in  all  the 
great  Grecian  games.  He  settled  in  Thurii. 
and  from  this  place,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Athe- 
nians at  Syracuse,  he  led  thirty  galleys  to  the 
aid  of  the  Spartan  cause  in  Greece,  B.C.  412 
He  continued  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  war 
till  407,  when  he  was  captured  by  the  Athe- 
nians ;  but  the  people,  in  admiration  of  his  ath- 
letic size  and  noble  beauty,  dismissed  him  with- 
out so  much  as  exacting  a  ransom.  He  is  said 
at  a  later  time  to  have  been  put  to  death  by  the 
Spartans. 

DORIS  (AuptV).  1.  Daughter  of  Oceanus  and 
Tethys,  wife  of  her  brother  Nereus,  and  mother 
of  the  Nereides.  The  Latin  poets  sometimes 
use  the  name  of  this  divinity  for  the  sea  itself. 
(Virg.,  Xcloff.,  JL,  6). — 2.  Oue  of  the  Nereides, 
daughter  of  the  preceding. — [3.  Born  at  Locri, 
269 


DORIS. 


DRAGON. 


daughter  of  Xenetus,  wife  of  Dionyeius  the  elder 
and  mother  of  the  younger  Dionysius  of  Syra 
cuse.] 

DORIS  (Awptf).     1.  A  small  and  mountainous 
country  iu  Greece,  formerly  called  DRYOPIS  (A/w 
O7r/f),  was  bounded  by  Thessaly  on  the  north 
by  JEtolia  on  the  west,  by  Locris  on  the  south 
and  by  Phocis  on  the  east.     It  contained  four 
towns,   Bourn,   Citinium,   Erineus,   and   Pindus, 
which  formed  the    Dorian    tetrapoli?.      These 
towns  never  attained  any  consequence,  and  in 
the  time  of  the  Romans  were  in  ruins ;  but  the 
Country  is  of  importance  as  the  home  of   the 
Dorians  (Aupielf  :  Dores),  one  of  the  great  Hel- 
lenic races,  who  claimed  descent  from  the  myth- 
ical  Dorus.     Vid.   DORUS.     The    Dorians,    how- 
ever, had  not  always  dwelt  in  this  land.     He- 
rodotus relates  (i.,  66)  that  they  first  inhabited 
Phthiotis  in  the  time  of  Deucalion  ;•  that  next, 
under  Dorus,  they  inhabited  HistiaBotis,  at  the 
foot  of  Ossa  and  Olympus ;  that,  expelled  from 
thence  by  the  Cadmeans,  they  settled  on  Mount 
Pindus ;  and    that   they  subsequently  took   up 
their  abode  in  Dryopis,  afterward  called  Doris. 
Their  fifth  and  last  migration  was  to  Pelopon- 
nesus, which  they  conquered,  according  to  tra- 
dition, eighty  years  after  the  Trojan  war.     It 
was  related  that  JSgimius,  the  king  of  the  Do- 
rians, had  been  driven  from  his  dominions  by 
the  Lapithze,  but  was  reinstated  by  Hercules ; 
that  the  children  of  Hercules  hence  took  refuge 
in  this  land  when  they  had  been  expelled  from 
Peloponnesus ;  and  that  it  was  to  restore  them 
to  their  rights  that  the  Dorians  invaded  Pelo- 
ponnesus.    Accordingly,  the   conquest  of  Pelo- 
nouuesus  by  the  Dorians  is  usually  called  the 
Return    of  the    Heraclidse.     Vid.    HERACLIDJE. 
The  Dorians  were  divided  into  three  tribes  :  the 
Ni/lleis  (T/Ufif),  Pamphyli  (fla'^n/loi),  and  Dy- 
mancs  (Atymvff).     The  first  derived  their  name 
from  Hyllus,  sou  of  Hercules,  the  two  last  from 
Pamphylus  and  Dymas,  sons  of  ^Egimius.    The 
Dorians  were  the  ruling  class  throughout  Pelo- 
ponnesus :  the  old  inhabitants  were  reduced  to 
slavery,  or  became  subjects  of  the  Dorians  un- 
der the  name  of  Pcriaci  (TlspioiKoi).     Vid.  Diet, 
of  Antiq.,  art  PEKKECI. — 2.  A  district  in  Asia 
Minor,  consisting  of  the  Dorian  settlements  on 
the  coast  of  Caria  and  the  neighboring  islands. 
Six  of  these  towns  formed  a  league,  called  the 
Dorian  hexapolis,  consisting  of  Lindus,  Italysus, 
and  Camlrus  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  the  island 
Cos,  and  Cnidus  and  Halicarnassus  on  the  main 
land.     There  were  also  other  Dorian  settlements 
in  the  neighborhood,  but  they  were  never  ad- 
mitted  to   the  league.    The  members  of   the 
hexapolis  weie  accustomed  to  celebrate  a  fes- 
tival with  games  on  the  Triopian  promontory 
near  Cnidus,  in  honor  of  the  Triopian  Apollo; 
the  prizes  in  those  games  were  brazen  tripods, 
which  the  victors  had  to  dedicate  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo ;    and  Halicarnassus  was  struck  out 
of  the  league  because  one  of  her  citizens  car- 
ried the  tripod  to  his  own  house  instead  of  leav- 
ing it  in  the  temple.     The  hexapolis  thus    be- 
came a  pentapolis. 

DORISCUS  (Aopfo/cof),  a  town  in  Thrace  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Hebrus,  in  the  midst  of  an  exten- 
sive plain  of  the  same  name,  where  Xerxes  re- 
viewed his  vast  forces. 

[DORSENNUS.     Vid.  DossENNua 
270 


DORSO,  C.  FABIUS,  greatly  distinguished  him- 
»slf  when  the  Capitol  was  besieged  by  the  Gauls. 
B.C.  890.  The  Fabian  gens  was  accustomed 
to  celebrate  a  sacrifice  at  a  fixed  time  on  the 
Quiriual  Hill,  and  accordingly,  at  the  appointed 
time,  C.  Dorso,  who  was  then  a  young  man,  de- 
scended from  the  Capitol,  carrying  the  sacred 
things  in  his  hands,  passed  in  safety  through 
the  enemy's  posts,  and,  after  performing  the 
sacrifice,  returned  in  safety  to  the  Capitol. 

DORUS  (Awpof),  the  mythical  ancestor  of  the 
Dorians,  is  described  either  as  the  sou  of  Hellen 
by  the  nymph  Orseis,  and  a  brother  of  Xuthus, 
and  ^Eolus,  or  as  a  son  of  Apollo  and  Phthia, 
and  a  brother  of  Laodocus  and  Polypcetes. 

[DORYCLUS  (AopwcAof).  1.  An  illegitimate 
son  of  Priam,  slain  by  the  Telamonian  Ajax. — 2. 
Brother  of  Pheneus,  king  of  Thrace,  husband 
of  Beroe,  who  is  mentioned  by  Virgil  (^En.,  6, 
620.)] 

DORYL^EUM  (Aopvlaiov  :  Ao/w/laevf :  now  JEski- 
Shehr),  a  town  in  Phrygia  Epictetus,  on  the 
River  Thymbris,  with  warm  baths  which  are 
used  at  the  present  day ;  important  under  the 
Romans  as  the  place  from  which  the  roads  di- 
verged to  Pessinus,  Iconium,  and  Apamea. 

DOSIADAS  (Auaiudaf),  of  Rhodes,  the  author 
of  two  poems  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  the  verses 
of  which  are  so  arranged  that  each  poem  pre- 
sents the  profile  of  an  altar. 

[DOSITHEUS  (A«CTi#£Of),  a  Greek  historian,  of 
whom  four  works  are  mentioned,  2i/ceAt/ca,  Av- 
Ku,  'Ira/U/ca,  Ilefomdai.'] 

DOSITHEUS  (Awatfeof),  surnamed  Magister,  ft 
Greek  grammarian,  taught  at  Rome  about  A.D. 
207.  He  has  left  behind  him  a  work  entitled 
'Epfj.rjVEvfj.ara,  of  which  the  first  and  second 
books  contain  a  Greek  grammar  written  in  Latin, 
and  Greek-Latin  and  Latin-Greek  glossaries. 
The  third  book,  which  is  the  most  important, 
contains  translations  from  Latin  authors  into 
Greek,  and  vice  versd,  and  has  been  published 
separately  by  Booking,  Bonn,  1832. 

DOSSENNUS  FABIUS  or  DORSENNUS,  an  ancient 
Latin  comic  dramatist,  censured  by  Horace  (Ep., 
'  1,  173)  on  account  of  the  exaggerated  buf- 
"oonery  of  his  characters.  It  appears  that  the 
name  Dossenus  (like  that  of  Macchus)  was  ap- 
sropriated  to  one  of  the  standard  characters  in 
;be  Atellane  farces.  Hence  some  have  sup- 
josed  that  Dossennus  in  Horace  is  not  the  name 
of  a  real  person. 

DOTIUM  (Atiriov :  A.UTIEVC),  a  town  and  plain 
n  Thessaly,  south  of  Mount  Ossa,  on  the  Lake 
Brebeis. 

[Doro  (Awrw),  one  of  the  Nereids  (7/,  18, 43).] 

[DOTUS  (Awrof),  a  leader  of  the  Paphlago- 
lians  in  the  army  of  Xerxes,  Herod.~\ 

DRABESCUS  (ApuS^cKOf,  also  Apaota/cof :  now 
Drama),  a  town  in  the  district  of  Edonis  in 
Macedonia,  on  the  Strymon. 

DRACANON  (Apa/cavov),  a  town  and  promon- 
x>ry  in  the  island  Icaria. 

[DRACIUS  ( ApaKtof),  a  leader  of  the  Epeana 
early  inhabitants  of  Elis)  before  Troy.] 

DRACON  (Apa«wv),  the  author  of  the  first  writ- 
en  code  of  luws  at  Athens,  which  were  called 
effftoi,  as  distinguished  from  the  vopot  of  Solon. 
n  this  code  he  affixed  the  penalty  of  death  to 
.Imost  all  crimes — to  petty  thefts,  for  instance, 
as  well  as  to  sacrilege  and  murder — which  gave 


DRANCES. 


DRUSUS. 


occasion  to  the  remark  that  his  laws  were  writ- 
ten, not  in  ink,  but  in  blood.  We  are  told  that 
he  himself  defended  this  extreme  harshness  by 
saying  that  small  offences  deserved  death,  and 
that  he  knew  no  severer  punishment  for  great 
ones.  His  legislation  is  placed  in  B.C.  621. 
After  the  legislation  of  Solon  (594),  most  of  the 
laws  of  Dracon  fell  into  disuse ;  but  some  of 
them  were  still  in  force  at  the  end  of  the  Pelo- 
ponuesian  war,  as,  for  instance,  the  law  which 
permitted  the  injured  husband  to  slay  the  adul- 
terer, if  taken  in  the  act  We  are  told  that 
Dracon  died  at  .^Egina,  being  smothered  by  the 
number  of  hats  and  cloaks  showered  upon  him  as 
a  popular  mark  of  honor  in  the  theatre. 

[DRANCES,  an  Italian,  favorite  of  Latinus,  a 
persevering  opponent  of  the  plans  of  Turnus.] 

DRANGIANA  (Apayyiavij  :  now  Sedjestdn),  a 
part  of  Ariana,  was  bounded  by  Gedrosia,  Car- 
mania,  Arachosia,  and  Aria.  It  sometimes 
formed  a  separate  satrapy,  but  was  more  usu- 
ally united  to  the  satrapies  either  of  Arachosia, 
or  of  Gedrosia,  or  of  Aria.  The  chief  product 
of  the  country  was  tin :  the  chief  river  was  the 
Erymanthus  or  Erymandrus  (now  Hilmend  or 
Hindmend).  In  the  north  of  the  country  dwelt 
the  DRANG^E  (bpayyai),  a  warlike  people,  from 
whom  the  province  derived  its  name  :  their 
capital  was  Prophthasia.  The  Zarangro,  Sa- 
rangse,  or  Darandse,  who  are  also  mentioned  as 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  are  probably  only 
other  forms  of  the  name  Drangee.  The  Ariaspae 
inhabited  the  southern  part  of  the  province.  Vid. 
ARIASPA 

DRAUDACUM  (now  Dardasso),  a  fortress  of  the 
Penestao  in  Greek  Ulyria. 

DRAVUS  (now  Drave),  a  tributary  of  the  Dan- 
ube, rises  in  the  Noric  Alps  near  Aguntum,  flows 
through  Noricum  and  Pannonia,  and,  after  re- 
ceiving the  Murius  (now  JHuhr),  falls  into  the 
Danube  east  of  Mursa  (now  Esseck). 

DRECANUM  (Ape/cavov),  a  promontory  on  the 
western  side  of  the  island  Cos. 

DREPANIUS,  LATINUS  PAOATUS,  a  friend  of 
Ausonius,  and  a  correspondent  of  Symmachus, 
delivered  a  panegyric  on  the  Emperor  Theodo-' 
sius,  A.D.  391,  after  the  victory  of  the  latter 
over  Maximus.  This  panegyric,  which  is  ex- 
tant, is  the  eleventh  in  the  collection  of  the 
Panegyrici  Veteres. 

DREPANUM  (bpeiravov  :  ApeTravevf),  that  is,  a 
sickle.  1.  Also  DREPANA  (ra  Apeirava),  more 
rarely  DREPANE  (now  Trapani),  a  sea-port  town 
in  the  northwestern  corner  of  Sicily,  so  called 
because  the  land  on  which  it  was  built  was  in 
the  form  of  a  sickle.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Carthaginian  Hamilcar  at  the  commencement  of 
the  first  Punic  War,  and  was  one  of  the  chief 
naval  stations  of  the  Carthaginians.  Under  the 
Romans  it  was  an  important  commercial  town. 
It  was  hero  that  Anchises  died,  according  to 
Yirgil. — 2.  A  promontory  in  Achaia.  Vid.  RHIUM. 
— 8.  The  ancient  name  of  CORCYRA. — 4.  Also 
DRKPANE,  a  town  in  Bithyn:a,  on  the  Sinus  As- 
tacenus,  the  birth-place  of  Helena,  mother  of 
Coii-latitine  the  Great,  in  whose  honor  it  was 
called  HKLENOPOLIS,  and  made  an  important 
place.  In  its  neighborhood  were  warm  medi- 
cinal baths,  which  Constantino  the  Great  fre- 
quently used  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life. 

DREPSA  (Aptya,  also  "\6paTpa,  Aa/oot/ia, 


Ka :  now  Anderab  or  InderaV),  a  town  in  t*»* 
northeast  of  Bactriana,  on  the  frontiers  of  Sog- 
diana. 

DRIL^E  (Apt/lot),  a  brave  people  in  Pontus,  oc 
the  frontiers  of  Colchis,  near  Trapezus. 

DRILO,  a  river  in  Illyricum,  flows  into  the 
Adriatic  near  Lissus. 

DROMICII^ETES  (Apo/u^atr^f),  a  king  of  the 
Getse,  who  took  Lysimachus  prisoner.  Vid. 
LYSIMACHUS. 

DROMOS  ACHILLEUS.    Vid.  ACHILLEUS  DROMOS. 

DRUENTIA  (now  Durance),  a  large  and  rapid 
river  in  Galh'a  Narbonensis,  rises  in  the  Alps, 
and  flows  into  the  Rhone  near  Avenio  (now 
Avignon). 

DRUNA  (now  Drome),  a  small  river  in  Galh'a 
Narbonensis,  rises  in  the  Alps,  and  flows  into  the 
Rhone  south  of  Valencia  (now  Valence). 

DRUSILLA.  1.  LIVIA,  mother  of  the  Emperor 
Tiberius  and  wife  of  Augustus".  Vid.  LIVIA. — 
2.  Daughter  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  mar- 
ried first  to  L.  Cassius  Longinus,  and  afterward 
to  M.  ^Emilius  Lepidus  ;  but  she  lived  in  inces- 
tuous intercourse  with  her  brother  Caligula, 
whose  passion  for  her  exceeded  all  bounds.  On 
her  death  in  A.D.  38,  he  commanded  that  she 
should  be  worshipped,  by  the  name  Panthea, 
with  the  same  honors  as  Venus. — 3.  Daughter 
of  Herodes  Agrippa  L,  king  of  the  Jews,  mar- 
ried first  Azizus,  king  of  Einesa,  whom  she  di- 
vorced, and  secondly  Felix,  the  procurator  of 
Judasa.  She  was  present  with  her  husband  when 
St  Paul  preached  before  Felix  in  A.D.  60. 

DRUSUS,  the  name  of  a  distinguished  family 
of  the  Livia  gens.  It  is  said  that  one  of  the 
Livii  acquired  the  cognomen  Drusus  for  him- 
self and  his  descendants  by  having  slain  in 
close  combat  one  Drausus,  a  Gallic  chieftain; 
but  this  statement  deserves  little  credit. — 1.  M. 
LIVIUS  DRUSUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs  with  C. 
Gracchus,  B.C.  122.  He  was  a  staunch  ad- 
herent of  the  aristocracy,  and  after  putting  his 
veto  upon  the  laws  proposed  by  Gracchus,  he 
brought  forward  almost  the  very  same  meas- 
ures, in  order  to  gain  popularity  for  the  senate, 
and  to  impress  the  people  with  the  belief  that 
the  optimates  were  their  best  friends.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  system  earned  for  him  the  designa- 
tion patronus  senatus.  Drusus  was  consul  112, 
obtained  Macedonia  as  his  province,  and  con- 
quered the  Scordisci. — 2.  M.  LIVIUS  DRUSUS,  son 
of  No.  1,  an  eloquent  orator,  and  a  man  of  great 
energy  and  ability.  He  was  tribune  of  the 
plebs  91,  in  the  consulship  of  L.  Marcius  Philip- 
pus  and  Sex  Julius  Caesar.  Although,  like  his 
father,  he  belonged  to  the  aristocratical  party, 
he  meditated  the  most  extensive  and  organic 
changes  in  the  Roman  state.  To  conciliate  the 
people  he  renewed  several  of  the  measures  of 
the  Gracchi  He  proposed  and  carried  laws  for 
the  distribution  of  corn  or  for  its  sale  at  a  low 
price,  and  for  the  assignation  of  public  land. 
He  also  gained  the  support  of  the  Latini  and 
the  Socii  by  promising  to  secure  for  them  the 
Roman  citizenship.  Thus  strengthened,  he  pro- 
posed to  transfer  the  judicia  from  the  equites  to 
the  senate  ;  but,  as  a  compensation  to  the  former 
order,  he  further  proposed  that  the  senate,  now 
reduced  below  the  regular  number  of  three  hund- 
red, should  be  re-enforced  by  the  introduction 
of  tm  equal  number  of  new  members  selected 
271 


DRUSUS. 

from  the  equites.  This  measure  proved  un- 
satisfactory to  both  parties.  The  Roman  pop- 
ulace nlso  were  opposed  to  the  Roman  fran- 
chise being  given  to  the  Latins  and  the  Socii. 
The  senate,  perceiving  the  dissatisfaction  of  all 
parties,  voted  that  all  the  laws  of  Drusus,  be- 
ing carried  against  the  auspices,  were  null  and 
void  from  the  beginning.  Drusus  now  began 
to  organize  a  formidable  conspiracy  against  the 
government ;  but  one  evening,  as  he  was  enter- 
ing the  hall  of  his  own  house,  he  was  stabbed, 
and  died  a  few  hours  afterward.  The  assassin 
was  never  discovered,  and  no  attempts  were 
made  to  discover  him.  Coepio  and  Philippus 
were  both  suspected  of  having  suborned  the 
crime ;  but  Cicero  attributes  it  to  Q.  Varius. 
The  death  of  Drusus  destroyed  the  hopes  of  the 
Socii,  and  was  thus  immediately  followed  by  the 
Social  War. — 3.  LIVIUS  DRUSUS  CLAUDIANUS, 
father  of  Livia,  who  was  the  mother  of  the  Em- 
peror Tiberius.  He  was  one  of  the  gens  Clau- 
dia, and  was  adopted  by  a  Livius  Drusus.  It 
was  through  this  adoption  that  the  Drusi  be- 
came connected  with  the  imperial  family.  The 
father  of  Livia,  after  the  death  of  Caesar,  es- 
poused the  cause  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  and, 
after  the  battle  of  Philippi  (42),  being  proscribed 
by  the  conquerors,  he  killed  himself  in  his  tent 
— 4.  NERO  CLAUDIUS  DRUSUS,  commonly  called 
by  the  moderns  DRUSUS  SENIOR,  to  distinguish 
him  from  No.  5,  was  the  son  of  Tib.  Claudius 
Nero  and  Livia,  and  younger  brother  of  the 
Emperor  Tiberius.  He  was  born  in  the  house 
of  Augustus  three  months  after  the  marriage 
of  Livia  and  Augustus,  38.  Drusus,  as  he  grew 
up,  was  more  liked  by  the  people  than  was  his 
brother.  His  manners  were  affable,  and  his 
conduct  without  reproach.  He  married  Anto- 
nia,  the  daughter  of  the  triumvir,  and  his  fideli- 
ty to  his  wife  was  a  theme  of  admiration  in  a 
profligate  age.  He  was  greatly  trusted  by  Au- 
gustus, who  employed  him  in  important  offices. 
He  carried  on  the  war  against  the  Germans, 
and  penetrated  far  into  the  interior  of  the  coun- 
try. In  12  he  drove  the  Sicambri  and  their 
allies  out  of  Gaul,  crossed  the  Rhine,  then  fol- 
lowed the  course  of  the  river  down  to  the  ocean, 
and  subdued  the  Frisians.  It  was  apparently 
during  this  campaign  that  Drusus  dug  a  canal 
(Fossa  Drusiana)  from  the  Rhine,  near  Arnheim, 
to  the  Yssel,  near  Dcesberg ;  and  he  made  use 
of  this  canal  to  sail  from  the  Rhine  into  the 
ocean.  In  his  second  campaign  (11),  Drusus 
subdued  the  Usipetes,  invaded  the  country  of 
the  Sicambri,  and  passed  on  through  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Cherusci  as  far  as  the  Visurgis  (now 
Weser).  On  his  return  he  was  attacked  by  the 
united  forces  of  the  Germans,  and  defeated 
them  with  great  slaughter.  In  his  third  cam- 
paign (10)  he  conquered  the  Chatti  and  other 
German  tribes,  and  then  returned  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  made  consul  for  the  following 
year.  In  his  fourth  campaign  (9),  which  he 
carried  on  as  consul,  he  advanced  as  far  as  the 
Albis  (now  Elbe),  sweeping  every  thing  before 
liim.  It  L  said  that  he  had  resolved  to  cross 
the  Elbe,  but  was  deterred  by  the  apparition  of 
a  woman  of  dimensions  greater  than  human,  who 
said  to  him  in  the  Latin  tongue,  "  Whither  goest 
thou,  insatiable  Drusus  !  The  Fates  forbid  thee 
to  advance.  Away  !  The  end  of  thy  deeds  and 
272 


DRYOPE. 

thy  life  is  nigh."  On  the  return  of  the  army 
to  the  Rhine,  Drusus  died  in  consequence  oLa 
fracture  of  his  leg,  which  happened  through  a 
fall  from  his  horse.  Upon  receiving  tidings  of 
the  dangerous  illness  of  Drusus.  Tiberius  ini 
mediately  crossed  the  Alps,  and,  after  travelling 
with  extraordinary  speed,  arrived  in  time  to 
close  the  eyes  of  his  brother.  Tiberius  brought 
the  body  to  Italy  :  it  was  burned  in  the  field  of 
Mars,  and  the  ashes  deposited  in  the  tomb  of 
Augustus. — 5.  DRUSUS  CAESAR,  commonly  called 
by  modern  writers  DRUSUS  JUNIOR,  was  the  son 
of  the  Emperor  Tiberius  by  his  first  wife,  Vip- 
sania.  He  married  Livia,  the  mister  of  Ger- 
manicus.  After  the  death  of  Augustus,  AJX 
14,  he  was  sent  into  Pannonia  to  quell  the  mu- 
tiny of  the  legions.  In  15  he  was  consul,  and 
in  16  he  was  sent  into  Ulyricum  :  he  succeeded 
in  fomenting  dissension  among  the  Germanic 
tribes,  and  destroyed  the  power  of  Maroboduus. 
In  21  he  was  consul  a  second  time ;  and  in  22 
he  received  the  tribunicia  potestas,  by  which  he 
was  pointed  out  as  the  intended  successor  to  the 
empire.  But  Sejanus,  the  favorite  of  Tiberius, 
aspired  to  the  empire.  He  seduced  Livia,  the 
wife  of  Drusus,  and  persuaded  her  to  become 
the  murderer  of  her  husband.  A  poison  was 
administered  to  Drusus,  which  terminated  his 
Life  by  a  lingering  disease,  that  was  supposed 
at  the  time  to  be  the  consequence  of  intemper- 
ance, A.D.  23. — 6.  DRUSUS,  second  son  of  Ger- 
manicus  and  Agrippina.  After  the  death  of 
Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius  (vid.  No.  5),  Drusus 
and  his  elder  brother  Nero  became  the  heirs 
to  the  imperial  throne.  Sejanus  therefore  re- 
solved to  get  rid  of  them  both.  He  first  engaged 
Drusus  in  the  plots  against  his  elder  brother, 
which  ended  in  the  banishment  and  death  of  that 
prince.  Vid.  NERO.  The  turn  of  Drusus  came 
next.  He  was  accused  in  30,  and  condemned  to 
death  as  an  enemy  of  the  state.  Tiberius  kept 
him  imprisoned  for  three  years,  and  then  starved 
him  to  death,  33. 

DRYADES.     Vid.  NYMPH^B. 

DRYAS  (AptJaf).  1.  Son  of  the  Thracian  king 
Lycurgus,  who  is  hence  called  DRYANTIDES. — 
[2.  One  of  the  Lapithas,  friend  of  Pirithous  (H^ 
vi.,  130). — 3.  Son  of  the  Thracian  king  Lycur- 
gus, slain  by  his  own  father  in  a  fit  of  phrensy 
brought  upon  him  by  Bacchus.] 

DRYM^EA  or  DRYMUS  (Apvpaia,  A/nywf :  Apv- 
(uevf:  now  Baba?),  a  town  in  Phocis,  a  little 
south  of  the  Cephisus,  was  destroyed  by 
Xerxes. 

[DRYMO,  a  nymph,  a  companion  of  Cyrene.] 

DRYMUS  (A/w/wf).  1.  Vid.  DRYM*:.— 2.  A 
strong  place  in  Attica,  on  the  frontiers  of  Bo> 
otia 

DRYMUSSA  (&pv/iovoaa  :  Apvpovaaalof),  an  isl- 
and in  the  Hermaean  Gulf,  off  the  coast  of  Ionia, 
opposite  Clazornenae ;  given  by  the  Romans  to 
Clazomenae. 

DRYOPE  (ApvoTn?),  daughter  of  King  Dryops, 
and  the  playmate  of  the  Hamadrvades  on  Mount 
(Eta.  She  was  beloved  by  Apollo,  who,  to  gain 
possession  of  her,  metamorphosed  himself  into 
a  tortoise.  Dryope  took  the  creature  into  her 
lap,  whereupon  the  god  changed  himself  into  a 
serpent  The  nymphs  fled  away  in  affright, 
and  thus  Apollo  remained  alone  with  Dryope. 
'  Soon  after  she  married  Andrsemon,  but  became 


DRTOPES. 


DURIUS. 


by  Apollo,  the  mother  of  AMPHISSUS,  who  built 
the  town  of  (Eta,  and  a  temple  to  Apollo.  Dry- 
ope  was  afterward  carried  off  by  the  Hamadry- 
ades,  and  became  a  nymph. 

DRYOPES  (ApvoTref),  a  Pelasgic  people,  de- 
scended from  a  mythical  ancestor  Dryops,  dwelt 
first  in  Thessaly,  from  the  Spercheus  to  Parnas- 
sus, and  afterward  in  Doris,  which  was  called 
from  them  DBYOPIS  (Apvo?uf).  Driven  out  of 
Doris  by  the  Dorians,  they  migrated  to  other 
xmntries,  and  settled  in  Peloponnesus,  Eubcea, 
and  Asia  Minor. 

DRYOPS  (Apvoijj).  1.  Son  of  the  river-god  Sper- 
cheus and  the  Danaid  Polydora,  or  of  Lycaon 
and  Dia,  the  daughter  of  Lycaon,  the  mythical 
ancestor  of  the  Dryopes. — [2.  An  illegitimate 
son  of  Priam,  slain  by  Achilles. — 3.  A  compan- 
ion of  jfineas,  slain  by  Clausus.] 

DRYOS  CEPHAL.B  (Apvdf  KeQabai),  a  narrow 
pass  of  Mount  Cithaaron,  between  Athens  and 
Plataeae. 

DUBIS  (now  Doubs),  a  river  in  Gaul,  rises  in 
Mount  Jurassus  (now  Jura),  flows  past  Vesontio 
(now  £esanfon),  and  falls  into  the  Arar  (now 
Saone)  near  Cabillonum  (now  Chalons). 

DUHRIS  PORTUS  (now  Dover],  a  sea-port  town 
of  the  Cantii,  in  Britain  :  here  was  a  fortress 
erected  by  the  Romans  against  the  Saxon  pi- 
rates. 

DCCAS,  MICHAEL,  a  Byzantine  historian,  held 
a  high  office  under  Constantino  XIIL,  the  last 
emperor  of  Constantinople.  After  the  capture 
of  Constantinople  AJD.  1453,  he  fled  to  Lesbos. 
His  history  extends  from  the  death  of  John  VI. 
Palaeologus,  1355,  to  the  capture  of  Lesbos  by 
the  Turks,  1462.  The  work  is  written  in  bar- 
barous Greek,  but  gives  a  clear  and  impartial 
account  of  events.  The  best  edition  is  by  Bek- 
ker,  Bonn,  1834. 

DUCETIUS  (Aov/cmof),  a  chief  of  the  Siceh'ans 
or  Siceli,  the  native  tribes  in  the  ulterior  of 
Sicily,  earned  on  a  formidable  war  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  against  the  Greeks 
in  the  island.  Having  been  at  last  defeated  in 
a  great  battle  by  the  Syracusans,  he  repaired  to 
Syracuse  as  a  suppliant,  and  placed  himself  at 
their  mercy.  The  Syracusans  spared  his  life, 
but  sent  him  into  an  honorable  exile  at  Corinth. 
Hs  returned  soon  afterward  to  Sicily,  and  found- 
ed the  city  of  Calacte.  He  died  about  B.C.  440. 

DUILIUB.  1.  M.,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
471.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  leaders  of  the 
plebeians,  and  it  was  on  his  advice  that  the 
plebeian:}  migrated  from  the  Aventine  to  the 
Mons  Saoer,  just  before  the  overthrow  of  the 
decemvirs.  He  was  then  elected  tribune  of  the 
plebs  a  second  time,  449. — 2.  K,  one  of  the  de- 
cemvirs, 450,  on  whose  overthrow  he  went  into 
voluntary  exile.  —  3.  C.,  consul  260,  with  Cn. 
Cornelius  Scipio  Asina,  in  the  first  Punic  War. 
In  this  year  the  Romans  built  their  first  fleet, 
using  for  their  model  a  Carthaginian  vessel 
which  bad  been  thrown  on  the  coast  of  Italy. 
The  command  of  this  fleet  was  given  to  Scipio, 
who  was  defeated  by  the  Carthaginians  off  Li- 
para.  Thereupon  Duilius  was  intrusted  with 
the  command,  and  as  he  perceived  the  disad- 
vantages under  which  the  clumsy  ships  of  the 
Romans  were  laboring,  he  devised  the  well- 
known  grappling  irons,  by  means  of  which  the 
enemy's  ehips  might  be  drawn  toward  his,  and 
18 


the  sea-fight  thus  changed  into  a  land-fight.  By 
this  means  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Carthaginian  fleet  near  Mylae,  and  then  prose- 
cuted the  war  in  Sicily  with  success,  relieving 
Egesta,  and  taking  Macella  by  assault  On  his 
return  to  Rome,  Duilius  celebrated  a  splendid 
triumph,  for  it  was  the  first  naval  victory  that 
the  Romans  had  ever  gained,  and  the  memory 
of  it  was  perpetuated  by  a  column  which  was 
erected  in  the  forum,  and  adorned  with  the 
beaks  of  the  conquered  ships  (Columna  JRostrata). 
It  is  generally  believed  that  the  original  inscrip- 
tion which  adorned  the  basis  of  the  column  is 
still  extant  It  was  dug  out  of  the  ground  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  in  a  mutilated  condition, 
and  it  has  since  often  been  printed  with  at- 
tempts at  restoration.  There  are,  however,  in 
that  inscription  some  orthographical  peculiari- 
ties, which  suggest  that  the  present  inscription 
is  a  later  restoration  of  the  original  one.  Du- 
ilius was  further  rewarded  for  this  victory  by 
being  permitted,  whenever  he  returned  home 
from  a  banquet  at  night,  to  be  accompanied  by 
a  torch  and  a  flute-player. 

DULGIBINI,  a  people  in  Germany,  dwelt  south- 
east of  the  Angrivarii,  on  the  western  bank  of 
the  Weser. 

DULICHICJI.       Vid.  ECHINADES. 

DUMNORIX,  a  chieftain  of  the  JEdui,  conspired 
against  the  Romans  B.C.  58,  but  was  then  par- 
doned by  Caesar  in  consequence  of  the  en  treaties 
of  his  brother  Divitiacus.  When  Caesar  was 
going  to  Britain  in  54,  he  suspected  Dumnorix 
too  much  to  leave  him  behind  in  Gaul,  and  he 
insisted,  therefore,  on  his  accompanying  him. 
Dumnorix,  upon  this,  fled  from  the  Roman  camp 
with  the  JEduan  cavalry,  but  was  overtaken  and 
slain. 

DUNIUM.        Vid.  DUEOTKIGES. 

DC'RA  (r<l  bovpa :  kovpyvof).  1.  A  town  in 
Mesopotamia,  on  the  Euphrates,  not  far  from 
Circesium,  founded  by  the  Macedonians,  and 
hence  surnamed  Nicanoris  ;  also  called  Europus 
(Eip<j;r6f)  by  the  Greeks.  In  the  time  of  Julian 
it  was  deserted. — 2.  (Now  Dor),  a  town  in  As- 
syria, on  the  Tigris. 

DURAMUS  (now  Dordogne),  a  river  in  Aqui- 
tauia,  which  falls  into  the  Garumna. 

DURIA  (now  Dora  Bcdtea),  a  river  which  rises 
in  the  south  of  the  Alps,  flows  through  the  coun- 
try of  the  Salassi,  bringing  gold  dust  with  it,  and 
falls  into  the  Po. 

DURIS  (Aot!pif),  of  Samos,  the  historian,  was 
a  descendant  of  Alcibiades,  and  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  He  obtained 
the  tyranny  of  his  native  island,  though  it  is 
unkown  by  what  means.  He  wrote  a  con- 
siderable number  of  works,  of  which  the  most 
important  was  a  history  of  Greece,  from  B.C. 
370  to  281.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  en- 
joyed any  very  great  reputation  as  an  historian 
imong  the  ancients.  His  fragments  have  been 
collected  by  Hulleman,  Duridis  Samii  qua  *M- 
persunt,  Traject.  ad  Rhen.,  1841 ;  [and  by  Miil- 
er.  Hist.  Grace.  Fragm^  voL  ii.,  p.  466-488.] 

DCRIUB  (Aotiptof,  Au/HOf  :  now  Duero,  Douro), 
>ne  of  the  chief  rivers  of  Spain,  rises  among  the 
E^elendones,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Idubeda,  near 
N'uniant in.  and  flows  into  the  Atlantic ;  it  was 
auriferous,  and  is  navigable  a  long  way  from  it* 
mouth. 

273 


EOBATANA. 


DUROBEIV^E  (DOW  Rochester),  a  town  of  the 
Cantii  in  Britain. 

DUEOCASIS  (now  Dreux),  a  town  of  the  Car- 
uutes  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis. 

DUROCATELAUM.        Vid.  CATALAUNI. 

DUROCOHTOHUM  (now  Ithcims),  the  capital  of 

the   Remi   in   Gallia  Belgica,  and  subsequently 

called  Remi,  was  a  populous  and  powerful  town. 

DUHONIA,  a  town  in  Samnium  in  Italy,  west 

of  the  Caudine  passes. 

DUROTEIGES,  a  people  in  Britain,  in  Dorset- 
shire, and  the  west  of  Somersetshire :  their 
chief  town  was  Dunium  (now  Dorchester). 

DUROVERNUM  or  DARVERNUM  (now  Canter- 
bury), a  town  of  the  Cautii  in  Britain,  after- 
ward called  Cautuaria. 

DYARDANES  or  GEDAXES  (now  Brahmaputra), 
a  river  in  India,  falls  into  the  Ganges  on  the 
eastern  side. 

DYMAS  (Ai'/zaf).  1.  Son  of  JSgimius,  from 
whom  the  Dymanes,  one  of  the  three  tribes  of 
the  Dorians,  were  believed  to  have  derived  their 
name. — [2.  Father  of  Asius  and  of  Hecuba,  the 
wife  of  Priam,  lived  in  Phrygia,  on  the  Sanga- 
rius :  Hecuba  is  hence  called  Dymantis  proles 
(Ovid.  Her^  xL  762)  and  Dymantis  (Ib.,  xiii., 
620). — 3.  A  Pbaeacian,  whose  daughter  was  an 
attendant  of  Nausicaa. — 4.  A  Trojan,  who  fought 
by  the  side  of  jEneas  on  the  night  of  the  capture 
of  Troy  ;  he  was  killed  by  his  own  friends  in 
mistake  for  a  Greek  whose  armor  he  had  put 
on.] 

Di'ME  or  DYM^E  (Av//7/,  AV/J.OI  :  Avualos,  Dy- 
rnaeus  :  ruins  near  Karavostasi),  a  town  in  the 
west  of  Achaia,  near  the  coast ;  one  of  the 
twelve  Achaean  towns ;  it  founded,  along  with 
Patrae,  the  second  Achaean  league ;  and  was  at 
a  later  time  colonized  by  the  Romans. 

DYRAS  (Aiymf),  a  small  river  in  Phthiotis  in 
Thessaly,  falls  into  the  Sinus  Maliacus. 

DYRRHACUIUM  (Avftfidxiov :  Ai>/i/}u;t«>f,  Ar/5/3a- 
Xflvw; ,  Dyrrachinus  :  now  Durazzo),  formerly 
called  EPIDAMNUS  ('ETridauvoe :  'Em6uuvioc.),  a 
town  in  Greek  Illyria,  on  a  peninsula  in  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  It  was  founded  by  the  Corcy- 
raeans,  and  received  the  name  Epidamnus  ;  but 
since  the  Romans  considered  this  name  a  bad 
omen,  as  reminding  them  of  damnum,  they 
changed  it  into  Dyrrhachium  when  they  be- 
came masters  of  the  country.  Under  the  R<v 
mans  it  became  an  important  place ;  it  was  the 
usual  place  of  binding  for  persons  who  crossed 
over  from  Brundisium.  Commerce  and  trade 
were  carried  on  here  with  great  activity,  whence 
it  is  called  Taberna  Adrice  by  Catullus  (xxxvi., 
15);  and  here  commenced  the  great  Egnatia 
Via  leading  to  the  East.  In  the  civil  war  it  was 
the  head-quarters  of  Pompey,  who  kept  all  his 
military  stores  here.  In  A.D.  345  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake. 

DYSORUM  (TO  kvaupcv),  a  mountain  in  Mace- 
donia with  gold  mines,  between  Chalcidice  and 
Odomantice. 

DYSPONTICM  (Auorn-ovrtov  :  At;<7;r6t>rtof),  an  an- 
cient town  of  Pisatis  in  Elis,  north  of  the  Al- 
pheus,  was  destroyed  by  the  Eleans,  whereupon 
its  inhabitants  removed  to  Epidamnus  and  Apoi- 
lonia. 

E. 

f  EBLANA  ("E6/,ava),   a  city  of  the  Eblani  in 
274 


Hibernia,  on  the  eastern  coast,  probably  answer- 
ing  to  the  modern  Dublin.] 

EBORA.  1.  Or  EB^RA  CEREALIS,  a  small  town 
in  Hispania  Baetica,  perhaps  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  modern  Sta  Cruz.  —  2.  Surnamed 
LIBERALITAS  JULIA  (DOW  JSvora),  &  Roman  mu- 
nicipium  in  Lusitania.  —  3.  Or  EBURA  (uow  S. 
Lucar  de  Barrameda),  a  town  in  Hispania  Baeti- 
ca,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Bastis.  —  4.  A  fortress 
of  the  Edetani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis. 

EBORACTJM  or  EBURACUM  (now  York),  a  town 
of  the  Brigantes  in  Britain,  was  made  a  Roman 
station  by  Agricola,  and  soon  became  the  chief 
Roman  settlement  in  the  whole  island.  It  was 
both  a  municipium  and  a  colony.  It  was  the 
head-quarters  of  the  sixth  legion,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Roman  emperors  when  they  visited 
Britain.  Here  the  emperors  Septimius  Severus 
and  Constantius  Chlorus  died.  Part  of  the  an- 
cient Roman  walls  still  exist  at  York  ;  and 
many  Roman  remains  have  been  found  in  the 
modern  city. 

EBOROLACUM  (now  Evreule,  on  the  river  Si- 
oule),  a  town  in  Aquitania. 

EBRODUNUM  (now  Embrun),  a  town  in  Gallia 
Narbouensis,  in  the  Cottian  Alps. 

EBUD.E  or  HEBUD.S  (now  Hebrides),  islands  .in 
the  Western  Ocean  off  Britain.  They  were 
five  in  number  according  to  Ptolemy,  two  called 
Ebudae,  Maleus,  Epidium,  and  Ricina. 

EBUROMAGUS  or  HEBROMAGUS  (near  Bram  or 
Villerazons),  a  town  in  Gallia  Narbonensis. 

EBURONES,  a  German  people  who  crossed  the 
Rhine  and  settled  in  Gallia  Belgica,  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  Mosa  (now  Maas),  in  a  marshy 
and  woody  district.  They  were  dependants 
(dientes)  of  the  Treviri,  and  were  in  Caesar's 
time  under  the  rule  of  Ambiorix  and  Cativol- 
cus.  Their  insurrection  against  the  Romans, 
B.C.  54,  was  severely  punished  by  Cassar,  and 
from  this  time  they  disappear  from  history. 

EBUROVICES.     Vid.  AULERCI. 

EBUSUS  or  EBUSUS  (now  Iviza),  the  largest  of 
the  Pityusas  Insulae,  off  the  eastern  coast  of 
Spain,  reckoned  by  some  writers  among  the 
Baleares.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  excellent 
figs.  Its  capital,  also  called  Ebusus,  was  a 
civitas  foederata,  possessed  an  excellent  harbor, 
was  well  built,  and  carried  on  a  considerable 
;rade. 

ECBATANA  (ra  'EitduTava,  Ion.  and  Poet  'Ay- 
6a.Tava  :  now  Hamadan),  a  great  city,  most 
pleasantly  situated,  near  the  foot  of  Mount 
Drontes,  in  the  north  of  Great  Media,  was  the 
;apital  of  the  Median  kingdom,  and  afterward 
;he  summer  residence  of  the  Persian  and  Par- 
thian kings.  Its  foundation  was  more  ancient 
than  any  historical  record  :  Herodotus  ascribes 
t  to  Deioces,  and  Diodorus  to  Semiramis.  It 
md  a  circuit  of  two  hundred  and  forty  stadia, 
and  was  surrounded  by  seven  walls,  each  over- 
:opping  the  one  before  it,  and  crowned  with 
jattlements  of  different  colors  :  these  walls  uo 
onger  existed  in  the  tune  of  Polybius.  The 
citadel,  of  great  strength,  was  used  as  the  royal 
treasury.  Below  it  stood  a  magnificent  palace, 
;he  tiles  of  which  were  silver,  and  the  capitals, 
intablatures,  and  waiuscotings  of  silver  and 
old  ;  treasures  which  the  Seleucidze  coined  into 
money,  to  the  amount  of  four  thousand  talents 
The  circuit  of  this  place  was  seven  stadia. 


ECDIPPA. 


ECPHANTIDES. 


[ECDIPPA  CE/t&TTTra),  iQ  the  Old  Testament 
Acksib,  a  city  of  Palestine,  on  the  coast,  between 
Tyre  and  Ptoleaiais.] 

ECETRA  (Ecetrauus),  an  ancient  town  of  the 
Volsci,  and,  according  to  Diouysius,  the  capital 
of  this  people,  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  at 
an  early  period. 

[ECHECLES  ('ExEKtye}.  1.  Son  of  Actor,  and 
husband  of  Polymela. — 2.  Of  Ephesus,  a  Cynic 
philosopher,  pupil  of  Theombrotus.] 

[ECHECLUS  ('E^e/cAof).  1.  Son  of  Agenor, 
slain  by  Achilles. — 2.  Another  Trojan,  men- 
tioned in  the  Iliad,  slain  by  Patroclus.] 

[ECHECRATES  ('E^e/tpdr^f).  1.  Father  of  Eeti- 
on,  grandfather  of  Cypselus,  tyraut  of  Corinth. — 
2.  A  philosopher,  one  of  the  latest  of  the  Pytha- 
gorean school,  a  pupil  of  Archytas  at  Tareutum. 
When  the  Pythagoreans  were  persecuted  in 
Magna  Graeeia,  he  went  to  Rhegium,  and  thence 
to  Phlius.  This  is  the  same  as  the  one  men- 
tioned in  the  Phaedon  of  Plato  :  by  some  writers 
he  is  called  a  teacher  of  Plato.] 

[ECHECRATIDES  ('E^e/Cjoand^f).  1.  Father  of 
Orestes,  king  in  Tbessaly. — 2.  A  Sophist,  a 
friend  of  Phocion. — 3.  Of  Methymna  in  Lesbos, 
a  peripatetic  philosopher,  pupil  of  Aristotle.] 

ECHEDORCS  ('E^edwpof,  in  Herod.,  E^etdwp 
a  small  river  in  Macedonia,  rises  in  Crestonia, 
flows  through  Mygdonia,  and  falls  into  the  Ther- 
rnaic  Gulf. 

ECHKLID.S  ('E^eXWai :  'E^e/Udw),  an  Attic 
demus  east  of  Munychia,  called  after  a  hero 
Echelus. 

[ECHEMON  ('Ex'/ftuv),  a  son  of  Priam,  slain  by 
Diomedes.] 

ECHEMUS  ("Exepof),  sou  of  Aeropus  and  grand- 
son of  Cepheus,  succeeded  Lycurgus  as  king  of 
Arcadia.  In  his  reign  the  Dorians  invaded  Pe- 
loponnesus, and  Echemus  slew,  in  single  com- 
bat, Hyllus,  the  son  of  Hercules.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  battle,  which  was  fought  at  the 
Isthmus,  the  HeraclidcE  were  obliged  to  promise 
not  to  repeat  their  attempt  upon  Peloponnesus 
for  fifty  years. 

[ECIIENEUS  ('Exevr/o^  Od.),  the  oldest  of  the 
Phueaciau  nobles  at  the  court  of  Alcinous.] 

[ECHEPOLUS  ('E^cTruAof).  1.  A  Trojan,  son 
of  Thaiysius,  slain  by  Antilochus. — 2.  Son  of 
Anchises,  dwelt  in  Sicyon;  in  order  to  avoid 
going  against  Troy  with  the  Greeks,  he  sent  to 
Agamemnon  the  beautiful  mare  JSthe.] 

ECHESTRATUS  ('E^cffTparof),  king  of  Sparta, 
son  of  Agis  I.,  and  father  of  Labotas  or  Leobotes. 

KCHETLA  ('Exirt.a),  a  town  in  Sicily,  west  of 
Syracuse,  in  the  mountains. 

ECHKTUS  ('E^trof),  a  cruel  king  of  Epirus. 
His  daughter,  Metope  or  Amphissa,  who  had 
yielded  to  her  lover  ^Echmodicus,  was  blinded 
by  her  father,  and  ^Echmodicus  was  cruelly  mu- 
tilnted. 

ECHIDNA  ("Extdvd),  daughter  of  Tartarus  and 
Terra  (Ge),  or  of  Chrysaor  and  Callirrhoe,  or 
of  Peiras  and  Styx.  The  upper  part  of  her  body 
was  that  of  a  beautiful  maiden  with  black  eyes, 
while  the  lower  part  was  that  of  a  serpent,  of 
a  vast  size.  She  was  a  horrible  ana  blood- 
thirsty monster.  She  became  by  Typhon  the 
mother  of  the  Chimaera,  of  the  many-headed 
dog  Orthus,  of  the  hundred-headed  dragon  who 
guarded  the  apples  of  the  Hesperides,  of  the 
Colchiau  dragon,  of  the  Snhinx,  of  Cerberus 


(hence  called  Echidneus  cams),  of  Scylla,  of 
Gorgon,  of  the  Lernaean  Hydra  (Echidna  Lev- 
ncea),  of  the  eagle  which  consumed  the  liver  of 
Prometheus,  and  of  the  Nemean  lion.  She  was 
killed  in  her  sleep  by  Argus  Panoptes.  Accord- 
ing to  Hesiod,  she  lived  with  Typhon  in  a 
cave  in  the  country  of  the  Arimi,  but  anoth- 
er tradition  transported  her  to  Scythia,  where 
she  became  by  Hercules  the  mother  of  Aga- 
thyrsus,  Gelonus,  and  Scythe's.  (Herod.,  iv., 
8-10.) 

ECHINADES  ('Exivddef  or  'Exlvai :  now  Cur- 
zolari),  a  group  of  small  islands  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Achelous,  belonging  to  Acarnania,  said 
to  have  been  formed  by  the  alluvial  deposits  of 
the  Achelous.  The  legend  related  that  they 
were  originally  nymphs,  who  dwelt  on  the  main 
hind  at  the  mouth  of  the  Achelous,  and  that,  on 
one  occasion,  having  forgotten  to  present  any 
offerings  to  the  god  Achelous  when  they  sac- 
rificed to  the  other  gods,  the  river-god,  in  wrath, 
tore  them  away  from  the  main  land  with  the 
ground  on  which  they  were  sacrificing,  carried 
them  out  to  sea,  and  formed  them  into  islands. 
The  Echiuades  appear  to  have  derived  their 
name  from  their  resemblance  to  the  Echinus 
or  sea-urchin.  The  largest  of  these  islands 
was  named  DULICHIUM  (Aow/U^tov).  It  is  men- 
tioned by  Homer,  and  from  it  Meges,  son  of 
Phyleus,  went  to  the  Trojan  war.  At  the  pres- 
ent day  it  is  united  to  the  main  land. 

[ECHINUS  ('Exivof  :  now  Ackina),  a  town  and 
promontory  in  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly.] 

ECHION  ('Exiuv).  1.  One  of  the  five  surviving 
Sparti  who  had  grown  up  from  the  dragon's 
teeth  which  Cadmus  had  sown.  He  married 
Agave,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Pen- 
theus :  he  assisted  Cadmus  in  the  building  of 
Thebes. — 2.  Son  of  Mercury  (Hermes)  and  An- 
tianlra,  twin-brother  of  Erytus  or  Eurytus,  with 
whom  he  took  part  in  the  Calydonian  hunt  and 
in  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts. — 3.  A  cel- 
ebrated Grecian  painter,  flourished  B.C.  352. 
One  of  his  most  noted  pictures  was  Semiramis 
passing  from  the  state  of  a  handmaid  to  that  of 
a  queen ;  in  this  picture  the  modesty  of  the  new 
bride  was  admirably  depicted.  The  picture  in 
the  Vatican,  known  as  "  the  Aldobrandini  Mar- 
riage," is  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  copy  iron. 
the  "  Bride"  of  Echion. 

ECHO  ('H^w),  an  Oreade,  who,  according  to 
the  legend  related  by  Ovid,  used  to  keep  Juuo 
engaged  by  incessantly  talking  to  her  while  Ju- 
piter was  sporting  with  the  nymphs.  Juno, 
however,  found  out  the  trick  that  was  played 
upon  her,  and  punished  Echo  by  changing  her 
into  an  echo,  that  is,  a  being  with  no  control 
over  its  tongue,  which  is  neither  able  to  speak 
before  any  body  else  has  spoken,  nor  to  be  silent 
when  some  body  else  has  spoken.  Echo  in  this 
state  fell  desperately  in  love  with  Narcissus; 
but  as  her  love  was  not  returned,  she  pined 
away  in  grief,  so  that,  in  the  end,  there  remain- 
ed nothing  of  her  but  her  voice.  (Ov.,  Met., 
iii,  356-401.) 

[ECNOMUS  MONS  ('EKvoftoc  fa'xpof),  a  mountain 
nenr  Gela,  in  Sicily,  where  Phalam  had  a  castle, 
in  which  was  kept  the  celebrated  brazen  bull  ] 

ECTHANTIDES  ('Ex^ovrttJi/f),  one  of  the  earliest 
poets  of  the  old  Attic  comedy,  flourished  about 
B.C.  460,  a  little  before  Cratinus.  The  mean 
275 


ECPHANTUS. 

ing  of  the  surname  of  Ka;n>taf,  which  was  given 
to  him  by  his  rivals,  seems  to  imply  a  mixture 
of  subtilty  and  obscurity.  He  ridiculed  the 
rudeness  of  the  old  Megaric  comedy,  and  was 
himself  ridiculed  on  the  same  ground  by  Cra- 
tinus  and  Aristophanes.  [The  few  fragments 
of  his  plays  remaining  are  given  in  Meineke, 
Fragm.  Comic  Grccc.,  voL  i.,  p.  6-7,  edit,  minor.] 
[ECPHANTUS  (*Eic<f>avTOf),  of  Thasos,  was  at  the 
head  of  the  party  which,  in  the  twenty-third  year 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  aided  Thrasybulus  in 
gaining  Thasos  and  certain  cities  of  Thrace.] 

EDESSA  or  ANTIOCHIA  CALLIRRHOE  ('Edeaaa, 
'AvTioxeta  r)  eirl  KaUififiot},  or  'A.  [iii;o6dp6apof  : 
in  the  Old  Testament,  Ur :  now  Urfah),  a  very 
ancient  city  in  the  north  of  Mesopotamia,  the 
capital  of  Osroene,  and  the  seat  of  an  independ- 
ent kingdom  from  B.C.  137  to  A.D.  216.  Vid. 
ABGARUS.  It  stood  on  the  River  Scirtus  or  Bar- 
desanes,  which  often  inundated  and  damaged 
the  city.  It  was  here  that  Caracalla  was  mur- 
dered. Having  suffered  by  an  earthquake  in 
the  reign  of  Justin  I.,  the  city  was  rebuilt  and 
named  Justinopolis.  The  Edessa  of  Strabo  is 
evidently  a  different  place,  namely,  the  city 
usually  called  Bambyce  or  Hierapolis. 

EDETANI  or  SEDETANI,  a  people  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  east  of  the  Celtiberi.  Their 
chief  towns  were  VALENCIA,  SAGUNTUM,  C^ESAE- 
AUOOSTA,  and  Edeta,  also  called  Liria  (now 
Isyria). 

EDONI  or  EDONES  ('Hduvoi  'Hduvef),  &  Thra- 
cian  people,  between  the  Nestus  and  the  Stry- 
mon.  They  were  celebrated  for  their  orgiastic 
worship  of  Bacchus ;  whence  EDONIS  in  the 
Latin  poets  signifies  a  female  Bacchante,  and 
Horace  says  (Garm^  ii.,  7,  26),  Non  ego  sanius 
bacchabor  Edonis.  The  poete  frequently  use 
Edoni  as  synonymous  with  Thracians. 

EETION  ('Heriuv).  1.  King  of  the  Hypo-Pla- 
cian  Thebe  in  Cilicia,  and  father  of  Andromache, 
the  wife  of  Hector.  He  and  seven  of  his  sons 
were  slain  by  Achilles  when  the  Litter  took 
Thebe. — [2.  King  of  Imbros,  guest-friend  of 
Lycaon,  whom  Achilles  bad  taken  prisoner  and 
sold;  Eetion  ransomed  him  and  sent  him  to 
Arisbe. — 3.  Father  of  Cypselus,  the  tyrant  of 
Corinth.] 

EGELASTA,  a  town  of  the  Celtiberi  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis. 

EGERIA.      Vid.  JEGERIA. 

EGESTA.     Vid.  SEGESTA, 

EGNATIA  (now  Torre  d'Anazzo),  a  town  in 
Apulia,  on  the  coast,  called  GNATIA  by  Horace 
(Sat^  i.,  5,  97),  who  speaks  of  it  as  Lymphit 
(i.  e,  Nymphis),  iratia  exstructa,  probably  on  ac- 
count of  its  bad  or  deficient  supply  of  water. 
It  was  celebrated  for  its  miraculous  stone  or 
altar,  which  of  itself  set  on  fire  frankincense 
and  wood ;  a  prodigy  which  afforded  amuse- 
ment to  Horace  and  his  friends,  who  looked 
upon  it  as  a  mere  trick.  Egnatia  owed  its  chief 
importance  to  being  situated  on  the  great  high 
road  from  Rome  to  Brundisium.  This  road 
reached  the  sea  at  Egnatia,  and  from  this  town 
to  Brundisium  it  bore  the  name  of  the  VIA 
EGNATIA.  The  continuation  of  this  road  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Adriatic  from  Dyrrhachium  to 
Byzantium  also  bore  the  name  of  the  Via  Egna- 
tia. It  was  the  great  miliiary  road  between 
Italy  and  the  east.  Commjncing  at  Dyrrha- 
276 


ELAGABALUS. 

chium,  it  passed  by  Lvchnidus,  Heraclea,  Lyn 
cestis,  Edessa,  Thessalonica,  Amphipolis,  Phi 
lippi,  and,  traversing  the  whole  of  Thrace,  final 
ly  reached  Byzantium. 

EGNATII,  a  family  of  Samnite  origin,  some  of 
whom  settled  at  Teanum.  1.  GELLIUS  EGNATI 
us,  kader  of  the  Samuites  in  the  third  Samuite 
war,  fell  in  battle  against  the  Romans  B.C.  295. 
— 2.  MARIUS  EGNATIL-S,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Italian  allies  in  the  Social  War,  was  killed 
in  battle,  89.— 3.  M.  EGNATIUS  RUFUS,  aedile  20 
and  praetor  19,  was  executed  in  the  following 
year  in  consequence  of  his  having  formed  u 
conspiracy  against  the  life  of  Augustus. — 4.  P 
EGNATIUS  CELER.  Vid.  BAREA. 

EION  ('Hcuv  :  'Hlovevf  :  now  Contessa  or  Ren- 
dina),  a  town  in  Thrace,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Strymon,  twenty-five  stadia  from  Amphipolis, 
of  which  it  was  the  harbor.  Brasidas,  after 
obtaining  possession  of  Amphipolis,  attempted 
to  seize  Eion  also, /but  was  prevented  by  the  ar- 
rival of  Thucydides  with  an  Athenian  fleet,  B.C. 
424. 

EIONES  ('Hiovtf),  a  town  in  Argolis,  with  a 
harbor,  subject  to  Mycenae  in  the  time  of  Homer, 
but  not  mentioned  in  later,  times. 

[EIONEUS  ('HiovEvf).  1.  A  Greek,  slain  by 
Hector  before  Troy. — 2.  A  Thracian,  father  of 
Rhesus. — 3.  Son  of  Magnes,  one  of  the  suitors 
of  Hippodamia.] 

ELJEA  ('EAata :  now  Kazlu),  an  ancient  city 
on  the  coast  of  .^Eolis  in  Asia  Minor,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Mnestheus,  stood  twelve 
stadia  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Caicus,  and  on* 
hundred  and  twenty  stadia  (or  sixteen  Romar 
miles)  from  Pergamus,  to  which  city,  in  the  time 
of  the  Pergamene  kingdom,  it  served  for  a  har- 
bor (k-xivELov).  It  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  B.C.  90.  The  gulf  wi  which  it  stood, 
which  forms  a  part  of  the  great  Gulf  of  Adra- 
my ttiuin,  was  named  after '  it  Sinus  Elaitieus 
('E/lam/c6f  /co/ljrof ,  now  Gulf  of  Chandeli). 

EL.EUS  ('Elcuovf,  -ovvrof :  'Ehaiovoiof).  1. 
Or  ELEUS  ('E/UoiJf  :  now  Critia),  a  town  on  the 
southeast  point  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese, 
with  a  harbor  and  a  heroum  of  Protesilaus. — 
2.  (Now  Me&olonghi),  a  town  of  ^Etolia,  south 
of  Pleuron. — 3.  A  town  in  Argolis. — 4.  A  de- 
mus  in  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Hippo tho- 
ontis. 

ELAGABALUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D.  218-222, 
son  of  Julia  Soamias  and  Varius  Marcellus,  was 
born  at  Emesa  about  205,  and  was  originally  call- 
ed VARIUS  AVITUS  BASSIANUS.  While  almost  a 
child,  he  became,  along  with  his  first  cousin 
Alexander  Severus,  priest  of  Elagabalus,  the 
Syro-Phcenician  Sun-god,  to  whose  worship  a 
temple  was  dedicated  in  his  native  city.  It  was 
from  this  circumstance  that  be  obtained  the 
name  Elagabalus,  by  which  he  is  usually  known. 
He  owed  his  elevation  to  the  purple  to  the  in- 
trigues of  his  grandmother  Julia  Mresa,  who 
circulated  the  report  that  Elagabalus  was  the 
offspring  of  a  secret  commerce  between  S&miaa 
and  Caracalla,  and  induced  the  troops  ir»  Syria 
to  salute  him  as  their  sovereign  by  the  title  of 
M.  AURELIUS  ANTONINUS,  the  16th  of  May,  218. 
Macrintis  forthwith  marched  against  Elagaba- 
lus, but  was  defeated  near  Antioch,  June  8th. ' 
and  was  shortly  afterward  put  to  death.  Ela 
;rabalus  was  now  acknowledged  as  emperor 


ELANA. 


ELEUSIS. 


by  the  senate,  and  in  the  following  year  came ; 
to  Rome.  The  reign  of  this  prince,  who  per- 
ished at  the  age  of  eighteen,  after  having  oc- 
cupied the  throne  nearly  four  years,  was  char- 
acterized throughout  by  an  accumulation  of  the 
most  fantastic  folly  and  superstition,  together 
with  impurity  s»  bestial  that  the  particulars 
almost  transcend  the  limits  of  credibility.  In 
221  he  adopted  his  first  cousin  Alexander  Se- 
verus,  and  proclaimed  him  Caesar.  Having  be- 
come jealous  of  Alexander,  he  attempted  to  put 
him  to  death,  but  was  himself  slain,  along  with 
his  mother  Scemias,  by  the  soldiers,  with  whom 
Alexander  was  a  great  favorite. 

ELAXA.     Vid.  ^ELANA. 

ELARA  ('EAopa),  daughter  of  Orchomenus  or 
Minyas,  bore  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  the  giant  Tityus. 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  from  fear  of  Juno  (Hera),  con- 
cealed her  under  the  earth. 

[ELASUS  ("E/.a<70f),  a  Trojan,  slain  by  Patro- 
clus.j 

EL  ATE  A  ('E?MTEia  :  'E^aretif).  1.  (Ruins  near 
Elephtkd),  a  town  in  Phocis,  and  the  most  im- 
portant place  in  the  country  next  to  Delphi,  was 
situated  near  the  Cephisus  in  a  fertile  valley, 
which  was  an  important  pass  from  Thessaly  to 
Boeotia.  Elutea  was  thus  frequently  exposed 
to  hostile  attacks.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Elatus,  son  of  Areas. — 2.  A  town  in 
Pelasgiotis  in  Thessaly,  near  Gonni. — 3.  Or 
ELATREA,  a  town  in  Epirus,  near  the  sources 
of  the  Cocytus. 

ELATUS  (*E/larof).  1.  Son  of  Areas  and  Le- 
anira,  king  of  Arcadia,  husband  of  Laodice,  and 
father  of  Stymphalus,  JSpytus,  Cyllen,  and  Pe- 
reus.  He  resided  on  Mount  Cyllene,  and  went 
from  thence  to  Phocis,  where  he  founded  the 
town  of  Elatea, — 2.  A  prince  of  the  Lapithae  at 
Larissa  in  Thessaly,  husband  of  Hippea,  aad 
lather  of  Casneus  and  Polyphemus.  He  is 
sometimes  confounded  with  the  Arcadian  Ela- 
tus.— [3.  An  ally  of  the  Trojans,  slain  by  Aga- 
memnon.— 4.  One  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope, 
mentioned  in  the  Odyssey.] 

ELAVER,  (now  Allier),  subsequently  Elaris  or 
Elauris,  a  river  in  Aquitania,  a  tributary  of  the 
Liger. 

ELBO  ('E/l&j),  an  island  on  the  coast  of  the 
Delta  in  Egypt,  in  the  midst  of  the  marshes  be- 
Iween  the  Phatnitic  and  the  Tanitic  mouths  of 
the  Nile,  was  the  retreat  of  the  blind  Pharaoh 
Anysis  from  the  -^Ethiopian  Sabaco,  and  after- 
ward of  Amyrtaeus  from  the  Persians. 

ELBA.     Vid  VELIA. 

ELECTRA  ('H/^tcrpa),  «. «.,  the  bright  or  brill- 
iant one.  1.  Daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys, 
wife  of  Thaumas,  and  mother  of  Iris  and  the 
Harpies,  Aello  and  Ocypete. — 2.  Daughter  of 
Atlas  and  Ple'ione,  one  of  the  seven  Pleiades, 
and  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  mother  of  lasioo  and  Dar- 
danus. According  to  an  Italian  tradition,  she 
was  the  wife  of  the  Italian  king  Corythus,  by 
whom  she  had  a  son  lasiou ;  whereas  by  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus)  she  was  the  mother  of  Dardanus.  It 
was  through  her  means,  according  to  another 
tradition,  that  the  Palladium  came  to  Troy  ;  and 
when  she  saw  the  city  of  her  son  Dardanus 
perishing  in  flames,  she  tore  out  her  hair  for 
grief,  and  was  placed  among  the  stars  as  a 
comet  According  to  others,  Electra  mid  her 
six  sisters  were  placed  among  the  stars  as  the 


seven  Pleiades,  and  lost  their  brilliancy  on  see- 
ing the  destruction  of  Ilium. — 3.  Sister  of  Cad 
mus,  from  whom  the  Electrian  gate  at  Thebes 
was  said  to  have  received  its  name. — i.  Daugh- 
ter of  Agamemnon  and  Clytaemnestra,  also  call 
ed  Laodice,  sister  of  Iphigenia  and  Orestes. 
After  the  murder  of  her  lather  by  her  mother, 
she  saved  the  life  of  her  young  brother  Orestes 
by  sending  him,  under  the  protection  of  a  slave, 
to  King  Strophius  at  Phanote  in  Phocis,  who  had 
the  boy  educated  together  with  his  own  son 
Pylades.  When  Orestes  had  grown  up  to  man- 
hood, Electra  excited  him  to  avenge  the  death 
of  Agamemnon,  and  assisted  him  in  slaying 
their  mother,  Clytsemnestra.  Vid.  OKESTES. 
After  the  death  of  the  latter,  Orestes  gave  her 
in  marriage  to  his  friend  Pylades.  The  history 
and  character  of  Electra  form  the  subject  of  the 
"  Cboephori"  of  ^Eschylus,  the  "  Electra"  of 
Euripides,  and  the  "  Electra"  of  Sophocles. 

ELECTRIDES  INSULT     Vid.  ERIDANUS. 

ELECTRYON  ('HAe/crpuwv),  son  of  Perseus  and 
Andromeda,  king  of  Mycenae,  husband  of  Anaxo, 
and  father  of  Alcmene,  the  wife  of  Amphitryon. 
For  details,  vid.  AMPHITRYON. 

ELECTRYONE  ('HheKTpvuvi/).  1.  Daughter  of 
Helios  and  Rhodos. — 2.  A  patronymic  from 
Electryon,  given  to  his  daughter  Alcmene. 

ELEON  ('E/Uwv),  a  town  in  Bceotia,  near  Ta- 
nagra. 

ELEOS  ("EAeof),  the  personification  of  pity  or 
mercy,  worshipped  by  the  Athenians  alone. 

ELEPHANTINE  or  ELEPHANTIS  ('Efo^avrtvj?, 
'EheQavrif  :  now  Jezirah-el-Zahir  or  Jezirah-el- 
Assouan),  an  island  in  the  Nile,  with  a  city  of 
the  same  name,  opposite  to  Syene,  and  seven 
stadia  below  the  Little  Cataract,  was  the  fron- 
tier station  of  Egypt  toward  ./Ethiopia,  and  was 
strongly  garrisoned  under  the  Persians  and  the 
Romans.  The  island  was  extremely  fertile,  the 
vine  and  the  fig-tree  never  shedding  their 
leaves :  it  had  also  great  quarries.  Among  the 
most  remarkable  objects  in  it  were  the  temple 
of  Cnuphis  and  a  Nilometer ;  and  it  is  still  cel- 
ebrated for  the  ruins  of  its  rock-hewn  temples. 

ELEPHANTIS,  a  Greek  poetess  under  the  early 
Roman  emperors,  wrote  certain  amatory  works 
(molles  Elephantidos  libelli\  which  are  referred 
to  by  Martial  and  Suetonius. 

ELEPHENOR  ('EfaQqvup),  son  of  Chalcodon 
and  of  Imenare"te  or  Melanippe,  and  prince  of 
the  Abantes  in  Eubcea,  whom  he  led  against 
Troy.  He  was  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen :  he 
was  killed  before  Troy  by  Agenor. 

ELEUSIS  ('Ehevaif,  later  'EZevaiv  :  'EZevaivtof : 
now  Lcosina  or  Lessina).  1.  A  town  and  demus 
of  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Hippothoontis, 
was  situated  northwest  of  Athens,  on  the  coast, 
near  the  frontiers  of  Megara.  It  possessed  a 
magnificent  temple  of  Ceres  (Demeter),  and  it 
gave  its  name  to  the  great  festival  and  myste- 
ries of  the  Eleusinia,  which  were  celebrated  in 
honor  of  Ceres  (Demeter),  and  Proserpina  (Per- 
sephone). The  Eleusinia  were  originally  a  fes- 
tival peculiar  to  Eleusis,  which  was  an  inde- 
pendent state ;  but  after  the  Eleusiuians  had 
been  conquered  by  the  Athenians  in  the  reigo 
of  Ercchtueus,  according  to  tradition,  the  Eleu- 
sinia became  a  festival  common  to  both  cities, 
though  the  superintendence  of  the  festival  re 
maiued  with  the  descendants  of  Eumolpus,  the 
277 


ELEUTHER^E. 

king  of  Eleusis.  For  an  account  of  the  festival, 
vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  art.  ELEUSINJA. — [2.  A  pluce 
in  Egypt,  not  far  from  Alexandrea,  on  the  Lake 
Mareohs;  it  was  so  called  from  Eleusis  in 
Attica] 

ELSUTHER.E  ('Ehevdepai :  'Ehevdepevf),  a  town 
in  Attica,  on  the  frontiers  of  Bosotia,  originally 
belonged  to  the  Boeotian  confederacy,  and  after- 
ward voluntarily  united  itself  to  Attica. 

ELEUTHERIUS  ('Ehevdepiof),  a  surname  of  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  as  the  Deliverer.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant., 
art.  ELEUTHERIA. 

ELECTHERNA  ('EfevOepva :  'EhevOepvalof),  a 
town  in  the  interior  of  Crete. 

ELEUTHKEUS  ('EhcvOepof :  now  Nahr-el-Kebir, 
i.  e.,  Great  River),  a  river  forming  the  boundary 
between  Syria  and  Phoenice,  rose  in  Mount  Bar- 
gylus,  the  northern  prolongation  of  Lebanon, 
•uid  fell  into  the  sea  between  Antaradus  and 
Tripolis. 

ELICIUS,  a  surname  of  Jupiter  at  Rome,  where 
King  Numa  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Elicius  an  altar 
on  the  Aventine.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  re- 
ferred to  the  Etruscans,  who  by  certain  prayers 
and  sacrifices  called  forth  (eliciebant  or  evoca- 
bant)  lightning,  or  invited  Jupiter  to  send  light- 
ning. The  object  of  calling  down  lightning  was, 
according  to  Livy's  explanation,  to  elicit  prodi- 
gies (ad  prodigia  elicienda,  Liv.,  i.,  20). 

ELIMBERRUM.     Vid.  AUSCL 

ELIMKA,  -IA,  or  ELIMEOTIS  ('E/U/ieta,  'E/u//ta, 
'EXi(j.tuTie),  a  district  of  Macedonia,  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Epirus  and  Thessaly,  originally  belonged 
to  Illyria,  and  was  bounded  by  the  Cambunian 
Mountains  on  the  south  and  the  Tymphaean 
Mountains  on  the  west.  Its  inhabitants,  the 
ELIMJEI  ('Efaiftiurai),  were  Epirots. 

ELIS  ('H/Uf,  Dor.  'A/ltf,  'H/Wa :  'HAeZof.  Dor. 
'AAtof,  whence  Alii  in  Plautus),  a  country  on 
the  western  coast  of  Peloponnesus,  bounded  by 
Achaia  on  the  north,  Arcadia  on  the  east,  Mes- 
aenia  on  the  south,  and  the  Ionian  Sea  on  the 
west.  The  country  was  fertile,  watered  by  the 
ALPHEUS  and  its  tributaries,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  only  country  in  Greece  which  produ- 
ced flax.  The  PEXEUS  is  the  only  other  river 
in  Elis  of  any  importance.  Elis  was  divided 
into  three  parts  :  1.  ELIS  PROPER,  or  HOLLOW 
ELIS  (r)  K.oi%7i  TH?.tf),  the  northern  part,  watered 
by  the  Peneus,  of  which  the  capital  was  also 
called  Elis. — 2.  PISATIS  (TJ  UtauTif),  the  middle 
portion,  of  which  the  capital  was  PISA. — 3.  TRI- 
PHYLIA  (rj  TpiQvhia),  the  southern  portion,  of 
which  PVLOS  was  the  capital,  lay  between  the 
Alpheus  and  the  Neda.  In  the  horoic  times  we 
find  the  kingdom  of  Nestor  and  the  Pelldae  in 
the  south  of  Elis,  while  the  north  of  the  coun- 
try was  inhabited  by  the  Epeans  ('Eireiot),  with 
whom  some  JStolian  tribes  were  mingled.  On 
the  conquest  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Heraclidaa, 
the  Jitolian  chief  Oxylus  received  Elis  as  his 
share  of  the  conquest ;  and  it  was  the  union  of 
bis  JStolian  and  Dorian  followers  with  the  Epe- 
ans which  formed  the  subsequent  population  of 
the  country,  under  the  general  name  of  Eleaiis. 
Elis  owed  its  importance  in  Greece  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  at  Olympia  near  Pisa,  in 
honor  of  whom  a  splendid  festival  was  held 
every  four  years.  Vid.  OLYMPIA.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  festival  being  common  to  the 
whole  of  Greece,  the  country  of  Elis  was  de 
278 


ELYMUS. 

clared  sacred,  and  its  inhabitants  possessed 
priestly  privileges.  Being  exempt  from  war  and 
the  dangers  of  invasion,  the  Elcans  became 
prosperous  and  wealthy ;  their  towns  -were  un- 
walled,  and  their  country  was  richly  cultivated. 
The  prosperity  of  their  country  was  ruined  by 
the  Peloponnesian  war ;  the'  Athenians  were 
the  first  to  disregard  the  sanctity  of  the  country ; 
and  from  that  time  it  frequently  had  to  take  part 
in  the  other  contests  of  the  Greeks.  The  town 
of  Elis  was  situated  on  the  Peneus,  and  was 
built  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  war  by  the  in- 
habitants of  eight  villages,  who  united  together, 
and  thus  formed  one  town.  It  originally  had 
no  walls,  being  sacred  like  the  rest  of  the  coun- 
try, but  subsequently  it  was  fortified.  The  in- 
habitants of  Elis  formed  a  close  alliance  with 
the  Spartans,  and  by  their  means  destroyed  the 
rival  city  of  Pisa,  and  became  the  ruling  city  in 
the  country,  B.C.  572.  In  the  Peloponnesian 
war  they  quarrelled  with  the  Spartans  because 
the  latter  had  espoused  the  cause  of  Leprsenm, 
which  had  revolted  from  Elis.  The  Eleans  re- 
taliated upon  the  Spartans  by  excluding  them 
from  the  Olympic  games. 

ELISO.      Vid.  ALISO. 

ELISSA.     Vid.  DIDO. 

ELLOPIA  ('E/lAo7ua).  1  A  district  in  the  north 
of  Euboaa,  near  the  promontory  Censeum,.  with 
a  town  of  the  same  name,  which  disappeared  at 
an  early  period :  the  whole  island  of  Eubcea  is 
sometimes  called  Ellopia. — 2.  An  ancient  name 
of  the  district  about  Dodona  in  Epirus. 

[ELLOPS  {"EAAo^),  son  of  Ion  or  Tithonus, 
from  whom  Ellopia  was  fabled  to  have  derived 
its  name.] 

ELONE  ('HAwvj?),  a  town  of  the  Perrhaibi  iv 
Thessaly,  afterward  called  Limone  (AeiftuvTj). 

'ELPENOR  CEfaifvup),  one  of  the  companions 
of  Ulysses,  who  were  metamorphosed  by  Circe 
into  swine,  and  afterward  back  into  men.  In- 
toxicated with  wine,  Elpenor  one  day  fell  asleep 
on  the  roof  of  Circe's  residence,  and  in  his  at- 
tempt to  rise  he  fell  down  and  broke  his  neck. 
When  Ulysses  was  in  the  lower  world,  he  met 
the  shade  of  Elpenor,  who  implored  him  to  burn 
his  body.  After  his  return  to  the  upper  world, 
Ulysses  complied  with  this  request  of  his  friend. 

ELPINICE  ('EATUtwcj?),  daughter  of  Miltiades, 
and  sister  of  Cimon,  married  Callias.  Vid.  CAL 
LIAS. 

ELUSATES,  a  people  in  Aquitania,  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  country.  Their  chief  town  was 
ELUSA  (near  Euse  or  Eause).  It  was  the  birth 
place  of  Rufinus,  the  minister  of  Arcadius. 

ELYJLEI,  ELYMI.     Vid.  ELYMAIS. 

ELYMAIS,  a  district  of  Susiana,  extending  from 
the  River  Eulaeus  on  the  west  to  the  Oroatis  oa 
the  east,  derived  its  name  from  the  Elymaei  or 
Elymi  (ETcvpaloi,  "Elivfioi),  a  warlike  and  pred- 
atory people,  who  are  also  found  in  the  mount- 
ains of  Great  Media  :  in  the  Persian  armies  they 
served  as  archers.  These  Elymaei  were  prob- 
ably among  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
countiy  north  of  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf: 
in  the  Old  Testament  Suaiana  is  called  £lam. 

ELYMI.     Vid.  ELYMUS,  ELYMAIS. 

ELYMUS  ('E/li^of),  a  Trojan,  natural  son  of 
Anchises  and  brother  of  Eryx.  Previous  to  the 
emigration  of  ./Eneas,  Elymus  and  ^gestns  had 
fled  from  Troy  to  Sicily,  and  had  settled  on  the 


ELYRUS. 


EMPORl^E 


banks  of  the  River  Crimisus.  When  afterward 
^Eneas  also  arrived  there,  he  built  for  them  the 
towns  of  ^Egesta  and  Elyme.  The  Trojans  who 
settled  in  that  part  of  Sicily  called  themselves 
Elymi,  after  Elymus. 

ELYRUS  ("E/tvpof),  a  town  in  the  west  of 
Crete,  south  of  Cydonia. 

ELYSIUM  ('HXiiciov  nediov,  later  simply  'HAiJ- 
aiov\  the  Ely  dan  fields.  In  Homer  (Od.,  iv., 
663)  Elysium  forms  no  part  of  the  realms  of 
the  dead  ;  he  places  it  on  the  west  of  the  earth, 
near  Ocean,  and  describes  it  as  a  happy  land, 
where  thert  is  neither  snow,  nor  cold,  nor  rain, 
and  always  fanned  by  the  delightful  breezes  of 
Zephyrus.  Hither  favored  heroes,  like  Mene- 
lausv  pass  without  dying,  and  live  happy  under 
the  rule  of  Rhadamanthys.  The  Elysium  of 
Hesiod  and  Pindar  are  in  the  Isles  of  the  Bless- 
ed (fiaKiipuv  vjjooi),  which  they  place  in  the 
Ocean.  From  these  legends  arose  the  fabulous 
island  of  ATLANTIS.  The  Elysium  of  Virgil  is 
part  of  the  lower  world,  and  the  residence  of 
the  shades  of  the  Blessed. 

EMATHIA  ('H/naOia  :  'HfiaOievf),  a  district  of 
Macedonia,  between  the  Haliacmon  and  the 
Axius,  formerly  part  of  Paeonia,  and  the  original 
seat  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy.  The  poets 
frequently  give  the  name  of  Emathia  to  the 
whole  of  Macedonia,  and  sometimes  even  to  the 
neighboring  Thessaly. 

EMATHIDES,  the  nine  daughters  of  Pier  us,  king 
of  Emathia. 

EMATHION*  ('H/taBiuv).  1.  Son  of  Tithonus  and 
Aurora  (Eos),  brother  of  Memnon,  was  slain  by 
Hercules. — [2.  An  old  man,  slain  by  Chromis 
at  the  nuptials  of  Perseus. — 3.  A  Trojan,  slain 
by  Liges  in  Italy.] 

EMBOLIMA  ('Epfiofafta),  a  city  of  the  Paropa- 
misadie  in  Northern  India,  near  the  fortress  of 
Aornos,  sixteen  days'  march  from  the  Indus 
(Q.  Curt). 

[EMEEITA.     Vid.  AUGUSTA  EMERITA.] 

EMESA  or  EMISSA  ('Eftcaa,  "Efttaaa :  'Efteajj- 
vof :  now  Hums  or  Hams),  a  city  of  Syria,  on 
the  eastern  bauk  of  the  Orontes,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Apamene,  but  afterward  the  capital  of 
Phffinice  Libanesia,  was  in  Strabo's  time  the 
residence  of  independent  Arabian  princes  ;  but 
under  Caracalla  it  was  made  a  colony  with  the 
Jus  Italicum.  It  is  a  remarkable  place  in  the 
history  of  the  Roman  empire,  being  the  native 
city  of  Julia  Dorana,  the  wife  of  Septimius  Se- 
verus,  of  Elagabalus,  who  exchanged  the  high 
priesthood  of  the  celebrated  temple  of  the  Sun 
in  this  city  for  the  imperial  purple,  and  of  the 
Emperor  Alexander  Severus ;  and  also  the  scene 
of  tne  decisive  battle  between  Aurelian  and 
Zenobia,  A.D.  273. 

[KMMAI.S  ('E^fiaovf :  now  Amwas,  near  Lat- 
ron),  a  town  of  Palestine,  on  the  road  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Joppa,  about  ten  miles  from  Lydda : 
under  the  Romans  it  was  called  NICOPOLIS.] 

EMMKNID^E  ('E///iei'«5<u),  a  princely  family  at 
Agrigentum,  which  traced  their  origin  to  the 
mythical  hero  Polynices.  Among  its  members 
we  know  Emmemdes  (from  whom  the  family 
derived  its  name),  the  father  of  JBnesidamus, 
•whose  sons,  Thcron  and  Xenocrates,  are  cele- 
brated by  Pindar  as  victors  at  the  great  games 
of  Greece. 

EMODI  MONIES,  or  EMODUS,  or  -K?  IT  -ON  (rd 


'H//u<5<l  opt),  TO  'Hfiuddv  opof,  or  6  'H/zwJof  .  now 
Himalaya  Mountains),  a  range  of  mountains 
north  of  India,  forming  the  prolongation  east 
ward  of  the  Paropamisus. 

EMPEDOCLES  ('E//7redoK^f),  of  Agrigeutum  in 
Sicily,  flourished  about  B.C.  444.  Although  he 
was  descended  from  an  ancient  and  wealthy 
family,  he  joined  the  revolution  in  which  Thras- 
ydaeus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Theron,  was 
expelled.  His  zeal  in  the  establishment  of  po- 
litical equality  is  said  to  have  been  manifested 
by  his  magnanimous  support  of  the  poor,  by  his 
severity  in  persecuting  the  overbearing  conduct 
of  the  aristocrats,  and  in  his  declining  the  sov- 
ereignty which  was  offered  to  him.  His  bril- 
liant oratory,  his  penetrating  knowledge  of  na- 
ture, and  the  reputation  of  his  marvellous  pow- 
ers, which  he  had  acquired  by  curing  diseases, 
by  his  successful  exertions  in  removing  marshy 
districts  and  in  averting  epidemics  and  obnox- 
ious winds,  spread  a  lustre  around  his  name. 
He  was  called  a  magician  (yoijc),  and  he  appears 
to  have  attributed  to  himself  miraculous  powers. 
He  travelled  in  Greece  and  Italy,  and  made 
some  stay  at  Athens.  His  death  is  said  to  have 
been  marvellous,  like  his  life.  One  tradition 
represented  him  as  having  been  removed  from 
the  earth  like  a  divine  being,  and  another  re- 
lated that  he  threw  himself  into'the  flames  of 
Mount  ^Etna,  that  by  his  sudden  disappearance 
he  might  be  believed  to  be  a  god  ;  but  it  was  add- 
ed that  the  volcano  threw  up  one  of  his  sandals, 
and  thus  revealed  the  manner  of  his  death.  The 
rhetorician  Gorgias  was  a  disciple  of  Emped- 
ocles. The  works  of  Empedocles  were  all  in 
verse.  The  two*  most  important  were  a  didac- 
tic poem  on  nature  (Tlepl  Qvaeuf),  of  which  con- 
siderable fragments  are  extant,  and  a  poem, 
entitled  ~K.a6apfj.oi,  which  seems  to  have  recom- 
mended good  moral  conduct  as  the  means  of 
averting  epidemics  and  other  evils.  Lucretius, 
the  greatest  of  all  didactic  poets,  speaks  of  Em- 
pedocles with  enthusiasm,  and  evidently  makes 
him  his  model.  Empedocles  was  acquainted 
with  the  theories  of  the  Eleatics  and  the  Pytha- 
goreans ;  but  he  did  not  adopt  the  fundamental 
principles  of  either  school,  although  he  agreed 
with  the  latter  in  his  belief  in  the  migration  of 
souls,  and  in  a  few  other  points.  With  the 
Eleatics  he  agreed  in  thinking  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  conceive  any  thing  arising  out  of 
nothing.  Aristotle  with  justice  mentions  him 
among  the  Ionic  physiologists,  and  places  him 
in  very  close  relation  to  the  atomistic  philoso- 
phers and  to  Anaxagoras.  Empedocles  first 
established  the  number  of  four  elements,  which 
he  called  the  roots  of  things. 

[En  FOR  i  A,  also  EMPORIUM  ('Epxopela  'E/i- 
•xopia ;  'EfiTtopiov),  tke  southern  and  most  fruit- 
ful part  of  Byzacium.] 

KM  I'oui.K  or  EMPORIUM  'Efinopicu,  'Efnropelov, 
'Epxopiov :  'EpiroptTTif :  now  Ampurias),  a  town 
of  the  Indigctes  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  near 
the  Pyrenees,  was  situated  on  the  River  Clodi- 
anus,  which  formed  the  harbor  of  the  town.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Phocaeans  from  Massilia, 
and  was  divided  into  two  parts,  at  one  time  sep- 
arated from  each  other  by  a  \vull ;  the  part  near 
the  coast  being  inhabited  by  the  Greeks,  and 
the  part  toward  the  interior  by  the  Indigetes 
It  was  subsequently  colonized  by  Julius  Caesar 
270 


EPULUJ1 

Its  harbor  was  much  frequented  :  here  Sc'pio 
Africanus  first  lauded  when  he  came  to  Spain 
iu  the  second  Punic  war. 

EitptfLUM  (now  Ampiglionet),  a  small  town  in 
Latium,  near  Tibur. 

EMPUSA  ("Eftirovaa),  a  monstrous  spectre, 
which  was  believed  to  devour  human  beings. 
It  could  assume  different  forms,  and  was  sent 
by  Hecate  to  frighten  travellers.  It  was  be- 
lieved usually  to  appear  with  one  leg  of  brass 
and  the  other  of  an  ass,  whence  it  was  called 
6vo0Ke/iif  or  ovoKufy.  The  Lamise  and  Mormo- 
lyceia,  who  assumed  the  form  of  handsome 
women  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  young  men, 
and  then  sucked  their  blood  like  vampires  and 
ate  their  flesh,  were  reckoned  among  the  Em- 
pusae. 

[EN^ESIMUS  ('Evaiatfiof),  a  son  of  Hippocoon, 
slain  by  the  Calydonian  boar.] 

ENAREPHORCS  ('Evapijtyopoe),  son  of  Hippo- 
coon,  a  passionate  suitor  of  Helen  when  she  was 
yet  quite  young.  Tyndareus,  therefore,  intrust- 
ed the  maiden  to  the  care  of  Theseus.  Enare- 
phorus  had  a  heroum  at  Sparta. 

ENCELADUS  ('Ey/ce/,adof),  son  of  Tartarus" and 
Terra  (Ge),  and  one  of  the  hundred-armed  giants 
who  made  war  upon  the  gods.  He  was  killed, 
according  to  syne,  by  a  flash  of  lightning,  by 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  buried  him  under  Mount 
-<Etna ;  according  to  others,  Minerva  (Athena) 
killed  him  with  her  chariot,  or  threw  upon  him 
the  island  of  Sicily. 

ENCHELES  ('Ey^eAeZf,  also  'Ey^eAeat  'Ey^e- 
>.Lot),  an  Illyrian  tribe. 

[ENCOLPIUS,  a  Latin  historian,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  third  century  A.D.  *.  he  wrote  a  life 
of  Alexander  Severus.] 

ENDCEUS  (*Ev<Jo£Of),  an  Athenian  statuary,  is 
called  a  disciple  of  Dzedalus,  whom  he  is  said 
to  have  accompanied  on  his  flight  from  Crete. 
This  statement  must  be  taken  to  express,  not 
the  time  at  which  he  lived,  but  the  style  of  art 
which  he  practiced.  It  is  probable  that  he  lived 
iu  the  time  of  Pisistratus  and  his  sons,  about 
B.C.  560. 

ENDYMION  ('Evdvfiiuv),  a  youth  distinguished 
by  his  beauty,  and  renowned  in  ancient  story 
for  his  perpetual  sleep.  Some  traditions  about 
Endymion  refer  us  to  Elis,  and  others  to  Caria, 
and  others,  again,  are  a  combination  of  the  two. 
According  to  one  set  of  legends,  he  was  a  son 
of  Aethlius  and  Calyce,  or  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Calyce,  and  succeeded  Aethlius  in  the  kingdom 
of  Elis.  Others  related  that  he  had  come  from 
Elis  to  Mount  Latmus  in  Caria,  whence  he  is 
called  the  Latmian  (Latmius).  As  he  slept  on 
Latmus,  his  surprising  beauty  warmed  the  cold 
heart  of  Selene  (the  moon),  who  came  down  to 
him,  kissed  him,  and  lay  by  his  side.  His  eter- 
nal sleep  on  Latmus  is  assigned  to  different 
causes ;  but  it  was  generally  believed  that  Se- 
lene had  sent  him  to  sleep,  that  she .  might  be 
able  to  kiss  him  without  his  knowledge.  By 
Selene  he  had  fifty  daughters.  There  is  a  beau- 
tiful statue  of  a  sleeping  Endymion  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum. 

ENGYUM  ('Eyvov  'Eyywov :  'EyyvZvo?,  En- 
guinus  :  now  Gangi\  a  town  in  the  interior  of 
Sicily,  uear  the  sources  of  the  Monalus,  was 
originally  a  town  of  the  Siculi,  but  it  is  said  to 
have  been  colonized  by  the  Cretans  under  Mi- 
280 


ENNIDS. 

DOS:   it  possessed  a  celebrated  temple  of  th« 
great  mother  of  the  gods. 

[ENIOPEUS  ('Hvionevc),  son  of  Thebanis,  char 
ioteer  of  Hector,  slain  by  Diomedes.] 

ENIPEUS  ('Evnrevf).  1.  A  river  iu  Thessaly, 
rises  in  mount  Othrys,  receives  the  Apidanus 
near  Pharsalus,  and  flows  into  the  Peneus. 
Neptune  (Poseidon)  assumed  the  form  of  the 
god  of  this  river  in  order  to  obtain  possession 
of  Tyro,  who  was  in  love  with  Euipeus.  She 
became  by  Neptune  (Poseidon)  the  mother  of 
Pelias  and  Neleus.  Ovid  relates  (Met.,  vi., 
116)  that  Neptune  (Poseidon),  having  assumed 
the  form  gf  Enipeus,  became  by  Iphimedla  the 
father  of  Otus  and  Ephialtes. — 2.  A  small  river 
in  Pisatis  (Elis),  flows  into  the  Alpheus  near  its 
mouth. — 3.  A  small  river  in  Macedonia,  which 
rises  in  Olympus. 

[ENIPO  ('EviKu),  a  female  slave,  mother  of 
the  poet  Archilochus.] 

[LNISPE  ('Eviarcrj),  an  ancient  place  in  Arcadia 
(//.,  2,  608) ;  entirely  destroyed  in  the  time  of 
Strabo.j 

ENNA  or  HENNA  ("Evv a  :  'Evvalof  :  now  Cas- 
tro Giovanni),  an  ancient  and  fortified  town  of 
the  Siculi  in  Sicily,  on  the  road  from  Cataua  to 
Agrigentum,  said  to  be  the  centre  of  the  island 
(o/z0a/,o?  ZtKe^/of).  It  was  surrounded  by  fertile 
plains,  which  bore  large  crops  of  wheat ;  it  was 
one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  worship  of  Ceres 
(Demeter),  and  possessed  a  celebrated  temple  of 
this  goddess.  According  to  later  tradition,  it 
was  in  a  flowery  meadow  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Enna  that  Pluto  carried  off  Proserpine  (Per- 
sephone), and  the  cave  was  shown  through 
which  the  god  passed  as  he  carried  off  his  prize. 
Its  importance  gradually  declined  from  the  time 
of  the  second  Punic  war,  when  it  was  severely 
punished  by  the  Romans,  because  it  had  at- 
tempted to  revolt  to  the  Carthaginians. 

ENNIUS,  Q.,  the  Roman  poet,  was  born  at  Ru- 
ijB,  in  Calabria,  B.C.  239.  He  was  a  Greek  by 
birth,  but  a  subject  of  Rome,  and  served  in  the 
Roman  armies.  In  204,  Cato,  who  was  then 
quaestor,  found  Ennius  in  Sardinia,  and  brought 
him  in  his  train  to  Rome.  In  189  Ennius  ac- 
companied M.  Fulvius  Nbbilior  during  the  jEto- 
lian  campaign,  and  shared  his  triumph.  Through 
the  son  of  Nobilior,  Ennius,  when  far  advanced 
in  life,  obtained  the  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen. 
He  dwelt  in  a  humble  house  on  the  Aventine, 
and  maintained  himself  by  acting  as  a  preceptor 
to  the  youths  of  the  Roman  nobles.  He  lived 
on  terms  of  the  closest  intimacy  with  the  elder 
Scipio  Africanus.  He  died  169,  at  the  age  of 
seventy.  He  was  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  the 
Scipios,  and  his  bust  was  allowed  a  place  among 
the  effigies  of  that  noble  house.  Ennius  was 
regarded  by  the  Romans  as  the  father  of  their 
poetry  (alter  Homerus,  Hor.,  Epist.,  ii.,  1,  50). 
Cicero  calls  him  Summus  poeta  noster  ;  and  Vir- 
gil was  not  ashamed  to  borrow  many  of  his 
thoughts,  and  not  a  few  of  his  expressions.  All 
the  works  of  Ennius  are  lost  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  fragments.  His  most  important  work 
was  an  epic  poem,  in  dactylic  hexameters,  en- 
titled Annalium  Libri  XVIII.,  being  a  history 
of  Rome,  commencing  with  the  loves  of  Mars 
and  Rhea,  and  reaching  down  to  his  own  times. 
The  beautiful  history  of  the  kings  in  Livy  may 
lave  b<aen  taken  from  Eunius.  No  great  space, 


ENNOMUS. 

•% 

howevei,  was  allotted  to  the  earliest  records 
for  the  contest  with  Hannibal,  which  was  de- 
scribed with  great  minuteness,  commenced  with 
the  seventh  book,  the  first  Punic  war  being  pass- 
ed over  altogether.  He  wrote  numerous  trage- 
dies, which  appear  to  have  been  all  translations 
or  adaptations  from  the  Greek,  the  metres  of 
the  originals  being  in  most  cases  closely  imi- 
tated. He  wrote  also  a  few  comedies,  and  sev- 
eral other  works,  such  as  Satires,  composed  iu 
a  great  variety  of  metres,  from  which  circum- 
stance they  probably  received  their  name ;  a 
didactic  poem,  entitled  Epichannus;  a  pane- 
gyric on  Scipio  ;  Epigrams,  Ac.  The  best  col- 
lection of  the  fragments  of  Ennius  is  by  Hie- 
ronymus  Columna,  Neapol.,  4to,  1590,  reprint- 
ed with  considerable  additions  by  Hesselius, 
Amstel.,  4to,  1707. 

[ENNOMUS  ("EwOjizof).  1.  A  seer  of  Mysia,  an 
ally  of  the  Trojans,  slain  by  Achilles. — 2.  A  Tro- 
jan, slain  by  Ulysses.] 

ENOPE  ('EvoTn?),  a  town  in  Messenia,  mention- 
ed by  Homer,  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  GEE- 
KNIA. 

[ENOPS  (THvo^>).  1.  A  herdsman,  father,  by  a 
nymph,  of.  Satnius. — 2.  A  Greek,  father  of  Cly- 
tomedes.] 

ENTELLA  ('Eire/lAa  :  EnteUinus,  Entellensis : 
new  Entelld),  an  ancient  town  of  the  Sicani  in 
the  interior  of  the  island,  on  the  western  side, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Entellus,  one  of  the 
companions  of  the  Trojan  JSgestus.  It  was  sub- 
sequently seized  and  peopled  by  the  Campanian 
mercenaries  of  Dionysius. 

[ENTELLUS,  a  Trojan  or  Sicilian  hero,  famed 
for  his  skill  in  athletic  exercises ;  a  companion 
of  JEgestus  (Virgil's  Acestes),  and,  though  ad- 
vanced in  years,  encountered  and  vanquished  the 
Trojan  Dares.] 

ENYALIUS  ('EwaAtof),  the  Warlike,  frequent- 
ly occurs  in  the  Iliad  (never  in  the  Odyssey)  as 
an  epithet  of  Mars  (Ares).  At  a  later  time 
Enyalius  and  Mars  (Ares)  were  distinguished 
as  two  different  gods  of  war  ;  Enyalius  was 
looked  upon  as  a  son  of  Mars  (Ares)  and  Enyo, 
or  of  Saturn  (Cronos)  and  Rhea.  The  name  is 
evidently  derived  from  ENYO. 

ENYO  ('Evvu),  the  goddess  of  war,  who  de- 
lights in  bloodshed  and  the  destruction  of  towns, 
and  accompanies  Mars  (Ares)  in  battles.  Re- 
specting the  Roman  goddess  of  war,  vid.  BEL- 

iONA. 

EORDJIA  ('Eopdaia,  also  'Eopdia),  a  district 
and  town  in  the  northwest  of  Macedonia,  inhabit- 
ed by  the  EORDI  (  'Eop6oi,  also  'Eopdaloi.) 

Eos  ('Hwf,  Att.  "Ewf),  in  Latin  AUEOEA,  the 
goddess  of  the  morning  red,  daughter  of  Hy- 
perion and  Thia  or  Euryphassa  ;  or  of  Pallas, 
according  to  Ovid.  At  the  close  of  every  night 
she  rose  from  the  couch  of  her  spouse  Tithonus, 
and  on  a  chariot  drawn  by  the  swift  horses  Lam- 
pus  and  Phae'thon  she  ascended  up  to  heaven 
frAn  the  River  Oceanus,  to  announce  the  com- 
ing lii,'ht  of  the  sun  to  the  gods  as  well  as  to 
mortals.  In  the  Homeric  poems  Eos  not  only 
announces  the  coming  Sun,  but  accompanies 
him  throughout  the  Hay,  and  her  career  IB  not 
complete  till  the  evening;  hence  she  came  to 
be  regarded  as  the  goddess  of  the  daylight,  and 
v?an  completely  identified  by  the  tragic  writers 
with  Hemora.  She  carried  off  several  youths 


EPAMINONDA3. 

distinguished  for  their  beauty,  such  as  ORION, 
GEPHALUS,  and  TITHONUS,  whence  she  is  called  by 
Ovid  Tithwria  conjux.  She  bore  Memnon  to  Ti- 
thonus. Vid.  MEMNON.  By  Astraeus  she  be- 
came the  mother  of  Zephyrus,  Boreas,  Notus, 
Heosphorus  and  other  stars. 

EPAMINONDAS  ('E7ra/j.£ivuv6af,  'Evra/iU'wvdaf), 
the  Theban  general  and  statesman,  son  of  Po- 
lymnia,  was  born  and  reared  in  poverty,  though 
his  blood  was  noble.  His  close  and  enduring 
friendship  with  Pelopidas  is  said  to  have  orig 
inated  in  the  campaign  in  which  they  served  to- 
gether.  on  the  Spartan  side  against  Mantinca, 
where  Pelopidas  having  fallen  in  a  battle,  ap- 
parently dead,  Epaminoudas  protected  his  body 
at  the  imminent  risk  of  his  own  life,  B.C.  385. 
After  the  Spartans  had  been  expelled  from 
Thebes,  379,  Epaminondas  took  an  active  part 
in  public  affairs.  In  371  he  was  one  of  the 
Theban  commanders  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra, 
so  fatal  to  the  Lacedaemonians,  in  which  the 
success  of  Thebes  is  said  to  have  been  owing 
mainly  to  the  tactics  of  Epaminondas.  He  it 
was  who  most  strongly  urged  the  giving  battle, 
while  he  employed  all  the  means  in  his  power 
to  raise  the  courage  of  his  countrymen,  not  ex- 
cluding even  omens  and  oracles,  for  which, 
when  unfavorable,  he  had  but  recently  express- 
ed his  contempt.  In  369  he  was  one  of  the 
generals  in  the  first  invasion  of  Peloponnesus 
by  the  Thebans  ;  and  before  leaving  Pelopon- 
nesus he  restored  the  Messenians  to  their  coun- 
try and  established  a  new  city,  named  Messene. 
On  their  return  home  Epaminondas  and  Pelop- 
idas were  impeached  by  their  enemies,  on  a 
capital  charge  of  having  retained  their  com 
mand  beyond  the  legal  term.  The  fact  itself 
was  true  enough;  but  they  were  both  honora- 
bly acquitted,  Epaminondas  having  expressed 
his  willingness  to  die  if  the  Thebans  would  re 
cord  that  he  had  been  put  to  death  because  he 
had  humbled  Sparta  and  taught  his  countrymen 
to  face  and  to  conquer  her  armies.  In  368  he 
again  led  a  Theban  army  into  the  Peloponne- 
sus, but  did  not  advance  far,  and  on  his  return 
was  repulsed  by  Chabrias  in  an  attack  which  he 
made  on  Corinth.  In  the  same  year  we  find 
him  serving,  but  not  as  general,  in  the  Theban 
army  which  was  sent  into  Thessaly  to  rescue 
Pelopidas  from  Alexander  of  Pherse,  and  which 
was  saved  from  utter  destruction  only  by  the 
ability  of  Epaminondas.  In  367  he  was  sent  at 
the  head  of  another  force  to  release  Pelopidas, 
and  accomplished  his  object  without  even  strik- 
ing a  blow,  and  by  the  mere  prestige  of  his 
name.  In  866  he  invaded  the  Peloponnesus 
for  the  third  time,  and  in  362  for  tho  fourth 
time.  In  the  latter  year  he  gained  a  brilliant 
victory  over  the  Lacedaemonians  at  Mantinea, 
but  in  the  full  career  of  victory  he  received  a 
mortal  wound.  He  was  told  that  his  death 
would  follow  directly  on  the  javelin  being  ex- 
tracted front  the  wound ;  and  he  would  not  al- 
low this  to  bo  done  till  he  had  been  assured  that 
his  shield  was  safe,  and  that  the  victory  was 
with  his  countrymen.  It  was  a  disputed  point 
by  whose  hand  he  fell :  among  others,  tho  honor 
was  assigned  to  Gryllus,  the  son  of  Xenophoa 
Epaminondas  was  oca  of  the  greatest  men  of 
Greece.  He  raised  Thebes  to  the  supremacy 
of  Greece,  which  she  lost  almost  as  soon  as  he 
281 


EPAPHRODITUS. 

died.  Both  in  public  nnd  in  private  life  he  was 
distinguished  by  integrity  and  uprightness,  and  < 
be  carried  into  daily  practice  the  lessons  of  phi-  j 
loBophy,  of  which  he  was  an  ardent  student 

EpArHRODiri's  ('E7ro^p6<5trof).  1.  A  freed- ; 
man  and  favorite  of  the  Emperor  Nero.  He  as- 
Mated  Nero  in  killing  himself,  nnd  he  was  after- 
ward put  to  death  by  Domitian.  The  philoso- 
pher Epictetus  was  his  freedmau. — 2.  M.  MET- 
TIUS  EPAPHBODITUS,  of  Chaeronea,  a  Greek  gram- 
marian, the  slave  and  afterward  the  freedman 
of  Modestus,  the  prsefect  of  Egypt.  He  subse- 
quently went  to  Rome,  where  he  resided  f  in  the 
reign  of  Nero  and  down  to  the  time  of  Nerva. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  grammatical  works 
and  commentaries. 

EPAPHUS  ('ETra^of),  sou  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
lo,  bom  on  the  River  Nile,  after  the  long  wan- 
derings of  his  mother.  He  was  concealed  by 
the  Curetcs,  at  the  request  of  Juno  (Hera),  but 
was  discovered  by  lo  in  Syria.  He  subsequent- 
ly became  king  of  Egypt,  married  Memphis,  a 
daughter  of  Nilus,  or  according  to  others,  Cas- 
Biopea,  and  built  the  city  of  Memphis.  He  had 
a  daughter  Libya,  from  whom  Libya  (Africa)  re- 
ceived its  name. 

EPEI.     Vid.  ELIS. 

EPKTIUM  ('EireTiov :  ruins  near  Strobnecz),  & 
town  of  the  Lissii  in  Dalmatia,  with  a  good  har- 
bor. 

EPEUS  ('ETmof).  1.  Son  of  Eudymiop,  king 
in  Elis,  from  whom  the  Epei  are  said  to  have 
derived  their  name. — Son  of  Panopeus,  went  with 
thirty  ships  from  the  Cyclades  to  Troy.  He  built 
the  wooden  horse  with  the  assistance  of  Minerva 
(Athena). 

EPHKSUS  (*E0e<70f :  'E^effjof  :  ruins  near  Aya- 
taluk,  i.  e.,  "Aytof  Geo/loyof,  the  title  of  St.  John), 
the  chief  of  the  twelve  Ionian  cities  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  was  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  "Carians  and  Leleges,  and  to  have  been  taken 
possession  of  by  Androclus,  the  son  of  Codrus, 
at  the  time  of  the  great  Ionian  migration.  It 
stood  a  little  south  of  the  River  Cavster,  near 
its  mouth,  where  a  marshy  plain,"  extending 
south  from  the  river,  is  bounded  by  two  bills, 
Prion  or  Lepre  on  the  east,  and  Coressus  on 
the  south.  The  city  was  built  originally  on 
Mount  Coressus,  but,  in  the  time  of  Croesus,  the 
people  transferred  their  habitations  to  the  valley, 
whence  Lysimachus,  the  general  of  Alexan- 
der, compelled  them  again  to  remove  to  Mount 
Prioa  On  the  northern  side  of  the  city  was 
a  lake,  communicating  with  the  Cayster,  and 
forming  the  inner  harbor,  now  a  marsh  ;  the 
outer  harbor  (iruvoppof)  was  formed  by  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  In  the  plain,  east  of  the 
lake,  and  northeast  of  the  city,  beyond  its  walls, 
stood  the  celebrated  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis), 
which  was  built  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  by 
an  architect  named  Chersiphron,  and,  after  be- 
ing burned  down  by  Herostratus  in  the  night 
on  which  Alexander  the  Great  was  born  (Octo- 
ber 13-14,  B.C.  356),  was  restored  by  the  joint 
efforts  of  all  the  Ionian  states,  and  was  regard- 
ed as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world  :  nothing 
now  remains  of  the  temple  except  some  traces 
of  its  foundations.  The  temple  was  also  cele- 
brated as  an  asylum  till  Augustus  deprived  it 
of  that  privilege.  The  other  buildings  at  Ephe- 
sus,  of  which  there  are  any  ruins,  are  the  agora, 
282 


EPHORUS. 

theatre,  odeum,  stadium,  gymnasium,  and  buths» 
temples  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Olympius  mid  of  Julius 
Caesar,  and  a  largo  building  near  the  inner  har- 
bor: the  foundations  of  the  walls  may  also 
be  traced.  With  the  rest  of  Ionia,  Ephesua 
fell  under  the  power  successively  of  Crcesus,  the 
Persians,  the  Macedonians,  aud  the  Roman*. 
It  was  always  very  flourishing,  and  became 
even  more  so  as  the  other  Ionian  cities  decay- 
ed. It  was  greatly  favored  by  ite  Greek  rulen, 
especially  by  Lysimachus,  who,  in  honor  of  hii 
second  wife,  gave  it  her  name,  Arsinoe,  which, 
however,  it  did  not  long  retain.  Attulus  IL 
Philadelphus  constructed  docks  for  it,  and  im- 
proved its  harbors.  Under  the  Romans  it  was 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Asia,  and  by  far 
the  greatest  city  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  conspicu- 
ous in  the  early  history  of  the  Christian  Church, 
both  St.  Paul  and  St.  John  having  labored  in  it, 
and  addressed  epistles  to  the  Church  of  Ephe- 
sus ;  and  at  one  time  its  bishop  possessed  tha 
rank  and  power  of  a  patriarch  over  the  churches 
in  the  province  of  Asia.  Its  position,  and  the 
excellence  of  its  harbors,  made  it  the  chief  em- 
porium for  the  trade  of  all  Asia  within  the 
Taurus ;  and  its  downfall  was  chiefly  owing  to 
the  destruction  of  its  harbors  by  the  deposits  of 
the  Cayster.  In  the  earliest  times  Ephesus  was 
called  by  various  names,  Alope,  Ortygia,  Merges, 
Smyrna  Tracheia,  Samornia,  and  Ptelea. 

EPHIALTES  ('E^tdAr^f).  1.  One  of  the  Aloidae. 
Fid.  ALOEUS. — 2.  A  Malian,  who  in  B.C.  480, 
when  Leonidas  was  defending  the  pass  of 
Thermopylae,  guided  a  body  of  Persians  over 
the  mountain  path,  and  thus  enabled  them  to 
fall  on  the  rear  of  the  Greeks. — 3.  An  Athenian 
statesman,  was  a  friend  and  partisan  of  Peri- 
cles, whom  he  assisted  in  carrying  his  political 
measures.  He  is  mentioned  in  particular  as 
chiefly  instrumental  in  that  abridgment  of  the 
power  of  the  Areopagus  which  inflicted  such 
a  blow  on  the  oligarchical  party,  and  against 
which  the  Eumenides  of  ^Eschylus  was  directed. 
His  services  to  the  democratic  cause  excited  the 
rancorous  enmity  of  some  of  the  oligarchs,  and 
led  to  his  assassination  during  the  night,  proba- 
bly in  456. — [4.  An  Athenian  orator,  an  oppo- 
nent of  the  Macedonians  ;  Alexander  demanded 
his  surrender  to  him  after  the  destruction  of 
Thebes.] 

EPHIPPUS  ("E0i7T7rof).  1.  An  Athenian  poet 
of  the  middle  comedy.  [A  few  fragments  only 
remain,  which  are  given  by  Meineke  in  his 
Fragm.  Comic.  Grcec.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  657-66.]— 2.  Of 
Olynthus,  a  Greek  historian  of  Alexander  the 
Great. 

EPHORUS  ("E^opof),  of  Cyme  in  _<Eoiis,  a  cele- 
brated Greek  historian,  was  a  contemporary  of 
Philip  and  Alexander,  and  flourished  about  B. 
C.  340.  He  studied  rhetoric  under  Isocratea, 
of  whose  pupils  he  and  Theopompus  were  con- 
sidered the  most  distinguished.  On  the  advice 
of  Theopompus  he  wrote  A  History  ('Itrropgat) 
in  thirty  books,  which  began  with  the  return  of 
the  Heraclidae,  and  came  down  to  the  siege  of 
Perinthus  in  341.  It  treated  of  the  histoiy  of 
the  barbarians  as  wftll  as  of  the  Greeks,  and  waa 
thus  the  first  attempt  at  writiug  a  universal  his- 
tory that  was  ever  made  in  Greece.  ?i  em- 
braced a  period  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  year* 
and  each  of  the  thirty  books  contained  a"  com 


EPHYDATIA. 


EPICURUS. 


pactp  >rtion  of  the  history,  which  formed  a  com- 
plete whole  by  itself.  Ephorus  did  not  live  to 
complete  the  work,  and  it  was  finished  by  his 
son  Demophilus.  Diyllus  began  his  history  at 
the  point  at  which  the  work  of  Ephorus  left  off. 
Ephorus  also  wrote  a  few  other  works  of  less 
importance,  of  which  the  titles  only  are  pre- 
served by*  the  grammarians.  Of  the  history 
likewise  we  have  nothing  but  fragments.  It 
was  written  in  a  clear  and  polished  style,  but 
was  at  the  same  time  deficient  in  power  and 
energy.  Ephorus  appears  to  have  been  faithful 
and  impartial  in  the  narration  of  events  ;  but  he 
did  not  always  follow  the  best  authorities,  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  work  he  frequently  dif- 
fered from  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and  Xeno- 
phon,  on  points  on  which  they  are  entitled  to 
credit  Diodorus  Siculus  made  great  use  of  the 
work  of  Ephorus.  The  fragments  of  his  work 
have  been  published  by  Marx,  Carlsruhe,  1815, 
and  iu  Muller's  fragm.  Historicor.  Grcec.,  vol. 
L,  Paris,  1841. 

[EPHYDATIA  ('E<fn>6aTt.a),  a  fountain-nymph, 
who  carried  off  Hylas,  the  favorite  of  Hercules.] 

EPHYEA  ('Etyvpa).  1.  The  ancient  name  of 
Corinth.  Vid.  CORINTUUS.  —  2.  An  ancient  town 
of  the  Pelasgi,  near  the  River  Selleis,  in  Elis.  — 
3.  A  town  hi  Thessaly,  afterward  called  CEA- 
NON.  —  4.  A  town  in  Epirus,  afterward  called 
CICIIYEUS.  —  5.  A  small  town  in  the  district  of 
Agraea,  iu  ^Etolia. 

[EPHYEA  ('Etyvpd),  a  female  companion  of  Cy- 
rene,  the  mother  of  Aristaeus.] 

EPICASTE  ('ExiKuari]),  commonly  called  JO- 


EPICEPHESIA  ('ExiKTjQTiaia  :  'EiriKrjQjjaiof),  a 
demus  iu  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  (Eneis. 

[EPICHAEIS  ('Emxaptf),  a  freedwoman  of  bad 
repute,  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso 
against  the  h'fe  of  Nero,  A.D.  65  :  she  was  put 
to  the  severest  torture  hi  order  to  compel  her 
to  disclose  what  she  knew  of  the  conspiracy, 
but  to  no  purpose  :  nothing  could  extort  any 
confession  from  her,  and  she  finally  escaped 
further  torture  by  strangling  herself.] 

EPICHAKMUS  ('Em^ap/iOf),  the  chief  comic 
poet  among  the  Dorians,  was  born  in  the  island 
of  Cos  about  B.C.  540.  His  father,  Elothales, 
was  a  physician,  of  the  race  of  the  Asclepiads. 
At  the  age  of  three  months,  Epicharmus  was 
carried  to  Megara,  in  Sicily  ;  thence  he  remov- 
ed to  Syracuse  when  Megara  was  destroyed 
by  Gelon  (484  or  483).  Here  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life,  which  was  prolonged 
throughout  the  reign  of  Hieron,  at  whose  court 
Epicharmus  associated  with  the  other  great 
writers  of  the  time,  and  among  them  with 
^Eschylus.  He  died  at  the  age  of  ninety  (450), 
or,  according  to  Lucian,  ninety-seven  (443). 
Epicharmus  was  a  Pythagorean  philosopher, 
and  spent  the  earlier  part  of  his  life  in  the 
study  of  philosophy,  both  physical  and  meta- 
physical He  is  said  to  have  followed  for 
some  time  his  father's  profession  of  medicine  ; 
and  it  appears  that  he  did  not  commence  writ- 
ing comedies  till  his  removal  to  Syracuse. 
Comedy  had  for  some  time  existed  at  Megara 
in  Sicily,  which  was  a  colony  from  Megara  01 
the  Isthmus,  the  latter  of  which  towns  disputec 
with  the  Athenians  the  invention  of  comedy 
But  the  comedy  at  the  Sicilian  Megara  before 


Epicharmus  seems  to  have  been  little  more 
than  a  low  buffoonery.  It  was  he,  together 
with  Phormis,  who  gave  it  a  new  form,  and  in- 
troduced a  regular  plot  The  number  of  his 
comedies  is  differently  stated  at  fifty-two,  or  at 
thirty-five.  There  are  still  extant  thirty-five 
;itles.  The  majority  of  them  are  on  mytholog- 

cal  subjects,  that  is,  travesties  of  the  heroic 
myths,  and  these  plays  no  doubt  very  much 
resembled  the  satyric  dramas  of  the  Athenians. 
But  besides  mythology,  Epicharmus  wrote  on 
other  subjects,  political,  moral,  relating  to  man- 
ners and  customs,  <fec.  The  style  of  his  plays 
appears  to  have  been  a  curious  mixture  of  the 
Droad  buffoonery  which  distinguished  the  old 
VIegarian  comedy,  and  of  the  seutentious  wis 
dorn  of  the  Pythagorean  philosopher.  His  lan- 
guage was  remarkably  elegant :  he  was  celebra- 
;ed  for  his  choice  of  epithets  :  his  plays  abound- 
ed, as  the  extant  fragments  prove,  with  philo- 
sophical and  moral  maxims.  He  was  imitated 
:>y  Crates,  and  also  by  Plautus,  as  we  learn 
"rom  the  line  of  Horace  (Epi&t.,  ii.,  1,  58), 

"  Plautus  ad  exemplar  Siculi  properare  Epicharmi." 

The  parasite,  who  forms  so  conspicuous  a  char- 
acter in  the  plays  of  the  new  comedy,  is  first 
found  in  Epicharmus. 

EPICNEMIDII  LOCKL     Vid.  LOCEIS. 

EPICEATES  ('ETrt/cpun/f).  1.  An  Athenian, 
took  part  in  the  overthrow  of  the  thirty  tyrants ; 
but  afterward,  when  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the 
Persian  king  Artaxerxes,  he  was  accused  of 
corruption  in  receiving  money  from  Artaxerxes. 
He  appears  to  have  been  acquitted  this  time ; 
but  he  was  tried  on  a  later  occasion,  on  another 
charge  of  corruption,  and  only  escaped  death 
by  a  voluntary  exile.  He  was  ridiculed  by  the 
comic  poets  for  his  large  beard,  and  for  this 
reason  was  called  aaneaipopof. — 2.  Of  Ambracia, 
an  Athenian  poet  of  the  middle  comedy. 

EPICTETUS  ('Em'/er^rof),  of  Hierapolis  hi 
Phrygia,  a  celebrated  Stoic  philosopher,  was  a 
freedman  of  Epaphroditus,  who  was  himSelf  a 
freedman  of  Nero.  Vid.  EPAPHEODITUS.  He 
lived  and  taught  first  at  Rome,  and,  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  philosophers  by  Domitian,  at 
Nicopolis  in  Epirus.  Although  he  was  favored 
by  Hadrian,  he  does  not  appear  to  have  return- 
ed to  Rome ;  for  the  discourses  which  Arrian 
took  down  in  writing  were  delivered  by  Epicte- 
tus  when  an  old  man  at  Nicopolis.  Only  a  few 
circumstances  of  his  life  are  recorded,  such  as 
his  lameness,  which  is  spoken  of  in  different 
ways,  his  poverty,  and  his  few  wants.  Epicte- 
tus  did  not  leave  any  works  behind  him,  and 
the  short  manual  (Enchiridion),  which  bears  big 
name,  was  compiled  from  his  discourses  by  his 
faithful  pupil  Arrian.  Arrian  also  wrote  the 
philosophical  lectures  of  his  master  in  eight 
books,  from  which,  though  four  are  lost,  we  are 
enabled  to  gain  a  complete  idea  of  the  way  in 
which  Epictetus  conceived  and  taught  the  Stoic 
philosophy.  Vid.  AEEIANUS.  Being  deeply  im- 
pressed with  his  vocation  as  a  teacher,  he  aim- 
ed in  his  discourses  at  nothing  else  but  winning 
the  minds  of  his  hearers  to  that  which  was 
good,  and  no  one  was  able  to  resist  the  impres 
sion  which  they  produced. 

EPICTETCS  PHKYGIA.     Vid.  PHEYOIA. 
KPICLEUS   ('EmKovpof),   a   celebrated  Greek 
283 


EPICURUS. 

philosopher,  and  the  fouuder  of  a  philosophical 
school,  called,  after  him,   the  Epicurean.      lie 
was  a  son  of  Neocles  and  Charestrata,  and  was 
born  KG.  342,  in  the  island  of  Samos,  where 
his  father  had  settled  as  one  of  the  Athenian 
eleruchi ;  but  he  belonged  to  the  Attic  demos 
of  Gargettus,  and   hence  is   sometimes   called 
the  Gurgettian.     (Cio,  ad  Fam.,  xv.,  16.)    At 
the  age  of  eighteen  Epicurus  came  to  Athens, 
and  there  probably  studied  under  Xeuocrates, 
who  was   then  at  the  head  of  the  academy. 
After  a  short  stay  at  Athens  he  went  to  Colo- 
phon, and  subsequently  resided  at  Mytilene  and 
Lampsacus,  in  which   places  he  was  engaged 
for  five  years  in  teaching  philosophy.     In  306, 
when  he  had  attaiued  the  age  of  thirty-five,  he 
again  came  to  Athens,  where  he  purchased  for 
eighty  minx  a  garden — the  famous  Kqiroi  'E;rt- 
Kovpov — in  which  he  established  his  philosoph- 
ical school.    Here  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life,  surrounded   by   numerous  friends  and 
pupils.     His  mode  of  living  was  simple,  tem- 
perate  and   cheerful ;   and   the    aspersions   of 
comic  poets  and  of  later  philosophers,  who  were 
opposed  to  his  philosophy,  and  describe  him  as 
a  person  devoted  to  sensual  pleasures,  do  not 
seem  entitled  to  the  least  credit     He  took  no 
part  in  public  affairs.    He  died  in  270,  at  the 
age  of  severity-two,  after  a  long  and  painful  ill- 
ness, which  he  endured  with  truly  philosophic- 
al patience  and  courage.     Epicurus  is  said  to 
have  written  three  hundred  volumes.     Of  these 
the  most  important  was  one  On  Nature  (liepl 
•bvaeuf),  in  thirty-seven  books.     All  his  works 
are  lost,;  but  some  fragments  of  the  work  on 
Nature   were    found   among    rolls  at  Hercula- 
ueaiu,  and  were  published  by  Orelli,  Lips.,  1818. 
In  his  philosophical   system,   Epicurus    prided 
himself  in  being  independent  of  all  his  prede- 
cessors :  but  he  was  in  reality  indebted  both  to 
Demooritus  and  the  Cyrenaics.     Epicurus  made 
ethics  the  most  essential  part  of  his  philosoph- 
ical system,  since   he    regarded  human  happi- 
ness af  the  ultimate  end  of  all  philosophy.    His 
ethical  theory  was  based  upon  the  dogma  of 
the    Cyrenaics,   that    pleasure    constitutes   the 
highest  happiness,    and   must   consequently  be 
the   end   of    all    human    exertions.      Epicurus, 
however,  developed   and  ennobled  this  theory 
in  a  manner  which  constitutes  the  real  merit 
of  his  philosophy,  and  which  gained  for  him  so 
many  friends  and   admirers   both   in  antiquity 
and  in  modern  times.    Pleasure  with  him  was 
not  a  mere  momentary   and  transitory  sensa- 
tion, but  he  conceived  it  as  something  lasting 
and  imperishable,  consisting  in  pure  and  noble 
mental   enjoyments,    that  is,  in   arapa^ia  and 
uirovia,  or  the  freedom  from  pain  and  from  all 
influences  which  disturb  the  peace  of  our  mind, 
and  thereby  our  happiness,  which  is  the  result 
of  it    The  fummum  bonum,  according  to  him, 
consisted  in  this  peace  of  mind ;  and  this  was 
based  upon  fpwijoic,  -which  he  described  as  the 
beginning  of  every  thing  good,  as  the  origin  of 
all  virtues,  and  which  he  himself  therefore  oc- 
casionally treated    as   the  highest  good  itself. 
In  the  physical  part  of  his  philosophy,  he  fol- 
lowed the    atomistic   doctrines   of   Democritus 
and  Diagoras.     His  views  are  well  known  from 
Lucretius's  poem  De  Rerum  Natura.     We  ob- 
tain out   knowledge  and  form  oui   conceptions 
284 


EPIDAURUS. 

of  things,  according  to  him,  through  elSu'ka,  i.  e.< 
images  of  things  which  are  reflected  from  them, 
and  pass  through  our  senges  into  our  minds. 
Such  a  theory  is  destructive  of  all  absolute 
truth,  and  a  mere  momentary  impression  upon 
our  senses  of  feelings  is  substituted  for  it.  The 
deficiencies  of  his  system  are  most  striking  in 
his  views  concerning  the  gods,  wnich  drew 
upon  him  the  charge  of  atheism.  His  gods, 
like  every  thing  else,  consisted  of  atoms,  ami 
our  notions  of  them  are  based  upon  the  cltiuA.a 
which  are  reflected  from  them  and  pass  into 
our  minds.  They  were  and  always  had  been 
in  the  enjoyment  of  perfect  happiness,  which 
had  not  been  disturbed  by  the  laborious  business 
of  creating  the  world ;  and  as  the  government 
of  the  world  would  interfere  with  their  happi- 
ness, he  conceived  them  as  exercising  no  in- 
fluence whatever  upon  the  world  or  man.  The 
pupils  of  Epicurus  were  very  numerous,  and 
were  attached  to  their  master  in  a  manner 
which  has  rarely  been  equalled  either  in  an- 
cient or  modern  times.  But  notwithstanding 
the  extraordinary  devotion  of  his  pupils,  there 
is  no  philosopher  in  antiquity  who  has  been  so 
violently  attacked  as  Epicurus.  This  has  been 
owing  partly  to  a  superficial  knowledge  of  his 
philosophy,  and  partly  to  the  conduct  of  men 
who  called  themselves  Epicureans,  and  who, 
taking  advantage  of  the  facility  with  which  his 
ethical  theory  was  made  the  hand-maid  of  a 
sensual  life,  gave  themselves  up  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  sensual  pleasures. 

EPICYDES  ('ETrtKtJttyf),  a  Syracusan  by  origin, 
but  born  and  educated  at  Carthage,  He  served, 
together  with  his  elder  brother  Hippocrates, 
with  much  distinction  in  the  army  of  Hannibal, 
both  in  Spain  and  Italy ;  and  when,  after  the 
battle  of  Cannae  (B.C.  216),  Hieronymus  of 
Syracuse  sent  to  make  overtures  to  Hannibal, 
that  general  selected  the  two  brothers  as  his 
envoys  to  Syracuse.  They  soon  induced  the 
young  king  to  desert  the  Roman  alliance.  Upon 
the  murder  of  Hieronymus  shortly  after,  they 
were  the  leaders  of  the  Carthaginian  party  at 
Syracuse,  and  eventually  became  masters  of 
the  city,  which  they  defended  against  Marcel- 
lus.  Epicydes  fled  to  Agrigentum  when  he 
saw  that  the  fall  of  Syracuse  was  inevitable. 

EFIDAMNUS.     Vid.  DYRRHACHIUM. 

EPIDAURUS  ('Emdavpoe :  'Eiridavptof).  1.  (No\V 
Epidauro),  a  town  in  Argolis,  on  the  Saronic 
Gulf,  formed  with  its  territory  EpiDAURiA('E7ri- 
davpia),  a  district  independent  of  Argos,  and 
was  not  included  in  Argolis  till  the  time  of  the 
Romans.  It  was  originally  inhabited  by  loni- 
ans  and  Carians,  whence  it  was  called  JEpicaru», 
but  it  was  subdued  by  the  Dorians  under  Dei- 
phontes,  who  thus  became  the  ruling  race. 
Epidaurus  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of 
^Esculapius,  and  was  to  this  circumstance  in- 
debted for  its  importance.  The  temple  of  this 
god,  which  was  one  of  the  most  magnificent  in 
Greece,  was  situated  about  five  miles  south- 
west of  Epidaurus.  A  few  ruins  of  it  are  still 
•  extant.  The  worship  of  ./Esculapius  was  in- 
troduced into  Rome  from  Epidaurus.  Vid.  ^Es- 
CULAPIUS. — 2.  Surnamed  LIMERA  (fj  Aifj.rjpd : 
now  Monembasia  or  Old  Malvasia),  a  town  in 
,  Laconia,  on  the  eastern  coast,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Epidaurus  in  Argolis,  posses* 


EPIDELIUM. 


EPIRUS. 


erl  a  good    harbor. — 3.    (Now  Old  Ragusa),  a 
town  in  Dalmatia. 

KPIDELIUM  ('ETridjjAiov),  a  town  ia  "Laconia, 
on  the  eastern  coast,  south  of  Epidaurus  Limera, 
with  a  temple  of  Apollo  and  an  image  of  the 
god,  which,  once  thrown  into  the  sea  at  Delos, 
is  said  to  have  come  to  land  at  this  place. 

[EPIDII  ('Enidioi),  a  people  in  ancient  Britain, 
dwelt  on  Epidium,  the  long  peninsula  on  the 
western  coast  (now  Cantyre),  whose  southern 
point  forms  the  EPIDIUM  PROMONTORIUM  ('Em- 
diov,  "A.icpov,  now  Mull  of  Cantyre.] 

EPIGENES  ('ETnyevTjf).  1.  An  Athenian  poet 
of  the  middle  comedy,  flourished  about  B.C.  380. 
— 2.  Of  Sicyon,  who  has  been  confounded  by 
some  with  his  namesake  the  comic  poet,  pre- 
ceded Thespis,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
most  ancient  writer  of  tragedy.  It  is  probable 
that  Epigenes  was  the  first  to  introduce  into  the 
old  dithyrambic  and  satyrical  rpayu<5ta  other 
subjects  than  the  original  one  of  the  fortunes  of 
Bacchus  (Dionysus). — 3.  Of  Byzantium,  a  Greek 
astronomer,  mentioned  by  Seneca,  Pliny,  and 
Censorinus.  He  professed  to  have  studied  in 
Chalde*a,  but  his  date  is  uncertain. 

[EplGEUs  ('Eirsiyevc),  of  Budeum  in  Thessaly, 
followed  Achilles  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  was 
slain  by  Hector.] 

EPIGONI  ('Eirfyovoi),  that  is,  "  the  Descend- 
ants," the  name  in  ancient  mythology  of  the 
sons  of  the  seven  heroes  who  perished  before 
Thebes.  Vid.  ADRASTCS.  Ten  years  after  their 
death,  the  descendants  of  the  seven  heroes 
marched  against  Thebes  to  avenge  their  fathers. 
The  names  of  the  Epigoni  are  not  the  same  in 
all  accounts ;  but  the  common  lists  contain 
Alemaeon,  JEgialeus,  Diomedes,  Promachus, 
ISthenelus,  Thersander,  and  Euryalus.  Alemceon 
undertook  the  command,  in  accordance  with  an 
oracle,  and  collected  a  considerable  body  of 
Argivcs.  The  Thebans  marched  out  against 
the  enemy,  under  the  command  of  Laodamas, 
after  whose  death  they  fled  into  the  city. 
On  the  part  of  the  Epigoni,  ^Egialeus  had 
fallen.  The  seer  Tiresias,  knowing  that  the  city 
was  doomed  to  fall,  persuaded  the  inhabitants 
to  quit  it,  and  take  their  wives  and  children 
with  them.  The  Epigoni  thereupon  took  pos- 
session of  Thebes,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground. 
They  sent  a  portion  of  the  booty  and  Manto, 
the  daughter  of  Tiresias,  to  Delphi,  and  then 
returned  to  Peloponnesus.  The  war  of  the 
Epigoni  was  made  the  subject  of  epic  and  tragic 
poems. 

EPIMENIDES  (Empevidris).  1.  A  celebrated 
poet  and  prophet  of  Crete,  whose  history  is  to 
a  great  extent  mythical.  He  was  reckoned 
among  the  Curetes,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
son  of  a  nymph.  He  was  a  native  of  Phsestus 
in  Crete,  and  appears  to  have  spent  the  greatest 
part  of  his  life  at  Cnosus,  whence  he  is  some- 
times called  a  Cnosian.  There  is  a  legend  that, 
when  a  boy,  he  was  sent  out  by  his  father  in 
search  of  a  sheep,  and  that,  seeking  shelter  from 
the  beat  of  the  mid-day  sun,  he  went  into  a 
cave,  and  there  fell  into  a  deep  sleep,  which 
lasted  fifty-seven  years.  On  waking  and  re- 
turning home,  he  found,  to  his  great  amazerrfent, 
that  his  younger  brother  had  in  the  mean  time 
grown  an  old  maa  He  is  further  said  to  have  ' 
attained  the  age  of  154, 167,  or  even  of  229  years.  I 


His  visit  to  Athens,  however,  is  an  historical 
fact,  and  determines  his  date.  The  Athenians, 
who  were  visited  by  a  plague  in  consequence  of 
the  crime  of  Cylon  (md.  CYLON),  consulted  the 
Delphic  oracle  about  the  means  of  their  delivery. 
The  god  commanded  them  to  get  their  city  puri- 
fied, and  the  Athenians  invited  Epimenides  to 
come  and  undertake  the  purification.  Epimen 
ides  accordingly  came  to  Athens,  about  596,  and 
performed  the  desired  task  by  certain  mysterious 
rites  and  sacrifices,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
plague  ceased.  Epimenides  was  reckoned  by 
some  among  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece  ;  but 
all  that  tradition  has  handed  down  about  him 
suggests  a  very  different  character  from  that  of 
the  seven ;  he  must  rather  be  ranked  in  the  class 
of  priestly  bards  and  sages  who  are  generally 
comprised  under  the  name  of  the  Orphici.  Many 
works,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  were  attributed 
to  him  by  the  ancients,  and  the  Apostle  Paul  has 
preserved  (Titus,  i.,  12)  a  celebrated  verse  of  his 
against  the  Cretans. 

EPIMETHEUS.  Vid.  PROMETHEUS  and  PAN- 
DORA. 

EPIPHANES,  a  surname  of  Antiochus  IV.  and 
Antiochus  XL,  kings  of  Syria. 

EPIPHANIA  or  -EA  (''Eiri<j>dv£ia).  1.  In  Syria 
(in  the  Old  Testament,  Hamath:  now  If  amah), 
in  the  district  of  Cassiotis,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Orontes,  an  early  colony  of  the  Phoenicians  ; 
may  be  presumed,  from  its  later  name,  to  have 
been  restored  or  improved  by  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes. — 2.  In  Asia  Minor  (now  Urzin),  on  the 
southeastern  border  of  Cilicia,  close  to  the  Pylae 
Amanides,  was  foanerly  called  CEnlandus,  and 
probably  owed  its  new  name  to  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  Pompey  repeopled  this  city  with 
some  of  the  pirates  whom  he  had  conquered. 
There  were  some  other  Asiatic  cities  of  the 
name. 

EPIPHANIUS  ('ETrt^cmof),  one  of  the  Greek 
fathers,  was  born  near  Eleutheropolis,  in  Pales- 
tine, about  A.D.  320,  of  Jewish  parents.  He 
went  to  Egypt  when  young,  and  there  appears 
to  have  been  tainted  with  Gnostic  errors,  but 
afterward  fell  into  the  hands  of  some  monks, 
and  by  them  was  made  a  strong  advocate  for 
the  monastic  life.  He  returned  to  Palestine, 
and  lived  there  for  some  time  as  a  monk,  having 
founded  a  monastery  near  his  native  place.  In 
A.D.  367  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Constantia, 
the  metropolis  of  Cyprus,  formerly  called  Sala- 
mis.  His  writings  show  him  to  have  been  a 
man  of  great  reading,  for  he  was  acquainted 
with  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Greek,  Egyptian,  and 
Latin.  But  he  was  enth-ely  without  critical  or 
logical  power ;  of  real  piety,  but  also  of  a  very 
bigoted  and  dogmatical  turn  of  mind.  He  dis 
tinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  heresy, 
and  especially  to  Origen's  errors.  He  died  402. 
His  most  important  work  is  entitled  Panariwn, 
being  a  discourse  against  heresies.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  his  works  is  by  Petavius,  Paris,  1622,  and 
Lips.,  1682,  with  a  commentary  by  Valcsius. 

EpirdLx.     Vid  SYRACUSE. 

EPIRUS  ('llnetpof  :  'HireipuTrjf,  fern.  'Hx£ip& 
rif  :  now  Albania),  that  is,  "  the  main  land,"  a 
country  in  the  northwest  of  Greece,  so  called  to 
distinguish  it  from  Corcyra  and  the  other  isb 
ands  off  the  coast  Homer  gives  the  name  of 
Epirus  to  the  whole  of  the  western  coast  of 
285 


EPIRUS   NOVA. 

G-eece,  thus  including  Acarnania  in  it  Epirus 
was  bounded  by  Illyria  and  Macedonia  >u  the 
north,  by  Thcssaly  on  the  east,  by  Acarnania 
and  the  Ambracian  Gulf  on  the  south,  and  by 
the  Ionian  Sea  on  the  west  The  principal 


ERASISTRATFS. 

colonized  by  the  Romans,  B.C.  100,  on  the  coin 
mand  of  the  Sibylline  books,  to  serve  as  a  bul- 
wark against  the  neighboring  Alpine  tribes. 

EPOREDORIX,  a  chieftain  of  the  ^Edui,  was  one 
of  the  commanders  of  the  ^duan  cavalry  which 


mountains  were  the  Acroceraunii,  forming  the  j  was  sent  to  Caesar's  aid  against  Vercingetof  ix  in 
northwestern  boundary ;  besides  which  there  B.C.  52,  but  he  himself  revolted  soon  afterward 
were  the  mountains  Tomarus  in  the  east,  and 
Crania  in  the  south.  The  chief  rivers  were  the 
Celydnus,  Thyamis,  Acheron,  and  Arachthus. 
The  inhabitants  of  Epirus  were  numerous,  but 
were  not  ol  pure  Hellenic  blood.  The  original 
population  appears  to  have  been  Pelasgic ;  and 
the  ancient  oracle  of  Dodona  in  the  country  was 
always  regarded  as  of  Pelasgic  origin.  These 
Pelasgians  were  subsequently  mingled  with  Illy- 
rians  who  at  various  times  invaded  Epirus  and 
settled  in  the  country.  Epirus  contained  four- 
teen different  tribes.  Of  these  the  most  im- 
portant were  the  CHAONES,  THESPROTI,  and 
Moi.ossr,  who  gave  their  names  to  the  three 
principal  divisions  of  the  country,  CHAONIA, 


THESPROTIA,  and  MOLOSSIS.     The  different  tribes  from    Beneventum.       The  Scholiast  on  Horace 


were  originally  governed  by  their  own  princes. 
The  Molossian  princes,  who  traced  their  de- 
scent from  Pyrrhus  (Neoptolemus),  son  of  Achil- 
les, subsequently  acquired  the  sovereignty  over 
the  whole  country,  and  took  the  title  of  kings  of 
Epirus.  The  first  who  bore  this  title  was 
Alexander,  who  invaded  Italy  to  assist  the  Ta- 
rentines  against  the  Lucanians  and  Bruttii,  and 
perished  at  the  battle  of  Pandosia,  B.C.  326. 
The  most  celebrated  of  the  later  kings  was  PYR- 
RIIUS,  who  carried  on  war  with  the  Romans. 
About  B.C.'  200  the  Epirots  established  a  repub- 
lic :  and  the  Romans,  after  the  conquest  of  Phil- 
ip, 197,  guaranteed  its  independence.  But  in 
consequence  of  the  support  which  the  Epirots 
afforded  to  Antiochus  and  Perseus,  ^Emilius 
Paulus  received  orders  from  the  senate  to  punish 
them  with  the  utmost  severity.  He  destroyed 
seventy  of  their  towns,  and  sold  one  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  for  slaves. 
In  the  time  of  Augustus  the  country  had  not  yet 
recovered  from  the  effects  of  this  devastation. 

EPIRUS  NOVA.     Vid.  ILLYRICUM. 

[EPISTHENES  ('EmaOevije),  of  Amphipolis, 
commander  of  the  Greek  peltastee  in  the  army 
of  the  younger  Cyrus  at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa.] 

[EPISTOR  ('ExiaTup),  a  Trojan,  slain  by  Patro- 
clus  arrayed  in  the  armor  of  Achilles.] 


[EPISTROPHUS 


1.  Son  of  Iphi- 


tus,  leader  of  the  Phocians  in  the  Trojan  war.  — 
2.  Of  Alybe,  an  ally  of  the  Trojans.  —  3.  Son  of 
Euenus,  king  of  Lyrnessus.] 

EPONA  (from  epus,  tihat  is,  equus),  a  Roman 
goddess,  the  protectress  of  horses.  Images  of 
her,  either  statues  or  paintings,  were  frequently 
aeeu  in  the  niches  of  stables. 
•  EPOPECS  (EnuTTEVf).  1.  Son  of  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon) and  Canace,  came  from  Thessaly  to 
Sicyon,  of  which  place  he  became  king.  He  car- 
ried away  from  Thebes  the  beautiful  Antiope, 
daughter  of  Nycteus,  who  therefore  made  war 
upon  Epopeus.  The  two  kings  died  of  the 
wounds  which  they  received  in  the  war.  —  2.  Oue 
of  the  Tyrrhenian  pirates,  who  attempted  to 
carry  off  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  but  were  changed 
by  the  god  into  dolphins. 

EPOREDIA  (now  Ivrea),  a  town  in  Gallia  Cisal- 
pina,  on  the  Duria  in  the  territory  of  the  Salassi 
286 


and  joined  the  enemy. 

[EPULO,  a  Rutulian  hero  in  the  ^Eneid,  slain  by 
Achates.] 

[EPYAXA  ('Em)d%a),  queen  of  Cilicia,  wife  o 
King  Syennesis,  brought  large  sums  of  money  to 
Cyrus  to  aid  him  in  paying  his  troops.] 

EPYTOS,  a  Trojan,  father  of  Periphas,  who  was 
a  companion  of  lulus,  and  is  called  by  the 
patronymic  Epytides. 

EQUESTER  ("iTTTuof) 
vinities,  but  especially  of  Neptune  (Poseidon), 
who  had  created  the  horse,  and  in  whose  honor 
horse-races  were  held. 

EQDUS  Ttmccs  or  ^EQUUM  TUTICUM,  a  small 
town  of  the  Hirpini  in  Samnium,  twenty-one  miles 


a  surname  of  several  di 


(Sat.,  i.,  5,  87)  supposes,  but  without  sufficient 
reasons,  that  it  is  the  town,  quod  versu  dicire  non 


est. 


("Epat  :  now  Sighajik?),  a  small  but 
strong  sea-port  town  on  the  coast  of  Ionia,  north 
of  Teos. 

ERANA,  a  town  in  Mount  Amanus,  the  chief 
seat  of  the  Eleutherocilices  in  the  time  of  Cicero. 

ERANNOBOAS  ('Epavvo66as  :  now  Gunduk),  a 
river  of  India,  one  of  the  chief  tributaries  of  the 
Ganges,  into  which  it  fell  at  Palimbothra. 

ERASINIDES  (Epaaivitiijf),  one  of  the  Athenian 
commanders  at  the  battle  of  the  Arginusae.  He 
was  among  the  six  commanders  who  returned  to 
Athens  after  the  victory,  and  were  put  to  death, 
B.C.  406. 

ERASINUS  ('Epaalvof).  1.  (Now  Kephalari), 
the  chief  river  in  Argolis,  rises  in  the  Lake  Stym- 
phalus,  then  disappears  under  the  earth,  rises 
again  out  of  the  mountain  Chaon,  and,  after  re 
ceiving  the  River  Phrixus,  flows  through  the 
Lernaan  marsh  into  the  Argolic  Gulf.  —  2.  A 
small  river  near  Brauron  in  Attica 

ERASISTRATUS  ('EpaaiarpaTOf).  1.  A  celebra- 
ted physician  and  anatomist,  was  born  at  lulls  in 
the  island  of  Ceos.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Chrysip- 
pus  of  Cnidos,  of  Metrodorus,  and  apparently  of 
Theophrastus.  He  flourished  from  B.C.  300  to 
260.  He  lived  for  some  time  at  the  court  of 
Seleucus  Nicator,  king  of  Syria,  where  he  ac- 
quired great  reputation  by  discovering  that  the 
illness  of  Antiochus,  the  king's  eldest  son,  was 
owing  to  his  love  for  his  mother-in-law,  Strato- 
nice,  the  young  and  beautiful  daughter  of  De- 
metrius Poliorcetes,  whom  Seleucus  had  lately 
married.  Erasistratus  afterward  lived  at  Alex- 
andrea,  which  was  at  that  time  beginning  to  be 
a  celebrated  medical  school.  He  gave  up  prac- 
tice in  his  old  age,  that  he  might  pursue  his  an- 
atomical studies  without  interruption.  He  pros- 
ecuted his  experiments  in  this  branch  of  medi- 
cal science  with  great  success,  and  with  such 
ardor  that  he  is  said  to  have  dissected  criminals 
alive.  He  had  numerous  pupils  and  followers, 
and  a  medical  school  bearing  his  name  continued 
to  Exist  at  Smyrna,  in  Ionia,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.  —  2.  One  of  the  thirty  ty- 
rants in  Athens.] 


ERATID^E. 


ERICHTHONIUS. 


EuATin.fi  ('EpariSai),  an  illustrious  family  of 
lalysus  in  Rhodes,  to  which  Damagetus  and  his 
eon  Diagoras  belonged. 

ERATO  ('Eparu).  1.  Wife  of  A  rcns,  and  moth- 
er of  Elatus  and  Aphidas.  Vid.  ARCAS. — 2.  One 
of  the  Muses.  Vid.  MC&E. 

ERATOSTHENES  ('EparoaBevw),  of  Gyrene,  was 
bom  B.C.  276.  He  first  studied  in  his  native 
city  and  then  at  Athens.  He  was  taught  by 
Ariston  of  Chios,  the  philosopher :  Lysanias  of 
Cyrene,  the  grammarian  *  and  Callimaehus,  the 
poet.  He  left  Athens  at  the  invitation  of  Ptole- 
my Evergetes,  who  placed  him  over  the  library 
at  Alexandrea,  Here  he  continued  till  the  reign 
of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  about  B.C.  196,  of  voluntary  starvation, 
having  lost  his  sight,  and  being  tired  of  life. 
He  was  a  man  of  very  extensive  learning,  and 
wrote  on  almost  all  the  branches  of  knowledge 
then  cultivated — astronomy,  geometry,  geogra- 
phy, philosophy,  history,  and  grammar.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  constructed  the  large  armillce 
or  fixed  circular  instruments  which  were  long 
in  use  at  Alexandrea.  His  works  have  perish- 
ed, with  the  exception  of  some  fragments.  His 
most  celebrated  work  was  a  systematic  treatise 
on  geography,  entiled  TeuypaQiKu,  in  three 
books.  The  first  book,  which  formed  a  sort  of 
introduction,  contained  a  critical  review  of  the 
labors  of  his  predecessors  from  the  earliest  to 
his  own  times,  and  investigations  concerning 
the  form  and  nature  of  the  earth,  which,  accord- 
ing to  him,  was  an  immovable  globe.  The  sec- 
cond  book  contained  what  is  now  called  mathe- 
matical geography.  He  was  the  first  person 
who  attempted  to  measure  the  magnitude  of  the 
earth,  in  which  attempt  he  brought  forward  and 
used  the  method  which  is  employed  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  The  third  book  contained  political 
geography,  and  gave  descriptions  of  the  various 
countries,  derived  from  the  works  of  earlier  trav- 
ellers and  geographers.  In  order  to  be  able  to 
determine  the  accurate  site  of  each  place,  he 
drew  a  line  parallel  with  the  equator,  running 
from  the  pillars  of  Hercules  to  the  extreme  east 
of  Asia,  and  dividing  the  whole  etf  the  inhabited 
earth  into  two  halves.  Connected  with  this 
work  was  a  new  map  of  the  earth,  in  which 
towns,  mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  and  climates 
were  marked  according  to  his  own  improved 
measurements.  This  important  work  of  Era- 
tosthenes forms  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  an- 
cient geography.  Strabo,  as  well  as  other  wri- 
ters, made  great  use  of  it.  Eratosthenes  also 
wrote  two  poems  on  astronomical  subjects  :  one 
entitled  'Epp/e  or  Karacm-pia/toi,  which  treat- 
ed of  the  constellations;  and  another  entitled 
'Hpiy'ivi) ;  but  the  poem  KaTaorepiauoi,  which 
is  still  extant  under  his  name,  is  not  the  work 
of  Eratosthenes.  He  wrote  several  historical 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  was  a  chro- 
nological work  entitled  XpovoypaQia,  in  which 
he  endeavored  to  fix  the  dates  of  all  the  import- 
ant events  in  literary  as  well  as  political  his- 
tory. The  most  celebrated  of  his  grammatical 
works  was  On  the  Old  Attic  Comedy  (Uepl  rf/f 
'hpxaiaf  Kuff<,)6iaf).  The  best  collection  of  his 
fragments  is  by  Bernhardy,  Eratotthenica,  Bc- 
rol..  1822. 

ERBESSUS  ('EpCriaaof),  a  town  in  Sicily,  north- 
east of  Agrigentum,  near  the  sources  of  the 


'  Acragas,  which  must  not  be  confounded   with 
the  town  Herbessus,  near  Syracuse. 

ERCTA  (EipKTrj  or  EipnTai),  a  fortress  in  Sici 
;  ly,  on  a  hill,  with  a  harbor  near  Panormus. 

EREBUS  (*Epe6o<f),  son  of  Chaos,  begot  uEther 

j  and  Hem  era  (Day)  by  Nyx  (Night),  his  sister. 

i  The   name   signifies  darkness,  and  is  therefore 

applied   to   the    dark    and    gloomy   space   un 

der  the  earth,  through  which  the  shades  pass 

into  Hades. 

ERECHTHEUM.     Vid.  EEICHTHONIUS. 

ERECHTHEUS.     Vid.  ERICHTHOMUS. 

[EREMBI  ('Epe//6o/),  a  people  mentioned  in  the 
Odyssey  (iv.,  84)  in  connection  with  the  Sidoni- 
ans  and  ^Ethiopians ;  according  to  Strabo.  a 
Troglodytic  people  in  Arabia.] 

ERESUS  or  ERESSUS  ('Epeaof ,  *"Epeaaof :  'Epe- 
<7iOf),  a  town  on  the  western  coast  of  the  island 
of  Lesbos,  the  birth-place  of  Theophrastus  and 
Phanias,  and,  according  to  some,  of  Sappho. 

[ERETMEUS  ('Eper/Lievf,  i.  e.,  "  rower"),  a  Phas- 
acian  engaged  in  the  games  celebrated  during 
the  stay  of  Ulysses  in  Phseacia.] 

ERETRIA  ('Eperpta  :  'Eperoievf  :  now  Pal<ro- 
Castro),  an  ancient  and  important  town  in  Eu- 
boea,  on  the  Euripus,  with  a  celebrated  harbor 
Porthmos  (now  Porto  Bufado),  was  founded  by 
the  Athenians,  but  had  a  mixed  population, 
among  which  was  a  considerable  number  of 
Dorians.  Its  commerce  and  navy  raised  it  in 
early  times  to  importance ;  it  contended  with 
Chalcis  for  the  supremacy  of  Eulxea;  it  ruled 
over  several  of  the  neighboring  islands,  and 
planted  colonies  in  Macedonia  and  Italy.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  Persians,  B.O.  490,  and 
most  of  its  inhabitants  were  carried  away  into 
slavery.  Those  who  were  left  behind  built,  at 
a  little  distance  from  the  old  city,  the  town  of 
New  Eretria,  which,  however,  never  became  a 
place  of  importance. — 2.  A  town  in  Phthiotis,  in 
Thessaly,  near  Pharsalus. 

[ERETUM  ('Hpr/rov,  now  Crest  one?),  an  ancient 
city  of  the  Sabines  on  the  Tiber,  which,  under 
the  Roman  rule,  sank  into  comparative  insig- 
nificance :  in  Strabo's  time  it  was  little  more 
than  a  village.] 

[EREUTHALION  ('EpevBafauv),  leader  of  the 
Arcadians  against  the  Pylians,  fought  in  the 
armor  of  Areithous  ;  he  was  slain  by  Nestor.] 

ERGIMJS  ('Epyivof),  son  of  Clymeuus,  king  of 
Grchomenos.  After  Clymenus  had  been  killed 
at  Thebes,  Erginus,  who  succeeded  him,  march- 
ed against  Thebes,  and  compelled  them  to  p:iy 
him  an  annual  tribute  of  one  hundred  oxeu. 
The  Thebans  were  released  from  the  payment 
of  this  tribute  by  Herculefwho  killed  Lrgiuus. 

[ERIBCEA  ('EpiCoia,  poet.  *Hepi6oia).  1.  Sec 
ond  wife  of  Aloeus,  consequently  step-mother 
of  the  Aloidae :  when  these  had  confiued  Mars 
in  chains,  Eribcea  disclosed  to  Mercury  the  pliico 
where  he  was  imprisoned. — 2.  Wife  of  Tela- 
mon,  mother  of  Ajax ;  is  sometimes  called  Per 
ibcea.] 

ERICHTHONIUS  ('E/u£06vtof)  or  ERECHTHEUS 
('EpexOevf).  In  the  ancient  myths  these  two 
names  indicate  the  same  person ;  but  later 
writers  mention  two  heroes,  one  of  whom  is 
usually  called  Erichthonius  or  Erechtheus  I., 
ami  the  other  Erechtheus  II.  Homer  knows 
only  one  Erechtheus,  as  an  autochthon  and  kiui". 
of  Athens  ;  and  the  first  writer  who  distinguish 
287 


ERICHTHONIUS. 


ERIS. 


M  two  personages  is  Plato.  1.  ERICUTHOXIUS  thou  was  supposed  to  have  fallen  when  struck 
or  ERKCHTHKUS  I,  son  of  Vulcan  (Hepbsestus)  j  by  the  lightning  of  Jupiter  (Zeus).  The  Latiu 
and  Atthis,  the  daughter  of  Crauaus.  Minerva  i  poets  frequently  give  the  name  of  Eridauus  to 
f  Athcua}  reared  the  child  without  the  kuowl-  the  Po.  Vid.  PADUS. 


(Athena)  reared 
edge  of  the  other  gods,  and  intrusted  him  to 
Agraulos,  Paudroeos,  and  Herse,  concealed  in 
a  chest  They  were  forbidden  to  open  the 
chest,  but  they  disobeyed  the  command.  Upon 
opening  the  chest  they  saw  the  child  in  the  form 
of  a  serpent,  or  entwined  by  a  serpent,  where- 
upon they  were  seized  with  mndness,  and  threw 
themselves  down  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis,  or, 
according  to  others,  into  the  sen.  When  Erich- 
thouius  had  grown  up,  he  expelled  Ampbictyon, 
and  became  king  of  Athens.  His  wife  Pasithea 
bore  him  a  son,  Pandioa  He  is  said  to  have 
introduced  the  worship  of  Minerva  (Athena),  to 
have  instituted  the  festival  of  the  Panathenaea, 
and  to  have  built  a  temple  of  Minerva  (Athena) 
on  the  Acropolis.  When  Minerva  (Athena)  and 
Neptune  (Poseidon)  disputed  about  the  posses- 
sion of  Attica,  Erichthonius  declared  in  favor 
of  Minerva  (Athena).  He  was,  further,  the  first 
who  used  a  chariot  with  four  horses,  for  which 
reason  he  was  placed  among  the  stars  as  auriga. 
Ho  was  buried  in  the  temple  of  Minerva  (Athe- 
na), and  was  worshipped  as  a  god  after  bis  death. 
His  famous  temple,  the  Erechtheum,  stood  on 
the  Acropolis,  and  contained  three  separate  tem- 
ples :  one  of  Minerva  (Athena)  Polias,  or  the 
protectress  of  the  state  ;  the  Erechtheum  proper, 
or  sanctuary  of  Erechtheus  ;  and  the  Pandrosi- 
M/n,  or  sanctuary  of  Pandrosos.  —  2.  ERECHTHEUS 
II,  grandson  of  the  former,  son  of  Pandion  by 
Zeuxippe,  and  brother  of  Butes,  Procne,  and 
Philomela.  After  his  father's  death,  he  suc- 
ceeded him  as  king  of  Athens,  and  was  regard- 
ed in  later  times  as  one  of  the  Attic  eponymi. 
He  was  married  to  Praxithea,  by  whom  he  be- 
came the  father  of  Cecrops,  Pandoras,  Metion, 
Orueus,  Procris,  Creusa,  Chthonia,  and  Orithyia. 
In  the  war  between  the  Eleusinians  and  Athe- 
nians, Eumolpus,  the  son  of  Neptune  (Posei- 
don), was  slain  ;  whereupon  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
demanded  the  sacrifice  of  one  of  the  daughters 
of  Erechtheus.  When  one  was  drawn  by  lot, 
her  three  sisters  resolved  to  die  with  her  ;  and 
Erechtheus  himself  was  killed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
with  a  flash  of  lightning  at  the  request  of  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon). 


son  of  Dardanus  and  Batea, 
husband  of  Astyoche  or  Callirrhoe,  and  father 
of  Tros  or  Assaracus.  He  was  the  wealthiest 
of  all  mortals  ;  three  thousand  mares  grazed  in 
his  fields,  which  were  so  beautiful  that  Boreas 
fell  in  love  with  the£.  He  is  mentioned,  also, 
among  the  kings  of  Crete. 

ERICINIUM,  a  town  in  Thessaly,  near  Gom- 
phi. 

ERIDANUS  ('Hpidavof),  a  river  god,  a  son  of 
Oceanus  and  Tethys,  and  father  of  Zeuxippe. 
He  is  called  the  king  of  rivers,  and  on  his  banks 
amber  was  found.  In  Homer  the  name  does 
not  occur,  and  the  first  writer  who  mentions  it 
is  Hesipd.  The  position  which  the  ancient  po- 
ets assign  to  the  River  Eridanus  differed  at 
different  times.  In  later  times  the  Eridanus 
was  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  Padus, 
because  amber  was  found  at  its  mouth.  Hence 
the  Electrides  Insular,  or  "  Amber  Islands,"  are 
placed  at  the  month  of  the  Po,  and  here  Phae- 
288 


ERIGON  ('Epiyuv),  a  tributary  of  the  Axius  in 
Macedonia,  the   Agrianus  of  Herodotus.     Vid. 


1.  Daughter  of  Icarius 
For  the  legend   respect- 


Axius. 

ERIGONE 

beloved  by  Bacchus, 
ing  her,  vid.  ICARIUS. — 2.  Daughter  of 
and  Clytaemnestra,  and  mother  of  Penthilus  by 
Orestes.  Another  legend  relates  that  Orestes 
wanted  to  kill  her  with  her  mother,  but  that  Di- 
ana (Artemis)  removed  her  to  Attica,  and  there 
made  her  her  priestess.  Others  state  that  Erig- 
one  put  an  end  to  herself  when  she  heard  that 
Orestes  was  acquitted  by  the  Areopagus. 

ERINEUS  ('Epiveo?  or  'Eptveov  :  'Epivevz,  'Epiv- 
euTijc).  1.  A  small  but  ancient  town  in  Doris, 
belonging  to  the  Tetrapolis.  Vid.  DORIS. — 2. 
A  town  in  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly. 

ERINNA  ('Hpiwa),  a  Greek  poetess,  a  con- 
temporary and  friend  of  Sappho  (about  B.C. 
612),  who  died  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  but  left 
behind  her  poems  which  were  thought  worthy 
to  rank  with  those  of  Homer.  Her  poems  wero 
of  the  epic  class :  the  chief  of  them  was  entitled 
'HhaKurrj,  the  Distaff :  it  consisted  of  three  hun- 
dred lines,  of  which  only  four  are  extant.  It 
was  written  in  a  dialect  which  was  a  mixture 
of  the  Doric  and  .^Eolic,  and  which  was  spoken 
at  Rhodes,  where,  or  in  the  adjacent  island  of 
Telos,  Erinna  was  born.  She  is  also  called  a 
Lesbian  and  a  Mytilenaean,  on  account  of  her 
residence  in  Lesbos  with  Sappho.  There  are 
several  epigrams  upon  Erinna,  in  which  her 
praise  is  celebrated,  and  her  untimely  death  ia 
lamented.  Three  epigrams  in  the  Greek  An- 
thology are  ascribed  to  her,  of  which  the  first 
has  the  genuine  air  of  antiquity  ;  but  the  other 
two,  addressed  to  Baucis,  seem  to  be  a  later 
fabrication.  Eusebius  mentions  another  Erin- 
na, a  Greek  poetess,  contemporary  with  De 
mosthenes  and  Philip  of  Macedou,  B.C.  352 ; 
but  this  statement  ought  probably  to  be  rejected. 

ERINYES.     Vid,  EUMENIDES. 

[ERIOPIS  ('Epitini(f).  1.  Wife  of  Oileus,  moth- 
er of  Ajax  the  Locrian. — 2.  Daughter  of  Jason 


and  Medea.] 

ERIPHUS  (" 
middle  comedy. 


an  Athenian  poet  of  the 


ERIFHYLE  ('Epujtvhr)'),  daughter  of  Talaus  and 
Lysimache,  and  wife  of  Amphiaraus,  whom  she 
betrayed  for  the  sake  of  the  necklace  of  Harmo 
nia.  For  details,  vid.  AMPHIARAUS,  ALCM^EON, 
HARMONIA. 

ERIS  ('Epif),  the  goddess  of  discord.  Homer 
describes  her  as  the  friend  and  sister  of  Mars 
(Ares),  and  as  delighting  with  him  in  the  tumuli 
of  war  and  the  havoc  and  anguish  of  the  liattle- 
field.  According  to  Hesiod  she  was  a  daughter 
of  Night,  and  the  poet  describes  her  as  the 
mother  of  a  variety  of  allegorical  beings,  which 
are  the  causes  or  representatives  of  man's  mis- 
fortunes. It  was  Eris  who  threw  the  apple  into 
the  assembly  of  the  gods,  the  cause  of  so  much 
suffering  and  war.  Vid.  PARIS.  Virgil  intro- 
duces Discordia  as  a  being  similar  to  the  Ho 
meric  Eris ;  for  Discordia  appears  in  company 
with  Mars,  Bellona,  and  the  Furies,  and  Virgil 
is  evidently  imitating  Homer. 


ERTTHUS. 

[ERITHUS,  a  friend  of  Phineus,  slain  by  Per- 
seus.] 

ERIZA  (TU.  "Epi£a  :  'Epi&voe),  a  city  of  Caria, 
on  the  borders  of  Lycia  and  Phrygia,  on  the 
River  Chaiis  (or  rather  Gaiis).  The  surrounding 
district  was  called  Asia  Erizena. 

EROS  (Epof),  in  Latin  AMOR  or  CUPIDO,  the 
god  of  Love.  In  order  to  understand  the  an- 
cients properly,  we  must  distinguish  three  gods 
of  this  name  :  1.  The  Eros  of  the  ancient  cos- 
mogonies ;  2.  The  Eros  of  the  philosophers  and 
mysteries,  who  bears  great  resemblance  to  the 
first  ;  and,  3.  The  Eros  whom  we  meet  with 
in  the  epigrammatic  and  erotic  poets.  Homer 
does  not  mention  Eros,  and  Hesiod,  the  earliest 
author  who  speaks  of  him,  describes  him  as  the 
cosmogonic  Eros.  First,  says  Hesiod,  there 
was  Chaos,  then  came  Ge,  Tartarus,  and  Eros, 
the  fairest  among  the  gods,  who  rules  over  the 
minds  and  the  council  of  gods  and  men.  By 
the  philosophers  and  in  the  mysteries  Eros  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  fundamental  causes  in 
the  formation  of  the  world,  inasmuch  as  he  was 
the  uniting  power  of  love,  which  brought  order 
and  harmony  among  the  conflicting  elements 
of  which  Chaos  consisted.  The  Orphic  poets 
described  him  as  the  son  of  Cronus  (Saturn), 
or  as  the  first  of  the  gods  who  sprang  from  the 
world's  egg  ;  and  in  Plato's  Symposium  he  is 
likewise  called  the  oldest  of  the  gods.  The 
Eros  of  later  poets,  who  gave  rise  to  that  notion 
of  the  god  which  is  most  familiar  to  us,  is  one 
of  the  youngest  of  all  the  gods.  The  parentage 
of  this  Eros  is  very  differently  described.  He 
id  usually  represented  as  a  son  of  Aphrodite 
(Venus),  ,but  his  father  is  either  Ares  (Mars), 
Zeus  (Jupiter),  or  Hermes  (Mercury).  He  was 
at  first  represented  as  a  handsome  youth  ;  but 
shortly  after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great 
the  epigrammatists  and  erotic  poets  represent- 
ed him  as  a  wanton  boy,  of  whom  a  thousand 
tricks  and  cruel  sports  were  related,  and  from 
whom  neither  gods  nor  men  were  safe.  In  this 
stage  Eros  had  nothing  to  do  with  uniting  the 
discordant  elements  of  the  universe,  or  with 
the  higher  sympathy  of  love  which  binds  human 
kind  together ;  but  he  is  purely  the  god  of  sen- 
sual love,  who  bears  sway  over  the  inhabitants 
of  Olympus  as  well  as  over  men  and  all  living 
creatures.  His  arms  consist  of  arrows,  which 
be  carries  in  a  golden  quiver,  and  of  torches 
which  no  one  can  touch  with  impunity.  His 
arrows  are  of  different  powr :  some  are  golden, 
and  kindle  love  in  the  heart  they  wound  ;  others 
are  blunt  and  heavy  with  lead,  and  produce 
aversion  to  a  lover.  Eros  is  further  represent- 
ed with  golden  wings,  and  as  fluttering  about 
like  a  bird.  His  eyes  are  sometimes  covered, 
so  that  he  acts  blindly.  He  is  the  usual  com- 
panion of  his  mother  Aphrodite  (Venus),  and 
poets  and  artists  represent  him,  moreover,  as 
accompanied  by  such  allegorical  beings  as  Po- 
thos,  Hiineros,  Tyche,  Peitho,  the  Charites  or 
Muses.  ANTEROS,  which  literally  means  re- 
turn-love, is  usually  represented  as  the  god  who 
punishes  those  who  do  not  return  the  love  of 
others  ;  thus  he  ia  the  avenging  Eros,  or  a  deus 
ullor  (Ov.,  Met.,  xiii.,  760).  But  in  some  ac- 
counts he  is  described  as  a  god  opposed  to  Eros 
and  struggling  against  him.  The  number  of 
Erotes  (Amores  and  Cupidinef)is  playfully  ex- 
19 


ERYTHINI. 

tended  ad  libitum  by  later  poets,  and  these 
Erotes  are  described  either  as  sons  of  Aphro- 
dite (Venus)  or  of  nymphs.  Among  the  places 
distinguished  for  the  worship  of  Eros,  Thespiaj 
in  Bceotia  stands  foremost  :  there  a  quinquen- 
nial festival,  the  Erotidia  or  Erotia,  was  cele- 
brated in  his  honar.  In  ancient  works  of  art, 
Eros  is  represented  either  as  a  full-grown  youth 
of  the  most  perfect  beauty,  or  as  a  wanton  and 
sportive  boy.  Respecting  the  connection  be- 
tween Eros  and  Psyche,  vid.  PSYCHE. 

[Eaos  ('Epuf).  1.  A  slave  of  Marc  Antony, 
who,  when  Antony,  having  determined  to  de- 
stroy himself,  handed  him  his  sword  for  that 
purpose,  plunged  it  into  his  own  breast. — 2.  A 
comic  actor,  was  at  first  hissed  from  the  stage ; 
but  afterward,  under  the  instruction  of  Ro&cius, 
became  one  of  the  most  celebrated  actors  of 
Rome.] 

EROTIANUS  (Epuriavof),  a  Greek  grammarian 
or  physician  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  wrote  a  work 
still  extant,  entitled  Twv  nap'  'ImroKpuTei  Ae&uv 
"Zvvayuyrj,  Vocuin,  guce  apud  Hippocratem  sunt, 
Collectio,  which  is  dedicated  to  Andromachus, 
the  archiater  of  the  emperor.  The  best  edition 
is  by  Franz,  Lips.,  1780. 

ERUBRUS  (now  Ruber),  a  small  tributary  of  the 
Moselle,  near  Treves. 

[ERYCIXA,  surname  of  Venus  (Aphrodite). 
Vid.  ERYX.] 

[ERYMANTHE  ('Epvpavdri),  wife  of  Berosus,  and 
mother  of  Sabba,  one  of  the  Sibyls.] 

ERYMANTHUS  ('Epvpavdof).  1.  A  lofty  mount- 
ain in  Arcadia,  on  the  frontiers  of  Achaia  and 
Elis,  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  haunt  of 
the  savage  Erymanthian  boar  destroyed  by  Her- 
cules. Vid.  HERCULES.  The  Arcadian  nymph 
Callisto,  who  was  changed  into  a  she-bear,  is 
called  Erymanthis  urs<e,  and  her  son  Areas  Ery- 
manthidis  ursce  custos.  Vid.  ARCTOS. — 2.  [(Now 
Dogana,  or,  according  to  Leake,  Dhimitzana}^\ 
a  river  in  Arcadia,  which  rises  in  the  above- 
mentioned  mountain,  and  falls  into  the  Alpheus. 

ERYMANTHUS  or  ETYMANDRUS  ('Epiijiavdof, 
'~Ervfiav6pof,  Arrian :  now  Helmund),  a  consid- 
erable river  in  the  Persian  province  of  Aracho- 
sia,  rising  in  Mount  Paropamisus,  and  flowing 
southwest  and  west  into  the  lake  called  Aria 
(now  Zarah).  According  to  other  accounts,  it 
lost  itself  in  the  sand,  or  flowed  on  through 
Gedrosia  into  the  Indian  Ocean. 

[ERYMAS  ('Ept/iOf).  1.  A  Trojan,  slain  by 
Idomeneus. — 2.  Another  Trojan,  slain  by  Pa- 
trodus. — 3.  A  companion  of  ./Eneas,  slain  by 
Turnus.] 

ERYSICHTHON  ('Epvai^Ouv),  that  is,  "  the  Tear- 
er  up  of  the  Earth."  1.  Son  of  Triopas,  cut 
down  trees  in  a  grove  sacred  to  Ceres  (Deme- 
t«r),  for  which  he  was  punished  by  the  goddess 
with  fearful  hunger. — a.  Son  of  Cccrops  and 
Agraulos,  died  without  issue  in  his  father's  life- 
time on  his  return  from  Delos,  whence  he  brought 
to  Athens  the  ancient  image  of  Ilithyia. 

[ERYTHIA  ('Epvfffta),  daughter  of  Geryones, 
after  whom  the  island  Erythga  or  Erythia,  near 
Gadcs  was  said  to  have  been  named.  Vid. 
GADES.] 

ERYTUINI  ('EpvOivoi),  a  city  on  the  coast  of 
Paphlagonia,  between  Cromnn  and  Amastris. 
A  range  of  cliffs  near  it  was  called  by  the  same 
name. 

289 


ERYTHR^E. 


ETEONETJS. 


('Epvflpai :  'Epvdpalof).  1.  (Ruins 
iK-ar  Pigadia),  tin  ancient  town  in  Bceotia,  not 
far  from  Platteze  and  Hysia,  oud  celebrated  as 
the  mother  city  of  Erythrae  in  Asia  Minor. — 
•&.  A  town  of  the  Locri  Oz6laj,  but  belonging  to 
the  JStolians,  east  of  Naupactus. — 3.  (Ruins  at 
Jiitri),  one  of  the  twelve  Ionian  cities  of  Asia 
Minor,  stood  at  the  bottom  of  a  large  bay,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  peninsula  which  lies  opposite 
to  Chios.  Tradition  ascribed  its  foundation  to 
a  mixed  colony  of  Cretans,  Lycians,  Carians, 
and  Paruphylians,  under  Erythros,  the  son  of 
Rhadamanthys  ;  and  the  leader  of  the  lonians, 
who  afterward  took  possession  of  it,  was  said 
to  have  been  Cnopus,  the  son  of  Codrus,  after 
whom  .the  city  was  also  called  CNOPOPOLIS 
(Kvurrovtrolif).  The  little  river  Aleos  (or, 
rather,  Axus,  as  it  appears  on  coins),  flowed 
past,  the  citv,  and  the  neighboring  sea-port  towns 
of  Cyssus  or  CASTSTES,  and  Phcenicus,  formed 
its  harbors.  Erythroe  contained  a  temple  of 
Hercules  and  Minerva  (Athena)  Polias,  remark- 
able for  its  antiquity  ;  and  on  the  coast,  near  the 
city,  was  a  rock  called  Nigrum  Promontorium 
(uKpa  [t&.aiva),  from  which  excellent  mill-stones 
were  hewa 

ERYTHR^EUXI  MARE  (jy  'EpvOpa  iJu/lcKTCTa,  also 
rarely  'EpvOpalof  Trwrof),  was  the  name  applied 
originally  to  the  whole  expanse  of  sea  between 
Arabia  and  Africa  on  the  west,  and  India  on  the 
east,  including  its  two  great  gulfs  (the  Red  Sea 
and  Persian  Gulf).  In  this  sense  it  is  used  by 
Herodotus,  who  also  distinguishes  the  Red  Sea 
bv  the  name  of  'A.pu6io<;  /coATrof.  Vid.  ARABICUS 
SINUS.  Supposing  the  shores  of  Africa  and 
Arabia  to  trend  more  and  more  away  from  each 
other  the  further  south  you  go,  he  appears  to 
have  called  the  head  of  the  sea  between  them 
6  'Apd6iof  Ko/l7rof,  and  the  rest  of  that  sea,  as 
far  south  as  it  extended,  and  also  eastward  to 
the  shores  of  India,  i)  'Epvdpij  ddhaaaa,  and  also 
i)  NOTIJJ  •ddhaaaa ;  though  there  are,  again,  some 
indications  of  a  distinction  between  these  two 
terms,  the  latter  being  applied  to  the  whole  ex- 
panse of  ocean  south  of  the  former  ;  in  one  pas- 
sage, however,  they  are  most  expressly  identi- 
fied (ii.,  158).  Afterward,  when  the  true  form 
of  these  seas  came  to  be  better  known,  through 
the  progress  of  maritime  discovery  under  the 
Ptolemies,  their  parts  were  distinguished  by 
different  names,  the  main  body  of  the  sea  be- 
ing called  Indicus  Oceanus,  the  Red  Sea  Arab- 
icus  Sinus,  the  Persian  Gulf  Persicus  Sinus, 
and  the  name  Erythraeum  Mare  being  confined 
by  some  geographers  to  the  gulf  between  the 
Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  and  the  Indian  Ocean, 
but  fur  more  generally  used  as  identical  with 
Arabicus  Sinus,  or  the  corresponding  genuine 
Latin  term,  Mare  Rubrum  (Red  Sea).  Still, 
however,  even  long  after  the  commencement 
of  our  era,  the  name  Erythra?um  Mare  was 
sometimes  used  in  its  ancient  sense,  as  in  the 
rieptTrAot'f  rj/f  'EpvOpus  &a%daoT)f,  ascribed  to 
Arrian,  but  really  the  work  of  a  later  period, 
which  is  a  description  of  the  coast  from  Myos 
Hermos  on  the  Red  Sea  to  the  shores  of  India. 
The  origin  of  the  name  is  doubtful,  and  was  dis- 
puted by  the  ancients  :  it  is  generally  supposed 
that  the  Greek  'Epvdpu  ddlaaoa  is  a  significant 
name,  identical  in  meaning  with  the  Latin  and 
English  names  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  but  why  red  no 
290 


very  satisfactory  reason  has  been  given  ;  the  He 
brew  name  signifies  the  sedgy  sea. 

[ERYTHRAS  ('Epi>6pac),  an  ancient  king  (Stra 
bo  in  one  place  calls  him  a  Persian,  in  another  a 
son  of  Perseus),  after  whom  the  Erythraean  Sea 
was  said  to  have  been  named.] 

[ERYX  ('Ept>£),  son  of  Neptune  (Apollod.),  or 
of  Butes  and  Venus,  consequently  half  brother 
of  .Ki  iras  ;  king  of  the  Elymi  in  Sicily ;  founded 
the  city  Eryx  (q.  v.),  and  built  a  temple  in  honor 
of  his  mother.  He  was  a  famous  boxer,  and 
challenged  Hercules,  but  was  slain  by  him.] 

ERYX  ("Epv|).  1.  Also  ERYCUS  MONS  (now 
S.  Giuliano),  a  steep  and  isolated  mountain  in 
the  northwest  of  Sicily,  near  Drepauum.  On 
the  summit  of  this  mountain  stood  an  ancient 
and  celebrated  temple  of  Venus  (Aphrodite), 
said  to  have  been  built  by  Eryx,  king  of  the 
Elymi,  or,  according  to  Virgil,  by  j3£ueas,  but 
more  probably  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  intro- 
duced the  worship  of  Venus  (Aphrodite)  into 
Sicily.  Vid.  APHRODITE.  From  this  temple  the 
goddess  bore  the  surname  ERYCINA,  under  which 
name  her  worship  was  introduced  at  Rome  about 
the  beginning  of  the  second  Punic  war.  At 
present  there  is  standing  on  the  summit  of  the 
mountain  the  remains  of  a  castle,  originally 
built  by  the  Saracens. — 2.  The  town  of  this  name 
was  on  the  western  slope  of  the  mountain.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the  time 
of  Pyrrhus  ;  was  subsequently  rebuilt ;  but  was 
again  destroyed  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
first  Punic  war,  and  its  inhabitants  removed  to 
Drepanum. 

ESDRAELA  ('Eadpaqhu)  and  ESDRAELON  or  Es- 
DRELON  or  -OM  ('EadprjTiuv  or  -6p),  the  Greek 
names  for  the  city  and  valley  of  Jezreel  in  Pal- 
estine. 

ESQUILLE.     Vid.  ROMA. 

Essui,  a  people  in  Gaul,  west  of  the  Sequana, 
probably  the  same  as  the  people  elsewhere  call- 
id  ESUBII  and  SESUVII. 

ESTIONES,  a  people  in  Rsetia  Secunda  or  Vin- 
delicia,  whose  capital  was  Oampodunum  (now 
Kempteri),  on  the  lller. 

[ETEARCHUS  ('Ereapxof).  1.  An  ancient  king 
of  Crete,  father  of  Phronima,  and,  through  her, 
grandfather  of  Battus,  according  to  the  legend  of 
;he  CyrenSans.— 2.  A  king  of  the  Ammonians. 
Both  mentioned  by  Herodotus. 

ETEOCLES  ('Ereo/c/l^f).  1.  Son  of  Andreus  and 
Evippe,  or  of  Cephisus ;  said  to  have  been  the 
Irst  who  offered  sacrifices  to  the  Charites  at 
Orchomenos  in  Bceotia. — 2.  A  son  of  GJdipus 
and  Jocaste.  After  his  father's  flight  from 
Thebes,  he  and  his  brother  Polynices  undertook 
the  government  of  Thebes  by  turns ;  but  dis- 
putes having  arisen  between  them,  Polynices 
led  to  Adrastus,  who  then  brought  about  the 
'xpedition  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes.  Vid. 
ADRASTUS.  When  many  of  the  heroes  had  fall- 
en, Etcocles  and  Polynices  resolved  upon  de- 
ciding the  contest  by  single  combat,  and  both  the 
jrothers  fell 

ETEOCLUS  ('Erco/cAof),  a  son  of  Iphis,  was,  ac- 
cording to  some  traditions,  one  of  the  seven  he- 
roes who  went  with  Adrastus  against  Thebes, 
tie  had  to  make  the  attack  upon  the  Neitian 
ate,  where  he  was  opposed  by  Megareus. 

[ETEONEUS  ('Ereuveve),  son  of  Boethus,  at- 
tendant of  Menelau1*.] 


ETEONICUS. 

[ETEONICUS    ('EreoviKOf),    a     Lacedaemonian, 
harmost  in  Thasos,   was   driveu   out  B.C.  410 ;  [ 
in  389  he  was  harmost  iu  ^Egina.] 

ETEONUS  ('Erewvof),  a  town  in  Bosotia,  be- 
longing to  the  district  Parasopia,  mentioned  by 
Homer,  subsequently  called  Scarphe. 

ETKSI^E  ^'Errjeiai,  sc.  uvepoi),  the  Etesian 
Winds,  derived  from  £rof,  "  year," .  signified  any 
periodical  winds,  but  the  word  was  used  more 
particularly  by  the  Greeks  to  indicate  the  north- 
erly winds,  which  blew  in  the  ^Egean  for  forty 
days  from  the  rising  of  the  dog  star. 

[ETHEMOX,  a  friend  of  Phineus,  from  Naba- 
toea  iu  Arabia,  slain  by  Perseus.] 

ETIS  or  ETIA  (THrif,  'Hma  :  'Hrtof,  'Hretof), 
a  town  in  the  south  of  Laconia,  near  Boeae,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  ^Eneas,  and  named 
after  his  daughter  Etias.  Its  inhabitants  were 
transplanted  at  an  early  time  to  BOKB,  and  the 
place  disappeared. 

ETOVISSA,  a  town  of  the  Edetani,  in  Hispania 
Tarraconeusis. 

ETRUEIA  or  TUSCIA,  called  by  the  Greeks 
TVREHENIA  or  TrESExiA  (TvfipTjviO.,  Tvpaijvia), 
a  country  in  central  Italy.  The  inhabitants 
were  called  by  the  Romans  ETRUSCI  or  Tusci, 
by  the  Greeks  TYRRUKNI  or  TYRSENI  (Tvpfavoi, 
'Vvpaqvoi),  and  by  themselves  RASENA.  Etruria 
was  bounded  on  the  north  and  northwest  by  the 
Apennines  and  the  River  Macra,  which  divided 
it  from  Ligui-ia,  on  the  west  by  the  Tyrrhene 
Sea  or  Mare  luferum,  on  the  east  and  south  by 
the  River  Tiber,  which  separated  it  from  Um- 
bria  and  Latium,  thus  comprehending  almost 
the  whole  of  modem  Tuscany,  the  Duchy  of 
Lucca,  and  the  Transtiberine  portion  of  the  Ro- 
man states.  It  was  intersected  by  numerous 
mountains,  offshoots  of  the  Apennines,  consist- 
ing of  long  ranges  of  hills  in  the  north,  but  in 
the  south  lying  in  detached  masses,  and  of 
smaller  size.  The  laud  was  celebrated  in  an- 
tiquity for  its  fertility,  and  yielded  rich  harvests 
of  corn,  wine,  oil,  and  flax.  The  upper  part  of 
the  country  was  the  most  healthy,  namely,  the 
part  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Tiber  aud  the  Aruus,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Arretium,  Cortona,  and  Peru- 
sia.  The  lower  part  of  the  country  on  the 
coast  was  marshy  and  unhealthy,  like  the  Ma- 
remma  at  the  present  day.  The  early  history 
of  the  population  of  Etruria  has  given  rise  to 
much  discussion  iu  modern  times.  It  is  admit- 
ted on  all  hands  that  the  people  known  to  the 
Romans  under  the  name  of  Etruscans  were  not 
the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country,  but  a 
mixed  race.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  ap- 
pear to  have  been  Ligurians  in  the  north  aud 
Siculiaus  in  the  south,  both  of  whom  were  sub- 
sequently expelled  from  the  country  by  the  Um- 
briaus.  So  far  most  accounts  agree  ;  but  from 
tliis  point  there  is  great  difference  of  opinion. 
The  ancients  generally  believed  that  a  colony 
•f  Lydiaus,  led  by  Tyrsenus,  sou  of  the  king  of 
Lydia,  settled  iu  the  country,  to  which  they 
gave  the  name  of  their  leader  ;  and  it  has  been 
luttintaiued  by  some  modern  writers  that  the 
Oriental  character  of  many  of  the  Etruscan  in- 
stitution-. Ls  in  favor  of  this  account  of  their  ori- 
gin. I jui  moot  modern  critics  adopt  an  entire- 
ly different  opinion.  They  believe  that  a  Pe- 
Uwgic  race,  called  Tyrrheni,  subdued  the  Um- 


ETRURIA. 

brians,  and  settled  in  the  country,  and  that 
these  Tyrrhene-Pelasgians  were  in  their  turn 
conquered  by  a  powerful  Rsetian  race,  called 
Rasena,  who  descended  from  the  Alps  and  the" 
valley  of  the  Po.  Hence  it  was  from  the  union 
of  the  Tyrrhene-Pelasgians  and  the  Rasena  that 
the  Etruscan  nation  was  formed.  It  is  impos- 
sible, however,  to  come  to  any  definite  conclu- 
sion respecting  the  real  origin  of  the  Etrus- 
cans, since  we  are  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
language  which  they  spoke :  and  the  language 
of  a  people  is  the  only  means  by  which  we  can 
proaounce  with  certainty  respecting  their  ori- 
gin. But,  whatever  may  have  been  the  origin 
of  the  Etruscans,  we  know  that  they  were  a 
very  powerful  nation  when  Rome  was  still  in 
its  infancy,  and  that  they  had  at  an  early  period 
extended,  their  dominion  over  the  greater  part 
of  Italy,  from  the  Alps  and  the  plains  of  Lom- 
bardy  on  the  one  hand,  to  Vesuvius  and  the 
Gulf  of  Sarento  on  the  other.  These  domin- 
ions may  be  divided  into  three  great  districts : 
Circumpadane  Etruria  in  the  north,  Etruria 
Proper  in  the  centre,  and  Campanian  Etruria 
in  the  south.  In  each  of  these  districts  there 
were  twelve  principal  cities  or  states,  which 
i»rmed  a  confederacy  for  mutual  protection. 
Through  the  attacks  of  the  Gauls  in  the  north, 
and  of  the  Sabines,  Samnites,  and  Greeks  in  the 
south,  the  Etruscans  became  confined  within 
the  limits  of  Etruria  Proper,  and  continued  long 
to  flourish  in  this  country,  after  they  had  disap- 
peared from  the  rest  of  Italy.  Of  the  twelve 
cities  which  formed  the  confederacy  in  Etruria 
Proper,  no  list  is  given  by  the  ancients.  They 
were  most  probably  CORTONA,  ARRETIUM,  Ci.u- 
SIUM,  PERUSIA,  VOLAIERR^E,  VETULONIA,  RUSEL 
LJE,  VOLSINII,  TARQUINII,  VALERIA  VEII,  C^EEE, 
more  anciently  called  Agylla.  Each  state  was 
independent  of  all  the  others.  The  government 
was  a  close  aristocracy,  and  was  strictly  con- 
fined to  the  family  of  the  Lucumones,  who 
united  in  their  own  persons  the  ecclesiastical 
as  well  as  the  civil  functions.  The  people  were 
not  only  rigidly  excluded  from  all  share  in  the 
government,  but  appear  to  have  been  in  a  state 
of  vassalage  or  serfdom.  From  the  noble  aud 
priestly  families  of  the  Lucumones  a  supremo 
magistrate  was  chosen,  who  appears  to  have 
been  sometimes  elected  for  life,  and  to  have 
borne  the  title  of  king ;  but  his  power  was  much 
fettered  by  the  noble  families.  At  a  later  time 
the  kingly  dignity  was  abolished,  and  the  gov- 
ernment intrusted  to  a  senate.  A  meeting  of 
the  confederacy  of  the  twelve  states  was  held 
annually  in  the  spring,  at  the  temple  of  Vol- 
tumua,  near  Volsinii.  The  Etruscans  were  a 
higlily-civilized  people,  and  from  them  the  Ro- 
mans borrowed  many  of  their  religious  and  po- 
litical institutions.  The  three  lust  kings  of 
Rome  were  undoubtedly  Etruscans,  and  they 
left  in  the  city  enduring  traces  of  Etruscan 
power  and  greatness.  The  Etruscans  paid  the 
greatest  attention  to  religion,  and  their  relig- 
ious system  waa  closely  interwoven  with  all 
public  and  private  affairs.  The  principal  deities 
were  divided  into  two  classes.  The  highest 
class  were  the  "  Shrouded  Gods,"  who  did  not 
reveal  themselves  to  man,  and  to  whom  all  the 
other  gods  were  subject  The  second  class 
consisted  of  the  twelve  great  gods,  six  mala 
291 


EU^MON. 


EUCLIDES. 


aud  six  female,  called  by  the  Romans  Dii  Cou- 
geutes.  They  formed  the  council  of  Tina  or 
Tmia.  the  Roman  Jupiter,  and  the  two  other 
most  powerful  gods  of  the  twelve  were  Cupra, 
corresponding  to  JUDO,  and  Mcnrva  or  Menerva, 
corresponding  to  the  Roman  Minerva.  Besides 
these  two  classes  of  gods,  there  was  a  great 
number  of  other  gods,  peuates  and  lares,  to 
whom  worship  was  paid.  The  mode  in  which 
the  gods  were  worshipped  was  prescribed  in 
certain  sacred  books,  said  to  have  been  written 
by  TAGES.  These  books  contained  the  "  Etrus- 
can Disciplina,"  and  gave  minute  directions. re- 
specting the  whole  of  the  ceremonial  worship. 
They  were  studied  in  the  schools  of  the  Lucu- 
inones,  to  which  the  Romans  also  were  accus- 
tomed to  send  some  of  their  noblest  youths  for 
instruction,  since  it  was  from  the  Etruscans 
that  the  Romans  borrowed  most  of  their  arts 
of  divination.  In  architecture,  statuary,  and 
painting,  the  Etruscans  attained  a  great  emi- 
nence. They  were  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
the  arch  at  an  early  period,  aud  they  employed 
it  in  constructing  the  great  cloacae  at  Rome. 
Their  bronze  candelabra  were  celebrated  at 
Athens  even  in  the  times  of  Pericles ;  and  the 
beauty  of  their  bronze  statues  is  still  attestedj 
by  the  She  Wolf  of  the  Capitol  and  the  Orator 
of  the  Florence  Gallery.  The  beautiful  vases, 
which  have  been  discovered  in  such  numbers 
in  Etruscan  tombs,  can  not  be  cited  as  proofs 
of  the  excellence  of  Etruscan  workmanship, 
since  it  is  now  admitted  by  the  most  compe- 
tent judges  that  these  vases  were  either  made 
in  Greece,  or  by  Greek  artists  settled  in  Italy. 
Of  the  private  life  of  the  Etruscans  we  have  a 
lively  picture  from  the  paintings  discovered  in 
their  tombs ;  ,but  into  this  subject  our  limits 
forbid  us  to  enter.  The  later  history  of  Etruria 
is  a  struggle  against  the  rising  power  of  Rome, 
to  which  it  was  finally  compelled  to  yield.  Aft- 
er the  capture  of  Veii  by  the  dictator  Camillus, 
B.C.  396,  the  Romans  obtained  possession  of 
the  eastern  part  of  Etruria,  and  the  Ciminian 
forest,  instead  of  the  Tiber,  now  became  the 
boundary  of  the  two  people.  The  defeat  of  the 
Etruscans  by  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  in  310  was 
a  great  blow  to  their  power.  They  still  en- 
deavored to  maintain  their  independence,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  Samnites  and  the  Gauls ; 
but  after  their  decisive  defeat  by  Cornelius  Dol- 
abella  in  283,  they  became  the  subjects  of  Rome. 
In  91  they  received  the  Roman  franchise.  The 
numerous  military  colonies  established  in  Etru- 
ria by  Sulla  and  Augustus  destroyed  to  a  great 
extent  the  national  character  of  the  people,  and 
the  country  thus  became  in  course  of  time  com- 
pletely Romanized. 

[EU^EMON  (Evaipuv).  1.  One  pf  the  sons  of 
Lycaon,  slain  by  the  lightning  of  Jupiter  (Zeus). 
— 2.  Father  of  Eurypylus,  whence  the  latter  is 
called  by  Homer  Euaemonides  (Evaiftovidris).'] 

[Et'AGBUs,  one  of  the  Lapithae,  slain  by  the 
centaur  Rbxetus  at  the  nuptials  of  Pirithous.] 

[EUBIUS,  a  writer,  author  of  erotic  stories, 
mentioned  by  Ovid  in  his  Tristia.] 

ECBCEA  (Ev6ota  :  'Eifoievf,  Evfoevf,  fern.  Ei- 
6olf).  1.  (Now  Negropont),  the  largest  island 
of  the  JSgean  Sea,  lying  along  the  coasts  of 
Attica,  Bceotia,  and  the  southern  part  of  Thes- 
saly,  from  which  countries  it  is  separated  by 
292. 


the  Eubcean  Sea,  called  the  Euripus  in  its  noi- 
rowest  part  Eubcea  is  about  ninety  miles  in 
length  :  its  extreme  breadth  is  thirty  miles,  but 
in  the  narrowest  part  it  is  only  four  miles  across. 
Throughout  the  length  of  the  island  runs  a  lofty 
range  of  mountains,  which  rise  in  one  part  as 
liigh  as  seven  thousand  two  hundred  and  sixty 
six  feet  abov*  the  sea.  It  contains,  neverthe- 
less, many  fertile  plains,  and  was  celebrated  in 
antiquity  for  the  excellence  of  its  pasturage  and 
corn-fields.  According  to  the  ancients,  it  was 
once  united  to  Boeotia,  from  which  it  was  sep 
arated  by  an  earthquake.  In  Homer  the  inhab- 
itants are  called  Abantcs,  and  arc  represented 
as  taking  part  in  the  expedition  against  Troy. 
In  the  north  of  Eubcea  dewelt  the  Histisei,  from 
whom  that  part  of  the  island  was  called  His- 
tiaea;  below  these  were  the  Ellopii,  who  gave 
the  name  of  Ellopia  to  the  district,  extending 
as  far  as  JEgx  and  Cerinthus  ;  and  in  the  south 
were  the  Dryopes.  The  centre  of  the  island 
was  inhabited  chiefly  by  lonians.  It  was  in  this 
part  of  Eubcea  that  the  Athenians  planted  the 
colonies  of  CHALCIS  and  ERETRIA,  which  were 
the  two  most  important  cities  in  the  island. 
After  the  Persian  wars  Eubcea  became  subjecl 
to  the  Athenians,  who  attached  much  import- 
ance to  its  possession :  and,  consequently,  Per- 
icles made  great  exertions  to  subdue  it,  when 
it  revolted  in  B.C.  445.  Under  the  Romans 
Eubcea  formed  part  of  the  province  of  Achaia. 
Since  Cuma?  in  Italy  was  a  colony  from  Chal- 
cis  in  Euboea,  the  adjective  Euboicus  is  used  by 
the  poets  in  reference  to  the  former  city.  Thus 
Virgil  (jEn.,  vi.,  2)  speaks  of  Euboicis  Cumarum 
oris. — 2.  A  town  in  the  interior  of  Sicily,  found- 
ed by  Chalcis  in  Eubrea,  but  destroyed  at  an 
early  period. 

EUBULIDES  (Ev6ov/Ui57?f),  of  Miletus,  a  phi 
losopher  of  the  Megaric  school.  He  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Aristotle,  against  whom  he  wrote 
with  great  bitterness  ;  and  he  is  stated  to  have 
given  Demosthenes  instruction  in  dialectics. 
He  is  said  to  have  invented  the  forms  of  sev- 
eral of  the  most  celebrated  false  and  captious 


EUBULUS  (Ev6ov2.0f).  1.  An  Athenian,  of  the 
demus  Anaphlystus,  a  distinguished  orator  and 
statesman,  was  one  of  the  most  formidable  op- 
ponents of  Demosthenes.  It  was  with  him  that 
^Eschines  served  as  secretary  in  the  earlier  part 
of  his  life. — 2.  An  Athenian,  son  of  Euphranor, 
of  the  Cettian  demus,  a  distinguished  poet  of 
the  middle  comedy,  flourished  B.C.  376.  He 
wrote  one  hundred  and  four  plays,  of  which 
there  are  extant  more  than  fifty  titles.  His 
plays  were  chiefly  on  mythological  subjects. 
Several  of  them  contained  parodies  of  passages 
from  the  tragic  poets,  and  especially  from  Eu- 
ripides. [The  fragments  of  Eubulus  have  beeo 
collected  and  edited  by  Meineke,  Fragm.  Cvniic 
Grcec.,  vol.  i.,  p.  594-629,  edit,  minor.] 

[EUCHKNOR  (Eixnvup),  a  son  of  the  Corinthian 
seer  Polyidus,  with  whom  he  went  to  the  Trojan 
war,  although  his  father  had  foretold  that  he 
would  thereby  lose  his  life;  he  was  slain  by 
Paris.] 

EUCLIDES  (Et>K/>,££(5??f).  1.  The  celebrated 
mathematician,  who  has  almost  given  his  own 
name  to  the  science  of  geometry,  in  every  coun- 
try in  which  his  writings  are  studied ;  but  we 


EUCRATES. 


EUELTHON. 


know  next  to  nothing  of  his  private  history. 
The  place  of  his  birth  is  uncertain.  He  lived 
.  at  Alexandrea  in  the  time  of  the  first  Ptolemy, 
B.C.  323-283,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  Alex- 
andrean  mathematical  school.  He  was  of  th$ 
Platonic  sect,  and  well  read  in  its  doctrines. 
It  was  his  answer  to  Ptolemy,  who  asked  if 
geometry  could  not  be  made  easier,  that  there 
was  no  royal  road.  Of  the  numerous  works  at- 
tributed to  Euclid,  the  following  are  still  extant : 
1.  Srot^eta,  the  Elements,  in  thirteen  books, 
with  a  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  added  by  HYP- 
SICLES.  2.  AeJo/ifra,  the  Data,  containing  one 
hundred  propositions,  with  a  preface  by  Marinus 
of  Naples.  8.  E/f ayuytj  'AppoviKi},  a  Treatise  on 
Music;  and,  4.  Kararo/i^  Kavovos,  the  Division  of 
the  Scale :  one  of  these  works,  most  likely  the 
former,  must  be  rejected.  5.  Qaivopeva,  the 
Appearances  (of  the  heavens).  6.  'OTTTIKU,  on 
Optics  ;  and,  7.  Ka-oTrrpiKu,  on  Catoptrics.  The 
only  complete  edition  of  all  the  reputed  works 
of  Euclid  is  that  published  at  Oxford,  1703,  folio, 
by  David  Gregory,  with  the  title  EvK^eidov  ru 
au^oueva.  The  Elements  and  the  Data  were 
published  in  Greek,  Latia,  and  French,  in  3 
vols.  4to,  Paris,  1814-16-18,  by  Peyrard.  The 
most  convenient  edition  for  scholars  of  the 
Greek  text  of  the  Elements  is  the  one  by  Au- 
gust, Berol.,  1826,  8vo. — 2.  Of  Megara,  was  one 
of  the  chief  of  the  disciples  of  Socrates,  but  be- 
fore becoming  such  he  had  studied  the  doc- 
trines, and  especially  the  dialectics,  of  the  Ele- 
atics.  Socrates  on  one  occasion  reproved  him 
for  his  fondness  for  subtle  and  captious  dis- 
putes. On  the  death  of  Socrates  (B.C.  399), 
Euclides  took  refuge  in  Megara  and  there  es- 
tablished a  school  which  distinguished  itself 
chiefly  by  the  cultivation  of  dialectics.  The 
doctrines  of  the  Eleatics  formed  the  basis  of 
bis  philosophical  system.  With  these  he  blend- 
ed the  ethical  and  dialectical  principles  of  So- 
crates. He  was  the  author  of  six  dialogues, 
none  of  which,  however,  have  come  down  to 
us.  He  has  frequently  been  erroneously  con- 
founded with  the  mathematician  of  the  same 
name.  The  school  which  he  founded  was  call- 
ed sometimes  the  Megarie,  sometimes  the  Dia- 
lectic or  Eristic. 

[EUCRATES  (Eii/cpar»7f).  1.  An  Athenian  dem- 
agogue, who,  after  the  death  of  Pericles,  exer- 
cised for  a  time  a  considerable  influence. — 2. 
Brother  of  Nicias,  the  general,  refused  to  be- 
come, one  of.  the  thirty  tyrants,  and  was  put  to 
death  by  them.] 

EUCRATIDES  (EiiKpariotjf),  king  of  Bactria 
a-om  about  B.C.  181  to  161,  w"as  one  of  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Bactrian  kings,  and  made 
great  conquests  in  the  north  of  India. 

EUCTKMON,  the  astronomer.     Vid.  METON. 

EUDAMIDAS  (EvAapidac).     1.  I.,  King  of  Sparta, 
feigned  from  B.C.  330  to  about  300.     He  was 
the  younger  son  of  Archidamus  III.,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  brother   Agis  III. — 2.    II.,  King  of 
Sparta,  was  son  of  Archidamuo  IV.,  whom  he  i 
succeeded,  and  father  of  Agis  IV. — [3.  A  Spar- 
tan general,  brother  of  Phcebidas,  sent  at  the  , 
head  of  two  thousand  men  to  aid  the  Chalcidi-  > 
ana,  B.C.  883:  in  consequence  of  his  brother's 
delay  in   bringing  him  re-enforcements,  he  did 
not  effect  mucli :  he  was  slain  in  the  course  of 
the  war]  1 


EUDEMUS  (Evdjjfiof).  1.  Of  Cyprus,  a  Peripa- 
tetic philosopher,  to  whom  Aristotle  dedicated 
the  diidogue  EM^of  f/  xepl  ^rvx^f,  which  is  lost. 
— 2.  Of  Rhodes,  also  a  Peripatetic  philosopher, 
and  one  of  the  most  important  of  Aristotle's 
disciples.  He  edited  many  of  Aristotle's  writ- 
ings ;  and  one  of  them  even  bears  the  name  of 
Eudemus,  namely,  the  'UdiKu  Evdjjfieta,  which 
work  was  in  all  probability  a  recension  of  Aris- 
totle's lectures  edited  by  Eudemus.  Vid.  p. 
102,  a. — 3.  The  physician  of  Livilla,  the  wife  of 
Drusus  Caesar,  who  assisted  her  and  Sejanus  in 
poisoning  her  husband,  A.D.  23. 

EUDOCIA  (EvdoKia).  1.  Originally  called  ATHK- 
NAIS,  daughter  of  the  sophist  Leontius,  was  dis- 
tinguished for  her  beauty  and  attainments.  She 
married  the  Emperor  Theodosius  II.,  A.D.  421 ; 
and  on  her  marriage  she  embraced  Christianity, 
and  received  at  her  baptism  the  name  of  Eudo- 
cia.  She  died  at  Jerusalem,  A.D.  460.  She 
wrote  several  works ;  and  to  her  is  ascribed  by 
some  the  extant  poem  Homer o-Centones,  which 
is  composed  of  verses  from  Homer,  and  relates 
the  history  of  the  fall  and  of  the  redemption  of 
man  by  Jesus  Christ ;  but  its  genuineness  is 
very  doubtful — 2.  Of  Macrembolis,  wife  of  the 
Emperors  Constantine  XL  Ducas  and  Romanus 
IV.  Diogenes  (A.D.  1059-1071),  wrote  a  dic- 
tionary of  history  and  mythology,  which  she 
called  'luvca,  Violarium,  or  Bvd  of  Violets.  It 
was  printed  for  the  first  time  by  Villoison,  in  bis 
Anecdota  Graxa,  Venice,  1781.  The  sources 
from  which  the  work  was  compiled  are  nearly 
the  same  as  those  used  by  Siiidas. 

[EUDORUS  (Evdupof),  son  of  Mercury  and  Poly- 
mela,  reared  by  his  grandfather  Phylas ;  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Myrmidons  under 
Achilles.] 

EUDOSES,  a  people  in  Germany,  near  the  Va 
rini,  probably  in  the  modern  Mecklenburg. 

EUDOXUS  (Evtiofrf.)  1.  Of  Cnidus,  son  ol 
^Eschines,  a  celebrated  astronomer,  geometer, 
physician,  and  legislator,  lived  about  B.C.  366. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Archytas  and  Plato,  and  also 
went  to  Egypt,  where  he  studied  some  time 
with  the  priests.  He  afterward  returned  to 
Athens,  but  it  would  appear  that  he  must  have 
spent  some  time  in  his  native  place,  for  Strabo 
says  that  the  observatory  of  Eudoxus  at  Cnidus 
was  existing  in  his  time.  He  died  at  the  age 
of  fifty-three.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  taught  in  Greece  the  motions  of  the  plan- 
ets ;  and  he  is  also  stated  to  have  made  sep- 
arate spheres  for  the  stars,  sun,  moon,  and 
planets.  He  wrote  various  works  on  astronomy 
and  geometry,  which  are  lost ;  but  the  substance 
of  his  Qaivofieva  is  preserved  by  Aratus,  who 
turned  into  verse  the  prose  work  by  Eudoxus 
with  that  title. — 2.  An  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  new  comedy,  was  by  birth  a  Sicilian  and 
the  son  of  Agathocles. — 3.  Of  Cyzicus,  a  geog- 
rapher, who  went  from  his  native  place  to 
Egypt,  and  was  employed  by  Ptolemy  Evergetea 
and  his  wife  Cleopatra  in  voyages  to  India ;  but 
afterward,  being  robbed  of  all  his  property  by 
Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  ho  sailed  away  down  the 
Red  Sea,  and  at  last  arrived  at  Gades.  He  aft- 
erward made  attempts  to  circumuavigate  Africa 
in  the  opposite  direction,  but  without  success. 
He  lived  about  B.C.  130. 

EUELTHON  (EiitWuv),  a  king  of  Salamis  iu 
293 


EUGAMON. 


EUMENES. 


Cyprus,  under  whom  the  Persians  reduced  this 
island.] 

Kri. AMOS  (Evyu//6>v),  one  of  the  Cyclic  poets, 
was  a  uativo  of  Gyrene,  and  lived  about  B.C. 
668.  His  poem  (T///.e;  w;'u)  was  a  continuation 
of  the  Odyssey,  and  formed  the  conclusion  of 
the  Epic  cycle.  It  concluded  with  the  death  of 
Ulysses. 

EUGANBL,  a  people  who  formerly  inhabited 
Yeuetia  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  were  driven 
toward  the  Alps  and  the  Lacus  Benacus  by  the 
Heueti  or  Veuetl  According  to  some  tradi- 
tions, they  founded  Patavium  and  Verona,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  which  were  the  Euganei 
Colics.  They  possessed  numerous  Socks  of 
sheep,  the  wool  of  which  was  celebrated  (Juv., 
viii.,  15.) 

EUHKMKKUB  (Ev/^epof),  probably  a  native  of 
Messene  in  Sicily,  lived  at  the  court  of  Cas- 
suudcr  in  Macedonia  about  B.C.  316.  Cassan- 
der  furnished  him  with  the  means  to  undertake 
u  voyage  of  discovery.  He  is  said  to  have  sail- 
ed down  the  lied  Sea  and  round  the  southern 
coasts  of  Asia,  until  lie  came  to  an  island  called 
1'iiuchaea.  After  his  return  he  wrote  a  work  en- 
titled 'lepH  'AvaypcHjuj,  or  a  Sacred  History,  in 
uiue  books.  He  gave  this  title  to  his  work  be- 
cause he  pretended  to  have  his  information  from 
' Ai'ay fja<j>ai,  or  inscriptions  in  temples,  which 
lit.1  had  discovered  in  his  travels,  especially  in 
the  island  of  Panchaea.  Euhemerus  had  been 
trained  in  the  school  of  the  Cyrenaics,  who  were 
notorious  for  their  skepticism  in  matters  con- 
nected with  the  popular  religion ;  and  the  ob- 
ject of  his  work  was  to  exclude  every  thing 
supernatural  from  the  popular  religion,  and  to 
dress  up  the  myths  as  so  many  plain  histories. 
In  his  work  the  several  gods  were  represented 
as  having  originally  been  men  who  had  distin- 
guished themselves  either  as  warriors  or  bene- 
factors of  mankind,  and  who  after  their  death 
were  worshipped  as  gods  by  the  grateful  people. 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  for  example,  was  a  king  of 
Crete,  who  had  been  a  great  conqueror ;  and 
he  asserted  that  he  had  seen  in  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  Triphylius  a  column  with  an  in- 
scription detailing  all  the  exploits  of  the  kings 
Ccelus  (Uranus),  Saturn  (Cronus),  and  Jupiter 
(Zeus).  The  book  was  written  in  an  attractive 
style,  and  became  very  popular,  and  many  of 
the  subsequent  historians,  such  as  Diodorus, 
adopted  his  mode  of  dealing  with  myths.  The 
great  popularity  of  the  work  is  attested  by  the 
circumstance  that  Ennius  made  a  Latin  trans- 
lation of  it  But  the  pious  believers,  on  the 
other  hand,  called  Euhemerus  an  atheist  The 
Christian  writers  often  refer  to  him  to  prove 
that  the  pagan  mythology  was  nothing  but  a 
heap  of  fables  invented  by  men. 

EULJWIS  (EvAotof  :  Old  Testament,  Ulai :  now 
Karoon),  &  river  in  Susiana,  on  the  borders  of 
Elymais,  rising  in  Great  Media,  flowing  south 
through  Mesobatene,  passing  east  of  Susa,  and, 
after  uniting  with  the  Pasitigris,  falling  into  the 
head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Some  of  the  ancient 
geographers  make  the  Eufceus  fall  into  the  Cho- 
aspes,  and  others  identify  the  two  rivers. 

EUMJJUS  (Efywztof),  the  faithful  swineherd  of 
Ulysses,  was  a  son  of  Ctesius,  king  of  the  isl- 
and of  Syrie ;  he  had  been  carried  away  from 
his  father's  house  by  a  Phoenician  slave  and 
294 


Phoenician  sailors  sold  him  to  Laertes,  the  father 
of  ULYSSES. 

[EUMEDES  (Ev^J^f).  1.  A  herald  of  the  Tro- 
jans, father  of  Dolon. — 2.  Grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, accompanied  ./Eneas  to  Italy,  and  wa« 
slain  by  Turnus.] 

EUMKLUS  (Ev/iqhaf).  1.  Son  of  Admetus  and 
Alcestis,  went  with  eleven  ships  from  Pheras  to 
Troy.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  excellent 
horses,  which  had  once  been  under  the  care  of 
Apollo,  and  with  which  Eumelus  would  have 
gained  the  prize  at  the  funeral  games  of  Patro- 
clus  if  his  chariot  had  not  been  broken.  His 
wife  was  Ipthima,  daughter  of  Icarius. — 2.  of 
Corinth,  one  of  the  Bacchiadoe,  an  ancient  Epic 
poet,  belonged,  according  to  some,  to  the  Epic- 
cycle.  His  name  is  significant,  referring  to  his 
skill  in  poetry.  He  flourished  about  B.C.  760. 
His  principal  poem  seems  to  have  been  his  Co- 
rinthian History. 

EUMENES  (Ei/uev^f).  1.  Of  CARDIA,  served  as 
private  secretary  to  Philip  and  'Alexander,  whom 
he  accompanied  throughout  his  expedition  in 
Asia,  and  who  treated  him  with  marked  con- 
fidence and  distinction.  After  the  death  of 
Alexander  (B.C.  323),  Eumenes  obtained  the 
government  of  Cappadocia,  Paphlagonia,  and 
Pontus,  which  provinces  had  never  yet  been 
conquered  by  the  Macedonians.  Eumenes  en- 
tered into  a  close  alliance  with  Perdiccas,  who 
subdued  these  provinces  for  him.  When  Per- 
diccas marched  into  Egypt  against  Ptolemy,  he 
committed  to  Eumenes  the  conduct  of  the  war 
against  Antipater  aud  Craterus  in  Asia  Minor, 
Eumenes  met  Avith  great  success  ;  he  defeated 
Neoptolemus,  who  had  revolted  from  Perdiccas  ; 
and  subsequently  he  again  defeated  the  com- 
bined armies  of  Craterus  and  Neoptolemus  ; 
Craterus  himself  fell,  and  Neoptolemus  was 
slain  by  Eumenes  with  his  own  hand,  after  a 
deadly  struggle  in  the  presence  of  the  two 
armies.  Meantime  the  death  of  Perdiccas  in 
Egypt  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.  Antigonus 
now  employed  the  whole  force  of  the  Macedo- 
nian army  to  crush  Eumenes.  The  struggle 
was  carried  on  for  some  years  (320-316).  It 
was  conducted  by  Eumenes  with  consummate 
skill,  and,  notwithstanding  the  numerical  in- 
feriority of  his  forces,  he  maintained  his  ground 
against  his  enemies  till  he  was  surrendered  by 
the  Argyraspids  to  Antigonus,  by  whom  he  was 
put  to  death,  316.  He  was  forty -five  years  old 
at  the  time  of  his  death.  Of  his  abjlity,  both  as 
a  general  and  a  statesman,  no  doubt  can  be  en- 
tertained ;  and  it  is  probable  that  he  would  have 
attained  a  far 'more  important  position  among 
the  successors  of  Alexander,  bad  it  not  been  for 
the  accidental  disadvantage  of  his  birth.  But 
as  a  Greek  of  Cardia,  and  not  a  native  Macedo- 
nian, he  was  constantly  looked  upon  with  dis- 
like both  by  his  opponents  and  companions  iu 
arms. — 2.  I.,  King  of  PERGAMUS,  reigned  B.C. 
263-241,  and  was  the  successor  of  his  uncle 
Philetserus.  He  obtained  a  victory  near  Sardis 
over  Antiochus  Soter,  and  thus  established  his 
dominion  over  the  provinces  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  liis  capital. — 3.  II.,  King  of  PERGAMUS. 
reigned  B.C.  197-159,  and  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Attalus  L  He  inherited  from  his 
predecessor  the  friendship  and  alliance  of  the 
Romans,  which  he  took  the  utmost  pains  to 


EUMENTA. 


EUN^EUS. 


cultivate.  He  supported  the  Romans  in  their 
war  against  Antiochus ;  and,  after  the  conquest 
of  the  latter  (190),  he  received  from  the  senate 
Mysia,  Lydia,  both  Phrygias,  and  Lycaonia,  as 
well  as  Lysimachia,  and  the  Thracian  Cherso- 
nese, By  this  means  he  was  at  once  raised 
from  a  state  of  comparative  insignificance  to  be 
the  sov reign  of  a  powerful  monarchy.  Subse- 
quently he  was  involved  in  war  with  Pharnaces, 
king  of  Pontus,  and  Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia, 
but  both  wars  were  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
interposition  of  the  Romans.  At  a  later  period 
Eumenes  was  regarded  with  suspicion  by  the 
Roman  senate,  because  he  was  suspected  of 
having  corresponded  secretly  with  Perseus,  king 
of  Macedonia,  during  the  war  of  the  latter  with 
the  Romans.  Eumenes  assiduously  cultivated 
all  the  arts  of  peace ;  Pergamus  became  under 
his  rule  a  great  and  flourishing  city,  which  he 
adorned  with  splendid  buildings,  and  in  which 
he  founded  that  celebrated  library  which  rose 
to  be  a  rival  even  to  that  of  Alexaudrea. 

EUMEJUA  (Evpeveia  or  Evpevia :  now  Ishekli), 
a  city  of  Great  Phrygia,  on  the  rivers  Glaucus 
and  Cludrus,  north  of  the  Meander,  named  by 
Attalus  IL  after  his  brother  and  predecessor 
Eumenes  IL  There  are  indications  which 
seem  to  connect  the  tune  of  its  foundation  with 
that  of  the  destruction  of  Coriuth. 

EUMENIDES  (Eifievidsf),  also  called  ERINYES, 
not  Erinnyes  ('Epivvef,  'Epiviif),  and  by  the  Ro- 
mans FCRLE  or  D  i  it  .-:•:,  the  Avenging  Deities, 
were  originally  only  a  personification  of  curses 
pronounced  upon  a  criminal  The  name  Erinys 
is  the  more  ancient  one ;  its  etymology  is  un- 
certain, but  the  Greeks  derived  it  from  kpivu  or 
tpevruu,  I  hunt  up  or  persecute,  or  from  the  Ar- 
cadian epivvu,  I  am  angry ;  so  that  the  Erinyes 
were  either  the  angry  goddesses,  or  the  god- 
desses who  hunt  up  or  search  after  the  criminal 
The  name  Eumenides,  which  signifies  "  the  well- 
meaning"  or  "soothed  goddesses,"  is  a  mere 
euphemism,  because  people  dreaded  to  call 
these  fearful  goddesses  by  their  real  name.  It 
was  said  to  have  been  first  given  them  after  the 
acquittal  of  Orestes  by  the  Areopagus,  when 
the  auger  of  the  Erinyes  had  become  soothed. 
It  was  by  a  similar  euphemism  that  at  Athens 
the  Erinyes  were  called  oefival  tfeat,  or  the  re- 
spected goddesses.  Homer  sometimes  men- 
tions an  Erinys,  but  more  frequently  Erinyes  in 
the  plural.  He  represents  them  as  inhabitants 
of  Erebos,  where  they  remain  quiet  until  some 
curse  pronounced  upon  a  criminal  calls  them 
into  activity.  The  crimes  which  they  punish 
are  disobedience  toward  parents,  violation  of 
the  respect  due  to  old  age,  perjury,  murder, 
violation  of  the  law  of  hospitality,  ana  improper 
conduct  toward  suppliants.  They  took  away 
from  men  all  peace  of  mind,  and  led  them  into 
misery  and  misfortune.  Hesiod  says  that  they 
were  the  daughters  of  Terra  (Ge),  and  sprung 
from  the  drops  of  blood  that  fell  upon  her  from 
the  body  of  Ccelus  (Uranus).  ^Eschylus  calls 
tin-in  the  daughters  of  Night,  and  Sophocles 
of  Darkness  and  Terra  (Ge).  In  the  Greek 
tragedians  neither  the  names  nor  the  number 
of  the  Erinyes  are  mentioned  ^Eschylus  de- 
scribes them  aa  divinities  more  ancient  than 
the  Olympian  gods,  dwelling  in  the  deep  dark- 
»«••  of  Tartarus,  dreaded  by  gods  and  men ; 


with  bodies  all  black,  serpents  twined  in  their 
hair,  and  blood  dripping  from  their  eyes.  Eu- 
ripides and  other  later  poets  describe  them  as 
winged.  With  later  writers  their  number  is 
usually  limited  to  three,  and  their  names  are 
TISIPHONE,  ALECTO,  aiid  MEG^EiiA.  They  grad- 
ually assumed  the  character  of  goddesses  who 
punished  men  after  death,  and  they  seldom  ap- 
peared upon  earth.  The  sacrifices  offered  to 
them  consisted  of  black  sheep  and  nephala,  i.  e., 
a  drink  of  houey  mixed  with  water.  They  were 
worshipped  at  Athens,  where  they  had  a  sanc- 
tuary and  a  grotto  near  the  Areopagus  :  their 
statues,  however,  had  nothing  formidable,  and 
a  festival  Eumenidea  was  there  celebrated  in 
their  honor.  Another  sanctuary,  with  a  grove 
which  no  one  was  allowed  to  enter,  existed  at 
Colonus. 

EUMENICS,  a  Roman  rhetorician  of  Augusto- 
dunum  (now  Autun)  in  Gaul,  held  a  high  office 
under  Constantius  Chlorus.  He  is  the  author 
of  four  orations  in  the  "  Panegyrici  Veteres," 
namely,  1.  Oratio  pro  instaurandis  scholis,  a 
lecture  delivered  on  the  re-establishment  by 
Constantius  Chlorus  of  the  school  at  Autun, 
A.D.  296  or  297.  2.  Panegyricus  Constantio 
Ccesari  dictus,  delivered  296  or  297.  3.  Pane 
gyricus  Constantino  Augusto  dictus,  delivered 
310.  4.  Gratiarum  actio  Constantino  Augusto 
Fiaviensium  nomine,  delivered  311. 

EUMOLPUS  (EvyUoATrof),  that  is,  "  the  good  sing 
er,"  a  Thracian  bard,  usually  represented  as  a 
son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  Chione,  the 
daughter  of  Boreas.  As  soon  as  he  was  born, 
he  was  thrown  into  the  sea  by  his  mother,  who 
was  anxious  to  conceal  her  shame,  but  was 
preserved  by  his  father  Neptune  (Poseidon), 
who  had  him  educated  in  ^Ethiopia  by  his 
daughter  Beuthesicyma.  When  he  had  grown 
up,  he  married  a  daughter  of  Benthesicyma ; 
but  as  he  made  an  attempt  upon  the  chastity 
of  his  wife's  sister,  he  was  expelled,  together 
with  his  son  Ismarus.  They  went  to  the 
Thracian  king  Tegyrius,  who  gave  his  daugh- 
ter in  marriage  to  Ismarus ;  but  as  Eumolpuc- 
drew  upon  himself  the  suspicion  of  Tegyrius, 
he  was  again  obliged  to  take  to  flight,  and  came 
to  Eleusis  in  Attica,  where  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  the  Eleusinians.  After  the  death  of 
his  son  Ismarus,  he  returned  to  Thrace  at  the 
request  of  Tegyrius.  The  Eleusinians,  who 
were  involved  in  a  war  with  Athens,  called  Eu- 
molpus  to  their  assistance.  Eumolpus  came 
with  a  numerous  band  of  Thracians,  but  he  was 
slain  by  Erechtheus.  Eumolpus  was  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  Eleusiman  mysteries,  and 
as  Uie  first  priest  of  Ceres  (Demeter)  and  Bac- 
chus (Dionysus).  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
priestly  office  by  his  son  Ceryx  (who  was,  ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  the  son  of  Mercury 
(Hermes),  and  his  family,  the  Eumolpidat',  con- 
tinued till  the  latest  times  the  priests  of  Ceres 
(Demeter)  at  Eleusis.  The  legends  connected 
Eumolpus  with  Hercules,  whom  he  is  said  to 
have  instructed  in  music,  or  initiated  into  the 
mysteries.  There  were  so  many  different  tra- 
ditions about  Eumolpus  that  some  of  the  an- 
cients supposed  that  there  were  two  or  three 
persons  of  that  name. 

[EfNveus,  son  of  Clytius,  a  Trojan,  slain  bj 
Camilla  in  Italy.] 

295 


EUNAI'IUS. 


EUPIIRANOR. 


(Ein'umof),  a,  Greek  sophist,  was 
born  at  Sardis  A.D.  347,  and  lived  aud  taught 
at  Athens  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Theodosius 
IL  He  wrote,  1.  Lives  of  Sophiste  (Bioi  <f>i 
awfxjv  Kal  ffoQiorur,)  still  extant,  containing 
twenty-three  biographies  of  sophists,  most  ol 
whom  were  contemporaries  of  Eunapius,  or  had 
lived  shortly  before  him.  Though  these  biog- 
raphies are  extremely  brief,  and  the  style  is 
intolerably  inflated,  yet  they  supply  us  with  im- 
portant information  respecting  a  period  on 
which  we  have  no  other  information.  Eunapi- 
us  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  the  philos- 
ophy of  the  New  Platonists,  and  a  bitter  enemy 
of  Christianity.  Edited  by  Boissonade,  Am- 
sterdam, 1822.  2.  A  continuation-  of  the  his- 
tory of  Dexippus  (Merci  Aei-imrov  xpovinrj  laro- 
oia),  iu  fourteen  books,  began  with  A.D.  270, 
and  went  down  to  404.  Of  this  work  we  have 
only  extracts,  which  are  published  along  with 
Dexippus.  Vid  DEXIPPUS. 

EUNKVS  (Evfrjof  or  Evvevf),  a    son  of  Jason 
and  Hypsipyle  in  Lemnos,  supplied  the  Greeks 
with  wiue  during  their  war  against  Troy.    He 
purchased  Lycaon  of  Patroclus  for  a  silver  urn. 
EUNOMIA.     Vid  HOE.E. 

EUNOMUS  (Ewo/zof).  1.  King  of  Sparta,  is 
described  by  some  as  the  father  of  Lyeurgus 
and  Polydectes.  Herodotus,  on  the  contrary, 
places  him  in  his  list  after  Polydectes.  In  all 
probability,  the  name  was  invented  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Lycurgean  Evvo/uia,  and  Eunomus, 
if  not  wholly  rejected,  must  be  identified  with 
Polydectes. — [2.  An  Athenian  naval  command- 
er, sent  out  in  command  of  thirteen  ships  in 
B.C.  388  to  act  against  the  Lacedaemonians.] 

ECNCS  (Evvovf),  a  Sicilian  slave,  and  a  native 
of  Apamea  in  Syria,  was  the  leader  of  the  Sicil- 
ian slaves  in  the  servile  war.  He  first  attract- 
ed  attention  by  pretending  to  the  gift  of  proph- 
ecy, and  by  interpreting  dreams ;  to  the  effect 
of  which  he  added  by  appearing  to  breathe 
flames  from  his  mouth  and  other  similar  jug- 
gleries. He  was  proclaimed  king,  and  soon 
collected  formidable  forces,  with  which  he  de- 
feated several  Roman  armies.  The  insurrec- 
tion now  became  so  formidable,  that  for  three 
successive  years  (B.C.  134-132)  three  consuls 
were  sent  against  the  insurgents,  and  it  was 
not  till  the  third  year  (132)  that  the  revolt  was 
finally  put  down  by  the  consul  Rupilius.  Eu- 
nus  was  taken  prisoner,  and  died  in  prison  at 
Morgantia,  of  the  disease  called  morbus  pedicu- 
laris. 

EUPALIUM  or  EUPOLIUM  (Evnufaov,  Evnohtov  : 
EvTro/Uciif),  a  town  of  the  Locri  Ozolae,  north  of 
Naupactus,  subsequently  included  in  JEtolia 
Epictetus. 

EUPATOR  (EvKurup),  a  surname  assumed  by 
many  of  the  kings  in  Asia  after  the  time  of  Al- 
exander the  Great.  Vid.  ANTIOCHUS,  MITHEA- 

DATE8. 

EUPATORIUM  or  EupAxStiA  (EviraTopiov,  Ev- 
Karopia),  a  town  in  the  Chersonesus  Taurica, 
founded  by  Mithradates  Eupator,  aud  named 
after  him. 

ECPHAES  (EtycM/f),  king  of  the  Messenians, 
fell  in  battle  against  the  Spartans  in  the  first 
Messeniau  war.  He  was  succeeded  by  ARIS- 

tODEMUS. 

Et  PHEMUS  (Et'^i/of).     1.  Sou  of  Neptune  (Po- 
996 


seidon)  by  Europe,  the  daughter  of  Tityus,  or  by 
Mccionice  or  Oris,  a  daughter  of  Orion  or  Eu- 
rotas.  According  to  one  account  he  was  an 
inhabitant  of  Panopeus  on  the  Cephisus  in  Pho- 
cis,  and  according  to  another  of  Hyria  in  Boao- 
tia,  and  afterward  lived  at  Tajnarus.  He  was 
married  to  Laonome,  the  sister  of  Hercules ; 
he  was  one  of  the  Calydoniau  hunters,  and  the 
helmsman  of  the  vessel  of  the  Argonauts,  and, 
by  a  power  which  his  father  had  granted  to  him, 
he  could  walk  on  the  sea  just  as  on  firm  ground. 
He  is  mentioned  also  as  the  ancestor  of  Brutus, 
the  founder  of  Gyrene. — [2.  Sou  of  Trcozenus, 
an  ally  of  the  Trojaus,  leader  of  the  Cicones. — 
3.  An  Athenian,  sent  by  the  Athenian  com- 
manders at  Syracuse  to  negotiate  alliance  with 
Camariua.] 

EUPHORBUS  (EfyopGof).  1.  Son  of  Panthous, 
one  of  the  bravest  of  the  Trojans,  was  slain  by 
Menelaus,  who  subsequently  dedicated  the 
shield  of  Euphorbus  in  the  temple  of  Juno 
(Hera),  near  Mycensa.  Pythagoras  asserted 
that  he  had  once  been  the  Trojan  Euphorbus, 
and  in  proof  of  his  assertion  took  down  at  first 
sight  the  shield  of  Euphorbus  from  the  temple 
of  Juno  (Hera)  (clipeo  Trojana  refixo  tcmpora  tes- 
tatus,  HOT.,  Carm.,  i.,  28,  11). — 2.  Physician  of 
Juba  II,  king  of  Mauretania,  about  the  end  of 
the  first  century  B.C.,  and  brother  to  Antonius 
Musa,  the  physician  to  Augustus. 

EUPHORION  (EvQopiuv).  1.  Father  of  the  poet 
^Eschylus. — 2.  Son  of  ^Eschylus,  aud  himself 
a  tragic  poet. — 3.  Of  Chalcis  in  Eubcea,  an 
eminent  grammarian  and  poet,  son  of  Polymne- 
tus,  was  born  about  B.C.  274.  He  became  the 
librarian  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  221,  and  died 
in  Syria,  either  at  Apamea  or  at  Antioch.  The 
following  were  the  most  important  of  the  poems 
of  Euphorion  in  heroic  verse  :  1.  'Hcr/odof,  prob- 
ably an  agricultural  poem.  2.  TAofyoiria,  so  call- 
ed from  an  old  name  in  Attica,  the  legends  of 
which  country  seem  to  have  been  the  chief 
subject  of  the  poem.  3.  Xt/uac5ef,  a  poem  writ- 
ten against  certain  persons,  who  had  defrauded 
Euphorion  of  money  which  he  had  intrusted  to 
,heir  care.  It  probably  derived  its  title  from 
sach  of  its  books  consisting  of  1000  verses. 
Be  also  wrote  epigrams,  which  were  imitated 
by  many  of  the  Latin  poets,  and  also  by  the 
Emperor  Tiberius,  with  whom  he  was  a  greai 
favorite.  Euphorion  likewise  wrote  many  his 
torical  and  grammatical  works.  All  his  work* 
are  lost,  but  the  fragments  are  collected  b^ 
Meineke,  in  his  Analecta  Alexandrina,  BeroL 
1843. 

EUPHEANOR  (Eixjipuvup).  1.  A  distinguished 
statuary  and  painter,  was  a  native  of  the  Co- 
rinthian isthmus,  but  practiced  his  art  at  Athens 
He  flourished  about  B.C.  336.  His  most  cele- 
brated statue  was  a  Paris,  which  expressed 
alike  the  judge  of  the  goddesses,  the  lover  of 
Helen,  and  the  slayer  of  Achilles ;  the  very- 
beautiful  sitting  figure  of  Paris,  in  marble,  in 
the  Museo  Pio-Clementino  is,  no  doubt,  a  copy 
of  this  work.  His  best  paintings  were  preserv- 
ed in  a  porch  in  the  Ceramicus  at  Athens.  On 
the  one  side  were  the  twelve  gods,  and  on  the 
opposite  wall,  Theseus,  with  Democracy  aud 
Demos.  Euphranor  also  wrote  works  on  pro- 
portion and  on  colors  (de  Symmetria  ct  Colori- 
btis),  the  two  points  in  which  his  own  excel- 


EUPHRATES. 

lence  seems  chiefly  to  have  consisted.  Pliny 
says  that  he  was  the  first  who  properly  ex- 
pressed the  dignity  of  heroes  by  the  proportions 
he  gave  to  their  statues.  He  made  the  bodies 
somewhat  more  slender,  and  the  heads  and 
limbs  larger. — [2.  Admiral  of  the  Rhodian  fleet, 
aided  Caesar  in  defeating  the  Egyptian  fleet  in 
the  Alexandrine  war  :  he  perished  some  tune 
after  in  a  naval  combat] 

EUPHRATES  (Einppdnjf),  an  eminent  Stoic 
philosopher,  was  a  native  of  Tyre,  or,  according 
to  others,  of  Byzantium.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  younger  Pliny.  In  his  old  age  he 
became  tired  of  life,  and  asked  and  obtained 
from  Hadrian  permission  to  put  an  end  to  him- 
self by  poison. 

EUPHRATES  (Er^pan/f  :  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Phrat :  now  El  Frat),  a  great  river  of  western 
Asia,  forming  the  boundary  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Asia,  consists,  in  its  upper  course,  of  two 
branches,  both  of  which  rise  in  the  mountains 
of  Armenia.  The  northern  branch  (now  Kara- 
Sou),  which  is  the  true  Euphrates,  rises  in  the 
mountain  above  Erzeroum  (the  Mount  Abus  or 
Capotes  of  the  ancients),  and  flows  west  and 
southwest  to  a  little  above  latitude  39°  and  east 
of  longitude  39°,  where  it  breaks  through  the 
chain  of  the  Anti-Taurus,  and,  after  receiving 
the  southern  branch  (uow  M our ad-  Chat),  or,  as 
the  ancients  called  it,  the  ARSANIAS,  it  breaks 
through  the  main  chain  of  the  Taurus  between 
Melitene  and  Samosata,  and  then  flows  in  a  gen- 
eral southern  direction  till  it  reaches  latitude 
36°,  whence  it  flows  in  a  general  southeast  di- 
rection till  it  approaches  the  Tigris  opposite  to 
Seleueia,  where  the  distance  between  the  two 
rivers  was  reckoned  at  only  two  hundred  stadia. 
Then  it  flows  through  the  Plain  of  Babylonia,  at 
first  receding  further  from  the  Tigris,  and  after- 
ward approaching  it  again,  till  it  joins  it  about 
sixty  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
having  already  had  its  waters  much  diminished 
by  numerous  canals,  which  irrigated  the  country 
in  ancient  times,  but  the  neglect  of  which  at 
present  has  converted  much  of  the  once  fertile 
district  watered  by  the  Euphrates  into  a  marshy 
desert  The  whole  length  of  the  Euphrates  is 
between  five  hundred  and  six  hundred  miles. 
In  its  upper  course,  before  reaching  the  Taurus, 
its  northern  branch  and  a  part  of  the  united 
stream  divided  Armenia  Major  from  Colchis 
and  Armenia  Minor,  and  its  lower  course  di- 
vided Mesopotamia  from  Syria.  Its  chief  trib- 
utary, besides  theArsanias,  was  the  Aborrhas. 

EU.PURO.V  (Ev<j>puv).  [1.  A  native  of  Sicyon, 
who,  in  the  time  of  Epaminondas,  made  himself 
master  of  that  city  by  the  aid  of  the  lower  or- 
ders :  being  driven  out  by  the  opposite  party,  he 
betook  himself  to  Thebes,  and  was  there  mur- 
dered by  his  opponents,  who  had  followed  him 
thither.] — 2.  An  Athenian  poet  of  the  new  com- 
edy, whose  plays,  however,  partook  largely  of 


EURIPIDES. 

EUPOLIS  (EvTtohis),  son  of  Sosipolis,  an  Athe- 
nian poet  of  the  old  comedy,  and  one  of  the  three 
who  are  distinguished  by  Horace  in  his  well- 
known  line,  "Eupolis,  atque  Cratinus,  Aristo- 
phanesquc  poetee,"  above  all  the  ..."  alii  quo- 
rum comoadia  prisca  virorum  est"  He  was 
born  about  B.C.  446,  and  is  said  to  have  exhib- 
ited his  first  drama  in  his  seventeenth  year,  429, 
two  years  before  Aristophanes.  The  date  of 
his  death  is  uncertain.  The  common  story  was, 
that  Alcibiades,  when  sailing  to  Sicily,  (415), 
threw  Eupolis  into  the  sea,  in  revenge  for  an 
attack  which  he  had  made  upon  him  in  his  BUTT- 
rai ;  but  this  can  not  be  true,  as  we  know  that 
Eupolis  produced  plays  after  the  Sicilian  expe- 
dition. He  probably  died  in  411.  The  chief 
characteristic  of  the  poetry  of  Eupolis  seems  to 
have  been  the  liveliness  of  his  fancy,  and  the 
power  which  he  possessed  of  imparting  its  im- 
ages to  the  audience.  In  elegance  he  is  said 
to  have  even  surpassed  Aristophanes,  while  in 
bitter  jesting  and  personal  abuse  he  emulated 
Cratinus.  Among  the  objects  of  his  satire  was 
Socrates,  on  whom  he  made  a  bitter,  though  less 
elaborate  attack  than  that  in  the  Clouds  of  Aris- 
tophanes. The  dead  were  not  exempt  from  his 
abuse,  for  there  are  still  extant  some  lines  of 
his  in  which  Cimon  is  most  unmercifully  treat- 
ed. A  close  relation  subsisted  between  Eupolis 
and  Aristophanes,  not  only  as  rivals,  but  as  im- 
itators of  each  other.  Cratinus  attacked  Aris- 
tophanes for  borrowing  from  Eupolis,  and  Eu- 
polis in  his  EuTT-ai  made  the  same  charge,  es- 
.pecially  with  reference  to  the  Knights.  The 
Scholiasts  specify  the  last  Parabasis  of  the 
Knights  as  borrowed  from  Eupolis.  On  the 
other  hand,  Aristophanes,  in  the  second  (or 
third)  edition  of  the  Clouds,  retorfc  upon  Eupo- 
lis the  charge  of  imitating  the  Knights  in  his 
Maricas,  and  taunts  him  with  the  further  indig- 
nity of  jesting  on  his  rival's  baldness.  [The 
fragments  of  his  plays  have  been  edited  by  Run- 
kel,  Pkerecratis  et  Eupolidis  Fragm.,  Lips.,1829 ; 
and  by  Meineke,  Comic.  Grcec.  Fragm,,  voL  i^ 
p.  158-228,  edit  minor.] 

EUPOMPUS  (EinrouTtof),  of  Sicyon,  a  distin- 
guished Greek  painter,  was  the  contemporary 
of  Zeuxis,  Parrhasius,  and  Timanthes,  and  the 
instructor  of  Paniphilus,  the  master  of  Apelles. 
The  fame  of  Eupompus  led  to  the  creation  of  a 
third  school  of  Greek  art,  the  Sicyoniau,  at  the 
head  of  which  he  was  placed. 

EURIPIDES  (Evpiiridqf).  1.  The  distinguished 
tragic  poet,  was  the  son  of  Mnesarchus  and 
Clito,  and  is  said  to  have  been  born  at  Salamis, 
B.C.  480,  on  the  very  day  that  the  Greeks  de- 
feated the  Persians  off  that  island,  whither  his 
parents  had  fled  from  Athens  on  the  invasion  of 
Xerxes.  Some  writers  relate  that  his  parents 
were  in  mean  circumstances,  and  his  mother  is 
represented  by  Aristophanes  as  a  herb-seller, 
and  not  a  very  honest  one  either;  but  much 

the  character  of  the  middle  comedy.  [His  frag-  j  weight  can  not  be  accorded  to  these  statements, 
meute  are  collected  in  Meiuckc,  Fragm.  Comic.  i  It  is  more  probable  that  his  family  was  respect- 
Orac.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1128-33,  edit,  minor.]  i  able.  We  are  told  that  the  poet,  when  a  boy, 

EUPHROSYXK,  one  of  the  Charities  or  Graces.  I  was  cup-bearer  to  a  chorus  of  noble  Athenians 
Vid.  CHARIS.  |  at  the  Thargelian  festival,  an  office  for  which 

[EUPITHKS  (EvTTtidtis),  father  of  Antiuous,  who  ,  nobility  of  blood  was  requisite.  We  know  also 
was  one  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope ;  attempting  j  that  he  was  taught  rhetoric  by  Prodicus,  who 
to  avenge  the  death  of  his  son,  he  was  slaio  by  j  was  certainly  not  moderate  in  his  terms  for  in- 

etruction,  and  who  was  in  the  habit  of  seeking 
297 


EURIPIDES. 

hid  pupils  ainoog  youths  of  high  rank.  It  is  said 
that  the  future  distinction  of  Euripides  was  pre- 
dk-u-d  by  an  oracle,  promising  that  he  should  be 
crowned  with  "  sacred  -garlands,''  in  conse- 
quence of  which  his  father  had  him  trained  to 
gymnastic  exercises ;  and  we  learn  that,  while 
yet  a  boy,  he  won  the  prize  at  the  Elcusiuian 
and  Thesean  contests,  and  offered  himself,  when 
seventeen  years  old,  as  a  candidate  at  the  Olym- 
pic games,  but  was  not  admitted  because  of 
some  doubt  about  his  age.  But  he  BOOU  aban- 
doned gymnastic  pursuits,  and  studied  the  art 
of  painting,  not,  aa  we  learn,  without  success. 
To  philosophy  and  literature  he  devoted  him- 
self with  much  interest  and  energy,  studying 
physics  under  Anaxagoras,  and  rhetoric,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  under  Prodicus.  He  lived 
on  intimate  terms  with  Socrates,  and  traces  of 
the  teaching  of  Auaxagoras  have  been  remarked 
in  many  passages  of  his  plays.  He  is  said  to 
have  written  a  tragedy  at  the  age  of  eighteen ; 
but  the  first  play,  which  is  exhibited  in  his 
own  name,  was  the  Peliades,  when  he  was  twen- 
ty-five years  of  age  (B.C.  455).  In  441  he  gain- 
ed for  the  first  time  the  first  prize,  and  he  con- 
tinued to  exhibit  plays  until  408,  the  date  of  the 
Orestes.  Soon  after  this  he  left  Athens  for  the 
1  court  of  Archelaiis,  king  of  Macedonia,  his  rea- 
sons for  which  step  can  only  be  matter  of  con- 
jecture. Traditionary  scandal  has  ascribed  it 
to  his  disgust  at  the  intrigue  of  his  wife  with 
Cephisophon,  and  the  ridicule  which  was  show- 
ered upon  him  in  consequence  by  the  comic 
poets.  But  the  whole  story  has  been  refuted 
by  modern  writers.  Other  causes  more  proba- 
bly led  him  to  accept  an  invitation  from  Arche- 
laiis,  at  whose  court  the  highest  honors  awaited 
him.  The  atfccks  of  Aristophanes  and  others 
had  probably  not  been  without  their  effect ;  and 
he  must  have  been  aware  that  his  philosophical 
tenets  were  regarded  with  considerable  suspi- 
cion. He  died  in  Macedonia  in  406,  at  the  age 
of  seventy-five.  Most  testimonies  agree  in  stat- 
ing that  he  was  torn  in  pieces  by  the  king's 
dogs,  which,  according  to  some,  were  set  upon 
him  through  envy  by  Arrhidaeus  and  Crateuas, 
two  rival  poets.  The  regret  of  Sophocles  for 
his  death  is  said  to  have  been  so  great,  that  at 
the  representation  of  his  next  play  he  made  his 
actors  appear  uncrowned.  The  accounts  which 
we  find  in  some  writers  of  the  profligacy  of  Eu- 
ripides are  mere  idle  scandal,  and  scarcely 
worthy  of  serious  refutatioa  Nor  does  there 
appear  to  be  any  better  foundation  for  that  other 
charge  which  has  been  brought  against  him,  of 
hatred  to  the  female  sex  This  is  said  to  have 
been  occasioned  by  the  infidelity  of  his  wife ; 
but,  as  has  been  already  remarked,  this  tale  does 
not  deserve  credit  He  was  a  man  of  a  serious 
and  austere  temper ;  and  it  was  in  consequence 
of  this  that  the  charge  probably  originated.  It 
is  certain  that  the  poet  who  drew  such  charac- 
ters as  Antigone,  Iphigenia,  and,  above  all,  Al- 
cestis,  was  not  blind  to  the  gentleness,  the 
strong  affection,  the  self-abandoning  devoted- 
ness  of  women.  With  respect  to  the  world  and 
the  Deity,  he  seems  to  have  adopted  the  doc- 
trines of  Anaxagoras,  not  unmixed,  apparent- 
ly, with  pantheistic  views.  Vid.  ANAXAGORAS. 
To  class  him  with  atheists,  as  some  have  done, 
£  undoubtedly  unjust.  At  the  same  time,  it 
298 


EURIPIDES. 

'  must  be  confessed  that  we  look  in  vain  in  his 
plays  for  the  high  faith  of  uEschylus  ;  nor  can 
we  fail  to  admit  that  the  pupil  of  Aiiiixagnras 
could  not  sympathize  with  the  popular  religious 
system  around  him,  nor  throw  nim&elf  cordially 
into  it  He  frequently  altered  in  the  most  arbi- 
trary manner  the  ancient  legends.  Thus,  iu 
the  Orestes,  Menelaiis  comes  before  us  as  a  sel- 
fish coward,  and  Helen  as  a  worthless  wanton ; 
in  the  Helena,  the  notion  of  Stesichorus  ie  adopt- 
ed, that  the  heroine  was  never  carried  to  Troy 
at  all,  and  that  it  was  a  mere  elduAov  of  her  for 
which  the  Greeks  and  Trojans  fought ;  Androm- 
ache, the  widow  of  Hector  and  slave  of  Neop- 
tolemus,  seems  almost  to  forget  the  past  in  her 
quarrel  with  Hermione  and  the  perils  of  her 
present  situation  ;  and  Electra,  married  by  the 
policy  of  ^Egisthus  to  a  peasant,  scolds  her  hus- 
band for  inviting  guests  to  dine  without  regard 
to  the  ill-prepared  state  of  the  larder.  In  short, 
with  Euripides  tragedy  is  brought  down  into 
the  sphere  of  every-day  life ;  men  are  repre- 
sented, according  to  the  remark  of  Aristotle,  not 
as  they  ought  to  be,  but  as  they  are  ;  under  the 
names  of  the  ancient  heroes,  the  characters  of 
his  own  time  are  set  before  us ;  it  is  not  Medea, 
or  Iphigenia,  or  Alcestis  that  is  speaking,  but 
abstractedly  a  mother,  a  daughter,  or  a  wife. 
All  this,  indeed,  gave  fuller  scope,  perhaps,  for 
the  exhibition  of  passion  and  for  those  scenes 
of  tenderness  and  pathos  in  which  Euripides 
especialy  excelled ;  and  it  will  serve  also  to 
account,  in  great  measure,  for  the  preference 
given  to  his  plays  by  the  practical  Socrates, 
who  is  said  to  have  never  entered  the  theatre 
unless  when  they  were  acted,  as  well  as  fpr  the 
admiration  felt  for  him  by  Menander  and  Phile- 
mon, and  other  poets  of  the  new  comedy.  The 
most  serious  defects  in  his  tragedies,  artistically 
speaking,  are,  his  constant  employment  of  the 
"  Deus  ex  machina ;"  the  disconnection  of  the 
choral  odes  from  the  subject  of  the  play ;  the 
extremely  awkward  and  formal  character  of  his 
prologues ;  and  the  frequent  introduction  of 
frigid  yvu/Ltai  and  of  philosophical  disquisitions, 
making  Medea  talk  like  a  sophist  aud  Hecuba 
like  a  free-thinker,  and  aiming  rather  at  subtil- 
ty  than  simplicity.  On  the  same  principles  on 
which  he  brought  his  subjects  and  characters 
to  the  level  of  common  life,  he  adopted  also  in 
his  style  the  every-day  mode  of  speaking.  Ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  he  wrote,  in  all,  sev- 
enty-five plays  ;  according  to  others,  ninety-two. 
Of  these,  eighteen  are  extant  if  we  omit  the 
Rhesus,  which  is  probably  spurious.  A  list  i? 
subjoined  of  the  extant  plays  of  Euripides",  with 
their  dates,  ascertained  or  probable :  Alcestis, 
B.C.  438.  This  play  was  brought  out  as  the 
last  of  a  tetralogy,  and  stood,  therefore,  in  the 
place  of  a  satyric  drama,  to  which  indeed  it 
bears,  in  some  parts,  great  similarity,  partic- 
ularly in  the  representation  of  Hercules  in  his 
cups.  Medea,  431.  Hippolytus  Coronifer,  428, 
gained  the  first  prize.  Hecuba,  exhibited  before 
423.  Heraclidae,  about  421.  Supplices,  about 
421.  Ion,  of  uncertain  date.  Hercules  fr\iren&, 
of  uncertain  date.  Andromache,  about  420-417. 
Troades,  415.  Electra,  about  415-413.  Helena, 
412.  Iphigenia  among  the  Tauri,  of  uncertain 
date.  Orestes,  408.  Phcenissce,  of  uncertain 
date.  Bacchce :  this  play  was  apparently  writ 


EURIPUS. 


EURYCLES. 


ten  for  representation  in  Macedonia,  and  there- 
fore at  a  very  late  period  of  the  life  of  Euripi- 
des. Iphigenia  at  Aulis :  this  play,  together 
with  the  Bacchce  and  the  Alcmceon,  was  brought 
out  at  Athens,  after  the  poet's  death,  by  the 
younger  Euripides.  Cyclops,  of  uncertain  date  : 
it  is  interesting  as  the  only  extant  specimen  of 
the  Greek  satyric  drama.  Besides  the  plays, 
there  are  extant  five  letters,  purporting  to  have 
been  written  by  Euripides,  but .  they  are  spuri- 
ous. Editions:  By  Musgrave,  Oxford,  1778; 
by  Beck,  Leipzig,  1778-88;  by  Matthias,  Leip- 
zig, 1813-29  ;  and  a  variorum  edition,  Glasgow, 
1821,  9  vols.  8vo.  Of  separate  plays  there  have 
been  many  editions,  e.  g^  by  Person,  Elmsley, 
Valckenaer,  Monk,  Pflugk,  and  Hermann. — 2 
The  youngest  of  the  three  sons  of  the  above. 
After  the  death  of  his  father  _he  brought  out 
three  of  his  plays  at  the  great  Dionysia,  viz.,  the 
AlcnuKon  (no  longer  extant),  the  Iphigenia  at 
Aulis,  and  the  Bacchce. 

EURIPUS  (Evpiirof)  any  part  of  the  sea  where 
the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  were  remarkably 
violent,  is  the  name  especially  of  the  narrow 
strait  which  separates  Euboaa  from  Boaotia,  in 
which  the  ancients  asserted  that  the  sea  ebbed 
and  flowed  seven  times  in  the  day.  The  extra- 
ordinary tides  of  the  Euripus  have  been  noticed 
by  modern  observers  ;  the  water  sometimes  runs 
us  much  as  eight  miles  an  hour.  At  Cbalcis  there 
was  a  bridge  over  the  Euripus,  uniting  Eubcea 
with  the  main  land. 

EUROMUS  (Evpufiof :  now  Jaklys),  a  small  town 
of  Caria,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Grion  (a  ridge  par- 
allel to  Mount  Latmus),  in  the  conventus  juridicus 
of  Alabanda.  It  lay  eight  English  miles  north- 
west of  Mylasa. 

EUHOJPA  (Evpuxri),  according  to  the  Iliad  (xiv., 
321)  a  daughter  of  Phcenix,  but  according  to  the 
common  tradition  a  daughter  of  the  Phoenician 
king  Agen6r.  Her  surpassing  beauty  charmed 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  assumed  the  form  of  a  bull 
and  mingled  with  the  herd  as  Europa  and  her 
maidens  were  sporting  on  the  sea-shore.  Encour- 
aged by  the  tameness  of  the  animal,  Europa  ven- 
tured to  mount  his  back ;  whereupon  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  rushed  into  the  sea  and  swam  with  her  in 
safety  to  Crete.  Here  she  became  by  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  the  mother  of  Minos,  Radamanthys,  and 
Sarpfidon.  She  afterward  married  Asterion, 
king  of  Crete,  who  brought  up  the  children  whom 
she  had  had  by  the  king  of  the  gods. 

EuRdFA  (Evpumj\  one  of  the  three  divisions 
of  the  ancient  worla.  The  name  is  not  found  in 
ili';  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  and  first  occurs  in  the 
Homeric  hymn  to  Apollo  (251),  but  even  there  it 
does  not  indicate  the  continent,  but  simply  the 
main  land  of  Hellas  proper,  in  opposition  to  Pelo- 
ponnesus and  the  neighboring  islands.  Herod- 
otus is  the  first  writer  who  uses  it  ip  the  sense 
of  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  world.  The  origin 
of  the  name  is  doubtful ;  but  the  most  prob- 
able of  the  numerous  conjectures  is  that  which 
supposes  that  the  Asiatic  Greeks  called  it  Euro- 
pa  (from  eipvf,  "  brond,"  and  the  root  6ir,  "  to 
see"),  from  the  wide  extent  of  its  coast.  Most 
of  the  ancients  supposed  the  name  to  be  de- 
rived from  Europa,  the  daughter  of  Agenor. 
The  boundaries  of  Europe  on  the  east  differed 
at  various  periods.  In  earlier  times  the  River 
Phasig  was  usually  supposed  to  be  its  boundary 


and  sometimes  even  the  Araxes  and  the  Cas- 
pian Sea :  but  at  a  later  period  the  River  Tanais 
and  the  Palus  Maeotis  were  usually  regarded  as 
the  boundaries  between  Asia  and  Europe.  Tht 
north  of  Europe  was  little  known  to  the  ancients, 
but  it  was  generally  believed,  at  least  in  later 
times,  that  it  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Ocean. 

EUROPUS.     Vid.  TITARESIUS. 

EUROPUS  (EipuTTOf).  1.  A  city  of  Caria,  aft- 
erward named  Idrias.— 2.  (Now  Yerabolus,  or 
Kulat-el-Nejin  ?),  a  city  in  the  district  of  Cyr- 
rhestice  in  Syria,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  a  few  miles  south  of  Zeugma ;  called 
after  the  town  of  the  same  name  in  Macedonia. — 
3.  Europus  was  the  earlier  name  of  Dura  Nica- 
noris  in  Mesopotamia ;  and,  4.  It  was  also  given 
by  Seleucus  Nicator  to  Rhagae  in  Media.  Vid. 
ARSACIA. 

EUROTAS  (Evpuraf).  1.  (Now  Basilipotamo). 
the  chief  river  in  Laconia,  but  not  navigable,  rises 
in  Mount  Boreum  in  Arcadia,  then  disappears  un- 
der the  earth,  rises  again  near  Sciritis,  and  flows 
southward,  passing  Sparta  on  the  east,  through  a 
narrow  and  fruitful  valley,  into  the  Laconian 
Gulf. — 2.  Vid.  TITARESIUS. 

[EUROTAS  (Evpuraf),  son  of  Myles,  grandson 
of  Lelex  (according  to  Apollodorus,  son  of  Le- 
lex),  father  of  Sparta,  who  married  Lacedaemon : 
is  said  to  have  led,  by  means  of  a  canal,  the  wa- 
ters that  had  stagnated  in  Laconia  into  the  sea, 
and  to  have  called  the  stream  that  was  thus 
formed  the  EUROTAS.] 

[EURYADES  (Eiipvadrje),  one  of  the  suitors  of 
Penelope,  slain  by  Telemachus.] 

[EURYALE  (Evpvuhi]).  1.  One  of  the  Gor- 
gons. — 2.  Daughter  of  Minos  or  Minyas,  mother 
of  Orion  by  Neptune  (Poseidon) — 3.  A  queen  of 
the  Amazons,  who  aided  ^Eetes  against  the  Argo- 
nauts.] 

EURYALUS  (Evpiiahof).  1.  Son  of  Mecisteus, 
one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  of  the  Epigoni,  ac- 
companied Diomedes  to  Troy,  where  he  slew 
several  Trojans. — 2.  One  of  the  suitors  of  Hip- 
podamia. — [3.  A  young  Phseacian  hero,  victor 
in  wrestling  ;  he  presented  Ulysses  with  a  beau- 
tiful sword.— 4.  Son-of  Opheltes,  a  companion  of 
./Eneas,  famed  for  his  strong  friendship  for  Ni- 
sus.] 

EURYANASSA.       Vid.  PELOPS. 

EURYBATES  (Evpv6aTj]f).  1.  Called  Eribotes 
by  Latin  writers,  son  of  Teleon,  and  one  of  tho 
Argonauts. — 2.  The  herald  of  Ulysses,  whom  ha 
followed  to  Troy. 

EURYBATCS  (EvpvGaTOs),  an  Ephesian  whom 
Crcesus  sent  with  a  large  sum  of  money  to  the 
Peloponnesus  to  hire  mercenaries  for  him  in  his 
war  with  Cyrus.  He,  however,  went  over  to  Cy 
rus,  and  betrayed  the  whole  matter  to  him.  lu 
consequence  of  this  treachery,  his  name  passed 
into  a  proverb  among  the  Greeks. 

EURYBIA  (Eiipvtla),  daughter  of  Pontus  and 
Terra  (Ge),  mother  by  Crius  of  Astraeus,  Pallas, 
and  Perses. 

EURYB!ADES.     Vid.  THEMISTOCLES. 

EURYCLBA  (EbpVKfaid),  daughter  of  Ops,  was 
purchased  by  Laertes  and  brought  up  Telema- 
chus. When  Ulysses  returned  home,  she  recog- 
nized him  by  a  scar,  and  afterward  faithfully  as- 
sisted him  against  the  suitors. 

(Ei>pvK%.f/t).    1.  A  ventriloquist  and 
299 


EURYCRATES. 

diviner  at  Athena  (£yyaarpt//t;0of).— 2.  A  Spar- 
uiu  architect  who  constructed  a  celebrated  bath 
at  Corinth.] 

[EURYCBATES  (EipvKpuTijt).  1.  Son  of  King 
Polydorus,  king  of  Sparta,  the  twelfth  of  the 
Agid  line  :  his  son  and  successor  was  Anaxan- 
der ;  his  grandson  was — 2.  EURYCRATES  II.,  call- 
ed altso  Eurycratidas,  reigned  during  the  earlier 
and  disastrous  part  of  the  war  with  Tegea.] 

[EUHYDAMAS  (Evpvduftaf).  1.  Son  of  Irus  and 
Dernonassa,  one  of  the  Argonauts  ;  according 
to  Apollonius  Rhodius  he  was  a  son  of  Ctime- 
uus.— 2.  A  Trojan  skilled  in  the  interpretation 
of  dreams,  whose  two  sons,  Abas  and  Polyidus, 
were  slain  before  Troy  by  Diomedes. — 3.  One 
of  the  suitors  of  Penelope,  slain  by  Ulysses.] 

EURYDICK  (EvpvdiKtj).  1.  Wife  of  Orpheus. 
Vid.  ORPHEUS. — 2.  An  Illyrian  princess,  wife  of 
Amyntas  II.,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  mother  of 
the  famous  Philip. — 3.  An  Illyrian,  wife  of  Philip 
of  Macedon,  and  mother  of  Cynane  or  Cynna. 
— 4.  Daughter  of  Amyntas,  son  of  Perdiccas 
I IL,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  Cynane,  daughter 
of  Philip.  After  the  death  of  her  mother  in 
Asia  (aid.  CYNANE),  Perdiccas  gave  her  in  mar- 
riage to  the  king  Arrhidaeus.  She  was  a  woman 
of  a  masculine  spirit,  and  entirely  ruled  her 
weak  husband.  On  her  return  to  Europe  with 
her  husband,  she  became  involved  in  war  with 
Polysperchon  and  Olympias,  but  she  was  de- 
feated in  battle,  taken  prisoner,  and  compelled 
by  Olympias  to  put  an  end  to  her  life,  B.C.  317. 
— 5.  Daughter  of  Antipater,  and  wife  of  Ptole- 
my the  son  of  Lagus.  She  was  the  mother  of 
three  sons,  viz.,  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  Meleager, 
and  a  third  (whose  name  is  not  mentioned) ; 
and  of  two  daughters,  Ptolemais,  afterward 
married  to  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and  Lysan- 
dra,  the  wife  of  Agathocles,  son  of  Lysimachus. 
•  -6.  An  Athenian,  of  a  family  descended  from 
the  great  Miltiades.  She  was  first  married  to 
Ophelias,  the  conqueror  of  Gyrene,  and  after 
his  death  returned  to  Athens,  where  she  mar- 
ried Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  on  occasion  of  his 
first  visit  to  that  city. 

EURYLOCHUS  (Evpvhoxoi).  1.  Companion  of 
Ulysses  in  his  wanderings,  was  the  only  one 
that  escaped  from  the  house  of  Circe,  when  his 
friends  were  metamorphosed  into  swine.  An- 
other personage  of  the  same  name  is  mention- 
ed among  the  sons  of  ^Egyptus. — 2.  A  Spartan 
commander  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  B.C. 
426,  defeated  and  slain  by  Demosthenes  at  01- 
pffi. — [3.  Of  Lusiae  in  Arcadia,  an  officer  in  the 
Greek  army  of  Cyrus  the  younger ;  on  one  oc- 
casion protected  Xenophon,  whose  shield-bearer 
had  deserted  him. — 4.  A  Macedonian,  son  of 
Arseas,  detected  a  conspiracy  against  Alexan- 
der the  Great.] 

EURYMEDON  (Evpvfteduv).  1.  One  of  the  Ca- 
blri,  son  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  and  Cabiro,  and 
brother  of  Alcon. — 2.  An  attendant  of  Nestor. 
—3.  Son  of  Ptolemseus,  and  charioteer  of  Aga- 
memnon.—4.  Son  of  Thucles,  an  Athenian  gen- 
eral in  the  Peloppnnesian  war.  He  was  one  of 
the  commanders  in  the  expedition  to  Corcyra, 
B.C.  428,  and  also  in  the  expedition  to  Sicily, 
425.  In  414  he  was  appointed,  in  conjunction 
with  Demosthenes,  to  the  command  of  the  sec- 
ond Syracusan  armament,  and  fell  in  the  first 
•f  the  two  sea-fights  in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse  I 
300 


EURYSACES. 

EURYMEDON  (Evpvpeduv :  now  Kapri-S-u),  e 
small  river  in  Pamphylia,  navigable  as  far  up  as 
the  city  of  ASPENDUS,  through  which  it  flowed  ; 
celebrated  for  the  victory  which  Cimon  gained 
over  the  Persians  on  its  banks  (B.C.  469). 

[EURYMEDUSA  (Ei>pv//£(5oi><7a),  a  female  slave 
of  the  Phaeacian  king  Alcinous,  attendant  upon 
Nausicaa.] 

EURVMENJT  (Evov/tevcu),  a  town  in  Magnesia 
in  Thessaly,  east  of  Ossa. 

EURYNOME  (Efipvvopr]).  1.  Daughter  of  Oce- 
anus.  When  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  was  expell- 
ed by  Juno  (Hera)  from  Olympus,  Eurynome 
and  Thetis  received  him  in  the  bosom  of  the 
sea.  Before  the  time  of  Saturn  (Cronos)  and 
Rhea,  Eurynome  and  Ophion  had  ruled  in  Olym- 
pus over  the  Titans. — 2.  A  surname  of  Diana 
(Artemis)  at  Pbigalea  in  Arcadia,  where  she 
was  represented  half  woman  and  half  fish. — [3. 
An  old  and  faithful  female  attendant  in  the 
house  of  Ulysses,  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey.] 

[EURYNOMUS  (Eiipvvofioc).  1.  A  centaur  slain 
by  Dryas  at  the  nuptials  of  Pirithous: — 2.  Son 
of  the  Ithacan  JEgyptius,  one  of  the  suitors  of 
Penelope.] 

[EURYPHAESSA  (Evpvijxieoad),  sister  and  wife 
of  Hyperion  ;  by  him  mother  of  Helios,  Selene, 
and  Eos  (Aurora).] 

EURYPHON  (Eipvfyuv),  a  celebrated  physician 
of  Cnidos  in  Caria,  was  a  contemporary  of  Hip- 
pocrates, but  older.  He  is  quoted  by  Galen, 
who  says  that  he  was  considered  to  be  the  au- 
thor of  the  ancient  medical  work  entitled  Kvi- 
dtai  Tvuftat,  and  also  that  some  persons  at- 
tributed to  him  several  works  included  in  tbo 
Hippocratic  Collection. 

EURYPON,  otherwise  called  EURYTION  (Evpv- 

V,  Eiipvriuv),  a  grandson  of  Procles,  was  the 
third  king  of  that  house  at  Sparta,  and  thence- 
forward gave  it  the  name  of  Eurypontidze. 

EURYPYLUS  (EvpvTrvhof).  1.  Son  df  Euaamon 
and  Ops,  appears  in  different  traditions  as  king 
either  of  Ormenion,  or  Hyria,  or  Cyrene.  In 
the  Iliad  he  is  represented  as  having  come  from 
Ormenion  to  Troy  with  forty  ships.  He  slew 
many  Trojans,  and  when  wounded  by  Paris  he 
was  nursed  and  cured  by  Patroclus.  Among 
the  heroes  of  Hyria,  he  is  mentioned  as  a  son 
of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  Celaeno,  who  went 
to  Libya,  where  he  ruled  in  the  country  after- 
ward called  Cyrene,  and  there  became  connect- 
ed with  the  Argonauts.  He  married  Sterope, 
the  daughter  of  Helios,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Lycaon  and  Leucippus. — 2.  Son  of 
Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  Astypakea,  king  of  Cos, 
was  killed  by  Hercules,  who,  on  his  return  from 
Troy,  landed  in  Cos,  and,  being  taken  for  a  pirate, 
was  attacked  by  its  inhabitants.  According  to 
another  tradition,  Hercules  attacked  the  island 
of  Cos  in  order  to  obtain  possession  of  Chal- 
ciope,  the  daughter  of  Eurypylus,  whom  he 
loved. — 3.  Son  of  Telephus  and  Astyoche,  king 
of  Mysia  or  Cilicia,  was  induced  by  the  presents 
which  Priam  sent  to  his  mother  or  wife  to  as- 
sist the  Trojans  against  the  Greeks.  Eurypylus 
killed  Machaon,  but  was  himself  slain  by  Ne- 
optolemus. 

-  EURYSACES  (EvpvffuKrjf),  son  of  the  Telamoni- 
an  Ajax  and  Tecmessa,  named  after  the  "  broad 
shield"  of  his  father.  An  Athenian  tradition  re- 
lated that  Eurysaces  and  his  brother  Philaeus. 


EURYSTHENES. 


EUSEBIUS. 


had  given  up  to  the  Athenians  the  island  of  Sal- 
amis,  which  they  had  inherited  from  their  grand- 
father, and  that  the  two  brothers  received  in  re- 
turn the  Attic  franchise.  Eurysaces  was  hon- 
ored like  his  father,  at  Athens,  with  an  altar. 

EUIIYSTHEXES  (E,vpva6ev7]f)  and  PB.OGLES  (Hpo- 
K?%  ),  the  twin  sons  of  Aristodemus,  were  born, 
according  to  the  common  account  before,  but 
according  to  the  genuine  Spartan  story,  after 
their  father's  return  to  Peloponnesus  and  occu- 
pation of  his  allotment  of  Laconia.  He  died 
immediately  after  the  birth  of  his  children,  and 
had  not  even  time  to  decide  which  of  the  two 
should  succeed  him.  The  mother  professed  to 
be  unable  to  name  the  elder,  and  the  Lacedae- 
monians applied  to  Delphi,  and  were  instructed 
to  make  them  both  kings,  but  give  the  greater 
honor  to  the  elder.  The  difficulty  thus  remain- 
ing was  at  last  removed  at  the  suggestion  of 
Panites,  a  Messenian,  by  watching  which  of 
the  children  was  first  washed  and  fed  by  the 
mother  ;  and  the  first  rank  was  accordingly. 
given  to  Eurystheues  and  retained  by  his  de- 
scendants. From  these  two  brothers  the  two 
royal  families  in  Sparta  were  descended,  and 
were  called  respectively  the  JEurysthenidce  and 
Proclidce.  The  former  were  also  called  the 
Agidce  from  Agis,  son  of  Eurysthenes  ;  and  the 
latter  Eurypontida  from  Eurypon,  grandson  of 
Procles. 

EURYSTHEUS.     Vid.  HERCULES. 

[EURYTION  (EvpvTiuv).  1.  Son  of  Irus  and 
Demonassa,  and  grandson  of  Actor,  one  of  the 
Argonauts.  —  2.  One  of  the  centaurs,  escaped  from 
the  fight  with  Hercules,  but  was  afterward  slain 
by  that  hero.  —  3.  Son  of  Lycaon,  brother  of  Pan- 
durus,  a  celebrated  archer  ;  accompanied  JEneas 
on  his  voyage  to  Italy.] 

EURYTUS  (Evpvrof).  1.  Son  of  Melaneus  and 
Stratonice,  was  king  of  GEchalia,  probably  the 
Thessalian  town  of  this  name.  He  was  a  skill- 
ful archer  and  married  to  Antioche,  by  whom 
he  became  the  father  of  lole,  Iphitus,  Motion 
or  Deion,  Clytius,  and  Toxeus.  He  was  proud 
of  his  skill  m  using  the  bow,  and  is  said  to  have 
instructed  even  Hercules  in  his  art.  He  offer- 
ed his  daughter  lole  as  a  prize  to  him  who  should 
conquer  him  and  his  sons  in  shooting  with  the 
bow.  Hercules  won  the  prize,  but  Eurytus  and 
his  sons,  with  the  exception  of  Iphitus,  refused 
to  give  up  lole,  because  they  feared  lest  Her- 
cules should  kill  the  children  he  might  have  by 
her.  Hercules  accordingly  marched  against 
CEchalia  with  an  army,  took  the  place,  and  killed 
Eurytus  and  his  sons.  According  to  Homer,  on 
the  other  hand,  Eurytus  was  killed  by  Apollo, 
•whom  he  presumed  to  rival  in  using  the  bow. 
j[0(i,  viii.,  226.)  —  2.  Son  of  Actor  and  Molione 
of  Elis.  Vid.  MOLIONES.  —  3.  Son  of  Mercury 
(Hermes)  and  Antinnlm,  and  brother  of  Echion, 
was  one  of  the  Argonauts.—  4.  An  eminent  Py- 
thagorean philosopher,  a  disciple  of  Philolaus. 

EUSEBIUS  (Eiffe&of),  surnamed  Pamphili  to 
commemorate  his  devoted  friendship  for  Pam-  , 
philus,  bishop  of  Coesarea.  Eusebius  was  born 
in  1'iilostine  about  A.D.  264,  was  made  bishop 
of  Ctesarea  315,  and  died  about  340.  He  had  a 
strong  leaning  toward  the  Arians,  though  he 
signed  the  creed  of  the  Council  of  Niesea.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  learning.  His  most  im- 
portant works  are,  1.  The  Chronicon 


a  work  of  great  value  to 
j  us  in  the  study  of  ancient  history.  It  is  in  two 
books.  The  first,  entitled  ^poyoypa^ta,  contains 
;  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  several  ancient  na 
tions,  as  the  Chaldteans,  Assyrians,  Medes,  Per- 
sians, Lydians,  Hebrews,  and  Egyptians.  It  is 
chiefly  taken  from  the  work  ot  Afrkanus  (vid, 
AFRICAXUS),  and  .gives  lists  of  kings  and  other 
magistrates,  with  short  accounts  of  remarkable 
events  from  the  creation  to  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius. The  second  book  consists  of  synchrono- 
logical  tables,  with  similar  catalogues  of  rulers 
and  striking  occurrences  from  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham to  the  celebration  of  Constantino's  Vicen- 
nalia  at  Nicomedia,  A.D.  327,  and  at  Rome,  A 
D.  328.  The  Greek  text  of  the  Chronicon  is 
lost,  but  there  is  extant  part  of  a  Latin  transla- 
tion of  it  by  Jerome,  published  by  Scaliger,  Ley- 
den,  1606,  of  which  another  enlarged  edition  ap- 
peared at  Amsterdam,  1658.  There  is  also  ex- 
tant an  Armenian  translation,  which  was  dis- 
covered at  Constantinople,  and  published  by 
Mai  and  Zohrab  at  Milan,  1818,  and  by  Aucher, 
Venice,  1818.  —  2.  The  Prceparatio  Evangclica 
(evayyekutTiq  aTcodei^euf  Tro^apaaKEvij)  in  fifteen 
books,  is  a  collection  of  various  facts  and  quota- 
tions from  old  writers,  by  which  it  was  supposed 
that  the  mind  would  be  prepared  to  receive  the 
evidences  of  Christianity.  This  book  is  almost 
as  important  to  us  in  the  study  of  ancient  phi- 
losophy as  the  Chronicon  is  with  reference  to 
history,  since  in  it  are  preserved  specimens 
from  the  writings  of  almost  every  philosopher 
of  any  note  whose  works  are  not  now  extant. 
Edited  by  R.  Stephens,  Paris,  1544,  and  again 
in  1628,  and  by  F.  Viger,  Cologne,  1688:  [more 
recently  by  Heinichen,  Lips.,  1842,  2  vols.  8vo.] 
—  3.  The  Detnonstratio  Evangelica  (rfayyeAwci) 
eijroc5«£if),  in  twenty  books,  of  which  ten  are  ex- 
tant, is  a  collection  of  evidences,  chiefly  from 
the  Old  Testament,  addressed  principally  to  the 
Jews.  This  is  the  completion  of  the  preceding 
work,  giving  the  arguments  which  the  Praepara- 
tio  was  intended  to  make  the  mind  ready  to 
receive.  Edited  with  the  Prceparatio  in  the  edi- 
tions both  of  R.  Stephens  and  Viger.  —  4.  The 
Ecclesiastical  History  (tKK^rjfftaa-iK^  laropla),  iu 
ten  books,  containing  the  history  of  Christianity 
from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  the  Death  of  Liciuius, 
A.D.  324.  Edited  with  the  other  Ecclesiastical 
historians  by  Reading,  Cambridge,  1720,  and 
separately  by  Burton,  Oxford,  1838,  [and  by 
Heinichen,  Lips.,  1827,  3  vols.  8vo.]  —  5.  De 
Martyribns  falcestince,  being  an  account  of  the 
persecutions  of  Diocletian  and  Maximin  from 
A.D.  303  to  310.  It  is  iu  one  book,  and  gener- 
ally found  as  an  appendix  to  the  eighth  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  History.  —  6.  Against  JJierocles 
Hierocles  had  advised  Diocletian  to  begin  his 
persecution,  and  had  written  two  books,  called 
Aoyot  Qthatydelf,  comparing  our  Lord's  mira- 
cles to  those  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana.  In  an- 
swering this  work,  Eusebius  reviews  the  life  of 
Apollouius  by  Philostratus.  —  7.  Against  Afarcel- 
lut,  bishop  of  Ancyra,  in  two  books.  —  8.  De  EC- 
clesiastica  Thcologia,  a  continuation  of  the  form- 
er work.  —  9.  De  Vita  Constantini,  four  books,  a 
panegyric  rather  than  a  biography.  It  has  gen- 
erally been  published  with  the  Ecclesiastical 
History,  but  edited  separately  by  Heinichen, 
1880.  —  10.  Onomasticon  de  Locis  Hebraicis,  a 
301 


EUSTATHIUS. 


EVAGORAS. 


description  of  the  towns  and  places  mentioned  in 
Holy  Scripture,  arrangeu  iu  alphabetical  order. 
It  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Jerome. 

EUSTATHIUS  (Evorddiof.)  1.  Of  Cappadocia, 
a  Nto-Platouic  philosopher,  was  a  pupil  of  lam- 
blichus  and  vEdosius.  In  A.I).  358  he  was  sent 
by  Constantius  as  ambassador  to  King  Sapor, 
and  remained  in  Persia,  where  he  was  treated 
with  the  greatest  honor. — 2.  Or  EUMATHIUS. 
probably  lived  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century  of 
our  era.  He  wrote  a  Greek  romance  in  eleven 
books,  still  extant,  containing  an  account  of  the 
loves  of  Hysminias  and  Hysrniue.  The  tale  is 
wearisome  and  improbable,  and  shows  no  power 
of  invention  on  the  part  of  its  author.  Edited 
by  Gaulmin,  Paris,  1617,  and  by  Teucher,  Lips., 
1792. — 3.  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Constantinople,  and  lived  during  the  lat- 
ter half  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  a  man 
of  great  learning,  and  wrote  numerous  works, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  his  commentary 
on  the  Hiad  and  Odyssey  (Hape/cfioAat  «f  TTJV 
'Ofitjpov  'ITiidda  ical  'Odvaaeiav),  or  rather  his 
collection  of  extracts  from  earlier  commentators 
on  those  two  poems.  This  vast  compilation 
was  made  from  the  numerous  and  extensive 
works  of  the  Alexandrian  grammarians  and 
critics ;  and  as  nearly  all  the  works  from  which 
Eustathius  made  his  extracts  are  lost,  his  com- 
mentary is  of  incalculable  value  to  us.  Edi- 
tions: At  Rome,  1542-1550,  4  vols.  foL ;  at 
Basle,  1559-60;  at  Leipzig,  1825-26,  contain- 
ing the  commentary  on  the  Odyssey,  and  at 
Leipzig,  1827-29,  the  commentary  on  the  Iliad, 
in  all  7  volst  4to.  There  is  also  extant  by  Eu- 
stathius a  commentary  on  Dionysius  Periegetes, 
which  is  published  with  most  editions  of  Dionys- 
ius. Eustathius  likewise  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Pindar,  which  seems  to  be  lost. — 4.  Usually  call- 
ed EUSTATHIUS  ROHAKUS,  a  celebrated  Grteco- 
Roman  jurist,  tilled  various  high  offices  at  Con- 
stantinople from  A.D.  960  to  1000. 

EUSTRATIUS  (Eixrrpcmof),  one  of  the  latest 
commentators  on  Aristotle,  lived  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twelfth  century  after  Christ,  un- 
der the  Emperor  Alexius  Comnenus,  as  metro- 
politan of  Nicaea.  Of  his  writings  only  two  are 
extant,  and  these  in  a  very  fragmentary  state  : 
viz.,  1.  A  Commentary  on  the  second  book  of 
the  Analytica.  2.  A  Commentary  on  the  Mhica 
Nicomachca. 

EOTEKPE.     Vid.  MUS^E. 

[EUTHYCRATES  (EvdvKptinjs),  &  Greek  statuary, 
probably  about  B.C.  300 ;  a  son  a»d  the  most 
iistingaished  pupil  of  Lysippus.] 

ECTHYDEMUB  (Ei6v6r>fiof).  A  sophist,  was  born 
«t  Chios,  and  migrated,  with  his  brother  Diony- 
*>dorus,  to  Thcrii  in  Italy.  Being  exiled  thence, 
jhey  came  to  Athens,  where  they  resided  many 
rears.  The  pretensions  of  Euthydemue  and 
fcis  brother  are  exposed  by  Plato  in  the  dia- 
logue which  bears  the  name  of  the  former. — 2. 
King  of  Bactria,  was  a  native  of  Magnesia.  We 
know  nothing  of  the  circumstances  attending  his 
elevation  to  the  sovereignty  of  Bactria.  He  ex- 
tended his  power  over  the  neighboring  provinces, 
•o  as  to  become  the  founder  of  the  greatness 
of  the  Bactrian  monarchy.  His  dominions  were 
invaded  about  RC.  212,  by  Antiochus  the  Great, 
with  whom  he  eventually  concluded  a  treaty  of 
peace. 

302 


EUTHYMUS  (Ev6vpof),  a  hero  of  Loori  in  Italy 
son  of  Astycles  or  of  the  river-god  Cceeiuus 
He  was  famous  for  his  strength  and  skill  iu  box- 
ing, and  delivered  the  town  of  Temesa  from  the 
evil  spirit  Polites,  to  whom  a  fair  maiden  was 
sacrificed  -every  year.  Euthymus  himself  dis- 
appeared at  an  advanced  age  in  the  River  Cae- 
ciuus. 

EurScius  (EvroKtof),  of  Ascalon,  the  com- 
mentator on  Apollonius  of  Perga  and  on  Archi- 
medes, lived  about  A.D.  560.  His  commentar- 
ies are  printed  in  the  editions  of  APOLLONIUS  and 
ARCHIMEDES. 

EUTRAPELUS,  P.  VOLUMNIUS,  a  Roman  knight, 
obtained  the  surname  of  Eutrapelus  (EvTpuire- 
)  on  account  of  his  liveliness  and  wit.  He 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Antony,  and  a  com- 
panion of  his  pleasures  and  debauches.  Cythc- 
ris,  the  mistress  of  Antony,  was  originally  the 
freedwomau  and  mistress  of  Volumnius  Eutrap- 
elus, whence  we  find  her  called  Volumuia, 
and  was  surrendered  to  Antony  by  his  friend. 
Eutrapelus  is  mentioned  by  Horace  (Epist.,  i., 
18,  31). 

EUTBESII  (EvTpijaioi),  the  inhabitants  of  a  dis- 
trict in  Arcadia,  north  of  Megalopolis. 

EUTRESIS  (Evrpqaif),  a  small  town  in  Boaotia, 
between  Thespiffl  and  Plateeaa,  with  a  temple  and 
oracle  of  Apollo,  who  hence  had  the  surname  Eu- 
tresites. 

EUTROPIUS.  1.  A  eunuch,  the  favorite  of  Ar- 
cadius,  became  the  virtual  governor  of  the  East 
on  the  death  of  Rufinus,  A.D.  395.  He  was 
consul  in  399,  but  in  that  year  was  deprived 
of  his  power  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Empress 
Eudoxia  and  Gainas  the  Goth ;  he  was  first 
banished  to  Cyprus,  was  shortly  afterward  re- 
called, and  put  to  death  at  Chalcedon.  The 
poet  Claudian  wrote  an  invective  against  Eu- 
tropius. — 2.  A  Roman  historian,  held  the  office 
of  a  secretary  under  Constantine  the  Great, 
was  patronized  by  Julian  the  Apostate,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  the  Persian  expedition,  and 
was  alive  in  the  reign  of  Valentinian  and  Valeus. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  brief  compendium  of  Ro- 
man history  in  ten  books,  from  the  foundation 
of  the  city  to  the  accession  of  Valens,  A.D.  364, 
to  whom  it  is  inscribed.  In  drawing  up  this 
abridgment  Eutropius  appears  to  have  consulted 
the  best  authorities,  and  to  have  executed  hia 
task  in  general  with  care.  The  style  is  in  per- 
fect good  taste  and  keeping  with  the  nature  of 
the  undertaking,  being  plain,  precise,  and  simple. 
The  best  editions  are  by  Tzschucke,  Lips.,  1796, 
and  by  Grosse,  Hal,  1813. 

EUTYCHIDES  (Evrvxifyc),  of  Sicyon,  a  statu- 
ary, and  a  disciple  of  Lysippus,  flourished  B.C. 
300. 

EUXINUS  PONTUS.        Vid    PONTUS  EuXINUS. 

EVADNE  (Evudvij).  1.  Daughter  of  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  and  Pitane,  who  was  brought  up  by 
the  Arcadian  king  JSpytus,  and  became  by  Apol- 
lo the  mother  of  lamus. — 2.  Daughter  of  Iphis 
[hence  called  Ipbias)  or  Philax,  and  wife  of  Ca- 
paneuB.  For  details,  vid.  CAPANEUS. 

EvAG$BA4  (Eva-yopaf),  king  of  Salamis  in  Cy- 
prus. He  was  sprung  from  a  family  which 
claimed  descent  from  Teucer,  the  reputed  found- 
er of  Salamis ;  and  his  ancestors  appear  to  have 
been,  during  a  long  period,  the  hereditary  rulera 
of  that  city  under  the  copremacy  of  Persia. 


EVAGRIUS. 


FABIA   GENS. 


Tlu'y  had,  however,  been  expelled  by  a  Phoeni- 
cian exile,  who  obtained  the  sovereignty  for 
himself,  and  transmitted  it  to  his  descendants. 
Evagoras  succeeded  in  recovering  his  hereditary 
kiugdom,  and  putting  the  reigning  tyrant  to 
death,  about  B.C.  410.  His  rule  was  distin- 
guished for  its  mildness  and  equity,  and  he 
greatly  increased  the  power  of  Salamis,  special- 
ly by  the  formation  of  a  powerful  fleet.  He 
gave  a  friendly  reception  to  Conon,  when  the 
latter  took  refuge  at  Salamis  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Athenians  at  ^Egospotami,  405 ;  and  it  was 
at  his  intercession  that  the  King  of  Persia  allow- 
<>d  Conon  the  support  of  the  Phosnician  fleet. 
But  his  growing  power  excited  the  jealousy  of 
the  Persian  court,  and  at  length  war  was  de- 
clared against  him  by  Artaxerxes.  Evagoras 
received  the  assistance  of  an  Athenian  fleet  un- 
der Chabrias,  and  at  first  met  with  great  suc- 
cess ;  but  the  fortune  of  war  afterward  turned 
against  him,  and  he  was  glad  to  conclude  a 
peace  with  Persia,  by  which  he  resigned  his  con- 
quests in  Cyprus,  but  was  allowed  to  retain 
possession  of  Salamis,  with  the  title  of  king. 
This  war  was  brought  to  a  close  in  385.  Evag- 
oras was  assassinated  in  374,  together  with  his 
eldest  son  Pnytagoras.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Nicocles.  There  is  still  extant  an  ora- 
tion of  Isocrates  in  praise  of  Evagoras,  addressed 
to  his  son  Nicocles. 

EVAGRIUS  (Evdypiof),  of  Epiphania  in  Syria, 
born  about  A.D.  536,  was  by  profession  a  "scho- 
lasticus"  (advocate  or  pleader),  and  probably 
practiced  at  Antioch.  He  wrote  An  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History,  still  extant,  which  extends  from  A. 
D.  431  to  594.  It  is  published  with  the  other 
ecclesiastical  historians  by  Reading,  Camb., 
1720. 

EVANDER  (Evavdpof).  1.  Son  of  Mercury 
(Hermes)  by  an  Arcadian  nymph,  called  Themia 
or  Nicostrata,  and  in  Roman  traditions  Car- 
menta  or  Tiburtis.  About  sixty  years  before 
the  Trojan  war,  Evauder  is  said  to  have  led  a 
Pelasgian  colony  from  Pallantium  in  Arcadia 
into  Italy,  and  there  to  have  built  a  town,  Pal- 
lantium, on  the  Tiber,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pala- 
tine Hill,  which  town  was  subsequently  incorpo- 
rated with  Rome.  Evander  taught  his  neigh- 
bors milder  laws  and  the  arts  of  peace  and  of 
social  life,  and  especially  the  art  of  writing,  with 
which  he  himself  had  been  made  acquainted  by 
Hercules,  and  music  ;  he  also  introduced  among 
them  the  worship  of  the  Lycsean  Pan,  of  Ceres 
(Demeter),  Neptune  (Poseidon),  and  Hercules. 
Virgil  (^fc'n.,  via,  51)  represents  Evander  as  still 
alive  at  the  time  when  JCneas  arrived  in  Italy, 
and  as  forming  an  alliance  with  him  against  the 
Latins.  Evander  was  worshipped  at  Pallantium 
in  Arcadia  as  a  hero.  At  Rome  he  had  an  altar 
at  tli(>  foot  of  the  Aventine. — 2.  A  Phocian,  was 
th"  pupil  and  successor  of  Lacydes  as  the  head  of 
the  Academic  School  at  Athens,  about  B.C.  215. 

[EVANGELUS  (EtiayyeAof).  1.  A  Greek  comic 
poet  of  the  new  comedy,  a  fragment  of  one  of 
whose  plays  is  preserved  by  Athenaeus ;  edited 
by  Memeke,  Frayin.  Comic.  G-rcec.,  voL  ii.,  p. 
117:;.  cilit.  minor. — 2.  A  slave  of  Pericles,  who 
dfetngaubed  himself  by  his  abilities  ;  he  is  said 
t<>  li.ive  written  a  work  on  the  science  of  war 
(VanTiKd),  which  was  highly  prized  by  Philo- 
poeiuea] 


EVENUS  (EVT/VOC.).  1.  Son  of  Mars  (Ares)  and 
Demonice,  and  father  of  Marpessa.  For  de- 
tails, vid.  MAKPESSA. — 2.  Two  elegiac  poets  of 
Paros.  One  of  these  poets,  though  it  is.  uncer- 
tain whether  the  elder  or  the  younger,  was  a 
contemporary  of  Socrates,  whom  he  is  said  to 
have  instructed  in  poetry  ;  and  Plato  in  several 
passages  refers  to  Evenus,  somewhat  ironically, 
as  at  once  a  sophist  or  philosopher  and  a  poet 
There  are  sixteen  epigrams  in  the  Greek  An- 
thology bearing  the  name  of  Evenus,  but  it  ia 
difficult  to  determine  which  of  them  should  be 
assigned  to  the  elder  and  which  to  the  younger 
Evenus. 

EVENTS  (Evqvof :  now  Fidhari).  1.  Formerly 
called  Lycormas,  rises  in  Mount  (Eta,  and  flows 
with  a  rapid  stream  through  ./Etolia  into  the 
sea,  one  hundred  and  twenty  stadia  west  of  An- 
tirrhium. — 2.  (Now  Sandarli),  a  river  of  Mysia, 
rising  in  Mount  Temnus,  flowing  south  through 
^Eolis,  and  falling  into  the  Sinus  Elaiticus  near 
Pitane.  The  city  of  Adramyttium.  which  stood 
nearly  due  west  of  its  sources,  was  supplied  with 
water  from  it  by  an  aqueduct 

EVERGKTES  (Evepy'eTTif),  the  "  Benefactor,"  a 
title  of  honor,  frequently  conferred  by  the  Greek 
states  upon  those  from  whom  they  had  received 
benefits.  It  was  assumed  by  many  of  the  Greek 
kings  in  Egypt  and  elsewhere.  Vid.  PTOLEM^US. 

Evios  (EiiiOf),  an  epithet  of  Bacchus,  given 
him  from  the  cheering  and  animating  cry  cva, 
eiiol  (Lat.  evoe),  in  the  festivals  of  the  god. 

EXADICS  ('E$d6iof ),  one  of  the  Lapithae.  fought 
at  the  nuptials  of  Pirithous.  . 

EXSUPERANTIUS,  JULIUS,  a  Romim  historian, 
who  lived  perhaps  about  the  fifth  or  sixth  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  He  is  the  author  of  a  short 
tract  entitled  De  Marii,  Lepidi,  ac  Sertorii  bettis 
civilibus,  which  many  suppose  to  have  been 
abridged  from  the  Histories  of  Sallust  It  is 
appended  to  several  editions  of  Sallust 

EziONGEBER.       Vid.  BERENICE,  No.  1. 


F. 


FABARIS  or  FARFARUS  (now  Ftirfa),  a  small 
river  in  Italy,  in  the  Sabine  territory,  between 
Reate  and  Cures. 

FABATUS,  L.  Roscius,  one  of  Caesar's  lieuten- 
ants in  the  Gallic  war,  and  praetor  in  B.C.  49. 
He  espoused  Pompey's  party,  and  was  twice 
sent  with  proposals  of  accommodation  to  Caesar. 
He  was  killed  in  the  battle  at  Mutiua,  B.C.  43. 

FABATUS  CALPCRNIUS,  a  Roman  knight  ac- 
cused in  A.D.  64,  but  escaped  punishment  He 
waa  grandfather  to  Calpurnia,  wife  of  the  young- 
er Pliny,  many  of  whose  letters  are  addressed  to 
him. 

FABERIUS.  1.  A  debtor  of  M.  Cicero. — 2.  Ouo 
of  the  private  secretaries  of  C.  Julius  Cossar. 

F.UIIA,  two  daughters  of  M.  Fabius  Ambus- 
tus.  The  elder  waa  manned  to  Ser.  Sulpicius, 
a  patrician,  and  one  of  the  military  tribunes 
B.C.  376,  and  the  younger  to  the  plebeian  C.  Li- 
cinius  Stolo. 

FABIA  GENS,  one  of  the  most  ancient  patri- 
cian gentes  at  Rome,  which  traced  its  origin  to 
Hercules  and  the  Arcadian  Evander.  The  Fabii 
occupy  a  prominent  part  in  history  aoon  after 
j  the  commencement  of  th*  republic ;  and  three 
',  brothers  belonging  to  the  geus  are  said  to  have 
303 


FALERNUS  ACER. 


been  invested  with  seven  successive  consul-  [  Faoricius  Jied  as  poor  as  he  had  lived  ;  he  left 
ships,  from  B.C.  485  to  479.  The  house  de-  no  dowry  for  his  daughters,  which  the  .senate, 
rived  ite  greatest  lustre  from  the  patriotic  cour-  j  however,  furnished  ;  and,  in  order  to  pay  the 
age  and  tragic  fate  of  the  three  hundred  and  six  greatest  possible  respect  to  his  memory,  the 
Fabii  in  the  battle  on  the  Cremera,  13.C.  477.  j  state  interred  him  within  the  ponuerium,  al- 
Vid.  VIBULANUS.  The  prim-ipal  families  of  this  j  though  this  was  forbidden  by  the  Twelve  Ta- 
geus  bore  the  names  of  AMBUOTUS,  BUTEO,  DOR-  ' 


go.  LABEO,  MAXIMUS,  PICTOE,  and  VIBULANUS. 

FABIANUS,  PAPIRIUS,  a  Roman  rhetorician  and 
philosopher  in  the  time  of  Tiberius  and  Calig- 
ula. He  wrote  works  on  philosophy  and  physics, 
which  are  referred  to  by  Seneca  and  Puny. 

FABRAT! RIA  (Fabraternus :  now  Falvaterra),  a 
town  in  Latium,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Trerus, 
originally  belonged  to  the  Volscians,  but  was 
subsequently  colonized  by 'the  Romans. 

FABRICII  belonged  originally  to  the  Hernician 
town  of  Aletrium,  where  some  of  this  name 
lived  as  late  as  the  time  of  Cicero.  1.  C.  FA- 
BRICIUS  Luscixts,  was  probably  the  first  of  his 
family  who  quitted  Aletrium  and  settled  at  Rome. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  popular  heroes  in  the 
Roman  annals,  and,  like  Cinciunatus  and  Curius,  is 
the  representative  of  the  purity  and  honesty  of 
the  good  old  times.  In  his  first  consulship,  B.C. 
282,  he  defeated  the  Lucanians,  Bruttians,  and 
Samnites,  gained  a  rich  booty,  and  brought  into 
the  treasury  more  than  four  hundred  tal- 
ents. Fabricius  probably  served  as  legate  in 
the  unfortunate  campaign  against  Pyrrhus  in 
280,  and  at  its  close  be  was  one  of  the  Roman 
ambassadors  sent  to  Pyrrhus  at  Tarentum  to 
negotiate  a  ransom  or  exchange  of  prisoners. 
The  conduct  of  Fabricius  on  this  occasion  form- 
ed one  of  the  most  celebrated  stories  in  Roman 
history,  and  was  embellished  in  every  possible 
way  by  subsequent  writers.  So  much,  how- 
ever, seems  certain,  that  Pyrrhus  used  every 
effort  to  gain  the  favor  of  Fabricius ;  that  he 
offered  him  the  most  splendid  presents,  and  en- 
deavored to  persuade  him  to  enter  into  his  serv- 
ice, and  accompany  him  to  Greece ;  but  that 
the  sturdy  Roman  was  proof  against  all  his  se- 
ductions, and  rejected  all  his  offers.  On  the 
renewal  of  the  war  in  the  following  year  (279), 
Fabricius  again  served  as  legate,  and  shared  in 
the  defeat  at  the  battle  of  Asculum.  In  278 
Fabricius  was  consul  a  second  time,  and  had 
the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Pyrrhus.  The 
king  was  anxious  for  peace ;  and  the  generosity 
with  which  Fabricius  sent  back  to  Pyrrhus  the 
traitor  who  had  offered  to  poison  him,  afforded 
an  opportunity  for  opening,  negotiations,  which 
resulted  in  the  evacuation  of  Italy  by  Pyrrhus. 
Fabricius  then  subdued  the  allies  of  the  king  in 
the  south  of  Italy.  He  was  censor  in  275,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  the  severity  with  which 
he  attempted  to  repress  the  growing  taste  for 
luxury.  His  censorship  is  particularly  cele- 
brated from  his  expelling  from  the  senate  P. 
Cornelius  Rufinus  on  account  of  his  possessing 
ten  pounds'  weight  of  silve*  plate.  The  love 
of  luxury  and  the  degeneracy  of  morals  which 
had  already  commenced,  brought  out  still  more 
prominently  the  simplicity  of  life  and  the  integ- 
rity of  character  which  distinguished  Fabricius 


blcs. — 2.  L.  FABUICIUS,  curator  viarum  in  B.C. 
62,  built  a  new  bridge  of  stone,  which  con- 
nected the  city  with  the  island  in  the  Tiber,  and 
which  was,  after  him,  called  potis  Fabriciut. 
The  name  of  its  author  is  still  seen  on  the  rem- 
nants of  the  bridge,  which  now  bears  the  name 
of  ponte  quattro  capi. — 3.  Q.  FABRICIUS,  tribune 
of  the  plebs  57,  proposed,  as  early  as  the  month 
of  January  of  that  year,  that  Cicero  should  be 
recalled  from  exile  ;  but  this  attempt  was  frus- 
trated by  P.  Clodius  by  armed  force. 

FADUS,  CUSFIUS,  appointed  by  the  Emperor 
Claudius  procurator  of  Judaea  in  A.D.  44.  H« 
was  succeeded  by  Tiberius  Alexander. 

FJESUL.E  (Fresulanus  :  now  Fiesole),  a  city  of 
Etruria,  situated  on  a  hill  three  miles  northeast 
of  Florence,  was  probably  not  one  of  the  twelve 
cities  of  the  League.  Sulla  sent  to  it  a  military 
colony ;  and  it  was  the  head-quarters  of  Cati- 
line's army.  There  are  still  to  be  seen  the  re- 
mains of  its  ancient  walls,  of  a  theatre,  <tc. 

FALACRINE  or  FALACHINUM,  a  Sabine  town  at 
the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  on  the  Via  Salaria, 
between  Asculum  and  Reate,  the  birth-place  of 
the  Emperor  Vespasian. 

FALERH  or  FALERIUM,  a  town  in  Etruria,  sit- 
uated on  a  steep  and  lofty  height  near  Mount 
Soracte,  was  an  ancient  Pelasgic  town,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Halesus,  who  set- 
tled with  a  body  of  colonists  from  Argos.  Its 
inhabitants  were  called  FALISCI,  and  were  re- 
garded by  many  as  of  the  same  race  as  the 
i,  whence  we  find  them  often  called  JSqui 
Falisci.  Falerii  afterward  became  one  of  the 
twelve  Etruscan  cities ;  but  its  inhabitants  con- 
tinued to  differ  from  the  rest  of  the  Etruscans 
both  in  their  language  and  customs  in  the  time 
of  Augustus.  After  a  long  struggle  with  Rome, 
the  Faliscans  yielded  to  CamiUus,  B.C.  394. 
They  subsequently  joined  their  neighbors  sev- 
eral times  in  warring  against  Rome,  but  were 
finally  subdued.  At  the  close  of  the  first  Punic 
war,  241,  they  again  revolted.  The  Romans 
now  destroyed  Falerii,  and  compelled  the  Fa- 
liscans to  build  a  new  town  in  the  plain.  The 
ruins  of  the  new  city  are  to  be  seen  at  Falleri, 
while  the  remains  of  the  more  ancient  one  are 
at  Civita  Castellana.  The  ancient  town  of  Fa- 
lerii was  afterward  colonized  by  the  Romans 
under  the  name  of  "  Colonia  Etruscorum  Fa- 
lisca,"  or  "  Colonia  Junonia  Faliscorum,"  but 
it  never  became  again  a  place  of  importance. 
The  ancient  town  was  celebrated  for  its  worship 
of  Juno  Curitis  or  Quiritis,  and  it  was  in  honor 
of  her  that  the  Romans  founded  the  colony 
Minerva  and  Janus  were  also  worshipped  in  the 
town.  Falerii  had  extensive  linen  manufactories, 
and  its  white  cows  were  prized  at  Rome  as  vic- 
tims for  sacrifice. 

FALERNUS   ACER,  a  district  in  the  north  of 


as  well  as  his  contemporary  Curius  Dentatus ;  I  Campania,  extending  from   the  Massic  hills    to 


and  ancient  writers  love  to  tell  of  the  frugal 
way  in  which  they  lived  on  their  hereditary 
farms,  and  how  they  refused  the  rich  presents 
which  the  Samnite  ambassadors  offered  them. 


304 


the  River  Vulturous.  It  produced  some  of  the 
finest  wine  in  Italy,  which  was  reckoned  only 
second  to  the  wine  of  Setia.  Its  choicest  va- 
riety was  called  Faustianum.  It  became  fit  for 


FALESIA   PORTUS. 


FAVONIUS. 


drinking  in  ten  years,  and  might  be  used  when 
twenty  years  old. 

FALESIA  FOETUS,  a  harbor  in  Etruria,  south  of 
Populonium,  opposite  the  island  Ilva. 

FALISCI.     Vid.  FALEEII. 

FALISCUS,  GRATIUS,  a  contemporary  of  Ovid, 
and  the  author  of  a  poem  upon  the  chase,  en- 
titled Cynegeticon  Liber,  in  five  hundred  and 
forty  hexameter  lines.  Printed  in  Burmann's 
and  Wernsdorf's  Poet.  Lat.Min,;  [and  with 
Olympics  Nemesianus,  by  Stern,  Hake,  1832, 
8vo.] 

FANNIA.  1.  A  woman  of  Miuturnae,  who  hos- 
pitably entertained  Marius  when  he  came  to 
Mmturnaa  in  his  flight,  B.C.  88,  though  he  had 
formerly  pronounced  her  guilty  of  adultery. — 2. 
The  second  wife  of  Helvidius  Priscus. 

FANNIUS.  1.  C.,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  B.C. 
187. — 2.  L.,  deserted  from  the  Roman  army  in 
84,  with  L.  Magius,  and  went  over  to  Mithra- 
dates,  whom  they  persuaded  to  enter  into  nego- 
tiations with  Sertorius  in  Spain.  Fannius  after- 
ward commanded  a  detachment  of  the  army  of 
Mithradates  against  Lucullus. — 3.  C.,  one  of  the 
persons  who  signed  the  accusation  brought 
against  P.  Clodius  in  61.  In  59  he  was  men- 
tioned by  L.  Vettius  as  an  accomplice  in  the  al- 
leged conspiracy  against  Pompey. — 4.  C.,  tribune 
of  the  plebs  59,  opposed  the  lex  ayraria  of 
Csesar.  He  belonged  to  Pompey's  party,  and  in 
49  went  as  praetor  to  Sicily. — 5.  C.,  a  contem- 
porary of  the  younger  Pliny,  the  author  of  a 
work,  very  popular  at  the  time,  on  the  deaths  of 
persons  executed  or  exiled  by  Nero. 

FANNIUS  C^PIO.     Vid.  C^EPIO. 

FANNIUS  STEABO.     Vid.  STEABO. 

FANNIUS  QUADEATUS.      Vid.  QUADEATUS. 

FANUM  FOETUN.X  (now  Fano),  an  important 
town  in  Umbria,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Metaurus, 
with  a  celebrated  temple  of  Fortuna,  whence  the 
town  derived  its  name.  Augustus  sent  to  it  a 
colony  of  veterans,  and  it  was  then  called  "  Co- 
Ionia  Julia  Fanestris."  Here  was  a  triumphal 
arch  in  honor  of  Augustus. 

FAEFAEUS.     Vid.  FABAEIS. 

FASCINUS,  an  early  Latin  divinity,  and  iden- 
tical with  Mutinus  or  Tutiuus.  He  was  wor- 
shipped as  the  protector  from  sorcery,  witch- 
craft, and  evil  demons  ;  and  represented  in  the 
form  of  a  phallus,  the  genuiue  Latin  for  which 
U  fascinum,  as  this  symbol  was  believed  to  be 
most  efficacious  in  averting  all  evil  influences. 

FAULA  or  FAUNA,  according  to  some,  a  concu- 
bine of  Hercules  in  Italy ;  according  to  others, 
the  wife  or  sister  of  Faunus.  Vid.  FAUNUS. 

FAUNUS,  sou  of  Picus,  grandson  of  Saturnus, 
and  father  of  Latinus,  was  the  third  in  the  series 
of  the  kings  of  the  Laurentes.  Faunus  acts  a 
very  prominent  part  in  the  mythical  history  of 
Latium,  and  was  in  later  times  worshipped  in 
two  distinct  capacities :  first,  as  the  god  of  fields 
and  shepherds,  because  he  had  promoted  agri- 
culture and  the  breeding  of  cattle ;  and  sec- 
ondly as  an  oracular  divinity,  because  he  was 
one  of  the  great  founders  of  the  religion  of  the 
country.  The  festival  of  the  Faugalia,  cele- 
brated on  the  fifth  of  December  by  the  country 
people,  had  reference  to  him  as  the  god  of  ag- 
riculture and  cattle.  As  a  prophetic  god,  he 
was  b«lieved  to  reveal  the  future  to  man,  partly 
in  dreams,  and  partly  by  voices  of  unknown  or- 
20 


igin,  in  certain  sacred  groves,  one  near  Tibur, 
around  the  well  Albunea,  and  another  on  the 
Aventine,  near  Rome.  What  Faunus  was  to 
the  male  sex,  his  wife  Faula  or  Fauna  was  to 
the  female.  At  Rome  there  was  a  round  tem- 
ple of  Faunus,  surrounded  with  columns,  on 
Mount  Caelius ;  and  another  was  built  to  him, 
in  B.C.  196,  on  the  island  in  the  Tiber,  where 
sacrifices  were  offered  to  him  on  the  ides  of  Feb- 
ruary? As  the  god  manifested  himself  in  various 
ways,  the  idea  arose  of  a  plurality  of  Fauns 
(Fauni),  who  are  described  as  half  men,  half 
goats,  and  with  horns.  Faunus  gradually  came 
to  be  identified  with  the  Arcadian  Pan,  and  the 
Fauni  with  the  Greek  Satyrs. 

FAUSTA.  1.  CoBNEiiA,  daughter  of  the  dic- 
tator Sulla,  ind  twin  sister  of  Faustus  Sulla, 
was  oorn  about  B.C.  88.  She  was  first  married 
to  C.  Memmius,  and  afterward  to  Milo.  She 
was  infamous  for  her  adulteries,  and  the  histo- 
rian Sallust  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  her  par- 
amours, and  to  have  received  a  severe  flogging 
from  Milo  when  he  was  detected  on  one  occasion 
in  the  house  of  the  latter.  Villius  was  another 
of  her  paramours,  whence  Horace  calls  him 
"  SullcB  gener"  (Sat.,  i.,  2,  64).— 2.  FLAVIA  MAX- 
IMIANA,  daughter  of  Maximianus,  and  wife  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  to  whom  she  bore  Con- 
stantiuus,  Constantius,  aad  Constans. 

FAUSTINA.  1.  ANNIA  GALEEIA,  commonly  dis- 
tinguished as  Faustina  Senior,  the  wife  of  An- 
toninus Pius,  died  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign, 
A.D.  141.  Notwithstanding  the  profligacy  of 
her  life,  her  husband  loaded  her  with  honor* 
both  before  and  after  her  decease.  It  was  in 
honor  of  her  that  Antoninus  established  a  hospi- 
tal for  the  education  and  support  of  young  fe- 
males, who  were  called  after  her  puellce  alimen- 
tarice  Faustiniance. — 2.  ANNIA,  or  Faustina  Ju- 
nior, daughter  of  the  elder  Faustina,  was  mar- 
ried to  M.  Aurelius  in  A.D.  145  or  146,  and  she 
died  in  a  village  on  the  skirts  of  Mount  Taurus 
in  175,  having  accompanied  the  emperor  to  Syr- 
ia. Her  profligacy  was  so  open  and  infamous, 
that  the  good  nature  or  blindness  of  her  hus- 
band, who  cherished  her  fondly  while  alive,  and 
loaded  her  with  honors  after  her  death,  appears 
truly  marvellous. — 3.  ANNIA,  grand-daughter  or 
great-grand-daughter  of  M.  Aurelius,  the  third 
of  the  numerous  wives  of  Elagabalus. 

FAUSTULUS.     Vid.  ROMULUS. 

FAVENTIA  (Faventlnus :  now  Faenze),  a  town 
in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  on  the  River  Anemo  and  on 
the  Via  ^Emilia,  celebrated  for  its  linen  manu- 
factories. 

FAVONII  FOETUS  (now  Porto  Favone),  a  harbor 
on  the  coast  of  Corsica 

FAVONIUS,  M.,  an  imitator  of  Cato  Uticensis, 
whose  character  and  conduct  he  c*pied  eo  ser- 
vilely as  to  receive  the  nickname  of  Cato's  ape. 
He  was  always  a  warm  supporter  of  the  party 
of  the  optimates,  and  actively  opposed  all  the 
measures  of  the  first  triumvirate.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  civil  war  in  B.C.  49,  he  joined 
Pompey,  notwithstanding  his  personal  aversion 
to  the  latter,  and  opposed  all  proposals  of  rec- 
onciliation between  Csesar  and  Pompey.  He 
served  in  the  campaign  against  Ctesar  in  Greece 
in  48,  and  after  the  defeat  of  his  party  at  Phar- 
salus  he  accompanied  Pompe^kin  Us  flight,  and 
showed  him  the  greatest  kindness  and  atteu 
305 


FAVOR1NUS. 


FESTUS. 


Uon.  Upon  Pompey's  death,  he  returned  to  Italy, 
aud  was  pardoned  by  Caesar.  He  took  no 
part  iu  the  conspiracy  against  Caesar's  life,  but 
after  the  murder  of  the  latter  he  espoused  the 
bide  of  Brutus  and  Cassius.  1 1<  was  taken  pris- 
oner in  the  battle  of  Philippi  in  42,  and  was  put 
io  death  by  Uctavianus. 

I  A-.  I'Ki.M  >.  a  philosopher  aud  sophist  in  the 
reigu  of  Hadrian,  was  a  native  of  Aries  in  GauL 
He  resided  at  different  periods  of  his  life  iu 
Rome,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  obtained 
high  distinctions.  He  was  intimate  with  some 
jf  liis  most  distinguished  contemporaries,  among 
others  with  Plutarch,  who  dedicated  to  him  his 
tu-uiise  on  the  principle  of  cold,  and  with  He- 
rodes  Atticus,  to  wjiom  he  bequeathed  his  li- 
brary and  bouse  at  Rome.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  various  subjects,  but  nouo  of  them  are 
extant 

FEBRIS,  the  goddess,  or,  rather,  the  averter  of 
fever.  She  had  three  sanctuaries  at  Rome,  in 
which  amulets  were  dedicated  which  people  had 
worn  during  a  fever. 

FEB&CTS,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  to  whom 
the  month  of  February  was  sacred,  for  in  the 
latter  half  of  that  month  general  purifications 
aud  lustrations  were  celebrated.  The  name  is 
connected  with  februare  (to  purify),  and  februce 
(purifications).  Februus  was  also  regarded  as  a 
god  of  the  lower  world,  and  the  festival  of  the 
dead  (Ftralia)  was  celebrated  in  February. 

FEL!CITAS,  the  personification  of  happiness,  to 
whom  a  temple  was  erected  by  Lucullus  iu  B.C. 
75,  which  was  burned  down  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius.  Felicitas  is  frequently  seen  on  Ro- 
taau  medals  in  the  form  of  a  matron,  with  the 
staff  of  Mercury  (caducous)  and  a  cornucopia. 

FELIX,  ANTONICS,  procurator  of  Judaea  in  the 
reigns  of  Claudius  and  Nero,  was  a  brother  of 
the  freedmau  Pallas,  and  was  himself  a  freed- 
man  of  the  Emperor  Claudius.  Hence  he  is 
also  called  Claudius  Felix.  In  his  private  and 
his  public  character  alike  Felix  was  unscrupu- 
lous and  profligate.  Having  fallen  in  lovo  with 
Drusilla,  daughter  of  Agrippa  I.,  and  wife  of 
Azizus,  king  of  Emesa,  he  induced  her  to  leave 
her  husband ;  and  she  was  still  living  with  him 
in  60,  when  St.  Paul  preached  before  him  "  of 
righteousness,  temperance,  aud  judgment  to 
come."  His  government,  though  cruel  and  op- 
pressive, was  strong ;  he  suppressed  all  distur- 
bances, and  cleared  the  country  of  robbers.  He 
was  recalled  in  62,  and  succeeded  by  Porcius 
Festus  ;  and  the  Jews  having  lodged  accusations 
against  him  at  Rome,  he  was  saved  from  condign 
punishment  only  by  the  influence  of  his  brother 
I'allas  with  Nero. 

FELIX,  M.  MINUCIUS,  a  Roman  lawyer,  who 
flourished  about  A.D.  230,  wrote  a  dialogue  en- 
titled Octavius,  which  occupies  a  conspicuous 
place  among  the  early  Apologies  for  Christian- 
ity. Edited  by  Gronovius,  Lugd.  Bat,  1707  ;  by 
Ernesti,  ibid.,  1773;  and  by  Muralto,  Turic., 
L88& 

FELRINA.     Vid.  BONOMA. 

FELTRIA  (Feltrlnus:  now  Feltre),  a  town  in 
Rajtia,  a  little  north  of  the  River  Plavis. 

FENESTELLA,  a  Roman  historian,  who  lived  in 

the  time  of  Aumistus,  and  died  A.D.  21,  in  the 

seventieth  year^f  his  age.     His  work,  entitled 

Annalet,  extended  to  at  least  twenty-two  books. 

306 


The  few  fragments  preserved  relate  to  event* 
subsequent  to  the  Carthaginian  wars ;    and  we 
know  that  it  embraced  the  greater  part  of  Cic- 
ero's career.    A  treatise  J)e  Sacerdotiis  et  Ma- 
fistratibus   Ilomanorum   Libri   //.,  ascribed  to 
'enestella,  is  a  modern  forgery.     [The  genuine 
fragments  are  published  iu  Popma's  Fragmenta 
Historicorum  Vet.  Latn  Amst,  1692,  and  in  Hav- 
ercamp's  and  Frotscher's  editions  of  Sallustl 

FENNI,  a  savage  people  living  by  the  chase, 
Iwhom  Tacitus  (Germ^  46)  reckons  among  the 
j  Germans.  They  appear  to  have  dwelt  in  the 
j  further  part  of  Eastern  Prussia,  and  to  have  been 
the  same  as  the  modern  P'inns. 

FERENTINUM  (Ferentinas,  Fereutlnus).  1.  (Now 
Ferentd),  a  town  of  Etruria,  south  of  Volsinii,  the 
birth-place  of  the  Emperor  Otho.  It  is  called 
both  a  colonia  and  a  municipium.  There  are 
still  remains  of  its  walls,  of  a  theatre,  and  of  se- 
pulchres at  Ferento. — 2.  (Now  Fcrcntino),  an 
ancieut  town  of  the  Hernici  in  Latium,  southwest 
of  Anaguia,  colonized  by  the  Romans  in  the  sec- 
ond Punic  -war.  There  are  still  remains  of  its 
ancient  walls.  Iu  its  neighborhood  was  the 
source  of  the  sacred  brook  FERENTINA,  at  which 
the  Latins  used  to  hold  their  meetings. 

FEKENTUM.     Vid.  FORENTUM. 

FERETRIUS,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  derived 
fromferire,  to  strike  ;  for  persons  who  took  an 
oath  called  upon  Jupiter  to  strike  them  if  they 
swore  falsely,  as  they  struck  the  victim  which 
they  sacrificed  to  him.  Others  derived  it  from 
ferre,  because  he  was  the  giver  of  peace,  or  be- 
cause people  dedicated  (ferebant)  to  him  spoh'a 
opima. 

FERONIA,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  who  ori- 
ginally belonged  to  the  Sabines  and  Faliscans, 
and  was  introduced  by  them  amoug  the  Ro- 
mans. It  is  difficult  to  form  a  definite  notion 
of  the  nature  of  this  goddess.  Some  consider 
her  to  have  been  the  goddess  of  liberty ;  others 
look  upon  her  as  the  goddess  of  commerce  and 
traffic,  and  others,  again,  regard  her  as  a  goddess 
of  the  earth  or  the  lower  world.  Her  chief 
sanctuaries  were  at  Terracina,  and  near  Mount 
Soracte. 

FEROX,  TJRSEitTs,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  proba- 
bly flourished  between  the  tune  of  Tiberius  and 
Vespasian. 

FERRATUS  MONS  (now  Jcbel-Jurjurah),  one  of 
the  principal  mountain-chains  iu  the  Lesser 
Atlas  system,  in  North  Africa,  on  the  borders 
of  Mauretama  Caasariensis  and  Mauretania  Si- 
tifensis. 

FESCENNIUM  or  FESCENNIA  (Fescennlnus),  a 
town  of  the  Falisci  in  Etruria,  and  consequently, 
like  Falerii,  of  Pelasgic  origin.  Vid.  FALEQII 
From  this  town  the  Romans  are  said  to  have 
derived  the  Fescennine  songs.  The  site  of 
the  town  is  uncertain ;  it  may  perhaps  be  placed 
at  8.  Silvesto.  Many  writers  place  it  at  Civita 
Castellana,  but  this  was  the  site  of  Falerii. 

FESTUS,  SEXT.  POMPETOS,  a  Roman  gramma- 
rian, probably  lived  in  the  fourth  century  of  our 
era.  His  name  is  attached  to  a  dictionary  or 
glossary  of  Latin  words  and  phrases,  divided 
into  twenty  books,  and  commonly  called  Sfxti 
Pompeii  Festi  de  Verborum  Significations.  It  was 
abridged  by  Festus  from  a  work  with  the  same 
title  by  M.  Verrius  Flaccus,  a  celebrated  gram- 
marian in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  Festus  made 


FESTUS,  PORCIUS. 


FIRMICUS   MATERNUS,  JULIUS. 


a  lew  alterations  and  criticisms  of  his  own, 
and  inserted  numerous  extracts  from  other 
writings  of  Verrius,  but  altogether  omitted 
those  words  which  had  fallen  into  disuse,  in- 
tending to  make  these  the  subject  of  a  separate 
volume.  Toward  the  end  of  the  eighth  century, 
Paul,  son  of  Waraefrid,  better  known  as  Paulus 
Diaconus,  from  having  officiated  as  a  deacon  of 
the  church  at  Aquileia,  abridged  the  abridgment 
of  Festus.  The  original  work  of  Verrius  Flac- 
cus  has  perished  with  the  exception  of  one  or 
two  inconsiderable  fragments.  Of  the  abstract 
by  Festus,  one  imperfect  MS.  only  has  come 
down  to  us.  The  numerous  blanks  in  this  MS. 
have  been  ingeniously  filled  up  by  Scaliger  and 
Ursiaus,  partly  from  conjecture  and  partly  from 
the  corresponding  paragraphs  of  Paulus,  whose 
performance  appears  in  a  complete  form  iu 
many  MSS.  The  best  editioa  of*  Festus  is  by 
K.  O.  Muller,  Lips.,  1849,  in  which  the  text 
of  Festus  is  placed  face  to  face  with  the  cor- 
responding text  of  Paulus,  so  as  to  admit  of 
easy  comparison.  The  work  is  one  of  great 
value,  containing  a  rich  treasure  of  learning 
upon  many  points  connected  with  antiquities, 
mythology,  and  grammar. 

FESTUS,  PORCIUS,  succeeded  Antonius  Felix 
as  procurator  of  Judaea  in  A.D.  62,  and  died  not 
long  after  his  appointment.  It  was  he  who  bore 
testimony  to  the  innocence  of  St  Paul,  when 
he  defended  himself  before  him  in  the  same  year. 

FIBRENUS.     Vid.  ARPINUM. 

FICANA  (Ficanensis),  one  of  the  ancient  Latin 
towns  destroyed  by  Ancus  Marcius. 

FICULEA  (Ficuleas,  -atis,  Ficolensis),  an  an- 
cient town  of  the  Sabines,  east  of  Fidenae,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  the  Aborigines,  but 
early  sunk  into  decay. 

FIDENAE,  sometimes  FIDENA  (Fidenas,  -atis : 
(noAV  Caatel  Giubileo),  an  ancient  town  in  the 
land  of  the  Sabines,  forty  stadia  (five  miles) 
northeast  of  Rome,  situated  on  a  steep  hill,  be- 
tween the  Tiber  and  the  Anio.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Alba  Longa,  and  also  to 
have  been  conquered  and  colonized  by  Romu- 
lus ;  but  the  population  appears  to  have  been 
partly  Etruscan,  and  it  was  probably  colonized 
by  the  Etruscan  Veii,  with  which  city  we  find 
it  in  close  alliance.  It  frequently  revolted  and 
was  frequently  taken  by  the  Romans.  Its  last 
revolt  was  in  B.C.  438,  and  in  the  following 
year  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans.  Subse- 
quently the  town  was  rebuilt;  but  it  ie  not 
mentioned  again  till  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
when,  in  consequence  of  the  full  of  a  temporary 
wooden  theatre  in  the  town,  twenty  thousand, 
or,  according  to  some  accounts,  fifty  thousand 
persons  lost  their  lives. 

FIDENTIA  (Fidentinus :  now  Borgo  S.  Domino), 
a  town  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  on  the  Via  ^Emilia, 
between  Parma  and  Placentia,  memorable  for 
the  victory  which  Sulla'.-  generals  gained  over 
Carbo,  B.C.  82. 

FIDES,  the  personification  of  fidelity  or  faith- 
fulness. Numa  is  said  to  have  built  a  temple 
to  Fides  publica  on  the  Capitol,  and  another 
iv:is  built  there  in  the  consulship  of  M.  ^£milius 
Scaurus,  B.C.  116.  She  was  represented  as  a 
matron  wearing  a  wreath  of  olive  or  laurel 
leaves,  and  carrying  in  her  hand  corn  ears,  or  a 
basket  with  fruit 


L  FIDIUS,  an  ancient  form  ot  filius,  occurs  ic 
I  the  connection  of  Dius  Fidius  or  Medius  Fidius 
\  that  is,  me  Dius  (&ibs)filius,  or  the  son  of  Jupi- 
'  ter,  that  is,  Hercules.  Hence  the  expression 
j  medium  fidius  is  equivalent  to  me  Hercules,  scil. 
ljuvet.  Sometimes  Fidius  is  used  alone.  Some 
of  the  ancients  connected  Julius  with  fides. 

FIGULUS,   C.  MARCIUS.       1.  Consul  B.C.  162. 
;  and  again  consul  156,  when  he  carried  on  war 
with  the  Dalmatae  in  Illyricum. — 2.  Consul  64, 
suppported  Cicero  in  his  consulship. 

FIGULCS,  P.  NiGioIus,  a  Pythagorean  philos- 
opher of  high  reputation,  who  flourished  about 
B.C.  60.  Mathematical  and  physical  investiga- 
tions appear  to  have  occupied  a  large  share  <>f 
his  attention  ;  and  such  was  his  fame  as  an  as- 
trologer, that  it  was  generally  believed,  in  lati-r 
tunes  at  least,  that  "he  had  predicted  the  future 
greatness  of  Octavianus  on  heariug  the  an- 
nouncement of  his  birth.  He,  moreover,  pos- 
sessed considerable  influence  in  political  ;if- 
fairs  ;  was  one  of  the  senators  selected  by  Cic- 
ero to  take  down  the  depositions  of  the  wit- 
nesses who  gave  evidence  with  regard  to  Cati- 
line's conspiracy,  B.C.  63 ;  was  praetor  59 ; 
took  an  active  part  in  the  civil  war  on  the  side 
of  Pompey ;  was  compelled  by  Caesar  to  live 
abroad,  and  died  in  exile  44. 

FIMBRIA,  C.  FLAVIUS.  1.  A  homo  novus,  who 
rose  to  the  highest  honors  through  his  own 
merits  and  talents.  Cicero  praises  him  both 
as  a  jurist  and  an  orator.  He  was  consul  B.C. 
104,  and  was  subsequently  accused  of  extortion 
in  his  province,  but  was  acquitted. — 2.  Probably 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  the  most  vio- 
lent partisans  of  Marius  and  Cinna  during  the 
civil  war  with  Sulla.  In  B.C.  86  he  was  sent 
into  Asia  as  legate  of  Valerius  Flaccus,  and 
took  advantage  of  the  unpopularity  of  his  com- 
mander with  the  soldiers  to  excite  a  mutiny 
against  him.  Flaccus  was  killed  at  Chalcedou, 
and  was  succeeded  in  the  command  by  Fimbria, 
who  carried  on  the  war  with  success  against 
the  generals  of  Mithradates.  In  84  Sulla  cross- 
ed over  from  Greece  into  Asia,  and,  after  con- 
cluding peace  with  Mithradates,  marched  against 
Fimbria.  The  hitter  was  deserted  by  his  troops, 
and  put  an  end  to  his  life. 

FINES,  the  name  of  a  great  number  of  places, 
either  on  the  borders  of  Roman  provinces  or 
of  different  tribes.  These  places  are  usually 
found  only  in  the  Itineraries,  and  are  not  of 
sufficient  importance  to  be  enumerated  here. 

FIRMANUS  TARUTIUS,  a  mathematician  and 
astrologer,  contemporary  with  M.  Varro  and 
Cicero.  At  Varro's  request  Firmanus  took  the 
horoscope  of  Romulus,  and  from  the  circum- 
stances of  the  life  and  death  of  the  founder  de- 
termined the  era  of  Rome. 

FIRMIANUS  SYMPOSIUS,  C^KLIUS,  of  uncertain 
age  and  country,  the  author  of  one  hundred  in- 
sipid riddles,  each  comprised  in  three  hexame- 
ter lines,  collected,  as  we  are  told  in  the  pro- 
logue, for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  festivi- 
ties of  the  Saturnalia.  Printed  in  the  Poet.  Lot. 
Min,  of  Wensdorf,  vol.  vi. 

FIRMICUS  MATEBNUS,  JULIUS,  or  perhaps  Vir.- 
LIUS,  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  Matheseo* 
Libri  VIII*,  which  is  a  formal  introduction  to 
judicial  astrology,  according  to  the  discipline 
of  the  Egyptians  and  Babylonians.  The  writer 
307 


FJRMUM. 

In  ed  in  the  time  of  Constautine  the  Great,  and 
had  during  a  portion  of  his  life  practiced  as  a 
forensic  pleader.  There  is  also  ascribed  to  this 
Firinicus  Maternus  a  work  in  favor  of  Christian- 
ity, entitled  De  Errore  Profanarum  Religionum 
ad  Constantium  et  Constantem.  Tliis  work  was, 
however,  probably  written  by  a  different  per- 
son of  the  same  name,  since  the  author  of  the 
work  on  astrology  was  a  pagan. 

FIEUUU  (FirmSnus :  now  Fermo),  a  town  in 
Picenum,  three  miles  from  the  coast,  and  south 
of  the  River  Tinna,  colonized  by  the  Romans 
at  the  beginning  of  the  first  Punic  war.  On  the 
coast  was  its  strongly  fortified  harbor,  CASTEL- 
UJM  1  'HIM  AMM  or  FIRMANOEUM  (now  Porto  di 
Fcrmo.) 

FIRMUS,  M.,  a  native  of  Seleucia,  the  friend 
and  ally  of  Zenobia,  seized  upon  Alexandrea, 
and  proclaimed  himself  emperor,  but  was  de- 
feated and  slaiu  by  Aurelian,  A.D.  273. 

FLACOUS,  CALPUBNIUS.  a  rhetorician  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  whose  fifty-one  declamations 
are  frequently  printed  with  those  of  Quintiliun. 

FLACCUS,  FULVIUS.  1.  M,  consul  with  A  pp. 
Claudius  Caudex,  BC.  264,  in  which  year  the 
first  Punic  war  broke  out. — 2.  Q.,  son  of  No. 
1,  consul  237,  fought  against  the  Ligurians  in 
Italy.  In  224  he  was  consul  a  second  time, 
and  conquered  the  Gauls  and  Insubrians  in  the 
north  of  Italy.  In  215  he  was  praetor,  after 
having  been  twice  consul ;  and  in  the  following 
year  (.214)  he  was  re-elected  praetor.  In  213 
he  was  consul  for  the  third  time,  and  carried 
on  the  war  in  Campania  against  the  Carthagin- 
ians. He  and  his  colleague,  Appius  Claudius 
Pulcher,  took  Hanno's  camp  by  storm,  and  then 
laid  siege  to  Capua,  which  they  took  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  (212).  In  209  he  was  consul  for 
the  fourth  time,  and  continued  the  war  against 
the  Carthaginians  in  the  south  of  Italy. — 3.  CN, 
brother  of  No.  2,  was  proa  tor  212,  and  had  Apu- 
lia for  his  province :  he  was  defeated  by  Han- 
nibal near  Herdonea.  In  consequence  of  his 
cowardice  in  this  battle  he  was  accused  before 
the  people,  and  went  into  voluntary  exile  before 
the  trial. — 4.  Q.,  son  of  No.  2,  was  praetor  182, 
and  carried  on  war  in  Spain  against  the  Celti- 
berians,  whom  he  defeated  in  several  battles. 
He  was  consul  179  with  his  brother  L.  Manlius 
Acidinus  Fulvianus,  who  had  been  adopted  by 
Manlius  Acidiuus.  In  his  consulship  he  de- 
feated the  Ligurians.  In  174  he  was  censor 
with  A.  Postumius  Albinus.  Shortly  afterward 
he  became  deranged,  and  hung  himself  in  his 
bed-chamber. — 5.  M.,  nephew  of  No.  4,  and  a 
friend  of  the  Gracchi,  was  consul  125,  when  he 
subdued  the  Transalpine  Ligurians.  He  was 
one  of  the  triumvirs  for  carrying  into  execution 
the  agrarian  law  of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  and  was 
slain  together  with  C.  Gracchus  in  121.  He 
was  a  man  of  bold  and  determined  character, 
and  was  more  ready  to  have  recourse  to  vio- 
lence and  open  force  than  C.  Gracchus. — 6.  Q., 
prjetor  in  Sardinia  187,  and  consul  180. — 7. 
SEE,  consul  135,  subdued  the  Vardaeans  in  Illyr- 
icum. 

FLACCUS,  GRANIUS,  a  contemporary  of  Julius 
Caesar,  wrote  a  book,  De  Jure  Papiriano,  which 
was  a  collection  of  the  laws  of  the  ancient  kings 
of  Rome,  made  by  Papirius.  Vid.  PAPIRIUS. 

FLACCCS,  HORATIUS.     Vid.  HORATIUS 
308 


FLACCUS. 

FLACCUS,  HOEDEONIUS,  consular  legate  of  Uf 
per  Germany  at  Nero's  death,  A.D.  68.  He  wat 
secretly  attached  to  the  cause  of  Vespasian,  for 
which  reason  he  made  no  effectual  attempt  to 
put  down  the  insurrection  of  Civilis.  Vid.  Civi- 
LIS.  His  tiwps,  who  were  in  favor  of  Vitelli 
us,  compelled  him  to  give  up  the  command  to 
VOCULA,  and  shortly  afterward  put  him  to  death. 

FLACCUS,  C.  NOEBANUS,  a  general  of  Octavi- 
anus  and  Antony  in  the  campaign  ngaiust  Bru- 
tus and  Cassius,  B.C.  42.  He  was  consul  in  38. 

FLACCUS,  PEESIUS.     Vid.  PEBSIUS. 

FLACCUS  SICULUS,  an  agrimensor  by  profes- 
sion, probably  lived  about  the  reign  of  Nerva. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  entitled  De  Conditionibut 
Agrorum,  of  which  the  commencement  is  pre- 
served in  the  collection  of  Agrimensores.  Vid. 
FEONTINUS. 

FLACCUS,  VALERIUS.  1.  L.,  curule  aedile  B.C. 
201,  praetor  200,  and  consul  195,  with  M.  Porci- 
us  Cato.  In  his  consulship,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  he  carried  on  war,  with  great  success, 
against  the  Gauls  in  the  north  of  Italy.  In  184 
he  was  the  colleague  of  M.  Cato  in  the  censor- 
ship, and  in  the  same  year  was  made  princeps 
senatus.  He  died  180. — 2.  L.,  consul  131,  with 
P.  Licinius  Crassus. — 3.  L.,  consul  100,  with 
C.  Marius,  when  he  took  an  active  part  in  put- 
ting down  the  insurrection  of  Saturninus.  In 
97  he  was  censor  with  M.  Antonius,  the  orator. 
In  86  he  was  chosen  consul  in  place  of  Marius, 
who  had  died  in  his  seventh  consulship,  and 
was  sent  by  Ciuna  into  Asia  to  oppose  Sulla, 
and  to  bring  the  war  against  Mithradates  to  a 
close.  The  avarice  and  severity  of  Flaccus 
made  him  unpopular  with  the  soldiers,  who  at 
length  rose  in  mutiny  at  the  instigation  of  Fim- 
bria.  Flaccus  was  then  put  to  death  by  order 
of  Fimbria.  Vid.  FIMBEIA. — 4.  L.,  the  interrex, 
who- proposed  that  Sulla  should  be  made  dicta 
tor,  82,  and  who  was  afterward  made  by  Sulla 
his  magister  equitum. — 5.  C.,  praetor  98,  consul 
93,  and  afterward  proconsul  in  Spain. — 6.  L., 
praetor  63,  and  afterward  propraetor  in  Asia, 
where  he  was  succeeded  by  Q.  Cicero.  In  59 
he  was  accused  by  D.  Laelius  of  extortion  in 
Asia ;  but,  though  undoubtedly  guilty,  he  was 
defended  by  Cicero  (in  the  oration  pro  Flacco, 
which  is  still  extant)  and  Q.  Hortensius,  and 
was  acquitted. — 7.  C.,  a  poet,  was  a  native  of 
Padua,  and  lived  in  the  time  of  Vespasian.  He 
is  the  author  of  the  Argonautica,  an  unfinished 
heroic  poem  in  eight  books,  on  the  Argonautic 
expedition,  in  which  he  follows  the  general  plan 
and  arrangement  of  Apollonius  Rhodius.  The 
eighth  book  terminates  abruptly  at  the  point 
where  Medea  is  urging  Jason  to  make  her  the 
companion  of  his  homeward  journey.  Flaccus 
is  only  a  second-rate  poet.  His  diction  is  pure ; 
his  general  style  is  free  from  affectation ;  his 
versification  is  polished  and  harmonious ;  his 
descriptions  are  lively  and  vigorous ;  but  he  dis- 
plays no  originality,  nor  any  of  the  higher  attri- 
butes of  genius.  Editions  by  Burmannus,  Leid., 
1724;  by  Harles,  Altenb,  1781  ;  and  by  Wag- 
ner, Getting.,  1805. 

FLACCUS,  VEBRIUS,  a  freedman  by  birth,  and  a 
distinguished  grammarian  in  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, who  intrusted  him  with  the  education 
of  his  grandsons  Caius  and  Lucius  Caesar.  He 
died  at  an  advanced  age,  in  the  reign  of  Tibe- 


FLAMININUS,   QUINTIUS. 

rius.  At  the  lower  eud  of  the  market-place  at 
Praeneste  was  a  statue  of  Verrius  Flaccus,  front- 
ing the  Hemicyclium,  ou  the  inner  curve  of 
which  were  set  up  marble  tablets,  inscribed 
•with  the  Fasti  Verriaui.  These  Fasti  were  a 
calendar  of  the  days  and  vacations  of  public 
business — dies  fasti,  nefasti,  and  intercisi — of 
religious  festivals,  triumphs,  <fcc.,  especially  in- 
cluding such  as  were  peculiar  to  the  family  of 
the  Caesars.  In  1770  the  foundations  of  the 
Hemicyclium  of  Prseneste  were  discovered,  and 
among  the  ruins  were  found  fragments  of  the 
Fasti  Verriani.  They  are  given  at  the  end  of 
Wolfs  edition  of  Suetonius,  Lips.,  1802.  Flac- 
cus wrote  numerous  works  on  philology,  history, 
and  archaeology.  Of  these  the  most  celebrated 
was  his  work  De  Verbomm  Significalione,  which 
was  abridged  by  Festus.  Vid.  FESTUS. 

FLAMININUS,  QUINTIUS.  1.  T.,  a  distinguish- 
ed general,  was  consul  B.C.  19S,  and  had  the 
conduct  of  the  war  agaJnst  Philip  of  Macedonia, 
which  he  carried  on  with  ability  and  success. 
He  pretended  to  have  come  to  Greece  to  liberate 
the  country  from  the  Macedonian  yoke,  and  thus 
induced  the  Achaean  league,  and  many  of  the 
other  Greek  states,  to  give  him  their  support 
The  war  was  brought  to  a  close  in  197,  by  the 
defeat  of  Philip  by  Flamininus,  at  the  battle  of 
Cyuoscephalae  in  Thessaly ;  and  peace  was 
shortly  afterward  concluded  with  Philip.  Fla- 
mininus continued  in  Greece  for  the  next  three 
years,  in  order  to  settle  the  affairs  of  the  coun- 
try. At  the  celebration  of  the  Isthmian  games 
at  Corinth  in  196,  he  caused  a  herald  to  pro- 
claim, in  the  name  of  the  Roman  senate,  the 
freedom  and  independence  of  Greece.  In  195 
he  made  war  against  Nabis,  tyrant  of  Sparta, 
whom  he  soon  compelled  to  submit  to  the  Ro- 
mans ;  and  in  194  he  returned  to  Rome,  having 
won  the  affections  of  the  Greeks  by  his  prudent 
and  conciliating  conduct  In  192  he  was  again 
sent  to  Greece  as  ambassador,  and  remained 
there  till  190,  exercising  a  sort  of  protectorate 
over  the  country.  In  183  he  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  Prusias  of  Bithyuia,  in  order  to  de- 
mand the  surrender  of  Hannibal.  He  died 
about  174. — 2.  L.,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
curule  zedile  200,  praetor  199,  and  afterward 
served  under  his  brother  as  legate  in  the  war 
against  Macedonia.  He  was  consul  in  192.  and 
received  Gaul  as  his  province,  where  he  behav- 
ed with  the  greatest  barbarity.  On  one  occa- 
sion he  killed  a  chief  of  the  Boii  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  his  camp,  in  order  to  afford  amusement 
to  a  profligate  favorite.  For  this  and  similar 
acts  of  cruelty  he  was  expelled  from  the  senate 
in  184  by  M.  Cato,  who  was  then  censor.  He 
died  in  170. — 8.  T,  consul  150,  with  M'.  Acilius 
Balbus. — 4.  T.,  consul  123,  with  Q.  Metellus 
Balearicua.  Cicero  says  that  he  spoke  Latin 
with  elegance,  but  that  he  was  an  illiterate  man. 

FLAMINIUS.  1.  C.,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  232,  in  which  year,  notwithstanding  the 
violent  opposition  of  the  senate,  he  carried  on 
agrarian  law,  ordaining  that  the  Ager  Gallicus 
Piceniu,  which  had  recently  been  conquered, 
should  be  distributed  among  the  plebeians.  In 
2-1.  in  which  year  four  praetors  were  appointed 
f"r  tin-  fir^t  time,  he  was  one  of  them,  and  re- 
ceived Sicily  for  his  province,  where  be  earned 
the  good  will  of  the  provincials  by  his  integrity 


fLOUA. 

and  justice.  In  223  he  was  consul,  and  march- 
ed against  the  Insubrian  Gauls.  As  the  senate 
were  anxious  to  deprive  Flamiuius  of  his  office, 
they  declared  that  the  consular  election  was 
not  valid  on  account  of  uome  fault  in  the  auspi- 
ces, and  sent  a  letter  to  the  consuls,  with  order* 
to  return  to  Rome.  But  as  all  preparations  had 
been  made  for  a  battle  against  the  Insubriaus, 
the  letter  was  left  unopened  until  the  battle 
was  gained.  In  220  he  was  censor,  and  exe- 
cuted two  great  works,  which  bore  his  name, 
viz.,  the  Circus  Flaminius  and  the  Via  Flaminia. 
In  217  he  was  consul  a  second  time,  and  march- 
ed against  Hannibal,  but  was  defeated  by  the 
latter  at  the  fatal  battle  of  the  Trasimene  Lake, 
on  the  twenty-third  of  June,  in  which  he  perish- 
ed with  the  greater  part  of  his  army. — 2.  Q.,  son 
of  No.  1,  was  quaestor  of  Scipio  Africanus  in 
Spain,  210;  curule  aedile  196,  when  he  distrib- 
uted among  the  people  a  large  quantity  of  grain 
at  a  low  price,  which  was  furnibhed  him  by  the 
Sicilians  as  a  mark  of  gratitude  toward  his  fa- 
ther and  himself;  was  praetor  193,  and  obtained 
Hispania  Citerior  as  his  province,  where  he 
carried  on  the  war  with  success ;  and  was  con- 
sul 185,  when  he  defeated  the  Ligurians. 

FLANATICUS  or  FLANONICUS  SINUS  (now  Gulf 
of  Qiiarnaro),  a  bay  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  on  the 
coast  of  Liburuia,  named  after  the  people  FLA- 
NATES  and  their  town  FLANONA  (now  Fianona). 

FLAVIA,  a  surname  given  to  several  towns  in 
the  Roman  empire  in  honor  of  the  Flavian 
family. 

FLA  VIA  GENS,  celebrated  as  the  house  to  which 
the  Emperor  Vespasian  belonged.  During  the 
later  period  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  name 
Flavius  descended  from  one  emperor  to  anoth- 
er, Constantius,  the  father  of  Constantino  the 
Great,  being  the  first  in  the  series. 

FLAVIA  DOMITILLA,  first  wife  of  Vespasian. 

FLAVIUS,  CN.,  the  son  of  a  freedmau,  became 
secretary  to  Appius  Claudius  Caecus,  and,  in  con- 
sequence of  this  connection,  attained  distin- 
guished honors  in  the  commonwealth.  He  is 
celebrated  in  the  annals  of  Roman  law  for  hav- 
ing been  the  first  to  divulge  certain  technicali- 
ties of  procedure,  which  previously  had  been 
kept  secret  as  the  exclusive  patrimony  of  the 
pontiffs  and  the  patricians.  He  was  elected 
curule  aedile  B.C.  303,  in  spite  of  his  ignomini- 
ous birth. 

FLAVIUS  FIMBRIA.     Vid.  FMBRIA. 

FLAVIUS  JOSKPHUS.       Vid.  JOSEPHUS. 

FLAVIUS  VOPISCUS.     Vid.  VOPJSCUS. 

FLAVUS,  L.  CJKSETIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  44,  was  deposed  from  his  office  by  C.  Ju- 
lius Caesar,  because,  in  concert  with  C.  Epidius 
Marullus,  one  of  Iris  colleagues  in  the  tribunate, 
he  had  removed  the  crowns  from  the  statues 
of  the  dictator,  and  imprisoned  a  person  who 
had  saluted  Cresar  as  "  king." 

FLAVDS  or  FLAVIUS,  SUBRIUS,  tribune  in  the 
Praetorian  guards,  was  the  most  active  agent  in 
the  conspiracy  against  Nero,  A,D.  66,  which, 
from  its  most  distinguished  member,  was  called 
Piso's  conspiracy. 

FLEVO.     Vid.  RHKNDS. 

FLEVUM,  a  fortress  in  Germany  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Amisia  (now  Em*}. 

FI.KVUM,  FLEVO.     Vid,  RHENUS. 

FLORA,  the  Roman  goddess  of  flowers  a-ad 
309 


FLORENTIA. 


FORTUNA. 


•pring.  The  writers,  -whose  object  was  to  bring 
the  Roman  religion  into  contempt,  relate  that 
Floru  was  a  courtesan,  who  had  accumulated  a 
large  property,  and  bequeathed  it  to  the  Roman 
people,  in  return  for  which  she  was  honored 
with  the  annual  festival  of  the  Floralia.  But 
«i  •;  worship  was  established  at  Rome  in  the 
very  earliest  times,  for  a  temple  is  said  to  have 
been  vowed  to  her  by  King  Tatius,  and  Numa 
appointed  a  flarnen  to  her.  The  resemblance 
between  the  names  of  Flora  and  Chloris  led  the 
later  Romans  to  iudentify  the  two  divinities. 
Her  temple  at  Rome  was  situated  near  the 
Circus  Maximus,  and  her  festival  was  celebra- 
ted from  the  28th  of  April  till  the  1st  of  May, 
with  extravagant  merriment  and  lasciviousness. 
Vid,  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art  FLOEAUA. 

FLOEENTIA  (Florentlnus).  1.  (Now  Firenze, 
Florence),  a  town  in  Etruria,  on  the  Arnus,  was 
:i  Roman  colony,  and  was  probably  founded  by 
the  Romans  during  their  wars  with  the  Ligun- 
aus.  In  the  time  of  Sulla  it  was  a  flourishing 
municipium,  but  its  greatness  as  a  city  dates 
from  the  Middle  Ages. — 2.  (Now  Fiorenzuola),  a 
town  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  on  the  ./Emilia  Via,  be- 
tween Placentia  and  Parma, 

FLORE.NTINUS,  a  jurist,  one  of  the  council  of 
the  Emperor  Severus  Alexander,  wrote  Institu- 
tiones  in  twelve  books,  which  are  quoted  in  the 
Corpus  Juris. 

FLOEIANUS,  M,  ANNIUS,  the  brother,  by  a  dif- 
ferent father,  of  the  Emperor  Tacitus,  upon 
whose  decease  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  at 
Rome,  A.D.  276.  He  was  murdered  by  his 
own  troops  at  Tarsus,  after  a  reign  of  about 
two  months,  while  on  his  march  against  Probus, 
who  had  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  le- 
gions in  Syria, 

FLORUS,  ANNIUS.  1.  L.,  a  Roman  historian, 
lived  under  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  and  wrote  a 
summary  of  Roman  history,  divided  into  four 
books,  extending  from  the  foundation  of  the 
city  to  the  establishment  of  the  empire  under 
Augustus,  entitled  Rerum  Romanarum  Librl  IV., 
or  Epitome  Gestis  Romanorum,  This  com- 
pendium presents  within  a  very  moderate  com- 
pass a  striking  view  of  the  leading  events  com- 
prehended by  the  above  limits.  It  is  written 
m  a  declamatory  style,  and  the  sentiments  fre- 
quently assume  the  form  of  tumid  conceits  ex- 
pressed in  violent  metaphors.  The  best  edi- 
tions are  by  Duker,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1722,  1744,  re- 
printed Lips.,  1832  ;  by  Titze,  Prag.,  1819  ;  and 
by  Seebode,  Lips.,  1821. — 2.  A  Roman  poet  in 
the  time  of  Hadrian. 

FLOEUS,  GESSIUS,  a  native  of  Clazomenae,  suc- 
ceeded Albinus  as  procurator  of  Judaea,  A.D.  64- 
65.  His  cruel  and  oppressive  government  was 
the  main  cause  of  the  rebellion  of  the  Jews.  He 
is  sometimes  called  Festus  and  Cestius  Floras. 

FLORUS,  JULIUS,  addressed  by  Horace  in  two 
epistles  (i,  3 ;  ii.,  2),  was  attached  to  the  suite 
of  Claudius  Tiberius  Nero  when  the  latter  was 
dispatched  by  Augustus  to  place  Tigranes  upon 
the  throne  of  Armenia.  He  was  both  a  poet 
and  an  orator. 

FOCA  or  PHOCAS,  a  Latin  grammarian,  author 
of  a  dull,  foolish  life  of  Virgil  in  hexameter 
Terse,  of  which  one  hundred  and  nineteen  lines 
are  preserved.  Printed  in  the  Anthol.  Lat.  of 
Burmann  and  Wernsdorf. 
310 


FCKNICULABIUS  CAMPUS,  i.  e.,  the  Fennel 
Fields,  a  plain  covered  with  Feunel,  near  Tar- 
raco,  in  Spain. 

FONTEIUS  M.,  governed  us  proprietor  Nar 
bounesse  Gaul,  between  B.C.  76-73,  and  was 
accused  of  extortion  in  his  province  bv  M.  Pla> 
torius  in  69.  He  was  defended  by  Cicero  in  an 
oration  (pro  M.  Fontcio),  part  of  w'hich  is  extant, 

FONTEIUS  CAPITO.     Via.  CAPITO. 

FONTUS,  a  Roman  divinity,  son  of  Janus,  had 
an  altar  on  the  Janiculus,  which  derived  itt 
name  from  his  father,  and  on  which  Numa  was 
believed  to  be  buried.  The  name  of  this  di- 
vinity  is  connected  with  fons,  a  fountain ;  an<? 
he  was  the  personification  of  the  flowing  waters 
On  the  13th  of  October  the  Romans  celebrated 
the  festival  of  the  fountains  called  Fontinalia, 
at  which  the  fountains  were  adorned  with  gar 
lands. 

FOEENTUM  or  FEEENTUM  (Forentanus:  now 
Forenza),  a  town  in  Apulia,  surrounded  by  fer 
tile  fields  and  in  a  low  situation,  according  tc 
Horace  (arvum  pingue  humilis  Forenti,  Carm. 
iiL,  4,  16).  Livy  (ix,  20)  describes  it  as  a  for- 
tified place,  which  was  taken  by  C.  Junius  Bu 
bulcus,  B.C.  317.  The  modern  town  lies  on  a 
hill. 

FORMIC  (Formianus :  ruins  near  Mola  di 
Gaeta),  a  town  in  Latium,  on  the  Appia  Via,  in 
the  innermost  corner  of  the  beautiful  Sinus 
Caietanus  (now  Gulf  of  Gaeta).  It  was  a  very 
ancienf  town,  founded  by  the  Pelasgic  Tyrrhe- 
nians ;  and  it  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
head-quarters  of  the  Tyrrhenian  pirates,  whence 
later  poets  supposed  the  city  of  Lamus,  inhab- 
ited by  the  Laestrygones,  of  which  Homer  speaks 
(Od^  x.,  81),  to  be  the  same  as  Formue.  For- 
miae  became  a  muuicipium  and  received  the 
Roman  franchise  at  an  early  period  The  beau- 
ty of  the  surrounding  country  induced  many  of 
the  Roman  nobles  to  build  villas  at  this  spot : 
of  these  the  best  known  is  the  Formianum  of 
Cicero,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  he  was 
killed.  The  remains  of  Cicero's  villa  are  still 
to  be  seen  at  the  Villa  Marsana,  near  Castigli- 
one.  The  hills  of  Formiae  produced  good  wine 
(Hor,  (7am,  i.,  20). 

FOKMIO  (now  Formione,  Rusano),  a  small  riv 
er,  forming  the  northern  boundary  of  Istria. 

FOBNAX,  a  Roman  goddess,  said  to  have  been 
worshipped  that  she  might  ripen  the  corn,  and 
prevent  its  being  burned  in  baking  in  the  oven 
(fornax).  Her  festival,  the  Fornacalia,  was  an- 
nounced by  the  curio  maximus. 

FOETUNA  (Tvxri),  the  goddess  of  fortune,  was 
worshipped  both  in  Greece  and  Italy.  Hesiod 
describes  her  as  a  daughter  of  Oceanus ;  Pindar 
in  one  place  calls  her  a  daughter  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  the  Liberator,  and  in  another  place  one 
of  the  Moerje  or  Fates.  She  was  represented 
with  different  attributes.  With  a  rudder,  she 
was  conceived  as  the  divinity  guiding  and  con- 
ducting the  affairs  of  the  world ;  with  a  ball, 
she  represents  the  varying  unsteadiness  of  for- 
tune; with  Plutos  or  the  horn  of  Amalthea, 
she  was  the  symbol  of  the  plentiful  gifts  of  for- 
tune. She  was  worshipped  in  most  cities  in 
Greece.  Her  statue  at  Smyrna  held  with  one 
hand  a  globe  on  her  head,  and  in  the  other  car 
ried  the  horn  of  Amalthea.  Fortuna  was  still 
more  worshipped  by  the  Romans  than  by  tha 


PORTUKAT^E. 

Greeks.  Her  worship  is  traced  to  the  reigns  of 
Aneus  Marcius  and  Servius  Tullius,  and  the  latter 
is  said  to  have  built  two  temples  to  her,  the  one 
in  the  forum  boarium,  and  the  other  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tiber.  The  Romans  mention  her  with  a 
variety  of  surnames  and  epithets,  as  publica,  pri- 
vate^ muliebris  (said  to  have  originated  at  the 
time  when  Coriolanus  was  prevented  by  the  en- 
treaties of  the  women  from  destroying  Rome), 
reglna,  conservatrix,  primigenia,  virilis,  &c. 
Fortuna  Virgiuensis  was  worshipped  by  newly- 
married  women,  who  dedicated  their  maiden 
garments  aud  girdle  in  her  temple.  Fortuna  Vi- 
rilis was  worshipped  by  women,  who  prayed  to 
her  that  she  might  preserve  their  charms,  and 
thus  enable  them  to  please  their  husbands.  Her 
surnames,  in  general,  express  either  particular 
kinds  of  good  fortune,  or  the  persons  or  classes 
of  persons  to  whom  she  granted  it  Her  worship 
was  of  great  importance  also  at  Antium  aud  Pree- 
neste,  where  her  sortes  or  oracles  were  very  cel- 
ebrated. 

FORTUNATE  or  -oncM  IXSUL^E  (al  TUV  fj.aitu.puv 
vf/aot,  i.  e.,  the  Islands  of  the  Blessed).  The 
early  Greeks,  as  we  learn  from  Homer,  placed 
the  Elvsian  fields,  into  which  favored  heroes 
passed  without  dying,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
earth,  near  the  River  Oceanus.  Vid.  ELYSIUM. 
In  poems  later  than  Homer,  an  island  is  clearly 
spoken  of  as  their  abode ;  and  though  its  position 
was  of  course  indefinite,  both  the  poets,  and  the 
geographers  who  followed  them,  placed  it  beyond 
the  Filial  s  of  Hercules.  Hence  when,  just  after 
the  time  of  the  Marian  civil  wars,  certain  islands 
were  discovered  in  the  ocean,  off  the  western 
coast  of  Africa,  the  name  of  Fortunatae  Insulae 
was  applied  to  them.  As  to  the  names  of 
the  individual  islands,  and  the  exact  identifi- 
cation of  them  by  their  modern  names,  there 
are  difficulties ;  but  it  may  be  safely  said,  gen- 
erally, that  the  Fortuuatse  Insulae  of  Pliny,  i'to- 
lemy,  and  others  are  the  Canary  Islands,  and 
probably  the  Madeira  group;  the  latter  being, 
perhaps,  those  called  by  Pliny  (after  Juba)  Pur- 
purariai. 

FORTUNATIANUS,  AriLius,  a  Latin  grammarian, 
author  of  a  treatise  (Ars)  upon  prosody,  and  the 
metres  of  Horace,  printed  in  the  collection  of 
PuUchius. 

FOKTUXATIANUS,  CuRius  or  CfliRius,  a  Roman 
lawyer,  flourished  about  A.D.  450.  He  is  the 
autht  >r  of  a  compendium  of  technical  rhetoric,  in 
three  books,  under  the  title  Curii  Fortunatiani 
Consult*  Artis  Rhetoricce  Scholicte  Libri  tres, 
which  at  one  period  was  held  in  high  esteem  as  a 
manual.  Printed  in  the  Rhctores  Latini  Antiqui 
of  Pithou,  Paris,  1599. 

[FoRfu  (now  JRocca  dl  Cerno),  a  village  of 
the  Sabines,  at  the  point  of  passage  over  the  Ap- 
ennines.] 

Foauu,  ac  open  space  of  ground,  in  which 
the  people  met  for  the  transaction  of  any  kind 
of  business.  At  Rome  the  number  of  fora  in- 
creased with  the  growth  of  the  city.  They 
w^re  level  pieces  of  ground  of  an  oblong  form, 
and  were  surrounded  by  buildings,  both  private 
ami  public.  They  were  divided  into  two  class- 
es: fora,  civilia,  in  which  justice  was  adminis- 
tered aud  public  business  transacted,  and  fora 
venalia,  in  which  provisions  and  other  things 
Were  sold,  and  which  were  distinguished  as  the 


FORUM. 

j  forum  boariwn,  olitoriuni,  suarium,  piscariian, 
\  <tc.  The  principal  fora  at  Rome  were,  1.  Fo 
I  RUM  ROMAXUM,  also  called  simply  the  forum, 
!  aud  at  a  later  time  distinguished  by  the  epithets 
I  vetus  or  magnum.  It  is  usually  described  as 
lying  between  the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  hills ; 
but,  to  speak  more  correctly,  it  lay  between  the 
Capitoline  and  the  Velian  ridge,  which  was  a 
hill  opposite  the  Palatine.  It  ran  lengthwise 
from  the  foot  of  the  Capitol  or  the  arch  of  Sep-« 
timius  Severus  in  the  direction  of  the  arch  of 
Titus ;  but  it  did  not  extend  so  far  as  the  latter, 
aud  came  to  an  end  at  the  commencement  of 
the  ascent  to  the  Velian  ridge,  where  was  the 
temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina.  Its  shape 
was  that  of  an  irregular  quadrangle,  of  which 
the  two  longer  sides  were  not  parallel,  but  were 
much  wider  near  the  Capitol  than  at  the  other 
end.  Its  length  was  six  hundred  and  thirty 
French  feet,  and  its  breadth  varied  from  one 
hundred  and  ninety  to  one  hundred  feet,  an  ex- 
tent undoubtedly  small  for  the  greatness  of 
Rome ;  but  it  must  be  recollected  that  the  lim- 
its of  the  forum  were  fixed  in  the  early  days 
of  Rome,  and  never  underwent  any  alteratiou. 
The  origin  of  the  forum  is  ascribed  to  Romulus 
and  Tatius,  who  are  said  to  have  filled  up  the 
swamp  or  marsh  which  occupied  its  site,  and  to 
have  set  it  apart  as  a  place  for  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  and  for  holding  the  assemblies  of 
the  people.  The  forum,  in  its  widest  sense,  in- 
cluded the  forum  properly  so  called,  and  the 
Comitium.  The  Comitium  occupied  the  nar- 
row or  upper  end  of  the  forutn,  and  was  the 
place  where  the  patricians  met  in  their  comitia 
curiata:  the  forum,  in  its  narrower  sense,  waa 
originally  only  a  market-place,  and  was  not  used 
for  any  political  purpose.  At  a  later  time,  the 
forum,  in  its  narrower  sense,  was  the  place  of 
meeting  for  the  plebeians  in  their  comitia  tri- 
buta,  and  was  separated  from  the  comitium  by 
the  Rostra  or  platform,  from  which  the  orators 
addressed  the  people.  Th'j  most  important  of 
the  public  buildings  which  surrounded  the  forum 
in  early  times  was  the  Curia  Hostilia,  the  place 
of  meeting  of  the  senate,  which  was  said  to  have 
been  erected  by  Tullus  Hostilius.  It  stood  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  Comitium.  In  the  time 
of  Tarquin  the  forum  was  surrounded  by  a  range 
of  shops,  probably  of  a  mean  character,  but  they 
gradually  underwent  a  change,  and  were  event- 
ually occupied  by  bankers  and  money-changers. 
The  shops  on  the  northern  side  underwent  this 
change  first,  whence  they  were  called  Novce  or 
Argentarioe  Tabernce;  while  the  shops  on  th« 
southern  side,  though  they  subsequently  ex- 
perienced the  same  change,  were  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  Vcteret  Taberna.  As  Rome 
grew  in  greatness,  the  forum  was  adorned  with 
statues  of  celebrated  men,  with  temples  and 
basilicoe,  and  with  other  public  buildings.  The 
aite  of  the  ancient  forum  is  occupied  by  the 
Campo  Vaccino. — 2.  FORUM  JULIUM  or  FORUM 
C^ESARIS,  was  built  by  Julius  Caesar  because 
the  old  forum  was  found  too  small  for  the  trans- 
action of  public  business.  It  was  close  by  the 
old  forunv  behind  the  church  of  St  Martina. 
Caesar  built  here  a  magnificent  temple  of  Venus 
Oenitrix. — 8.  FORUM  AUGUSTI,  built  by  Augus- 
tus because  the  two  existing  fora  were  not 
found  sufficient  for  the  great  increase  of  busi 

811 


FORUM. 

aesa  which  had  taken  place.  It  stood  behiud 
the  Forum  Julium,  and  its  entrance  at  the  other 
end  was  by  an  nrch,  now  called  Area  de  Pantani. 
Augustus  adorned  it  with  a  temple  of  Mars  II- 
tor,  and  with  the  statues  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  of  the  republic.  This  forum  was  used  for 
causa  publicce  and  sortitionet  judicum, — 4.  FORUM 
NERV^E  or  FORUM  TRANSITORIUM,  was  a  small 
forum  lying  between  the  Temple  of  Peace  and 
the  fora  of  Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus.  The 
Temple  of  Peace  was  built  by  Vespasian ;  and 
:is  there  were  private  buildings  between  it  and 
the  fora  of  Caesar  and  Augustus,  Domitian  re- 
solved to  pull  down  those  buildings,  and  thus 
form  a  fourth  forum,  which  was  not,  however, 
intended,  like  the  other  three,  for  the  transaction 
of  public  business,  but  simply  to  serve  as  a 
passage  from  the  Temple  of  Peace  to  the  fora 
of  Caesar  and  Augustus:  hence  its  name  Trans- 
itoriuin.  The  plan  was  carried  into  execution 
by  Nerva,  whence  the  forum  is  also  called  by 
the  name  of  this  emperor. — 5.  FORUM  TRAJAM, 
built  by  the  Emperor  Trajan,  who  employed  the 
architect  Apollodorus  for  the  purpose.  "  It  lay 
between  the  forum  of  Augustus  and  the  Campus 
Marti  us.  It  was  the  most  splendid  of  all  the 
fora,  and  considerable  remains  of  it  are  still 
extant  Here  were  the  Basilica  Ulpia  and 
Bibliotheca  Ulpia,  the  celebrated  Cohtmna  Tra- 
jani,  an  equestrian  statue  and  a  triumphal  arch 
of  Trajan,  and  a  temple  of  Trajan  built  by  Ha- 
drian. 

FORUM,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  various 
parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  which  were  origin- 
ally simply  markets  or  places  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice.  1.  ALIENI  (now  Ferrara?), 
in  Cisalpine  GauL— 2.  APPII  (ruins  near  S.  Do- 
nato),  in  Latium,  on  the  Appia  Via,  in  the  midst 
of  the  Pomptine  marshes,  forty-three  miles 
southeast  of  Rome,  founded  by  the  censor  Ap- 

B'us  Claudius  when  he  made  the  Appia  Via. 
ere  the  Christians  from  Rome  met  the  Apos- 
tle Paul  (Acts,  xxviii,  15). — 3.  AMELII  or  AME- 
LIUM  (now  Montalto),  in  Etruria,  on  the  Aurelia 
Via. — 4.  CASSJI,  in  Etruria  on  the  Cassia  Via, 
near  Viterbo. — 5.  CLODII  (now  Oriulo),  in  Etru- 
ria.— 6.  CORXELII  (now  Imola),  in  Gallia  Cispa- 
dana,  on  the  ./Emilia  Via,  between  Bononia  and 
Faventia,  a  colony  founded  by  Cornelius  Sulla. 
— 7.  FLAMIXII,  in  Umbria,  on  the  Flaminia  Via. 
— 8.  FULVII,  sin-named  VALENTI.VUM  (now  Va- 
lenzd),  in  Liguria,  on  the  Po,  on  the  road  from 
Dertona  to  Asta.— 9.  GALLORUM  (now  Castel 
Franco),  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  on  the  JSrnilia  Via, 
between  Mutina  and  Bononia,  memorable  for 
the  two  battles  fought  between  Antonius  and  the 
consuls  Pansa  and  Hirtius. — 10.  HADRIANI  (now 
Voorburg),  in  the  island  of  the  Batavi,  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  where  several  Roman  remains  have 
been  found. — 11.  JULII  or  JULIUM  (Forojuliensis : 
now  Frcjus),  a  Roman  colony  founded  by  Julius 
Caesar,  B.C.  44,  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the 
River  Argenteus  and  on  the  coast,  six  hundred 
stadia  northeast  of  Massilia.  It  possessed  a 
good  harbor,  and  was  the  usual  station  of  a  part 
of  the  Roman  fleet  It  was  the  birth-place  of 
Agricola.  At  Frejus  are  the  remains  of  a  Ro- 
man aqueduct,  circus,  arch,  &c. — 12.  JULII  or 
JULIUM  (now  Friaui),  a  fortified  town  and  a  Ro- 
man colony  in  the  country  of  the  Garni,  north- 
east of  Aquileia :  in  the  Middle  Ages  it  became 
312 


FREGEN.E. 

a  place  of  importance. — 13.  JULIUM.  Vid.  ILLI- 
TURGIS. — 14.  Livii  (now  Forli),  in  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
in  the  territory  of  the  Boii,  on  the  ^Emilia  Via, 
southwest  of  Ravenna:  here  the  Gothic  king 
Athaulf  married  Galla  Placidia. — 15.  POPILIJ 
(now  Forlimpopoli),  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  east  of 
No.  14,  and  on  the  same  road. — 16.  Poriui  (now 
Polld),  in  Lucania,  east  of  Paegtum,  on  the  Tana- 
ger  and  on  the  Popilia  Via.  On  the  wall  of  an 
inn  at  Polla  was  discovered  an  inscription  re- 
specting the  praetor  Popilius. — 17.  SEGUSIANORUM 
(now  Fturs),  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  on  the  Liger, 
and  west  of  Lugdunum,  a  town  of  the  Segusiani, 
and  a  Roman  colony  with  the  surname  Julia  Fe- 
lix.— 1 8.  SEMPRONII  (Forosemprouiensis :  now 
Fossombrone),  a  municipium  in  Umbria,  on  the 
Flamiuia  Via. — 19.  VOCONTII  (now  Vidauban, 
east  of  Canet),  a  town  of  the  Salyes  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis. 

Fosi,  a  people  of  Germany,  the  neighbors  and 
allies  of  the  Cherusci,  in  whose  fate  they  shared. 
Vid.  CHERUSCI.  It  is  supposed  that  their  name 
is  retained  in  the  River  Fuse  in  Brunswick 

FOSSA  or  FOSS.E,  a  canal.  1.  CLODIA,  a  canal 
between  the  mouth  of  the  Po  and  Altinum,  in 
the  north  of  Italy ;  there  wan  a  town  of  the  same 
name  upon  it. — 2.  CLUILIA  or  CLUILL^,  a  trench 
about  five  miles  from  Rome,  said  to  have  been 
the  ditch  with  which  the  Albau  king  Cluilius 
protected  his  camp  -when  he  marched  against 
Rome  in  the  reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius. — 3.  COB- 
BULONIS,  a  canal  in  the  island  of  the  Batavi, 
connecting  the  Maas  and  the  Rhine,  dug  by 
command  of  Corbulo  iu  the  reign  of  Claudius. 
— 4.  DRUSIAN^E  or  DRUSIN^E,  a  canal  which  Dru 
sus  caused  his  soldiers  to  dig  in  B.C.  11,  unit- 
ing the  Rhine  with  the  Yssel.  It  probably  com- 
menced near  Arnheim  on  the  Rhine,  and  fell 
into  the  Yssel  near  Doesberg. — 5.  MARIANA  or 
MARIAN. i;.  a  canal  dug  by  command  of  Marius 
during  his  war  with  the  Cimbri,  iu  order  to  con- 
nect the  Rhone  with  the  Mediterranean,  and  thus 
make  an  easier  passage  for  vessels  into  the 
Rhone,  because  the  mouths  of  the  river  were  fre- 
quently choked  up  with  Baud.  The  canal  com- 
menced near  Arelate,  but,  in  consequence  of  the 
frequent  changes  in  the  course  of  the  Rhone,  it  is 
impossible  now  to  trace  the  course  of  the  canal. 
— [6.  PHILISTINA,  also  called  Fos»iones  Philistinte 
(now  Po  Grande),  a  very  considerable  canal,  hav- 
ing seven  arms  or  cuts,  commonly  known  by  the 
name  of  Septem  Maria,  undertaken  by  the  Etru- 
rians to  drain  the  marshy  lands  about  Hadria.] 
— 7.  XERXIS.  Vid.  ATHOS, 

FRANCI,  i.  e.,  "  the  Free  men,"  a  confederacy  of 
German  tribes,  formed  on  the  Lower  Rhine  in 
the  place  of  the  ancient  league  of  the  Cherusci, 
and  consisting  of  the  Sigambri,  the  chief  tribe, 
the  Chamavi,  Ampsivarii,  Bructeri,  Chatti,  <fee. 
They  are  first  mentioned  about  AD.  240.  After 
carrying  on  frequent  wars  with  the  Romans, 
they  at  length  settled  permanently  in  Gaul,  of 
which  they  betame  the  rulers  under  their  great 
king  Clovis,  A.D.  496. 

FREGELL.<E  (Fregellanus :  now  Ceprano),  an 
ancient  and  important  town  of  the  Volsci,  on 
the  Liris  in  Latium,  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
and  colonized  B.C.  328.  It  took  part  with  the  , 
allies  in  the  Social  war,  and  was  destroyed  by 
Opimius. 

sometimes  called  FREGELLS  (no* 


FRENTANL 

Torre  Maccarese),  a  town  of  Etruria,  on  the  coast, 
between  Alsium  and  the  Tiber,  on  a  low,  swampy 
shore,  colonized  by  the  Romans  B.C.  245. 

FRE.VTANI,  a  Samnite  people,  inhabiting  a  fer- 
tile and  well-watered  territory  on  the  coast  of 
the  Adriatic,  from  the  River  Sagrus  on  the  north 
(and  subsequently  almost  as  far  north  as  from 
the  Aternus)  to  the  River  Frento  on  the  south, 
from  the  latter  of  which  rivers  they  derived 
their  name.  They  were  bounded  by  the  Mar- 
rucini  on  the  north,  by  the  Peligni  and  by  Sam- 
nium  on  tb«  west,  and  by  Apulia  on  the  south. 
They  submitted  to  the  Romans  in  B.C.  304,  and 
concluded  a  peace  with  the  republic. 

FKENTO  (now  Fortore),  a  river  in  Italy,  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  the  Frentaoi  and  Apu- 
lia, rises  in  the  Apennines  and  falls  into  the 
Adriatic  Sea. 

FRIXIATES,  a  people  in  Liguria,  probably  the 
same  as  the  Briniates,  who,  after  being  subdued 
by  the  Romans,  were  transplanted  to  Samnium. 

FRISIABOXES,  probably  a  tribe  of  the  Frisii,  in- 
habiting the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine. 

FRISII,  a  people  in  the  northwest  of  Ger- 
many, inhabited  the  coast  from  the  eastern 
mouth  of  the  Rhine  to  the  Amisia  (now  Ems), 
and  were  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Bruc- 
teri,  consequently  in  the  modern  Friesland,  Gro- 
ningen,  <fee.  1'acitus  divided  them  into  Majores 
and  Minores,  the  former  probably  in  the  east, 
and  the  latter  in  the  west  of  the  country.  The 
Frisii  were  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Romans 
from  the  time  of  the  first  campaign  of  Drusus 
till  AJ).  28,  when  the  oppressions  of  the  Ro- 
man officers  drove  them  to  revolt.  In  the  fifth 
century  we  find  them  joining  the  Saxons  and 
Angli  in  their  invasion  of  Britain. 

FRONTINUS,  SEX.  JULIUS,  was  praetor  A.D.  70, 
and  in  75  succeeded  Cerealis  as  governor  of 
Britain,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  the 
conquest  of  the  Silures,  and  maintained  the  Ro- 
man power  unbroken  until  superseded  by  Agric- 
ola,  in  78.  In  97  Frontinus  was  nominated 
curator  aqvarum.  He  died  about  106.  Two 
works  undoubtedly  by  this  author  are  still  ex- 
tant :  1.  Strattgematicon  Libri  IV.,  a  sort  of 
treatise  on  the  art  of  war,  developed  in  a  col- 
lection of  the  sayings  and  doings  of  the  most 
renowned  leaders  of  antiquity.  2.  De  Aquceduc- 
tibut  Urbi*  Romas  Libri  II.,  which  forms  a  valu- 
able contribution  to  the  history  of  architecture. 
The  best  editions  of  the  Strategematica  are  by 
Oudeudorp,  Lugd.  Bat,  1779,  and  by  Schwebel, 
Lips.,  1772 ;  of  the  De  Aquceductibus  by  Polenus, 
Patav.,  1722.  In  the  collection  of  the  Agri- 
mensoret,  or  Rei  Agrariot  Auctoret  (ed.  Goesius, 
Am-t..  1674 ;  ed.  Lachmann,  Berlin,  1848),  are 
preserved  some  treatises  usually  ascribed  to 
Sex.  Julius  Frontinu*.  The  collection  consists 
of  fragments  connected  with  the  art  of  measur- 
ing land  and  ascertaining  boundaries.  It  was 
put  together  without  skill,  pages  of  different 
works  being  mixed  up  together,  and  the  writ- 
ings of  one  author  being  sometimes  attributed 
to  another. 

FRONTO,  M.  CORXKI.H-S,  was  born  at  Cirta  in 
Numidia,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  and  came  to 
Rome  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  where  he  attain- 
ed great  celebrity  as  a  pleader  and  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  He  was  intrusted  with  the  education 
of  the  future  emperors  M.  Aurelius  and  L.  Ve- 


FULGENT1US. 

rus,  and  was  rewarded  with  wealth  and  honors, 
He  was  raised  to  the  consulship  in  143.  So 
great  was  his  fame  as  a  speaker  that  a  sect  of 
rhetoricians  arose  who  were  denominated  Fron- 
toniani.  Following  the  example  of  their  found- 
er, they  avoided  the  exaggeration  of  the  Greek 
sophistical  school,  and  bestowed  especial  care 
on  the  purity  of  their  language  and  the  simplicity 
of  their  style.  Fronto  lived  till  the  reign  of 
M.  Aurelius.  The  latest  of  his  epistles  belongs 
to  the  year  166.  Up  to  a  recent  period  no  work 
of  Fronto  was  known  to  be  in  existence,  with 
the  exception  of  a  corrupt  and  worthless  tract 
entitled  De  Differentiis  Vocabulorum,  and  a  few 
fragments  preserved  by  the  grammarians.  But 
about  the  year  1814  Angelo  Mai  discovered  on 
a  palimpsest  in  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan  a 
considerable  number  of  letters  which  had  pass- 
ed between  Fronto,  Antoninus  Pius,  M.  Aure- 
lius, L.  Verus,  and  various  friends,  together  with 
some  short  essays.  These  were  published  by 
Mai  at  Milan  in  1815,  and  in  an  improved  form 
by  Niebuhr,  Buttmann,  and  Heindorf,  Berlin, 
1816.  Subsequently  Mai  discovered,  on  a  pa- 
limpsest in  the  Vatican  library  at  Rome,  upward 
of  one  hundred  new  letters ;  and  he  published 
these  at  Rome  in  1823,  together  with  those 
which  had  been  previously  discovered. 

FRONTO,  PAPIBICS,  a  jurist,  who  probably  lived 
about  the  time  of  Antoninus  Pius,  or  rather 
earlier. 

FRCSIXO  (Frusinas,  -atis:  now  Frosinone),  a 
town  of  the  Hernici  in  Latium,  in  the  valley  of 
the  River  Cosas,  and  subsequently  a  Roman 
colony.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  prodigies, 
which  occurred  here  almost  more  frequently 
than  at  any  other  place. 

FCCENTIS,  FUCENTIA.     Vid.  ALBA,  No.  4. 

FDCINUS  LACDS  (now  Lago  di  Celano  or  Cap- 
istrano),  a  lai-ge  hike  in  the  centre  of  Italy  and  in 
the  country  of  the  Marsi,  about  thirty  miles  in 
circumference,  into  which  all  the  mountain 
streams  of  the  Apennines  flow.  As  the  water 
of  this  lake  had  no  visible  outlet,  and  frequently 
inundated  the  surrounding  country,  the  Emperor 
Claudius  constructed  an  emissarium  or  artificial 
channel  for  carrying  off  the  waters  of  the  lake 
into  the  River  Liris.  This  emissarium  is  still 
nearly  perfect:  it  is  almost  three  miles  in  length. 
It  appears  that  the  actual  drainage  was  relin- 
quished soon  after  the  death  of  Claudius,  for  it 
was  reopened  by  Hadriaa 

FUFIUS  CALENUS.     Vid.  CALENUS. 

FUFIBIUS,  a  jurist,  who  probably  lived  between 
the  time  of  Vespasian  and  Hadrian. 

FULGENTIUS,  FABIUS  PLANCIADES,  a  Latin 
grammarian  of  uncertain  date,  probably  not  ear- 
lier than  the  sixth  century  after  Christ,  appears 
to  have  been  of  African  origin.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of,  1.  Mythologiarum  JAbri  III.  ad  Catum 
Presbyterum,  a  collection  of  the  most  remark- 
able tales  connected  with  the  history  and  ex- 
ploits of  gods  and  heroes.  2.  Expositio  Sermo- 
num  Antiquorum  cum  Testimonhs  ad  Chalcidi- 
cum  Grammaticum,  a  glossary  of  obsolete  words 
and  phrases  :  of  very  little  value.  3.  Liber  de 
Expositione  Virgilianee  Continenticc  ad  Chalcidi- 
cum  Grammaticum,  a  title  which  means  an  ex- 
planation of  what  is  contained  in  Virgil,  that  is 
to  say,  of  the  esoteric  truths  allegorically  con- 
veyed in  the  Virgilian  poems.  The  best  edition 
313 


FULGINIA. 


GABINIUS. 


of  these  works  is  in  the  Mytlutgraphi  Latlni  of 
Muucker,  AucL,  1681,  and  of  Van  Staveren, 
Lugd.  But.,  17-12. 

FUUU.NIA,  FULGINIUM  (Fulgiuas,  -atis :  now 
Fully  HO),  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Uinbria,  on 
the  Via  i'  huniuia,  was  a  municipiuin, 

FCLVIA.  1.  The  mistress  of  Q.  Curius,  one 
of  Catiline's  conspirators,  divulged  the  plot  to 
Cicero. — 2.  A  daughter  of  M.  Fulvius  Bambalio 
of  Tusculum,  thrice  married,  first  to  the  cele- 
brated P.  Clodius,  by  whom  she  had  a  daughter, 
Clodia,  afterward  the  wife  of  Octavianus  ;  sec- 
ondly to  C.  Scribonius  Curio,  and  thirdly  to 
M.  Antony,  by  whom  she  had  two  sons.  She 
was  a  bold  and  ambitious  woman.  In  the  pro- 
scription of  B.C.  43  she  acted  with  the  greatest 
arrogance  and  brutality  :  she  gazed  with  delight 
upon  the  head  of  Cicero,  the  victim  of  her  bus 
baud.  Her  turbulent  and  ambitious  spirit  ex- 
cited a  new  war  in  Italy  in  41.  Jealous  of  the 
power  of  Octaviauus,  and  anxious  to  withdraw 
Antony  from  the  East,  she  induced  L.  Antonius, 
the  brother  of  her  husband,  to  take  up  arms 
against  Octavianus.  But  Lucius  was  unable  to 
resist  Octavianus,  and  threw  himself  into  Peru- 
sin,  wliich  he  was  obliged  to  surrender  in  the 
following  year  (40).  Fulvia  fled  to  Greece  and 
died  at  Sicyon  in  the  course  of  the  same  year. 

FULVIA  GEXS,  a  plebeian,  but  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  Roman  gentes.  It  originally  came 
from  Tusculum.  The  principal  families  in  the 
gens  are  those  of  CENTUMALUS,  FLACCUS.  NOBIL- 
JOR,  and  P-firixus. 

FUNDANIUS.  1.  C.,  father  of  Fundania,  the 
wife  of  M.  Terentius  Varro,  is  one  of  the  speak- 
ers in  Varro's  dialogue,  De  He  Rwtica. — 2.  M., 
defended  by  Cicero,  B.C.  65  ;  but  the  scanty 
fragments  of  Cicero's  speech  do  not  enable  us 
to  understand  the  nature  of  the  charge. — 3.  A 
writer  of  comedies  praised  by  Horace  (Sat.,  i., 
10,  41,  42). 

FUNDI  (Fundanus  :  now  Fondi),  an  ancient 
town  in  Latium,  on  the  Appia  Via,  at  the  head 
of  a  narrow  bay  of  the  sea,  running  a  consider- 
able way  into  the  land,  called  the  LACUS  FUN- 
DA.VUS.  Fundi  was  a  municipium,  and  was  sub- 
sequently colonized  by  the  veterans  of  Augus- 
tus. The  surrounding  country  produced  good 
wine.  There  are  still  remains  at  Fondi  of  the 
walls  of  the  ancient  town. 

FURCTJL^E  CACDlNjE.        Vid.  CAUDIUM. 

FURIA  GENS,  an  ancient  patrician  gens,  prob- 
ably came  from  Tusculum.  The  most  cele- 
brated families  of  the  gens  bore  the  names  of 
CAMILLUS  MEDULLINUS,  PACILUS,  and  PHILUS. 
For  others  of  less  note,  vid.  BIBACULUS,  CRAS- 
BJPES,  PuarunEo. 

FURIJE.     Vid,  EUMENIDES. 

FCRINA,  an  ancient  Roman  divinity,  who  had 
a  sacred  grove  at  Rome.  Her  worship  seems 
to  have  become  extinct  at  an  early  time.  An 
annual  festival  (Furinalia  or  Furinales  ferice)  had 
been  celebrated  in  honor  of  her,  and  a  flamen 
(fiamen^Furinalis)  conducted  her  worship.  She 
had  also  a  temple  in  the  neighborhood  of  Satri- 
eum. 

FURNIUS,  C,  a  friend  and  correspondent  of 
Cicero,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  50  ;  sided 
with  Caesar  in  the  civil  war  ;  and  after  Caesar's 
death  was  a  stanch  adherent  of  Antony.  After 
the  battle  of  Actium,  31,  he  was  reconciled  to 
314 


Augustus  through  the  mediation  of  hit  son,  wai 
appointed  consul  in  29,  and  was  prefect  of  Hither 
Spain  in  21. 

Fuscus.  1.  ARELLIUS,  a  rhetorician  at  Rome 
in  the  latter  years  of  Augustus,  instructed  in 
rhetoric  the  poet  Ovid.  He  declaimed  more  fre- 
quently in  Greek  than  in  Latin,  and  his  style  of 
declamation  is  described  by  Seneca  as  more 
brilliant  tlian  solid,  antithetical  rather  than  elo- 
quent His  rival  hi  teaching  and  declaiming 
was  Porcius  Latro.  Vid.  LATRO. — 2.  ARISTIUS, 
a  friend  of  the  poet  Horace,  who  addressed  to 
him  an  ode  (Carm.,  I,  22)  and  an  epistle  (£p.,  i., 
10),  and  who  also  introduces  him  elsewhere 
t^  i.,  9,  61  ;  10,  83). — 3.  CORNELIUS,  one  of 
the  most  active  adherents  of  Vespasian  in  his 
contest  for  the  empire,  A.D.  69.  In  the  reign 
of  Domitian  he  was  sent  against  the  Dacians, 
by  whom  he  was  defeated.  Martial  wrote  an 
pitaph  on  Fuscus  (Ep.,  vi.,  76),  in  which  he  re- 
:ers  to  the  Dacian  campaign. 

G. 

GA.BM  (TdSai).  1.  (Now  Darabyherd  /),  a  for- 
;ress  and  royal  residence  in  the  interior  of  Per- 
sis,  southeast  of  Pasargadae,  near  the  bordera 
of  Carmania. — 2.  Or  Gabaza,  or  Cazaba,  a  for- 
;rcss  in  Sogdiana,  on  the  confines  of  the  Massa- 
getee. 

GABALA  (Fafia/la),  a  sea-port  town  of  Syria 
Seleucis,  south  of  Laodioea,  whence  good  sto- 
rax  was  obtained. 

G  ABA  LI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  whose 
country  possessed  silver  mines  and  good  pas- 
turage. Their  chief  town  was  Anderitum  (now 
Anterieux). 

GABIANA  or  -ENE  (Ta^iavrj,  Tafarjvi]),  a  fertile 
district  in  the  Persian  province  of  Susiana,  west 
of  Mount  Zagros. 

GABII  (Gabinus  :  ruins  near  Castialione),  a 
town  in  Latium,  on  the  Lacus  Gabinus  (now 
Lago  di  Gavi),  between  Rome  and  Praeneste, 
was  in  early  times  one  of  the  most  powerful 
Latin  cities ;  a  colony  from  Alba  Longa  ;  and 
the  place,  according  to  tradition,  where  Romulus 
was  brought  up.  It  was  taken  by  Tarquiniua 
Superbus  by  stratagem,  and  it  was  in  ruins  in 
the  time  of  Augustus  ( Gabiis  desertior  vicus,  HorM 
Ep~,  i.,  11,  7).  The  cinctus  Gabinus,  a  peculiar 
mode  of  wearing  the  toga  at  Rome,  appears  to 
have  been  derived  from  this  town.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  Gabii  are  the  immense  stone 
quarries  from  which  a  part  of  Rome  was  built 

GABINIUS,  A.,  dissipated  his  fortune  in  youth 
by  his  profligate  mode  of  life.  He  was  tribune 
of  the  plebs  B.C.  66,  when  he  proposed  and  car- 
ried a  law  conferring  upon  Pompey  the  com- 
mand of  the  war  against  the  pirates.  He  was 
praetor  in  61,  and  consul  58  with  L.  Piso. 
Both  consuls  supported  Clodius  in  his  measures 
against  Cicero,  which  resulted  in  the  banish- 
ment of  the  orator.  In  57  Gabinius  went  to 
Syria  as  proconsul  His  first  attention  was  di- 
rected to  the  affairs  of  Judea.  He  restored 
Hyrcanus  to  the  high-priesthood,  of  which  he 
had  been  dispossessed  by  Alexander,  the  son  of 
Aristobulus.  He  next  marched  into  Egypt,  and 
restored  Ptolemy  Auletes  to  the  throne.  The 
restoration  of  Ptolemy  had  been  forbidden  by  a 
decree  of  the  senate,  and  by  the  Sibylline  books ; 


GADARA. 


GJSTULIA. 


but  Gabinius  had  been  promised  by  the  king  a  ' 
sum  of  ten  thousand  talents  for  this  service,  and 
accordingly  set  at  naught  both  the  senate  and 
the  SibyL  His  government  of  the  province 
was  marked  in  other  respects  by  the  most 
shameful  venality  and  oppression.  He  returned 
to  Rome  in  54.  He  was  accused  of  majestas  or 
high  treason,  on  account  of  his  restoration  of 
Ptolemy  Auletes,  in  defiance  of  the  Sibyl  and 
the  authority  of  the  senate.  He  was  acquitted 
on  this  charge ;  but  he  was  forthwith  accused 
of  repetundce,  for  the  illegal  receipt  of  ten  thou- 
sand talents  from  Ptolemy.  He  was  defended 
by  Cicero,  who  had  been  persuaded  by  Pompey, 
much  against  his  will,  to  undertake  the  defence. 
Gabinius,  however,  was  condemned  on  this 
charge,  and  went  into  exile.  He  was  recalled 
from  exile  by  Caesar  in  49,  and  in  the  following 
year  (48)  was  sent  into  Dlyricum  by  Caesar  with 
some  newly-levied  troops,  in  order  to  re-enforce 
Q.  Cornificius.  He  died  in  niyricum  about  the 
end  of  48,  or  the  beginning  of  the  following 
year. 

GADARA  (Tddapa :  Tadaprjvof :  now  Um-Keis), 
a.  large  fortified  city  of  Palestine,  one  of  the  ten 
which  formed  the  Decapolis  in  Peraea,  stood  a 
little  south  of  the  Hieromax  (now  Yarmuk),  an 
eastern  tributary  of  the  Jordan.  The  surround- 
ing district,  southeast  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias, 
was  called  Gadaris,  and  was  very  fertile.  Ga- 
dara  was  probably  favored  by  the  Greek  kings 
of  Syria,  as  it  is  sometimes  called  Antiochia 
and  Seleucia ;  it  was  restored  by  Pompey : 
Augustus  presented  it  to  King  Herod,  after 
whose  death  it  was  assigned  to  the  province  of 
Syria.  It  was  made  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bish- 
opric. There  were  celebrated  baths  in  its  neigh- 
borhood, at  Amatha. 

GADES  (TU  Tudeipa :  Tadeipevf,  Gaditanus : 
now  Cadiz),  a  very  ancient  town  in  Hispania 
Baatica,  west  of  the  Pillars  of.  Hercules,  found- 
ed by  the  Phoenicians,  and  one  of  the  chief  seats 
of  their  commerce  in  the  west  of  Europe,  was 
situated  on  a  small  island  of  the  same  name 
(now  Isle  de  Leon),  separated  from  tho  main 
laud  by  a  narrow  channel,  which  in  its  narrowest 
part  was  only  the  breadth  of  a  stadium,  and 
over  which  a  bridge  was  built  Herodotus  says 
(iv.,  8)  that  the  island  of  Erythia  was  close  to 
Gadeira  ;  whence  most  later  writers  supposed 
the  island  of  Gades  to  be  the  same  as  the  myth- 
ical island  of  Erythia,  from  which  Hercules  car- 
ried off  the  oxen  of  Geryon.  A  new  town  was 
built  by  Cornelius  Balbus,  a  native  of  Gades, 
and  the  circumference  of  the  oid  and  new  towns 
together  was  only  twenty  stadia.  There  were, 
however,  many  of  the  citizens  dwelling  on  the 
main  laud  opposite  the  island,  as  well  as  on  a 
smaller  island  (S.  Sebastian  or  Trocadero)  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  larger  one. 
After  the  first  Punic  war  Gades  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  Carthaginians ;  and  in  the  second 
Punic  war  it  surrendered  of  its  own  accord  to 
the  Romans.  Its  inhabitants  received  the  Ro- 
man franchise  from  Julius  Caesar.  It  became  a 
municipium,  and.  was  called  Augusta  vrbt  Julia 
Gaditana.  Gadcs  was  from  the  earliest  to  the 
latest  times  an  important  commercial  town. 
Its  inliabitanta  were  wealthy,  luxurious,  and 
licentious ;  and  their  lascivious  dances  were 
at  Rome.  (Juv,  xi,  162.)  Gades 


possessed  celebrated  temples  of  Saturn  (Cronus) 
and  Hercules.  Its  drinking  water  was  as  bad 
in  antiquity  as  it  is  in  the  present  day.  Gades 
gave  its  name  to  the  FEETUM  GADITANUM,  the 
straits  at  the  entrance  of  the  Mediterranean,  be- 
tween Europe  and  Africa  (now  Straits  of  Gib- 
raltar.) 

GJEA.  or  GE  (Tola  or  F^),  the  personification 
of  the  earth.  Homer  describes  her  as  a,  divine 
being,  to  whom  black  sheep  were  sacrificed,  and 
who  was  invoked  by  persons  taking  oaths ;  and 
he  calls  her  the  mother  of  Erechtheus  and  Tity- 
us.  In  Hesiod  she  is  the  first  being  that  sprang 
from  Chaos,  and  gave  birth  to  Uranus  (Coelus) 
and  Pontus.  By  Uranus  (Coelus)  she  became 
the  mother  of  Oceanus,  Cceus,  Crius,  Hyperion, 
lapetus,  Thia,  Rheia,  Themis,  Mnemosyne, 
Phoebe,  Tethys,  Saturn  (Cronos),  the  Cyclopes, 
Brontes,  Steropes,  Arges,  Cottus,  Briareus,  and 
Gyges.  These  children  were  hated  by  their  fa- 
ther, and  Ge  (Terra)  therefore  concealed  them 
in  the  bosom  of  the  earth ;  but  she  made  a  large 
iron  sickle,  gave  it  to  her  sons,  and  requested 
them  to  take  vengeance  upon  their  father. 
Cronos  (Saturn)  undertook  the  task,  and  mu- 
tilated Uranus  (Ccelus).  The  drops  of  blood 
which  fell  from  him  upon  the  earth  (Ge)  be- 
came the  seeds  of  the  Erinnyes,  the  Gigautes, 
and  the  Melian  nymphs.  Subsequently  Ge  (Ter- 
ra) became,  by  Poutus,  the  mother  of  Nereus, 
Thaumas,  Phorcys,  Ceto,  and  Eurybia.  Ge 
(Terra)  belonged  to  the  deities  of  the  nether 
world  (i?eo2  %66vioi)  and  hence  she  is  frequent- 
ly mentioned  where  they  are  invoked.  The 
surnames  and  epithets  given  to  her  have  more 
or  less  reference  to  her  character  as  the  all- 
producing  and  all-nourishing  mother  (mater  am- 
niparens  et  alma).  Her  worship  appears  to  have 
been  universal  among  the  Greeks,  and  she  had 
temples  or  altars  in  almost  all  the  cities  of 
Greece.  At  Rome  the  earth  was  worshipped 
under  the  name  of  TELLCS  (which  is  only  a 
variation  of  Terra).  She  was  regarded  by  the 
Romans  also  as  one  of  the  deities  of  the  nether 
world  (Inferi),  and  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Dis  and  the  Manes.  A  temple  was  built  to 
her  by  the  consul  P.  Sempronius  Sophus,  in  B. 
C.  304.  Her  festival  was  celebrated  on  the 
loth  of  April,  and  was  called  Fordicidia  or  Hor- 
dicidia.  The  sacrifice,  consisting  of  cows,  was  of- 
fered up  in  the  Capitol  in  the  presence  of  tho 
Vestals. 

G/ESON,  G.ESUS,  or  GESSUS  (Taiouv  )  a  river 
of  Ionia  in  Asia  Minor,  falling  into  the  Gulf  of 
Maeander  near  the  promontory  of  Mycale. 

G^ETOLIA  (Fatrof/U'a),  the  interior  of  Northern 
Africa,  south  of  Mauritania,  Xumidia,  and  the 
region  bordering  on  the  Syrtes,  reaching  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west,  and  of  very  in- 
definite extent  toward  the  east  and  the-eouth.  The 
people  included  under  the  name  Gaetuli  (Fai- 
TOV'/.OI),  in  its  widest  sense,  were  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  region  between  the  countries  just 
mentioned  and  the  Great  Desert,  and  also  in 
the  Oases  of  the  latter,  and  nearly  as  far  south 
as  the  River  Niger.  They  were  a  great  nomad 
race,  including  several  tribes,  the  chief  of  whom 
were  the  Autololee  and  Pharusii  on  the  western 
coast,  the  Dane,  or  Gsctuli-Darae,  in  the  steppes 
of  the  Great  Atlas,  and  the  Melanogaetuh,  a 
black  race  result  ing  from  the  intermixture  of 
315 


GALNAS. 


GALBA. 


the  Gaetuli  with  their  southern  neighbors,  the 
^igrifca  The  pure  Gffituliaus  were  not  an 
J£thiopic  (i.  e^  negro),  but  a  Libyan  race,  and 
were  most  probably  of  Asiatic  origin.  They  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  ancestors  of  the 
Herbert. 
GAINA&,  Fid  ARCADIUS. 

GAIUS  or  CAIUS,  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist, 
wrote  %  under  Antoninus  Pius  and  M.  Aurelius. 
His  works  were  very  numerous,  and  great  use 
was  made  of  them  in  the  compilation  of  the 
Digest.  One  of  his  most  celebrated  works  was 
an  elementary  treatise  on  Roman  law,  entitled 
lnxtituiionet,  in  four  books.  This  work  was  for 
u  long  time  the  ordinary  text  book  used  by  those 
who  were  commencing  the  study  of  the  Roman 
law ;  but  it  went  out  of  use  after  the  compila- 
tion of  the  Institutiones  of  Justinian,  and  was 
finally  lost  This  long  lost  work  was  discov- 
ered by  Niebuhr  in  1816  in  the  library  of  the 
Chapter  at  Verona.  The  MS.  containing  Gaius 
was  a  palimpsest  one.  The  original  writing  of 
Gaius  had  on  some  pages  been  washed  out,  and 
«n  others  scratched  out,  and  the  whole  was  re- 
written with  the  Letters  of  St.  Jerome.  The 
task  of  deciphering  the  original  IIS.  was  a  very 
difficult  one  aud  some  parts  were  completely 
destroyed.  It  was  first  published  by  Goscheu 
in  1821 :  a  second  edition  appeared  in  1824,  and 
a  third  in  1842. 

GAG.*  (Tu-yai),  a  town  on  the  coast  of  Lycia, 
east  of  Myra,  whence  was  obtained  the  mineral 
called  Gagfites  lapis,  that  is^,  or,  as  it  is  still 
called  in  German,  gagat. 

GALANTHIS.    Vid.   GALINTHIAS. 

GALATEA  (TaXurEia),  daughter  of  Nereus  and 
Doris.  For  details,  vid.  Acis. 

GALATIA  (Taharia  :  TaMrriQ :  in  the  eastern 
part  of  modern  Anadali  and  the  western  part  of 
Rumili),  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  composed  of 
parts  of  Phrygia  and  Cappadocia,  and  bounded 
on  the  west,  south,  and  southeast  by  those  coun- 
tries, and  on  the  northeast,  north,  and  northwest 
by  Pontus,  Paphlagonia,  and  Bithynia.  It  de- 
rived its  name  from  its  inhabitants,  who  were 
Gauls  that  had  invaded  and  settled  in  Asia 
Minor  at  various  periods  during  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C.  First,  a  portion  of  the  army  which 
Brennus  led  against  Greece,  separated  from  the 
maiu  body,  and  marched  into  Thrace,  and,  hav- 
ing pressed  forward  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the 
Propontis,  some  of  them  crossed  the  Hellespont 
on  then-  own  account,  while  others,  who  had 
reached  Byzantium,  were  invited  to  pass  the 
Bosporus  by  Nicomedes  L,  king  of  Bithynia, 
who  required  their  aid  against  his  brother  Zi- 
poatus  (B.C.  279.)  They  speedily  overran  all 
Asia  Minor  within  the  Taurus,  and  exacted 
tribute  from  its  various  princes,  and  served  as 
mercenaries  not  only  in  the  armies  of  these 
princes,  but  also  of  the  kings  of  Syria  and 
Egypt ;  aud,  according  to  one  account,  a  body 
of  them  found  their  way  to  Babylon.  During 
their  ascendency,  other  bodies  of  Gauls  follow- 
ed them  into  Asia.  Their  progress  was  at 
length  checked  by  the  arms  of  the  kings  of 
Fergamus :  Eumenes  fought  against  them  with 
various  fortune  ;  but  Attalus  L  gained  a  com- 
plete victory  over  them  (B.C.  230),  and  com- 
pelled them  to  settle  down  within  the  limits  of 
the  country  thenceforth  called  Galatia  and  also 
316 


on  account  of  the  mixture  of  Greeks  -with  the 
Celtic  inhabitants,  which  speedily  took  place, 
Grseco-Galatia  and  Gallograecia.  The  people  of 
Galatia  adopted  to  a  great  extent  Greek  habits 
and  manners  and  religious  observances,  but  pre- 
served their  own  language,  which  is  spoken  of  as 
resembling  that  of  the  Treviri.  They  retained, 
also,  their  political  divisions  and  forms  of  gov- 
ernment They  consisted  of  three  great  tribes, 
the  Tolistobogi,  the  Trocmi,  and  the  Tectosages, 
each  subdivided  into  four  parts,  called  by  the 
Greeks  reTpapx'iat.  At  the  head  of  each  of  these 
twelve  tetrarchies  was  a  chief,  or  tetrarch, 
who  appointed  the  chief  magistrate 
and  the  commander  of  the  army 
and  two  lieutenant  generals  (viro 
The  twelve  tetrarchs  together  had  the  general 
government  of  the  country,  but  their  power  was 
checked  by  an  assistant  senate  of  three  hund- 
red, who  met  in  a  place  called  Drynsemetum  (or 
probably,  Dryaenetum,  i.  e.,  the  oak-grove),  aud 
bad  jurisdiction  in  all  capital  cases.  This  form 
of  government  had  a  natural  tendency  to  mon- 
archy, according  as  either  of  the  twelve  te- 
trarchs became  more  powerful  than  the  rest, 
especially  under  the  protection  of  the  Romans, 
to  whom  Galatia  became  virtually  subject  as 
the  result  of  the  campaign  which  the  consul  Cn. 
Maulius  undertook  against  the  Gauls,  to  punish 
them  for  the  assistance  they  had  given  to  An- 
tiochus  the  Great  (B.C.  189).  At  length  one 
of  the  tetrarchs,  DEIOTARUS,  was  rewarded  for 
liis  services  to  the  Romans  in  the  Mithradatic 
war  by  the  title  of  king,  together  with  a  grant 
of  Pontus  and  Armenia  Minor  ;  and  after  the 
death  of  his  successor  Amyntas,  Galatia  was 
made  by  Augustus  a  Roman  province  (B.C.  25). 
It  was  soon  after  enlarged  by  the  addition 
of  Paphlagonia.  Under  Constantine  it  was 
restricted  to  its  old  limits,  and  under  Valens 
it  was  divided  into  two  provinces,  Galatia  Prima 
and  Galatia  Secuuda.  The  country  was  beau- 
tiful and  fertile,  being  watered  by  the  rivers 
Balys  and  Sangarius.  Its  only  important  cities 
were,  in  the  southwest,  PESSINTJS,  the  capital 
of  the  Tolistobogi ;  in  the  centre,  ANCYRA,  the 
capital  of  the  Tectosages  ;  and  in  the  north- 
east, TAVIUM,  the  capital  of  the  Trocmi.  From 
ihe  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Galatians,  we  learn 
not  only  that  many  Christian  churches  had  been 
formed  in  Galatia  during  the  apostolic  age,  but 
also  that  those  churches  consisted,  in  great  part, 
of  Jewish  converts. 

GALAXIUS  (Ta^tof),  a  small  river  in  Bceotia, 
on  which  stood  a  temple  of  Apollo  Galaxies :  it 
derived  its  name  from  its  milky  color,  which  was 
owing  to  the  chalky  nature  of  the  soil  through 
which  it  flowed. 

GALBA,  SULPICIDS,  patricians.  1.  P.,  consul 
B.C.  211,  received  Macedonia  as  his  province, 
where  he  remained  as  proconsul  till  204,  and 
carried  on  the  war  against  Philip.  In  200  he 
was  consul  a  second  time,  and  again  obtained 
Macedonia  as  his  province ;  but  he  was  unable 
jo  accomplish  any  thing  of  importance  against 
Philip,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  command  in 
the  following  year  by  Villius  Tappulus.  He  was 
one  of  the  ten  commissioners  sent  to  Greece  in 
196,  after  the  defeat  of  Philip  by  Flaminius,  and 
was  ono  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  Antiochus 
in  193. — 2.  SEE.,  was  praetor  151,  and  received 


GALBA,  SEE.  SULPICIUS. 


GALEUS. 


Spain  as  his  province.  His  name  is  infamous 
on  account  of  his  treacherous  and  atrocious  mur- 
der of  the  Lusitanians,  with  their  wives  and 
children,  who  had  surrendered  to  him  on  the 
promise  of  receiving  grants  of  land.  Viriathus 
was  one  of  the  few  Lusitanians  who  escaped 
from  the  bloody  scene.  Vid.  VIRIATHUS.  On 
his  return  to  Rome  in  149,  he  was  brought  to 
trial  on  account  of  his  horrible  massacre  of  the 
Lusitanians.  His  conduct  was  denounced  in 
the  strongest  terms  by  Cato,  who  was  then 
eighty-five  years  old,  but  he  was  nevertheless 
acquitted.  He  was  consul  144.  Cicero  praises 
his  oratory  in  the  highest  terms. — 3.  SER.,  great- 
grandfather of  the  Emperor  Galba,  served  un- 
der Caesar  in  the  Gallic  war,  and  was  praetor  in 
54.  After  Caesar's  death  he  served  against  An- 
tony in  the  war  of  Mutina. — 4.  CM  father  of  the 
Emperor  Galba,  was  consul  in  A.D.  22. 

GALBA,  SER.  SULPICIUS,  Roman  emperor  from 
June,  A.D.  68,  to  January,  A.D.  69.  He  was 
born  near  Terracina,  on  the  24th  of  December, 
B.C.  3.  Both  Augustus  and  Tiberius  are  said 
to  have  told  him  that  one  day  he  would  be  at 
the  head  of  the  Roman  world,  from  which  we 
must  infer  that  he  was  a  young  man  of  more 
than  ordinary  taleuts.  From  his  parents  he  in- 
herited great  wealth.  He  was  invested  with 
the  curule  offices  before  attaining  the  legitimate 
age.  He  was  praetor  A.D.  20,  and  consul  33. 
After  his  consulship  he  had  the  government  of 
Gaul,  39,  where  he  carried  on  a  successful  war 
against  the  Germans,  and  restored  discipline 
among  the  troops.  On  the  death  of  Caligula 
many  of  his  friends  urged  him  to  seize  the  em- 
pire, but  he  preferred  living  in  a  private  station. 
Claudius  intrusted  him,  in  45,  with  the  admin- 
istration of  Africa,  which  he  governed  with 
wisdom  and  integrity.  In  the  reign  of  Nero  he 
lived  for  several  years  in  retirement,  through 
fear  of  becoming  the  victim  of  the  tyrant's  sus- 
picion ;  but  in  61  Nero  gave  him  the  govern- 
ment of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  where  he  re- 
mained for  eight  years.  In  68  Vindex  rebelled 
in  GauL  About  the  same  time  Galba  was  in- 
formed that  Nero  had  sent  secret  orders  for  his 
assassination.  He  therefore  resolved  at  once 
to  follow  the  example  of  Vindex ;  but  he  did 
not  assume  the  imperial  title,  and  professed  to 
act  only  as  the  legate  of  the  Roman  senate  and 
people.  Shortly  afterward  Nero  was  murdered ; 
and  Galba  thereupon  proceeded  to  Rome,  where 
he  was  acknowledged  as  emperor.  But  his 
severity  and  avarice  soon  made  him  unpopular 
with  hia  new  subjects,  and  especially  with  the 
soldiers.  Hia  powers  had  also  become  enfee- 
bled by  age,  and  he  was  completely  under  the 
sway  of  favorites,  who  perpetrated  many  enor- 
mities in  his  name.  Perceiving  the  weakness  of 
his  government,  he  adopted  Piso  Licinianus, 
a  noble  young  Roman,  as  hia  successor.  But 
this  only  hastened  his  ruin.  Otho,  who  had 
hoped  to  be  adopted  by  Galba,  formed  a  con- 
spiracy among  the  soldiers,  who  rose  in  rebel- 
lion six  days  after  the  adoption  of  Piso.  Galba 
was  murdered,  and  Otho  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror. 

GALKNUS,  CLAUDIUS,  commonly  called  GALEN, 
a  very  celebrated  physician,  whose  works  have 
had  a  longer  and  more  extensive  influence  on 
the  different  branches  of  medical  acieuce  than 


those  of  any  other  individual  either  in  ancient 
or  modern  times.  He  was  born  at  Pergamum 
in  A.D.  130.  His  father  Nicon,  who  was  an 
architect  and  geometrician,  carefully  superin- 
tended his  education.  In  his  seventeenth  year 
(146),  his  father,  who  had  hitherto  destined 
him  to  be  a  philosopher,  altered  liis  intentions, 
and,  in  consequence  of  a  dream,  chose  for  him 
the  profession  of  medicine.  He  at  first  studied 
medicine  in  his  native  city.  In  his  twentieth 
year  (149)  he  lost  his  father,  and  about  the 
same  time  he  went  to  Smyrna  for  the  purpose 
of  studying  under  Pelops  the  physician,  and 
Albinus  the  Platonic  philosopher.  He  after 
ward  studied  at  Corinth  and  Alexandrea.  He 
returned  to  Pergamum  in  his  twenty-ninth  year 
(158),  and  was  immediately  appointed  physician 
to  the  school  of  gladiators,  an  office  which  he 
filled  with  great  reputation  and  success.  ID 
164  he  quitted  his  native  country  on  account 
of  some  popular  commotions,  and  went  to  Rome 
for  the  nrst  time.  Here  he  stayed  about  four 
years,  and  gained  great  reputation  from  his  skill 
in  anatomy  and  medicine.  He  returned  to  Per- 
gamum in  168,  but  had  scarcely  settled  there 
when  he  received  a  summons  from  the  emper- 
ors M.  Aurelius  and  L.  Verus  to  attend  them  at 
Aquileia  in  Venetia,  From  Aquileia  Galen  fol- 
lowed M.  Aurelius  to  Rome  in  170.  When  the 
emperor  again  set  out  to  conduct  the  war  on 
the  Danube,  Galen  with  difficulty  (.btained  per- 
mission to  be  left  behind  at  Rome,  alleging  that 
such  was  the  will  of  ^Esculapius.  Before  leav- 
ing the  city  the  emperor  committed  to  the  med- 
ical care  of  Galen  his  son  Commodus,  who  was 
then  nine  years  of  age.  Galen  stayed  at  Rome 
some  years,  during  which  time  he  employed 
himself  in  lecturing,  writing,  and  practicing 
with  great  success.  He  subsequently  returned 
to  Pergamum,  but  whether  he  again  visited 
Rome  is  uncertain.  He  is  said  to  have  died  in 
the  year  200,  at  the  age  of  seventy,  in  the  reign 
of  Septimius  Severus  ;  but  it  is  not  improbable 
that  he  lived  some  years  longer.  Galen  wrote 
a  great  number  of  works  on  medical  and  philo- 
sophical subjects.  The  works  still  extant  under 
the  name  of  Galen  consist  of  eighty-three 
treatises  acknowledged  to  be  genuine  ;  nine- 
teen whose  genuineness  has  been  doubted ; 
forty-five  undoubtedly  spurious ;  nineteen  frag- 
ments ;  and  fifteen  commentaries  on  different 
works  of  Hippocrates.  Galen  attached  himself 
exclusively  to  none  of  the  medical  sects  into 
which  the  profession  was  divided,  but  chose 
from  the  tenets  of  each  what  he  believed  to  be 
good  and  true,  and  called  those  persons  slaves 
who  designated  themselves  as  followers  of 
Hippocrates,  Praxagoras,  or  any  other  man. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  by  Kiilm.  Lips.. 
1821-1833,  20  vols.  8vo. 

GALEPSUS  (ra/l^of :  Tafa/tpiof),  &  town  in 
Macedonia,  on  the  Toronaic  Gulf.  * 

GALERIUS  MAXIMIANUS.      Vid.  MAXIMIANUS. 

GALERIUS  TRACIIALUS.     Vid.  TRACHALUS. 

GALESUS  (now  Galeto),  a  river  in  the  south 
of  Italy,  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum, 
through  the  meadows  where  the  sheep  fed 
whose  wool  was  BO  celebrated  in  antiquity 
(dulce  pellitis  ovibut  Qalasi  flwnen,  Hor,  Carrn^ 
iL,  6,  10). 

GALEUS  (rataof),  that  is,  "  the  lizard,"  soa 
317 


GALILEE  A. 


GALLIA. 


of  Ajxdlo  and  Themisto,  the  daughter  of  the 
Hyperborean  king  Zabius.  In  pursuance  of  an 
oracle  of  the  Dodoneab  Zeus,  Galeus  emigrated 
to  Sicily,  where  he  built  a  eauctuary  to  his 
father  Apollo.  Tlie  GALEOT.K,  a  family  of  Sicil- 
ian soothsayers,  derived  their  origin  from  him. 
The  principal  seat  of  the  Galeotffi  was  the  town 
of  liybla,  which  was  hence  called  GALEOTIS 
or  GALEATIS. 

GALIL^KA  (Tafakaia),  at  the  birth  of  Christ, 
wns  the  northernmost  of  the  three  divisions  of 
Palestine  west  of  the  Jordan.  It  lay  between 
the  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the  east 
and  west,  and  the  mountains  of  Hermon  and 
Cannel  ou  the  north  and  south.  It  was  divided 
into  Upper  or  North  Galilee,  and  Lower  or  South 
Galilee.  It  was  very  fertile  and  densely  peo- 
pled ;  but  it*  inhabitants  were  a  mixed  race  of 
Jews,  Syrians,  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  others, 
and  were  therefore  despised  by  the  Jews  of 
Judaea.  Vid.  PAL^STINA. 

GALINTHIAS  or  GALANTHIS  (Or.,  Met.,  ix,  306), 
daughter  of  Proetus  of  Thebes  and  a  friend  of 
Alcmene.  When  Alcmene  was  on  the  point 
of  giving  birth  to  Hercules,  and  the  Mcerae  and 
Ilithyiae,  at  the  request  of  Juno  (Hera),  were 
endeavoring  to  delay  the  birth,  Galinthias  sud- 
denly rushed  in  with  the  false  report  that  Alc- 
meno  had  given  birth  to  a  son.  The  hostile 
goddesses  were  so  surprised  at  this  information 
that  they  dropped  their  arms.  Thus  the  charm 
was  broken,  and  Alcmene  was  enabled  to  give 
birth  to  Hercules.  The  deluded  goddesses 
avenged  the  deception  practiced  upon  them  by 
metamorphosing  Galinthias  into  a  weasel  or  cat 
(}a73/).  Hecate,  however,  took  pity  upon  her, 
and  made  her  her  attendant,  and  Hercules  after- 
ward erected  a  sanctuary  to  her.  At  Thebes  it 
was  customary  at  the  festival  of  Hercules  first  to 
offer  sacrifices  to  Galinthias. 

GALLA.  1.  Wife  of  Constantius,  son  of  the 
Emperor  Constautius  Chlorus.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Gallus  Caesar  Vid.  GAXLUS. — 2. 
Daughter  of  tLe  Emperor  Valeutinian  I.,  and 
second  wife  of  Theodosius  the  Great. — 3.  GAL- 
LA  PLACIDIA,  or  simply  PLACIDIA,  daughter  of 
Theodosius  th«  Great  by  No.  2.  She  fell  into 
the  hands  of  AJiaric  when  he  took  Rome,  A.D. 
410;  and  Ataulphus,  the  Gothic  king,  married 
her  in  414.  After  the  death  of  Ataulphus  she 
was  restored  to  Honorius ;  and  in  417  she  was 
married  to  Constantius,  to  whom  she  bore  the 
Emperor  Valentinian  III.  During  the  minority 
of  the  latter  she  governed  the  Western  empire. 
She  died  about  450. 

GALL^ECIA,  the  country  of  the  GALL^ECI  (KaA- 
7MKot),  in  the  north  of  Spain,  between  the  As- 
tures  and  the  Durius,  was  in  earlier  times  in- 
cluded in  Lusitania.  Gallaecia  was  sometimes 
used  in  a  wider  sense  to  include  the  country  of 
the  Astures  and  the  Cantabii  It  produced  tin, 
gold,  and  a  precious  stone  called  gemma  Galla- 
ica.  Its  inhabitants  were  some  of  the  most  un- 
.•ivilized  in  Spain.  They  were  defeated  with 
great  slaughter  by  D.  Brutus,  consul  B.C.  138, 
who  obtained  in  consequence  the  surname  of 
Gallaecus. 

GAI.LIA  (ij  Kel.TiKTJ,  Talari),  was  wed  before 
the  time  of  Julius  Caasar  to  indicfHt?  all  the 
land  inhabited  by  the  Galli  or  Celt*,  rnd  con- 
sequently included  not  only  the'  later  v''iul  and 
318 


the  north  of  Italy,  but  a  part  of  Spain,  the 
greater  part  of  Germany,  the  British  isles,  and 
other  countries.  The  early  history  of  the  Celtic 
race,  and  their  various  settlements  in  different 
parts  of  Europe,  are  related  under  CELTA:.  1. 
GALLIA,  also  called  GALLIA  TRANSALPINA  or 
GALLIA  ULTERIOR,  to  distinguish  it  from  Gallia 
Cisalpina,  or  the  north  of  Italy.  GALLIA  BUAC- 
CATA  and  GALLIA  COMATA  are  also  used  in  con- 
tradistinction to  Gallia  Togata  or  the  north  of 
Italy,  but  these  names  are  not  identical  with 
the  whole  of  Gallia  Transalpina.  Gallia  Brac- 
cata  was  the  part  of  the  country  first  subdued 
by  the  Romans,  the  later  Proviucia,  and  was  so 
called  because  the  inhabitants  wore  braccce  01 
trowsers.  Gallia  Comata  was  the  remainder  of 
the  country,  excluding  Gallia  Braccata,  and 
derived  its  name  from  the  inhabitants  wearing 
their  hair  long.  The  Romans  were  acquainted 
with  only  a  small  portion  of  Transalpine  Gaul 
till  tlie  time  of  Caesar.  In  the  time  of  Augus- 
tus it  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Pyre- 
nees and  the  Mediterranean  ;  on  tne  east  by 
the  River  Varus  and  the  Alps,  which  separated 
it  from  Italy,  and  by  the  River  Rhine,  which 
separated  it  from  Germany ;  on  the  north  by 
the  German  Ocean  and  the  English  Channel ; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic ;  thus  includ- 
ing not  only  the  whole  of  France  and  Belgium, 
but  a  part  of  Holland,  a  great  part  of  Switzer- 
land, and  all  the  provinces  of  Germany  west  of 
the  Rhine.  The  greater  part  of  this  country 
is  a  plain,  well  watered  by  numerous  rivers. 
The  principal  mountains  were  MONS  CEBENNA 
or  Gebenna  in  the  south ;  the  lofty  range  of 
MONS  JURA  in  the  east,  separating  the  Sequani 
and  the  Helvetii ;  MONS  VOSEGUS  or  VOGE- 
sus,  a  continuation  of  the  Jura.  The  chief 
forest  was  the  Silva  ARDUENNA,  extending  from 
the  Rhine  and  the  Treviri  as  far  as  the  Scheldt. 
The  principal  rivers  were,  in  the  east  and  north, 
the  RHENTS  (now  Rhine),  with  its  tributaries 
the  MOSA  (now  Maas)  and  MOSELLA  (now  J/«- 
selle) ;  the  SEQUANA  (now  Seine),  with  its  tribu- 
tary the  MATRONA  :  in  the  centre  the  LIGERIS 
(now  Loire) ;  in  the  west,  the  GARUMNA  (now 
Garonne) ;  and  in  the  south  the  RHODANUS  (now 
Rhone).  The  country  was  celebrated  for  its 
fertility  in  ancient  times,  and  possessed  a  nu- 
merous and  warlike  population.  The  Greeks, 
at  a  very  early  period,  became  acquainted  with 
the  southern  coast  of  Gaul,  where  they  founded, 
in  B.C.  600,  the  important  town  of  MASSILIA, 
which  in  its  turn  founded  several  colonies,  and 
exercised  a  kind  of  supremacy  over  the  neigh- 
boring districts.  The  Romans  did  not  attempt 
to  make  any  conquests  in  Transalpine  Gaul  till 
they  had  finally  conquered  not  only  Africa,  but 
Greece  and  a  great  part  of  Western  Asia.  In 
B.C.  125  the  consul  M.  Fulvius  Flaccus  com- 
menced the  subjugation  of  the  Salluvii  in  the 
south  of  Gaul.  In  the  next  three  years  (124- 
122)  the  Salluvii  were  completely  subdued  by 
Sextius  Calvinus,  and  the  colony  of  Aquas  Sex- 
tiae  (now  Aix)  was  founded  in  their  countiy. 
In  121  the  Allobroges  were  defeated  by  the 
proconsul  Domilius  Ahenobarbus ;  and  in  the 
same  year  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  gained  a  great 
victory  over  the  united  forces  of  the  Allobroges 
and  Arverni,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Isara  and 
the  Rhone.  The  south  of  Gaul  was  now  mad< 


GALLIA. 

a  Roman  proyince  •  and  in  118  was  founded 
the  colony  of  Narbo  Martius  (now  Narbonne,) 
which  was  the  chief  town  of  the  province.  In 
Caesar's  Commentaries  the  Roman  province  is 
called  simply  Provincia,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  rest  of  the  country :  hence  comes  the  mod- 
ern name  of  Provence.  The  rest  of  the  country 
was  subdued  by  Caesar  after  a  struggle  of  sev- 
eral years  (58-50.)  At  this  time  Gaul  was  di- 
vided into  three  parts,  Aquitania,  Celtica,  and 
Belgica,  according  to  the  three  different  races 
by  which  it  was  inhabited.  The  Aquitani  dwelt 
in  the  southwest,  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
Garumna  ;  the  Celte,  or  Galli  proper,  in  the 
centre  and  west,  between  the  Garumna  and  the 
Sequana  and  the  Matrona ;  and  the  Belgae  in  the 
northeast,  between  the  two  last-mentioned  riv- 
ers and  the  Rhine.  The  different  tribes  inhab- 
iting Aquitania  and  Belgica  are  given  else- 
where. Vid.  AQUITANIA,  BELGAE.  The  most 
important  tribes  of  the  Celte  or  Galli  were, 
1.  Between  t/te  Sequana  and  the  Liger :  the  Ar- 
MOEICI,  the  name  of  all  the  tribes  dwelling  on 
the  coast  between  the  mouths  of  these  two  riv- 
ers ;  the  AULERCI,  dwelling  inland  close  to  the 
Armorici ;  the  NAMNETES,  ANDECAVI  or  ANDES, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Liger;  east  of  them  the 
CAENCTES  ;  and  on  the  Sequana,  the  PARISH, 
SENONES,  and  TRICASSES. — 2.  Between  tJte  Liger 
and  the  Garumna :  on  the  coast  the  PICTONES 
and  SANTONES  ;  inland  the  TURONES,  probably 
on  both  sides  of  the  Liger,  the  BITURIGES  CUBI, 
LEMOVICES,  PETROCORII,  and  CADURCI  ;  east  of 
these,  in  the  mountains  of  Cebenna,  the  power- 
ful ARVERNI  (in  the  modern  Auvergne) ;  and 
south  of  them  the  RUTENI. — 3.  On  the  Rhone 
and  in  tfie  surrounding  country :  between  the 
P-hone  and  the  Pyrenees,  the  VOLC^E  ;  between 
the  Rhone  and  the  Alps,  the  SALYES  or  SALLU- 
vn ;  north  of  them  the  CAVARES  ;  between  the 
Rhone,  the  Isara,  and  the  Alps,  the  ALLOBR&- 
GES  ;  and  further  north  the  J&mn,  SEQUANI,  and 
HELVETII,  three  of  the  most  powerful  people  in 
nil  GauL  Augustus  divided  Gaul  into  four 
provinces :  1.  Gallia  Narbonensis,  the  same  as 
the  old  Provincia.  2.  G.  Aquitanica,  which  ex- 
tended from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Liger.  3.  C. 
Lugdunensis,  the  country  between  the  Liger, 
the  Sequana  and  the  Arar,  so  called  from  the 
colony  of  Lugdunum  (now  Lyori),  founded  by 
Muuatius  Plancus.  4.  G.  Belgica,  the  country 
between  the  Sequana,  the  Arar,  and  the  Rhine. 
Shortly  afterward  the  portion  of  Belgica  bord- 
ering on  the  Rhine,  and  inhabited  by  Ger- 
man tribes,  was  subdivided  into  two  new  prov- 
inces, called  Germania  Prima  and  Sccunda,  or 
Germania  Superior  and  Inferior.  At  a  later 
time  the  provinces  of  Gaul  were  still  further 
subdivided,  till  at  length,  under  the  Emperor 
Gratian,  they  reached  the  number  of  seventeen. 
Gallia  Narbonensis  belonged  to  the  senate,  and 
was  governed  by  a  proconsul ;  the  other  prov- 
inces belonged  to  the  emperor,  and  were  gov- 
erned by  imperial  legati.  After  the  time  of 
Claudius,  when  a  formidable  insurrection  of  the 
Gauls  was  suppressed,  the  country  became 
lucre  and  more  Romanized.  The  Latin  lan- 
guage gradually  became  the  language  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  Roman  civilization  took  deep 
r'>«t  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  rhetori- 
cians and  poets  of  Gaul  occupy  a  distinguished 


GALLIENUS. 

place  in  the  later  history  of  Roman  literature 
and  Burdigala,  Narbo,  Lugduuum,  and  other 
towns,  possessed  schools,  in  which  literatsre 
and  philosophy  were  cultivated  with  success. 
On  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman  empire,  Gaul, 
like  the  other  Roman  provinces,  was  overrun 
by  barbarians,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  finally 
became  subject  to  the  Franci  or  Franks,  under 
their  king  Clovis,  about  A.D.  496. — 2.  GALLIA 
CISALPINA,  also  called  G.  CITERIOR  and  G.  To- 
GATA,  a  Roman  province  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
was  bounded  on  the  west  by  Liguria  and  Gal- 
lia Narbouensis  (from  which  it  was  separated 
by  the  Alps),  on  the  north  by  Raetia  and  Nori- 
cum,  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic  and  Venetia 
(from  which  it  was  separated  by  the  Athesis), 
and  on  the  south  by  Etruria  and  Umbria  (from 
which  it  was  separated  by  the  River  Rubico). 
It  was  divided  by  the  Po  into  GALLIA  TRANSPA- 
DANA,  also  called  ITALIA  TRANSPADANA,  in  the 
north,  and  GALLIA  CISPADANA  in  the  south. 
The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  a  vast  plain, 
drained  by  the  PADUS  (now  Po)  and  its  afflu- 
ents, and  has  always  been  one  of  the  most  lei- 
tile  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  originally  in- 
habited by  Ligurians,  Umbrians,  Etruscans,  and 
other  races  ;  but  its  fertility  attracted  the  Gauls, 
who  at  different  periods  crossed  the  Alps,  and 
settled  in  the  country,  after  expelling  the  orig- 
inal inhabitants.  We  have  mention  of  five 
distinct  immigrations  of  Gauls  into  the  north 
of  Italy.  The  first  was  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin- 
ius  Priscus,  and  is  said  to  have  been  led  by 
Bellovesus,  who  settled  with  his  followers  in 
the  country  of  the  Insubres,  and  built  Milan. 
The  second  consisted  of  the  Cenomani,  whr 
settled  in  the  neighborhood  of  Brixia  and  Ve- 
rona. The  third  of  the  Salluvii,  who  pressed 
forward  as  far  as  the  Ticinus.  The  fourth  of 
the  Boii  and  Lingones,  who  crossed  the  Po,  and 
took  possession  of  the  country  as  far  as  the  Ap- 
ennines, driving  out  the  Etruscans  and  Um- 
brians. The  fifth  immigration  was  the  most 
important,  consisting  of  the  warlike  race  of  the 
Seuones,  who  invaded  Italy  in  immense  num- 
bers, under  the  command  of  Brennus,  and  took 
Rome  in  B.C.  390.  Part  of  them  subsequently 
recrossed  the  Alps  and  returned  home ;  but  u 
great  number  of  them  remained  in  the  north  of 
Italy,  and  were  for  more  than  a  century  a 
source  of  terror  to  the  Romans.  After  the  first 
Punic  war  the  Romans  resolved  to  make  a 
vigorous  effort  to  subdue  their  dangerous  neigh- 
bors. In  the  course  of  four  years  (225-222)  the 
whole  countiy  waa  conquered,  and  upon  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  (222)  was  reduced  to  the 
form  of  a  Roman  province.  The  inhabitants, 
however,  did  not  bear  the  yoke  patiently,  and  it 
was  not  till  after  the  final  defeat  of  the  Boii,  in 
191,  that  the  country  became  submissive  to  the 
Romans.  The  most  important  tribes  were :  In 
Gallia  Transpadana,  in  the  direction  of  west  to 
east,  the  TAURINI,  SALASSI,  LIBICI,  INSUBRES,  CE- 
XOMANI  :  in  G.  Cispadana,  in  the  same  direction, 
the  Bon,  LINQONES,  SEJTONES. 

GALHENUS,  with  his  full  name,  P.  LICINIUB 
VAI.ERIANUS  EGNATIUS  GALLIENUS,  Roman  em- 
peror A.D.  260-268.  He  succeeded  h»  father 
Valerian  when  the  latter  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Persians  in  260,  but  he  had  previously 
reigned  in  conjunction  with  his  father  from 
319 


GALLINARJA. 


GALLUS. 


ai»  accession  m  253.  Gallienus  was  indolent. 
profligate,  and  indifferent  to  the  public  welfare, 
and  bis  reign  was  one  of  tbe  most  ignoble  and 
disastrous  in  the  history  of  Rome.  The  barba- 
rians ravaged  the  fairest  portion  of  the  empire, 
and  the  inhabitants  were  swept  away  by  one  of 
the  most  frightful  plagues  recorded  in  history. 
This  pestilence  followed  a  long-protracted  fam- 
ine. When  it  was  at  its  greatest  height,  five 
thousand  sick  are  said  to  have  perished  daily 
at  Rome ;  and,  after  the  scourge  had  passed 
away,  it  was  found  that  the  inhabitants  of  Alex- 
uudrea  were  diminished  by  nearly  two  thirds. 
The  complete  dissolution  of  the  empire  was  avert- 
ed mainly  by  a  series  of  internal  rebellions.  In 
every  district  able  officers  sprang  up,  who  as- 
serted and  strove  to  maintain  the  dignity  of  inde- 
pendent princes.  The  armies  levied  by  these 
usurpers,  who  are  commonly  distinguished  as  Tht 
Thirty  Tyrantt,  in  many  cases  arrested  the  pro- 
gress of  the  invaders,  and  restored  order  in  the 
provinces  which  they  governed.  Gallienus  was 
at  length  slain  by  his  own  soldiers  in  268,  while 
besieging  Milan,  in  which  the  usurper  Aureolus 
had  token  refuge. 

( ;  U.I.I.VA UIA.  1.  (Now  Galinara),  an  island  off 
the  coast  of  Liguria,  celebrated  for  its  number 
of  hens ;  whence  its  name. — 2.  SILVA,  a  forest  of 
pine-trees  near  Cumae  in  Campania. 

GALLIC,  JUNIUS.  1.  A  Roman  rhetorician, 
and  a  friend  of  M.  Annaeus  Seneca,  the  rhetori- 
cian, whose  son  he  adopted.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  Nero.  In  early  life  he  had  been  a 
friend  of  Ovid  (Ex  Pont.,  iv.,  11.)— 2.  Son  of 
the  rhetorician  M.  Annseus  Seneca,  and  an  elder 
brother  of  the  philosopher  Seneca,  was  adopted 
by  No.  1. 

GALLICS,  Q.,  was  a  candidate  for  the  praetor- 
ship  in  B.C.  64,  and  was  accused  of  arnbit»s  or 
bribery  by  M.  Calidius.  He  was  defended  on 
that  occasion  by  Cicero  in  an  oration  of  which 
a  few  fragments  have  come  down  to  us.  He 
was  praetor  urbanus  B.C.  63,  and  presided  at 
the  trial  of  C.  Cornelius.  He  left  two  sons, 
Q.  GALLIUS,  who  was  praetor  in  43,  and  was  put 
to  death  by  the  triumvirs ;  and  M.  GALLIUS. 
who  is  mentioned  as.  one  of  Antony's  partisans, 
In  43. 

GALLOGR^ECIA.     Vid.  GALATIA. 

GALLONIUS,  a  public  crier  at  Rome,  probably 
contemporary  with  the  younger  Scipio,  whose 
wealth  and  gluttony  passed  into  the  proverb  "  to 
live  like  Gallonius."  He  was  satirized  by  Hor- 
ace (Sat.,  ii,  2,  46). 

GALLUS,  JULIUS.  1.  A  jurist,  contemporary 
with  Cicero  and  Varro,  though  probably  rather 
older  than  either.  He  was  the  author  of  a  trea- 
tise, J)e  Verbvrum,  qua  ad  Jits  Civile  pertinent, 
Signification*,  which  is  frequently  cited  by  the 
grammarians. — 2.  An  intimate  friend  of  the  ge- 
ographer Strabo,  was  praefect  of  Egypt  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus.  In  B.C.  24  he  invaded  Ara- 
bia, and  after  his  army  had  suffered  dreadfully 
from  the  heat  and  want  of  water,  he  was  obliged 
to  retreat  with  great  loss. 

GALLUS,  L.  ANICICS,  praetor  B.C.  168,  con- 
ducted the  war  against  Geutius,  king  of  the  Uly- 
rians,  whom  he  compelled  to  submit  to  the  Ro- 
man«. 

GALLUS,  C.    AQUILLIUS,  a  distinguished    Ro- 
wu-n  jurist,  was  a  pupil  of  Q.  Mucius  Scavola, 
320 


and  the  instructor  of  Serv.  Sulpicius.  He  wai 
praetor  along  with  Cicero  B.C.  66.  He  is  often 
cited  by  the  jurists  in v  the  Digest,  but  there  is 
no  direct  extract  from  his  own  works  in  the 
Digest. 

GALLUS  SALONINUS,  L.  ABJNIUS,  son  of  C. 
Asinius  Pollio,  was  consul  B.C.  8.  He  was 
hated  by  Tiberius  because  he  had  married  Vip- 
sania,  the  former  wife  of  Tiberius.  In  AJX  30, 
Tiberius  got  the  senate  to  sentence  him  to  death, 
and  kept  him  imprisoned  for  three  years  on  the 
most  scanty  supply  of  food.  He  died  in  prison 
of  starvation,  but  whether  his  death  was  com- 
pulsory or  voluntary  is  unknown.  Gallus  wrote 
a  work,  entitled  De  Comparatione  patri*  ae  Cic- 
cronis,  which  was  unfavorable  to  the  latter,  and 
against  which  the  Emperor  Claudius  wrote  his 
defence  of  Cicero. 

GALLUS,  L.  CANIMUS,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  56,  when  he  supported  the  views  of  Pom- 
pey.  During  the  civil  war  he  appears  to  have 
remained  neutral.  He  died  in  44. 

GALLUS,  CESTIUS,  governor  of  Syria  (leyatus 
A.D.  64,  65),  under  whom  the  Jews  broke  out 
into  the  rebellion  which  ended  in  the  destruction 
of  their  city  and  temple  by  Titus. 

GALLUS,  CONSTANTIUS,  son  of  Julius  Constan- 
tius  and  Galla,  grandson  of  Constantine  Chlo- 
rus,  nephew  of  Constantine  the  Great,  and  elder 
brother,  by  a  different  mother,  of  Julian  the  Apos- 
tate. In  A.D.  351  he  was  named  Caesar  by 
Constantius  IL,  and  was  left  in  the  command  of 
the  East,  where  he  conducted  himself  with  the 
greatest  haughtiness  and  cruelty.  In  354  he 
went  to  the  West  to  meet  Constantius  at  Milan, 
but  was  arrested  at  Petovio  in  Pannonia,  and 
sent  to  Pola  in  Istria,  where  he  was  beheaded 
in  a  prison. 

GALLUS,  C.  CORNELIUS,  was  born  at  Forum 
Julii  (now  Frejfus)  in  Gaul,  of  poor  parents, 
about  B.C.  66.  He  went  to  Italy  at  an  early 
age,  and  began  his  career  as  a  poet  when  he 
was  about  twenty.  He  had  already  attained 
considerable  distinction  at  the  time  of  Cresar's 
death,  44 ;  and  upon  the  arrival  of  Octavianus 
in  Italy  after  that  event,  Gallus  embraced  his 
party,  and  soon  acquired  great  influence  with 
him.  In  41  he  was  one  of  the  triumviri  ap- 
pointed by  Octavianus  to  distribute  lands  in  the 
north  of  Italy  among  his  veterans,  and  on  that 
occasion  he  afforded  protection  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Mantua  and  to  Virgil.  He  afterward 
accompanied  Octavianus  to  the  battle  of  Actium, 
31,  and  commanded  a  detachment  of  the  army. 
After  the  battle,  Gallus  was  sent  with  the  army 
to  Egypt,  in  pursuit  of  Antony;  and  when  Egypt 
was  made  a  Roman  province,  Octavianus  ap- 
pointed Gallus  the  first  prefect  of  the  province. 
He  remained  in  Egypt  for  nearly  four  years ; 
but  he  incurred  at  length  the  enmity  of  Octavi- 
anus, though  the  exact  nature  of  his  offence  is 
uncertain.  According  to  some  accounts,  he 
spoke  of  the  emperor  in  an  offensive  and  in- 
sulting manner  ;  he  erected  numerous  statues 
of  himself  in  Egypt,  and  had  his  own  exploits 
inscribed  on  the  pyramids.  The  senate  de- 
prived him  of  his  estates,  and  sent  him  into  ex- 
ile ;  whereupon  he  put  an  end  to  his  life  by 
throwing  himself  upon  his  own  sword,  B.C. 
26.  The  intimate  friendship  existing  between 
Gallus  and  the  most  eminent  men  of  the  time. 


UALLUS. 


GANYMEDES. 


&s  Asinius  Pollio,  Virgil,  Varus,  and  Ovid,  auc 
the  high  praise  they  bestow  upon  him  pro 
that  he  was  a  man  of  great  intellectual  powers 
and  acquirements.  Ovid  (Trist.,  iv.,  10,  5)  as 
signs  to  him  the  first  place  among  the  Roman 
elegiac  poets ;  and  we  know  that  he  wrote  a 
collection  of  elegies  in  four  books,  the  principa 
subject  of  which  was  his  love  of  Lycoris.  But 
all  bis  productions  have  perished;  for  the  four 
epigrams  in  the  Latin  Anthology  attributed  to 
Gallus  could  not  have  been  written  by  a  contem- 
porary of  Augustus.  Gallus  translated  into  Latin 
the  poems  of  Euphorion  of  Chalcis,  but  this  trans- 
lation is  also  lost.  Some  critics  attribute  to  him 
the  poem  Ciris,  usually  printed  among  the  works 
of  Virgil,  but  the  arguments  do  not  appear  satis- 
factory. 

GALLUS,  SULPICIUS,  a  distinguished  orator,  was 
prater  B.C.  169,  and  consul  166,  when  he  fought 
against  the  Ligurians.  In  168  he  served  as  tri- 
bune of  the  soldiers  under  ^Emilius  Paulus  in 
Macedonia,  and  during  this  campaign  predicted 
an  eclipse  of  the  mooa 

GALLUS,  TKEBONIANUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D. 
251-254.  His  full  name  was  C.  VIBIUS  TEE 
BONIANUS  GALLUS.  He  served  under  Decius  in 
the  campaigns  against  the  Goths,  251,  and  he 
is  said  to  have  contributed  by  his  treachery  to 
the  disastrous  issue  of  the  battle,  which  proved 
fatal  to  Decius  and  his  son  Herennius.  Gallus 
was  thereupon  elected  emperor,  and  Hostilia- 
uus,  the  surviving  son  of  Decius,  was  nominated 
his  colleague.  He  purchased  a  peace  of  the 
Goths  by  allowing  them  to  retain  their  plunder, 
and  promising  them  a  fixed  annual  tribute.  In 
253  the  Goths  again  invaded  the  Roman  do- 
minions, but  they  were  driven  back  by  ^Emili- 
anus,  whose  troops  proclaimed  him  emperor  in 
Mcesia.  ^Ernilianus  thereupon  marched  into 
Italy ;  and  Gallus  was  put  to  death  by  his  own 
soldiers,  together  with  his  son  Volusianus,  be- 
fore any  collision  had  taken  place  between  the 
opposing  armies.  The  name  of  Gallus  is  asso- 
ciated with  nothing  but  cowardice  and  dishonor. 
In  addition  to  the  misery  produced  by  the  iu- 
roads  of  the  barbarians  during  this  reign,  a  dead- 
ly pestilence  broke  out  252,  and  continued  its 
ravages  over  every  part  of  the  empire  for  fifteen 
years. 

GALLUS.  1.  A  river  in  Bithynia,  rising  near 
Modra,  on  the  borders  of  Phrygia,  and  falling 
into  the  Sangarius  near  Leucae  (now  Lefkeh). — 
2.  A  river  in  Galatia,  which  also  fell  into  the 
Sangarius  near  Pessinus.  From  it  the  priests 
of  Cybelc  are  said  to  have  obtained  their  name 
of  Galli. 

GAMKLII  (yafiTjfaoi  i?eoi),  that  is,  the  divinities 
protecting  and  presiding  over  marriage.  These 
divinities  are  usually  regarded  as  the  protectors 
of  marriage.  Respecting  the  festival  of  the  Ga- 
melia,  vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  t.  v. 

GANDARJS  (Tavdupat  ),  an  Indian  people  in  the 
Paropamisus,  on  the  northwest  of  the  Punjab, 
between  the  rivers  Indus  and  Suastus.  Under 
Xerxes  they  were  subjects  of  the  Persian  em- 
pire. Their  country  was  called  Gandaritis  (Tav- 
<5opZr<f). 

GANDARID.S  or  GANDARIT.*:  (Tavdapitiai,  Tav- 
Japirat),  an  Indian  people,  iu  the  middle  of  the 
Punjab,  between  the  rivers  Acesines  (now  Che- 
**)  and  llydraotes  (now  Ravee),  whoee  king, 


at  the  time  of  Alexander's  invasion,  was  a  coua 
in  and  namesake  of  the  celebrated  Porus 
Whether  they  were  different  from  .the  GANDA- 
RJ£  is  uncertain.  Sanscrit  writers  mention  tht> 
Ghanddra  in  the  centre  of  the  Punjab. 

GANGAEID^E  (Tayyapidai),  an  Indian  people- 
about  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges. 

GANGES  (Fuyy^f  :  now  Ganges  or  Ganga),  the 
greatest  river  of  India,  which  it  divided  into  the 
two  parts  named  by  the  ancients  India  intra 
Gangem  (now  Hindustan)  and  India  extra  Gan- 
gem  (now  Burmah,  Cochin  China,  Siam,  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula).  It  rises  in  the  highest  part 
of  the  Emodi  Montes  (now  Himalaya)  and  flows 
in  a  general  southeastern  direction  till  it  falls 
by  several  mouths  into  the  head  of  the  Gange- 
ticus  Sinus  (now  Say  of  Bengal).  Like  th« 
Nile,  it  overflows  its  banks  periodically,  and 
these  inundations  render  its  valley  the  most 
fertile  part  of  India.  The  knowledge  of  the  an- 
cients respecting  it  was  very  imperfect,  and  they 
give  very  various  accounts  of  its  source,  its 
size,  and  the  number  of  its  mouths.  The 
breadth  which  Diodorus  Siculus  assigns  to  it  iu 
the  lower  part  of  its  course,  thirty-two  stadia, 
or  about  three  miles,  is  perfectly  correct  The 
following  rivers  are  mentioned  as  its  tributaries  : 
Cainas,  Jomanes  or  Diamunas,  Sarabus,  Con- 
dochates,  CEdanes,  Cosoagus  or  Cossoanus, 
Erannoboas,  Sonus  or  Soas,  Sittocestis,  Soloma- 
tis,  Sambus,  Magon,  Agoranis,  Omalis,  Comme- 
nases,  Cacuthis,  Andomatis,  Amystis,  Oxymagis, 
and  Errhenysis.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  a 
city  in  the  interior  of  India,  on  the  Ganges,  where 
it  makes  its  great  bend  to  the  eastward,  perhaps 
Allahabad. 

GANGRA  (Foyypa :  now  Kankari),  a  city  of 
Paphlagonia,  near  the  confines  of  Galatia,  was 
originally  a  fortress ;  in  the  time  of  King  Deio- 
tarus,  a  royal  residence ;  and  under  the  later 
emperors,  the  capital  of  Paphlagonia. 

GANGS  (Tdvoe),  a  fortress  in  Thrace,  on  the  Pro- 
pontis. 

GANYMEDES  (Taw^drjq),  son  of  Tros  and  Cal- 
lirrhoe,  and  brother  of  Ilus  and  Assaracus,  was 
the  most  beautiful  of  all  mortals,  and  was  car- 
ried off  by  the  gods  that  he  might  fill  the  cup  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  live  among  the  eternal  gods. 
This  is  the  Homeric  account ;  but  other  tradi- 
tions give  different  details.  Some  call  him  son 
of  Laomedon,  others  son  of  Ilus,  and  others, 
again,  of  Erichthonius  or  Assaracus.  The  man- 
ner in  which  he  was  carried  away  from  the 
earth  is  likewise  differently  described ;  for 
while  Homer  mentions  the  gods  in  general,  later 
writers  state  that  Jupiter  (Zeus)  himself  carried 
him  off,  either  in  his  natural  shape,  or  in  the 
form  of  an  eagle,  or  by  means  of  his  eagle. 
There  is,  further,  no  agreement  as  to  the  place 
where  the  event  occurred ;  though  later  writers 
usually  represent  him  as  carried  off  from  Mount 
Ida  (captus  ah  Ida,  Hor.,  Cam.,  iv.,  4).  The 
early  legend  simply  states  that  Ganymedes  was 
carried  off  that  he  might  be  the  cup-bearer  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  in  which  office  he  was  conceived 
10  have  succeeded  Hebe  ;  but  later  writers  de- 
scribe him  as  the  beloved  and  favorite  of  Jupi- 
,er  (Zeus),  without  allusion  to  his  office.  Jupi- 
,er  (Zeus)  compensated  the  father  for  his  loss 
ay  a  pair  of  divine  horses.  Astronomers  have 
placed  Ganymeies  among  the  stars  under  the 
321 


GARAMA. 

name  of  Aquarius.  The  Romans  called  him  by 
a  corrupt  form  of  his  name,  CATAMITUS. 

GARAMA.     Vid.  GARAMANTES. 

GARAMANTES  (Fapo/tavrcf),  the  southernmost 
people  known  to  the  ancients  in  Northern  Afri- 
ca, dwelt  far  south  of  the  Great  Syrtis,  in  the 
region  called  Phazania  (now  Fezzan),  where 
they  had  a  capital  city,  Gai-finiS  (Tupafta  :  now 
jlourzouk,  latitude  25°  53'  north,  longitude  14° 
It/  east).  They  are  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
as  a  weak,  unwarlike  people ;  he  places  them 
nineteen  days'  journey  from  ^Ethiopia  and  the 
chores  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  fifteen  days'  journey 
from  Ammonium,  and  thirty  days'  journey 
from  Egypt  The  Romans  obtained  fresh  knowl- 
edge of  them  by  the  expedition  of  Cornelius 
Balbus  into  their  country  In  B.C.  43. 

[GARAMAS  (Tapujtaf),  son  of  Apollo  and  Aca- 
callis  (daughter  of  Minos),  from  whom  the  Ga- 
ramantes  were  fabled  to  have  derived  their 
name.] 

GAEGANUS  MONS  (now  Monte  Gargano),  a 
mountain  and  promontory  in  Apulia,  on  which 
were  oak  forests  (qucrceta  Gargani,  Hor.,  Carm., 
»-,  9,  7). 

[GARGAFHIA  (TapyaQia),  a  fountain  in  a  valley 
near  Plataeae  in  Bosotia  ;  in  the  second  Persian 
war  Mardouius  caused  its  waters  to  be  poisoned 
in  order  to  destroy  the  Greeks  who  had  encamp- 
ed in  its  vicinity.] 

GARGARA,  -ON  or  -us  Tupyaoa,  ov,  of  :  Tapya- 
pevf).  1.  (Now  Kaz-Dagh\  the  southern  sum- 
mit of  Mount  Ida,  in  the  Troad. — 2.  A  city  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Ida,  on  the  shore  of  the  Gulf 
of  Adramyttium,  between  Assus  and  Antandrus ; 
said  to  have  been  founded  originally  on  the  sum- 
init  of  the  mountain  by  the  Leleges  ;  afterward 
colonized  from  Miletus  ;  and  removed  to  the  low- 
er site  on  account  of  the  inclemency  of  its  situa- 
tion on  the  mountaia  Its  neighborhood  was  rich 
in  corn. 

GARGETTUS  (Fapyj/rrof  :  Fapy^rrtof)  a  demus 
in  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  ^Egeis,  on  the 
northwestern  slope  of  Mount  Hymettus;  the 
birth-place  of  the  philosopher  Epicurus. 

GARITES,  a  people  in  Aquitania,  neighbors  of 
the  Ausci,  in  the  modern  Comte  de  Gauve. 

GAROCKLI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  near 
Mount  Cenis,  in  the  neighborhood  of  St.  Jean  de 
Mauricnne. 

GARSA.URIA  or  -ITIS  (Tapaaovpia  or  -Ing),  a 
praefectura  in  Cappadocia,  on  the  borders  of  Ly- 
caonia  and  Tyamtis.  Its  chief  town  was  called 
Fapauovpa. 

GARULI,  a  people  of  Liguria  in  the  Apennines. 

GARUMNA  (now  Garonne),  one  of  the  chief 
rivers  of  Gaul,  rises  in  the  Pyrenees,  flows 
northwest  through  Aquitania,  and  becomes  a  bay 
of  the  sea  below  Burdigala  (now  Bordeaux). 

GARUMXI,  a  people  in  Aquitania,  on  the  Ga- 
rumna. 

^  GATHER  (Fafleat),  a  town  in  Arcadia,  on  the 
GATHEATAS,  a  river  which  flows  into  Alpheus, 
west-southwest  of  Megalopolis. 

[GAUDA,  a  Numidian,  son  of  Mastanabal,  half 
brother  to  Jugurtha,  had  been  named  by  his  un 
cle  Micipsa  as  heir  to  the  kingdom  should  Ad- 
herbal,  HiempsaL,  and  Jugurtha  die  without 
ueue.] 

[GACDOS.     Vid.   GAULOS] 
GAUGAMELA(T<I  Tavyu^la  :  now  Karmelit),* 
322 


OE. 

village  in  the  district  of  Aturia  in  Assyria,  the 
scene  of  the  last  and  decisive  battle  between  Alex- 
ander and  Darius  Codomannus,  B.C.  331,  common- 
ly called  the  battle  of  ARBELA. 

GAULANITIS  (Fatvla-  or  -ovlrig :  now  Jaulan), 
a  district  in  the  north  of  Palestine,  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  as  far  south  as 
the  River  Hieromax,  named  from  the  town  of 
Golan  (Far/lava). 

GAULOS  (TaiiAof  :  Tav7.inj<;:  now  Gozzo).  1, 
An  island  in  the  Sicilian  Sea,  near  Melite  (now 
Malta). — [2.  Or  GAUDOS,  an  island  opposite  Hie- 
rapytna  in  Crete,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
island  of  Calypso.] 

GAURELEON,  GAURION.     Vid.  ANDROS. 

GAURUS  MONS,  GAURANUS  or  -NI  M.  (now 
Monte  Gauro),  a  volcanic  range  of  mountains  in 
Campania,  between  Cumae  and  Neapolis^  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Puteoli,  which  produced  good 
wine,  and  was  memorable  for  the  defeat  of  the 
Samnites  by  M.  Valerius  Corvus,  B.C.  343. 

[GAVIUS,  P.,  a  citizen  of  Cosa,  arrested  by  Ver- 
res,  and  crucified  at  the  city  of  Messana  in  Sicily, 
although  this  punishment  was  permitted  only  in 
the  case  of  slaves  ;  the  account  of  his  death  is  one 
of  the  most  eloquent  passages  in  the  Verrine  ora- 
tions of  Cicero.] 

GAZA  (Fufa).  1.  (Now  Ghuzzeh),  the  last  city 
on  the  southwestern  frontier  of  Palestine,  and 
the  key  of  the  country  on  the  side  of  Egypt, 
stood  on  an  eminence  about  two  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  was,  from  the  very  earliest  timas  of 
which  we  have  any  record,  very  strongly  forti- 
fied. It  was  one  of  the  five  cities  of  the  Philis- 
tines ;  and,  though  taken  from  them  mdre  than 
once  by  the  Jews,  was  each  time  recovered. 
It  was  taken  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  and  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  Persians  till  the  time  of  Al- 
exander, who  only  gamed  possession  of  it  after 
an  obstinate  defence  of  several  months.  In 
B.C.  315  it  fell  into  the  power  of  Ptolemy,  the 
son  of  Lagus,  as  the  result  of  his  victory  over 
Demetrius  before  the  city,  and  was  destroyed 
by  him.  But  it  again  recovered,  and  was  pos- 
sessed alternately  by  the  kings  of  Syria  and 
Egypt,  during  their  prolonged  wars,  and  after- 
ward by  the  Asmonsean  princes  of  Judeea,  one 
of  whom,  Alexander  Jannseus,  again  destroyed 
it,  B.C.  96.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Gabinius ;  given 
by  Augustus  to  Herod  the  Great ;  and,  after 
Herod's  death,  united  to  the  Roman  province  of 
Syria.  In  A.D.  65  it  was  again  destroyed  in 
an  insurrection  of  its  Jewish  inhabitants ;  but 
it  recovered  once  more,  and  remained  a  flourish- 
ing city  till  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs  in 
A.D.  634.  In  addition  to  its  importance  as  a 
military  post,  it  possessed  an  extensive  com- 
merce, carried  on  through  its  port,  Majuma  or 
CONSTANTIA. — 2.  (Now  Ghaz),  &  city  in  the  Per- 
sian province  of  Sogdiaria,  between  Alexandrea 
and  Cyropolis  ;  one  of  the  seven  cities  which  re- 
belled against  Alexander  in  B.C.  328. 

GAZACA  (Fa£a/ca  :  now  Tabreez),  a  city  in  the 
north  of  Media  Atropatene,  equidistant  from  Ar- 
taxata  and  Ecbatana,  was  a  summer  residence  of 
the  kings  of  Media. 

GAZIURA  (Tatfovpa),  a  city  in  Pontus  Galati- 
cus,  on  the  River  Iris,  below  Amasia.  was  the 
ancient  residence  of  the  kings  of  Pontus ;  but  Lu 
Strabo's  time  it  had  fallen  to  decay. 

[OB  (Tv)     ran—I 


GEBALENE. 


GELONL 


QEBAL£.NT:  (Te6a^.tfvt]),  the  district  of  Arabia 
Petrsea  around  the  city  of  Petra. 

GEBENXA  MONS.      Vid.  CEBENXA. 

GEDEOSIA  (Tedpuaia  and  Tadpuaia  :  south- 
easteru  part  of  JSeloochistan),  the  furthest  prov- 
ince of  the  Persian  empire  on  the  southeast,  aud 
one  of  the  subdivisions  of  AUIANA,  was  bounded 
on  the  west  by  Carinania,  on  the  north  by  Dran- 
giana  and  Arachosia,  on  the  east  by  India  (or, 
as  the  country  about  the  lower  course  of  the 
Indus  was  called,  Indo-Scythia),  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Mare  Erytbraeum,  or  Indian  Ocean. 
It  is  formed  by  a  succession  of  sandy  steppes, 
rising  from  the  sea-coast  toward  the  table-land 
of  Ariaua,  and  produced  little  besides  aromatic 
shrubs.  The  slip  of  land  between  the  coast  "and 
the  lowest  mountain  range  is  watered  by  sev- 
eral rivers,  the  chief  of  which  was  called  Arabis 
(now  Doosee  ?)  ;  but  even  this  district  is  for  the 
most  part  only  a  series  of  salt  marshes.  Ge- 
drosia  is  known  in  history  chiefly  through  the 
distress  suffered  for  want  of  water,  in  passing 
through  it,  by  the  armies  of  Cyrus  and  of  Alex- 
ander. The  inhabitants  were  divided  by  the 
Greek  writers  into  two  races,  the  Ichthyophagi 
on  the  sea-coast,  and  the  Gedrosi  in  the  interior. 
The  latter  were  a  wild  nomade  people,  whom 
even  Alexander  was  only  able  to  reduce  to  a 
temporary  subjection.  The  whole  country  was 
divided  into  eight  districts.  Its  chief  cities  were 
lihambacia  and  Pura,  or  Earsis. 

GEGAXIA  GENS,  traced  its  origin  to  the  myth- 
ical Gyas,  one  of  the  companions  of  ^Eneas.  It 
was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Alban  houses, 
transplanted  to  Rome  on  the  destruction  of 
Alba  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  and  enrolled  among 
the  Roman  patricians.  There  appears  to  have 
been  only  one  family  in  this  gens,  that  of  Aface- 
rinus,  many  members  of  which  filled  the  highest 
offices  in  the  state  in  the  early  times  of  the  re- 
public. 

GELA  (17  Ft/la,  Ion.  T&ri  :  PeAwof,  Gelensis  : 
ruins  at  Terra  Nuova),  a  city  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Sicily,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name 
(now  flume  di  Terra  Nuova),  founded  by  Rhodi- 
aus  from  Lindos,  and  by  Cretans,  B.C.  690.  It 
soon  obtained  great  power  and  wealth  ;  and  in 
582  it  founded  Agrigentum,  which,  however,  be- 
came more  powerful  than  the  mother  city.  Like 
the  other  cities  of  Sicily,  it  was  subject  to  ty- 
rants, of  whom  the  most  important  were  HIP- 
POCRATES, GELON,  and  HIERON.  Gelon  trans- 
ported half  of  its  inhabitants  to  Syracuse  ;  the 
place  gradually  fell  into  decay,  and  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  was  no  longer  inhabited.  The  poet 
./Eschylus  died  here.  North  of  Gela  were  the 
celebrated  Campi  GelOi,  which  produced  rich 
crops  of  wheat 

CI.L.I:.      Vid.  CADCSII. 

GELANOE  (Pc/Utt-wp),  king  of  Argos,  vfta  ex- 
pelled by  Danaus. 

[GELBIS  (now  Kylf),  a  small  river  of  Gallia 
Belgica,  which  empties  into  the  Mosella  (now 


GELD£BA  (now  Gelb,  below  Cologne),  a  forti- 
fied place  of  the  Ubii,  on  the  Rhine,  in  Lower 
Germany. 

OKI.LIA  GEMS,  plebeian,  was  of  Samnite  origin, 
and  afterward  settled  at  Rome.  There  were 
two  generals  of  this  name  in  the  Samnite  wars, 
iMlius  Statiua  in  the  second  Samnite  war,  who 


was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  B.C.  305,  and 
Gellius  Eguatius  in  the  third  Samnite  war. 
Vid.  EGNATIUS.  The  chief  family  of  the  Gellii 
at  Rome  bore  the  name  of  PUBLICOLA. 

GELLU:S.  1.  CN.,  a  contemporary  of  the 
Gracchi,  the  author  of  a  history  of  Rome  from 
the  earliest  epoch  down  to  B.C.  145  at  least. 
The  work  is  lost,  but  it  is  frequently  quoted  by 
later  writers. — 2.  Autus,  a  Latin  grammarian 
of  good  family,  was  probably  a  native  of  Rome. 
He  studied  rhetoric  under  T.  Castricius  and 
Sulpicius  Apollinaris,  philosophy  under  Calvisius 
Taurus  and  Peregrinus  Proteus,  and  enjoved 
also  the  friendship  and  instructions  of  Favori- 
nus,  Herodes  Atticus,  and  Cornelius  Fronto. 
While  yet  a  youth,  he  was  appointed  by  the  prae- 
tor to  act  as  umpire  in  civil  causes.  The  pre- 
cise date  of  his  birth  and  death  is  unknown ;  but 
he  must  have  lived  under  Hadrian,  Antoninus 
Pius,  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  A.D.  117-180.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  Noctes  Atticce,  because  it 
was  composed  in  a  country  house  near  Athens 
during  the  long  nights  of  winter.  It  is  a  sort 
of  miscellany,  containing  numerous  extracts  from 
Greek  and  Roman  writers,  on  a  variety  of  topics 
connected  with  history,  antiquities,  philosophy, 
and  philology,  interspersed  with  original  remarks, 
the  whole  thrown  together  into  twenty  books, 
without  any  attempt  at  order  or  arrangement 
The  eighth  book  is  entirely  lost  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  index.  The  best  editions  are  by 
Jac.  Gronovius,  Lugd.  Bat,  1706  (reprinted  by 
Conradi,  Lips.,  1762),  and  by  Lion,  Gofting.,  1824. 
— 3.  PUBLICIUS,  a  jurist,  one  of  the  disciples  of 
Servius  Sulpicius. 

GELON  (Fe/W).  1.  Son  of  Dinomenes,  tyrant 
of  Gela,  and  afterward  of  Syracuse,  was  de- 
scended from  one  of  the  most  illustrious  fami- 
lies in  Gela.  He  held  the  chief  command  of 
the  cavalry  in  the  service  of  Hippocrates,  tyrant 
of  Gela,  shortly  after  whose  death  he  obtained 
the  supreme  power,  B.C.  491.  In  485  he  avail- 
ed himself  of  the  internal  dissensions  of  Syra- 
cuse to  make  himself  master  of  this  city  also. 
From  this  time  he  neglected  Gela,  and  bent  all 
his  efforts  to  the  aggrandizement  of  Syracuse, 
to  which  place  he  removed  many  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  other  cities  of  Sicily.  In  480  he 
gained  a  brilliant  victory  at  Himera  over  the 
Carthaginians,  who  had  invaded  Sicily  with  an 
army,  amounting,  it  is  said,  to  the  incredible 
number  of  three  hundred  thousand  men.  Scarce- 
ly any  of  this  vast  host  survived  to  carry  the 
news  to  Carthage.  The  victory  is  said  to  have 
been  gained  on  the  very  same  day  as  that  of 
Salamis.  He  died  in  478  of  a  dropsy,  after 
reigning  seven  years  at  Syracuse.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  HIERON.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a  man  of  singular  leniency  and  moder- 
ation, and  as  seeking  in  every  way  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  his  subjects  ;  and  his  name  even 
appears  to  have  become  almost  proverbial  as  an 
instance  of  a  good  monarch.  A  splendid  tomb 
was  erected  to  him  by  the  Syracusans  at  the 
public  expense,  and  heroic  honors  were  decreed 
to  his  memory. — 2.  Son  of  Hieron  IL,  king  of 
Syracuse,  who  died  before  his  father,  at  the  age 
of  more  than  fifty  years.  He  received  the  title 
of  king  in  the  lifetime  of  his  father. 

GKLO.M  (TeXuvot),  a  Scythian  people,  who 
dwelt  in  Sannatia  Asiatica,  to  the  east  of  th« 

Ma 


GELONUS. 


GENSERIC. 


River  Taimis  (uow  Don).  They  were  said  to 
have  been  of  Greek  origin,  and  to  have  migrated 
from  the  shores  of  the  Euxiue ;  but  they  inter- 
mixed with  the  Scythians  so  as  to  lose  all  traces 
of  their  Hellenic  race.  Their  chief  city  was 
called  Gelonus  (IVAwrof). 

[GELONUS  (Tc^uvof).  1.  Son  of  Hercules, 
ana  brother  of  Agathyrsus,  said  to  have  given 
name  to  the  Geloni. — 2.  (i)  Ttbuvof).  Vid.  GE- 
LONI.] 

GEMINUS  (Te/uvoc),  au  astronomer,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Rhodes,  and  flourished  about  B.C.  77.  He 
is  the  author  of  an  extant  work,  entitled  Etfa- 
yuyr)  tlf  T&  Qaivopeva,  which  is  a  descriptiye 
treatise  on  elementary  astronomy,  with  a  great 
deal  of  historical  allusion.  It  is  printed  in  the 
f/randogion  of  Petavius,  Paris,  1630,  and  in 
Halma's  edition  of  Ptolemy,  Paris,  1819. 

GEMINTS,  SEHVILIUS.  1.  P.,  twice  consul 
with  C.  Aurelius  Cotta  in  the  first  Punic  war, 
namely,  in  B.C.  252  and  248.  In  both  years  he 
carried  on  war  against  th£  Carthaginians. — 2. 
CN.,  son  of  No.  1,  was  consul  217  with  C.  Fla- 
minius,  in  the  second  Punic  war,  and  ravaged  the 
coast  of  Africa  He  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cannas, 
216. — 3.  MT  also  surnamed  PULEX,  consul  202 
with  Tib.  Claudius  Nero,  obtained  Etruria  for  his 
province.  He  is  mentioned  on  several  occasions 
subsequently. 

GEMONI.*  (scalae)  or  GEMONII  (gradus),  a 
flight  of  steps  cut  out  of  the  Aventine,  down 
which  the  bodies  of  the  criminals  strangled  in  the 
prisons  were  dragged,  and  afterward  thrown  into 
the  Tiber. 

GENABUM  or  CENABUM  (now  Orleans),  a  town 
in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  on  the  northern  bank  of 
the  Ligeris,  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Carnutes ; 
it  was  plundered  and  burnt  by  Caesar,  but  sub- 
sequently rebuilt.  In  later  times  it  was  called 
Civitas  Aurelianorum  or  Aurelianeusis  Urbs, 
whence  its  modern  name. 

GENAUNI,  a  people  in  Vindelicia,  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Alpine  valley,  now  called  Valle  di 
Non,  were  subdued  by  Drusus.  (Hor.,  Carm., 
iv.,  14,  10). 

GENESIUS,  JOSEPHUS,  lived  about  A.D.  940, 
and  wrote  in  four  books  a  history  of  the  Byzan- 
tine emperors,  from  A.D.  813  to  886,  consequent- 
ly of  the  reigns  of  Leo  V.,  Michael  IL,  Theoph- 
ilus,  Michael  III.,  and  Basil  L  Edited  by  Lach- 
manu,  Bonn,  1834. 

GENET^EUS  (TevrjTaloe),  a  surname  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus,)  from  Cape  Genetus  on  the  Euxine, 
where  he  was  worshipped  as  ev&ivof,  i.  e.,  "  the 
hospitable." 

GENETYLLIS  (TsvervWif),  the  protectress  of 
births,  occurs  both  as  a  surname  of  Venus 
(Aphrodite),  and  as  a  distinct  divinity  and  a 
aompanion  of  Venus  (Aphrodite).  We  also  find 
the  plural  TevervA/lWef  or  Tevvatdef,  as  a  class 
of  divinities  presiding  over  generation  and  birth, 
and  as  companions  of  Venus  (Aphrodite)  Colias. 

GENEVA  or  GENAVA  (Genevensis  :  now  Gene- 
va,) the  last  town  of  the  Allobroges,  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  Helvetii,  was  situated  on  the  south- 
ern bank  of  the  Rhone,  at  the  spot  where  the 
river  flowed  out  of  the  Lacus  Lemannus.  There 
was  a  bridge  here  over  the  Rhone. 

GK.VITRIX,  that  is,  "  the  mother,"  is  used  by 
Ovid  (Met.,  xiv.,  536)  as  a  surname  of  Cybele,  in 
the  place  of  mater,  or  magna  mater ;  but  it  is 
324 


better  known  as  a  surname  of  Venus,  to  whom 
Csesar  dedicated  a  temple  at  Rome  as  tbe 
mother  of  the  Julia  Gens. 

GENIUS,  a  protecting  spirit,  analogous  to  the 
guardian  iingels  invoked  by  the  Church  of  Rome 
The  belief  in  such  spirits  existed  both  in  Greece 
and  at  Rome.  The  Greeks  called  them  <5at/*ovcf, 
Daemons,  and  appear  to  have  behoved  in  them 
from  the  earliest  times,  though-Homer  does  not. 
mention  them.  Hesiod  says  that  the  Daemons 
were  thirty  thousand  in  number,  and  that  they 
dwelled  on  earth  unseen  by  mortals,  as  the  min- 
isters of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  as  the  guardians  of 
men  and  of  justice.  He  further  conceives  thorn 
to  be  the  souls  of  righteous  men  who  lived  m 
the  <}olden  Age  of  the  world.  The  Greek  phi- 
losophers took  up  this  idea,  and  developed  n 
complete  theory  of  daemons.  Thus  we  read  in 
Plato  that  daemons  are  assigned  to  men  at  the 
moment  of  their  birth,  that  they  accompany 
men  through  life,  and  after  death  conduct  their 
souls  to  Hades.  Pindar,  in  several  passages, 
speaks  of  yevedfaog  6aipuv,  that  ia,  the  spirit 
watching  over  the  fate  of  man  from  the  hour 
of  his  birth.  The  daemons  are  further  described 
as  the  ministers  and  companions  of  the  gods, 
who  carry  the  prayers  of  men  to  the  gods,  uud 
the  gifts  of  the  gods  to  men,  and  accordingly 
float  in  immense  numbers  in  the  space  between 
heaven  and  earth.  There  was  also  a  distinct 
class  of  daemons,  who  were  exclusively  the  min- 
isters of  the  god».  The  Romans  seem  to  have 
received  their  notions  respecting  the  genii  from 
the  Etruscans,  though  the  name  Genius  itself 
is  Latin  (it  is  connected  with  gi-gn-o,  gen-ui, 
and  equivalent  in  meaning  to  generator  or  fa- 
ther). The  genii  of  the  Romans  are  the  powers 
which  produce  life  (dii  genitales),  and  accom- 
pany man  through  it  as  his  second  or  spiritual 
self.  They  were  further  not  confined  to  man, 
but  every  living  being,  animal  as  well  as  man, 
and  every  place,  had  its  genius.  -Every  human 
being  at  his  birth  obtained  (sortitur)  a  genius, 
whom  he  worshipped  as  sanctus  et  sanctissimus 
deus,  especially  on  his  birth-day,  with  libations 
of  wine,  incense,  and  garlands  of  flowers.  The 
bridal  bed  was  sacred  to  the  genius,  on  account 
of  his  connection  with  generation,  and  the  bed 
itself  was  called  lectut  genialis.  On  other  merry 
occasions,  also,  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the 
jenjus,  and  to  indulge  in  merriment  was  not 
unfrequently  expressed  by  genio  indulgere,  geni- 
um  curare  or  placare.  The  whole  body  of  the 
Roman  people  tad  its  own  genius,  who  is  often 
seen  represented  on  coins  of  Hadrian  and  Trajan. 
He  was  worshipped  on  sad  as  well  as  joyous 
occasions ;  thus  sacrifices  were  offered  to  him 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  of  the 
war  with  Hannibal.  The  genii  are  usually  rep- 
resented in  works  of  art  as  winged  beings.  The 
genius  of  a  place  appears  in  the  form  of  a  ser- 
pent eating  fruit  placed  before  him. 

GENSEEIC,  king  of  the  Vandals,  and  the  most 
terrible  of  all  the  barbarian  invaders  of  the  em- 
pire. In  A.D.  429  he  crossed  over  from  Spain 
to  Africa,  and  ravaged  the  country  with  fright' 
ful  severity.  Hippo  was  taken  by  him  in  481, 
but  Carthage  did  not  fall  into  his  hands  till  439. 
Having  thus  become  master  of  the  whole  of  the 
northwest  of  Africa,  he  attacked  Italy  itself 
In  455  he  took  Rome  and  plundered  it  for  four 


GENTIUS. 


GERMANIA. 


teen  days,  and  in  the  same  year  lie  destroyed 
Capua,  Nola,  and  Neapolis.  Twice  the  empire 
endeavored  to  revenge  itself,  and  twice  it  fail- 
ed :  the  first  was  the  attempt  of  the  Western 
emperor  Majorian  (457),  whose  fleet  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  Bay  of  Carthagena,  The  second 
was  the  expedition  sent  by  the  Eastern  emperor 
Leo  (468),  which  was  also  baffled  by  the  burn- 
ing of  the  fleet  off  Bona.  Genseric  died  in  477, 
at  a  great  age.  He  was  an  Arian ;  and  in  the 
cruelties  exercised  under  his  orders  against  his 
Catholic  subjects  he  exhibited  the  first  instance 
of  persecution  carried  on  upon  a  large  scale  by 
cue  body  of  Christians  against  another. 

GENTIUS,  son  of  Pleuratus,  a  king  of  the  Illyr- 
ians.  As  early  as  B.C.  180  he  had  given  of- 
fence to  the  Romans  on  account  of  the  pira- 
cies of  his  subjects  ;  and  in  168  he  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  Perseus,  king  of  Macedonia. 
In  the  following  year  the  praetor  L.  Anicius 
Gallus  was  sent  against  him.  The  war  was 
finished  within  thirty  days.  Gentius  was  de- 
feated in  battle,  and  then  surrendered  himself 
to  Anicius,  who  carried  him  to  Rome  to  adorn 
his  triumph.  He  was  afterward  kept  as  a  pris- 
oner at  Spoletium. 

GENUA  (Genuas,  -atis,  Genuensis :  now  Ge- 
noa), an  important  commercial  town  in  Liguria, 
situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  Ligurian  Gulf 
(now  Gulf  of  Genoa),  was  in  the  possession  of 
the  Romans  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
Punic  war,  but  ioward  the  end  of  the  war  was 
held  for  some  time  by  the  Carthaginian  Mago. 
It  was  a  Roman  municipium,  but  it  did  not  be- 
come of  political  importance  till  the  Middle 
Ages,  when  it  was  commonly  called  Janua. 

GENUCIA  GENS,  patrician,  of  which  the  prin- 
cipal families  bore  the  names  of  AVENTINENSIS 
and  AUGUEINUS. 

GENUSUS  (now  Iskumi),  a  river  in  Greek  fllyr- 
ia,  north  of  the  Apsus. 

GEPHVR^I  (TeQvpaloi),  an  Athenian  family,  to 
which  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton  belonged. 
They  said  that  they  came  originally  from  Ere- 
tria  in  Euboea.  Herodotus  believed  them  to  be 
of  Phoenician  descent,  to  have  followed  Cad- 
raus  into  Bceotia,  and  from  thence  to  have  emi- 
grated to  Athens.  They  dwelt  on  the  banks 
of  the  Cephisus,  which  separated  the  territory 
of  Athens  from  that  of  Eleusis,  and  their  name 
was  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the  bridge 
(ytyvpa)  which  was  built  over  the  river  at  this 
point  Such  a  notion,  however,  is  quite  unten- 
able, since  "  bridge "  appears  to  have  been  a 
comparatively  recent  meaning  of  yetyvpa.  We 
find  that  there  were  temples  at  Athens  belong- 
ing peculiarly  to  the  Gephyroei,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  rest  of  the  Athenians,  especially  one  to 
Ceres  (Demeter)  Achaea,  whose  worship  they 
seem  to  Ijave  brought  with  them  from  Bcootia. 

GEPID^K,  a  Gothic  people,  who  came  from 
Scandinavia,  and  first  settled  in  the  country  be- 
tween the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  from  which 
they  expelled  the  Burgundiones.  Subsequent- 
ly they  joined  the  numerous  hosts  of  Attila ; 
and  after  his  death  they  settled  in  Dacia,  on  the 
hanks  of  the  Danube.  As  they  were  dangerous 
neighbors  to  the  Eastern  empire.  Justinian  in- 
voked the  aid  of  the  Langobardi  or  Lombards, 
who  conquered  the  Gepidte  and  destroyed  their 
kingdom. 


GER  or  GIR  (Teip  :  now  Ghir  or  Hansolig}^  a 
river  of  Gajtulia  in  Africa,  south  of  Mauretania 
Caesariensis,  flowing  southeast  from  the  south- 
ern slope  .of  Mount  Atlas  till  it  is  lost  in  the 
desert  It  first  became  known  to  the  Romans 
through  the  expedition  of  Suetonius  Paulinus  in 
the  reign  of  Nero. 

GERJESTUS  (  Tepaiarof  :  Tepaiarioe  '•  now  Cape 
Mandili),  a  promontory  and  harbor  at  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  Eubcea,  with  a  celebrated  tem- 
ple of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  in  whose  honor  the 
festival  of  the  Geraestia  (TepalaTia)  was  here 
celebrated. 

GERANEA  (r)  Tepuveia),  a  range  of  mountains, 
beginning  at  the  southwestern  slope  of  Cithae- 
ron,  and  running  along  the  western  coast  of 
Megaris  till  it  terminated  in  Jhe  promontory 
Olmife  in  the-  Corinthian  territory ;  but  the 
name  is  sometimes  confined  to  the  mountain  in 
the  Corinthian  territory. 

GERENIA  (Teprivia),  an  ancient  town  in  Mes 
seuia,  the  birth-place  of  Nestor,  who  is  hence 
called  Gerenian  (Yep^viog).  It  was  regarded  by 
some  as  the  same  place  as  the  Homeric  Enope. 

GERGIS,  or  GERGITHA,  or  -ES,  or  -us  (Tepyis, 
Tepyi6a,  or  -ef ,  or  -of  :  Tepyidiof),  a  town  in  the 
Troad,  north  of  the  Scamander,  inhabited  by 
Teucrians.  Attalus  removed  the  inhabitants 
to  the  sources  of  the  Caicus,  where  mention  is 
made  of  a  place  called  Gergetha  or  Gcrgithion  in 
the  territory  of  Cyme. 

GERGOVIA.  1.  A  fortified  town  of  the  Arverni 
in  Gaul,  situated  on  a  high  and  inaccessible  hill, 
west  or  southwest  of  the  Elaver  (now  Allier). 
Its  site  is  uncertain ;  but  it  was  probably  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  modern  Clermont. — 2.  A 
town  of  the  Boii  in  Gaul,  of  uncertain  site. 

GERMA  (Tepfiij),  the  name  of  three  cities  in 
Asia  Minor.  1.  (Ruins  at  Germaslu)  in  Mysia 
Minor,  near  Cyzicus. — 2.  (Now  Yennatepe)  in 
Mysia,  between  Pergamus  and  Thyatira. — 3. 
(Now  Yerma)  in  Galatia,  between  Pessinus  and 
Ancyra ;  a  colonia. 

GERMANIA,  was  bounded  by  the  Rhine  on  the 
west,  by  the  Vistula  and  the  Carpathian  Mount- 
ains on  the  east,  by  the  Danube  on  the  south, 
and  by  the  German  Ocean  and  the  Baltic  on  the 
north.  It  thus  included  much  more  than  mod- 
ern Germany  on  the  north  and  east,  but  much 
less  in  the  west  and  south.  The  north  and 
northeast  of  Gallia  Belgica  were  likewise  call- 
ed Germania  Prima  and  Secunda  under  the  Ro- 
man emperors  (vid.  p.  819,  a);  and  it  was  in 
contradistinction  to  these  provinces  that  Ger- 
mania proper  was  also  called  GERMANIA  MAGNA, 
or  G.  TRANSRHENANA,  or  G.  BARBARA.  It  was 
not  till  Caesar's  campaigns  in  Gaul  (B.C.  58-50) 
that  the  Romans  obtained  any  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  the  country.  The  Roman  writers  rep- 
resent Germany  as  a  dismal  land,  covered  for  the 
most  part  with  forests  and  swamps,  producing 
little  corn,  and  subject  to  intense  frosts  and  al- 
most eternal  winter.  Although  these  accounts 
are  probably  exaggerated,  yet  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  that,  before  the  immense  woods  were 
cleared  and  the  morasses  drained,  the  climate  of 
Gemiany  was  much  colder  than  it  is  at  present 
The  north  of  Germany  is  a  vast  plain,  but  in  the 
south  there  are  many  mountains,  which  were 
covered  in  antiquity  with  vast  forests,  and  thus 
were  frequently  called  Silvac.  Of  these  the  most 
325 


GERMANJA 


OERMANTA.' 


important  was  the  HEBCYNIA  SUVA.  The  chief 
rivers  were  the  RHENUS  (now  Rhine),  DANUB^S 
(DOW  Danube),  VISTULA,  AMISIA  (now  Em*),  Vi- 
euttois  (uow  Weser),  ALBIS  (DOW  E±be\  VJADUS 
(DOW  Oder).  The  inhabitants  were  called  GEH- 
MANI  by  the  Romans.  Tacitus  says  (Germ^  2) 
that  Germani  was  the  Dame  of  the  Tungri,  who 
were  the  first  German  people  that  crossed  the 
Rhine.  It  would  seem  that  this  name  properly 
belonged  only  to  those  tribes  who  were  settled 
in  Gaul ;  and  as  these  were  the  first  German 
tribes  with  which  the  Romans  came  into  con- 
tact, they  extended  the  name  to  the  whole  na- 
tioo.  The  etymology  of  the  name  is  uncertain. 
Some  modern  writers  derive  it  from  the  German 
ger,  ffioer,  Heer,  Wehr,  so  that  the  word  would 
be  equivalent  tf>  Wehrman,  Wehrmdnner,  that  is, 
warriors.  The  Germans  themselves  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  used  any  one  name  to  indicate  the 
whole  nation  ;  for  there  is  no  reason  to  believe, 
as  some  have  done,  that  the  name  Teutones  (i.  e., 
Teuten,  Deutsche)  was  the  general  name  of  the 
nation  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  The  Ger- 
mans regarded  themselves  as  indigenous  in  the 
country ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they 
were  a  branch  of  the  great  Indo-Germanic  race, 
who,  along  with  the  Celts,  migrated  into  Eu- 
rope from  the  Caucasus  and  the  countries  around 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas  at  a  period  long 
anterior  to  historical  records.  They  are  de- 
scribed as  a  people  of  high  stature  and  of  great 
bodily  strength,  with  fair  complexions,  blue 
eyes,  and  yellow  or  red  hair.  Notwithstanding 
the  severity  of  their  climate,  they  wore  little 
clothing,  and  their  children  went  entirely  naked. 
They  had  scarcely  any  defensive  armor :  their 
chief  offensive  weapon  was  the  framed,  a  long 
spear  with  a  narrow  iron  point,  which  they  either 
darted  from  a  distance  or  pushed  in  close  com- 
Lat.  Their  houses  were  only  low  huts,  made 
of  rough  timber,  and  thatched  with  straw.  A 
number  of  these  were  of  course  often  built  near 
each  other ;  but  they  could  not  be  said  to  have 
any  towns  properly  so  called.  Many  of  their 
tribes  were  nomad,  and  every  year  changed 
their  place  of  abode.  The  men  found  their  chief 
delight  in  the -perils  and  excitement  of  war.  In 
peace  they  passed  their  lives  in  listless  indo- 
lence, only  varied  by  deep  gaming  and  excess- 
ive drinking.  Their  chief  drink  was  beer,  and 
their  carouses  frequently  ended  in  bloody  brawls. 
The  women  were  held  in  high  honor.  Their 
chastity  was  without  reproach.  They  accom- 
panied their  husbands  to  battle,  and  cheered 
them  on  by  their  presence,  and  frequently  by 
their  example  as  well  Both  sexes  were  equally 
distinguished  for  their  unconquerable  love  of 
liberty ;  and  the  women  frequently  destroyed 
both  themselves  and  their  children  rather  than 
fall  into  the  power  of  their  husbands'  conquer- 
ors. In  each  tribe  we  find  the  people  divided 
into  four  classes :  the  nobles ;  the  freemen ;  the 
freedmen  or  vassals ;  and  the  slaves.  All  ques- 
tions relating  to  peace  and  war,  and  the  general 
interests  of  the  tribe,  were  decided  in  the  pop- 
ular assembly,  in  which  each  freeman  had  a  right 
to  take  part.  In  these  assemblies  a  king  was 
elected  from  among  the  nobles ;  but  his  power 
was  very  limited,  and  he  only  acted  as  the  su- 
preme magistrate  in  time  of  peace ;  for  when 
a  war  broke  out,  the  people  elected  a  distin- 
326 


I  guished  warrior  as  their  leader,  upon  whom  the 
prerogatives  of  the  king  devolved.  Th«  religion 
,  of  the  Germans  is  known  to  us  only  from  the 
|  Greek  and  Roraun  writers,  who  have  confused 
the  subject  by  seeking  to  identify  the  gods  of 
the  Germans  with  their  own  divinities.  We 
know  that  they  worshipped  the  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  stars.  They  are  also  said  to  have  paid 
especial  honor  to  Mercury,  who  was  probably 
the  German  Wodan  or  Odin.  Their  other  chief 
divinities  were  Isis  (probably  Freia,  the  wife  of 
Odin) ;  Mars  (Tyr  or  Zio,  the  German  god  of 
war) ;  the  mother  of  the  gods,  called  Nerthv* 
(less  correctly  Hcrthus  or  Hertha) ;  and  Jupiter 
(Thor,  or  the  god  of  Thunder).  The  worship 
of  the  gods  was  simple.  They  had  both  priests 
and  priestesses  to  attend  to  their  service ;  and 
some  of  the  priestesses,  such  as  Veleda  among 
the  Bructeri,  were  celebrated  throughout  Ger- 
many for  their  prophetic  powers.  The  Ger- 
mani first  appear  in  history  in  the  campaigns 
of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  (B.C.  113),  the  lat- 
ter of  whom  were ,  undoubtedly  a  Germanic 
people.  Vid.  TEUTONES.  About  fifty  years  aft- 
erward, Ariovistus,  a  German  chief,  crossed  the 
Rhine,  with  a  vast  host  of  Germans,  and  sub- 
dued a  great  part  of  Gaul ;  but  he  was  defeated 
by  Caesar  with  great  slaughter  (58),  and  driven 
beyond  the  Rhine.  Caesar  twice  crossed  this 
river  (55,  53),  but  made  no  permanent  conquest 
on  the  eastern  bank.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
his  step-son,  Drusus,  carried  ^>n  war  in  Ger- 
many with  great  success  for  four  years  (12-9), 
and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  Elbe.  On  his  deatb 
(9),  his  brother  Tiberius  succeeded  to  the  com 
mand ;  and  under  him  the  country  between  thf 
Rhine  and  the  Visurgis  (now  Weser)  was  en- 
tirely subjugated,  and  bid  fair  to  become  a  Ro 
man  province.  But  in  A.D.  9,  the  impolitic 
and  tyrannical  conduct  of  the  Roman  governor 
Quintilius  Varus,  provoked  a  general  insurrec 
tion  of  the  various  German  tribes,  headed  by 
Arminius,  the  Cheruscan.  Varus  and  his  le- 
gions were  defeated  and  destroyed,  and  the  Ro- 
mans lost  all  their  conquests  east  of  the  Rhine. 
Vid,  VABUS.  The  defeat  of  Varus  was  avenged 
by  the  successful  campaigns  of  Germanicus,  who 
would  probably  have  recovered  the  Roman  do- 
minions east  of  the  river,  had  not  the  jealousy 
of  Tiberius  recalled  him  to  Rome,  A.D.  16. 
From  this  time  the  Romans  abandoned  all  fur- 
ther attempts  to  conquer  Germany ;  but,  iu  con- 
sequence of  the  civil  dissensions  which  broke 
out  in  Germany  soon  after  the  departure  of  Ti- 
berius, they  were  enabled  to  obtain  peaceable 
possession  of  a  large  portion  of  the  southwest 
of  Germany,  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Dan- 
ube, to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  the  AGBI 
DECUMATES.  Via.  p.  33,  b.  On  the  death  of 
Nero,  several  of  the  tribes  in  Western  Germany 
joined  the  Batavi  in  their  insurrection  against 
the  Romans  (A.D.  69-71).  Domitian  and  Tra- 
jan had  to  repel  the  attacks  of  some  German 
tribes ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  the 
Marcomanni,  joined  by  various  other  tribes, 
made  a  more  formidable  attack  upon  the  Ro- 
man dominions,  and  threatened  the  empire  with 
dcstructioa  From  this  time  the  Romans  were 
often  called  upon  to  defend  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine  against  their  dangerous  neighbors,  espe- 
cially against  the  two  powerful  confederacies 


GERMANICUS. 


GERYON. 


»f  the  Alemanni  and  Franks  (vid.  ALEMANNI, 
FEANCI)  ;  and  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries 
the  Germans  obtained  possession  of  some  of 
the  fairest  provinces  of  the  empire.  The  Ger- 
mans are  divided  by  Tacitus  into  three  great 
tribes :  1.  Ingcevones,  on  the  Ocean.  2.  Hermi- 
ones,  inhabiting  the  central  parts.  3.  Istcevones, 
in  the  remainder  of  Germany,  consequently  in 
the  eastern  anil  southern  parts.  These  three 
names  were  said  to  be  derived  from  the  three 
sons  of  Manuus,  the  son  of  Tuisco.  Pliny  makes 
five  divisions :  1.  Vindili,  including  Burgundi- 
ones,  Varini,  Carini,  and  Guttones.  2.  Ingce- 
VOHCS,  including  Cimbri,  Teutones,  and  Chauci. 
3.  htazvones,  including  the  midland  Cimbri.  4. 
Ufriniones,  including  the  Suevi,  Hermunduri, 
Chatti,  and  Cherusci.  5.  Peucini  and  Bastarnce, 
bordering  on  the  Dacians.  But  \vhether  we 
adopt  the  division  of  Tacitus  or  Pliny,  we  ought 
to  add  the  inhabitants  of  the  Scandinavian  pen- 
insula, the  Hilleviones,  divided  into  the  Sinones 
and  Sitones,  It  is  difficult  to  fix  with  accuracy 
the  position  of  the  various  tribes,  as  they  fre- 
quently migrated  from  one  spot  to  another.  An 
account  of  each  is  given  under  the  name  of  the 
tribe.  Vid.  CHAUCI,  CHERUSCI,  CIMBRI,  SUEVI, 
<fcc. 

GEEMANICUS  C^SAS,  son  of  Nero  Claudius 
Drusus  and  Antonia,  the  daughter  of  the  trium- 
vir Antony,  was  born  B.C.  15.  He  was  adopt- 
ed by  his  uncle  Tiberius  in  the  lifetime  of  Au- 
gustus, and  was  raised  at  an  early  age  to  the 
honors  of  the  state.  He  assisted  Tiberius  in 
the  war  against  the  Pannonians  and  Dalmatians 
(A.D.  7-10),  and  also  fought  along  with  Tiberius 
against  the  Germans  in  the  two  following  years 
(11,  12).  He  had  the  command  of  the  legions 
in  Germany  when  the  alarming  mutiny  broke  out 
among  the  troops  in  Germany  and  Illyricum, 
upon  the  death  of  Augustus  (14).  German- 
icus  was  a  favorite  with  the  soldiers,  and  they 
offered  to  place  him  at  the  head  of  tne  em- 
pire ;  but  he  rejected  their  proposal,  and  ex- 
erted all  his  influence  to  quell  the  mutiny,  and 
reconcile  them  to  their  new  sovereign.  After 
restoring  order  among  the  troops,  he  crossed 
the  Rhine,  and  laid  waste  the  country  of  the 
Marsi  with  fire  and  sword.  In  the  following 
year  (15)  he  again  crossed  the  Rhine,  and 
inarched  into  the  interior  of  the  country.  He 
penetrated  as  far  as  the  Saltus  Teutoburgicnsis, 
north  of  the  Lippe,  in.  which  forest  the  army  of 
Quintilius  Varus  had  been  destroyed  by  the 
Germans.  Here  his  troops  gathered  up  the 
bones  of  their  ill-fated  comrades,  and  paid  the 
last  honors  to  their  memory.  But  meantime 
Arminius  had  collected  a  formidable  army  with 
which  he  attacked  the  Romans  ;  and  it  was  not 
without  considerable  loss  that  Germanicus  made 
good  his  retreat  to  the  Rhine.  It  was  in  this 
campaign  that  Thusnelda,  the  wife  of  Arminius, 
fell  into  the  bauds  of  Germauicus.  Vid.  AR- 
MIXII  s.  Next  year  (16)  Germauicus  placed  his 
troops  on  board  a  fleet  of  one  thousand  vessels, 
and  sailed  through  the  canal  of  his  father,  Dm 
BUS  (vid.  p.  272,  a),  and  the  Zuydersee  to  the 
ocean,  and  from  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Amisia  (now  Ems),  where  he  landed  bis  forces. 
After  crossing  the  Ems  and  the  Weser,  he  fought 
two  battles  with  Arminius,  in  both  of  which  the 
Germans  were  completely  defeated.  The  Ger- 


mans could  no  longer  offer  him  any  effectual  r» 
sistance,  and  Germanicus  needed  only  another 
year  to  reduce  completely  the  whole  country  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe.  But  the  jeal- 
ousy of  Tiberius  saved  Germany.  Upon  pre- 
tence of  the  dangerous  state  of  affaire  in  the 
East,  the  emperor  recalled  Germanicus  to  Rome, 
which  he  entered  in  Triumph  on  the  26th  of  May, 
A.D.  17.  In  the  same  year  all  the  eastern  prov- 
inces were  assigned  to  Germanicus ;  but  Ti 
berius  placed  Cn.  Piso  in  command  of  Syria, 
with  secret  instructions  to  check  and  thwart 
Germanicus.  Piso  soon  showed  his  hostility  to 
Germanicus ;  and  his,  wife,  Plancina,  in  h'ke 
manner,  did  every  thing  in  her  power  to  annoy 
Agrippina,  the  wife  of  Germanicus.  In  18,  Ger- 
mauicus proceeded  to  Armenia,  where  he  placed 
Zeno  on  the  throne,  and  in  the  following  year 
(19)  he  visited  Egypt,  and  on  his  return  he  was 
seized  with  a  dangerous  illness,  of  which  he 
died.  He  believed  that  he  had  been  poisoned 
by  Piso,  and  shortly  before  he  died  he  summon- 
ed his  friends,  and  called  upon  them  to  avenge 
his  murder.  He  was  deeply  and  sincerely  la- 
mented by  the  Roman  people ;  and  Tiberius  was 
obliged  to  sacrifice  Piso  to  the  public  indigna- 
tion. Vid,  Piso.  By  Agrippina  he  had  nine 
children,  of  whom  six  survived  him.  Of  these 
the  most  notorious  were  the  Emperor  Caligula, 
and  Agrippina,  the  mother  of  Nero.  Germani- 
cus was  an  author  of  some  repute.  He  wrote 
several  poetical  works.  We  still  possess  the 
remains  of  his  Latin  translation  of  the  Phenom- 
ena, of  Aratus.  The  latest  edition  of  this  work 
is  by  Orelli,  at  the  end  of  his  Phsedrus,  Zurich, 
1831. 

GEIIMANICIA  or  CJSSAREA  GERMAXICA  (Fep/ia- 
viKEia  Kaiadpeia  Tepfiavucq),  a  town  hi  the  Syr- 
ian provinces  of  Commagene,  near  the  borders 
of  Cappadocia:  the  birth-place  of  the  heretic 
Nestorius. 

.  GERRA  (Tefifia :  near  El-Katif),  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  Arabia  and  India,  stood  on  the 
northeastern  coast  of  Arabia,  and  a  great  empo- 
rium for  the  trade  of  Arabia  Felix,  two  hundred 
stadia  (twenty  geographical  miles)  from  the 
shore  of  the  Sinus  Gerrseus  or  Gerraieus  (now 
Elwah  Bay  /),  a  bay  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  two  thousand  four  hundred  stadia 
(two  hundred  and  forty  geographical  miles==4° 
of  lat)  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris.  The  city 
was  five  Roman  miles  in  circuit  The  inhabit- 
ants, called  Gerraei  (Yeftftaloi),  were  said  to  have 
been  originally  Chaldaeans,  who  were  driven  out 
of  Babylon.  There  was  a  small  place  of  the 
same  name  on  the  northeastern  frontier  of 
Egypt,  between  Pelusium  and  Mount  Casius, 
fifty  stadia  or  eight  Roman  miles  from  the  for- 
mer. 

GK minus  (Tffifio*;),  a  river  of  Scythia,  flowing 
through  a  country  of  the  same  name,  was  a 
branch  of  the  Borysthenes,  and  flowed  into  the 
Hapacyris,  dividing  the  country  of  the  Nomad 
Scythians  from  that  of  the  Royal  Scythians. 

GERUNDA  (now  Gerona)'&  town  of  the  Ause- 
tani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  road  from 
Tarraco  to  Narbo  in  Gaul. 

[GERUNIUM,  is  named  by  Livy,  in  his  account 
of  the  second  Punic  war,  as  an  "ancient  decayed 
city  of  the  Samnites.] 

GKRVOS  or  QZs.YdnEs(TTipv6vf}f),  son  of  Chry- 
327 


GESORIACUM. 


QLABRIO. 


saor  and  Callirrhoe,  a  monster  with  three  heads, 
or,  according  to  others,  with  three  bodies  united 
together,  was  a  king  in  Spain,  and  possessed 
magnificent  oxen,  which  Hercules  carried  away. 
For  details,  vid.  HEKCULES. 

GESORIACUM  (now  Boulogne),  a  port  of  the 
Moriui  in  Gallia  Belgica.  at  which  persons  usu- 
ally embarked  to  cross  over  to  Britain  :  it  was 
subsequently  called  BONOXIA,  whence  its  mod- 
ern name. 

GESSIUS  FLORDS.     Vid.  FLORUS. 

GKTA,  SEPTIMIUS,  brother  of  Caracalla,  by 
whom  he  was  assassinated,  A.D.  212.  For  de- 
tails, vid.  CARACALLA. 

GET^,  a  Thracian  people,  called  Daci  by  the 
Romans.  Herodotus  and  Thucydides  place  them 
south  of  the  Ister  (now  Danube),  near  its  mouths, 
but  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  they 
dwelt  beyond  this  river  and  north  of  the  Triballi. 
They  were  driven  by  the  Sarmatians  further 
west  toward  Germany.  For  their  later  history, 
vid.  DACIA. 

GIGA.VTES  (Tiyavrtf),  the  giants.  According 
to  Homer,  they  were  a  gigantic  and  savage 
race  of  men,  dwelling  in  the  distant  west,  in  the 
island  of  Thrinacia,  and  were  destroyed  on  ac- 
count of  their  insolence  toward  the  gods.  He- 
siod  considers  them  as  divine  beings,  who  sprang 
from  the  blood  that  fell  from  Coalus  (Uranus) 
upon  the  earth,  so  that  Terra  (Ge)  (the  earth) 
was  their  mother.  Neither  Homer  nor  Hesiod 
knows  any  thing  about  their  contest  with  the 
gods.  Later  poets  and  mythographers  frequent- 
ly confound  them  with  the  Titans,  and  repre- 
sent them  as  enemies  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  the 
gods,  whose  abode  on  Olympus  they  attempt 
to  take  by  storm.  Their  battle  with  the  gods 
seems  to  be  only  an  imitation  of  the  revolt  of 
the  Titans  against  Urauus.  Terra  (Ge),  it  is 
said,  indignant  at  the  fate  of  her  former  chil- 
dren, the  Titans,  gave  birth  to  the  Gigantes, 
who  were  beings  of  a  monstrous  size,  with  fear- 
ful countenances  and  the  tails  of  dragons.  They 
were  born,  according  to  some,  in  the  Phlegraean 
plains  in  Sicily,  Campania,  or  Arcadia,  and,  ac- 
cording to  others,  in  the  Thracian  Pallene.  In 
their  native  land  they  made  an  attack  upon 
heaven,  being  armed  with  huge  rocks  and  trunks 
of  trees.  The  gods  were  told  that  they  could 
not  conquer  the  giants  without  the  assistance 
of  a  mortal,  whereupon  they  summoned  Hercu- 
les to  their  aid.  The  giants  Alcyoneus  and 
Porphyrion  distinguished  themselves  above  their 
brethren.  Alcyoneus  was  immortal  so  long  as 
he  fought  in  his  native  land  ;  but  Hercules  drag- 
ged him  away  to  a  foreign  land,  and  thus  killed 
him.  Porphyrion  was  killed  by  the  lightning 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  the  arrows  of  Hercules. 
The  other  gianta,  whose  number  is  said  to  have 
been  twenty-four,  were  then  killed  one  after 
another  by  the  gods  and  Hercules,  and  some 
of  them  were  buried  by  their  conquerors  under 
(volcanic)  islands.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
most  writers  place  .the  giants  in  volcanic  dis- 
tricts ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  story  of  their 
contest  with  the  gods  took  its  origin  from  vol- 
canic convulsions. 

GIGONCS  (Hywvof :  Tiyuvtof),  a  town  and 
promontory  of  Macedonia,  on  the  Thermaic  Gulf. 

[GILBOA  MONS,  a  sterile  range  of  hills  to  the 
•outh   and   southeast   of   Tabor,  bounding    the 
328 


valley  of   the  Jordan  on  the  west   for    many 
miles.] 

GILDO  or  GILDON,  a  Moorish  chieftain,  gov- 
erned Africa  for  some  years  as  a  subject  of  the 
Western  empire  •  but  in  A.D.  897  he  trans- 
ferred his  allegiance  to  the  Eastern  empire,  and 
the  Emperor  Arcadius  accepted  him  as  a  sub- 
ject Stilicho,  guardian  of  Honorius,  sent  an 
army  against  him.  Gildo  was  defeated ;  and, 
being  taken  prisoner,  he  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life  by  hanging  himself  (398).  The  history  of 
this  war  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Claudian's 
poems  (De  Bello  Gildonico). 

[GILIGAMB^E  (Ti~Xiyu.iJ.6ai  or  Ti^ijufifiai,  Hdt.), 
an  African  people  ha  Marmarica  and  Cyreuaica.] 

[GINDANES  (TtvduvEf),  &  people  dwelling  in 
the  inland  parts  of  the  Syrtica  Regio  in  Africa.] 

GINDARUS  (Tivdapof  :  now  Gindaries),  a  very 
strong  fortress  in  the  district  of  Cyrrhestice  in 
Syria,  northeast  of  Antiocb. 

[GiR.     Vid.  GER.] 

GIRBA,  a  city  on  the  island  of  Metiinx  (now 
Jerbah),  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Lesser 
Syrtis,  in  northern  Africa:  celebrated  for  its 
manufactures  of  purple. 

Gisco  or  GISGO  (Tia/cuv  or  TKOKUV).  1.  Son 
of  Hamilcar,  who  was  defeated  and  killed  in  the 
battle  of  Himera,  B.C.  480.  In  consequence  of 
this  calamity,  Gisgo  was  banished  from  Car- 
thage. He  died  at  Selinus  in  Sicily. — 2.  Son  of 
Hauno,  was  in  exile  when  the  Carthaginians 
were  defeated  at  the  River  Crimisus  by  Timo 
Icon,  339.  He  was  then  recalled  from  exile,  and 
sent  to  oppose  Timoleon,  but  was  unable  to  ac- 
complish any  thing  of  importance. — 3.  Com- 
mander of  the  Carthaginian  garrison  at  Lily- 
bseum  at  the  end  of  the  first  Punic  war.  After 
the  conclusion  of  peace,  241,  he  was  deputed 
by  the  government  to  treat  with  the  mercena- 
ries who  had  risen  in  revolt,  but  he  was  seized  by 
them  and  put  to  death. 

GITIADAS  (TiTiudaf),  a  Lacedaemonian  archi- 
tect, statuary,  and  poet.  He  completed  the 
temple  of  Minerva  (Athena)  Poliouchos  at 
Sparta,  and  ornamented  it  with  works  in  bronze, 
from  which  it  was  called  the  Brazen  House,  and 
hence  the  goddess  received  the  surname  of 
XahKioiKOf.  He  composed  a  hymn  to  the  god- 
dess, besides  other  poems.  He  flourished  about 
B.C.  516,  and  is  the  last  Spartan  artist  of  any 
distinction. 

GLABRIO,  ACILIUS,  plebeians.  1.  C.,  quaestor 
B.C.  203,  and  tribune  of  the  plebs  197.  He 
acted  as  interpreter  to  the  Athenian  embassy 
in  155,  when  the  three  philosophers,  Carneades, 
Diogenes,  and  Critolaus,  came  as  envovs  to 
Rome.  He  wrote  in  Greek  a  history  of  Rome 
from  the  earliest  period  to  his  own  times.  It 
was  translated  into  Latin  by  one  Claudius,  and 
his  version  is  cited  by  Livy,  under  the  titles  of 
Annales  Aciliani  (xxv.,  39)  and  Libri  Aciliani 
(xxxv.,  14). — 2.  M'.,  tribune  of  the  plebs  201, 
prsetor  19t>,  and  consul  191.  In  his  consulship 
he  defeated  Antiochus  at  Thermopylze,  and  sub- 
sequently the  ^Etolians  likewise. — 3.  M'.,  mar 
ried  a  daughter  of  M.  ^Emih'us  Scanrus,  consul 
115,  whom  Sulla,  in  82,  compelled  him  to  di- 
vorce. Glabrio  was  praetor  urbanus  in  70,  when 
he  presided  at  the  impeachment  of  Verres.  He 
was  consul  in  67,  and  in  the  following  year  pro- 
consul of  Cilicia.  He  succeeded  L.  Lueullus  in 


GLANIS. 


GLESSARIA, 


the  command  of  the  war  against  Mithradates, 
but  remained  inactive  in  Bithynia.  He  was 
superseded  by  Cn.  Pompey. — 4.  M'.,  son  of  No. 
3,  was  born  in  the  house  of  Cn.  Pompey,  B.C. 
81,  who  married  his  mother  after  her  compul- 
sory divorce  from  the  elder  Glabrio.  ^Emilia 
died  in  giving  birth  to  him.  In  the  civil  war, 
Glabrio  was  one  of  Caesar's  lieutenants;  com- 
manded the  garrison  of  Oricum  in  Epirus  in  48, 
and  was  stationed  in  Sicily  in  46.  He  was  twice 
defended  on  capital  charges  by  Cicero,  and  ac- 
quitted. 

GLANIS,  more  usually  written  CLANIS. 

GLANUM  LIVJI  (ruins  near  $<.  Remy),  a  town 
of  the  Salyes  in  Gallia  Narbonensis. 

GLAPHYBA.     Vid.  ABCHELAUS,  No.  6. 

GLAUCE  (TlavKi)).  1.  One  of  the  Nereides, 
the  name  Glauce  being  only  a  personification 
of  the  color  of  the  sea. — 2.  Daughter  of  Creon 
of  Corinth,  also  called  Creusa,  For  details,  vid. 
OBEON. 

[GLAUCE  (F/lawcj?),  a  harbor  of  Ionia,  on  the 
Promontory  Mycale,  opposite  Samos.] 

GLAUCIA,  C.  SEBVILIUS,  praetor  B.C.  100,  the 
chief  supporter  of  Saturninus,  with  whom  he  was 
put  to  death  in  this  year.  Vid.  SATUBNINUS. 

GLAUCIAS  (TXavidaf).  1.  King  of  the  Tau- 
lantians,  one  of  the  Illyrian  tribes,  fought  against 
Alexander  the  Great,  B.C.  335.  In  316  he  af- 
forded an  asylum  to  the  infant  Pyrrhus,  and  re- 
fused to  surrender  him,  to  Cassander.  In  307 
he  invaded  Epirus,  and  placed  Pyrrhus,  then 
twelve  years  old,  upon  the  throne. — 2.  A  Greek 
physician,  who  probably  lived  in  the  third  or 
second  century  B.C. — 3.  A  statuary  of  ^Egina, 
who  made  the  bronze  chariot  and  statue  of  Ge- 
Ion,  flourished  B.C.  488. 

[GLAUCIPPUS  (T?i.avKin"xof),  an  Athenian  rhet- 
orician, son  of  the  celebrated  orator  Hyperides  : 
he  wrote  several  orations,  but  they  have  entirely 
perished.] 

GLADCON  (Tl.awav).  1.  Son  of  Critias,  broth- 
er of  Callseschrus,  and  father  of  Charmides  and 
of  Plato's  mother,  Perictione.  —  2.  Brother  of 
Plato,  who  makes  him  one  of  the  speakers  in 
the  Republic. 

GLAUCUS  (FActi/cof).  1.  Grandson  of  ^Eolus, 
son  of  Sisyphus  and  Mcrope,  and  father  of  Bel- 
lerophontes.  He  lived  at  Potniae,  despised  the 
power  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  and  did  not  allow 
his  mares  to  breed,  that  they  might  be  the 
stronger  for  the  horse-race.  According  to  oth- 
en»,  he  fed  them  with  human  flesh.  This  ex- 
cited the  anger  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  who  de- 
stroyed him.  According  to  some  accounts,  his 
horses  became  frightened  and  threw  him  out 
of  his  chariot,  as  he  was  contending  in  the  fu- 
neral games  celebrated  by  Acastus  in  honor  of 
his  father  Pelias.  According  to  others,  his 
horses  tore  him  to  pieces,  having  drunk  from 
the  waters  of  a  sacred  well  in  Bceotia,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  they  were  seized  with  mad- 
new.  Glaucus  of  Potniaj  (F/lavKOf  Horvievf) 
was  the  title  of  one  of  the  lost  tragedies  of 
uEschylua. — 2.  Son  of  Hippolochus,  and  grand- 
eon  of  Bellerophontes,  was  a  Lycian  prince,  and 
assisted  Priam  in  the  Trojan  war.  He  was 
connected  with  Diomedes  by  ties  of  hospitality ; 
and  when  they  recognized  one  another  in  the 
battle,  they  abstained  from  fighting,  and  ex- 
changed arms  with  one  another.  Glauc'S  was 


slain  by  Ajax. — 3.  Son  of  the  Messenian  kinj 
^Epytus,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne. — 
4.  One  of  the  sons  of  the  Cretan  king  Minos  by 
Pasiphae  or  Crete.  "When  a  boy,  he  fell  into 
a  cask  full  of  honey,  and  was  smothered.  Mi 
nos  searched  for  his  son  in  vain,  and  was  at 
length  informed  by  Apollo  or  the  Curetes  thai 
the  person  who  should  devise  the  mojt  appro- 
priate comparison  between  a  cow,  which  could 
assume  three  different  colors,  and  any  other 
object,  would  find  the  boy.  The  soothsayer 
Polyidus  of  Argos  solved  the  problem  by  liken- 
ing the  cow  to  a  mulberry,  which  is  at  first 
white,  then  red,  and  in  the  end  black  By  his 
prophetic  powers  he  then  discovered  the  boy. 
Minos  now  required  Polyidus  to  restore  his  son 
to  life ;  but  as  he  could  not  accomplish  this, 
Minos  ordered  him  to  be  entombed  alive  with 
the  body  of  Glaucus.  When  Polyidus  was  thus 
shut  up  in  the  vault,  he  saw  a  serpent  approach- 
ing the  dead  body,  and  killed  the  reptile.  Pre& 
ently  another  serpent  came,  and  placed  a  herb 
upon  the  dead  serpent,  which  was  thereby  're- 
stored to  life.  Thereupon  Poljidus  covered 
the  body  of  Glaucus  with  the  same  herb,  and 
the  boy  at  once  rose  into  life  again.  The  story 
of  Glaucus  and  Polyidus  was  a  favorite  subject 
with  the  ancient  poets  and  authors. — 5.  Of  An 
thedon  in  Bosotia,  a  fisherman,  who  became  im- 
mortal by  eating  a  part  of  the  divine  herb  which 
Saturn  (Cronos)  had  sown.  His  parentage  is 
differently  stated  :  some  called  his  father  Co- 
peus,  others  Polybus,  the  husband  of  Euboea, 
and  others,  again,  Anthedon  or  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon). He  was  further  said  to  have  been  a 
clever  diver,  to  have  built  the  ship  Argo,  and 
to  have  accompanied  the  Argonauts  as  their 
steersman.  In  the  sea-fight  of  Jason  against 
the  Tyrrhenians,  Glaucus  alone  remained  un- 
hurt ;  he  sank  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where 
he  was  visible  to  none  save  Jason.  From  this 
moment  he  became  a  marine  deity,  and  wr~  of 
service  to  the  Argonauts.  The  story  of  his 
sinking  or  leaping  into  the  sea  was  variously 
modified  in  the  different  traditions.  There  was 
a  belief  in  Greece  that  once  in  every  year  Glau- 
cus visited  all  the  coasts  and  islands,  acr-orn- 
panied  by  marine  monsters,  and  gave  his  proph- 
ecies. Fishermen  and  sailors  paid  particular 
reverence  to  him,  and  watched  his  oracles, 
which  were  believed  to  be  very  trustworthy. 
He  is  said  to  have  even  instructed  Apollo  in 
the  prophetic  art  Some  writers  stated  that 
he  dwelt  in  Delos,  where  he  prophesied  in  con- 
junction with  the  nymphs ;  but  the  place  of  his 
abode  varied  in  different  traditions.  The  sto- 
ries about  his  various  loves  were  favorite  sub- 
jects with  the  ancient  poets.  —  6.  Of  Chios,  a 
statuary  in  metal,  distinguished  as  the  inventor 
of  the  art  of  soldering  metals  («6AA»7<Hf),  flour- 
ished B.C.  490.  His  most  noted  work  was  an 
iron  base  (vnoKpriTijpidiov),  which,  with  the  sil- 
ver bowl  it  supported,  was  presented  to  the 
temple  at  Delphi  by  Alyattes,  ting  of  Lydia. 

GLACCUS  (T/.avKOf).  1.  A  small  river  of  Phry- 
gia,  falling  into  the  Mreander  near  Eumcnia. — 
2.  A  small  river  of  Lycia,  on  the  borders  of  Ca- 
ria,  flowing  into  the  Sinus  Glaucus  (now  Gulf 
ofMakri). 

GLAUCUS  SINUS.     Vid.  preceding,  No.  2 
GLKSSAHIA  (now  Ameiand),  an  island  off  tha 
329 


GLISAS. 


GORDIUS. 


coast  of  the  Frisii,  so  called  from  "  glcssum"  or 
amber  -which  was  found  there :  its  proper  name 
was  Austeravia. 

GLISAS  (F/Uaof :  TfaodvTtof),  an  ancient  town 
in  Boeotia,  on  Mount  Hypaton.  It  was  in  ruins 
in  the  time  of  Pausaui&a. 

GLTCAS,  MICHAEL,  a  Byzantine  historian,  the 
author  of  a  work  entitled  Annals  (/3<6/».of  xp°v' 
IKIJ),  containing  the  history  of  the  world  from 
the  creation  to  the  death  of  Alexis  I.  Comne- 
uus,  A.D.  1118.  Edited  by  Bekker,  Bonu,  1836. 

GLYCERA  (TXv/tfpa),  "the  sweet  one,"  a  fa- 
vorite name  of  hetaira.  The  most  celebrated 
hetaine  of  this  name  are,  1.  The  daughter  of 
Thalassis,  and  the  mistress  of  Harpalus. — 2.  Of 
Sicyon,  and  the  mistress  of  Pausias. — 3.  A  fa- 
vonte  of  Horace. 

GLTCKBIUS,  became  emperor  of  the  West  A.D. 
473,  after  the  death  of  Olybrius,  by  the  assist- 
ance of  Gundobald  the  Burgundian.  But  the 
Byzantine  court  did  not  acknowledge  Glycerius, 
and  proclaimed  Julius  Nepos  emperor,  by  whom 
Glycerius  was  dethroned  (474),  and  compelled 
to  become  a  priest  He  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Salona  in  Dalmatia. 

GLYCON  (T^.VKUV)  an  Athenian  sculptor, 
known  to  us  by  the  magnificent  colossal  marble 
statue  of  Hercules,  commonly  called 'the  "Far- 
nese  Hercules."  It  was  found  in  the  baths  of 
Caracalla,  and,  after  adorning  the  Farnese  pal- 
ace for  some  time,  was  removed  to  the  royal 
museum  at  Naples.  It  represents  the  hero  rest- 
ing on  his  club  after  one  of  his  labors.  The 
swollen  muscles  admirably  express  repose  after 
severe  exertion.  Glycon  probably  lived  under 
the  early  Roman  emperors. 

[GLYCYS  PORTUS  (Thvicve  At/w?v,  "  the  sweet 
harbor"),  a  harbor  with  a  town  Glycys  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Acheron  in  Epirus.] 

[GNATIA,  a  shortened  form  of  Egnatia.  Vid. 
EGNATIA.] 

GNIPHO,  M.  ANTONIUS,  a  Roman  rhetorician, 
was  born  B.C.  114,  in  Gaul,  but  studied  at  Alex- 
andrea.  He  afterward  established  a  school  at 
Rome,  which  was  attended  by  many  dis- 
tinguished men,  and  among  others  by  Cicero,  when 
he  was  praetor. 

GNOSUS,  GNOSSUS.     Vid.  CNOSUS. 

GOBR^AS  (rwfywaj-),  a  noble  Persian,  one  of 
the  seven  conspirators  against  Smerdis  the  Ma- 
rian. He  accompanied  Darius  into  Scythia. 
He  was  doubly  related  to  Darius  by  marriage  ; 
Darius  married  the  daughter  of  Gobryas,  and 
Gobryas^  married  the  sister  of  Darius. 

[GOGANA  (Tuyava,  now  Kongun  or  Cogun),  a 
place  in  the  Persian  district  Persis.] 

GOLGI  (Totyoi :  Totyiof),  a  town  in  Cyprus, 
of  uncertain  site,  was  a  Sicyonian  colony,  and 
one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  worship  of  Aphro- 
dite (Venus). 

GOMPHI  (To^oi :  ToftQevf),  a  town  in  Hes- 
tiseotis  in  Thessaly,  was  a  strong  fortress  on 
the  confines  of  Epirus,  and  commanded  the 
chief  pass  between  Thessaly  and  Epirus:  it 
was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Cajsar  (B.C.  48), 
but  was  afterward  rebuilt. 

GONNI,  GONNUS  (Tovvoi,  Tovvof.  Tovviof),  a 
strongly  fortified  town  of  the  Perrhzebi  in  Thes- 
saly on  the  River  Peneus,  and  at  the  entrance 
the  Vale  of  Tempe,  was,  from  its  position,  of 
Efreat  military  importance :  but  it  is  not  men- 
330 


ticned  after  the  time  of  the  wars  between  tht 
Macedonians  and  Romans. 

GORDIANUS,  M.  ANTONIUS,  the  name  of  three 
Roman  emperors,  father,  son,  and  grandsoa 
1.  Surnamed  AFRICANUS,  son  of  Metius  Marul- 
lus  and  Ulpia  Gordiaua,  possessed  a  princely 
fortune,  and  was  distinguished  alike  by  moraJ 
and  intellectual  excellence.  In  his  first  ronsul- 
ship,  A.D.  213,  he  was  the  colleague  of  Cara- 
calla ;  in  his  second,  of  Alexander  Sevcrus  ; 
and  soon  afterward  was  nominated  proconsul 
of  Africa.  After  governing  Africa  for  several 
years  with  justice  and  integrity,  a  rebellion 
broke  out  in  the  ,province  in  consequence  of  the 
tyranny  of  the  procurator  of  Maximinus.  The 
ring-leaders  of  the  conspiracy  compelled  Gor- 
dian,  who  was  now  in  his  eightieth  year,  to  as- 
sume the  imperial  title.  He  entered  on  his  new 
duties  at  Carthage  in  the  month  of  February, 
associated  his  son  with  him  in  the  empire,  and 
dispatched  letters  to  Rome  announcing  his 
elevation.  Gordianus  and  his  son  were  at  once 
proclaimed  Augusti  by  the  senate,  and  prepar- 
ations were  made  in  Italy  to  resist  Maximinus. 
But  meantime  a  certain  Capellianus,  procurator 
of  Numidia,  refused  to  acknowledge  the  author- 
ity of  the  Gordiani,  and  marched  against  them. 
The  younger  Gordianus  was  defeated  by  him, 
and  slain  in  the  battle;  and  his  aged  father 
thereupon  put  an  end  to  his  own  life,  after 
reigning  less  than  two  months. — 2.  Son  of  th« 
preceding  and  of  Fabia  Orestilla,  was  born  A.D. 
192,  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  pur- 
ple, and  fell  in  battle,  as  recorded  above. — 8. 
Grandson  of  the  elder  Gordianus,  cither  by  a 
daughter  or  by  the  younger  Gordialius.  The 
soldiers  proclaimed  him  emperor  in  July,  A.D. 
238,  after  the  murder  of  Balbinus  and  Pupienus, 
although  he  was  a  mere  boy,  probably  uot  more 
than  twelve  years  old.  He  reigned  six  years, 
from  238  to  244.  In  241  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Misitheus,  and  in  the  same  year 
set  out  for  the  east  to  carry  on  the  war  against 
the  Persians.  With  the  assistance  of  Misithe- 
us, he  defeated  the  Persians  in  242.  Misitheus 
died  in  the  following  year;  and  Philippus, 
whom  Gordian  had  taken  into  his  confidence, 
excited  discontent  among  the  soldiers,  who  at 
length  rose  in  open  mutiny,  and  assassinated 
Gordian  in  Mesopotamia,  244.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  PHILIPPUS. 

GORDIUM  (Topdiov,  Topdlov  Kw/w;),  the  ancient 
capital  of  Phrygia,  the  royal  residence  of  the 
kings  of  the  dynasty  of  Gordius,  and  the  scene 
of  Alexander's  celebrated  exploit  of  "  cutting 
the  Gordian  knot."  Vid.  GORDITJS.  It  was  sit- 
uated in  the  west  of  that  part  of  Phrygia  which 
was  afterward  called  Galatia,  north  of  Pessinus, 
on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Sangarius.  In  the 
reign  of  Augustus  it  received  the  name  of  Juli- 
opolis  ('lov7uoviroAif\ 

GORDIUS  (Topdtof ),  an  ancient  king  of  Phryg- 
ia, and  father  of  Midas,  was  originally  a  poor 
peasant  Internal  disturbances  having  broken 
out  in  Phrygia,  an  oracle  informed  the  inhabit- 
ants that  a  wagon  would  bring  them  a  king, 
who  should  at  the  same  time  put  an  end  to  the 
disturbances.  When  the  people  were  deliber- 
ating on  these  points,  Gordius,  with  his  wife 
and  son,  suddenly  appeared  riding  in  his  wag- 
on in  the  assembly  of  the  people,  who  at  once 


GORDIUT1CHOS. 

acknowledged  him  as  king.  Gordius,  out  of 
gratitude,  dedicated  his  chariot  to  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  in  the  acropolis  of  Gordium.  The  pole 
was  fastened  to  the  yoke  by  a  knot  of  bark ; 
and  an  oracle  declared  that  whatsoever  should 
untie  the  knot  should  reign  over  all  Asia,  Al- 
exander, on  his  arrival  at  Qordium,  cut  the  knot 
with  his  sword  and  applied  the  oracle  to  him- 
eelf. 

GoRDiOticHos  (Top&iov  ret^of)  a  town  in  Ca- 
ria,  near  the  borders  of  Phrygia,  between  Anti- 
cchia  ad  Maeandrum  and  Tabae. 

GORDY^EL        Vid.    GORDYENE. 

GORDT^EI  MONIES  (ra  Top3vala  opij :  nan 
Mountains  of  Kurdistan),  the  name  given  by 
Strabo  to  the  northern  part  of  the  broad  belt  of 
mountains  which  separates  -the  Tigris  Valley 
from  the  great  table-land  of  Iran,  and  which 
divided  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria  from  Arme- 
uia  and  Media.  They  are  connected  with  the 
mountains  of  Armenia  at  Ararat,  whence  they 
run  southeast  between  the  Arsissa  Palus  (now 
Lake  Van)  and  the  sources  of  the  Tigris  and  its 
upper  confluents  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Media, 
where  the  chain  turns  more  to  the  south  and  was 
called  ZAGROS. 

GORDYENE  or  CORDUENE  (Topdvijvij,  Kopdov- 
i)vrj),  a  mountainous  district  in  the  south  of 
Armenia  Major,  between  the  Arsissa  Palus 
(now  Lake  Van)  and  the  GORDY^EI  MONTES. 
After  the  Mithradatic  war,  it  was  assigned  by 
Pompey  to  Tigranes,  with  whom  its  possession 
had  been  disputed  by  the  Parthian  king  Phraates. 
Trajan  added  it  to  the  Roman  empire ;  and  it 
formed  afterward  a  constant  object  of  contention 
between  the  Romans  and  the  Parthian  and  Per- 
sian kings,  but  was  for  the  most  part  virtually 
independent  Its  warlike  inhabitants,  called 
fopdvaioi  or  Cordugni,  were  no  doubt  the  same 
people  as  the  CARDUCHI  of  the  earlier  Greek  geo- 
graphers, and  the  Kurds  of  modern  times. 

GORGE  (Topyri),  daughter  of  (Eneus  and  Al- 
thea.  She  and  her  sister  Deianira  alone  retained 
their  original  forms,  when  their  other  sisters 
were  metamorphosed  by  Diana  (Artemis)  into 
birds. 

GORGIAS  (Yopyiat).  1.  Of  Leontini,  in  Sicily, 
a  celebrated  rhetorician  and  orator,  sophist  and 
philosopher,  was  born  about  B.O  480,  and  is 
said  to  have  lived  one  hundred  and  five  years, 
or  even  one  hundred  and  nine  years.  Of  his 
early  life  we  have  no  particulars ;  but  when  he 
was  of  advanced  age  (B.O.  427)  he  was  sent 
by  his  fellow-citizens  as  ambassador  to  Athens, 
for  the  purpose  of  soliciting  ite  protection 
against  Syracuse.  He  seems  to  have  returned 
to  Leontiui  only  for  a  short  time,  and  to  have 
spent  the  remaining  years  of  his  vigorous  old 
age  in  the  towns  of  Greece  Proper,  especially  at 
Athens  and  the  Thessaliau  Larissa,  enjoying 
honor  every  where  as  an  orator  and  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  The  common  statement  that  Pericles 
and  the  historian  Thucydides  were  among  his 
disciples  can  not  be  true,  as  he  did  not  go  to 
Athens  till  after  the  death  of  Pericles ;  but  Al 
cibiadcs,  Alcidamas,  ^Eschines,  and  Antisthe- 
nes  are  called  either  pupils  or  imitators  of 
Oorgias,  and  his  oratory  must  have  had  great 
influence  upon  the  rhetorician  Isocrates.  The 
hi','h  estimation  in  which  he  was  held  at  Athens 
appears  from  the  way  in  which  be  is  introduced 


GORTYN,   GORTYNA 

in  the  dialogue  of  Plato,  which  bears  his  name. 
The  eloquence  of  Gorgias  was  chiefly  calcula 
ted  to  tickle  the  ear  by  antitheses,  alliterations, 
the  symmetry  of  its  parts,  and  similar  artifices. 
Two  declamations  have  come  down  to  us  under 
the  name  of  Gorgias,  viz.,  the  Apology  of  Pala- 
medes,  and  the  Encomium  on  Helena,  the  gen- 
uineness of  which  is  doubtful  Besides  his 
orations,  which  were  mostly  what  the  Greeks 
called  Epideictic  or  speeches  for  display,  such  as 
his  oration  addressed  to  the  assembled  Greeks 
at  Olympia,  Gorgias  also  wrote  loci  communes, 
probably  as  rhetorical  exercises  ;  a  work  on 
dissimilar  and  homogeneous  words,  and  another 
on  rhetoric.  The  works  of  Gorgias  did  not 
even  contain  the  elements  of  a  scientific  theory 
of  oratory  any  more  than  his  oral  instructions. 
He  confined  himself  to  teaching  his  pupils  a 
variety  of  rhetorical  artifices,  and  made  them 
learn  by  heart  certain  formulas  relative  to  them. 
— 2.  Of  Athens,  gave  instruction  in  rhetoric  to 
young  M.  Cicero  when  he  was  at  Athens.  He 
wrote  a  rhetorical  work,  a  Latin  abridgment  of 
which  by  Rutilius  Lupus  is  still  extant,  under  the 
title  De  Figuris  Sententiarum  et  Elocutionis. 

GORGO  and  GORGONES  (Topju  and  Topyoveg). 
Homer  mentions  only  one  Gorgo,  who  appears 
in  the  Odyssey  (xi.,  633)  as  one  of  the  frightful 
phantoms  in  Hades :  hi  the  Iliad  the  aegis  of 
Athena  (Minerva)  contains  the  head  of  Gorgo, 
the  terror  of  her  enemies.  Hesiod  mentions 
three  Gorgones,  STHENO,  EURYALE,  and  MEDUSA, 
daughters  of  Phorcys  and  Ceto,  whence  they 
are  sometimes  called  PHORCYDES.  Hesiod 
placed  them  in  the  far  west  in  the  Ocean,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Night  and  the  Hesperides ; 
but  later  traditions  transferred  them  to  Libya. 
They  were  frightful  beings  ;  instead  of  hair, 
their  heads  were  covered  with  hissing  ser- 
pents ;  and  they  had  wings,  brazen  claws,  and 
enormous  teeth.  Medusa,  who  alone  of  her 
sisters  was  mortal,  was,  according  to  some 
legends,  at  first  a  beautiful  maiden,  but  her 
hair  was  changed  into  serpents  by  Athena 
(Minerva)  in  consequence  of  her  having  be- 
come by  Poseidon  the  mother  of  Chrysaor  and 
Pegasus  in  one  of  Athena's  (Minerva's)  tem- 
ples. Her  head  now  became  so  fearful  that 
every  one  who  looked  at  it  was  changed  into 
stone.  Hence  the  great  difficulty  which  Perseus 
had  in  killing  her.  Vid.  PERSEUS.  Athena  (Mi- 
nerva) afterward  placed  the  head  in  the  centre 
of  her  shield  or  breast-plate. 

[GORGUS  (Fopyof).  1.  Son  of  Chersis,  a  king 
of  Salamis  in  Cyprus :  he  joined  Xerxes  in  his 
invasion  of  Greece. — 2.  Son  of  Cypselus,  founder 
of  Ambracia.] 

[GoHGYTHioN  (TopyvOiuv),  son  of  Priam  and 
Castianira,  was  slain  by  Teucer.l 

GORTYN,   GORTYNA   (TopTVV,    TopTWd  :    TopTV- 

vtof).  1.  (Ruins  near  Hagios  Dheka,  six  miles 
from  the  foot  of  Mount  Ida),  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  in  Crete,  on  the  River  Letbjeus, 
ninety  stadia  from  its  harbor  LebCn,  and  one 
hundred  and  thirty  stadia  from  it«  other  harbor 
Mctalia.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the 
worship  of  Europa,  whence  it  was  called  Hel- 
lotis ;  and  it  was  snbsequently  peopled  by  Min- 
vans  and  Tyrrhene-Pelasgians,  whence  it  also 
bore  the  name  of  Larissa.  It  was  the  second 
city  in  Crete,  being  only  inferior  to  Cnosus ; 
331 


GORTYNIA. 

and  ou  die  decline  of  the  latter  place  under  tn 
Romans,  it  became  the  metropolis  of  the  island 
— 2.  Also  GORTVS  (ruins  near  Atzikolo),  a  town 
in  Arcadia,  on  the  River  Gortynius,  a  tributary  ol 
the  Alpbeus. 

GORTVNIA  (Toprwia),  a  town  in  Emathia  in 
Macedonia,  of  uncertain  site. 
GOTARZES.  Fid  ABSACES,  No.  20,  21. 
GOTUI,  GOTHOJ.-ES,  GUTTONES,  a  powerfu 
German  people,  who  played  an  important  parl 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire.  They 
originally  dwelt  on  the  Prussian  coast  of  the 
Baltic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  where  they 
are  placed  by  Tacitus ;  but  they  afterward  mi- 
grated south,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  they  appear  on  the  coasts  of  the  Black 
Sea,  where  Caracalla  encountered  them  on  his 
march  to  the  East  In  the  reign  of  the  Em- 
peror Philippus  (A.D.  244-249),  they  obtained 
possession  of  a  great  part  of  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Dacia ;  and  in  consequence  of  their  set- 
tling in  the  countries  formerly  inhabited  by  the 
Getffi  and  Scythians,  they  are  frequently  called 
both  GeUe  and  Scythians  by  later  writers.  From 
the  time  of  Philippus  the  attacks  of  the  Goths 
against  the  Roman  empire  became  more  fre- 
quent and  more  destructive.  In  A.D.  272  the 
Emperor  Aurelian  surrendered  to  them  the 
whole  of  Dacia.  It  is  about  this  time  that  we 
find  them  separated  into  two  great  divisions, 
the  Ostrogoths  or  Eastern  Goths,  and  the  Vis- 
igoths or  Western  Goths.  The  Ostrogoths  set- 
tled in  lloesia  and  Pannonia,  while  the  Visi- 
goths remained  north  of  the  Danube.  The 
Visigoths,  under  their  king  Alaric,  invaded 
Italy,  and  took  and  plundered  Rome  (410).  A 
few  years  afterward  they  settled  permanently 
in  the  southwest  of  Gaul,  and  established  a 
kingdom,  of  which  Tolosa  was  the  capital. 
From  thence  they  invaded  Spain,  where  they 
also  founded  a  kingdom,  which  lasted  for  more 
than  two  centuries,  till  it  was  overthrown  by 
the  Arabs.  The  Ostrogoths  meantime  had  ex- 
tended their  dominions  almost  up  to  the  gates 
of  Constantinople ;  and  the  Emperor  Zeno  was 
glad  to  get  rid  of  them  by  giving  them  permis- 
sion to  invade  and  conquer  Italy.  Under  their 
king  Theodoric  the  Great  they  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  whole  of  Italy  (493).  Theodoric 
took  the  title  of  King  of  Italy,  and  an  Ostro- 
gothic  dynasty  reigned  in  the  country  till  it  was 
destroyed  by  Narses,  the  general  of  Justinian, 
A.D.  653.  The  Ostrogoths  embraced  Christian- 
ity at  an  early  period  ;  and  it  was  for  their  use 
that  Ulphilas  translated  the  sacred  Scriptures 
into  Gothic,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. 

GOTHD.-I,  a  Celtic  people  in  the  southeast  of 
Germany,  subject  to  the  Quadi. 

GRACCIIANUS,  M.  Jtuius,  assumed  his  cogno- 
men on  account  of  his  friendship  with  C.  Grac- 
chus. He  wrote  a  work,  De  Potestatibus,  which 
gave  an  account  of  the  Roman  constitution  and 
magistracies  from  the  time  of  the  kings.  It 
was  addressed  to  T.  Pomponius  Atticus,  the. 
father  of  Cicero's  friend.  This  work,  which 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  great  value,  is  lost, 
but  some  parts  of  it  are  cited  by  Joannes  Lydus. 
Vid.  LYDUS, 

GRACCHUS,  SEMFROKIUS,  plebeians.     1.  TIBE- 
RIUS,  a  distinguished    general    in    the    second 
352 


GRACCHUS,  SEMPRONIUS. 

Punic  war.      In    B.C.   216  he    was    magister 
equitum  to  the  dictator  M.  Junius  Pera ;  in  215 
consul  for  the  first  time;  and  in  213  consul  for 
the  second  time.     In  212  he  fell  in  battle  against 
Mago,  at  Campi  Veteres,  in  Lucania     His  body 
was  sent  to  Hannibal,    who  honored   it  with  u 
magnificent    burial. — 2. .TIBERIUS,    was  tribuue 
of  the  plebs  in  187  ;    and   although   personally 
hostile   to  P.  Scipio  Africanus,  he  defended  him 
against  the  attacks  of  the  other  tribunes,  for 
which  he  received  the  thanks  of  the  aristocrat- 
ical  party.      Soon  after  this  occurrence   Grac- 
chus was  rewarded  with  the  hand  of  Cornelia, 
the  youngest  daughter  of  P.  Scipio  Africanus. 
In  181  he  was  praetor,  and  received  Hispania 
Citerior  as  his  province,  where  he  carried  on 
the  war  with  great  success  against  the  Celtibe- 
rians.    After  defeating  them  in  battle,  he  gained 
their  confidence  by  his   justice  and  kindness. 
He  returned  to  Rome  in  178 ;  and  was  consul 
177,  when  he  was  sent  against  the  Sardinians, 
who  revolted.    He  reduced  them  to   complete 
submission  in  176,  and  returned  to    Rome  in 
175.    He'  brought  with  him  so  large   a  number 
of  captives  that  they  were  sold  for  a  mere  trifle, 
which  gave  rise  to  the  proverb  Sardi  vcnales. 
In  169  he  was  censor  with  C.  Claudius  Pulcher, 
and  was  consul  a  second  time  in  163.     He  had 
twelve  children  by  Cornelia,  all  of  whom  died  at 
an  early  age  except  the  two  tribunes,  Tiberius 
and   Caius,  and  a  daughter,  Cornelia,  who  was 
married  to  P.  Scipio  Africauus  the  younger. — 3 
TIBERIUS,  elder  son  of  No.  2,  lost  his  father  at  an 
early  age.    He  was  educated,  together  with  his 
brother  Caius,  by  his  illustrious  mother  Cornelia, 
who  made  it  the  object  of  her  life  to  render  her 
sons  worthy  of  their  father  and  of  her  own  an- 
cestors.     She  was  assisted  in  the  education  of 
her  children  by  eminent  Greeks,  who  exercised 
great  influence  upon  the  minds  of  the  two  broth- 
ers, and  among  whom  we  have  especial  men- 
tion of  Diophanes  of   Mytilene,    Menelaus  of 
Marathon,   and   Blossius  of    Cumae.      Tiberius 
was  nine  years  older  than  his  brother  Caius ; 
and  although  they  grew  up  under  the  same  in- 
fluence,  and  their  characters  resembled    each 
other  in  the  main    outlines,  yet  they  differed 
from  each  other  in  several  important  particu- 
lars.     Tiberius  was  inferior  to   his  brother  in 
:alcnt,  but  surpassed  him  in  the  amiable  traits 
of  his  gentle  nature :  the  simplicity  of  his  de- 
meanor, and  his  calm  dignity,  won  for  him  the 
learts  of  the  people.    His  eloquence,  too,  form- 
ed a  strong  contrast  with  the  passionate   and 
mpetuous  harangues  of  Caius ;  for  it  was  tem- 
perate, graceful,  persuasive,  and,  proceeding  as 
t  did  from  the   fullness  of  his  own  heart,  it 
bund  a  ready  entrance  into  the  hearts  of  his 
hearers.      Tiberius   served  in   Africa  under  P. 
Scipio  Africanus  the  younger,  who  had  married 
n's    sister,  and  was  present  at   the  destruction 
of  Carthage  (146).     In  137  he  was  quaestor,  and 
n  that  capacity    he  accompanied    the   consul, 
lostilius  Mancinus,  to  Hispania  Citerior,  where 
ic  gained  both  the  affection  of  the  Roman  sol- 
diers, and  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  the  vic- 
orious  enemy.    The  distressed  condition  of  the 
toman  people   had  deeply  excited  the  syrnpa- 
hies  of   Tiberius.      As    he  travelled   through 
Struria  on   his  journey  to   Spain,   he  observed 
with  grief  and  indignation  the  deserted  state  of 


GRACCHUS,  SEMPRONIUS. 

that  fertile  country  ;  thousands  of  foreign  slave 
iu  chains  were  employed  in  cultivating  the  lane 
and  tending  the  flocks  upon  the  immense  estates 
of  the  wealthy,  while  the  poorer  classes  of  Ro 
man  citizens,  who  were  thus  thrown  out  of  em 
ployment,  had  scarcely  their  daily  bread  or  t 
clod  of  earth  to  call  their  own.  He  resolved  to 
use  every  effort  to  remedy  this  state  of  things 
by  endeavoring  to  create  an  industrious  middle 
class  of  agriculturists,  and  to  put  a  check  upon 
the  unbounded  avarice  of  the  ruling  party 
whose  covetousness,  combined  with  the  disas- 
ters of  the  second  Punic  war,  had  completely 
destroyed  the  middle  class  of  small  land-owners 
With  this  view,  he  offered  himself  as  a  candi- 
date for  the  tribuneship,  and  obtained  it  for  the 
year  133.  The  agrarian  law  of  Licinius,  which 
enacted  that  no  one  should  possess  more  than 
five  hundred  jugera  of  public  land,  had  never 
been  repealed,  but  had  for  a  long  series  of  years 
been  totally  disregarded.  The  first  measure, 
therefore,  of  Tiberius  was  to  propose  a  bill  to 
the  people,  renewing  and  enforcing  the  Licinian 
law,  but  with  the  modification  that  besides  the 
five  hundred  jugera  allowed  by  that  law,  any 
one  might  possess  two  hundred  and  fifty  jugera 
of  the  public  land  for  each  of  his  sons.  This 
clause,  however,  seems  to  have  been  limited  to 
two,  so  that  a  father  of  two  sons  might  occupy 
one  thousand  jugera  of  public  land.  The  sur- 
plus was  to  be  taken  from  them  and  distributed 
in  small  farms  among  the  poor  citizens.  The 
business  of  measuring  and  distributing  the  land 
was  to  be  intrusted  to  triumvirs,  who  were  to 
be  elected  as  a  permanent  magistracy.  The 
measure  encountered  the  most  vehement  oppo- 
sition from  the  senate  and  the  aristocracy,  and 
they  got  one  of  the  tribunes,  M.  Octavius,  to  put 
his  intercessio  or  veto  upon  the  bill.  When 
neither  persuasions  nor  threats  would  induce 
Octavius  to  withdraw  his  opposition,  the  peo- 
ple, upon  the  proposition  of  Tiberius,  deposed 
Octavius  from  his  effice.  The  law  was  then 
passed  ;  and  the  triumvirs  appointed  to  carry  it 
into  execution  were  Tib.  Gracchus,  App.  Clau- 
dius, his  father-in-law,  and  his  brother  C.  Grac- 
chus, who  was  then  little  more  than  twenty 
years  old,  and  was  serving  in  the  camp  of  P. 
Scipio  at  Numantia.  About  this  time  Attalus 
died,  bequeathing  his  kingdom  and  his  property 
to  the  Roman  people.  Gracchus  thereupon  pro- 
posed that  this  property  should  be  distributed 
among -the  people,  to  enable  the  poor,  who  were 
to  receive  lands,  to  purchase  the  necessary  im- 
plements, cattle,  and  the  like.  When  the  time 
came  for  the  election  of  the  tribunes  for  the  fol- 
lowing year,  Tiberius  again  offered  himself  as 
a  candidate.  The  senate  declared  that  it  was 
illegal  for  any  one  to  hold  this  office  for  two 
consecutive  years;  but  Tiberius  paid  no  atten- 
tion to  the  objectioa  While  the  tribes  were 
voting,  a  band  of  senators,  headed  by  P.  Scipio 
Nasica,  rushed  from  the  senate  house  into  the 
forum  and  attacked  the  people.  Tiberius  was 
killed  as  he  was  attempting  to  escape.  He  wa» 

probably  about  thirty-five  years  of  age  at  the  j  been  considerably  weakened  by  the  influence  of 
time  of  his  death.  Whatever  were  the  errors  Drusus  and  "the  aristocracy,  and  many  of  his 
of  Tiberius  in  legislation,  his  motives  were '  friends  had  deserted  his  cause.  He  failed  in 
pure  ;  and  he  died  the  death  of  a  martyr  in  the  obtaining  the  tribuneship  for  the  following  year, 
protection  of  the  poor  and  oppressed.  All  the  (121);  and  when  his  year  of  office  expired,  his 
odium  that  has  for  many  centuries  been  thrown  j  enemies  began  to  repeal  several  of  his  enact- 

333 


GRACCHUS,   SEMPRONIUS. 

upon  Tiberius  and  his  brother  Caius  arose  from 
party  prejudice,  and  more  especially  from  a  mis- 
understanding of  the  nature  of  a  Roman  agra- 
rian law,  which  did  not  deal  with  private  prop- 
erty, but  only  with  the  public  land  of  the  state. 
Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art.  AGRARI^E  LEGES. — 4.  C, 
brother  of  5fo.  3,  was  in  Spain  at  the  time  of 
bis  brother's  murder,  as  has  been  already  stated. 
He  returned   to   Rome   in  the  following  yea* 
(132),  but  kept  aloof  from  public  affairs  for  some 
years.      In  126  he  was  quaestor,  and  went  to 
Sardinia,  under  the  consul  L.  Aurelius  Orestes, 
and  there  gained  the  approbation  of  his  superiors 
and  the  attachment  of  the  soldiers.     The  senate 
attempted  to  keep  him  in  Sardinia,  dreading  his 
popularity  in  Rome  ;  but  after  he  had  remained 
there  two  years,  he  left  the  province  without 
leave,  and  returned  to  the  city  in  -124.     Urged 
on  by  the  popular  wish,  and  by  the  desire  of 
avenging  the  cause  of  his  murdered  brother,  he 
became  a  candidate  for  the  tribuneship  of  the 
plebs,  and  was  elected  for  the  year  123.    His 
reforms  were  far  more  extensive  than  his  broth- 
er's, and  such  was  his  influence   with   the  peo- 
ple that  he  carried  all  he  proposed  ;   and  the 
senate  were  deprived  of  some  of  their  most  im- 
portant privileges.      His  first  measure  was  the 
renewal  of*  the  agrarian  law  of  his  brother.     He 
next  carried  several  laws  for  the   amelioration 
of  the  condition  of  the  poor,  enacting  that  the 
soldiers  should  be  equipped  at  the  expense  of 
the  republic ;  that  no  person  under  the  age  of 
seventeen  should  be  drafted  for  the  army ;  and 
;hat  every  month  corn  should  be  sold  at  a  low 
fixed.price  to  the  poor.     In  order  to  weaken  the 
power  of  the  senate,  he  enacted,  that  the  judices 
n   the  judicia  publica,  who  had  hitherto  been 
sleeted  from   the   senate,  should  in   future  be 
chosen   from  the   equites  ;    and   that  in   every 
year,  before  the  consuls  were  elected,  the   sen- 
ite   should  determine  the  two  provinces  which 
;he  consuls  should  have.    No  branch  of  the  pub- 
ic administration  appears  to  have  escaped  his 
notice.    He  gave  a  regular  organization  to  the 
jroviuce  of  Asia,  which  had  for  many  years 
jeen  left  unsettled.     In  order  to  facilitate  inter- 
course between  the    several  parts  of  Italy,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  give  emplovment  to  the 
xwr,  he  made  new  roads  in  all  directions,  re- 
mired  the  old  ones,  and  set  up  mile-stones  along 
hem.     Caius  was  elected  tribune  again  for  the 
following  year,  122.     The  senate,  finding  it  im- 
x>ssible   to   resist  the   measures  of  Caius,   re- 
solved, if  possible,  to  destroy  his  influence  with 
.he  people,  that  they  might  retain  the  govern- 
ment iu  their  own  hands.     For  this  purpose  they 
)ersuaded   M.  Livius   Drusus,  one  of  the   col- 
eagues  of  Caius,  to  propose  measures  still  more 
x>pular  than  those  of  Caius.      The  people   al- 
owed  themselves  to  bo  duped  by  the  treacher- 
us  agent  of  the  senate,  and  the  popularity  of 
Jnius  gradually  waned.     During  his  absence  in 
Africa,  whither  he  had  gone  as  one  of  the  trium- 
virs to  establish  a  colony  at  Carthage,  in  accord- 
ance with  one  of  his  own  laws,  his   party  had 


GRADIVUft, 

menta.  Caius  appeared  in  the  forum  to  oppose 
these  proceedings.  One  of  the  attendants  of 
the  consul  Opimius  was  slain  by  the  friends  of 
Cains.  Opiniius  gladly  availed  himself  of  this 
pretext  to  persuade  the  senate  to  eoufer  upon 
him  unlimited  power  to  act  as  he  thought  best 
for  the  good  of  the  republic.  Fulvius  Flaccus, 
and  the  other  friends  of  Caius,  called  upon  him 
to  repel  force  by  force ;  but  he  refused  to  arm, 
and  while  hia  friends  fought  in  his  defence,  he 
flfd  to  the  grove  of  the  Furies,  where  he  fell  by 
tlic  hands  of  his  slave,  whom  he  had  command- 
f<l  t<>  put  him  to  death.  The  bodies  of  the  slain, 
\\  hose  number  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  three 
thousand,  were  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  their  prop- 
citv  was  confiscated,  and  their  houses  demolish- 
ed. All  the  other  friends  of  Gracchus  who  fell 
into  the  bonds  of  their  enemies  were  thrown  into 
prison,  and  there  strangled. 

GRAD!VUS,  t.  e.,  the  marching  (probably  from 
gradior),  a  surname  of  Mars,  who  is  hence  call- 
ed gradivus  pater  and  rex  gradivus.  Mars  Gra- 
divus  had  a  temple  outside  the  porta  Capena 
on  the  Appian  road,  and  it  is  said  that  King 
Numa  appointed  twelve  Salii  as  priests  of  this 
god. 

GR.SJE  (Tpalai),  that  is,  "  the  old  women," 
daughters  of  Phorcys  and  Ceto,  were  three  in 
number,  Pephredo,  Enyo,  and  Dino,  and  were 
also  called  Phorcydes.  They  had  gray  hair  from 
their  birth  ;  and  had  only  one  tooth  and  one 
eye  in  common,  which  they  borrowed  from 
each  other  when  they  wanted  them.  They 
were,  perhaps,  marine  deities,  like  the  other 
children  of  Phorcys. 

GR.&CIA  or  HELLAS  (jj  'EXAaf),  a  country  in 
Europe,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  called 
GR-KCI  or  HELLENES  ("E/lA^vef).  Among  the 
Greeks  Hellas  did  not  signify  any  particular 
country,  bounded  by  certain  geographical  limits, 
but  was  used  in  general  to  signify  the  abode  of 
tie  Hellenes,  wherever  they  might  happen  to  be 
settled.  Thus  the  Greek  colonies  of  Gyrene  in 
Africa,  of  Syracuse  in  Sicily,  of  Tarentum  in 
Italy,  and  of  Smyrna  in  Asia,  are  said  to  be  in 
Hellas.  In  the  most  ancient  times  Hellas  was 
a  small  district  of  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly,  in 
which  was  situated  a  town  of  the  same  name. 
As  the  inhabitants  of  this  district,  the  Hellenes, 
gradually  spread  over  the  surrounding  country, 
their  name  was  adopted  by  other  tribes,  who 
became  assimilated  in  language,  manners,  and 
customs  to  the  original  Hellenes,  till  at  length 
the  whole  of  the  north  of  Greece,  from  the  Ce- 
raunum  and  Cambunian  Mountains  to  the  Co- 
rinthian isthmus,  was  designated  by  the  name 
of  Hellas.*  Peloponnesus  was  generally  spoken 
of  during  the  flourishing  times  of  Greek  inde- 
pendence as  distinct  from  Hellas  proper;  but 
subsequently  Peloponnesus  and  the  Greek  isl- 
ands were  also  included  under  the  general  name 
of  Hellas,  in  opposition  to  the  land  of  the  bar- 
barians. Still  later,  even  Macedonia,  and  the 
southern  part  of  Illyria,  were  sometimes  reck- 
oned part'  of  Hellas.  The  Romans  called  the 
hind  of  the  Hellenes  Gracia,  whence  we  have 
derived  the  name  of  Greece.  They  probably 


»  Epirus  it,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  usually  in- 
eluded  in  Hellas  by  modern  geographers,  but  was  ex- 
«ludcJ  by  the  Greeks  themselves,  as  the  EpiroUwere  not 
regarded  u  genuine  Hellenes. 

234 


GRjEOIA  MAGNA. 

gave  this  name  to  the  country  from  tleir  first 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  tribe  of  the  Greed, 
who  were  said  to  be  descended  from  Grsecus, 
a  son  of  Thessalus,  and  who  appear  at  an  early 
period  to  have  dwelt  on  the  western  coast  of 
Epirus.  Hellas  or  Greece  proper,  including  Pelo- 
ponnesus, lies  between  the  thirty-sixth  and  forty 
sixth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  between 
the  twenty-first  and  twenty-sixth  degrees  of 
east  longitude.  It"  greatest  length  from  Mount 
Olympus  to  Cape  Taenarus  is  about  two  bund 
red  and  fifty  English  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth 
from  the  western  coast  of  Acamania  to  Marathon 
in  Attica  is  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles. 
Its  area  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of  Portugal. 
On  the  north  it  was  separated  by  the  Cambu- 
nian and  Ceraunian  Mountains  from  Macedonia 
and  Illyria ;  and  on  the  other  three  sides  it  is 
bounded  by  the  sea,  namely,  by  the  Ionian  Sea 
on  the  west,  and  by  the  JSgean  on  the  east  and 
south.  It  is  one  of  the  most  mountainous  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  and  possesses  few  extensive 
plains  and  few  continuous  valleys.  The  inhab- 
itants were  thus  separated  from  one  another  by 
barriers  which  it  was  not  easy  to  surmount,  and 
were  naturally  led  to  form  separate  political 
communities.  At  a  later  time  the  north  of 
Greece  was  generally  divided  into  ten  districts  : 
EPIRUS,  THESSALIA,  ACARNANJA,  ./ETOLIA,  DORIS, 
Looms,  PHOCIS,  BCEOTIA,  ATTICA,  and  MEGARIS. 
The  south  of  Greece  or  Peloponnesus  was  usual- 
ly divided  into  ten  districts  likewise :  CORINTH- 
IA,  SICYONIA,  PHLIASIA,  AOHAJA,  ELIS,  MESSENIA, 
LAOONICA,  CYNURIA,  ARGOLIS,  and  ARCADIA.  An 
account  of  the  geography,  early  inhabitants,  and 
history  of  each  of  these  districts  is  given  in 
separate  articles.  It  is  only  necessary  to  re- 
mark here  that,  before  the  Hellenes  had  spread 
over  the  country,  it  was  inhabited  by  various 
tribes,  whom  the  Greeks  call  by  the  general 
name  of  barbarians.  Of  these  the  most  cele- 
brated were  the  Pelasgians,  who  had  settled  in 
most  parts  of  Greece,  and  from  whom  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  Greek  population  was  un- 
doubtedly descended.  These  Pelasgians  were 
a  branch  of  the  great  Indo-Germanic  race,  and 
spoke  a  language  akin  to  that  of  the  Hellenes, 
whence  the  amalgamation  of  the  two  races  was 
rendered  much  easier.  Vid.  PELASGI.  The 
Hellenes  traced  their  origin  to  a  mythical  an- 
cestor Hellen,  from  whose  sons  and  grandsons 
they  were  divided  into  the  four  great  tribes  of 
Dorians,  ^EoUans,  Achaeans,  and  lonians.  Vid. 
HELLEN. 

GRACIA  MAGNA  or  G.  MAJOR  (f)  \iefaki)  'EA- 
A«f),  a  name  given  to  the  districts  in  the  south 
of  Italy,  inhabited  by  the  Greeks.  This  name 
was  never  used  simply  to  indicate  the  south  of 
Italy  ;  it  was  always  confined  to  the  Greek 
cities  and  their  territories,  and  did  not  include 
the  surrounding  districts,  inhabited  by  the  Ital- 
ian tribes.  It  appears  to  have  been  applied 
chiefly  to  the  cities  on  the  Tarentine  Gulf,  Tar- 
entum, Sybaris,  Croton,  Caulonia,  Siris  (Hera- 
clea,)  Metapontum,  Locri,  and  Rhegium ;  but 
it  also  included  the  Greek  cities  on  the  western 
coast,  such  as  Cumae  and  Neapolis.  Strabo  ex- 
tends the  appellation  even  to,  the  Greek  cities 
of  Sicily. — The  origin  of  the  name  is  doubtful : 
whether  it  was  given  to  the  Greek  cities  by  the 
Italian  tribes  from  their  admiring  the  magnifi 


GRAMPIUS  MONS. 


GREGORIUS 


cence  of  these  cities,  or  whether  it  was  assumed 
by  the  inhabitants  themselves  out  of  vanity  and 
ostentation,  to  show  their  superiority  to  the 
mother  country. 

GRAMPIUS  Moxs  (Grampian  Hills),  a  range  of 
mountains  in  Britannia  Barbara  or  Caledonia, 
separating  the  Highlands  and  Lowlands  of  Scot- 
land. Agricola  penetrated  as  far  as  these  moun- 
tains, and  defeated  Galgacus  at  their  foot. 

GRANICUS  (TpilviKot;:  now  Koja-Chai),  a  river 
of  Mysia  Minor,  rising  in  Mount  Cotylus,  the 
northern  summit  of  Ida,  flowing  northeast 
through  the  plain  of  Adrastea,  and  falling  into 
the  Propontis  (now  Sea  of  Marmara)  east  of 
Priapus:  memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  first 
of  the  three  great  victories  by  which  Alexander 
the  Great  overthrew  the  Persian  empire  (B.C. 
334),  and,  in  a  less  degree,  for  a  victory  gained 
upon  its  banks  by  Lucullus  over  Mithradates, 
B.C.  73. 

GRAMS  (Tpdvif  :  now  KhishC),  a  river  of  Per- 
eis,  with  a  royal  palace  on  its  banks.  It  fell  into 
the  Persian  Gulf  near  Taoce. 

GRAXICS,  Q.,  a  clerk  employed  by  the  auction- 
eers at  Rome  to  collect  the  money  at  sales,  lived 
about  B.C.  110.  Although  his  occupation  was 
humble,  his  wit  and  caustic  humor  rendered  him 
famous  among  his  contemporaries,  and  have  trans- 
mitted his  name  to  posterity. 

GRANUA  (Tpavova :  now  Graan),  a  river  in  the 
land  of  the  Quadi  and  the  southeast  of  Germany, 
and  a  tributary  of  the  Danube,  oa  the  banks  of 
which  Marcus  Aurelius  wrote  the  first  book  of 
his  Meditations. 

GRATIS.     Vid.  CHAEITES. 

GRATIANOPOLIS.     Vid.  CDLARO. 

GRATIANUS.  1.  Emperor  of  the  Western  Em- 
pire, A.D.  367-383,  son  of  Valentinian  I,  was 
raised  by  his  father  to  the  rank  of  Augustus  in 
367,  when  he  was  only  eight  years  old.  On  th« 
death  of  Valentinian  in  375,  Gratian  did  not  suc- 
ceed to  the  sole  sovereignty,  as  Valentinian  II., 
the  half-brother  of  Augustus,  was  proclaimed 
Augustus  by  the  troops.  By  the  death  of  his 
uncle,  Valens  (378),  the  Eastern  empire  devolved 
upon  him  ;  but  the  danger  to  which  the  East 
was  exposed  from  the  Goths  led  Gratian  to  send 
for  Theodosius,  and  appoint  him  emperor  of  'the 
East  (379).  Gratian  was  fond  of  quiet  and  re- 
pose, and  was  greatly  under  the  influence  of  ec- 
clesiastics, especially  of  Ambrose  of  Milan.  He 
became  unpopular  with  the  army.  Maximus 
was  declared  emperor  in  Britain,  and  crossed 
over  to  Gaul,  where  he  defeated  Gratian,  who 
was  overtaken  and  slain  in  his  flight  after  the 
battle. — 2.  A  usurper,  who  assumed  the  purple 
in  Britain,  and  was  murdered  by  bis  troops  about 
four  months  afteij  his  elevation  (407).  He  was 
succeeded  by  Constantino.  Vid.  COXSTANTI.NUS, 
No.  3. 

GHATIARUM  COLLIS  (Xapirav  Ao^of,  Herod.,  iv. 
175 :  now  Hills  of  TarIu>unaK),  a  range  of  wooded 
hill*  running  parallel  to  the  coast  of  Northern 
Africa,  between  the  Syrtes,  and  containing  the 
source  of  ihe  CINYPS  and  the  other  small  rivers 
of  that  coast 

G RATIOS  FALISCUS.     Vid.  FAi.rsccs. 
GRATUS,  VALERIUS,  procurator  of  Judaea  from 
A.D.  15  to  27,  and  the  immediate  predecessor  of 
'.'••iiuus  Pilate. 

ancient  city  of  Etruria,  subject 


to  Tarquinii,  was  colonized  by  the  Romans  B.C 
183,  and  received  new  colonists  under  Augustus. 
It  was  situated  in  the  Maremma,  and  its  air  was 
unhealthy  (intempestce  Graviscce,  Virg.,  ^En.,  x., 
184);  whence  the  ancients  ridiculously  derived 
its  name  from  aer  gravis.  Its  ruins  are  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  River  Maria,  about  two  miles 
from  the  sea,  where  are  the  remains  of  a  magni- 
ficent arch. 

GREGORAS,  NICEPHOKUS,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant Byzantine  historians,  was  born  about 
A.D.  1295,  and  died  about  1359.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  Historia  Byzantina.  It  is  in 
thirty-eight  books,  of  which  only  twenty-four 
have  been  printed.  It  begins  with  the  capture 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  in  1204,  and 
goes  down  to  1359 ;  the  twenty-four  printed 
books  contain  the  period  from  1204  to  1351. 
Edited  by  Schopen,  Bonn,  1829. 

GREGORICS  (rpij-yopiot;).  1.  Surnamed  NAZI- 
ANZENDS,  and  usually  called  GREGORY  NAZIAX- 
ZEN,  was  born  in  a  village  near  Nazianzus,  in 
Cappadocia,  about  A.D.  329.  His  father  took 
the  greatest  pains  with  his  education,  and  he 
afterward  prosecuted  his  studies  at  Athens, 
where  he  earned  the  greatest  reputation  for  his 
knowledge  of  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  mathe- 
matics. Among  his  fellow-students  was  Julian, 
the  future  emperor,  and  Basil,  with  the  latter  of 
whom  he  formed  a  most  intimate  friendship. 
Gregory  appears  to  have  remained  at  Athens 
about  six  years  (350-356),  and  then  returned 
home.  Having  received  ordination,  he  contin- 
ued to  reside  at  Nazianzus.  where  he  discharged 
his  duties  as  a  presbyter,  and  assisted  his  aged 
father,  who  was  bishop  of  the  town.  In  372  he 
was  associated  with  his  father  in  die  bishopric  ; 
but  after  the  death  of  the  latter  in  S74,  he  re- 
fused to  continue  bishop  of  Nazianzus,  as  he 
was  averse  from  public  life,  and  fond  of  solitary 
meditation.  After  living  some  years  in  retire- 
ment he  was  summoned  to  Constantinople  in 
379,  in  order  to  defend  the  orthodox  faith  against 
the  Arians  and  other  heretics.  In  380  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Constantinople  by  the  Emperor 
Theodosius ;  but  he  resigned  the  office  in  ihe 
following  year  (381),  and  withdrew  altogether 
from  public  life.  He  lived  in  solitude  at  his 
paternal  estate  at  Nazianzus,  and  there  he  died 
in  389  or  390.  His  extant  works  are,  1.  Ora- 
tions or  Sermons ;  2.  Letters ;  3.  Poems.  His 
discourses,  though  sometimes  really  eloquent, 
are  generally  nothing  more  than  favorable  spe- 
cimens of  the  rhetoric  of  the  schools.  He  is 
more  earnest  than  Chrysostom,  but  not  so  orna- 
mental. He  is  more  artificial  but  also  more 
attractive  than  Basil.  Edited  by  Morell,  Paris, 
2  vols.  foL,  1609-1611,  reprinted  1630.  Of  the 
Benedictine  edition,  only  the  first  volume,  con 
taiuing  the  discourses,  was  published,  Paris, 
1778. — 2.  NYSSENUS,  bishop  of  Nyssa  in  Cappa- 
docia, was  the  younger  brother  of  Basil,  and 
was  t)i  TII  at  Cojsurea,  in  Cappadocia,  about  331. 
He  was  made  bishop  of  Nyssa  about  872,  and, 
like  his  brother  Basil  and  their  friend  Gregory 
Naziauzen,  was  one  of  the  pillars  of  orthodoxy. 
He  died  soon  after  394.  Like  his  brother,  he 
was  an  eminent  rhetorician,  but  his  oratory  often 
offends  by  its  extravagance.  His  works  are 
edited  by  Morell  and  Gretser,  2  vols.  fol,  Paris, 
1616-1618. — 3.  Surnamed  TIIAUMATUBGUS,  from 
335 


GRUDIJ 

his  miracles,  was  boru  at  Neocoasarea,  in  Cap- 
pmloc-ia,  «>f  heathen  parents.  He  was  converted 
to  Christianity  by  Origen  about  234,  and  subse- 
quently became  the  bishop  of  his  native  town. 
He  died  soon  after  265.  His  works  arc  not 
numerous.  The  best  edition  is  the  one  pub- 
lished at  Paris,  1622. 

GEUDII,  a  people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  subject  to 
the  Nervii,  north  of  the  Scheldt. 

GHUME.YTUM  (Grumentinus :  now  II  Palazzo?) 
a  town  in  the  interior  of  Lucania,  on  the  road 
from  Beneventum  to  Heraclea,  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  second  Punic  war. 

GEYLLUS  (Ppv/Uof),  elder  son  of  Xenophon, 
fell  at  the  battle  of  Mautinea,  B.C.  362,  after  he 
had,  according  to  some  accouuts,  given  Epami- 
uoudas  his  murtal  wound. 

[GRYNEUS.  1.  A  Centaur,  who  slew  Broteas 
and  Oreon,  and  was  himself  slain  by  Exadius  at 
the  nuptials  of  Pirithous. — 2.  Appellation  of 
Apollo.  Vid.  GRYNIA.] 

QRVNU  or  -IUM  (Tpvveia,  Tpvvtov),  a  very  an- 
cieut  fortified  city  on  the  coast  of  the  Sinus 
Elniticus,  in  the  south  of  Mysia,  between  Elsea 
and  Jlyrina,  seventy  stadia  from  the  former  and 
forty  from  the  latter :  celebrated  for  its  temple 
und  oracle  of  Apollo,  who  is  hence  called  Gry- 
nieus  Apollo  (Virg.,  jEn.,  iv.,  345).  It  possess- 
ed also  a  good  harbor.  Parmenion,  the  general 
of  Alexander,  destroyed  the  city  and  sold  the 
inhabitants  as  slaves.  It  was  never  again  re- 
stored. 

GEYPS  or  GRYPHUS  (Tpvip),  a  griffin,  a  fabu- 
lous animal,  dwelling  in  the  Rhipzean  Mountains, 
between  the  Hyperboreans  and  the  one-eyed 
Ariuiaspians,  and  guarding  the  gold  of  the  north. 
The  Arimaspians  mounted  on  horseback,  and 
attempted  to  steal  the  gold,  and  hence  arose  the 
hostility  between  the  horse  and  the  griffin. 
The  body  of  the  griffin  was  that  of  a  lion,  while 
the  head  and  wings  were  those  of  an  eagle.  It 
is  probable  that  the  origin  of  the  belief  in  griffins 
niu-1  be  looked  for  in  the  East,  where  it  seems 
to  have  been  very  ancient.  They  are  also  men- 
tioned among  the  fabulous  animals  which  guard- 
ed the  gold  of  India. 

GCGEEM  or  GUBKRNI,  &  people  of  Germany, 
probably  of  the  same  race  as  the  Sygambri, 
crossed  the  Rhine,  and  settled  on  its  left  bank, 
between  the  Ubii  and  Batavi. 

GULCSSA,  a  Numidian,  second  son  of  Masinis- 
sa,  and  brother  to  Micipsa  and  Mastanabal.  On 
the  death  of  Masinissa  in  B.C.  149,  he  succeed- 
ed, along  with  his  brothers,  to  the  dominions  of 
their  father.  He  left  a  son  named  MASSIVA. 

[GUNEUS  (Tovvevf),  one  of  the  Greek  leaders 
before  Troy,  who  commanded  the  Perrhaebians 
from  Thessaly.] 

GUR.EUS  (Tovpalof,  T  appoint;),  a  river  of  In- 
dia, flowing  through  the  country  of  the  Gursei 
(iu  the  northwest  of  the  Punjab)  into  the 
Cnphen. 

GUTTOXES.     Vid.  GOTHI. 

GYARCS  or  GYARA  (%  Tvapo?,  ra  Tvapa  :  Tva- 
ocvf  :  now  Chiura  or  Jura),  one  of  the  Cyclades, 
a  small  island  southwest  of  Andros,  poor  and 
unproductive,  and  inhabited  only  by  fishermen. 
Under  the  Roman  emperors  it  was  a  place  of 
banishment  (Aude  aliquid  brevibus  Gyaris  et  car- 
cere  dignum,  Juv.,  i,  73). 

[GYAS.     1.  A  Trojan,  companion  of  JSneas 
336 


GYTHEUM. 

distinguished  himself  at  the  funeral  games  cel- 
ebrated in  honor  of  Auchises.  —  2.  A  Rutulian, 
sou  of  Melampus,  slain  by  ^Enaas  in  Italy.] 

GYKS  or  GYGES  (Pi'j/f,  Pvy^f),  son  of  Uranus 
(Heaven)  and  Ge  (Earth),  one  of  the  giants  with 
one  hundred  hands,  who  made  Avar  upon  the 
gods. 

GYG^EUS  LACUS  (TJ  Tvyair)  hlfivij  :  now  Lake  of 
Marmora),  a  small  lake  in  Lydia,  between  the 
rivers  Hermus  and  Hyllus,  north  of  Sardis,  the 
necropolis  of  which  city  was  on  its  banks.  It 
was  afterward  called  Coloe. 


*•  The  first  king  of  Lydia  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Mermnadse,  dethroned  Can- 
daules,  and  succeeded  to  the  kingdom,  as  re 
lated  under  CANDAULES.  He  reigned  B.C.  716- 
678.  He  sent  magnificent  presents  to  Delphi, 
and  carried  on  various  wars  with  the  cities  of 
Asia  Minor,  such  as  Miletus,  Smyrna,  Colophon, 
and  Magnesia.  "  The  riches  of  Gyges"  became 
a  proverb.  —  [2.  A  companion  of  ^Eneas,  slain  by 
Turnus  in  Italy.] 

GYLIPPUS  (PvAtTTTTOf),  a  Spartan,  son  of  Clean- 
dridas,  was  sent  as  the  Spartan  commander  to 
Syracuse,  to  oppose  the  Athenians,  B.C.  414. 
Under  his  command  the  Syracusans  annihilated 
the  great  Athenian  armament,  and  took  Demos- 
thenes and  Nicias  prisoners,  413.  In  404  he 
was  commissioned  by  Lysander,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Athens,  to  carry  home  the  treasure  ;  but, 
by  opening  the  seams  of  the  sacks  underneath, 
lie  abstracted  a  considerable  portion.  The  theft 
was  discovered,  and  Gylippus  went  at  once  into 
exile.  The  syllable  Tvh-  in  the  name  of  Gylip- 
pus is  probably  identical  with  the  Latin  Gilvus. 

GYMNESLE.     Vid.  BALEARES. 

GYN^ECOPOLIS  (TwaiKoirofaf,  or  VVVOIKUV  iro- 

f),  a  city  in  the  Delta  of  Egypt,  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  between 
Hermopolis  and  Momemphis.  It  was  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Nomos  Gynzecopolites. 

GYNDES  (Tvvdqf),  a  river  of  Assyria,  rising  in 
the  country  of  the  Matieni  (in  the  mountains  of 
Kurdistan),  and  flowing  into  the  Tigris,  cele- 
brated through  the  story  that  Cyrus  the  Great 
drew  off  its  waters  by  three  hundred  and  sixty 
channels.  (Herod.,  i.,  189).  It  is  very  difficult 
:o  identify  this  river  :  perhaps  it  is  the  same  as 
;he  Delas  or  Silla  (now  Diala),  which  falls  into 
:he  Tigris  just  above  Ctesiphon  and  Seleucia. 
[t  is  also  doubtful  whether  the  Sindes  or  Taci- 
;us  (Ann.,  xK,  10)  is  the  same  river. 

(Tvpal  mrpaC),  certain  rocks  in  the 
[carian  Sea,  or,  as  others  suppose,  in  the  Mga- 
an,  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey.] 

GYRTON,  GYRTONA  (Tvpruv,  Tvpruvr]  :  Tvpru- 
viog:  ruins  near  Tatari),  an  ancient  town  in 
Pelasgiotis  in  Thessaly,  on  the  Peneus. 

GYTHEUM,  GYTHIUM  (rb  Tvtieiov,  Tvdiov  :  Tv- 

uTTic  :  now  Palceopolis  near  Marathonisi),  an 
ancient  town  on  the  coast  of  Laconia,  founded 
by  the  Acbffians,  lay  near  the  head  of  the  Laco- 
nian  Bay,  southwest  of  the  mouth  of  (he  River 
Eurotas.  It  served  as  the  harbor  of  Sparta,  and 
was  important  in  a  military  point  of  view.  In 
the  Persian  war  the  Lacedaemonian  fleet  was 
stationed  at  Gytheum,  and  here  the  Athenians 
under  Tolmides  burned  the  Lacedaemonian  arse- 
nal, B.C.  455.  After  the  battle  of  Leuctra  (370) 
it  was  taken  by  Epaminondas.  In  195  it  wa* 
taken  by  Flamininus,  and  made  independent  of 


GYZ  ANTES. 


HADRIAN  DS. 


Nabis.  tyrant  of  Sparta,  whereupon  it  joined  the 
Achaean  league. 

GYZANTES  (Tv^avref),  a  people  in  the  western 
part  of  Libya  (Northern  Africa),  whose  country 
was  rich  in  honey  and  wax.  They  seem  to  have 
dwelt  in  Byzacium. 

H. 

IDES  or  PLCTO  ("Atoj/f,  ntovruv,  or  poeti- 
'  idrjf,  'Aiduvevf,  HS.OVTEVC)  the  God  of  the 
NeJher  "World.  Plato  observes  that  people 
preferred  calling  him  Pluto  (the  giver  of  wealth) 
to  pronouncing  the  dreaded  name  of  Hades  or 
Aides.  Hence  we  find  that  in  ordinary  life 
and  in  the  mysteries  the  name  Pluto  became 
generally  established,  while  the  poets  preferred 
the  ancient  name  Aides  or  the  form  Pluteus. 
The  Roman  poets  use  the  names  Dis,  ORCUS, 
and  TARTARUS,  as  synonymous  with  Pluto,  for 
the  god  of  the  Nether  World.  Hades  was  son 
of  Saturn  (Cronus)  and  Rhea,  and  brother  of  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  and  Neptune  (Poseidon).  His  wife 
was  Persephone  or  Proserpina,  the  daughter  of 
Ceres  (Demeter),  whom  he  carried  off  from  the 
upper  world,  as  is  related  elsewhere.  Vid.  p. 
248,  a.  In  the  division  of  the  world  among 
the  three  brothers,  Hades  (Pluto)  obtained  the 
Nether  World,  the  abode  of  the  shades,  over 
which  he  ruled.  Hence  he  is  called  the  infer- 
nal Jupiter  (Zeus)  (Zei>f  KaraxOavios),  or  the 
king  of  the  shades  (ava£  tvepuv).  He  possessed 
a  helmet  which  rendered  the  wearer  invisible, 
and  later  traditions  stated  that  this  helmet  was 
given  him  as  a  present  by  the  Cyclopes  after 
their  delivery  from  Tartarus.  Ancient  story 
mentions  both  gods  and  men  who  were  hon- 
ored by  Hades  (Pluto)  with  the  temporary  use 
of  this  helmet.  His  character  is  described  as 
fierce  and  inexorable,  whence  of  all  the  gods 
he  was  most  hated  by  mortals.  He  kept  the 
gates  of  the  lower  world  closed  (and  is  there- 
fore called  TlvhupTTif),  that  no  shades  might  be 
able  to  escape  or  return  to  the  region  of  light. 
When  mortals  invoked  him,  they  struck  the 
earth  with  their  hands ;  the  sacrifices  which 
were  offered  to  him  and  Persephone  (Proser- 
pina) consisted  of  black  sheep ;  and  the  person 
who  offered  the  sacrifice  had  to  turn  away  his 
face.  The  ensign  of  his  power  was  a  staff,  with 
which,  like  Hermes  (Mercury),  he  drove  the 
shades  into  the  lower  world.  There  he  sat 
upon  a  throne  with  his  consort  Persephone  (Pro- 
serpina). Like  the  other  gods,  he  was  not  a 
faithful  husband;  the  Furies  are  called  bis 
daughters ;  the  nymph  Miutho,  whom  he  loved, 
was  metamorphosed  by  Persephone  (Proser- 
pina) into  a  plant  called  mint ;  and  the  nymph 
Leuce,  with  whom  he  was  likewise  in  love,  was 
changed  by  him  after  her  death  into  n  white 
poplar,  and  transferred  to  Elysium.  Being  the 
king  of  the  lower  world,  Pluto  is  the  giver  of 
All  the  blessings  that  come  from  the  earth:  he 
is  the  possessor  and  giver  of  all  the  metals  con- 
tained in  the  earth,  and  hence  his  name  Pluto. 
He  bears  several  surnames  referring  to  his  ul- 
timately assembling  all  mortals  in  his  kingdom, 
and  bringing  them  to  rest  and  peace ;  such  as 
Polydegmon,  Polydectes,  Clymtnus,  <fcc.  He  was 
worshipped  throughout  Greece  and  Italy.  We 
possess  few  representations  of  this  divinity,  but 
22 


'  in  those  which  still  exist,  he  resembles  his  brothei 
;  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Neptune  (Poseidon),  except 
;  that  his  hair  falls  down  his  forehead,  and  that  his 
appearance  is  dark  and  gloomy.    His  ordinary 
,  attributes  are  the  key  of  Hades  and  Cerberus. 
In  Homer  Aides  is  invariably  the  name  of  the 
god ;  but  in  later  times  it  was  transferred  to  his 
house,  his  abode  or  kingdom,  so  that  it  became  a 
name  for  the  nether  world. 
HADRANUM.     Vid,  ADRANUM. 
HADEIA.      Vid.  ADRIA. 

HADRIANOPOLIS  (  AdpiavoTroJitf :  'AdptavoiroM- 
TTJ<;  :  now  Adridnople),  a  town  in  Thrace,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Hebrus,  in  an  extensive  plain, 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  It  was  strong- 
ly fortified ;  possessed  an  extensive  commerce ; 
and  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  most  important 
town  in  the  country  after  Cop»tantinople. 

HADRIANOTHERA  or  -JE  ('A8piavov6t/pa),  a  city 
in  Mysia,  between  Pergamus  and  Miletopolis, 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian. 

HADRIANUS,  P.  JELIUS,  usually  called  HADRI- 
AN, Roman  emperor  A.D.  117-138,  was  born  at 
Rome,  A.D.  76.  He  lost  his  father  at  the  age 
of  ten,  and  was  brought  up  by  his  kinsman  Ulpi- 
us  Trajanus  (afterward  emperor)  and  by  Caelius 
Attianus.  From  an  early  age  he  studied  with 
zeal  the  Greek  language  and  literature.  At 
the  age  of  fifteen  he  went  to  Spain,  where  he 
entered  upon  his  military  career;  and  he  sub- 
sequently served  as  military  tribune  in  Lower 
Mossia.  After  the  elevation  of  Trajan  to  the 
throne  (98),  he  married  Julia  Sabiua,  a  grand- 
daughter of  Trajan's  sister  Marciana.  This 
marriage  was  brought  about  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Plotina,  the  wife  of  Trajan ;  and  from 
this  time  Hadrian  rose  rapidly  in  the  emper- 
or's favor.  He  was  raised  successively  to  the 
quaestorship  (101),  praetorship  (107),  and  consul- 
ship (109).  He  accompanied  Trajan  in  most 
of  his  expeditions,  and  distinguished  himself 
in  the  second  war  against  the  Dacians,  104- 
106 ;  was  made  governor  of  Pannonia  in  108 ; 
and  subsequently  fought  under  Trajan  against 
the  Parthians.  When  Trajan's  serious  illness 
obliged  him  to  leave  the  East,  he  placed  Ha- 
drian at  the  head  of  the  army.  Trajan  died  at 
Cilicia  on  his  journey  to  Rome  (117).  Hadrian, 
who  pretended  that  he  had  been  adopted  by 
Trajan,  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions 
in  Syria,  and  the  senate  ratified  the  election. 
Hadrian's  first  care  was  to  make  peace  with  the 
Parthians,  which  he  obtained  by  relinquishing 
the  conquests  of  Trajan  east  of  the  Euphrates. 
He  returned  to  Rome  in  118;  but  almost  im- 
mediately afterward  set  out  for  Moesia,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  invasion  of  this  province  by  the 
Sarmatians.  After  making  peace  with  the  Sar- 
matiuns,  and  suppressing  a  formidable  conspir- 
acy which  had  been  formed  against  his  life  bj 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  Roman  nobles, 
all  of  whom  he  put  to  death,  he  returned  to 
Rome  in  the  course  of  the  same  year.  He 
sought  to  gain  the  good  will  of  the  senate  by 
gladiatorial  exhibitions  and  liberal  largesses, 
and  he  also  cancelled  nil  arrears  of  taxes  due 
to  the  state  for  the  last  fifteen  years.  The  re- 
mainder of  Hadrian's  reign  was  disturbed  by 
few  wars.  He  spent  the  greater  part  of  his 
reign  in  travelling  through  the  various  provinces 
of  the  empire,  in  order  that  he  might  inspect 
337 


HADRIANUS. 


HALES. 


personally  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  provinces, 
tod  apply  the  necessary  remedies  wherever 
mismanagement  was  discovered.  He  com- 
menced these  travels  in  119,  tisiting  first  Gaul, 
German}',  and  Britain,  in  the  latter  of  which 
countries  he  caused  a  wall  to  be  built  from  the 
Solway  to  the  mouth  of  the  River  Tyne.  He 
afterward  visited  Spain,  Africa,  and  the  East, 
and  took  up  his  residence  at  Athens  for  three 
years  (123-126).  Athens  was  his  favorite  city, 
and  he  conferred  upon  its  inhabitants  many 
privileges.  The  most  importing  war  during  his 
reign  was  that  against  the  Jews,  which  broke 
out  in  131.  The  Jews  had  revolted  in  conse- 
quence of  the  establishment  of  a  colony,  under 
the  name  of  JElia  Capitolina,  on  the  site  of  Je- 
rusalem, and  of  their  having  been  forbidden  to 
practice  the  rite  of  circumcision.  The  war  was 
carried  on  by  the  Jews  as  a  national  struggle 
with  the  most  desperate  fury,  and  was  not 
brought  to  an  end  till  136,  after  the  country  had 
been  nearly  reduced  to  a  wilderness.  During 
the  last  few  years  of  Hadrian's  life,  his  health 
failed.  He  became  suspicious  and  cruel,  and 

Eut  to  death  several  persons  of  distinction.  As 
e  had  no  children,  he  adopted  L.  JSlius  Verus, 
and  gave  him  the  title  of  Caesar  in  136.  Verus 
died  on  the  first  of  January,  138,  whereupon 
Hadrian  adopted  Antoninus,  afterward  sur- 
uamed  Pius,  and  conferred  upon  him  likewise 
the  title  of  Caesar.  Jn  July  in  the  same  year, 
Hadrian  himself  died,  in  his  sixty-second  year, 
:uul  was  sECceeded  by  ANTONINUS.  The  reign 
of  Hadrian  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  hap- 
piest periods  in  Roman  history.  His  policy  was 
to  preserve  peace  with  foreign  nations,  and  not 
to  extend  the  boundaries  of  the  empire,  but  to 
secure  the  old  provinces,  and  promote  their  wel- 
i'are.  He  paid  particular  attention  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  in  the  provinces  as  well 
as  in  Italy.  His  reign  forms  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Roman  jurisprudence.  It  was  at 
Hadrian's  command  that  the  jurist  Silvius  Ju- 
lianus  drew  up  the  edictum  perpetuum,  which 
formed  a  fixed  code  of  laws.  Some  of  the  laws 
promulgated  by  Hadrian  are  of  a  truly  humane 
character,  and  aimed  at  improving  the  public 
morality  of  the  time.  The  various  cities  which 
he  visited  received  marks  of  his  favor  or  liber- 
ality ;  in  many  places  he  built  aqueducts,  and 
in  others  harbors  or  other  public  buildings, 
cither  for  use  or  ornament  But  what  has  ren- 
dered his  name  more  illustrious  than  any  thing 
else  are  the  numerous  and  magnificent  architect- 
ural works  which  he  planned  and  commenced 
during  his  travels,  especially  at  Athens,  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  which  he  built  an  entirely 
new  city,  Adrianopolis.  We  can  not  here  enter 
into  an  account  of  the  numerous  buildings  he 
erected ;  it  is  sufficient  to  direct  attention  to  his 
villa  at  Tibur,  which  has  been  a  real  mine  of 
treasures  of  art,  and  his  mausoleum  at  Rome, 
which  forms  the  groundwork  of  the  present 
Castle  of  St  Angelo.  Hadrian  was  a  patron  of 
learning  and  literature  as  well  as  of  the  arts, 
and  he  cultivated  the  society  of  poets,  scholars, 
rhetoricians,  and  philosophers.  He  founded  at 
Rome  a  scientific  institution  under  the  name  of 
Athenaeum,  which  continued  to  flourish  for  a 
long  time  after  him.  He  was  himself  an  author, 
and  wrote  numerous  works,  both  in  prose  and 
338 


in  verse,  all  of  which  are  lost,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  epigrams  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  An- 
thologies. 

HADRIANUS,  the  rhetorician.     Vid.  ADRIANCS. 

HADRUMETUM  or  ADRCMKTCM  ('A.6pv[iri  :  now 
Hammeirri),  a  flourishing  city  founded  by  the 
Phoanicians  in  northern  Africa,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Byzacena,  of  which  district  it  was  the 
capital  under  the  Romans.  Trajan  made  it  a 
colony;  and  it  was  afterward  called  Justiuum 
opolis. 

[H^EDitiA  (MONS),  a  mountain  of  Italy,  near 
Horace's  Sabine  farm,  infested  by  wolves,  (//«- 
dilite  lupos,  Hor.,  Carm.,  i,  17,  9.)] 

H.EMON  (AZ//WV).  1.  Son  of  Pelasgus  and 
father  of  Thessalus,  from  whom  the  ancient 
name  of  Thessaly,  HJEMONIA  or  JSMONIA,  was 
believed  to  be  derived.  The  Roman  poets  fre- 
quently use  the  adjective  Hcemonius  as  equiva- 
lent to  Thessalian.  —  2.  Son  of  Lycaon,  and  the 
reputed  founder  of  Haemonia  in  Arcadia.  —  3. 
Son  of  Creon  of  Thebes,  was  destroyed,  accord- 
ing to  some  accounts,  by  the  sphinx  ;  but,  accord- 
ing to  other  traditions,  he  was  in  love  with 
Antigone,  and  killed  himself  on  hearing  that  she 
was  condemned  by  his  father  to  be  entombed 
alive. 

H^KMONIA  (Alfiovia).     Vid.  H.SMON,  No.  1. 

H^EMUS  (AZ//of),  son  of  Boreas  and  Orithyia, 
husband  of  Rhodope,  and  father  of  Hebrus.  As 
he  and  his  wife  presumed  to  assume  the  names 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Juno  (Hera),  both  were 
metamorphosed  into  mountains. 

H^MUS  (6  Afy/oj-,  rb  Alpuw  :  now  Balkan),  a 
lofty  range  of  mountains,  separating  Thrace  and 
Mcesia,  extended  from  Mount  Scomius,  or,  accord- 
ing to  Herodotus,  from  Mount  Rhodope  on  the 
west  to  the  Black  Sea  on  the  east.  The  name  is 
probably  connected  with  the  Sanscrit  hima 
(whence  comes  the  word  Himalaya),  the  Greek 
%eifi.uv,  aud  the  Latin  hiems;  and  the  mountains 
were  so  called  on  account  of  their  cold  and  snowy 
climate.  The  height  of  these  mountains  was 
greatly  exaggerated  by  the  ancieuts  :  the  mean 
height  does  not  exceed  three  thousand  or  four 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  There  are  several 
passes  over  them  ;  but  the  one  most  used  in  an- 
tiquity was  in  the  western  part  of  the  range, 
called  "  Succi  "  or  "  Succorum  angustiae,"  also 
"Porta  Trajani"  (now  Ssulu  Derbend),  between 
Philippopolis  and  Serdica.  The  later  province 
of  "  Hsemimontus  "  in  Thrace  derived  its  name 
from  this  mountain. 

HAGNUS  ('Ayvotif,  -owro?:  'Ayvovaioc  :  near 
Markopulo),  a  demus  in  Attica,  west  of  Pteania, 
belonging  to  the  tribe  Acamantis. 

1  IAI./E  (*A?,(U,  *A/lat,  'A/la/  :  VA/latnif).  1.  H. 
'),  &  demus  in  Attica, 


ARAPHENIDES 

j  belonging  to  the  tribe  ^Egeis,  was  situated  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Attica,  and  served  as  the  harbor 
of  Brauron  :  it  possessed  a  temple  of  Diana  (Arte- 

I  mis).  —  2.  H.  .JSxoNiDES  (At^wvttSff),  a  demus  in 

j  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Cecropis,  situated 
on  the  western  coast  —  3.  A  town,  formerly  of 
the  Opuntii  Locri,  afterward  of  Bceotia,  situated 

I  on  the  Opuntian  Gulf. 

[HALOYONE.     Vid.  ALCYONE.] 
HALES  ("AAj/f).     1.  A  river  of  Ionia  in  Asia 
Minor,  near  Colophon,  celebrated  for  the  cold- 
ness of  its  water.  —  2.  A  river  in  the  island  of 
Cos. 


HALESA. 


HALONESUS. 


HAI.ESA  ("Ailatffa  :  Halesluus :  now  Torre  di 
Pittineo),  a  town  on  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily, 
on  the  River  HALESCS  (now  Pittineo),  was  founded 
by  the  Greek  mercenaries  of  Archonides,  a  chief 
of  the  Siculi,  and  was  originally  called  ARCHONI- 
DIO.V.  It  became  a  place  of  considerable  import- 
ance, and  was  in  later  times  a  municipium,  ex- 
empt from  taxes. 

HALESUS,  a  chief  of  the  Auruncans  and  Oscaus, 
the  son  of  a  soothsayer,  and  an  ally  of  Turnus, 
was  slain  by  Pallas.  He  came  to  Italy  from  Ar- 
gos  in  Greece,  whence  he  is  called  Agamemnonius, 
A  trides,  or  Argolicus,  He  is  said  to  have  founded 
the  town  of  Falerii. 

HALEX.     Vid.  ALEX. 

HALIACMON  ('AAiuKftuv :  now  Vistriza  Indje- 
kara),  an  important  river  in  Macedonia,  rises  in 
the  Tymphsean  Mountains,  flows  first  southeast 
through  Elimosa,  then  northeast,  forming  the 
boundary  between  Eordsea  and  Pieria,  and  falls 
into  the  Thermaic  Gulf  in  Bottiaeis.  Cassar  (B. 
G.  iii.,  36)  incorrectly  makes  it  the  boundary  be- 
tween Macedonia  and  Thessaly. 

HALFAKTUS  ('AAwprof :  'Afaupriof :  nowdfazi), 
an  ancient  town  in  Bo3otia.  on  the  south  of  the 
Lake  Copais.  It  was  destroyed  by  Xerxes  in 
his  invasion  of  Greece  (B.C.  480),  but  was  rebuilt, 
and  appears  as  an  important  place  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war.  Under  its  walls  Lysander  lost 
his  life  (395).  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans 
(171),  because  it  supported  Perseus,  king  of 
Macedonia,  and  its  territory  was  given  to  the 
Athenians. 

HALIAS  ('A/UJf :  'Afaevf  :  now  Haliza),  a  dis- 
trict on  the  coast  of  Argolis,  between  Asiue  and 
Hermione,  so  called  because  fishing  was  the  chief 
occupation  of  its  inhabitants.  Their  town  was 
called  HALLE  ('A/Uat)  or  HALJES  ('A/Uetf). 

HALICARXASSUS  (' AJuicapvaaoof,  Ion.  'AXtnap- 
vtiaaof :  'Al-utapvaaaevf,  Halicarnassensis,  Hali- 
carnassius :  ruins  at  Budrian),  a  celebrated  city 
of  Asia  Minor,  stood  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Caria,  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Sinus  Cer- 
amicus,  opposite  to  the  island  of  Cos.  It  was 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Dorians  from 
Troazene,  and  was  at  first  willed  Zephyiu.  It 
was  one  of  the  six  cities  that  originally  formed 
the  Dorian  Hexapolis,  but  it  was  early  excluded 
from  the  confederacy,  as  a  punishment  for  the 
violation,  by  one  of  its  citizens,  of  a  law  con- 
nected with  the  common  worship  of  the  Tri- 
opian  Apollo.  (Herod^  i.,  144.)  With  the  rest 
of  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  it  fell  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Persians,  at  an  early  period  of 
whose  rule  Lygdamis  made  himself  tyrant  of 
the  city,  and  founded  a  dynasty  which  lasted 
fur  some  generations.  His  daughter  Artemi- 
sia assisted  Xerxes  in  his  expedition  against 
Greece.  Vid.  ARTEMISIA,  No.  1.  Her  grandson, 
Lyir'iainis,  was  overthrown  by  a  revolution,  in 
which  Herodotus  is  said  to  have  takeu  part 
Vid.  HERODOTUS.  lu  the  Peloponnesian  war,  we 
I'm. I  Halicaroassus,  with  the  other  Dorian  cities 
of  Caria,  on  the  side  of  the  Athenians ;  but  we 
do  not  know  what  was  its  form  of  government, 
until  the  re-establishment,  by  HECATOMNUS,  of  a 
dynasty  ruling  over  all  Caria,  with  its  capital 
first  at  Mylasa,  and  afterward  at  Halicarnassus, 
ami  virtually  independent  of  Persia;  before 
B.C.  380.  It  seems  not  unlikely  that  both  this 
und  the  older  dynasty  tif  tyrants  of  Halicaruas- 


sus  were  a  race  of  native  Carian  princes,  whose 
ascendency  at  Halicarnassus  may  be  accounted 
for  by  the  prevalence  of  the  Carian  element  in 
its  population  at  an  early  period.  Hecatomnus 
left  three  sons  and  two  daughters,  who  all  suc- 
ceeded to  his  throne  in  the  following  order :  Mnu- 
solus,  Artemisia,  Idrieus,  Ada,  Pixodarus,  aud 
Ada  again.  In  B.C.  334,  Alexander  took  the  city, 
after  an  obstinate  defence  by  the  Persian  general 
Memnon,  and  destroyed  it  From  this  blow  it 
never  recovered,  although  it  continued  to  be  cel- 
ebrated for  the  Mausoleum,  a  magnificent  edifice 
which  Artemisia  II.  built  as  a  tomb  for  Mauso- 
lus,  and  which  was  adorned  with  the  works  of 
the  most  eminent  Greek  sculptors  of  the  age. 
Fragments  of  these  sculptures,  which  were  dis- 
covered built  into  the  walls  of  the  citadel  of 
;  JBudrum,  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  "Wit! 
the  rest  of  Caria,  Halicarnassus  was  assigned  by 
the  Romans,  after  their  victory  over  Antiochus 
the  Great,  to  the  government  of  Rhodes,  and  was 
afterward  united  to  the  province  of  Asia.  The 
city  was  very  strongly  fortified,  and  had  a  fine 
harbor,  which  was  protected  by  the  island  of  AR- 
CONNESUS:  its  citadel  was  called  Salmacis  (2aA 
ftaicif),  from  the  name  of  a  spring  which  rose  from 
the  hill  on  which  it  stood.  Halicarnassus  was 
the  birth-place  of  the  historians  HERODOTUS  and 
DIONYSIUS. 

HALICVJS  ('Alucvai :  Halicyensis :  now  Sal- 
emi  ?),  a  town  in  the  northwest  of  Sicily,  between 
Eutella  and  Lilybaeum,  was  long  in  the- possession 
of  the  Carthaginians,  and  in  Cicero's  time  was  a 
municipium,  exempt  from  taxes. 

HALIMUS  ('AAi^ovf,  -ovvrof  :  'Afyuovaiof)  a  de- 
mus  of  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Leoutis,  op 
the  western  coast,  a  little  south  of  Athens. 

HALIPKDON  ('A/U'Tredov),  a  plain  near  the  Pi- 
raeus, probably  between  the  Piraeus  and  the 
Academy. 

HALIRRHOTHIUS  ('AfafifioOioe),  son  of  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  and  Euryte,  attempted  to  violate 
Alcippe,  daughter  of  Mars  (Ares)  and  Agraulos, 
but  was  slain  by  Mars  (Ares).  Mars  (Ares) 
was  brought  to  trial  by  Neptune  (Poseidon)  for 
this  murder,  on  the  hill  at  Athens,  which  was 
hence  called  Areopagus,  or  the  Hill  of  Aree 
(Mars.) 

[HALITHERSES  ('AXtOtparif).  1.  A  son  of  Mas- 
tof  of  Ithaca,  celebrated  as  a  hero  and  diviner. — 
2.  A  son  of  Aucseus  and  Samia,  the  daughter  of 
the  River  Maeander.] 

[HALIUS  ("AA*of),  second  son  of  Alcinous,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  dancing,  as  described  in  the 
eighth  book  of  the  Odyssey.] 

HAIJI" SA  ('Afaovffa  J  now  Karavi),  an  island  in 
the  Argolic  Gulf. 

HALIZONES  ('A/U£uvef  and  -01),  a  people  of 
Bithynia,  with  a  capital  city  Alyhe  ('AAt'(5^), 
mentioned  by  Homer  as  allies  of  the  Trojans. 

HALMYDESSUS.     Vid.  SALMYDESSUS. 

HALMVRIS  ('AXyuuptf,  sc.  A///VJ?),  a  bay  of  the 
sea  in  Moasia,  formed  by  the  southern  mouth  of 
the  Danube,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name  upon 
it 

HALOXESUB  ('AXow/ffOf,  'A.h6vvijaof.  'A.favij- 
aiof,  'AAov^fftr^f :  now  Khiliodromia),  an  island 
of  the  ^£gean  Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Thessaly,  and 
east  of  Sfiathos  and  Peparethos,  with  a  town  of 
the  same  name  upon  i  *  The  possession  of  this 
ieland  occasioned  grea  disputes  between  Philip 
339 


HALOS\DNE. 


HAMILCAR. 


and  the  Athenians :  there  is  a  speech  on  this 
subject  among  the  extant  orations  of  Demos- 
thenes, but  it  was  probably  written  by  Hegc- 
dippus. 

HALOSYDNE  ('AAoovdvi)),  "  the  Sea-born,"  a  sur- 
name of  Amphitrite  and  Thetis. 

ll.m  M UM.      Vid.  AtUNTlUM. 

HALCS.     Vid.  ALCS. 

HALYCUS  ("AAwcof :  now  Platani),  a  river  in 
the  south  of  Sicily,  which  flows  into  the  sea  near 
1  lerac'leii  Minoa. 

HALYS  (*Alvf :  now  Kizil-Innak,  i.  e.,  tte  Red 
River),  the  greatest  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rises  iu 
that  part  of  the  Anti-Taurus  range  called  Parya- 
dres,  on  the  borders  of  Armenia  Minor  and  Pon- 
tus,  and,  after  flowing  west  by  south  through 
Cappadocia,  turns  to  the  north  and  flows  through 
Galatia  to  the  borders  of  Paphlagonia,  where  it 
takes  a  northeastern  direction,  dividing  Paphla- 
gonia from  Pontus,  and  at  last  falls  into  the 
Euxiue  (now  Slack  Sea)  between  Sinope  and 
Amistis.  In  early  times  it  was  a  most  important 
boundary,  ethnographical  as  well  as  political. 
It  divided  the  Indo-European  races  which  peo- 
pled the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor  from  the 
Semitic  (Syro- Arabian)  races  of  the  rest  of  south- 
western Asia,  and  it  separated  the  Lydian  empire 
from  the  Medo-Persian,  until,  by  marching  over 
it  to  meet  Cyrus,  Croesus  began  the  contest  which 
at  once  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  the  former 
aud  the  extension  of  the  latter  to  the  ^Egean 
Sea. 

HAMADRYADES.     Vid.  NYMPILE. 

HAMAXITUS  ('A/m^trof),  a  small  town  on  the 
coast  of  the  Troad,  near  the  Promontory  Lec- 
tum ;  said  to  have  been  the  first  settlement  of 
the  Teucrian  immigrants  from  Crete.  The  sur- 
rounding district  was  called  'A//a£ma.  Lysi- 
machus  removed  the  inhabitants  to  Alexandrea 
Troas. 

HAMAXOBII  ('Afiat;66ioi),  a  people  in  European 
Sarmatia,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Palus  Maeo- 
tis,  were  a  nomad  race,  as  their  name  signifies. 

HAMILCAR  ('A/uA/caj-).  The  two  last  syllables 
of  this  name  are  the  same  as  Melcarth,  the  tu- 
telary deity  of  the  Tyrians,  called  by  the  Greeks 
Hercules,  and  the  name  probably  signifies  "  the 
gift  of  Melcarth."  1.  Son  of  Hauno,  or  Mago, 
eommander  of  the  great  Carthaginian  expedi- 
tion to  Sicily,  B.C.  480,  which  was  defeated 
and  almost  destroyed  by  Gelon  at  Himera.  Vid. 
GELON.  Hamilcar  fell  in  the  battle. — 2.  Sur- 
named  Rhodauus,  was  sent  by  the  Carthagini- 
ans to  Alexander  after  the  fall  of  Tyre,  B.C. 
332.  On  his  return  home  be  was  put  to  death 
by  the  Carthaginians  for  having  betrayed  their 
interests. — 3.  Carthaginian  governor  in  Sicily  at 
the  time  that  Agathocles  was  rising  into  power. 
At  first  he  supported  the  party  at  Syracuse, 
which  had  driven  Agathocles  into  exile,  but  he 
afterward  espoused  the  cause  of  Agathocles, 
who  was  thus  enabled  to  make  himself  master 
of  Syracuse,  317. — 1.  Son  of  Gisco,  succeeded 
the  preceding  as  Carthaginian  commander  in 
Sicily,  311.  He  carried  on  war  against  Agath- 
ocles, whom  be  defeated  with  great  slaughter, 
and  then  obtained  possession  of  the  greater 
part  of  Sicily ;  but  he  was  taken  prisoner  while 
besieging  Syracuse,  and  was  put  to  death  by 
Agnthocles. — 5.  A  Carthaginian  general  in  the 
first  Punic  war,  must  be  carefully  distinguished 


from  the  great  Hamilcar  Barca  [No.  6.]  In 
the  third  year  of  the  war  (262)  he  succeeded 
Hani!"  in  the  command  in  Sicily,  and  carried 
on  the  operatious  by  land  with  success.  He 
made  himself  master  of  Enna  and  Camarina, 
and  fortified  Drepanum.  In  267  he  commanded 
the  Carthaginian  fleet  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Sicily,  and  fought  a  naval  action  with  the  Ro- 
man consul  C.  Atilius  llegnlus.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  (256),  he  and  Hauuo  commanded  the 
great  Carthaginian  fleet,  which  was  defeated 
by  the  two  consuls  M.  Atilius  Regulus  aud  L. 
Manlius  Vulso,  off  Ecnomus,  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Sicily.  He  was  afterward  one  of  the 
commanders  of  the  land  forces  in  Africa  op- 
posed to  Regulus.  —  6.  Surnamed  BAECA,  an 
epithet  supposed  to  be  related  to  the  Hebrew 
Barak,  and  to  signify  "  lightning."  It  was 
merely  a  personal  appellation,  and  is  not  to  be 
regarded  as  a  family  name,  though,  from  the 
great  distinction  that  he  obtained,  we  often  find 
the  name  of  Barcine  applied  either  to  his  family 
or  his  party  in  the  state.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Carthaginian  forces  in  Sic- 
ily in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the  first  Punic 
war,  247.  At  this  time  the  Romans  were 
masters  of  the  whole  of  Sicily,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Drepauum  aud  Lilybaeum,  both  of  which 
were  blockaded  by  them  on  the  land  side 
Hamilcar  established  himself,  with  his  whole 
army,  on  a  mountain  named  He^te  (now  Monte 
Pellegrino),  in  the  midst  of  the  enemy's  country, 
and  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Pauor- 
mus,  one  of  their  most  important  cities.  Here 
he  succeeded  in  maintaining  his  ground,  to  the 
astonishment  alike  of  friends  and  foes,  for 
nearly  three  years.  In  244  he  abruptly  quitted 
Herct^,  and  took  up  a  still  stronger  position  on 
Mount  Eryx,  after  seizing  the  town  of  that 
name.  Here  he  also  maintained  himself,  in 
spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  the  Romans  to  dislodge 
bam.  After  the  great  naval  defeat  of  the  Car- 
thaginians by  Lutatius  Catulus  (241),  Hamilcar, 
who  was  still  at  Eryx,  was  intrusted  by  the 
Carthaginian  government  with  the  conclusion 
j  of  the  peace  with  the  Romans.  On  his  return 
I  home,  he  had  to  carry  on  war  in  Africa  with 
the  Carthaginian  mercenaries,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  subduing  after  an  arduous  struggle 
of  three  years  (240-238).  Hamilcar  now  form- 
ed the  project  of  establishing  in  Spain  a  new 
empire,  which  should  not  only  be  a  source  of 
strength  and  wealth  to  Carthage,  but  should  be 
the  point  from  whence  he  might  at  a  subse- 
quent period  renew  hostilities  against  Rome. 
He  crossed  over  into  Spain  soon  after  the  term- 
ination  of  the  war  with  the  mercenaries;  but 
we  know  nothing  of  his  operations  in  the  coun- 
try, save  that  he  obtained  possession  of  a  con- 
siderable  portion  of  Spain,  partly  by  force  of 
arms,  and  partly  by  negotiation.  After  remain- 
ing in  Spain  nearly  nine  years,  he  fell  in  battle 
(229)  against  the  Vettones.  He  was  succeeded 
in  the  command  by  his  son-in-law  Hasdrubai 
He  left  three  sons,  the  celebrated  Hannibal, 
Hasdrubai,  and  Mago. — 7.  Son  of  Gisco,  Car- 
thaginian governor  of  Melite  (now  Malta), 
which  surrendered  to  the  Romans,  218. — 8. 
Son  of  Bomilcar,  one  of  the  generals  in  Spain, 
216,  with  Hasdrubai  and  Mago,  the  two  sons 
of  Barca.  The  three  generals  were  defeated 


HANNIBd  L. 


HANNIBAL. 


by  the  two  Scipios  while  besieging  Illiturgi. — 9. 
A  Carthaginiau,  who  excited  a  general  revolt  of 
the  Gauls  in  Upper  Italy  about  200,  and  took 
the  Roman  colony  of  Placentia.  On  the  defeat 
of  the  Gauls  by  the  consul  Cethegus  in  197,  he 
was  taken  prisoner. 

HANNIBAL  ('Avv/fiaj-).  The  name  signifies 
"  the  grace  or  favor  of  Baal ;"  the  final  syllable 
bal,  of  such  common  occurrence  in  Punic  names, 
always  having  reference  to  this  tutelary  deity 
of  the  Phosnicians.  1.  Son  of  Gisco,  and  grand- 
son of  HAHU.CAK  [No.  1J.  In  409  he  was  sent 
to  Sicily,  at  the  head  of  a  Carthaginian  army, 
to  assist  the  Segestans  against  the  Seliuuntines. 
He  took  Selinus,  and  subsequently  Himera  also. 
In  406  he  again  commanded  a  Carthaginian 
army  in  Sicily  along  with  Himilco,  but  died  of  a 
pestilence  while  besieging  Agrigentum. — 2.  Son 
of  Gisco,  was  the  Carthaginian  commander  at 
Agrigentum  when  it  was  besieged  by  the 
Romans,  262.  After  standing  a  siege  of  seven 
months,  he  broke  through  the  enemy's  lines, 
leaving  the  town  to  its  fate.  After  this  he  car- 
ried on  the  contest  by  sea,  and  for  the  next  year 
or  two  ravaged  the  coast  of  Italy  ;  but  in  260 
he  was  defeated  by  the  consul  Duih'us.  In  259 
he  was  sent  to  the  defence  of  Sardinia.  Here 
he  was  again  unfortunate,  and  was  seized  by  his 
own  mutinous  troops  and  put  to  death.— 3.  Son 
of  Hamilear  (perhaps  HAMILCAE,  No.  6),  suc- 
ceeded in  carrying  succors  of  men  and  provi- 
sions to  Lilybaeum  when  it  was  besieged  by  the 
Romans,  250. — 4.  A  general  in  the  war  of  the 
Carthaginians  against  the  mercenaries  ( 240-238 \ 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  insurgents,  and  cruci- 
fied.— 5.  Son  of  Hamilear  Barca,  and  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  generals  of  antiquity,  was  born 
B.C.  247.  He  was  only  nine  years  old  when  his 
father  took  him  with  him  into  Spain,  and  it  was 
on  this  occasion  that  Hamilear  made  him  swear 
upon  the  altar  eternal  hostility  to  Rome.  Child 
as  he  then  was,  Hannibal  never  forgot  his  vow, 
and  his  whole  life  was  one  continual  struggle 
agaiust  the  power  and  domination  of  Rome. 
He  was  early  trained  in  arms  under  the  eye 
of  his  father,  and  was  present  with  him  in 
the  battle  in  which  Hamilear  perished  (229). 
Though  only  eighteen  years  old  at  this  time, 
he  had  already  displayed  so  much  courage  and 
capacity  for  war,  that  he  was  intrusted  by 
Hasdrubal  (the  son-in-law  and  successor  of  Ham- 
ilear) with  the  chief  command  of  most  of  the 
military  enterprises  planned  by  that  general. 
He  secured  to  himself  the  devoted  attachment 
of  the  army  under  his  command ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, on  the  assassination  of  Hasdrubal  (221), 
the  soldiers  unanimously  proclaimed  their  youth- 
ful leader  commander  in-chief,  which  the  gov- 
ernment at  Carthage  forthwith  ratified.  Han- 
nibal was  at  this  time  in  the  twenty-sixth 
year  of  his  age.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
he  already  looked  forward  to  the  invasion  and 
conquest  of  Italy  as  the  goal  of  his  ambition ; 
but  it  was  necessary  for  him  first  to  complete 
the  work  which  had  been  so  ably  begun  by  his 
two  predecessors,  and  to  establish  the  Cartha- 
ginian power  as  firmly  as  possible  in  Spain. 
In  two  campaigns  he  subdued  all  the  country 
south  of  the  Iberus,  with  the  exception  of  the 
wealthy  town  of  Saguutum.  In  the  spring  of 
219  he  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Saguutum. 


which  he  took  after  a  desperate  resistance 
which  lasted  nearly  eight  months.  Saguutum 
lay  south  of  the  Iberus,  and  was  therefore  not 
included  under  the  protection  of  the  treaty 
which  had  been  made  between  Hasdrubal  and 
the  Romans;  but  as  it  had  concluded  an  alii 
ance  with  the  Romans,  the  latter  regarded  its 
attack  as  a  violation  of  the  treaty  between  the 
two  nations.  On  the  fall  of  Saguntum,  the  Ro- 
mans demanded  the  surrender  of  Hannibal; 
and  when  this  demand  was  refused,  war  was 
declared,  and  thus  began  the  long  and  arduous 
straggle  called  the  second  Punic  war.  In  the 
spring  of  218  Hannibal  quitted  his  winter-quar- 
ters at  New  Carthage  and  commenced  his  march 
for  Italy.  He  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  march- 
ed along  the  southern  coast  of  Gaul.  The  Ro- 
mans sent  the  consul  P.  Scipio  to  oppose  him  in 
Gaul ;  but  when  Scipio  arrived  in  Gaul,  he  found 
that  Hannibal  had  already  reached  the  Rhone, 
and  that  it  was  impossible  to  overtake  him. 
After  Hannibal  had  crossed  the  Rhone,  he  con- 
tinued his  march  up  the  left  bank  of  the  river  as 
far  as  its  confluence  with  the  Isere.  Here  he 
struck  away  to  the  right,  and  commenced  his 
passage  across  the  Alps.  He  probably  crossed 
the  Alps  by  the  pass  of  the  Little  St  Bernard, 
called  in  antiquity  the  Graian  Alps.  .  His  army 
suffered  much  from  the  attacks  of  the  Gaulish 
mountaineers,-  and  from  the  natural  difficulties 
of  the  road,  which  were  enhanced  by  the  late- 
ness of  the  season  (the  beginning  of  October,  at 
which  time  the  snows  have  already  commenced 
in  the  high  Alps).  So  heavy  were  his  losses, 
that  when  he  at  length  emerged  from  the  valley 
of  Aosta  into  the  plains  of  the  Po,  he  had  with 
him  no  more  than  twenty  thousand  foot  and  six 
thousand  horse.  During  Hannibal's  march  over 
the  Alps,  P.  Scipio  had  sent  on  his  own  army 
into  Spain,  under  the  command  of  his  brother 
Cneius,  and  had  himself  returned  to  Italy.  He 
forthwith  hastened  into  Cisalpine  Gaul,  took  the 
command  of  the  praetor's  army,  which  he  found 
there,  and  led  it  agaiust  Hannibal.  In  the  first 
action,  which  took  place  near  the  Ticinus,  the 
cavalry  and  light-armed  troops  of  the  two  armies 
were  alone  engaged ;  the  Romans  were  com- 
pletely routed,  and  Scipio  himself  severely 
wounded.  Scipio  then  crossed  the  Po  and 
withdrew  to  the  hills  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Trebia,  where  he  was  soon  after  joined  by  the 
other  consul,  Ti.  Sempronius  Longus.  Here  a 
second  and  more  decisive  battle  was  fought. 
The  Romans  were  completely  defeated,  with 
heavy  loss,  and  the  remains  of  their  army  took 
refuge  within  the  walls  of  Placentia.  This  battle 
was  fought  toward  the  end  of  218.  Hannibal 
was  now  joined  by  all  the  Gaulish  tribes,  and  he 
was  able  to  take  up  his  winter-quarters  in  se- 
curity. Early  in  217  he  descended  by  the  val 
ley  of  the  Macrn  into  the  marshes  on  the  banks 
of  the  Arno.  In  struggling  through  these  marshes 
great  numbers  of  his  horses  and  beasts  of  bur- 
den perished,  and  he  himself  lost  the  sight  of 
one  eye  by  a  violent  attack  of  ophthalmia.  The 
consul  Flamiuius  hastened  to  meet  him,  and  a 
battle  was  fought  on  the  Lake  Trasimenus,  in 
which  the  Roman  army  was  destroyed ;  thou- 
sands fell  by  the  sword,  among  whom  was  th« 
consul  himself;  thousands  more  perished  in  the 
hike,  and  no  less  than  fifteen  thousand  prisoneri 
.341 


HANNIBAL. 


HANNIBAL. 


fell  uito  the  lianas  of  Hannibal  Hannibal  now 
marched  through  the  .Apennines  into  Picenum, 
iui'l  thence  into  Apulia,  where  he  spent  a  great 
part  of  the  summer.  The  Romans  had  col- 
lected a  fresh  army,  and  placed  it  under  the 
command  of  the  dictator  Fabius  Maximus,  who 
h-id  prudently  avoided  a  general  action,  and  only 
attempted  to  harass  and  annoy  the  Carthaginian 
army.  Meanwhile  the  Romans  had  made  great 
preparations  for  the  campaign  of  the  following 
year  (216).  The'  two  new  consuls,  L.  yEmilius 
Paulus  and  0.  Terentius  Varro,  marched  into 
Apulia  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  little  less  than 
ninety  thousand  men.  To  this  mighty  host  Han- 
nibal gave  battle  in  the  plains  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Aufidus,  just  below  the  town  of  Cannae. 
The  Roman  army  was  again  annihilated:  be- 
tween forty  and  fifty  thousand  men  are  said  to 
have  fallen  in  the  field,  among  whom  was  the 
consul  ^Eniilius  Paulus,  both  the  consuls  of  the 
preceding  year,  above  eighty  'senators,  and  a 
multitude  of  the  wealthy  knights  who  composed 
the  Roman  cavalry.  The  other  consul,  Varro, 
escaped  with  a  few  horsemen  to  Venusia,  and  a 
small  band  of  resolute  men  forced  their  way 
from  the  Roman  camp  to  Canusiuin ;  all  the 
rest  were  killed,  dispersed,  or  taken  prisoners. 
This  victory  was  followed  by  the  revolt  from 
Rome  of  most  of  the  nations  in  the  south  of 
Italy.  Hannibal  established  his  army  in  winter- 
quarters  in  Capua,  which  had  espoused  his 
side.  Capua  was  celebrated  for  its  wealth  and 
luxury,  and  the  enervating  effect  which  these 
produced  upon  the  army  of  Hannibal  became  a 
favorite  theme  of  rhetorical  exaggeration  in 
later  ages.  The  futility  of  such  declamations 
is  sufficiently  shown  by  the  simple  fact  that  the 
superiority  of  that  army  in  the  field  remained 
as  decided  as  ever.  Still  it  may  be  truly  said 
that  the  winter  spent  at  Capua,  216-215,  was  in 
great  measure  the  turning  point  of  Hannibal's 
fortune,  and  from  this  time  the  war  assumed 
au  altered  character.  The  experiment  of  what 
he  could  effect  with  his  single  army  had  now 
been  fully  tried,  and,  notwithstanding  all  his 
victories,  it  had  decidedly  failed ;  for  Rome  was 
Btill  unsubdued,  and  still  provided  with  the 
means  of  maintaining  a  protracted  contest. 
From  this  time  the  Romans  in  great  measure 
changed  their  plan  of  operations,  and,  instead 
of  opposing  to  Hannibal  one  great  army  in  the 
field,  they  hemmed  in  his  movements  on  all 
sides,  and  kept  up  an  army  in  every  province 
of  Italy,  to  thwart  the  operations  of  his  lieuten- 
ants, and  check  the  rising  disposition  to  revolt 
It  is  impossible  here  to  follow  the  complicated 
movements  of  the  subsequent  campaign,  dur- 
ing which  Hannibal  himself  frequently  traversed 
Italy  in  all  directions.  In  215  Hannibal  entered 
into  negotiations  with  Philip,  king  of  Macedo- 
nia, and  Hieronymus  of  Syracuse,  and  thus 
sowed  the  seeds  of  two  fresh  wars.  From  214  j 
to  212  the  Romans  were  busily  engaged  with 
the  siege  of  Syracuse,  which  was  at  length 
taken  by  Marcellus  in  the  latter  of  these  years. 
In  212  Hannibal  obtained  possession  of  Taren- 1 
turn ;  but  in  the  following  year  he  lost  the 
important  city  of  Capua,  which  was  recovered 
by  the  Romans  after  a  long  siege.  In  209  the 
Romans  also  recovered  Tarentum.  Hannibal's 
forces  gradually  became  more  and  more  weak- 
342 


ened;  and  his  only  object  now  was  to  maintain 
his  ground  in  the  south  until  his  brother  Has- 
drubal  should  appear  in  the  north  of  Italy,  an 
event  to  which  he  had  long  looked  forward  with 
anxious  expectation.  In  207  Hasdrubal  at  length 
crossed  the  Alps,  and  descended  into  Italy ; 
but  he  was  defeated  and  slain  on  the  Metaurus. 
Vid.  HASPHUBM,,  No.  3.  The  defeat  and  death 
of  Hasdrubal  was  decisive  of  the  fate  of  the 
war  in  Italy.  From  this  time  Hannibal  aban- 
doned all  thoughts  of  offensive  operations,  and 
collected  together  his  forces  within  the  penin- 
sula of  Bruttium.  In  the  fastnesses  of  that 
wild  and  mountainous  region  he  maintained  his 
ground  good  for  nearly  four  years  (207-203). 
He  crossed  over  to  Africa  toward  the  end  of 
203  in  order  to  oppose  P.  Scipio.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  (202)  the  decisive  battle  was  fought 
near  Zama.  Hannibal  was  completely  defeated 
with  great  loss.  All  hopes  of  resistance  were 
now  at  an  end,  and  he  was  one  of  the  first  to 
urge  the  necessity  of  an  immediate  peace.  The 
treaty  between  "Rome  and  Carthage  was  not 
finally  concluded  until  the  next  year  (201).  By 
this  treaty  Hannibal  saw  the  object  of  his  whole 
life  frustrated,  and  Carthage  effectually  humbled 
before  her  imperious  rival.  But  his  enmity  to 
Rome  was  unabated ;  and,  though  now  more 
than  forty-five  years  old,  he  set  himself .  to 
work  to  prepare  the  means  for  renewing  the 
contest  at  no  distant  period.  He  introduced 
the  most  beneficial  reforms  into  the  state,  and 
restored  the  ruined  finances ;  but,  having  pro- 
voked the  enmity  of  a  powerful  party  at  Car- 
thage, they  denounced  him  to  the  Romans  as 
urging  on  Antiochus  III.,  king  of  Syria,  to  take 
up  arms  against  Rome.  Hannibal  was  obliged 
to  flee  from  Carthage,  and  took  refuge  at  the 
court  of  Antiochus,  who  was  at  this  time  (193) 
on  the  eve  of  a  war  with  Rome.  Hannibal  in 
vain  urged  the  necessity  of  carrying  the  war  at 
once  into  Italy,  instead  of  awaiting  the  Romans 
in  Greece.  On  the  defeat  of  Antiochus  (190), 
the  surrender  of  Hannibal  was  one  of  the  condi- 
tions of  the  peace  granted  to  the  king.  Han- 
nibal, however,  foresaw  his  danger,  and  took 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Prusias,  king  of  Bithy- 
nia.  Here  he  found  for  some  years  a  secure 
asylum  ;  but  the  Romans  could  not  be  at  ease 
so  long  as  he  lived,  and  T.  Quintius  Flamininus 
was  at  length  dispatched  to  the  court  of  Pru- 
sias to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  fugitive. 
The  Bithyuian  king  was  unable  to  resist ;  and 
Hannibal,  perceiving  that  flight  was  impossible, 
took  poison,  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemies,  about  the  year  183.  Of  Hannibal's 
abilities  as  a  general  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak : 
all  the  great  masters  of  the  art  of  war,  from 
Scipio  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  have  concur- 
red in  their  homage  to  his  genius.  But  in  com- 
paring Hannibal  with  any  other  of  the  great 
leaders  of  antiquity,  we  must  ever  bear  in  mind 
the  peculiar  circumstances  in  which  he  was 
placed.  Feebly  and  grudgingly  supported  by 
the  government  at  home,  he  stood  alone,  at  the 
head  of  an  army  composed  of  mercenaries  of 
many  nations.  Yet  not  only  did  he  retain  the 
attachment  of  these  men,  unshaken  by  any 
change  of  fortune,  for  a  period  of  more  than 
fifieen  years,  but  he  trained  up  army  after  army  ; 
and,  long  after  the  veterans  that  had  followed 


HARMODIUS. 


him  over  the  Alps  had  dwindled  into  an  inconsid- 
erable remnant,  his  new  levies  were  still  as  in- 
vincible as  their  predecessors. 

HANNIBALLIANUS.  1.  Son  of  Constantius  Chlo- 
rus  and  hia  second  wife  Theodora,  and  half- 
brother  of  Constantine  the  Great.  He  was  put 
to  death  in  337  on  the  death  of  Constantino. — 
2.  Son  of  the  elder,  brother  of  the  younger  Del- 
nmtius,  was  also  put  to  death  on  the  death  of 
Constantine. 

HANNIBALIS  CASTRA.     Vid.  CASTRA,  No.  2. 

HANXO  ("A.VVUV),  one  of  the  most  common 
names  at  Carthage.  Only  the  most  important 
persons  of  the  name  can  be  mentioned.  1.  One 
of  the  Carthaginian  generals  who  fought  against 
Agathocles  in  Africa,  B.C.  310. — 2.  Commander 
of  the  Carthaginian  garrison  at  Messana  at  the 
beginning  of  the  first  Punic  war,  294.  In  con- 
sequence of  his  surrendering  the  citadel  of  this 
city  to  the  Romans,  he  was  crucified  on  his  re- 
turn home. — 3.  Son  of  Hannibal,  was  sent  to 
Sicily  by  the  Carthaginians  with  a  large  force 
immediately  after  the  capture  of  Messana,  264, 
where  he  carried  on  the  war  against  the  Roman 
consul  Appius  Claudius.  In  262  he  again  com- 
manded in  Sicily,  but  failed  in  relieving  Agri- 
geutum,  where  Hannibal  was  kept  besieged  by 
the  Romans.  Vid.  HANNIBAL,  No.  2.  In  256 
he  commanded  the  Carthaginian  fleet,  along 
with  Hamilcar,  at  the  great  battle  of  Ecnomus. — 
4.  Commander  of  the  Carthaginian  fleet,  which 
•  was  defeated  by  Lutatius  Catulus  off  the  Aga- 
tes, 241.  On  his  return  home  he  was  crucified. 
— 5.  Surnamed  the  Great,  apparently  for  his 
successes  in  Africa.  We  do  not,  however,  know 
against  what  nations  of  Africa  his  arms  were 
directed,  nor  what  was  the  occasion  of  the  war. 
He  was  one  of  the  commanders  in.  the  war 
against  the  mercenaries  in  Africa  after  the  end 
of  the  first  Punic  war  (240-238).  From  this 
time  forward  he  appears  to  have  taken  no  active 
part  in  any  of  the  foreign  wars  or  enterprises 
of  Carthage.  But  his  influence  in  her  councils 
at  home  was  great ;  he  was  leader  of  the  aris- 
tocratic party,  and,  as  such,  the  chief  adversary 
of  Hamilcar  Barca  and  his  family.  On  all  occa- 
sions, from  the  landing  of  Barca  in  Spain  till 
the  return  of  Hannibal  from  Italy,  a  period  of 
above  thirty-five  years,  Hanno  is  represented 
as  thwarting  the  measures  of  that  able  and  pow- 
erful family,  and  taking  the  lead  in  opposition 
to  the  war  with  Rome,  the  great  object  to  which 
all  their  efforts  were  directed.  He  survived  the 
battle  of  Zama,  202. — 6.  A  Carthaginian  officer 
left  in  Spain  by  Hannibal  when  that  general 
crossed  the  Pyrenees,  218.  He  waa  shortly 
afterward  defeated  by  Cn.  Scipio,  and  taken 
prisoner. — 7.  Son  of  Bomilcar,  one  of  the  moat 
distinguished  of  Hannibal's  officers.  He  com- 
manded the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Canute 
(216),  and  is  frequently  mentioned  during  the 
succeeding  years  of  the  war.  In  203  he  took 
the  command  of  the  Carthaginian  forces  in 
Africa,  which  he  held  till  the  arrival  of  Hanni- 
baL — 8.  A  Carthaginian  general,  who  carried  on 
the  war  in  Sicily  after  the  fall  of  Syracuse,  211. 
He  left  Sicily  in  the  following  year,  when  Agri- 
gentum  was  betrayed  to  the  Romans. — 9.  The 
last  commander  of  the  Carthaginian  garrison  at 
Capua  when  it  was  besieged  by  the  Romans 
(•.112-111). — 10.  A  Carthaginian  navigator,  un- 


der whose  name  we  possess  a  Periplus  (irepl 
TrAovf),  which  was  originally  written  in  the 
Punic  language,  and  afterward  translated  into 
Greek.  The  author  had  held  the  office  of  suf- 
fetes,  or  supreme  magistrate  at  Carthage,  and 
he  is  said  by  Pliny  to  have  undertaken  the  voy- 
age when  Carthage  was  in  a  most  flourishing 
condition.  Hence  it  has  been  conjectured  that 
he  was  the  same  as  the  Hanno,  the  father  or 
son  of  Hamilcar,  who  was  killed  at  Himera, 
B.C.  480 ;  but  this  is  quite  uncertain.  In  the 
Periplus  itself  Hanno  says  that  he  was  sent  out 
by  his  countrymen  to  undertake  a  voyage  be- 
yond the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and  to  found  Liby- 
phcenician  towns,  and  that  he  sailed  with  a  body 
of  colonists  to  the  number  of  thirty  thousand. 
On  his  return  from  his  voyage,  he  dedicated  an 
account  of  it,  inscribed  on  a  tablet,  in  the  tern 
pie  of  Saturn  (Cronos).  It  is  therefore  presum 
ed  that  our  periplus  is  a  Greek  version  of  the 
contents  of  that  Punic  tablet  Edited  by  Fal- 
coner, Loud.,  1797,  with  an  English  translation. 

HARMA  (TO  °Ap/ia :  'ApjiaTEvs).  1.  A  small 
place  in  Boeotia,  near  Tanagra,  said  to  Lave  been 
so  called  from  the  fiarma  or  chariot  of  Adrastus, 
which  broke  down  here,  or  from  the  chariot  of 
Amphiaraus,  who  was  here  swallowed  up  by  the 
earth  along  with  his  chariot — 2.  A  small  place 
in  Attica,  near  Phyle. 

HARMATUS  ('Ap/taTovg'),  a  city  and  promontory 
on  the  coast  of  ^Eohs  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  Sinus  Elaiticus. 

HARMODICS  and  ARISTOGITON  ('Ap/io&of,  'Apt- 
aToyeiruv),  Athenians,  of  the  blood  of  the  GE- 
PHYR^EI,  were  the  murderers  of  Hipparchus, 
brother  of  the  tyrant  Hippias,  in  B.C.  514.  Aris- 
togiton  was  strongly  attached  to  the  young  and 
beautiful  Harmodius,  who  returned  his  affection 
with  equal  warmth.  Hipparchus  endeavored  to 
withdraw  the  youth's  love  to  himself,  and,  fail- 
ing in  this,  resolved  to  avenge  the  slight  by  put- 
ting upon  him  a  public  insult.  Accordingly,  he 
took  care  that  the  sister  of  Harmodius  should 
be  summoned  to  bear  one  of  the  sacred  baskets 
in  some  religious  procession,  and  when  she  pre- 
s^ited  herself  for  the  purpose,  he  caused  her 
to  be  dismissed  and  declared  unworthy  of  the 
honor.  This  fresh  insult  determined  the  two 
friends  to  slay  both  Hipparchus  and  his  brother 
Hippias  as  well.  They  communicated  their  plot 
to  a  few  friends,  and  selected  for  their  enter- 
prise the  day  of  the  festival  of  the  great  Pau- 
athenaea,  the  only  day  on  which  they  could  ap- 
pear in  arms  without  exciting  suspicion.  When 
the  appointed  time  arrived,  the  two  chief  con- 
spirators observed  one  of  their  accomplices  in 
conversation  with  Hippias.  Believing,  there- 
fore, that  they  were  betrayed,  they  slew  Hip- 
Earchus.  Harmodius  was  immediately  cut  down 
y  the  guards.  Aristogitou  at  first  escaped,  but 
was  afterward  taken,  and  was  put'  to  the  tor- 
ture ;  but  be  died  without  revealing  the  names 
of  any  of  the  conspirators'.  Four  years  after 
this  Hippias  was  expelled,  and  thenceforth  Har- 
modius and  Aristogiton  obtained  among  the 
Athenians  of  all  succeeding  generations  the 
character  of  patriots,  deliverers,  and  martyrs 
— names  often  abused,  indeed,  but  seldom  more 
grossly  than  in  the  present  case.  Their  deed 
of  murderous  vengeance  formed  a  favorite  sub- 
ject of  drinking  songs.  To  be  born  of  their 
343 


HARMONIA. 


HARPYLLE. 


blood  was  esteemed  the  highest  of  honors,  and 
their  descendants  enjoyed  an  immunity  from 
public  burdens.  Their  statues,  made  of  bronze 
by  Autenor,  were  set  up  in  the  Agora.  When 
ierxes  took  the  city,  he  carried  these  statues 
away,  and  new  ones,  the  work  of  CRITIAS,  were 
erected  in  477.  The  original  statues  were  after- 
ward sent  back  to  Athens  by  Alexander  the 
Great 

HARMONIA  (Apfiovia),  daughter  of  Mars  (Ares) 
and  Venus  (Aphrodite),  or,  according  to  others, 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Electro,  the  daughter  of 
Atlas,  in  Samothrace.  When  Minerva  (Athena) 
assigned  to  Cadmus  the  government  of  Thebes, 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  gave  him  Harmonia  for  his  wife, 
and  all  the  gods  of  Olympus  were  present  at  the 
marriage.  On  the  wedding-day  Cadmus  receiv- 
ed a  present  of  a  peplus,  which  afterward  be- 
came fatal  to  all  who  possessed  it  Harmonia 
accompanied  Cadmus  when  he  was  obliged  to 
quit  Thebes,  and  shared  his  fate.  Vid.  CADMUS. 
Polynices,  who  inherited  the  fatal  necklace,  gave 
it  to  Eriphyle,  that  she  might  persuade  her  hus- 
band, Amphiaraus,  to  undertake  the  expedition 
against  Thebes.  Through  Alcmaeon,  the  son  of 
Eriphyle,  the  necklace  came  into  the  hands  of 
Arsinoe,  next  into  those  of  the  sons  of  Phegeus, 
Pronous  and  Agenor,  and  lastly  into  those  of  the 
sons  of  Alcmaeon,  Amphoterus  and  Acarnan,  who 
dedicated  it  in  the  temple  of  Minerva  (Athena) 
Proncea  at  Delphi. 

HARPAGIA  or  -IUM  ('A/37ray«cc  or  -aytov),  a 
small  town  in  Mysiu,  between  Cyzicus  and  Pria- 
pus,  the  scene  of  the  rape  of  Ganymedes,  accord- 
ing to  some  legends. 

HARPAGUS  ("Apn-ayof).  1.  A  noble  Median, 
whose  preservation  of  the  infant  Cyrus,  with  the 
events  consequent  upon  it,  are  related  under 
CYRUS.  He  became  one  of  the  generals  of  Cyrus, 
and  conquered  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor. — 
2.  A  Persian  general,  under  Darius  I.,  took  His- 
tiaeus  prisoner. 

[HARPALION  ('ApiraMuv),  a  Paphlagonian,  son 
of  Pylaamenes,  and  guest-friend  of  Paris :  he  was 
slain  by  Meriones  in  the  Trojan  war.]  — 

HARPALUS  ("Apn-a/lof).  1.  A  Macedonian  of 
noble  birth,  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great 
to  Asia  as  supeiintendent  of  the  treasury. 
After  the  conquest  of  Darius,  he  was  left  by 
Alexander  in  charge  of  the  royal  treasury,  and 
with  the  administration  of  the  wealthy  satrapy 
of  Babylon.  Here,  during  Alexander's  absence 
in  India,  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  most  extrav- 
agant luxury  and  profusion,  and  squandered  the 
treasures  intrusted  to  him.  When  he  heard  that 
Alexander,  contrary  to  his  expectations,  was  re- 
turning from  India,  he  ded  from  Babylon  with 
about  five  thousand  talents  and  a  body  of  six 
thousand  mercenaries,  and  crossed  over  to  Greece, 
BC.  324.  He  took  refuge  at  Athens,, where  he 
employed  his  treasures  to  gain  over  the  orators, 
and  induce  the  people  to  support  him  against 
Alexander  and  his  vicegerent,  Antipater.  Among 
those  whom  he  thus  corrupted  are  said  to  have 
been  Demades,  Charicles,  the  son-in-law  of  Pho- 
cion,  and  even  Demosthenes  himself.  Vid.  DE- 
MOSTHENES, But  he  failed  in  his  general  object, 
for  Antipater  having  demanded  his  surrender 
from  the  Athenians,  it  was  resolved  to  place 
him  in  confinement  until  the  Macedonians  should 
«eud  for  him.  He  succeeded  in  making  his  es- 
344 


i  cape  from  prison,  and  fled  to  Crete,  where  Lo 
j  was  assassinated  soon  after  his  arrival  by  Thim- 
bron,  one  of  his  own  officers. — 2.  A  Greek  as- 
tronomer, introduced  some  improvements  into 
the  cycle  of  CLEOSTRATUS.  Harpalus  lived  be- 
fore METON. 

HARPALYCE  (' Apna^vKij).  1.  Daughter  of  Har- 
palycus,  king  in  Thrace.  As  she  lost  her  mother 
in  infancy,  she  was  brought  up  by  her  father 
with  the  milk  of  cows  and  mares,  and  was 
trained  in  all  manly  exercises.  After  the  death 
of  her  father,  she  lived  in  the  forests  as  a  robber, 
being  so  swift  in  running  that  horses  were  un- 
able to  overtake  her.  At  length  she  was  caught 
in  a  snare  by  shepherds,  who  killed  her. — 2. 
Daughter  of  Clymenus  and  Epicaste,  was  se- 
duced by  her  own  father.  To  revenge  herself, 
she  slew  her  younger  brother,  and  served  him 
up  as  food  before  her  father.  The  gods  changed 
her  into  a  bird. 

[HARPALYCUS  ('Ap;ra/li;KOf).  I.  Vid.  HARPAL- 
YCE,  No.  1. — 2.  A  Trojan  warrior,  companion  of 
^Eneas,  slain  by  Camilla. 

HARPASA  ('ApTraaa :  now  Arepas),  a  city  oi 
Caria,  on  the  River  HARPASUS. 

HARPASUS  ("Apiraaoe).  1.  (now  Arpa-Su),  a 
river  of  Caria,  flowing  north  into  the  Maeander, 
into  which  it  falls  opposite  to  Nysa. — 2.  (now 
'Karpa-Su),  a  river  of  Armenia  Major,  flowing 
south  into  the  Araxes.  Xenophon,  who  crossed 
it  with  the  ten  thousand  Greeks,  states  its  width 
as  four  plethra  (about  four  hundred  feet). 

HARPJNA  or  HARPINNA  ("Aoniva,  "Apmvva),  a 
town  in  Elis  Pisatis,  near  Olympia,  said  to  have 
been  called  after  a  daughter  of  Asopus. 

[HARPOCRATES.     Vid.  HORDS. 

HARPOCRATION,  VALERIUS,  a  Greek  gramma- 
rian of  Alexandrea,  of  uncertain  date,  the  author 
of  an  extant  dictionary  to  the  works  of  the  ten 
Attic  orators,  entitled  Hepl  TUV  7,e^euv  TUV  <5e«a 
pqTopuv,  or  Aeginov  TUV  <Je/ca  fiijTopuv.  It  con- 
tains not  only  explanations  of  legal  and  political 
terms,  but  also  accounts  of  persons  and  things 
mentioned  in  the  Attic  orators,  and  is  a  work  of 
great  value.  The  best  editions  are  the  one  pub- 
lished at  Leipzig,  1824,  and  the  one  by  Bekker, 
Berlin,  1833. 

HARPYLS  ("Aptrvtat),  the  Harpies,  that  is,  the 
Robbers  or  Spoilers,  are  in  Homer  nothing  but 
personified  storm-winds,  who  are  said  to  carry 
off  any  one  who  had  suddenly  disappeared  from 
the  earth.*  Thus  they  carried  off  the  daughters 
of  King  Pandareus,  and  gave  them  as  servants 
to  the  Erynnyes.  Hesiod  describes  them  as 
daughters  of  Thaumas  by  the  Oceanid  Electra, 
fair-locked  and  winged  maidens,  who  surpassed 
winds  and  birds  in  the  rapidity  of  their  flight 
But  even  in  ^Eschylus  they  appear  as  ugly  crea- 
tures with  wings;  and  later  writers  represent 
them  as  most  disgusting  monsters,  being  birds 
with  the  heads  of  maidens,  with  long  claws,  and 
with  faces  pale  with  hunger.  They  were  sent 
by  the  gods  to  torment  the  blind  Pbineus,  and 
whenever  a  meal  was  placed  before  him,  they 
darted  down  from  the  air  and  carried  it  off; 
later  writers  add,  that  they  either  devoured  the 
food  themselves,  or  rendered  it  unfit  to  be  eaten. 
Phineus  was  delivered  from  them  by  Zetes  and 
Calais,  sons  of  Boreas,  and  two  of  the  Argonauts. 
Vid.  p.  91,  a.  Hesiod  mentions  two  Harpies, 
Ocypete  and  Aello :  later  writers  three ;  but 


HARUDES. 


HECAT^EUS. 


tlieir  names  are  not  the  same  in  all  accounts. 
Besides  the  two  already  mentioned,  we  find  Ae'l- 
lopos,  Nicothoe,  Ocythoe,  Ocypode,  Celaeno, 
Acholoe.  Virgil  places  them  in  the  islands 
called  Strophades,  in  the  Ionian  Sea  (jEn.,  iii., 
210),  where  they  took  up  their  abode  after  they 
had  been  driven  away  from  Phineus.  In  the 
famous  Harpy  monument  recently  brought  from 
Lycia  to  England,  the  Harpies  are  represented 
in  the  act  of  carrying  off  the  daughters  of  Pan- 
dareus. 

HAiLttio,  a  people  in  the  army  of  Ariovistus 
(B.C.  58),  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  CHA- 
EUDES  mentioned  by  Ptolemy,  and  placed  by 
him  in  the  Chersonesus  Cimbnca. 

HASDRUBAL  ('A.ffdpoii6af),  a  Carthaginian  name, 
probably  signifies  one  whose  help  is  Baal.  1. 
Son  of  Hanno,  a  Carthaginian  general  in  the 
first  Punic  war.  He  was  one  of  the  two  gen- 
erals defeated  by  Regulus  B.C.  256.  In  254  he 
was  sent  into  Sicily  with  a  large  army,  and  re- 
mained hi  the  island  four  years.  In  250  he 
was  totally  defeated  by  Metellus,  and  was  put 
to  death  on  his  return  to  Carthage.  —  2.  A  Car- 
thaginian, son  in-law  of  Hamilcar  Barca,  on 
whose  death,  in  229,  he  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand in  Spain.  He  ably  carried  out  the  plans 
of  his  father-in-law  for  extending  the  Cartha- 
ginian dominions  in  Spain,  and  intrusted  the 
<ionduct  of  most  of  his  military  enterprises  to 
the  young  Hannibal  He  founded  New  Car- 
thage, aud  concluded  with  the  Romans  the  cel- 
ebrated treaty  which  fixed  the  Iberus  as  the 
boundary  between  the  Carthaginian  and  Roman 
dominions.  He  was  assassinated  by  a  slave, 
whose  master  he  had  put  to  death  (221),  and 
was  succeeded  iu  the  command  by  HANNIBAL. 

—  3.  Son  of  Hamilcar  Barca,  and  brother  of  Han- 
uibaL     When  Hannibal  set  out  for  Italy  (218), 
Hasdrubal  was  left  in  the  command  in  Spain, 
and  there   fought  for  some  years  against  the 
two  Scipios.     In  207  he  crossed  the  Alps  and 
marched  into  Italy,  in  order  to  assist  Hannibal  ; 
but  he  was  defeated   on  the  Metaurus  by  the 
consuls  C.  Claudius  Nero  and  M.  Livius  Salina- 
tor,  his  army  was  destroyed,  and  he  himself  fell 
iu  the  battle.    His  head  was  cut  off  aud  thrown 
into   Hannibal's  camp.  —  4.    One   of    Hannibal's 
chief  officers,  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the 
Carthaginian  army  at  the  battle  of  Cannae  (216). 

—  5.  Surnamed  the  Bald  (Galvus),  commander 
of  the   Carthaginian  expedition  to  Sardinia  in 
the  second  Punic  war,  215.     He  was  defeated 
by  the  Roman  prator  T.  Manlius,  taken  prison- 
er, and  carried  to  Rome.  —  6.  Son  of  Cisco,  one 
of  the  Carthaginian  generals  in   Spain  during 
the    second   Punic  war.     He  fought  in   Spain 
from  214  to  206.     After  he  and  Mago  had  been 
defeated  by  Scipio  in  the  latter  of  these  years, 
be  crossed  over  to  Africa,  where  he  succeeded 
in  obtaining  the  alliance  of  Syphax  by  giving 
him  his  daughter  Sophonisba  in  marriage.     In 
conjunction  with  Syphax,  Hasdrubal  carried  on 
war  against  Masimssa,  but  he  was  defeated  by 
Scipio,  who  landed  iu  Africa  in  204.     He  was 
condemned  to  death  for  his  ill  success  by  the 
Carthaginian  government,  but  he  still  continued 
in  arms  against  the  Romans.    On  the  arrival 
of  Hannibal  from  Italy  his  sentence  was  revers- 
ed ;   but  the  popular  feeling  against  him  had  not 
subsided,  and,  in  order  to  escape  death  from  his 


enemies,  he  put  an  end  to  his  life  by  poisou.  — 
7.  Commander  of  the  Carthaginian  fleet  in  Afri 
ca  in  2C3,  must  be  distinguished  from  the  pre- 
ceding.— 8.  Surnamed  the  Kid  (Hcedus),  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  party  at  Carthage  favorable 
to  jeace  toward  the  end  of  the  second  Punic 
war.  —  9.  General  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
third  Punic  war.  When  the  city  was  taken  he 
surrendered  to  Scipio,  who  spared  his  life.  After 
adorning  Scipio's  triumph,  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  Italy. 

HATEEIUS,  Q.,  a  senator  and  rhetorician  in  thf 
age  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  died  A.D.  26,  i» 
the  eighty  -ninth  year  of  his  age. 

HEBE  ("Hfo?),  called  JUVENTAS  by  the  Romans 
the  goddess  of  youth,  was  a  daughter  of  Jupitet 
(Zeus)  and  Juno  (Hera).  She  waited  upon  tho 
gods,  and  filled  their  cups  with  nectar  before 
Ganymedes  obtained  this  office  ;  and  she  is  fur- 
ther represented  as  assisting  her  mother  Juna 
(Hera)  in  putting  the  horses  to  her  chariot,  and 
in  bathing  and  dressing  her  brother  Mars  (Ares). 
She  married  Hercules  after  he  was  received 
among  the  gods,  and  bore  to  him  two  sons,  Al- 
exiares  and  Anticetus.  Later  traditions  repre- 
sent her  as  a  divinity  who  had  it  in  her  power 
to  make  aged  persons  young  again.  At  Rome 
there  were  several  temples  of  Juventas.  She 
is  even  said  to  have  had  a  chapel  on  the  Capi- 
tol before  the  temple  of  Jupiter  was  built  there 

HEBROMAGUS.     Vid.  EBUROMAGUS. 

HEBRON  ('E6puv,  Xe6puv  'EBpuvio^  :  now  El- 
Kliulil),  a  city  in  the  south  of  Judaea,  as  old  as 
the  times  of  the  patriarchs,  and  the  first  capital 
of  the  kingdom  of  David,  -who  reigned  there 
seven  and  a  half  years  as  king  of  Judah  only. 

HEBEUS  (°E6pos  :  now  Maritza),  the  principal 
river  in  Thrace,  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Sco- 
mius  and  Rhodope,  flows  first  southeast  aud 
then  southwest,  becomes  navigable  for  smaller 
vessels  at  Philippopolis,  and  for  larger  ones  at 
Hadrianopolis,  and  falls  into  the  JEgean  Sea 
near  J2nos,  after  forming  by  another  branch  an 
estuary  called  STENTORIS  LACUS.  The  Hebrus 
was  celebrated  in  Greek  legends.  On  its  banks 
Orpheus  was  torn  to  pieces  by  tke  Thraciau 
women  ;  and  it  is  frequently  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  worship  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus.) 

HECAERGE  ('EKaep-yij).  1.  Daughter  of  Boreas, 
and  one  of  the  Hyperborean  maidens,  who  were 
believed  to  have  introduced  the  worship  of 
Diana  (Artemis)  into  Delos.  —  2.  A  surname  of 
Diana  (Artemis),  signifying  the  goddess  who 
hits  at  a  distance. 

HKCALE  ('E/caAj?),  a  poor  old1  woman,  who  hos- 
pitably received  Theseus  when  he  had  gone 
out  for  the  purpose  of  killing  the  Marathonian 
bull  She  vowed  to  offer  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  a 
sacrifice  for  the  safe  return  of  the  hero  ;  but  as 
she  died  before  his  return,  Theseus  ordained 
that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Attic  tetrapplis  should 
offer  a  sacrifice  to  her  and  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Hec- 
alus,  or  Hecaleius. 

[HECAMKDE  ('Enap/dj)),  daughter  of  Arsiuous, 
taken  prisoner  by  Achilles,  when  he  captured 
the  islaud  of  Tenedos  :  she  became  the  slave 
of  Nestor.] 

HECAT.AUS  ('Exarotof).  1.  Of  Miletus,  one  of 
the  earliest  and  most  distinguished  Greek  his- 
torians and  geographers.  He  was  the  son  of 
Hegesander,  and  belonged  to  a  very  ancient  and 
345 


HECATE. 

illustrious  family.  W«  have  only  a  few  partic 
tilui  •  of  his  life.  In  B.C.  500  be  endeavored  t 
dissuade  his  couutrymen  from  revolting  fron 
the  Persians;  and  when  this  advice  was  disre 
garded,  he  gave  them  some  sensible  counsel  it 
spectiug  the  conduct  of  the  war,  which  was  ale 
neglected.  Previous  to  this,  Hecatwus  had  vis 
ited  Egypt  and  many  other  countries.  He  sui 
vived  the  Persian  wars,  and  appears  to  hav 
died  about  476.  He  wrote  two  woiks:  1.  lie 
oiodof  y//f,  or  Tlepijjyriaif,-  divided  into  two  parts 
one  of  which  contained  a  description  of  Europe 
and  the  other  of  Asia,  Egypt,  and  Libya.  Botl 
parts  were  subdivided  into  smaller  sections 
which  are  sometimes  quoted  under  their  re 
spective  names,  such  as  Hellespontus,  Ac.  2 
TevfaTMylai  or  'loropiat,  in  four  books,  containec 
nn  account  of  the  poetical  fables  and  traditions 
of  the  Greeks.  His  work  on  geography  was 
the  more  important,  as  it  embodied  the  result 
of  his  numerous  travels.  He  also  eorrectec 
and  improved  the  map  of  the  earth  drawn  up 
by  ANAXTMAXDEB.  Herodotus  knew  the  works 
of  Hecatffius  well,  and  frequently  controverts 
his  opinions.  Hccatjeus  wrote  in  the  Ionic  dia 
lect  in  a  pure  and  simple  style.  The  fragments 
of  his  works  are  collected  by  Klausen,  Hecatce'i 
jfilesii  Fragmenta,  Berlin,  1831,  and  by  C.  anc 
Th.  Muller,  Frag.  Hist.  Grcec.,  Paris,  1841.— 

2.  Of  Abdera,  a  contemporary  of  Alexander  the 
Great  and  Ptolemy,  the  SOD  of  Lagus,  appears 
to  have  accompanied  the  former  on  his  Asiatic 
expedition.    He  was  a   pupil   of   the    skeptic 
Pyrrho,  and  is  himself   called  a  philosopher 
critic,   and   grammarian.     In  the  reign  of  the 
first  Ptolemy  he  travelled  up  the  Nile  as  far  as 
Thebes.    He  was  the  author  of  several  works, 
of  which  the  most  important  were,  1.  A  Histo- 
ry of  Egypt.     2.  A  work  on  the  Hyperboreans. 

3.  A  history  of  the  Jews,  frequently  referred  to 
by  Josephus  and  other  ancient  writers.    This 
"work  was  declared  spurious  by  Origen  :  modern 
critics  are  divided  in  their  opinions. 

HECATE  ('E/curj/),  a  mysterious  divinity,  com- 
monly represented  as  a  daughter  of  Persaeus  or 
Perses  and  Asteria,  and 'hence  called  Perseis. 
She  is  also  described  as  a  daughter  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  and  Ceres  (Demeter),  or  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Pheraea  or  Juno  (Hera),  or  of  Latona  (Leto) 
or  Tartarus.  Homer  does  not  mention  her. 
According  to  the  most  genuine  traditions,  she 
appears  to  have  been  an  ancient  Thracian  di- 
vinity, and  a  Titan,  who  ruled  in '  heaven,  on 
the  earth,  and  in.  the  sea,  bestowing  on  mortals 
wealth,  victory,  wisdom,  good  luck  to  sailors 
and  hunters,  and  prosperity  to  youth  and  to  the 
flocks  of  cattle.  She  was  the  only  one  among 
the  Titans  who  retained  this  power  under  the 
rule  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  she  was  honored  by 
all  the  immortal  gods.  The  extensive  power 
possessed  by  Hecate  was  probably  the  reason 
that  she  was  subsequently  identified  with  sev- 
eral other  divinities,  and  at  length  became  a 
mystic  goddess,  to  whom  mysteries  were  cele- 
brated in  Samothraee  and  in  ^Egina.  In  the 
Homeric  hymn  to  Ceres  (Demeter)  she  is  rep- 
resented as  taking  an  active  part  in  the  search 
after  Proserpina  (Persephone),  and  when  the 
latter  was  found,  as  remaining  with  her  as  her 
attendant  and  companion.  Vid.  p.  248,  a.  She 
thus  became  a  deity  of  the  lower  world,  and  is 
346 


HECTOR 

described  in  this  capacity  as  a  mighty  and  for 
midable  divinity.  In  consequence  of  her  being 
identified  with  other  divinities,  she  is  said  to 
have  been  Selene  or  Luna  in  heaven,  Artemis 
or  Diana  in  earth,  and  Persephone  or  Proser- 
pina in  the  lower  world.  Being  thus,  as  it  were, 
a  three-fold  goddess,  she  is  described  with  three 
bodies  or  three  heads,  the  one  of  a  horse,  the 
second  of  a  dog,  and  the  third  of  a  lion.  Hence 
her  epithets  Tergemina,  Triformis,  Triceps,  &c. 
From  her  being  an  infernal  divinity,  she  came 
to  be  regarded  as  a  spectral  being,  who  sent  ut 
night  all  kinds  of  demons  and  terrible  phantoms 
from  the  lower  world,  who  taught  sorcery  and 
witchcraft,  and  dwelt  at  places  where  two  roads 
crossed,  on  tombs,  and  near  the  blood  of  mur- 
dered persons.  She  herself  wandered  about 
with  the  souls  of  the  dead,  and  her  approach 
was  announced  by  the  whining  and  howling  of 
dogs.  At  Athens  there  were  very  many  small 
statues  or  symbolical  representations  of  Hecate 
(tKaraid),  placed  before  or  in  houses,  and  on 
spots  where  two  roads  crossed :  it  would  seem 
that  people  consulted  such  Hecatsea  as  oracles. 
At  the  close  of  every  month  dishes  with  food 
were  set  out  for  her  and  other  averters  of  evil 
at  the  points  where  two  roads  crossed  ;  and  this 
food  was  consumed  by  poor  people.  The  sac- 
rifices offered  to  her  consisted  of  doge,  honey, 
and  black  female  lambs. 

HECATOMNUS  ('E/car6//vuf),  king  or  dynast  of 
Caria  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  III.  He  left 
three  sous,  Maussolus,  Idrieus,  and  Pixedarus, 
all  of  whom,  in  their  turn,  succeeded  him  iu  the 
sovereignty  ;  and  two  daughters,  Artemisia  and 
Ada. 

[HECATOMPOLIS  ('EKaro^TroXtf,  i.  e.,  having 
one  hundred  cities),  appellation  of  the  island 
Crete,  from  the  one  hundred  cities  it  was  saiJ 
to  have  had  in  ancient  times.] 

HECATOMPYLOS  ('E/caro/iTrvAof,  i.  e.,  having 
one  hundred  gates).  1.  An  epithet  of  Thebes  in 
Egypt.  Vid.  THEB^E. — 2.  A  city  in  the  middle 
of  Parthia,  twelve  hundred  and  sixty  stadia  or 
one  hundred  and  thirty-three  Roman  miles  from 
;he  Caspise  Pylae ;  enlarged  by  Seleucus,  and 
afterward  used  by  the  Parthian  kings  as  a  royal 
•esidence. 

HECATON  ('EKarwv),  a  Stoic  philosopher,  a  na- 
ive of  Rhodes,  studied  under  Panaetius,  and 
wrote  numerous  works,  all  of  which  are  lost. 

HECATONNESI  (''E.Karowrjaoi :  now  Mosko-nisi), 
a  group  of  small  islands,  between  Lesbos  and 
,he  coast  of  ^Eolis,  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Adramyttium.  The  name, 
me  hundred  inlands,  was  indefinite ;  the  real 
umber  was  reckoned  by  some  at  twenty,  by 
)thers  at  forty.  Strabo  derives  the  name,  not 
rom  tuarov,  one  hundred,  but  from  'E/carof,  a 
urname  of  Apollo. 

HECTOR  ("E/cTwp),  the  chief  hero  of  the  Tro- 
ans  in  their  war  with  the  Greeks,  was  the 
Idest  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  the  husband 
f  Andromache,  and  father  of  Scamandrius.  He 
ought  with  the  bravest  of  the  Greeks,  and  at 
ength  slew  Patroclus,  the  friend  of  Achilles, 
"he  death  of  his  friend  roused  Achilles  to  the 
ght  The  other  Trojans  fled  before  him  into 
ae  city.  Hector  alone  remained  without  the 
vails,  though  his  parents  implored  him  to  re 
urn  ;  but  when  he  saw  Achilles  his  heart  fail 


HECUBA. 


HEGIAS. 


eo  him,  and  he  took  to  flight  Thrice  did  he 
race  round  the  city,  pursued  by  the  swift-foot- 
ed Achilles,  and  then  fell  pierced  by  Achilles's 
spear.  Achilles  tied  Hector's  body  to  his  char- 
iot, and  thus  dragged  him  into  the  camp  of  the 
Greeks  ;  but  Liter  traditions  relate  that  he  first 
dragged  the  body  thrice  around  the  walls  of 
Ilium.  At  the  command  of  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
Achilles  surrendered  the  body  to  the  prayers  of 
Priam,  who  buried  it  at  Troy  with  great  pomp. 
Hector  is  one  of  the  noblest  conceptions  of  the 
Iliad.  He  is  the  great  bulwark  of  Troy,  and 
even  Achilles  trembles  when  he  approaches 
him.  He  has  a  presentiment  of  the  fall  of  his 
country,  but  he  persevere*  in  his  heroic  resist- 
ance, preferring  death  to  shivery  and  disgrace. 
Besides  these  virtues  of  a  warrior,  he  is  distin- 
guished also  by  those  of  a  man :  his  heart  is 
open  to  the  gentle  feelings  of  a  son,  a  husband, 
and  a  father. 

HECUBA  ('E/ca'&y),  daughter  of  Dymas  in 
Phrygia,  or  of  Cisseus,  king  of  Thrace.  She 
was  the  wife  of  Priam,  king  of  Troyf  to  whom 
ehe  bore  Hector,  Paris,  Deiphobus,  Helenas, 
Cassaudra,  and  many  other  children.  On  the 
capture  of  Troy,  she  was  carried  away  as  a 
slave  by  the  Greeks.  According  to  the  tragedy 
of  Euripides,  which  bears  her  name,  she  was 
carried  by  the  Greeks  to  Chersonesus,  and 
there  saw  her  daughter  Polyxena  sacrificed. 
Ou  the  same  day  the  waves  of  the  sea  washed 
on  the  coast  the  body  of  her  last  son  Polydorus, 
who  had  been  murdered  by  Polymestor,  king  of 
the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  to  whose  care  he 
had  been  intrusted  by  Priam.  Hecuba  there- 
upon killed  the  children  of  Polymestor,  and  tore 
out  the  eyes  of  their  father.  Agamemnon  par- 
doned her  the  crime,  and  Polymestor  prophesied 
that  she  should  be  metamorphosed  into  a  she- 
dog,  and  should  leap  into  the  sea  at  a  place  called 
(Jyriussema.  It  was  added  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Thrace  endeavored  to  stone  her,  but  that  she 
was  metamorphosed  into  a  dog,  and  in  this  form 
howled  through  the  country  for  a  long  time. 
According  to  other  accounts  she  was  given  as 
a  slave  to  Ulysses,  and  in  despair  leaped  into 
the  Hellespont;  or,  being  anxious'to  die,  she 
uttered  such  invectives  against  the  Greeks,  that 
the  warriors  put  her  to  death,  and  called  the 
place  where  she  was  buried  Cynossema,  with 
reference  to  her  impudent  invechvea. 

H  i.ovuus  MONS  ('Hdiihetov),  a  range  of  mount- 
ains in  Boeotia,  west  of  the  Cephisus. 

HEDYLUB  ('HcJv^of),  son  of  Melicertus,  was  a 
native  of  Samos  or  of  Athens,  and  an  epigram- 
matic poet  Eleven  of  his  epigrams  are  in  the 
Greek  Anthology.  He  was  a  contemporary 
aud  rival  of  Callimachus,  and  lived,  therefore, 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.C. 

[HEDYMELES,  a  celebrated  performer  on  the 
lyre  in  the  time  of  Domitian  (Juv.,  vi.,  382).] 

(HEGiLocHCg  ('Hy«Ao£Of).  1.  An  Athenian 
nlHci-r,  sent  to  protect  Mantinea  from  the  threat- 
ened attack  of  Epaminondas,  B.C.  362. — 2.  One 
of  Alexander's  officers,  who  accompanied  him 
into  Asia,  and  perished  at  the  battle  of  Arbela.] 

HEGEHON  ('Hy^wc),  of  Thasos,  a  poet  of  the 
old  comedy  at  Athene,  but  more  celebrated  for 
his  parodies,  of  which  kind  of  poetry  he  was  the 
inventor.  He  was  nicknamed  *a«jy,  on  account 
of  his  fondness  for  that  kind  of  pulse.  He  lived 


in  the  time  of  the  Feloponnesian  war ;  and  tos 
parody  of  the  Gigar tomachia  was  the  pieco  to 
which  the  Athenians  were  listening  when  the 
news  was  brought  to  them  in  the  theatre  of  the 
destruction  of  the  expedition  to  Sicily. 

HEGEMONE  ('Hyi/iovi)),  the  leader  or  ruler,  is 
the  name  of  one  of  the  Athenian  Charites  or 
Graces.      Hegemone  was    also   a  surname  of  9 
Diana  (Artemis)  at  Sparta  and  in  Arcadia. 

[HEGESANDRIDAS  ('Hyriaavdpidaf),  a  Spa-tan 
naval  commander  during  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  defeated  the  Athenian  fleet  off  Oropus, 
but  did  not  follow  up  his  victory  by  attacking 
Athens.] 

HEGESIAN AX  ('Hy^crtavaf ),  an  historian  of 
Alexandrea,  is  said  to  have  been  the  real  author 
of  the  work  called  Troica,  which  went  under  the 
name  of  Cephalon  or  Cephalion.  He  appears 
to  be  the  same  as  the  Hegesianax  who  was 
sent  by  Antiochus  the  Great  as  one  of  his  en- 
voys to  the  Romans  in  B.C.  196  and  193. 

HEGESIAS  ('Hyrjaiaf).  1.  Of  Magnesia,  a  rhet- 
orician and  historian,  lived  about  B.C.  290,  and 
wrote  the  history  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He 
was  regarded  by  some  as  the  founder  of  that 
degenerate  style  of  composition  which  bore  the 
name  of  the  Asiatic.  His  own  style  was  desti- 
tute of  all  vigor  "aud  dignity,  and  was  marked 
chiefly  by  childish  conceits  and  minute  pretti- 
nesses. — 2.  Of  Salamis,  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  the  author  of  the  Cyprian  poem, 
which,  on  better  authority,  is  ascribed  to  Sta« 
sinus. — 3.  A  Cyrenaic  philosopher,  who  lived  at 
Alexandrea  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  per- 
haps about  B.C.  260.  He  wrote  a  work  con- 
taining auch  gloomy  descriptions  of  human  mis- 
ery that  it  drove  many  persons  to  commit  sui- 
cide ;  hence  he  was  surnamed  Peisithanatos 
(HeiaiddvaTOf).  He  was,  in  consequence,  for 
bidden  to  teach  by  Ptolemy. 

HEGESIAS  ('Hyqalaf)  and  HEGIAS  ('Hytaf),  two 
Greek  statuaries,  whom  many  scholars  identify 
with  one  another.  They  lived  at  the  period  im- 
mediately preceding  that  of  Phidias.  The  chief 
work  of  Hegesias  was  the  statues  of  Castor  and 
Pollux,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  same  as 
those  which  now  stand  on  the  stairs  leading  to 
the  Capitol 

HfioEsiNtrs  ('Hy^ffo'ovf),  of  Pergamum,  the 
successor  of  Evander  and  the  immediate  prede- 
cessor of  Carneades  in  the  chair  of  the  Acade- 
my, flourished  about  B.C.  185. 

HEGESIPPUS  ('Hy^cwjrof).  1.  An  Athenian 
orator,  and  a  contemporary  of  Demostheues,  to 
whose  political  party  he  belonged.  The  gram- 
marians ascribe  to  him  the  oration  on  Halone- 
sus,  which  has  come  down  to  us  under  the  iiume 
of  Demosthenes. — 2.  A  poet  of  the  new  come- 
dy, flourished  about  B.C.  300. — 3.  A  Greek  hii 
torian  of  Mecyberna,  wrote  an  account  of  the 
peninsula  of  Pallene. 

HEOKsiFYLA('Hyt)cnrvXri),  daughter  of  Olorus, 
king  of  Thrace,  and  wife  of  Miltiades. 

[HEOESISTBATUS  ('HyrjaiarpaTOf).  1.  Natural 
sou  of  Pisistratus,  made  by  his  father  tyrant  of 
Sigeum. — 2.  Son  of  Aristagoras  of  Samos,  ciune 
before  the  battle  of  Mycale  on  an  embassy  t" 
the  Spartan  king  Leotychidcs  from  the  S;uni;u!H 
to  treat  for  the  liberation  of  his  country  mou 
from  the  Persian  yoke.] 

HEGIAS.     Vid.  HEGESIAS. 

347 


HELENA. 


HELICON 


HELENA  ('E/ltf  17),  daughter  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Led  a,  tind  sister  of  Castor  and  Pollux  (the 
Dioscuri).  She  was  of  surpassing  beauty.  In 
her  youth  she  was  carried  oft*  by  Theseus  and 
Pirithous  to  Attica.  When  Theseus  was  ab- 
sent in  Hades,  Castor  and  Pollux  undertook  an 
expedition  to  Attica,  to  liberate  their  sister. 
Athens  was  taken,  Helen  delivered,  and  ^Etbra, 
*  the  mother  of  Theseus,  made  prisoner,  and  car- 
ried as  a  slave  of  Helen  to  Sparta.  According 
to  some  accounts,  she  bore  to  Theseus  a  daugh- 
ter, Ipliigenia.  On  her  return  home  she  was 
sought  in  marriage  by  the  noblest  chiefs  from 
all  parts  of  Greece.  She  chose  Menelaus  for 
her  husband,  and  became  by  him  the  mother  of 
Hermione.  She  was  subsequently  seduced  and 
carried  off  by  Paris  to  Troy.  For  details,  vid. 
PARIS  and  MENELAUS.  The  Greek  chiefs  who 
had  been  her  suitors  resolved  to  revenge  her 
abduction,  and  accordingly  sailed  against  Troy. 
Hence  arose  the  celebrated  Trojan  war,  which 
lasted  ten  years.  During  the  course  of  the  war 
she  13  represented  as  showing  great  sympathy 
with  the  Greeks.  After  the  death  of  Paris  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  war,  she  married  his  broth- 
er Deiphobus.  On  the  capture  of  Troy,  which 
she  is  said  to  have  favored,  she  betrayed  De- 
iphobus to  the  Greeks,  and  became  reconciled 
to  Menelaus,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Sparta. 
Here  she  lived  with  him  for  some  years  in  peace 
and  happiness  ;  and  here,  according  to  Homer, 
Telemachus  found  her  solemnizing  the  mar- 
riage of  her  daughter  Hermione  with  Neoptole- 
inus.  The  accounts  of  Helen's  death  differ. 
According  to  the  prophecy  of  Proteus  in  the 
Odyssey,  Menelaus  and  Helen  were  not  to  die, 
but  the  gods  were  to  conduct  them  to  Elysium. 
Others  relate  that  she  and  Menelaus  were  buried 
at  Therapne  in  Laconia,  where  their  tomb  was 
seen  by  Pausanias.  Others,  again,  relate,  that 
after  the  death  of  Menelaus  she  was  driven  out 
of  Peloponnesus  by  the  sons  of  the  latter  and 
fled  to  Rhodes,  where  she  was  tied  to  a  tree 
and  strangled  by  Polyxo :  the  Rhodians  ex- 
piated the  crime  by  dedicating  a  temple  to  her 
under  the  name  of  Helena  Dendritis.  Accord- 
ing to  another  tradition  she  married  Achilles  in 
the  island  of  Leuce,  and  bore  him  a  son,  Eupho- 
rion.  The  Egyptian  priests  told  Herodotus  that 
Helen  never  went  to  Troy,  but  that  when  Paris 
reached  Egypt  with  Helen  on  his  way  to  Troy, 
she  was  detained  by  Proteus,  king  of  Egypt ; 
and  that  she  was  restored  to  Menelaus  when  he 
visited  Egypt  in  search  of  her  after  the  Trojan 
war,  finding  that  she  had  never  been  at  Troy. 

HELENA,  FLAVIA  JULIA.  1.  The  mother  of 
Constantino  the  Great.  When  her  husband 
Constantius  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Caesar 
by  Diocletian,  A.D.  292,  he  was  compelled  to 
repudiate  his  wife,  to  make  way  for  Theodora, 
the  step-child  of  Maximianus  Herculius.  Sub- 
sequently, when  her  son  succeeded  to  the  pur- 
ple, Helena  was  treated  with  marked  distinc- 
tion, and  received  the  title  of  Augusta.  She 
died  about  328.  She  was  a  Christian,  and  is 
said  to  have  discovered  at  Jerusalem  the  sep- 
ulchre of  our  Lord,  together  with  the  wood  of 
ithe  true  cross. — 2.  Daughter  of  Constantino  the 
Great  and  Fausta,  married  her  cousin  Julian  the 
Apostate  355,  and  died  360. 

HELENA  ('EAevi?).      1.  (Now  Makronisi)    a 
348 


:  small  and  rocky  island  between  the  south  of 
!  Attica  and  Ceos,    formerly   called    Cranae. —  2. 
The  later  name  of  ILLIBERRIS  in  GauL 

HELENUS  ("Ehevof).  1.  Son  of  Priam  and 
Hecuba,  was  celebrated  for  his  prophetic  pow- 
ers, and  also  fought  against  the  Greeks  in  the 
Trojan  war.  In  Homer  we  have  no  further 
particulars  about  Helenus ;  but  in  later  tradi- 
tions be  is  said  to  have  deserted  his  countrv- 
men  and  joined  the  Greeks.  There  are  like- 
wise various  accounts  respecting  his  desertion 
of  the  Trojans.  According  to  some,  he  did  it 
of  his  own  accord ;  according  to  others,  he  was 
ensnared  by  Ulysses,  who  was  anxious  to  ob» 
tain  his  prophecy  respecting  the  fall  of  Troy. 
Others,  again,  rekte  that,  ou  the  death  of  Paris, 
Helenus  and  Deiphobus  contended  for  the  pos- 
session of  Helena,  and  that  Helenus  being  con- 
quered, fled  to  Mount  Ida,  where  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Greeks.  After  the  fall  of  Troy 
he  fell  to  the  share  of  Pyrrhus.  He  foretold  Pyr- 
rhus  the  sufferings  which  awaited  the  Greeks 
who  retuiyied  home  by  sea,  and  prevailed  upon 
him  to  return  by  land  to  Epirus.  After  the 
death  of  Pyrrhus  he  received  a  portion  of  the 
country,  and  married  Andromache,  by  whom 
he  became  the  father  of  Cestrinus."  Whet. 
./Eneas,  in  his  wanderings,  arrived  in  Epirus,  he 
was  hospitably  received  by  Helenus,  who  also 
foretold  him  the  future  events  of  his  life. — 2 
Son  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  by  Lanassa, 
daughter  of  Agathocles.  He  accompanied  his 
father  to  Italy  B.C.  280,  and  was  with  him 
when  Pyrrhus  perished  at  Argos,  272.  He 
then  fell  into  the  hands  of  Antigonus  Gonatas, 
who,  however,  sent  him  back  in  safety  to  Epirus. 
— [3.  Son  of  QSnops,  a  Greek,  slain  by  Hector 
before  Troy.] 

HELJAD^E  and  HELIADES  ('HAtaJat  and  'Hfa.it- 
c5ef),  the  sons  and  daughters  of  Helios  (the  Sun). 
The  name  Hdiades  is  given  especially  to  Pha- 
ethusa,  Lampetia,  and  Phoebe,  tne  daughters  of 
Helios  and  the  nymph  Clymene,  and  the  sisters 
of  Phaethon.  They  bewailed  the  death  of  their 
brother  Phaethon  so  bitterly  on  the  banks  of 
the  Eridanus,  that  the  gods,  in  compassion, 
changed  them  into  poplar-trees  and  their  tears 
into  amber.  Vid.  ERIDANUS. 

[HELICAON  ('Ehtnuuv),  son  of  Antenor,  and 
husband  of  Laodice  ;  he  is  said  to  have  founded 
Patavium  in  Italy.] 

HELICE  ('E/liK^),  daughter  of  Lycaon,  was 
beloved  by  Jupiter  (Zeus),  but  Juno  (Hera),  out 
of  jealousy,  metamorphosed  her  into  a  she-bear, 
whereupon  Jupiter  (Zeus)  placed  her  among  the 
stars  under  the  name  of  the  Great  Bear. 

HELICE  ('E^wcj? :  'EfaKuviof,  'E/U/cevf).  1. 
The  ancient  capital  of  Achaia,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Ion,  possessed  a  celebrated  temple 
of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  which  was  regarded  as 
the  great  sanctuary  of  the  Achaean  race.  Hel- 
ice  was  swallowed  up  by  an  earthquake  together 
with  Bura,  B.C.  373.  The  earth  sunk  deep  into 
the  ground,  and  the  place  on  which  the  cities 
stood  was  ever  afterward  covered  by  the  sea. 
— 2.  An  ancient  town  in  Thessaly,  which 
disappeared  in  early  times. 

HELICON  ('EJunuv),  son  cf  Acesas,  a  celebra- 
ted artist.  Vid.  ACESAS. 

HEL!CON  ('E^iiKuv  :  now  Helicon,  PalcEO-Buni, 
Turk.  Zagora),  a  celebrated  range  of  mountains 


HELIMUS. 


HELIOS. 


in  Bceotia,  between  the  Lake  Copais  and  the 
Coriuthiau  Gulf,  was  covered  with  snow  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  and  possessed  many 
romantic  ravines  and  lovely  valleys.  Helicon 
was  sacred  to  Apollo  and  th«  Muses,  the  latter 
of  whom  are  hente  called  'E?.iKuviai  irapdevoi 
and  'EfaKuviudec  wfaftai  by  the  Greek  poets, 
and  Heliconiades  and  Heliconides  by  the  Roman 
poets.  Here  sprung  the  celebrated  fountains 
of  the  Muses,  AGANIPPE  and  HIPPOCRENE.  At 
the  fountain  of  Hippocrene  was  a  grove  sacred 
to  the  Muses,  which  was  adorned  with  some  of 
the  finest  works  of  art.  On  the  slopes  and  in 
the  valleys  of  the  mountains  grew  many  me- 
dicinal plants,  which  may  have  given  occasion 
to  the  worship  of  Apollo  as  the  healing  god. 

[HELIMUS,  a  Centaur,  slain  at  the  nuptials  of 
Pirithous.] 

HELIODOKUS  ('Hluodupof).  1.  An  Athenian 
surnamed  Periegetes  (IIspiTryTiTijf),  probably  liv- 
ed about  B.C.  164,  and  wrote  a  description  of 
the  works  of  art  in  the  Acropolis  at  Athens. 
This  work  was  orfe  of  the  authorities  for  Pliny's 
account  of  the  Greek  artists. — 2.  A  rhetorician 
at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  whom  Horace 
mentions  as  the  companion  of  his  journey  to 
Brundisium  (Sat.,  i,  6,  2,  3.) — 3.  A  Stoic  phi- 
losopher at  Rome,  who  became  a  delator  in  the 
reign  of  Nero.  (Juv.,  Sat.,  L,  33.) — 4.  A  rheto- 
rician, and  private  secretary  to  the  Emperor 
Hadrian. — 5.  Of  Emesa  in  Syria,  lived  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century  of  our  era,  and 
was  bishop  of  Trieca  in  Thessaly.  Before  he 
was  made  bishop  he  wrote  a  romance  in  ten 
books,  entitled  ^Ethiopica,  because  the.  scene  of 
the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  story  is  laid  in 
./Ethiopia.  This  work  has  come  down  to  us, 
and  is  far  superior  to  the  other  Greek  romances. 
It  relates  the  loves  of  Theagenes  and  Chariclea. 
Though  deficient  in  those  characteristics  of 
modern  fiction  which  appeal  to  the  universal 
sympathies  of  our  nature,  the  romance  of  Heli- 
odorus  is  interesting  on  account  of  the  rapid 
succession  of  strange  and  not  altogether  im-  j 
probable  adventures,  the  many  and  various ' 
characters  introduced,  and  the  beautiful  scenes 
described.  The  language  is  simple  and  ele- 
gant The  best  editions  are  by  Mitecherlich,  in 
his  Scriptores  Greed  Erotici,  Argentorat.,  1798, 
and  by  Corae,  Paris,  1804. — 6.  Of  Larissa,  the 
author  of  a  short  work  on  optics,  still  extant, 
chiefly  taken  from  Euclid's  9ptic» :  edited  by 
Mautaui,  Piston,  1758. 

HELIOGABALUS.     Vid.  ELAOABALUS. 

HELIOPOLIS  ('HXtov  irohic  or  'HXt<ni;roA«f,  i.  e., 
the  City  of  the  Sun).  1.  (Heb.  Baalath:  now 
Baalbek,  ruins),  a  celebrated  city  of  Syria,  a 
chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  Baal,  one  of  whose 
symbols  was  the  sun,  and  whom  the  Greeks 
identified  with  Apollo,  as  well  as  with  Jupiter 
(Zeus) :  hence  the  Greek  name  of  the  city. 
With  the  worship  of  Baal,  here  as  elsewhere, 
waa  associated  that  of  Astarte,  whom  the 
Greeks  identified  with  Venus  (Aphrodite).  It 
was  situated  in  the  middle  of  Cccle-Syria,  at 
the  western  foot  of  Anti-Libanus,  on  a  rising 
ground  at  the  northeastern  extremity  of  a  large 
plain  which  reaches  almost  to  the  sea,  and 
which  is  well  watered  by  the  River  Leontes 
(now  Kahr-el-Karimiyeh),  near  whose  sources 
Hcliopolis  was  built ;  the  sources  of  the  Orontes 


also  are  not  far  north  of  the  city.  The  situa- 
tion of  Heliopolis  necessarily  made  it  a  place 
of  great  commercial  importance,  as  it  was  on 
the  direct  road  from  Egypt  and  the  Red  Sea, 
and  also  from  Tyre  to  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and 
Europe  ;  and  hence,  probably,  the  wealth  of  the 
city,  to  which  its  ruins  still  bear  witness.  We 
know,  however,  very  little  of  its  history.  It 
was  made  a  Roman  colony  by  the  name  of 
Colonia  Julia  Augusta  Felix  Heliopolitana,  and 
colonized  by  veterans  of  the  fifth  and  eighth 
legions,  under  Augustus.  Antoninus  Pius  built 
the  great  temple  of  Jupiter  (i.  e^  Baal),  of 
which  the  ruins  still  exist ;  and  there  are  med- 
als which  show,  in  addition  to  other  testimony, 
that  it  was  favored  by  several  of  the  later  em- 
perors. All  the  existing  ruins  are  of  the  Ro- 
man period,  and  most  of  them  probably  of  later 
date  than  the  great  temple  just  mentioned ;  but 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  their  exact  times; 
They  consist  of  a  large  quadrangular  court 
in  front  of  the  great  temple,  another  hexag- 
onal court  outside  of  this,  and  in  front  of  all, 
a  portico  or  propylsea,  approached  by  a  flight 
of  steps.  Attached  to  one  corner  of  the  quad- 
rangular court  is  a  smaller  but  more  perfect 
temple,  and  at  some  distance  from  all  these 
buildings  there  is  a  circular  edifice,  of  a  unique 
and  very  interesting  architectural  form.  There 
is  also  a  single  Doric  column  on  a  rising  ground, 
and  traces  of  the  city  walls. — 2.  (In  the  Old 
Testament,  On,  or  Bethshemesh:  now  Mata- 
rieh,  ruins  northeast  of  Cairo),  a  celebrated  city 
of  Lower  Egypt,  capital  of  the  Nomos  Heliopo- 
lites,  stood  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Pelusiac 
branch  of  the  Nile,  a  little  below  the  apex  of 
the  Delta,  and  near  the  canal  of  Trajan,  and 
was,  in  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have 
any  record,  a  chief  seat  of  the  Egyptian  wor 
ship  of  the  sun.  Here,  also,  was  established 
the  worship  of  Mnevis,  a  sacred  bull  similar  to 
Apis.  The  priests  of  Heliopolis  were  renowned 
for  their  learning.  It  suffered  much  during  the 
invasion  of  Cambyses  ;  and  by  the  time  of 
Strabo  it  was  entirely  ruined. 

HELIOS  (*H/Uof  or  'He/Uoc),  called  SOL  by  the 
Romans,  the  god  of  the  sun.  He  was  the  son 
of  Hyperion  and  Thea,  and  a  brother  of  Selene 
and  Eos.  From  his  father  he  is  frequently  call- 
ed HYPEKIONIDES  or  HYPERION,  the  latter  of 
which  is  an  abridged  form  of  the  patronymic 
HYPERIONION:  In  the  Homeric  hymn  on  Helioa 
he  is  called  a  son  of  Hyperion  and  Euryphaessa. 
Homer  describes  Helios  as  giving  light  both  to 
gods  and  men  :  he  rises  in  the  cast  from  Ocea- 
nus,  traverses  the  heaven,  and  descends  in  the 
evening  into  the  darkness  of  the  west  and  Ocea- 
nus.  Later  poets  have  marvellously  embellish- 
ed this  simple  notion.  They  tell  of  a  most 
magnificent  palace  of  Helios  in  the  cost,  con- 
taining'a  throne  occupied  by  the  god,  and  sur- 
rounded by  personifications  of  the  different  di- 
visions of  time.  They  also  assign  him  a  second 
palace  in  the  west,  and  describe  his  horses  ae 
feeding  upon  herbs  growing  in  the  islands  of  the 
Blessed.  The  manner  in  which  Helios  during 
the  night  passes  from  the  western  into  the  east- 
ern ocean  is  not  mentioned  either  by  Homer  or 
Hesiod,  but  later  poets  make  him  sail  in  a  gold- 
en boat,  tho  work  of  Hephaestus,  round  one 
half  of  the  earth,  and  thus  arrive  in  the  east  at 
349 


HELISSON. 


HELOS. 


the  point  from  which  he  has  to  rise  again. 
Others  represent  him  as  making  his  nightly 
voyage  while  slumbering  in  a  golden  bed.  The 
horses  and  chariot  with  which  Helios  traverses 
the  heavens  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey,  but  first  occur  in  the  Homeric  hymn 
on  Helios,  and  both  are  described  minutely  by 
later  poets.  Helios  is  described  as  the  god  who 
sees  and  hears  every  thing,  and  was  thus  able 
to  reveal  to  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  the  faithless- 
ness of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  and  to  Ceres  (Deme- 
tef)  the  nbduction  of  her  daughter.  At  a  later 
time  Helios  became  identified  with  Apollo, 
though  the  two  gods  were  originally  quite  dis- 
tiuct ;  but  the  identification  was  never  carried 
out  completely,  for  no  Greek  poet  ever  made 
Apollo  Tide  in  the  chariot  of  Helios  through  the 
heavens,  and  among  the  Romans  \ve  find  this 
idea  only  after  the  time  of  VirgiL  The  repre- 
sent ations  of  Apollo  with  rays  around  hia  head, 
to  characterize  him  as  identical  with  the  sun, 
belong  to  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire.  The 
island  of  Thrinacia  (Sicily)  was  eacred  to  Heli- 
os, and  there  he  had  flocks  of  sheep  and  oxen, 
which  were  tended  by  his  daughters  Phaethusa 
and  Lampetia.  Later  traditions  ascribe  to  him 
flocks  also  in  the  island  of  Erythia ;  and  it  may 
be  remarked,  in  general,  that  sacred  flocks,  es- 
pecially of  oxen,  occur  iu  most  places  where 
the  worship  of  Helios  was  established.  His 
descendants  are  very  numerous;  and  the  sur- 
names and  epithets  given  him  by  the  poets  are 
mostly  descriptive  of  his  character  as  the  sun. 
Temples  of  Helios  (tjXiEid)  existed  in  Greece  at 
a  very  early  time  :  and  in  later  times  we  find 
bis  worship  established  in  various  places,  and 
especially  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  where  the 
famous  colossus  was  a  representation  of  the 
god.  The  sacrifices  offered  to  him  consisted 
of  white  rams,  boars,  bulls,  goats,  lambs,  espe- 
cially white  horses,  and  honey.  Among  the  an- 
imals sacred  to  him,  the  cock  is  especially  men- 
tioned. The  Roman  poets,  when  speaking  of 
the  god  of  the  sun  (Sol),  usually  adopt  the  no- 
tions of  the  Greeks.  The  worship  of  Sol  was 
introduced  at  Rome,  especially  after  the  Ro- 
mans hud  become  acquainted  with  the  East, 
though  traces  of  the  worship  of  the  sun  and 
moon  occur  at  an  early  period. 

HELISSON  ('Efaoouv  or  'Efaaoovf),  a  small 
town  in  Arcadia,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name, 
which  falls  into  the  Alpheus. 

[HELIUM  OSTIUM,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Rhine,  formed  by  the  union  with  the  Moea.] 

HELLANICUS  ('E/Uuvt/cof).  1.  Of  Mytilene  in 
Lesbos,  the  most  eminent  of  the  Greek  logog- 
raphers  or  early  Greek  historians,  was  in  all 
probability  born  about  B.C.  496,  and  died  411. 
We  have  no  particulars  of  his  life,  but  we  may 
presume  that  he  visited  many  of  the  countries, 
of  whose  history  he  gave  an  account.  He 
wrote  a  great  number  of  genealogical,  chrono- 
logical, and  historical  works,  which  are  cited 
under  the  titles  of  Troica,  JSolica,  Persica,  <fec. 
One  of  his  most  popular  works  was  entitled 
'lipttat  Trig  'Hpaf  :  it  contained  a  chronological 
st  of  the  priestesses  of  Juno  (Hera)  at  Argos, 
compiled  from  the  recowds  preserved  in  the  tem- 
ple of  the  goddess  of  this  place.  This  work  ! 

is  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  regulate 
chronology,  and  was  made  use  of  by  Thucydides, 
350 


Tinueus,  and  othei-a.  The  fragments  of  Hellan* 
icus  are  collected  by  Sturz,  llellanici  Lesbii 
Fraymenta,  Lips.,  1826  ;  and  by  C.  and  Th. 
Miiller,  Fragm.  Histor.  Grate.,  Paris,  1841. — 2. 
A  Greek  grammarian,  a  disciple  of  Agathocles, 
and  apparently  a  contemporary  of  Aristarchus, 
wrote  on  the  Homeric  poems.. 

HELLAS,  HELLENES.  Vid.  GR^CIA. 
HELLE  ('E^Aj?),  daughter  of  Athamas  and 
Nephele,  and  sister  of  Phrixus.  When  Phrixus 
was  to  be  sacrificed  (aid.  PHEIXCS),  Nephele  res- 
cued her  two  children,  who  rode  away  through 
the  air  upon  the  ram  with  the  golden  fleece,  the 
gift  of  Mercury  (Hermes);  but,  between  Sigc- 
um  and  the  Chersonesus,  Helle  fell  into  the  sea, 
which  was  thence  called  the  Sea  of  Helle  (Hd- 
lespontus).  Her  tomb  was  shown  near  Pactya, 
on  the  Hellespont. 

HELLEN  ("E/UtfiA,  son  of  Deucalion  and  Pyr 
rha,  or  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Dorippe,  husband 
of  Orseis,  and  father  of  JEolus,  Dorus,  and 
Xuthus.  He  was  king  of  Phthia  in  Thessaly, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  JSolus.  He  ie 
the  mythical  ancestor  of  all  the  Hellenes ;  from 
his  two  sons  ^Eolus  and  Dorus  were  descended 
the  ./Eolians  and  Dorians  ;  and  from  his  two 
grandsons  Achaeus  and  Ion,  the  sons  of  Xuthus, 
the  Achseans  and  lonians. 

HELLESPONTUS  ('EA^f irovrof :  now  Straits  of 
the  Dardenelles  or  of  Gallipoli,  Turk.  Stambul 
Denghiz),  the  long  narrow  strait  connecting  the 
Propontis  (now  Sea  of  Marmara)  with  the  Jigean 
Sea,  and  through  which  the  waters  of  the  Black 
Sea  discharge  themselves  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean in  a  constant  current.  The  length  of  the 
strait  is  about  fifty  miles,  and  the  width  varies 
from  six  miles  at  the  upper  end  to  two  at  the 
lower,  and  in  some  places  it  is  only  one  mile 
wide,  or  even  less.  The  narrowest  part  is  be- 
tween the  ancient  cities  of  SESTUS  and  ABYDUS, 
where  Xerxes  made  his  bridge  of  boats  (vid- 
XEEXES),  and  where  the  legend  related  that 
Leander  swam  across  to  visit  Hero.  Vid.  LEAN- 
DEE.  The  name  of  the  Hellespont  (i.  e.,  the 
Sea  of  Helle)  was  derived  from  the  story  of 
Helle's  being  drowned  in  it.  Vid.  HELLE.  The 
Hellespont  was  the  boundary  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  dividing  the  Thraoian  Chersonese  in  the 
former  from  the  Troad,  and  the  territories  of 
Abydus  and  Lampascus  in  the  latter.  The  dis 
trict  just  mentioned,  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Hellespont,  was  also  called  'EAhfanovTOf,  its  in- 
habitants 'EA?iTj£Tr6vTioi,  and  the  cities  on  its 
coast  'El.TiTjfTrovTiai  TroAetf. — 2.  Under  the  Ro- 
man empire,  Hellespontus  was  the  name  of  a 
proconsular  province,  composed  of  the  Tread 
and  the  northern  part  of  Mysia,  and  having 
Cyzicus  for  its  capital. 

HELLOMENUM  (''EU.ofiEvov),  a  sea-port  town 
of  the  Acarnanians  on  the  island  Leucas. 

HELLOPIA.  Vid.  ELLOFIA. 

HELOEUS  or  HELOEUM  (rj  "EAwpof :  'EAwpZrj/f), 
a  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  south  of 
Syracuse,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Helorus. 
There  was  a  road  from  Helorus  to  Syracuse 
(666f  'EZupivn,  Thuc.,  vi.,  70;  vil,  80). 

HELOS  (rd  "Etof  :  'E/leZof,  'E/UaTjyf).  1.  A 
town  in  Laconia,  on  the  coast,  in  a  marshy  eifc 
uatiou,  whence  its  name  (&7iOf=marsh).  The 
town  was  in  ruins  in  the  time  of  Pausanias.  It 
was  commonly  said  that  the  Spartan  slaves, 


HELVECON^E. 


HEPHAESTUS. 


called  Helotes  (Et/turef),  were  originally  the 
Achaean  inhabitants  of  this  town,  who  were  re- 
duced by  the  Dorian  conquerors  to  slavery ;  but 
this  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Helotes  seems 
tc  have  been  merely  an  invention,  in  conse- 
qufiice  of  the  similarity  of  their  name  to  that 
of  the  town  of  Helos.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq^  art. 
HELOTES. — 2.  A  town  or  district  of  Elis,  on  the 
Atphgus. 

HELVEoim.*,  a  people  in  Germany,  between 
the  Viadus  and  the  Vistula,  south  of  the  Rugii, 
and  north  of  the  Burgundiones,  reckoned  by 
Tacitus  among  the  Ligii. 

HELVETII,  a  brave  and  powerful  Celtic  people, 
who  dwelt  between  Mount  Jurassus  (now  Jura), 
the  Lacus  Lemannus  (now  Lake  of  Geneva),  the 
Rhone,  and  the  Rhine  as  far  as  the  Lacus  Brig- 
autinus  (now  Lake  of  Constance).  They  were 
thus  bounded  by  the  Sequani  on  the  west,  by 
the  Nanttiates  and  Lepoutii  in  Cisalpine  Gaul 
on  the  south,  by  the  Raeti  on  the  east,  and  by 
the  German  nations  on  the  north  beyond  the 
Rhine,  Their  country,  called  Ager  Helvetiorum 
(but  never  Helvetia),  thus  corresponded  to  the 
western  part  of  Switzerland.  Their  chief  town 
was  AVE.VTICUM.  They  were  divided  into  four 
pagi  or  cantons,  of  which  the  Pagus  Tigurlnus 
was  the  most  celebrated.  We  only  know  the 
name  of  one  of  the  three  others,  namely,  the 
Vie  us  Verbigenu*.  or,  more  correctly,  Urbigenus. 
The  Helvetii  are  first  mentioned  in  the  war  with 
the  Cimbri.  In  B.C.  107  the  Tigurini  defeated 
and  killed  the  Roman  consul  L.  Cassius  Longi- 
nus,  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  while  another  di- 
vision of  the  Helvetii  accompanied  the  Cimbri 
and  Teutones  in  their  invasion  of  Gaul  Sub- 
sequently the  Helvetii  invaded  Italy  along  with 
the  Cimbri,  and  they  returned  home  in  safety 
after  the  defeat  of  the  Cimbri  by  Marius  and 
Dutulus  in  101.  About  forty  years  afterward 
they  resolved,  upon  the  advice  of  Orgetorix,  one 
of  their  chiefs,  to  migrate 'from  their  country 
with  their  wives  and  children,  and  seek  a  new 
home  in  the  more  fertile  plains  of  GauL  In  58 
they  endeavored  to  carry  their  plan  into  execu- 
tion, but  they  were  defeated  by  Czesar,  and 
driven  back  into  their  own  territories.  The 
Romans  now  planted  colonies  and  built  fort- 
resses in  their*  country  (Noviodunum,  Vindo- 
oissa,  Aventicum),  and  the  Helvetii  gradually 
adopted  the  customs  and  language  of  their  con- 
querors. They  were  severely  punished  by  the 
generals  of  Vitellius  (A.D.  70),  whom  they  re- 
fused to  recognize  as  emperor;  and  after  that 
time  they  are  rarely  mentioned  as  a  separate 
people.  The  Helvetii  were  included  in  Gallia 
Lngduneusis  according  to  Strabo,  but  in  Gallia 
Belgica  according  to  Pliny  :  most  modern  writ- 
ers adopt  Pliny's  statement  When  Gaul  was 
subdivided  into  a  great  number  of  provinces 
under  the  later  emperors,  the  country  of  the 
Helvetii  formed,  with  Uiut  of  the  Sequani  and 
the  Rauraci,  the  province  of  Maxima  Sequano- 
rum. 

HKLVIA.    [1.   Mother  of  the  celebrated  Cio 
KK <  >.)—*:.  Mother  of  the  philosopher  SENEGA. 
HKLVIDIUS  PKISCCS.      Vid.  Pmscus. 
HKLVII,  a  people  in  Gaul,  between  the  Rhone 
aud  Mount  Cebenna,  which  separated  them  from 
the  Arverni,  were  for  a  long  time  subject  to 
Maiulia,  but  afterward  belonged  to  the  prov- 


ince of  Gallia  Narbonensis.  Their  country  pro- 
duced good  wine. 

HELVIUS.  1.  BLASIO.  Vid.  BLASIO.— 2.  CINNA 
Vid.  CINNA. — 3.  MANCIA.  Vid.  MANCIA. — 4.  PEE- 
TINAX.  Vid.  PEHTINAX. 

HEMERESIA  ('Hfiepijaia),  the  soothing  goddess, 
a  surname  of  Diana  (Artemis),  under  which  she 
was  worshipped  at  the  fountain  Lusi  (Aovaoi), 
in  Arcadia. 

HEilEBOSCOPION.       Vid.  DlANIUM,  Nb.  2. 

HEMINA,  CASSIUS.     Vid.  CASSIUS,  No.  14. 

HENETI  ('Everoi),  an  ancient  people  inPaphla- 
gonia,  dwelling  on  the  River  Parthenius,  fought 
on  the  side  of  Priam  against  the  Greeks,  but 
had  disappeared  before  the  historical  times. 
They  were  regarded  by  many  ancient  writers 
as  the  ancestors  of  the  Veneti  in  Italy.  Vid. 
VENETL 

HENIOCHI  ('Hvioxot),  a  people  in  Colchis,  north 
of  the  Phasis,  notorious  as  pirates. 

HENNA.     Vid.  ENNA. 

HEPH^ESTIA  ('flfaiarid).  1.  ('H0<u<mevf),  a 
town  in  the  northwest  of  the  island  of  Lemnos. 
— 2.  ('H.<paiGTidi)G,-TeiSjjc),  a  demus  in  Attica,  be- 
longing to  the  tribe  Acamantis. 

HJEPHjESTIADES  iNSUI^E.       Vid.  .rfEoLLE. 

HEPH,SST!ON  ('HQaiariuv).  1.  Son  of  Amyn- 
tor,  a  Macedonian  of  Pella,  celebrated  as  the 
friend  of  Alexander  the  Great,  with  whom  he 
had  been  brought  up.  Alexander  called  He- 
phaestion his  own  private  friend,  but  Craterus 
the  friend  of  the  king.  Hephaestion  accom- 
panied Alexander  to  Asia,  and  was  employed 
by  the  king  in  many  important  commands.  He 
died  at  Ecbatana,  after  an  illness  of  only  seven 
days,  B.C.  325.  Alexander's  grief  for  his  loss 
was  passionate  and  violent  A  general  mourn- 
ing was  ordered  throughout  the  empire,  and  a 
funeral  pile  and  monument  erected  to  him  at 
Babylon,  at  a  cost  of  ten  thousand  talents. — 2. 
A  Greek  grammarian,  who  instructed  the  Em- 
peror Verus  in  Greek,  and  accordingly  lived 
about  A.D.  150.  He  was  perhaps  the  author 
of  a  Manual  on  Metres  ('Ey;tetp«5ioi>  Trept/ztrpwv), 
which  has  come  down  to  us  under  the  name  of 
Hephaestion.  This  work  is  n  tolerably  complete 
manual  of  Greek  metres,  and  forms  the  basis 
of  all  our  knowledge  on  that  subject  Edited 
by  Gaisford,  Oxon.,  1810. 

HEPHASTCS  ("H^aiarof),  called  VULCANUS  by 
the  Romans,  the'  god  of  fire.  He  was,  accord- 
ing to  Homer,  the  sou  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and 
Hera  (Juno).  Later  traditions  state  that  he  had 
no  father,  and  that  Hera  (Juno)  gave  birth  to 
him  independent  of  Zeus  (Jupiter),  as  she  was 
jealous  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  having  given  birth  to 
Athena  (Minerva)  independent  of  her.  He  was 
born  lame  and  weak,  and  was,  in  consequence, 
so  much  disliked  by  his  mother  that  she  threw 
him  down  from  Olympus.  The  marine  divini- 
ties, Thetis  aud  Euryuome,  received  him,  and 
he  dwelt  with  them  for  nine  years  in  a  grotto, 
beneath  Oceanus,  making  for  them  a  variety  of 
ornaments.  He  afterward  returned  to  Olym- 
pus, though  we  are  not  told  through  what  means, 
and  he  appears  in  Hom«r  as  the  great  artist  of 
the  gods  of  Olympus.  Although  lie  had  been 
cruelly  treated  by  his  mother,  he  always  show- 
ed her  respect  and  kindness,  and  on  one  occa- 
sion took  her  part  when  she  was  quarrelling 
with  Zeus  (Jupiter),  which  so  much  enraged  tLe 
351 


HEPTANOMIS. 

father  of  the  gods  that  he  seized  Hephaestus 
(Vulenn)  by  the  leg  and  hurled  him  down  from 
heaven.  Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  was  a  whole  day 
falling,  but  in  the  evening  he  alighted  in  the 
island  of  Leuinos,  where  he  was  kindly  received 
bv  the  Sintiaus.  Later  writers  describe  his 
lameness  as  the  consequence  of  this  fall,  while 
Homer  makes  him  lame  from  his  birth.  He  again 
letiirned  to  Olympus,  and  subsequently  acted 
the  part  of  mediator  between  his  parents.  On 
that  occasion  he  offered  a  cup  of  nectar  to  his 
mother  and  the  other  gods,  who  burst  out  into 
immoderate  laughter  on  seeing  him  busily  hob- 
bling from  one  jrod  to  another.  Hephaestus 
(Volcnn)  appears  to  have  been  originally  the 
god  of  fire  simply ;  but  as  fire  is  indispensable 
in  working  metals,  he  was  afterward  regarded 
M  an  artist.  His  palace  in  Olympus  was  im- 
perishable and  shining  like  stars.  It  contained 
his  workshop,  with  the  anvil  and  twenty  bel- 
lows, which  worked  spontaneously  at  his  bid- 
ding. It  wa*  there  that  he  made  all  his  beauti- 
ful and  marvellous  works,  both  for  gods  and 
men.  The  ancient  poets  abound  in  descriptions 
of  exquisite  workmanship  which  had  been  man- 
ufactured by  the  god.  All  the  palaces  in  Olym- 
pus were  his  workmanship.  He  made  the  ar- 
mor of  Achilles;  the  fatal  necklace  of  Harmo- 
jia ;  the  fire-breathing  bulls  of  ^Ee'tes,  king  of 
'Jolohis,  <fec.  In  later  accounts,  the  Cyclopes 
ire  his  workmen  and  servants,  and  his  work- 
:kop  is  no  longer  in  Olympus,  but  in  some  vol- 
canic island.  In  the  Iliad  the  wife  of  Hephaes- 
.us  (Vulcan)  is  Charis:  in  Hesiod,  Aglaia,  the 
youngest  of  the  Charites ;  but  in  the  Odyssey, 
is  well  as  in  later  accounts,  Aphrodite  (Venus) 
ippears  as  his  wife.  Aphrodite  (Venus)  proved 
aithless  to  her  husband,  and  was  in  love  with 
Ares  (Mars) ;  but  Helios  disclosed  their  amours 
jo  Hephaestus  (Vulcan),  who  caught  the  guilty 
pair  in  an  invisible  net,  and  exposed  them  to 
the  laughter  of  the  assembled  gods.  The  fa- 
vorite abode  of  Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  on  earth 
was  the  island  of  Lcmnos ;  but  other  volcanic 
islands  also,  such  as  Lipara,  Hiera,  Imbros,  and 
Sicily,  are  called  bis  abodes  or  workshops.  He- 
phaestus (Vulcan),  like  Athena  (Minerva),  gave 
skill  to  mortal  artists,  and,  conjointly  with  her, 
he  was  believed  to  have  taught  men  the  arts 
which  embellish  and  adorn  life.  Hence  at 
Athens  they  had  temples  and  festivals  in  com- 
mon. The  epithets  and  surnames  by  which 
Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  is  designated  by  the  poets, 
generally  allude  to  his  skill  in  the  plastic  arts 
or  to  his  lameness.  The  Greeks  frequently 
placed  small  dwarf-life  statues  of  the  god  near 
the  hearth.  During  the  best  period  of  Grecian 
art  he  was  represented  as  a  vigorous  man  with 
a  beard,  and  is  characterized  by  his  hammer  or 
some  other  instrument,  his  oval  cap,  and  the 
chiton,  which  leaves  the  right  shoulder  and  arm 
uncovered.  The  Roman  Vulcanus  was  an  old 
Italian  divinity.  Vid.  VULCANUS. 

HEPTANCiUB.     Vid.  ^EGYPTUS. 

HEKA  ("llpa  or  •Rprj),  called  JUNO  by  the  Ro- 
mans. The  Greek  Hera,  that  is,  Mistress,  was 
a  daughter  of  Cronos  (Saturn)  and  Rhea,  and 
water  and  wife  of  Zeus  (Jupiter).  Some  oall 
her  the  eldest  daughter  of  Cronos  (Saturn),  but 
re  give  this  title  to  Hestia.  According  to 
Homer  she  was  brought  up  by  Oceanus  and 
352 


HERA. 

Tethys,  and  afterward  became  the  wife  of 
(Jupiter)  without  the  knowledge  of  her  parent*. 
This  simple  account  is  variously  modified  in 
other  traditions.  Being  a  daughter  of  Cronoa 
(Saturn),  she,  like  his  other  children,  was  swal- 
lowed by  her  father,  but  afterward  released ; 
and,  according  to  an  Arcadian  tradition,  she  was 
brought  up  by  Temenus,  the  sou  of  Pelasgus. 
The  Argives,  on  the  other  hand,  related  tlmt 
she  had  been  brought  up  by  Eubcea,  Prosymna, 
i  and  Acrasa,  tte  three  daughters  of  the  River 
Asterion.  Several  parts  of  Greece  claimed  the 
honor  of  being  her  birth-place,  and  more  espe- 
cially Argce  and  Samos,  which  were  the  prin- 
cipal seats  of  her  worship.  Her  marriage  with 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  offered  ample  scope  for  poetical 
invention,  and  several  places  in  Greece  also 
claimed  the  honor  of  having  been  the  scene  of 
the  marriage,  such  as  Eubcea,  Samos,  Cnosua 
in  Crete,  and  Mount  Thornax  in  the  south  of 
Argolis.  Her  marriage,  called  the  Sacred  Mar- 
riage (lepbf  ya/iOf),  was  represented  in  many 
places  where  she  was  worshipped.  At  her  nup- 
tials all  the  gods  honored  her  with  presents,  and 
Ge  (Terra)  presented  to  her  a  tree  with  golden 
apples,  which  was  watched  by  the  Hesperi- 
des,  at  the  foot  of  the  Hyperborean  Atlas.  In 
the  Iliad  Hera  (Juno)  is  treated  by  the  Olym- 
pian gods  with  the  same  reverence  as  her  hus- 
band. Zeus  (Jupiter)  himself  listens  to  her 
counsels,  and  communicates  his  secrets  to  her 
She  is,  notwithstanding,  far  inferior  to  him 
in  power,  and  must  obey  him  unconditionally. 
She  is  not,  like  Zeus  (Jupiter),  the  queen  of 
gods  and  men,  but  simply  the  wife  ot  the  su- 
preme god.  The  idea  of  her  being  the  queen 
of  heaven,  with  regal  wealth  and  power,  is  of 
much  later  date.  Her  character,  as  described 
by  Homer,  is  not  of  a  very  amiable  kind ;  and 
her  jealousy,  obstinacy,  and  quarrelsome  dispo- 
sition sometimes  make  her  husband  tremble. 
Hence  arise  frequent  disputes  between  Hera 
(Juuo)  and  Zeus  (Jupiter) ;  and  on  one  occasion 
Hera  (Juno),  in  conjunction  with  Poseidon  (Nep- 
tune) and  Athena  (Minerva),  contemplated  put- 
ting Zeus  (Jupiter)  into  chains.  Zeus  (Jupiter), 
in  such  cases,  not  only  threatens,  but  beats  her. 
Once  he  even  hung  her  up  in  the  clouds,  with 
her  hands  chained,  and  with  %wo  anvils  sus- 
pended from  her  feet ;  and  on.  another  occasion, 
when  Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  attempted  to  help 
her,  Zeus  (Jupiter)  hurled  him  down  from  Olym- 
pus. By  Zeus  (Jupiter)  she  was  the  mother  of 
Ares  (Alars),  Hebe,  and  Hephaestus  (Vulcan). 
Hera  (Juno)  was,  properly  speaking,  the  only 
really  married  goddess  among  the  Olympians, 
for  the  marriage  of  Aphrodite  (Venus)  with 
Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  can  scarcely  be  taken  into 
consideration.  •»  Hence  she  is  the  goddess  of 
marriage  and  of  the  birth  of  children.  Several 
epithets  and  surnames,  such  as  Elheidvia,  Ta/aj- 
'A.ia,  Zvyia,  Teheia,  <fec.»contain  allusions  to  this 
character  of  the  goddess,  and  the  Ilithyiae  are 
described  as  her  daughters.  She  is  represent- 
ed in  the  Iliad  riding  iu  a  chariot  drawn  by  twc 
horses,  in  the  harnessing  and  unharueaBing  of 
which  she  is  assisted  by  Hebe  and  the  Horse. 
Owing  to  the  judgment  of  Paris  (vid.  PARIS), 
she  was  hostile  to  the  Trojans,  and  in  the  Tro- 
jan war  she  accordingly  sid«d  with  the  Greeks. 
She  persecuted  all  the  children  of  Zeus  (Jupi- 


H^RACLEA.. 

ter)  by  mortal  mothers,  and  hence  appears  as 
the  enemy  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus),  Hercules, 
and  otiiers.  In  the  Argonautic  expedition  she 
assisted  Jason.  It  is  impossible  here  to  enu- 
merate all  the  events  of  mythical  story  in  which 
Hera  (Juno)  acts  a  part,  and  the  reader  must 
refer  to  the  particular  deities  or  heroes  with 
•whose  story  she  is  connected.  Hera  (Juno) 
was  worshipped  in  many  parts  of  Greece,  but 
•nore  especially  at  Argos,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  which  she  had  a  splendid  temple,  on  the  road 
to  Mycenae.  Her  great  festival  at  Argos  is  de- 
scribed in  the  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art  HER^EA.  She 
also  had  a  splendid  temple  in  Samos.  The  an- 
cients gave  several  interpretations  respecting 
the  real  significance  of  Hera  (Juno),  but  we 
must  in  all  probability  regard  her  as  the  great 
goddess  of  nature,  who  was  worshipped  every 
where  from  the  earliest  times.  The  worship 
of  the  Roman  Juno  is  spoken  of  in  a  separate 
article.  Vid.  JUNO.  Hera  (Juno)  was  usually 
represented  as  a  majestic  woman  of  mature 
age,  with  a  beautiful  forehead,  large  and  wide- 
ly-opened eyes,  and  with  a  grave  expression 
commanding  reverence.  Her  hair  was  adorn- 
ed with  a  crown  or  a  diadem.  A  veil  frequent- 
ly hangs  down  the  back  of  her  head,  to  charac- 
terize her  as  the  bride  of  Zeus  (Jupiter),  and 
the  diadem,  veil,  sceptre,  and  peacock  are  her 
ordinary  attributes. 

HEEACLKA  ('Hpa/cAeto  :  'Hpa/c/leur^c  :  Hera- 
cleotes).  L  In  Europe.  1.  H.,  in  Lucania,  on 
the  River  Siris,  founded  by  the  Tarentines. 
During  the  independence  of  the  Greek  states  in 
the  south  of  Italy,  congresses  were  held  in  this 
town  under  the  presidency  of  the  Tarentines. 
It  sunk  into  insignificance  under  the  Romans. 
— 2.  In  Acarnania,  on  the  Ambracian  Gulf. — 3. 
In  Pisatis  Elis,  in  ruins  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 
— 4.  The  later  name  of  Perinthus  in  Thrace. 
Vid.  PEEINTUUS. — 5.  H.  CACCABAEIA  POEBAEIA, 
in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the  coast,  a  sea-port 
of  the  Massilians. — 6.  H.  LYNCESTIS  (AvyKqarif) 
also  called  Pelagonia  (now  Bitoglia  or  Bitolia), 
in  Macedonia,  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  west  of  the 
Erigon,  the  capital  of  one  of  the  four  districts 
into  which  Macedonia  was  divided  by  the  Ro- 
mans.— 7.  H.  MINOA  (M.LVUO  :  ruins  near  Torre 
di  Capo  Bianco),  on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Halycus,  between 
Agrigentum  and  Selinus.  According  to  tradi- 
tion it  was  founded  by  Minos,  when  he  pursued 
Daedalus  to  Sicily,  and  it  may  have  been  an  an- 
cient colony  of  the  Cretans.  We  know,  how- 
ever, that  it  was  afterward  colonized  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Seliuus,  and  that  its  original  name 
was  Minoa,  which  it  continued  to  bear  till  about 
B.C.  600,  when  the  town  was  taken  by  the  Lac- 
edaemonians, under  Euryleon,  who  changed  its 
name  into  that  of  Heraclea  ;  but  it  continued  to 
bear  its  ancient  appellation  as  a  surname,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  places  of  the  same  name. 
It  fell  at  an  early  period  into  the  hands  of  the 
Carthaginians,  and  remained  in  their  power  till 
the  conquest  of  Sicily  by  the  Romans,  who 
planted  a  colony  there. — 8.  H.  SINTICA  (2tvrtK>?), 
in  Macedonia,  a  town  of  the  Sinti,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Strymon,  founded  by  Amyntas, 
brother  of  Philip.— 9.  H.  TEACHINIJZ,  in  Thes- 
•aly.  Vid.  TEACHIS.— II.  In  Asia  1.  H.  PON- 
rlcA  ('H.  %  HovTiKr},  or  Ilwrov,  '  r  tv 

m 


HERACLIDJE. 

now  Harakli  or  Eregli),  a  city  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  on  the  coast  of 
Bithynia,  in  the  territory  of  the  Mariandyni,  was 
situated  twenty  stadia  north  of  the  River  Lycua, 
upon  a  little  river  called  Acheron  or  Soonautes, 
and  near  the  base  of  a  peninsula  called  Acheru- 
sia,  and  had  a  fine  harbor.  It  was  founded  about 
B.C.  550  by  colonists  from  Megara  and  from 
Tanagra  in  Boeotia  (not,  as  Strabo  says,  from 
Miletus).  After  various  political  struggles,  it 
settled  down  under  a  monarchical  form  of  goy- 
ernment.  It  reached  the  height  of  its  prosperi- 
ty in  the  reign  of  Darius  Oodomannus,  when  it 
had  an  extensive  commerce,  and  a  territory 
reaching  from  the  Parthenius  to  the  Saugarius. 
It  began  to  decline  in  consequence  of  the  rise 
of  the  kingdom  of  Bithynia  and  the  foundation 
of  Nicomedia,  and  the  invasion  of  Asia  Minor 
by  the  Gauls  ;  and  its  ruin  was  completed  in 
the  Mithradatic  war,  when  the  city  was  taken 
and  plundered,  and  partly  destroyed,  by  the  Ro- 
mans under  Cotta.  It  was  the  native  city  of 
HEEACLIDES  PONTICUS,  and  perhaps  of  the  paint- 
er ZEUXIS. — 2.  H.  AD  LATMCM  ('H.  Aar^ov  or  # 
mo  tLUTfty :  ruins  near  the  Lake  of  Baffi),  a  town 
of  Ionia,  southeast  of  Miletus,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Latmus,  and  upon  the  Sinus  Latmicus  ; 
formerly  called  Latmus.  Near  it  was  a  cave, 
with  the  tomb  of  Endymion.  There  was  an- 
other city  of  the  same  name  in  Curia,  one  in 
Lydia,  two  in  Syria,  one  in  Media,  and  one  in 
India,  none  of  which  require  special  notice  here. 

HERACLEOPOLLS  ('HpaKfaovnofaf).  1.  PAEVA 
(T!  piKpd),  also  called  SETHEON,  a  city  of  Lower 
Egypt,  in  the  Nbmos  Sethroites,  twenty-two 
Roman  miles  west  of  Pelusium. — 2.  MAG  «.  (# 
Heyahrf,  also  q  uvu),  the  capital  of  the  fertile 
Nomos  Heracleopolites  or  Heracleotes,  in  the 
Heptanomis  or  Middle  Egypt :  a  chief  seat  of 
the  worship  of  the  ichneumon. 

[HEEACLES  ('Hpa/c/%).     Vid.  HEECULES.] 

HEEACLEUM  ('Hpu/cAetov),  the  name  of  several 
promontories  and  towns,  of  which  none  require 
special  notice  except,  1.  A  town  in  Macedonia, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Apilas,  near  the  frontiers 
of  Thessaly. — 2.  The  harbor  of  Cnosus  in  Crete. 
— 3.  A  town  on  the  coast  of  the  Delta  of  Egypt, 
a  little  west  of  Canopus,  from  which  the  Cano- 
pic  mouth  of  the  Nile  was  often  called  also  the 
Heracleotic  mouth. — 4.  A  place  near  Gindarus, 
in  the  Syrian  province  of  Cyrrhestice,  where 
Ventidius,  the  legate  of  M.  Antony,  gained  his 
great  victory  over  the  Parthians  under  Pacorua 
in  B.C.  38. 

HEEACLIANUS  ('HpanAeiavof),  one  of  the  offi- 
cers of  Honoriue,  put  Stilicho  to  death  (AJ). 
408),  and  received,  as  the  reward  of  that  serv- 
ice, the  government  of  Africa.  He  rendered 
good  service  to  Honorius  during  the  invasion  of 
Italy  by  Alaric,  and  the  usurpation  of  Attains. 
In  413  he  revolted  against  Honorius,  and  in- 
vaded Italy  ;  but  his  enterprise  failed,  and  on 
his  return  to  Africa  he  was  put  to  death  at  Car- 
thage. 

HEEACLID.&  ('Hpanfaldai),  the  descendants  of 
Hercules,  who,  in  conjunction  with  the  Dorians, 
conquered  Peloponnesus.  It  had  been  the  will 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  so  ran  the  legend,  that  Her- 
cules should  rule  over  the  country  of  the  Per- 
seids,  at  Mycente  and  Tiryna  ;  but,  through 
Juno's  (Hera)  cunning,  Eurystheus  had  beeu 
353 


HERACLIDJE. 

put  into  the  place  of  Hercules,  who  had  become 
Ihe  servant  of  the  former.  After  the  death  of 
Hercules,  his  claims  devolved  upon  his  sons 
and  descendants.  At  the  time  of  his  death, 
Hyllus,  the  eldest  of  his  four  sous  by  Deianlra, 
was  residing  with  his  brothers  at  the  court  of 
Ceyx  at  Trachia.  As  Eurysthcus  demanded 
their  surrender,  and  Ceyx  was  unable  to  pro- 
tect them,  they  fled  to  various  parts  of  Greece, 
until  they  were  received  as  suppliants  at  Athens, 
at  the  altar  of  Eleos  (Mercy).  According  to  the 
Hcraclidce  of  Euripides,  the  sons  of  Hercules 
were  first  staying  at  Argos,  thence  went  to 
Trachis  in  Thessaly,  and  at  length  came  to 
Athens.  Demophon,  the  son  of  Theseus,  re- 
ceived them,  and  they  settled  in  the  Attic  tetrap- 
olis.  Eurystheus,  to  whom  the  Athenians  re- 
fused to  surrender  the  fugitives,  now  marched 
against  the  Athenians  with  a  large  army,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  Athenians  under  lolaus, 
Theseus,  and  Hyllus,  and  was  slain  with  his 
sons.  The  battle  itself  was  celebrated  in  Attic 
story  as  the  battle  of  the  Scironian  rock,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Saronic  Gulf,  though  Pindar  places 
it  in  the  neighborhood  of  Thebes.  After  the 
battle  the  Heraclidae  entered  the  Peloponnesus, 
and  maintained  themselves  there  for  one  year. 
This  was  their  first  invasion  of  Peloponnesus. 
But  a  plague,  which  spread  over  the  whole  pen- 
iusula,  compelled  them  to  return  to  Attica, 
where,  for  a  time,  they  again  settled  in  the  At- 
tic tetrapolis.  From  thence  they  proceeded  to 
/Egimius,  king  of  the  Dorians,  whom  Hercules 
had  assisted  in  his  war  against  the  Lapithae,  and 
who  had  promised  to  preserve  a  third  of  his  ter- 
ritory for  the  children  of  Hercules.  Vid.  MGI- 
MICS.  The  Heraclidae  were  hospitably  received 
by  ^Egimius,  and  Hyllus  was  adopted  by  the 
latter.  After  remaining  in  Doris  three  years, 
Hyllus,  with  a  band  of  Dorians,  undertook  an 
expedition  against  Atreus,  who  had  married  a 
daughter  of  Eurystheus,  and  had  become  king 
of  Mycenae  and  Tiryns.  Hyllus  marched  across 
the  Corinthian  isthmus,  and  first  met  Echemus 
ol'  Tegea,  who  fought  for  the  Pelopidse,  the  prin- 
cipal opponents  of  the  Heraclidae.  Hyllus  fell 
in  single  combat  with  Echemus,  and,  according 
to  an  agreemeut  which  had  been  made  before 
the  battle,  the  Heraclidse  were  not  to  make  any 
further  attempt  upon  Peloponnesus  for  the  next 
fifty  years.  Thus  ended  their  second  invasion. 
They  now  retired  to  Tricorythus,  where  they 
were  allowed  by  the  Athenians  to  take  up  their 
abode.  During  the  period  which  followed  (ten 
years  after  the  death  of  Hyllus),  the  Trojan  war 
took  place  ;  and  thirty  years  after  the  Trojan 
•war  Cleodaeus,  son  of  Hyllus,  again  invaded 
Peloponnesus,  which  was  the  third  invasion  ; 
about  twenty  years  later,  Aristomachus,  the  son 
of  Cleodseus,  undertook  the  fourth  expedition  ; 
but  both  heroes  fell.  Not  quite  thirty  years 
after  Aristomachus  (that  is,  about  eighty  years 
after  the  destruction  of  Troy),  the  Heraclidae 
prepared  for  their  fifth  and  final  attack.  Teme- 
nus,  Cresphontes,  and  Aristodemus,  the  sons 
of  Aristomachus,  upon  the  advice  of  an  oracle, 
built  a  fleet  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf ;  bnt  this 
fleet  was  destroyed,  because  Hippotes,  one  of 
the  Heraclidse,  had  killed  Camus,  an  Acarnani- 
an  soothsayer  ;  and  Aristodemus  was  killed  by 
a  flash  of  lightning.  An  oracle  now  ordered 
354 


HERACLIDES. 

them  to  take  a  three-eyed  man  for  their  com- 
mander. He  was  found  in  the  person  of  Oxy- 
lus,  the  son  of  Andrsemon,  an  JStolian,  but  de- 
scended from  a  family  in  Elis.  The  expedition 
now  successfully  sailed  from  Naupactus  toward 
Rhium  in  Peloponnesus.  Oxylus,  keeping  the 
invaders  away  from  Elis,  led  them  through  Ar- 
cadia. The  Heraclidae  and  Dorians  conquered 
Tisamenus,  the  son  of  Orestes,  who  ruled  over 
Argos,  Mycenae,  and  Sparta.  After  this  they 
became  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  then  distributed  by  lot  the  newly-ac- 
quired possessions.  Temenus  obtained  Argos  ; 
Procles  and  Eurystheus,  the  twin  sous  of  Aris- 
todemus, Lacedsemon ;  and  Cresphontes,  Mes- 
senia.  Such  are  the  traditions  about  the  H«r- 
aclidae  and  their  conquest  of  Peloponnesus. 
Toey  are  not  purely  mythical,  but  contain  a 
genuine  historical  substance,  notwithstanding 
the  various  contradictions  in  the  accounts. 
They  represent  the  conquest  of  the  Achaean 
population  by  Dorian  invaders,  who  hencefor- 
ward appear  as  the  ruling  race  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. The  conquered  Achaeans  became  part- 
ly the  slaves  and  partly  the  subjects  of  the  Dori- 
ans. Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art.  PKEHECI. 

HEHACLIDES  ('HpaK%ei6ijf).  1.  A  Syracusan, 
son  of  Lysimachus,  one  of  the  generals  when 
Syracuse  was  attacked  by  the  Athenians,  B.C. 
415. — 2.  A  Syracusan,  who  held  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  mercenary  forces  under  the  young- 
er Dionysius.  Being  suspected  by  Diouysius, 
he  fled  from  Syracuse,  and  afterward  took  part 
with  Dion  in  expelling  Dionysius  from  Syra- 
cuse. After  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrant,  a  pow- 
erful party  at  Syracuse  looked  up  to  Heraclides 
as  their  leader,  in  consequence  of  which  Dion 
caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  354. — 3.  Son  of 
Agathocles,  accompanied  his  father  to  Africa, 
where  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  soldiers 
when  they  were  deserted  by  Agathocles,  307. 
— 4.  Of  Tarentum,  one  of  the  chief  counsellors 
of  Philip  V.,  king  of  Macedonia. — 5.  Of  Byzan- 
tium, sent  as  ambassador  by  Antiochus  the 
Great  to  the  two  Scipios,  190. — 6.  One  of  the 
three  ambassadors  sent  by  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes  to  the  Romans,  169.  Heraclides  was  ban- 
ished by  Demetrius  Soter,  the  successor  of  An- 
tiochus (162),  and  in  revenge  gave  his  support 
to  the  imposture  of  Alexander  Balas. — 7.  Sur- 
named  PONTICUS,  because  he  was  born  at  Hera- 
cl6a  in  Pontus.  He  was  a  person  of  consider 
able  wealth,  and  migrated  to  Athens,  where  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Plato.  He  paid  attention  also 
to  the  Pythagorean  system,  and  afterward  at- 
tended the  instructions  of  Speusippus,  and  final- 
ly of  Aristotle.  He  wrote  a  great  number  of 
works  upon  philosophy,  mathematics,  music, 
history,  politics,  grammar,  and  poetry  ;  but  al- 
most all  of  these  works  are  lost  There  has 
come  down  to  us  a  small  work,  under  the  name 
of  Heraclides,  entitled  irepl  Ho/Urawv,  of  which 
the  best  editions  are  by  Koler,  Halle,  1804,  by 
Corae,  in  his  edition  of  ./Elian,  Paris,  1805,  [and 
by  Schneidewin,  1849].  Another  extant  work, 
'A.M.rryopiai  'O/ujpiicai,  which  also  bears  the 
name  of  Heraclides,  was  certainly  not  written 
by  him.  Diogenes  Laertius,  in  his  life  of  Her- 
aclides, says  that  "Heraclides  made  tragedies, 
aud  put  the  name  of  Thespis  to  them."  This 
sentence  has  given  occasion  to  a  learned  dis- 


HERACLITUS. 


HERCULES. 


quisition  by  Bentley  (Phalaris,  p.  239),  to  prove    Sori),  a  range  of  mountains  in  Sicily,  running 
that    the  fragments  attributed    to  Thespis   are   from  the  centre  of  the  island  southeast,  and  end- 
really  cited  from  these  counterfeit  tragedies  of  j  ing  in  the  promontory  Pachynum. 
Heraclides.     Some  childish  stories  are  told  about  I      HER.^UM.      Vid.  ARGOS,  p.  92,  a. 
Heraclides  keeping  a  pet  serpent,  and  ordering        HERBESSUS.     Vid.  EHBESSUS. 
one  of  his  friends  to  conceal  his  body  after  his        HERBITA  ("Epfiira :  'Epbiralof,  Herbitensis,  a 
death,  and  place  the  serpent  on  the  bed,  that  it   town  in  Sicily,  north  of  Agyrium,  in  the  mount- 
might  be  supposed  that  he  had  been  taken  to  j  ains,  was  a  powerful  place  in  early  times  under 
the  company  of  the  gods.     It  is  also  said  that ;  the  tyrant  Archonides,  but  afterward  declined 


in  importance. 

HERCULANEUM,  a  town  in  Samnium,  conquer- 
ed by  the  consul  Carvilius,  B.C.  293  (Liv.,  x, 
45),  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  more  cel- 
ebrated town  of  this  name  mentioned  below. 

HERCDLANKUH,  HEECULANICM,  HERCULANUM, 
HERCULENSE  OPPIDUM,  HERCULEA  URBS 


he  killed  a  man  who  had  usurped  the  tyranny 
in  Heraclea,  and  there  are  other  traditions  about 
him  scarcely  worth  relating. — 8.  An  historian, 
who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philopator 
(222-205),  and  wrote  several  works,  quoted  by 
the  grammarians. — 9.  A  physician  of  Tarentum, 
lived  in  the  third  or  secoud  century  B.C.,  and 

wrote  some  works  on  Materia  Medica,  and  a  j  K^EIOV),  an  ancient  city  in  Campania,  near  the 
commentary  on  all  the  works  in  the  Hippocratic  I  coast,  between  Neapolis  and  Pompeii,  was  orig- 
Collectioa — 10.  A  physician  of  Erythrae  in  Ionia,  j  inally  founded  by  the  Oscans,  was  next  in  the 
was  a  pupil  of  Chrysermus,  and  a  contemporary  I  possession  of  the  Tyrrhenians,  and  subsequent- 
of  Strabo  in  the  first  century  B.C.  |  ly  was  chiefly  inhabited  by  Greeks,  who  ap- 

HERACLITUS  ('HpuKfoiToe).  1.  Of  Ephesus,  a  j  pear  to  have  setted  in  the  place  from  otht-r 
philosopher  generally  considered  as  belonging  cities  of  Magna  Graecia,  and  to  have  given  it  its 
to  the  Ionian  school,  though  he  differed  from  |  name.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  the  So- 
their  principles  in  many  respects.  In  his  youth  \  cial  war  (B.C.  89,  88),  and  was  colonized  by 
he  travelled  extensively,  and  after  his  return  to  j  them.  In  A.D.  63  a  great  part  of  it  was  de- 
Ephesus  the  chief  magistracy  was  offered  him,  stroyed  by  an  earthquake;  and  in  79  it  was 
which,  however,  he  transferred  to  his  brother.  |  overwhelmed,  along  with  Pompeii  and  Stabiae, 
He  appears  afterward  to  have  become  a  com- j  by  the  great  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  It 
plete  recluse,  rejecting  even  the  kindnesses  :  was  buried  under  showers  of  ashes  and  streams 
offered  by  Darius,  and  at  last  retreatiug  to  the  of  lava,  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  under 
mountains,  where  he  lived  on  pot-herbs ;  but,  I  the  present  surface  of  the  ground.  On  its 
after  some  time,  he  was  compelled  by  the  sick-  j  site  stand  the  modern  Portici  and  part  of  the 
ness  consequent  on  such  meagre  diet  to  return  j  village  of  Resina :  the  Italian  name  of  JErco- 
to  Ephesus,  where  he  died.  He  died  at  the  age  I  lano  does  not  indicate  any  modern  place,  but 
of  sixty,  and  flourished  about  B.C.  513.  Her-  only  the  part  of  Herculapeum  that  has  been  dis- 
aclitus  wrote  a  work  On  Nature  (irepl  <j>vaeuf), '  interred.  The  ancient  city  was  accidentally 
which  contained  his  philosophical  views.  From  discovered  by  the  sinking  of  a  well  in  1720, 
the  obscurity  of  his  style,  he  gained  the  title  of  since  which  time  the  excavations  have  been 
the  Obscure  (oxoravof ).  He  considered  fire  to  j  carried  on  at  different  periods ;  and  many  works 
be  the  primary  form  of  all  matter ;  but  by  fire  of  art  have  been  discovered,  which  are  deposited 
he  meant  only  to  describe  a  clear  light  fluid,  in  the  Royal  Museum  at  Portici.  It  has  been 
"  self-kindled  and  self-extinguished,"  and  there-  j  found  necessary  to  fill  up  again  the  excavations 
fore  not  differing  materially  from  the  air  of  |  which  were  made,  in  order  to  render  Portici  and 
Anaximenes. — 2.  An  Academic  philosopher  of  Resina  secure,  and  therefore  very  little  of  the 
Tyre,  a  friend  of  Antiochus,  and  a  pupil  of  Cli-  ancient  city  is  to  be  seea  The  buildings  that 
tomachus  and  Philo. — 3.  The  reputed  author  of  I  have  been  discovered  are  a  theatre  capable  of 
a  work,  liepl  'A.maruv,  published  by  Wester-  \  accommodating  about  ten  thousand  spectators, 
inauu  in  his  Mythographi,  Brunsvig.,  1843. —  j  the  remains  of  two  temples,  a  large  building, 
[4.  Of  Lesbos,  author  of  a  history  of  Macedo-  commonly  designated  as  a  forum  civile,  two 


nia. — 5.  An  elegiac  poet  of  Halicaruassus,  a 
contemporary  and  friend  of  Callimachus,  who 
wrote  an  epigram  on  him.] 

[HERACLIUS  ('Hpux?.«of :  'Hpu*A<of).     1.  The 
name  of  several  Sicilians  mentioned  by  Cicero, 

lared  in 
Segesta, 


.  A  citizen  of  Centuripini,  who  appe 
e  against  Verres  ;  b.  A  native  of  S 


e.  g. 

evidence  against 


hundred  and  twenty-eight  feet  long  and  one 
hundred  and  thirty-two  broad,  and  some  private 
houses,  the  walls  of  which  were  adorned  with 
paintings,  many  of  which,  when  discovered, 
were  in  a  state  of  admirable  preservation. 
There  have  been  also  found  at  Herculaueum 
many  MSS.,  written  on  rolls  of  papyrus ;  but 
the  difficulty  of  unrolling  and  deciphering  them 


put  to  death  by  Verres,  though  innocent ;  c.  Son 

of  Hiero,  a  noble  and  opulent  Syracusan,  strip- 1  was  very  great ;  and  the  few  which  have  been 
ped  of  nearly  all  his  property  by  Verres  ;  d.  An- 1  deciphered  are  of  little  value,  consisting  of  a 
other  Syracusau,  priest  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  held  ;  treatise  of  Philodemus  on  music,  and  fraginenta 
in  high  estimation  by  his  fellow-citizens. — 2.  A  of  unimportant  works  on  philosophy. 


eunuch,  and  favorite  of  Valentinian  III. ;  was 
the  instigator  of  the  murder  of  Aetius. — 3.  A 
governor  of  the  Emperor  Leo's  in  Africa,  fought 
successfully  against  the  Vandals,  466  A.D.  | 

HKK.CA  ('Hpata :  'Hpatevf :  ruins  near  &<.  Jo- 
annct),  a  town  in  Arcadia,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Alpheus,  near  the  borders  of  Elis.  Its  ter- 
ritory was  called  HER.&ATIS  ('Hpaturtf). 

HKB.CI  MONTES  (rd  'Hpat'o  6/017 :   now  Monti 


HERCULES  ('Hpa«Avf),  the  most  celebrated  of 
all  the  heroes  of  antiquity.  His  exploits  were 
celebrated  not  only  in  all  the  countries  round 
the  Mediterranean,  but  even  in  the  most  distant 
lands  of  the  ancient  world.  I.  GREEK  LEGENDS. 
The  Greek  traditions  about  Hercules  appear  in 
their  national  purity  down  to  the  time  of  He- 
rodotus. But  the  poets  of  the  time  of  Herodo- 
tus and  of  the  subsequent  periods  introduced 
355 


HERCULES. 


HERCULES. 


considerable  alterations,  which  were  probably 
derived  from  the  East  or  Egypt,  for  every  nation 
p,,,,,..-,  .  .-mm'  traditions  respect inic  licrm-;  of 
superhuman  strength  and  power.  Now  while 
in  the  earliest  Greek  legends  Hercules  is  n 
purely  human  hero,  a  conqueror  of  men,  and 
cities,  he  afterward  appears  as  the  subduer  of 
mooftrous  animals,  and  is  connected  in  a  va- 
riety of  ways  with  astronomical  phenomena. 
According  to  Homer,  Hercules  was  the  son  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  by  Alcmene  of  Thebes  in  Bceo- 
tia.  His  stepfather  was  Amphitryon.  Amphit- 
ryon was  the  son  of  Alcaeus,  the  son  of  Perseus ; 
and  Alcmene  was  a  grand-daughter  of  Pers- 
eus. Hence  Hercules  belonged  to  the  family 
of  Perseus.  Jnpiter  (Zeus)  visited  Alcmene 
in  the  form  of  Amphitryon,  while  the  latter  was 
absent  warring  against  the  Taphians ;  and  he, 
pretending  to  be  her  husband,  became  by  her 
the  father  of  Hercules.  For  details,  vid.  ALC- 
MENE, AMPHITRYON.  On  the  day  on  which  Her- 
cules was  to  be  born,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  boasted  of 
his  becoming  the  father  of  a  hero  who  was  to 
rale  over  the  race  of  Perseus.  Juno  (Hera) 
prevailed  upon  him  to  swear  that  the  descend- 
ant of  Perseus  born  that  day  should  be  the  ruler. 
Thereupon  she  hastened  to  Argos,  and  there 
caused  the  wife  of  Sthenelus  to  give  birth  to 
Eurystheus;  whereas,  by  keeping  away  the 
Ilithyiae,  she  delayed  the  birth  of  Hercules,  and 
thus  robbed  him  of  the  empire  which  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  had  destined  for  him.  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
was  enraged  at  the  imposition  practiced  upon 
him,  but  could  not  violate  his  oath.  Alcmene 
brought  into  the  world  two  boys,  Hercules,  the 
sou  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  Iphicles,  the  son  of 
Amphityron.  Nearly  all  the  stories  about  the 
childhood  and  youth  of  Hercules,  down  to  the 
time  when  he  entered  the  service  of  Eurysth- 
eus, seem  to  be  inventions  of  a  later  age.  At 
least  in  Homer  and  Hesoid  we  are  only  told  that 
he  grew  strong  in  body  and  mind ;  that,  confid- 
ing in  his  own  powers,  he  defied  even  the  immor- 
tal gods,  and  wounded  Juno  (Hera)  and  Mars 
(Ares),  and  that  under  the  protection  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  and  Minerva  (Athena)  he  escaped  the 
dangers  which  Juno  (Hera)  prepared  for  him. 
To  these  simple  accounts,  various  particulars 
are  added  in  later  writers.  As  he  lay  in  his 
cradle,  Juno  (Hera)  sent  two  serpents  to  destroy 
him,  but  the  infant  hero  strangled  them  with 
his  own  hands.  As  he  grew  up,  he  was  in- 
structed by  Amphitryon  in  driving  a  chariot,  by 
Autolycus  in  wrestling,  by  Eurytus  in  archery, 
by  Castor  in  fighting  with  heavy  armor,  and  by 
Linus  in  singing  and  playing  the  lyre.  Linus 
was  killed  by  his  pupil  with  the  lyre  because 
he  had  censured  him ;  and  Amphitryon,  to  pre- 
vent similar  occurrences,  sent  him  to  feed  his 
3attle.  In  this  manner  he  spent  his  life  till  his 
sighteenth  year.  His  first  great  adventure  hap- 
pened while  he  was  still  watching  the  oxen  of 
Lis  stepfather.  A  huge  lion,  which  haunted 
Mount  Cithjeros,  made  great  havoc  among  the 
flocks  of  Amphitryon  and  Thespius  (or  Thesti- 
us),  king  of  Thespise.  Hercules  promised  to 
deliver  the  country  of  the  monster ;  and  Thes- 
pius rewarded  Hercules  by  making  him  his 
guest  so  long  as  the  chase  lasted.  Hercules 
slew  the  lion,  and  henceforth  wore  its  skin  as 
his  ordinary  garment,  and  its  mouth  and  head 
356 


as  his  helmet  Others  related  that  the  lion's 
skin  of  Hercules  was  taken  from  the  Nemean 
lion.  On  his  return  to  Thebes,  he  met  the 
envoys  of  King  Erginus  of  Orchomeuos,  who 
were  going  to  fetch  the  annual  tribute  of  one 
hundred  oxen,  which  they  had  compelled  the 
Thebans  to  pay.  Hercules  cut  off  the  Doses 
and  ears  of  the  envoys,  and  thus  sent  them  La?.k 
to  Erginus.  The  latter  thereupon  marched 
against  Thebes;  but  Hercules  defeated  and 
killed  Erginus,  and  compelled  the  Orchomeni- 
ans  to  pay  double  the  tribute  which  they  had 
formerly  received  from  the  Thebaus.  In  this 
battle  against  Erginus  Hercules  lost  his  step- 
father Amphitryon,  though  the  tragedians  make 
him  survive  the  campaign.  Creon  rewarded 
Hercules  with  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Mc- 
gara,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  several 
children.  The  gods,  on  the  other  hand,  made 
him  presents  of  arms :  Mercury  (Hermes)  gave 
him  a  sword,  Apollo  a  bow  and  arrows,  Vulcan 
(Hephsestus)  a  golden  coat  of  mail,  and  Mi- 
nerva (Athena)  a  peplus.  He  cut  for  himself  a 
club  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nemea,  while,  ac- 
cording to  others,  the  club  was  of  brass,  and 
the  gift  of  Vulcan  (Hephzestus).  Soon  after- 
ward Hercules  was  driven  mad  by  Juno  (Hera), 
and  in  this  state  he  killed  his  own  children  by 
Megara  and  two  of  Iphicles.  In  his  grief  he 
sentenced  himself  to  exile,  and  went  to  Thes- 
pius, who  purified  him.  Other  traditions  place 
this  madness  at  a  later  time,  and  relate  the  cir- 
cumstances differently.  He  then  consulted  the 
oracle  of  Delphi  as  to  where  he  should  settle. 
The  Pythia  first  called  him  by  the  name  of  Her- 
cules— for  hitherto  his  name  had  been  Alcides 
or  Alcaeus — and  ordered  him  to  live  at  Tiryns, 
and  to  serve  Eurystheus  for  the  space  of  twelve 
years,  after  which  he  should  become  immortal. 
Hercules  accordingly  went  to  Tiryns,  and  did 
as  he  was  bid  by  Eurystheus.  The  accounts 
of  the  twelve  labors  which  Hercules  performed 
at  the  bidding  of  Eurystbeus  are  found  only  in 
the  later  writers.  The  only  one  of  the  twelve 
labors  mentioned  by  Homer  is  his  descent  into 
the  lower  world  to  carry  off  Cerberus.  We  also 
find  in  Homer  the  fight  of  Hercules  with  a  sea- 
monster  ;  his  expedition  to  Troy,  to  fetch  the 
horses  which  Laomedon  had  refused  him ;  and 
his  war  against  the  Pylians,  when  he  destroyed 
the  whole  family  of  their  king  Neleus,  with  the 
exception  of  Nestor.  Hesiod  mentions  several 
of  the  feats  of  Hercules  distinctly,  but  knows 
nothing  of  their  number  twelve.  The  selection 
of  these  twelve  from  the  great  number  of  feats 
ascribed  to  Hercules  is  probably  the  work  of 
the  Alexandrines.  They  are  usually  arranged 
in  the  following  order.  1.  The  fiyht  with  the 
Nemean  lion.  The  valley  of  Nemea,  between 
Cleonae  and  Phlius,  was  inhabited  by  a  mon- 
strous lion,  the  offspring  of  Typhon  and  Echid- 
na. Eurystheus  ordered  Hercules  to  bring  him 
the  skin  of  this  monster.  After  using  in  vain 
his  club  and  arrows  against  the  lion,  he  stran- 
gled the  animal  with  his  own  hands.  He  re- 
turned carrying  the  dead  lion  on  his  shoulders ; 
but  Eurystheus  was  so  frightened  at  the  gigan- 
tic strength  of  the  hero,  that  he  ordered  him  in 
future  to  deliver  the  account  of  his  exploits 
outside  the  town. — 2.  Fight  against  the  Lcrncean 
hydra.  This  monster,  like  the  lion,  was  the 


HERCULES. 

offspring  of  Typhon  and  Echidna,  and  was 
brought  up  by  Juno  (Hera).  It  ravaged  the 
country  of  Lerna  near  Argos,  and  dwelt  in  a 
swamp  near  the  well  of  Amymone.  It  had  nine 
heads,  of  which  the  middle  one  was  immortal. 
Hercules  struck  off  its  heads  with  his  club  ;  but 
in  the  place  of  the  head  he  cut  off,  two  new 
ones  grew  forth  each  time.  A  gigantic  crab 
also  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  hydra,  and 
wounded  Hercules.  However,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  his  faithful  servant  lolaus,  he  burned 
away  the  heads  of  the  hydra,  and  buried  the 
ninth  or  immortal  one  under  a  huge  rock.  Hav- 
ing thus  conquered  the  monster,  he  poisoned  his 
arrows  with  its  bile,  whence  the  wounds  inflict- 
ed by  them  became  incurable.  Eurystheus  de- 
clared the  victory  unlawful,  as  Hercules  had 
won  it  with  the  aid  of  lolaus. — 3.  Capture  of 
the  Arcadian  staff.  This  animal  had  golden 
antlers  and  brazen  feet.  It  had  been  dedicated 
to  Diana  (Artemis)  by  the  nymph  Taygete,  be- 
cause the  goddess  had  saved  her  from,  the  pur- 
suit of  Jupiter  (Zeus).  Hercules  was  ordered 
to  bring  the  animal  alive  to  Mycenae.  He  pur- 
sued it  in  vain  for  a  whole  year :  at  length  he 
wounded  it  with  an  arrow,  caught  it,  and  car- 
ried it  away  on  his  shoulders.  While  in  Arca- 
dia, he  was  met  by  Diana  (Artemis),  who  was 
angry  with  him  for  having  outraged  the  animal 
sacred  to  her ;  but  he  succeeded  in  soothing  her 
anger,  and  carried  his  prey  to  Mycenae.  Ac- 
cording to  some  statements  he  killed  the  stag. 
—4.  Destruction  of  the  Erymanthian  boar.  This 
animal,  which  Hercules  was  ordered  to  bring 
alive  to  Eurystheus,  had  descended  from  Mount 
Erymanthus  into  Psophis.  Hercules  chased 
him  through  the  deep  snow  and  having  thus 
worn  him  out,  he  caught  him  in  a  net,  and  car- 
ried him  to  Mycenae.  Other  traditions  place 
the  hunt  of  the  Erymanthian  boar  in  Thessaly, 
and  some  even  in  Phrygia,  It  must  be  observ- 
ed that  this  and  the  subsequent  labors  of  Her- 
cules are  connected  with  certain  subordinate 
labors,  called  Parerga  (Hdpepya).  The  first  of 
these  parerga  is  the  fight  of  Hercules  with  the 
Centaurs.  In  his  pursuit  of  the  boar  he  came 
to  the  centaur  Pholus,  who  had  received  from 
Bacchus  (Dionysus)  a  cask  of  excellent  wine. 
Hercules  opened  it,  contrary  to  the  wish  of  his 
host,  and  the  delicious  fragrance  attracted  the 
other  centaurs,  who  besieged  the  grotto  of  Pho- 
lus, Hercules  drove  them  away ;  they  fled  to 
the  house  of  Chiron;  and  Hercules,  eager  in 
his  pursuit,  wounded  Chiron,  his  old  friend,  with 
one  of  his  poisoned  arrows ;  in  consequence  of 
which,  Chiron  died.  Vid.  CHIRON.  Pholus  like- 
wise was  wounded  by  one  of  the  arrows,  which 
by  accident  fell  on  his  foot  and  killed  him. 
This  fight  with  the  centaurs  gave  rise  to  the 
establishment  of  mysteries,  by  which  Ceres  (De- 
meter)  intended  to  purify  the  hero  from  the  blood 
he  had  shed  against  his  own  will. — 5.  Cleansing 
of  the  ttablet  of  Augeas.  Eurystheus  imposed 
upon  Hercules  the  task  of  cleansing  in  one  day 
the  stalls  of  Augeas,  king  of  Elis.  Augeas  had 
a  herd  of  three  thousand  oxen,  whose  stalls  had 
not  been  cleansed  for  thirty  years.  Hercules, 
without  mentioning  the  command  of  Euryeth- 
flus,  went  to  Augeas,  and  offered  to  cleanse  his  j 
<talls  in  one  day,  if  he  would  give  him  the  tenth 
PHI  t  of  hia  cattle.  Augeas  agreed  to  the  terms  ;  i 


HERCULES. 

and  Hercules,  after  taking  Phyleus,  the  son  oi 
Augeas,  as  his  witness,  led  the  rivers  Alpheus 
and  Peueus  through  the  stalls,  which  were  thus 
cleansed  in  a  single  day.  But  Augeas,  who 
learned  that  Hercules  had  undertaken  the  work 
by  the  command  of  Eurystheus,  refused  to  give 
him  the  reward.  His  son  Phyleus  then  bore 
witness  against  his  father,  who  exiled  him  from 
Elis.  Eurystheus,  however,  declared  the  exploit 
null  and  void,  because 'Hercules  had  stipulated 
with  Augeas  for  a  reward  for  performing  it.  At 
a  later  time  Hercules  invaded  Elis,  and  killed 
Augeas  and  his  sons.  After  this  he  is  said  to 
have  founded  the  Olympic  games. — 6.  Destruc- 
tion of  the  Stymphalian  birds.  These  voracious 
birds  had  been  brought  up  by  Mars  (Ares). 
They  had  brazen  claws,  wings,  and  beaks,  used 
their  feathers  as  arrows,  and  ate  human  flesh. 
They  dwelt  on  a  lake  near  Stymphalus  in  Arca- 
dia, from  which  Hercules  was  ordered  by  Eu- 
rystheus to  expel  them.  When  Hercules  un- 
dertook the  task,  Minerva  (Athena)  provided 
him  with  a  brazen  rattle,  by  the  noise  of  which 
he  startled  the  birds  ;  and,  as  they  attempted  to 
fly  away,  he  killed  them  with  his  arrows.  Ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  he  only  drove  the 
birds  away,  and  they  appeared  again  in  the 
island  of  Aretias,  where  they  were  found  by  the 
Argonauts. — 7.  Capture  of  the  Cretan  bull.  Ac- 
cording to  some,  this  bull  was  the  one  which 
had  carried  Europa  across  the  sea.  According 
to  others,  the  bull  had  been  sent  out  of  the  sea 
by  Neptune  (Poseidon),  that  Minos  might  offer 
it  in  sacrifice.  But  Minos  was  so  charmed 
with  the  beauty  of  the  animal,  that  he  kept  it, 
and  sacrificed  another  in  its  stead.  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  punished  Minos  by  driving  the  bull 
mad,  and  causing  it  to  commit  great  havoc  in 
the  island.  Hercules  was  ordered  by  Eurys- 
theus to  catch  the  "bull,  and  Minos  willingly 
allowed  him  to  do  so.  Hercules  accomplished 
the  task,  and  brought  the  bull  home  on  his  shoul- 
ders; but  he  then  set  the  animal  free  again. 
The  bull  now  roamed  through  Greece,  and  at 
last  came  to  Marathon,  where  we  meet  it  again 
in  the  stories  of  Theseus. — 8.  Capture  of  t/ie 
mares  of  tfie  Tliracian  Diomedes.  This  Diome- 
des,  king  of  the  Bistones  in  Thrace,  fed  his 
horses  with  human  flesh.  Eurystheus  ordered 
Hercules  to  bring  these  animals  to  Mycenae. 
With  a  few  companions,  he  seized  the  animals, 
and  conducted  them  to  the  sea-coast.  But  here 
he  was  overtaken  by  the  Bistones.  During  the 
fight  he  intrusted  the  mares  to  his  friend  Abde- 
rus,  who  was  devoured  by  them.  Hercules  de- 
feated the  Bistones,  killed  Diomedes,  whose 
body  he  threw  before  the  mares,  built  the  town 
of  Abdera  in  honor  of  his  unfortunate  friend,  and 
then  returned  to  Mycenae  with  the  mares,  which 
had  become  tame  after  eating  the  flesh  of  their 
master.  The  mares  were  afterward  set  free, 
and  destroyed  on  Mount  Olympus  by  wild  beast*. 
— 9.  Seizure  of  tlu  girdle  of  the  queen  of  the  Am- 
azont.  Hippolyte,  the  queen  of  the  Amazons, 
possessed  a  girdle,  which  she  had  received  from 
Mars  (Ares).  Admcte,  the  daughter  of  Eury- 
stheus, wished  to  obtain  this  girdle,  and  Her- 
cules was  therefore  sent  to  fetch  it.  He  was 
accompanied  by  a  number  of  volunteers,  and 
after  various  adventures  in  Europe  and  Asia,  he 
at  length  readied  the  couutrv  of  the  Amazon* 
"  357 


HERCULES. 


HERCULES. 


flippolyte  at  first  received  him  kindly,  and  prom- 
i*ed  him  her  girdle;  but  Juno  (Hera)  having 
excited  the  Amazons  against  him,  a  contest  en- 
sued, in  which  Hercules  killed  their  queen.  He 
then  took  her  girdle,  and  carried  it  with  him. 
in  this  expedition  Hercules  killed  the  two  sons 
of  Boreas,  Calais  and  Zetes ;  and  he  also  begot 
three  sons  by  Echidna,  in  the  country  of  the 
Hyperboreans.  On  his  way  home  he  landed  in 
Troas,  where  he  rescued  Hesione  from  the  mon- 
ster sent  against  her  by  Neptune  (Poseidon) ; 
in  return  for  which  service,  her  father,  Laome- 
don,  promised  him  the  horses  he  had  received 
from  Jupiter  (Zeus)  as  a  compensation  for  Gany- 
medcs ;  but,  as  Laomedon  did  not  keep  his  word, 
Hercules,  ou  leaving,  threatened  to  make  war 
against  Troy.  He  landed  in  Thrace,  where  he 
slew  Sarpedon,  and  at  length  returned  through 
Macedonia  to  Peloponnesus.  — 10.  Capture  of 
the  oxen  of  Gerybnei  in  Erythia.  Geryones,  the 
monster  with  three  bodies,  lived  in  the  fabu- 
lous island  of  Erythia  (the  reddish),  so  called 
because  it  lay  under  the  rays  of  the  setting  sun 
in  the  west  This  island  was  originally  placed 
oft  the  coast  of  Epirus,  but  was  afterward  iden- 
tified either  with  Gades  or  the  Balearic  Islands, 
and  was  at  all  times  believed  to  be  in  the  distant 
west  The  oxen  of  Geryones  were  guarded  by 
the  giant  Eurytion  and  the  two-headed  dog 
Orthrus  ;  and  Hercules  was  commanded  by  Eu- 
rystheus to  fetch  them.  After  traversing  vari- 
ous countries,  he  reached  at  length  the  frontiers 
of  Libya  and  Europe,  where  he  erected  two  pil- 
lars (Calpe  and  Abyla)  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar,  which  were  hence  called  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules.  Being  annoyed  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  Hercules  shot  at  Helios,  who  so  much 
admired  his  boldness,  that  he  presented  him 
with  a  golden  cup  or  boat,  in  which  he  sailed  to 
Erythia.  He  there  slew  Eurytion  and  his  dog, 
as  well  as  Geryones,  and  sailed  with  his  booty 
to  Tartessus,  where  he  returned  the  golden  cup 
(boat)  to  Helios.  On  his  way  home  he  passed 
through  Gaul,  Italy,  Illyricum,  and  Thra«e,  and 
met  with  numerous  adventures,  which  are  vari- 
ously embellished  by  the  poets.  Many  attempts 
were  made  to  depnve  him  of  the  oxen,  but  he 
at  length  brought  them  in  safety  to  Eurystheus, 
who  sacrificed  them  to  Juno  (Hera).  These 
ten  labors  were  performed  by  Hercules  in  the 
space  of  eight  years  and  one  month ;  but  as  Eu- 
rystheus declared  two  of  them  to  have  been  per- 
formed unlawfully,  he  commanded  him  to  ac- 
complish two  more. — 11.  Fetching  the  golden 
apples  of  tJie  Hesperides.  This  was  particularly 
difficult,  since  Hercules  did  not  know  where  to 
find  them.  They  were  the  apples  which  Juno 
(Hera)  had  received  at  her  wedding  from  Terra 
(Ge),  and  which  she  had  intrusted  to  the  keep- 
ing of  the  Hesperides  and  the  dragon  Ladon,  on 
Mount  Atlas,  in  the  country  of  the  Hyperbore- 
ans. For  details,  vid.  HESPERIDES.  After  vari- 
ous adventures  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  Her- 
cules at  lengh  arrived  at  Mount  Atlas.  On  the 
advice  of  Prometheus,  he  sent  Atlas  to  fetch 
the  apples,  and  in  the  mean  time  bore  the  weight 
of  heaven  for  him.  Atlas  returned  with  the 
apples,  but  refused  to  take  the  burden  of  heaven 
on  his  shoulders  again.  Hercules,  however, 
contrived  by  a  stratagem  to  get  the  apples,  and 
hastened  away.  On  his  return  Eurystheus 
358 


'  made  him  a  present  of  the  apples  ;  but  Herein*- a 
dedicated  them  to  Minerva  (Athena),  who  re- 
stored  them  to  their  former  place.  Some  tratii 
!  tions  add  that  Hercules  killed  the  dragon  La(!"ti. 
— 12.  Bringing  Cerberus  from  the  lower  world. 
This  was  the  most  difficult  of  the  twelve  labor* 
of  Hercules.  He  descended  into  Hades,  near 
Tsenarum  in  Lacouia,  accompanied  by  Mercury 
(Hermes)  and  Minerva  (Athena).  He  delivered 
Theseus  and  Ascalaphus  from  their  torments. 
He  obtained  permission  from  Pluto  to  carry 
Cerberus  to  the  upper  world,  provided  he  could 
accomplish  it  without  force  of  arms.  Her- 
cules succeeded  in  seizing  the  monster  and  car- 
rying it  to  the  upper  world  ;  and  after  he  had 
shown  it  to  Eurystheus,  he  carried  it  back  agaiu 
to  the  lower  world.  Some  traditions  connect 
the  descent  of  Hercules  into  the  lower  world 
with  a  contest  with  Hades,  as  we  see  even  in 
the  Iliad,  (v.,  397),  and  more  particularly  in  the 
Alcestis  of  Euripides  (24,  846).  Besides  these 
twelve  labors,  Hercules  performed  several  other 
feats  without  being  commanded  by  Eurystheus. 
These  feats  were  called  Parerga  by  the  ancients. 
Several  of  them  were  interwoven  with  the 
twelve  labors,  and  have  been  already  described 
those  which  had  no  connection  with  the  twelve 
labors  are  spoken  of  below.  After  Hercules  had 
performed  the  twelve  labors,  he  was  released 
from  the  servitude  of  Eurystheus,  and  returned 
to  Thebes.  Here  there  gave  Megara  in  marriage 
to  lolaus;  and  he  wished  to  gain  in  marriage 
for  himself  lole,  the  daughter  of  Eurytus,  king 
of  OZchalia.  Eurytus  promised  his  daughter  to 
the  man  who  should  conquer  him  and  his  sons 
in  shooting  with  the  bow.  Hercules  defeated 
them;  but  Eurytus  and  his  sons,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Iphitus,  refused  to  give  lole  to  him, 
because  he  had  murdered  his  own  children. 
Soon  afterward  the  oxen  of  Eurytus  were  car- 
ried off,  and  it  was  suspected  that  Hercules  was 
the  offender.  Iphitus  again  defended  Hercules, 
and  requested  his  assistance  in  searching  after 
the  oxen.  Hercules  agreed ;  but  when  the  two 
had  arrived  at  Tiryns,  Hercules,  in  a  fit  of  mad- 
ness, threw  his  friend  down  from  the  wall,  and 
killed  him.  Deiphobus  of  Amyclse  purified  Her 
cules  from  this  murder,  but  be  was,  neverthe- 
less, attacked  by  a  severe  illness.  Hercules 
then  repaired  to  Delphi  to  obtain  a  remedy,  but 
the  Pythia  refused  to  answer  his  questions.  A 
struggle  ensued  between  Hercules  and  Apollo, 
and  the  combatants  were  not  separated  till  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  sent  a  flash  of  lightning  between 
them.  The  oracle  now  declared  that  he  would 
be  restored  to  health  if  he  would  serve  three 
years  for  wages,  and  surrender  his  earnings  to 
Eurytus,  as  an  atonement  for  the  murder  of 
Iphitus.  Therefore  he  became  servant  to 
Omphale,  queen  of  Lydia,  and  widow  of  Tmolus. 
Later  writers  describe  Hercules  as  living  effem- 
inately during  his  residence  with  Omphale :  he 
span  wool,  it  is  said,  and  sometimes  put  on  the 
garments  of  a  woman,  while  Omphale  wore  his 
lion's  skin.  According  to  other  accounts,  he 
nevertheless  performed  several  great  feats  dur- 
ing this  time.  He  undertook  an  expedition  to 
Colchis,  which  brought  him  into  connection  with 
the  Argonauts ;  he  took  part  in  the  Calydonian 
hunt,  and  met  Theseus  on  his  landing  from 
Troezene  on  the  Corinthian  isthmus.  An  ex 


HERCULES. 

pedition  to  India,  which  was  mentioned  in  some 
traditions,  may  likewise  be  inserted  in  this 
place.  When  the  time  of  his  servitude  had  ex- 
pired, he  sailed  against  Troy,  took  the  city,  and 
killed  Laomedon,  its  king.  On  his  return  from 
Troy,  a  storm  drove  him  on  the  island  of  Cos, 
where  he  was  attacked  by  the  Meropes;  but  he 
defeated  them  and  killed  their  king,  Eurypylus. 
It  was  about  this  time  that  the  gods  sent  for 
him  in  order  to  fight  against  the  Giants.  Vid. 
GraANTES.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Argos  he 
inarched  against  Augeas,  as  has  been  related 
above.  He  then  proceeded  against  Pylos,  which 
he  took,  and  killed  the  sous  of  Neleus  except 
Nestor.  He  next  advanced  against  Lacedae- 
mou,  to  punish  the  sons  of  Hippocoon  for  hav- 
ing assisted  Neleus  and  slain  (Eonus,  the  son  of 
Licymnius.  He  to6k  Lacedaemon,  and  assign- 
ed the  government  of  it  to  Tyndareus.  On  his 
return  to  Tegea,  he  became,  by  Auge,  the  fa- 
ther of  Telepbus  (vid.  AUGE)  ;  and  he  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Calydon,  where  he  obtained  Deia- 
nira, the  daughter  of  CEueus,  for  his  wife,  after 
fighting  with  Achelous  for  her.  Vid.  DEIANI- 
KA,  ACHELOUS.  After  Hercules  had  been  mar- 
ried to  Deianira  nearly  three  years,  he  acci- 
dentally killed,  at  a  banquet  in  the  house  of 
CEueus,  the  boy  Eunomus.  In  accordance  with 
the  law,  Hercules  went  into  exile,  taking  with 
him  his  wife  Deianira.  On  their  road  they 
came  to  the  River  Evenus,  across  which  the 
centaur  Nessus  carried  travellers  for  a  small 
sum  of  money.  Hercules  himself  forded  the 
river,  but,  gave  Deianira  to  Nessus  to  carry 
across.  Nessus  attempted  to  outrage  her :  Her- 
coles  heard  her  screaming,  and  shot  an  arrow 
into  the  heart  of  Nessus.  The  dying  centaur 
called  out  to  Deianira  to  take  bis  blood  with 
her,  as  it  was  a  sure  means  of  preserving  the 
love  of  her  husband.  He  then  conquered  the 
Dry  opes,  and  assisted  ^Egimius,  king  of  the 
Dorians,  against  the  Lapitlue.  Vid.  yEai.vius. 
After  this  he  took  up  his  abode  at  Trachis, 
whence  he  marched  against  Eurytus  of  (Echa- 
lia.  He  took  (Ecbalia,  lulled  Eurytus  and  his 
sons,  and  carried  off  his  daughter  lole  as  a  pris- 
oner. On  his  return  home  he  landed  at  Ce- 
uaeum,  A  promontory  of  Eubcea,  erected  an  altar 
to  Jupiter  (Zeus},  and  sent  his  companion  Li- 
ehas  to  Trachis,  in  order  to  fetch  him  a  white 
garment,  which  he  intended  to  use  during  the 
sacrifice.  Deianira,  afraid  lest  lole  should  sup- 
pteiit  her  in  the  affections  of  her  husband,  steep- 
ed the  white  garment  he  had  demanded  in  the 
blood  of  Nessus.  This  blood  had  been  poisoned 
by  the  arrow  with  which  Hercules  had  snotNes- 
BUS  ;  and,  accordingly,  as  soon  as  the  garment 
became  warm  on  the  body  of  Hercules,  the 
poison  penetrated  into  all  his  limbs, 'and  caused 
dim  the  most  excruciating  agony.  He  seized 
Lichas  by  bis  feet,  and  threw  him  into  the 
sea.  He  wrenched  off  the  garment,  but  it 
stuck  to  his  flesh,  and  with  it  he  tore  away 
whole  pieces  from  his  body.  In  this  state  he 
was  conveyed  to  Trachis.  Deianira,  on  seeing 
whak,  she  had  unwittingly  done,  hung  herself 
Hercules  commanded  Hyllua,  his  eldest  son  by 
Deianira,  to  marry  lole  as  soon  as  he  should 
arrive  at  the  age  of  manhood.  He  then  as- 
cended Mount  UJta,  raised  a  pile  of  wood,  on 
which  he  placed  himself,  and  ordered  it  to  be 


HERCULES. 

set  on  fire.  No  one  ventured  to  obey  him,  until 
at  length  Poeas  the  shepherd,  who  passed  by, 
was  prevailed  upon  to  comply  with  the  desire 
of  the  suffering  hero.  When  the  pile  was 
burning,  a  cloud  came  down  from  heaven,  and, 
amid  peals  of  thunder,  carried  him  to  Olympus, 
where  he  was  honored  with  immortality,  be- 
came reconciled  to  Juno  (Hera),  and  married 
her  daughter  Hebe,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Alexiares  and  Anicetus.  Immediately 
after  his  apotheosis,  his  friends  offered  sacri- 
fices to  him  as  a  hero ;  and  he  was,  in  course 
of  time,  worshipped  throughout  all  Greece  as  a 
god  and  as  a  hero.  His  worship,  however,  pre- 
vailed more  extensively  among  the  Dorians 
than  among  any  other  of  the  Greek  races.  The 
sacrifices  offered  to  him  consisted  principally 
of  bulls,  boars,  rams,  and  lambs.  The  works  of 
art  in  which  Hercules  was  represented  were 
extremely  numerous,  and  of  the  greatest  vari- 
ety, for  he  was  represented  at  all  the  various 
stages  of  his  life,  from  the  cradle  to  his  death. 
But  whether  he  appears  as  a  child,  a  youth,  a 
struggling  hero,  or  as  the  immortal  inhabitant 
of  Olympus,  his  character  is  always  one  of 
heroic  strength  and  energy.  Specimens  of 
every  kind  are  still  extant  The  finest  repre- 
sentation of  the  hero  that  has  come  down  to  us 
is  the  so-called  Faraese  Hercules,  which  was 
executed  by  Glycon.  The  hero  is  resting, 
leaning  on  his  right  arm,  and  his  head  reclining 
on  bis  left  hand :  the  whole  figure  is  a  most  ex- 
quisite combination  of  peculiar  softness  with 
the  greatest  strength. — II.  ROMAN  TRADITIONS. 
The  worship  of  Hercules  at  Rome  and  in  Italy 
is  connected  by  Roman  writers  with  the  hero's 
expedition  to  fetch  the  oxen  of  Geryones. 
They  stated  that  Hercules,  ou  his  return,  visited 
Italy,  where  he  abolished  human  sacrifices 
among  the  Sabiues,  established  the  worship  of 
fire,  and  slew  Cacus,  a  robber,  who  had  stolen 
his  oxen.  Vid.  CACUS.  The  aborigines,  and 
especially  Evander,  honored  Hercules  with  di- 
vine worship ;  and  Hercules,  in  return,  taught 
them  the  way  in  which  he  was  to  be  worship- 
ped, and  intrusted  the  care  of  his  worship  to 
two  distinguished  families,  the  Potitii  and  Pi- 
narii.  Vid.  PINARIA  GENS.  The  Fabia  gens 
traced  its  origin  to  Hercules ;  and  Fauna  and 
Acca  Laureutia  are  called  mistresses  of  Her- 
cules. In  this  manner  the  Romans  connected 
their  earliest  legends  with  Hercules.  It  should 
be  observed  that  in  the  Italian  traditions  the 
hero  bore  the  name  of  Recarauus,  and  this 
Recaranus  was  afterward  identified  with  the 
Greek  Hercules.  He  had  two  temples  at 
Rome.  One  was  a  small  round  temple  of  Her- 
cules Victor,  or  Hercules  Triumphalis,  between 
the  river  and  the  Circus  Maximua,  in  front  of 
which  was  the  ara  maxima,  on  which,  after  a 
triumph,  the  tenth  of  the  booty  was  deposited 
for  distribution  among  the  citizens.  The  sec- 
ond temple  stood  near  the  porta  trigemiua,  and 
contained  a  bronze  statue  and  the  altar  ou 
which  Hercules  himself  was  believed  to  have 
once  offered  a  sacrifice.  Here  the  city  praetor 
offered  every  year  a  young  cow,  which  was 
consumed  by  the  people  within  the  sanctuary. 
At  Rome  Hercules  was  connected  with  the 
Muses,  whence  he  is  called  Musagctfs,  and  was 
represented  with  a  lyre,  of  which  there  is  no 
359 


HERCULES. 


HERMAPHROD1TUS. 


Irace  in  Greece.  III.  TRADITIONS  OP  OTHER 
RATIONS.  The  ancients  themselves  expressly 
mention  several  heroes  of  the  name  of  Her- 
eules,  who  occur  among  the  principal  nations 
of  the  ancient  world.  1.  The  Egyptian  Hercules, 
whose  Egyptian  name  was  Som,  or  Dsom,  or 
Chon,  or,  according  to  Pausanias,  Mnceris,  was 
a  son  of  A iiidii  or  Nilua.  He  was  placed  by  the 
Egyptians  in  the  second  of  the  series  of  the  ev- 
olctians  of  their  gods. — 2.  7%«  Cretan  Hercules, 
on*.  1'  the  hl;i':in  Dactyls,  was  believed  to  have 
founded  the  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  at  Olympia, 
but  to  have  come  originally  from  Egypt  He 
was  worshipped  with  funeral  sacrifices,  and  was 
regarded  as  a  magician,  like  other  ancient,  dae- 
mones  of  Crete. — 3.  The  Indian  Hercules,  was 
called  by  the  unintelligible  name  Dorsanes 
(Aop<7uvi7f).  The  later  Greeks  believed  that  he 
was  their  own  hero,  who  had  visited  India ;  and 
they  related  that  in  India  he  became  the  father 
of  many  sons  and  daughters  by  Pandaea,  and 
the  ancestral  hero  of  the  Indian  kings. — 4.  Tlie 
Phoenician  Hercules,  whom  the  Egyptians  con- 
sidered to  be  more  ancient  than  their  own,  was 
worshipped  in  all  the  Phoenician  colonies,  such 
as  Carthage  and  Gades,  down  to  the  time  of 
Constantino,  and  it  is  said  that  children  were 
sacrificed  to  him. — 5.  The  Celtic  and  Germanic 
Hercules  is  said  to  have  founded  Alesia  and 
Nemausus,  and  to  have  become  the  father  of 
the  Celtic  race.  We  become  acquainted  with 
him  in  the  accounts  of  the  expedition  of  the 
Greek  Hercules  against  Geryones.  We  must 
either  suppose  that  the  Greek  Hercules  was 
identified  with  native  heroes  of  those  northern 
countries,  or  that  the  notions  about  Hercules 
had  been  introduced  there  from  the  East. 

HERCULES  ('Hpa/c/UJf),  son  of  Alexander  the 
Great  by  Barsine,  the  widow  of  the  Rhodian 
M ••linn .n.  In  B.C.  310  he  was  brought  forward 
by  Polysperchon  as  a  pretender  to  the  Macedo- 
nian throne ;  but  he  was  murdered  by  Poly- 
sperchon  himself  in  the  following  year,  when 
the  latter  became  reconciled  to  Cassander. 

HERCULIS  COLUMNS.     Vid.  ABYLA,  CALPE. 

HERCULIS  MONCECI  PORTUS.     Vid.  MONCECUS. 

HERCULIS  POKTUS.     Vid.  COSA. 

[PORTUS  HERCULIS  LISURNI  or  LABRONIS, 
(now  Leghorn),  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  coast  of 
Etruria.  Vid.  LABRO.] 

HERCULIS  PROMONTORIUM  (now  Cape  Sparti- 
vento),  the  most  southerly  point  of  Italy  in  Brut- 
tium. 

HERCULIS  SILVA,  a  forest  in  Germany,  sacred 
to  Hercules,  east  of  the  Visurgis. 

HERCYNIA    SILVA,    HERCYNIUS   SALTUS,    HER- 
CYNiuic  JUGCM,  an    extensive    range  of  mount- 
ains in  Germany,  covered  with  forests,  is  de- 
scribed by  Caesar  (S.  G.,  vi.,  24)  as  nine  days' 
journey  in  breadth,  and  more  than  sixty  days' 
journey  in  length,  extending  east  from  the  ter- 
ritories of  the  Helvetii,  Nemetes,  and  Rauraci, 
parallel  to  the  Danube,  to  the  frontiers  of  the  : 
Daciaus.     Under  this  general  name  Caesar  ap- 1 
pears  to  have  included  all  the  mountains  and  j 
forests  in  the  south    and  centre  of   Germany, ! 
the  Black  Forest,  Odenwald,  Thurinaerwald,  the  j 
Han,   the    Erzgebirge,   the    Riesengebirge,    «fcc. 
As  the  Romans  became  better  acquainted  with  J 
Germany,  the  name  was  confined  to  narrower  j 
limits.     Fliny  and  Tacitus  use  it  to  indicate  the 
360 


range  of  mountains  between  the  Thiiringerwald 
and  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  The  name  is 
still  preserved  in  the  modern  Harz  and  Erz. 

HEROONIA  (Herdoniensis :  now  Ordona),  a 
town  in  Apulia,  was  destroyed  by  Hannibal, 
who  removed  its  inhabitants* to  Thurii  and  Me- 
tapontum ;  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  Romans,  but 
remained  a  place  of  no  importance. 

HEBDONIUS.  1.  TURNUS,  of  Aricia,  in  Latium, 
endeavored  to  rouse  the  Latins  against  Tar- 
quinius  Superbus,  and  was,  in  consequence, 
falsely  accused  by  Tarquinius,  and  put  to  death. 
— 2.  APPIUS,  a  Sabine  chieftain,  who,  in  B.C. 
460,  with  a  band  of  outlaws  and  slaves,  made 
himself  master  of  the  Capitol.  On  the  fourth 
day  from  his  entry  the  Capitol  was  retaken, 
and  Herdonius  and  nearly  all  his  followers 
were  slain. 

HERENNIA  GENS,  originally  Samnite,  and  by 
the  Samnite  invasion  established  in  Campania, 
became  at  a  later  period  a  plebeian  house  at 
Rome.  The  Hereunii  were  a  family  of  rank 
in  Italy,  and  are  frequently  mentioBed  in  the 
time  of  the  Samnite  and  Punic  wars.  They 
were  the  hereditary  patrons  of  the  Marii. 

HEBENNIOS.  1.  MODESTINUS.  Vid.  MODESTI- 
NUS. — 2.  PONTIUS.  Vid.  PONTIUS. — 3.  SENECIO. 
Vid.  SENECIO. 

HERILLUS  ('HpMof\  of  Carthage,  a  Stoie 
philosopher,  was  the  disciple  of  Zeno  of  Citi- 
um.  He  did  not,  however,  confine  himself  to 
the  opinions  of  his  master,  but  held  some  doc- 
trines directly  opposed  to  them.  He  held  that 
the  chief  good  consisted  in  knowledge  (eiuo- 
rfin'ri).  This  notion  is  often  attacked  by  Cicero. 

[HERILUS,  son  of  the  nymph  Feronia,  and 
king  of  Praeneste:  his  mother  had  given  him 
three  lives,  and,  accordingly,  Evander,  who 
fought  with  him,  had  to  conquer  and  despoil 
him  of  his  armor  three  times  before  he  fully 
destroyed  him.] 

UKUM/EI-M,  or,  in  Latin,  MERCURII  PROMONTO- 
RIUM ('Eppaia  aKpa).  1.  (Now  Cape  Bon,  Arab. 
Ras  Addar),  the  headland  which  forms  the  east- 
ern extremity  of  the  Sinus  Carthaginiensis,  and 
the  extreme  northeastern  point  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian territory  (later  the  province  of  Africa) 
opposite  to  Lilybaeum,  the  space  between  the 
two  being  the  shortest  distance  between  Sicily 
and  Africa. — 2.  (Now  Ras  el  Ashan),  a  promon- 
tory on  the  coast  of  the  Greater  Syrtis,  fifty 
stadia  west  of  Leptis.  There  were  other  pro- 
montories of  the  name  on  the  coast  of  Africa. 

HERMAGORAS  ('Ep//ay6pof).  I.  Of  Temnos,  a 
distinguished  Greek  rhetorician  of  the  time  of 
Cicero.  He  belonged  to  the  Rhodian  school 
of  oratory,  but  is  known  chiefly  as  a  teacher 
of  rhetoric.  He  devoted  particular  attention  to 
what  is  called  the  invention,  and  made  a  pecu- 
liar division  of  the  parts  of  an  oration,  which 
differed  from  that  adopted  by  other  rhetoricians. 
— 2.  Suruamed  Canon,  a  Greek  rhetorician, 
taught  rhetoric  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Augus- 
tus. He  was  a  disciple  of  Theodorus  of  Gadara. 

HERMAPHRODITCS  ("EpfiaQpudirof),  son  of 
Hermes  (Mercury)  and  Aphrodite  (Venus),  and 
consequently  great-grandson  of  Atlas,  whence 
he  is  called  Atlantiades  or  Atlantius.  (Ov., 
Met.,  iv.,  368.)  He  had  inherited  the  beauty 
of  both  his  parents,  and  was  brought  up  by  the 
nymphs  of  Mount  Ida.  In  his  fifteenth  year  he 


HERMARCHUS. 


HERMES. 


•went  to  Caria.     In  the  neighborhood  of  Hali-  j 
earnassus  he  lay  down  by  the  fountain  of  Sal- 1 
mac-is.     The  nymph  of  the  fountain  fell  in  love  | 
with  him,  and  tried  in  vain  to  win  his  affections.  • 
Once  when  he  was  bathing  in  the  fountain  she  i 
embraced  him,  and  prayed  to  the  gods  that  she 
might  be  united  with  him  forever.    The  gods 
granted  the  request,  and  the  bodies  of  the  youth 
and   the    nymph    became  united    together,  but 
retained  the  characteristics  of  each  sex.     Her- 
maphroditus,  on.  becoming  aware  of  the  change, 
prayed  that,  in  future,  every  one  who  bathed  in 
the  well  might  be  metamorphosed  in  the  same 
raauner. 

HERMARCHUS  ("Ep/Jtapxos ),  of  Mytilene,  a  rhet- 
orician, became  afterward  a  disciple  of  Epicu- 
rus, who  left  to  him  his  garden,  and  appointed 
him  his  successor  in  his  school,  about  B.C. 
270.  He  wrote  several  works,  all  of  which  are 
lost 

HERMAS  ('Ep/adf),  a  disciple  of  the  Apostle 
Paul,  and  one  of  the  apostolic  fathers.  He  is 
supposed  to  be  the  same  person  as  the  Hennas 
who  is  mentioned  in  St.  Paul's  epistle  to  the 
Romans  (xvi.,  14).  He  wrote  in  Greek  a  work 
entitled  The  Shepherd  of  Hernias,  of  which  a 
Latin  translation  is  still  extant.  Its  object  is  to 
instruct  persons  in  the  duties  of  the  Christian 
life.  Edited  by  Cotelier  in  his  Patres  Apostol., 
Paris,  1672. 

HERMES  ('Epprje,  'Eppsiaf,  Dor.  'E/tytof),  called 
MERC  dues  by  the  Romans.  The  Greek  Her- 
mes was  a  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Maia,  the 
daughter  of  Atlas,  and  born  in  a  cave  of  Mount 
Cyllene  in  Arcadia,  whence  he  is  called  Atlan- 
'.iades  or  Gyllenius.  A  few  hours  after  his  birth 
he  escaped  from  his  cradle,  went  to  Pieria,  and 
carried  off  some  of  the  oxen  of  Apollo.  In  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey  this  tradition  is  not  men- 
tioned, though  Hermes  (Mercury)  is  character- 
ised as  a  cunning  thief.  That  he  might  not  be 
discovered  by  the  traces  of  his  footsteps,  he  put 
on  sandals,  and  drove  the  oxen  to  Pylos,  where 
he  killed  two,  and  concealed  the  rest  in  a  cave. 
The  skins  of  the  slaughtered  animals  were 
nailed  to  a  rock,  aad  part  of  their  flesh  was 
cooked  and  eaten,  and  the  rest  burned.  There- 
upon he  returned  to  Cyllene,  where  he  found  a 
tortoise  at  the  entrance  of  his  native  cave.  He 
took  tlie  animal's  shell,  drew  strings  across  it, 
and  thus  invented  the  lyre,  on  which  he  imme- 
diately played.  Apollo,  by  his  prophetic  power, 
had  meantime  discovered  the  thief,  and  went 
to  Cyllene  to  charge  Hermes  (Mercury)  with 
the  crime  before  his  mother  Maia,  She  show- 
ed to  the  god  the  child  in  its  cradle  ;  but  Apollo 
carried  the  boy  before  Zeus  (Jupiter),  and  de- 
manded back  bis  oxen.  Zeus  (Jupiter)  com- 
manded him  to  comply  with  the  demand  of 
Apollo,  but  Hermea  (Mercury)  denied  that  he 
bad  stolen  the  cattle.  As,  however,  he  saw 
that  his  assertions  were  not  believed,  he  con- 
ducted Apollo  to  Pylos,  and  restored  to  him  his 
oxen;  but  when  Apollo  heard  the  sounds  of 
the  lyre,  he  was  so  charmed  that  he  allowed 
Hertnes  (Mercury)  to  keep  the  animals.  Her- 
mes (Mercury)  now  invented  the  syrinx,  and 
after  disclosing  his  inventions  to  Apollo,  the 
two  gods  concluded  an  intimate  friendship  with 
each  other.  Apollo  presented  his  young  friend 
with  his  own  golden  shepherd's  staff,  and 


taught  him  the  art  of  prophesying  by  means  of 
dice.  Zeus  (Jupiter)  made  him  his  own  herald, 
and  likewise  the  herald  of  the  gods  of  the  low- 
er world.  The  principal  feature  in  the  tradi- 
tions about  Hermes  (Mercury)  consists  in  his 
being  the  herald  of  the  gods,  and  in  this  capac- 
ity he  appears  even  in  the  Homeric  poems. 
His  original  character  of  an  ancient  Pelasgian, 
or  Arcadian  divinity  of  nature,  gradually  disap- 
peared in  the  legends.  As  the  herald  of  the 
sjods,  he  is  the  god  of  eloquence,  for  the  heralds 
are  the  public  speakers  in  the  assemblies  and 
on  other  occasions.  The  gods  especially  em- 
ployed him  as  messenger  when  eloquence  waa 
required  to  attain  the  desired  object  Hence  the 
tongues  of  sacrificial  animals  were  offered  to 
him.  As  heralds  and  messengers  are  usually 
men  of  prudence  and  circumspection,  Hermes 
(Mercury)  was  also  the  god  of  prudence  and 
skill  in  all  the  relations  of  social  intercourse. 
These  qualities  were  combined  with  similar 
ones,  such  as  cunning,  both  in  words  and  ac- 
tions, and  even  fraud,  perjury,  and  the  inclina- 
tion to  steal ;  but  acts  of  this  kind  were  com- 
mitted by  Hermes  (Mercury)  always  with  a 
certain  skill,  dexterity,  and  even  gracefulness. 
Being  endowed  with  this  shrewdness  and  sagac- 
ity, he  was  regarded  as  the  author  of  a  variety 
of  inventions,  and,  besides  the  lyre  and  syrinx, 
he  is  said  to  have  invented  the  alphabet,  num- 
bers, astronomy,  music,  the  art  of  fighting,  gym- 
nastics, the  cultivation  of  the  olive-tree,  meas- 
ures, weights,  and  many  'other  things.  The 
powers  which  he  possessed  himself  he  confer- 
red upon  those  mortals  and  heroes  who  enjoyed 
his  favor  ;  and  all  who  possessed  them  were 
under  his  especial  protection  or  are  called  his 
sons.  He  was  employed  by  the  gods,  and  more 
especially  by  Zeus  (Jupiter),  on  a  variety  of  oo 
casions,  which  are  recorded  in  ancient  story. 
Thus  he  led  Priam  to  Achilles  to  fetch  the  body 
of  Hector ;  tied  Ixion  to  the  wheel ;  conducted 
Hera  (Juno),  Aphrodite  (Venus),  and  Athena 
(Minerva)  to  Paris  ;  fastened  Prometheus  to 
Mount  Caucasus  ;  rescued  Dionysus  (Bacchus) 
after  his  birth  from  the  flames,  or  received  him 
from  the  hands  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  to  carry  him 
to  Athamas ;  sold  Hercules  to  Omphale  ;  and 
was  ordered  by  Zeus  (Jupiter)  to  carry  off  lo, 
who  was  metamorphosed  into  a  cow,  and  guard 
ed  by  Argus,  whom  he  slew.  Vld.  ARGUS.  From 
this  murder  he  is  very  commonly  called  'Apyet 
$6vri)s.  In  the  Trojan  war  Hermes  (Mercury) 
was  on  the  side  of  the  Greeks.  His  ministry 
to  Zeus  (Jupiter)  was  not  confined  to  the  offices 
of  herald  and  messenger,  but  he  was  also  his 
charioteer  and  cupbearer.  As  dreams  are  sent 
by  Zeus  (Jupiter),  Hermes  (Mercury)  conducts 
them  to  man,  and  hence  he  is  also  described  as 
the  god  who  had  it  in  his  power  to  send  refresh  • 
ing  sleep  or  take  it  away.  Another  important 
function  of  Hermes  (Mercury)  was  to  conduct 
the  shades  of  the  dead  from  the  upper  into  tha 
lower  world,  whence  he  is  called  faxono/tiro?, 
veKpoTTOfnrof,  ^v;fayuy6f,  Ac.  The  idea  of  his 
being  the  herald  and  messenger  of  the  gods,  of 
his  travelling  from  place  to  place  and  conclud- 
ing treaties,  necessarily  implied  the  notion  that 
he  was  tjie  promoter  of  social  intercourse  and 
of  commerce  among  men.  In  this  capacity  he 
was  regarded  SB  the  maintainer  of  peace,  and 
361 


HERMES   TRISMEGISTUS. 


UERMIONE. 


us  the  god  of  roads,  who  protected  travellers, 
and  punished  those  who  refused  to  assist  travel- 
lers who  had  mistaken  their  way.  Hence  the 
Athenian  generals,  on  setting  out  on  an  expe- 
dition, offered  sacrifices  ta  Hermes  (Mercury), 
suruamed  Hegemonius  or  Agetor ;  and  numer- 
ous statues  of  the  god  were  erected  on  roads, 
at  doors  and  gates,  from  which  circumstance 
he  derived  a  variety  of  surnames  and  epithets. 
As  the  god  of  commerce  he  was  called  dtepiro- 
pof,  tfiTroTiaiof,  irrd.iyifutrTiA.of,  nepdifncopis,  uyo- 
pajof,  <tc.  As  commerce  is  the  source  of 
wealth,  he  was  also  the  god  of  gain  and  riches, 
especially  of  sudden  and  unexpected  riches, 
such  as  are  acquired  by  commerce.  As  the 
giver  of  wealth  and  good  luck  (n^ovTodorrif),  he 
also  presided  over  the  game  of  dice.  Hermes 
(Mercury)  was  believed  to  be  the  inventor  of 
sacrifices.  Hence  he  not  only  acts  the  part  of 
a  herald  at  sacrifices,  but  is  also  the  protector 
of  sacrificial  animals,  and  was  believed  in  par- 
ticular to  increase  the  fertility  of  sheep.  For 
this  reason  he  was  especially  worshipped  by 
shepherds,  and  is  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Pan  and  the  Nymphs.  This  feature  in  the  char- 
acter of  Hermes  (Mercury)  is  a  remnant  of  the 
•uicient  Arcadian  religion,  in  which  he  was  the 
fertilizing  god  of  the  earth,  who  conferred  his 
blessing  on  man.  Hermes  (Mercury)  was  like- 
wise the  patron  of  all  the  gymnastic  games  of 
the  Greeks.  This  idea  seems  to  be  of  late 
origin,  for  in  Homer  no  trace  of  it  is  found. 
Athens  appears  to  have  been  the  first  place  in 
which  he  was  worshipped  in  this  capacity.  At 
a  later  time  almost  all  gymnasia  were  under  his 
protection  ;  and  the  Greek  artists  derived  their 
ideal  of  the  god  from  the  gymnasium,  and  rep- 
resented him  as  a  youth  whose  limbs  were 
beautifully  and  harmoniously  developed  by 
gymnastic  exercises.  The  most  ancient  seat 
of  the  worship  of  Hermes  (Mercury)  is  Arca- 
dia, the  land  of  his  birth,  where  Lycaon,  the 
son  of  Pelasgus,  is  said  to  have  built  to  him 
the  first  temple.  From  thence  his  worship 
was  carried  to  Athens,  and  ultimately  spread 
through  all  Greece.  The  festivals  celebrated 
in  his  honor  were  called  Hermcea.  Vid.  Diet,  of 
Ant.,  s.  v.  His  temples  and  statues  (vid.  Diet,  of 
Ant^  s.v.  HERM.B)  were  extremely  numerous 
in  Greece.  Among  the  things  sacred  to  him 
were  the  palm-tree,  the  tortoise,  the  number 
four,  and  several  kinds  of  fish ;  and  the  sacri- 
fices offered  to  him  consisted  of  incense,  honey, 
cakes,  pigs,  and  especially  lambs  and  young 
goats.  The  principal  attributes  of  Hermes 
(Mercury)  are,  1.  A  travelling  hat  with  a  broad 
brim,  which  in  later  times  was  adorned  with 
two  small  wings.  2.  The  staff  (putdof  or  OK^TT- 
rpov),  which  he  bore  as  a  herald,  and  had  receiv- 
ed from  Apollo.  In  late  works  of  art  the  white 
ribbons  which  surrounded  the  herald's  staff  were 
changed  into  two  serpents.  3.  The  sandals 
xire(5tAa).  They  were  beautiful  and  golden,  and 
carried  the  god  across  land  and  sea  with  the 
rapidity  of  wind;  at  the  ankles  of  the  god  they 
were  provided  with  wings,  whence  he  is  called 
vTTivoTredifof,  or  alipes.  The  Roman  MERCURIUS 
»  spoken  of  separately. 

HERMES  TRISMEOISTCS  ('EP/%  Tpt^eytorof), 
the  reputed  author  of  a  variety  of  works,  some 
of   which  are  still    extant.      The   Greek   God 
362 


Hermes  was  identified  with  the  Egyptian  1'hot 
j  or  Theut  as  early  as  the  time  of  Plato.  Th*> 
New  Platouists  regarded  the  Egyptian  Uermea 
as  the  source  of  all  knowledge  and  thought,  or 
the  hoyof  embodied,  and  hence  called  him  Tris- 
megistus.  A  vast  number  of  works  on  philos- 
ophy and  religion,  written  by  the  New  Platon- 
ista,  were  ascribed  to  this  Hermes,  from  whom 
it  was  pretended  that  Pythagoras  and  Plato  had 
derived  all  their  knowledge.  Most  of  these 
works  were  probably  written  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  The  most  important  of  them 
is  entitled  Pcemander  (from  iroifajv,  a  shepherd, 
pastor),  apparently  in  imitation  of  the  Pastor  of 
Hennas.  Vid.  HERMAS.  This  work  is  in  the 
form  of  a  dialogue.  It  treats  of  nature,  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world,  the  deity,  his  nature  and  attri- 
butes, the  human  soul,  knowledge,  Ac. 

HERMESIANAX  ('Efj.Jiaiuva£),  of  Colophon,  a 
distinguished  elegiac  poet,  lived  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  His  chief  work  was  an 
elegiac  poem,  in  three  b'joks,  addressed  to  his 
mistress  Leontium,  whose  name  formed  the  title 
of  the  poem.  His  fragments  are  edited  by  Rigler 
and  Axt,  Colon.,  1828,  [by  Hermann,  in  a  univer- 
sity programme,  Lips.,  1828, 4to],  and  by  Bailey 
London,  1839. 

HERMIAS  or  HERMIAS  ('Ep/zctaj-  or  'Ep^tof) 
1.  Tyrant  of  Atarneus  and  Assos  in  Mysia,  cel- 
ebrated as  the  friend  and  patron  of  Aristotle. 
Aristotle  remained  with  Hermias  three  years, 
from  B.C.  347  to  344,  in  the  latter  of  which 
years  Hermias  was  seized  by  Mentor,  the  Greek 
general  of  the  Persian  king,  and  sent  as  a  cap- 
tive to  the  Persian  court,  where  he  was  put  to 
death.  Aristotle  married  Pythias,  the  adopted 
daughter  of  Hermias,  and  celebrated  the  praises 
of  his  benefactor  in  an  ode  addressed  to  Virtue, 
which  is  still  extant. — 2.  A  Christian  writer, 
who  lived  about  AJ).  180,  was  the  author  of  an  ex- 
tant work,  entitled  Aiaavpfibf  TUV  f£w  <j>ifa>o6<j>uv, 
in  which  the  Greek  philosophers  are  held  up  to 
ridicule.  Edited  with  Tatianus  by  Worth,  Oxon, 
1700. 

HERMINIA  GENS,  a  very  ancient  patrician  bouse 
at  Rome,  which  appears  in  the  first  Etruscan 
war  with  the  republic,  B.C.  606,  and  vanishes 
from  history  in  448.  T.  Herminius  was  one  of 
the  three  heroes  who  kept  the  Sublician  bridge 
along  with  Horatius  Codes  against  the  whol« 
force  of  Porsena. 

HERMINIUS  MONS  (now  Sierra  de  la  Estrella), 
the  chief  mountain  in  Lusitania,  south  of  the 
Durius,  from  seven  thousand  to  eight  thousand 
feet  high,  called  in  the  Middle  Ages  Henneno  or 
Armina. 

HERMIONE  ('Epjiiovrj),  the  beautiful  daughter 
of  Menelaus  and  Helena.  She  had  been  prom- 
ised in  marriage  to  Orestes  before  the  Trojar. 
war  ;  but  Menelaus,  after  his  return  home,  mar- 
ried her  to  Neoptolemus  (Pyrrhus.).  Thereupon 
Orestes  claimed  Hermione  for  himself  ;  out 
Neoptolemus  haughtily  refused  to  give  her  np. 
Orestes,  in  revenge,  incited  the  Delphians 
against  him,  and  Neoptolemus  was  slain.  Her- 
mione afterward  married  Orestes,  whom  she 
had  always  loved,  and  bore  him  a  son  Tisame- 
nuB.  The  history  of  Hermione  is  related  with 
various  modifications.  According  to  some,  Men- 
elaus betrothed  her  at  Troy  to  Neoptolemus  ;' 
but  in  the  meantime  her  grandfather,  Tyndare- 


HERMIONE. 


HERMOPOLIS. 


us,  promised  her  to  Orestes,  and  actually  gave  and  lived  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  A.D, 
her  in  marriage  to  him.  Neoptolemus,  on  his  re- 1 161-180.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  his  eloquence 
turn,  took  possession  of  her  by  force,  but  was  [  excited  the  admiration  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  He 
slain  soon  after  either  at  Delphi  or  in  his  own  j  was  shortly  afterward  appointed  public  teacher 
home  at  Phthia.  of  rhetoric,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  he  began 

HERMIOJTE  ('Epfiiovij :  'Eppiovev? :  uovr  Kastri)  his  career  as  a  writer  ;  but,  unfortunately,  when 
a  town  of  Argolis,  but  originally  independent  of  .  he  was  twenty-five,  his  mental  powers  gave 
Argos,  was  situated  on  a  promontory  on  the  east-  j  way,  and  he  never  recovered  their  full  use,  al- 
ern  coast,  and  on  a  bay  of  the  sea,  which  derived  though  he  li ved  to  an  advanced  age.  After  his 
its  name  from  the  town  (Hermionicus  Sinus).  Its  death,  his  heart  is  said  to  have  been  found  cov- 
territory  was  called  HE  KM  1 6  MS.  It  was  origin-  ered  with  hair.  His  works,  five  in  number, 


ally  inhabited  by  the  Dryopes ;  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  isolated  position,  it  became  a  flour- 
ishing city  at  an  early  period.  It  contained  sev- 
eral temples,  and,  among  them,  a  celebrated  one 
of  (Ceres)  Demeter  Chthonia.  At  a  later  time  it 
joined  the  Achaean  league. 

HERMIONES.     Vid.  GERMANIA. 

HEHMIPPUS  ('Eppnrirof).     1.  An  Athenian  poet 


which  are  still  extant,  form  together  a  complete 
system  of  rhetoric,  and  were  for  a  long  tim« 
used  in  all  the  rhetorical  schools  as  manuals. 
They  are,  1.  Te%vij  pqropiKi)  itepl  TUV  aruasuv. 
2.  liepl  evpeasuf  (De  Inventione).  3.  Hepl  ideuv 
(De  Formis  Oratotiis).  4.  Tlepl  fiedotiov  deivoTi}- 
rof  (De  apto  et  solerti  genere  dicendi  Methodus.) 
6.  npoyvpvaopaTa.  An  abridgment  of  the  latter 


of  the  old  comedy,  vehemently  attacked  Pericles  j  work  was  made  by  Aphthonius,  in  consequence 
and   Aspasia.      [The  fragments  of  Hermippus   of  which   the  original  fell  into  oblivion.      The 


are  publisheM  collectively  by  Meineke,  fragm. 
Comic.  Grcec.,  voL  i.,  p.  138-155,  edit  minor.] — 
2.  Of  Smyrna,  a  distinguished  philosopher,  was 
a  disciple  of  Calh'machus  of  Alexandrea,  and 


flourished  about   B.C.  200.      He  wrote  a  great  parently  two  rows  of  columns.     His  great  object 
biographical  work   (Btot),   which   is  frequently  ' 


referred  to  by  later  writers. — 3.  Of  Berytus,  a 
grammarian,  who  flourished  under  Trajan  and 
Hadrian. 

HERMISIUM,  a  town  in  the  Tauric  Chersonesus, 
on  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus. 

HERMOCRATES  ('EpftOKpdTJi<f),  a  Syracusan  of 


works  of  Hermogenes  are  printed  in  "Walz's 
Rhetor.  Gfrcec. — 3.  An  architect  of  Alabanda,  in 
Caria,  who  invented  what  was  called  the  pseu- 
dodipterus,  that  is,  a'  form  of  a  temple,  with  ap- 


es, an  architect  was  to  increase  the  taste  for  the 
Ionic  form  of  temples,  in  preference  to  Doric  tem- 
ples. 

HERMOGENES,  M.  TIGELLICS,  a  notorious  de- 
tractor of  Horace,  who  calls  him  (Sat^  i.,  3,  129), 
however,  optimus  cantor  et  modulator.  He  was 
opposed  to  satires  altogether,  was  a  man  with- 


rank,   and   an   able  statesman   and  orator,  was   out  talent,  but  yet  had  a  foolish  fancy  for  trying 
chosen  one  of  the   Syracusan  generals,  B.C.  414, !  his  hand  at  literature.      It  is  conjectured  that, 


in  order  to  oppose  the  Athenians.  He  after- 
ward served  -under  Gylippus,  when  the  latter 
took  the  command  of  the  Syracusan  forces  ;  and 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Athenian  armament 
he  attempted  to  save  the  lives  of  Nicias  and 
Demosthenes.  He  then  employed  all  his  influ- 
ence to  induce  his  countrymen  to  support  with 
vigor  the  Lacedaemonians  in  the  war  in  Greece 
itself.  He  was,  with  two  colleagues,  appointed 
to  the  command  of  a  small  fleet,  which  the  Syr- 
acusans  sent  to  the  assistance  of  the  Lacedae- 
monians ;  but,  during  his  absence  from  home, 
he  was  banished  by  the  Syracusans  (410).  Hav- 
ing obtained  support  from  the  Persian  satrap 
Pbarnabazus,  he  returned  to  Sicily,  and  endeav- 
ored to  effect  his  restoration  to  his  native  city  by 
force  of  arms,  but  was  shun  in  an  attack  which 
he  made  upon  Syracuse  in  407. 

HKRMO'DOEUB  ('Eppodupos).  1.  Of  Ephesus,  a 
person  of  distinction,  was  expelled  by  his  fellow- 
citizens,  and  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Rome,  and 
to  have  explained  to  the  decemvirs  the  Greek 
laws,  and  thus  assisted  them  in  drawing  up  the 
laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  B.C.  451.— 2.  A  dis- 
ciple of  Plato,  is  said  to  have  circulated  the 
works  of  Plato,  and  to  have  sold  them  in  Sicily. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  Plato. — 3.  Of  Salamis,  the 
architect  of  the  temple  of  Mars  in  the  Flaminian 
Circus. 

HtRMooENEs  ('Ep//oyh»7f).  1.  A  son  of  Hip- 
jf'iiiiMi.s,  and  a  brother  of  the  wealthy  Callina,  is 
introduced  by  Plato  as  one  of  the  speakers  in  '  above  Tnebes. 
his  "  Cratylus,"  where  he  maintains  that  all  the  HEKSifipSLis  ("EpffonoXif,  'Epftov  »roA.tf).  1. 
words  of  a  language  were  formed  by  an  agree-  PARVA  (q  fiticpd :  now  Damanhour),  a  city  of 
in-lit  of  men  among  themselves. — 2.  A  celebra-  Lower  Egypt,  the  capital  of  the  Nomos  of  Alex- 
ted  Greek  rhetorician,  was  a  native  of  Tarsus, !  andrea,  stood  upon  the  canal  which  connected 

363 


under  the  fictitious  name  of  Pantolabus  (Sat^ 
L,  8,  11 ;  ii.,  1,  21),  Horace  alludes  to  Hermog- 
enes, for  the  prosody  of  the  two  names  is 
the  same,  so  that  one  may  be  substituted  for 
the  other. 

HERMOGENIANUS,  the  latest  Roman  jurist  from 
whom  there  is  an  extract  in  the  Digest,  lived  in 
the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great.  It  is  prob- 
able that  he  was  the  compiler  of  the  Codex  Her- 
mogenianus,  but  so  many  persons  of  the  same 
name  lived  nearly  at  the  same  time  that  this 
cannot  be  affirmed  with  certainty. 

HERMOLAUS  ('E/>//oAaof),  a  Macedonian  youth, 
and  a  page  of  Alexander  the  Great  During  a 
hunting  party  in  Bactria,  B.C.  327,  he  slew  a 
wild  boar  without  waiting  to  allow  Alexander 
the  first  blow,  whereupon  the  king  ordered  him 
to  be  flogged.  Incensed  at  this  indignity,  Her- 
molaus  formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  king's 
life ;  but  the  plot  was  discovered,  and  Hermolaus 
and  his  accomplices  were  stoned  to  death  by  the 
Macedonians. 

HERMONASSA.  1.  A  town  of  the  Sindi  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus,  founded  by 
the  Mytilenjeans,  called  after  Hermonassa,  the 
wife  of  the  founder,  who  died  during  its  founda- 
tion, and  left  to  her  the  sovereignty. — 2.  A  town 
on  the  coast  of  Pontus,  near  Trapezus. 

HERMONTHIS  ('Epftuvdif  :  now  Erment,  ruins), 
the  chief  city  of  the  Nomos  Hermonthites,  in  Up- 
per Egypt,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  a  litue 


IIERMOS. 


HERODES. 


the  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile  with  the  Lake 
Marcotis. — 2.  MAGNA  (fj  fieya%.rj :  ruins  near  E&h- 
mounein),  the  capital  of  the  Noraos  Hermopo- 
lites,  in  the  Heptanomis,  or  Middle  Egypt,  and 
one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  land,  stood  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Nile,  a  little  below  the  con- 
fines of  Upper  Egypt  At  the  boundary  line  it- 
self was  a  military  station,  or  custom-house, 
called  'EppoirohiTiict)  Qv'Xa.KTi,  for  collecting  a  toll 
on  goods  entering  the  Heptanomis.  Hermopo- 
lis  was  a  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  Anubis 
(Cynocepbalus),  and  it  was  the  sacred  burial- 
place  of  the  Ibis. 

HEKMOS  (rd  'Epfiof :  'Ep^ftof),  a  demus  in  At- 
tica, belonging  to  the  tribe  Acamantis,  on  the 
road  from  Athens  to  Eleusis. 

HERMOTIMUS  ('Epfion^of).  1.  A  mathemati- 
cian of  Colophon,  was  one  of  the  immediate 
predecessors  of  Euclid,  and  the  discoverer  of 
several  geometrical  propositions.  —  2.  Of  Cla- 
zomenoe,  an  early  Greek  philosopher  of  uncer- 
tain date,  belonged  to  the  Ionic  school  Some 
traditions  represent  him  as  a  mysterious  per- 
son, gifted  with  supernatural  power,  by  which  his 
soul,  apart  from  the  body,  wandered  from  place 
to  place,  bringing  tidings  of  distant  events  in 
incredibly  short  spaces  of  time.  At  length  his 
enemies  burned  his  body,  in  the  absence  of  the 
soul,  which  put  an  end  to  his  wanderings. 

HERMUNDCRI,  one  of  the  most  powerful  na- 
tious  of  Germany,  belonged  to  the  Suevic  race, 
dwelt  between  the  Main  and  the  Danube,  and 
were  bounded  by  the  Sudeti  Mountains  in  the 
north,  the  Agri  Decumates  of  the  Romans  in 
the  west  and  south,  the  Narisci  on  the  east,  the 
Cherusci  on  the  northeast,  and  the  Catti  on  the 
northwest.  They  were  for  a  long  time  the  allies 
of  the  Romans  ;  but  along  with  the  other  Ger- 
man tribes  they  assisted  the  Marcomanni  in  the 
great  war  against  the  Romans  in  the  reign  of 
M.  Aurelius.  After  this  time  they  are  rarely 
mentioned  as  a  separate  people,  but  are  in- 
cluded under  the  geqeral  name  of  Suevi. 

HERMUS  ("Ep/uoj- :  now  Ghiediz-Chai),  a  con- 
siderable river  of  Asia  Minor,  rises  in  Mount 
Dindymene  (now  Mvrad-Dagh)  in  Phrygia ;  flows 
through  Lydia,  watering  the  plain  north  of  Sar- 
dis,  which  was  hence  called  "Eppov  irediov  ;  pass- 
es by  Magnesia  and  Temnus,  and  falls  into  the 
Gulf  of  Smyrna  between  Smyrna  and  Phocaea. 
It  formed  the  boundary  between  JSolis  and 
Ionia.  Its  chief  tributaries  were  the  Hyllus, 
Cogamus,  Pactolus,  and  Phrygnus. 

HERNICI,  a  people  in  Latium,  belonged  to  the 
Sabine  race,  and  are  said  to  have  derived  their 
name  from  the  Marsic  (Sabine)  word  herna, 
"  rock."  According  to  this  etymology,  their 
name  would  signify  "  mountaineers."  They 
inhabited  the  mountains  of  the  Apennines  be- 
tween the  Lake  Fucimis  and  the  River  Trerus, 
and  were  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Marsi 
an<l  ^Equi,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Volsci. 
Their  chief  town  was  ANAGNIA.  They  were  a 
brave  and  warlike  people,  and  long  offered  a 
formidable  resistance  to  the  Romans.  The 
Romans  formed  a  league  with  them  on  equal 
terms  in  the  third  consulship  of  Sp.  Cassius, 
.  B.C.  486.  They  were  finally  subdued  by  the 
Romans,  306. 

HERO.     Vid.  LKANDEK. 

HERO  ("&puv\    1.  THE  ELDER,  a  celebrated 
364 


mathematician,  was  a  native  of  Alexandrea, 
j  and  lived  in  the  reigns  of  the  Ptolemies  Phila- 
delphus  and  Evergetes  (B.C.  285-222).  He  ia 
celebrated  on  account  of  his  mechanical  inven- 
tions, of  which  one  of  the  best  known  is  the 
common  pneumatic  experiment  called  Hero's 
fountain,  in  which  a  jet  of  water  is  maintained 
liv  condensed  air.  We  also  find  in  his  works 
a  description  of  a  steam-engine,  and  of  a  double 
forcing  pump  used  for  a  fire-engine.  The  fol- 
lowing works  of  Hero  are  extant,  though  not  in 
a  perfect  form  :  1.  Xctpofia/lAtcrpof  KaraoKevi) 
Kal  avfifierpia,  de  Constructione  et  Mensura  Man 
ubalistee.  2.  HIV.OTTOHKU,  on  the  manufacture  of 
darts.  3.  Hv£v/j.aTiKd,  or  Spiritalia,  the  most 
celebrated  of  his  works.  4.  Tltpl  airo^a-onoHj- 
TIKUV,  de  Automatorum  Fhbrica  Libri  duo.  All 
these  works  are  published  in  the  Mathematici 
Veteres,  Paris,  1693. — 2.  THE  YOUNGER,  a  math- 
ematician, is  supposed  to  have  lived  under  He- 
raclius  (A.D.  610-641).  The  principal  extant 
works  assigned  to  him  are,  1.  De  Machinis  bel- 
licis.  2.  Geodcesia,  on  practical  geometry.  3. 
De  Obsidione  repelleiida.  Published  in  the  Math- 
ematici Veteres. 

HERODES  I.  ('Hpudijs),  commonly  called  HER- 
OD. 1.  Surnamed  the  Great,  king  of  the  Jews, 
was  the  second  son  of  Antipater,  and  conse- 
quently of  Idumaean  origin.  Vid.  ANTIPATER, 
No.  3.  When  his  father  was  appointed  by  Cae- 
sar procurator  of  Judaea,  in  B.C.  47,  Herod, 
though  only  twenty-five  years  of  age,  obtained 
the  government  of  Galilee.  In  46  he  obtained 
the  government  of  Coele-Syria.  After  the  death 
of  Cffisar  (44),  Herod  first  supported  Cassius  ; 
but  upon  the  arrival  of  Antony  in  Syria,  in  41, 
he  exerted  himself  to  secure  his  favor,  and  com- 
pletely succeeded  in  his  object.  In  40  he  went 
to  Rome,  and  obtained  from  Antony  and  Octa- 
vianus  a  decree  of  the  senate,  constituting  him 
king  of  Judaea.  He  supported  Antony  in  the 
civil  war  against  Octavianus ;  but  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Actium  (31)  he  was  pardoned  by  Octa- 
vianus and  confirmed  in  his  kingdom.  During 
the  remainder  of  his  reign  he  cultivated  with 
assiduity  the  friendship  of  Augustus  and  his 
counsellor  Agrippa,  and  enjoyed  the  highest  fa- 
vor both  of  the  one  and  the  other.  He  possess- 
ed a  jealous  temper  and  ungovernable  passions. 
He  put  to  death  his  beautiful  wife  Mariamne, 
whom  he  suspected,  without  cause,  of  adultery, 
and  with  whom  he  was  violently  in  love ;  and 
at  a  later  period  he  also  put  to  death  his  two 
sons  by  Mariamne,  Alexander  and  Aristobulus. 
His  government,  though  cruel  and  tyrannical, 
was  vigorous ;  and  he  was  both  feared  and  re- 
•pected  by  his  subjects  and  the  surrounding  na- 
tions. He  especially  loved  to  display  his  pow- 
er and  munificence  by  costly  and  splendid  pub- 
ic works.  He  commenced  rebuilding  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem  ;  he  rebuilt  the  city  of  Samaria, 
md  bestowed  on  it  the  name  of  Sebaste  ;  while 
ae  converted  a  small  town  on  the  sea-coast  into 

magnificent  city,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Caesarea.  He  adorned  these  new  cities  with 
iemples,  theatres,  gymnasia,  and  other  build- 
ings in  the  Greek  style ;  and  he  even  ventured 
to  erect  a  theatre  at  Jerusalem  itself,  and  an 
amphitheatre  without  the  walls,  in  which  he  ex- 
hibited combats  of  wild  beasts  and  gladiators. 
In  the  last  year  of  his  reign  JESUS  CHRIST 


HERODIANUS. 


HERODOTUS. 


w:is  born  ;  and  it  must  have  been  on  bis  death- 
bed that  he  ordered  that  massacre  of  the  chil- 
dren at  Bethlehem  which  is  recorded  by  the 
Evangelist  (Matth.,  ii.,  16).  He  died  in  the 
thirty-seventh  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  seven- 
tieth of  his  age,  B.C.  4.* — 2.  HERODES  ANTIPAS, 
sou  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Malthace,  a  Samar- 
itan, obtaiued  the  tetrarchy  of  Galilee  and  Persea 
on  his  father's  death,  while  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dsea  devolved  on  his  elder  brother  Archelaus. 
He  married  Herodias,  the  wife  of  his  half-broth- 
er, Herod  Philip,  she  having,  in  defiance  of  the 
Jewish  law,  divorced  her  first  husband.  He 
had  been  previously  married  to  a  daughter  of 
the  Arabian  prince  Aretas,  who  quitted  him  in 
disgust  at  this  new  alliance.  Aretas  thereupon 
invaded  the  dominions  of  Antipas,  and  defeat- 
ed the  army  which  was  opposed  to  him.  In 
A.D.  38,  after  the  death  of  Tiberius,  Antipas 
went  to  Rome  to  solicit  from  Caligula  the  title 
of  king,  which  had  just  been  bestowed  upon  his 
nephew,  Herod  Agrippa  ;  but,  through  the  in- 
_trigues  of  Agrippa,  who  was  high  in  the  favor  of 
the  Roman  emperor,  Antipas  was  deprived  of 
nis  dominions,  and  sent  into  exile  at  Lyons  (39); 
he  was  subsequently  removed  to  Spain,  where 
he  died.  It  was  Herod  Antipas  who  imprison- 
ed aud  put  to  death  John  the  Baptist,  who  had 
reproached  him  with  his  unlawful  connection 
with  Herodias.  It  was  before  him  also  that 
CHRIST  was  sent  by  Pontius  Pilate  at  Jerusa- 
lem, as  belonging  to  his  jurisdiction,  on  account 
of  his  supposed  Galilean  origin. — 3.  HERODES 
AGRIPPA.  Vid.  ACEIPPA. — i.  Brother  of  Herod 
Agrippa  L,  obtained  the  kingdom  of  Chalcis 
from  Claudius  at  the  request  of  Agrippa,  41. 
After  the  death  of  Agrippa  (44),  Claudius  be- 
stowed upon  him  the  superintendence  of  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  together  with  the  right  of 
appointing  the  high  priests.  He  died  in  48, 
when  his  kingdom  was  bestowed  by  Claudius 
upon  his  nephew,  Herod  Agrippa  II. — 5.  HE- 
RODES ATTICUS,  the  rhetorician.  Vid.  ATTICUS. 

HERODIANUS  ('Kpudtavof).  1.  An  historian, 
who  wrote  in  Greek  a  history  of  the  Roman 
empire  in  eight  books,  from  the  death  of  M. 
Aurelius  to  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of 
Gordianus  III.  (A.D.  180-238).  He  himself  in- 
forms us  that  the  events  of  this  period  had  oc- 
curred in  his  own  lifetime ;  but  beyond  this  we 
know  nothing  respecting  his  life.  He  appears 
to  have  had  Thucydides  before  him  as  a  model, 
both  for  style  and  for  the  general  composition 
of  his  work,  like  him,  introducing  here  and 
there  speeches  wholly  or  in  part  imaginary. 
In  spite  of  occasional  inaccuracies  in  chronolo- 
gy, his  narrative  is  in  the  main  truthful  and  im- 
partial. Edited  by  Irmisch,  Lips.,  1789-1805, 
6  vols.,  and  by  Bekker,  Berlin,  1826. — 2.  J2Llc8 
HKRODIANUS,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  gram- 
marians of  antiquity,  was  the  son  of  Apollonius 
Dyacolus  (vid.  APOLLONIUS,  No.  4),  and  was  born 
at  Alexandrea.  From  that  placo  he  removed 
to  Rome,  where  he  gained  the  favor  of  the  em- 
peror M.  Aurnlius,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his 
*  work  on  prosody.  This  work  seems  to  have 
embraced  not  merely  prosody,  but  most  of  those 

•  Th«  death  of  Herod  took  place  in  the  same  year  with 
the  actual  birth  of  Christ,  as  is  mentioned  abore,  but  it  is 
well  known  that  this  is  to  be  placed  four  years  before  the 
iate  in  general  use  as  the  Christian  era. 


subjects  now  included  in  the  etymological  por 
tion  of  grammar.  The  estimation  in  which  he 
was  held  by  subsequent  grammarians  was  very 
great.  Priscian  styles  him  maximus  auctor  ortia 
yrammaticce.  He  was  a  very  voluminous  writ- 
er ;  but  none  of  his  works  have  come  down  to 
us  complete,  though  several  extracts  from  them 
are  preserved  by  later  grammarians. 

HEBODICUS  ('HpodiKOf).  1.  Of  Babylon,  a 
grammarian,  was  one  of  the  immediate  suc- 
cessors of  Crates  of  ilallus,  and  au  opponent  of 
the  followers  of  Aristarchus,  against  whom  he 
wrote  an  epigram,  which  is  still  extant  and  in- 
cluded in  the  Greek  Anthology. — 2.  A  celebrated 
physician  of  Selymbria  in  Thrace,  lived  in  the 
fifth  century  B.C.,  and  was  one  of  the  tutors  of 
Hippocrates. 

HERODORUS  ('Hpodupof),  of  Heraclea,  in  Pon- 
tus,  a  contemporary  of  Hecataeus  and  Phere- 
cydes,  about  B.C.  510,  wrote  a  work  on  Her- 
cules and  his  exploits. 

HERODOTUS  ('Hpodorof).  I.  A  Greek  historian, 
and  the  father  of  history,  was  born  at  Halicar- 
nassus,  a  Doric  colony  in  Caria,  B.C.  484.  He 
belonged  to  a  noble  family  at  Halicamassus. 
He  was  the  son  of  Lyxes  and  Dryo;  and  the 
epic  poet  Panyasis  was  one  of  his  relations. 
Herodotus  left  his  native  city  at  an  early  age, 
in  order  to  escape  from  the  oppressive  govern- 
ment of  Lygdamis,  the  tyrant  of  Halicamassus, 
who  put  to  death  Panyasis.  He  probably  set- 
tled at  Samos  for  some  time,  and  there  became 
acquainted  with  the  Ionic  dialect ;  but  he  spent 
many  years  in  his  extensive  travels  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  of  which  we  shall  speak  pres- 
ently. At  a  later  time  he  returned  to  Hahcar- 
nassus,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  expelling 
Lygdamis  from  his  native  city.  In  the  conten- 
tions which  followed  the  expulsion  of  the  ty- 
rant, Herodotus  was  exposed  to  the  hostile  at- 
tacks of  one  of  the  political  parties,  whereupon 
he  again  left  Halicamassus,  and  settled  at  Thurii, 
in  Italy,  where  he  died.  Whether  he  accom- 
panied the  first  colonists  to  Thurii  in  443,  or 
followed  them  a  few  years  afterward,  is  a  dis- 
puted point,  and  can  not  be  determined  with 
certainty,  though  it  appears  probable,  from  a 
passage  in  his  work,  that  he  was  at  Athens  at 
the  commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 
(431).  It  is  also  disputed  where  Herodotus 
wrote  his  history.  Lucian  relates  that  Herod- 
otus read  his  work  to  the  assembled  Greeks 
at  Olympin,  which  was  received  with  such  uni- 
versal applause  that  the  nine  books  of  the  work 
were  in  consequence  honored  with  the  names 
of  the  nine  muses.  The  same  writer  adds  that 
the  young  Thucydides  was  present  at  this  reci- 
tation, and  was  moved  to  tears.  But  this  cele- 
brated story,  which  rests  upon  the  authority  of 
Lucian  alone,  must  be  rejected  for  many  rea- 
sons. Nor  is  there  sufficient  evidence  in  favor 
of  the  tradition  that  Herodotus  read  his  work  at 
the  Panathenaea  at  Athens  in  446  or  415,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  Athenians  a  reward  of  ten  tal- 
ents. It  is  far  more  probable  that  he  wrote  hie 
work  at  Thurii,  when  lie  was  advanced  in  years; 
and  it  appears  that  he  was  engaged  upon  it,  at 
least  in  the  way  of  revision,  when  he  was  sev- 
enty-seven years  of  age,  since  he  mentions  the 
revolt  of  the  Medes  against  Darius  Nothus,  and 
the  death  of  Amyrtceus,  events  which  belong  to 
365 


HERODOTUS. 


HEROPHILUS. 


the  years  409  and  408.  Though  the  work  of 
Herodotus  was  probably  not  written  till  he  was 
advanced  iu  years,  yet  he  was  collecting  mate- 
rial* for  it  during  a  great  part  of  his  life.  It 
vas  apparently  with  this  view  that  he  under- 
took his  extensive  travels  through  Greece  and 
foreign  countries,  and  his  work  contains  on 
almost  every  page  the  results  of  his  personal 
observations  and  inquiries.  There  was  scarce- 
ly a  town  of  any  importance  in  Greece  Proper 
and  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  with  which  he 
was  not  perfectly  familiar  ;  and  at  many  places 
in  Greece,  such  as  Samos,  Athens,  Corinth,  and 
Thebes,  hs  §eems  to  have  stayed  some  time. 
The  sites  of  the  great  battles  between  the 
Greeks  and  barbarians,  as  Marathon,  Thermop- 
ylae, Salamis,  and  Platseae,  were  well  known  to 
him ;  and  on  Xerxes's  line  qf  march  from  the 
Hellespont  to  Athens,  there  was  probably  not  a 

S'ace  which  he  had  not  seen  with  his  own  eyes, 
e  also  visited  most  of  the  Greek  islands,  not 
only  in  the  JSgeau,  but  even  in  the  west  of 
Greece,  such  aa  Zacynthus.  Further  north  in 
Europe  he  visited  Thrace  and  the  Scythian 
tribes  on  the  Black  Sea.  In  Asia  he  travelled 
through  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  and  visited  the 
cities  of  Babylon,  Ecbataua,  and  Susa.  He 
spent  some  time  in  Egypt,  and  travelled  as  far 
south  as  Elephantine.  He  saw  with  his  own 
eyes  all  the  wonders  of  Egypt,  and  the  accuracy 
of  his  observations  and  descriptions  still  excites 
the  astonishment  of  travellers  in  that  country. 
From  Egypt  he  appears  to  have  made  excur- 
sions to  the  east  into  Arabia,  and  to  the  west 
into  Libya,  at  least  as  far  as  Cyrene,  which  was 
well  known  to  him.  The  object  of  his  work  is 
to  give  an  account  of  the  struggles  between  the 
Greeks  and  Persians.  He  traces  the  enmity 
between  Europe  and  Asia  to  the  mythical  times. 
He  passes  rapidly  over  the  mythical  ages  to 
come  to  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  who  was  known 
to  have  committed  acts  of  hostility  against  the 
Greeks.  This  induces  him  to  give  a  full  his- 
tory of  Croesus  and  of  the  kingdom  of  Lydia. 
The  conquest  of  Lydia  by  the  Persians  under 
Cyrus  then  leads  him  to  relate  the  rise  of  the 
Persian  monarchy,  and  the  subjugation  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Babylon.  The  nations  which  are 
mentioned  in  the  course  of  this  narrative  are 
again  discussed  more  or  less  minutely.  The 
history  of  Cambyses  and  his  expedition  into 
Egypt  induce  him  to  enter  into  the  details  of 
Egyptian  history.  The  expedition  of  Darius 
against  the  Scythians  causes  hurt  to  speak  of 
Scythia  and  the  north  of  Europe.  In  the  mean 
tune  the  revolt  of  the  lonians  breaks  out,  which 
eventually  brings  the  contest  between  Persia 
and  Greece  to  an  end.  An  account  of  this  In- 
surrection is  followed  by  the  history  of  the  in- 
vasion of  Greece  by  the  Persians ;  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  Persian  war  now  runs  in  a  regular 
channel  until  the  taking  of  Sestos  by  the  Greeks, 
B.C.  478,  with  which  event  his  work  concludes. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  sketch  that 
the  history  is  full  of  digressions  and  episodes ; 
but  those  do  not  impair  the  unity  of  the  work, 
for  one  thread,  as  it  were,  runs  through  the 
whole,  and-  the  episodes  are  only  like  branches 
of  the  same  tree.  The  structure  of  the  work 
thus  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  a  grand  epic 
poem.  The  work  is  pervaded  by  a  deep  reli- 
366 


gious  sentiment  Herodotus  shows  the  most 
profound  reverence  for  every  thing  which  he 
conceives  as  divine,  and  rarely  ventures  to  ex- 
press an  opinion  on  what  he  considers  a  sacred 
or  religious  mystery.  In  order  to  form  a  fair 
judgment  of  the  historical  value  of  the  work  of 
Herodotus,  we  must  distinguish  between  those 
parts  in  which  he  speaks  from  his  own  obser- 
vations and  those  in  which  he  merely  repeats 
what  he  was  told  by  priests  and  others.  In 
the  latter  case  he  was  undoubtedly  often  de- 
ceived ;  but  whenever  he  speaks  from  his  own 
observations,  he  is  a  real  model  of  truthfulness 
and  accuracy ;  and  the  more  the  countries  which 
he  describes  have  been  explored  by  modern 
travellers,  the  more  firmly  has  his  authority 
been  established.  Many  things  which  used  to 
be  laughed  at  as  impossible  or  paradoxical  are 
found  now  to  be  strictly  in  accordance  with 
truth.  The  dialect  in  which  he  wrote  is  the 
Ionic,  intermixed  with  epic  or  poetical  expres- 
sions, and  sometimes  even  with  Attic  and  Doric 
forms.  The  excellences  of  his  style  consist  in 
its  antique  and  epic  coloring,  its  transparent' 
clearness,  and  the  lively  flow  of  the  narrative. 
But,  notwithstanding  all  the  merits  of  Herodo- 
tus, there  were  certain  writers  in  antiquity  who 
attacked  him  both  in  regard  to  the  form  and 
the  substance  of  his  work;  and  there  is  still 
extant  a  work  ascribed  to  Plutarch,  entiUed 
"  On  the  Malignity  of  Herodotus,"  full  of  the 
most  futile  accusations  of  every  kind.  The 
best  editions  of  Herodotus  are  by  Schweighau- 
ser,  Argentor.,  1806,  often  reprinted  ;  by  Gais- 
ford,  Oxon.,  1824;  and  by  Bahr,  Lips.,  1830. — 
2.  A  Greek  physician,  who  practiced  at  Rome 
with  great  reputation,  about  A.D.  100.  He 
wrote  some  medical  works,  which  are  several 
times  quoted  by  Galen. — 3.  Also  a  Greek  phy- 
sician, a  native  either  of  Tarsus  or  Philadel 
pliia,  taught  Sextus  Empiricus. 

HEROOPOLIS  or  HERO  ('Hpwuv  TroAif,  'Hpw :  in 
the  Old  Testament,  Raamses  or  Ramesesf: 
ruins  near  Abou-Keshid?),  the  capital  of  the 
Nomos  Heroopolites  or  Arsinoites  in  Lower 
Egypt,  stood  on  the  border  of  the  Desert  east 
of  the  Delta,  upon  the  canal  connecting  the  Nile 
with  the  western  head  of  the  Red  Sea,  which 
was  called  from  it  Sinus  Heroopoliticus  (/coATrof 
'uuv,  'HpuonoMTTjf  or  -iriKOf).  The  country 
about  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  Goshen  of  Scripture. 

[HEROPHANTCS  ('Hp6<j>avTOf),  tyrant  at  Pari- 
um  in  the  time  of  Darius  Hystaspis.] 

HEROPHIUJS  ('Hpo^t/lof),  one  of  the  most  cele- 
arated  physicians  of  antiquity,  was  born  at  Chal- 
:edon  in  Bithynia,  was  a  pupil  of  Praxagoras, 
and  lived  at  Alexandrea  under  the  first  Ptol- 
:my,  who  reigned  B.C.  323-285.  Here  he  soon 
acquired  a  great  reputation,  and  was  one  of  the 
bunders  of  the  medical  school  in  that  city.  He 
seems  to  have  given  his  chief  attention  to 
anatomy  and  physiology,  which  he  studied  not 
merely  from  the  dissection  of  animals,  but  also 
rom  that  of  human  bodies.  He  is  even  said  to 
lave  carried  his  ardor  in  his  anatomical  pur- 
suits so  far  as  to  have  dissected  criminals  alive.  * 
tie  was  the  author  of  several  medical  and  ana- 
tomical ^works,  of  which  nothing  but  the  titles 
and  a  few  fragments  remain.  These  have  been 
collected  and  published  by  Marx,  De  Herophili 
Vita,  <fcc.,  Getting.,  1840. 


HEROSTRATUS. 


HESIONE. 


HEROSTBATUS  ('Hpocrrparof),  an  Ephesian,  set  |  is  all  that  can  be  said  with  certainty  about  the  lite 
fire  to  the  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis)  at  Ephe-.  of  Hesiod.  Many  of  the  stories  related  about 
BUS  on  the  same  night  that  Alexander  the  Great  i  him  refer  to  his  school  of  poetry,  and  not  to  the 
was  bora,  B.C.  356.  He  w:is  put  to  the  torture,  poet  personally.  In  this  light  we  may  regard 
and  confessed  that  he  had  fired  the  temple  to  i  the  tradition  that  Hesiod  had  a  poetical  contest 


immortalize  himself.  The  Ephesians  passed  a 
decree  condemning  his  name  to  oblivion  ;  but 
it  has  been,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
handed  down  by  history. 

HKRSE  ('Epari),  daughter  of  Cecrops  and  sister 
of  Agraulos,  was  beloved  by  Mercury  (Hermes), 
by  -whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Cephalus. 
Respecting  her  story,  vid.  AGRAULOS.  At  Ath- 
ens sacrifices  were  offered  to  her,  and  the  maid- 
ens who  carried  the  vessels  containing  the  li- 
bation (Spa?))  were  called  kpprjfyopoi. 

HKESILIA,  the  wife  of  Romulus,  was  the  only 
married  woman  carried  off  by  the  Romans  in 
the  rape  of  the  Sabiue  maidens.  As  Romulus 
after  death  became  Quirinus,  so  Hersilia  his 
wife  became  a  goddess,  Hora  or  Horta.  Some 
writers,  however,  made  Hersilia  the  wife  of 
Hostus,  grandfather  of  Tullus  Hostilius. 

HEKTHA  (containing  probably  the  same  ele- 
ments as  the  words  earth,  erde),  the  goddess  of 
the  earth  among  the  ancient  Germans 

HEBULI  or  ERULI,  a  powerful  German  race, 
are  said  to  have  come  originally  from  Scandi- 
navia, but  they  appear  on  the  shores  of  the 
Black  Sea  in  the  reign  of  Gallienus  (A.D.  262), 
when,  in  conjunction  with  the  Goths,  they  in- 
vaded the  Roman  empire.  They  were  conquer- 
ed by  the  Ostrogoths,  and  afterward  formed  part 
of  the  great  army  of  Attila,  with  which  he  in- 
vaded Gaul  and  Italy.  After  the  death  of  Attila 
(453)  a  portion  of  the  Heruli  united  with  other 
German  tribes  ;  and  under  the  command  of 
Odoacer,  who  is  said  to  have  been  an  Heru- 
liau,  they  destroyed  the  Western  Empire,  476. 
Meantime  the  remainder  of  the  nation  formed 
a  powerful  kingdom  on  the  banks  of  the  Theiss 
and  the  Danube,  which  was  eventually  destroy- 
ed by  the  Langobardi  or  Lombards.  Some  of 
the  Heruli  were  allowed  by  Anastasius  to  settle 
in  Panoonia,  anJ  they  served  with  great  dis- 
tinction in  the  armies  of  Justinian. 


HKSIODUS  ('H 


one  of  the  earliest  Greek 


poete,  of  whose  personal  history  we  possess 
little  authentic  information.  He  is  frequently 
mentioned-  along  with  Homer;  as  Homer  rep- 
resents the  Ionic  school  of  poetry  in  Asia  Minor, 
so  Hesiod  represents  the  Boeotian  school  of 
poetry,  which  spread  over  Phocis  and  Euboea. 
The  only  points  of  resemblance  between  the 
two  schools  consist  in  their  versification  and  di- 
alect In  other  respects  they  entirely  differ. 
'I'h'-  Homeric  school  takes  for  its  subjects  the 
restless  activity  of  the  heroic  age,  while  the 
Hesiodic  turns  its  attention  to  the  quiet  pursuits 
of  ordinary  life,  to  the  origin  of  the  world,  the 
gods  and  heroes.  Hesiod  lived  about  a  century 
later  than  Homer,  and  is  placed  about  B.C.  37*. 
We  learn  from  his  own  poem  on  Works  and 
Days  that  he  was  born  in  the  village  of  Ascra 
in  Bceotia,  whither  his  father  had  emigrated 
from  the  ^Eolian  Cyme  in  Asia  Minor.  After 
the  death  of  his  father  he  was  involved  in  a  dis- 
pute with  his  brother  Perses  about  his  small 
ruiii-iiiiotiy,  which  was  decided  in  favor  of  his 
brother.  Ho  then  emigrated  to  Orchomenos, 
where  he  ipent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 


with  Homer,  which  is  said  to  have  taken  place 
at  Chalcis  during  the  funeral  solemnities  of  King 
Amphidamas,  or,  according  to  others,  at  Aulis  or 
Delos.  The  story  of  this  contest  gave  rise  to  a 
composition  still  extant  under  the  title  of  'Ayuv 
'Qfiijpov  ical  'Haiodov,  the  work  of  a  grammarian 
who  lived  toward  the  end  of  the  first  century 
of  our  era,  in  which  the  two  poets  are  repre- 
sented as  engaged  in  the  contest,  and  answering 
one  another.  The  following  works  were  attrib- 
uted to  Hesiod  in  antiquity :  1.  "Epya  or  "Epya 
Kal  rjfispai,  Opera  et  Dies,  Works  and  Days.  It 
is  written  in  the  most  homely  style,  with  scarce- 
ly any  poetical  imagery  or  ornament,  and  must 
be  looked  upon  as  the  most  ancient  specimen 
of  didactic  poetry.  It  contains  ethical,  politi- 
cal, and  economical  precepts,  the  last  of  which 
constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  work,  consist- 
ing of  rules  about  choosing  a  wife,  the  educa- 
tion of  children,  agriculture,  commerce,  and  nav- 
igatiou.  It  would  further  seem  that  three  dis- 
tinct poems  have  been  inserted  in  it,  viz.,  1.  The 
fable  of  Prometheus  and  Pandora  (47-105) ;  2. 
On  the  ages  of  the  world,  which  are  designated 
by  the  names  of  metals  (109-201);  and,  3.  A 
description  of  winter  (504-556).  2.  Qeoyovia,  a 
Theogony,  was  not  considered  by  Hesiod's  coun- 
trymen to  be  a  genuine  production  of  the  poet 
This  work  gives  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
world  and  the  birth  of  the  gods,  explaining  the 
whole  order  of  nature  in  a  series  of  genealogies, 
for  every  part  of  physical  as  well  as  moral  na- 
ture there  appears  personified  in  the  character 
of  a  distinct  being.  The  whole  concludes  with 
an  account  of  some  of  the  most  illustrious  he- 
roes. 3.  'HoZai  or  ijolai,  //eyaAat,  also  called 
Kardhoyoi  yvvaiKuv,  Catalogue  of  Women.  This 
work  is  lost  It  contained  accounts  of  the 
women  who  had  been  beloved  by  the  god's,  and 
had  thus  become  the  mothers  of  the  heroes  in 
the  various  parts  of  Greece,  from,  whom  the 
ruling  families  derived  their  origin.  4.  'Aairlf 
'HpaKMovc,  Shield  of  Hercules,  which  is  extant, 
probably  formed  part  of  the  work  last  mention- 
ed. It  contains  a  description  of  the  shield  of 
Hercules,  and  is  an  imitation  of  the  Homeric 
description  of  the  shield  of  Achilles.  The  best 
edition  of  Hesiod  is  by  Gottling,  Gotha  and  Er- 
furt, 1843,  2d  ed. 

HKSISNE  ('Hfftov)?).  1.  Daughter  of  Laomedon, 
king  of  Troy,  was  chained  by  her  father  to  a 
rock,  in  order  to  be  devoured  by  a  sea-monster, 
that  he  might  thus  appease  the  anger  of  Apollo 
and  Neptune  (Poseidon).  Hercules  promised 
to  save  her  if  Laomedon  would  give  him  the 
horses  which  he  had  received  from  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  as  a  compensation  for  Ganymedes.  Her- 
cules killed  the  monster,  but  Laomedon  refused 
to  keep  his  promise.  Thereupon  Hercules  took 
Troy,  killed  Laomedon,  and  gave  Hesione  to 
his  friend  and  companion  Telamon,  by  whom 
she  became  the  mother  of  Teucer.  Her  brother 
Priam  sent  Antenor  to  claim  her  back,  and  the 
refusal  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks  is  mentioned 
as  one  of  the  causes  of  the  Trojan  war. — [2. 
This  '  Daughter  of  Oceauus,  and  wife  of  Prometheus.] 

367 


HESPERIA. 

HESPKRIA  ('Eanepia),  the  Western  land  (from 
toircpoc,  vesper),  the  name  given  by  the  Greek 
poets  to  Italy,  because  it  lay  west  of  Greece. 
In  imitation  of  them,  the  Roman  poets  gave  the 
name  of  Hesperia  to  Spain,  which  they  some- 
times called  ultima  Hesperia  (Hor,  (Jann^  i., 
86,  4),  to  distinguish  it  from  Italy,  which  they 
occasionally  called  Hesperia  Magna  (Virg.,  ./£«., 
i,  569.) 

HEBPKRIDES  ('Eoirtpides),  the  celebrated  guard- 
ians of  the  golden  apples  which  Ge  (Earth)  gave 
to  Juno  (Hera)  at  her  marriage  with  Jupiter 
Zeus.)  Their  parentage  is  differently  related. 
They  are  called  the  daughters  either  of  Night 
or  Erebus,  or  of  Phorcys  and  Ceto,  or  of  Atlas 
and  Hesperis  (whence  their  names  Atlantides 
or  Hesperides),  or  of  Hesperus,  or  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  and  Themis.  Some  traditions  mention- 
ed three  Hesperides,  viz.,  ^Egle,  Arethusa,  and 
Hesperia;  others  four,  ^Egle,  Erytheia,  Hestia, 
and  Arethusa;  and  others  again  seven.  The 
poets  describe  them  as  possessing  the  power  of 
sweet  song.  In  the  earliest  legends,  these 
nymphs  are  described  as  living  on  the  River 
Oceanus,  in  the  extreme  west ;  but  the  later  at- 
tempts to  fix  the  geographical  position  of  their 
gardens  led  poets  and  geographers  to  different 
parts  of  Libya,  as  the  neighborhood  of  Cyrene, 
Mount  Atlas,  or  the  islands  on  the  western  coast 
of  Libya,  or  even  to  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  earth,  beyond  the  wind  Boreas,  among  the 
Hyperboreans.  They  were  assisted  in  watch- 
ing the  golden  apples  by  the  dragon  Ladon.  It 
was  one  of  the  labors  of  Hercules  to  obtain 
possession  of  these  apples.  ( Vid.  p.  358,  a.) 

HESPERIDUM  INSUL*.     Vid,  HESPERIUM. 

HESPERIS.     Vid.  BERENICE,  No.  5,  p.  142. 

HESPKRIUM  ('Eonepiov,  'Eanepov  nepaf  :  now 
Cape  Verde  or  Cape  Roxo),  a  headland  on  the 
western  coast  of  Africa,  was  one  of  the  furthest 
pointe  to  which  the  knowledge  of  the  ancients 
extended  along  that  coast.  Near  it  was  a  bay 
called  Sinus  Hesperius ;  and  a  day's  journey 
from  It  a  group  of  islands  called  HESPERIDUM 
INSULT,  wrongly  identified  by  some  with  the 
Fortunate  Insula ;  they  are  either  the  Cape  de 
Verde  islands,  or,  more  properly,  the  Bissagos, 
at  the  mouth  of  tie  Rio  Grande. 

[HESPERIUS  SINUS.     Vid.  HESPERIUM.] 

HESPERUS  ("EoTrepof),  the  evening  star,  is 
called  by  Hesiod  a  son  of  Astroeus  and  Aurora 
(Eos).  He  was  also  regarded  as  the  same  as 
the  morning  star,  whence  both  Homer  and  He- 
siod call  him  the  bringer  of  light  (luf&opof).  A 
later  account  makes  him  a  son  of  Atlas,  who 
was  fond  of  astronomy,  and  who  disappeared 
after  ascending  Mount  Atlas  to  observe  the 
stars.  He  was  worshipped  with  divine  honors, 
and  was  regarded  as  the  fairest  star  in  the 
heavens.  The  Romans  designated  him  by  the 
names  Lucifer  and  Hesperus,  to  characterize 
him  as  the  morning  or  evening  star. 

HESTIA  ('Eoria,  Ion.  'lorii)),  called  VESTA  by 
the  Romans,  the  goddess  of  the  hearth,  or,  rath- 
er, of  the  fire  burning  on  the  hearth,  was  one  of 
the  twelve  great  divinities  of  the  Greeks.  She 
was  a  daughter  of  Saturn  (Cronus)  and  Rhea, 
and,  according  to  common  tradition,  was  the 
firet-born  of  Rhea,  and  consequently  the  first  of 
the  children  swallowed  by  Saturn  (Cronus). 
She  was  a  maiden  divinity,  and  when  Apollo 
368 


HESYCHIUS. 

and  Neptune  (Poseidon)  sued  for  her  hand,  she 
swore  by  the  head  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  remain 
a  virgin  forever.  As  the  hearth  was  looked 
upon  as  the  centre  of  domestic  life,  so  Hestia 
was  the  goddess  of  domestic  life  and  the  giver 
of  all  domestic  happiness ;  as  such  she  was  be- 
lieved to  dwell  in  the  inner  part  of  every  house, 
and  to  have  invented  the  art  of  building  houses. 
In  this  respect  she  often  appears  together  with 
Mercury  (Hermes),  who  was  likewise  a  deus 
penetralia.  Being  the  goddess  of  the  sacred  fire 
of  the  altar,  Hestia  had  a  share  in  the  sacrifices 
offered  to  all  the  gods.  Hence,  when  sacrifices 
were  offered,  she  was  invoked  first,  aud  th« 
first  part  of  the  sacrifice  was  presented  to  her. 
Solemn  oaths  were  sworn  by  the  goddess  of 
the  hearth ;  and  the  hearth  itself  was  the  sa- 
cred asylum  where  suppliants  implored  the  pro- 
tection of-  the  inhabitants  of  the  house.  A  town 
or  city  is  only  an  extended  family,  and  there- 
fore had  likewise  its  sacred  hearth.  This  pub- 
lic hearth  usually  existed  .in  the  prytaucum  of 
a  town,  where  the  goddess  had  her  especial 
sanctuary  ($uAa/«>f),  under  the  name  of  Pry- 
tanltis  (Upvravlrif),  with  a  statue  and  the  sacred 
hearth.  There,  as  at  a  private  hearth,  Hestia 
protected  the  suppliants.  When  a  colony  was 
sent  out,  the  emigrants  took  the  fire  which  waa 
to  burn  on  the  hearth  of  their  new  borne  from 
that  of  the  mother  town.  If  ever  the  fire  of  her 
hearth  became  extinct,  it  was  not  allowed  to  be 
lighted  again  with  ordinary  fire,  but  either  by 
fire  produced  by  friction,  or  by  burning  glasses 
drawing  fire  from  the  sun.  The  mystical  specu- 
lations of  later  times  took  their  origin  from  the 
simple  ideas  of  the  ancients,  and  assumed  a  sa- 
cred hearth  not  only  in  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
but  even  m  that  of  the  universe,  and  confound- 
ed Hestia  in  various  ways  with  other  divinities, 
such  as  Cybele,  Terra  (Gaea),  Ceres  (Demeter), 
Proserpina  (Persephone),  and  Diana  (Artemis), 
There  were  but  few  special  temples  of  Hestiti 
in  Greece,  since  every  prytaneum  was  in  reali- 
ty a  sanctuary  of  the  goddess,  and  since  a  por- 
tion of  the  sacrifices,  to  whatever  divinity  they 
were  offered,  belonged  to  her.  The  worship 
of  the  Roman  Vesta  is  spoken  of  under  VESTA. 

[HESTI^EA  ('Eariaia),  a  city  in  the  island  o/ 
Eubcea,  the  later  OREUS.) 

[HESTI^EA  ('Eoriaia)  a  learned  lady  of  Alex- 
andrea,  who  wrote  a  book  in  explanation  of  the 
Iliad.] 

HESTI^EOTIS  ('Eai  miwrif).  1.  The  northwest- 
era  part  of  Thessaly.  Vid.  THESSALIA. — 2.  Or 
HISTI^EA,  a  district  in  Eubcea.  Vid.  EUBCEA. 

HESYCHIUS  ('Htrt^of).  1.  An  Alexandrine 
grammarian,  under  whose  name  a  large  Greek 
dictionary  has  come  down  to  us.  Respecting 
his  personal  history  nothing  is  known,  but  ho 
probably  lived  about  A.D.  380.  The  work  is 
based,  as  the  writer  himself  tells  us,  upon  the 
lexicon  of  Diogenianus.  Hesychius  was  prob- 
ably a  pagan :  the  Christian  glosses  and  the 
references  to  Christian  writers  in  the  work  are 
interpolations  by  a  later  hand.  The  work  is 
one  of  great  importance,  not  only  on  account  of 
its  explaining  the  words  of  the  Greek  language, 
but  also  from  its  containing  much  literary  and 
archaeological  information,  derived  from  earlier 
grammarians  and  commentators,  whose  works 
are  lost  The  arrangement  of  the  work,  how 


HETRICULUM, 

ever,  is  very  defective.  The  best  edition  is 
by  Alberti,  completed  after  Alberti's  death  by 
Ruhukcn,  Lugd.  Bat,  1746-1766,  2  vols.  fol.— 
2.  Of  Miletus,  surnamed  Illustris,  from  some 
office  which  he  held,  lived  about  A.D.  540,  and 
wrote,  1.  An  Onomasticon,  or  account  of  illus- 
trious men,  published  by  Orelli,  Lips.,  1820.  2. 
A  Chronicon,  or  synoptical  view  of  universal  his- 
tory, in  six  parts,  from  the  reign  of  Belus,  the 
reputed  founder  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  to  the 
death  of  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Anastasius  I., 
A.D.  518.  The  work  itself  is  lost,  but  an  ac- 
count of  it  is  preserved  by  Photius. 

HETRICULUM,  a  town  of  the  Bruttii. 

HIBERNIA,  also  called  IERXE,  IVERNA  or  Ju- 
VERX\  ('lepvjj,  'lepvlc  vtjaof,  'lovepvia),  the  island 
of  Ireland,  appears  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  the  inhabitants  of  its  southern  coast,  call- 
ed Juverni  (lovepvoi)  by  Ptolemy,  but  its  orig- 
inal name  was  probably  Bergion  or  Vergion.  It 
is  mentioned  by  Caesar,  and  is  frequently  spoken 
of  by  subsequent  writers  ;  but  the  Romans  never 
made  any  attempt  to  conquer  the  island,  though 
they  obtained  some  knowledge  of  it  from  the 
commercial  intercourse  which  was  carried  on 
between  it  and  Britain.  We  have  no  account 
of  the  island  except  from  Ptolemy,  who  must 
have  derived  his  information  from  the  state- 
ments of  the  British  merchants,  who  visited  its 
coasts.  Ptolemy  gives  rather  a  long  list  of  its 
promontories,  rivers,  tribes,  and  towns. 

HICESIA.     Vid.  ^EOLI^E  INSURE. 

[HICETAOX  ('IKETUUV),  son  of  the  Trojan  king 
Laomedon,  and  brother  of  Priam.] 

HICETAS  ('I/ceraf  or  'iKeTtjc).  1.  A  Syracusan, 
contemporary  with  the  younger  Dionysius  and 
Timoleon.  He  was  at  first  a  friend  of  Dion, 
after  whose  death  (B.C.  353)  his  wife  Arete 
and  his  sister  Aristomache  placed  themselves 
under  the  care  of  Hicetas;  but  he  was  per- 
suaded, notwithstanding,  to  consent  to  their  de- 
struction. A  few  years  later  he  became  tyrant 
of  Leontini.  He  carried  on  war  against  the 
younger  Dionysius,  whom  he  defeated,  and  had 
made  himself  master  of  the  whole  city,  except 
the  island  citadel,  when  Timoleon  landed  in 
Sicily,  344.  Hicetas  then  opposed  Timoleon, 
and  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Carthaginians,  but 
be  was  defeated  and  put  to  death  by  Timoleon, 
839  or  338. — 2.  Tyrant  of  Syracuse,  during  the 
interval  between  the  reign  of  Agathocles  and 
that  of  Pyrrhus.  He  defeated  Phintias,  tyrant 
of  Agrigcntum,  and  was  himself  defeated  by 
the  Carthaginians.  After  a  reign  of  nine  years 
(288-279),  he  was  expelled  from  Syracuse. — 3. 
Of  Syracuse,  one  of  the  earlier  Pythagoreans. 

ill.  MI-SAL.  1.  Son  of  Micipsa,  king  of  Nu- 
midia, and  grandson  of  Masinissa,  was  murder- 
ed by  Jugurtha  soon  after  the  death  of  Micipsa, 
B.C.  118. — 2.  King  of  Numidia,  grandson  or 
great-grandson  of  Masinissa,  and  father  of  Juba, 
appears  to  have  received  the  sovereignty  of  part 
of  Numidia  after  the  Jugurthine  war.  He  was 
expelled  from  his  kingdom  by  Cn.  Domitius 
Ahenobarbus,  the  leader  of  the  Marian  party  in 
Africa,  but  was  restored  by  Pompey  in  81. 
Hiempsal  wrote  some  works  in  the  Punic  lan- 
guage, which  are  cited  by  Sallust  (Jug*  17). 

ll'Aii*.     1.  Vid.  JSoLi^E.     2.  Vid.  AGATES. 

HIi?.AroLi8  ('IcpaTToAjf).  1.  (Now  Bambuk- 
a  city  of  Great  Fbrygia,  near  the  Mse- 


HIERON. 

ander,  celebrated  for  its  hot  springs  and  its  tern 
pie  of  Cybele.  Like  the  neighboring  cities  of 
ColossaB  and  Laodicea,  it  was  an  early  seat  of 
Christianity,  and  it  is  mentioned  in  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (iv.,  13). — 2.  Formerly 
BAMBVCE  (BafiGvKij :  now  Bambuch  or  Membij), 
a  city  in  the  northeast  of  Syria,  one  of  the  chiel 
seats  of  the  worship  of  Astarte. 

[HIERAPYTNA  ('lepuTrvTva,  in  Dio  Cass.  'lepo- 
Tmdva :  'lepaxvTvioe :  now  Girapietra),  a  town 
on  the  southern  coast  of  Crete,  fabled  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Corybantes.] 

[HlERO.        Vid.  HlERON.] 

HIEROCLZS  ('lepOK/Jje).  1.  A  Greek  rhetori- 
cian of  Alabanda  in  Caria,  lived  about  B.C.  100, 
and  was  distinguished,  like  his  brother  Mene- 
cles,  by  the  Asiatic  style  of  oratory. — 2.  Gov- 
ernor of  Bithynia,  and  afterward  of  Alexan- 
drea,  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  chief  insti- 
gators of  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  un- 
der Diocletian.  He  wrote  a  work  against  the 
Christians,  entitled  A.6yot  <j>i?.a/\,j/6eif  irpbf  rovg 
Xpianavovf,  of  which  we  may  form  an  idea  from 
the  account  of  Lactantius  and  the  refutation 
which  Eusebius  wrote  against  it  We  see  from 
these  writers  that  Hieroeles  attacked  the  char- 
acter of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  put 
him  on  an  equality  with  Apollonius  of  Tyana. — 
3.  A  New  Platoijist,  who  lived  at  Alexandrea 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  He  wrote, 
1.  A  commentary  on  the  golden  verses  of  Py- 
thagoras, in  which  he  endeavors  to  give  an  in- 
telligible account  of  the  philosophy  of  Pytjiag- 
oras.  Published  by  Needham,  Cambridge,  1709, 
and  by  Warren,  London,  1742.  2.  A  work  on 
Providence,  Fate,  and  the  reconciliation  of  man's 
free  will  with  the  divine  government  of  the 
world,  in  seven  books.  The  work  is  lost,  bui 
some  extracts  from  it  are  preserved  in  Photws. 
3.  An  ethical  work  on  justice,  on  reverence  to- 
ward the  gods,  parents,  relations,  (fee.,  which 
bore  the  title  Tu  fytioaofyovneva.  This  work  is 
also  lost,  but  there  are  several  extracts  from  it 
in  Stobeeus.  The  extant  work,  entitled  'AareZa, 
a  collection  of  ludicrous  tales,  is  erroneously 
ascribed  to  Hieroeles,  the  New  Platonist.  The 
work  is  of  no  merit. — 4.  A  Greek  grammarian, 
the  author  of  an  extant  work,  entitled  Zwe/ctty- 
fiog,  that  is,  The  Travelling  Companion,  intend- 
ed as  a  hand-book  for  travellers  througb  the 
provinces  of  the  eastern  empire.  It  was  per- 
haps written  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  ecu 
tury  of  our  era.  It  contains  a  list  of  sixty  ep- 
arcniae  or  provinces  of  the  Eastern  empire,  and 
of  nine  hundred  and  thirty-five  different  towns, 
with  brief  descriptions.  Published  by  Wessel- 
ing,  in  Vetcrum  Romanorum  Itineraries,  Amster- 
dam, 1735. 

IIIEuox  ('ttpuv  ).  1.  Tyrant  of  Syracuse  (B. 
C.  478-467),  was  son  of  Dmomenes  and  brother 
of  Gelon,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  sovereign- 
ty. In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  he  became 
involved  in  a  war  with  Theron  of  Agrigentnm, 
who  had  espoused  the  cause  of  his  brother 
Polyzclus,  with  whom  ho  had  quarrelled.  But 
Hieron  afterward  concluded  a  peace  with  The- 
ron, and  became  reconciled  to  his  brother  Poly- 
zclus. After  the  death  of  Theron  in  472,  he 
carried  on  war  against  his  son  Thrasydaeus, 
whom  he  defeated  in  a  great  battle,  an.d  ex- 
pelled from  Agriffentum.  But  by  far  the  most 
369 


HIERON. 

important  event  of  his  reign  was  the  great 
victory  which  be  obtained  over  the  Etruscan 
fleet  near  Cuma)  (474),  und  -which  appears  to 
have  effectually  broken  the  naval  power  of 
tliiit  uution.  Hierou  died  at  Cataua  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  his  reigu,  467.  His  govern- 
nieut  was  much  more  despotic  than  that  of  his 
brother  Gelon.  He  maintained  a  large  guard 
<if  mercenary  troops,  and  employed  numerous 
spies  and  informers.  He  was,  however,  a  lib- 
eral arid  enlightened  patron  of  men  of  letters, 
iiud  his  court  became  the  resort  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished poets  and  philosophers  of  the  day. 
JEsehylus,  Pindar,  and  13acchylides  took  up  their 
abode  with  him,  and  we  find  him  associating  in 
friendly  intercourse  with  Xenophanes,  Epicuar- 
mus,  and  Simonides.  His  intimacy  with  the 
latter  was  particularly  celebrated,  and  has  been 
made  the  subject  by  Xenophon  of  an  imaginary 
dialogue,  entitled  the  Jlieron.  His  love  of  mag- 
nificence was  especially  displayed  in  the  great 
contests  of  the  (Grecian  games,  and  his  victories 
at  Olympia  and  Delphi  have  been  immortalized 
by  Pindar.— 2.  King  of  Syracuse  (B.C.  270-216), 
was  the  son  of  Hierocles,  a  noble  Syracusau, 
descended  from  the  great  Gelon,  but  his  moth- 
er was  a  female  servant  When  Pyrrhus  left 
Sicily  (275),  Hieron,  who  had  distinguished 
himself  in  the  wars  of  that  monarch,  was  de- 
clared general  by  the  Syracusan  army.  He 
strengthened  his  power  by  marrying  the  daugh- 
ter of  Leptines,  at  that  time  the  most  influen- 
tial Citizen  at  Syracuse;  and  after  his  defeat  of 
the  Mamertines,  he  was  saluted  by  his  fellow- 
citizens  with  the  title  of  king,  270.  It  was  the 
great  object  of  Hieron  to  expel  the  Mamertines 
from  Sicily ;  and  accordingly,  when  the  Romans, 
ia  204,  interposed  in  favor  of  that  people,  Hie- 
ron concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Carthagini- 
ans, and,  in  conjunction  with  them,  carried  on 
war  against  the  Romans.  But  having  been  de- 
feated by  the  Romans,  he  concluded  a  peace 
with  them  in  the  following  year  (263),  in  virtue 
of  which  he  retained  possession  of  the  whole 
southeast  gf  Sicily,  and  the  eastern  side  of  the 
island  as  far  as  Tauromenium.  From  this  time 
till  his  death,  a  period  of  little  less  than  half  a 
century,  Hieron  continued  the  steadfast  friend 
and  ally  of  the  Romans,  a  policy  of  which  his 
subjects  as  well  as  himself  reaped  the  benefits, 
in  the  enjoyment  of  a  state  of  uninterrupted 
tranquillity  and  prosperity.  Even  the  heavy 
losses  which  the  Romans  sustained  in  the  first 
three  years  of  the  second  Punic  war  did  not 
shake  his  fidelity  ;  and  after  their  great  defeats, 
he  sent  them  large  supplies  of  corn  and  auxiliary 
troops.  He  died  in  216  at  the  age  of  ninety- 
two.  His  government  was  mild  and  equitable : 
though  he  did  not  refuse  the  title  of  king,  he 
avoided  all  external  display  of  the  insignia  of 
royalty,  and  appeared  in  public  in  the  garb  of  a 
private  citizen.  The  care  he  bestowed  upon 
the  financial  department  of  his  administration 
is  attested  by  the  laws  regulating  the  tithes  of 
corn  and  other  agricultural  produce,  which,  un- 
der the  name  of  Leges  Hierdnicw,  were  retained 
by  the  Romans  when  they  reduced  Sicily  to  a 
province.  He  adorned  the  city  of  Syracuse 
with  many  public  works.  His  power  and  mag- 
nificence were  celebrated  by  Theocritus  in  his 
ibrteenth  IdyL  Hieron  had  only  one  son,  Ge- 
370 


HIERONYMUS. 

Ion,  who  died  shortly  before  his  father.     He  wa» 
succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Hieronymus. 

HiEiioNYMUs  ('lepwvtyzof).  1.  Of  Cardia,  prob 
ably  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  to  Asia, 
and  after  the  death  of  that  monarch  (B.C.  323) 
served  under  his  countryman  Eumenes.  In  tho 
last  battle  between  Eumencs  and  Antigouus 
(316),  Hieronymus  fell  into  the  hands  of  Antig- 
ouus, who  treated  him  with  kindness,  and  to 
whose  service  he  henceforth  attached  himself. 
After  the  death  of  Antigonus  (301),  Hierouyncua 
continued  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  his  sou  De- 
metrius, and  was  appointed  by  the  latter  gov- 
ernor of  Boeotia,  after  his  first  conquest  of 
Thebes,  292.  He  continued  unshaken  in  his 
attachment  to  Demetrius  and  to  his  son,  Antig- 
onus Gonatas,  after  him.  It  appears  that  he 
survived  Pyrrhus,  and  died  at  the  advanced  age 
of  104.  Hieronymus  wrote  a  history  of  the 
events  from  the  death  of  Alexander  to  that  of 
Pyrrhus,  if  not  later.  This  work  has  not  come 
down  to  us,  but  it  is  frequently  cited  by  later 
writers  as  one  of  the  chief  authorities  for  the 
history  of  Alexander's  successors.  We  are  told 
that  Hieronymus  displayed  partiality  to  Antigo- 
nus and  Demetrius,  and,  in  consequence,  treated 
Pyrrhus  and  Lysimachus  with  great  injustice. 
— 2.  King  of  Syracuse,  succeeded  his  grand- 
father Hieron  IL,  B.C.  216,  at  fifteen  years  of 
age.  He  was  persuaded  by  the  Carthaginian 
party  to  renounce  the  alliance  with  the  Romans, 
which  his  grandfather  had  maintained  for  so 
many  years.  He  was  assassinated  after  a  short 
reign  of  only  thirteen  months. — 3.  Of  Rhodes, 
commonly  called  a  peripatetic,  though  Cicero 
questions  his  right  to  the  title,  was  a  disciple  of 
Aristotle,  and  appears  to  have  lived  down  to  the 
time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  He  held  the 
liighest  good  to  consist  in  freedom  from  pain 
and  trouble,  and  denied  that  pleasure  was  to  be 
sought  for  its  own  sake. — 4.  Commonly  known 
as  SAINT  JEROME,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  Christian  fathers,  was  born  at  Stridon,  a 
town  upon  the  confines  of  Dalmatia  and  Pan- 
nonia,  about  A.D.  340.  His  father  sp.ut  him  to 
Rome  for  the  prosecution  of  his  studies,  where 
he  devoted  himself  with  great  ardor  and  suc- 
cess to  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  to  rhet- 
oric, and  to  the  different  branches  of  philosophy, 
enjoying  the  instructions  of  the  most  distin- 
guished preceptors  of  that  era,  among  whom 
was  ./Elius  Donatus.  Vid.  DONATUS.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies  he  went  to  Gaul,  where  he 
remained  some  time,  and  subsequently  travelled 
through  various  countries  in  the  East.  At  Au- 
tioch  he  was  attacked  by  a  dangerous  malady, 
and  on  his  recovery  he  resolved  to  withdraw 
from  the  world.  In  374  he  retired  to  the  desert 
of  Chalcis,  lying  between  Antioch  and  the  Eu 
phrates,  where  he  passed  four  years,  adhering 
strictly  to  the  most  rigid  observances  of  monk- 
ish ascetism,  but  at  the  same  time  pursuing  the 
study  of  Hebrew.  In  379  he  was  ordained  a 
presbyter  at  Antioch  by  Pauliuus.  Soon  after 
he  went  to  Constantinople,  where  he  lived  for 
three  years,  enjoying  the  instructions  and  friend- 
ship of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus.  In  382  he  ac- 
companied Paulinus  to  Rome,  where  he  formed 
a  close  friendslu'p  with  the  Pope  Damasus.  He 
remained  at  Rome  three  years,  and  there  labor- 
ed in  proclaiming  the  glory  and  merit  of  a  con- 


HIEROSOLYMA. 


HIMILCO. 


templative  life  and  monastic  discipline.  He 
had  many  enthusiastic  disciples  among  the  Ro-  j 
mau  Indies,  but  the  influence  wliich  he  exercis-  ! 
ed  over  them  excited  the  hatred  of  their  rela- 
tions, and  exposed  him  to  attacks  against  his  j 
character.  Accordingly,  lie  left  Rome  in  385,  ; 
having  lost  his  patron  Damaus  in  the  preceding 
year,  and,  accompanied  by  the  rich  widow  Paula, 
her  daughter  Eustochiuin,  and  a  number  of  de- 
vout maidens,  he  made  a  tour  of  the  Holy  Land, 
and  finally  settled  at  Bethlehem,  where  Paula 
erected  four  monasteries,  three  for  nuns  and 
one  for  monks.  Here  he  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  He  died  A.D.  420.  Jerome  wrote 
a  great  number  of  works,  most  of  which  have 
come  down  to  us.  Of  these  the  most  celebrated 
are  lus  Commentaries  on  the  various  books  of 
the  Scriptures.  He  also  translated  into  Latin 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments:  his  translation 
is  in  substance  the  Latin  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, known  by  the  name  of  the  Vulgate.  The 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  was  made  by 
Jerome  directly  from  the  Hebrew  ;  but  the 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  formed 
by  him  out  of  the  old  translations,  carefully  cor- 
rected from  the  original  Greek.  Jerome  like- 
wise translated  from  the  Greek  the  Chronicle 
oi  Eusebius,  which  he  enlarged,  chiefly  in  the 
department  of  Roman  history,  and  brought  down 
to  A.D.  378.  Jerome  was  the  most  learned  of 
the  Latin  fathers.  His  profound  knowledge  of 
the  .Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages,  his 
familiarity  with  ancient  history  and  philosophy, 
and  his  personal  acquaintance  with  the  man- 
ners and  scenery  of  the  East,  enabled  him  to 
throw  much  light  upon  the  Scriptures.  In  his 
controversial  works  he  is  vehement  and  dog- 
matical His  language  is  exceedingly  pure,  bear- 
ing ample  testimony  to  the  diligence  with  which 
he  must  have  studied  the  choicest  models.  The 
best  editions  of  the  works  of  Jerome  are  the 
Benedictine,  Paris,  5  vols.  foL,  1693-1706,  and 
that  by  Valkrsi,  Veron.,  11  vokfoh,  1734-1742; 
reprinted  Venet.,  11  vols.  4to,  1766. 
HIKROSOLYMA.  Vid'.  JERUSALEM. 
HILARIUS.  1.  A  Christian  writer,  was  born 
of  pagan  parents  at  Poitiers.  He  afterward  be- 
came a  Christian,  and  was  elected  bishop  of  his 
native  place,  A.D.  350.  From  this  time  he  de- 
voted all  his  energies  to  check  the  progress  of 
Arianism,  which  was  making  rapid  strides  in 
Gaul.  He  became  BO  troublesome  to  the  Ari- 
aas,  that  they  induced  the  Emperor  Constautius 
ID  356  to 'banish  him  to  Phrygia.  He  was  allow- 
ed to  return  to  Gaul  about  361,  anfdied  in  bis 
diocese  in  368.  Several  of  his  works  have 
come  down  to  us.  They  consist  chiefly  of 
polemical  treatises  against  the  Arians  and  ad- 
dresses to  the  Emperor  Constantius.  The  best 
<-<litii>n  of  his  works  is  by  Constant,  Paris,  1693, 
forming  one  of  the  Benedictine  series,  and  re- 
juintcd  by  Scipio  Maffei,  Veron..  1730. — 2.  Bisb- 
<•[)  "f  Aries,  succeeded  his  master  Houorutus  in 
that  diocese,  A.D.  429,  and  died  in  449.  Ho 
wrote  the  life  of  Honoratus  and  a  few  other 
works. 

Iln.i.Kvif.NKs.     Vid.  GERMANIA,  p.  327,  a. 

1 1 1  M  E  i:  A  ('I [it pa).      1 .  (Now  flume  Salso,)  one 

of  the  principal  rivers  in  the  south  of  Sicily,  at 

••IK    tiinr  (!K-  boundary  between  the  territories 

of  the    Carthagiuiana  and    Syracusans,  receives 


near  Enna  the  water  of  a  salt  spring,  and  hence 
has-salt  water  as  far  as  its  mouth. — 2.  A  smaller 
river  in  the  north  of  Sicily,  flows  into  the  sea 
between  the  towns  of  Himera  and  Thermse. — 
3.  ('Ifiepalos),  a  celebrated  Greek  city  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Sicily,  west  of  the  mouth  of 
the  River  Himera  (No.  2),  was  founded  by  the 
Chalcidians  of  Zancle,  B.C.  648,  and  afterward 
received  Dorian  settlers,  so  that  the  inhabitants 
spoke  a  mixed  dialect,  partly  Ionic  (Chalcidiau) 
and  partly  Doric.  AlJout  560,  Himera,  being 
threatened  by  its  powerful  neighbors,  placed  it- 
self under  the  protection  of  Phalaris,  tyrant  of 
Agrigentum,  in  whose  jaower  it  appears  to 'have 
remained  till  his  deatn.  At  a  later  time  (500) 
we  find  Himera  governed  by  a  tyrant  Terillus, 
who  was  expelled  by  Theron  of  Agrigentum. 
Terillus  thereupon  applied  for  assistance  to  the 
Carthaginians,  who,  anxious  to  extend  their  in- 
fluence in  Sicily,  sent  a  powerful  army  into 
Sicily  under  the  command  of  Hamilcar.  The 
Carthaginians  were  defeated  with  great  slaugh- 
ter at  Himera  by  the  united  forces  of  Theiou 
and  Gelon  of  Syracuse  on  the  same  day  that  the 
battle  of  Salainis  was  fought  (480)."  Himera 
was  now  governed  by  Thrasydceus,  the  son  of 
Theron,  in  the  name  of  his  father ;  but  the  iu- 
tiabitants  having  attempted  to  revolt,  Theron  put 
to  death  or  drove  into  exile  a  considerable  part 
of  the  population,  and  repeopled  the  city  with 
settlers  from  all  quarters,  but  especially  of  Do- 
rian origin.  After  the  death  of  Theron  (472), 
Himera  recovered  its  independence,  and  for  the 
next  sixty  years  was  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing cities  in  Sicily.  It  assisted  Syracuse  against 
the  Athenians  in  415.  In  409  it  was  taken  by 
Hannibal,  the  son  of  Gisco,  who,  to  revenge  t  he- 
great  defeat  which  the  Carthaginians  had  suf- 
fered before  this  town,  levelled  it  to  the  ground 
and  destroyed  almost  all  the  inhabitants.  Hi- 
mera  was  never  rebuilt ;  but  on  the  opposite- 
bank  of  the  River  Himera,  the  Carthaginians 
founded  a  new  town,  which,  from  a  warm  me- 
dicinal spring  in  its  neighborhood,  was  called 
THERMAE  (Qlpftai :  Sep/u'irqc,  Thermitanus  :  now 
Termini).  Here  the  remains  of  the  unfortunate 
inhabitants  of  Himera  were  allowed  to  settle. 
The  Romans,  who  highly  prized  the  warm 
springs  of  Thermae,  permitted  the  town  to  retain 
its  own  constitution ;  and  Augustus  made  it  a 
colony.  The  poet  Stesichorus  was  born  at  the 
ancient  Himera,  and  the  tyrant  Agathocles  at 
Thermae. 

HIMERIUS  (T//epiof),  a  celebrated  Greek  soph- 
ist, was  born  at  Prusa  in  Bithyuia,  and  studied 
at  Athens.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  at  Athens,  where  he  gave  in- 
struction to  Julian,  afterward  emperor,  and  tho 
celebrated  Christian  writers,  Basil  and  Gregorj 
Nazian/ca  In  362  the  Emperor  Julian  invited 
him  to  his  court  at  Antioch,  and  made  him  bis  sec- 
retary. He  returned  to  Athens  in  868,  and  there 
passed  tho  remainder  of  his  life.  Himerius  was  a 
pagan ;  but  he  does  not  manifest  in  his  writings 
any  animosity  against  the  Christians.  There  wi-ro 
extant  in  the  time  of  Photius  seventy -one  orations 
by  Himerius ;  but  of  these  only  twenty-four  liavt 
come  down  to  us  complete.  Edited  by  "Werus- 
dorf,  Gottingcn,  1790. 

HIMILCO  ('Ifiifaav).     I.   A  Carthaginian,  who 
conducted  a  voyage  of  discovery  from  Gade* 
371 


HIPPANA. 


HIPPOCENTAURI 


toward  the  north,  along  the  western  shores  of 
Europe,  at  the  same  time  that  Hanuo  undertook 
his  voyage  to  the  south  along  the  coast  of  Afri- 
ca, Vid.  HAXXO,  No.  10.  Himilco  represent- 
ed that  his  further  progress  was  prevented  by 
the  stagnant  nature  of  the  sea,  loaded  with  sea- 
weed, and  by  the  absence  of  wind.  His  voyage 
is  said  to  have  lasted  four  months,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  judge  how  far  it  was  extended.  Per- 
haps it  was  intentionally  wrapped  in  obscurity 
by  the  commercial  jealousy  of  the  Carthagini- 
ans.— 2.  Son  of  Hanno,  commanded,  together 
with  Hannibal,  son  of  Gisco  (vid.  HANNIBAL, 
No.  1),  a  Carthaginian  army  in  Sicily,  and  laid 
siege  to  Agrigentum,  B.C.  406.  Hannibal  died 
before  Agrigentum  of  a  pestilence,  which  broke 
out  in  the  camp;  and  Himilco,  now  left  sole 
general,  succeeded  in  taking  the  place,  after  a 
siege  of  nearly  eight  months.  At  a  later  period 
he  carried  on  war  against  Dionysius  of  Syra- 
cuse. In  395  he  defeated  Dionysius,  and  laid 
siege  to  Syracuse  ;  but  while  pressing  the  siege 
of  the  city,  a  pestilence  carried  off  a  great  num- 
ber of  his  men.  In  this  weakened  condition, 
Himilco  was  attacked  and  defeated  by  Diony- 
sius, and  was  obliged  to  purchase  his  safety  by 
an  ignominious  capitulation.  Such  was  his 
grief  and  disappointment  at  this  termination  to 
the  campaign,  that,  on  his  return  to  Carthage, 
he  put  an  end  to  his  life  by  voluntary  absti- 
nence.— 3.  The  Carthaginian  commander  at  Lil- 
ybseum,  which  he  defended  with  skill  and  brav- 
ery when  it  was  attacked  by  the  Romans,  250. 
— 1.  Commander  of  the  Carthaginian  forces  in 
Sicily  during  a  part  of  the  second  Punic  war,  214 
-212. — 5.  Surnamed  PHAM^AS,  commander  of  the 
Carthaginian  cavalry  in  the  the  third  Punic  war. 
He  deserted  to  the  Romans,  by  whom  he  was 
liberally  rewarded. 

HIPPANA  (TU  "iTrxava),  a  town  in  the  north  of 
Sicily,  near  Panormus. 

HIPPARCHIA  ('iTTirapxia),   wife  of  Crates  the 
Cynic.     (For  details,  vid.  CRATES,  No.  3.) 

HIPI-ARCHUS  ("iTnrapxos).  1.  Son  of  Pisistra 
tus.  Vid.  PISISTRATID.E. — 2,  A  celebrated  Greek 
astronomer,  was  a  native  of  Nicaaa  in  Bithyuia, 
and  flourished  B.C.  160-145.  He  resided  both 
at  Rhodes  and  Alexandrea.  He  was  the  true 
father  of  astronomy,  which  he  raised  to  that 
rank  among  the  applications  of  arithmetic  and 
geometry  which  it  has  always  since  preserved. 
He  was  the  first  who  gave  and  demonstrated 
the  means  of  solving  all  triangles,  rectilinear 
and  spherical.  He  constructed  a  table  of  chords, 
of  which  he  made  the  same  sort  of  use  as  we 
make  of  our  sines.  He  made  more  observa- 
tions than  his  predecessors,  and  understood 
them  better.  He  invented  the  planisphere,  or 
the  mode  of  representing  the  starry  heavens 
upon  a  plane,  and  of  producing  the  solutions  of 
problems  of  spherical  astronomy.  He  is  also 
the  father  of  true  geography,  by  his  happy  idea 
of  marking  the  position  of  spots  on  the  earth, 
as  was  done  with  the  stars,  by  circles  drawn 
from  the  pole  perpendicularly  to  the  equator ; 
that  is,  by  latitudes  and  longitudes.  His  method 
of  eclipses  was  the  only  one  by  which  differ- 
ences of  meridians  could  be  determined.  The 
catalogue  which  Hipparchus  constructed  of  the 
stars  is  preserved  in  the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy. 
Hipparchus  wrote  numerous  works  which  are 
372 


all  lost  with  the  exception  of  his  commenta- 
ry on  the  phenomena  of  Aratus. 

HIPPARINUS  ('iTTTraplvof).  1.  A  Syracusan, 
father  of  Dion  and  Aristomache,  supported  the 
elder  Dionysius,  Avho  married  his  daughter  Aris- 
tomache.— 2.  Son  of  Dion,  and  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  threw  himself  from  the  roof  of  a 
house,  and  was  killed  on  the  spot,  when  his 
father  attempted,  by  restraint,  to  cure  him  of 
the  dissolute  habits  which  he  had  acquired  while 
under  the  power  of  Dioiiysius. — 3.  Son  of  the 
elder  Dionysius  by  Aristomache,  daughter  of 
No.  1,  succeeded  Callippus  in  the  tyranny  of 
Syracuse,  B.C.  352.  He  was  assassinated  after 
reigning  only  two  years. 

HIPPARIS  ('iTnrapig  :  now  Camarina),  a  river 
in  the  south  of  Sicily,  which  flows  into  the  sea 
near  Camarina. 

HIPPASUS  ("iTTTrao-of),  of  Metapoutum  or  Cro- 
ton,  in  Italy,  one  of  the  elder  Pythagoreans, 
held  the  element  of  fire  to  be  the  cause  of  all 
things.  In  consequence  of  his  making  known 
the  sphere,  consisting  of  twelve  pentagons, 
which  was  regarded  by  the  Pythagoreans  as  a 
secret,  he  is  said  to  have  perished  in  the  sea  as 
an  impious  man. 

HIPPIA  and  HIPPIUS  ('iTnria  and  "iTTTrtof,  or 
°lmreiof),  in  Latin  Equester  and  Equestris,  sur- 
names of  several  divinities,  as  of  Juno  (Hera) 
and  Minerva  (Athena),  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
and  of  Mars  (Ares) ;  and  at  Rome  also  of  Fortuna 
and  Venus. 

HIPPIAS  ('iTTTrtaf).  1.  Son  of  Pisistratus.  Vid. 
PISISTRATID^E. — 2.  The  Sophist,  was  a  native 
of  Elis,  and  the  contemporary  of  Socrates.  His 
fellow-citizens  availed  themselves  of  his  abili- 
tiet  in  political  matters,  and  sent  him  on  a  dip- 
lomatic mission  to  Sparta  But  he  was  in  every 
respect  like  the  other  sophists  of  the  time.  He 
travelled  through  Greece  for  the  purpose  of  ac- 
quiring wealth  and  celebrity  by  teaching  and 
public  speaking.  His  character  as  a  sophist, 
his  vanity,  and  his  boastful  arrogance,  are  well 
described  in  the  two  dialogues  of  Plato,  Hippias 
major  and  Hippias  minor.  Though  his  knowl- 
edge was  superficial,  yet  it  appears  that  he  had 
paid  attention  not  only  to  rhetorical,  philosoph- 
ical, and  political  studies,  but  also  to  poetry, 
music,  mathematics,  painting,  and  sculpture; 
and  he  must  even  have1  acquired  some  practical 
skill  in  the  mechanical  arte,  as  he  used  to  boast 
of  wearing  on  his  body  nothing  that  he  had  not 
made  with  his  own  hands,  such  as  his  seal-ring, 
his  cloak,  and  shoes.  He  possessed  great  fa- 
cility in  extempore  speaking ;  and  once  his  van- 
ity led  him  TO  declare  that  he  would  travel  to 
Olympia,  and  there  deliver  before  the  assembled 
Greeks  an  oration  on  any  subject  that  might  be 
proposed  to  him. 

HIPPO  ('Imruv),  in  Africa.  1.  EL  REGIUS  ('I. 
flaaihiKof  :  ruins  near  Bonah),  a  city  on  the  coast 
of  Numidia,  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Rubrica- 
tus ;  once  a  royal  residence,  and  afterward  cel- 
ebrated as  the  bishopric  of  St  Augustine. — 2. 
H.  DIAKKHYTUS  or  ZARiTus  ('I.  didbpvTOf  :  now  M- 
zerta),  a  city  on  the  northern  coast  of  the 
Carthaginian  territory  (Zeugitana),  west  of  Uti- 
j  ca,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sinus  Hipponensis. — 3. 
A  town  of  the  Carpetani  in  Hispauia  Tarraco- 
nensis,  south  of  Toletum. 

HIPPOCENTAURI.     Vid.  CENTAURI. 


HIPPOCOOtf. 

HIPPOCOON  ('ITTTTOKOUJ').  1.  Son  of  CEbalus  and 
Batea.  After  his  father's  death  he  expelled  his 
brother  Tyndareus,  in  order  to  secure  the  king- 
dom to  himself;  but  Hercules  led  Tyndareus 
back,  and  slew  Hippocoon  and  his  sons.  .Ovid 
(Met.,  viii.,  314)  mentions  the  sons  of  Hippocoon 
among  the  Calydonian  hunters. — [2.  A  Thra- 
cian,  follower  of  Rhesus  in  the  Trojan  war. — 
3.  Son  of  Hyrtacus,  a  companion  of  JEneas,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  funeral  games  cde- 
brated  in  honor  of  Anchises.] 

HIPPOCRATES  ('iTnroKpdr^).  1.  Father  of  Pi- 
sistratus,  the  tyrant  of  Athens. — 2.  An  Athe- 
nian, sou  of  Megacles,  was  brother  of  Clisthe- 
nes,  the  legislator,  and  grandfather,  through  his 
daughter  Agariste,  of  the  illustrious  Pericles. 
— 3.  An  Athenian,  son  of  Xanthippus  and  broth- 
er of  Pericles.  He  had  three  sous,  who,  as  well 
as  their  father,  are  alluded  to  by  Aristophanes 
as  men  of  a  mean  capacity,  and  devoid  of  edu- 
cation.— 4.  An  Athenian,  son  of  Ariphron,  com- 
manded the  Athenians,  B.C.  424,  when  he  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  the  Boeotians  at  the  battle 
of  Delium. — 5.  A  Lacedaemonian,  served  under 
Mindarus  on  the  Asiatic  coast  in  4 10,  and,  after 
the  defeat  of  Mindarus  at  Cyzicus,  became  com- 
mander of  the  fleet — 6.  A  Sicilian,  succeeded 
his  brother  Oleander  as  tyrant  of  G^ela,  498. 
His  reign  was  prosperous ;  and  he  extended  his 
power  over  several  other  cities  of  Sicily.  He 
died  in  491,  while  besieging  Hybla. — 7.  A  Sicil- 
ian, brother  of  EPICVDES. — 8.  The  most  cele- 
brated physician  of  antiquity.  He  was  born  ju 
the  island  of  Cos  about  B.C.  460.  He  belonged 
to  the  family  of  the  Asclepiadae,  and  was  the 
aon  of  Heraclides,  who  was  also  a  physician. 
His  mother's  name  was  Ph&narete,  who  was 
eaid  to  be  descended  from  Hercules.  He  was 
instructed  in  medical  science  by  his  father  and 
by  Herodicus,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  also 
a  pupil  of  Gorgias  of  Leontini.  He  wrote, 
taught,  and  practiced  his  profession  at  home ; 
travelled  in  different  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Greece ;  and  died  at  Larissa  in  Thessaly,  about 
357,  at  the  age  of  104.  He  had  two  sons,  Thes- 
salus  and  Dracon,  and  a  son-in-law,  Polybus, 
all  of  whom  followed  the  same  profession,  and 
who  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  authors  of 
some  of  the  works  in  the  Hippocratic  collec- 
tion. These  are  the  only  certain  facts  which 
we  know  respecting  the  life  of  Hippocrates ;  but 
to  these  later  writers  have  added  a  large  collec- 
tion of  stories,  many  of  which  are  clearly  fabu- 
lous. Thus  he  is  said  to  have  stopped  the  plague 
at  Athens  by  burning  fires  throughout  the  city, 
by  suspending  chaplets  of  flowers,  and  by  the 
use  of  an  antidote.  It  is  also  related  that  Ar- 
taxerxes  Longimanus,  king  of  Persia,  invited 
Hippocrates  to  come  to  his  assistance  during  a 
time  of  pestilence,  but  that  Hippocrates  refused 
hia  request  on  the  ground  of  his  being  the  en- 
emy of  his  country.  The  writings  which  have 
come  down  to  us  under  the  name  of  Hippocrates 
were  composed  by  several  different  persons,  and 
are  of  very  different  merit  They  are  more  than 
•ixty  b  number,  but  of  these  only  a  few  are 
certainly  genuine.  They  are :  1.  TlpoyvuoriKov, 
Prcenotlones  or  Prognosticon.  2.  'A.<jx>pio[ioi,  Apho- 
ritmi.  3.  'ETridriftiuv  BiGfaa,  De  Aforbis  Popula- 
ribus  (er  JSpidemiorum).  4.  TLepl  Atatnyf  'O&uv, 
De  Ratione  Victwi  in  Morhit  Acutis,  or  De  Diceta 


HIPPODAMUS. 

Acutorum.  5.  Uepl  'Aepuv,  'TduTuv,  TOTTUV,  De 
Aere,  Aquis,  et  Locis.  6.  Uepl  ruv  h  Ke<j>aZ% 
Tpuparuv,  De  Capitis  Vulncribus.  Some  of  the 
other  works  were  perhaps  written  by  Hippo- 
crates ;  but  the  great  majority  of  them  were 
composed  by  his  disciples  and  followers,  many 
of  whom  bore  the  name  of  Hippocrates.  The 
ancient  physicians  wrote  numerous  comment 
aries  on  the  works  in  the  Hippocratic  collectioa 
Of  these  the  most  valuable  are  the  comment- 
aries of  Galen.  Hippocrates  divided  the  causes 
of  disease  into  two  principal  classes ;  the  one 
comprehending  the  influence  of  seasons,  cli- 
mates, water,  situation,  <fec.,  and  the  other  the 
influence  of  food,  exercise,  <fec.  He  considered 
that  while  heat  and  cold,  moisture  and  dryness, 
succeeded  one  another  throughout  the  year, 
the  human  body  underwent  certain  analogous 
changes,  which  influenced  the  diseases  of  the 
period.  He  supposed  that  the  four  fluids  or 
humors  of  the  body  (blood,  phlegm,  yellow  bile, 
and  black  bile)  were  the  primary  seat  of  dis- 
ease ;  that  health  was  the  result  of  the  due 
combination  (or  crasis)  of  these,  and  that,  when 
this  crasis  was  disturbed,  disease  was  the  conse- 
quence; that,  in  the  course  of  a  disorder  that 
was  proceeding  favorably,  these  humors  under 
went  a  certain  change  in  quality  (or  coction), 
which  was  the  sign  of  returning  health,  as  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  expulsion  of  the  morbid 
matter,  or  crisis;  and  that  these  crises  had  a 
tendency  to  occur  at  certain  stated  periods, 
which  Avere  hence  called  "  critical  days."  Hip- 
pocrates was  evidently  a  person  who  not  only 
had  had  great  experience,  but  who  also  knew 
how  to  turn  it  to  the  best  account;  and  the 
number  of  moral  reflections  and  apophthegms 
that  we  meet  with  in  his  writings,  some  of 
which  (as,  for  example,  "  Life  is  short,  and  Art 
is  long")  have  acquired  a  sort  of  proverbial  no- 
toriety, show  him  to  have  been  a  profound 
thinker.  His  works  are  written  in  the  Ionic 
dialect,  and  the  style  is  so  concise  as  to  be 
sometimes  extremely  obscure.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  his  works  is  by  Littr6,  Paris,  1839,  ^q., 
with  a  French  translation. 

HIPPOCRENE  ('linroKpijvri),  the  "Fountain  of 
the  Horse,"  called  by  Persius  Fons  Caballinus, 
was  a  fountain  in  Mount  Helicon  in  Bceotia, 
sacred  to  the  Muses,  said  to  have  been  produc- 
ed by  the  horse  Pegasus  striking  the  ground 
with  his  feet 

[HIPPODAMAS  ('iTrTrotJa/iaf),  son  of  Priam,  slain 
by  Achilles.] 

HIPPODAMIA  ('liritodupeia).  1.  Daughter  of 
CEnomaus,  king  of  Pisa  in  Elis.  For  details, 
vid.  (ENOMAUS  and  PELOPS. — 2.  Wife  of  Pirith- 
ous,  at  whose  nuptials  took  place  the  celebrated 
battle  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithae.  For 
details,  vid.  PIRITHOCS. — 3.  Vid.  BRISEIS. — [4. 
Wife  of  Amyntor,  and  mother  of  Phoenix. — 5. 
Daughter  of  Anchises,  and  wife  of  Alcathous. 
— 6.  One  of  the  female  attendants  of  Penelope.] 

HippfioAMUS  ('iTnrodajioc).  [1.  A  Trojan  hero, 
slain  by  Ulysses.] — 2.  A  distinguished  Greek 
architect,  a  native  of  Miletus,  and  the  son  of 
Euryphon  or  Eurycoon.  His  fame  rests  on  his 
construction,  not  of  single  buildings,  but  of 
whole  cities.  His  first  great  work  was  the  town 
of  Piraeus,  which  he  built  under  the  auspices  of 
Pericles.  When  the  Athenians  founded  their 
373 


HIPPOLOCHUS. 


HIPPOTHOUS. 


colony  of  Thurii  (B.C.  443),  Hippodamus  went 
out  with  the  colonists,  and  was  the  architect  of 
the  new  city.  Hence  he  is  often  called  a  Thu- 
riau.  He  afterwards  built  Rhodes  (408-407). 

HIPPOLOOHDS  ('iTTTroAoyof).  1.  Son  of  Bellero- 
phontes  and  Philonoe  or  Antiolca,  and  father  of 
Glaucus,  the  Lycian  prince. — [2.  A  Trojan,  sou 
of  Antimachus,  slain  by  Agamemnon. — 3.  One 
of  the  thirty  tyrants  at  Athens.] 

HIPPOLYTE  ('lir-o^vTjj).  1.  Daughter  of  Mars 
(Ares)  and  Otrera,  was  queen  of  the  Amazons, 
and  sister  of  Antiope  and  Melanippe.  Sho  wore 
a  girdle  given  to'her  by  her  father ;  and  whcu 
Hercules  came  to  fetch  this  girdle,  she  was 
ulain  by  Hercules.  Vid.  p.  357,  b.  According 
to  another  tradition,  Hippolyte,  with  an  army 
of  Amazons,  marched  into  Attica,  to  take  venge- 
auce  on  Theseus  for  having  carried  off  Au- 
tiope  ;  but,  being  conquered  by  Theseus,  she 
fled  to  Megara,  where  she  died  of  grief,  and  was 
buried.  In  some  accounts,  Hippolyte,  and  not 
Autiope,  is  said  to  have  been  married  to  The- 
seus.— 2.  Or  ASTYDAMIA,  wife  of  Acastus,  fell 
iu  love  with  Peleus.  Vid.  ACASTUS. 

HIPPOLYTUS  ('I7r7r6/tvrof).  I.  Son  of  Theseus 
by  Hippolyte,  queen  of  the  Amazons,  or  her 
sister  Antiope.  Theseus  afterwards  married 
Phiedra,  who  fell  in  love  with  Hippolytus  ;  but, 
as  her  offers  were  rejected  by  her  step-son,  she 
accused  him  to  his  father  of  having  attempted 
her  dishonor.  Theseus  thereupon  cursed  his 
sou,  and  requested  his  father,  .iEgeus  or  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon),  to  destroy  him.  Accordingly, 
as  Hippolytus  was  riding  in  his  chariot  along 
the  sea-coast,  Neptune  (Poseidon)  sent  forth  a 
bull  from  the  water.  The  horses  were  fright- 
ened, upset  the  chariot,  and  dragged  Hippoly- 
tus along  the  ground  till  he  was  dead.  The- 
seus afterward  learned  the  innocence  of  his 
son,  and  Phaedra,  in  despair,  made  away  with 
herself.  Diana  (Artemis)  induced  ^Esculapius 
to  restore  Hippolytus  to  life  again ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  Italian  traditions,  she  placed  him,  under 
the  name  of  Virbius,  under  the  protection  of 
thenymph  Egeria,  in  the  grove  of  Aricia,  in  La- 
tium,  where  he  was  honored  with  divine  wor- 
ship. Horace,  following  the  more  ancient  tra- 
dition, says  that  Diana  could  not  restore  Hip- 
polytus to  life  (Cam,  iv,  7,  25). — 2.  An  early 
ecclesiastical  writer  of  considerable  eminence, 
but  whose  real  history  is  very  uncertain.  He 
appears  to  have  lived  early  in  the  third  century, 
and  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Alexander  Severus,  being  drowned  in  a  ditch 
or  pit  full  of  water.  Others  suppose  that  he 
perished  in  the  Decian  persecution.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Irenajus  and  a  teacher 
of  Origen.  His  works,  which  are  written  in 
Greek,  are  edited  by  Fabricius,  Hamb,  1716- 
1718,  2  vols.  foL 

[HIPPOMACHUS  ('iTTTrojua^of).  1.  A  Trojan  war- 
rior, son  of  Antimachus,  slain  by  Leonteus. — 2. 
One  of  the  thirty  tyrants  at  Athens,  fell  in  bat- 
tle against  the  patriots  under  Thrasybulus.] 

HIPPOMEDON  ('iTTiropeduv),  son  of  Aristoma- 
ehus,  or,  according  to  Sophocles,  of  Talaus,  was 
one  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  where  he  was 
slain  during  the  siege  by  Hyperbius  orlsmarus. 

HIPPOMENES  (lirnofj.evi]g).    \.  Son  of  Mega- 
reus,  and  great-grandson  of  Neptune  (Poseidon), 
conquered  Atalanta  in  the  foot-race      For  de- 
374 


tails,  vid.  ATALANTA,  No.  2. — 2.  A  descendant 
of  Codrus,  the  fourth  and  last  of  the  decennial 
archons.  Incensed  at  the  barbarous  punish- 
ment which  he  inflicted  on  his  daughter,  the 
Attic  nobles  deposed  him. 

HIPPON  ("ITTTTWV),  of  Rhegium,  a  philosopher 
of  uncertain  date,  belonging  to  the  Ionian  school. 
He  was  accused  of  atheism,  and  so  got  the  sur- 
name of  the  Melian,  as  agreeing  in  sentiment 
with  Diagoras.  He  held  water  and  fire  to  be 
the  principles  of  all  things,  the  latter  springing 
from  the  former,  and  developing  itself  by  gener- 
1  ating  the  universe. 

HIPPONAX  ('linruva£),  of  Ephesus,  son  of 
Pytheus  and  Protis,  was,  after  Archilochus  and 
Simonides,  the  third  of  the  Iambic  poets  of 
Greece.  He  flourished  B.C.  546-520.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  love  of  liberty,  and  having 
been  expelled  from  his  native  city  by  the  tyrants, 
he  took  up  his  abode  at  ClazomenaB,  for  which 
reason  he  is  sometimes  called  a  Cluzomenian. 
In  person,  Hipponax  was  little,  thin,  and  ugly, 
but  very  strong.  The  two  brothers  Bupalus 
and  Athenis,  who  were  sculptors  of  Chios,  made 
statues  of  Hipponax,  in  which  they  caricatured 
his  natural  ugliness,  and  he,  in  return,  directed 
all  the  power  of  his  satirical  poetry  against 
them,  and  especially  against  Bupalus.  (Hor., 
Epod.,  vi,  14.)  Later  writers  add  that  the 
sculptors  hanged  themselves  in  despair.  Hip- 
ponax was  celebrated  in  antiquity  for  the  sever- 
ity of  his  satires.  He  severely  chastised  the 
effeminate  luxury  of  his  Ionian  brethren ;  he 
did  not  spare  his  own  parents ;  and  he  ventur- 
ed even  to  ridicule  the  gods.  In  his  satire*  he 
introduced  a  spondee  or  a  trochee  in  the  last 
foot  instead  of  an  iambus.  This  change  made 
the  verse  irregular  in  its  rhythm,  and  gave  it  n 
sort  of  halting  movement,  whence  it  was  called 
the  Choliambus  (xaTt-iajiftof  lame  iambic),  or  Iam- 
bus 43cazon  (GKU^UV,  limping).  He  also  wrote 
a  parody  on  the  Iliad.  He  may  be  said  to  oc- 
cupy a  middle  place  between  Archilochus  and 
Aristophanes.  He  is  as  bitter,  but  not  so  earn- 
est, as  the  former,  while  in  lightness  and  jocose- 
ness  he  more  resembles  the  latter.  The  frag- 
ments of  Hipponax  are  edited  by  Welcker,  Get- 
ting., 1817,  8vo,  and  by  Bergk  in  the  Poetce  Ly- 
rici  GrcBci. 

HIPPONICUS.     Vid.  CALLIAS  AND  HIPPONICUS. 
HIPPONIDM.     Vid.  VIBO. 
Hipp<5Nous.     Vid.  BELLEBOPHON. 
HIPPOTADES  (iTTTrorad^f)   i.   e.,  son  of    Hip- 
potes,    that  is,    ^Eolus.     Vid.    ^EOLUS,    No.   2. 
Hence  the  ^Eoh"se  Insulae  are  called  Hippotada 
regnum.    (Ov.,  Met.,  xiv.,  86.) 

HIPPOTES  ('iTTTronff).  1.  Father  of  ^Eolus. 
Vid.  JEoLUs,  No.  2. — 2.  Son  of  Phylas  by  a 
daughter  of  lolaus,  great-grandson  of  Hercules, 
and  father  of  Aletes.  When  the  Heraclida?  in- 
vaded Peloponnesus,  Hippotes  killed  the  seei 
Carnus.  The  army,  in  consequence,  began  to 
suffer  very  severely,  and  Hippotes,  by  the  com 
mand  of  an  oracle,  was  banished  for  ten  years. 

HIPPOTHOON  (lTnro66o)v),  an  Attic  hero,  son 
of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  ALOPE,  the  daughter 
of  Cercyon.  He  had  a  heroum  at  Athens ;  and 
one  of  the  Attic  phylae,  or  tribes,  was  called 
after  him  Hippothoontis. 

iPPOTHfius  (iTTTrotfoof).     1.  Son  of  Cercyon, 
and  father  of  ^Epytus,  succeeded  Agapenor  aa 


HIPPOTTON. 


HISPAN1A. 


king  in  Arcadia. — 2.  Son  of  L>  thus,  grandson 
of  Teutatnus,  and  brother  of  IMajus,  led  a  baud 
of  Pelasgians  from  Larissa  to  the  assistance  of 
the  Trojans.  He  was  slain  by  the  Telamonian 
Ajax. 

[HIPPOTION  ('ITTTTOTIUV),  a  Phrygian,  slain  by 
Meriones  in  the  Trojan  war.] 

HIRPIXI,  a  Samnite  people,  -whose  name  is 
said  to  come  from  the  Sabine  word  hirpus,  "  a 
wolf,"  dwelt  in  the  south  of  Samnium,  between 
A.pulia,  Lucauia,  and  Campania.  Their  chief 
town  was  ^ECULANUM. 

HIRTIUS,  A.,  belonged  to  a  plebeian  family, 
which  came  probably  from  Ferentinum  in  the 
territory  of  the  Hernici.  He  was  the  personal 
and  political  friend  of  Caesar  the  dictator.  In 
B.C.  58  he  was  Caesar's  legatus  in  Gaul,  and 
tluriug  the  civil  war  his  name  constantly  ap- 
pears in  Cicero's  correspondence.  He  was  one 
of  the  ten  praetors  nominated  by  Caesar  for  46, 
and  during  Caesar's  absence  in  Africa  he  lived 
principally  at  his  Tusculan  estate,  which  was 
contiguous  to  Cicero's  villa.  Though  politi- 
cally opposed,  they  were  on  friendly  terms,  and 
Cicero  gave  Hirtius  lessons-  in  oratory.  In  44 
Hirtius  received  Belgic  Gaul  for  his  province, 
but  he  governed  it  by  deputy,  and  attended 
Caesar  at  Rome,  who  nominated  him  and  Vibius 
Pausa  consuls  for  43.  After  Caesar's  assassi- 
nation (44)  Hirtius  first  joined  Antony,  but,  baing 
disgusted  by  the  despotic  arrogance  of  the  latter, 
he  retired  to  Puteoli,  where  he  renewed  his  in- 
tercourse with  Cicero.  Later  in  the  year  he 
resided  at  his  Tusculan  villa,  where  he  was  at- 
tacked by  a  dangerous  illness,  from  which  he 
never  perfectly  recovered.  On  the  first  of  Jan- 
,uary,  43,  Hirtius  and  Pansa  entered  on  their 
consulship,  according  to  Caesar's  arrangement. 
The  two  consuls  were  sent  along  with  Octavi- 
anus  against  Antony,  who  was  besieging  Dec. 
Brutus  at  Mutina.  Pansa  was  defeated  by  An- 
tony, and  died  of  a  wound  which  he  had  re- 
ceived in  the  battle.  Hirtius  retrieved  this  dis- 
aster by  defeating  Antony,  but  he  also  fell  on 
the  27th  of  April,  in  leading  an  assault  on  the 
besieger's  camp.  Octavianus  sent  the  bodies 
of  the  slain  consuls  to  Rome,  where  they  were 
received  with  extraordinary  honors,  and  pub- 
licly buried  in  the  Field  of  Mars.  To  Octavia- 
ous  their  removal  from  the  scene  was  so  timely, 
that  he  was  accused  by  many  of  murdering 
them.  Hirtius  divides  with  Oppius  the  claim 
to  the  authorship  of  the  eighth  book  of  the  Gallic 
war,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Alexandrean,  African, 
and  Spanish.  It  is  not  impossible  that  he  wrote 
the  first  three,  but  he  certainly  did  not  write  the 
Spanish  war. 

HIRTCLEIUS,  a  distinguished  general  of  Ser- 
torius  in  Spain.  In  B.C.  78  he  was  routed  and 
slain  near  Italica,  in  Baatica,  by  Metellus. 

HISPALIS,  more  rarely  HISPAL  (now  Seville), 
a  town  of  the  Turdetani  in  Hispania  Baetica, 
founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  was  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Batis,  and  was  in  reality  a 
sea-port,  for,  although  five  hundred  stadia  from 
the  sea,  the  river  is  navigable  for  the  largest 
Teasels  up  to  the  town.  Under  the  Romans 
Hispalis  was  the  third  town  in  the  province, 
Corduba  and  Gades  being  the  two  first.  It  was 
patronized  by  Caesar,  because  Corduba  had  es- 
poused the  side  of  Pompey.  He  made  it  a  Ro- 


|  man  colony,  under  the  name  of  Julia  Romula 
I  or  Romtilensis,  and  a  conventus  juridicus  or 
town  of  assize.  Under  the  Goths  and  Vandals 
Hispalis  was  the  chief  town  in  the  south  of 
Spain,  and  under  the  Arabs  was  the  capital  of 
a  separate  kingdom. 

HISPANIA  or  IBERIA  ('JaTravt.il,  'IBrjpta  :  His- 
pauus,  Iberus  :  now  Spain  and  Portugal),  a  pen- 
iusula  in  the  southwest  of  Europe,  is  connect 
ed  with  the  land  only  on  the  northeast,  where 
the  Pyrenees  form  its  boundary,  and  is  sur- 
rounded on  all  other  sides  by  the  sea,  on  the 
east  and  south  by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the 
west  by  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  north  by  the 
Cantabrian  Sea.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  had 
no  accurate  knowledge  of  the  country  till  the 
time  of  the  Roman  invasion  in  the  second  Pu- 
nic war.  It  was  first  mentioned  by  Hecataeus 
(about  B.C.  500)  under  the  name  of  Iberia ;  but 
this  name  originally  indicated  only  the  eastern 
coast :  the  western  coast  beyond  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules  was  called  Tartessis  (Taprriaoie) ;  and 
the  interior  of  the  country  Celtica  (ft  KctoiKq). 
\  At  a  later  time  the  Greeks  applied  the  name  of 
'  Iberia,  which  is  usually  derived  from  the  River 
Iberus,  to  the  whole  country.  The  name  His 
pania,  by  which  the  Romans  call  the  country, 
first  occurs  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion. 
It  is  usually  derived  from  the  Punic  word  Span, 
"  a  rabbit,"  on  account  of  the  great  number  of 
rabbits  which  the  Carthaginians  found  in  the 
peninsula ;  but  others  suppose  the  name  to  be 
of  native  origin,  and  to  be  the  same  as  the 
Basque  Ezpaiia,  an  edge  or  border.  The  poets 
also  called  it  Hesperia,  or,  to  distinguish  it  from 
Italy,  He&peria  Ultima.  Spain  is  a  very  mount- 
!  ainous  country.  The  principal  mountains  are, 
'  in  the  northeast,  the  Pyrenees  (vid.  PYREN^US 
MONS),  and  in  the  centre  of  the  country  the 
IDUBEDA,  which  runs  parallel  with  the  Pyrenees 
from  the  land  of  the  Cantabri  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  OROSPEDA  or  ORTOSPEDA,  which 
begins  in  the  centre  of  the  Idubeda,  runs  south 
west  throughout  Spain,  and  terminates  at  Calpe. 
The  rivers  of  Spain  are  numerous.  The  six 
most  important  are  the  IBEEUS  (now  Ebrd), 
B^ETIS  (now  Ouadalquiver),  and  ANAS  (now  Gua- 
diana),  in  the  east  and  south;  and  the  TAGUS, 
DURIUS  (now  Douro),  and  MINIUS  (now  Minhai), 
in  the  west.  Spain  was  considered  by  the  an- 
cients very  fertile,  but  more  especially  the 
southern  part  of  the  country,  Baatica  and  Lusi- 
tania,  which  were  also  praised  for  their  splendid 
climate.  The  central  and  northern  parts  of  the 
countiy  were  less  productive,  ai  d  the  climate  in 
these  districts  was  very  cold  in  winter.  In  the 
south  there  were  numerous  flocks  of  excellent 
sheep,  the  wool  of  which  was  very  celebrated 
in  foreign  countries.  The  Spanish  horses  and 
asses  were  also  much  valued  in  antiquity  ;  and 
on  the  coast  there  was  abundance  of  fish.  The 
country  produced  a  great  quantity  of  corn,  oil, 
wine,  ll:i.\.  figs,  and  other  fruits.  But  the  prin- 
cipal riches  of  the  country  consisted  in  its  min- 
eral productions,  of  which  the  greatest  quantity 
was  found  in  Turdetania.  Gold  was  found  in 
abundance  in  various  parts  of  the  country ;  and 
there  were  many  silver  mines,  of  which  the 
most  celebrated  were  near  Carthago  Nova,  11- 
ipn,  Sisapon,  and  Castulo.  The  precious  stones, 
copper,  lead,  tin,  and  other  metals,  were  also 
375 


HISPANIA. 


HISPANIA. 


found  in  more  or  less  abundance.  The  most 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Spain  were  the  Iberi,  who, 
as  a  separate  people,  must  be  distinguished  from 
the  Iberi,  a  collective  name  of  all  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Spain.  The  Iberi  dwelt  on  both  sides 
of  the  Pyrenees,  and  were  found  in  the  south 
of  Gaul  as  far  as  the  Rhone.  Celts  afterward 
crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  became  mingled  with 
the  Iberi,  whence  arose  the  mixed  race  of  the 
Celtiberi,  who  dwelt  chiefly  in  the  high  table- 
land in  the  centre  of  the  country.  Vid.  CELTI- 
BERI. But  besides  this  mixed  race  of  the  Cel- 
tiberi, there  were  also  several  tribes,  both  of 
Iberians  and  Celts,  who  were  never  united  with 
one  another.  The  unmixed  Iberians,  from 
whom  the  modern  Basques  are  descended, 
dwelt  chiefly  in  the  Pyrenees  and  on  the  coasts, 
and  their  most  distinguished  tribes  were  the 
ASTURES,  CANTABRI,  VACC^EI,  <fec.  The  un- 
mixed Celts  dwelt  chiefly  on  the  River  Anas, 
and  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  country  or 
Gallaecia.  Besides  these  inhabitants,  there 
were  Phcenician  and  Carthaginian  settlements 
on  the  coasts,  of  which  the  most  important  were 
GADES  and  CARTHAGO  NOVA  ;  there  were  like- 
wise Greek  colonies,  such  as  EMPORI^K  and  SA- 
OOXTUM  ;  and,  lastly,  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try by  the  Romans  introduced  many  Romans 
among  the  inhabitants,  whose  customs,  civiliza- 
tion, and  language  gradually  spread  over  the 
whole  peninsula,  and  effaced  the  national  char- 
acteristics of  the  ancient  population.  The 
spread  of  the  Latin  language  in  Spain  seems  to 
have  been  facilitated  by  the  schools,  established 
by  Sertorius,  in  which  both  the  language  and 
literature  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  taught. 
Under  the  empire  some  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed Latin  writers  were  natives  of  Spain,  such  as 
the  two  Senecas,  Lucan,  Martial,  Quintilian, 
Silius  Italicus,  Pomponius  Mela,  Prudentius, 
and  others.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Spain 
were  a  proud,  brave,  and  warlike  race;  easily 
excited  and  ready  to  take  offence ;  inveterate 
robbers  ;  moderate  in  the  use  of  food  and  wine ; 
fond  of  song  and  of  the  dance;  lovers  of  their 
liberty,  and  ready  at  all  times  to  sacrifice  their 
lives  rather  than  submit  to  a  foreign  master. 
The  Cantabri  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  mount- 
ains in  the  north  were  the  fiercest  and  most 
uncivilized  of  all  the  tribes  ;  the  Vaccsei  and  the 
Turdetani  were  the  most  civilized ;  and  the 
latter  people  were  not  only  acquainted  with  the 
alphabet,  but  possessed  a  literature  which  con- 
tained records  of  their  history,  poems,  and  col- 
lections of  laws  composed  in  verse.  The  his- 
tory of  Spain  begins  with  the  invasion  of  the 
country  by  the  Carthaginians,  B.C.  238 ;  for  up 
to  that  time  hardly  any  thing  was  known  of 
Spain  except  the  existence  of  two  powerful 
commercial  states  in  the  west,  TARTESSUS  and 
GADES.  After  the  first  Punic  war,  Hamilcar, 
the  son  of  Hannibal,  formed  the  plan  of  conquer- 
ing Spain,  in  order  to  obtain  for  the  Carthagin- 
ians possessions  which  might  indemnify  them 
for  the  loss  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia.  Under  his 
command  (238-229),  and  that  of  his  son-in-law 
and  successor,  Hasdrubal  (228-221),  the  Car- 
thaginians conquered  the  greater  part  of  the 
southeast  of  the  peninsula  as  far  as  the  Iberus ; 
and  Hasdrubal  founded  the  important  city  of  ! 
Carthago  Nova.  These  successes  of  the  Car- 
376 


tliagmians  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Romans ; 
and  a  treaty  was  made  between  the  two  nations 
about  228,  by  which  the  Carthaginians  bound 
themselves  not  to  cross  the  Iberus.  The  town 
of  Saguntum,  although  on  the  west  side  of  the 
river,  was  under  the  protection  of  the  Romans  ; 
and  the  capture  of  this  town  by  Hannibal  iu  219 
was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  second  Punic 
war.  In  the  course  of  this  war  the  Romans 
drove  the  Carthaginians  out  of  the  peninsula, 
and  became  masters  of  their  possessions  iu  the 
south  of  the  couutry.  But  many  tribes  in  the 
centre  of  the  couutry,  which  had  been  only 
nominally  subject  to  Carthage,  still  retained 
their  virtual  independence ;  and  the  tribes  in 
the  north  and  northwest  of  the  country  had 
been  hitherto  quite  unknown  both  to  the  Car- 
thaginians and  Romans  There  now  arose  a 
long  and  bloody  struggle  between  the  Romans 
and  the  various  tribes  in  Spain,  aud  it  was 
nearly  two  centuries  before  the  Romans  suc- 
ceeded in  subduing  entirely  the  whole  of  the 
peninsula.  The  Celtiberians  were  conquered 
by  the  elder  Cato  (195),  and  Tib.  Gracchus,  the 
father  of  the  two  tribunes  (179).  The  Lusita- 
niaus,  who  long  resisted  the  Romans  under 
their  brave  leader  Viriathus,  were  obliged  to 
submit,  about  the  year  137,  to  D.  Brutus,  who 
penetrated  as  far  as  Gallaecia;  but  it  was  not 
till  Numantia  was  taken  by  Scipio  Africanus  the 
younger,  in  133,  that  the  Romans  obtained  tbe 
undisputed  sovereignty  over  the  various  tribes 
in  the  centre  of  the  couutry,  and  of  the  Lusita- 
nians  to  the  south  of  the  Tagus.  Julius  Caesar, 
after  his  praetorship,  subdued  the  Lusitanians 
north  of  the  Tagus  (60).  The  Cantabri,  Astu- 
res,  and  other  tribes  in  the  mountains  of  the 
north,  were  finally  subjugated  by  Augustus  and 
his  generals.  The  whole  peninsula  was  now 
subject  to  the  Romans ;  and  Augustus  founded 
in  it  several  colonies,  and  caused  excellent  roads 
to  be  made  throughout  tbe  country.  The  Ro- 
mans had,  as  early  as  the  end  of  the  second  Pu- 
nic war,  divided  Spain  into  two  provinces,  sep- 
arated from  one  another  by  the  Iberus,  and 
called  Hispania  Citerior  and  Hispania  Ulterior, 
the  former  being  to  the  east,  and  the  latter  to 
the  west  of  the  river.  In  consequence  of  there 
being  two  provinces,  we  frequently  find  the 
country  called  Hispanice.  The  provinces  were 
governed  by  two  proconsuls  or  two  proprae- 
tors, the  latter  of  whom  also  frequently  bore 
the  title  of  proconsuls.  Augustus  made  a  new 
division  of  the  country,  and  formed  three 
provinces  Tarraconensis,  JSatica,  aud  Lusitania. 
The  province  Tarraconensis,  which  derived  its 
name  from  Tarraco,  the  capital  of  the  province, 
was  by  far  the  largest  of  the  three,  and  com- 
prehended the  whole  of  the  north,  east,  and 
centre  of  the  peninsula.  The  province  ttcetiea, 
which  derived  its  name  from  the  River  Bastis, 
was  separated  from  Lusitania  on  the  north 
and  west  by  the  River  Anas,  and  from  Tarraco- 
nensis on  the  east  by  a  line  drawn  from  the 
River  Anas  to  the  promontory  Charidemus  ia 
the  Mediterranean.  The  province  Lusitania, 
which  corresponded  very  nearly  in  extent  to 
the  modern  Portugal,  was  separated  from  Tar- 
raconensis on  the  north  by  the  River  Durius, 
from  Baetica  on  the  east  by  the  Anas,  and  from 
Tarraconensis  on  the  east  by  a  line  drawn  from 


•  HISPELLUM. 

the  Durius  to  the  Anas,  between  the  territories 
of  the  Vettones  and  Carpetani.  Augustus  made 
Baatica  a  senatorial  province,  but  reserved  the 
government  of  the  two  others  for  the  Cffisar ;  j 
so  that  the  former  was  governed  by  a  procon-  j 
sul  appointed  by  the  senate,  and  the  latter  by 
imperial  legati.  In  Bsetica,  Corduba  or  Hispalis 
was  the  seat  of  government ;  in  Tarraconensis, 
Tarraeo ;  and  in  Lusitania,  Augusta  Emerita. 
On  the  reorganization  of  the  empire  by  Constan- 
tine,  Spain,  together  with  Gaul  and  Britain,  was 
under  the  general  administration  of  the  Prce- 
fectus  Prtetorio  Galliot,  one  of  whose  three  vi- 
carii  had  the  government  of  Spain,  and  usually 
resided  at  Hispalis.  At  the  same  time,  the  coun- 
try was  divided  into  seven  provinces :  Scetica, 
Lusitania,  Gallcecia,  Tarraconensis,  Carthagini- 
ensis,  Baleares,  and  Mauretania  Tingitana  in 
Africa  (which  was  then  reckoned  part  of  Spain). 
The  capitals  of  these  seven  provinces  were  re- 
spectively Hispalis,  Augusta  Emerita,  Bracara, 
Ccesaraugusta,  Carthago  Nova,  Palma,  and  Tin- 
gis.  In  A.D.  409  the  Vandals  and  Suevi,  to- 
gether with  other  barbarians,  invaded  Spain, 
and  obtained  possession  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  country.  In  414  the  Visigoths,  as  allies  of 
the  Roman  empire,  attacked  the  Vandals,  and  in 
the  course  of  f6ur  years  (414-418)  compelled  a 
great  part  of  the  peninsula  to  submit  again  to 
the  Romans.  In  429  the  Vandals  left  Spain, 
and  crossed  over  into  Africa  under  their  king 
Genseric  ;  after  which  time  the  Suevi  establish- 
ed a  powerful  kingdom  in  the  south  of  the  pen- 
insula. Soon  afterward  the  Visigoths  again  in- 
vaded Spain,  and  after  many  years'  struggle, 
succeeded  in  conquering  the  wliole  peninsula, 
which  they  kept  for  themselves,  and  continued 
the  masters  of  the  country  for  two  centuries, 
till  they  were  in  their  turn  conquered  by  the 
Arabs,  A.D.  712. 

HISPELLUM  (Hispellas,  -atis  :  Hispellensis  : 
now  Spello),  a  town  in  TJmbria,  and  a  Roman 
colony,  with  the  name  ,of  Colonia  Julia  His- 
pellum. 

HISTI.SA.     Vid.  HESTI^EOTIS. 
HISTI.IECS  ('I<maiof),  tyrant  of  Miletus,  was 
left  with  the  other  lonians  to  guard  the  bridge 
of  boats  over  the  Danube  when  Darius  invaded 
Scythia  (B.C.  513).     He  opposed  the   proposal 
of  Miltiades,  the  Athenian,  to  destroy  the  bridge, 
and  leave  the  Persians  to  their  fate,  and  was, 
in  consequence,  rewarded  by  Darius  with  the 
rule  of  Mytilene,  and  with  a  district  in  Thrace, 
where  he  built  a  town  called  Myrcinus,  appa- 
rently with  a  view  of  establishing  an  independ- 
.  ent  kingdom.    This  excited  the  suspicions  of 
Darius,  who  invited  Histiaeus  to  Susa,  where  he 
treated  him  kindly,  but  prohibited  him  from  re- 
turning.    Tired  of  the  restraint  in  which  he 
was  kept,  he  induced  his  kinsman  Aristagoras 
to  persuade  the  loniana  to  -revolt,  hoping  that  a 
revolution  in  Ionia  might  lead   to   bis  release. 
His  design   succeeded.      Darius    allowed    His- 
tiaeus  to  depart  (496)  on  his  engaging  to  reduce 
Ionia.     The  revolt,   however,  was  nearly  put 
down  when  Hist'ucus  reached  the  coast.    Here 
Histiaeus  threw  off  the  mask,  and,  after  raising 
a  small  fleet,  carried  on  war  against  the  Per- 
sians for  two  years,  and  obtained  possession  of 
Chios.    In   494  he   made  a  descent   upon   the 
Ionian  coast,  but  was  defeated  and  taken  pris- 


HOMERUS. 

oner  by  Harpagus.  Artaphernes,  the  satrap  oi 
Ionia,  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death  by  impale- 
ment, and  sent  his  head  to  the  king. 

HISTONIUM  (Histoniensis :  now  Vasto  d'  Am 
mone),  a  town  of  the  Frentani  on  the  coast,  and 
subsequently  a  Roman  colony. 

HOMERIT^E  ('O/ATtplTai),  &  people  of  Arabia 
Felix,  who  migrated  from  the  interior  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  western  coast,  and  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  territory  of  the  Sabaei 
(in  El.  Yemen),  where  they  founded  a  kingdom, 
which  lasted  more  than  five  centuries. 

HOMERUS  ("Ofj.Tjpof).  1.  The  great  epic  poet 
of  Greece.  His  poems  formed  the  basis  of 
Greek  literature.  Every  Greek  who  had  re- 
ceived a  liberal  education  was  perfectly  well 
acquainted  with  them  from  his  childhood,  and 
had  learned  them  by  heart  at  school ;  but  no- 
body could  state  any  thing  certain  about  their 
author.  His  date  and  birth-place  were  'equally 
matters  of  dispute.  Seven  cities  claimed  Ho- 
mer as  their  countryman  (Smyrna,  Rhodus,  Col- 
ophon, Salamis,  Chios,  Argos,  Athense) ;  but 
the  claims  of  Smyrna  and  Chios  are  the  most 
plausible,  and  between  these  two  we  have  to 
decide.  It  is  supposed  by  the  best  modern 
writers  that  Homer  was  an  Ionian,  who  settled 
at  Smyrna  at  the  time  when  the  AchjEans  and 
^Eolians  formed  the  chief  part  of  the  popula- 
tion. We  can  thus  explain  how  Homer  be- 
came so  well  acquainted  with  the  traditions  of 
the  Trojan  war,  which  had  been  waged  by 
Achseans  and  ^Eoh'ans,  but  in  which  the  lonians 
had  not  taken  part.  We  know  that  the  lonians 
were  subsequently  driven  out  of  Smyrna ;  and 
it  is  further  supposed  either  that  Homer  him- 
self fled  to  Chios,  or  his  descendants  or  disci- 
ples settled  there,  and  formed  the  famous  .fami- 
ly of  Homerids.  According  to  this  account,  the 
time  of  Homer  would  be  a  few  generations  after 
the  Ionian  migration ;  but,  with  the  exception 
of  the  simple  fact  of  his  being  an  Asiatic  Greek, 
all  other  particulars  respecting  his  life  are  pure- 
ly fabulous.  The  common  tradition  related  that 
he  was  the  son  of  Mseon  (hence  called  Mceonidef, 
vates),  and  that  in  his  old  age  he  was  blind  and, 
poor.  Homer  was  universally  regarded  by  the 
ancients  as  the  author  of  the  two  great  poems 
of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey.  Other  poems  were 
also  attributed  to  Homer,  the  genuineness  of 
which  was  disputed  by  some ;  but  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  were  ascribed  to  him  by  the  concur- 
rent voice  of  antiquity.  Such  continued  to  be 
the  prevalent  belief  in  modern  times,  till  1795, 
when  F.  A.  Wolf  wrote  his  famous  Prolegomena, 
in  which  he  endeavored  to  show  that  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey  were  not  two  complete  poems,  but 
small,  separate,  independent  epic  songs,  cele- 
brating single  exploits  of  the  heroes,  and  that 
these  lays  were  for  the  first  time  written  down 
and  united,  as  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  by  Pisis- 
tratus,  the  tyrant  of  Athens.  This  opinion  gave 
rise  to  a  long  and  animated  controversy  respect- 
ing the  origin  of  the  Homeric  poems,  which  >a 
not  yet  settled,  and  which  probably  never  will 
be.  The  following,  however,  may  be  regarded 
as  the  most  probable  conclusion.  An  abundance 
of  heroic  lays  preserved  the  tales  of  the  Trojan 
war.  Europe  must  necessarily  ha»e  been  the 
country  where  these  songs  originat  jd,  both  be- 
cause the  victorious  heroes  dwell  in  Europe, 
377 


HOMERUS. 


HONOR1US,  FLAVIUS. 


ami  because  so  many  traces  in  the  poems  still 
point  to  these  regions.  These  heroic  lays  were 
brought  to  Asia  Minor  by  the  Greek  colonies, 
which  left  the  mother  country  about  three  ages 
after  (he  Trojan  war.  These  unconnected  songs 
were,  for  the  first  time,  united  by  a  great  genius, 
tailed  Homer,  and  he  was  the  one  individual  who 
•  conceived  in  his  mind  the  lofty  idea  of  that  po- 
etical unity  which  we  must  acknowledge  and  ad- 
mire in  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  But  as  writing 
was  not  known,  or  at  least  little  practiced,  in 
the  age  in  which  Homer  lived,  it  naturally  fol- 
lowed that  in  such  long  works  many  interpola- 
tions were  introduced,  and  that  they  gradually 
became  more  and  more  dismembered,  and  thus 
returned  into  their  original  state  of  separate  in- 
dependent songs.  They  were  preserved  by  the 
rhupsodists,  who  were  minstrels,  and  who  sung 
lays  at  the  banquets  of  the  great  and  at  public 
festivals.  A  class  of  rhapsodists  at  Chios,  the 
Homerids,  who  called  themselves  the  descend- 
ants of  the  poet,  made  it  their  especial  business 
to  sing  the  lays  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  and 
to  transmit  them  to  their  disciples  by  oral  teach- 
ing, and  not  by  writing.  These  rhapsodists 
preserved  the  knowledge  of  the  unity  of  the 
Homeric  poems  ;  and  this  knowledge  was  never 
entirely  lost,  although  the  public  recitation  of 
the  poems  became  more  and  more  fragmentary, 
and  the ,  time  at  festivals  and  musical  contests 
formerly  occupied  by  epic  rhapsodists  exclusive- 
ly, was  encroached  upon  by  the  rising  lyrical 
performances.  Solon  directed  the  attention  of 
his  countrymen  toward  the  unity  of  the  Ho- 
meric poems ;  but  the  unanimous  voice  of  an- 
Uquity  ascribed  to  Pisistratus  the  merit  of  hav- 
ing.  collected  the  disjointed  poems  of  Homer, 
and  of  having  first  committed  them  to  writing. 
Froiri  the  time  of  Pisistratus,  the  Greeks  had  a 
written  Homer,  a  regular  text,  which  was  the 
source  and  foundation  of  all  subsequent  edi- 
tions. We  have  already  stated  that  the  an- 
cients attributed  many  other  poems  to  Homer 
besides  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey ;  but  the 
claims  of  none  of  these  to  this  honor  can  stand 
investigation.  The  hymns,  which  still  bear  the 
name  of  Homer,  probably  owe  their  origin  to 
the  rhapsodists.  They  exhibit  such  a  diversity 
of  language  and  poetical  tone,  that  in  all  prob- 
ability they  contain  iragments  from  every  cen- 
tury from,  the  time  of  Homer  to  the  Persian 
war.  The  Batrach&my&machia,  the  Battle  of  the 
Frogs  and  Mice,  an  extant  poem,  and  the  Mar- 
gitcs,  a  poem  which  is  lost,  and  which  ridiculed 
a  man  who  was  said  to  know  many  things  and 
who  knew  all  badly,  were  both  frequently  as- 
cribed by  the  ancients  to  Homer,  but  were  clear- 
ly of  later  origin.  The  Odyssey  was  evidently 
composed  after  the  Eiad ;  and  many  writers 
maintain  that  they  are  the  works  of  two  differ- 
ent authors.  But  it  has  been  observed  in  re- 
ply that  there  is  not  a  greater  difference  in  the 
two  poems  than  we  often  find  in  the  productions 
of  the  same  man  in  the  prime  of  life  and  in  old 
ag«;  and  the  chief  cause  of  difference  in  the 
two  poems  is  owing  to  the  difference  of  the 
subject  We  must  add  a  few  words  on  the 
literary  history  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  From 
the  time  of  Pisistratus  to  the  establishment  of 
the  Alexandrine  school,  we  read  of  two  new 
editions  (diopff&jftA  of  the  text,  one  made  by 
378 


]  the  poet  Autimachus,  nud  the  other  by  Aristotle, 
which  Alexander  the  Great  used  to  carry  about 
with  him  in  a  splendid  case  (vupOif^)  on  all  hi« 
expeditions.  But  it  was  not  till  the  foundation 
of  the  Alexandrine  school  that  the  Greeks  pos- 
sessed a  really  critical  edition  of  Homer.  Ze- 
nodotus  was  the  first  who  directed  his  attention 
to  the  study  and  criticism  of  Homer.  He  was 
followed  by  Aristophanes  and  Aristarchus  ;  autl 
the  edition  of  Homer  by  the  latter  has  been  the 
basis  of  the  text  to  the  present  day.  Aristarchus 
was  the  prince  of  grammarians,  and  did  more 
for  the  text  and  interpretation  of  Homer  than 
any  other  critic  in  modern  times.  He  was  op- 
posed to  Crates  of  Mallus,  the  founder  of  the 
Pergamene  school  of  grammar.  Vid.  ARISTAR- 
CHUS, CRATES.  In  the  time  of  Augustus,  the 
great  compiler,  Didymus,  wrote  comprehensive 
commentaries  on  Homer,  copying  mostly  the 
works  of  preceding  Alexandrine  grammarians, 
which  had  swollen  to  an  enormous  extent  Un- 
der Tiberius,  Apollonius  Sophista  lived,  whose 
Lexicon  Homericum  is  very  valuable  (cd.  Bek- 
ker,  1833).  The  most  valuable  scholia  on  the 
Iliad  are  those  which  were  published  by  Villoi- 
son  from  a  MS.  of  the  tenth  century  in  the 
library  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice,. 1788,  fol.  These 
scholia  were  reprinted  with  additions,  edited  by 
I.  Bekker,  Berlin,  1825,  2  vols.  4to.  The  most 
valuable  scholia  to  the  Odyssey  are  those  pub- 
lished by  Buttmann,  Berl.,  1821.  The  exten- 
sive commentary  of  Eustathius  contains  much 
valuable  information  from  sources  which  are 
now  lost.  Vid.  EUSTATHIUS,  No.  3.  The  best 
critical  editions  of  Homer  are  by  Wolf,  Lips., 
1804,  seq. ;  by  Bothe,  Lips.,  1832,  seq. ;  and  by 
Bekker,  Berlin,  1843  ;  of  the  Iliad  alone,  by 
Heyne,  Lips.,  1802,  sqq.  There  is  a  very  good 
edition  of  the  Iliad  by  Spitzner,  Gotha,  1832, 
seq. ;  and  a  valuable  commentary  on  the  Odys- 
sey by  Nitzsch,  Hannov.,  1825,  seq. — 2.  A  gram- 
marian and  tragic  poet  of  Byzantium  in  the 
time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (about  B.C.  280), 
was  the  son  of  the  grammarian  Andromachus 
and  the  poetess  Myro.  He  was  one  of  the  seven 
poets  who  formed  the  tragic  Pleiad. 

HOMOLE  ('Oftuhri).  1.  A  lofty  mountain  in 
Thessaly,  near  Tempo,  with  a  sanctuary  of  Pan. 
— 2.  Or  HOMOLIUM  (Ofj.67t.Lov  :  'Qfiohievs  :  now 
Lamina),  a  town  in  Magnesia  in  Thessaly,  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Ossa,  near  the  Peneus. 

HONOR  or  HONOS,  the  personification  of  hon- 
or at  Rome.  Marcellus  had  vowed  a  temple, 
which  was  to  belong  to  Honor  and  Virtus  in 
common ;  but  as  the  pontiffs  refused  to  conse- 
crate one  temple  to  two  divinities,  he  built  two 
temples,  one  of  Honor  and  the  other  of  Virtus, 
close  together.  C.  Marius  also  built  a  temple 
to  Honor,  after  his  victory  over  the  Cimbri  and 
Teutones.  There  was  also  an  altar  of  Honor 
outside  the  Colline  gate,  which  was  more  an- 
cient than  either  of  the  temples.  Honor  is  rep- 
resented on  coins  as  a  male  figure  in  armor,  and 
standing  on  a  globe,  or  with  the  cornucopia  in 
his  left  and  a  spear  in  his  right  hand. 

HONORIA.     Vid.  GRATA. 

HONORIUS,  FLAVIUS,  Roman  emperor  of  the 
West,  A.D.  395-423,  was  the  second  son  of 
Theodosius  the  Great,  and  was  born  384.  On 
the  death  of  Theodosius  in  895,  Honorius  suc- 
ceeded peaceably  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  West, 


HOR.E. 

•which  he  had  received  from  his  father  in  the 
preceding  year,  while  his  elder  brother  obtain- 
ed possession  of  the  East.  During  the  minority 
of  Honorius,  the  government  was  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  able  and  energetic  Stihcho, 
whose  daughter  Maria  the  young  emperor  mar- 
ried. Stilicho  for  a  time  defended  Italy  against 
the  attacks  of  the  Visigoths  under  Alaric  (402, 
403),  and  the  ravages  of  other  barbarians  under 
Radagaisus  ;  but  after  Honorius  had  put  to  death 
Stilicho,  on  a  charge  of  treason  (408),  Alaric  again 
invaded  Italy,  and  took  and  plundered  Rome 
(410.)  Honorius  meantime  lived  an  inglorious 
life  at  Ravenna,  where  he  continued  to  reside  till 
his  death  in  423. 

*  H6a.fi  (rQpai)  originally  the  goddesses  of  the 
order  of  nature  and  of  the  seasons,  but  in  later 
times  the  goddesses  of  order  in  general  and  of 
justice  In  Homer,  who  neither  mentions  their 
parents  nor  their  number,  they  are  the  Olympian 
divinities  of  the  weather  and  the  ministers  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus).  In  this  capacity  they  guard  the 
doors  of  Olympus,  and  promote  the  fertility  of 
the  earth,  by  the  various  kinds  of  weather  which 
they  give  to  mortals.  As  the  weather,  gener- 
ally speaking,  is  regulated  according  to  the  sea- 
sons, they  are  further  described  as  the  goddesses 
of  the  seasons.  The  course  of  the  seasons  is 
symbolically  described  as  the  dance  of  the 
Hone.  At  Athens,  two  Horae,  TJiallo  (the  Hora 
of  spring)  and  Carpo  (the  Hora  of  autumn),  were 
worshipped  from  very  early  times.  The  Hora 
of  spring  accompanied  Proserpina  (Persephone) 
every  year  ou  her  ascent  from  the  lower  world ; 
and  the  expression  of  "  The  chamber  of  the 
Horae  opens"  is  equivalent  to  "  The  spring  is 
coming."  The  attributes  of  spring — flowers, 
fragrance,  and  graceful  freshness — are  •  accord- 
ingly transferred  to  the  Horae.  Thus  they  adorn- 
ed Venus  (Aphrodite)  as  she  rose  from  the  sea, 
and  made  a  garland  of  flowers  for  Pandora. 
Hence  they  bear  a  resemblance  to  and  are  men- 
tioned along  with  the  Charites,  and  both  are  fre- 
quently confounded  or  identified.  As  they  were 
conceived  to  promote  the  prosperity  of  every 
thing  that  grows,  they  appear  also  as  the  pro- 
tectresses of  youth  and  newly -born  gods.  Even 
in  early  times  ethical  notions  were  attached  to 
the  Horae ;  and  the  influence  which  these  god- 
desses originally  exercised  on  nature  was  sub- 
sequently transferred  to  human  life  in  particu- 
lar. Hesiod  describes  them  as  giving  to  a  state 
good  laws,  justice,  and  peace  ;  he  calls  them 
the  daughters  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Themis, 
and  gives  them  the  significant  names  of  JSuno- 
mia,  Dice,  and  Irene.  The  number  of  the  Horae 
is  different  in  the  different  writers,  though  the 
most  ancient  number  seems  to  have  been  two,  as 
at  Athens  ;  but  afterward  their  common  number 
was  three,  like  that  of  the  Hoerae  and  Charites. 
In  works  of  art  the  Horae  were  represented  as 
blooming  maidens,  carrying  the  different  products 
of  the  seasons. 

HOEAPOJ.LO  ( *flpa7r6A?.uv),  the  name  prefixed 
to  nn  extant  work  on  hieroglyphics,  which  pur- 
ports to  be  a  Greek  translation,  made  by  one 
1'hilippus  from  the  Egyptian.  The  writer  was  a 
native  of  Egypt,  and  probably  lived  about  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  The  best  edition 
«  by  Leemaus,  Amsterdam,  1835. 

HOE  ATI  A  GENS,  one  of  the  most  ancient  patri- 


HORATIUS   FLACOUS. 

cian  yentes  at  Rome.  Three  brothers  of  this 
race  fought  with  the  Curiatii,  three  brothers 
from  Alba,  to  determine  whether  Rome  or  Alba 
was  to  exercise  the  supremacy.  The  battle 
was  long  undecided.  Two  of  the  Horatii  fell ; 
but  the  three  Curiatii,  though  alive,  were  severe- 
ly wounded.  Seeing  this,  the  surviving  Hora- 
tius,  who  was  still  unhurt,  pretended  to  fly,  and 
vanquished  his  wounded  opponents  by  encoun- 
tering them  severally.  He  returned  in  triumph, 
bearing  his  threefold  spoils.  As  he  approached 
the  Capene  gate,  his  sister  Horatia  met  him,  and 
recognized  on  his  shoulders  the  mantle  of  one 
of  the  Curiatii,  her  betrothed  lover.  Her  im- 
portunate grief  drew  on  Her  the  wrath  of  Hora- 
tius,  who  stabbed  her,  exclaiming,  "  So  perish 
every  Roman  woman  who  bewails  a  foe."  For 
this  murder  he  was  adjudged  by  the  duumviri 
to  be  scourged  with  covered  head,  and  hanged 
on  the  accursed  tree.  Horatius  appealed  to  his 
peers,  the  burghers  or  populus ;  and  his  father 
pronounced  him  guiltless,  or  he  would  have  pun- 
ished him  by  the  paternal  power.  The  populus 
acquitted  Horatius,  but  prescribed  a  form  of 
punishment  With  veiled  head,  led  by  his  father, 
Horatius  passed  under  a  yoke  or  gibbet — tigil- 
Iwn  sororium,  "  sister's  gibbet." 

HORATIUS  COCLES.  Vid..  COCLES.  •'.",»  /• 
HORATIUS  FLACCUS,  Q.,  the  poet,  was  born 
December  8th,  B.C.  65,  at  Venusia  in  Apulia, 
His  father  was  a  libertinus  or  freedman.  He 
had  received  his  manumission  before  the  birth 
of  the  poet,  who  was  of  ingenuous  birth,  but  who 
did  not  altogether  escape  the  taunt,  which  ad- 
hered to  persons  even  of  remote  servile  origin. 
His  fathers  occupation  was  that  of  collector 
(coactor),  either  of  the  indirect  taxes  farmed  by 
the  publicans,  or  at  sales  by  auction.  With  the 
profits  of  his  office  he  had  purchased  a  small 
farm  in  the  neighborhood  of  Venusia,  where  the 
poet  was  born.  The  father,  either  in  his  parent- 
al fondness  for  his  only  son,  or  discerning  some 
hopeful  promise  in  the  boy,  determined  to  de- 
vote his  whole  time  and  fortune  to  the  educa- 
tion of  the  future  poet.  Though  by  no  means 
rich,  he  declined  to  send  the  young  Horace  to 
the  common  school,  kept  in  Venusia  by  one 
Flavius,  to  which  the  children  of  the  rural 
aristocracy  resorted.  Probably  about  his  twelfth 
year,  his  father  carried  him  to  Rome,  to  receive 
the  usual  education  of  a  knight's  or  senator's 
son.  He  frequented  the  best  schools  in  the 
capital.  One  of  these  was  kept  by  Orbilius,  a 
retired  military  man,  whose  flogging  propen- 
sities have  been  immortalized  by  his  pupil 
(JEpist.,  ii.,  1,  71).  The  names  of  his  other 
teachers  are  not  recorded  by  the  poet  He  was 
instructed  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages: 
the  poets  were  tho  usual  school  books,  Homer 
in  the  Greek,  and  the  old  tragic  writer,  Livius 
Andronicus,  in  the  Latin.  In  his  eighteenth 
year  Horace  proceeded  to  Athens,  in  order  to 
continue  hia  studies  at  that  seat  of  learning. 
He  seems  chiefly  to  have  attached  himself  to 
the  opinions  which  he  heard  in  the  Academy, 
though  later  in  life  he  inclined  to  those  of  Epi- 
curus. When  Brutus  came  to  Athens  after  uie 
death  of  Caesar,  Horace  joined  his  army,  and 
received  at  once  the  rank  of  a  military  tribune 
and  the  command  of  a  legioa  He  was  present 
at  the  batCfl  of  Philippi,  and  shared  in  the  flight 
379 


HORATIUS  FLACCUS. 


HORM1SDAS. 


of  the  republican  army.  In  one  of  his  poems  he  ]  lative.  Common-life  •wisdom  was  his  study 
playfully  alludes  to  his  flight,  and  throwing  away  ;  and  to  this  he  brought  a  quickness  of  observa- 
hifl  shield.  (6'ar/n,  ii.,  7,  9.)  He  now  resolved  tion  and  a  sterling  common  sense,  which  have 
to  devote  himself  to  more  peaceful  pursuits,  and, '  made  his  works  the  delight  of  practical  men. 
having  obtained  his  pardon,  he  ventured  at  once  I  The  Odes  of  Horace  want  the  higher  inspirations 
to  return  to  Rome.  He  had  lost  all  his  hopes  in  of  lyric  verse.  His  amatory  verses  are  exqui- 


life ;  his  paternal  estate  had  been  swept  away 
in  the  general  forfeiture  ;  but  he  was  enabled, 
however,  to  obtain  sufficient  money  to  purchase 
a  clerkship  in  the  quzestor's  office  ;  and  on  the 
profits  of  that  place  he  managed  to  live  with 
the  utmost  frugality.  Meantime  some  of  his 
poems  attracted  the  notice  of  Varius  and  Virgil, 
who  introduced  him  to  Maecenas  (B.C.  39). 
Horace  soon  became  the  friend  of  Maecenas, 
and  his  friendship  quickly  ripened  into  inti- 
macy. In  a  year  or  two  after  the  commence- 
ment of  their  friendship  (37),  Horace  accom- 
panied his  patron  on  that  journey  to  Brundi- 
sium,  so  agreeably  described  in  the  fifth  satire 
of  the  first  book.  About  the  year  34  Maecenas 
bestowed  upon  the  poet  a  Sabine  farm,  sufficient 
to  maintain  him  in  ease,  comfort,  and  even  in 
content  (satis  beatus  unicis  Sabinis),  during  the 
rest  of  his  life.  The  situation  of  this  Sabine 
farm  was  hi  the  valley  of  Ustica,  within  view 
of  the  mountain  Lucretilis,  and  near  the  Di- 
gentia,  .about  fifteen  miles  from  Tibur  (now 
Tivoli).  A  site  exactly  answering  to  the  villa 
of  Horace,  and  on  which  werj  found  ruins  of 
buildings,  has  been  discovered  in  modern  times. 
Besides  this  estate,  his  admiration  of  the  beau- 
tiful scenery  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tibur  in- 
clined him  either  to  hire  or  to  purchase  a  small 
cottage  in  that  romantic  town ;  and  all  the  later 
years  of  his  life  were  passed  between  these  two 
country  residences  and  Rome.  He  continued 
to  live  on  the  most  intimate  terms  with  Maece- 
nas ;  and  this  intimate  friendship  naturally  in- 
troduced Horace  to  the  notice  of  the  other  great 
men  of  his  period,  and  at  length  to  Augustus 
himself,  who  bestowed  upon  the  poet  substantial 
marks  of  his  favor.  Horace  died  on  November 
17th,  B.C.  8,  aged  nearly  fifty-seven.  His  death 
was  so  sudden  that  he  had  not  time  to  make 
his  will,  but  he  left  the  administration  of  his 
affairs  to  Augustus,  whom  he  instituted  as  his 
heir.  He  was  buried  on  the  slope  of  the  Esqui- 
line  Hill,  close  to  his  friend  and  patron  Maece- 
nas, who  had  died  before  him  in  the  same  year. 
Horace  has  described  his  own  person.  He  was 
of  short  stature,  with  dark  eyes  and  dark  hair, 
but  early  tinged  with  gray.  In  his  youth  he 
was  tolerably  robust,  but  suffered  from  a  com- 
plaint in  his  eyes.  In  more  advanced  life  he 
grew  fat,  and  Augustus  jested  about  bis  protu- 
berant belly.  His  health  was  not  always  good, 
and  he  seems  to  have  inclined  to  be  a  valetudi- 
nariaa  When  young  he  was  irascible  in  tem- 
per, but  easily  placable.  In  dress  he  was  rather 
careless.  His  habits,  even  after  he  became 
richer,  were  generally  frugal  and  abstemious ; 

though  on  occasions,  both  in  youth  and  maturer 

age,  he  seems  to  have  indulged  in  conviviality. 
iHe  liked  choice  wine,  and  in  the  society  of 
^ends  scrupled  not  to  enjoy  the  luxuries  of  his 
'time.  He  was  never  married.  The  philosophy 
'of  Horace  was  that  of  a  man  of  the  world.  He 
'•  playfully  alludes  to  his  Epicureanism,  but  it  was 

•jpractical  rather  than  speculative  Epicureanism. 

uis  mind,  indeed,  was  not  in  the  least  specu- 
380 


Bitely  graceful,  but  they  have  no  strong  ardor, 
no  deep  tenderness,  nor  even  much  of  light  and 
joyous  gayety.  But  as  works  of  refined  art,  of 
the  most  skillful  felicities  of  language  and  of 
measure,  of  translucent  expression,  and  of 
agreeable  images,  embodied  in  words  which  im- 
print themselves  indelibly  on  the  memory,  they 
are  unrivalled.  According  to  Quintilian,  Horace 
was  almost  the  only  Roman  lyric  poet  worth 
reading.  In  the  Satires  of  Horace  there  is  none 
of  the  lofty  moral  indignation,  the  fierce  vehe- 
mence of  invective  which  characterized  the 
later  satirists.  It  is  the  folly  rather  than  the 
wickedness  of  vice  which  he  touches  with  such 
playful  skill.  Nothing  can  surpass  the  keenness 
of  his  observation,  or  his  ease  of  expression, 
it  is  the  finest  comedy  of  manners,  in  a  descrip- 
tive instead  of  a  dramatic  form.  In  the  Epodet 
there  is  bitterness  provoked,  it  should  seem,  by 
some  personal  hatred  or  sense  of  injury,  and 
the  ambition  of  imitating  Archilochus  ;  but  iu 
these  he  seems  to  have  exhausted  all  the  malig- 
nity and  violence  of  his  temper.  But  the  Epis- 
tles are  the  most  perfect  of  the  Horatian  poetry, 
the  poetry  of  manners  and  society,  the  oeauty 
of  which  consists  in  a  kind  of  ideality  of  com 
mon  sense  and  practical  wisdom.  The  Epistles 
of  Horace  are,  with  the  Poem  of  Lucretius,  the 
Georgics  of  Virgil,  and  perhaps  the  Satires  of 
Juvenal,  the  most  perfect  and  most  original 
form  of  Roman  verse.  The  title  of  the  Art  of 
Poetry  for  the  Epistle  to  the  Pisos  is  as  old  as 
Quintilian,  but  it  is  now  agreed  that  it  was  not 
intended  for  a  complete  theory  of  the  poetic 
art.  It  is  conjectured  with  great  probability 
that  it  was  intended  to  dissuade  one  of  the 
younger  Pisos  from  devoting  himself  to  poetry, 
for  which  he  had  little  genius,  or  at  least  to 
suggest  the  difficulties  of  attaining  to  perfec- 
tion. The  chronology  of  the  Horatian  poems 
is  of  great  importance,  as  illustrating  the  life, 
the  tunes,  and  the  writings  of  the  poet.  There 
has  been  great  dispute  upon  the  subject,  but 
the  following  view  appears  the  most  probable : 
The  first  book  of  Satires,  which  was  the  first 
publication,  appeared  about  B.C.  35,  in  the  thir- 
tieth year  of  Horace.  The  second  book  of 
Satires  was  published  about  33,  in  the  thirty- 
second  year  of  Horace.  The  Epodes  appeared 
about  31,  in  the  thirty-fourth  year  of  Horace. 
The  first  three  books  of  the  Odes  were  published 
about  24  or  23,  in  the  forty-first  or  forty-second 
year  of  Horace.  The  first  book  of  the  Epistles 
was  published  about  20  or  19,  in  the  forty-fifth 
or  forty-sixth  year  of  Horace.  The  Carmen 
Seculare  appeared  in  17,  in  the  forty-eighth 
year  of  Horace.  The  fourth  book  of  the  Odes 
was  published  in  14  or  13,  in  his  fifty-first  or 
fifty-second  year.  The  dates  of  the  second 
book  of  Epistles,  and  of  the  Ars  Poeiica,  are 
admitted  to  be  uncertain,  though  both  appeared 
before  the  poet's  death,  B.C.  8.  One  of  the 
best  editions  of  Horace  is  by  Orelli,  Turici,  1845. 

HOEDEONIUS  FLACCUS.     Vid.  FLACCUS. 

HORMISDAS.     Vid.  SASSANID^E. 


HORTA. 


HUNNERiC. 


HOETA  or  HORTANUM  (Hortanus :  now  Orte), 
a  town  in  Etruria,  at  the  junction  of  the  Nar 
and  the  Tiber,  so  called  from  the  Etruscan  god- 
dess Horta,  whose  temple  at  Rome  always  re- 
mained open. 

[HOK.TALUS.     Vid.  HOETENSIUS.  No.  2.] 

[HOETENSIA.  1.  Sister  of  the  celebrated  ora- 
tor Hortensius,  married  to  M.  Valerius  Messala. 
— 2.  Daughter  of  the  orator  Horteusius.  She 
partook  of  her  father's  eloquence,  and  spoke 
before  the  triumvirs  on  behalf  of  the  wealthy 
matrons,  when  these  were  threatened  with  a 
special  tax  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  war 
against  Brutus  and  Cassius.] 

HOETENSIUS.  1.  Q.,  the  orator,  was  born  in 
B.C.  114,  eight  years  before  Cicero.  At  the 
early  age  of  nineteen  he  spoke  with  great  ap- 
plause in  the  forum,  and  at  once  rose  to  emi- 
nence as  an  advocate.  He  served  two  campaigns 
in  the  Social  war  (90,  89).  In  the  civil  wars 
he  joined  Sulla,  and  was  afterward  a  constant 
supporter  of  the  aristocratical  party.  His  chief 
professional  labors  were  in  defending  men  of 
this  party  when  accused  of  mal-ad  ministration 
and  extortion  in  their  provinces,  or  of  bribery 
and  the  like  in  canvassing  for  public  honors. 
He  had  no  rival  in  the  forum  till  he  encountered 
Cicero,  and  he  long  exercised  an  undisputed 
sway  over  the  courts  of  justice.  In  81  he  was 
quaestor;  in  75,  aedile;  in  72,  praetor;  and  in  69, 
consul  with  Q.  CaDcilius  Metellus.  It  was  in  the 
year  before  his  consulship  that  the  prosecution 
of  Verres  commenced.  Hortensius  was  the  ad- 
vocate of  Verres,  and  attempted  to  put  off  the 
trial  till  the  next  yeai1,  when  he  would  be  able 
to  exercise  all  the  consular  authority  in  favor 
of  his  client  But  Cicero,  who  accused  Verres, 
baffled  all  the  schemes  of  Hortensius;  and  the 
issue  of  this  contest  was  to  dethrone  Horten- 
sius from  the  seat  which  had  been  already  tot- 
tering, and  to  establish  his  rival,  the  despised 
provincial  of  Arpinum,  as  the  first  orator  and 
advocate  of  the  Roman  forum.  After  his  con- 
sulship, Hortensius  took  a  leading  part  in  sup- 
porting the  optimates  against  the  rising  power 
of  Purnpey.  He  opposed  the  Gabinian  law, 
which  invested  Pompey  with  absolute  power  on 
the  Mediterranean,  in  order  to  put  down  the 
pirates  of  Cilicia  (67) ;  and  the  Manilian,  by 
which  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Mithra- 
dates  was  transferred  from  Lucullus  to  Pompey 
(66).  Cicero  in  his  consulship  (63)  deserted 
the  popular  party,  with  whom  he  had  hitherto 
acted,  and  became  one  of  the  supporters  of  the 
optimates.  Thus  Hortensius  no  longer  appears 
as  his  rival.  We  first  find  them  pleading  to- 
gether for  C.  Rabirius,  for  L.  Murzeua,  and  for 
P.  Sulla,  After  the  coalition  of  Pompey  with 
Cirsar  and  Crassus  in  60,  Hortensius  drew  back 
from  public  life,  and  confined  himself  to  his  ad- 
vocate's duties.  He  died  in  50.  The  eloquence 
of  Horteusius  was  of  the  florid  or  (as  it  was 
termed)  "  Asiatic"  style,  fitter  for  hearing  than 
for  reading.  His  voice  was  soft  and  musical, 
hia  memory  so  ready  and  retentive  that  he  is 
said  to  have  been  able  to  come  out  of  a  sale- 
room and  repeat  the  auction-list  backward.  His 
Action  was  very  elaborate,  so  that  sneerers  call- 
ed him  Dionysia — the  name  of  a  well-known 
dancer  of  the  day  ;  and  the  pains  he  bestowed 
in  arranging  the  folds  of  his  toga  have  been  re- 


;  corded  by  ancient  writers.  But  in  all  this  there 
j  must  have  been  a  real  grace  and  dignity,  for  we 
!  read  that  ^Esopus  and  Roscius,  the  tragedians, 
used  to  follow  him  into  the  forum  to  take  a  les- 
son in  their  own  art.  He  possessed  immense 
wealth,  and  was  keenly  alive  to  all  the  enjoy- 
ments which  wealth  can  give.  He  had  several 
villas,  the  most  splendid  of  which  was  the  one 
neur  Laurent  um.  Here  he  laid  up  such  a  stock 
of  wine,  that  he  left  ten  thousand  casks  of  Chian 
to  his  heir.  Here  he  had  a  park  full  of  all  sorta 
of  animals;  and  it  was  customary,  during  his 
sumptuous  dinners,  for  a  slave,  dressed  like 
Orpheus,  to  issue  from  the  woods  with  these 
creatures  following  the  sound  of  his  cithara. 
At  his  villa  at  Bauli  he  had  immense  fish-ponds, 
into  which  the  sea  came :  the  fish  were  so  tame 
that  they  would  feed  from  his  hand  ;  and  he  was 
so  fond  of  them  that  he  is  said  to  have  wept  for 
the  death  of  a  favorite  muraena.  He  was  also 
very  curious  in  trees :  he  is  said  to  have  fed 
them  with  wine,  and  we  read  that  he  once  beg- 
ged Cicero  to  change  places  in  speaking,  that 
he  might  perform  this  office  for  a  favorite  plane- 
tree  at  the  proper  time.  It  is  a  characteristic 
trait,  that  he  came  forward  from  his  retirement 
(55)  to  oppose  the  sumptuary  law  of  Pompey 
and  Crassus,  and  spoke  so  eloquently  and  wit- 
tily as  to  procure  its  rejection.  He  was  the 
first  person  at  Rome  who  brought  peacocks  to 
table. — 2.  Q.,  surnamed  HOETALUS,  sou  of  the 
preceding,  by  Lutatia,  the  daughter  of  Catulus. 
In  youth  be  -lived  a  low  and  profligate  life,  and 
appears  to  have  been  at  Jast  cast  off  by  his 
father.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in 
49,  he  joined  Caesar,  and  fought  on  his  side  in 
Italy  and  Greece.  In  44  he  held  the  province 
of  Macedonia,  and  Brutus  was  to  succeed  him. 
After  Caesar's  assassination,  M.  Antony  gave 
the  province  to  his  brother  Caius.  Brutus,  how- 
ever, had  already  taken  possession,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  Hortensius.  When  the  proscription 
took  place,  Hortensius  was  in  the  list ;  and,  in 
revenge,  he  ordered  C.  Antonius,  who  had  been 
taken  prisoner,  to  be  put  to  death.  After  the 
battle  of  Philippi,  he  was  executed  on  the  grave 
of  his  victim. 

HOBUS  (7Qpof),  the  Egyptian  god  of  the  sun, 
whose  worship  was  also  established  in  Greece, 
and  afterward  at  Rome.  He  was  compared  with 
the  Greek  Apollo,  and  identified  with  Harpocra- 
tes,  the  last-born  and  weakly  son  of  Osiris. 
Both  were  represented  as  youths,  and  with  the 
same  attributes  and  symbols.  He  was  believed 
to  have  been  born  witli  his  finger  on  his  mouth, 
as  indicative  of  secresy  and  mystery.  In  the 
earlier  period  of  his  worship  at  Rome  he  seems 
to  have  been  particularly  regarded  as  the  god 
of  quiet  life  and  silence. 

HOSTILIA  (now  Ostiglia),  a  small  town  in  Gal- 
lia  Cisalpina,  on  the  Po,  and  on  the  road  from 
Mutina  to  Verona ;  the  birth-place  of  Cornelius 
Nepos.  ',..  Y 

HOSTILIUS  MANCINUS.     Vid.  MANCINUS. 

HosTiLiys  TULLUS.     Vid.  TULLUS  HOSTILIUS. 

HOSTIUS,  the  author  of  a  poem  on  the  Istrian 
war  (B.C.  178),  which  is  quoted  by  the  gram- 
marians. He  was  probably  a  contemporary  of 
Julius  Ccesar. 

HUNNEBIO,  king  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  A.D. 
477-484,  was  tie  son  of  Geuseric,  whom  he 
381 


HUNNJ 


HYBREAS. 


•uoceeded.  His  reign  was  chiefly  marked  by 
his  savage  persecution  of  the  Catholics. 

HUNNI  (Ovvvot),  an  Asiatic  race,  -who  dwelt 
for  some  centuries  in  the  plains  of  Tartary,  and 
were  formidable  to  the  Chinese  empire  long  be- 
fore they  were  known  to  the  Romans.  It  was 
to  repel  the  inroads  of  the  Huns  that  the  Chinese 
built  their  celebrated  wall,  one  thousaud  five 
hundred  miles  in  length.  A  portion  of  the  na- 
tion afterward  migrated  west,  conquered  the 
Alaui,  a  warlike  race  between  the  Volga  and 
the  Tanais,  and  then  crossed  into  Europe  about 
A.D.  375.  The  appearance  of  these  new  bar- 
barians excited  the  greatest  terror  both  among 
the  Romans  and  Germans.  They  are  described 
by  the  Greek  and  Roman  historians  as  hideous 
and  repulsive  beings,  resembling  apes,  with 
broad  shoulders,  flat  noses,  and  small  black  eyes 
deeply  buried  in  their  head,  while  their  man- 
ners and  habits  were  savage  to  the  last  degree. 
They  destroyed  the  powerful  monarchy  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  who  were  obliged  to  retire  before 
them,  and  were  allowed  by  Valens  to  settle  in 
Thrace,  A.D.  376.  The  Huns  now  frequently 
ravaged  the  Roman  dominions.  They  were 
joined  by  many  other  barbarian  nations,  and 
under  their  king  Attila  (A.D.  434-453)  they  de- 
vastated the  fairest  portions  of  the  empire,  both 
in  the  east  and  the  west.  Vid.  ATTILA.  On  the 
death  of  Attila,  the  various  nations  which  com- 
posed his  army  dispersed,  and  his  sons  were 
uuable  to  resist  the  arms  of  the  Ostrogoths.  In 
a  few  years  after  the  death  of  Attila,  the  em- 
pire of  -the  Huns  was  completely  destroyed. 
The  remains  of  the  nation  became  incorporated 
with  other  barbarians,  and  never  appear  again 
as  a  separate  people. 

HYACINTHUS  (Tu/avflof).  1.  Son  of  the  Spar- 
tan king  Amyclas  and  Diomede,  or  of  Pierus 
and  Clio,  or  of  (Ebalus  or  Eurotas.  He  was  a 
youth  of  extraordinary  beauty,  and  was  beloved 
by  Apollo  and  Zephyrus.  He  returned  the  love 
of  Apollo ;  and  as  he  was  once  playing  at  quoit 
with  the  god,  Zephyrus,  out  of  jealousy,  drove 
the  quoit  of  Apollo  with  such  violence  against 
the  head  of  the  youth  that  he  fell  down  dead. 
From  the  blood  of  Hyacinthus  there^sprang  the 
flower  of  the  same  name  (hyacinth),  on  the 
leaves  of  which  appeared  the  exclamation  of 
woe  AI,  A  I,  or  the  letter  T,  being  the  initial  of 
"fuKtvdof.  According  to  other  traditions,  the 
hyacinth  sprang  from  the  blood  of  Ajax.  Hya- 
cinthus was  worshipped  at  Amyclae  as  a  hero, 
and  a  great  festival,  Hyacinthia,  was  celebrated 
in  his  honor.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  s.  v. — 2.  A 
Lacedaemonian,  who  is  said  to  have  gone  to 
Athens,  and  to  have  sacrificed  his  daughters  for 
the  purpose  of  delivering  the  city  from  a  famine 
and  plague,  under  which  it  was  suffering  dur- 
ing the  war  with  Minos.  His  daughters  were 
known  in  the  Attic  legends  by  the  name  of  the 
Hyacinthides,  which  they  derived  from  their  fa- 
thers. Some  traditions  make  them  the  daughters 
of  Erechtheus,  and  relate  that  they  received  their 
name  from  the  village  of  Hyacinthus,  where 
they  were  sacrificed  at  the  time  when  Athens 
was  attacked  by  the  Eleusinians  and  Thracians, 
or  Thebans. 

HYADES  (Tu'def),  that  is,  the  Rainy,  the  name 
ot  nymphs,  whose  parentage,  number,  and  names 
are  described  in  various  ways  by  the  ancients 
382 


'  Their  parents  were  Atlas  and  ^Ethra,  or  Atlas 
and  Pleione,  or  Hyas  and  Bcootia :  others  call 
i  their  father  Oceauns,  Melisseus,  Cadmilus,  or 
i  Erechtheus.  Their  number  differs  in  various 
legends ;  but  their  most  common  number  is 
seven,  as  they  appear  in  the  constellation  which 
bears  their  name,  viz.,  Ambrosia,  JEudora,  Pe- 
dile,  Coronis,  Polyxo,  Phyto,  and  Thyene  or  Dionr. 
They  were  intrusted  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  with  the 
care  of  his  infant  son  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  and 
were  afterward  placed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  among 
the  stars.  The  story  which  made  them  tlm 
daughters  of  Atlas  relates  that  their  number 
was  twelve  or  fifteen,  and  that  at  first  five  of 
them  were  placed  among  the  stars  as  Hyades, 
and  the  seven  (or  ten)  others  afterward  under 
the  name  of  Pleiades,  to  reward  them  for  the 
sisterly  love  they  had"  evinced  after  the  death 
of  their  brother  Hyas,  who  had  been  killed  in 
Libya  by  a  wild  beast.  Their  name,  Hyades,  is 
derived  by  the  ancients  from  their  father,  Hyas, 
or  from  Hyes,  a  mystic  surname  of  Bacchus 
(Dionysus) ;  or,  according  to  others,  from  their 
position  in  the  heavens,  where  they  formed  a 
figure  resembling  the  Greek  letter  T.  The  Ro- 
mans, who  derived  it  from  vf,  a  pig,  translated 
the  name  by  Sucuhe.  The  most  natural  deriva- 
tion is  from  veiv,  to  rain,  as  the  constellation  of 
the  Hyades,  when  rising  simultaneously  with 
the  sun,  announced  rainy  weather.  Hence  Hor- 
ace speaks  of  the  tristcs  Hyades  (Carm.,  i.,  8,  14). 

[HY^EA  ('Tata :  'YaZof),  a  place  in  the  country 
of  the  Locri  Ozolae,  northward  from  Amphissa.J 

HYAMPKA.      Vid.  PARNASSUS. 

HYAMPOLIS  fJTapro/lff  :  Ta/wroAm^f),  a  town 
in  Phocis,  east  of  the  Cephisus,  near  Cleonse, 
was  founded  by  the  Hyantes  when  they  were 
driven  out  of  Bosotia  by  the  Cadmeans;  was 
destroyed  by  Xerxes ;  afterward  rebuilt ;  and 
again  destroyed  by  Philip  and  the  Amphictyons. 
CleousD,  from  its  vicinity  to  Hyampolis,  is  call- 
ed by  Xenophon  (Hell.,  vi.,  4,  ^  2)  'YafiirohiTuv 
rb  TrpouaTEiov.  Strabo  speaks  of  two  towns  of 
the  name  of  Hyampolis  in  Phocis,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  his  statement  is  correct. 

HYANTES  (Tavrcf),  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Bceotia,  from  which  country  they  were  expelled 
by  the  Cadmeans.  Part  of  the  Hyantes  emi- 
grated to  Phocis  (vid.  HYAMPOLIS),  and  part  to 
-<£tolia.  The  poets  use  the  adjective  Hyantius 
as  equivalent  to  Bceotian. 

HYAS  (Taf),  the  name  of  the  father  and  the 
brother  of  the  Hyades.  The  father  was  married 
to  Bceotia,  and  was  looked  upon  as  the  ancestor 
of  the  ancient  Hyantes.  His  son,  the  brother 
of  the  Hyades,  was  killed  in  Libya  by  a  serpent, 
a  boar,  or  a  lion. 

HYBLA  ("T6A?? :  Ttoatof,  Hyblensis),  three 
towns  in  Sicily.  1.  MAJOR  (i;  [tei&v  or  jiefuXij), 
on  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  ./Etna  and  on 
the  River  Syrnsethus,  was  originally  a  town  of 
the  Siculi. — 2.  MINOR  (ij  fiiKpd),  afterward  call 
ed  Megara.  Vid.  MEGABA. — 3.  HER^EA,  in  the 
south  of  the  island,  on  the  road  from  Syracuse 
to  Agrigentum.  It  is  doubtful  from  which  of 
these  three  places  the  Hyblsean  honey  came,  si> 
frequently  mentioned  by  the  poets. 

[HYBLON  (T6?,ui>),  an  ancient  king  in  Sicily, 
tinder  whose  guidance  the  Megariaus  founded 
Hybla.] 

HYBREAS  (TfipfOf),  of   Mylasa    in   Caria,  a 


HYDR1AS. 


HYLAS. 


Ct4ebr;ited  orator,  contemporary  with  the  trium- 
vir Autouius. 

[HYBRIAS  (Yfipiaf),  an  aticient  lyric  poet  of 
Crete,  author  of  a  celebrated  scolion,  which  has 
been  preserved  iu  Athcnasus  :  edited  by  Graef- 
enhan,  Mulhusse,  1834.] 

HYCCARA  (rH  °Y/c/cap<z :  "Y/c/cafevf :  now  Muro 
di  Carini),  a  town  of  the  Sicani  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Sicily,  west  of  Panormus,  said  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  the  sea-fish  tKKai.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Athenians,  and  plundered,  and  its 
inhabitants  sold  as  slaves,  B.C.  415.  Among 
the  captives  was  the  beautiful  Tiinandra,  the, 
mistress  of  Alcibiades  and  the  mother  of  Lais. 

HYDARNES  (Td«'/3W7f).  1.  One  of  the  seven 
Persians  who  conspired  against  the  Magi  in  B.C. 
521. — [2.  Son  of  the  foregoing,  leader  of  the  se- 
lect body  in  the  army  of  Xerxes  called  the  Im- 
mortals.] 

HYDASPES  ('YJaaTrj/f  :  now  Jelum),  the  north- 
ernmost of  the  five  great  tributaries  of  the  In- 
dus, which,  with  the  Indus  itself,  water  the  great 
plain  of  Northern  India,  which  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Himalaya  range,  and  which  is 
now  called  the  Punjab,  i.  e.,  Jive  riven.  The 
Hydaspes  falls  into  the  Acesines  (now  Chenab), 
which  also  receives,  from  the  south,  first  the 
Hydraotes  (now  Ravee\  and  then  the  Hyphasis 
(now  Betas,  and  lower  down,  Gharra),  which 
has  previously  received,  on  the  southern  side, 
the  Hesidrus  or  Zaradrus  (now  Sutlej  or  Hesu- 
dni) ;  and  the  Acesines  itself  falls  into  the  In- 
dus. These  five  rivers  all  rise  on  the  south- 
western side  of  the  Emodi  Mountains  (now 
Himalaya),  except  the  Sutlej,  which,  like  the 
Indus,  rises  on  the  northeastern  side  of  the 
range.  They  became  known  to  the  Greeks  by 
Alexander's  campaign  iu  India :  his  great  vic- 
tory over  Porus  (B.C.  327)  was  gained  on  the 
left  side  of  the  Hydaspes,  near,  or  perhaps  upon, 
the  scene  of  the  recent  battle  of  Chillianwallah  ; 
and  the  Hyphasis  formed  the  limit  of  his  prog- 
ress. The  epithet  "  fabulosus,"  which  Horace 
applies  to  the  Hydaspes  (Carm.,  i.,  22,  7),  refers 
to  the  marvellous  stories  current  among  the 
Romans,  who  knew  next  to  nothing  about  India  ; 
and  the  "  Medut  Hydaspes"  of  Virgil  (Qeorg., 
iv.,  211)  is  merely  an  example  of  the  vagueness 
with  which  the  Roman  writers,  especially  the 
poets,  refer  to  the  countries  beyond  the  eastern 
limit  of  the  empire. 

[HvDi:  ("Yify),  a  town  of  Lydia,  at  the  base 
of  Mount  Tmolus,  according  to  the  scholiast  (on 
//.  xx.,  385)  the  later  Sardis.] 

HYDRA.     Vid.  HERCULES,  p.  356,  b. 

HYDRAOTES  ('Yopa^n/f,  Strab.  'Yupwrtf  :  now 
Ravce),  a  river  of  India,  falling  into  the  Ace- 
sines.  Vid.  HYDASPES. 

HYDREA  ('Yrfpta :  rY(5pcarj?£  :  now  Hydra),  a 
email  island  in  the  gulf  of  Hermione  off  Argolis, 
of  no  importance  in  antiquity,  but  the  inhabit- 
ants of  which  in  modern  times  played  a  distin- 
guished part  in  the  war  of  Greek  independence, 
and  are  some  of  the  best  sailors  in  Greece. 

HYDRUNTUM  or  HYDRUS  ('Ydpovf :  Hydruntl- 
nus:  now  Otranto),  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  of  Calabria,  situated  on  the  southeastern 
coast,  with  a  good  harbor,  and  near  a  mountain 
Hydrus,  was  in  later  times  a  municipium.  Per- 
sons frequently  crossed  over  to  Epirus  from  this 
port 


[HYDKUSSA  CYdpovaaa),  an  island  in  the  Sa 
ronic  Gulf,  off  the  coast  of  Attica.] 

HYETTUS  ('Y^r-df  :  T^rrtof),  a  small  town  in 
Bceotia,  on  the  Lake  Copais,  and  near  the  fron- 
tiers of  Locris. 

HYGIEA  ("Yyieia),  also  called  HYGKA  or  HYGIA, 
the  goddess  of  health,  and  a  daughter  of  ^Escu- 
lapius,  though  some  traditions  make  her  the 
wife  of  the  latter.  She  was  usually  worship- 
ped in  the  temples  of  -^Esculapius,  as  at  Argos 
where  the  two  divinities  had  a  celebrated  sanc- 
tuary, at  Athens,  at  Corinth,  <fcc.  At  Rome 
there  was  a  statue  of  her  in  the  temple  of  Con- 
cordia.  In  works  of  art  she  is  represented  as 
a  virgin  dressed  in  a  long  robe,  and  feeding  a  ser- 
pent from  a  cup.  Although  she  was  originally 
the  goddess  of  physical  health,  she  is  sometimes 
conceived  as  the  giver  or  protectress  of  mental 
health ;  that  is,  she  appears  as  vyieia  Qpevtiv 
(JSschyl.,  Eum.,  522),  and  was  thus  identified 
with  Minerva  (Athena),  surnamed  Hygiea. 

HYGINUS.  1.  C.  Julius,  a  Roman  gramma- 
rian, was  a  native  of  Spain,  and  lived  at  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Augustus,  whose  freedman  he 
was.  He  wrote  several  works,  all  of  which 
have  perished. — -2.  HYGINUS  GROM-ATICUS,  so 
called  from  gruma,  an  instrument  used  by  the 
Agrimensores.  He  lived  in  the  time  of  Trajan, 
and  wrote  works  on  land  surveying  and  cas- 
trametatiou,  of  which  considerable  fragments 
are  extant. — 3.  HYGINUS,  the  author  of  two  ex 
tant  works :  1.  Fabularum  Liber,  a  series  of 
short  mythological  legends,  with  an  introduc- 
tory genealogy  of  divinities.  Although  the  lar- 
ger portion  of  these  narratives  has  been  copied 
from  obvious  sources,  they  occasionally  present 
the  tales  under  new  forms  or  with  new  circum- 
stances. 2.  Poeticon  Astronomicon  Libri  IV. 
We  know  nothing  of  the  author  of  these  two 
works.  He  is  sometimes  identified  with  C. 
Julius  Hyginus,  the  freedman  of  Augustus,  but 
he  must  have  lived  at  a  much  later  period. 
Both  works  are  included  in  the  Mythographi 
Latini  of  Muncker,  Amst,  1681,  and  of  Van 
Staveren,  Lugd.  Bat,  1742. 

HYL^EA  ('Y/la«7,  Herod.),  a  district 'in  Scythia, 
covered  with  wood,  in  the  peninsula  adjacent 
to  Taurica  on  the  northwest,  between  the  rivers 
Borysthenes  and  Hypacyris. 

HYL.SUS  ('YAeuof),  that  is,  the  "Woodman,  the 
name  of  an  Arcadian  centaur,  who  was  slain 
by  Atalante  when  he  pursued  her.  According 
to  some  legends,  Hylasus  fell  in  the  battle  against 
the  Lapithse,  and  others,  again,  said  that  he  was 
one  of  the  centaurs  slain  by  Hercules. 

HYLAS  (*YAcf),  son  of  Theodamas,  king  of  the 
Dryopes,  by  the  nymph  Meuodice  ;  or,  accord- 
\  ing  to  others,  son  of  Hercules,  Euphemus,- or 
j  Ceyx.     He  was  beloved  by  Hercules,  whom  he 
!  accompanied  in  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts. 
On  the  coast  of  Mysia,  Hylas  went  on  shore  to 
draw  water  from  a  fountain ;  but  his  beauty 
excited  the  love  of  the  Naiads,  who  drew  him 
down  into  the  water,  and  he  was  never  seen 
again.      Hercules   endeavored   in   vnin    to  find 
him ;  and  when  he  shouted  out  to  the  youth, 
the  voice  of  Hylas  was  heard  from  the  bottom 
of  the  well  only  like  a  faint  echo,  whence  some 
say  that  he  was  actually  metamorphosed  into 
an  echo.     While  Hercules  was  engaged  iu  seek- 
ing his  favorite,  the   Argonauts  sailed   away. 
383 


HYLE. 


HYPERBOREI. 


leaving  him  and  his  companion,  Polyphemus, 
behind. — [2.  A  famous  pantomime  at  Rome, 
in  the  time  of  Augustus,  pupil  of  Pylades,  ac- 
quired great  reputation  as  well  as  wealth.] 

HYLE  (*T/^,  also  TYAa/),  a  small  town  in  Bce- 
otia,  situated  ou  the  HYLICE,  which  was  called 
after  this  town,  and  into  which  the  River  Isme- 
nus  flows. 

[HYLEUS  ('Y/Ui>f),  a  Greek  hero  engaged  in 
the  hunt  of  the  Calydonian  boar,  by  which  he 
was  killed.] 

HYLIAS,  a  river  in  Bruttium,  separating  the 
territories  of  Sybaris  and  Croton. 

HYLICE  (f)  TJU/a)  Xiuvt] :  now  Lake  of  Livad/d 
or  Senzina),  a  lake  in  Bceotia,  south  of  the  Lake 
Copais.  Vid.  HYLE. 

HYLICUS  ('IC^iKOf,  °Y?.A«of),  a  small  river  in 
Argolis,  near  Troezen. 

HYLLUS  (TA/.of),  son  of  Hercules  by  Deiaulra. 
For  details,  vid.  HKRACLID^E. 

HTLLUS  (TW.of :  now  Demirji\  a  river  of 
Lydia,  fulling  into  the  Hermus  on  its  northern 
side. 

HYMEN  or  HYMEN^EUS  ('Y//j?v  or  'Y/uevat 
the  god  of  marriage,  was  conceived  as  a  hand- 
some youth,  and  invoked  in  the  hymeneal  or 
bridal  song.  The  names  originally  designated 
the  bridal  song  itself,  which  was  subsequently 
personified.  He  is  described  as  the  son  of 
Apollo  and  a  Muse,  either  Calliope,  Urania,  or 
Terpsichore.  Others  describe  him  only  as  the 
favorite  of  Apollo  or  Thamyris,  and  call  him  a 
son  of  Magues  and  Calliope,  or  of  Bacchus 
(Dionysus)  and  Venus  (Aphrodite).  The  an- 
cient traditions,  instead  of  regarding  the  god  as 
a  pel  Bonification  of  the  hymeneal  song,  speak 
of  him  as  originally  a  mortal,  respecting  whom 
various  legends  were  related.  The  Attic  le- 
gends described  him  as  a  youth  of  such  delicate 
beauty  that  he  might  be  taken  for  a  girl.  He 
fell  in  love  with  a  maiden,  who  refused  to  listen 
to  him;  but,  in  the  disguise  of  a  girl, he  followed 
her  to  Eleusis  to  the  festival  of  Ceres  (Deme- 
ter).  The  maidens,  together  with  Hymemeus, 
were  carried  off  by  robbers  into  a  distant  and 
desolate  country.  On  their  landing,  the  robbers 
laid  down  to  sleep,  and  were  killed  by  Hyme- 
naeus,  who  now  returned  to  Athens,  requesting 
the  citizens  to  give  him  bis  beloved  in  marriage 
if  he  restored  to  them  the  maidens  who  had 
been  carried  off  by  the  robbers.  His  request 
was  granted,  and  his  marriage  was  extremely 
happy.  For  this  reason  he  was  invoked  in  the 
hymeneal  songs.  According  to  others,  he  was 
a  youth  who  was  killed  by  the  fall  of  his  house 
on  his  wedding-day,  whence  he  was  afterward 
invoked  in  bridal  songs,  in  order  to  be  propitia- 
ted. Some  related  that  at  the  wedding  of 
Bacchus  (Dionysus)  and  Ariadne  he  sang  the 
bridal  hymn,  but  lost  his  voice.  He  is  repre- 
sented in  works  of  art  as  a  youth,  but  taller  and 
with  a  more  serious  expression  than  Eros,  and 
carrying  in  his  hand  a  bridal  torch, 

HYMETTUS  (T/wjrTof),  a  mountain  in  Attica, 
celebrated  for  its'  marble  (Jfymettice  trabcs,  Hor., 
Cann^  ii.,  IS,  3),  and  more  especially  for  its 
honey.  It  is  about  three  miles  south  of  Athens, 
and  forms  the  commencement  of  the  range  of 
mountains  which  runs  south  through  Attica.  It 
is  now  called  Telovuni,  and  by  the  Franks  Monte 
Malto  :  the  part  of  the  mountain  near  the  pro- 
384 


montory  Zoster,  which  was  called  in  ancient 
times  ANHYDRUS  (<5  'Awipof,  sc.  T/^rrof),  or 
the  Dry  Hymettus,  is  now  called  Mavrovuui. 

HYPACYRIS,  HYPACARIS,  or  PACARIS  (now  Ka- 
nilshak),  a  river  in  European  Sarmatia,  which 
flows  through  the  country  of  the  uomad  Scyth- 
ians, and  falls  into  the  Sinus  Carcinites  in  the 
Euxine  Sea. 

HYP^EA.     Vid.  STCECHADES. 

HYP^EPA  ("Y^ai-a :  now  Tapaya),  a  city  of 
Lydia,  on  the  south  slope  of  Mount  Tmolus, 
near  the  north  bank  of  the  Cayster. 

HYPANA  ('"fnuvi] :  rd  TTrava :  "fnave vf),  a 
town  in  Triphylian  Elis,  belonging  to  the  Pen- 
tapolis. 

HYPANIS  (now  Bog),  a  river  in  European  Sar- 
matia, rises,  according  to  Herodotus,  m  a  lake,, 
flows  parallel  to  the  Borysthenes,  has  at  first 
sweet,  then  bitter  water,  and  falls  into  the  Eux- 
ine Sea  west  of  the  Borysthenes. 

HYPATA  (rd  TTrara,  i/  '"f-nurrj :  Trraratof, 
'YTraretif :  now  Neopalra,  Turk.  Batrajik),  a 
town  of  the  ^Enianes  in  Thessaly,  south  of  the 
Spercheus,  belonged  in  later  times  to  the  ^Eto- 
lian  league.  The  inhabitants  of  this  town  were 
notorious  for  witchcraft. 

HYPATIA  ('YTrarta),  daughter  of  Theon,  by 
whom  she  was  instructed  in  philosophy  and 
mathematics.  She  soon  made  such  immense 
progress  in  these  branches  of  knowledge,  that 
she  is  said  to  have  presided  over  the  Neopla- 
tonic  school  of  Plotinus  at  Alexandrea,  where 
she  expounded  the  principles  of  his  system  to 
a  numerous  auditory.  She  appears  to  have 
been  most  graceful,  modest,  and  beautiful,  but 
nevertheless  to  have  been  a  victim  to  slander 
and  falsehood.  She  was  accused  of  too  much 
familiarity  with  Orestes,  prefect  of  Alexandrea, 
and  the  charge  spread  among  the  clergy,  who 
took  up  the  notion  that  she  interrupted  the 
friendship  of  Orestes  with  their  archbishop, 
Cyril  In  consequence  of  this,  a  number  of 
them  seized  her  in  the  street,  and  dragged  her 
into  one  of  the  churches,  where  they  tore  her 
to  pieces,  A.D.  415. 

HYPATODORUS  ('YTrarodupof),  a  statuary  of 
Thebes,  flourished  B.C.  372. 

[HYPENOR  ("TTreivup),  a  Trojan  warrior,  slain 
by  Diomedes.] 

HYPERBOLUS  ('Y7rtp6o/lof),  an  Athenian  dema- 
gogue in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  was  of  servile 
origin,  and  was  frequently  satirized  by  Aris- 
tophanes and  the  other  comic  poets.  In  order 
to  get  rid  either  of  Nicias  or  Alcibiades,  Hyper- 
bolus  called  for  the  exercise  of  the  ostracism. 
But  the  parties  endangered  combined  to  defeat 
him,  and  the  vote  of  exile  fell  on  Hyperbolus 
himself :  an  application  of  that  dignified  punish- 
ment by  which  it  was  thought  to  have  been  so 
debased  that  the  use  of  it  was  never  recurred 
to.  Some  years  afterward  he  was  murdered  by 
the  oligarchs  at  Samos,  B.C.  411. 

HYPERBOREI  or  EI  f'Y;rep66p£w,  '"f-^spCopeiot), 
a  fabulous  people,  the  earliest  mention  of  whom 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  sacred  legends  con- 
nected with  the  worship  of  Apollo,  both  at  Delos 
and  at  Delphi.  In  the  earliest  Greek  concep- 
tion of  the  Hyperboreans,  as  embodied  by  the 
poets,  they  were  a  blessed  people,  living  beyond 
the  north  wind  (v~ep66pEOi,  fr.  imsp  and  Bopeaf). 
and  therefore  not  exposed  to  its  cold  blasts,  iu 


HYPERBOREI  MONTES. 


HYPSIPYLE. 


a  land  of  perpetual  sunshine,  -which  produced 
abundant  fruits,  on  which  the  people  lived,  ab- 
staining from  animal  food.  In  innocence  and 
peace,  free  from  disease,  and  toil,  and  care,  ig- 
norant of  violence  and  war,  they  spent  a  long 
and  happy  life  in  the  due  and  cheerful  observ- 
ance of  the  worship  of  Apollo,  \vho  visited  their 
country  soon  after  his  birth*  and  spent  a  whole 
year  among  them,  dancing  and  singing,  before 
he  returned  to  Delphi.  The  poets  related  fur- 
ther how  the  sun  only  rose  once  a  year  and  set 
once  a  year  upon  the  Hyperboreans,  whose  year 
was  thus  divided,  at  the  equinoxes,  into  a  six 
months'  day  and  a  six  mouths'  night,  and  they 
were  therefore  said  to  sow  in  the  morning,  to 
reap  at  noon,  to  gather  their  fruits  in  the  even- 
ing, and  to  store  them  up  at  night ;  how,  too, 
their  natural  life  lasted  one  thousand  years,  but 
if  any  of  them  was  satiated  with  its  unbroken 
enjoyment,  he  threw  himself,  crowned  and 
anointed,  from  a  sacred  rock  into  the  sea. 
The  Delian  legends  told  of  offerings  sent  to 
Apollo  by  the  Hyperboreans,  first  by  the  hands 
of  virgins  named  Arge  and  Opis  (or  Hecaerge), 
and  then  by  Laodice  and  Hyperoche,  escorted 
by  five  me"n  called  Perpherees ;  and,  lastly,  as 
their  messengers  did  not  return,  they  sent  the 
offerings  packed  in  wheat-straw,  and  the  sacred 
package  was  forwarded  from  people  to  people 
till  it  reached  Delos.  If  these  legends  are  based 
on  any  geographical  relations  at  all,  the  most 
probable  explanation  is  that  which  regards  them 
as  pointing  to  regions  north  of  Greece  (the  north 
part  of  Thessaly  especially)  as  the  original  seat 
of  the  worship  of  Apollo.  Naturally  enough,  as 
the  geographical  knowledge  of  the  Greeks  ex- 
tended, they  moved  back  the  Hyperboreans  fur- 
ther and  further  into  the  unknown  parts  of  the 
earth ;  and  of  those  who  sought  to  fix  their  pre- 
cise locality,  some  placed  them  in  the  extreme 
west  of  Europe,  near  the  Pyrenaean  Mountains 
and  the  supposed  sources  of  the  Ister,  and  thus 
they  came  to  be  identified  with  the  CelUe; 
while  others  placed  them  in  the  extreme  north 
of  Europe,  on  the  shores  of  the  Hyperboreus 
Oeeauus,  beyond  the  fabulous  Grypes  and  Ari- 
maspi,  who  themselves  lived  beyond  the  Scyth- 
ians. The  latter  opinion  at  length  prevailed ; 
and  then,  the  rdigious  aspect  of  the  fable  being 
gradually  lost  sight  of,  the  term  Hyperborean 
came  to  mean  only  most  northerly,  as  when  Vir- 
gil and  Horace  speak  of  the  "  Hyperborese  orae" 
and  "  Hyperborei  campi."  The  fable  of  the 
Hyperboreans  may  probably  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  forms  in  which  the  tradition  of  an  orig- 
inal period  of.  innocence,  happiness,  and  im- 
mortality existed  among  the  nations  of  the  an- 
cient world. 

HYFEBBSREI  MOTES  was  originally  the  myth- 
ical name  of  an  imaginary  range  of  mountains 
in  the  north  of  the  earth  I"'./.  HYPERBOREI),  and 
was  afterward  applied  by  the  geographers  to 
various  chains,  as,  for  example,  the  Caucasus, 
the  Rhipaei  Monies,  and  others. 

[HYPERENOR  ('\ircfnjvup),  a  Trojan,  son  of 
Panthua,  slain  by  Menelaus  in  battle.] 

[HYPERIA  (TTTfpeta^.  1.  A  name  of  several 
fountains  mentioned  m  Homer,  in  Thessalv ; 
one  near  the  ancient  Hellas,  another  in  the  city 
Pherao. — 2.  The  earlier  place  of  residence  of  the 
Phaeacians,  whence  they  removed  to  Scheria.] 
25 


HYPERIDES  'YTrepetcJj/f  or  '"fxepidTje),  one  of 
the  ten  Attic  orators,  was  the  sou  of  Glaucippus, 
and  belonged  to  the  Attic  demus  of  Collytus, 
was  a  pupil  of  Plato  in  philosophy,  and  of  De- 
mosthenes in  oratory.  He  was  a  friend  of  De- 
mosthenes, and  with  him  and  Lycurgus  was  at 
the  head  of  the  anti-Macedonian  partv.  He  is 
first  mentioned  about  B.C.  358,  when  he  and 
his  sons  equipped  two  triremes  at  their  own 
expense  in  orc&r  to  serve  against  Euboea,  and 
fro'm  this  time  to  his  death  he  continued  a  stead- 
fast friend  to  the  patriotic  cause.  .  After  the 
death  of  Alexander  (323),  Hyperides  took  an 
active  part  in  organizing  that  confederacy  of 
the  Greeks  agaiust  Antipater  which  produced 
the  Lamian  war.  Upon  the  defeat  of  the  con- 
federates at  the  battle  of  Crannon  in  the  follow- 
ing year  (332),  Hyperides  fled  to  ^Egina,  where 
he  was  slain  by  the  emissaries  of  Antipater. 
The  number  of  orations  attributed  to  Hyperides 
was  seventy-seven,  but  none  of  them  have  come 
down  to  us.  His  oratory  was  graceful  and 
powerful,  holding  a  middle  place  between  that 
of  'Lysias  and  Demosthenes. 

HYPERION  ('Yxspiuv),  a  Titan,  son  of  Coelus 
|  (Uranus)  and  Terra  (Ge),  and  married  to  his 
sister  Thia  or  Euryphaessa,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Helios  (Sol),  Selene  (Luna),  and 
Eos  (Aurora).  Homer  uses  the  name  as  a  pa- 
tronymic of  Helios,  so  that  it  is  equivalent  to 
Nyperionion  or  Hyperionides,  and  Homer's  ex- 
ample is  imitated  also  by  other  poets.  Vid. 
HELIOS. 

HYPEEMNESTRA  (TTrep/ij^orpa).  1.  Daughter 
of  Thestius  and  Eurythemis,  wife  of  Oicles, 
and  mother  of  Amphiaraus.  —  2.  One  of  the 
daughters  of  Danaus,'  and  wife  of  Lynceus. 
Vid.  DANAUS,  LYNCEUS. 

[HYPEROCHUS  ('IVepo^of,  Ep.  Timpo^of).  1. 
A  Trojan  warrior  slain  by  Ulysses.  —  2.  Of 
Cuma3,  author  of  a  work  entitled  KvfiaiKti.] 

HYPHASIS,  or  HYPASIS,  or  HYPANIS    " 


,  "YVavif  :  now  Beeas  and   Gharra),  a 
river  of  India.      Vid.  HYDASPES. 

HYPIUS  (TOTOf),  a  river  and  mountain  in  Bi- 
thynia. 

HYPSAS  (°Yi/>af),  two  rivers  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Sicily,  one  between  Selinus  and  Ther- 
mae Selinuntioe  (now  Belici),  and  -the  other  near 
Agrigentum  (now  Flume  drago). 

[HYPSENOR  ('YV'//vwp).  1.  A  Trojan  warrior 
son  of  Dolopion.  —  2.  Son  of  Hippasus,  a  Greek, 
companion  of  Antilochus,  slain  by  Deiphobus.] 

HYPSEUS  ('YY'ft'f),  son  of  Peneua  aud  Creusa, 
was  king  of  the  Lapithre,  and  father  of  Gyrene. 

HYPSICLES  (Ty/fK/Uyf),  of  Alexaudrea,  a  Greek 
mathematician,  who  is  usually  said  to  have  lived 
about  A.D.  160,  but  who  ought  not  to  be  placed 
earlier  than  A.D.  650.  The  only  work  of  his 
extant  is  entitled  Ilept  ri/f  TUV  fadiuv  uvaijtopuf, 
published  with  the  Optics  of  Heliodorus  at  Paris, 
1567.  He  is  supposed,  however,  to  have  added 
the  fourteenth  aud  fifteenth  books  to  the  Ele- 
ments of  Euclid. 

HYPSIPYLE  (T^Tt-fy?),  daughter  of  Thoaa, 
king  of  Lemnos.  When  tho  Lemnian  women 
killed  all  the  men  in  (ho  island  because  they 
had  taken  some  female  Thraciau  slaves  to  their 
beds,  Hypsipyle  saved  her  father.  Vid.  TUOAS. 
She  then  became  queen  of  Lemnos  ;  and  when 
the  Argonauts  landed  there  shortly  afterward, 
385 


HYPSUS. 


HYSTASPES. 


•he  bore  twin  sons  to  Jason,  Euneus  and  Ne- 
brophonus,  also  called  Dciphilus  or  Thoas.  The 
Lemuian  women  subsequently  discovered  that 
Thoas  was  alive,  whereupon  they  compelled 
Hypsipyle  to  quit  the  island.  On  her  flight  she 
was  takeu  prisoner  by  pirates  and  sold  to  the 
Nemean  kiug  Lycurgus,  who  intrusted  to  her 
care  his  sou  Archemorus  or  Opheltea,  Vid. 
ARCHEMORUB. 

HvpsCs  ('Yipovf  -OVVTOS),  a  town  in  Arcadia, 
on  a  mountain  of  the  same  name. 

HYRCANIA  ('TpKavia  :  'Ypicdviof,  Hyrcanus  : 
now  Mazanderan),  a  province  of  the  ancfent 
Persian  empire,  on  the  southern  and  southeast- 
ern shores  of  the  Caspian  or  Hyrcanian  Sea, 
and  separated  by  mountains  on  the  west,  south, 
and  east  from  Media,  Parthia,  and  Margiaua. 
Its  valleys  were  very  fertile ;  and  it  flourished 
most  under  the  Parthians,  whose  kings  often 
resided  in  it  during  the  summer. 

HYRCANUM  or  -IUM  MARE.  Vid.  CASPIUM 
MARE. 

HYRCANUS  ("Ypicavof).  1.  JOANNES,  prince 
and  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  was  the  sou  and 
successor  of  Simon  Maccabjeus,  the  restorer 
of  the  independence  of  Judaea.  He  succeeded 
to  his  father's  power  B.C.  135.  He  was  at  first 
engaged  in  war  with  Antiochus  VII.  Sidetes, 
who  invaded  Judaea,  and  laid  siege  to  Jerusa- 
lem. In  133  he  concluded  a  peace  with  Antio- 
chus on  the  condition  of  paying  an  annual  trib- 
ute. Owing  to  the  civil  wars  in  Syria  between 
the  several  claimants  to  the  throne,  the  power 
of  Hyrcanus  steadly  increased;  and  at  length 
he  took  Samaria,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground 
(109),  notwithstanding  the  army  which  Antio- 
chus IX.  Cyzicenus  had*  sent  to  the  assistance 
of  the  city.  Hyrcanus  died  in  106.  Although 
he  did  not  assume  the  title  of  king,  he  may  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  monarchy  of  Ju- 
daea, which  continued  in  his  family  till  the  ac- 
cession of  Herod. — 2.  High-priest  and  king  of 
the  Jews,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Alexander  Jan- 
niuus  and  his  wife  Alexandra.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander  (78)  the  royal  authority  devolved 
upon  Alexandra,  who  appointed  Hyrcanus  to 
the  high-priesthood  Alexandra  reigned  nine 
years;  and,  upon  her  death  in  69,  Hyrcanus 
succeeded  to  the  sovereignty,  but  was  quickly 
attacked  by  his  younger  brother  Aristobulus, 
who  possessed  more  energy  and  ambition  than 
Hyrcanus.  In  the  following  year  (68)  Hyrcanus 
was  driven  from  the  throne,  and  took  refuge 
with  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia  Petraaa.  That 
monarch  assembled  an  army,  with  which  he  in- 
vaded Judaea  in  order  to  restore  Hyrcanua.  He 
defeated  Aristobulus,  and  blockaded  him  in  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem.  Aristobulus,  however, 
gained  over  by  bribes  and  promises  Pompey's 
lieutenant,  M.  Scaurus,  who  had  arrived  at  Da- 
mascus, and  who  now  ordered  Aretas  and  Hyr- 
canus to  withdraw  from  Judaea  (64).  The  next 
year  Pompey  himself  arrived  in  Syria :  he  re- 
versed the  decision  of  Scaurus,  carried  away 
Aristobulus  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  and  rein- 
stated Hyrcanus  m  the  high-priesthood,  with 
the  authority,  though  not  the  name  of  royalty. 
Hyrcanus,  however,  did  not  long  enjoy  his 
newly-recovered  sovereignty  iu  quiet.  Alex- 
ander, the  son  of  Aristobulus,  and  subsequently 

386 


Aristobulus  himself,  escaped  from  Rome,  and 
excited  dangerous  revolts,  which  were  only 
quelled  by  the  assistance  of  the  Romans.  The 
real  government  was  now  in  the  able  hands  of 
Antipater,  the  father  of  Herod,  who  rendered 
such  important  services  to  Caesar  during  the 
Alexamlrean  war  (47)  that  Caesar  made  him 
procurator  of  Judaea,  leaving  to  Hyrcunua  the 
title  of  high-priest  Although  Autipater  was 
poisoned  by  the  contrivance  of  Hyrcanus  (43), 
the  latter  was  a  man  of  such  feeble  character 
that  he  allowed  Herod  to  take  vengeance  on  the 
murderer  of  his  father,  and  to  succeed  to  his  fa- 
ther's power  and  influence.  The  Parthians  on 
their  invasion  of  Syria,  carried  away  Hyrcanus 
as  prisoner  (40).  He  was  treated  with  much 
liberality  by  the  Parthian  king,  and  allowed  to 
live  in  perfect  freedom  at  Babylon.  Here  he 
remained  for  some  years ;  but  having  at  length 
received  an  invitation  from  Herod,  who  had 
meanwhile  established  himself  on  the  throne  of 
Judaea,  he  returned  to  Jerusalem  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  Parthian  king.  He  was  treated  with 
respect  by  Herod  till  the  battle  of  Actium, 
when  Herod,  fearing  lest  Augustus  might  place 
Hyrcanus  on  the  throne,  accused  him  of  a  trea- 
sonable correspondence  with  the  king  of  Arabia, 
and  on  this  pretext  put  him  to  death  (30). 

[HYRGi8("Tpytf  :  now  Donets),  a  tributary  of 
the  Tanais  in  Asia.] 

HYRIA  ('fpla :  'Tpifuf,  'Tptar^f).  1.  A  town 
in  Bosotia,  near  Tanagra,  was  in  the  earliest 
times  a  place  of  importance,  but  afterward  sunk 
into  insignificance. — 2.  A  town  in  Apulia.  Vid. 
URIA. 

HYRIEUS  ("fpievf),  son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
and  Alcyone,  king  of  Hyria  in  Boeotia,  husband 
of  Cloma,  and  father  of  Nycteus,  Lycus,  and 
Orion.  Respecting  his  treasures,  vid.  AGAMEDES. 

HYRMIXA  ("Yppivi)),  &  town  in  Elis,  mention- 
ed by  Homer,  but  of  which  all  trace  had  disap- 
peared in  the  time  of  Strabo.  Near  it  was  the 
promontory  Hyrmina  or  Hormina  (now  Cape 
Chiarenza). 

HYRM!NE  ('Ypfiivij),  daughter  of  Neleus,  or 
Nycteus,  wife  of  Phorbas,  and  mother  of  Actor. 

HYRTACUS  (Tpra/cof),  a  Trojan,  to  whom  Pri- 
am gave  his  first  wife  Arisba,  when  he  married 
Hecuba.  Homer  makes  him  the  father  of  Asius, 
ieuce  called  Hyrtacides.  In  Virgil,  Nisus  and 
ffippocoon  are  also  represented  as  sons  of  Hyr- 
iacus. 

[HYRTIUS  (T/moc),  a  leader  of  the  Mysians, 
slain  in  the  Trojan  war  by  Ajax,  son  of  Tela- 
mon.] 

HYSI/E  (Tfftat).  1.  ('TciuTr]f),  &  town  in  Ar- 
jolis,  south  of  Argos,  destroyed  by  the  Spartans 
n  the  Peloponnesian  war. — 2.  ('Taievf),  a  town 
in  Boeotia,  east  of  Plataeae,  called  by  Herodotus 
V,  74)  a  demus  of  Attica,  but  probably  belong  - 
,ng  to  Plataeae. 

HYSTASPES  ("XaTuairi]f ;  in  Persian,  Goshtaap, 
Gustasp,  Histasp,  or  Wistasp).  1.  Son  of  Ar- 
sames,  and  father  of  Darius  X  was  a  member 
of  the  Persian  royal  house  of  the  Achaemenidae. 
He  was  probably  satrap  of  Persis  under  Cam- 
by  ses,  and  probably  under  Cyrus  also. — 2.  Sou 
of  Darius  L  and  Atossa,  commanded  the  B:m- 
trians  and  Sac*  in  the  army  of  his  brother 
Xerxes. 


IABADII  INSITLA. 


IAPIS. 


[IABADII  IXSULA  ('laBadiov  vrivoq  :  uow  prob- 
ably Java,  though  Von  Humboldt  and  others  re- 
gard it  as  Sumatra),  a  large  and  fruitful  island 
of  the  Indian  Sea,  southeast  of  the  Aurea  Cher- 
sonesus,  with  a  capital  city  -called  Argyre  ('Ao- 
~ 


IACCHUS  (la/c^of),  the  solemn  name  of  Bac- 
chus in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  whose  name 
was  derived  from  the  boisterous  song  called 
lacchus.  In  these  mysteries  lacchus  was  re- 
garded as  the  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Ceres 
(Demeter),  and  was  distinguished  from  the  The- 
ban  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  the  son  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  and  Semele.  In  some  traditions  lac- 
chus is  even  called  a  son  of  Bacchus,  but  in 
others  the  two  are  identified.  On  the  sixth  day 
of  the  Eleusinian  festival  (the  twentieth  of  Boe- 
dromion),  the  statue  of  lacchus  was  carried  from 
the  temple  of  Ceres  (Demeter)  across  the  Thri- 
iisian  plain  to  Eleusis,  accompanied  by  a  nu- 
merous and  riotous  procession  of  the  initiated, 
who  sang  the  lacchus,  carried  mystic  baskets, 
and  danced  to  the  sound  of  cymbals  and  trump- 
ets. 

IADERA  or  IADER  (ladertinus  :  now  Old  Zara), 
a  town  on  the  coast  of  Illyricum,  with  a  good 
harbor,  and  a  Roman  colony  under  the  name  of 
"  Colonia  Claudia  Augusta  Felix." 

[IAERA  ('Ideipa).  1.  A  daughter  of  Nereus 
and  Doris.  —  2.  A  wood  nymph,  who  reared  the 
sons  of  Alcanor,  Paudarus  and  Bitias.] 

IALEMUS  ('luAepof),  a  similar  personification 
to  that  of  Linus,  and  hence  called  a  son  of 
Apollo  and  Calliope,  and  the  inventor  of  the 
song  lalemus,  which  was  a  kind  of  dirge,  and 
is  only  mentioned  as  sung  on  most  melancholy 
occasions. 

IALME.VUS  ('Idtyevof),  son  of  Mars  (Ares)  and 
Astyoche,  and  brother  of  Ascalaphus,  was  a 
native  of  the  Boeotian  Orchomenos.  He  was 
one  of  the  Argonauts  and  a  suitor  of  Helena. 
After  the  destruction  of  Troy,  he  wandered 
about  with  the  Orchomenians,  and  founded  col- 
onies in  Colchis. 

IALYSUS  ("la^vaof  :  now  lalyso),  one  of  the 
three  very  ancient  Dorian  cities  in  the  island  of 
Rhodes,  and  one  of  the  six  original  members 
of  the  Dorian  Hexapolis  (vid.  DORIS),  stood  on 
Uie  northwestern  coast  of  the  island,  about  sixty 
stadia  southwest  of  Rhodes.  It  is  said  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  the  mythical  lalysus,  son 
of  Cercaphus,  and  grandson  of  Helios. 

IAMBE  ('luiii-i/i,  a  Thracian  woman,  daughter 
of  Pan  and  Echo,  and  a  slave  of  Metanlra. 
When  Ceres  (Demeter),  in  search  of  her  daugh- 
ter, arrived  in  Attica,  and  visited  the  house  of 
Mctanira,  lambe  cheered  the  mournful  goddess 
by  her  jokes. 

IAMIILIOHUS  ('Ict/zMt^of).  1.  A  Syrian,  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  wrote 
a  romance  in  the  Greek  language  entitled  Baby- 
lonica.  The  work  itself  is  lost,  but  an  epitome 
of  it  is  preserved  by  Photius.  —  2.  A  celebrated 
Neo-  Platonic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Chalcis 
in  Ccelc-Syria.  He  resided  in  Syria  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  life,  and  died  in  the  reign 
of  Constantino  the  tireat,  probably  before  A.D. 
183,  He  was  inferior  in  judgment  aud  learn- 


ing to  the  earlier  Neo-Platonists,  Plotinus  and 
Porphyry;  and  he  introduced  into  his  system 
many  of  the  superstitions  and  mysteries  of  the 
East,  by  means  of  which  he  endeavored  to  check 
the  progress  of  Christianity.  The  extant  works 
of  lamblichus  are,  L  Heal  livdayopov  alpsaeuc;, 
on  the  philosophy  of  Pythagoras.  It  was  in- 
tended as  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  Plato 
and  consisted  originally  of  ten  books,  of  which 
five  only  are  extant  1.  The  first  book  contains 
an  account  of  the  life  of  Pythagoras,  and  though 
compiled  without  >care,  it  is  yet  of  value,  as  the 
other  works,  from  which  it  is  taken,  are  lost 
Edited  by  Kuster,  Amsterd^  1707  ;  and  by 
Kiessling,  Lips.,  1815.  2.  HporpEirTiKoi  /loyot 
elf  <j>i2.oao<f>iav,  forms  a  sort  of  introduction  to 
the  study  of  Plato.  Edited  by  Kiessling,  Lips., 
1813,  8vo.  3.  ILepl  Koivrjs  fiadr/^aTiK^f  eTTiar- 
77//77C,  contains  many  fragments  of  the  works  of 
early  Pythagoreans.  Edited  by  Fries,  Copen- 
hagen, 1790.  4.  Tlepl  r7/f  NIKO/ZUXOV  uptd^ujTi- 
KTJC  ekuyuy^f.  Edited  by  Tennulius,  Deventer 
and  Aruhehn,  1668.  6.  Ta  •deo'^oyovfieva  1% 
upidfiTjTiK^f.  Edited  by  Ast^  Lips.,  1817.  —  IL 
Uept  [tvoTTipiuv,  written  to  prove  the  divine  ori- 
gin of  the  Egyptian  and  Chaldaean  theology. 
Edited  by  Gale,  Oxon.,  1678.  lamblichus  wrote 
other  works  which  are  lost.  —  3.  A  later  Neo- 
Platonic  philosopher  of  Apamea,  a  contempo- 
rary of  the  Emperor  Julian  and  of  Libanius. 
[IAMENUS  ('lu/^evof),  a  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by 


Leouteus  during  the  attack  of  the  Trojans  on 
the  camp  of  the  Greeks.] 

IAMID^E.     Vid.  IAMUS. 

IAMNIA  ('lu/iveia  ;  '\ap>la  :  'la/iveinjf  :  in  Old 
Testament,  Jabneel,  Jabneh  :  now  Ibneh  or  Gab 
neft),  a  considerable  city  of  Palestine,  between 
Diospolis  and  Azotus,  near  the  coast,  with  a 
good  harbor,  was  taken  by  King  Uzziah  from 
the  Philistines.  Pompey  united  it  to  the  prov- 
ince of  Syria.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem it  became  the  seat  of  the  Sanhedrim,  and 
of  a  celebrated  school  of  Jewish  learning. 

[IAMNO  or  IAMNA  ("lapva  :  now  Ciudadela),  a 
city  in  the  smaller  of  the  Balearic  Islands  (Mi- 
norca).] 

[!AMPHOR!NA,  a  strong  place  in  the  territory  of 
the  Mrcdi  in  Macedonia.] 

IAMUS  ("la/iog),  son  of  Apollo  and  Evadne,  re- 
ceived the  art  of  prophecy  from  his  father,  and 
was  regarded  as  the  ancestor  of  the  famous 
family  of  seers,  the  lamidae  at  Olympia. 

[IANASSA  ('luvaaaa),  one  of  the  Nereids.] 

IANIRA  ('luvctpa),  one  of  the  Nereids. 

IANTHE  ('luvdti).  1.  Daughter  of  Oceanus  and 
Tethys,  and  one  of  the  playmates  of  Proserpina 
(Persephone).  —  2.  Daughter  of  Telestes  of  Crete, 
beloved  by  IPHIS. 

IAPETOS  ('lan-eTof),  one  of  the  Titans,  son  of 
Coelus  (Uranus)  and  Terra  (Ge),  married  Asia 
or  Clymene,  the  daughter  of  his  brother  Ocea- 
nus, and  became  by  her  the  father  of  Atlas,  Pro- 
metheus, Epimetbeus,  and  Mencetius.  He  was 
imprisoned  with  Saturn  (Cronus)  in  Tartarus. 
Being  the  father  of  Prometheus,  he  was  regard- 
ed by  the  Greeks  as  the  ancestor  of  the  human 
race.  His  descendants,  Prometheus,  Atlas,  and 
others,  are  often  designated  by  the  patronymics 
lapetida^es),  Iapetionida.{ts),  and  the  feminine 
lapetionis. 

[lApis,  son  of  lasus,  beloved  by  Apollo,  and 
387 


1APYDES. 


IBYCUS. 


received  from  him  the  knowledge  of  medicine 
and  the  prophetic  art :  he  cured  ^Eneas  of  the 
wound  received  by  him  in  the  war  against  La- 
tiaus.J 

IAPYDES  ('luTrvocf  or  'lajroJef),  a  warlike  and 
barbarous  people  in  the  north  of  Illyricum,  be- 
tween the  Rivers  Arsia  and  Tedanius,  were  a 
mixed  race,  partly  Illyrian  and  partly  Celtic, 
who  tattooed  their  bodies.  They  were  subdued 
by  Augustus.  Their  country  was  called  IA- 
PYDIA. 

IAPYGIA  ('Ic-rvyta :  'luTrvyef),  the  name  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  south  of  Apulia,  from  Ta- 
rentum  and  Brundisium  to  the  PROMONTORIUM 
IAFYGIUM  (now  Cape  Leuca),  though  it  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  whole  of  Apulia.  Vid.  APU- 
LIA. The  name  is  derived  from  the  mythical 
lapyx. 

IAPYX  ('Iu7ro|).  1.  Son  of  Lycaon  and  brother 
of  Daunus  and  Peucetius,  who  went  as  leaders 
of  a  colony  to  Italy.  According  to  others,  he 
was  a  Cretan,  and  a  brother  of  Icadius,  or  a  son 
of  Daedalus  and  a  Cretan  woman,  from  whom 
the  Cretans  who  migrated  to  Italy  derived  the 
name  of  lapyges. — 2.  The  west-northwestern 
wind,  blowing  off  the  coast  of  lapygia  (Apulia), 
in  the  south  of  Italy,  and  consequently,  favor- 
able to  persons  crossing  over  to  Greece.  It  was 
the  same  as  the  lip-yeaTrjf  of  the  Greeks. 

IARBAS  or  HIARBAS,  king  of  the  Gaetulians, 
and  son  of  Jupiter  Ammon  by  a  Libyan  nymph, 
sued  in  vain  for  the  hand  of  Dido  in  marriage. 
For  details,  vid.  DIDO. 

IARDANES  ('lapduvTjf),  a  king  of  Lydia,  and 
father  of  Omphale,  who  is  hence  called  lardanis. 

IARDANES  or  IARDANUS  ('lapduvqc,  'lupdavof). 
1.  (Now  Jordan),  a  river  in  Elis. — 2.  A  river  in 
the  north  of  Crete,  which  flowed  near  the  town 
Cydonia. 

IASION  or  IASIUS  ('laaiuv,  'luffiof),  son  of  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  and  Electra,  the  daughter  of  Atlas, 
or  son  of  Corythus  and  Electra.  At  the  wed- 
ding of  his  sister  Harmonia,  Ceres  (Demeter) 
fell  in  love  with  him,  and  in  a  thrice-ploughed 
field  (rptTro/lof)  she  became  by  him  the  mother 
of  Pluton  or  Plutus  in  Crete  ;  Jupiter  (Zeus),  in 
consequence,  killed  lasion  with  a  flash  of  light- 
ning. Others  represent  him  as  living  to  au  ad- 
vanced age  as  the  husband  of  Ceres  (Demeter). 
In  some  traditions  lasion  and  his  brother  Dar- 
dauus  are  said  to  have  carried  the  palladium  to 
Samothrace,  and  there  to  have  been  instructed 
in  the  mysteries  of  Ceres  (Demeter)  by  Jupiter 
(Zeus).  Others  relate  that  lasion,  being  in- 
spired by  Ceres  (Demeter)  and  Cora  (Proser- 
pina), travelled  about  in  Sicily  and  many  other 
countries,  and  every  where  taught  the  people 
the  mysteries  of  Ceres  (Demeter). 

IASIS,  i.  e.,  Atalante,  the  daughter  of  lasius. 

[IXsius  (luaiof).  1.  King  of  Orchomenos, 
father  of  Amphion. — 2.  Vid.  IASION.! 

IASO  (flaau),  i.  e.,  Recovery,  a  daughter  of 
^Esculapius  or  Amphiaraus,  and  sister  of  Hy- 
giea,  was  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  recovery. 

IASSIUS  or  IASSICUS  SINUS  ('laaiKdf  KO?.TTOC : 
now  Gulf  of  Mandeliyeh),  a  large  gulf  on  the 
western  coast  of  Caria,  between  the  peninsulas 
of  Miletus  and  Myndus,  named  after  the  city 
of  lassus,  and  called  also  Bargylieticus  Sinus 
(Bap-/v~AiT)TiKoc  Ko^irof)  from  another  city  which 
stood  upon  it,  namely,  Bargyh'a. 
388 


IASSUS  or  IASUS  ("laaaof,  'laaof.  'laocvf  :  ruini 
at  Asyn-Kalessi),  a  city  of  Caria,  on  the  lassius 
Sinus,  founded  by  Argives  and  further  colonized 
by  Milesians. 

IASUS  ("laerof).  1.  An  Arcadian,  son  of  Ly 
curgus  and  Cleophile  or  Eurynome,  brother  of 
Ancseus,  husband  of  Clymene,  the  daughter  of 
Minyas,  and  father  of  Atalante.  He  is  likewise 
called  lasius  and  lasion. — 2.  Father  of  Amphion, 
and  king  of  the  Minyans. — [3.  Son  of  Triopas, 
grandson  of  Phorbas,  brother  of  Agenor,  and 
father  of  lo,  according  to  one  account,  was  king 
of  Argos. — 4.  Son  of  Sphelus,  a  leader  of  the 
Athenians  before  Troy,  slain  by  .ZEueas.] 

IAZYGES  ('Idfu/ef),  a  powerful  Sarmatian  peo- 
ple, who  originally  dwelt  on  the  coast  of  the 
Pontus  Euxinus  and  the  Palus  Mjeotis,  but  in 
the  reign  of  Claudius  settled  near  the  Quadi  in 
Dacia,  in  the  country  bounded  by  the  Danube, 
the  Theiss,  and  the  Sarmatian  Mountains.  They 
are  generally  called  Sarmatce  lazyges  or  simply 
Sarmatce,  but  Ptolemy  gives  them  the  name  of 
lazyges  Mctanastce,  on  account  of  their  migra- 
tion. The  lazyges  were  in  close  alliance  with 
the  Quadi,  along  with  whom  they  frequently  at- 
tacked the  Roman  dominions,  especially  Mcesia 
and  Pannonia.  In  the  fifth  century  they  were 
conquered  by  the  Goths. 

IBERIA  ('Ifrijpia  :  southern  part  of  Georgia),  a 
country  of  Asia,  in  the  centre  of  the  isthmus 
between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caucasus,  on  the 
west  by  Colchis,  on  the  east  by  Albania,  and  on 
the  south  by  Armenia.  It  was  surrounded  on 
every  side  by  mountains,  through  which  there 
were  only  four  passes.  Sheltered  by  these 
mountains  and  watered  by  the  Cyrus  (now 
Kour)  and  its  upper  tributaries,  it  was  famed 
for  a  fertility  of  which  its  modern  name  (from 
Fewpyof)  remains  a  witness.  Its  inhabitants, 
IBKRES  ("ISrjpef)  or  IBERI,  were,  and  are  still, 
among  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  the  Cau- 
casian race.  The  ancients  believed  them  to  be 
of  the  same  family  as  the  Assyrians  and  Medes, 
whom  they  were  thought  to  resemble  in  their 
customs.  They  were  more  civilized  than  their 
neighbors  in  Colchis  and  Albania,  and  were  di- 
vided into  four  castes :  1.  The  nobles,  from 
whom  two  kings  were  chosen;  2.  The  priests, 
who  were  also  the  magistrates ;  3.  The  soldiers 
and  husbandmen ;  4.  The  slaves,  who  perform- 
ed all  public  and  mechanical  work.  The  chief 
employment  of  the  Iberians  was  agriculture. 
The  Romans  first  became  acquainted  with  the 
country  through  the  expedition  of  Pompey  in 
B.C.  65 ;  and  under  Trajan  it  was  subjected  to 
Rome.  In  the  fifth  century  it  was  conquered 
by  the  Persian  king  Sapor.  No  connection 
can  be  traced  between  the  Iberians  of  Asia  and 
those  of  Spain. 

IBERUS  ("I6j)pof  or  "IGrjp  :  now  Ebro),  the  prin- 
cipal river  in  the  northeast  of  Spain,  rises  among 
the  mountains  of  the  Cantabri,  near  Juliobriga, 
flows  southeast  through  a  great  plain  between 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Mons  Idubedo,  and  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean  near  Dertosa,  after 
forming  a  Delta. 

IBYCUS  ('IfivKOf),  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  was  a 
native  of  Rhegium,  and  spent  the  best  part  of 
his  liL  at  Samos,  at  the  court  of  Polycrates, 
about  B.C.  540.  It  is  related  that,  travelling 


1C  ARIA. 


IC1LIUS. 


through  a  desert  place  near  Corinth,  he  was  j  karia),  an  island  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  one  of  th« 
murdered  by  robbers,  but  before  he  died  he  call-  Sporades,  west  of  Samoa,  called  also  Doliche 
ed  upon  a  flock  of  cranes  that  happened  to  fly  j  (&o7^xn,  i.  e.  long  island).  Its  common  name, 


over  him  to  avenge  his  death.  Soon  afterward, 
when  the  people  of  Corinth  were  assembled  in  the 
theatre,  the  cranes  appeared  ;  and  one  of  the 
murderers,  who  happened  to  be  present,  cried 
out  involuntarily,  "  Behold  the  avengers  of  Iby- 
cus  :"  and  thus  were  the  authors  of  the  crime 
detected.  The  phrase  al  'ICvKov  yepavoi  passed 
into  a  proverb.  The  poetry  of*  Ibycus  was 
chiefly  erotic,  and  partook  largely  of  the  im- 
petuosity of  his  character.  In  his  dialect  there 
was  a  mixture  of  the  Doric  and  ^Eolic.  In  an- 
tiquity there  were  seven  books  of  his  lyric 
poems,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  now  re- 
main. [These  fragments  are  collected  in  Schnei- 
dewin's  Ibyci  Carminum  Reliquiae,  Gottingen, 
1833.] 

ICARIA  or  ICARIUS  ('Iitapia,  '\Kupior  :  'iKapiEv^), 
A  mountain  and  a  demus  in  Attica,  belonging  to 
the  tribe  ^Egeis,  where  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  is 
said  to  have  taught  Icarius  the  cultivation  of  the 


vne. 

ICAEIUS  ('iKdpi 


also  called  ICARUS  or  ICA- 


1.  An  Athenian,  who  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Pandion,  and  hospitably  received  Bacchus 
(Dionysus)  on  his  arrival  in  Attica.  The"  god, 
in  return,  taught  him  the  cultivation  of  the  vine. 
Icarius  made  a  present  of  some  wine  to  peas- 
ants, who  became  intoxicated  by  it,  and  think- 
ing that  they  were  poisoned  by  Icarius,  slew 
him,  and  threw  his  body  into  a  well,  or  buried 
it  under  a  tree.  His  daughter  Erigone,  after  a 
long  search,  found  his  gi'ave,  to  which  she  was 
conducted  by  his  faithful  dog  Maera.  From 
grief  she  hung  herself  on  the  tree  under  which 
he  was  buried.  Jupiter  (Zeus)  or  Bacchus  (Di- 
onysus) placed  her  and  Icarius  among  the  stars, 
making  Erigone  the  Virgin,  Icarius  Bootes  or 
Arcturus,  and  Maera  Procyon  or  the  little  dog. 
Hence  the  latter  is  called  Icarius  canis.  The 
god  then  punished  the  ungrateful  Athenians 
with  madness,  in  which  condition  the  Athenian 
maidens  hung  themselves  as  Erigone  had  done. 
The  Athenians  propitiated  Icarius  and  Erigone 
by  the  institution  of  the  festival  of  the  jEora. 
Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v.  —  2.  A  Lacedaemonian, 
son  of  Perieres  and  Gorgophone,  and  brother 
of  Tyndareus.  Others  called  him  grandson  of 


and  that  of  the  surrounding  sea,  ICARIUM  MAKE, 
were  derived  from  the  myth  of  ICAEUS.  It  was 
first  colonized  by  the  Milesians,  but  afterward 
belonged  to  the  Samians,  who  fed  their  herds  on 
its  rich  pastures. 

Iccius.  [1.  A  noble  of  Rheims  in  Gallia  Bel- 
gica,  who  headed  a  deputation  of  his  townsmen 
to  CaBsar  in  B.C.  57,  placing  their  state  at  Cse- 
sar's  disposal,  and  praying  his  aid  against  the 
other  Belgic  communities.]  —  2.  A  friend  of 
Horace,  who  addressed  him  an  ode  (Carm.,  i., 
29)  and  an  epistle  (-£/>.,  i.,  1  2).  The  ode  was 
written  in  B.C.  25,  when  Iccius  was  preparing  to 
join  ^Elius  Gallus  ha  his  expedition  to  Arabia. 
The  epistle  was  composed  about  ten  years  after- 
ward, when  Iccius  had  become  Vipsanius  Agrip- 
pa's  steward  in  Sicily.  In  both  poems  Horace 
reprehends  pointedly,  but  delicately,  in  Iccius  an 
inordinate  desire  for  wealth. 

ICENI,  called  SIMENI  (2i//evo/)  by  Ptolemy,  a 
numerous  and  powerful  people  in  Britain,  who 
dwelt  north  of  the  Trinobautes,  in  the  modern 
counties  of  Suffolk  and  Norfolk.  Their  revolt 
from  the  Romans,  under  their  heroic  queen 
Boadicea,  is  celebrated  in  history.  Vid.  BOA- 
DICEA.  Their  chief  town  was  VENTA  ICENORUM 
(now  Caister)  about  three  miles  from  Norwich. 

ICHNJS  ("Ijvat  :  Ixvalof).  1.  A  town  in  Bot- 
tiaea  in  Macedonia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Axius. 
—  2.  A  town  in  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly,  celebrated 
for  its  worship  of  Themis,  who  was  hence  sur- 
named  Ichncea. 


or  ISCHN^E  ('I^vat,  'larval),  a  Greek 
city  in  the  north  of  Mesopotamia,  founded  by  the 
Macedonians,  was  the  scene  of  the  first  battle  be- 
tween Crassus  and  the  Parthians,  in  which  the 
former  gained  the  victory.  According  to  Appian. 
the  Parthians  soon  after  defeated  the  Romans 
near  the  same  spot 

[ICHNUSA  (Ixvovaa),  the  ancient  name  of  Sar- 
dinia. ~Vid.  SARDINIA.] 

ICHTHYOPHAGI  (  'Ix0vo<j>dyoi,  i.  e.,  Fish-eaters), 
was  a  vague  descriptive  name  given  by  the  an- 
cients to  various  tribes  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  and 
Africa,  of  whom  they  knew  but  little.  Thus  we 
find  Ichthyophagi  :  1.  In  the  extreme  south-east 
of  Asia,  in  the  country  of  the  Sinae.  2.  On  the 


Perieres,    and  son  of  (Ebalus.     When  Icarius  !  coast  of  GEDROSIA.    3.  On  the  northeastern  coast 
and  Tyndareus  were  expelled  from  Lacedaemon   of  Arabia  Felix    4.  In   Africa,  on  the  coast  of 
by  their  half-brother    Hippocoon,  Icarius  went   the  Red  Sea,  above  Egypt.     5.  On  the  western 
to  Acarnauia,  and  there  became  the  father  of 
Penelope,  and    of  several  other  children.      He 


afterward  returned  to  Lacedaetnon.  Since  there 
were  many  suitors  for  the  hand  of  Penelope,  he 
promised  to  give  her  to  the  hero  who  should 


coast  of  Africa. 

IciLius.  1.  SP.,  was  one  of  the  three  envoys 
sent  by  the  plebeians,  after  their  succession  to 
the  Sacred  Mount,  to  treat  with  the  senate,  B. 
C.  494.  He  was  thrice  elected  tribune  of  the 

conquer  in  a  foot  race.  Ulysses  won  the  prize,  j  plebs,  namely,  in  492,  481,  and  471. — 2.  L.,  a 
and  was  betrothed  to  Penelope.  Icarius  tried  to  man  of  great  energy  and  eloquence,  was  tribune 
persuade  his  daughter  to  remain  with  him,  and  |  of  the  plebs  456,  when  he  claimed  for  the  trib- 
not  accompany  Ulysses  to  Ithaca.  Ulysses  al-  unes  the  right  of  convoking  the  senate,  and  also 
lowed  her  to  do  as  she  pleased,  whereupon  she  '  carried  the  important  law  for  the  assignment 
covered  her  face  with  her  veil  to  hide  her  blushes,  i  of  the  Aventine  (de  Aventino  publicando)  to  the 
and  thus  intimated  that  she  would  follow  her  '  plebs.  In  the  following  year  (455)  he  was  again 
husband.  Icarius  then  desisted  from  further  en- '  elected  tribune.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  lead 
treaties,  and  erected  a  statue  of  Modesty  on  the  era  in  the  outbreak  against  the  decemvirs,  449. 
•pot  Virginia  had  been  .betrothed  to  him,  and  he  bold- 

IcXaus  ("hopof),  son  of  Daedalus.     Vid.  D.*-   ly  defended  her  cause  before  Appius  Claudius  • 
3ALUS.  and  when  at  length  she  fell  by  her  father's  hand, 

IOARCS  or  ICARIA  ('I/capof,  'luapia  :  now  Ni-   Icilius  hurried  to  the  army  which  was  carrying 

389 


ICONIUM. 

on  war  against  the  Sabines,  and  prevailed  upon 
them  to  desert  the  government 

ICONJUM  (IKOVIOV  :  'iKovievf.  now  Koniyeh), 
the  capital  of  Lyeaonia,  in  Asia  Minor,  was,  when 
visited  by  St  Paul,  a  flourishing  city,  with  a  mix- 
ed population  of  Jews  and  Greeks ;  under  the 
Inter  emperors,  a  colonv  •.  and  in  the  Middle  Aces, 
one  of  the  greatest  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  and  im- 
portant in  the  history  of  the  crusades. 

ICTINUS  ('iKnvof),  a  contemporary  of  Pericles, 
was  the  architect  of  two  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  Greek  temples,  namely,  the  great  temple 
of  Minerva  (Athena)  in  the  acropolis  of  Athens, 
called  the  Parthenon,  and  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Epicurius,  near  Phigalia  in  Arcadia.  Calli- 
crates  was  associated  with  Ictinus  in  biiilding 
the  Parthenon. 

IDA  ("Icty,  Dor.  "Ida).  1.  (Now  Ida  or  Kas- 
Dagh,)  a  mountain  range  of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Mi- 
nor, which  formed  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
Troad;  extending  from  Lectum  Promontorium 
in  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Tread,  eastward 
along  the  northern  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Adramyt- 
tum,  and  further  east  into  the  centre  of  Mysia. 
Its  highest  summits  were  Cotylus  on  the  north" 
and  Gargara  on  the  south ;  the  latter  is  about 
five  thousand  feet  high,  and  is  often  capped  with 
snow.  Lower  down,  the  slopes  of  the  mountain 
are  well-wooded ;  and  lower  still,  they  form 
fertile  fields  and  valleys.  The  sources  of  the 
Scamander  and  the  ^Esepus,  besides  other  riv- 
ers and  numerous  brooks,  are  on  Ida.  The 
mountain  is  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the 
scene  of  the  rape  of  Ganymede,  whom  Ovid 
(Fast.,  ii.,  145)  calls  Idceus  puer,  and  of  the  judg- 
ment of  Paris,  who  is  called  Idceus  Judex  by 
Ovid  (Fast.,  vi.,  44),  and  Idceus  pastor  by  Cicero 
(ad.  Alt.,  ii,  18).  In  Homer,  too,  its  summit  is 
the  place  from  -which  the  gods  watch  the  battles 
in  the  plain  of  Troy.  Ida  was  also  an  ancient 
seat  of  the  worship  of  Cybele,  who  obtained  from 
it  the  nane  of  Idcea  Mater. — 2.  (Now  Psilorati),  a 
mountain  in  the  centre  of  Crete,  belonging  to  the 
mountain  range  which  runs  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  island.  Mount  Ida  is  said  to  be 
seven  thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy-four  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  was  closely  con- 
nected with  the  worship  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  is 
said  to  have  been  brought  up  in  a  cave  in  this 
mountain. 

IDJJA  MATER.      Vid.  IDA. 

ID^EI  DACTYLI.     Vid.  DACTYLI. 

[IDCEUS  (Tdatof).  1.  A  herald  of  the  Trojans. 
— 2.  Son  of  Dares,  the  priest  of  Vulcan  (Hephaes- 
tus), slain  by  Diomede.J 

IDALIDM  ('IdaAtov),  a  town  in  Cyprus,  sacred 
to  Venus  (Aphrodite),  who  hence  bore  the  sur- 
name Idaiia. 

IDANTHYBSCS  ('Iduvihpaof),  a  king  of  the  Scy- 
thians, under  whom  they  overran  Asia,  and  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  Egypt. 

IDAS  ('leJaj-).  1.  Son  of  Aphareus  and  Arene, 
the  daughter  of  (Ebalus,  brother  of  Lynceus, 
husband  of  Marpessa,  and  father  of  Cleopatra  or 
Alcyone.  From  the  name  of  their  father,  Idas 
and  Lynceus  are  called  Apharetidce  or  Apharldce. 
Apollo  was  in  love  with  Marpessa,  the  daughter 
of  Evenus,  but  Idas  carried  her  off  in  a  winged 
chariot  which  Neptune  (Poseidon)  had  given 
him.  Evenus  could  not  overtake  Idas,  but 
Apollo  found  him  in  Messene  and  took  the 
390 


IDRIEUS. 

maiden  from  him.  The  lovers  fought  for  he? 
possession,  but  Jupiter  (Zens)  separated  them, 
and  left  the  decision  with  Marpessn,  who  chose 
Idas,  from  fear  lest  Apollo  should  desert  her  if 
she  grew  old.  The  Apharetidse  also  took  part 
in  the  Calydonian  hunt,  and  in  the  expedition  of 
the  Argonauts.  But  the  most  celebrated  Dart  of 
their  story  is  their  battle  with  the  Dioscuri,  Cas- 
tor and  Pollux,  which  is  related  elsewhere  (p. 
266,  b.). — [2,  One  of  the  guests  at  the  marriage 
of  Perseus,  slain  by  Phiueus. —  3.  One  of  the  com- 
panions of  Diomedes,  changed  by  Venus  (Aphro- 
dite) into  a  bird.— 4.  A  Trojan  warrior,  mention- 
ed by  Virgil,  slain  by  Turnus  in  Italy. — 5.  Two 
heroes  in  the  Theban  war,  the  one  from  Onches- 
tus,  the  other  from  Toenarus.] 

[IDE  ("I6i)).  1.  Daughter  of  Corybas  and  moth- 
er of  Minos. — 2.  A  nymph,  mother  of  Nisus  by 
Hyrtacus.] 

IDISTAVISUS  CAMPUS,  a  plain  in  Germany  near 
the  Weser,  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Porta  Westphalica,  between  Rinteln  and  Haus- 
berge,  memorable  for  the  victory  of  Germanicus 
over  the  Cherusci,  A.  D.  16. 

IDMOX  ('H/zwv).  1.  Son  of  Apollo  and  Asteria, 
or  Gyrene,  was  a  soothsayer,  and  accompanied 
the  Argonauts,  although  he  knew  beforehand 
that  'death  awaited  him.  He  was  killed  in  the 
country  of  the  Mariandynians  by  a  boar  or  a 
serpent;  or,  according  to  others,  he  died  there 
of  a  disease. — [2.  A  Kutulian,  sent  by  Turnus  to 
./Eneas  to  propose  to  settle  the  dispute  for  the 
hand  of  Lavinia  by  single  combat  between  the 
heroes.] 

IDOMENEUS  (Idofisvsvf).  1.  Son  of  the  Cretan 
Deucalion,  and  grandson  of  Minos  and  Pasiphae, 
was  king  of  Crete.  He  is  sometimes  called 
Lyctius  or  Cnosius,  from  the  Cretan  towns  of 
Lyctus  and  Cnosus.  He  was  one  of  the  suitors 
of  Helen ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  Meriones, 
the  son  of  his  half-brother  Molus,  he  led  the 
Cretans  in  eighty  ships  against  Troy.  He  was 
one  of  the  bravest  heroes  in  the  Trojan  war, 
and  distinguished  himself  especially  in  the  bat- 
tle near  the  ships.  According  to  Homer,  Idom- 
eneus  returned  home  in  safety  after  the  fall  of 
Troy.  Later  traditions  relate  that  once  in  a 
storm  he  vowed  to  sacrifice  to  Neptune  (Posei- 
don) whatever  he  should  first  meet  on  his  land- 
ing, if  the  god  would  grant  him  a  safe  return. 
This  was  his  own  son,  whom  he  accordingly 
sacrificed.  As  Crete  was  thereupon  visited  by 
a  plague,  the  Cretans  expelled  Idomeneus.  He 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  settled  in  Calabria,  and 
built  a  temple  to  Minerva  (Athena).  From  thence 
he  is  said  to  have  migrated  again  to  Colophon, 
on  the  coast  of  Asia.  His  tomb,  however,  was 
shown  at  Cnosus,  where  he  and  Meriones  were 
worshipped  as  heroes. — 2.  Of  Lampsacua,  a 
friend  and  disciple  of  Epicurus,  flourished  about 
B.C.  310-270.  He  wrote  several  philosophical 
and  historical  works,  all  of  which  are  lost. 
The  latter  were  chiefly  devoted  to  an  account 
of  the  private  life  of  the  distinguished  men  of 
Greece. 

IDOTH^A  (EltioOea),  daughter  of  Proteus,  taught 
I  Menelaus  how  he  might  secure  her  father,  and 
compel  him  to  declare  in  what  manner  he  might 
reach  home  in  safety. 

IDKIEUS  or  HIDRIEUS  ('Idpievf,  'Idptevf)  king  of 
i  Caria,  second  son  of  Hecatomnus,  succeeded  to 


IDUBEDA. 


ILIONEUS. 


the  throne  on  the  death  of  Artemisia,  the  widow 
of  his  brother  Maussolus,  in  B.C.  351.  He  died 
in  344,  leaving  the  kingdom  to  his  sister  ADA, 
whom  he  had  marcied. 

IDUBEDA  (uow  Sierra  de  Oca  and  Lorenzo),  a 
range  of  mountains  in  Spain,  begins  among  the 
Cantabri,  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  the 

S'ain   of  the  Ebro,  and  runs   southeast  to  the 
editeirauean. 

IDUM^EA  ('Idovfiaia),  is  the  Greek  form  of  the 
scriptural  name  EDOM,  but  the  terms  are  not 
precisely  equivalent.  In  the  Old  Testament, 
and  in  the  time  before  the  Babylonish  captivity 
of  the  Jews,  Edom  is  the  district  of  Mount  Seir, 
that  is,  the  mountainous  region  extending  north 
and  south  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  eastern 
head  of  the  Red  Sea,  peopled  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Esau,  and  ad  led  by  David  to  the  Israel- 
itish  monarchy.  The  decline  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judaea,  and  at  Last  its  extinction  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, enabled  the  Edomites  to  extend 
their  power  to  the  northwest  over  the  southern 
part  of  Judaea  as  far  as  Hebron,  while  their 
original  territory  was  taken  possession  of  by 
the  Nabathaaan  Arabs.  Thus  the  Idumaaa  of 
the  later  Jewish  and  of  the  Roman  history  is 
the  southern  part  of  Judaea  and  a  small  portion 
of  the  north  of  Arabia  Petraea,  extending  north- 
west and  southeast  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  western  side  of  Mount  Seir.  Under  the 
Maccabees,  the  Idumaeaus  were  again  subject- 
ed to  Judaea  (B.C.  129),  and  governed,  under 
them,  by  prefects  (arparriyoi),  who  were  vesy 
probably  descended  from  the  old  princes  of 
Edom ;  but  the  internal  dissensions  in  the  As- 
monaean  family  led  at  last  to  the  establishment 
of  an  Iduimeau  dynasty  on  the  Jewish  throne. 
Vid.  ATTIPATER,  Nos.  3,  4,  HEEODES.  The  Ro- 
man writers  of  the  Augustan  age  and  later  use 
Idumaea  and  Judasa  as  equivalent  terms.  Soon 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  the  name  of 
Idumaea  disappears  from  history,  and  is  merged 
in  that  of  Arabia.  Both  the  old  Edomites  and 
the  later  Idumaeaus  were  a  commercial  peo- 
ple, and  carried  on  a  great  part  of  the  traffic  be- 
tween the  East  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

IDYIA  ('Idvla),  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Te- 
thys,  and  wife  of  the  Colchian  king  ^EETES. 

IERNE.     Vid.  HIBERNIA. 

IET^B  ('Icrat :  'lerivqf :  now  Jato),  a  town  in 
the  interior  of  Sicily,  on  a  mountain  of  the  same 
name,  southwest  of  Macella. 

[IGILGILI  ('l-yityt/.i :  now  Jigelli  or  Jiget),  a 
city  of  Mauretauia  Caesariensis,  west  of  the 
River  Ampsaga,  between  the  rivers  Audus  and 
Gulus.] 

IGILJCM  (now  Giylio),  a  small  island  off  the 
Etruscan  coast,  opposite  Cosa. 

IGNATIUS  ('lyvurtof),  one  of  the  apostolical 
fathers,  was  a  hearer  of  the  Apostle  John,  and 
succeeded  Evodius  as  bishop  of  Autioch  in  A.D. 
89.  He  was  condemned  to  death  by  Trajan  at 
Antioch,  and  was  taken  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
thrown  to  the  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre. 
The  date  of  hia  martyrdom  is  uncertain.  Some 
place  it  in  107,  but  others  as  late  as  116.  On 
his  way  from  Antioch  to  Rome,  Ignatius  wrote 
several  epistles  in  Greek  to  various  churches. 
There  are  extant  at  present  fifteen  epistles 
ascribed  to  Iguatius,  but  of  these  only  seven  are 


considered  to  be  genuine ;  and  even  these  seven 
are  much  interpolated.  The  ancient  Syriac  ver- 
sion of  some  of  these  epistles,  which  has  been 
recently  discovered,  is  free  from  many  of  the 
interpolations  found  in  the  present  Greek  text, 
and  was  evidently  executed  when  the  Greek 
text  was  in  a  state  of  greater  purity  than  it  is 
at  present.  The  Greek  text  has  been  publish- 
ed in  the  Patre*  Apostolici  by  Cotelerius,  Am- 
sterd.,  1724,  and  by  Jacobson,  Oxon.,  1838 ;  and 
the  Syriac  version,  accompanied  with  the  Greek 
text,  t>y  Cureton,  Lond.,  1849. 

IGUVIUM  (Iguvinus,  Iguvinas,  -atis  :  now  Gub- 
bio  or  Eugubio),  an  important  town  in  Umbria, 
on  the  southern  slope  of  {he  Apennines.  On  a 
mountain  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  town  was 
a  celebrated  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  in  the 
ruins  of  which  were  discovered,  four  centuries 
ago,  seven  brazen  tables,  covered  with  Umbrian 
inscriptions,  and  which  are  still  preserved  at 
Gubbio.  These  tables,  frequently  called  the 
Eugubian  Tables,  contain  more  than  one,  thou- 
sand Umbrian  words,  and  are  of  great  import- 
ance for  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  languages 
of  Italy.  They  are  explained  by  Grotefend,  Ru- 
dimenta  Lingua  Umoricce,  <fec.,  Hannov.,  1835, 
seq.,  and  by  Lepsius,  Inscriptiones,  Umbricce  et 
Oscte,  Lips.,  1841. 

ILAIRA  (Ihdsipa),  daughter  of  Leucippus  and 
Philodice,  and  sister  of  Phrebe.  The  two  sis- 
ters are  frequently  mentioned  by  the  poets  un- 
der the  name  of  Leucippidte.  Both  were  car- 
ried off  by  the  Dioscuri,  and  Ilaira  became  the 
wife  of  Castor. 

ILERCAONES,  ILERCAONENSES,  or  ILLURGAVO 
NENSES,  a  people  in  Hispania  Tarraconeusis,  ou 
the  western  coast,  between  the  Iberus  and  Mons 
Idubeda.  Their  chief  town  was  DERTOSA. 

ILERDA  (now  Lerida),  a  town  of  the  Ilergetes 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  situated  on  a  height 
above  the  River  Sicoris  (now  Segre},  which  was 
here  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge.  It  was  after- 
ward a  Roman  colony,  but  in  the  time  of  Au- 
sonius  had  ceased  to  be  a  place  of  importance. 
It  was  here  that  Africanus  and  Petreius,  the  le- 
gates of  Pompey,  were  defeated  by  Caesar  (B.C. 
49). 

ILERGETES,  a  people  in  Hispania  Tarraconen 
sis,  between  the  Iberus  and  the  Pyrenees. 

ILIA  or  RHEA  SILVIA.  Vid,  ROMULUS. 
'  ILICI  or  ILLICE  (now  JSlche),  a  town  of  the 
Contestanti,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Hispauia 
Tarraconensis,  on  the  road  from  Carthago  Nova 
to  Valeutia,  was  a  colonia  imrnuuis.  The  mod- 
ern Elche  lies  at  a  greater  distance  from  the 
coast  than  the  ancient  town. 

II.IEXSES.  an  ancient  people  in  SARDINIA. 

ILIONA  ('lAtwi?),  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hec- 
uba, wife  of  Polymnestor  or  Polymestor,  king 
of  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  to  whom  she  bore 
a  son  Deipylus.  At  the  beginning  *f  the  Trojan 
war  her  brother  Polydorus  was  intrusted  to  her 
care,  and  she  brought  him  up  as  her  own  son 
For  details,  vid.  POLYDORUS.  Ilioua  was  the 
name  of  one  of  the  tragedies  of  Pacuvius, 
(Hor,  Sat.,  ii,  3,  61.) 

1 1  i  «'•  s  M  >  (l).iovevf).  1.  A  son  of  Niobe,  whom 
Apollo  would  have  liked  to  save,  because  he  was 
praying  ;  but  the  arrow  was  no  longer  under  the 
control  of  the  god.  Vid.  NIOBE. — [2.  A  Trojan 
sou  of  Phorbas,  slain  in  battle  by  Peneleus. — 
391 


ILIPA. 


ILLYRICtlM. 


3.  One  of  the  companions  of  JUneas. — 1.  A  Tro- 
jan warrior,  slain  by  Diomedes.] 

ILIPA  (now  Pennaflor),  a  towu  in  Hispania 
Baetica,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Iwtis,  which 
was  navigable  to  this  place  with  small  vessels. 

[ILIFULA  ('I/.t7ror^a).  1.  .Called  MAGNA,  a 
city  of  Hispania  Bretica,  between  the  rivers 
Anas  and  BaBtis. — 2.  I.  MINOR  (now  Lcpe  di 
Ronda),  also  in  Hispania  Btetica,  belonging  to 
the  district  of  Astigi.J 

Ii.issrs  ('IXiffffof  more  rarely  EtAiffffof),  a 
small  river  in  Attica,  rises  on  the  northern 
slope  of  Mount  Hymettus,  receives  the  brook 
Endanus  near  the  Lyceum,  outside  the  walls  of 
Athens,  then  flows  through  the  eastern  side  of 
Athens,  and  loses  itself  in  the  marshes  in  the 
Athenian  plaid.  The  Ilissus  is  now  usually  dry, 
as  its  waters  are  drawn  off  to  supply  the  city. 

ILITHYIA  (Etf.eiOvia),  also  called  Elithyia,  Ile- 
thyia,  or  Eleutho,  the  goddess  of  birth,  who 
came  to  the  assistance  of  women  in  labor. 
When  she  was  kindly  disposed,  she  furthered 
the  birth ;  but  when  she  was  angry,  she  pro- 
tracted the  labor.  In  the  Iliad  the  Ilithyia!  (in 
the  plural)  are  called  the  daughters  of  Hera 
(Juno).  But  in  the  Odyssey  and  Hesiod,  and 
in  the  later  poets  in  general,  there  is  only  one 
goddess  of  this  name.  Ilithyia.  was  the  servant 
of  Hera  (Juno),  and  was  employed  by  the  latter 
to  retard  the  birth  of  Hercules.  Vid.  HERCULES. 
The  worship  of  Ilithyia  appears  to  have  been 
first  established  among  the  Doriaqs  in  Crete, 
where  she  was  believed  to  have  been  born  in  a 
cave  in  the  territory  of  Cnosus.  From  thence 
her  worship  spread  over  Delos  and  Attica.  Ac- 
cording to  a  Delian  tradition,  Ilithyia  was  not 
born  in  Crete,  but  had  come  to  Delos  from  the 
Hyperboreans,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  Leto 
(Latona).  In  an  ancient  hymn  attributed  to 
Olen,  which  was  sung  in  Delos,  Ilithyia  was 
called  the  mother  of  Eros  (Love).  It  is  proba- 
ble that  Ilithyia  was  originally  a  goddess  of  the 
moon,  and  hence  became  identified  with  Arte- 
mis or  Diana.  The  moon  was  supposed  to  ex- 
ercise great  influence  over  growth  in  general, 
and  consequently  over  that  of  children. 

ILIUM.     Vid.  TROAS. 

ILLIBERIS  (\^7J.6epLc).  1.  (Now  Tech),  called 
TICHIS  or  TECHUM  by  the  Romans,  a  river  in 
Gallia  Narbonensis,  in  the  territory  of  the  Sar4 
dones,  rises  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  falls,  after  a 
short  course,  into  the  Mare  Gallicum. — 2.  (Now 
Elne),  a  town  of  the  Santones,  on  the  above- 
mentioned  river,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees, 
was  originally  a  place  of  importance,  but  after- 
ward sunk  into  insignificance.  It  was  restored 
by  Constantine,  who  changed  its  name  into 
HELENA,  after  that  of  his  mother,  whence  the 
modern  Elne. 

ILLITURGIS  or  ILLITURGI  (now  Andujar),  an 
important  town  of  the  Turduli  in  Hispania  Tar- 
raconensis,  situated  on  a  steep  rock  near  the 
Baetis,  and  on  the  road  from  Corduba  to  Cas- 
tulo :  it  was  destroyed  by  Scipio  B.C.  210,  but 
was  rebuilt,  and  recejved  the  name  of  Forum 
Julium. 

ILLYRICCM  or  ILLYRIS,  more  rarely  ILLYRIA 
(76  'IM.vpiKov  'I^Auptf,  'I/Uupta),  included,  in 
its  widest  signification,  all  the  land  west  of 
Macedonia  and  east  of  Italy  and  Rzetia,  extend- 
ing south  as  far  as  Epirus,  and  north  as  far  as 
392 


the  valleys  of  the  Savus  and  Dravus,  and  tna 
junction  of  these  rivers  with  the  Danube.  This 
wide  extent  of  country  was  inhabited  by  numer- 
ous Illyrian  tribes,  all  of  •whom  were  more  or 
less  barbarous.  They  were  probably  of  the 
same  origin  as  the  Thracians,  but  some  Celts 
were  mingled  with  them.  The  country  was  di- 
vided into  two  parts:  1.  ILLYRIS  BARBARA  or 
ROMANA,  the  Roman  province  of  ILLYRICUM,  ex- 
tended along  the  Adriatic  Sea  from  Italy  (Istria), 
from  which  it  was  separated  by  the  Arsia,  lo 
the  River  Drilo,  and  was  bounded  on  the  east 
by  Macedonia  and  Mcesia  Superior,  from  which 
it  was  separated  by  the  Drinus,  and  on  the  north 
by  Pannonia,  from  which  it  was  separated  by 
the.  Dravus.  It  thus  comprehended  a  part  of 
the  modern  Croatia,  the  whole  of  Dalmatia,  al- 
most the  whole  of  Bosnia,  and  a  part  of  Albania. 
It  was  divided  in  ancient  times  into  three  dis- 
tricts, according  to  the  tribes  by  which  it  was 
inhabited :  lapydia,  the  interior  of  the  country 
on  the  north,  from  the  Arsia  to  the  Tedanius 
(vid.  IAPYDES);  Liburnia,  along  the  coast  from 
the  Arsia  to  the.Titius  (vid.  LIBURNI)  ;  and  Dal- 
matia, south  of  Liburnia,  along  the  coast  from 
the  Titius  to  the  Drilo.  Vid.  DALMATIA.  The 
Liburniaus  submitted  at  an  early  time  to  the 
Romans ;  but  it  was  not  till  after  the  conquest 
of  the  Dalmatians,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  that 
the  entire  country  was  organized  as  a  Roman 
province.  From  this  time  the  Illyrians,  and 
especially  the  Dalmatians,  formed  an  important 
part  of  the  Roman  legions.— 2.  ILLYRIS  GR^CA, 
or  ILLYRIA  proper,  also  called  EPIRUS  NOVA,  ex- 
tended from  the  Drilo,  along  the  Adriatic,  to  the 
Ceraunian  Mountains,  which  separated  it  from 
Epirus  proper:  it  was  bounded  on  the, east  by 
Macedonia.  It  thus  embraced  the  greater  part 
of  the  modern  Albania.  It  was  a  mountainous 
country,  but  possessed  some  fertile  land  on.  the 
coast  Its  principal  rivers  were  the  Aous,  AP- 
sus,  GENUSUS,  and  PANYASUS.  In  the  interior 
was  an  important  lake,  the  LYCHMTIS.  On  the 
coast  there  were  the  Greek  colonies  of  Epidam- 
nus,  afterward  DYRRHACIHUM,  and  APOLLONIA. 
It  was  at  these  places  that  the  celebrated  Via 
Egnatia  commenced,  which  ran  through  Mace- 
donia to  Byzantium.  The  country  was  inhab- 
ited by  various  tribes,  ATINTANES,  TAULANTII, 
PARTHIM,  DASSARET^E,  <tc.  In  early  times  they 
were  troublesome  and  dangerous  neighbors  to 
the  Macedonian  kings.  They  were  subdued  by 
Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who 
defeated  and  slew  in  battle  their  king  Bardylis, 
B.C.  359.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  most  of  the  Illyrian  tribes  recovered 
their  independence.  At  a  later  time,  the  injury 
which  the  Roman  trade  suffered  from  their  pi- 
racies brought  against  them  the  arrosi  of  the  re- 
public. The  forces  of  their  queen  Teuta  were 
easily  defeated  by  the  Romans,  and  she  was 
obliged  to  purchase  peace  by  the  surrender  cf 
|  part  of  her  dominions  and  the  payment  of  an 
1  annual  tribute,  229.  The  second  Illvrjan  war 
was  finished  by  the  Romans  with  the  sarae  ease. 
It  was  commenced  by  Demetrius  of  Pharos,  who 
was  guardian  of  Pineus,  the  son  of  Agron,  but 
he  was  conquered  by  the  consul  ./Emilirs  P.iu- 
|lus,  219.  Pineus  was  succeeded  by  Ple'iratus, 
|  who  cultivated  friendly  relations  with  the  Ro- 
mans. His  son  Gentius  formed  an  albinc* 


ILUS. 


INDIA. 


with  Perseus,  king  of  Macedonia,  against 
Rome ;  but  he  was  conquered  by  the  praetor 
L.  Anicius,  in  the  same  year  as  Perseus,  168 ; 
whereupon  Illyria,  as  well  as  Macedonia,  be 
came  subject  to  Rome.  In  the  new  division  of 
the  empire  under  Constantine,  Illyricum  form- 
ed one  of  the  great  provinces  of  the  empire.  It 
was  divided  into  ILLYRICUM  OCCIDENTALS,  which 
included  lllyricuui  proper,  Pannonia,  and  Nori- 
cum,  and  ILLYRICUM  ORIENTALS,  which  compre- 
hended Dacia,  Mcesia,  Macedonia,  and  Thrace. 

ILTJS  (TI/-of).  1.  Son  of  Dardanus  by  Batea, 
the  daughter  of  Teucer.  Ilus  died  without  is- 
sue, and  left  his  kingdom  to  his  brother,  Erich- 
thouius. — 2.  Son  of  Tros  and  Callirrhoe,  grand- 
eon  of  Erichthouius,  and  great-grandson  of  Dar- 
danus ;  whence  he  is  called  Dardanides.  He 
was  the  father  of  Laomedon  and  the  grandfather 
of  Priam.  He  was  believed  to  be  the  founder 
of  Ilion,  which  was  also  called  Troy,  after  his 
father.  Jupiter  (Zeus)  gave  him  the  palladium, 
a  statue  of  three  cubits  high,  with  its  feet  close 
together,  holding  a  spear  in  its  right  hand,  and  a 
distaff  in  its  left,  and  promised  that  as  long  as 
it  remained  iu  Troy,  the  city  should  be  safe. 
The  tomb  of  Ilus  was  shown  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Troy. — 3.  Son  of  Mermerus,  and  grand- 
son of  Jason  and  Medea.  He  lived  at  Ephyra, 
between  Elis  and  Olympia ;  and  when  Ulysses 
came  to  him  to  fetch  the  poison  for  his  arrows, 
Hus  refused  it,  from,  fear  of  the  vengeance  of 
the  gods. — [4.  A  Latin  warrior,  slain  by  Pallas, 
son  of  Evander.] 

ILVA.     Vld.  J£THALIA. 

ILVATES,  a  people  in  Liguria,  south  of  the  Po, 
in  the  modern  Montferrat.  • 

IMACHARA  (Imachareusis :  now  Maccara),  a 
town  in  Sicily,  in  the  Heraean  Mountains. 

[IMANUENTIUS,  king  of  the  Trinobantes,  slain 
by  Cassivelaunus.] 

[IMAON,  a  Latin  warrior,  whom  Halesus  pro- 
tected when  attacked  by  Pallas,  son  of  Evander.] 

IMAUS  (rd  'l/taov  opof),  the  name  of  a  great 
mountain  range  of  Asia,  is  one  of, those  terms 
which  the  ancient  geographers  appear  to  have 
used  indefinitely,  for  want  of  exact  knowledge. 
In  its  most  definite  application,  it  appears  to 
mean  the  western  part  of  the  Himalaya,  between 
the  Paropamisus  and  the  Emodi  Moutes  ;  but 
when  it  is  applied  to  some  great  chain,  extend- 
ing much  further  to  the  north,  and  dividing 
Scythia  into  two  parts,  Scythia  intra  Imaum 
and  Scythia  extra  Imaum,  it  must  either  be  un- 
derstood to  mean  the  modern  Moussour  or  Al- 
tai Mountains,  or  else  some  imaginary  range, 
which,  cannot  be  identified  with  any  actually 
existing  mountains.  , 

IMBEASUS  ('Iu6paaof),  a  river  in  the  island  of 
Samos,  formerly  called  Parthenius,  flowing  into 
the  sea  not  far  from  the  city  of  Samoa.  The 
celebrated  temple  of  Juno  (Hera)  ('Hpaiov) 
stood  near  it,  and  it  gave  the  epithet  of  Iinbra- 
sia  both  to  Juno  (Hern)  and  to  Diana  (Artemis). 

[IMBRICS  ("I^fyuof),  sou  of  Mentor  of  Pedasus 
in  Caria,  married  an  illegitimate  daughter  of 
Priam  (named  Medesicaste),  and  aided  Priam 
against  the  Greeks  :  he  was  slain  by  Teucer.] 

IMBEOS  ('I/u6pof  :  "IfiGpioc.  :  now  Embro  or  Im- 
brux),  an  island  in  the  north  of  the  JSgean  Sea, 
near  the  Thraoiau  Chersonesus,  about  eighteen 
milea  southeast  of  Samothrace,  and  about  tweu- 


ty-two  northeast  of  Lemnos.  It  is  about  twen 
ty-five  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  hilly,  bu> 
contains  many  fertile  valleys.  Imbros,  like  th«- 
neighboring  island  of  Samothrace,  was  in  an- 
cient times  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  wor 
ship  of  the  Cabiri  and  Mercury  (Hermes).  There 
was  a  town  of  the  same  name  on  the  east  of 
the  island,  of  which  there  are  still  some  ruins. 

INACHIS  ('Ivo^tf),  a  surname  of  Io,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Inachus.  The  goddess  Isis  is  also  called 
fnackis,  because  she  was  identified  with  Io ; 
and  sometimes  Inachis  is  used  as  synonymous 
with  an  Argive  or  Greek  woman.  InacMdes  in 
the  same  way  was  used  as  a  name  of  Epaphus, 
a  grandson  of  Inachus,  and  also  of  Perseus,  be- 
cause he  was  born  at  Argos,  the  city  of  Inachus. 

INACHUS  ("Ivo^of),  son  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys, 
and  father  of  Phoroueus  and  JSgialeus,  to  whom 
others  add  Io,  Argus  Panoptes,  and  Phegeus  or 
Pegeus.  He  was  the  first  king  and  the  most 
ancient  hero  of  Argos,  whence  the  country  is 
frequently  called  the  land  of  Inachus ;  and  he 
is  said  to  have  given  his  name  to  the  River  Ina- 
chus. The  ancients  made  stveral  attempts  to 
explain  the  stories  about  Inachus :  sometimes 
they  looked  upon  him  as  a  native  of  Argos,  who, 
afier  the  flood  of  Deucalion,  led  the  Argives 
from  the  mountains  into  the  plains ;  and  some- 
times they  regarded  him  as  the  leader  of  an 
Egyptian  or  Libyan  colony,  which  settled  on 
the  banks  of  the  Inachus. 

INACHUS  ("Ivaxos ).  1.  (Now  Planitza  or  Zcria\ 
the  chief  river  in  Argolis,  rises  in  the  mountain 
Lyrceus,  on  the  borders  of  Arcadia,  flows  in  a 
southeasterly  direction,  receives  near  Argos  the 
Charadrus,  and  falls  into  the  Sinus  Argolicus 
south  of  Argos. — 2.  [Now  Krikeli,  or,  according 
to  Leake,  Ariadha],  a  river  in  Acarnania,  which 
rises  in  Mount  Lacmon,  iu  the  range  of  Pindus, 
and  falls  into  the  Achelous. 

IN  AKIMK.      Vid.  ^EXARU. 

INAROS  ('Ivupuf,  occasionally  'Ivapof),  son  of 
Psammitichus,  a  chief  of  some  Libyan  tribes 
to  the  west  of  Egypt,  commenced  hostilities 
against  the  Persians,  which  ended  in  a  revolt  of 
the  whole  of  Egypt,  B.C.  461.  In  460  Inaros 
called  in  the  Athenians,  who,  with  a  fleet  of 
two  hundred  galleys,  were  then  off  Cyprus  :  the 
ships  sailed  up  to  Memphis,  and,  occupying  two 
parts  of  the  town,  besieged  the  third.  In  the 
same  year  Inaros  defeated  the  Persians  in  a 
great  battle,  in  which  Achaemenes,  the  brother 
of  the  king  Artaxerxes,  was  slain.  But  a  new 
army,  under  a  new  commander,  Megabyzus, 
was  more  successful.  The  Egyptians  and  their 
allies  were  defeated ;  and  Inaros  was  taken  by 
treachery  and  crucified,  455. 

INDIA  (rj  'Ivdia  :  'Ivdof,  Indus)  was  a  name 
used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  much  as  the 
modern  term  East  Indies,  to  describe  the  whole 
of  the  southeast  part  of  Asia,  to  the  east,  south, 
and  southeast  of  the  great  ranges  of  mountains 
now  called  the  Soliman  and  Himalaya  Mount- 
ains, including  the  two  peninsulas  of  Hindus- 
tan, and  of  Uurmah,  Cochin- China,  Siam,  and 
Malacca,  and  also  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ar- 
chipelago. There  is  ample  eviderce  that  com- 
mercial intercourse  was  carried  on.  from  a  very 
early  time,  between  the  western  coast  of  Hindus- 
tan and  the  western  parts  of  Asia,  by  the  way  of 
1  the  Persian  Gul£  the  Euphrates,  and  across  th# 
393 


INDIBILIS. 


INDUS. 


Syrian  Desert  to  Phoenicia,  and  also  by  way  !  01  Indibilis  received  from  P.  Scipio  when  they 
of  the  Red  Sea  and  Idumaea,  both  to  Egypt  and  fe»l  into  his  hands,  the  two  brothers  deserted 
to  Phoenicia ;  and  soon  from  Phoenicia  to  Asia  ( the  Carthaginian  cause,  and  joined  Scipio  in 
Minor  and  Europe.  The  direct  acquaintance  209  with  all  the  forces  of  their  nation.  But  in 


of  the  western  nations  with  India  dates  from 
the  reign  of  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  who 
added  to  the  Persian  empire  a  part  of  its  north- 
west regions,  perhaps  only  as  far  as  the  Indus, 
certainly  not  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Punjab  ; 
and  the  slight  knowledge  of  the  country  thus 
obtained  by  the  Persians  was  conveyed  to  the 
Greeks  through  the  inquiries  of  travellers,  es- 
pecially Herodotus,  and  afterward  by  those 
Greeks  who  resided  for  some  time  in  the  Per- 
sian empire,  such  as  CTESIAS,  who  wrote  a  spe- 
cial work  on  India  ('Ivdticu).  The  expedition  of 
ALEXANDER  into  India  first  brought  the  Greeks 
into  actual  contact  with  the  country ;  but  the 
conquests  of  Alexander  only  extended  within 
Scinde  and  the  Punjab,  as  far  as  the  River  HY- 
PHASIS,  down  which  be  sailed  into  the  Indus, 
nnd  down  the  Indus  to  the  sea.  The  Greek 
king  of  Syria,  Seleucus  Nicator,  crossed  the 
Hyphasis,  and  made  war  with  the  Prasii,  a  peo- 
ple dwelling  on  the  banks  of  the  upper  Ganges, 
to  whom  he  afterward  sent  ambassadors,  na- 
med Megasthenes  and  Daimachus,  who  lived 
for  several  years  at  Palibothra,  the  capital  of 
the  Prasii,  and  had  thus  the  opportunity  of  ob- 
taining much  information  respecting  the  parts 
of  India  about  the  Ganges.  Megasthenes  com- 
posed a  work  on  India,  which  appears  to  have 
been  the  chief  source  of  all  the  accurate  in- 
formation contained  in  the  works  of  later  writ- 
ers. After  the  death  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  B.C. 
281,  the  direct  intercourse  of  the  Western  na- 
tions with  India,  except  in  the  way  of  com- 
merce, ceased  almost  entirely  ;  and  whatever 
new  information  the  later  writers  obtained  was 
often  very  erroneous.  Meanwhile,  the  founda- 
tion of  Alexandrea  had  created  an  extensive 
commerce  between  India  and  the  West,  by  way 
of  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Red  Sea,  and  Egypt, 
which  made  the  Greeks  better  acquainted  with 
the  western  coast  of  the  peuinsula,  and  extended 
their  knowledge  further  into  the  Eastern  seas ; 
but  the  information  they  thus  obtained  of  the 
countries  beyond  Cape  Gojnorin  was  extremely 
vague  and  scanty.  Another  channel  of  inform- 
ation, however,  was  opened,  during  this  period, 
by  the  establishment  of  the  Greek  kingdom  of 
Bactria,  to  which  a  considerable  part  of  North- 
era  India  appears  to  have  been  subject.  The 
later  geographers  made  two  great  divisions  of 
India,  which  are  separated  by  the  Ganges,  and 
are  called  India  intra  Gangem  and  India  extra 
Gangem,  the  former  including  the  peninsula  of 
Hindustan,  the  latter  the  Burmese  peninsula. 
They  were  acquainted  with  the  division  of  the 
people  of  Hindustan  into  castes,  of  which  they 
enumerate  seven.  It  is  not  necessary,  for  our 


206,  the  illness  and  reported  death  of  Scipio 
gave  them  hopes  of  shaking  off  the  yoke  of 
Rome,  and  they  excited  a  general  revolt  not 
only  among  their  own  subjects,  but  the  neigh- 
boring Celtiberian  tribes  also.  They  were  de- 
feated by  Scipio,  and  upon  sueing  for  forgiveness 
were  pardoned.  But  when  Scipio  l«(ft  Spain  in 
the  next  year  (205),  they  again  revolted.  The 
Roman  generals  whom  Scipio  had  left  in  Spain 
forthwith  marched  against  them ;  Indibilis  was 
slain  in  battle,  and  Mandonius  was  taken  soon 
afterward  and  put  to  death. 

INDICETAE  or  INDIGETES,  a  people  in  the  north- 
east corner  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  close 
upon  the  Pyrenees.  Their  chief  town  was  EM- 
PORIUM. 

INDICUS  OCEANUS.     Vid.  ERYTHR.SUM  MAIIE. 

INDIGETES,  the  name  of  those  indigenous 
gods  and  heroes  at  Rome,  who  once  lived  on 
earth  as  mortals,  and  were  worshipped  after 
their  death  as  gods,  such  as  Janus,  Picus, 
Faunus,  ^Eneas,  Evander,  Hercules,  Latinus, 
Romulus,  and  others.  Thus  ^Eneas,  after  his 
disappearance  on  the  banks  of  the  Numicn?, 
became  a  deus  Indiges,  pater  Indiges,  or  Jupiter 
Indiges  ;  and  in  like  manner,  Romulus  became 
Quirimts,  and  Latinus  Jupiter  Latiaris.  The 
Indigetes  are  frequently  mentioned  together 


with  the  Lares  and  Penates  ;  and 


many 


writers 


connect  the  Indigetes  with  those  divinities  to 
whom  a  share  in  the  foundation  of  the  Latin 
and  Roman  stfite  is  ascribed,  such  as  Mars, 
Venus,  Vesta,  <fec. 

INDUS  or  SINDUS  (1v66g  :  now  Indus,  Sind),  a 
great  river  of  India,  rises  in  the  table-land  of 
Thibet,  north  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  flows 
nearly  parallel  to  the  great  bend  of  that  chain 
on  its  northern  side,  till  it  breaks  through  the 
chain  a  little  east  of  Attock,  in  the  northwest 
comer  of  the  Punjab,  and  then  flows  southwest 
through  the  great  plain  of  the  Punjab  into  the 
Erythrseum  Mare  (now  Indian  Ocean),  which 
it  enters  by  several  mouths,  two  according  to 
the  earlier  Greek  writers,  six  according  to  the 
later.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Cophen  (now 
Cabul),  which  enters  it  from  the  northwest  at 
Attock,  and  the  Acesines  on  the  east  side.  Vid. 
HYPHASIS.  Like  the  Nile,  the  Indus  overflows 
its  banks,  but  with  a  much  less  fertilizing  re- 
sult, as  the  country  about  its  lower  course  is 
for  the  most  part  a  sandy  desert,  and  the  de- 
posit it  brings  down  is  much  less  rich  than  that 
of  the  Nile.  The  erroneous  notions  of  the  early 
Greeks  respecting  the  connection  between  the 
southeastern  parts  of  the  continents  of  Africa 
and  Asia,  led  to  a  confusion  between  the  Indus 
and  the  Nile  ;  but  this  and  other  mistakes  were 


object,  to  mention  the  other  particulars  which  corrected  by  the  voyage  of  Alexander's  fleet 
they  relate  concerning  India  and  its  people.  j  down  the  Hyphasis  and  the  Indus.  The  an 
IXDIBIUS  and  MANDONIUS,  two  brothers,  and  |  cient  name  of  India  was  derived  from  the  na- 
chiefs  of  the  Spanish  tribe  of  the  llergetes,  who  i  tive  name  of  the  Indus  (now  Sind). 
played  an  important  part  in  the  war  between  INDUS  ('Ivdoc,  :  now  Dollomon-Chai),  a  con- 
the  Romans  and  Carthaginians  in  Spain  during  siderable  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising  in  the 
the  second  Punic  war.  For  some  years  they  southwest  of  Phrygia,  and  flowing  through  the 


were  faithful  allies  of  the  Carthaginians;   but 
in    consequence    of    the    generous    treatment 
which  the  wife  of  Mandonius  and  the  daughters 
394 


district  of  Cibyratis  and  the  southeastern  corner 
of  Caria  into  the  Mediterranean,  opposite  to 
Rhodes. 


INDUTIOMARUS. 


10. 


INDUTIOMAEUS  or  INDUCIOMABUS,  one  of  the  i  of  the  same  name. — 2.  A  town  iu  Latium,  on 
leading  chiefs  of  the  Treviri    in   Gaul.     As  he  the  Via  Latiaa,  and  at  the  junction  of  the  Ca- 


was  opposed  to  the  Romans,  Caesar  induced 
the  leading  men  of  the  nation  to  side  with  Cin- 
getorix,  the  son-in-law  but  rival  of  Indutiomarus, 
B.C.  54.  Indutiomarus,  in  consequence,  took  up 
arms  against  the  Romans,  but  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Labienus. 

INKSSA.     Vid.  ^ETNA,  No.  2. 

INFEBI,  the  gods  of  the  Nether  World,  in 
contradistinction  from  the  Superi,  or  the  gods 
of  heaven.  In  Greek  the  Inferi  are  called  ol 


sinus  with  the  Liris,  whence  its  inhabitants  are 
called  Interamnates  Lirinates.  It  was  made  a 
Roman  colony  B.C.  312,  but  subsequently  sunk 
into  insignificence. 

INTEECATIA  an  important  town  of  the  Vacczei 
in  Hispama  Tarraconensis,  on  the  road  from  As 
turica  to  Caesaraugusta, 

INTEECISA  or  PETEA  PEETUSA,  a  town  in  Um 
bria,  so  called  because  a  road  was  here  cut 
through  the  rocks  by  order  of  Vespasian.  An 


KUTU,  ol  %6ovioi,  ol  vird    yalav,  ol  evepde,  or  ol  ancient  inscription   on  the  spot   still  comniem- 
vnivepQe  deal ;  and  the  Superi,  ol  uvu,  viraroi  orates  this  work, 
and  ovpdvioi.     But  the  word  Inferi  is  also  fre- 


quently used  to  designate  the  dead,  in  contra- 
distinction from  those  living  upon  the  earth  ;  so 
that  apud  inferos  is  equivalent  to  "  in  Hades," 
or  "  iu  the  lower  world."  The  Inferi  therefore 
comprise  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  lower  world, 
the  gods,  viz^  Hades  or  Pluto,  his  wife  Perse- 
phone (Proserpina),  the  Erinnyes  or  Furies,  and 
others,  as  well  as  the  souls  of  departed  men.  The 
gods  of  the  lower  world  are  treated  of  in  separate 
articles. 

INFEBUM  MABE.     Vid.  TYEEHENUM  MABE. 

ING^KVONES.     Vid.  GEEMAMA,  p.  327,  a. 

INGAUNI,  a  people  in  Liguria,  on  the  coast, 
whose  chief  town  was  ALBIUM  INGAUNUM. 

[INGENA  (now  Avranches),  a  town  of  the  Ab- 
rincatui  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis.] 

INGENUUS,  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  was  gov- 
ernor of  Pannonia  when  Valerian  set  out  upon 
his  campaign  against  the  Persians,  A.D.  258.  He 
assumed  the  purple  in  his  province,  but  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  Gallienus. 

[INGUIOMERUS,  brother  of  Sigimer  and  of  Ar- 
minius  :  he  had  been  the  adherent  of  Rome, 
but  afterward  joined  the  party  of  Arminius. 
After  having  served  for  some  time  with  them, 
envy  of  the  fame  or  power  of  Arminius  led  him 
to  abandon  the  cause  of  the  Cheruscans :  at  the 
head  of  his  clients  he  deserted  to  the  Suevians, 
with  whom  he  was  defeated  by  Arminius.] 

INO  ('Ivu),   daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Harmo- 


nia,   and  wife  of  Athamas. 
ATHAMASI 


For  details,  vid. 


INCUS,  a  name  both  of  Melicertea  and  of  Palse- 
mon,  because  they  were  the  sons  of  Ino. 

INSUBRES,  a  Gallic  people,  who  crossed  the 
Alps,  and  settled  in  Gallia  Transpadana,  in  the 
north  of  Italy.  Their  chief  town  was  MEDIO- 
I.ANC.M.  Next  to  the  Boii,  they  were  the  most 
powerful  and  warlike  of  the  Gallic  tribes  in  Cisal- 
pine GauL  They  were  conquered  by  the  Romans 
shortly  before  the  commencement  of  the  second 
Punic  war. 


INTAPUEENES 


one  of  the  seven 


conspirators  against  the  two  Magi  in  Persia, 
B.C.  622.  He  was  afterward  put  to  death  by 
Darius. 

INTBM£LII,  a  people  in  Liguria,  on  the  coast, 
whose  chief  town  was  ALBIUM  INTEMELIUM. 

INTERAMNA  (Interamnas),  the  name  of  sev- 
eral towns  in  Italy,  so  called  from  their  lying 
between  two  streams.  1.  (Now  Tcrni),  an  an- 
cient municipium  in  Umbria,  situated  on  the 
Nar,  and  surrounded  by  a  canal  flowing  into 
this  river,  whence  its  inhabitants  were  called 
fnteramnates  Narteit.  It  was  the  birth-place  of 
the  historian  Tacitus,  as  well  as  of  the  emperor 


INTEENUM  MAEE,  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  ex- 
tended on  the  west  from  the  Straits  of  Hercu- 
les, which  separated  it  from  the  Atlantic,  to 
the  coasts  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  on  the  east. 
In  the  northeast  it  was  usually  supposed  to 
terminate  at  the  Hellespont.  From  the  Straits 
of  Hercules  to  the  furthest  shores  of  Syria  it  is 
two  thousand  miles  in  length;  and,  including 
the  islands,  it  occupies  an  area  of  seven  hun- 
dred and  thirty-four  thousand  square  miles.  It 
was  called  by  the  Romans  Mare  Internum  or 
Intestinum  ;  by  the  Greeks,  ?/  ecu  tfa/larra  or  T\ 
or  more  fully,  fj 


,  and  by  Herodotus  r/6e  if 
•&aXa~ra  ;  and  from  its  washing  the  coasts  both 
of  Greece  and  Italy,  it  was  also  called  both  by 
Greeks  and  Romans  Our  Sea  (f)  T/uerepa  #<£Aar 
ra,  %  naff  fadf  tfuAarra,  Mare  Nostrum),  Th« 
term  Mare  Mediterranean  is  not  used  by  the 
best  classical  writers,  and  occurs  first  in  Soli- 
'nus.  Most  of  the  ancients  believed  that  the 
Mediterranean  received  its  waters  from  the  At 
lantic,  and  poured  them  through  the  Hellespont 
and  the  Propontis  into  the  Euxine  ;  but  others, 
on  the  contrary,  maintained  that  the  ,  waters 
came  from  the  Euxine  into  the  Mediterranean. 
The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  are  perceptible  in 
only  a  few  parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  such  as  iu 
the  Syrtes  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  in  the  Adriatic, 
etc.  The  different  parts  of  the  Mediterranean  are 
called  by  different  names,  which  are  spoken  of  in 
separate  articles.  Vid.  MAEE  TYEEHENUM  or  IN- 
FEEUM, ADEIA  or  M.  ADEIATICUM  or  M.  SUPEBUM, 
M.  SICULUM,  M.  ^EGJKUM,  <fec. 

[INTEEOCEEA  (now  Introdoco),  a  town  of  the 
Sabines  in  the  interior  of  Samnium.] 

INTONSUS,  the  Unshorn,  a  surname  of  Apoll* 
and  Bacchus,  in  allusion  to  the  eternal  youth  of 
these  gods,  since  the  Greek  youths  allowed  theii 
hair  to  grow  until  they  attained  manhood. 

INUI  CASTKUM.     Vid.  CASTECM,  No.  1. 

INYCUM  ("Ivvxov  or  -of-  :  'IvvKivof  :  now  Calda 
Bellota  /),  a  small  town  in  the  south  of  Sicily,  nol 
far  from  Selinus,  on  the  River  Hypsas. 

lo  ('Iu),  daughter  of  Inachus,  the  first  king 
of  Argos,  or,  according  to  others,  of  lasim  ot 
Piren.  Jupiter  (Zeus)  loved  lo,  but,  on  account 
of  Juno's  (Hera)  jealousy,  he  metamorphosed 
her  into  a  white  heifer.  The  goddess,  whc 
was  aware  of  the  change,  obtained  the  heifei 
from  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  placed  her  under  the 
care  of  Argus  Pauoptes;  but  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
sent  Mercury  (Hermes)  to  slay  Argus  and  de- 
liver lo.  Vld.  ARGUS.  Juno  (Hera)  then  tor- 
mented lo  with  a  gad-fly,  and  drove  her  in  a 
state  of  phrensy  from  land  to  land  over  the 
whole  earth,  until  at  length  she  found  rest  on 
395 


IOBATES. 


IONIA. 


the  banks  of  the  Kile.  Here  she  recovered  her 
original  form,  and  bore  a  son  to  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
called  Epaphus.  Vid.  EPAPHUS.  This  is  the 
common  story,  \ihich  appears  to  be  very  an- 
cient, since  Homer  constantly  gives  the  epithet 
of  Argiphontes  (the  slayer  of  Argus)  to  Mercury 
(Hermes).  The  wanderings  of  lo  were  very 
celebrated  in  antiquity,  and  were  extended  and 
embellished  with  the  increase  of  geographical 
knowledge.  Of  these  there  is  a  full  accouat  in 
the  Prometheus  of  ^Eschylus.  The  Bosporus 
is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  her  swim- 
miug  across  it  According  to  some  traditions 
lo  married  Telegonus,  king  of  Egypt,  and  was 
afterward  identified  with  Isis.  The  legend  of 
lo  is  difficult  to  explain.  It  appears  that  lo 
was  identical  with  the  moon,  which  is  prob- 
ably signified  by  her  being  represented  as  a  wo- 
man, with  the  horns  of  a  heifer.  Her  connection 
with  Egypt  seems  to  be  an  invention  of  later 
times,  and  was  probably  suggested  by  the  resem- 
blance which  was  found  to  exist  between  the  Ar- 
give  lo  and  the  Egyptian  Isis. 

IOBATES,  kiug  of  Lycia.     Vid.  BELLEROPHON. 

IOL.     Vid.  C.SSAREA,  No.  4. 

loLAENSES.       Vid.    loLAUS. 

IOLAUS  ('loAaof)  son  of  Iphicles  and  Autome- 
"usa.  Iphicles  was  the  half-brother  of  Hercu- 
les, and  lolaus  was  the  faithful  companion  and 
charioteer  of  the  hero.  Vid.  HERCULES.  He 
assisted  Hercules  in  slaying  the  Lernaean  Hy- 
dra. After  Hercules  had  instituted  the  Olym- 
pic games,  lolaus  won  the  victory  with  the 
horses  of  his  master.  Hercules  sent  him  to 
Sardinia  at  the  head  of  his  sons  whom  he  had 
by  the  daughters  of  Thespius.  He  introduced 
civilization  among  the  inhabitants  of  that  island, 
and  was  worshipped  by  them.  From  Sardinia 
he  went;  to  Sicily,  and  then  returned  to  Hercu- 
les shortly  before  the  death  of  the  latter.  After 
the  death  of  the  hero,  lolaus  was  the  first  who 
offered  sacrifices  to  him  as  a  demigod.  Ac- 
cording to  Pausanias,  lolaus  died  in  Sardinia, 
whereas,  according  to  others,  he  was  buried 
in  the  tomb  of  his  grandfather,  Amphitryon. 
His  descendants  in  Sardinia  were  called  'Io/la- 
ctf  and  lolaensis.  Vid.  SARDINIA.  lolaus,  after 
his  death,  obtained  permission  from  the  gods 
of  the  nether  world  to  come  to  the  assistance  of 
the  children  of  Hercules.  He  slew  Eurystheus, 
and  then  returned  to  the  shades. 

IOLCUS  ('IwA/cof,  Ep.  'lau/kof,  Dor.  'Ia/U6f: 
'Iw/Uaof),  an  ancient  town  in  Magnesia  in  Thes- 
saly,  at  the  top  of  the  Pegasaean  Gulf,  seven 
stadia  from  the  sea.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  mythical  Cretheus,  and  to  have 
been  colonized  by  Minyans  from  Orchomenus. 
It  was  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  residence 
of  Pelias  and  Jason,  and  as  the  place  from  which 
the  Argonauts  sailed  in  quest  of  the  golden 
fleece.  At  a  later  time  it  fell  into  decay,  and  its 
inhabitants  were  removed  to  the  neighboring 
town  of  Demetrias,  which  was  founded  by  Dem- 
etrius Poliorcetes. 

IOLE  ('I6A0),  daughter  of  Eurytus  of  (Echalia, 
was  beloved  by  Hercules.  For  details,  vid.  p. 
359,  a.  After  the  death  of  Hercules,  she  married 
his  son  Hyllus. 

IOLLAS  or  IOLAUS  ('I6/Uaf  or  'loAaof).  f .  Son 
of  Antipater,  and  brother  of  Cassander,  king  of 
Macedonia.  He  was  cup-bearer  to  Alexander 
396 


at-  the  period  of  his  last  illness.  Those  writers 
who  adopt  the  idea  of  the  king  having  been 
poisoned,  represent  lollas  as  the  person  who  ac- 
tually administered  the  fatal  draught. — 2.  Of  Bi- 
thyma,  a  writer  on  materia  medica,  flourished  in 
the  third  century  B.C. 

ION  ("luv).  1.  The  fabulous  ancestor  of  the 
lonians,  is  described  as  the  son  of  Apollo  by 
Creusa,  the  daughter  of  Erechtheus  and  wile 
of  Xuthus.  The  most  celebrated  story  about 
Ion  is  the  one  which  forms  the  subject  of  the 
Ion  of  Euripides.  Apollo  had  visited  Creusa  in 
a  cave  below  the  Propylaea,  at  Athens;  and 
when  she  gave  birth  to  a  son,  she  exposed  him 
in  the  same  cave.  The  god,  however,  had  the 
child  conveyed  to  Delphi,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated by  a  priestess.  Some  time  afterward 
Xuthus  and  Creusa  came  to  consult  the  oracle 
about  the  means  of  obtaining  an  heir.  They 
received  for  answer  that  the  first  human  being 
which  Xuthus  met  on  leaving  the  temple  should 
be  his  son.  Xuthus  met  Ion,  and  acknowledged 
him  as  his  son;  but  Creusa,  imagining  him  to 
be  a  son  of  her  husband  by  a  former  mistress, 
caused  a  cup  to  be  presented  to  the  youth, 
which  was  filled  with  the  poisonous  blood  of  a 
dragon.  However,  her  object  was  discovered 
for  as  Ion,  before  drinking,  poured  out  a  liba- 
tion to  the  gods,  a  pigeon  which  drank  of  it 
died  on  the  spot  Creusa  thereupon  fled  to  the 
altar  of  the  god.  ION  dragged  her  away,  and 
was  on  the  point  of  killing  her,  when  a  priestess 
interfered,  explained  the  mystery,  and  showed 
that  Ion  was  the  son  of  Creusa.  Mother  and 
son  thus  became  reconciled,  but  Xuthus  was 
not  let  into  the  secret.  Among  the  inhabitants 
of  the  ^Egialus,  i.  e.,  the  northern  coast  of  Pel- 
oponnesus, who  were  lonians,  there  was  an- 
other tradition  current  Xuthus,  when  expelled 
from  Thessaly,  came  to  the  ^Egialus.  After 
his  death  Ion  was  on  the  point  of  marching 
against  the  ^Egialeans,  when  their  king  Seli- 
nus  gave  him  his  daughter  Helice  in  marriage. 
On  the  death  of  Selinus,  Ion  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  and  thus  the  ^Egialeans  received  the 
name  of  lonians,  and  the  town  of  Helice  was 
built  in  honor  of  Ion's  wife.  Other  traditions 
represent  Ion  [as  king  of  Athens  between  the 
reigns  of  Erechtheus  and  Cecrops  ;  for  it  is 
said  that  his  assistance  was  called  in  by  the 
Athenians  in  their  war  with  the  Eleusinians, 
that  he  conquered  Eumolpus,  and  then  became 
king  of  Athens.  He  there  became  the  father 
of  four  sons,  Geleon,  ^Egicores,  Argades,  and 
Hoples,  whose  names  were  given  to  the  four 
Athenian  classes.  After  his  death  he  was  buri- 
ed at  Potamus. — 2.  Of  Chios,  son  of  Orthoraenes, 
was  a  celebrated  tragic  poet.  He  went  to 
Athens  when  young,  and  there  enjoyed  the  society 
of  JEschylus  and  Cimon.  The  number  of  hia 
tragedies  is  variously  stated  at  twelve,  thirty, 
and  forty.  We  have  the  titles  and  a  few  frag- 
ments of  eleven.  Ion  also  wrote  other  kinds  of 
poetry,  and  prose  works  both  in  history  and  phi- 
losophy. [The  fragments  of  his  tragedies  arfc 
contained  in  Wagner's  Fragm.  Trag.  Cfrcec^  p.  21 
-36.] — 3.  Of  Ephesus,  a  rhapsodist  in  the  time 
of  Socrates,  from  whom  one  of  Plato's  dialogues 
is  named. 

IONIA  ('luvia  :  luvef)  and  IONIS  (Rom.  poet) 
a  district  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor 


IONIA. 


IONIA. 


BO  called  from  the  Ionian  Greeks  who  colonized 
it  at  a  time  earlier  than  any  distinct  historical 
records.  The  mythical  account  of  "  the  great 
Ionic  migration"  relates  that  in  consequence 
of  the  disputes  between  the  sons  of  Codrus, 
king  of  Athena,  about  the  succession  to  his  gov- 
ernment, his  younger  sons,  Neleus  and  Andro- 
clus,  resolved  to  seek  a  new  home  beyond  the 
^Egean  Sea.  Attica  was  at  the  time  overpeo- 
pled by  numerous  exiles,  whom  the  great  rev- 
olution, known  as  "  the  return  of  the  Heracli- 
dae,"  had  driven  out  of  their  own  states,  the 
chief  of  whom  were  the  louians  who  had  been 
expelled  from  Peloponnesus  by  the  Dorian  in- 
vaders. A  large  portion  of  this  superfluous 
population  went  forth  as  Athenian  colonists, 
under  the  leadership  of  Androclus  and  Neleus, 
and  of  other  chieftains  of  other  races,  and  set- 
tled on  that  part  of  the  western  shores  of  Asia 
Minor,  which  formed  the  coast  of  Lydia  and 
part  of  Caria,  and  also  in  the  adjacent  islands 
of  Chios  and  Samos,  and  in  the  Cyclades.  The 
mythical  chronology  places  this  great  move- 
ment one  hundred  and  forty  years  after  the 
Trojan  war,  or  sixty  years  after  the  return  of 
the  Heraclidae,  that  is,  in  B.C.  1060,  or  1044, 
according  to  the  two  chief  dates  imagined  for 
the  Trojan  war.  Passing  from  mythology  to 
history,  the  earliest  authentic  records  show  us 
the  existence  of  twelve  great  cities  on  the  above- 
named  coast,  claiming  to  be  (though  some  of 
them  only  partially)  of  Ionic  origin,  and  all 
united  into  one  confederacy,  similar  to  that  of 
the  twelve  ancient  Ionian  cities  on  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  district  they 
possessed  formed  a  narrow  strip  of  coast,  ex- 
tending .between,  and  somewhat  beyond,  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers  Mseander  on  the  south, 
and  Hermus  on  the  north.  The  names  of  the 
twelve  cities  going  from  south  to  north,  were 
MILETUS,  MYCS,  PRIENE,  SAMOS  (city  and  island), 
EPHESUS,  COLOPHON,  LEBEDUS,  TEOS,  ERYTHR^E, 
CHIOS  (city  and  island),  CLAZOMEX.E,  and  PHO- 
O«A;  the  first  three  on  the  coast  of  Caria, 
the  rest  on  that  of  Lydia :  the  city  of  Smyrna, 
which  lay  within  this  district,  but  was  of  ^Eolic 
origin,  was  afterward  (about  B.C.  700)  added 
to  the  Ionian  confederacy.  The  common  sanc- 
tuary of  the  league  was  the  Panionium  (iraviu- 
viov),  a  sanctuary  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  Heli- 
couius,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  promontory 
of  Mycale,  opposite  to  Samos ;  and  here  was 
held  the  great  national  assembly  (iravijyvpif) 
of  the  confederacy,  called  Panionia  (xavitivia : 
vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  s.  v.).  It  is  very  import- 
ant to  observe  that  the  inhabitants  of  these 
cities  were  very  far  from  being  exclusively 
and  purely  of  Ionian  descent  The  traditions 
of.  the  original  colonization  and  the  accounts 
of  the  historians  agree  in  representing  them 
as  peopled  by  a  great  mixture,  not  only  of 
Hellenic  races,  but  also  of  these  with  the  earlier 
inhabitants,  such  as  Carians,  Leleges,  Lydians, 
Cretans,  and  Pelasgians ;  their  dialects,  Herodo- 
tus expressly  tells  us,  were  very  different,  and 
nearly  all  of  them  were  founded  on  the  sites 
of  pre  existing  native  settlements.  The  reli- 
gious rites,  also,  which  the  Greeks  of  Ionia  ob- 
served, in  addition  to  their  national  worship  of 
Neptune  (Poseidon),  were  borrowed  in  part 
from  the  native  communities ;  such  were  the 


worship  of  Apollo  Didymaeus  at  Branch»dae, 
near  Miletus,  of  Diana  (Artemis)  at  Ephesus, 
and  of  Apollo  Clarius  at  Colophon.  All  these 
facts  point  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Greek 
colonization  of  this  coast  was  effected,  not  by 
one,  but  by  successive  emigrations  from  different 
states,  but  chiefly  of  the  Ionic  race.  The  cen- 
tral position  of  this  district,  its  excellent  har- 
bors, and  the  fertility  of  its  plains,  watered  by 
the  Maeander,  the  Cayster,  and  the  Hermus, 
combined  with  the  energetic  character  of  the' 
Ionian  race  to  confer  a  high  degree  of  prosper- 
ity upon  these  cities  ;  and  it  was  not  long  before 
they  began  to  send  forth  colonies  to  many 
places  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Euxine,  and  even  to  Greece  itself.  During  the 
rise  of  the  Lydian  empire,  the  cities  of  Ionia 
preserved  their  independence  until  the  reign  of 
Croasus,  who  subdued  those  on  the  main  land, 
but  relinquished  his  design  of  attacking  the 
islands.  When  Cyrus  had  overthrown  Crresus, 
he  sent  his  general  Harpagus  to  complete  the 
conquest  of  the  Ionic  Greeks,  B.C.  557.  Under 
the  Persian  rule  they  retained  their  political 
organization,  subject  to  the  government  of  the 
Persian  satraps,  and  of  tyrants  who  were  set  up 
in  single  cities,  but  they  were  required  to  render 
tribute  and  military  service  to  the  king.  In 
B.C.  500  they  revolted  from  Darius  Hystaspis, 
under  the  leadership  of  HISTI^EUS.  the  former 
tyrant  of  Miletus,  and  his  brother-in-law  ARIS- 
TAGOEAS,  and  supported  by  aid  from  the  Athe- 
nians. The  Ionian  army  advanced  as  far  as 
Sardis,  which  they  took  and  burned,  but  they 
were  driven  back  to  the  coast,  and  defeated 
near  Ephesus,  B.C.  499.  The  re-conquest  of 
Ionia  by  the  Persians  was  completed  by  the 
taking  of  Miletus  in  496,  and  the  lonians  were 
compelled  to  furnish  ships,  and  to  serve  as  sol- 
diers in  the  two  expeditions  against  Greece. 
After  the  defeat  of  Xerxes,  the  Greeks  carried 
the  war  to  the  coasts  of  Asia,  and  effected  the 
liberation  of  Ionia  by  the  victories  of  Mycale 
(479)  and  of  the  Eurymedon  (469).  In  387  the 
peace  of  Antalcidas  restored  Ionia  to  Persia ; 
and  after  the  Macedonian  conquest,  it  formed 
part,  successively,  of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus, 
and  of  the  Roman  province  of  Asia.  For  the 
history  of  the  several  cities,  see  the  respective 
articles.  In  no  country  inhabited  by  the  Hel- 
lenic race,  except  at  Athens,  were  the  refine- 
ments of  civilization,  the  arts,  and  literature, 
more  highly  cultivated  than  in  Ionia.  The  rest- 
less energy  and  free  spirit  of  the  Ionic  race, 
the  riches  gained  by  commerce,  and  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  great  seats  of  Asiatic  civilization, 
combined  to  advance  with  rapidity  the  intel- 
lectual progress  and  the  social  development  of 
its  people ;  but  these  same  influences,  unchecked 
by  the  rigid  discipline  of  the  Doric  race,  or  the 
simple  earnestness  of  the  ./Eolic,  imbued  their 
social  life  with  luxury  and  licence,  and  invested 
their  works  of  genius  with  the  hues  of  enchant- 
ing beauty  at  the  expense  of  severe  good 
taste  and  earnest  purpose.  Out  of  the  long 
list  of  the  authors  and  artists  of  Ionia,  we  may 
mention  Mimnermus  of  Colophon,  the  first  poet 
of  the  amatory  elegy;  Anacreou  of  Teos,  who 
sang  of  love  and  wine  to  the  music  of  the  lyre  -f 
Thales  of  Miletus,  Anaxagoras  of  Clazomenae, 
and  several  other  early  philosophers ;  the  early 
397 


IONIUM   MARE. 


IPHICRATES. 


«,  Cadn:us,  Pionysius,  and  HecaUeus, 
all  of  Mifetus ;  and,  iu  the  fun-  arts,  besides 
being  the  home  of  that  exquisitely  beautiful 
order  of  architecture,  the  Ionic,  and  possess- 
ing ninny  of  the  most  magnificent  temples  in 
the  world,  Tonia  was  the  native  country  of 
that  refined  school  of  painting,  which  boasted 
the  names  of  Zeuxis,  Apelles,  ntxl  Parrha- 
sius.  The  most  flourishing  period  in  the  his- 
tory of  Ionia  is  that  during  which  it  was  subject 
to  Persia;  but  its  prosperity  lasted  till  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  under  which  its 
cities  were  among  the  chief  resorts  of  the  cel- 
ebrated teachers  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy. 
The  important  place  which  some  of  the  chief 
cities  of  Ionia  occupy  in  the  early  history  of 
Christianity  is  attested  by  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles, and  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Ephe- 
aians.  and  of  St.  John  to  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia. 

I5NIUM  MAKE  ('loviof  irfwTOf,  'loviov  rre/layof, 
'lov'ai  -diD-arra,  'loviof  fropof),  a  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  between  Italy  and  Greece, 
was  south  of  the  Adriatic,  and  began  on  the 
west  at  Hydruntum  in  Calabria,  and  on  the  east 
at  Oricus  in  Epirus,  or  at  the  Ceraunian  Mount- 
ains. In  more  ancient  times  the  Adriatic  was 
called  'loviof  [ti>xof  or  'loviof  /coAirof ;  while  at  a 
later  time  the  Ionium  Mare  itself  was  included 
in  the  Adriatic.  In  its  widest  signification,  the 
Ionium  Mare  included  the  Mare  Siculum,  Creti- 
ttim,  and  Icarium.  Its  name  was  usually  de- 
rived by  the  ancients  from  the  wanderings  of 
lo,  but  it  was  more  probably  so  called  from  the 
Ionian  colonies,  which  settled  in  Cephallenia 
and  the  other  islands  off  the  western  coasts  of 
Greece. 

[IOPAS,  a  bard  at  the  court  of  Queen  Dido, 
who  is  represented  by  Virgil  as  singing  at  the 
entertainment  given  by  the  queen  to  ^Eneas.] 

IOPHON  ('lo^xDx'),  son  of  Sophocles  by  Nicos- 
trate,  was  a  distinguished  tragic  poet.  He 
brought  out  tragedies  during  the  life  of  his 
father,  and  was  still  flourishing  B.C.  405,  the 
_)«ar  in  which  Aristophanes  brought  out  the 
Frcgs.  For  the  celebrated  story  of  his  undutiful 
charge  against  his  father,  vid.  SOPHOCLES. 

[los  ('lof,  now  Nio),  a  small  island  in  the  clus- 
ter of  the  Sporades,  south  of  Naxos,  said  to  have 
contained  the  tomb  of  Homer.]  . 

[loxus  ("Io£oc),  son  of  Melanippus,  grandson 
of  Theseus,  leader  of  a  colony  to  Caria.] 

[IPHEUS  ('I<j>evf),  a  Lycian  warrior,  slain  by 
Patroclus.] 

[IPHIANASSA  ('Ifyidvaaaa).  \.  Daughter  of  Proe- 
tus.  Vid.  PIKETCS. — 2.  Daughter  of  Agamem- 
non and  Clytaemnestra,  same  as  IPHIGENIA.] 

IPHIAS  ('l(j>iuf),  i.  e.,  Evadne,  a  daughter  of 
Iphis,  and  wife  of  Capaneus. 

IPHICLES,  or  IPHICLUS  ('%*;%,  'tytnlos,  or 
'tyiK/.evf).  1.  Son  of  Amphitryon  and  Alcmene 
of  Thebes,  was  one  night  younger  than  his 
half-brother  Hercules.  He  was  first  married 
to  Automedusa,  the  daughter  of  Alcathous,  by 
whom  he  became  the  father  of  lolaus,  and  after- 
ward to  the  youngest  daughter  of  Creon.  He 
accompanied  Hercules  on  several  of  his  expedi- 
tions, and  also  took  part  in  the  Calydonian  hunt. 
He  fell  in  battle  against  the  sons  of  Hippocoon, 
or,  according  to  another  account,  was  wounded 
in  the  battle  against  the  Molionidae,  and  was  car- 
398 


ried  to  Pheaeus,  where  he  died. — 2.  Son  of  The*- 
tius  by  Laophonte,  or  Deidamia,  or  Eurythemis, 
or  Leucippe.  He  took  part  in  the  Calydonian 
hunt  auu  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts. — 3. 
Son  of  Phylacus,  and  grandson  of  Deion  and 
Clymene,  or  son  of  Ccphalus  and  Clymene,  the 
daughter  of  Miuyas.  He  was  married  to  Dio- 
media  or  Astyoche,  and  was  the  father  of  Po- 
darces  and  Protesilaus.  He  waa  also  one  of 
the  Argonauts ;  and  he  possessed  large  herds 
of  oxen,  which  he  gave  to  the  seer  Melampua. 
Ho  was  also  celebrated  for  his  swiftness  iu  run- 
ning. 

IPHICKATES  (']<j>tKpuTi)f),  the  famous  Athenian 
general,  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  an  early  age  by  his  gal- 
lantry in  battle ;  and  in  B.C.  394,  when  he  was 
only  twenty-five  years  of  age,  he  was  appointed 
by  the  Athenians  to  the  command  of  the  forces 
which  they  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  Boeotians 
after  the  battle  of  Coronea.  In  393  he  com- 
manded the  Athenian  forces  at  Corinth,  and  at 
the  same  time  introduced  an  important  im- 
provement in  military  tactics,  the  formation  of 
a  body,  of  targeteers  (ne^-aarai),  possessing,  to 
a  certain  extent,  the  advantages  of  heavy  and 
light-armed  forces.  This  he  effected  by  sub- 
stituting a  small  target  for  the  heavy  shield, 
adopting  a  longer  sword  and  spear,  and  repla- 
cing the  old  coat  of  mail  by  a  linen  corslet.  Ai 
the  head  of  his  targeteers  he  defeated  and 
nearly  destroyed  a  Spartan  Mora  in  the  follow- 
ing year  (392),  an  exploit  which  became  very 
celebrated  throughout  Greece.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  succeeded  in  the  command  at 
Corinth  by  Chabrias.  In  389  he  was  sent  to 
the  Hellespont  to  oppose  Anaxibius,  who  was 
defeated  by  him  and  skin  in  the  following 
year.  On  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  in  387, 
Iphicrates  went  to  Thrace  to  assist  Seuthes 
king  of  the  Odrysae,  but  he  soon  afterward 
formed  an  alliance  with  Cotys,  who  gave  him 
his  daughter  in  marriage.  In  377  Iphicrates 
was  sent  by  the  Athenians,  with  the  command 
of  a  mercenary  force,  to  assist  Pharnabazus 
in  reducing  Egypt  to  subjection ;  but  the  ex- 
pedition failed  through  a  misunderstanding  be- 
tween Iphicrates  and  Pharnabazus.  In  373 
Iphicrates  was  sent  to  Corcyra,  in  conjunction 
with  Callistratus  and  Chabrias,  in  the  com- 
mand of  an  Athenian  force,  and  he  remained 
in  the  Ionian  Sea  till  the  peace  of  371  put  an 
end  to  hostilities.  About  367  he  was  sent 
against  Amphipolis,  and  after  carrying  on  the 
war  against  this  place  for  three  years,  was 
superseded  by  Timotheus.  Shortly  afterward, 
he  assisted  his  father-in-law  Cotys  in  his  war 
against  Athens  for  the  possession  of  the  Thra- 
cian  Chersonesus.  But  his  conduct  in  this 
matter  was  passed  over  by  the  Athenians. 
After  the  death  of  Chabrias  (375),  Iphicrates, 
Timotheus,  and  Menestheus  were  joined  with 
Chares  as  commanders  .in  the  Social  war,  and 
were  prosecuted  by  their  unscrupulous  col- 
league, because  they  had  refused  to  risk  an  en- 
gagement in  a  storm.  Iphicrates  was  acquit- 
ted. From  the  period  of  his  trial  he  seems  to 
have  lived  quietly  at  Athens.  He  died  before 
348.  Iphicrates  has  been  commended  for  hia 
combined  prudence  and  ecergy  as  a  general. 
The  worst  words,  he  saia,  that  a  commander 


IPHID  AMASS. 


IRA. 


could  utter  were,  "  I  should  not  have  expected 
it"  His  services  were  highly  valued  by  the 
Athenians,  and  were  rewarded  by  them  with 
almost  unprecedented  honors. 

[IPHIDAMAS  ('I<j>i6u[ta<f),  son  of  Antenor  and 
Theano,  brother  of  Coon,  came  with  twelve  ships 
from  Thrace  to  the  assistance  of  the  Trojans ; 
WES  slain,  together  with  Lis  brother,  by  Aga 
memnon.] 

IPHIGENIA  ('l<jn.-yev£ia),  according  to  the  most 
common  tradition,  a  daughter  of  Agamemnon 
and  Clytaemnestra,  but  according  to  others,  a 
daughter  of  Theseus  and  Helena,  and  brought 
up  by  Clytaemnestra  as  a  foster-child.  Aga- 
memnon had  once  killed  a  stag  in  the  grove  of 
Diana  (Artemis) ;  or  he  had  boasted  that  the 
goddess  herself  could  not  hit  better ;  or  he  had 
rowed  in  the  year  in  which  Iphigenia  was  born 
to  sacrifice  the  most  beautiful  production  of 
that  year,  but  had  afterward  neglected  to  ful- 
fill his  vow.  One  of  these  circumstances  is 
said  to  have  been  the  cause  of  the  calm  which 
detained  the  Greek  fleet  in  Aulis  when  the 
Greeks  wanted  to  sail  against  Troy.  The  seer 
Calchas  declared  that  the  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia 
was  the  only  means  of  propitiating  Diana  (Ar- 
temis). Agamemnon  was  obliged  to  yield,  and 
Iphigenia  was  brought  to  Chalcis  under  the 
pretext  of  being  married  to  Achilles.  When 
Iphigenia  was  on  the  point  of  being  sacrificed, 
Diana  (Artemis)  carried  her  in  a  cloud  to 
Tauris,  where  she  became  the  priestess  of  the 
goddess,  and  a  stag  was  substituted  for  her  by 
Diana  (Artemis).  While  Iphigenia  was  serv- 
ing Diana  (Artemis)  as  priestess  in  Tauris,  her 
brother  Orestes  and  his  friend  Pylades  came  to 
Tauris  to  carry  off  the  image  of  the  goddess  at 
this  place,  which  was  believed  to  have  fallen 
from  heaven.  As  strangers,  they  were  to  be 
sacrificed  in  the  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis) ; 
but  Iphigenia  recognized  her  brother,  and  fled 
with  him  and  the  statue  of  the  goddess.  In  the 
mean  time,  Electra,  another  sister  of  Orestes, 
had  heard  that  he  had  been  sacrificed  in  Tauris 
by  the  priestess  of  Diana  (Artemis).  At  Delphi 
she  met  Iphigenia,  who,  she  supposed,  had  mur- 
dered Orestes.  She  therefore  resolved  to  de- 
prive Iphigenia  of  her  sight,  but  was  prevented 
by  the  interference  of  Orestes ;  ana  a  scene 
of  recognition  took  place.  All  now  returned 
to  Mycenffi ;  but  Iphigenia  carried  the  statue 
of  Diana  (Artemis)  to  the  Attic  town  of  Brau- 
ron,  near  Marathon.  She  there  died  as  priestess 
of  the  goddess.  As  a  daughter  of  Theseus, 
Iphigenia  was  connected  with  the  heroic  fami- 
lies of  Attica,  and  after  her  death  the  veils 
and  most  costly  garments  which  had  been  worn 
by  women  who  had  died  in  childbirth  were 
dedicated  to  her.  According  to  some  tradi- 
tions, Iphigenia  never  died,  but  was  changed 
by  Diana  (Artemis)  into  Hecate,  or  was  en- 
dowed by  the  goddess  with  immortality  and 
eternr.1  youth,  and  under  the  name  of  Orilochia 
became  the  wife  of  Achilles  in  the  island  of 
Leuce.  The  Lacedemonians  maintained  that 
the  image  of  Diana  (Artemis),  which  Iphigenia 
and  Orestes  had  carried  away  from  Tauris,  was 
preserved  in  Sparta  and  not  in  Attica,  and  was 
worshipped  in  the  former  place  under  the  name 
of  Diana  (Artemis)  Orthia.  Both  in  Attica  and 
in  Sparta  human  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Iphi- 


genia in  early  times.  In  place  of  these  human 
sacrifices  the  Spartan  youths  were  afterward 
scourged  at  the  festival  of  Diana  (Artemis)  Or- 
thia. It  appears  probable  that  Iphigenia  was 
originally  the  same  as  Diana  (Artemis)  her- 
self. 

IPHIMEDIA  or  IPHIMEDE  ('iQipedeta,  'l^iueirj), 
daughter  of  Triops,  and  wife  of  Aloeus.  Being 
in  love  with  Neptune  (Poseidon),  she  often 
walked  on  the  sea-shore,  and  collected  its  wa- 
ters in  her  lap,  whence  she  became,  by  Neptunt 
(Poseidon),  the  mother  of  the  Aloidse,  Otus  and 
Ephialtes.  While  Iphimedia  and  her  daughter 
Pancratis  were  celebrating  the  orgies  of  Bac- 
chus (Dionysus)  on  Mount  Drius,  they  were 
carried  off  by  Thracian  Pirates  to  Naxos  or 
Strongyle ;  but  they  were  delivered  by  the  Al 
oidse. 

[IPHIMEDON  ('I<j>i/ne6uv),  a  son  of  Eurystheus, 
slain  in  battle  in  the  attempt  to  repel  the  inva 
sion  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Heraclidse.] 

[IPHINOUS  ('I^iVoof),  son  of  Dexius,  a  Greek 
slain  by  the  Lycian  Glaucus  before  Troy.] 

IPHIS  (TI0«f).  1.  Son  of  Alector,  and  fathei 
of  Eteoclus  and  Evadne,  the  wife  of  Capaneus 
was  king  of  Argus.  He  advised  Polynices  tc 
give  the  celebrated  necklace  of  Harmonia  tc 
Eriphyle,  that  she  might  persuade  her  husband 
Amphiaraus  to  take  part  in  the  expedition  against 
Thebes.  He  lost  his  two  children,  and  therefore 
left  his  kingdom  to  Sthenelus,'son  of  Capaneus. 
— 2.  Son  of  Sthenelus,  and  brother  of  Eurys- 
theus, was  one  of  the  Argonauts  who  fell  in  the 
battle  with  JSetes. — 3.  A  youth  in  love  with 
Anaxarete.  Vid.  ANAXABETE. — 4.  Daughter  of 
Ligdus  and  Telethusa,  of  Phseetus  in  Crete. 
She  was  brought  up  as  a  boy,  on  the  advice  of 
Isis,  because  her  father,  previous  to  her  biith, 
had  ordered  the  child  to  be  killed  if  it  should  be 
a  girl.  When  Iphis  had  grown  up,  and  was  to 
be  betrothed  to  lanthe,  she  wa«  metamorphosed 
by  Isis  into  a  youth. — [5.  Dax>ghter  of  Enyeus 
of  Scyrus,  celebrated  for  her  beauty,  presented 
by  Achilles  to  Patroclus.] 

[IPHITION  ('tyiriuv),  son  of  Otrynteus  and  a 
Naiad,  came  from  Hyde,  at  the  foot  of  Tmolus  in 
Lydia,  to  the  Trojan  war ;  slain  by  Achilles.] 

IPHITUS  ("I^trof)  1.  Son  of  Eurytus  of  CEcha- 
lia,  one  of  the  Argonauts,  was  afterward  killed 
by  Hercules.  (For  details,  vid  p.  858,  b,  359,  a.) 
— 2*.  Son  of  Naubolus,  and  father  of  Schedius, 
Epistrophus,  and  Eurynome,  in  Phocis,  likewise 
one  of  the  Argonauts. — 3.  Son  of  Hsemon,  or 
Praxonides,  or  Iphitus,  kiug  of  Elis,  restored  the 
Olympic  games,  and  instituted  the  cessation  of 
all  war  during  their  celebration,  B.C.  884. 

[IpnTHlME  ('lipdlpii),  daughter  of  Icarius,  sister 
of  Penelope  ;  under  her  form  Minerva  appeared 
to  Penelope  to  console  her  when  disquieted  at 
the  departure  of  Telemachus  from  Ithaca.] 

IFSUS  ('lipaof),  a  small  town  in  Great  Phrygia, 
celebrated  in  history  as  the  scene  of  the  deci- 
sive battle  which  closed  the  great  contest  be- 
tween the  generals  of  Alexander  for  the  succes- 
sion to  his  empire,  and  in  which  Antigonus  was 
defeated  and  slain,  B.C.  801.  Vid.  ANTIGONUS. 
The  site  is  unknown,  but  it  appears  to  have 
been  about  the  centre  of  Phrygia,  not  far  from 

SVNNADA. 

IRA  (Elpa,  'Ipu),  a  mountain  fortress  in  Mes- 
Benia,  memorable  as  the  place  where  Aristom- 
399 


IREN^EUS. 


ISAUR1A. 


enes  defended  himself  for  eleven  years  against 
the  Spartans.  Its  capture  by  the  Spartans  in  B. 
C.  668  put  an  end  to  the  second  Messenian  war. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  the  same  as  Ira  (//., 
UL,  150),  one  of  the  seven  cities  which  Agamem- 
uon  promised  to  Achilles. 

IRE.\JEUS  (Eiprjvaiof ),  one  of  the  early  Christian 
fathers,  was  probably  born  at  Smyrna  between 
A.D  1 20  and  140.  In  his  early  youth  he  heard 
Polyiarp.  He  afterward  went  to  Gaul,  and  in 
177  succeeded  Pothiuus  as  bishop  of  Lyon.  He 
made  many  converts  from  heathenism,  and  was 
most  active  in  opposing  the  Gnostics,  especially 
the  Valentinians.  He  seems  to  have  lived  till 
about  the  end  of  the  second  century.  The  only 
work  of  Irenaeus  now  extant,  Advcrsus  Hercescs, 
is  intended  to  refute  the  Gnostics.  The  original 
Greek  is  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  frag- 
ments, but  the  work  exists  in  a  barbarous  but 
ancient  Latin  version.  Edited  by  Grabe,  Oxon., 
1702;  [and  by  Stieren,  Leipzig,  1848,  seqq.,  2 
vols.  8vo.] 

IRENE  (Elpjjvij),  called  PAX  by  the  Romans, 
the  goddess  of  peace,  was,  according  to  Hesiod, 
a  daughter  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Themis,  and 
one  of  the  Horae.  Vid.  HOIUE.  After  the  vic- 
tory of  Timotheus  over  the  Lacedaemonians, 
altars  were  erected  to  her  at  Athens  at  the  pub- 
lic expense.  Her  statue  at  Athens  stood  by  the 
side  of  that  of  Amphiaraus,  carrying  in  its  arms 
Plutus,  the  god 'of  wealth,  and  another  stood 
near  that  of  Hestia  in  the  Prytaneum.  At  Rome, 
where  peace  was  also  worshipped  as  a  goddess, 
she  had  a  magnificent  temple,  which  was  built 
by  the  Emperor  Vespasian.  Pax  is  represented 
on  coins  as  a  youthful  female,  holding  in  her 
left  arm  a  cornucopia,  and  in  her  right  hand  an 
olive-branch  or  the  staff  of  Mercury.  Some- 
times she  appears  in  the  act  of  burning  a  pile 
of  arms,  or  carrying  corn-ears  in  her  hand  or 
upon  her  head. 

IRIS  ('Iptf),  daughter  of  Thaumas  (whence 
she  is  called  Thaumantias)  and  of  Electra,  and 
sister  of  the  Harpies.  In  the  Iliad  she  appears 
as  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  especially  of  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  and  Juno  (Hera).  In  the  Odyssey, 
Mercury  (Hermes)  is  the  messenger  of  the  gods, 
and  Iris  is  never  mentioned.  Iris  appears  to 
have  been  originally  the  personification  of  the 
rainbow,  for  this  brilliant  phenomenon  in  the 
skies,  which  vanishes  as  quickly  as  it  appears, 
was  regarded  as  the  swift  messenger  of  the  gods. 
Some  poets  describe  Iris  as  the  rainbow  itself, 
but  other  writers  represent  the  rainbow  as  only 
the  road  on  which  Iris  travels,  and  which  there- 
fore appears  whenever  the  goddess  wants  it,  and 
vanishes  when  it  is  no  longer  needed.  In  the 
earlier  poets  Iris  appears  as  a  virgin  goddess, 
but  in  the  later  she  is  the  wife  of  Zephyrus  and 
the  mother  of  Eros.  Iris  is  represented  in 
works  of  art  dressed  in  a  long  and  wide  tunic, 


where  it  receives  the  Lyous,  and  then  flown 
north  through  the  territory  of  Themiscyra  into 
the  Sinus  Amisenus.  Xenophon  stat«s  iu-  breadth 
at  three  plethra  (three  hundred  feet). 

IRUS  ('Ipof).  1.  Son  of  Actor,  and  father  of 
Eurydamas  and  Eurytion.  He  purified  Peleus, 
when  the  latter  had  murdered  his  brother  ;  but, 
during  the  chase  of  the  Calydonian  boar,  Pcleus 
unintentionally  killed  Eurytiou,  the  son  of  Irus. 
Peleus  endeavored  to  soothe  him  by  offering  him 
his  Socks ;  but  Irus  would  not  accept  them,  and 
at  the  command  of  an  oracle  Peleus  allowed 
them  to  run  wherever  they  pleased.  A  wolf 
devoured  the  sheep,  but  was  thereupon  changed 
into  a  stone,  which  was  shown,  in  later  times,  on 
the  frontier  between  Locris  and  Phocis. — 2.  The 
well-known  beggar  of  Ithaca.  His  real  name 
was  Arnaeus,  but  he  was  called  Irus  because  he 
was  the  messenger  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope. 
He  was  slain  by  Ulysses. 

Is  ("If  :  now  Hit),  &  city  on  the  south  of  Mes- 
opotamia, eight  days'  journey  from  Babylon,  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and  upon  a 
little  river  of  the  same  name.  In  its  neighbor- 
hood were  the  springs  of  asphaltus,  from  which 
was  obtained  the  bitumen  that  was  used,  instead 
of  mortar,  in  the  walls  of  Babylon. 

Is^us  ('laaiof).  1.  One  of  the  ten  Attic  ora- 
tors, was  born  at  Chalcis,  and  came  to  Athens 
at  an  early  age.  He  was  instructed  in  oratory 
by  Lysias  and  Isocrates.  He  was  afterward 
engaged  in  writing  judicial  orations  for  others, 
and  established  a  rhetorical  school  at  Athens, 
in  which  Demosthenes  is  said  to  have  been  liis 
pupil.  It  is  further  said  that  Isaeus  composed 
for  Demosthenes  the  speeches  against  his  guard- 
ians, or  at  least  assisted  him  in  the  composition. 
We  have  no  particulars  of  his  life.  He  lived 
between  B.C.  420  and  348.  Isaeus  is  said  to 
have  written  sixty-four  orations,  but  of  these 
only  eleven  are  extant.  They  all  relate  to  ques- 
tions of  inheritance,  and  afford  considerable  in- 
formation respecting  this  branch  of  the  Attic 
law.  The  style  of  ISODUS  is  clear  and  concise, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  vigorous  and  powerful. 
His  orations  are  contained  in  the  collections  of 
the  Greek  orators.  Vid.  DEMOSTHENES.  There 
is  a  good  separate  edition  by  Schomann,  Greifs- 
wald,  1831. — 2.  A  sophist  and  rhetorician,  a  na- 
tive of  Assyria,  taught  at  Rome  in  the  time  of 
the  younger  Pliny. 

ISADORAS  ('[aayopaf),  the  leader  of  the  oligar- 
chical party  at  Athens,  in  opposition  to  Clis- 
thenes,  B.C.  510.  He  was  expelled  from  Athens 
by  the  popular  party,  although  supported  by 
Cleomenes  and  the  Spartans. 

ISANDER  ("loavSpof),  son  of  Bellcrophon,  killed 
by  Mars  (Ares)  in  the  fight  with  the  Solymi. 

ISARA  (now  hire),  a  river  in  Gallia  Narbonen- 
sis,  descends  from  the  Graian  Alps,  flows  west 
with  a  rapid  stream,  and  flows  into  the  Rhone 


over  which  hangs  a  light  upper  garment,  with  I  north  of    Valentia.     At  its  junction   with   the 


wings  attached  to  her  shoulders,  carrying  the 
herald's  staff  in  her  left  hand,  and  sometimes  also 
holding  a  pitcher. 

IRIS  ('Iptf  :  now  Yeshil-Irmak),  a  considerable 
river  of  Asia  Minor,  rises  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  northernmost  range  of  the  Anti-Taurus,  in 
the  south  of  Pontus.  and  flows  first  west  past 
v>omana  Pontica,  then  north  to  Amasia,  where  it 
turns  to  the  east  of  Eupatoria  (Megalopolis), 
400 


Rhone,  Fabius  JBmilianus  defeated  the  Allobro- 
ges  and  Arverni,  B.C.  121. 

ISAURIA  (q  'laavpia,  ij  '\aavpiKrj),  a  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Taurus, 
between  Pisidia  and  Cilicia,  of  which  the  an- 
cients knew  little  beyond  the  troublesome  fact 
that  its  inhabitants,  the  Isauri  ('loavpoi),  were 
daring  robbers,  whose  incursions  into  the  sur- 
rounding districts  received  only  a  temporary 


ISCA. 

check  from  the  victory  over  them,  which  gain- 
ed for  Lucius  Servilius  the  surname  of  Isau- 
ricus  (B.C.  76).  Their  chief  city  was  called 
Isaura. 

ISCA.  1.  (Now  Axm  luster,  or  Bridport,  or  Ex- 
eter), the  capital  of  the  Damnouii  or  Dumnonii 
in  the  southwest  of  Britain. — 2.  (Now  Ccer  Leon, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Usk),  a  town  of  the  Silures 
in  Britain,  and  the  head-quarters  of  the  Legio 
II.  There  are  many  Roman  remains  at  Ccer 
Leon.  The  word  Leon  is  a  corruption  of  Legio : 
Caer  is  the  old  Celtic  name  for  "  city." 

ISCHYS.     VieL  AESCULAPIUS. 

ISIDORUS  ('Imdupof).  1.  Of  -<Egae,  a  Greek 
poet  of  uncertain  age,  five  of  whose  epigrams 
are  contained  in  the  Greek  Anthology. — 2.  Of 
Charax,  a  geographical  writer,  who  probably 
lived  under  the  early  Roman  emperors.  His 
work,  liTodfiol  TlapdcKoi,  is  printed  in  the  edition 
of  the  minor  geographers,  by  Hudson,  Oxon., 
1703. — 3.  Of  Gaza,  a  Neo-Platonic  philosopher, 
the  friend  of  Proclus  and  Marinus,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  chief  of  the  school. — 4.  Of  Pelu- 
sium,  a  Christian  exegetical  writer,  a  native  of 
Alexandrea,  who  speut  his  life  in  a  monastery 
near  Pelusiuni,  of  which  he  was  the  abbot  He 
died  about  A.D.  450.  As  many  as  two  thousand 
and  thirteen  of  his  letters  are  extant  They  are 
almost  all  expositions  of  Scripture.  Published 
at  Paris,  1638. — 5.  Bishop  of  Hispalis  (now  Se- 
ville) in  Spain,  from  A.D.  600  to  636,  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  his  age,  and  an  •  ardent 
cultivator  of  ancient  literature.  A  great  num- 
ber of  his  works  is  still  extant,  but  by  far  the 
most  important  of  them  is  his  Originum  s.  Ety- 
mologiarum  Libri  XX.  This  work  is  an  Ency- 
clopaedia of  Arta  and  Sciences,  and  treats  of  all 
subjects  in  literature,  science,  and  religion,  which 
were  studied  at  that  time.  It  was  much  used  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  Published  in  the  Corpus 
Grammaucorum  Veterum,  Lindemann,  Lips., 
1833.  A  complete  collection  of  the  works  of 
Isidorus  was  published  by  Arevali,  Rom.,  1797- 
1803,  7  vols.  4to. — 6.  Of  Miletus,  the  elder  and 
younger,  were  eminent  architects  in  the  reign  of 
Justinian. 

ISIGONUS  ('laiyovoc),  a  Greek  writer,  of  uncer- 
tain date,  but  who  lived  before  the  time  of  Pliny, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  'Amaru,  a  few  fragments 
of  which  are  extant  Published  in  Westermann's 
Paradoxographi,  Brunswick,  1839. 

ISIONDA  ('laiovda :  'loiovdevf,  Isiondensis),  a 
city  of  Pisidia  in  Asia  Minor,  east  of  the  district 
of  Cibyra,  and  five  Roman  miles  northwest  of 
Termessus.  Mr.  Fellows  lately  discovered  con- 
siderable ruins  twelve  miles  from  Perge,  which 
be  supposes  to  be  those  of  Isionda. 

Isia  ('Iffif),  one  of  the  principal  Egyptian  di- 
vinities. The  ideas  entertained  about  her  un- 
derwent very  great  changes  in  antiquity.  She 
ia  described  as  the  wife  of  Osiris  and  the  mother 
of  Horus.  As  Osiris,  the  god  of  the  Nile,  taught 
the  people  the  use  of  the  plough,  so  Isis  invent- 
ed the  cultivation  of  wheat  and  barley,  which 
were  carried  about  in  the  processions  at  her  fes- 
tival She  was  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  which 
the  Egyptians  called  their  mother :  whence  she 
and  Osiris  were  the  only  divinities  that  were 
worshipped  by  all  the  Egyptians.  This  simple 
and  primitive  notion  of  the  Egyptians  was  moui- 
fied  at  an  early  period  through  the  influence  of 
26 


ISMENUS. 

the  East,  with  which  Egypt  came  into  contact, 
and  at  a  later  time  through  the  influence  of  the 
Greeks.  Thus  Osiris  and  Isis  came  gradually 
to  be  considered  as  divinities  of  the  sun  and  the 
mooa  The  Egyptian  priests  represented  that 
the  principal  religious  institutions  of  Greece 
came  from  Egypt ;  and,  after  the  time  of  He- 
rodotus, this  belief  became  established  among 
the  learned  men  in  Greece.  Hence  Isis  was 
identified  with  Ceres  (Demeter),  aud  Osiris  with 
Bacchus  (Dionysus),  and  the  sufferings  of  Isis 
were  accordingly  modified  to  harmonize  with 
the  mythus  of  the  unfortunate  Ceres  (Demeter). 
As  Isis  was  the  goddess  of  the  moon,  she  was 
also  identified  with  lo.  Vid.  lo.  The  worship 
of  Isis  prevailed  extensively  in  Greece.  It  was 
introduced  into  Rome  in  the  time  of  Sulla ;  and 
though  the  senate  made  many  attempts  to  sup- 
press her  worship,  and  ordered  her  temples  to 
be  destroyed,  yet  the  new  religious  rites  took 
deep  root  at  Rome,  and  became  very  popular. 
In  B.C.  43  the  triumvirs  courted  the  popular 
favor  by  building  a  new  temple  of  Isis  and  Se- 
rapis.  Augustus  forbade  any  temples  to  be 
erected  to  Isis  in  the  city ;  but  this  command 
was  afterward  disregarded  ;  and  under  the  early 
Roman  emperors  the  worship  of  Isis  and  Se- 
rapis  became  firmly  established.  The  most  im- 
portant temples  of  Isis  at  Rome  stood  in  the 
Campus  Martius,  whence  sh«  was  called  Isis 
Campensis.  The  priests  and  servants  of  th« 
goddess  wore  linen  garments,  whence  she  her- 
self is  called  linigera.  Those  initiated  in  her 
mysteries  wore  in  the  public  processions  masks 
representing  the  heads  of  dogs.  In  works  of 
art  Isis  appears  in  figure  and  countenance  like 
Juno  (Hera) :  she  wears  a  long  tunic,  and  her 
upper  garment  is  fastened  on  her  breast  by  a 
knot :  her  head  is  crowned  with  a  lotus  flower, 
and  her  right  hand  holds  the  sistrum.  Her  son 
Horus  is  often  represented  with  her  as  a  fine 
naked  boy,  holding  the  fore-finger  on  the  mouth, 
with  a  lotus  flower  on  his  head,  and  a  cornuco- 
pia in  his  left  hand.  The  German  goddess  Isis 
mentioned  by  Tacitus  is  probably  the  same  as 
Hertha. 

[ISMARIS.        Vld.  IsMARUS.] 

ISMABUS  ("iGfiapof  :  'Icpupiof),  a  town  in  Thrace 
near  Maronea,  situated  on  a  mountain  of  the 
same  name,  which  produced  excellent  wine.  It 
is  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey  as  a  town  of  the  Ci- 
cones.  Near  it  was  the  Lake  ISMARIS  ('lapaplf) 
The  poets  frequently  use  the  adjective  Ismarius 
as  equivalent  to  Thracian.  Thus  Ovid  calls  Te- 
reus,  kipg  of  Thrace,  Ismarius  tyrannus  (Am^  ii, 
6,  7),  and  Polymnestor,  kiug  of  Thrace,  Ismariut 
rex  (Met^  xiii.,  530). 

ISMENE  ('lapjVT/).  1.  Daughter  of  Asopus, 
wife  of  Argus,  and  mother  of  lasus  and  lo. — 2. 
Daughter  of  CEdipus  and  Jocasta,  and  sister  of 
Antigone. 

ISHKNUS  ('laftijvoc),  a  small  river  in  Bceotia, 
which  rises  in  Mount  Cithoeron,  flows  through 
Thebes,  and  fulls  into  the  Lake  Hylice.  The 
brook  Dirce,  so  celebrated  in  Theban  story,  flow- 
ed into  the  Ismenus.  From  this  river  Apollo 
was  called  hmcnius.  His  temple,  the  Ismcnium, 
at  which  the  festival  of  the  Dapliucphoria  was 
celebrated,  was  situated  outside  the  city.  The 
river  is  said  to  have  been  originally  called  La- 
don,  aud  to  have-  derived  its  subsequent  name 
401 


ISOCRATES. 


ISUS. 


from  Ismenus,  a  sou  of  Asopus  and  Metope. 
According  to  other  traditions,  Ismenus  was  a 
son  of  Amphion  and  Niobe,  who,  when  struck  by 
the  arrow  of  Apollo,  leaped  into  a  river  near 
Thebes,  which  was  hence  called  Ismenus. 

ISOCHATES  ('laoKpdrtjf).  1.  One  of  the  ten  Attic 
orators,  was  the  son  of  Theodorus,  and  was 
born  at  Athens  B.C.  436.  Theodorus  was  a 
man  of  wealth,  and  educated  his  son  with  the 
greatest  care.  Among  his  teachers  were  Tisias, 
Gorgias,  Prodicus,  and  also  Socrates.  Since 
Isocrates  was  naturally  timid,  and  of  a  weakly 
constitution,  he  did  not  come  forward  as  a  pub- 
lic speaker  himself,  but  devoted  himself  to  giv- 
ing instruction  in  oratory,  and  writing  orations 
for  others.  He  first  taught  rhetoric  in  Chios, 
and  afterward  at  Athens.  At  the  latter  place 
he  met  with  great  success,  and  gradually  ac- 
quired a  large  fortune  by  his  profession.  He 
had  one  hundred  pupils,  every  one  of  whom  paid 
him  one  thousand  drachmae.  He  also  derived 
a  large  income  from  the  orations  which  he  wrote 
for  others  ;  thus  he  received  twenty  talents  for 
the  speech  which  he  composed  for  Nicocles, 
king  of  Cyprus.  Although  Isocrates  took  no 
part  in  public  affairs,  he  was  an  ardent  lover  of 
his  country ;  and,  accordingly,  when  the  battle 
of  Chaeronea  had  destroyed  the  last  hopes  of 
freedom,  he  put  an  end  to  his  life,  B.C.  338,  at 
the  age  of  ninety-eight.  The  school  of  Isoc- 
rates  exercised  the  greatest  influence  upon  the 
development  of  public  oratory  at  Athens.  No 
other  rhetorician  had  so  many  disciples  of  ce- 
lebrity. The  language  of  Isocrates  forms  a 
great  contrast  with  the  natural  simplicity  of 
Lysias,  as  well  as  with  the  sublime  power  of 
Demosthenes.  His  style  is  artificial  The  care- 
fully-rounded periods,  and  the  frequent  applica- 
tion of  figurative  expressions,  are  features  which 
remind  us  of  the  sophists.  The  immense  care 
he  bestowed  upon  the  composition  of  his  ora- 
tions may  be  inferred  from  the  statement  that 
he  was  engaged  for  ten,  or,  according  to  others, 
fifteen  years,  upon  his  Panegyric  oration  alone. 
There  were  in  antiquity  sixty  orations  which 
"went  under  the  name  of  Isocrates,  but  they  were 
not  all  recognized  as  genuine.  Only  twenty- 
one  have  come  down  to  us.  Of  these,  eight 
were  written  for  the  courts ;  all  the  others  are 
political  discourses,  intended  to  be  read  by  a 
large  public.  The  most  celebrated  is  his  Pane- 
gyric oration,  in  which  he  shows  what  services 
Athens  had  rendered  to  Greece  in  every  period 
of  her  history,  and  contends  that  she,  and  not 
Sparta,  deserves  the  supremacy  in  Greece.  The 
orations  are  printed  in  the  collections  of  the 
Greek  orators.  The  best  separate  edition  is  by 
Baiter  and  Sauppe,  Turici,  1839. — [2.  Of  Apol- 
lonia,  a  disciple  of  the  foregoing,  enjoyed  con- 
siderable reputation  as  an  orator ;  the  titles  of 
five  of  his  orations  are  mentioned,  but  none 
have  come  down  to  us.  Some  critics  have  as- 
cribed to  him  the  TE^VT?  fiTjTOpini),  which  was 
included  among  the  works  of  Isocrates  of  Ath- 
ens.] 

ISSA  ("load),  daughter  of  Macareus  of  Lesbos, 
and  beloved  by  Apollo,  from  whom  the  Lesbian 
town  of  Issa  is  said  to  have  received  its  name. 

ISSA  (IsszEus :  now  Lissa),  a  small  island  in  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name  off 
the  coast  of  Dalmatia,  was  colonized  at  an  early 
402 


period  by  Greeks.  It  was  inhabited  by  a  hardy 
race  of  sailors,  whose  barks  (lembi  hscci)  were 
much  prized.  The  Issaei  placed  themselves  un- 
der the  protection  of  the  Romans  when  they  were 
attacked  by  the  Illyrian  queen  Teuta,  B.C.  229  : 
and  their  town  is  spoken  of  as  a  place  of  import- 
ance in  Caesar's  time. 

ISSKDONES  ('laarjdovef),  a  Scythian  tribe,  in 
Scythia  extra  Imaum,  the  easternmost  people 
with  whom  the  Greeks  of  the  time  of  Herodotus 
had  any  intercourse.  Their  country  was  in 
Great  Tartary,  near  the  Massagetse,  whom  they 
resembled  in  their  manners.  They  are  repre- 
sented as  extending  as  far  as  the  borders  of 
Serica. 

Issicus  SINUS  (6  'laatKdf  Kohirof :  now  Gulf  of 
hkenderoon),  the  deep  gulf  at  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  Mediterranean,  between  Cilicia  and 
Syria,  named  after  the  town  of  Issus.  The 
width  is  about  eight  miles.  The  coast  is  much 
altered  since  ancient  times. 

ISSORIA  ('lacupia),  a  surname  of  Diana  (Arte- 
mis), derived  from  Mount  Issorion,  in  Laconia, 
on  which  she  had  a  sanctuary. 

Issus  ('IffCTof,  also  'Iffffoi,  Xen. :  'laaaloy),  a 
city  in  the  southeastern  extremity  of  Cilicia, 
near  the  head  of  the  Issicus  Sinus,  and  at  the 
northern  front  of  the  pass  of  Mons  Amanus  call- 
ed the  Syrian  Gates ;  memorable  for  the  great 
battle  in  which  Alexander  defeated  Darius  Co- 
domannus  (B.C.  333),  which  was  fought  in  a 
narrow  valley  near  the  town.  It  was  at  thai 
time  large  and  flourishing,  but  its  importance 
was  much  diminished  by  the  foundation  of  Alcx- 
andrea  in  its  neighborhood.  Its  exact  site  is 
doubtful. 

IST^EVONES.     Vid.  GERMANIA,  p.  327,  a. 

ISTER.      Vid.  DANUBICS. 

ISTER,  a  Greek  historian,  was  at  first  a  slave  of 
Callimachus,  and  afterward  his  friendf  and  ac- 
cordingly lived  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Everge- 
tes  (B.C.  247-222).  He  wrote  a  large  number 
of  works,  the  most  important  of  which  was  an 
Atthis,  or  history  of  Attica.  His  fragments  are 
published  by  C.  and  Th.  Miiller,  Fragmenta  His- 
tor.  Gr<xc.,  vol.  i.,  p.  418-427. 

ISTRIA  or  HISTRIA,  a  peninsula  at  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  the  Adriatic,  between  the  Sinus 
Tergestinus  on  the  west  and  the  Sinus  Flanati- 
cus  on  the  east.  It  was  separated  from  Venetia 
on  the  northwest  by  the  River  Timavus,  and 
from  Illyricum  on  the  east  by  the  River  Arsia. 
Its  inhabitants,  the  ISTRI  or  HISTRI,  were  a  war- 
like Illyrian  race,  who  carried  on  several  wars 
with  the  Romans,  till  their  final  subjugation  by 
the  consul  C.  Claudius  Pulcher,  B.C.  177.  Their 
chief  towns  were  TERGESTE  and  POLA.  Istria 
was  originally  reckoned  part  of  Illyricum,  but 
from  the  time  of  Augustus  it  formed  one  of  the 
divisions  of  Upper  Italy.  In  consequence  of 
its  name,  it  was  believed  at  one  time  that  n 
branch  of  the  River  Ister  (Danube)  flowed  into 
the  Adriatic. 

ISTROPOLIS,  ISTROS   Or  ISTRIA  ('IcTpuTTofaf,  "la- 

rpof,  'laTpcrj,  Herod,  il,  33  :  now  Istere),  a  town 
I  in  Lower  Mcesia,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the 
{  Danube,  and  at  a  little  distance  from  the  coast, 
!  was  f  colony  from  Miletus. 

[If  ^  ('Iffof),  a  natural  son  of  Priam,  who, 
i  with  .at'nhus,  pastured  their  flocks  on  Mount 
;  Ida  **?r  T-ere  l?oth  captured  by  Achilles,  but 


ITALIA. 


ITALIA. 


•were  ransomed  ;  afterward  they  were  both  slain 
by  Agamemnon.] 

ITALIA  ('Ira/lta),  signified,  from  the  time  of 
Augustus,  the  country  which  we  call  Italy.  It 
was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Mare  Ligusti- 
cum  and  Tyrrhenum,  Tuscum  or  Inferum ;  on 
the  south  by  the  Mare  Siculum  or  Ausonium ;  on 
the  east  by  the  Mare  Adriaticum  or  Superum ; 
and  on  the  north  by  the  Alps,  which  sweep 
round  it  in  a  semicircle,  the  River  Varus  (now 
Var,  Varo)  separating  it  on  the  northwest  from 
Transalpine  Gaul,  and  the  River  Arsia  (now 
Arsa)  on  the  northeast  from  Illyricum.  The 
name  Italia,  however,  was  originally  used  to 
indicate  a  much  more  limited  extent  of  country. 
Most  of  the  ancients,  according  to  their  usual 
custom,  derived  the  name  from  an  ancient  king 
Italus ;  but  others,  still  more  absurdly,  connect- 
ed it  with  the  old  Italian  word  Italus  (in  Oscan, 
vitlu  or  vitelu\  an  ox,  because  the  country  was 
rich  in  oxen  !  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
Italia,  or  Vttalia,  as  it  was  also  called,  was  the 
hind  of  the  Itali,  Vitali,  Vitelli,  or  Vituli,  an  an- 
cient race,  who  are  better  known  under  the 
name  of  Siculi.  This  race  was  widely  spread 
over  the  southern  half  of  the  peninsula,  and  may 
be  said  to  have  been  bounded  on  the  north  by  a 
line  drawn  from  Mount  Garganus  on  the  east 
to  Terracina  on  the  west.  The  Greeks  were 
ignorant  of  this  wide  extent  of  the  name.  Ac- 
cording to  them,  Italia  was  originally  only  the 
southernmost  part  of  what  was  afterward  called 
Bruttium,  and  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  a 
line  drawn  from  the  Lametic  to  the  Scylletic 
Gulf.  They  afterward  extended  the  name  to 
signify  the  whole  country  south  of  Posidonia  on 
the  west  and  Tarentum  on  the  east.  After  the 
Romans  had  conquered  Tarentum  and  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  peninsula,  about  B.C.  272,  the 
oame  Italia  had  a  still  further  extension  given 
to  it  It  then  signified  the  whole  country  sub- 
ject to  the  Romans,  from  the  Sicilian  Straits  as 
far  north  as  the  Aruus  and  the  Rubico.  v  The 
country  north  of  these  rivers  continued  to  be 
called  Gallia  Cisalpina  and  Liguria  down  to  the 
end  of  the  republic.  Augustus  was  the  first 
who  extended  the  name  of  Italia,  so  as  to  com- 
prehend the  whole  of  the  basin  of  the  Po  and 
the  southern  part  of  the  Alps,  from  the  Mari- 
time Alps  to  Pola  in  Istria,  both  inclusive.  In 
the  later  times  of  the  empire,  when  Maximian 
had  transferred  the  imperial  residence  to  Milan, 
the  name  Italia  was  again  used  in  a  narrower 
compass.  As  it  had  originally  signified  only  the 
south  of  the  country,  so  now  it  was  restricted 
to  the  north,  comprising  the  five  provinces  of 
^Emilia,  Liguria,  Flarninia,  Venetia,  and  Istria. 
Besides  Italia,  the  country  was  called  by  vari- 
ous other  names,  especially  by  the  poets.  These 
were  HESPERIA,  a  name  which  the  Greeks  gave 
to  it  because  it  lay  to  the  west  of  Greece,  or 
HESPERIA  MAQNA,  to  distinguish  it  from  Spain 
(vid.  HESPERIA),  and  SATURNIA,  because  Saturn 
was  said  to  have  once  reigned  in  Latium.  The 
names  of  separate  parts  of  Italy  were  also  ap- 
plied by  the  poets  to  the  whole  country.  Thus 
it  was  called  (ENOTRIA,  originally  the  land  of 
the  CEnotri,  in  the  country  afterward  called 
Bruttium  and  Lucania :  AUSONIA,  or  OPICA,  or 
OPICIA,  originally  the  land  of  the  Ausones  or  | 
Ausouii.  Opici  or  Osci,  on  the  western  coast,  i 


in  the  country  afterward  called  Campania 
TYRRHEMA,  properly  the  land  of  the  Tyrrheui, 
also  on  the  western  coast,  north  of  Ausonia  or 
Opica,  and  more  especially  in  the  country  after- 
ward called  Etruria :  IAPYGIA,  properly  the  land 
of  the  lapyges,  on  the  eastern  coast,  in  the 
country  afterward  called  Calabria  :  and  OMBRICA, 
the  laud  of  the  Umbri,  on  the  eastern  coast, 
alongside  of  Etruria.  Italy  was  never  inhabit- 
ed by  one  single  race.  It  contained  a  great 
number  of  different  races,  who  had  migrated 
into  the  country  at  a  very  early  period.  The 
most  ancient  inhabitants  were  Pelasgians  or 
QSuotrians,  a  branch  of  the  same  great  race 
who  originally  inhabited  Greece  and  the  coasts 
of  Asia  Minor.  They  were  aleo  called  Aborig- 
ines and  Siculi,  who,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
were  the  same  as  the  Vitali  or  Itali.  At  the 
time  when  Roman  history  begins,  Italy  was  in- 
habited by  the  following  races.  From  the  mouth 
of  the  Tiber,  between  its  right  bank  and  the 
sea,  dwelt  the  Etruscans,  who  extended  as  far 
north  as  the  Alps.  Alongside  of  these,  between 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Adriatic, 
dwelt  the  Umbriaus.  To  the  south  of  the  Etrus- 
cans were  the  Sacrani,  Casci,  or  Prisci,  Oscan 
tribes,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  the  mount- 
ains by  the  Sabines,  h'-id  overcome  the  Pelas- 
gian  tribes  of  the  Sicnli,  Aborigines,  or  Latins, 
and,  uniting  with  these  conquered  people,  had 
formed  the  people  called  Prisci  Latini,  subse- 
quently simply  Latini.  South  of  these  again,  as 
far  as  the  River  Laus,  were  (he  Opici,  who  were 
also  called  Ausones  or  Aurunci,  and  to  whom 
the  Volsci,  Sidiciui,  Saticuli,  and  ^Equi  also  be 
longed.  The  south  of  the  peninsula  was  in- 
habited by  the  GEnotrians,  who  were  subse- 
quently driven  into  the  interior  by  the  numer- 
ous Greek  colonies  founded  along  the  coasts. 
South  of  the  Umbrians,  extending  as  far  as 
Mount  Garganus,  dwelt  the  various  Sabellian 
or  Sabine  tribes,  the  Sabines  proper,  the  Peligni, 
Marsi,  Marrucini,  Vestiui,  and  Hernici,  from 
which  tribes  the  warlike  race  of  the  Samnites 
subsequently  sprung.  •  From  Mount  Garganus 
to  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  peninsula, 
the  country  was  inhabited  by  the  Daunians  or 
Apulians,  Peucetii,  Messapii,  and  Sallentini.  An 
account  of  these  people  is  given  in  separate  ar- 
ticles. They  were  all  eventually  subdued  by  the 
Romans,  who  became  the  masters  of  the  whole 
of  the  peninsula.  At  the  time  of  Augustus  the 
following  were  the  chief  divisions  of  Italy,  an 
account  of  which  is  also  given  in  separate  ar- 
ticles :  I.  UPPER  ITALY,  which  extended  from 
the  Alps  to  the  Rivers  Macra  on  the  west  and 
Rubico  on  the  east.  It  comprehended,  1.  LIGU- 
RIA.  2.  GALLIA  CISALPINA.  3.  VENETIA,  includ- 
ing 'Carnia.  4.  ISTRIA. — II.  CENTRAL  ITALY, 
sometimes  called  ITALIA  PROPRIA  (a  term  not 
used  by  (he  ancients),  to  distinguish  it  from  Gal- 
lia Cisalpiua  or  Upper  Italy,  and  Magna  Graecia 
or  Lower  Italy,  extended  from  the  Rivers  Macra 
on  the  west  and  Rubico  on  the  east,  to  the  Riv 
ers  Silarus  on  the  west  and  Frento  on  the  east. 
It  comprehended,  1.  ETRURIA.  2.  UMBRIA.  8 
PICENUM.  4.  SAMNIUM,  including  the  country 
of  the  Sabiui,  Vestini,'  Marrucini,  Marsi,  Peligni, 
Ac.  5.  LATIUM.  6V  CAMPANIA. — III.  LOWER 
ITALY,  or  MAONA  GR-KCIA,  included  the  remain- 
ing part  of  the  peninsula,  south  of  the  Rivem 
403 


ITALIA. 


Silams  nnJ  Frento.  It  comprehended,  1.  APU- 
LIA, including  Calabria.  2.  LUCANIA.  3.  BRET- 
TIUM.  Augustus  divided  Italy  into  the  follow- 
ing eleven  Regiones.  1.  Latiuin  and  Campania. 
2.  The  land  of  the  Hirpiui,  Apulia  aud  Calabria. 
8.  Lucauia  and  Bruttium.  4.  The  land  of  the 
Frentani,  Marrucini,  Peligni,  Marsi,  Vestiui,  and 
Sabini,  together  with  Samuium.  6.  Picenum. 
6.  Umbria  and  the  district  of  Ariminum,  in  what 
was  formerly  called  Gallia  Cisalpina.  7.  Etru- 
ria,  8.  Gallia  Cispadaua.  9.  Liguria.  10.  The 
eastern  part  of  Gallia  Transpadaua,  Venetia, 
Carnia,  and  Istria.  11.  The  western  part  of 
Gallia  Transpadana.  The  leading  features  of 
the  physical  geography  of  Italy  are  so  well  de- 
scribed by  a  modern  writer,  that  we  can  not  do 
better  than  quote  his  words.  "  The  mere  plan- 
geography  of  Italy  gives  us  its  shape  and  the  po- 
sition of  its  towns ;  to  these  it  may  add  a  semi- 
circle of  mountains  round  the  northern  boundary, 
to  represent  the  Alps ;  and  another  long  line 
stretching  down  the  middle  of  the  country,  to 
represent  the  Apennines.  But  let  us  carry  this 
on  a  little  further,  aud  give  life  and  harmony  to 
what  is  at  present  at  once  lifeless  and  confused. 
Observe,  in  the  first  place,  how  the  Apenniue 
line,  beginning  from  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Alps,  runs  across  Italy  to  the  very  edge 
of  the  Adriatic,  and  thus  separates  naturally 
the  Italy  proper  of  the  Romans  from  Cisal- 
pine GauL  Observe,  again,  how  the  Alps,  after 
running  north  and  south  where  they  divide  Italy 
from  France,  turn  then  away  to  the  eastward, 
running  parallel  to  the  Apennines,  till  they  too 
touch  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  on  the  confines 
of  Istria.  Thus  between  these  two  lines  of 
mountains  there  is  inclosed  one  great  basin  or 
plain ;  inclosed  on  three  sides  by  mountains, 
open  only  on  the  east  to  the  sea.  Observe  how 
widely  it  spreads  itself  out,  and  then  see  how 
well  it  is  watered.  One  great  river  (the  Po) 
flows  through  it  in  its  whole  extent ;  and  this 
is  fed  by  streams  almost  unnumbered,  descend- 
ing toward  it  on  either  side,  from  the  Alps  on 
one  side,  and  from  the  Apennines  on  the  other. 
Then,  descending  into  Italy  proper,  we  find  the 
complexity  of  its  geography  quite  in  accordance 
with  its  manifold  political  divisions.  It  is  not 
one  simple  central  ridge  of  mountains,  having 
;i  broad  belt  of  level  country  on  either  side  be- 
tween it  and  the  sea,  nor  yet  is  it  a  chain  rising 
immediately  from  the  sea  on  one  side,  like  the 
Andes  in  South  America,  and  leaving  room 
therefore  on  the  other  side  for  wide  plains  of 
table-land,  and  for  rivers  with  a  sufficient  length 
of  course  to  become  at  last  great  and  navigable. 
It  is  a  back-bone,  thickly  set  with  spines  of  un- 
equal length,  some  of  them  running  out  at  reg- 
ular distances  parallel  to  each  other,  but  others 
twisted  so  strangely  that  they  often  fuu  for  a 
long  way  parallel  to  the  back-bone,  or  main 
ridge,  and  interlace  with  one  another  in  a  maze 
almost  inextricable.  And,  as  if  to  complete  the 
disorder,  in  ttiose  spots  where  the  spines  of  the 
Apennines,  being  twisted  round,  run  parallel  to 
the  sea  and  to  their  own  central  chain,  and  thus 
leave  an  interval  of  plain  between  their  bases 
and  the  Mediterranean,  volcanic  agency  has 
broken  up  the  space  thus  left  with  other  and 
distinct  groups  of  hills  of  its  own  creation,  as 
in  the  case  of  Vesuvius  and  of  the  Alban  hills 
404 


near  Rome.  Speaking  generally,  then,  Italy  ia 
made  up  of  an  infinite  multitude  of  valleys  pent 
in  between  high  and  steep  hills,  each  forming  a 
country  to  itself,  and  cut  off  by  natural  barriers 
from  the  others.  Its  several  parts  are  isolated 
by  nature,  and  no  art  of  man  can  thoroughly 
unite  them.  Hence  arises  the  romantic  char 
acter  of  Italian  scenery :  the  constant  combina- 
tion of  a  mountain  outline,  and  all  the  wild  feat- 
ures of  a  mountain  country,  with  the  wild  vege 
tatiou  of  a  southern  climate  in  the  valleys." 
More  minute  details  respecting  the  physical 
|  features  of  the  different  parts  of  Italy  are  given 
in  the  articles  on  the  separate  provinces  intx1 
which  it  is  divided. 

ITALICA.  1.  (Now  Sevilla  la  vifja,  near  San- 
tiponce),  &  muuicipium  in  Hispania  Baetica,  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Baetis,  northwest  of 
Hispalis,  was  founded  by  Scipio  Africauus  in 
the  second  Punic  war,  who  settled  here  some 
of  his  veterans.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  the 
emperors  Trajan  and  Hadrian. — 2.  The  name 
given  to  Corfinium  by  the  Italian  Socii  during 
their  war  with  Rome.  Vid.  COEFISIUM. 

ITALICUS,  SILIUS.      Vid.  SILIUS. 

ITALUS  ('IraAof),  an  ancient  king  of  the  Pelas- 
gians.  Siculians,  or  (Enotrians,  from  whom  Italy 
was  believed  to  have  derived  its  name.  Some 
call  him  a  son  of  Telegonus  by  Penelope. 

ITANUS  ("Iravof),  a  town  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Crete,  near  a  promontory  of  the  same  name, 
founded  by  the  Phoenicians. 

ITHACA  ('WuKTi :  'Waitrjaios :  now  Tfdaki),  a 
small  island  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  celebrated  as  the 
birth-place  of  Ulysses,  lies  off  the  coast  of  Epi- 
rus,  and  is  separated  from  Cephalonia  by  a  chan- 
nel about  three  or  four  miles  wide.  The  island 
is  about  twelve  miles  long,  .and  four  in  its  great- 
est breadth.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  which 
are  connected  by  a  narrow  isthmus,  not  more 
than  half  a  mile  across.  In  each  of  these  parts 
there  is  a  mountain  ridge  of  considerable  height ; 
the  one  in  the  north  called  Neritum  (N^'ptrov, 
now  Anoi),  and  the  one  in  the  south  Ne'ium 
(Nrjlov,  now  Stefano).  The  city  of  Ithaca,  the 
residence  of  Ulysses,  was  situated  on  a  precip- 
itous conical  hill,  now  called  Aeto,  or  "  eagle's 
cliff,"  occupying  the  whole  breadth  of  the  isth- 
mus mentioned  above.  The  acropolis,  or  cas- 
tle of  Ulysses,  crowned  the  extreme  summit  of 
the  mountain,  and  is  described  by  a  modern 
traveller  as  "  about  as  bleak  and  dreary  a  spot 
as  can  well  be  imagined  for  a  princely  resi-  « 
dence."  Hence  Cicero  (De  Orat.,  i.,  44)  de- 
scribes it,  in  asperrimis  saxulis  tanquam  nidulus 
afflxa.  It  is  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Neium,  and 
is  hence  described  by  Telemachus  as  "  Under- 
Neium"  ('WuKijz  '"f^ovrjtov,  Horn.,  Od.,  iii.,  81). 
The  walls  of  the  ancient  city  are  in  many  places 
well  preserved.  Ithaca  is  one  of  the  seven  lani- 
an  islands  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain 

[ITHACUS  ('WaKOf),  son  of  Pterelaus,  a  hero, 
from  whom  Ithaca  was  said  to  have  derived  its 
name.] 

[ITHJSMEJJES  ('WaifievTjs),  a  Trojan  or  Lycian 
warrior  in  the  Iliad,  father  of  Sthenelaus.] 

ITHOME  ('Wuftij :  'Wuvrj-Tjf,  'Wu/iaiof).  1.  A 
strong  fortress  in  Messenia,  situated  on  a  mount- 
ain of  the  same  name,  which  afterward  formed 
the  citadel  of  the  town  of  Messene.  On  the 
summit  of  the  mountain  stood  the  ancient  tem> 


ITIUS   PORTUS. 


JANA. 


->ie  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  was  hence  surnamed 
Ithoinetas  ('WoprjTTjf,  Dor.  'Wo//drof).  Ithome 
was  taken  by  the  Spartans  B.  C.  723,  at  the  end 
of  the  first  Messenian  war,  after  a  heroic  defence 
by  Ariatodemus,  and  again  in  455,  at  the  end  of 
the  third  Messeniau  war. — 2.  A  mountain  fortress 
in  Pelasgiotis,  in  Thessaly,  near  Metropolis,  also 
called  THOME. 

ITIUS  POKTUS,  a  harbor  of  the  Moriui,  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Gaul,  from  which  Caesar  set 
sail  for  Britain.  The  position  of  this  harbor  is 
much  disputed.  It  used  to  be  identified  with 
Gesoriacum  or  Boulogne,  but  it  is  now  usually 
supposed  to  be  some  harbor  near  Calais,  probably 
Vissant  or  Witsand. 

ITON.     Vid.  ITONIA. 

ITONIA,  ITONIAS,  or  ITONIS  ('Iruvia,  'Iruvidf, 
or  'iravif),  a  surname  of  Minerva  (Athena),  de- 
rived from  the  town  of  Iton,  in  the  south  of 
Phthiotis  in  Thessaly.  The  goddess  there  had 
a  celebrated  sanctuary  and  festivals,  and  hence 
is  called  Incola  Itoni.  From  Iton  her  worship 
spread  into  Bceotia  and  the  country  about  Lake 
Copais,  where  the  Pambceotia  was  celebrated,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  a  temple  and  grove  of  Min- 
erva (Athena).  According  to  another  tradition, 
Minerva,  (Athena)  received  the  surname  of  Itonia 
from  Itonus,  a  king  or  priest 

ITUCCI  ('IrvKKij,  App.)  a  town  in  Hispania 
Bsetica,  in  the  district  of  Hispalis,  and  a  Roman 
colony,  under  the  name  of  Virtus  Julia. 

ITCNA  (now  Solway  Frith),  an  aestuary  on  the 
western  coast  of  Britain,  between  England  and 
Scotland. 

ITUE^EA,  ITYE^EA  ('Irovpaia  :  'Irovpaloi,  Ituraei, 
Ityrasi :  now  El-Jeidur),  a  district  on  the  north- 
eastern borders  of  Palestine,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  plain  of  Damascus,  on  the  west  by 
the  mountain-chain  (now  Jebel-Heish)  which  forms 
the  eastern  margin  of  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
on  the  southwest  and  south  by  Gaulanitis,  and 
on  the  east  by  Auranitis  and  Trachonitis.  It 
occupied  a  part  of  the  elevated  plain  into  which 
Mount  Hermon  sinks  down  on  the  southeast, 
and  was  inhabited  by  an  Arabian  people,  of  war- 
like and  predatory  habits,  which  they  exercised 
upon  the  caravans  from  Arabia  to  Damascus, 
whose  great  road  lay  through  their  country.  In 
the  wars  between  the  Syrians  and  the  Israelites, 
they  are  found  acting  as  allies  of  the  kings  of 
Damascus.  They  are  scarcely  heard  of  again 
till  B.C.  105,  when  they  were  conquered  by  the 
Asinonzean  king  of  Judah,  Aristobulus,  who 
compelled  them  to  profess  Judaism.  Restored 
to  independence  by  the  decline  of  the  Asmo- 
Dffian  house,  they  seized  the  opportunity  offer- 
ed, on  the  other  side,  by  the  weakness  of  the 
kin^s  of  Syria,  to  press  their  predatory  incur- 
sions into  Coale-Syria,  and  even  beyond  Leba- 
non, to  Byblos,  Botrys,  and  other  cities  on  the 
coast  of  Phosnice.  Pompey  reduced  them  again 
to  order,  and  many  of  their  warriors  entered 
the  Roman  army,  in  which  they  became  cele- 
brated for  their  skill  in  horsemanship  and  arch- 
ery. They  were  not,  however,  reduced  to  com- 
plete subjection  to  Rome  until  after  the  civil 
wars  Augustus  gave  Itunea,  which  had  been 
hitherto  ruled  by  its  native  princes,  to  the  fam- 
ily of  Herod.  During  the  ministry  of  our  Sa- 
viour, it  was  governed  by  Philip,  the  brother 
of  Herod  Antipas,  ni  tUrarcb.  Upon  Philip's 


death  jn  A.D.  37,  it  was  united  to  the  Romac 
province  of  Syria,  from  which  it  was  presently 
again  separated,  and  assigned  partly  to  Herod 
Agrippa  L,  and  partly  to  Soaemus,  the  prince  of 
Eniesa.  In  A.D.  50  it  was  finally  reunited  by 
Claudius  to  the  Roman  province  of  Syria,  and 
there  are  inscriptions  which  prove  that  the 
Ituraaans  continued  to  serve  with  distinction 
in  the  Roman  armies.  There  were  no  cities  or 
large  towns  in  the  country,  a  fact  easily  explain- 
ed by  the  unsettled  character  of  the  people,  who 
lived  in  the  Arab  fashion,  in  unwalled  villages 
and  tents,  and  even,  according  to  some  state- 
ments, in  the  natural  caves  with  which  the 
country  abounds. 

[ITYLUS  (IriMOf),  son  of  Zethus  and  Aedon. 
Vid.  AEDON.] 

[ITYMOXEUS  (Irvfiovevf),  son  of  Hyperochus 
of  Elis,  slain  by  Nestor.] 

ITYS.  1.  Vid.  TEEEUS. — [2.  A  Trojan  hero, 
accompanied  .iEneas  to  Italy,  and  was  slain  by 
Turnus.] 

IULIS  ('lou/lff  :  'lov^iTjTijf,  'louAfttJf),  the  chief 
town  in  Ceos  ;  the  birth-place  of  Simonides. 
Vid.  CEOS. 

IULUS.  1.  Son  of  -iEneas,  usually  called  As- 
cauius.  Vid.  ASCANIUS. — 2.  Eldest  son  of  As- 
canius,  who  claimed  the  government  of  Latium, 
but  was  obliged  to  give  it  up  to  his  brother  Sil- 
vius. 

LXION  ('I| iuv),  son  of  Phlegyas,  or  of  Antion 
and  Perimela,  or  of  Pasion,  or  of  Mars  (Ares). 
According  to  the  common  tradition,  his  mother 
was  Dia,  a  daughter  of  Deioneus.  He  was  kiug 
of  the  Lapithae  or  Phlegyes,  and  the  father  of 
Pirithous.  When  Deioneus  demanded  of  Ixion 
the  bridal  gifts  he  had  promised,  Ixion  treach- 
erously invited  him  to  a  banquet,  and  then  con- 
trived to  make  him  fall  into  a  pit  filled  with  fire. 
As  no  one  purified  Ixion  of  this  treacherous 
murder,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  took  pity  upon  him,  puri- 
fied him,  carried  him  to  heaven,  and  caused 
him  to  sit  down  at  his  table.  But  Ixion  was 
ungrateful  to  the  father  of  the  gods,  and  at- 
tempted to  win  the  love  of  Juno  (Hera).  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  thereupon  created  a  phantom  re- 
sembling Juno  (Hera),  and  by  it  Ixion  became 
the  father  of  a  Centaur.  Vid.  CENTAUEI.  Ix- 
ion was  fearfully  punished  for  his  impious  in- 
gratitude. His  hands  and  feet  were  chained 
by  Mercury  (Hermes)  to  a  wheel,  which  is  said 
to  have  rolled  perpetually  in  the  air  or  in  the 
lower  world.  He  is  further  said  to  have  been 
scourged,  and  compelled  to  exclaim,  "  Benefactors 
should  be  honored." 

IXIONIDES,  i.  c^  Pirithous,  the  son  of  Ixion.  The 
Centaurs  are  also  called  Ixionidce. 

Ixius  ('Iftof),  a  surname  of  Apollo,  derived 
from  a  district  of  the  island  of  Rhodes  which  was 
called  Ixiae  or  Ixia. 

IYNX  (*Ivy£),  daughter  of  Peitho  and  Pan,  or 
of  Echo.  She  endeavored  to  charm  Jupiter 
(Zeus,)  or  make  him  fall  in  love  with  lo ;  but  she 
was  metamorphosed  by  Juno  (Hera)  into  the  bird 
called  lynx. 

J. 

JACCETAJH,  a  people  in  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis,  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Iberus. 
JANA.     Vid.  JANUS. 

405 


JANICULUM. 


JASON. 


Vid.  ROMA. 

JANUS  and  JANA,  a  pair  of  ancient  Latin  di- 
vinities, who  were  worshipped  as  the  sun  arid 
nidDii.  The  names  Janus  and  Jana  are  only 
other  forms  of  Dianus  and  Diana,  which  words 
contain  the  same  root  as  dies,  day.  Janus  was 
worshipped  both  by  the  Etruscans  and  Romans, 
and  occupied  an  important  place  in  the  Roman 
religion.  He  presided  over  the  beginning  of 
every  thing,  and  was  therefore  always  invoked 
first  in  every  undertaking,  even  before  Jupiter. 
He  opened  the  year  and  the  seasons,  and  hence 
the  first  month  of  the  year  was  called  after  him. 
He  was  the  porter  of  heaven,  and  therefore  bore 
the  surnames  Patulcus  or  Patulcius,  the  "  open- 
er," and  Clusius  or  C'lusivius,  the  "shutter." 
In  this  capacity  he  is  represented  with  a  key  in 
his  left  hand,  and  a  staff  or  sceptre  in  his  right. 
On  earth  also  he  was  the  guardian  deity  of 
gates,  aud  hence  is  commonly  represented  with 
two  heads,  because  every  door  looks  two  ways 
(Janus  bifrons).  He  is  sometimes  represented 
with  four  heads  (Janus  quadrifrons),  because  he 
presided  over  the  four  seasons.  Most  of  the 
attributes  of  this  god,  which  are  very  numerous, 
are  connected  with  his  being  the  god  who  opens 
and  shuts  ;  and  this  latter  idea  probably  has 
reference  to  his  original  character  as  the  god 
of  the  sun,  in  connection  with  the  alternations 
of  day  and  night.  At  Rome,  Numa  is  said  to 
have  dedicated  to  Janus  the  covered  passage 
bearing  his  name,  which  was  opened  in  times 
of  war,  and  closed  in  times  of  peace.  This 
passage  is  commonly,  but  erroneously,  called  a 
temple.  It  stood  close  by  the  forum.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  left  open  in  war  to  indicate 
symbolically  that  the  god  had  gone  out  to  assist 
the  Roman  warriors,  and  to  have  been  shut  in 
time  of  peace,  that  the  god,  the  safeguard  of  the 
city,  might  not  escape.  A  temple  of  Janus  was 
built  by  C.  Duilius  in  the  time  of  the  first  Punic 
war:  it  was  restored  by  Augustus,  and  dedi- 
cated by  Tiberius.  On  new  year's  day,  which 
was  the  principal  festival  of  the  god,  people 
gave  presents  to  one  another,  consisting  of 
sweetmeats  and  copper  coins,  showing  on  one 
side  the  double  head  of  Janus,  and  on  the  other 
a  ship.  The  general  name  for  these  presents 
was  strence.  The  sacrifices  offered  to  Janus  con- 
sisted of  cakes  (called  janual),  barley,  incense, 
and  wine. 

JASON  (Itiauv).  1.  The  celebrated  leader  of 
the  Argonauts,  was  a  son  of  ^Eson  and  Poly- 
niede  or  Alcimede,  and  belonged  to  the  family 
of  the  JEolidx,  at  lolcus  in  Thessaly.  Cre- 
theus,  who  had  founded  lolcus,  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  ^Eson ;  but  the  latter  was  deprived 
of  the  kingdom  by  his  half  brother  Pelias,  who 
attempted  to  take  the  life  of  the  infant  Jason. 
He  was  saved  by  his  friends,  who  pretended 
that  he  was  dead,  and  intrusted  him  to  the  care 
of  the  centaur  Chiron.  Pelias  was  now  warn- 
ed by  an  oracle  to  be  on  his  guard  against  the 
one-sandaled  man.  When  Jason  had  grown  up, 
he  came  to  claim  the  throne.  As  he  entered 
the  marketplace,  Pelias,  perceiving  he  had  only 
one  sandal,  asked  him  who  he  was ;  whereupon 
Jason  declared  his  namt),  and  demanded  the 
kingdom.  Pelias  consented  to  surrender  it  to 
him,  but  persuaded  him  to  remove  the  curse 
vrhicj  rested  on  the  family  of  the  Solids  bv 
406 


fetching  the  golden  fleece  and  soothing  the 
spirit  of  Phrixus.  Another  tradition  related 
that  Pelias,  once  upon  a  time,  invited  all  his 
subjects  to  a  sacrifice,  which  he  intended  to 
offer  to  Neptune  (Poseidon).  Jason  came  with 
the  rest,  but  on  his  journey  to  lolcus  he  lost 
one  of  his  sandals  in  crossing  the  River  Anau> 
rus.  Pelias,  remembering  the  oracle  about  tbe 
one-sandaled  man,  asked  Jason  what  he  would 
do  if  he  were  told  by  an  oracle  that  he  should 
be  killed  by  one  of  his  subjects  ?  Jason,  on  the 
suggestion  of  Juno  (Hera),  who  hated  Pelias, 
answered,  that  he  would  send  him  to  fetch  the 
golden  fleece.  Pelias  accordingly  ordered  Jason 
to  fetch  tl-e  golden  fleece,  which  was  in  the  pos- 
session of  King  ^Eetes,  in  Colchis,  and  was 
guarded  by  an  over-watchful  dragon.  Jason 
willingly  undertook  the  enterprise,  and  set  sail 
in  the  ship  Argo,  accompanied  by  the  chief 
heroes  of  Greece.  He  obtained  the  fleece  with 
the  assistance  of  Medea,  whom  he  made  his 
wife,  and  along  with  whom  he  returned  to  lol- 
cus. The  history  of  his  exploits  on  this  mem- 
orable enterprise,  and  his  adventures  on  his  re- 
turn home,  are  related  elsewhere.  Vid.  AR- 
GONAUT^E.  On  his  arrival  at  lolcus,  Jason,  ac- 
cording to  one  account,  found  his  aged  father 
jEson  still  alive,  and  Medea  made  him  young 
again  ;  but,  according  to  the  more  common  tra- 
dition, JEson  had  been  slain  by  Pelias  during 
the  absence  of  Jason,  who  accordingly  called 
upon  Medea  to  take  vengeance  on  Pelias.  Me- 
dea thereupon  persuaded  the  daughters  of  Pelias 
to  cut  their  father  to  pieces  and  boil  him,  in  or- 
der to  restore  him  to  youth  and  vigor,  as  she 
had  before  changed  a  ram  into  a  lamb  by  boiling 
the  body  in  a  cauldrou.  But  Pelias  was  never 
restored  to  life,  and  his  son  Acastus  expelled 
Jason  and  Medea  from  lolcus.  They  then  went 
to  Corinth,  where  they  lived  happily  for  several 
years,  until  Jason  deserted  Medea,  in  order  to 
marry  Glauce  or  Creusa,  daughter  of  Creon,  the 
king  of  the  country.  Medea  fearfully  revenged 
this  insult.  She  sent  Glauce  a  poisoned  garment, 
which  burned  her  to  death  when  she  put  it  on. 
Creon  likewise  perished  in  the  flames.  Medea 
also  killed  her  children  by  Jason,  viz.,  Mermerus 
and  Pheres,  and  then  fled  to  Athens  in  a  chariot 
drawn  by  winged  dragons.  Later  writers  rep- 
resent Jason  as  becoming  irf  the  end  reconciled 
to  Medea,  returning  with  her  to  Colchis,  and 
there  restoring  ^Eetes  to  his  kingdom,  of  which 
he  had  been  deprived.  The  death  of  Jason 
is  related  differently.  According  to  some,  hj 
made  away  with  himself  from  grief ;  according 
to  others,  he  was  crushed  by  the  poop  of  the 
ship  Argo,  which  fell  upon  him  as  he  was  lying 
under  it. — 2.  Tyrant  of  PheraB  and  Tagus  of 
Thessaly  (vid.  JDict.  of  Antiq.,  art.  TAGUS),  was 
probably  the  son  of  Lycophron,  who  established 
a  tyranny  on  the  ruins  of  aristocracy  at  Pherse. 
He  succeeded  his  father  as  tyrant  of  Pher«e  soon 
after  B.C.  395,  and  in  a  few  years  extended  his 
power  over  almost  the  whole  of  Thessaly.  Phar- 
salus  was  the  only  city  in  Thessaly  which  main- 
tained its  independence  under  the  government 
of  Polydamus ;  but  even  this  place  submitted  to 
him  in  375.  In  the  following  year  (374)  he  was 
elected  Tagus  or  generalissimo  of  Thessaly 
His  power  was  strengthened  by  the  weakness 
of  the  other  Greek  states,  and  by  the  exhaust 


JAVOLENUS   PRISCUS. 


JERUSALEM. 


ing  contest  in  which  Thebes  aud  Sparta  were 
engaged.  He  was  now  in  a  position  which  held 
out  to  him  every  prospect  of  becoming  master 
of  Greece ;  but  when  at  the  height  of  his  power, 
he  was  assassinated  at  a  public  audience,  370. 
Jason  had  an  insatiable  appetite  for  power, 
which  he  sought  to  gratify  by  any  and  every 
means.  "With  the  chief  men  in  the  several 
states  of  Greece,  as,  e.  g^  with  Timotheus  and 
Pelopidas,  he  cultivated  friendly  relations.  He 
is  represented  as  having  all  the  qualifications  of 
a  great  general  and  diplomatist — as  active,  tem- 
perate, prudent,  capable  of  enduring  much  fa- 
tigue, and  skillful  in  concealing  his  own  designs 
and  penetrating  those  of  his  enemies.  He  was 
an  admirer  of  the  rhetoric  of  Gorgias ;  and 
Isocrates  was  one  of  his  friends. — 3.  Of  Argos, 
an  historian,  lived  under  Hadrian,  and  wrote  a 
work  on  Greece  in  four  books. 

JAVOLENUS  PRISCUS,  an  eminent  Roman  jurist, 
was  born  about  the  commencement  of  the  reign 
of  Vespasian  (A.D.  79),  and  was  one  of  the 
council  of  Antoninus  Pius.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Caelius  Sabinus,  and  a  leader  of  the  Sabiniau  or 
Cassian  school.  Vid.  p.  170,  b.  There  are  two 
hundred  and  six  extracts  from  Javolenus  in  the 
Digest 

JAXARTES  ('Ia£u]o7J7j :  now  Syr,  Syderia,  or  Sy- 
houn),  a  great  river  of  Central  Asia,  about  which 
the  ancient  accounts  are  very  different  and  con- 
fused. It  rises  in  the  Comedi  Monies  (now 
Moussour),  and  flows  northwest  into  the  Sea  of 
Aral:  the  ancients  supposed  it  to  fall  into  the 
northern  side  of  the  Caspian,  not  distinguishing 
between  the  two  seas.  It  divided  Sogdiaua  from 
Scytbia.  On  its  banks  dwelt  a  Scythian  tribe 
called  Jaxarte. 

JERICHO  or  HIERICHUS  ('lepi^u,  'lepi^oiif :  now 
Er-Riha  ?  ruius),  a  city  of  the  Cauaanites,  in  a 
plain  on  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan,  near  its 
mouth,  was  destroyed  by  Joshua,  rebuilt  in  the 
time  of  the  Judges,  and  formed  an  important 
frontier  fortress  of  Judzea.  It  was  again  de- 
stroyed by  Vespasian,  rebuilt  under  Hadrian, 
and  finally  destroyed  during  the  crusades. 

JEROM.     Vid,  HIERONYMUS. 

JERUSALEM  or  HIEROSOLYMA  ('lepovauhij/j.,  'Ie- 
poodftufia  :  'lepoao'Xv/urrif  :  now  Jerusalem,  Arab. 
El-Kudt,  \.  e.,  the  Holy  City),  the  capital  of  Pal- 
estine in  Asia.  At  the  time  of  the  Israelitish 
conquest  of  Canaan,  under  Joshua,  Jerusalem, 
then  called  Jebus,  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Jeb- 
usites,  a  Cauaauitish  tribe,  who  were  not  en- 
tirely driven  out  from  it  till  B.C.  1050,  when 
David  took  the  city,  and  made  it  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Israel.  It  was  also  established 
as  the  permanent  centre  of  the  Jewish  religion, 
by  the  erection  of  the  temple  of  Solomon.  Aft- 
er the  division  of  the  kingdom  under  Rehoboam, 
it  remained  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
until  it  was  entirely  destroyed,  aud  its  inhabit- 
ants were  carried  into  captivity  by  Nebuchad- 
neizar,  king  of  Babylon,  &C.  588.  In  B.C.  536, 
the  Jewish  exiles,  having  been  permitted  by  Cy- 
rus to  return,  began  to  rebuild  the  city  and  tem- 
ple ;  and  the  work  was  completed  in  about 
twenty-four  years.  la  B.C.  832  Jerusalem  qui- 
etly submitted  to  Alexander.  During  the  wars 
which  followed  his  death,  the  city  was  taken 
by  Ptolemy,  the  son  of  Lagus  (B.C.  320),  and 
remained  subject  to  the  Greek  kings  of  Egypt 


till  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  Antiochus  IIL 
the  Great,  king  of  Syria,  B.C.  198.  Up  to  this 
time  the  Jews  had  been  allowed  the  free  enjoy- 
ment of  their  religion  and  their  own  internal 
government,  and  Antiochus  confirmed  them  in 
these  privileges ;  but  the  altered  government 
of  his  son,  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes,  provoked 
a  rebellion,  which  was  at  first  put  down  when 
Antiochus  took  Jerusalem  and  polluted  the  tem- 
ple (B.C.  170) ;  but  the  religious  persecution 
which  ensued  drove  the  people  to  despair,  and 
led  to  a  new  revolt  under  the  Maccabees,  by 
whom  Jerusalem  was  retaken,  and  the  temple 
purified  in  B.C.  163.  Vid.  MACCAB^I.  In  B.C. 
133  Jerusalem  was  retaken  by  Antiochus  VII. 
Sidetes,  and  its  fortifications  dismantled,  but 
its  government  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
Maccabee,  John  Hyrcanus,  who  took  advantage 
of  the  death  of  Antiochus  in  Parthia  (B.C  128) 
to  recover  his  full  power.  His  son  Aristobulus 
assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Judzea,  and  Jeru- 
salem continued  to  be  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom till  B.C.  63,  when  it  was  taken  by  Pompey, 
and  the  temple  was  again  profaned.  For  the 
events  which  followed,  vid.  HYRCANUS,  HERODES, 
and  PALJJSTIXA.  In  A.D.  70,  the  rebellion  of 
the  Jews  against  the  Romans  was  put  down, 
and  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Titus,  after  a  siege 
of  several  months,  during  which  the  inhabitants 
endured  the  utmost  horrors  ;  the  survivors  were 
all  put  to  the  sword  or  sold  as  slaves,  and 
the  city  and  temple  were  utterly  razed  to  the 
ground.  In  consequence  of  a  new  revolt  of 
the  Jews,  the  Emperor  Hadrian  resolved  to 
destroy  all  vestiges  of  their  national  and  reli 
gious  peculiarities ;  and,  as  one  means  to  this 
end,  he  established  a  new  Roman  colony,  on 
the  ground  where  Jerusalem  had  stood,  by  the 
name  of  MI.I&.  CAPITOLINA,  and  built  a  temple 
of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  on  the  site  of  the  temple 
of  Jehovah.  A.D.  135.  The  establishment  of 
Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire restored  to  Jerusalem  its  sacred  character, 
and  led  to  the  erection  of  several  churches ; 
but  the  various  changes  which  have  taken  place 
in  it  eince  its  conquest  by  the  Arabs  under 
Omar  in  A.D.  638,  have  left  very  few  vestiges 
even  of  the  Roman  city.  Jerusalem  stands  due 
west  of  the  head  of  the  Dead  Sea,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  about  twenty  miles  (in  a  straight  line), 
and  about  thirty-five  miles  from  the  Mediterra- 
nean, on  an  elevated  platform,  divided,  by  a 
series  of  valleys,  from  hills  which  surround  it 
on  every  side.  This  platform  has  a  general 
slope  from  west  to  east,  its  highest  point  being 
the  summit  of  Mount  Zion,  in  the  southwestern 
corner  of  the  city,  on  which  stood  the  original 
"  City  of  David."  The  southeastern  part  of  the 
platform  is  occupied  by  the  hill  called  Moriah, 
on  which  the  temple  stood,  and  the  eastern  part 
by  the  hill  called  Acra ;  but  these  two  summits 
are  now  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  general 
surface  of  the  platform,  probably  on  account  of 
the  gradual  filling  up  of  the  valleys  between. 
The  height  of  Mount  Zion  is  two  thousand  five 
hundred  and  thirty -five  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  about  three  hundred  feet 
above  the  valley  below.  The  extent  of  the  plat- 
form is  five  thousand  four  hundred  feet  from 
north  to  south,  and  one  thousand  one  hundred 
feet  from  cast  to  west 

407 


JOCASTE. 

JOCASTE  ('loKaarr]},  called  EPICASTE  in  Homer, 
daughter  of  Menceceus,  and  wife  of  the  Theban 
king  Laius,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of 
(Edipus.  She  afterward  married  (Eclipus,  not 
knowing  that  he  was  her  son  ;  and  when  she  dis- 
covered the  crime  she  had  unwittingly  com- 
mitted, she  put  an  end  to  her  life.  For  details, 
vid  (EDIPUS. 

JOPPE,  JOPPA  ("loTTTn?  :  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Japho :  now  Jaffa),  a.  very  ancient  maritime  city 
of  Palestine,  and,  before  the  building  of  Caesa 
rea,  the  onlv  sea-port  of  the  whole  country,  and 
therefore  called  by  Strabo  the  port  of  Jerusalem, 
lay  just  south  of  the  boundary  between  Judaea 
and  Samaria,  southwest  of  Autipatris,  and  north- 
west of  Jerusalem. 

JORDANES  ('lopduvr/f,  '\6p6avo<; :  now  Jordan, 
Arab.  JSsh-Sheriah  el-Kebir,  or  el-Urduri),  has 
its  source  at  the  southern  foot  of  Mons  Hermon 
(the  southernmost  part  of  Anti-Libauus),  [about 
twenty  miles  above]  Paneas  (afterward  Caes- 
area  Philippi),  whence  it  flows  south  into  the 
little  lake  Semechonitis  (now  Bahr  el-Huleh), 
and  thence  [after  a  course  of  twelve  miles]  into 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Lake  of  Tiberias),  and  thence 
through  a  narrow  plain,  depressed  below  the 
level  of  the  surrounding  country,  into  the  Lake 
Asphaltites  (now  Dead  Sea),  where  it  is  finally 
lost.  Vid.  FAUSTINA.  Its  course,  from  the 
Lake  of  Tiberias  to  the  Dead  Sea,  [in  a  dis- 
tance of  sixty  miles,  is,  according  to  Lieutenant 
Lynch,  about  two  hundred  miles,  and  within 
that  distance  there  are  no  less  than  twenty- 
seven  considerable  rapids,  with  many  others  of 
less  descent ;  thus  giving  an  average  of  five  feet 
descent  to  the  mile  in  its  whole  extent] ;  the 
depression  through  which  it  runs  consists,  first, 
of  a  sandy  valley,  from  five  to  ten  miles  broad, 
within  which  is  a  lower  valley,  in  width  about 
half  a  mile,  and,  for  the  most  part,  beautifully 
clothed  with  grass  and  trees ;  and,  in  some 
places,  there  is  still  a  lower  valley  within 
this.  The  average  width  of  the  river  itself 
is  calculated  at  thirty  yards,  and  its  average 
depth  at  nine  feet  It  is  fordable  in  many 
places  in  summer,  but  in  spring  it  becomes  much 
deeper,  and  often  overflows  its  banks.  Its  bed 
is  considerably  below  the  level  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

JORNANDES  or  JORDANES,  an  historian,  lived 
in  the  time  of  Justinian,  or  in  the  sixth  century 
of  our  era.  He  was  a  Goth  by  birth  ;  was  sec- 
retary to  the  King  of  the  Alani,  adopted  the 
Christian  religion,  took  orders,  and  was  made 
a  bishop  in  Italy.  There  is  not  sufficient  evi- 
dence for  the  common  statement  that  he  was 
bishop  of  Ravenna.  He  wrote  two  historical 
works  in  the  Latin  language :  1.  De  Getarum 
(Gothorum)  Origine  et  Rebus  Gestis,  containing 
the  history  of  the  Goths  from  the  earliest  times 
down  to  their  subjugation  by  Belisarius  in  541. 
The  work  is  abridged  from  the  lost  history  of 
the  Goths  by  Cassiodorus,  to  which  Jornandes 
added  various  particulars ;  but  it  is  compiled 
without  judgment,  and  is  characterized  by  par- 
tiality to  the  Goths.  2.  De  Regnorum  ac  Tem- 
porum  Successione,  a  short  compendium  of  his- 
tory from  the  creation  down  to  the  victory  ob- 
tained by  Narses  in  552  over  King  Theodatus. 
It  is  only  valuable  for  some  accounts  of  the  bar- 
barous nations  of  the  North,  and  the  countries 
408 


JOSEPHUS,  FLAVIUS. 

which  they  inhabited.    Edited  by  Lindenbrog, 
Hamburg,  1611. 

JOSEPHUS,  FLAVIUS,  the  Jewish  historian,  waa 
born  at  Jerusalem  A.D.  87.  On  his  mother's 
side  he  was  descended  from  the  Asmouaaan 
princes,  while  from  his  father,  Matthias,  he  in- 
nerited  the  priestly  office.  He  enjoyed  an  ex- 
cellent education  ;  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-six 
he  went  to  Rome  to  plead  the  cause  of  some 
Jewish  priests  whom  Felix,  the  procurator  of 
Judaea,  had  sent  thither  as  prisoners.  After  a 
narrow  escape  from  death  by  shipwreck,  he 
safely  landed  at  Puteoli ;  and  being  introduced 
to  Poppsea,  he  not  only  effected  the  release  of 
his  friends,  but  received  great  presents  from 
the  empress.  On  his  return  to  Jerusalem  he 
found  his  countrymen  eagerly  bent  on  a  re- 
volt from  Rome,  from  which  he  used  his  best 
endeavors  to  dissuade  them ;  but  failing  in 
this,  he  professed  to  enter  into  the  popular  de- 
signs. He  was  chosen  one  of  the  generals 
of  the  Jews,  and  was  sent  to  manage  affairs 
in  Galilee.  When  Vespasian  and  his  army  en- 
tered Galilee,  Josephus  threw  himself  into  lo- 
tapata,  which  he  defended  for  forty-seven  days. 
When  the  place  was  taken,  the  life  of  Josephus 
was  spared  by  Vespasian  through  the  interces- 
sion of  Titus.  Josephus  thereupon  assumed  the 
character  of  a  prophet,  and  predicted  to  Vespa- 
sian that  the  empire  should  one  day  be  his  and 
his  son's.  Vespasian  treated  him  with  respect, 
but  did  not  release  him  from  captivity  till  he 
was  proclaimed  emperor  nearly  three  years  aft- 
erward (A.D.  70).  Josephus  was  present  with 
Titus  at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  and  afterward 
accompanied  him  to  Rome.  He  received  the 
freedom  of  the  city  from  Vespasian,  who  as- 
signed him,  as  a  residence,  a  house  formerly 
occupied  by  himself,  and  treated  him  honorably 
to  the  end  of  his  reign.  The  same  favor  was 
extended  to  him  by  Titus  and  Domitian  as  welL 
He  assumed  the  name  of  Flavius,  as  a  depend- 
ent of  the  Flavian  family.  His  time  at  Rome 
appears  to  have  been  employed  mainly  in  the 
composition  of  his  works.  He  died  about  100. 
The  works  of  Josephus  are  written  in  Greek. 
They  are,  1.  The  History  of  the  Jewish  War 
(Tlepl  TOV  'lovda'iKOv  TroAe/iot)  fj  'lovdaiKTJf  iaTopiaf 
irepl  ahuaeaf),  in  seven  books,  published  about 
AD.  75.  Josephus  first  wrote  it  in  Hebrew,  and 
then  translated  it  into  Greek.  It  commences 
with  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  in  B.C.  170,  runs  rapidly  over  the 
events  before  Josephus's  own  time,  aud  gives  a 
detailed  account  of  the  fatal  war  with  Rome.  2. 
The  Jewish  Antiquities  ('lovdaiKi)  upxatoTioyia), 
in  twenty  books,  completed  about  A.D.  93,  and 
addressed  to  Epaphroditus.  The  title  as  well 
as  the  number  of  books  may  have  been  sug- 
^ested  by  the  'Pup.alKT)  upxaio^oyia  of  Dionyeius 
of  Halicarnassus..  It  gives  an  account  of  Jew- 
ish history  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to 
A.D.  66,  the  twelfth  year  of  Nero,  in  which  the 
Jews  were  goaded  to  rebellion  by  Gcssius  Flo- 
rus.  In  this  work  Josephus  seeks  to  accom- 
modate the  Jewish  religion  to  heathen  tastes 
and  prejudices.  Thus  he  speaks  of  Moses  and 
iis  law  in  a  tone  which  might  be  adppted  by 
any  disbeliever  in  his  divine  legation.  He  says 
;hat  Abraham  went  into  Egypt  (Gen.,  xii.),  in- 
tending to  adopt  the  Egyptian  views  of  religion 


JOVIANUS. 


JUGTJRTHA. 


should  he  find  them  better  than  his  own.  He 
speaks  doubtfully  of  the  preservation  of  Jonah 
by  the  whale.  He  intimates  a  doubt  of  there 
having  been  any  miracle  in  the  passage  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  compares  it  with  the  passage  of 
Alexander  the  Great  along  the  shore  of  the  sea 
of  Pamphylia.  He  interprets  Exod.,  xxii,  28, 
as  if  it  conveyed  a  command  to  respect  the  idols 
of  the  heathen.  Many  similar  instances  might 
be  quoted  from  his  work.  3.  His  own  Life,  in 
one  book.  This  is  an  appendage  to  the  Archae- 
ologia,  and  is  addressed  to  the  same  Epaphro- 
ditus.  It  was  not  written  earlier  than  A.D.  97, 
since  Agrippa  IL  is  mentioned  in  it  as  no  longer 
living.  4.  A  treatise  on  the  Antiquity  of  the  Jews, 
or  Against  Apion,  in  two  books,  also  addressed 
to  Epaphroditus.  It  is  in  answer  to  such  as 
impugned  the  antiquity  of  the  Jewish  nation  on 
the  ground  of  the  silence  of  Greek  writers  re- 
specting it.  Vid.  APION.  The  treatise  exhibits 
extensive  acquaintance  with  Greek  literature  and 
philosophy.  5.  Etf  MaKKa6alovf  rj  nepl  avroKpd- 
ropof  lioyiaftov,  in  one  book  Its  genuineness  is 
doubtful  It  is  a  declamatory  account  of  the 
martyrdom  of  Eleazar  (an  aged  priest),  and  of 
seven  youths  and  their  mother,  in  the  persecu- 
tion under  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  best  edi- 
tions of  Josephus  are  by  Hudson,  Oxon.,  1720  ; 
by  Havercamp,  Arnst,  1726 ;  [and  by  W.  Din- 
dorf  in  Didot's  Bibliotheca  Grseca ;  the  best  edi- 
tion of  the  Jewish  War,  separately,  is  by  Card- 
well,  Oxford,  1837,  2  vols.] 

JOVIANUS,  FLAVIUS  CLAUDIUS,  was  elected  em- 
peror by  the  soldiers  in  June,  A.D.  363,  after  the 
death  of  Julian  (vid.  JULIANUS),  whom  he  had 
accompanied  in  his  campaign  against  the  Per- 
sians. In  order  to  effect  his  retreat  in  safety, 
Jovian  surrendered  to  the  Persians  the  Roman 
conquests  beyond  the  Tigris,  and  several  for- 
tresses in  Mesopotamia.  He  died  suddenly  at 
a  small  town  on  the  frontiers  of  Eithynia  and 
Galatia,  February  17,  364,  after  a  reign  of  little 
more  than  seven  months.  Jovian  was  a  Chris- 
tian, but  he  protected  the  heathens. 

JUBA  ('looaf).  1.  King  of  Numidia,  was  son 
of  Hiempsal,  who  was  re-established  on  the 
throne  by  Pompey.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  he  act- 
ively espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter ;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, when  Caesar  sent  Curio  into  Africa 
(BC.  49),  he  supported  the  Pompeian  general 
Attius  Varus  with  a  large  body  of  troops.  Curio 
was  defeated  by  their  united  forces,  and  fell  in 
the  battle.  In  46  Juba  fought  along  with  Scipio 
against  Caesar  himself,  and  was  present  at  the 
decisive  battle  of  Thapsus.  After  this  defeat 
he  wandered  about  for  some  time,  and  then  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life. —  2.  King  of  Mauretania, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  mere  child  at  his 
father's  death  (46),  was  carried  a  prisoner  to 
Rome  by  Caesar,  and  compelled  to  grace  the 
conqueror's  triumph.  He  was  brought  up  in 
Italy,  where  he  received  an  excellent  education, 
and  applied  himself  with  such  diligence  to  study, 
that  he  turned  out  one  of  the  most  learned  men 
of  his  day.  After  the  death  of  Antony  (30), 
Augustus  conferred  upon  Juba  his  paternal 
kingdom  of  Numidia,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
gave  him  in  marriage  Cleopatra,  otherwise  call- 
ed Selene,  the  daughter  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
At  a  subsequent  period  (25),  Augustus  gave  him 


Mauretania  in  exchange  for  Numidia,  which 
was  reduced  to  a  Roman  province.  He  contin- 
ued to  reign  hi  Mauretania  till  his  death,  which 
happened  about  A.D.  19.  He  was  beloved  by 
his  subjects,  among  whom  he  endeavored  to  in- 
troduce the  elements  of  Greek  and  Roman  civ- 
ilization; and,  after  his  death,  they  even  paid 
him  drvine  honors.  Juba  wrote  a  great  number 
of  works  in  almost  every  branch  of  literature. 
They  are  all  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
fragments.  They  appear  to  have  been  all  writ- 
ten in  Greek.  The  most  important  of  them 
were,  1.  A  History  of  Africa  (A.i6vKu),  in  which 
he  made  use  of  Punic  authorities.  2.  On  the 
Assyrians,  3.  A  History  of  Arabia.  4.  A  Ro- 
man  History  ('Pu/iaiKti  iaropia).  5.  BearpiKT/ia- 
ropia,  a  general  treatise  on  all  matters  connect- 
ed with  the  stage.  6.  Hepl  ypa^iKTJc,  or  Kept 
faypdfyuv,  seems  to  have  been  a  general  history 
of  painting.  He  also  wrote  some  treatises  on 
botany  and  on  grammatical  subjects.  [The  few 
fragments  of  Juba's  historical  works  still  extant 
are  collected  in  Miiller's  Fragm.  Hist.  Grrcec., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  465-484.] 

JUD.EA,  JUD^EI.     Vid.  PAL^ESTINA. 

JUGUNTHI,  a  German  people,  sometimes  de 
scribed  as  a  Gothic,  and  sometimes  as  an  Ale- 
mannic  tribe. 

JUGUETHA  ('lovyovpBaf  'loyopdaf),  king  of 
Numidia,  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Mastanabal, 
and  a  grandson  of  Masinissa.  He  lost  his  father 
at  an  early  age,  but  was  adopted  by  his  uncle 
Micipsa,  who  brought  him  up  with  his  own  sons, 
Hiempsal  and  Adherbal.  Jugurtha  quickly  dis- 
tinguished himself  both  by  his  abilities  and  his 
skill  in  all  bodily  exercises,  and  rose  to  so  much 
favor  and  popularity  with  the  Numidians,  that 
he  began  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  Micipsa.  In 
order  to  remove  him  to  a  distance.  Micipsa  sent 
him,  in  B.C.  134,  with  an  auxiliary  force,  to  as- 
sist Scipio  against  Numantia.  Here  his  zeal, 
courage,  and  ability  gained  for  him  the  favor 
and  commendation  of  Scipio,  and  of  all  the  lead- 
ing nobles  in  the  Roman  camp.  On  his  return 
to  Numidia  he  was  received  with  honor  by  Mi- 
cipsa, who  was  obliged  to  dissemble  the  fears 
which  he  entertained  of  his  ambitious  nephew. 
Micipsa  died  in  118,  leaving  the  kingdom  to  Ju- 
gurtha and  his  two  sons,  Hiempsal  and  Adher- 
bal, in  common.  Jugurtha  soon  showed  that 
he  aspired  to  the  sole  sovereignty  of  the  coun- 
try, in  the  course  of  the  same  year  he  found 
an  opportunity  to  assassinate  Hiempsal  at  Thir- 
mida,  and  afterward  defeated  Adherbal  in  bat- 
tle. Adherbal  fled  to  Rome  to  invoke  the  as- 
sistance of  the  senate ;  but  Jugurtha,  by  a  lav- 
ish distribution  of  bribes,  counteracted  the  just 
complaints  of  his  enemy.  The  senate  decreed 
that  the  kingdom  of  Numidia  should  be  equally 
divided  between  the  two  competitors ;  but  the 
senators  intrusted  with  the  execution  of  this 
decree  were  also  bribed  by  Jugurtha,  who  thus 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  western  division  of 
the  kingdom,  adjacent  to  Mauretania,  by  far  the 
larger  and  richer  portion  of  the  two  (117).  But 
this  advantage  was  far  from  contenting  him. 
Shortly  afterward  he  invaded  the  territories  of 
Adherbal  with  a  large  army,  and  defeated  him. 
Adherbal  made  his  escape  to  the  strong  fortress 
of  Cirta,  where  he  was  closely  blockaded  by 
Jugurtha  The  Romans  commanded  Juguvthu 
409 


JULIA. 

to  abstain  from  further  hostilities ,  but  he  paid 
no  attention  to  thei"  commands,  nud  at  length 
gained  possession  of  Cirta,  and  put  Adherbal  to 
death,  112.  War  was  now  declared  against 
Jugurtha  at  Rome,  and  the  consul,  L.  Calpur- 
nius  Bestia,  was  sent  into  Africa,  111.  Ju- 
gurtha had  recourse  to  his  customary  arts ;  and, 
by  means  of  large  sums  of  money  given  to  Bes- 
tia and  M.  Scaurus,  his  principal  lieutenant,  he 
purchased  from  them  a  favorable  peace.  The 
conduct  of  Bestia  excited  the  greatest  indigna- 
tion at  Rome,  and  Jugurtha  was  summoned  to 
the  city  under  a  safe  conduct,  the  popular  party 
hoping  to  be  able  to  convict  the  nobility  by 
means  of  his  evidence.  The  scheme,  however, 
failed  ;  since  one  of  the  tribunes,  who  had  been 
gained  over  by  the  friends  of  Bestia  and  Scau- 
rus, forbade  the  king  to  give  evidence.  Soon 
afterward  Jugurtha  was  compelled  to  leave 
Italy,  in  consequence  of  his  having  ventured  on 
the  assassination  of  Massiva,  whose  counter-in- 
fluence he  regarded  with  apprehension.  Vid. 
MASSIVA.  The  war  was  now  renewed ;  but  the 
consul,  Sp.  Postumius  Albinus,  who  arrived  to 
conduct  it  (110),  was  able  to  effect  nothing 
against  Jugurtha,  When  the  consul  went  to 
Rome  to  hold  the  comitia,  he  left  his  brother 
Aulus  in  command  of  the  army.  Aulus  was  de- 
feated by  Jugurtha ;  great  part  of  his  army  was 
cut  to  pieces,  and  the  rest  only  escaped  a  simi- 
lar fate  by  the  ignominy  of  passing  under  the 
yoke.  But  this  disgrace  at  once  roused  all 
the  spmt  of  the  Roman  people :  the  treaty  con- 
cluded oy  Aulus  was  instantly  annulled ;  and 
the  consul  Q.  Csecilius  Metellus  was  sent  into 
Africa  at  the  head  of  a  new  army  (109).  Metel- 
lus was  an  able  general  and  an  upright  man, 
whom  Jugurtha  was  unable  to  cope  with  in  the 
field,  or  to  seduce  by  bribes.  In  the  course  of 
two  years  Metellus  frequently  defeated  Jugur- 
tha, and  at  length  drove  him  to  take  refuge 
among  the  Gaetuliaus.  In  107  Metellus  was 
succeeded  in  the  command  by  Marius ;  but  the 
cause  of  Jugurtha  bad  meantime  been  espoused 
by  his  father-in-law  Bocchus,  king  of  Maureta- 
nia,  who  had  advanced  to  his  support  with  a 
large  army.  The  united  forces  of  Jugurtha  and 
Bocchus  were  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle  by 
Marius ;  and  Bocchus  purchased  the  forgive- 
ness of  the  Romans  by  surrendering  his  son-in- 
law  to  Sulla,  the  quaestor  of  Marius  (106).  Ju- 
gurtha remained  in  captivity  till  the  return  of 
Marius  to  Rome,  when,  after  adorning  the  tri- 
umph of  his  conqueror  (Jan.  1,  104),  he  was 
thrown  into  a  dungeon,  and  there  starved  to 
death. 

JULIA.  1.  Aunt  of  Caesar  the  dictator,  and 
wife  of  C.  Marius  the  elder.  She  died  B.C.  68, 
and  her  nephew  pronounced  her  funeral  oration. 
— 2.  Mother  of  M.  Antonius  the  triumvir.  In 
the  proscription  of  the  triumvirate  (43)  she 
saved  the  life  of  her  brother,  L.  Caesar.  Vid. 
C^ESAB,  No.  6. — 3.  Sister  of  Caesar  the  dictator, 
and  wife  of  M.  Atius  Balbus,  by  whom  she  had 
Atia,  the  mother  of  Augustus.  Vid.  ATIA. — 
4.  Daughter  of  Caesar  the  dictator,  by  Cornelia, 
and  his  only  child  in  marriage,  was  married  to 
Cn.  Pompey  in  59.  She  was  a  woman  of  beauty 
and  virtue,  and  was  tenderly  attached  to  her 
husband,  although  twenty-three  years  older  than 
herself.  She  died  in  childbed  in  64. — 5.  Daugh- 
410 


JULIANUS. 

ter  of  Augustus  by  Scribonia,  and  his  only  child, 
was  born  in  39.  She  was  educated  with  great 
strictness,  but  grew  up  one  of  the  most  profligate 
women  of  her  age.  She  was  thrice  married : 
first,  to  M.  Marcellus,  her  first  cousin,  in  25 ;  sec- 
ondly, after  his  death  (23)  without  issue,  to  M. 
Agrippa,  by  whom  she  had  three  sons,  C.  and 
L.  Caesar,  and  Agrippa  Postumus,  and  two 
daughters,  Julia  and  Agrippina;  and  thirdly, 
after  Agrippa's  death  in  1 2,  to  Tiberius  Nero,  the 
future  emperor.  In  B.C.  2  Augustus  at  length 
j  became  acquainted  with  the  misconduct  of  his 
i  daughter,  whose  notorious  adulteries  had  been 
one  reason  why  her  husband  Tiberius  had  quit- 
ted Italy  four  years  before.  Augustus  was  in- 
censed beyond  measure,  and  banished  her  to 
Pandataria,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Campania 
At  the  end  of  five  years  she  was  removed  to 
Rhegium,  but  she  was  never  suffered  to  quil 
the  bounds  of  the  city.  Even  the  testament  of 
Augustus  showed  the  inflexibility  of  his  anger. 
He  bequeathed  her  no  legacy,  and  forbade  her 
ashes  to  repose  in  his  mausoleum.  Tiberius, 
on  his  accession  (A.D.  14),  deprived  her  of  almost 
all  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  she  died  in  the 
course  of  the  same  year. — 6.  Daughter  of  the 
preceding,  and  wife  of  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus.  She 
inherited  her  mother's  licentiousness,  and  was, 
in  consequence,  banished  by  her  grandfather 
Augustus  to  the  little  island  Tremerus,  on  the 
coast  of  Apulia,  A.D.  9,  where  she  lived  nearly 
twenty  years.  She  died  in  28.  It  was  probably 
this  Julia  whom  Ovid  celebrated  as  Corinna  in 
his  elegies  and  other  erotic  poems ;  and  his  in- 
trigues with  her  appear  to  have  been  the  cause 
of  the  poet's  banishment  in  A.D.  9. — 7.  Young- 
est child  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippioa,  was 
born  A.D.  18 ;  was  married  to  M.  Vinicius  in 
33  ;  and  was  banished  in  37  by  her  brother  Ca- 
ligula, who  was  believed  to  have  had  an  incest- 
uous intercourse  with  her.  She  was  recalled 
by  Claudius,  but  was  afterward  put  to  death  by 
this  emperor  at  Messalina's  instigation.  The 
charge  brought  against  her  was  adultery,  and 
Seneca,  the  philosopher,  was  banished  to  Cor- 
sica as  the  partner  of  her  guilt. — 8.  Daughter 
of  Drusus  and  Livia,  the  sister  of  Germanicus. 
She  was  married,  A.D.  20,  to  her  first  cousin, 
Nero,  sou  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  and, 
after  Nero's  death,  to  Rubellius  Blandus,  by 
whom  she  had  a  son,  Rubellius  Plautus.  She, 
too,  was  put  to  death  by  Claudius,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Messalina,  59. — 9.  Daughter  of  Titus, 
the  son  of  Vespasian,  married  Flavius  Sabinus, 
a  nephew  of  the  Emperor  Vespasian.  Julia 
died  of  abortion,  caused  by  her  uncle  Domitian, 
with  whom  she  lived  in  criminal  intercourse, 
— 10.  DOMNA.  Vid.  DOMNA. — 11.  DKUSILLA. 
Vid.  DRUSILLA. — 12.  M^ESA.  Vid.  MJESA. 

JULIA  GENS,  one  of  the  most  ancient  patrician 
houses  at  Rome,  was  of  Alban  origin,  and  was 
removed  to  Rome  by  Tullus  Hostilius  upon  the 
destruction  of  Alba  Longa.  It  claimed  descent 
from  the  mythical  lulus,  the  son  of  Venus  and 
Anchises.  The  most  distinguished  family  in 
the  gens  is  that  of  C.ESAU.  Under  the  empire 
we  find  an  immense  number  of  persons  of  the 
name  of  Julius,  the  most  important  of  whom 
are  spoken  of  under  their  surnames. 

JULIANUS  DIDIUS.     Vid.  DIDIUS. 

JULIANUS,   FLAVIUS  CLAUDIUS,  usually  called 


1 


JULIANUS,  FLAVIUS   CLAUDIUS. 

JULIAN,  and  surnamed  the  APOSTATE,  Roman 
emperor  A.D.  361-363.  He  was  born  at  Con- 
stantinople A.D.  331,  and  was  the  son  of  Julius 
Constantius  by  his  second  wife,  Basilina,  and 
the  nephew  of  Constantine  the  Great.  Julian 
and  his  elder  brother,  Gallus,  were  the  only 
members  of  the  imperial  family  whose  lives 
were  spared  by  the  sons  of  Constantine  the 
Great^  on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  337.  The 
two  brothers  were  educated  with  care,.and  were 
brought  up  in  the  principles  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion ;  but  as  they  advanced  to  manhood,  they 
were  watched  with  jealousy  and  suspicion  by 
the  Emperor  Constantiu?.  After  the  execution 
of  Gallus  in  354  (vid.  GALLUS),  the  life  of  Julian 
was  in  great  peril ;  but  he  succeeded  in  pacify- 
ing the  suspicions  of  the  emperor,  and  was  al- 
lowed to  go  to  Athens  in  355  to  pursue  his  stud- 
ies. Here  he  devoted  himself  with  ardor  to  the 
study  of  Greek  literature  and  philosophy,  and 
attracted  universal  attention  both  by  his  attain- 
ments and  abilities.  Among  his  fellow-students 
were  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and  Basil,  both  of 
whom  afterward  became  so  celebrated  in  the 
Christian  church.  Julian  had  already  abandon- 
ed Christianity  in  his  heart  and  returned  to  the 
pagan  faith  of  his  ancestors,  but  fear  of  Con- 
stantius prevented  him  from  making  an  open 
declaration  of  his  apostasy.  Julian  did  not  re- 
maiu  long  at  Athens.  In  November,  355,  he 
received  from  Constantius  the  title  of  Caesar, 
and  was  sent  to  Gaul  to  oppose  the  Germans, 
who  had  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  were  ravaging 
some  of  the  fairest  provinces  of  GauL  During 
the  next  five  years  (356-360)  Julian  carried  on 
war  against  the  two  German  confederacies  of 
the  Alemanni  and  Franks  with  great  success, 
and  gained  many  victories  over  them.  His  in- 
ternal administration  was  distinguished  by  jus- 
tice and  wisdom,  and  he  gained  the  good  will 
and  affection  of  the  provinces  intrusted  to  his 
cure.  His  growing  popularity  awakened  the 
jealousy  of  Constantius,  who  commanded  him 
to  send  some  of  his  best  troops  to  the  East,  to 
serve  against  the  Persians.  His  soldiers  re- 
fused to  leave  their  favorite  general,  and  pro- 
claimed him  emperor  at  Paris  in  360.  After 
several  fruitless  negotiations  between  Julian 
and  Constantius,  both  parties  prepared  for  war. 
In  361  Julian  marched  along  the  valley  of  the 
Danube  toward  Constantinople ;  but  Constan- 
tius, who  had  set  out  from  Syria  to  oppose  his 
rival,  died  on  his  march  in  Cilicia.  His  death 
left  Julian  the  undisputed  master  of  the  empire. 
On  the  llth  of  December  Julian  entered  Con- 
stantinople. He  lost  no  time  in  publicly  avow- 
ing himself  a  pagan,  but  he  proclaimed  that 
Christianity  would  be  tolerated  equally  with 
paganism.  He  did  not,  however,  act  impartial- 
ly toward  the  Christians.  He  preferred  pagans 
as  his  civil  and  military  officers,  forbade  the 
Christians  to  teach  rhetoric  and  grammar  in 
the  schools,  and,  in  order  to  annoy  them,  allow- 
ed the  Jews  to  rebuild  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
In  the  following  year  (362)  Julian  went  to  Syria 
in  order  to  make  preparations  for  the  war  against 
the  Persians.  He  spent  the  winter  at  Antioch, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  orator 
Labanius ;  and  in  the  spring  of  863  he  set  out 
against  the  Persians.  He  crossed  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris ;  and  after  burning  his  fleet  on 


JULIANUS,  SALVIUS. 

the  Tigris,  that  it  might  not  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy,  he  boldly  marched  into  the  iu- 
j  terior  of  the  country  in  search  of  the  Persian 
king.  His  army  suffered  much  from  the  heat, 
j  want  of  water,  and  provisions,  and  he  was  at 
I  length  compelled  to  retreat.  The  Persians  now 
appeared  and  fearfully  harassed  his  rear.  Still 
the  Romans  remained  victorious  in  many  a 
bloody  engagement ;  but  in  the  last  battle  fought 
on  the  26th  of  June,  Julian  was  mortally  wound- 
ed by  an  arrow,  and  died  in  the  course  of  the 
day.  Jovian  was  chosen  emperor  iu  his  stead, 
on  the  field  of  battle.  Vid.  JOVIANUS.  Julian 
was  an  extraordinary  character.  As  a  monarch, 
he  was  indefatigable  in  his  attention  to  busi- 
ness, upright  in  his  administration,  and  compre- 
hensive in  his  views ;  as  a  man,  he  was  virtu- 
ous in  the  midst  of  a  profligate  age,  and  did  not 
yield  to  the  luxurious  temptations  to  which  he 
was  exposed.  In  consequence  of  his  apostasy 
he  has  been  calumniated  by  Christian  writers ; 
but,  for  the  same  reason,  he  has  been  unduly  ex- 
tolled by  heathen  authors.  He  wrote  a  large 
number  of  works,  many  of  which  are  extant. 
He  was  a  man  of  reflection  and  thought,  but 
possessed  no  creative  genius.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever, write  merely  for  the  sake  of  writing,  like 
so  many  of  his  contemporaries ;  his  works  show 
that  he  had  his  subjects  really  at  heart,  and  that 
in  literature  as  well  as  in  business  his  extraor- 
dinary activity  arose  from  the  wants  of  a  pow- 
erful mind,  which  desired  to  improve  itself  and 
the  world.  The  style  of  Julian  is  remarkably 
pure,  and  is  a  close  imitation  of  the  style  of  the 
classical  Greek  writers.  The  following  are  his 
most  important  works  :  1.  letters,  most  of  which 
were  intended  for  public  circulation,  and  are  of 
great  importance  for  the  history  of  the  time. 
Edited  by  Heyler,  Mainz,  1828.— 2.  Orations, 
on  various  subjects,  as,  for  instance,  On  the 
Emperor  Constantius,  On  the  worship  of  the 
sun,  On  the  mother  of  the  gods  (Cybele),  On 
true  and  false  Cynicism,  <fcc. — 3.  The  Casars,  or 
the  Banquet  (Kaiaapef  tj  ZvfiKoaiov),  a  satirical 
composition,  which  is  one  of  the  most  agreea- 
ble and  instructive  productions  of  ancient  wit 
Julian  describes  the  Roman  emperors  approach- 
ing one  after  the  other  to  take  their  seat  round 
a  table  in  the  heavens ;  and  as  they  come  up, 
their  faults,  vices,  and  crimes  are  censured 
with  a  sort  of  bitter  mirth  by  old  Silenus,  where- 
upon each  Caesar  defends  himself  as  well  as  he 
can.  Edited  by  Heusinger,  Gotha,  1736,  and  by 
Harless,  Erlaugen,  1785. — 4.  Misopogon,  or  the 
Enemy  of  the  Beard  (Mtffojrwywv),  a  severe  satire 
on  the  licentious  and  effeminate  manners  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Autioch,  who  had  ridiculed  Ju- 
lian, when  he  resided  in  the  city,  on  account  of 
his  austere  virtues,  and  had  laughed  at  his  al- 
lowing his  beard  to  grow  in  the  ancient  fashion. 
— 5.  Against  the  Christiana  (Kard  Xpumavuv). 
This  work  is  lost,  but  some  extracts  from  it  are 
given  in  Cyrill's  reply  to  it,  which  is  still  ex- 
tant. The  best  edition  of  the  collected  works 
of  .1  ilium  is  by  Spanheira,  Lips..  1696. 

.In.i AM  -.  SALVIUS,  an  eminent  Roman  jurist, 
who  flourished  under  Hadrian  and  the  Anto- 
nines.  He  was  praefectus  urbi,  and  twice  con- 
sul, but  his  name  does  not  appear  in  the  Fasti 
By  the  order  of  Hadrian,  he  drew  up  the  edict  urn 
pcrpetuum,  which  forms  an  epoch  in  the  history 
411 


JULIAS. 


JUPITER. 


of  Roman  jurisprudence.  His  work  appears  to 
have  consisted  in  collecting  and  arranging  the 
clauses  which  the  praetors  were  accustomed  to 
insert  in  their  annual  edict,  in  condensing  the 
materials,  and  in  omitting  antiquated  provisions. 
He  was  a  voluminous  legal  writer,  and  his  works 
are  cited  in  the  Digest 

JULIAS  ("lonAtaf  :  Bib.  Bethsaida :  ruins  at  Et- 
Tell),  a  city  of  Palestine,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Jordan,  north  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  so 
called  by  the  tetrarch  Philip,  in  honor  of  Julia, 
the  daughter  of  Augustus. 

JULIOBRIGA  (now  Retortillo,  near  Reynoaa),  a 
town  of  the  Cantabri  in  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
eis,  near  the  sources  of  the  Iberus. 

JULIOMAGUS.     Vid.  ANDECAVL 

JULIOPOLIS  ('loilXiOTTO/ltf).  Vid.  GORDIUM,  TAR- 
SUS. 

JULIUS.     Vid.  JULIA  GENS. 

JUNCARIA  (now  Junquera),  a  town  of  the  In- 
digetes  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  road 
from  Barcino  to  the  frontiers  of  Gaul,  in  a  plain 
covered  with  rushes  (lovyadptov  irediov). 

JUNIA.  1.  Half-sister  of  M.  Brutus,  the  mur- 
derer of  Caesar,  and  wife  of  M.  Lepidus,  the 
triumvir. — 2.  TEETIA  or  TERTULLA,  own  sister 
of  the  preceding,  was  the  wife  of  C.  Cassius, 
one  of  Caesar's  murderers.  She  survived  her 
husband  a  long  while,  and  did  not  die  till  A.D. 
oo 

mWm 

JUNIA  GENS,  an  ancient  patrician  house  at 
Rome,  to  which  belonged  the  celebrated  M. 
Junius  Brutus,  who  took  such  an  active  part  in 
expelling  the  Tarquins.  But  afterward  the  gens 
appears  as  only  a  plebeian  one.  Under  the 
republic  the  chief  families  were  those  of  BRU- 
TUS, BUBULCUS,  GRACCHANUS,  NORBANUS,  PULLUS, 
SILANUS.  The  Junii  who  lived  under  the  em- 
pire are  likewise  spoken  of  under  their  various 
surnames. 

JUNO,  called  HERA  by  the  Greeks.  The  Greek 
goddess  is  spoken  of  in  a  separate  article.  Vid. 
HERA.  The  word  Ju-no  contains  the  same  root 
as  Ju-piter.  As  Jupiter  is  the  king  of  heaven 
and  of  the  gods,  so  Juno  is  the  queen  of  heaven, 
or  the  female  Jupiter.  She  was  worshipped  at 
Rome  as  the  queen  of  heaven,  from  early  times, 
with  the  surname  of  Regina.  At  a  later  period 
her  worship  was  solemnly  transferred  from  Veii 
to  Rome,  where  a  sanctuary  was  dedicated  to 
her  on  the  Aventine.  As  Jupiter  was  the  pro- 
tector of  the  male  sex,  so  Juno  watched  over 
the  female  sex.  She  was  supposed  to  accom- 
pany every  woman  through  life,  from  the  mo- 
ment of  her  birth  to  her  death.  Hence  she  bore 
the  special  surnames  of  Virginalis  and  Matrona, 
as  well  as  the  general  ones  of  Opigena  and 
Sospita,  and  under  the  last-mentioned  name 
she  was  worshipped  at  Lanuvium.  On  their 
birth-day  women  offered  sacrifices  to  Juno 
surnames  Natalis,  just  as  men  sacrificed  to 
their  genius  natalis.  The  great  festival,  cele- 
brated by  all  the  women,  in  honor  of  Juno,  was 
called  Matronalia  (vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  s.  v.),  and 
took  place  on  the  1st  of  March.  Her  protection 
of  women,  and  especially  her  power  of  making 
them  fruitful,  is  further  alluded  to  in  the  festival 
Populifugia  (Diet,  of  Antiq.,  s.  v.),  as  well  as  in 
the  surname  of  Fcbrulis,  Februata,  Februta,  or 
Febnialis.  Juno  was  further,  like  Saturn,  the 
guardian  of  the  finances,  and  under  the  name 
412 


of  Moneta  she  had  a  temple  on  the  Capitoline 
Hill,  which  contained  the  mint.  The  most  im- 
portant period  in  a  woman's  life  is  that  of  her 
marriage,  and  she  was  therefore  believed  es- 
pecially to  preside  over  marriage.  Hence  she 
was  called  Juga,  or  Jugalis,  and  had  a  variety 
of  other  names,  such  as  Pronuba,  Cinxia,  Luci- 
na,  &x.  The  month  of  June,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  originally  called  Junonius,  was  consid- 
ered to  be  the  most  favorable  period  for  marry- 
ing. Women  in  childbed  invoked  Juno  Lucina 
to  help  them,  and  newly-born  children  were  like- 
wise under  her  protection ;  hence  she  was  some- 
times confounded  with  the  Greek  Artemis  or 
Ilithyia.  In  Etruria  she  was  worshipped  un- 
der the  name  of  Cupra.  She  was  also  wor- 
shipped at  Falerii,  Lanuvium,  Aricia,  Tibur, 
Praeneste,  and  other  places.  In  the  represent- 
ations of  the  Roman  Juno  that  have  come  down 
to  us,  the  type  of  the  Greek  Hera  is  commonly 
adopted. 

JUPITER,  called  ZEUS  by  the  Greeks.  The 
Greek  god  is  spoken  of  in  a  separate  article. 
Vid.  ZEUS.  Jupiter  was  originally  an  elemental 
divinity,  and  his  name  signifies  the  father  or 
lord  of  heaven,  being  a  contraction  of  Diovis 
pater  or  Diespiter.  Being  the  lord  of  heaven, 
he  was  worshipped  as  the  god  of  rain,  storms, 
thunder,  and  lightning,  whence  he  had  the  epi- 
thets of  Pluvius,  Fulgurator,  Tonitrualis,  To- 
nans,  and  Fulminator.  As  the  pebble  or  flint 
stone  was  regarded  as  the  symbol  of  lightning, 
Jupiter  was  frequently  represented  with  such  a 
stone  in  his  hand  instead  of  a  thunderbolt.  In 
concluding  a  treaty,  the  Romans  took  the  sa- 
cred symbols  of  Jupiter,  viz.,  the  sceptre  and 
flint  stone,  together  with  some  grass  from  his 
temple,  and  the  oath  taken  on  such  an  occasion 
was  expressed  by  per  Jovem  Lapidem  jurare. 
In  consequence  of  his  possessing  such  powers 
over  the  elements,  and  especially  of  his  always 
having  the  thunderbolt  at  his  command,  he' was 
regarded  as  the  highest  and  most  powerful 
among  the  gods.  Hence  he  is  called  the  Best 
and  Most  High  (Optimus  Maximus).  His  tem- 
ple at  Rome  stood  on  the  lofty  hill  of  the  Capi- 
tol, whence  he  derived  the  surnames  of  Capi- 
tolinns  and  Tarpeius.  He  was  regarded  as  tne 
special  protector  of  Rome.  As  such  he  was 
worshipped  by  the  consuls  on  entering  upon 
their  office ;  and  the  triumph  of  a  victorious 
general  was  a  solemn  procession  to  his  temple. 
He  therefore  bore  the  surnames  of  Imperator, 
Victor,  Invictus,  Stator,  Opitulus,  Feretrius,  Prcc- 
dator,  Triumphator,  and  the  like.  Under  all 
these  surnames  he  had  temples  or  statues  at 
Rome;  and  two  temples,  viz.,  those  of  Jupiter 
Stator  and  of  Jupiter  Feretrius,  were  believed 
to  have  been  built  in  the  time  of  Romulus.  Un- 
der the  name  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  he  presided 
over  the  great  Roman  games ;  and  under  the 
name  of  Jupiter  Latialis  or  Latiaris,  over  the 
Feriae  Latinos.  Jupiter,  according  to  the  belief 
of  the  Romans,  determined  the  course  of  all 
human  affairs.  He  foresaw  the  future,  and  the 
events  happening  in  it  were  the  results  of  his 
will  He  revealed  the  future  to  man  through 
signs  in  the  heavens  and  the  flight  of  birds, 
which  are  hence  called  the  messengers  of  Ju- 
piter, while  the  god  himself  is  designated  as 
Prodigialis,  that  is,  the  sender  of  prodigies. 


JURA. 


JUSTINIANUS. 


For  the  same  reason  the  god  was  invoked  at 
the  beginning  of  every  undertaking,  whether 
sacred  or  profane,  together  with  Janus,  who 
blessed  the  beginning  itself.  Jupiter  was  fur- 
ther regarded  as  the  guardian  of  law,  and  as 
the  protector  of  justice  and  virtue.  He  main- 
tained the  sanctity  of  an  oath,  and  presided  over 
all  transactions  which  were  based  upon  faithful- 
ness and  justice.  Hence  Fides  was  his  com- 
panion on  the  Capitol,  along  with  Victoria  ;  and 
Bence  a  traitor  to  his  country,  and  persons 
guilty  of  perjury,  were  thrown  down  from  the 
Tarpeian  rock.  As  Jupiter  was  the  lord  of 
heaven,  and  consequently  the  prince  of  light, 
the  white  color  was  sacred  to  him,  white  ani- 
mals were  sacrificed  to  him,  his  chariot  was  be- 
lieved to  be  drawn  by  four  white  horses,  his 
priests  wore  white  caps,  and  the  consuls  were 
attired  in  white  when  they  offered  sacrifices  in 
the  Capitol  the  day  they  entered  on  their  office. 
The  worship  of  Jupiter  at  Rome  was  under  the 
special  care  of  the  Flamen  Dialis,  who  was  the 
highest  iu  rank  of  all  the  flamens.  Vid.  Diet, 
of  Antig.,  art.  FLAMEN.  The  Romans,  in  their 
representations  of  the  god,  adopted  the  type  of 
the  Greek  Zeus. 

JURA  or  JCEASSUS  MONS  (now  Jura),  a  range 
of  mountains,  which  run  north  of  the  Lake  Le- 
manus  as  far  as  Augusta  Rauracorum  (now  Au- 
gust, near  Basle),  on  the  Rhine,  forming  the 
boundary  between  the  Sequani  and  Helvetii 

JCSTIXIANA.  1.  PRIMA,  a  town  in  Illyria,  near 
Tauresinm,  was  the  birthplace  of  Justinian,  and 
was  built  by  that  emperor ;  it  became  the  resi- 
dence of  the  archbishop  of  Illyria,  and,  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  of  the  Servian  kings. — 2.  SECUNDA, 
also  a  town  in  Illyria,  previously  called  Ulpiana, 
was  enlarged  and  embelh'shed  by  Justinian. 

JUSTINIANDS,  surnamed  the  GREAT,  emperor 
of  Constantinople  A.D.  527-565.  He  was  born 
near  Tauresium,  in  niyria,  A.D.  483  ;  was  adopt- 
ed by  his  uncle,  the  Emperor  Justinus,  in  520 ; 
succeeded  his  uncle  in  527 ;  married  the  beau- 
tiful but  licentious  actress,  Theodora,  who  ex- 
ercised great  influence  over  him  ;  and  died  in 
565,  leaving  the  crown  to  his  nephew,  Justin  II. 
He  was,  during  the  greater  part  of  his  reign,  a 
firm  supporter  of  orthodoxy,  and  thus  has  re- 
ceived from  ecclesiastical  writers  the  title  of 
Great ;  but  toward  the  end  of  his  life  he  became 
a  heretic,  being  one  of  the  adherents  of  Nesto- 
rianism.  His  foreign  wars  were  glorious,  but 
all  his  victories  were  won  by  his  generals.  The 
.empire  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa  was  overthrown 
by  Belisarius,  and  their  king  Gelimer  led  a 
prisoner  to  Constantinople  ;  and  the  kingdom 
of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy  was  likewise  destroy- 
ed by  the  successive  victories  of  Bclisarius  and 
Narses.  Vid.  BELIHARIUS,  NARSES.  Justinian 
adorned  Constantinor.lt;  with  many  public  build- 
ings of  great  magnificence ;  but  the  cost  of  their 
erection,  as  well  as  Mie  expenses  of  his  foreign 
wars,  obliged  him  to  impose  many  new  taxes, 
which  were  constantly  increased  by  the  natural 
covetousness  and  rapacity  of  the  emperor. 
The  great  work  of  Justinian  is  his  legislation. 
He  resolved  to  establish  a  perfect  system  of 
written  legislation  for  all  his  dominions  ;  and, 
f»r  this  end,  to  make  two  great  collections,  one 
of  the  imperial  constitutions,  the  other  of  all 
that  waa  valuable  in  the  works  of  jurist*.  His 


first  work  was  the  collection  of  the  imperial 
constitutions.  This  he  commenced  in  528,  in 
the  second  year  of  his  reign.  The  task  was 
intrusted  to  a  commission  of  ten,  who  complet- 
ed their  labors  in  the  following  year  (529) ;  and 
their  collection  was  declared  to  be  law  under 
the  title  of  Justinianeus  Codex.  In  530,  Tribo- 
nian,  who  had  been  one  of  the  commission  of 
ten  employed  in  drawing  up  the  Code,  was  au- 
thorized by  the  emperor  to  select  fellow-laborers 
to  assist  him  in  the  other  division  of  the  under- 
taking. Tribonian  selected  sixteen  coadjutors ; 
and  this  commission  proceeded  at  once  to  lay 
under  contribution  the  works  of  those  jurists 
who  had  received  from  former  emperors  "  auc- 
toritatem  conscribendarum  interpretandique  le- 
gum."  They  were  ordered  to  divide  their  ma- 
terials into  fifty  books,  and  to  subdivide  each 
book  into  Titles  (Tituli).  Nothing  that  was 
valuable  was  to  be  excluded,  nothing  that  was 
obsolete  was  to  be  admitted,  and  neither  repe- 
tition nor  inconsistency  was  to  be  allowed. 
This  work  was  to  bear  the  name  Digesta  or 
Pandectce.  The  work  was  completed,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  instructions  that  had  been  given, 
in  the  short  space  of  three  years  ;  and  on  the 
30th  of  December,  533,  it  received  from  the  im- 
perial sanction  the  authority  of  law.  It  com- 
prehends upward  of  nine  thousand  extracts,  in 
the  selection  of  which  the  compilers  made  use 
of  nearly  two  thousand  different  books,  con- 
taining more  •  than  three  million  h'nes.  The 
Code  and  the  Digest  contained  a  complete  body 
of  law ;  but  as  they  were  not  adapted  to  ele- 
mentary instruction,  a  commission  was  appoint- 
ee}, consisting  of  Tribonian,  Theophilus,  and  Do- 
rotheus,  to  compose  an  institutional  work,  which 
should  contain  the  elements  of  the  law  (legum 
incunabula),  and  should  not  be  encumbered  with 
useless,  matter.  Accordingly,  they  produced  a 
treatise  under  the  title  of  Institutiones,  which 
was  based  on  elementary  works  of  a  similar 
character,  but  chiefly  on  the  Institutiones  of 
Gaius.  Vid.  GAIUS.  The  Institutiones  consist- 
ed of  four  books,  and  were  published  with  the 
imperial  sanction  at  the  same  time  as  the  Di- 
gest. After  the  publication  of  the  Digest  and 
the  Institutiones,  fifty  decisiones  and  some  new 
constitutiones  also  were  promulgated  by  the 
emperor.  This  rendered  a  revision  of  the  Code 
necessary;  and,  accordingly,  a  new  Code  was 
promulgated  at  Constantinople  on  the  16th  of 
November,  534,  and  the  use  of  the  decisioues, 
of  the  new  constitutiones,  and  of  the  first  edition 
of  the  Code  was  forbidden.  The  second  -edition 
(Codex  Repetitce  Prceleclionis)  is  the  code  that 
we  now  possess,  in  twelve  books,  each  of  which 
is  divided  into '  titles.  Justinian  subsequently 
published  various  new  constitutiones,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  Novella  Cvnstitittiones, 
These  Constitutions  form  a  kind  of  supplement 
to  the  Code,  and  were  published  at  various  times 
from  635  to  565,  but  most  of  them  appeared  be- 
tween 535  and  539.  It  does  not  seem,  how- 
ever, that  any  official  compilation  of  these  No- 
vellce  appeared  in  the  lifetime  of  Justinian.  The 
four  legislative  works  of  Justinian,  the  Institv- 
tiones,  Digesta  or  Pandectce,  Codex,  and  Novrllct, 
are  included  under  the  general  name  of  Carpus 
Juris  Civilis,  and  form  the  Roman  law,  as  re- 
ceived in  Europe.  The  best  editions  of  the 
413 


JUSTINUS. 


LABDA. 


Corpus  for  general  use  are  by  Gothofredus  an 
Van  Leeuwen,  Amst.,  1663,  2  vols.  fol. ;  by  Ge 
bauer  and  Spangenberg,  Getting.,  1776-1797,  S 
vols.  4to  ;  and  by  Beck,  Lips.,  1836,  2  vols.  4to. 

JUSTINUS.  1.  The  historian,  of  uncertain 
date,  but  who  did  not  live  later  than  the  fourtl 
or  fifth  century  of  our  era,  is  the  author  of  an 
extant  work  entitled  Historiarum  Philippicarum 
Libri  XLIV.  This  work  is  taken  from  the  His 
torice  Philippicce  of  Trogus  Pompeius,  who  livec 
in  the  time  of  Augustus.  The  title  Philippics 
was  given  to  it,  because  its  mtvin  object  was  tc 
give  the  history  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy 
with  all  its  branches;  but  in  the  execution  ol 
this  design,  Trogus  permitted  himself  to  indulgi 
in  so  many  excursions,  that  the  work  formed  a 
kind  of  universal  history  from  the  rise  of  the 
Assyrian  monarchy  to  the  conquest  of  the  East 
by  Rome.  The  original  work  of  Trogus,  which 
was  one  of  great  value,  is  lost  The  work  of 
Justin  is  not  so  much  an  abridgment  of  that  of 
Trogus,  as  a  selection  of  such  parts  as  seemec 
to  him  most  worthy  of  being  generally  known 
Edited  by  Graevius,  Lugd.  Bat,  1683  ;  by  Gro- 
novius,  Lugd.  Bat,  1719  and  1760  ;  and  by 
Frotscher,  Lips.,  1827,  3  vols.  —  2.  Surnamed 
the  MARTYR,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Christian 
writers,  was  born  about  A.D.  108,  at  Flavia  Ne- 
apolis,  the  Shechem  of  the  Old  Testament,  a  city 
in  Samaria.  He  was  brought  up  as  a  heathen, 
and  in  his  youth  studied  the  Greek  philosophy 
with  zeal  and  ardor.  He  was  afterward  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  He  retained  as  a  Chris- 
tian the  garb  of  a  philosopher,  but  devoted  him- 
self to  the  propagation,  by  writing  and  other- 
wise, of  the  faith  which  he  had  embraced.  He 
was  put  to  death  at  Rome  in  the  persecution 
under  Marcus  Antoninus,  about  165.  Justin 
wrote  a  large  number  of  works  in  Greek,  sev- 
eral of  which  have  come  down  to  us  'Of  these 
the  most  important  are,  1.  An  Apology  for  the 
Christians,  addressed  to  Antoninus  Pius,  about 
139  ;  2.  A  Second  Apology  for  the  Christians,  ad- 
dressed to  the  emperors  M.  Aurelius  and  L. 
Verus  ;  3.  A  Dialogue  with  Tryphon  the  Jew,  in 
which  Justin  defends  Christianity  against  the 
objections  of  Tryphon.  The  best  edition  of  the 
collected  works  of  Justin  is  by  Otto,  Jena,  1842- 
1844,  2  vols.  8vo;  [second  edition,  Jena,  1848- 
50,  3  vols.  8vo.] 

JUSTUS,  a  Jewish  historian  of  Tiberias  in  Gal- 
ilsea,  was  a  contemporary  of  the  historian  Jo- 
sephus,  who  was  very  hostile  to  him. 

JUTURNA,  the  nymph  of  a  fountain  in  Latium, 
famous  for  its  healing  qualities.  Its  water  was 
used  in  nearly  all  sacrifices  ;  a  chapel  was  ded- 
icated to  its  nymph  at  Rome  in  the  Campus 
Martius  by  Lutatius  Catulus  ;  and  sacrifices 
were  offered  to  her  on  the  llth  of  January.  A 
pond  in  the  forum,  between  the  temples  of  Cas- 
tor and  Vesta,  was  called  Lacus  Juturnae, 
whence  we  must  infer  that  the  name  of  the 
nymph  Juturna  is  not  connected  with  jugis,  but 
probably  with  juvare.  She  is  said  to  have  been 
beloved  by  Jupiter,  who  rewarded  her  with  im- 
mortality and  the  rule  over  the  waters.  Some 
•writers  call  her  the  wife  of  Janus  and  mother 
of  Fontus,  but  in  the  ^Eneid  she  appears  as  the 
affectionate  sister  of  Turnus. 

JCVAVUM  or  JUVAVIA  (now  Salzburg),  &  town 
in  Noricum,  on  the  River  Jovavus  or  Isonta 
414 


(now  Salzd),  was  a  Roman  colony  founded  by 
Hadrian,  and  the  residence  of  the  Roman  gov- 
ernor of  the  province.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Heruli  in  the  fifth  century,  but  was"  afterward 
rebuilt. 

JUVKNALIS,  DECIMUS  JUNIUS,  the  Great  Roman 
satirist,  but  of  whose  life  we  have  few  autheutic 
particulars.      His    ancient    biographers    relate 
that  he  was  either  the  son  or  the  "  alumnus  "  of 
a  rich  freedman  ;  that  he  occupied  himself,  until 
he  had  nearly  reached  the  term  of  middle  life, 
in   declaiming;  that,  having  subsequently  com- 
posed some  clever  lines  upon  Pans  the  panto- 
mime, he  was  induced  to  cultivate  assiduously 
satirical  composition ;  and  that,  in  consequence 
of  his  attacks  upon  Paris  becoming  known  to 
the  court,  the  poet,  although  now  an  old  man  of 
eighty,  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  body 
of  troops,  in  a  remote  district  of  Egypt,  where 
he  died  shortly  afterward.     It  is  supposed  by 
some  that  the  Paris  who  was  attacked  by  Ju 
venal  was  the  contemporary  of  Domitian,  and 
that  the  poet  was  accordingly  banished  by  this 
emperor.     But  this   opinion  is   clearly  untena- 
ble.    1.  We  know  that  Paris  was  killed  in  A.D. 
83,  upon  suspicion  of  an  intrigue  with  the  Em- 
press Domitia.     2.  The  fourth  satire,  as  appears 
from  the  concluding  lines,  was  written  after  the 
death  of  Domitian,  that  is,  not  earlier  than  96. 
3.  The  first  satire,  as  we  learn  from  the  forty- 
ninth  line,  was  written  after  the  condemnation 
of  Marius  Priscus,  that  is,  not  earlier  than  100. 
These  positions  admit  of  no  doubt;  and  hence 
it  is  established  that  Juvenal  was  alive  at  least 
seventeen  years  after  the  death  of  Paris,  and 
;hat  some  of  his  satires  were  composed  after 
the   death  of  Domitian.     The  only   facts  with 
regard  to  Juvenal  upon  which  we  can  implicitly 
rely  are,  that  he  flourished  toward  the  close  of 
the  first  century ;  that  Aquinum,  if  not  the  place 
)f  his  nativity,  was  at  least  his  chosen  residence 
Sat.,  iii.,  319) ;  and  that  he  is,  in  all  probability, 
,he  friend  whom  Martial  addresses  in  three  epi- 
rams.      There    is,    perhaps,    another    circum- 
stance which  we  may  admit    We  are  told  that 
ic  declaimed  for  many  years  of  his  life;  and 
very   page   in   his   writings  bears  evidence  to 
he  accuracy  of  this   assertion.    Each  piece  is 
a  finished  rhetorical   essay,  energetic,  glowing, 
and  sonorous.     He  denounces  vice  in  the  most 
ndignant  terms ;  but  the  obvious  tone  of  exag- 
geration   which    pervades     all    his    invectives 
eaves  us  in  doubt  how  far  this  sustained  pas- 
ion   is  real,  and  how  far  assumed  for  show, 
lie  extant  works  of  Juvenal  consist  of  sixteeL* 
atires,  the  last  being  a  fragment  of  very  doubt- 
ul  authenticity,  all  composed  in  heroic  hexam- 
ters.    Edited  by  Ruperti,  Lips.,  1819  ;  and  by 
Heiurich,  Bonn,  1839. 

JUVENTAS.     Vid.  HEBK. 

JUVENTICS.      1.   CELSUS.      Vid.    CELSUS.  —  2. 
LATERENSIS.       Vid.  LATERENSIS. — 3.   THALNA. — 

id.  THALNA. 

[JUVERNA,  another  name  for  Hibernia.     Vid. 
IIBERNIA.] 


LABDA  (Adfida),  a  daughter  of  the  Bacehiad  Am- 
hion,  and  mother  of  Cypselus  by  Eetion.     Vid 

!l'PSELU8. 


LABDACID^E. 


LABUS. 


LABDACiD.fi.     Vid.   LABDACUS. 

LABDACUS  (Au6(5a«of),  son  of  the  Theban  king 
Polydorus,  by  Nycteis,  daughter  of  Nycteus. 
Labdacus  lost  his  father  at  an  early  age,  and 
was  placed  under  the  guardianship  of  Nycteus, 
and  afterward  under  that  of  Lycus,  a  brother 
of  Nycteus.  When  Labdacus  had  grown  up  to 
manhood,  Lycus  surrendered  the  government 
to  him  ;  and  on  the  death  of  Labdacus,  which 
occurred  soon  after,  Lycus  undertook  the  guard- 
ianship of  his  son  Laius,  the  father  of  (Edipus. 
The  name  Labdacldce  is  frequently  given  to  the 
descendants  of  Labdacus — (Edipus,  Polynices, 
Eteocles,  and  Antigone. 

LABDALUM.     Vid.  SYBACCSJE. 

LABEATES,  a  warlike  people  in  Dalmatia, 
•whose  chief  town  was  Scodra,  and  in  whose 
territory  was  the  LABEATIS  PALUS  (now  Lake  of 
Scutari),  through  which  the  River  Barbana  (now 
Bogana)  runs. 

LABEO,  ANTISTIUS.  1.  A  Roman  jurist,  was 
one  of  the  murderers  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  put 
an  end  to  his  life  after  the  battle  of  Phih'ppi,  B.C. 
42. — 2.  Son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  still  more 
eminent  jurist  He  adopted  the  republican  opin- 
ions of  his  father,  and  was,  in  consequence,  dis- 
liked by  Augustus.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Labeone  insanior  of  Horace  (Sat.,  L,  3,  80)  was 
a  stroke  levelled  at  the  jurist,  in  order  to  please 
the  emperor.  Labeo  wrote  a  large  number  of 
works,  which  are  cited  in  the  Digest  He  was 
the  founder  of  one  of  the  two  great  legal  schools 
spoken  of  under  CAFITO. 

LABEO,  Q.  FABIUS,  quaestor  urbanus  B.C.  1 96 ; 
praetor  189,  when  he  commanded  the  fleet  in  the 
war  against  Antiochus  ;  and  consul  183. 

LABEKIUS,  DECIMUS,  a  Roman  eques,  and  a 
distinguished  writer  of  mimes,  was  born  about 
B.C.  107,  and  died  in  43  at  Puteoli,  in  Campa- 
nia. At  Caesar's  triumphal  games  in  October, 
45,  P.  Syrus,  a  professional  mimus,  seems  to 
have  challenged  all  his  craft  to  a  trial  of  wit  in 
extemporaneous  farce,  and  Caesar  offered  Labe- 
rius  five  hundred  thousand  sesterces  to  appear 
on  the  stage.  Laberius  was  sixty  years  old, 
and  the  profession  of  a  mimus  was  infamous, 
but  the  wish  of  the  dictator  was  equivalent  to 
a  command,  and  he  reluctantly  complied.  He 
had,  however,  revenge  in  his  power,  and  took 
it  His  prologue  awakened  compassion,  and 
perhaps  indignation ;  and,  during  the  perform- 
ance, he  adroitly  availed  himself  of  his  various 
characters  to  point  his  wit  at  Ciesar.  In  the 
person  of  a  beaten  Syrian  slave  he  cried  out, 
"  Marry !  Quirites,  but  we  lose  our  freedom" 
(Porro,  Quirites,  libertatem  perdidimus),  and  all 
eyes  were  turned  upon  the  dictator ;  and  in  an- 
other mime  he  uttered  the  pregnant  maxim, 
"Needs  must  he  fear  who  makes  all  else 
adread"  (Necesse  est  multos  timeat  quern  multi 
timent).  Caesar,  impartially  or  vindictively, 
awarded  the  prize  to  Syrus.  The  prologue  of 
Laberius  has  been  preserved  by  Macrobius  {Sat^ 
ii,  7);  and,  if  this  may  be  taken  as  a  specimen 
of  his  style,  he  would  rank  above  Terence,  and 
•econd  only  to  Plautus,  in  dramatic  vigor.  La- 
berius evidently  made  great  impression  on  his 
contemporaries,  although  he  is  depreciated  by 
Horace  (8<it^  i.,  10,  6). 

LABICUM,  LAB!CI,  LAvictnf,  LAVIOI  (Labica-, 
niia  :  now  Colonna),  an  ancient  town  in  Latium 


on  one  of  the  hills  of  the  Alban  Mountain,  fifteen 
miles  southeast  of  Rome,  west  of  Praeneste,  and 
northeast  of  Tusculum.  It  was  an  ally  of  the 
^Equi ;  it  was  taken  and  was  colonized  by  the 
Romans,  B.C.  418. 

LABIEN0S.  1.  T,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
63,  the  year  of  Cicero's  consulship.  Under  pre- 
tence of  avenging  his  uncle's  death,  who  had 
joined  Saturninus  (100),  and  had  perished  along 
with  the  other  conspirators,  he  accused  Rabir- 
ius  of  perduellio  or  high  treason.  Rabirius  was 
defended  by  Cicero.  Vid.  RABIRICS.  In  his 
tribuneship  Labienus  was  entirely  devoted  to 
Caesar's  interests.  Accordingly,  when  Caasar 
went  into  Transalpine  Gaul  in  58,  he  took  Labi- 
enus with  him  as  his  legatus.  Labienus  con- 
tinued with  Caesar  during  the  greater  part  of 
his  campaigns  in  Gaul,  and  was  the  ablest  offi- 
cer he  had.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
war  in  49,  he  deserted  Caesar  and  joined  Pom- 
pey.  His  defection  caused  the  greatest  joy 
among  the  Pompeian  party ;  but  he  disappoint- 
ed the  expectations  of  his  new  friends,  and 
never  performed  any  thing  of  importance.  He 
fought  against  his  old  commander  at  the  battle 
of  Pharsalia  in  Greece,  48,  at  the  battle  of  Thap- 
sus  in  Africa,  46,  and  at  the  battle  of  Munda  in 
Spain,  45.  He  was  slain  in  the  last  of  these 
battles. — 2.  Q.,  son  of  the  preceding,  joined  the 
party  of  Brutus  and  Cassius  after  the  murder 
of  Caesar,  and  was  sent  by  them  into  Parthia  to 
seek  aid  from  Orodes,  the  Parthian  king.  Be- 
fore he  could  obtain  any  definite  answer  from 
Orodes,  the  news  came  of  the  battle  of  Phih'ppi, 
42.  Two  years  afterward  he  persuaded  Orodes 
to  intrust  him  with  the  command  of  a  Parthian 
army ;  and  Pacorus,  the  son  of  Orodes,  .was  as- 
sociated with  him  in  the  command.  In  40  they 
crossed  the  Euphrates  and  met  with  great  suc- 
cess. They  defeated  Decidius  Saxa,  the  lieu- 
tenant of  Antony,  obtained  possession  of  the 
two  great  towns  of  Antioch  and  Apamea,  and 
penetrated  into  Asia  Minor.  But  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  39,  P.  Ventidius,  the  most  able  of  An- 
tony's legates,  defeated  the  Parthians.  Labi- 
enus fled  in  disguise  into  Cilicia,  where  he  was 
apprehended  and  put  to  death. — 8.  T.,  a  cele- 
brated orator  and  historian  in  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, either  son  or  grandson  of  No.  1.  He  re- 
tained all  the  republican  feelings  of  his  family, 
and  never  became  reconciled  to  the  imperial 
government,  but  took  every  opportunity  to  attack 
Augustus  and  his  friends.  His  enemies  obtained 
a  decree  of  the  senate  that  all  his  writings  should 
be  burned ;  whereupon  he  shut  himself  up  in  the 
tomb  of  his  ancestors,  and  thus  perished,  about 
A.D.  12. 

LABRANDA  (r<i  Au6pav6a  :  Aa6pav6cvf,  Aa6pav- 

vuf,  Labrandenus),  a  town  in  Caria.  sixty-eight 
stadia  north  of  Mylasa,  celebrated  for  its  temple 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Stratios  or  Labrandenus,  on  a 
hill  near  the  city.  Mr.  Fcllowes  considers  some 
ruins  at  Jakli  to  be  those  of  the  temple ;  but  this 
is  doubtful. 

LABUO,  a  sea  port  in  Etruria,  mentioned  by 
Cicero  along  with  Pisae,  and  supposed  by  soma 
to  be  the  Liburtium  mentioned  by  Zosimus,  and 
the  modern  Lioorno  or  Leghorn.  Others,  how- 
ever, maintain  that  the  ancient  Portus  Pisanus 
corresponds  to  Leghorn. 

LABUS  or  LABCTAS  (AuGof  or  Aafiovra?  :  now 
415 


LABYjtfETUS. 


LACTANTIUS. 


Bobad  Koli,  part  of  the  Elburz),  a  inouutaiu  of 
Parthia,  between  the  Corouus  and  the  Sari|>hi 
Monks. 

LABYNKTCS  (AaSvvrjTOf),  a  name  common  to 
several  of  the  Babylonian  monarchs,  seems  to 
have  been  a  title  rather  than  a  proper  name.  The 
Labynetus  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (L,  74)  as 
mediating  a  peace  between  Cyaxares  and  Alyat- 
tes  is  tho  same  with  Nebuchadnezzar.  The 
Labynetus  who  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (i., 
77)  as  a  contemporary  of  Cyrus  and  Croesus  is 
the  same  with  the  Bclshazzar  of  the  prophet 
Daniel.  By  other  writers  he  is  called  Nabona- 
dius  or  Nabonidus.  He  was  the  last  king  of 
Babylon.  Vid.  CYRUS. 

LABYKINTIIUS.     Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq^  s.  v. 

LACED.KMON  (AaKsdaiftuv),  son  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  and  Taygete,  was  married  to  Sparta,  the 
daughter  of  Eurotas,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Amyclas,  Eurydice,  and  Asine.  He 
was  king  of  the  country  which  he  called  after 
his  own  name,  Lacedaemon,  while  he  called  the 
capital  Sparta  after  the  name  of  his  wife.  Vid. 
SPARTA. 

LACED^EMONICS  (Aanedaifjioviof),  son  of  Cimon, 
BO  named  in  honor  of  the  Lacedaemonians. 

LACEDAS  (Aa/w/daf)  or  LEOOEDES  (Herod.,  vi., 
127),  king  of  Argos,  and  father  of  Melas. 

LACETAXI,  a  people  in  Hispania  Tarraconcnsis, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees. 

LACHARES  (Aaxdprjf).  1.  An  Athenian  dema- 
gogue, made  himself  tyrant  of  Athens  B.C. 
290,  when  the  city  was  besieged  by  Demetrius. 
When  Athens  was  on  the  point  of  falling  into 
the  hands  of  Demetrius,  Lachares  made  his 
escape  to  Thebes. — 2.  An  eminent  Athenian 
rhetoricjan,  who  flourished  in  the  fifth  century 
of  our  era. 

LACHES  (Aa^f),  an  Athenian  commander  in 
the  Peloponnesian  war,  is  first  mentioned  in 
B.C.  427.  He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Mantinea, 
418.  In  the  dialogue  of  Plato  which  bears  his 
name,  he  is  represented  as  not  over-acute  in  ar- 
gument, and  with  temper  on  a  par  with  his 
acuteness. 

LACIIESIS,  one  of  the  Fates.     Vid.  MOIR^E. 

LACIA  or  LACIAD^:  (Aania,  Aaniddai :  AaKiddrjf, 
AaKievf),  a  demus  in  Attica,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  (Eneis,  west  of,  and  near  to  Athens. 

LACINIUJI  (Aaniviov  uKpov),  a  promontory  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Bruttium,  a  few  miles  south 
of  Croton,  and  forming  the  western  boundary 
of  the  Tarentine  Gulf.  It  possessed  a  cele- 
brated temple  of  Juno,  who  was  worshipped  here 
under  the  surname  of  Lacinia.  The  remains  of 
this  temple  are  still  extant,  and  have  given  the 
modern  name  to  the  promontory,  Capo  delle  Co- 
lonnc  or  Capo^di  Nao  (i>a6f).  Hannibal  dedicat- 
ed in  this  temple  a  bilingual  inscription  (in  Punic 
and  Greek),  which  recorded  the  history  of  his 
campaigns,  and  of  which  Polybius  made  use  in 
writing  his  history.  • 

LACIPPO  (now  Alecippe),  a  town  in  Hispania 
Baetica,  not  far  from  the  sea,  and  west  of  Mal- 
aca. 

LACMON  or  LACMUS  (AaKfiuv,  AuK^of),  the 
northern  part  of  Mount  Pindus,  in  which  the 
River  Aous  has  its  origin. 

LAOOBRIGA.     1.  (Now  Lobera),  &  town  of  the 
Vaccaei  in  the  north  of  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
ei»,  on  the  road  from  Aeturica  to  Tarraco  — 2. 
416 


(Now  Lagoa),  a  town  on  the  southwest  o/  Lusi- 
tania,  east  of  the  Promontorium  Sacrum. 

LACONICA  (AanuviKij),  sometimes  called  LACO- 
NIA  by  the  Romans,  a  country  of  Peloponnesus, 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Argolis  and  Ar- 
cadia, on  the  west  by  Messenia,  and  on  the  east 
and  south  by  the  sea.  Laconica  was  a  long 
valley,  running  southward  to  the  sea,  and  was 
inclosed  on  three  sides  by  mountains.  On  the 
north  it  was  separated  by  Mount  Parnon  from 
Argolis,  and  by  Mount  Sciritis  from  Arcadia. 
It  was  bounded  by  Mount  Taygetus  on  the  west, 
and  by  Mount  Parnon  on  the  east,  which  are 
two  masses  of  mountains  extending  from  Ar- 
cadia to  the  southern  extremities  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, Mount  Taygetus  terminating  at  the 
Promontorium  Trcnarum,  and  Mount  Parnon 
continued  under  the  names  of  Thornax  and 
Zarex,  terminating  at  the  Promontorium  Malea. 
The  River  Eurotas  flows  through  the  valley 
lying  between  these  mountain  masses,  and  falls 
into  the  Laconian  Gulf.  In  the  upper  part  of 
its  course  the  valley  is  narrow,  and  near  Sparta 
the  mountains  approach  so  close  to  each  other 
as  to  leave  little  more  than  room  for  the  chan 
nel  of  the  river.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  we 
find  the  vale  of  Sparta  called  the  hollow  Lace- 
dannon.  Below  Sparta  the  mountains  recede, 
and  the  valley  opens  out  into  a  plain  of  consid- 
erable extent.  The  soil  of  this  plain  is  poor, 
but  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  there  is  land 
of  considerable  fertility.  There  were  valuable 
marble  quarries  near  Taeuarus.  Off  the  coast 
shell-fish  were  caught,  which  produced  a  purple 
dye  inferior  only  to  the  Tyrian.  Lacouica  is 
well  described  by  Euripides  as  difficult  of  access 
to  an  enemy.  On  the  north  the  country  could 
only  be  invaded  by  the  valleys  of  the  Eurotaa 
and  the  (Enus ;  the  range  of  Taygetus  formed 
an  almost  insuperable  barrier  on  the  west ;  and 
the  want  of  good  harbors  on  the  eastern  coast 
protected  it  from  invasion  by  sea  on  that  side. 
Sparta  was  the  only  town  of  importance  in  the 
country.  Vid.  SPARTA.  The  most  ancient  in- 
habitants of  the  country  are  said  to  have  been 
Cynurians  and  Leleges.  They  were  expelled 
or  conquered  by  the  Achaeans,  wlio  were  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  in  the  heroic  age. 
The  Dorians  afterward  invaded  Peloponnesus 
and  became  the  ruling  race  in  Laconica.  Some 
of  the  old  Achaean  inhabitants  were  reduced  to 
slavery ;  but  a  great  number  of  them  became 
subjects  of  the  Dorians  under  the  name  of  Pcri- 
ceci  (HepioiKot).  The  general  name  for  the  in- 
habitants is  LACONES  (Aduuvef)  or  LACED^EMONII 
(AaKEoaipovtoi)  ;  but  the  Pcriceci  are  frequently 
called  Lacedaemonii,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Spartans. 

LACONICCS  SINUS  (/coAirof  AanavtKof ),  a  gulf 
in  the  south  of  Peloponnesus,  into  which  the 
Eurotas  falls,  beginning  west  at  the  Promonto- 
rium Tsenarum,  and  east  at  the  Promontorium 
Malea. 

[LACRATIDES  (AaKpariSris),  said  to  have  been 
an  archon  at  Athens  at  the  time  of  the  Persian 
invasion  :  in  his  archonship  there  was  so  heavy 
a  fall  of  snow,  and  so  intense  cold,  that  the 
epithet  "  Lacratidian"  became  proverbial  for  in- 
tense cold.] 

LACTANTIUS,  a  celebrated  Christian  father, 
but  his  exact  name,  the  place  of  his  nativity. 


LACTARIUS   MONS. 


LJELIUS. 


and  the  date  of  his  birth,  are  uncertain.  In 
modern  works  we  find  him  denominated  Lucius 
Coelius  Fimnianus  Lactantius;  but  the  two  for- 
mer appellations,  in  the  second  of  which  Ccecil- 
ius  is  often  substituted  for  Coelius,  are  omitted 
in  many  MSS.,  while  the  two  latter  are  fre- 
quently presented  in  an  inverted  order.  Since 
he  is  spoken  of  as  far  advanced  in  life  about 
A.D.  315,  he  must  have  been  born  not  later  than 
the  middle  of  the  third  century,  probably  in 
Italy,  possibly  at  Firmum,  on  the  Adriatic,  and 
certainly  studied  in  Africa,  where  he  became 
the  pupil  of  Arnobius,  who  taught  rhetoric  at 
Sicca.  His  fame  became  so  widely  extended, 
that  about  301  he  was  invited  by  Diocletian  to 
settle  at  Nicomedia,  and  there  to  practice  his 
art.  At  this  period  he  appears  to  have  become 
a  Christian.  He  was  summoned  to  Gaul  about 
312-318,  when  now  an  old  man,  to  superintend 
the  education  of  Crispus,  son  of  Constantino, 
and  he  probably  died  at  Treves  some  ten  or 
twelve  years  afterward  (325-330).  The  extant 
works  of  Lactantius,  are,  i.  Divinarum  Institu- 
tionum  Libri  VII.,  a  sort  of  introduction  to 
Christianity,  intended  to  supersede  the  less  per- 
fect treatises  of  Minucius  Felix,  Tertullian,  and 
Cyprian.  Each  of  the  seven  books  bears  a  sep- 
arate title :  (1.)  De  Falsa  Religione.  (2.)  be 
Origins  Erroris.  (3.)  De  Falsa  Sapientia.  (4.) 
De  Vera  Sapientia  et  Religione.  (5.)  De  Justitia. 
(6.)  De  Vero  Cultu.  (7.)  De  Vita  Beata.—n.  An 
Epitome  of  the  Institutions. — in.  De  Ira  Dei. — 
iv.  De  Opificio  Deis.  De  For  matione  Horninis. — 
v.  De  Mortibus  Persecutorum. — vi.  Various  Po- 
ems, most  of  which  were  probably  not  written  by 
Lactantius.  The  style  of  Lactautius,  formed 
upon  the  model  of  the  great  orator  of  Rome,  has 
gained  for  him  the  appellation  of  the  Christian 
Cicero,  and  not  undeservedly.  The  best  edition 
of  Lactantius  is  by  Le  Brun  and  Lenglet  du 
Fresnoy,  Paris,  1748. 

LACTARIUS  MONS  or  LACTIS  MONS,  a  mountain 
in  Campania,  belonging  to  the  Apennines,  four 
miles  east  of  Stabise,  so  called  because  the  cows 
which  grazed  upon  it  produced  excellent  milk. 
Here  Narses  gained  a  victory  over  the  Goths, 
A.D.  553. 

[LAcroDtJRUM  (now  probably  Towcester),  a  city 
of  the  Catyeuchlani  in  Britannia  Romana,  on  the 
way  from  Londiuium  to  Lindum.] 

LACYDES  (AaxiJcJvc,)  a  native  of  Gyrene,  suc- 
ceeded Arcesilaus  as  president  of  the  Academy 
at  Athens.  The  place  where  his  instructions 
were  delivered  was  a  garden,  named  the  Lacy- 
deum  (Aaitvdciov),  provided  for  the  purpose  by 
"his  friend  Attalus  Philometor,  king  of  Pergamus. 
This  alteration  in  the  locality  of  the  school  seems 
at  least  to  have  contributed  to  the  rise  of  the 
name  of  the  New  Academy.  He  died  about  215 
from  the  effects,  it  is  said,  of  excessive  drink- 
ing. 

LADE  (Add;?),  an  Wand  off  the  western  coast 
of  Caria,  opposite  to  Miletus  and  to  the  bay  into 
•which  the  Mseandcr  falls. 

[LADES,  son  of  Imbrasus,  a  follower  of  JSncas, 
elain  by  Turnus  in  Italy.] 

LADON(Au(Juv).  1.  The  dragon  who  guard- 
ed the  apples  of  the  Hesperides,  was  the  off- 
spring of  Typhon  and  Echidna,  or  of  Terra  (Ge), 
or  of  Phorcys  and  Ceto.  He  was  slain  by  Her- 
cules ;  and  the  representation  of  the  battle  was 
27 


placed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  among  the  stars. — ^2. 
An  Arcadian,  companion  and  friend  of  ^Eneas, 
slain  by  Halesus.] 

LADON  (AdJwv).  1.  A  river  in  Arcadia,  which 
rose  near  Clitor,  and  fell  into  the  Alpheus  be- 
tween Hera  and  Phrixa.  In  mythology  Ladon 
is  the  husband  of  Stymphalis,  and  the  father  of 
Daphne  and  Metope. — 2.  A  small  river  in  Elis, 
which  rose  on  the  frontiers  of  Achaia  and  fell  into 
the  Peneus. 

L^EETANI,  a  people  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Hispania  Tarraconensis,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Rubicatus  (now  Llobregat),  probably  the 
same  as  the  LALETANI,  whose  country,  LALE- 
TANIA,  produced  good  wine,  and  whose  chief 
town  was  BARGING. 

L^ELAPS  (AaZ/la^),  i.  e.,  the  storm  wind,  per- 
sonified in  the  legend  of  the  dog  of  Procris 
which  bore  this  name.  Procris  had  received 
this  swift  animal  from  Diana  (Artemis),  and 
gave  it  to  her  husband  Cephalus.  When  the 
Teumessian  fox  was  sent  to  punish  the  The- 
bans,  Cephalus  sent  the  dog  Lselaps  against  the 
fox.  The  dog  overtook  the  fox,  but  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  changed  both  animals  into  a  stone,  which 
was  shown  in  the  neighborhood  of  Thebes. 

L.SLIANUS,  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  emper- 
or in  Gaul  after  the  death  of  POSTUMUS,  A.D. 
267,  was  slain,  after  a  few  months,  by  his  own 
soldiers,  who  proclaimed  VICTORINUS  in  his 
stead. 

L^ELIUS.  1.  C.,  was  from  early  manhood  the 
friend  and  companion  of  Scipio  Africanus  the 
elder,  and  fought  under  him  in  almost  all  his 
campaigns.  He  was  consul  B.C.  190,  and  ob- 
tained the  province  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. — 2.  C, 
surnamed  SAPIENS,  son  of  the  preceding.  His 
intimacy  with  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger  was 
as  remarkable  as  his  father's  friendship  with  the 
elder,  and  it  obtained  an  imperishable  monument 
in  Cicero's  treatise  Ltelius  sive  de  Amicitia.  He 
was  born  about  186,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs 
151,  praetor  145,  and  consul  140.  Though  not 
devoid  of  military  talents,  as  his  campaign 
against  the  Lusitanian  Viriathus  proved,  he 
was  more  of  a  statesman  than  a  soldier,  and 
more  of  a  philosopher  than  a  statesman.  From 
Diogenes  of  Babylon,  and  afterward  from  Pa- 
naetius,  he  imbibed  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoic 
school ;  his  father's  friend  Polybius  was  his 
friend  also;  the  wit  and  idiom  of  Terence 
were  pointed  and  polished  by  his  and  Scipio's 
conversation  ;  and  the  satirist  Lucilius  was  his 
familiar  companion.  The  political  opinions  of 
Lffilius  were  different  at  different  periods  of  his 
life.  He  endeavored,  probably  during  his  trib- 
unate, to  procure  a  redivision  of  the  public  land, 
but  he  desisted  from  the  attempt,  and  for  his 
forbearance  received  the  appellation  of  the  Wise 
or  the  Prudent.  He  afterward  became  a  stren- 
uous supporter  of  the  aristocratical  party.  Sev- 
eral of  his  orations  were  extant  in  the  time  of 
Cicero,  but  were  characterized  more  by  smooth- 
ness (lenitas)  than  by  power.  Lffilius  is  the 
principal  interlocutor  in  Cicero's  dialogue  De 
Amicitia,  and  is  one  of  the  speakers  in  the  Df 
Scnectute  and  in  the  De  Republica.  His  twr 
daughters  w  ere  married,  the  one  to  Q.  Mucius 
Scsevola,  the  augur,  the  other  to  C.  Fanuius 
Strabo.  The  opinion  of  his  worth  stfems  to 
have  been  universal,  and  it  is  one  of  Seneca's 
417 


LuENAS,  POPILIUS. 


LAIUS. 


injunctions  to  his  friend  Lucilius  "  to  live   like 
Lffiliua." 

L^KXAS,  POPILIUS,  plebeians.  The  family  was 
unfavorably  distinguished,  even  among  the  Ro- 
mans, for  their  sternness,  cruelty,  and  haughti- 
ness of  character.  1.  M.,  four  times  consul,  B. 
C.  359,  356,  350,  348.  In  his  third  consulship 
(850)  he  won  a  hard-fought  battle  against  the 
Gauls,  for  -which  he  celebrated  a  triumph — the 
first  ever  obtained  by  a  plebeian. — 2.  M.,  praetor 
176,  consul  172,  and  censor  159.  In  his  con- 
sulship he  defeated  the  Lagurian  mountaineers  ; 
and  when  the  remainder  of  the  tribe  surrender- 
ed to  him,  he  sold  them  all  as  slaves. — 3.  C., 
brother  of  No.  2,  was  consul  172.  He  was  aft- 
erward sent  as  ambassador  to  Antiochus,  king 
of  Syria,  whom  the  senate  wished  to  abstain 
from  hostilities  against  Egypt  Antiochus  was 
just  marching  upon  Alexandrea  when  Popilius 
gave  him  the  letter  of  the  senate,  which  the 
king  read,  and  promised  to  take  into  considera- 
tion with  his  friends.  Popilius  straightway  de- 
scribed with  his  cane  a  circle  in  the  sand  round 
the  king,  and  ordered  him  not  to  stir  out  of  it 
before  he  had  given  a  decisive  answer.  This 
boldness  so  frightened  Antiochus,  that  he  at 
once  yielded  to  the  demand  of  Rome. — 4.  P., 
consul  132,  the  year  after  the  murder  of  Tib. 
Gracchus.  He  was  charged  by  the  victorious 
aristocratical  party  with  the  prosecution  of  the 
accomplices  of  Gracchus  ;  and  in  this  odious 
task  he  showed  all  the  hard-heartedness  of  his 
family.  He  subsequently  withdrew  himself,  by 
voluntary  exile,  from  the  vengeance  of  C.  Grac- 
chus, and  did  not  return  to  Rome  till  after  his 


death. 
[LAERCES 


1.  Father  of  Alcimedon, 


one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Myrmidons  under  Achil- 
les.— 2.  An  artist  employed  by  Nestor  to  gild 
the  horns  of  the  victims  sacrificed  to  the  gods.] 

LAEETES  (Aatpr^f),  king  of  Ithaca,  was  son 
of  Acrisius  and  Chalcomedusa,  and  husband  of 
Anticlea,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Ulys- 
ses and  Ctimene.  Some  writers  call  Ulysses 
the  son  of  Sisyphus.  Vid.  ANTICLEA.  Laertes 
took  part  in  the  Calydonian  hunt,  and  in  the 
expedition  of  the  Argonauts.  He  was  still  alive 
when  Ulysses  returned  to  Ithaca  after  the  fall  of 
Troy. 

LAERTIUS,  DIOGENES.     Vid.  DIOGENES. 

L^ESTRYGONES  (AatffTpvyovef),  a  savage  race 
of  cannibals,  whom  Ulysses  encountered  in  his 
wanderings.  They  were  governed  by  ANTTPH- 
ATES  and  LAMUS.  They  belong,  however,  to  my- 
thology rather  than  to  history.  The  modern  in- 
terpreters of  Homer  place  them  on  the  north- 
western coast  of  Sicily.  The  Greeks  themselves 
placed  them  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island,  in 
the  plains  of  Leontini,  which  are  therefore  called 
Lcestrygonii  Campi.  The  Romans,  however,  and 
more  especially  the  Roman  poets,  who  regarded 
the  Promontorium  Circeium  as  the  Homeric 
island  of  Circe,  transplanted  the  Laestrygones 
to  the  southern  coast  of  Latium,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Formije,  which  they  supposed  to  have 
been  built  by  Lamus,  the  king  of  this  people. 
Hence  Horace  (Carm.,  ill,  16,  34)  speaks  of 
Bacchus  in  amphora,  that  is,  For- 


Transpadana,  on  the  River  Ticinus,  -who,  in  con- 
junction with  the  Marici,  built  the  town  of  Ti- 
ciuum  (now  Pavia.) 

VALERIUS.      1.  P.,  consul   B.C.   280, 


had  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Pyrrhus. 
The  king  wrote  to  Laevinus,  offering  to  arbitrate 
between  Rome  and  Tareutum  ;  but  Laeviuus 
bluntly  bade  him  mind  his  own  business,  and 
begone  to  Epirus.  An  Epirot  spy  having  been 
taken  in  the  Roman  lines,  Laevinus  showed  him 
the  legions  under  arms,  and  bade  him  tell  his 
master,  if  he  was  curious  about  the  Roman  men 
and  tactics,  to  come  and  see  them  himself.  In 
the  battle  which  followed,  Lsevinus  was  defeat- 
ed by  Pyrrhus  on  the  banks  of  the  Siris. — 2.  M., 
praetor  215,  crossed  over  to  Greece  and  canied 
on  war  against  Philip.  He  continued  in  tho 
command  in  Greece  till  211,  when  he  was  elect- 
ed consul  in  his  absence.  In  his  consulship 
(210)  he  carried  on  the  war  in  Sicily,  and  took 
Agrigentum.  He  continued  as  proconsul  in 
Sicily  for  several  years,  and  in  208  made  a  de- 
scent upon  the  coast  of  Africa.  He  died  200, 
and  his  sons  Publius  and  Marcus  honored  his 
memory  with  funeral  games  and  gladiatorial 
combats,  exhibited  during  four  successive  days 
in  the  forum. — 3.  C.,  son  of  No.  2,  was  by  the  mo- 
ther's side  brother  of  M.  Fulvius  Nobilior,  consul 
189.  Laevinus  was  himself  consul  in  176,  and 
carried  on  war  against  the  Ligurians. 

LAGOS,  a  city  in  great  Phrygia. 

LAGUS  (Aayof),  a  Macedonian  of  obscure  birth, 
was  the  father,  or  reputed  father,  of  Ptolemy, 
the  founder  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  He 
married  Arsinoe,  a  concubine  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
don,  who  was  said  to  have  been  pregnant  at  tho 
time  of  their  marriage,  on  which  account  tho 
Macedonians  generally  looked  upon  Ptolemy  as 
the  son  of  Philip. 

LAIS  (Aatf),  the  name  of  two  celebrated 
Grecian  Hetaarae  or  courtezans.  1.  The  elder, 
a  native  probably  of  Corinth,  lived  in  the  time 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  was  celebrated 
as  the  most  beautiful  woman  of  her  age.  She 
was  notorious  also  for  her  avarice  and  caprice. 
— 2.  The  younger,  was  the  daughter  of  Timan- 
dra,  and  was  probably  born  at  Hyccara  in  Sicily. 
According  to  some  accounts  she  was  brought 
to  Corinth  when  seven  years  old,  having  been 
taken  prisoner  in  the  Athenian  expedition  to 
Sicily,  and  bought  by  a  Corinthian.  This  story, 
however,  involves  numerous  difficulties,  and 
seems  to  have  arisen  from  a  confusion  between 
this  Lais  and  the  elder  one  of  the  same  name. 
She  was  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Phrync. 
She  became  enamored  of  a  Thessalian  named 
Hippolochus  or  Hippostratus,  and  accompanied 
him  to  Thessaly.  Here,  it  is  said,  some  Thessa- 
lian women,  jealous  of  her  beauty,  enticed  her 
into  a  temple  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  and  there 
stoned  her  to  death. 

[LAISPODIAS  (Aaionodiaf),  an  Athenian  com- 
mander in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  In  B.  C.  411 
one  of  the  envoys  sent  by  the  Four  Hundred  to 
Sparta.] 

LAIUS  (Aai'of),  son  of  Labdacus,  lost  his  father 
at  an  early  age,  and  was  brought  up  by  Lycua. 
Vid.  LABDACUS.  When  Lycus  was  slain  by  Am- 

mian  wine;  and  Ovid  (Jf<?<.,xiv.,  233)  calls  Formiae   phion  and  Zethus,  Laius  took  refuge  with  Pe- 
Iioestrygonis  Lami  Urbs.  lops  in  Peloponnesus.     After  the  death  of  Am- 

:  or  LEVI,  a  Ligurian  people  in   Gallia   phioa  and   Zethus,   Laius  returned  to  Thebes, 
418 


LALA. 


LAMPUS. 


and  ascended  the  throne  of  his  father.  He 
married  Jocasta,  and  became  by  her  the  father 
of  (Edipus,  by  whom  he  was  slain.  For  details, 
vid.  (Eoipus. 

[LALA,  of  Cyzicus,  a  female  painter,  who 
lived  at  Rome  about  B.C.  74 ;  celebrated  espe- 
cially for  her  portraits  of  women.] 

LALAGE,  a  common  name  of  courtezans,  from 
the  Greek  T^Kayr),  prattling,  used  as  a  term  of 
endearment,  "  little  prattler." 

LALETANI.      Vid.  L^EETANI. 

LAMACHUS  (Adfiaxos),  an  Athenian,  son  of 
Xcnophanes,  was  the  colleague  of  Alcibiades 
and  Nicias  in  the  great  Sicilian  expedition,  B. 
0.  415.  He  fell  under  the  walls  of  Syracuse, 
in  a  sally  of  the  besieged.  He  appears  among 
the  dramatis  personae  of  Aristophanes  as  the 
brave  and  somewhat  blustering  soldier,  delight- 
ing in  the  war,  and  thankful,  moreover,  for  its 
pay.  Plutarch  describes  him  as  brave,  but  so 
poor,  that  on  every  fresh  appointment  he  used 
to  beg  for  money  from  the  government  to  buy 
clothing  and  shoes. 

[LAMBEUS  (now  Lambro),  a  river  in  Gallia 
Transpadana,  which  rose  in  the  Lake  Eupilis 
(now  Lago  di  Pusiano),  and  fell  into  the  Po  be- 
tween Ticinum  and  Placentia.] 

LAMETUS  (now  Lamata),  a  river  in  Bruttium, 
near  Croton,  which  falls  into  the  LAMETICCS 
SINUS.  Upon  it  was  the  town  LAMKTINI  (now 
St.  Eufemia). 

LAMIA  (Aapia).  1.  A  female  phantom.  Vid. 
EMPUSA. — 2.  A  celebrated  Athenian  courtezan, 
was  a  favorite  mistress  for  many  years  of  De- 
metrius Poliorcetes. 

LAMIA,  ^ELIUS.  This  family  claimed  a  high 
antiquity,  and  pretended  to  be  descended  from 
the  mythical,  hero  LAMUS.  1.  L.,  a  Roman 
eques,  supported  Cicero  in  the  suppression  of 
the  Catilinarian  conspiracy,  B.C.  63,  and  was 
accordingly  banished  by  the  influence  of  the 
consuls  Gabiuius  and  Piso  in  58.  He  was  sub- 
sequently recalled  from  exile,  and  during  the 
civil  wars  espoused  Caesar's  party. — 2.  L.,  son 
of  the  preceding,  and  the  friend  of  Horace,  was 
consul  A.D.  3.  He  was  made  praefectus  urbi 
in  32,  but  he  died  iu  the  following  year. — 3.  L, 
was  married  to  Domitia  Longjpa,  the  daughter 
of  Corbulo;  but  during  the  lifetime  of  Vespa- 
sian he  was  deprived  of  her  by  Domitian,  who 
first  lived  with  her  as  his  mistress,  and  subse- 
quently married  her.  Lamia  was  put  to  death 
by  Domitian  after  his  accession  to  the  throne. 

LAMIA  (Aafiia  :  Aapievf,  Aa/uoir^f :  now  Zeitun 
Dr  Zcituni),  &  town  in  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly, 
situated  on  the  small  river  Achelous,  and  fifty 
etadia  inland  from  the  Maliac  Gulf,  on  which  it 
possessed  a  harbor,  called  Phalara.  It  has  given 
its  name  to  the  war,  which  was  carried  on  by 
the  confederate  Greeks  against  Antipater  after 
the  death  of  Alexander,  B.C.  823.  The  con- 
federates Hinder  the  command  of  Lcosthenes, 
the  Athenian,  defeated  Antipater,  who  took  ref- 
uge in  Lamia,  where  he  was  besieged  for  some 
months.  Leosthenes  was  killed  during  the 
siege  ;  and  the  confederates  were  obliged  to 
raise  it  in  the  following  year  (822),  in  conse- 
quence of  the  approach  of  Leonnatus.  The 
confederates  under  the  command  of  Autiphilus 
defeated  Leonnatus,  who  was  slain  in  the  ac- 
tioa  Soon  afterward  Antipater  was  joined  by 


Craterus ;  and,  thus  strengthened,  he  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  confederates  at  the 
battle  of  Cranon,  which  put  an  end  to  the  La- 
mian  war. 

LAMINIUM  (Laminitanus),  a  town  of  the  Car- 
petani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  ninety-five 
miles  southeast  of  Toletum. 

LAMPA  or  LAPPA  (Ad/iiri},  AUTTXIJ  :  Aa/wralof, 
Aaunevf),  a  town  in  the  north  of  Crete,  a  little 
inland,  south  of  Hydramum,  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Agamemnon,  but  to  have  been  called 
after  Lampus. 

LAMPEA  (^  Ad/j.neia),  or  LAMPEUS  Moxs,  a  pai't 
of  the  mountain  range  of  Erymanthus,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Achaia  and  Elis. 

LAMPETIA  (AafnreTir)'),  daughter  of  Helios  by 
the  nymph  Neaera.  She  and  her  sister  Phae- 
thusa  tended  the  flocks  of  their  father  in  Sicily. 
In  some  legends  she  appears  as  one  of  the  sis- 
ters of  Phaethon. 

LAMPON  (AdftTruv).  1.  An  ^Eginetan,  son  of 
Pytheas,  urged  Pausanias,  after  the  battle  of 
Plataeae,  to  avenge  the  death  of  Leonidas  by  in- 
sulting the  corpse  of  Mardonius. — 2.  An  Athe- 
nian, a  celebrated  soothsayer  and  interpreter  of 
oracles.  In  conjunction  with  Xenocritus,  he 
led  the  colony  which  founded  Thurii  in  Italy,  B. 
C.  443. 

LAMPOXIA  or  -IUM  (Aafnruveia,  -uvtov),  an 
important  city  of  Mysia,  in  the  interior  of  the 
Troad,  near  the  borders  of  J5olis. 

[LAMPONIUS  M.,  a  Lucanian,  one  of  the  prin 
cipal  captains  of  the  Italians  in  the  war  of  the 
allies  with  Rome,  B.C.  90-88.] 

LAMPKA,  LAMPED,  or  LAMPTR.E  (Aapirpd, 
Aafinpai,  Aa/nTrrpai  :  Aapirpevg :  now  Lamorica), 
a  demus  on  the  western  coast  of  Attica,  near 
the  promontory  Astypalaea,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  Erechtheis.  It  was  divided  into  an  upper 
and  a  lower  city. 

LAMPRIDICS,  ^Eiius,  one  of  the  Scriptores 
Histories  Augu&tce,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Diocle- 
tian and  Constantine,  and  wrote  the  lives  of 
the  emperors  :  1.  Commodus  ;  2.  Antoninus  Di- 
adumenus ;  3.  Elagabalus ;  and,  4.  Alexander 
Severus.  It  is  not  improbable  that  Lampridius 
is  the  same  as  Spartianus,  and  that  the  name 
of  the  author  in  full  was  JSlius  Lampridius 
Spartianus.  For  the  editions  of  Lampridius, 
vid.  CAPITOLINUS. 

[LAMPEOCLES  (Aa/mr poK^f).  1.  The  eldest 
son  of  Socrates. — 2.  An  Athenian  dithyrambio 
poet  and  musician,  who  probably  flourished  at 
the  end  of  the  sixth  or  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.] 

LAHPSHCUS  (AdfiiJHiKOf :  Aa^aKijvof :  ruins  at 
Lapsaki)  an  important  city  of  Mysia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  coast  of  the  Hellespont,  possess- 
ed a  good  harbor.  It  was  celebrated  for  its 
wine ;  and  hence  it  was  one  of  the  cities  as- 
signed by  Xerxes  to  Themistocles  for  his  main- 
tenance. It  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  wor- 
ship of  Priapus,  and  the  birth-place  of  the  his- 
torian Charon,  tho  philosophers  Adimantus  and 
Metrodorus,  and  the  rhetorician  Anaximenea. 
Lampsacus  was  a  colony  of  the  Phocaeans : 
the  name  of  the  surrounding  district,  Bebrycia, 
connects  its  old  inhabitants  with  the  Thracian 
BKBRYCES. 

[LAMPUB  (Auujrof).  1.  A  eon  of  Laomedon, 
and  father  of  Dolops,  was  one  of  the  Trojan 
419 


LAMUS. 


LAODAMIA. 


elders. — 2.  The  name  of  two  horses,   one  be- 
longing to  Aurora  (Eos),  the  other  to  Hector.] 

LAMUS  (Au//of ).  1.  Sou  of  Neptune  (Poseidon), 
and  king  of  the  Ljestrygones,  was  said  to  have 
founded  Formiae  in  Italy.  Vid.  FORMIC. — 
[2.  A  Rutulian  leader,  slain  by  Nisus.] 

LAMUS  (\uftof :  now  Lamas),  a  river  of  Cili- 
cia, the  boundary  between  Cilicia  Aspera  and 
Cilicia  Campestris ;  with  a  town  of  the  same 
name. 

[LANASSA  (Auvaaaa).  1.  Grand-daughter  of 
Hercules,  carried  away  from  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  at  Dodona  by  Pyrrhus,  son  of 
Achilles,  bore  him  eight  children. — 2.  Daughter 
of  Agathocles,  wife  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus ; 
left  bun  to  marry  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.] 

LANCIA  (Lancienses).  1.  (Now  Sollanco  or 
Sollancia,  near  Leon),  a  town  of  the  Astures 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  nine  miles  east  of 
Legio,  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans. — 2.  Sur- 
named  OPPIDANA,  a  town  of  the  Vettones  in 
Lusitania,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the 
River  Munda. — [3.  L.  TBANSCUDANA  (now  Ci- 
v/dad Rodrigo),  a  town  of  Hispania,  east  of  No. 
2,  so  called  from  lying  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river  Cuda  (now  C'oa).] 

LANGOBAEDI  or  LONGOBARDI,  corrupted  into 
LOMBARDS,  a  German  tribe  of  the  Suevic  race. 
They  dwelt  originally  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  near  the  River  Saale  ;  but  they  afterward 
crossed  the  Elbe,  and  dwelt  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  river,  where  they  were  for  a  time 
subject  to  Maroboduus  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius. 
After  this  they  disappear  from  history  for  four 
centuries.  Like  most  of  the  other  German 
tribes,  they  migrated  southward ;  and  in  the 
second  half  of  the  fifth  century  we  find  them 
again  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Danube,  in 
Upper  Hungary.  Here  they  defeated  and  al- 
most annihilated  the  Heruli.  In  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century  they  crossed  the  Danube,  at 
the  invitation  of  Justinian,  and  settled  in  Pan- 
nonia.  Here  they  were  engaged  for  thirty 
years  in  a  desperate  conflict  with  the  Gepidse, 
which  only  ended  with  the  extermination  of 
the  latter  people.  In  A.D.  668,  Alboin,  the 
king  of  the  Lombards,  under  whose  command 
they  had  defeated  the  Gepidae,  led  his  nation 
across  the  Julian  Alps,  and  conquered  the 
plains  of  Northern  Italy,  which  received  and 
have  ever  since  retained  the  name  of  Lom- 
bardy.  Here  he  founded  the  celebrated  king- 
dom of  the  Lombards,  which  existed  for  up 
ward  of  two  centuries,  till  its  overthrow  by 
Charlemagne.  Paulus  Diaconus,  who  was  a 
Lombard  by  birth,  derives  their  name  of  Lan- 
gobardi  from  their  long  beards ;  but  modern 
critics  reject  this  etymology,  and  suppose  the 
name  to  have  reference  to  their  dwelling  on  the 
banks  of  the  Elbe,  inasmuch  as  Borde  signi- 
fies in  low  German  a  fertile  plain  on  the  bank 
of  a  river,  and  there  is  still  a  district  in  Magde- 
burg called  the  lange  Borde.  Paulus  Diaconus 
also  states  that  the  Lombards  came  original- 
ly from  Scandinavia,  where  they  were  called 
Venili,  and  that  they  did  not  receive  the  name 
of  Langobardi  or  Long-Beards  till  they  settled 
in  Germany ;  but  this  statement  ought  probably 
to  be  rejected. 

LANICK    (AaviKij),  nurse    of   Alexander    the 
Great,  and  sister  of  Clitufl. 
420 


LANUVIUM  (Lanuvlnus :  now  Lavigna),  an 
ancient  city  in  Latium,  situated  on  a  hill  of  the 
Alban  Mount,  not  far  from  the  Appia  Via,  and 
subsequently  a  Roman  municipium.  It  pos- 
sessed an  ancient  and  celebrated  temple  of 
Juno  Sospita.  Under  the  empire  it  obtained 
some  importance  as  the  birth-place  of  Antoni- 
nus Pius.  Part  of  the  walls  of  Lanuvium  and 
the  substructions  of  the  temple  of  Juno  are  still 
remaining. 

LAOCOON  (AaoKouv),  a  Trojan,  who  plays  a 
prominent  part  in  the  post-Homeric  legends, 
was  a  son  of  Autenor  or  Accetes,  and  a  priest 
of  the  Thymbriean  Apollo.  He  tried  to  dis- 
suade his  countrymen  from  drawing  into  the 
city  the  wooden  horse,  which  the  Greeks  had 
left  behind  them  when  they  pretended  to  sail 
away  from  Troy  ;  and,  to  show  the  danger 
from  the  horse,  he  hurled  a  spear  into  its  side. 
The  Trojans,  however,  would  not  h'sten  to  his 
advice ;  and  as  he  was  preparing  to  sacrifice  a 
bull  to  Neptune  (Poseidon),  suddenly  two  fear- 
ful serpents  were  seen  swimming  toward  the 
Trojan  coast  from  Tenedos.  They  rushed 
toward  Laocoon,  who,  while  all  the  people 
took  to  flight,  remained  with  his  two  sons 
standing  by  the  altar  of  the  god.  The  serpents 
first  coiled  around  the  two  boys,  and  then 
around  the  father,  and  thus  all  three  perished. 
The  serpents  then  hastened  to  the  acropolis  of 
Troy,  and  disappeared  behind  the  shield  of 
Tritonis.  The  reason  why  Laocoon  suffered 
this  fearful  death  is  differently  stated.  Ac- 
cording to  some,  it  was  because  he  had  run 
his  lance  into  the  side  of  the  horse  ;  accord- 
ing to  others,  because,  contrary  to  the  will  of 
Apollo,  he  had  married  and  begotten  children  ; 
or,  according  to  others  again,  because  Neptune 
(Poseidon),  being  hostile  to  the  Trojans,  want- 
ed to  show  to  the  Trojans  in  the  person  of  La- 
ocoon what  fate  all  of  them  deserved.  The 
story  of  Laocoon's  death  was  a  fine  subject  for 
epic  and  lyric  as  well  as  tragic  poetry,  and  wag 
therefore  frequently  related  by  ancient  poets, 
such  as  by  Bacchylides,  Sophocles,  Euphorion, 
Virgil,  and  others.  His  death  also  formed  the 
subject  of  many  ancient  works  of  art ;  and  a 
magnificent  group,  representing  the  father  and 
:iis  two  sons  entwined  by  the  two  serpents,  is 
still  extant,  and  preserved  in  the  Vatican.  Vid. 
AGESANDER. 

[LAOCOOSA  (AaoKouaa),  wife  of  Aphareus, 
and  mother  of  Idas  and  Lynceus  in  Theocritus.] 

LAODAMAS  (Aao<5u//af).     1.    Son  of  Alcinous, 

jg  of  the  Phseaciaus,  and  Arete. — 2.  Son  of 
Eteocles,  and  king  of  Thebes,  in  whose  reign 
;he  Epigoni  marched  against  Thebes.  In  the 
jattle  against  the  Epigoni,  he  slew  their  leader 
^Egialeus,  but  was  himself  slain  by  Alcmseon. 
Others  related,  that  after  the  battle  was  lost, 
Laodamas  fled  to  the  Encheleans  in  lllyricum. 
— [3.  A  son  of  Antenor,  slain  before  Troy  by 
Ajax,  son  of  Telamon.] 

LAODAMIA  (AaoJu/ma).  1.  Daughter  of  .Acas- 
;us,  and  wife  of  Protesilaus.  When  her  hus- 
aand  was  slain  before  Troy,  she  begged  the 
jods  to  be  allowed  to  converse  with  him  for 
only  three  hours.  The  request  was  granted. 
Mercury  (Hermes)  led  Protesilaus  back  to  the 
upper  world,  and  when  Protesilaus  died  a  sec- 
ond time,  Laodaniia  died  with  him.  A  later 


LAODICE. 


LAODICEA. 


tradition  states  that,  after  the  second  death  of 
Protesilaus,  Laodamia  made  an  image  of  her 
husband,  to  "which  she  paid  divine  honors ;  but 
as  her  father  Acastus  interfered,  and  commanded 
her  to  burn  the  image,  she  herself  leaped  into 
the  fire. — 2.  Daughter  of  Bellerophontes,  became 
by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  the  mother  of  Sarpedon,  and 
was  killed  by  Diana  (Artemis)  while  she  was  en- 
gaged in  weaving. — 3.  Nurse  of  Orestes,  usually 
called  AESINOE. 

LAODICE  (Aaorfi/c??).  1.  Daughter  of  Priam 
and  Hecuba,  and  wife  of  Helicaon.  Some  re- 
late that  she  fell  in  love  with  Acamas,  the  son 
of  Theseus,  when  he  came  with  Diomedes  as 
ambassador  to  Troy,  and  that  she  became  by 
Acamas  the  mother  of  Munitus.  On  the  death 
of  this  son  she  leaped  down  a  precipice,  or 
was  swallowed  up  by  the  earth. — 2.  Daughter 
of  Agamemnon  and  Clytaemnestra  (Horn.,  II., 
ix.,  146),  called  Electra  by  the  tragic  poets. 
Vid.  ELECTRA. — 3.  Mother  of  Seleucus  Nicator, 
the  founder  of  the  Syrian  monarchy. — 4.  Wife 
of  Antioohus  II.  Theos,  king  of  Syria,  and 
mother  of  Seleucus  Callinicus.  For  details,  vid. 
p.  66,  b. — 5.  Wife  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  and 
mother  of  Seleucus  Ceraunus  and  Antiochus 
the  Great. — 6.  Wife  of  Antiochus  the  Great, 
was  a  daughter  of  Mithradates  IV.,  king  of 
Pontus,  and  grand-daughter  of  No.  4.— 7.  Wife 
of  Achaeus,  the  cousin  and  adversary  of  An- 
tiochus the  Great,  was  a  sister  of  No.  6. — 8. 
Daughter  of  Antiochus  the  Great  by  bis  wife 
Laodice  (No.  6).  She  was  married  to  her  eldest 
brother  Antiochus,  who  died  in  his  father's  life- 
time. 195. — 9.  Daughter  of  Seleucus  IV.  Philo- 
pator,  was  married  to  Perseus,  king  of  Macedo- 
nia— 10.  Daughter  of  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes, 
was  married  to  the  impostor  Alexander  Balas. 
— 11.  Wife  and  also  sister  of  Mithradates  Eu- 
pator  (commonly  called  the  Great),  king  of 
Pontus.  During  the  absence  of  her  husband, 
and  deceived  by  a  report  of  his  death,  she 
gave  free  scope  to  her  amours;  and,  alarmed 
for  the  consequences,  on  his  return  attempted 
his  life  by  poison.  Her  designs  were,  however, 
betrayed  to  Mithradates,  who  immediately  put 
her  to  death. — 12.  Another  sister  of  Mithra- 
dates Eupator,  married  to  Ariarathes  VI, 
king  of  Cappadocia.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband  she  married  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bi- 
thyuia. 

LAODICEA  (\ao6iKeia :  Aoodticevf,  Laodicensis, 
Laodicenus),  the  name  of  six  Greek  cities  in 
Asia,  four  of  which  (besides  another  now  un- 
known) were  founded  by  Seleucus  I.  Nicator, 
and  named  in  honor  of  bis  mother  Laodice, 
the  other  two  by  Antiochus  II.  and  Antiochus 
I.  or  IIL  Vid.  Nos.  1.  and  5.  1.  L.  AD  LY- 
cuic  (A.  irpdf  r<i>  Ai>K(f),  ruins  at  Eski-Hissar),  a 
city  of  Asia  Minor,  stood  on  a  ridge  of  hills 
near  the  southern  bank  of  the  River  Lycus 
(now  Choruk-Su),  a  tributary  of  the  Mseauder, 
a  little  to  the  west  of  Colossae  and  to  the  south 
of  Hierapolis,  on  the  borders  of  Lydia,  Carlo, 
and  Phrygia,  to  each  of  which  it  is  assigned  by 
different  writers ;  but,  after  the  definitive  divi- 
sion of  the  provinces,  it  is  reckoned  as  belong- 
ing to  Great  Phrygia,  and  under  the  later  Ro- 
man emperors  it  was  the  capital  of  Phrygia 
Pacationa.  It  was  founded  by  Antiochus  II. 
Theoe,  on  the  site  of  a  previously  existing 


town,  and  named  in  honor  of  his  wife  Laodice, 
It  passed  from  the  kings  of  Syria  to  those  of 
Pergamus,  and  from  them  to  the  Romans,  tc 
whom  Attalus  III.  bequeathed  his  kingdom. 
Under  the  Romans  it  belonged  to  the  province 
of  Asia.  At  first  it  was  comparatively  an  in- 
significant place,  and  it  suffered  much  from 
the  frequent  earthquakes  to  which  its  site 
seems  to  be  more  exposed  than  that  of  any 
other  city  of  Asia  Minor,  and  also  from  the 
Mithradatic  War.  Under  the  later  Roman  re- 
public and  the  early  emperors,  it  rose  to  im- 
portance; and,  though  more  than  once  almost 
destroyed  by  earthquakes,  it  was  restored  by 
the  aid  of  the  emperors  and  the  munificence  of 
its  own  citizens,  and  became,  next  to  Apamea, 
the  greatest  city  in  Phrygia,  and  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  in  Asia  Minor.  In  an  inscrip- 
tion it  is  called  "  the  most  splendid  city  of 
Asia,"  a  statement  confirmed  by  the  magnif- 
icent ruins  of  the  city,  which  comprise  an  aque- 
duct, a  gymnasium,  several  theatres,  a  stadium 
almost  perfect,  besides  remains  of  roads,  por- 
ticoes, pillars,  gates,  foundations  of  houses, 
and  sarcophagi.  This  great  prosperity  was 
owing  partly  to  its  situation,  on  the  high  road 
for  the  traffic  between  the  east  and  west  of 
Asia,  and  partly  to  the  fertility  and  beauty  of 
the  country  round  it.  Already  in  the  apostolic 
age  it  was  the  seat  of  a  nourishing  Christian 
Church,  which,  however,  became  very  soon 
infected  with  the  pride  and  luxury  produced  by 
the  prosperity  of  the  city,  as  we  learn  from  St. 
John's  severe  Epistle  to  it  (Revel,  iii.,  14-22). 
St  Paul  also  addresses  it  in  common  with  the 
neighboring  church  of  Colossae  (Coloss.  ii.,  1 ; 
iv.,  13,  16). — 2.  L.  COMBUSTA  (A.  i]  KaraKEKav/LtevT} 
or  KSKavfiEvrj,  i.  e.,  the  burned ;  the  reason  of  the 
epithet  is  doubtful:  ruins  at  Ladik),  &  city  of 
Lycaonia,  north  of  Iconium,  ou  the  high  road 
from  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor  to  the 
Euphrates. — 3.  L.  AD  MAKE  (A.  eirl  ry  da^arr-p  : 
now  Ladikiyeh),  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Syria, 
about  fifty  miles  south  of  Antioch,  was  built 
by  Seleucus  I.  on  the  site  of  an  earlier  city, 
called  Ramitha,  or  \EVKTJ  'AKTTJ.  It  had  the 
best  harbor  in  Syria,  and  the  surrounding 
country  was  celebrated  for  its  wine  and  fruits, 
which  formed  a  large  part  of  the  traffic  of  the 
city.  In  the  civil  contests  during  the  later  pe- 
riod of  the  Syrian  kingdom,  Laodicea  obtained 
virtual  independence,  in  which  it  was  confirm- 
ed probably  by  Pompey,  and  certainly  by  Julius 
Caesar,  who  greatly  favored  the  city.  In  the 
civil  wars,  after  Caesar's  death,  the  Laodiceans 
were  severely  punished  by  Cassius  for  their 
adherence  to  Dolabella,  and  the  city  again  suf- 
fered in  the  Parthian  invasion  of  Syria,  but 
was  recompensed  by  Antony  with  exemption 
from  taxation.  Herod  the  Great  built  the  La- 
odiceans an  aqueduct,  the  ruins  of  which  still 
exist  It  is  mentioned  occasionally  as  an  im- 
portant city  under  the  later  Roman  empire; 
and,  after  the  conquest  of  Syria  by  the  Arabs, 
it  was  one  of  those  places  on  the  coast  which 
still  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Greek  em- 
perors, and  with  a  Christian  population.  It 
was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Arabs  in  1188. 
It  is  now  a  poor  Turkish  village,  with  very 
considerable  ruins  of  the  ancient  city,  the  chief 
of  which  are  a  triumphal  arch,  the  remains  of 
421 


LAODOCUS. 


LARES. 


the  mole  of  the  harbor,  of  a  portico  near  it,  of 
catacombs  on  tbe  sea-coast,  of  the  aqueducts 
and  cisterns,  and  of  pillars  where  the  Necrop- 
olis is  supposed  to  have  stood. — L.  AD  Li- 
BA.NUM  (A.  AiGavov,  Trpdf  Ai6av$),  a  city  of  Coele- 
Syria,  at  the  northern  entrance  to  the  narrow 
valley  (avAuv),  between  Libauus  and  Antilib- 
auus,  appears  to  have  beeu,  through  its  favor- 
able situation,  a  place  of  commercial  import- 
ance. During  the  possession  of  Co^le-byria 
by  the  Greek  kings  of  Egypt,  it  was  the  south- 
western border  fortress  of  Syria.  It  was  the 
chief  city  of  a  district  called  Laodicene. — 5.  A 
city  in  the  southeast  of  Media,  near  the  bound- 
ary of  Persia,  founded  either  by  Antiochus  I. 
Soter,  or  Antiochus  II.  the  Great:  site  un- 
known.— 6.  In  Mesopotamia :  site  unknown. 

LAODOCUS  (Aooc5o/cof).  1.  Son  of  Bias  and 
Pero,  and  brother  of  Talaus,  took  part  in  the  ex- 
peditions of  the  Argonauts,  and  of  the  Seven 
against  Thebes. — 2.  Son  of  Antenor. — [3.  A 
Grecian,  companion  and  charioteer  of  Antilo- 
chus  in  the  Trojan  war.] 

LAOMEDON  (Aao/zeJuv).  1.  King  of  Troy,  son 
of  llus  and  Eurydice,  and  father  of  Priam,  He- 
sione,  and  other  children.  His  wife  is  called 
Strymo,  Rhceo,  Placia,  Thoosa,  Zeuxippe,  or 
Leucippe.  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  Apollo, 
who  had  displeased  Jupiter  (Zeus),  were  doom- 
ed to  serve  Laomedon  for  wages.  Accordingly, 
Neptune  (Poseidon)  built  the  walls  of  Troy, 
while  Apollo  tended  the  king's  flocks  on  Mount 
Ida.  "When  the  two  gods  had  done  their  work, 
Laomedon  refused  them  the  reward  he  had 
promised  them,  and  expelled  them  from  his  do- 
minions. Thereupon  Neptune  (Poseidon)  in 
wrath  let  loose  the  sea  over  the  lands,  and  also 
sent  a  marine  monster  to  ravage  the  country. 
By  the  command  of  an  oracle,  the  Trojans  were 
obliged,  from  time  to  time,  to  sacrifice  a  maiden 
to  the  monster ;  and  on  one  occasion  it  was  de- 
cided by  lot  that  Hesione,  the  daughter  of  La- 
omedon himself,  should  be  the  victim.  But  it 
happened  that  Hercules  was  just  returning  from 
his  expedition  against  the  Amazons,  and  he 
promised  to  save  the  maiden  if  Laomedon 
would  give  him  the  horses  which  Tros  had  once 
received  from  Jupiter  (Zeus)  as  a  compensation 
for  Ganymedes.  Laomedon  promised  them  to 
Hercules,  but  again  broke  his  word,  when  Her- 
cules had  killed  the  monster  and  saved  Hesione. 
Hereupon  Hercules  sailed  with  a  squadron  of 
six  ships  against  Troy,  killed  Laomedon,  with 
all  his  sons,  except  Podarces  (Priam),  and  gave 
Hesione  to  Telamon.  Hesioue  ransomed  her 
brother  Priam  with  her  veil  Priam,  as  the  son 
of  Laomedon,  is  called  LAOMEDONTIADES  ;  and 
the  Trojans,  as  the  subjects  of  Laomedon,  are 
called  LAOMEDOXTIAD^E. — 2.  Of  Mytilene,  was 
one  of  Alexander's  generals,  and  after  the  king's 
death  (B.C.  323)  obtained  the  government  of 
Syria.  He  was  afterward  defeated  by  Nicanor, 
the  general  of  Ptolemy,  and  deprived  of  Syria. 

[LAOTHOE  (Aaodori),  daughter  of  Altes,  the 
king  of  the  Leleges,  and  mother  of  Lycaon  by 
Priam.] 

[LAPATHUS,  a  village  in  Pieria  in  Macedonia, 
at  the  pass  of  Tempe,  with  a  fortress  adjacent 
named  Charax  (the  modem  Carisso)  on  the 
south  side  and  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  pass.] 

ILAPERS.E.     Vid.  LAS.] 
422 


LAPETHUS  or  LAPATHUS  (\aTrq6of,  AaVaflof : 
Aa-t]6io<;,  AairrjOevc :  now  Lapitlw  or  Lapta),  an 
important  town  on  the  northern  coast  of  Cyprus, 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  east  of  the  Prom- 
ontorium  Crommyon. 

LAFIIRIA  (AaQpia),  a  surname  of  Diana  (Arte- 
mis) among  the  Calydonians,  from  whom  the 
worship  of  the  goddess  was  introduced  into 
Naupactus  and  Patrse,  in  Achaia.  The  name 
was  traced  back  to  a  hero,  Laphrius,  son  of 
Castalius,  who  was  said  to  have  instituted  her 
worship  at  Calydon. 

LAPHYSTIUS  (AafivoTiof),  a  mountain  in  Bceo- 
tia,  between  Coronea,  Lebadea,  and  Orchome- 
nus,  on  which  was  a  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
who  hence  bore  the  surname  Laphystius. 

LAPIDEI  CAMPI.     Vid.  CAMPI  LAPIDEI. 

LAPITHES  (Aanidijf),  son  of  Apollo  and  Stilbe, 
brother  of  Ceutaurus,  and  husband  of  Orsinome, 
the  daughter  of  Eurynomus,  by  whom  he  be- 
came the  father  of  Phorbas,  Triopas,  and  Peri- 
pbae.  He  was  regarded  as  the  ancestor  of  the 
LAPITH^E  in  the  mountains  of  Thessaly.  The 
Lapithse  were  governed  by  Pirithous,  who,  being 
a  son  of  Ixion,  was  a  half-brother  of  the  Cen- 
taurs. The  latter,  therefore,  demanded  their 
share  in  their  father's  kingdom,  and,  as  their 
claims  were  not  satisfied,  a  war  arose  between 
the  Lapithze  and  Centaurs,  which,  however,  was 
terminated  by  a  peace.  But  when  Pirithous 
married  Hippodamia,  and  invited  the  Centaurs 
to  the  marriage  feast,  the  latter,  fired  by  wine, 
and  urged  on  by  Mars  (Ares),  attempted  to  carry 
off  the  bride  and  the  other  women.  Thereupon 
a  bloody  conflict  ensued,  in  which  the  Centaurs 
were  defeated  by  the  Lapithae.  The  Lapithas 
are  said  to  have  been  the  inventors  of  bits  and 
bridles  for  horses.  It  is  probable  that  they  were 
a  Pelasgian  people,  who  defeated  the  less  civ- 
ilized Centaurs,  and  compelled  them  to  abandon 
Mount  Pelion. 

[LAPUEDUM  (now  Bayonne),  a  city  of  the  Tar- 
belli  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  on  the  River  Atur- 
rus.] 

LAB  or  LARS,  was  an  Etruscan  preenomen, 
borne,  for  instance,  by  Porsena  and  Tolumnius. 
From  the  Etruscans  it  passed  over  to  the  Ro- 
mans, whence  we  read  of  Lar  Herminius,  who 
was  consul  B.C.  448.  This  word  signified  lord, 
king,  or  hero  in  the  Etruscan. 

LARA.     Vid.  LARUNDA. 

LARANDA  (TO.  Au.pa.v6a, :  now  Larenda  or  Cara- 
mari),  a  considerable  town  in  the  south  of  Ly- 
caonia,  at  the  northern  foot  of  Mount  Taurus, 
in  a  fertile  district :  taken  by  storm  by  Perdic- 
cas,  but  afterward  restored.  It  was  used  by 
the  Isaurian  robbers  as  one  of  their  strongholds. 

LARENTIA.     Vid.  ACCA  LARENTIA. 

LARES,  inferior  gods  at  Rome.  Their  wor- 
ship was  closely  connected  with  that  of  the 
Manes,  and  was  analogous  to  the  hero  worship 
of  the  Greeks.  The  Lares  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes,  the  Lares  donnestici  and  Lares  pub- 
lid.  The  former  were  the  Manes  of  a  house 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  heroes.  The  Manes 
were  more  closely  connected  with  the  place  of 
burial,  while  the  Lares  were  more  particularly 
the  divinities  presiding  over  the  hearth  and  the 
whole  house.  It  was  only  the  spirits  of  good 
men  that  were  honored  as  Lares.  All  the  do 
mestic  Lares  were  headed  by  the  Lar  familia 


LARES. 


LARIUS  LAC  US. 


ris,  who  was  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
family.  He  was  inseparable  from  the  family; 
and  when  the  latter  changed  their  abode,  he 
went  with  them.  Among  the  Lares  publici  we 
have  mention  made  of  Lares  prcesiites  and  Lares 
compitales,  who  are  in  reality  the  same,  and 
differ  only  in  regard  to  the  place  or  occasion  of 
their  worship.  Servius  Tullius  is  said  to  have 
instituted  their  worship ;  and  when  Augustus 
improved  the  regulations  of  the  city,  he  also  re- 
newed the  worship  of  the  public  Lares.  Their 
name,  Lares  prcestites,  characterizes  them  as  the 
proteccing  spirits  of  the  city,  in  which  they  had 
a  temple  in  the  uppermost  part  of  the  Via  Sacra, 
that  is,  near  a  compitum,  whence  they  might 
be  called  Compitales.  This  temple  (Sacellum 
Larum  or  cedes  Larum)  contained  two  images, 
which  were  probably  those  of  Romulus  and  Re- 
mus. Now,  while  these  Lares  were  the  gen- 
eral protectors  of  the  whole  city,  the  Lares  com 
pitales  must  be  regarded  as  those  who  presided 
over  the  several  divisions  of  the  city,  which 
Avere  marked  by  the  compita  or  the  points  where 
two  or  more  streets  crossed  each  other,  and 
where  small  chapels  {cediculce)  were  erected  to 
them.  In  addition  to  the  Lares  prasstites  and 
compitales,  there  are  other  Lares  which  must 
be  reckoned  among  the  public  ones,  viz.,  the 
Lares  rurales,  who  were  worshipped  hi  the  coun- 
try ;  the  Lares  viales,  who  were  worshipped  on 
the  high  roads  by  travellers ;  and  the  Lares  ma- 
rini  or  permarini,  to  whom  P.  ^Emih'us  dedicated 
a  sanctuary  in  remembrance  of  his  naval  vic- 
tory over  Antiochus.  The.  worship  of  the  do- 
mestic Lares,  together  with  that  of  the  Penates 
and  Manes,  constituted  what  are  called  the 
Bacra  privata.  The  images  of  the  Lares,  in 
great  houses,  were  usually  in  a  separate  com- 
partment, called  cediculce  or  lararia.  They  were 
generally  represented  in  the  cinctus  Gabinus. 
Their  worship  was  very  simple,  especially  in 
early  times  and  in  the  country.  The  offerings 
were  set  before  them  in  patellae,  whence  they 
themselves  were  called  patellarii.  Pious  people 
made  offerings  to  them  every  day  ;  but  they 
were  more  especially  worshipped  on  the  calends, 
nones,  and  ides  of  every  month.  When  the  in- 
habitants of  the  house  took  their  meals,  some 
portion  was  offered  to  the  Lares,  and  on  joy- 
ful family  occasions  they  were  adorned  with 
wreaths,  and  the  lararia  were  thrown  open. 
When  the  young  bride  entered  the  house  of  her 
husband,  her  first  duty  was  to  offer  a  sacrifice 
to  the  Lares.  Respecting  the  pubh'c  worship 
of  the  Lares,  and  the  festival  of  the  Larcntalia, 
vid.  Diet,  of  Ant ',  art.  LABENTALIA,  COMPITAUA. 

LARES  (Adprjc; :  now  Alarbous),  a  city  of  North- 
ern Africa,  in  the  Carthaginian  territory  (Byza- 
cena),  southwest  of  Zama ;  a  place  of  some  im- 
portance at  the  time  of  the  war  with  Jugurtba. 

LAEGUS,  SCBIBONIUS.     Vid,  SCBIBONIUS. 

J,  AKIN  t  M  (Larinas,  at  is :  now  Lari^no),  a  town 
of  the  Frentani  (whence  the  inhabitants  are 
sometimes  called  Fretani  Larinates),  on  the 
River  Tifernus,  and  near  the  borders  of  Apulia, 
subsequently  a  Roman  municipium,  possessed 
a  considerable  territory  extending  down  to  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  The  town  of  Clitoria,  on  the 
coast,  was  subject  to  Larinum. 

LAEISSA  (A  tiptoed),  the  name  of  several  Pelas- 
gian  places,  whence  Larissa  is  called  in  my- 


thology the  daughter  of  Pelasgus.  L  In  Europe, 
1.  (Now  Larissa  or  Larza),  an  important  town 
of  Thessaly,  in  Pelasgiotis,  situated  on  the  Pe- 
neus,  in  an  extensive  plain.  It  was  once  the 
capital  of  the  Pelasgi,  and  had  a  democratical 
constitution,  but  subsequently  became  subject 
to  the  Macedonians.  It  retained  its  importance 
under  the  Romans,  and  after  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  became  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Thessaly. — 2.  Surnamed  CREMASTE 
(rj  Kpeuaa-?f),  another  important  town  of  Thes- 
saly, in  Phthiotis,  situated  on  a  height,  whence 
probably  its  name,  and  distant  twenty  stadia 
from  the  Maliau  Gulf. — IL  In  Asia.  1.  An  an- 
cient city  on  the  coast  of  the  Troad,  near  Ha- 
maxitus ;  ruined  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  war. 
— 2.  L.  PHBICONIS  (A.  17  QptKuvic.,  also  at  Arjpia- 
aai),  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Mysia,  near  Cyme 
(hence  called  i]  rrepl  rftv  KVUIJV),  of  Pelasgian 
origin,  but  colonized  by  the  JEolians,  and  made 
a  member  of  the  ^Eoh'c  confederacy.  It  was 
also  called  the  Egyptian  Larissa  (?/  PdyvKria), 
because  Cyrus  the  Great  settled  in  it  a  body  of 
his  Egyptian  mercenary  soldiers. — 3.  L.  EPHE- 
SIA  (A.  n  'Ecpsaia),  a  city  of  Lydia,  hi  the  plain 
of  the  Cayster,  on  the  northern  side  of  Mount 
Messogis,  northeast  of  Ephesus  ;  with  a  temple 
of  Apollo  Larissaeus. — 1.  In  Assyria,  an  ancient 
city  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  some 
distance  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  River  Zaba- 
tas  or  Lycus,  described  by  Xenophon  (Anab^ 
iii.,  4).  It  was  deserted  when  Xenophon  saw 
it;  but  its  brick  walls  still  stood,  twenty-five 
feet  thick,  one  hundred  feet  high,  and  two  para 
sangs  (=sixty  stadia=six  geographical  miles) 
in  circuit,  and  there  was  a  stone  pyramid  near 
it.  Xenophon  relates  the  tradition  that,  when 
the  empire  passed  from  the  Medes  to  the  Per- 
sians, the  city  resisted  all  the  efforts  of  the 
Persian  king  (i.  e.,  Cyrus)  to  take  it,  until  the 
inhabitants,  terrified  at  an  obscuration  of  the 
sun,  deserted  the  city.  Mr.  Layard  identifies 
the  site  of  Larissa  with  that  of  the  ruins  near 
Nimroud,  the  very  same  site  as  that  of  Nineveh. 
The  name  Larissa  is  no  doubt  a  corruption  of 
some  Assyrian  name  (perhaps  Al-Assur),  which 
Xenophon  naturally  fell  into  through  his  famil- 
iarity with  the  word  as  the  name  of  cities  in 
Greece. — 5.  In  Syria,  called  by  the  Syrians  Si- 
zara  (I,i^apa :  now  Kulat  Seijar),  a  city  in  the 
district  of  Apamene,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Orontes,  about  half  way  between  Apainea  and 
Epiphania. 

LAEISSUS  or  LAEISCS  (Adptaaof.  Aupiooc; :  now 
Risso),  a  small  river  forming  the  boundary  be- 
tween Achaia  and  Elis,  rises  in  Mount  Scollis, 
and  flows  into  the  Ionian  Sea. 

LA  ui  us  LACUS  (now  Lake  of  Como),  a  beauti- 
ful Lake  in  Gallia  Transpadaua,  running  from 
north  to  south,  through  which  the  River  Adda 
flows.  After  extending  about  fifteen  miles,  it 
is  divided  into  two  branches,  of  which  the  one 
to  the  southwest  is  about  eighteen  miles  in 
length,  and  the  one  to  the  southeast  about 
twelve  miles.  At  the  extremity  of  the  south- 
western branch  is  the  town  of  Comum ;  and  at 
the  extremity  of  the  southeastern  branch  the 
River  Adda  issues  out  of  the  lake.  The  beauty 
of  the  scenery  of  this  lake  is  praised  by  Pliny. 
He  had  several  villas  on  the  banks  of  the  lake, 
of  which  he  mentions  two  particularly ;  ouo 
423 


LARS   TOLUMNIUS. 


LATIUM. 


Railed  Comadia,  and  the  other  Tragcedia.  (Plia, 
JSp.,  ix,  7).  Some  believe  Comoedia  to  have 
been  situated  at  the  modern  Bellagio,  on  the 
promontory  which  divides  the  two  branches  of 
the  lake ;  and  Tragcedia  at  Lenno,  on  the  west- 
ern bank,  where  the  ucenery  is  more  wild.  The 
intermitting  fountain,  of  which  Pliny  gives  an 
account  in  another  letter  (Ep.,  iv.,  30),  is  still 
called  Pliniana. 

LARS  TOLUMNIUS.     Vid.  TOLUMNIUS. 

LARTIA  GENS,  patrician,  distinguished  at  the 
beginning  of  the  republic  through  two  of  its 
members,  T.  Lartius,  the  first  dictator,  and  Sp. 
Lartius,  the  companion  of  Horatius  on  the 
wooden  bridge.  The  name  soon  after  disap- 
pears entirely  from  the  annals.  The  Lartii 
were  of  Etruscan  origin,  as  is  clearly  shown  by 
their  name,  which  comes  from  the  Etruscan 
word  Lar  or  Lars.  Vid.  LAR. 

[LARTOL£ET.fi  (AapTohaiT/Tai),  a  people  in  the 
northeast  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis.] 

LARUNDA  or  LARA,  daughter  of  Almon,  was  a 
nymph  who  informed  Juno  of  the  connection 
between  Jupiter  and  Juturna ;  hence  her  name 
is  connected  with  hal.elv.  Jupiter  deprived  her 
of  her  tongue,  and  ordered  Mercury  to  conduct 
her  into  the  lower  world.  On  the  way  thither, 
Mercury  fell  in  love  with  her,  and  she  afterward 
gave  birth  to  two  Lares. 

LARVA     Vid.  LEMURES. 

LARYMNA  (A.upv(j.va),  the  name  of  two  towns 
en  the  River  Cephisus,  on  the  borders  of  Boeo- 
tia  and  Locris,  and  distinguished  as  Upper  and 
Lower  Larymna.  The  latter  was  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  and  the  former  a  little  way  inland. 

[LARYSIUS  MONS  (\apvcriov  opof,  TO),  a  mount- 
ain of  Laconia  sacred  to  Bacchus  (Dionysus).] 

LAS  (Aaf  :  Ep.  Aaaf :  now  Passava),  an  an- 
cient town  of  Laconia,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Laconian  Gulf,  ten  stadia  from  the  sea,  and 
south  of  Gytheum.  It  is  said  to  have  been  once 
destroyed  by  the  Dioscuri,  who  hence  received 
the  Surname  of  Lapersce,  or  the  Destroyers  of 
Las.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  it  had  ceased 
to  be  a  place  of  importance. 

LAS^EA  (Aaoaia),  a  town  in  the  east  of  Crete, 
not  far  from  the  Promontorium  Samonium,  men- 
tioned in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (xxvii.,  8). 

LASION  (A.aaiuv :  Aaoiuviof :  now  Lala),  a 
fortified  town  in  Elis,  on  the  frontiers  of  Arca- 
dia, and  not  far  from  the  confluence  of  the  Ery- 
manthus  and  the  Alpheus.  The  possession  of 
this  town  was  a  constant  source  of  dispute  be- 
tween the  Eleans  and  Arcadians. 

LASTHENES  (AaaQevris).  1.  An  Olynthian, 
•who,  together  with  Euthycrates,  betrayed  his 
country  to  Philip  of  Macedon,  by  whom  he  had 
been  bribed,  B.C.  347. — 2.  A  Cretan,  one  of  the 
principal  leaders  of  his  countrymen  in  their  war 
with  the  Romans.  He  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  by  Q.  Metellus,  67. 

LASCS  (Adaof),  one  of  the  principal  Greek  lyr- 
ic poets,  was  a  native  of  Hermione  in  Argolis. 
He  is  celebrated  as  the  founder  of  the  Athenian 
school  of  dithyrambic  poetry,  and  as  the  teacher 
of  Pindar.  He  was  contemporary  with  Simon- 
ides,  like  whom  he  lived  at  Athens,  under  the 
patronage  of  Hipparchus.  It  would  appear  that 
Lasus  introduced  a  greater  freedom,  both  of 
rhythm  and  of  music,  into  the  dithyrambic  Ode ; 
that  he  gave  it  a  more  artificial  "and  more  mi- 
424 


metic  character;  and  that  the  subjects  ol  hig 
poetry  embraced  a  far  wider  range  than  had 
been  customary. 

[LATAGUS,  a  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by  Mezen- 
tius  in  the  wars  of  ./Eneas  in  Italy.] 

LATERA  STAGNCM  (now  Etang  de  Magudont 
et  de  Perols),  a  lake  in  the  territory  of  Nemau- 
sus  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  connected  with  the 
sea  by  a  canal.  On  this  lake  was  a  fortress  of 
the  same  name  (Chateau  de  la  Latte). 

[LATERANUS,  L.  SEXTIUS.  1.  The  friend  and 
supporter  of  C.  Licinius  Stolo  in  his  attempt  to 
throw  open  the  consulship  to  the  plebeians  :  he 
was  tribune  of  the  plebs  with  Licinius  B.C.  376 
to  367,  and  was  elected  consul  B.C.  366,  being 
the  first  plebeian  who  had  obtained  that  dignity. 
— 2.  PLAUTIUS,  one  of  the  lovers  of  Messalina, 
wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  and  was,  in  con- 
sequence, condemned  to  death  by  the  emperor 
A.D.  48,  but  afterward  pardoned  ;  he  subse- 
quently took  part  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso 
against  Nero,  but  was  seized  and  put  to  death.] 
LATEREXSIS,  JUVENTIUS,  was  one  of  the  ac- 
cusers of  Plancius,  whom  Cicero  defended,  B.C. 
54.  Vid.  PLANCHJS.  He  was  praetor  in  51.  He 
served  as  legate  in  the  army  of  M.  Lepidus,  and 
when  the  soldiers  of  Lepidus  passed  over  to 
Antony,  Laterensis  put  an  end  to  his  life. 

LATHON,  LETHON,  LETHES,  LETH^EUS  (A.u6uv 
Doric,  ArjOuv,  A??0atof),  a  river  of  Cyrenaica  in 
Northern  Africa,  falling  into  a  Laeus  Hesperi- 
dum,  near  the  city  of  Hesperis  or  Berenice,  in 
the  region  which  the  early  Greek  navigators 
identified  with  the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides. 

LATIALIS  or  LATIARIS,  a  surname  of  Jupiter 
as  the  protecting  divinity  of  Latium.  The  Latin 
towns  and  Rome  celebrated  to  him  every  year 
the  feriae  Latinae,  on  the  Alban  Mount,  which 
were  conducted  by  one  of  the  Roman  consuls. 
Vid.  LATINUS. 

[LATINI.      Vid.  LATIUM. 

LAT!NUS.  1.  King  of  Latium,  son  of  Faunus 
and  the  nymph  Marica,  brother  of  Lavinius,  hus- 
band of  Amata,  and  father  of  Lavinia,  whom  he 
gave  in  marriage  to  ./Eneas.  Vid.  LAVINIA. 
This  is  the  common  tradition ;  but,  according 
to  Hesiod,  he  was  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe, 
and  brother  of  Agrius,  king  of  the  Tyrrhenians ; 
according  to  Hyginus,  he  was  a  son  of  Telem- 
achus  and  Circe  ;  while  others  describe  him 
as  a  son  of  Hercules  by  a  Hyperborean  wom- 
an, who  was  afterward  married  to  Faunus,  or 
as  a  son  of  Hercules  by  a  daughter  of  Faunus. 
According  to  one  account,  Latinus,  after  his 
death,  became  Jupiter  Latiaris,  just  as  Romulus 
became  Quirinus. — 2.  A  celebrated  player  hi 
the  farces  called  mimes  (vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v.) 
in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  with  whom  he  was  a 
great  favorite,  and  whom  he  served  as  a  delator. 
He  frequently  acted  as  mimus  with  Thymele  as 
mima. 

LATIUM  (f)  Aarivrf),  a  country  in  Italy,  inhab- 
ited by  the  LATINI.  The  origin  of  the  name  is 
uncertain.  Most  of  the  ancients  derived  it  from 
a  king  Latinus,  who  was  supposed  to  have  been 
a  contemporary  of  ./Eneas  (vid.  LATINUS)  ;  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  name  of  the  people 
was  transferred  to  this  fictitious  king.  Other 
ancient  critics  connected  the  name  with  the 
verb  latere,  either  because  Saturn  had  been 
i  hidden  in  the  country,  or  because  Italy  is  hidden 


LATIUM. 


LATIUM. 


between  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines  1  But 
neither  of  these  explanations  deserves  a  serious 
refutation.  A  modern  writer  derives  Latium 
from  latus  (like  Campania  from  campus),  and 
supposes  it  to  mean  the  "  flat  land ;"  but  the 
quantity  of  the  a  in  lotus  is  opposed  to  this  ety- 
mology. The  boundaries  of  Latium  varied  at 
different  periods.  1.  »In  the  most  ancient  times 
it  reached  only  from  the  River  Tiber  on  the 
n^rth,  to  the  River  Numicus  and  the  town  of 
Ardea  on  the  south,  and  from  the  sea-coast  on 
the  west  to  the  Alban  Mount  on  the  east  2. 
The  territory  of  Latium  was  subsequently  ex- 
tended southward ;  and  long  before  the  con- 
quest of  the  Latins  by  the  Romans,  it  stretched 
from  the  Tiber  on  the  north,  to  the  Promonto- 
rium  Circeium  and  Anxur  or  Tarracina  on  the 
south.  Even  in  the  treaty  of  peace  made  be- 
tween Rome  and  Carthage  in  B.C.  609,  we  find 
Antium,  Circeii,  and  Tarracina  mentioned  as 
belonging  to  Latium.  The  name  of  Latium  an- 
tiquum  or  wtus  was  subsequently  given  to  the 
country  from  the  Tiber  to  the  Promontorium  Cir- 
ceium. 3.  The  Romans  still  further  extended 
the  territories  of  Latium  by  the  conquest  of  the 
Hernici,  ^Equi,  Volsci,  and  Aurunci,  as  far  as  the 
LirLs  on  the  south,  and  even  beyond  this  river 
to  the  town  Sinuessa  and  to  Mount  Massicus. 
This  new  accession  of  territory  was  called  La- 
Hum  novum  or  adjectum.  Latium,  therefore,  in 
its  widest  signification,  was  bounded  by  Etruria 
on  the  north,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  the 
Tiber ;  by  Campania  on  the  south,  from  which  it 
was  separated  by  the  Liris ;  by  the  Tyrrhene  Sea 
on  the  west,  and  by  the  Sabine  and  Samnite 
tribes  on  the  east  The  greater  part  of  this 
country  is  an  extensive  plain  of  volcanic  origin, 
out  of  which  rises  an  isolated  range  of  mountains 
known  by  the  name  of  MONS  ALBANUS,  of  which 
the  Algidus  and  the  Tusculan  hills  are  branches. 
Part  of  this  plain,  on  the  coast  between  Antium 
and  Tarracina,  which  was  at  one  tune  well  culti- 
vated, became  a  marsh  in  consequence  of  the 
rivers  Nymphaeus,  Ufens,  and  Amasenus  find- 
ing no  outlet  for  their  waters  (vid.  POMPTIN.*: 
PALUHES)  ;  but  the  remainder  of  the  country 
was  celebrated  for  its  fertility  in  antiquity.  The 
Latiui  were  some  of  the  most  ancient  inhabit- 
ants of  Italy.  They  appear  to  have  been  a  Pe- 
lasgian  tribe,  and  are  frequently  called  Aborigi- 
nes. At  a  period  long  anterior  to  the  founda- 
tion of  Rome,  these  Pelasgians  or  Aborigines 
descended  into  the  narrow  ph. in  between  the 
Tiber  and  the  Numicus,  expelled  or  subdued 
the  Siculi,  the  original  inhabitants  of  that  dis- 
trict, and  there  became  known  under  the  name 
of  LatinL  These  ancient  Latins,  who  .were 
called  Prisci  Latiui,  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  later  Latins,  the  subjects  of  Rome,  formed 
a  league  or  confederation,  consisting  of  thirty 
states.  The  town  of  Alba  Longa  subsequently 
became  the  head  of  the  league.  This  town, 
•which  founded  several  colonies,  and  among 
others  Rome,  boasted  of  a  Trojan  origin ;  but 
the  whole  story  of  a  Trojan  settlement  in  Italy 
Is  probably  an  invention  of  later  times.  Al- 
though Rome  was  a  colony  from  Alba,  she  be- 
came powerful  enough  in  the  reign  of  her  third 
king,  lullus  Hostilius,  to  take  Alba  and  raze  it 
to  the  ground.  In  this  war  Alba  seems  to  have 
received  no  assistance  from  the  other  Latin 


towns.  Ancus  Marcius  and  Tarquinius  Priscus 
carried  on  war  successfully  with  several  other 
Latin  towns.  Under  Servius  Tullius  Rome  was 
admitted  into  the  Latin  league;  and  his  suc- 
cessor Tarquinius  Superbus  compelled  the  othel 
Latin  towns  to  acknowledge  Rome  as  the  head 
of  the  league,  and  to  become  dependent  upon 
the  latter  city.  But  upon  the  expulsion  of  the 
kings  the  Latins  asserted  their  independence, 
and  commenced  a  struggle  with  Rome,  which, 
though  frequently  suspended  and  apparently 
terminated  by  treaties,  was  as  often  renewed, 
and  was  not  brought  to  a  final  close  till  B.C. 
340,  when  the  Latins  were  defeated  by  the  Ro- 
mans at  the  battle  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  The 
Latin  league  was  now  dissolved,  and  the  Latins 
became  the  subjects  of  Rome.  The  following 
were  the  most  important  institutions  of  the 
Latins  during  the  time  of  their  independence : 
The  towns  of  Latium  were  independent  of  one 
another,  but  formed  a  league  for  purposes  of 
mutual  protection.  This  league  consisted,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  of  thirty  cities,  a  number 
which  could  not  be  exceeded.  Each  state  sent 
deputies  to  the  meetings  of  the  league,  which 
were  held  in  a  sacred  grove  at  the  foot  of  the 
Alban  Mount,  by  the  fountain  of  Ferentina.  On 
the  top  of  the  mountain  was  a  temple  of  Jupiter 
Latiaris,  and  a  festival  was  celebrated  there  in 
honor  of  this  god  from  the  earliest  times.  Thia 
festival,  which  was  called  the  Ferice  Latina,  is 
erroneously  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Tar- 
quinius Superbus,  in  commemoration  of  the  al- 
liance between  the  Romans  and  Latins.  It  is 
true,  however,  that  the  festival  was  raised  into 
one  of  much  greater  importance  when  Rome 
became  the  head  of  the  league  ;  for  it  was  now 
a  festival  common  both  to  Rome  and  Latium, 
and  served  to  unite  the  two  nations  by  a  reli- 
gious bond.  Having  thus  become  a  Roman  as 
well  as  a  Latin  festival,  it  continued  to  be  cele- 
brated by  the  Romans  after  the  dissolution  of 
the  Latin  league.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant^  art  FEEI^K. 
The  chief  magistrate  in  each  Latin  town  appears 
to  have  borne  the  title  of  dictator.  He  was 
elected  annually,  but  might  be  re-elected  at  the 
close  of  his  year  of  office.  Even  in  the  time 
of  Cicero  we  find  dictators  in  the  Latin  towns, 
as,  for  instance,  in  Lanuvium.  (Cic.,  pro  Mil^ 
10).  In  every  Latin  town  there  was  also  a  sen- 
ate and  a  popular  assembly,  but  the  exact  na- 
ture of  their  powers  is  unknown.  The  old  Latin 
towns  were  built  for  the  most  part  on  isolated 
hills,  the  sides  of  which  were  made  by  art  very 
steep  and  almost  inaccessible.  They  were 
surrounded  by  walls  built  of  great  polygonal 
stones,  the  remains  of  which  still  excite  our 
astonishment  On  the  conquest  of  the  Latins 
in  340,  eeveral  of  the  Latin  towns,  such  as  La- 
nuvium, Aricia,  Nomeutum,  Pedum,  and  Tus- 
culum,  received  the  Roman  franchise.  All  the 
other  towns  became  Roman  Socii,  and  are  men- 
tioned in  history  under  the  general  name  of  No- 
men  Latinum  or  Latini.  The  Romans,  however, 
granted  to  them  from  time  to  time  certain  rights 
and  privileges,  which  the  other  Socii  did  not 
enjoy;  and,  in  particular,  they  founded  many 
colonies,  consisting  of  Latins,  in  various  parts 
of  Italy.  These  Latin  colonies  formed  a  part 
of  the  Nomen  Latinum,  although  they  were  not 
situated  in  Latium.  Thus  the  Latini  came 
425 


LATMICUS. 


LAVINIUM. 


eventually  to  hold  a  certain  status  intermediate 
between  that  of  Roman  citizens  and  poregriui. 
(For  details,  vid.  Diet,  of  Antn  art.  LATINI.) 

LATMICUS  SINUS  (6  Aarfuicdf  KO^KCC),  a  gulf 
on  the  coast  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor,  into  which 
the  River  Mseander  fell,  named  from  Mount 
Latmus,  whiah  overhangs  it  Its  width  from 
Miletus,  which  stood  on  its  southern  side,  to 
Pyrrha,  was  about  thirty  stadia.  Through  the 
changes  effected  on  this  coast  by  the  Mceander, 
the  gulf  is  now  an  inland  lake,  called  Akces- 
Chai  or  Ufa-JB<usi. 

LATMUS  (A.UT/IOC  :  now  Monte  di  Palatia),  a 
mountain  in  (.'aria,  extending  in  a  southeastern 
direction  from  its  commencement  on  the  south- 
ern side  of  the  Maeander,  northeast  of  Miletus 
and  the  Sinus  Latmicus.  It  was  the  mytholog- 
ical scene  of  the  story  of  Luna  and  Endymiou, 
who  is  hence  called  by  the  Roman  poets  "  Lat- 
inius  heros"  and  "  Latmius  venator :"  he  had 
a  temple  on  the  mountain,  and  a  cavern  in  its 
side  was  shown  as  his  grave. 

LATOBRIGI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  who 
are  mentioned,  along  with  the  Tulingi  and  Rau- 
raci,  as  neighbors  of  the  Helvetil  They  prob- 
ably dwelt  near  the  sources  of  the  Rhine,  in 
Switzerland. 

LATONA.     Vid.  LETO. 

LATOPOLIS  (AaroTroAtf  :  ruins  at  Esneh},  a  city 
of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile, 
between  Thebes  and  Apollonopolis  ;  the  seat  of 
the  worship  of  the  Nile-fish  called  latus,  which 
was  the  symbol  of  the  goddess  Neith,  whom  the 
Greeks  identified  with  Athena. 

LATOVICI,  a  people  in  the  southwest  of  Pan- 
nonia,  on  the  River  Savus,  in  the  modern  Illyria 
and  Croatia. 

LATRO,  M.  PORCIUS,  a  celebrated  Roman  rhet- 
orician in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  was  a  Spaniard 
by  birth,  and  a  friend  and  contemporary  of  the 
elder  Seneca,  by  whom  he  is  frequently  men- 
tioned. His  school  was  one  of  the  most  fre- 
quented at  Rome,  and  he  numbered  among  his 
pupils  the  Poet  Ovid.  He  died  B.C.  4.  Many 
modern  writers  suppose  that  he  was  the  author 
of  the  Declamations  of  Sallust  against  Cicero, 
and  of  Cicero  against  Sallust 

[LATYMNUS  MONS  (Auru/zvof),  a  mountain  of 
Bruttium,  near  Croton.] 

LAUREACUM  or  LAURIACUM  (now  Lorch,  near 
Ens),  a  strongly  fortified  town  on  the  Danube, 
in  Noricum  Ripenge,  the  head-quarters  of  the 
second  legion,  and  the  station  of  a  Roman  fleet. 

LAURENTIA,  ACCA.     Vid.  ACCA  LAUBENTIA. 

LAURENTIUS  LYDDS.     Vid.  LYDUS. 

LAURENTCM  (Laurens,  -ntis :  now  Casale  di 
Copocotta,  not  Paterno),  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  of  Latium,  was  situated  on  a  height  be- 
tween Ostia  and  Ardea,  not  far  from  the  sea, 
and  was  surrounded  by  a  grove  of  laurels,  from 
which  the  place  was  supposed  to  have  derived 
its  name.  According  to  Virgil,  it  was  the  resi- 
dence of  King  Latinus  and  the  capital  of  Lati- 
um ;  and  it  is  certain  that  it  was  a  place  of  im- 
portance in  the  time  of  the  Roman  kings,  as  it 
is  mentioned  in  the  treaty  concluded  between 
Rome  and  Carthage  in  B.C.  509.  The  younger 
Pliny  and  the  Emperor  Commodus  had  villas 
at  Laurentum,  which  appears  to  have  been  a 
healthy  place,  notwithstanding  the  marshes  in 
the  neighborhood.  These  marshes  supplied  the 
426 


tables  of  the  Romans  with  excellent  boars.  In 
the  time  of  the  Antonines  Laurentum  was  united 
with  Lavinium,  from  which  it  was  only  six  miles 
distant,  so  that  the  two  formed  only  one  town, 
which  was  called  LAUROLAVINIUM,  and  its  in- 
habitants were  named  Laurentes  Lavinates. 

LACRETANUS  PORTUS,  a  harbor  of  Etruria,  on 
the  road  from  Populonia  to  Cosa. 
LAURIACUM.  Vid.  LAUREAOUII. 
LAUUIUM  (Aavpiov,  Aavpeiov),  a  mountain  In 
the  south  of  Attica,  a  little  north  of  the  Promon- 
toriurn  Sunium,  celebrated  for  its  silver  mines, 
which  in  early  times  were  so  productive  that 
every  Athenian  citizen  received  annually  ten 
drachmas.  On  the  advice  of  Themistocles,  the 
Athenians  applied  this  money  to  equip  two 
hundred  triremes  shortly  before  the  invasion 
of  Xerxes.  In  the  time  of  Xenophon  the  pro- 
duce of  the  mines  was  one  hundred  talents. 
They  gradually  became  less  and  less  productive, 
and  in  the  tune  of  Strabo  they  yielded  nothing. 
[LAUHOLAVINIUM.  Vid.  LAVINIUM.] 
LAURON  (now  Laury,  west  of  Xucar  in  Valen- 
cia), a  town  in  the  east  of  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis,  near  the  sea  and  the  River  Sucro,  celebrat- 
ed on  account  of  its  siege  by  Sertorius,  and  as 
the  place  where  Cn.  Pompey,  the  younger,  was 
put  to  death  after  the  battle  of  Munda. 

LAUS  (Auog:  Aalvof),  a  Greek  city  in  Lucania, 
situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  River  .  Laus, 
which  formed  the  boundary  between  Lucania 
and  Bruttium.  It  was  founded  by  the  Sybarites, 
after  their  own  city  had  been  taken  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Croton,  B.C.  510,  but  it  had  disap- 
peared in  the  time  of  Pliny.  The  gulf  into 
which  the  River  Laus  flowed  was  also  called 
the  Gulf  of  Laus. 

LAUS  POMPEII  (now  Lodi  Vecchio),  a  town  in 
Gallia  Cisalpina,  northwest  of  Placentia,  and 
southeast  of  Mediolanuin.  It  was  founded  by 
the  Boii,  and  was  afterward  made  a  municipium 
by  Pompeius  Strabo,  the  father  of  Pompeius 
Magnus,  whence  it  was  called  by  his  name. 

LAUSUS.  1.  Son  of  Mezentius,  king  of  thu 
Etruscans,  slain  by  ./Eneas. — 2.  Son  of  Numitor 
and  brother  of  Ilia,  killed  by  Amulius. 

LAUTUL^E,  a  village  of  the  Volsci  in  Latium, 
in  a  narrow  pass  between  Tarracina  and  Fundi. 

LAVERNA,  the  Roman  goddess  of  thieves  and 
impostors.     A  grove  was  sacred  to  her  on  the 
Via  Salaria,  and  she  had  an  altar  near  the  Porta 
Lavemalis,  which  derived  its  name  from  her. 
LAVICUM.     Vid.  LABICUM. 
LAVINIA,  daughter  of  Latinus  and  Arnata,  was 
betrothed  to  Turnus  (vid.  TURNUS),  but  was  aft- 
erward given  in  marriage  to  ./Eneas,  by  whom 
she  became  the  mother  of  ./Eneas  Silvius. 

LAVINIUM  (Laviniensis  :  now  Pratica),  an  an- 
cient town  of  Latium,  three  miles  from  the  sea 
and  six  miles  east  of  Laurentum,  on  the  Via 
Appia,  and  near  the  River  Numicus,  which  di- 
vided its  territory  from  that  of  Ardea.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  uEneas,  and  to  have 
been  called  Lavinium  in  honor  of  his  wife  La- 
vinia,  the  daughter  of  Latinus.  It  possessed  a 
temple  of  Venus,  common  to  all  the  Latins,  of 
which  the  inhabitants  of  Ardea  had  the  over- 
sight It  was  at  Lavinium  that  the  king  Titus 
Tatius  was  said  to  have  been  murdered.  La- 
vinium was  at  a  later  time  united  with  Lauren- 
ton*  ;  respecting  which,  vid.  LAURENTUM. 


LAZM. 


LELEGES. 


LAZJE  or  LAZI  (Aofat,  A.d£oi),  a  people  of  Col- 
chis, south  of  the  Pbasis. 

[LEA  (now  probably  Piano,  or  Pianosa),  a 
i mall  island  in  the  southern  part  of  the  jEgean 
Sea.] 

[LEADES  (Aedo^f),  son  of  Astacus,  according 
to  Apollodorus  slew  Eteocles  at  the  attack  on 
Thebes,  while  ^Eschylus  makes  Eteocles  to 
have  fallen  by  the  hand  of  Megareus.] 

LEJENA  (Aeatva),  an  Athenian  hetaera,  beloved 
by  Aristogiton  or  Harmodius.  On  the  murder 
of  Hipparchus  she  was  put  to  the  torture ;  but 
she  died  under  her  sufferings  without  making 
any  disclosure,  and,  if  we  may  believe  one  ac- 
count, she  bit  off  her  tongue  that  no  secret 
might  be  wrung  from  her.  The  Athenians  hon- 
ored her  memory  greatly,  and,  in  particular,  by 
a  bronze  statue  of  a  lioness  (7*£aiva)  without  a 
tongue,  in  the  vestibule  of  the  Acropolis. 

[LEAGRCS  (Aeay/sof),  son  of  Glaucon,  one  of 
the  commanders  of  the  Athenians  in  the  at- 
tempt to  colonize  Amphipolis,  B.C.  465,  perish- 
ed in  a  battle  with  the  Thracians  at  Drabescus 
or  Datus.] 

LEANDER  (A.elav6pog  or  Aeavdpof),  the  famous 
youth  of  Abydos,  who  was  in  love  with  Hero, 
the  priestess  of  Venus  (Aphrodite)  in  Sestus, 
and  swam  every  night  across  the  Hellespont  to 
visit  her,  and  returned  before  daybreak.  Once 
during  a  stormy  night  he  perished  in  the  waves. 
Next  morning  his  corpse  was  washed  on  the 
coast  of  Sestus,  whereupon  Hero  threw  herself 
iuto  the  sea.  This  story  is  the  subject  of  the 
poem  of  Musseus,  entitled  De  Amore  Herus  et 
Leandri  (vid.  MUS^EUS),  and  is  also  mentioned 
by  Ovid  (Her.,  xviil,  19)  and  Virgil  (Georg.,  iii, 
258). 

LEARCHUS  (Aea/^of).  1.  Vid.  ATHAMAS. — 2. 
Of  Rhegium,  one  of  those  Dsedalean  artists  who 
stand  on  the  confines  of  the  mythical  and  his- 
torical periods,  and  about  whom  we  have  ex- 
tremely uncertain  information.  One  account 
made  him  a  pupil  of  Daedalus," another  of  Dipce- 
nus  and  Scyflis. 

LEBADEA  (A.e6d6eta :  iiow  Livadhia),  a  town 
in  Bceotia,  west  of  the  Lake  Copais,  between 
Chaeronea  and  Mount  Helicon,  at  the  foot  of  a 
rock  from  which  the  River  Hercyna  flows.  In 
a  cave  of  this  rock,  close  to  the  town,  was  the 
celebrated  oracle  of  Trophonius,  to  which  the 
place  owed  its  importance. 

[LEB^KA  (AefaiJ?),  an  ancient  city  in  Upper 
Macedonia,  mentioned  only  by  Herodotus  (viiL, 
137) ;  not  a  trace  of  it  now  exists.] 

LBBEDOS  (Ae6eoV>f  :  \e6ediof),  one  of  the  twelve 
cities  of  the  Ionian  confederacy,  in  Asia  Minor, 
stood  on  the  coast  of  Lydia,  between  Colophon 
and  Teos,  ninety  stadia  east  of  the  promontory 
of  Myonnesus.  It  was  said  to  have  been  built 
at  the  time  of  the  Ionian  migration,  on  the  site 
of  an  earlier  Cariau  city ;  and  it  flourished, 
chiefly  by  commerce,  until  Lysimachus  trans- 
planted most  of  its  inhabitants  to  Ephesus. 
Near  it  were  some  mineral  springs,  which  still 
exist  near  Ekklesia,  but  no  traces  remain  of  the 
city  itself. 

LEBEN  or  LKBENA  (Ae&ijv,  AcCr/vci),  a  townon 
the  southern  coast  of  Crete,  ninety  stadia  south 
«ast  of  Gortyna,  of  which  it  was  regarded  as 
the  harbor  It  possessed  a  celebrated  temple 
of  ^Esculapius. 


LEBIOTHCS  (A.i6iv6of :  now  Lebitha),  an  island 
in  the  .dEgaean  Sea,  one  of  the  Sporades,  west 
of  Calymna,  east  of  Amorgos,  and  north  of  As- 
typalaea. 

LECH^EUM  (TO  Aexalov :  Asxalof),  one  of  the 
two  harbors  of  Corinth,  with  which  it  was  con- 
j  nected  by  two  long  walls.  It  was  twelve  stadia 
from  Corinth,  was  situated  on  the  Corinthian 
Gulf,  and  received  all  the  ships  which  came 
from  Italy  and  Sicily.  It  possessed  a  temple 
of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  who  was  hence  sur- 
named  Lechaeus. 

LECTUM  (TO  A.EKTOV  :  now  Cape  Baba,  or  S.  Ma- 
ria), the  southwestern  promontory  of  the  Troad, 
is  formed  where  the  western  extremity  of  Mount 
Ida  juts  out  into  the  sea,  opposite  to  the  north- 
ern side  of  the  island  of  Lesbos.  It  was  the 
southern  limit  of  the  Troad ;  and,  under  the 
Byzantine  emperors,  the  northern  limit  of  the 
province  of  Asia.  An  altar  was  shown  here  in 
Strabo's  time,  which  was  said  to  have  been 
erected  by  Agamemnon  to  the  twelve  chief  gods 
of  Greece. 

LEDA  (A??da),  daughter  of  Thestius,  whence 
she  ia  called  Thestias,  and  wife  of  Tyndareus, 
king  of  Sparta.  One  night  she  was  embraced 
both  by  her  husband  and  by  Jupiter  (Zeus) ;  by 
the  former  she  became  the  mother  of  Castor 
and  Clytaemnestra,  by  the  latter  of  Pollux  and 
Helena,  According  to  Homer  ((M,  xi.,  298), 
both  Castor  and  Pollux  were  sons  of  Tyndareus 
and  Leda,  while  Helena  is  described  as  a  daugh- 
ter of  Jupiter  (Zeus).  Other  traditions  reverse 
the  story,  making  Castor  and  Pollux  the  sons 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  Helena  the  daughter  of 
Tyndareus.  According  to  the  common  legend, 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  visited  Leda  in  the  form  of  a 
swan ;  and  she  brought  forth  two  eggs,  from 
the  one  of  which  issued  Helena,  and  from  the 
other  Castor  and  Pollux.  The  visit  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  to  Leda  in  the  form  of  a  swan  was  fre- 
quently represented  by  ancient  artists.  The 
Roman  poets  sometimes  call  Helena  Ledcea,  and 
Castor  and  Pollux  Ledcei  Dii. 

LEDON  (Asduv),  a  town  in  Phocis,  northwest 
of  Tithorea;  the  birth-place  of  Philomelus,  the 
commander  of  the  Phocians  in  the  Sacred  war ; 
it  was  destroyed  in  this  war. 

LEDUS  or  LEDUM  (now  Les  or  Lez,  near  Mont- 
pellier),  a  small  river  in  Gallia  Narbonensis. 

LEGJS  (Airyai  or  A^yef),  a  people  on  the  south- 
ern shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  belonging  to  the 
same  race  as  the  Cadusii.  A  branch  of  them 
was  found  by  the  Romans  in  the  northern 
mountains  of  Albania,  at  the  time  of  Pompey's 
expedition  into  those  regions. 

LEGIO  SEPTIMA  GEMINA  (now  Leon),  a  towu  in 
Hispauia  Tarraconensis,  in  the  country  of  the 
Astures,  which  was  originally  the  bead-quarters 
of  the  legion  so  called. 

LEITUS  (Ajytroc),  son  of  Alector  or  Altctryon 
by  Cleobule,  and  father  of  Peneleus,  was  one 
of  the  Argonauts,  and  commanded  the  Boeo- 
tians in  the  war  against  Troy. 

LELANTUS   CAMPUS  (rd    At/havTov   nediov),   a 

plain  in  Eubcea,  between  Eretria  and  Chalcis, 

for  the  possession  of  which   these    two  cities 

often   contended.      It   contained   warm   springs 

I  and  mines  of  iron  and  copper,  but  was  subject 

'  to  frequent  earthquakes. 

LELEGES  (ASAcycf),  an  ancient  race  which  in- 
427 


LELEX. 


LENTIENSES. 


habited  Greece  before  the  Hellenes.  They  are 
frequently  mentioned  along  with  the  Pelasginns 
as  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece. 
Some  writers  erroneously  identify  them  with 
the  Pelasgians,  but  their  character  and  habits 
were  essentially  different:  the  Pelasgians  were 
a  peaceful  and  agricultural  people,  whereas  the 
Lelegea  were  a  warlike  and  migratory  race. 
They  appear  to  have  first  taken  possession  of 
the  coasts  and  the  islands  of  Greece,  and  after- 
ward to  have  penetrated  into  the  interior.  Pi- 
racy was  probably  their  chief  occupation ;  and 
they  are  represented  as  the  ancestors  of  the 
Teleboans  and  the  Taphians.  who  sailed  as  far 
as  Phoenicia,  and  were  aotorious  for  their  pira- 
cies. The  coasts  of  Arcarnania  and  ^Etolia  ap- 
pear to  have  been  inhabited  by  Leleges  at  the 
earliest  times,  and  from  thence  they  spread 
over  other  parts  of  Greece.  Thus  we  tind  them 
in  Phocis  and  Locris,  in  Bo3otia,  in  Megaris,  in 
Laconia,  which  is  said  to  have  been  more  an- 
ciently called  Lelegia,  in  Elis,  iu  Eubcea,  in  sev- 
eral of  the  islands  of  the  ^Egaean  Sea,  and  also 
on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Caria,  Ionia, 
and  the  south  of  Troas.  The  origin  of  the  Lel- 
eges is  uncertain.  Many  of  the  ancients  con- 
nected them  with  the  Oarians,  and  according 
to  Herodotug  (i.,  171),  the  Leleges  were  the 
same  as  the  Carians ;  but  whether  there  was 
any  real  connection  between  these  people  can 
not  be  determined.  The  name  of  the  Leleges 
was  derived,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  an- 
cients, from  an  ancestor  Lelex,  who  is  called 
king  either  of  Megaris  or  of  Lacedaemon.  Ac- 
cording to  some  traditions,  this  Lelex  came 
from  Egypt,  and  was  the  son  of  Neptune  (Posei- 
don) and  Libya  :  but  the  Egyptian  origin  of  the 
people  Was  evidently  an  invention  of  later  times. 
The  Leleges  must  be  regarded  as  a  branch  of 
the  great  Indo-Germanic  race,  who  became 
gradually  incorporated  with  the  Hellenes,  aud 
thus  ceased  to  exist  as  an  independent  people. 

LELEX.     Vid.  LELEGES. 

LEMANNUS  or  LEMAMJS  LACUS  (now  Lake  of 
Geneva),  a  large  lake  formed  by  the  River  Rhod- 
anus,  was  the  boundary  between  the  old  Roman 
province  in  Gaul  and  the  land  of  the  Helvetii. 
Its  greatest  length  is  fifty-five  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  six  miles. 

[LEMANUS  FOETUS,  a  harbor  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Britain,  directly  south  of  Durovernum, 
and  supposed  to  correspond  to  the  modern 
Lymne] 

LEMNOS  (Ajy/wof  :  A^/mof,  fern.  $r)p>iac, :  now 
Stalimene,  i.  e^  elf  rav  ATJ/WOV),  one  of  the  larg- 
est islands  in  the  uEgaean  Sea,  was  situated 
nearly  midway  between  Mount  Athos  and  the 
Hellespont,  and  about  twenty-two  miles  south- 
west of  Imbros.  Its  area  is  about  one  hundred 
and  forty-seven  square  miles.  In  the  earliest 
times  it  appears  to  have  contained  only  one 
town,  which  bore  the  same  name  as  the  island 
(Horn.,  R,  xiv.,  299) ;  but  at  a  later  period  we 
read  of  two  towns,  Myriua  (now  Palceo  Castro) 
on  the  west  of  the  island,  and  Hephaestia  or 
Hephaestias  (near  Rapanidi)  on  the  northwest, 
with  a  harbor.  Lemnos  was  sacred  to  Hephaes- 
tus (Vulcan),  who  is  said  to  have  fallen  here 
when  Zeus  (Jupiter)  hurled  him  down  from 
Olympus.  Hence  the  workshop  of  the  god  is 
aometunes  placed  in  this  islanif.  The  legend 
428 


appears  to  have  arisen  from  the  volcanic  nature 
of  Lemnos,  which  possessed  in  antiquity  a  vol- 
cano called  Mosychlus  (Mocn^Aof).  The  island 
still  bears  traces  of  having  been  subject  to  the 
action  of  volcanic  fire,  though  the  volcano  has 
long  since  disappeared.  The  most  ancient  in- 
habitants of  Lemnos,  according  to  Homer,  were 
the  Thracian  Sinties;  a  name,  however,  which 
probably  only  signifies  robbers  (Stvnef,  from 
aivofiai).  When  the  Argonauts  landed  at  Lem 
nos,  they  are  said  to  have  found  it  inhabited 
only  by  women,  who  had  murdered  all  their 
husbands,  and  had  chosen  as  their  queen  Hyp- 
sipyle,  the  daughter  of  Thoas,  the  king  of  the 
island.  Vid.  HYSIPYLE.  Some  of  the  Argo- 
nauts settled  here,  and  became  by  the  Lemnian 
women  the  fathers  of  the  Minyae,  the  later  in- 
habitants of  the  island.  The  Minyae  are  said 
to  have  been  driven  out  of  the  island  by  the 
Pelasgians,  who  had  been  expelled  from  Attica. 
These  Pelasgians  are  further  said  to  have  car- 
ried away  from  Attica  some  Athenian  women ; 
but,  as  the  children  of  these  women  despised 
their  half-brothers,  born  of  Pelasgian  women, 
the  Pelasgians  murdered  both  them  and  their 
children.  In  consequence  of  this  atrocity,  and 
of  the  former  murder  of  the  Lemnian  husbands 
by  the  wives,  Lemnian  Deeds  became  a  proverb 
in  Greece  for  all  atrocious  acts.  Lemnos  was 
afterward  conquered  by  one  of  the  generals  of 
Darius ;  but  Miltiades  delivered  it  from  the  Per- 
sians, and  made  it  subject  to  Athens,  in  whose 
power  it  remained  for  a  long  time.  Pliny  speaks 
of  a  remarkable  labyrinth  at  Lemnos,  but  no 
traces  of  it  have  been  discovered  by  modern 
travellers.  The  principal  production  of  the  isl- 
and was  a  red  earth  called  terra  Lemnia  or  sigil- 
lata,  which  was  employed  by  the  ancient  physi- 
cians as  a  remedy  for  wounds  and  the  bites  of 
serpents,  and  which  is  still  much  valued  by  the 
Turks  and  Greeks  for  its  supposed  medicinal 
virtues.  . 

LEMONIA,  one  of  the  country  tribes  of  Rome, 
named  after  a  village  Lemonium,  situated  on 
the  Via  Latina,  before  the  Porta  Capena, 

LEMOVICES,  a  people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  be- 
tween the  Bituriges  and  Arverni,  whose  chief 
town  was  Augustoritum,  subsequently  called 
Lemovices,  the  modern  Limoges. 

LEMOVII,  a  people  of  Germany,  mentioned 
along  with  the  Rugii,  who  inhabited  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  in  the  modern  Pomerania. 

LEMUEES,  the  spectres  or  spirits  of  the  dead. 
Some  writers  describe  Lemures  as  the  common 
name  for  all  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  and  divide 
them  into  two  classes;  the  Lares,  or  the  souls 
of  good  men,  and  the  Larvae,  or  the  souls  of 
wicked  men.  But  the  common  idea  was  that 
the  Lemures  and  Larvce  were  the  same.  They 
were  said  to  wander  about  at  night  as  spectres, 
and  to  torment  and  frighten  the  living.  ID 
order  to  propitiate  them,  the  Romans  celebra- 
ted the  festival  of  the  Lemuralia  or  Lcmuria, 
Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq^  s.  v. 

LEN^EUS  (Ar/valof),  a  surname  of  Bacchus 
(Dionysus),  derived  from  2.t]vo<;,  the  wine-presi 
or  the  vintage. 

LENTIA  (now  Linz),  a  town  in  Noricum,  on. 
the  Danube. 

LENTIENSES,  a  tribe  of  the  Alemanni,  who 
lived  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Lacus  Brig- 


LENTO,  CJ2SENNIUS. 

aulinus  (now  Lake  of  Constance),  in  the  modern 
Linzgau. 

LENTO,  C^ESENNIUS,  a  follower  of  M.  Antony. 
He  was  one  of  Antony's  seven  agrarian  commis- 
sioners (septemviratw)  in  B.C.  44,  for  apportion- 
ing the  Campanian  and  Leontine  lands,  whence 
Cicero  terms  him  divisor  Italia. 

LKNTULUS,  CORNELIUS,  one  of  the  haughtiest 
patrician  families  at  Rome ;  so  that  Cicero  coins 
the  words  Appietas  and  Lentulitas  to  express  the 
qualities  of  the  high  aristocratic  party  (ad  Fam., 
hi.,  7).     The  name  was  derived  from  lens,  like 
Cicero  from  deer.      1.  L.,   consul  B.C.  327,  le- 
gate in  the  Caudine  campaign  321,  and  dictator 
320,  when  he  avenged  lie  disgrace  of  the  Fur- 
culae  Caudinae.     This  was  indeed  disputed  (Liv., 
ix.,  15);  but  his  descendants  at  least  claimed 
the  honor  for  him,  by  assuming  the  agnomen  of 
Caudinus. — 2.   L.,  surnamed  CAUDIXUS,  pontifex 
maximus,  and  consul  237,  when  he  triumphed 
over  the  Ligurians.      He  died  213. — 3.  P.,  sur- 
named CAUDINUS,  served  with  P,  Scipio  in  Spain 
210,  praetor   204,  one  of  the  ten   ambassadors 
sent  to   Philip  of  Macedon  196. — 1.  P.,  praetor 
in  Sicily  214,  and  continued  in  his  province  for 
the  two  following  years.     In  189  he  was   one 
of  ten   ambassadors   sent  into   Asia  after    the 
submission  of  Antiochus. — 5.  CN.,  quaestor   212, 
curule  aedile   204,  consul  201,  and  proconsul  in 
Hither  Spain  199. — 6.  L.,  praetor  in  Sardinia  211, 
succeeded  Scipio  as  proconsul  in  Spain,  where 
he  remained  for  eleven  years,  and  on  his  return 
was  only  allowed  an  ovation,  because  he  only 
held  proconsular  rank.     He  was  consul  199,  and 
the  next  year  proconsul  in  GauL — 7.  L.,  curule 
aedile  163,  consul  156,  censor  147. — 8.  P.,  curule 
aedile  with  Scipio  Nasica  169,  consul  suffectus 
with  C.  Domitius  162,  the  election  of  the  former 
consuls   being  declared  informal     He   became 
princeps  senatus,  and  must  have  lived  to  a  good 
old  age,  since  he  was    wounded  in  the  contest 
with     C.   Gracchus    in   121. — 9.    P.,   surnamed 
SURA,  the  man  of  chief  note   in  Catiline's  crew. 
He  was  quaestor  to  Sulla  in  81 :  before  him  and 
L.  Triarius,  Verres  had  to  give  an  account  of 
the  moneys  he  had  received  as  quaestor  in  Cisal- 
pine GauL     He  was  soon   after  himself  called 
to  account  for  the  same  matter,   but  was  ac- 
quitted.   It  is  said  that  he  got  his  cognomen  of 
Sura    from    his  conduct  on    this    occasion ;  for 
when  Sulla  called  him  to  account,  he  answer- 
ed by  scornfully  putting  out  his  leg,  "  like  boys," 
says  Plutarch,  "when  they  make  a  blunder  in 
playing  at  ball."      Other  persons,  however,  had 
borne  the  name  before,  one  perhaps  of  the  Len- 
tulus  family.     In  75  he  was  praetor ;  and  Hor- 
tensius,  pleading    before   such  a  j\idge,  had  no 
difficulty  iu  procuring  the  acquittal  of  Terentius 
Varro  when  accused  of  extortion.     In  71   he 
was  consul     But  in  the  next  year  he  was  eject- 
ed from  the  senate,  with  sixty-three  others,  for 
infamous  life  and  manners.      It  was  this,  prob- 
ably, that  led  him  to  join  Catiline  and  his  crew. 
From  his  distinguished  birth  and  high  rank  lie 
calculated  on  becoming  chief  of  the  conspiracy  ; 
and  a  prophecy  of  the  Sibylline  books  was  ap- 
plied by  flattering   haruspices  to   him.      Three 
Cornelii  were  to    rule  Rome,   and  he  was   the 
third  after  Sulla  aud  Cinua ;  the  twentieth  year 
after  the  burning  of  the  Capitol,  <fcc.,  was  to  be 
fatal  to  the  city.    To  gain  power,  and  recover 


LENTULUS,  CORNELIUS. 

place  in  the  senate,  he  became  praetor  again 
in  63.  When  Catiline  quitted  the  city  for  Etru- 
ria,  Lentulus  was  left  as  chief  of  the  home  con 
spirators,  and  his  irresolution  probably  saved 
the  city  from  being  fired,  for  it  was  by  his 
over-caution  that  the  negotiation  with  the  am- 
bassadors of  the  Allobroges  was  entered  into : 
these  unstable  allies  revealed  the  secret  to  the 
consul  Cicero,  who  directed  them  to  feign  com- 
pliance with  the  conspirators'  wishes,  and  thus 
to  obtain  written  documents  which  might  be 
brought  in  evidence  against  them.  The ,  well- 
known  sequel  will  be  found  under  the  life  of 
Catiline.  Lentulus  was  deposed  from  the  prae- 
torship,  and  was  strangled  in  the  Capitoline 
prison  on  the  5th  of  December  His  step-son 
Antony  pretended  that  Cicero  refused  to  deliver 
up  his  corpse  for  burial. — 10.  P.,  surnamed  SPIN- 
THER.  He  receiver!  this  nickname  from  his  re- 
semblance to  the  a^tor  Spinther.  Caesar  com- 
monly calls  him  by  ihis  name:  not  so  Cicero; 
but  there  could  be  no  harm  in  it,  for  he  used  it 
on  his  coins  when  propraetor  in  Spain,  simply  to 
distinguish  himself  from  the  many  of  the  same 
family  ;  and  his  son  bore  it  after  him.  He  was 
curule  aedile  in  63,  the  year  of  Cicero's  consul- 
ship, and  was  intrusted  with  the  care  of  the 
apprehended  conspirator,  P.  Sura  (vid.  No.  9). 
His  games  were  long  remembered  for  their 
splendor;  but  his  toga,  edged  with  Tyrian  pur- 
ple, gave  offence.  He  was  praetor  in  60,  and  by 
Caesar's  interests  he  obtained  Hither  Spain  for 
his  next  year's  province,  where  he  remained 
into  part  of  58.  In  57  he  was  consul,  which 
dignity  he  also  obtained  by  Caesar's  support.  In 
his  consulship  he  moved  for  the  immediate  re- 
call of  Cicero,  brought  over  his  colleague  Me- 
tellus  Nepos  to  the  same  views,  and  bis  serv- 
ices were  gratefully  acknowledged  by  Cicero 
Now,  therefore,  notwithstanding  his  obligations 
to  Caesar,  he  had  openly  taken  part  with  the 
aristocracy.  He  received  Cilicia  as  his  prov- 
ince, but  he  attempted  in  vain  to  obtain  a  de- 
cree of  the  senate  charging  him  with  the  office 
of  restoring  Ptolemy  Auletes,  the  exiled  king 
of  Egypt  He  remained  as  proconsul  in  Cilicia 
from  56  till  July,  53,  and  obtained  a  triumph, 
though  not  till  51.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  in  49  he  joined  the  Pompeian  party. 
He  fell  into  Caesar's  hands  at  Corfinium,  but 
was  dismissed  by  the  latter  uninjured.  He  then 
joined  Pompey  in  Greece :  and  after  the  battle 
of  Pharsalia,  he  followed  Pompey  to  Egypt,  and 
got  safe  to  Rhodes. — 11.  P.,  suruamed  SPIN- 
THER, son  of  No.  10,  followed  Pompey 's  for- 
tunes with  his  father.  He  was  pardoned  by 
Caesar,  and  returned  to  Italy.  In  45  he  was 
divorced  from  his  abandoned  wife,  Metella. 
(Comp.  Hon,  Scrm.,  ii,  3,  239.)  After  the  mur- 
der of  Caesar  (44)  he  joined  the  conspirators. 
He  served  with  Cassius  against  Rhodes  ;  with 
Brutus  in  Lycia. — 12.  CN.,  surnamed  CLODI- 
ANtw,  a  Claudius  adopted  into  the  Lentulus  fam- 
ily. He  was  consul  in  72  with  L.  Gellius  Publi- 
cola.  In  the  war  with  Spartacus  both  he  and 
his  colleague  were  defeated,  but  after  their  con- 
sulship. With  the  same  colleague  he  held  the 
censorship  in  70,  and  ejected  sixty-three  mem- 
bers from  the  senate  for  infamous  life,  among' 
whom  were  Lentulus  Sura  (rid.  No.  9)  aud  C. 
Antouius,  afterward  Cicero's  colleague  in  the 
429 


LEO. 


LEOCHARES. 


consulship.  Yet  the  majority  of  those  expellee 
were  acquitted  by  the  courts,  and  restored ;  anc 
Lentulus  supported  the  Manilian  law,  appoint- 
ing Pompey  to  the  command  against  Mithra- 
dates.  As  an  orator  he  concealed  his  want  of 
talent  by  great  skill  and  art,  and  by  a  good  voice 
— 18.  L.,  surnamed  Caus,  appeared  in  61  as  the 
chief  accuser  of  P.  Clodius  for  violating  the 
mysteries  of  the  Bona  Dea.  In  58  he  was  prae- 
tor, and  in  49  consul  with  C.  Marcellus.  He 
was  raised  to  the  consulship  in  consequence  of 
his  being  a  known  enemy  of  Caesar.  He  did  all 
he  could  to  excite  his  wavering  party  to  take 
arms  and  meet  Caesar:  he  called  Cicero  cow- 
ardly ;  blamed  him  for  seeking  a  triumph  at 
such  a  time  ;  urged  war  at  any  price,  in  the 
hope,  says  Caesar  (B.C.,  i.,  4),  of  retrieving  his 
ruined  fortunes,  and  becoming  another  Sulla. 
It  was  mainly  at  Lentulus's  instigation  that 
the  violent  measures  passed  the  senate  early 
in  the  year,  which  gave  the,  tribunes  a  pretence 
for  flying  to  Caesar  at  Ravenna  He  himself 
fled  from  the  city  at  the  approach  of  Caesar, 
and  afterward  crossed  over  to  Greece.  After 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia  he  fled  to  Egypt,  and 
arrived  there  the  clay  after  Pompey's  .murder. 
On  landing  he  was  apprehended  by  young  Ptole- 
my's ministers,  and  put  to  death  in  prison. — 14. 
L.,  surnamed  NIGER,  flamen  of  Mars.  In  57  he 
was  one  of  the  priests  to  whom  was  referred 
the  question  whether  the  site  of  Cicero's  house 
was  consecrated  ground.  In  56  he  was  one  of 
the  judges  in  the  case  of  P.  Sextius,  and  he  died 
in  the  same  year,  much  praised  by  Cicero. — 15. 
L.,  son  of  the  last,  and  also  flamen  of  Mars. 
He  defended  M.  Scaurus  in  54,  when  accused 
of  extortion  he  accused  Gabinius  of  high  trea- 
son about  the  same  time,  but  was  suspected  of 
collusion.  In  the  Philippics  he  is  mentioned  as 
a  friend  of  Antony's. — 16.  Cossus,  surnamed 
G^ETULICUS,  consul  B.C.  1,  was  sent  into  Africa 
in  A.D.  6,  where  he  defeated  the  Gaetuli ;  hence 
his  surname.  On  the  accession  of  Tiberius,  A. 
D.  14,  he  accompanied  Drusus,  who  was  sent 
to  quell  the  mutiny  of  the  legions  in  Pannonia. 
He  died  25,  at  a  very  great  age,  leaving  behind 
him  an  honorable  reputation. — 17.  CN.,  sur- 
named G^ETULICUS,  son  of  the  last,  consul  A. 
D.  26.  He  afterward  had  the  command  of  the 
legions  of  Upper  Germany  for  ten  years,  and 
was  very  popular  among  the  troops.  In  39  he 
was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Caligula,  who  fear- 
ed his  influence  with  the  soldiers.  He  was  an 
historian  and  a  poet ;  but  we  have  only  three 
lines  of  his  poems  extant,  unless  he  is  the  author 
of  nine  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  in- 
scribed with  the  name  of  Gaetulicus. 

LEO  or  LEON  (A.euv).     1.  Also  called  LEONIDES 
(Aeuvitirjc),  of  Heraclea  on  the  Pontus,  disciple 
of  Plato,  was  one  of  the  conspirators  who,  with 
their  leader  Chios,  assassinated   Clearchus,  ty- 
rant of  Heraclea.  B.C.  353. — 2.    Of  Byzantium, 
a  rhetorician  and  historical  writer  of  the  age  of 
Philip  and  Alexander   the  Great. — 3.  Diaconus 
or  the  Deacon,  Byzantine  historian  of  the  tenth 
century.       His  history,  in  ten    books,  includes 
the  period   from  the  Cretan  expedition  of  Ni- 
cephoma  Phocas,   in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  I 
Romanus  II.,  A.D.  959,  to  the  death  of  Joannes 
L  Zimisces,  975.      The  style  of  Leo  is  vicious :  j 
he  employs  unusual  and  inappropriate  words  > 
430 


(many  of  them  borrowed  from  Homer,  Agathias 
the  historian,  and  the  Septuagiut),  in  the  place 
of  simple  and  common  ones  ;  and  he  abounds  in 
tautological  phrases.  His  history,  however,  is 
a  valuable  contemporary  record  of  a  stirring 
time,  honestly  and  fearlessly  written.  Edited 
for  the  first  time  by  Hase,  Paris,  1818.  —  4.  Gram- 
maticus,  cue  of  the  continuators  of  Byzantine 
history  from  the  period  when  Thcophanes  leaves 
off  His  work,  entitled  Chronographia,  extends 
from  the  accession  of  Leo  V.  the  Armenia!', 
813,  to  the  death  of  Romanus  Lecapenus,  944. 
Edited  with  Theophanes  by  Combefis,  Paris, 
1655  ;  [reprinted  in  the  collection  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Historians  with  an  emended  text  by  Bek- 
ker,  Bonn.,  1842.]  —  5.  Archbishop  of  Thessa- 
lonica,  an  eminent  Byzantine  philosopher  and 
ecclesiastic  of  the  ninth  century.  His  works 
are  lost,  but  he  is  frequently  mentioned  in  terms 
of  the  highest  praise  by  the  Byzantine  writers, 
especially  for  his  knowledge  of  geometry  and 
astronomy.  —  6.  Magentenus,  a  commentator  on 
Aristotle,  flourished  during  the  first  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  He  was  a  monk,  and  after- 
ward archbishop  of  Mytilene.  Several  of  his 
commentaries  on  Aristotle  are  extant,  and  have 
been  published.  —  7.  Leo  was  also  the  name  of 
six  Byzautine  emperors.  Of  these,  Leo  VI.,  sur- 
named the  philosopher,  who  reigned  886-911, 
is  celebrated  in  the  history  of  the  later  Greek 
literature.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  Greek  tac- 
tics, seventeen  oracles,  thirty-three  orations, 
and  several  other  works,  which  are  still  extant 
He  is  also  celebrated  in  the  history  of  legisla- 
tion. As  the  Latin  language  had  long  ceased 
to  be  the  official  language  of  the  Eastern  em- 
pire, Basil,  the  father  of  Leo,  had  formed  and 
partly  executed  the  plan  of  issuing  an  authorized 
Greek  version  of  Justinian's  legislation.  This 
plan  was  carried  out  by  Leo.  The  Greek  ver- 
sion is  known  under  the  title  of  BaaiTunal  Am- 
u^ecf,  or,  shortly,  BaoiTiiKai  ;  in  Latin  Basili- 
•a,  which  means  "  Imperial  Constitutions"  or 
"Laws."  It  is  divided  into  sixty  books,  sub- 
divided into  titles,  and  contains  the  Institutes, 
the  Digest,  the  Codex,  and  the  Novelise  ;  and 
likewise  such  constitutions  as  were  issued  by 
the  successors  of  Justinian  down  to  Leo  VL 
There  are,  however,  many  laws  of  the  Digest 
omitted  in  the  Basilica,  which  contain,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  considerable  number  of  laws  or 
extracts  from  ancient  jurists  which  are  not  iu 
:he  Digest.  The  publication  of  this  authorized 
X)dy  of  law  in  the  Greek  language  led  to  the 
gradual  disuse  of  the  original  compilations  of 
Justinian  in  the  East.  But  the  Roman  law  was 
;hus  more  firmly  established  in  Eastern  Europe 
and  Western  Asia,  where  it  has  maintained  it- 
self among  the  Greek  population  to  the  present 
day.  The  best  edition  of  the  Basilica  is  the 
one  now  publishing  by  Heimbach,  Lips.,  1833, 
seq. 

LEOBOTES.     Vid.  LABOTAS. 

[LEOCEDES  (AsuK^djjf)   son  of  Phidon.      Vid. 


[LEOCHARES  (Aeu%upi}f\  an  Athenian  statuary 
ind  sculptor,  was  one  of  the  great  artists  of  the 
later  Athenian  school,  at  the  head  of  which 
were  Scopas  and  Praxiteles.  He  flourished  B, 
C.  352-338.  The  master-piece  of  Leocharea 
seems  to  have  been  his  statue  of  the  rape  of 


LEOCORIUM. 


LEONTINI. 


Ganymede.  The  original  work  was  in  bronze 
Of  the  extant  copies  in  marble,  the  best  is  one 
half  the  size  of  life,  in  the  Museo  Pio-Clemen- 
tino. 

LEOCORIUH  (keuKopiov),  a  shriue  in  Athens,  in 
the  Ceramicus,  erected  in  honor  of  the  daugh- 
jers  of  Leos.  Hipparchus  was  murdered  here. 

LEODAMAS  (Aeuddfiaf),  a  distinguished  Attic 
orator,  was  educated  in  the  school  of  Isocrates, 
and  is  greatly  praised  by  ^Eschines. 

[LEODAMAS  (Acwda/zaf),  one  of  the  Theban 
chieftains  who  defended  Thebes  against  the 
attack  of  the  Argives;  he  slew  JEgialeus,  and 
was  himself  slain  by  Alcmaeon.] 

[LEON  (Aewv),  a  village  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Sicily,  near  Syracuse,  occupied  by  both  the 
Athenians  and  the  Romans  in  their  respective 
operations  against  that  city.] 

[LEO*ES  (\ELu8rjf),  son  of  (Enops,  one  of  the 
suitors  of  Penelope,  hated  by  the  rest  as  an  un- 
welcome warner ;  he  was  slain  by  Ulysses.] 

LEOXICA,  a  town  of  the  Edetani  in  the  west 
of  Hispauia  Tarraconensis. 

LEONIDAS  (\euvidaf).  1.  I.  King  of  Sparta 
B.C.  491-480,  was  one  of  the  sons  of  Anaxan- 
drides  by  his  first  wife,  and,  according  to  Borne 
accounts,  was  twin-brother  to  Cleombrotus. 
He  succeeded  his  half-brother  Cleomenes  I., 
B.C.  491,  his  eld6r  brother  Dorieus  also  having 
previously  died.  When  Greece  was  invaded 
by  Xerxes,  480,  Leonidas  was  sent  with  a  small 
army  to  make  a  stand  against  the  enemy  at  the 
pass  of  Thermopylae.  The  number  of  his  army 
is  variously  stated:  according  to  Herodotus,  it 
amounted  to  somewhat  more  than  five  thousand 
men,  of  whom  three  hundred  were  Spartans ; 
in  all  probability,  the  regular  band  of  (so  called) 
knights  (Imrelf).  The  Persians  in  vain  attempt- 
ed to  force  their  way  through  the  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae. They  were  driven  back  by  Leonidas 
and  his  gallant  band  with  immense  slaughter. 
At  length  the  Malian  Ephialtes  betrayed  the 
mountain  path  of  the  Anopsea  to  the  Persians, 
who  were  thus  able  to  fall  upon  the  rear  of  the 
Greeks.  When  it  became  known  to  Leonidas 
that  the  Persians  were  crossing  the  mountain, 
he  dismissed  all  the  other  Greeks  except  the 
Thespian  and  Theban  forces,  declaring  that  he 
and  tiie  Spartans  under  his  command  must 
needs  remain  in  the  post  they  had  been  sent  to 
guard.  Then,  before  the  body  of  Persians,  who 
were  crossing  the  mountain  under  Hydarues, 
could  arrive  to  attack  him  in  the  rear,  he  ad- 
vanced from  the  narrow  pass  and  charged  the 
myriads  of  the  enemy  with  his  handful  of  troops, 
hopeless  now  of  preserving  their  lives,  and  anx- 
ious only  to  sell  them  dearly.  In  the  desperate 
battle  which  ensued,  Leonidas  himself  fell  soon. 
His  body  was  rescued  by  the  Greeks,  after  a 
violent  struggle.  On  the  hillock  in  the  pass, 
•where,  the  remnant  of  the  Greeks  made  their 
last  stand,  a  lion  of  stone  was  set  up  in  his 
honor. — 2.  II.  King  of  Sparta,  was  son  of  the 
traitor  Cleonymus.  He  acted  as  guardian  to 
his  infant  relative,  Areus  II.,  on  whose  death 
he  ascended  the  throne,  about  256.  Being  op- 
posed to  the  projected  reforms  of  his  contem- 
porary, Agis  I V.,  he  was  deposed,  and  the  throne 
was  transferred  to  his  son-in-law  Cleombrotus ; 
but  he  was  so«n  afterward  recalled,  and  caused 
Agis  to  be  put  to  death,  240.  He  died  about 


236,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Cleomenes 
III- — 3.  A  kinsman  of  Olympias,  the  mother  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  was  intrusted  with  the 
main  superintendence  of  Alexander's  education 
in  his  earlier  years,  before  he  became  the  pupil 
of  Aristotle.  Leonidas  was  a  man  of  austere 
character,  and  trained  the  young  prince  in  hardy 
and  self-denying  habits.  They  were  two  ex- 
cellent cooks  (said  Alexander  afterward)  with 
which  Leonidas  had  furnished  him — a  night's 
march  to  season  his  breakfast,  and  a  scanty 
breakfast  to  season  his  dinner. — 4.  Of  Tareu- 
tum,  the  author  of  upward  of  one  hundred  epi- 
grams in  the  Doric  dialect.  His  epigrams  form- 
ed a  part  of  the  Garland  of  Meleagcr.  They 
are  chiefly  inscriptions  for  dedicatory  offerings 
and  works  of  art,  and,  though  not  of  a  very  high 
order  of  poetry,  are  usually  pleasing,  ingenious, 
and  in  good  taste.  Leonidas  probably  lived  in 
the  time  of  Pyrrhus. — 5.  Of  Alexandrea,  also  an 
epigrammatic  poet,  flourished  under  Nero  and 
Vespasian.  In  the  Greek  Anthology,  forty-three 
epigrams  are  ascribed  to  him :  they  are  of  a 
very  low  order  of  merit. 

LEONNATUS  (Aeowdrof).  1.  A  Macedonian  of 
Pella,  one  of  Alexander's  most  distinguished 
officers.  His  father's  name  is  variously  given, 
as  Anteas,  Anthes,  Onasus,  and  Eunus.  He 
saved  Alexander's  life  in  India  in  the  assault  on 
the  city  of  the  Mail  After  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der (B.C.  323),  he  obtained  the  satrapy  of  the 
Lesser  or  Hellespontine  Phrygia,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  crossed  over  into  Europe,  to  as- 
sist Antipater  against  the  Greeks;  but  he  was 
defeated  by  the  Athenians  and  their  allies,  and 
fell  in  battle. — [2.  Another  officer  in  the  service 
of  Alexander,  a  native  of  JEgas,  and  son  of  An 
tipater. — 3.  A  Macedonian  officer  in  the  service 
of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  who  saved  the  life 
of  that  monarch  at  the  battle  of  Heraclea,  B.C. 
280.] 

[LEONOEIUS  (heovoptof),  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Gauls  in  their  invasion  of  Macedonia  and 
the  adjacent  countries.] 

[LEONTEUS  (Aeovrevc),  son  of  Coronus,  led  the 
Lapithae  to  Troy  in  forty  ships ;  one  of  the  com 
batants  at  the  funeral  games  in  honor  of  Pa- 
.roclua.] 

LEONTIADES  (AeovridJj?f).  1.  A  Theban,  com- 
manded at  Thermopylae  the  forces  supplied  by 
Thebes  to  the  Grecian  army,  B.C.  480.— 2.  A 
Theban,  assisted  the  Spartans  in  seizing  the 
Cadmea,  or  citadel  of  Thebes,  in  382.  He  waa 
slain  by  Pelopidas  in  379,  when  the  Theban  ex 
'les  recovered  possession  of  the  Cadmea. 

LEONTINI  (oi  A.eovrlvoi :  Aeovrlvof  :  now  Len~ 
tini),  a  town  in  the  east  of  Sicily,  about  five 
miles  from  the  sea,  northwest  of  Syracuse,  was 
situated  upon  the  small  river  Lissus.  It  was 
auilt  upon  two  hills,  which  were  separated  from 
one  another  by  a  valley,  in  which  were  the  Ib- 
•um,  the  senate  house,  and  the  other  public 
juildings,  while  the  temples  and  the  private 
louses  occupied  the  hills.  The  rich  plains 
north  of  the  city,  called  Leontini  Campi,  were 
some  of  the  most  fertile  in  Sicily,  and  produced 
abundant  crops  of  most  excellent  wheat  Le- 
ontini was  founded  by  Chalcidiuns  from  Naxos, 
B.C.  730,  only  six  years  after  the  foundation  of 
tfaxos  itself.  It  never  attained  much  political 
mportauce  in  consequence  of  its  proximity  to 
431 


LEONTIS. 


LEPIDUS  ^EMILIUS 


Syracuse,  to  which  it  soon  became  subject,  and 
whose  fortunes  it  shared.  At  a  later  time  it 
joined  the  Carthaginians,  and  was,  in  conse- 
quence, taken  and  plundered  by  the  Romans. 
Under  the  Romans  it  sunk  into  insignificance. 
Gorgiaa  was  a  native  of  LeoutinL 

LEONTES  (Aeot> rif),  one  of  the  ten  Attic  tribes 
formed  by  Clisthenes,  and  deriving  its  name 
from  the  hero  Leos.  Vid.  LEGS.] 

LEONTIUM  (AEOVTIOV),  an  Athenian  hetaera,  the 
disciple  and  mistress  of  Epicurus,  wrote  a  trea- 
tise against  Theophrastus.  She  had  a  daughter, 
Danae,  who  was  also  an  hetaera  of  some  noto- 
riety. 

LEONTIUM  (\CVVTIOV),  a  town  in  Achaia,  be- 
tween Pharse  and  JSgium. 

LEONTOPOUS  (AcovroTroAif,  Aeovruv.  jro/ltf). 
1.  A  city  in  the  Delta  of  Egypt  south  of 
Thmu'is,  and  northwest  of  Athribis,  was  the 
capital  of  the  Nomos  Leontopolites,  and  proba- 
bly of  late  foundation,  as  no  writer  before  Strabo 
mentions  it  Its  site  is  uncertain. — 2.  Vid.  Ni- 
CEPHORIUM. 

LEOPEEPIDES,  i.  e.,  Simonides,  the  son  of  Leo- 
prepes. 

LEOS  (Aewf),  one  of  the  heroes  eponymi  of 
the  Athenians,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Or- 
pheus. The  phyle  or  tribe  of  Leontis  derived 
its  name  from  him.  Once,  when  Athens  was 
suffering  from  famine  or  plague,  the  Delphic 
oracle  demanded  that  the  daughters  of  Leos 
should  be  sacrificed,  and  the  father  complied 
with  the  command  of  the  oracle.  The  maidens 
were  afterward  honored  by  the  Athenians,  who 
erected  the  Leocorium  (from  Aewf  and  Kopai)  to 
them.  Their  names  were  Praxithea,  Theope, 
and  Eubule. 

LEOSTHENES  (AeuaBevijf),  an  Athenian  com- 
mander of  the  combined  Greek  army  in  the 
Lamian  war.  In  the  year  after  the  death  of 
Alexander  (B.C.  323),  he  defeated  Antipater 
near  Thermopylae ;  Antipater  thereupon  threw 
himself  into  the  small  town  of  Lamia.  Leos- 
thenes  pressed  the  siege  with  the  utmost  vigor, 
but  was  killed  by  a  blow  from  a  stone.  His 
loss  was  mourned  by  the  Athenians  as  a  public 
calamity.  He  was  honored  with  a  public  burial 
in  the  Ceramicus,  and  his  funeral  oration  was 
pronounced  by  Hyperides. 

LEOTVCHIDES  (Acwn^tdTff,  Aevrvxidrif,  He- 
rod). 1.  King  of  Sparta,  B.C.  491-469.  He 
commanded  the  Greek  fleet  in  479,  and  defeated 
the  Persians  at  the  battle  of  Mycale.  He  was 
afterward  sent  with  an  army  into  Thessaly  to 
punish  those  who  had  sided  with  the  Persians ; 
•but,  in  consequence  of  his  accepting  the  bribes 
of  the  Aleuadae,  he  was  brought,  to  trial  on  his 
return  home,  and  went  into  exile  to  Tegea,  469, 
where  he  died.  He  was  succeeded  by  bis  grand- 
son, Archidamus  IL — 2.  Grandson  of  Archida- 
mus  II.,  and  son  of  Agis  II.  There  was,  how- 
ever, some  suspicion  that  he  was,  in  reality,  the 
fruit  of  an  intrigue  of  Alcibiades  with  Timaea, 
the  queen  of  Agis  ;  in  consequence  of  which  he 
was  excluded  from  the  throne,  mainly  through 
the  influence  of  Lysander,  and  his  uncle,  Agesi- 
laus  IL,  was  substituted  in  his  room. 

LEPIDUS  jEiiiLius,  a  distinguished   patrician 

family.      1.    M.,  aedile   B.C.   192;   praetor   191, 

with  Sicily  as  his  province ;  consul  187,  when 

he  defeated  the   Ligurians;  pontifex  maximus 

432 


180;  censor  179  with  M.  Fulvius  Nobilior ;  and 
consul  a  second  time  175.  He  was  six  times 
chosen  by  the  censors  princeps  seuatus,  and  he 
died  152,  full  of  years  and  honors.  Lopidus  the 
triumvir  is  called  by  Cicero  (Phil,  xiii.,  7)  the 
pronepos  of  this  Lepidus ;  but  he  would  seem 
more  probably  to  have  been  his  abncpos,  or 
great-great-grandson. — 2.  M.,  consul  137,  car- 
ried on  war  in  Spain  against  the  Vaccsei,  but 
unsuccessfully.  Since  he  had  attacked  the  Vac 
csei  in  opposition  to  the  express  orders  of  the 
senate,  he  was  deprived  of  his  command,  and 
condemned  to  pay  a  fine.  He  was  a  nmn  of 
education  and  refined  taste.  •  Cicero,  who  bad 
read  his  speeches,  speaks  of  him  as  the  greatest 
orator  of  his  age.  He  helped  to  form  the  style 
of  Tiberius  Gracchus  and  C.  Carbo,  who  were 
accustomed  to  listen  to  him  with  great  care. — 

3.  M.,  the  father  of  the  triumvir,  was  praetor  in 
Sicily  in  81,  where  he  earned  a  character  by 
his  oppressions  only  second  to  that  of  Verres. 
In  the  civil  wars  between  Marius  and  Sulla  he 
belonged  at  first  to  the  party  of  the  latter,  but 
he  afterward  came  forward  as  a  leader  of  the 
popular   party.    In   his   consulship,   78,  he   at- 
tempted to  rescind  the  laws  of  Sulla,  who  had 
lately  died,  but  he  was  opposed  by  his  colleague 
Catulus,  who  received  the  powerful  support  of 
Pompey.     In  the  following  year  (77)  Lepidua 
took  up  arms  and  marched  against  Rome.    He 
was  defeated  by  Pompey  and  Catulus,  under 
the  walls  of  the  city,  in  the  Campus  Martius, 
and  was  obliged  to  "take  to  flight.    Finding  it 
impossible  to  hold  his  ground  in  Italy,  Lepidue 
sailed  with  the  remainder  of  his  forces  to  Sar- 
dinia ;  but  repulsed  even  in  this  island  by  the 
propraetor,  he  died  shortly  afterward  of  chagrin 
and  sorrow,  which  is  said  to  have  been  increas- 
ed by  the   discovery  of  his  wife's   infidelity. — 

4.  MAM.,   surnamed  LIVIANUS,   because    he   be- 
longed originally  to  the  Livia  gens,  consul  77, 
belonged  to  the   aristocratical  party,  and  was 
one  of  the   influential   persons   who   prevailed 
upon  Sulla  to  spare  the  life  of  the  youug  Julius 
Caesar. — 5.  M,  consul  66,  with  L.  Volcatus  Tul- 
lus,  the  same  year  in  which  Cicero  was  praetor. 
He  belonged  to  the  aristocratical  party,  but  on 
the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in  49,  he  re- 
tired to  his  Formian  villa  to  watch  the  progress 
of  events. — 6.   L.  ^EMILIUS  PAULUS,  son  of  No. 
3,  and  brother  of  M.  Lepidus,  the  triumvir.     His 
surname  of  Paulus  was  probably  given  him  by 
his  father,  in  honor  of  the  celebrated  ^Emiliua 
Paulus,  the  conqueror  of  Macedonia :  but,  since 
he  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Lepidi;  aud  not 
to  that  of  the  Pauli,  he  is  inserted  in  this  place, 
and  not  under   PAULUS.     JEmilius   Paulus   did 
not  follow  the  example  of  his  father,  but  com- 
menced his  public  career  by  supporting  the  arii- 
tocratical  party.     His  first  public  act  was  the 
accusation  of  Catiline  in  63.    He  was  quaestor 
in  Macedonia  59 ;   aedile  55  ;   prater  53  ;    and 
consul  50,  along   with   M.   Claudius   Marcellus. 
Paulus  was  raised  to  the  consulship  on  account 
of  his  being  one  of  the  most  determined   ene- 
mies of  Caesar,  but  Caesar  gained  him  over  to 
his  side  by  a  bribe  of  fifteen  hundred  talents, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  expended  on  the  com- 
pletion of  a  magnificent  basilica  which  he  had 
commenced  in  his  aedileship.     After  the  murdei 
of  Caesar  (44),  Paulus  joined  the  senatorial  par 


LEPIDUS  J3MILIUS. 


LEPREUM. 


ty.  He  was  one  of  the  senators  who  declared 
M.  Lepidus  a  public  enemy  on  account  of  his 
having  joined  Antony ;  and,  accordingly,  when 
the  triumvirate  was  formed,  his  name  was  set 
down  first  in  the  proscription  list  by  his  o\vu 
brother.  The  soldiers,  however,  who  were  ap- 
pointed to  kill  him,  allowed  him  to  escape.  He 
passed  over  to  Brutus  in  Asia,  and  after  the 
death  of  the  latter  repaired  to  Miletus.  Here 
he  remained,  and  refused  to  go  to  Rome,  al- 
though he  was  pardoned  by  the  triumvirs. — 7. 
M.  jEmLius  LEPIDUS,  the  TRIUMVIR,  brother  of 
the  last.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
(49),  Lepidus,  who  was  then  praetor,  joined 
Caesar's  party ;  and  as  the  consuls  had  fled 
with  Pompey  from  Italy,  Lepidiu,  as  praetor, 
wan  the  highest  magistrate  remaining  in  Italy. 
During  Caesar's  absence  in  Spain,  Lepidus  pre- 
sided at  the  comitia  in  which  the  former  was 
appointed  dictator.  In  the  following  year  (48) 
he  received  the  province  of  Nearer  Spain.  On 
his  return  to  Rome  in  47,  Caesar  granted  him 
a  triumph,  and  made  him  his  magister  equitum ; 
and  in  the  next  year  (46),  his  colleague  in  the 
consulship.  In  44  he  received  from  Caesar  the 
government  of  Narbonese  Gaul  and  Nearer 
Spain,  but  had  not  quitted  the  neighborhood  of 
Rome  at  the  time  of  the  dictator's  death.  Hav- 
ing the  command  of  an  army  near  the  city,  he 
was  able  to  render  M.  Antony  efficient  assist- 
ance ;  and  the  latter,  in  consequence,  allowed 
Lepidus  to  be  chosen  pontifex  maximus,  which 
dignity  had  become  vacant  by  Caesar's  death. 
Lepidus  soon  afterward  repaired  to  his  provin- 
ces of  Gaul  and  Spain.  He  remained  neutral 
in  the  struggle  between  Antony  and  the  senate ; 
but  he  subsequently  joined  Antony,  when  the 
latter  fled  to  him  in  Gaul  after  his  defeat  at 
Mutina,  This  was  in  the  end  of  May,  43  ;  and 
when  the  news  reached  Rome,  the  senate  pro- 
claimed Lepidus  a  public  enemy.  In  the  au- 
tumn Lepidus  and  Antony  crossed  the  Alps  at 
the  head  of  a  powerful  army.  Octavianus  (aft- 
erward Augustus)  joined  them ;  and  in  the 
month  of  October  the  celebrated  triumvirate  was 
formed,  by  which  the  Roman  world  was  divid- 
ed between  Octavianus,  Antony,  and  Lepidus. 
Vid.  p.  129,  b.  In  42  Lepidus  remained  in  Italy 
as  consul,  while  the  two  other  triumvirs  pros- 
ecuted the  war  against  Brutus  aud  Cassius. 
In  the  fresh  division  of  the  provinces  after  the 
battle  ol  Philippi,  Lepidus  received  Africa, 
where  he  remained  till  36.  In  this  year  Oc- 
tavianus summoned  him  to  Sicily  to  assist  him 
in  the  war  against  Sextus  Pompey.  Lepidus 
obeyed,  but,  tired  of  being  treated  as  a  subor- 
dinate, he  resolved  to  make  an  effort  to  acquire 
Sicily  for  himself  and  to  regain  his  lost  power. 
He  was  easily  subdued  by  Octavianus,  who 
spared  his  life,  but  deprived  him  of  his  trium- 
virate, his  army,  and  his  provinces,  and  com- 
manded that  he  should  live  at  Circeii,  under 
strict  surveillance.  He  allowed  him,  however, 
to  retain  his  dignity  of  pontifex  maximus.  He 
died  B.O.  13.  Augustus  succeeded  him  as 
pontifex  maximus.  Lepidus  was  !"•  ml  of  ease 
and  repose,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  he 
possessed  abilities  capable  of  effecting  much 
more  than  he  ever  did. — 8.  PAUU&  JEMiuus 
LEPIDUS,  son  of  No.  6,  with  whom  he  is  fre- 
quently confounded.  His  name  is  variously 
23 


given  by  the  ancient  writers,  jEmilius  Pautus, 
or  Paulus  jEmilius,  or  ^Emilius  Lepidus  Paulus, 
but  Paulus  jEmilius  Lepidus  seems  to  be  the 
most  correct  form.*  He  probably  fled  with  his 
father  to  Brutus,  but  he  afterward  made  his 
peace  with  the  triumvirs.  He  accompanied 
Octavianus  in  his  campaign  against  Sex.  Pom- 
pey in  Sicily  in  36.  In  34  he  was  consul  suf- 
fectus.  In  22  he  was  censor  with  L.  Munatius 
Plancus,  and  died  while  holding  this  dignity. — 
9.  M.  ^EMILIUS  LEPIDUS,  son  of  the  triumvir 
(No.  7)  and  Junia,  formed  a  conspiracy  in  30 
for  the  purpose  of  assassinating  Octavianus  on 
his  return  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Actium. 
Maecenas,  who  had  charge  of  the  city,  became 
acquainted  with  the  plot,  seized  Lepidus,  and 
sent  him  to  Octavianus  in  the  East,  who  put 
him  to  death.  His  father  was  ignorant  of  the 
conspiracy,  but  his  mother  was  privy  to  it 
Lepidus  was  married  twice:  his  first  wife  was 
Antonia,  the  daughter  of  the  triumvir,  and  his 
second  Servilia,  who  put  an  end  to  her  life  by 
swallowing  burning  coals  when  the  conspir- 
acy of  her  husband  was  discovered. — 10.  Q. 
JiMiLius  LEPIDUS,  consul  in  21  with  M.  Lollius. 
(Hor.,  Ep^  i,  20,  28.)— 11.  L.  JSniuus  PAULUS, 
son  of  No.  8  and  Cornelia,  married  Julia,  the 
grand-daughter  of  Augustus.  Vid.  JULIA,  No.  6. 
Paulus  is  therefore  called  the  progener  of  Au- 
gustus. He  was  consul  A.D.  1,  with  C.  Caesar, 
his  wife's  brother.  He  entered  into  a  conspir- 
acy against  Augustus,  of  the  particulars  of 
which  we  are  not  informed. — 12.  M.  J^MILIUS 
LEPIDUS,  brother  of  the  last,  consul  A.D.  6 
with  L.  Arruntius.  He  lived  on  the  most  inti- 
mate terms  with  Augustus,  who  employed  him 
in  the  war  against  the  Dalmatians  in  A.D.  ?. 
After  the  death  of  Augustus,  he  was  also  held 
in  high  esteem  by  Tiberius. — 13.  M.  ^EMILIUS 
LEPIDUS,  consul  with  T.  Statilius  Taurus  in 
A.D.  11,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  last.  In  A.D.  21  he  obtained  the  province 
of  Asia. — 14.  ^EMILIUS  LEPIDUS,  the  son  of  No. 
11  and  Julia,  the  grand-daughter  of  Augustus, 
and  consequently  the  great-grandson  of  Augus- 
tus. He  was  one  of  the  minions  of  the  Emper- 
or Caligula,  with  whom  he  had  the  most  shame- 
ful connection.  He  married  Drusilla,  the  fa- 
vorite sister  of  the  emperor;  but  he  was,  not- 
withstanding, put  to  death  by  Caligula,  A.D.  39. 

LEPONTH,  a  people  inhabiting  the  Alps,  in 
whose  country  Caesar  places  the  sources  of  the 
Rhine,  and  Pliny  the  sources  of  the  Rhone. 
They  dwelt  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  St. 
Gotnard  and  the  Simpton,  toward  the  Logo 
Maggiore,  and  their  name  is  still  retained  in 
the  Val  Leventina.  Their  chief  town  was  Os- 
cela  (now  Domo  dOssola). 

LEPREA  (AeTrpta)  daughter  of  Pyrgeus,  from 
whom  the  town  of  Lepreum  in  Elis  was  laid  to 
have  derived  its  name.  Vid.  LEPREUM.  An- 
other tradition  derived  the  name  from  Lepreus, 
a  son  of  Caucon,  Glaucon,  or  Pyrgeus,  by  As- 
tydamia.  He  was  a  grandson  of  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon), and  a  rival  of  Hercules  both  in  his 
strength  and  his  powers  of  eating,  but  he  was 
conquered  and  slain  by  the  latter.  Hi*  tomb 
was  believed  to  exist  in  Pbigalia. 

LEPREUM  (Aexpeov,  Aejrpeof :  Ae-pearyf  :  now 
Strovitzi),  a  town  of  Elis  in  Triphylia,  situated 
forty  stadia  from  the  sea,  was  said  to  have  been 
4'J3 


LEPREUS. 


LESBOS. 


fouuded  in  the  time  of  Theseus  by  Minynns 
from  Lemnos.  After  the  Messeniau  wars  it 
was  subdued  by  the  Eleans,  with  the  aid  of 
Sparta:  but  it  recovered  its  independence  in 
the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  was  assisted  by 
the  Spartans  against  Elis.  At  the  time  of  the 
Achaean  league  it  was  subject  to  Elis. 
[LEPEECS  (Aeirpevf).  Vid.  LEPREA.] 
LEITA,  Q.,  a  native  of  Gales  in  Campania, 
and  praefectus  fabrum  to  Cicero  in  Cilicia,  B.C. 
51.  He  joined  the  Pompeian  party  in  the  civil 
war,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Cicero's 
letters. 

LEPTINES  (Aeirrivrif).  1.  A  Syracusan,  son 
of  Hermocrates,  and  brother  of  Dionysius  the 
Elder,  tyrant  of  Syracuse.  He  commanded  his 
brother's  fleet  in  the  war  against  the  Cartha- 
ginians, B.C.  397,  but  was  defeated  by  Mago 
with  great  loss.  In  390  be  was  sent  by  Dionys- 
ius with  a  fleet  to  the  assistance  of  the  Luca- 
nians  against  the  Italian  Greeks.  Some  time 
afterward  he  gave  offence  to  the  jealous  tem- 
per of  the  tyrant  by  giving  one  of  his  daugh- 
ters in  marriage  to  Philistus,  without  any  pre- 
vious intimation  to  Dionysius,  and  on  this  ac- 
count he  was  banished  from  Syracuse,  together 
with  Philistus.  He  thereupon  retired  to  Thurii, 
but  was  subsequently  recalled  by  Dionysius  to 
Syracuse.  Here  he  was  completely  reinstated 
in  his  former  favor,  and  obtained  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Dionysius  in  marriage.  In  383 
he  again  took  an  active  part  in  the  war  against 
the  Carthaginians,  and  commanded  the  right 
wing  of  the  Syracusan  army  in  the  battle  near 
Cronium,  in  which  he  was  killed. — 2,  A  Syra- 
cusan, who  joined  with  Calippus  in  expelling 
the  garrison  of  the  younger  Dionysius  from 
Rhegitim,  351.  Soon  afterward  he  assassin- 
ated Calippus,  and  then  crossed  over  to  Sicily, 
where  he  made  himself  tyrant  of  Apollonia  and 
Engyum.  He  was  expelled  in  common  with 
the  other  tyrants  by  Timoleon ;  but  his  life 
was  spared,  and  he  was  sent  into  exile  at 
Corinth,  342. — 3.  An  Athenian,  known  only  as 
the  proposer  of  a  law  taking  away  all  special 
exemptions  from  the  burden  of  public  charges 
(aT&.eiai  TUV  l.siTovpyiuv),  against  which  the 
celebrated  oration  of  Demosthenes  is  directed, 
usually  known  as  the  oration  against  Leptines. 
This  speech  was  delivered  355 ;  and  the  law 
must  have  been  passed  above  a  year  before, 
as  we  are  told  that  the  lapse  of  more  than  that 
period  had  already  exempted  Leptines  from  all 
personal  responsibility.  Hence  the  effort*  of 
Demosthenes  were  directed  solely  to  the  re- 
peal of  the  law,  not  to  the  punishment  of  its 
proposer.  His  arguments  were  -successful,  and 
the  law  was  repealed. — 4.  A  Syrian  Greek,  who 
assassinated  with  his  own  hand,  at  Laodicea, 
Cn.  Octavius,  the  chief  of  the  Roman  deputies, 
who  had  been  sent  into  Syria,  162.  Demetrius 
caused  Leptines  to  be  seized,  and  sent  as  a 
prisoner  to  Rome ;  but  the  senate  refused  to 
receive  him,  being  desirous  to  reserve  this 
cause  of  complaint  as  a  public  grievance. 

LEPTIS  (AeTmV).  1.  LEPTIS  MAGNA  or  NEAPO- 
LIS  (ij  Aenrlf  fieydXi),  NcaTroAtf),  a  city  on  the 
coast  of  Northern  Africa,  between  the  Syrtes, 
east  of  Abrotonum,  and  west  of  the  mouth  of 
the  little  river  Cinyps,  was  a  Phoenician  col- 
ony, with  a  flourishing  commerce,  though  it 
434 


[  possessed  no  harbor.  With  Abrotonum  and 
(Ea  it  formed  the  African  Tripolis.  The  Ro- 
mans made  it  a  colony :  it  was  the  birth-place 
of  the  Emperor  Septimius  Severus ;  and  it  con- 
tinued to  flourish  till  A.D.  866,  when  it  was  al- 
most ruined  by  an  attack  from  a  Libyan  tribe 
Justinian  did  something  toward  its  restoration  • 
but  the  Arabian  invasion  completed  its  destruc- 
tion. Its  ruins  are  still  considerable. — 2.  LEP- 
TIS MINOR  or  PARVA  (Aenrlf  jj  fiiKpu :  ruins  at 
Lamta),  usually  called  simply  Leptis,  a  Phoeni- 
cian col'ony  on  the  coast  of  Byzacium,  in  North- 
ern Africa,  between  Hadrumetum  and  Thap- 
sus:  an  important  place  under  both  the  Car- 
thaginians and  the  Romans. 

LERINA  (now  St.  Honorat),  an  island  off  the 
coast  of  Gallia  Narboneusis,  opposite  Antipolia 
(now  Antibes). 

LERNA  or  LERNE  (Mpvrf),  a  district  in  Argo- 
lis,  not  far  from  Argos,  in  which  was  a  marsh 
and  a  small  river  of  the  same  name.  It  was 
celebrated  as  the  place  where  Hercules  killed 
the  Lernean  Hydra.  Vid.  p.  357,  a. 

LERO  (now  St.  Marguerite),  a  small  island 
off  the  coast  of  Gallia  Narbonensis. 

LEROS  (Aepof  :  Aeptof),  a  small  island,  one  of 
the  Sporades,  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Si- 
nus lassius,  on  the  coast  of  Caria.  Its  inhab- 
itants, who  came  originally  from  Miletus,  bore 
a  bad  character.  Besides  a  city  of  the  same 
name,  it  had  in  it  a  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis), 
where  the  transformation  of  the  sisters  of  Mel- 
eager  into  Guinea-fowls  was  said  to  have  taken 
place,  in  memory  of  which  Guinea-fowls  were 
kept  in  the  court  of  that  temple. 

LESBONAX  (Aecr6wra£).  1.  Son  of  Potamon 
of  Mytilene,  a  philosopher  and  sophist  in  the 
time  of  Augustus.  He  was  the  father  of  Pole- 
mon,  the  teacher  and  friend  of  the  Emperor  Ti 
berius.  Lesbouax  wrote  several  political  ora- 
tions, of  which  two  have  come  down  to  us, 
one  entitled  -nepl  TOV  TroAe/zov  Kopivdiuv,  and 
the  other  irporpeirTiKOf  /loyof,  both  of  which  are 
not  unsuccessful  imitations  of  the  Attic  orators 
of  the  best  times.  They  are  printed  in  the  col- 
lections of  the  Greek  orators  (vid.  DEMOSTHE- 
NES), and  separately  by  Orelli,  Lips,  1820. — 
2.  A  Greek  grammarian,  of  uncertain  age,  but 
later  than  No.  l,the  author  of  an  extant  work  on 
grammatical  figures  (rrepl  axypuruv),  published 
by  Valckenaer  in  his  edition  of  Ammonius. 

LESBOS  (Aetrfof :  Aea6tof,  Lesbius :  now  Myt- 
ilene, Metelin),  the  largest,  and  by  far  the  most 
important,  of  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean  along 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  lay  opposite  to  the 
Gulf  of  Adramyttium,  off  the  coast  of  Mysia, 
the  direction  of  its  length  being  northwest  and 
southeast.  It  is  intersected  by  lofty  mount- 
ains, and  indented  with  large  bays,  the  chief 
of  which,  on  the  western  side,  runs  more  than 
balf  way  across  the  island.  It  had  three  chief 
headlands,  Argenum,  on  the  northeast,  Sigri- 
um  on  the  west,  and  Malea  on  the  south.  Its 
valleys  were  very  fertile,  especially  in  the 
northern  part,  near  Methymna;  and  it  pro- 
duced corn,  oil,  and  wine  renowned  for  its  ex- 
cellence. In  early  times  it  was  called  by  va- 
rious names,  the  chief  of  which  were  Issa, 
Pelasgia,  Mytanis,  and  Macaria  :  the  late  Greek 
writers  called  it  Mytilene,  from  its  chief  city, 
and  this  name  has  been  preserved  to  modern 


LESBOTHEMIS. 


LEUCjE. 


times.  The  earliest  reputed  inhabitants  were 
Pelasgians ;  the  next,  an  Ionian  colony,  who 
were  said  to  have  settled  it  in  two  generations 
before  the  Trojan  war ;  lastly,  at  the  time  of 
the  great  ^Eolic  migration  (one  hundred  and 
thirty  years  after  the  Trojan  war,  according 
to  the  mythical  chronology),  the  island  was 
colonized  by  ^Eolians,  who  founded  iu  it  an 
Hexapolis,  consisting  of  the  six  cities,  Myti- 
iene,  Methymna,  Eresus,  Pyrrha,  Antissa,  and 
Arisbe,  afterward  reduced  to  five  through  the 
destruction  of  Arisbe  by  the  Methymnseans. 
The  JHolians  of  Lesbos  afterward  founded 
numerous  settlements  along  the  coast  of  the 
Troad  and  in  the  region  of  Mount  Ida,  and  at 
one  time  a  great  part  of  the  Troad  seems  to 
have  been  subject  to  Lesbos.  The  chief  facts, 
in  the  history  of  the  island  are  connected  with 
its  principal  city,  Mytilene,  which  was  the 
scene  of  the  struggles  between  the  nobles  and 
the  commons,  in  which  ALC^EUS  and  PITTACUS 
took  part  At  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  Lesbos  was  subject  to  Athens.  After 
various  changes,  it  fell  under  the  power  of 
Mithradates,  and  passed"  from  him  to  the  Ro- 
mans. The  island  is  most  important  in  the 
early  history  of  Greece,  as  the  native  region 
of  the  ^Eolian  school  of  lyric  poetry.  It  was 
the  birth-place  of  the  musician  and  poet  TEE- 
PANDER,  of  the  lyric  poets  ALC.EUS,  SAPPHO, 
and  others,  and  of  the  dithyrambic  poet  AEION. 
Other  forms  of  literature  and  philosophy  early 
and  long  flourished  in  it :  the  sage  and  states- 
man PITTACUS,  the  historians  HELLANICUS  and 
Theophanes,  and  the  philosophers  Theophras- 
tus  and  Phanias,  were  all  Lesbians. 

LESBOTDEMIS  (A.ea666e/ii£),  a  statuary  of  an- 
cient date,  and  a  native  of  Lesbos. 

LESCHES  or  LESCHEUS  (Aeff^f,  Ae«r^«wf),  one 
of  the  so-called  cyclic  poets,  son  of  ^Eschylinus, 
a  native  of  Pyrrha,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Myt- 
ilene, and  hence  called  a  Mytilenean  or  a  Les- 
bian. He  flourished  about  B.C.  708,  and  was 
usually  regarded  as  the  author  of  the  Little  Il- 
iad ('lAieif  %  khdaouv  or  'I/Uuf  [tinpu),  though 
this  poem  was  also  ascribed  to  various  other 
poets.  It  consisted  of  four  books,  and  was  in- 
tended as  a  supplement  to  the  Homeric  Iliad. 
It  related  the  events  after  the  death  of  Hector, 
the  fate  of  Ajax,  the  exploits  of  Philoctetes, 
Neoptolenius,  and  Ulysses,  and  the  final  cap- 
ture and  destruction  of  Troy,  which  part  of  the 
poem  was  called  The  destruction  of  Troy  ("IA- 
iov  TTipaif).  There  was  no  unity  in  the  poem, 
except  that  of  historical  and  chronological  su§- 
cession.  Hence  Aristole  remarks  that  the  little 
Iliad  furnished  materials  for -eight  tragedies, 
while  only  one  could  be  based  upon  the  Iliad  or 
Odyssey  of  Homer. 

[LESSA  (Atyffffa :  ruins  at  Lycurio),  a  village 
of  Argolis,  eastward  from  Argos,  on  the  west- 
ern confines  of  the  territory  of  Epidaurus,  and 
at  the  base  of  Mount  Arachnaeus :  it  contained 
a  temple  of  Minerva  (Athena).] 

[LETANPROS,  a  small  island  of  the  ^Egean  Sea, 
classed  among  the,  Cyclades,  lying  near  Gyaros.] 
LETH^US  (A^aZof).  1.  A  river  of  Ionia,  in 
Asia  Minor,  flowing  south  past  Magnesia  into 
the  Maeander. — 2.  A  river  iu  the  south  of  Crete, 
flowing  past  Gortyna. — 3.  Vid.  LATHON. 

LETHE  (   rjOif),  the  personification  of  oblivion, 


called  by  Hesiod  a  daughter  of  Eris.  A  river 
in  the  lower  world  was  likewise  called  Lethe. 
The  souls  of  the  departed  drank  of  iMs  river, 
and  thus  forgot  all  they  had  said  or  done  in 
the  upper  world  ;  [and,  according  to  Virgil  (JEn., 
vi.,  713),  the  souls  destined  by  the  Fates  to  in 
habit  new  bodies  on  earth  also  drank  of  its 
waters,  to  remove  the  remembrance  of  the  joys 
of  Elysium.] 

LETHE,  a  river  in  Spain.     Vid.  LIM^EA. 

LETO  (Ajjrw),  called  LATONA  by  the  Romans, 
is  described  by  Hesiod  as  a  daughter  of  the 
Titan  Creus  and  Phoebe,  a  sister  of  Asteria,  and 
the  mother  of  Apollo  and  Diana  (Artemis)  by 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  to  whom  she  was  married  be- 
fore Juno  (Hera).  Homer  likewise  calls  her 
the  mother  of  Apollo  and  Diana  (Artemis)  by 
Jupiter  (Zeus) ;  he  mentions  her  in  the  story 
of  Niobe,  who  paid  so  dearly  for  her  conduct 
toward  Latona  (Leto)  (aid.  NIOBE),  and  he  also 
describes  her  as  the  friend  of  the  Trojans  in  the 
war  with  the  Greeks.  In  later  writers  these 
elements  of  her  story  are  variously  embellish- 
ed, for  they  do  not  describe  her  as  the  lawful 
wife  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  but  merely  as  his  mis- 
tress, who  was  persecuted  by  Juno  (Hera)  during 
her  pregnancy.  All  the  world  being  afraid  of 
receiving  Latona  (Leto)  on  account  of  Juno 
(Hera),  she  wandered  about  till  she  came  to 
Delos,  which  was  then  a  floating  island,  and 
bore  the  name  of  Asteria  or  Ortygia.  When 
Latona  (Leto)  arrived  there,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  fas- 
tened it  by  adamantine  chains  to  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  that  it  might  be  a  secure  resting-place 
for  his  beloved,  and  here  she  gave  birth  to  Apollo 
and  Diana  (Artemis).  The  tradition  is  also  re- 
lated with  various  other  modifications.  Some 
said  that  Jupiter  (Zeus)  changed  Latona  (Leto) 
into  a  quail  (oprv£),  and  that  in  this  state  she 
arrived  in  the  floating  island,  which  was  hence 
called  Ortygia.  Others  related  that  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  was  enamored  with  Asteria,  but  that  she, 
being  metamorphosed  into  a  bird,  flew  across 
the  sea ;  that  she  was  then  changed  into  a  rock, 
which  for  a  long  time  lay  under  the  surface 
of  the  sea ;  and  that  this  rock  arose  from  the 
waters,  and  received  Latona  (Leto)  when  she 
was  pursued  by  Python.  Latona  (Leto)  was 
generally  worshipped  only  in  conjunction  with 
her  children.  Delos  was  the  chief  seat  of  her 
worship.  Vid.  APOLLO.  It  is  probable  that  the 
name  of  Leto  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  words 
as  the  Greek  Zrjdr)  and  the  Latin  latco.  Leto 
would  therefore  signify  "  the  obscure"  or  "  con- 
cealed," not  as  a  physical  power,  but  as  a  di- 
vinity yet  quiescent  and  invisible,  from  whom 
issued  the  visible  divinity  with  all  his  splendor 
and  brilliancy.  This  view  is  supported  by  the 
account  of  her  genealogy  given  by  Hesiod. 
From  their  mother  Apollo  is  frequently  called 
Lftoius  or  Lato'ius,  and  Artemis  (Diana)  Lcto'ia, 
•Ltto'is,  Lato'it,  or  Latoe. 

LEUCA  (T&  ACVKU),  town  at  the  extremity  of 
the  lapygian  promontory  in  Calabria,  with  a 
fetid  fountain,  under  which  the  giants  who  were 
vanquished  by  Hercules  are  said  to  have  been 
buried.  The  promontory  is  still  called  Capo  di 
Leuca, 

LEUCADIA.     Vid.  LKUCAS.] 
1 .1.1  v.r,  LEUCA  (Aft/cat,  Afwo? :  now  Lffkc),  a 
small  town  on  the  coast  of  Ionia,  iu  Asia  Minor 
435 


LEUCAS. 


LEUCOPHRYNE. 


near  Phocaea,  built  by  the  Persian  general  Ta- 
chos  in  B.C.  352,  and  remarkable  as  the  scene 
of  the  battle  between  the  consul  Liciuius  Cras- 
BUS  anil  Aristouicus  in  131. 

LEUCAS  or  LEUCADIA  [Aeu/cu?,  Aen>«a<5ta  :  Aev- 
/cutJtof:  now  Santa  Maura),  an  island  in  the 
Ionian  Sea,  off  the  western  coast  of  Acarnania, 
about  twenty  miles  in  length,  and  from  fire  to 
eight  miles  in  breadth.  It  has  derived  its  name 
from  the  numerous  calcareous  hills  which  cover 
its  surface.  It  was  originally  united  to  the 
main  laud  at  its  northeastern  extremity  by  a 
narrow  isthmus.  Homer  speaks  of  it  as  a  pen- 
insula and  mentions  its  well-fortified  town  Ne- 
ricus  (Ni/piicof).  It  was  at  that  time  inhabited  ! 
by  the  Teleboans  and  Leleges.  Subsequently 
the  Corinthians  under  Cypselus,  between  B.C. ; 
665  and  625,  founded  a  new  town,  called  Leu- 
cas,  in  the  northeast  of  the  country,  near  the 
isthmus,  iu  which  they  settled  one  thousand  of  I 
their  citizens,  and  to  which  they  removed  the  j 
inhabitants  of  Nericus,  which  lay  a  little  to  the 
west  of  the  new  town.  The  Corinthians  also 
cut  a  canal  through  the  isthmus,  and  thus  con- 1 
verted  the  peninsula  into  an  island.  This  canal 
was  afterward  filled  up  by  deposits  of  sand ;  and 
in  the  Pelopounesian  war  it  was  no  longer  avail- 
able for  ships,  which  during  that  period  were 
conveyed  across  the  isthmus  on  more  than  one 
occasion  (Thuc.,  iii.,  81  ;  iv.,  8).  The  canal  was 
opened  again  by  the  Romans.  At  present  the 
channel  is  dry  iu  some  parts,  and  has  from  three 
to  four  feet  of  water  in  others.  The  town  of 
Leucas  was  a  place  of  importance,  and  during 
the  war  between  Philip  and  the  Romans  was  at 
the  head  of  the  Acaruanian  league,  and  the 
place  where  the  meetings  of  the  league  were 
held.  It  was,  in  consequence,  taken  and  plun- 
dered by  the  Romans,  B.C.  197.  The  remains 
of  this  town  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  other 
towns  in  the  island  were  HellomSnum  ('EA/16/ze- 
vov)  on  the  southeastern  coast,  and  Phara  ($apd) 
on  the  southwestern  coast.  At  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  island,  opposite  Cephallenia,  was 
the  celebrated  promontory,  variously  called  Leu- 
cas, Leucatas,  Le-ucates,  or  Leucate  (now  Cape 
Ducato),  on  which  was  a  temple  of  Apollo,  who 
hence  had  the  surname  of  Leucadius.  At  the 
annual  festival  of  the  god  it  was  the  custom  to 
cast  down  a  criminal  from  this  promontory  into 
the  sea  :  to  break  his  fall,  birds  of  all  kinds  were 
attached, to  him,  and  if  he  reached  the  sea  un- 
injured, boats  were  ready  to  pick  him  up.  This 
appears  to  have  been  an  expiatory  rite ;  and  it 
gave  rise  to  the  well  known  story  that  lovers 
leaped  from  this  rock  in  order  to  seek  relief 
from  the  pangs  of  love.  Thus  Sappho  is  said 
to  have  leaped  down  from  this  rock  when  in 
love  with  Phaon ;  but  this  well-known  story 
vanishes  at  the  first  approach  of  criticism. 

I^LEUCASIA  (A.EVK.aaia).     Vid.  LEUCOSIA.] 

[LEUCATAS  (now  Akrita),  also  called  ACRITAS, 
a  promontory  of  Bithynia,  west  of  Nicoraedia.] 

LEUOE  (A.EVKIJ).  1.  An  island  in  the  Euxine 
Sea,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes,  sacred 
to  Achilles.  Vid.  ACHILLEUS  DROMOS. — [2.  A 
small  island  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Crete,  south 
of  the  Promontory  Itanum.] 

[LEUCE  ACTE  (A.evK7j  'A.KTJJ  :  now  St.  Georgia), 
a  town  and  roadstead  of  Thrace,  on  the  Pro- 
pontis.] 

436 


[LEUCE  COME  (Aevni)  Kw/w?),  a  fortified  place 
in  the  north  of  Arabia  Felix,  on  the  Arabicus 
Sinus,  which  served  as  a  depot  for  goods  sent 
to  Petra  and  Northern  Arabia.] 

LEUCI,  a  people  in  the  southeast  of  Gallia  Bel- 
gica,  south  of  the  Mediomatrici,  between  the 
Matrona  and  Mosella.  Their  chief  town  was 
Tullum  (now  Toul\ 

LECCI  MO.NTES,  called  by  the  Romans  Albi 
Monies,  a  range  of  mountains  in  the  west  of 
Crete.  Vid.  ALBI  MOSTES. 

LEUCIPPE.      Vid.  ALCATHOE. 

LEUCIPPIDES  (AevKnriridqf),  i.  e,  Phoebe  and 
Hilalra,  the  daughters  of  Leucippus.  They 
were  priestesses  of  Minerva  (Athena)  and  Di- 
ana (Artemis),  and  betrothed  to  Idas  and  Lyn- 
ceus,  the  sons  of  Aphareus ;  but  Castor  and 
*Pollux,  being  charmed  with  their  beauty,  car- 
ried them  off  and  married  them. 

LEUCIPPUS  (Afi'/UTTTTOf).  1.  Son  of  CEnomaus. 
For  details,  vid.  DAPHNE. — 2.  Son  of  Perieres 
and  Gorgophone,  brother  of  Aphareus,  and  prince 
of  the  Messenians,  was  one  of  the  Calydouiau 
hunters.  By  his  wife  Philodice  he  had  two 
daughters,  Phcebe  and '  Hilaira,  usually  called 
LEUCIPPIDES. — 3.  A  Grecian  philosopher,  the 
founder  of  the  atomic  theory  of  the  ancient 
philosophy,  which  was  more  fully  developed  by 
Democritus.  Where  and  when  he  was  born 
we  have  no  data  for  deciding.  Miletus,  Abdera, 
and  Elea  have  been  assigned  as  his  birth-place ; 
the  first,  apparently,  for  no  other  reason  than 
that  it  was  the  birth-place  of  several  natural 
philosophers ;  the  second,  because  Democritus 
came  from  that  town ;  the  third,  because  he 
was  looked  upon  as  a  disciple  of  the  Eleatic 
school.  The  period  when  he  lived  is  equally 
uncertain.  He  is  called  the  teacher  of  Democ- 
ritus, the  disciple  of  Parmenides,  or  according 
to  other  accounts,  of  Zeno,  of  Melissus,  nay, 
even  of  Pythagoras.  With  regard  to  his  philo- 
sophical system  it  is  impossible  to  speak  with 
certainty,  since  the  writers  who  mention  him 
either  mention  him  in  conjunction  with  Democ- 
ritus, or  attribute  to  him  doctrines  which  are  in 
like  manner  attributed  to  Democritus.  Vid.  DE- 
MOCRITUS. 

LEUCON  (AEVKUV).  1.  Son  of  Neptune  (Posei- 
don) or  Athamas  and  Themisto,  and  father  of 
Erythrus  and  Evippe. — 2.  A  powerful  king  of 
Bosporus,  who  reigned  B.C.  393-353.  He  was 
in  close  alliance  with  the  Athenians,  whom  he 
supplied  with  corn  in  great  abundance,  and 
who,  in  return  for  his  services,  admitted  him 
and  his  sons  to  the  citizenship  of  Athens. — 3. 
An  Athenian  poet,  of  the  old  comedy,  a  con- 
I  temporary  and  rival  of  Aristophanes.  [A  frag 
1  ment  preserved  in  Hesychius  is  given  iu  Mei- 
neke's  Comic.  Grcec.  Fragm^  vol.  i.,  p.  423]. 

LEUCONIUM  (Aev KUVIOV),  a  place  in  the  island 
of  Chios.  (Thuc.,  viii.,  24.) 

LEUCONOE  (A.EVKOVUJJ),  daughter  of  Minyas, 
usually  called  Leucippe.  Vid.  ALEATHOE. 

LEUCOPETRA  (AevKoirerpa :  now  Cape  dell' 
Armi),  a  promontory  in  the  southwest  of  Brut- 
tium,  on  the  Sicilian  Straits,  and  a  few  miles 
south  of  Rhegium,  to  whose  territory  it  belong- 
ed. It  was  regarded  by  the  ancient  writers  as 
the  termination  of  the  Apennines,  and  it  derived 
its  name  from  the  white  color  of  its  rocks. 

LEDCOFHRYNE.     Vid.  LEUCOPURYS. 


LEUCOPHRYS. 

LEUCOPHRYS  (AevxoQpvf).  1.  A  city  of  Caria, 
in  the  plain  of  the  Maeander,  close  to  a  curious 
lake  of  warm  water,  and  having  a  renowned 
temple  of  Diana  (Artemis)  Leucophryne. — 2.  A 
name  given  to  the  island  of  TENEDOS,  from  its 
white  cliffs. 

LEVCOSIA  01  LEUCASIA  (now  Piano),  a  small 
island  in  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Paestum,  off 
the  coast  of  Lucania,  and  opposite  the  Promon- 
tory Posidium,  said  to  have  been  called  after 
one  of  the  Sirens. 

LEUCOSYRI  (Aevnoavpoi,  i.  e.,  White  Syrians), 
was  a  name  early  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Cappadocia,  who  were  of  the 
Syrian  race,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Syrian 
tribes  of  a  darker  color  beyond  the  Taurus. 
Afterward,  when  Cappadoces  came  to  be  the 
common  name  for  the  people  of  Southern  Cap- 
padocia, the  word  Leucosyri  was  applied  spe- 
cifically to  the  people  in  the  north  of  the  coun- 
try (afterward  Poutus)  on  the  coast  of  the  Eux- 
ine,  between  the  rivers  Halys.  and  Iris :  these 
are  the  White  Syrians  of  Xenophon  (Anab.,  v., 
6).  After  the  Macedonian  conquest  the  name 
appears  to  have  fallen  into  disuse. 

LEUCOTHEA  (Asvuodia),  a  marine  goddess,  was 
previously  Ino,  the  wife  of  Athamas.  For  de- 
tails, vid.  ATHAMAS. 

LEUCOTHOE,  daughter  of  the  Babylonian  king 
Orchamus  and  Eurynome,  was  beloved  by  Apol- 
lo. Her  amour  was  betrayed  by  the  jealous 
Clytia  to  her  father,  who  buried  her  alive ; 
whereupon  Apollo  metamorphosed  her  into  an 
license  shrub.  Leucothoe  is  in  some  writers 
only  another  form  for  Leucothea, 

LEUCTRA  (TU  evurpa  :  now  Lefka  or  Lefkra). 
I.  A  small  town  in  Ikeotia,  on  the  road  from 
Plataeas  to  Thespise,  memorable  for  the  victory 
which  Epaminondas  and  the  Thebans  here  gain- 
ed over  Cleombrotus  and  the  Spartans,  B.C. 
371. — [2.  Vid.  LEUCTRUH.] 

LEUCTBUM  (Aevurpov).  1.  Or  LEUCTRA  (now 
Leflro),  a  town  in  Messenia,  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Messenian  Gulf,  between  Cardamyle  and 
Thalama,  on  the  small  river  Pamisus.  The 
Spartans  and  Messenians  disputed  for  the  pos- 
session of  it. — 2.  A  small  town  in  Achaia,  de- 
pendent on  Rhypse. 

[LEUCUS  (Aewcof)  a  companion  of  Ulysses  in 
the  Trojan  war,  slain  by  Antiphus.] 

fLEUcvANiAS  ( AevKvaviaf),  a  small  river  of 
Ehs,  that  flows  from  Mount  Pholoe,  and  emp- 
ties into  the  Alpheus.  On  its  banks  was  a  tem- 
ple of  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  Leucyanites.] 

LEXOVII  or  LEXOBII,  a  people  in  Gallia  Lug- 
dunensis,  on  the  Ocean,  west  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Sequana.  Their  capital  was  Noviomagus 
(now  Lisieux). 

LIBA  (r)  Ai6a),  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  between 
Nigibis  and  the  Tigris. 

LIBANIUS  (Ai6uviof),  a  distinguished  Greek 
sophist  and  rhetorician,  was  born  at  Antioch, 
on  the  Orontes,  about  A.D.  814.  He  studied  at 
Athens,  where  he  imbibed  an  ardent  love  for 
the  great  classical  writers  of  Greece ;  and  he 
afterward  set  up  a  private  school  of  rhetoric  at 
Constantinople,  which  was  attended  by  so  large 
a  number  of  pupils  that  the  classes  of  the  pub- 
lic professors  were  completely  deserted.  The 
latter,  in  revenge,  charged  Libanius  with  being  i 
a  magician,  and  obtained  his  expulsion  from  j 


UBANUS. 

j  Constantinople  about   346.      He   then  went  to 
Nicomedia,  where  he  taught  with  equal  success, 
but  also  drew  upon  himself  an  equal  degree  of 
malice  from  his  opponents.     After  a  stay  of  five 
years  at  Nicomedia,  he    was  recalled  to  Con- 
stantinople.    Eventually  he  took  up  his  abode 
at  Antioch.  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life.     Here  he  received  the  greatest  marks 
of  favor  from  the  Emperor  Julian,  362.     In  the 
reign  of  Valens  he  was  at  first  persecuted,  but 
he  afterward  succeeded  in  winning  the  favor  of 
that  monarch  also.     The  Emperor  Theodosius 
likewise  showed  him  marks  of  respect,  but  his 
enjoyment  of  life  was  disturbed  by  ill  health,  by 
misfortunes  in  his  family,  and  more  especially 
by  the  disputes  in  which  he  was  incessantly  in- 
volved, partly  with  rival  sophists,  and  partly 
with  the  prefects.     It  can  not,  however,  be  de- 
nied, that  he  himself  was  as  much  to  blame  as 
his  opponents,  for  he  appears  to  have  provoked 
them  by  his  querulous  disposition,  and  by  the 
pride  and  vanity  which  every  where  appear  in 
his  orations,  and  which  led  him  to  interfere  in 
political  questions  which  it  would  have  been 
wiser  to  have'  left  alone.     He  was  the  teacher 
of  St  Basil  and  Chrysostom,  with  whom  he  al- 
ways kept  up  a  friendly  connection.     The  year 
of  his  death  is  uncertain,  but  from  one  of  his 
epistles  it  is  evident  that  he  was  alive  in  391, 
and  it  is  probable  that  he  died  a  few  years  after, 
in  the  reign  of  Arcadius.     The  extant  works  of 
Libanius  are,  1.  Models  for  rhetorical  exercises 
(Hpoyvp.vacfidTuv   Trapadei-yftara).      2.   Orations 
(Aoyot),  sixty- seven   in  number.     3.  Declama- 
tions (Me/lerat),  t.  e^  orations  on  fictitious  sub- 
jects, and  descriptions  of  various  kinds,  fifty  in 
number.    4.  A  life  of  Demosthenes,  and  argu- 
ments to  the  speeches  of  the  same  orator.    5. 
Letters  ('Eiriarofau),  of  which  a  very  large  num- 
ber is  still  extant.     Many  of  these  letters  are 
extremely  interesting,   being  addressed  to  the 
most  eminent  men  of  his  time,  such  as  the  Em- 
peror Julian,  Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory  of  Nys- 
sa,  Chrysostom,  and  others.     The  style  of  Li- 
banius is  superior  to  that  of  the  other  rhetori- 
cians of  the  fourth  century.     He  took  the  best 
orators  of  the  classic  age  as  his  models,  and  we 
can  often  see  in  him  the  disciple  and  happy  imi- 
tator of  Demosthenes;   but   he   is  not  always 
able  to  rise  above  the  spirit  of  his  age,  and  we 
rarely  find  in  him  that  natural  simplicity  which 
constitutes  the  great  charm  of  the  best  Attic 
orators.     His  diction  is  a  curious  mixture  of 
the  pure  old  Attic  with  what  may  be  termed 
modern.     Moreover,  it  is  evident  that,  like  all 
other  rhetoricians,  he  is  more  concerned  about 
the  form  than  the   substance.      As  far  as  the 
history  of  his  age  is  concerned,  some  of  his  ora- 
tions, and  still  more  his  epistles,  are  of  great 
value,  such  as  the  oration  in  which  he  relates 
the  events  of  his  own  life,  the  eulogies  on  Con- 
stantius  and  Constans,   the  orations  on  Julian, 
several  orations  describing  the  condition  of  An- 
tioch, and  those  which  he  wrote  against  his  pro- 
fessional and  political  opponents.     There  is  no 
complete  edition  of  all  the  works  of  Libauiua. 
The  best  edition  of  the  orations  and  declama- 
tions is  by  Reiske,  Altenburg,  1701-97,  4  vols. 
8vo,  and  the  best  edition  of  the  epistles  is  by 
Wolf,  Amsterdam,  1738,  foL 

LhiANis  (6  Aifavof,  rd  AiGavov :  Heb.  Leb- 
437 


LIBARNA. 


LIBO. 


Anon,  i.  c.,  the  White  Mountain :  now  Jehel  Lib- 
nan),  a  lofty  and  steep  mountain  range  ou  th 
confines  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  dividing  Phce 
nice  from  Ccele-Syria.  It  extends  fivm  above 
Sidon,  about  latitude  33^°  north,  in  a  direction 
north-northeast  as  far  as  about  latitude  34^° 
Its  highest  summits  are  covered  with  perpetua 
snow ;  its  sides  were  in  ancient  times  clothei 
with  forests  of  cedars,  of  which  only  scatterec 
trees  now  remain,  and  on  its  lower  slopes  grow 
vines,  figs,  mulberries,  and  other  fruits :  its 
wines  were  highly  celebrated  in  ancient  times 
It  is  considerably  lower  than  the  opposite  range 
of  ANTILIBAXCS.  In  the  Scriptures  the  wore 
Lebanon  is  used  for  both  ranges,  and  for  either 
of  them ;  but  in  classical  authors  the  names 
Libanus  and  Autilibanus  are  distinctive  terms 
being  applied  to  the  western  and  eastern  ranges 
respectively. 

LIBARXA  or  LIBARNUM,  a  town  of  Liguria,  on 
the  Via  Aurelia,  northwest  of  Genua. 

LIBEXTINA,  LUBEXTIXA,  LuBENTiA,  a  surname 
of  Venus  among  the  Romans,  by  which  she  is 
described  as  the  goddess  of  sexual  pleasure  (dea 
libidinis}. 

LIBER,  or  LIBER  PATER,  a  name  frequently 
given  by  the  Roman  poets  to  the  Greek  Bacchus 
or  Dionysus,  who  was  accordingly  regarded  as 
identical  with  the  Italian  Liber.  But  the  god 
LIBER  and  the  goddess  LIBERA  were  ancient 
Italian  divinities,  presiding  over  the  cultivation 
of  the  vine  and  the  fertility  of  the  fields.  Hence 
they  were  worshipped  even  in  early  times  in 
conjunction  with  Ceres.  A  temple  to  these 
three  divinities  was  vowed  by  the  dictator  A. 
Postumius  in  B.C.  496,  and  was  built  near  the 
Circus  Flaminius;  it  was  afterward  restored 
by  Augustus,  and  dedicated  by  Tiberius.  The 
name  Liber  is  probably  connected  with  liberare. 
Hence  Seneca  says,  Liber  dictus  est  quia  liberat 
servitio  curarum  animi  ;  while  others,  who  were 
evidently  thinking  of  the  Greek  Bacchus,  found 
in  the  name  an  allusion  to  licentious  drinking 
and  speaking.  Poets  usually  called  him  Liber 
Pater,  the  latter  word  being  very  commonly 
added  by  the  Italians  to  the  names  of  gods. 
The  female  Libera  was  identified  by  the  Ro- 
mans with  Cora  or  Proserpina,  the  daughter  of 
Demeter  (Ceres);  whence  Cicero  calls  Liber 
and  Libera  children  of  Ceres;  whereas  Ovid 
calls  Ariadne  Libera.  The  festival  of  the  Libe- 
ralia  was  celebrated  by  the  Romans  every  year 
on  the  17th  of  March. 
LIBERA.  Vid.  LIBER. 
[LIBERALIS.  Vid.  ANTOMNUS  LIBERALIS.] 
LIBERTAS,  the  personification  of  Liberty,  was 
worshipped  at  Rome  as  a  divinity.  A  temple 
was  erected  to  her  on  the  Aventine  by  Tib. 
Sempronius  Gracchus.  Another  was  built  by 
Clodius  on  tbe  spot  where  Cicero's  house  had 
stood.  A  third  was  erected  after  Cassar's  vic- 
tories in  Spain.  From  these  temples  we  must 
distinguish  the  Atrium  Libertatis,  which  was  in 
the  north  of  the  forum,  toward  the  Quirinal. 
This  building,  under  the  republic,  served  as  an 
office  of  the  censors,  and  also  contained  tables 
with  laws  inscribed  upon  them.  It  was  rebuilt 
by  Asinius  Pollio,  and  then  became  the  reposi- 
tory of  the  first  public  library  at  Rome.  Liber- 
tas  is  usually  represented  in  works  of  art  as  a 
matron,  with  the  pileus,  the  symbol  of  liberty, 
438 


!  or  a  wreath  of  laurel.    Sometimes  she  appears 
holding  the  Phrygian  cap  in  her  hand. 

LlBKTHRIDES.        Vid.   LlBETHUl'.M. 

LIBETHRIUS  MONS  (TO  Ai6>'i&piov  opoc),  a  mount 
ain  in  Bccotia,  a  branch  of  Mount  Helicon,  forty 
stadia  from  Coronea,  possessing  a  grotto  of  the 
Libethrian  nymphs,  adorned  with  their  statues, 
and  two  fountains  Libethrias  and  Pctra. 

LIBETHRUM  (AeiCTjdpov,  T&  AeiGTjOpa,  rH  Atfo/- 
Opa),  an  ancient  Thracian  town  in  Pieria  in  Mac- 
edonia, on  the  slope  of  Olympus,  and  southwest 
of  Dium,  where  Orpheus  is  said  to  have  lived. 
This»town  and  the  surrounding  country  were 
sacred  to  the  Muses,  who  were  hence  called 
Libethflden  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  worship 
of  the  Muses  under  this  name  was  transferred 
from  this  place  to  Bceotia. 

[LIBISSONIS  TURRIS  (Aidioauvof  Tripj'of),  a  city 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Sardinia,  and,  according 
to  Pliny,  the  only  Roman  colony  in  the  island  ; 
probably  the  usual  lauding  place  for  ships  com- 
ing from  Corsica.  Its  ruins  are  now  seen  on  a 
height  near  a  harbor  which  still  bears  the  name 
Porto  Torre.] 

LIBITINA,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  who  was 
identified  by  the  later  Romans  sometimes  with 
Persephone  (Proserpina),  on  account  of  her  con- 
nection with  the  dead  and  their  burial,  and  some- 
times with  Aphrodite  (Venus).  The  latter  was 
Erobably  the  consequence  of  etymological  specu- 
itious  on  the  name  of  Libitiua,  which  people 
connected  with  libido.  Her  temple  at  Rome 
was  a  repository  of  every  thing  necessary  for 
burials,  and  persons  might  there  either  buy  or 
hire  those  things.  Hence  a  person  undertaking 
the  burial  of  a  person  (an  undertaker)  was  call- 
ed libitinarius,&Qd  his  business  libitina  ;  hence 
the  expressions  libitinam  excrcere  or  facere,  and 
^ibitinafuncribus  non  sufficiebat,  i.  e.,  they  could 
not  all  be  buried.  It  is  related  that  King  Ser- 
vius  Tullius,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  number 
of  deaths,  ordained  that  for  every  person  who 
died,  a  piece  of  money  should  be  deposited  in 
the  temple  of  Libitiua.  Owing  to  this  connec- 
tion of  Libitina  with  the  dead,  Roman  poets 
frequently  employ  her  name  in  the  sense  of 
death  itself. 

LIBO,  SCRIBOXIUS,  a  plebeian  family.  1.  L., 
tribune  of  the  plebs,  B.C.  149,  accused  Ser. 
Sulpicius  Galba  on  account  of  the  outrages 
which  he  had  committed  against  the  Lusita- 
nians.  Vid.  GALBA,  No.  6.  It  was  perhaps  this 
Libo  who  consecrated  the  Puteal  Scribonianum 
or  Puteal  Libonis,  of  which  we  so  frequently 
read  in  ancient  writers.  The  Puteal  was  an 
nclosed  place  in  the  forum,  near  the  Arcus 
^abianus,  and  was  so  called  from  its  being  open 
it  the  top,  like  a  puteal  or  well.  It  appears  that 
-here  was  only  one  such  puteal  at  Rome,  and 
lot  two,  as  is  generally  believed.  It  was  dedi- 
lated  in  very  ancient  times  either  on  account 
if  the  whetstone  of  the  augur  Navius  (comp. 
jiv.,  i.,  36),  or  because  the  spot  had  been  struck 
>y  lightning ;  it  was  subsequently  repaired  and 
re-dedicated  by  Libo,  who  erected  in  its  neigh- 
borhood a  tribunal  for  the  praetor,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  place  was  frequented  by 
persons  who  had  lawsuits,  such  as  money-lend- 
ers and  the  like.  (Comp.  Hor,  Sat.,  ii.,  6,  36 ; 
JEpist.,  i.,  19,  8.) — 2.  L.,  the  father-in-law  of  Sex. 
Pompey,  the  son  of  Pompey  the  Great.  On  the 


LIBOK 


LICINIUS. 


Breaking  out  of  the  3ivil  war  in  49  be  naturally  |  called  because  it  once  formed  an  Egyptian  No« 
sided  with  Pompey,  and  was  intrusted  with  the   mos.^    It  is  sometimes  called  Libya  Exterior. 


command  of  Etruria.  Shortly  afterward  be  ac- 
companied Pompey  to  Greece,  and  was  actively 
engaged  in  the  war  that  ensued.  On  the  death 
of  Bibulus  (48)  he  had  the  chief  command  of 
the  Pompeian  fleet.  In  the  civil  wars  which 


followed  Caesar's  death,  he  followed  the  fortunes   of    the   Mediterranean  between  the  island   of 


of  his  son-in-law  Sex.  Pompey.  In  40  Octavi- 
anus  married  his  sister  Scribonia,  and  this  mar- 
riage was  followed  by  a  peace  between  the  tri- 
umvirs and  Pompey  (39).  When  the  war  was 
renewed  in  36,  Libo  for  a  time  continued  with 
Pompey,  but,  seeing  his  cause  hopeless,  he  de- 
serted him  in  the  following  year.  In  34  he  was 
consul  with  M.  Antony. 

LIBON  (Ai6uv),  an  Eleau,  the  architect  of  the 
great  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  in*  the  Altis  at 
Giympia,  flourished  about  B.C.  450. 

[LIBORA  (A.i6opa),  a  town  of  the  Carpetani, 
same  as  the  ./EBURA  (q.  v.)  of  Livy.] 

LIBUI,  a  Gallic  tribe  in  Gallia  Cispadana,  to 
whom  the  towns  of  Brixia  and  Verona  formerly 
belonged,  from  which  they  were  expelled  by  the 
Cenoniani.  They  are  probably  the  same  people 
whom  we  afterward  find  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Vereellas  under  the  name  of  Lebecii  or  Libici. 
•  LIBURNIA,  a  district  of  Illyricum,  along  the 
coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  was  separated  from 
Istria  on  the  northwest  by  the  River  Arsia,  and 
from  Dalmatia  on  the  south  by  the  River  Titius, 
thus  corresponding  to  the  western  part  of  Croa- 
tia and  the  northern  part  of  the  modern  Dal- 
matia. The  country  is  mountainous  and  unpro- 
ductive, and  its  inhabitants,  the  LIBUB.NI,  sup- 
ported themselves  chiefly  by  commerce  and  nav- 
igation. They  were  celebrated  at  a  very  early 
pp.riod  as  bold  and  skillful  sailors,  and  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  first  people  who  had  the 
sway  of  the  waters  of  the  Adriatic.  They  took 
possession  of  most  of  the  islands  of  this  sea  as 
far  as  Corcyra,  and  had  settlements  even  on  the 
opposite  coast  of  Italy.  Their  ships  were  re- 
markable for  their  swift  sailing,  and  hence  ves- 
sels built  after  the  same  model  were  called 
Liburnicee  or  Liburrue  naves.  It  was  to  light 
vessels  of  this  description  that  Augustus  was 
mainly  indebted  for  his  victory  over  Antony's 
fleet  at  the  battle  of  Actiura.,  The  Liburnians 
were  the  first  Illyrian  people  who  submitted  to 
the  Roman*.  Being  hard  pressed  by  the  lapydes 
on  the  north  and  by  the  Dalmatians  on  the 
south,  they  sought  the  protection  of  Rome  at  a 
comparatively  early  period.  Hence  we  find  that 
many  of  their  towns  were  immunes,  or  exempt 
from  taxes.  The  islands  off  the  coast  were 
reckoned  a  part  of  Liburnia,  and  are  known  by 
the  general  name  of  Liburnides  or  Liburnicce  In- 
sulae.  Vid.  ILLYRICUM. 

LIBYA  (A.i6vt]),  daughter  of  Epaphus  and  Mem- 
phis, from  whom  Libya  (Africa)  is  said  to  have 
derived  its  name.  By  Neptune  (Poseidon)  she 
became  the  mother  of  Agenor,  Belus,  and  Lelex. 


LIBYCI  MONIES  (T&  A.i6vicbv  opof  :  now  Jcbel 
Selseleh),  the  range  of  mountains  which  form 
the  western  margin  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 
Vid.  ^EGYFTUS. 

LIBYCUM  MAKE  (TO  Ai6vnbv  TreAayof),  the  part 


LIBYA  (Atfiwy  : 


,  Libyes).     1.  The  Greek 


name  for  the  continent  of  Africa  in  general. 
Vid.  AFRICA.  —  2.  L.  INTERIOR  )A.  f)  kvrof),  the 
whole  interior  of  Africa,  as  distinguished  from 
the  well-known  regions  on  the  northern  and 
northeastern  coasts.  —  3.  LIBYA,  specifically,  or 
LIBY*  NOMOS  (\t6vjif  vo/tof),  a  district  of  North- 
ern Africa,  between  Egypt  and  Marmarica,  BO 


Crete  and  the  northern  coast  of  Africa. 

LiBYrnoENiCES  (Ai6v<poiviKEf,  Ai6o^>oivtK£f),  a 
term  applied  to  the  people  of  those  parts  of 
Northern  Africa  in  which  the  Phcenicians  had 
founded  colonies,  and  especially  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Phoenician  cities  on  the  coast  of  the 
Carthaginian  territory  :  it  is  derived  from  the 
fact  that  these  people  were  a  mixed  race  of  the 
Libyan  natives  with  the  Phoenician  settlers. 

LIBYSSA  (  Al&vaaa  :  now  Herekeh  ?  according 
to  Leake,  Mal&um),  a  town  of  Bithynia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Sinus  Asta- 
cenus,  west  of  Nicomedia,  celebrated  as  the 
place  where  the  tomb  of  Hannibal  was  to  be 
seen. 

LICATES  or  LICATII,  a  people  of  Vindelicia,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  River  Licus  or  Licia 
(now  Lech),  one  of  the  fiercest  of  the  Vindeli- 


cian  tribes. 
LICHADES 


now  Ponticonesi),  three 


small  islands  between  Eubcea  and  the  coast  of 
Locris,  called  Scarphia,  Caresa,  and  Phocaria. 
Vid.  LICHAS,  No.  1. 

LICHAS  (Ai^cf).  1.  An  attendant  on  Hercules, 
brought  his  master  the  poisoned  garment  which 
destroyed  the  hero.  (Vid.  p.  359,  a.)  Her- 
cules, in  anguish  and  wrath,  threw  Lichas  into 
the  sea,  and  the  Lichadian  islands  were  believ- 
ed to  have  derived  their  name  from  him.  —  2.  A 
Spartan,  son  of  Arcesilaus,  was  proxenus  of 
Argos,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Pel- 
oponnesian  war.  He  was  famous  throughout 
Greece  for  his  hospitality,  especially  in  his  en- 
tertainment of  strangers  at  the  Gymnopsedia. 

LICIA  or  Licus.     Vid.  LICATES. 

LICINIA.  1.  A  Vestal  virgin,  accused  of  in- 
cest, together  with  two  other  Vestals,  ^Emilia 
and  Marcia,  B.C.  114.  L.  Metellus,  the  poutifex 
maximus,  condemned  ^Emih'a,  but  acquitted  Li- 
cinia  and  Marcia.  The  acquittal  of  the  two 
last  caused  such  dissatisfaction  that  the  people 
appointed  L.  Cassius  Longinus  to  investigate 
the  matter,.  and  he  condemned  both  Liciuia  and 
Marcia.  —  2.  Wife  of  C.  Sempronius  Gracchus, 
the  celebrated  tribune.  —  3.  Daughter  of  Crassus 
the  orator,  and  wife  of  the  younger  Marius. 

LICINIA  GENS,  a  celebrated  plebeian  house, 
to  which  belonged  C.  Licinius  Calvus  Stolo, 
whose  exertions  threw  open  the  consulship  to 
the  plebeians.  Ite  most  distinguished  families 
at  a  later  time  were  those  of  CRASSUS,  LUCUL- 
LUS,  and  MURENA.  There  were  likewise  numer- 
ous other  surnames  in  the  gens,  which  arc  also 
given  in  their  proper  places. 

LICINIUS.  1.  <J.  LICINIUS  CALVUS,  surnamed 
STOLO,  which  he  derived,  it  is  said,  from  the 
care  witli  which  he  dug  up  the  shoots  that  sprang 
up  from  the  roots  of  his  vines.  He  brought  the 
contest  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians  to 
a  happy  termination,  and  thus  became  the  found- 
er of  Rome's  greatness.  He  was  tribune  of 
the  people  from  B.C.  376  to  367,  and  was  faith- 
fully supported  in  his  exertions  by  his  colleague 
439 


LICINIUS. 


LICYNNIU3. 


L.  Sextii:8.  The  laws  which  he  proposed  were : 
1.  That  iu  future  no  more  consular  tribunes 
should  be  appointed,  but  that  consuls  should  be 
elected,  one  of  whom  should  always  be  a  ple- 
beian. 2.  That  no  one  should  possess  more 
than  five  hundred  jugera  of  the  public  hind,  or 
keep  upon  it  more  than  one  hundred  head  of 
large  and  five  hundred  of  small  cattle.  3.  A 
law  regulating  the  affairs  between  debtor  and 
creditor.  4.  That  the  Sibylline  books  should  be 
intrusted  to  a  college  of  ten  men  (decemviri), 
half  of  whom  should  be  plebeians.  These  ro- 
gations were  passed  after  a  most  vehement  op-  \ 
position  on  the  part  of  the  patricians,  and  L.  • 
Sextius  was  the  nrst  plebeian  who  obtained  the 
consulship,  366.  Licmius  himself  was  elected 
twice  to  the  consulship,  364  and  361.  Some 
years  later  he  was  accused  by  M.  Popilius 
Laenas  of  having  transgressed  his  own  law  re- 
specting the  amount  of  public  land  which  a  per- 
son might  possess.  He  was  condemned  and 
sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy  fine. — 2.  C.  LICINIUS 
MACER,  an  annalist  and  an  orator,  was  a  man 
of  praetorian  dignity,  who,  when  impeached  (66) 
of  extortion  by  Cicero,  finding  that  the  verdict 
was  against  him,  forthwith  committed  suicide 
before  the  formalities  of  the  trial  were  com- 
pleted, and  thus  averted  the  dishonor  and  loss 
which  would  have  been  entailed  upon  his  family 
by  a  public  condemnation  and  by  the  confisca- 
tion of  property  which  it  involved.  His  Annales 
commenced  with  the  very  origin  of  the  city, 
and  extended  to  twenty -one-books  at  least ;  but 
how  far  he  brought  down  his  history  is  un- 
known.— 3.  C.  LICINIUS  MACEE  CALVUS,  son  of 
the  last,  a  distinguished  orator  and  poet,  was 
born  in  82,  and  died  about  47  or  46,  in  his  thirty- 
fifth  or  thirty-sixth  year.  His  most  celebrated 
oration  was  delivered  against  Vatinius,  who  was 
defended  by  Cicero,  when  he  was  only  twenty- 
seven  years  of  age.  80  powerful  was  the  ef- 
fect produced  by  this  speech,  that  the  accused 
started  up  in  the  midst  of  the  pleading,  and  pas- 
sionately exclaimed,  "  Rogo  vos,  judices,  num, 
si  iste  disertus  est,  ideo  me  damnari  oporteat  ?" 
His  poems  were  full  of  wit  and  grace,  and  pos- 
sessed sufficient  merit  to  be  classed  by  the  an- 
cients with  those  of  Catullus.  His  elegies,  espe- 
cially that  on  the  untimely  death  of  his  mis- 
tress Quintilia,  have  been  warmly  extolled  by 
Catullus,  Propertius,  and  Ovid.  Calvus  was 
remarkable  for  the  shortness  of  his  stature,  and 
hence  the  vehement  action  in  which  he  in- 
dulged while  pleading  was  in  such  ludicrous 
contrast  with  his  insignificant  person,  that  even 
his  friend  Catullus  has  not  been  able  to  resist 
a  joke,  and  has  presented  him  to  us  as  the 
"  Salaputium  disertum,"  "  the  eloquent  Tom 
Thumb." 

LICINIUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D.  307-324, 
whose  full  name  was  PUBLIUS  FLAVIUS  GALE- 
RIUS  VALERIUS  LICINIANUS  LICINIUS.  He  was 
a  Dacian  peasant  by  birth,  and  the  early  friend 
and  companion  in  arms  of  the  Emperor  Gale- 
rius,  by  whom  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Au- 
gustus, and  invested  with  the  command  of  the 
Illyrian  provinces  at  Carmentum,  on  the  llth 
of  November,  A.D.  307.  Upon  the  death  of 
Galerius  in  311,  he  concluded  a  peaceful  ar- 
rangement with  MAXIMINUS  IL,  in  virtue  of 
which  the  Hellespont  and  the  Bosporus  were 
440 


to  form  the  boundary  of  the  two  empires.  In 
313  he  married  at  Milan,  Constantia,  the  sister 
of  Constantino,  and  in  the  same  year  set  out  to 
encounter  Maximiuus,  who  had  invaded  his  do- 
minions. Maximinus  was  defeated  by  Licinius 
near  Heraclea,  and  died  a  few  months  after- 
ward at  Tarsus.  Liciuius  and  Constantine 
were  now  the  only  emperors,  and  each  was 
anxious  to  obtain  the  undivided  sovereignty. 
Accordingly,  war  broke  out  between  them  in 
315.  Licinius  was  defeated  at  Cibalis  in  Pan- 
nonia,  and  afterward  at  Adrianople,  and  was 
compelled  to  puf  chase  peace  by  ceding  to  Con- 
stantine Greece,  Macedonia,  and  lllyricum. 
This  peace  lasted  about  nine  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  hostilities  were  renewed.  The  great 
battle  of  Adrianople  (July,  323),  followed  by  the 
reduction  of  Byzantium,  and  a  second  great 
victory  achieved  near  Chalcedon  (September), 
placed  Licinius  at  the  mercy  of  Constantine, 
who,  although  he  spared  his  life  for  the  moment, 
and  merely  sentenced  him  to  an  honorable  im- 
prisonment at  Thessalonica,  soon  found  a  con- 
venient pretext  for  putting  him  to  death,  324. 

LICINUS.  1.  A  Gaul  by  birth,  was  taken  pris- 
oner in  war,  and  became  a  slave  of  Julius  Ca> 
sar,  whose  confidence  he  gained  so  much  as  to 
be  made  his  dispensator  or  steward.  Csesar 
gave  him  his  freedom.  He  also  gained  the 
favor  of  Augustus,  who  appointed  him,  in  B.C. 
15,  governor  of  his  native  country,  Gaul.  By 
the  plunder  of  Gaul  and  by  other  means,  he  ac- 
quired enormous  wealth,  and  hence  his  name  is 
frequently  coupled  with  that  of  Crassus:  He 
lived  to  see  the  reign  of  Tiberius. — 2.  The  bar- 
ber (tonsor)  Licinus  spoken  of  by  Horace  (Art 
Poet.,  301)  must  have  been  a  different  person 
from  the  preceding,  although  identified  by  the 
Scholiast. — 3.  CLODIUS  LICINUS,  a  Roman  an- 
nalist, who  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the 
first  century  B.C.,  wrote  the  history  of  Rome 
from  its  capture  by  the  Gauls  to  his  own  time. 
This  Clodius  is  frequently  confounded  with  Q. 
Claudius  Quadrigarius.  Vid.  QUADRIGARIUS. — 
4.  L.  PORCIUS  LICINUS,  plebeian  sedile  210,  and 
praetor  207,  when  he  obtained  Cisalpine  Gaul 
as  his  province. — 5.  L.  PORCIUS  LICINUS,  praetor 
193,  with  Sardinia  as  his  province,  and  consul 
184,  when  he  carried  on  war  against  the  Ligu- 
rians. — 6.  PORCIUS  LICINUS,  an  ancient  Roman 
poet,  who  probably  lived  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  second  century  B.C. 

[Licus,  a  river  of  Vindelicia.     Vid.  LICATES.] 

LICYMNIA,  spoken  of  by  Horace  (Carm.,  ii, 
12,  13,  seq.),  is  probably  the  same  as  Terentia, 
the  wife  of  Maecenas. 

LICYMNIUS  (AiKv/j.viof).  1.  Son  of  Elcctryon 
and  the  Phrygian  slave  Midea,  and  consequent- 
ly half-brother  of  Alcmeue.  He  was  married 
to  Perimede,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of 
(Eonus,  Argeus,  and  Melas.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Hercules,  whose  son  Tlepolemus  slew  him, 
according  to  some  unintentionally,  and  accord- 
ing to  others  in  a  fit  of  anger. — 2.  Of  Chios,  a 
distinguished  dithyrambic  poet,  of  uncertain 
date.-  Some  writers  place  him  before  Simon- 
ides  ;  but  it  is  perhaps  more  likely  that  he  be- 
longed to  the  later  Athenian  dithyrambic  school 
about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  B.C. — 3.  Of 
Sicily,  a  rhetorician,  the  pupil  of  Gorgias,  and 
the  teacher  of  Polus. 


LIDE. 


LILYBJEUM. 


LIDE  (^iorj),  a  mountain  of  Caria,  above  Pe- 
dasus. 

LIGAUIUS,  Q.,  was  legate,  in  Africa,  of  C.  Con- 
sidius  Longus,  who  left  him  in  command  of  the 
province,  B.C.  50.  Next  year  (49)  Ligarius  re- 
signed the  government  of  the  province  into  the 
bands  of  L.  Attius  Varus.  Ligarius  fought  un- 


with  the  Scythians  and  Ethiopians,  as  one  of 
the  chief  people  of  the  earth.  Tradition  also 
related  that  Hercules  fought  with  the  Liguriaus 
on  the  plain  of  stones  near  Hassilia ;  and  even 
a  writer  so  late  as  Eratosthenes  gave  the  name 
of  Ligystice  to  the  whole  of  the  western  pen- 
insula of  Europe.  So  widely  were  they  believ- 


der   Varus   against  Curio  in  49,   and    against   ed  to  be  spread,  that  the  Ligyes  in  Germany  and 


Caesar  himself  in  46.  After  the  battle  of  Thap- 
sus,  Ligarius  was  taken  prisoner  at  Adrume- 
tum  ;  his  life  was  spared,  but  he  was  banished 
by  Caesar.  Meantime,  a  public  accusation  was 
brought  against  Ligarius  by  Q.  ^Elius  Tubero. 
The  case  was  pleaded  before  Caesar  himself  in 
the  forum.  Cicero  defended  Ligarius  in  a 
speech,  still  extant,  in  which  he  maintains  that 
Ligarius  had  as  much  claims  to  the  mercy  of 
Caesar,  as  Tubero  and  Cicero  himself.  Liga- 
rius was  pardoned  by  Caesar,  who  was  on  the 
point  of  setting  out  for  the  Spanish  war.  The 
speech  which  Cicero  delivered  in  his  defence 
was  subsequently  published,  and  was  much  ad- 
mired. Ligarius  joined  the  conspirators  who 
assassinated  Csesar  in  44.  Ligarius  and  his 
two  brothers  perished  in  the  proscription  of  the 
triumvirs  in  43. 

[LIGEA,  a  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  one 
of  the  nymphs  in  the  train  of  Gyrene.] 

LIGEB.  or  LIGERIS  (now  Loire),  one  of  the 
largest  rivers  in  Gaul,  rises  in  Mount  Cevenna, 
flows  through  the  territories  of  the  Arverni, 
^Edui,  and  Carnutes,  and  falls  into  the  ocean 
between  the  territories  of  the  Namnetes  and 
Pictones. 

LIGURIA  (f)  \iyvoTiKij,  j/  AtytxTnvT?),  a  district 
of  Italy,  was,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  river  Varus  and  the  Mari- 
time Alps,  which  separated  it  from  Transalpine 
Gaul,  on  the  southeast  by  the  River  Macra, 
which  separated  it  from  Etruria,  on  the  north 
by  the  River  Po,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Mare 
Ligusticum.  The  country  is  very  mountainous 
and  unproductive,  as  the  Maritime  Alps  and  the 
Apennines  run  through  the  greater  part  of  it 
The  mountains  run  almost  down  to  the  coast, 
leaving  only  space  sufficient  for  a  road,  which 
formed  the  highway  from  Italy  to  the  south  of 
Gaul.  The  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants 
was  tho  rearing  and  feeding  of  cattle.  The 
numerous  foresta  on  the  mountains  produced 
excellent  timber,  which,  with  the  other  pro- 
ducts of  the  country,  was  exported  from  Genua, 
the  principal  town  of  the  country.  The  inhab- 
itants were  called  by  the  Greeks  LIGYES  (At- 
yvef)  and  LIGYSTIKI  (\iyvartvoi),  and  by  the  Ro- 
mans LIGURES  (sing.  Ligus,  more  rarely  lAgur). 
They  were  in  early  times  a  powerful  and  widely- 
extended  people  ;  but  their  origin  is  uncertain, 
aome  writers  supposing  them  to  be  Celts,  others 
Iberians,  and  others,  again,  of  the  same  race  as 
the  Siculians,  or  most  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Italy.  It  is  certain  that  the  Ligurians  at  one 
time  inhabited  the  southern  coast  of  Gaul,  as 
well  as  the  country  afterward  called  Liguria, 
and  that  they  had  possession  of  the  whole  coast 
.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  to  Pisae  in  Etru- 
ria. The  Greeks  probably  became  acquainted 
with  them  first  from  the  Samians  and  Phocse- 
ana,  who  visited  their  coasts  for  the  purposes  of 
commerce  ;  and  so  powerful  were  they  consid- 


Asia  were  supposed  to  be  a  branch  of  the  same 
people.  The  Ligurian  tribes  were  divided  by 
the  Romans  into  Ligures  Transalpine  and  Cisal- 
pini.  The  tribes  which  inhabited  the  Maritime 
Alps  were  called  in  general  Alpini,  and  also  Ca~ 
piltati  or  Comati,  from  their  custom  of  allowing 
their  hair  to  grow  long.  The  tribes  which  in- 
habited the  Apennines  were  called  Montani. 
The  names  of  the  principal  tribes  were  :  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Alps,  the  SALYES  or  SALLU- 
vu,  OXYBII,  and  DECIATES  ;  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Alps,  the  INTEMELII,  ISGAUXI,  and  APUANI 
near  the  coast,  the  VAGIENM,  SALASSI,  and  TAU- 
K.INI  on  the  upper  course  of  the  Po,  and  the 
L.SVI  and  MAKIBCI  north  of  the  Po.  The  Liguri- 
ans were  small  of  stature,  but  strong,  active, 
and  brave.  In  early  times  they  served  as  mer 
cenaries  in  the  armies  of  the  Carthaginians, 
and  subsequently  they  carried  on  a  long  and 
fierce  struggle  with  the  Romans.  Their  coun- 
try was  invaded  for  the  first  time  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  B.C.  238 ;  but  it  was  not  till  after  the 
termination  of  the  second  Punic  war,  and  the 
defeat  of  Philip  and  Antiochus,  that  the  Romans 
were  able  to  devote  their  energies  to  the  sub- 
jugation of  Liguria.  It  was  many  years,  how- 
ever, before  the  whole  country  was  finally  sub- 
dued. Whole  tribes,  such  as  the  Apuani,  were 
transplanted  to  Samnium,  and  their  place  sup- 
plied by  Roman  colonists.  The  country  was 
divided  between  the  provinces  of  Gallia  Narbo- 
nensis  and  Gallia  Cisalpina  ;  and  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  and  of  the  succeeding  emperors, 
the  tribes  in  the  mountains  were  placed  under 
the  government  of  an  imperial  procurator,  called 
Procurator  or  Prcefectus  Alpium  Maritimarum. 

LIGUSTICUM  MAKE,  the  name  originally  of  the 
whole  sea  south  of  Gaul  and  of  the  northwest 
of  Italy,  but  subsequently  only  the  eastern  part 
of  this  sea,  or  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  whence  later 
writers  speak  only  of  a  Sinus  Ligustieus. 

[LIGYES  (\iyvef),  the  inhabitants  of  Liguria, 
Vid.  LIGURIA.] 

LIL.BA  (AtAata  :  AtAtuevf),  an  ancient  town  in 
Phocis,  near  the  sources  of  the  Cephisus. 

LILYB.KUM  (A.M6aiov  :  now  Marsala),  a  town 
in  the  west  of  Sicily,  with  an  excellent  harbor, 
situated  on  a  promontory  of  the  same  name 
(now  Cape  B&o  or  di  Marsala],  opposite  to  the 
Promontorium  Hermajum  or  Mercurii  (now  Cape 
Bon)  in  Africa,  the  space  between  the  two  be- 
ing the  shortest  distance  between  Sicily  and 
Africa.  The  town  of  Lilyboeum  was  founded 
by  the  Carthaginians  about  B.C.  897,  and  was 
made  the  principal  Carthaginian  fortress  in  Sici- 
ly. It  was  surrounded  by  massive  walls  and  by 
a  trench  sixty  feet  Vido  and  forty  feet  deep. 
On  the  destruction  of  Seliuus  in  249,  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  latter  city  were  transplanted  to 
Lilybaeum,  which  thus  became  still  more  pow- 
erful Lilybaeum  was  besieged  by  the  Romans 
in  tho  first  Punic  war,  but  they  were  unable  to 

cred  at  this  time,  that  Hesiod  names  them,  along  !  take  it ;  and  they  only  obtained  possession  of 

441 


LIM^EA. 


LIPARIS. 


it  by  the  treaty  of  peace.  Under  the  Romans 
Ulybieuin  continued  to  be  a  place  of  importance. 
At  Marsala,  which  occupies  'only  the  southern 
half  of  the  ancient  towu,  there  are  the  ruins  of 
a  .Roman  aqueduct,  and  a  few  other  ancient 
remains. 

LIM.KA,  LIMIA,  LIMIUS,  BELION  (now  Lima),  a 
river  in  Galliecia  in  Spain,  between  the  Durius 
and  the  Minius,  which  flowed  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  It  was  also  called  the  river  of  Forget- 
fukiess  (6  Ttyf  ArjOrjs,  Ftumen  Oblivionis) ;  and  it 
is  said  to  have  been  so  called  because  the  Tur- 
duli  and  the  Celts  on  one  occasion  lost  here 
thsir  commander,  and  forgot  the  object  of  their 
expedition.  This  legend  was  so  generally  be- 
lieved that  it  was  with  difficulty  that  Brutus 
Callaicus  could-  induce  his  soldiers  to  cross  the 
river  when  he  invaded  Gallaecia,  B.C.  136.  On 
the  banks  of  this  river  dwelt  a  small  tribe  called 
LIMICI. 

LIMITES  ROJIANI,  the  name  of  a  continuous 
series  of  fortifications,  consisting  of  castles, 
walls,  earthen  ramparts,  and  the  like,  which  the 
Romans  erected  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Dan- 
ube, to  protect  their  possessions  from  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Germans. 

LIMN^E  (Ai/ivai,  Aiftvalof).  1.  A  town  in  Mes- 
senia,  on  the  frontiers  of  Laconia,  with  a  temple 
of  Diana  (Artemis),  who  was  hence  surnamed 
Litnnatis.  This  temple  was  common  to  the 
people  of  both  countries  ;  and  the  outrage  which 
the  Messenian  youth  committed  against  some 
Lacedaemonian  maidens,  who  were  sacrificing 
at  this  temple,  was  the  occasion  of  the  first 
Messenian  war.  Limnae  was  situated  in  the 
Ager  Deutheliatis,  which  district  was  a  subject 
of  constant  dispute  between  the  Lacedaemoni- 
ans and  Messenians  after  the  re-establishment 
of  the  Messenian  independence  by  Epaminon- 
das. — 2.  A  town  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus 
on  the  Hellespont,  not  far  from  Sestus,  founded 
by  the  Milesians. — 3.  Vid.  SPARTA. 

LIMN^EA  (ht/ivaia :  At/uvalof),  a  town  in  the 
north  of  Acarnania,  on  the  road  from  Argos 
Amphilochicum  to  Stratos,  and  near  the  Am- 
bracian  Gulf,  on  which  it  had  a  harbor. 

LlMN^EA,       LlMNETES,   »LlMNEGENES       (Al/JLVaia 

(of),  At/nn/rrif  (if),  Aifivrryeviff),  i.  e.,  inhabiting 
or  born  in  a  lake  or  marsh,  a  surname  of  sev- 
eral divinities  who  were  believed  either  to  have 
sprung  from  a  lake,  or  who  had  their  temples 
near  a  lake.  Hence  we  find  this  surname  given 
to  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  at  Athens,  and  to  Diana 
(Artemis)  at  various  places. 

LIMOXUM.      Vid.  PICTONES. 

LIMYRA  (T&  Ai/j.vpa  :  ruins  north  of  Pineka  ?), 
a  city  in  the  southeast  of  Lycia,  on  the  River 
LIMYRUS,  twenty  stadia  from  its  mouth. 

LIMYRUS  (Aipvpof :  now  Phineka  ?),  a  river  of 
Lycia,  flowing  into  the  bay  west  of  the  Sacrum 
Promontorium  (now  Phineka  Bay) :  navigable 
as  far  up  as  LIMYRA.  The  recent  travellers 
differ  as  to  whether  the  present  River  Phineka 
is  the  Limyrus  or  its  tributary  the  Arycandus. 

LINDUM  (now  Lincoln),  a  town  of  the  Coritani 
in  Britain,  on  the  road  from  Londinium  to  Ebor- 
acum,  and  a  Roman  colony.  The  modern  name 
Lincoln  has  been  formed  out  of  Lindum  Colonia. 

LINDUS  (AcvSof  :  Alvdto^  :  ruins  at  Undo),  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  island  of  Rhodes,  was 
one  of  the  most  ancient  Dorian  colonies  on  the 
442 


Asiatic  coast  It  is  mentioned  by  Hom^r  (72 
ii.,  656),  with  its  kindred  cities  lalysus  and  Ca- 
minis.  These  three  cities,  with  Cos,  Cnidus,  and 
Halicarnassus,  formed  the  original  hexapolis,  in 
the  southwestern  corner  of  Asia  Minor.  Liu- 
dus  stood  upon  a  mountain  in  a  district  abound- 
ing in  vines  and  figs,  and  had  two.  celebrated 
temples,  one  of  Minerva  (Athena),  surnamcd 
Aivoia,  and  one  of  Hercules.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  Cleobulus,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men. 
It  retained  much  of  its  consequence  even  after 
the  foundation  of  Rhodes.  Inscriptions  of  some 
importance  have  lately  been  found  in  its  Acrop- 
olis. 

LINGONES.  1.  A  powerful  people  in  Trans- 
alpine Gaul,  whose  territory  extended  from  the 
foot  of  Mount  Vogesus  and  the  sources  of  the 
Matrona  and  Mosa,  north  as  far  as  the  Treviri, 
and  south  as  far  as  the  Sequani,  from  whom 
they  were  separated  by  the  River  Arar.  The 
Emperor  Otho  gave  them  the  -Roman  franchise. 
Their  chief  town  .was  Audematuunum,  after- 
ward Lingones  (now  Langres). — 2.  A  branch 
of  the  above-mentioned  people,  who  migrated 
into  Cisalpine  Gaul  along  with  the  Boii,  and 
shared  the  fortunes  of  the  latter.  Vid.  Bon. 
They  dwelt  east  of  the  Boii,  as  far  as  the  Adri- 
atic Sea,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ravenna. 

LlNTERNUM.       Vid.  LlTEKNUM. 

LINUS  (Aivoc),  the  personification  of  a  dirge 
or  lamentation,  and  therefore  described  as  a  sop 
of  Apollo  by  a  Muse  (Calliope  or  Psamathe 
or  Chalciope),  or  of  Amphimarus  by  Urania. 
Both  Argos  and  Thebes  claimed  the  honor  of 
his  birth.  An  Argive  tradition  related  that 
Linus  was  exposed  by  his  mother  after  his  birth, 
and  was  brought  up  by  shepherds,  but  was  aft- 
terward  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs.  Psamathe's 
grief  at  the  occurrence  betrayed  her  misfortune 
to  her  father,  who  condemned  her  to  death. 
Apollo,  indignant  at  the  father's  cruelty,  visited 
Argos  with  a  plague ;  and,  in  obedience  to  an 
oracle,  the  Argives  endeavored  to  propitiate 
Psamathe  and  Linus  by  means  of  sacrifices. 
Matrons  and  virgins  sang  dirges  which  were 
called  "klvoi.  According  to  a  Boaotian  tradition, 
Linus  was  killed  by  Apollo  because  he  had  ven- 
tured upon  a  musical  contest  with  the  god  ;  and 
every  year  before  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the 
Muses,  a  funeral  sacrifice  was  offered  to  him, 
and  dirges  (Atvoi)  were  sung  in  his  honor.  His 
tomb  was  claimed  by  Argos  and  by  Thebes,  and 
likewise  by  Chalcis  in  Eubrea.  It  is  probably 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  reconciling  the  differ- 
ent mythuses  about  Linus  that  the  Thebans 
thought  it  necessaiy  to  distinguish  between  an 
earlier  and  later  Linus ;  the  latter  is  said  to 
have  instructed  Hercules  in  music,  but  to  have 
been  killed  by  the  hero.  In  the  time  of  the 
Alexandrine  grammarians,  Linus  was  consider- 
ed as  the  author  of  apocryphal  works,  in  which 
the  exploits  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  were  de- 
scribed. 

[LIOCRITCS  (AeioKpiTOf).  1.  Son  of  Arisbas, 
a  Greek,  slain  by  ./Eneas. — 2.  Son  of  Euenor, 
one  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope.] 

LIPARA  and  LIPARENSES  INSULT     Vid.  Mo- 

K. 

LIPARIS  (Aiirapif),  a  small  river  of  Cilicia, 
flowing  past  Soloe,  [deriving  its  name  from  the 
unctuous  character  of  its  waters.]  ._,  w 


LIPAXUS. 


LIVIUS. 


[LiPAxrs  (At7ra£of),  a  city  on  the  coast  of 
Crossaea,  in  Macedonia.] 

LIQUENTIA  (now  Jjivenza),  a  river  in  Venetia, 
in  the  north  of  Italy,  between  Altinum  and  Con- 
cordia.  which  flowed  into  the  Sinus  Terges- 
tinua. 

[LIEIOPE,  an  ocean  nymph,  who  became  by 
Cephisus  the  mother  of  tne  beautiful  Narcis- 
sus.] 

LIEIS  (now  Garigliano),  more  anciently  called 
CLANIS  or  GLAMS,  one  of  •  the  principal  rivers 
in  central  Italy,  rises  in  the  Apennines  west  of 
Lake  Fucinus,  flows  first  through  the  territory 
of  the  Marsi  in  a  southeasterly  direction,  then 
turns  southwest  near  Sora,  and  at  last  flows 
southeast  into  the  Sinus  Caietanus  near  Min- 
turnae,  forming  the  boundary  between  Latium 
and  Campania.  Its  stream  was  sluggish,  whence 
the  "  Liris  quieta  aqua''  of  Horace  (Carm.,  L,  31). 

Lissus  (Aiffjof :  Aiffcuof,  Aiaaev^).  1.  (Now 
Alessio),  a  town  in  the  south  of  Dalmatia,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Drilou,  founded  by  Dionys- 
ius  of  Syracuse,  B.C.  385.  It  was  situated  on 
a  hill  near  the  coast,  and  possessed  a  strongly 
fortified  acropolis,  called  ACEOLISSUS,  which 
was  considered  impregnable.  The  town  after- 
ward fell  into  the  hands  of  the  lllyrians,  and 
was  eventually  colonized  by  the  Romans. — 2. 
A  small  river  in  Thrace,  west  of  the  Hebrus. 

LISTA  (now  S.  Anatoglia),  a  town  of  the  Sa- 
bines,  south  of  Reate,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
capital  of  the  Aborigines,  from  which  they  were 
driven  out  by  the  Sabiues,  who  attacked  them 
in  the  night. 

LITANA  SILVA  (now  Silva  di  Luge),  a  large 
forest  on  the  Apennines,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
southeast  of  Mutina,  in  which  the  Romans  were 
defeated  by  the  Gauls,  B.C.  216. 

LlTERNUM  Or  LlNTEENUM  (now  Pdtria),  &  toWU 

on  the  coast  of  Campania,  at  the  month  of  the 
River  Clanius  or  Glanis,  which  in  the  lower 
part  of  its  course  takes  the  name  of  LITEENUS 
(now  Patria  or  Clanio),  and  which  flows  through 
a  marsh  to  the  north  of  the  town  called  LITEENA 
PALUS.  The  town  was  made  a  Roman  colony 
B.C.  194,  and  was  re-colonized  by  Augustus.  It 
was  to  this  place  that  the  elder  Scipio  Africanus 
retired  when  the  tribunes  attempted  to  bring 
him  to  trial,  and  here  he  is  said  to  have  died. 
His  tomb  was  shown  at  Liternum ;  but  some 
maintained  that  he  was  buried  in  the  family 
sepulchre  near  the  Porta  Capena  at  Rome. 

[LlTEENUS.        Vid.    LlTEENUM.] 

LIVJA.  1.  Sister  of  M.  Livius  Drusus,  the 
celebrated  tribune,  B.C.  91,  was  married  first 
to  M.  Porcius  Cato,  by  whom  she  had  Cato  Uti- 
ccnsis,  and  subsequently  to  Q.  Servilius  Caepio, 
by  whom  she  had  a  daughter,  Servilia,  the 
mother  of  M.  Brutus,  who  killed  Caesar. — 2. 
LIVIA  DEUSILLA,  the  daughter  of  Livius  Drusus 
CluucJianus  (vid.  DRUSUS,  No.  8),  was  married 
first  to  Tib.  Claudius  Nero,  and  afterward  to 
Augustus,  who  compelled  her  husband  to  di- 
vorce her,  B.C.  38.  She  had  already  borne  her 
husband  one  son,  the  future  emperor  Tiberius, 
and  at  the  time  of  her  marriage  with  Augustus 
was  six  months  pregnant  with  another,  who 
subsequently  received  the  name  of  Drusus.  She 
uever  had  any  children  by  Augustus,  but  she 
retained  his  affections  till  his  death.  It  was 
generally  believed  that  she  caused  C.  Caesar 


and  L.  Caesar,  the  two  grandsons  of  Auguctus, 
to  be  poisoned,  in  order  to  secure  the  succes- 
sion for  her  own  children ;  and  she  was  even 
suspected  of  having  hastened  the  death  of  Au- 
gustus. On  the  accession  of  her  son  Tiberius 
to  the  throne,  she  at  first  attempted  to  gain  an 
equal  share  in  the  government;  but  this  the 
jealous  temper  of  Tiberius  .would  not  brook; 
He  commanded  her  to  retire  altogether  from 
public  affairs,  and  soon  displayed  even  hatred  to- 
ward her.  When  she  was  on  her  death-bed  he 
refused  to  visit  her.  She  died  in  A.D.  29,  at  the 
age  of  eighty-two  or  eighty-six.  Tiberius  took  no 
part  in  the  funeral  rites,  and  forbade  her  conse- 
cration, which  had  been  proposed  by  the  senate. 
— 3.  Or  LIVILLA,  the  daughter  of  Drusus  senior 
and  Antonia,  and  the  wife  of  Drusus  junior,  the 
son  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius.  She  was  seduc- 
ed by  Sejanus,  who  persuaded  her  to  poison  her 
husband,  A.D.  23.  Her  guilt  was  not  discover- 
ed till  the  fall  of  Sejanus  eight  years  afterward, 
31.— 3.  JULIA  LIVILLA,  daughter  of  Germanicus 
and  Agrippina.  Vid.  JULIA,  No.  7.  * 

LIVIA  GENS,  plebeian,  but  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  houses  among  the  Roman  nobility. 
The  Livii  obtained  eight  consulships,  two  cen- 
sorships, three  triumphs,  a  dictatorship,-  and  a 
mastership  of  the  horse.  The  most  distinguish- 
ed families  are  those  of  DRUSUS  and  SALINATOR. 

Livius,  T.,  the  Roman  historian,  was  born  at 
Pataviuin  (now  Padua),  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
B.C.  59.  The  greater  part  of  his  life  appears 
to  have  been  spent  at  Rome,  but  he  returned  to 
his  native  town  before  his  death,  which  hap* 
pened  at  the  age  of  seventy-six,  in  the  fourth 
year  of  Tiberius,  A.D.  17.  We  know  that  he 
was  married,  and  that  he  had  at  least  two  chil- 
dren, a  son  and  a  daughter,  married  to  L.  Ma- 
gius,  a  rhetorician.  His  literary  talents  secured 
the  patronage  and  friendship  of  Augustus ;  he 
became  a  person  of  consideration  at  court,  and 
by  his  advice  Claudius,  afterward  emperor,  waa 
induced  in  early  life  to  attempt  historical  com- 
position ;  but  there  is  no  ground  for  the  asser- 
tion that  Lrvy  acted  as  preceptor  to  the  young 
prince.  Eventually  his  reputation  rose  so  high 
and  became  so  widely  diffused,  that  a  Spaniard 
travelled  from  Cadiz  to  Rome  solely  for  the 
purpose  of  beholding  him,  and,  having  gratified 
his  curiosity  in  this  one  particular,  immediately 
returned  I  home.  The  great  nud  only  extant 
work  of  Livy  is  a  History  of  Rome,  termed  by 
himself  Annales  (xliii.,  13),  extending  fr#m  the 
foundation  of  the  city  to  the  death  of  Drusus, 
B.C.  9,  comprised  in  one  hundred  and  forty-two 
books.  Of  these  thirty-five  have  descended  to 
us  ;  but  of  the  whole,  with  the  exception  of  two, 
we  possess  Epitomes,  which  must  have  been 
drawn  up  by  one  who  was  well  acquainted  with 
his  subject  By  some  they  have  Been  ascribed 
to  Livy  himself,  by  others  to  Florus  ;  but  there 
is  nothing  in  the  language  or  context  to  war 
rant  either  of  these  conclusions,  and  external 
evidence  is  altogether  wanting.  From  the  cir- 
cumstance that  a  short  introduction  or  preface 
is  found  at  the  beginning  of  books  one,  twenty- 
one,  and  thirty-one,  and  that  each  of  these  murks 
the  commencement  of  an  important  epoch,  the 
whole  work  has  been  divided  into  decades,  con- 
taining ten  books  each  ;  but  the  grammarians 
Priscian  and  Diomedes,  who  quote  repeatedly 
448 


LIVIUS 


LIVIUS 


from  particular  books,  never  allude  to  auy  such 
distribution.  The  commencement  of  book  forty- 
one  is  lost,  but  there  is  certainly  no  remarkable 
crisis  at  this  place  which  invalidates  one  part 
of  the  argument  in  favor  of  the  antiquity  of  the 
arrangement  The  first  decade  (books  one  to 
ten)  is  entire.  It  embraces  the  period  from  the 
foundation  of  thq  city  to  the  year  B.C.  294, 
when  the  subjugation  of  the  Samnitcs  may  be 
said  to  have  been  completed.  The  second  de- 
cade (books  eleven  to  twenty)  is  altogether  lost 
It  embraced  the  period  from  294  to  219,  com- 
prising an  account,  among  other  matters,  of  the 
invasiou  of  Pyrrhus  and  of  the  first  Punic  war. 
The  third  decade  (books  twenty-one  to  thirty) 
is  entire.  It  embraces  the  period  from  219  to 
201,  comprehending  the  whole  of  the  second 
Punic  war.  The  fourth  decade  (books  thirty- 
one  to  forty)  is  entire,  and  also  one  half  of  the 
fifth  (books  forty-one  to  forty-five.)  These  fif- 
teen books  embrace  the  period  from  201  to  167, 
and  develop  the  progress  of  the  Roman  arms 
in  Cisalpiue  Gaul,  in  Macedonia,  Greece,  and 
Asia,  ending  with  the  triumph  of  ^Emilius  Pau- 
lus.  Of  the  remaining  books  nothing  remains 
except  inconsiderable  fragments,  the  most  not- 
able being  a  few  chapters  of  the  ninety-first 
book,  concerning  the  fortunes  of  Sertorius. 
The  composition  of  such  a  vast  work  neces- 
sarily occupied  many  years;  and  we  find  indi- 
cations which  throw  some  light  upon  the  epochs 
when  different  sections  were  composed.  Thus, 
in  book  first  (c.  19),  it  is  stated  that  the  temple 
of  Janus  had  been  closed  twice  only  since  the 
reign  of  Numa,  for  the  first  time  in  the  consul- 
ship of  T.  Manlius  (B.C.  285),  a  few  years  after 
the  termination  of  the  first  Punic  war ;  for  the 
second  time  by  Augustus  Caesar,  after  the  bat- 
tie  of  Actium,  in  29.  But  we  know  that  it  was 
shut  again  by  Augustus,  after  the  conquest  of 
the  Cantabrians,  in  25  ;  and  hence  it  is  evident 
that  the  first  book  must  have  been  written  be- 
tween the  years  29  and  25.  Moreover,  since 
the  last  book  contained  an  account  of  the  death 
of  Drusus,  it  is  evident  that  the  task  must  have 
been  spread  over  seventeen  years,  and  probably 
occupied  a  much  longer  time.  The  style  of 
Livy  may  be  pronounced  almost  faultless.  The 
narrative  flows  on  in  a  calm,  but  strong  cur- 
rent; the  diction  displays  richness  without 
heaviness,  and  simplicity  without  tameness. 
There  is,  morever,  a  distinctness  of  outline 
and  a  warmth  of  coloring  in  all  his  delineations, 
whether  of  living  men  in  action,  or  of  things 
inanimate,  which  never  fail  to  call  up  the  whole 
scene  before  our  eyes.  In  judging  of  the  merits 
of  Livy  as  an  historian,  we  are  bound  to  ascer- 
tain, if  possible,  the  end  which  he  proposed  to 
himself.  No  one  who  reads  Livy  with  attention 
can  suppose  that  he  ever  conceived  the  project 
of  drawing  up  a  critical  history  of  Rome.  His 
aim  was  to  offer  to  his  countrymen  a  clear  and 
'  pleasing  narrative,  which,  while  it  gratified  their 
vanity,  should  contain  no  startling  improbabili- 
ties nor  gross  amplifications.  To  effect  this  pur- 
pose, he  studied  with  care  the  writings  of  some 
of  his  more  celebrated  predecessors  on  Roman 
tistory.  Where  his  authorities  were  in  accord 
ance  with  each  other,  he  generally  rested  satis 
fied  with  this  agreement ;  where  their  testimony 
was  irreconcilable,  he  was  content  to  point  out 
444 


their  want  of  harmony,  and  occasionally  to  offer 
an    opinion    of    their    comparative    credibility. 
But  in  no  case  did  he  ever  dream  of  ascending 
x>  the  fountain  head.     He  never  attempted  to 
;est  the  accuracy  of  his  authorities  by  examin- 
ing monuments  of  remote  antiquity,  of  whicli 
not  a  few  were  accessible  to  every  inhabitant 
of  the  metropolis.    Thus  it  is  perfectly  clear 
;hat  he  had  never  read  the  Leges  Regiae,  nor 
the  Commentaries  of  Servius  Tullius,  nor  even 
the  Licinian  Rogations ;  and  that  he  had  nev- 
er consulted  the  vast  collection  of  decrees  of 
;he    senate,   ordinances  of   the    plebs,  treaties 
and  other  state  papers,  which  were  preserved 
n  the  city.    Nay,  more,  he  did  not  consult  even 
all  the  authors  to  whom  he  might  have  resorted 
with  advantage,  such  as  the  Annals  and  Anti- 
quities of  Varro,  and  the  Origines  of  Cato.    And 
even  those  writers  whose  authority  he  followed 
be  did  not  use  in  the  most  judicious  manner. 
He  Reems  to  have  performed  his  task  piecemeal. 
A  small  section  was  taken  in  hand,  different  ac- 
counts were  compared,  and  the  most  plausible 
was  adopted :  the  same  system  was  adhered  to 
in  the  succeeding  portions,  so   that   each,  con- 
sidered by  itself,  without  reference  to  the  rest, 
was    executed  with  care ;    but    the    witnesses 
who  were  rejected  in  one  place  were  admitted 
in   another,   without   sufficient   attention    being 
paid  to  the  dependence  and  the  connection  of 
the  events.      Hence    the  numerous    contradic- 
tions and  inconsistencies  which  have  been  de- 
tected  by  sharp-eyed   critics.     Other  mistakes 
also  are  found   in  abundance,  arising  from   his 
want  of  any  thing  like  practical  knowledge  of 
the  world,  from  his  never  having  acquired  even 
the   elements  of  the  military  art,  of  jurispru- 
dence, or  of  political  economy,  and,  above  all, 
from  his  singular  ignorance  of  geography.     But 
while  we  fully   acknowledge   these   defects   in 
Livy,  we  cannot  admit  that  his  general  good 
faith  has  ever  been  impugned  with  any  show 
of  justice.     We   are   assured  (Tacit,  Ann.,  iv., 
34)  that  he  was  fair  and  liberal  upon  matters  of 
contemporary  history ;  we  know  that  he  prais- 
ed  Cassius  and  Brutus,  that  his  character  of 
Cicero  was  a  high  eulogium,  and  that  he  epoke 
so   warmly   of  the   unsuccessful  leader  in  the 
great  civil  war,  that  he  was  sportively  styled  a 
Pompeian  by  Augustus.    It  is  true  that,  in  re- 
counting the  domestic  strife  which  agitated  the 
republic  for  nearly  two  centuries,  he  represents 
the  plebeians  and  their  leaders  in  the  most  un- 
favorable light.     But  this  arose,  not  from  any 
wish  to  pervert  the  truth,  but  from  ignorance 
of  the  exact  relation  of  the  contending  parties. 
It  is  manifest  that  he  never  can  separate  in  his 
own  mind  the  spirited  plebeians  of  the  infant 
commonwealth  from  the  base  and  venal  rabble 
which  thronged  the  forum  in  the  days  of  Marius 
and  Cicero ;  while,  in  like  manner,  he  confounds 
those  bold  and  honest  tribunes,  who  were  -the 
champions  of  liberty,  with  such  men  ae  Satur- 
ninus  or  Sulpicius,  Clodius  or  Vatinius.    There 
remains  one  topic  to  which  we  must  advert. 
We  are  told  by  Quintilian  (i.,  5,  §  56 :  viii.,  1,  § 
3)  that  Asinius  Pollio  had  remarked  a  certain 
Patavinity  in  Livy.     Scholars  have  given  them- 
selves a  vast  deal  of  trouble  to  discover  what 
this  term  may  indicate,  and  various  hypotheses 
have  been  propounded  ;  but  if  thcro  is  any  truth 


L1V1DS   ANDRONICTJS. 

tn  the  story,  it  is  evident  that  Pollio  must  have 
intended  to  censure  some  provincial  peculiari- 
ties of  expression,  which  we,  at  all  events,  are 
in  no  position  to  detect.  The  best  edition  of 
Livy  is  by  Drakenborch,  Lugd.  Bat,  1738-46, 
7  vols.  4to.  There  is  also  a  valuable  edition, 
now  in  course  of  publication,  by  Alchefski, 
Berol.,  8vo,  1841,  seq. 

Lrvius  ANDRONICUS.     Vid.  ANDRONICUS. 

Lix,  LIXA,  Lixcs  (At£,  fu^a,  Aifrf :  now  Al- 
Araish),  &  city  on  the  western  coast  of  Maure- 
tania  Tingitaua,  in  Africa,  at  the  mouth  of  a 
river  of  the  same  name  :  it  was  a  place  of  some 
comrtJercial  importance. 

LOCEI  (AoKpoi),  sometimes  called  LOCRENSES 
by  the  Romans,  the  inhabitants  of  Locals  (^ 
Ao/cpi'f),  were  an  ancient  people  in  Greece,  de- 
scended from  the  Leleges,  with  which  some 
Hellenic  tribes  were  intermingled  at  a  very 
early  period.  They  were,  however,  in  Homer's 
time  regarded  as  Hellenes ;  and,  according  to 
tradition,  even  Deucalion,  the  founder  of  the 
Hellenic  race,  was  said  to  have  lived  in  Locris, 
in  the  time  of  Opus  or  Cynos.  In  historical 
times  the  Locrians  were  divided  into  two  dis- 
tinct tribes,  differing  from  one  another  in  cus- 
toms, habits,  and  civilization.  Of  these,  the 
Eastern  Locrians,  called  Epicnemidii  and  Opun- 
tii,  who  dwelt  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Greece, 
opposite  the  island  of  Eubcea,  were  the  more 
aucjeut  and  more  civilized,  while  the  Western 
Locrians,  called  Ozolae,  who  dwelt  on  the  Co- 
rinthian Gulf,  were  a  colony  of  the  former,  and 
were  more  barbarous.  Homer  mentions  only 
the  Eastern,  Locrians.  At  a  later  time  there 
was  no  connection  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Locrians ;  and  in  the  Peloponnesian 
war  we  find  the  former  siding  with  the  Spar- 
tans, and  the  hitter  with  the  Athenians.  1. 
EASTERN  LOCRIS,  extended  from  Thessaly  and 
the  pass  of  Thermopylae  along  the  coast  to  the 
frontiers  of  Bceotia,  and  was  bounded  by  Doris 
and  Phocis  on  the  west  It  was  a  fertile  and 
well-cultivated  country.  The  northern  part 
was  inhabited  by  the  LOCRI  EPICNEMIDII  ('Ent- 
KVTjftidtoi),  who  derived  their  name  from  Mount 
Cnemis.  The  southern  part  was  inhabited  by 
the  LOCKI  OPUNTII  (Onovvnoi),  who  derived 
their  name  from  their  principal  town,  Opus. 
The  two  tribes  were  separated  by  Daphnus,  a 
small  slip  of  land,  which  at  one  time  belonged 
to  Phocis.  These  two  tribes  are  frequently  con- 
founded with  one  another;  and  ancient  writers 
sometimes  use  the  name  either  of  Epicnemidii 
or  of  Opuntii  alone,  when  both  tribes  are  in- 
tended. The  Epicnemidii  were  for  a  long  time 
subject  to  the  Phocians,  and  were  included  un- 
der the  name  of  the  latter  people,  whence  the 
name  of  the  Opuntii  occurs  more  frequently  in 
Greek  history. — 2.  WESTERN  LOCRIS,  or  the 
country  of  the  LOCRI  OZOL^E  ('OfoAat),  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Doris,  on  the  west  by 
-•El.  >li;i,  on  the  east  by  Phocis,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  The  origin  of  the  name 
of  Ozolffi  is  uncertain.  The  ancients  derived 
it  cither  from  the  undressed  skins  worn  by  the 
inhabitants,  or  from  6friv,  "  to  smell,"  on  account 
of  the  great  quantity  of  asphodel  that  grew  in 
their  country,  or  from  the  stench  arising  from 
mineral  springs,  beneath  which  the  centaur 
Nessus  is  said  to  have  been  buried.  The  coun- 


LOLLIANUS. 

try  is  mountainous,  and  for  the  most  part  unpro- 
ductive. Mount  Corax  from  ^Etolia,  and  Mount 
Parnassus  from  Phocis,  occupy  the  greater  part 
of  it  The  Locri  Ozolae,  resembled  their  neigh- 
bors, the  jEtolians,  both  in  their  predatory  habits 
and  in  their  mode  of  warfare.  They  were  di- 
vided into  several  tribes,  and  are  described  by 
Thucydides  as  a  rude  and  barbarous  people, 
even  in  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
From  B.C.  315  they  belonged  to  the  JLtolian 
league.  Their  chief  town  was  AMPHISSA. 

LOORI  EPIZEPHYRII  (Ao/cpo2  'Fjiufr<t>vpioi :  now 
Motta  di  Burzano),  one  of  the  most  ancient 
Greek  cities  in  Lower  Italy,  was  situated  in  the 
southeast  of  Bruttium,  north  of  the  promontory 
of  Zephyrium,  from  which  it  was  saiJ  to  have 
derived  its  surname  Epizephyrii,  though  others 
suppose  this  name  given  to  the  place  simply 
because  it  lay  to  the  west  of  Greece.  Ifrwas 
founded  by  the  Locrians  from  Greece,  B.C.  683. 
Strabo  expressly  says  that  it  was  founded  by 
the  Ozolse,  and  not  by  the  Opuntii,  as  most  wri- 
ters related ;  but  his  statement  is  not  so  prob- 
able as  the  common  one.  The  inhabitants  re- 
garded themselves  as  descendants  of  Ajiix 
Oileus  ;  and  as  he  resided  at  the  town  of  Naryx 
among  the  Opuntii,  the  poets  gave  the  name  of 
Narycia  to  Locris  (Ov.,  Met.,  xv.,  705),  and 
called  the  founders  of  the  town  the  Narycii  Lo- 
cri (Virg.,  jEn.,  iii.,  399).  For  the  same  reason, 
the  pitch  of  Bruttium  is  frequently  called  Nary- 
cia (Virg.,  Georg.,  ii.,  438).  Locri  was  cele- 
brated for  the  excellence  of  its  laws,  which 
were  drawn  up  by  Zaleucus  soon  after  the  foun- 
dation of  the  city.  Vid.  ZALEUCUS.  The  town 
enjoyed  great  prosperity  down  to  the  time  of 
the  younger  Dionysius,  who  resided  here  for 
some  years  after  his  expulsion  from  Syracuse, 
and  committed  the  greatest  atrocities  against 
the  inhabitants.  It  suffered  much  in  the  wars 
against  Pyrrhus,  and  in  the  second  Punic  war. 
The  Romans  allowed  it  to  retain  its  freedom 
and  its  own  constitution,  which  was  democrat- 
ical ;  but  it  gradually  sunk  in  importance,  and 
is  rarely  mentioned  in  later  times.  Near  the 
town  was  an  ancient  and  wealthy  temple  of 
Proserpina. 

[LOCRUS  (Ao/cpof),  son  of  Physcius  and  grand- 
son of  Amphictyon,  became  by  Cabya  the  father 
of  Locrus,  the  mythical  ancestor  of  the  Locri 
Ozoloe.] 

LOCUSTA,  or,  more  correctly,  LUCUSTA,  a  wom- 
an celebrated  for  her  skill  in  concoctiug  poisons. 
She  was  employed  by  Agrippina  in  poisoning 
the  Emperor  Claudius,  and  by  Nero  for  dispatch- 
ing Britauuicus.  She  was  rewarded  by  Nero 
with  ample  estates,  but  under  the  Emperor 
Galba  she  was  executed  with  other  malefactors 
of  Nero's  reign. 

LOLLIA  PAULINA,  grand-daughter  of  M.  Lolling, 
mentioned  below,  and  heiress  of  his  immense 
wealth.  She  was  married  to  C.  Memmius  llee- 
ulus ;  but,  on  the  report  of  her  grandmothers 
beauty,  the  Emperor  Caligula  sent  for  her,  di- 
vorced her  from  her  husband,  and  married  her, 
but  soon  divorced  her  again.  After  Claudius 
had  put  to  death  his  wife  Messalina,  Lollia  was 
one  of  the  candidates  for  the  vacancy,  but  she 
was  put  to  death  by  means  of  Agrippina. 

LOLLIANUS  (AoA/favof),   a   celebrated  Greek 
sophist  in  the  time  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus 
445 


LOLLIUS. 


LORIUM. 


Pins,  was  a  native  of  Ephesus,  and  taught  at 
Athens. 

LOLLIUS.  1.  M.  LOLLIUS  PALICANUS,  tribune 
'  of  the  plebs  B.C.  71,  and  an  active  opponent  of 
the  aristocracy.— r2.  M.  LOLLIUS,  consul  21,  and 
governor  of  Gaul  in  16.  He  was  defeated  by 
some  German  tribes  who  had  crossed  the  Rhine. 
Lollius  was  subsequently  appointed  by  Augus- 
tus as  tutor  to  his  grandson,  0.  Caesar,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  the  East,  B.C.  2.  Here  he 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  C.  Caesar,  and  is  said, 
iu  consequence,  to  have  put  an  end  to  his  life 
by  poison.  Horace  addressed  an  Ode  (iv,  9) 
to  Lollius,  and  two  Epistles  (i.,  2,  18)  to  the 
eldest  sov  °f  Lollius. 

LONDI.NIUM,  also  called  OPPIDUM  LONDINIENSE, 
LUNDINIUM,  or  LONDINUM  (now  London),  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Cantii  in  Britain,  was  situated  on  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Thames,  in  the  modern 
Southwark,  though  it  afterward  spread  over  the 
other  side  of  the  river.  It  is  not  mentioned  by 
Caesar,  probably  because  his  line  of  march  led 
^iim  in  a  different  direction ;  and  its  name  first 
occurs  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  when  it  is  spoken 
of  as  a  flourishing  and  populous  town,  much 
frequented  by  merchants,  although  neither  a 
Roman  colony  nor.  a  municipium.  On  the  re- 
volt of  the  Britons  under  Boadicea,  A.D.  62,  the 
Roman  governor  Suetonius  Paulinus  abandoned 
Loudiuiuin  to  the  enemy,  who  massacred  the 
inhabitants  and  plundered  the  town.  From  the 
effects  of  this  devastation  it  gradually  recover- 
ed, and  it  appears  again  as  an  important  place 
in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius.  It  was  sur- 
rounded with  a  wall  and  ditch  by  Constantine 
the  Great  or  Theodosius,  the  Roman  governor 
of  Britain ;  and  about  this  time  it  was  distin- 
guished by  the  surname  of  Augusta,  whence 
some  writers  have  conjectured  that  it  was  then 
made  a  colony.  Londinium  had  now  extended 
so  much  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Thames, 
that  it  was  called  at  this  period  a  town  of  the 
Trinobantes,  from  which  we  may  infer  that  the 
new  quarter  was  both  larger  and  more  populous 
than  the  old  part  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
river.  The  wall  built  by  Constantine  or  The- 
odosius was  on  the  northern  side  of  the  river, 
and_is  conjectured  to  have  commenced  at  a  fort 
near  the  present  site  of  the  tower, '-and  to  have 
been  continued  along  the  Minories,  to  Cripple- 
gate,  Newgate,  and  Ludgate.  London  was  the 
central  point,  from  which  all  the  Roman  roads 
in  Britian  diverged.  It  possessed  a  Milliarium 
Aureum,  from  which  the  miles  on  the  roads 
were  numbered ;  and  a  fragment  of  this  Millia- 
rium, the  celebrated  London  Stone,  may  be  seen 
affixed  to  the  wall  of  Saint  Swithin's  Church  in 
Cannon  Street  This  is  almost  the  only  monu- 
ment of  the  Roman  Londinium  still  extant,  with 
the  exception  of  coins,  tesselated  pavements, 
and  the  like,  which  have  been  found  buried  un- 
der the  ground. 

LOXGANUS  (now  Saint  Lucia),  &  river  in  the 
northeast  of  Sicily,  between  Mylae  and  Tyndaris, 
on  the  banks  of  which  Hieron  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Mamertines. 

LONQINUS,  a  distinguished  Greek  philosopher 
and  grammarian  of  the  third  century  of  our  era. 
His  original  name  seems  to  have  been  Dionys- 
ius ;  but  he  also  bore  the  name  of  Dionysius 
Longinui,  Cassius  Longinus,  or  Dionysius  Cas- 
446 


sius  Longinus,  probably  because  he  or  one 
of  his  ancestors  had  received  the  Roman  fran- 
chise through  the  influence  of  some  Cassius 
Longinus.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  uncertain  ; 
he  waa  brought  up  with  care  by  his  uncle 
Fronto,  who  taught  rhetoric  at  Athens,  whence 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  he  was  a  native  of 
that  city.  He  afterward  visited  many  countries, 
and  became  acquainted  with  all  the  illustrious 
philosophers  of  his  age,  such  as  Ammonius  Sac- 
cas,  Ongen,  the  disciple  of  Ammonius,  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  Christian  writer,  Plotinus, 
and  Amelius.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  two  former, 
and  was  an  adherent  of  the  Platonic  philosophy ; 
but  instead  of  following  blindly  the  system  of 
Ammonius,  he  went  to  the  fountain  head,  and 
made  himself  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  works 
of  Plato.  On  his  return  to  Athens  he  opened 
a  school,  which  was  attended  by  numerous 
pupils,  among  whom  the  most  celebrated  was 
Porphyry.  He  seems  to  have  (aught  philosophy 
and  criticism,  as  well  as  rhetoric  and  grammar  ; 
and  the  extent  of  his  information  was  so  great, 
that  he  was  called  "  a  living  library"  and  "  a 
walking  museum."  After  spending  a  consid- 
erable part  of  his  life  at  Athens  he  went  to  the 
East,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  Zeuo- 
bia  of  Palmyra,  who  made  him  her  teacher  of 
Greek  literature.  On  the  death  of  her  husband 
Odenathus,  Longinus  became  her  principal  ad- 
viser. It  was  mainly  through  his  advice  that 
she  threw  off  her  allegiance  to  the  Roman  em- 
pire. On  her  capture  by  Aurelian  in  273,  Lon- 
ginus was  put  to  death  by  the  emperor.  Lon- 
ginus was  unquestionably  the  greatest  philoso- 
pher of  his  age.  He  was  a  man  of  excellent 
sense,  sound  judgment,  and  extensive  knowl- 
edge. His  work  on  the-  Sublime  (Hepl  ityovf), 
a  great  part  of  which  is  still  extant,  surpasses 
in  oratorical  power  every  thing  written  after 
the  time  of  the  Greek  orators.  There  is  scarce- 
ly any  work  in  the  range  of  ancient  literature 
which,  independent  of  its  excellence  of  style, 
contains  so  many  exquisite  remarks  upon  ora- 
tory, poetry,  and  good  taste  in  general  The 
best  edition  of  this  work  is  by  Weiske,  Lips, 
1809,  8vo,  reprinted  in  London,  1820.  Longi- 
nus wrote  many  other  works,  both  rhetorical 
and  philosophical,  all  of  which  have  perished. 
LONGIXUS,  CASSIUS.  Vid.  CASSIUS. 

LONGOBARDI.        Vid.  LANGOBARM. 

LONGULA  (Longulanus  :  now  Buon  Riposo),  a 
town  of  the  Volsci  iu  Latium,  not  far  from  Co- 
rioli,  and  belonging  to  the  territory  of  Antium, 
but  destroyed  by  the  Romans  at  an  early  period. 

LONGUS  (Aoyyof),  a  Greek  sophist,  of  uncer- 
tain date,  but  not  earlier  than  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century  of  our  era,  is  the  author  of  an  erotic 
work,  entitled  HOI/UEVIKUV  ruv  Kara  &ii<pviv  nal 

oj/i',  or  Pastoralia  de  Dapknide  et  CJdoe,  writ- 
ten in  pleasing  and  elegant  prose.  The  best 
editions  are  by  Villoison,  Paris,  1778 ;  Sehaefer, 
Lips.,  1803  ;  and  Passow,  Lips.,  1811. 

[LONGUS  ^ESTUARICM  (Aoyyof  elfxvoif),  a  bay 
of  Britannia  Barbara,  on  the  western  coast,  now 
Linnhe  Loch  in  Scotland.] 

LOPADUSA  (A.oTra6ovoa  :  now  Lampedusa),  an 
island  in  the  Mediterranean,  between  Melita 
(now  Malta)  and  the  coast  of  Byzacium  in  Africa. 

LORIUM  or  LORII,  a  small  place  in  Etruria, 
with  an  imperial  villa,  twelve  miles  northwest 


LORYMA. 


LUCANUS. 


of  Rome,  on  the  Via  Aurelia,  where  Antoninus 
Pius  was  brought  up,  and  where  he  died. 

LORYMA  (TO.  Aupvpa  :  ruins  at  Aplotheki),  a 
city  on  the  southern  coast  of  Caria,  close  to  the 
promontory  of  Cyuossema  (now  Cape  Aloupo), 
opposite  to  lalysus  in  Rhodes,  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  being  about  the  shortest  distance 
between  Rhodes  and  the  coast  of  Caria. 

LOTIS,  a  nymph,  who,  to  escape  the  embraces 
of  Priapus,  was  metamorphosed  into  a  tree, 
called  after  her  Lotus.  (Ov.,  Met,  ix.,  347.) 

LOTOPHAGI  ( Awro^ayot,  i.  e.,  lotus-eaters).  Ho- 
mer, in  the  Odyssey,  represents  Ulysses  as  com- 
ing in  his  wanderings  to  a  coast  inhabited  by  a 
people  who  fed  upon  a  fruit  called  lotus,  the 
taste  of  which  was  so  delicious  that  every  one 
who  ate  it  lost  all  wish  to  return  to  his  native 
country,  but  desired  to  remain  there  with  the 
Lotophagi,  and  to  eat  the  lotus  (Od.,  ix.,  94). 
Afterward,  in  historical  times,  the  Greeks  found 
that  the  people  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
between  the  Syrtes,  and  especially  about  the 
J*esser  Syrtis,  used  to  a  great  extent,  as  an  ar- 
ticle of  food,  the  fruit  of  a  plant,  which  they 
identified  with  the  lotus  of  Homer,  and  they 
called  these  people  Lotophagi.  To  this  day, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  same  part  of  the  coast  of 
Tunis  and  Tripoli  eat  the  fruit  of  the  plant 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  lotus  of  the  an- 
cients, and  drink  a  wine  made  from  its  juice, 
as  the  ancient  Lotophagi  are  also  said  to  have 
done.  This  plant,  the  Zizyphus  lotus  of  the 
botanists  (or  jujube-tree),  is  a  priekiy  branching 
shrub,  with  fruit  of  the  size  of  a  wild  plurn,  of 
a  saffron  color  and  a  sweetish  taste.  The  an- 
cient geographers  also  place  the  Lotophagi  in 
the  large  island  of  Meniux  or  Lotophagitis  (now 
Jerbah),  adjacent  to  this  coast  They  carried 
on  a  commercial  intercourse  with  Egypt  and 
with  the  interior  of  Africa  by  the  very  same 
caravan  routes  which  are  used  to  the  present 
day. 

LOXIAS  (Ao|jaf),  a  surname  of  Apollo,  deriv- 
ed by  some  from  his  intricate  and  ambiguous 
oracles  (A6£a),  but  better  from  Aeyeiv,  as  the 
prophet  or  interpreter  of  Jupiter  (Zeus). 

Loxo  (Ao£«),  daughter  of  Boreas,  one  of  the 
Hyperborean  maidens,  who  brought  the  wor- 
ship of  Diana  (Artemis)  to  Delos,  whence  the 
name  is  also  used  as  a  surname  of  Diana  (Ar- 
temis) herself. 

LUA,  also  called  LUA  HATER  or  LCA  SATURNI, 
one  of  the  early  Italian  divinities,  whose  wor- 
ship was  forgotten  in  later  times.  It  may  be 
that  she  was  the  same  as  Ops,  the  wife  of  Sat- 
urn ;  but  all  we  know  of  her  is,  that  sometimes 
the  arms  taken  from  a  defeated  enemy  were 
dedicated  to  her,  and  burned  as  a  sacrifice,  with 
a  view  of  averting  calamity. 

LUCA  (Luceusis  :  now  Lucca),  a  Ligurian  city 
in  Upper  Italy,  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines  and 
on  the  River  Ausus,  northeast  of  Pisae.  It  was 
included  in  Etruria  by  Augustus,  but  in  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar  it  was  the  most  southerly 
city  in  Liguria,  and  belonged  to  Cisalpine  GauL 
It  was  made  a  Roman  colony  B.C.  177.  The 
amphitheatre  of  Lucca  may  still  be  seen  at  the 
modem  town  in  a  state  ot  tolerable  preserva- 
tion, and  its  great  size  proves  the  importance 
and  populouaness  of  the  ancient  city. 

LUCANIA  (Lucanus),  a  district  in  Lower  Italy, 


was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Campania  and 
Samnium,  on  the  east  by  Apulia  and  the  Gull 
of  Tarentum,  on  the  south  by  Bruttium,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Tyrrhene  Sea,  thus  correspond- 
ing, for  the  most  part,  to  the  modern  provinces 
of  Principato,  Citeriore,  and  Basilicata,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples.  It  was  separated  from 
Campania  by  the  River  Silarus,  and  from  Brut- 
tium by  the  River  Laus,  and  it  extended  alongt 
the  Gulf  of  Tarentum  from  Thurii  to  Metapon- 
tnm.  The  country  is  mountainous,  as  the  Ap- 
ennines run  through  the  greater  part  of  it ;  but 
toward  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum  there  is  an  exten- 
sive and  fertile  plain.  Lucania  was  celebrated 
for  its  excellent  pastures  (Hor.,  Ep.,  i.,  28),  and 
its  oxen  were  the  finest  and  largest  in  Italy. 
Hence  the  elephant  was  at  first  called  by  the 
Romans  a  Lucanian  ox  (Lucas  bos).  The  swine, 
also,  were  very  good ;  and  a  peculiar  kind  of 
sausages  was  celebrated  at  Rome  under  the 
name  of  Lucanica.  The  coast  of  Lucania  was 
inhabited  chiefly  by  Greeks,  whose  cities  were 
numerous  and  flourishing.  The  most  import- 
ant were  METAPONTUM,  HERACLEA,  THURII,  Bex- 
EXTUM,  ELEA  or  VELIA,  POSIDOXIA  or  PJESTUM. 
The  interior  of  the  country  was  originally  in- 
habited by  the  Chones  and  CEnotrians.  The 
Lucanians  proper  were  Samnites,  a  brave  and 
warlike  race>  who  left  their  mother-country  nnd 
settled  both  in  Lucania  and  Bruttium.  They 
not  only  expelled  or  subdued  the  (Euotrinns, 
but  they  gradually  acquired  possession  of  most 
of  the  Greek  cities  on  the  coast.  They  are  first 
mentioned  in  B.C.  396  as  the  allies  of  the  elder 
Dionysius  in  his  war  against  Thurii.  They 
were  subdued  by  the  Romans  after  Pyrrhus  bad 
left  Italy.  Before  the  second  Punic  war  their 
forces  consisted  of  thirty  thousand  foot  and  three 
thousand  horse ;  but  in  the  course  of  this  war 
their  country  was  repeatedly  laid  waste,  and 
never  recovered  its  former  prosperity. 

LUCANUS,  M.  ANN^US,  usually  called  LUCAN, 
a  Roman  poet,  was  born  at  Corduba  in  Spain, 
A.D.  39.  His  father  was  L.  Annseus  Mella,  a 
brother  of  M.  Seneca,  the  philosopher.  Lucan 
was  carried  to  Rome  at  an  early  age,  where  his 
education  was  superintended  by  the  most  emi- 
nent preceptors  of  the  day.  His  talents  devel- 
oped themselves  at  a  very  early  age,  and  ex- 
cited such  general  admiration  as  to  awaken  the 
jealousy  of  Nero,  who,  unable  to  brook  compe- 
tition, forbade  him  to  recite  in  public.  Stuug 
to  the  quick  by  this  prohibition,  Lucan  embarked 
in  the  famous  conspiracy  of  Piso,  was  betrayed, 
and  by  a  promise  of  pardon,  was  induced  to 
turn  informer.  He  began  by  denouncing  his 
own  mother  Acilia  (or  Atilia),  and  then  reveal- 
'  ed  the  rest  of  his  accomplices  without  reserve 
But  he  received  a  traitor's  reward.  After  the 
more  important  victims  had  been  dispatched, 
the  emperor  issued  the  mandate  for  the  death 
of  Lucan,  who,  finding  escape  hopeless,  caused 
i  hia  veins  to  be  opened.  When,  from  the  rapid, 
effusion  of  blood,  he  felt  his  extremities  becom- 
ing chill,  he  began  to  repeat  aloud  some  verses 
which  he  had  once  composed,  descriptive  of  a 
wounded  soldier  perishing  by  a  like  death,  and, 
with  these  lines  upon  his  lips,  expired,  A.D.  65, 
!  in  the  twenty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  Lucan 
'  wrote  various  poems,  the  titles  of  which  aro 
1  preserved,  but  the  only  extant  production  is  an 
447 


LUCANUS. 


LUCIANUS. 


heroic  poem,  in  ten  books,  entitled  Pharsalia, 
in  which  the  progress  of  the  struggle  between 
Caesar  and  Pompey  is  fully  detailed,  the  events, 
commencing  with  the  passage  of  tlie  Rubicon, 
being  arranged  in  regular  chronological  order. 
The  tenth  book  is  imperfect,  and  the  narrative 
breaks  off  abruptly  in  the  middle  of  the  Alex- 
andrean  war,  but  we  know  not  whether  the  con- 
clusion has  been  lost,  or  whether  the  author 
ever  completed  his  task.  The  whole  of  whatj 
we  now  possess  was  certainly  not  composed  at ! 
the  same  time,  for  the  different  parts  do  not  by 
any  means  breathe  the  same  spirit.  In  the  ear- 
lier portions  we  find  liberal  sentiments  expressed 
in  very  moderate  terms,  accompanied  by  open 
and  almost  fulsome  flattery  of  Nero ;  but,  as 
we  proceed,  the  blessings  of  freedom  are  loudly 
proclaimed,  and  the  invectives  against  tyranny 
are  couched  in  language  the  most  offensive, 
evidently  aimed  directly  at  the  emperor.  The 
work  contains  great  beauties  and  great  defects. 
It  is  characterized  by  copious  diction,  lively 
imagination,  and  a  bold  and  masculine  tone  of 
thought ;  but  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  disfigured 
by  extravagance,  far-fetched  conceits,  and  un- 
natural similes.  The  best  editions  arc  by  Ou- 
dendorp,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1728 ;  by  Burmann,  1740 ; 
and  by  Weber,  Lips.,  1821-1831. 

LUCANUS,  OCELLUS.     Vid-.  OCELLUS. 

LUCCEIUS.  1.  L.,  an  old  friend  and  neighbor 
of  Cicero.  His  name  frequently  occurs  at  the 
commencement  of  Cicero's  correspondence  with 
Atticus,  with  whom  Lucceius  had  quarrelled. 
Cicero  attempted  to  reconcile  his  two  friends. 
In  B.C.  63  Lucceius  accused  Catiline ;  and  in 
60  he  became  a  candidate  for  the  consulship, 
along  with  Julius  Caesar,  who  agreed  to  support 
him ;  but  he  lost  his  election  in  consequence 
of  the  aristocracy  bringing  in  Bibulus  as  a 
counterpoise  to  Caesar's  influence.  Lucceius 
seems  now  to  have  withdrawn  from  public  life 
and  to  have  devoted  himself  to  literature.  He 
was  chiefly  engaged  in  the  composition  of  a 
contemporaneous  history  of  Rome,  commenc- 
ing with  the  Social  or  Marsic  war.  In  65  he 
had  nearly  finished  the  history  of  the  Social  and 
of  the  first  Civil  war,  when  Cicero  wrote  a  most 
urgent  letter  to  his  friend,  pressing  him  to  sus- 
pend the  thread  of  his  history,  and  to  devote  a 
separate  work  to  the  period  from  Catiline's  con- 
spiracy .to  Cicero's  recall  from  banishment  (ad 
yam.,  v.,  12).  Lucceius  promised  compliance 
with  his  request,  but  he  appears  never  to  have 
written  the  work.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  in  49,  he  espoused  the  side  of  Pom- 
pey. He  was  subsequently  pardoned  by  Caesar 
and  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  continued  to 
live  on  friendly  terms  with  Cicero. — 2.  C.,  sur- 
named  HIRRUS,  of  the  Pupinian  tribe,  tribune 
of  the  plebs  53,  proposed  that  Pompey  should 
be  created  dictator.  In  52  he  was  a  candidate 
with  Cicero  for  the  augurship,  and  in  the  fol- 
.  lowing  year  a  candidate  with  M.  Cselius  for  the 
aedileship,  but  he  failed  in  both.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  civil  war  in  49,  he  joined  Pom- 
pey. He  was  sent  by  Pompey  as  ambassador 
to  Orodes,  king  of  Parthia,  but  he  was  thrown 
into  prison  by  the  Parthian  king.  He  was  par- 
doned by  Caesar  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia, 
and  returned  to  Rome. 

LUCENSES  CALLAJCL,    one   of  the    two  chief 
448 


tribes  of  the  Callaici  or  Gallaeci,  on  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  derived 
their  name  from  their  town  Lucus  Augusti. 

LUCENTUM  (now  Alicante),  a  town  of  the  Con- 
testaui,  on  the  coast  of  Hisp:uaia  Tarruconensis. 

LUCERIA  (Lucerinus  :  now  Luccra),  sometimes 
called  NUCERIA,  a  town  in  Apulia,  on  the  borders 
of  Samnium,  southwest  of  Arpi,  was  situated  on 
a  steep  hill,  and  possessed  an  ancient  temple 
of  Minerva.  In  the  war  between  Rome  and 
Samnium,  it  was  first  taken  by  the  Samnites 
(B.C.  321),  and  next  by  the  Romans  (319);  but 
having  revolted  to  the  Samnites  in  314,  all  the 
inhabitants  were  massacred  by  the  Romans, 
and  their  place  supplied  by  two  thousand  five 
hundred  Roman  colonists.  Having  thus  become 
a  Roman  colony,  it  continued  faithful  to  Rome 
in  the  second  Punic  war.  In  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus it  had  declined  greatly  in  prospeiity; 
but  it  was  still  of  sufficient  importance  in  the 
third  century  to  be  the  residence  of  the  praetor 
of  Apulia. 

LUCIANUS  (AovKtavof),  usually  called  LUCIAM, 
a  Greek  writer,  born  at  Samosata,  the  capital 
of  Commagene,  in  Syria.  The  date  of  his  birth 
and  death  is  uncertain ;  but  it  has  beeu  conject- 
ured, with  much  probability,  that  he  was  born 
about  A.D.  120,  and  he  probably  lived  till  to- 
ward the  end  of  this  century.  We  know  that 
some  of  his  more  celebrated  works  were  writ- 
ten in  the  reign  of  M.  Aurelius.  Luciau's  par- 
ents were  poor,  and  he  was  at  first  apprenticed 
to  his  maternal  uncle,  who  was  a  statuary.  He 
afterward  became  an  advocate,  and  practiced  at 
Antioch.  Being  unsuccessful  in  this  calling, 
he  employed  himself  in  writing  speeches  for 
others  instead  of  delivering  them  himself.  But 
he  did  not  remain  long  at  Antioch ;  and,  at  an 
early  period  of  his  life,  he  set  out  upon  his  trav- 
els, and  visited  |he  greater  part  of  Greece,  Italy, 
and  Gaul.  At  that  period  it  was  customary  for 
professors  of  the  rhetorical  art  to  proceed  to  dif- 
ferent cities,  where  they  attracted  audiences  by 
their  displays,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  mu- 
sicians or  itinerant  lecturers  in  modern  times. 
He  appears  to  have  acquired  a  good  deal  of  mon- 
ey as  well  as  fame.  On  his  return  to  his  native 
country,  probably  about  his  fortieth  year,  he 
abandoned  the  rhetorical  profession,  the  artifices 
of  which,  he  tells  us,  were  foreign  to  his  tem- 
per, the  natural  enemy  of  deceit  and  pretension. 
He  now  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  the  com- 
position of  his  works.  He  still,  however,  occa- 
sionally travelled ;  for  it  appears  that  he  was  in 
Achaia  and  Ionia  about  the  close  of  the  Par- 
thian war,  160-165 ;  on  which  occasion,  too, 
be  seems  to  have  visited  Olympia,  and  beheld 
the  self-immolation  of  Peregrinus.  About  the 
year  170,  or  a  little  previously,  he  visited  the 
false  oracle  of  the  impostor  Alexander,  in  Paph- 
lagonia.  Late  in  life  he  obtained  the  office  of 
procurator  of  part  of  Egypt,  which  office  was 
•probably  bestowed  upon  him  by  the  Emperor 
Commodus.  The  nature  of  Luciau's  writings 
inevitably  procured  him  many  enemies,  by  whom 
he  has  been  painted  in  very  black  colors.  Ac- 
cording to  Suidas  he  was  surnamed  the  Blas- 
phemer, and  was  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs  as  a 
punishment  for  his  impiety  ;  but  on  this  account 
no  reliance  can  be  placed.  Other  writers  state 
that  Lucian  apostatized  from  Christianity  ;  but 


LUCIANUS. 

there  is  no  proof  in  support  of  this  charge ;  and 
the  dialogue  entitled  Philopatris,  which  would 
appear  to  prove  that  the  author  had  once  been 
a  Christian,  was  certainly  not  written  by  Luci- 
an,  and  was  probably  composed  in  the  reign  of 
Julian  the  Apoetats.  As  many  as  eighty-two 
works  have  corne  down  to  us  under  the  name 
of  Lucian ;  but  some  of  these  are  spurious. 
The  most  important  of  them  are  his  Dialogues. 
They  are  of  very  various  degrees  of  merit,  and 
are  treated  in  the  greatest  possible  variety  of 
style,  from  seriousness  down  to  the  broadest 
humor  and  buffoonery.  Their  subjects  and 
tendency,  too,  vary  considerably ;  for,  while 
some  are  employed  in  attacking  the  heathen 
philosophy  and  religion,  others  are  mere  pictures 
of  manners  without  any  polemic  drift.  Our 
limits  only  allow  us  to  mention  a  few  of  the 
more  important  of  these  dialogues.  The  Dia- 
logues of  the  Gods,  twenty-six  in  number,  con- 
sist of  short  dramatic  narratives  of  some  of  the 
most*  popular  incidents  in  the  heathen  mytholo- 
gy. The  reader,  however,  is  generally  left  to 
draw  his  own  conclusions  from  the  story,  the 
author  only  taking  care  to  put  it  in  the  most 
absurd  point  of  view/  In  the  Jupiter  Convicted 
a  bolder  style  of  attack  is  adopted ;  and  the 
cynic  proves  to  Jupiter's  face,  that,  every  thing 
being  under  the  dominion  of  'fate,  he  has  no 
power  whatever.  As  this  dialogue  shows  Ju- 
piter's want  of  power,  so  the  Jupiter  the  Trage- 
dian strikes  at  his  very  existence,  and  that  of 
the  other  deities.  The  Vitarum  Audio,  or  Sale 
of  the  Philosophers,  is  an  attack  upon  the  ancient 
philosophers.  In  this  humorous  piece  the  heads 
of  the  different  sects  are  put  up  to  sale,  Hermes 
being  the  auctioneer.  The  Fisherman  is  a  sort 
of  apology  for  the  preceding  piece,  and  may  be 
reckoned  among  Lucian's  best  dialogues.  The 
philosophers  are  represented  as  having  obtained 
a  day's  life  for  the  purpose  of  taking  vengeance 
upon  Luciau,  who  confesses  that  he  has  bor- 
rowed the  chief  beauties  of  his  writings  from 
them.  Tfie  Banquet,  or  the  Lapithae,  is  one  of 
Lucian's  most  humorous  attacks  on  the  philos- 
ophers. The  scene  is  a  wedding  feast,  at  which 
a  representative  of  each  of  the  principal  philo- 
sophic sects  is  present  A  discussion  ensues, 
•which  sets  all  the  philosophers  by  the  ears,  and 
ends  in  a  pitched  battle.  The  Nigrinus  is  also 
an  attack  on  philosophic  pride  ;  but  its  main 
scope  is  to  satirize  the  Romans,  whose  pomp, 
vain-glory,  and  luxury  are  unfavorably  contrast- 
ed with  the  simple  habits  of  the  Athenians. 
The  more  miscellaneous  class  of  Lucian's  dia- 
logues, in  which  the  attacks  upon  mythology 
and  philosophy  are  not  direct,  but  incidental,  or 
which  are  mere  pictures  of  manners,  contains 
some  of  his  best.  At  the  head  must  be  placed 
Timon,  which  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  Lu- 
cian's master-piece.  The  Dialogues  of  the  Dead 
are  perhaps  the  best  known  of  all  Luciau's 
works.  The  subject  affords  great  scope  for 
moral  reflection,  and  for  satire  on  the  vauity 
of  human  pursuits.  Wealth,  power,  beauty, 
strength,  not  forgetting  the  vain  disputations  of 
philosophy,  afford  the  materials.  Among  the 
moderns  these  dialogues  have  been  imitated  by 
Fontenelle  and  Lord  Lyttleton.  The  Icaro-Mc- 
nifipus  is  in  Lucian's  best  vein,  and  a  master- 
piece of  Aristophanic  humor!  Menippus,  dis- 


LITCILIUS. 

gusted  with  the  disputes  and  pretensions  of  the 
philosophers,  resolves  on  a  visit  to  the  sws,  for 
the  purpose  of  seeing  hv,w  far  their  theories  are 
correct.  By  the  mechanical  aid  of  a  pair  of 
wings  he  reaches  the  moon,  and  surveys  thence 
the  miserable  passions  and  quarrels  of  men. 
Hence  he  proceeds  to  Olympus,  and  is  intro- 
duced to  the  Thunderer  himself.  Here  he  is 
witness  of  the  manner  in  which  human  prayers 
are  received  in  heaven.  They  ascend  by  enor- 
mous vent-holes,  and  become  audible  when  Ju- 
piter removes  the  covers.  Jupiter  himself  is 
represented  as  a  partial  judge,  and  as  influenced 
by  the  largeness  of  the  rewards  promised  to 
him.  At  the  end  he  pronounces  judgment 
against  the  philosophers,  and  threatens  in  four 
days  to  destroy  them  all  Charon  is  a  very  ele- 
gant dialogue,  but  of  a  graver  turn  than  the  pre- 
ceding. Charon  visits  the  earth  to  see  the 
course  of  life  there,  and  what  it  is  that  always 
makes  men  weep  when  they  enter  his  boat. 
Mercury  acts  as  his  cicerone.  Lucian's  merits 
as  a  writer  consist  in  his  knowledge  of  human 
nature ;  his  strong  common  sense ;  the  fertility 
of  his  invention ;  the  raciness  of  his  humor ; 
and  the  simplicity  and  Attic  grace  of  his  diction. 
There  was  abundance  to  justify  his  attacks  in 
the  systems  against  which  they  were  directed. 
Yet  he  establishes  "nothing  in  their  stead.  His 
aim  is  only  to  pull  down — to  spread  a  universal 
skepticism.  Nor  were  his  assaults  confined  to 
religion  and  philosophy,  but  extended  to  every 
thing  old  and  venerated,  the  poems  of  Homer 
and  Hesiod,  and  the  history  of  Herodotus.  The 
best  editions  of  Lucian  are  by  Hemsterhuis  and 
Reitz,  Amst.,  1743,  4  vols.  4to ;  by  Lehmann, 
Lips.,  1821-1831,  9  vols.  8vo;  and  by  Diudorf, 
with  a  Latin  version,  but  without  notes,  Paris, 
1840,  8vo. 

LUCIFER  or  PHOSPHORUS  (Owf^dpof,  also  by  the 
poets  'Eufipopog  or  $ae<;<j>6pO(;),  that  is,  the  bring- 
er  of  light,  is  the  name  of  the  planet  Venus, 
when  seen  in  the  morning  before  sunrise.  The 
same  planet  was  calkd  Hesperus,  Vesperugo, 
Vesper,  Noctifer,  or  Nocturnus,  wlfen  it  appeared 
in  the  heavens  after  sunset.  Lucifer,  as  a  per 
Bonification,  is  called  a  son  of  Astraeus  and  Au- 
rora or  Eos,  of  Cephalus  and  Aurora,  or  of  At- 
las. By  Philouis  he  is  said  to  have  been  the 
father  of  Ceyx.  He  is  also  called  the  father  of 
Dsedalion  and  of  the  Hesperides.  Lucifera  is 
also  a  surname  of  several  goddesses  of  light,  as 
Diana  (Artemis),  Aurora,  and  Hecate. 

LUCILIUS.  1.  C.,  was  born  at  Suessa  of  the 
Aurunci,  B.C.  148.  He  served  in  the  cavalry 
under  Scipio  in  the  Numantine  war  ;  lived  upon 
terms  of  the  closest  familiarity  with  Scipio  arr 
Laelius ;  and  was  either  the  maternal  grand- 
uncle,  or,  which  is  less  probable,  the  maternal 
grandfather  of  Pompey  the  Great  He  died  at 
Naples,  103,  in  the  forty -sixth  year  of  his  age. 
Ancient  critics  agree  that,  if  not  absolutely  the 
inventor  of  Roman  satire,  he  was  the  first  to 
mould  it  into  that  form  which  afterward  receiv- 
ed full  development  in  the  hands  of  Horace, 
Persius,  and  Juvenal.  The  first  of  these  three, 
great  masters,  while  he  censures  the  harsh  ver- 
sification and  tin-  slovenly  haste  with  which  Lu- 
cilius  threw  off  his  compositions,  acknowledges 
with  admiration  the  fierceness  and  boldness  of 
his  attacks  upon  the  vices  and  follies  of  his  con 
449 


LUCILLA,   ANNIA. 

temporaries.  The  Satires  of  Lucilius  were  di- 
vided into  thirty  books.  Upward  of  eight  hund- 
red fragments  from  these  have  been  [(reserved, 
but  the  greatest  number  consist  of  isolated  coup- 
lets or  single  lines.  It  is  clear  from  those  frag- 
ments that  his  reputation  for  caustic  pleasantry 
was  by  no  means  unmerited,  and  that  in  coarse- 
nesn  and  broad  personalities  he  in  no  respect 
fell  short  of  the  license  of  the  old  comedy, 
which  would  seem  to  have  been,  to  a  certain 
extent,  his  model.  The  fragments  were  pub- 
lished separately,  by  Franciscus  Dousa,  Lugd. 
Bat.,  4to,  1597,  reprinted  by  the  brothers  Volpi, 
8vo,  Patav.,  1735  ;  and,  along  with  Censoriuus, 
by  the  two  sons  of  Havercamp,  Lugd.  Bat.,  8vo, 
1743. — 2.  LUCILIUS  JUNIOR,  probably  the  author 
of  an  extant  poem  in  six  hundred  and  forty  hex- 
ameters, entitled  jEtna,  which  exhibits  through- 
out great  command  of  language,  and  contains 
not  a  few  brilliant  passages.  Its  object  is  to 
explain  upon  philosophical  principles,  after  the 
fasnion  of  Lucretius,  the  causes  of  the  various 
physical  phenomena  presented  by  the  volcano. 
Lucilius  Junior  was  the,  procurator  of  Sicily, 
and  the  friend  to  whom  Seneca  addresses  his 
Epistles,  his  Natural  Questions,  and  his  tract  on 
Providence,  and  whom  he  strongly  urges  to 
select  this  very  subject  of  JStna  as  a  theme  for 
his  muse. 

LUCILLA,  ANNIA,  daughter  of  M.  Aurelius  and 
the  younger  Faustina,  was  born  about  A.D.  147. 
She  was  married  to  the  Emperor  L.  Verus,  and 
after  his  death  (169)  to  Claudius  Pompeianus. 
In  1 83  she  engaged  in  a  plot  against  the  life  of 
her  brother  Commodus,  which  having  been  de- 
tected, she  was  banished  to  the  island  of  Ca- 
prese,  and  there  put  to  death. 

[LuciLLius  (A.OVKD./UOS),  a  Greek  poet,  who 
published  two  books  of  epigrams  ;  in  the  Greek 
Anthology  there  are  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  epigrams  ascribed  to  him,  but  some  of  these 
in  certain  MSS.  are  credited  to  other  poets  :  he 
probably  lived  under  Nero.] 

LUCINA,  the ,  goddess  of  light,  or,  rather,  the 
goddess  that  brings  to  light,  and  hence  the  god- 
dess that  presides  over  the  birth  of  children. 
It  was  therefore  used  as  a  surname  of  Juno  and 
Diana.  Lucina  corresponded  to  the  Greek  god- 
dess ILITHYIA. 

[LUCINA  OPPIDUM  (EifaiBviaf  Tro/Uf,  now  El- 
Kab),  &  city  of  the  Thebaid,  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Nile,  with  a  temple  of  Bubastis.] 

[Lucius  (Aowaof),  of  Patrae,  a  Greek  writer 
of  uncertain  date,  author  of  Metamorphoseon 
Libri  Diversi,  which  are  now  lost:  Lucian  bor- 
rowed from  him,  aud,  at  the  same  time,  ridiculed 
him  in  a  piece  called  from  him  Lucius.] 

LUCRETIA,  the  wife  of  L.  Tarquinius  Collati- 
nus,  whose  rape  by  Sextus  Tarqumius  led  to  the 
dethronement  of  Tarquinins  Superbus  and  the 
establishment  of  the  republic.  For  details,  vid. 
TARQUINIUS. 

LecREiiA  GEXS,  originally  patrician,  but  sub- 
sequently plebeian  also.  The  surname  of  the 
patrician  Lucretii  wjis  Tricipitinut,  one  of  whom, 
Sp.  Lucretius  Tricipitinus,  the  father  of  Lucre- 
tia,  was  elected  consul,  with  L.  Junius  Brutus,  on 
the  establishment  of  the  republic,  B.C.  509.  The 
plebeian  families  are  known  by  the  surnames  of 
Gallus,  Ofella,  and  Vespillo,  but  none  of  them  is 
of  sufficient  importance  to  require  notice. 
450 


LUCRINUS  LACUS. 

LUCRETILIS,  a  pleasant  mountain  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Sabines,  overhanging  Horace's  villa, 
a  part  of  the  modern  Monte  Gennaro. 

LUCRETIUS   CARUS,   T..   the  Roman   poet,   re- 
specting whose   personal   history   our  informa- 
tion is  both  scanty  and  suspicious.     The  Euse- 
bian  Chronicle  fixes  B.C.  95  as  the  date  of  his 
birth,  adding  that  he  was  driven  mad  by  a  love 
potion,  that  during  his  lucid  intervals  he  com- 
posed  several   works   which   were   revised  by 
Cicero,  and  that  he  perished  by  his  own  hand 
in  his  forty-fourth  year,  B.C.  52  or  51.     Another 
ancient  authority  places  his  death  in  55.     From 
what  source  the  tale  about  the  philtre  may  have 
been  derived,  we  know  not,  but  it  is  not  im 
probable  that  the  whole  story  was  an  invention' 
of  some  enemy  of  the  Epicureans.    Not  a  hint 
is  to  be  found  any  where  which  corroborates  the 
assertion  with  regard  to  the  editorial  labors  of 
Cicero.     The  work,  which  has  immortalized  the 
name  of  Lucretius,  is  a  philosophical  didactio 
poem,  composed  in  heroic  hexameters,  divided 
into  six  books,  containing  upward  of  seven  thou- 
sand four  hundred  lines,  addressed  to  C.  Mem 
mius  Gemellus,  who  was  praetor  in  58,  aud  in 
entitled  De  Rerum  Natura.     It  was  probably 
published  about  57  or  56  ;  for,  from  the  way  in 
which  Cicero   speaks   of  it  in   a  letter  to  his 
brother,  written.  In  55,  we  may  conclude  that  il 
had  only  recently   appeared.     The  poem  has 
been  sometimes  represented  as  a  complete  ex 
position  of   the  religious,   moral,    and  physical 
doctrines  of  Epicurus,  but  this  is  far  from  being 
a    correct    description.      Epicurus    maintained 
that  the  unhappiness  and  degradation  of  man- 
kind arose  in  a  great  degree  from  the  slavish 
drea,d  which  they  entertained  of  the  power  of 
the  gods,  and  from  terror  of  their  wrath ;  and 
the   fundamental   doctrine   of  his   system  was, 
that  the  gods,  whose  existence  he  did  not  deny, 
lived  in  the  enjoyment  of  absolute  peace,  and 
totally  indifferent  to  the  world  and  its  inhabit- 
ants.    To  prove  this  position,  Epicurus  adopted 
the  atomic  theory   of  Leucippus,   according  to 
which  the  material  universe   was    not  created 
by  the  Supreme  Being,  but  was  formed  by  the 
union  of  elemental  particles  which  had  existed 
from  all  eternity,  governed   by  certain  simple 
laws.    He  further  sought  to  show  that  all  those 
striking  phenomena  which  had  been  regarded 
by  the  vulgar  as  direct  manifestations  of  divine 
power  were  the  natural  results  of  ordinary  pro- 
cesses.    To  state  clearly  and  develop  fully  the 
leading  principle  of  this  philosophy,  in  such  a 
form  as  might  render  the   study  attractive  to 
his  countrymen,   was   the   object  of  Lucretius, 
his  work  being  simply  an  attempt  to  show  that 
there  is  nothing  in  the  history  or  actual  condi 
tion  of  the  world  which  does  not  admit  of  ex- 
planation without  having  recourse  to  the  active 
interposition  of  divine  beings.     The  poem   of 
Lucretius  has  been  admitted    by   all   modern 
critics   to  be   the  greatest  of  didactic   poems. 
The  most  abstruse  speculations  are  clearly  ex- 
plained  in   majestic   verse,   while   the   subject, 
which  in  itself  was  dry  and  dull,  is  enlivened  by 
digressions   of    matchless    power    and    beauty. 
The  best   editions   are    by   Wakeficld,  London, 
1796,  3  vols.  4to,  reprinted  at  Glasgow,  1813, 
4  vols.  8vo ;  and  bj  Forbiger,  Lips.,  1828, 12rr,o. 

LUCRINUS  LACUS,  was  properly  the  inner  part 


LUCTERIUS. 


LUCULLUS. 


of  the  Siuus  Cumanus  or  Puteolanus,  a  bay  on 
the  coast  of  Campania,  between  the  promontory 
Misenum  and  Puteoli,  running  a  considerable 
way  inland.  But  at  a  very  early  period  the 
Lucriiie  Lake  was  separated  from  the  remain- 
der of  the  bay  by  a  dike  eight  stadia  in  length, 
which  was  probably  formed  originally  by  some 
volcanic  change,  and  was  s\|bsequently  render- 
ed more  complete  by  the  work  of  man.  Being 
thus  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sea,  it  as- 
sumed the  character  of  an  inland  lake,  and  is 
therefore  called  Lacus  by  the  Romans.  Its 
waters  still  remained  salt,  and  were  celebrated 
for  their  oyster  beds.  Behind  the  Lucrine  Lake 
was  another  lake  called  LACUS  AVEENUS.  In 
the  time  of  Augustus,  Agrippa  made  a  commu- 
nication between  the  Lake  Avemus  and  the 
Lucrine  Lake,  and  also  between  the  Lucrine 
Lake  and  the  Sinus  Cumanus,  thus  forming  out 
of  the  three  the  celebrated  Julian  Harbor.  The 
Lucrine  Lake  was  filled  up  by  a  volcanic  erup- 
tion in  1538,  when  a  conical  mountain  rose  in 
its  place,  called  Monte  Nuovo.  The  Avernus 
has  thus  become  again  a  separate  lake,  and  no 
trace  of  the  dike  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Gulf  of 
Pozzuoli. 

[LucxEaius,  the  Cadurcan,  described  by  Cae- 
sar as  a  man  of  the  greatest  daring,  was  sent 
into  the  country  of  the  Ruteni  by  Vercingetorix 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  great  Gallic  insur- 
rection in  B.C.  52.  He  at  first  met  with  great 
success,  but  was  compelled  by  Caesar's  advance 
to  retire  ;  he  was  afterward  defeated  by  C. 
Caniuius  Rebilus.] 

LUCULLDS,  LICINIUS,  a  celebrated  plebeian 
family.  1.  L.,  the  grandfather  of  the  conqueror 
of  Hithradates,  was  consul  B.C.  151,  together 
with  A.  Postumius  Albinus,  and  carried  on  war 
in  Spain  against  the  Vaccaei. — 2.  L.,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  praetor  103,  and  carried  on  war 
unsuccessfully  against  the  slaves  in  Sicily.  On 
his  return  to  Rome  he  was  accused,  condemned, 
ami  driven  into  exile. — 3.  L.,  sou  of  the  preced- 
ing, and  celebrated  as  the  conqueror  of  Mithra- 
dates.  He  was  probably  born  about  110.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Marsic  or  Social 
war,  and  accompanied  Sulla  as  his  quaestor  into 
Greece  and  Asia,  88.  When  Sulla  returned  to 
Italy  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  Mithra- 
dates  in  84,  Lucullus  was  left  behind  in  Asia, 
where  he  remained  till  80.  In  79  he  was  curule 
aedile  with  his  younger  brother  Marcus.  So 
great  was  the  favor  at  this  time  enjoyed  by 
Lucullus  with  Sulla,  that  the  dictator,  "on  his 
death-bed,  not  only  confided  to  him  the  charge 
ol  revising  and  correcting  his  Commentaries, 
but  appointed  him  guardian  of  his  son  Faust  us, 
to  the  exclusion  of  Pompey  ;  a  circumstance 
which  is  said  to  have  first  given  rise  to  the  «n- 
raity  and  jealousy  that  ever  after  subsisted  be- 
tween the  two.  In  77  Lucullus  was  prtetor, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  this  magistracy  obtain- 
ed the  government  of  Africa,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  justice^of  his  adminis- 
tratioa  In  74  he  was  consul  with  M.  Aurelius 
Cotta,  In  this  year  th,e  war  with  Mithradates 
was  renewed,  and  Lucullus  received  the  con- 
duct of  it.  He  carried  on  this  war  for  eight 
years  with  great  success.  The  details  are  given 
under  MITHIIADATES,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to 
mention  here  the  leading  outlines.  Lueulhfs 


defeated  Mithradates  with  great  slaughter,  and 
drove  him  out  of  his  hereditary  dominions,  and 
compelled  him  to  take  refuge  in  Armenia  with 
his  son-in-law  Tigrancs  (71).  He  afterward 
invaded  Armenia,  defeated  Tigraues,  and  took 
his  capital  Tigranocerta  (69).  •  In  the  next  cam- 
paign (68)  he  again  defeated  the  combined  forces 
of  Mithradates,  and  laid  siege  to  Nisibis  ;  but 
in  the  spring  of  the  following  year  (67)  a  mutiny 
among  his  troops  compelled  him  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Nisibis  and  return  to  Pontus.  Mith- 
radates had  already  taken  advantage  of  his  ab- 
sence to  invade  Pontus,  and  had  defeated  his 
lieutenants  Fabius  and  Triarius  in  several  suc- 
cessive actions.  But  Lucullus,  on  his  arrival, 
was  unable  to  effect  any  thing  against  Mithra- 
dates, in  consequence  of  the  mutinous  disposi- 
tion of  his  troops.  The  adversaries  of  Lucul- 
lus availed  themselves  of  so  favorable  an  occa- 
sion, and  a  decree  was  passed  to  transfer  to 
Acilius  Glabrio,  one  of  the  consuls  for  the  year, 
the  province  of  Bithynia  and  the  command 
against  Mithradates.  But  Glabrio  was  wholly 
incompetent  for  the  task  assigned  him  ;  on  ar- 
riving in  Bithynia,  he  made  no  attempt  to  as- 
sume the  command,  but  remained  quiet  within 
the  confines  of  the  Roman  province.  Mithra- 
dates meanwhile  ably  availed  himself  of  this 
position  of  affairs,  and  Lucullus  had  the  morti- 
fication of  seeing  Pontus  and  Cappadocia  occu- 
pied by  the  enemy  before  his  eyes,  without  be- 
ing able  to  stir'a  step  in  their  defence.  But  it 
was  still  more  galling  to  his  feelings  when,  in 
66,  he  was  called  upon  to  resign  the  command ' 
to  his  old  rival  Pompey,  who  had  been  appoint- 
ed by  the  Manilian  law  to  supersede  both  him 
and  Glabrio.  Lucullus  did  not  obtain  his  tri- 
umph till  63,  in  consequence  of  the  opposition 
of  bis  enemies.  He  was  much  courted  by  the 
aristocratical  party,  who  sought  in  Lucullus  a 
rival  and  antagonist  to  Pompey  ;  but,  instead 
of  putting  himself  prominently  forward  as  the 
leader  of  a  party,  he  soon  began  to  withdraw 
gradually  from  public  affairs,  and  devote  him- 
self more  and  more  to  a  life  of  indolence  and 
luxury.  He  died  in  57  or  56.  Previous  to  his 
death  he  had  fallen  into  a  state  of  complete 
dotage,  so  that  the  management  of  his  affairs 
was  confined  to  his  brother  Marcus.  The  name 
of  Lucullus  is  almost  as  celebrated  for  the  lux- 
ury of  his  later  years  as  for  his  victories  over 
Mithradates.  He  amassed  vast  treasures  in 
Asia;  and  these  supplied  him  the  means,  after 
his  return  to  Rome,  of  gratifying  his  natural 
taste  for  luxury,  together1  with  an  ostentatious 
display  of  magnificence.  His  gardens  in  the 
immediate  suburbs  of  the  city  were  laid  out  in 
a  style  of  extraordinary  splendor ;  but  still  more 
remarkable  were  his  villas  at  Tusculum  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Neapolis.  In  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Litter,  with  its  parks,  fish-ponds,  <fcc., 
he  had  laid  out  vast  sums  in  cutting  through 
hills  and  rocks,  and  throwing  out  advanced 
works  into  the  sea.  So  gigantic,  indeed,  was 
the  scale  of  these  labors  for  objects  apparently 
so  insignificant,  that  Pompey  called  lam,  in  de- 
rision, the  Roman  Xerxes.  His  feasts  at  Rome 
itself  were  celebrated  on  a  scale  of  inordinate 
magnificence  :  a  single  supper  in  the  hall,  call- 
ed that  of  Apollo,  was  said  to  have  cost  the  sum 
of  fifty  thousand  denarii.  Even  during  his  cara- 
451 


LUCUMO. 

paigns  the  pleasures  of  the  table  had  not  been 
forgotten  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  he  was  the 
first  U>  introduce  cherries  into  Italy,  which  he 
had  brought  with  him  from  Cerasus  in  Pontus. 
Lucullus  was  an  enlightened  patron  of  litera- 
ture, and  had  from  his  earliest  years  devoted 
much  attention  to  literary  pursuits.  He  col- 
lected a  valuable  library,  which  was  opened  to 
the  free  use  of  the  literary  public ;  and  here  he 
himself  used  to  associate  with  the  Greek  phi- 
losophers and  literati,  and  would  enter  warmly 
into  their  metaphysical  and  philosophical  dis- 
cussions. Hence  the  picture  drawn  by  Cicero 
at  the  commencement  of  the  Academics  was 
probably,  to  a  certain  extent,  taken  from  the 
reality.  His  constant  companion  from  the  time 
of  his  quiEstorship  had  been  Antiochus  of  Asca- 
lon,  from  whom  he  imbibed  the  precepts  of  the 
Academic  school  of  philosophy,  to  which  he 
continued  through  life  to  be  attached.  His  pat- 
ronage of  the  poet  Archias  is  well  known.  He 
composed  a  history  of  the  Marsic  war  in  Greek. 
— 4.  L.  or  M.,  son  of  the  preceding  and  of  Ser- 
vilia,  half-sister  of  M.  Cato,  was  a  mere  child 
at  his  father's  death.  His  education  was  super- 
intended by  Cato  and  Cicero.  After  Caesar's 
death  he  joined  the  republican  party,,  and  fell 
at  the  battle  of  Philippi,  42. — 5.  M.,  brother  of 
No.  3,  was  adopted  by  M.  TERENTIUS  VAKEO 
LUCULLUS.  He  fought  under  Sulla  in  Italy,  82  ; 
was'curule  sedile  with  his  brother,  79 ;  praator, 
77  ;  and  consul,  73.  After  his  consulship  he 
obtained  the  province  of  Macedonia.  He  car- 
•  rie'd  on  war  against  the  Dardanians  and  Bessi, 
and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  Danube.  On  bis 
return  to  Rome  be  obtained  a  triumph,  71.  He 
•was  a  strong  supporter  of  the  aristocratical 
party.  He  pronounced  the  funeral  oration  of 
his  brother,  but  died  before  the  commencement 
of  the  civil  war,  49. 

LUCUMO.     Vid.  TABQUINIUS. 

[Lucus  occurs  frequently  in  appellations  of 
places,  from  connection  with  some  grove  in  the 
vicinity.  1.  L.  ANGITI^E,  a  grove  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Marsi,  near  the  Lacus  Fucinus.  Vid. 
ANGITIA. — 2.  L.  AUGUSTI,  the  second  capital  of 
the  Vocontii,  in  the  interior  of  Gallia  Narbonen- 
sis,  on  the  military  road  leading  from  Mediola- 
nurn  over  the  Cottian  Alps  to  Vienna  and  Lug- 
dunum.] 

LUDIAS.     Vid.  LYDMS. 

LUGDUNENSIS  GALLIA.       Vid,  GALLIA. 

LUGDUNUM  (Lugdunensis).  1.  (Now  Lyon), 
the  chief  town  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  a  hill  a£  the  confluence  of  the  Arar 
(now  Saone)  and  the  Rhodanus  (now  R}wne),  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  some  fugitives 
from  the  town  of  Vienna,  further  down  the 
Rhone.  In  the  year  after  Caesar's  death  (B.C. 
43)  Lugdunum  was  made  a  Roman  colony  by 
L.  Munatius  Plancus,  and  became  under  Au- 
gustus the  capital  of  the  province  and  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Roman  governor.  Being  situated 
on  two  navigable  rivers,  and  being  connected 
•with  the  other  parts  of  Gaul  by  roads,  which 
met  at  this  town  as  their  central  point,  it  soon 
became  a  wealthy  and  populous  place,  and  is 
described  by  Strabo  as  the  largest  city  in  Gaul 
next  to  Narbo.  It  received  many  privileges 
from  the  Emperor  Claudius ;  but  it  was  burned 
down  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  It  was,  however, 
452 


LUN^E  PROMONTORKTM. 

soon  rebuilt,  and  continued  to  be  a  place  of 
;  great  importance  till  A.D.  197,  when  it  was 
plundered  and  the  greater  part  of  it  destroyed 
by  the  soldiei-s  of  Septimius*  Seveius,  after  his 
i  victory  over  his  rival  Albums  in  the  neighbor- 
j  hood  of  the  towa  From  this  blow  it  never  re- 
j  covered,  and  was  more  and  more  thrown  into 
the  shade  by  Vienna,  Lugdunum  possosrd  ii 
vast  aqueduct,  of  which  the  remains  may  still 
be  traced  for  miles,  a  mint,  and  an  imperial 
palace,  in  which  Claudius  was  born,  htitl  ir 
which  many  of  the  other  Roman  emperors  re 
sided.  At  the  tongue  of  land  between  the  Khont 
and  the  Arar  stood  an  altar  dedicated  to  Au- 
gustus by  the  different  states  of  Gaul ;  and  her* 
Caligula  instituted  contests  in  rhetoric,  prize*, 
being  given  to  the  victors,  but  the  most  i  idicu 
lous  punishments  inflicted  on  the'  vanquished 
(Comp.  Juv.,  i,  44.)  Lugdunum  is  memorable 
in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  as  th» 
seat  of  the  bishopric  of  Irenaeus,  and  on  ac 
count  of  the  persecutions  which  the  Christiana 
endured  here  in  the  second  and  third  centuries. 
— 2.  L.  BATAVORUM  (now  Leyden),  the  chief  town 
of  the  BatavL  Vid.  BATAVI. — 3.  CONVENARUM 
(now  Saint  Berlrand  de  Camminges),  the  chief 
town  of  the  Convcnae  in  Aquitania.  Vid.  CON- 
VENE. 

[LUGUVALLUM  (now  Carlisle),  a  place  in  the 
north  of  Britain,  near  the  wall  of  Hadrian.] 
LUNA.     Vid.  SELENE. 

LUNA  (Lunensis :  now  Luni),  an  Etruscan 
town,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Macra 
about  four  miles  from  the  coast,  originally  form- 
ed part  of  Liguria,  but  became  the  most  north- 
erly city  of  Etruria  when  Augustus  extended 
the  boundaries  of  the  latter  country  as  far  ap 
the  Macra.  The  town  itself  was  never  a  place 
of  importance,  but  it  possessed  a  large  and 
commodious  harbor  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
called  LUN.E  POETUS  (now  Gulf  of  Spezzia).  Ik 
B.C.  177  Luna  was  made  a  Roman  colony 
and  two  thousand  Roman  citizens  were  settled 
there.  In  the  civil  war  between  Caesar  ant) 
Pompey  it  had  sunk  into  utter  decay,  but  was 
colonized  a  few  years  afterward.  Luna  was 
celebrated  for  its  white  marble,  which  now  takes 
its  name  from  the  neighboring  town  of  Carrara. 
The  quarries  from  which  this  marble  was  ob- 
tained appear  not  to  have  been  worked  before 
the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  but  it  was  extensively 
employed  in  the  public  buildings  erected  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus.  The  wine  and  the  cheeses 
of  Luna  also  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  :  some 
of  these  cheeses  are  said  to  have  weighed  one 
thousand  pounds.  The  ruins  of  Luna  are  few 
and  unimportant,  consisting  of  the  vestiges  of 
an  amphitheatre,  fragment!  of  columns,  <tc. 

LUN^P  MONIES  (~6  rr,q  Ichrfvijf  opof),  a  range 
of  mountains  which  some  of  the  ancient  geog- 
raphers believed  to  exist  in  the  interior  of  Africa, 
covered  with  perpetual  snow,  and  containing 
the  sources  of  the  Nile.  Their  actual  exist- 
ence is  neither  proved  nor  disproved. 
[LUN.S  PORTUS.  Vid.  LUNA.] 
[LuN.fi  PROMONTOBIUM  (2e/7?v^f  unpov).  1.  A 
promontory  on  the  coast  of  Etruria,  somewhat 
to  the  southeast  of  LUNA. — 2.  A  promontory  on 
the  west  coast  of  Lusitania ;  according  to  Uk- 
ert,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cintra,  but  accord- 
i$g  tc  ethers,  Cap  Rocco  or  Caobueyro.] 


LUPERCA. 


LYCAON. 


LUPEECA  or  LUPA,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity, 
the  wife  of  Lupercus,  who,  in  the  shape  of  a 
ehe-wolf,  performed  the  office  of  nurse  to  Rom- 
ulus and  Remus.  In  some  accounts  she  is  iden- 
tified with  ACCA  LAUEENTIA,  the  wife  of  Faus- 
tulue, 

LUPEBCCS,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  who 
was  worshipped  by  the  shepherds  as  the  pro- 
tector of  their  flocks  against  wolves.  On  the 
northern  side  of  the  Palatine  Hill  there  had 
been  in  ancient  times  a  cave,  the  sanctuary  of 
Lupercus,  surrounded  by  a  grove,  containing  an 
altar  of  the  god  and  his  figure  clad  in  a  goat- 
skin, just  as  his  priests,  the  LupercL  The  Ro- 
mans sometimes  identified  Lupercus  witn  the 
Arcadian  Pan.  Respecting  the  festival  cele- 
brated in  honor  of  Lupercus  and  his  priests,  the 
Luperei,  vid.  Diet,  of  Ant^  art  LUFEECALIA  and 


[LUPEECUS,  a  friend  of  the  younger  Pliny,  to 
Trhom  the  latter  occasionally  sent  his  orations  for 
revision.] 

LUPIA.      Vid.  LUPPIA. 

LUPI.£  or  LUPPL*,  a  town  in  Calabria,  between 
BrundLsiuin  and  Hydruntum. 

LUPODUNCM  (now  Ladenburg  /),  a  town  in 
Germany,  on  the  River  Nicer  (now  Neckar). 

LUPPIA  or  LUPIA  (now  Lippe),  a  navigable  riv- 
er in  the  northwest  of  Germany,  which  falls  into 
the  Rhine  at  Weael  in  Westphalia,  and  on  which 
the  Romans  built  a  fortress  of  the  same  name. 
The  River  Eliso  (now  Alme)  was  a  tributary  of 
the  Luppia,  and  at  the  confluence  of  these  two 
rivers  was  the  fortress  of  Aliso. 

Lures,  RLTILHB.  1.  P.,  consul  with  L.  Ju- 
"i'js  Cassar  in  B.C.  90,  was  defeated  by  the 
Marsi,  and  slain  in^  battle.  —  2.  P.,  tribune  of  the 
olebs  56,  and  a  warm  partisan  of  the  aristocra- 
cy. He  was  prastor  in  49,  and  was  stationed  at 
Terraeina  with  three  cohorts.  He  afterward 
crossed  over  to  Greece.  —  3.  Probably  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  the  author  of  a  rhetorical  treat- 
ise in  two  books,  entitled  De  Figuritt  Sententia- 
rttm  et  JSlocutionis,  which  appears  to  have  been 
originally  an  abridgment  of  a  work  by  Gorgias 
of  Athens,  one  of  the  preceptors  of  young  M. 
Cicero,  but  which  has  evidently  undergone  many 
changes.  Its  chief  value  is  derived  from  the  nu- 
merous translations  which  it  contains  of  striking 
passages  from  the  works  of  Greek  orators  now 
lost  Edited  by  Ruhnken  along  with  Aquila  and 
Julius  Ruffinianus,  Lugd.  Bat,  1768,  reprinted  by 
Frotscher,  Lips.,  1831. 

LCRCO,  M.  AUKIUIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
61,  the  author  of  a  law  on  bribery  (De  Ambitu). 
He  was  the  maternal  grandfather  of  the  Em- 
press Livia,  wife  of  Augustus.  He  was  the 
first  person  in  Rome  who  fattened  peacocks  for 
»ale,  and  he  derived  a  large  income  from  this 
source. 

Luscixus,  FABEICIUS.      Vid.  FABEICIUS. 

[Luscius  LAVINIUS,  a  Latin  comic  poet,  the 
?ontemporary  and  rival  of  Terence,  wno  men- 
tions him  several  times  in  the  prologues  to  his 
plays.] 

fjLuscus,  ArKinics,  chief  magistrate  at  Fuudi, 
ridiculed  by  Horace  on  account  of  the  ridiculous 
and  pompous  airs  he  gave  himself  when  Maecenas 
and  his  friends  passed  through  Fundi  in  their  cel- 
ebrated journey  to  Brundisium.] 

LUSITANIA,  LoRzin.     Vid.  HISPANIA. 


[Lusius  QUIETUS.     Vid.  QUIETUS.] 

LUSONES,  a  tribe  of  the  Celtiberi  in  Hispania 
Tarraconeusis,  near  the  sources  of  the  Tagus. 

LUTATIUS  CATULUS.     Vid.  CATULUS. 

LUTATIUS  CEECO.      Vid.  CEECO. 

LUTETIA,  or  more  commonly,  LUTETIA  PABI- 
SIOEUM  (now  Paris),  the  capital  of  the  Parisii 
in  Gallia  Lugduneusis,  was  situated  on  an  island 
in  the  Sequaua  (now  Seine),  and  was  connected 
with  the  banks  of  the  river  by  two  -wooden 
bridges.  Under  the  emperors  it  became  a  place 
of  importance,  and  the  chief  naval  station  on  the 
Sequana.  Here  Julian  was  proclaimed  emperor, 
A.D.  360. 

[LUTEVA  (now  Lodeve),  a  city  of  the  Volca 
Arecomici  in  Gallia  Narbonensis ;  also  called 
Forum  Neronis.~] 

[LuriA  (Aovri'o),  a  considerable  town  of  the 
Arevaci  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  the  site  of 
which  is  not  determined.] 

[LY^EUS  (Avalof),  an  epithet  of  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus), who  frees  men  from  cares  and  anxiety.] 

LYCABETTUS  (AvKadijTriJf :  now  St.  GeorgeJ,  a 
mountain  in  Attica,  belonging  to  the  range  of 
Pentelicus,  close  to  the  walls  of  Athens  on  the 
northeast  of  the  city,  and  on  the  left  of  the  road 
leading  to  Marathon.  It  is  commonly,  but  er- 
roneously, supposed  that  the  small  hill  north  of 
the  Pnyx  is  Lycabettus,  and  that  St.  George  is 
the  ancient  Anchesmus. 

LYC^EUS  (AvKaZof)  or  LYCEUS,  a  lofty  mount- 
ain in  Arcadia,  northwest  of  Megalopolis,  from 
the  summit  of  which  a  great  part  of  the  coun- 
try could  be  seen.  It  was  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  the  worship  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  was 
hence  surnamed  Lycteus.  Here  was  a  temple 
of  this  god  ;  and  here,  also,  was  celebrated  the 
festival  of  the  Lyv&a  (vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v.), 
Pan  was  likewise  called  Lyccnts,  because  he  was 
born  and  had  a  sanctuary  on  this  mountain. 

LYCAMBKS.      Vid,  ABCHTLOCHUS. 

LYCAOX  (AVKUUV).  1.  King  of  Arcadia,  son  of 
Pelasgus  by  Meh'boea  or  Cyllene.  The  traditions 
about  Lycaon  represent  him  in  very  different 
lights.  Some  describe  him  as  the  first  civilizer 
of  Arcadia,  who  built  the  town  of  Lycosura, 
and  introduced  the  worship  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
Lycaeus.  But  he  is  more  usually  represented 
as  an  impious  king,  with  a  large  number  of 
sons  as  impious  as  himself.  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
visited  the  earth  in  order  to  punish  them.  The 
god  was  recognized  and  worshipped  by  the 
Arcadian  people.  Lycaon  resolved  to  murder 
him  ;  and,  in  order  to  try  if  he  were  really 
a  god,  served  before  him  a  dish  of  human  flesh. 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  pushed  away  the  table  which 
bore  the  horrible  food,  and  the  place  where  this 
happened  was  afterward  called  Trapezus.  Ly- 
caon and  all  his  sons,  with  the  exception  of  the 
youngest  (or  eldest),  Nyctimus,  were  killed  by 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  with  a  flash  of  lightning,  or,  ac- 
cording to  others,  were  changed  into  wolves. 
Callisto,  the  daughter  of  Lycaou,  is  said  to  have 
been  changed  into  the  constellation  of  the  Bear, 
whence  she  is  called  by  the  poets  Lycaonit  Are- 
tos,  Lycaonia  Arctos,  or  Lycaonia  Virgo,  or  by 
her  patronymic  LycaoHis. — [2.  Ruler  in  Ly 
cia,  father  of  the  celebrated  Pandarus. — 3.  Son 
of  Priam  and  Laothoii,  was  taken  captive  by 
Achilles,  who  sold  him  in  Lemnos ;  he  escaped 
thence,  returned  to  Troy,  and  was  finally  slain 
463 


LTCAONIA. 


LTCIA. 


by  Achilles. — 4.  An  artisan  of  Cnosus  men 
tioned  iu  the  ^Eueid  (ix.,  304)  as  huviug  made 
a  beautiful  sword  for  lulus,  which  he  gave  to 
Euiyalus.] 

LYCAONIA  (Avuaovia  :  Avuuovef  :  part  of  Ka- 
raman),  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  ussigucd,  un- 
der the  Persian  Empire,  to  the  satrapy  of 
Citppadocia,  but  considered  by  the  Greek  auci 
Roman  geographers  the  southeastern  part  of 
Phrygia ;  bounded  on  the  north  by  Galatin,  on 
the  east  by  Cappadocia,  on  the  south  by  Cilicia 
Aspera,  on  the  southwest  by  Isauria  (which 
•was  sometimes  reckoned  as  a  part  of  it)  and 
by  Phrygia  Paroreios,  and  ou  the  northwest  by 
Great  Phrygia.  Its  boundaries,  however,  va- 
ried much  at  different  times.  It  was  a  long, 
narrow  strip  of  country,  its  length  extending  in 
the  direction  of  northwest  and  southeast  Xen- 
ophon,  who  first  mentions  it,  describes  its  width 
as  extending  east  of  Icouium  (its  chief  city)  to 
the  borders  of  Cappadocia,  a  distance  of  thirty 
parasangs,  about  one  hundred  and  ten  miles. 
It  forms  a  table-land  between  the  Taurus  and 
the  mountains  of  Phrygia,  deficient  in  good  wa- 
ter, but  abounding  in  flocks  of  sheep.  The  peo- 
ple were,  so  far  as  can  be  traced,  an  aboriginal 
race,  speaking  a  language  which  is  mentioned 
in  the  Acts  of  tfie  Apostles  as  a  distinct  dialect. 
They  were  warlike,  and  especially  skilled  in 
archery.  After  the  overthrow  of  Autiochus  the 
Great  by  the  Romans,  Lycaonia,  which  had  be- 
longed successively  to  Persia  and  to  Syria,  was 
partly  assigned  to  Eumenes  and  partly  govern- 
ed by  native  chieftains,  the  last  of  whom,  An- 
tipater,  a  contemporary  of  Cicero,  was  conquer- 
ed by  Amyntas,  king  of  Galatia,  at  whose  death, 
in  B.C.  25,  it  passed,  w'th  Galatia,  to  the  Ilo 
mans,  and  was  finally  united  to  the  province  of 
Cappadocia.  Lycaonia  was  the  chief  scene  of 
the  labors  of  the  Apostle  Paul  on  his  first  mis- 
sion to  the  Gentiles  (Acts,  xiv). 

-[LYCARETUS  (AvKuprjTOf),  brother  of  Maean- 
drius,  tyrant  of  Samos,  the  successor  of  Poly- 
crates,  was  governor  of  Lemnos  under  the  Per- 
sians, and  uied  in  this  office.] 

LYCEUM  (TO  Avueiov),  the  name  of  one  of  the 
three  ancient  gymnasia  at  Athens,  called  after 
the  temple  of  Apollo  Lyceus  in  its  neighbor- 
hood. It  was  situated  southeast  of  the  city,  out- 
side the  walls,  and  just  above  the  River  Ilissus. 
Here  the  polemarch  administered  justice.  It  is 
celebrated  as  the  place  where  Aristotle  and  the 
Peripatetics  taught. 

LYCEUS  (AvKeiof),  a  surname  of  Apollo,  the 
meaning  of  which  is  not  quite  certain.  Some 
derive  it  from  /lii/cof,  a  wolf,  so  that  it  would 
mean  "  the  wolf-slayer ;"  others  from  Xvnr], 
light,  according  to  which  it  would  mean  "  the 
giver  of  light;''  and  others,  again,  from  the 
country  of  Lycia, 

LYCHNITES.     Vid.  LYCHNIDOS. 

LYCHNIDUS,  more  rarely  LYCHNIDIUM  or  LYCH- 
NIS (Avxvidoe,  Avxvidiov,  Av%vi£  :  Av^vidiof  : 
now  Achrita,  Ochrida),  a  town  of  Dlyricum,  was 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Dessaretii,  but  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  Romans  as  early  as  their 
•war  with  King  Gentius.  It  was  situated  in  the 
interior  of  the  country,  on  a  height  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Lake  LYCHNITIS  (Avxvirif  or  i]  Avx- 
vidia  7.i[j.vrj)  from  which  the  River  Drilo  rises. 
The  town  was  strongly  fortified,  and  contained 
454 


many  springs  within  its  walls.  In  the  Middl« 
Ages  it  was  the  residence  of  the  Bulgarian  kings, 
and  was  called  Achris  or  Achrita,  whence  ita 
modern  name. 

LYCIA  (Ai>Kia  :  AvKiof,  Lycius :  now  Meis),  a 
small  but  most  interesting  district  on  the  south 
side  of  Asia  Minor,  jutting  out  into  the  Medi- 
terranean in  a  form  approaching  to  a  rough 
semicircle,  adjacent  to  parts  of  Caria  and  Pain- 
phylia  on  the  west  and  east,  and  ou  the  north 
to  the  district  of  Cibyratis  in  Phrygia,  to  which, 
under  the  Byzantine  emperors,  it  was  consid- 
ered to  belong.  It  was  bounded  on  the  north- 
west by  the  little  river  Glaucus  and  the  gulf 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  northeast  by  the 
mountain  called  CLIMAX  (the  northern  part  of 
the  same  range  as  that  called  Solyma),  and  on 
the  north  its  natural  boundary  was  the  Taurus, 
but  its  limits  in  this  direction  were  not  strictly 
defined.  The  northern  parts  of  Lycia  and  the 
district  of  Cibyratis  form  together  a  high  table- 
land, which  is  supported  on  the  north  by  the 
Taurus,  on  the  east  by  the  mountains  called 
Solyma  (now  Taktalu-Dayh),  which  run  from 
north  to  south  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Lycia, 
far  out  into  the  sea,  forming  the  southeastern 
promontory  of  Lycia,  called  Sacrum  Promonto- 
rium  (now  Cape  JKhelidonia) ;  the  summit  of  this 
range  is  seven  thousand  eight  hundred  feet  high, 
and  is  covered  with  snow;*  the  southwestern 
and  southern  sides  of  this  table-land  are  formed 
by  the  range  called  Massicytus  (now  Aktar 
JJagh,)  which  runs  southeast  from  the  eastern 
side  of  the  upper  course  of  the  River  Xauthus  : 
its  summits  are  about  four  thousand  feet  high, 
and  its  southern  side  descends  toward  the  sea 
in  a  succession  of  terraces,  terminated  by  bold 
cliffs.  The  mountain  system  of  Lycia  is  com- 
pleted by  the  Cragus,  which  fills  up  the  space 
between  the  western  side  of  the  Xanthus  and 
the  Gulf  of  Glaucus,  and  forms  the  southwest- 
ern promontory  of  Lycia :  its  summits  are  near- 
ly six  thousand  feet  high.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Xanthus  (now  JKchcn-Chai),  which  has  its 
sources  in  the  table-land  south  of  the  Taurus, 
and  flows  from  north  to  south  between  the 
Cragus  and  Massicytus,  and  the  Limyrus,  which 
flows  from  north  to  south  between  the  Massi- 
cytus and  the  Solyma  Mountains.  The  valleys 
of  these  and  the  smaller  rivers,  and  the  terraces 
above  the  sea  in  the  south  of  the  country,  were 
fertile  in  corn,  wine,  oil,  and  fruits,  and  the 
mountain  slopes  were  clothed  with  splendid 
cedars,  firs,  and  plane-trees :  saffron  also  was 
one  chief  product  of  the  land.  The  total  length 
of  the  coast,  from  Telmissus  on  the  west  to 
Phaselis  on  the  east,  including  all  windings,  is 
estimated  by  Strabo  at  one  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred and  twenty  stadia  (one  hundred  and  sev- 
enty-two geographical  miles),  while  a  straight 
line  drawn  across  the  country,  as  the  chord  of 
this  arc,  is  about  eighty  geographical  miles  in 
length.  The  general  geographical  structure  of 
the  peninsula  of  Lycia,  as  connected  with  the 
rest  of  Asia  Minor,  bears  no  little  resemblance 
to  that  of  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor  itself,  as 
connected  with  the  rest  of  Asia.  According  to 
the  tradition  preserved  by  Herodotus,  tbe  most 


«  According  to  many  of  the  ancients  the  Taurns  b« 
gan  at  this  range. 


LYCIDAS. 

ancient  name  of  the  country  was  Milyas  (rj  Mi- 
Atiuf),  and  the  earliest  inhabitants  (probably  of 
the  Syro-Arabian  race)  were  called  Milyae,  and 
afterward  Solymi:.  subsequently  the  Termilae, 
from  Crete,  settled  in  the  country;  and  lastly, 
the  Athenian  Lycus,  the  son  of  Pandion,  fled 
from  his  brother  J£geus  to  Lycia,  and  gave  his 
uame  to  the  country.  Homer,  who  gives  Lycia 
a  prominent  place  in  the  Iliad,  represents  its 
chieftiiins,  Glaucus  and  Sarpedon,  as  descended 
from  the  royal  family  of  Argos  (yEoh'ds)-  he 
does  not  mention  the  name  of  Milyas ;  and  he 
speaks  of  the  Solymi  as  a  warlike  race,  inhab- 
iting the  mountains,  against  whom  the  Greek 
hero  Bellerophontes  is  sent  to  fight,  by  his  rela- 
tive the  king  of  Lycia.  Besides  the  legend  of 
Bellerophon  and  the  chimera,  Lycia  is  the 
scene  of  another  popular  Greek  story,  that  of 
the  Harpies  and  the  daughters  of  Pandarus ; 
and  memorials  of  both  are  preserved  on  the 
Lycian  monuments  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
On  the  whole,  it  is  clear  that  Lycia  was  colo- 
.nized  by  the  Hellenic  race  (probably  from  Crete) 
at  a  very  early  period,  and  that  its  historical 
inhabitants  were  Greeks,  though  with  a  mixture 
of  native  blood.  The  earlier  names  were  pre- 
served in  the  district  in  the  north  of  the  country 
called  Milyas,  and  in  th«  mountains  called  So- 
lyma.  The  Lycians  always  kept  the  reputation 
they  have  in  Homer  as  brave  warriors.  They 
and  the  Cilicians  were  the  only  people  west  of 
the  Halys  whom  Croesus '  did  not  conquer,  and 
they  were  the  last  who  resisted  the  Persians. 
Vid.  XAXTUUS.  Under  the  Persian  empire  they 
must  have  been  a  powerful  maritime  people,  as 
they  furnished  fifty  ships  to  the  fleet  of  Xerxes. 
After  the  Macedonian  conquest,  Lycia  formed 
part  of  the  Syrian  kingdom,  from  which  it  was 
taken  by  the  Romans  after  their  victory  over 
Antiochus  III.  the  Great,  and  given  to  the  Rho- 
dians.  It  was  soon  restored  to  independence, 
and  formed  a  flourishing  federation  of  cities, 
each- having  its  own  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  the  whole  presided  over  by  a  chief 
magistrate,  called  Avxidpxjjf.  There  was  a  fed- 
oral  council,  composed  of  deputies  from  the 
tweutv-three  cities  of  the  federation,  in  which 
the  six  chief '  cities,  Xanthus,  Patara,  Pinara, 
Olympus,  Myra,  and  Tlos,  had  three  votes  each, 
certain  lesser  cities  two  each,  and  the  rest  one 
•each  ;  this  assembly  determined  matters  relat- 
ing to  the  general  government  of  the  country, 
and  elected  the  Lyciarches,  as  well  as  the  judges 
and  the  inferior  magistrates.  Internal  dissen- 
sions at  length  broke  up  this  constitution,  and 
the  country  was  united  by  the  emperor  Clau- 
dius to  the  province  of  Pamphylia,  from  which 
it  was  again  separated  by  Theodosius,  who 
made  it  a  separate  province,  with  Myra  for  its 
capital  Its  cities  were  numerous  and  flourish- 
ing (aid.  the  articles),  and  its  people  celebrated 
for  their  probity.  Their  customs  are  said  to 
hare  resembled  those  both  of  the  Carians  and  of 
the  Cretans.  Respecting  the  works  of  art  found 
l>y  Mr.  Fellows  in  Lycia,  and  now  in  the  British 
.Museum,  /•/'•/.  XANTHUS. 

[LYCIDAS  (A.vid6t]f),  an  Athenian,  one  of  the 
council  of  the  five  hundred,  stoned  to  death  by 
.his  fellow-citizens  because  he  advised  them  to 
listen  to  the  proposals  of  peace  offered  by  Mar- 
douius,  B.C.  479. J  .  I 


LYCOPHRON. 

LYCIUS  (Aiktof).  1.  The  Lycicut,  a  surname 
of  Apollo,  who  was  worshipped  in  several  places 
of  Lycia,  especially  at  Patara,  where  he  had  an 
oracle.  Hence  the  Lycite  sortes  are  the  re- 
sponses of  the  oracle  at  Patara  (Virg.,  ^En.,  iv., 
346). — 2.  Of  Eleutherte  in  Boeotia,  a  distinguished 
statuary,  the  disciple  or  son  of  Myron,  flourished 
about  B.C.  428. 

LYCOMEDES  (A.vKOfiJjdrjf).  1.  A  king  of  the 
Dolopians,  in  the  island  of  Scyros,  near  Eubcea. 
It  was  to  his  court  that  Achilles  was  sent  dis- 
guised as  a  maiden  by  his  mother  Thetis,  who 
was  anxious  to  prevent  his  going  to  the  Trojan 
war.  Here  Achilles  became  by  Deidamia,  the 
daughter  of  Lycomedes,  the  father  of  Pyrrhus 
or  Neoptolemus.  Lycomedes  treacherously  kill- 
ed Theseus  by  thrusting  him  down  a  rock. — 2. 
A  celebrated  Arcadian  general,  was  a  native  of 
Mantinea,  and  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  Mega- 
lopolis, B.C.  3*70.  He  afterward  showed  great 
jealousy  of  Thebes,  and  formed  a  separate  alli- 
ance between  Athens  and  Arcadia  iu  366.  He 
was  murdered  in  the  same  year,  on  his  return 
from  Athens,  by  some  Arcadian  exiles. 

[LYCON  (A.VKUV).  1.  Son  of  Hippocoon,  slain 
by  Hercules. — 2.  A  Trojan,  slain  before  Troy 
by  Peneleus.] 

LYCON  (\VKUV).  1.  An  orator  and  demagogue 
at  Athens,  was  one  of  the  three  accusers  of 
Socrates,  and  prepared  the  case  against  him. 
When  the  Athenians  repented  of  their  condem- 
nation of  Socrates,  they  put  Meletus  to  death, 
and  banished  Anytus  and  Lycon. — 2.  Of  Troas, 
a  distinguished  Peripatetic  philosopher,  and  the 
disciple  of  Stratou,  whom  he  succeeded  as  .the 
head  of  the  Peripatetic  school,  B.C.  272.  He 
held  that  post  for  more  than  forty-four  years, 
and  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-four.  He  enjoy- 
ed the  patronage  of  Attalus  and  Eumenes.  He 
was  celebrated  for  his  eloquence*  and  for  his 
skill  in  educating  boys.  He  wrote  on  the 
boundaries  of  good  and  evil  (De  Finibus). — [3. 
A  celebrated  comic  actor  of  Scarphea,  who  per- 
formed before  Alexander  the  Great,  and  receiv- 
ed from  him  on  one  occasion  a  present  of  ten 
talents.] 

[LYCOPHONTES  (AvuoQovTTie).  1.  Son  of  Au- 
tophouus,  a  Theban,  who,  in  conjunction  with 
Maeon,  lay  iu  ambush  with  fifty  men  against 
Tydeus,  but  was  slain  by  him. — 2.  A  Trojau 
warrior,  slain  by  Teucer.] 

LYCOPHBON  (hvKo<j>puv).  1.  Younger  son  of 
Periauder,  tyrant  of  Corinth,  by  his  wife  Me- 
lissa. For  details,  vid.  PERIAXDEB. — 2.  A  citizen 
of  Pherce,  where  he  put  down  the  government 
of  the  nobles  and  established  a  tyranny  about 
B.C.  405.  He  afterward  endeavored  to  make 
himself  master  of  the  whole  of  Thessaly,  and 
iu  404  he  defeated  the  Larissaeans^  and  others  of 
the  Thcssaliaus  who  opposed  him.  He  was 
probably  the  father  of  JASON  of  Pherre. — 3.  A 
sou,  apparently,  of  Jason,  and  one  of  the  brothers 
of  Thebc,  wife  of  Alexander,  the  tyrant  of  Phe- 
ra>,  iu  whose  murder  he  took  part,  together  with 
his  sister  and  his  two  brothers,  Tisiphonus  and 
Pitholaus,  367.  On  Alexander's  death  the  pow- 
er appears  to  have  been  wielded  mainly  by  Ti- 
siphonus, though  Lycophron  had  an  important 
share  iu  the  government.  Lycophron  succeeded 
to  the  supreme  power  on  the  death  of  Tisipho- 
nus, but  in  35:2  he  was  obliged  to  surreudei 
455 


LYCOPOLIS. 


LYCURGUS. 


Pherae  to  Philip,  and  withdraw  from  Thessaly. 
—4.  A  grammarian  and  poet,  was  a  native  of 
Chalcis  in  Eubcea,  and  lived  at  Alexandrea,  un- 
der Ptolemy  Philadelphia  (B.C.  285-247),  who 
intrusted  to  him  the  arrangement  *of  the  works 
of  the  comic  poets  in  the  Alexandrean  library. 
In  the  execution  of  this  commission  Lycophron 
drew  up  an  extensive  work  on  comedy.  Noth- 
ing more  is  known  of  his  life.  Ovid  (Ibis,  533) 
states  that  he  was  killed  by  an '  arrow.  As  a 
poet,  Lycophron  obtained  a  place  in  the  Tragic 
Pleiad.  He  also  wrote  a  satyric  drama.  But 
the  only  one  of  his  poems  which  has  come  down 
to  us  is  the  Cassandra  or  Alexandra.  This  is 
neither  a  tragedy  nor  an  epic  poem,  but  a  long 
iambic  monologue  of  one  thousand  four  hundred 
and  seventy-four  verses,  in  which  Cassandra  is 
made*  to  prophesy  the  fall  of  Troy,  the  advent- 
ures of  the  Grecian  and  Trojan  heroes,  with 
numerous  other  mythological  and  historical 
events,  going  back  as  early  as  the  fables  of  Io 
and  Europa,  and  ending  with  Alexander  the 
Great.  The  work  has  no  pretensions  to  poet- 
ical merit  It  is  simply  a  cumbrous  store  of 
traditional  learning.  Its  obscurity  is  proverbial. 
Its  author  obtained  the  epithet  of  the  Obscure 
(ffKoreivof).  Its  stores  of  learning  and  its  ob- 
scurity alike  excited  the  efforts  of  the  ancient 
grammarians,  several  of  whom  wrote  comment- 
aries on  the  poem.  The  only  one  of  these 
works  which  survives  is  the  Scholia  of  Isaac 
and  John  Tzetzes,  which  are  far  more  valuable 
than  the  poem  itself.  The  best  editions  are 
by  Potter,  Oxon.,  1697,  folio  ;  Reichard,  Lips- 
1788,  2  vols.  8vo;  and  Bachmann,  Lips,  1828, 
2  vols.  8vo. 

LYCOPOLIS  (fi  A.VKUV  noZif :  ruins  at  Siout),  a 
city  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Nile,  between  Hermopolis  and  Ptolemais,  said  to 
have  derivecl  its  name  from  the  circumstance 
that  an  ^Ethiopian  army  was  put  to  flight  near 
it  by  a  pack  of  wolves. 

LYCOREA  (AvKupeta :  AvKupev$,  AvK.upiO£,  Av- 
Kupeirrif),  an  ancient  town  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Lycorea  (now  Liakura),  which  was  the  south- 
orn  of  the  two  peaks  of  Mount  Parnassus.  Vid. 
PARNASSUS.  Hence  Apollo  derived  the  surname 
of  Lycoreus.  The  town  Lycorea  is  said  to  have 
been  the  residence  of  Deucalion,  and  Delphi  is 
also  reported  to  have  been  colonized  by  it. 

LYCORIS.      Vid.  CYTHERIS. 

LYCORTAS  (Av/iopraf),  of  Megalopolis,  was  the 
father  of  Polybius  the  historian,  and  the  close 
friend  of  Philopcemen,  whose  policy  he  always 
supported.  He  is  first  mentioned,  in  B.C.  189, 
as  one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  Rome  ;  and 
his  name  occurs  for  the  last  time  in  168. 

LYCOSURA  (AvKoaovpa :  Avuoaovpevi; :  now  Pa- 
leokrambavos  or  Sidhirokastro,  near  Stala),  a  town 
in  the  south  of  Arcadia,  and  on  the  northwest- 
ern slope  of  Mount  Lycapus,  and  near  the  small 
river  Plataniston,  said  by  Pausanias  to  have 
beeu  the  most  ancient  town  in  Greece,  and  to 
have  been  founded  by  Lycaon,  the  son  of  Pelas- 
gus. 

LYCTUS  (AvKTOf.  Av/crtof),  sometimes  called 
Lrrrus  (Avrrof ),  an  important  town  in  the  east 
of  Crete,  southeast  of  Cnosus,  was  situated  on 
a  height  of  Mount  Argseus,  eighty  stadia  from 
the  coast.  Its  harbor  was  called  Chersonesus. 
It  WHS  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  the 
456 


island,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  Iliad.  It  was 
generally  conside  ed  to  be  a  Spartan  colony, 
and  its  inhabitants  were  celebrated  for  their 
bravery.  At  a  later  time  it  -was  conquered  and 
destroyed  by  the  Cnosians,  but  it  was  afterward 
rebuilt,  and  was  extant  in  the  seventh  century  of 
our  era. 

LYCURGUS  (AvKovpyoc).  1.  Son  of  Dryas,  and 
king  of  the  Edones  in  Thrace.  He  is  famous 
for  his  persecution  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  and 
his  worship  in  Thrace.  Homer  relates  that,  in 
order  to  escape  from  Lycurgus,  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus) leaped  into  the  sea,  where  he  was  kindly 
received  by  Thetis ;  and  that  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
thereupon  blinded  the  impious  king,  who  died 
soon  afterward,  hated  by  the  immortal  gods. 
This  story  has  received  many  additions  from 
later  poets  and  mythographers.  Some  relate 
that  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  on  his  expeditions, 
came  to  the  kingdom  of  Lycurgus,  but  was 
expelled  by  the  impious  king.  Thereupon  the 
god  drove  Lycurgus  mad,  in  which  condition  be 
killed  his  son  Dryas,  and  also  hewed  off  one  of 
his  legs,  supposing  that  he  was  cutting  down 
vines.  The  country  now  produced  no  fruit; 
and  the  oracle  declaring  that  fertility  should 
not  be  restored  unless  Lycurgus  were  killed, 
the  Edonians  carried  him  to  Mount  Pangams, 
where  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  horses.  Ac- 
cording to  Sophocles  (Antia.,  955),  Lycurgus 
was  entombed  in  a  rock. — 2.  King  in  Arcadia, 
son  of  Aleus  and  Nesera,  brother  of  Cepheua 
and  Auge,  husband  of  Cleophile,  Eurynome,  or 
Antinoe,  and  father  of  Ancaeus,  Epochus,  Am- 
phidamas,  and  lasus.  Lycurgus  killed  Are- 
thous,  who  used  to  fight  with  a  club.  Lycurgus 
bequeathed  this  club  to  his  slave  Ereuthalion, 
his  sons  having  died  before  him. — 3.  Son  of 
Pronax  and  brother  of  Amphithea,  the  wife  ot 
Adrastus.  He  took  part  in  the  war  of  the  Seven 
against  Thebes,  and  fought  with  Amphiaraus. 
He  is  mentioned  among  those  whom  ./Esculapius 
called  to  life  again  after  their  death. — 4.  King  of 
Nemea,  son  of  Pheres  and  Periclymene,  brother 
of  Admetus,  husband  of  Eurydice  or  Amphithea, 
and  father  of  Opheltes. 

LYCURGUS.  1.  The  Spartan  legislator.  Of 
his  personal  history  we  have  no*  certain  infor- 
mation ;  and  there  are  such  discrepancies  re- 
specting him  in  the  ancient  writers,  that  many 
modern  critics  have  denied  his  real  existence 
altogether.  The  more  generally  received  ac- 
count about  him  was  as  follows :  Lycurgus  was 
the  son  of  Eunomus,  king  of  Sparta,  and  brother 
of  Polydectes.  The  latter  succeeded  his  father 
as  king  of  Sparta,  and  afterward  died,  leaving 
his  queen  with  child.  The  ambitious  woman 
proposed  to  Lycurgus  to  destroy  her  offspring 
if  he  would  share  the  throne  with  her.  He 
seemingly  consented ;  but  when  she  had  given 
birth  to  a  son  (Charilaus),  he  openly  proclaimed 
him  king,  and  as  next  of  kin  acted  as  his  guard- 
ian. But,  to  avoid  all  suspicion  of  ambitious 
designs,  with  which  the  opposite  party  charged 
him,  Lycurgus  left  Sparta,  and  set  out  on  his 
celebrated  travels,  which  have  been  magnified 
to  a  fabulous  extent.  He  is  said  to  have  visit- 
ed Crete,  and  there  to  have  studied  the  wise 
laws  of  Minos.  Next  he  went  to  Ionia  and 
Egypt,  and  is  reported  to  have  penetrated  into 
Libya,  Iberia,  and  even  India.  In  Ionia  he  ia 


LYCURGUS. 


LYCURGUS 


said  to  have  met  either  with  Homer  himself, 
or  at  least  with  the  Homeric  poems,  which  he 
introduced  into  the  mother  country.  The  re- 
turn of  Lycurgus  to  Sparta  was  hailed  by  all 
•  parties.  Sparta  was  in  a  state  of  anarchy  and 
licentiousness,  and  he  was  considered  as  the 
man  who  alone  could  cure  the  growing  diseases 
of  the  state.  He  undertook  the  task ;  yet,  be- 
fore he  set  to  work,  he  strengthened  himself 
with  the  authority'  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  and 
with  a  strong  party  of  influential  men  at  Sparta. 
The  reform  seems  not  to  have  been  carried  al- 
together peaceably.  The  new  division  of  the 
laud  among  the  citizens  must  have  violated 
many  existing  interests.  But  all  opposition 
was  overborne,  and  the  whole  constitution,  mil- 
itary and  civil,  was  remodelled.  After  Lycur- 
gus had  obtained  for  his  institutions  an  approv- 
ing oracle  of  the  national  god  of  Delphi,  he  ex- 
acted a  promise  from  the  people  not  to  make 
any  alteration  in  his  laws  before  his  return. 
And  now  he  left  Sparta  to  finish  his  life  in  vol- 
untary exile,  in  order  that  his  countrymen  might 
be  bound  by  their  oath  to  preserve  his  consti- 
tution inviolate  forever.  Where  and  how  he 
died  nobody  cuuld  tell.  He  vanished  from  the 
earth  like  a  god,  leaving  no  traces  behind  but 
his  spirit ;  and  he  was  honored  as  a  god  at 
Sparta  with  a  temple  and  yearly  sacrifices  down 
to  the  latest  times.  The  date  of  Lycurgus  is 
variously  given,  but  it  is  impossible  to  place  it 
later  thau  B.C.  825.  Lycurgus  was  regarded 
through  all  subsequent  ages  as  the  legislator 
of  Sparta,  and  therefore  almost  all  the  Spartan 
institutions  were  ascribed  to  him  as  their  author. 
We  therefore  propose  to  give  here  a  sketch  of 
the  Spartan  constitution,  referring  for  details  to 
the  JJict.  of  Antiq. ;  though  we  must  not  imag- 
ine that  this  constitution  was  entirely  the  work 
of  Lycurgus.  The  Spartan  constitution  was 
of  a  mixed  nature  :  the  monarchical  principle 
was  represented  by  the  kings,  the  aristocracy 
by  the  senate,  and  the  democratical  element  by 
the  assembly  of  the  people,  and  subsequently  by 
their  representatives,  the  ephors.  The  kings 
had  originally  tp  perform  the  common  functions 
of  the  kings  of  the  heroic  age.  They  were 
high  priests,  judges,  and  leaders  in  war ;  but  in 
all  of  these  departments  they  were  in  course 
of  time  superseded  more  or  less.  As  judges 
they  retained  only  a  particular  branch  of  juris- 
diction, that  referring  to  the  succession  of  prop- 
erty. As  military  commanders,  they  were  re- 
stricted and  watched  by  commissioners  sent  by 
the  senate  ;  the  functions  of  high  priest  were 
curtailed  least,  perhaps  because  least  obnoxious. 
In  compensation  for  the  loss  of  power,  the  kings 
enjoyed  great  honors,  both  during  their  life  and 
after  iheir  death.  Still  the  principle  of  mon- 
archy was  very  weak  among  the  Spartans.  The 
powers  of  the  senate  were  very  important :  they 
had  the  right  of  originating  and  discussing  all 
measures  before  they  could  be  submitted  to  the 
decision  of  the  popular  assembly ;  they  had,  in 
conjunction  with  the  ephors,  to  watch  over  the 
due  observance  of  the  laws  and  institutions  ; 
and  they  were  judges  in  all  criminal  cases, 
without  being  bouud  by  any  written  code.  For 
all  this  they  were  not  responsible,  holding  their 
office  for  life.  But  with  all  these  powers,  the 
elders  formed  no  real  aristocracy.  They  were 


not  chosen  either  for  property  qualification  or 
for  noble  birth.  The  senate  was  open  to  the 
poorest  citizen,  who,  during  sixty  years,  had 
been  obedient  to  the  laws  and  zealous  in  the 
performance  of  his  duties.  The  mass  of  the 
people,  that  is,  the  Spartans  of  pure  Doric  de- 
scent, formed  the  sovereign  power  of  the  state. 
The  popular  assembly  consisted  of  every  Spar- 
tan of  thirty  years  of  age  and  of  unblemished 
character  ;  only  those  were  excluded  who  had 
not  the  means  of  contributing  their  portion  to 
the  syssitia.  They  met  at  stated  times,  to  de- 
cide on  all  important  questions  brought  before 
them,  after  a  previous  discussion  in  the  senate. 
They  hid  no  right  of  amendment,  but  only  that 
of  simple  approval  or  rejection,  which  was  given 
in  the  rudest  form  possible,  by  shouting.  The 
popular  assembly,  however,  had  neither  fre- 
quent nor  very  important  occasions  for  directly 
exerting  their  sovereign  power.  Their  chief 
activity  consisted  in  delegating  it;  hence  arose 
the  importance  of  the  ephors,  who  were  the 
representatives  of  the  popular  element  of  the 
constitution.  The  ephors  answer  in  every  char- 
acteristic feature  to  the  Roman  tribunes  of  the 
people.  Their  origin  was  lost  in  obscurity  and 
insignificance ;  but  at  the  end  they  engrossed 
the  whole  power  of  the  state.  With  reference 
to  their  subjects,  the  few  Spartans  formed  a 
most  decided  aristocracy.  On  the  conquest  of 
Peloponnesus  by  the  Dorians,  part  of  the  an- 
cient inhabitants  of  the  country,  under  name 
of  the  P&fleeci,  were  allowed,  indeed,  to  retain 
their  personal  liberty,  but  lost  all  civil  rights, 
and  were  obliged  to  pay  to  the  state  a  rent  for 
the  land  that  was  left  them.  But  a  great  part 
of  the  old  inhabitants  were  reduced  to  a  state 
of  perfect  slavery,  different  from  that  of  the 
slaves  of  Athens  and  Rome,  and  more  similar 
to  the  villanage  of  the  feudal  ages.  These  were 
called  Helots.  They  were  allotted  with  patches 
of  land  to  individual  members  of  the  ruling 
class.  They  tilled  the  land,  and  paid  a  fixed 
rent  to  their  masters,  not,  as  the  perioeci,  to  the 
state.  The  number  of  these  miserable  creat- 
ures was  large.  They  were  treated  with  the 
utmost  cruelty  by  the  Spartans,  and  were  fre- 
quently put  to  death  by  their  oppressors.  The 
Spartans  formed,  as  it  were,  an  army  of  invad- 
ers in  an  enemy's  country,  their  city  was  a 
camp,  and  every  man  a  soldier.  At  Sparta,  the 
citizen  only  existed  for  the  state  ;  he  had  no 
interest  but  the  state's,  and  no  property  but 
what  belonged  to  the  state.  It  was  a  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  constitution,  that  all  citi- 
zens were  entitled  to  the  enjoyment  of  an  equal 
portion  of  the  common  property.  This  was 
done  in  order  to  secure  to  the  commonwealth 
a  large  number  of  citizens  and  soldiers,  free 
from  labor  for  their  sustenance,  and  able  to  de- 
vote their  whole  time  to  warlike  exercises,  in 
order  thus  to  keep  up  the  ascendency  of  Sparta 
over  her  periceci  and  helots.  The  Spartans  were 
to  be  warriors,  and  nothing  but  warriors.  There- 
fore, not  only  all  mechanical  labor  was  thought 
to  degrade  them ;  not  only  was  husbandry  de- 
spised and  neglected,  and  commerce  prevented, 
or  at  least  impeded,  by  prohibitive  laws  and  by 
the  use  of  iron  money,  but  also  the  nobler  arts 
and  sciences  were  so  effectually  stifled,  that 
Sparta  is  «x  blank  in  the  history  of  the  am  and 
457 


LYCUS. 

literature  of  Greece.  The  state  took  care  of  a 
Spartan  from  bis  cradle  to  his  grave,  and  super- 
intended his  education  in  the  minutest  points. 
This  was  not  confined  to  his  youth,  but  extend- 
ed throughout  his  whole  life.  The  syssitia,  or, 
as  they  were  called  at  Sparta,  phiditia,  the  com- 
mon meals,  may  be  regarded  as  an  educational 
institution ;  for  at  these  meals  subjects  of  gen- 
eral interest  were  discussed  and  political  ques- 
tions debated.  The  youths  and  boys  used  to 
eat  separately  from  the  men,  in  their  own  divi- 
sions.— 2.  A  Lacedaemonian,  who,  though  not 
of  the  royal  blood,  was  chosen  king  in  B.C. 
220,  together  with  Agesipolis  IIL,  after  the 
death  of  Cleonienes.  It  was  not  long  hpfore  he 
deposed  his  colleague  and  made  himself  sole 
sovereign,  though  under  the  control  of  the 
ephori.  He  carried  on  war  against  Philip  V. 
of  Macedon  and  the  Achaeans.  He  died  about 
210,  and  Machanidas  then  made  himself  tyrant. 
— 3.  An  Attic  orator,  son  of  Lycophron,  who 
belonged  to  the  noble  family  of  the  Eteobutadae, 
was  born  at  Athens  about  B.C.  396.  He  was 
a  disciple  of  Plato  and  Isocrates.  In  public  life 
he  was  a  warm  supporter  of  the  policy  of  De- 
mosthenes, and  was  universally  admitted  to  be 
one  of  the  most  virtuous  citizens  and  upright 
statesmen  of  his  age.  He  was  thrice  appointed 
Tainias  or  manager  of  the  public  revenue,  and 
held  this  office  each  time  for  five  years,  begin- 
ning with  337.  He  discharged  the  duties  of 
this  office  with  such  ability  aud  integrity,  that 
he  raised  the  public  revenue  to  the  sttei  of  twelve 
hundred  talents.  Qne  of  his  laws  enacted  that 
bronze  statues  should  be  erected  to  ^Eschvlus, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  and  that  copies  of 
their  tragedies  should  be  preserved  in  the  pub- 
lic archives.  He  often  appeared  as  a  success- 
ful accuser  in  .the  Athenian  courts,  but  he  him- 
self was.  as  often  accused  by  others,  though  he 
always  succeeded  iu  silencing  his  enemies.  He 
died  while  holding  the  office  of  president  of  the 
theatre  of  Dionysus  in  323.  A  fragment  of  an 
inscription,  containing  an  account  of  his  admin- 
istration of  the  finances,  is  still  extant  There 
were  fifteen  orations  of  Lycurgus  extant  in  an- 
tiquity ;  but  only  one  has  come  down  to  us  en- 
tire, the  oration  against  Leocrates,  which  was 
delivered  in  330.  The  style  is  noble  and  grand, 
but  neither  elegant  nor  pleasing.  The  oration 
is  printed  in  the  various  collections  of  the  Attic 
orators.  [Separately  by  A.  G.  Becker,  Magde- 
burg, 1821 ;  and  by  Msetzner,  Berlin,  1836.  The 
fragments  of  his  other  orations  are  collected 
by  Kiessling,  Lycurgi  Deperd.  Oratt.  Fragmenta, 
Halle,  1847.]  Vid.  DEMOSTHENES. 

LYCUS  (AvKOf).  1.  Son  of  Neptune  (Posei- 
don) aud  Celseno,  who  was  transferred  by  his 
father  to  the  islands  of  the  blessed.  By  Alcy- 
one, the  sister  of  Celaeno,  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
begot  Hyrieus,  the  father  of  the  following. — 2. 
Sou  of  Hyrieus  and  Clonia.  and  brother  of  Nyc- 
teus. Polydorus,  king  of  Thebes,  married  the 
daughter  of  Nycteus,  by  whom  he  had  a  son, 
Labdacus  ;  and  on  his  death  he  left  the  gov- 
ernment of  Thebes  and  the  guardianship  of 
Labdacus  to  his  father-in-law.  Nycteus  after- 
ward fell  in  battle  against  Epopeus,  king  of  Si- 
cyon,  who  had  carried  away  his  beautiful  daugh- 
ter Antiope.  Lycus  succeeded  his  brother  in 
the  governrjent  of  Thebes  and  in  the  guardian- 
458 


Ll'DiA- 

ship  of  Labdacus.  He  surrendered  the  king- 
dom to  Labdacus  when  the  latter  had  growu  up. 
On  the  death  of  Labdacus,  soon  afterward,  Ly- 
cus again  succeeded  to  the  government  of 
Thebes,  aud  undertook  the  guardianship  of 
Laius,  the  son  of  Labdacus.  Lycus  marched 
against  Epopeus,  whom  he  put  to  death  (ac- 
cording to  other  accounts,  Epopeus  fell  in  the 
war  with  Nycteus),  and  he  carried  away  Antio- 
pe to  Thebes.  She  was  treated  with  the  great- 
est cruelty  by  Dirce,  the  wife  of  Lycus ;  in  re- 
venge for  which,  her  sous  by  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
Amphion  and  Zethus,  afterward  put  to  death 
both  Lycus  and  Dirce.  Vid.  AMPHION. — 3.  Son 
of  No.  2.  or,  according  to  others,  sou  of  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon),  was  also  king  of  Thebes.  In 
the  absence  of  Hercules,  Lycus  attempted  to 
kill  his  wife  Megara  aud  her  children,  but  was 
afterward  put  to  death  by  Hercules.— -4.  Son  of 
Paudion,  aud  brother  of  ^Egeus,  Nisus,  and 
Pallas.  He  was  expelled  by  ^Egeus,  and  took 
refuge  iu  the  country  of  the  Termili,  which  was 
called  Lycia  after  him.  He  was  honored  at 
Athens  as  a  hero,  and  the  Lyceum  derived  its 
name  from  him.  He  is  said  to  have  introduced 
the  Eleusiuian  mysteries  into  Andania  in  Mes- 
senia.  He  is  sometimes,  also,  described  as  an 
ancient  prophet,  and  the  family  of  the  Lycome- 
dae,  at  Athens,  traced  their  name  aud  origin 
from  him. — 5.  Son  of  Dascylus,  and  king  of  the 
Mariaudynians,  who  received  Hercules  and  the 
Argonauts  with  hospitality. — [6.  A  companion 
of  JSneas  in  his  voyage  from  Troy  to  Italy  :  he 
was  slain  by  Turnus  in  Italy.] — 7.  Of  Rhegi- 
um,  the  father,  real  or  adoptive,  of  the  poet  Ly 
cophron,  was  an  historical  writer  in  the  tune  of 
Demetrius  Phalereus. 

LYCUS  (AvKOf),  the  name  of  several  rivers, 
which  are  said  to  be  so  called  from  the  impetu- 
osity of  their  current.  1.  (Now  Kilij\  a  little 
river  of  Bithynia,  falling  into  the  sea  south  of 
Heraclea  Pontica. — 2.  (Now  Germench-Chai), 
&  considerable  river  of  Pontus,  rising  in  the 
mountains  on  the  north  of  Armenia  Minor,  and 
flowing  west  into  the  Iris  at  Eupatoria. — 3. 
(Now  Choruk-Su),  a  considerable  river  of  Phryg- 
ia,  flowing  from  east  to  west  past  Colossae  and 
Laodicea  into  the  Maeander. — 4.  (Now  Nahr-el- 
Kelb),  a  river  of  Phoenicia,  falling  into  the  sea 
north  of  Berytus. — 5.  (Now  Great  Zab  or  Ulu- 
Su),  a  river  of  Assyria,  rising  in  the  mountains 
on  the  south  of  Armenia,  and  flowing  south- 
west into  the  Tigris,  just  below  Larissa  (now 
Nimroud).  It  is  undoubtedly  the  same  as  the 
Zabatus  of  Xenophon. 

LYDDA  (ru  Ai>66a,  ?/  AvMt)  :  now  Lud),  a  town 
of  Palestine,  southeast  of  Joppa  aud  northwest 
of  Jerusalem,  at  the  junction  of  several  roads 
which  lead  from  the  sea-coast,  was  destroyed 
by  the  Romans  in  the  Jewish  war,  but  soon  aft- 
er rebuilt,  and  called  Diospolis. 

[LYDE  (Avtii}),  the  wife  or  mistress  of  the  poet 
Antimachus,  dearly  beloved  by  him  :  he  follow- 
ed her  to  Lydia,  but  she  appears  Jo  have  died 
early,  and  the  poet  sought  to  allay  his  grief  by 
the  composition  of  an  elegy,  which  he  named, 
from  her,  Lyde.] 

LYDIA  (Avdta :  Avdoc,  Lydus),  a  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  in  the  middle  of  the  western  side  of 
the  peninsula,  between  Mysia  on  the  north  and 
Caria  on  the  south,  and  between  Phrygia  on 


LYDIA. 


LYDUS. 


3ic  east  and  the  JEgean  Sea  on  the  west.  Its 
boundaries  varied  so  much  at  different  times 
that  they  can  not  be  described  with  any  ap- 
proach to  exactness  till  we  come  to  the  time 
of  the  Roman  rule  over  Western  Asia.  At  that 
time  the  northern  boundary,  toward  Mysia,  was 
the  range  of  mountains  which  form  the  northern 
margin  of  the  valley  of  the  Hermus,  called  Sar- 
dene,  a  southwestern  branch  of  the  Phrygian 
Olympus ;  the  eastern  boundary,  toward  Phryg- 
ia,  was  an  imaginary  line  ;  and  the  southern 
boundary,  toward  Caria,  was  the  River  Maean- 
der,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  the  range 
of  mountains  which,  under  the  name  of  Messo- 
gis  (now  Kastane  Dagh),  forms  the  northern 
margin  of  the  valley  of  the  Maeander,  and  is  a 
northwestern  prolongation  of  the  Taurus.  From 
the  eastern  part  of  this  range,  in  the  southeast- 
ern corner  of  Lydia,  another  branches  off  to  the 
northwest,  and  runs  to  the  west  far  out  into  the 
^Egean  Sea,  where  it  forms  the  peninsula  oppo- 
site to  the  island  of  Chios.  This  chain,  which 
is  called  Tmolus  (now  Kisilja  Musa  Dagh),  di- 
vides Lydia  into  two  unequal  valleys,  of  which 
the  southern  and  smaller  is  watered  by  the  Riv- 
er CAYSTER,  and  the  northern  forms  the  great 
plain  of  the  HERMUS  :  these  valleys  are  very 
beautiful  and  fertile,  and  that  of  the  Hermus, 
especially,  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  regions 
of  the  earth.  The  eastern  part  of  Lydia,  and 
the  adjacent  portion  of  Phrygia,  about  the  up- 
per course  of  the  Hermus  and  its  tributaries,  is 
an  elevated  plain,  showing  traces  of  volcanic 
action,  and  hence  called  Catacecaume'ne  (Kara- 
KEKavnevrf).  In  the  boundaries  of  Lydia,  as  just 
described,  the  strip  of  coast  beloaging  to  IONIA 
is  included,  but  the  name  is  sometimes  used  in 
a  narrower  signification,  so  as  to  exclude  Ionia. 
In  early  times  the  country  had  another  name, 
Mieonia  (Myoviri,  Wiaiovia),  by  which  alone  it  is 
known  to  Homer  ;  and  this  name  was  after- 
ward applied  specifically  to  the  eastern  and 
southern  part  of  Lydia,  and  then,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  it,  the  name  Lydia  was  used  "for  the 
northwestern  part  In  the  mythical  legends, 
the  common  name  of  the  people  and  country, 
Lydi  and  Lydia,  is  derived  from  Lydus,  the  son 
of  Atys,  the  first  king.  The  Lydians  appear  to 
have  been  a  race  closely  connected  with  the 
Carians  and  the  Mysians,  with  whom  they  ob- 
served a  eommon  worship  in  the  temple  of  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  Carius  at  Mylasa  :  they  also  prac- 
ticed the  worship  of  Cybele  and  other  Phrygian 
mistoms.  Amid  the  uncertainties  of  the  early 
legends,  it  is  clear,  that  Lydia  was  a  very  early 
seat  of  Asiatic  civilization,  and  that  it  exerted  a 
very  important  influence  on  the  Greeks.  The 
Lydian  monarchy,  which  was  founded  at  Sar- 
dis  before  the  time  of  authentic  history,  grew 
up  into  an  empire,  under  which  the  many  dif- 
ferent tribes  of  Asia  Minor  west  of  the  River 
Halys  were  for  the  first  time  united.  Tradition 
mentioned  three  dynasties  of  kings :  the  AtyS- 
dae,  which  ended  (according  to  the  backward 
computations  of  chronologers)  about  B.C.  1221  ; 
the  Heraclldoe,  which  reigned  five  hundred  and 
five  years,  down  to  716;  and  the  Mermua'dae, 
one  hundred  and  sixty  years,  down  to  656. 
Only  the  last  dynasty  can  be  safely  regarded 
as  historical,  and  the  fabulous  element  has  a 
large  place  in  the  details  of  their  history :  their 


names  and  computed  dates  were:  (].)  GYGES. 
B.C.  716-678  ;  (2.)  ARDYS,  678-629;  (3.)  SADY- 
ATTES,  629-617  ;  (4.)  ALYATTES,  617-560  ;  (5.) 
CRCESUS,  560  (or  earlier)-546  ;  under  whose 
names  an  account  is  given  of  the  rise  of  the 
Lydian  empire  in  Asia  Minor,  and  of  its  over- 
throw by  the  Persians  under  Cyrus.  Under 
these  kings,  the  Lydians  appear  to  have  been  a 
highly  civilized,  industrious,  and  wealthy  peo- 
ple, practicing  agriculture,  commerce,  and  man- 
ufactures, and  acquainted  with  various  arts ; 
and  exercising,  through  their  intercourse  with 
the  Greeks  of  Ionia,  an  important  influence  on 
the  progress  of  Greek  civilization.  Among  the 
inventions  or  improvements  which  the  Greeks 
are  said  to  have  derived  from  them  were  the 
weaving  and  dyeing  of  fine  fabrics  ;  various 
processes  of  metallurgy;  the  use  of  gold  and 
silver  money,  which  the  Lydians  are  said  first 
to  have  coined,  the  former  from  the  gold  found 
on  Tmolus  and  from  the  golden  sands  of  the 
Pactolus  ;  and  various  metrical  and  musical 
improvements,  especially  the  scale  or  mode  of 
music  called  the  Lydian,  and  the  form  of  the 
lyre  called  the  magadis.  (  Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq., 
art.  MUSICA.)  The  Lydiaus  had,  also,  public 
games  similar  to  those  of  the  Greeks.  Their 
high  civilization,  however,  was  combined  with 
a  lax  morality,  and,  after  the  Persian  conquest, 
when  they  were  forbidden  by  Cyrus  to  carry 
arms,  they  sank  gradually  into  a  by-word  for  ef- 
feminate luxuriousness,  and  their  very  name 
and  language  had  almost  entirely  disappeared 
by  the  commencement  of  our  era.  Under  the 
Persians,  Lydia  and  Mysia  formed  the  second 
satrapy.  After  the  Macedonian  conquest,  Lydia 
belonged  first  to  the  kings  of  Syria,  and  next 
(after  the  defeat  of  Antioehus  the  Great  by  the 
Romans)  to  those  of  Pergamus,  and  so  passed, 
by  the  bequest  of  Attalus  III.,  to  the  Romans, 
under  whom  it  formed  part  of  the  province  of 
Asia. 

LYDIADES  (AixJtadjjr),  a  citizen  of  Megalopo- 
lis, who,  though  of  an  obscure  family,  raised 
himself  to  the  sovereignty  of  his  native  city 
about  B.C.  244.  In  234  he  voluntarily  abdica- 
ted the  sovereignty,  and  permitted  Megalopolis 
io  join  the  Achaean  league  as  a  free  state. 
He  was  elected  several  times  general  of  the 
Achaean  league,  and  became  a  formidable  rival 
to  Aratus.  He  fell .  in  battle  against  Cleoine- 
nes,  226. 

LYDIAS  or  LUDIAS  (Avtiiac,  Ion.  Avditjf,  Aov 

f :  now  Karasmak  or  Mavronero),  a  river  in 
Macedonia,  rises  in  Eordaea,  passes  Edessa, 
and,  after  flowing  through  the  lake  on  which 
Pella  is  situated,  falls  into  the  Axius  a  short 
distance  from  the  Theriuaic  Gulf.  In  the  up- 
per part  of  its  course  it  is  called  the  Eordaean 
Kiver  (^Eopdaindf  norafj.6f)  by  Arrion.  Herodo- 
tus (vii.,  127),  by  mistake,  makes  the  Lydias 
unite  with  the  Haliacmou,  the  latter  of  which 
a  west  of  the  former. 

LYDUS  (Avdof),  son  of  Atys  and  Callithea,  and 
brother  of  Tyrrhenus,  said  to  have  been  the 
mythical  ancestor  of  the  Lydians. 

LYDUS,  JOANNES  LAUBENTIUS,  was  born  at 
Philadelphia,  in  Lydia  (whence  he  is  called  Ly- 
dus or  the  Lydian),  in  A.D.  490.  He  held  va- 
rious public  offices,  and  lived  to  an  advanced 
age.  He  wrote,  1.  Hepl  [tqvuv  cvyypafyrj,  J)t 
459 


LYGDAMIS. 


LYSANDER. 


Liber,  of  which  there  are  two  epito- 
me, or  summaries,  and  a  fragment  extant.  2. 
Ilepl  upx<jv,  K.  T.  "k.,  De  Magistratibus  ReipubliccE 
Romance.  3.  Ilepl  dioorjpeiuv,  De  Ostentis.  The 
work  De  Mensibut  is  an  historical  commentary 
on  the  Roman  calendar,  with  an  account  of  the 
various  festivals,  derived  from  a  great  number 
of  authorities,  most  of  which  have  perished. 
Of  the  two  summaries  of  this  curious  work,  the 
larger  one  is  by  an  unknown  hand,  the  shorter 
one  by  Maximus  Planudes.  The  work  De  Ma- 
gistratibus  was  thought  to  have  perished,  but 
was  discovered  by  Villoisou  in  the  suburbs  of 
Constantinople,  in  1785.  The  best  edition  of 
these  works  is  by  Bekker,  Bonn,  1837. 

LYGDAMIS  (Avyc5a/uf).  1.  Of  Naxos,  a  distin- 
guished leader  of  the  popular  party  of  the  island 
in  the  struggle  with  the  oligarchy.  He  con- 
quered the  latter,  and  obtained  thereby  the 
chief  power  in  the  state.  He  assisted  Pisistra- 
tus  in  his  third  return  to  Athens ;  but,  during 
his  absence,  his  enemies  seem  to  have  got  the 
upper  hand  again ;  for  Pisistratus  afterward 
subdued  the  island,  and  made  Lygdamis  tyrant 
of  it,  about  B.C.  540.  In  532  he  assisted  Poly- 
crates  in  obtaining  the  tyranny  of  Samos. — 2. 
Father  of  Artemisia,  queen  of  Halicarnassus, 
the  contemporary  of  Xerxes. — 3.  Tyrant  of  Hal- 
icarnassus, the  son  of  Pisindelis,  and  the  grand- 
son of  Artemisia.  The  historian  Herodotus  is 
said  to  have  taken  an  active  part  in  delivering 
bis  native  city  from  the  tyranny  of  this  Lygda- 
mis. 

LYGII  or  LIGII,  an  important  people  in  Ger- 
many, between  the  Viadus  (now  Oder)  and  the 
Vistula,  in  the  modern  Silesia  and  Posen,  were 
bounded  by  the  Burgundiones  on  the  north,  the 
Goths  on  the  east,  the  Bastarnae  and  Osi  on  the 
west,  and  the  Marsingi,  Silingae,  and  Semnones 
on  the  south.  They  were  divided  into  several 
tribes,  the  chief  of  which  were  the  Manimi, 
Duni,  Elysii,  Burii,  Arii,  Naharvali,  and  Helve- 
conae.  They  first  appear  in  history  as  mem- 
bers of  the  great  Marcomannic  league  formed 
by  Maroboduus  in  the  reigns  of  Augustus  and 
Tiberius.  In  the  third  century  some  of  the 
Lygii  migrated  with  the  Burgundians  westward, 
and  settled  in  the  country  bordering  on  the 
Rhine. 

[LYGINUS  (Avyivos),  a  river  of  Thrace  in  the 
territory  of  the  Triballi,  emptying  into  the  Pon- 
tus  Euxiuus.] 

[LYMAX  (Av/zc|),  a  small  river  in  the  south- 
west of  Arcadia,  which  empties  into  the  Neda 
uear  Phigalea.] 

LYNCESTIS  (Auy/cj/ffr/f),  a  district  in  the  south- 
west of  Macedonia,  north  of  the  River  Erigon, 
and  upon  the  frontiers  of  Illyria.  Its  inhabit- 
ants, the  LYNCEST,*,  were  Illyrians,  and  were 
originally  an  independent  people,  who  were 
governed  by  their  own  princes,  said  to  be  de- 
scended from  the  family  of  the  Bacchiadae. 
The  Lyncestae  appear  to  have  become  subject 
to  Macedonia  by  a  marriage  between  the  roy- 
al families  of  the  two  countries.  The  ancient 
capital  of  the  country  was  LYNCUS  (rj  Avy/cof), 
though  HERACLEA,  at  a  later  time,  became  the 
chief  town  in  the  district  Near  Lyncus  was  a 
river,  the  waters  of  which  are  said  to  have  been 
as  intoxicating  as  wine.  (Ov.,  Met.,  xv.,  329.) 

LTNCEUS  (  Avyxevf).     1.  One  of  the  fifty  sons 
460 


'  of  ^Egyptus,  whose  life  was  saved  by  his  wife 
Hypermnestra,  when  all  his  other  brothers  were 
murdered  by  the  daughters  of  Danaus  on  their 
j  wedding  night  Vid,  ^EGYPTUS.  Dauaus  there- 
I  upon  kept  Hypermnestra  in  strict  confinement, 
i  but  was  afterward  prevailed  upon  to  give  her 
to  Lynceus,  who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne 
of  Argos.  According  to  a  different  legend,  Lyn- 
ceus slew  Danaus  and  all  the  sister^  of  Hyperm- 
nestra in  revenge  for  his  brothers.  Lynceus 
was  succeeded  as  king  of  Argos  by  his  sou 
ABAS. — 2.  Son  of  Aphareus  and  Areue,  and 
brother  of  Idas,  was  one  of  the  Argonauts,  and 
famous  for  his  keen  sight.  He  is  also  men- 
tioned among  the  Calydouian  hunters,  and  was 
slain  by  Pollux.  For  details  respecting  his 
death,  vid.  p.  266,  b. — [3.  A  Trojan,  companion 
of  ^Eneas,  slain  by  Turnus  in  Italy.] — 4.  Of  Sa- 
mos, the  disciple  of  Theophrastus,  and  the  broth- 
er of  the  historian  Duris,  was  a  contemporary 
of  Menander,  and  his  rival  in  comic  poetry.  He 
survived  Menander,  upon  whom  he  wrote  a 
book.  He  seems  to  have  been  more  distin- 
guished as  a  grammarian  and  historian  than  as 
a  comic  poet. 

LYNCUS,  king  of  Scythia,  or,  according  to  oth- 
ers, of  Sicily,  endeavored  to  murder  Triptole- 
mus,  who  came  to  him  with  the  gifts  of  Ceres 
(Demeter),  but  he  was  metamorphosed  by  the 
goddess  into  a  lynx. 

[LYNCUS  (Aiy/cof),  capital  of  Lyncestis.  Vid. 
LYNCESTIS.] 

LYRCEA  or  LYRCEUM  (A.vpK£ia,  Avpiceiov),  a 
small  town  in  Argolis,  situated  on  a  mountain 
of  the  same  name. 

LYRNESSUS  (A.vpvi)aa6e),  a  town  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  frequently  men- 
tioned by  Homer :  destroyed  before  the  time  of 
Strabo. 

LYSANDER  (\voavdpof),  a  Spartan,   was    of 
servile  origin,  or,   at  least,   the   offspring  of  a 
marriage  between  a  freeman  and  a  woman  of 
inferior  condition.     He  obtained  the  citizenship, 
and   be'came  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  Spartan  generals  and  diplomatists.    In  B.C. 
407,  be  was  sent  out  to  succeed  Cratesippidas 
in  the  command  of  the  fleet  off  the  coasts  of 
Asia  Minor.      He   fixed    his  head-quarters   at 
Ephesus,  and  soon  obtained  great  influence,  cot 
only  with  the  Greek  cities,  but  also  with  Cyrus, 
who  supplied  him  with  large  sums  of  money  to 
pay  his  sailors.    Next  year,  406,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Callicratidas.    In  one  year  the  rep- 
utation and  influence  of  Lysander  had  become 
so  great,  that  Cyrus  and  the  Spartan  allies  in 
Asia  requested  the  Lacedaemonians  to  appoint 
Lysander  again  to   the   command   of  the  fleet 
The  Lacedaemonian  law,  however,   did   not  al 
low  the  office  of  admiral  to  be  held  twice  by  the 
same  person  ;  and,  accordingly,  Aracus  was  sent 
out  in  405  as  the  nominal  commander-iu-chief, 
while  Lysander,  virtually  invested  with  the  su 
preme  direction  of  affairs,  had  the  title  of  vice- 
idmiral  (kmciTo^evf).    In  this  year  he  brought 
the   Peloponnesian  war  to  a  conclusion  by  the 
defeat   and   capture   of  the  Athenian  fleet  off 
jEgospotami.     Only  eight  Athenian  ships  made 
;heir  escape  under  the  command  of  Conon.     He 
afterward  sailed  to  Athens,  and  in  the  spring  of 
404  the   city  capitulated  ;  the   long  walls  and 
the  fortifications  of  the  Piraeus  were  destroyed, 


LYSANDRA. 


LYSICLES. 


and  an  oligarchical  form  of  government  estab- 
lished, known  by  the  name  of  the  Thirty  Ty- 
rants. Lysander  was  now  by  far  the  most  pow- 
erful man  in  Greece,  and  he  displayed  more 
than  the  usual  pride  and  haughtiness  which  dis- 
tinguished the  Spartan  commanders  in  foreign 
countries.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  praise, 
and  took  care  that  his  exploits  should  be  cele- 
brated by  the  most  illustrious  poets  of  his  time. 
He  always  kept  the  poet  Chcerilus  in  his  ret- 
inue, and  his  praises  were  also  sung  by  Antilo- 
chus,  Antimachus  of  Colophon,  and  Niceratus 
of  Heraclea.  He  was  the  first  of  the  Greeks  to 
whom  Greek  cities  erected  altars  as  to  a  god, 
offered  sacrifices,  and  celebrated  festivals.  His 
power  and  ambition  caused  the  Spartan  gov- 
ernment uneasiness,  and,  accordingly,  the  ej'h- 
ors  recalled  him  from  Asia  Minor,  to  which  he 
had  again  repaired,  and  for  some  years  kept  him 
without  any  public  employment.  On  the  death 
of  Agis  IL  in  397,  he  secured  the  succession 
for  Agesilaus,  the  brother  of  Agis,  in  opposition 
to  Leotychides,  the  reputed  son  of  the  latter. 
He  did  not  receive  from  Agesilaus  the  gratitude 
he  had  expected.  He  was  one  of  the  members 
of  the  council,  thirty  in  number,  which  was  ap- 
pointed to  accompany  the  new  king  in  his  ex- 
pedition into  Asia  in  896.  Agesilaus  purposely 
thwarted  all  his  designs,  and  refused  all  the 
favors  which  he  asked.  On  his  return  to  Spar- 
ta, Lysander  resolved  to  bring  about  the  change 
he  had  long  meditated  in  the  Spartan  constitu- 
tion, by  abolishing  hereditary  royalty,  and  mak- 
ing the  throne  elective.  He  is  said  to  have  at- 
tempted to  obtain  the  sanction  of  the  gods  in 
favor  of  his  scheme,  and  to  have  tried  in  suc- 
cession the  oracles  of  Delphi,  Dodoua,  and  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  Ammon,  but  without  success.  He 
•does  not  seem  to  have  ventured  upon  any  overt 
act,  and  his  enterprise  was  cut  short  by  his 
death  in  the  following  year.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Boeotian  war  in  395,  Lysander  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  one  army  and  the  king 
Pausanias  at  the  head  of  another.  Lysander 
marched  against  Haliartus,  and  perished  in  battle 
under  the  walls,  395. 

LYSANDRA  (Avadvdpa),  daughter  of  Ptolemy 
Soter  and  Eurydice,  the  daughter  of  Antipater. 
She  was  married  first  to  Alexander,  the  son  of 
Cassander,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  after  his 
death  to  Agathocles,  the  son  of  Lysimachus. 
After  the  murder  of  her  second  husband,  B.C. 
U84  (vid.  AOATHOCLES,  No.  3),  she  fled  to  Asia, 
and  besought  assistance  from  Seleucus.  The 
latter,  in  consequence,  marched  against  Lysim- 
achus, who  was  defeated  and  slain  in  battle,  281. 

LYSANIAS  (Avaaviaf).  1.  Tetrarch  of  Abi- 
lene, was  put  to  death  by  Antony  to  gratify 
Cleopatra,  B.C.  36. — 2.  A  descendant  of  the  hist, 
who  was  tetrarch  of  Abilene  at  the  time  when 
our  Saviour  entered  .upon  his  ministry  (Luke, 
iiL,  1). 

[LYSANIAS  (A.vaaviaf),  a  Greek  grammarian, 
of  Cyrene,  author  of  a  work  nepl  'lafiCoiroiuv. 
Suidas  speaks  of  him  as  the  instructor  of  Era- 
tosthenes.] 

[LYSIAUES,  an  Epicurean  philosopher  of  Ath- 
ens, ton  of  the  celebrated  philosopher  Phiedrus, 
contemporary  with  Cicero,  who  attacks  his  ap- 
pointment by  Antony  as  a  judge.] 

LYSIAS  (Avfftaf).     1.  An  Attic  orator,  was  born 


at  Athens  B.C.  458.  He  was  the  son  of  Cepha- 
lus,  who  was  a  native  of  Syracuse,  and  had  tak- 
en up  his  abode  at  Athens  on  the  invitation  of 
Pericles.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  Lysias  and  his 
brothers  joined  the  Athenians  who  went  as  col- 
onists to  Thurii  in  Italy,  443.  He  there  com- 
pleted his  education  under  the  instruction  of  two 
Syracusans,  Tisias  and  Nicias.  He  afterward 
enjoyed  great  esteem  among  the  Thurians,  and 
seems  to  have  taken  part  in  the  administration 
of  the  city.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Athenians 
in  Sicily,  he  was  expelled  by  the  Spartan  par- 
ty from  Thurii  as  a  partisan  of  the  Athenians. 
He  now  returned  to  Athens,  411.  During  the 
rule  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  (404),  he  was  looked 
upon  as  an  enemy  of  the  government,  his  large 
property  was  confiscated,  and  he  was  thrown 
into  prison  ;  but  he  escaped,  and  took  refuge  at 
Megara.  He  joined  Thrasybulus  and  the  ex- 
iles, and,  in  order  to  render  them  effectual  as- 
sistance, he  sacrificed  all  that  remained  of  his 
fortune.  He  gave  the  patriots  two  thousand 
drachmas  and  two  hundred  shields,  and  engaged 
a  band  of  three  hundred  mercenaries.  Thrasyb- 
ulus procured  him  the  Athenian  franchise,  which 
he  bad  not  possessed  hitherto,  since  he  was  th« 
son  of  a  foreigner;  but  he  was  afterward  de- 
prived of  this  right  because  it  had  been  confer- 
red without  a  probuleuma.  Henceforth  he  lived 
at  Athens  as  an  isoteles,  occupying  himself,  as 
it  appears,  solely  with  writing  judicial  speeches 
for  others,  and  died  in  378,  at  the  age  of  eighty. 
Lysias  wrote  a  great  number  of  orations,  and 
among  those  which  were  current  under  his 
name,  the  ancient  critics  reckoned  two  hund- 
red and  thirty  as  genuine.  Of  these,  thirty-five 
only  are  extant,  and  even  some  of  these  are  in- 
complete, and  others  are  probably  spurious- 
Most  of  these  orations  were  composed  after  hi* 
return  from  Thurii  to  Athens.  The  only  one 
which  he  delivered  himself  is  that  against  Era 
tosthenes,  403.  The  language  of  Lysias  is  per- 
fectly pure,  and  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
best  specimens  of  the  Attic  idiom.  All  the  an- 
cient writers  agreed  that  his  orations  were  dis- 
tinguished by  grace  and  elegance.  His  style  is 
always  clear  and  lucid,  and  his  delineations  of 
character  striking  and  true  to  life.  The  ora 
tions  of  Lysias  are  contained  in  the  collections 
of  the  Attic  orators.  Vid.  DEMOSTHENES.  The, 
best  separate  editions  are  by  Foer|scb,  Lips., 
1829  ;  and  by  Franz,  Monac.,  1831.— [2.  One  of 
the  Athenian  generals  at  the  battle  of  the  Ar- 
ginusae  islands :  on  his  return  to  Athens  he  was 
accused  of  having  neglected  to  carry  off  the 
bodies  of  the  dead,  was  condemned  and  exe- 
cuted;— 3.  A  general  and  minister  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  who  was  charged  with  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war  against  the  Jews,  but  his  armies 
were  totally  defeated  by  Judas  Maccalueus ;  he 
subsequently  compelled  Maccabeus  to  retire  to 
Jerusalem,  and  there  shut  him  up,  till  the  ap- 
proach of  his  rival,  Philip,  made  him  grant  the 
Jews  favorable  terms.  Lysias  subsequcutly  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  young  prince  Demetrius, 
whom  be  had  opposed,  and  was  by  him  put  to 
death.] 

[  LYSICLES   (Av<7<«Aiyr).      1.  Sent  out  by  the 
Athenians  with  four  colleagues,   in  command  of  • 
twelve  ships,  fcr  raising  money   among  the  al- 
lies, B.C  428.    He  was  attacked,  in  on  expedl- 
461 


LTSIMACHIA. 


LYSIPPUS. 


tion  up  the  plain  of  the  Masander,  by  some  Ca- 
rians  and  Samians  of  Anaea,  aud  fell,  with  many 
of  his  men. — 2.  One  of  the  commanders  of  the 
Athenian  army  at  the  battle  of  Choeronea,  B.C. 
838,  was  subsequently  condemned  to  death  on 
the  accusation  of  the  orator  Lycurguc.] 

LYSIMACHIA  or  -EA  (  Avoiftaxia,  Avai/uuxs 
\vatftaxeve).  1.  (Now  Eksemil,)  an  important 
town  on  the  northeast  of  the  Gulf  of  Melas,  and 
on  the  isthmus  connecting  the  Thraciau  Cher- 
sonesus  with  the  main  land,  was  founded  B.C. 
309  by  Lysimachus,  who  removed  to  his  new 
city  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
neighboring  town  of  Cardia  It  was  subse- 
quently destroyed  by  the  Thracians,  but  was 
restored  by  Antiochus  the  Great.  Under  the 
Romans  it  greatly  declined  ;  but  Justinian  built 
a  strong  fortress  on  the  spot,  which  he  called 
HEXAMILIUM  ('E£a/«/Uov),  doubtless  from  the 
width  of  the  isthmus,  under  whicii  name  it  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Middle  Ages. — 2.  A  town  in  the 
southwest  of  ^Etoh'a,  near  Pleuron,  situated  on  a 
lake  of  the  same  name,  which  was  more  ancient- 
ly called  Hydra 

LVSIMACHCS  (A.vai/Ltaxof),  king  of  Thrace,  was 
a  Macedonian  by  birth,  and  one  of  Alexander's 
generals,  but  of  mean  origin,  his  father  Agatb- 
ocles  having  been  originally  a  Penest  or  serf  in 
Sicily.  He  was  early  distinguished  for  his  un- 
daunted courage,  as  well  as  for  his  great  activ- 
ity and  strength  of  body.  We  are  told  by  Q. 
Cui-tius  that  Lysimachus,  when  hunting  in  Syr- 
ia, had  killed  a  lion  of  immense  size  single- 
handed  ;  and  this  circumstance  that  writer  re- 
gards as  the  origin  of  a  fable  gravely  related  by 
many  authors,  that,  on  account  of  some  offence, 
Lysimachus  had  been  shut  up  by  order  of  Alex- 
ander in  the  same  den  with  a  lion  ;  but,  though 
unarmed,  had  succeeded  in  destroying  the  ani- 
mal, and  was  pardoned  by  the  king  in  consid- 
eration of  his  courage.  In  the  division  of  the 
provinces  after  the  death  of  Alexander  (B.C. 
823),  Thrace,  and  the  neighboring  countries  as 
far  as  the  Danube,  were  assigned  to  Lysima- 
chus. For  some  years  he  was  actively  engaged 
in  war  with  the  warlike  barbarians  that  border- 
ed his  province  on  the  north.  At  length,  in  315, 
he  joined  the  league  which  Ptolemy,  Seleucus, 
and  Cassander  had  formed  against  Antigonus, 
but  he  did  not  take  any  active  part  in  the  war 
for  some  tkne.  In  306  he  took  the  title  of  king, 
when  it  was  assumed  by  Antigonus,  Ptolemy, 
Seleucus,  and  Cassander.  In  302  Lysimachus 
crossed  over  into  Asia  Minor  to  oppose  Antigo- 
nus, while  Selcucus  also  advanced  against  the 
latter  from  the  East  In  301  Lysimachus  and 
Seleucus  effected  a  junction,  and  gained '  a  de- 
cisive victory  at  Ipsus  over  Antigouus  and  his 
son  Demetrius.  Antigonus  fell  on  the  field, 
and  Demetrius  became  a  fugitive.  The  con- 
querors divided  between  them  the  dominions 
of  the  vanquished,  and  Lysimachus  obtained  for 
his  share  all  that  part  of  Asia  Minor  extending 
from  the  Hellespont  and  the  ^Egeau  to  the  heart 
of  Phrygia  In  291  Lysimachus  crossed  the 
Danube  and  penetrated  into  the  heart  of  the 
country  of  the  Getre  ;  but  he  was  reduced  to 
the  greatest  distress  by  want  of  provisions,  and 
was  ultimately  compelled' to  surrender  with  his 
whole  army.  Dromichaetes,  king  of  the  Gete, 
treated  him  with  the  utmost  generosity,  and  re- 
462 


stored  him  to  liberty.  In  288  Lysimaclius  united 
with  Ptolemy,  Seleucus,  and  Pyrrhus  in  a  oom 
mon  league  against  Demetrius,  who  had  for 
some  years  been  in  possession  of  Macedonia, 
and  was  now  preparing  to  march  into  Asia. 
Next  year,  287,  Lys.machus  and  Pyrvhus  in- 
vaded Macedonia.  Demetrius  was  abandoned 
by  his  own  troops,  and  was  compelled  to  seek 
safety  in  flight.  Pyrrhus  for  a  time  obtained 
possession  of  the  Macedonian  throne,  but  he 
was  expelled  by  Lysimachus  in  286.  Lysim- 
achus was  now  in  possession  of  all  the  domin- 
ions in  Europe  that  had  formed  part  of  the  Mace- 
donian monarchy,  as  well  as  of  the  greater  part 
of  Asia  Minor.  He  remained  in  undisturbed 
possession  of  these  vast  dominions  till  shortly 
before  his  death.  His  downfall  was  occasioned 
by  a  dark  domestic  tragedy.  His  wife  Arsinoe, 
daughter  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  had  long  hated  her 
step-son  Agathocles,  and  at  length,  by  false  ac- 
cusations, induced  Lysimachus  to  put  his  son  to 
death.  This  bloody  deed  alienated  the  minds 
of  his  subjects,  and  many  cities  of  Asia  broke 
out  into  open  revolt.  Lysandra,  the  widow  of 
Agathocles,  fled  with  her  children  to  the  court  of 
Seleucus,  who  forthwith  invaded  the  dominions 
of  Lysimachus.  The  two  monarchs  met  in  the 
plain  of  Corus  (Corupedion),  and  Lysimachus 
fell  in  the  battle  that  ensued,  B.C.  281.  He  was 
in  his  eightieth  year  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
Lysimachus  founded  LYSIMACHIA,  on  the  Hel- 
lespont, and  also  enlarged  and  rebuilt  many  ocher 
cities. 

LYSIMELIA  (17  AvatfieXeia  ?.i/j.vij),  a  marsh  near 
Syracuse  in  Sicily,  probably  the  same  as  the 
marsh  more  anciently  called  Syraco,  from  which 
the  town  of  Syracuse  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name. 

LYSINOE  (Avaivor/ :  now  Ayelan  ?),  a  town  in 
Pisidia,  south  of  the  Lake  As^auia 

LYSIPPUS  (AwTtTTTrof).  1.  OfSicyon,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  Greek  statuaries,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Alexander  the  Great.  Originally 
a  simple  workman  in  bronze  (fabcr  cerarius),  he 
rose  to  the  eminence  which  he  afterward  ob- 
tained by  the  direct  study  of  nature.  He  re- 
jected the  last  remains  of  the  old  conventional 
rules  which  the  early  artists  followed.  In  Lis 
imitation  of  nature  the  ideal  appears  almost  to 
have  vanished,  or  perhaps  it  should  rather  be 
said  that  he  aimed  to  idealize  merely  human 
beauty.  He  made  statues  of  gods,  it  is  true ; 
but  even  in  this  field  of  art  his  favorite  subject 
was  the  human  hero  Hercules ;  while  lu's  por- 
traits seem  to  have  been  the  chief  foundation 
of  his  fame.  The  works  of  Lysippus  are  said  to 
have  amounted  to  the  enormous  number  of  one 
thousand  five  hundred.  They  were  almost  all, 
if  not  all,  in  bronze ;  in  consequence  of  which,  none 
of  them  are  extant.  He  made  statues  of  Alex- 
ander at  all  periods  of  life,  and  in  many  differ- 
ent positions.  Alexander's  edict  is  well  known, 
that  no  one  should  paint  him  but  Apelles,  and 
no  one  make  his  statue  but  Lysippus.  The  most 
celebrated  of-  these  statues  was  that  in  which 
Alexander  was  represented  with  a  lance,  which 
was  considered  as  a  sort  of  companion  to  the 
picture  of  Alexander  wielding  a  thunderbolt,  by 
Apelles. — [2.  A  Lacedaemonian,  harmost  for  a 
time  at  Epitalium  in  Elis :  he  devastated  the 
Elean  territory,  and  compelled  them  to  sue  for 


LYSIS. 


MACCABJEL 


peace,  B.C.  399. — 3.  An  Arcadian,  a  comic  poet 
of  the  old  comedy,  gained  the  first  prize  B.C. 
434 :  a  few  fragments  of  his  comedies  are  pre- 
served in  Meineke,  Fragm.  Comic.  G-raaec.,  vol.  L, 
p.  421-3,  edit,  minor.] 

LYSIS  (Aiwf ),  an  eminent  Pythagorean  philos- 
opher, who,  driven  out  of  Italy  in  the  persecu- 
tion of  his  sect,  betook  himself  to  Thebes,  and 
became  the  teacher  of  Epamiuondas,  by  whom 
he  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem. 

Lvsis,  a  river  of  Caiia,  only  mentioned  by  Livy 
(xxxviii.,  15). 

LYSISTRATUS,  of  Sicyon,  the  brother  of  Lysip- 
pus,  was  a  statuary,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
making  of  portraits.  He  was  the  first  who  took 
a  cast  of  the  human  face  in  gypsum ;  and  from 
this  mould  he  produced  copies  by  pouring  into  it 
melted  wax. 

[Lvso.  1.  A   Sicilian  of  rank   at   Lilybaeum, 

Elundered  by  Verres  while  praetor  of  Sicily  in 
.0.  73-71. — 2.  A  native  of  Patrce,  an  intimate 
friend  of  Cicero's,  who  intrusted  to  his  care 
Tullius  Tiro  during. his  illness  at  that  place: 
when  Lyso  subsequently  visited  Rome,  he  re- 
ceived great  attention  from  both  Tiro  and  Ci- 
c*ro.] 

LYSTEA  (fy  Avarpa,  T&  Avarpa  :  ruins  probably 
at  Karadagh,  called  Bin  Bir  Kilis&eh),  a  city  of 
Lycaonia,  on  the  confines  of  Isauria,  celebrated 
as  one  chief  scene  of  the  preaching  of  Paul  and 
Barnabas  (Acts,  xiv.). 

M. 

MAC^E  (Ma/cat).  1.  A  people  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Arabia  Felix,  probably  about  Muscat. — 

2.  An  inland  people  of  Libya,  in  the  Regio  Syr- 
tica,  that  is,  the  part  of  Northern  Africa  between 
the  Syrtes. 

MACALLA,  a  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Brut- 
tium,  -which  was  said  to  possess  the  tomb  and  a 
sanctuary  of  Philoctetes. 

MACAR  or  MACAREUS  (Mu/ca/>  or  Ma/capevf). 
1.  Son  of  Helios  (or  Crinacus)  and  Rhodes,  fled 
from  Rhodes  to  Lesbos  after  the  murder  of 
Teuages. — 2,  Son  of  ^Eolus.  Vid.  CANACE. — 

3.  Son  of  Jason  and  Medea,  also  called  Merme- 
rua  or  Mormorus. — [4.  One  of  the  Lapithae,  slew 
the  centaur  Erigdupus  at  the  nuptials  of  Pirith- 
ous. — 5.  Of  Nericus,  one  of  the  companions  of 
Ulysses.] 

MAC  ARIA  (Ma«a/Ha),  daughter  of  Hercules  and 
DeJianlra. 

MACARIA  (Ma/capta).  A  poetical  name  of  sev- 
eral islands,  such  as  Lesbos,  Rhodes,  and  Cyprus. 
— 2.  An  island  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Sinus 
Arabicus  (now  Red  Sea),  off  the  coast  of  the 
Troglodyte. 

MACARIUS  (Ma/cup<or),  a  Spartan,  was  one  of 
the  three  commanders  of  the  Peloponnesian 
force  sent  to  aid  the  ^Etolians  in  the  reduction 
of  Naupactus,  B.C.  426,  which,  however,  was 
saved  by  Demosthenes  ;  he  was  afterward  slain 
at  the  battle  of  Olpae. 

M.u;c.\it.Kt  (MaKKafjaloi),  the  descendants  of 
the  family  of  the  heroic  Judas  Maccabi  or  Mac- 
caba-'us,  a  surname  which  he  obtained  from  his 
glorious  victories.  (From  the  Hebrew  makkab, 
"  a  hummer.")  They  were  also  called  A*amo- 
iuei  (' \aafiuvaloi),  from  Asamonreus,  or  Chas- 
mon,  the  great-grandfather  of  Mattathias,  the 


father  of  Judas  Maccabaeus,  or,  in  a  shorter 
form,  Asmoncei  or  Hasmonice.  This  family  first 
obtained  distinction  from  the  attempts  which 
were  made  by  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes,  king  of 
Syria,  to  root  out  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  and 
introduce  the  Greek  religion  among  the  inhab- 
itants of  Judaea.  Antiochus  published  an  edict, 
which  enjoined  uniformity  of  worship  through- 
out his  dominions.  At.  Modin,  a  town  not  far 
from  Lydda,  lived  Mattathias,  a  man  of  the 
priestly  line  and  of  deep  religious  feeling,  who 
had  five  sons  in  the  vigor  of  their  days,  John, 
Simon,  Judas,  Eleazar,  and  Jonathan.  When 
the  officer  of  the  Syrian  king  visited  Modiu  to 
enforce  obedience  to  the  royal  edict,  Mattathias 
not  only  refused  to  desert  the  religion  of  his 
forefathers,  but  with  his  own  hand  struck  dead 
the  first  renegade  who  attempted  to  offer  sacri- 
fice on  the  heathen  altar.  He  then  put  to  death 
the  king's  officer,  and  retired  to  the  mountains 
with  his  five  sous  (B.C.  167).  Their  number^ 
daily  increased ;  and  as  opportunities  occurred 
they  issued  from  their  mountain  fastnesses,  cvi 
off  detachments  of  the  Syrian  army,  destroyed 
heathen  altars,  and  restored  in  many  places  the 
synagogues  and  the  open  worship  of  the  JewLs.'.i 
religion.  Within  a  few  months  the  insurrec- 
tion at  Modin  had  grown  into  a  war  for  national 
independence.  But  the  toils  of  such  a  war 
were  too  much  for  the  aged  frame  of  Mattathia.3, 
who  died  in  the  first  year  of  the  revolt,  leaving 
the  conduct  of  it  to  Judas,  hi»  third  son.  1.  JU- 
DAS, who  assumed  the  surname  of  Maccabasus, 
as  has  been  mentioned  above,  carried  on  tho 
war  with  the  same  prudence  and  energy  with 
which  it  had  been  commenced.  After  meeting 
with  gre.".t  success,  he  at  length  fell  in  battle/ 
against  the  forces  of  Demetrius  I.  Soter,  160. 
He  was  succeeded  in  the  command  by  his  broth- 
er,— 2.  JONATHAN,  who  maintained  the  cause  o-f 
Jewish  independence  with  equal  vigor  and  suc- 
cess, and  became  recognized  as  high-priest  of 
the  Jews.  He  was  put  to  death  by  TVyphoa, 
the  minister  of  Antiochus  VL,  who  treacher- 
ously got  him  into  his  power,  144.  Jonathan 
was  succeeded  in  the  high-priesthood  by  his 
brother, — 3.  SIMON,  who  was  the  most  fortunate 
of  the  sons  of  Mattathias,  and  under  whose  gov- 
ernment the  country  became  virtually  independ- 
ent of  Syria.  He  was  murdered  by  his  son-in- 
law  Ptolemy,  the  governor  of  Jericho,  togethe^ 
with  two  of  his  sons,  Judas  and  Mattathias,  135. 
His  other  son,  Joannes  Hyrcanus,  escaped,  and 
succeeded  his  father. — t.  JOANNES  HYRCANUS  I. 
was  high-priest  135-106.  He  did  not  assume 
the  title  of  king,  but  was  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses an  independent  monarch.  Vid.  HYRCA- 
NUS. He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Aristobu- 
lus  L — 5.  ARISTOBULUS  I.,  was  the  first  of  tho 
Maccabees  who  assumed  the  kingly  title,  which 
was  henceforth  borne  by  his  successors.  Hia 
reign  lasted  only  a  year,  106-105.  Vid.  ARIS- 
TOBULUS. He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,— 
6.  ALEXANDER  JANX.BUS,  who  reigned  105-78. 
Vid.  ALEXANDER,  p.  42,  b.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  widow, — 7.  ALEXANDRA,  who  appointed 
her  son  Hyrcanus  II.  to  the  priesthood,  and  held 
the  supreme  power  78-69.  On  her  death  in  the 
latter  year,  her  son, — 8.  HYRCANUS  II.,  obtained 
the  kingdom,  69,  but  was  supplanted  almost  im- 
mediately afterward  by  his  brother, — 9.  ARIS- 
463 


MACEDONIA. 


MACESTUS. 


VOBUMJS  IT.,  'who  obtained  the  throne  68.  Vid. 
ARISTOBULUS.  For  the  remainder  of  the  history 
of  the  house  of  the  Mtvccabees,  vid.  HYKUAXUS  II. 
and  I  b  u"i>  i  •-  L 

MAOEUSMA  (yianedovia  :  Ma/cedovtf),  a  coun- 
try in  Europe,  north  of  Greece,  which  is  said  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  an  auciout  King 
Macedon,  a  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Thy  in,  a 
daughter  of  Deucalion.  The  name  first  occurs 
ia  Herodotus,  but  its  more  ancient  form  appears 
to  have  been  MacSKa  (Ma/certa) ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, the  Macedonians  are  sometimes  called 
Macetos.  The  country  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  named  Emathia.  The  boundaries  of 
Macedonia  differed  at  different  periods.  In  the 
time  of  Herodotus  the  name  Macedonia  desig- 
nated only  the  country  to  the  south  and  west 
of  the  River  Lydias.  The  boundaries  of  the 
ancient  Macedonian  monarchy,  before  the  time 
of  Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander,  were  on  the 
south  Olympus  and  the  Cambunian  Mountains, 
which  separated  it  from  Thessitly  and  Epirus, 
on  the  east  the  River  Strymon,  which  separated 
it  from  Thrace,  and  on  the  north  and  west  II- 
lyria  and  Poeonia,  from  which  it  was  divided  by 
no  well-defined  limits.  Macedonia  was  greatly 
enlarged  by  the  conquests  of  Philip.  He  added 
to  his  kingdom  Paeonia  on  the  north,  so  that  the 
mountains  Scordus  and  Orbelus  now  separated 
it  from  Mcesia ;  a  part  of  Thrace  on  the  east  as 
far  as  the  River  Nestus,  which  Thracian  district 
was  usually  called  Macedonia  adjecta  ;  the  pen- 
insula Chalcidice  on  the  south ;  and  on  the 
west  a  part  of  Illyria,  as  far  as  the  Lake  Lych- 
nitis.  On  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the 
Romans,  B.C.  168,  Macedonia  was  divided  into 
four  districts,  which  were  quite  independent  of 
one  another  :  1.  The  country  between  the  Stry- 
mon and  the  Nestus,  with  a  part  of  Thrace  east 
of  the  Nestus,  as  far  as  the  Hebrus,  and  also 
including  the  territory  of  Heraclea  Sintica  and 
Bisaltice,  west  of  the  Strymon ;  the  capital  of 
this  district  was  Amphipolis.  2.  The  country 
between  the  Strymon  and  the  Axius,  exclusive 
of  those  parts  already  named,  but  including 
Chalcidice;  the  capital  Thessalonica.  3.  The 
country  between  the  Axius  and  Peneus ;  the 
capital  Pella.  4.  The  mountainous  country  in 
the  west ;  the  capital  Pelagouia.  After  the 
conquest  of  the  Achaeans  in  146,  Macedonia 
was  formed  into  a  Roman  province,  and  Thes- 
saly  and  Illyria  were  incorporated  with  it ;  but, 
at  the  same  time,  the  district  east  of  the  Nestus 
was  again  assigned  to  Thrace.  The  Roman 
province  of  Macedonia  accordingly  extended 
from  the  ^Egiuan  to  the  Adriatic  Seas,  and  was 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  province  of  Achaia. 
It  was  originally  governed  by  a  proconsul ;  it 
was  made  by  Tiberius  one  of  the  provinces  of 
the  Csesar ;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  senate 
by  Claudius.  Macedonia  may  be  described  as 
a  large  plain,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  lofty 
mountains.  Through  thin  plain,  however,  run 
many  smaller  ranges  of  mountains,  between 
which  are  wide  and  fertile  valleys,  extending 
from  the  coast  far  into  the  interior.  The  chief 
mountains  were  SCOEDUS  or  SCARDUS,  on  the 
northwestern  frontier,  toward  Illyria  and  Dar- 
dania ;  further  east,  ORBELUS  and  SCOMIUS, 
which  separated  it  from  Mcesia  ;  and  RHODOPE, 
which  extended  ft  5m  Scomius  in  a  southeast- 1 
464 


erly  direction,  forming  the  boundary  belweea 
Macedonia  and  Thrace.  On  the  southern  fron- 
tier were  the  CAMBUNII  MONTES  and  OLYMPUS. 
The  chief  rivers  were  in  the  direction  of  cast 
to  west,  the  NESTUS,  the  STBYMON,  the  Axius, 
the  largest  of  all,  the  LUDIAS  or  LYDIAS,  and  the 
HALIACMON.  The  great  bulk  of  the  inhabit- 
ants  of  Macedonia  consisted  of  Thracian  and 
Illyriun  tribes.  At  an  early  period  some  Greek 
tribes  settled  in  the  southern  part  of  the  coun- 
try. They  are  said  to  have  come  from  Argos, 
and  to  have  been  led  by  Gauanes,  Aeropus,  and 
Perdiccas,  the  three  sous  of  Temenus  the  Hera- 
clid.  Perdiccas,  the  youngest  of  the  brothers, 
was  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  the  Macedo- 
nian monarchy.  A  later  tradition,  however,  re- 
garded Caranus,  who  was  also  a  Heraclid  from 
Argos,  as  the  founder  of  the  monarchy.  These 
Greek  settlers  intermarried  with  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  country.  The  dialect  which 
they  spoke  was  akin  to  the  Doric,  but  it  con- 
tained many  barbarous  words  and  forms  ;  and 
the  Macedonians  were  accordingly  never  re- 
garded by  the  other  Greeks'  as  genuine  Hellenes. 
Moreover,  it  was  only  in  the  south  of  Macedonia 
that  the  Greek  language  was  spoken ;  in  tl*e 
north  and  northwest  of  the  country  the  Illyrian 
tribes  continued  to  speak  their  own  language, 
and  to  preserve  their  ancient  habits  and  cus- 
toms. Very  little  is  known  of  the  history  of 
Macedonia  till  the  reign  of  Amyntas  L,  who 
was  a  contemporary  of  Darius  Hystaspis  ;  but 
from  that  time  their  history  is  more  or  less  in- 
timately connected  with  that  of  Greece,  till  at 
length  Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
became  the  virtual  master  of  the  whole  of 
Greece.  The  conquests  of  Alexander,  extend- 
ed the  Macedonian  supremacy  over  a  great  part 
of  Asia  ;  and  the  Macedonian  kings  continued  to 
exercise  their  sovereignty  over  Greece  till  the 
conquest  of  Perseus  by  the  Romans,  168,  brought 
the  Macedonian  monarchy  to  a  close.  The  details 
of  the  Macedonian  history  are  given  in  the  lives 
of  the  separate  kings. 

MACELLA  (now  Maccllaro),  a  small  fortified 
town  in  the  west  of  Sicily,  southeast  of  Segesta. 

MACEE,  ^EMILIUS.  1.  A  Roman  poet,  a  native 
of  Verona,  died  in  Asia  B.C.  16.  He  wrote  a 
poem  or  poems  upon  birds,  snakes,  and  medicinal 
plants,  in  imitation,  it  would  appear,  of  the 
Theriaca  of  Nicauder.  (Ov.,  Trist.,  iv.,  10,  44.) 
The  work  now  extant,  entitled  "  JSmilius  Macer 
de  Herbarum  Virtutibus,"  belongs  to  the  Middle 
Ages. —  2.  We  must  carefully  distinguish  from 
^Emilius  Macer  of  Verona,  a  poet  Macer,  who 
wrote  on  the  Trojan  war,  and  who  must  have 
been  alive  in  A.D.  12,  since  he  is  addressed  by 
Ovid  in  that  year  (ex-Pont.,  ii.,  10,  2). — 3.  A 
Roman  jurist,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander Severus.  He  wrote  several  works,  extracts 
from  which  are  given  in  the  Digest. 

MACER,  CLODIUS,  was  governor  of  Africa  at 
Nero's  death,  A.D.  68,  when  he  laid  claim  to  the 
throne.  He  was  murdered  at  the  instigation 
of  Galba  by  the  procurator  Trebonius  Garucl- 
anus. 

MACER,  LICINIUS.     Vid.  LICINIUS. 

MACESTUS  (MaMjaros :  now  Simaul-Su,  and 
lower  Susugherli),  a  considerable  river  of  Mysia, 
rises  in  the  northwest  of  Phrygia,  and  flows 
north  through  Mysia  into  the  Rhyndacus.  It 


MACH^REUS. 

is  probably  the  same  river  which  Polybius  (v., 
77)  calls  Megistus  (Meyiorof). 

[MACH^REUS  (Maxaipwc),  son  of  Daetas  of 
Delphi,  is  said  to  have  slain  Neoptolemus,  the 
son  of  Achilles,  in  a  quarrel  about  the  sacrifi- 
cial meat  at  Delphi.]  . 

MACH^ERUS  (Ma,t<upovc  :  Ma^ajpt'r^f),  a  strong 
border  fortress  in  the  south  of  Peraea,  in  Pales- 
tine, on  the  confines  of  the  Nabathaei :  a  strong- 
hold of  the  Sicarii  in  the  Jewish  war.  A  tradi- 
tion made  it  the  place  where  John  the  Baptist 
was  beheaded. 

MACHANIDAS,  tyrant  of  Lacedaemon,  succeed- 
ed Lycurgus  about  B.C.  210.  Like  his  prede- 
cessor, he  had  no  hereditary  title  to  the  crown, 
but  ruled  by  the  swords  of  his  mercenaries 
alone.  He  was  defeated  and  slain  in  battle  by 
Philopcemen,  the  general  of  the  Achaean  league, 
in  207. 

MACHAON  (Ma^uuv),  son  of  ^Esculapius,  was 
married  to  Anticlea,  the  daughter  of  Diocles,  by 
whom  he  became  the  father  of  Gorgasus,  Nico- 
machus,  Alexanor,  Sphyrus,  and  Polemocrates. 
Together  with  his  brother  Podalirius,  he  went 
to  Troy  with  thirty  ships,  commanding  the  men 
who  came  from  Tricca,  Ithome,  and  (Echalia. 
In  this  war  he  acted  as  the  surgepn  of  the 
Greeks,  and  also  distinguished  himself  in  battle. 
He  was  himself  wounded  by  Paris,  but  was  car- 
ried from  the  field  by  Nestor.  Later  writers 
mention  him  as  one  of  the  Greek  herges  who 
were  concealed  in  the  wooden  horse,  and  he  is 
said  to  have  cured  Philoctetes.  He  was  killed 
by  Eurypylus,  the  son  of  Telephus,  and  he  re- 
ceived divine  honors  at  Gerenia,  in  Messenia. 

[MACHARES  (Ma^ap^f ),  son  of  Mithradates  the 
Great,  was  appointed  by  his  father  king  of  Bos- 
porus. After  the  repeated  defeats  of  Mithradates 
by  the  Romans,  Machares  proved  a  traitor,  and 
sent  supplies  to  Lucullus :  his  father,  though 
hard  pressed  by  the  Roman  troops,  marched 
against  Machares,  and  the  latter  put  himself  to 
death  to  avoid  falling  into  his  enraged  father's 
hands.] 

MACHLYES  (Md^Avef ),  a  people  of  Libya,  near 
the  Lotophagi,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Lake 
Triton,  in  what  was  afterward  called  Africa 
Propria. 

MACHON  (Ma^wv),  of  Corinth  or  Sicyon,  a 
comic  poet,  flourished  at  Alexandrea,  where  he 
gave  instructions  respecting  comedy  to  the 
grammarian  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium.  [Two 
or  three  fragments  remain,  which  are  given  by 
Meineke,  Fragm.  Comic.  Grace.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1133- 
4,  edit,  minor.] 

MACISTUB  or  MACISTCM  (Mu/u<rrof,  MUKIOTOV  : 
MaicioTtoc),  an  ancient  town  of  Elis  in  Triphylia, 
northeast  of  Lepreum,  originally  called  Plata- 
nistus(IIAorai'ftTTotif),  and  founded  by  the  Cau- 
cones. 

MACORABA  (HAaieopuGa  :  now  Mecca),  a  city  in 
the  west  of  Arabia  Felix  ;  probably  the  sacred 
city  of  the  Arabs,  even  before  the  time  of  Mo- 
hammed, and  the  seat  of  the  worship  of  Alitat 
or  Alitta  under  the  emblem  of  a  meteoric  stone. 

MACRA  (now  Magra),  a  small  river  rising  in 
the  Apennines  and  flowing  into  the  Ligurian 
Sea  near  Luna,  which,  from  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, formed  the  boundary  between  Liguria 
and  Etruria. 

M  "'HUMUS,  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  a  dis- 
3d 


MACROBIUS. 

|  tinguished  general,  who  accompanied  Valeriar 
I  in  his  expedition  against  the   Persians,  A.D. 
]  260.     On  the  capture  of  that  monarch,  Macri- 
anus  was  proclaimed  emperor,  together  with 
his  two  sons  Macrianus  and  Quietus.     He  as- 
signed  the  management  of  affairs  in  the  East 
to  Quietus,  and  set  out  with  the  younger  Mac- 
rianus for  Italy.     They  were  encountered  by 
i  Aureolus  on  the  confines  of  Thrace  and  Illyria, 
1  defeated  and  slain,  262.     Quietus  was  shortly 
afterward  slain  in  the  East  by  Odenathus. 

MAORI  CAMPI.*    Vid.  CAMPI  MACRI. 

MACRINUS,  M.  OPILIUS  SEVERUS,  Roman  em- 
peror, April,  A.D.  217-June,  218.  He  was  born 
at  Caesarea  in  Mauretania,  of  humble  parents, 
A.D.  164,  and  rose  at  length  to  be  praefect  of  the 
praetorians  under  Caracalla.  He  accompanied 
Caracalla  in  his  expedition  against  the  Parthi- 
ans,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  after  the  death 
of  Caracalla,  whom  he  had  caused  to  be  assas- 
sinated. He  conferred  the  title  of  Caesar  upon 
his  son  Diadumenianus,  and  at  the  same  time 
gained  great  popularity  by  repealing  some  ob- 
noxious taxes.  But  in  the  course  of  the  same 
year  he  was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the 
Parthians,  and  was  obliged  to  retire  into  Syria. 
While  here,  his  soldiers,  with  whom  he  had  be- 
come unpopular  by  enforcing  among  them  order 
and  discipline,  were  easily  seduced  from  their 
allegiance,  and  proclaimed  Elagabalus  as  em- 
peror. With  the  troops  which  remained  faith- 
ful to  him,  Macrinus  marched  against  the  usurp- 
er, but  was  defeated,  and  fled  in  disguise.  He 
was  shortly  afterward  seized  in  Chalcedon,  and 
put  to  daath,  after  a  reign  of  fourteen  months. 

[MAORIS  (Ma/rptf).  another  name  for  the  isl- 
and Helena.  Vid.  HELENA.] 

MACRO,  N^EVIUS  SERTORJUS.  &  favorite  of  the 
Emperor  Tiberius,  was  employed  to  arrest  the 
powerful  Sejanus  in  A.D.  31.  On  the  death  of 
the  latter  he  was  made  praefect  of  the  praetori- 
ans, an  office  which  he  continued  to  hold  for 
the  remainder  of  Tiberius's  reign  and  during 
the  earlier  part  of  Caligula's.  Macro  was  as 
cruel  as  Sejanus.  He  laid  informations ;  he 
presided  at  the  rack  ;  and  he  lent  himself  to  the 
most  savage  caprices  of  Tiberius  during  the 
last  and  worst  period  of  his  government.  Dur- 
ing the  lifetime  of  Tiberius  he  paid  court  to  the 
young  Caligula ;  and  he  promoted  an  intrigue 
between  his  wife  Ennia  and  the  young  prince. 
It  was  rumored  that  Macro  shortened  the  last 
moments  of  Tiberius  by  stifling  him  with  the 
bedding  as  he  recovered  unexpectedly  from  a 
swoon.  But  Caligula  soon  became  jealous  of 
Macro,  and  compelled  him  to  kill  himself  with 
his  wife  and  children,  38. 

MACROBII  (M.aKp66ioi,  i.  e.,  Long-lived),  an 
Ethiopian  people  in  Africa,  placed  by  Herodotus 
(iii.,  17)  on  the  shores  of  the  Southern  Ocean. 
It  is  in  vain  to  attempt  their  accurate  identifi- 
cation with  any  known  people. 

MACROBIUS,  the  grammarian,  whose  full  name 
was  Ambrosius  Aureliut  Tfieodosius  Macrobius. 
All  we  know  about  him  is  that  he  lived  in  the 
age  of  Honorius  and  Theodosius,  that  he  was 
probably  a  Greek,  and  that  he  had  a  son  named 
Eustathius.  He  states  in  the  preface  to  his 
Saturnalia  that  Latin  was  to  him  a  foreign 
tongue,  and  hence  we  may  fairly  conclude  tha 
he  was  a  Greek  by  birth,  more  especially  as  wt 

465 


MACRONES. 

find  numerous  Greek  idioms  in  his  style.  He 
was  probably  a  pagan.  His  extant  works  are, 
1.  Salurnaliorum  Conviviorum  Libri  VII.,  con- 
sisting of  a  series  of  dissertations  on  history, 
mythology,  criticism,  and  various  points  of  an- 
tiquarian research,  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
livered during  the  holidays  of  the  Saturnalia  at 
the  house  of  Vettius  Praetextatus,  who  was  in- 
vested with  the  highest  offices  of  state  under 
Valentinian  and  Valens.  The  form  of  the  work 
is  avowedly  copied  from  the  dialogues  of  Plato, 
especially  the  Banquet:  in  substance  it  bears  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  Noctes  Atticae  of  A. 
Gellius.  The  first  book  treats  of  the  festivals 
of  Saturnus  and  Janus,  of  the  Roman  calendar, 
&c.  The  second  hook  commences  with  a  col- 
lection of  bon  mots,  ascribed  to  the  most  cele- 
brated wits  of  antiquity  ;  to  these  are  appended 
a  series  of  essays  on  matters  connected  with 
the  pleasures  of  the  table.  The  four  following 
books  are  devoted  to  criticisms  on  Virgil.  The 
seventh  book  is  of  a  more  miscellaneous  char- 
acter than  the  preceding.  2.  Commentarius  ex 
Cicerone  in  Somnium  Scipionis,  a  tract  much 
studied  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Dream 
of  Scipio,  contained  in  the  sixth  book  of  Cic- 
ero's De  Republica,  is  taken  as  a  text,  which 
suggests  a  succession  of  discourses  on  the 
physical  constitution  of  the  universe,  according 
to  the  views  of  the  New  Platonists,  together 
with  notices  of  some  of  their  peculiar  tenets 
on  mind  as  well  as  matter.  3.  De  Differentiis 
ct  Societalibus  Grtzci  Latinique  Verbi,  a  treatise 
purely  grammatical,  of  which  only  an  abridg- 
ment is  extant,  compiled  by  a  cr  *ain  Joannes. 
The  best  editions  of  the  works  A  Macrobius 
are  by  Gronovius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1670,  and  by 
Zeunius,  Lips.,  1774 :  [the  first  volume  of  a 
new  and  more  copious  critical  edition  was  pub- 
lished at  Quedlinburg  and  Leipzig,  1848,  edited 
by  Lud.  Janus.] 

MACRONES  (Mu*puvcf),  a  powerful  and  war- 
like Caucasian  people  on  the  northeastern  shore 
of  the  Pontus  Euxinus. 

MACTORIUM  (MaKrupiov  :  MaAcrwptvof),  a  town 
in  the  south  of  Sicily,  near  Gela. 

MACYNIA  (WLaKvvia  :  HaKvvevf),  a  town  in  the 
south  of  JStolia,  near  the  mountain  Taphiassus, 
east  of  Calydon  and  the  Evenus. 

[MADAURA  or  MADURUS  (Mddovpof),  a  town 
in  northern  Numidia,  near  Tagaste,  not  to  be 
confounded  with  MEDAURA.] 

MADiANiT^E(Mo(5tai'trat,  Matiir/vaioi, Madiijvoi : 
in  the  Old  Testament,  Midianim),  a  powerful 
nomad  people  in  the  south  of  Arabia  Petraea, 
about  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea.  They  carried 
on  a  caravan  trade  between  Arabia  and  Egypt, 
and  were  troublesome  enemies  of  the  Israelites 
until  they  were  conquered  by  Gideon.  They 
do  not  appear  in  history  after  the  Babylonish 
captivity. 

[MADYAS  (Ma6vac,  Ion.  Mac5w?f),  a  king  of  the 
Scythians,  under  whom  they  overran  Asia  and 
advanced  as  far  as  Egypt:  he  is  called  by 
Strabo  IDANTHYRSUS.] 

MADYTUS  (Mddvrof :  Madtmof  :  now  Maito), 
a  sea-port  town  on  the  Thracian  Chersonesus. 

MJEANDER  (T&aiurvipof :  now Mendereh  or Mein- 
der,  or  Eoyuk- Mendereh,  i.  e.,  the  Great  Men- 
dereh, in  contradistinction  to  the  Little  Mendereh, 
the  ancient  Oaysler),  has  its  source  in  the 
466 


MAECENAS. 

I  mountain  called  Aulocrenas,  above  Celomes,  in 
the  south  of  Phrygia,  close  to  the  source  of  the 
Marsyas,  which  immediately  joins  it.  Vid.  Cu- 
L^NJE.  It  flows  in  a  general  western  direction, 
with  various  changes  of  direction,  but  on  the 
whole  with  a  slight  inclination  to  the  south 
After  leaving  Phrygia,  it  flows  parallel  to  Mount 
Messogis,  on  its  southern  side,  forming  the 
boundary  between  Lydia  and  Caria,  and  at  last 
falls  into  the  Icarian  Sea  between  Myus  and 
Priene.  Its  whole  length  is  above  one  hundred 
and  seventy  geographical  miles.  The  Maean- 
|  der  is  deep,  but  narrow,  and  very  turbid,  and 
therefore  not  navigable  far  up.  Its  upper  course 
lies  chiefly  through  elevated  plains,  and  partlj 
in  a  deep  rocky  valley  :  its  lower  course,  fo) 
the  last  one  hundred  and  ten  miles,  is  through 
a  beautiful  wide  plain,  through  which  it  flow? 
in  those  numerous  windings  that  have  made  its 
name  a  descriptive  verb  (to  meander),  and  which 
it  often  inundates.  The  alteration  made  in  the 
coast  about  its  mouth  by  its  alluvial  deposit  was 
observed  by  the  ancients,  and  it  has  been  con- 
tinually going  on.  Vid.  LATMICUS  SINOS  and 
MILETUS.  The  tributaries  of  the  Masander  were, 
on  the  right  or  northern  side,  the  Marsyas, 
Cludrus,  Lethaeus,  and  Gaeson,  and  on  the  left 
or  southern  side,  the  Obrimas,  Lycus,  Harpa- 
sus,  and  another  Marsyas.  As  a  god,Maeander 
is  described  as  the  father  of  the  nymph  Cyane, 
who  was  the  mother  of  Caunus.  Hence  the 
latter  is  called  by  Ovid  (Met.,  ix.,  573)  Maan- 
drius  juvenis. 

[M^EANDRIUS  (MawixJ/xof),  secretary  to  Poly- 
crates,  tyrant  of  Samos,  through  whose  treach- 
ery or  incompetency  Polycrates  was  induced  to 
place  himself  in  the  power  of  Orcetes,  and  was 
by  him  put  to  death.  Maeandrius,  upon  this,  re- 
tained in  his  own  hands  the  tyranny,  until  the 
advance  of  the  Persians  under  Otanes  to  place 
Syloson,  brother  of  Polycrates,  on  the  throne, 
when  he  capitulated  :  having  brought  about  the 
assassination  of  the  chief  Persians,  he  made  his 
escape  to  Sparta  ;  the  ephori,  however,  banish- 
ed him  from  the  Peloponnesus.] 

M-ffiCENAs,  C.  CILNIUS,  was  born  some  time 
between  B.C.  73  and  63  ;  and  we  learn  from 
Horace  (Carm.,  iv.,  11)  that  his  birth-day  was 
the  thirteenth  of  April.  His  family,  though  be- 
longing wholly  to  the  equestrian  order,  was  of 
high  antiquity  and  honor,  and  traced  its  descent 
from  the  Lucumones  of  Etruria.  His  paternal 
!  ancestors,  the  Cilnii,  are  mentioned  by  Livy  (x., 
\  3,  5)  as  having  attained  great  power  and  wealth 
1  at  Arretium  about  B.C.  301.  The  maternal 
branch  of  the  family  was  likewise  of  Etruscan 
origin,  and  it  was  from  them  that  the  name 
of  Maecenas  was  derived,  it  being  customary 
among  the  Etruscans  to  assume  the  mother's 
as  well  as  the  father's  name.  It  is  in  allusion 
i  to  this  circumstance  that  Horace  (Sat.,  i.,  6,  3) 
mentions  both  his  anus  maternus  atque  paternus 
as  having  been  distinguished  by  commanding 
numerous  legions  ;  a  passage,  by  the  way,  from 
which  we  are  not  to  infer  that  the  ancestors  of 
Maecenas  had  ever  led  the  Roman  legions.  Al- 
though it  is  unknown  where  Maecenas  received 
his  education,  it  must  doubtless  have  been  a 
careful  one.  We  learn  from  Horace  that  he 
was  versed  both  in  Greek  and  Roman  literature ; 
and  his  taste  for  literary  pursuits  was  shown. 


MAECENAS. 

not  only  by  his  patronage  cf  the  mopt  eminent  | 
poets  of  his  time,  but  also  by  several  perform-  | 
ances  of  his  own,  both  in  verse  and  prose.  It  j 
has  been  conjectured  that  he  became  acquaint-  • 
ed  with  Augustus  at  Apollonia  before  the  death  '. 
of  Julius  Csesar  ;  but  he  is  mentioned  for  the  ; 
first  lime  in  B.C.  40,  and  from  this  year  his  ' 
name  constantly  occurs  as  one  of  the  chief 
friends  and  ministers  of  Augustus.  Thus  we 
find  him  employed  in  B.C.  37  in  negotiating 
with  Antony ;  and  it  was  probably  on  this  oc- 
casion that  Horace  accompanied  him  to  Brun- 
disium,  a  journey  which  he  has  described  in 
the  fifth  satire  of  the  first  bootc.  During  the 
war  with  Antony,  which  was  brought  to  a  close  | 
by  the  battle  of  Actium,  Maecenas  remained  at  j 
Rome,  being  intrusted  with  the  administration  j 
of  the  civil  affairs  of  Italy.  During  this  time  j 
he  suppressed  the  conspiracy  of  the  younger 
Lepidus.  Maecenas  was  not  present  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Actium,  as  some  critics  have  supposed  ; 
and  the  first  epode  of  Horace  probably  does  not 
relate  at  all  to  Actium,  but  to  the  Sicilian  ex- 
pedition against  Sextus  Pompeius.  On  the  re- 
turn of  Augustus  from  Actium,  Maecenas  en- 
joyed a  greater  share  of  his  favor  than  ever, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  Agrippa,  had  the  man- 
agement of  all  public  affairs.  It  is  related  that 
Augustus  at  this  time  took  counsel  with  Agrip- 
pa. and  Maecenas  respecting  the  expediency  of 
restoring  the  republic  ;  that  Agrippa  advised 
him  to  pursue  that  course,  but  that  Maecenas 
strongly  urged  him  to  establish  the  empire. 
For  many  years  Maecenas  continued  to  preserve 
the  uninterrupted  favor  of  Augustus ;  but,  be- 
tween B.C.  21  and  16,  a  coolness,  to  say  the 
least,  had  sprung  up  between  the  emperor  and 
his  faithful  minister,  and  after  the  latter  year 
he  retired  entirely  from  public  life.  The  cause 
of  this  estrangement  is  enveloped  in  doubt. 
Dion  Cassius  positively  attributes  it  to  an  in-  | 
trigue  carried  on  by  Augustus  with  Terentia, 
Maecenas's  wife.  Maecenas  died  B.C.  8,  and 
was  buried  on  the  Esquiline.  He  left  no  chil-  j 
dren,  and  he  bequeathed  his  property  to  Augus- 
tus. Maecenas  had  amassed  an  enormous  for- 
tune. He  had  purchased  a  tract  of  ground  on  ( 
the  Esquiline  Hill,  which  had  formerly  served 
as  a  burial-place  for  the  lower  orders.  (Hor., 
Sat.,  i.,  8,  7.)  Here  he  had  planted  a  garden, 
and  built  a  house,  remarkable  for  its  loftiness, 
on  account  of  a  tower  by  which  it  was  sur- 
mounted, and  from  the  top  of  which  Nero  is 
said  to  have  afterward  contemplated  the  burn- 
ing of  Rome.  In  this  residence  he  seems  to 
have  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  time,  and 
to  have  visited  the  country  but  seldom.  His 
house  was  the  rendezvous  of  all  the  wits  of 
Rome  ;  and  whoever  could  contribute  to  the 
amusement  of  the  company  was  always  wel- 
come to  a  seat  at  his  table.  But  his  really  in- 
timate friends  consisted  of  the  greatest  gen- 
iuses and  most  learned  men  of  Rome  ;  and  if 
it  was  from  his  universal  inclination  toward 
men  of  talent  that  he  obtained  the  reputation 
of  a  literary  patron,  it  was  by  his  friendship  for 
such  poets  as  Virgil  and  Horace  that  he  de- 
served it.  Virgil  was  indebted  to  him  for  the 
recovery  of  his  farm,  which  had  been  appro- 
priated by  the  soldiery  in  the  division  of  lands 
in  B  C.  41  ;  and  it  was  at  the  request  of  Mae- 


M^LIUS,  SP. 

cenas  that  he  undertook  the  Georgics,  the  most 
finished  of  all  his  poems.  To  Horace  he  was  f 
still  greater  benefactor.  He  presented  him  witti 
the  means  of  a  comfortable  subsistence,  a  farm 
in  the  Sahine  country.  If  the  estate  was  but 
a  moderate  one,  we  learn  from  Horace  himsel/ 
that  the  bounty  of  Maecenas  was  regulated  by 
his  own  contented  views,  and  not  by  his  pa- 
tron's want  of  generosity.  (Carm.,  iii.,  16,38.) 
Of  Maecenas's  own  literary  productions  only  a 
few  fragments  exist.  From  these,  however, 
and  from  the  notices  which  we  find  of  his  writ- 
ings in  ancient  authors,  we  are  led  to  think  that 
we  have  not  sutFered  any  great  loss  by  their 
destruction  ;  for,  although  a  good  judge  of  lit- 
erary merit  in  others,  he  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  an  author  of  much  taste  himself.  In 
his  way  of  life  Maecenas  was  addicted  to  every 
species  of  luxury.  We  find  several  allusions 
in  the  ancient  authors  to  the  effeminacy  of  his 
dress.  He  was  fond  of  theatrical  entertain- 
ments, especially  pantomimes,  as  may  be  in- 
ferred from  his  patronage  of  Bathyllus,  the  cel- 
ebrated dancer,  who  was  a  freedman  of  his. 
That  moderation  of  character  which  led  him  to 
be  content  with  his  equestrian  rank,  probably 
arose  from  his  love  of  ease  and  luxury,  or  it 
might  have  been  the  result  of  more  prudent  and 
politic  views.  As  a  politician,  the  principal 
trait  in  his  character  was  fidelity  to  his  master, 
and  the  main  end  of  all  his  cares  was  the  con- 
solidation of  the  empire ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  he  recommended  Augustus  to  put  no  check 
on  the  free  expression  of  public  opinion,  and, 
above  all,  to  avoid  that  cruelty  which  for  so 
many  years  had  stained  the  Roman  annals  with 
blood. 

M^ECIUS  TARPA.     Vid.  TARPA. 

M^EDICA  (MfucJiK)?),  the  country  of  the  Maedi, 
a  powerful  people  in  the  west  of  Thrace,  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Strymon,  and  the  southern 
slope  of  Mount  Scomius.  They  frequently  made 
inroads  into  the  country  of  the  Macedonians,  till 
at  length  they  were  conquered  by  the  latter  peo- 
ple, and  their  land  incorporated  with  Macedonia, 
of  which  it  formed  the  northeastern  district. 

M/ELIUS,  SP.,  the  richest  of  the  plebeian 
knights,  employed  his  fortune  in  buying  up  corn 
in  Etruria  in  the  great  famine  at  Rome  in  B.C. 
440.  This  corn  he  sold  to  the  poor  at  a  small 
price,  or  distributed  it  gratuitously.  Such  lib- 
erality gained  him  the  favor  of  the  plebeians, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  exposed  him  to  the  hatred 
of  the  ruling  class.  Accordingly,  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  accused  of  having  formed  a 
conspiracy  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  the  king- 
ly power.  Thereupon  Cincinnatus  was  appoint- 
ed dictator,  and  C.  Servilius  Ahala  the  master 
of  the  horse.  Maelius  was  summoned  to  appear 
before  the  tribunal  of  the  dictator ;  but  as  he 
refused  to  go,  Ahala,  with  an  armed  band  of 
patrician  youths,  rushed  into  the  crowd  and 
slew  him.  His  property  was  confiscated,  and 
his  house  pulled  down  ;  its  vacant  site,  which 
was  called  the  ASquimalium,  continued  to  sub- 
sequent ages  a  memorial  of  his  fate.  Lqter 
ages  fully  believed  the  story  of  Maelius's  con- 
spiracy, and  Cicero  repeatedly  praises  the  glori- 
ous deed  of  Ahala.  But  his  guilt  is  very  doubt- 
ful. None  of  the  alleged  accomplices  of  Mae- 
lius were  punished  ;  and  Ahala  was  brought  to 

467 


M.ENACA. 

trial,  and  only  escaped  condemnation  by  a  vol- 
untary exile. 

MJENACA  (MatvoK?;),  a  town  in  the  south  of 
Hispania  Bastica,  on  the  coast,  the  most  west- 
erly colony  of  the  Phocaeans. 

M.«NAI>ES  (Maivdfof),  a  name  of  the  Bac- 
chantes, from  naivopai,  "  to  be  mad,1'  because 
they  were  phrensied  in  the  worship  of  Dionysus 
or  Bacchus. 

M/ENALUS  (TO  tJlalvn^nv  or  Mntw/Atoi'  f>po$ : 
now  Ro'inon),  a  mountain  in  Arcadia,  which  ex- 
tended from  Megalopolis  to  Tegea,  was  cele- 
brated as  the  favorite  haunt  of  the  god  Pan. 
From  this  mountain  the  surrounding  country 
was  called  Mffndlia  (MaivaMa) ;  and  on  the 
mountain  was  a  town  Manalus.  The  mountain 
was  so  celebrated  that  the  Roman  poets  fre- 
quently use  the  adjectives  Manalius  and  Mana- 
lis  as  equivalent  to  Arcadian. 

M.ENICS.  1.  C.,  consul  B.C.  338,  with  L.  Fu- 
rius  Camillus.  The  two  consuls  completed  the 
subjugation  of  Latium ;  they  were  both  reward- 
ed with  a  triumph  ;  and  equestrian  statues  were 
erected  to  their  honor  in  the  forurn.  The  statue 
of  Maenius  was  placed  upon  a  column,  which  is 
spoken  of  by  later  writers  under  the  name  of 
Columna  Mama,  and  which  appears  to  have 
stood  near  the  end  of  the  forum,  on  the  Capi- 
toline.  Maenius  was  dictator  in  320,  and  cen- 
sor in  318.  In  his  censorship  he  allowed  bal- 
conies to  be  added  to  the  various  buildings  sur- 
rounding the  forum,  in  order  that  the  spectators 
might  obtain  more  room  for  beholding  the  games 
which  were  exhibited  in  the  forum ;  and  these 
balconies  were  called  after  him  Maniana  (sc. 
adificia). — 2.  The  proposer  of  the  law,  about 
286,  which  required  the  patres  to  give  their 
sanction  to  the  election  of  the  magistrates  be- 
fore they  had  been  elected,  or,  in  other  words, 
to  confer,  or  agree  to  confer,  the  imperium  on 
the  person  whom  the  comitia  should  elect. — 3. 
A  contemporary  of  Lucilius,  was  a  great  spend- 
thrift, who  squandered  all  his  property,  and  aft- 
erward supported  himself  by  playing  the  buffoon. 
He  possessed  a  house  in  the  forum,  which  Cato 
in  his  censorship  (184)  purchased  of  him,  for 
the  purpose  of  building  the  basilica  Porcia. 
Some  of  the  scholiasts  on  Horace  ridiculously 
relate,  that  when  Maenius  sold  his  house,  he  re- 
served for  himself  one  column,  the  Columna 
Maenia,  from  which  he  built  a  balcony,  that  he 
might  thence  witness  the  games.  The  true 
origin  of  the  Columna  Maenia,  and  of  the  balco- 
nies called  Maeniana,  has  been  explained  above. 
(Hor,  Sat.,  i.,  1,  101 ;  i.,  3,  21 ;  Epist.,  i.,  15, 
26.) 

M^ENOBA,  a  town  in  the  southeast  of  Hispania 
Bffitica,  near  the  coast,  situated  on  a  river  of 
the  same  name,  and  twelve  miles  east  of  Malaca. 

[M^ENUS.       Vid.  MCENCS.] 

MJEON  (Mat'wv).  1.  Son  of  Haemon  of  Thebes. 
He  and  Lycophontes  were  the  leaders  of  the 
band  that  lay  in  ambush  against  Tydeus,  in  the 
war  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes.  Maeon  was 
the  only  one  whose  life  was  spared  by  Tydeus. 
Maeon,  in  return,  buried  Tydeus  when  the  latter 
was  slain.— 2.  Husband  of  Dindyme,  the  moth- 
er of  Cybele. — [3.  A  Latin  warrior,  who  was 
wounded  by  ^Eneas  in  the  wars  between  ^Eneas 
and  Turnus  in  Italy.] 

Vid.  LYDIA. 
468 


MAGAS. 


,  i.  e.,  Homer,  eithei 
because  he  was  a  son  of  Maeon,  or  because  he 
was  a  native  of  Mseonia,  the  ancient  name  of 
Lydia.  Hence  he  is  also  called  Maunius  scnex, 
and  his  poems  the  Mtconiee  charta,  or  Maonium 
carmen.  MA:ONIS  also  occurs  as  a  surname  of 
Omphale,  and  of  Arachne,  because  both  were 
Lyclians. 

MJEOT^K.     Vid.  M^EOTIS  PALUS. 

M-SOTIS  PALUS  (rj  Maiomf  /It'/zi^  :  now  Sea  of 
Azov),  an  inland  sea  on  the  borders  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  north  of  the  Pontus  Euxinus  (now 
Black  Sea),  with  which  it  communicates  by  the 
BOSPORUS  CIMIVMSRIUS.  Its  form  may  be  de- 
scribed  roughly  as  a  triangle,  with  its  vertex  at 
its  northeastern  extremity,  where  it  receives 
the  waters  of  the  great  river  Tanais(nowZ)on): 
it  discharges  its  superfluous  water  by  a  constant 
current  into  the  Euxine.  The  ancients  had  very 
vague  notions  of  its  true  form  and  size  :  the  ear- 
lier  geographers  thought  that  both  it  and  the 
Caspian  Sea  were  gulfs  of  the  great  Northern 
Ocean.  The  Scythian  tribes  on  its  banks  were 
called  by  the  collective  name  of  Maeotee  or  Maeo- 
tici  (Matwrat,  MaiuriKoi).  The  sea  had  also  the 
names  of  Cimmerium  or  Bosporicum  Mare. 
^Eschylus  (Prom.,  731)  applies  the  name  of 
Maeotic  Strait  to  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus  (av- 


(Maipa).  1.  The  dog  of  Icarius,  the 
father  of  Erigone.  Vid.  ICARIUS,  No.  1.  —  2. 
Daughter  of  Prcetus  and  Antea,  a  companion  of 
Diana  (Artemis),  by  whom  she  was  killed,  aftei 
she  had  become  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  the  mother 
of  Locrus.  Others  state  that  she  died  a  virgin. 
—  3.  Daughter  of  Atlas,  was  married  to  Tege- 
ates,  the  son  of  Lycaon.  Her  tomb  was  shown 
both  at  Tegea  and  Mantinea  in  Arcadia. 

M^ESA,  JULIA,  sister-in-law  of  Septimius  Se- 
verus,  aunt  of  Caracalla,  and  grandmother  of 
Elagabalus  and  Alexander  Severus.  She  was 
a  native  of  Emesa  in  Syria,  and  seems,  after 
the  elevation  of  Septimius  Severus,  the  husband 
of  her  sister  Julia  Domna,  to  have  lived  at  the 
imperial  court  until  the  death  of  Caracalla,  and 
to  have  accumulated  great  wealth.  She  con- 
trived and  executed  the  plot  which  transferred 
the  supreme  power  from  Macrinus  to  her  grand- 
son ELAOABALUS.  When  she  foresaw  the  down- 
fall of  the  latter,  she  prevailed  on  him  to  adopt 
his  cousin  ALEXANDER  SEVERUS.  By  Severus 
she  was  always  treated  with  the  greatest  re- 
spect ;  she  enjoyed  the  title  of  Augusta  during 
her  life,  and  received  divine  honors  after  her 
death. 

M^EVIUS.     Vid.  BAVIUS. 

MAGABA,  a  mountain  in  Galatia,  ten  Roman 
miles  east  of  Ancyra. 

MAGAS  (Mf2yaf),  king  of  Cyrene,  was  a  step- 
son of  Ptolemy  Soter,  being  the  offspring  of 
Berenice  by  a  former  marriage.  He  was  a 
Macedonian  by  birth  ;  and  he  seems  to  have 
accompanied  his  mother  to  Egypt,  where  he 
soon  rose  to  a  high  place  in  the  favor  of  Ptole- 
my. In  B.C.  308  he  was  appointed  by  that 
monarch  to  the  command  of  the  expedition  des- 
tined for  the  recovery  of  Cyrene  after  the  death 
of  Ophelias.  The  enterprise  was  completely 
successful,  and  Magas  obtained  from  his  step- 
father the  government  of  the  province.  At  first 
he  ruled  over  the  province  only  as  a  dependency 


MA  GDALA. 

'•f  Egypt,  hut  after  the  death  of  Ptolemy  Soter 
tie  not  only  assumed  the  character  of  an  inde- 
pendent monarch,  but  even  made  war  on  the 
King  of  Egypt.  He  married  Apama,  daughter 
of  Antiochus  Soter,  by  whom  he  had  a  daughter, 
Berenice,  afterward  the  wife  of  Ptolemy  Euer- 
gf;tes.  He  died  258. 

[MAGDALA  (M<iy(5a7ia :  Mayda^T/vof,  probably 
the  Old  Testament  Migdal-El :  now  El-Meydel), 
a  village  of  Palestine,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
pjobably  on  the  western  shore,  where  the  mod- 
ern El-Meydel  stands.] 

MAGDOLUM  (MuytJoAov,  MdytfbAov  :  in  the  Old 
Testament,  Migdol),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
near  the  northeastern  frontier,  about  twelve 
miles  southwest  of  Pelusium  :  where  Pharaoh 
Necho  defeated  the  Syrians,  according  to  He- 
rodotus (ii.,  159). 

MAGETOBRIA  (now  Moigte  de  Broie,  on  the 
Saone),  a  town  on  the  western  frontiers  of  the 
Sequani,  near  which  the  Gauls  were  defeated 
by  the  Germans  shortly  before  Caesar's  arrival 
in  Gaul. 

MAGI  (Mdy<n),  the  name  of  the  order  of  priests 
and  religious  teachers  among  the  Mede's  and 
Persians,  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Persian 
word  mag,  mag,  or  mugh,  i.  e.,  a  priest.  There 
is  strong  evidence  that  a  class  similar  to  the 
Magi,  and  in  some  cases  bearing  the  same  name, 
existed  among  other  Eastern  nations,  especially 
the  Chaldaeans  of  Babylon  ;  nor  is  it  at  all  prob- 
able that  either  the  Magi,  or  their  religion,  were 
of  strictly  Median  or  Persian  origin  ;  but,  in 
classical  literature,  they  are  presented  to  us  ! 
almost  exclusively  in  connection  with  Medo-  j 
Persian  history.  Herodotus  represents  them 
as  one  of  the  six  tribes  into  which  the  Median 
people  were  divided.  Under  the  Median  em- 
pire, before  the  supremacy  passed  to  the  Per-  ! 
sians,  they  were  so  closely  connected  with  the 
throne,  and  had  so  great  an  influence  in  the  \ 
state,  that  they  evidently  retained  their  posi-  j 
tion  after  the  revolution  ;  and  they  had  power 
enough  to  be  almost  successful  in  the  attempt  ! 
they  made  to  overthrow  the  Persian  dynasty 
after  the  death  of  Cambyses,  by  putting  forward 
one  of  their  own  number  as  a  pretender  to  the 
throne,  alleging  that  he  was  Smerdis,  the  son 
of  Cyrus,  who  had  been  put  to  death  by  his 
brother  Cambyses.  It  is  clear  that  this  was  a 
plot  to  restore  the  Median  supremacy  ;  but 
whether  it  arose  from  mere  ambition,  or  from 
any  diminution  of  the  power  of  the  Magi  under 
the  vigorous  government  of  Cyrus,  can  not  be 
said  with  certainty.  The  defeat  of  this  Magian 
conspiracy  by  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes  and 
the  other  Persian  nobles  was  followed  by  a  gen-  ! 
eral  massacre  of  the.  Magi,  which  was  celebrated  j 
by  an.  annual  festival  (ru  M.ayo<t>6vta),  during 
which  no  Magian  was  permitted  to  appear  in 
public.  Still  their  position  as  the  only  ministers 
of  religion  remained  unaltered.  The  breaking 
up  of  the  Persian  empire  must  have  greatly 
altered  their  condition  ;  but  they  still  continue 
to  appear  in  history  down  to  the  time  of  the 
later  Roman  empire.  The  "  wise  men"  who 
came  from  the  East  to  Jerusalem  at  the  time 
of  our  Saviour's  birth  were  Magi  (juiyoi  is  their  ; 
name  in  the  original,  Matt.,  ii.,  1).  Simon,  who 
had  deceived  the  people  of  Samaria  before 
Philip  preached  to  them  (Acts  viii.),  ai  d  Elymas,  i 


MAGNENTIUS. 

who  tried  to  hinder  the  conversion  of  Sergius 
Paulus  at  Cyprus  (Acts,  xiii.),  are  both  called 
Magians  ;  but  in  these  cases  the  words  /u<iyof 
and  uayevuv  are  used  in  a  secondary  sense,  for 
a  person  who  pretends  to  the  wisdom,  or  prac- 
tices the  arts  of  the  Magi.  This  use  of  the 
name  occurs  very  early  among  the  Greeks,  and 
from  it'we  get  our  word  magic  (rj  payuci/,  i.  e., 
the  art  or  science  of  the  Magi).  The  constitu- 
tion of  tie  Magi  as  an  order  is  ascribed  by  tra- 
dition to  Zoroastres,  or  Zoroaster  as  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  called  him,  the  Zarathustra  of  the 
Zendavesta  (the  sacred  books  of  the  ancient 
Persians),  and  the  Zerdusht  of  the  modern  Per 
sians  ;  but  whether  he  was  their  founder,  theii 
reformer,  or  the  mythical  representative  of  their 
unknown  origin,  can  not  be  decided.  He  is  said 
to  have  restored  the  true  knowledge  of  the  su- 
preme good  principle  (Ormuzd),  and  to  have 
taught  his  worship  to  the  Magi,  whom  he  divid- 
ed into  three  classes,  learners,  masters,  and  per- 
fect scholars.  They  alone  could  teach  the  truths 
and  perform  the  ceremonies  of  religion,  foretell 
the  future,  interpret  dreams  and  omens,  and  as- 
certain the  will  of  Ormuzd  by  the  arts  of  divi- 
nation. They  had  three  chief  methods  of  divi- 
nation, by  calling  up  the  dead,  by  cups  or  dishes, 
and  by  waters.  The  forms  of  worship  and  div- 
ination were  strictly  defined,  and  were  handed 
down  among  the  Magi  by  tradition.  Like  all 
early  priesthoods,  they  seem  to  have  been  the 
sole  possessors  of  all  the  science  of  their  age. 
To  be  instructed  in  their  learning  was  esteemed 
the  highest  of  privileges,  and  was  permitted, 
with  rare  exceptions,  to  none  but  the  princes 
of  the  royal  family.  Their  learning  became  cel- 
ebrated at  an  early  period  in  Greece,  by  the 
name  of  //uyeta,  and  was  made  the  subject  of 
speculation  by  the  philosophers,  whose  knowl- 
edge of  it  seems,  however,  to  have  been  very 
limited ;  while  their  high  pretensions,  and  the 
tricks  by  which  their  knowledge  of  science  en- 
abled them  to  impose  upon  the  ignorant,  soon 
attached  to  their  name  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  that  bad  meaning  which  is  still  com- 
monly connected  with  the  words  derived  from 
it.  Besides  being  priests  and  men  of  learning, 
the  Magi  appear  to  have  discharged  judicial 
functions. 

[MAGICS,  DECIUS,  one  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed men  at  Capua  in  the  time  of  the  second  Pu- 
nic war,  and  leader  of  the  Roman  party  in  that 
town  in  opposition  to  Hannibal :  on  the  surren- 
der of  the  town  Hannibal  required  him  to  be  de- 
livered up  to  him.] 

MAGNA  GR^ECIA.      Vid.  GRJECIA. 

MAGNA  MATER.      Vid.  RHEA. 

MAGNENTIUS,  Roman  emperor  in  the  West, 
A.D.  350-353,  whose  full  name  was  FI.AVIC* 
POPILIUS  MAONENTIUS.  He  was  a  German  by 
birth,  and  after  serving  as  a  common  soldier 
was  eventually  intrusted  by  Constans,  the  son 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  with  the  command  of 
the  Jovian  and  Herculian  battalions  who  had 
replaced  the  ancient  praetorian  guards  when  the 
empire  was  remodelled  by  Diocletian.  He  avail- 
ed himself  of  his  position  to  organize  a  conspir- 
acy against  the  weak  and  profligate  Constans, 
who  was  put  to  death  by  his  emissaries.  Mag- 
nentius  thereupon  was  acknowledged  as  emper- 
)r  in  all  the  Western  provinces  except  Illyria, 

469 


MAGNES. 

where  Velranio  had  assumed  the  purple.  Con- 
stantius  hurried  from  the  frontier  of  Persia  to 
crush  the  usurpers.  Vetranio  submitted  to  Con- 
stiintius  at  Sardica  in  December,  350.  Mag- 
nentius  was  first  defeated  by  Constantius  at  the 
sanguinary  battle  of  Mursa  on  the  Drave,  in  the 
autumn  of  351,  and  was  obliged  to  fly  into  Gaul. 
He  was  defeated  a  second  time  in  the  passes 
of  the  Cottian  Alps,  and  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life  about  the  middle  of  August,  353.  Magnen- 
lius  was  a  man  of  commanding  stature  and 
great  bodily  strength  ;  but  not  one  spark  of 
virtue  relieved  the  blackness  of  his  career  as  a 
sovereign.  The  power  which  he  obtained  by 
treachery  and  murder  he  maintained  by  extor- 
tion and  cruelty. 

MAGNES  (Muyvj/f),  one  of  the  most  important  ; 
of  the  earlier  Athenian  comic  poets  of  the  old 
comedy,  was  a  native  of  the  demus  of  Icaria  or  | 
Icarius  in  Attica.     He  flourished  B.C.  460  and  \ 
onward,  and  died  at  an  advanced  age,  shortly 
before  the  representation  of  the  Knights  of  Aris- 
tophanes, that  is,  in  423.     (Aristoph.,  Equit., 
524.)    His  plays  contained  a  great  deal  of  coarse 
buffoonery.     [A  few  fragments  of  his  plays  are 
collected  by  Meineke,  Fragm.  Com.  Grac.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  5-6.] 

MAGNESIA  (S&ayvqaia  :  MuyvT/f,  pi.  Mdyv^ref). 
1.  The  most  easterly  district  of  Thessaly,  was  a 
long,  narrow  slip  of  country,  extending  from  the 
Peneus  on  the  north  to  the  Pagasaean  Gulf  on 
the  south,  and  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  great 
Thessalian  plain.  It  was  a  mountainous  coun- 
try, as  it  comprehended  the  Mounts  Ossa  and 
Pelion.  Its  inhabitants,  the  Magnetes,  are  said 
to  have  founded  the  two  cities  in  Asia  mention- 
ed below. — 2.  M.  AD  SIPYLUM  (M.  Trpof  StTrtJAu 
or  two  StTrvAt; :  ruins  at  Manissa),  a  city  in  the 
northwest  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  at  the  foot 
of  the  northwest  declivity  of  Mount  Sipylus, 
and  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Hermus,  is  famous 
in  history  as  the  scene  of  the  victory  gained  by 
the  two  Scipios  over  Antiochus  the  Great,  which 
secured  to  the  Romans  the  empire  of  the  East, 
B.C.  190.  After  the  Mithradatic  war,  the  Ro- 
mans made  it  a  libera  civitas.  It  suffered,  with 
other  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  from  the  great  earth- 
quake in  the  reign  of  Tiberius ;  but  it  was  still 
a  place  of  importance  in  the  fifth  century. — 3. 

M.  AD   M.X  ANDRUM    (M.  1)    TTpOf  MatdfJpV,  M.  £7Tt 

Mcucifdpcj :  ruins  at  Inek-bazar),  a  city  in  the 
southwest  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  situated 
on  the  River  Lethaeus,  a  northern  tributary  of 
the  Maeander.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Cim- 
merians (probably  about  B.C.  700)  and  rebuilt 
by  colonists  from  Miletus,  so  that  it  became  an 
Ionian  city  by  race  as  well  as  position.  It  was 
one  of  the  cities  given  to  Themistocles  by  Ar- 
taxerxes.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  temple  of 
Artemis  Leucophryne,  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful in  Asia  Minor,  the  mins  of  which  still  exist. 

MAGNOPOLIS  (Mayiwro/Uf),  or  EUPATORIA  MAG- 
NOPOUS,  a  city  of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  near 
the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Lycus  and  Iris,  be- 
gun by  Mithradates  Eupator  and  finished  by 
Pompey,  but  probably  destroyed  before  very 
long. 

[MAGNUS  PORTUS.  1.  (Now  Gulf  of  Almena),  a 

harbor  of  Hispania  Baetica,  on  the  Iberian  Gulf, 

between  Abdera  and  the  promontory  Charide- 

mus. — 2.  (Meyof  Atujjv),  a  harbor  on  the  west 

470 


MA  GO 

of  the  north  coast  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis 
among  the  Callaici  Lucenses.  —  3.  (Me'ynf  At 
prjv),  a  haven  on  the  south  coast  of  Britain,  op- 
posite the  island  Vectis  (now  hie  of  Wight), 
now  probably  the  Gulf  of  Portsmouth.} 

[MAGNUS  SINUS  (6  fityaf  nofaof,  now  Gulf 
of  Siam),  the  great  gulf  on  the  east  coast  of  In- 
dia extra  Gangem,  or  the  Chersonesus  Aurea, 
separating  this  from  the  opposite  coast  of  the 
Sins.] 

MAOO  (Mdyuv).  1.  A  Carthaginian,  said  to 
have  been  the  founder  of  the  military  power  of 
that  city,  by  introducing  a  regular  discipline 
and  organization  into  her  armies.  He  flour- 
ished from  B.C.  650  to  500,  and  was  probably 
the  father  of  Hasdrubal,  who  was  slain  in  the 
battle  against  Gelo  at  Himera.  Vid.  HAMIL- 
CAR,  No  1. — 2.  Commander  of  the  Carthaginian 
fleet  under  Himilco  in  the  war  against  Dionys- 
ius,  396.  When  Himilco  returned  to  Africa 
after  the  Disastrous  termination  of  the  expedi- 
tion, Mago  appears  to  have  been  invested  with 
the  chief  command  in  Sicily.  He  carried  on  the 
war  with  Dionysius,  but  in  392  was  compelled 
to  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace,  by  which  he  aban- 
doned his  allies  the  Sicilians  to  the  power  of  Dio- 
nysius. In  383  he  again  invaded  Sicily,  but  was 
defeated  by  Dionysius  and  slain  in  battle. — 3. 
Commanderof  the  Carthaginian  army  in  Sicily  in 
344.  He  assisted  Hicetas  in  the  war  against  Ti- 
moleon  ;  but,  becoming  apprehensive  of  treach- 
ery, he  sailed  away  to  Carthage.  Here  he  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life,  to  avoid  a  worse  fate  at 
the  hands  of  his  countrymen,  who  nevertheless 
crucified  his  lifeless  body. — 4.  Son  of  Hamilcar 
Barca,  and  youngest  brother  of  the  famous  Han- 
nibal. He  accompanied  Hannibal  to  Italy,  and 
after  the  battle  of  Cannae  (216)  carried  the  news 
of  this  great  victory  to  Carthage  ;  but,  instead 
of  returning  to  Italy,  he  was  sent  into  Spain 
with  a  considerable  force  to  the  support  of  his 
other  brother  Hasdrubal,  who  was  hard  pressed 
by  the  two  Scipios  (215).  He  continued  in  this 
country  for  many  years  ;  and  after  his  brother 
Hasdrubal  quitted  Spain  in  208,  in  order  to 
march  to  the  assistance  of  Hannibal  in  Italy, 
the  command  in  Spain  devolved  upon  him  and 
upon  Hasdrubal,  the  son  of  Gisco.  After  their 
decisive  defeat  by  Scipio  at  Silpia  in  206,  Mago 
retired  to  Gades,  and  subsequently  passed  the 
winter  in  the  lesser  of  the  Balearic  Islands, 
where  the  memory  of  his  sojourn  is  still  pre- 
served in  the  name  of  the  celebrated  harbor, 
Portus  Magonis,  or  Port  Mahon.  Early  in  the 
ensuing  summer  (205)  Mago  landed  in  Liguria, 
where  he  surprised  the  town  of  Genoa.  Here 
he  maintained  himself  for  two  years,  but  in  203 
he  was  defeated  with  great  loss,  in  Cisalpine 
Gaul  by  Quintilius  Varus,  and  was  himself  se- 
verely wounded.  Shortly  afterward  he  em- 
barked his  troops  in  order  to  return  to  Africa, 
but  he  died  of  his  wound  before  reaching  Africa. 
Cornelius  Nepos,  in  opposition  to  all  other  au- 
thorities, represents  Mago  as  surviving  the  bat- 
tie  of  Zama,  and  says  that  he  perished  in  a  ship- 
wreck, or  was  assassinated  by  his  slaves. — 5 
Surnamed  the  Samnite,  was  one  of  the  chief  of 
ficers  of  Hannibal  in  Italy,  where  he  held  for  a 
considerable  time  the  chief  command  in  Brut- 
tium. — 6.  Commander  of  the  garrison  of  New 
Carthage  when  that  city  was  taken  by  Seipio 


MAGONIS  PORTUS. 

Africanus,  209.  Mago  was  sent  a  prisoner  to 
Rome. — 7.  A  Carthaginian  of  uncertain  date, 
who  wrote  a  work  upon  agriculture  in  the  Pu- 
t«ic  language,  in  twenty-eight  books.  So  great 
\vas  the  reputation  of  this  work  even  at  Rome, 
that  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  the  sen- 
ate ordered  that  it  should  be  translated  into 
Latin  by  competent  persons,  at  the  head  of 
whom  was  D.  Silanus.  It  was  subsequently 
translated  into  Greek,  though  with  some  abridg- 
ment and  alteration,  by  Cassius  Dionysius  of 
Utica.  Mago's  precepts  on  agricultural  matters 
are  continually  cited  by  the  Roman  writers  on 
those  subjects  in  terms  of  the  highest  commen- 
dation. 

MAGONIS  PORTUS.     Vid.  MAGO,  No.  4. 

MAGONTIACUM.     Vid.  MOGONTIACUM. 

[MAGRADA  (now  Urumea,  or,  according  to  oth- 
ers, Bidassoa),  a  small  river  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis  ] 

MAHARBAL  (MadpSaf),  son  of  Himilco.  and  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  officers  of  Hannibal 
in  the  second  Punic  war.  He  is  first  mention- 
ed at  the  siege  of  Saguntum.  After  the  battle 
of  Cannae  he  urged  Hannibal  to  push  on  at  once 
with  his  cavalry  upon  Rome  itself;  and  on  the 
refusal  of  his  commander,  he  is  said  to  have  ob- 
served, that  Hannibal  knew  indeed  how  to  gain 
victories,  but  not  how  to  use  them. 

MAIA  (Mala  or  Matdf),  daughter  of  Atlas  and 
Pleione,  was  the  eldest  of  the  Pleiades,  and  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  seven  sisters.  In  a  grotto 
of  Mount  Cyllene  in  Arcadia  she  became  by  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  the  mother  of  Mercury  (Hermes). 
Areas,  the  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  by  Callisto, 
was  given  to  her  to  be  reared.  Vid.  PLEIADES. 
Maia  was  likewise  the  name  of  a  divinity  wor- 
shipped at  Rome,  who  was  also  called  Majesta. 
She  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  Vulcan, 
and  was  regarded  by  some  as  the  wife  of  that 
god,  though  it  seems  for  no  other  reason  but 
because  a  priest  of  Vulcan  offered  a  sacrifice  to 
her  on  the  first  of  May.  In  the  popular  super- 
stition of  later  times  she  was  identified  with 
Maia,  the  daughter  of  Atlas. 

MAJORIANUS,  JULIUS  VALERIUS,  Roman  em- 
peror in  the  West,  A.D.  457-461,  was  raised  to 
the  empire  by  Ricimer.  His  reign  was  chiefly 
occupied  in  making  preparations  to  invade  the 
Vandals  in  Africa  ;  but  the  immense  fleet  which 
he  had  collected  for  this  purpose  in  the  harbor 
of  New  Carthage  in  Spain  was  destroyed  by  the 
Vandals  in  460.  Thereupon  he  concluded  a 
peace  with  Genseric.  His  activity  and  popu- 
larity excited  the  jealousy  of  Ricimer,  who  com- 
pelled him  to  abdicate,  and  then  put  an  end  to 
his  life. 

MAJUMA.     Vid.  CONSTANTIA,  No.  3. 

MALAGA  (now  Malaga),  an  important  town  on 
the  coast  of  Hispania  Baetica.  and  on  a  river  of 
the  same  name  (now  Guadalmedina),  was  found- 
ed by  the  Phoenicians,  and  has  always  been  a 
flourishing  place  of  commerce  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  present  day. 

MALALAS.     Vid.  MALELAS. 

MALANGA  (MaAayya),  a  city  of  India,  probably 
the  modern  Madrat. 

MALCHITS  (Mufyof).  1.  Of  Philadelphia  in  Syr- 
ia; a  Byzantine  historian  and  rhetorician,  wrote 
a  history  of  the  empire  from  A.D.  474  to  488, 
of  which  we  have  some  extracts,  published  along 


MAMERCUS. 

with  Dexippus  by  Bekker  and  Niebuhr,  Bonn, 
1829. — [2.  King  of  Arabia  Petraea,  was  contem- 
porary with  Herod  the  Great,  who  fled  to  him 
for  refuge  when  he  was  driven  out  of  Jerusa- 
I  lem  by  Antigonus  and  the  Parthians,  B.C.  40. 
This  was  probably  the  same  Malchus  who  is 
mentioned  by  Hirtius  as  sending  an  auxiliary 
force  of  cavalry  to  Caesar  in  Egypt.] 

MALEA  (MaXe'a  uxpa  :  now  Cape  Maria),  the 
southern  promontory  of  the  island  of  Lesbos. 

MALEA  (MaAe'a  or  MaAeat :   now  Cape  St.  An- 
gela or  Malio  di  St.  Angela),  a  promontory  on 
the  southeast  of  Laconia,  separating  the  Argolic 
and  Laconic  Gulfs ;  the  passage  round  it  was 
much  dreaded  by  sailors.     Here  was  a  temple 
of  Apollo,  who  hence  bore  the  surname  Maledtcs. 
MALELAS   or  MALALAS,  JOANNES  ('luuvvTjc  <> 
;  MaAEAa  or  MaAu?.a),  a  native  of  Antioch,  and  a 
I  Byzantine  historian,  lived  shortly  after  Justin- 
!  ian  the  Great.     The  word  Malalas  signifies  in 
Syriac  an  orator.    He  wrote  a  chronicle  of  uni- 
versal history  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to 
1  the  reign  of  Justinian  inclusive.    Edited  by  Din 
dorf,  Bonn,  1831. 

MALENE  (MaA^v?y),  a  city  of  Mysia,  only  men- 
1  tioned  by  Herodotus  (vi.,  29). 

[MALEVENTUM.  Vid.  BENEVENTUM.] 
MALIACUS  SINUS  (MaPaa/tof  /coATrof  :  now  Bay 
of  Zeitun),  a  narrow  bay  in  the  south  of  Thes- 
saly,  running  west  from  the  northwest  point  of 
the  island  of  Euboea.  On  one  side  of  it  is  the 
Pass  of  Thermopylae.  It  derived  its  name  from 
the  Malienses,  who  dwelt  on  its  shores.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  Lamiacus  Sinus,  from  the 
town  of  Lamia  in  its  neighborhood. 

MALIS  (Ma/Uf  y>7>  Ionic  and  Attic  M^Atf  y?} : 
;  Ma/Uevf  or  M^Ateiif,  Maliensis,  a  district  in  the 
south  of  Thessaly,  on  the  shores  of  the  Malia- 
|  cus  Sinus,  and  opposite  the  northwest  point  of 
I  the  island  of  Eubcea.     It  extended  as  far  as  the 
!  Pass  of  Thermopylae.     Its  inhabitants,  the  Ma- 
'  lians,  were  Dorians,  and  belonged  to  the  Am- 
phictyonic  league. 

MALLI  (MaAAo/),  an  Indian  people  on  both 
sides  of  the  HYDRAOTES  :  tneir  capital  is  sup- 
;  posed  to  have  been  on  the  site  of  the  celebrated 
fortress  of  Mooltan. 

MALLUS  (Ma/Uof),  a  very  ancient  city  of  Ci- 
licia,  on  a  hill  a  little  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Pyramus,  was  said  to  have  been  founded 
at  the  time  of  the  Trojaa  war  by  Mopsus  and 
Amphilochus.  It  had  a  port  called  Magarsa. 

[MALCETAS  (MaAon-af),  a  small  river  of  Arca- 
dia, on  which  Orchomenus  founded  the  colony 
Methydrium.] 

MALUGINENSIS,  a  celebrated  patrician  family 
of  the  Cornelia  gens  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
republic,  the  members  of  which  frequently  held 
the  consulship.  It  disappears  from  history  be- 
fore the  time  of  the  Samnite  wars. 
MALVA.  Vid.  MULUCHA. 
M  AM.V..I.  JUL!A,  a  native  of  Emesa  in  Syri*, 
was  daughter  of  Julia  Mtesa,  and  mother  of 
Alexander  Severus.  She  was  a  woman  of  in- 
tegrity and  virtue,  and  brought  up  her  son  with 
the  utmost  care.  She  was  put  to  death  by  the 
soldiers  along  with  her  son,  A.D.  235. 

MAMERCUS.  1.  Son  of  King  Numa  accord- 
ing to  one  tradition,  and  son  of  Mars  and  Sil- 
via according  to  another. — 2.  Tyrant  of  Cata 
na,  when  Timoleon  landed  in  Sicily,  B.C.  344 

471 


MAMERCUS. 

After  his  defeat  by  Timoleon  he  fled  to  Mcssa-  | 
na,  and  took  refuge  with  Hippon,  tyrant  of  that  | 
city.     But  when  Timoleon  laid  siege  to  Messa- 
na.  Hippon  took  to  flight,  and  Mamercus  sur- 
rendered, stipulating  only  for  a  regular  trial  he- 
fore  the  Syracusans.     But  as  soon  as  he  was 
brought  into  the  assembly  of  the  people  there, 
he  was  condemned  by  acclamation,  and  exe- 
cuted like  a  common  malefactor. 

MAMERCUS  or  MAMERCINUS,  ^SMILIUS,  a  dis- 
tinguished patrician  family  which  professed  to 
derive  its  name  from  Mamercus  in  the  reign  of 
Numa.  1.  L.,  thrice  consul,  namely,  B.C.  484, 
478,  473.— 2.  TIB.,  twice  consul,  470  and  467. 
—3.  MAM.,  thrice  dictator,  437,  433,  and  426. 
In  his  first  dictatorship  he  carried  on  war  against 
theVeientines  and  Fidense.  LarTolumnius,  the 
king  of  Veii,  is  said  to  have  been  killed  in  sin- 
gle combat  in  this  year  by  Cornelius  Cossus. 
In  his  second  dictatorship  ^Emilius  carried  a 
law  limiting  to  eighteen  months  the  duration  of 
the  censorship,  which  had  formerly  lasted  for 
five  years.  This  measure  was  received  with 
great  approbation  by  the  people ;  but  the  cen- 
sors then  in  office  were  so  enraged  at  it  that  : 
they  removed  him  from  his  tribe,  and  reduced  ! 
him  to  the  condition  of  an  eerarian. — 4.  L.,  a 
distinguished  general  in  the  Samnite  wars,  was 
twice  consul,  341  and  329,  and  once  dictator,  | 
335.  In  his  second  consulship  he  took  Priver- 
num,  and  hence  received  the  surname  of  Pri-  | 
vernas. 

MAMERS,  the  Oscan  name  of  the  god  MARS. 

MAMERTINI.     Vid.  MESSANA. 

MAMERTIUM  (Mamertini),  a  town  in  Bruttium,  , 
of  uncertain  site,  founded  by  a  band  of  Sam- 
nites,  who  had  left  their  mother  country  under 
the  protection  of  Mamers  or  Mars  to  seek  a  new  ; 
home. 

MAMILIA  GENS,  plebeian,  was  originally  a  dis- 
tinguished family  in  Tusculum.     They  traced 
their  name  and  origin  to  Mamilia,  the  daughter  i 
of  Telegonus,  the  founder  of  Tusculum,  and  the 
ton  of  Ulysses  and  the  goddess  Circe.     It  was 
to  a  member  of  this  family,  Octavius  Mamilius,  | 
that  Tarquinius  betrothed  his  daughter  ;  and  on 
his  expulsion  from  Rome  he  took  refuge  with 
his  son-in-law,  who,  according  to  the  beautiful  | 
lay  preserved  by  Livy,  roused  the  Latin  people 
against  the  infant  republic,  and  perished  in  the 
great  battle  at  the  Lake  Regillus.     In  B.C.  458, 
the  Roman  citizenship  was  given  to  L.  Mamil- 1 
ms,  the  dictator  of  Tusculum,  because  he  had  j 
two  years  before  marched  to  the  assistance  of , 
the  city  when  it  was  attacked  by  Herdonius.  ; 
The  gens  was  divided  into  three  families,  Lim-  '- 
etanus,  Turrinus,  and  Vitulus,  but  none  of  them  i 
became  of  much  importance. 

MAMMULA,  the  name  of  a  patrician  family  of 
the  Cornelia  gens,  which  never  became  of  much  j 
importance  in  the  state. 

MAMURIUS  VETURIUS.     Vid.  VETURIUS. 

MAMURRA,  a  Roman  eques,  born  at  Formiae, 
was  the  commander  of  the  engineers  (prafectus 
falrum)  in  Julius  Caesar's  army  in  Gaul.  He 
amassed  great  riches,  the  greater  part  of  which, 
however,  he  owed  to  Caesar's  liberality.  He 
was  the  first  person  at  Rome  who  covered  all 
the  walls  of  his  house  with  layers  of  marble, 
and  also  the  first  all  of  the  columns  in  whose 
house  were  made  of  solid  marble.  He  was 
472 


MANES. 

violently  attacked  l>y  Catullus  in  his  poems,  who 
called  him  decoctor  Formianus.  Mnmurra  seems 
to  have  been  alive  in  the  time  of  Horace,  who 
calls  Formiae,  in  ridicule,  Mamurrarum  urbs 
(Sat.,  i.,  5,  37),  from  which  we  may  infer  that 
his  name  had  become  a  by-word  of  contempt. 

[MANASTABAL.      Vid.  MASTANABAL.] 

MANCIA,  HELVIUS,  a  Roman  orator  about  B.C 
90,  who  was  remarkably  ugly,  and  whose  name 
is  recorded  chiefly  in  consequence  of  a  laugh 
being  raised  against  him  on  account  of  his  de- 
formity by  C.  Julius  Caesar  Strabo,  who  was  op- 
posed to  him  on  one  occasion  in  some  lawsuit. 

MANCINUS,  HOSTILIUS.  1.  A.,  was  praetor  ur- 
banus  B.C.  180,  and  consul  170,  when  he  had 
the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Perseus,  king  of 
Macedfania.  He  remained  in  Greece  for  part  of 
the  next  year  (169)  as  proconsul. — 2.  L.,  was 
legate  of  the  consul  L.  Calpurnius  Piso  (148)  in 
the  siege  of  Carthage,  in  the  third  Punic  war. 
He  was  consul  145. — 3.  C.,  consul  137,  had  the 
conduct  of  the  war  against  Numantia.  He  was 
defeated  by  the  Numantincs,  and  purchased  the 
safety  of  the  remainder  of  his  army  by  making 
a  peace  with  the  Numantines.  The  senate  re- 
fused to  recognize  it,  and  went  through  the 
hypocritical  ceremony  of  delivering  him  over  to 
the  enemy  by  means  of  the  fetiales.  This  was 
done  with  the  consent  of  Mancinus,  but  the  en- 
emy refused  to  accept  him.  On  his  return  to 
Rome  Mancinus  took  his  seat  in  the  senate  as 
heretofore,  but  was  violently  expelled  from  it 
by  the  tribune  P.  Rutilius,  on  the  ground  that 
he  had  lost  his  citizenship.  As  the  enemy  had 
not  received  him,  it  was  a  disputed  question 
whether  he  was  a  citizen  or  not  by  the  Jus 
Postliminii  (vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v.  POSTLIMINI- 
UM),  but  the  better  opinion  was  that  he  had  lost 
his  civic  rights,  and  they  were  accordingly  re- 
stored to  him  by  a  lex. 

[MANCUNIUM  (now  Manchester),  a  city  of  the 
Brigantes  in  Britannia,  on  the  road  from  Clano 
venta  to  Mediolanum.] 

MANDANE.     Vid.  CYRUS. 

[MANDELA  (now  Bardela),  a  village  to  the 
southeast  of  Cures,  near  which  stood  Horace's 
Sabine  villa.] 

[MANDROCLES  (MavdposA^f),  an  architect  of 
Samos,  who  constructed  the  bridge  on  which 
Darius  led  his  army  over  the  Thracian  Bospo 
rus :  he  also  made  a  painting  commemorating 
this  labor.] 

MANDONIUS.     Vid.  INDIBILIS. 

MANURUPIUM,  MANDROPUS,  or  MANDRUPOLIS 
(Mai>6pov7ro?U( ),  a  town  in  the  south  of  Phrygia, 
on  the  Lake  Caralitis. 

MANDUBII,  a  people  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  in 
the  modern  Burgundy,  whose  chief  town  was 
ALESIA. 

MANDURIA  (Mavdvpiov  in  Plut.  :  now  Casal 
Nuovo),  a  town  in  Calabria,  on  the  road  from 
Tarentum  to  Hydruntum,  and  near  a  small  lake, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  always  full  to  the 
edge,  whatever  water  was  added  to  or  taken 
from  it.  Here  Archidamus  III.,  king  of  Sparta, 
was  defeated  and  slain  in  battle  by  the  Messa- 
pians  and  Lucanians,  B.C.  338. 

MANES,  the  general  name  by  which  the  Ro- 
mans designated  the  souls  of  the  departed  ;  but 
as  it  is  a  natural  tendency  to  consider  the  souls 
of  departed  friends  as  blessed  spirits,  the  Mane* 


MANETHO 

were  regarded  as  gods,  and  were  worshipped 
with  divine'  honors.  Hence  on  Roman  sepul- 
chres we  find  D.  M.  S.,  that  is,  Dis  Manilas 
Sacrum.  Vid.  LARES.  At  certain  seasons,  which 
were  looked  upon  as  sacred  days  (feriet  deni- 
cales),  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  spirits  of 
the  departed.  An  annual  festival,  which  be- 
longed to  all  the  Manes  in  general,  was  cele- 
brated on  the  nineteenth  of  February,  under  the 
name  of  Feralia  or  Parentalia,  because  it  was 
the  duty  of  children  and  heirs  to  offer  sacrifices 
to  the  shades  of  their  parents  and  benefactors. 

MANETHO  (Maveflwf  or  t&aveduv),  an  Egyptian 
piiest  of  the  town  of  Sebennytus,  who  lived  in 
the  reign  of  the  first  Ptolemy.  He  was  the  first 
Egyptian  who  gave  in  the  Greek  language  an 
account  of  the  religion  and  history  of  his  coun- 
try. He  based  his  information  upon  the  ancient 
works  of  the  Egyptians  themselves,  and  more 
especially  upon  their  sacred  books.  The  work 
in  which  he  gave  an  account  of  the  theology  of 
the  Egyptians,  and  of  the  origin  of  the  gods  and 
the  world,  bore  the  title  of  Tuv  Qvaintiv  'ETTJ- 
ropfi.  His  historical  work  was  entitled  a  His- 
tory of  Egypt.  It  was  divided  into  three  parts 
or  books.  The  first  contained  the  history  of 
the  country  previous  to  the  thirty  dynasties,  or 
what  may  be  termed  the  mythology  of  Egypt, 
and  also  of  the  first  dynasties.  The  second 
opened  with  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  conclu- 
ded with  the  nineteenth  dynasty.  The  third 
gave  the  history  of  the  remaining  eleven  dynas- 
ties, and  concluded  with  an  account  of  Necta- 
nebus,  the  last  of  the  native  Egyptian  kings. 
The  work  of  Manetho  is  lost ;  but  a  list  of  the 
dynasties  is  preserved  in  Julius  Africanus  and 
Eusebius  (most  correct  in  the  Armenian  ver- 
sion), who,  however,  has  introduced  various  in- 
terpolations. According  to  the  calculation  of 
Manetho,  the  thirty  dynasties,  beginning  with 
Menes,  filled  a  period  of  three  thousand  five 
hundred  and  fifty-five  years.  The  lists  of  the 
Egyptian  kings  and  the  duration  of  their  sev- 
eral reigns  were  undoubtedly  derived  by  him 
from  genuine  documents,  and  their  correctness, 
so  far  as  they  are  not  interpolated,  is  said  to  be 
confirmed  by  the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  on 
the  monuments.  There  exists  an  astrological 
poem,  entitled  'A7roreA,eo/*an/ca,  in  six  books, 
which  bears  the  name  of  Manetho  ;  but  this 
poem  is  spurious,  and  can  not  have  been  written 
before  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  Edited  by 
Axt  and  Rigler,  Cologne,  1832. 

MANIA,  a  formidable  Italian,  probably  Etrus- 
can, divinityof  the  lower  world,  called  the  moth- 
er of  the  Manes  or  Lares.  The  festival  of  the 
Compitalia  was  celebrated  as  a  propitiation  to 
Mania  in  common  with  the  Lares. 

MANIUUS.  1.  M.,  was  consul  B.C.  149,  the 
first  year  of  the  third  Punic  war,  and  carried  on 
war  against  Carthage.  He  was  celebrated  as 
a  jurist,  and  is  one  of  the  speakers  in  Cicero's 
De  Republica  (i.,  12).— 2.  C.,  tribune  of  the 
plebs  B.C.  66,  proposed  the  law  granting  to 
Pompey  the  command  of  the  war  against  Mith- 
radates  and  Tigranes,  and  the  government  of 
the  provinces  of  Asia,  Cilicia,  and  Bithynia. 
This  bill  was  warmly  opposed  by  Q.  Catulus, 
Q.  Hortensius,  and  the  leaders  of  the  aristocrat- 
ical  party,  but  was  supported  by  Cicero  in  an 
oration  which  has  come  down  to  us.  At  the 


MANTINJKA. 

1  end  of  his  year  Manilius  was  brought  to  trial  by 
the  aristocratical  party,  and  was  condemned ; 
but  we  do  not  know  of  what  offence  he  was 
accused. — 3.  Also  called  MANLIUS  or  MALUOS, 
a  Roman  poet  of  uncertain  age,  but  is  conjectur 
ed  to  have  lived  in  the  time' of  Augustus.  He 
is  the  author  of  an  astrological  poem  in  five 
books,  entitled  Astronomica.  The  style  of  this 
poem  is  extremely  faulty,  being  harsh  and  ob- 
scure, and  abounding  in  repetitions  and  in  forced 
metaphors.  But  the  author  seems  to  have  con- 
j  suited  the  best  authorities,  and  to  have  adopted 
|  their  most  sagacious  views.  The  best  edition 
is  by  Bentley,  Lond.,  1739. 

MANLIA  GENS,  an  ancient  and  celebrated  patri- 
cian gens  at  Rome.  The  chief  families  were 
those  of  ACIDINUS,  TORQUATUS,  and  VULSO. 

MANLIANA  (Mai^/ava  :  ruins  at  Miliand).  1. 
A  city  of  importance  in  Mauretania  Caesariensis, 
where  one  of  Pompey's  sons  died. — [2.  A  city 
of  Etruria,  on  the  road  leading  from  Rome  ove< 
the  Alpes  Maritimae  to  Arelate  :  it  corresponds 
to  the  modern  Magliana,  near  Siena.'] 

MANUUS,  M.,  consul  B.C.  392,  took  refuge  « 
the  Capitol  when  Rome  was  taken  by  the  Gauls 
in  390.  One  night,  when  the  Gauls  endeavored 
to  ascend  the  Capitol,  Manlius  was  roused  from 
his  sleep  by  the  cackling  of  his  geese  ;  collect- 
ing hastily  a  body  of  men,  he  succeeded  in  driv- 
ing back  the  enemy,  who  had  just  reached  the 
summit  of  the  hill.  From  this  heroic  deed  he 
is  said  to  have  received  the  surname  of  CAPJ 
TOLINUS.  In  395  he  defended  the  cause  of  tho 
plebeians,  who  were  suffering  severely  from 
their  debts,  and  from  the  harsh  and  cruel  treat- 
ment of  their  patrician  creditors.  The  patri- 
cians accused  him  of  aspiring  to  royal  power, 
and  he  was  thrown  into  prison  by  the  dictator 
Cornelius  Cossus.  The  plebeians  put  on  mourn, 
ing  for  their  champion,  and  were  ready  to  tako 
up  arms  in  his  behalf.  The  patricians,  in  alarm, 
liberated  Manlius ;  but  this  act  of  concessioi' 
only  made  him  bolder,  and  he  now  did  not 
scruple  to  instigate  the  plebeians  to  open  vio- 
lence. In  the  following  year  the  patricians 
charged  him  with  high  treason,  and  brought  him 
before  the  people  assembled  in  the  Campus  Mar- 
tius ;  but  as  the  Capitol  which  had  once  been 
saved  by  him  could  be  seen  from  this  place,  the 
court  was  removed  to  the  Pcetelinian  grove,  out- 
side the  Porta  Nomentana.  Here  Manlius  was 
condemned,  and  the  tribunes  threw  him  down 
the  Tarpeian  Rock.  The  members  of  the  Man- 
lia  gens  accordingly  resolved  that  none  of  them 
should  ever  bear  in  future  the  praanomcn  of 
Marcus. 

MANNUS,  a  son  of  Tuisco,  was  regarded  by 
the  ancient  Germans,  along  with  his  father,  as 
the  founders  of  their  race.  They  further  as- 
scribed  to  Mannus  three  sons,  from  whom  the 
three  tribes  of  the  Ingaevones,  Hermiones,  and 
Istaevones  derived  their  names. 

MANTIANA  PALUS.  Vid.  ARSISSA  PALUS.  . 
MANTINEA  (Mavrtveta  :  JAavTivevf  :  now  Pa- 
Icopoli),  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  important 
towns  in  Arcadia,  situated  on  the  small  river 
Ophis,  near  the  centre  of  the  eastern  frontier  of 
the  country.  It  is  celebrated  in  history  for  the 
great  battle  fought  under  its  walls  between  the 
Spartans  and  Thebans,  in  which  Epaminondas 
fell.  B.C.  362.  According  to  tradition,  Manti 

473 


MANTINORUM. 

nea  was  founded  by  Mantineus,  the  son  of  Ly- 
caon,  but  it  was  formed  in  reality  out  of  the 
union  of  four  or  five  hamlets.  Till  the  founda- 
tion of  Megalopolis,  it  was  the  largest  city  in 
Arcadia,  and  it  long  exercised  a  kind  of  suprem- 
acy over  the  other  Arcadian  towns  ;  but  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war  the  Spartans  attacked  the 
city,  and  destroyed  it  by  turning  the  waters  of 
the  Ophis  against  its  walls,  which  were  built  of 
bricks.  After  the  battle  of  Leuctra  the  city  re- 
covered its  independence.  At  a  later  period  it 
joined  the  Achaean  league,  but,  notwithstanding, 
formed  a  close  connection  with  its  old  enemy 
Sparta,  in  consequence  of  which  it  was  severely 
punished  by  Aratus,  who  put  to  death  its  lead- 
ing citizens  and  sold  the  rest  of  its  inhabitants 
as  slaves.  It  never  recovered  the  effects  of 
this  blow.  Its  name  was  now  changed  into 
Antigonia,  in  honor  of  Antigonus  Dosbn,  who 
had  assisted  Aratus  in  his  campaign  against  the 
town.  The  Emperor  Hadrian  restored  to  the 
place  its  ancient  appellation,  and  rebuilt  part  of 
it  in  honor  of  his  favorite  Antinous,  the  Bithyn- 
ian,  who  derived  his  family  from  Mantinea. 

[MANTINORUM  OPPIDUM  (MavTivuv  iroAtf,  very 
probabfy  the  modern  Bastia),  a  place  in  Corsica 
on  the  northwest  coast,  east  of  the  River  Va- 
lerius.] 

[MANTITHEUS  (Mavn'fcof),  an  Athenian,  the 
companion  of  Alcibiades  in  his  escape  from  Sar- 
dis  B.C.  411  :  in  B.C.  408  he  was  one  of  the 
ambassadors  sent  from  Athens  to  Darius  ;  but 
he  and  his  colleagues  were  given  up  to  Cyrus, 
and  kept  in  custody  three  years.] 

MANTIUS  (Mavri'of),  son  of  Melampus,  and 
brother  of  Antiphates.  Vid.  MELAMPUS. 

MANTO  (Movrw,  -off).  1.  Daughter  of  the 
Theban  soothsayer  Tiresias,  was  herself  proph- 
etess of  the  Ismenian  Apollo  at  Thebes.  After 
the  capture  of  Thebes  by  the  Epigoni,  she  was 
sent  to  Delphi  with  other  captives,  as  an  offer- 
ing to  Apollo,  and  there  became  the  prophetess 
of  this  god.  Apollo  afterward  sent  her  and  her 
companions  to  Asia,  where  they  founded  the 
sanctuary  of  Apollo  near  the  place  where  the 
town  of  Colophon  was  afterward  built.  Rha- 
cius,  a  Cretan,  who  had  settled  there,  married 
Manto,  and  became  by  her  the  father  of  Mopsus. 
According  to  Euripides,  she  had  previously  be- 
come the  mother  of  Amphilochus  and  Tisiphone, 
by  Alcmaeon,  the  leader  of  the  Epigoni.  Being 
a  prophetess  of  Apollo,  she  is  also  called  Daphne, 
i.  e.,  the  laurel  virgin. — 2.  Daughter  of  Hercu- 
les, was  likewise  a  prophetess,  and  the  person 
from  whom  the  town  of  Mantua  received  its 
name.  (Virg.,  Mn.,  x.,  199.) 

MANTUA  (Mantuanus  :  now  Mantua).  1.  A 
town  in  GalliaTranspadana,  on  an  island  in  the 
River  Mincius,  •fc'as  not  a  place  of  importance, 
but  is  celebrated  because  Virgil,  who  was  born 
at  the  neighboring  village  of  Andes,  regarded 
Mantua  as  his  birth-place.  It  was  originally  an 
Etruscan  city,  and  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  Manto,  the  daughter  of  Tiresias.— 
[2.  Now  probably  Mondejar),  a  town  of  the  Car- 
petani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  by  some  er- 
roneously regarded  as  Madrid.] 

•MARACANDA  (TU  Mapd/cavda  :  now  Samarkand), 

the  capital  of  the  Persian  province  of  Sogdiana, 

in  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  was  seventy 

st?di»  (seven  geographical  miles)  in  circuit.     It 

474 


MARCELLA. 

was  here  that  Alexander  the  Great  killed  his 
friend  CLITUS. 

MARAPHII  (M.apu<j>iot),  one  of  the  three  noblest 
tribes  of  the  Persians,  standing,  with  the  Mas- 
pii,  next  in  honor  to  the  Pasargadae. 

[MAR  ATM  A  (Mupatfa  :  now  Atzikolo],  a  small 
town  of  Arcadia,  at  the  sources  of  the  Bupha- 
gus,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gortys.] 

MARATHESIUM  (Mapadriatov),  a  town  on  the 
coast  of  Ionia,  between  Ephesus  and  Neapolis  : 
it  belonged  to  the  Samians,  who  exchanged  it 
with  the  Ephesians  for  Neapolis,  which  lay 
nearer  to  their  island.  The  modern  Scala  Nova 
marks  the  site  of  one  of  these  towns,  but  it  is 
doubtful  which. 

MARATHON  (Mapaduv  :  MapaBuvtof),  a  demus 
in  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Leontis,  was 
situated  near  a  bay  on  the  eastern  coast  of  At- 
tica, twenty-two  miles  from  Athens  by  one 
road,  and  twenty-six  miles  by  another.  It  orig- 
inally belonged  to  the  Attic  tetrapolis,  and  is 
said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  hero  Mar- 
athon. This  hero,  according  to  one  account, 
was  the  son  of  Epopeus,  king  of  Sicyon,  who, 
having  been  expelled  from  Peloponnesus  by  the 
violence  of  his  father,  settled  in  Attica  ;  while, 
according  to  another  account,  he  was  an  Arca- 
dian, who  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the 
Tyndaridae  against  Attica,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  death  before  the  battle.  The  site  of  the 
ancient  town  of  Marathon  was  probably  not  at 
the  modern  village  of  Marathon,  but  at  a  place 
called  Vrana,  a  little  to  the  south  of  Marathon. 
Marathon  was  situated  in  a  plain,  which  ex- 
tends along  the  sea-shore,  about  six  miles  in 
length,  and  from  three  miles  to  one  mile  and  a 
half  in  breadth.  It  is  surrounded  on  the  other 
three  sides  by  rocky  hills  and  rugged  mount- 
ains. Two  marshes  bound  the  extremity  of 
the  plain  ;  the  northern  is  more  than  a  square 
mile  in  extent,  but  the  southern  is  much  small- 
er, and  is  almost  dry  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
great  heats.  Through  the  centre  of  the  plain 
runs  a  small  brook.  In  this  plain  was  fought 
the  celebrated  battle  between  the  Persians  and 
Athenians,  B  C.  490.  The  Persians  were  drawn 
up  on  the  plain,  and  the  Athenians  on  some 
portion  of  the  high  ground  above  the  plain  ;  but 
the  exact  ground  occupied  by  the  two  armies 
can  not  be  identified,  notwithstanding  the  in- 
vestigations of  modern  travellers.  The  tumu- 
lus raised  over  the  Athenians  who  fell  in  the 
battle  is  still  to  be  seen. 

MARATHUS  (Mapaflof ),  an  important  city  on  the 
coast  of  Phoenicia,  opposite  to  Aradus  and  near 
Antaradus  :  it  was  destroyed  by  the  people  of 
Aradus  in  the  time  of  the  Syrian  king,  Alexan- 
der Balas,  a  little  before  B.C.  150. 

[MARATHUSA  (MapuOovaa).  1.  A  small  island 
of  the  yEgean  Sea,  on  the  coast  of  Ionia,  near 
Clazomenae. — 2.  A  city  in  the  western  part  of 
Crete  ;  according  to  Hoeck,  probably  on  the 
Promontorium  Drepanum.] 

MARCELLA.  1.  Daughter  of  C.  Marcellus  and 
Octavia,  the  sister  of  Augustus.  She  was  thrice 
married  :  first  to  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa,  who 
separated  from  her  in  B.C.  21,  in  order  to  marry 
Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus  ;  secondly,  to 
JulusAntonius,  the  son  of  the  triumvir,  by  whom 
she  had  a  son  Lucius ;  thirdly,  to  Sextns  Ap- 
puleius,  consul  A.D.  14,  by  whom  she  had  a 


MARCELLINUS. 

Jaughter,  AppuleiaVarilia. — 2.  Wife  of  the  poet 
Martial,  to  whom  he  has  addressed  two  epi- 
grams (xii.,  21,  31).  She  was  a  native  of  Spain, 
and  brought  him  as  her  dowry  an  estate.  As 
Martial  was  married  previously  to  Cleopatra, 
he  espoused  Marcella  probably  after  his  return 
to  Spain  about  A.D.  96. 

MARCELLINUS,  the  author  of  the  life  of  Thu- 
cydides.  Vid.  THUCYDIDES. 

MARCELLUS,  CLACDIUS,  an  illustrious  plebeian 
family.  1.  M.,  celebrated  as  five  times  consul, 
and  the  conqueror  of  Syracuse.  In  his  first  con- 
sulship, B.C.  222,  Marcellus  and  his  colleague 
conquered  the  Insubrians  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and 
took  their  capital  Mediolanum.  Marcellus  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  slaying  in  battle  with  his 
own  hand  Britomartus  or  Viridomarus,  the  king 
of  the  enemy,  whose  spoils  he  afterward  dedi- 
cated as  spolia  opima  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Feretrius.  This  was  the  third  and  last  instance 
in  Roman  history  in  which  such  an  offering  was 
made.  In  216  Marcellus  was  appointed  praetor, 
and  rendered  important  service  to  the  Roman 
cause  in  the  south  of  Italy  after  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Cannae.  In  215  he  remained  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  with  the  title  of  proconsul.  In 
the  course  of  the  same  year  he  was  elected 
consul  in  the  place  of  Postumius  Albinus,  who 
had  been  killed  in  Cisalpine  Gaul ;  but  as  the 
senate  declared  that  the  omens  were  unfavor- 
able, Marcellus  resigned  the  consulship.  In 
214  Marcellus  was  consul  a  third  time,  and  still 
continued  in  the  south  of  Italy,  where  he  car- 
ried on  the  war  with  ability,  but  without  ob- 
taining any  decisive  results.  In  the  summer 
of  this  year  he  was  sent  into  Sicily,  since  the 
party  favorable  to  the  Carthaginians  had  ob- 
tained the  upper  hand  in  many  of  the  cities  in 
the  island.  After  taking  Leontini,  he  proceed- 
ed to  lay  siege  to  Syracuse,  both  by  sea  and 
land.  His  attacks  were  vigorous  and  unremit- 
ting ;  but,  though  he  brought  many  powerful 
military  engines  against  the  walls,  these  were 
rendered  wholly  unavailing  by  the  superior  skill 
and  science  of  Archimedes,  who  directed  those 
of  the  besieged.  Marcellus  was  at  last  com- 
pelled to  give  up  all  hopes  of  carrying  the  city 
by  open  force,  and  to  turn  the  siege  into  a  block- 
ade. It  was  not  till  212  that  he  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  place.  It  was  given  up  to  plun- 
der, and  Archimedes  was  one  of  the  inhabitants 
slain  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  The  booty  found 
in  the  captured  city  was  immense  ;  and  Mar- 
cellus also  carried  off  many  of  the  works  of 
art  with  which  the  city  had  been  adorned,  to 
grace  the  temples  at  Rome.  This  was  the  first 
instance  of  a  practice  which  afterward  liecame 
so  general.  In  210  he  was  consul  a  fourth  time, 
and  again  had  the  conduct  of  the  war  against 
Hannibal.  He  fought  a  battle  with  the  Cartha- 
ginian general  near  Numistro  in  Lucania,  but 
without  any  decisive  result.  In  209  he  retain- 
ed the  command  of  his  army  with  the  rank  of 
proconsul.  In  208  he  was  consul  for  the  fifth 
time.  He  and  his  colleague  were  defeated  by 
Hannibal  near  Venusia,  and  Marcellus  himself 
was  slain  in  the  battle.  He  was  buried  with 
all  due  honors  by  order  of  Hannibal.  Marcel- 
lus appears  to  have  been  a  rude,  stern  soldier, 
brave  and  daring  to  excess,  but  harsh,  unyield- 
ing, and  cruel.  The  great  praise?  bestowed 


MARCELLUS,  CLAUDIUS. 

upon  Marcellus  by  the  Roman  historians  are 
certainly  undeserved,  and  probably  found  their 
way  into  history  from  his  funeral  oration  by  his 
son,  which  was  used  as  an  authority  by  some 
of  the  earlier  annalists. — 2.  M.,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, accompanied  his  father  as  military  trib- 
une in  208,  and  was  present  with  him  at  fhfi 
time  of  his  death.  In  204  he  was  tribune  of 
the  people ;  in  200,  curule  aedile  ;  in  198, praetor; 
and  in  196,  consul.  In  his  consulship  he  carried 
on  the  war  against  the  Insubrians  and  Boii  in 
Cisalpine  Gaul.  He  was  censor  in  189. — 3.  M., 
consul  183,  carried  on  the  war  against  the  Li- 
gurians. — 4.  M.,  son  of  No.  2,  was  thrice  consul, 
first  in  166,  when  he  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Alpine  tribes  of  the  Gauls ;  secondly  in  155, 
when  he  defeated  the  Ligurians  ;  and  thirdly  in 
152,  when  he  carried  on  the  war  against  the 
Celtiberians  in  Spain.  In  148  he  was  sent 
ambassador  to  Masinissa,  king  of  Numidia,  but 
was  shipwrecked  on  the  voyage,  and  perished. 
— 5.  M.,  an  intimate  friend  of  Cicero,  is  first 
mentioned  as  curule  aedile  with  P.  Clodius  in 
56.  He  was  consul  in  51,  and  showed  himself 
a  bitter  enemy  to  Caesar.  Among  other  ways 
in  which  he  displayed  his  enmity,  he  caused  a 
citizen  of  Comum  to  be  scourged,  in  order  to 
show  his  contempt  for  the  privileges  lately  be- 
stowed by  Caesar  upon  that  colony.  But  the 
animosity  of  Marcellus  did  not  blind  him  to  the 
imprudence  of  forcing  on  a  war  for  which  his 
party  was  unprepared  ;  and  at  the  beginning  of 
49  he  in  vain  suggested  the  necessity  of  mak- 
ing levies  of  troops,  before  any  open  steps  were 
taken  against  Caesar.  His  advice  was  over- 
ruled, and  he  was  among  the  first  to  fly  from 
Rome  and  Italy.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia 
(48)  he  abandoned  all  thoughts  of  prolonging 
the  contest,  and  withdrew  to  Mytilene,  where 
he  gave  himself  up  to  the  pursuits  of  rhetoric 
and  philosophy.  Marcellus  himself  was  un- 
willing to  sue  to  the  conqueror  for  forgiveness, 
but  his  friends  at  Rome  were  not  backward  in 
their  exertions  for  that  purpose.  At  length,  in 
46,  in  a  full  assembly  of  the  senate,  C.  Mar- 
cellus, the  cousin  of  the  exile,  threw  himself  at 
Caesar's  feet  to  implore  the  pardon  of  his  kins- 
man, and  his  example  was  followed  by  the 
whole  body  of  the  assembly.  Caesar  yielded  to 
this  demonstration  of  opinion,  and  Marcellus 
was  declared  to  be  forgiven.  Cicero  thereupon 
returned  thanks  to  Caesar,  in  the  oration  Pro 
Marcello,  which  has  come  down  to  us.  Marcel 
lus  set  out  on  his  return  ;  but  he  was  murder 
ed  at  the  Piraeus  by  one  of  his  own  attendants, 
P.  Magius  Chilo. — 6.  C.,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  consul  49.  He  is  constantly  confound- 
ed with  his  cousin,  C.  Marcellus  (No.  8),  who 
was  consul  in  50.  He  accompanied  his  col- 
league, Lentulus,  in  his  flight  from  Rome,  and 
eventually  crossed  over  to  Greece.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  (48)  he  commanded  part  of  Pom- 
pey's  fleet ;  but  this  is  the  last  we  hear  of  him. 
— 7.  C.,  uncle  of  the  two  preceding,  was  prae- 
tor in  80,  and  afterward  succeeded  M.  Lepidus 
in  the  government  of  Sicily.  His  administra- 
tion of  the  province  is  frequently  praised  by 
Cicero  in  his  speeches  against  Verres,  as  af- 
fording the  most  striking  contrast  to  that  of  the 
accused.  Marcellus  himsfclf  was  present  on 
tnat  occasion,  as,  one  of  the  judges  of  Verres. 

475 


MARCELLUS,  EPRIUS. 

—8.  C  ,  son  of  the  preceding,  and  first  cousin 
of  M.  Marcellus  (No.  5),  whom  he  succeeded  in 
the  consulship,  50.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship 
of  Cicero  from  an  early  age,  and  attached  him- 
self to  the  party  of  Pompey,  notwithstanding 
his  connection  with  Caesar  hy  his  marriage 
with  Octavia.  In  his  consulship  he  was  the  ad- 
vocate of  all  the  most  violent  measures  against 
Caesar ;  but  when  the  war  actually  broke  out, 
he  displayed  the  utmost  timidity  and  helpless- 
ness. He  could  not  make  up  his  mind  to  join 
the  Pompeian  party  in  Greece  ;  and  after  much 
hesitation,  he  at  length  determined  to  remain  in 
Italy.  He  readily  obtained  the  forgiveness  of 
Caesar,  and  thus  was  able  to  intercede  with  the 
dictator  in  favor  of  his  cousin,  M.  Marcellus 
(No.  5).  He  must  have  lived  till  near  the  close 
of  41,  as  his  widow,  Octavia,  was  pregnant  by 
him  when  betrothed  to  Antony  in  the  following 
year. — 9.  M.,  son  of  the  preceding  and  of  Oc- 
tavia, the  daughter  of  C.  Octavius  and  sister  of 
Augustus,  was  born  in  43.  As  early  as  39  he 
was  betrothed  in  marriage  to  the  daughter  of 
Sextus  Pompey;  but  the  marriage  never  took 
place,  as  Pompey's  death  in  35  removed  the  oc- 
casion for  it.  Augustus,  who  had  probably  des- 
tined the  young  Marcellus  as  his  successor, 
adopted  him  as  his  son  in  25,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  gave  him  his  daughter  Julia  in  marriage. 
In  23  he  was  curule  aedile,  but  in  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year  he  was  attacked  by  the  disease 
of  which  he  died  shortly  after  at  Baiae,  notwith- 
standing all  the  skill  and  care  of  the  celebrated 
physician  Antonius  Musa.  He  was  in  the  twen- 
tieth year  of  his  age,  and  was  thought  to  have 
given  so  much  promise  of  future  excellence 
that  his  death  was  mourned  as  a  public  calam- 
ity ;  and  the  grief  of  Augustus,  as  well  as  that 
of  his  mother  Octavia,  was  for  a  time  unbound- 
ed. Augustus  himself  pronounced  the  funeral 
oration  over  his  remains,  which  were  deposited 
in  the  mausoleum  lately  erected  for  the  Julian 
family.  At  a  subsequent  period  (14)  Augustus 
dedicated  in  his  name  the  magnificent  theatre 
near  the  Forum  Olitorium,  of  which  the  re- 
mains are  still  visible.  But  the  most  durable 
monument  to  the  memory  of  Marcellus  is  to  be 
found  in  the  well-known  passage  of  Virgil  (JEn., 
vi.,  860-886),  which  must  have  been  recited  to 
Augustus  and  Octavia  before  the  end  of  22. — 
10.  M.,  called  by  Cicero,  for  distinction's  sake, 
the  father  of  ^Eserninus  (Brut.,  36),  served  un- 
der Marius  in  Gaul  in  102,  and  as  one  of  the 
lieutenants  of  L.  Julius  Caesar  in  the  Marsic 
war,  90. — 11.  M.  CLAUDIUS  MARCELLUS  JEsER- 
NINUS,  son  or  grandson  of  No.  10,  quaestor  in 
Spain  in  48,  under  Q.  Cassius  Longinus,  took 
part  in  the  mutiny  of  the  soldiers  against  Cas- 
sius. — 12.  P.  CORNELIUS  LENTULUS  MARCEL- 
LINUS,  son  of  No.  10,  must  have  been  adopted 
by  one  of  the  Cornelii  Lentuli.  He  was  one 
of  Pompey's  lieutenants  in  the  war  against  the 
pirates,  B.C.  67.— 13.  CN.  CORNELIUS  LENTULUS 
MARCELLINUS,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  praetor 
59,  after  which  he  governed  the  province  of 
Syria  for  nearly  two  years,  and  was  consul  56, 
when  he  showed  himself  a  friend  of  the  aristo- 
cratical  party,  and  opposed  all  the  measures  of 
the  triumvirate. 

MARCELLUS,  EPRIUS,  born  of  an  obscure  fam- 
ilv  at  Capua,  rose  by  his  oratorical  talents  to 
476 


MARCIA  GENS. 

:  distinction  at  Rome  in  the  reigns  of  Claudius, 
i  Nero,  and  Vespasian.     He  was  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal delators  under  Nero,  and  accused  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  time.    He 
was  brought  to  trial  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian, 
j  but  was  acquitted,  and  enjoyed  the  patronage 
j  and  favor  of  this  emperor  as  well.     In  A.D.  69, 
however,  he  was  convicted  of  having  taken  pait 
\  in  the  conspiracy  of  Alienus  Caecina,  and  there- 
fore put  an  end  to  his  own  life. 

MARCELLUS,  Nomus,  a  Latin  grammarian,  the 
author  of  an  important  treatise,  entitled  De 
Compendiosa  Doctrina  per  Litteras  ad  Filium, 
sometimes,  but  erroneously,  called  De  Propric- 
tate  Sermonis.  He  must  have  lived  between 
the  second  and  sixth  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era.  His  work  is  divided  into  eighteen  chap- 
ters, but  of  these  the  first  twelve  are  in  reality 
separate  treatises  on  different  grammatical  sub- 
jects. The  last  six  are  in  the  style  of  the  Ono- 
masticon  of  Julius  Pollux,  each  containing  a 
series  of  technical  terms  in  some  one  depart- 
ment.  The  whole  work  contains  numerous 
quotations  from  the  earlier  Latin  writers.  The 
best  edition  is  by  Gerlach  and  Roth,  Basil.,  1842. 
MARCELLUS  SIDETES,  a  native  of  Side  in  Pam- 
phylia,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Anto- 
ninus Pius,  A.D.  117-161.  He  wrote  a  long 
medical  poem  in  Greek  hexameter  verse,  con- 
sisting of  forty-two  books,  of  which  two  frag- 
ments remain,  [and  are  found  in  the  Corpus 
Poetarum  of  Maittaire.] 

MARCELLUS,  ULPIUS,  a  jurist,  lived  under  An- 
toninus Pius  and  M.  Aurelius.  He  is  often 
cited  in  the  Digest. 

MARCIA.  1.  Wife  of  M.  Regulus,  who  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Carthaginians. — 2.  Wife 
of  M.  Cato  Uticensis,  daughter  of  L.  Marcius 
Philippus,  consul  B.C.  56.  It  was  about  56 
that  Cato  is  related  to  have  ceded  her  to  his 
friend  Q.  Hortensius,  with  the  approbation  of 
her  father.  She  continued  to  live  with  Hor- 
tensius till  the  death  of  the  latter  in  50,  after 
which  she  returned  to  Cato. — 3.  Wife  of  Fabius 
Maximus,  the  friend  of  Augustus,  learned  from 
her  husband  the  secret  visit  of  the  emperor  to 
his  grandson  Agrippa,  and  informed  Livia  of  it, 
in  consequence  of  which  she  became  the  cause 
of  her  husband's  death,  A.D.  13  or  14.  She  is 
mentioned  on  two  or  three  occasions  by  Ovid. 
— 4.  Daughter  of  Cremutius  Cordus.  Vid.  COR- 
DUS. — 5.  The  favorite  concubine  of  Commodus, 
organized  the  plot  by  which  the  emperor  perish- 
ed. Vid.  COMMODUS.  She  subsequently  became 
the  wife  of  Eclectus,  his  chamberlain,  also  a 
conspirator,  and  was  eventually  put  to  death  by 
Julianus,  along  with  Lastus,  who  also  had  been 
actively  engaged  in  the  plot. 

[MARCIA  AQUA,  a  Roman  aqueduct  commenc- 
ed by  the  praetor  Marcius  Rex  145  B.C.,  and  fin- 
ished by  him  in  the  following  year,  his  term  of 
office  having  been  renewed  for  that  purpose.  It 
passed  near  Tibur,  and  through  the  country  of 
the  Peligni  and  Marsi,  and  supplied  Rome  with 
its  best  water:  vid.  ROMA  p.  753  b.] 

MARCIA  GENS,  claimed  to  oe  descended  from 
Ancus  Marcius,  the  fourth  king  of  Rome.  Vid. 
ANCUS  MARCIUS.  Hence  one  of  its  families  sub- 
sequently assumed  the  name  of  Rex,  and  the 
heads  of  Numa  Pompilius  and  Ancus  Marcius 
were  placed  uoon  the  coins  of  the  Marcii.  But, 


MARCIANA. 

notwithstanding  these  claims  to  such  high  an- 
tiquity, no  patricians  of  this  name,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Coriolanus,  are  mentioned  in  the  ear- 
ly history  of  the  republic  (vid.  COKIOLANCS)  ; 
and  it  was  not  till  after  the  enactment  of  the 
Licinian  laws  that  any  member  of  the  gens  ob- 
tained the  consulship.  The  names  of  the  most 
distinguished  families  are  CENSORINUS,  PHILIP- 
PUS.  REX.  and  RUTILUS. 

iMARciANA,  the  sister  of  Trajan,  and  mother 
of  Matidia,  who  was  the  mother  of  Sabina,  the 
wife  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian. 

M.ARciANOPSLis  (Map/uavot'ToAtf),  an  import- 
ant city  in  the  interior  of  Mcesia  Inferior,  west 
of  Odessus,  founded  by  Trajan,  and  named  after 
his  sister  Marciana.  It  was  situated  on  the  high 
road  from  Constantinople  to  the  Danube.  It 
subsequently  became  the  capital  of  the  Bulga- 
rians, who  called  it  Pristhlava  (UpiaQ/Ma), 
whence  its  modern  name  Presthlaw,  but  the 
Greeks  still  call  it  Marcenopoli. 

MARCIANUS.  1.  Emperor  of  the  East  A.D. 
450^457,  was  a  native  of  Thrace  or  Illyricum, 
and  served  for  many  years  as  a  common  soldier 
in  the  imperial  army.  Of  his  early  history  we 
have  only  a  few  particulars  ;  but  he  had  attain- 
ed such  distinction  at  the  death  of  Theodosius 
II.  in  450,  that  the  widow  of  the  latter,  the  cel- 
ebrated Pulcheria,  offered  her  hand  and  the  im- 
perial title  to  Marcian,  who  thus  became  Em- 
peror of  the  East.  Marcian  was  a  man  of  res- 
olution and  bravery ;  and  when  Attila  sent  to 
demand  the  tribute  which  the  younger  Theodo- 
sius had  engaged  to  pay  annually,  the  emperor 
sternly  replied,  "  I  have  iron  for  Attila,  but  no 
gold."  Attila  swore  vengeance ;  but  he  first 
invaded  the  Western  Empire,  and  his  death, 
two  years  afterward,  saved  the  East.  In  451 
Marcian  assembled  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  in 
which  the  doctrines  of  the  Eutychians  were  con- 
demned. He  died  in  457,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Leo. — 2.  Of  Heraclea  in  Pontus,  a  Greek 
geographer,  of  uncertain  date,  but  who  perhaps 
lived  in  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
He  wrote  a  work  in  prose,  entitled  "  A  Periplus 
of  the  External  Sea,  both  eastern  and  western, 
and  of  the  largest  Islands  in  it."  The  External 
Sea  he  used  in  opposition  to  the  Mediterranean. 
This  work  was  in  two  books  ;  of  which  the  for- 
mer, on  the  East  and  South  Seas,  has  come 
down  to  us  entire  ;  but  of  the  latter,  which 
treated  of  the  West  and  North  Seas,  we  pos- 
sess only  the  three  last  chapters  on  Africa,  and 
a  mutilated  one  on  the  distance  from  Rome  to 
the  principal  cities  in  the  world.  In  this  work 
he  chiefly  follows  Ptolemy.  He  also  made  an 
epitome  of  the  Periplus  of  Artemidorus  of  Eph- 
esus  (vid.  ARTEMIDORUS,  No.  4),  of  which  we 
possess  the  introduction,  and  the  periplus  of 
Pontus,  Bithynia,  and  Paphlagonia.  Marcianus 
likewise  published  an  edition  of  Menippus  with 
additions  and  corrections.  Vid.  MENIPPUS.  The 
works  of  Marcianus  are  edited  by  Hudson,  in 
the  Geographi  Gra;ci  Minorca,  and  separately  by 
Hoffmann,  Marciani  Periplus,  &c.,  Lips.,  1841. 

MARCIANUS,  .(Ei-ius,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  lived 
under  Caracalla  and  Alexander  Severus.  His 
works  are  frequently  cited  in  the  Digest. 

MARCIANUB  CAPELLA.      Vid.  CAPKU.A. 

MARCIUS,  an  Italian  seer,  whose  prophetic 
terses  (Carnina  Ma'tiana)  were  first  disco ver- 


MARDTIS. 

ed  by  M.  Atilius,  the  praetor,  in  B.C.  213.  They 
were  written  in  Latin,  and  two  extracts  from 
them  are  given  by  Livy,  one  containing  a  proph- 
ecy of  the  defeat  of  the  Romans  at  Cannae,  and 
the  second,  commanding  the  institution  of  the 
Ludi  Apollinares.  The  Marcian  prophecies 
were  subsequently  preserved  in  the  Capitol 
with  the  Sibylline  books.  Some  writers  men- 
tion only  one  person  of  this  name,  but  others 
speak  of  two  brothers,  the  Marcii. 

MARCIUS.     Vid.  MARCIA  GENS. 

[MARCODURUM  (now  Diiren),  a  city  of  thft 
Ubii  in  Germania  Inferior.] 

MARCOMANNI,  that  is,  men  of  the  mark  or  boi 
der,  a  powerful  German  people  of  the  Suevic 
race,  originally  dwelt  in  the  southwest  of  Ger 
many,  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Main  ;  but  under  the  guidance 
of  their  chieftain  Maroboduus,  who  had  been 
brought  up  at  the  court  of  Augustus,  they  mi- 
grated into  the  land  of  the  Boii,  a  Celtic  race, 
who  inhabited  Bohemia  and  part  of  Bavaria. 
Here  they  settled  after  subduing  the  Boii,  and 
founded  a  powerful  kingdom,  which  extended 
south  as  far  as  the  Danube.  Vid.  MAROBODUUS. 
At  a  later  time,  the  Marcomanni,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Quadi  and  other  German  tribes, 
carried  on  a  long  and  bloody  war  with  the  Em- 
peror M.  Aurelius,  which  lasted  during  the  great- 
er part  of  his  reign,  and  was  only  brought  to  a 
conclusion  by  his  son  Commodus  purchasing 
peace  of  the  barbarians  as  soon  as  he  ascended 
the  throne,  A.D.  180. 

MARDENE  orMARDYENE  (Mapd^v r/,  MapJujyvj?), 
a  district  of  Persis,  extending  north  from  Tao- 
cene  to  the  western  frontier  and  to  the  sea- 
coast.  It  seems  to  have  taken  its  name  from 
some  branch  of  the  great  people  called  Mardi  or 
Amardi,  who  are  found  in  various  parts  of  west- 
ern and  central  Asia ;  for  example,  in  Arme- 
nia, Media,  Margiana,  and,  under  the  same  form 
of  name  as  those  in  Persis,  in  Sogdiana. 

MARDI.      Vid.  AMARDI,  MARDENE. 

MARDONIUS  (Map<56i>tof),  a  distinguished  Per- 
sian, was  the  son  of  Gobryas,  and  the  son-in- 
law  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  In  B.C.  492  he  was 
sent  by  Darius  with  a  large  armament  to  pun- 
ish Eretria  and  Athens  for  the  aid  they  had 
given  to  the  lonians.  But  his  expedition  was 
an  entire  failure.  His  fleet  was  destroyed  by  a 
storm  off  Mount  Athos,  and  the  greater  part  ot 
his  land  forces  was  destroyed  on  his  passage 
through  Macedonia  by  the  Brygians,  a  Thra- 
cian  tribe.  In  consequence  of  his  failure,  he 
was  superseded  in  the  command  by  Datis  and 
Artaphernes,  490.  On  the  accession  of  Xerxes, 
Mardonius  was  one  of  the  chief  instigators  of 
the  expedition  against  Greece,  with  the  gov 
ernment  of  which  he  hoped  to  he  invested  aftei 
its  conquest ;  and  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
generals  of  the  land  army.  After  the  battle  of 
Salamis  (480)  he  became  alarmed  for  the  con- 
sequences of  the.  advice  he  had  given,  and  per- 
suaded Xerxes  to  return  home  with  the  rest 
of  the  army,  leaving  three  hundred  thousand 
men  under  his  command  for  the  subjugation  of 
Greece.  He  was  defeated  in  the  following  year 
(470  B.C.),  near  Plataeae,  by  the  combined  Greek 
forces  under  the  command  of  Pausanias,  and 
was  slain  in  the  battle. 

MARDUS.      Vid.  AMARDUS. 

477 


MARDYENE. 

MARDYEVK,  A!ARDYENI.     Vid.  MARDENE. 

MAREA,  -EA,  -IA  (Map«;,  Mapeia,  Mapaz:  Ma- 
t»eor/7f,  Mareota  :  ruins  at  Mariouth),  a  town  of 
Lower  Egypt,  in  the  district  of  Mareotis,  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  Lake  Mareotis,  at  the  mouth 
of  a  canal. 

MAREOTIS  (Maprwrtf).     1.   Also  called  Mape- 
arr/e  No^fif,  a  district  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the 
extreme  northwest,  on  the  borders  of  the  Lib-  | 
yas  Nomos :  it  produced  good  wine. — 2.  A  town  i 
in  the  interior  of  the  Libya;  Nomos,  between  i 
the  Oasis  of  Ammon  and  the  Oasis  Minor. 

MAREOTIS  or  MAREA  or  (-IA)  LACUS  (ij  Mapew- 
rif,  Mape/a,  JAapia  lipvij :  now  Birket-Mariouth, 
or  El-Kreit),  a  considerable  lake  in  the  north- 
west of  Lower  Egypt,  separated  from  the  Med-  j 
iterranean  by  the  neck  of  land  on  which  Alex- 
andrea  stood,  and  supplied  with  water  by  the 
Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  and  by  canals.     It  ! 
was  less  than  three  hundred  stadia  (thirty  geo- 
graphical miles)  long,  and  more  than  one  hund- 
red and  fifty  wide.  It  was  surrounded  with  vines, 
palms,  and  papyrus.     It  served  as  the  port  of  j 
Alexandrea  for  vessels  navigating  the  Nile. 

MARES  (Maptf),  a  people  of  Asia,  on  the  north- 
ern coast  of  the  Euxine,  who  served  in  the  army 
of  Xerxes,  being  equipped  with  helmets  of  wick- 
er-work, leathern  shields,  and  javelins. 

MARESA,  MARESCHA  (Map^au,  Mapiad,  Mapia- 
va,  Mapm^u:  probably  ruins  southeast  of  Beit 
Jibrin),  an  ancient  fortress  of  Palestine,  in  the 
south  of  Judaea,  of  some  importance  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  early  kings  of  Judah  and  of  the  Mac- 
cabees. The  Parthians  had  destroyed  it  before 
the  time  of  Eusebius ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
its  ruins  contributed  to  the  erection  of  the  city 
of  Eleutheropolis  (now  Beit  Jibrin),  which  was 
afterward  built  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Baeto- 
gabra,  two  Roman  miles  northwest  of  Maresa. 

MARESCHA.      Vid.  MARESA. 

MARGIANA  (fj  Mapytav;?  :  the  southern  part  of 
Khiva,  southwest  part  of  Bokhara,  and  north- 
east part  of  Khorassari),  a  province  of  the  an- 
cient Persian  empire,  and  afterward  of  the  Gre- 
co-Syrian, Parthian,  and  Persian  kingdoms  in 
Central  Asia,  north  of  the  mountains  called 
Sariphi  (now  Ghoor),  a  part  of  the  chain  of  the 
Indian  Caucasus,  which  divided  it  from  Aria  ; 
and  bounded  on  the  east  by  Bactriana,  on  the 
northeast  and  north  by  the  River  Oxus,  which 
divided  it  from  Sogdiana  and  Scythia,  and  on 
the  west  by  Hyrcania.     It  received  its  name 
from  the  River  Margus  (now  Moorghab),  which 
flows  through  it,  from  southeast  to  northwest, 
and  is  lost  in  the  sands  of  the  Desert  of  Khiva.  \ 
On  this  river,  near  its  termination,  stood  the  ! 
capital  of  the  district,  Antiochia  Margiana  (now  : 
Mcru).      \Vith  the  exception  of  the  districts 
round  this  and  the  minor  rivers,  which  produced 
excellent  wine,  the  country  was  for  the  most 
part  a  sandy  desert.    Its  chief  inhabitants  were  ; 
the  Derbices,  Parni,  Tapuri,  and  branches  of  i 
the  great  tribes  of  the  Massagetae,  Dahae,  and  ! 
Mardi.     The  country  became  known  to  the 
Greeks  by  the  expeditions  of  Alexander  and 
Antiochus  I.,  the  first  of  whom  founded,  and 
the  second  rebuilt,  Antiochia  ;  and  the  Romans  j 
of  the  age  of  Augustus  obtained  further  infor- 
mation about  it  from  the  returned  captives  who  I 
had  been  taken  by  the  Parthians  and  had  resided  ; 
at  Antioohia. 
478 


MARCUS. 

MARGITES.     Vid.  HOMKRUS,  p.  378,  a. 

MAROUM  or  MAKGUS,  a  fortified  place  in  Moe- 
sia  Superior,  west  of  Viminaciurn,  situated  on 
the  River  Margus  (now  Morara),  at  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Danube.  Here  Diocletian  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  Carinus.  The  River 
Margus,  which  is  one  of  the  southern  tributa- 
ries of  the  Danube,  rises  in  Mount  Orbelus. 

MARGUS.      Vid.  MARGIANA. 

MARIA.      Vid.  MAREA,  MAREOTIS. 

MARIABA.      Vid.  SABA. 

MARIAMMA  CM.apid/j.fjT/,  -lufir/,  -idfivt/),  a  city  ol 
Ccele-Syria,  some  miles  west  of  Emesa,  assign- 
ed by  Alexander  the  Great  to  the  territory  of 
Aradus. 

MARIAMNE.      Vid.  HERODES. 

MARIAMNE  TURRIS,  a  tower  at  Jerusalem, 
built  by  Herod  the  Great. 

[MARIANA  (Maptai^),  a  colony  established  by 
C.  Marius  on  the  east  coast  of  Corsica,  the  sec- 
ond chief  city  of  the  island,  with  a  good  har- 
bor :  its  ruins  still  exist  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Golo  (the  ancient  Tavola),  in  a  district  called 
the  plain  of  Mariana.] 

MARIANNE  FOSSAE.     Vid.  FOSSA. 

MARIANDVNI  (Mapiavdwoi),  an  ancient  people 
of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  northern  coast,  east  of 
the  River  Sangarius,  in  the  northeast  part  of 
Bithynia.  With  respect  to  their  ethnical  affin- 
ities, it  seems  doubtful  whether  they  were  con 
nected  with  the  Thracian  tribes  (the  Thyni  and 
Bithyni)  on  the  west,  or  the  Paphlagonians  ^n 
the  east ;  but  the  latter  appears  the  more  prof, 
able. 

MARIANUS  MONS  (now  Sierra  Morena),  a 
mountain  in  Hispania  Baatica,  properly  only  a 
western  offshoot  of  the  Orospeda.  The  east- 
ern part  of  it  was  called  Saltus  Castulonensis, 
and  derived  its  name  from  the  town  of  Castulo. 

MA  RICA,  a  Latin  nymph,  the  mother  of  La- 
tinus  by  Faunus,  was  worshipped  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  Minturnae  in  a  grove  on  the  River  Li- 
ris.  Hence  the  country  round  Minturnae  .'s 
called  by  Horace  (Carm.,  iit.,  17,  7)  Marica 
litora. 

MARINUS  (Mapivof).  1.  Of  Tyre,  a  Greek 
geographer,  who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  sec- 
ond century  of  the  Christian  era,  and  was  the 
immediate  predecessor  of  Ptolemy.  Marinus 
was  undoubtedly  the  founder  of  mathematical 
geography  in  antiquity  ;  and  Ptolemy  based  his 
whole  work  upon  that  of  Marinus.  Vid.  PTOL- 
EM^EUS.  The  chief  merit  of  Marinus  was,  that 
he  put  an  end  to  the  uncertainty  that  had  hith- 
erto prevailed  respecting  the  positions  of  places, 
by  assigning  to  each  its  latitude  and  longitude. 
— 2.  Of  Flavia  Neapolis,  in  Palestine,  a  philos- 
opher and  rhetorician,  was  the  pupil  and  suc- 
cessor of  Proclus,  whose  life  he  wrote,  a  work 
which  is  still  extant,  edited  by  Boissonade, 
Lips.,  1814. 

MARISUS  (now  Marosch),  called  MARIS  (Mu- 
pif)  by  Herodotus,  a  river  of  Dacia,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  ancient  writers,  falls  into  the  Dan 
ube,  but  which  in  reality  falls  into  the  Theiss  • 
and,  along  with  this  river,  into  the  Danube. 

MARITIMA,  a  sea-port  town  of  the  Avatici,  and 
a  Roman  colony  in  Gallia  Narbonensis. 

MARIUS.  1.  C.,  the  celebrated  Roman,  who 
was  seven  times  consul,  was  born  in  B.C.  157, 
near  Arpinum,  of  an  obscure  and  humble  family. 


MARIUS. 


MARIUS 


His  father's  name  was  C.  Marius,  and  his  moth- 
er's Fulcinia  ;  and  his  parents,  as  well  as  Mari- 
us himself,  were  clients  of  the  noble  plebeian 
house  of  the  Herennii.     So  indigent,  indeed,  is 
the  family  represented  to  have  been,  that  young 
Marius  is  said  to  have  worked  as  a  common 
peasant  for  wages,  before  he  entered  the  ranks 
of  the  Roman  army.     (Comp.  Juv.,  viii.,  246.) 
The  meanness  of  his  origin  has  probably  been 
somewhat  exaggerated  ;  but,  at  all  events,  he 
distinguished  himself  so  much  by  his  valor  at 
the  siege  of  Numantia  in  Spain  (134)  as  to  at- 
tract the  notice  of  Scipio  Africanus,  who  is  said 
to  have  foretold  his  future  greatness.    His  name 
does  not  occur  again  for  fifteen  years  ;  but  in 
119  he  was  elected  tribune  of  the  plebs,  when 
he  was  thirty-eight  years  of  age.     In  this  office 
he  came  forward  as  a  popular  leader,  and  pro- 
posed a  law  to  give  greater  freedom  to  the  peo- 
ple at  the  elections  ;  and  when  the  senate  at- 
tempted to  overawe  him,  he  commanded  one 
of  his  officers  to  carry  the  consul  Metellns  to 
pvison.    He  now  became  a  marked  man,  and 
the  aristocracy  opposed  him  with  all  their  might. 
He  lost  his  election  to  the  sedileship,  and  with 
difficulty  obtained  the  praetorship ;   but  he  ac- 
quired influence  and  importance  by  his  marriage 
with  Julia,  the  sister  of  C.  Julius  Caesar,  who  j 
was  the  father  of  the  future  ruler  of  Rome.     In 
10Q  Marius  crossed  over  into  Africa  as  legate  ' 
of  the  consul  Q.  Metellus.    Here,  in  the  war  j 
against  Jugurtha,  the  military  genius  of  Marius  ; 
had  ample  opportunity  of  displaying  itself,  and  j 
he  was  soon  regarded  as  the  most  distinguish-  i 
ed  officer  in  the  army.    He  also  ingratiated  j 
himself  with  the  soldiers,  who  praised  him  in  \ 
the  highest  terms  in  their  letters  to  their  friends  I 
at  Rome.     His  popularity  became  so  great  that  j 
he  resolved  to  return  to  Rome,  and  become  at  j 
once  a  candidate  for  the  consulship  ;  but  it  was  \ 
with  great  difficulty  that  he  obtained  from  Me-  j 
tellus  permission  to  leave  Africa.     On  his  arri-  I 
val  at  Rome  he  was  elected  consul  with  an  i 
enthusiasm  which  bore  down  all  opposition  be-  j 
fore  it ;  and  he  received  from  the  people  the  ; 
province  of  Numidia,  and  the  conduct  of  the  ! 
war  against  Jugurtha  (107).     On  his  return  to  . 
Numidia  he  carried  on  the  war  with  great  vigor ; 
and  in  the  following  year  (106)  Jugurtha  was 
surrendered  to  him  by  the  treachery  of  Bocchus, 
King  of  Mauretania.     Vid.  JUGURTHA.     Marius 
sent  his  quaestor  Sulla  to  receive  the  Numidian 
king  from  Bocchus.     This  circumstance  sowed 
the  seeds  of  the  personal  hatred  which  after- 
ward existed  between  Marius  and  Sulla,  since 
the  enemies  of  Marius  claimed  for  Sulla  the 
merit  of  bringing  the  war  to  a  close  by  obtain- 
ing possession  of  the  person  of  Jugurtha.    Mean- 
time Italy  was  threatened  by  a  vast  horde  of 
barbarians,  who  had  migrated  from  the  north 
of  Germany.    The  two  leading  nations  of  which 
they  consisted  were  called  Cimbri  and  Teutoni, 
the  former  of  whom  are  supposed  to  have  been 
Celts,  and  the  latter  Gauls.    To  these  two  great 
races  were  added  the  Ambrones.  and  some  of 
the  Swiss  tribes,  such  as  the  Tigurini.    The 
whole  host  is  said  to  have  contained  three  hund- 
red thousand  fighting   men,  besides   a  much 
larger  number  of  women  and  children.     They 
had  defeated  one  Roman  army  after  another, 
and  it  appeared  that  nothing  could  check  their 


progress.  The  utmost  alarm  prevailed  through- 
out Italy  ;  all  party  quarrels  were  hushed. 
Every  one  feit  that  Marius  was  the  only  man 
capable  of  saving  the  state,  and  he  was  accord- 
ingly elected  consul  a  second  time  during  his 
absence  in  Africa.  Marius  entered  Rome  in 
triumph  on  the  first  of  January,  104,  the  first 
day  of  his  second  consulship.  Meanwhile,  the 
threatened  danger  was  for  a  while  averted.  In- 
stead of  crossing  the  Alps,  the  Cimbri  marched 
into  Spain,  which  they  ravaged  for  the  next  two 
or  three  years.  But  as  the  return  of  the  bar- 
barians was  constantly  expected,  Marius  was 
elected  consul  a  third  time  in  103,  and  a  fourth 
time  in  102.  In  the  latter  of  these  years  the 
Cimbri  returned  into  Gaul.  The  barbarians 
now  divided  their  forces.  The  Cimbri  marched 
round  the  northern  foot  of  the  Alps,  in  order  to 
enter  Italy  by  the  northeast,  crossing  the  Tyro- 
lese  Alps  by  the  defiles  of  Tridentum  (now 
Trent).  The  Teutoni  and  Ambrones,  on  the 
other  hand,  marched  against  Marius,  who  had 
taken  up  a  position  in  a  fortified  camp  on  the 
Rhone.  The  decisive  battle  was  fought  near 
Aquae  Sextiae  (now  Aix).  The  carnage  was 
dreadful.  The  whole  nation  was  annihilated, 
for  those  who  did  not  fall  in  the  battle  put  an 
end  to  their  own  lives.  The  Cimbri,  meantime, 
had  forced  their  way  into  Italy.  Marius  was 
elected  consul  a  fifth  time  (101),  and  joined  the 
proconsul  Catulus  in  the  north  of  Italy.  The 
two  generals  gained  a  great  victory  over  tho 
enemy  on  a  plain  called  the  Campi  Raudii,  near 
Vercellae  (now  Vercelli).  The  Cimbri  met  with 
the  same  fate  as  the  Teutoni ;  the  whole  nation 
was  destroyed.  Marius  was  received  at  Rome 
with  unprecedented  honors.  He  was  hailed  as 
the  saviour  of  the  state  ;  his  name  was  coupled 
with  the  gods  in  the  libations  and  at  banquets, 
and  he  received  the  title  of  third  founder  of 
Rome.  Hitherto  the  career  of  Marius  had  been 
a  glorious  one  ;  but  the  remainder  of  his  life  is 
full  of  horrors,  and  brings  out  the  worst  features 
of  his  character.  In  order  to  secure  the  con- 
sulship the  sixth  time,  he  entered  into  close  con- 
nection with  two  of  the  worst  demagogues  that 
ever  appeared  at  Rome,  Saturninus  and  Glaucia. 
He  gained  his  object,  and  was  consul  a  sixth 
time  in  100.  In  this  year  he  drove  into  exile 
his  old  enemy  Metellus  ;  and  shortly  afterward, 
when. Saturninus  and  Glaucia  took  up  arms 
against  the  state,  Marius  crushed  the  insurrec 
tion  by  command  of  the  senate.  Vid.  SATURNI- 
NDS.  His  conduct  in  this  affair  was  greatly 
blamed  by  the  people,  who  looked  upon  him  as 
a  traitor  to  his  former  friends.  For  the  next 
few  years  Marius  took  little  part  in  public  affairs. 
He  possessed  none  of  the  qualifications  which 
were  necessary  to  maintain  influence  in  the 
state  during  a  time  of  peace,  being  an  unletter- 
ed soldier,  rude  in  manners,  and  arrogant  in  con» 
duct.  The  Social  war  again  called  him  into 
active  service  (90).  He  served  as  legate  of  the 
consul  P.  Rutilius  Lupus  ;  and  after  the  latter 
had  fallen  in  battle,  he  defeated  the  Marsi  in 
two  successive  engagements.  Marius  was  now 
sixty-seven,  and  his  body  had  grown  stout  and 
unwieldy  ;  but  he  was  still  as  greedy  of  honor 
and  distinction  as  he  had  ever  been.  He  had 
set  his  heart  upon  obtaining  the  command  of 
the  war  against  Mithradatcs,  which  the  senate 

479 


MARIUS. 

bad  bestowed  upon  the  consul  Sulla  at  the  end 
of  the  Social  war  (88).  In  order  to  gain  his  ob- 
ject, Marius  allied  himself  to  the  tribune  P. 
Sulpicius  Rufus,  who  brought  forward  a  law  for 
distributing  the  Italian  allies,  who  had  just  ob- 
tained the  Roman  franchise,  among  all  the  Ro- 
man tribes.  As  those  new  citizens  greatly  ex- 
ceeded the  old  citizens  in  number,  they  would, 
of  course,  be  able  to  carry  whatever  they  pleased 
in  the  comitia.  The  law  was  carried,  notwith- 
standing the  violent  opposition  of  the  consuls  ; 
and  the  tribes,  in  which  the  new  citizens  now 
had  the  majority,  appointed  Marius  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  war  against  Mithradates.  Sulla 
fled  to  his  army,  which  was  stationed  at  Nola ; 
and  when  Marius  sent  thither  two  military  trib- 
unes to  take  the  command  of  the  troops,  Sulla 
not  only  refused  to  surrender  the  command,  but 
marched  upon  Rome  at  the  head  of  his  army. 
Marius  was  now  obliged  to  take  to  flight.  After 
wandering  along  the  coast  of  Latium,  and  en- 
countering terrible  sufferings  and  privations, 
which  he  bore  with  unflinching  fortitude,  he 
was  at  length  taken  prisoner  in  the  marshes 
formed  by  the  River  Liris,  near  Minturnae.  The 
magistrates  of  this  place  resolved  to  put  him  to 
death,  in  accordance  with  a  command  which 
Sulla  had  sent  to  all  the  towns  in  Italy.  A 
Gallic  or  Cimbrian  soldier  undertook  to  carry 
their  sentence  into  effect,  and  with  a  drawn 
sword  entered  the  apartment  where  Marius  was 
confined.  The  part  of  the  room  in  which  Ma- 
rius lay  was  in  the  shade  ;  and  to  the  frightened 
barbarian  the  eyes  of  Marius  seemed  to  dart  out 
fire,  and  from  the  darkness  a  terrible  voice  ex- 
claimed, "  Man,  durst  thou  murder  C.  Marius  1" 
The  barbarian  immediately  threw  down  his 
sword,  and  rushed  out  of  the  house.  Straight- 
way there  was  a  revulsion  of  feeling  among  the 
inhabitants  of  Minturnae.  They  got  ready  a 
ship,  and  placed  Marius  on  board.  He  reached 
Africa  in  safety,  and  landed  at  Carthage ;  but 
he  had  scarcely  put  his  foot  on  shore  before  the 
Roman  governor  sent  an  officer  to  bid  him  leave 
the  country.  This  last  blow  almost  unmanned 
Marius ;  his  only  reply  was,  "  Tell  the  pra- 
ter that  you  have  seen  C.  Marius  a  fugitive  sit- 
ting on  the  ruins  of  Carthage."  Soon  after- 
ward Marius  was  joined  by  his  son,  and  they 
took  refuge  in  the  island  of  Cercina.  During 
this  time  a  revolution  had  taken  place  at  Rome, 
in  consequence  of  which  Marius  was  enabled 
to  return  to  Italy.  The  consul  Cinna  (87),  who 
belonged  to  the  Marian  party,  had  been  driven 
out  of  Rome  by  his  colleague  Octavius,  and  had 
subsequently  been  deprived  by  the  senate  of  the 
consulate.  Cinna  collected  an  army,  and  re- 
solved to  recover  his  honors  by  force  of  arms. 
As  soon  as  Marius  heard  of  these  changes,  he 
left  Africa,  and  joined  Cinna  in  Italy.  Marius 
and  Cinna  now  laid  siege  to  Rome.  The  failure 
of  provisions  compelled  the  senate  to  yield,  and 
Marius  and  Cinna  entered  Rome  as  conquerors. 
The  most  frightful  scenes  followed.  The  guards 
of  Marius  stabbed  every  one  whom  he  did  not 
salute,  and  the  streets  ran  with  the  blood  of  the 
noblest  of  the  Roman  aristocracy.  Among  the 
victims  of  his  vengeance  were  the  great  orator 
M.  Antonius  and  his  former  colleague  Q.  Catu- 
lus.  "Without  going  through  the  form  of  an 
election,  Marius  and  Cinna  named  themselves 
480 


MARMARICA. 

consuls  for  the  following  year  (86).  But  he  did 
not  long  enjoy  the  honor:  he  was  now  in  his 
seventy-first  year ;  his  body  was  worn  out  by 
the  fatigues  and  sufferings  he  had  recently  un- 
dergone ;  and  on  the  eighteenth  day  of  his  con- 
sulship he  died  of  an  attack  of  pleurisy,  after 
seven  days'  illness — 2.  C.,  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, but  only  by  adoption.  He  followed  in 
the  footsteps  of  his  father,  and  was  equally  dis- 
tinguished by  merciless  severity  against  his 
enemies.  He  was  consul  in  82,  when  he  was 
twenty-seven  years  of  age.  In  this  year  he 
was  defeated  by  Sulla  near  Sacriportus  on  the 
frontiers  of  Latium,  whereupon  he  took  refuge 
in  the  strongly-fortified  town  of  Praneste. 
Here  he  was  besieged  for  some  time  ;  but  after 
Sulla's  great  victory  at  the  Colline  gate  of  Rome 
over  Pontius  Telesinus,  Marius  put  an  end  to 
his  own  life,  after  making  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  escape. — 3.  The  false  Marius.  Vid. 
AMATIUS. — [4.  M.  GRATIDIENUS  MARIUS,  son  of 
M.  Gratidius,  but  adopted  by  one  of  the  Maria 
gens,  probably  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  Ma- 
rius :  he  was  a  popular  speaker,  and  in  high 
favor  with  the  people.  During  the  proscrip- 
tions of  Sulla  he  was  killed  by  Catiline  in  a 
brutal  manner,  and  his  head  was  carried  in  tri- 
umph through  the  city.] — 5.  M.  AURELIUS  MA- 
RIUS, one  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  was  the  fourth 
of  the  usurpers  who  in  succession  ruled  Gaul, 
in  defiance  of  Gallienus.  He  reigned  only  two 
or  three  days,  but  there  are  coins  of  his  extant. 
— 6.  MARIUS  CELSUS.  Vid.  CELSUS. — 7.  MARI- 
uo  MAXIMUS,  a  Roman  historian,  who  is  repeat- 
edly cited  by  the  Augustan  historians.  HP 
probably  flourished  under  Alexander  Severus, 
and  appears  to  have  written  the  biographies  of 
the  Roman  emperors,  beginning  with  Trajan 
and  ending  with  Elagabalus. — 8.  MARIUS  MBR- 
CATOR,  an  ecclesiastical  writer,  distinguished  as 
a  zealous  antagonist  of  the  Pelagians  and  the 
Nestorians.  He  appears  to  have  commenced 
his  literary  career  during  the  pontificate  of  Zosi- 
mus,  A.D.  418,  at  Rome,  and  he  afterward  re- 
paired to  Constantinople.  Mercator  seems  un- 
doubtedly to  have  been  a  layman,  but  we  are 
ignorant  of  every  circumstance  connected  with 
his  origin  and  personal  history.  The  works  of 
Mercator  refer  exclusively  to  the  Pelagian  and 
Nestorian  heresies,  and  consist,  for  the  most 
part,  of  passages  extracted  and  translated  from 
the  chief  Greek  authorities.  The  best  edition 
is  by  Baluze,  Par.,  1684. 

MARMARICA  (•}}  WiappapiKTi :  Map/Ltapidai :  now 
eastern  part  of  Tripoli  and  northwestern  part  of 
Egypt),  a  district  of  Northern  Africa,  between 
Cyrenaica  and  Egypt,  but  by  some  ancient  ge- 
ographers reckoned  as  a  part  of  Cyrenaica,  and 
by  others  as  a  part  of  Egypt ;  while  others, 
again,  call  only  the  western  part  of  it,  from  the 
borders  of  Cyrenaica  to  the  Catabathmus  Mag- 
nus, by  the  name  of  Marmarica,  and  the  east- 
ern part,  from  the  Catabathmus  Magnus  to  the 
Sinus  Plinthinetes,  Libya  Nomos.  Inland  it 
extended  as  far  as  the  Oasis  of  Ammon.  It 
was,  for  the  most  part,  a  sandy  desert,  inter- 
sected with  low  ranges  of  hills.  Its  inhabit- 
ants were  called  by  the  general  name  of  Mar- 
maridse.  Their  chief  tribes  were  the  Adyr- 
machidseand  Giligammae  on  the  coast,  and  the 
Nasamones  and  Aug  lae  in  the  interior. 


MARMARIUM. 

MARMARIUM  (Maputipiov  :  Map/iuptof :  now 
Marmari),  a  place  on  the  southwestern  coast 
of  Eubcea,  with  a  temple  of  Apollo  Marmarius, 
and  celebrated  marble  quarries,  which  belonged 
to  Carystus. 

MARO,  VIRGILIUS.      Vid.  VIRGILIUS. 

MAROBODUUS,  the  Latinized  form  of  the  Ger- 
man MARBOD,  king  of  the  Marcomanni,  was  a 
Sucvian  by  birth,  and  was  born  about  B.C.  18. 
He  was  sent  in  his  boyhood  with  other  host- 
ages to  Rome,  where  he  attracted  the  notice 
of  Augustus,  and  received  a  liberal  education. 
After  his  return  to  his  native  country  he  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  a  powerful  kingdom  in 
central  Germany,  along  the  northern  bank  of 
the  Danube,  from  Regensberg  nearly  to  the  bor- 
ders of  Hungary,  and  which  stretched  far  into 
the  interior.  His  power  excited  the  jealousy 
of  Augustus,  who  had  determined  to  send  a  for- 
midable army  to  invade  his  dominions  ;  but  the 
revolt  of  the  Pannonians  and  Dalmatians  (A.D. 
6)  prevented  the  emperor  from  carrying  his  de- 
sign into  effect.  Maroboduus  eventually  be- 
came an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  other  Ger- 
man tribes,  and  was  at  length  expelled  from 
his  dominions  by  Catualda,  a  chief  of  the  Go- 
thones,  about  A.D.  19.  He  took  refuge  in  Italy, 
where  Tiberius  allowed  him  to  remain,  and  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  Ravenna. 
He  died  in  35,  at  the  age  of  fifty-three  years. 

MARON  (Mdpuv).  1.  Son  of  Evanthes,  and 
grandson  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  and  Ariadne, 
priest  of  Apollo  at  Maronea  in  Thrace.  He  was 
the  hero  of  sweet  wine,  and  is  mentioned 
among  the  companions  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus). 
— [2.  One  of  the  brave  Spartan  band  who  fought 
and  fell  with  Leonidas  at  Thermopylae.] 

MARONEA  (TAapuveia  :  MapuvetV^f  :  now  Ma- 
rogna),  a  town  on  the  southern  coast  of  Thrace, 
situated  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Lake  Is- 
inaris  and  on  the  River  Sthenas,  more  anciently 
called  Ortagurea.  It  belonged  originally  to  the 
Cicones,  but  afterward  received  colonists  from 
Chios.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  excellent  wine, 
which  even  Homer  mentions. 

MARPESSA  (MupTrrioaa),  daughter  of  Evenus 
and  Alcippe.  For  details,  vid.  IDAS. 

MARPESSA  (Mupirqaaa),  a  mountain  in  Paros, 
from  which  the  celebrated  Parian  marble  was 
obtained.  Hence  Virgil  (JEn.,  vi.,  471)  speaks 
of  Marpesia  cautes. 

[MARPESSUS  (WipTrqaffof),  a  city  of  Troas,  be- 
longing to  the  territory  of  Lampsacus,  the  na- 
tive city  of  one  of  the  Sibyls.] 

MARRUCIWI,  a  brave  and  warlike  people  in 
Italy  of  the  Sabollian  race,  occupying  a  narrow 
slip  of  country  along  the  right  bank  of  the  River 
Aternus,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Ves- 
tini,  on  the  west  by  the  Peligni  and  Marsi,  on 
the  south  by  the  Frentani,  and  on  the  east  by 
the  Adriatic  Sea.  Their  chief  town  was  TEATE, 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Aternus  they  possess- 
ed, in  common  with  the  Vestini,  the  sea-port 
ATKKNUM.  Along  with  the  Marsi,  Peligni,  and 
the  other  Sabellian  tribes,  they  fought  against 
Rome  ;  and,  together  with  them,  they  submit- 
ted to  the  Romans  in  B.C.  304,  and  concluded 
a  peace  with  the  republic. 

MARRUVIUM  or  MARUVIUM.  1.  (Now  S.  Ben- 
edetto),  the  chief  town  of  the  Marsi  (who  are 
therefore  called  gens  Maruvia,  Virg.,  JJ».,  vii., 
31 


MARSI. 

j  750),  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Laka 
Fucinus,  and  on  the  road  between  Corfinium 
and  Alba  Fucentia. — 2.  (Now  Morro),  an  an- 
cient town  of  the  Aborigines  in  the  country  of 
the  Sabines,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Mar- 
sic  Marruvium. 

MARS,  an  ancient  Roman  god,  who  was  at  an 
early  period  identified  by  the  Romans  with  the 
Greek  Ares,  or  the  god  delighting  in  bloody 
war.  Vid.  ARES.  The  name  of  the  god  in  the 
Sabine  and  Oscan  was  Mamers ;  and  Mars  it- 
self is  a  contraction  of  Mavers  or  Mavors.  Next 
to  Jupiter,  Mars  enjoyed  the  highest  honors  at 
Rome.  He  is  frequently  designated  as  Father 
Mars,  whence  the  forms  Marspitcr  and  Maspiter, 
analogous  to  Jupiter.  Jupiter,  Mars,  and  Qui- 
rinus  were  the  three  tutelary  divinities  of  Rome, 
•to  each  of  whom  King  Numa  appointed  a  fla- 
men.  He  was  worshipped  at  Rome  as  the  god 
of  war,  and  war  itself  was  frequently  designat- 
ed by  the  name  of  Mars.  His  priests,  the  Salii, 
danced  in  full  armor,  and  the  place  dedicated 
to  warlike  exercises  was  called  after  his  name 
( Campus  Martius).  But,  being  the  father  of  the 
Romans,  Mars  was  also  the  protector  of  the 
most  honorable  pursuit,  i.  e.,  agriculture  ;  and 
under  the  name  of  Silvanus,  he  was  worship 
ped  as  the  guardian  of  cattle.  Mars  was  also 
identified  with  Quirinus,  who  was  the  deity 
watching  over  the  Roman  citizens  in  their  civil 
capacity  as  Quirites.  Thus  Mars  appears  un- 
der three  aspects.  As  the  warlike  god,  he  was 
called  Gradivus ;  as  the  rustic  god,  he  was  call- 
ed Silvanus ;  while,  in  his  relation  to  the  state, 
he  bore  the  name  of  Quirinus.  His  wife  was 
called  Ncria  or  Neriene,  the  feminine  of  Nero, 
which  in  the  Sabine  language  signified  "  strong." 
The  wolf  and  the  woodpecker  (picus)  were  sa- 
cred to  Mars.  Numerous  temples  were  dedicat- 
ed to  him  at  Rome,  the  most  important  of  which 
was  that  outside  the  Porta  Capena,  on  the  Ap- 
pian  road,  and  that  of  Mars  Ultor,  which  was 
built  by  Augustus  in  the  forum. 

[MARSACII,  a  people  in  GalliaBelgica,  on  one 
of  the  islands  formed  by  the  Rhine,  which  first 
became  known  to  the  Romans  through  the  war 
with  Civilis.] 

MARSI.  1.  A  brave  and  warlike  people  of  the 
Sabellian  race,  dwelt  in  the  centre  of  Italy,  in 
the  high  land  surrounded  by  the  mountains  of 
the  Apennines,  in  which  the  Lake  Fucinus  is 
situated.  Along  with  their  neighbors  the  Pe- 
ligni, Marrucini,  &c.,  they  concluded  a  peace 
with  Rome,  B.C.  304.  Their  bravery  was  pro- 
verbial ;  and  they  were  the  prime  movers  of 
the  celebrated  war  waged  against  Rome  by  the 
Socii  or  Italian  allies  in  order  to  obtain  the  Ro- 
man franchise,  and  which  is  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Marsic  or  Social  war.  Their  chief  town 
was  MARRUVIUM.  The  Marsi  appear  to  have 
been  acquainted  with  the  medicinal  properties 
of  several  of  the  plants  growing  upon  their 
mountains,  and  to  have  employed  them  as  rem- 
edies against  the  bites  of  serpents,  and  in  other 
cases.  Hence  they  were  regarded  as  magi- 
cians, and  were  said  to  be  descended  from  a 
son  of  Circe.  Others,  again,  derived  their  ori- 
gin from  the  Phrygian  Marsyas  simply  on  ac- 
count of  the  resemblance  of  the  name. — 2.  A 
people  in  Germany,  appear  to  have  dwelt  orig 
triply  on  both  banks  of  the  Ems,  and  to  havt 

481 


MARSIGNI. 

been  only  a  tribe  of  the  Cherusci,  although  Tac-  j 
itus  makes  them  one  of  the  most  ancient  tribes  i 
in  Germany.     They  joined  the  Cherusci  in  the  i 
war  against  the  Romans,  which  terminated  in  ! 
the  defeat  of  Varus,  but  they  were  subsequently 
driven  into  the  interior  of  the  country  by  Ger- 
manicus. 

MARSIGNI,  a  people  in  the  southeast  of  Ger- 
many, of  Suevic  extraction. 

MARSUS,  DOMITIUS,  a  Roman  poet  of  the  Au- 
gustan age.  He  wrote  poems  of  various  kinds, 
but  his  epigrams  were  the  most  celebrated  of 
his  productions.  Hence  he  is  frequently  men- 
tioned by  Martial,  who  speaks  of  him  in  terms 
of  the  highest  admiration.  He  wrote  a  beauti- 
ful epitaph  on  Tibullus,  which  has  come  down 
to  us. 

MARSYAS  (Mapoi'af).  1.  A  mythological  per-' 
sonage,  connected  with  the  earliest  period  of 
Greek  music.  He  is  variously  called  the  son 
of  Hyagnis,  or  of  CEagrus,  or  of  Olympus. 
Some  make  him  a  satyr,  others  a  peasant.  All 
agree  in  placing  him  in  Phrygia.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  outline  of  his  story :  Minerva  (Athena) 
having,  while  playing  the  flute,  seen  the  reflec- 
tion of  herself  in  water,  and  observed  the  dis- 
tortion of  her  features,  threw  away  the  instru- 
ment in  disgust.  It  was  picked  up  by  Marsyas, 
who  no  sooner  began  to  blow  through  it,  than 
the  flute,  having  once  been  inspired  by  the 
breath  of  a  goddess,  emitted  of  its  own  accord 
the  most  beautiful  strains.  Elated  by  his  suc- 
cess, Marsyas  was  rash  enough  to  challenge 
Apollo  to  a  musical  contest,  the  conditions  of 
which  were  that  the  victor  should  do  what  he 
pleased  with  the  vanquished.  The  Muses,  or, 
according  to  others,  the  Nysacans,  were  the 
umpires.  Apollo  played  upon  the  cithara,  and 
Marsyas  upon  the  flute  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
former  added  his  voice  to  the  music  of  his  lyre 
that  the  contest  was  decided  in  his  favor.  As 
a  just  punishment  for  the  presumption  of  Mar- 
syas, Apollo  bound  him  to  a  tree,  and  flayed 
him  alive.  His  blood  was  the  source  of  the 
River  Marsyas,  and  Apollo  hung  up  his  skin  in 
the  cave  out  of  which  that  river  flows.  His 
flutes  (for,  according  to  some,  the  instrument 
on  which  he  played  was  the  double  flute)  were 
carried  by  the  River  Marsyas  into  the  Maean- 
der,  and  again  emerging  in  the  Asopus,  were 
thrown  on  land  by  it  in  the  Sicyonian  territory, 
and  were  dedicated  to  Apollo  in  his  temple  at 
Sicyon.  The  fable  evidently  refers  to  the  strug- 
gle between  the  citharcedic  and  aulcedic  styles 
of  music,  of  which  the  former  was  connected 
with  the  worship  of  Apollo  among  the  Dorians, 
and  the  latter  with  the  orgiastic  rites  of  Cybele 
in  Phrygia.  In  the  fora  of  ancient  cities  there 
was  frequently  placed  a  statue  of  Marsyas, 
which  was  probably  intended  to  hold  forth  an 
example  of  the  severe  punishment  of  arrogant 
presumption.  The  statue  of  Marsyas  in  the 
forum  of  Rome  is  well  known  by  the  allusions 
of  Horace  (Sat.,  i.,  6,  120),  Juvenal  (ix.,  1,2), 
and  Martial  (ii.,  64,  7). — 2.  A  Greek  historian, 
was  the  son  of  Periander,  a  native  of  Pella  in 
Macedonia,  a  contemporary  of  Alexander,  with 
\vhom  he  is  said  to  have  been  educated.  His 
principal  work  was  a  history  of  Macedonia,  in 
ten  books,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  wars 
of  Alexander.  He  also  wrote  other  'verks,  the 
482 


MARTIALIS. 

titles  of  which  are  given  by  Suidas. — 3.  Of 
Philippi,  commonly  called  the  younger,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  the  preceding,  was  also  a 
Greek  historian.  The  period  at  which  he  flour- 
ished is  uncertain  :  the  earliest  writers  by  whom 
he  is  cited  are  Pliny  and  Athenaeus. 

MARSYAS  (Moputiaf).  1.  A  small  and  rapid 
river  of  Phrygia,  a  tributary  of  the  Mseander, 
took  its  rise,  according  toXenophon,  in  the  pal- 
ace of  the  Persian  kings  at  Celaenae,  beneath  the 
Acropolis,  and  fell  into  the  Maeander  outside  of 
the  city.  Pliny,  however,  states  that  its  source 
was  in  the  valley  called  Aulocrene,  about  ten 
miles  from  Apamea  Cibotua  (which  city  was  on 
or  near  the  site  of  Celaenae),  and  that  after  a 
subterraneous  course  it  first  came  out  to  light 
at  Apamea.  Colonel  Leake  reconciles  these 
statements  by  the  natural  explanation  that  the 
place  where  the  river  first  broke  forth  from  its 
subterraneous  course  was  regarded  as  its  true 
origin.  Tradition  ascribed  its  name  to  the  fa- 
ble of  MARSYAS. — 2.  (Now  Chinar-Chai),  a  con- 
siderable river  of  Caria,  having  its  source  in  the 
district  called  Idrias,  flowing  northwest  and 
north  through  the  middle  of  Caria,  past  Stra- 
tonicea  and  Alabanda,  and  falling  into  the  south- 
ern side  of  the  Maeander  nearly  opposite  to 
Tralles. — 3.  In  Syya,  a  small  tributary  of  the 
Orontes,  into  which  it  falls  on  the  eastern  side, 
near  Apamea. — 4.  A  name  given  to  the  exten- 
sive plain  in  Syria  through  which  the  upper 
course  of  the  Orontes  flows,  lying  between  the 
ranges  of  Casius  and  Lebanon,  and  reaching 
frcrm  Apamea  on  the  north  to  Laodicea  ad  Liba- 
num  on  the  south. 

MARTIALIS.  1.  M.  VALERIUS,  the  epigram- 
matic poet,  was  born  at  Bilbilis  in  Spain  in  the 
third  year  of  Claudius,  A.D.  43.  He  came  to 
Rome  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  Nero,  66  ;  and 
after  residing  in  the  metropolis  thirty -five  years, 
he  returned  to  the  place  of  his  birth  in  the  third 
year  of  Trajan,  100.  He  lived  there  for  upward 
of  three  years  at  least,  on  the  property  of  his 
wife,  a  lady  named  Marcella,  whom  he  seems 
to  have  married  after  his  return  to  Bilbilis.  His 
death  can  not  have  taken  place  before  104.  His 
fame  was  extended,  and  his  books  were  eagerly 
sought  for,  not  only  in  the  city,  but  also  in  Gaul, 
Germany,  and  Britain ;  he  secured  the  patron- 
age of  the  emperors  Titus  and  Domitian,  ob- 
tained by  his  influence  the  freedom  of  the  state 
for  several  of  his  friends,  and  received  for  him 
self,  although  'apparently  without  family,  the 
privileges  accorded  to  those  who  were  the  fa- 
thers of  three  children  ( jus  trium  libcrorum'),  to- 
gether with  the  rank  of  tribunus  and  the  rights 
of  the  equestrian  order.  His  circumstances  ap- 
pear to  have  been  easy  during  his  residence  at 
Rome,  for  he  had  a  mansion  in  the  city  whose 
situation  he  describes,  and  a  suburban  villa  near 
i  Nomentum,  to  which  he  frequently  alludes  with 
pride.  The  extant  works  of  Martial  consist  of 
a  collection  of  short  poems,  all  included  undei 
the  general  appellation  Epigrammata,  upward 
of  fifteen  hundred  in  number,  divided  into  four- 
teen books.  Those  which  form  the  two  last 
books,  usually  distinguished  respectively  as  Xe 
nia  and  Apophoreta,  amounting  to  three  hund- 
red and  fifty,  consist  of  distichs,  descriptive  of 
a  vast  variety  of  small  objects,  chiefly  articles 
of  food  or  clothing,  such  as  were  usually  sen* 


MARTIALIS. 

•s  presents  among  friends  during  the  Saturna- 
lia, and  on  other  festive  occasions.  In  addition 
to  the  above,  nearly  all  the  printed  copies  in- 
clude thirty-three  epigrams,  forming  a  book 
apart  :om  the  rest,  which  has  been  commonly 
knowi.  as  Liber  de  Spectaculis,  because  the  con- 
tents relate  to  the  shows  exhibited'  by  Titus 
and  Domitian,  but  there  is  no  ancient  authority 
for  the  title.  The  different  books  were  collect- 
ed and  published  by  the  author,  sometimes  sin- 
gly and  sometimes  several  at  one  time.  The 
Liber  de  Spectaculis  and  the  first  nine  books  of 
the  regular  series  involve  a  great  number  of 
historical  allusions,  extending  from  the  games 
of  Titus  (80)  down  to  the  return  of  Domitian 
from  the  Sarmatian  expedition  in  January,  94. 
All  these  books  were  composed  at  Rome  ex- 
cept the  third,  which  was  written  during  a  tour 
in  Gallia  Togata.  The  tenth  book  was  publish- 
ed twice  :>the  first  edition  was  given  hastily  to 
the  world ;  the  second,  that  which  we  now  read 
(x.,2),  celebrates  the  arrival  of  Trajan  at  Rome, 
after  his  accession  to  the  throne  (99).  The  elev- 
enth book  seems  to  have  been  published  at 
Rome  early  in  100,  and  at  the  close  of  the  year 
he  returned  to  Bilbilis.  After  keeping  silence 
for  three  years  (xii.,  procem.),  the  twelfth  book 
was  dispatched  from  Bilbilis  to  Rome  (xii.,  3, 
18),  and  must  therefore  be  assigned  to  104. 
Books  xiii.  and  xiv.,  Xenia  and  Apopkoreta, 
were  written  chiefly  under  Domitian,  although 
the  composition  may  have  been  spread  over 
the  holidays  of  many  years.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  word  Epigram,  which  originally  denoted 
simply  an  inscription,  was,  in  process  of  time, 
applied  to  any  brief  metrical  effusion,  what- 
ever the  subject  might  be,  or  whatever  the 
form  under  which  it  was  presented.  Martial, 
however,  first  placed  the  epigram  upon  the  nar- 
row basis  which  it  now  occupies,  and  from  his 
time  the  term  has  been  in  a  great  measure  re- 
stricted to  denote  a  short  poern,  in  which  all 
the  thoughts  and  expressions  converge  to  one 
sharp  point,  which  forms  the  termination  of  the 
piece.  Martial's  epigrams  are  distinguished  by 
singular  fertility  of  imagination,  prodigious  flow 
of  wit,  and  delicate  felicity  of  language  ;  and 
from  no  source  do  we  derive  more  copious  in- 
formation on  the  national  customs  and  social 
habits  of  the  Romans  during  the  first  century 
of  the  empire.  But,  however  much  we  may 
admire  the  genius  of  the  author,  we  feel  no  re- 
spect for  the  character  of  the  man.  The  servil- 
ity of  adulation  with  which  he  loads  Domitian, 
proves  that  he  was  a  courtier  of  the  lowest 
class ;  and  his  works  are  defiled  by  the  most 
cold-blooded  filth,  too  clearly  denoting  habitual 
impurity  of  thought,  combined  with  habitual  im- 
purity of  expression.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Schneidewinn,  Grem.,  1842. — 2.  GAROILICS,  a 
Roman  historian,  and  a  contemporary  of  Alex- 
ander Severus,  who  is  cited  by  Vopiscus.  There 
is  extant  a  short  fragment  on  veterinary  sur- 
gery bearing  the  name  of  Gargilius  Martialis  ; 
and  Angclo  Mai  discovered  on  a  palimpsest  in 
the  royal  library  at  Naples  part  of  a  work  De 
Hortis,  also  ascribed  to  Gargilius  Martialis ; 
but  whether  Gargilius  Martialis  the  horticul- 
turist, and  Gargilius  Martialis  the  veterinarian, 
are  all,  or  any  two  of  them,  the  same,  or  all  dif- 
ferent personages,  can  not  be  determined. 


MASINISSA. 

[MARTIANUS.      Vid.  MARCIANUS.] 

MARTINIANUS,  was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of 
Caesar  by  Licinius  when  he  was  making  prep- 
arations for  the  last  struggle  against  Constan- 
tine.  After  the  defeat  of  Licinius,  Martinianus 
was  put  to  death  by  Constantine,  A.D.  323. 

MARTIUS  CAMPUS.      Vid.  CAMPUS  MARTIUS. 

MARTYROPOLIS  (MaprupoTro/Uf :  now Meia Far- 
ekin),  a  city  of  Sophene,  in  Armenia  Major,  on 
the  River  Nymphus,  a  tributary  of  the  Tigris ; 
under  Justinian,  a  strong  fortress,  and  the  res- 
idence of  the  first  Dux  Armeniae. 

MARULLUS,  C.  EPID!US,  tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  44,  removed,  in  conjunction  with  his  col- 
league L.  Caesetius  Flavus,  the  diadem  which 
had  been  placed  upon  the  statue  of  C.  Julius 
Caesar,  and  attempted  to  bring  to  trial  the  per- 
sons who  had  saluted  the  dictator  as  king.  Cae- 
sar, in  consequence,  deprived  him  of  the  tribu- 
nate, and  expelled  him  from  the  senate. 

[MARUS  (now  Marosch),  mentioned  by  Tac- 
itus as  a  tributary  of  the  Danube  on  the  north, 
probably  the  same  as  the  MARISUS.] 

MARUVIUM.      Vid.  MARRUVIUM. 

[MASADA  (Muaada),  a  fortress  on  the  shore  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  built  by  Jonathan  Maccabaeus, 
and  afterward  greatly  strengthened  by  Herod, 
as  a  place  of  refuge  for  himself.  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans  after  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  garrison  having  devoted  themselves 
to  self-destruction.]  • 

MASCAS  (Mua/cof,  M.O.OKUC  :  now  Wady-el-Se- 
ba),  an  eastern  tributary  of  the  Euphrates  in 
Mesopotamia,  mentioned  only  byXenophon  (An- 
ab.,  i.,  5),  who  describes  it  as  surrounding  the 
city  of  Corsote,  and  as  being  thirty-five  para- 
sangs  from  the  Chaboras.  It  appears  to  be  the 
same  river  as  the  Saocoras  of  Ptolemy. 

MASES  (Md<J7?c :  Ma<n?nof)v  a  town  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Argolis,  the  harbor  of  Her- 
mione. 

MASINISSA  (Maaaavuaarjc),  king  of  the  Nu- 
midians,  was  the  son  of  Gala,  king  of  the  Mas- 
sylians,  the  easternmost  of  the  two  great  tribes 
into  which  the  Numidians  were  at  that  time  di- 
vided ;  but  he  was  brought  up  at  Carthage, 
where  he  appears  to  have  received  an  educa- 
tion superior  to  that  usual  among  his  country- 
men. In  B.C.  213  the  Carthaginians  persuaded 
Gala  to  declare  war  against  Syphax,  king  of 
the  neighboring  tribe  of  the  Massaesylians,  who 
had  lately  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Rome. 
Masinissa  was  appointed  by  his  father  to  com- 
mand the  invading  force,  with  which  he  attack- 
ed and  totally  defeated  Syphax.  In  the  next 
year  (212)  Masinissa  crossed  over  into  Spain, 
and  supported  the  Carthaginian  generals  there 
with  a  large  body  of  Numidian  horse.  He 
fought  on  the  side  of  the  Carthaginians  foi 
some  yeara  ;  but  after  their  great  defeat  by 
Scipio  in  206,  he  secretly  promised  the  latter  to 
support  the  Romans  as  soon  as  they  should 
send  an  army  into  Africa.  In  his  desertion  ot 
the  Carthaginians  he  is  said  to  have  been  also 
actuated  by  resentment  against  Hasdrubal,  who 
had  previously  betrothed  to  him  his  beautiful 
daughter  Sophonisba,  but  violated  his  engage- 
ment in  order  to  bestow  her  hand  upon.  Syphax. 
During  the  absence  of  Masinissa  in  Spain  his 
father  Gala  had  died,  and  the  throne  had  been 
seized  by  a  usurper ;  but  Masinissa,  on  his  re- 

483 


MASISTES. 

nirn,  soon  expelled  the  usurper  and  obtained 
possession  of  the  kingdom.  He  was  now  at- 
tacked by  Syphax  and  the  Carthaginians,  who  i 
were  anxious  to  crush  him  before  he  could  re-  ! 
ceive  assistance  from  Rome.  He  was  repeat- 
edly defeated  by  Syphax  and  his  generals,  and 
with  difficulty  escaped  falling  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemies.  But  the  arrival  of  Scipio  in  Af- 
rica (204)  soon  changed  the  posture  of  affairs. 
He  instantly  joined  the  Roman  general,  and  ren- 
dered the  most  important  services  to  him  dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  war.  He  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  defeat  of  the  combined  forces 
of  Syphax  and  Hasdrubal,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  Laelius,  he  reduced  Cirta,  the  capital  of 
Syphax.  Among  the  captives  that  fell  into 
their  hands  on  this  occasion  was  Sophonisba, 
the  wife  of  Syphax,  and  the  same  who  had  been 
formerly  promised  in  marriage  to  Masinissa 
himself.  The  story  of  his  hasty  marriage  with 
her,  and  its  tragical  termination,  is  related  else- 
where. Vid.  SOPHONISBA.  In  the  decisive  bat- 
tle of  Zama  (202),  Masinissa  commanded  the 
cavalry  of  the  right  wing,  and  contributed  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  successful  result  of  the  day. 
On  the  conclusion  of  the  final  peace  between 
Rome  and  Carthage,  he  was  rewarded  with  the 
greater  part  of  the  territories  which  had  be- 
longed to  Syphax,  in  addition  to  his  hereditary 
dominions.  For  the  next  fifty  years  Masinissa 
reigned  in  peace,  though  constantly  making  ag- 
gressions upon  the  Carthaginian  territory.  At 
length,  in  150,  he  declared  open  war  against  Car- 
thage, and  these  hostilities  led  to  the  outbreak 
of  the  third  Punic  war.  Masinissa  died  in  the 
second  year  of  the  war,  148.  On  his  death-bed 
he  had  sent  for  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger, 
at  that  time  serving  in  Africa  as  a  military  trib- 
une, but  he  expired  before  his  arrival,  leaving 
it  to  the  young  officer  to  settle  the  affairs  of  his 
kingdom.  He  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  nine- 
ty, having  retained  in  an  extraordinary  degree 
his  bodily  strength  and  activity  to  the  last,  so 
that  in  the  war  against  the  Carthaginians,  only 
two  years  before,  he  not  only  commanded  his 
army  in  person,  but  was  able  to  go  through  all 
his  military*  exercises  with  the  agility  and  vig- 
or of  a  young  man.  His  character  has  been  ex- 
tolled by  the  Roman  writers  far  beyond  his  true 
merits.  He  possessed,  indeed,  unconquerable 
energy  and  fortitude ;  but  he  was  faithless  to 
the  Carthaginians  as  soon  as  fortune  began  to 
turn  against  them ;  and  though  he  afterward 
continued  steady  to  the  cause  of  the  Romans, 
it  was  because  he  found  it  uniformly  his  inter- 
est to  do  so.  He  was  the  father  of  a  very  nu- 
merous family ;  but  it  appears  that  three  only 
of  his  legitimate  sons  survived  him,  Micipsa, 
Mastanabal,  and  Gulussa.  Between  these  three 
the  kingdom  was  portioned  out  by  Scipio,  ac- 
cording to  the  dying  directions  of  the  old  king. 

[MASISTES  (Macrtanyf),  son  of  Darius  and 
Atossa,  accompanied  his  brother  Xerxes  in  his 
expedition  against  Greece.] 

[MASISTICS  (Ma<Jt'<moc),  commander  of  the 
cavalry  in  the  army  of  Xerxes  in  the  invasion 
of  Greece,  distinguished  for  his  bravery  and 
commanding  appearance ;  he  was  slain  in  a 
skirmish  before  the  battle  of  Platseae  :  the 
Greeks,  says  Herodotus  (ix.,  20),  called  him 
Macistius  (Ma«/<mof).] 
484 


MASSICYTUS. 

MASIUS  MONS  (TO  Muaiov  opof  :  now  Karajeh 
Dagh),  a  mountain  chain  in  the  north  of  Meso- 
potamia, between  the  upper  course  of  the  Ti- 
gris and  the  Euphrates,  running  from  the  main 
chain  of  the  Taurus  southeast  along  the  border 
of  Mygdonia. 

MASO,  C.  PAP!RIUS,  consul  B.C.  231,  carried 
on  war  against  the  Corsicans,  whom  he  sub- 
dued ;  and  from  the  booty  obtained  in  this  war, 
lie  dedicated  a  temple  to  Fons.  Maso  was  the 
naternal  grandfather  of  Scipio  Africanus  thb 
younger,  his  daughter  Papiria  marrying  /Emil 
us  Paulus. 

[MASPII  (Mu<T7aoi),  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
as  one  of  the  most  distinguished  races  of  the 
Persian  nation.] 

MASSA,  B^EBIOS  or  BEBIUS,  was  accused  by 
Pliny  the  younger  and  Herennius  Senecio  of 
plundering  the  province  of  Baetica,  of  which  he 
had  been  governor,  A.D.  93.  He  was  condemn- 
ed, but  escaped  punishment  by  the  favor  of  Do- 
mitian  ;  and  from  this  time  he  became  one  of 
the  informers  and  favorites  of  the  tyrant. 

MASSA  (Muffaa)  or  MA8ASAT(Ma(Taffur).  1.  A 
river  on  the  west  coast  of  Libya  Interior,  north- 
ward of  the  stream  Daradus. — 2.  M.  VETERNEN- 
si8,  a  city  of  Etruria,  northeast  of  Populonium 
and  northwest  of  Rusellae,  perhaps  the  modern 
Massa.] 

MASS^SYLI  or  -n.  Vid.  MAURETANIA,  Nu- 
MIDIA. 

MASSAGA  (ra  Muaaaya),  the  capital  city  of  the 
Indian  people  ASSACENI. 

MASSAGET^  (Maaaay^raO>  a  wild  and  warlike 
people  of  Central  Asia,  in  Scythia  intra  Imaiim, 
north  of  the  Jaxartes  (the  Araxes  of  Herodo- 
tus) and  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  on  the  peninsu- 
la between  this  lake  and  the  Caspian.  Their 
country  corresponds  to  that  of  the  Kirghiz  Tar- 
tars in  the  north  of  Independent  Tartary.  Some 
of  the  ancient  geographers  give  them  a  greater 
extent  toward  the  southeast,  and  Herodotus  ap- 
pears to  include  under  the  name  all  the  nomad 
tribes  of  Asia  east  of  the  Caspian.  They  ap- 
pear to  have  been  of  the  Turkoman  race  ;  their 
manners  and  customs  resembled  those  of  the 
Scythians  in  general ;  but  they  had  some  pecu- 
liarities, such  as  the  killing  and  eating  of  their 
aged  people.  Their  chief  appearance  in  an- 
cient history  is  in  connection  with  the  expedi- 
tion undertaken  against  them  by  Cyrus  the 
Great,  in  which  Cyrus  was  defeated  and  slain. 
Vid.  CYRUS. 

[MASSALA,  a  city  of  the  Homeritae,  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Arabia  Felix.] 

[MASSALIOTICUM  OSTIUM.     Vid.  RHODANUS.] 

MASSANI  (Macffavoi),  a  people  of  India  intra 
Gangem,  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Indus,  near 
the  island  of  Pattalene. 

[MASSICUS,  an  Etrurian  prince,  who  came  with 
one  thousand  men  from  Clusium  and  Cosa  to 
the  aid  of  J2neas  in  his  war  with  Turnus  in 
Italy.] 

MASSICUS  Mows,  a  mountain  in  the  northwest 
of  Campania,  near  the  frontiers  of  Latium,  cel- 
ebrated for  its  excellent  wine,  the  produce  of 
the  vineyards  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
mountain.  The  celebrated  Falernian  wine  came 
from  the  eastern  side  of  this  mountain. 

MASSICYTUS  or  MASSICYTES  (MaaiKvrrjf),  one 
of  the  principal  mountain  chains  of  LYCIA. 


MASSILIA. 


MASSILIA  (Ma<r<raAtB  :  MatraaAiwr^f,  Massilt- 
ensis:  now  Marseilles),  a  Greek  city  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
in  the  country  of  the  Salyes.  It  was  situated 
on  a  promontory,  which  was  connected  with 
the  main  land  by  a  narrow  isthmus,  and  was 
washed  on  three  sides  by  the  sea.  Its  excel- 
lent harbor,  called  Lacydon,  was  formed  by  a 
small  inlet  of  the  sea,  about  half  a  mile  long  and 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad.  This  harbor  had  only 
a  narrow  opening,  and  before  it  lay  an  island 
where  ships  had  good  anchorage.  Massilia  was 
founded  by  the  Phocaeans  of  Asia  Minor  about 
B.C.  600,  and  soon  became  a  very  flourishing 
city.  It  extended  its  dominion  over  the  barba- 
rous tribes  in  its  neighborhood,  and  planted  sev- 
eral colonies  on  the  coast  of  Gaul  and  Spain, 
such  as  ANTIPOLIS,  NIC^EA,  and  EMPORICM.  Its 
naval  power  and  commercial  greatness  soon 
excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Carthaginians,  who 
made  war  upon  the  city,  but  the  Massilians  not 
only  maintained  their  independence,  but  defeat- 
ed the  Carthaginians  in  a  sea-fight.  At  an  early 
period  they  cultivated  the  friendship  of  the  Ro- 
mans, to  whom  they  always  continued  faithful 
allies.  Accordingly,  when  the  southeast  corner 
of  Gaul  was  made  a  Roman  province,  the  Ro- 
mans allowed  Massilia  to  retain  its  independ- 
ence and  its  own  constitution.  This  constitu- 
tion was  aristocratic.  The  city  was  governed 
by  a  senate  of  six  hundred  persons  called  Timu- 
chi.  From  these  were  selected  fifteen  presi- 
dents, who  formed  a  sort  of  committee  for  car- 
rying on  the  ordinary  business  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  three  of  these  were  intrusted  with 
the  executive  power.  The  inhabitants  retain- 
ed the  religious  rites  of  their  mother  country, 
and  they  cultivated  with  especial  reverence  the 
worship  of  the  Ephesian  Artemis  or  Diana. 
Massilia  was  for  many  centuries  one  of  the 
most  important  commercial  cities  in  the  an- 
cient world.  In  the  civil  war  between  Caesar 
and  Pompey  (B.C.  49)  it  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  latter,  but  after  a  protracted  siege,  in  which 
it  lost  its  fleet,  it  was  obliged  to  submit  to  Caj- 
sar.  From  the  effects  of  this  blow  it  never  fully 
recovered.  Its  inhabitants  had  long  paid  atten- 
tion to  literature  and  philosophy  ;  and  under 
the  early  emperors  it  became'one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  learning,  to  which  the  sons  of  many  il- 
lustrious Romans  resorted  to  complete  their 
studies.  The  modern  Marseilles  occupies  the 
site  of  the  ancient  town,  but  contains  no  re- 
mains of  ancient  buildings. 

MASSIVA.  1.  A  Numidian,  grandson  of  Gala, 
king  of  the  Massylians,  and  nephew  of  Masinis- 
sa, whom  he  accompanied  into  Spain.  —  2.  Son 
of  Gulussa,  and  grandson  of  Masinissa,  was  as- 
sassinated at  Rome  by  order  of  Jugurtha  be- 
cause he  had  put  in  his  claim  to  the  kingdom  of 
Numidia. 

[MASSUGRADA,  a  son  of  Masinissa,  king  of  Nu- 
midia, by  a  concubine.  Vid.  DABAR.] 

MASSURIUS  SABINUS.     Vid.  SABINUS. 

MASSYU  or  -11.     Vid.  MAURETANIA,  NCMIDIA. 

MASTANABAL  or  MANASTABAL,  the  youngest  of 
the  three  legitimate  sons  of  Masinissa,  between 
whom  the  kingdom  of  Numidia  was  divided  by 
Scipio  after  the  death  of  the  aged  king  (B.C. 
148).  He  died  before  his  brother  Micipsa,  and 
1«<1  two  sons,  Jugurtha  and  Gauda. 


MATRONA. 

MASTAURA  (ru  Mdoravpa  :  now  ruins  of  Mas- 
taura-Kalesi),  a  city  of  Lydia,  on  the  borders  of 
Caria,  near  Nysa. 

[MASTOR  (M«ic?rwp).  i.  Father  of  Lycophron 
of  Cythera.  —  2.  Father  of  the  diviner  Hali- 
therses,  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey.] 

MASTRAMELA,  a  town  on  the  southern  coast 
of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  east  of  the  Rhone,  and 
a  lake  of  the  same  name,  called  by  Mela  Avat- 
icorum  stagnum. 

MASTUSIA.  1.  The  southwest  point  of  the 
Thracian  Chersonesus,  opposite  Sigeum. — 2.  A 
mountain  of  Lydia,  on  the  southern  slope  of 
which  Smyrna  lay. 

MATERNUS,  CURIATICS,  a  Roman  rhetorician 
and  tragic  poet,  one  of  the  speakers  in  the  Dia- 
logus  de  Oratonbus  ascribed  to  Tacitus. 

MATERNUS  FIRMICUS.      Vid.  FIRMICUS. 

MATHO.  1.  One  of  the  leaders  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian mercenaries  in  their  war  against  Car- 
thage, after  the  conclusion  of  the  first  Punic 
war,  B.C.  241.  He  was  eventually  taken  pris- 
oner and  put  to  death. — 2.  A  pompous,  bluster- 
ing advocate,  ridiculed  by  Juvenal  and  Martial. 

MATHO,  POMPONIUS.  1.  M'.,  consul  B.C.  233, 
carried  on  war  against  the  Sardinians,  whom 
he  defeated.  In  217  he  was  magister  equitum, 
in  216  praetor,  and  in  215  propraetor  in  Cisal- 
pine Gaul. — 2.  M.,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
consul  231,  also  carried  on  war  against  the  Sar- 
dinians. He  was  likewise  praetor  in  217.  He 
died  in  204. — 3.  M.,  probably  son  of  No.  2,  sdile 
206,  and  praetor  204,  with  Sicily  as  his  province. 

MATIANA  (Mariavjj,  Martavo/,  -TJVTJ,  -TJVOL,  He- 
rod.), the  southwesternmost  district  of  Media 
Atropatene,  along  the  mountains  separating 
Media  from  Assyria,  which  were  also  called 
Matiani.  The  great  salt  lake  of  Spaura  (Man- 
avij  hi/ivy  :  now  Lake  of  Urmi)  was  in  this  dis- 
trict. Herodotus  also  mentions  a  people  on  the 
Halys  in  Asia  Minor  by  the  name  of  Matieni. 

MATINUS,  a  mountain  in  Apulia  running  out 
into  the  sea,  was  one  of  the  offsfioots  of  Mount 
Garganus,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  by  Hor- 
ace in  consequence  of  his  being  a  native  of 
Apulia. 

MATISCO  (now  Macon),  a  town  of  the  ^Edui 
in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  on  the  Arar,  and  on  the 
road  from  Lugdunum  to  Augustodunum. 

MAT!US  CALVENA,  C.,  a  Roman  eques,  and  a 
friend  of  Caesar  and  Cicero.  After  Caesar's 
death  he  espoused  the  side  of  Octavianus,  with 
whom  he  became  very  intimate.  [This  is  prob- 
ably the  same  C.  Matius  who  translated  the 
Iliad  into  Latin  verse,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  other  works.  Matius  also  wrote  "  Mim- 
iambi,"  which  were  as  celebrated  as  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Iliad,  and  paid  great  attention  to 
economics  and  agriculture.  He  also  wrote  a 
work  on  the  whole  art  and  science  of  cookery, 
in  three  books,  entitled  respectively  Cocus,  Ce- 
tarius,  Salmagarius.  The  fragments  are  given 
by  Bothe,  Poet.  Seen.  Lat.  Vet.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  265- 
268  ;  and  by  Zell,  Stuttgard,  1829- ] 

MATRON  (Marpuv),  of  Pitana,  a  celebrated  wri- 
ter of  parodies  upon  Homer,  probably  lived  a 
little  before  the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 

MATRONA  (now  Marne),  a  river  in  Gaul,  which 
formed  the  boundary  between  Gallia  Lugdunen- 
sis  and  Belgica,  and  which  falls  into  the  So- 
quana  a  little  south  of  Paris. 

485 


MATTIACI. 

MATTIACI,  a  people  in  Germany,  who  dwelt  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Rhine,  between  the 
Main  and  the  Lahn,  and  were  a  branch  of  the 
Chatti.  They  were  subdued  by  the  Romans, 
who,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  had  fortresses 
and  silver  mines  in  their  country.  After  the 
death  of  Nero  they  revolted  against  the  Ro- 
mans, and  took  part  with  the  Chatti  and  other 
German  tribes  in  the  siege  of  Moguntiacmn. 
From  this  time  they  disappear  from  history  ; 
and  their  country  was  subsequently  inhabited 
oy  the  Alemanni.  Their  chief  towns  were 
Aquae  Mattiacae  (now  Wiesbaden),  and  Mattia- 
cum  (now  Marburg),  which  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  Mattium,  the  capital  of  the  Chatti. 

MATTIUM  (now  Madcn),  the  chief  town  of  the 
Chatti,  situated  on  the  Adrana  (now  Eder),  was 
destroyed  by  Germanicus. 

MATUTA,  commonly  called  MATER  MATUTA,  is 
usually  considered  as  the  goddess  of  the  dawn 
of  morning,  and  her  name  is  considered  to  be 
connected  with  maturus  or  matutinus.  It  seems, 
however,  to  be  well  attested  that  Matuta  was 
only  a  surname  of  Juno  ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  name  is  connected  with  mater,  so  that  Ma- 
ter Matuta  is  an  analogous  expression  with 
Hostus  Hostilius,  Faunus  Fatuus,  Aius  Locuti- 
us,  and  others.  Her  festival,  the  Matralia,  was 
celebrated  on  the  llth-of  June.(vid.  Diet,  of  Ant., 
art.  MATRALIA).  The  Romans  identified  Matuta 
with  the  Greek  Leucothea.  A  temple  was  dedi- 
cated to  Matuta  at  Rome  by  King  Servius,  and 
was  restored  by  the  dictator  Camillus,  after  the 
taking  of  Veii.  There  was  also  a  temple  of 
Matuta  at  Satricum. 

MAURETANIA  or  MAURITANIA  (f/  Mavpovaia : 
~M.avpovai.oL,  Wlavpoi,  Mauri),  the  westernmost  of 
the  principal  divisions  of  Northern  Africa,  lay 
between  the  Atlantic  on  the  west,  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  north,  Numidia  on  the  east,  and 
Gaetulia  on  the  south  ;  but  the  districts  em- 
braced under  the  names  of  Mauretania  and  Nu- 
midia respectively  were  of  very  different  extent 
at  different  periods.  The  earliest  known  in- 
habitants of  all  Northern  Africa  west  of  the 
Syrtes  were  the  Geetulians,  who  were  displaced 
and  driven  inland  by  tribes  of  Asiatic  origin, 
who  are  found  in  the  earliest  historical  ac- 
counts, settled  along  the  northern  coast  under 
various  names ;  their  chief  tribes  being  the 
Mauri  or  Maurusii,  west  of  the  River  Malva  or 
Malucha  (now  Muluia.  or  Mohalou)  ;  thence  the 
Massaesylii  to  (or  nearly  to)  the  River  Ampsaga 
(now  Wady-el-Kebir),  and  the  Massylii  between 
the  Ampsaga  and  the  Tusca  (now  Wady-Zain), 
the  western  boundary  of  the  Carthaginian  ter- 
ritory. Of  these  people,  the  Mauri,  who  pos- 
sessed a  greater  breadth  of  fertile  country  be- 
tween the  Atlas  and  the  coasts,  seem  to  have 
applied  themselves  more  to  the  settled  pursuits 
of  agriculture  than  their  kindred  neighbors  on 
the  east,  whose  unsettled  warlike  habits  were 
moreover  confirmed  by  their  greater  exposure 
to  the  intrusions  of  the  Phoenician  settlers. 
Hence  arose  a  difference,  which  the  Greeks 
marked  by  applying  the  general  name  of  No/w- 
<5ef  to  the  tribes  between  the  Malva  and  the 
Tusca ;  whence  came  the  Roman  names  of 
Numidia  for  the  district,  and  Numidse  for  its 
people.  Vid.  NUMIDIA.  Thus  Mauretania  was 
at  first  only  the  country  west  of  the  Malva,  and 
486 


MAUSOLUS. 

corresponded  to  the  later,  district  of  Mauretania 
Tingitana,  and  to  the  modern  empire  of  Ma- 
rocco,  except  that  the  latter  extends  furthei 
south  ;  the  ancient  boundary  on  the  south  was 
the  Atlas.  The  Romans  first  became  acquaint- 
ed with  the  country  during  the  war  with  Jugur- 
tha,  B.C.  106;  of  their  relations  with  it  till  it 
became  a  Roman  province,  about  33,  an  account 
is  given  under  BOCCHUS.  During  this  period 
the  kingdom  of  Mauretania  had  been  increased 
by  the  addition  of  the  western  part  of  Numidia, 
as  far  as  Salda?,  which  Julius  Caesar  bestowed 
on  Bogud,  as  a  rewaVd  for  his  services  in  the 
African  war.  A  new  arrangement  was  made 
about  25,  when  Augustus  gave  Mauretania  to 
Juba  II.,  in  exchange  for  his  paternal  kingdom 
of  Numidia.  Upon  the  murder  of  Juba's  son, 
Ptolemasus,  by  Caligula  (A.D.  40),  Mauretania 
became  finally  a  Roman  province,  and  was  for- 
mally constituted  as  such  by  Claudius,  who 
added  to  it  nearly  half  of  what  was  still  left  of 
Numidia,  namely,  as  far  as  the  Ampsaga,  and 
divided  it  into  two  parts,  of  which  the  western 
was  called  Tingitana,  from  its  capital  Tingis 
(now  Tangier),  and  the  eastern  Caesariensis, 
from  its  capital  Julia  Caesarea  (now  Zer shell), 
the  boundary  between  them  being  the  River 
Malva,  the  old  limit  of  the  kingdom  of  Boc- 
chus  I.  The  latter  corresponded  to  the  wast- 
ern  and  central  part  of  the  modern  regency  (and 
now  French  colony)  of  Algiers.  These  "  Mau- 
retaniae  duse"  were  governed  by  an  equestrian 
procurator.  In  the  later  division  of  the  empire, 
under  Diocletian  and  Constantine,  the  easterr 
part  of  M.  Caesariensis,  from  Saldae  to  the  Amp- 
saga,  was  erected  into  a  new  province,  and  call 
ed  M.  Sitifensis,  from  the  inland  town  of  Sitifi 
(now  Setif) ;  at  the  same  time,  the  western 
province,  M.  Tingitana,  seems  to  have  been 
placed  under  the  same  government  as  Spain,  so 
that  we  still  find  mention  of  the  "  Mauretania- 
duae,"  meaning  now,  however,  Csesariensis  and 
Sitifensis.  From  A.D.  429  to  534  Mauretania 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  and  in  650 
and  the  following  years  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Arabs.  Its  ancient  inhabitants  still  exist  a? 
powerful  tribes  in  Morocco  and  Algier,  under 
the  names  of  Berbers,  Schillus,  Kalyles,  and  Tua- 
riks.  Its  chief  physical  features  are  described 
under  AFRICA  and  ATLAS.  Under  the  later  Ro- 
man emperors  it  was  remarkable  for  the  great 
number  of  its  episcopal  sees. 

MAURI.      Vid.  MAURETANIA. 

MAURICIANUS,  Jumus,  a  Roman  jurist,  lived 
under  Antoninus  Pius  (A.D.  138-161).  His 
works  are  cited  a  few  times  in  the  Digest. 

MAURICUS,  JUNIUS,  an  intimate  friend  of  Pliny, 
was  banished  by  Domitian,  but  recalled  from  ex- 
ile by  Nerva. 

MAURITANIA.      Vid..  MAURETANIA. 

MAURUS,  TERENTIANUS.     Vid.  TERENTIANUS. 

MAURUSII.      Vid.  MAURETANIA. 

MAUSOLUS  (WLavauAoc  or  Mavocoho?),  king  of 
Caria,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Hecatomnus,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  the  sovereignty  B.C.  377.  In 
362  he  took  part  in  the  general  revolt  of  the 
satraps  against  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  and  avail- 
ed himself  of  that  opportunity  to  extoi.d  liif- 
dominions.  In  358  he  joined  with  the  Rhodi- 
ans  and  others  in  the  war  waged  by  them 
i  against  the  Athenians,  known  by  the  name  of 


MAVORf. 

the  Social  war.  He  died  in  353,  leaving  no 
children,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  wife  and 
sister  Artemisia.  The  extravagant  grief  of  the 
latter  for  his  death,  and  the  honors  she  paid  to 
his  memory — especially  by  the  erection  of  the 
costly  monument,  which  was  called  from  him 
the  Mausoleum— are  related  elsewhere.  Vid. 
ARTEMISIA. 

MAVORS.      Vid.  MARS. 

MAXENTIUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D.  306-312, 
whose  full  name  was  M.  AURELIUS  VALERIUS 
MAXENTIUS.  He  was  the  son  of  Maximianus 
and  Eutropia,  and  received  in  marriage  the 
daughter  of  Galerius  ;  but  he  was  passed  ove> 
in  the  division  of  the  empire  which  followed  the 
abdication  of  his  father  and  Diocletian  in  A.D. 
305.  Maxenti'is,  however,  did  not  tamely  ac- 
quiesce in  this  arrangement,  and,  being  support- 
ed by  the  praetorian  troops,  who  had  been  re- 
cently deprived  of  their  exclusive  privileges,  he 
was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Rome  in  306.  He 
summoned  his  father,  Maximianus,  from  his  re- 
tirement in  Lucania,  who  again  assumed  the 
purple.  The  military  abilities  of  Maximianus 
were  of  great  service  to  his  son,  who  was  of 
indolent  and  dissolute  habits.  Maximianus 
compelled  the  Caesar  Severus,  who  had  march- 
ed upon  Rome,  to  retreat  in  haste  to  Ravenna, 
and  soon  afterward  put  the  latter  to  death  when 
he  had  treacherously  got  him  into  his  power 
(307).  The  Emperor  Galerius  now  marched  in 
person  against  Rome,  but  Maximianus  compel- 
led him  likewise  to  retreat.  Maxentius,  relieved 
from  these  imminent  dangers,  proceeded  to  dis- 
entangle himself  from  the  control  which  his 
father  sought  to  exercise,  and  succeeded  in 
driving  him  from  his  court.  Soon  afterward 
Maxentius  crossed  over  to  Africa,  which  he  rav- 
aged with  fire  and  sword,  because  it  had  sub- 
mitted to  the  independent  authority  of  a  certain 
Alexander.  Upon  his  return  to  Rome  Maxen- 
tius openly  aspired  to  dominion  over  all  the 
Western  provinces ;  and  soon  afterward  de- 
clared war  against  Constantine,  alleging,  as  a 
pretext,  that  the  latter  had  put  to  death  his 
father  Maximianus.  He  began  to  make  prepa- 
rations to  pass  into  Gaul ;  but  Constantine  an- 
ticipated his  movements,  and  invaded  Italy. 
The  struggle  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  de- 
feat of  Maxentius  at  Saxa  Rubra,  near  Rome, 
October  27th,  312.  Maxentius  tried  to  escape 
over  the  Milvian  bridge  into  Rome,  but  perished 
in  the  river.  Maxentius  is  represented  by  all 
historians  as  a  monster  of  rapacity,  cruelty,  and 
lust.  The  only  favored  class  was  the  military, 
upon  whom  he  depended  for  safety ;  and  in  or- 
der to  secure  their  devotion  and  to  gratify  his 
own  passions,  all  his  other  subjects  were  made 
the  victims  of  the  most  revolting  licentiousness, 
and  ruined  by  the  most  grinding  exactions. 

MAXILUA,  a  town  in  Hispania  Bictica,  where 
bricks  were  made  so  light  as  to  swim  upon  wa- 
ter. Vid.  CALENTUM. 

MAXIMA  C^ESARIENSIS.  Vid.  BRITANNIA,  p. 
149,  b. 

MAXIMIANOPOLIS,  previously  called  PORSULJE, 
a  town  in  Thrace,  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  east  of 
Abdera,  probably  the  same  place  as  the  town 
called  Mosynopolis  (Mofrvvovn-oAtf)  by  the  By- 
fcantine  writers. 

MAXIMIANOHOMS  (Mo^tovovTroAtf  :  in  the  Old 


MAXIMINUS. 

Testament,  Hadad  Rimmon),  a  city  of  Palestine, 
in  the  valley  of  Megiddo,  a  little  to  the  south- 
west of  Megiddo. 

MAXIMIANUS.  I.  Roman  emperor  A.D. .286- 
305,  whose  full  name  was  M.  AURELIUS  VALE- 
RIUS MAXIMIANUS.  He  was  born  of  humble  pa 
rents  in  Pannonia,  and  had  acquired  such  fame 
by  his  services  in  the  army,  that  Diocletian  se 
lected  this  rough  soldier  for  his  colleague,  as 
one  whose  abilities  were  likely  to  prove  valua- 
ble in  the  disturbed  state  of  public  affairs,  and 
accordingly  created  him  first  Caesar  (285),  and 
then  Augustus  (286),  conferring  at  the  same 
|  time  the  honorary  appellation  of  Herculius,  while 
'  he  himself  assumed  that  of  Jovius.  The  sub- 
sequent history  of  Maximian  has  been  fully  de- 
tailed in  former  articles.  Vid.  DIOCLETIANUS, 
CONSTANTINUS  I.,  MAXENTIUS.  It  is  sufficient 
to  relate  here,  that  after  having  been  reluctant- 
ly compelled  to  abdicate,  at  Milan  (305),  he  was 
again  invested  with  the  imperial  title  by  his  son 
Maxentius,  in  the  following  year  (306),  to  whom 
he  rendered  the  most  important  services  in  the 
war  with  Severus  and  Galerius.  Having  been 
expelled  from  Rome  shortly  afterward  by  his 
son,  he  took  refuge  in  Gaul  with  Constantine, 
to  whom  he  had  previously  given  his  daughter 
Fausta  in  marriage.  Here  he  again  attempted 
to  resume  the  imperial  crown,  but  was  easily 
deposed  by  Constantine  (308).  Two  years  aft- 
erward, he  endeavored  to  induce  his  daughter 
Fausta  to  destroy  her  husband,  and  was,  in  con- 
sequence, compelled  by  Constantine  to  put  an 
end  to  his  own  life. — II.,  Roman  emperor  A-D. 
305-311,  usually  called  GALERIUS.  His  full 
name  was  GALERIUS  VALERIUS  MAXIMIANUS. 
He  was  born  near  Sardica  in  Dacia,  and  was 
the  son  of  a  shepherd.  He  rose  from  the  ranks 
to  the  highest  commands  in  the  army,  and  was 
appointed  Caesar  by  Diocletian,  along  with  Con- 
stantius  Chlorus,  in  292.  At  the  same  time  he 
was  adopted  by  Diocletian,  whose  daughter  Va- 
leria he  received  in  marriage,  and  was  intrust- 
ed with  the  command  of  Illyria  and  Thrace. 
In  297  he  undertook  an  expedition  against  the 
Persian  monarch  Narses,  in  which  he  was  un- 
successful, but  in  the  following  year  (298)  he 
defeated  Narses  with  great  slaughter,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  conclude  a  peace.  Upon  the  ab- 
dication of  Diocletian  and  Maximian  (305),  Ga- 
lerius became  Augustus  or  emperor.  In  307  he 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  recover  Italy, 
which  had  owned  the  authority  of  the  usurper 
Maxentius.  Fid.  MAXENTIUS.  He  died  in  311. 
of  the  disgusting  disease  known  in  modern 
times  by  the  name  of  morbus  pediculosus.  He 
was  a  cruel  persecutor  of  the  Christians  ;  and 
it  was  at  his  instigation  that  Diocletian  issued 
the  fatal  ordinance  (303),  which  for  so  many 
years  deluged  the  world  with  innocent  blood. 

MAXIMINUS.  I.,  Roman  emperor  A.D.  235- 
238,  whose  full  name  was  C.  JULIUS  VERUS  MAX- 
IMINUS. He  was  horn  in  a  village  on  the  con- 
finesof  Thrace,  of  barbarian  parentage,  his  father 
being  a  Goth,  and  his  mother  a  German  from 
the  tribe  of  the  Alani.  Brought  up  as  a  shep- 
herd, he  attracted  the  attention  of  Septimiue 
Severus  by  his  gigantic  stature  and  marvellous 
feats  of  strength,  and  was  permitted  to  enter  the 
army.  He  eventually  rose  to  the  highest  rank 
in  the  service  ;  and  on  the  murder  of  Alexander 

487 


MAXfMUS. 

Scverus  by  the  mutinous  troops  in  Gaul  (235), 
he  \v;is  proclaimed  emperor.  He  immediately 
bestowed  the  title  of  Csesar  on  his  son  Maxi- 
mus.  During  the  three  years  of  his  reign  lie 
carried  on  war  against  the  Germans  with  suc- 
cess ;  hut  his  government  was  characterized  by 
a  degree  of  oppression  and  sanguinary  excess 
hitherto  unexampled.  The  Roman  world  be- 
came at  length  tired  of  this  monster.  The 
senate  and  the  provinces  gladly  acknowledged 
the  two  Gordiani,  who  had  been  proclaimed  em- 
perors in  Africa;  and  after  their  death  the 
senate  itself  proclaimed  Maximus  and  Balbinus 
emperors  (238).  As  soon  as  Maximinus  heard 
of  the  elevation  of  the  Gordians,  he  hastened 
from  his  winter-quarters  at  Sirmium.  Having 
crossed  the  Alps,  he  laid  siege  to  Aquileia,  and 
was  there  slain  by  his  own  soldiers,  along  with 
his  son  Maximus,  in  April.  The  most  extraor- 
dinary tales  are  related  of  the  physical  powers 
of  Maximinus,  which  seem  to  have  been  almost 
incredible.  His  height  exceeded  eight  feet. 
The  circumference  of  his  thumb  was  equal  to 
that  of  a  woman's  wrist,  so  that  the  bracelet  of 
his  wife  served  him  for  a  ring.  It  is  said  that 
he  was  able  single-handed  to  drag  a  loaded 
wagon,  could  with  his  fist  knock  out  the  grin- 
ders, and  with  a  kick  break  the  leg  of  a  horse  ; 
while  his  appetite  was  such,  that  in  one  day  he 
could  eat  forty  pounds  of  meat,  and  drink  an 
amphora  of  wine. — II.,  Roman  emperor  305- 
314,  originally  called  DAZA,  and  subsequently 
GALERIUS  VALERIUS  MAXIMINUS.  He  was  the 
nephew  of  Galerius  by  a  sister,  and  in  early  life 
followed  the  occupation  of  a  shepherd  in  his  na- 
tive Illyria.  Having  entered  the  army,  he  rose 
to  the  highest  rank  in  the  service ;  and  upon 
the  abdication  of  Diocletian  in  305,  he,  was 
adopted  by  Galerins,  and  received  the  title  of 
Caesar.  In  308  Galerius  gave  him  the  title  of 
Augustus  ;  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  31 1 , 
Maximinus  and  Licinius  divided  the  East  be- 
tween them.  In  313  Maximinus  attacked  the 
dominions  of  Licinius,  who  had  gone  to  Milan 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  in  marriage  the 
sister  of  Constantine.  He  was,  however,  de- 
feated by  Licinius  near  Heraclea,  and  fled  to 
Tarsus,  where  he  soon  after  died.  Maximinus 
possessed  no  military  talents.  He  owed  his 
elevation  to  his  family  connection.  He  sur- 
passed all  his  contemporaries  in  the  profligacy 
of  his  private  life,  in  the  general  cruelty  of  his 
administration,  and  in  the  furious  hatred  with 
which  he  persecuted  the  Christians. 

MAXIMUS.  1.  Of  Ephesus  or  Smyrna,  one  of 
the  teachers  of  the  Emperor  Julian,  to  whom  he 
was  introduced  by  JEdesius.  Maximus  was  a 
philosopher  of  the  New  Platonic  school,  and, 
like  many  others  of  that  school,  both  believed 
in  and  practiced  magic.  It  is  said  that  Julian, 
through  his  persuasion,  was  induced  to  abjure 
Christianity.  On  the  accession  of  Julian,  Max- 
imus was  held  in  high  honor  at  the  court,  and 
accompanied  the  emperor  on  his  fatal  expedi- 
tion against  the  Persians,  which  he  had  proph- 
esied would  be  successful.  In  364  he  was  ac- 
cused of  having  caused  by  sorcery  the  illness 
of  the  Emperors  Valens  and  Valentinian,  and 
was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  was  exposed 
to  cruel  tortures.  He  owed  his  liberation  to 
the  philosopher  Themistius.  In  371  Maximus 
488 


MAXIMUS. 

!  was  accused  of  taking  part  in  a  conspiracy 
against  Valens,  and  was  put  to  death. — 2.  Of 
Epirus,  or  perhaps  of  Byzantium,  was  also  an 
instructor  of  the  Emperor  Julian  in  philosophy 
and  heathen  theology.  He  wrote  in  Greek,  De 
insolubilibus  Oppositionibus,  published  by  H.  Ste- 
phanus,  Paris,  1554,  appended  to  the  edition  of 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  as  well  as  other 
works. 

MAXIMUS,  FABIUS.  1.  Q.  FABIUS  MAXIMUS 
RULLIANUS,  was  the  son  of  M.  Fabius  Ambus- 
tus,  consul  B.C.  360.  Fahius  was  master  of  the 
hprse  to  the  dictator  L.  Papirius  Cursor  in  325, 
whose  anger  he  incurred  by  giving  battle  to  the 
Samnites  during  the  dictator's  absence,  and 
contrary  to  his  orders.  Victory  availed  Fabius 
nothing  in  exculpation.  A  hasty  flight  to  Rome, 
where  the  senate,  the  people,  and  his  aged 
father  interceded  for  him  with  Papirius,  barely 
rescued  his  life,  but  could  not  avert  his  degra- 
dation from  office.  In  322  Fabius  obtained  his 
first  consulship.  It  was  the  second  year  of  the 
second  Samnite  war,  and  Fabius  was  the  most 
eminent  of  the  Roman  generals  in  that  long  and 
arduous  struggle  for  the  empire  of  Italy.  Yet 
nearly  all  authentic  traces  are  lost  of  the  seat 
and  circumstances  of  his  numerous  campaigns. 
His  defeats  have  been  suppressed  or  extenuat- 
ed, and  the  achievements  of  others  ascribed  to 
him  alone.  In  315  he  was  dictator,  and  was 
completely  defeated  by  the  Samnites  at  Lautulae. 
In  310  he  was  consul  for  the  second  time,  and 
carried  on  the  war  against  the  Etruscans.  In 
308  he  was  consul  a  third  time,  and  is  said  to 
have  defeated  the  Samnites  and  Umbrians.  He 
was  censor  in  304,  when  he  seems  to  have  con- 
fined the  libertini  to  the  four  city  tribes,  and  to 
have  increased  the  political  importance  of  the 
equites.  In  297  he  was  consul  for  the  fifth  time, 
and  in  296  for  the  sixth  time.  In  the  latter 
year  he  commanded  at  the  great  battle  of  Sen- 
tinum,  when  the  combined  armies  of  the  Sam- 
nites, Gauls,  Etruscans,  and  Umbrians  were 
defeated  by  the  Romans. — 2.  Q.  FABIUS  MAXI- 
MUS GURGES,  or  the  Glutton,  from  the  dissolute- 
ness of  his  youth,  son  of  the  last.  His  mature 
manhood  atoned  for  his  early  irregularities. 
He  was  consul  292,  and  was  completely  defeat- 
ed by  the  Pentrian  Samnites.  He  escaped  deg- 
radation from  the  consulate  only  through  his 
father's  offer  to  serve  as  his  lieutenant  for  the 
remainder  of  the  war.  In  a  second  battle  the 
consul  retrieved  his  reputation,  and  was  re- 
warded with  a  triumph,  of  which  the  most  re- 
markable feature  was  old  Fabius  riding  boside 
his  son's  chariot.  He  was  consul  the  second 
time  276.  Shortly  afterward  he  went  as  lega- 
tus  from  the  senate  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
king  of  Egypt.  He  was  consul  a  third  time. 
265. — 3.  Q.  FABIUS  MAXIMUS,  with  the  agnomens 
VERRUCOSUS,  from  a  wart  on  his  upper  lip,  Ovi- 
CULA,  or  the  Lamb,  from  the  mildness  or  apathy 
of  his  temper,  and  CUNCTATOR,  from  his  caution 
in  war,  was  grandson  of  Fabius  Gurges.  He 
vas  consul  for  the  first  time  233,  when  Liguria 
was  his  province ;  censor  230  ;  consul  a  sec- 
ond time  228  ;  opposed  the  agrarian  law  of  C. 
Flaminius  227 ;  was  dictator  for  holding  the 
comitia  in  221  ;  and  in  218  was  legatus  from 
the  senate  to  Carthage,  to  demand  reparation 
for  the  attack  on  Saguntum.  In  217,  immedi- 


MAXIMUS,  MAGNUS  CLEMENS 

utely  after  the  defeat  at  Thrasymenus,  Fabius 
was  appointed  dictator.  From  this  period,  so 
long  as  the  war  with  Hannibal  was  merely  de- 
fensive, Fabius  became  the  leading  man  at 
Rome.  On  taking  the  field  he  laid  down  a  sim- 
ple and  immutable  plan  of  action.  He  avoided 
all  direct  encounter  with  the  enemy  ;  moved 
his  camp  from  highland  to  highland,  where  the 
Numidian  horse  and  Spanish  infantry  could  not 
follow  him ;  watched  Hannibal's  movements 
with  unrelaxing  vigilance,  and  cut  off  his  strag- 
glers and  foragers.  His  inclosure  of  Hannibal 
in  one  of  the  upland  valleys  between  Gales  and 
the  Vulturnus,  and  the  Carthaginian's  adroit 
escape  by  driving  oxen  with  blazing  fagots 
fixed  to  their  horns  up  the  hill-sides,  are  well- 
known  facts.  But  at  Rome  and  in  his  own 
camp  the  caution  of  Fabius  was  misinterpreted ; 
and  the  people,  in  consequence,  divided  the  com- 
mand between  him  and  M.  Minucius  Rufus,  his 
master  of  the  horse.  Minucius  was  speedily 
entrapped,  and  would  have  been  destroyed  by 
Hannibal  had  not  Fabius  generously  hastened 
to  his  rescue.  Fabius  was  consul  for  the  third 
time  in  215,  and  for  the  fourth  time  in  214.  In 
213  he  served  as  legatus  to  his  own  son,  Q. 
Fabius,  consul  in  that  year,  and  an  anecdote  is 
preserved  which  exemplifies  the  strictness  of 
the  Roman  discipline.  On  entering  the  camp 
at  Suessula,  Fabius  advanced  on  horseback  to 
greet  his  son.  He  was  passing  the  lictors  when 
the  consul  sternly  bade  him  dismount.  "  My 
son,"  exclaimed  the  elder  Fabius,  alighting,  "  I 
wished  to  see  whether  you  would  remember 
Hiat  you  were  consul."  Fabius  was  consul  for 
the  fifth  time  in  209,  in  which  year  he  retook 
Tarentum.  In  the  closing  years  of  the  second 
Punic  war  Fabius  appears  to  less  advantage. 
The  war  had  become  aggressive  under  a  new 
race  of  generals.  Fabius  disapproved  of  the 
new  tactics  ;  he  dreaded  the  political  suprem- 
acy of  Scipio,  and  was  his  uncompromising  op- 
ponent in  his  scheme  of  invading  Africa.  He 
died  in  203. — 4.  Q.  FABIUS  MAXIMUS,  elder  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  praetor  214,  and  consul 
213.  He  was  legatus  to  the  consul  M.  Livius 
Salinator  207.  He  died  soon  after  this  period, 
and  his  funeral  oration  was  pronounced  by  his 
father. — 5.  Q.  FABIUS  MAXIMUS  ^EMILIANUS,  was 
by  birth  the  eldest  son  of  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus, 
the  conqueror  of  Perseus,  and  was  adopted  by 
No.  3.  Fabius  served  under  his  father  (^Emil- 
ius)  in  the  Macedonian  war,  168,  and  was  dis- 
patched by  him  to  Rome  with  the  news  of  his 
victory  at  Pydna.  He  was  praetor  in  Sicily  149 
-148,  and  consul  in  145.  Spain  was  his  prov- 
ince, where  he  encountered,  and  at  length  de- 
feated Viriathus.  Fabius  was  the  pupil  and 
patron  of  the  historian  Polybius. — 6.  Q.  FABIUS 
MAXIMUS  ALLOBROOICUS,  son  of  the  last.  He 
was  consul  121 ;  and  he  derived  his  surname 
from  the  victory  which  he  gained  in  this  year 
over  the  Allobroges  and  their  ally,  Bituitus, 
king  of  the  Arverni  in  Gaul.  He  was  censor  in 
108.  He  was  an  orator  and  a  man  of  letters. 
—  7.  Q.  FABIUS  MAXIMUS  SERVILIANUS,  was 
adopted  from  the  gens  Servilia  by  No.  5.  He 
was  uterine  brother  of  Cn.  Servilius  Caepio, 
consul  in  141.  He  himself  was  consul  in  142, 
when  he  carried  on  war  with  Viriathus. 
\'i XIMI  r,  MAGNUS  CLEMENS,  Roman  emperor 


MAZ.EUS. 

A.D.  383-388,  in  Gaul,  Britain,  and  Spain,  was 
a  native  of  Spain.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor 
by  the  legions  in  Britain  in  383,  and  forthwith 
crossed  over  to  Gaul  to  oppose  Gratian,  who 
was  defeated  by  Maximus,  and  was  shortly  aft- 
erward put  to  death.  Theodosjus  found  it  ex- 
pedient to  recognize  Maximus  as  emperor  of 
Gaul,  Britain,  and  Spain,  in  order  to  secure 
Valentinian  in  the  possession  of  Italy.  Maxi- 
mus, however,  aspired  to  the  undivided  empire 
of  the  West,  and  accordingly,  in  387,  he  invaded 
Italy  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army.  Valen- 
tinian was  unable  to  resist  him,  and  fled  to  The 
odosius  in  the  East.  Theodosius  forthwith  prn- 
pared  to  avenge  his  colleague.  In  388  he  forceu 
his  way  through  the  Noric  Alps,  which  had  been 
guarded  by  the  troops  of  Maximus,  and  shortly 
afterward  took  the  city  of  Aquileia  by  storm, 
and  there  put  Maximus  to  death.  Victor,  the 
son  of  Maximus,  was  defeated  and  slain  in 
Gaul  by  Arbogates,  the  general  of  Theodosius. 

MAXIMUS,  PETRONIUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D. 
455,  belonged  to  a  noble  Roman  family,  and  en- 
joyed some  of  the  highest  offices  of  state  under 
Honorius  and  Valentinian  III.  Inconsequence 
of  the  violence  offered  to  his  wife  by  Valentin- 
ian, Maximus  formed  a  conspiracy  against  this 
emperor,  who  was  assassinated,  and  Maximus 
himself  proclaimed  emperor  in  his  stead.  His 
reign,  however,  lasted  only  two  or  three  months. 
Having  forced  Eudoxia,  the  widow  of  Valentin- 
ian, to  marry  him,  she  resolved  to  avenge  the 
death  of  her  former  husband,  and  accordingly 
Genseric  was  invited  to  invade  Italy.  When 
Genseric  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber, 
Maximus  prepared  to  fly  from  Rome,  but  was 
slain  by  a  band  of  Burgundian  mercenaries, 
commanded  by  some  old  officers  of  Valentinian. 

MAXIMUS  PLANUDES.     Vid.  PLANUDES. 

MAXIMUS  TYRIUS,  a  native  of  Tyre,  a  Greek 
rhetorician  and  Platonic  philosopher,  lived  dur- 
ing the  reigns  of  the  Antonines  and  of  Corn- 
modus.  Some  writers  suppose  that  he  was  one 
of  the  tutors  of  M.  Aurelius  ;  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  he  was  a  different  person  from 
Claudius  Maximus,  the  Stoic,  who  was  the 
tutor  of  this  emperor.  Maximus  Tyrius  ap- 
pears to  have  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
in  Greece,  but  he  visited  Rome  once  or  twice. 
There  are  extant  forty-one  Dissertations  (Ata- 
Mfrif  or  A6yoi)  of  Maximus  Tyrius  on  theolog- 
ical, ethical,  and  other  philosophical  subjects, 
written  in  an  easy  and  pleasing  style,  but  not 
characterized  by  much  depth  of  thought.  The 
best  edition  is  by  Reiske,  Lips.,  1774-5,  2  vols. 
8vo. 

MAXIMUS,  VALERIUS.     Vid.  VALERIUS. 

MAXULA.      Vid.  ADIS. 

MAXYES  (Mufref),  a  people  of  Northern  Af- 
rica, on  the  coast  of  the  Lesser  Syrtia,  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  River  Triton,  who  claimed 
descent  from  the  Trojans.  They  allowed  their 
hair  to  grow  only  on  the  left  side  of  the  head, 
and  they  painted  their  bodies  with  vermilion ; 
customs  still  preserved  by  some  tribes  in  the 
same  regions. 

MAZACA.     Vid.  C^ESAREA,  No.  1. 

[MAZJEUS  (MaCatof).  1.  Satrap  of  Cilicia, 
who,  with  Belesys,  satrap  of  Syria,  made  head 
against  the  revolted  Phoenicians  in  the  reign  of 
Ochus,  while  the  latter  was  preparing  to  march 

489 


MAZARA. 

against  ihem. — 2.  A  Persian  officer  under  Da- 
rius, sent  to  guard  the  passage  of  the  Euphrates 
on  the  approach  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  he 
behaved  subsequently  with  great  bravery  at  the 
battle  of  Gaugamela,  in  which  he  commanded 
the  Persian  cavalry.  After  the  flight  of  Darius 
he  retired  to  Btlbylon,  but  surrendered  himself 
to  Alexander,  who  appointed  him  satrap  of 
Babylon  B.C.  331.] 

MAZARA  (Ma&pa:  Mafapafof :  now Mazzara), 
a  town  on  the  western  coast  of  Sicily,  situated 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  between  Lily- 
baeum  and  Selinus,  and  founded  by  the  latter 
city,  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  the  first  Punic 
war. 

[MAZARES  (Ma&prjf),  a  Median  officer  in  the 
service  of  Cyrus  the  Great ;  he  compelled  the 
Lydians  to  submit  to  the  terms  imposed  on  them 
by  Cyrus  at  the  suggestion  of  Croesus,  and  re- 
duced and  enslaved  the  city  of  Priene.] 

MAZICES  (MuCt/cef),  a  people  of  Northern  Af- 
rica, in  Mauretania  Csesariensis,  on  the  southern 
slope  of  Mount  Zalacus.  They,  as  well  as  the 
MAXYES,  are  thought  to  be  the  ancestors  of  the 
Amazirghs. 

[MECISTEUS  (MTJKIOTEVC).  1.  A  son  of  Talaus 
and  Lysimache,  brother  of  Adrastus,  and  father 
of  Euryalus  of  Thebes. — 2.  A  son  of  Echius, 
and  one  of  the  companions  of  Teucer  at  Troy, 
was  slain  by  Polydamas.] 

MECYBERNA  (MqnvGepva  :  Mj}Kv6epvalo<? :  now 
Molwo),  a  town  of  Macedonia  in  Chalcidice,  at 
the  head  of  the  Toronaic  Gulf,  east  of  Olynthus, 
of  which  it  was  the  sea-port.  From  this  town 
part  of  the  Toronaic  Gulf  was  subsequently 
called  Sinus  Mecybernaeus. 

MEDABA  (M.fj6a6a),  a  city  of  Peraea  in  Pales- 
tine. 

MEDAMA,  MEDMA,  or  MESMA,  a  Greek  town  on 
the  western  coast  of  Bruttium,  founded  by  the 
Locrians,  with  a  celebrated  fountain  and  a  har- 
bor called  Emporium. 

MEDAURA,  AD  MEDERA,  or  AMEDERA  (ruins  at 
Ayedrah),  a  flourishing  city  of  Northern  Africa, 
on  the  borders  of  Numidia  and  Byzacena,  be- 
tween Lares  and  Theveste ;  a  Roman  colony, 
and  the  birth-place  of  Appuleius. 

MEDEA  (Mijdeta),  daughter  of  JE&tes,  king  of 
Colchis,  by  the  Oceanid  Idyia,  or,  according  to 
others,  by  Hecate,  the  daughter  of  Perses.  She 
was  celebrated  for  her  skill  in  magic.  The  prin- 
cipal parts  of  her  story  are  given  under  ABSYR- 
TUS,  ARGONAUTS,  and  JASON.  It  is  sufficient  to 
state  here  that,  when  Jason  came  to  Colchis  to 
fetch  the  golden  fleece,  she  fell  in  love  with  the 
hero,  assisted  him  in  accomplishing  the  object 
for  which  he  had  visited  Colchis,  and  afterward 
fled  with  him  as  his  wife  to  Greece  ;  that,  hav- 
ing been  deserted  by  Jason  for  the  youthful 
daughter  of  Creon,  king  of  Corinth,  she  took 
fearful  vengeance  upon  her  faithless  spouse  by 
murdering  the  two  children  which  she  had  had 
by  him,  and  by  destroying  his  young  wife  by  a 
poisoned  garment ;  and  that  she  then  fled  to 
Athens  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  winged  dragons. 
So  far  her  story  has  been  related  elsewhere. 
At  Athens  she  is  said  to  have  married  King 
*£geus,  or  to  have  been  beloved  by  Sisyphus. 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  himself  is  said  to  have  sued  for 
her,  but  in  vain,  because  Medea  dreaded  the 
anger  of  Juno  (Hera) ;  and  the  latter  rewarded 
490 


MEDIA. 

her  by  promising  immortality  to  her  children. 
Her  children  are,  according  to  some  accounts, 
Mermerus,  Pheres,  or  Thessalus,  Aluimcnes, 
and  Tisander ;  according  to  others,  she  had 
seven  sons  and  seven  daughters,  while  others 
mention  only  two  children,  Medus  (some  call 
him  Polyxenus)  and  Eriopis,  or  one  son  Argus. 
Respecting  her  flight  from  Corinth  there  are 
different  traditions.  Some  say,  as  we  remark 
ed  above,  that  she  fled  to  Athens,  and  married 
JSgeus,  but  when  it  was  discovered  that  she 
had  laid  snares  for  Theseus,  she  escaped  and 
went  to  Asia,  the  inhabitanis  of  which  were 
called  after  her  Medes.  Others  relate  that  she 
first  fled  from  Corinth  to  Hercules  at  Thebes, 
who  had  promised  her  his  assistance  while  yet 
in  Colchis,  in  case  of  Jason  being  unfaithful  to 
her.  She  cured  Hercules,  who  was  seized  with 
madness;  and,, as  he  could  not  afford  her  the 
assistance  he  had  promised,  she  went  to  Athens. 
She  is  said  to  have  given  birth  to  her  son  Me- 
dus after  her  arrival  in  Asia,  where  she  had 
married  a  king ;  whereas  others  state  that  her 
son  Medus  accompanied  her  from  Athens  to 
Colchis,  where  her  son  slew  Perses,  and  re- 
stored her  father  ^Efites  to  his  kingdom.  Tho 
restoration  of  ^etes,  however,  is  attributed  by 
some  to  Jason,  who  accompanied  Medea  to 
Colchis.  At  length  Medea  is  said  to  have  be- 
come immortal,  to  have  been  honored  with  di- 
vine worship,  and  to  have  married  Achilles  in 
Elysium. 

MEDEON  (Mcdewv  :  Mefctmof).  1.  Or  MEDIOJT 
(now  Katuna),  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Acar- 
nania,  near  the  road  which  led  from  Limnsea 
to  Stratos. — 2.  A  town  on  the  coast  of  Phocis, 
near  Anticyra,  destroyed  in  the  sacred  war,  and 
never  rebuilt. — 3.  An  ancient  town  in  Breotia, 
mentioned  by  Homer,  situated  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Phcenicus,  near  Onchestus  and  the  Lake 
Copais. — 4.  A  town  of  the  Labeates  in  Dalma- 
tia,  near  Scodra. 

MEDIA  (TJ  Mj?<5t'a  :  M^(5of,  Medus),  an  import- 
ant country  of  Western  Asia,  occupying  the  ex- 
treme west  of  the  great  table-land  of  Iran,  and 
lying  between  Armenia  on  the  north  and  north- 
west, Assyria  and  Susiana  on  the  west  and 
southwest,  Persis  on  the  south,  the  great  des- 
ert of  Aria  on  the  east,  and  Parthia,  Hyrcania, 
and  the  Caspian  on  the  northeast.  Its  bounda- 
ries were,  on  the  north  the  Araxes,  on  the  west 
and  southwest  the  range  of  mountains  called 
Zagros  and  Parachoatras  (now  Mountains  of 
Kurdistan  and  Louristan),  which  divided  it  from 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  valley,  on  the  east 
the  desert,  and  on  the  northeast  the  Caspii 
Monies  (now  Elburz  Mountains'),  the  country  be- 
tween which  and  the  Caspian,  though  reckoned 
as  a  part  of  Media,  was  possessed  by  the  Gelaa, 
Mardi,  and  other  independent  tribes.  Media  thus 
corresponded  nearly  to  the  modern  province  of 
Irak-Ajemi.  It  was  for  the  most  part  a  fertile 
country,  producing  wine,  figs,  oranges,  and  cit- 
rons, and  honey,  and  supporting  an  excellent 
breed  of  horses.  It  was  well  peopled,  and  was 
altogether  one  of  the  most  important  provinces 
of  the  ancient  Persian  empire.  After  the  Mac- 
edonian conquest  it  was  divided  into  two  parts, 
Great  Media  (f/  fte-yuhr)  M.r)6ia)  and  Atropatene. 
Vid.  ATROPATENE.  The  earliest  history  of  Me- 
dia is  involved  in  much  obscurity.  Herodotus 


MEDIAE  MURUS. 

and  Ctesias  (in  Diodorus)  give  different  chro- 
nologies for  its  early  kings.  Ctesias  makes  AR- 
BACES  the  founder  of  the  monarchy,  about  B.C. 
842,  and  reckons  eight  kings  from  him  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  kingdom  by  Cyrus.  Herodo- 
tus reckons  only  four  kings  of  Media,  namely, 
1.  DEIOCES,  B.C.  710-657;  2.  PHRAORTES,  657- 
635  ;  3.  CYAXARES,  635-595  ;  5.  ASTYAGES,  595- 
560.  The  last  king  was  dethroned  by  a  revolu- 
tion, which  transferred  the  supremacy  to  the 
Persians,  who  had  formerly  been  the  subordinate 
people  in  the  united  Medo-Persian  empire.  Vid. 
CYRUS.  The  Medes  made  more  than  one  at- 
tempt to  regain  their  supremacy ;  the  usurpa- 
tion of  IheMagian  Pseudo-Smerdis  was  no  doubt 
such  an  attempt  (vid.  MAGI)  ;  and  another  oc- 
curred in  the  reign  of  Darius  II.,  when  the 
Medes  re'volted,  but  were  soon  subdued  (B.C. 
408).  With  the  rest  of  the  Persian  empire, 
Media  fell  under  the  power  of  Alexander ;  it 
next  formed  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Se- 
leucidae,  from  whom  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Parthians  in  the  second  century  B.C.,  from  which 
time  it  belonged  to  the  Parthian,  and  then  to 
the  later  Persian  empire.  The  people  of  Me- 
dia were  a  branch  of  the  Indo-Germanic  fam- 
ily, and  nearly  allied  to  the  Persians  ;  their  lan- 
guage was  a  dialect  of  the  Zend,  and  their  re- 
ligion the  Magian.  They  called  themselves  Arii, 
which,  like  the  native  name  of  the  Persians 
(Artaei),  means  noble.  They  were  divided,  ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  into  six  tribes,  the  Buzas, 
Parataceni,  Struchates,  Arizanti,  Budii,  and 
Magi.  In  the  early  period  of  their  history  they 
were  eminent  warriors,  especially  as  horse- 
archers  ;  but  the  long  prevalence  of  peace, 
wealth,  and  luxury  reduced  them  to  a  by-word 
for  effeminacy.  It  is  important  to  notice  the 
use  of  the  names  MEDUS  and  MEDI  by  the  Ro- 
man poets  for  the  nations  of  Asia  east  of  the 
Tigris  in  general,  and  the  Parthians  in  partic- 
ular. 

MEDIAE  MURUS  (TO  Mjjd/af  Kakovfievov  Tei^of), 
an  artificial  wall  which  ran  from  the  Euphrates 
to  the  Tigris,  at  the  point  where  they  approach 
nearest,  a  little  above  33°  north  latitude,  and 
divided  Mesopotamia  from  Babylonia.  It  is  de- 
scribed by  Xenophon  (Anab.,  ii.,  4)  as  being 
twenty  parasangs  long,  one  hundred  feet  high, 
and  twenty  thick,  and  as  built  of  baked  bricks, 
cemented  with  asphalt.  Its  erection  was  as- 
cribed to  Semiramis,  and  hence  it  was  also 
called  TO  I-sfiipufttdof  diaTeixiofia- 

MEDIOLANUM  (Mediolanensis),  more  frequent- 
ly called  by  Greek  writers  MEDIOLANIUM  (Mfdto- 
Zuvtov),  the  name  of  several  cities  founded  by 
the  Celts.  1.  (Now  Milan),  the  capital  of  the 
Insubres  in  Gallia  Transpadana,  was  situated 
in  an  extensive  plain  between  the  rivers  Tici- 
nus  and  Addua.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans 
B.C.  222,  and  afterward  became  both  a  muni- 
cipium  and  a  colony.  On  the  new  division  of 
the  empire  made  by  Diocletian,  it  became  the 
residence  of  his  colleague  Maximianus,  and  con- 
tinued to  be  the  usual  residence  of  the  emper- 
ors of  the  West  till  the  irruption  of  Attila,  who 
took  and  plundered  the  town,  induced  them  to 
transfer  the  seat  of  government  to  the  more 
strongly-fortited  town  of  Ravenna.  Mediola- 
num  was  at  this  time  one  of  the  first  cities  of 
the  empire  ;  it  possessed  an  imperial  mint,  and 


MEDON. 

was  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric.  It  is  cele- 
brated in  ecclesiastical  history  as  the  see  of  St. 
Ambrose.  On  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire, 
it  became  the  residence  of  Theodoric  the  Great 
and  the  capital  of  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom,  and 
surpassed  even  Rome  itself  in  populousness 
and  prosperity.  It  received  a  fearful  blow  in 
A.D.  539,  when,  in  consequence  of  having  sided 
with  Belisarius,  it  was  taken  by  the  Goths  un- 
der Vitiges,  a  great  part  of  it  destroyed,  and  its 
inhabitants  put  to  the  sword.  It,  however,  grad- 
ually recovered  from  the  effects  of  this  blow, 
and  was  a  place  of  importance  under  the  Lom- 
bards, whose  capital,  however,  was  Pavia.  The 
modern  Milan  contains  no  remains  of  antiquity, 
with  the  exception  of  sixteen  handsome  fluted 
pillars  near  the  Church  of  S.  Lorenzo.  —  2. 
(Now  Saintes),  a  town  of  the  Santones  in  Aqui- 
tania,  northeast  of  J,he  mouth  of  the  Garumna; 
subsequently  called  Santones  after  the  people, 
whence  its  modern  name. — 3.  (Now  Chateau 
Meillan),  a  town  of  the  Bituriges  Cubi  in  Aqui- 
tania,  northeast  of  the  town  last  mentioned. — 
4.  (Now  Evreux),  a  town  of  the  Aulerci  Ebu 
rovices  in  the  north  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis. 
south  of  the  Sequana,  on  the  road  from  Rotom- 
agus  to  Lutetia  Parisiorum  ;  subsequently  call 
ed  Civitas  Ebroicorum,  whence  its  modern 
name. — 5.  A  town  of  the  Segusiani  in  the  south 
of  Gallia  Lugdunensis. — 6.  A  town  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  on  the  road  from  Colonia  Trajana  to 
Colonia  Agrippina. 

MEDIOMATRICI,  a  people  in  the  southeast  of 
Gallia  Belgica,  on  the  Mosella,  south  of  the  Tre- 
viri.  Their  territory  originally  extended  to  the 
Rhine,  but  in  the  time  of  Augustus  they  had 
been  driven  from  the  banks  of  this  river  by  the 
Vangiones,  Nemetes,  and  other  German  tribes. 
Their  chief  town  was  Divodurum  (now  Mctz). 

MEDITERRANECJMMARE.  Vid.  INTERNUMMARE. 

MEDITRINA,  a  Roman  divinity  of  the  art  of 
healing,  in  whose  honor  the  festival  of  the  Med- 
itrinalia  was  celebrated  in  the  month  of  Octo- 
ber. (Vid.  Diet,  of  Ant.,  art.  MEDITRINALIA.) 

[MEDIUS  (M)?(kof),  son  of  Onythemis,  a  native 
of  Larissa  in  Thessaly,  and  a  friend  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his  ex- 
pedition into  India.  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander he  espoused  the  side  of  Antigonus,  and 
was  one  of  his  most  useful  and  successful  naval 
officers.] 

MEDMA.     Vid.  MEDAMA. 

MEDOACUS  or  MEDUACUS,  a  river  inVenetia,  in. 
the  north  of  Italy,  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
rivers,  the  Medoacus  Major  (now  Brenta)  and 
Medoacus  Minor  (now  Bacchiglione),  which  falls 
into  the  Adriatic  Sea  near  Edron,  the  harbor  of 
Patavium. 

MEDOBRIGA  (now  Marvao,  on  the  frontiers  of 
Portugal),  a  town  in  Lusitania,  on  the  road  from 
Emerita  to  Scalabis. 

MEDOCUS.     Vid.  AMADOCUS. 

MKDON  (Mt6uv).    1.  Son  of  Oilens,  and  broth- 
er of  the  lesser  Ajax,  fought  against  Troy,  and 
was  slain  by  ^Eneas. — 2.  Son  of  Codrus.     Vid. 
CODRUS. — [3.  A  herald  in  the  house  of  Ulysses, 
in  the  suite  of  the  suitors,  disclosed  to  Penelope 
!  the  danger  of  her  son  Telemachus,  and  wa^  on 
j  this  account  preserved  by  the  latter  when  the 
suitors  were  slain. — 4.  Son  of  Pylades  and  Elec- 
'  tra. — 5.  A  Lacedaemonian  statuary,  brother  of 

491 


MEDULI. 

Dorycleidas,  and  the  disciple  of  Dipoenus  and 
Scyllis,  made  the  gold  and  ivory  statue  of  Mi- ' 
nerva  (Athena)  in  the  Heraeum  at  Olympia.] 

MEDULI,  a  people  in  Aquitania,  on  the  coast  of 
the  ocean,  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Garumna, 
in  the  modern  Mcdoc.  There  were  excellent 
oysters  found  on  their  shores 

MEDULLI,  a  people  on  the  eastern  frontier  of 
Gallia  Narbonensis  and  in  the  Maritime  Alps, 
in  whose  country  the  Druentia  (now  Durance) 
and  Duria  (now  Doria  Minor)  took  their  rise. 

MEHULLIA  (Medulllnus :  now  St.  Angela),  a 
colony  of  Alba,  in  the  land  of  the  Sabines,  was 
situated  between  the  Tiber  and  the  Anio,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Corniculum  and  Ameriola. 
Tarquinius  Priscus  incorporated  their  territory 
with  the  Roman  state. 

MEDULLIMJS,  FURIUS,  an  ancient  patrician 
family  at  Rome,  the  members  of  which  held  the 
highest  offices  of  state  in  the  early  times  of  the 
republic. 

MEDULLUS,  a  mountain  in  Hispania  Tarraco- 
nensis,  near  the  Minius. 

MEDUS,  a  son  of  Medea.     Vid.  MEDEA. 

MEDUS  (MjytJoc :  now  Farwar  or  Schamior),  a 
small  river  of  Persis,  flowing  from  the  confines 
of  Media  and  falling  into  the  Araxes  (now  Bend- 
Emir)  near  Persepolis. 

MEDUSA.     Vid.  GORGONES. 

MEGABAZUS  or  MEOABYEUS.  1.  One  of  the 
seven  Persian  nobles  who  conspired  against  the 
magian  Smerdis,  B.C.  521.  Darius  left  him  be- 
hind with  an  army  in  Europe  when  he  himself 
recrossed  the  Hellespont  on  his  return  from 
Scythia,  506.  Megabazus  subdued  Perinthus 
and  the  other  cities  on  the  Hellespont  and  along 
the  coast  of  Thrace. — 2.  Son  of  Zopyrus,  and 
grandson  of  the  above,  was  one  of  the  com- 
manders in  the  army  of  Xerxes,  480.  He  after- 
ward commanded  the  army  sent  against  the 
Athenians  in  Egypt,  458. 

MEGACLES  (MeyoK^f).  1.  A  name  borne  by 
several  of  the  Athenian  family  of  the  Alcmae- 
onidffi.  The  most  important  of  these  was  the 
Megacles  who  put  to  death  Cylon  and  his  ad- 
herents after  they  had  taken  refuge  at  the  altar 
of  Minerva  (Athena),  B.C.  612.  Vid.  CYLON. 
— [2.  Son  of  Alcmaeon,  son-in-law  of  Clisthenes, 
leader  of  the  Alcmaeonidae  in  the  time  of  Solon. 
At  first  he  was  opposed  to  Pisistratus,  and  ex- 
pelled him  from  Athens  ;  but  afterward  he  be- 
came reconciled  to  him,  gave  him  his  daughter 
Coasyra  in  marriage,  and  assisted  in  his  resto- 
lation  to  Athens.  Pisistratus  not  having  treat- 
ed his  wife  in  a  proper  manner,  Megacles  re- 
sented the  affront,  and  again  drove  the  former 
out  of  Athens  :  with  the  aid  of  large  sums  from 
the  Thebans  and  other  states,  Pisistratus  again 
raised  an  army,  defeated  his  opponents,  and 
drove  Megacles  and  the  partisans  of  the  Alc- 
maeonidae into  exile.] — 3.  A  Syracusan,  brother 
of  Dion,  and  brother-in-law  of  the  elder  Dio- 
nysius.  He  accompanied  Dion  in  his  flight  from 
Syracuse,  358,  and  afterward  returned  with  him 
to  Sicily. 

MEG^RA.     Vid.  ERINNYES. 

MEGALIA  or  MEGARIS,  a  small  island  in  the 
Tyrrhene  Sea,  opposite  Neapolis. 

MEGALOPOLIS  (TJ  MeyaAty  Trofof,  MeyaAoTro^tf  : 
MeyaAo7ro/U'T»7f).     1.  (Now  Sinano  or  Sinanu), 
the  most  recent  but  the  most  important  of  the 
492 


MEGARA. 

cities  of  Arcadia,  was  founded  on  the  advice,  of 
Epaminondas,  after  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  B.C. 
371,  and  was  formed  out  of  the  inhabitants  of 
thirty-eight  villages.  It  was  situated  in  the 
district  Maenalia,  near  the  frontiers  of  Messe- 
nia,  on  the  River  Helisson,  which  flowed  through 
the  city,  dividing  it  into  nearly  two  equal  parts. 
It  stood  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town  Ores- 
tion  or  Orestia,  was  fifty  stadia  (six  miles  in 
circumference,  and  contained,  when  it  was  be- 
sieged by  Polysperchon,  about  fifteen  thousand 
men  capable  of  bearing  arms,  which  would  give 
us  a  population  of  about  seventy  thousand  in- 
habitants. Megalopolis  was  for  a  time  subject 
to  the  Macedonians,  but  soon  after  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  Great  it  was  governed  by  a 
series  of  native  tyrants,  the  last  of  whom,  Lyd- 
iades,  voluntarily  resigned  the  government  and 
united  the  city  to  the  Achaean  league,  B.C.  234. 
It  became,  in  consequence,  opposed  to  Sparta, 
and  was  taken  and  plundered  by  Cleomenes, 
who  either  killed  or  drove  into  banishment  all 
its  inhabitants,  and  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the 
city,  222.  After  the  battle  of  Sellasia  in  the 
following  year  it  was  restored  by  Philopcemen, 
who  again  collected  its  inhabitants,  but  it  never 
recovered  its  former  prosperity,  and  gradually 
sunk  into  insignificance.  Philopoemen  and  the 
historian  Polybius  were  natives  of  Megalopolis. 
The  ruins  of  its  theatre,  once  the  largest  in 
Greece,  are  the  only  remains  of  the  ancient 
town  to  be  seen  in  the  village  of  Sinano. — 2.  A 
town  in  Caria.  Vid.  APHRODISIAS'. — 3.  A  town 
in  Pontus.  Vid.  SEBASTIA. — 4.  A  town  in  the 
north  of  Africa,  was  a  Carthaginian  city  in  the 
interior  of  Byzacena,  in  a  beautiful  situation  ; 
it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  troops  of 
Agathocles. 

MEGANIRA  (Meyarapa),  wife  of  Celeus,  usu- 
ally called  METANIRA. 

[MEGANITAS  (Meyootraf),  a  small  river  of 
Achaia,  in  the  territory  of  JSgium,  flows  into 
the  sea  west  of  that  city.] 

MEGAPENTHES  (Nleyanevdnf).  1.  Son  of  Proe- 
tus,  father  of  Anaxagoras  and  Iphianira,  and 
king  of  Argos.  He  exchanged  his  dominion  for 
that  of  Perseus,  so  that  the  latter  received 
Tiryns  instead  of  Argos. — 2.  Son  of  Menelaus 
by  an  ,<Etolian  slave,  Pieris  or  Teridae".  Mene- 
laus brought  about  a  marriage  between  Mega- 
penthes  and  a  daughter  of  Alector.  According 
to  a  Rhodian  tradition,  Megapenthes,  after  the 
death  of  his  father,  expelled  Helen  from  Argos, 
who  thereupon  fled  to  Polyxo  at  Rhodes. 

[MEGAPHERNES  (Mfya^epv^f),  a  Persian  satrap 
put  to  death  by  Cyrus  on  the  charge  of  having 
conspired  against  that  prince.] 

MEGARA  (Meyupa),  daughter  of  Creon,  king  of 
Thebes,  and  wife  of  Hercules.  Vid.  p.  356,  b. 

MEGARA  (TO.  Me'yopo,  in  Lat.  Megara,  -K,  and 
pi.  Megara, -orum  :  Meyapri/f,  Megarensis).  1. 
(Now  Megara),  the  capital  of  MEGARIS,  was  sit- 
uated eight  stadia  (one  mile)  from  the  sea  op- 
posite the  island  Salamis,  about  twenty-six 
miles  from  Athens  and  thirty-one  miles  from 
Corinth.  It  consisted  of  three  parts :  1.  The 
ancient  Pelasgian  citadel,  called  Caria,  said  to 
have  been  built  by  Car,  the  son  o/  Phoroneus, 
which  was  situated  on  a  hill  northwest  of  the 
later  city.  This  citadel  contained  the  ancient 
and  celebrated  Megaron  (/z^yapov)  or  temple  of 


MEGARA. 


MEGISTIAS. 


Ceres  (Demeter),  from  which  the  town  is  sup- 
posed to  have  derived  its  name.  2.  The  mod- 
ern citadel,  situated  on  a  lower  hill  to  the  south- 
west of  the  preceding,  and  called  Alcathous, 
from  its  reputed  founder  Alcathous,  son  of  Pe- 
lops.  3.  The  town  properly  so  called,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  two  citadels,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Pelopidae  under  Alcathous,  and 
subsequently  enlarged  by  a  Doric  colony  under 
Alethes  and  Athemenes  at  the  time  of  Codrus. 
It  appears  to  have  been  originally  called  Polich- 
ne  (Hol.ixvTj).  The  town  contained  many  public 
buildings,  which  are  described  at  length  by  Pau- 
sanias.  Its  sea-port  was  Nisaa  (Nt'aata),  which 
was  connected  with  Megara  by  two  walls,  eight 
stadia  in  length,  built  by  the  Athenians  when 
they  had  possession  of  Megara,  B.C.  461-445. 
Nisaea  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Nisus,  the 
son  of  Pandion  ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  Megara 
are  sometimes  called  Nisaean  Megarians  (oi 
Niaaioi  Meyopetf)  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Hyblaean  Megarians  (oi  T6/Uuot  Me-yapelf)  in 
Sicily.  In  front  of  Nisaea  lay  the  small  island 
Minoa  (M/i/uo),  which  added  greatly  to  the  secu- 
rity of  the  harbor.  In  the  most  ancient  times 
Megara  and  the  surrounding  country  was  inhab- 
ited by  Leleges.  It  subsequently  became  an- 
nexed to  Attica ;  and  Megaris  formed  one  of 
the  four  ancient  divisions  of  Attica.  It  was 
next  conquered  by  the  Dorians,  and  was  for  a 
time  subject  to  Corinth  ;  but  it  finally  asserted 
its  independence,  and  rapidly  became  a  wealthy 
and  powerful  city.  To  none  of  these  events 
can  any  date  be  assigned  with  certainty.  Its 
power  at  an  early  period  is  attested  by  the  flour- 
ishing colonies  which  it  founded,  of  which  Se- 
lymbria,  Chalcedon,  and  Byzantium,  and  the 
Hyblaean  Megara  in  Sicily,  were  the  most  im- 
portant. Its  navy  was  a  match  for  that  of 
Athens,  with  which  it  contested  the  island  of 
Salamis ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  a  long  strug- 
gle that  the  Athenians  succeeded  in  obtaining 
possession  of  this  island.  The  government  was 
originally  an  aristocracy,  as  in  most  of  the  Doric 
cities ;  but  Theagenes,  who  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  popular  party,  obtained  the  supreme 
power  about  B.C.  620.  Theagenes  was  after- 
ward expelled,  and  a  demopratical  form  of 
government  established.  After  the  Persian 
wars,  Megara  was  for  some  time  at  war  with 
Corinth,  and  was  thus  led  to  form  an  alliance 
with  Athens,  and  to  receive  an  Athenian  gar- 
rison into  the  city,  461  ;  but  the  oligarchical 
party  having  got  the  upper  hand,  the  Athenians 
were  expelled,  441.  Megara  is  not  often  men- 
ioned  after  this  period.  It  was  taken  and  its 
walls  destroyed  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  ;  it 
was  taken  again  by  the  Romans  under  Q.  Me- 
tellus  ;  and  in  the  time  of  Augustus  it  had  ceas- 
ed to  be  a  place  of  importance.  Megara  is  cel- 
ebrated in  the  history  of  philosophy  as  the  seat 
of  a  philosophical  school,  usually  called  the  Me- 
garian,  which  was  founded  by  Euclid,  a  native 
of  the  city,  and  a  disciple  of  Socrates.  Vid. 
EUCHDES,  No.  2.  There  are  no  remains  of  any 
importance  of  the  ancient  city  of  Megara. — 2.  A 
town  in  Sicily,  on  the  eastern  coast,  north  of 
Syracuse,  founded  by  Dorians  from  Megara  in 
Greece,  B.C.  728,  on  the  site  of  a  small  town 
Hybla,  and  hence  called  MEGARA  HVBL^EA,  and 
its  inhabitants  Megarenses  Hyblaei 


From  the  time  of  Gelon  it  belonged 
to  Syracuse.  It  was  taken  and  plunderedi  by 
the  Romans  in  the  second  Punic  war,  and  from 
that  time  sunk  into  insignificance,  but  it  is  still 
mentioned  by  Cicero  under  the  name  of  Megaris. 

MEGAREUS  (Meyapetif),  son  of  Onchestus,  also 
called  a  son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  CEnope, 
of  Hippornenes,  of  Apollo,  or  of  ^Egeus.  He 
was  a  brother  of  Abrote,  the  wife  of  Nisus,  kinp 
of  Megara,  and  the  father  of  Evippus,  Timalcus. 
Hippornenes,  and  Eveechme.  Megara  is  said  tb 
have  derived  its  name  from  him. 

MEGARIS  (fj  Meyapt'f  or  ij  MeyaptK)?,  sc.  yij),  '<. 
small  district  in  Greece,  between  the  Corinthiar 
and  Saronic  gulfs,  originally  reckoned  part  of 
Hellas  proper,  but  subsequently  included  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  It  was  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Bceotia,  on  the  east  and  northeast  by  Attica, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  territory  of  Corinth. 
It  contained  about  seven  hundred  and  twenty 
square  miles.  The  country  was  very  mount- 
ainous ;  and  its  only  plain  was  the  one  in  which 
the  city  of  Megara  was  situated.  It  was  sep- 
arated from  Bceotia  by  Mount  Cithaeron,  and 
from  Attica  by  the  mountains  called  the  Horns 
(TU  Kepara),  on  account  of  their  two  projecting 
summits.  The  QEnean  Mountains  extended 
through  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  and 
formed  its  southern  boundary  toward  Corinth. 
There  are  two  roads  through  these  mountains 
from  Corinth,  one  called  the  Scironian  pass, 
which  ran  along  the  Saronic  Gulf,  passed  by 
Crommyon  and  Megara,  and  was  the  direct  road 
from  Corinth  to  Athens ;  the  other  ran  along  the 
Corinthian  Gulf,  passed  by  Geranea  and  Pegae, 
and  was  the  road  from  Corinth  into  Bceotia. 
The  only  town  of  importance  in  Megaris  waa 
its  capital  Megara.  Vid.  MEGARA. 

MEGASTHENES  (Me-yaodsvrjf),  a  Greek  writer, 
who  was  sent  by  Seleucus  Nicator  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Sandracottus,  king  of  the  Prasii.  where 
he  resided  some  time.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
India,  in  four  books,  entitled  Indica  (TO.  'Ii>&/cd), 
to  which  later  Greek  writers  were  chiefly  in- 
debted for  their  accounts  of  the  country.  [The 
fragments  of  Megasthenes  have  been  collected 
by  Schwanbeck,  Megasth.  Fragm.,  &c.,  Bonn, 
1846  ;  and  by  Miiller,  Hist.  Grac.  Fragm.,  vol 
ii.,  p.  397-439.] 

MEGES  (Mey^f),  son  of  Phyleus,  and  grandson 
of  Augeas,  was  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen,  and 
led  his  bands  from  Dulichium  and  the  Echina- 
des  against  Troy. 

MEGIDDO  (MayeMu,  MayecM  :  now  Lcjjun  ?), 
a  considerable  city  of  Palestine,  on  the  River 
Kishon,  in  a  valley  of  the  same  name,  which 
formed  a  part  of  the  great  plain  of  Jezreel  or 
Esdraelon,  on  the  confines  of  Galilee  and  Sama 
ria.  It  was  a  residence  of  the  Canaanitish 
kings  before  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  the 
Jews.  It  was  foftified  by  Solomon.  It  was 
probably  the  same  place  which  was  called  LEOIO 
under  the  Romans. 

[MEGISTA  (MeyJoT)?),  an  island  on  the  coast  of 
Lycia,  between  Rhodes  and  the  Chelidonian  isl- 
ands, with  a  city  of  the  same  name,  which,  ac- 
j  cording  to  Strabo,  was  also  called  CisUiene. 
Vid.  CISTHENE,  No.  2.] 

MEGISTANI,  a  people  of  Armenia,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Sophene,  near  the  Euphrates.] 

[MEOISTIAS  (Meytarfaf)  of  Acarnania,  c' the 
493 


MELA. 

race  of  Melampus,  a  celebrated  seer,  fought  and 
fell  at  the  battle  of  Thermopylae.] 

MELA,  river.     Vid.  MELLA. 

MELA,  FABIUS,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  is  often 
cited  in  the  Digest,  probably  lived  in  the  time 
of  Antoninus  Pius. 

MELA  or  MELLA,  M.  ANN-SUS,  the  youngest 
son  of  M.  Annaegs  Seneca  the  rhetorician,  and 
brother  of  L.  Seneca  the  philosopher,  and  Gallio. 
By  his  wife  Acilia  he  had  at  least  one  son,  the 
celebrated  Lucan.  After  Lucan's  death,  A.D. 
65,  Mela  laid  claim  to  his  property  ;  and  as  he 
was  rich,  he  was  accused  of  being  privy  to 
Piso's  conspiracy,  and  anticipated  a  certain  sen- 
tence by  suicide. 

MELA,  POMPONIUS,  the  first  Roman  author 
who  composed  a  formal  treatise  upon  Geogra- 
phy, was  a  native  of  Spain,  and  probably  flour- 
ished under  the  Emperor  Claudius.  His  work 
is  entitled  De  Silu  Orbis  Libri  III.  It  contains 
a  brief  description  of  the  whole  world  as  known 
to  the  Romans.  The  text  is  often  corrupt,  but 
the  style  is  simple,  and  the  Latinity  is  pure  ; 
and  although  every  thing  is  compressed  within 
the  narrowest  limits,  we  find  the  monotony  of 
the  catalogue  occasionally  diversified  by  ani- 
mated and  pleasing  pictures.  The  best  edition 
is  by  Tzschucke,  seven  parts,  8vo,  Lips.,  1807. 

MEL^NA  ACRA  (TJ  M^Aatva  uupa).  1.  (Now 
Kara  Burnu,  which  means  the  same  as  the 
Greek  name,  i.  e.,  the  Black  Cape),  the  north- 
western promontory  of  the  great  peninsula  of 
Ionia  :  formed  by  Mount  Mimas  ;  celebrated  for 
the  millstones  hewn  from  it. — 2.  (Now  Cape 
San  Nicolo),  the  northwestern  promontory  of 
the  island  of  Chios. — 3.  (Now  Kara  Burnu),  a 
promontory  of  Bithynia,  a  little  east  of  the  Bos- 
porus, between  the  rivers  Rhebas  and  Artanes  ; 
also  called  KaMvaKpov  and  Bidwiaf  uxpov. 

MELJEXJE  (MeAatvai :  Me/leuvev;).  1.  Or  ME- 
L;ENE.S:  (Mc/latveat),  a  town  in  the  west  of-Ar- 
cadia,  on  the  Alpheus,  northwest  of  Buphagium, 
and  southeast  of  Heraea. — 2.  A  demus  in  Attica, 
on  the  frontiers  of  Bceotia,  belonging  to  the  tribe 
Antiochis. 

MELAMBIUM  (Me/la^&oi/),  a  town  of  Thessaly 
in  Pelasgiotis,  belonging  to  the  territory  of  Sco- 
tussa. 

MELAMPUS  (Me/U^/Trouf).  1.  Son  of  Amythaon 
by  Idomene,  or,  according  to  others,  by  Aglaia 
or  Rhodope,  and  a  brother  of  Bias.  He  was 
looked  upon  by  the  ancients  as  the  first  mortal 
who  had  been  endowed  with  prophetic  powers, 
as  the  person  who  first  practiced  the  medical 
art,  and  who  established  the  worship  of  Bac- 
chus (Dionysus)  in  Greece.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  married  to  Iphianassa  (others  call  her 
Iphianira  or  Cyrianassa),  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Mantius  and  Antiphates.  Abas, 
Bias.Manto,  and  Pronoe  areialso  named  by  some 
writers  as  his  children.  Before  his  house  there 
stood  an  oak  tree  containing  a  serpent's  nest. 
The  old  serpents  were  killed  by  his  servants, 
but  Melampus  took  care  of  the  young  ones  and 
fed  them  carefully.  One  day,  when  he  was 
asleep,  they  cleaned  his  ears  with  their  tongues. 
On  his  waking,  he  perceived,  to  his  astonish- 
ment, that  he  now  understood  the  language  of 
birds,  and  that  with  their  assistance  he  could 
foretell  the  future.  In  addition  to  this,  he  ac- 
quired the  power  of  prophesying  from  the  vic- 
494 


MELANIPPE. 

tims  that  were  offered  to  the  gods  ;  and,  alter 
having  an  interview  with  Apollo  on  the  banks 
of  the  Alpheus,  he  became  a  most  renowned 
soothsayer.  During  his  residence  at  Pylos  his 
brother  Bias  was  one  of  the  suitors  for  the  hand 
of  Pero,  the  daughter  of  Neleus.  The  latter 
promised  his  daughter  to  the  man  who  should 
bring  him  the  oxen  of  Iphiclus,  which  were 
guarded  by  a  dog  whom  neither  man  nor  animal 
could  approach.  Melampus  undertook  the  task 
of  procuring  the  oxen  for  his  brother,  although 
he  knew  that  the  thief  would  be  caught  and 
kept  in  imprisonment  for  a  year,  after  which  he 
was  to  come  into  possession  of  the  oxen. 
Things  turned  out  as  he  had  said  ;  Melampus 
was  thrown  into  prison,  and  in  his  captivity  he 
learned  from  the  wood-worms  that  the  building 
in  which  he  was  imprisoned  would  soon  break 
down.  He  accordingly  demanded  to  be  let  out, 
and  as  Phylacus  and  Iphiclus  thus  became  ac- 
quainted with  his  prophetic  powers,  they  asked 
him  in  what  manner  Iphiclus,  who  had  no  chil- 
dren, was  to  become  father.  Melampus,  on  the 
suggestion  of  a  vulture,  advised  Iphiclus  to  take 
the  rust  from  the  knife  with  which  Phylacus 
had  oner  cut  his  son,  and  drink  it  in  water  dur- 
ing ten  days.  This  was  done,  and  Iphiclus  be- 
came the  father  of  Podarces.  Melampus  now 
received  the  oxen  as  a  reward  for  his  good 
services,  drove  them  to  Pylos,  and  thus  gained 
Pero  for  his  brother.  Afterward  Melampus  ob- 
tained possession  of  a  third  of  the  kingdom  of 
Argos  in  the  following  manner :  In  the  reign 
of  Anaxagoras,  king  of  Argos,  the  women  of 
the  kingdom  were  seized  with  madness,  and 
roamed  about  the  country  in  a  frantic  state. 
Melampus  cured  them  of  their  phrensy,  on  con- 
dition that  he  and  his  brother  Bias  should  re- 
ceive an  equal  share  with  Anaxagoras  in  the 
kingdom  of  Argos.  Melampus  and  Bias  mar- 
ried the  two  daughters  of  Proetus,  and  ruled 
over  two  thirds  of  Argos. — 2.  The  author  of  two 
little  Greek  works  still  extant,  entitled  Divinatio 
ex  palpitationc  and  De  Navis  Oleaceis  in  Corpore. 
He  lived  probably  in  the  third  century  B.C.  at 
Alexandrea.  Both  the  works  are  full  of  super- 
stitions and  absurdities.  Edited  by  Franz  in 
his  Scriptores  Physiognomies  Veteres,  Altenburg, 
1780. 

MELANCHLJENI  (MrAay^atvot))  a  people  in  the 
north  of  Sarmatia  Asiatica,  about  the  upper 
course  of  the  River  Tana'/s  (now  Don),  resem- 
bling the  Scythians  in  manners,  though  of  a 
different  race.  Their  Greek  name  was  derived 
from  their  dark  clothing. 

[MELANDEPT^E  (M-eAavdenrai)  or  MELANDIT.* 
(MeAafJtraO,  a  people  of  Thrace,  in  the  mount- 
ains northwest  of  Byzantium,  along  the  coast  of 
the  Pontus  Euxinus.] 

[MELANEUS  (Mehavevf).  1.  Son  of  Apollo, 
king  of  the  Dryopes,  was  a  famous  archer ;  he 
obtained  from  Perieres,  king  of  Messenia,  a 
town  which  he  named  after  his  wife  CEchalia.— 
2.  Father  of  Amphimedon  in  Ithaca.] 

MELANIPPE  (MeAaviirxi)).  1.  Daughter  of  Chi- 
ron, also  called  Evippe.  Being  with  child  by 
^Eolus,  she  fled  to  Mount  Pelion  ;  and  in  order 
that  her  condition  might  not  become  known,  she 
prayed  to  be  metamorphosed  into  a  mare.  Di- 
ana (Artemis)  granted  her  prayer,  and  in  the 
form  of  a  horse  she  was  placed  among  the  stars. 


MELANIPPIDES. 

Another  account  describes  her  metamorphosis 
as  a  punishment  for  having  despised  Diana  (Ar- 
temis), or  for  having  divulged  the  counsels  of 
the  gods. — [2.  A  queen  of  the  Amazons,  taken 
captive  by  Hercules  ;  she  obtained  her  freedom 
by  surrendering  her  girdle  to  the  hero. 

MKLANIPPIDES  (Me/Lavimridqc),  of  Melos,  a  cel- 
ebrated lyric  poet  in  the  department  of  the  dithy- 
ramb. He  flourished  about  B.C.  440,  and  lived 
for  some  time  at  the  court  of  Perdiccas,  of  Ma- 
cedonia, and  there  died.  His  high  reputation 
as  a  poet  is  intimated  by  Xenophon,  who  makes 
Aristodemus  give  him  the  first  place  among 
dithyrambic  poets,  by  the  side  of  Homer,  Soph- 
ocles, Polycletus,  and  Zeuxis,  as  the  chief  mas- 
ters in  their  respective  arts  ;  and  by  Plutarch, 
who  mentions  him,  with  Simonides  and  Eurip- 
ides, as  among  the  most  distinguished  masters 
of  music.  Several  verses  of  his  poetry  are  still 
preserved.  Vid.  Bergk,  Poet.  Lyr.  Grac.,  p.  847- 
850.  Some  writers,  following  the  authority  of 
Suidas,  make  two  poets  of  this  name. 

MELANIPPUS  (Me/ltmTTTrof).  1.  Son  of  Astacus 
of  Thebes,  who,  in  the  attack  of  the  Seven  on 
his  native  city,  slew  Tydeus  and  Mecisteus. 
His  tomb  was  shown  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Thebes,  on  the  road  to  Chalcis. — [2.  A  Trojan, 
slain  by  Teucer. — 3.  Another  Trojan  warrior, 
son  of  Hicetaon,  slain  by  Antilochus. — 4.  An- 
other Trojan  warrior,  slain  by  Patroclus. — 5.  A 
son  of  Theseus  and  Perigune,  gained  the  prize 
in  running  at  the  games  celebrated  by  the  Epig- 
oni  after  the  capture  of  Thebes.] 

MELANOG^ETULI.     Vid.  G^ETULIA. 

MELANTHIUS  (M.e%dv6ioc) .  1.  Also  called  Me- 
lantheus,  son  of  Dolius,  was  a  goat-herd  of 
Ulysses,  who  sided  with  the  suitors  of  Penelope, 
and  was  killed  by  Ulysses.— 2.  An  Athenian 
tragic  poet,  of  whom  little  is  known  beyond  the 
attacks  made  on  him  by  Aristophanes  and  the 
other  comic  poets.  The  most  important  pas- 
sage respecting  him  is  in  the  Peace  of  Aristoph- 
anes (796,  &c.).  He  was  celebrated  for  his 
wit,  of  which  several  specimens  are  preserved 
by  Plutarch.  —  3.  Or  Melanthus,  an  eminent 
Greek  painter  of  the  Sicyonian  school,  was  con- 
temporary with  Apelles  (B.C.  332),  with  whom 
he  studied  under  Pamphilus.  He  was  one  of 
the  best  colorists  of  all  the  Greek  painters. — 
[4.  Leader  of  the  twenty  ships  sent  by  the  Athe- 
nians to  the  aid  of  Aristagoras  of  Miletus  in  his 
revolt  against  the  Persian  government.] 

MELANTHIUS  (Me?.a'i>0{0f,  now  probably  Melet- 
Irma),  a  river  of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  east 
of  the  Promontorium  Jasonium  ;  the  boundary 
between  Pontus  Polemoniacus  and  Pontus  Cap- 
padocius. 

[MELANTHO  (MeAavflw),  daughter  of  Dolius, 
sister  of  the  goat-herd  Melanthius  (vid.  MELAN- 
THIUS), female  attendant  upon  Penelope,  was 
put  to  death  by  Ulysses  because  she  had  aided 
the  suitors.] 

MELANTHUS  or  MELANTHIUS  (M&avOof).  1. 
One  of  the  Nelidae,  and  king  of  Messenia,  whence 
he  was  driven  out  by  the  Heraclidse,  on  their 
conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus  ;  and,  following 
the  instructions  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  took 
refuge  in  Attica.  In  a  war  between  the  Athe- 
nians and  Boeotians,  Xanthus,  the  Boeotian  king, 
"liallcnged  Thymcetes,  king  of  Athens  and  the 
la*«  of  the  TUesidae,  to  sraglo  combat.  Thy- 


MELEAGER. 

;  mcetes  declined  the  challenge  on  the  ground  o! 

,  age   and  infirmity.     So  ran  the  story,  which 

;  strove  afterward  to  disguise  the  violent  change 
of  dynasty;  and  Melanthus  undertook  it  on 
condition  of  being  rewarded  with  the  throne  in 

j  the  event  of  success.     He  slew  Xanthus,  and 

j  became  king,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Thesidae. 

I  According  to  Pausanias,  the  conqueror  of  Xan- 
thus was  Andropompus,  the  father  of  Melan- 
thus ;  according  to  Aristotle,  it  was  Codrus, 
his  son. — [2.  One  of  the  Tyrrhenian  pirates, 
who  wished  to  carry  off  Bacchus  (Dionysus), 
but  were  changed  into  dolphins.] 

[MELAS  (Me'Aaf).  1.  A  son  of  Phrixus  and 
Chalciope,  married  Euryclea.  by  whom  he  be- 
came father  of  Hyperes. — 2.  A  son  of  Porthaon 
and  Euryte,  and  brother  of  CEneus.] 

MELAS  (Me?.af),  the  name  of  several  rivers, 
whose  waters  were  of  a  dark  color.  1.  (Now 
Mauro  Nero  or  Mauro  Potamo),  a  small  river  in 
Bffiotia,  which  rises  seven  stadia  north  of  Or- 
chomenus,  becomes  navigable  almost  from  its 
source,  flows  between  Orchomenus  and  Asple- 
don,  and  loses  the  greater  part  of  its  waters 
in  the  marshes  connected  with  Lake  Copais. 
A  small  portion  of  its  waters  fell  in  ancient 
times  into  the  River  Cephisus. — 2.  A  river  of 
Thessaly,  in  the  district  Malis,  flows  near  Hera 
clea  and  Trachis,  and  falls  into  the  Maliac  Gulf. 
— 3.  A  river  of  Thessaly  in  Phthiotis,  falls  into 
the  Apidanus. — 4.  A  river  of  Thrace,  flows  firs 
southwest,  then  northwest,  and  falls  north  of 
Cardia  into  the  Melas  Sinus. — 5.  A  river  in  the 
northeast  of  Sicily,  which  flows  into  the  sea  be- 
tween Mylae  and  Naulochus,  through  excellent 
meadows,  in  which  the  oxen,  of  the  sun  are 
said  to  have  fed. — 6.  (Now  Manaugat-Su),  a 
navigable  river,  fifty  stadia  (five  geographical 
miles)  east  of  Side,  was  the  boundary  between 
Pamphylia  and  Cilicia. — 7.  (Now  Kara-Su,  i.  e., 
the  Black  River),  in  Cappadocia,  rises  in  Mount 
Argaeus,  flows  past  Mazaca,  and,  after  forming 
a  succession  of  morasses,  falls  into  the  Halys, 
and  not  (as  Strabo  says)  into  the  Euphrates. 

MELAS  SINUS  (M^Xaf  Kohiroe :  now  Gulf  of 
Saros),  a  gulf  of  the  yEgsan  Sea,  between  the 
coast  of  Thrace  on  the  northwest  and  the  Thra- 
cian  Chersonesus  on  the  southeast,  into  which 
the  River  Melas  flows. 

MELDI  or  MELD.TC,  a  people  in  Gallia  Lugdu- 
nensis,  on  the  borders  of  Belgica,  and  upon  the 
River  Sequana  (now  Seine),  in  whose  territory 
Csesar  built  forty  ships  for  his  expedition  against 
Britain. 

MELEAOER  (Mf/U'aypof).  1.  Son  of  (Eneus 
and  Althaea,  the  daughter  of  Thestius,  husband 
of  Cleopatra,  and  father  of  Polydora.  Others 
call  him  a  son  of  Mars  (Arcs)  and  Althaea.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  famous  J^tolian  heroes  of 
Calydon,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  skill 
in  throwing  the  javelin.  He  took  part  in  the 
Argonautic  expedition.  On  his  return  home, 
the  fields  of  Calydon  were  laid  waste  by  a  mon- 
strous boar,  which  Diana  (Artemis)  had  sent 
against  the  country  as  a  punishment,  because 
CEneus,  the  king  of  the  place,  once  neglected 
to  offer  up  a  sacrifice  to  the  goddess.  No  one 
dared  encounter  the  terrible  animal,  till  at  length 
Meleager,  with  a  band  of  other  heroes,  went  out 
to  hunt  the  boar.  He  slew  the  animal ;  but  the 

,  Calydonians  and  Curetes  quarrelled  about  the 

495 


MELES. 

head  and  bid^.  and  at  length  waged  open  war 
against  each  other.  The  Calydonians  were 
always  victorious,  so  long  as  Meleager  went 
out  with  them.  But  when  his  mother  Althaea 
pronounced  a  curse  upon  h:m,  enraged  at  the 
death  of  her  brother  who  hac  /alien  in  the  fight, 
Meleager  stayed  at  home  wi.h  his  wife  Cleopa- 
tra. The  Curetes  now  began  to  press  Calydon 
very  hard.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  old  men  of 
the  town  made  him  the  most  brilliant  promises 
if  he  would  again  join  in  the  fight,  and  that  his 
father,  his  sisters,  and  his  mother  supplicated 
him.  At  length,  however,  he  yielded  to  the 
prayers  of  his  wife  Cleopatra :  he  put  the  Cu- 
retes to  flight,  but  he  never  returned  home,  for 
the  Erinnys,  who  had  heard  the  curse  of  his 
mother,  overtook  him.  Such  is  the  more  an- 
cient form  of  the  legend,  as  we  find  it  in  Homer. 
(//.,  ix.,  527,  icg.)  In  the  later  traditions  Me- 
leager collects  the  heroes  from  all  parts  of 
Greece  to  join  him  in  the  hunt.  Among  others 
was  the  fair  maiden  Atalanta  ;  but  the  heroes 
refused  to  hunt  with  her,  until  Meleager,  who 
was  in  love  with  her,  overcame  their  opposition. 
Atalanta  gave  the  animal  the  first  wound,  which 
was  at  length  slain  by  Meleager.  He  present- 
ed the  hide  to  Atalanta,  but  the  sons  of  Thes- 
tius  took  it  from  her,  whereupon  Meleager  in  a 
rage  slew  them.  This,  however,  was  the  cause 
of  his  own  death,  which  came  to  pass  in  the 
following  way.  When  he  was  seven  days  old 
the  Mcerae  appeared,  declaring  that  the  boy 
would  die  as  soon  as  the  piece  of  wood  which 
was  burning  on  the  hearth  should  be  consumed. 
Althaea,  upon  hearing  this,  extinguished  the  fire- 
brand, and  concealed  it  in  a  chest.  Meleager 
himself  became  invulnerable  ;  but  after  he  had 
killed  the  brothers  of  his  mother,  she  lighted 
the  piece  of  wood,  and  Meleager  died.  Althaea, 
too  late  repenting  of  what  she  had  done,  put  an 
end  to  her  life  ;  and  Cleopatra  died  of  grief. 
The  sisters  of  Meleager  wept  unceasingly  after 
his  death,  until  Diana  (Artemis)  changed  them 
into  Guinea-hens  (//e/lea/joWef),  which  were 
transferred  to  the  island  of  Leros.  Even  in 
this  condition  they  mourned  during  a  certain 
part  of  the  year  for  their  brother.  Two  of 
them,  Gorge  and  Dei'anira,  through  the  media- 
tion of  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  were  not  meta- 
morphosed.—2.  Son  of  Neoptolemus,  a  Mace- 
donian officer  in  the  service  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great 
(B.C.  323)  Meleager  resisted  the  claims  of  Per- 
diccas  to  the  regency,  and  was  eventually  asso- 
ciated with  the  latter  in  this  office.  Shortly 
afterward,  however,  he  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  Perdiccas. — [3.  Commander  of  a  squad- 
ron of  cavalry  in  the  army  of  Alexander  the 
Great  at  the  battle  of  Arbela.  He  was  after- 
ward slain  in  an  insurrection  against  the  offi- 
cers left  by  Antigonus  in  the  government  of 
Media.] — 4.  Son  of  Eucrates,  the  celebrated 
writer  and  collector  of  epigrams,  was  a  native 
of  Gadara  in  Palestine,  and  lived  about  B.C. 
60.  There  are  one  hundred  and  thirty-one  of 
his  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  written 
in  a  good  Greek  style,  though  somewhat  affect- 
ed, and  distinguished  by  sophistic  acumen  and 
amatory  fancy.  An  account  of  his  collection  of 
epigrams  is  given  under  PLANUDES. 

[MELES  (Me'A^f ),  a  small  stream  of  Ionia  flow- 
496 


MELISSA. 

ing  by  Smyrna,  on  the  banks  of  which  Homer 
is  said  to  have  been  born  ;  (according  to  anoth 
er  account,  he  composed  his  poems  in  a  grot- 
to at  its  source)  .  nd  hence  was  called  Mele- 
sigenes  (Mf/b,o-«)'e»>7/f) :  from  this  also  was  de- 
rived the  phrase  Mdctece  charts  in  Tibullus. 
Another  account  makes  Meles,  the  god  oHhis 
stream,  to  have  been  the  father  of  Homer  ] 

[MiLESANDER  (Me%Tjaavdpo( ),  an  Athenian 
general,  who  was  sent  out  with  six  ships  in  the 
year  430  B.C.  against  Caria  and  Lycia;  fell  in 
battle  in  Lycia.] 

[MELESIPPUS  (MfAfltnTTTrof),  a  Lacedaemonian, 
one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  Athens  B.C. 
432,  and  again  the  next  year  to  demand  the 
restoration  of  the  independence  of  the  Greek 
states,  but  without  success.] 

MELETUS  or  MELITUS  (Me'/l^rof  :  MfAirof),  an 
obscure  tragic  poet,  but  notorious  as  one  of  the 
accusers  of  Socrates,  was  an  Athenian,  of  the 
Pitthean  demus.  He  is  represented  by  Plato 
and  Aristophanes  and  their  scholiasts  as  a  frigid 
and  licentious  poet,  and  a  worthless  and  profli- 
gate man.  In  the  accusation  of  Socrates  it  was 
Meletus  who  laid  the  indictment  before  the 
archon  Basileus ;  but,  in  reality,  he  was  the 
most  insignificant  of  the  accusers  ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  one  account,  he  was  bribed  by  Anytus 
and  Lycon  to  take  part  in  the  affair.  Soon  after 
the  death  of  Socrates,  the  Athenians  repented 
of  their  injustice,  and  Meletus  was  stoned  to 
death  as  one  of  the  authors  of  their  folly. 

MEL! A  (Me Am),  a  nymph,  daughter  of  Oceanus, 
became  by  Inachus  the  mother  of  Phoroneus 
and  ^Egialeus  or  Pegeus ;  and  by  Silenus  the 
mother  of  the  centaur  Pholus ;  and  by  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon)  of  Amycus.  She  was  carried 
off  by  Apollo,  and  became  by  him  the  mother 
of  Ismenius  and  of  the  seer  Tenerus.  She  was 
worshipped  in  the  Ismenium,  the  sanctuary  of 
Apollo,  near  Thebes.  In  the  plural  form,  the 
Melia  or  Meliades  (MeAtai,  MeAmJef)  are  the 
nymphs  who,  along  with  the  Gigantes  and 
Erinnyes,  sprang  from  the  drops  of  blood  that 
fell  from  Ccelus  (Uranus)  and  were  received  by 
Terra  (Gasa).  The  nymphs  that  nursed  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  are  likewise  called  Meliae. 

MELIBCEA  (MeAt'&ua:  Me/Ufoevf).  1.  A  town 
on  the  coast  of  Thessaly,  in  Magnesia,  between 
Mount  Ossa  and  Mount  Pelion,  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Magnes,  and  to  have  been  named 
Melibcea  in  honor  of  his  wife.  It  is  mentioned 
by  Homer  as  belonging  to  the  dominions  of 
Philoctetes,  who  is  hence  called  by  Virgil  (JEn., 
iii.,  401)  dux  Mdibxus.  It  was  celebrated  foi 
its  purple  dye.  (Lucret.,  ii.,  499  ;  Virg.,  JEn., 
v.,  251.)— 2.  A  small  island  at  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Orontes,  in  Syria. 

MELICERTES.     Vid.  PAL^EMON. 

[MELINOPHAGI  (MeAfvo^iuyot, "  Millet-eaters"), 
aThracian  people  on  the  coast  of  Salmydessus, 
whom  the  Greeks  named  after  their  chief  article 
of  food,  not  knowing  their  real  name.] 

MELISSA  (Me/Uffffa).  1.  A  nymph  said  to  have 
discovered  the  use  of  honey,  and  from  whom 
bees  were  believed  to  have  received  their  name 
(H&iaaai).  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however, 
that  the  name  really  came  from  p&i,  honey, 
and  was  hence  given  to  nymphs.  According 
to  some  traditions,  bees  were  nymphs  meta- 
morphosed. Hence  the  nymphs  who  fed  the 


MELISSA. 

infant  Jupiter  (Zeus)  with  honey  are  called  Me- 
lissae. — 2.  The  name  of  priestesses  in  general, 
but  mote  especially  of  the  priestesses  of  Ceres 
(Demeter),  Proserpina  (Persephone),  Apollo, 
and  Diana  (Artemis). — 3.  Wife  of  Periander, 
tyrant  of  Corinth,  and  daughter  of  Procles, 
tyrant  of  Epidaurus,  was  slain  by  her  husband. 
Yid.  PERIANDER. 

[MEUSSA  ( Me  Atffira),  a  village  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Phrygia  Magna,  between  Synnada  and 
Metropolis,  with  the  tomb  of  Alcibiades,  where, 
at  Hadrian's  order,  a  statue  was  erected  to 
him  of  Parian  marble  and  sacrifices  annually 
offered.] 

MELISSUS  (Mf/U(T<rof).  1.  Of  Samos,  a  Greek 
philosopher,  the  son  of  Ithagenes,  was,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  account,  the  commander  of 
the  fleet  opposed  to  Pericles,  B.C.  440.  But  he 
is  not  mentioned  by  Thucydides,  and  ought 
probably  to  be  placed  much  earlier,  as  he  is  said 
to  have  been  connected  with  Heraclitus,  and 
to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Parmenides.  It  ap- 
pears from  the  fragments  of  his  work,  which 
was  written  in  prose,  and  in  the  Ionic  dialect, 
that  he  adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  Eleatics. 
—2.  A  Latin  grammarian  and  a  comic  poet, 
was  a  freedman  of  Maecenas,  and  was  intrusted 
by  Augustus  with  the  arrangement  of  the  li- 
brary in  the  portico  of  Octavia. 

MELITA  or  MELITE  (MeXi'rj? :  MeAtroior,  Meli- 
tensis).  1.  (Now  Malta),  an  island  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  situated  fifty-eight  miles  from 
the  nearest  point  of  Sicily,  and  one  hundred 
and  seventy-nine  miles  from  the  nearest  point 
of  Africa.  Its  greatest  length  is  seventeen 
miles  and  a  quarter,  and  its  greatest  breadth 
nine  miles  and  a  quarter.  The  island  was  first 
colonized  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  used  it  as  a 
place  of  refuge  for  their  ships,  on  account  of  its 
excellent  harbors.  It  afterward  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Carthaginians,  but  was  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the  Romans  in  the  second  Punic 
war,  and  annexed  to  the  province  of  Sicily. 
The  Romans,  however,  appear  to  have  neglect- 
ed the  island,  and  it  is  mentioned  by  Cicero  as 
a  frequent  resort  of  pirates.  It  contained  a 
town  of  the  same  name,  founded  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and  two  celebrated  temples,  one  of 
Juno  on  a  promontory  near  the  town,  and  an- 
other of  Hercules  in  the  southeast  of  the  island. 
It  is  celebrated  in  sacred  history  as  the  island 
on  which  the  Apostle  Paul  was  shipwrecked ; 
though  some  writers  erroneously  suppose  that 
the  apostle  was  shipwrecked  on  the  island  of 
the  same  name  off  the  Illyrian  coast.  The  in- 
habitants manufactured  fine  cloth,  which  was 
in  much  request  at  Rome.  They  also  exported 
a  considerable  quantity  of  honey ;  and  from 
this  island,  according  to  some  authorities,  came 
the  caiuli  Mclitai,  the  favorite  lap-dogs  of  the 
Roman  ladies,  though  other  writers  make  them 
come  from  the  island  off  the  Illyrian  coast.— 2. 
(Now  Mcleda),  a  small  island  in  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Illyria  (Dalmatia),  north- 
west of  Epidaurus.  —  3.  A  demus  in  Attica, 
which  also  formed  part  of  the  city  of  Athens, 
was  situated  south  of  the  inner  Ceramicus,  and 
probably  included  the  hill  of  the  Museum.  It 
was  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  a  nymph 
Melite,»wiih  whom  Hercules  was  in  love,  and 
it  therefore  contained  a  temple  of  this  god. 
32 


ME  LOS. 

One  of  the  gates  of  Athens  was  called  the  Me 
litian  gate,  because  it  led  to  this  demus.  Vid. 
p.  122,  b.— 4.  A  lake  in  ^Etolia,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Achelous,  belonging  to  the  territory  of 
the  town  OEniadae. 

MELIT^EA,  MELITEA,  or  MELITTA  (Mc^trnt'a, 
Mf/uYeta,  MeAm'u:  Me/Urutetif),  a  town  ofThes 
saly,  in  Phthiotis,  on  the  northern  slope  of 
Mount  Othrys,  and  near  the  River  Enipeus.  Il 
is  said  to  have  been  called  Pyrrha  in  more  an- 
cient times,  and  the  sepulchre  of  Hellen  was 
shown  in  its  market-place. 

MELITE  (Me^/rj/).  1.  A  nymph,  one  of  the 
Nereides,  a  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris. — [2. 
A  Naiad,  daughter  of  the  river-god  J^gaeus,  be- 
came by  Hercules  mother  of  Hyllus,  in  the, 
land  of  the  Phaeacians.] 

MELITENE  (Me^irT/v??),  a  district  of  Armenia 
Minor,  between  the  Anti-Taurus  and  the  Eu- 
phrates, celebrated  for  its  fertility,  and  espe- 
cially for  its  fruit-trees,  oil,  and  wine.  It  pos- 
sessed no  great  town  until  the  first  century  of 
our  era,  when  a  city,  also  called  Melitene  (now 
Malatiyah)  was  built  on  a  tributary  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  near  that  river  itself,  probably  on 
the  site  of  a  very  ancient  fort.  This  became 
a  place  of  considerable  importance  ;  the  centre 
of  several  roads  ;  the  station,  under  Titus,  of 
the  twelfth  legion  ;  and,  in  the  later  division  of 
the  provinces,  the  capital  of  Armenia  Secunda. 
In  A.D.  577  it  was  the  scene  of  a  vk  tory  gain- 
ed by  the  Romans  over  the  Persians  under 
Chosroes  I. 

MELITO  (Me^t'rwv),  a  Christian  write  r  of  con- 
siderable eminence,  was  bishop  of  Sardos  in  the 
reign  of  M.  Aurelius,  to  whom  he  presented  an 
Apology  for  the  Christians.  Of  his  numerous 
works  only  fragments  are  extant. 

MELLA  or  MELA  (now  Mella),  a  river  in  Gallia 
Transpadana,  which  flows  by  Brixia  and  falls 
into  the  Ollius  (now  Oglio). 

MELLARIA.  1.  A  town  of  the  Bastuli  in  His- 
pania  Beetica,  between  Belon  and  Calpe,  on  thf 
road  from  Gades  to  Malaca. — 2.  A  town  in  the 
same  province,  considerably  north  of  the  for 
mer,  on  the  road  from  Corduba  to  Emerita 

MELODUNUM  (now  Mclun),  a  town  of  the  Sc- 
nones  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  on  an  island  of 
the  Sequana  (now  Seine),  and  on  the  road  from 
Agendicum  to  Lutetia  Parisiorum. 

MELOS  (Mr/Aof :  Miji^of  :  now  Milo),  an  isl- 
and in  the  JSgean  Sea,  and  the  most  westerly 
of  the  group  of  the  Cyclades,  whence  it  was 
called  Zephyria  by  Aristotle.  It  is  about  sev- 
enty miles  north  of  the  coast  of  Crete,  and  six- 
ty-five east  of  the  coast  of  Peloponnesus.  Its 
length  is  about  fourteen  miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  its  breadth  about  eight  miles.  It  con- 
tains on  the  north  a  deep  bay,  which  forms  an 
excellent  harbor,  and  on  which  was  situated  a 
town,  bearing  the  same  name  as  the  island 
The  island  is  of  volcanic  origin  ;  it  contains  hot 
springs,  and  mines  of  sulphur  and  alum.  Its 
soil  is  very  fertile,  and  it  produced  in  antiquity, 
as  it  docs  at  present,  abundance  of  corn,  oil, 
wine,  &.c.  It  was  first  colonized  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, who  are  said  to  have  called  it  Byblut 
or  Byblis,  after  the  Phoenician  town  Byblus.  It 
was  afterward  colonized  by  Lacedaemonians,  01 
at  least  by  Dorians ;  and  consequently  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war  it  embraced  the  side  of 

497 


MELPOMENE. 

Sparta.  In  B.C.  426  the  Athenians  made  an 
unsuccessful  attack  upon  the  island;  but  in  416 
they  obtained  possession  of  the  town  after  a 
siege  of  several  months,  whereupon  they  killed 
all  the  adult  males,  sold  the  women  and  chil- 
dren as  slaves,  and  peopled  the  island  by  an 
Athenian  colony.  Melos  was  the  birth-place  of 
Diagoras,  the  atheist,  whence  Aristophanes  calls 
Socrates  also  the  Melian. 

MELPOMENE  (MeAn-o^n/),  i.  c.,  the  singing 
goddess,  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  who  presided 
over  Tragedy.  Vid.  MUS^E. 

[MELPUM  (now  Mclza),  a  city  of  GalliaTrans- 
padana,  in  the  territory  of  the  Insubres.] 

[Mm.sus  (now  Narcea),  a  small  stream  in  the 
territory  of  the  Astures,  in  Hispania  Tarraco- 
nensis,  flowing  into  the  Oceanus  Cantabricus, 
west  of  Flavionovia.] 

MEMINI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Druentia,  whose  chief 
town  was  Carpentoracte  (now  Carpentras). 

MEMMIA  GENS,  a  plebeian  house  at  Rome, 
whose  members  do  not  occur  in  history  before 
B.C.  173,  but  who  pretended  to  be  descended 
from  the  Trojan  Mnestheus.  (Virg.,  Mn.,  v. 
117.) 

MEMMIUS.  1.  C.,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
Ill,  was  an  ardent  opponent  of  the  oligarchical 
party  at  Rome  during  the  Jugurthine  war. 
Among  the  nobles  impeached  by  Memmius 
were  L.  Calpurnius  Bestia  and  M.  Emilius 
Scaurus.  Memmius  was  slain  by  the  mob  of 
Saturninus  and  Glaucia,  while  a  candidate  for 
the  consulship  in  100. — 2.  C.  MEMMIUS  GEMEL- 
i.us,  tribune  of  the  plebs  66,  curule  asdile  60, 
and  praetor  58.  He  belonged  at  that  time  to 
the  Senatorian  party,  since  he  impeached  P. 
Vatinius,  opposed  P.  Clodius,  and  was  vehe- 
ment in  his  invectives  against  Julius  Caesar. 
But  before  he  competed  for  the  consulship,  54, 
he  had  been  reconciled  to  Caesar,  who  support- 
ed him  with  all  his  interest.  Memmius,  how- 
ever, again  offended  Caesar  by  revealing  a  cer- 
tain coalition  with  his  opponents  at  the  comitia. 
lie  was  impeached  for  ambitus,  and,  receiving 
no  aid  from  Caesar,  withdrew  from  Rome  to 
Mytilene,  where  he  was  living  in  the  year  of 
Cicero's  proconsulate.  Memmius  married  Faus- 
ta,  a  daughter  of  the  dictator  Sulla,  whom  he 
divorced  after  having  by  her  at  least  one  son, 
C.  Memmius.  Vid.  No.  3.  He  was  eminent  both 
in  literature  and  in  eloquence.  Lucretius  ded- 
icated his  poem,  De  Rerum  Natura,  to  him.  He 
was  a  man  of  profligate  character,  and  wrote 
indecent  poems. — 3.  C.  MEMMIUS,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  54,  when 
he  prosecuted  A.  Gabinius  for  malversation  in 
his  province  of  Syria,  and  Domitius  Calvinus 
for  ambitus  at  his  consular  comitia.  Memmius 
was  step-son  of  T.  Annius  Milo,  who  married 
his  mother  Fausta  after  her  divorce.  He  was 
consul  suffectus  34 — 4.  P.  MEMMIUS  REGULUS, 
consul  suffectus  A.D.  31,  afterward  praefect  of 
Macedonia  and  Achaia.  He  was  the  husband 
of  LoMia  Paulina,  and  was  compelled  by  Caligu- 
la to  divorce  her. 

^MEMNON  (M«-ui>uv).  1.  The  beautiful  son  of 
Tithonus  and  Eos  (Aurora),  and  brother  of  Ema- 
thion.  He  is  rarely  mentioned  by  Homer,  and 
must  be  regarded  essentially  as  a  post-Homeric 
hero.  According  to  these  later  traditions,  he 
493 


MEMNON. 

was  a  prince  of  the  Ethiopians,  who  came  to 
the  assistance  of  his  uncle  Priam,  for  Tithonus 
and  Priam  were  half-brothers,  being  bdkh  sons 
of  Laomedon  by  different  mothers.  Respecting 
his  expedition  to  Troy  there  are  different  le- 
gends. According  to  some,  Memnon  the  Ethi- 
opian first  went  to  Egypt,  thence  to  Susa,  and 
thence  to  Troy.  At  Susa,  which  had  been  found- 
ed by  Tithonus,  Memnon  built  the  acropolis, 
which  was  called  after  him  the  Memnonium 
According  to  others,  Tithonus  was  the  govern/ 
or  of  a  Persian  province  and  the  favorite  of 
Teutamus ;  and  Memnon  obtained  the  com- 
mand of  a  large  host  of  Ethiopians  and  Susans 
to  succor  Priam.  Memnon  came  to  the  wai 
in  armor  made  for  him  by  Vulcan  (Hephaestus). 
He  slew  Antilochus,  the  son  of  Nestor,  but  was 
j  himself  slain  by  Achilles  after  a  long  and  fierce 
i  combat.  While  the  two  heroes  were  fighting, 
j  Jupiter  (Zeus)  weighed  their  fates,  and  the  scale 
containing  Memnon's  sank.  His  mother  was 
inconsolable  at  his  death.  She  wept  for  him 
every  morning ;  and  the  dew-drops  of  the  morn- 
ing are  the  tears  of  Aurora  (Eos).  To  soothe 
the  grief  of  his  mother,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  caused 
a  number  of  birds  to  issue  out  of  the  funeral 
pile,  on  which  the  body  of  Memnon  was  burn- 
ing, which,  after  flying  thrice  around  the  burn- 
ing pile,  divided  into  two  separate  bodies,  which 
fought  so  fiercely  that  half  of  them  fell  down 
upon  the  ashes  of  the  hero,  and  thus  formed  a 
funeral  sacrifice  for  him.  These  birds  were 
called  Memnonides,  and,  according  to  a  story 
current  on  the  Hellespont,  they  visited  every 
year  the  tomb  of  the  hero.  At  the  entreaties 
of  Aurora  (Eos),  Jupiter  (Zeus)  conferred  im- 
mortality upon  Memnon.  At  a  comparatively 
late  period,  the  Greeks  gave  the  name  of  Mem- 
non to  the  colossal  statue  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Thebes,  which  was  said  to  give  forth  a  sound 
like  the  snapping  asunder  of  a  chord  when  it 
was  struck  by  the  first  rays  of  the  rising  sun. 
Although  the  Greeks  gave  this  name  to  the 
statue,  they  were  well  aware  that  the  Egyptians 
did  not  call  the  statue  Memnon,  but  Amenophis. 
This  figure  was  made  of  black  stone,  in  a  sit- 
ting posture,  with  its  feet  close  together,  and  the 
hands  leaning  on  the  seat.  Several  very  in- 
genious conjectures  have  been  propounded  re- 
specting the  alleged  meaning  of  the  so-called 
statue  of  Memnon.  Some  have  asserted  that 
it  served  for  astronomical  purposes,  and  others 
that  it  had  reference  to  the  mystic  worship  of 
the  sun  and  light,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  statue  represented  nothing  else  than 
the  Egyptian  king  Amenophis. — 2.  A  native  of 
Rhodes,  joined  Artabazus,  satrap  of  Lower 
Phrygia,  who  had  married  his  sister,  in  his  re- 
volt against  Darius  Ochus.  When  fortune  de- 
serted the  insurgents,  they  fled  to  the  court  of 
Philip.  Mentor,  the  brother  of  Memnon,  being 
high  in  favor  with  Darius,  interceded  on  behalf 
of  Artabazus  and  Memnon,  who  were  pardoned 
and  again  received  into  favor.  On  the  death 
of  Mentor,  Memnon,  who  possessed  great  mili 
tary  skill  and  experience,  succeeded  him  in  his 
authority,  which  extended  over  all  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor  (about  B.C.  336).  When 
Alexander  invaded  Asia,  Memnon  defended 
Halicarnassus  against  Alexander  until  it  was 
no  longer  possible  to  hold  out ;  he  then  collect 


MEMNONIUM- 

ed  an  army  and  a  fleet,  with  the  design  of  carry- 
ing the  war  into  Greece,  but  died  at  Mytilene  in 
333,  before  he  could  carry  his  plan  into  execu- 
tion. His  death  was  an  irreparable  loss  to  the 
Persian  cause,  for  several  Greek  states  were 
prepared  to  join  him  had  he  carried  the  war  into 
Greece — 3.  A  native  of  Heraclea  Pontica,  wrote 
a  large  work  on  the  history  of  that  city.  Of  how 
many  books  it  consisted,  we  do  not  know.  Pho- 
tius  had  read  from  the  ninth  to  the  sixteenth 
inclusive,  of  which  portion  he  has  made  a  tol- 
erably copious  abstract.  The  first  eight  books 
he  had  not  read,  and  he  speaks  of  other  books 
after  the  sixteenth.  The  ninth  book  began  with 
an  account  of  the  tyrant  Clearchus,  the  disciple 
of  Plato  and  Isocrates,  and  the  sixteenth  book 
came  down  to  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  after 
the  latter  had  obtained  the  supreme  power. 
The  work  was  probably  written  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  and  certainly  not  later  than  the  time 
of  Hadrian  or  the  Antonines.  The  Excerpta 
of  Photius  are  published  separately  by  Orelli, 
Lips.,  1816 

MEMNON'UM  and  -IA  (M.cfiv6vftov,  Wlfftvoveia), 
were  narn<;s  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  certain 
very  ancient  buildings  and  monuments  in  Egypt 
and  As'3,  which  they  supposed  to  have  been 
erected  l-y  or  in  honor  of  MEMNON.  1.  The 
most  ce'cbrated  of  these  was  a  great  temple  at 
TheheF.  described  by  Strabo,  and  commonly 
identi'ied  by  modern  travellers  with  the  mag- 
nificent ruins  of  the  temple  of  Remeses  the 
Gre.it,  at  Western  Thebes,  or,  as  it  is  usually 
calied,  the  tomb  of  Osymandyas,  from  its  agree- 
ment with  the  description  of  that  monument  giv- 
en by  Diodorus.  There  are,  however,  strong 
grounds  for  supposing  that  the  true  Meranoni- 
um,  described  by  Strabo,  stood  behind  the  two 
colossal  sitting  statues  on  the  plain  of  Thebes, 
one  of  which  is  clearly  the  vocal  statue  of  Mem- 
non,  and  that  it  has  entirely  disappeared. — 2 
Vid.  ABYDOS,  No.  2.— 3.  The  citadel  of  Susa  was 
so  called,  and  its  erection  was  ascnned  to  the 
Memnon  who  appears  in  the  legends  of  the  Tro- 
jan war ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
this  connection  of  Memnon  with  the  Persian  cap- 
ital existed  before  the  Persian  conquest  of  Egypt. 

MEMPHIS  (M<^r,  Mev0:  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Moph  :  MeuQirtjf.  Memphltes :  now  ruins  at  Menf 
and  Mctrafienny),  a  great  city  of  Egypt,  second 
in  importance  only  to  Thebes,' after  the  fall  of 
which  it  became  the  capital  of  the  whole  country, 
a  position  which  it  had  previously  shared  with 
Thebes.   It  was  of  unknown  antiquity,  its  found- 
ation being  ascribed  to  Menes.    It  stood  on  the 
left  (western)  bank  of  the  Nile,  about  ten  miles 
above  the  Pyramids  of  Jizeh,  near  the  northern 
limit  of  the  Heptanomis,  or  Middle  Egypt,  a 
nome  of  which  (Me^tr^c)  was  named  after  the 
city.    It  was  connected  |jy  canals  with  the  lakes 
of  Moeris  and  Mareotis,  and  was  the  great  centre 
of  the  commerce  of  Egypt  until  the  Persian  con- 
quest (B.C.  524),  when  Cambyses  partially  de- 
stroyed the  city.    After  the  foundation  of  Alex- 
andrea  it  sank  into  insignificance,  and  was  final- 
ly destroyed  at  the  Arab  conquest  in  the  sev-  j 
enth  century.     In  the  time  of  its  splendor  it  is  ! 
said  to  have  been  one  hundred  and  fifty  stadia  ! 
in  circumference,  and  half  a  day's  journey  in  j 
every  direction.    Of  the  splendid  buildings  with  j 
which  it  was  adorned,  the  chief  were  the  palace  ) 


MENANDER. 

of  the  Pharaohs  ;  the  temple-palace  of  the  god- 
bull  Apis  ;  the  temple  of  Serapis,  with  its  ave- 
nue of  sphinxes,  now  covered  by  the  sand  of  the 
desert ;  and  the  temple  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus), 
the  Egyptian  Phtha,  of  whose  worship  Memphis 
was  the  chief  seat.  The  ruins  of  this  temple, 
and  of  other  buildings,  still  cover  a  large  por- 
;  tion  of  the  plain  between  the  Nile  and  the  west- 
ern range  of  hills  which  skirt  its  valley. 

MEN.ENUM  or  MEN^E  (Menenius,  Cic.,Menam- 
\  nus,  Plin.,  but  on  coins  Menaenus  :  now  Mmeo), 
;  a  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  south  of 
|  Hybla,  the  birth-place  and  residence  of  the  Si- 
!  celian  chief  Ducetius,  who  was  long  a  formida- 
j  ble  enemy  of  the  Greek  cities  in  Sicily.  Vid. 
i  DacETius.  On  his  fall  the  town  lost  all  its  im 
portance. 

MENALIPPUS.     Vid.  MELANIPPUS. 

MENANDER  (Mevavtipof),  of  Athens,  the  most 
distinguished  poet  of  the  New  Comedy,  was 
the  son  ofDiopithes  and  Hegesistrate,  and  flour- 
ished in  the  time  of  the  successors  of  Alexan- 
der. He  was  born  B  C.  342.  His  father,  Dio- 
pithes,  commanded  the  Athenian  forces  on  the 
Hellespont  in  the  year  of  his  son's  birth.  Alex 
is,  the  comic  poet,  was  the  uncle  of  Menander 
on  the  father's  side  ;  and  we  may  naturally  sup- 
pose that  the  young  Menander  derived  from  his 
uncle  his  taste  for  the  comic  drama,  and  was 
instructed  by  him  in  its  rules  of  composition. 
His  character  must  have  been  greatly  influenced 
by  his  intimacy  with  Theophrastus  and  Epicu- 
rus, of  whom  the  former  was  his  teacher  and 
the  latter  his  intimate  friend.  His  taste  and 
sympathies  were  altogether  with  the  philosophy 
of  Epicurus  ;  and  in  an  epigram  he  declared 
that. "as  Themistocles  rescued  Greece  from 
slavery,  so  Epicurus  from  unreason."  From 
Theophrastus,  on  the  other  hand,  he  must  have 
derived  much  of  that  skill  in  the  discrimination 
of  character  which  we  so  much  admire  i*  the 
Characteres  of  the  philosopher,  and  which  form- 
ed the  great  charm  of  the  comedies  of  Menan- 
der. His  master's  attention  to  external  ele- 
gance and  comfort  he  not  only  imitated,  but.  as 
was  natural  in  a  man  of  an  elegant  person,  a 
joyous  spirit,  and  a  serene  and  easy  temper,  he 
carried  it  to  the  extreme  of  luxury  and  effem- 
inacy. The  moral  character  of  Menander  is  de- 
fended by  modern  writers  against  the  asper- 
sions of  Suidas  and  others.  Thus  much  is  cer- 
tain, that  his  comedies  contain  nothing  offens- 
ive, at  least  to  the  taste  of  his  own  and  the  fol- 
lowing ages,  none  of  the  purest,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted, as  they  were  frequently  acted  at  private 
banquets.  Of  the  actual  events  of  his  life  we 
know  but  little.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of 
Demetrius  Phalereus,  whose  attention  was  first 
drawn  to  him  by  admiration  of  his  works.  Ptol- 
erny,  the  son  of  Lagus,  was  also  one  of  his  ad- 
mirers ;  and  he  invited  the  poet  to  his  court  at 
Alexandrea,  but  Menander  seems  to  have  de- 
clined the  proffered  honor.  Hi-  died  at  Athens 
B.C.  291,  at  the  age  of  52,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  drowned  while  swimming  in  the  harbor  of 
Piraeus.  Notwithstanding  Menander's  fame  as 
a  poet,  his  public  dramatic  career  was  not  emi- 
nently successful;  for,  though  he  composed  up- 
ward of  one  hundred  comedies,  he  gained  the 
prize  only  eight  times.  His  preference  for  ele- 
gant exhibitions  of  character  above  coarse  jest. 

499 


MENANDER. 

ing  may  have  been  the  reason  why  he  was  not 
so  great  a  favorite  with  the  common  people  as 
his  principal  rival,  Philemon,  who  is  said,  more- 
over, to  have  used  unfair  means  of  gaining 
popularity.  Menander  appears  to  have  borne 
the  popular  neglect  very  lightly,  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  his  superiority ;  and  once  when 
he  happened  to  meet  Philemon,  he  is  said  to 
have  asked  him,  "  Pray,  Philemon,  do  not  you 
blush  when  you  gain  a  victory  over  me  ?"  The 
neglect  of  Menander's  contemporaries  has  been 
amply  compensated  by  his  posthumous  fame. 
His  comedies  retained  their  place  on  the  stage 
down  to  the  time  of  Plutarch,  and  the  unani- 
mous consent  of  antiquity  placed  him  at  the 
head  of  the  New  Comedy,  and  on  an  equality 
with  the  great  masters  of  the  various  kinds  of 
poetry.  His  comedies  were  imitated  by  the  Ro- 
man dramatists,  particularly  by  Terence,  who 
was  little  more  than  a  translator  of  Menander. 
But  we  can  not  form,  from  any  one  play  of  Ter- 
ence, a  fair  notion  of  the  corresponding  play  of 
Menander,  as  the  Roman  poet  frequently  com- 
pressed two  of  Menander's  plays  into  one.  It 
was  this  mixing  up  of  different  plays  thafcCae- 
sar  pointed  to  by  the  phrase  0  dimidiate  Menan- 
der, in  the  epigram  which  he  wrote  upon  Ter- 
ence. Of  Menander's  comedies  only  fragments 
are  extant.  The  best  edition  of  them  is  by  Mei- 
neke,  in  his  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Gracorum, 
Berol.,  1841. 

[MENANDER  (Mevaixfpof).  1.  An  Athenian  of- 
ficer in  the  Sicilian  expedition,  associated  in  the 
supreme  command  with  Nicias,  toward  the  end 
of  the  year  B.C.  414  :  he  afterward  served  with 
Alcibiades  against  Pharnabazus,  and  was  one 
of  the  commanders  at  the  disastrous  battle  of 
JEgos  potami. — 2.  King  of  Bactria,  was  one  of 
the  most  powerful  of  all  the  Greek  rulers  of 
that  country,  and  one  of  those  who  made  the 
most  extensive  conquests  in  India,  reaching  be- 
yond the  Hypanis  or  Sutler]). — 3.  Surnamed  Pro- 
tector, a  Greek  writer  of  Byzantium  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixth  century.  He  wrote  a  history 
of  the  Eastern  empire  from  A.D.  559  to  582  in 
eight  books,  of  which  considerable  extracts 
have  been  preserved  in  the  "  Eclogae  Legation- 
um"  attributed  to  Constantinus  Porphyrogeni- 
tus  Edited  by  Bekker  and  Niebuhr,  Bonn,  1830.] 

MENAPIA  (Mevania),  a  city  of  Bactnana,  on 
the  River  Zariaspis. 

MENAPII,  a  powerful  people  in  the  north  of 
Gallia  Belgica,  originally  dwelt  on  both  banks 
of  the  Rhine,  but  were  afterward  driven  out  of 
their  possessions  on  the  right  bank  by  the  Usi- 
petes  and  Tenchteri,  and  inhabited  only  the  left 
bank  near  its  mouth,  and  west  of  the  Mosa. 
Their  country  was  covered  with  forests  and 
swamps.  They  had  a  fortress  on  the  Mosa 
called  Castellum  Menapiorum  (now  Kessel). 

MENAS  (M^vdf),  also  called  MENODORUS  (M??- 
v66upof)  by  Appian,  a  freedman  of  Pompey  the 
Great,  was  one  of  the  principal  commanders  of 
the  fleet  of  Sextus  Pompey  in  his  war  against 
Octavianus  and  Antony,  B.C.  40.  In  39  he 
tried  in  vain  to  dissuade  his  master  from  con- 
cluding a  peace  with  Octavianus  and  Antony  -, 
and,  at  an  entertainment  given  to  them  by  Sex- 
tus on  board  his  ship  at  Misenum,  Menas  sug- 
gested to  him  to  cut  the  cables  of  the  vessel, 
and,  running  it  out  to  sea,  dispatch  both  his 
500 


MENEDEMUS. 

rivals.  The  treacherous  proposal,  however,  was 
rejected  by  Pompey.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  war  again  in  38,  Menao  deserted  Pompej 
and  went  over  to  Octavianus.  In  36'  he  return 
ed  to  his  old  master's  service  ;  but  in  the  course 
of  the  same  year  he  again  played  the  deserter, 
and  joined  Octavianus.  In  35  he  accompanied 
Octavianus  in  the  Pannonian  campaign,  and 
was  slain  at  the  siege  of  Siscia.  According  to 
the  old  scholiasts,  this  Menas  is  the  person  so 
vehemently  attacked  by  Horace  in  his  fourth 
epode.  This  statement  has  been  called  in  ques- 
tion by  many  modern  commentators  ;  but  their 
arguments  are  far  from  satisfactory. 

MENDE  or  MEND^E  (Mevdtj,  Msvdaior),  a  town 
on  the  western  coast  of  the  Macedonian  penin- 
sula Pellene  and  on  the  Thermaic  Gulf,  was  a 
colony  of  the  Eretrians,  and  was  celebrated  for 
its  wine.  It  was  for  some  time  a  place  of  con- 
siderable importance,  but  was  ruined  by  the 
foundation  of  Cassandrea. 

MENDES  (MevtJTjf  :  MejxJrycrtof  :  ruins  near  Ma- 
larich),  a  considerable  city  of  the  Delta  of  Egypt, 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  Lake  of  Tanis  (now 
Menzaleh),  and  on  the  bank  of  one  of  the  lesser 
arms  of  the  Nile,  named  after  it  Mtvtiriaiov  aro^a  : 
the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  MENDES. 

MENECLES  (Meve/c^/f).  1.  Of  Barce  in  Cy- 
rene,  an  historian  of  uncertain  date. — 2.  Of  Ala- 
banda,  a  celebrated  rhetorician.  He  and  his 
brother  Hierocles  taught  rhetoric  at  Rhodes, 
where  the  orator  M.  Antonius  heard  them,  about 
B.C.  94. 

MENECRATES  (MfvfKpo'-n/f).  1.  A  Syracusan 
physician  at  the  court  of  Philip,  king  of  Mace- 
don,  B  C.  359-336.  He  made  himself  ridicu 
lous  by  calling  himself  "  Jupiter,"  and  assuming 
divine  honors.  There  is  a  tale  that  he  was  in- 
vited one  day  by  Philip  to  a  magnificent  enter- 
tainment, where  the  other  guests  were  sump- 
tuously fed,  while  he  himself  had  nothing  but 
incense  and  libations,  as  not  being  subject  to 
the  human  infirmity  of  hunger.  He  was  at  first 
pleased  with  his  reception,  but  afterward  per- 
ceiving the  joke,  and  finding  that  no  more  sub- 
stantial food  was  offered  him,  he  left  the  party 
in  disgust.  —  2.  TIBERIUS  CLAUDIUS  MENECRA- 
TES, a  physician  mentioned  by  Galen,  composed 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  medical  works, 
of  which  only  a  few  fragments  remain. 

MENEDEMUS  (Mei>e(%MJf),  a  Greek  philosopher, 
was  a  native  of  Eretria,  and,  though  of  noble 
birth,  was  poor,  and  worked  for  a  livelihood 
either  as  a  builder  or  as  a  tent-maker.  Accord- 
ing to  one  story,  he  seized  the  opportunity  af- 
forded by  his  being  sent  on  some  military  serv- 
ice to  MEGARA  to  hear  Plato,  and  abandoned 
the  army  to  addict  himself  to  philosophy ;  but 
it  may  be  questioned  whether  he  was  old  enough 
to  have  heard  Plato  before  the  death  of  the 
latter.  According  to  another  story,  he  and  his 
friend  Asclepiades  got  their  livelihood  as  millers, 
working  during  the  night,  that  they  might  have 
leisure  for  philosophy  in  the  day.  The  two 
friends  afterward  became  disciples  of  Stilpo  at 
Megara.  From  Megara  they  went  to  Elis,  and 
placed  themselves  under  the  instruction  of 
some  disciples  of  Phaedo.  On  his  return  to 
Eretria  Menedemus  established  a  school  of  phi- 
losophy, which  was  called  the  Eretrian.  He 
did  not,  however,  confine  himself  to  philosophi- 


MENELAI. 

caJ  pursuits,  but  took  an  active  part  in  the  polit- 
;c»l  affairs  of  his  native  city,  and  came  to  be 
th*»  leading  man  in  the  state.  He  went  on  vari- 
ous embassies  to  Lysimachus,  Demetrius,  and 
others  ;  but,  being  suspected  of  the  treacherous 
intention  of  betraying  Eretria  into  the  power  of 
Antigonus,  he  quitted  his  native  city  secretly, 
and  took  refuge  with  Antigonus  in  Asia.  Here 
lie  starved  himself  to  death  in  the  seventy-fourth 
year  of  his  age,  probably  about  B.C.  277.  Of 
the  philosophy  of  Menedemus  little  is  known, 
except  that  it  closely  resembled  that  of  the  Me- 
garian  school.  Vid.  EUCLIDES,  No.  2. 

MENELAI  or  -us,  PORTUS  (Mcrf/idtof  Mftrjv, 
MeveAaoc  :  now  Afarsa-Toubrouk,  or  Ras-el- 
Milhr  ?),  an  ancient  city  on  the  coast  of  Mar- 
marica,  in  Northern  Africa,  founded,  according 
to  tradition,  by  Menelaus.  It  is  remarkable  in 
history  as  the  place  where  Agesilaus  died. 

MENELAIUM  (MevsZaiov),  a  mountain  in  La- 
conia,  southeast  of  Sparta,  near  Therapne,  on 
which  the  heroum  of  Menelaus  was  situated,  the 
foundations  of  which  temple  were  discovered 
in  the  year  1834. 

MENELAUS  (Mei/e?.aof,  Mevefoof,  or  MeveAaf). 
I.  Son  of  Plisthenes  or  Atreus,  and  younger 
brother  of  Agamemnon.  His  early  life  is  re- 
lated under  AGAMEMNON.  He  was  king  of  La- 
cedaemon,  and  married  to  the  beautiful  Helen, 
by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Hermione. 
When  Helen  had  been  carried  off  by  Paris,  Men- 
elaus and  Ulysses  sailed  to  Troy  in  order  to 
demand  her  restitution.  Menelaus  was  hospi- 
tably treated  by  Antenor,  but  the  journey  was 
of  no  avail ;  and  the  Trojan  Antimachus  even 
advised  his  fellow-citizens  to  kill  Menelaus  and 
Ulysses.  Thereupon  Menelaus  and  his  brother 
Agamemnon  resolved  to  march  against  Troy 
with  all  the  forces  that  Greece  could  muster. 
Agamemnon  was  chosen  the  commander-in- 
chief.  In  the  Trojan  war  Menelaus  was  under 
the  special  protection  of  Juno  (Hera)  and  Mi- 
nerva (Athena),  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  bravery  in  battle.  He  killed  many  illustri- 
ous Trojans,  and  would  have  slain  Paris  also 
in  single  combat,  had  not  the  latter  been  carried 
off  by  Venus  (Aphrodite)  in  a  cloud.  Menelaus 
was  one  of  the  heroes  concealed  in  the  wooden 
horse  ;  and  as  soon  as  Troy  was  taken,  he  and 
Ulysses  hastened  to  the  house  of  Deiphobus, 
who  had  married  Helen  after  the  death  of  Paris, 
and  put  him  to  death  in  a  barbarous  manner. 
Menelaus  is  said  to  have  been  secretly  intro- 
duced into  the  chamber  of  Deiphobus  by  Helen, 
who  thus  became  reconciled  to  her  former  hus- 
band. He  was  among  the  first  that  sailed  away 
from  Troy,  accompanied  by  his  wife  Helen  and 
Nestor ;  but  he  was  eight  years  wandering  about 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  before  he 
reached  home.  He  arrived  at  Sparta  on  the 
very  day  on  which  Orestes  was  engaged  in 
burying  Clytaemnestra  and  ^Egisthus.  Hence- 
forward he  lived  with  Helen  at  Sparta  in  peace 
and  wealth,  and  his  palace  shone  in  its  splendor 
like  the  sun  or  the  moon.  When  Telemachus 
visited  Sparta  to  inquire  after  his  father,  Mene- 
laus was  solemnizing  the  marriage  of  his  daugh- 
ter Hermione  with  Neoptolemus,  and  of  his  son 
Megapenthes  with  a  daughter  of  Alector.  In 
the  Homeric  poems  Menelaus  is  described  as  a 
uian  of  an  athletic  figure ;  he -spoke  little,  bur 


MENESTHEUS. 

!  what  he  said  was  always  impressive ;  he  was 
;  brave  and   courageous,  but  milder  than  Aga 
i  memnon,  intelligent  and  hospitable.     Aocord- 
|  ing  to  the  prophecy  of  Proteus  in  the  Odyssey, 
[  Menelaus  and  Helen  were  vnot  to  die,  but  the 
I  gods  were  to  conduct  them  to  Elysium.     Ac- 
cording to  a  later  tradition,  he  and  Helen  went 
to  the  Taurians,  where  they  were  sacrificed  by 
I  Iphigenia  to  Diana  (Artemis).     Menelaus  was 
!  worshipped  as  a  hero  at  Therapne,  where  his 
tomb  and  that  of  Helen  were  shown.     Respect- 
I  ing  the  tale  that  Helen  never  went  to  Troy,  but 
!  was  detained  in  Egypt,  vid.  HELENA. — 2.  Son 
i  of  Lagus,  and  brother  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  held 
possession  of  Cyprus  for  his  brother,  but  was 
defeated  and  driven  out  of  the  island  by  Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes,  B.C.  306.— 3.  A  Greek  mathe- 
matician, a  native  of  Alexandrea,  the  author  of 
i  an  extant  treatise  in  three  books,  on  tlie  Sphere. 
i  He  made  some  astronomical  observations  at 
Rome  in  the  first  year  of  the  Emperor  Trajan, 
A.D.  98. 

MENELAUS  (Mev&.aoc),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
on  the  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  named  after 
the  brother  of  Ptolemy  the  son  of  Lagus.  It 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  district  between 
the  lakes  of  Mceris  and  Mareotis  (vo/zof  Meve- 
ZairiK). 

MENENIUS  LANATUS.  1.  AGEIPPA, consul  B.C. 
503,  conquered  the  Sabines.  It  was  owing  to 
his  mediation  that  the  first  great  rupture  be- 
tween the  patricians  and  plebeians,  when  the 
latter  seceded  to  the  Sacred  Mount,  was  brought 
to  a  happy  and  peaceful  termination  in  493  , 
and  it  was  upon  this  occasion  he  is  said  to  have 
related  to  the  plebeians  his  well-known  fable 
of  the  belly  and  its  members. — 2.  T.,  consul 
477,  was  defeated  by  the  Etruscans.  He  had 
previously  allowed  the  Fabii  to  be  destroyed  by 
the  Etruscans,  although  he  might  have  assisted 
them  with  his  army.  For  this  act  of  treachery 
he  was  brought  to  trial  by  the  tribunes  and  con 
demned  to  pay  a  fine.  He  took  his  punishment 
so  much  to  heart,  that  he  shut  himself  up  in 
his  house  and  died  of  grief. 

MENES  (M^vi??-),  first  king  of  Egypt,  according 
|  to  the  .traditions  of  the  Egyptians  themselves. 
Herodotus  records  of  him  that  he  built  Mem- 
phis on  a  piece  of  ground  which  he  had  rescued 
from  the  river  by  turning  it  from  its  formei 
course,  and  erected  therein  a  magnificent  tem- 
ple to  Hephaestus  (Phthah).  Diodorus  tells  us 
that  he  introduced  into  Egypt  the  worship  of 
the  gods  a:.d  the  practice  of  sacrifices,  as  well 
as  a  more  elegant  and  luxurious  style  of  living. 
That  he  was  a  conqueror,  like  other  founders 
of  kingdoms,  we  learn  from  an  extract  from 
Manetho  preserved  by  Eusebius.  By  Marsham 
and  others  he  has  been  identified  with  the  Miz- 
raim  of  Scripture.  According  to  some  accounts 
i  he  was  killed  by  a  hippopotamus. 

MENESTHKI  PORTUS  (now  Puerto  de  S.  Maria), 
a  harbor  in  Hispania  BaHica,  not  far  from  Gades, 
with  an  oracle  of  Mencstheus,  who  is  said  jn 
some  legends  to  have  settled  in  Spain. 

[MENESTHKS  (Meveadtif),  a  Greek  warrior  at 
the  siege  of  Troy,  slain  by  Hector.] 

MENESTHEUS  (Meveotievf).  1.  Son  of  Peteus, 
an  Athenian  king,  who  led  the  Athenians  against 
rproy,  and  surpassed  all  other  mortals  in  arrang- 
ing the  war-steeds  and  men  for  battle.  With 

501 


MKNriSTHIUS. 

the  assistance  of  the  Tyndarids,  he  is  said  to  ! 
have  driven  Theseus  from  his  kingdom. — 2.  Son  | 
of  Iphicrates,  the  famous  Athenian  general,  by 
the  daughter  of  Cotys,  king  of  Thrace.     He 
married  the  daughter  of  Timotheus ;   and  in 
356  was  chosen  commander  in  the  Social  war, 
his  father  and  his  father-in-law  being  appointed 
to  aid  him  with  their  counsel  and  experience. 
T'liey  were  all  three  impeached  by  their  col- 1 
league,   CHARES,  for  alleged   misconduct   and  | 
treachery  in  the  campaign  ;  but  Iphicrates  and 
Menestheus  were  acquitted. 

[MENESTHIUS  (MfveaOiof).  1.  Son  of  Are'i- 
thous,  king  of  Arne  in  Boeotia,  was  slain  by  Par- 
is.— 2.  Son  of  Sperchlus  or  of  Borus  and  Poly- 
dora,  nephew  of  Achilles,  a  leader  of  the  Myr- 
midons before  Troy.] 

[MENESTRATUS  (  Meve'ffTporoc  ),  a  sculptor, 
whose  Hercules  and  Hecate  were  greatly  ad- 
mired. The  latter  stood  in  the  opisthodomus 
of  the  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis)  at  Ephesus, 
and  was  made  of  marble  of  such  brilliancy  that 
it  was  necessary  to  warn  beholders  to  shade 
their  eyes,  says  Pliny.] 

[MENEXENUS  (Meixjfevof ),  an  Athenian,  son  of 
Demophon,  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  and  is 
introduced  by  Plato  as  one  of  the  interlocutors 
in  the  dialogues  Lysis  and  Menexenus.] 

MENINX  or  LOTOPHAGITIS,  afterward  GIRBA 
(Mr/vtyf,  Aurodaymf,  A.uTotj>u.yuv  vrjoof  :  now 
Jerbah),  a  considerable  island,  close  to  the  coast 
of  Africa  Propria,  at  the  southeastern  extremity 
of  the  Lesser  Syrtis,  with  two  cities,  Meninx 
(now  Menaz)  on  the  northeast,  and  Girba,  or 
Gerra,  on  the  southwest.  It  was  the  birth-place 
of  the  emperors  Vibius  Gallus  and  Volusianus. 

MENIPPE  (Mevlmrij),  daughter  of  Orion  and 
sister  of  Metioche.  These  two  sisters  put  them- 
selves to  death  of  their  own  accord  in  order  to 
propitiate  the  two  Erinnyes,  who  had  visited 
Aonia  with  a  plague.  They  were  metamorph- 
osed by  Proserpina  (Persephone)  and  Pluto 
(Hades)  into  comets,  and  the  Aonians  erected 
to  them  a  sanctuary  near  Orchomenos. 

MENIPPUS  (M^iTTTrof).  1.  A  cynic  philosopher, 
and  originally  a  slave,  was  a  native  of  Gadara 
in  Coele-Syria.  He  seems  to  have  been,  a  hear- 
er of  Diogenes,  and  flourished  about  B.C.  60. 
He  amassed  great  wealth  as  a  usurer  (iiftepoda- 
veioTw),  but  was  cheated  out  of  it  all,  and  com- 
mitted suicide.  We  are  told  that  he  wrote  noth- 
ing serious,  but  that  his  books  were  full  of  jests ; 
whence  it  would  appear  that  he  was  one  of 
those  cynic  philosophers  who  threw  all  their 
teaching  into  a  satirical  .form.  In  this  charac- 
ter he  is  several  times  introduced  by  Lucian. 
His  works  are  now  entirely  lost ;  but  we  have 
considerable  fragments  of  Varro's  Saturce  Me- 
nippciz,  written  in  imitation  of  Menippus. — [2. 
Of  Stratonice,  a  Carian  by  birth,  was  the  most 
accomplished  orator  of  his  time  in  all  Asia. 
Cbero,  who  heard  him,  puts  him  almost  on  a 
level  with  the  Attic  orators. — 3.  Of  Pergamus, 
a  geographer,  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and 
Wrote  a  IIe/M7rAot>f  rijf  kvrof  tia'hu.TTijf,  of  which 
an  abridgment  was  made  by  Marcianus,  and  of 
which  some  fragments  are  preserved.  Vid. 
MARCIANUS.] 

MENNIS,  a  city  of  Adiabene,  in  Assyria,  only 
mentioned  by  Curtius  (v.,  1). 

[MENODORUS  (M»;i>6(5wpof).     Vid.  MENAS.] 
502 


MENTOR. 


MKNODOTUS  (StyvWorof>,  a  physician 
media  in  Bithynia,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Antio- 
chus  of  Laodicea,  and  tutor  to  Herodotus  of 
Tarsus  ;  he  belonged  to  the  medical  sect  of  the 
Empirici,  and  lived  probably  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  century  after  Christ. 

MENCECEUS  (MevoiKetf).  !•  A  Theban,  grand- 
son of  Pentheus,  and  father  of  Hipponome,  Jo- 
casta,  and  Creon.  —  2.  Grandson  of  the  former, 
and  son  of  Creon.  He  put  an  end  to  his  life 
because  Tiresias  had  declared  that  his  death 
would  bring  victory  to  his  country,  when  the 
seven  Argive  heroes  marched  against  Thebes. 
His  tomb  was  shown  at  Thebes  near  the  Nei- 
tian  gate. 

[MF.NCETES.  1.  Pilot  of  the  ship  of  Gyas,  who 
threw  him  overboard  for  having  delayed  his  ves- 
sel in  the  race  at  the  celebration  of  the  games 
in  honor  of  Anchises.  —  2.  An  Arcadian  who 
fought  on  the  side  of  JSneas  in  Italy,  and  was 
slain  by  Turnus.] 

MENCETIUS  (Mjvomof).  1.  Son  of  lapetus 
and  Clymene  or  Asia,  and  brother  of  Atlas, 
Prometheus,  and  Epimetheus.  He  was  killed 
by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  with  a  flash  of  lightning  in 
the  battle  with  the  Titans,  and  was  hurled  into 
Tartarus.  —  2.  Son  of  Actor  and"  JEgina,  hus- 
band of  Polymele  or  Sthenele,  and  father  of  Pa- 
troclus,  who  is  hence  called  Menatiadcs.  After 
Patroclus  had  slain  the  son  of  Amphidamas. 
Mencetius  fled  with  him  to  Peleus  in  Phthia, 
and  had  him  educated  there. 

[MENON  (Mevwv).  1.  A  Trojan  warrior  slain 
by  Leonteus.  —  2.  A  citizen  of  Pharsalus  in 
Thessaly,  who  aided  the  Athenians  at  Eion 
with  twelve  talents  and  two  hundred  horsemen 
raised  by  himself  from  his  own  penestaj,  and 
was  rewarded  for  these  services  with  the  free- 
dom of  the  city.]  —  3.  A  Thessalian  adventurer, 
was  one  of  the  generals  of  the  Greek  mercena- 
ries in  the  army  of  Cyrus  the  Younger  when 
the  latter  marched  into  Upper  Asia  against  his 
brother  Artaxerxes,  B.C.  401.  After  the  death 
of  Cyrus  he  was  apprehended  along  with  the 
other  Greek  generals  by  Tissaphernes,  and  was 
put  to  death  by  lingering  tortures,  which  lasted 
for  a  whole  year.  His  character  is  drawn  in 
the  blackest  colors  by  Xenophon.  He  is  the 
same  as  the  Menon  introduced  in  the  dialogue 
of  Plato,  which  bears  his  name. 

MENS,  a  personification  of  mind,  worshipped 
by  the  Romans.  She  had  a  sanctuary  on  the 
Capitol  ;  and  the  object  of  her  worship  was, 
that  the  citizens  might  always  be  guided  by  a 
right  spirit. 

[MENTES  (M<?vD7f)-  1-  Leader  of  the  Cicones, 
under  whose  form  Apollo  encouraged  Hector  to 
prevent  Menelaus  carrying  off  the  armor  of 
Euphorbus.  —  2.'  Son  of  Anchialus,  leader  of  the 
Taphians,  guest-friend  of  Ulysses.  Minerva  as 
sumed  his  form  when  she  appeared  to  Telem 
achus  to  arouse  him  to  go  in  search  of  the  ab 
sent  Ulysses.] 

MENTESA  (Mentesanus).  1.  Surnamed  BAS- 
TIA,  a  town  of  the  Oretani  in  Hispania  Tarraco- 
nensis,  on  the  road  from  Castulo  to  Carthago 
Nova.  —  2.  A  small  town  of  the  Bastuli  in  the 
south  of  Hispania  Beetica. 

MENTOR  (M^irwp).  1.  Son  of  Alcimus,  and 
a  faithful  friend  of  Ulysses,  [to  whom  the  latter 
confided  the  supervision  of  his  household  when 


MENTORES. 

setting  out  for  Troy.  Minerva  assumed  his 
form  to  give  instructions  to  the  young  Telem- 
achus,  and  accompanied  him  as  Mentor  to  the 
court  of  Nestor. — 2.  Father  of  Imbrius  of  Caria, 
whcrfought  on  the  side  of  the  Trojans,  is  called 
by  Homer  "  rich  in  horses."]— 3.  A  Greek  of 
Rhodes,  who,  with  his  brother  Memnon,  ren- 
dered active  assistance  to  Artabazus..  When 
the  latter  found  himself  compelled  to  take  ref- 
uge at  the  court  of  Philip,  Mentor  entered  the 
service  of  Nectanabis,  king  of  Egypt.  He  was 
sent  to  the  assistance  of  Tennes,  king  of  Sidon, 
in  his  revolt  against  Darius  Ochus  ;  and  when 
Tennes  went  over  to  the  Persians,  Mentor  was 
taken  into  the  service  of  Darius.  He  rose  rap- 
idly in  the  favor  of  Darius,  and  eventually  re- 
ceived a  satrapy,  including  all  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  His  influence  with  Da- 
rius enabled  him  to  procure  the  pardon  of  his 
brother  Mernnon.  He  died  in  possession  of  his 
satrapy,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Mem- 
non. Vid.  MEMNON. — 4.  The  most  celebrated 
silver-chaser  among  the  Greeks,  who  must  have 
flourished  before  B.C.  356.  His  works  were 
vases  and  cups,  which  were  most  highly  prized 
by  the  Romans. 

[MENTORES  (Mfvropcf),  a  people  on  the  coast 
of  Liburnia,  in  the  district  Mentorice  (Mevro- 
Bt/cj?) ;  they  also  possessed  the  islands  situated 
.on  this  coast  in  the  Adriatic  called  "  Insulae 
Mentorides"  (Mevrop<c5ef),  now  probably  Veglia, 
Arbe,  Cher  so,  &c.] 

[MENYLLUS  (MewAAof).  1.  A  Macedonian,  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  Macedonian  garrison 
in  Munychia  after  the  Lamiac  war,  B.C.  322. 
He  was  a  just  man,  and  on  friendly  terms  with 
Phocion.  Pie  was  replaced  by  Nicanor,  B.C. 
319,  on  the  death  of  Antipater. — 2.  Of  Alaban- 
da,  ambassador  to  Rome  in  B.C.  162,  from  Ptol- 
emy VI.  Philometor,  to  plead  his  cause  against 
his  younger  brother  Physcon :  his  mission,  how- 
ever, was  unsuccessful.  While  at  Rome,  he, 
with  Polybius,  aided  in  effecting  the  escape  of 
the  Syrian  prince  Demetrius.] 

MERCURII  PROMONTORIUM.      Vid.  HERM^EUM. 

MERCURIUS,  a  Roman  divinity  of  commerce 
and  gain.  The  character  of  the  god  is  clear 
from  his  name,  which  is  connected  with  merx 
and  mcrcari.  A  temple  was  built  to  him  as 
early  as  B.C.  495,  near  the  Circus  Maximus ; 
an  altar  of  the  god  existed  near  the  Porta  Ca- 
pena,  by  the  side  of  a  wtll ;  and  in  later  times 
a  temple  seems  to  have  been  built  on  the  same 
spot.  Under  the  name  of  the  ill-willed  (malev- 
olus),  he  had  a  statue  in  what  was  called  the 
vicus  sobrius,  or  the  sober  street,  in  which  no 
shops  were  allowed  to  be  kept,  and  milk  was 
offered  to  him  there  instead  of  wine.  This 
statue  had  a  purse  in  its  hand,  to  indicate  his 
functions.  His  festival  was  celebrated  on  the 
twenty-fifth  of  May,  and  chiefly  by  merchants, 
who  also  visited  the  well  near  the  Porta  Cape- 
na,  to  which  magic  powers  were  ascribed ;  and 
with  water  from  that  well  they  used  to  sprinkle 
themselves  and  their  merchandise,  that  they 
might  be  purified,  and  yield  a  large  profit.  The 
Romans  of  later  times  identified  Mercurins,  the 
patron  of  merchants  and  tradespeople,  with  the 
Greek  Hermes,  and  transferred  all  the  attri- 
butes and  myths  of  the  latter  to  the  former.  The 
Fetialcs,  however,  never  recognized  the  iden- 


MEROE. 

tity,  and,  instead  of  the  cadiiccus,  used  a  sacred 
branch  as  the  emblem  of  peace.  The  r^sem 
blance  between  Mercurius  and  Hermes  is  in 
deed  very  slight,  and  their  identification  is  a 
proof  of  the  thoughtless  manner  in  which  thn 
Romans  acted  in  this  respect.  Vid.  HERMES. 

MERCURIES  TRISMEGISTUS.  Vid.  HERMES 
TRISMEGISTUS. 

MERIONES  (M^owfc),  a  Cretan  hero,  son  of 
Molus,  who,  conjointly  with  Idomeneus,  led  the 
Cretans  in  eighty  ships  against  Troy.  He  was 
one  of  the  bravest  heroes  in  the  Trojan  war, 
and  usually  acted  together  with  his  friend  Ido- 
meneus. Later  traditions  relate  that  on  his 
way  homeward  he  was  thrown  on  the  coast  of 
Sicily,  where  he  was  received  by  the  Cretans 
who  had  settled  there  ;  whereas,  according  to 
others,  he  returned  safely  to  Crete,  and  was 
buried  and  worshipped  as  a  hero,  together  with 
Idomeneus,  at  Cnosus. 

MERMERCS  (Mfp/jepof).  1.  Son  of  Jason  and 
Medea,  also  called  Macareus  or  Mormorus,  was 
murdered,  together  with  his  brother  Pheres,  by 
his  mother  at  Corinth.— 2.  Son  of  Pheres,  and 
grandson  of  Jason  and  Medea. — [3.  A  Trojan, 
slain  by  Antilochus.— 4.  A  Centaur,  slain  at  the 
nuptials  of  Pirithous.] 

MERMESSUS  or  MYRMESSUS  (M.£pfZT/aa6f,  Mup- 
fiTjaaoe),  also  written  MARMESSUS  and  MARPES- 
sus,  a  town  of  Mysia,  in  the  territory  of  Lamp- 
sacus,  not  far  from  Polichna,  the  native  place 
of  a  sibyl. 

[MERMNAD^E  (Meppvddat),  a  Lydian  family, 
which,  on  the  murder  of  Candaules  by  Gyges, 
succeeded  the  Heraclidae  on  the  throne  of  Lyd- 
ia,  and  held  it  for  five  generations,  about  716- 
546  B.C.  The  sovereigns  of  this  family  were 
Gyges,  Ardys,  Sadyattes,  Alyattes,  and  Croe- 
sus.] 

MEROBAUDES,  FLAVIUS,  a  general  and  a  poet, 
whose  merits  are  recorded  in  an  inscription  on. 
the  base  of  a  statue  dug  up  in  the  Ulpian  forum 
at  Rome  in  the  year  1812  or  1813.  We  learn 
from  the  inscription  that  the  statue  was  erect- 
ed in  A.D.  435.  Some  fragments  of  the  poems 
of  Merobaudes  were  discovered  by  Niebuhr 
upon  a  palimpsest  belonging  to  the  monastery 
of  St.  Gall,  and  were  published  by  him  at  Bonn. 
1823,  [and  again  in  1824;  they  are  also  print- 
ed in  a  volume  of  the  Corpus  Script.  Byzant, 
with  Corippus,  edited  by  Bekker,  Bonn,  1836.] 

MERGE  (Mepor/ :  now  ports  of  Nubia  and  Sen- 
nar),  the  island,  so  called,  and  almost  an  isl- 
and in  reality,  formed  by  the  rivers  Astapus 
(now  Blue  Nile)  and  Astaboras  (now  Atlarah), 
and  the  portion  of  the  Nile  between  theii 
mouths,  was  a  district  of  ^Ethiopia.  Its  capital, 
also  called  Meroi>,  stood  near  the  northern  point 
of  the  island,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile, 
below  the  modern  Shendy,  where  the  plain,  near 
the  village  of  Assour,  is  covered  with  ruins  of 
temples,  pyramids,  and  other  works  in  a  style 
closely  resembling  the  Egyptian.  Standing  in 
a  fertile  district,  rich  in  timber  and  minerals, 
at  the  foot  of  the  highlands  of  Abyssinia,  and  at 
the  junction  of  two  great  rivers,  Merpc  became, 
at  a  very  early  period,  a  chief  emporium  for  the 
trade  between  Egypt,  Northern  Africa,  Ethi- 
opia, Arabia,  and  India,  and  the  capital  of  a 
powerful  state.  The  government  was  a  hie- 
rarchical monarchy,  entirely  in  the  hands  of  a 

503 


MEROM  LACUS. 

ruling  cnstc  of  priests,  who  chose  a  king  from 
among  themselves, bound  him  to  govern  accord- 
ing to  their  laws,  and  put  him  to  death  when 
they  chose  ;  until  King  Ergamenes  (about  DC. 
300)  threw  off  the  yoke  of  the  priests,  whom 
lie  massacred,  and  converted  his  kingdom  into 
an  absolute  monarchy.  The  priests  of  Murofi 
were  closely  connected  in  origin  and  customs 
with  those  of  Egypt ;  and,  according  to  some 
traditions,  the  latter  sprang  from  the  former, 
and  they  from  India;  but  the  settlement  of  this 
point  involves  an  important  ethnical  question, 
which  Ties  beyond  the  limits  of  this  book  For 
further  details  respecting  the  kingdom  of  MeroP, 
cid.  ./ETHIOPIA.  Meroe  had  a  celebrated  oracle 
of  Ammon. 

MEROM  LACUS.     Via.  SEMECHONITIS. 

MEROPE  (Mfpoirrj).  1.  One  of  the  Heliades  or 
sisters  of  Phacthon. — 2.  Daughter  of  Atlas,  one 
of  the  Pleiades,  and  wife  of  Sisyphus  of  Corinth, 
by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Glaucus. 
In  the  constellation  of  the  Pleiades  she  is  the 
seventh  and  the  least  visible  star,  because  she 
is  ashamed  of  having  had  intercourse  with  a 
mortal  man. — 3.  Daughter  of  Cypselus,  wife  of 
Cresphontes,  and  mother  of  yEpytus.  For  de- 
tails, vid.  /EPYTUS. 

MEROPS  (M^po^).  1.  King  of  the  island  of 
Cos,  husband  of  the  nymph  Ethemea,  and  fa- 
ther of  Eumelus.  His  wife  was  killed  by  Diana 
(Artemis)  because  she  had  neglected  to  worship 
that  goddess.  Merops,  in  order  to  rejoin  his 
wife,  wished  to  make  away  with  himself,  but 
Juno  (Hera)  changed  him  into  an  eagle,  whom 
she  plaosd  among  the  stars. — 2.  King  of  the 
..Ethiopians,  by  whose  wife,  Clymene,  Helios 
became  the  father  of  Phaethon. — 3.  King  of 
Rhyndacus,  on  the  Hellespont,  also  called  Ma- 
car  or  Macareus,  was  a  celebrated  soothsayer, 
and  father  of  Clite,  Arisbe,  Amphius,  and  Adras- 
tus. — [4.  A  Trojan,  companion  of  /Eneas,  slain 
by  Turnus  in  Italy.] 

MERULA,  L.  CORNELIUS,  was  flamen  dialis, 
and,  on  the  deposition  of  L.  Cinna  in  B.C.  87, 
was  elected  consul  in  his  place.  On  the  cap- 
ture of  Rome  by  Marius  and  Cinna  at  the  close 
of  the  same  year,  Merula  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life  in  order  to  escape  the  hands  of  the  execu- 
tioner. 

MESAMBRIA  (M.eaap6pir) :  now  Bushehr),  a  pen- 
insula on  the  coast  of  Persis,  near  the  River 
Padargus. 

MESCHELA  (Me^e^a  :  probably  near  Bonah), 
a  large  city  on  the  coast  of  Northern  Africa, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Greeks  returning 
from  the  Trojan  war.  It  was  taken  by  Euma- 
chus,  the  lieutenant  of  Agathocles. 

MESEMBRiA(Me<TJ7,u6pta,  Herod.  Mcaafi6pir} :  Me- 
OTjuftpiavofi.  1.  (Now  Missivria  or  Messuri),  a 
celebrated  town  of  Thrace  on  the  Pontus  Eux- 
inus,  and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hasmus,  founded 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Chalcedon  and  Byzanti- 
um in  the  time  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  and  hence 
called  a  colony  of  Megara,  since  those  two 
towns  were  founded  by  the  Megarians. — 2.  A 
town  in  Thrace,  but  of  much  less  importance, 
on  the  coast  of  tbe/Egean  Sea,  and  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Cicones,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Lissus,  and  the  most  westerly  of  the  Samothra- 
oian  settlements  on  the  main  land. 

MESENE  (yicoqvn,  i.  e.,  Midland),  a  name  given 
504 


MESPILA. 

to  that  part  of  Babylonia  which  consisted  of  the 
great  island  formed  by  the  Euphrates,  the  Ti- 
gris, and  the  Royal  Canal,  and  contained,  there- 
fore, the  greater  part  of  Babylonia. 

MESOA  or  MESSOA.      Vid.  SPARTA 

MESOGIS.      Vid.  MESSOGIS. 

MESSMEDES  (Meao^fJ^f),  a  lyric  and  epigram 
matic  poet  under  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines, 
was  a  native  of  Crete,  and  a  freedman  of  Ha- 
drian, whose  favorite  Antinous  he  celebrated  in 
a  poem.  A  salary,  which  he  had  received  from 
Hadrian,  was  diminished  by  Antoninus  Pius. 
Three  poems  of  his  are  preserved  in  the  Greek 
Anthology. 

MESOPOTAMIA  ( Metro rrorauia,  MECTT?  rtiv  irora- 
ffcJv :  in  the  Old  Testament,  Aram  Naharaim, 
i.  c.,  Syria  between  the  Rivers  :  LXX.,  MfaoTOTa- 
fi'ia  Svpt'af  :  now  Al-Jesira,  i.  e.,  The  Island),  a 
district  of  Western  Asia,  named  from  its  posi- 
tion between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  of 
which  rivers  the  former  divided  it  from  Syria 
and  Arabia  on  the  west,  the  latter  from  Assyria 
on  the  east:  on  the  north  it  was  separated  from 
Armenia  by  a  branch  of  the  Taurus,  called  Ma- 
sius,  and  on  the  south  from  Babylonia  by  the 
Median  Wall.  The  name  was  first  used  by  the 
Greeks  in  the  time  of  the  Seleucidae.  In  earlier 
times  tl.?  country  was  reckoned  a  part,  some- 
times of  S/ria,  and  sometimes  of  Assyria.  Nor 
in  the  division  of  the  Persian  empire  was  it 
recognized  as  a  distinct  country,  but  it  belonged 
to  the  satrapy  of  Babylonia.  Excepting  the 
mountainous  region  on  the  north  and  north- 
east, formed  by  the  chain  of  MASIUS,  and  its 
prolongation  parallel  to  the  Tigris,  the  country 
formed  a  vast  plain,  broken  by  few  hills,  well 
watered  by  rivers  and  canals,  and  very  fertile, 
except  in  the  southern  part,  which  was  more 
like  the  Arabian  Desert  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  Euphrates.  Besides  corn,  and  fruits,  and 
spices  (e.  &.,  the  amomum),  it  produced  fine  tim- 
ber and  supported  large  herds  of  cattle  ;  in  the 
southern,  or  desert  part,  there  were  numerous 
wild  animals,  such  as  wild  asses,  gazelles,  os- 
triches, and  lions.  Its  chief  mineral  products 
were  naphtha  and  jet.  The  northern  part  of 
Mesopotamia  was  divided  into  the  districts  of 
MYODONIA  and  OSROENE.  It  belonged  success- 
ively to  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  Persian, 
Macedonian,  Syro-Grecian,  Parthian,  and  later 
Persian  empires.  In  a  wider  sense,  the  name 
is  sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  country  be- 
tween the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris. 

MESPILA  (rj  Meant^a :  ruins  at  Kouyounjik, 
opposite  to  Mosul,  Layard :  others  give  differ- 
ent sites  for  it),  a  city  of  Assyria,  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  Tigris,  which  Xenophon  (Anab.. 
iii.,  4)  mentions  as  having  been  formerly  a  great 
city,  inhabited  by  Medes,  but  in  his  time  fallen 
to  decay.  It  had  a  wall  six  parasangs  in  cir- 
cuit, composed  of  two  parts,  namely,  a  base  fif- 
ty feet  thick  and  fifty  high,  of  polished  stone, 
full  of  shells  (the  limestone  of  the  country), 
upon  which  was  built  a  brick  wall  fifty  feet 
thick  and  one  hundred  high.  It  had  served,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  as  the  refuge  for  the  Me- 
dian queen  when  the  Persians  overthrew  the 
empire  of  the  Medes,  and  it  resisted  all  the  ef- 
forts of  the  Persian  king  to  take  it,  until  a  thun- 
der storm  frightened  the  inhabitants  into  a  sur- 
render. 


MESSA. 

MESSA  (Metraa,  Meaaij :  now  Mez&po),  a  town 
and  harbor  in  Laconia,  near  Taenarum  Promon- 
toriurn. 

MESSABATENE  or  -ICE  (MevaaSaTTjvri,  Mecrffa- 
SariKr/ :  Mf  aaafiarai),  a  small  district  on  the 
southeastern  margin  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates valley,  on  the  borders  of  Media,  Persis, 
and  Susiana,  reckoned  sometimes  to  Persis  and 
sometimes  to  Susiana.  The  name  seems  to  be 
derived  from  the  mountain  passes  in  the  dis- 
trict. 

MESS  ALA  or  MESSALLA,  the  name  of  a  distin- 
guished family  of  the  Valeria  gens  at  Rome. 
They  appear  for  the  first  time  on  the  consular 
Fasti  in  B.C.  263,  and  for  the  last  in  A.D.  506. 
1.  M'.  VALERIUS  MAXIMUS  CORVINUS  MESSALA, 
was  consul  B.C.  263,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
his  colleague  M.  Otacilius,  carried  on  the  war 
with  success  against  the  Carthaginians  in  Sic- 
ily.    The  two  consuls  concluded  a  peace  with 
Hieron.     In  consequence  of  his  relieving  Mes- 
sana,  he  obtained  the  cognomen  of  Messala. 
His  triumph  was  distinguished  by  two  remark- 
able monuments  of  his  victory — by  a  pictorial 
representation  of  a  battle  with  the  Sicilian  and  j 
Punic  armies,  which  he  placed  in  the  Curia 
Hostilia,  and  by  a  sun-dial  (horolegium),  from 
the  booty  of  Catana,  which  was  set  up  on  a  col- 
umn behind  the  rostra  in  the  forum.     Messala 
was  censor  in  252. — 2.  M.  VALERIUS  MESSALA, 
consul  226. — 3.  M.  VALERIUS  MESSALA,  praetor 
peregrinus  194,  and  consul  188,  when  he  had 
the  province  of  Liguria. — 4.  M.  VALERIUS  MES- 
SALA, consul  161,  and  censor  154. — 5.  M.  VALE- 
RIUS MESSALA  NIGER,  praetor  63,    consul   61, 
and  censor  55.     He  belonged  to  the  aristocrati- 
cal  party.     He  married  a  sister  of  the  orator  Q. 
Hortensius,  by  whom  he  had  at  least  one  son. 
— 6.  M.  VALERIUS  MESSALA,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing ;   consul  53  ;  belonged,  like  his  father,  to 
the  aristocratical  party ;  but  in  consequence, 
probably,  of  .his  enmity  to  Pompey,  he  joined 
Caesar  in  the  civil  war,  and  served  under  him 
in  Africa.     He  was  in  high  repute  for  his  skill 
in  augury,  on  which  science  he  wrote. — 7.  M. 
VALERIUS  MESSALA  CORVINUS,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  partly  educated  at  Athens,  where 
probably  began  his  intimacy  with  Horace  and 
L.  Bibulus.     After  Caesar's  death  (44)  he  joined 
the  republican  party,  and  attached  himself  espe- 
cially to  Cassius,  whom,  long  after,  when  he 
had  become  the  friend  of  Augustus,  he  was  ac- 
customed to  call  "  my  general."    Messala  was 
proscribed  ;  but  since  his  kinsmen  proved  his 
absence  from  Rome  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  as- 
sassination, the  triumvirs  erased  his  name  from 
the  list,  and  offered  him  security  for  his  person 
and  property.    Messala,  however,  rejected  their 
offers,  followed  Cassius  into  Asia,  and  at  Phi- 
lippi,  in  the  first  day's  battle,  turned  Augustus's 
flank,  stormed  his  camp,  and  narrowly  missed 
taking  him  prisoner.    After  the  death  of  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  Messala,  with  a  numerous  body 
of  fugitives,  took  refuge  in  the  island  of  Tha- 
808.    His  followers,  though  defeated,  were  not 
disorganized,  and  offered  him  the  comriand. 
But  he  induced  them  to  accept  honorable  terms 
from  Antony,  to  whom  he  attached  himself  un- 
til Cleopatra's  influence  made  his  ruin  certain 
and  easy  to  be  foreseen.     Messala  then  again 
changed  his  party,  and  served  Augustus  effect- 


MESSALA 

ively  in  Sicily,  36  ;  against  the  Salassians,  * 
mountain  tribe  lying  between  the  Graian  and 
the  Pennine  Alps,  34;  and  at  Actium,  31.  A 
decree  of  the  senate  had  abrogated  Antony's 
consulship  for  31,  and  Messala  was  appointed 
to  the  vacant  place.  He  was  proconsul  of  Aqui- 
tania  in  28-27,  and  obtained  a  triumph  for  his 
reduction  of  that  province.  Shortly  before  or 
immediately  after  his  administration  of  Aquita- 
nia,  Messala  held  a  prefecture  in  Asia  Minor. 
He  was  deputed  by  the  senate,  probably  in  30, 
to  greet  Augustus  with  the  title  of  "  Pater 
Patriae  ;"  and  the  opening  of  his  address  on  that 
occasion  is  preserved  by  Suetonius.  During 
the  disturbances  at  the  comitia  in  27,  Augustus 
nominated  Messala  to  the  revived  office  of  war- 
den of  the  city  ;  but  he  resigned  it  in  a  few 
days.  Messala  soon  afterward  withdrew  from 
all  public  employments  except  his  augurship, 
to  which  Augustus  had  specially  appointed  him, 
although,  at  the  time  of  his  admission,  there 
was  no  vacancy  in  the  augural  college.  About 
two  years  before  his  death,  which  happened 
about  the  middle  of  Augustus's  reign,  B.C.  3  to 
A.D.  3,  Messala's  memory  failed  him,  and  he 
often  could  not  recall  his  own  name.  His  tomb 
was  of  remarkable  splendor.  Messala  was  as 
much  distinguished  in  the  literary  as  in  the  po- 
litical world  of  Rome.  He  was  a  patron  of 
learning  and  the  arts,  and  was  himself  an  his- 
torian, a  poet,  a  grammarian,  and  an  orator. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  civil  wars  after 
Caesar's  death,  and  a  genealogical  work,  De 
Romania  Familiis.  The  treatise,  however,  De 
Progenie  Augusti,  which  sometimes  accompa- 
nies Eutropius  anu  the  minor  Roman  historians, 
is  the  forgery  of  a  much  later  age.  Messala'a 
poems  were  of  a  satirical  or  even  licentious 
character.  His  writings  as  a  grammarian  were 
numerous  and  minute,  comprising  treatises  on 
collocation  and  lexicography,  and  on  the  pow- 
ers and  uses  of  single  letters.  His  eloquence 
reflected  the  character  of  his  age.  More  smooth 
and  correct  than  vigorous  or  original,  he  per- 
suaded rather  than  convinced,  and  conciliated 
rather  than  persuaded.  His  health  was  feeble, 
and  the  procemia  of  his  speeches  generally  plead- 
ed indisposition  and  solicited  indulgence.  He 
mostly  took  the  defendant's  side,  and  was  fre- 
quently associated  in  causes  with  C.  Asinius 
Pollio.  He  recommended  and  practiced  trans- 
lation from  the  Greek  orators  ;  and  his  version 
of  the  Pkryne  of  Hyperides  was  thought  to  ex- 
hibit remarkable  skill  in  either  language.  His 
political  eminence,  the  wealth  he  inherited  or 
acquired  in  the  civil  wars,  and  the  favor  of  An- 
tony and  Augustus,  rendered  Messala  one  of 
the  principal  persons  of  his  age,  and  an  effective 
patron  of  its  literature.  His  friendship  for  Hor- 
ace and  his  intimacy  with  Tibullus  are  well 
known  In  the  elegies  of  the  latter  poet,  the 
name  of  Messala  is  continually  introduced. 
The  dedication  of  the  Ciris,  a  doubtful  vork,  is 
not  sufficient  proof  of  his  friendship  with  Vir- 
gil ;  but  the  companion  of '« Plotius  and  Varius, 
of  Maecenas  and  Octavius"  (Hor.,  Sat.,  i.,  10, 
81),  can  not  well  have  been  unknown  to  the 
author  of  the  Eclogues  and  Georgics.  He  di- 
rected Ovid's  early  studies  (ex  Pont.,  IT.,  16), 
and  Tiberius  sought  his  acquaintance  in  early 
manhood,  and  took  him  for  his  model  in  elo 

505 


MESSALINA. 

quence. — 8.  M.  VALERIUS  MESSALA  BARBATUS 
APPIANUS,  was  consul  B.C.  12,  and  died  in  his 
year  of  office.  He  was  the  father  (or  grand- 
father) of  the  Empress  Messalina. — 9.  L.  VALE- 
RIUS MESSALA  VOLESUS,  consul  A.D.  5,  and  aft- 
erward proconsul  of  Asia,  where  his  cruellies 
drew  on  him  the  anger  of  Augustus  and  a  con- 
demnatory decree  from  the  senate. — 10.  L.  VIP- 
ST.ANUS  MESSALA,  legionary  tribune  in  Vespa- 
sian's army,  A.D.  70,  was  brother  of  Aquilius 
Regulus,  the  notorious  delator  in  Domilian's 
reign.  He  is  one  of  Tacitus's  authorities  for 
the  history  of  the  civil  war  after  Galba's  death, 
and  a  principal  interlocutor  in  the  dialogue  DC 
Oraloribus  ascribed  to  Tacitus. 

MESSALINA.  1.  STATILI  A,  grand-daughter  of  T. 
Statilius  Taurus,  consul  A.D.  11,  was  the  third 
wife  "of  the  Emperor  Nero,  who  married  her  in 
A.D.  66.  She  had  previously  espoused  Atticus 
Vestinus,  whom  Nero  put  to  death  without  ac- 
cusation or  trial,  merely  that  he  might  marry 
Messalina. — 2.  VALERIA,  daughter  of  M.  Vale- 
rius Messala  Barbatus  and  of  Domitia  Lepida, 
was  the  third  wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudius. 
She  married  Claudius,  to  whom  she  was  previ- 
ously related,  before  his  accession  to  the  em- 
pine.  Her  profligacy  and  licentiousness  were 
notorious  ;  and  the  absence  of  virtue  was  not 
concealed  by  a  lingering  sense  of  shame  or  even 
by  a  specious  veil  of  decorum.  She  was  as 
cruel  as  she  was  profligate ;  and  many  mem- 
bers of  the  most  illustrious  families  of  Rome 
were  sacrificed  to  her  fears  or  her  hatred.  She 
long  exercised  an  unbounded  empire  over  her 
weak  husband,  who  alone  was  ignorant  of  her 
infidelities.  For  some  time  she  was  supported 
in  her  career  of  crime  by  the  freedmen  of  Clau- 
dius ;  but  when  Narcissus,  the  most  powerful 
of  the  emperor's  freedmen,  perceived  that  he 
should  probably  fall  a  victim  to  Messalina's  in- 
trigues, he  determined  to  get  rid  of  her.  The 
insane  folly  of  Messalina  furnished  the  means 
of  her  own  destruction.  Having  conceived  a 
violent  passion  for  a  handsome  Roman  youth, 
C.  Silius.^she  publicly  married  him,  with  all  the 
rites  of  a  legal  connubium,  during  the  absence 
of  Claudius  at  Ostia,  A.D.  48.  Narcissus  per- 
suaded the  emperor  that  Silius  and  Messalina 
would  not  have  dared  such  an  outrage  had  they 
not  determined  also  to  deprive  him  of  empire 
and  life.  Claudius  wavered  long,  and  at  length 
Narcissus  himself  issued  Messalina's  death- 
warrant.  She  was  put  to  death  by  a  tribune  of 
the  guards  in  the  gardens  of  Lucullus. 

[MESSALINUS,  M.  VALERIUS  CATULLUS,  govern- 
or of  the  Libyan  Pentapolis  in  the  reigns  of 
Vespasian  and  Titus,  where  he  treated  the  Jew- 
ish provincials  with  extreme  cruelty  :  he  was 
afterward  a  delator  under  Domitian.] 

MES SANA  (Mcaadva Dor.,  Meoaf/vrj :  NLeaauAot; : 
now  Messina),  a  celebrated  town  on  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  Sicily,  on  the  straps  separat- 
ing Italy  from  this  island,  which  are  here  about 
four  miles  bioad.  The  Romans  called  the  town 
Messana,  'according  to  its  Doric  pronunciation, 
but  Mcssenc  was  its  more  usual  name  among 
the  Greeks.  It  was  originally  a  town  of  the 
Siceli,  and  was  called  ZANCLE  (Zaj'/cA?/),  or  a 
sickle,  on  account  of  the  shape  of  Us  harbor, 
which  is  formed  by  a  singular  curve  of  sand 
and  shells.  The  first  Greek  colonists  were, 
506 


MESSANA. 

according  to  Thucydides,  pirates  fiom  the  Chal 
cidian  town  of  Cumae  in  Italy,  who  were  joined 
by  Chalcidians  from  Eubcea,  and,  according  to 
Strabo,  by  Naxians ;  but  these  two  accounts 
are  not  contradictory,  for  since  Naxos  in  Sicily 
was  also  a  colony  from  Chalcis,  we  may  easily 
suppose  that  the  Naxians  joined  the  other  Cha! 
cidians  in  the  foundation  of  the  town.  Zanolo 
soon  became  so  powerful  that  it  founded  Hit 
town  of  Himera,  about  B.C.  648.  After  the 
capture  of  Miletus  by  the  Persians,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Zancle  invited  the  lonians,  who  had 
been  expelled  from  their  native  country,  to  set- 
tle on  their  "  beautiful  coast"  (KO'/.TI  UKTTI,  He- 
rod., vi.,  22),  and  a  number  of  Samians  and 
other  Ionic  Greeks  accepted  their  offer.  On 
landing  in  the  south  of  Italy,  they  were  per- 
suaded by  Anaxilas,  tyrant  of  Rhegium,  to  take 
possession  of  Zancle  during  the  absence  of 
Scythes,  the  tyrant  of  the  city,  who  was  en- 
gaged in  the  siege  of  some  other  Sicilian  town. 
But  their  treachery  was  soon  punished;  foi 
Anaxilas  himself  shortly  afterward  drove  the 
Samians  out  of  Zancle,  and  made  himself  mas 
ter  of  the  town,  the  name  of  which  he  changed 
into  Messana  or  Messene,  both  because  lie  was 
himself  a  Messenian,  and  because  he  transfer- 
red to  the  place  a  body  of  Messenians  from 
Rhegium.  Anaxilas  died  476  ;  and,  about  ten 
years  afterward  (466),  his  sons  were  driven  out 
of  Messana  and  Rhegium,  and  republican  gov- 
ernments established  in  these  cities.  Messana 
now  enjoyed  great  prosperity  for  several  years, 
and,  in  consequence  of  its  excellent  harbor  and 
advantageous  position,  it  became  a  place  of 
great  commercial  importance.  But  in  396  it 
was  taken  by  the  Carthaginians,  who  destroyed 
the  town  because  they  saw  that  they  should 
be  unable  to  maintain  so  distant  a  possession 
against  the  power  of  Dionysius  of  Syracuse. 
Dionysius  began  to  rebuild  it  in  the  same  year, 
and,  besides  collecting  the  remains  of  the  for- 
mer population,  he  added  a  number  of  Locrians. 
Messenians,  and  others,  so  that  its  inhabitants 
I  were  of  a  very  mixed  kind.  After  the  banish- 
ment of  the  younger  Dionysius,  Messana  was 
for  a  short  time  free,  but  it  fell  into  the  power 
of  Agathocles  about  312.  Among  the  merce- 
naries of  this  tyrant  were  a  numbei  of  Mamer- 
tini,  an.Oscan  people  from  Campania,  who/hat! 
been  sent  from  home  under  the  protection  of 
the  god  Matners  or  Mars  to  seek  their  fortune 
in  other  lands.  These  Mamertini  were  quar- 
tered in  Messana ;  and,  after  the  death  of 
Agathocles  (282),  they  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  the  town,  killed  the  male  inhabitants, 
and  took  possession  of  their  wives,  their  chil- 
dren, and  their  property.  The  town  was  now 
called  MAMEP.TINA,  and  the  inhabitants  MAMER- 
TiNi ;  but  its  ancient  name  jf  Messana  continu- 
ed to  be  in  more  general  use.  The  new  in- 
habitants could  not  lay  aside  their  old  predatory 
habits,  and,  in  consequence,  became  involved 
in  a  war  with  Hieron  of  Syracuse,  who  defeat- 
ed them  in  several  battles,  and  would  probably 
have  conquered  the  town  had  not  the  Cartha- 
ginians come  in  to  the  aid  of  the  Mamertini, 
and,  under  the  pretext  of  assisting  them,  taken 
possession  of  their  citadel.  The  Mamertini 
had,  at  the  same  time,  applied  to  the  Romans 
for  help,  who  gladly  availed  themselves  of  the 


MESSAPIA. 

opportunity  to  obtain  a  footing  in  Sicily.  Thus 
Messana  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  first 
Punic  war,  264.  The  Mamertini  expelled  the 
Carthaginian  garrison,  and  received  the  Ro- 
mans, in  whose  power  Messana  remained  till 
the  latest  times.  There  are  scarcely  any  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  city  at  Messina. 

MESSAPIA  (Merovi-m).  1.  The  Greek  name 
of  CALABRIA. — 2.  (Now  Messagna),  a  town  in 
Calabria,  between  Uria  and  Brundisium. 

MESSAPIUM  (TO  MeaauTriov  6po$),  a  mountain 
in  Boeotia,  on  the  eastern  coast,  near  the  town 
Anthedon,  from  which  Messapus  is  said  to  have 
sailed  to  the  south  of  Italy. 

MESSAPUS  (Me'roa/rof),  a  Boeotian,  from  whom 
Messapia,  in  the  south  of  Italy,  was  believed  to 
have  derived  its  name. 

[MESSE  (Me'tTffj?,  now  Massa),  a  town  and  har- 
bor of  Laconia,  near  Taenarum  Promontorium.] 

[MESSEIS  (Meffff^if).  1.  A  celebrated  fountain 
in  Pherae  in  Thessaly. — 2.  A  fountain  near  The- 
rapne  in  Laconia.] 

MESSENE  (M.eoaJ}vri),  daughter  of  Triopas,  and 
wife  of  Polycaon,  whom  she  induced  to  take 
jiossession  of  the  country  which  was  called  after 
her,  Messenia.  She  is  also  said  to  have  intro- 
duced there  the  worship  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
the  mysteries  of  the  great  goddess  of  Eleusis. 

MESSENE  (JAeaaJjvri  :  MeaaT/vioc).  1.  (Now 
Mavromati),  the  later  capital  of  Messenia,  was 
founded  by  Epaminondas  B.C.  369,  and  com- 
pleted and  fortified  within  the  space  of  eighty- 
five  days.  It  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
steep  hill  of  Ithome,  which  was  so  celebrated 
as  a  fortress  in  the  history  of  the  Messenian 
wars,  and  which  now  formed  the  acropolis  of 
the  new  city.  Messene  was  one  of  the  most 
strongly  fortified  cities  of  Greece.  It  was  sur- 
rounded by  massive  walls  built  entirely  of  stone, 
and  flanked  with  numerous  towers.  There  are 
still  considerable  remains  of  some  of  these 
towers,  as  well  as  the  foundations  of  the  walls, 
and  of  several  rAiblic  buildings.  They  are  de- 
scribed by  a  modern  traveller  as  "  built  of  the 
most  regular  kind  of  masonry,  and  formed  of 
large  stones  fitted  together  with  great  accura- 
cy." The  northern  gate  of  the  city  is  also  ex- 
tant, and  opens  into  a  circular  court,  sixty-two 
feet  in  diameter.  The  city  was  supplied  with 
water  from  a  fountain  called  Clepsydra,  which 
is  still  a  fine  spring,  from  which  the  modem 
village  of  Mavromati  derives  its  name,  meaning 
Black  Spring,  or,  literally,  Black  Eye. — 2.  Vid. 
MESSANA. 

MESSENIA  (Meoarivia  :  JAsaa^vtof),  a  country 
in  Peloponnesus,  hounded  on  the  east  by  Laco- 
nia, on  the  north  by  Elis  and  Arcadia,  and  on 
the  south  and  west  by  the  sea.  It  was  sepa- 
rated from  Laconia  by  Mount  Taygetus ;  but 
part  of  the  western  slope  of  Taygetus  belonged 
to  Laconia ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the 
exact  boundaries  between  the  two  countries,  as 
they  were  different  at  different  periods.  In  the 
most  ancient  times  the  River  Nedon  formed  the 
boundary  between  Messenia  and  Laconia  to- 
ward the  sea  ;  but  Pausanias  places  the  frontier 
line  further  east,  at  a  woody  hollow  called  Choeri- 
us,  twenty  stadia  south  of  Abia.  The  River  Ne- 
•ia  formed  the  northern  boundary  between  Mes- 
senia  and  Elis.  The  area  of  Messenia  is  about 
one  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty-two  square 


MESSENIA. 

miles.  It  was  for  the  most  part  a  mountainous 
country,  and  contained  only  two  plains  of  any 
extent,  in  the  north  the  plain  of  Stenyclerus,  and 
in  the  south  a  still  larger  plain,  through  which 
the  Pamisus  flowed,  and  which  was  called  M<i- 
caria  or  the  Blessed,  on  account  of  its  great 
fertility.  There  were,  however,  many  smaller 
valleys  among  the  mountains  ;  and  the  country 
was  much  less  rugged  and  far  more  productive 
than  the  neighboring  Laconia.  Hence  Messe- 
nia is  described  by  Pausanias  as  the  most  fer- 
tile country  in  Peloponnesus  ;  and  it  is  praised 
by  Euripides  on  account  of  its  climate,  which 
was  neither  too  cold  in  winter  nor  too  hot  in 
summer.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Mes- 
senia were  Leleges,  intermingled  with  Argives. 
According  to  tradition,  Polycaon,  the  younger 
soji  of  Lelex,  married  the  Argive  Messene,  a 
daughter  of  Triopas,  and  named  the  country 
Messene  in  honor  of  his  wife.  This  is  the  name 
by  which  it  is  called  in  Homer,  who  does  not 
use  the  form  Messenia.  Five  generations  aft- 
erward ^Eolians  settled  in  the  country,  under 
the  guidance  of  Perieres,  a  son  of  ^Eolus.  His 
son  Aphareus  gave  a  home  to  Neleus,  who  had 
been  driven  out  of  Thessaly,  and  who  founded 
the  town  of  Pylos,  which  became  the  capital  of 
an  independent  sovereignty.  For  a  long  time 
there  was  properly  no  Messenian  kingdom.  The 
western  part  of  the  land  belonged  to  the  domin- 
ions of  the  Neleid  princes  of  Pylos,  of  whom 
Nestor  was  the  most  celebrated,  and  the  east- 
ern to  the  Lacedeemonian  monarchy.  Thus  it 
appears  to  have  remained  till  the  conquest  of 
Peloponnesus  by  the  Dorians,  when  Messenia 
fell  to  the  share  of  Cresphontes,  who  destroyed 
the  kingdom  of  Pylos,  and  united  the  whole 
country  under  his  sway.  The  ruling  class  were 
now  Dorians,  and  they  continued  to  speak  the 
purest  Doric  down  to  the  latest  times.  The 
Spartans  soon  coveted  the  more  fertile  territory 
of  their  brother  Dorians ;  and  after  many  dis- 
putes between  the  two  nations,  and  various  in- 
roads into  each  other's  territories,  open  war  at 
length  broke  out.  This  war,  called  the  first 
Messenian  war,  lasted  twenty  years,  B.C.  743- 
723;  and  notwithstanding  the  gallant  resist- 
ance of  the  Messenian  king,  Aristodemus,  the 
Messenians  were  obliged  to  submit  to  the  Spar 
tans  after  the  capture  of  their  fortress  Ithome, 
and  to  become  their  subjects.  Vid.  ARISTODE- 
MUS. After  bearing  the  yoke  thirty-eight  years, 
the  Messenians  again  took  up  arms  under  their 
heroic  leader  Aristomenes.  Vid.  ARISTOMENES. 
The  second  Messenian  war  lasted  seventeen 
years,  B.C.  685-668,  and  terminated  with  the 
conquest  of  Ira  and  the  complete  subjugation 
of  the  country.  Most  of  the  Messenians  emi 
grated  to  foreign  countries,  and  those  who  re 
mained  behind  were  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  Helots  or  serfs.  In  this  state  they  remained 
till  464,  when  the  Messenians  and  other  Helots 
took  advantage  of  the  devastation  occasioned 
by  the  great  earthquake  at  Sparta,  to  rise  against 
their  oppressors.  This  third  Messenian  war 
lasted  ten  years,  464-455,  and  ended  by  the 
Messenians  surrendering  Ithome  to  the  Spar- 
tans on  condition  of  their  being  allowed  a  free 
departure  from  Peloponnesus.  They  settled  at 
Naupactus  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf  opposite  Pe 
loponnesus,  which  town  the  Athenians  had  'ate- 

507 


MESSENIACUS  SINUS. 

ty  taken  from  the  Locri  Ozolae,  and  gladly 
granted  to  such  deadly  enemies  of  Sparta.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  (404), 
the  unfortunate  Messenians  were  obliged  to 
leave  Naupactus  and  take  refuge  in  Italy,  Sicily, 
and  other  countries ;  but  when  the  supremacy 
of  Sparta  was  overthrown  by  the  battle  of  Leuc- 
tra,  Epaminondas  resolved  to  restore  the  inde- 
pendence of  Messenia.  He  accordingly  gath- 
ered together  the  Messenian  exiles  from  the 
various  lands  in  which  they  were  scattered  ; 
and  in  the  summer  of  369  he  founded  the  town 
of  Messene  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ithome.  Vid. 
MESSENE.  Messenia  was  never  again  subdued 
by  the  Spartans,  and  it  maintained  its  independ- 
ence till  the  conquest  of  the  Achaeans  and  the 
rest  of  Greece  by  the  Romans,  146. 

[MESSENIACUS  SINUS  ( M.eoaTjvtaKbf  Kohnof, 
now  Gulf  of  Coron),  a  large  gulf  or  bay,  wash- 
ing the  southern  shore  of  Messenia,  and  extend- 
ing from  the  promontory  Acritas  on  the  west 
to  the  promontory  Thyrides  on  the  east,  or,  ac- 
cording to  others,  to  Cape  Taenarus  ;  the  north- 
ern part  was  also  called  Coronaeus  from  the  city 
CORONE,  and  its  southern  Asinaeus  from  the  city 
ASINE,  though  Strabo  makes  this  another  appel- 
lation for  the  whole  gulf] 

[MESSIUS,  C.,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  in  B.C.  I 
56,  when  he  brought  in  a  bill  for  Cicero's  recall  | 
from  exile.     In  the  same  year  the  Messian  law,  i 
by  the  same  tribune,  assigned  extraordinary  | 
powers  to  Cn.  Pompey.     Cicero  defended  Mes- 
sius  when  he  was  recalled  from  a  legatio,  and 
attacked  by  the  Caesarian  party.    Messius  aft- 
erward appears  as  an   adherent  of  Caesar's, 
whose  troops  he  introduced  into  Acilla,  a  town 
in  Africa.] 

[MESSIUS  CICIRRHUS,  an  ugly  and  disfigured 
Oscan,  whose  wordy  war  with   the  runaway 
slave  Sarmentus  is  humorously  described  by 
Horace  in  his  Brundisian  journey  (Sat.,  i.,  5,  ! 
49-69).] 

[Msssius  VECTIUS,  a  Volscian,  who,  in  B.C. 
431,  distinguished  himself  in  battle  against  the 
Romans.] 

[MESTHLES  (M&70Aj?f),  son  of  Pylaemenes  and 
the  nymph  Gygaea,  leader  of  the  Maeonians, 
came  with  his  brother  Antiphus  to  the  aid  of 
the  Trojans.] 

MESTLETA  (MearhijTa),  a  city  of  Iberia,  in 
Asia,  probably  on  the  River  Cyrus. 

[MESTOR  (Mf/arup).  1.  Son  of  Perseus  and 
AndromeMa,  and  father  of  Hippothoe. — 2.  One 
of  the  sons  of  Priam.] 

MESTRA  (M^trrpa),  daughter  of  Erysichthon, 
and  grand-daughter  of  Triopas,  whence  she  is 
called  Triopels  by  Ovid.  She  was  sold  by  her 
hungry  father,  that  he  might  obtain  the  means 
of  satisfying  his  hunger.  In  order  to  escape 
from  slavery,  she  prayed  to  Nepture  (Poseidon), 
who  loved  her,  and  who  conferred  upon  her  the 
power  of  metamorphosing  herself  whenever 
she  was  sold. 

MESYLA,  a  town  of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  on 
the  road  from  Tavium  to  Comana. 

[METABUM.     Vid.  METAPONTUM.] 

[METABUS  (Merafiof).  1.  Son  of  Sisyphus, 
from  whom  the  town  of  Metapontum  in  Italy 
was  believed  to  have  derived  its  name. — 2.  Vid. 
CAMILLA.] 

[METAGENES   (Mcrayfr^f).      1.  An  Athenian 
508 


METAURUS. 

comic  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  contemporary 
with  Aristophanes  :  the  few  fragments  remain- 
ing of  his  plays  are  given  by  Meinoke,  Fragm 
Comic.  Grace.,  vol.  i.,  p.  424-427,  edit,  minor. — 
2.  An  architect,  son  of  Chersiphron.  Vid.  CHER- 
SIPHRON. — 3.  An  Athenian  architect  in  the  time 
of  Pericles,  was  engaged  with  Coroebus  and 
Ictinus  and  Xenocles  in  th*  erection  of  the 
great  temple  at  Eleusis.] 

METAGONITIS  (Merayuvmf:  TAerayuvlrat,  Me- 
tagonitae),  a  name  applied  to  the  northern  coast 
of  Mauretania  Tingitana  (now  Morocco),  be- 
tween the  Fretum  Gaditanum  and  the  River 
Mulucha ;  derived  probably  from  the  Cartha- 
ginian colonies  (peTayuvia)  settled  along  it. 
There  was  at  some  point  of  this  coast  a  prom 
ontory  called  Metagonium  or  Metagonites,  prob 
ably  the  same  as  Russadir  (now  Rasud-Dir,  or 
Capo  Tres  Forcas.) 

METAGONIUM.     Vid.  METAGONITIS. 

METALLINUM  or  METELLINUM  (Metallinensis  : 
now  Meddliri),  a  Roman  colony  in  Lusitania  on 
the  Anas,  not  far  from  Augusta  Emerita. 

METANIRA  (Merdmpa),  wife  of  Celens,  and 
mother  of  Triptolemus,  received  Ceres  (Deme- 
ter)  on  her  arrival  in  Attica.  Pausanias  calls 
her  Meganaera.  For  details,  vid.  CELEUS. 

METAPHRASTES,  SYMEON  (Siy/ewv  6  Mera&pua- 
TJJC),  a  celebrated  Byzantine  writer,  lived  in  the 
ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  and  held  many  high 
offices  at  the  Byzantine  court.  His  surname 
Metaphrastes  was  given  to  him  on  account  of 
his  having  composed  a  celebrated  paraphrase 
of  the  lives  of  the  saints.  Besides  his  other 
works,  he  wrote  a  Byzantine  history,  entitled 
Annales,  beginning  with  the  Emperor  Leo  Ar- 
menus,  A.D.  813,  and  finishing  with  Romanus, 
the  son  of  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus,  963. 
Edited  by  Bekker,  Bonn,  1838. 

METAPONTIUM,  called  METAPONTUM  by  the  Ro- 
mans (Meranovnov  :  MeraTrovriof,  Metaponti- 
nus :  now  Torre  di  Mare),  a  celebrated  Greek 
city  in  the  south  of  Italy,  on  the  Tarentine  Gulf, 
and  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Lucania,  is  said  to 
have  been  originally  called  Metabum  (Mt'ra6oi>). 
There  were  various  traditions  respecting  its 
foundation,  all  of  which  point  to  its  high  anti- 
quity, but  from  which  we  can  not  gather  any 
certain  information  on  the  subject.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  afterward  destroyed  by  the  Sam- 
nites,  and  to  have  been  repeopled  by  a  colony 
of  Achaeans,  who  had  been  invited  for  that  pur- 
pose by  the  inhabitants  of  Sybaris.  Hence  it  is 
called  by  Livy  an  Achaean  town,  and  is  regard- 
ed by  some  writers  as  a  colony  from  Sybaris. 
It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  with  the 
other  Greek  cities  in  the  south  of  Italy  in  the 
war  against  Pyrrhus,  but  it  revolted  to  Han- 
nibal after  the  battle  of  Cannae.  From  the  time 
of  the  second  Punic  war  it  disappears  from  his- 
tory, and  was  in  ruins  in  the  time  of  Pausanias. 

[METARIS  ^ESTUARIUM  (Meraptf  etQawf,  now 
The  Wash),  an  estuary  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Britannia  Romana,  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Tamesa  and  the  Abus.] 

METAURUM.     Vid.  METAURUS,  No.  2. 

METAURUS.  1.  (Now  Metaro),  a  small  river 
in  Umbria,  flowing  into  the  Adriatic  Sea,  but 
rendered  memorable  by  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Hasdrubal,the  brother  of  Hannibal,  on  its  banks, 
B.C.  207. — 2.  (Now  Marro),  a  river  on  the  east- 


METELIS. 

ern  coast  of  Bruttium,  at  whose  mouth  was  the 
town  ot  Metaurum. 

[METELIS  (MerT/At'f.  now  probably  Fouah),  a 
place  in  Lower  Egypt,  between  the  Bolbitene 
and  Sehennytic  mouths  of  the-Nile,  capital  of 
the  Metelites  Nomos  (Mer^'r^f  No^df).] 

METELLA.     Vid.  CECILIA. 

METELLUS,  a  distinguished  plebeian  family 
of  the  Csecilia  gens  at  Rome.  1.  L.  C^CILIUS 
METELLUS,  consul  B.C.  251,  carried  on  the  war 
in  Sicily  against  the  Carthaginians.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  Has- 
drubal,  the  Carthaginian  general.  The  ele- 
phants which  he  took  in  this  battle  were  exhib- 
ited in  his  triumph  at  Rome.  "  Metellus  was 
consul  a  second  time  in  249,  and  was  elected 
pontifex  maximus  in  243,  and  held  this  dignity 
for  twenty-two  years.  He  must,  therefore, 
have  died  shortly  before  the  commencement  of 
ihe  second  Punic  war.  In  241  he  rescued  the 
Palladium  when  the  temple  of  Vesta  was  on 
fire,  but  lost  his  sight  in  consequence.  He  was 
dictator  in  224,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the 
comitia. — 2.  Q.  CJECILIUS  METELLUS,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  plebeian  aedile  209,  curule  aedile 
208,  served  in  the  army  of  the  consul  Claudius 
Nero  207,  and  was  one  of  the  legates  sent  to 
Rome  to  convey  the  joyful  news  of  the  defeat 
and  death  of  Hasdrubal ;  and  was  consul  with 
L.  Veturius  Philo,  206.  In  his  consulship  he 
and  his  colleague  carried  on  the  war  against 
Hannibal  in  Bruttium,  where  he  remained  as 
proconsul  during  the  following  year.  In  205  he 
was  dictator  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  co- 
mitia. Metellus  survived  the  second  Punic 
war  many  years,  and  was  employed  in  several 
public  commissions. — 3.  Q.  C/ECILIUS  METELLUS 
MACEDONICUS,  son  of  the  last,  was  praetor  148, 
and  carried  on  war  in  Macedonia  against  the 
usurper  Andriscus,  whom  he  defeated  and  took 
prisoner.  He  next  turned  his  arms  against  the 
Achasans,  whom  he  defeated  at  the  beginning 
of  146.  On  his  return  to  Rome  in  146,  he  tri- 
umphed, and  received  the  surname  of  Mace- 
donicus.  Metellus  was  consul  in  143,  and  re- 
ceived the  province  of  Nearer  Spain,  where  he 
carried  on  the  war  with  success  for  two  years 
against  the  Celtiberi.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Q.  Pompeius  in  141.  Metellus  was  censor  131. 
He  died  115,  full  of  years  and  honors.  He  is 
frequently  quoted  by  the  ancient  writers  as  an 
extraordinary  instance  of  human  felicity.  He 
had  filled  all  the  highest  offices  of  the  state 
with  reputation  and  glory,  and  was  carried  to 
the  funeral  pile  by  four  sons,  three  of  whom 
had  obtained  the  consulship  in  his  lifetime,  while 
the  fourth  was  a  candidate  for  the  office  at  the 
time  of  his  death. — 4.  L.  C^CILIUS  METELLUS 
CALVUS,  brother  of  the  last,  consul  142. — 5.  Q. 
C..ECILIUS  METELLUS  BALEARICUS,  eldest  son  of 
No.  3,  was  consul  123,  when  he  subdued  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Balearic  islands,  and  received, 
in  consequence,  the  surname  of  Balearicus.  He 
was  censor  120.  —  6.  L.  C.*CILIUS  METELLUS 
DIADEMATUS,  second  son  of  No.  3,  has  been  fre- 
quently confounded  with  Metellus  Dalmaticus, 
consul  119  (No.  9).  Metellus  Diadematus  re- 
ceived the  latter  surname  from  his  wearing  for 
a  long  time  a  bandage  round  his  forehead,  in 
consequence  of  an  ulcer.  He  was  consul  117. 
•—7.  M.  C^BCILIUS  METELLUS,  third  son  of  No. 


METELLUS. 

3.  was  consul  115,  the  year  in  which  his  father 
died.  In  114  he  was  sent  into  Sardinia  as  pro- 
consul, and  suppressed  an  insurrection  in  the 
island,  in  'consequence  of  which  he  obtained  a 
triumph  in  113  on  the  same  day  as  his  brother 
Caprarius.  — 8.  C.  CJECILIUS  METELLUS  CAPRA- 
RIUS,  fourth  son  of  No.  3.  The  origin  of  his 
surname  is  quite  uncertain.  He  was  consul 
113,  and  carried  on  war  in  Macedonia  against 
the  Thracians,  whom  he  subdued.  He  obtain- 
ed a  triumph,  in  consequence,  in  the  same  yeaiv 
and  on  the  same  day  with  his  brother  Marcus. 
He  was  censor  102  with  his  cousin  Metellua 
Numidicus. — 9.  L.  C^ECILIUS  METELLUS  DAL- 
MATICUS, elder  son  of  No.  4,  and  frequently  con- 
founded, as  has  been  already  remarked,  with 
Diadematus  (No.  6),  was  consul  119,  when  he 
subdued  the  Dalmatians,  and  obtained,  in  con- 
sequence, the  surname  Dalmaticus.  He  was 
censor  with  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus  in  115, 
and  he  was  also  pontifex  maximus.  He  was 
alive  in  100,  when  he  is  mentioned  as  one  of 
the  senators  of  high  rank  who  took  up  arms 
against  Saturninus. — 10.  Q.  C^CILIUS  METELLUS 
NUMIDICUS,  younger  son  of  No.  4,  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  members  of  his  family. 
The  character  of  Metellus  stood  very  high 
among  his  contemporaries  ;  in  an  age  of  grow- 
ing corruption  his  personal  integrity  remained 
unsullied  ;  and  he  was  distinguished  for  his 
abilities  in  war  and  peace.  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  leaders  of  the  aristocratical  party  at  Rome. 
He  was  consul  109,  and  carried  on  the  war 
against  Jugurtha  in  Numidia  with  great  suc- 
cess. Vid.  JUGURTHA.  He  remained  in  Numid- 
ia during  the  following  year  as  proconsul ;  but, 
as  he  was  unable  to  bring  the  war  to  a  conclu- 
sion, his  legate  C.  Marius  industriously  circu- 
lated reports  in  the  camp  and  the  city  that  Me- 
tellus designedly  protracted  the  war  for  the  pur- 
pose of  continuing  in  the  command.  These 
rumors  had  the  desired  effect.  Marius  was 
raise<4  to  the  consulship,  Numidia  was  assigned 
to  him  as  his  province,  and  Metellus  saw  the 
honor  of  finishing  the  war  snatched  from  his 
grasp.  Vid.  MARIUS.  On  his  return  to  Rome 
in  107  he  was  received  with  the  greatest  honor. 
He  celebrated  a  splendid  triumph,  and  received 
the  surname  of  Numidicus.  In  102  he  was 
censor  with  his  cousin  Metellus  Caprarius.  In 
100  the  tribune  Saturninus  and  Marius  resolved 
to  ruin  Metellus.  Saturninus  proposed  an  agra- 
rian law,  to  which  he  added  the  clause  that  the 
senate  should  swear  obedience  to  it  within  five 
days  after  its  enactment,  and  that  whosoever 
should  refuse  to  do  so  should  be  expelled  the 
senate,  and  pay  a  heavy  fine.  Metellus  refused 
to  take  the  oath,  and  was  therefore  expelled 
the  senate ;  but  Saturninus,  not  content  with 
this,  brought  forward  a  bill  to  punish  him  with 
exile.  The  friends  of  Metellus  were  ready  to 
take  up  arms  in  his  defence;  but  Metellus  quit- 
ted the  city,  and  retired  to  Rhodes,  where  he 
bore  his  misfortune  with  great  calmness.  He 
was,  however,  recalled  to  Rome  in  the  follow- 
ing year  (99)  on  the  proposition  of  the  tribune 
Q.  Calidius.  The  orations  of  Metellus  are  spoken 
of  with  praise  by  Cicero,  and  they  continued  to 
be  read  with  admiration  in  the  time  of  Fronto. 
—  11.  Q.  C^ICILIUS  METELLUS  NEPOS,  son  of 
Balearicus  (No.  5).  and  grandson  of  Macedoni- 

509 


METELLUS. 

eus  (No.  3),  appears  to  have  received  the  sur- 
name of  Nepos  because  he  was  the  eldest 
grandson  of  the  latter.  Metellus  Nepos  exert- 
ed himself  in  obtaining  the  recall  of  his  kins- 
man Metellus  Numidicus  from  banishment  in 
99,  and  was  consul  in  98  with  T.  Didius.  In 
this  year  the  two  consuls  carried  the  lex  Ca»- 
cilin  Didia. — 12.  Q.  CJECILIUS  METELLUS  Pius, 
son  of  Numidicus  (No.  10),  received  the  sur- 
name of  Pius  on  account  of  the  love  which  he 
displayed  for  his  father  when  he  besought  the 
people  to  recall  him  from  banishment  in  99. 
He  was  praetor  89,  and  was  one  of  the  com- 
manders in  the  Marsic  or  Social  war.  He  was 
still  in  arms  in  87,  prosecuting  the  war  against 
the  Samnites,  when  Marius  landed  in  Italy  and 
joined  the  consul  Cinna.  The  senate,  in  alarm, 
summoned  Metellus  to  Rome ;  but,  as  he  was  un- 
able to  defend  the  city  against  Marius  and  Cinna, 
he  crossed  over  to  Africa.  After  remaining  in 
Afrija  three  years,  he  returned  to  Italy  and 
join  jj  Sulla,  who  also  returned  to  Italy  in  83. 
In  l'.ie  war  which  followed  against  the  Marian 
pa'ty,  Metellus  was  one  of  the  most  success- 
ful i 'f  SulJa'a  generals,  and  gained  several  im- 
port ant  victories  both  in  Umbria  and  in  Cis- 
alpine Gaul.  In  80,  Metellus  was  consul  with 
Sulla  himself;  and  in  the  following  year  (79) 
he  went  aa  proconsul  into  Spain,  in  order  to 
prosecute  the  war  against  Sertorius,  who  ad- 
hered to  the  Marian  party.  Here  he  remained 
for  the  next  eight  years,  and  found  it  so  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  any  advantages  over  Sertorius, 
that  the  senate  sent  Pompey  to,  his  assistance 
with  proconsular  power  and  another  army.  Ser- 
torius, however,  was  a  match  for  them  both, 
and  would  probably  have  continued  to  defy  all 
the  efforts  of  Metellus  and  Pompey,  if  he  had 
not  been  murdered  by  Perperna  and  his  friends 
in  72.  Vid.  SERTORIUS.  Metellus  was  pontifex 
maximus,  and,  as  he  was  succeeded  in  this  dig- 
nity by  Julius  Caesar  in  63,  he  must  have  died 
either  in  this  year  or  at  the  end  of  the  preced- 
ing— 13.  Q.  CJ«CILIUS  METELLUS  CELER,  elder 
son  of  Nepos  (No.  11).  In  6.6  he  served  as  leg- 
ate in  the  army  of  Pompey  in  Asia,  and  was 
praetor  in  63,  the  year  in  which  Cicero  was  con- 
sul. During  his  year  of  office  he  afforded  warm 
and  efficient  support  to  the  aristocratical  party. 
He  prevented  the  condemnation  of  C.  Rabirius 
by  removing  the  military  flag  from  the  Janicu- 
lum.  He  co  operated  with  Cicero  in  opposing 
the  schemes  of  Catiline ;  and,  when  the  latter 
left  the  city  to  make  war  upon  the  republic,  Me- 
tellus had  the  charge  of  the  Picentine  and  Se- 
nonian  districts.  By  blocking  up  the  passes  he 
prevented  Catiline  from  crossing  the  Apennines 
and  penetrating  into  Gaul,  and  thus  compelled 
him  to  turn  round  and  face  Antonius,  who  was 
marching  against  him  from  Etruria.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  62,  Metellus  went  with  the  title  of 
proconsul  into  the  province  of  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
which  Cicero  had  relinquished  because  he  was 
unwilling  to  leave  the  city.  In  60  Metellus  was 
consul  with  L.  Afranius,  and  opposed  all  the  ef- 
forts of  his  colleague  to  obtain  the  ratification 
of  Pompey's  acts  in  Asia,  and  an  assignment  of 
lands  for  his  soldiers.  He  died  in  59,  and  it 
was  suspected  that  he  had  been  poisoned  by  his 
wife  Clodia,  with  whom  he  lived  on  the  most 
nnhappy  terms,  and  who  was  a  woman  of  the 
510 


METELLUS. 

u:most  profligacy. — 14.  Q.  C.ECILIUS  MF.TELLJS 
NEPOS,  younger  son  of  the  elder  Nepos  (No.  11). 
Heserved  aslegateof  Pompey  in  tlu;  waragain.st 
the  pirates  and  in  Asia  from  67  to  64.  He  re- 
turned to  Rome  in  63  in  order  to  become  a  can- 
didate for  the  tribunate,  that  he  might  thereby 
favor  the  views  of  Pompey.  His  election  wa.s 
opposed  by  the  aristocracy,  but  without  success. 
His  year  of  office  was  a  stormy  one.  One  of 
his  first  acts  in  entering  upon  his  office  on  tin; 
tenth  of  December,  63,  was  a  violent  attack 
upon  Cicero.  He  maintained  that  the  man  who 
had  condemned  Roman  citizens  without  a  hear- 
ing ought  not  to  be  heard  himself,  and  accord- 
ingly prevented  Cicero  from  addressing  the  peo 
pie  on  the  last  day  of  his  consulship,  and  only 
allowed  him  to  take  the  usual  oath,  whereupon 
Cicero  swore  that  he  had  saved  the  state.  In 
the  following  year  (62)  Metellus  brought  for- 
ward a  bill  to  summon  Pompey,  with  his  army, 
to  Rome,  in  order  to  restore  peace,  but,  on  the 
day  on  which  the  bill  was  to  be  read,  the  two 
parties  came  to  open  blows,  and  Metellus  was 
obliged  to  take  to  flight.  He  repaired  to  Pom- 
pey, with  whom  he  returned  to  Rome  in  61.  He 
was  praetor  in  60,  and  consul  in  57  with  P. 
Lentulus  Spinther.  Notwithstanding  his  pre- 
vious enmity  with  Cicero,  he  did  not  oppose  his 
recall  from  exile.  In  58  Metellus  administered 
the  province  of  Nearer  Spain,  where  he  carried 
on  war  against  the  Vaccaei.  He  died  in  55. 
Metellus  did  not  adhere  strictly  to  the  political 
principles  of  his  family.  He  did  not  support 
the  aristocracy  like  his  brother ;  nor,  on  the 
other  hand,  can  he  be  said  to  have  been  a  lead- 
er of  the  democracy.  He  was,  in  fact,  little 
more  than  a  servant  of  Pompey,  and,  according 
to  his  bidding,  at  one  time  opposed  and  at  an- 
other supported  Cicero. — 15.  Q.  C^ECILIUS  ME- 
TELLUS Pius  SCIPIO,  the  adopted  son  of  Metel- 
lus Pius  (No.  12).  He  was  the  son  of  P.  Scipio 
Nasica,  praetor  94.  Hence  his  name  is  given 
in  various  forms.  Sometimes  he  is  called  P. 
Scipio  Nasica,  sometimes  Q.  Metellus  Scipio, 
and  sometimes  simply  Scipio  or  Metellus.  He 
was  tribune  of  the  plebs  in  59,  and  was  a  can- 
didate for  the  consulship  along  with  Plautius 
Hypsaeus  and  Milo  in  53.  He  was  supported 
by  the  Clodian  mob,  since  he  was  opposed  to 
Milo,  but,  in  consequence  of  the  disturbances 
in  the  city,  the  comitia  could  not  be  held  for  the 
election  of  consuls.  After  the  murder  of  Clo- 
dius  at  the  beginning  of  52,  Pompey  was  elect- 
ed sole  consul.  In  the  course  of  the  same  year 
Pompey  married  Cornelia,  the  daughter  of  Scip- 
io, and  on  the  first  of  August  he  made  his  fa- 
ther-in-law his  colleague  in  the  consulship. 
Scipio  showed  his  gratitude  by  using  every  ef- 
fort to  destroy  the  power  of  Czesar  and  strength- 
en that  of  Pompey.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
all  the  proceedings  which  led  to  the  breaking 
out  of  the  civil  war  in  49,  and,  in  the  division 
of  the  provinces,  made  among  the  Pompeian 
party,  he  obtained  Syria,  to  which  he  hastened 
without  delay.  After  plundering  the  province 
in  the  most  unmerciful  manner,  he  crossed  over 
into  Greece  in  48  to  join  Pompey.  He  com- 
manded the  centre  of  the  Pompeian  army  at  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia.  After  the  loss  of  the  battle 
he  fled,  first  to  Ccrcy~a  and  then  to  Africa, 
where  ae  received  ths  chief  command  of  the 


METHANA. 

Pompeian  troops.  He  was  defeated  by  Caesar 
at  the  decisive  battle  of  Thapsus  in  46.  He  at- 
tempted to  escape  fcy  sea,  but  his  squadron  hav- 
ing been  overpowered  by  P.  Sittius,  he  put  an 
end  to  his  own  life.  MeteDus  Scipio  never  ex- 
hibited any  proofs  of  striking  abilities  either  in 
war  or  in  pearce.  In  public  he  showed  himself 
cruel,  vindictive,  and  oppressive ;  in  private  he 
was  mean,  avaricious,  and  licentious,  even  be- 
yond most  of  his  contemporaries. — 16.  Q.  CM- 
CILIUS  METELLUS  CRETICUS,  was  consul  69,  and 
carried  on  war  against  Crete,  which  he  subdued 
in  the  course  of  three  years.  He  returned  to 
Rome  in  66,  but  was  unable  to  obtain  a  triumph 
in  consequence  of  the  opposition  of  Pompey,  to 
whom  he  had  refused  to  surrender  his  com- 
mand in  Crete,  which  Pompey  had  claimed  in 
virtue  of  the  Gabinian  law,  which  had  given  him 
the  supreme  command  in  the  whole  of  the  Med- 
iterranean. Metellus,  however,  would  not  re- 
linquish his  claim  to  a  triumph,  and  according- 
ly resolved  to  wait  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
city  till  more  favorable  circumstances.  He  was 
still  before  the  city  in  63,  when  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline  broke  out.  He  was  sent  into  Apu- 
lia to  prevent  an  apprehended  rising  of  the 
slaves  ;  and  in  the  following  year,  62,  after  the 
death  of  Catiline,  he  was  at  length  permitted  to 
make  his  triumphal  entrance  into  Rome,  and 
received  the  surname  of  Creticus.  Metellus,  as 
was  to  be  expected,  joined  the  aristocracy  in 
their  opposition  to  Pompey,  and  succeeded  in 
preventing  the  latter  from  obtaining  the  ratifi- 
cation of  his  acts  in  Asia. — 17.  L.  C^ECILIUS 
METELLUS,  brother  of  the  last,  was  praetor  71, 
and  as  propraetor  succeeded  Verres  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Sicily  in  70.  He  defeated  the  pi- 
rates, and  compelled  them  to  leave  the  island. 
His  administration  is  praised  by  Cicero;  but  he 
nevertheless  attempted,  in  conjunction  with  his 
brothers,  to  shield  Verres  from  justice.  He 
was  consul  68  with  Q.  Marcius  Rex,  but  died 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year. — 18.  M.  C^CILIUS 
METELLUS.  brother  of  the  two  last,  was  praetor 
69,  in  the  same  year  that  his  eldest  brother  was 
consul.  The  lot  gave  him  the  presidency  in 
the  court  de  pccuniis  repetundis,  and  Verres  was 
very  anxious  that  his  trial  should  come  on  be- 
fore Metellus.  —  19.  L.  C^CILIUS  METELLUS 
CRETICUS,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  49,  and  a 
warm  supporter  of  the  aristocracy.  He  did  not 
fly  from  Rome  with  Pompey  and  the  rest  of  his 
party ;  and  he  attempted  to  prevent  Caesar  from 
taking  possession  of  the  sacred  treasury,  and 
only  gave  way  upon  being  threatened  with  death. 

METHANA.     Vid.  METHOXE,  No.  4. 

METIIARME  (Medupprj),  daughter  of  King  Pyg- 
malion, and  wife  of  Cinyras.  Vid.  CINYRAS. 

[METHODIUS  (Meflodtof),  surnamed  Patarensis, 
and  sometimes  EUBULUS  or  EUBULIUS,  success- 
ively bishop  of  Olympus  and  Patara  in  Lycia, 
and  Tyre  in  Phoenicia,  lived  in  the  third,  and 
died  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  learning  and  exemplary  pi- 
ety ;  and  wrote  several  works,  most  of  which 
nre  extant,  and  were  published  collectively  by 
Combefis,  Paris,  1644,  folio.] 

[MGTHON  (MeOuv),  a  kinsman  of  Orpheus,  from 
whom  the  Thracian  town  of  Methonc  was  be- 
lieved to  have  derived  its  name.] 

MKTIIONE  (MeOivij :  UcOuvalof).     1.  Or  Mo- 


METIS. 

THONE  (ModuvT) :  now  Modon},  a  town  at  the 
southwest  corner  of  Messenia,  with  an  excel 
j  lent  harbor,  protected  from  the  sea  by  a  reef  of 
rocks,  of  which  the  largest  was  called  Mothon 
j  The  ancients  regarded  Methone  as  the  Pedasus 
i  of  Homer.     After  the  conquest  of  Messenia  it 
j  became  one  of  the  Lacedaemonian  harbors,  and 
i  is  mentioned  as  such  in  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
:  The  Emperor  Trajan  conferred  several  privi- 
leges upon  the  city. — 2.  ( Eleutherokhori),  a  Greek 
town  in  Macedonia,  on  theThermaic  Gulf,  forty 
stadia  northeast  of  Pydna,  was  founded  by  the 
1  Eretrians,  and  is  celebrated  from  Philip  having 
j  lost  an  eye  at  the  siege  of  the  place.     After  its 
j  capture  by  Philip  it  was  destroyed,  but  was  sub- 
sequently rebuilt,  and  is  mentioned  by  Strabo 
as  one  of  the  towns  of  Macedonia. — 3.  A  town 
in  Thessaly  mentioned  by  Homer,  but  does  not 
occur  in  historical  times.     The  ancients  placed 
it  in  Magnesia. — 4.  Or  METHANA  (Medava  :  now 
Mcthana  or  Mitonc),  an  ancient  town  in  Argo- 
lis,  situated  on  a  peninsula  of  the  same  name, 
opposite  the  island  of  ^Egina.     The  peninsula 
runs  a  considerable  way  into  the  sea,  and  is 
connected  with  the  main  land  by  a  narrow  isth- 
mus, lying  between  the  towns  of  Troezen  and 
Epidaurus.     The  town  of  Methana  lay  at  the 
foot  of  a  mountain  of  volcanic  origin. 

METHORA  (Me^opa,  Modoypa  ?/  ruv  Qetiv  :  now 
Malra,  the  sacred  city  of  Krishna),  a  city  of  In- 
dia intra  Gangem,  on  the  River  Jomanes  (now 
Jumna),  in  the  territory  of  the  Surasenae,  a 
tribe  subject  to  the  Prasii.  It  was  a  great  seat 
of  the  worship  of  the  Indian  god  whom  the 
Greeks  identified  with  Hercules. 

[METHYDRIUM  (Wlsdvfipiov),  a  small  town  of 
Arcadia,  on  the  road  from  Olyrnpia  to  Orcho- 
menus,  deriving  its  name  from  the  circumstance 
of  its  being  built  on  a  steep  ciiff  between  the  wa- 
ters of  Maketas  and  Mylaon.] 

METHYMNA  (fj  'M.qdvpva,  MiOvfiva,  the  former 
generally  in  the  best  writers ;  also  on  coins  the 
^Eolic  form  hludv/.iva  :  MrjOvpvaiof,  Midvpvaioe : 
now  Molivo),  the  second  city  of  LESBOS,  stood  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  island,  and  had  a 
good  harbor.     It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  mu- 
sician and  dithyrambic  poet  Arion,  and  of  the 
historian  Hellanicus.     The  celebrated  Lesbian 
wine  grew  in  its  neighborhood.     In  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian war  it  remained  faithful  to  Athens, 
even  during  the  great  Lesbian  revolt  (rid.  MYTI- 
!  LENE)  :  afterward  it  was  sacked  by  the  Spartans 
!  (B.C.  406),  and  never  quite  recovered  its  pros- 
,  perity. 

[METIOCHUS  (M»7no,Y<>f).  1.  Son  of  Miltiades, 
captured  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  taken  to  the 
Persian  court.  Darius  did  him  no  injury,  but 
conferred  many  favors  on  him,  and  gave  him  a 
Persian  lady  in  marriage,  by  whom  he  had  chil- 
dren, who  were  held  in  estimation  among  the 
Persians. — 2.  An  Athenian  orator,  a  contem- 
porary and  friend  of  Pericles,  for  whom  he  often 
spoke  in  the  assembly  at  Athens.] 

MKTIOM  (MT/r/wv),  son  of  Ercclitheus  and 
Praxilhea,  and  husband  of  Alcippe.  His  sons, 
the  Metionidte,  expelled  their  cousin  Pandion 
from  his  kingdom  of  Athens,  but  were  them- 
selves afterward  expelled  by  the  sons  of  Pan- 
dion. 

METIS  (Mr/rtf),  the  personification  of  pru- 
.'  dencc,  is  described  as  a  daughter  of  Ocean ua 

ail 


METISCUS. 

and  Tethys,  and  the  first  wife  of  Jupiter  (Zeus).  ! 
Afraid  lost  she  should  give  birth  to  a  child  wiser  i 
and  more  powerful  than  himself,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  | 
devoured  her  in  the  first  month  of  her  pregnan-  ! 
cy.  Afterward  he  gave  birth  to  Minerva  (Athe-  ' 
na),  who  sprang  from  his  head.  Vid.  p.  120,  b.  | 

[METISCUS,  charioteer  ofTurnus,  ejected  from 
his  place  by  Juturna,  who  guided  the  chariot 
herself,  when  Turnus  was  about  to  engage  in 
single  combat  with  ^Eneas.] 

METIUS.     Vid.  METTIUS. 

METON  (M£ruv),  an  astronomer  of  Athens,  ; 
who,  in  conjunction  with  EUCTEMON,  introduced 
the  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  by  which  he  ad- 
justed the  course  of  the  sun  and  moon,  since 
he  had  observed  that  two  hundred  and  thirty-  j 
five  lunar  months  correspond  very  nearly  to 
nineteen  solar  years.     The  commencement  of 
this  cycle  has  been  placed  B.C.  432.    We  have  j 
no  details  of  Melon's  life,  with  the  exception  i 
that  his  father's  name  was  Pausanias,  and  that 
he  feigned  insanity  to  avoid  sailing  for  Sicily  { 
in  the  ill-fated  expedition  of  which  he  is  stated  j 
to  have  had  an  evil  presentiment. 

[METOPE  (McruTn?)-  1.  A  daughter  of  the 
Arcadian  river-god  Ladon,  was  married  to  Aso- 
pus,  and  became  the  mother  of  Thebe. — 2.  Wife 
of  the  river-god  Sangarius,  and  mother  of  Hec- 
uba, the  wife  of  Priam.] 

[METOPUS  (Mt'rwTrof),  a  Pythagorean  of  Meta- 
pontum  ;  author  of  a  work  on  virtue,  some  ex- 
tracts from  which  have  been  preserved  by  Sto- 
baeus,  and  are  given  among  the  Pythagorean 
fragments  in  Gale's  Opuscula  Mythologica  ] 

[METROBIUS  (Merpo&of),  an  actor  who  per- 
fermed  in  women's  parts,  a  great  favorite  of  the 
dictator  Sulla.] 

METRODORUS  (M^rpo(5upof).  1.  Of  Cos,  son 
of  Epicharmus,  and  grandson  of  Thyrsus.  Like 
several  of  that  family,  he  addicted  himself  partly 
to  the  study  of  the  Pythagorean  philosophy, 
partly  to  the  science  of  medicine.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  upon  the  works  of  Epicharmus.  He 
flourished  about  B.C.  460. — 2.  Of  Lampsacus,  a 
contemporary  and  friend  of  Anaxagoras.  He 
wrote  on  Homer,  the  leading  feature  of  his  sys- 
tem of  interpretation  being  that  the  deities  and 
stories  in  Homer  were  to  be  understood  as  alle- 
gorical modes  of  representing  physical  powers 
and  phenomena.  He  died  464. — 3.  Of  Chios, 
a  disciple  of  Democritus,  or,  according  to  other 
accounts,  of  Nessus  of  Chios,  flourished  about 
330.  He  was  a  philosopher  of  considerable  rep- 
utation, and  professed  the  doctrines  of  the  skep- 
tics in  their  fullest  sense.  He  also  studied,  if 
he  did  not  practice,  medicine,  on  which  he  wrote 
a  good  deal.  He  was  the  instructor  of  Hippoc- 
rates and  Anaxarchus. — 4.  A  native  of  Lamp- 
sacus  or  Athens,  was  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  disciples  of  Epicurus,  with  whom  he  lived 
on  terms  of  the  closest  friendship.  He  died 
277,  in  the  fifty-third  year  of  his  age,  seven 
years  before  Epicurus,  who  would  have  appoint- 
ed him  his  successor  had  he  survived  him. 
The  philosophy  of  Metrodorus  appears  to  have 
been  of  a  more  grossly  sensual  kind  than  that 
of  Epicurus.  Perfect  happiness,  according  to 
Cicero's  account,  he  made  to  consist  in  having 
a  well-constituted  body.  He  found  fault  with 
his  brother  Timocrates  for  not  admitting  that 
the  belly  was  the  test  and  measure  of  every 
612 


METULUM. 

thing  that  pertained  to  a  happy  life.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  works  quoted  by  the  an- 
cient writers. — 5.  Of  Scepsis,  a  philosopher,  who 
was  raised  to  a  position  of  great  influence  and 
trust  by  Mithradutea  Eupator,  being  appointed 
supreme  judge  without  appeal  even  to  the  king. 
Subsequently  he  was  Jed  to  desert  his  allegi- 
ance, when  sent  by  Mithradates  on  an  embassy 
to  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia.  Tigranes  sent 
him  back  to  Mithradates,  but  he  died  on  the 
road.  According  to  some  accounts,  he  was  dis- 
patched by  order  of  the  king;  according  to 
others,  he  died  of  disease.  He  is  frequently 
mentioned  by  Cicero ;  he  seems  to  have  been 
particularly  celebrated  for  his  powers  of  mem- 
ory. In  consequence  of  his  hostility  to  the  Ro- 
mans, he  was  surnamed  the  Roman-hater. — 6 
Of  Stratonice  in  Caria,  was  at  first  a  disciple 
of  the  school  of  Epicurus,  but  afterward  at- 
tached himself  to  Carneades.  He  flourished 
about  110. 

[METROPHANES  (M^rpo^aw/f),  a  general  of 
Mithradates  the  Great,  who  sent  him  with  an 
army  into  Greece  to  support  Archelaus,  B.C. 
87.  He  reduced  Euboea  and  some  other  places, 
but  was  defeated  by  the  Roman  general  Brut- 
tius  Sura.] 

METROPOLIS  (Mj/rpoTro^jf).  1.  The  most  an- 
cient capital  of  Phrygia,  but  in  historical  times 
an  inconsiderable  place.  Its  position  is  doubt- 
ful. Some  identify  it  with  Afiottm-Kara-Hisar 
near  the  centre  of  Great  Phrygia,  which  agrees 
well  enough  with  the  position  of  the  Campus 
Metropolitanus  of  Livy  (xxxviii.,  15),  while 
others  find  it  in  the  ruins  at  Pismesh-Kalessi  in 
the  north  of  Phrygia,  and  suppose  a  second 
Metropolis  in  the  south  as  that  to  which  the 
Campus  Metropolitanus  belonged. — 2.  In  Lydia 
(ruins  at  Turbali),  a  city  in  the  plain  of  the 
Cayster,  between  Ephesus  and  Smyrna,  one 
hundred  and  twenty  stadia  from  the  former,  and 
two  hundred  from  the  latter.  There  were  other 
cities  of  Asia  so  called,  but  they  are  either  un- 
important, or  better  known  by  other  names, 
such  as  Ancyra,  Bostra,  Caesarea  in  Palestine, 
Edessa,  and  others. — 3.  (Now  Kastri),  a  town 
of  Thessaly  in  Histiaeotis,  near  thePeneus,  and 
between  Gomphi  and  Pharsalus,  formed  by  the 
union  of  several  small  towns,  to  which  Itnome 
also  belonged. — 4.  A  town  of  Acarnania  in  the 
district  Amphilochia,  between  the  Ambracian 
Gulf  and  the  River  Achelous. 

METROUM,  afterward  AULIA  (yirjrpuov,  on  coins 
M^rpof,  Avhia,  Avhaia),  a  city  of  Bithynia. 

METTIUS  or  METIUS.  1.  CURT!US.  Vid  CUR- 
TIUS.  —  2.  FUFFETIUS,  dictator  of  Alba  in  the 
reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius,  third  king  of  Rome. 
After  the  combat  between  the  Horatii  and 
Curiatii  had  determined  the  supremacy  of  the 
Romans,  Mettius  was  summoned  to  aid  them 
in  a  war  with  Fidenae  and  the  Veientines.  On 
the  field  of  battle  Metlius  drew  off  his  Albans 
to  the  hills,  and  awaited  the  issue  of  the  battle. 
On  the  following  day  the  Albans  were  all  de- 
prived of  their  arms,  and  Mettius  himself,  as 
the  punishmer  of  his  treachery,  was  torn  asun- 
•  der  by  chariots  driven  in  opposite  directions. 

METULUM,  the  chief  town  of  the  lapydes  in 
Illyricum,  was  near  the  frontiers  of  Liburnia, 
and  was  situated  on  two  peaks  of  a  steep  mount- 
ain.  Augustus  nearly  lost  his  life  in  reduc- 


MEVANIA. 

"ing  this  place,  the  inhabitants  of  which  fought 
against  him  with  the  most  desperate  courage. 

MEVANIA  (Mevanas,  atis:  now  Bevagna),  an 
ancient  city  in  the  interior  of  Umbria,  on  the 
River  Tinea,  was  situated  on  the  road  from 
Rome  to  Ancona,  in  a  very  fertile,  country,  and 
was  celebrated  for  its  .breed  of  beautiful  white 
oxen.  It  was  a  strongly-fortified  place,  though 
its  walls  were  built  only  of  brick.  According 
to  some  accounts,  Propertius  was  a  native  of 
this  place. 

MEZENTIUS  (MeaeV-tof),  king  of  the  Tyrrhe- 
nians or  Etruscans,  at  Caere  or  Agylla,  was  ex- 
pelled by  his  subjects  on  account  of  his  cruelty, 
and  took  refuge  with  Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutu- 
lians,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  war  against 
^Eneas  and  the  Trojans.  Mezentius  and  his 
son  Lausus  were  slain  in  battle  by  ^Eneas. 
This  is  the  account  of  Virgil.  Livy  and  Dionys- 
ius,  however,  say  nothing  about  the  expulsion 
of  Mezentius  from  Casre,  but  represent  him  as 
an  ally  of  Turnus,  and  relate  that  ^Eneas  dis- 
appeared during  the  battle  against  the  Rutu- 
lians  and  Etruscans  at  Lanuvium.  Dionysius 
adds  that  Ascanius  was  besieged  by  Mezentius 
and  Lausus  ;  that  the  besieged  in  a  sally  by 
night  slew  Lausus,  and  then  concluded  a  peace 
with  Mezentius,  who  from  henceforth  continu- 
ed to  be  their  ally. 

[MiccioN  (MiKKiuv),  a  painter,  mentioned  by 
Lucian  as  a  disciple  of  Zeuxis.] 

MICIPSA  (Mtxtyaf),  king  of  Numidia,  the  eld- 
est of  the  sons  of  Masinissa.  After  the  death 
of  the  latter  (B.C.  148),  the  sovereign  power 
was  divided  by  Scipio  between  Micipsa  and  his 
two  brothers,  Gulussa  and  Mastanabal,  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  possession  of  Cii  ta,  the  cap- 
ital of  Numidia,  together  with  the  financial  ad- 
ministration of  the  kingdom,  fell  to  the  share 
of  Micipsa.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before 
the  death  of  both  his  brothers  left  him  in  pos- 
session of  the  undivided  sovereignty  of  Numid- 
ia, which  he  held  from  that  time  without  in- 
terruption till  his  death.  He  died  in  118,  leav- 
ing the  kingdom  to  his  two  sons,  Adherbal  and 
Hiempsal,  and  their  adopted  brother  JUGURTHA. 

MICON  (M/cui>),  of  Athens,  son  of  Phanochus, 
was  a  very  distinguished  painter  and  statuary, 
contemporary  with  Polygnotus,  about  B.C.  460. 

[MicvTHus  (MtKv0oc),  son  of  Choerus,  was  at 
first  a  slave  in  the  service  of  Anaxilas,  tyrant 
of  Rhegmm,  but  gradually  rose  to  so  high  a 
place  in  the  confidence  of  his  master,  that  the 
latter,  at  his  death  (B.C.  476),  left  him  guardian 
of  his  infant  sons,  and  regent  until  they  attain- 
ed their  majority.  He  discharged  his  duty,  and 
at  the  proper  time  resigned  the  sovereignty  into 
the  hands  of  the  young  princes,  set  out  for 
Greece,  and  settled  at  Tegea,  where  he  resided 
for  the  rest  of  his  life.] 

MIDAKUM  (Mt6dfiov),  a  city  of  Phrygia  Epicte- 
tus,  between  Dorylaeum  and  Pessinus ;  the  place 
where  Sextus  Pompeius  was  captured  by  the 
troops  of  Antony,  B.C.  35. 

MIDAS  (Mttfof),  son  of  Gordius  and  Cybele,  is 
said  to  have  been  a  wealthy  but  effeminate  king 
of  Phrygia,  a  pupil  of  Orpheus,  and  a  great 
patron  of  the  worship  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus). 
His  wealth  is  alluded  to  in  a  story  connected 
with  his  childhood,  for  it  is  said  that  while  a 
child,  ants  carried  grains  of  wheat  into  his 
33 


MIDIAS. 

mouth,  to  indicate  that  one  day  he  should  be 
the  richest  of  all  mortals.  Midas  was  intro- 
duced into  the  Satyric  drama  of  the  Greeks, 
and  was  represented  with  the  ears  of  a  satyr, 
which  were  afterward  lengthened  into  the  ears 
of  an  ass.  He  is  said  to  have  built  the  town 
of  Ancyra,  and  as  king  of  Phrygia  he  is  called 
Berecynthius  heros  (Ov.,  Met.,  xi.,  106).  There 
are  several  stories  connected  with  Midas,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  most  celebrated. 
1.  Silenus,  the  companion  and  teacher  of  Bao- 
chus  (Dionysus),  had  gone  astray  in  a  state  of 
intoxication,  anil  was  caught  by  country  people 
in  the  rose  gardens  of  Midas.  He  was  bound 
with  wreaths  of  flowers  and  led  before  the  king. 
These  gardens  were  in  Macedonia,  near  Mount 
Bermion  or  Bromion,  where  Midas  was  king 
of  the  Briges,  with  whom  he  afterward  emi- 
grated to  Asia,  where  their  name  was  changed 
into  Phryges.  Midas  received  Silenus  kindly  ; 
and,  after  treating  him  with  hospitality,  he  led 
him  back  to  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  who  allowed 
Midas  to  ask  a  favor  of  him.  Midas,  in  his  folly, 
desired  that  all  things  which  he  touched  should 
be  changed  into  gold.  The  request  was  grant- 
ed ;  but  as  even  the  food  which  he  touched  be- 
came gold,  he  implored  the  god  to  take  his  favor 
back.  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  accordingly  ordered 
him  to  bathe  in  the  source  of  Pactolus,  near 
Mount  Tmolus.  This  bath  saved  Midas,  but 
the  river  from  that  time  had  an  abundance  of 
gold  in  its  sand. — 2.  Midas,  who  was  himself 
related  to  the  race  of  Satyrs,  once  had  a  visit 
from  a  Satyr,  who  indulged  in  all  kinds  of  jokes 
at  the  king's  expense.  Thereupon  Midas  mix 
ed  wine  in  a  well ;  and  when  the  Satyr  had 
drank  of  it,  he  fell  asleep  and  was  caught.  r!  his 
well  of  Midas  was  at  different  times  assigned 
to  different  localities.  Xenophon  (Anab.,  i.>  2, 
§  13)  places  it  in  the  neighborhood  of  Thyrn- 
brium  and  Tyraeum,  and  Pausanias  at  Ancyra. — 
3.  Once,  when  Pan  and  Apollo  were  engaged  in 
a  musical  contest  on  the  flute  and  lyre,  Midas 
was  chosen  to  decide  between  them.  The  king 
decided  in  favor  of  Pan,  whereupon  Apollo 
changed  his  ears  into  those  of  an  ass.  Midas 
contrived  to  conceal  them  under  his  Phrygian 
cap,  but  the  servant  who  used  to  cut  his  hair 
discovered  them.  The  secret  so  much  harassed 
this  man,  that,  as  he  could  not  betray  it  to  a 
human  being,  he  dug  a  hole  in  the  earth,  and 
whispered  into  it,  "  King  Midas  has  ass's  ears." 
He  then  filled  the  hole  up  again,  and  his  heart 
was  relieved.  But  on  the  same  spot  a  reed 
grew  up,  which  in  its  whispers  betrayed  the 
secret.  Midas  is  said  to  have  killed  himself  by 
drinking  the  blood  of  an  ox. 

MIDEA  or  Mi  DBA  (Midcta,  Mtiea  :  MftJeur^f),  a 
town  in  Argolis,  of  uncertain  site,  is  said  to 
have  been  originally  called  Persepolis,  because 
it  had  been  fortified  by  Perseus.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Argives. 

MlDIANIT^E.        Vld.   M  Uil  iMT.V. 

MioiAs  (Mftdtaf),  an  Athenian  of  wealth  and 
influence,  was  a  violent  enemy  of  Demosthenes 
the  orator.  In  B.C.  354  Midias  assaulted  De- 
mosthenes when  he  was  discharging  the  duties 
of  Choregus,  during  Uie  celebration  of  the  great 
Dionvsia.  Demosthenes  brought  an  accusation 
against  Midias;  but  the  speech  which  he  wrote 
for  the  occasion,  and  which  is  extant,  was  never 

513 


MIEZA. 

delivered,  since  Demosthenes  dropped  the  ac- 
cusation in  consequence  of  his  receiving  the 
sum  of  thirty  minae. 

MIEZA  (M«'e£a  :  Mtefnif),  a  town  of  Macedonia 
in  Emathia,  south  west  of  Pella,  and  not  far  from 
the  frontiers  of  Thessaly. 

[MiooNiuM  (Mtywvtov),  a  place  in  or  near  the 
island  Cranae  in  Laconia,  where  Venus  (Aph- 
rodite), hence  called  Migonitis  (Miyuvmf),  had 
a  temple.] 

MJLANION  (MetAav/wv),  son  of  Amphidamas, 
and  husband  of  Atalanta.  For  details,  vid.  ATA- 
LANTA. 

MILETOPOLIS  (MiZ^roTro^if  :  now  Muhalich  or 
Hamamli  1  ruins),  a  city  of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  River  Rhyndacus  and 
Macestus,  and  somewhat  east  of  the  lake  which 
was  named  after  it,  LACUS  MILETOPOLITIS  (Mify- 
roTro/lmf  Mfivr/ :  now  Lake  of  Maniyas).  This 
lake,  which  was  also  called  Artynia,  lies  some 
miles  west  of  the  larger  lake  of  Apollonia  (now 
Abullionte). 

MILETOPOLIS.     Vid.  BORYSTHENES. 

MILETUS  (Mi'A^rof),  son  of  Apollo  and  Aria  of 
Crete.  Being  beloved  by  Minos  and  Sarpedon, 
he  attached  himself  to  the  latter,  and  fled  from 
Minos  to  Asia,  where  he  built  the  city  of  Mile- 
tus. Ovid  (Met.,  ix.,  442)  calls  him  a  son  of 
Apollo  and  Dei'one,  and  hence  Deionides. 

MILETUS  (Mt'A^rof,  Dor.  Mt^aror :  Mt/l^crtof, 
and  on  inscriptions,  Met^trtof :  Milesius).  1 .  One 
of  the  greatest  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  belonged 
territorially  to  Caria  and  politically  to  Ionia, 
being  the  southernmost  of  the  twelve  cities  of 
the  Ionian  confederacy.  It  is  mentioned  by 
Homer  as  a  Carian  city  ;  and  one  of  its  early 
names,  Lelegeiis,  is  a  sign  that  the  Leleges  also 
formed  a  part  of  its  population.  Its  first  Greek 
colonists  were  said  to  have  been  Cretans  who 
were  expelled  by  Minos  ;  the  next  were  led  to 
it  by  Neleus  at  the  time  of  the  so-called  Ionic 
migration.  Its  name  was  derived  from  the 
mythical  leader  of  the  Cretan  colonists,  Mile- 
tus :  it  was  also  called  PITVUSA  (Uirvovaa)  and 
ANACTORIA  ('Ava/croptn).  The  city  stood  upon 
the  southern  headland  of  the  Sinus  Latmicus, 
opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Meeander,  and  pos- 
sessed four  distinct  harbors,  protected  by  a 
group  of  islets,  called  Lade,  Dromiscus,  and 
Perne.  The  city  wall  inclosed  two  distinct 
towns,  called  the  outer  and  the  inner ;  the  lat- 
ter, which  was  also  called  Old  Miletus,  stood 
upon  an  eminence  overhanging  the  sea,  and 
was  of  great  strength.  Its  territory  extended 
on  both  sides  of  the  Maeander,  as  far  apparently 
as  the  promontories  of  Mycale  on  the  north  and 
Posidium  on  the  south.  It  was  rich  in  flocks  ; 
and  the  city  was  celebrated  for  its  woollen  fab- 
rics, the  Milesia  vellera.  At  a  very  early  period 
it  became  a  great  maritime  state,  extending  its 
commerce  throughout  the  Mediterranean,  and 
even  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  but  more 
especially  in  the  direction  of  the  Euxine,  along 
the  shore  of  which  the  Milesians  planted  sev- 
eral important  colonies,  such  as  Cyzicus,  Si- 
nope,  Abydos,  Istropolis,  Tomi,  Olbia  or  Borys- 
thenes,  Apollonia,  Odessus,  and  Panticapaeum. 
Naucratis  in  Egypt  was  also  a  colony  of  Mile- 
tus. It  also  occupies  a  high  place  in  the  early 
history  of  Greek  literature,  as  the  birth-place 
of  the  philosophers  Thales,  Anaximander,  and 
514 


MILO. 

Anaximenes,  and  of  the  historians  Cadmus  and 
Hecataeus.  After  the  rise  of  the  Lydian  mon- 
archy, Miletus,  by  its  naval  strength,  resisted 
the  attacks  of  Alyattes  and  Sadyattes  for  eleven 
years,  but  fell  before  Crasus,  whose  success 
may  perhaps  be  ascribed  to  the  intestine  fac- 
tions which  for  a  long  time  weakened  the  city. 
With  the  rest  of  Ionia,  it  was  conquered  by 
Harpagus,  the  general  of  Cyrus,  in  B.C.  557 ; 
and  under  the  dominion  of  the  Persians  it  still 
retained  its  prosperity  till  the  great  Ionian  re- 
volt, of  which  Miletus  was  the  centre  (aid. 
ARISTAGORAS,  HISTIJEUS),  and  after  the  suppres- 
sion of  which  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Persians 
(B.C.  494).  It  recovered  sufficient  importance 
to  oppose  a  vain  resistance  to  Alexander  the 
Great,  which  brought  upon  it  a  second  ruin. 
Under  the  Roman  empire  it  still  appears  as  a 
place  of  some  consequence,  until  its  final  de- 
struction by  the  Turks.  Its  ruins  are  difficult 
to  discover,  on  account  of  the  great  change 
made  in  the  coast  by  the  River  Maeander.  Vid. 
MEANDER.  They  are  usually  supposed  to  be 
those  at  the  wretched  village  of  Palatia,  on  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Mendereh,  a  little  above 
its  present  mouth  ;  but  Forbiger  has  shown 
that  these  are  more  probably  the  ruins  of  MYUS, 
and  that  those  of  Miletus  are  buried  in  a  lake 
formed  by  the  Mendereh  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Latmus. — [2.  A  city  of  Crete,  not  far  from  Lyc- 
I  tos,  whence  the  first  settlers  of  the  Ionian  Mile- 
tus are  said  to  have  come.] 

MILICHUS,  a  Phoenician  god,  represented  as 
the  son  of  a  satyr  and  of  the  nymph  Myrlce,  and 
with  horns  on  his  head.  (Sil.  Ital.,  iii.,  103.) 

MILICHUS  (M«'At^of),  a  small  river  in  Achaia, 
which  flowed  by  the  town  of  Paine,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  originally  called  Amilichus  ('Apti- 
^i^of)  on  account  of  the  human  victims  sacri- 
ficed on  its  banks  to  Diana  (Artemis). 

[MILICHUS,  a  freedman  of  Flavins  Sceevinus, 
gave  Nero  the  first  information  of  Piso's  con- 
spiracy in  A.D.  66.  Milichus  was  liberally  re- 
warded by  the  emperor,  and  assumed  the  sur- 
name of  Soter  or  the  Preserver.] 

MILO  or  MILON  (MiAuv).  1.  Of  Crotona,  son 
of  Diotimus,  an  athlete,  famous  for  his  extraor- 
dinary bodily  strength.  He  was  six  times  vic- 
tor in  wrestling  at  the  Olympic  games,  and  as 
often  at  the  Pythian ;  but,  having  entered  the 
lists  at  Olympia  a  seventh  time,  he  was  worsted 
by  the  superior  agility  of  his  adversary.  By 
these  successes  he  obtained  great  distinction 
among  his  countrymen,  so  that  he  was  even  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  army  which  defeated 
the  Sybarites,  B.C.  511.  Many  stories  are  re- 
lated by  ancient  writers  of  Milo's  extraordinary 
feats  of  strength  ;  such  as  his  carrying  a  heifer 
of  four  years  old  on  his  shoulders  through  the 
stadium  at  Olympia,  and  afterward  eating  the 
whole  of  it  in  a  single  day.  The  mode  of  his 
death  is  thus  related  :  as  he  was  passing  through 
a  forest  when  enfeebled  by  age,  he  saw  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  which  had  been  partially  split 
open  by  woodcutters,  and  attempted  to  rend  it 
further,  but  the  wood  closed  upon  his  hands,  and 
thus  held  him  fast,  in  which  state  he  was  attack- 
ed and  devoured  by  wolves. — 2.  A  general  in 
the  service  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  who  sent 
him  forward  with  a  body  of  troops  to  garrison 
!  the  citadel  of  Tarentum  previous  to  his  own 


MILO. 

arrival  in  Italy.  When  Pyrrhus  finally  quitted 
that  country  and  withdrew  into  Epirus,  he  still 
left  Milo  in  charge  of  the  citadel  of  Tarentum, 
together  with  his  son  Helenus. — [3.  Of  Beroea, 
an  officer  in  the  army  of  Perseus,  with  which 
he  opposed  the  Roman  consul  P.  Licinius  Cras- 
sus  13  C.  171.  He  is  mentioned  again  as  holding 
an  important  command  under  Perseus,  just  be- 
fore the  battle  of  Pydna,  B.C.  166.  He  after- 
ward proved  a  traitor,  and  surrendered  the  for- 
tress of  Beroea  into  the  hands  of  the  Roman 
general  Paullus  JSmilius.] — 4.  T.  ANNIUS  MILO 
PAPINIANUS,  was  the  son  of  C.  Papius  Celsus 
and  Annia,  and  was  adopted  by  his  maternal 
grandfather  T.  Annius  Luscus.  He  was  born 
at  Lanuvium,  of  which  place  he  was  in  B.C.  53 
dictator  or  chief  magistrate.  Milo  was  a  man 
of  a  daring  and  unscrupulous  character ;  and  as 
he  was  deeply  in  debt,  he  resolved  to  obtain  a 
wealthy  province.  For  this  purpose  he  con- 
nected himself  with  the  aristocracy.  As  tribune 
of  the  plebs,  B.C.  57,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
obtaining  Cicero's  recall  from  exile,  and  from 
this  time  he  carried  on  a  fierce  and  memorable 
contest  with  P.  Clodius.  In  53  Milo  was  can- 
didate for  the  consulship,  and  Clodius  for  the 
praetorship  of  the  ensuing  year.  Each  of  the 
candidates  kept  a  gang  of  gladiators,  and  there 
were  frequent  combats  between  the  rival  ruf- 
fians in  the  streets  of  Rome.  At  length,  on  the 
twentieth  of  January,  52,  Milo  and  Clodius  met 
apparently  by  accident  at  Bovillae  on  the  Appian 
road.  An  affray  ensued  between  their  follow- 
ers, in  which  Clodius  was  slain.  At  Rome  such 
tumults  followed  upon  the  burial  of  Clodius,  that 
Pompey  was  appointed  sole  consul  in  order  to 
restore  order  to  the  state.  Pompey  immediate- 
ly brought  forward  various  laws  in  connection 
with  the  late  disturbances.  As  soon  as  these 
were  passed,  Milo  was  formally  accused.  All 
Pompey's  influence  was  directed  against  him  ; 
but  Milo  was  not  without  hope,  since  the  higher 
aristocracy,  from  jealousy  of  Pompey,  supported 
him,  and  Cicero  undertook  his  defence.  His 
trial  opened  on  the  fourth  of  April,  52.  He  was 
impeached  on  three  counts — de  Vi,  de  Ambitu, 
or  bribery,  and  de  Sodalitiis,  or  illegal  interfer- 
ence with  the  freedom  of  elections.  L.  Domi- 
tius  Ahenobarbus,  a  consular,  was  appointed 
quaesitor  by  a  special  law  of  Pompey's,  and  all 
Rome  and  thousands  of  spectators  from  Italy 
thronged  the  forum  and  its  avenues.  But  Milo's 
chances  of  acquittal  were  wholly  marred  by  the 
virulence  of  his  adversaries,  who  insulted  and 
obstructed  the  witnesses,  the  process,  and  the 
conductors  of  the  defence.  Pompey  availed 
himself  of  these  disorders  to  line  the  forum  and 
its  encompassing  hills  with  soldiers.  Cicero 
was  intimidated,  and  Milo  was  condemned. 
Had  he  even  been  acquitted  on  the  first  count, 
de  Vi,  the  two  other  charges  of  bribery  and  con- 
spiracy awaited  him.  He  therefore  went  into 
exile.  Cicero,  who  could  not  deliver,  re- wrote 
and  expanded  the  defence  of  Milo — the  extant 
oration — and  sent  it  to  him  at  Marseilles.  Milo 
remarked,  "  I  am  glad  this  was  not  spoken, 
since  I  must  have  been  acquitted,  and  then  had 
never  known  the  delicate  flavor  of  these  Mar- 
seilles mullets."  Ctesar  refused  to  recall  Milo 
from  exile  in  49,  when  he  permitted  many  of 
the  other  exiles  to  return.  In  the  following 


year  (48),  M.  Caelius,  the  praetor,  had,  during 
Caesar's  absence,  promulgated  a  bill  for  the  ad- 
justment of  debts.  Needing  desperate  allies. 
Cajlius  accordingly  invited  Milo  to  Italy,  as  the 
fittest  tool  for  his  purposes.  At  the  head  of  a 
band  of  criminals  and  run-away  slaves,  Milo  ap- 
peared in  the  south  of  Italy,  but  was  opposed  bv 
the  praetor  Q.  Pedius,  and  slain  under  the  walls 
of  an  obscure  fort  in  the  district  of  Thurii.  Mile., 
in  57,  married  Fausta,  a  daughter  of  the  dicta- 
tor Sulla.  She  proved  a  faithless  wife,  and  Sal- 
lust,  the  historian,  was  soundly  scourged  by 
Milo  for  an  intrigue  with  her. 

[MILTAS  (Mt7raf),  a  Thessalian,  a  contempo- 
rary of  Plato,  spoften  of  by  Plutarch  as  a  seer, 
and  a  follower  of  the  Platonic  philosophy  :  he 
served  in  the  army  of  Dion  against  Dionysius 
the  younger,  and  encouraged  the  troops  when 
alarmed  by  an  eclipse.] 

MILTIADES  (MtAnuetyf).  1.  Son  of  Cypselus, 
was  a  man  of  considerable  distinction  in  Athens 
in  the  time  of  Pisistratus.  The  Doloncians,  a 
Thracian  tribe  dwelling  in  the  Chersonesus, 
being  hard  pressed  in  war  by  the  Absinthians, 
applied  to  the  Delphic  oracle  for  advice,  and 
were  directed  to  admit  a  colony  led  by  the  man 
who  should  be  the  first  to  entertain  them  after 
they  left  the  temple.  This  was  Militiades,  who, 
eager  to  escape  from  the  rule  of  Pisistratus, 
gladly  took  the  lead  of  a  colony  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  oracle,  and  became  tyrant  of  the 
Chersonesus,  which  he  fortified  by  a  wall  built 
across  its  isthmus.  In  a  war  with  the  people 
of  Lampsacus  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  was 
set  at  liberty  on  the  demand  of  Croesus.  He 
died  without  leaving  any  children,  and  his  sov- 
ereignty passed  into  the  hands  of  Stesagoras, 
the  son  of  his  half-brothe*  Cimon.  Sacrifices 
and  games  were  instituted  in  his  honor,  in  which 
no  Lampsacene  was  suffered  to  take  part. — 2. 
Son  of  Cimon  and  brother  of  Stesagoras,  be- 
came tyrant  of  the  Chersonesus  on  the  death 
of  the  latter,  being  sent  out  by  Pisistratus  from 
Athens  to  take  possession  of  the  vacant  inherit- 
ance. By  a  stratagem  he  got  the  chief  men  of 
the  Chersonesus  into  his  power  and  threw  them 
into  prison,  and  took  a  force  of  mercenaries  into 
his  pay.  In  order  to  strengthen  his  position 
still  more,  he  married  Hegesipyla,  the  daughter 
of  a  Thracian  prince  named  Olorus.  He  joined 
Darius  Hystaspis  on  his  expedition  against  the 
Scythians,  and  was  left  with  the  other  Greeks 
in  charge  of  the  bridge  over  the  Danube.  When 
the  appointed  time  had  expired,  and  Darius  had 
not  returned,  Miltiades  recommended  the  Greeks 
to  destroy  the  bridge  and  leave  Darius  to  his 
fate.  Some  time  after  the  expedition  of  Darius, 
an  inroad  of  the  Scythians  drove  Miltiades  from 
his  possessions ;  but  after  the  enemy  had  re- 
tired, the  Doloncians  brought  him  back.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  between  this  period  and  his 
withdrawal  to  Athens  that  Miltiades  conquered 
and  expelled  the  Pelasgian  inhabitants  of  Lem- 
nos  and  Imbros,  and  subjected  the  islands  to  the 
dominion  of  Attica.  Lemnos  and  Imbros  be- 
longed to  the  Persian  dominions  ;  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  this  encroachment  on  the  Persian  pos- 
sessions was  the  cause  which  drew  upon  Mil- 
tiades the  hostility  of  Darius,  and  led  him  to  fly 
from  the  Chersonesus  when  the  Phoenician 
fleet  approached  after  the  subjugation  of  Ionia 

515 


•lILTO. 

Miltiades  reached  Athens  in  safety,  but  his  eld- 
est son  Metiochus  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Persians.  At  Athens  Miltiades  was  arraigned, 
as  being  amenable  to  the  penalties  enacted 
against  tyranny,  but  was  acquitted.  When  At- 
tica was  threatened  with  invasion  by  the  Per- 
sians under  Datis  and  Artaphernes,  Miltiades 
was  chosen  one  of  the  ten  generals.  Miltiades, 
by  his  arguments,  induced  the  polemarch  Callim- 
achus  to  give  the  casting  vote  in  favor  of  risk- 
ing a  battle  with  the  enemy,  the  opinions  of  the 
ten  generals  being  equally  divided.  Miltiades 
waited  till  his  turn  came,  and  then  drew  his 
army  up  in  battle  array  on  the  ever-memorable 
field  of  Marathon.  Vid.  MARATHON.  After  the 
defeat  of  the  Persians  Miltiades  endeavored  to 
urge  the  Athenians  to  measures  of  retaliation, 
and  induced  them  to  intrust  to  him  an  arma- 
ment of  seventy  ships,  without  knowing  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  designed.  He  pro- 
ceeded to  attack  the  island  of  Paros,  for  the 
purpose  of  gratifying  a  private  enmity.  His 
attacks,  however,  were  unsuccessful ;  and  after 
receiving  a  dangerous  hurt  in  the  leg  while 
penetrating  into  a  sacred  inclosure  on  some 
superstitious  errand,  he  was  compelled  to  raise 
the  siege  and  return  to  Athens,  where  he  was 
impeached  by  Xanthippus  for  having  deceived 
the  people.  His  wound  had  turned  into  a  gan- 
grene, and  being  unable  to  plead  his  cause  in 
person,  he  was  brought  into  court  on  a  couch, 
his  brother  Tisagoras  conducting  his  defence 
for  him.  He  was  condemned  ;  but  on  the 
ground  of  his  services  to  the  state,  the  penalty 
was  commuted  to  a  fine  of  fifty  talents,  the 
cost  of  the  equipment  of  the  armament.  Being 
unable  to  pay  this,  he  was  thrown  into  pris- 
on, where  he  not  long  after  died  of  his  wound. 
The  fine  was  subsequently  paid  by  his  son  Ci- 
mon. 

[MILTO  (MtArw),  the  name  of  the  favorite  mis- 
tress of  Cyrus,  afterward  called  Aspasia.  Vid. 
ASPASIA,  No.  2.] 

[MiLTocvTHEs  (MtAroKi)0???),  a  Thracian  offi- 
cer in  the  army  of  the  younger  Cyrus,  who, 
after  the  death  of  Cyrus,  abandoned  the  Greeks 
and  went  over  with  about  thirty  cavalry  and 
three  hundred  infantry  to  the  side  of  the  king.] 

MILVIUS  PONS.     Vid.  ROMA. 

MILYAS  (?)  MtAwJf :  MtAimt,  Milyae),  was  orig- 
inally the  name  of  all  Lycia  ;  but  it  was  after- 
ward applied  to  the  high  table-land  in  the  north 
of  Lycia,  between  the  Cadmus  and  the  Taurus, 
and  extending  considerably  into  Pisidia.  Its 
people  seem  to  have  been  the  descendants  of 
the  original  inhabitants  of  Lycia.  It  contained 
a  city  of  the  same  name.  After  the  defeat  of 
Antiochus  the  Great,  the  Romans  gave  it  to  Eu- 
menes,  king  of  Pergamus,  but  its  real  govern- 
ment seems  to  have  been  in  the  hands  of  Pisid- 
ian  princes. 

MIMALLON  (M.i/j.a'XTiuv),  pi.  MIMALLONES,  the 
Macedonian  name  of  the  Bacchantes,  or,  accord- 
ing to  others,  of  Bacchic  Amazons.  Ovid  (Ars 
Am.,  i.,  541)  uses  the  form  Mimallonides. 

MIMAS  (Mt>af)  l.  A  giant,  said  to  have  been 
killed  by  Mars  (Ares),  or  by  Jupiter  (Zeus),  with 
a  flash  of  lightning.  The  island  of  Prochyte, 
near  Sicily,  was  believed  to  rest  upon  his  body 
—[2.  Son  of  JEolus,  king  of  ^Eolis,  and  father 
of  Hippotes.— 3.  Son  of  Amycus  and  Theano, 
516 


MINERVA. 

was  born  on  the  same  night  as  Paris,  went  with 
eas  to  Italy,  where  he  was  slain  by  Mezen- 
tius. — 4.  A  Bebrycian,  slain  by  Pollux  during 
the  Argonautic  expedition.] 

[MIMAS  MONS  (M///af).  1.  A  mountain  chain 
of  Ionia,  a  branch  of  Mount  Tmolus,  extending 
toward  the  sea,  and  forming  the  three  promon- 
tories Coryceum  (now  Koraka),  Argennum  (now 
Cape  Blanc),  and  Melsena  (now  Kara  Burnu).— 
2.  A  mountain  chain  of  Thrace,  which  unites 
itself  with  Mount  Rhodope,  mentioned  only  by 
Silius  Italicus.] 

MIMNERMUS  (Mifivep^iof),  a  celebrated  elegiac 
poet,  was  generally  called  a  Colophonian,  but 
was  properly  a  native  of  Smyrna,  and  was  de- 
scended from  those  Colophonians  who  recon- 
quered Smyrna  from  the  ^Eolians.  He  flourish- 
ed from  about  B.C.  634  to  600.  He  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Solon,  who,  in  an  extant  fragment 
of  one  of  his  poems,  addresses  him  as  still  living. 
Only  a  few  fragments  of  the  compositions  of 
Mimnermus  have  come  down  to  us.  They  be- 
long chiefly  to  a  poem  entitled  Nanno,  and  are 
addressed  to  the  flute-player  of  that  name.  The 
compositions  of  Mimnermus  form  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  elegiac  poetry.  Before  his  time 
the  elegy  had  been  devoted  chiefly  either  to 
warlike  or  national,  or  to  convivial  and  joyous 
subjects.  Archilochus  had,  indeed,  occasion- 
ally employed  the  elegy  for  strains  of  lamenta- 
tion, but  Mimnermus  was  the  first  who  system- 
atically made  it  the  vehicle  for  plaintive,  mourn- 
ful, and  erotic  strains.  The  instability  of  human 
happiness,  the  helplessness  of  man,  the  cares 
and  miseries  to  which  life  is  exposed,  the  brief 
season  that  man  has  to  enjoy  himself  in,  the 
wretchedness  of  old  age,  are  plaintively  dwelt 
upon  by  him,  while  love  is  held  up  as  the  only 
consolation  that  men  possess,  life  not  being 
worth  having  when  it  can  no  longer  be  enjoyed. 
The  latter  topic  was  most  frequently  dwelt 
upon,  and  as  an  erotic  poet  he  was  held  in  high 
estimation  in  antiquity.  (Hor.,  Epist.,  ii.,  2, 
100.)  The  fragments  are  published  separately 
by  Bach,  Lips.,  1826. 

MIN.SI  (Mivaloi),  one  of  the  chief  communi- 
ties of  Arabia,  dwelt  on  the  western  coast  of 
Arabia  Felix,  and  in  the  interior  of  the  penin- 
sula, and  carried  on  a  large  trade  in  spices,  in- 
cense, and  the  other  products  of  the  land. 

MINAS  SABBATHA  (MetVof  2a6ar0u),  a  fort  in 
Babylonia,  built  in  the  time  of  the  later  Roman 
empire,  on  the  site  of  Seleucia,  which  the  Ro- 
mans had  destroyed. 

MINCIUS  (Mincio),  a  river  in  Gallia  Transpa- 
dana,  flows  through  the  Lake  Benacus  (nowl/a- 
go  di  Garda),  and  falls  into  the  Po  a  little  be 
low  Mantua. 

MINDARUS  (MtVJopof),  a  Lacedaemonian,  suc- 
ceeded Astyochus  in  the  command  of  the  Lace- 
daemonian fleet,  B.C.  411.  He  was  defeated 
and  slain  in  battle  by  the  Athenians  near  Cyz- 
icus  in  the  following  year. 

MINERVA,  called  ATHENA  by  the  Greeks.  The 
Greek  goddess  is  spoken  of  in  a  separate^arti- 
cle.  Vid.  ATHENA.  Minerva  was  one  of  the 
great  Roman  divinities.  Her  name  seems  to  be 
of  the  same  root  as  mens ;  and  she  is  accord- 
ingly the  thinking,  calculating,  and  inventive 
power  personified.  Jupiter  was  the  first,  Juno 
the  second,  and  Minerva  the  third  in  the  num- 


MINERVJE  ARX. 


MINOS. 


ber  of  the  Capitoline  divinities.  Tarquin,  the 
son  of  Demaratus,  was  believed  to  have  united 
the  three  divinities  in  one  common  temple,  and 
hence,  when  repasts  were  prepared  for  the  gods, 
these  three  always  went  together.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter,  and  is  said  to  have  some- 
times wielded  the  thunderbolts  of  her  father. 
As  Minerva  was  a  virgin  divinity,  and  her  fa- 
ther the  supreme  god,  the  Romans  easily  iden- 
tified her  with  the  Greek  Athena,  and  accord- 
ingly all  the  attributes  of  Athena  were  gradual- 
ly transferred  to  the  Roman  Minerva.  But  we 
confine  ourselves  at  present  to  those  which  were 
peculiar  to  the  Roman  goddess.  Being  a  maid- 
en goddess,  her  sacrifices  consisted  of  calves 
which  had  not  borne  the  yoke.  She  is  said 
to  have  invented  numbers  ;  and  it  is  added 
that  the  law  respecting  the  driving  in  of  the 
annual  nail  was  for  this  reason  attached  to  the 
temple  of  Minerva.  She  was  worshipped  as 
the  patroness  of  all  the  arts  and  trades,  and 
at  her  festival  she  was  particularly  invoked  by 
all  who  desired  to  distinguish  themselves  in  any 
art  or  craft,  such  as  painting,  poetry,  the  art  of 
teaching,  medicine,  dyeing,  spinning,  weaving, 
and  the  like.  This  character  of  the  goddess 
may  be  perceived  also  from  the  proverbs  "to  do 
a  thing  pingui  Minerva"  i.  e.,  to  do  a  thing  in 
an  awkward  or  clumsy  manner ;  and  sus  Miner- 
van^  of  a  stupid  person  who  presumed  to  set 
right  an  intelligent  one.  Minerva,  however, 
was  the  patroness,  not  only  of  females,  on 
whom  she  conferred  skill  in  sewing,  spinning, 
weaving,  &c.,  but  she  also  guided  men  in  the 
dangers  of  war,  where  victory  is  gained  by 
cunning,  prudence,  courage,  and  perseverance. 
Hence  she  was  represented  with  a  helmet, 
shield,  and  a  coat  of  mail ;  and  the  booty  mads 
in  war  was  frequently  dedicated  to  her.  Miner- 
va was  further  believed  to  be  the  inventor  of 
musical  instruments,  especially  wind  instru- 
ments, the  use  of  which  was  very  important  in 
religious  worship,  and  which  were  accordingly 
subjected  to  a  sort  of  purification  every  year  on 
the  last  day  of  the  festival  of  Minerva.  This 
festival  lasted  five  days,  from  the  nineteenth 
to  the  twenty-third  of  March,  and  was  called 
Quinquatrus,  because  it  began  on  the  fifth  day 
after  the  ides  of  the  month.  This  number  of 
days  was  not  accidental,  for  we  are  told  that 
the  number  five  was  sacred  to  Minerva.  The 
most  ancient  temple  of  Minerva  at  Rome  was 
probably  that  on  the  Capitol ;  another  existed 
on  the  Aventine,  and  she  had  a  chapel  at  the 
foot  of  the  Caelian  Hill,  where  she  bore  the  sur- 
name of  Capia. 

•  MINERV/E  ARX  or  MINERVIUM  (now  Castro),  a 
nill  on  the  coast  of  Calabria,  where  /Eneas  is 
said  to  have  landed. 

MINERVA  PROMONTORIUM  (now  Punta  delta 
Campandla  or  della  Minerva),  a  rocky  promon- 
tory in  Campania,  running  out  a  long  way  into 
the  sea,  six  miles  southeast  of  Surrentum,  on 
whose  summit  was  a  temple  of  Minerva,  which 
was  said  to  have  been  built  by  Ulysses,  and 
which  was  still  standing  in  the  time  of  Seneca. 
Here  the  Sirens  are  reported  to  have  dwelt. 
The  Greeks  regarded  it  as  the  northwestern 
boundary  of  CEnotria. 

MinTo  (now  Mignone),  a  small  river  in  Etru- 
ria,  which  rises  near  Satrium,  and  falls  into  the 


Tyrrhene  Sea  between  Graviscae  and  Centum 
Cell®. 

MINIUS  (now  Minho),  a  river  in  the  north 
west  of  Spain,  rises  in  the  Cantabrian  Mount- 
ains in  the  north  of  Gallascia,  and  falls  into  the 
ocean.  It  was  also  called  Baenis,  and  derived 
its  name  of  Minius  from  the  minium  or  vermil 
ion  carried  down  by  its  waters. 

MINOA  (Mivwa-)-  1-  A  small  island  in  the 
Saronic  Gulf,  off  the  coast  of  Megaris,  and  op 
posite  a  promontory  of  the  same  name,  was 
united  to  the  main  land  by  a  bridge,  and  form- 
ed, with  the  promontory,  the  harbor  of  Nisaea. 
Vid.  p.  493. — 2.  A  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Laconia,  and  on  a  promontory  of  the  same  name, 
northeast  of  Epidaurus  Limera. — 3.  A  town  on 
the  western  part  of  the  northern  coast  of  Crete, 
between  the  promontories  Drepanum  and  Psa- 
cum. — 4.  A  town  on  the  eastern  part  of  the 
northern  coast  of  Crete,  belonging  to  the  terri- 
tory of  Lyctus,  and  situated  on  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  island. — 5.  A  town  in  Sicily.  Vid. 
HERACLEA  MINOA. 

[MiNoi'DEs  INSULT  (Mtvutfcf  Nrjooi),  small 
islands  in  the  southern  part  of  the  ^Egean,  form- 
ing a  portion  of  the  Cyclades,  just  north  of 
Crete.] 

MINOS  (MiVof).  1.  Son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Europa,  brother  of  Rhadamanthys,  was  the  king 
and  legislator  of  Crete.  After  his  death  he  be- 
came one  of  the  judges  of  the  shades  in  Hades. 
He  \vas  the  father  of  Deucalion  and  Ariadne  ; 
and,  according  to  Apollodorus,  the  brother  of 
Sarpedon.  Some  traditions  relate  that  Minos 
married  Itone,  daughter  of  Lyctius,  by  whom 
he  had  a  son,  Lycastus,  and  that  the  latter  be- 
came, by  Ida,  the  daughter  of  Corybas,  the  fa- 
ther of  another  Minos.  But  it  should  be  ob- 
served that  Homer  and  Hesiod  know  only  of 
one  Minos,  the  ruler  of  Cnosus,  and  the  son 
and  friend  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  that  they  re- 
late nearly  the  same  things  about  him  which 
later  traditions  assign  to  a  second  Minos,  the 
grandson  of  the  former.  In  this  case,  as  in 
many  other  mythical  traditions,  a  rationalistic 
criticism  attempted  to  solve  contradictions  and 
difficulties  in  the  stories  about  a  person  by  as- 
suming that  the  contradictory  accounts  must 
refer  to  two  different  personages. — 2.  Grand- 
son of  the  former,  and  a  son  of  Lycastus  and 
Ida,  was  likewise  a  king  and.lawgiver  of  Crete. 
He  is  described  as  the  husband  of  Pasiphae,  a 
daughter  of  Helios ;  and  as  the  father  of  Ca- 
treus,  Deucalion,  Glaucus,  Androgeos,  Acalle, 
Xenodice,  Ariadne,  and  Phaedra.  After  the 
death  of  Asterius,  Minos  aimed  at  the  suprem- 
acy of  Crete,  and  declared  that  it  was  destined 
to  him  by  the  gods;  in  proof  of  which,  he  assert- 
ed that  the  gods  always  answered  his  prayers. 
Accordingly,  as  he  was  offering  up  a  sacrifice 
to  Neptune  (Poseidon),  he  prayed  that  a  bull 
might  come  forth  from  the  sea,  and  promised  to 
sacrifice  the  animal.  The  bull  appeared,  and 
Minos  became  king  of  Crete.  (Others  say  that 
Minos  disputed  the  government  with  his  broth- 
er Sarpedon,  and  conquered.)  But  Minos,  who 
admired  the  beauty  of  the  bull,  did  not  sacrifice 
him,  and  substituted  another  in  his  place.  Nep- 
tune  (Poseidon)  therefore  rendered  the  bull  fu 
rious,  and  made  Pasiphae  conceive  a  passion 
for  the  animal.  Daedalus  enabled  Pasiphae  to 

517 


MINOTAURUS. 

gratify  her  passion,  and  she  became  by  the  bull ; 
the  mother  of  the  Minotaurus,  a  monster  with 
a  human  body  and  a  bull's  head,  or,  according 
to  others,  with  a  bull's  body  and  a  human  head. 
The  monster  was  kept  in  the  labyrinth  at  Cno- 
sus,  constructed  by  Daedalus.  Daedalus  fled  ! 
from  Crete  to  escape  the  wrath  of  Minos,  and 
look  refuge  in  Sicily.  Minos  followed  him  to 
Sicily,  and  was  there  slain  by  Cocalus  and  his 
daughters.  Minos  is  further  said  to  have  di- 
vided Crete  into  three  parts,  and  to  have  ruled 
nine  years.  The  Cretans  traced  their  legal  and 
political  institutions  to  Minos.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  instructed  in  the  art  of  law-giving  by 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  himself;  and  the  Spartan  Ly- 
curgus  was  believed  to  have  taken  the  legisla- 
tion of  Minos  as  his  model.  In  his  time  Crete 
was  a  powerful  maritime  state  ;  and  Minos  not 
only  checked  the  piratical  pursuits  of  his  con- 
temporaries, but  made  himself  master  of  the 
Greek  islands  of  the  ^Egean.  The  most  an- 
cient legends  describe  Minos  as  a  just  and  wise 
law-giver,  whereas  the  later  accounts  repre- 
sent him  as  an  unjust  and  cruel  tyrant.  In  or- 
der to  avenge  the  wrong  done  to  his  son  (vid. 
ANDROGEOS)  at  Athens,  he  made  war  against 
the  Athenians  and  Megarians.  He  subdued 
Megara,  and  compelled  the  Athenians  either 
every  year  or  every  nine  years  to  send  him  as 
a  tribute  seven  youths  and  seven  maidens,  who 
were  devoured  in  the  labyrinth  by  the  Minotau- 
rus. The  monster  was  slain  by  Theseus. 

MINOTAURUS.      Vid.  MINOS. 

MINTHA  (Mu-ft?),  a  daughter  of  Cocytus,  be- 
loved by  Hades,  was  metamorphosed  by  Ceres 
(Demeter)  or  Proserpina  (Persephone)  .into  a 
plant  called  after  her  mintha,  or  mint.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  Pylos  there  was  a  hill  called 
after  her,  and  at  its  foot  there  was  a  temple  of 
Pluto  (Hades),  and  a  grove  of  Ceres  (Demeter). 

MINTHE  (Miv6t] :  now  Vunuka),  a  mountain 
of  Elis  in  Triphylia,  near  Pylos. 

MINTURN^  (Minturnensis  :  now  Trajetta),  an 
important  town  in  Latium,  on  the  frontiers  of 
Campania,  was  situated  on  the  Appia  Via,  and 
on  both  banks  of  the  Liris,  and  near  the  mouth 
of  this  river.  It  was  an  ancient  town  of  the 
Ausones  or  Aurunci,  but  surrendered  to  the  Ro- 
mans of  its  own  accord,  and  received  a  Roman 
colony  B.C.  296.  It  was  subsequently  recol- 
onized  by  Julius  Caesar.  In  its  neighborhood 
was  a  grove  sacred  to  the  nymph  Marica,  and 
also  extensive  marshes  (Paludcs  Minturnenses), 
formed  by  the  overflowing  of  the  River  Liris, 
in  which  Marius  was  taken  prisoner.  Vid.  p. 
480,  a.  The  neighborhood  of  Minturnae  pro- 
duced good  wine.  There  are  the  ruins  of  an 
amphitheatre  and  of  an  aqueduct  at  the  modern 
Trajetta. 

[MmuciA,  one  of  the  vestal  priestesses  in 
B.C.  337.  Her  passion  for  gay  attire  made  her 
conduct  suspected.  On  inquiry,  suspicion  was 
justified,  and  Minucia  was  buried  alive.] 

MiNucilNus  (M.ivovKiav6().  1.  A  Greek  rhet- 
orician, was  a  contemporary  of  the  celebrated 
rhetorician  Hermogenes  of  Tarsus  (flourished 
A.D.  170),  with  whom  he  was  at  variance. — 2. 
An  Athenian^the  son  of  Nicagoras,  was  also  a 
Greek  rhetorician,  and  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Gallienus  (A.D.  260-268).  He  was  the  author 
of  several  rhetorical  works,  and  a  portion  of  his 
518 


MINYAS. 

iKT/  is  extant,  and  is  published  in  the 
ninth  volume  of  Walz's  Rhctorcs  Graci. 

MINUCIUS  AucuRiNus.     Vid.  AUGURINUS. 

MINUCIUS  BASILUS.     Vid.  BASILUS. 

MINUCIUS  RUFUS.  1.  M.,  consul  B.C.  221, 
when  he  carried  on  war  against  the  Istrians. 
In  217  he  was  magister  equitum  to  the  dictator 
Q.  Fabius  Maximus.  The  cautious  policy  of 
Fabius  displeased  Minucius ;  and  accordingly, 
when  Fabius  was  called  away  to  Rome,  Minu- 
cius disobeyed  the  positive  commands  of  the 
dictator,  and  risked  a  battle  with  a  portion  of 
Hannibal's  troops.  He  was  fortmate  enough 
to  gain  a  victory  ;  in  consequence.of  wliich,  he 
became  so  popular  at  Rome  that  a  bill  was  pass- 
ed giving  him  equal  military  power  with  the 
dictator.  The  Roman  army  was  now  divided, 
and  each  portion  encamped  separately  under  its 
own  general.  Anxious  for  distinction,  Minu- 
cius eagerly  accepted  a  battle  which  was  offer- 
ed him  by  Hannibal,  but  was  defeated,  and  his 
troops  were  only  saved  from  total  destruction 
by  the  timely  arrival  of  Fabius  with  all  his  forces. 
Thereupon  Minucius  generously  acknowledged 
his  error,  gave  up  his  separate  command,  and 
placed  himself  again  under  the  authority  of  the 
dictator.  He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Cannae  in 
the  following  year. — 2.  Q.,  plebeian  asdile  201, 
praetor  200,  and  consul  197,  when  he  carried  on 
war  against  the  Boii  with  success.  In  189  he 
was  one  of  the  ten  commissioners  sent  into 
Asia  after  the  conquest  of  Antiochus  the  Great ; 
and  in  183  he  was  one  of  the  three  ambassadors 
sent  into  Gaul. — 3.  M.,  praetor  197. — 4.  M.,  trib- 
une of  the  plebs  121,  brought  forward  a  bill  to 
repeal  the  laws  of  C.  Gracchus.  This  Marcus 
Minucius  and  his  brother  Quintus  are  mention- 
ed as  arbiters  between  the  inhabitants  of  Genua 
and  the  Viturii,  in  a  very  interesting  inscrip- 
tion which  was  discovered  in  the  year  1506, 
about  ten  miles  from  the  modern  city  of  Genoa. 
— 5.  Q.,  consul  110,  obtained  Macedonia  as  his 
province,  carried  on  war  with  success  against 
the  barbarians  in  Thrace,  and  triumphed  on  his 
return  to  Rome.  He  perpetuated  the  memory 
of  his  triumph  by  building  the  Porticus  Minu- 
cia, near  the  Circus  Flaminius. 

MINUCIUS  FELIJC.     Vid.  FELIX. 

MINYJE  (Mivvai),  an  ancient  Greek  race,  who 
originally  dwelt  in  Thessaly.  lolcos,  in  Thes- 
saly,  was  one  of  their  most  ancient  seats.  T-heir 
ancestal  hero,  Minyas,  is  said  to  have  migrated 
from  Thessaly  into  the  north  of  Bceotia,  and 
there  to  have  established  the  empire  of  the 
Minyae,  with  the  capital  of  Orchomenos.  Vid. 
ORCHOMENOS.  As  the  greater  part  of  the  Argo 
nauts  were  descended  from  the  Minyae,  they' 
are  themselves  called  Minyae.  The  descend- 
ants of  the  Argonauts  founded  a  colony  in  Lem- 
nos  called  Minyae.  Thence  they  proceeded  to 
Elis  Triphylia,  and  to  the  island  of  Thera. 

MINYAS  (Uivvatf,  son  of  Chryses,  and  the  an 
cestral  hero  of  the  race  of  the  Minyae.  The  ac. 
counts  of  his  genealogy  vary  very  much  in  the 
different  traditions,  for  some  call  him  a  son 
of  Orchomenus  or  Eteocles,  others  of  Neptune 
(Poseidon),  Aleus,  Mars  (Ares),  Sisyphus,  or 
Halmus.  He  is  further  called  the  husband  of 
Tritogenia,  Clytodora,  or  Phanosyra.  Orchome- 
nus, Presbon,  Athamas,  Diochthondas,  Eteocly- 
mene,  Periclymene,  Leucippe,  Arsinoe,  and  Al 


MIROBRIGA. 

eathoe"  or  Alcithofi,  are  mentioned  as  his  chil- 
dren. His  tymb  was  shown  at  Orchomenos  in 
Bceotia.  A  daughter  of  Minyas  was  called 
Minyelas  (-adis)  or  Mineis  (-tdis).  Vid.  Ov.,Met., 
iv.,  1,  32. 

MIROBRIGA.  1.  A  town  of  the  Celtici  in  Lu- 
sitania,  on  the  coast  of  the  ocean. — 2.  A  Ro- 
man municipium  in  the  territory  of  the  Turduli, 
in  Hispania  Baetica,  on  the  road  from  Emerita 
to  Cassaraugusta. 

MISENUM  (now  Punta  di  Miseno),  a  promon- 
tory in  Campania,  south  of  Cumae,  said  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  Misenus,  the  companion 
and  trumpeter  of  JSneas,  who  was  drowned  and 
buried  here.  The  bay  formed  by  this  promon- 
tory was  converted  by  Augustus  into  an  excel- 
lent harbor,  and  was  made  the  principal  station 
of  the  Roman  fleet  on  the  Tyrrhene  Sea.  A 
town  sprung  up  around  the  harbor,  and  here  the 
admiral  of  the  fleet  usually  resided.  The  in- 
habitants were  called  Misenates  and  Misenen- 
ses.  The  Roman  nobles  had  previously  built 
villas  on  the  coast.  Here  was  the  villa  of  C. 
Marius,  which  was  purchased  by  Lucullus,  and 
which  afterward  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Emperor  Tiberius,  who  died  at  this  place. 

[MisENus  (Miff^vdf).  1.  A  companion  of  Ulys- 
ses.— 2.  Pilot  of  the  fleet  of  ^Eneas ;  according 
to  Virgil,  at  first  a  companion  and  trumpeter  of 
Hector,  afterward  folio  wed  .Eneas  to  ItaJy.  Vid. 

MlSENUM.] 

MISITHEUS,  the  father-in-law  of  the  Emperor 
Gordian  III.,  who  married  his  daughter  Sabinia 
Tranquillina  in  A.D.  241.  Misitheus  was  a  man 
of  learning,  virtue,  and  ability.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  his  son-in-law  praefect  of  the  praeto- 
rians, and  effected  many  important  reforms  in 
the  royal  household.  He  accompanied  Gordian 
in  his  expedition  against  the  Persians,  whom  he 
defeated ;  but  in  the  course  of  this  war  he  was 
cut  off  either  by  disease  or  by  the  treachery  of 
his  successor  Philippus,  243. 

MlTURADATES  Or  MlTHRIDATES  (Mi0pa<5uTJJf  Or 

M<0p«J<irj7f ),  a  common  name  among  the  Medes 
and  Persians,  derived  from  Mitra  or  Mithra,  the  ' 
Persian  name  for  the  sun,  and  the  root  da,  sig-  j 
nifying  "  to  give."    Mithradates  would  there- ! 
fore  mean,  "  given  by  the  sun."     [The  form  ' 
Mithradates,  which  is  found  on  coins,  is  more  ' 
correct  than  Mithridates,  though  the  latter  is  ' 
the  usual  one  in  Greek  writers.]     1.  I.  King,  : 
or,  more  properly,  satrap  of  Pontus,  was  son  of  j 
Ariobarzanes  I.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ariobar- 
zanes  II.,  about  B.C.  363.     The  kings  of  Pontus  ' 
claimed  to  be  lineally  descended  from  one  of  ; 
the  seven  Persians  who  had  conspired  against 
the  Magi,  and  who  was  subsequently  establish- 
ed by  Darius  Hystaspis  in  the  government  of  I 
the  countries  bordering  on  the  Euxine  Sea. 
Very  little  is  known  of  their  history  until  after 
the  fall  of  the  Persian  empire. — 2.  II.  King  of 
Pontus  (337-302),  succeeded  his  father  Ariobar- 
zanes II.,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  independ- 
ent kingdom  of  Pontus.     After  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  he  was  for  a  time  subject 
to  Antigonus  ;  but  during  the  war  between  the 
successors  of  Alexander,  he  succeeded  in  es- 
tablishing his  independence.     He  died  at  the 
age  of  84.— 3.  III.  King  of  Pontus  (302-266),  j 
son  and  successor  of  the  preceding.     He  en- 
larged his  paternal  dominions  by  the  acquisi- 


MITHRADATES. 

tion  of  great  part  of  Cappadocia  and  Paphlago- 
nia.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ariobar- 
zanes III. — 4.  IV.  King  of  Pontus  (about  240- 
190),  sort  and  successor  of  Ariobarzanes  III. 
He  gave  his  daughter  Laodice  in  marriage  to 
Antiochus  III.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Pharnaces  I.— 5.  V.  King  of  Pontus^about  156- 
120),  surnamed  EUERGETES,  son  and  successor 
of  Pharnaces  I.  He  was  the  first  of  the  kings 
of  Pontus  who  made  an  alliance  with  the  Ro- 
mans, whom  he  assisted  in  the  third  Punic  war 
and  in  the  war  against  Aristonicus  (131-129). 
He  was  assassinated  at  Sinope  by  a  conspiracy 
among  his  own  immediate  attendants. — 6.  VI. 
King  of  Pontus  (120-63),  surnamed  EUPATOR, 
also  DIONYSUS,  but  more  commonly  THE  GREAT, 
was  the  son  and  successor  of  the  preceding, 
and  was  only  eleven  years  old  at  the  period  of 
his  accession.  We  have  very  imperfect  infor- 
mation concerning  the  earlier  years  of  his  reign, 
and  much  of  what  has  been  transmitted  to  us 
wears  a  very  suspicious  aspect.  We  are  told 
that  immediately  on  ascending  the  throne  he 
found  himself  assailed  by  the  designs  of  his 
guardians,  but  that  he  succeeded  in  eluding  all 
their  machinations,  partly  by  displaying  a  cour- 
age and  address  in  warlike  exercises  beyond 
his  years,  partly  by  the'use  of  antidotes  against 
poison,  to  which  he  began  thus  early  to  accus- 
tom himself.  In  order  to  evade  the  designs 
against  his  life,  he  also  devoted  much  of  his 
time  to  hunting,  and  took  refuge  in  the  remot- 
est and  most  unfrequented  regions,  under  pre- 
tence of  pursuing  the  pleasures  of  the  chase. 
Whatever  truth  there  may  be  in  these  accounts, 
it  is  certain  that  when  he  attained  to  manhood 
he  was  not  only  endowed  with  consummate 
skill  in  all  martial  exercises,  and  possessed  of 
a  bodily  frame  inured  to  all  hardships,  as  well 
as  a  spirit  to  brave  every  danger,  but  his  nat- 
urally vigorous  intellect  had  been  improved  by 
careful  culture.  As  a  boy,  he  had  been  brought 
up  at  Sinope,  where  he  had  probably  received 
the  elements  of  a  Greek  education  ;  and  so 
powerful  was  his  memory,  that  he  is  said  to 
have  learned  not  less  than  twenty-five  langua- 
ges, and  to  have  been  able,  in  the  days  of  his 
greatest  power,  to  transact  business  with  the 
deputies  of  every  tribe  subject  to  his  rule  in 
their  own  peculiar  dialect.  The  first  steps  of 
his  career  were  marked  by  blood.  He  is  said 
to  have  murdered  his  mother,  to  whom  a  share 
in  the  royal  authority  had  been  left  by  Mithra- 
dates Euergetes  ;  and  this  was  followed  by  the 
assassination  of  his  brothe^  In  the  early  part 
of  his  reign  he  subdued  the  barbarian  tribes  be- 
tween the  Euxine  and  the  confines  of  Armenia, 
including  the  whole  of  Colchis  and  the  province 
called  Lesser  Armenia,  and  even  extended  his 
conquests  beyond  the  Caucasus.  He  assisted 
Parisades,  king  of  the  Bosporus,  against  the 
Sarmatians  and  Roxolani,  and  rendered  the 
whole  of  the  Tauric  Chersonese  tributary  to  his 
kingdom.  After  the  death  of  Parisades,  the 
kingdom  of  Bosporus  itself  was  incorporated 
with  his  dominions.  He  was  now  in  posses- 
sion of  such  great  power  that  he  began  to  deem 
himself  equal  to  a  contest  with  Rome  itself 
Many  causes  of  dissension  had  already  arisen 
between  them,  but  Mithradates  had  hitherto 
submitted  to  the  mandates  of  Rome.  Even 

519 


MITHRADATES. 

after  expelling  Ariobarzanes  from  Cappadocia, 
and  Nicomedes  from  Bithynia  in  90,  he  offered 
no  resistance  to  the  Romans  when  ^they  re- 
stored these  monarchs  to  their  kingdom.  But 
when  Nicomedes,  urged  by  the  Roman  legates, 
invaded  the  territories  of  Mithradates,  the  lat- 
ter made  preparations  for  immediate  hostilities. 
His  success  was  rapid  and  striking.  In  88  he 
drove  Ariobarzanes  out  of  Cappadocia,  and  Nic- 
omedes out  of  Bithynia,  defeated  the  Roman 
generals  who  had  supported  the  latter,  made 
himself  master  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  and  at 
last  of  the  Roman  province  of  Asia.  During 
the  winter  he  issued  the  sanguinary  order  to 
all  the  cities  of  Asia  to  put  to  death,  on  the 
same  day,  all  the  Roman  and  Italian  citizens 
who  were  to  be  found  within  their  walls.  So 
hateful  had  the  Romans  rendered  themselves, 
that  these  commands  were  obeyed  with  alac- 
rity by  almost  all  the  cities  of  Asia,  and  eighty 
thousand  Romans  and  Italians  are  said  to  have 
perished  in  this  fearful  massacre.  Meantime 
Sulla  had  received  the  command  of  the  war 
against  Mithradates,  and  crossed  over  into 
Greece  in  87.  Mithradates,  however,  had  re- 
solved not  to  await  the  Romans  in  Asia,  but  had 
already  sent  his  general  Archelaus  into  Greece 
at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army.  The  war  proved 
unfavorable  to  the  king.  Archelaus  was  twice 
defeated  by  Sulla  with  immense  loss  near  Chae- 
ronea,  and  Orchomenos  in  Bceotia  (86).  About 
the  same  time  Mithradates  was  himself  defeat- 
ed in  Asia  by  Fimbria.  Vid.  FIMBRIA.  These 
disasters  led  him  to  sue  for  peace,  which  Sulla 
was  willing  to  grant,  because  he  was  anxious 
to  return  to  Italy,  which  was  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  his  enemies.  Mithradates  consented 
to  abandon  all  his  conquests  in  Asia,  to  pay  a 
sum  of  two  thousand  talents,  and  to  surrender 
to  the  Romans  a  fleet  of  seventy  ships.  Thus 
terminated  the  first  Mithradatic  war  (84).  Short- 
ly afterward  Murena,  who  had  been  left  in  com- 
mand of  Asia  by  Sulla,  invaded  the  dominions 
of  Mithradates  (83),  under  the  flimsy  pretext 
that  the  king  had  not  yet  evacuated  the  whole 
of  Cappadocia.  In  the  following  year  (82)  Mu- 
rena renewed  his  hostile  incursions,  but  was 
defeated  by  Mithradates  on  the  hanks  of  the 
River  Halys.  But  shortly  afterward  Murena 
received  peremptory  orders  from  Sulla  to  de- 
sist from  hostilities  ;  in  consequence  of  which, 
peace  was  again  restored.  This  is  usually  call- 
ed the  second  Mithradatic  war.  Mithradates, 
however,  was  well  aware  that  the  peace  be- 
tween him  and  Roite  was  in  fact  a  mere  sus- 
pension of  hostilities,  and  that  the  republic  would 
never  suffer  the  massacre  of  her  citizens  in  Asia 
to  remain  ultimately  unpunished.  No  formal 
treaty  was  ever  concluded  between  Mithradates 
and  the  Roman  senate ;  and  the  king  had  in  vain 
endeavored  to  obtain  the  ratification  of  the 
terms  agreed  on  between  him  and  Sulla.  The 
death  of  Nicomedes  III.,  king  of  Bithynia,  at 
the  beginning  of  74,  brought  matters  to  a  crisis. 
That  monarch  left  his  dominions  by-will  to  the 
Roman  people  ;  and  Bithynia  was  accordingly 
declared  a  Roman  province ;  but  Mithradates 
asserted  that  the  late  king  had  left  a  legitimate 
son  by  his  wife  Nysa,  whose  pretensions  he  im- 
mediately prepared  to  support  by  his  arms.  He 
had  employed  th<?  last  few  years  in  forming  a  I 
52U 


MITHRADATES. 

powerful  army,  armed  and  disciplined  in  the  Ro- 
man manner;  and  he  now  took  the  field  with 
one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  foot  soldiers, 
sixteen  thousand  horse,  and  a  vast  number  of 
barbarian  auxiliaries.  This  was  the  commence- 
ment of  the  third  Mithradatic  war.  The  two 
Roman  consuls,  Lucullus  and  Cotta,  were  un- 
able to  oppose  his  first  irruption.  He  traversed 
Bithynia  without  encountering  any  resistance  ; 
and  when  at  length  Cotta  ventured  to  give  him 
battle  under  the  walls  of  Chalcedon,  the  consul 
was  totally  defeated  both  by  sea  and  land.  Mith- 
radates then  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Cyzicus 
both  by  sea  and  land.  Lucullus  marched  to  the 
relief  of  the  city,  cut  off"  the  king's  supplies,  and 
eventually  compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege 
early  in  73.  On  his  retreat  Mithradates  suf- 
fered great  loss,  and  eventually  took  refuge  in 
Pontus.  Hither  Lucullus  followed  him  in  the 
next  year.  The  new  army  which  the  king  had 
collected  was  entirely  defeated  by  the  Roman 
general ;  and  Mithradates,  despairing  of  oppos- 
ing the  further  progress  of  Lucullus,  took  ref- 
uge in  the  dominions  of  his  son-in-law  Tigranes, 
the  king  of  Armenia.  Tigranes  at  first  showed 
no  disposition  to  attempt  the  restoration  of  his 
father-in-law ;  but  being  offended  at  the  haugh- 
ty conduct  of  Appius  Claudius,  whom  Lucullus 
had  sent  to  demand  the  surrender  of  Mithra- 
dates, the  Armenian  king  not  only  refused  this 
request,  but  determined  to  prepare  for  war  with 
the  Romans.  Accordingly,  in  69,  Lucullus 
marched  into  Armenia,  defeated  Tigranes  and 
Mithradates  nearTigranocerta,  and  in  the  next 
year  (68)  again  defeated  the  allied  monarchs 
near  Artaxata.  The  Roman  general  then  turned 
aside  into  Mesopotamia,  and  laid  siege  to  Nis- 
ibis.  Here  the  Roman  soldiers  broke  out  into 
open  mutiny,  and  demanded  to  be  led  home  ; 
and  Lucullus  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  and 
return  to  Asia  Minor.  Meanwhile  Mithradates 
had  taken  advantage  of  the  absence  of  Lucul- 
lus to  invade  Pontus  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army.  He  defeated  Fabius  and  Triarius,  to 
whom  the  defence  of  Pontus  had  been  commit- 
ted ;  and  when  Lucullus  returned  to  Pontus, 
he  was  unable  to  resume  the  offensive  in  con- 
sequence of  the  mutinous  spirit  of  his  own  sol- 
diers. Mithradates  was  thus  able,  before  the 
close  of  67,  to  regain  possession  of  the  greater 
part  of  his  hereditary  dominions.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  (66)  the  conduct  of  the  war  was  in- 
trusted to  Pompey.  Hostilities  were  resumed 
with  greater  vigor  than  ever.  Mithradates  was 
obliged  to  retire  before  the  Romans,  but  was  sur- 
prised and  defeated  by  Pompey  ;  and  as  Tigra- 
nes now  refused  to  admit  him  into  his  own  do- 
minions, he  resolved  to  plunge  with  his  small 
army  into  the  heart  of  Colchis,  and  thence  make 
his  way  to  the  Palus  Maeotis  and  the  Cimme- 
rian Bosporus.  Arduous  as  this  enterprise  ap- 
peared, it  was  successfully  accomplished;  and 
he  at  length  established  himself  without  oppo- 
sition at  Panticapseum,  the  capital  of  Bosporus. 
He  had  now  nothing  to  fear  from  the  pursuit  of 
Pompey,  who  turned  his  arms  first  against  Ti- 
granes, and  afterward  against  Syria.  Unable- 
to  obtain  peace  from  Pompey,  except  he  would 
come  in  person  to  make  his  submission,  Mith- 
radates conceived  the  daring  project  of  march- 
ing round  the  northern  and  western  coasts  of 


MITHRADATIS. 

the  Euxine,  through  the  wild  tribes  of  the  Sar- 
matians  and  Getse,  and  having  gathered  round 
his  standard  all  these  barbarous  nations,  to  pen- 
etrate into  Italy  itself.  But  meanwhile  disaf- 
fection had  made  rapid  progress  among  his  fol- 
lowers. His  son  Pharnaces  at  length  openly  re- 
belled against  him.  He  was  joined  both  by  the 
whole  army  and  the  citizens  of  Panticapaeum, 
who  unanimously  proclaimed  him  king  ;  and 
Mithradates,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  a  strong 
tower,  saw  that  no  choice  remained  to  him  but 
death  or  captivity.  Hereupon  he  took  poison, 
which  he  constantly  carried  with  him  ;  but  his 
constitution  had  been  so  long  inured  to  antidotes 
that  it  did  not  produce  the  desired  effect,  and  he 
was  compelled  to  call  in  the  assistance  of  one  of 
his  Gaulish  mercenaries  to  dispatch  him  with 
his  sword.  He  died  in  63.  His  body  was  sent 
by  Pharnaces  to  Pompey  at  Amisus,  as  a  tcken 
of  his  submission  ;  but  the  conqueror  caused  it 
to  be  interred  with  regal  honors  in  the  sepul- 
chre of  his  forefathers  at  Sinope.  He  was  sixty- 
eight  or  sixty-nine  years  old  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  and  had  reigned  fifty-seven  years,  of 
which  twenty-five  had  been  occupied,  with  only 
a  few  brief  intervals,  in  one  continued  struggle 
against  the  Roman  power.  The  estimation  in 
which  he  was  held  by  his  adversaries  is  the 
strongest  testimony  to  his  great  abilities :  Cice- 
ro calls  him  the  greatest  of  all  kings  after  Alex- 
ander, and  in  another  passage  says  that  he  was 
a  more  formidable  opponent  than  any  other 
monarch  whom  the  Roman  arms  had  yet  en- 
countered. —  7.  Kings  of  Parthia.  Vid.  ARSA- 
CES,  6,  9,  13. — 8.  Of  Pergamus,  son  of  Menodo- 
tus ;  but  his  mother  having  had  an  amour  with 
Mithradates  the  Great,  he  was  generally  looked 
upon  as  in  reality  the  son  of  that  monarch. 
The  king  himself  bestowed  great  care  on  his 
education  ;  and  he  appears  as  early  as  64  to 
have  exercised  the  chief  Control  over  the  affairs 
of  his  native  city.  At  a  subsequent  period  he 
served  under  Julius  Caesar  in  the  Alexandrean 
war  (48) ;  and  after  the  defeat  of  Pharnaces  in 
the  following  year  (47),  Caesar  bestowed  upon 
Mithradates  the  kingdom  of  the  Bosporus,  and 
also  the  tetrarchy  of  the  Galatians.  But  the 
kingdonx  of  the  Bosporus  still  remained  to  be 
won,  for  Asander,  who  had  revolted  against 
Pharnaces,  was,  in  fact,  master  of  the  whole 
country,  and  Mithradates  having  attempted  to 
expel  Asander,  was  defeated  and  slain. 

MITHRADATIS  REOIO  (Mtfynddrov  ^opa),  a  dis- 
trict of  Sarmatia  Asiatica,  on  the  western  side 
of  the  River  Rha  (now  Wolga),  so  called  be- 
cause it  was  the  place  of  refuge  of  the  last 
Mithradates,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius. 

MITHRAS  (Uidpa^),  the  god  of  the  sun  among 
the  Persians.  About  the  time  of  the  Roman 
emperors  his  worship  was  introduced  at  Rome, 
and  thence  spread  overall  parts  of  the  empire. 
The  god  is  commonly  represented  as  a  hand- 
some youth,  wearing  the  Phrygian  cap  and  at- 
tire, and  kneeling  on  a  bull  which  is  thrown  on 
the  ground,  and  whose  throat  he  is  cutting. 
The  bull  is  at  the  same  time  attacked  by  a  dog, 
a  serpent,  and  a  scorpion.  This  group  appears 
frequently  among  ancient  works  of  art,  and  a 
fine  specimen  is  preserved  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. 

(MiOpiduTiov),  a  mountain  for- 


MNESILOCHUS. 

tress  in  the  territory  of  the  Trocmi,  on  the  boi 
ders  of  Galatia  and  Pontus.] 

[MlTHROBARZANES     ( Mldpofap&Vr/C  )•       1-    F& 

ther-in-law  of  Datames,  whom  he  joined  in  h>» 
revolt  from  the  Persian  king,  but  afterwaru 
having  deserted  with  his  troops,  he  was  slain 
by  Datames. — 2.  General  of  the  Cappadociaa 
forces  in  the  Persian  army  at  the  battle  of  the 
Granicus,  where  he  lost  his  life. — 3.  A  general 
of  Tigrines,  was  sent  to  oppose  the  Romans 
under  Lucullus,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  by 
them.] 

[MITYS,  a  river  of  Macedonia,  north  of  the 
Haliacmon,  emptied  into  the  Thermaicus  Sinus.] 

MITYLENE.      Vid.  MYTILENE. 

[MNASALCAS  (Mvaad^KOf),  an  epigrammatic 
poet  of  Sicyonia,  under  whose  name  eighteen 
epigrams  are  given  in  Brunck's  Analecta.  His 
date  is  uncertain.] 

MNASEAS  (Mvaasaf),  of  Patara  in  Lycia,  not 
of  Patrae  in  Achaia,  was  a  pupil  of  Eratosthe- 
nes, and  a  grammarian  of  considerable  celeb- 
rity. He  wrote  two  works,  one  of  a  chorograph- 
ical  description,  entitled  Periplus  (Uepln^ovf), 
and  the  other  a  collection  of  oracles  given  at 
Delphi. 

[MNASIPPUS  (Mvdoinnoc ),  a  Spartan  naval  com- 
mander; led  the  Spartan  fleet  of  sixty  ships 
against  Corcyra,  B.C.  373.  He  was  at  first  suc- 
cessful, but,  having  relaxed  his  vigilance,  he 
was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Corcyreans.] 

MNEME  (Mw^),  i.  e.t  memory,  one  of  the 
three  Muses  who  were  in  early  times  worship- 
ped at  Ascra  in  Boeotia.  There  seems  to  have 
been  also  a  tradition  that  Mneme  was  the  moth- 
er of  the  Muses,  for  Ovid  (Met.,  v.,  268)  calls 
them  Mnemonides  ;  unless  this  be  only  an 
abridged  form  for  the  daughters  of  Mnemosyne. 
Vid.  MUS^E. 

MNEMOSYNE  (MvrifioavvT)'),  i.  e.,  memory,  daugh 
ter  of  Uranus,  and  one  of  the  Titanides,  became' 
by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  the  mother  of  the  Muses. 

MNESARCHUS  ( Mvjjcrap^of ).  1.  Son  of  Eu- 
phron  or  Euthyphron,  and  father  of  Pythagoras. 
He  was  generally  believed  not  to  have  been  of 
purely  Greek  origin.  According  to  some  ac- 
counts, he  belonged  to  the  Tyrrhenians  of  Lem- 
nos  and  Imbros,  and  is  said  to  have  been  an 
engraver  of  rings.  According  to  other  accounts, 
the  name  of  the  father  of  Pythagoras  was  Mar- 
macus,  whose  father  Hippasus  came  from  Phlius 
— 2.  Grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  Py- 
thagoras and  Theano.  According  to  some  ac- 
counts he  succeeded  Aristaeus  as  president  of 
the  Pythagorean  school.— 3.  A  Stoic  philoso- 
pher, a  disciple  of  Panaetius,  flourished  aboul 
B.C.  110,  and  taught  at  Athens.  Among  his 
pupils  was  Antiochus  of  Ascalon. 

MNESICLES  (l/Lvijoti&w ).  °ne  of  the  great  Athe- 
nian artists  of  the  age  of  Pericles,  was  the  archi- 
tect of  the  Propyltza  of  the  Acropolis,  the  build- 
ing  of  which  occupied  five  years,  B.C.  437-433. 
It  is  said  that,  during  the  progress  of  the  work, 
he  fell  from  the  summit  of  the  building,  and 
was  supposed  to  be  mortally  injured,  but  was 
cured  by  a  herb  which  Minerva  (Athena)  show- 
ed to  Pericles  in  a  dream. 

[MNEsiLocHua  (MwyCT&o^of }.  1.  One  of  the 
thirty  tyrants  at  Athens. — 2.  Son  of  Euripides 
by  Chffirile,  whose  father  was  also  called  Mne- 
silochus,  is  said  to  have  been  an  actor ;  he  is 

521 


MNESIMACHUS. 

Baid  also  to  have  aided  Euripides  in  the  com- 
position of  his  tragedies.] 

[.MNKSIMACHUS  (MvTjai/taxof),  a  comic  poet  of 
the  middle  comedy,  some  fragments  of  whose 
plays  are  still  extant,  and  are  given  by  Meineke, 
Fragm.  Comic.  Grtce.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  787-793,  edit, 
minor.] 

[MNESITHIDES  (Mv>7ffi0£iJji':),  one  of  the  thirty 
tyrants  at  Athens.] 

MNESITHEUS  (MvqoiOeof),  a  physician^  was  a 
native  of  Athens,  and  lived  probably  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.,  as  he  is  quoted  by  the 
comic  poet  Alexis.  He  enjoyed  a  great  repu- 
tation, and  is  frequently  mentioned  by  Galen 
and  others. 

MNESTEB  (Mw;<jr??/>),  a  celebrated  pantomime 
actor  in  the  reigns  of  Caligula  and  Claudius, 
was  also  one  of  the  lovers  of  the  Empress  Mes- 
salina,  and  was  put  to  death  upon  the  ruin  of 
the  latter. 

MNESTHEUS,  a  Trojan,  who  accompanied 
^Eneas  to  Italy,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  an- 
cestral hero  of  the  Memmii. 

[MNEVIS  (MveiJif),  the  name  of  the  sacred 
bull  worshipped  at  Heliopolis.  Vid.  HELIOPO- 
LIS,  No.  2.] 

MOABITIS  (Mwa6mf,  Mo6a  :  Muafimu,  Moabi- 
tffi :  in  the  Old  Testament,  Moab,  for  both  coun- 
try and  people),  a  district  of  Arabia  Petraea, 
east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  from  the  River  Arnon 
(now  Wady-el-Mojib,  the  boundary  between  Pal- 
estine and  Arabia)  on  the  north,  to  Zoar,  near 
the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  south, 
between  the  Amorites  on  the  north,  the  Midi- 
anites  on  the  east,  and  the  Edomites  on  the 
south,  that  is,  before  the  Israelitish  conquest  of 
Canaan.  At  an  earlier  period,  the  country  of 
Moab  had  extended  northward,  beyond  the 
northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  along  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Jordan,  as  far  as  the  River 
Jabbok,  but  it  had  been  wrested  from  them  by 
the  Amorites.  The  plains  east  of  the  Jordan 
were,  however,  still  called  the  plains  of  Moab. 
The  Moabites  were  left  undisturbed  by  the  Is- 
raelites on  their  march  to  Canaan :  but  Balak, 
king  of  Moab,  through  fear  of  the  Israelites,  did 
what  he  could  to  harm  them,  first  by  his  vain 
attempt  to  induce  the  prophet  Balaam  to  curse 
the  people  whom  a  divine  impulse  forced  him 
to  bless,  and  then  by  seducing  them  to  worship 
Baal-Peor.  Hence  the  hereditary  enmity  be- 
tween the  Israelites  and  Moabites,  and  the 
threatenings  denounced  against  Moab  by  the 
Hebrew  prophets.  In  the  time  of  the  Judges 
they  subdued  the  southern  part  of  the  Jewish 
territory,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Ammonites 
and  Amalekites,  and  held  it  for  eighteen  years 
(Judges,  iii.,  12,  foil.).  They  were  conquered 
by  David,  after  the  partition  of  whose  kingdom 
they  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  They 
revolted  after  the  death  of  Ahab  (B.C.  896),  and 
appear  to  have  become  virtually  independent ; 
and  after  the  ten  tribes  had  been  carried  into 
captivity,  the  Moabites  seem  to  have  recovered 
the  northern  part  of  their  original  territory. 
They  were  subdued  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  with 
other  nations  bordering  on  Palestine,  very  soon 
after  the  Babylonian  conquest  of  Judaea,  after 
which  they  scarcely  appear  as  a  distinct  nation, 
but,  after  a  few  references  to  them,  they  disap- 
pear in  the  general  name  of  the  Arabians.  The 
522 


MCER^E. 

name  Moabitis,  however,  was  still  applied  to  the 
district  of  Arabia,  between  the  Arnon  (the  south- 
ern frontier  of  Peraea,  or  Palestine  east  of  the 
Jordan),  and  the  Nabathaei,  in  the  mountains  of 
Seir.  The  Moabites  were  a  kindred  race  with 
the  Hebrews,  being  descended  from  Moab,  the 
son  of  Lot  They  worshipped  Baal-Peor  and 
Chemosh  with  most  licentious  rites,  and  they 
sometimes  offered  human  sacrifices.  Their 
government  was  monarchical.  They  were  orig- 
inally a  pastoral  people ;  but  the  excessive  fer- 
tility of  their  country,  which  is  a  mountainous 
tract  intersected  with  rich  valleys  and  nurner 
ous  streams,  led  them  to  diligence  and  success 
in  agriculture.  The  frequent  ruins  of  towns 
and  traces  of  paved  roads,  which  still  cover  the 
face  of  the  country,  show  how  populous  and 
prosperous  it  was.  The  chief  city,  AR  or  RAB- 
BATH-MoAB,  afterward  AREOPOLIS  (now  ruins  at 
Rabbet),  was  about  twenty-five  miles  south  of 
the  Arnon. 

[MoAGETEs,  tyrant  of  the  Cibyrates,  in  Upper 
Phrygia,  made  himself  conspicuous  by  his  en- 
mity to  Rome  during  the  war  with  Antiochus 
the  Great,  for  which  he  was  condemned  by  the 
consul  Manlius  Vulso  to  pay  a  heavy  fine.] 

[MocA  (MoK<7,  now  Mocha),  a  city  of  Arabia 
Petraea,  which,  under  the  Roman  supremacy, 
was  regarded  as  a  holy  city,  and  had  its  own 
laws  ;  coins  of  this  city  of  the  time  of  the  An- 
tonines  and  Septimius  Severus  are  still  extant.] 

MODESTINUS,  HEEENNIUS,  a  Roman  jurist,  and 
a  pupil  of  Ulpian,  flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Al- 
exander Severus,  Maximinus,  and  the  Gordians, 
A.D.  222-244.  He  taught  law  to  the  younger 
Maximinus.  Though  Modestinus  is  the  latest 
of  the  great  Roman  jurists,  he  ranks  among  the 
most  distinguished.  There  are  three  hundred 
and  forty-five  excerpts  in  the  Digest  from  his 
writings,  the  titles  of  which  show  the  extent 
and  variety  of  his  labors. 

MODESTUS,  a  military  writer,  the  author  of  a 
Libellus  de  Vocabulis  Rei  Militaris,  addressed  to 
the  Emperor  Tacitus,  A.D.  275.  It  is  very  brief, 
and  presents  no  features  of  interest.  Printed 
in  all  the  chief  collections  of  Scriptores  de  Re 
Militari. 

MODICIA  (nowMonza),  a  town  in  Gallia  Trans- 
padana,  on  the  River  Lambrus,  north  of  Medio- 
lanum  (now  Milan),  where  Theodoric  built  a 
palace,  and  Theodolinda,  queen  of  the  Lango- 
bards,  a  splendid  church,  which  still  contains 
many  of  the  precious  gifts  of  this  queen. 

MODIN  (ModetV,  -eeu>,  or  i eiv),  a  little  village 
on  a  mountain  north  of  Lydda  or  Diospolis,  on 
the  extreme  northwest  of  Judaea,  celebrated  as 
the  native  place  of  the  Maccabaean  family.  Its 
exact  site  is  uncertain. 

MCENUS,  MCENIS,  M-.ENUS,  or  MENUS  (now 
Main),  a  river  in  Germany,  which  rises  in  the 
Sudeti  Montes,  flows  through  the  territory  of 
the  Hermunduri  and  the  Agri  decumates  of  the 
Romans,  and  falls  into  the  Rhine  opposite  Mo- 
gontiacum. 

M(ER./£  (Motpat).  called  PARC^E  by  the  Ro- 
mans, the  Fates.  Mara  properly  signifies  "a 
share,"  and  as  a  personification  "  the  deity  who 
assigns  to  every  man  his  fate  or  his  share." 
Homer  usually  speaks  of  one  Mcera,  and  only 
once  mentions  the  Mara  in  the  plural  (//.,  xxiv., 
;  29).  In  his  poems  Mcera  is  fate  personified, 


MCERAE. 

which,  at  the  birth  of  man,  spins  out  the  thread 
of  his  future  life,  follows  his  steps,  and  directs 
the  consequences  of  his  actions  according  to 
the  counsel  of  the  gods.  But  the  personifica- 
tion of  his  Moera  is  not  complete  ;  for  he  men- 
tions no  particular  appearance  of  the  goddess, 
no  attributes,  and  no  parentage.  His  Mcera  is 
therefore  quite  synonymous  with  JEsa  (\laa). 
In  Hesiod  the  personification  of  the  Mcerae  is 
complete.  He  calls  them  daughters  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  and  Themis,  and  makes  them  three  in 
number,  viz.,  CLOTHO,  or  the  spinning  fate ; 
LACHESIS,  or  the  one  who  assigns  to  man  his 
fate ;  and  ATROPOS,  or  the  fate  that  can  not  be 
avoided.  Later  writers  differ  in  their  genealogy 
of  the  Mcerae  from  that  of  Hesiod ;  thus  they 
are  called  children  of  Erebus  and  Night,  of  Sat- 
urn (Cronos)  and  Night,  of  Terra  (Ge)  and  Oce- 
anus,  or  lastly  of  Ananke  or  Necessity.  The 
character  and  nature  of  the  Mcerae  are  different- 
ly described  at  different  times  and  by  different 
authors.  Sometimes  they  appear  as  divinities 
of  fate  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  and  some- 
times only  as  allegorical  divinities  of  the  dura- 
tion of  human  life.  In  the  former  character 
they  take  care  that  the  fate  assigned  to  every 
being  by  eternal  laws  may  take  its  course  with- 
out obstruction  ;  and  Jupiter  (Zeus),  as  well  as 
the  other  gods  and  men,  must  submit  to  them. 
They  assign  to  the  Erinnyes,  who  inflict  the 
punishment  for  evil  deeds,  their  proper  func- 
tions ;  and  with  them  they  direct  fate  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  necessity,  whence  they  are 
sometimes  called  the  sisters  of  the  Erinnyes. 
These  grave  and  mighty  goddesses  were  repre- 
eented  by  the  earliest  artists  with  staffs  or  scep- 
tres, the  symbol  of  dominion.  The  Mcerae,  as 
the  divinities  of  the  duration  of  human  life, 
which  is  determined  by  the  two  points  of  birth 
and  of  death,  are  conceived  either  as  goddesses 
of  birth  or  as  goddesses  of  death,  and  hence 
their  number  was  two,  as  at  Delphi,  and  was 
subsequently  increased  to  three.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  functions  among  the  three  was  not 
strictly  observed,  for  we  sometimes  find  all 
three  described  as  spinning,  although  this  should 
be  the  function  of  Clotho  alone,  who  is,  more- 
over, often  mentioned  alone  as  the  representa- 
tive of  all.  As  goddesses  of  birth,  who  spin 
the  thread  of  the  beginning  of  life,  and  even 
prophesy  the  fate  of  the  newly  born,  they  are 
mentioned  along  with  Ilithyia,  who  is  called 
their  companion.  The  symbol  with  which  they, 
or  rather  Clotho  a"lone,  are  represented  to  in- 
dicate this  function,  is  a  spindle,  and  the  idea 
implied  in  it  was  carried  out  so  far,  that  some- 
times we  read  of  their  breaking  or  cutting  off 
the  thread  when  life  is  to  end.  Being  goddess- 
es of  fate,  they  must  necessarily  know  the  fu- 
ture, which  at  times  they  reveal,  and  thus  be- 
come prophetic  divinities.  As  goddesses  of 
death,  they  appear  together  with  the  Keres  and 
the  infernal  Erinnyes,  with  whom  they  are  even 
confounded.  For  the  same  reason  they,  along 
with  the  Charites,  lead  Persephone  out  of  the 
lower  world  into  the  regions  of  light.  The  va- 
rious epithets  which  poets  apply  to  the  Mcerae 
generally  refer  to  the  severity,  inflexibility,  and 
sternness  of  fate.  They  had  sanctuaries  in 
many  parts  of  Greece.  The  poets  sometimes 
describe  them  as  aged  and  hideous  women,  and 


MGESIA. 

even  as  lame,  to  indicate  the  slow  march  of 
fate  ;  but  in  works  of  art  they  are  represented 
as  grave  maidens,  with  different  attributes,  viz., 
Clotho  with  a  spindle  or  a  roll  (the  book  of  fate) ; 
Lachesis  pointing  with  a  staff  to  the  globe  ;  and 
Atropos  with  a  pair  of  scales,  or  a  sun-dial,  or 
a  cutting  instrument. 

MCERIS  or  MYKIS  (MoZpif,  Mupjf),  a  king  of 
Egypt,  who,  Herodotus  tells  us,  reigned  some 
nine  hundred  years  before  his  own  visit  to  that 
country,  which  seems  to  have  been  about  B.C. 
450.  We  hear  of  Mceris  that  he  formed  the 
lake  known  by  his  name,  and  joined  it  by  a 
canal  to  the  Nile,  in  order  to  receive  the  waters 
of  the  river  when  they  were  superabundant,  and 
to  supply  the  defect  when  they  did  not  rise  suf- 
ficiently. In  the  lake  he  built  two  pyramids,  on 
each  of  which  was  a  stone  statue,  seated  on  a 
throne,  and  intended  to  represent  himself  ana 
his  wife. 

MCERIS  (Mo?ptf),  commonly  called  MCERIS  AT- 
TICISTA,  a  distinguished  grammarian,  the  author 
of  a  work  still  extant,  entitled  Ae£«c  'Arrf/ca/, 
though  the  title  varies  somewhat  in  different 
manuscripts.  Of  the  personal  history  of  the 
author  nothing  is  known.  He  is  conjectured  to 
have  lived  about  the  end  of  the  second  century 
after  Christ.  His  treatise  is  a  sort  of  compar- 
ison of  the  Attic  with  other  Greek  dialects, 
consisting  of  a  list  of  Attic  words  and  expres- 
sions, which  are  illustrated  by  those  of  other 
dialects,  especially  the  common  Greek.  Edited 
by  Pierson,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1759 ;  [reprinted  with 
some  additions  by  Koch,  Lips.,  1831 :  and  by 
Bekker  with  Harpocration,  Berlin,  1833.] 

MCERIS  LACUS  (Moipiof  or  Motp«5oc  hi[ivi)  : 
now  Birket-el-Keroun),  a  great  lake  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  the  Nile,  in  Middle  Egypt,  used  for 
the  reception  and  subsequent  distribution  of  a 
part  of  the  overflow  of  the  Nile.  It  was  believ- 
ed by  the  ancients  to  have  been  dug  by  King 
Mceris  ;  but  it  is  really  a  natural,  and  not  an 
artificial  lake. 

MCERO  (Moipw)  or  MYRO  (Mvpu),  a  poetess 
of  Byzantium,  wife  of  Andromachus,  surnamed 
Philologus,  and  mother  of  the  grammarian  and 
tragic  poet  Homerus,  lived  about  B.C.  300. 
She  wrote  epic,  elegiac,  and  lyric  poems. 

MCEROCLES  (MotpoK^f),  an  Athenian  orator, 
a  native  of  Salamis,  was  a  contemporary  of  De- 
mosthenes, and,  like  him,  an  opponent  of  Philip 
and  Alexander. 

MCESIA,  called  by  the  Greeks  MYSIA  (M.vola, 
also  M.  17  kv  Evputry,  to  distinguish  it  from  My- 
sia  in  Asia),  a  country  of  Europe,  was  bounded 
on  the  south  by  Mount  Haemus,  which  separated 
it  from  Thrace,  and  by  Mount  Orbelus  and  Scor- 
dus,  which  separated  it  from  Macedonia,  on  the 
west  by  Mount  Scordus  and  the  rivers  Drinus 
and  Savus,  which  separated  it  from  Illyricum 
and  Pannonia,  on  the  north  by  the  Danube, 
which  separated  it  from  Dacia,  and  on  the  east 
by  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  thus  corresponding  to 
the  present  Servia  and  Bulgaria.  This  country 
was  subdued  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  but  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  formally  constituted  a 
Roman  province  till  the  commencement  of  the 
reign  of  Tiberius.  It  was  originally  only  one 
province,  but  was  afterward  formed  into  two 
provinces  (probably  after  the  conquest  of  Dacia 
by  Trajan),  called  Masia  Superior  and  Masia 

523 


MOGONTIACUM. 

Inferior,  the  former  being  the  western,  and  tho 
latter  the  eastern  half  of  the  country,  and  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  the  River  Cebrus  or 
Ciabrus,  a  tributary  of  the  Danube.  When  Au- 
relian  surrendered  Dacia  to  the  barbarians,  and 
removed  the  inhabitants  of  that  province  to  the 
south  of  the  Danube,  the  middle  part  of  Mcesia 
was  called  Dacia  Aureliani ;  and  this  new  prov- 
ince was  divided  into  Dacia  Ripcnsis,  the  district 
along  the  Danube,  and  Dacia  Interior,  the  district 
south  of  the  latter  as  far  as  the  frontiers  of  Ma- 
cedonia. In  the  reign  of  Valens,  some  of  the 
Goths  crossed  the  Danube  and  settled  in  Mcesia. 
These  Goths  are  sometimes  called  Moeso-Goths, 
and  it  was  for  their  use  that  Ulphilas  translated 
the  Scriptures  into  Gothic  about  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century.  The  original  inhabitants 
of  the  country,  called  MOESI  by  the  Romans,  and 
MYSI  (Mvaoi)  by  the  Greeks,  were  a  Thracian 
race,  and  were  divided  into  several  tribes,  such 
as  the  TRIBALLI,  PEUCINI,  &c. 

MOGONTIACUM,  MOGONTIACUM,  or  MAGONTIA- 
CUM  (now  Mainz  or  Maycnce),  a  town  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  opposite  the  mouth  of 
the  River  Mrenus  (now  Main),  was  situated  in 
the  territory  of  the  Vangiones,  and  was  subse- 
quently the  capital  of  the  province  of  Germania 
Prima.  It  was  a  Roman  municipium,  and  was 
founded,  or  at  least  enlarged  and  fortified,  by 
Drusus.  It  was  always  occupied  by  a  strong 
Roman  garrison,  and  continued  to  the  downfall 
of  the  empire  to  be  one  of  the  chief  Roman  for- 
tresses on  the  Rhine. 

MOLIONE.     Vid.  MOLIONES. 

MOLIONES  or  MOLIONID^E  (Mo/U'ovef,  Mo^i'ove, 
MoAioWJtu),  that  is,  Eurytus  and  Cteatus,  so 
called  after  their  mother  Molione.  They  are 
also  called  Actorida  or  Actorione  ('A.Kropiuve), 
after  their  reputed  father  Actor,  the  husband 
of  Molione,  though  they  were  generally  regard- 
ed as  the  sons  of  Neptune  (Poseidon).  Ac- 
cording to  a  late  tradition,  they  were  born  out 
of  an  egg ;  and  it  is  further  stated  that  their 
bodies  grew  together,  so  that  they  had  only  one 
body,  but  two  heads,  four  arms,  and  four  legs. 
Homer  mentions  none  of  these  extraordinary 
circumstances ;  and,  according  to  him,  the  Mo- 
liones,  when  yet  boys,  took  part  in  an  expedi- 
tion of  the  Epeans  against  Neleus  and  the  Pyli- 
ans.  They  are  represented  as  nephews  of  Au- 
geas,  king  of  the  Epeans.  When  Hercules 
marched  against  Augeas,  the  latter  Entrusted 
the  conduct  of  the  war  to  the  Moliones  ;  but, 
as  Hercules  was  taken  ill,  he  concluded  peace 
with  Augeas,  whereupon  his  army  was  attacked 
and  defeated  by  the  Molionidae.  In  order  to 
take  vengeance,  he  afterward  slew  them  near 
Cleonse,  on  the  frontiers  of  Argolis,  when  they 
had  been  sent  from  Elis  to  sacrifice  at  the  Isth- 
mian games  on  behalf  of  the  town.  The  Mo- 
liones are  mentioned  as  conquerors  of  Nestor 
in  the  chariot  race,  and  as  having  taken  part  in 
the  Calydonian  hunt.  Cteatus  was  the  father 
of  Amphimachus  by  Theronice,  and  Eurytus  of 
Thalpius  byTheraphone.  Their  sons,  Amphim- 
achus and  Thalpius,  led  the  Epeans  to  Troy. 

MOLO,  surname  of  Apollonius,  the  rhetorician 
Of  Rhodes.  Vid.  APOLLONIUS,  No.  2. 

MoLOCHATH.        Vid.  MULUCHA. 

[MoLo'is  (Mo^detf),  a  Jittle  river  in  Bceotia, 
near  Plataese    on  the  banks  of  which  stood  a 
524 


MONA. 

temple  of  the  Eleusinian  Ceres,  alluded  to  in 
the  description  of  the  battle  of  Plataiae.] 

[MoLoncHus  (MoAop^of),  the  mythical  found- 
er of  Molorchia,  near  Nemea,  entertained  Her- 
cules when  he  went  against  the  Nemean  lion.] 

MOLOSSI  (Mo/loCTdoO,  a  people  in  Epirus,  who 
inhabited  a  narrow  slip  of  country,  called  after 
them  MOLOSSIA  (Mohoocia)  or  MOLOSSIS,  which 
extended  from  the  Aous,  along  the  western 
bank  of  the  Arachthus,  as  far  as  the  Ambracian 
Gulf.  The  Molossi  were  a  Greek  people,  who 
claimed  descent  from  Molossus,  the  son  of  Pyr- 
rhus  (Neoptolemus)  and  Andromache,  and  are 
said  to  have  emigrated  from  Thessaly  into 
Epirus,  under  the  guidance  of  Pyrrhus  himself. 
In  their  new  abodes  they  intermingled  with  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  land  and  with  the 
neighboring  Illyrian  tribes,  in  consequence  of 
which  they  were  regarded  by  the  other  Greeks 
as  half  barbarians.  They  were,  however,  by 
far  the  most  powerful  people  in  Epirus,  and 
their  kings  gradually  extended  their  dominion 
over  the  whole  of  the  country.  The  first  of 
their  kings,  who  took  the  title  of  King  of  Epi- 
rus, was  Alexander,  who  perished  in  Italy  B.C. 
326.  Vid.  EPIRCS.  The  ancient  capital  of  the 
Molossi  was  PASSARON,  but  AMBRACIA  afterward 
became  their  chief  town,  and  the  residence  of 
their  kings.  The  Molossian  hounds  were  cele- 
brated in  antiquity,  and  were  much  prized  for 
hunting. 

[MOLOSSUS  (MoHocro-of),  son  of  Pyrrhus  and 
Andromache.  Vid.  MOLOSSI.] 

[MoLPADiA  (Mohiradia),  an  Amazon,  slew  An- 
tiope,  another  Amazon,  who  had  married  The- 
seus, and  was  herself  slain  by  Theseus.] 

[MoLus  (MoAof),  son  of  Deucalion,  and  fathei 
of  Meriones  (Horn.).-  according  to  a  Cretan 
legend,  son  of  Minos,  and  brother  of  Deuca- 
lion.] 

MOLYCRIUM  (M.o7ivKpciov,  also  'M.o^vKpeta,  Mo- 
^.VKpia  :  MoAv/fptof,  ~M.o7*.VKpievf,  MohvKpatof),  a 
town  in  the  most  southerly  part  of  ^Etolia,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  gave  the 
name  of  Rhium  Molycrium  ('Piov  MoAv/cptoj/)  to 
the  neighboring  promontory  of  Antirrhium.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Corinthians,  but  was  after 
ward  taken  possession  of  by  the  JStolians. 

MOMEMPHIS  (Mu^f^if  :  now  Panouf-Khet,  01 
Manouf-el-Seffli,  i.  e.,  Lower  Memphis'),  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Nomos  Momemphites  in  Lower 
Egypt,  stood  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Lake 
Mareotis.  , 

MOMUS  (Muftof),  the  god  of  mockery  and  cen- 
sure, is  not  mentioned  by  Homer,  but  is  called 
in  Hesiod  the  son  of  Night.  Thus  he  is  said  to 
have  censured  in  the  man  formed  by  Vulcan 
(Hephaestus),  that  a  little  door  had  not  been  left 
in  his  breast,  so  as  to  enable  one  to  look  into 
his  secret  thoughts. 

MONA  (now  Anglesey),  an  island  off  the  coast 
of  the  Ordovices  in  Britain,  was  one  of  the 
chief  seats  of  the  Druids.  It  was  invaded  by 
Suetonius  Paulinus  A.D.  61,  and  was  conquer- 
ed byAgricola,  78.  Caesar  (B.  G.,  v.,  13)  er- 
roneously describes  this  island  as  half  way  be- 
tween Britannia  and  Hibernia.  Hence  it  has 
been  supposed  by  some  critics  that  the  Mona 
of  Caesar  is  the  Isle  of  Man ;  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  he  received  a  false  report  respect- 
ing the  real  position  of  Mona,  especially  since 


MOJN.^SES. 

all  other  ancient  writers  give  the  name  of  Mona 
to  the  Isle  of  Anglesey,  and  the  name  of  the 
latter  island  is  likely  to  have  been  mentioned 
to  Ca-sar  on  account  of  its  celebrity  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Druids. 

MOSESES.  1.  A  Parthian  general,  mentioned 
by  Horace  (Carm.,  in.,  6,  9),  is  probably  the 
same  as  Surenas,  the  general  of  Orodes,  who 
defeated  Crassus.— 2.  A  Parthian  noble,  who 
deserted  to  Antony  and  urged  him  to  invade 
Parthia,  but  soon  afterward  returned  to  the 
Parthian  king  Phraates. — 3.  A  general  of  the 
Parthian  king,  Vologeses  I.,  in  the  reign  of 
Nero. 

MONAPIA  or  MONARINA  (now  Isle  of  Man),  an 
island  between  Britannia  and  Hibernia. 

MONDA  or  MUNDA  (now  Mondcgo),  a  river  on 
the  western  coast  of  Spain,  which  flows  into 
the  ocean  between  the  Tagus  and  Durius. 

MONETA,  a  surname  of  Juno  among  the  Ro- 
mans, by  which  she  was  characterized  as  the 
protectress  of  money.  Under  this  name  she 
had  a  temple  on  the  Capitoline,  in  which  there 
was  at  the  same  time  the  mint,  just  as  the  pub- 
lic treasury  was  in  the  temple  of  Saturn.  The 
temple  had  been  vowed  by  the  dictator  L.  Furius 
in  a  battle  against  the  Aurunci,  and  was  erect- 
ed on  the  spot  where  the  house  of  M.  Manlius 
Capitolinus  had  stood.  Moneta  signifies  the 
mint ;  but  some  writers  found  such  a  meaning 
too  plain.  Thus  Livius  Andronicus  used  Moneta 
as  a  translation  of  Mnemosyne  (tAvrifioovvT)),  and 
thus  made  her  the  mother  of  the  Muses  or  Ca- 
menae.  Cicero  relates  that,  during  an  earth- 
quake, a  voice  was  heard  issuing  from  the  tem- 
ple of  Juno  on  the  Capitol,  and  admonishing 
(monens)  that  a  pregnant  sow  should  be  sacri- 
ficed. A  somewhat  more  probable  reason  for 
the  name  is  given  by  Suidas,  though  he  assigns 
it  to  too  late  a  time.  In  the  war  with  Pyrrhus 
and  the  Tarentines,  he  says,  the  Romans,  being 
in  want  of  money,  prayed  to  Juno,  and  were 
told  by  the  goddess  that  money  would  not  be 
wanting  to  them  so  long  as  they  would  fight 
with  the  arms  of  justice.  As  the  Romans  by 
experience  found  the  truth  of  the  words  of  Juno, 
they  called  her  Juno  Moneta.  Her  festival  was 
celebrated  on  the  first  of  June. 

MONIMA  (Movl/iTi),  a  Greek  woman,  either  of 
Stratonicea,  in  Ionia,  or  of  Miletus,  was  the 
wife  of  Mithradates,  but  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  this  monarch  when  he  fled  into  Arme- 
nia, B.C.  72. 

MONCECI  PORTCS,  also  HERCULIS  MONCECI 
PORTUS  (now  Monaco),  a  port-town  on  the  coast 
of  Liguria,  between  Nicaea  and  Albium  Intem«- 
liutn,  founded  by  the  Massilians,  was  situated 
on  a  promontory  (hence  the  arx  Monad  of  Virg., 
JEn.,  vi.,  801),  and  possessed  a  temple  of  Her- 
cules Monoecus,  from  whom  the  place  derived 
its  name.  The  harbor,  though  small  and  ex- 
posed to  the  southeastern  wind,  was  of  import- 
ance, as  iC  was  the  only  one  on  this  part  of  the 
coast  of  Liguria. 

MONTANUS,  CURTJUS,  was  exiled  by  Nero  A. D. 
67,  but  was  soon  afterward  recalled  at  his  fa- 
ther's petition.  On  the  accession  of  Vespasian, 
he  vehemently  attacked  in  the  senate  the  noto- 
rious delator  Aquilius  Regulus.  If  the  same 
person  with  the  Curtius  Montanus  satirized  by 
Juvenal  (iv.,  107,  131 ;  xi.,  34),  Montanus  iif 


MORGANTIUM. 

later  life  sullied  the  fair  reputation  he  enjoyed 
in  youth  ;  for  Juvenal  describes  him  as  a  corpu- 
lent epicure,  a  parasite  of  Domitian,  and  a  hack- 
neyed declaimer. 

[MONTANUS,  JULIUS,  a  versifier  of  some  re- 
pute in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  one  of  the 
emperor's  private  friends.] 

MONTANUS,  VOLTIENUS,  an  orator  and  declaim- 
er in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  From  his  propen- 
sity to  refine  upon  thought  and  diction,  he  was 
named  the  "  Ovid"  of  the  rhetorical  schools. 
He  was  convicted  on  a  charge  of  majestas.'and 
died  an  exile  in  the  Balearic  islands,  A.D.  25. 

MOPSI A  or  MOPSOPIA,  an  ancient  name  of  Pam- 
phylia,  derived  from  Mopsus,  the  mythical  lead- 
er of  certain  Greeks  who  were  supposed  to  have 
settled  in  Pamphylia,  as  also  in  Cilicia  and 
Syria,  after  the  Trojan  war,  and  whose  name 
appears  more  than  once  in  the  geographical 
names  in  Cilicia.  ( Vid.  e.  g.  MOPSUCRENE,  MOP- 

SUESTIA.) 

MOPSIUM  (Morpiov  :  Moikof),  a  town  of  Thes- 
saly  in  Pelasgiotis,  situated  on  a  hill  of  the 
same  name,  between  Tempe  and  Larissa. 

MOPSUCRENE  (Motyov  Kp^vij  or  Kpfjvai,  i.  e.,  the 
Spring  of  Mopsus),  a  city  of  Cilicia  Campestris, 
on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Taurus,  and  twelve 
Roman  miles  from  Tarsus,  was  the  place  where 
the  Emperor  Constantius  died,  A.D.  364. 

MOPSUESTIA  (M.6ipov  earia,  Mo^ouetma,  i.  e., 
the  Hearth  of  Mopsus,  also  JAoipov  nol.if  and 
MoT/»of :  MoifrsaTr/f :  Mamistra,  in  the  Middle 
Ages :  now  Messrs),  an  important  city  of  Cilicia 
Campestris,  on  both  banks  of  the  River  Pyr- 
amus,  twelve  Roman  miles  from  its  mouth,  or 
the  road  from  Tarsus  to  Issus,  in  the  beautifu1 
plain  called  TO  'AAjJi'ov  nediov,  was  a  civitas  U- 
bera  under  the  Romans.  •  The  two  parts  of  th« 
city  were  connected  by  a  handsome  bridge  buih 
by  Constantius  over  the  Pyramus.  In  ecclesi- 
astical history,  it  is  notable  as  the  birth-placi 
of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia. 

MOPSUS  (Mcnpof).  1.  Son  of  Ampyx  or  Am- 
pycus  by  the  nymph  Chloris.  Being  a  seer,  he 
was  also  called  a  son  of  Apollo  by  Himantis. 
He  was  one  of  the  Lapithae  of  CEchalia  or  Ti- 
taeron  (Thessaly),  and  took  part  in  the  combat 
at  the  wedding  of  Pirithous.  He  was  one  of 
the  Calydonian  hunters,  and  also  one  of  the 
Argonauts,  and  was  a  famous  prophet  among 
the  Argonauts.  He  died  in  Libya  of  the  bite 
of  a  snake,  and  was  buried  there  by  the  Argo- 
nauts. He  was  afterward  worshipped  as  an 
oracular  hero. — 2.  Son  of  Apollo  and  Manto,  the 
daughter  of  Tiresias,  and  also  a  celebrated  seer. 
He  contended  in  prophecy  with  Calchas  at  Col- 
ophon, and  showed  himself  superior  to  the  Int- 
ter  in  prophetic  power.  Vid.  CALCIIAS.  He 
was  believed  to  have  founded  Mallos  in  Cilicia, 
in  conjunction  with  the  seer  Amphilochus.  A 
dispute  arose  between  the  two  seers  respecting 
the  possession  of  the  town,  and  both  fell  in 
combat  by  each  other's  hand.  Mopsus  had  an 
oracle  at  Mallos,  which  existed  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Strabo. 

MORO  ANTIUM,  MoROANTiNA,  MuROANTIA,  MoK 

OENTIA  (Mopyuvnov,  WiopyavrlvT)  •  Mopyavrfvof, 
Murgcntinus),  a  town  in  Sicily  founded  by  the 
Morgetes,  after  they  had  been  driven  out  of 
Italy  by  the  CEnotrians.  According  to  Livy 
(xxiv.,  27),  this  city  was  situated  on  the  east- 

525 


MORGETES. 


MOSEI.LA. 


ern  coast,  probably  at  the  mouth  of  the  Symse-  I  ii.,  1,  57) ;  but  the  best  artists  of  the  Greeks, 
thus ;  but,  according  to  other  writers,  it  was  ;  avoiding  any  thing  that  might  be  displeasing, 
situated  in  the  interior  of  the  island,  southeast  1  abandoned  the  idea  suggested  to  them  by  the 


of  Agyrium,  and  near  the  Symaethus.  The 
neighboring  country  produced  good  wine. 

MORGETES  (Mopy^rcf),  an  ancient  people  in 
the  south  of  Italy.  According  to  Strabo  they 
dwelt  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rhegium,  but,  be- 
ing driven  out  of  Italy  by  the  CEnotrians,  cross- 
ed over  to  Sicily,  and  there  founded  the  town 
of  Morgantium.  According  to  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus,  Merges  was  the  successor  of 
the  CEnotrian  king  Italus,  and  hospitably  re- 
ceived Siculus,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  Lati- 
um  by  the  Aborigines,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  earlier  OZnotrians  were  called  Italietes,  Mor- 
getcs,  and  Sieuli.  According  to  this  account, 
the  Morgetes  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  branch 
of  the  CEnotrians. 

MORIA  or  MORIJA  (Mupiov  3pof),  a  mountain 
of  Judsea,  within  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  on  the 
summit  of  which  the  temple  was  built.  Vid. 
JERUSALEM. 

[MORICAMBE  ^ESTDARIOM  (MoplKUftdf)  eifXWlf), 

now  Morecambe  Bay),  an  estuary  or  bay  on  the 
western  coast  of  Britannia.] 

MORIMENE  (Mopt/ievi?),  the  northwestern  dis- 
trict of  Cappadocia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Halys, 
assigned  under  the  Romans  to  Galatia.  Its 
meadows  were  entirely  devoted  to  the  feeding 
of  cattle. 

MORINI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  west  of 
the  Nervi:  and  Menapii,  and  the  most  northerly 
people  in  all  Gaul,  whence  Virgil  calls  them 
extremi  hominum  (JEn.,  viii.,  727).  They  dwelt 
on  the  coast,  opposite  Britain,  and  at  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  the  channel  between  Gaul  and 
Britain,  which  is  hence  sometimes  called  Fre- 
tum  Morinorum  or  Morinum.  They  were  a  brave 
and  warlike  people.  Their  country  was  cov- 
ered with  woods  and  marshes.  Their  princi- 
pal town  was  GESORIACUM. 

[MORITASGUS,  brother  of  Cavarinus,  king  of 
the  Senones  at  the  arrival  of  Caesar  in  Gaul.] 

MORIUS  (Mwptof),  a  small  river  in  Bceotia,  a 
southern  tributary  of  the  Cephisus,  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Thurion,  near  Chaeronea. 

MORMO  (Mop/uu,  also  JA.opfio^.vKr},  MopyuoAv/c- 
dov),  a  female  spectre,  with  which  the  Greeks 
used  to  frighten  children. 

MORPHEUS  (Mop^evf),  the  son  of  Sleep,  and 
the  god  of  dreams.  The  name  signifies  the 
fashioner  or  moulder,  because  he  shaped  or 
formed  the  dreams  which  appeared  to  the 
sleeper. 

MORS,   called  THANATOS   (Gdvaroj-)  by  the  .rian   and  bucolic  poet,  lived  about   B.C.  250. 


Greeks,  the  god  of  death.  In  the  Homeric  po- 
ems Death  does  not  appear  as  a  distinct  divin- 
ity, though  he  is  described  as  the  brother  of 
Sleep,  together  with  whom  he  carries  the  body 
of  Sarpedon  from  the  field  of  battle  to  the  coun- 
try of  the  Lycians.  In  Hesiod  he  is  a  son  of 
Night  and  a  brother  of  Ker  and  Sleep,  and 
Death  and  Sleep  reside  in  the  lower  world.  In 
the  Alcestis  of  Euripides,  where  Death  comes 
upon  the  stage,  he  appears  as  an  austere  priest 
of  Hades  in  a  dark  robe  and  with  the  sacrificial 
sword,  with  which  he  cuts  off  a  lock  of  a  dying 
person,  and  devotes  it  to  the  lower  world.  On 
the  whole,  later  poets  describe  Death  as  a  sad 
or  terrific  being  (Horat.,  Carm.,  i.,  4,  13;  Sat.* 
526 


poets,  and  represented  Death  under  a  more 
pleasing  aspect.  On  the  chest  of  Cypselus, 
Night  was  represented  with  two  boys,  one  black 
and  the  other  white ;  and  at  Sparta  there  were 
statues  of  both  Death  and  Sleep.  Both  were 
usually  represented  as  slumbering  youths,  or  as 
genii  with  torches  turned  upside  down.  There 
are  traces  of  sacrifices  having  been  offered 
tq  Death,  but  no  temples  are  mentioned  any 
where. 

[MORSIMUS  (Mopa^of),  son  of  Philocles,  and 
brother  of  Melanthius,  a  tragic  poet,  who,  as 
well  as  his  brother,  was  made  the  object  of  the 
bitterest  attacks  of  Aristophanes,  on  account 
of  both  his  dull  and  lifeless  poetry  and  his  de- 
based character.] 

MORYCHUS  (Mopujof),  a  tragic  poet,  a  con- 
temporary of  Aristophanes,  noted  especially  for 
his  gluttony  and  effeminacy. 

[MoRYs  (Mopvf),  son  of  Hippotion,  a  Phrygi- 
an, slain  by  Meriones  at  the  siege  of  Troy.] 

MOSA  (now  Maas  or  Meuse),  a  river  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  rises  in  Mount  Vogesus,  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Lingones,  flows  first  northeast  and 
then  northwest,  and  falls  into  the  Vahalis  or 
western  branch  of  the  Rhine. 

MOSCHA  (Moff^a :  now  Muscat),  an  important 
sea-port  on  the  northeastern  coast  of  Arabia 
Felix,  northwest  of  Syagrus,  the  easternmost 
promontory  of  the  peninsula  (now  Ras  el-Had): 
a  chief  emporium  for  the  trade  between  India 
and  Arabia. 

MOSCHI  (Mocr^ot),  a  people  of  Asia,  whose  ter- 
ritory (TJ  Mocr^tKw,  Moschorum  Tractus)  formed 
originally  the  southern  part  of  Colchis,  but,  at 
the  time  of  Augustus,  was  divided  between  Col- 
chis, Iberia,  and  Armenia. 

MOSCHICI  MoNTES   Or  -ICU8  MoNS   (TO.  Mo<T££- 

KU  opij:  now  Mesjidi),  a  range  of  mountains  ex- 
tending south  and  southwest  from  the  main 
chain  of  the  Caucasus  to  that  of  the  Anti-Tau- 
rus, and  forming  the  boundary  between  Colchis 
and  Iberia:  named  after  the  MOSCHI,  who  dwelt 
among  them.  Though  lofty,  they  were  well 
wooded  to  the  summit,  and  their  lower  slopes 
were  planted  with  vines. 

MOSCHION  (Moor^twv),  a  Greek  physician,  the 
author  of  a  short  Greek  treatise  "  On  Female 
Diseases,"  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  second  century  after  Christ.  The 
work  is  edited  by  Dewez,  Vienn.,  1793. 

MOSCHUS  (Mou^of),  of  Syracuse,  a  gramma- 


Suidas  says  that  he  was  acquainted  with  Aris- 
tarchus.  According  to  this  statement,  his  date 
ought  to  be  placed  later;  but  he  calls  himself  a 
pupil  of  Bion  in  the  idyl  in  which  he  bewails 
the  death  of  the  latter.  Fid.  BION.  There  are 
four  of  his  idyls  extant.  He  writes  with  ele- 
gance and  liveliness;  but  he  is  inferior  to  Bion, 
and  comes  still  further  behind  Theocritus.  His 
style  labors  under  an  excess  of  polish  and  or- 
nament. For  editions,  vid.  BION,  [and  add,  by 
Hermann,  Leipzig,  1849.] 

MOSELLA  (now  Mosel  or  Moselle),  a  river  in 
Gallia  Belgica,  rises  in  Mount  Vogesus,  flows 
northeast  through  the  territories  of  the  Treviri, 
and  falls  into  the  Rhine  at  Confluentes  (now 


MOSTENI. 

Coblenz)  This  river  forms  the  subject  of  a  de- 
scriptive poem  by  Ausonius. 

MOSTENI  (Moori/vot,  Mdortva,  MOVCTTV/VT/,  Mvs- 
rrjvrj),  a  city  of  Lydia,  in  the  Hyrcanian  plain, 
southeast  of  Thyatira,  was  one  of  the  cities  of 
Asia  Minor  destroyed  by  the  great  earthquake 
of  A. D.  17.  Its  coins  are  numerous. 

MOSYCHLUS.      Vid.  LEMNOS. 

MOSYNCECI  (M.oavvoiKoi,  MoacrvvoiKoi),  or  Mo- 
SYNI  or  MOSSYNI  (Moavvoi,  M-oavvvoi),  a  people 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Pontus, 
east  of  the  Chalybes  and  the  city  of  Cerasus, 
celebrated  for  their  warlike  spirit  and  savage 
customs,  which  are  described  by  Xenophon 
(Anab.,  iv.,  4;  v.,  4).  Their  name  was  derived 
from  the  conical  wooden  houses  in  which  they 
dwelt.  Their  government  was  very  curious  : 
a  king  chosen  by  them  was  strictly  guarded  in 
a  house  higher  than  the  rest,  and  maintained  at 
the  public  cost ;  but  as  soon  as  he  displeased 
the  commons,  they  literally  stopped  the  sup- 
flies,  and  starved  him  to  death. 

MOTHONE.     Vid.  METHONE. 

MOTUCA  (Morov/ca  :  Mutycensis  :  now  Medi- 
co), a  town  in  the  south  Of  Sicily,  west  of  the 
promontory  Pachynus  and  near  the  sources  of 
the  River  Motychanus  (now  Fiume  di  Ragusa). 
Since  both  Cicero  and  Pliny  call  the  inhabit- 
ants Mutycenses,  it  is  probable  that  Mutyca  is 
the  more  correct  form  of  the  name.  This  town 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  more  cele- 
brated MOTYA. 

MOTYA  (M.ori>r, :  Morvatof),  an  ancient  town 
in  the  northwest  of  Sicily,  situated  on  a  small 
island  (now  Isola  di  Mezzo)  only  six  stadia  from 
the  coast,  with  which  it  was  connected  by  a 
mole.  It  was  founded  by  the  Phoenicians  in  the 
territory  of  the  Elymi.  It  possessed  a  good 
harbor,  and  was  in  early  times  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  cities  of  Sicily.  It  afterward  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians,  was  taken 
from  them  by  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  and  was 
finally  captured  by  the  Cartnaginian  general 
Himilco,  who  transplanted  all  its  inhabitants  to 
the  town  of  Lilybaeum,  which  he  had  founded 
in  its  neighborhood  B.C.,  497.  From  this  time 
it  disappears  from  history. 

MOTYCHANDS.       Vid.  MoTUCA. 

MUCIA,  daughter  of  Q.  Mucius  Scaevola,  the 
augur,  consul  B.C.  95,  was  married  to  Cn.  Pom- 
pey,  by  whom  she  had  two  sons,  Cneius  and 
Sextus,  and  a  daughter,  Pompeia.  She  was  di- 
vorced by  Pompey  in  62.  She  next  married  M. 
..Emilius  Scaurus,  a  step-son  of  the  dictator 
Sulla.  In  39  Mucia  went  to  Sicily  to  mediate 
between  her  son  Sextus  Pompey  and  Augustus. 
She  was  living  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Ac- 
tium,  31.  Augustus  treated  her  with  great  re- 
spect. 

MUCIANUS.  1.  P.  LICINIUS  CRASSOS  DIVES 
MUCIANOS,  was  the  son  of  P.  Mucius  Scaevola, 
and  was  adopted  by  P.  Licinius  Crassus  Dives. 
He  was  consul  B.C.  131,  and  carried  on  the  war 
against  Aristonicus  in  Asia,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  latter.  He  succeeded  Scipio  Nasica  as 
pontifex  maximus.  He  was  distinguished  both 
as  an  orator  and  a  lawyer. — 2.  LicmTus  MUCIA- 
NUS, three  times  consul,  in  A.D.  52,  70,  and  75. 
On  Nero's  death  in  68,  Mucianus  had  the  com- 
mand of  the  province  of  Syria,  and  he  rendered 
efficient  aid  to  Vespasian  when  the  latter  re- 


MUMMIUS. 

solved  to  seize  the  imperial  throne.  As  soou 
as  Vespasian  was  proclaimed  emperor,  Mucia- 
nus set  out  for  Europe  to  oppose  Vitellius  ;  but 
the  Vitellians  were  entirely  defeated  by  Anto- 
nius  Primus  (md.  PRIMUS),  before  Mucianus  en- 
tered Italy.  Antonius,  however,  had  to  sur- 
render all  power  into  the  hands  of  Mucianus, 
upon  the  arrival  of  the  latter  at  Rome.  Mucia- 
nus was  an  orator  and  a  historian.  His  pow- 
ers of  oratory  are  greatly  praised  by  Tacitus 
He  made  a  collection  of  the  speeches  of  the  re- 
publican period,  which  he  published  in  eleven 
books  of  Acta  and  three  of  Epistolce.  The  sub- 
ject of  his  history  is  not  mentioned,  but  it  ap- 
pears to  have  treated  chiefly  of  the  East. 

Mucius  SCAEVOLA.     Vid.  SCAEVOLA. 

MUGILLA  (Mugillanus),  a  town  in  Latium,  near 
Corioli,  from  which  a  family  of  the  Papirii  prob- 
ably derived  their  name  Mugillanus. 

MULCIBER,  a  surname  of  Vulcan,  which  seems 
to  have  been  given  to  him  as  an  euphemism,  that 
he  might  not  consume  the  habitations  and  prop- 
erty of  men,  but  might  kindly  aid*them  in  their 
pursuits.  It  occurs  frequently  in  the  Latin 
poets. 

[Munus  (MovXioc).  1.  Son-in-law  of  Augeas, 
and  husband  of  Agamede,  slain  by  Nestor. — 2. 
Name  of  two  noble  Trojans,  of  whom  one  was 
slain  by  Patroclus,  the  other  by  Achilles. — 3. 
Herald  and  attendant  of  the  suitor  Amphino. 
mus  of  Dulichium.] 

MULUCHA,  MALVA,  or  MOLOCHATH  (MdAo^ad: 
now  Wad  d  Mulwia,  or  Mohalou,  or  Sourb-ou- 
Herb),  the  largest  river  of  Mauretania,  rising  in 
the  Atlas,  and  flowing  north  by  east  into  the 
Gulf  of  Melillah,  has  been  successively  ».he 
boundary  between  the  Mauri  and  the  Massae- 
sylii,  Mauretania  and  Numidia,  Mauretania  Tin- 
gitana  and  Mauretania  Caesariensis,  Morocco 
and  Algier.  Compare  MAURETANIA. 

MUMMIUS.  1.  L-,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
187,  and  praetor  177. — 2.  L.,  surnamed  ACHAI- 
cus,  son  of  the  last,  was  praetor  154,  when  he 
carried  on  the  war  successfully  in  further  Spain 
against  the  Lusitanians.  He  was  consul  in  146, 
when  he  won  for  himself  the  surname  of  Acha- 
icus  by  the  conquest  of  Greece  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia. 
After  defeating  the  army  of  the  Achaean  league 
at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  he  entered  Corinth 
without  opposition.  The  city  was  burned,  razed 
and  abandoned  to  pillage ;  the  native  Corinth- 
ians were  sold  for  slaves,  and  the  rarest  speci- 
mens of  Grecian  art  were  given  up  to  thft 
rapacity  of  an  ignorant  conqueror.  Polybiua 
the  historian  saw  Roman  soldiers  playing  at 
draughts  upon  the  far-famed  picture  of  Bacchus 
(Dionysus)  by  Aristides  ;  and  Mummius  him 
self  was  so  unconscious  of  the  real  value  of 
his  prize,  that  he  sold  the  rarer  works  of  paint 
ing,  sculpture,  and  carving  to  the  King  of  Per- 
gamus,  and  exacted  securities  from  the  masters 
of  vessels  who  conveyed  the  remainder  to  Italy 
to  replace  by  equivalents  any  picture  or  statue ' 
lost  or  injured  in  the  passage.  He  remained  in 
Greece  during  the  greater  part  of  146  wijl,  the 
title  of  proconsul.  He  arranged  the  fiscal  and 
municipal  constitution  of  the  newly-acquired 
province,  and  won  the  confidence  and  esteem 
of  the  provincials  by  his  integrity,  justice,  and 
equanimity.  He  triumphed  in  145.  He  was 

527 


MUNATIUS  PLA  *CUS 

censor  in  142  with  Scipio  Africanus  the  youn- 
ger. The  political  opinions  of  Mummius  in- 
clined to  the  popular  side. — 3.  Sp.,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  and  his  legatus  at  Corinth  in 
140-145,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  younger 
Scipio  Africanus.  In  political  opinions  Spurius 
was  opposed  to  his  brother  Lucius,  and  was  a 
high  aristocrat.  He  composed  ethical  and  satir- 
ical epistles,  which  were  extant  in  Cicero's  age, 
and  were  probably  in  the  style  which  Horace 
afterward  cultivated  so  successfully. 

MUNATIUS  PLANCUS.     Vid.  PLANCUS. 

MUNDA.  1.  A  Roman  colony  and  an  impgrtant 
town  in  Hispania  Baetica,  situated  on  a  small 
river,  and  celebrated  on  account  of  two  battles 
fought  in  its  neighborhood,  the  victory  of  Cn. 
Scipio  over  the  Carthaginians  in  B.C.  216,  and 
the  important  victory  of  Julius  Caesar  over  the 
sons  of  Pompey  in  45.  The  town  had  fallen 
into  decay  as  early  as  the  time  of  Pliny.  The 
site  of  the  ancient  town  is  usually  supposed  to 
be  the  modern  village  of  Monda,  southwest  of 
Malaga  ;  bu>  Munda  was  more  probably  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Cordova,  and  there  are  ruins 
of  ancient  walls  and  towers  between  Martos, 
Alcandete,  Espejo,  and  Baena  which  are  con- 
jectured to  be  the  remains  of  Munda. — 2.  A 
river.  Vid.  MONDA. 

MUNYCHIA  (Movvvx'ia),  a  hill  in  the  peninsula 
of  Piraeus,  which  formed  the  citadel  of  the  ports 
of  Athens.  It  was  strongly  fortified,  and  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  Athenian  history.  At  its 
foot  lay  the  harbor  of  Munychia,  one  of  the 
three  harbors  in  the  peninsula  of  Piraeus,  forti- 
fied by  Themistocles.  The  names  of  these 
three  harbors  were  Piraeus,  Zea,  and  Munychia. 
The  last  was  the  smallest  and  the  most  easter- 
ly of  the  three,  and  is  called  at  the  present  day 
Phanari :  Zea  was  situated  between  Piraeus  and 
Munychia.  Most  topographers  have  erroneous- 
ly supposed  Phanari  to  be  Phaleron,  and  Zea  to 
be  Munychia.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor  of 
Munychia  was  very  narrow,  and  could  be  closed 
by  a  chain.  The  hill  of  Munychia  contained 
several  public  buildings.  Of  these  the  most 
important  were,  (1  )  A  temple  of  Diana  (Arte- 
mis) Munychia,  in  which  persons  accused  of 
crimes  against  the  state  took  refuge  :  (2.)  The 
Bendideum,  the  sanctuary  of  the  Thracian  Ar- 
temis Bendis,  in  whose  honor  the  festival  of 
the  Bendidea  was  celebrated  :  (3.)  The  theatre 
on  the  northwestern  slope  of  the  hill,  in  which 
the  assemblies  of  the  people  were  sometimes 
held. 

MORCIA,  MURTEA,  or  MURTIA,  a.  surname  of 
Venus  at  Rome,  where  she  had  a  chapel  in  the 
circus,  with  a  statue.  This  surname,  which  is 
said  to  be  the  same  as  Myrtea  (from  myrtus,  a 
myrtle),  was  believed  to  indicate  the  fondness 
of  the  goddess  for  the  myrtle  tree.  In  ancient 
times  there  is  said  to  have  been  a  myrtle  grove 
in  the  front  of  her  chapel  at  the  foot  of  the 
Aventine. 

MURCUS,  L.  STATIUS,  was  Caesar's  legatus 
B.C.  48,  and  praetor  45.  He  went  into  Syria 
after  his  year  of  office  expired  ;  and  after  Cae- 
sar's death  became  an  active  supporter  of  the 
republican  party.  Cassius  appointed  him  pre- 
fect of  the  fleet.  After  the  ruin  of  the  republi- 
can party  at  Philippi  in  42,  Murcus  went  over 
to  Sextus  Pompey  in  Sicily.  Here  he  was  as- 
528 


MURGIS. 

sassmated  by  Pompey's  order  at  the  instigation 
of  his  freedman  Menas,  to  whom  Murcus  had 
borne  himself  loftily. 

MURENA,  LICINIUS.  The  nameMurena,  which 
is  the  proper  way  of  writing  the  word,  not  Mu- 
raena,  is  said  to  have  been  given  in  consequence 
of  one  of  the  family  having  a  great  liking  for 
the  lamprey  (murena),  and  building  tanks  (viva- 
ria) for  them.  1.  P.,  a  man  of  some  literary 
knowledge,  lost  his  life  in  the  wars  of  Marius 
and  Sulla,  B.C.  82.— 2.  L.,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, served  under  Sulla  in  Greece,  in  the 
Mithradatic  war.  After  Sulla  had  made  peace 
with  Mithradates  (84),  Murena  was  left  as  pro- 
praetor in  Asia.  Anxious  for  distinction,  Mure- 
na sought  a  quarrel  with  Mithradates  ;  and  after 
carrying  on  the  war  for  two  years,  was  at  length 
compelled  by  the  strict  orders  of  Sulla  to  stop 
hostilities.  Vid.  p.  520,  a.  Murena  returned 
to  Rome,  and  had  a  triumph  in  81.  He  proba- 
bly died  soon  after. — 3.  L.,  son  of  the  last, 
served  under  his  father  in  the  second  Mithra- 
datic war,  and  also  under  Lucullus  in  the  third 
Mithradatic  war.  In  65  he  was  praetor,  in  64 
propraetor  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  and  in  63  was 
elected  consul  with  D.  Junius  Silanus.  Servius 
Sulpicius,  an  unsuccessful  candidate,  instituted 
a  prosecution  against  Murena  for  bribery  (am- 
bitus), and  he  was  supported  in  the  matter  by 
M.  Porcius  Cato,  Cn.  Postumius,  and  Servius 
Sulpicius  the  younger.  Murena  was  defended 
by  Q.  Hortensius,  M.  Tullius  Cicero,  who  was 
then  consul,  and  M.  Licinius  Crassus.  The 
speech  of  Cicero,  which  is  extant,  was  deliver- 
ed in  the  latter^part  of  November.  The  orator 
handled  his  subject  skillfully,  by  making  merry 
with  the  formulae  and  the  practice  of  the  law- 
yers, to  which  class  Sulpicius  belonged,  and 
with  the  paradoxes  of  the  Stoics,  to  wh/,h  sect 
Cato  had  attached  himself.  Murena  was  ac- 
quitted, and  was  consul  in  the  following  year, 
62. — 4.  A.  TERENTIUS  VARRO  MURENA,  probably 
the  son  of  the  preceding,  was  adopted  by  A.  Te- 
rentius  Varro,  whose  name  he  took,  according 
to  the  custom  in  such  cases.  In  the  civil  wars 
he  is  said  to  have  lost  his  property,  and  C.  Pro- 
culeius,  a  Roman  eques,  is  said  to  have  given 
him  a  share  of  his  own  property.  This  Procu- 
leius  is  called  the  brother  of  Varro,  but,  if  we 
take  the  words  of  Horace  literally  (Carm.,  ii., 
2),  Proculeius  had  more  than  one  brother.  It 
is  conjectured  that  this  Proculeius  was  a  son 
of  the  brother  of  No.  3,  who  had  been  adopted 
by  one  Proculeius.  This  would  make  Procu- 
leius the  cousin  of  Varro.  It  was  common 
enough  among  the  Romans  to  call  cousins  by 
the  name  of  brothers  (frater  patruelis  andfrater). 
In  25  Murena  subdued  the  Salassi  in  the  Alps, 
and  founded  the  town  of  Augusta  (now  Aosta)  in 
their  territory.  He  was  consul  suffectus  in  23. 
In  22  he  was  involved  in  the  conspiracy  of  Fan- 
nius  Caepio,  and  was  condemned  to  death  and 
executed,  notwithstanding  the  intercession  of 
Proculeius  and  Terentia,  the  sister  of  Murena. 
Horace  (Carm.,  ii.,  1C)  addresses  Murena  by  the 
name  of  Licinius,  and  probably  intended  to  give 
him  some  advice  as  to  being  more  cautious  in 
his  speech  and  conduct. 

MURGANTIA.         1.     Vid.    MoRGAKTIUM. —  2.    A 

town  in  Samnium  of  uncertain  site. 
MURGIS,  a  town  in  Hispania  Baetica,  on  the 


MURIDUNUM. 

frontiers  of  Tarraconensis,  and  on  the  road  from 
Acci  to  Malaga. 

MfRiDUNCM  or  MORIDUNUM  (now  Dorchester), 
called  DUNIUM  by  Ptolemy,  the  capital  of  the  i 
Durotriges  in  the  south  of  Britain.    At  Dorches- 
ter there  are  remains  of  the  waHs  and  the  am- 
ohitheatre  of  the  ancient  town. 

[MuRRANus.  a  companion  of  Turnus,  slain  by  j 
/Eneas  in  Italy.] 

MURSA  or  M'UKSIA  (now  Esseck,  capital  of  Sla-  ; 
vonia),  an  important  town  in  Pannonia  Inferior, 
situated  on  the  Dravus,  not  far  from  its  junction 
with  the  Danube,  was  a  Roman  colony  founded 
by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  was  the  residence 
of  the  governor  of  Lower  Pannonia.  HereMag- 
nentius  was  defeated  by  Constantius  II.,  A.D. 
351. 

MURSELLA,  or  MURSA  MINOR,  a  town  in  Pan- 
nonia Inferior,  only  ten  miles  west  of  the  great 
Mursa. 

Mus,  DECIUS.     Vid.  DECIUS. 

MUSA,  ANTONIUS,  a  celebrated  physician  at 
Rome  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
He  was  brother  to  Euphorbus,  the  physician  to 
King  Juba,  and  was  himself  the  physician  to  the 
Emperor  Augustus.  He  had  been  originally  a 
slave.  When  the  emperor  was  seriously  ill,  and 
had  been  made  worse  by  a  hot  regimen  and 
treatment,  B.C.  23,  Antonius  Musa  succeeded 
in  restoring  him  to  health  by  means  of  cold 
bathing  and  cooling  drinks,  for  which  service 
he  received  from  Augustus  and  the  senate  a 
large  sum  of  money  and  the  permission  to  wear 
a  gold  ring,  and  also  had  a  statue  erected  in  his 
honor  near  that  of  ^Esculapius  by  public  sub- 
scription. He  seems  to  have  been  attached  to 
this  mode  of  treatment,  to  which  Horace  alludes 
(Epist.,  i.,  15,  3),  but  failed  when  he  applied  it 
to  the  case  of  M.  Marcellus,  who  died  under  his 
care  a  few  months  after  the  recovery  of  Au- 
gustus, 23.  He  wrote  several  pharmaceutical 
works,  which  are  frequently  quoted  by  Galen, 
but  of  which  nothing  except  a  few  fragments 
remain.  There  are,  however,  two  short  Latin 
medical  works  ascribed  to  Antonius  Musa,  but 
these  are  universally  considered  to  be  spurious. 

MUSA  or  MUZA  (Movaa,  Mo££a  :  now  probably 
Moushid,  north  of  Mokha),  a  celebrated  port  of 
Arabia  Felix,  on  the  western  coast,  near  its 
southern  extremity,  or,  in  other  words,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  near  the  Straits 
of  Bab-d-Mandtb. 

MUS^E  (Movoai),  the  Muses,  were,  according 
to  the  earliest  writers,  the  inspiring  goddesses 
of  song,  and,  according  to  later  notions,  divini- 
ties presiding  over  the  different  kinds  of  poetry, 
and  over  the  arts  and  sciences.  They  were 
originally  regarded  as  the  nymphs  of  inspiring 
wells,  near  which  they  were  worshipped,  and 
they  bore  different  names  in  different  places, 
until  the  Thraco-Boeotian  worship  of  the  nine 
Muses  spread  from  Bceotia  over  other  parts  of 
Greece,  and  ultimately  became  generally  estab- 
lished. 1 .  Genealogy  of  the  Muses.  The  most 
common  notion  was  thaj  they  were  the  daugh- 
ters of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Mnemosyne,  and  born 
in  Pieria,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olympus.  Some 
call  them  the  daughters  of  Ccelus  (Uranus)  and 
Terra  (Gaca),  and  others  daughters  of  Pierus 
and  Antiope,  or  of  Apollo,  or  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Plusia,  or  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Moneta, 
34 


MUS/E. 

probably  a  mere  translation  of  Mnemosyne  or 
Mneme,  whence  they  are  called  Mnemonides,  or 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Minerva,  or,  lastly,  of 
JSther  and  Terra  (Gaea). — 2  Number  of  the  Mu- 
ses. Originally  there  were  three  Muses  wor- 
shipped on  Mount  Helicon  in  Bceotia,  namely, 
Melcte  (meditation),  Mncme  (memory),  and  Aoidc 
(song).  Three  Muses  also  were  recognized  at 
Sicyon  and  at  Delphi.  As  daughters  of  Jupitc  r 
(Zeus)  and  Plusia  we  find  mention  of  four  Mu 
ses,  viz.,  Thelxinoe  (the  heart  delighting),  Aoide 
(song),  Arche  (beginning),  and  Melcte.  Some 
accounts,  in  which  they  are  called  daughters  of 
Pierus,  mention  seven  Muses,  viz.,  Nilo,  Tri- 
tone,  Asopo,  Heptapora,  Achclois,  Tipoplo,  and 
Rhodia ;  and  others,  lastly,  mention  eight,  which 
is  also  said  to  have  been  the  number  recognized 
at  Athens.  At  length,  however,  the  number 
nine  became  established  throughout  all  Greece. 
Homer  sometimes  mentions  Musa  only  in  the 
singular,  and  sometimes  Musse  in  the  plural,  and 
once  only  he  speaks  of  nine  Muses,  though  with- 
out mentioning  any  of  their  names.  Hesiod  is 
the  first  who  states  the  names  of  all  the  nine, 
and  these  nine  names  became  the  usual  ones. 
They  are  Clio,  Euterpe,  Thalia,  Melpomene, 
Terpsichore,  Erato,  Polymnia  or  Polyhymnia, 
Urania,  and  Calliope. — 3.  Nature  and  character 
of  the  Muses.  In  Homer's  poems,  they  are  the 
goddesses  of  song  and  poetry,  and  live  in  Olym 
pus.  There  they  sing  the  festive  songs  at  the 
repast  of  the  immortals.  They  bring  before  the 
mind  of  the  mortal  poet  the  events  which  he 
has  to  relate,  and  confer  upon  him  the  gift  of 
song.  The  earliest  poets  in  their  invocation  of 
the  Muse  or  Muses  were  perfectly  sincere,  and 
actually  believed  in  their  being  inspired  by  the 
goddesses  ;  but  in  later  times  the  invocation  of 
the  Muses  was  a  mere  formal  imitation  of  the 
early  poets.  Thamyris,  who  presumed  to  excel 
the  Muses,  was  deprived  by  them  of  the  gift 
they  had  bestowed  on  him,  and  punished  with 
blindness.  The  Sirens,  who  likewise  ventured 
upon  a  contest  with  them,  were  deprived  of  Ihr 
feathers  of  their  wings,  and  the  Muses  put  them 
on  their  own  persons  as  ornaments.  The  nino 
daughters  of  Pierus,  who  presumed  to  rival  the 
Muses,  were  metamorphosed  into  birds.  Since 
poets  and  bards  derived  their  power  from  the 
Muses,  they  are  frequently  called  either  their 
disciples  or  sons.  Thus  Linus  is  called  a  son 
of  Amphimarus  and  Urania,  or  of  Apollo  and 
Calliope,  or  Terpsichore  ;  Hyacinthus  a  son  of 
Pierus  and  Clio ;  Orpheus  a  son  of  Calliope  01 
Clio,  and  Thamyris  a  son  of  Erato.  These  and 
a  few  others  are  the  cases  in  which  the  Muses 
are  described  as  mothers  ;  but  the  more  gener- 
al idea  was,  that,  like  other  nymphs,  they  were 
virgin  divinities.  Being  goddesses  of  song, 
they  were  naturally  connected  with  Apollo,  the 
god  of  the  lyre,  who,  like  them,  instructs  the 
bards,  and  is  mentioned  along  with  them  even 
by  Homer.  In  later  times  Apollo  is  placed  in 
very  close  connection  with  the  Muses,  for  he 
is  described  as  the  leader  of  the  choir  of  the 
Muses  by  the  surname  Musageles  (Movtraycr^f). 
A  further  feature  in  the  character  of  the  Muses 
is  their  prophetic  power,  which  belongs  to  them, 
partly  because  they  were  regarded  as  inspiring 
nymphs,  and  partly  because  of  their  connection 
with  the  prophetic  god  of  Delphi.  Hence  thev 

529 


MUS^US. 

instructed,  for  example,  Aristams  in  the  art  of 
prophecy.  As  the  Muses  loved  to  dwell  on 
Mount  Helicon,  they  were  naturally  associated 
with  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  and  dramatic  poetry, 
and  hence  they  are  described  as  the  compan- 
ions, playmates,  or  nurses  of  Bacchus  (Diony- 
sus). The  worship  of  the  Muses  points  origi- 
nally to  Thrace  and  Pieria  ahout  Mount  Olym- 
pus, whence  it  was  introduced  into  Bceotia  ;  and 
the  names  of  mountains,  grottoes,  and  wells, 
connected  with  their  worship  in  the  north,  were 
likewise  transferred  to  the  south.  Near  Mount 
Helicon,  Ephialtes  and  Otus  are  said  to  have 
offered  the  first  sacrifices  to  them.  In  the  same 
place  there  was  a  sanctuary  with  their  statues, 
the  sacred  wells  Aganippe  and  Hippocrene,  and 
on  Mount  Lihethrion,  which  is  connected  with 
Helicon,  there  was  a  sacred  grotto  of  the  Mu- 
ses. Pierus,  a  Macedonian,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  introduced  the  worship  of 
the  nine  Muses,  from  Thrace  to  Thespiae,  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Helicon.  There  they  had  a  tem- 
ple and  statues,  and  the  Thespians  celebrated  a 
solemn  festival  of  the  Muses  on  Mount  Helicon, 
called  Musea.  Mount  Parnassus  was  likewise 
sacred  to  them,  with  the  Castalian  spring,  near 
which  they  had  a  temple.  The  sacrifices  offer- 
ed to  the  Muses  consisted  of  libations  of  water 
or  milk,  and  of  honey.  The  various  surnames 
by  which  they  are  designated  by  the  poets  are 
for  the  most  part  derived  from  the  places  which 
were  sacred  to  them  or  in  which  they  were 
worshipped,  while  some  are  descriptive  of  the 
sweetness  of  their  songs. — 4.  Representations  of 
the  Muses  in  works  of  art.  In  the  most  ancient 
works  of  art  we  find  only  three  Muses,  and  their 
attributes  are  musical  instruments,  such  as  the 
flute,  the  lyre,  or  the  barbiton.  Later  artists 
gave  to  each  of  the  nine  sisters  different  attri- 
butes as  well  as  different  attitudes.  1.  Calliope, 
the  Muse  of  epic  poetry,  appears  with  a  tablet 
and  stylus,  and  sometimes  with  a  roll  of  paper ; 
2.  Clio,  the  Muse  of  history,  appears  in  a  sitting 
attitude,  with  an  open  roll  of  paper,  or  an  open 
chest  of  books ;  3.  Euterpe,  the  Muse  of  lyric 
poetry,  with  a  flute  ;  4.  Melpomene,  the  Muse  of 
tragedy,  with  a  tragic  mask,  the  club  of  Hercu- 
les, or  a  sword  ;  her  head  is  surrounded  with 
vine  leaves,  and  she  wears  the  cothurnus  ;  5. 
Terpsichore,  the  Muse  of  choral  dance  and  song, 
appears  with  the  lyre  and  the  plectrum  ;  6.  Era- 
to, the  Muse  of  erotic  poetry  and  mimic  imita- 
tion, sometimes  also  has  the  lyre  ;  7.  Polymnm 
or  Polyhymnia,  the  Muse  of  the  sublime  hymn, 
usually  appears  without  any  attribute,  in  a  pen- 
si  ve  or  meditating  attitude  ;  8.  Urania,  the  Muse 
of  astronomy,  with  a  staff  pointing  to  a  globe  ; 
9.  Thalia,  the  Muse  of  comedy  and  of  merry  or 
idyllic  poetry,  appears  with  a  comic  mask,  a 
shepherd's  staff,  or  a  wreath  of  ivy.  Some- 
times the  Muses  are  seen  with  feathers  on  their 
heads,  alluding  to  their  contest  with  the  Sirens. 
MUSJEOS  (Mouaatof).  1.  A  semi-mythological 
personage,  to  be  classed  with  Olen,  Orpheus,  and 
Pamphus.  He  was  regarded  as  the  author  of 
various  poetical  compositions,  especially  as  con- 
nected with  the  mystic  rites  of  Ceres  (Demeter) 
at  Eleusis,  over  which  the  legend  represented 
him  as  presiding  in  the  time  of  Hercules.  He 
was  reputed  to  belong  to  the  family  of  the  Eu- 
TOolpidae,  being  the  son  of  Eumolpus  and  Selene. 
530 


MUTINES. 

In  other  variations  of  the  myth  he  was  less  def- 
initely called  a  Thracian.     According  to  other 
legends,  he  was  the  son  of  Orpheus,  of  whom 
he  was  generally  considered  as  the  imitator  and 
disciple.     Some  accounts  gave  him  a  wife  De 
ioce  and  a  son  Eumolpus.     There  was  a  tradi- 
tion that  the  Museum  in  Pirajus  bore  that  name 
I  from  having  been  the  place  where  Musaeus  was 
\  buried.    Among  the  numerous  compositions  at- 
I  tributed  to  him  by  the  ancients,  the  most  cele- 
I  brated  were  his  Oracles.     Onomacritus,  in  the 
time  of  the  Pisistratidte,  made  it  his  business 
to  collect  and  arrange  the  oracles  that  passed 
under  the  name  of  Museeus,  and  was  banished 
i  by  Hipparchus  for  interpolating  in  the  collection 
I  oracles  of  his  own  making. — 2.  A  grammarian, 
i  the  author  of  the  celebrated  poem  on  the  loves 
of  Hero  and  Leander.    Nothing  is  known  of 
i  the  personal  history  of  the  writer ;  but  it  is 
!  certain  that  the  poem  is  a  late  production, 
i  Some  critics  suppose  that  the  author  did  not 
|  live  earlier  than  the  fifth  century  of  our  era. 
Edited  by  Passow,  Lips.,  1810  ;  and  by  Schae- 
fer,  Lips.,  1825. 

MUSAGETES.  Vid.  MUS.S:. 
MCSONIUS  RUFUS,  C.,  a  celebrated  Stoic  phi- 
losopher, was  the  son  of  a  Roman  eques,  and 
was  banished  by  Nero  to  the  island  of  Gyaros 
in  A.D.  66,  under  the  pretext  of  his  having  been 
privy  to  the  conspiracy  of  Piso.  He  returned 
from  exile  on  the  accession  of  Galba,  and  seems 
to  have  been  held  in  high  estimation  by  Vespa- 
sian, as  he  was  allowed  to  remain  at  Rome 
when  the  other  philosophers  were  banished 
from  the  city.  Musonius  wrote  various  philo- 
sophical works,  all  of  which  have  perished. 

MUSTI  (M-ovarr/),  a  town  in  the  Carthaginian 
territory  (Zeugitana),  near  the  River  Bagradas, 
on  the  road  from  Carthage  to  Sicca  Veneria. 
Here  Regulus  killed  an  enormous  serpent. 

MUTHUL,  a  river  of  Numidia,  the  boundary 
between  the  kingdoms  of  Jugurtba  and  Adher- 
bal.  It  is  probably  the  same  as  the  RUBRICA- 

T0S. 

[MuTiLDM,  a  fortified  place  in  Gallia  Cispa- 
dana,  between  the  rivers  Gabellus  and  Scul 
tenna,  answering  probably  to  the  modern  Me 
dolo.] 

MUTILUS,  C.  PAPIUS,  one  of  the  principal  Sam- 
nite  generals  in  the  Marsic  war,  B.C.  90-89. 

MUTINA  (Mutinensis :  now  Modena),  an  im- 
portant town  in  Gallia  Cispadana,  on  the  high 
road  from  Mediolanum  to  the  south  of  Italy, 
was  originally  a  Celtic  town,  and  was  the  first  « 
place  which  the  Romans  took  away  from  the 
Boii.  It  is  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  Punic  war  (B.C.  218)  under  the  name 
of  Motina,  as  a  fortified  place  inhabited  by  the 
Romans ;  but  it  was  not  till  183  that  it  was 
I  made  a  Roman  colony.  Mutina  is  celebrated 
j  in  the  history  of  the  civil  war  after  Caesar's 
death.  Decimus  Brutus  was  besieged  here  by 
M.  Antonius  fsom  December,  44,  to  April,  43  ; 
and  under  its  walls  the  battles  were  fought  in 
which  the  consuls  Hirtius  and  Pansa  perished. 
Hence  this  war  was  called  the  Bellum  Muti- 
ncnse.  The  best  wool  in  all  Italy  came  from 
the  neighborhood  of  Mutina. 

[MUTINES  (Movrivaf,  or  Mrrroyaf,  Polyb.),  a 
Lybio-Phcenician,  an  active  and  able  officer  of 
Hannibal,  selected  by  him  to  take  command  IB 


MUTUNUS. 

.Sicily  after  the  death  of  Hippocrates.  He  prov- 
ed a  source  of  great  annoyance  to  the  Romans, 
and  baffled  all  their  efforts  to  capture  or  subdue 
him  ;  but  at  length,  having  been  superseded 
through  the  jealousy  of  Hanno,  he  betrayed 
Agrigentiim  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  who 
rewarded  him  with  the  rights  of  citizenship, 
and  bestowed  other  honors  on  him.] 

MUTUNUS  or  MUTINUS,  was  among  the  Ro- 
mans the  same  as  the  phallus,  or  Priapus,  among 
the  Greeks,  and  was  believed  to  be  the  most 
powerful  averter  of  demons,  and  of  all  evil  that 
resulted  from  pride,  boastfulness,  and  the  like. 

[MuTTCA.        Vid.  MoTUCA.]" 

[MuziRis  (Mov^ipif  or  Mot'fot-ptf  :  now  Mird- 
jan),  a  port  of  the  district  Limyrica,  on  the 
west  coast  of  India  intra  Gangem,  five  hundred 
stadia  (fifty  geographical  miles)  east  of  Tyndis, 
where  vessels  usually  landed.] 

M.YCALE  (Mu/tuA?  :  now  Samsun),  a  mountain 
in  the  south  of  Ionia  in  Asia  Minor,  north  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Masander.  It  forms  the  west- 
ern extremity  of  Mount  Messogis,  and  runs  far 
out  into  the  sea,  opposite  to  Samos,  forming  a 
sharp  promontory,  which  was  called  Mycale  or 
Trogilium  (Tpuyl\iov,  Tpuyv'kiov  :  now  Cape  S. 
Maria).  This  cape  and  the  southeast  promon- 
tory of  Samos  (Posidonium)  overlap  one  an- 
other, and  the  two  tongues  of  land  are  separat- 
ed by  a  strait  only  seven  stadia  (little  more  than 
three  fourths  of  a  mile)  in  width,  which  is  re- 
nowned in  Greek  history  as  the  scene  of  the 
victory  gained  over  the  Persian  fleet  by  Leo- 
tychides  and  Xanthippus,  B.C.  479.  There 
seems  to  have  been  a  city  of  the  same  name 
on  or  near  the  promontory.  On  the  northern 
side  of  the  promontory,  near  Priene,  was  the 
great  temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  which  was 
the  place  of  meeting  for  the  Panionic  festival 
and  Amphictyony. 

MVCALESSUS  (MuKo^ffffOf  :  MvKa^dffiof),  an 
ancient  and  important  city  in  Bceotia,  mention- 
ed by  Homer,  was  situated  on  the  road  from 
*  Aulis  to  Thebes.  In  B.C.  413  some  Thracian 
mercenaries  in  the  pay  of  Athens  surprised  and 
sacked  the  town,  and  butchered  the  inhabitants. 
From  this  blow  it  never  recovered,  and  was  in 
ruins  in  the  time  of  Pausanias.  It  possessed  a 
celebrated  temple  of  Ceres  (Demeter),  who  was 
hence  surnamed  Mycalessia. 

MYCENAE,  sometimes  MYCKNE  (MvKTjvai,  Mv- 
KT,VT/  :  Mv/ofvatof :  now  Karvata),  an  ancient 
t  town  in  Argolis,  about  six  miles  northeast  of 
Argos,  is  situated  on  a  hill  at  the  head  of  a  nar- 
row valley,  and  is  hence  described  by  Homer 
as  "  in  a  recess  (pvxv)  of  the  Argive  land :" 
hence  the  etymology  of  the  name.  Mycenae  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Perseus,  and  was 
subsequently  the  favorite  residence  of  the  Pe- 
lopidae.  During  the  reign  of  Agamemnon  it 
was  regarded  as  the  first  city  in  all  Greece, 
but  after  the  conquest  of  Peloponnesus  by  the 
Dorians  it  ceased  to  be  a  place  of  importance. 
It  still,  however,  continued  an  independent  town 
till  B.C.  468,  when  it  was  attacked  by  the  Ar- 
gives,  whose  hatred  the  Mycenaeans  are  said  to 
have  incurred  by. the  part  they  took  in  the  Per- 
sian war  in  favor  of  the  Greek  cause.  The 
massive  walls  of  Mycenae  resisted  all  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Argives  ;  but  the  inhabitants  were 
at  length  compelled  by  famine  to  abandon  their 


MYGDON. 

town.  They  effected  their  escape  without  a 
surrender,  and  took  refuge,  some  at  C!eona\ 
some  in  Achaia,  and  others  in  Macedonia.  My- 
cenae wa"s  now  destroyed  by  the  Argives  and 
!  was  never  rebuilt ;  but  there  are  still  numerous 
j  remains  of  the  ancient  city,  which,  on  account 
of  their  antiquity  and  grandeur,  are  some  of 
j  the  most  interesting  in  all  Greece.  Of  these 
|  the  most  remarkable  are  the  subterranean  vault, 
commonly  called  the  "Treasury  of  Atreus,"  but 
which  was  more  probably  a  sepulchre,  and  the 
Gate  of  Lions,  so  called  from  two  lions  sculp- 
tured over  the  gate. 

MYCENE  (Mu/o/i^),  daughter  of  Inachus  and 
wife  of  Arestor,  from  whom  the  town  of  My- 
cenee  was  believed  to  have  derived  its  name  . 
the  true  etymology  of  the  name  is  given  above. 

MYCERINUS  or  MECKERINUS  (Wlvncplvoc,  Meye- 
pivof),  son  of  Cheops,  king  of  Egypt,  succeeded 
his  uncle  Chephren  on  the  throne.  His  con- 
duct formed  a  strong  contrast  to  that  of  his  fa- 
ther and  uncle,  being  as  mild  and  just  as  theirs 
had  been  tyrannical.  On  the  death  of  his  daugh- 
ter, he  placed  her  corpse  within  the  hollow  body 
of  a  wooden  cow,  which  was  covered  with  gold. 
Herodotus  tells  us  that  it  was  still  to  be  seen 
at  SaTs  in  his  time.  We  further  hear  of  My- 
cerinus  that,  being  warned  by  an  oracle  that  he 
should  die  at  the  end  of  %six  years,  because  he 
had  been  a  gentle  ruler  and  had  not  wreaked 
the  vengeance  of  the  gods  on  Egypt,  he  gave 
himself  up  to  revelry,  and  strove  to  double  his 
allotted  time  by  turning  night  into  day.  He 
began  to  build  a  pyramid,  but  died  before  it 
was  finished.  It  was  smaller  than  those  of 
Cheops  and  Chephren,  and,  according  to  Herod- 
otus, was  wrongly  ascribed  by  some  to  the 
Greek  hetaera  Rhodopis. 

[MYCHUS  (Mu^6f),  a  harbor  in  the  east  of 
Phocis,  on  the  Crissasan  Gulf,  probably  the  mod- 
ern Zalitza.'] 

[MYCI  (MvKoi),  a  people  of  Asia,  belonging  to 
the  fourteenth  satrapy  of  the  Persian  empire.] 

MycSxus  (Mv/cof  of  :  Mv/cdvtof  :  now  Mycono), 
a  small  island  in  the  JCgean  Sea,  one  of  the- 
Cyclades,  southeast  of  Tenos  and  east  of  Delos, 
never  attained  any  importance  in  history,  but  is 
celebrated  in  mythology  as  one  of  the  places 
where  the  giants  were  defeated  by  Hercules. 
The  island  was  poor  and  unproductive,  and  its 
inhabitants  were  rapacious.  It  contained  two 
towns,  a  promontory  called  Phorbia,  and  a 
mountain  named  Dimaslus.  The  large  num- 
ber of  bald  persons  in  this  island  was  consid- 
ered worthy  of  record  by  several  ancient  writ- 
ers. 

[MYDON  (Mt'Juv).  1.  Son  of  Atymnius,  char- 
ioteer of  Pylaemenes,  a  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by 
Antilochus.— 2.  Another  Trojan  warrior,  slain 
by  Achilles.] 

[MYECPHORlTES    NoMOS    (Mv£K^OptY7/f    VO/iOf), 

a  tract  of  Lower  Egypt,  opposite  the  city  of 
Bubastis,  on  an  island,  and  probably  so  called 
from  a  city  Myecphoris.] 

MYODON  (MOyJwf ).  1.  Son  of  Acmon,  a  Phryg- 
ian king,  who  fought  with  Otreus  and  Priam 
against  the  Amazons,  and  from  whom  some  of 
the  Phrygians  are  said  to  have  been  called  Myg- 
donians.  He  had  a  son  Coroebus,  who  is  hence 
called  Mygdonides. — [2.  King  of  the  Bebrycians, 
brother  of  Amycus.  slain  by  Hercules  when'  on 

531 


MYGDONIA. 

his  expedition  after  the  girdle  of  the  Amazon 
Hippolyte.] 

MYGDOJUA  (Wlvydovla :  MvyJovcf).  1.  A  dis- 
trict in  the  east  of  Macedonia,  bordering  on  the 
Thermaic  Gulf  and  the  Chalcidic  peninsula. 
Its  people  were  of  Thracian  origin.— 2.  A  dis- 
trict in  the  north  of  Asia  Minor,  between  Mount 
Olympus  and  the  coast,  in  the  east  of  Mysia'and 
the  west  of  Bithynia,  named  after  the  Thracian 
people  Mygdones,  who  formed  a  settlement 
here,  but  were  afterward  subdued  by  the  Bi- 
thyni. — 3.  The  northeastern  district  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, between  Mount  Masius  and  the  Chabo- 
ras,  which  divided  it  from  OsroPne.  From  its 
great  fertility,  it  was  also  called  Anthemusia 
(\\v6fpavata).  The  name  of  Mygdonia  was  first 
introduced  alter  the  Macedonian  conquests  :  in  j 
the  passage  of  Xenophon  (Anab.,  iv.,  3),  some-  ' 
times  cited  to  prove  the  contrary,  the  true  read- 
ing is  MapiJoi'toi,  not  Mvydovtot. 

[MYGDONIUS  (MuyrJoviof  :  now  probably  Jakh- 
jakhah'),  an  eastern  tributary  of  the  Chaboras, 
flowing  by  the  walls  of  Nisibis.  Vid.  ABORRHAS.] 

MVIA  (Mwa),  daughter  of  Pythagoras  and 
Theano,  and  wife  of  Milo  of  Crotona.  A  let- 
ter, addressed  to  a  certain  Phyllis,  is  extant 
under  her  name. 

MYL.E  (Mt>2a/ :  MuAaibr,  TAvTiatrrK).  1.  (Now 
Mclazzo),  a  town  on  the  eastern  part  of  the 
northern  coast  of  Sicily,  situated  on  a  promon- 
tory running  out  far  into  the  sea,  with  a  harbor 
and  a  citadel.  It  was  founded  by  Zancle  (Mes- 
sana),  and  continued  subject  to  the  latter  city. 
It  was  off  Mylac  that  Agrippa  defeated  the  fleet 
of  Sextus  Pompeius,  B.C.  36.— 2.  A  town  of 
Thessaly,  in  Magnesia,  of  uncertain  site. 

MYLASA  or  MYLASSA  (ra  Mii/laaa,  M.v7\.aaaa  : 
MuAaffciif :  now  Melasso,  ruins),  a  very  ancient 
and  flourishing  inland  city  of  Caria,  lay  eighty 
stadia  (eight  geographical  miles)  from  the  coast 
at  the  Gulf  of  lassus,  in  a  fertile  plain,  on  and 
at  the  foot  of  an  isolated  rock  of  beautiful  white 
marble,  which  furnished  the  material  for  the 
splendid  temples  and  other  public  buildings  of 
the  city.  The  most  important  of  these  build- 
ings was  the  great  national  temple  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  Carius  or  Osagon.  Vid.  CARIA.  Mylasa 
was  the  birth-place  and  capital  of  HECATOSHJUS. 
Under  the  Romans  it  was  made  a  free  city.  In 
the  civil  wars  it  was  taken  and  partly  destroy- 
ed by  Labienus.  Its  remains  are  very  exten- 
sive, and  the  ruins  of  the  temple,  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  are  supposed  to  have  been  found  on  the 
rock  which  formed  the  Acropolis  of  the  ancient 
city. 

MYNDUS  (Mwdoj- :  Mvviio^  :  now  probably 
Port  Gumishlu,  ruins),  a  Dorian  colony  on  the 
coast  of  Caria,  in  Asia  Minor,  founded  by  set- 
tlers from  Trcezene,  probably  on  the  site  of  an 
old  town  of  the  Leleges,  which  continued  to 
exist  under  the  name  of  Palaemyndus.  Myn- 
dus  stood  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  same 
peninsula  on  which  Halicarnassus  stood.  It 
was  not  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Dorian  Hexapo- 
lis,  but  never  became  a  place  of  much  import- 
ance. 

[MYNES  (Mvvvc),sonof  Euenus  of  Lyrnessus, 
husband  of  Briseis,  slain  by  Achilles,  who  car- 
ried off  captive  his  beautiful  widow,  the  occa- 
sion of  the  quarrel  between  him  and  Agamem- 
non.] 

532 


MYRINA. 

MYON  or  MYON'IA  (Mt;uv,  Mvovta  : 
a  town  of  the  Locri  Ozolre,  situated  on  a  con- 
siderable height  thirty  stadia  from  Amphissa, 
and  in  one  of  the  passes  which  led  from^Etolia 
into  Phocis. 

MYONNESUS  (Mvovvijoof  :  now  Cape  Hypsili), 
a  promontory  of  Ionia,  with  a  town  and  a  little 
island  of  the  same  name,  south  of  Teos  and 
west  of  Lebedus,  and  forming  the  northern 
headland  of  the  Gulf  of  Ephesus.  Here  the 
Romans,  under  the  praetor  L.  ^Emilius,  gained 
a  great  naval  victory  over  Antiochus  the  Great, 
B.C. 190. 

MYOS  HORMOS  (6  Mvbc.  vppof,  i.e.,  Mouse-port, 
or,  as  others  render  it,  Muscle-port,  for  //Of  is 
also  the  Greek  for  muscle,  and  this  shell-fish  is 
very  common  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea),  afterward  VENERIS  PORTUS  ('A0po<5i'r^f 
opfiof),  an  important  sea-port  town  of  Upper 
Egypt,  built  by  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus  on  a 
promontory  of  the  same  name,  six  or  seven 
days'  journey  from  Coptos.  Some  of  the  best 
modern  geographers  identify  the  port  with  Kos- 
seir  (latitude  26°  10'),  which  is  still  an  import- 
ant port  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  place  of  em- 
barkation for  the  caravan  to  Mecca.  Kosseir 
lies  due  east  of  Coptos,  and  is  connected  with 
it  by  a  valley,  which  contains  traces  of  an  an- 
cient roadj  and  which  still  forms  the  route  of 
the  Mecca  caravan.  At  the  village  of  Abu- 
Shaar,  near  Kosseir,  are  extensive  ruins,  which 
are  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  the  town  of 
Myos  Hormos.  Others,  however,  place  it  a 
degree  further  north,  in  latitude  27°  10',  oppo- 
site the  Jaffalinc  islands. 

MYRA  or  MYRON  (ra  and  f]  Mvpa,  rj  Mvpuv : 
Mvpevc.  :  now  Myra,  Grk.,  Dembrc,  Turk.,  ruins), 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Lycia,  and,  under  the 
later  Roman  empire,  the  capital  of  the  province, 
was  built  on  a  rock  twenty  stadia  (two  geo- 
graphical miles)  from  the  sea,  and  had  a  p/>rt 
called  Andriaca  ('AvJpia/c?).  St.  Paul  touched 
here  on  his  voyage  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  and 
the  passage  where  this  is  mentioned  (Acts, 
xxvii.,  5,  6)  affords  incidental  proof  that  the 
place  was  then  an  important  sea-port.  There 
are  still  magnificent  ruins  of  the  city,  in  great 
part  hewn  out  of  the  rock. 

[MYRCINUS  (MvpKtvof),  'a  small  city  and  for- 
tress of  Thrace,  on  the  Strymon,  founded  by 
the  Milesian  Histiams,  with  the  consent  of  Da- 
rius, as  the  capital  of  a  small  principality  in 
these  regions :  it  fell,  however,  into  the  hands 
of  the  Edoni,  who  made  it  their  capital  and  the 
residence  of  their  princes.] 

MYRIANDRUS  (MvptauJpof),  a  Phoenician  col- 
ony in  Syria,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Gulf 
of  Issus,  a  day's  journey  from  the  Cilician 
Gates.  It  probably  stood  a  little  south  of  Alex- 
andrea,  at  a  spot  where  there  are  ruins.  He- 
rodotus calls  the  Gulf  of  Issus  6  Mapmvdt/cof 
Kdhirof,  a  name  evidently  derived  from  this 
place,  with  a  slight  variation  of  form. 

MYRICUS  (MvpiKotf),  a  city  on  the  coast  of 
Troas,  Opposite  to  Tenedos. 

MYRINA  (t)  Mvpiva,  or  Mvptva,  Mvpivva,  M.V- 
pivi] :  Mvpivaloc).  1.  (Now  Sandarlik  ?),  a  very 
ancient  and  strongly  fortified  city  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Mysia,  founded,  according  to  myth- 
ical tradition,  by  Myrinus  or  by  the  Amazon 
Myrina,  and  colonized  by  the  JSolians,  of  whose 


MYRINA. 

confederacy  it  iormed  a  member.  It  was  also 
called  Smyrna,  and,  under  the  Roman  empire, 
Sebastopolis  :  it  was  made  by  the  Romans  a 
civitas  libera.  It  was  destroyed  by  earthquakes 
under  Tiberius  and  Trajan,  but  each  time  re- 
built. It  was  the  birth-place  of  the  epigram- 
matic poet  Agathias. — 2.  Vid.  LEMNOS. 

[MYRINA  (Miipiva),  an  Amazon,  said  to  have 
given  name  to  the  city  MYRINA,  No.  1  :  she  is 
mentioned  in  the  Iliad  (ii.,  814).] 

MYRLEA  (MupAeta  :  MupAeuvof :  ruins  at  Ama- 
poli,  a  little  distance  inland  from  Mudanieh),  a  | 
city  of  Bithynia,  not  far  from  Prusa,  founded  by  j 
the  Colophonians,  and  almost  rebuilt  by  Prusias 
I.,  who  called  it  APAMEA  after  his  wife.     The 
Romans  colonized  it  under  Julius  Caesar  and 
Augustus. 

MYRMECIDES  (Mvp^triKidjjf'),  a  sculptor  and  en- 
graver, of  Miletus  or  Athens,  is  generally  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Callicrates,  like  whom 
he  was  celebrated  for  the  minuteness  of  his 
works.  Vid.  CALLICRATES.  His  works  in  ivory 
are  so  small  that  they  could  scarcely  be  seen 
without  placing  them  on  black  hair. 

MYRMECIUM  (Mvp^Kiov),  a  Scythian  or  Cim- 
merian town  of  the  Chersonesus  Taurica,  sit- 
uated on  a  promontory  of  the  same  name  at  the 
narrowest  part  of  the  Bosporus,  opposite  the 
Achilleum  in  Asia. 

MYRMIDON  (Mvputduv),  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Eurymedusa,  daughter  of  Clitos,  whom  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  deceived  in  the  disguise  of  an  ant. 
Her  son  was  for  this  reason  called  Myrmidon 
(from  [ivpnij!;,  an  ant),  and  was  regarded  as  the 
ancestor  of  the  Myrmidons  in  Thessaly.  He 
was  married  to  Pisidice,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Antiphus  and  Actor. 

MYRMIDONES  (Mup//j(5di>ef),  an  Achaean  race  in 
Phthiotis  in  Thessaly,  whom  Achilles  ruled  over, 
and  who  accompanied  this  hero  to  Troy.  They 
are  said  to  have  inhabited  originally  the  island 
of  ^Egina,  and  to  have  emigrated  with  Peleus 
into  Thessaly  ;  but  modern  critics,  on  the  con- 
trary, suppose  that  a  colony  of  them  emigrated 
from  Thessaly  into  ^Egina.  The  Myrmidones 
disappear  from  history  at  a  later  period.  The 
ancients  derived  their  name  either  from  a  myth- 
ical ancestor  MYRMIDON,  or  from  the  ants  (pvp- 
nrjKif)  in  ^Egina,  which  were  fabled  to  have 
been  metamorphosed  into  men  in  the  time  of 
dEacus.  Vid.  ^EACDS. 

[MYRO  (Mvpw).     Vid.  MteRO.] 

MYRON  (Mupwv).  1.  Tyrant  of  Sicyon,  the 
father  of  Aristonymus,  and  grandfather  of  Clis- 
thenes.  He  gained  the  victory  at  Olympia  in 
the  chariot-race  in  B.C.  648.— 2.  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  Greek  statuaries,  and 
also  a  sculptor  and  engraver,  was  born  at  Eleu- 
therae,  in  Bceotia,  about  480.  He  is  also  call- 
ed an  Athenian,  because  Eleutherae  had  been 
admitted  to  the  Athenian  franchise.  He  was 
the  disciple  of  Ageladas,  the  fellow-disciple  of 
Polycletus,  and  a  younger  contemporary  of 
Phidias.  He  flourished  about  431,  the  time  of 
the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The 
chief  characteristic  of  Myron  seems  to  have 
been  his  power  of  expressing  a  great  variety 
of  forms.  Not  content  with  the  human  figure 
in  its  most  difficult  and  momentary  attitudes, 
he  directed  his  art  toward  various  other  ani- 
mals, and  he  seems  to  have  been  the  first  great 


MYRTIS. 

artist  who  did  so.  His  great  works  were  near- 
ly all  in  bronze.  The  most  celebrated  of  his 
statues  were  his  Discobolus  and  his  Cow.  Of 
his  Discobolus  there  are  several  marble  copies  in 
existence.  It  is  true  that  we  can  not  prove  by 
testimony  that  any  of  these  alleged  copies  were 
really  taken  from  Myron's  work,  or  from  imita- 
tions of  it ;  but  the  resemblance  between  them, 
the  fame  of  the  original,  and  the  well-known 
frequency  of  the  practice  of  making  such  mar- 
ble copies  of  celebrated  bronzes,  all  concur  to 
put  the  question  beyond  reasonable  doubt.  Of 
these  copies  we  possess  one  in  the  Townley 
Gallery  of  the  British  Museum,  which  was 
found  in  the  grounds  of  Hadrian's  Tiburtine 
Villa  in  1791.  The  Cow  of  Myron  appears  to 
have  been  a  perfect  work  of  its  kind.  It  was 
celebrated  in  many  popular  verses,  and  the 
Greek  Anthology  still  contains  no  less  than 
thirty-six  epigrams  upon  it.  The  Cow  was  rep- 
resented as  lowing,  and  the  statue  was  placed 
on  a  marble  base,  in  the  centre  of  the  largest 
open  place  in  Athens,  where  it  still  stood  in  the 
time  of  Cicero.  In  the  time  of  Pausanias  it 
was  no  longer  there ;  it  must  have  been  re- 
moved to  Rome,  where  it  was  still  to  be  seen 
in  the  temple  of  Peace  in  the  time  of  Pro- 
copius. — 3.  Of  Priene,  the  author  of  an  histor- 
ical account  of  the  first  Messenian  war,  proba- 
bly lived  not  earlier  than  the  third  century  B.C. 

MYRONIDES  (Mvpuw'J^f),  a  skillful  and  suc- 
cessful Athenian  general.  In  B.C.  457  he  de- 
feated the  Corinthians  who  had  invaded  Me- 
garis,  and  in  456  he  defeated  the  Boeotians  at 
QEnophyta. 

MYRRHA  (M.vppa)  or  SMYRNA,  daughter  of  Cin- 
yras  and  mother  of  Adonis.  For  details,  vid 
ADONIS. 

MYRRHINUS  (M.vjjpivov<; :  Mvfipivovaiof),  a  d< . 
mus  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Attica,  belonging 
to  the  tribe  Pandionis,  a  little  south  of  the  prom- 
ontory Cynosura.  It  is  said  to  have  been  built 
by  a  hero  Colaenus,  and  it  contained  a  temple 
of  Diana  (Artemis)  Colaenis. 

MYRSILUS  (MiipatAof).  1.  Vid.  CANDAULES. — 
2.  A  Greek  historical  writer  of  uncertain  date, 
a  native  of  Lesbos,  from  whom  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus  borrowed  a  part  of  his  account 
of  the  Pelasgians. 

MYRSINUS.     Vid.  MYRTUNTIUM. 

MYRTILIS,  a  town  of  the  Turdetani,  on  the 
Anas  in  Lusitania,  possessing  the  Jus  Latii. 

MYRTILUS  (Mvpn'Aof),  son  of  Mercury  (Her- 
mes) by  Cleobule,  Clytia,  Phaethusa,  or  Myrto. 
He  was  the  charioteer  of  OZnomaus,  king  of 
Elis,  whom  he  betrayed  when  Pelops  contend- 
ed with  his  master  in  the  chariot-race.  He  was 
afterward  thrown  into  the  sea  by  Pelops  near 
Geraestus  in  Eubcea ;  and  that  part  of  the 
..Egean  is  said  to  have  thenceforth  been  called 
after  him  the  Myrtoan  Sea.  Vid.  OZNOMAUS, 
PELOPS.  At  the  moment  he  expired  lie  pro 
nounced  a  curse  updn  the  house  of  Pelops, 
which  was  henceforward  tormented  by  the 
Erinnyes.  His  father  placed  him  among  the 
stars  as  auriga. 

MYRTIS  (Muprtf),  a  lyric  poetess,  a  native  of 
Anthedon  in  Bo3otia.  She  was  reported  to  hav«j 
been  the  instructress  of  Pindar,  and  to  havo 
contended  with  him  for  the  palm  of  superiority. 
This  is  alluded  to  in  an  extant  fragment  of  Co- 

533 


MYRTO. 


MYSTA. 


itnna.    There  wero  statues  in  honor  of  her  in 
various  parts  ofO-'ece. 

[MYRTO  (Mvpru).  1.  Daughter  of  Aristides, 
the  grandson  of  Aristides  the  Just,  married,  ac- 
cording to  one  account,  by  Socrates  while  Xan- 
thippe was  living.  Boeckh  thinks  she  was  his 
lirst  wife.  —  2.  Vid.  MYRTOUM  MARE.] 

MYRTOUM  MARE  (ro  'M.vpruov  jre^ayof),  the 
part  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  south  of  Eubcea,  Atti- 
)  a,  and  Argolis,  which  derived  its  name  from 
the  small  island  Myrtus,  though  others  suppose  j 
it  to  come  from  Myrtilus,  whom  Pelops  threw 
into  this  sea,  or  from  the  maiden  Myrto. 

MYRTUNTIUM  (NivpTovvnov  :  Mvprovatof),  call- 
ed MYRSINUS  (Mvpaivof)  in  Homer,  a  town  of  the 
Epeans  in  Elis,  on  the  road  from  Elis  to  Dyme. 

MYRTUS.     Vid.  MYRTOUM  MARE. 

Mrs  (MCf),  an  artist  in  the  toreutic  depart- 
ment, engraved  the  battle  of  the  Lapithae  and 
the  Centaurs  and  other  figures  on  *iie  shield  of 
Phidias's  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Minerva 
(Athena)  Promachos  in  the  Acropolis  of  Ath- 
ens. He  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished engravers  by  several  ancient  writers. 

MYSCELUS  (MtwcfJlof  or  MvoiceMof),  a  native 
of  Achaia,  and,  according  to  Ovid  (Metam.,  xv., 
1),  an  Heraclid,  and  the  son  of  an  Argive  named 
Alemon.  He  founded  Croton  in  Italy,  B.C.  710, 
in  accordance  with  the  Delphic  oracle.  The  or- 
acle had  commanded  him  to  build  a  city  where 
lie  should  find  rain  with  fine  weather.  For  a 
long  time  he  thought  it  impossible  to  fulfill  the 
command  of  the  oracle,  till  at  length  he  found 
in  Italy  a  beautiful  woman  in  tears  ;  whereupon 
he  perceived  that  the  oracle  was  accomplished, 
and  straightway  founded  Croton  on  the  spot. 

MYSI  (Mvtroi),  one  of  the  Thracian  tribes  who 
seem  to  have  crossed  over  from  Europe  into 
Asia  Minor  before  recorded  history  begins. 
They  appear  to  be  the  same  people  as  the  Mcesi 
(in  Greek  also  Mvaoi),  on  the  banks  of  the  Dan- 
ube. Vid.  MCESIA.  They  stand  in  close  con- 
nection with  the  Teucri.  These  two  communi- 
ties appear  to  have  moved  from  the  banks  of 
the  Strymon  to  the  southeast  of  Thrace,  forc- 
ing the  Bithyni  over  the  Thracian  Bosporus 
into  Asia,  and  then  to  have  crossed  over  into 
Asia  themselves,  by  way  of  the  Thracian  Bos- 
porus, and  to  have  settled  on  the  southeastern 
shore  of  the  Propontis,  as  far  west  as  the  River 
Rhyndacus  (the  rest  of  the  Asiatic  coast  of  the 
Propontis  and  the  Hellespont  being  occupied  by 
Phrygians),  and  also  in  the  eastern  and  south- 
ern parts  of  the  district  afterward  called  MYSIA, 
in  the  mountains  called  Olympus  and  Temnus, 
and  on  the  southern  side  of  Ida.  The  Teu- 
crians  obtained  a  permanent  footing  also  on  the 
northern  side  of  Ida,  in  the  Trbad.  Being  after- 
ward driven  westward  over  the  Rhyndacus  by 
the  Bithynians,  and  hemmed  in  on  the  west  and 
north  by  the  ^Eolian  colonies,  the  Mysians  may 
be  regarded  as  about  shut  up  within  the  ranges 
of  Ida  and  Olympus  on  the  north  and  northeast, 
and  Temnus  on  the  south.  They  were  a  sim- 
ple pastoral  people,  low  in  the  scale  of  civiliza- 
tion. Their  language  and  religion  bore  a  strong 
resemblance  to  those  of  their  neighbors,  the 
Phrygians  and  Lydians,  who  were  ofthe  same 
Thracian  origin  as  themselves,  and  hence  arose 
the  error,  which  is  found  in  Herodotus,  of  de- 
riving them  directly  from  the  Lydians. 
534 


MYSIA  (fj  Nvaia,  poet.  Muo2c  ala  :  Mucrof,  Mf- 
SHS  and  Mysius:  now  Chan  Karasi,  the  north- 
western district  of  Anadoli),  a  district  of  Asia 
Minor,  called,  also,  the  Asiatic  Mysia  (Mvaia  T> 
'Afftat?}),  in  contradistinction  to  Moesia  on  the 
banks  of  the  Danube.  Originally  it  meant  of 
course  the  territory  of  the  Mysi,  but  in  the 
usual  division  of  Asia  Minor,  as  settled  under 
Augustus,  it  occupied  the  whole  of  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  peninsula,  between  the 
Hellespont  on  the  northwest  ;  the  Propontis  on 
4the  north  ;  the  River  Rhyndacus  and  Mount 
'Olympus  on  the  east,  which  divided  it  from  By- 
thynia  and  Phrygia  ;  Mount  Temnus,  and  an 
imaginary  line  drawn  from  Temnus  to  the 
southern  side  of  the  Elaitic  Gulf  on  the  south, 
where  it  bordered  upon  Lydia,  and  the  ^Egean 
Sea  on  the  west.  It  was  subdivided  into  five 
parts  :  (1.)  MYSIA  MINOR  (M.  ij  fjtKpd),  along  the 
northern  coast.  (2.)  MYSIA  MAJOR  (M.  )?  [ie- 
•ydTiri),  the  southeastern  inland  region,  with  a 
small  portion  of  the  coast  between  the  Troad 
and  the  /Eolic  settlements  about  the  Elai'tic 
Gulf.  (3.)  TROAS  (rj  Tpudf'),  the  northwestern 
angle,  between  the  ^Egean  and  Hellespont,  and 
the  southern  coast  along  the  foot  of  Ida.  (4.) 
JSous  or  ^EOLIA  (TJ  A.lo7i'if  or  AtoA(a),  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  western  coast,  around  the  Ela- 
itic Gulf,  where  the  chief  cities  of  the  ^Eolian 
confederacy  were  planted,  but  applied  in  a  wider 
sense  to  the  western  coast  in  general.  And  (5.) 
TEUTHRANIA  (rj  Tevdpavia),  the  southwestern  an- 
gle, between  Temnus  and  the  borders  of  Lydia, 
where,  in  very  early  times,  Teuthras  was  said 
to  have  established  a  Mysian  kingdom,  which 
was  early  subdued  by  the  kings  of  Lydia  ;  this 
part  was  also  called  Pergamene,  from  the  cel- 
ebrated city  of  PERGAMUS,  which  stood  in  it. 
This  account  applies  to  the  time  of  the  early 
Roman  empire  ;  the  extent  of  Mysia,  and  its 
subdivisions,  varied  greatly  at  other  times.  In 
the  heroic  ages  we  find  the  great  Teucrian  mon- 
archy of  Troy  in  the  northwest  of  the  country, 
and  the  Phrygians  along  the  Hellespont  ;  as  to 
the  Mysians,  who  appear  as  allies  of  the  Tro- 
jans, it  is  not  clear  whether  they  are  Europeans 
or  Asiatics.  The  Mysia  ofthe  legends  respect- 
ing Telephus  is  the  Teuthranian  kingdom  in  the 
south,  only  with  a  wider  extent  than  the  later 
Teuthrania.  Under  the  Persian  empire,  the 
northwestern  portion,  which  was  still  occupied 
in  part  by  Phrygians,  but  chiefly  by  JEolian  set- 
tlements, was  called  Phrygia  Minor,  and  by  the 
Greeks  HELLESPONTUB.  Mysia  was  the  region 
south  of  the  chain  of  Ida,  and  both  formed, 
with  Lydia,  the  second  satrapy.  In  the  division 
of  the  empire  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Mysio 
fell,  with  Thrace,  to  the  share  of  Lysimachus, 
B.C.  311,  after  whose  defeat  and  death,  in  281, 
it  became  a  part  of  the  Greco-Syrian  kingdom, 
with  the  exception  of  the  southwestern  portion, 
where  Philetserus  founded  the  kingdom  of  PER- 
GAMUS (280),  to  which  kingdom  the  whole  of 
Mysia  was  assigned,  together  with  Lydia,  Phryg- 
ia, Caria,  Lycia,  Pisidia,  and  Pamphylia,  after 
the  defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  190.  With  the  rest  ofthe  kingdom  of 
Pergamus,  Mysia  fell  to  the  Romans  in  133  by 
the  bequest  of  Attalus  III.,  and  formed  part  of 
the  province  of  Asia.  Under  the  later  empire 
Mysia  formed  a  separate  proconsular  provinca 


MYSIUS. 

under  the  name  of  Hellespontus.  The  country 
was  for  the  most  part  mountainous,  its  chief 
chains  being  those  of  IDA,  OLYMPUS,  and  TEM- 
NUS, which  are  terminal  branches  of  the  north- 
western part  of  the  Taurus  chain,  and  the  union 
of  which  forms  the  elevated  land  of  southeastern 
Mysia.  Their  prolongations  into  the  sea  form 
several  important  bays  and  capes ;  namely, 
among  the  former,  the  great  Gulf  of  Adramyt- 
tium  ^now  Adramytti),  which  cuts  off  Lesbos 
from  the  continent,  and  the  Sinus  Elalticus 
(now  Gulf  of  Chandeli) ;  and,  among  the  latter, 
Sigeum  (now  Cape  Yenicheri)  and  Lectum  (now 
Cape  Baba),  at  the  northwestern  and  southwest- 
ern extremities  of  the  Troad,  and  Cane  (now 
Cape  Coloni)  and  Hydria  (now  Fokia~),  the  north- 
ern and  southern  headlands  of  the  Ela'itic  Gulf. 
Its  rivers  are  numerous ;  some  of  them  consider- 
able, in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  country,  and 
some  of  first-rate  importance  in  history  and  po- 
etry :  the  chief  of  them,  beginning  on  the  east, 
wereRHYNDACus  andMACESTas.TARsius,  J£SE- 
PUS,  GRANICUS,  RHODIUS,  SIMOIS,  and  SCAMAN- 
DER,  SATNOIS,  EVENUS,  and  CAICUS.  The  tribes 
of  the  country,  besides  the  general  appellations 
mentioned  above,  were  known  by  the  following 
distinctive  names  :  the  Olympieni  or  Olympeni 
('OAv.uOT^oiyOAiy/TTT/i'Oi),  in  the  district  of  Olym- 
pene,  at  the  foot 'of  Mount  Olympus  ;  next  to 
them,  on  the  south  and  west,  and  occupying  the 
greater  part  of  Mysia  Proper,  the  Abretteni.  who 
had  a  native  divinity  called  by  the  Greeks  Zeif 
JA6pcTTrjv6f  ;  the  Trimenthurltae,  the  Penta- 
demitae,  and  the  Mysomaceddnes,  all  in  the  re- 
gion of  Mount  Temnus. 

MYSICS  (now  Bergama),  a  tributary  of  the 
River  Caicus  in  Mysia,  or  rather  the  upper  part 
of  the  Ca'icus  itself,  had  its  source  in  Mount 
Temnus. 

MYSON  (MVCTWV),  of  Chenae,  a  village  either  in 
Laconia  or  on  Mount  CEta,  is  enumerated  by 
Plato  as  one  of  the  seven  sages,  in  place  of 
Periander. 

MYSTIA,  a  town  in  the  southeast  of  Bruttium, 
a  little  above  the  Promontorium  Cocintum. 

MYTII.ENE  or  MITYLENE  (MVTI?*TIVT),  MITV^VT;  : 
the  former  is  the  ancient  form,  and  the  one  usu- 
ally found  on  coins  and  inscriptions  ;  the  latter 
is  sometimes  found  on  inscriptions,  and  is  the 
commoner  form  in  MSS.  :  Mvntyvaiof,  Mityle- 
naeus  :  Mytilene  or  Metelin),  the  chief  city  of 
LESBOS,  stood  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island 
opposite  the  coast  of  Lesbos,  upon  a  promontory 
which  was  once  an  island,  and  both  sides  of 
which  formed  excellent  harbors.  Its  first  foun- 
dation is  ascribed  to  Carians  and  Pelasgians. 
It  was  early  colonized  by  the  ^Eolians.  Vid. 
LESBOS.  Important  hints  respecting  its  politi- 
cal history  are  furnished  by  the  fragments  of 
the  poetry  of  Alcaeus,  whence  (and  from  other 
sources)  it  seems  that,  after  the  rule  and  over- 
throw of  a  series  of  tyrants,  the  city  was  nearly 
ruined  by  the  bitter  hatred  and  conflicts  of  the 
factions  of  the  nobles  and  the  people,  till  Pitta- 
cus  was  appointed  to  a  sort  of  dictatorship,  and 
the  nobles  were  expelled.  Vid.  ALCAEUS,  PIT- 
TACUS.  Meanwhile,  the  city  had  grown  to  great 
importance  as  a  naval  power,  and  had  founded 
colonies  on  the  coasts  of  Mysia  and  Thrace.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  the 
possession  of  one  of  these  colonies,  Sigeum  at 


NABAT^EI. 

the  mouth  of  the  Hellespont,  was  disputed  in 
war  between  the  Mytileneeans  and  Athenians, 
and  assigned  to  the  latter  by  the  award  of  Peri- 
ander, tyrant  of  Corinth.  Among  the  other  col 
onies  of  Mytilene  were  Achilleum,  Assos,  An- 
tandrus,  &c.  Mytilene  submitted  to  the  Per- 
sians after  the  conquest  of  Ionia  and  ^Eolis,  and 
furnished  contingents  to  the  expeditions  of 
Cambyses  against  Egypt  and  of  Darius  against 
Scythia.  It  was  active  in  the  Ionian  revolt, 
after  the  failure  of  which  it  again  became  sub- 
ject to  Persia,  and  took  part  in  the  expedition 
of  Xerxes  against  Greece.  After  the  Persian 
war  it  formed  an  alliance  with  Athens,  and  re- 
mained one  of  the  most  important  members  of 
the  Athenian  confederacy,  retaining  its  inde- 
pendence till  the  fourth  year  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war,  B.C.  428,  when  it  headed  a  revolt  of 
the  greater  part  of  Lesbos,  the  progress  and 
suppression  of  which  forms  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting episodes  in  the  history  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  (Vid.  the  Histories  of  Greece.) 
This  event  destroyed  the  power  of  Mytilene. 
Its  subsequent  fortunes  can  not  be  related  in 
detail  here.  It  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Ro- 
mans after  the  Mithradatic  war.  Respecting 
its  important  position  in  Greek  literary  history, 
vid.  LESBOS. 

MYTTISTRATUM.     Vid.  AMESTRATQS. 

MYUS  (Mi;oi>£ :  Mvovffio? :  ruins  at  Palatia), 
the  least  city  of  the  Ionian  confederacy,  stood 
in  Caria,  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Maeander, 
thirty  stadia  from  its  mouth,  and  very  near  Mi- 
letus. Its  original  site  was  probably  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  ;  but  its  site  gradually  be- 
came an  unhealthy  marsh  ;  and  by  the  time  of 
Augustus  it  was  so  deserted  by  its  inhabitants 
that  the  few  who  remained  were  reckoned  as 
citizens  of  Miletus. 


N. 

NAARDA  (Nadpda),  a  town  of  Babylonia, 
chiefly  inhabited  by  Jews,  and  with  a  Jewish 
academy. 

NAARMALCHA  or  NAHRMALCHA  (Naap/jd/ljaf, 
,  i.  e.,  the  King's  Canal:  6  fiaaiTieioc 
t?(.iK7f  diupv!;,  flumen  regium :  Nahr- 
al-Malk  or  Ne  Gruel  Melck),  the  greatest  of  the 
canals  connecting  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris, 
was  situated  near  the  northern  limit  of  Babylo- 
nia, a  little  south  of  the  Median  Wall,  in  latitude 
33°  5'  about.  Its  formation  was  ascribed  to  a 
governor  named  Gobares.  It  was  repaired  upon 
the  building  of  Seleucia  at  its  junction  with  the 
Tigris  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  again  under  the 
Roman  emperors  Trajan,  Severus,  and  Julian. 

NABAUA.      Vid.  NAVALIA. 

NABARZANES  (Naf>ap&vi)f),  a  Persian,  conspir- 
ed along  with  Bessus,  against  Darius,  the  last 
king  of  Persia.  He  was  pardoned  by  Alex- 
ander. 

NABATJEI,  NABATH.*  (Nataratof,  Nafiarat :  in 
the  Old  Testament,  Nebaioth),  an  Arabian  peo- 
ple, descended  from  the  eldest  son  of  Ishmael, 
had  their  original  abodes  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  east  and  south- 
east of  the  Moabites  and  Edomites,  who  dwelt 
on  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  in  the  mount- 
ains reaching  from  it  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  In 
the  changes  effected  among  the  tribes  of  theso 

535 


NABIS. 

legions  by  the  Babylonian  conquest  of  Judaea,  ' 
the  Nabathaeans  extended  west  into  the  Sina- 
Ttic  peninsula  and  the  territory  of  the  Edomites,  i 
while  the  latter  took  possession  of  the  south  of  j 
Jud<ea  (vid.  IDUM^EI)  ;  and  hence  the  Nabathse-  j 
ans  of  Greek  and  Roman  history  occupied  near- 
ly the  whole  of  Arabia  Petraea,  along  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  on  both  sides  of 
the  JClanitic  Gulf,  and  in  the  Idumaean  Mount- 
ains (Mountains  of  Seir),  where  they  had  their 
celebrated  rock-hewn  capital,  PETRA.     At  first 
they  were  a  roving  pastoral  people  ;  but,  as  their 
position  gave  them  the  command  of  the  trade  ; 
between  Arabia  and  the  west,  they  prosecuted  > 
that  trade  with  great  energy,  establishing  reg-  j 
ular  caravans  between  Leuce  Come,  a  port  of  j 
the  Red  Sea,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Ara-  I 
bia,  and  the  port  of  Rhinocolura  (now  El-Arish)  \ 
on  the  Mediterranean,  upon  the  frontiers  of  Pal-  j 
estine  and  Egypt.     Sustained  by  this  traffic,  a 
powerful  monarchy  grew  up,  which  resisted  all 
the  attacks  of  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria,  and 
which,  sometimes  at  least,  extended  its  power 
as  far  north  as  Syria.    Thus,  in  the  reign  of 
Caligula,  even  after  the  Nabathaeans  had  nom- 
inally submitted  to  Rome,  we  find  even  Damas- 
cus in  possession  of  an  ethnarch  of  "  Aretas  the 
king,"  i.  e.,  of  the  Nabathaean  Arabs  :  the  usual 
names  of  these  kings  were  Aretas  and  Obodas. 
Under  Augustus  the  Nabathaeans  are  found,  as 
nominal  subjects  of  the  Roman  empire,  assist- 
ing ^Elius  Gallus  in  his  expedition  into  Arabia 
Felix,  through  which,  and  through  the  journey 
of  Athenodorus  to  Petra,  Strabo  derived  import- 
ant information.     Under  Trajan  the  Nabathae- 
ans were  conquered  by  A.  Cornelius  Palma,  and 
Arabia  Petraea  became  a  Roman  province,  A.D. 
105-107.     In  the  fourth  century  it  was  consid- 
ered a  part  of  Palestine,  and  formed  the  diocese 
of  a  metropolitan,  whose  see  was  at  Petra.    The 
Mohammedan  conquest  finally  overthrew  the 
power  of  the  Nabathaeans,  which  had  been  long 
declining  :  their  country  soon  became  a  haunt 
of  the  wandering  Arabs  of  the  Desert,  and  their 
very  name  disappeared. 

NABIS  (Nu&f),  succeeded  in  making  himself 
tyrant  of  Lacedaemon  on  the  death  of  Machani- 
das,  B.C.  207.  He  carried  the  licence  of  tyran- 
ny to  the  furthest  possible  extent.  All  persons 
possessed  of  property  were  subjected  to  inces- 
sant exactions,  and  the  most  cruel  tortures  if 
they  did  not  succeed  in  satisfying  his  rapacity. 
One  of  his  engines  of  torture  resembled  the 
maiden  of  more  recent  times ;  it  was  a  figure 
resembling  his  wife  Apega,  so  constructed  as  to 
clasp  the  victim  and  pierce  him  to  death  with 
the  nails  with  which  the  arms  and  bosom  of  the 
figure  were  studded.  The  money  which  he  got 
by  these  means  and  by  the  plunder  of  the  tem- 
ples enabled  him  to  raise  a  large  body  of  mer- 
cenaries, whom  he  selected  from  among  the 
most  abandoned  and  reckless  villains.  With 
these  forces  he  was  able  to  extend  his  sway 
over  a  considerable  part  of  Peloponnesus  ;  but 
his  further  progress  was  checked  by  Flamininus, 
who,  after  a  short  campaign,  compelled  him  to 
sue  for  peace  (195).  The  tyrant,  however,  was 
allowed  to  retain  the  sovereignty  of  Sparta,  and 
soon  after  the  departure  of  Flamininus  from 
Greece  he  resumed  hostilities.  He  was  oppos- 
ed by  Philopcemen,  the  g?neral  of  the  Achaean 
536 


N^VIUS. 

league  ;  and  though  Nabis  met  at  first  with 
some  success,  he  was  eventually  defeated  by 
Philopoemen,  and  was  soon  afterward  assassin- 
ated by  some  ^Etolians  who  had  been  sent  to 
his  assistance  (192). 

NABONASSAR  (Na6ovuaapof ),  king  of  Babylon, 
whose  accession  to  the  throne  was  fixed  upon 
by  the  Babylonian  astronomers  as  the  era  from 
which  they  began  their  calculations.  This  era 
is  called  the  Era  of  Nabonassar.  It  commenced 
on  the  twenty-sixth  of  February,  B.C.  747. 

NABRISSA  or  NEBRISSA  (now  Lebrija),  sur- 
named  Veneria,  a  town  of  the  Turdetani  in  His- 
pania  Baetica,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Baetis. 

NACOLIA  (Na/coAeta  or  -ia,  or  Naicufaia  ;  now 
Sidighasi),  a  town  of  Phrygia  Epictetus,  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  River  Thymbrius,  between 
Dorylaeum  and  Cotyaeum,  was  the  place  where 
the  Emperor  Valens  defeated  his  rival  Proco- 
pius,  A.D.  366. 

[N^Bis  or  NEBIS  (Nij6i(,  now  Ncyva),  a  river 
on  the  western  coast  of  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis,  between  the  Durius  and  the  Minius.] 

NJENIA,  i.  e.,  a  dirge  or  lamentation,  chanted 
at  funerals,  was  personified  at  Rome  and  wor- 
shipped as  a  goddess.  She  had  a 'chapel  outside 
the  walls  of  the  city,  near  the  porta  Viminalis. 

NAEVIUS,  CN.,  an  ancient  Roman  poet,  of 
whose  life  few  particulars  have  been  recorded. 
He  was  probably  a  native  of  Campania,  and  was 
born  somewhere  between  B.C.  274  and  264. 
He  appears  to  have  come  to  Rome  early,  and 
he  produced  his  first  play  in  235.  He  was  at- 
tached to  the  plebeian  party ;  and,  with  the 
licence  of  the  old  Attic  comedy,  he  made  the 
stage  a  vehicle  for  his  attacks  upon  tl  e  aristo- 
cracy. He  attacked  Scipio  and  the  Metelli ;  but 
he  was  indicted  by  Q.  Metellus  and  thrown  into 
prison,  to  which  circumstance  Plautus  alludes 
in  his  Miles  Gloriosus  (ii.,  2,  56).  While  in 
prison  he  composed  two  plays,  the  Hariolus  and 
Leon,  in  which  he  recanted  his  previous  imputa- 
tions, and  thereby  obtained  his  release  through 
the  tribunes  of  the  people.  His  repentance, 
however,  did  not  last  long,  and  he  was  soon 
compelled  to  expiate  a  new  offence  by  exile. 
He  retired  to  Utica ;  and  it  was  here,  probably, 
that  he  wrote  his  poem  on  the  first  Punic  war ; 
and  here  it  is  certain  that  he  died,  either  in  204 
or  202.  Neavius  was  both  an  epic  and  a  dra- 
matic poet.  Of  his  epic  poem  on  the  first  Pu- 
nic war  a  few  fragments  are  still  extant.  It 
was  written  in  the  old  Saturnian  metre ;  for 
Ennius,  who  introduced  the  hexameter  among 
the  Romans,  was  not  brought  to  Rome  till  after 
the  banishment  of  Naevius.  The  poem  appears 
to  have  opened  with  the  story  of  JUneas's  flight 
from  Troy,  his  visit  to  Carthage  and  amour  with 
Dido,  together  with  other  legends  connected 
with  the  early  history  both  of  Carthage  and  of 
Rome.  It  was  extensively  copied  both  by  En- 
nius and  Virgil.  The  latter  author  took  many 
passages  from  it,  particularly  the  description 
of  the  storm  in  the  first  ^Enei'd,  the  speech  with 
which  .cEneas  consoles  his  companions,  and  the 
address  of  Venus  to  Jupiter.  His  dramatic 
writings  comprised  both  tragedies  and  come- 
dies, most  of  which  were  taken  from  the  Greek. 
Even  in  the  Augustan  age  Naevius  was  still  a 
favorite  with  the  admirers  of  the  genuine  old 
school  of  Roman  poetry,  and  the  lines  of  HM> 


N^EVIUS  SERTORIUS  MACRO. 

»ce  (Ep.t  ii.,  1,  53)  show  that  his  works,  if  not 
so  much  read  as  formerly,  were  still  fresh  in 
the  memories  of  men.     The  best  edition  of  the 
fragments  of  Neevius  is  by  Klussman,  8vo,  Jena,  j 
1843. 

N^EVIUS  SERTORIUS  MACRO.     Vid.  MACRO. 

[NAGARA  (Na'yapa),  a  city  of  the  district  of  i 
Goryaea  in  India  intra  Gangem,  near  the  con-  j 
fluence  of  the  Cophen  and  Choaspes ;  the  same, 
probably,  as  Nysa.     Vid.  NYSA,  No.  1.] 

NAHARVALI,  a  tribe  of  the  Lygii  in  Germany, 
probably  dwelt  on  the  bnnks  of  the  Vistula.    In  j 
their  country  was  a  grove  sacred  to  the  wor- 
ship of  two  divinities  called  Alces,  whom  Tac- 
itus compares  with  Castor  and  Pollux. 

NAHRMALCHA.      Vid.  NAARMALCHA. 

NAIADES.      Vid.  NYMPH^E. 

NAIN  (Natv :  now  Nain),  a  city  of  Galilee, 
south  of  Mount  Tabor.  (Luke,  vii.,  11.) 

NAISUS,  NAISSUS,  or  N^ESUS  (Na'iaof,  Naiaoof, 
Notuffof :  now  Nissa),  an  important  town  of 
Upper  Mcesia,  situated  on  an  eastern  tributary 
of  the  Margus,  and  celebrated  as  the  birth-place 
of  Constantine  the  Great.  It  was  enlarged  and 
beautified  by  Constantine,  was  destroyed  by 
Attila,  but  was  rebuilt  and  fortified  by  Justin- 
ian. 

[NAMADUS  (Na//o<5of  or  Na/ia<J;?f,  now  the  Ner- 
biiddak),  a  considerable  river  of  India  intra  Gan- 
gem, rising  in  Mons  Vindius,  and  emptying  into 
the  Sinus  Barygazenus.] 

NAMNET^E  or  NAMNE.TES,  a  people  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  on  the  north- 
ern bank  of  the  Liger,  which  separated  them 
from  Aquitania.  Their  chief  town  was  Condi- 
vincum,  afterward  Namnetes  (now  Nantes). 

NAMUSA,  AUFIDIUS,  a  Roman  jurist,  one  of 
the  numerous  pupils  of  Servius  Sulpicius. 

NANTUAT^E  or  NANTUATES,  a  people  in  the 
southeast  of  Gallia  Belgica,  between  the  Rhoda- 
nus  and  the  Rhenus.and  at  the  eastern  extrem- 
ity of  the  Lacus  Lemanus. 

NAP^EJE.     Vid.  NYMPH^E. 

NAPARIS,  a  northern  tributary  of  the  Danube : 
its  modern  name  is  uncertain. 

NAPATA  (Non-arc  :  probably  ruins  at  El-Kab, 
at  the  great  bend  of  the  Nile  to  the  southwest, 
between  the  fourth  and  fifth  cataracts),  the  cap- 
ital of  an  ^Ethiopian  kingdom  north  of  that  of 
Meroe,  was  the  southernmost  point  reached  by 
Petronius,  under  Augustus.  Its  sovereigns 
were  females,  bearing  the  title  of  Candace ; 
and  through  a  minister  of  one  of  them,  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  into  ^Ethiopia  in  the 
apostolic  age  (Acts,  viii.,  27).  This  custom  of 
female  government  has  been  continued  to  our 
own  times  in  the  neighboring  kingdom  of  Shen- 
dy.  In  the  reign  of  Nero,  Napata  was  only  a 
small  town. 

NAPOCA  or  NAPUCA  (Napocensis  or  Napucen- 
sis),  a  Roman  colony  in  Dacia,  on  the  high  road 
leading  through  the^pountry  between  Patavissa 
and  Optatiana. 

NAR  (now  Nera),  a  river  in  central  Italy,  rises 
in  Mount  Fiscellus,  on  the  frontiers  of  Umbria 
and  Picenum,  flows  in  a  southwesterly  direction, 
forming  the  boundary  between  Umbria  and  the 
land  of  the  Sabini,  and  after  receiving  the  Veli- 
nua  (now  Velino)  and  Tolenus  (now  Turano), 
and  passing  by  Interamna  and  Narnia,  falls  into 
the  Tiber  not  far  from  Ocriculum.  It  was  eel- 


NARMALCHA. 

ebrated  for  its  sulphureous  waters  and  white 
color  (sulphurea  Nar  atbus  aqua,  Virg.,  Mn.,  vii., 
517). 

NARAGGARA  (Nap*yapa  :  ruins  at  the  modern 
Kassir  Jebir),  one  of  the  most  important  inland 
cities  of  Numidia,  between  Thagura  and  Sicca 
Veneria,  was  the  scene  of  Scipio's  celebrated 
interview  with  Hannibal  before  the  battle  ot 
Zama. 

NARBO  MARTIUS,  at  a  later  time  NARBONA 
(Narbonensis :  now  Narbonne),  a  town  in  the 
south  of  Gaul,  and  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  was  situated 
on  the  River  Atax  (now  Aude),  also  called  Nar- 
bo,  and  at  the  head  of  the  Lake  Rubresus  or 
Rubrensis  (also  called  Narbonitis),  which  was 
connected  with  the  sea  by  a  canal.  By  this 
means  the  town,  which  was  twelve  miles  from 
the  coast,  was  made  a  sea-port.  It  was  a  very 
ancient  place,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
originally  called  Atax.  It  was  made  a  Roman 
colony  by  the  consul  Q.  Marcius  or  Martius, 
B.C.  118,  and  hence  received  the  surname  Mar- 
tius ;  and  it  was  the  first  colony  founded  by  the 
Romans  in  Gaul.  Julius  Caesar  also  settled 
here  the  veterans  of  the  tenth  legion,  whence  it 
received  the  name  of  Colonia  Decumanorum. 
It  was  a  handsome  and  populous  town,  the  res- 
idence of  the  Rfcman  governor  of  the  province, 
and  a  place  of  great  commercial  importance. 
The  coast  was  celebrated  for  its  excellent  oys- 
ters. There  are  scarcely  any  vestiges  of  the 
ancient  town,  but  there  are  still  remains  of  tlie 
canal. 

NARBONENSIS  GALLIA.     Vid.  GALLIA. 

NARCISSUS  (Nap/ctffffof).  1.  A  beautiful  youth, 
son  of  the  river-god  Cephisus  and  the  nymph 
Liriope  of  Thespiae.  He  was  wholly  inaccess- 
ible to  the  feeling  of  love  ;  and  the  nymph 
Echo,  who  was  enamored  of  him,  died  of  grief. 
Vid.  ECHO.  One  of  his  rejected  lovers,  how- 
ever, prayed  to  Nemesis  to  punish  him  for  his 
unfeeling  heart.  Nemesis  accordingly  caused 
Narcissus  to  see  his  own  image  reflected  in  a 
fountain,  and  to  become  enamored  of  it.  But, 
as  he  could  ndl  approach  this  object,  he  gfad 
ually  pined  away,  and  his  corpse  was  meta 
morphosed  into  the  flower  which  bears  his 
name. — 2.  A  freedman  and  secretary  of  the 
Emperor  Claudius,  over  whom  he  possessed  un- 
bounded influence.  He  long  connived  at  the 
irregularities  of  Messalina ;  but,  fearing  that 
the  empress  meditated  his  death,  he  betrayed 
to  Claudius  her  marriage  with  C.  Silius,  and 
obtained  the  order  for  her  execution,  A.D.  48. 
After  the  murder  of  Claudius,  Narcissus  was 
put  to  death  by  command  of  Agrippina,  54.  He 
had  amassed  an  enormous  fortune,  amounting, 
it  is  said,  to  400,000,000  sesterces,  a  little  over 
$13,500,000  of  our  money.— 3.  A  celebrated  ath- 
lete, who  strangled  the  Emperor  Commodug, 
192.  He  was  afterward  exposed  to  the  Iion8 
by  the  Emperor  Severus. 

NARISCI,  a  small  but  brave  people  in  the 
south  of  Germany,  of  the  Suevic  race,  dwelt 
west  of  the  Marcomanni  and  east  of  the  Her- 
munduri,  and  extended  from  the  Sudeti  Monies 
on  the  north  to  the  Danube  on  the  south,  thus 
inhabiting  part  of  the  Upper  Palatinate  and  the 
country  of  the  Fichtdgefargc. 

NAKMALCHA.     Vid.  N(  ARMALCHA. 

537 


NAKNIA. 


(Narnicnsis  :  now  Narni),  a  town  in 
Umbria,  situated  on  a  lofty  hill  on  th»  southern 
bank  of  the  River  Nar,  originally  called  NEQUI- 
.VUM,  was  made  a  Roman  colony  B.G  299,  when 
:ts  name  was  changed  into  Narnia,  after  the 
-iver.  This  town  was  strongly  fortified  by  na- 
ure,  being  accessible  only  on  the  eastern  and 
•vestern  sides.  On  the  western  side  it  could 
only  be  approached  by  a  very  lofty  bridge  which 
Augustus  built  over  the  river. 

NARO,  sometimes  NAR  (now  Narenta),  a  river 
"n  Dalmatia,  which  rises  in  Mount  Albius,  and 
falls  into  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

NARONA,  a  Roman  colony  in  Dalmatia,  situa- 
ted on  the  River  Naro,  some  miles  from  the  sea, 
•and  on  the  road  to  Dyrrhachium. 

NARSES,  king  of  Persia.     Vid.  SASSANID.S:. 

NARSES  (Nupff»?f),  a  celebrated  general  and 
statesman  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  was  a  eu- 
nuch. He  put  an  end  to  the  Gothic  dominion 
in  Italy  by  two  brilliant  campaigns,  A.D.  552, 
553,  and  annexed  Italy  again  to  the  Byzantine 
empire.  ,  He  was  rewarded  by  Justinian  with 
the  government  of  the  country,  which  he  held 
for  many  years.  He  was  deprived  of  this  office 
by  Justin,  the  successor  of  Justinian,  where- 
upon he  invited  the  Langobards  to  invade  Italy. 
His  invitation  was  eagerly  accepted  by  their 
king  Alboin  ;  but  it  is  said  tffet  Narses  soon 
after  repented  of  his  conduct,  and  died  of  grief 
at  Rome  shortly  after  the  Langobards  had  cross- 
ed the  Alps  (568).  Narses  was  ninety-five  years 
of  age  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

NARTHAOIUM  (NapduKiov),  a  town  in  Thessa- 
Iy,  on  Mount  Narthacius,  southwest  of  Phar- 
salus. 

NARYX,  also  NARYCUS  or  NARYCIUM  (Napvf, 
Ndpv/cof,  Napvuiov  :  Napv/aof,  Napv/catof  :  now 
Talanda  or  Taianti),  a  town  of  the  Locri  Opun- 
*ii  on  the  Eubcean  Sea,  the  reputed  birth-place 
of  Ajax,'son  of  Oileus,  who  is  hence  called  Na- 
rycius  heros.  Since  Locri  Epizephyrii,  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  claimed  to  be  a  colony  from  Na- 
ryx  in  Greece,  we  find  the  town  of  Locri  called 
Narycia  by  the  poets,  and  the  pitch  of  Bruttium 
also  named  Narycia.  • 

NASAMONES  (Nacafiuvtf),  a  powerful  but  sav- 
age Libyan  people,  who  dwelt  originally  on  the 
shores  of  the  Great  Syrtis,  but  were  driven  in- 
land by  the  Greek  settlers  of  Cyrenaica,  and  aft- 
erward by  the  Romans.  An  interesting  account 
of  their  manners  and  customs  is  given  by  Herod- 
otus (iv.,  172),  who  also  tells  (ii.,32)  a  curious 
story  respecting  an  expedition  beyond  the  Lib- 
yan Desert,  undertaken  by  five  Nasamonian 
youths,  the  result  of  which  was  certain  import- 
ant information  concerning  the  interior  of  Af- 
rica. Vid.  NIGEIR. 

NASICA,  SCIPIO.     Vid.  SCIPIO. 

NASIDIENUS,  a  wealthy  (beatus)  Roman,  who 
gave  a  supper  to  Maecenas,  which  Horace  rid- 
icules in  the  eighth  satire  of  his  second  book. 
It  appears  from  v.  58  that  Rufus  was  the  cog- 
nomen of  Nflsidienus. 

NASIDIUS,  Q.  or  L.,  was  sent  by  Pompey,  in 
B.C.  49,  with  a  fleet  of  sixteen  ships  to  relieve 
Massilia  when  it  was  besieged  by  D.  Brutus.  He 
was  defeated  by  Brutus,  and  fled  to  Africa,  where 
he  had  the  command  of  the  Pompeian  fleet.  He 
served  in  Sicily  under  Sextus  Pompey,  whom 
he  deserted  in  35.  He  joined  Antony,  and  com-  ! 
538 


NAUPACTUS. 

manded  part  of  his  fleet  in  the  war  with  Octa- 
vianus,  31. 

NASO,  Ovinlus.     Vid.  OVIDIUS. 

[NASTES  (Ndan/c),  son  of  Nomion  leader  of 
the  Carians  before  Troy.] 

[NASUA,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Suevi  in 
their  irruption  into  Gaul  about  the  time  of  Caj 
sar's  arrival  in  that  country.] 

NASUS  or  NESUS.     Vid  CEwuDjE. 

[NATHO  (Nafti),  a  nomos  of  Lower  Egypt, 
probably  the  same  as  the  one  called  Neovr  by 
Ptolemy,  between  the  Busiritic  and  Bubastic 
mouths  of  the  Nile.] 

NATISO  (now  Natisone),  a  small  river  in  Vene- 
tia,  in  the  north  of  Italy,  which  flows  by  Aqui- 
leia,  and  falls  into  the  Sinus  Tergestinus. 

NATTA  or  NACCA,  "  a  fuller,"  the  name  of  an 
ancient  family  of  the  Pinaria  gens.  The  Natta 
satirized  by  Horace  (Sat.,  i.,  6, 124)  for  his  dirty 
meanness  was  probably  a  member  of  the  noble 
Pinarian  family,  and  therefore  attacked  by  the 
poet  for  such  conduct. 

[NAUBOLUS  (Noi'fio/.of),  king  of  Tanagra,  one 
of  the  Argonauts,  father  of  Iphitus,  who  is 
hence  called  Nav6o/U%f  in  Homer.] 

[NAUCLIDES  (Nawc/ltt'd^c,  Dor.  -e«5af).  1.  A 
Plataean,  the  leader  of  the  faction  who  invited 
and  opened  the  gates  for  theThebans  who  seized 
upon  Plataeae  B.C.  431. — 2.  One  of  the  two  Spar- 
tan ephors  sent  with  the  king  Pausanias  into 
Attica,  B.C.  403,  at  the  time  when  the  Athe- 
nians were  hard  pressed  by  Lysander ;  he  cor- 
dially co-operated  with  Pausanias  for  defeating 
the  designs  of  Lysander.] 

NAUCRATES  (Nau/cpdrj/f),  of  Erythrae,  a  Greek 
rhetorician,  and  a  disciple  of  Isocrates,  is  men- 
tioned among  the  orators  who  competed  (B.C. 
352)  for  the  prize  offered  by  Artemisia  for  the 
best  funeral  oration  delivered  over  Mausolus. 

NAUCRATIS  (Navxpanf  :  Nav/cparm;f  :  ruins 
at  the  modern  Sa-el-Hadjar),  a  city  in  the  Delta 
of  Egypt,  in  the  Nomus  of  SaTs,  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  which 
was  hence  called  also  Naucraticum  Ostium. 
It  was  a  colony  of  the  Milesians,  founded  prob- 
ably in  the  reign  of  Amasis,  about  B.C.  550,  and 
remained  a  pure  Greek  city.  It  was  the  only 
place  in  Egypt  where  Greeks  were  permitted  to 
settle  and  trade.  After  the  Greek  and  Roman 
conquests  it  continued  a  place  of  great  prosper- 
ity and  luxury,  and  was  celebrated  for  its  wor- 
ship of  Aphrodite.  It  was  the  birth-place  of 
Athenaeus,  Lyceas,  Phylarchus,  Polycharmus. 
and  Julius  Pollux. 

NAUCYDES  (NavKvdrjf),  an  Argive  statuary, 
son  of  Mothon,  and  brother  and  teacher  ofPol- 
ycletus  II.  of  Argos,  flourished  B.C.  420. 

NAULSCHUS  (NavAojof ),  that  is,  a  place  where 
ships  can  anchor.  1.  A  naval  station  on  the 
eastern  part  of  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily,  be- 
tween Mylae  and  the  promontory  Pelorus :  [it 
was  between  Mylae  and  Naulochus  that  Sextus 
Pompey  was  defeated  by  the  fleet  of  Octavia- 
nus  under  Agrippa.] — 2.  A  small  island  off  Crete, 
near  the  promontory  Sammonium— 3.  A  naval 
station  belonging  10  Mesembria  in  Thrace. 

NAUMACHIUS  (Navfid^tof),  a  Gnomic  poet,  of 
uncertain  age,  some  of  whose  verses  are  pre~ 
served  by  Stobaeus. 

NAUPACTUS  (Naiwa/croc  :  NavTra/crtof  :  now 
Lepanto),  an  ancient  and  strongly-fortified  town 


NAUPLIA. 

of  the  Locri  Ozolae,  near  the  promontory  Antir- 
rhium,  possessing  the  largest  and  best  harbor 
on  the  whole  of  the  northern  coast  of  the  Co- 
rinthian Gulf.  It  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  the  Heraclidae  having  here  built  the 
fleet  with  which  they  crossed  over  to  the  Pel- 
oponnesus. After  the  Persian  wars  it  fell  into 
the  posver  of  the  Athenians,  who  settled  here 
the  Messenians  who  had  been  compelled  to 
leave  their  country  at  the  end  of  the  third  Mes- 
senian  war,  B.C.  455  ;  and  during  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  it  was  the  head-quarters  of  the 
Athenians  in  all  their  operations  against  the 
west  of  Greece.  At  the  end  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war  the  Messenians  were  obliged  to  leave 
Naupactus,  which  passed  into  the  hands  first  of 
the  Locrians  and  afterward  of  the  Achaeans. 
It  was  given  by  Philip,  with  the  greater  part  of 
the  Locrian  territory,  to  ^Etolia,  but  it  was  again 
assigned  to  Locris  by  the  Romans. 

NAUPLIA  (Nai-jrAio  :  Naun-AtetJf  :  now  Nau- 
plia),  the  port  of  Argos,  situated  on  the  Saronic 
Gulf,  was  never  a  place  of  importance  in  an- 
tiquity, and  was  in  ruins  in  the  time  of  Pausa- 
nias.  The  inhabitants  had  been  expelled  by 
the  Argives  as  early  as  the  second  Messenian 
war  on  suspicion  of  favoring  the  Spartans,  who, 
in  consequence,  settled  them  at  Methone  in 
Messenia.  At  the  present  day  Nauplia  is  one  of 
the  most  important  cities  in  Greece. 

NAUPLIUS  (Natfjrfoof).  1.  Of  Argos,  son  of 
Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  Amymone,  a  famous 
navigator,  and  the  founder  of  the  town  of  Nau- 
plia.— 2.  Son  of  Clytoneus,  was  one  of  the  Ar- 
gonauts, and  a  descendant  of  the  preceding. — 3. 
King  of  Eubcea,  and  father  of  Palarnedes,  CEax, 
and  Nausiinedon,  by  Clymene.  Catreus  had 
given  his  daughter  Clymene  and  her  sister  Ae"- 
rope  to  Nauplius  to  be  carried  to  a  foreign  land ; 
but  Nauplius  married  Clymene,  and  gave  Aftrope 
to  Plisthenes,  who  became  by  her  the  father  of 
Agamemnon  and  Menelaus.  His  son  Palamedes 
had  been  condemned  to  death  by  the  Greeks 
during  the  sie^e  of  Troy  ;  and  as  Nauplius  con- 
sidered his  condemnation  to  be  an  act  of  in- 
justice, he  watched  for  the  return  of  the  Greeks, 
and  as  they  approached  the  coast  of  Eubcea  he 
lighted  torches  on  the  dangerous  promontory  of 
Caphareus.  The  sailors,  thus  misguided,  suf- 
fered shipwreck,  and  perished  in  the  waves  or 
by  the  sword  of  Nauplius. 

NAUPORTUS  (now  Ober  or  Upper  Laibach),  an 
ancient  and  important  commercial  town  of  the 
Taurisci,  situated  on  the  River  Nauportus  (now 
Laibac/i),  a  tributary  of  the  Savus,  in  Pannonia 
Superior.  The  town  fell  into  decay  after  the 
foundation  of  JEmona  (now  Laibach),  which  was 
only  fifteen  miles  from  it.  The  name  of  Nau- 
portus is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
Argonauts  having  sailed  up  the  Danube  and  the 
Savus  to  this  place,  and  here  built  the  town  ; 
and  it  is  added  that  they  afterward  carried  their 
ships  across  the  Alps  to  the  Adriatic  Sea,  where 
they  again  embarked.  This  legend,  like  many 
others,  probably  owes  its  origin  to  a  piece  of 
bad  etymology. 

NAUSICAA  (NavuHtaa),  daughter  of  Alcinous, 
king  of  the  Phaeacians,  and  Arete,  who  con- 
ducted Ulysses  to  the  court  of  her  father  when  j 
be  was  shipwrecked  on  the  coast. 

[NAUSICLES  (Nawnidifc),  one  of  the  more  in-  j 


NAXOS. 

fluential  popular  leaders  of  Athens  in  the  time 
of  Philip,  leader  of  an  army  sent  by  the  Athe- 
nians to  aid  the  Phocians ;  at  first  on  friendly 
terms  with  ^Eschines,  but  afterward  battling  on 
the  side  of  the  patriots,  and  after  the  disaster 
of  Chajronea,  stepping  into  the  place  of  Demos- 
thenes.] 

NAUSITHOUS  (Navaidooe),  son  of  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon) and  Peribcea,  the  daughter  of  Euryme- 
don,  was  the  father  of  Alcinous  and  Rhexenor, 
and  king  of  the  Phseacians,  whom  he  led  from 
Hyperia  in  Thrinacia  to  the  island  of  Scheria, 
in  order  to  escape  from  the  Cyclopes. 

[NAUSTATHMUS  (NatiffTafyof).  1.  A  port-town 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  north  of  Promon- 
torium  Pachynum.  —  2.  A  port-town  on  the 
Pontus  Euxinus,  or,  rather,  on  a  salt  lake  join- 
ed to  the  sea  (now  Hamamli  Ghieul).  —  3.-A 
port  in  Cyrena'ica,  between  Erythrum  and  Apfu- 
lonia.] 

NAUTACA  (Naiira;ca :  now  Nakshcb  or  Kesh), 
a  city  of  Sogdiana,  near  the  Oxus,  toward  the 
eastern  part  of  its  course. 

NAUTES.     Vid.  NAUTIA  GENS. 

NAUTIA  GENS,  an  ancient  patrician  gens, 
claimed  to  be  descended  from  Nautes,  one  of 
the  companions  of  ^Eneas,  who  was  said  to 
have  brought  with  him  the  Palladium  from 
Troy,  which  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the 
Nautii  at  Rome.  The  Nautii,  all  of  whom  were 
surnamed  Rutili,  frequently  held  the  highest  of- 
fices of  state  in  the  early  times  of  the  republic, 
but,  like  many  of  the  other  ancient  gentes,  they 
disappear  from  history  about  the  time  of  the 
Samnite  wars. 

NAVA  (now  Nahe),  a  western  tributary  of  the 
Rhine  in  Gaul,  which  falls  into  the  Rhine  at  the 
modern  Bingen. 

NAVALIA  or  NABALIA,  a  river  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Germany,  mentioned  by  Tacitus,  prob- 
ably the  eastern  arm  of  the  Rhine. 

NAVIUS,  ATTUS,  a  renowned  augur  in  the  time 
of  Tarquinius  Priscus.  This  king  proposed  to 
double  the  number  of  the  equestrian  centuries, 
and  to  name  the  three  new  ones  after  himself 
and  two  of  Us  friends,  but  was  opposed  by  Na- 
vius  because  Romulus  had  originally  arranged 
the  equites  under  the  sanction  of  the  auspices, 
and  consequently  no  alteration  could  be  made 
in  them  without  the  same  sanction.  The  tale 
then  goes  on  to  say  that  Tarquinius  thereupon 
commanded  him  to  divine  whether  what  he  was 
thinking  of  in  his  mind  could  be  done,  and  that 
when  Navius,  after  consulting  the  heavens,  de- 
clared that  it  could,  the  king  held  out  a  whet- 
stone and  a  razor  to  cut  it  with.  Navius  im- 
mediately cut  it.  His  statue  was  placed  in  the 
comitium,  on  the  steps  of  the  senate-house,  the 
place  where  the  miracle  had  been  wrought,  and 
beside  the  statue  the  whetstone  was  preserved. 
Attus  Navius  seems  to  be  the  best  orthography, 
making  Attus  an  old  preenomen,  though  we  fre- 
quently find  the  name  written  Attius. 

NAXOS  (Nufof  :  Nu&of).  1.  (Now  Naxia),  an 
island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  and  the  largest  of  the 
Cyclades,  is  situated  nearly  half  way  between 
tli-«  coasts  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  It  is 
about  eighteen  miles  in  length  and  twelve  in 
breadth.  It  was  very  fertile  in  antiquity,  as  it 
is  in  the  present  day,  producing  an  abundance 
of  corn,  wine,  oil,  and  fruit.  It  was  especially 

539 


NAXUANA. 

celebrated  for  its  wine,  and  hence  plays  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  legends  about  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus).    Here  the  god 'is  said  to  have  found 
Ariadne  after  she  had  been  deserted  by  The- 
seus.    The  marble  of  the  island  was  also  much 
prized,  and  was  considered  equal  to  the  Parian. 
Naxos  is  frequently  called  Dia  (At'a)  by  the 
poets,  which  was  one  of  its  ancient  namee.    It 
was  likewise  called  Strongyle  (Srpoyytiyl)?)  on 
account  of  its  round  shape,  and  Diomjsias  (A  a- 
vvaulf)  from  its  connection  with  the  worship  of 
Dionysus  (Bacchus).     It  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  inhabited  by  Thracians  and  then  by  \ 
Carians,  and  to  have  derived  its  name  from  a 
Carian  chief,  Naxos.     In  the  historical  age  it  ! 
was  inhabited  by  lonians,  who  had  emigrated 
from  Athens.     Naxos  was  conquered  by  Pisis-  ! 
t^tus,  who  established  Lygdamis  as  tyrant  of  i 
the  island  about  B.C.  540.     The  Persians  in 
501  attempted,  at  the  suggestion  of  Aristagoras, 
to  subdue  Naxos  ;  and  upon  the  failure  of  their 
attempt,  Aristagoras,  fearing  punishment,  in- 
duced the  Ionian  cities  to  revolt  from  Persia,  j 
In  490  the  Persians,  under  Datis  and  Artapher-  | 
nes,  conquered  Naxos,  and  reduced  the  inhabit- 
ants to  slavery.     The  Naxians  recovered  their  | 
independence  after  the  battle  of  Salamis  (480). 
They  were  the  first  of  the  allied  states  whom 
the  Athenians  reduced  to  subjection  (471),  after  j 
which  time  they  are  rarely  mentioned  in  his-  , 
tory.    The  chief  town  of  the  island  was  also 
called  Naxos ;  and  we  also  have  mention  of  the  , 
small  towns  of  Tragaea  and  Lestadae.  —  2.  A  \ 
Greek  city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  south  ! 
of  Mount  Taurus,  was  founded  B.C.  735  by  the  ] 
Chalcidians  of  Eubcea,  and  was  the  first  Greek 
colony  established  in  the  island.    It  grew  so 
rapidly  in  power  that  in  only  five  or  six  years 
after  its  foundation  it  sent  colonies  to  Catana 
and  Leontini.    It  was  for  a  time  subject  to  ] 
Hieronymus,  tyrant  of  Gela ;  but  it  soon  recov-  j 
ered  its  independence,  carried  on  a  successful 
war  against  Messana,  and  was  subsequently 
an  ally  of  the  Athenians  against  Syracuse.    In 
403  the  town  was  taken  by  Dionysius  of  Syra- 
cuse and  destroyed.    Nearly  fifty*  years  after- 
ward (358)  the  remains  of  the  Naxians  scatter- 
ed over  Sicily  were  collected  by  Andromachus, 
and  a  new  city  was  founded  on  Mount  Taurus, 
to  which  the  name  of  Tauromenium  was  given. 
Vid.  TAUROMENIUM. 

NAXUANA  (Nafovava :  now  Nakshivan),  a  city 
of  Armenia  Major,  on  the  Araxes,  near  the  con- 
fines of  Media. 

NAZARETH,  NAZABA  (Na£apl0,  or  -£r,  or  -a : 
Nafapaiof,  Na£opa«oc,  Nazarenus,  Nazareus : 
now  en-Nasirah),  a  city  of  Palestine,  in  Galilee, 
south  of  Cana,  on  a  hill  in  the  midst  of  the 
range  of  mountains  north  of  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon. 

[NAZARIUS,  a  Latin  rhetorician,  who  taught 
eloquence  at  Bordeaux  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fourth  century  A.D.  He  was  author  of  a  pane- 
gyric on  Constantine,  delivered  before  the  Cae- 
sars Crispus  and  Constantine,  which  is  pub- 
lished in  the  Panegyrici  Veteres.'] 

NAZIANZCS  (Noftavfof  :  Na£tav&v6f),  a  city  of 
Cappadocia,  on  the  road  from  ArchelaTs  to  Ty- 
ana,  celebrated  as  the  diocese  of  the  Father  of 
the  Church,  Gregory  Nazianzen.  Its  site  is 
doubtful. 


NEAPOLIS. 

NE.«ERA  (Neatpa),  the  name  of  several  nymphs, 
and  also  of  several  maidens  mentioned  by  the 
poets. 

NE^THUS  (N«zt0of  :  now  Nieto),  a  river  in 
Bruttium,  in  the  south  of  Italy,  falling  into  the 
Tarentine  Gulf  a  little  north  of  Croton.  Here 
the  captive  Trojan  women  are  said  to  have 
burned  the  ships  of  the  Greeks. 

[NEALCES,  a  friend  of  Turnus,  slew  Salius 
in  the  wars  between  Turnus  and  ^Eneas  in 
Italy.] 

NEALCES  (Neu^Kj/f),  a  painter  who  flourished 
in  the  time  of  Aratus,  B.C.  245. 

NEANDRIA  (NedvtJpna  :  Neavfipeif,  pi.),  a  town 
of  the  Troad,  upon  the  Hellespont,  probably  an 
^Eolian  colony.  By  the  time  of  Augustus  it  had 
disappeared. 

NEANTHES  (NeuvBw),  of  Cyzicus,  lived  about 
B.C.  241,  and  was  a  disciple  of  the  Milesian  Phi- 
liscus,  who  himself  had  been  a  disciple  of  Isoc- 
rates.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  principally 
of  history. 

NEAPOLIS  (Neurro/Uf  :  NeaTro^iDyc.  Neapolita- 
nus).  I.  In  Europe.  1.  (Now  Napoli  or  Naples), 
a  city  in  Campania  in  Italy,  on  the  western 
slope  of  Mount  Vesuvius  and  on  the  River  Se- 
bethus,  was  founded  by  the  Chalcidians  of  Cu- 
mae,  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  place  called  PAH- 
THENOPE  (TlapOevoKT}'),  after  the  Siren  of  that 
name.  Hence  we  find  the  town  called  Parthen- 
ope  by  Virgil  and  Ovid.  The  year  of  the  foun- 
dation of  Neapolis  is  not  recorded.  It  was  call 
ed  the  "New  City,"  because  it  was  regardec 
simply  as  a  new  quarter  of  the  neighboring  citj 
of  Cumae.  When  the  town  is  first  mentioned 
in  Roman  history,  it  consisted  of  two  parts,  di- 
vided from  each  other  by  a  wall,  and  called  re- 
spectively Palaeopolis  and  Neapolis.  This  divi- 
sion probably  arose  after  the  capture  of  Cumae 
by  the  Samnites,  when  a  large  number  of  the 
Cumaeans  took  refuge  in  the  city  they  had 
founded  ;  whereupon  the  old  quarter  was  called 
Palaeopolis,  and  the  new  quarter,  built  to  accom- 
modate the  new  inhabitants,  was  named  Neapo- 
lis. There  has  been  a  dispute  respecting  the 
site  of  these  two  quarters  ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  Palaeopolis  was  situated  on  the  western 
side,  near  the  harbor,  and  Neapolis  on  the  east- 
ern side,  near  the  River  Sebethus.  In  B.C. 
327  the  town  was  taken  by  the  Samnites,  and  in 
290  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
who  allowed  it,  however,  to  retain  its  Greek 
constitution.  At  a  later  period  it  became  a 
municipium,  and  finally  a  Roman  colony.  Under 
the  Romans  the  two  quarters  of  the  city  were 
united,  and  the  name  of  Palaeopolis  disappeared. 
It  continued  to  be  a  prosperous  and  flourishing 
place  till  the  time  of  the  empire ;  and  its  beau- 
tiful scenery,  and  the  luxurious  life  of  its  Greek 
population,  made  it  a  favorite  residence  with 
many  of  the  Romans.  In  the  reign  of  Titus 
the  city  was  destroyed  by  ah  earthquake,  but 
was  rebuilt  by  this  emperor  in  the  Roman  style. 
The  modern  city  of  Naples  does  not  stand  on 
exactly  the  same  site  as  Neapolis.  The  ancient 
city  extended  further  east  than  the  modern  city, 
since  the  former  was  situated  on  the  Sebethus, 
whereas  the  latter  does  not  reach  so  far  as  the 
.Fiume  della  Madalena  ;  but  the  modern  city,  on 
the  other  hand,  extends  further  north  and  west 
than  the  ancient  one,  since  the  island  of  Mega- 


NEARCHUS. 

ns,  on  which  the  Castel  del  QUO  now  stands, 
was  situated  in  ancient  times  between  Pausily- 
pum  and  Neapolis.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Ne^polis  there  were  warm  baths,  the  celebrated 
villa  of  Lucullus,  and  the  villa  Pausilypi  or  Pau- 
silypuin,  bequeathed  by  Vedius  Pollio  to  Au- 
gustus, and  which  has  given  its  name  to  the 
celebrated  grotto  of  Posilippo  between  Naples 
and  Puzzuoli,  at  the  entrance  of  which  the  tomb 
if  Virgil  is  still  shown. — 2.  A  part  of  Syracuse. 
Vid.  SYRACUSE. — 3.  (Now  Napoli),  a  town  on 
the  western  coast  of  the  island  of  Sardinia, 
celebrated  for  its  warm  baths. — 4.  (Now  Ka- 
vallo),  a  sea-port  town  in  Thrace,  subsequently 
Macedonia  adjecta,  on  the  Strymonic  Gulf,  be- 
tween the  Strymon  and  Nessus. — II.  In  Asia 
and  Africa.  1.  (Now  Scala  Nuoua,  or  near  it), 
a  small  Ionian  city  on  the  coast  of  Lydia,  north 
of  Mycale  and  southwest  of  Ephesus.  The 
Ephesians,  to  whom  it  at  first  belonged,  ex- 
changed it  with  the  Samians  for  MARATHESIHM. 
— 2,  3.  Two  towns  of  Caria,  the  one  near  Har- 
pasa,  the  other  on  the  coast,  perhaps  the  new 
•own  of  Myndus. — 4.  (Ruins  at  Tut'mek ?),  in 
Pisidia,  south  of  Antioch  ;  afterward  reckoned 
to  Galatia.  —  5.  In  Palestine,  the  SYCHEM  or 
SYCHAR  of  Scripture  (Str^^u,  Sv^up,  St/u/m, 
Toseph.  :  now  Nablous),  one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  of  Samaria,  stood  in  the  narrow  valley 
between  Mounts  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  and  was  the 
religious  capital  of  the  Samaritans,  whose  tem- 
ple was  built  upon  Mount  Gerizim.  This  tem- 
ple was  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus,  B.C.  129. 
^ts  full  name,  under  the  Romans,  was  Flavia 
Neapolis.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  Justii»Mar- 
tyr.  —  6.  A  small  town  of  Babylonia,  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  opposite  to  the 
opening  of  the  King's  Canal. — 7.  In  Egypt.  Vid. 
C^ENE. — 8.  In  Northern  Africa,  on  the  western 
coast  of  the  Great  Syrtis,  by  some  identified 
with  Leptis  Magna,  by  others  with  the  modern 
Tripoli. — 9.  (Now  Nabal),  a  very  ancient  Phoe- 
nician colony,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Zeugi- 
tana,  near  the  northern  extremity  of  the  great 
gulf  which  was  called  after  it  Sinus  Neapoli- 
tanus  (now  Gulf  of  Hammamel').  Under  the  Ro- 
mans it  was  a  libera  civitas,  and,  according  to 
Ptolemy,  a  colony. 

NEAncnus(Nt'ap^of).  1.  A  distinguished  friend 
and  officer  of  Alexander,  was  a  native  of  Crete, 
but  settled  at  Amphipolis.  He  appears  to  have 
occupied  a  prominent  position  at  the  court  of 
Philip,  by  whom  he  was  banished  for  participat- 
ing in  the  intrigues  of  Alexander.  After  the 
death  of  Philip  he  was  recalled,  and  treated 
with  the  utmost  distinction  by  Alexander.  He 
accompanied  the  king  to  Asia  ;  and  in  B.C.  325, 
he  was  intrusted  by  Alexander  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  which  he  had  caused  to  be 
constructed  on  the  Hydaspes.  Upon  reaching  ! 
the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  Alexander  resolved  to  I 
send  round  his  ships  by  sea  from  thence  to  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  he  gladly  accepted  the  offer 
of  Nearchus  to  undertake  the  command  of  the 
fleet  during  this  long  and  perilous  navigation. 
Nearchus  set  out  on  the  twenty-first  of  Sep- 
tember, 326,  and  arrived  at  Susa  in  safety  in 
February,  325.  He  was  rewarded  with  a  crown 
of  gold  for  his  distinguished  services,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  obtained  in  marriage  a  daughter 
of  the  Rhodian  Mentor  and  of  Barsine,  to  vvhomj 


NECTANABIS. 

Alexander  himself  had  betn  previously  mar 
ried.  In  the  division  of  the  provinces  after  the 
death  of  Alexander,  he  received  the  govern- 
ment of  Lycia  and  Pamphylia,  which  he  held  as 
subordinate  to  Antigonus.  In  317  he  accom- 
panied Antigonus  in  his  march  against  Eume- 
nes,  and  in  314  he  is  mentioned  again  as  one 
of  the  generals  of  Antigonus.  Nearchus  left  a 
history  of  the  voyage,  the  substance  of  which 
has  been  preserved  to  us  by  Arrian,  who  has 
derived  from  it  the  whole  of  the  latter  part  of 
his  "  Indica." — [2.  A  Pythagorean  philosophei 
of  Tarentum  ;  he  adhered  to  the  Roman  cause 
in  the  second  Punic  war,  notwithstanding  the 
defection  of  his  countrymen,  and  was  on  friend- 
ly terms  with  Cato  the  censor,  who  lived  in  hi& 
house  after  the  recapture  of  Tarentum  by  Fa-, 
bius  Maximus,  B.C.  209.] 

NEBO,  a  mountain  of  Palestine,  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  Jordan,  opposite  to  Jericho,  was 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  range  called  Abarim. 
It  was  on  a  summit  of  this  mountain,  called 
Pisgah,  that  Moses  died. 

[NEBRISSA.     Vid.  NABRISSA.] 

NEBROIJES  MONTES,  the  principal  chain  of 
mountains  in  Sicily,  running  through  the  whole 
of  the  island,  and  a  continuation  of  the  Apen- 
nines. 

NECO  or  NECHO  (Ne/cwf,  Ne^wf,  Nf/caCf,  Ne- 
xauf,  Ne^aw),  son  of  Psammetichus,  whom  he 
succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Egypt  in  B.C.  617. 
His  reign  was  marked  by  considerable  energy 
and  enterprise.  He  began  to  dig  the  canal  in- 
tended to  connect  the  Nile  with  the  Arabian 
Gulf;  but  he  desisted  from  the  work,  according 
to  Herodotus,  on  being  warned  by  an  oracle  that 
he  was  constructing  it  only  for  the  use  of  the 
barbarian  invader.  But  the  greatest  and  most 
interesting  enterprise  with  which  his  name  ia 
connected  is  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  by 
the  Phoenicians  in  his  service,  who  set  sail 
from  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and,  accomplishing  the 
voyage  in  somewhat  more  than  two  years,  en- 
tered the  Mediterranean,  and  returned  to  Egypt 
through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  His  military 
expeditions  were  distinguished  at  first  by  bril- 
liant success,  which  was  followed,  however,  by 
the  most  rapid  and  signal  reverses.  On  his 
march  against  the  Babylonians  and  Medes,  whose 
joint  forces  had  recently  destroyed  Nineveh,  he 
was  met  at  Magdolus  (Megiddo)  by  Josiah,  king 
of  Judah,  who  was  a  vassal  of  Babylon.  In  the 
battle  which  ensued,  Josiah  was  defeated  and 
mortally  wounded,  and  Necho  advanced  to  the 
Euphrates,  where  he  conquered  the  Babylonians, 
and  took  Carchemish  or  Circesium,  where  he 
appears  to  have  established  a  garrison.  After 
the  battle  at  Megiddo  he  took  the  town  of  Cad- 
ytis,  probably  Jerusalem.  In  606  Nebuchad- 
nezzar attacked  Carchemish,  defeated  Necho, 
and  would  appear  also  to  have  invaded  Egypt 
itself.  In  601  Necho  died,  after  a  reign  of  six- 
teen years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Psam- 
mis  or  Psammuthis. 

NECTANABIS,  NECTANEBCS,  or  NECTANEBES 
(Nf/cruva&f,  N«rure6of,  Nc/crav^/;f).  1.  King 
of  Egypt,  the  first  of  the  three  sovereigns  of  the 
Sebennite  dynasty,  succeeded  Nepherites  on  the 
throne  about  B.C.  374,  and  in  the  following  year 
successfully  resisted  the  invasion  of  the  Persian 
force  under  Pharnabazus  and  Iphicrates.  He 

Ml 


NEDA. 

died  after  a  reign  of  ten  years,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Tachos. — 2.  The  nephew  of  Tachos, 
deprived  the  latter  of  the  sovereignty  in  361, 
with  the  assistance  of  Agesilaus.  For  some 
time  he  defeated  all  the  attempts  of  Artaxerxes 
III.  (Ochus)  to  recover  Egypt,  but  he  was  at 
length  defeated  himself,  and,  despairing  of  mak- 
ing any  further  resistance,  he  fled  to  .Ethiopia, 
350.  Nectanabis  was  the  third  king  of  the  Se- 
bennite  dynasty,  and  the  last  native  sovereign 
who  ever  ruled  in  Egypt. 

NEDA  (N«5a  :  now  Buzi),  a  river  in  Pelopon- 
nesus, rises  in  Arcadia  in  Mount  Cerausion,  a 
branch  of  Mount  Lycaeus,  and  falls  into  the 
Ionian  Sea  after  forming  the  boundary  between 
Arcadia  and  Messenia,  and  between  Messenia 
and  Elis. 

•  NEORA  or  NEGRANA  (ra  Nsypava :  now  El- 
Nokra,  north  of  March),  a  city  of  Arabia  Felix, 
destroyed  by  JSlius  Callus. 

[NEIUM  (Njyi'ov).     Vid.  ITHACA.] 

NELEUS  (N#A,ri5f).  1.  Sou  of  Tyro,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Salmoneus.  Neptune  (Poseidon)  once 
visited  Tyro  in  the  form  of  the  river-god  Enip- 
eus,  and  she  became  by  him  the  mother  of  Pelias 
and  Neleus.  To  conceal  her  shame,  she  exposed 
the  two  boys,  but  they  were  found  and  reared  by 
some  countrymen.  They  subsequently  learned 
their  parentage ;  and  after  the  death  of  Creth- 
eus,  king  of  lolcos,  who  had  married  their  moth- 
er, they  seized  the  throne  of  lolcos,  excluding 
^Eson,  the  son  of  Cretheus  and  Tyro ;  but  Pelias 
soon  afterward  expelled  his  brother,  and  thus 
became  sole  king :  thereupon  Neleus  went  with 
Melampus  and  Bias  to  Pylos,  which  his  uncle 
Aphareus  gave  to  him,  and  of  which  he  thus  be- 
came king.  Several  towns  of  this  name  claim- 
ed the  honor  of  being  the  city  of  Neleus  or  of  his 
son  Nestor,  such  as  Pylos  in  Messenia,  Pylos  in 
Elis,  and  Pylos  in  Triphylia ;  the  last  of  which 
is  probably  the  one  mentioned  by  Homer  in  con- 
nection with  Neleus  and  Nestor.  Neleus  was 
married  to  Chloris,  a  daughter  of  Amphion  of 
Orchomenos,  according  to  Homer,  and  a  Theban 
woman  according  to  others.  By  her  he  became 
the  father  of  Nestor,  Chromius,  Periclymenus, 
and  Pero,  though  he  had  in  all  twelve  sons. 
When  Hercules  had  killed  Iphitus,  he  went  to 
Neleus  to  be  purified  ;  but  Neleus,  who  was  a 
friend  of Eurytus,  the  father  oflphitus,  refused 
to  grant  the  request  of  Hercules.  In  order  to 
take  vengeance,  Hercules  afterward  marched 
against  Pylos,  and  slew  all  the  sons  of  Neleus, 
with  the  exception  of  Nestor:  some  later  writ- 
ers add  that  Neleus  himself  was  also  killed. 
Neleus  was  now  attacked,  and  his  dominions 
plundered  by  Augeas,  king  of  the  Epeans  ;  but 
the  attacks  of  the  latter  were  repelled  by  Nes- 
tor. The  descendants  of  Neleus,  the  Nelldee, 
were  eventually  expelled  from  their  kingdom  by 
the  Heraclidae,  and  migrated  for  the  most  part 
to  Athens. — 2.  The  younger  son  of  Codrus,  dis- 
puted the  right  of  his  elder  brother  Medon  to  the 
crown  on  account  of  his  lameness,  and  when  the 
Delphic  oracle  declared  in  favor  of  Medon,  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  colonists  who 
migrated  to  Ionia,  and  himself  founded  Miletus. 
His  son  ^Epytus  headed  the  colonists  who  set- 
tled in  Priene.  Another  son  headed  a  body  of 
settlers  who  re-enforced  the  inhabitants  of  la- 
•us,  after  they  had  lost  a  great  number  of  their 
542 


NEMESIS. 

citizens  in  a  war  with  the  Carians. — 3.  Of  Seep 
sis,  the  son  of  Coriscus,  was  a  disciple  of  Aris- 
totle and  Thcophrastus,  the  latter  of  whom  Be- 
queathed to  him  his  library,  and  appointed  him 
one  of  his  executors.  The  history  of  the  writ- 
ings of  Aristotle,  as  connected  with  Neleus  and 
his  heirs,  is  related  elsewhere  (p.  102,  b). 

NELIDES,  NELEIADES,  and  NELEIUS  (Nj^rtd^f, 
HrihT)l<i6ris,  N^iji'of),  patronymics  of  Neleus,  by 
which  either  Nestor,  the  son  of  Neleus,  or  An- 
tilochus,  his  grandson,  is  designated. 

NEMAUSUS  (Nemausensis  :  now  Nismcs),  one 
of  the  most  important  towns  of  Gallia  Narbo- 
nensis,  was  the  capital  of  the  Arecomici  and  a 
Roman  colony.  It  was  situated  inland  east  of 
the  Rhone,  on  the  high  road  from  Italy  to  Spain, 
and  on  the  southern  slope  of  Mons  Cevenna.  It 
was  celebrated  as  the  place  from  which  the  fam- 
ily of  the  Antonines  came.  Though  rarely  men- 
tioned by  ancient  writers,  the  Roman  remains 
at  Nismcs,  which  are  some  of  the  most  perfect 
north  of  the  Alps,  prove  that  the  ancient  Ne- 
mausus  was  a  large  and  flourishing  city.  Of 
these  remains  the  most  important  are  the  am- 
phitheatre, the  Maison  Carree,  a  name  given  to  a 
beautiful  Corinthian  temple,  and  the  magnificent 
aqueduct,  now  called  Pont  du  Card,  consisting 
of  three  rows  of  arches,  raised  one  above  the 
other,  and  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  in  height. 

NEMEA  (Nqufo,  Ion.  Ne//t'^),  a  valley  in  Argp- 
lis,  between  Cleonae  and  Phlius,  celebrated  in 
mythical  story  as  the  place  where  Hercules  slew 
the  Nemean  lion.  Vid.  p.  356,  b.  In  this  val- 
ley there  was  a  splendid  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  •> 
Nemetis  surrounded  by  a  sacred  grove,  in  which 
the  Nemean  games  were  celebrated  everyother 
year.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  art.  NEMEA. 

NEMESIANUS,  M.  AURELICS  OLYMPICS,  a  Ro- 
man poet,  probably  a  native  of  Africa,  flourished 
at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Cams  (A.D.  283), 
carried  off  the  prize  in  all  the  poetical  contests 
of  the  day,  and  was  esteemed  second  to  the 
youthful  prince  Numerianus  alone,  who  honored 
him  so  far  as  to  permit  him  to  dispute,  and  to 
yield  to  him  the  palm  of  verse.  We  are  told  that 
Nemesianus  was  the  author  of  poems  upon  fish- 
ing, hunting,  and  aquatics,  all  of  which  have  per- 
ished with  the  exception  of  a  fragment  of  the 
Cynegetica,  extending  to  three  hundred  and 
twenty-five  hexameter  lines,  which,  in  so  far  as 
neatness  and  purity  of  expression  are  concern- 
ed, in  some  degree  justifies  the  admiration  of 
his  contemporaries.  The  best  edition  of  this 
fragment  is  by  Stern,  published  along  with  Gra- 
tius  Faliscus,  Hal.  Sax.,  1832. 

NEMESIS  (Nfyeair),  a  Greek  goddess,  is  most 
commonly  described  as  a  daughter  of  Night, 
though  some  call  her  a  daughter  of  Erebus  or 
of  Oceanus.  She  is  a  personification  of  the  mor- 
al reverence  for  law,  of  the  natural  fear  of  com 
mitting  a  culpable  action,  and  hence  of  con- 
science. In  later  writers,  as  Herodotus  and 
Pindar,  Nemesis  measures  out  happiness  and 
unhappiness  to  mortals  ;  and  he  who  is  blessed 
with  too  many  or  too  frequent  gifts  of  fortune, 
is  visited  by  her  with  losses  and  sufferings,  in 
order  that  he  may  become  humble.  This  notion 
arose  from  a  belief  that  the  gods  were  envious 
of  excessive  human  happiness.  Nemesis  was 
thus  a  check  upon  extravagant  favors  conferred 
tipon  man  by  Tyche  or  Fortune  ;  and  from  this 


NEMESIUS. 

idea  lastly  arose  that  of  her  being  an  avenging  ! 
and  punishing  fate,  who,  like  Justice  (Dike)  and  ! 
the  Erinnyes,  sooner  or  later  overtakes  the  reck- ! 
less  sinnei      She  is  frequently  mentioned  under 
the  surnames  ol  Adrastia  (vid.  ADRASTIA,  No.  2), 
and  Rhamnusia  or  Rhamnusis,  the  latter  of 
which  she  derived  from  the  town  of  Rhamnus 
in  Attica,  where  she  had  a  celebrated  sanctua- 
ry.    She  was  usually  represented  in  works  of  i 
art  as  a  virgin  divinity :   in  the  more  ancient 
works  she  seems  to  have  resembled  Aphrodite  | 
(Venus),  whereas  in  the  later  ones  she  was  more  , 
grave  and  serious.     But  there  is  an  allegorical ! 
tradition  that  Zeus  (Jupiter)  begot  by  Nemesis 
at  Rhamnus  an  egg,  which  Leda  found,  and  from  : 
which  Helena  and  the  Dioscuri  sprang,  whence 
Helena  herself  is  called  Rhamnusis. 

NEMESIUS  (Ne^eatof),  the  author  of  a  Greek 
treatise  On  the  Nature  of  Man,  is  called  bishop  ' 
of  Emesa,  in  Syria,  and  probably  lived  at  the  end 
of  the  fourth  or  beginning  of  the  fifth  century 
after  Christ.  His  treatise  is  an  interesting  phil- 
osophical work,  which  has  generally  been  highly 
praised  by  all  who  have  read  it.  Edited  by  Mat- 
thaei,  Halae,  8vo,  1802. 

NEMETACUM.     Vid.  NEMETOCENNA. 

NEMETES  or  NEMET^E,  a  people  in  Gallia  Bel- 
gica,  on  the  Rhine,  whose  chief  town  was  No- 
viomagus,  subsequently  Nemetae  (now  Speyer  or 
Spires). 

NEMETOCENNA  or  NEMETACUM  (now  ylrras),  the 
chief  town  of  the  Atrebates  in  Gallia  Belgica, 
subsequently  Atrebati,  whence  its  modern  name. 

NEMORENSIS  LACUS.     Vid.  ARICIA. 

NEMOSSUS.      Vid.  ARVERNI.  .    • 

NEOBULE.     Vid.  ARCHILOCHUS. 


ocaesariensis).  1.  (Now Niksar),  the  capital,  un- 
der the  Roman  empire,  of  Pontus  Polemonia- 
cus,  in  Asia  Minor,  stood  on  the  River  Lycus, 
sixty-three  Roman  miles  east  of  Amasia.  It  | 
was  a  splendid  city,  and  is  famous  in  ecclesi- 
astical history  for  the  council  held  there  in  A.D. 
314. — 2.  (Now  Kulat-en-Nejur  ?  ruins),  a  fortress 
established  by  Justinian,  on  the  Euphrates,  in 
the  district  of  Syria  called  Chalybonitis. 

NEON  (N&jf :  Neuvtof,  Ncwvatof),  an  ancient 
town  in  Phocis  at  the  eastern  foot  of  Mount  Ti-  j 
thorea,  a  branch  of  Mount  Parnassus,  was  eighty  ; 
stadia  from  Delphi  across  the  mountains.    Neon  i 
was  destroyed  by  the  Persians  under  Xerxes,  but 
was  subsequently  rebuilt,  and  named  TITHOREA  '' 
(TiOopea :  TiOopcvc)  after  the  mountain  on  which  ! 
it  was  situated.     The  new  town,  however,  was 
not  on  exactly  the  same  site  as  the  ancient  one. 
Tithorea  was  situated  at  the  modern  Veliiza,  and  i 
Neon  at  Palea-Fiva,  between  four  and  five  miles  \ 
north  of  Velitza.    Tithorea  was  destroyed  in  the 
Sacred  war,  and  was  again  rebuilt, but  remained 
an  unimportant,  though  fortified  place. 

NEONTICHOS  (N£ov  ra^of,  i.  e.,  New  Wall).     1.  \ 
(Now  Ainadsjik),  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  ^Eo- 1 
Us,  on  the  coast  of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  stood  j 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  Hermus,  on  the  slope 
.  of  Mount  Sardene,  thirty  stadia  inland  from  La-  ! 
rissa.     One  tradition  makes  it  older  than  Cyme ; 
but  the  more  probable  account  is  that  it  was  built 
by  the  ^Eolians  of  Cyme  as  a  fortress  against  the 
Pelasgians  of  Larisss. — 2.  A  fort  on  the  coast  of 
Thrace,  near  the  Chcrsonesus. 

NEOPTOLEMUS  (Nfonro/lfjUOf).     1.  Also  called 


NEOPTOLEMUS. 

PYRRHUS,  son  of  Achilles  and  Deidamla,  the 
daughter  of  Lycomedes  ;  according  to  some,  he 
was  a  son  of  Achilles  and  Iphigenia,  and  after 
the  sacrifice  of  his  mother  was  carried  by  his 
father  to  the  island  of  Scyros.  The  name  of 
Pyrrhus  is  said  to  have  been  given  to  him  by 
Lycomedes  because  he  had  fair  (xvpfros )  hair,  or 
because  Achilles,  while  disguised  as  a  girl,  had 
borne  the  name  of  Pyrrha.  He  was  called  Ne- 
optolemus,  that  is,  young  or  late  warrior,  either 
because  he  had  fought  in  early  youth,  or  be- 
cause he  had  come  late  to  Troy.  From  his  fa- 
ther he  is  sometimes  called  AchilMes,  and  from 
his  grandfather  or  great-grandfather,  Pdldcs  and 
Macldes.  Neoptolemus  was  brought  up  in  Scy- 
ros in  the  palace  of  Lycomedes,  and  was  fetched 
from  thence  by  Ulysses  to  join  the  Greeks  in  the 
war  against  Troy,  because  it  had  been  prophe- 
sied by  Helenus  that  Neoptolemus  and  Philoc- 
tetes  were  necessary  for  the  capture  of  Troy. 
At  Troy  Neoptolemus  showed  himself  worthy 
of  his  great  father.  He  was  one  of  the  heroes 
concealed  in  the  wooden  horse.  At  the  capture 
of  the  city  he  killed  Priam  at  the  sacred  hearth 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  sacrificed  Polyxenato  the 
spirit  of  his  father.  When  the  Trojan  captives 
were  distributed  among  the  conquerors,  An- 
dromache, the  widow  of  Hector,  was  given  to 
Neoptolemus,  and  by  her  he  became  the  father 
of  Molossus,  Pielus,  Pergamus,  and  Amphialus. 
Respecting  his  return  from  Troy  and  the  subse- 
quent events  of  his  life,  the  traditions  differ. 
It  is  related  that  Neoptolemus  returned  home  by 
land,  because  he  had  been  forewarned  by  Hele- 
nus of  the  dangers  which  the  Greeks  would  have 
to  encounter  at  sea.  According  to  Homer,  Ne- 
optolemus lived  in  Phthia,  the  kingdom  of  his 
father,  and  here  he  married  Hermione,  whom 
her  father  Menelaus  sent  to  him  from  Sparta. 
According  to  others,  Neoptolemus  himself  went 
to  Sparta  to  receive  Hermione,  because  he  had 
heard  a  report  that  she  was  betrothed  to  Ores- 
tes. Most  writers  relate  that  he  abandoned  his 
native  kingdom  of  Phthia,  and  settled  in  Epirus, 
where  he  became  the  ancestor  of  the  Molossian 
kings.  Shortly  after  his  marriage  with  Hermi- 
one, Neoptolemus  went  to  Delphi,  where  he  was 
murdered  ;  but  the  reason  of  his  visiting  Del- 
phi, as  well  as  the  person  by  whom  he  was  slain, 
are  differently  related.  Some  say  he  went  to 
plunder  the  temple  of  Apollo,  others  to  present 
part  of  the  Trojan  booty  as  an  offering  to  the 
god,  and  others,  again,  to  consult  the  god  about 
the  means  of  obtaining  children  by  Hermione. 
Some  relate  that  he  was  slain  at  the  instigation 
of  Orestes,  who  was  angry  at  being  deprived  of 
Hermione,  and  others,  by  the  priest  of  the  tem- 
ple, or  by  Machsereus,  the  son  of  Dsetas.  His 
body  was  buried  at  Delphi,  and  he  was  wor- 
shipped there  as  a  hero.— 2.  I.  King  of  Epirus, 
was  son  of  Alcetas  I .  and  father  of  Alexander 
I.,  and  of  Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  Neoptolemus  reigned  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  brother  Arymbas  or  Arryhas  till 
his  death,  aboutB.C.  360.— 3.  II.  King  of  Epirus, 
son  of  Alexander  I.,  and  grandson  of  the  preced- 
ing. At  his  father's  death  in  326  he  was  prob- 
ably a  mere  infant,  and  his  pretensions  to  the 
throne  were  passed  over  in  favor  of  ^Eacides. 
It  was  not  till  302  that  the  Epirots,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  absence  of  Pyrrhus,  the  son  of 

543 


NEPETE. 

J^acides,  rose  in  insurrection  against  him,  and  ! 
set  up  Neoptolemus  in  his  stead.     The  latter  j 
reigned  for  the  space  of  six  years,  but  was  I 
obliged  to  share  the  throne  with  Pyrrhus  in  296.  j 
He  was  shortly  afterward  assassinated  by  Pyr-  ; 
rhus. — 4.  A  Macedonian  officer  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  after  whose  death  he  obtained  the  gov- 
ernment of  Armenia.    In  321  he  revolted  from 
Perdiccas,  and  joined  Craterus,  but  he  was  de- 
feated by  Eumenes,  and  was  slain  in  battle  by 
the  hands  of  the  latter. — 5.  A  general  of  Mith- 
radates,  and  brother  of  Archelaus. — 6.  An  Athe- 
nian tragedian,  who  performed  at  the  games  at 
which  Philip  of  Macedon  was  slain,  336. — 7.  Of 
Paros,  a  Greek  grammarian  of  uncertain  date, 
wrote  severah  works  quoted  by  Athenaeus  and 
the  scholiasts. 

NEPETE,  NEPE  or  NEPET  (Nepesinus :  now 
Kepi),  an  ancient  town  of  Etruria,  but  not  one 
of  the  twelve  cities,  was  situated  near  the  saltus 
Ciminius,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  keys 
and  gates  of  Etruria  (claustra  portaque  Etruria, 
Liv.,  vi.,  9).  It  appears  as  an  ally  of  the  Ro- 
mans at  an  early  period,  soon  after  the  capture 
of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  and  was  subsequently 
made  a  Roman  colony.  There  are  still  remains 
at  Ncpi  of  the  walls  of  the  ancient  city. 

NEPHELE  (Nepe^??),  wife  of  Athamas,  and  moth- 
er of  Phrixus  and  Helle.  Hence  Helle  is  called 
Nepheleis  by  Ovid.  For  details,  vid.  ATHAMAS. 

NEPHELIS  (Nf^eAtf ),  a  small  town  and  promon- 
tory on  the  coast  of  Cilicia  Aspera,  between 
Anemurium  and  Antigchia. 

NEPHERIS  (Ne^fptf),  a  fortified  town  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  Carthage,  on  a  rock 
near  the  coast. 

NEPOS,  CORNELIUS,  the  contemporary  and 
friend  of  Cicero,  Atticus,  and  Catullus,  was 
probably  a  native  of  Verona,  or  of  some  neigh- 
boring village,  and  died  during  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus. No  other  particulars  with  regard  to 
his  personal  history  have  been  transmitted  to 
us.  He  is  known  to  have  written  the  following 
pieces,  all  of  which  are  now  lost :  1.  Chronica, 
an  Epitome  of  Universal  History,  probably  in 
three  books,  to  which  Catullus  appears  to  allude 
in  dedicating  his  poems  to  Cornelius  Nepos. 
2.  Exemplorum  Libri,  probably  a  collection  of 
remarkable  sayings  and  doings.  3.  De  Viris 
Illustribus,  perhaps  the  same  work  as  the  pre- 
ceding, quoted  under  a  different  title.  4.  Vita 
Ciceronis.  5.  Epistola  ad.  Ciceronem.  6.  De 
Hisioricis.  There  is  still  extant  a  work  entitled 
Vita  Exccllentium  Imperatorum,  containing  biog- 
raphies of  several  distinguished  commanders, 
which  is  supposed  by  many  critics  to  have  been 
the  production  of  Cornelius  Nepos.  In  all  MSS., 
however,  this  work  is  ascribed  to  an  unknown 
^Emilius  Probus,  living  under  Theodosius  at 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  with  the  exception,  however,  of  the  life  of 
Atticus,  and  the  fragment  of  a  life  of  Cato  the 
Censor,  which  are  expressly  attributed  to  Cor- 
nelius Nepos.  These  two  lives  may  safely  be 
assigned  to  Cornelius  Nepos  ;  but  the  Latinity 
of  the  other  biographies  is  such  that  we  can  not 
euppose  them  to  have  been  written  by  a  learned 
contemporary  of  Cicero.  At  the  same  time, 
their  style  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
meretricious  finery  of  the  later  empire ;  and 
hence  it  may  be  conjectured  that  Probus  ab  -idg- 
644 


NEREIS. 

ed  the  work  of  Nepos,  and  that  the  biographies, 
as  they  now  exist,  are  in  reality  epitomes  of 
lives  actually  written  by  Nepos.  The  most  use- 
ful editions  of  these  lives  are  by  Van  Staveren, 
8vo,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1773  ;  by  Tzschucke,  8vo,  Got- 
ting.,  1804  ;  by  Bremi,  8vo,  Zurich,  1820  ;  and 
by  Roth,  Basil.,  8vo,  1841. 

NEPOS,  JULIUS,  last  emperor  but  one  of  the 
West,  A.D.  474-476,  was  raised  to  the  throne 
by  Leo,  the  emperor  of  the  East.  Nepos  easily 
deposed  Glycerius,  who  was  regarded  at  Con- 
stantinople as  a  usurper  (vid.  GLYCERIUS)  ;  but 
he  was  in  his  turn  deposed  in  the  next  year  by 
Orestes,  who  proclaimed  his  son  Romulus.  Ne- 
pos fled  into  Dalmatia,  where  he  was  killed  in 
480. 

NEPOTIANUS,  FLAVIUS  POPII.IUS,  son  of  Eutro- 
pia,  the  half-sister  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Rome  in  A.D.  350, 
but  was  slain  by  Marcellinus,  the  general  of  the 
usurper  Magnentius,  after  a  reign  of  twenty- 
eight  days. 

NEPTUNUS,  called  POSEIDON  by  the  Greeks. 
The  Greek  god  is  spoken  of  in  a  separate  arti- 
cle. Vid.  POSEIDON.  Neptunus  was  the  chief 
marine  divinity  of  the  Romans.  As  the  early 
Romans  were  not  a  maritime  people,  the  marine 
divinities  are  rarely  mentioned,  and  we  scarcely 
know  with  certainty  what  day  in  the  year  was 
set  apart  as  the  festival  of  Neptunus,  though  it 
seems  to  have  been  the  twenty-third  of  July 
(X.  Kal.  Sext.).  His  temple  stood  in  the  Cam- 
pus Martius,  not  far  from  the  septa.  At  his  fes- 
tival the  people  formed  tents  (umbra:)  of  th* 
branches  of  trees,  in  which  they  enjoyed  them- 
selves in  feasting  and  drinking.  Vid.  Diet,  of 
Ant.,  art.  NEPTUNALIA.  When  a  Roman  com- 
mander set  sail  with  a  fleet,  he  first  offered  up 
a  sacrifice  to  Neptunus,  which  was  thrown  into 
the  sea.  In  the  Roman  poets  Neptunus  is  com 
pletely  identified  with  the  Greek  Poseidon,  and 
accordingly,  all  the  attributes  of  the  latter  are 
transferred  by  them  to  the  former. 

[NEQUINUM,  earlier  name  of  Narnia.  Vid. 
NARNIA.] 

NERATIUS  PRISCUS,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  lived 
under  Trajan  and  Hadrian.  It  is  said  that  Tra- 
jan sometimes  had  the  design  of  making  Ne- 
ratius  his  successor  in  place  of  Hadrian.  He 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  under  Hadrian,  and 
was  one  of  his  consiliarii.  His  works  are  cited 
in  the  Digest. 

NEREIS  or  NEREIS  (N^/aciff,  in  Horn.  Nqpijif), 
a  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  and  used  espe- 
cially in  the  plural,  NEREIDES  (Nypetief,  Nj?/»?t- 
def),  to  indicate  the  fifty  daughters  of  Nereus 
and  Doris.  The  Nereides  were  the  marine 
nymphs  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  contradistinc- 
tion from  the  Naiades,  or  the  nymphs  of  fresh 
water,  and  the  Oceanidcs,  or  the  nymphs  of  the 
great  ocean.  Their  names  are  not  the  same  in 
all  writers ;  one  of  the  most  celebrated  was 
Thetis,  the  mother  of  Achilles.  They  are  de- 
scribed as  lovely  divinities,  dwelling  with  theii 
father  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  were  be- 
lieved to  be  propitious  to  all  sailors,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  Argonauts.  They  were  worshipped 
in  several  parts  of  Greece,  but  more  especially 
in  sea-port  towns.  The  epithets  given  them  by 
the  poets  refer  partly  to  their  beauty  and  partly 
to  their  place  of  abode.  They  are  frequently 


NEREIS.    .-!:;' V! 

represented  in  works  of  art,  and  commonly  as 
youthful,  beautiful,  and  naked  maidens  ;  and 
thej  are  often  grouped  with  Tritons  and  other 
marine  beings.  Sometimes  they  appear  on 
gems  as  half  maidens  and  half  fishes. 

[NEREIS    (Nj/p^tf),   daughter  of  Pyrrhus  I., 

Iking  of  Epirus,  and  wife  of  Gelon  of  Syracuse, 
to  whom  she  bore  Hieronymus :  she  was  the 
last  surviving  descendant  of  the  royal  house  of 
the  ^Eacidae.] 

NEREIUS,  a  name  given  by  the  poets  to  a 
descendant  of  Nereus,  such  as  Phocus  and 
Achilles. 

NERETUM  or  NERITUM  (Neretinus  :  now  Nar- 
bf>},  a  town  of  the  Salentini  in  Calabria,  in  the 
south  of  Italy. 

NEREUS  (Njjpevf),  son  of  Oceanus  (Pontus) 
and  Terra  (Gaea),  and  husband  of  Doris,  by 
whom  he  became  the  father  of  the  fifty  Nerei- 
des. He  is  described  as  the  wise  and  unerring 
old  man  of  the  sea,  at  the  bottom  of  which  he 
dwelt.  His  empire  is  the  Mediterranean,  or 
more  particularly  the  JSgean  Sea,  whence  he  is 
sometimes  called  the  ^Egean.  He  was  believ- 
ed, like  other  marine  divinities,  to  have  the 
power  of  prophesying  the  future  and  of  appear- 
ing to  mortals  in  different  shapes  ;  and  in  the 
otory  of  Hercules  he  acts  a  prominent  part,  just 
as  Proteus  in  the  story  of  Menelaus,  and  Glaucus 
ia  that  of  the  Argonauts.  Virgil  ( JSn.,  ii.,  418) 
mentions  the  trident  as  his  attribute,  and  the 
epithets  given  him  by  the  poets  refer  to  his  old 
age,  his  kindliness,  and  his  trustworthy  knowl- 
edge of  the  future.  In  works  of  art,  Nereus, 
like  other  sea-gods,  is  represented  with  pointed 
sea- weeds  taking  the  place  of  hair  in  the  eye- 
brows, the  chin,  and  the  breast. 

NERICUS.     Vid.  LEUCAS. 

NERINE,  equivalent  to  Nereis,  a  daughter  of 
Nereus.  Vid.  NEREIS. 

NERIO,  NERIENE,  or  NERIENIS.     Vid.  MARS. 

NERITUM,  a  mountain  in  Ithaca.    Vid.  ITHACA. 

NERITUS,  a  small  rocky  island  near  Ithaca, 
erroneously  supposed  by  some  to  be  Ithaca  it- 
self. 

[NERITUS  (N^ptrof),  a  son  of  Pterelaus  in 
Ithaca,  from  whom  Mount  Neritum  was  said  to 
have  derived  its  name.] 

NERIUM,  also  called  CELTICOM  (now  Cape  Fin- 
uterrc),  a  promontory  in  the  northwest  corner 
of  Spain,  and  in  the  territory  of  the  Nerii,  a 
tribe  of  the  Celtic  Artabri,  whence  the  promon- 
tory is  also  called  Artabrum. 

NERO,  CLAUDIUS.  Nero  is  said  to  have  sig- 
nified "brave"  in  the  Sabine  tongue.  1.  TIB., 
one  of  the  four  sons  of  Appius  Claudius  Caecus, 
censor  B.C.  312,  from  whom  all  the  Claudii  Ne- 
rones  were  descended. — 2.  C.,  a  celebrated  gen- 
eral in  the  second  Punic  war.  He  was  praetor 
212,  and  was  sent  into  Spain  to  oppose  Hasdru- 
bal,  who  eluded  his  attack,  and  he  was  succeed- 
ed by  Scipio  Africanus.  Nero  was  consul  in 
207  with  M.  Livius  Salinator.  Nero  marched 
into  the  south  of  Italy  against  Hannibal,  whom 
he  defeated.  He  then  marched  into  the  north 
of  Italy,  effected  a  junction  with  his  colleague 
M.  Livius  in  Picenum,  and  proceeded  to  crush 
Hasdrubal  before  his  brother  Hannibal  could 
come  to  his  assistance.  Hasdrubal  was  defeat- 
ed and  slain  on  the  River  Metaurus.  This  great 
battli;,  which  probably  saved  Rome,  gave  a  lus- 
35 


NERO. 

tre  to  the  name  of  Nero,  and  consecrated  a 
among  the  recollections  of  the  Romans. 

Quid  debeas,  o  Roma,  Neronibus, 
Testis  Metaurum  fiumen  et  Hasdrubal 
Devictus.  Horat.,  Cam.,  ir.,  4. 

Nero  was  censor  204,  with  M.  Livius. — 3.  TIB., 
praetor  204,  with  Sardinia  for  his  province  ;  and 
consul  202,  when  he  obtained  Africa  as  his  r.rGi- 
ince,  but  his  fleet  suffered  so  much  at  sea  that 
he  was  unable  to  join  Scipio  in  Africa.—- 4.  TIB., 
served  under  Pompey  in  the  war  against  the 
pirates,  B.C.  67.  He  is  probably  the  Tiberius 
Nero  who  recommended  that  the  members  of 
the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  who  had  been  seized, 
should  be  kept  confined  till  Catiline  was  put 
down. — 5.  TIB.,  father  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius, 
was  probably  the  son  of  the  last.  He  served  as 
quaestor  under  Caesar  (48)  in  the  Alexandrine 
war.  He  sided  with  L.  Antonius  in  the  war  of 
Perusia  (41) ;  and  when  this  town  surrendered, 
he  passed  over  to  Sextus  Pompey  in  Sicily,  and 
subsequently  to  M.  Antony  in  Achaea.  On  a 
reconciliation  being  effected  between  Antony 
and  Octavianus  at  the  close  of  the  year  (40),  he 
returned  with  his  wife  to  Rome.  Livia,  who 
possessed  great  beauty,  excited  the  passion  of 
Octavianus,  to  whom  she  was  surrendered  by 
her  husband,  being  then  six  months  gone  with 
child  of  her  second  son  Drusus.  Nero  died 
shortly  after,  and  left  Octavianus  the  tutor  of 
his  two  sons. 

NERO.  1.  Roman  emperor  A.D.  54-68,  was 
the  son  of  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  and  of 
Agrippina,  daughter  of  Germanicus  Caesar,  and 
sister  of  Caligula.  Nero's  original  came  was 
L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  but  after  the  marriage 
of  his  mother  with  her  uncle,  the  Emperor  Clau- 
dius, he  was  adopted  by  Claudius  (A.D.  50),  and 
was  called  Nero  Claudius  Casar  Drusus  Ger- 
manicus. Nero  was  born  at  Antium  on  the  fif- 
teenth of  December,  A.D.  37.  Shortly  after  his 
adoption  by  Claudius,  Nero,  being  then  sixteen 
years  of  age,  married  Octavia,  the  daughter  of 
Claudius  and  Messalina  (53).  Among  his  early 
instructors  was  Seneca.  Nero  had  some  tal- 
ent and  taste.  He  was  fond  of  the  arts,  and 
made  verses  ;  but  he  was  indolent  and  given  to 
pleasure,  and  had  no  inclination  for  laborious 
studies.  On  the  death  of  Claudius  (54),  Agrip- 
pina secured  the  succession  for  her  son,  to  the 
exclusion  of  Britannicus,  the  son  of  Claudius. 
His  mother  wished  to  govern  in  the  name  of 
her  son,  and  her  ambition  was  the  cause  of 
Nero's  first  crime.  Jealousy  thus  arose  be- 
tween Nero  and  his  mother,  which  soon  broke 
out  into  a  quarrel,  and  Agrippina  threatened  to 
join  Britannicus  and  raise  him  to  his  father's 
place ;  whereupon  Nero  caused  Britannicus  to 
be  poisoned,  at  an  entertainment  where  Agrip- 
pina and  Octavia  were  present  (55).  During 
the  early  part  of  Nero's  reign,  the  government 
of  Rome  was  in  the  hands  of  Seneca,  and  of 
Burrhus,  the  prefect  of  the  praetorians,  who 
opposed  the  ambitious  designs  of  Agrippina. 
Meantime  the  young  emperor  indulged  his  licen- 
tious inclinations  without  restraint.  He  neg- 
lected his  wife  for  the  beautiful  but  dissoltte 
Poppaea  Sabina,  the  wife  of  Otho.  This  aban- 
doned woman  aspired  to  become  the  emperor's 
wife  ;  but  since  she  had  no  hopes  of  succeedino 
in  her  design  while  Agrippina  lived,  she  used 

545 


NERO. 

all  her  arts  to  arge  Nero  to  put  his  mother  to 
death.  Accordingly,  in  59,  Agrippina  was  as- 
sassinated by  Nero's  order,  with  the  approba- 
tion at  least  of  Seneca  and  Burrhus,  who  saw 
that  the  time  was  come  for  the  destruction 
either  of  the  mother  or  the  son.  Though  Nero 
had  no  longer  any  one  to  oppose  him,  he  felt 
the  punishment  of  his  guilty  conscience,  and 
said  that  he  was  haunted  by  his  mother's  spec- 
tre. He  attempted  to  drown  his  reflections  in 
fresh  riot,  in  which  he  was  encouraged  by  a 
band  of  flatterers.  He  did  not,  however,  imme- 
diately marry  Poppaea,  being  probably  restrain- 
ed by  fear  of  Burrhus  and  Seneca.  But  the 
death  of  Burrhus  in  62,  and  the  retirement  of 
Seneca  from  public  affairs,  which  immediately 
followed,  left  Nero  more  at  liberty.  Accord- 
ingly, he  divorced  his  wife  Octavia,  and  in  eigh- 
teen days  married  Poppaea.  Not  satisfied  with 
putting  away  his  wife,  he  falsely  charged  her 
with  adultery,  and  banished  her  to  the  island  of 
Pandataria,  where  she  was  shortly  after  put  to 
death.  In  64  the  great  fire  at  Rome  happened. 
Its  origin  is  uncertain,  for  it  is  hardly  credible 
that  the  city  was  fired  by  Nero's  order,  as  some 
ancient  writers  assert.  Out  of  the  fourteen 
regiones  into  which  Rome  was  divided,  three 
were  totally  destroyed,  and  in  seven  others 
only  a  few  half-burned  houses  remained.  The 
emperor  set  about  rebuilding  the  city  on  an 
improved  plan,  with  wider  streets.  He  found 
money  for  his  purposes  by  acts  of  oppression 
and  violence,  and  even  temples  were  robbed  of 
their  wealth.  With  these  means  he  began  to 
erect  his  sumptuous  golden  palace,  on  a  scale 
of  magnitude  and  splendor  which  almost  sur- 
passes belief.  The  vestibule  contained  a  colos- 
sal statue  of  himself  one  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  high.  The  odium  of  the  conflagration, 
which  the  emperor  could  not  remove  from  him- 
self, he  tried  to  throw  on  the  Christians,  who 
were  then  numerous  in  Rome,  and  many  of 
them  were  put  to  a  cruel  death.  The  tyranny 
of  Nero  at  last  (65)  led  to  the  organization  of  a 
formidable  conspiracy  against  him,  usually  call- 
ed Piso's  conspiracy,  from  the  name  of  one  of 
the  principal  accomplices.  The  plot  was  dis- 
covered, and  many  distinguished  persons  were 
put  to  death,  among  whom  was  Piso  himself, 
the  poet  Lucan,  and  the  philosopher  Seneca, 
though  the  latter  appears  to  have  taken  no  part 
in  the  plot.  In  the  same  year,  Poppaea  died  of 
a  kick  which  her  brutal  hu&band  gave  her  in  a 
fit  of  passion  when  she  was  with  child.  Nero 
now  married  Statilia  Messallina.  The  history  of 
the  remainder  of  Nero's  reign  is  a  catalogue  of 
his  crimes.  Virtue  in  any  form  was  the  object 
of  his  fear  ;  and  almost  every  month  was  mark- 
ed by  the  execution  or  banishment  of  some  dis- 
tinguished man.  Among  his  other  victims  were 
Thrasea  Paetus  and  Barea  Soranus,  both  men  of 
high  rank,  but  of  spotless  integrity.  In  67  Nero 
paid  a  visit  to  Greece,  and  took  part  in  the  con- 
tests of  both  the  Olympic  and  Pythian  games. 
He  commenced  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth,  but  the  works  were  afterward  sus- 
pended by  his  own  orders.  While  in  Greece  he 
sent  orders  to  put  to  death  his  faithful  general 
Domitius  Corbulo,  which  the  old  soldier  antici- 
pated by  stabbing  himself.  The  Roman  world 
bad  long  been  tired  of  its  oppressor ;  and  the 
546 


NERVA,  COCCEITJS. 

storm  at  length  broke  out  in  Gaul,  where  Juliua 
Vindex,  the  governor,  openly  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  revolt.  His  example  was  followed  by 
Galba,  who  was  governor  of  Hispania  Tarra- 
conensis.  Galba  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 
his  troops,  but  he  only  assumed  the  title  oflega- 
tus  of  the  senate  and  the  Roman  people.  Soon 
after  these  news  reached  Rome,  Sabinus,  who 
was  praefectus  praetorio  along  with  Tigellinus, 
persuaded  the  troops  to  proclaim  Galba.  Ner« 
was  immediately  deserted.  He  escaped  from 
the  palace  at  night  with  a  few  freedmen,  and 
made  his  way  to  a  house  about  four  miles  from 
Rome,  which  belonged  to  his  freedman  Phaon. 
Here  he  gave  himself  a  mortal  wound  when  be 
heard  the  trampling  of  the  horses  on  which  his 
pursuers  were  mounted.  The  centurion,  on  en- 
tering, attempted  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood,  but 
Nero  saying,  "  It  is  too  late.  Is  this  your  fidel- 
ity1!" expired  with  a  horrid  stare.  Nero's  prog- 
ress in  crime  is  easily  traced,  and  the  lesson  is 
worth  reading.  Without  a  good  education,  and 
with  no  talent  for  his  high  station,  he  was  placed 
in  a  position  of  danger  from  the  first.  He  was 
sensual,  and  fond  of  idle  display,  and  then  he 
became  greedy  of  money  to  satisfy  his  expens- 
es ;  he  was  timid,  and,  by  consequence,  he  be- 
came cruel  when  he  anticipated  danger ;  and, 
like  other  murderers,  his  first  crime,  the  poi- 
soning of  Britannicus,  made  him  capable  of  an- 
other. But,  contemptible  and  cruel  as  he  was, 
there  are  many  persons  who,  in  the  same  situa- 
tion, might  run  the  same  guilty  career.  He  was 
only  in  his  thirty-first  year  when  he  died,  and 
he  had  held  the  supreme  power  for  eighteen 
years  and  eight  months.  He  was  the  last  of 
the  descendants  of  Julia,  the  sister  of  the  dic- 
tator Caesar.  The  most  important  external 
events  in  the  reign  of  Nero  were  the  conquest 
of  Armenia  by  Domitius  Corbulo  (vid.  CORBULO), 
and  the  insurrection  of  the  Britons  under  Boa- 
dicea,  which  was  quelled  by  Suetonius  Pauli- 
nus.  Vid.  PAULINUS. — 2.  Eldest  son  of  Ger- 
manicus  and  Agrippina,  fell  a  victim  to  the  am- 
bition of  Sejanus,  who  resolved  to  get  rid  of  the 
sons  of  Germanicus  in  order  to  obtain  the  im- 
perial throne  for  himself.  Drusus,  the  brother 
of  Nero,  was  persuaded  to  second  the  designs 
of  Sejanus,  in  hopes  that  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother  would  secure  him  the  succession  to  the 
throne.  There  was  no  difficulty  in  exciting  the 
jealousy  of  Tiberius ;  and,  accordingly,'  in  A.D. 
29,  Nero  was  declared  an  enemy  of  the  state, 
was  removed  to  the  island  of  Pontia,  and  was 
there  either  starved  to  death  or  perished  by  his 
own  hands. 

NERTOBRIGA.  1.  (Now  Valera  la  Vieja),  a 
town  in  Hispania  Baetica,  with  the  surname. 
Concordia  Julia,  probably  the  same  place  which 
Polybius  calls  (xxxv.,  2)  Ercobrica  ('Epn66pi- 
KO). — 2.  (Now  Almuna),  a  town  of  the  Celtiberi 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  road  from 
Emerita  to  Caesaraugusta. 

NERULDM,  a  fortified  place  in  Lucania,  on  the 
Via  Popilia. 

[NERusuXNe/jovmoi),  a  people  among  the  Al- 
pes  Maritimae  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the 
coast :  their  capital  was  Vintium  (QvivTiov).] 

NERVA,  COCCEIUS.  1.  M.,  consul  B.C.  36, 
brought  about  the  reconciliation  between  M. 
Antonius  and  Octavianus,  40,  and  IK  the  sama 


NERVII. 

as  the  Cocceius  mentioned  by  Horace  (Sat.,  i., 
5,  28). — 2.  M.,  probably  the  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, and  grandfather  of  the  Emperor  Nerva. 
He  was  consul  A.D.  22.  In  33  he  resolutely 
starved  himself  to  death,  notwithstanding  the 
entreaties  of  Tiberius,  whose  constant  compan- 
ion he  was.  He  was  a  celebrated  jurist,  and 
is  often  mentioned  in  the  Digest. — 3.  M.,  the 
son  of  the  last,  and  probably  father  of  the  em- 
peror, was  also  a  celebrated  jurist,  and  is  often 
cited  in  the  Digest  under  the  name  of  Nerva 
Filius.  —  4.  M.,  Roman  emperor  A.D.  96-98, 
was  born  at  Narnia,  in  Umbria,  A.D.  32.  He 
was  consul  with  Vespasian  71,  and  with  Domi- 
tian  90.  On  the  assassination  of  Domitian  in 
September,  96,  Nerva,  who  had  probably  been 
privy  to  the  conspiracy,  was  declared  emperor 
at  Rome  by  the  people  and  the  soldiers,  and  his 
administration  at  once  restored  tranquillity  to 
the  state.  He  stopped  proceedings  against  those 
who  had  been  accused  of  treason  (majestas), 
and  allowed  many  exiled  persons  to  return  to 
Rome.  The  class  of  informers  were  suppress- 
ed by  penalties,  and  some  were  put  to  death. 
At  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  Nerva 
swore  that  he  would  put  no  senator  to  death  ; 
and  he  kept  his  word,  even  when  a  conspiracy 
had  been  formed  against  his  life  by  Calpurnius 
Crassus.  Though  Nerva  was  virtuous  and  hu- 
mane, he  did  not  possess  much  energy  and  vig- 
or; and  his  feebleness  was  shown  by  a  mutiny 
of  the  Praetorian  soldiers.  The  soldiers  de- 
manded the  punishment  of  the  assassins  of  Do- 
mitian, which  the  emperor  refused.  Though 
his  body  was  feeble,  his  will  was  strong,  and 
he  offered  them  his  own  neck,  and  declared  his 
readiness  to  die.  However,  it  appears  that  the 
soldiers  effected  their  purpose,  and  Nerva  was 
obliged  to  put  Petronius  Secundus  and  Parthe- 
nius  to  death,  or  to  permit  them  to  be  massa- 
cred by  the  soldiers.  Nerva  felt  his  weakness, 
but  he  showed  his  noble  character  and  his  good 
sense  by  appointing  as  his  successor  a  man  who 
possessed  both  vigor  and  ability  to  direct  pub- 
lie  affairs.  He  adopted  as  his  son  and  success- 
or, without  any  regard  to  his  own  kin,  M.  Ul- 
pius  Trajanus,  who  was  then  at  the  head  of  an 
army  in  Germany.  Nerva  died  suddenly  on  the 
twenty-seventh  of  January,  A.D.  98,  at  the  age 
of  sixty-five  years. 

NERVII,  a  powerful  and  warlike  people  in 
Gallia  Belgica,  whose  territory  extended  from 
the  River  Sabis  (now  Sambre)  to  the  ocean,  and 
part  of  which  was  covered  by  the  wood  Ardu- 
enna.  They  were  divided  into  several  smaller 
tribes,  the  Centrones,  Grudii,  Levaci,  Pleu- 
moxii,  and  Geiduni.  In  B.C.  58  they  were  de- 
feated by  Caesar  with  such  slaughter  that  out 
of  sixty  thousand  men  capable  of  bearing  arms 
only  five  hundred  were  left. 

NESACTIUM,  a  town  in  Istria,  on  the  River 
Arsia,  taken  by  the  Romans  B.C.  177. 

[Nes^A  (N»jff<uj7,  Horn.),  a  Nereid,  a  com- 
panion of  the  nymph  Gyrene.] 

NEOIS  (now  Nisita),  a  small  island  off  the 
coast  of  Campania,  between  Puteoli  and  Neapo- 
lis,  and  opposite  Mount  Pausilypus.  This  isl- 
and was  a  favorite  residence  of  some  of  the  Ro- 
man nobles. 

FNE«os  (now  JVeso),  a  small  city  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  Eubcea.] 


NESTUS. 

NESSOMS  (Nscrouvic),  a  lake  in  Thessaly,  a 
little  south  of  the  River  Peneus,  and  northeast 
of  Larissa,  is  in  summer  merely  a  swamp,  but 
in  winter  is  not  only  full  of  water,  but  even 
overflows  its  banks.  Nessonis  and  the  neigh- 
boring Lake  Boebeis  were  regarded  by  the  an- 
cients as  remains  of  the  vast  lake  which  was 
supposed  to  have  covered  the  whole  of  Thes- 
saly till  an  outlet  was  made  for  its  waters 
through  the  rocks  of  Tempe. 

NESSUS  (Ne'<7<70f),  a  centaur,  who  carried  De- 
ianira  across  the  River  Evenus,  but,  attempting 
to  run  away  with  her,  was  shot  by  Hercules 
with  a  poisoned  arrow,  which  afterward  be- 
came the  cause  of  the  death  of  Hercules.  Vid. 
p.  359,  a. 

[NESSUS  (Neffffof).     Vid.  NESTUS.] 

NESTOR  (Neirrwp),  king  of  Pylos,  son  of  Nel- 
eus  and  Chloris,  husband  of  Eurydice,  and  father 
of  Pisidice,  Polycaste,  Perseus,  Stratius,  Are- 
tus,  Echephron,  Pisistratus,  Antilochus,  and 
Thrasymedes.  Some  relate  that,  after  the 
death  of  Eurydice,  Nestor  married  Anaxibia, 
the  daughter  of  Atreus,  and  sister  of  Agamem- 
non ;  but  this  Anaxibia  is  elsewhere  described 
as  the  wife  of  Strophius  and  the  mother  of  Py- 
lades.  When  Hercules  invaded  the  country  of 
Neleus  and  slew  his  sons,  Nestor  alone  was 
spared,  either  because  he  was  absent  from  Py- 
los, or  because  he  had  taken  no  part  in  carrying 
off  from  Hercules  the  oxen  of  Geryones.  In 
his  youth  and  early  manhood  Nestor  was  a  dis- 
tinguished warrior.  He  defeated  both  the  Ar- 
cadians and  Eleans.  He  took  part  in  the  fight 
of  the  Lapithae  against  the  Centaurs,  and  he  is 
mentioned  among  the  Calydonian  hunters  and 
the  Argonauts.  Although  far  advanced  in  age, 
he  sailed  with  the  other  Greek  heroes  against 
Troy.  Having  ruled  over  three  generations  of 
men,  his  advice  and  authority  were  deemed 
equal  to  that  of  the  immortal  gods,  and  he  was 
renowned  for  his  wisdom,  his  justice,  and  his 
knowledge  of  war.  After  the  fall  of  Troy  he 
returned  home,  and  arrived  safely  in  Pylos, 
where  Jupiter  (Zeus)  granted  to  him  the  full 
enjoyment  of  old  age,  surrounded  by  intelligent 
and  brave  sons.  Various  towns  in  Peloponne- 
sus, of  the  name  of  Pylos,  laid  claim  to  being 
the  city  of  Nestor.  On  this  point,  vid.  p.  542,  a. 

[NESTOR  (Ne<rrup),  an  academic  philosopher, 
preceptor  of  Marcellus,  son  ofOctavia.] 

NESTORIDES  (NeaTopidijf),  i.  e.,  a  son  of  Nes- 
tor, as  Antilochus  and  Pisistratus. 

NESTORIUS,  a  celebrated  Haeresiarch,  was  ap- 
pointed patriarch  of  Constantinople  A.D.  428, 
but,  in  consequence  of  his  heresy,  was  deposed 
at  the  council  of  Ephesus,  431.  His  great  op- 
ponent was  Cyril.  Nestorius  was  subsequent- 
ly banished  to  one  of  the  oases  in  Egypt,  and 
he  died  in  exile  probably  before  450.  Nestorius 
carefully  distinguished  between  the  divine  and 
human  nature  attributed  to  Christ,  and  refused 
to  give  to  the  Virgin  Mary  the  title  of  Theolo- 
cus  (QeoroKof),  or  "Mother  of  God."  The  opin- 
ions of  Nestorius  are  still  maintained  by  the 
Nestorian  Christians. 

NESTUS,  sometimes  NESSUS  (N6rrof :  now 
called  Mesto  by  the  Greeks,  Karasu  by  the 
Turks),  a  river  in  Thrace,  which  rises  in  Mount 
Rhodope,  flows  southeast,  and  falls  into  the 
JEgoan  Sea  west  of  Abdera  and  opposite  the 

647 


TfESUS. 

island  of  Thasos.  The  Nestus  formed  the  east- 
ern boundary  of  Macedonia  from  the  time  of 
Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great. 

NESUS.     Vid.  CExiAD^E. 

NETUM  (Netlnus  :  now  Noto  Antigua,  near 
Noto),  a  town  in  Sicily,  southwest  of  Syracuse, 
and  a  dependency  of  the  latter. 

NECRI  (Nevpoi,  Nevpoi),  a  people  of  Sarmatia 
Europaea,  whom  Herodotus  describes  as  not 
of  Scythian  race,  though  they  followed  Scyth- 
ian customs.  Having  been  driven  out  from 
their  earlier  abodes  by  a  plague  of  serpents, 
they  settled  to  the  northwest  of  the  sources  of 
the  Tyras  (now  Dniester).  They  were  esteem- 
ed skillful  in  enchantment. 

NEVJRNUM.     Vid.  NOVIODUNUM,  No.  2. 

NIC.*A  (Ni/cam :  Nixaievf,  NiKaevf,  Nicseen- 
sis,  Nicensis).  1.  (Ruins  at  Iznik),  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  cities  of  Asia,  stood  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Lake  Ascania  (now  Iznik) 
in  Bithynia.  Its  site  appears  to  have  been  oc- 
cupied in  very  ancient  times  by  a  town  called 
Attaea,  and  afterward  by  a  settlement  of  the 
Bottiaeans,  called  Ancore  or  Helicore,  which 
was  destroyed  by  the  Mysians.  Not  long  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Antigonus 
built  on  the  same  spot  a  city  which  he  named 
after  himself,  Antigonea ;  but  Lysimachus  soon 
after  changed  the  name  into  Nicaea,  in  honor  of 
his  wife.  Under  the  kings  of  Bithynia  it  was 
often  the  royal  residence,  and  it  long  disputed 
with  Nicomedia  the  rank  of  capital  of  Bithynia. 
The  Roman  emperors  bestowed  upon  it  numer- 
ous honors  and  benefits,  which  are  recorded  on 
its  coins.  Its  position  at  the  junction  of  sev- 
eral of  the  chief  roads  leading  through  Asia  Mi- 
nor to  Constantinople  made  it  the  centre  of  a 
large  traffic.  It  is  very  famous  in  ecclesiastical 
history  as  the  seat  of  the  great  oecumenical 
council  which  Constantino  convoked  in  A.D. 
325,  chiefly  for  the  decision  of  the  Arian  con- 
troversy, and  which  drew  up  the  Nicene  Creed; 
that  is  to  say,  the  first  part  of  the  well-known 
creed  so  called,  the  latter  part  of  which  was 
added  by  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in  the 
year  381.  The  Council  of  Nice  (as  we  com- 
monly call  it)  also  settled  the  time  of  keeping 
Easter.  A  second  council,  held  here  in  787, 
decided  in  favor  of  the  worship  of  images.  In 
the  very  year  of  the  great  council,  Nicaea  was 
overthrown  by  an  earthquake,  but  it  was  re- 
stored by  the  Emperor  Valens  in  368.  Under 
the  later  emperors  of  the  East,  Nicaea  long 
served  as  the  bulwark  of  Constantinople  against 
the  Arabs  and  Turks  :  it  was  taken  by  the  Sel- 
juks  in  1078,  and  became  the  capital  of  the  Sul- 
tan Soliman  ;  it  was  retaken  by  the  First  Cru- 
saders in  1097.  After  the  taking  of  Constan- 
tinople by  the  Venetians  and  the  Franks,  and 
the  foundation  of  the  Latin  empire  there  in 
1204,  the  Greek  emperor,  Theodorus  Lascaris, 
made  Nicaea  the  capital  of  a  separate  kingdom, 
in  which  his  followers  maintained  themselves 
witn  various  success  against  the  Latins  of  Con- 
stantinople on  the  one  side,  and  the  Seljuks  of 
Iconium  on  the  other,  and  in  1261  regained 
Constantinople.  At  length,  in  1330,  Nicsea  was 
finally  taken  by  Orchan,  the  son  of  the  founder 
of  the  Ottoman  empire,  Othman.  Iznik,  the 
modern  Nicaea,  is  a  poor  village  of  about  one 
hundred  houses ;  but  the  double  walls  of  the 
548 


NICANOR. 

ancient  city  still  remain  almost  complete,  e\ 
hibiting  four  large  and  two  small  gates.  There 
are  also  the  remains  of  the  two  moles  which 
formed  the  harbor  on  the  lake,  of  an  aqueduct, 
of  the  theatre,  and  of  the  gymnasium  ;  in  this 
last  edifice,  we  are  told,  there  was  a  point  from 
which  all  the  four  gates  were  visible,  so  great 
was  the  regularity  with  which  the  city  was 
built. — 2.  (Now  Nilab),  a  city  of  India,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Paropamisadae,  on  the  west  of 
the  River  Cophen. — 3.  (Now  probably  ruins  at 
Darapoor),  a  city  of  India,  on  the  River  Hydas- 
pes  (now  Jelum),  built  by  Alexander  to  com- 
memorate his  victory  over  Porus.— 4.  A  fort- 
ress of  the  Epicnemidian  Locrians  on  the  sea, 
near  the  Pass  of  Thermopylae,  which  it  com- 
manded. From  its  important 'position,  it  is 
often  mentioned  in  the  wars  of  Greece  with 
Macedonia  and  with  the  Romans.  In  the  for- 
mer, its  betrayal  to  Philip  by  the  Thracian  dy- 
nast Phalaecus  led  to  the  termination  of  the  Sa- 
cred war,  B.C.  346  ;  and  after  various  changes, 
it  is  found,  at  the  time  of  the  wars  with  Rome, 
in  the  hands  of  the  ^Etolians. — 5.  In  Illyria. 
Vid.  NICIA. — 6.  An  ancient  name  of  Mariana  in 
Corsica. — 7.  (Now  Nizza,  Nice),  a  city  on  the 
coast  of  Liguria,  a  little  east  of  the  River  Var ; 
a  colony  of  Massilia,  and  subject  to  that  city ; 
hence  it  was  considered  as  belonging  to  Gaul, 
though  it  was  just  beyond  the  frontier.  It  first 
became  important  as  a  stronghold  of  the  Chr's- 
tian  religion,  which  was  preached  there  by  Na- 
zarius  at  an  early  period. 

NICANDER  (NiKavtipof).  1.  King  of  Sparta, 
son  of  Charilaus,  and  father  of  Theopompus, 
reigned  about  B.C.  809-770.— 2.  A  Greek  poet, 
grammarian,  and  physician,  was  a  native  of 
Claros,  near  Colophon  in  Ionia,  whence  he  is 
frequently  called  a  Colophonian.  He  succeeded 
his  father  as  one  of  the  hereditary  priests  of 
Apollo  Clarius.  He  appears  to  have  flourished 
about  B.C.  185-135.  Of  the  numerous  works 
of  Nicander  only  two  poems  are  extant,  ont 
entitled  Theriaca  (BrjpiaKd),  which  consists  of 
nearly  one  thousand  hexameter  lines,  and  treats 
of  venomous  animals  and  the  wounds  inflicted 
by  them,  and  another  entitled  Alexipharmaca 
('AAef^upjUa/ca),  which  consists  of  more  than 
six  hundred  hexameter  lines,  and  treats  of  poi- 
sons and  their  antidotes.  Among  the  ancients, 
his  authority  in  all  matters  relating  to  toxicol- 
ogy seems  to  have  been  considered  high.  His 
works  are  frequently  quoted  by  Pliny,  Galen, 
and  other  ancient  writers.  His  style  is  harsh 
and  obscure  ;  and  his  works  are  now  scarcely 
ever  read  as  poems,  and  are  only  consulted  by 
those  who  are  interested  in  points  of  zoological 
and  medical  antiquities.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Schneider,  who  published  the  Alexipharmaca  in 
1792,  Halae,  and  the  Theriaca  in  1816,  Lips. 

NICANOR  (NiKuvup).  1.  Son  of  Parmenion,  a 
distinguished  officer  in  the  service  of  Alexan- 
der, died  during  the  king's  advance  into  Bac- 
tria,  B.C.  330. — 2.  A  Macedonian  officer,  who, 
in  the  division  of  the  provinces  after  the  death 
of  Perdiccas  (321),  obtained  the  government  of 
Cappadocia.  He  attached  himself  to  the  party 
of  Antigonus,  who  made  him  governor  of  Media 
and  the  adjoining  provinces,  which  he  continu- 
ed to  hold  until  312,  when  he  was  deprived  of 
them  by  Seleucus.  —  3.  A  Macedonian  officei 


NICARCHUS. 

under  Cassander,  by  whom  he  was  secretly  dis- 
patched, immediately  on  the  death  of  Antipater, 
319,  to  take  the  command  of  the  Macedoni- 
an garrison  at  Munychia.  Nicanor  arrived  at 
Athens  before  the  news  of  Antipater's  death, 
and  thus  readily  obtained  possession  of  the 
fortress.  Soon  afterward  he  surprised  the  Pi- 
raeus also,  and  placed  both  fortresses  in  the 
hands  of  Cassander  on  the  arrival  of  the  latter 
in  Attica  in  318.  Nicanor  was  afterward  dis- 
patched by  Cassander  with  a  fleet  to  the  Hel- 
lespont, where  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  ad- 
miral of  Polysperchon.  On  his  return  to  Athens 
he  incurred  the  suspicion  of  Cassander,  and 
was  put  to  death. — [4.  Surnamed  the  Elephant, 
a  general  under  Philip  V.  of  Macedonia,  who 
invaded  Attica"  with  an  army  just  before  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  between  Philip  and  the 
Romans,  B.C.  200  :  he  also  commanded  the  rear- 
guard of  Philip's  army  at  the  battle  of  Cynos- 
cephalae,  B.C.  197. — 5.  Son  of  Patroclus,  sent 
by  Lysias,  the  regent  of  Syria  during  the  ab- 
sence of  Antiochus  IV.,  to  reduce  the  revolted 
Jews.  He  was  completely  defeated  and  slain 
by  Judas  Maccabasus,  B.C.  165.— 6.  Aristotle's 
adopted  son,  destined  by  the  philosopher  to  be 
his  son-in-law. — 7.  A  celebrated  grammarian, 
lived  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  A.D.  127. 
His  labors  were  chiefly  devoted  to  punctuation, 
and  hence  he  was  nicknamed  2rty/i<m'af.] 

NICARCHUS  (Nt'/eap^of).  [1.  An  Arcadian  offi- 
cer in  the  Greek  army  of  the  younger  Cyrus  : 
after  the  defeat  and  death  of  Cyrus,  he  aban- 
doned the  Greeks,  and  went  over  to  the  Per- 
sians with  about  twenty  of  his  men.] — 2.  The 
author  of  thirty-eight  epigrams  in  the  Greek 
Anthology,  appears  to  have  lived  at  Rome  near 
jhe  beginning  of  the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  era. 

NICATOR,  SELECCOS.     Vid.  SELEUCUS. 

NICE  (Nt'/c??),  called  VICTORIA  by  the  Romans, 
the  goddess  of  victory,  is  described  as  a  daugh- 
ter of  Pallas  and  Styx,  and  as  a  sister  of  Zelus 
(zeal),  C rates  (strength),  and  Bia  (force).  When 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  commenced  fighting  against  the 
Titans,  and  called  upon  the  gods  for  assistance, 
Nice  and  her  two  sisters  were  the  first  who 
came  forward,  and  Jupiter  (Zeus)  was  so  pleas- 
ed with  their  readiness,  that  he  caused  them 
ever  after  to  live  with  him  in  Olympus.  Nice 
had  a  celebrated  temple  on  the  acropolis  of 
Athens,  which  is  still  extant  and  in  excellent 
preservation.  She  is  often  seen  represented  in 
ancient  works  of  art,  especially  with  other  di- 
vinities, such  as  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Minerva 
(Athena),  and  with  conquering  heroes  whose 
horses  she  guides.  In  her  appearance  she  re- 
sembles Minerva  (Athena),  but  has  wings,  and 
carries  a  palm  or  a  wreath,  and  is  engaged  in 
raising  a  trophy,  or  in  inscribing  the  victory  of 
the  conqueror  on  a  shield. 

NICEPHOKIUM  (NtK77#optoi>).  1.  (Now  Rakkah), 
a  fortified  town  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the  Eu- 
phrates, near  the  mouth  of  the  River  Bilccha 
(now  el  Belikh),  and  due  south  of  Edessa,  built 
by  order  of  Alexander,  and  probably  completed 
under  Seleucus.  It  is  doubtless  the  same  place 
as  the  CALLINICUB  or  CAI.LINICUM  (KahMviKOf 
or  -ov),  the  fortifications  of  which  were  repaired 
by  Justinian.  Its  name  was  again  changed  to 
LKONTOPOUS,  when  it  was  adorned  with  fresh 


NICIAS. 

buildings  by  the  Emperor  Leo.— 2.  A  fortress 
on  the  Propontis,  belonging  to  the  territory  ot 
Pergamus. 

NICEPHORIUS  (NiKTiQopioc),  a  river  of  Armenia 
Major,  on  which  Tigranes  built  his  residence 
TIGRANOCERTA.  It  was  a  tributary  of  the  Up- 
per Tigris ;  probably  identical  with  the  CEN- 
TRITES,  or  a  small  tributary  of  it. 

NlCEPHORUS  (NlKJ]<jt6pOf).       1.  CALLISTUsXAN- 

THOPULUS,  the  author  of  the  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory, was  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  died  about  1450.  His  Ec- 
clesiastical History  was  originally  in  twenty- 
three  books,  of  which  there  are  eighteen  ex- 
tant, extending  from  the  birth  of  Christ  down 
to  the  death  of  the  tyrant  Phocas  in  610.  Al- 
though Nicephorus  compiled  from  the  works 
of  his  predecessors,  he  entirely  remodelled  his 
materials,  and  his  style  is  vastly  superior  to 
that  of  his  contemporaries.  Edited  by  Ducaeus, 
Paris,  1630,  2  vols.  folio.— 2.  GREGORAS.  Vid. 
GREGORAS. — 3.  PATRIARCHA,  originally  the  no- 
tary or  chief  secretary  of  state  to  the  Emperor 
Constantine  V.  Copronymus,  subsequently  re- 
tired into  a  convent,  and  was  raised  to  the  pa- 
triarchate of  Constantinople  in  806.  He  was 
deposed  in  815,  and  died  in  828.  Several  of 
his  works  have  come  down  to  us,  of  which  the 
most  important  is  entitled  Breviarium  Histori- 
cum,  a  Byzantine  history,  extending  from  602 
to  770.  This  is  one  of  the  best  works  of  the 
Byzantine  period.  Edited  by  Petavius,  Paris, 
1616,  [and  by  Bekker,  Bonn,  1837]. 

NICER  (now  Neckar),  a  river  in  Germany  fall- 
ing into  the  Rhine  at  the  modern  Mannheim. 

NICERATCS  (NtKtfparof).  1.  Father  of  Nicias, 
the  celebrated  Athenian  general. — 2.  Son  of 
Nicias,  put  to  death  by  the  thirty  tyrants,  to 
whom  his  great  wealth  was  no  doubt  a  tempta- 
tion.— 3.  A  Greek  writer  on  plants,  one  of  the 
followers  of  Asclepiades  of  Bithynia. 

NICETAS  (NtKjjraf).  1.  ACOMINATUS,  also  call- 
ed CHONIATES,  because  he  was  a  native  of 
Chonae,  formerly  Colossae,  in  Phrygia,  one  of 
the  most  important  Byzantine  historians,  lived 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth  and  the  former 
half  of  the  thirteenth  centuries.  He  held  im- 
portant public  offices  at  Constantinople,  and 
was  present  at  the  capture  of  the  city  by  the 
Latins  in  1204,  of  which  he  has  given  us  a  faith- 
ful description.  He  escaped  to  Nicaea,  where 
he  died  about  1216.  The  history  of  Nicetas 
consists  of  ten  distinct  works,  each  of  which 
contains  one  or  more  bgoks,  of  which  there  are 
twenty-one,  giving  the  history  of  the  emperors 
from  1118  to  1206.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Bekker,  Bonn,  1835.  —  2.  EUOENIANUS,  lived 
probably  toward  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  wrote  "The  History  of  the  Lives  of 
Drusilla  and  Charicles,"  which  is  the  worst  of 
all  the  Greek  romances  that  have  come  down 
to  us.  It  was  published  for  the  first  time  by 
Boissonade,  Paris,  1819,  2  vols. 

NIC!A  (now  Enza.  ?),  a  tributary  of  the  Po  in 
Gallia  Cisalpina. 

[NiciA,  a  place  on  the  borders  of  Macedonia 
and  Illyna,  between  Lychnidus  and  Heraclea, 
the  same  as  Nicaea,  No.  5.] 

NICIAS  (N</c/af).  1.  A  celebrated  Athemac 
general  during  the  Peloponnesian  war,  was  the 
son  of  Niceratus,  from  whum  he  inherited  a 

549 


NICIAS. 

large  fortune.  His  property  was  valued  at  one 
hundred  talents.  From  this  cause,  combined 
with  his  unambitious  character,  and  his  aver- 
sion to  all  dangerous  innovations,  he  was  natu- 
rally brought  into 'connection  with  the  aristo- 
crafical  portion  of  his  fellow-citizens.  He  was 
several  times  associated  with  Pericles  as  strat- 
egus,  and  his  great  prudence  and  high  charac- 
ter gained  for  him  considerable  influence.  On 
the  death  of  Pericles  he  came  forward  more 
openly  as  the  opponent  of  Cleon,  and  the  other 
demagogues  of  Athens;  but,  from  his  military 
reputation,  the  mildness  of  his  character,  and 
the  liberal  use  which  he  made  of  his  great 
wealth,  he  was  looked  upon  with  respect  by  all 
classes  of  the  citizens.  His  timidity  led  him 
to  buy  off  the  attacks  of  the  sycophants.  He 
was  a  man  of  strong  religious  feeling,  and  Ar- 
istophanes ridicules  him  in  the  Equitcs  for  his 
timidity  and  superstition.  His  characteristic 
caution  was  the  distinguishing  feature  of  his 
military  career;  and  his  military  operations 
were  almost  always  successful.  He  frequently 
commanded  the  Athenian  armies  during  the 
earlier  years  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  After 
the  death  of  Cleon  (B.C.  422)  he  exerted  all  his 
influence  to  bring  about  a  peace,  which  was 
concluded  in  the  following  year  (421).  For  the 
next  few  years  Nicias  used  all  his  efforts  to  in- 
duce the  Athenians  to  preserve  the  peace,  and 
was  constantly  opposed  by  Alcibiades,  who  had 
now  become  the  leader  of  the  popular  party. 
In  415  the  Athenians  resolved  on  sending  their 
great  expedition  to  Sicily,  and  appointed  Nicias 
with  Alcibiades  and  Lamachus  to  the  command. 
Nicias  disapproved  of  the  expedition  altogeth- 
er, and  did  all  that  he  could  to  divert  the  Atheni- 
ans from  this  course.  But  his  representations 
produced  no  effect,  and  he  set  sail  for  Sicily 
with  his  colleagues.  Alcibiades  was  soon  aft- 
erward recalled  (vid.  ALCIBIADES),  and  the  sole 
command  was  thus  virtually  left  in  the  hands 
of  Nicias.  His  early  operations  were  attended 
with  success.  He  defeated  the  Syracusans  in 
the  autumn,  and  employed  the  winter  in  se- 
curing the  co-operation  of  several  of  the  Greek 
cities,  and  of  the  Siculian  tribes  in  the  island. 
In  the  spring  of  next  year  he  renewed  his  at- 
tacks upon  Syracuse  ;  he  succeeded  in  seizing 
on  Epipolae,  and  commenced  the  circumvalla- 
tion  of  Syracuse.  About  this  time  Lamachus 
was  slain  in  a  skirmish  under  the  walls.  All 
the  attempts  of  the  Syracusans  to  stop  the  cir- 
cumvallation  failed.  The  works  were  nearly 
completed,  and  the  doom  of  Syracuse  seemed 
sealed,  when  Gylippus,  the  Spartan,  arrived  in 
Sicily.  Vid.  GYLIPPUS.  The  tide  of  success 
now  turned,  and  Nicias  found  himself  obliged 
to  send  to  Athens  for  re-enforcements,  and  re- 
quested, at  the  same  time,  that  another  com- 
mander might  be  sent  to  supply  his  place,  as 
his  feeble  health  rendered  him  unequal  to  the 
discharge  of  his  duties.  The  Athenians  voted 
re  enforcements,  which  were  placed  under  the 
command  of  Demosthenes  and  Eurymedon ;  but 
they  would  not  allow  Nicias  to  resign  his  com- 
mand. Demosthenes,  upon  his  arrival  in  Sicily 
(413),  made  a  vigorous  effort  to  recover  Epipo- 
Iffi,  which  the  Athenians  had  lost.  He  was 
nearly  successful,  but  was  finally  driven  back 
with  severe  loss.  Demosthenes  now  deemed 
550 


NICOCLES. 

any  further  attempts  against  the  city  hopeless, 
and  therefore  proposed  to  abandon  the  siego 
and  return  to  Athens.  To  this  Nicias  would 
not  consent.  He  professed  to  stand  in  dread,, 
of  the  Athenians  at  home ;  but  he  appears  to 
have  had  reasons  for  believing  that  a  party 
among  the  Syracusans  themselves  were  likely, 
in  no  long  time,  to  facilitate  the  reduction  of 
the  city.  But  meantime  fresh  succors  arrived 
for  the  Syracusans  ;  sickness  was  making  rav- 
ages among  the  Athenian  troops,  and  at  length 
Nicias  himself  saw  the  necessity  of  retreating. 
Secret  orders  were  given  that  every  thing 
should  be  in  readiness  for  departure,  when  an 
eclipse  of  the  moon  happened.  The  credulous 
superstition  of  Nicias  led  to  the  total  destruc- 
tion of  the  Athenian  armament!  The  sooth- 
sayers interpreted  the  event  as  an  injunction 
from  the  gods  that  they  should  not  retreat  be- 
fore the  next  full  moon,  and  Nicias  resolutely 
determined  to  abide  by  their  decision.  The 
Syracusans  resolved  to  bring  the  enemy  to  an 
engagement,  and,  in  a  decisive  naval  battle, 
defeated  the  Athenians.  They  were  now  mas- 
ters of  the  harbor,  and  the  Athenians  were  re- 
duced to  the  necessity  of  making  a  desperate 
effort  to  escape.  The  Athenians  were  again 
decisively  defeated ;  and  having  thus  lost  their 
fleet,  they  were  obliged  to  retreat  by  land. 
They  were  pursued  by  the  enemy,  and  were 
finally  compelled  to  surrender.  Both  Nicias 
and  Demosthenes  were  put  to  death  by  the 
Syracusans. — 2.  The  physician  of  Pyrrhus,  king 
of  Epirus,  who  offered  to  the  Roman  consul  to 
poison  the  king  for  a  certain  reward.  Fabricioa 
not  only  rejected  his  base  offer  with  indigna- 
tion, but  immediately  sent  him  back  to  Pyrrhus 
with  notice  of  his  treachery.  He  is  sometimes, 
but  erroneously,  called  Cineas.  —  3.  A  Coan 
grammarian,  who  lived  at  Rome  in  the  time 
of  Cicero,  with  whom  he  was  intimate. — 4.  A 
celebrated  Athenian  painter,  flourished  about 
B.C.  320.  He  was  the  most  distinguished  dis- 
ciple of  Euphranor.  His  works  seem  to  have 
been  all  painted  in  encaustic.  One  of  his  great- 
est paintings  was  a  representation  of  the  infer- 
nal regions  as  described  by  Homer.  He  refus- 
ed to  sell  this  picture  to  Ptolemy,  although  the 
price  offered  for  it  was  sixty  talents. 

[NicippE  (Nudmri}).  1.  A  daughter  of  Pelops, 
and  the  wife  of  Sthenelus. — 2.  A  daughter  of. 
Thespius,  the  mother  of  Antimachus  by  Her- 
cules.] 

[Nicippus  (NtKtTTTrof).  1.  A  native  of  Cos, 
who  finally  made  himself  tyrant  of  the  island . — 
2.  One  of  the  ephorsof  the  Messenians  in  B.C. 
220.] 

NICOCHARES  (N iKoxapijf),  an  Athenian  poet 
of  the  Old  Comedy,  the  son  of  Philonides,  was 
contemporary  with  Aristophanes.  [The  frag- 
ments of  his  comedies  are  collected  in  Meineke's 
Fragm.  Comic.  Grace.,  vol.  i.,  p.  465-468,  edit, 
minor.] 

NICOCLKS  (NtKOKfojc).  1.  King  of  Salamis  in 
Cyprus,  son  of  Evagoras,  whom  he  succeedeo 
B.C.  374.  Isocrates  addressed  him  a  long  pan 
egyric  upon  his  father's  virtues,  for  which  Nic- 
ocles  rewarded  the  orator  with  the  magnificent 
present  of  twenty  talents.  Scarcely  any  par- 
ticulars are  known  of  the  reign  of  Nicocles. 
He  is  said  to  have  perished  by  a  violent  death. 


NICOCRATES. 

but  neither  the  period  nor  circumstances  of  this 
event  are  recorded. — 2.  Prince  or  ruler  of  Pa- 
phos,  in  Cyprus,  during  the  period  which  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Alexander.  He  was  at  first 
one  of  those  who  took  part  with  Ptolemy  against 
Antigonus  ;  but,  having  subsequently  entered 
into  secret  negotiations  with  Antigonus,  he  was 
compelled  by  Ptolemy  to  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life,  B.C.  310.— 3.  Tyrant  of  Sicyon,  was  de- 
posed by  Aratus,  after  a  reign  of  only  four 
months,  B.C.  251.— [4.  Of  Soli,  an  officer  in  the 
army  of  Alexander  the  Great. — 5.  An  Athenian, 
put  to  death  with  his  friend  Phocion,  B  C.  318. 
As  he  had  always  been  a  warm  friend  to  him, 
he  begged  of  Phocion,  as  a  last  favor,  to  be  al- 
lowed to  drink  the  poison  before  his  illustrious 
friend,  a  request  which' Phocion  unwillingly 
conceded.] 

[NICOCRATES  (NiKOKpdrjjf).  1.  A  native  of 
Cyprus,  collected  an  extensive  library  at  a  very 
early  period.— 2.  Archon  of  Athens,  B.C.  333.] 

NICOCREON  (NiKOKpeuv),  king  of  Salamis,  in 
Cyprus,  at  the  time  of  Alexander's  expedition 
into  Asia.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  he 
took  part  with  Ptolemy  against  Antigonus,  and 
was  intrusted  by  Ptolemy  with  the  chief  com- 
mand over  the  whole  island.  Nicocreon  is  said 
to  have  ordered  the  philosopher  Anaxarchus  to 
be  pounded  to  death  in  a  stone  mortar,  in  re- 
venge for  an  insult  which  the  latter  had  offered 
the  king  when  he  visited  Alexander  at  Tyre. 

NIOOLAUS  CHALCOCONDVLKS.      Vid.  CHALCO- 

CONDYLES. 

NICOLAUS  DAMASCENUS,  a  Greek  historian,  and 
an  intimate  friend  both  of  Herod  the  Great  and 
of  Augustus.  He  was,  as  his  name  indicates,  a 
native  of  Damascus,  and  a  son  of  Antipater  and 
Stratonice.  He  received  an  excellent  educa- 
tion, and  he  carried  on  his  philosophical  studies 
in  common  with  Herod,  at  whose  court  he  re- 
sided. In  B.C.  13  he  accompanied  Herod  on  a 
visit  to  Augustus  at  Rome,  on  which  occasion 
Augustus  made  Nicolaus  a  present  of  the  finest 
fruit  of  the  palm-tree,  which  the  emperor  called 
Nicolai — a  name  by  which  it  continued  to  be 
known  down  to  the  Middle  Ages.  Nicolaus  rose 
so  high  in  the  favor  of  Augustus  that  he  was 
on  more  than  one  occasion  of  great  service  to 
Herod,  when  the  emperor  was  incensed  against 
the  latter.  Nicolaus  wrote  a  large  number  of 
works,  of  which  the  most  important  were,  1.  A 
life  of  himself,  of  which  a  considerable  portion 
is  still  extant.  2.  A  universal  history,  which 
consisted  of  one  hundred  and  forty-four  books, 
of  which  we  have  only  a  few  fragments.  3.  A  life 
of  Augustus,  from  which  we  have  some  extracts 
made  by  command  of  Constantine  Porphyrogen- 
itus.  He  also  wrote  commentaries  on  Aris- 
totle, and  other  philosophical  works,  and  was 
the  author  of  several  tragedies  and  comedies  : 
Stobaeus  has  preserved  a  fragment  of  one  of  his 
comedies,  extending  to  forty-four  lines.  The 
best  edition  of  his  fragments  is  by  Orelli,  Lips., 
1804. 

NICOMACHCS  (Nt«co/«j;tof).  1.  Father  of  Aris- 
totle. Vid.  p.  100,  a.— 2.  Son  of  Aristotle  by  the 
slave  Herpyllis.  He  was  himself  a  philosopher, 
and  wrote  some  philosophical  works.  A  portion 
of  Aristotle's  writings  bears  the  name  of  Nico- 
nachean  Ethics,  but  why  we  can  not  tell ;  wheth- 
er the  father  so  named  them,  as  a  memorial  of 


NICOMEDES. 

his  affection  for  his  young  son,  or  whether  they 
derived  their  title  from  being  afterward  edited 
and  commented  on  by  Nicomachus. — 3.  Called 
Gerasenus,  from  his  native  place,  Gerasa  in 
Arabia,  was  a  Pythagorean,  and  the  writer  of  a 
life  of  Pythagoras,  now  lost.  His  date  is  infer- 
red from  his  mention  of  Thrasyllus,  who  lived 
under  Tiberius.  He  wrote  on  arithmetic  and 
music  ;  and  two  of  his  works  on  these  subjects 
are  still  extant.  The  work  on  arithmetic  was 
printed  by  Wechel,  Paris,  1538 ;  also,  after  the 
Theologumena  Arithmetics,  attributed  to  lambli- 
chus,  Lips  ,  1817.  The  work  on  music  was 
printed  by  Meursius,  in  his  collection,  Lugd.  Bat., 
1616,  and  in  the  collection  of  Meibomius,  Amst., 
1652. — 4.  Of  Thebes,  a  celebrated  painter,  was 
the  elder  brother  and  teacher  of  the  great  painter 
Aristides.  Pie  flourished  B.C.  360,  and  onward 
He  was  an  elder  contemporary  of  Apelles  and 
Protogenes.  He  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the 
ancient  writers  in  terms  of  the  highest  praise. 
Cicero  says  that  in  his  works,  as  well  as  in 
those  of  Echion,  Protogenes,  and  Apelles,  every 
thing  was  already  perfect.  (Brutus,  18.) 

NICOMEDES  (Nt/co^d^f).  1. 1.  King  of  Bithyn- 
ia,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Zipcetes,  whom  he 
succeeded,  B.C.  278.  With  the  assistance  of 
the  Gauls,  whom  he  invited  into  Asia,  he  de- 
feated and  put  to  death  his  brother  Zipoetes,  who 
had  for  some  time  held  the  independent  sover- 
eignty of  a  considerable  part  of  Bithynia.  The 
rest  of  his  reign  appears  to  have  been  undis- 
turbed, and  under  his  sway  Bithynia  rose  to  a 
high  degree  of  power  and  prosperity.  He  found- 
ed the  city  of  Nicomedia,  which  he  made  the 
capital  of  his  kingdom.  The  length  of  his  reign 
is  uncertain,  but  he  probably  died  about  250. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  ZIELAS. — 2.  II. 
Surnamed  EPIPHANES,  king  of  Bithynia,  reigned 
B.C.  149-91.  He  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Prusias  II.,  and  fourth  in  descent  from  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  brought  up  at  Rome,  where  he 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  favor  of  the  senate. 
Prusias,  in  consequence,  became  jealous  of  his 
son,  and  sent  secret  instructions  for  his  assas- 
sination. The  plot  was  revealed  to  Nicomedes, 
who  thereupon  returned  to  Asia,  and  declared 
open  war  against  his  father.  Prusias  was  de- 
serted by  his  subjects,  and  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  his  son,  149.  Of  the  long  and  tranquil 
reign  of  Nicomedes,  few  events  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  us.  He  courted  the  friendship  of  the 
Romans,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  war  against 
Aristonicus,  131.  He  subsequently  obtained 
possession  of  Paphlagonia,  and  attempted  to 
gain  Cappadocia,  by  marrying  Laodice,  the  wid- 
ow of  Ariarathes  VI.  He  was,  however,  ex- 
pelled from  Cappadocia  by  Mithradates  ;  and  he 
was  also  compelled  by  the  Romans  to  abandon 
Paphlagonia,  when  they  deprived  Mithradates 
of  Cappadocia. — 3.  III.  Surnamed  PHILOPATOR, 
king  of  Bithynia  (91-74),  son  and  successor  of 
Nicomedes  II.  Immediately  after  his  accession 
he  was  expelled  by  Mithradates,  who  set  up 
against  him  his  brother  Socrates  ;  but  he  was 
restored  by  the  Romans  in  the  following  year 
(90).  At  the  instigation  of  the  Romans,  Nico- 
medes now  proceeded  to  attack  the  dominions 
of  Mithradates,  who  expelled  him  a  second  time 
from  his  kingdom  (88).  This  was  the  immedi- 
ate occasion  of  the  first  Mithradatic  war;  at  the 

551 


NICOMEDIA. 

conclusion  of  which  (84)  Nicomsdes  was  again 
reinstated  in  his  kingdom.  He  reigned  nearly 
ten  years  after  this  second  restoration.  He  died 
at  the  beginning  of  74,  and  having  no  children, 
by  his  will  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  the  Ro- 
man people. 

.  NICOMEDIA  (NiKo/jf/6eia  :  NiKO[tr/6fV(,  fern.  N<- 
Kopridioaa  :  now  ruins  at  Izmid  or  Iznikmid),  a 
celebrated  city  of  Bithynia,  in  Asia  Minor,  built 
by  King  Nicomedes  I.  (B.C.  264),  at  the  north- 
eastern corner  of  the  Sinus  Astacenus  (now 
Gulf  of  Izmid  :  compare  ASTACUS).  It  was  the 
chief  residence  of  the  kings  of  Bithynia,  and  it 
soon  became  one  of  the  most  splendid  cities  of 
the  then  known  world.  Under  the  Romans  it 
was  a  colony,  and  a  favorite  residence  of  sev- 
eral of  the  later  emperors,  especially  of  Diocle- 
tian and  Constantine  the  Great.  Though  re- 
peatedly injured  by  earthquakes,  it  was  always 
restored  by  the  munificence  of  the  emperors. 
Like  its  neighbor  and  rival,  NIC^EA,  it  occupies 
an  important  place  in  the  wars  against  the 
Turks ;  but  it  is  still  more  memorable  in  his- 
•tory  as  the  scene  of  Hannibal's  death.  It  was 
the  birth-place  of  the  historian  Arrian. 

[NicoN  (Nt/cwp).  1.  A  Tarentine,  who  be- 
trayed his  native  city  to  Hannibal  during  the 
second  Punic  war,  B.C.  212.  The  Romans  hav- 
ing subsequently  taken  Tarentum  by  surprise, 
Nicon  fell  bravely  fighting  in  defence  of  the 
city. — 2.  A  leader  of  the  Cilician  pirates,  who 
was  taken  prisoner  by  P.  Servilius  Isauricns. — 
3.  A  comic  poet,  probably  of  the  new  comedy  : 
a  fragment  of  one  of  his  comedies  is  given  by 
Meineke,  Fragm.  Comic.  Grac.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1176, 
edit,  minor. — 4.  An  architect  and  geometri- 
cian of  Pergamus  in  Mysia,  the  father  of  the 
physician  Galen  :  he  was  a  learned  and  accom- 
plished man,  and  superintended  in  person  the 
education  of  his  distinguished  son.] 

NICONIA  or  NICONIOM,  a  town  in  Scythia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tyras  (now  Dniester). 

NICOPHON  and  NICOPHRON  (Ni/co^uv,  NLKO- 
<t>puv),  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  son  of  Theron, 
and  a  contemporary  of  Aristophanes  at  the  close 
of  his  career.  [The  fragments  of  his  comedies 
are  collected  by  Meineke,  Fragm.  Comic.  Grac., 
vol.  i.,  p.  468-472,  edit,  minor.] 

NICOPOLIS  (Nt/c<J;ro/Uf :  NmonoMrr/f,  Nicopo- 
litanus).  1.  (Ruins  at  Pahoprevyza),  a  city  at 
the  southwestern  extremity  of  Epirus,  on  the 
point  of  land  which  forms  the  northern  side  of 
the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Ambracia,  opposite 
to  Actium.  It  was  built  by  Augustus  in  memory 
of  the  battle  of  Actium,  and  was  peopled  from 
Ambracia,  Anactorium,  and  other  neighboring 
cities,  and  also  with  settlers  from  JStolia.*  Au- 
gustus also  built  a  temple  of  Apollo  on  a  neigh- 
boring hill,  and  founded  games  in  honor  of  the 
god,  which  were  held  every  fifth  year.  The 
city  was  received  into  the  Amphictyonic  league 
in  place  of  the  Dolopes.  It  is  spoken  of  both  as 
a  libera  civitas  and  as  a  colony.  It  had  a  con- 
siderable commerce  and  extensive  fisheries.  It 
was  made  the  capital  of  Epirus  by  Constantine, 
and  its  buildings  were  restored  both  by  Julian 
and  by  Justinian. — 2.  (Now  Nicopoli),  a  city  of 
Moesia  Inferior,  on  the  Danube,  built  by  Trajan 
in  memory  of  a  victory  over  the  Dacians,  and 
celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  great  defeat  of  the 
Hungarians  and  Franks  by  the  Sultan  Bajazet, 
552 


NIGIER. 

on  the  28th  of  September,  1396.— 3.  (Now  Ei* 
derez,  or  Devrigni  ?),  a  city  of  Armenia  Minor, 
on  or  near  the  Lycus,  and  not  far  from  the 
sources  of  the  Halys,  founded  by  Pompey  on  the 
spot  where  he  gained  his  first  victory  over  Mith- 
radates  :  a  flourishing  place  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus :  restored  by  Justinian. — 4.  A  city  in  the 
northeastern  corner  of  Cilicia,  near  the  junction 
of  the  Taurus  and  Amanus. — [5.  Or  EMMAUS, 
a  city  of  Palestine.  Vid.  EMMAUS.] — 6.  (Now 
Kars,  Kiassera,  or  Casar's  Castle,  ruins),  a  city 
of  Lower  Egypt,  about  two  or  three  miles  east 
of  Alexandrea,  on  the  canal  between  Alexan- 
drea  and  Canopus,  was  built  by  Augustus  in 
memory  of  his  last  victory  over  Antonius. 
Here  also,  as  at  Nicopolis  opposite  to  Actium, 
Augustus  founded  a  temple  of  Apollo,  with 
games  every  fifth  year.  Not  being  mentioned 
after  the  time  of  the  first  Caesars,  it  would  seecc 
to  have  become  a  mere  suburb  of  Alexandrea. 

[NicosTRATE  (NiKoorpdrr/).     Vid.  CAMENJE.] 

[NicosTRATUs  (NiKoarparoc).  1 .  An  Athenian 
general,  son  of  Diitrephes,  was  a  colleague  of 
Nicias  at  the  capture  of  Cythera ;  fell  in  battle 
against  Agis  near  Mantinea. — 2.  An  Argive, 
possessed  extraordinary  strength  of  body,  and 
was  distinguished  also  for  prudence  in  council ; 
was  sent  by  the  Argives  with  a  body  of  three 
thousand  men  to  aid  the  Persian  king  Darius 
Ochus  against  Egypt.] 

NICOSTRATUS  (NtKotrr/jarof).  1.  The  youngest 
of  the  three  sons  of  Aristophanes,  was  himself 
a  comic  poet.  His  plays  belonged  both  to  ths 
middle  and  the  new  comedy.  [The  fragments 
of  his  comedies  are  collected  by  Meineke,  Fragm. 
Comic.  Grcec.,  vol.  i.,  p.  632-640,  edit,  minor. — 
2.  A  tragic  actor,  flourished  before  B.C.  420.] 

[NicoTERA,  a  city  of  Bruttjum,  on  a  mountain 
not  far  from  the  sea,  on  the  road  leading  from 
Capua  to  the  Fretum  Siculum,  between  Vibo  and 
Mallise.] 

NIGEIR,  NIGIR,  or  NIGRIS  (Ntyetp,  Niyip,  a 
compounded  form  of  the  word  Geir  or  Gir,  which 
seems  to  be  a  native  African  term  for  a  river  in 
general),  changed,  by  a  confusion  which  was  the 
more  easily  made  on  account  of  the  color  of  the 
people  of  the  region,  into  the  Latin  word  NIGER, 
a  great  river  of  ^Ethiopia  Interior,  which  mod- 
ern usage  has  identified  with  the  river  called 
Joli-ba  (i.  e.,  Great  River)  and  Quorra  (or,  rather, 
Kowara),  in  Western  Africa.  As  early  as  the 
time  of  Herodotus,  we  find  an  authentic  state- 
ment concerning  a  river  of  the  interior  of  Libya, 
whicli  is  evidently  identical  both  with  the  Nigeir 
of  most  of  the  ancient  geographers,  and  with 
the  Quorra.  He  tells  us  (ii.,  32)  that  five  young 
men  of  the  Nasamones,  a  Libyan  people  on  the 
Great  Syrtis,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
started  to  explore  the  desert  parts  of  Libya ; 
that,  after  crossing  the  inhabited  part,  and  the 
region  of  the  wild  beasts,  they  journeyed  many 
days  through  the  Desert  toward  the  west,  till 
they  came  to  a  plain  where  fruit-trees  grew ; 
and  as  they  ate  the  fruit,  they  were  seized  by 
some  little  black  men,  whose  language  they 
could  not  understand,  who  led  them  through 
great  marshes  to  a  city,  inhabited  by  the  same 
sort  of  little  black  men,  who  were  all  enchanters ; 
and  a  great  river  flowed  by  the  city  from  west 
to  east,  and  in  it  there  were  crocodiles.  He- 
rodotus, like  his  informants,  inferred  fiora  the 


NIGER,  C.  PESCENNIUS. 

course  of  the  river,  and  from  the  crocodiles  in 
it,  that  it  was  the  Nile  ;  but  it  can  hardly  be 
any  river  but  the  Quorra  ;  and  that  the  city  was 
Timbuctoo  is  far  more  probable  than  not.  The 
(•pinion  that  the  Niger  was  a  western  branch 
of  the  Nile  prevailed  very  generally  in  ancient 
times,  but  by  no  means  universally.  Pliny  gives 
the  same  account  in  a  very  confused  manner, 
and  makes  the  Nigris  (as  he  calls  it)  the  bound- 
ary between  Northern  Africa  and  ^Ethiopia. 
Ptolemy,  however,  who  evidently  had  new 
sources  of  information  respecting  the  interior  of 
Africa,  makes  the  Nigeir  rise  not  far  from  its 
real  source  (allowing  for  the  imperfect  observa- 
tions on  which  his  numerical  latitudes  and  longi- 
tudes are  founded),  and  follow  a  direction  not 
very  different  from  what  that  of  the  Joli-ba  and 
Quorra  would  be,  if  we  suppose  that  the  Zirmi, 
Koji,  and  Yeo  form  an  unbroken  communication 
between  the  Quorra  and  the  Lake  Tchad.  But 
Ptolemy  adds,  what  the  most  recent  discoveries 
render  a  very  remarkable  statement,  that  a 
branch  of  the  Nigeir  communicates  with  the 
Lake  Libya  (A.i6vtj),  which  he  places  in  16°  30' 
north  latitude,  and  35°  east  longitude  (i.  e.,  from 
the  Fortunate  Islands  =  17°  from  Greenwich). 
This  is  almost  exactly  the  positifin  of  Lake  Tchad ; 
and,  if  the  Tckadda.  really  flows  out  of  this  lake, 
it  will  represent  the  branch  of  the  Nigeir  spoken 
of  by  Ptolemy,  whose  informants,  however,  seem 
to  have  inverted  the  direction  of  its  stream.  It 
is  further  remarkable  that  Ptolemy  places  on  the 
Nigeir  a  city  named  Thamondocana  in  the  exact 
position  of  Timbuctoo,  and  that  the  length  of  the 
river,  computed  from  his  position,  agrees  very 
nearly  with  its  real  length.  The  error  of  con- 
necting the  Niger  and  the  Nile  revived  after 
the  time  of  Ptolemy,  and  has  only  been  ex- 
ploded by  very  recent  discoveries. 

NIGER,  C.  PESCENNIOS,  was  governor  of  Syria 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Commodus, 
on  whose  death  he  was  saluted  emperor  by  the 
legions  in  the  East,  A.D.  193  ;  but  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  defeated  and  put  to  death  by 
Septimius  Severus.  Many  anecdotes  have  been 
preserved  of  the  firmness  with  which  Niger 
enforced  the  most  rigid  discipline  among  his 
troops ;  but  he  preserved  his  popularity  by  the 
impartiality  which  he  displayed,  and  by  the  ex- 
ample of  frugality,  temperance,  and  hardy  en- 
durance of  toil  which  he  exhibited  in  his  own 
person. 

NIOIRA  (Kiytipa,  Ptol.  :  now  Jenneh  ?),  a  city 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  River  Nigeir,  and  the 
capital  of  the  NIGRIT.*. 

NIGRITJE  or-ETE8  (Ntyptrat,  Niyptrat  Aifli'ojrec. 
Ntypj/ref),  the  northernmost  of  the  ^Ethiopian 
(i.  e.,  Negro)  communities  of  Central  Africa, 
dwelt  about  the  Nigeir,  in  the  great  plain  of 
Soudan. 

NIGRITIS  LACUS  (Ntypmf  Mpvri),  a  lake  in  the 
interior  of  Africa,  out  of  which  Ptolemy  repre- 
sents the  River  Nigeir  as  flowing.  He  places  it 
about  at  the  true  source  of  the  Nigeir  (i.  c.,  the 
Joli-ba) ;  but  it  is  not  yet  discovered  whether 
the  river  has  its  source  in  a  lake.  Some  mod- 
ern geographers  identify  it  with  the  Lake  Debo, 
southwest  of  Timbuctoo. 

NILUPOLIS  or  NILUS  (NfjXov  jntttf,  Net^of 
city  of  the  Heptanomis,  or  Middle  Egypt,  in  the 
Nomos  Heracleopolites,  was  built  on  an  island 


NILUS. 

in  the  Nile,  twenty  geographical  miles  northeast 
of  Heracleopolis.  There  was  a  temple  here  in 
which,  as  throughout  Egypt,  the  River  Nile  was 
worshipped  as  a  god. 

NILUS  (6  NetAof,  derived  probably  from  a  word 
which  still  exists  in  the  old  dialects  of  India, 
Nilas,  i.  e.,  black,  and  sometimes  called  MeAo/- 
by  the  Greeks  :  NeiXof  occurs  first  in  Hesiod  ; 
Homer  calls  the  river  AtyvTrrof:   now  Nile, 
Arab.  Bahr-Nil,  or  simply  Bohr,  i.  e.,  the  River : 
the  modern  names  of  its  upper  course,  in  Nubia 
and  Abyssinia,  are  various).     This  river,  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  world,  flows  through 
a  channel  which  forms  a  sort  of  cleft  extending 
north  and  south  through  the  high  rocky  and 
sandy  land  of  Northeastern  Africa.     Its  west- 
ern or  main  branch  has  not  yet  been  traced  to 
its  source,  but  it  has  been  followed  up  to  a  point 
in  4°  42'  north  latitude,  and  30°  58'  east  longi- 
tude, where  it  is  a  rapid  mountain  stream,  run- 
ning at  the  rate  of  six  knots  an  hour  over  a 
rocky  bed,  free  from  alluvial  soil.  After  a  course 
in  the  general  direction  of  north- northeast  as 
far  as  a  place  called  Khartum,  in  15°  34'  north 
latitude,  and  32°  30'  east  longitude,  this  river, 
which  is  called  the  Bahr-el-Abiad,  i.  e.,  White 
River,  receives  another  large  river,  the  Bahr- 
el-Azrek,  i.  e.,  Blue  River,  the  sources  of  which 
are  in  the  highlands  of  Abyssinia,  about  11° 
north  latitude,  and  37°  east  longitude  :  this  is 
the  middle  branch  of  the  Nile  system,  the  As- 
TAPUS  of  the  ancients.    The  third,  or  eastern 
branch,  called  Tacazze,  the  ASTABORAS  of  the 
ancients,  rises  also  in  the  highlands  of  Abys- 
sinia, in  about  11°  40'  north  latitude,  and  39° 
40'  east  longitude,  and  joins  the  Nile  (i.  e.,  the 
main  stream  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Abiad 
and  the  Azrek),  in  17°  45'  north  latitude,  and 
about  34°  5'  east  longitude  :  the  point  of  junc- 
tion was  the  apex  of  the  island  of  MERGE.    Here 
the  united  river  is  about  two  miles  broad. 
Hence  it  flows  through  Nubia,  in  a  magnificent 
rocky  valley,  falling  over  six  cataracts,  the 
northernmost  of  which,  called  the  First  cataract 
(i.  e.,  to  a  person  going  up  the  river),  is  and  has 
always  been  the  southern  boundary  of  Egypt. 
Of  its  course  from  this  point  to  its  junction 
with  the  Mediterranean,  a  sufficient  general  de- 
scription has  been  given  under  ^EGYPTUS  (p. 
17,  a.).   The  branches  into  which  it  parted  at  the 
southern  point  of  the  Delta  were,  in  ancient 
times,  three  in  number,  and  these  again  parted 
into  seven,  of  which,  Herodotus  tells  us,  five 
were  natural  and  two  artificial.    These  seven 
mouths  were  nearly  all  named  from  cities  which 
stood  upon  them  :  they  were  called,  proceeding 
from  east  to  west,  the  Pelusiac,  the  Tanitic  or 
Saitic,  the  Mendesian,  the  Phatnitic,  or  Path- 
metic,  or  Bucolic,  the  Sebenny tic,  the  Bolbitic  or 
Bolbitino,  and  the  Canobic  or  Canopic.  Through 
the  altetations  caused  by  the  alluvial  deposits 
of  the  river,  they  have  now  all  shifted  their  po- 
sitions, or  dwindled  into  little  channels,  except 
two,  and  these  are  much  diminished  ;  namely, 
the  Damiat  mouth  on  the  east,  and  the  Rosetta 
mouth  on  the  west.     Of  the  -anals  connected 
with  the  Nile  in  the  Delta,  the  most  celebrated 
were  the  Canobic,  which  connected  the  Canobic 
mouth  with  the  Lake  Mareotis  and  with  Alex- 
andrea,  and  that  of  Ptolemy  (afterward  called 
that  of  Trajan),  which  connected  the  Nile  at  the 

653 


NILUS. 

beginning  of  the  Delta  with  the  Bay  of  Hero- 
Spolis  at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea :  the  forma- 
tion of  the  latter  is  ascribed  to  KingNecho,  and 
its  repair  and  improvement  successively  to  Da- 
rius the  son  of  Hystaspes,  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus,  and  Trajan.  That  the  Delta,  and,  indeed, 
the  whole  alluvial  soil  of  Egypt  has  been  creat- 
ed by  the  Nile,  can  not  be  doubted  ;  but  the 
present  small  rate  of  deposit  proves  that  the 
formation  must  have  been  made  long  before  the 
historical  period.  The  periodical  rise  of  the 
river  has  been  spoken  of  under  ^EGYPTUS.  It 
is  caused  by  the  tropical  rains  on  the  highlands 
in  which  it  rises.  The  best  ancient  accounts, 
preserved  by  Ptolemy,  place  its  source  in  a 
range  of  mountains  in  Central  Africa,  called 
the  Mountains  of  the  Moon  ;  and  the  most  re- 
cent information  points  to  a  range  of  mount- 
ains a  little  north  of  the  equator,  called  Jebcl- 
el-Kumri,  or  the  Blue  Mountain,  as  containing 
the  probable  sources  of  the  Bahr  Abiad.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  deified  the  Nile,  and  took  the 
utmost  care  to  preserve  its  water  from  pollu- 
tion. 

[NiLus  (NetAof),  the  god  of  the  River  Nile 
in  Egypt,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Oceanus 
and  Tethys,  and  father  of  Memphis  and  Chione. 
Pindar  calls  him  a  son  of  Saturn  (Cronus).] 

NINUS,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  city  of 
Ninus  or  Nineveh.  An  account  of  his  exploits 
is  given  under  Semiramis,  his  wife,  whose  name 
was  more  celebrated.  Vid.  SEMIRAMIS. 

NINUS,  NINIVE  (Nt'vof,  less  correctly  Nivof : 
in  the  Old  Testament,  Nineveh,  LXX."  Nu/f uij, 
Nivfw  :  Nmoc,  Ninivltae,  pi.),  the  capital  of  the 
great  Assyrian  monarchy,  and  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  in  the  world,  stood  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  Tigris,  at  the  upper  part  of  its 
course,  in  the  district  of  Aturia.  The  accounts 
of  its  foundation  and  history  are  as  various  as 
those  respecting  the  Assyrian  monarchy  in  gen- 
eral. Vid.  ASSYRIA.  The  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  ascribe  its  foundation  to  Ninus  ;  but  in 
the  book  of  Genesis  (x.,  11)  we  are  told,  imme- 
diately after  the  'mention  of  the  kingdom  of 
Nimrod  and  his  foundation  of  Babel  and  other 
cities  in  Shinar  (i.  e.,  Babylon),  that  "  out  of 
that  land  went  forth  Asshur"  (or  otherwise, 
"  he — i.  e.,  Nimrod — went  forth  into  Assyria"), 
"  and  builded  Nineveh."  There  is  no  further 
mention  of  Nineveh  in  Scripture  till  the  reign 
of  Jeroboam  II.,  about  B.C.  825,  when  the  proph- 
et Jonah  was  commissioned  to  preach  repent- 
ance to  its  inhabitants.  It  is  then  described  as 
"  an  exceeding  great  city,  of  three  days'  jour- 
ney," and  as  containing  "  more  than  one  hund- 
red and  twenty  thousand  persons  that  can  not 
discern  between  their  right  hand  and  their  left 
hand,"  which,  if  this  phrase  refers  to  children, 
would  represent  a  population  of  six  hundred 
thousand  souls.  The  other  passages,  in  which 
the  Hebrew  prophets  denounce  ruin  against  it, 
bear  witness  to  its  size,  wealth,  and  luxury,  and 
the  latest  of  them  (Zeph.,  ii.,  13)  is  dated  only 
a  few  years  before  the  final  destruction  of  the 
city,  which  was  effected  by  the  Medes  and 
Babylonians  about  B.C.  606.  It  is  said  by 
Strabo  to  have  been  larger  than  Babylon,  and 
Diodorus  describes  it  as  an  oblong  quadrangle 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  stadia  by  ninety,  mak- 
isg  the  circuit  of  the  walls  four  hundred  and 
554 


NIN'JS. 

eighty  stadia  (more  than  fifty-five  statute  miles) 
if  so,  the  city  was  twice  as  large  as  London  to- 
gether with  its  suburbs.  In  judging  of  these 
statements,  not  only  must  allowance  be  made 
for  the  immense  space  occupied  by  palaces  and 
temples,  but  also  for  the  Oriental  mode  of  build- 
ing a  city,  so  as  to  include  large  gardens  and 
other  open  spaces  within  the  walls.  The  walls 
of  Nineveh  are  described  as  one  hundred  feet 
high,  and  thick  enough  to  allow  three  chariots 
to  pass  each  other  on  them  ;  with  fifteen  hund 
red  towers,  two  hundred  feet  in  height.  The 
city  is  said  to  have  been  entirely  destroyed  by 
fire  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Medes  and  Baby- 
lonians, about  B.C.  606  ;  and  frequent  allusions 
occur  to  its  desolate  state.  Under  the  Roman 
empire,  however,  we  again  meet  with  a  city 
Nineve,  in  the  district  of  Adiabene,  mentioned 
by  Tacitus,  and  again  by  Ammianus  Marcel- 
linus,  and  a  mediaeval  historian  of  the  thirteenth 
century  mentions  a  fort  of  the  same  name  ;  but 
statements  like  these  must  refer  to  some  later 
place  built  among  or  near  the  ruins  of  the  an- 
cient Nineveh.  Thus,  of  all  the  great  cities  of 
the  world,  none  was  thought  to  have  been  more 
utterly  lost  than  the  capital  of  the  most  ancient 
of  the  great  mona'rchies.  Tradition  pointed  out 
a  few  shapeless  mounds  opposite  Mosul,  on  the 
Upper  Tigris,  as  all  that  remained  of  Nineveh  ; 
and  a  few  fragments  of  masonry  were  occasion- 
ally dug  up  there,  and  elsewhere  in  Assyria, 
bearing  inscriptions  in  an  almost  unknown  char- 
acter, called,  from  its  shape,  cuneiform  or  ar- 
row-headed. Within  the  last  ten  years,  how- 
ever, those  shapeless  mounds  have  been  shown 
to  contain  the  remains  of  great  palaces,  on  the 
walls  of  which  the  scenes  of  Assyrian  life  and 
the  records  of  Assyrian  conquests  are  sculp- 
tured ;  while  the  efforts  which  had  long  been 
made  to  decipher  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
found  in  Persia  and  Babylonia,  as  well  as  As- 
syria, have  been  so  far  successful  as  to  make  it 
probable  that  we  may  soon  read  the  records  of 
Assyrian  history  from  her  own  monuments.  It 
is  as  yet  premature  to  form  definite  conclusions 
to  any  great  extent.  The  results  of  Major 
Rawlinson's  study  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
of  Assyria  are  only  in  process  of  publication. 
The  excavations  conducted  by  Dr.  Layard  and 
M.  Botta  have  brought  to  light  the  sculptured 
remains  of  immense  palaces,  not  only  at  the 
traditional  site  of  Nineveh,  namely,  Kouyunjik 
and  Nebbi-Yunus,  opposite  to  Mosul,  and  at 
Khorsabad,  about  ten  miles  to  the  north-north- 
east, but  also  in  a  mound  eighteen  miles  lower 
down  the  river,  in  the  tongue  of  land  between 
the  Tigris  and  the  Great  Zab,  which  still  bears 
the  najne  of  Nimroud ;  and  it  is  clear  that  theii 
remains  belong  to  different  periods,  embracing 
the  records  of  two  distinct  dynasties,  extending 
over  several  generations,  none  of  which  can  be 
later  than  B.C.  606,  while  some  of  them  prob- 
ably belong  to  a  period  at  least  as  ancient  as 
the  thirteenth,  and  perhaps  even  the  fifteenth 
century  B.C.  There  are  other  mounds  of  ruins 
as  yet  unexplored.  Which  of  these  ruins  cor- 
respond to  the  true  site  of  Nineveh,  or  whether 
(as  Dr.  Layard  suggests)  that  vast  city  may 
have  extended  all  the  way  along  the  Tigris  from 
Kouyunjik  to  Nimroud,  and  to  a  corresponding 
breadth  northeast  of  the  river,  as  far  as  Khor* 


NTNYAS 


NISUS. 


sabad,  are  questions  still  unde\  discussion. 
Meanwhile,  the  study  of  the  monuments  and 
inscriptions  thus  discovered  must  soon  throw 
fresh  light  on  the  whole  subject.  Some  splen- 
did fragments  of  sculpture,  obtained  by  Dr.  Lay- 
ard  from  Nimroud,  are  now  to  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum. 

NINYAS  (Nivvaf),  son  of  Ninus  and  Semira- 
mis.  Vid.  SEMIRAMIS. 

NIOBE  (Ni66n).  1.  Daughter  of  Phoroneus, 
and  by  Zeus  the  mother  of  Argus  and  Pelasgus. 
— 2.  Daughter  of  Tantalus  by  the  Pleiad  Tay- 
gete  or  the  Hyad  Dione.  She  was  the  sister 
of  Pelops,  and  the  wife  of  Amphion,  king  of 
Thebes,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of 
six  sons  and  six  daughters.  Being  proud  of  the 
number  of  her  children,  she  deemed  herself  su- 
perior to  Latona  (Leto),  who  had  given  birth  to 
only  two  children.  Apollo  and  Diana  (Arte- 
mis), indignant  at  such  presumption,  slew  all 
her  children  with  their  arrows.  For  nine  days 
their  bodies  lay  in  their  blood  without  any  one 
burying  them,  for  Jupiter  (Zeus)  had  changed 
the  people  into  stones ;  but  on  the  tenth  day 
the  gods  themselves  buried  them.  Niobe  her- 
self, who  had  gone  to  Mount  Sipylus,  was  met- 
amorphosed into  stone,  and  even  thus  contin- 
ued to  feel  the  misfortune  with  which  the  gods 
had  visited  her.  This  is  the  Homeric  story, 
which  later  writers  have  greatly  modified  and 
enlarged.  The  number  and  names  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Niobe  vary  very  much  in  the  different 
accounts ;  for  while  Homer  states  that  their 
number  was  twelve,  Hesiod  and  others  men- 
tioned twenty,  Alcman  only  six,  Sappho  eight- 
een, and  Herodotus  four ;  but  the  most  common- 
ly received  number  in  later  times  appears  to  have 
been  fourteen,  namely,  seven  sons  and  seven 
daughters.  According  to  Homer,  all  the  chil- 
dren of  Niobe  fell  by  the  arrows  of  Apollo  and 
Diana  (Artemis) ;  but  later  writers  state  that 
one  of  her  sons,  Amphion  or  Amyclas,  and  one 
of  her  daughters,  Melibcea,  were  saved,  but  that 
Meliboca,  having  turned  pale  with  terror  at  the 
sight  of  her  dying  brothers  and  sisters,  was 
afterward  called  Chloris.  The  time  and  place 
at  which  the  children  of  Niobe  were  destroyed 
are  likewise  stated  differently.  According  to 
Homer,  they  perished  in  their  mother's  house. 
According  to  Ovid,  the  sons  were  slain  while 
they  were  engaged  in  gymnastic  exercises  in  a 
plain  near  Thebes,  and  the  daughters  during  the 
funeral  of  their  brothers.  Others,  again,  trans- 
fer the  scene  to  Lydia,  or  make  Niobe,  after  the 
death  of  her  children,  go  from  Thebes  to  Lydia, 
to  her  father  Tantalus  on  Mount  Sipylus,  where 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  at  her  own  request,  metamorph- 
osed her  into  a  stone,  which  during  the  sum- 
mer always  shed  tears.  In  the  time  of  Pau- 
sanias  people  still  fancied  they  could  see  the 
petrified  figure  of  Niobe  on  Mount  Sipylus.  The 
tomb  of  the  children  of  Niobe,  however,  was 
shown  at  Thebes.  The  story  of  Niobe  and  her 
children  was  frequently  taken  as  a  subject  by 
ancient  artists.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  ancient  works  of  art  still  extant  is  the  group 
of  Niobe  and  her  children,  which  filled  the  pedi- 
ment of  the  temple  of  Apollo  Sosianus  at  Rome, 
and  which  was  discovered  at  Rome  in  the  year 
1583.  This  group  is  now  at  Florence,  and  con- 
sists of  the  mother,  who  holds  her  youngest 


daughter  on  her  knees,  and  thirteen  statues 
of  her  sons  and  daughters,  besides  a  figure 
usually  called  the  paedagogus  of  the  children. 
The  Romans  themselves  were  uncertain  wheth- 
er the  group  was  the  work  of  Scopas  or  Praxit- 
eles. 

NIPHATES  (6  N«0ttr?7f,  i.  e.,  Snow-mountain. 
now  Balan),  a  mountain  chain  of  Armenia,  form- 
ing an  eastern  prolongation  of  the  Taurus  from 
where  it  is  crossed  by  the  Euphrates  toward 
the  Lake  of  Van,  before  reaching  which  it  turns 
to  the  south,  and  approaches  the  Tigris  below 
Tigranocerta  ;  thus  surrounding  on  the  north 
and  east  the  basin  of  the  highest  course  of  the 
Tigris  (which  is  inclosed  on  the  south  and 
southwest  by  Mount  Masius),  and  dividing  it 
from  the  valley  of  the  Arsanias  (now  Murad)  or 
southern  branch  of  the  Euphrates.  The  con 
tinuation  of  Mount  Niphates  io  the  southeast; 
along  the  eastern  margin  of  the  Tigris  valley, 
is  formed  by  the  mountains  of  the  Carduchi 
(now  Mountains  of  Kurdistan). 

[NiPHATEs(N<0ur7;f),  one  of  the  Persian  gen- 
erals at  the  battle  of  the  Granicus.] 

NIREUS  (N/pevf),  son  of  Charopus  and  Aglaia, 
was,  next  to  Achilles,  the  handsomest  among 
the  Greeks  at  Troy.  He  came  from  the  island 
of  Syme  (between  Rhodes  and  Cnidus).  Later 
writers  relate  that  he  was  slain  by  Eurypylus 
or  ^Eneas. 

[NisA  or  NISSA.     Vid.  NYSA.] 

NisJEA.     Vid.  MEOARA. 

NIS^A,  NIS^I,  NIS^EUS  CAMPUS  (NiVata,  Nt- 
aaioi,  TO  Nioaiov  irediov),  these  names  are  found 
in  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  used  for  vari- 
ous places  on  the  south  and  southeast  of  the 
Caspian  :  thus  one  writer  mentions  a  city  Nisaea 
in  Margiana,  and  another  a  people  Nissei  in 
the  north  of  Aria  ;  but  most  apply  the  term  Ni- 
saean  Plain  to  a  plain  in  the  north  of  Great  Me- 
dia, near  Rhagae,  the  pasture  ground  of  a  great 
number  of  horses  of  the  finest  breed,  which  sup- 
plied the  studs  of  the  king  and  nobles  of  Persia. 
It  seems  not  unlikely  that  this  breed  of  horses 
was  called  Nisaean  from  their  original  home  in 
Margiana  (a  district  famous  for  its  horses),  and 
that  the  Nisaean  plain  received  its  name  from 
the  horses  kept  in  it. 

NISIBIS  (Niai6if  :  NiciGr/voe).  1.  Also  ANTIO- 
CHIA  MYGDONI^E  (in  the  Old  Testament,  Aram 
Zoba  1  ruins  near  Nisibin),  a  celebrated  city  of 
Mesopotamia,  and  the  capital  of  the  district  of 
Mygdonia,  stood  on  the  River  Mygdonius  (now 
Nahr-al-Huali),  thirty-seven  Roman  miles  south- 
west of  Tigranocerta,  in  a  very  fertile  district. 
It  was  the  centre  of  a  considerable  trade,  and 
was  of  great  importance  as  a  military  post.  In 
the  successive  wars  between  the  Romans  and 
Tigranes,  the  Parthians,  and  the  Persians,  it 
was  several  times  taken  and  retaken,  until  at 
last  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Persians  in  the 
reign  of  Jovian. — 2.  A  city  of  Aria,  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Paropamisus. 

Nisus  (Ntuoc).  1.  King  of  Megara,  was  son 
of  Pandion  and  Pylia,  brother  of  ^Egeus,  Pallas, 
and  Lycus,  and  husband  of  Abrote,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  Scylla.  When  Megara 
was  besieged  by  Minos,  Scylla,  who  had  fallen 
in  love  with  Minos,  pulled  out  the  purple  or 
golden  hair  which  grew  on  the  top  of  her  fa- 
ther's head,  and  on  which  his  life  depended. 

555 


NISYRUS. 

Nisus  thereupon  died,  and  Minos  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  city.  Minos,  however,  was  so 
horrified  at  the  conduct  of  the  unnatural  daugh- 
ter, that  he  ordered  Scylla  to  be  fastened  to  the 
poop  of  his  ship,  and  afterward  drowned  her  in 
the  Saronic  Gulf.  According  to  others,  Minos 
>eft  Megara  in  disgust ;  Scylla  leaped  into  the 
sea,  and  swam  after  his  ship ;  but  her  father, 
who  had  been  changed  into  a  sea-eagle  (halia- 
Itus),  pounced  down  upon  her,  whereupon  she 
was  metamorphosed  into  either  a  fish  or  a  bird 
called  Ciris.  Scylla,  the  daughter  of  Nisus,  is 
sometimes  confounded  by  the  poets  with  Scylla, 
the  daughter  of  Phorcus.  Hence  the  latter  is 
sometimes  erroneously  called  Niseia  Virgo,  and 
Niseis.  Vid.  SCYLLA.  Nisaea,  the  port  town 
of  Megara,  is  supposed  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  Nisus,  and  the  promontory  of  Scyllaeum 
from  his  daughter. — 2.  Son  of  Hyrtacus,  and  a 
friend  of  Euryalus.  The  two  friends  accom- 
panied ./Eneas  to  Italy,  and  perished  in  a  night 
attack  against  the  Rutulian  camp. — [3.  A  noble 
Dulichian,  son  of  Aretus,  and  one  of  the  suitors 
of  Penelope.] 

NISYRUS  (Niavpof :  now  Nikero),  a  small  isl- 
and in  the  Carpathian  Sea,  a  little  distance  off 
the  promontory  of  Caria  called  Triopium,  of  a 
round  form,  eighty  stadia  (eight  geographical 
miles)  in  circuit,  and  composed  of  lofty  rocks, 
the  highest  being  two  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
feet  high.  Its  volcanic  nature  gave  rise  to  the 
fable  respecting  its  origin,  that  Neptune  (Posei- 
don) tore  it  off  the  neighboring  island  of  Cos  to 
hurl  it  upon  the  giant  Polybotes.  It  was  cele- 
brated for  its  warm  springs,  wine,  and  mill- 
stones. Its  capital,  of  the  same  name,  stood  on 
the  northwest  of  the  island,  where  considerable 
ruins  of  its  Acropolis  remain.  Its  first  inhabit- 
ants are  said  to  have  been  Carians ;  but  already 
in  the  heroic  age  it  had  received  a  Dorian  popu- 
lation, like  other  islands  near  it,  with  which  it  is 
mentioned  by  Homer  as  sending  troops  to  the 
Greeks.  It  received  other  Dorian  settlements 
in  the  historical  age.  At  the  time  of  the  Per- 
sian war,  it  belonged  to  the  Carian  queen  Arte- 
misia ;  it  next  became  a  tributary  ally  of  Athens : 
though  transferred  to  the  Spartan  alliance  by  the 
issue  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  it  was  recovered 
for  Athens  by  the  victory  at  Cnidus,  B.C.  394. 
After  the  victory  of  the  Romans  over  Antiochus 
the  Great,  it  was  assigned  to  Rhodes,  and,  with 
the  rest  of  the  Rhodian  republic,  was  united  to 
the  Roman  empire  about  B.C.  70. 

[NITETIS  (Ntn?rif),  a  daughter  of  Apries,  the 
Egyptian  king,  who  was  driven  from  his  throne 
by  Amasis ;  Cambyses  having  demanded  of 
Amasis  his  daughter  in  marriage,  the  latter  sent 
to  him  Nitetis,  having  passed  her  off  as  his  own 
daughter.  Another  account,  referred  to  by 
Herodotus  as  incorrect,  makes  Cyrus  to  have 
sought  Nitetis  in  marriage,  and  to  have  been  by 
her  the  father  of  Cambyses.] 

NITIOBEIBES,  a  Celtic  people  in  Gallia  Aqui- 
tanica,  between  the  Garumna  and  the  Liger, 
whose  fighting  force  consisted  of  five  thousand 
men.  Their  chief  town  was  AGINNUM  (now 
Agen). 

NITOCRIS  (NiruKpif).     1.  A  queen  of  Babylon, 
mentioned  by  Herodotus,  who  ascribes  to  her 
many  important  works  at  Babylon  and  its  vicin- 
ity.    It  is  supposed  by  most  modern  writers 
556 


NOBILIOR,  FULVIUS 

that  she  was  the  wife  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
the  mother  or  grandmother  of  Labynetus  or  Bel- 
shazzar,  the  last  king  of  Babylon. — 2.  A  queen 
of  Egypt,  was  elected  to  the  sovereignty  in  place 
of  her  brother,  whom  the  Egyptians  had  killed 
In  order  to  take  revenge  upon  the  murderers  of 
her  brother,  she  built  a  very  long  chamber  under 
ground,  and  when  it  was  finished  invited  to  a 
banquet  in  it  those  of  the  Egyptians  who  had 
had  a  principal  share  in  the  murder.  While 
they  were  engaged  in  the  banquet,  she  let  in 
upon  them  the  waters  of  the  Nile  by  means  of 
a  large  concealed  pipe,  and  drowned  them  all, 
and  then,  in  order  to  escape  punishment,  threw 
herself  into  a  chamber  full  of  ashes.  This  is 
the  account  of  Herodotus.  We  learn  from  other 
authorities  that  she  was  a  celebrated  personage 
in  Egyptian  legends.  She  is  said  to  have  built 
the  third  pyramid,  by  which  we  are  to  under- 
stand that  she  finished  the  third  pyramid,  which 
had  been  commenced  by  Mycerinus.  Modern 
writers  make  her  the  last  sovereign  of  the  sixth 
dynasty,  and  state  that  she  reigned  six  years  in 
place  of  her  murdered  husband  (not  her  brother, 
as  Herodotus  states),  whose  name  was  Menthu- 
ophis.  The  latter  is  supposed  to  be  the  son  or 
grandson  of  the  Mceris  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. 

NITRIDE,  NITRARI^E  (Nirpiai,  N/rpta,  Ntrpatat.- 
now  Birket-cl-Duarah),  the  celebrated  natron 
lakes  in  Lower  Egypt,  which  lay  in  a  valley  on 
the  southwestern  margin  of  the  Delta,  and  gave 
to  the  surrounding  district  the  name  of  Ntrpiwrti 
or  the  No/tdf  Ntrptwn?^,  and  to  the  inhabitants, 
whose  chief  occupation  was  the  extraction  of 
the  natron  from  the  lakes,  the  name  of  Ntrpiwroi. 
This  district  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship 
of  Serapis,  and  the  only  place  in  Egypt  where 
sheep  were  sacrificed. 

[NivARiA  (i.  e.,  Snow  Island,  now  probably 
Teneri/e'),  one  of  the  Fortunatae  Insulae,  q.  v.] 

NIXI  Dn,  a  general  term,  applied  by  the  Ro- 
mans to  those  divinities  who  were  believed  to 
assist  women  in  child-birth. 

[NoAS.    Vid.  NOES.] 

NOBILIOR,  FULVIUS,  plebeians.  This  family 
was  originally  called  RETINUS,  and  the  name  of 
Nobilior  was  first  assumed  by  No.  1,  to  indicate 
that  he  was  more  noble  than  any  others  of  this 
name.  1.  SER.,  consul  B.C.  255,  with  M.  ^Emil- 
ius  Paulus,  about  the  middle  of  the  first  Punic 
war.  The  two  consuls  were  sent  to  Africa,  to 
bring  off  the  survivors  of  the  army  of  Regulus. 
On  their  way  to  Africa  they  gained  a  naval  vic- 
tory over  the  Carthaginians ;  but  on  their  re- 
turn to  Italy  they  were  wrecked  off  the  coast 
of  Sicily,  and  most  of  their  ships  were  destroy- 
ed.— 2.  M.,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  curule 
aedile  195,  praetor  193,  when  he  defeated  the 
Celtiberi  in  Spain,  and  took  the  town  of  Tole- 
lum ;  and  consul  189,  when  he  received  the  con- 
duct of  the  war  against  the  ^Etolians.  He  took 
the  town  of  Ambracia,  and  compelled  the  JEto- 
lians  to  sue  for  peace.  On  his  return  to  Rome 
in  187,  he  celebrated  a  most  splendid  triumph. 
In  179  he  was  censor  with  M.  ^Emilius  Lepidus, 
the  pontifex  maximus.  Fulvius  Nobilior  had  a 
taste  for  literature  and  art ;  he  was  a  patron  of 
the  poet  Ennius,  who  accompanied  him  in  his 
JEtolian  campaign  ;  and  he  belonged  to  that 
party  among  the  Roman  nobles  who  were  intro 


NOEGA. 

ducing  into  the  city  a  taste  for  Greek  literature 
and  refinement.  He  was,  therefore,  attacked  by 
Cato  the  censor, who  made  merry  with  his  name, 
calling  him  mobilior  instead  of  nobilior.  Fulvi- 
us,  in  his  censorship,  erected  a  temple  to  Her- 
eules  and  the  Muses  in  the  Circus  Flaminius,  as 
an  indication  that  the  state  ought  to  cultivate 
the  liberal  arts  ;  and  he  adorned  it  with  the 
paintings  and  statues  which  he  had  brought 
from  Greece  upon  his  conquest  of  yEtoIia. — 

3.  M.,  son  of  No.  2,  tribune  of  the  plebs  171; 
curule  aedih  166,  the  year  in  which  the  Andria 
of  Terence  was  performed  ;  and  consul  159. — 

4.  Q.,  also  son  of  No.  2,  consul  153,  when  he  had 
the  conduct  of  the  war  against  the  Celtiberi  in 
Spain,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  with  great  loss. 
He  was  censor  in  136.     He  inherited  his  father's 
love  for  literature  :  he  presented  the  poet  En- 
nius  with  the  Roman  franchise  when  he  was  a 
triumvir  for  founding  a  colony. 

[NcEGA  (Not/a),  a  maritime  city  of  the 
Astures  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the 
River  Melsus,  and  on  the  borders  of  the  Can- 
tabri.] 

[NOEMON.  1.  A  Lycian  warrior,  slain  by  Ulys- 
ses before  Troy. — 2.  SonofPlxronius,anIthacan, 
who  gave  his  vessel  to  Telemachus  for  his  in- 
tended voyage  in  search  of  Ulysses. — 3.  A  Tro- 
jan warrior,  companion  of  ^Eneas  in  Italy,  slain 
by  Turnus.] 

[NOES  (Nd7?f,  Hdt.),  or  NOAS  (Val.  Flacc.),  a 
southern  tributary  of  the  Ister  in  Thrace.] 

NOLA  (Nolanus  :  now  Nola),  one  of  the  most 
ancient  towns  in  Campania,  twenty-one  Roman 
miles  southeast  of  Capua,  on  the  road  from  that 
place  to  Nuceria,  was  founded  by  the  Ausoni- 
ans,  but  afterward  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Tyrrheni  (Etruscans),  whence  some  writers  call 
it  an  Etruscan  city.  In  B.C.  327,  Nola  was  suf- 
ficiently powerful  to  send  two  thousand  soldiers 
to  the  assistance  of  Neapolis.  In  313  the  town 
was  taken  by  the  Romans.  It  remained  faith- 
ful to  the  Romans  even  after  the  battle  of  Can- 
nse,  when  the  other  Campanian  towns  revolted 
to  Hannibal ;  and  it  was  allowed,  in  consequence, 
to  retain  its  own  constitution  as  an  ally  of  the 
Romans.  In  the  Social  war  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  confederates,  and  when  taken  by 
Sulla  it  was  burned  to  the  ground  by  the  Sam- 
nite  garrison.  It  was  afterward  rebuilt,  and 
was  made  a  Roman  colony  by  Vespasian.  The 
Emperor  Augustus  died  at  Nola.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  town  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
Campanian  vases  have  been  found  in  modern 
times.  According  to  an  ecclesiastical  tradition, 
church  bells  were  invented  at  Nola,  and  were 
hence  called  Campana. 

[NOMADES.       Vid.  NUMIDIA.] 

NOMENTANUS,  mentioned  by  Horace  as  pro- 
verbially noted  for  extravagance  and  a  riotous 
mode  of  living.  The  scholiasts  tell  us  that  his 
full  name  was  L.  Cassius  Nomentanus. 

NOMENTUM  (Nomentanus  :  now  La  Mentana), 
originally  a  Latin  town  founded  by  Alba,  but 
subsequently  a  Sabine  town,  fourteen  (Roman) 
miles  from  Rome,  from  which  the  ViaNomen- 
tana  (more  anciently  Via  Ficulensis)  and  the 
Porta  Nomentana  at  Rome  derived  their  name. 
The  neighborhood  of  the  town  was  celebrated 
for  its  wine. 

(rd  No/<ta),  a  mountain  in  Arcadia,  on 


NORBA. 

the  frontiers  of  Laconia,  is  said  to  have  derived 
its  name  from  a  nymph  Nomia. 

[NOMION  (Noftiuv),  of  Caria,  father  of  Amphi- 
machus  and  Nastes,  who  led  the  Carians  to  the 
Trojan  war.] 

NOMIUS  (Nd/uof),  a  surname  of  divinities  pro- 
tecting the  pastures  and  shepherds,  such  as 
Apollo,  Pan,  Mercury  (Hermes),  and  Aristacus. 

NONACRIS  (NuvaKpis  '•  Ncjva/cpidr^f,  NuvaKpi- 
eve),  a  town  in  the  north  of  Arcadia,  northwest 
of  Pheneus,  was  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains, 
in  which  the  River  Styx  took  its  origin.  The 
town  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  No- 
nacris,  the  wife  of  Lycaon.  From  this  town 
Mercury  (Hermes)  is  called  Nonacriates,  Evan- 
der  Nonacrius,  Atalanta  Nonacria,  and  Callisto 
Nonacrina  Virgo,  in  the  general  sense  of  Ar- 
cadian. 

NONIUS  MARCELLUS.     Vid.  MARCELLUS. 

NONIUS  SUFENAS.     Vid.  SUFENAS. 

[NONNOSUS  (NdvvoffOf),  a  Byzantine  historian 
and  ambassador,  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the 
^Ethiopians,  Saracens,  &c.,by  the  Emperor  Jus- 
tinian I. ;  on  his  return  he  wrote  an  account  of 
his  embassy,  of  which  an  abridgment  was  made 
by  Photius,  and  still  exists  ;  edited  by  Niebuhr 
and  Bekker,  with  Dexippus,  Eunapius,  &c., 
Bonn,  1829.] 

NONNUS  (NSwof).  1.  A  Greek  poet,  was  a 
native  of  Panopolis  in  Egypt,  and  lived  in  the 
sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Respecting 
his  life  nothing  is  known,  except  that  he  was  a 
Christian.  He  is  the  author  of  an  enormous 
epic  poem,  which  has  come  down  to  us  under 
the  name  of  Dionysiaca  or  Bassarica  (ktovvaiaicd 
or  "BaaaapiKa),  and  which  consists  of  forty-eight 
books.  The  work  has  no  literary  merit ;  thf 
style  is  bombastic  and  inflated ;  and  the  inci- 
dents are  patched  together  with  little  or  no  co 
herence.  Edited  by  Grjefe,  Lips.,  1819-1826, 
2  vols.  8vo.  Nonnus  also  made  a  paraphrase 
of  the  gospel  of  St.  John  in  hexameter  verse, 
which  is  likewise  extant.  Edited  by  Heinsius, 
Lugd.  Bat.,  1627  :  [and  by  Passow,  Leipzig, 
1834.] — 2.  THEOPHANES  NONNUS,  a  Greek  med- 
ical writer  who  lived  in  the  tenth  century  after 
Christ.  His  work  is  entitled  a  "  Compendium 
of  the  whole  Medical  art,"  and  is  compiled  from 
previous  writers.  Edited  by  Bernard,  Goths  et 
Amstel.,  1794,  1795,  2  vols. 

NORA  (TU  Nupa :  Nwpavdf,  Norensis).  1 .  (Now 
Torre  Forcadizo),  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Sar- 
dinia, founded  by  Iberian  settlers  under  Norax, 
stood  on  the  coast  of  the  Sinus  Caralitanus, 
thirty-two  Roman  miles  southwest  of  Caralis. — 
2.  A  mountain  fortress  of  Cappadocia,  on  the 
borders  ofLycaonia,  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
Taurus,  noted  for  the  siege  sustained  in  it  by 
Eumenes  against  Antigonus  for  a  whole  winter. 
In  the  time  of  Strabo,  who  calls  it  Nripnaaaof,  it 
was  the  treasury  of  Sisinas,  a  pretender  to  the 
throne  of  Cappadocia. 

[NORAX  (Nfjpof),  son  of  Mercury  (Hermes) 
and  Eurythea.  Vid.  NORA.] 

NORBA  (Norbanensis,  Norbantis).  1.  (Now 
Norma),  a  strongly  fortified  town  in  Latiutn,  on 
the  slope  of  the  Volscian  Mountains,  and  near 
the  sources  of  the  Nymphaeus,  originally  be- 
longed to  the  Latin  and  subsequently  to  tha 
Volscian  league.  As  early  as  B.C.  492  the  Ro- 
mans founded  a  colony  at  Norba.  It  espouse*1 

557 


NORBANUS. 

the  cause  of  Marius  in  the  civil  war,  and  was 
destroyed  by  fire  by  its  own  inhabitants,  when 
it  was  taken  by  one  of  Sulla's  generals.  There 
are  still  remains  of  polygonal  walls,  and  a  sub- 
terraneous passage  at  Norrna. — 2.  Surnamed 
CJESAREA  (now  Alcantara),  a  Roman  colony  in 
Lusitania,  on  the  left  bank  of  theTagus,  north- 
west of  Augusta  Emerita.  The  bridge  built  by 
order  of  Trajan  over  the  Tagus  at  this  place  is 
still  extant.  It  is  six  hundred  feet  long  by 
twenty-eight  wide,  and  contains  six  arches. 

NORBANUS,  C.,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  95, 
when  he  accused  Q.  Servilius  Caepio  of  majes- 
tas,  but  was  himself  accused  of  the  same  crime 
in  the  following  year,  on  account  of  disturbances 
which  took  place  at  the  trial  of  Caepio.  In  90 
or  89,  Norbanus  was  praetor  in  Sicily  during  the 
Marsic  war  ;  and  in  the  civil  wars  he  espoused 
the  Marian  party.  He  was  consul  in  83,  when  he 
was  defeated  by  Sulla  near  Capua.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  82,  he  joined  the  consul  Carbo  in 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  but  their  united  forces  were  en- 
tirely defeated  by  Metellus  Pius.  Norbanus  es- 
caped from  Italy  and  fled  to  Rhodes,  where  he 
put  an  end  to  his  life,  when  his  person  was  de- 
manded by  Sulla. 

NORBANUS  FLACCUS.     Vid.  FLACCBS. 

NORK!A  (NupTJeia  :  now  Neumarkt  in  Styria), 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Taurisci  or  Norici  in 
Noricum,  from  which  the  whole  country  proba- 
bly derived  its  name.  It  was  situated  in  the 
centre  of  Noricum,  a  little  south  of  the  River 
Murius,  and  on  the  road  from  Virunum  to  Ovila- 
ba.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where  Carbo 
was  defeated  by  the  Cimbri,  B.C.  113.  It  was 
besieged  by  the  Boii  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar. 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  5.) 

NORICUM,  a  Roman  province  south  of  the 
Danube,  which  probably  derived  its  name  from 
the  town  of  NOREIA,  was  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Danube,  on  the  west  by  Raetia  and  Vin- 
delicia,  on  the  east  by  Pannonia,  and  on  the 
south  by  Pannonia  and  Italy.  It  was  separated 
from  Raetia  and  Vindelicia  by  the  River  ^Enus 
(now  Inn),  from  Pannonia  on  the  east  by  Mons 
Cetius,  and  from  Pannonia  and  Italy  on  the 
south  by  the  River  Savus,  the  Alpes  Carnicae, 
and  Mons  Ocra.  It  thus  corresponds  to  the 
greater  part  of  Styria  and  Carinthia,  and  a  part 
of  Austria,  Bavaria,  and  Salzburg.  Noricum 
was  a  mountainous  country,  for  it  was  not  only 
surrounded  on  the  south  and  east  by  mount- 
ains, but  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Alps, 
the  ALPES  NORICI  (in  the  neighborhood  of  Salz- 
burg), ran  right  through  the  province.  In  those 
mountains  a  large  quantity  of  excellent  iron 
was  found  ;  and  the  Noric  swords  were  cele- 
brated in  antiquity.  Gold  also  is  said  to  have 
been  found  in  the  mountains  in  ancient  times. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  Celts,  di- 
vided into  several  tribes,  of  which  the  Taurisci, 
also  called  Norici,  after  their  capital  Noreia, 
were  the  most  important.  They  were  conquer- 
ed by  the  Romans  toward  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  after  the  subjugation  of  Raetia  by 
Tiberius  and  Drusus,  and  their  country  was 
formed  into  a  Roman  province.  In  the  later 
division  of  the  Roman  empire  into  smaller  prov- 
inces, Noricum  was  formed  into  two  provinces, 
fioricum  Ripense,  along  the  bank  of  the  Danube, 
and  Noricum  Mediterraneum,  separated  from  the 
558 


NOVIODUNUM. 

former  by  the  mountains  which  divide  Austria 
and  Styria  :  they  both  belonged  to  the  diocese 
of  Illyricum  and  the  prefecture  of  Italy. 

NORTIA  or  NURTIA,  an  Etruscan  divinity, 
worshipped  at  Volsinii,  where  a  nail  was  driven 
every  year  into  the  wall  of  her  temple,  for  the 
purpose  of  marking  the  number  of  years. 

Nossis,  a  Greek  poetess,  of  Locri  in  Italy, 
lived  about  B.C.  310,  and  is  the  author  of  twelve 
epigrams  of  considerable  beauty  in  the  Greek 
Anthology. 

[NOTIUM  (Norton).  1.  The  port  of  Colophon. 
Vid.  COLOPHON. — 2.  A  city  in  the  island  Ca- 
lydna,  which  lay  near  Rhodes. — 3.  (Now  Missen 
Head),  a  promontory  of  Hibernia,  the  southwest 
point  of  the  island.] 

NOTUS.     Vid.  AUSTER. 

NOVARIA  (Novarensis  :  now  Novara),  a  town 
in  Gallia  Transpadana,  situated  on  a  river  of 
the  same  name  (now  Gogna),  and  on  the  road 
from  Mediolanum  to  Vercellae,  subsequently  a 
Roman  municipium. 

NOVATIANUS,  a  heretic,  who  insisted  upon  the 
perpetual  exclusion  from  the  Church  of  all 
Christians  who  had  fallen  away  from  the  faith 
under  the  terrors  of  persecution.  On  the  elec- 
tion of  Cornelius  to  the  see  of  Rome,  A.D.  251, 
Novatianus  was  consecrated  bishop  of  a  rival 
party,  but  was  condemned  by  the  council  held 
in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year.  After  a  vain 
struggle  to  maintain  his  position,  he  was  obliged 
to  give  way,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new 
sect,  who  from  him  derived  the  name  of  Nova- 
tians.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  individual 
who  first  proclaimed  these  doctrines  was  not 
Novatianus,  but  an  African  presbyter  under 
Cyprian,  named  Novatus.  Hence  much  con- 
fusion has  arisen  between  Novatus  and  Novati- 
anus, who  ought,  however,  to  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished. A  few  of  the  works  of  Novatianus 
are  extant.  The  best  edition  of  them  is  by 
Jackson,  Lond.,  1728. 

NOVATUS.     Vid.  NOVATIANUS. 

NOVENSILES  or  NOVENSIDES  Dn,  Roman  gods 
whose  name  is  probably  composed  of  nove  and 
insides,  and  therefore  signifies  the  new  gods  in 
opposition  to  the  Indigetes,  or  old  native  divin- 
ities. It  was  customary  among  the  Romans, 
after  the  conquest  of  a  neighboring  town,  to 
carry  its  gods  to  Rome,  and  there  establish  their 
worship. 

NOVESIUM  (now  Neuss),  a  fortified  town  of 
the  Ubii  on  the  Rhine,  and  on  the  road  leading 
from  Colonia  Agrippina  (now  Cologne)  to  Cas 
tra  Vetera  (now  Xanten).  The  fortifications  of 
this  place  were  restored  by  Julian  in  A.D.  359. 

NOVIODUNUM,  a  name  given  to  many  Celtio 
places  from  their  being  situated  on  a  hill  (dun). 
1.  (Now  Nouan),  a  town  of  the  Bituriges  Cubi 
in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  east  of  their  capital  Avar- 
icum.  —  2.  (Now  Ncvers),  a  town  of  the  ^Edui 
in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  on  the  road  from  Au- 
gustodunum  to  Lutetia,  and  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Niveris  and  the  Liger,  whence  it  was 
subsequently  called  Nevirnum,  and  thus  ac- 
quired its  modern  name. — 3.  A  town  of  the 
Suessones  in  Gallia  Belgica,  probably  the  same 
as  Augusta  Suessonum.  Vid.  AUGUSTA,  No. 
6. — 4.  (Now  Nion),  a  town  of  the  Helvetii  in 
Gallia  Belgica,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the 
Lacus  Lemanus,  was  made  a  Roman  colony  bj 


NOVICTMAGUS. 

Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  45,  under  the  name  of  Celo- 
nia  Equestris. — 5.  (Now  Isaczi),  a  fortress  in 
Moesia  Inferior,  on  the  Danube,  near  which  Va- 
lens  built  his  bridge  of  boats  across  the  Danube 
in  his  campaign  against  the  Goths. 

NOVIOMAGUS  or  NCEOMAGUS.  1.  (Now  Cas- 
telnan  de  Medoc),  a  town  of  the  Bituriges  Vi- 
visci  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  northwest  of  Burdi- 
gala.— 2.  A  town  of  the  Tricastini  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  probably  the  modern  Nions,  though 
some  suppose  it  to  be  the  same  place  as  Au- 
gusta Tricastinorum  (now  Aouste).  —  3.  (Now 
Spires),  the  capital  of  the  Nemetes.  Vid.  NEM- 
BTES. — 4.  (Now  Neumagen),  a  town  of  the  Tre- 
viri  in  Gallia  Belgica,  on  the  Mosella. — 5.  (Now 
Nimwegen),  a  town  of  the  Batavi.— [6.  (Ruins 
near  Lisieux),  a  port  of  the  Lexovii  or  Lexubii, 
a  small  community  belonging  to  the  Arecomici 
in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  between  the  Liger  (now 
Loire)  and  Sequana  (now  Seine).'] 

Novlus,  Q.,  a  celebrated  writer  of  Atellane 
p'ays,  a  contemporary  of  the  dictator  Sulla. 

NOVUM  COMUM.     Vid.  COMUM. 

[Nox.     Vid.  NTX.] 

NUBA  PALUS  (NoC6o  Mfivq  :  now  probably  L. 
Fitlreh,  in  Dar  Zaleh),  a  lake  in  Central  Africa, 
receiving  the  great  river  Gir,  according  to  Ptol- 
emy, who  places  it  in  15°  north  latitude,  and 
40°  east  longitude  (=22°  from  Greenwich). 

NUB.IE,  NUB^EI  (Nov6ai,  NovSalot),  an  African 
people,  who  are  found  in  two  places,  namely, 
about  the  Lake  NUBA,  and  also  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile  north  of  Meroe,  that  is,  in  the  north 
central  part  of  Nubia :  the  latter  were  govern- 
ed by  princes  of  their  own,  independent  of 
Meroe.  By  the  reign  of  Diocletian  they  had 
advanced  northward  as  far  as  the  frontier  of, 
Egypt. 

NUCERIA  (Nucerlnus).  1.  Surnamed  ALFA- 
TERNA  (now  Nocera),  a  town  in  Campania,  on 
the  Sarnus  (now  Sarno),  and  on  the  Via  Appia, 
southeast  of  Nola,  and  nine  (Roman)  miles  from 
the  coast,  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  the  Sam- 
nite  wars,  and  was  again  taken  by  Hannibal 
after  the  battle  of  Cannae,  when  it  was  burned 
to  the  ground.  It  was  subsequently  rebuilt,  and 
both  Augustus  and  Nero  planted  here  colonies 
of  veterans.  Pompeii  was  used  as  the  harbor 
of  Nuceria.  —  2.  Surnamed  CAMELLARIA  (now 
Nocera),  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Umbria,  on  the 
Via  Flaminia. — 3.  (Now  Luzzara),  a  small  town 
in  Gallia  Cispadana,  on  the  Po,  northeast  of 
Brixellum. — 4.  A  town  in  Apulia,  more  correctly 
called  LUCERIA. 

[NUDIUM  (NoWiov),  a  settlement  of  the  Minyae 
in  Elis,  early  destroyed  by  the  Eleans.] 

NUITHONES,  a  people  of  Germany,  dwelling 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Albis  (now  Elbe),  south- 
west of  the  Saxones,  and  north  of  the  Lango- 
bardi,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  modern 
Mecklenburg. 

NUMA  MARCIUS.  1.  An  intimate  friend  of 
Numa  Pompilius,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  ac- 
companied to  Rome,  where  Numa  made  him 
the  first  pontifex  maximus.  Marcius  aspired 
to  the  kingly  dignity  on  the  death  of  Pompilius, 
and  he  starved  himself  to  death  on  the  election 
of  Tullus  Hostilius. — 2.  Son  of  the  preceding, 
is  said  to  have  married  Pompilia,  the  daughter 
Df  Numa  Pompilius,  and  to  have  become  by  her 
the  father  of  Ancus  Marcius..  Numa  Marcius 


NUMENIUS. 

was  appointed  by  Tullus  Hostilius  praefectnt 
urbi. 

NUMA  POMPILIUS,  the  second  king  of  Rome, 
who  belongs  to  legend  and  not  to  history.  He 
was  a  native  of  Cures  in  the  Sabine  country, 
and  was  elected  king  one  year  after  the  death 
of  Romulus,  when  the  people  became  tired  of 
the  interregnum  of  the  senate.  He  was  re- 
nowned for  his  wisdom  and  his  piety  ;  and  it 
was  generally  believed  that  he  had  derived  his 
knowledge  from  Pythagoras.  His  reign  was 
long  and  peaceful,  and  he  devoted  his  chief  care 
to  the  establishment  of  religion  among  his  rude 
subjects.  He  was  instructed  by  the  Camena 
Egeria,  who  visited  him  in  a  grove  near  Rome, 
and  who  honored  him  with  her  love.  He  was 
revered  by  the  Romans  as  the  author  of  their 
whole  religious  worship.  It  was  he  who  first 
appointed  the  pontiffs,  the  augurs,  the  flamens, 
the  virgins  of  Vesta,  and  the  Salii.  He  found- 
ed the  temple  of  Janus,  which  remained  always 
shut  during  his  reign.  The  length  of  his  reign 
is  stated  differently.  Livy  makes  it  forty-three 
years  ;  Polybius  and  Cicero  thirty-nine  years. 
The  sacred  books  of  Numa,  in  which  he  pre- 
scribed all  the  religious  rites  and  ceremonies, 
were  said  to  have  been  buried  near  him  in  a 
separate  tomb,  and  to  have  been  discovered  by 
accident  five  hundred  years  afterward,  in  B.C. 
181.  They  were  carried  to  the  city  praetor 
Petilius,  and  were  found  to  consist  of  twelve 
or  seven  books  in  Latin  on  ecclesiastical  law, 
and  the  same  number  of  books  in  Greek  on 
philosophy :  the  latter  were  burned  on  the  com- 
mand of  the  senate,  but  the  former  were  care- 
fully preserved.  The  story  of  the  discovery 
of  these  books  is  evidently  a  forgery  ;  and  the 
books,  which  were  ascribed  to  Numa,  and  which 
were  extant  at  a  later  time,  were  evidently 
nothing  more  than  works  containing  an  account 
of  the  ceremonial  of  the  Roman  religion. 

NUMANA  (now  Umana  Distrulta),  a  town  in 
Picenum,  on  the  road  leading  from  Ancona  to 
Aternum,  along  the  coast,  was  founded  by  the 
Siculi,  and  was  subsequently  a  municipium. 

NUMANTIA  (Numantlnus  :  ruins  near  Puente 
de  Don  Guarray),  the  capital  of  the  Arevacae  or 
Arevaci  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  and  fhe 
most  important  town  in  all  Celtiberia,  was  sit- 
uated near  the  sources  of  the  Durius,  on  a  small 
tributary  of  this  river,  and  on  the  road  leading 
from  Asturica  to  Caesaraugusta.  It  was  strong- 
ly fortified  by  nature,  being  built  on  a  steep  and 
precipitous,  though  not  lofty  hill,  and  accessible 
by  only  one  path,  which  was  defended  by  ditches 
and  palisades.  It  was  twenty-four  stadia  in 
circumference,  but  was  not  surrounded  by  reg- 
ular walls,  which  the  natural  strength  of  its 
position  rendered  unnecessary.  It  was  long 
the  head-quarters  of  the  Celtiberians  in  their 
wars  with  the  Romans ;  and  its  protracted  siege 
and  final  destruction  by  Scipio  Africanus  the 
younger  (B.C.  133)  is  one  of  the  most  memor- 
able events  in  the  early  history  of  Spain. 

[NuMANCs  REMCLUS,  aRutulian  warrior,  broth- 
er-in-law of  Turnus,  slain  by  Ascanius.] 

NUMENIUS  (Nov/^viof),  of  Apamca  in  Syria, 
a  Pythagoreo- Platonic  philosopher,  who  was 
highly  esteemed  by  Plotinus  and  his  school,  as 
well  as  by  Origen.  He  probably  belongs  to  the 
age  of  the  Antonines.  His  object  was  to  trace 

559 


NUMERIANUS. 

the  doctrines  of  Plato  up  to  Pythagoras,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  to  show  that  they  were  not  at 
variance  with  the  dogmas  and  mysteries  of  the 
Brahmins,  Jews,  Magi,  and  Egyptians.  Con- 
siderable fragments  of  his  works  have  been 
preserved  by  Eusebius,  in  his  Praparatio  Evan- 
gelica,. 

NUMERIANUS,  M.  AURKLIUS,  the  younger  of 
the  two  sons  of  the  Emperor  Carus,  who  ac- 
ccmpanied  his  father  in  the  expedition  against 
tr.e  Persians,  A.D.  283.  After  the  death  of  his 
father,  which  happened  in  the  same  year,  Nu- 
merianus  was  acknowledged  as  joint  emperor 
with  his  brother  Carinus.  The  army,  alarmed 
by  the  fate  of  Carus,  who.  was  struck  dead  by 
lightning,  compelled  Numerianus  to  retreat  to- 
ward Europe.  During  the  greater  part  of  the 
march,  which  lasted  for  eight  months,  he  was 
confined  to  his  litter  by  an  affection  of  the  eyes  ; 
6ut  the  suspicions  of  the  soldiers  having  become 
excited,  they  at  length  forced  their  way  into  the 
imperial  tent,  and  discovered  the  dead  body  of 
their  prince.  Arrius  Aper,  praefect  of  the  prae- 
torians, and  father-in-law  of  the  deceased,  was 
arraigned  of  the  murder  in  a  military  council, 
held  at  Chalcedon,  and,  without  being  permit- 
ted to  speak  in  his  own  defence,  was  stabbed 
to  the  heart  by  Diocletian,  whom  the  troops  had 
already  proclaimed  emperor.  Vid.  DIOCLETI- 

ANUS. 

NUMICIUS  or  NUMICOS  (now  Numico),  a  small 
river  in  Latium,  flowing  into  the  Tyrrhene  Sea 
near  Ardea,  on  the  banks  of  which  was  the 
tomb  of  ^Eneas,  whom  the  inhabitants  called 
Jupiter  Indiges. 

[NuMicius,  TIB.  1.  Tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
320,  was,  with  his  colleague  Q.  Maelius,  given 
over  to  the  Samnites  when  the  Romans  resolv- 
ed not  to  adhere  to  the  peace  made  at  Caudium. 
'Th?  colleague  of  Maelius  is  called  by  Livy  L. 
Julius,  and  not  Numicius.  —  2.  A  person  to 
whom  Horace  addresses  the  sixth  epistle  of  his 
first  book :  otherwise  unknown.] 

[NUMIDA  PLOTIUS,  a  friend  of  Horace,  who 
addresses  to  him  one  of  his  odes  (bk.  i.,  36), 
to  celebrate  his  safe  arrival  in  Italy,  after  a 
campaign  against  the  Cantabri  in  Spain.] 

•NUMIDIA  (Nov/i£(5i'a,  rj  Nopadia 
No/idf,  Numlda,  pi.  No/tddee  or 
Numldae  :  now  Algier),  a  country  of  Northern 
Africa,  which,  in  its  original  extent,  was  divid- 
ed from  Mauretania  on  the  west  by  the  River 
Malva  or  Mulucha,  and  on  the  east  from  the 
territory  of  Carthage  (afterward  the  Roman 
province  of  Africa)  by  the  River  Tusca:  its 
northern  boundary  was  the  Mediterranean,  and 
on  the  south  it  extended  indefinitely  toward  the 
chain  of  the  Great  Atlas  and  the  country  of  the 
Gaetuli.  Intersected  by  the  chain  of  the  Less- 
er Atlas,  and  watered  by  the  streams  running 
down  from  it,  it  abounded  in  fine  pastures,  which 
were  early  taken  possession  of  by  wandering 
tubes  of  Asiatic  origin,  who,  from  their  occu- 
pation as  herdsmen,  were  called  by  the  Greeks, 
here  as  elsewhere,  No/zaeJef,  and  this  name  was 
perpetuated  in  that  of  the  country.  A  sufficient 
account  of  these  tribes,  and  of  their  connection 
with  their  neighbors  on  the  west,  is  given  un- 
der MAURETANIA.  The  fertility  of  the  country, 
inviting  to  agriculture,  gradually  gave  a  some- 
what more  settled  character  to  the  people  ;  and, 
560 


NUMITOR. 

at  their  first  appearance  in  Roman  history,  vr« 
find  their  two  great  tribes,  the  Massylians  and 
the  Massaesylians,  forming  two  monarchies, 
which  were  united  into  one  under  Masinissa, 
B.C.  201.  For  the  historical  details,  vid.  MAS- 
INISSA. On  Masinissa's  death  in  148,  his  kinrr- 
dom  was  divided,  by  his  dying  directions,  be- 
tween his  three  sons,  Micipsa,  Mastanabal,  and 
Gulussa ;  but  it  was  soon  reunited  under  MI- 
CIPSA, in  consequence  of  the  death  of  both  his 
brothers.  His  death  in  118  was  speedily  fol- 
lowed by  the  usurpation  of  Jugurtha,  an  ac- 
count of  which  and  of  the  ensuing  war  with  the 
Romans  is  given  under  JUGURTHA.  On  the  de 
feat  of  Jugurtha  in  106,  the  country  became 
virtually  subject  to  the  Romans,  but  they  per- 
mitted the  family  of  Masinissa  to  govern  it,  with 
the  royal  title  (vid.  HIEMPSAL,  No.  2  ;  JUBA,  No. 
1),  until  B.C.  46,  when  Juba,  who  had  espoused 
the  cause  of  Pompey  in  the  civil  wars,  was  de- 
feated and  dethroned  by  Julius  Caesar,  and 
Numidia  was  made  a  Roman  province.  It 
seems  to  have  been  about  the  same  time  or  a 
little  later,  under  Augustus,  that  the  western 
part  of  the  country  was  taken  from  Numidia 
and  added  to  MAURETANIA,  as  far  east  as  Saldae. 
In  B.C.  30  Augustus  restored  Juba  II.  to  his 
father's  kingdom  of  Numidia ;  but  in  B.C.  25 
he  exchanged  it  for  Mauretania,  and  Numidia, 
that  is,  the  country  between  Saldae  on  the  west 
and  the  Tusca  on  the  east,  became  a  Roman 
province.  It  was  again  diminished  by  near  a 
half  under  Claudius  (vid.  MAURETANIA)  ;  and 
henceforth,  until  the  Arab  conquest,  the  sena- 
torial province  of  Numidia  denotes  the  district 
between  the  River  Ampsaga  on  the  west  and 
the  Tusca  on  the  east ;  its  capital  was  Cirta 
(now  Constantineh).  The  country,  in  its  later 
restricted  limits,  is  often  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  New  Numidia  or  Numidia  Proper.  The 
Numidians  are  celebrated  in  military  history  as 
furnishing  the  best  light  cavalry  to  the  armies, 
first  of  Carthage,  and  afterward  of  Rome. 

[NuMinicus,  the  agnomen  of  Q.  Metellus  for  his 
success  in  Numidia.  Vid.  METELLUS,  No.  10.] 

NUMIDICUS  SINUS  (Noiyudt/cdf  /co/l7rof  :  now 
Bay  of  Storah),  the  great  gulf  east  of  Promon- 
torium  Tretum  (now  Seven  Capes'),  on  the  north 
of  Numidia. 

[NUMISIANUS  (Novfiiffiavof),  an  eminent  phy- 
sician at  Corinth,  whose  lectures  Galen  attended 
about  A.D.  150,  having  gone  to  Corinth  for  that 
purpose.  He  was,  according  to  Galen,  the  most 
celebrated  of  all  the  pupils  of  Quintus,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  especially  by  his  anatomical 
knowledge.] 

[NuMisius,  P.  1.  One  of  the  two  chief  magis- 
trates of  the  Latins,  B.C.  340,  and  principal  com- 
mander in  the  Latin  war. — 2.  C.,  praetor  B.C. 
177,  obtained  Sicily  as  his  province.— 3.  T.,  of 
Tarquinii,  was  one  of  the  ten  commissioners 
sent  into  Macedonia  B.C.  167,  to  regulate  its 
affaire  after  its  conquest  by  Paullus^Emilius. — 
4.  N  Tirp,  is  branded  by  Cicero  as  one  of  the 
cm-throats  employed  by  M.  Antonius  the  tri- 
umvir.] 

NUMISTRO  (Numistranus),  a  town  in  Lucania. 
near  the  frontiers  of  Apulia. 

NUMITOR.     Vid.  ROMULUS. 

[NUMITOR,  son  of  Phorcus,  a  warrior  in  the 
army  of  Turnus,  wounded  Achates.] 


NUMITORIUS. 

(NuMrroRius,  L.  1.  One  of  the  five  tribunes 
ft  st  elected  in  the  comitia  tributa,  B.C.  472. — 
2.  P.,  the  maternal  uncle  of  Virginia,  attempted 
to  resist  the  iniquitous  sentence  of  the  decem- 
vir Appius  Claudius,  and  was  elected  tribune  of 
the  plebs  upon  the  expulsion  of  the  decemvir, 
B.C.  449.— 3.  Q.  Numitorius  Pullus,  of  Fregel- 
lae,  betrayed  his  native  town  to  the  Roman  prae- 
tor L.  Opimius,  B.C.  125,  when  it  rose  in  revolt 
to  obtain  the  Roman  franchise. — 4.  C.,  was  a 
distinguished  man  of  the  aristocratical  party, 
who  was  put  to  death  by  Marius  and  Cinna 
when  they  entered  Rome  at  the  close  of  B.C. 
88.] 

NURSIA  (Nurslnus :  now Norcia),  a  town  in  the 
north  of  the  land  of  the  Sabines,  situated  near 
the  sources  of  the  Nar  and  amid  the  Apennines, 
whence  it  is  called  by  Virgil  (;En.,  vii.,  716) 
frigida  Nursia.  It  was  the  birth-place"  of  Ser- 
torius  and  of  the  mother  of  Vespasian. 

NYCTEIS  (NvKrntf),  that  is,  Antiope,  daughter 
of  Nycteus,  and  mother  of  Amphion  and  Zethus. 
Vid.  ANTIOPE,  NYCTEUS. 

NYCTEUS  (NWrwf),  son  of  Hyrieus  by  the 
nymph  Clonia,  and  husband  of  Polyxo,  by  whom 
he  became  the  father  of  Antiope;  though,  ac- 
cording to  others,  Antiope  was  the  daughter  of 
the  river-god  Asopus.  Antiope  was  carried  off 
byEpopeus.kingofSicyon ;  whereupon  Nycteus, 
who  governed  Thebes,  as  the  guardian  of  Lab- 
dacus,  invaded  Sicyon  with  a  Theban  army. 
Nycteus  was  defeated,  and  being  severely 
wounded,  he  was  carried  back  to  Thebes,  where, 
previous  to  his  death,  he  appointed  his  brother 
Lycus  guardian  of  Labdacus,  and  at  the  same 
time  required  him  to  take  vengeance  on  Epo- 
peus.  Vid.  LYCUS. 

NYCTIMENE,  daughter  of  Epopeus,  king  of  Les- 
bos, or,  according  to  others,  of  Nycteus.  Pur- 
sued and  dishonored  by  her  amorous  father,  she 
concealed  herself  in  the  shade  of  forests,  where 
she  was  metamorphosed  by  Minerva  (Athena) 
into  an  owl. 

NYMPHS  (Hiv/j.<j>ai),  the  name  of  a  numerous 
class  of  female  divinities  of  a  lower  rank,  though 
they  are  designated  by  the  title  of  Olympian,  are 
called  to  the  meetings  of  the  godson  Olympus, 
and  are  described  as  the  daughters  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus).  They  may  be  divided  into  two  great 
classes.  «  The  first  class  embraces  those  who 
were  recognized  in  the  worship  of  nature.  The 
early  Greeks  saw  in  all  the  phenomena  of  or- 
dinary nature  some  manifestation  of  the  deity: 
springs,  rivers,  grottoes,  trees,  and  mountains, 
all  seemed  to  them  fraught  with  life,  and  all 
were  only  the  visible  embodiments  of  so  many 
divine  agents.  The  salutary  and  beneficent 
powers  of  nature,  were  thus  personified,  and  re- 
garded as  so  many  divinities.  The  second  class 
of  nymphs  are  personifications  of  tribes,  races, 
and  states,  such  as  Cyrene,  and  many  others. 
I.  The  nymphs  of  the  first  class  must  again  he 
subdivided  into  various  species,  according  to  the 
different  parts  of  nature  of  which  they  are  the 
representatives.  1.  Nymphs  of  the  watery  ele- 
ment. To  these  belong,  first,  the  nymphs  of  the 
ocean,  Oceanides  ('QKcavlvat,  'Qiseaviocf,  vvpfyai 
uAicu),  who  were  regarded  as  the  daughters  of 
Oceanus  ;  and,  next,  the  nymphs  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean or  inner  sea,  who  were  regarded  as  the 
daughters  of  Nereus,  and  hence  were  called 
36 


NYMPH.EUM. 

Nereides  (Nrjpettief).  The  rivers  were  repre- 
sented by  the  Potameides  (FIorau^Mec),  who,  as 
local  divinities,  were  named  after  their  rivers 
as  Acheloides,  Anijirides,  Ismenides,  Amnisia- 
des,  Pactolides.  The  nymphs  of  fresh  water, 
whether  of  rivers,  lakes,  brooks,  or  springs, 
were  also  designated  by  the  general  name 
Naiades  (N)?u5ff),  though  they  had,  in  addition, 
specific  names  (Kpijvaiai,  Nq-yalai,  'El.eiovopoi, 
Ai,uvaTi6cf,  or  Aiftvddtf).  Even  the  rivers  of 
the  lower  regions  were  described  as  having 
their  nymphs ;  hence  we  read  of  Nymphce  in- 
ferine  paludis  and  Avernales.  Many  of  these 
nymphs  preside  over  waters  or  springs  which 
were  believed  to  inspire  those  who  drank  ol 
them.  The  nymphs  themselves  were,  there- 
fore, thought  to  be  endowed  with  prophetic 
power,  and  to  inspire  men  with  the  same,  and 
to  confer  upon  them  the  gift  of  poetry.  Hence 
all  persons  in  a  state  of  rapture,  such  as  seers, 
poets,  madmen,  &c.,  were  said  to  be  caught  by 
the  nymphs  (vv/j.<j>6%r)irToi,  in  Lat.  lymphati,  lym- 
phatici).  As  water  is  necessary  to  feed  all  veg- 
etation as  well  as  all  living  beings,  the  water- 
nymphs  frequently  appear  in  connection  with 
higher  divinities,  as,  for  example,  with  Apollo, 
the  prophetic  god  and  the  protector  of  herds  and 
flocks ;  with  Diana  (Artemis),  the  huntress  and 
the  protectress  of  game,  who  was  herself  orig- 
inally an  Arcadian  nymph;  with  Mercury  (Her- 
mes), the  fructifying  god  of  flocks  ;  with  Bac- 
chus (Dionysus) ;  and  with  Pan,  the  Sileni  and 
Satyrs,  whom  they  join  in  their  Bacchic  rev- 
els and  dances. — 2.  Nymphs  of  mountains  and 
grottoes,  called  OrcadesCOpeiddee,  'Opode^viddef), 
but  sometimes  also  by  names  derived  from 
the  particular  mountains  they  inhabited  (e.  g., 
Ki6atpuvi6ef,  Tlrj'hiudef,  KopvKiai). — 3.  Nymphs 
of  forests,  groves,  and  glens,  were  believed  some 
times  to  appear  to  and  frighten  solitary  travel- 
lers. They  are  designated  by  the  names  'AX- 
ajjidef,  'YAijupoi,  AvXuvidfae,  and  Najratat. — 
4.  Nymphs  of  trees  were  believed  to  die  together 
with  the  trees  which  had  been  their  abode,  and 
with  which  they  had  come  into  existence.  They 
were  called  Dryades  and  Hamadryades  (ApvaJef, 
'Anadpvudec.  or  'Atifivatief),  from  6pif,  which  sig- 
nifies not  only  an  oak,  but  any  wild-growing 
lofty  tree  ;  for  the  nymphs  of  fruit-trees  were 
called  Melides  (Mj/AoJff,  also  Mi/fod&r,  'ETa/xj^/- 
<5cf,  or  'ApaptjAidef').  They  seem  to  be  of  Ar- 
cadian origin,  and  never  appear  together  with 
any  of  the  great  gods.  II.  The  second  class  of 
nymphs,  who  were  connected  with  certain  races 
or  localities  (NvfiQai  ^ftma*),  usually  have  a 
name  derived  from  the  places  with  which  they 
are  associated,  as  Nysiades,  Dodonides,  Lem- 
ni».  The  sacrifices  offered  to  nymphs  usually 
consisted  of  goats,  lambs,  milk,  and  oil,  but 
never  of  wine.  They  were  worshipped  in  many 
parts  of  Greece,  especially  near  springs,  groves, 
and  grottoes.  They  are  represented  in  works 
of  art  as  beautiful  maidens,  either  quite  naked 
or  only  half  Covered.  Later  poets  sometimes 
describe  them  as  having  sea-colored  hair. 
NVMIMI.V.I-.M  (NvnQaiov,  i.e.,  Nymph's  abode). 

1.  A  mountain,  witfi  perhaps  a  village,  by  the 
River  Aous,   near  Apollonia,  in  Illyricum.— 

2.  A  port  and  promontory  on  the  coast  of  Illy  ri- 
cum,  three  Roman  miles  from  Lissus. — 3.  (Now 
Cape  Ghiorgi),  the  southwestern  promontory  ol 

fiBl 


NYMPHJSUS. 

Acte  or  Athos,  in  Chalcidice.^-4.  A  sea-port 
town  of  the  Chersonesus  Taurica  (now  Crimea), 
on  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus,  twenty-five  stadia 
(two  and  a  half  geographical  miles)  from  Panti- 
capaeum. — 5.  A  place  on  the  coast  of  Bithynia, 
thirty  stadia  (three  geographical  miles)  west  of 
the  mouth  of  the  River  Oxines. — 6.  A  place  in 
Cilicia,  between  Celenderis  and  Soloe. 

NYMPH.KUS  (Nvp<j>acof).  I.  (Now  Ninfa  or 
Nimpa),  a  small  river  of  Latium,  falling  into  the 
sea  above  Astura ;  of  some  note  as  contributing 
to  the  formation  of  the  Pomptine  Marshes.  It 
now  no  longer  reaches  the  sea,  but  falls  into  a 
little  lake,  called  Lago  di  Monad. — 2.  A  harbor 
on  the  western  side  of  the  island  of  Sardinia, 
between  the  Promontorium  Mercurii  and  the 
town  of  Tillium. — 3.  Also  called  NYMPHICS  (now 
Basilimfa),  a  small  river  of  Sophene  in  Armenia, 
a  tributary  of  the  Upper  Tigris,  flowing  from 
north  to  south  past  Martyropolis,  in  the  valley 
between  Mons  Niphates  and  Mons  Masius. 

NYMPHIDIUS  SABINOS,  commander  of  the  prae- 
torian troops,  together  with  Tigellinus,  toward 
the  latter  end  of  Nero's  reign.  On  the  death  of 
Nero,  A.D.  68,  he  attempted  to  seize  the  throne, 
but  was  murdered  by  the  friends  of  Galba. 

NYMPHIS  (Nv/tQif),  son  of  Xenagoras,  a  native 
of  the  Pontic  Heraclea,  lived  about  B.C.  250. 
He  was  a  person  of  distinction  in  his  native 
land,  as  well  as  a  historical  writer  of  some  note. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  Alexander  and  his  suc- 
cessors in  twenty-four  books,  and  also  a  history 
of  Heraclea  in  thirteen  books.  [The  fragments 
of  Nymphis  are  collected  byj.  C.Orelli  in  his 
edition  of  Memnon,  Leipzig,  1816,  p.  95-102, 
and  by  C.  Muller,  Fragm.  Grcec.  Hist.,  vol.  iii., 
p.  12-16.] 

NYMPHODORUS  (Nv^odupof).  1.  A  Greek  his- 
orian  of  Amphipolis,  of  uncertain  date,  the  au- 
nor  of  a  work  on  the  Laws  or  Customs  of  Asia 
(Ndftipa  'Aaiac),  vid.  at  end  of  No.  2. — 2.  Of 
Syracuse,  likewise  a  historian,  seems  to  have 
lived  about  the  time  of  Philip  and  Alexander  the 
Great.  He  wrote  a  Periplus  of  Asia,  and  a  work 
on  Sicily.  [The  fragments  of  these  works  are 
given  by  Miiller,  Fragm.  Grac.  Hist.,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
375-381  ;  Miiller  considers  the  existence  of 
No.  1  doubtful,  and  adduces  some  arguments  to 
show  that  these  works  are  by  one  and  the  same 
author,  viz.,  the  Nymphodorus  of  Syracuse.] 

[NYMPHODORUS  (Ni^ocJwpof),  a  citizen  ofAb- 
dera,  whose  sister  married  Sitalces,  king  of 
Thrace.  The  Athenians,  who  had  previously 
regarded  Nymphodorus  as  their  enemy,  made 
him  their  proxenus  in  B.C.  431,  and,  through 
his  mediation,  obtained  the  alliance  of  Sitalces. 
He  also  subsequently  testified  his  friendship  for 
the  Athenians  by  several  other  acts  of  kindness, 
and  thus  did  them  good  service.] 

[NYSA  or  NYSS A  (NtJcra  or  Nvooa).  1 .  A  queen 
of  Bithynia,  wife  of  Nicomedes  II.,  and  mother 
of  Nicomedes  III. — 2.  A  sister  of  Mithradates 
the  Great,  who  was  taken  prisoner  by  Lucullus 
at  Cabira,  and  thus  escaped  the  fate  of  the  other 
sisters  and  wives  of  the  king,  who  were  put  to 
death  shortly  after  at  Pharnacia. — 3.  A  daughter 
of  Mithradates  the  Great,  who  had  been  betrothed 
to  the  King  of  Cyprus,  but  accompanied  her  fa- 
ther in  his  flight  to  the  kingdom  of  Bosporus, 
where  she  ultimately  shared  his  fate,  putting  an 
end  to  her  life  by  poison,  B.C.  63.] 
563 


OASIS. 

NYSA  or  NYSSA  (Nt5<ra,  NtWa),  was  tho  le- 
gendary scene  of  the  nurture  of  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus), whence  the  name  was  applied  to  sev- 
eral places  which  were  sacred  to  that  god. 
1.  In  India,  in  the  district  of  Goryaea,  at  the 
northwestern  corner  of  the  Punjab,  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Rivers  Cophen  and  Choaspes, 
probably  the  same  place  as  Nagara  or  Dionyso- 
polis  (now  Nagar  or  Naggar).  Near  it  was  a 
mountain  of  like  name. — 2.  A  city  or  mountain 
in  ^Ethiopia. — 3.  (Now  Sultan-Hisar,  ruins  a  lit- 
tle west  of  Nazeli),  a  city  of  Caria,  on  the  south- 
ern slope  of  Mount  Messogis,  built  on  both  sides 
of  the  ravine  of  the  brook  Eudon,  which  falls 
into  the  Maeander.  It  was  said  to  have  been 
named  after  the  queen  of  one  of  the  Antiochi, 
having  been  previously  called  Athymbra  and 
Pythopojis. — 4.  A  city  of  Cappadocia,  near  the 
Halys,  on  the  road  from  Caesarea  to  Ancyra : 
the  bishopric  of  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa. — 5.  A 
town  in  Thrace,  between  the  Rivers  Nestus  and 
Strymon. — 6.  A  town  in  Bceotia,  near  Mount 
Helicon. 

NYS.KUS,  Nyaias,  NYSEUS,  or  NYSIGKNA,  a 
surname  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  derived  from 
Nysa,  a  mountain  or  city  (see  above),  where  the 
god  was  said  to  have  been  brought  up  by  nymphs. 

NYSEIDES  or  NYSIADES,  the  nymphs  of  Nysa, 
who  are  said  to  have  reared  Bacchus  (Dionysus), 
and  whose  names  are  Cissei's,  Nysa,  Erato,  Eri- 
phia,  Bromia,  and  Polyhymno. 

NYX  (Nuf),  called  Nox  by  the  Romans,  was  a 
personification  of  Night.  Homer  calls  her  the 
subduer  of  gods  and  men,  and  relates  that  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus)  himself  stood  in  awe  of  her.  In  the 
ancient  cosmogonies  Night  is  one  of  the  very 
first  created  beings,  for  she  is  described  as  the 
daughter  of  Chaos,  and  the  sister  of  Erebus,  by 
whom  she  became  the  mother  of  ^Ether  and 
Hemera.  She  is  further  said  to  have  given  birth, 
without  a  husband,  to  Moros,  the  Keres,  Thana- 
tos,  Hypnos,  Dreams,  Momus,  Oizys,  the  Hes- 
perides,  Moerae,  Nemesis,  and  similar  beings. 
In  later  poets,  with  whom  she  is  merely  the  per- 
sonification of  the  darkness  of  night,  she  is 
sometimes  described  as  a  winged  goddess,  and 
sometimes  as  riding  in  a  chariot,  covered  with 
a  dark  garment,  and  accompanied  by  the  stars 
in  her  course.  Her  residence  was  in  the  dark- 
ness of  Hades.  * 


O. 

OANUS  ('Cavof :  now  Frascolari),  a  small  river 
on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  near  Camarina. 

[OARACTA  ('Qupaura,  'Oopu^Oa,  or  Ovopo^Oai 
now  Dsjisme  or  Khishme,  also  Brokht),  a  large 
and  fertile  island  lying  off  the  coast  of  Carma- 
nia,  in  the  Persian  Gulf;  in  it  was  found  the 
tomb  of  Erythras,  from  whom  the  Erythraean 
Sea  was  fabled  to  have  been  named.] 

OARUS  ("Oapof),  a  considerable  river  men- 
tioned by  Herodotus  as  rising  in  the  country  of 
the  Thyssagetae,  and  falling  into  the  Palus  Maeo- 
tis  (now  Sea  of  Azov)  east  of  the  Tanai's  (now 
Don).  As  there  is  no  river  "which  very  well  an- 
swers this  description,  Herodotus  is  supposed 
to  refer  to  one  of  the  eastern  tributaries  of  the 
Don,  such  as  the  Sal  or  the  Manyteh. 

OASIS  ('Oaaif,  Avadtf,  and  in  later  writers 
is  the  Greek  form  of  an  Egyptian  word 


OASIS. 

l  in  Coptic  ouahe,  an  inhabited  place),  which  was 
used  to  denote  an  island  in  the  sea  of  sand  of  the 
great  Libyan  Desert:  the  word  haSs  been  adopted 
into  our  language.     The  Oases  are  depressions 
in  the  great  table-land  of  Libya,  preserved  from 
the  inroad  of  the  shifting  sands  by  steep  hills  of 
limestone  round  them,  and  watered  by  springs, 
which  make  them  fertile  and  habitable.     With 
the  substitution  of  these  springs  for  the  Nile, 
they  closely  resemble  that  greater  depression  in 
the  Libyan  table-land,  the  Valley  of  Egypt.    The 
chief  specific  applications  of  the  word  by  the 
ancient  writers  are  to  the  two  Oases  on  the 
west  of  Egypt,  which  were  taken  possession  of 
'  by  the  Egyptians  at  an  early  period.     1.  OASIS 
MINOR,   the  Lesser  or  Second  Oasis  ("Qaaif 
MiKpd,  or  ;/  devrepa  :    now  Wah-el-Bahryeh  or 
Wah-el-Behncsa),  lay  west  of  Oxyrynchus,  and 
a  good  day's  journey  from  the  southwestern  end 
of  the  Lake  Mceris.     It  was  reckoned  as  belong- 
ing to  the  Heptanomis,  or  Middle  Egypt,  and  ] 
formed  a  separate  Nomos. — 2.  OASIS  MAJOR,  the 
Greater,  Upper,  or  First  Oasis  (*O.  peyu^,  jj 
•xpuTi],  i)  uvu  *O.,  and,  in  Herodotus,  nd?.i{  'Oaaif 
and  vijaoc  MaKupwv,  now  Wah-el-Khargeh),  is  de- 
scribed by  Strabo  as  seven  days'  journey  west 
of  Abydos,  which  applies  to  its  northern  end,  as 
it  extends  over  more  than  1^°  of  latitude.    It  j 
belonged  to  Upper  Egypt,  and,  like  the  other,  ! 
formed  a  distinct  nome  :  these  two  nomes  are 
mentioned  together  as  "  duo  Oasitae"  (ol  6vo  i 
'Oaffirai).     When  the  ancient  writers  use  the  \ 
word  Oasis  alone,  the  Greater  Oasis  must  gen-  , 
erally  be  understood.    The  Greater  Oasis  con-  ] 
tains  considerable  ruins  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tian and  Roman  periods.     Between  and  near 
these. were  other  Oases,  about  which  we  learn  j 
little   or   nothing  from   the   ancient  writers,  j 
though  in  one  of  them,  the  Wah-el-Gharbee  or  i 
Wah-el-Dakhleh,  three  days  west  of  the  Greater 
Oasis,  there  are  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  tem-  \ 
pie,  inscribed  with  the  names  of  Nero  and  of  j 
Titus.     The  Greater  Oasis  is  about  level  with  i 
the  valley  of  the  Nile,  the  Lesser  is  about  two  ; 
hundred  feet  higher  than  the  Nile,  in  nearly  j 
the  same  latitude.— 3.  A  still  more  celebrated 
Oasis  than  either  of  these  was  that  called  AM- 
MON, HAHMON,  AMMONIUM,   HAMMONIS  ORACU- 
LCM,  from  its  being  a  chief  seat  of  the  worship 
and  oracle  of  the  god  Ammon.     It  was  called 
by  the  Arabs  in  the  Middle  Ages  Santariah,  and 
DOW  Siwah.     It  is  about  fifteen  geographical 
miles  long,  and  twelve  wide  :  its  chief  town, 
Sitoah,  is  in  29°  12'  north  latitude,  and  26°  17' 
east  longitude :  its  distance  from  Cairo  is  twelve 
days,  and  from  the  northern  coast  about  one 
hundred  and  sixty  statute  miles  :  the  ancients 
reckoned  it  twelve  days  from  Memphis,  and  five 
days  from  Pareetonium  on  the  northern  coast. 
It  was  inhabited  by  various  Libyan  tribes,  but 
the  ruling  people  were  a  race  kindred  to  the 
^Ethiopians  above  Egypt,  who,  at  a  period  of 
unknown  antiquity,  had  introduced,  probably 
from  Meroe,  the  worship  of  Ammon  :  the  gov- 
ernment was  monarchical.     The  Ammon ians 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  subject  to  the  old 
Egyptian  monarchy.    Cambyses,  after  conquer- 
ing Egypt  in  B.C.  525,  sent  an  army  against 
tin  in,  which  was  overwhelmed  by  the  sands  of 
the  Desert.     In  B.C.  331,  Alexander  the  Great 
Turned  the  oracle,  which  hailed  him  as  the  son 


OCCIA. 

of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Ammon.  The  oracle  was  also 
visited  by  Cato  of  Utica.  Under  the  Ptolemies 
and  the  Romans  it  was  subject  to  Egypt,  and 
formed  part  of  the  Nomos  Libya.  The'most  re- 
markable objects  in  the  Oasis,  besides  the  tem- 
ple of  Ammon,  were  the  palace  of  the  ancient 
kings,  abundant  springs  of  salt  water  fas  well 
as  fresh)  from  which  salt  was  made,  and  a  well, 
called  Fons  Solis,  the  water  of  which  was  cold 
at  noon,  and  warm  in  the  morning  and  evening. 
Considerable  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Ammon  are 
still  standing  at  the  town  of  Siwah.  In  ancient 
times  the  Oasis  had  no  town,  but  the  inhabit- 
ants dwelt  in  scattered  villages. — 4.  In  other 
parts  of  the  Libyan  Desert  there  were  oases 
of  which  the  ancients  had  some  knowledge,  but 
which  they  do  not  mention  by  the  name  of 
Oases,  but  by  their  specific  names,  such  as 
AUGILA,  PHAZANIA,  and  others. 

OAXES.      Vid.  OAXUS. 

OAXUS  ("Oafof  :  'Oaftof),  called  Axus  (*Afof) 
by  Herodotus,  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Crete, 
on  the  River  Oaxes,  and  near  Eleutherna,  is 
said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Oaxes  01 
Oaxus,  who  was,  according  to  some  accounts, 
a  son  of  Acacallis,  the  daughter  of  Minos,  and, 
according  to  others,  a  son  of  Apollo  by  An- 
chiale. 

OBIL  A  (now  Avila),  a  town  of  the  Vettones,  in 
Hispania  Tarraconensis. 

OBUVIONIS  FLUMEN.     Vid.  LIM.XA. 

OBRIMAS  (now  Koja-Chai  or  Sandukli-Chat), 
an  eastern  tributary  of  the  Maeander,  in  Phrygia. 

OBRINGA  (now  Aar),  a  western  tributary  of 
the  Rhine,  forming  the  boundary  between  Ger- 
mania  Superior  and  Inferior. 

OBSEQUENS,  JULIUS,  the  name  prefixed  to  a 
fragment  entitled  De  Prodigiis  or  Prodigiorum 
Libellus,  containing  a  record  of  the  phenomena 
classed  by  the  Romans  under  the  general  desig- 
nation of  Prodigia  or  Ostenta.  The  series  ex- 
tends in  chronological  order  from  the  consul- 
ship of  Scipio  and  Lselius,  B.C.  190,  to  the  con- 
sulship of  Fabius  and  ^Elius,  B.C.  11.  The 
materials  are  derived  in  a  great  measure  from 
Livy,  whose  very  words  are  frequently  employ- 
ed. With  regard  to  the  compiler  we  know 
nothing.  The  style  is  tolerably  pure,  but  does 
not  belong  to  the  Augustan  age.  The  best  edi- 
tions are  by  Scheffer,  Amst.,  1679  ;  by  Ouden- 
dorp,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1720;  [and  by  Kapp,  Curias 
Regn.,  1772.]  . 

OB.UCOLA,  OBUCULA,  or  OBULCCLA  (now  Jtfon- 
data),  a  town  in  Hispania  Baetica,  on  the  road 
from  Hispalis  to  Emerita  and  Corduba. 

OBULCO  (now  Porcuna),  surnamed  PONTIPI- 
CENSE,  a  Roman  municipium  in  Hispania  Bae- 
tica, three  hundred  stadia  from  Corduba. 

OCALKA  ('Quanta,  'Q/tu/n?,  also  'QKufaia,  'Qxa- 
Tifai :  'Q/KaAevf),  an  ancient  town  in  Boeotia,  be- 
tween Haliartus  and  Alalcomenae,  situated  on 
a  river  of  the  same  name  falling  into  the  Lake 
Copais,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  Tilphu- 
sion. 

[OCALEA  ('Quafata),  daughter  of  Mantineus, 
wife  of  Abas,  and  mother  of  Acrisius  and  Prce- 
tus.] 

[Occu,  a  vestal  virgin,  who  died  in  the  reign 
of  Tiberius,  A. D.  19,  after  discharging  the  duties 
of  her  priesthood  for  the  long  period  of  fifty- 
seven  years.] 

663 


OCEAN1DES. 


OCTAVIA. 


OCEANIDES.     Vid.  NYMPH.*.  !  opamisus   (now  Hindoo  Koosh),   accotdmg  to 

OCEANUS  ('QKcavof),  in  the  oldest  Greek  poets,  !  Strabo,  through  Hyrcania,  into  the  Caspian- 
is  the  god  of  the  water  which  was  believed  to  according  to  Pliny  and  Ptolemy,  through  Bac 
surround  the  whole  earth,  and  which  was  sup-  tria,  into  the  Oxus.  Some  suppose  it  to  he 
posed  to  be  the  source  of  all  the  rivers  and  only  another  name  for  the  Oxus.  In  the  Pehlvi 
other  waters  of  the  world.  This  water-god,  in  dialect  the  word  denotes  a  river  in  general. 

[OcNus,  a  son  of  Tiberis  and  Manto,  and  the 
reputed  founder  of  Mantua,  which  he  is  said  to 
have  named  after  his  mother.] 

[OcRA  (*O«po),  a  branch  of  the  Alps  in  Nori- 


the  Theogony  of  Hesiod,  is  the  son  of  Heaven 
and  Earth  (Ovpavoc  and  Tata),  the  husband  of 
Tethys,  and  the  father  of  all  the  river-gods  and 
water-nymphs  of  the  whole  earth.  He  is  in- 
troduced in  person  in  the  Prometheus  of  JEs- 
chylus.  As  to  the  physical  idea  attached  by  the 
early  Greeks  to  the  word,  it  seems  that  they 


regarded  the  earth  as  a  flat  circle,  which  was  en-    to  the  north.] 


cum;  accord  ing  to  Strabo,  the  lowest  part  of  the 
Carnic  Alps,  between  Aquileia  and  Nauportus, 
over  which  a  commercial  road  passed  from  Italy 


compassed  by  a  river  perpetually  flowing  round 
it.  and  this  river  was  Oceanus.  (This  notion 
is  ridiculed  by  Herodotus.)  Out  of  and  into 
this  river  the  sun  and  the  stars  were  supposed 
to  rise  and  set ;  and  on  its  banks  were  the 
abodes  of  the  dead.  From  this  notion  it  natu- 
rally resulted  that,  as  geographical  knowledge 
advanced,  the  name  was  applied  to  the  great 
outer  waters  of  the  earth,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  inner  seas,  and  especially  to  the  Atlantic, 
or  the  sea  without  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  (^ 
it-u  tfuAarra,  Mare  Exterius),  as  distinguished 
from  the  Mediterranean,  or  the  sea  within  that 
limit  (r)  IVTOC  tfuAorra,  Mare  Internum) ;  and 
thus  the  Atlantic  is  often  called  simply  Ocea- 
nus. The  epithet  Atlantic  (r/  'ArAavrtK^  dd- 


OCRICULUM  (Ocriculanus  :  ruins  near  Otricoli), 
an  important  municipium  in  Umbria,  situated  on 
the  Tiber,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Nar,  and 
on  the  Via  Flaminia,  leading  from  Rome  to 
Narnia,  &c.  There  are  ruins  of  an  aqueduct, 
an  amphitheatre  and  temples  near  the  modern 
Otricoli. 

[OCRINUM  PROMONTORIUM  (now  Cape  Lizard). 
Vid.  DAMNONII-] 

OCRISIA  or  OCLISIA,  mother  of  Servius  Tul 
lius.  For  details,  vid.  TULLIUS. 

[OCTACILIUS.      Vid.  OTACILIUS.] 

OCTAVIA.    1.  Sister  of  the  Emperor  Augustus, 
was  married  first  to  C.  Marcellus,  consul,  B.C. 
50,  and  subsequently,  upon   the  death  of  the 
latter,  to  Antony,  the  triumvir,  in  40.     This 
Zaaaa,  Herod.,  6  'A.  irovrof,  Eurip. ;  Atlanti-    marriage  was  regarded  as  the  harbinger  of  a 


cum  Mare)  was  applied  to  it  from  the  mythical 
position  of  ATLAS  being  on  its  shores.  The 
other  great  waters  which  were  denoted  by  the 
same  term  are  described  under  their  specific 
names. 

OCELIS  (*O«??A/f :  now  GheL),  a  celebrated 
harbor  and  emporium  at  the  southwestern  point 
of  Arabia  Felix,  just  at  the  entrance  to  the  Red 
Sea. 

OCELLUS  LUCANUS,  a  Pythagorean  philoso- 
pher, was  a  native  of  some  Greek  city  in  Lu- 
cania,  but  we  have  no  particulars  of  his  work. 
We  have  still  extant  under  his  name  a  consid- 
erable fragment  of  a  work,  entitled,  "  On  the 
Nature  of  the  Whole"  (Trepl  rjjf  TOV  iravrbf 
^vffiof),  written  in  the  Ionic  dialect ;  but  it  is 
much  disputed  whether  it  is  a  genuine  work. 
In  this  work  the  author  maintains  that  the 
whole  (ro  Truv,  or  6  /cou/zof)  had  no  beginning, 
and  will  have  no  eod.  Edited  by  Rudolphi, 
Lips.,  1801-8  ;  [and  by  Mullach,  in  the  volume 
entitle^  Aristotelis  de  Melisso,  Xenophane  et 
Gorgia  Disputationes,  &c.,  et  Ocelli  Lucan'i,  qui 
fertur,  de  universa  natura  libello,  Berlin,  1846.] 


lasting  peace.  Augustus  was  warmly  attached 
to  his  sister,  and  she  possessed  all  the  charms 
and  virtues  likely  to  secure  a  lasting  influence 
over  the  mind  of  a  husband.  Her  beauty  was 
universally  allowed  to  be  superior  to  that  of 
Cleopatra,  and  her  virtue  was  such  as  to  Qxcite 
admiration  in  an  age  of  growing  licentiousness 
and  corruption.  For  a  time  Antony  seemed  to 
forget  Cleopatra  ;  but  he  soon  became  tired  of 
his  virtuous  wife,  and  upon  his  return  to  the 
East  he  forbade  her  to  follow  him.  When  at 
length  the  war  broke  out  between  Antony  and 
Augustus,  Octavia  was  divorced  by  her  hus- 
band ;  but,  instead  of  resenting  the  insults  she 
had  received  from  him,  she  brought  up  with 
care  his  children  by  Fulvia  and  Cleopatra.  She 
died  B.C.  11.  Octavia  had  five  children,  three 
by  Marcellus,  a  son  and  two  daughters,  and  two 
by  Antony,  both  daughters.  Her  son,  M.  Mar- 
cellus, was  adopted  by  Augustus,  and  was  des- 
tined to  be  his  successor,  but  died  in  23.  Vid. 
MARCELLUS,  No.  9.  The  descendants  of  her 
two  daughters  by  Antonius  successively  ruled 
the  Roman  world.  The  elder  of  them  marri- 


OCELUM.     1.  A  town  in  the  northeast  of  Lu-    ed  L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  and  became  the 


sitania,  between  the  Tagus  and  the  Durius, 
whose  inhabitants,  the  Ocelenses,  also  bore  the 
name  of  Lancienses. — 2.  (Now  Ucello  or  Uxeau), 
a  town  in  the  Cottian  Alps,  was  the  last  place 
in  Cisalpine  Gaul  before  entering  the  territories 
of  King  Cottius. 

OCHA  ('Oxv)j tne  highest  mountain  in  Eubcea, 
was  in  the  south  of  the  island,  near  Carystus, 
running  out  into  the  promontory  Caphareus. 

[OCHESIUS  ('O^ijfftof),  an  ^Etolian  prince,  fa- 
ther of  Periphas,  who  was  slain  in  the  Trojan 
war.] 

OCHUS.     Vid.  ARTAXERXES  III. 

OCHUS  ("O^of,  'Q^oc),  a  great  river  of  Central 
Asia,  flowing  from  the  northern  side  of  the  Par- 


grandmother  of  the  Emperor  Nero  ;  the  young- 
er of  them  married  Drusus,  the  brother  of  the 
Emperor  Tiberius,  and  became  the  mother  of 
the  Emperor  Claudius,  and  the  grandmother  of 
the  Emperor  Caligula.  Vid.  ANTONIA. — 2.  The 
daughter  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  by  his  third 
wife,  Valeria  Messalina,  was  born  about  A.D. 
42.  She  was  at  first  betrothed  by  Claudius  to 
L.  Silanus,  who  put  an  end  to  his  life,  as  Agrip- 
pina  had  destined  Octavia  to  be  the  wife  of  her 
son,  afterward  the  Emperor  Nero.  She  was 
married  to  Nero  in  A.D.  53,  but  was  soon  de- 
serted by  her  young  and  profligate  husband  for 
Poppaea  Sabina.  After  living  with  the  latter  as 
his  mistress  for  «ome  time,  he  resolved  to  re- 


OCTAVIANUS. 

«o^nize  her  as  his  legal  wife  ;  and  accordingly, 
he  divorced  Octavia  on  the  alleged  ground  of 
sterility,  and  then  married  Poppaea,  A.D.  62. 
Shortly  afterward,  Octavia  was  falsely  accused 
of  adultery,  and  was  banished  to  the  little  isl- 
and of  Pandataria,  where  she  was  put  to  death. 
Her  untimely  end  excited  general  commisera- 
tion. „  Octavia  is  the  heroine  of  a  tragedy 
found  among  the  works  of  Seneca,  but  the  au- 
thor of  which  was  more  probably  Curiatius  Ma- 
ternus. 

OCTAVIANUS.     Vid.  ACGDSTUS. 

OCTAVIUS.  1.  CN.,  surnamed  RUFUS,  quaes- 
tor about  B.C.  230,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  family.  The  Octavii  originally 
came  from  the  Volscian  town  of  Velitrae,  where 
a  street  and  an  altar  bore  the  name  of  Octavius. 
— 2.  CN.,  son  of  No.  1,  plebeian  aedile  206,  and 
praetor  205,  when  he  obtained  Sardinia  as  his 
province.  He  was  actively  employed  during 
the  remainder  of  the  second  Punic  war,  and  he 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Zama. — 3.  CN.,  son 
of  No.  2,  was  praetor  168,  and  had  the  command 
of  the  fleet  in  Hie  war  against  Perseus.  He 
was  consul  165.  In  162  he  was  one  of  three 
ambassadors  sent  into  Syria,  but  was  assassin- 
ated at  Laodicea  by  a  Greek  of  the  name  of 
Leptiues,  at  the  instigation,  as  was  supposed, 
«f  Lysias,  the  guardian  of  the  young  king  An- 
tiochus  V.  A  statue  of  Octavius  was  placed 
on  the  rostra  at  Rome,  where  it  was  in  the  time 
of  Cicero. — 4.  CN.,  son  of  No.  3,  consul  128. — 
5.  M.,  perhaps  younger  son  of  No.  3,  was  the 
colleague  of  Tib.  Gracchus  in  the  tribunate  of 
the  plebs,  133,  when  he  opposed  his  tribunitian 
veto  to  the  passing  of  the  agrarian  law.  He 
was,  in  consequence,  deposed  from  his  office 
by  Tib.  Gracchus.— 6.  CN.,  a  supporter  of  the 
aristocratical  party,  was  consul  87  with  L. 
Cornelius  Cinna.  After  Sulla's  departure  from 
Italy,  in  order  to  carry  on  the  war  against  Mith- 
radates,  a  vehement  contest  arose  between  the 
two  consuls,  which  ended  in  the  expulsion  of 
Cinna  from  the  city,  and  his  being  deprived  of 
the  consulship.  Cinna  soon  afterward  returned 
at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  and  accompa- 
nied by  Marius.  Rome  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render, and  Octavius  was  one  of  the  first  vic- 
tims in  the  massacres  that  followed.  His  head 
was  cut  off  and  suspended  on  the  rostra. — 7. 
L.,  son  of  No.  6,  consul  75,  died  in  74,  as  pro- 
consul of  Cilicia,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  province  by  L.  Lucullus. — 8.  CN., 
grandson  of  No.  4,  consul  76. — 9.  M.,  son  of  No. 
8,  was  curule  aedile  50,  along  with  M.  Caelius. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in  49,  Oc- 
tavius espoused  the  aristocratical  party,  and 
served  as  legate  to  M.  Bibulus,  who  had  the 
supreme  command  of  thePompeian  fleet.  After 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  Octavius  sailed  to  Illyri- 
cum  ;  but,  having  been  driven  out  of  this  coun- 
try (47)  by  Caesar's  legates,  he  fled  to  Africa. 
He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Actium  (31), 
when  he  commanded  part  of  Antony's  fleet. — 
10.  C.,  younger  son  of  No.  1,  and  the  ancestor 
of  Augustus,  remained  a  simple  Roman  eques, 
without  attempting  to  rise  any  higher  in  the 
state.— 11.  C.,  son  of  No.  10,  and  great-grand- 
father of  Augustus,  lived  in  the  time  of  the  sec- 
ond Punic  war,  in  which  he  served  as  tribune 
of  the  soldiers  He  was  present  at  the  battle 


ODOACER. 

of  Cannae  (216),  and  was  one  of  the  few  who 
survived  the  engagement. — 12.  C.,  son  of  No. 
11,  and  grandfather  of  Augustus,  lived  quietly 
at  his  villa  at  Velitrae,  without  aspiring  to  the 
dignities  of  the  Roman  state. — 13.  C.,  son  of 
No.  12,  and  father  of  Augustus,  was  praetor  61, 
and  in  the  following  year  succeeded  C.  Anto- 
nius  in  the  government  of  Macedonia,  which  he 
administered  with  equal  integrity  and  energy. 
He  returned  to  Italy  in  59,  died  the  following 
year,  58,  at  Nola,  in  Campania,  in  the  very 
same  room  in  which  Augustus  afterward  breath- 
ed his  last.  By  his  second  wife  Atia,  Octavius 
had  a  daughter  and  a  son,  the  latter  of  whom 
was  subsequently  the  Emperor  Augustus.  Vid. 
AUGUST-OS. — 14.  L.,  a  legate  of  Pompey  in  the 
war  against  the  pirates,  67,  was  sent  by  Pom- 
pey into  Crete  to  supersede  Q.  Metellus  in  the 
command  of  the  island ;  but  Metellus  refused 
to  surrender  the  command  to  him.  Fid.  ME- 
TELLUS, No.  16. 

OCTAVIUS  BALBUS.     Vid.  BALBUS. 

O^TODURUS  (Octodurensis  :  now  Martigny),  a 
town  of  the  Veragri  in  the  country  of  the  Hel- 
vetii,  is  situated  in  a  valley  surrounded  by  lofty 
mountains,  and  on  the  River  Drancc,  near  the 
spot  where  it  flows  into  the  Rhone.  The  an- 
cient town,  like  the  modern  one,  was  divided 
by  the  Drance  into  two  parts.  The  inhabitants 
had  the  Jus  Latii. 

OCTOGESA,  a  town  of  the  Ilergetes  in  His- 
pania  Tarraconensis,  near  the  Iberus,  probably 
south  of  the  Sicoris. 

OCTOLOPHUS,  a  place  of  uncertain  site,  in  the 
north  of  Thessaly  or  the  south  of  Macedonia. 

OCYPETE.     Vid.  HAKPYI^E. 

OCYROE  ("QiivpoTi).  1.  One  of  the  daughters 
of  Oceanus  and  Tethys.  —  2.  Daughter  of  the 
centaur  Chiron,  possessed  the  gift  of  prophecy, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  changed  into  a  mare. 

ODENATHUS,  the  ruler  of  Palmyra,  checked  the 
victorious  career  of  the  Persians  after  the  de- 
feat and  capture  of  Valerian,  A.D.  260,  and  drove 
Sapor  out  of  Syria.  In  return  for  these  serv- 
ices, Gallienus  bestowed  upon  Odenathus  the 
title  of  Augustus.  Odenathus  was  soon  after- 
ward murdered  by  some  of  his  relations,  not 
without  the  consent,  it  is  said,  of  his  wife  Ze- 
nobia,  266.  He  was  succeeded  by  ZENOBIA. 

ODEssus('Qdt}aa6f :  'OdTjffairTjf^Odjjaaevf').  I. 
(Now  Varna),  also  called  Odysstis  and  Odissus 
at  a  later  time,  a  Greek  town  in  Thracia  (in  the 
later  Mcasia  Inferior),  on  the  Pontus  Euxinus, 
nearly  due  east  of  Marcianopolis,  was  founded 
by  the  Milesians  in  the  territory  ofthe,Cronyzi 
in  the  reign  of  Astyages,  king  of  Media  (B.C. 
594-559).  The  town  possessed  a  good  harbor, 
and  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce. — 2.  A 
sea-port  in  Sarmatia  Europaea,  on  the  north  of 
the  Pontus  Euxinus  and  on  the  River  Sangari- 
us,  west  of  Olb'a  and  the  mouth  of  the  Borys- 
thenes.  It  was  some  distance  northeast  of  the 
modern  Odessa. 

[OoiTEs.  1.  A  centaur,  slain  by  Mopsus. — 2. 
An  Ethiopian,  slain  by  Clymenus  at  the  nup- 
tials of  Perseus.] 

[Omus  ('Odtof).  1.  The  leader  of  the  Hali- 
zones,  who  were  in  alliance  with  the  Trojans, 
was  slain  by  Agamemnon  before  Troy. — 2.  A 
herald  in  the  camp  of  the  Greeks  before  Troy.] 

ODOACEK,  usually  called  king  of  the  Hcruli. 
565 


ODOMANTICE. 

was  the  leader  of  the  barbarians  who  overthrew 
the  Western  empire,  A.D.  476.  He  took  the 
title  of  king  of  Italy,  and  reigned  till  his  power 
was  overthrown  by  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Goths. 
Odoacer  was  defeated  in  three  decisive  battles 
by  Theodoric  (489-490),  and  then  took  refuge  in 
Ravenna,  where  he  was  besieged  for  three  years. 
He  at  last  capitulated  on  condition  that  he  and 
Theodoric  should  be  joint  kings  of  Italy  ;  but 
Odoacer  was  soon  afterward  murdered  by  his 
rival. 

ODOMANTICE  ('OdopavrcKri),  a  district  in  the 
northeast  of  Macedonia,  between  the  Strymon 
and  the  Nestus,  inhabited  by  theThracian  tribe 
of  the  Odomanti  or  Odomantes. 

ODRYS.*  ('Qtipvoai),  the  most  powerful  people 
in  Thrace,  dwelt,  according  to  Herodotus,  on 
both  sides  of  the  River  Artiscus,  a  tributary  of 
the  Hebrus,  but  also  spread  further  west  over 
the  whole  plain  of  the  Hebrus.  Soon  after  the 
Persian  wars,  Teres,  king  of  the  Odrysae,  ob- 
tained the  sovereignty  over  several  of  the  other 
Thracian  tribes,  and  extended  his  dominions  as 
far  as  the  Black  Sea.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Sitalces,  who  became  the  master  of  al- 
most the  whole  of  Thrace.  His  empire  com- 
prised all  the  territory  from  Abdera  to  the 
mouths  of  the  Danube,  and  from  Byzantium  to 
the  sources  of  the  Strymon  ;  and  it  is  describ- 
ed by  Thucydides  as  the  greatest  of  all  the 
kingdoms  between  the  Ionian  Gulf  and  the 
Euxine,  both  in  revenue  and  opulence.  Sital- 
ces assisted  the  Athenians  in  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war  against  Perdiccas,  king  of  Macedonia. 
Vid.  SITALCES.  He  died  B.C.  424,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew  Seuthes  I.  On  the  death 
of  the  latter,  about  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  the  power  of  the  Odrysae  declined.  For 
the  subsequent  history  of  the  Odrysee,  vid.  THRA- 

CIA. 

[ODRYSSES  ('OdpvaoTitf,  a  tributary  of  the 
Rhyndacus,  in  Mysia.] 

ODYSSEA  ('Odvaaeia),  a  town  of  Hispania  Bae- 
tica,  situated  north  of  Abdera,  amid  the  mount- 
ains of  Turdetania,  with  a  temple  of  Minerva 
(Athena),  said  to  have  been  built  by  Odysseus 
(Ulysses).  Its  position  is  quite  uncertain.  Some 
of  the  ancients  supposed  it  to  be  the  same  as 
OLISIPO. 

ODYSSEUS.     Vid.  ULYSSES. 

C£A  ('Eua,  Ptol.  :  CEensis  :  ruins  at  Tripoli  ?), 
a  city  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  in  the 
Regio  Syrtica  (f.  e.,  between  the  Syrtes),  was 
one  of  the  three  cities  of  the  African  Tripolis, 
and,  under  the  Romans,  a  colony  by  the  name 
of  JElia  Augusta  Felix.  It  had  a  mixed  popu- 
lation of  Libyans  and  Sicilians. 

CEA  (Ota),  a  town  in  the  island  of  ^Egina, 
twenty  stadia  from  the  capital. 

QEAQ  RUS  or  (EAGER  (Otoypof),  king  of  Thrace, 
was  the  father,  by  the  muse  Calliope,  of  Or- 
pheus and  Linus.  Hence  the  sisters  of  Orpheus 
are  called  (Eagrides,  in  the  sense  of  the  Muses. 
The  adjective  (Eagrius  is  also  used  by  the  poets 
as  equivalent  to  Thracian.  Hence  (Eagrius 
Hcemus,  (Eagrius  Hebrus,  &C. 

OSANTHE  or  O2ANTHIA  (Oldvdrit  OldvOeta :  Olav- 
Oevf :  now  Galaxidhi),  a  town  of  the  Locri  Ozolse 
on  the  coast,  near  the  entrance  of  the  Crisseean 
Gulf. 

O3lso  or  CEASSO  (now  Oyarzuri),  a  town  of 
566 


CEDIPUS. 

the  Vascones,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  situated  on  a  promontory  of  the 
same  name,  and  on  the  River  Magradn. 

OZAX  (Otaf),  son  ofNauplius  and  Clymene,.* 
and  brother  of  Palamedes  and  Nausimedon. 

[OZBALIDKS,  (KltAI.Is.       Vid.  GEBALUS.] 

CEBALUS  (Ot&iAof).  1.  Son  of  Cynortas,  hus- 
band of  Gorgophone,  and  father  of  Tyndareus, 
Pirene,  and  Arene,  was  king  of  Sparta,  where  he 
was  afterward  honored  with  a  heroum.  Ac- 
cording to  others,  he  was  son  of  Perieres  and 
grandson  of  Cynortas,  and  was  married  to  the 
nymph  Batea,  by  whom  he  had  several  children. 
The  patronymic  (Ebalides  is  not  only  applied  to 
his  descendants,  but  to  the  Spartans  generally, 
as  Hyacinthus,  Castor,  Pollux,  &c.  The  femi- 
nine patronymic  OEbalis  and  the  adjective  (Eba- 
lius  are  applied  in  the  same  way.  Hence  Helen 
is  called  by  the  poets  (Ebalis  and  (Ebalia  pcllex ; 
the  city  of  Tarentum  is  termed  (Ebalia  arx,  be- 
cause it  was  founded  by  the  Lacedaemonians  ; 
and  since  the  Sabines  were,  according  to  one 
tradition,  a  Lacedaemonian  colony,  we  find  the 
Sabine  king  Titus  Tatius  named  (Ebalius  Titus, 
and  the  Sabine  women  (Ebalides  matres.  (Ov., 
Fast.,  i.,  260  ;  iii.,  230.)— 2.  Son  of  Telon,  by -a 
nymph  of  the  stream  Sebethus,  near  Naples, 
ruled  in  Campania. 

[OZsAREs  (Ol6dprjf).  1.  A  groom  of  Darius 
Hystaspis,  who  by  a  stratagem  secured  the  Per- 
sian throne  for  his  master,  after  the  assassina- 
tion of  Smerdis. — 2.  Son  of  Megabazus,  was 
viceroy  of  Dascyleum,  in  Bithynia,  in  the  reign 
of  Darius  Hystaspis.] 

CEciiALiA  (OixaTua  :  OtyaAtevf,  Ot^aXtur^c). 
1.  A  town  in  Thessaly,  on  the  Peneus,  neai 
Tricca. — 2.  A  town  in  Thessaly,  belonging  to 
the  territory  of  Trachis. — 3.  A  town  inMessenia, 
on  the  frontier  of  Arcadia,  identified  by  Pau 
sanias  with  Carnasium,  by  Strabo  with  Anda 
nia. — 4.  A  town  of  Euboea,  in  the  district  Ere 
tria.  The  ancients  were  divided  in  opinion 
which  of  these  places  was  the  residence  of  Eu- 
rytus,  whom  Hercules  defeated  and  slew.  The 
original  legend  probably  belonged  to  the  Thes- 
salian  CEchalia,  and  was  thence  transferred  to 
the  other  towns. 

(EcuuENius  (OiKovpeviof),  bishop  of  Tricca, 
in  Thessaly,  a  Greek  commentator  on  various 
parts  of  the  NewTestament,  probably  flourished 
about  A.D.  950.  He  has  the  reputation  of  a 
judicious  commentator,  careful  in  compilation, 
modest  in  offering  his  own  judgment,  and  neat 
in  expression.  Most  of  his  commentaries  were 
published  at  Paris,  1631. 

(Eoipus  (Qidinovf),  son  of  Laius  and  Jocaslf 
of  Thebes.  The  tragic  fate  of  this  hero  is  moro 
celebrated  than  that  of  any  other  legendary  per- 
sonage, on  account  of  the  frequent  use  which 
the  tragic  poets  have  made  of  it.  In  their  hands 
it  underwent  various  changes  and  embellish- 
ments, but  the  common  story  ran  as  follows : 
Laius,  son  of  Labdacus,  was  king  of  Thebes, 
and  husband  of  Jocaste,  a  daughter  of  Menre- 
ceus,  and  sister  of  Creon.  An  oracle  had  in- 
formed Laius  that  he  was  destined  to  perish  by 
the  hands  of  his  own  son.  Accordingly,  when 
Jocaste  gave  birth  to  a  son,  they  pierced  his 
feet,  bound  them  together,  and  exposed  the 
child  on  Mount  Cithaeron.  There  he  was  found 
by  a  shepherd  of  King  Polybus  of  Corinth,  and 


CEDIPUS. 

was  called  from  his  swollen  feetCEdipus.  Hav- 
ing iK-en  carried  to  the  palace,  the  king  and  his 
wife  Merope  (or  Periboea)  brought  him  up  as 
their  own  child.  Once,  however,  CEdipus  was 
taunted  by  a  Corinthian  with  not  being  the 
King's  son,  whereupon  he  proceeded  to  Delphi 
to  consult  the  oracle.  The  oracle  replied  that 
he  was  destined  to  slay  his  father  and  commit 
incest  with  his  mother.  Thinking  that  Polybus 
was  his  father,  he  resolved  not  to  return  to 
Corinth  ;  but  on  his  road  between  Delphi  and 
Daulis  he  met  his  real  father  Laius.  Poly- 
phonies, the  charioteer  of  Laius,  bade  CEdipus 
make  way  for  them,  whereupon  a"  scuffle  en- 
sued, in  which  CEdipus  slew  both  Laius  and  his 
charioteer.  In  the  mean  time,  the  celebrated 
Sphinx  had  appeared  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Thebes.  Seated  on  a  rock,  she  put  a  riddle  to 
every  Theban  that  passed  by,  and  whoever  was 
unable  to  solve  it  was  killed  by  the  monster. 
This  calamity  induced  the  Thebans  to  proclaim 
that  whoever  should  deliver  the  country  of  the 
Sphinx  should  be  made  king,  and  should  re- 
ceive Jocaste  as  his  wife.-  CEdipus  came  for- 
ward, and  when  he  approached  the  Sphinx  she 
gave  the  riddle  as  follows  :  "  A  being  with  four 
feet  has  two  feet  and  three  feet,  and  only  one 
voice  ;  but  its  feet  vary,  and  when  it  has  most 
it  is  weakest."  CEdipus  solved  the  riddle  by 
saying  that  it  was  man,  who  in  infancy  crawls 
upon  all  fours,  in  manhood  stands  erect  upon 
two  feet,  and  in  old  age  supports  his  tottering 
legs  with  a  staff.  The  Sphinx,  enraged  at- the 
solution  of  the  riddle,  thereupon  threw  herself 
down  from  the  rock.  CEdipus  now  obtained  the 
kingdom  of  Thebes,  and  married  his  mother,  by 
whom  he  became  the  father  of  Eteocles,  Poly- 
nices,  Antigone,  and  Ismene.  In  consequence 
of  this  incestuous  alliance,  of  which  no  one  was 
aware,  the  country  of  Thebes  was  visited  by  a 
plague.  The  oracle,  on  being  consulted,  or- 
dered that  the  murderer  of  Laius  should  be  ex- 
pelled. CEdipus  accordingly  pronounced  a  sol- 
emn curse  upon  the  unknown  murderer,  and 
declared  him  an  exile  ;  but  when  he  endeavored 
to  discover  him,  he  was  informed  by  the  seer 
Tiresias  that  he  himself  was  both  the  parricide 
and  the  husband  of  his  mother.  Jocaste  now 
hung  herself,  and  CEdipus  put  out  his  own  eyes. 
From  this  point  traditions  differ ;  for,  according 
to  some,  CEdipus  in  his  blindness  was  expelled 
from  Thebes  by  his  sons  and  brother-in-law,  Cre- 
on,  who  undertook  the  government,  and  he  was 
accompanied  by  Antigone  in  his  exile  to  Attica ; 
while,  according  to  others,  he  was  imprisoned  by 
his  sons  at  Thebes,  in  order  that  his  disgrace 
might  remain  concealed  from  the  eyes  of  the 
world.  The  father  now  cursed  his  sons,  who 
agreed  to  rule  over  Thebes  alternately,  but  be- 
came involved  in  a  dispute,  in  consequence  of 
which  they  fought  in  single  combat,  and  slew 
each  other.  Hereupon  Creon  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  and  expelled  CEdipus.  After  long  wan- 
derings, CEdipus  arrived  in  the  grove  of  the  Eu- 
menidos,  near  Colonus,  in  Attica  ;  he  was  there 
honored  by  Theseus  in  his  misfortune,  and,  ac- 
cording to  an  oracle,  the  Eumenides  removed 
him  from  the  earth,  and  no  one  was  allowed  to 
approach  his  tomb.  According  to  Homer,  CEdi- 
pus, tormented  by  the  Erlnnyes  of  his  mother, 
continued  to  reign  at  Thebes  after  her  death  ; 


CENIDES. 

he  fel.  in  battle,  and  was  honored  at  Thebes 
with  funeral  solemnities. 

[CENANTHE  (Olvuvdt}),  mother  of  Agathocles, 
the  infamous  minister  of  Ptolemy  Philopator, 
and  of  Agathoclea,  through  whom  she  possessed 
great  influence  with  the  king.  After  the  ac- 
cession of  Epiphanes,  she,  with  her  family,  was 
given  up  to  the  multitude,  and  by  them  torn  to 
pieces.] 

CENEON  (Oiveuv  :  Olveuvcvf),  a  sea-port  town 
of  the  Locri  Ozola?,  east  of  Naupactus. 

CENEUS  (Otvevf),  son  of  Portheus,  husband  of 
Althaea,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Ty- 
deus  and  Meleager,  and  was  thus  the  grandfa- 
ther of  Diomedes.  He  was  king  of  Pleuron  and 
Calydon  in  ^Etolia.  This  is  Homer's  account; 
but,  according  to  later  authorities,  he  was  the 
son  of  Porthaon  and  Euryte,  and  the  father  of 
Toxeus,  whom  he  himself  killed,  Thyreus  (Phe- 
reus),  Clymenus,  Periphas,  Agelaus,  Meleager, 
Gorge,  Eurymede,  Melanippe,  Mothone,  and 
Deianira.  His  second  wife  was  Melanippe,  the 
daughter  of  Hipponous,  by  whomhe  hadTydeus, 
according  to  some  accounts ;  though,  according 
to  others,  Tydeus  was  his  son  by  his  own  daugh- 
ter Gorge.  He  is  said  to  have  been  deprived 
of  his  kingdom  by  the  sons  of  his  brother  Agri- 
us,  who  imprisoned  and  ill  used  him.  He  was 
subsequently  avenged  by  Diomedes,  who  slew 
Agrius  and  his  sons,  and  restored  the  kingdom 
either  to  CEneus  himself,  or  to  his  son-in-law 
Andraemon,  as  CEneus  was  too  old.  Diomedes 
took  his  grandfather  with  him  to  Peloponnesus, 
but  some  of  the  sons,  who  lay  in  ambush,  slew 
the  old  man  near  the  altar  of  Telephus  in  Ar- 
cadia. Diomedes  buried  his  body  at  Argos,  and 
named  the  town  of  CEnoe  after  him.  According 
to  others,  CEneus  lived  to  extreme  old  age  with 
Diomedes  at  Argos,  and  died  a  natural  death. 
Homer  knows  nothing  of  all  this ;  he  merely  re- 
lates that  CEneus  once  neglected  to  sacrifice  to 
Diana  (Artemis),  in  consequence  of  which  she 
sent  a  monstrous  boar  into  the  territory  of  Ca- 
lydon, which  was  hunted  by  Meleager.  The 
hero  Bellerophon  was  hospitably  entertained  by 
CEneus,  and  received  from  him  a  costly  girdle 
as  a  present. 

(ENIADA  (Oivtdtiat :  now  Trigardon  or  Trikh- 
ardo),  an  ancient  town  of  Acarnania,  situated 
on  the  Achelous,  near  its  mouth,  and  surrounded 
by  marshes  caused  by  the  overflowing  of  the 
river,  which  thus  protected  it  from  hostile  at- 
tacks. It  was  called  in  ancient  times  ERYSICHE 
,  and  its  inhabitants  ERYSICH^EI('EPV- 
;  and  it  probably  derived  its  later  name 
from  the  mythical  CEneus,  the  grandfather  of 
Diomedes.  Unlike  the  other  cities  of  Acar- 
nania, CEiiiadse  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Spar- 
tans in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  At  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  town  was  taken  by 
the  .  I  :ii>li:ms,  who  expelled  the  inhabitants;  but 
the  Aetolians  were  expelled  in  their  turn  by 
Philip  V.,  king  of  Macedonia,  who  surrounded 
the  place  with  strong  fortifications.  The  Ro- 
mans restored  the  town  to  the  Acarnanians. 
The  fortress  Nesus  or  Nasus,  belonging  to  the 
territory  of  CEniadae,  was  situated  in  a  small 
lake  near  (Eniadae. 

(ENIDES,  a  patronymic  from  CEneus,  and  hence 
given  to  Meleager,  the  son  of  CEneus,  and  Dio- 
medes, the  grandson  of  CEneus 

567 


CENO. 

[(Euro  (Ohu).     Vid.  ANIUS.] 

(ENOANDA  orCENEANDA.a  town  ofAsiaMinor, 
in  the  northwest  of  Pisidia,  or  tke  district  of 
Cabalia,  subject  to  Cibyra. 

[(ENOATIS  (Qivuurif),  a  surname  ofDiana(Ar- 
temis),  who  was  worshipped  in  Argolic  CEnoe, 
where  a  temple  was  said  to  have  been  built  to 
her  by  Pratus.] 

GEtJOBARAS  (Otvo^u'/jaj-),  a  tributary  of  the 
Orontes,  flowing  through  the  plain  of  Antioch, 
;.n  Syria. 

CENOE  (Qivoq:  Otvoatof).  1.  AdemusofAttica, 
belonging  to  the  tribe  Hippothoontis,  near  Eleu- 
therae,  on  the  frontiers  of  Boeotia,  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Peloponnesian  war. — 2.  A  de- 
mus  of  Attica,  near  Marathon,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  Aiantis,  and  also  to  the  Tetrapolis. — 3.  A 
fortress  of  the  Corinthians,  on  the  Corinthian 
Gulf,  between  the  promontory  Olmiae  and  the 
frontier  of  Megaris. — 4.  A  town  in  Argolis,  on 
the  Arcadian  frontier,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ar- 
temisium. — 5.  A  town  in  Elis,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Selleis. — 6.  A  town  in  the  island  Icarus 
or  Icaria. 

(ENOMAUS  (Olvoftaof).  1.  King  of  Pisa  in 
Elis,  was  son  of  Mars  (Ares)  and  Harpinna,  the 
daughter  of  Asopus,  and  husband  of  the  Pleiad 
Sterope,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Hip- 
podamia.  According  to  others,  he  was  a  son 
of  Mars  (Ares)  and  Sterope,  or  a  son  of  Alxion. 
An  oracle  had  declared  that  he  should  perish  by 
the  hands  of  his  son-in-law ;  and  as  his  horses 
were  swifter  than  those  of  any  other  mortal,  he 
declared  that  all  who  came  forward  as  suitors 
for  Hippodamia's  hand  should  contend  with  him 
in  the  chariot-race ;  that  whoever  conquered 
should  receive  her ;  and  that  whoever  was  con- 
quered should  suffer  death.  The  race-course 
extended  from  Pisa  to  the  altar  of  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon), on  the  Corinthian  Isthmus.  The  suitor 
started  with  Hippodamia  in  a  chariot,  and  CEno- 
maus  then  hastened  with  his  swift  horses  after 
the  lovers.  He  had  overtaken  and  slain  many 
a  suitor,  when  Pelops,  the  son  of  Tantalus,  came 
to  Pisa.  Pelops  bribed  Myrtilus,  the  charioteer 
of  (Enomaus,  to  take  out  the  linch-pins  from 
the  wheels  of  his  master's  chariot,  and  he  re- 
ceived from  Neptune  (Poseidon)  a  golden  char- 
iot and  most  rapid  horses.  In  the  race  which 
followed,  the  chariot  of  (Enomaus  broke  down, 
and  he  fell  out  and  was  killed.  Thus  Pelops 
obtained  Hippodamia  and  the  kingdom  of  Pisa. 
There  are  some  variations  in  this  story,  such 
as  that  (Enomaus  was  himself  in  love  with 
his  daughter,  and  for  this  reason  slew  her  lov- 
ers. Myrtilus  also  is  said  to  have  loved  Hip- 
podamia, and,  as  she  favored  the  suit  of  Pe- 
lops, she  persuaded  Myrtilus  to  take  the  linch- 
pins out  of  the  wheels  of  her  father's  chariot. 
As  (Enomaus  was  breathing  his  last,  he  pro- 
nounced a  curse  upoi,  Myrtilus.  This  curse 
had  its  desired  effect ;  for,  as  Pelops  refused  to 
give  to  Myrtilus  the  reward  he  had  promised, 
or  as  Myrtilus  had  attempted  to  dishonor  Hip- 
podamia, Pelops  thrust  him  down  from  Cape 
Geraestus.  Myrtilus,  while  dying,  likewise  pro- 
nounced a  curse  upon  Pelops,  which  was  the 
cause  of  all  the  calamities  that  afterward  befell 
his  house.  The  tomb  of  CEnomaus  was  shown 
on  the  River  Cladeus  in  Elis.  His  house  was 
destroyed  by  lightning,  and  only  one  pillar  of  it 
568 


CENUSSA. 

remained  standing.  —  [2.  A  Trojan  hero,  slain  by 
Idomeneus  before  Troy.  —  3.  A  Grecian  hero, 
slain  by  Hector.]  —  4.  Of  Gadara,  a  Cynic  philos- 
opher, who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian 
or  somewhat  later,  but  before  Porphyry.  He 
wrote  a  work  to  expose  the  oracles,  of  which 
considerable  fragments  are  preserved  by  Euse- 
bius.  —  5.  A  tragic  poet.  Vid.  DIOGENES,  No.  5. 

(ENONE  (Oivuvri),  daughter  of  the  river-god 
Cebren,  and  wife  of  Paris,  before  he  carried 
off  Helen.  Vid.  PARIS. 

(ENONE  or  (ENOPIA,  the  ancient  name  of 


(ENOPHYTA  (TU  QivoQvTO.  :  now  /nut),  a  town 
in  Boeotia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Asopus,  and 
on  the  road  from  Tanagra  to  Oropus,  memor- 
able for  the  victory  gained  here  by  the  Atheni- 
ans over  the  Boeotians,  B.C.  456. 

(ENOPIDES  (Oivonidw),  of  Chios,  a  distinguish- 
ed astronomer  and  mathematician,  perhaps  a 
contemporary  of  Anaxagoras.  (Enopides  de- 
rived most  of  his  astronomical  knowledge  from 
the  priests  and  astronomers  of  Egypt,  with 
whom  he  lived  for  -some  time.  He  obtained 
from  this  source  his  knowledge  of  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  the  discovery  of  which  he  is  said 
to  have  claimed.  The  length  of  the  solar  year 
was  fixed  by  (Enopides  at  three  hundred  and 
sixty-five  days,  and  somewhat  less  than  nine 
hours.  He  is  said  to  have  discovered  the 
twelfth  and  twenty-third  propositions  of  the 
first  book  of  Euclid,  and  the  quadrature  of  the 
meniscus. 

[(ENOPIA,   ancient  name  of  ^Egina.      Vid. 


CENOPION  (OlvoTriuv),  son  of  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus) and  husband  of  the  nymph  Helice,  by 
whom  he  became  the  father  of  Thalus,  Euan- 
thes,  Melas,  Salagus,  Athamas,  and  Merope, 
Aerope  or  Haaro.  Some  writers  call  (Enopion 
a  son  of  Rhadamanthys  by  Ariadne,  and  a 
brother  of  Staphylus.  From  Crete  he  migrated 
with  his  sons  to  Chios,  which  Rhadamanthys 
had  assigned  to  him  as  his  habitation.  When 
king  of  Chios,  the  giant  Orion  sued  for  the 
hand  of  his  daughter  Merope.  As  CEnopion  re- 
fused to  give  her  to  Orion,  the  latter  violated 
Merope,  whereupon  CEnopion  put  out  his  eyes, 
and  expelled  him  from  the  island.  Orion  went 
to  Lemnos  ;  he  was  afterward  cured  of  his 
blindness,  and  returned  to  Chios  to  take  ven- 
geance on  CEnopion.  But  the  latter  was  not 
to  be  found  in  Chios,  for  his  friends  had  con- 
cealed him  in  the  earth,  so  that  Orion,  unable 
to  discover  him,  went  to  Crete. 

CENOTRI,  (ENOTRIA.     Vid.  ITALIA. 

(ENOTRIDES,  two  small  islands  in  the  Tyr- 
rhene Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Lucania,  and  oppo- 
site the  town  of  Elea  or  Velia  and  the  mouth 
of  the  Helos. 

(ENOTROP^.     Vid.  ANIDS. 

(ENOTRUS  (OmJT-pof),  youngest  son  of  Ly. 
caon,  emigrated  with  a  colony  from  Arcadia  to 
Italy,  and  gave  the  name  of  CEnotria  to  the 
district  in  which  he  settled. 

(ENUS  (Oivo£(  :  now  Kelesina),  a  river  in  La- 
conia,  rising  on  the  frontier  of  Arcadia,  and 
flowing  into  the  Eurotas  north  of  Sparta. 
There  was  a  town  of  the  same  name  upon  this 
river,  celebrated  for  its  wine. 

ivovaoai,  Qlvovaat,).     1.  A  group 


CEOBAZUS. 

of  islands  lying  off  the  southern  point  of  Mes- 
senia,  opposite  to  the  port  of  Phcenicus :  the 
two  largest  of  them  are  now  called  Sapienza 
and  Cabrera. — 2.  (Now  bpalmadori  or  Egonuses), 
a  group  of  live  islands  between  Chios  and  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

[GEoBAzus  (Ol66afa).     1.  A  Persian,  who, 
when  Darius  Hystaspis  was  on  the  point  of 
marching  from  Susa  on  his  Scythian  expedi- 
tion, besought  him  to  leave  him  one  of  his  three 
sons,  all  of  whom  were  in  the  army.    Darius 
ordered  them  all  three  to  be  put  to  death. — 2. 
Father  of  Siromitres,  who  led  the  Paricanians  ' 
in  the  Greek  expedition  of  Xerxes. — 3.  A  noble  ; 
Persian,  who,  when  the  Greek  fleet  appeared  j 
in  the  Hellespont  after  the  battle  of  Mycale, 
fled  from  Cardia  to  Sestus ;  he  afterward  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Thracians,  and  was  by  j 
them  sacrified  to  their  god  Pleistorus.] 

[CEoLvcus  (Of'oAwcoc),  a  son  of  Theras  of  | 
Sparta,  and  brother  of  Jfigeus,  was  honored  at 
Sparta  with  a  heroum.] 

QEoNus  (Oiuvof),  son  of  Licymnius  of  Midea 
in  Argolis,  first  victor  at  Olympia  in  the  foot-  j 
race.  He  is  said  to  have  been  killed  at  Sparta 
by  the  sons  of  Hippocoon,  but  was  avenged  by 
Hercules,  whose  kinsman  he  was,  and  was  hon- 
ored with  a  monument  near  the  temple  of  Her- 
cules. 

OEROE  ('Qepojj),  an  island  in  Bceotia,  formed 
by  the  River  Asopus,  and  opposite  Plataeae. 

[GEsALCEs,  brother  of  Gala,  king  of  the  Nu- 
midian  tribe  of  the  Massylians,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded on  the  throne,  according  to  the  Numid- 
ian  law  of  inheritance.] 

(Escus  (now  Isker  or  Esker),  called  Osclus 
(Oonios)  by  Thucydides,  and  Scius  (Z/u'of)  by 
Herodotus,  a  river  in  Moesia,  which  rises  in 
Mount  Scomius  according  to  Thucydides,  or  in 
Mount  Rhodope  according  to  Pliny,  but  in  real- 
ity on  the  western  slope  of  Mount  Haemus,  and 
flows  into  the  Danube  near  a  town  of  the  same 
name  (now  Oreszovitz). 

[CEsTRvuNiDEs  INSULT,  a  group  of  islands 
rich  in  tin  and  copper,  in  the  Sinus  GEstrymni- 
cus  ;  probably  the  same  with  the  CASSITERIDES 
(q.  v.)  on  the  coast  of  Britannia.] 

OSsYMA  (Qiav/tq :   Oiffvpaloc),  called  /Esy.MA 
'Mavfj-Tj)  by  Homer  (//.,  viii.,  304),  an  ancient 
0     town  in  Thrace,  between  the  Strymon  and  the 
Nestus,  a  colony  of  the  Thasians. 

GET  A  (Qiri),  ra  Qiraiuv  ovpea :  now  Kata- 
vothra),  a  rugged  pile  of  mountains  in  the  south 
of  Thessaly,  an  eastern  branch  of  Mount  Pin- 
dus,  extended  south  of  Mount  Othrys  along  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Sperchius  to  the  Maliac 
Gulf  at  Thermopylae,  thus  forming  the  northern 
barrier  of  Greece.  Strabo  and  Livy  give  the 
name  of  Callidromus  to  the  eastern  part  of 
(Eta,  an  appellation  which  does  not  occur  in 
Herodotus  and  the  earlier  writers.  Respecting 
the  pass  of  Mount  CEta,  vid.  THERMOPYL.*. 
GEta  was  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  mount- 
ain on  which  Hercules  burned  himself  to  death. 
From  this  mountain  the  south  of  Thessaly  bor- 
dering on  Phocis  was  called  GET^JA  (Otra/o), 
und  its  inhabitants  GEr^i  (Oi-aioi). 

(ETYLUS  (OlrvAof :  OtrWtof  :  now  Vitylo), 
also  called  TYLUS  (TiJAoc),  an  ancient  town  in 
Laconia,  on  the  Messenian  Gulf,  south  of  Thai- 
ama,  called  after  an  Argive  hero  of  this  name. 


OICLES. 

[CSuM  (OIov),  a  mountain  fortress  in  easterr 
Locris,  lying  above  Opus,  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake.] 

OFELLA,  a  man  of  sound  sense  and  of  a 
straightforward  character,  whom  Horace  con- 
trasts with  the  Stoic  quacks  of  his  time. 

OFELLA,  Q.  LUCRETIUS,  orignally  belonged  to 
the  Marian  party,  but  deserted  to  Sulla,  who 
appointed  him  to  the  command  of  the  army 
employed  in  the  blockade  of  Prasneste,  B.C.  82 
Ofella  became  a  candidate  for  the  consulship 
in  the  following  year,  although  he  had  not  yet 
been  either  quaestor  or  praetor,  thus  acting  in 
defiance  of  one  of  Sulla's  laws.  He  was,  in 
consequence,  put  to  death  by  Sulla's  orders. 

OFILICJS,  a  distinguished  Roman  jurist,  was 
one  of  the  pupils  of  Servius  Sulpicius,  and  a 
friend  of  Cicero  and  Caesar.  His  works  are 
often  cited  in  the  Digest. 

OOLASA  (now  Monte  Christo),  a  small  island 
off  the  coast  of  Etruria. 

OGULNII,  Q.  and  CN.,  two  brothers,  tribunes 
of  the  plebs  B.C.  300,  carried  a  law  by  which 
the  number  of  the  pontiffs  was  increased  from 
four  to  eight,  and  that  of  the  augurs  from  four 
to  nine,  and  which  enacted  that  four  of  the 
pontiffs  and  five  of  the  augurs  should  be  taken 
from  the  plebs.  Besides  these  eight  pontiffs 
there  was  the  pontifex  maximus,  who  is  gen- 
erally not  included  when  the  number  of  pontiffs 
is  spoken  of. 

OGYGIA  ('Q-yvyta).  1.  The  mythical  island  of 
Calypso  is  placed  by  Homer  in  the  navel  or  cen- 
tral point  of  the  sea,  far  away  from  all  lands. 
Later  writers  pretended  to  find  it  in  the  Ionian 
Sea,  near  the  promontory  Lacinium,  in  Brut- 
tium.— [2.  Vid.  OGYGUS.] 

OGYGUS  or  OGYGES  ('Qywyof),  sometimes  call- 
ed a  Boeotian  autochthon,  and  sometimes  sor> 
of  Boeotus,  and  king  of  the  Hectenes,  is  saio 
to  have  been  the  first  ruler  of  the  territory  of 
Thebes,  which  was  called  after  him  OGYGIA. 
In  his  reign  the  waters  of  Lake  Copais  rose 
above  its  banks,  and  inundated  the  whole  val- 
ley of  Bceotia.  This  flood  is  usually  called 
after  him  the  Ogygian.  The  name  of  Ogygus 
is  also  connected  with  Attic  story,  for  in  Attica 
an  Ogygian  flood  is  likewise  mentioned,  and  he 
is  described  as  the  father  of  the  Attic  hero 
Eleusis,  and  as  the  father  of  Daira,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Oceanus.  In  the  Boeotian  tradition  he 
was  the  father  of  Alalcomenia,  Thelxinoea,  and 
Aulis.  Bacchus  is  called  Ogygius  dens  because 
he  is  said  to  have  been  born  at  Thebes. 

OGYRIS  ('Q-yvptf ),  an  island  of  the  Erythraean 
Sea  (now  Indian  Ocean),  off  the  coast  of  Car- 
mania,  at  a  distance  of  two  thousand  stadia 
(two  hundred  geographical  miles),  noted  as  the 
alleged  burial-place  of  the  ancient  king  Ery- 
thras  ;  but  /•/./.  OARACTA. 

OICLES  or  OICLEUS  ('Oi'/cP.^f,  'OticAevf),  son  ol 
Antiphates,  grandson  of  Melampus,  and  father 
of  Amphiaraus,  of  Argos.  He  is  also  called  a 
son  of  Amphiaraus,  or  a  son  of  Mantius,  tho 
brother  of  Antiphates.  Oicles  accompanied 
Hercules  on  his  expedition  against  Laomedon 
of  Troy,  and  was  there  slain  in  battle.  Ac- 
cording to  other  traditions,  he  returned  home 
from  the  expedition,  and  dwelt  in  Arcadia, 
where  he  was  visited  by  his  grandson  Alcmae- 
on  and  where  his  tomb  was  shown. 

569 


OILEUS. 

OILEUS  ('OiAfuf),  son  of  Hodcedocus  and  Lao- 
nome,  grandson  of  Cynus,  and  great-grandson 
of  Opus,  was  a  king  of  the  Locrians,  and  mar- 
ried to  Eriopis,  by  whom  he  became  the  father 
of  Ajax,  who  is  hence  called  Ollldes,  Oitiades, 
and  Ajax  Ollei.  OTleus  was  also  the  father  of 
Medon  by  Rhene.  He  is  mentioned  among  the 
Argonauts. 

[OLARION  or  OLARIONENSIS  INSCLA  (now  Ole- 
ron),  an  island'in  the  Sinus  Aquitanicus,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Gallia.] 

OLBA  or  OLBE  ("OAfr?),  an  ancient  inland  city 
of  Cilicia,  in  the  mountains,  above  Soloe",  and 
between  the  Rivers  Lamus  and  Cydnus.  Its 
foundation  was  ascribed  by  mythical  tradition 
to  Ajax  the  son  of  Teucer,  whose  alleged  de- 
scendants, the  priests  of  the  very  ancient  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  once  ruled  over  all  Cilicia 
Aspera.  In  later  times  it  belonged  to  Isauria, 
and  was  the  see  of  a  bishop. 

OLBASA  ('OMaoa).  1.  A  city  of  Cilicia  As- 
pera, at  the  foot  of  the  Taurus,  north  of  Seli- 
nus,  and  northwest  of  Caystrus  ;  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  OLBA. — 2.  A  city  in  the  southeast 
of  Lycaonia,  southwest  of  Cybistra,  in  the  dis- 
trict called  Antiochiana. — 3.  A  city  in  the  north 
of  Pisidia,  between  Pednelissus  and  Selge. 

OLBE.     Vid.  OLBA. 

OLBIA  ('OXfit'a).  1.  (Now  probably  Eoubes, 
near  Hie~rcs),  a  colony  of  Massilia,  on  the  coast 
of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  a  hill  called  Olbianus, 
east  of  Telo  Martius  (now  Toulon). — 2.  (Now 
probably  Terra  Nova),  a  very  ancient  city,  near 
the  northern  end  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  isl- 
and of  Sardinia,  with  the  only  good  harbor  on 
this  coast,  and  therefore  the  usual  landing- 
place  for  persons  coming  from  Rome.  A  myth- 
ical tradition  ascribed  its  foundation  to  the 
Thespiadae.  —  3.  In  Bithynia.  Vid.  ASTACUS. 
The  Gulf  of  Astacus  was  also  called  from  it 
Sinus  Olbianus. — 4.  A  fortress  on  the  western  ! 
frontier  of  Pamphylia,  on  the  coast,  west  of 
the  River  Catarrhactes  ;  not  improbably  on  the 
same  site  as  the  later  AVTALIA. — 5.  Vid.  BORYS- 
THENES. 

[OLBIUS  ("O/l&of),  a  river  in  the  north  of  Ar- 
cadia, near  Pheneus,  by  the  Arcadians  also 
called  AROANIUS.] 

OLCADES,  an  ancient  people  in  Hispania  Tar- 
raconensis,  north  of  Carthago  Nova,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Anas,  in  a  part  of  the  country 
afterward  inhabited  by  the  Oretani.  They  are 
mentioned  only  in  the  wars  of  the  Carthaginians 
with  the  inhabitants  of  Spain.  Hannibal  trans- 
planted some  of  the  Olcades  to  Africa.  Their 
chief  towns  were  Althaea  and  Carteia,  the  site 
of  both  of  which  is  uncertain  ;  the  latter  place 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  celebrated 
CARTEIA  in  Beetica. 

OLCINIUM  (Olciniatae  :  now  Dulcigno),  an  an- 
cient town  on  the  coast  of  Illyria,  southwest 
of  Scodra,  belonging  to  the  territory  of  Gentius. 
OLEARUS.      Vid.  OLIARUS. 
OLEASTRUM.     1.  A  town  of  the  Cosetani,  in 
Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  road  from  Der- 
tosa  to  Tarraco,  probably  the  place  from  which 
the  plumbum  Oleastrense  derived  its  name. — 2. 
A  town  in  Hispania  Baetica,  near  Gades. 

OLEN  ('fi^v),  a  mythical  personage,  who  is 
represented  as  the  earliest  Greek  lyric  poet, 
and  the  first  author  of  sacred  hymns  in  hex- 
570 


OLIZON. 

ameter  verse.  He  is  closely  connected  with 
the  worship  of  Apollo,  of  whom,  in  one  legend, 
he  was  made  the  prophet.  His  connection  with 
Apollo  is  also  marked  by  his  being  called  Hy- 
perborean, and  one  of  the  establishes  of  or- 
acles, though  the  more  common  story  made  him 
a  native  of  Lycia.  He  is  said  to  have  settled 
at  Delos.  His  name  seems  to  signify  simply 
the  flute-player.  Of  the  ancient  hymns  which 
went  under  his  name,  Pausanias  mentions  those 
to  Juno  (Hera),  to  AchaeTa,  and  to  Ilithyia ;  the 
last  was  in  celebration  of  the  birth  of  Apollo 
and  Diana  (Artemis). 

[OLENIA  RUPES  ('Qfovta  irirpa),  the  Olenian 
rock  mentioned  in  the  Iliad  (ii.,  617);  according 
to  Strabo,  the  summit  of  Mount  Scollis  in  Acha- 
ia,  on  the  borders  of  Elis.J 

[OLENNIUS,  one  of  the  chief  centurions  plac- 
ed in  command  over  the  Frisii ;  by  his  harshness 
he  caused  an  insurrection  of  the  people,  from 
whose  fury  flight  alone  preserved  him,  B.C.  28.] 

OLENUS  ('QXevof  :  'Qfaviof).  1.  An  ancient 
town  in  ^Etolia,  near  New  Pleuron,  and  at  th^ 
foot  of  Mount  Aracynthus,  is  mentioned  b_ 
Homer,  but  was  destroyed  by  the  ^Etolians  at 
an  early  period. — 2.  A  town  in  Achaia,  between 
Patrae  and  Dyme,  refused  to  join  the  Achaean 
league  on  its  restoration  in  B.C.  280.  In  the 
time  of  Strabo  the  town  was  deserted.  The 
goat  Amalthaea,  which  suckled  the  infant  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus),  is  called  Olenia  capclla  by  the  poets, 
either  because  the  goat  was  supposed  to  have 
been  born  near  the  town  of  Olenus,  and  to  have 
been  subsequently  transferred  to  Crete,  or  be- 
cause the  nymph  Amalthaea,  to  whom  the  goat 
belonged,  was  a  daughter  of  Olenus. 

OLGASSYS  ('OZyaocruf  :  now  Al-Gez  Dagh),  a 
lofty,  steep,  and  rugged  mountain  chain  of  Asia 
Minor,  extending  nearly  west  and  east  through 
the  east  of  Bithynia,  and  the  centre  of  Paphla- 
gonia  to  the  River  Halys,  nearly  parallel  to  the 
chain  of  Olympus,  of  which  it  may  be  consid 
ered  as  a  branch.  Numerous  temples  were 
built  upon  it  by  the  Paphlagonians. 

OLIARUS  ('QAtapof,  'fl/l&ipof :  'Qhtuptof  :  now 
Antiparos),  a  small  island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea, 
one  of  the  Cyclades,  west  of  Paros,  originally 
colonized  by  the  Phoenicians,  is  celebrated  in 
modern  times  for  its  stalactite  grotto,  which  is 
not  mentioned  by  ancient  writers. 

OLIGYRTUS  ('OAtyvprof),  a  fortress  in  the 
northeast  of  Arcadia,  on  a  mountain  of  the  same 
name,  between  Stymphalus  and  Caphyse. 

[OLINA  (now  probably  Orne),  a  small  river  in 
the  west  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  between  the 
mouth  of  the  Sequana  and  the  promontory  Go- 
baeum,  flowing  through  the  territory  of  the  Vi- 
ducasses.] 

OLISIPO  (now  Lisbon),  a  town  in  Lusitania, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus,  near  its  mouth, 
and  a  Roman  municipium  with  the  surname 
Felicitas  Julia.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  swift 
horses.  Its  name  is  sometimes  written  ULYS- 
SIPPO,  because  it  was  supposed  by  some  to  have 
been  the  town  which  Ulysses  was  said  to  have 
founded  in  Spain ;  but  the  town  to  which  this 
legend  referred  was  situated  in  the  mountains 
of  Turdetania. 

OLIZON  ('Ofa&v),  a  town  of  Thessaly,  on  the 
coast  of  Magnesia  and  on  the  Pagassean  Gulf 
mentioned  by  Homer. 


ULLIUS. 

OLLIUS  (now  Oglio),  a  river  in  Gallia  Trans- 
padana,  falls  into  the  Po  southwest  of  Mantua. 

[OLLIUS,  T.,  the  father  of  Poppaea  Sabina, 
was  put  to  death  toward  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Tiberius.] 

OLMI-*  ('OA/ztat),  a  promontory  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Corinth,  which  separated  the  Corinthian 
and  Alcyonian  Gulfs. 

[OLMIUS  ('Ofymof),  a  small  river  flowing  from 
Helicon,  which  unites  with  the  Permessus 
near  Haliartus,  and  soon  after  falls  into  Lake 
Copals.] 

OLOOSSOV  ('QAooGouv  :  'QXooaaov  iof  :  now 
Elassona),  a  town  of  the  Perrheebi  in  Thessaly, 
in  the  district  of  Hestiaeotis.  Homer  (//.,  ii., 
739)  calls  it  "  white,"  an  epithet  which  it  ob- 
tained, according  to  Strabo,  from  the  whiteness 
of  its  soil. 

OLOPHYXDS  ('0/.60t>fof  :  'OXo^v^iof),  a  town 
of  Macedonia,  on  the  peninsula  of  Mount  Athos. 

[OLORUS  or  OROLUS  ("OAopof  or  "Opo/lof).    1. 
A  king  of  Thrace,  whose  daughter,  Hegesipyla,  j 
was  married  to  Miltiades.—  2.  Apparently  grand-  I 
son  of  the  above,  and  son.  of  Hegesipyla,  was  j 
probably  the  offspring  of  a  second  marriage  con- 
tracted by  her  after  the  death  of  Miltiades.   This 
Olorus  was  the  father  of  THUCYDIDES.] 

OLP^E  or  OLPE  ("OXirai,  'Ofay  :  'OAn-atof). 
1.  (Now  Arapi),  a  town  of  the  Amphilochi,  in 
Acarnania,  on  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  northwest  of 
Argos  Amphilochicum.  —  2.  A  town  of  the  Locri 
Ozolae. 

OLURUS  ("OAot/pof  :  'OAovptof).  1.  A  town  in 
Achaia,  near  Pellene,  on  the  Sicyonian  frontier. 
—  2.  Also  OLUBIS  ("OAovptf),  (felled  DOEICM 
(Aupiov)  by  Homer,  a  town  in  Messenia,  south 
of  the  River  Neda. 

OLUS  ('O/loiJf  :  'O/Lowriof),  a  town  and  harbor 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Crete,  near  the  promon- 
tory of  Zephyrium. 

OLYBRIUS,  Amcius,  Roman  emperor  A.D.  472, 
was  raised  to  this  dignity  by  Ricimer,  who  de- 
posed Anthemius.  He  died  in  the  course  of  the 
same  year,  after  a  reign  of  three  months  and 
thirteen  days.  His  successor  was  GLYCERIUS. 


voi),  the  names  of  the 
district  about  the  Mysian  Olympus,  and  of  its 
inhabitants. 

OLYMPIA  ('OAv^jn'a),  the  name  of  a  small  plain 
in  Elis,  in  which  the  Olympic  games  were  cele- 
brated. It  was  surrounded  on  the  north  and 
northeast  by  the  mountains  Cronion  and  Olym- 
pus, on  the  south  by  the  River  Alpheus,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  River  Cladeus.  In  this  plain 
was  the  sacred  grove  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  called 
Altis  ("A/lrtf,  an  old  Elean  form  of  <U<rof,  a 
grove),  situated  at  the  angle  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  rivers  Alpheus  and  Cladeus,  and 
three  hundred  stadia  distant  from  the  town  of 
Pisa.  The  Altis  and  its  immediate  neighbor- 
hood were  adorned  with  numerous  temples, 
statues,  and  public  buildings,  to  which  the  gen- 
eral appellation  of  Olympia  was  given  ;  but  there 
was  no  town  of  this  name.  The  Altis  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall.  It  contained  the  following 
temples  :  1.  The  Olympieum,  or  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus)  Olympius,  which  was  the  most  cele- 
brated of  all  the  buildings  at  Olympia,  and  which 
contained  the  master-piece  of  Greek  art,  the  co- 
ossal  statue  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  by  Phidias.  The 


OLYMPIAS. 

stitue  was  made  of  ivory  and  gold,  and  the  god 
was  represented  as  seated  on  a  throne  of  cedar- 
wood,  adorned  with  gold,  ivory,  ebony,  and  pre- 
cious stones.  Vid.  PHIDIAS.  2.  The  Heraum, 
or  temple  of  Hera  (Juno),  which  contained  the 
celebrated  chest  of  Cypselus,  and  was  situated 
north  of  the  Olympieum.  3.  The  Metroum,  or 
temple  of  the  Mother  of  the  gods.  The  othei 
public  buildings  in  the  Altis  most  worthy  of  no 
tice  were  the  Thesauri,  or  treasuries  of  the  dif 
ferent  states  which  had  sent  dedicatory  off^r- 
ings  to  the  Olympian  Jupiter  (Zeus),  situated  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Cronion ;  the  Zanes,  or  statues 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  which  had  been  erected  from 
fines  imposed  upon  those  who  had  been  guilty 
of  fraud  or  other  irregularities  in  the  Olympic 
contests,  and  which  were  placed  on  a  stone  plat- 
form near  the  Thesauri ;  the  Prytaneum,  in 
which  the  Olympic  victors  dined  after  the  con- 
tests had  been  brought  to  a  close  ;  the  Bouleu- 
terion,  in  which  all  the  regulations  relating  to 
the  games  were  made,  and  which  contained  a 
statue  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Horcius,  before  which 
the  usual  oaths  were  taken  by  the  judges  and 
the  combatants ;  thePkilippeum,  a  circular  build- 
ing of  brick,  surmounted  with  a  dome,  which 
was  erected  by  Philip  after  the  battle  of  Chae- 
ronea,  and  which  was  situated  near  one  of  the 
gates  of  the  Altis,  close  to  the  Prytaneum  ;  the 
Hippodamium,  a  sacred  inclosure,  erected  in 
honor  of  Hippodamla  ;  the  Pelopium,  a  sacred 
inclosure,  erected  in  honor  of  Pelops.  The  two 
chief  buildings  outside  the  Altis  were  the  Stadi- 
um, to  the  east  of  Mount  Cronion,  in  which  the 
gymnastic  games  were  celebrated,  andtheHip- 
podromus,  a  little  southeast  of  the  Stadium,  in 
which  the  chariot-races  took  place.  At  the 
place  which  formed  the  connection  between  tho 
Stadium  and  Hippodromus,  the  Hellanodieae,  01 
judges  of  the  Olympic  games,  had  their  seats 
For  details,  vid.  Diet,  of  Anliq.,  arts.  HIPPODRO 
MUS  and  STADIUM.  The  Olympic  games  were 
celebrated  from  the  earliest  times  in  Greece, 
and  their  establishment  was  assigned  to  various 
mythical  personages.  There  was  an  interval 
of  four  years  between  each  celebration  of  the 
festival,  which  interval  was  called  an  Olympiad ; 
but  the  Olympiads  were  not  employed  as  a 
chronological  era  till  the  victory  of  Coroebus  in 
the  foot-race,  B.C.  776.  An  account  of  the 
Olympic  games  and  of  the  Olympiads  is  given 
in  the  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  arts.  OLYMPIA  and  OLYM- 

PIA8. 

OLYMPIAS  ('O^Trtaf).  1.  Wife  of  Philip  II., 
king  of  Macedonia,  and  mother  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  was  the  daughter  of  Neoptolemus  I., 
king  of  Epirus.  She  was  married  to  Philip  B.C. 
359.  The  numerous  amours  of  Philip,  and  the 
passionate  and  jealous  character  of  Olympias, 
occasioned  frequent  disputes  between  them  ; 
and  when  Philip  married  Cleopatra,  the  niece 
of  Attalus  (337),  Olympias  withdrew  from  Mace- 
donia, and  took  refuge  at  the  court  of  her  brother 
Alexander,  king  of  Epirus.  It  was  generally 
believed  that  she  lent  her  support  to  the  assas- 
sination of  Philip,  336  ;  but  it  is  hardly  credible 
that  she  evinced  her  approbation  of  that  deed 
in  the  open  manner  asserted  by  some  writers. 
After  the  death  of  Philip  she  returned  to  Ma- 
cedonia, where  she  enjoyed  great  influence 
through  the  affection  of  Alexander.  On  the 

671 


OLYMPIODORUS. 

death  of  the  latter  (323)  she  withdrew  from 
Macedonia,  where  her  enemy  Antipater  had 
the  undisputed  control  of  affairs,  and  took  ref- 
uge in  Epirus.  Here  she  continued  to  live,  as 
it  were,  in  exile,  until  the  death  of  Antipater 
(319)  presented  a  new  opening  to  her  ambition. 
She  gave  her  support  to  the  new  regent  Poly- 
sperclion,  in  opposition  to  Cassander,  who  had 
formed  an  alliance  with  Eurydice  the  wife  of 
Philip  Arrhidaeus,  the  nominal  king  of  Mace- 
donia. In  317,  Olympias,  resolving  to  obtain 
the  supreme  power  in  Macedonia,  invaded  that 
country  along  with  Polysperchon,  defeated  Eu- 
rydice in  battle,  and  put  both  her  and  her  hus- 
band to  death.  Olympias  followed  up  her  venge- 
ance by  the  execution  of  Nicanor,  the  brother 
of  Cassander,  as  well  as  of  one  hundred  of  his 
leading  partisans  among  the  Macedonian  no- 
bles. Cassander,  who  was  at  that  time  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  hastened  to  turn  his  arms  against 
Macedonia.  Olympias,  on  his  approach,  threw 
herself  (together  with  Roxana  and  the  young 
Alexander)  into  Pydna,  where  she  was  closely 
blockaded  by  Cassander  throughout  the  winter. 
At  length,  in  the  spring  of  316,  she  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  to  Cassander,  who  caused 
her  to  be  put  to  death.  Olympias  was  not  with- 
out something  of  the  grandeur  and  loftiness  of 
spirit  which  distinguished  her  son,  but  her  un- 
governable passions  led  her  to  acts  of  sanguin- 
ary cruelty  that  must  forever  disgrace  her  name. 
— [2.  Daughter  of  Pyrrhus  I.,  king  of  Epirus, 
and  wife  of  her  brother  Alexander  II.  After 
Sis  death  she  assumed  the  regency  of  the  king- 
om  on  behalf  of  her  two  sons,  Pyrrhus  and 
Ptolemy ;  and,  in  order  to  strengthen  herself 
against  the  ^Etolians,  gave  her  daughter  Phthia 
in  marriage  to  Demetrius  II.,  king  of  Mace- 
donia. When  her  sons  had  attained  to  man- 
hood, she  resigned  the  sovereignty  into  the 
hands  of  Pyrrhus,  but  he  did  not  long  retain  it ; 
for  both  he  and  his  brother  Ptolemy  were  soon 
removed  by  death,  and  Olympias  was  so  deeply 
affected  by  this  double  loss  that  she  soon  after 
died  of  grief] 

OLYMPIODORUS  ('Ohvpinodupof).  1.  A  native 
of  Thebes  in  Egypt,  who  lived  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury after  Christ.  He  wrote  a  work  in  twenty- 
two  books  (entitled  'laropiKol  /Wyot),  which  com- 
prised the  history  of  the  Western  empire  under 
the  reign  of  Honorius,  from  A.D.  407  to  Octo- 
ber, A.D.  425.  Olympiodorus  took  up  the  his- 
tory from  about  the  point  at  which  Eunapius 
had  ended.  Vid.  EUNAPICS.  The  original  work 
of  Olympiodorus  is  lost,  but  an  abridgment  of  it 
has  been  preserved  by  Photius.  After  the  death 
of  Honorius,  Olympiodorus  removed  toByzan 
tium,  to  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius. 
Hierocles  dedicated  to  this  Olympiodorus  his 
work  on  Providence  and  Fate.  Vid.  HIEROCLES. 
Olympiodorus  was  a  heathen.  [The  fragments 
of  his  history  are  published  in  the  Byzantine 
Historians,  with  Dexippus,  &c.,  by  Niebuhr, 
Bonn,  1829.] — 2.  A  peripatetic  philosopher,  who 
taught  at  Alexandrea,  where  Proclus  was  one 
of  his  pupils. — 3.  The  last  philosopher  of  celeb- 
rity in  the  Neo-Platonic  school  of  Alexandrea. 
He  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century 
after  Christ,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Jus- 
tinian. His  life  of  Plato,  and  commentaries  on 
several  of  Plato's  Dialogues,  are  still  extant. 
572 


OLYMPUS. 

[Edited  by  Fr.  Creuzer,  Frankfort,  1821-22.  j— 
4.  An  Aristotelic  philosopher,  the  author  of  a 
commentary  on  the  Meteorologica  of  Aristotle, 
which  is  still  extant,  lived  at  Alexandrea  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  sixth  century  after  Christ. 
Like  Simplicius,  to  whom,  however,  he  is  in- 
ferior, he  endeavors  to  reconcile  Plato  and  Ar- 
istotle. 

[OLYMPIODORUS  ('O^vftmodupof).  1 .  An  Athe- 
nian general,  commanded  a  body  of  three  hund- 
red picked  men  at  the  battle  of  Plataeae,  who 
were  engaged  in  a  service  from  which  all  the 
other  Greeks  shrank. — 2.  An  Athenian  general, 
who,  when  Athens  was  attacked  by  Cassander, 
compelled  the  latter  to  withdraw  his  forces. 
He  also  subsequently  rid  the  city  of  the  Mace- 
donian garrison  which  Demetrius  had  stationed 
there,  and  successfully  defended  Athens  against 
Demetrius  himself.] 

OLYMPIUS  ('OM(nrio<;'),  the  Olympian,  occurs 
as  a  surname  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  Hercules,  the 
Muses  (Olympiades),  and,  in  general,  of  all  the 
gods  who  were  believed  to  live  in  Olympus,  in 
contradistinction  from  the  gods  of  the  lower 
world. 

OLYMPIUS  NEMESIANUS.  Vid.  NEMESIANUS. 
OLYMPUS  ("O/lv/zTrof),  the  name  of  two  Greek 
musicians,  of  whom  one  is  mythical  and  the 
other  historical.  1 .  The  elder  Olympus  belongs 
to  the  mythical  genealogy  of  Mysian  and  Phryg- 
ian flute-players — Hyagnis,  Marsyas,  Olympus 
— to  each  of  whom  the  invention  of  the  flute 
was  ascribed,  under  whose  names  we  have  the 
mythical  representation  of  the  contest  between 
the  Phrygian  "auletic  and  the  Greek  citharcedic 
music.  Olympus  was  said  to  have  been  a  na- 
tive of  Mysia,  and  to  have  lived  before  the  Tro- 
jan war.  Olympus  not  unfrequently  appears 
on  works  of  art  as  a  boy,  sometimes  instructed 
by  Marsyas,  and  sometimes  as  witnessing  and 
lamenting  his  fate. — 2.  The  true  Olympus  was 
a  Phrygian,  and  perhaps  belonged  to  a  family 
of  native  musicians,  since  he  was  said  to  be  de- 
scended from  the  first  Olympus.  He  flourished 
about  B.C.  660-620.  Though  a  Phrygian  by 
origin,  Olympus  must  be  reckoned  among  the 
Greek  musicians,  for  all  the  accounts  make 
Greece  the  scene  of  his  artistic  activity  ;  and 
he  may  be  considered  as  having  naturalized  in 
Greece  the  music  of  the  flute,  which  had  previ- 
ously been  almost  peculiar  to  Phrygia. 

[OLYMPUS  ('Otofinof),  the  physician  in  ordi- 
nary to  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt,  aided  her  in 
committing  suicide,  B.C.  30,  and  afterward  pub- 
lished an  account  of  her  death.] 

OLYMPUS  ("OAi^n-of).  1.  In  Europe.  1.  (Grk. 
Elytnbo,  Turk.  Semavat-Eti,  i.  e.,  Abode  of  the 
Celestials).  The  eastern  part  of  the  great  chain 
of  mountains  which  extends  west  and  east  from 
the  Acroceraunian  promontory  on  the  Adriatic 
to  the  Thermaic  Gulf,  and  which  formed  the 
northern  boundary  of  ancient  Greece  proper. 
In  a  wide  sense,  the  name  is  sometimes  applied 
to  all  that  part  of  this  great  chain  which  lies 
east  of  the  central  range  of  Pindus,  and  which 
is  usually  called  the  Cambunian  Mountains  ; 
but  the  more  specific  and  ordinary  use  of  the 
name  Olympus  is  to  denote  the  extreme  eastern 
part  of  the  chain,  which,  striking  off  from  the 
Cambunian  Mountains  to  the  southeast,  skirts 
the  southern  end  of  the  slip  of  coast  called 


OLYNTHUS. 

Piei  ia,  and  forms  at  its  termination  the  north- 
ern wall  of  the  Vale  of  TEMPE.  Its  shape  is 
that  of  a  blunt  cone,  with  its  outline  pictur- 
esquely broken  by  minor  summits  ;  its  height 
is  about  nine  thousand  seven  hundred  feet,  and 
its  chief  summit  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
From  its  position  as  the  boundary  between 
Thessaly  and  Macedonia,  it  is  sometimes  reck- 
oned to  the  former,  sometimes  to  the  latter. 
In  the  Greek  mythology,  Olympus  was  the  chief 
seat  of  the  third  dynasty  of  gods,  of  which 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  was  the  head.  It  was  a  really 
local  conception  with  the  early  poets,  to  be  un- 
derstood literally,  and  not  metaphorically,  that 
these  gods 

"  On  the  snowy  top 

Of  cold  Olympus  ruled  the  middle  air, 

Their  highest  heaven." 

Indeed,  if  Homer  uses  either  of  the   terms 
'OX'j^Trof  and  ovpavof  metaphorically,  it  is  the 
latter  that  is  a  metaphor  for  the  former.     Even 
the  fable  of  the  giants  scaling  heaven  must  he 
understood  in  this  sense ;  not  that  they  placed 
Pelion  and  Ossa  upon  the  top-  of  Olympus  to 
reach  the  still  higher  heaven,  but  that  they  piled 
Pelion  on  the  top  of  Ossa,  and  both  on  the  low- 
er slopes  of  Olympus,  to  scale  the  summit  of 
Olympus  itself,  the  abode  of  the  gods.     Homer 
describes  the  gods  as  having  their  several  pal- 
aces on  the  summit  of  Olympus  ;  as  spending 
the  day  in  the  palace  of  Zeus  (Jupiter),  round 
whom  they  sit  in  solemn  conclave,  while  the 
younger  gods  dance  before  them,  and  the  Muses 
entertain  them  with  the  lyre  and  song.    They 
are  shut  in  from  the  view  of  men  upon  the  earth 
by  a  wall  of  clouds,  the  gates  of  which  are  kept 
by  the  Hours.    The  same  conceptions  are  found 
in  Hesiod,  and  to  a  great  extent  in  the  later 
poets  ;  with  whom,  however,  even  as  early  as 
the  lyric  poets  and  the  tragedians,  the  idea  be- 
comes less  material,  and  the  real  abode  of  the 
gods  is  gradually  transferred  from  the  summit 
of  Olympus  to  the  vault  of  heaven  (i.  e.,  the 
sky)  itself.    This  latter  is  also  the  conception 
of  the  Roman  poets,  so  far,  at  least,  as  any  defi- 
nite idea  can  be  framed  out  of  their  compound 
of  Homer's  language  with  later  notions. — 2.  A 
hill  in  Laconia,  near  Sellasia,  overhanging  the 
River  O2nus. — 3.  Another  name  for  Mount  Ly- 
caeus  in  Arcadia. — II.  In  Asia.     1.  The  MYSIAN 
OLYMPUS    ("OAty/jrof   6   Mv<nof :    now   Keshish 
Dagh,  Ala  Dagh,  Ishik  Dagh,  and  Kiish-Dagh), 
a  chain  of  lofty  mountains  in  the  northwest  of 
Asia  Minor,  forming,  with  Ida,  the  western  part 
of  the  northernmost  line  of  the  mountain  sys- 
tem of  that  peninsula.     It  extends  from  west  to 
east  through  the  northeast  of  Mysia  and  the 
southwest  of  Bithynia,  and  thence,  inclining  a 
little  northward,  it  first  passes  through  the  cen- 
tre of  Bithynia,  then  forms  the  boundary  be- 
tween Bithynia  and  Galatia,  and  then  extends 
through  the  south  of  Paphlagonia  to  the  River 
Halys.     Beyond  the  Halys,  the  mountains  in 
the  north  of  Pontus  form  a  continuation  of  the 
chain. — 2.  (Now  Yanar  Dagh),  a  volcano  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Lycia,  above  the  city  of  Phec- 
nicus  (now  Yanar).     The  names  of  the  mounP 
ain  and  of  the  city  are  often  interchanged.    Vid. 
PHCENICUS. 

OLYNTHUS  ('OXvvOof :    'QXvvOtoc.:    now  Aio 
Mamas),  a  town  of  Macedonia  in  Chalcidice,  at 


OMBI 

the  head  of  the  Toronaic  Gulf,  and  at  a  Iittie 
distance  from  the  coast,  between  the  peninsulas 
of  Pallene  and  Sithonia.     It  was  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  Greek  cities  on  the  coast  of  Mac- 
edonia, though  we  have  no  record  of  its  foun 
dation.     It  afterward  fell  into  the  hands  of  th< 
Thracian  Bottiaei,  when  they  were  expelled  froir 
their  own  country  by  the  Macedonians.     Via 
BOTTIAEI.     It  was  taken  by  Artabazus,  one  oj 
the  generals  of  Xerxes,  who  peopled  it  witl 
Chalcidians  from  Torone  ;  but  it  owed  its  great 
ness  to  Perdiccas,  who  persuaded  the  inhabit 
ants  of  many  of  the  smaller  towns  in  Chalci 
dice  to  abandon  their  own  abodes  and  settl* 
in  Olynthus.     This  happened  about  the  com 
mencement  of  the  Peloponnesianwar;  and  fron 
this  time  Olynthus  appears  as  a  prosperous  and 
flourishing  town,  with  a  population  of  five  thou 
sand  inhabitants  capable  of  bearing  arms.    It 
became  the  head  of  a  confederacy  of  all  the 
Greek  towns  in  this  part  of  Macedonia,  and  it 
long  maintained  its  independence  against  the 
attacks  of  the  Athenians,  Spartans,  and  Mace- 
donians ;  but  in  B.C.  379  it  was  compelled  to 
submit  to  Sparta,  after  carrying  on  war  with 
this  state  for  four  years.    When  the  supremacy 
of  Sparta  was  destroyed  by  the  Thebans,  Olyn- 
thus recovered  its  independence,  and  even  re 
ceived  an  accession  of  power  from  Philip,  who 
was  anxious  to  make  Olynthus  a  counterpoise 
to  the  influence  of  Athens  in  the  north  of  the 
^Egean.    With  this  view  Philip  gave  Olynthus 
the  territory  of  Potida;a,  after  he  had  wrested 
this  town  from  the  Athenians  in  356.     But 
when  he  had  sufficiently  consolidated  his  powoi 
to  be  able  to  set  at  defiance  both  Olynthus  and 
Athens,  he  threw  off  the  mask,  and  laid  siege 
to  the  former  city.     The  Olynthians  earnestly 
besought  Athens  for  assistance,  and  were  warm- 
ly supported  by  Demosthenes  in  his  Olynthiac 
orations ;  but  as  the  Athenians  did  not  rendei 
the  city  any  effectual  assistance,  it  was  taken 
and  destroyed  by  Philip,  and  all  its  inhabitant* 
sold  as  slaves  (347).     Olyntbus  was  never  re 
stored,  and  the  remnants  of  its  inhabitants 
were  at  a  later  time  transferred  by  Cassander 
to  Cassandrea.     At  the  time  of  its  prosperity 
Olynthus  used  the  neighboring  town  of  MECY- 
BERNA  as  its  sea-port. 

[OLYNTHUS  ("OAvpflof),  a  son  of  Hercules  and 
Bolbe,  from  whom  the  town  of  Olynthus  was 
believed  to  have  received  its  name.] 

OMANA  or  OMANUM  ('Oftava,  'Opavov).  1.  A 
celebrated  port  on  the  northeastern  coast  of 
Arabia  Felix,  a  little  above  the  easternmost 
point  of  the  peninsula,  Promontorium  Syagros 
(now  Ras  el  Had),  on  a  large  gulf  of  the  same 
name.  The  people  of  this  part  of  Arabia  were 
called  OMANIT.E  ('OuaviTai)  or  OMANI,  and  the 
name  is  still  preserved  in  that  of  the  district, 
Oman. — 2.  (Now  probably  Schaina),  a  sea-port 
town  in  the  east  of  Carmania ;  the  chief  em- 
porium on  that  coast  for  the  trade  between  In- 
dia, Persia,  and  Arabia. 

OMANIT./E  and  OMANUM.     Vid.  OMANA. 

OMBI  ('Op6oi:  'Q^6irai :  ruins  at  Koum  Om- 
bou,  i.  e.,  Hill  of  Ombou),  the  last  great  city  of 
Upper  Egypt,  except  Syene,  from  which  it  wai 
distant  about  thirty  miles,  stood  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Nile,  in  the  Ombites  Nomos,  and 
was  celebrated  as  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the 

573 


OMPHALE. 

worship  of  the  crocodile.  Juvenal's  fifteenth 
satire  is  founded  on  a  religious  war  between 
the  people  of  Ombi  and  those  of  Tentyra,  who 
hated  the  crocodile ;  but  as  Tentyra  lies  so 
much  further  down  the  Nile,  with  several  in- 
tervening cities  celebrated,  as  well  as  Ombi,  for 
crocodile  worship,  critics  have  suspected  an 
error  in  the  names,  and  some  have  proposed  to 
read  Coptos  or  Copton  for  Ombos  in  v.  35.  It 
seems,  however,  better  to  suppose  that  Juvenal 
used  the  name  without  reference  to  topograph- 
ical precision.  Opposite  to  Ombi,  on  the  left 
bank,  was  the  town  of  Contra-Ombos. 

OMPHALE  ('O^uA?;),  daughter  of  the  Lydian 
king  lardanus,  and  wife  of  Tmolus,  after  whose 
death  she  undertook  the  government  herself. 
When  Hercules,  in  consequence  of  the  murder 
of  Iphitus,  was  afflicted  with  a  serious  disease, 
and  was  informed  by  the  oracle  that  he  could 
only  be  cured  by  serving  some  one  for  wages 
for  the  space  of  three  years,  Mercury  (Hermes) 
sold  Hercules  to  Omphale.  The  hero  became 
enamored  of  his  mistress,  and,  to  please  her, 
he  is  said  to  have  spun  wool  and  put  on  the 
garments  of  a  woman,  while  Omphale  wore  his 
lion's  skin.  She  bore  Hercules  several  chil- 
dren. 

[OMPHALION  ("0/^aAtui>),  a  painter,  was  orig- 
inally the  slave,  and  afterward  the  disciple  of 
Nicias,  the  son  of  Nicomedes.  He  painted  the 
walls  of  the  temple  of  Messene  with  figures  of 
personages  celebrated  in  the  mythological  le- 
gends of  Messenia.] 

OMPHALIUM  ('O^dTiiov  :  'O^^aAt'r^f),  a  town 
in  Crete,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cnosus. 

ON.     Vid.  HELIOPOLIS. 

[ONARUS  ('Ovapof},  a  priest  of  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus) in  Naxos,  whom,  according  to  one  ac- 
count, Ariadne  married  after  she  had  been 
abandoned  by  Theseus.] 

ONATAS  ('Ovdra?).  1.  Of  ^Egina,  the  son  of 
Micon,  was  a  distinguished  statuary  and  painter, 
contemporary  with  Polygnotus,  Ageladas,  and 
Hegias.  He  flourished  down  to  about  B.C.  460, 
that  is,  in  the  age  immediately  preceding  that 
of  Phidias. — [2.  A  Pythagorean  philosopher  of 
Crolon,  who  wrote  a  work,  Hepl  &EOV  KOI  •Qsiov, 
some  extracts  from  which  are  preserved  by 
Stobaeus.] 

ONC^E  ('Oy/fot),  a  village  in  Bceotia,  near 
Thebes,  from  which  one  of  the  gates  of  Thebes 
derived  its  name  ('Oyicaiai),  and  which  contain- 
ed a  sanctuary  of  Minerva  (Athena),  who  was 
hence  called  Minerva  (Athena)  Onca. 

[ONCEUM  ("OyKstov),  a  place  in  Arcadia,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Ladon,  with  a  temple  of  Ceres 
(Demeter)  Erinnys,  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  Oncus,  son  of  Apollo,  its  founder.] 

ONCHESMUS  or  ONCHISMUS  ("Oy^ff/zof,  "Oy- 
^tCTjUOf :  now  Orchido),  a  sea-port  town  of  Epirus 
in  Chaonia,  opposite  the  western  extremity  of 
Corcyra.  The  ancients  derived  its  name  from 
Anchises,  whence  it  is  named  by  Dionysius  the 
"  Harbor  of  Anchises"  ('Ay^foou  ?u/iqv).  From 
this  place  Cicero  calls  the  wind  blowing  from 
Epirus  toward  Italy  Onchesmites. 

ONCHESTUS  ('Oy^ffrdf  :  'Oy^tmof).  1.  An 
ancient  town  of  Bceotia,  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Onchestus,  son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon), 
was  situated  a  little  south  of  the  Lake  Copais, 
near  Haliartus.  It  contained  a  celebrated  tem- 
574 


UNOMACRITUS. 

pie  and  grove  of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  and  was 
the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Boeotian  Amphic- 
tyony.  The  ruins  of  this  town  are  still  to  bo 
seen  on  the  southwestern  slope  of  the  mount- 
ain Faga. — 2.  A  river  in  Thessaly,  which  rises 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Eretria,  and  flows  by 
Cynoscephalae,  and  falls  into  the  Lake  Bcebeis. 
It  is,  perhaps,  the  same  as  the  River  Onochbnus 
('Ovoxuvof )  mentioned  by  Herodotus. 

ONEsiCRiTus('O»>»7<TtKp£Tof),  a  Greek  historical 
writer,  who  accompanied  Alexander  on  his  cam- 
paigns in  Asia,  and  wrote  a  history  of  them, 
which  is  frequently  cited  by  later  authors.  He 
is  called  by  some  authorities  a  native  of  Asty- 
palaea,  and  by  others  of  ^Egina.  When  Alexan- 
der constructed  his  fleet  on  the  Hydaspes,  he 
appointed  Onesicritus  chief  pilot  of  the  fleet, 
a  post  which  he  held  not  only  during  the  de- 
scent of  the  Indus,  but  throughout  the  voyage 
from  the  mouth  of  that  river  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  which  was  conducted  under  the  command 
of  Nearchus.  Though  an  eye-witness  of  much 
that  he  described,  it  appears  that  he  intermixed 
many  fables  and  falsehoods  with  his  narrative, 
so  that  he  early  fell  into  discredit  as  an  au- 
thority. 

[ONETOR  ('Owy-wp).  1.  Priest  of  the  Idaean 
Jove  in  Troy. — 2.  Father  of  Phrontis,  the  helms 
man  of  Menelaus.] 

ONINGIS  or  ORINOIS.     Vid.  ORINGIS. 

ONIROS  ("Ovfipof),  the  Dream-God,  was  a  per- 
sonification of  dreams.  According  to  Homer, 
Dreams  dwell  on  the  dark  shores  of  the  west- 
ern Oceanus,  and  the  deceitful  dreams  come 
through  an  ivory  gate,  while  the  true  ones  issue 
from  a  gate  made  of  horn.  Hesiod  calls  dreams 
the  children  of  night ;  and  Ovid,  who  calls  them 
children  of  Sleep,  mentions  three  of  them  by 
name,  viz.,  Morpheus,  Icelus  or  Phobetor,  and 
Phantasus.  Euripides  called  them  sons  of  Gaea 
(Terra),  and  conceived  them  as  genii  with  black 
wings. 

ONOBA,  surnamed  -/ESTUARIA  (now  Huefoa). 
1.  A  sea-port  town  of  the  Turdetani  in  Hispa- 
nia  Baetica,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Baetis 
and  Anas,  on  an  aestuary  formed  by  the  Rivei 
Luxia.  There  are  remains  of  a  Roman  aque- 
duct at  Huelva. — [2.  Another  city  of  Baetica,  in 
the  interior,  near  Corduba.] 

[ONOCHONUS  ('Ovo^wvof).  Vid.  ONCHESTUS, 
No.  2.] 

[ONOMACLES  ('Ow>/ut/c^f),  an  Athenian  gen- 
eral, sent  with  Phrynichus  and  Scironides,  B.C. 
412,  to  besiege  Miletus,  but  was  driven  off  by 
the  arrival  of  a  Peloponnesian  fleet :  he  was 
afterward  sent  to  act  against  Chios.  It  was 
probably  this  same  Onomacles  who  was  one  of 
the  thirty,  tyrants,  B.C.  404.] 

ONOMACRITUS  ('OvofiuKpiTOf),  an  Athenian, 
who  occupies  an  interesting  position  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  early  Greek  religious  poetry.  He 
lived  about  B.C.  520-485.  He  enjoyed  the  pat- 
ronage of  Hipparchus  until  he  was  detected  by 
Lasus  of  Hermione  (the  dithyrambic  poet)  in 
making  an  interpolation  in  an  oracle  of  Musaeus, 
for  which  Hipparchus  banished  him.  He  seems 
*o  have  gone  into  Persia,  where  the  Pisistratids, 
after  their  expulsion  from  Athens,  took  him 
again  into  favor,  and  employed  him  to  persuade 
Xerxes  to  engage  in  his  expedition  against 
Greece,  by  reciting  to  him  all  the  ancient  or- 


ONOMARCHUS. 

acles  which  seemed  to  favor  thn  attempt.  It 
appears  that  Onomacritus  had  made  a  collection 
and  arrangement  of  the  oracles  ascribed  to  Mu- 
sseus.  It  is  further  stated  that  he  made  inter- 
polations in  Homer  as  well  as  in  Musaeus,  and 
that  he  was  the  real  author  of  some  of  the 
poems  which  went  under  the  name  of  Orpheus. 

ONOMARCHUS  ( 'Ovoftap^of ),  genernl  of  the 
Phocians  in  the  Sacred  war,  succeeded  his 
brother  Philomelus  in  this  command,  B.C.  353. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  defeated  in  Thes- 
saly  by  Philip,  and  perished  in  attempting  to 
reach  by  swimming  the  Athenian  ships,  which 
were  lying  off  the  shore.  His  body  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Philip,  who  caused  it  to  be  crucified 
as  a  punishment  for  his  sacrilege. 

[ONOMASTUS  ('Ovofiaorof),  a  confidential  offi- 
cer of  Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  for  whom  he  held 
the  government  of  the  sea-coast  of  Thrace,  and 
whose  instrument  he  was  in  many  acts  of  op- 
pression and  cruelty.] 

ONOSANDER  ('Ovoaavdpof),  the  author  of  a  cel- 
ebrated work  on  military  tactics  (entitled  Srpez- 
Tnyu(df  A<tyof),  which  is  still  extant.  All  sub- 
sequent Greek  and  Roman  writers  on  the  same 
subject  made  this  work  their  text-book,  and  it 
is  still  held  in  considerable  estimation.  He 
appears  to  have  lived  about  A.D.  5Q.  In  his 
style  he  imitated  Xenophon  with  some  success. 
Edited  by  Schwebel,  Niirnberg,  1761  ;  and  by 
Corae,  Paris,  1822. 

ONU-GNATHUS  ('Ovov  yvdfof :  now  Elaphonisi), 
an  island  and  a  promontory  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Laconia,  west  of  Cape  Malea. 

ONUPHIS  ('OvovQie ),  the  capital  of  the  Nomos 
Onuphites  in  the  Delta  of  Egypt.  It  site  is  un- 
certain, but  it  was  probably  near  the  middle  of 
the  Delta. 

[ONYTES,  a  companion  of  ^Eneas,  slain  by 
Turnus  in  Italy.] 

[OpHELESTEs  ('Od>eM<rTijf).  1.  A  Trojan  war- 
rior, slain  by  Teucer. — 2.  A  Paeonian  warrior 
in  the  Trojan  ranks,  slain  by  Achilles.] 

OPHELION  ('StyeAt'uv),  an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
probably  of  the  Middle  Comedy,  B.C.  380.  [The 
few  fragments  of  hia  plays  remaining  are  col- 
lected by  Meineke,  Fragm.  Comic.  Grcec.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  687-8.  edit,  minor.] 

OPHELLAS  ('OdeAAac)i  of  Pella  in  Macedonia, 
was  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
after  whose  death  he  followed  the  fortunes  of 
Ptolemy.  In  B.C.  322  he  conquered  Cyrene 
for  Ptolemy,  of  which  city  he  held  the  govern- 
ment on  behalf  of  the  Egyptian  king  for  some 
years.  But  soon  after  313  he  threw  off  his  al- 
legiance to  Ptolemy,  and  continued  to  govern 
Cyrene  as  an  independent  state  for  nearly  five 
years.  In  308  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Agath- 
ocles,  and  marched  against  Carthage  ;  but  he 
was  treacherously  attacked  by  Agathocles  near 
this  city,  and  was  slain. 

OPHBLTES  ('0^/lr^f).  1.  Also  called  ARCHE- 
MORUS.  Vid.  AROHEMORCS. — 2.  One  of  the  Tyr- 
rhenian pirates,  who  attempted  to  carry  off 
Bacchus  (Dionysus),  and  were  therefore  met- 
amorphosed into  dolphins. 

[OpHEL-nus  ('QQtfotof).  1.  A  Trojan  warri- 
or, slain  by  Euryalus.— 2.  A  Grecian  warrior 
before  Troy,  slain  by  Hector.] 

[OpHiooEs  ('0<f>iu6jjf),  an  island  of  the  Arab- 
icus  Sinus,  lying  off  Berenice,  OH  the  coast  of 


OPILIUS. 

Egypt,  very  rich  in  topaz,  and  therefore  called 
by  Pliny  Topazos ;  now  Zamargat  ?] 

OPHION  ('O0«jv).  l.  One  of  the  oldest  of  the 
Titans,  was  married  to  Eurynome,  with  whom 
he  ruled  over  Olympus,  but,  being  conquered  by 
Saturn  (Cronos)  and  Rhea,  he  and  Eurynome 
were  thrown  into  Oceanus  or  Tartarus. — 2.  A 
giant,  who  perished  in  the  battle  with  Jupiter 
(Zeus).— 3.  Father  of  the  centaur  Amycus,  who 
is  hence  called  Ophlonldes. 

OPHIONENSES  or  OPHIENSES  ('OQiovtlf,  'O<pi- 
eif),  a  people  in  the  northeast  of  ^Etolia. 

OPHIR  (in  the  Old  Testament,  LXX.,  "ZovQip, 
2u<j>ip,  IiuQdpa),  a  place  frequently  referred  to 
in  the  Old  Testament  as  proverbial  for  its  gold, 
and  to  which  Solomon,  in  conjunction  with 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  sent  a  fleet,  which  brought 
back  gold,  and  sandal-wood,  and  precious  stones. 
These  ships  were  sent  from  Ezion-geber,  at  the 
head  of  the  Red  Sea,  whence  also  King  Jehosh- 
aphat  built  ships  to  go  to  Ophir  for  gold;  but 
this  voyage  was  stopped  by  a  shipwreck.  It  is 
clear,  therefore,  that  Ophir  was  on  the  shores 
of  the  Erythraeum  Mare  of  the  ancients,  or  our 
Indian  Ocean.  Among  the  most  plausible  con- 
jectures as  to  its  site  are,  (1.)  That  it  was  on 
the  coast  of  India,  or  a  name  for  India  itself. 
(2.)  That  it  was  on  the  coast  of  Arabia,  in  which 
case  it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  Arabia 
furnished  all  the  articles  of  commerce  which 
were  brought  from  Ophir,  for  Ophir  may  have 
been  a  great  emporium  of  the  Indian  and  Ara- 
bian trade.  (3.)  That  it  is  not  the  name  of  any 
specific  place,  but  a  general  designation  for  the 
countries  (or  any  of  them)  on  the  shores  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  which  supplied  the  chief  articles 
of  Indian  and  Arabian  commerce. 

OPHIS  ("O0tc).  1.  A  river  in  Arcadia,  which 
flowed  by  Mantinea. — [2.  (Now  Of?),  a  river  of 
Pontus,  which  formed  the  boundary  between 
the  territory  of  the  Tzani  and  Colchis.] 

OPHIUSA  or  OPHIUSSA  ('OQioevaa,  'Otyiovaaa, 
'Otiiovaa,  i.  e.,  abounding  in  snakes).  1.  Vid 
PITYOS^E. — 2.  Or  OPHIOSSA  (now  perhaps  Palo, 
nea),  a  town  of  European  Scythia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tyras  (now  Dniester). — 3.  A  little 
island  near  Crete.— -4.  (Now  Afsia  or  Rabli),  a 
small  island  in  the  Propontis  (now  Sea  of  Afar- 
mara),  off  the  coast  ofMysia,  northwest  ofCyz- 
icUs,  and  southwest  of  Proconnesus. — 5.  Vid. 
RHODUS. — 6.  Vid.  TENOS. 

[OPHLIMUS  (*00/U//of :  now  Kemer  Dagh  or 
Oktar  Dagh,)  a  branch  of  Mount  Paryadres,  in 
Pontus  Proper,  which,  in  connection  with  Lith- 
rus,  riorthwest  of  Amasea,  bounds  the  large  and 
fertile  district  of  Phanarcea.] 

OPHRYNIUM  ('Qtypvvsiov  :  now  probably  Fren- 
Kevi),  a  small  town  of  the  Troad,  near  the  Lake 
of  Pteleos,  between  Dardanus  and  Rhoeteum, 
with  a  grove  consecrated  to  Hector. 

OPICI.     Vid.  Osci. 

OPILIUS  MACRINUS.     Vid.  MACRINUS. 

OPILIUS,  AURELIUS,  the  freedman  of  an  Epi- 
curean, taught  at  Rome,  first  philosophy,  then 
rhetoric,  and  finally  grammar.  He  gave  up  his 
school  upon  the  condemnation  of  Rutilius  Rufus 
(B.C.  92),  whom  he  accompanied  to  Smyrna, 
and  there  the  two  friends  grew  old  together  in 
the  enjoyment  of  each  other's  society.  He 
composed  several  learned  works,  one  of  which, 
named  Muta,  is  referred  to  by  A.  Gcllius. 

676 


OPIMIUS. 

OPIMIOS.  1.  Q.f  consul  B.C.  154,  when  he 
aubdued  some  of  the  Ligurian  tribes  north  of 
the  Alps,  who  had  attacked  Massilia.  He  was 
notorious  in  his  youth  for  his  riotous  living. — 
2.  L.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  praetor  125,  in 
which  year  he  took  Fregellae,  which  had  revolt- 
ed against  the  Romans.  He  belonged  to  the 
high  aristocratical  party,  and  was  a  violent  op- 
ponent of  C.  Gracchus.  He  was  consul  in  121, 
and  took  the  leading  part  in  the  proceedings 
which  ended  in  the  murder  of  Gracchus.  Opim- 
ius  and  his  party  abused  their  victory  most 
savagely,  and  are  said  to  have  killed  more  than 
three  hundred  persons.  For  details,  vid.  p.  334, 
a.  In  the  following  year  (120)  he  was  accused 
of  having  put  Roman  citizens  to  death  without 
trial ;  but  he  was  defended  by  the  consul  C. 
Papirius  Carbo,  and  was  acquitted.  In  112  he 
was  at  the  head  of  the  commission  which  was 
sent  into  Africa  in  order  to  divide  the  domin- 
ions of  Micipsa  between  Jugurtha  and  Adher- 
Oal,  and  was  bribed  by  Jugurtha  to  assign  to 
him  the  better  part  of  the  country.  Three  years 
after  he  was  condemned  under  the  law  of  the 
tribune  C.  Mamilius  Limetanus,  by  which  an 
inquiry  was  made  into  the  conduct  of  all  those 
who  had  received  bribes  from  Jugurtha.  Opim- 
ius  went  into  exile  to  Dyrrhachium  in  Epirus, 
where  he  lived  for  some  years,  hated  and  in- 
sulted by  the  people,  and  where  he  eventually 
died  in  great  poverty.  He  richly  deserved  his 
punishment,  and  met  with  a  due  recompense 
for  his  cruel  and  ferocious  conduct  toward  C. 
Gracchus  and  his  party.  Cicero,  on  the  con- 
trary, who,  after  his  consulship,  had  identified 
himself  with  the  aristocratical  party,  frequently 
laments  the  fate  of  Opimius.  The  year  in  which 
Opimius  was  consul  (121)  was  remarkable  for 
the  extraordinary  heat  of  the  autumn,  and  thus 
the  vintage  of  this  year  was  of  an  unprecedent- 
ed quality.  This  wine  long  remained  celebrated 
is  the  Vinum  Opimianum,  and  was  preserved  for 
an  almost  incredible  space  of  time. 

OPIS  ("Qxif),  an  important  commercial  city  of 
Assyria,  in  the  district  of  Apolloniatis,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Physcus  (now  Odorneh)  with 
he  Tigris  ;  not  mentioned  later  than  the  Chris- 
tian era. 

OPITERGIUM  (Opiterglnus  :  now  Oderzo),  a  Ro- 
man colony  in  Venetia,  in  the  north  of  Italy,  on 
the  River  Liquentia,  near  its  source,  and  on 
the  high  road  from  Aquileia  to  Verona.  In  the 
Marcomannic  war  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Qua- 
di,  but  it  was  rebuilt,  and  afterward  belonged  to 
the  Exarchate.  From  it  the  neighboring  mount- 
ains were  called  Monies  Opitergini. 

[OPITES  ('OntTjjs,)  a  Greek  warrior,  slain  by 
Hector  in  the  Trojan  war.] 

[OppilNicus,  name  of  three  persons,  two  of 
whom  play  a  prominent  part  in  the  oration  of 
Cicero  for  Cluentius.  1.  STATIUS  ALBIUS  OPP., 
accused  by  his  step-son,  A.  Cluentius,  of  having 
attempted  to  procure  his  death  by  poisoning,  B. 
C.  74  ;  was  condemned. — 2.  Son  of  the  preced- 
ing, accused  Cluentius  in  B.C.  66  of  three  dis- 
tinct acts  of  poisoning. — 3.  C.  OPPIANICUS,  broth- 
er of  No.  1,  said  to  have  been  poisoned  by  him.] 
OPPIANOS  ('On-Triavof),  the  author  of  two 
Greek  hexameter  poems  still  extant,  one  on 
fishing,  entitled  Halicutica  ('A/UevriKa),  and  the 
other  on  hunting,  entitled  Cynegetica 
576 


OPS. 

riKn).  Modern  critics,  however,  have  shown 
that  these  two  poems  were  written  by  two  dif 
ferent  persons  of  this  name.  1.  The  authoi  of 
the  Halieutica,  was  born  either  at  Corycus  or  at 
Anazarba,  in  Cilicia,  and  flourished  about  \.D. 
180.  The  poem  consists  of  about  three  thou- 
sand five  hundred  hexameter  lines,  divided  into 
five  books,  of  which  the  first  two  treat  of*  the 
natural  history  of  fishes,  and  the  other  three  ol 
the  art  of  fishing.— 2.  The  author  of  the  Cms- 
getica,  was  a  native  of  Apamea  or  Pella,  in  Syr- 
ia, and  flourished  a  little  later  than  the  other 
Oppianus,  about  A.D.  206.  His  poem,  which  is 
addressed  to  the  Emperor  Caracalla,  consists 
of  about  two  thousand  one  hundred  hexameter 
lines,  divided  into  four  books.  The  best  edition 
of  the  two  poems  is  by  Schneider,  Argent.,  1776, 
and  second  edition,  Lips.,  1813.  There  is  also  a 
prose  paraphrase  of  a  poem  on  hawking  ('Ifrv- 
TIKU)  attributed  to  Oppianus,  but  it  is  doubtful 
to  which  of  the  two  authors  of  this  name  it  be- 
longs. Some  critics  think  that  the  work  was 
probably  written  by  Dionysius. 

OPPIUS.  1.  C.,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  213, 
carried  a  law  to  curtail  the  expenses  and  lux- 
uries of  the  Roman  women.  It  enacted  that  no 
woman  should  have  more  than  half  an  ounce 
of  gold,  npr  wear  a  dress  of  different  colors,  nor 
rfde  in  a  carriage  in  the  city,  or  in  any  town, 
or  within  a  mile  of  it,  unless  on  account  of  pub- 
lic sacrifices.  This  law  was  repealed  in  195, 
notwithstanding  the  vehement  opposition  of  the 
elder  Cato. — 2.  Q.,  a  Roman  general  in  the  Mith- 
radatic  war,  B.C.  88,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Mith- 
radates,  but  was  subsequently  surrendered  by 
the  latter  to  Sulla. — 3.  C.,  an  intimate  friend  of 
C.  Julius  Caesar,  whose  private  affairs  he  man- 
aged in  conjunction  with  Cornelius  Balbus.  Op- 
pius  was  the  author  of  several  works,  referred 
to  by  the  ancient  writers,  but  all  of  which  have 
perished.  The  authorship  of  the  histories  of 
the  Alexandrine,  African,  and  Spanish  wars 
was  a  disputed  point  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Suetonius,  some  assigning  them  to  Oppius,  and 
others  to  Hirtius.  But  the  similarity  in  style 
and  diction  between  the  work  on  the  Alexan- 
drine war  and  the  last  book  of  the  Commenta- 
ries on  the  Gallic  war  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  former,  at  all  events,  was  the  work  of 
Hirtius.  The  book  on  the  African  war  was 
probably  written  by  Oppius.  He  also  wrote  the 
lives  of  several  distinguished  Romans,  such  as 
Scipio  Africanus  the  elder,  Marius,  Pompey, 
and  probably  Caesar. 

OPS,  a  female  Roman  divinity  of  plenty  and 
fertility,  as  is  indicated  by  her  name,  which  is 
connected  with  opimus,  opulentus,  inops,  and 
copia.  She  was  regarded  as  the  wife  of  Sa- 
turnus,  and  the  protectress  of  every  thing  con- 
rtected  with  agriculture.  Her  abode  was  in  the 
earth,  and  hence  those  who  invoked  her  used  to 
touch  the  ground.  Her  worship  was  intimately 
connected  with  that  of  her  husband  Saturnus, 
for  she  had  both  temples  and  festivals  in  com- 
mon with  him  ;  but  she  had  likewise  a  separate 
sanctuary  on  the  Capitol,  and  in  the  vicus  ju- 
garius,  not  far  from  the  temple  of  Saturnus,  she 
had  an  altar  m  common  with  Ceres.  The  fi-sti 
vals  of  Ops  are  called  Opalia  and  Opiconsivia, 
from  her  surname  Consiva,  connected  with  the 
verb  serere,  to  sow. 


UPS. 

[Ops  ( £ty),  son  of  Pisenor,  and  father  of  Eu- 
rvclea,  the  nurse  of  Telemachus.] 

OPTATUO.  [1.  A  freedman  of  Tiberius  Claudi- 
us, and  praefectus  classis,  brought  the  scar  (sca- 
ms) fish  from  the  Carpathian  Sea  to  the  waters 
on  the  coast  of  Italy.] — 2.  Bishop  of  Milevi  in 
JVumidia,  flourished  under  the  emperors  Valen- 
tinian  and  Valens.  He  wrote  a  work,  still  ex- 
tant, against  the  errors  of  the  Donatists,  en- 
titled DC  Schismate  Donatistarum  adversus  Par- 
menianum.  Edited  by  Dupin,  Paris,  fol.,  1700. 

OPUS  ('Onovf,  contraction  of  'Onoeif  :  'On- 
oviTiof ).  1 .  (Now  Talanda  or  Talanti  ?),  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Opuntian  Locrians,  was  situated,  ac- 
cording to  Strabo,  fifteen  stadia  (not  quite  two 
miles)  from  the  sea,  and  sixty  stadia  from  its 
harbor  Cynos  ;  but,  according  to  Livy,  it  was 
only  one  mile  from  the  coast.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  Patroclus.  The  bay  of  the  Euboean  Sea, 
near  this  town,  was  called  OPUNTIUS  SINUS.  Vid. 
LOCRI. — 2.  A  small  town  in  Elis. 

[Opus  ('OTTovf).  1.  Son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Protogenia,  was  king  of  the  Epeans  and  father 
of  Cambyse. — 2.  Son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Cambyse,  step-son  of  Locrus,  and  grandson  of 
No.  1 ;  said  to  have  given  name  to  the  Opuntii 
Locri.] 

OKA.  1.  ('Opa),  a  city  of  Carmania,  near  the 
borders  of  Gedrosia. — 2.  ("J2pa),  a  city  in  the 
northwest  of  India,  near  the  sources  of  the  In- 
dus. 

OR^E.     Vid.  ORIT^E. 

ORBELUS  ('Opdytof).  a  mountain  in  the  north- 
east of  Macedonia,  on  the  borders  of  Thrace, 
extends  from  Mount  Rhodope  along  the  Strymon 
to  Mount  Pangaeus. 

ORBILIOS  PUPILLUS,  a  Roman  grammarian 
and  schoolmaster,  best  known  to  us  from  his 
having  been  the  teacher  of  Horace,  who  gives 
him  the  epithet  of  plagosus  from  the  severe 
floggings  which  his  pupils  received  from  him. 
(Hor.,  Ep.,  ii.,  1,  71.)  He  was  a  native  of  Bene- 
ventum,  and  after  serving  as  an  apparitor  of  the 
magistrates,  and  also  as  a  soldier  in  the  army, 
he  settled  at  Rome  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his 
age,  in  the  consulship  of  Cicero,  B.C.  63.  He 
lived  nearly  one  hundred  years,  but  had  lost  his 
memory  long  before  his  death. 

[ORBITANIUM,  a  city  of  Samnium,  northwest 
of  Beneventum.] 

ORBONA,  a  female  Roman  divinity,  was  in- 
voked by  parents  who  had  been  deprived  of 
their  children  and  desired  to  have  others,  and 
also  in  dangerous  maladies  of  children. 

ORCADES  INSULT  (now  Orkney  and  Shetland 
Isles),  a  group  of  several  small  islands  off  the 
northern  coast  of  Britain,  with  which  the  Ro- 
mans first  became  acquainted  when  Agricola 
Bailed  round  the  north  of  Britain. 

ORCHOMKNUS  ('Opxofievof  :  'Opxoptvioc).  1. 
(Now  Scripu),  an  ancient,  wealthy,  and  power- 
ful city  of  Bceotia,  the  capital  of  the  Minyean 
empire  in  the  ante-historical  ages  cf  Greece, 
and  hence  called  by  Homer  the  Minyean  Orcho- 
menus  ('Op*.  Mivvetof).  It  was  situated  north- 
west of  the  Lake  Copais,  on  the  River  Cephisus, 
and  was  built  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  on  the  sum- 
mit of  which  stood  the  acropolis.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  originally  called  Andreis  ('Av<Jpj/ff), 
from  Andreus,  the  son  of  Peneus,  who  emi- 
grated from  the  Peneus  in  Thessaly  ;  to  have 
37 


ORDESSUS. 

]  been  afterward  called  Phlegya  (*Aeyilo),  from 
I  Phlegyas,  a  son  of  Mars  (Ares)  and  Chryse  ; 
and  to  have  finally  obtained  its  later  name  from 
!  Orchomenus,  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  or  Eteocles 
and  the  Danaid  Hesione,  and  father  of  Minyas 
;  This  Orchomenus  was  regarded  as  the  real 
I  founder  of  the  Minyean  empire,  which,  before 
I  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war,  extended  over  the 
whole  of  the  west  of  Bceotia.  The  cities  ol 
Coronea,  Haliartus,  Lebedea,  and  Chaeronea 
were  subject  to  it ;  and  even  Thebes  at  one 
time  was  compelled  to  pay  it  tribute.  It  lost, 
however,  much  of  its  power  after  its  capture  by 
Hercules,  but  in  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war  it 
still  appears  as  a  powerful  city.  Sixty  years 
after  the  Trojan  war  it  was  taken  by  the  Boeo- 
tians, its  empire  was  completely  destroyed,  and 
it  became  a  member  of  the  Boeotian  league. 
All  this  belongs  to  the  mythical  period.  In  the 
historical  age  it  continued  to  exist  as  an  inde- 
pendent town  till  B.C.  367,  when  it  was  taken 
and  destroyed  by  the  Thebans,  and  its  inhabit- 
ants murdered  or  sold  as  slaves.  In  order  to 
weaken  Thebes,  it  was  rebuilt  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  Athenians,  but  was  soon  destroyed 
again  by  the  Thebans  ;  and  although  it  was 
again  restored  by  Philip  in  338,  it  never  re- 
covered its  former  prosperity  ;  and  in  the  time 
of  Strabo  \yas  in  ruins.  The  most  celebrated 
building  in  Orchomenus  was  the  so-called  treas- 
ury of  Minyas,  but  which,  like  the  similar  monu- 
ment at  Mycenae,  was  more  probably  a  family 
vault  of  the  ancient  heroes  of  the  place.  It 
was  a  circular  vault  of  massive  masonry  em- 
bedded in  the  hill,  with  an  arched  roof,  an-1  had 
a  side  door  of  entrance.  The  remains  of  this 
building  are  extant,  and  its  form  may  still  be 
traced,  though  the  whole  of  the  stone- work  of 
the  vault  has  disappeared.  Orchomehus  pos- 
sessed a  very  ancient  temple  of  the  Charites  or 
Graces,  and  here  was  celebrated  in  the  most 
ancient  times  a  musical  festival,  which  wa>  fre- 
quented by  poets  and  singers  from  all  part?  of 
the  Hellenic  world.  There  was  a  temple  of 
Hercules  seven  stadia  north  of  the  town,  near 
the  sources  of  the  River  Melas.  Orchomenus 
is  memorable  on  account  of  the  great  victory 
which  Sulla  gained  in  its  neighborhood  over 
Archelaus,  the  general  of  Mithradates,  B.C.  86 
— 2.  (Now  Kalpaki),  an  ancient  town  of  Arcadia, 
mentioned  by  Homer  with  the  epithet  no^vp/^of, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  Minyean  Orchom<jnus, 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Orchomenus, 
son  of  Lycaon.  It  was  situated  on  a  hill  north- 
west of  Mantinea,  and  its  territory  included  the 
towns  of  Methydrium,  Theisoa,  Teuthis,  and  the 
Tripolis.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  Orchome- 
nus sided  with  Sparta,  and  was  taken  by  the 
Athenians.  After  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  the 
Orchomenians  did  not  join  the  Arcadian  con- 
federacy in  consequence  of  its  hatred  against 
Mantinea.  In  the  contests  between  the  Achae- 
ans  and  JDtoIians,  it  was  taken  successively  by 
Cleomenes  and  Antigonus  Doson,  but  it  event- 
ually became  a  member  of  the  Achaean  league. 
— 3.  A  town  on  the  confines  of  Macedonia  and 
Thessaly,  and  hence  sometimes  said  to  belong 
to  the  former,  and  sometimes  to  the  latter  coun- 
try. 

ORCUS.     Vid.  HADES. 

ORDEISUS  ('Opd^ooof),  a  tributary  of  the  Ister 
677 


ORDOVICES. 

(now  Danube)  in  Scythia,  mentioned  by  Herodo- 
lus,  hut  which  can  not  be  identified  with  any 
modern  river. 

ORDOVICES,  a  people  in  the  west  of  Britain, 
opposite  the  island  Mona  (now  Anglesey),  occu- 
pying the  northern  portion  of  the  modern  Wales. 

OREADES.     Vid.  NYMPH.S. 

[ORESBIUS  ('Op&r&of),  a  Boeotian  warrior  in 
the  Greek  army  before  Troy,  slain  by  Hector.] 

ORESTA  ("Opeartw),  a  people  in  the  north  of 
Epirus,  on  the  borders  of  Macedonia,  inhabiting 
the  district  named  after  them,  ORESTIS  or  ORES- 
TIAS.  They  were  originally  independent,  but 
were  afterward  subject  to  the  Macedonian  mon- 
archs.  They  were  declared  free  by  the  Romans 
in  their  war  with  Philip.  According  to  the  le- 
gend, they  derived  their  name  from  Orestes, 
who  is  said  to  have  fled  into  this  country  after 
murdering  his  mother,  and  to  have  there  found- 
ed the  town  of  Argos  Oresticum. 

ORESTES  ('O/xfffrjff).  1.  Son  of  Agamemnon 
and  Clytsemnestra,  and  brother  of  Chrysothe- 
mis,  Laodice  (Electra),  and  Iphianassa  (Iphi- 
genia).  According  to  the  Homeric  account, 
Agamemnon,  on  his  return  from  Troy,  was  mur- 
dered by^Egisthus  and  Clytaemnestra  before  he 
had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  him.  In  the  eighth 
year  after  his  father's  murder  Orestes  came 
from  Athens  to  Mycena3  and  slew  the  murderer 
of  his  father.  This  simple  story  of  Orestes  has 
been  enlarged  and  embellished  in  various  ways 
by  the  tragic  poets.  Thus  it  is  said  that  at  the 
murder  of  Agamemnon  it  was  intended  to  dis- 
patch Orestes  also,  but  that  by  means  of  Elec- 
ua  he  was  secretly  carried  to  Strophius,  king 
in  Phocis,  who  was  married  to  Anaxibia,  the 
sister  of  Agamemnon.  According  to  some, 
Orestes  was  saved  by  his  nurse,  who  allowed 
^Egisthus  to  kill  her  own  child,  supposing  it  to 
be  Orestes.  In  the  house  of  Strophius,  Ores- 
tes grew  up  with  the  king's  son  Pylades,  with 
whom  he  had  formed  that  close  and  intimate 
friendship  which  has  become  proverbial.  Being 
frequently  reminded  by  messengers  from  Elec- 
tra of  the  necessity  of  avenging  his  father's 
death,  he  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi,  which 
strengthened  him  in  his  plan.  He  therefore  re- 
paired in  secret  to  Argos.  Here  he  pretended 
to  be  a  messenger  of  Strophius,  who  had  come 
to  announce  the  death  of  Orestes,  and  brought 
the  ashes  of  the  deceased.  After  visiting  his 
father's  tomb,  and  sacrificing  upon  it  a  lock  of 
his  hair,  he  made  himself  known  to  his  sister 
Electra,  and  soon  afterward  slew  both  JEgis- 
thus  and  Clytaemnestra  in  the  palace.  Imme- 
diately after  the  murder  of  his  mother  he  was 
seized  with  madness.  He  now  fled  from  land 
to  land,  pursued  by  the  Erinnyes  of  his  mother. 
At  length,  by  Apollo's  advice,  he  took  refuge 
with  Minerva  (Athena)  at  Athens.  The  god- 
dess afforded  him  protection,  and  appointed  the 
court  of  the  Areopagus  to  decide  his  fate.  The 
Erinnyes  brought  forward  their  accusation,  and 
Orestes  made  the  command  of  the  Delphic  or- 
acle his  excuse.  When  the  court  voted,  and 
was  equally  divided,  Orestes  was  acquitted  by 
the  command  of  Minerva  (Athena).  According 
to  another  modification  of  the  legend,  Orestes 
consulted  Apollo  how  he  could  be  delivered  from 
his  madness  and  incessant  wandering.  The 
god  advised  him  to  go  to  Tauris  in  Scythia,  and 
578 


ORETANI. 

to  fetch  from  that  country  the  image  of  Diana 
(Artemis),  which  was  believed  to  have  fallen 
there  from  heaven,  and  to  carry  it  to  Athena. 
Orestes  and  Pylades  accordingly  went  to  Tau- 
ris, where  Thoas  was  king.  On  their  arrival 
they  were  seized  by  the  natives,  in  order  to  be 
sacrificed  to  Diana  (Artemis),  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  country.  But  Iphigenia,  the 
I  priestess  of  Diana  (Artemis),  was  the  sister  of 
I  Orestes,  and,  after  recognizing  each  other,  all 
three  escaped  with  the  statue  of  the  goddess. 
After  his  return  to  Peloponnesus,  Ore8tes  took 
possession  of  his  father's  kingdom  at  Mycenae, 
which  had  been  usurped  by  Aletes  orMenclaus. 
When  Cylarabes  of  Argos  died  without  leaving 
any  heir,  Orestes  became  king  of  Argos  also. 
The  Lacedaemonians  likewise  made  him  their 
king  of  their  own  accord,  because  they  prefer- 
red him,  the  grandson  of  Tyndareus,  to  Nico- 
stratus  and  Megapenthes,  the  sons  ofMenelaua 
by  a  slave.  The  Arcadians  and  Phocians  in- 
creased his  power  by  allying  themselves  with 
him.  He  married  Hermione,  the  daughter  of 
Menelaus,  and  became  by  her  the  father  of  Tia- 
amenus.  The  story  of  his  marriage  with  Her- 
mione, who  had  previously  been  married  to 
Neoptolemus,  is  related  elsewhere.  Vid.  HER- 
MIONE, NEOPTOLEMCS.  He  died  of  the  bite  ol 
a  snake  in  Arcadia,  and  his  body,  in  accordance 
with  an  oracle,  was  afterward  carried  from  Te- 
gea  to  Sparta,  and  there  buried ;  his  bones  are 
said  to  have  been  found,  during  a  truce  in  a  war 
between  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Tegeatans, 
under  a  blacksmith's  shop  in  Tegea.  —  2.  Re- 
gent of  Italy  during  the  short  reign  of  his  infant 
son  Romulus  Augustulus,  A.D.  475-476.  He 
was  born  in  Pannonia,  and  served  for  some 
years  under  Attila  ;  after  whose  death  he  rose 
to  eminence  at  the  Roman  court  Having  been 
intrusted  with  the  command  of  an  army  by  Ju- 
lius Nepos,  he  deposed  this  emperor,  and  plac- 
ed his  son  Romulus  Augustulus  on  the  throne  ; 
but  in  the  following  year  he  was  defeated  by 
Odoacer  and  put  to  death.  Vid.  ODOACER. — 3. 
L.  AURELIUS  ORESTES,  consul  B.C.  126,  receiv- 
ed Sardinia  as  his  province,  where  he  remain- 
ed upward  of  three  years.  C.  Gracchus  was 
quaestor  to  Orestes  in  Sardinia. — 4.  CN.  AUFID- 
xus  ORESTES,  originally  belonged  to  the  Aurelia 
gens,  whence  his  surname  of  Orestes,  and  was 
adopted  by  Cn.  Aufidius,  the  historian,  when 
the  latter  was  an  old  man.  Orestes  was  con- 
sul 71  B.C. 

ORESTEUM,  ORESTHEUM,  or  ORESTHASIUM  ('Op- 
Eareiov,  'Opeadeiov,  'Opeaddaiov),  a  town  in  the 
south  of  Arcadia,  in  the  district  Maenalia,  not 
far  from  Megalopolis. 

ORESTIAS.  1.  The  country  of  the  Orestae. 
Vid.  OREST.E.  —  2.  A  name  frequently  given 
by  the  Byzantine  writers  to  Hadrianopolis  in 
Thrace. 

ORESTILLA,  AURELIA.     Vid.  AUREMA 

[ORESTIS.     Vid.  OREST.B.] 

ORETANI,  a  powerful  people  in  the  southwest 
of  HispaniaTarraconensis,  bounded  on  the  south 
by  Baetica,  on  the  north  by  the  Carpetani,  on  the 
west  by  Lusitania,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Bas- 
tetani ;  their  territory  corresponded  to  the  east- 
ern part  of  Granada,  the  whole  of  La  Mancha, 
and  the  western  part  of  Murcia.  Their  chief 
town  was  CASTULO. 


OREUS. 


OREUS  ('Qpcof  :  'flpf/rj/f),  a  town  in  the  north 
Df  Eubcea,  on  the  River  Callas,  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountain  Telethrium,  and  in  the  district 
Hestiacotis,  was  itself  originally  called  Hestiaea 
or  Histiaea.  After  the  Persian  wars,  Oreus,  with 
the  rest  of  Eubcea,  became  subject  to  the  Athe- 
nians ;  but  on  the  revolt  of  the  island  in  B.C. 
445,  Oreus  was  taken  by  Pericles,  its  inhabit- 
ants expelled,  and  their  place  supplied  by  two 
thousand  Athenians.  The  site  of  Oreus  made 
it  an  important  place,  and  its  name  frequently 
occurs  in  the  Grecian  wars  down  to  the  disso- 
lution of  the  Achaean  league. 

[ORFIUS,  M.,  a  Roman  eques,  of  the  municip- 
ium  of  Atella,  was  a  tribune  of  the  soldiers  in 
Caesar's  army,  whom  Cicero  strongly  recom- 
mended fn  B.C.  59  to  his  brother  Quintus,  who 
was  then  one  of  Caesar's  legates.] 

ORGETORIX,  the  noblest  and  richest  among 
the  Helvetii,  formed  a  conspiracy  to  obtain  the 
royal  power  B.C.  61,  and  persuaded  his  coun- 
trymen to  emigrate  from  their  own  country. 
Two  years  were  devoted  to  making  the  neces- 
sary preparations  ;  but  the  real  designs  of  Or- 
getorix  having  meantime  transpired,  and  the 
Helvetii  having  attempted  to  bring  him  to  trial, 
he  suddenly  died,  probably,  as  was  suspected, 
by  his  own  hands. 

ORIBASIUS  ('OpftCdfftof  or  'OpiSuaiof),  an  em- 
inent Greek  medical  writer,  born  about  A.D. 
325,  either  at  Sardis  in  Lydia,  or  at  Pergamus 
in  Mysia.  He  early  acquired  a  great  profes- 
sional reputation.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  the  Emperor  Julian,  with  whom  he  became 
acquainted  several  years  before  Julian's  acces- 
sion to  the  throne.  He  was  almost  the  only 
person  to  whom  Julian  imparted  the  secret  of 
his  apostacy  from  Christianity.  He  accompa- 
nied Julian  in  his  expedition  against  Persia, 
and  was  with  him  at  the  time  of  his  death,  363. 
The  succeeding  emperors,  Valentinian  and  Va- 
lens,  confiscated  the  property  of  Oribasius,  and 
banished  him.  He  was  afterward  recalled  from 
exile,  and  was  alive  at  least  as  late  as  395.  Of 
the  personal  character  of  Oribasius  we  know 
little  or  nothin;£but  it  is  clear  that  he  was  much 
attached  to  paganism  and  to  the  heathen  phi- 
losophy. He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Euna- 
plus,  who  praises  him  very  highly,  and  wrote 
an  account  of  his  life.  We  possess  at  present 
three  works  of  Oribasius:  1.  Collecta  Medici- 
nalia  ("Lwayuyal  'larptKai),  or  sometimes  Heb- 
domecontabiblos  (*EMo//>7«<n>ra'&6Aof),  which  was 
compiled  at  the  command  of  Julian,  when  Ori- 
basius was  still  a  young  man*  It  contains  but 
little  original  matter,  but  is  very  valuable  on 
account  of  the  numerous  extracts  from  writers 
whose  works  are  no  longer  extant.  More  than 
half  of  this  work  is  now  lost,  and  what  remains 
is  in  some  confusion.  There  is  no  complete 
edition  of  the  work.  2.  An  abridgment  (2t)vo- 
t[>if)  of  the  former  work,  in  nine  books.  It  was 
written  thirty  years  after  the  former.  3.  Eu- 
poritta,  or  De  facile  Parabilibus  (Evjroptffro),  in 
four  books.  Both  this  and  the  preceding  work 
were  intended  as  manuals  of  the  practice  of 
medicine. 

ORICUM  or  ORICUS  ('Qptnov,  'Qptnof.  'QpiKtof. 
now  Ericko),  an  important  Greek  town  on  the 
coast  of  Illyria,  near  the  Ceraunian  Mountains 
and  rhe  frontiers  of  Epirus  According  to  tra- 


ORIGENES. 

[  dition,  it  was  founded   by  the  Eubceans,  who 
were  cast  here  by  a  storm  on  their  return  from 
Troy  ;  but  according  to  another  legend,  it  was 
a  Colchian  colony.     The  town  was   strongly 
fortified,  but  its  harbor  was  not  very  secure. 
It  was  destroyed  in  the  civil  wars,  but  was  re- 
built by  Herodes  Atticus.    The  turpentine  tree 
(terebinlhus)  grew  in  the  neighborhood  of  Oricus 
ORIGENES  (Qpiyevrje],  usually  called  ORIOEN 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  early  Christian 
writers,  was  born  at  Alexandrea  A.D.  186.    He 
received  a  careful  education  from  his  father. 
Leonides,  who  was  a  devout  Christian  ;  and  he 
subsequently  became  a  pupil  of  Clement  of  Al- 
exandrea.   His  father  having  been  put  to  death 
in  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  the  tenth 
year  of  Severus  (202),  Origen  was  reduced  to 
destitution  ;  whereupon  he  became  a  teacher 
of  grammar,  and  soon  acquired  a  great  reput?- 
tion.     At  the  same  time  he  gave  instruction  in 
Christianity  to  several  of  the  heathen  ;  and, 
though  only  in  his  eighteenth  year,  he  was  ap- 
!  pointed  to  the  office  of  catechist,  which  was 
I  vacant  through  the  dispersion  of  the  clergy  con- 
I  sequent  on  the  persecution.    The  young  teach- 
er showed  a  zeal  and  self-denial  beyond  his 
years.     Deeming  his  profession  as  teacher  of 
grammar  inconsistent  with  his  sacred  work,  he 
gave  it  up ;  and  he  lived  on  the  merest  pit- 
tance.    His  food  and'his  periods  of  sleep  were 
restricted  within  the  narrowest  limits ;  and  he 
performed  a  strange  act  of  self-mutilation,  in 
obedience  to  what  he  regarded  as  the  recom- 
mendation of  Christ.     (Matth.,  xix.,  12.)    At  a 
later  time,  however,  he  repudiated  this  literal 
understanding  of  our  Lord's  words.    About  211 
or  212  Origen  visited  Rome,  where  he  made, 
however,  a  very  short  stay.     On  his  return  to 
Alexandrea  he  continued  to  discharge  his  duties 
as  catechist,  and  to  pursue  his  biblical  studies 
About  216  he  paid  a  visit  to  Csesarea  in  Pales- 
tine, and  about  230  he  travelled  into  Greece. 
Shortly  after  his  return  to  Alexandrea  he  had 
to  encounter  the  open  enmity  of  Demetrius,  the 
bishop  of  the  city.    He  was  first  deprived  of  his 
office  of  catechist,  and  was  compelled  to  leave 
Alexandrea ;  and  Demetrius  afterward  procured 
his  degradation  from  the  priesthood  and  his  ex- 
communication.    The'charges  brought  against 
him  are  not  specified  ;  but  his  unpopularity  ap- 
pears to  have  arisen  from  the  obnoxious  char- 
acter of  some  of  his  opinions,  and  was  increas- 
ed by  the  circumstance  that  even  in  his  lifetime 
his  writings  were  seriously  corrupted.     Origen 
withdrew  to  Caesarea  in  Palestine,  where  he  was 
received  with  the  greatest  kindness.    Among 
his  pupils  at  this  place  was  Gregory  Thauma- 
turgus,  who  afterward  became  his  panegyrist. 
In  235  Origen  fled  from  Caesarea  in  Palestine, 
and  took  refuge  at  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia, 
where  he  remained  concealed  two  years.    It 
was  subsequent  to  this  that  he  undertook  a  sec- 
ond journey  into  Greece,  the  date  of  which  is 
doubtful.    In  the  Decian  persecution  (249-251), 
Origen  was  put  to  the  torture  ;  but,  though  his 
life  was  spared,  the  sufferings  which  he  under- 
went hastened  his  end.    He  died  in  253  or  254, 
in  his  sixty-ninth  year,  at  Tyre,  in  which  city 
he  was  buried.     The  following  are  the  mos* 
important  of  Origen's  works:  1.  The  Hcxapla 
which  consisted  of  six  copies  of  the  Old  Testa 

579 


ORIGENES. 

mcnt,  ranged  in  parallel  columns.  The  first 
eolunm  contained  the  Hebrew  text  in  Hebrew 
characters,  the  second  the  same  text  in  Greek 
characters,  the  third  the  version  of  Aquila,  the 
fourth  that  of  Symmachus,  the  fifth  the  Septua- 
gint,  the  sixth  the  version  of  Theodotion.  Be- 
sides the  compilation  and  arrangement  of  these 
versions,  Origen  added  marginal  notes,  contain- 
ing, among  other  things,  an  explanation  of  the 
Hebrew  names.  Only  fragments  of  this  valu- 
able work  are  extant,  the  best  edition  of  which 
is  by  Montfaucon,  Paris,  1714.  2.  Exegetical 
works,  which  comprehend  three  classes:  (1.) 
Tomi,  which  Jerome  renders  Volumina,  contain- 
ing ample  commentaries,  in  which  he  gave  full 
scope  to  his  intellect.  (2.)  Scholia,  brief  notes 
on  detached  passages.  (3,)  Homiliat,  popular 
expositions,  chiefly  delivered  at  Ceesarea.1  In 
his  various  expositions  Origen  sought  to  ex- 
tract from  the  Sacred  Writings  their  historical, 
mystical  or  prophetical,  and  moral  significance. 
His  desire  of  finding  continually  a  mystical 
sense  led  him  frequently  into  the  neglect  of  the 
historical  sense,  and  even  into  the  denial  of  its 
truth.  This  capital  fault  has  at  all  times  fur- 
nished ground  for  depreciating  his  labors,  and 
has  no  doubt  materially  diminished  their  value: 
it  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  his  de- 
nial of  the  historical  truth  of  the  Sacred  Writ- 
ings is  more  than  occasional,  or  that  it  has  been 
carried  out  to  the  full  extent  which  sornje  of  his 
accusers  have  charged  upon  him.  3.  De  Prin- 
cipiis  (Iltpl  upxuv).  This  work  was  the  great 
object  of  attack  with  Origen's  enemies,  and  the 
source  from  which  they  derived  their  chief  evi- 
dence of  his  various  alleged  heresies.  It  was 
divided  into  four  books.  Of  this  work  some 
important  fragments  are  extant ;  and  the  Latin 
version  of  Rufinus  has  come  down  to  us  entire  ; 
but  Rufinus  took  great  liberties  with  the  orig- 
inal, and  the  unfaithfulness  of  his  version  is  de- 
nounced in  the  strongest  terms  by  Jerome.  4. 
Exhortatio  ad  Martyrium  (Etf  paprvpiov  irpotpe-K- 
riKOf  Adyof),  or  De  Mar  lyric  (Tlepl  /jtaprvplov), 
written  during  the  persecution  under  the  Em- 
peror Maximin  (235-238),  and  still  extant.  5. 
Contra  Celsum  Libri  VIII.  (Kara  KeAffov  rdfioi 
»?),  still  extant.  In  this  important  work  Origen 
defends  the  truth  of  Christianity  against  the 
attacks  of  Celsus.  Vid.  CELSUS.  There  is  a 
valuable  work  entitled  Fhilocalia  (4>tAoKaX/a), 
which  is  a  compilation  by  Basil  of  Caesarea  and 
his  friend  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  made  almost 
exclusively  from  the  writings  of  Origen,  of 
which  many  important  fragments  have  been 
thus  preserved.  Few  writers  have  exercised 
greater  influence  by  the  force  of  their  intellect 
and  the  variety  of  their  attainments  than  Origen, 
or  have  been  the  occasion  of  longer  and  more 
acrimonious  disputes.  Of  his  more  distinctive 
tenets,  several  had  reference  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  to  the  subject  of  the  incarnation, 
and  to  the  pre-existence  of  Christ's  human  soul, 
which,  as  well  as  the  pre-existence  of  other  hu- 
man souls,  he  affirmed.  He  was  charged,  also, 
with  holding  the  corporeity  of  angels,  and  with 
other  errors  as  to  angels  and  daemons.  He  held 
the  freedom  of  the  human  will,  and  ascribed  to 
man  a  nature  less  corrupt  and  depraved  than 
was  consistent  with  orthodox  views  of  the  op- 
3ration  of  divine  grace.  He  held  the  doctrine 
580 


ORION. 

of  the  universal  restoration  of  the  guilty,  con- 
ceiving that  the  devil  alone  would  suffer  eternal 
punishment.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is 
by  Delarue,  Paris,  1733-1759,  4  vols.  fol.  ;  [re- 
printed in  25  vols.  8vo,  1831-48,  under  the  edi- 
torial care  of  Lomrnatsch.] 

[OuiNE  COpeivrj,  now  DahlaJc,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Massaouah),  an  island  of  the  Sinus  Arabicus,  off 
the  coast  of  Ethiopia,  in  the  Sinus  Adulicus.] 

ORINGIS  or  ONINGIS,  probably  the  same  place 
as  AURINX,  a  wealthy  town  in  Hispania  Baetica, 
with  silver  mines,  near  Munda. 

ORION  ('Qpiuv),  son  of  Hyrieus,  of  Hyria,  in 
Boeotia,  a  handsome  giant  and  hunter,  said  to 
have  been  called  by  the  Boeotians  Candaon. 
Once  he  came  to  Chios  (Ophiusa),  and  fell  in 
love  with  Aero  or  Merope,  the  daughter  of 
(Enopion  by  the  nymph  Helice.  He  cleared 
the  island  from  wild  blasts,  and  brought  the 
spoils  of  the  chase  as  presents  to  his  beloved  ; 
but  as  CEnopion  constantly  deferred  the  mar- 
riage, Orion  once  when  intoxicated  offered  vio- 
lence to  the  maiden.  CEnopion  now  implored 
the  assistance  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  who 
caused  Orion  to  be  thrown  into  a  deep  sleep  by 
satyrs,  in  which  state  (Enopion  deprived  him 
of  his  sight.  Being  informed  by  an  oracle  that 
he  should  recover  his  sight  if  he  would  go  to- 
ward the  east  and  expose  his  eye-balls  to  the 
rays  of  the  rising  sun,  Orion  followed  the  sound 
of  a  Cyclops'  hammer,  went  to  Lemnos,  where 
Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  gave  to  him  Cedalion  as 
his  guide.  Having  recovered  his  sight,  Orion 
returned  to  Chios  to  take  vengeance  on  CEno- 
pion  ;  but,  as  the  latter  had  been  concealed  by 
his  friends,  Orion  was  unable  to  find  him,  and 
then  proceeded  to  Crete,  where  he  lived  as  a 
hunter  with  Diana  (Artemis).  The  cause  of 
his  death,  which  took  place  either  in  Crete  01 
Chios,  is  differently  stated.  According  to  some, 
Eos  (Aurora),  who  loved  Orion  for  his  beauty, 
carried  him  off,  but  as  the  gods  were  angry  at 
this,  Diana  (Artemis)  killed  him  with  an  arrow 
in  Ortygia.  According  to  others,  he  was  be- 
loved by  Diana  (Artemis),  and  Apollo,  indig- 
nant at  his  sister's  affection  %r  him,  asserted 
that  she  was  unable  to  hit  with  ner  arrow  a  dis- 
tant point  which  he  showed  her  in  the  sea.  She 
thereupon  took  aim,  and  hit  it,  but  the  point 
was  the  head  of  Orion,  who  had  been  swim- 
ming in  the  sea.  A  third  account,  which  Hor- 
ace follows  (Carm.,  ii.,4,  72),  states  that  he  at- 
tempted to  violate  Artemis  (Diana),  and  was 
killed  by  the  goddess  with  one  of  her  arrows. 
A  fourth  account,  lastly,  states  that  he  boasted 
he  would  conquer  every  animal,  and  would  cleai 
the  earth  from  all  wild  beasts ;  but  the  earth 
sent  forth  a  scorpion  which  destroyed  him.  ^Eg- 
culapius  attempted  to  recall  him  to  life,  but  was 
slain  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  with  a  flash  of  lightning. 
The  accounts  of  his  parentage  and  birth-place 
vary  in  the  different  writers,  for  some  call  hirr 
a  son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  Euryale,  and 
others  say  that  he  was  born  of  the  earth,  or  a 
son  of  CEnopion.  He  is  further  called  a  The- 
ban  or  Tanagraean,  but  probably  because  Hyria, 
his  native  place,  sometimes  belonged  to  Tana- 
gra  and  sometimes  to  Thebes.  After  his  death 
Orion  was  placed  among  the  stars,  where  ho 
appears  as  a  giant  with  a  girdle,  sword,  a  lion's 
skin,  and  a  club.  The  constellation  of  Orion 


ORION. 

set  at  the  commencement  of  November,  at  which 
time  storms  and  rain  were  frequent ;  hence  he 
is  often  called  imbrifer,  nimbosus,  or  aquosus. 

ORION  and  Onus  ('Qpiuv  and  'Qpof),  names  of 
several  ancient  grammarians,  who  are  frequent- 
ly confounded  with  each  other.  It  appears, 
however,  that  we  may  distinguish  three  writ- 
ers of  these  names.  1.  ORION,  a  Theban  gram- 
marian, who  taught  at  Caesarea  in  the  fifth 
century  after  Christ,  and  is  the  author  of  a  lex- 
icon, still  extant,  published  by  Sturz,  Lips., 
1820. — 2.  OEUS,  of  Miletus,  a  grammarian,  liv- 
ed in  the  second  century  after  Christ,  and  was 
the  author  of  the  works  mentioned  by  Suidas. 
— 3.  ORUS,  an  Alexandrine  grammarian,  who 
taught  at  Constantinople  not  earlier  than  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century  after  Christ. 

ORIPPO,  a  town  in  Hispania,  on  the  road  be- 
tween Gades  and  Hispalis. 

ORIT^E,  HORIT^E,  or  OR^E  ('QpeiTai,  7Qp<u),  a 
people  of  Gedrosia,  who  inhabited  a  district 
on  the  coast  nearly  two  hundred  miles  long, 
abounding  in  wine,  corn,  rice,  and  palm-trees, 
the  modem  Urloo  on  the  coast  of  Beloochistan. 
Some  of  the  ancient  writers  assert  that  they 
were  of  Indian  origin,  while  others  say  that, 
though  they  resembled  the  Indians  in  many  of 
their  customs,  they  spoke  a  different  language. 

ORITHYIA  ('Qpeidvta).  1.  Daughter  of  Erech- 
theus,  king  of  Athens,  and  Praxithea.  Once, 
as  she  had  strayed  beyond  the  River  Ilissus,  she 
was  seized  by  Boreas  and  carried  off  to  Thrace, 
where  she  bore  to  Boreas  Cleopatra,  Chione, 
Zetes,  and  Calais.— [2.  One  of  the  Nereids, 
mentioned  in  Homer.] 

(OEIUS  ('Opetof),  son  of  the  Thessalian  sor- 
ceress Mycale,  one  of  the  Lapithae,  slain  by 
Gryneus  at  the  nuptials  of  Pirithous.] 

[ORMENIUM.     Vid.  ORMENUS.] 

OBMENUS  ('Oppevof).  1.  Son  of  Cercaphus, 
grandson  of^Eolus,  and  father  of  Amyntor,  was 
believed  to  have  founded  the  town  of  Ormeni- 
um,  in  Thessaly.  From  him  Amyntor  is  some- 
times called  Ormenides,  and  Astydamia,  his 
grand-daughter,  Ormenis. — [2.  Narae  of  two  Tro- 
jan warriors,  who  were  slain,  the  one  byTeucer, 
the  other  by  Polypretes,  in  the  Trojan  war.] 

[ORMINICS  Mows  (now  Dcrne  jailasi  ?),  a  range 
of  mountains  in  the  northeast  of  Bithynia,  term- 
inating in  Promontorium  Posidium,  on  the  coast.] 

ORNE^E  ('Opveal :  'Opvedrtif'),  an  ancient  town 
in  Argolis,  near  the  frontiers  of  the  territory  of 
Phlius,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  stadia  from 
Argos.  It  was  originally  independent  of  Argos, 
but  was  subdued  by  the  Argives  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  B.C.  415. 

ORNECS  ('Opvevf),  son  of  Erechtheus,  father 
of  Peteus,  and  grandfather  of  Menestheus ;  from 
him  the  town  of  Orneae  was  believed  to  have 
derived  its  name. 

[ORNYTUS  ("Opwrof).  1.  An  Arcadian  hero, 
who  led  an  army  from  Teuthis  to  join  the  Greeks 
against  Troy,  but  during  the  stay  at  Aulis  he 
bad  a  quarrel  with  Agamemnon,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, led  his  forces  back.— 2.  A  Tyrrhenian, 
companion  of /Kneas  in  Italy,  slain  by  Camilla.] 

OKOANDA  ('Op6av6a :  'Opoavdevc,  or -t«of ,  Oro- 
andensis),  a  mountain  city  of  Pisidia,  southeast 
of  Antiochia,  from  which  the  "Oroandicus  trac- 
tua"  obtained  its  name 

now  Tab),  the  largest  of 


OROPUS. 

'  the  minor  rivers  which  flow  into  the  Persian 
Gulf,  formed  the  boundary  between  Susiana  and 
Persia. 


('Opofilat),  a  town  on  the  coast  of 
Eubcea,  not  far  from  JEgs,  with  an  oracle  of 
Apollo. 

[OROBII,  a  Gallic  people  in  Gallia  Transpa- 
dana,  in  whose  territory,  according  to  Pliny,  lay 
the  cities  Comum  and  Bergomum.] 

ORODES  ('OpwJ^f),  the  name  of  two  kings  of 
Parthia.  Vid.  ARSACES,  No.  14,  17. 

ORCETES  ('0/3o/r?7c),  a  Persian,  was  made  sa- 
trap of  Sardis  by  Cyrus,  which  government  he 
retained  under  Cambyses.  In  B.C.  522  he  de- 
coyed POLYCRATES  into  his  power  by  specious 
promises,  and  put  him  to  death.  But  being  sus- 
pected of  aiming  at  the  establishment  of  an  in- 
dependent spvereignty,  he  was  himself  put  to 
death  by  order  of  Darius. 

ORONTES  ('OpovTijf).  1.  (Now  Nahr-cl-Asy), 
the  largest  river  of  Syria,  has  two  chief  sources 
in  Ccelesyria,  the  one  in  the  Antilibanus,  the 
other  further  north,  in  the  Libanus  ;  flows  north- 
east into  a  lake  south  of  Emesa,  and  thence 
north  past  Epiphania  and  Apamea,  till  near  An- 
tioch,  where  it  suddenly  sweeps  round  to  the 
southwest,  and  falls  into  the  sea  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Pieria.  According  to  tradition,  its  ear- 
lier name  was  Typhon  (Tvipuv),  and  it  was  call- 
ed Orontes  from  the  person  who  first  built  a 
bridge  over  it.  —  2.  A  mountain  on  the  southern 
side  of  the  Caspian,  between  Parthia  and  Hyr- 
cania.  —  3.  A  people  of  Assyria,  east  of  Gauga 
mela. 

[ORONTES  ('QpovTijc).  1.  A  Lycian  leader,  an 
ally  of  the  Trojansx  accompanied  ^Eneas  after 
the  fall  of  Troy,  and  perished  by  shipwreck.  — 
2.  Related  to  the  Persian  royal  family,  accom- 
panied the  younger  Cyrus  against  Artaxerxes, 
having  been  pardoned  by  Cyrus  though  he  had 
revolted  from  him.  He  was  again  convicted  of 
treason  during  the  expedition,  was  tried  by  a 
court-martial,  and  condemned  to  death.  His 
fate  was  never  made  public.  —  3.  A  Persian,  sa- 
trap of  Armenia,  married  Rhodogune,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Artaxerxes  :  he  commanded  one  of  the 
divisions  of  the  king's  army  during  the  retreat 
of  the  ten  thousand  Greeks,  and  was  a  party  to 
the  treacherous  massacre  of  the  Greek  gen- 
erals. He  was  afterward  disgraced  in  conse- 
quence of  mismanaging  the  war  with  Evagoras, 
and  attempting  to  deprive  Tiribazus  of  his  com- 
mand and  his  army.  Vid.  TIRIBAZUS.  —  4.  A 
descendant  of  Hydarnes  (one  of  the  seven  con- 
spirators against  Smerdis  the  Magian),  is  men- 
tioned by  Strabo  as  the  last  Persian  prince  who 
reigned  in  Armenia  before  the  division  of  the 
country  by  Antiochus  the  Great  between  two 
of  his  officers,  Artaxias  and  Zariadris.] 

OROPUS  ('CpwTrof  :  'Qpuirio(  :  now  Oropo),  a 
town  on  the  eastern  frontiers  of  Boeotia  and 
Attica,  near  the  Euripus,  originally  belonged  to 
the  Boeotians,  but  was  at  an  early  time  seized 
by  the  Athenians,  and  was  long  an  object  ol 
contention  between  the  two  nations.  At  length, 
after  being  taken  and  retaken  several  times,  it 
remained  permanently  in  the  hands  of  the  Athe- 
nians, and  is  always  reckoned  by  later  writers 
as  a  town  of  Attica.  Its  sea-port  was  Delphin- 
ium, at  the  mouth  of  the  Asopus,  about  one  and 
a  half  miles  from  the  town. 

£81 


OROSIUS.  PAULUS. 

OROSIUS,  PAULUS,  a  Spanish  presbyter,  a  na- 
tive of  Tarragona,  flourished  under  Arcadius 
and  Honorius.  Having  conceived  a  warm  ad- 
miration for  St.  Augustine,  he  passed  over  into 
Africa  about  A.D.  413.  After  remaining  in 
Africa  about  two  years,  Augustine  sent  him 
into  Syria,  to  counteract  the  influence  of  Pela- 
gius,  who  had  resided  for  some  years  in  Pales- 
tine. Orosius  found  a  warm  friend  in  Jerome, 
but  was  unable  to  procure  the  condemnation  of 
Pelagius,  and  was  himself  anathematized  by 
John,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  when  he  brought  a 
formal  charge  against  Pelagius.  Orosius  subse- 
quently returned  to  Africa,  and  there,  it  is  believ- 
ed, died,  but  at  what  period  is  not  known.  The 
following  works  by  Orosius  are  still  extant.  1. 
Historianim  advcrsus  Paganos  Libri  VII.,  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Augustine,  at  whose  suggestion  the 
task  was  undertaken.  The  pagans  having  been 
accusto*med  to  complain  that  the  ruin  of  the 
Roman  empire  must  be  ascribed  to  the  wrath 
of  the  ancient  deities,  whose  worship  had  been 
abandoned,  Orosius,  upon  his  return  from  Pal- 
estine, composed  this  history  to  demonstrate 
that  from  the  earliest  epoch  the  world  had  been 
the  scene  of  calamities  as  great  as  the  Roman 
empire  was  then  suffering.  The  work,  which 
extends  from  the  Creation  down  to  A.D.  417, 
is,  with  exception  of  the  concluding  portion, 
extracted  from  Justin,  Eutropius,  and  inferior 
second-hand  authorities.  Edited  by  Havercamp, 
Lugd.  Bat.,  1738  and  1767.  2.  Liber  Apologeti- 
cus  de  Arbitrii  Libertate,  written  in  Palestine, 
A.D.  415,  appended  to  the  edition  of  the  His- 
tory by  Havercamp.  3.  Commonitorium  ad  Au- 
gustinum,  the  earliest  of  the  works  of  Orosius, 
composed  soon  after  his  first  arrival  in  Africa. 
OROSPEDA  or  ORTOSPEDA  (now  Sierra  del  Mun- 
do),  the  highest  range  of  mountains  in  the  cen- 
tre of  Spain,  began  in  the  centre  of  Mount  Idu- 
beda,  ran  first  west  and  then  south,  and  term- 
inated near  Calpe  at  the  Fretum  Herculeum. 
It  contained  several  silver  mines,  whence  the 
part  in  which  the  Bsetis  rises  was  called  Mount 
Argentarius,  or  the  Silver  Mountain. 

ORPHEUS  ('Op^nJf),  a  mythical  personage, 
was  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  early  poets,  who  lived  before  the 
time  of  Homer.  His  name  does  not  occur  in 
the  Homeric  or  Hesiodic  poems,  but  it  already 
had  attained  to  great  celebrity  in  the  lyric  pe- 
riod. There  were  numerous  legends  about  Or- 
pheus, but  the  common  story  ran  as  follows : 
Orpheus,  the  son  of  CEagrus  and  Calliope,  lived 
in  Thrace  at  the  period  of  the  Argonauts,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  their  expedition.  Presented 
with  the  lyre  by  Apollo,  and  instructed  by  the 
Muses  in  its  use,  he  enchanted  with  its  music 
not  only  the  wild  beasts,  but  the  trees  and  rocks 
upon  Olympus,  so  that  they  moved  from  their 
places  to  follow  the  sound  of  his  golden  harp. 
The  power  of  his  music  caused  the  Argonauts 
to  seek  his  aid,  which  contributed  materially  to 
the  success  of  their  expedition  :  at  the  Sound 
of  his  lyre  the  Argo  glided  down  into  the  sea  ; 
the  Argonauts  tore  themselves  away  from  the 
pleasures  of  Lemnos ;  the  Symplegades,  or  mov- 
ing rocks,  which  threatened  to  crush  the  ship 
between  them,  were  fixed  in  their  places ;  and 
the  Colchian  dragon,  which  guarded  the  golden 
fleece,  was  lulled  to  sleep :  other  legends  of 
582 


ORPHEUS. 

the  same  kind  may  be  read  in  the  Argonau(u.a, 
which  hears  the  name  of  Orpheus.  After  his 
return  from  the  Argonautic  expedition  he  took 
up  his  abode  in  a  cave  in  Thrace,  and  employ-i  • 
ed  himself  in  the  civilization  of  its  wild  inhabit- 
ants. There  is  also  a  legend  of  his  having  vis- 
ited Egypt.  The  legends  respecting  the  loss 
and  recovery  of  his  wife,  and  his  own  death, 
are  very  various.  His  wife  was  a  nymph  named 
Agriope  or  Eurydice.  In  the  older  accounts 
the  cause  of  her  death  is  not  referred  to.  The 
legend  followed  in  the  well-known  passages  of 
Virgil  and  Ovid,  which  ascribes  the  death  of 
Eurydice  to  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  is  no  doubt 
of  high  antiquity  ;  but  the  introduction  of  Aris- 
tseus  into  the  legend  can  not  be  traced  to  any 
writer  older  than  Virgil  himself.  He  followed 
his  lost  wife  into  the  abodes  of  Pluto  (Hades), 
where  the  charms  of  his  lyre  suspended  the 
torments  of  the  damned,  and  won  back  his  wife 
from  the  most  inexorable  of  all  deities  ;  but  his 
prayer  was  only  granted  upon  this  condition 
that  he  should  not  look  back  upon  his  restoreo 
wife  till  they  had  arrived  in  the  upper  world 
at  the  very  moment  when  they  we're  about  to 
pass  the  fatal  bounds,  the  anxiety  of  love  over- 
came the  poet ;  he  looked  round  to  see  that 
Eurydice  was  following  him,  and  he  beheld  hei 
caught  back  into  the  infernal  regions.  His 
grief  for  the  loss  of  Eurydice  led  him  to  treat 
with  contempt  the  Thracian  women,  who,  in  re- 
venge, tore  him  to  pieces  under  the  excitement 
of  their  Bacchanalian  orgies.  After  his  death 
the  Muses  collected  the  fragments  of  his  bodyv 
and  buried  them  at  Libethra,  at  the  foot  of 
Olympus,  where  the  nightingale  sang  sweetly 
over  his  grave.  His  head  was  thrown  into  the 
Hebrus,  down  which  it  rolled  to  the  sea,  and 
was  borne  across  to  Lesbos,  where  the  grave 
in  which  it  was  interred  was  shown  at  Antissa. 
His  lyre  was  also  said  to  have  been  carried  to 
Lesbos  ;  and  both  traditions  are  simply  poet- 
ical expressions  of  the  historical  fact  that  Les- 
bos was  the  first  great  seat  of  the  music  of  the 
lyre  :  indeedfiAntissa  itself  was  the  birth-place 
of  Terpander,  the  earliest  historical  musician. 
The  astronomers  taught  that  the  lyre  of  Or- 
pheus was  placed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  among  the 
stars  at  the  intercession  of  Apollo  and  the  Mu- 
ses. In  these  legends  there  are  some  points 
which  are  sufficiently  clear.  The  invention  of 
music,  in  connection  with  the  services  of  Apollo 
and  the  Muses,  its  first  great  application  to  the 
worship  of  the  gods,  which  Orpheus  is  there- 
fore said  to  have  introduced,  its  power  over  the 
passions,  and  the  importance  which  the  Greeks 
attached  to  the  knowledge  of  it,  as  intimately 
allied  with  the  very  existence  of  all  social  ordei 
— are  probably  the  chief  elementary  ideas  of  the 
whole  legend.  But  then  comes  in  one  of  the 
dark  features  of  the  Greek  religion,  in  which 
the  gods  envy  the  advancement  of  man  in 
knowledge  and  civilization,  and  severely  punish 
any  one  who  transgresses  the  bounds  assigned 
to  humanity.  In  a  later  age  the  conflict  was 
no  longer  viewed  as  between  the  gods  and  man, 
•  but  between  the  worshippers  of  different  divin- 
!  ities  ;  and  especially  between  Apollo,  the  sym- 
bol of  pure  intellect,  and  Bacchus  (Dionysus), 
the  deity  of  the  senses ;  hence  Orpheus,  the 
servant  of  Apollo,  falls  a  victim  to  the  jealousy 


ORPHIDIUS  BENIGNUS. 

of  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  and  the  fury  of  his  wor- 
shippers.— Orphic  Societies  and  Mysteries.  About 
the  time  of  the  first  development  of  Greek  phi- 
losophy, societies  were  formed,  consisting  of 
persons  called  the  followers  of  Orpheus  (ol  'Op- 
<t>iK.oi),  who,  under  the  pretended  guidance  of 
Orpheus,  dedicated  themselves  to  the  worship 
of  Bacchus  (Dionysus).  They  performed  the 
rites  of  a  mystical  worship,  but  instead  of  con- 
fining their  notions  to  the  initiated,  they  pub- 
lished them  to  others,  and  committed  them  to 
literary  works.  The  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  to 
whose  worship  the  Orphic  rites  were  annexed, 
was  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  Zagreus,  closely  con- 
nected with  Ceres  (Demeter)  and  Cora  (Proser- 
pina). The  Orphic  legends  and  poems  related 
in  great  part  to  this  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  who 
was  combined,  as  an  infernal  deity,  with  Pluto 
(Hades),  and  upon  whom  the  Orphic  theolo- 
gers  founded  their  hopes  of  the  purification  and 
ultimate  immortality  of  the  soul.  But  their 
mode  of  celebrating  this  worship  was  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  popular  rites  of  Bacchus.  The 
Orphic  worshippers  of  Bacchus  did  not  indulge 
in  unrestrained  pleasure  and  frantic  enthusi- 
asm, but  rather  aimed  at  an  ascetic  purity  of 
life  and  manners.  All  this  part  of  the  mythol- 
ogy of  Orpheus,  which  connects  him  with  Bac- 
chus (Dionysus),  must  be  considered  as  a  later 
invention,  quite  irreconcilable  with  the  original 
legend,  in  which  he  is  the  servant  of  Apollo  and 
the  Muses :  but  it  is  almost  hopeless  to  explain 
the  transition.  Many  poems  ascribed  to  Or- 
pheus were  current  as  early  as  the  time  of  the 
Pisistratids.  Vid.  ONOMACEITUS.  They  are  oft- 
en quoted  by  Plato,  and  the  allusions  to  them 
in  later  writers  are  very  frequent.  The  extant 
poems,  which  bear  the  name  of  Orpheus,  are 
the  forgeries  of  Christian  grammarians  and 
philosophers  of  the  Alexandrean  school ;  but 
among  the  fragments,  which  form  a  part  of  the 
collection,  are  some  genuine  remains  of  that 
Orphic  poetry  which  was  known  to  Plato,  and 
which  must  be  assigned  to  the  period  of  Ono- 
macritus,  or  perhaps  a  little  earlier.  The  Or- 
phic literature,  which  in  this  sense  may  be  call- 
ed genuine,  seems  to  have  included  Hymns,  a 
Theogony,  Oracles,  &c.  The  apocryphal  pro- 
ductions which  have  come  down  to  us  are.'l. 
Argonaulica,  an  epic  poem  in  one  thousand  three 
hundred  and  eighty-four  hexameters,  giving  an 
account  of  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts.  2. 
Hymns,  eighty-seven  or  eighty-eight  in  num- 
ber, in  hexameters,  evidently  the  productions 
of  the  Neo-Platonic  school.  3.  Lithica  (AtOiKu), 
treats  of  properties  of  stones,  both  precious  and 
common,  and  their  uses  in  divination.  4.  Frag- 
ments, chiefly  of  the  Theogony.  It  is  in  this 
class  that  we  find  the  genuine  remains  of  the 
literature  of  the  early  Orphic  theology,  but  in- 
termingled with  others  of  a  much  later  date. 
The  best  edition  is  by  Hermann,  Lips.,  1805. 

[ORPHIDIUS  BENIGNUS,  a  legate  of  the  Em- 
perorOtho,  fell  in  the  battle  of  Dedriacum  against 
the  troops  of  Vitellius,  A.D.  69.] 

[ORSABARIS  ('Opaufaptf),  a  daughter  of  Mith- 
radates  the  Great,  taken  prisoner  by  Pompey, 
and  served  to  adorn  his  triumph,  B.C.  61.] 

[ORSE'I'S  ('Oparjif),  a  nymph,  mother  by  Hel- 
«en  i>t  .r.niuH.  l)i TIIS,  and  Xuthus.] 

[ORSILOCHUS  ('Opai^o^oc).  1.  Son  ofthe  river- 


ORXINES. 

god  Alpheus  and  of  Telegone,  father  of  Diocles, 
prince  at  Pherae,  and  guest  friend  of  Ulysses. 
— 2.  Son  of  Diocles,  grandson  of  No.  1,  accom- 
panied Agamemnon  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  war 
slain  before  Troy  by  ^Eneas.— 3.  Son  of  Ido- 
meneus  of  Crete.— 4.  A  Trojan,  who  accom- 
panied ^Eneas  to  Italy ;  he  was  slain  by  Ca- 
milla.] 

[ORTHAGORAS  ('Opdayopa;).  1.  A  geograph- 
ical writer,  whose  age  is  uncertain  :  he  wrote 
a  work  on  India,  and  another  concerning  the 
Red  Sea. — 2.  A  flute-player  of  Thebes  ;  accord- 
ing to  Athenaeus,  an  instructor  of  Epaminondas 
in  flute-playing.] 

[ORTHE  ('Opdjj),  a  place  in  the  Thessalian 
district  Perrhaebia,  mentioned  in  the  second 
book  of  the  Iliad  ;  supposed  by  Strabo  to  be  the 
Acropolis  of  Phalanna.] 

ORTHIA  ('Opdia,  'Opdic,  or  'Op6uaia),  a  sur- 
name ofthe  Diana  (Artemis)  who  is  also  called 
Iphigenia  or  Lygodesma,  and  must  be  regarded 
as  the  goddess  of  the  moon.  Her  worship  was 
probably  brought  to  Sparta  from  Lemnos.  It 
was  at  the  altar  of  Diana  (Artemis)  Orthia  that 
Spartan  boys  had  to  undergo  the  flogging  called 
diamastigosis. 

ORTHOSIA  ('Opduoia).  1.  A  city  of  Caria,  on 
the  Maeander,  with  a  mountain  of  the  same 
name,  where  the  Rhodians  defeated  the  Ca- 
rians,  B.C.  167.— 2.  (Now  Ortosa),  a  city  of 
Phoenice,  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Eleuthe- 
rus,  and  twelve  Roman  miles  from  Tripolis. 

ORTHRUS  (*Op0pof),  the  two-headed  dog  of 
Geryones,  who  was  begotten  by  Typhon  and 
Echidna,  and  was  slain  by  Hercules.  Vid.  p. 
358,  a.] 

[ORTONA  (now  Ortona  a  Mare),  a  port-town 
of  the  Frentani,  according  to  the  Itineraries  on 
the  road  from  Aternum  to  Histonium.] 

ORTOSPANA  or-uM  ('Oproanava :  now  Cabull), 
a  considerable  city  of  the  Paropamisadae,  at 
the  sources  of  a  western  tributary  of  the  River 
Goes,  and  at  the  junction  of  three  roads,  one 
leading  north  into  Bactria,  and  the  others  south 
and  east  into  India.  It  was  also  called  Carura 
or  Cabura. 

ORT  YGIA  ('Oprvyia).  1 .  The  ancient  name  of 
Delos.  Since  Diana.  (Artemis)  and  Apollo  were 
born  at  Delos,  the  poets  sometimes  call  the  god- 
dess Ortygia,  and  give  the  name  of  Ortygia  boves 
to  the  cattle  pastured  by  Apollo.  The  ancients 
connected  the  name  with  Ortyx  ("Oprtif).  a  quail. 
Vid.  p.  435,  b.  —  2.  An  island  near  Syracuse. 
Vid.  SYRACUSE.— 3.  A  grove  near  Ephesus,  in 
which  the  Ephesians  pretended  that  Apollo  and 
Diana  (Artemis)  were  born.  Hence  Propertius 
calls  the  Cayster,  which  flowed  near  Ephesus, 
Ortygius  Cayster. 

[ORTYGIUS,  a  Rutulian,  one  of  the  warriors 
on  the  side  of  Turnus  in  his  wars  with  .Eneas, 
slain  by  Cwneus.] 

ORUS.     Vid.  HORUS,  ORION. 

[ORUS  ('flpof),  a  Greek  warrior  before  Troy, 
slain  by  Hector.] 

[(  JKXI.NKS  ('Opjivijc)  or  ORSINES,  a  noble  and 
wealthy  Persian,  who  traced  his  descent  from 
Cyrus.  He  was  present,  and  commanded  a 
portion  of  the  troops  at  Gaugamela.  At  the 
death  of  Phrasaortes  Orxines  assumed  the  sa- 
trapy of  Persia,  which  usurpation  .was  over- 
looked by  Alexander;  but  he  was  subsequently 

583 


OSCA 

charged  with  sacrilege,  and  on  this  or  some 
other  grcun-J  was  crucified  by  Alexander] 

OSCA.  1.  (Now  Huesca  in  Arragonia),  an  im- 
portant town  of  the  Ilergetes  and  a  Roman  col- 
ony in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  road  from 
Tarraco  to  Ilerda,  with  silver  mines  ;  whence 
Livy  speaks  ofargentum  Oscicnse,  though  these 
words  may  perhaps  mean  silver  money  coined 
at  Osca. — 2.  (West  of  Huescar  in  Granada),  a 
town  of  the  Turdetani  in  Hispania  Baetica. 

OSCELA.     Vid.  LEPONTII. 

Osci  or  OPICI  ('OOKOI,  'OrrtKol),  one  of  the 
most  ancient  tribes  of  Italy,  inhabited  the  cen- 
tre of  the  peninsula,  from  which  they  had  driven 
out  the  Siculi.  Their  principal  settlement  was 
in  Campania,  but  we  also  find  them  in  parts  of 
Latium  and  Samnium.  They  were  subdued  by 
the  Sabines  and  Tyrrhenians,  and  disappeared 
from  history  at  a  comparatively  early  period. 
They  were  called  in  their  own  language  Uskus. 
They  are  identified  by  many  writers  with  the 
Ausones  or  Aurunci ;  but  others  think  that  the 
latter  is  a  collective  name  for  all  the  people 
dwelling  in  the  plain,  and  that  the  Osci  were  a 
branch  of  the  Ausones.  The  Oscan  language 
was  closely  connected  with  the  other  ancient 
Italian  dialects,  out  of  which  the  Latin  language 
was  formed  ;  and  it  continued  to  be  spoken  by 
the  people  of  Campania  long  after  the  Oscans 
had  disappeared  as  a  separate  people.  A  knowl- 
edge of  it  was  preserved  at  Rome  by  the  Fab- 
ulae  Atellanae,  which  were  a  spgcies  of  farce  or 
comedy  written  in  Oscan. 

Osi,  a  people  in  Germany,  probably  in  the 
mountains  between  the  sources  of  the  Oder  and 
the  Gran,  were,  according  to  Tacitus,  tributary 
to  the  Sarmatians,  and  spoke  the  Pannonian 
language. 

OslCERDA.        Vid.  OSSIOERDA. 

[OsiNius,  king  of  Clusium,  aided  ^-Eneas  in  his 
wars  with  Turnus  in  Italy.] 

OSIRIS  ("Offtptf),  the  great  Egyptian  divinity, 
and  husband  of  Isis.  According  to  Herodotus, 
they  were  the  only  divinities  who  were  wor- 
shipped by  all  the  Egyptians.  His  Egyptian 
name  is  said  to  have  been  Hysiris,  which  is  in- 
terpreted to  mean  "  son  of  Isis,"  though  some 
said  that  it  meant  "  many-eyed."  He  is  said  to 
have  been  originally  king  of  Egypt,  and  to  have 
reclaimed  his  subjects  from  a  barbarous  life  by 
teaching  them  agriculture,  and  enacting  wise 
laws.  He  afterward  travelled  into  foreign 
lands,  spreading  wherever  he  went  the  bless- 
ings of  civilization.  On  his  return  to  Egypt  he 
was  murdered  by  his  brother  Typhon,  who  cut 
his  body  into  pieces  and  threw  them  into  the 
Nile.  After  a  long  search  Isis  discovered  the 
mangled  remains  of  her  husband,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  her  son  Horus  defeated  Typhon, 
and  recovered  the  sovereign  power,  which  Ty- 
phon had  usurped.  Vid.  Isis. 

[OsiRis,  a  friend  of  Turnus,  the  king  of  the 
Rutuli,  slain  by  the  Trojan  Thymbraeus.] 

OSISMII,  a  people  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  at 
the  northwestern  extremity  of  the  coast,  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  modern  Quimper  and 
Brest. 

OGKOENB  ('Offpoqvri :  'Oapojjvoi,  pi. :  now  Pa- 
sh&lik  ofOrfah),  the  westernmost  of  the  two  por- 
tions into  which  Northern  Mesopotamia  was  di- 
vided by  the  River  Chaboras  (now  Khabour), 
584 


OSTRACINA. 

which  separated  it  from  Mygilonia  on  the  east, 
and  from  the  rest  of  Mesopotamia  on  the  south  ; 
the  Euphrates  divided  it  on  the  west  and  north- 
west from  the  Syrian  districts  of  Chalybonitis, 
Cyrrhestice,  and  Commagene ;  and  on  the  north 
it  was  separated  by  Mount  Masius  from  Armenia. 
Its  name  was  said  to  be  derived  from  Osrofts, 
an  Arabian  chieftain,  who,  in  the  time  of  the 
Seleucidae,  established  over  it  a  petty  principal- 
ity, with  EDESSA  for  its  capital,  which  lasted  till 
the  reign  of  Caracalla,  and  respecting  the  his 
tory  of  which,  vid.  ABGARUS. 

[OsROES.       Vid.  OsROENE.] 

OSSA  ('Ooaa  :  now  Kissavo,  i.  e.,  ivy-clad). 
1.  A  celebrated  mountain  in  the  north  of  Mag- 
nesia, in  Thessaly,  connected  with  Pelion  on 
the  southeast,  and  divided  from  Olympus  on  the 
northwest  by  the  Vale  ofTEMPE.  It  is  one  of 
the  highest  mountains  in  Greece,  but  much  less 
lofty  than  Olympus.  It  is  mentioned  by  Homer 
in  the  legend  of  the  war  of  the  Giants,  respect- 
ing which,  vid.  OLYMPUS — [2.  (Now  Osa),  a 
small  river  of  Etruria,  which  empties  into  the 
Tyrrhenian  Sea  between  Promontorium  Tela- 
mon  and  the  city  of  Cosa.] 

OSSET,  with  the  surname  Constantia  Julia,  a 
town  in  Hispania  Baetica,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Baetis,  opposite  Hispalis. 

OSSIGERDA  or  OSICERDA  (Ossigerdensis),  a 
town  of  the  Edetani  in  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis, and  a  Roman  municipium. 

OSSIGI  (now  Maquis),  a  town  of  the  Turduli 
in  Hispania  Bastica,  on  the  spot  where  the  Bae- 
tis first  enters  Baetica. 

OSSONOBA  (now  Estoy,  north  of  Faro),  a  town 
of  the  Turdetani  in  Lusitania,  between  the  Ta- 
gus  and  Anas. 

OSTEODES  ('OareuSris  vijoof :  now  Alicur),  an 
island  at  some  distance  from  the  north  coast  of 
Sicily,  opposite  the  town  of  Soli. 

OSTIA  (Ostiensis  :  now  Ostia,)  a  town  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Tiber,  and  the  harbor  of 
Rome,  from  which  it  was  distant  sixteen  miles 
by  land,  was  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  left 
arm  of  the  river.  It  was  founded  by  Ancus 
Marcius,  the  fourth  king  of  Rome,  was  a  Roman 
colony,  and  eventually  became  an  important  and 
flourishing  town.  In  the  civil  wars  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  Marius,  but  it  was  soon  rebuilt  with 
greater  splendor  than  before.  The  Emperor 
Claudius  constructed  a  new  and  better  harbor 
on  the  right  arm  of  the  Tiber,  which  was  en- 
larged and  improved  by  Trajan.  This  new  har- 
bor was  called  simply  Portus  Romanus  or  Portus 
Augusti,  and  around  it  there  sprang  up  a  flour- 
ishing town,  also  called  Portus  (the  inhabitants 
Portuenses).  The  old  town  of  Ostia,  whose 
harbor  had  been  already  partly  filled  up  by  sand, 
now  sank  into  insignificance,  and  only  continued 
to  exist  through  its  salt-works  (satina),  which 
had  been  established  by  Ancus  Marcius.  The 
ruins  of  Ostia  are  between  two  and  three  miles 
from  the  coast,  as  the  sea  has  gradually  receded 
in  consequence  of  the  accumulation  of  sand  de- 
posited by  the  Tiber. 

OSTIA  NILI.     Vid.  NILOS. 
[OsTORics  SABINUS.     Vid.  SABINUS.] 
OSTORIUS  SCAPULA.     Vid.  SCAPULA. 
OSTRA  (Ostranus),  a  town  in  Umbria,  in  the 
territory  of  the  Senones. 

[OSTRACINA  ('OarpaKiva),  a  city  destitute  of 


OTACILIUS  CRASSUS,  T. 


water  (araBfibs  uvvdpof),  -in  Lower  Egypt,  east 
of  the  Nile,  on  the  road  from  Rhinocorura  to 
Pelusium,  and  not  far  from  Lake  Sirbonis.] 

OTACILIUS  CRASSUS,  T  1.  A  Roman  general 
during  the  second  Puni.  war,  was  preetor  B.C. 
217,  and  subsequently  propraetor  in  Sicily.  In 
215  he  crossed  over  to  Africa,  and  laid  waste 
the  Carthaginian  coast.  He  was  praetor  for  the 
second  time,  214,  and  his  command  was  pro- 
longed during  the  next  three  years.  He  died  in 
Sicily,  211.  —  [2.  OTACILIUS  CRASSUS,  one  of 
Pompey's  officers,  had  the  command  of  the  town 
of  Lissus  in  Illyria,  and  cruelly  murdered  two 
hundred  and  twenty  of  Caesar's  soldiers,  who 
had  surrendered  to  him  on  the  promise  that  they 
should  be  uninjured.  Shortly  after  this  he  aban- 
doned Lissus,  and  joined  the  main  body  of  the 
Pompeian  army.] 

OTACILIUS  PILITUS,  L.,  a  Roman  rhetorician, 
who  opened  a  school  at  Rome  B.C.  81,  was 
originally  a  slave,  but  having  exhibited  talent 
and  a  love  of  literature,  he  was  manumitted  by 
his  master.  Cn.  Pompeius  Magnus  was  one  of 
his  pupils,  and  he  wrote  the  history  of  Pompey, 
and  of  his  father  likewise. 

OTANES  ('OrdvTjf).  1.  A  Persian,  son  of  Phar- 
naspes,  was  the  first  who  suspected  the  impos- 
ture of  Smerdis  the  Magian,  and  took  the  chief 
part  in  organizing  the  conspiracy  against  the 
pretender  (B.C.  521).  After  the  accession  of 
Darius  Hystaspis,  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  Persian  force  which  invaded  Samos  for 
the  purpose  of  placing  Syloson,  brother  of  Poly- 
crates,  in  the  government.  —  2.  A  Persian,  son 
of  Sisamnes,  succeeded  Megabyaus  (B.C.  506)  in 
the  command  of  the  forces  on  the  sea-coast, 
and  took  Byzantium,  Chalcedon,  Antandrus,  and 
Lamponium,  as  well  as  the  islands  of  Lemnos 
and  Imbros.  He  was  probably  the  same  Otanes 
who  is  mentioned  as  a  son-in-law  of  Darius  Hys- 
taspis, and  as  a  general  employed  against  the 
revolted  lonians  in  499. 

OTHO,  L.  Roscius,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
67,  was  a  warm  supporter  of  the  aristocratical 
party.  He  opposed  the  proposal  of  Gabinius  to 
bestow  upon  Pompey  the  command  of  the  war 
against  the  pirates  ;  and  in  the  same  year  he 
proposed  and  carried  the  law  which  gave  to  the 
equites  a  special  place  at  the  public  spectacles, 
in  fourteen  rows  or  seats  (in  quattuordecim  gradi- 
bus  sive  ordinibus),  next  to  the  place  of  the  sen- 
ators, which  was  in  the  orchestra.  This  law 
was  very  unpopular  ;  and  in  Cicero's  consulship 
(63)  there  was  such  a  riot  occasioned  by  the  ob- 
noxious measure  that  it  required  all  his  elo- 
quence to  allay  the  agitation. 

OTHO,  SALVIOS.  1.  M.,  grandfather  of  the 
Emperor  Otho,  was  descended  from  an  ancient 
and  noble  family  of  the  town  of  Ferentinum  in 
Etruria.  His  father  was  a  Roman  eques  ;  his 
mother  was  of  low  origin,  perhaps  even  a  freed- 
woman.  Through  the  influence  of  Livia  Au- 
gusta, in  whose  house  he  had  been  brought  up, 
Otho  was  made  a  Roman  senator,  and  eventu- 
ally obtained  the  pretorship,  but  was  not  ad- 
vanced to  any  higher  honor.  —  2.  L.,  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  father  of  the  Emperor  Otho,  stood 
so  high  in  the  favor  of  Tiberius,  and  resembled 
this  emperor  so  strongly  in  person,  that  it  was 
supposed  by  most  that  he  was  his  son.  He  was 
consul  suffectus  in  A.D.  33  ;  was  afterward  pro- 


OTHRYS. 

consul  in  Africa  ;  and  in  42  was  sent  into  lllyn- 
cum,  where  he  restored  discipline  among  the 
soldiers,  who  had  lately  rebelled  against  Clau- 
dius. At  a  later  time  he  detected  a  conspiracy 
which  had  been  formed  against  the  life  of  Clau- 
dius.— 3.  L.,  surnamedTiTiANus,  elder  son  of 
No.  2,  was  consul  52,  and  proconsul  in  Asia  63, 
when  he  had  Agricola  for  his  quaestor.  It  is 
j  related  to  the  honor  of  the  latter  that  he  was 
not  Corrupted  by  the  example  of  his  superior 
officer,  who  indulged  in  every  kind  of  rapacity. 
On  the  death  of  Galba  in  January,  69,  Titianas 
was  a  second  time  made  consul,  with  his  brother 
Otho,  the  emperor.  On  the  death  of  the  latter, 
he  was  pardoned  by  Vitellius. — 4.  M.,  Roman 
emperor  from  January  15th  to  April  16th,  A.D. 
69,  was  the  younger  son  of  No.  2.  He  was  born 
in  the  early  part  of  32.  He  was  of  moderate 
stature,  ill  made  in  the  legs,  and  had  an  effem- 
inate appearance.  He  was  one  of  the  compan- 
ions of  Nero  in  his  debaucheries  ;  but  when  the 
emperor  took  possession  of  his  wife,  the  beauti- 
ful but  profligate  Poppaea  Sabina,  Otho  was  sent 
as  governor  to  Lusitania,  which  he  administered 
with  credit  during  the  last  ten  years  of  Nero'a 
life.  Otho  attached  himself  to  Galba  when  he 
revolted  against  Nero,  in  the  hope  of  being 
adopted  by  him  and  succeeding  to  the  empire. 
But  when  Galba  adopted  L.  Piso  on  the  10th  of 
January,  69,  Otho  formed  a  conspiracy  against 
Galba,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  sol 
diers  at  Rome,  who  put  Galba  to  death.  Mean 
time  Vitellius  had  been  proclaimed  emperor  at 
Cologne  by  the  German  troops  on  the  3d  of 
January,  and  his  generals  forthwith  set  out  for 
Italy  to  place  their  master  on  the  throne.  When 
these  news  reached  Otho,  he  marched  into  the 
north  of  Italy  to  oppose  the  generals  of  Vitellius. 
The  fortune  of  war  was  at  first  in  his  favor. 
He  defeated  Caecina,  the  general  of  Vitellius,  in 
more  than  one  engagement ;  but  his  army  was 
subsequently  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle  near 
Bedriacum  by  the  united  forces  of  Caecina  and 
Valens,  whereupon  he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life 
at  Brixellum,  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  his 
age. 

OTHRYADES  ('06pvd6r}f).  I.  A  patronymic 
given  to  Panthous  or  Panthus,  the  Trojan  priest 
of  Apollo,  as  the  son  of  Othryas. — 2.  ASpartan, 
one  of  the  three  hundred  selected  to  fight  with 
an  equal  number  of  Argives  for  the  possession 
of  Thyrea.  Othryades  was  the  only  person 
who  survived  the  battle,  and  was  left  for  dead. 
He  spoiled  the  dead  bodies  of  the  enemy,  and 
remained  at  his  post,  while  Alcenor  and  Chro- 
mius,  the  two  survivors  of  the  Argive  party, 
hastened  home  with  the  news  of  victory,  sup- 
posing that  all  their  opponents  had  been  slain. 
As  the  victory  was  claimed  by  both  sides,  a 
general  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Argives 
were  defeated.  Othryades  slew  himself  on  the 
field,  being  ashamed  to  return  to  Sparta  as  the 
one  survivor  of  her  three  hundred  champions. 

[OTHRYONEUS  ('Odpvovevf),  an  ally  of  Priam, 
from  Cabesus,  was  a  suitor  for  the  hand  of  Cas- 
sandra, Priam's  daughter,  and  promised,  in  re- 
turn, to  drive  the  Greeks  from  before  Troy  ;  but 
he  was  slain  by  Idomeneus.] 

OTHRYS  ('OOpvf  :  [now  Goura  or  Katavothry  J 
the  highest  summit  Jerako,  according  toLeake]), 
a  lofty  range  of  mountains  in  the  south  of  Thes- 

585 


OTREUS. 

saly,  which  extended  from  Mount  Tymphres- 
tus,  or  the  most  southerly  part  of  Pindus,  to  the 
eastern  coast  and  the  promontory  between  the 
Pagasaean  Gulf  and  the  northern  point  of  Eu- 
bcea.  It  shut  in  the  great  Thessalian  plain  on 
the  south. 

[OTREUS  ('Orpevf),  king  of  Phrygia,  whom 
Priam  aided  against  the  Amazons.] 

[OxRis,  a  town  of  Babylonia,  south  of  Baby- 
lon, above  the  marshes  of  the  Euphrates.] 

[OTR02A  ('Orpoia),  a  city  of  Bithynia,  above 
Lake  Ascania,  said  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  Otreus,  probably  the  same  as  the  town  of 
Phrygia  mentioned  by  Plutarch  under  the  name 
of  Otryae  ('Orpvat)  in  his  life  of  Lucullus.] 

[OTRYNTEUS  ('OrpvvTfvf ),  king  of  Hyde  at  the 
base  of  Mount  Tmolus,  father  of  Iphition  by  one 
of  the  nymphs.] 

OTUS,  and  his  brother  EPHULTES,  are  bet- 
ter known  by  thei/  name  of  the  Aloida.  Vid. 
ALOEUS. — [2-  Of  Cyllene,  a  Greek  warrior  at  the 
siege  of  Troy,  slain  by  Polydamas.] 

OVIDIUS  NASO,  P.,  the  Roman  poet,  was  born 
at  Sulmo,  in  the  country  of  the  Peligni,  on  the 
20th  of  March,  B.C.  43.  He  was  descended  from 
an  ancient  equestrian  family,  but  possessing 
only  moderate  wealth.  He,  as  well  as  his 
brother  Lucius,  who  was  exactly  a  year  older 
than  himself,  was  destined  to  be  a  pleader,  and 
received  a  careful  education  to  qualify  him  for 
that  calling.  He  studied  rhetoric  under  Arel- 
lius  Fuscus  and  Porcius  Latro,  and  attained  to 
considerable  proficiency  in  the  art  of  declama- 
tion. But  the  bent  of  his  genius  showed  itself 
very  early.  The  hours  which  should  have  been 
spent  in  the  study  of  jurisprudence  were  em- 
ployed in  cultivating  his  poetical  talent.  The 
cdder  Seneca,  who  had  heard  him  declaim,  tells 
us  that  his  oratory  resembled  a  solutum  carmen, 
and  that  any  thing  in  the  way  of  argument  was 
irksome  to  him.  His  father  denounced  his  fa- 
vorite pursuit  as  leading  to  inevitable  poverty  ; 
but  the  death  of  his  brother,  at  the  early  age 
of  twenty,  probably  served  in  some  degree  to 
mitigate  his  father's  opposition,  for  the  patri- 
mony which  would  have  been  scanty  for  two 
might  amply  suffice  for  one.  Ovid's  education 
was  completed  at  Athens,  where  he  made  him- 
self thoroughly  master  of  the  Greek  language. 
Afterward  he  travelled  with  the  poet  Macer  in 
Asia  and  Sicily.  It  is  a  disputed  point  whether 
he  ever  actually  practiced  as  an  advocate  after 
his  return  to  Rome.  The  picture  Ovid  himself 
draws  of  his  weak  constitution  and  indolent 
temper  prevents  us  from  thinking  that  he  ever 
followed  his  profession  with  perseverance,  if 
indeed  at  all.  The  same  causes  deterred  him 
from  entering  the  senate,  though  he  had  put  on 
the  latus  clavus  when  he  assumed  the  toga  viri- 
lis,  as  being  by  birth  entitled  to  aspire  to  the 
senatorial  dignity.  (Trist.,  iv.,  10,  29.)  He  be- 
came, however,  one  of  the  Triumviri  Capitales ; 
and  he  was  subsequently  made  one  of  the  Cen- 
tumviri,  or  judges  who  tried  testamentary  and 
even  criminal  causes  ;  and  in  due  time  he  was 
promoted  to  be  one  of  the  Decemviri,  who  as- 
sembled and  presided  over  the  court  of  the 
Centumviri.  Such  is  all  the  account  that  can 
be  given  of  Ovid's  business  life.  He  married 
twice  in  early  life  at  the  desire  of  his  parents, 
hut  he  speedily  divorced  each  of  his  wives  in 
586 


OVIDIUS  NASO,  P.          . 

succession.  The  restraint  of  a  wife  was  iik- 
some  to  a  man  like  Ovid,  who  was  devoted  to 
gallantry  and  licentious  life.  His  chief  mistress 
in  the  early  part  of  his  life  was  the  one  whom 
he  celebrates  in  his  poems  under  the  name  of 
Corinna.  If  we  may  believe  the  testimony  of 
Sidonius  Apollinaris,  Corinna  was  no  less  a 
personage  than  Julia,  the  accomplished  but 
abandoned  daughter  of  Augustus.  There  are 
several  passages  in  Ovid's  Amorcs  which  ren- 
der the  testimony  of  Sidonius  highly  probable. 
Thus  it  appears  that  his  mistress  was  a  mar- 
ried woman,  of  high  rank,  but  profligate  morals  ; 
all  which  particulars  will  suit  Julia.  How  long 
Ovid's  connection  with  Corinna  lasted  there  are 
no  means  of  deciding ;  but  it  probably  ceased 
before  his  marriage  with  his  third  wife,  whom 
he  appears  to  have  sincerely  loved.  We  can 
hardly  place  his  third  marriage  later  than  his 
thirtieth  year,  since  a  daughter,  Perilla,  was  the 
fruit  of  it  (Trist.,  in.,  7,  3),  who  was  grown  up 
and  married  at  the  time  of  his  banishment. 
Perilla  was  twice  married,  and  had  a  child  by 
each  husband.  Ovid  was  a  grandfather  before 
he  lost  his  father  at  the  age  of  ninety ;  soon 
after  whose  decease  his  mother  also  died.  Till 
his  fiftieth  year  Ovid  continued  to  reside  at 
Rome,  where  he  had  a  house  near  the  Capitol, 
occasionally  taking  a  trip  to  his  Pelignan  farm. 
He  not  only  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  a  large 
circle  of  distinguished  men,  but  the  regard  and 
favor  of  Augustus  and  the  imperial  family.  But 
in  A.D.  9  Ovid  was  suddenly  commanded  by  an 
imperial  edict  to  transport  himself  to  Tomi,  a 
town  on  the  Euxine,  near  the  mouths  of  the 
Danube,  on  the  very  border  of  the  empire.  He 
underwent  no  trial,  and  the  sole  reason  for  his 
banishment  stated  in  the  edict  was  his  having 
published  his  poem  on  the  Art  of  Love  (Ars 
Amatoria).  It  was  not,  however,  an  exsilium, 
but  a  relegatio ;  that  is,  he  was  not  utterly  cut 
off  from  all  hope  of  return,  nor  did  he  lose  his 
citizenship.  The  real  cause  of  his  banishment 
has  long  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  scholars. 
The  publication  of  the  Ars  Amatoria  was  cer- 
tainly a  mere  pretext.  The  poem  had  been 
published  nearly  ten  years  previously ;  and, 
moreover,  whenever  Ovid  alludes  to  that,  the 
ostensible  cause,  he  invariably  couples  with  it 
another  which  he  mysteriously  conceals.  Ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  the  real  cause  was  his 
intrigue  with  Julia.  But  this  is  sufficiently  re- 
futed by  the  fact  that  Julia  had  been  an  exile 
since  B.C.  2.  Other  writers  suppose  that  he 
had  been  guilty  of  an  intrigue  with  the  younger 
Julia,  the  daughter  of  (he  elder  one ;  and  the 
remarkable  fact  that  the  younger  Julia  was  ban- 
ished in  the  same  year  with  Ovid  leads  very 
strongly  to  the  inference  that  his  fate  was  in 
some  way  connected  with  hers.  ButOvid  states 
himself  that  his  fault  was  an  involuntary  one ; 
and  the  great  disparity  of  years  between  the 
poet  and  the  younger  Julia  renders  it  improb- 
able that  there  had  been  an  intrigue  between 
them.  He  may  more  probably  have  become  ac- 
quainted with  Julia's  profligacy  by  accident, 
and  by  his  subsequent  conduct,  perhaps,  for  in- 
stance, by  concealing  it,  have  given  offence  to 
Livia,  or  Augustus,  or  both.  Ovid  draws  ao 
affecting  picture  of  the  miseries  to  which  he 
was  exposed  in  his  place  of  exile.  He  « on> 


OVIDiUS  NASO,  P. 

plains  of  the  inhospitable  soil,  of  the  severity 
of  the  climate,  and  of  the  perils  to  which  he 
was  exposed,  when  the  barbarians  plundered 
the  surrounding  country,  and  insulted  the  very 
walls  of  Tomi.  In  the  most  abject  terms  he 
supplicated  Augustus  to  change  his  place  of 
banishment,  and  besought  his  friends  to  use 
their  influence  in  his  behalf.  In  the  midst  of 
all  his  misfortunes,  he  sought  some  relief  in  the 
exercise  of  his  poetical  talents.  Not  only  did 
he  finish  his  Fasti  in  his  exile,  besides  writing 
the  Ibis,  the  Tristia,  Ex  Ponto,  &c.,  but  he  like- 
wise acquired  the  language  of  the  Getae,  in 
which  he  composed  some  poems  in  honor  of 
Augustus.  These  he  publicly  recited,  and  they 
were  received  with  tumultuous  applause  by  the 
Tomitae.  With  his  new  fellow-citizens,  indeed, 
he  had  succeeded  in  rendering  himself  highly 
popular,  insomuch  that  they  honored  him  with 
a  decree,  declaring  him  exempt  from  all  public 
burdens.  He  died  at  Tomi  in  the  sixtieth  year 
of  his  age,  A.D.  18.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
Ovid's  works,  arranged,  as  far  as  possible,  in 
chronological  order:  1.  Amorum  Libri  HI.,  the 
earliest  of  the  poet's  works.  According  to  the 
epigram  prefixed,  the  work,  as  we  now  possess 
it,  is  a  second  edition,  revised  and  abridged, 
the  former  one  having  consisted  of  five  books. 

2.  Epistola  Heroldum,  twenty-one  in  number. 

3.  Art  Amatoria,  or  De  Arte  Amandi,  written 
about  B.C.  2.     At  the  time  of  Ovid's  banish- 
ment this  poem  was  ejected  from  the  public 
libraries  by  command  of  Augustus.    4.  Remedia 
Amoris,  in  one  book.     5.  Nux,  the  elegiac  com- 
plaint of  a  nut-tree  respecting  the  ill  treatment 
it  receives  from  wayfarers,  and  even  from  its 
own   master.      6.  Metamorpkoseon  Libri  XV. 
This,  the  greatest  of  Ovid's  poems  in  bulk  and 
pretensions,  appears  to  have  been  written  be- 
tween the  age  of  forty  and  fifty.     It  consists 
of  such  legends  or  fables  as  involved  a  trans- 
formation, from  the  Creation  to  the  time  of 
Julius  Cassar,  the  last  being  that  emperor's 
change  into  a  star.    It  is  thus  a  sort  of  cyclic 
poem,  made  up  of  distinct  episodes,  but  con- 
nected into  one  narrative  thread  with  much 
skill.     7.  Fastorum  Libri  XII.,  of  which  only 
the  first  six  are  extant.    This  work  was  incom- 
plete at  the  time  of  Ovid's  banishment.     In- 
deed, he  had  perhaps  done  little  more  than  col- 
lect the  materials  for  it ;   for  that  the  fourth 
book  wag  written  in  Pontus  appears  from  verse 
eighty-eighth.    The  Fasti  is  a  sort  of  poetical 
Roman  calendar,  with  its  appropriate  festivals 
and  mythology,  and  the  substance  was  probably 
taken  in  a  great  measure  from  the  old  Roman 
annalists.    The  work  shows  a  good  deal  of 
learning,  but  it  has  been  observed  that  Ovid 
makes  frequent  mistakes  in  his  astronomy,  from 
not  understanding  the  books  from  which  he  took 
it.     8.  Tristium  Libri  V.,  elegies  written  during 
the  first  four  years  of  Ovid's  banishment.    They 
are  chiefly  made  up  of  descriptions  of  his  afflict- 
ed condition,  and  petitions  for  mercy.     The 
tenth  elegy  of  the  fourth  book  is  valuable,  as 
containing  many  particulars  of  Ovid's  life.     9. 
Epistolarum  ex  Ponto  Libri  IV. ,  are  also  in  the 
elegiac  metre,  and  much  the  same  in  substance 
as  the  Tristia,  to  which  they  were  subsequent 
It  must  be  confessed  that  age  and  misfortune 
seem  to  have  damped  Ovid's  gen'us  both  in 


OXLE. 

:his  and  the  preceding  work.  Even  the  versi- 
fication is  more  slovenly,  and  some  of  the  lines 
very  prosaic.  10.  Ibis,  a  satire  of  between  six 
tiundred  and  seven  hundred  elegiac  verses,  also 
written  in  exile.  The  poet  inveighs  in  it  against 
an  enemy  who  had  traduced  him.  Though  the 
variety  of  Ovid's  imprecations  displays  learning 
and  fancy,  the  piece  leaves  the  impression  ot 
an  impotent  explosion  of  rage.  The  title  and 
plan  were  borrowed  from  Callimachus.  11. 
Consolatio  ad  Liviam  Augustam,  is  considered 
by  most  critics  not  to  be  genuine,  though  it  is 
allowed  on  all  hands  to  be  not  unworthy  of 
Ovid's  genius.  12.  The  Mcdicamina  Faciei  and 
Halieuticon  are  mere  fragments,  and  their  gen- 
uineness not  altogether  certain.  Of  his  lost 
works,  the  most  celebrated  was  his  tragedy, 
Medea,  of  which  only  two  lines  remain.  That 
Ovid  possessed  a  great  poetical  genius  is  un- 
questionable, which  makes  it  the  more  to  be 
regretted  that  it  was  not  always  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  sound  judgment.  He  possessed  great 
vigor  of  fancy,  warmth  of  coloring,  and  facility 
of  composition.  Ovid  has  himself  described  how 
spontaneously  his  verses  flowed  ;  but  the  facil- 
ity of  composition  possessed  more  charms  for 
him  than  the  irksome  but  indispensable  labor 
of  correction  and  retrenchment.  Ovid  was  the 
first  to  depart  from  that  pure  and  correct  taste 
which  characterizes  the  Greek  poets,  and  their 
earlier  Latin  imitators.  His  writings  abound 
with  those  false  thoughts  and  frigid  conceits 
which  we  find  so  frequently  in  the  Latin  poets  ; 
and  in  this  respect  he  must  be  regarded  as  un- 
antique.  The  best  edition  of  Ovid's  complete 
works  is  by  Burmann,  Amsterdam,  1727,  4  vols. 
4to.  [Of  the  separate  works,  the  most  useful 
editions  are,  the  Metamorphoses,  by  Gierig  (cura 
Jahn),  Leipzig,  1821-23,  and  by  Loers,  Leipzig, 
1843  ;  the  Fasti,  by  Merkel,  Berlin,  1841,  and 
by  Keightley,  London,  1848;  the  Tristia,  by 
Loers,  Treves,  1839  ;  Ars  Amatoria  (including 
Heroides,  &c.),  by  Jahn,  Leipzig,  1828  ;  the  He- 
roides,  by  Loers,  Cologne,  1829.] 

[OxATHREs  ('Ofu0p7?f).  1.  Youngest  son  of 
Darius  II.  by  Parysatis,  brother  of  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon,  was  treated  with  kindness  by  his 
brother,  and  even  admitted  to  unusual  honors. 
— 2.  Brother  of  Darius  Codomannus,  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  bravery,  and  took  a  conspic- 
uous part  in  the  battle  of  Issus,  B.C.  333.  He 
accompanied  Darius  in  his  flight,  but  was  taken 
prisoner  by  Alexander,  who  treated  him  with 
kindness,  and  gave  him  an  honorable  post  about 
his  own  person.] 

OXIA  PALUS,  is  first  mentioned  distinctly  by 
Ammianus  Marcellinus  as  the  name  of  the  Sea 
of  Aral,  which  the  ancients  in  general  did  not 
distinguish  from  the  Caspian.  When  Ptolemy, 
however,  speaks  of  the  OXIANA  PALUS  (j/  'flfet- 
avh  ^ifivrj)  as  a  small  lake  in  the  steppes  of  Sog- 
diana,  he  is  perhaps  following  some  vague  ac- 
count of  the  separate  existence  of  the  Sea  of 
Aral,  and  the  same  remark  may  be  applied  to 
Pliny's  account  that  the  source  (instead"  of  the 
termination)  of  the  River  Oxus  was  in  a  lake  of 
the  same  name. 

[Oxi.*  ('Ot-ciat,  so.  vijooi),  i.  e.,  INSULT,  the 
•Qoai  of  Homer ;  a  group  of  islands  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Achelous,  belonging  to  the  ECHINADKS 
INSULT.] 

587 


OXIAN1. 

OXIANI  ('Qt-iavot,  Ov^iavoi),  a  people  of  Sog- 
••uana,  on  the  north  of  the  Oxus. 

Oxii  MONTES  (TO.  'Qfeia,  or  OiiS-cia,  6pri :  now 
probably  Ak-tagh),  a  range  of  mountains  be- 
tween the  Rivers  Oxus  and  Jaxartes ;  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Sogdiana  toward  Scythia. 

Oxus  or  OAXUS  ("Ofoj-,  "flfof  :  now  Jihoun  or 
Amou),  a  great  river  of  Central  Asia,  rose,  ac- 
cording to  some  of  the  ancient  geographers,  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  Paropamisus  Mountains 
(now  Hindoo- Koosh),  and,  according  to  others,  in 
the  Eaiodi  Mountains,  and  flowed  northwest, 
forming  the  boundary  between  Sogdiana  on  the 
north,  and  Bactria  and  Margiana  on  the  south, 
and  then,  skirting  the  north  of  Hyrcania,  it  fell 
into  the  Caspian.  The  Jihoun  now  flows  into  the 
southwestern  corner  of  the  Sea  of  Aral ;  but 
there  are  still  distinct  traces  of  a  channel  ex- 
tending in  a  southwestern  direction  from  the 
Sea  of  Aral  to  the  Caspian,  by  which  at  least  a 
portion,  and  probably  the  whole,  of  the  waters 
of  the  Oxus  found  their  way  into  the  Caspian  ; 
and  very  probably  the  Sea  of  Aral  itself  was 
connected  with  the  Caspian  by  this  channel. 
The  ancient  geographers  mention,  as  important 
tributaries  of  the  Oxus,  the  OCHUS,  the  MAR- 
GUS,  and  the  BACTRUS,  which  are  now  inter- 
cepted by  the  sands  of  the  Desert.  The  Oxus 
is  a  broad  and  rapid  river,  navigable  through  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  course.  It  formed, 
m  ancient  times,  a  channel  of  commercial  in- 
tercourse between  India  and  Western  Asia, 
goods  being  brought  down  it  to  the  Caspian, 
and  thence  up  the  Cyrus  and  across  Armenia 
into  Asia  Minor.  It  occupies  also  an  important 
place  in  history,  having  been  in  nearly  all  ages 
the  extreme  boundary  between  the  great  mon- 
archies of  Southwestern  Asia  and  the  hordes 
which  wander  over  the  central  steppes.  Cyrus 
and  Alexander  both  crossed  it ;  but  the  former 
effected  no  permanent  conquests  on  its  north- 
ern side ;  and  the  conquests  of  the  latter  in 
Sogdiana,  though  for  a  time  preserved  under 
the  Bactrian  kings,  were  always  regarded  as 
lying  beyond  the  limits  of  the  civilized  world, 
and  were  lost  at  the  fall  of  the  Bactrian  king- 
dom. Herodotus  does  not  mention  the  Oxus 
by  name,  but  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  river 
which  he  calls  Araxes. 

[OxYARTES  ('OS-vdprr/f),  or  OXARTES  ('Ofdp- 
r;7f ),  a  Bactrian,  father  of  Roxana,  the  wife  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  He  was  one  of  the  chiefs 
who  accompanied  Bessus  into  Sogdiana.  After 
the  death  of  Bessus,  he  deposited  his  wife  and 
daughters  for  safety  in  a  rock  fortress  in  Sog- 
diana, which  was  deemed  impregnable,  but 
which  soon  fell  into  the  hands  of  Alexander. 
After  the  espousal  of  Alexander  to  Roxana, 
Oxyartes  made  his  submission,  and  was  treated 
with  distinction  by  the  conqueror,  and  was  ap- 
pointed satrap  of  the  province  of  Paropamisus, 
or  India  south  of  the  Caucasus,  which  he  con- 
tinued to  hold  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  and 
probably  to  the  period  of  his  own  death  some 
years  subsequently.] 

OXYBII,  a  Ligurian  people  on  the  coast  of 
Gallia  Narbonensis,  west  of  the  Alps,  and  be- 
tween the  Flumen  Argenteum  (now  Argens) 
and  Antipolis  (now  Antibes).  They  were  neigh- 
bors of  the  Salluvii  and  Deciates. 

^E  ('Ofv<5pd/ccu),  a  waif.ike  people  of 
588 


PACHYMERES,  GEORGIUS. 

India  intra  Gangem,  in  the  Punjab,  between  tho 
Rivers  Hydaspes  (now  Jhdum)  and  Acesines 
(now  Chenab),  in  whose  capital  Alexander  was 
wounded.  They  called  themselves  descend- 
ants of  Bacchus  (Dionysus). 

OXYLUS  ("Ofv^of),  the  leader  of  the  Heraclidsc 
in  their  invasion  of  Peloponnesus,  and  subse- 
quently king  of  Elis.  yid.  p.  354,  b. 

[OXYNTAS  ('Ofvvrof),  son  of  Jugurtha,  was 
led  captive,  together  with  his  father,  before  the 
triumphal  car  of  Marius,  B.C.  104  ;  but  his  life 
was  spared,  and  he  was  placed  in  custody  at 
Venusia,  where  he  remained  till  B.C.  90,  when 
he  was  adorned  with  the  insignia  of  royalty,  to 
gather  around  him  the  Numidians  in  the  service 
of  the  Roman  general  L.  Caesar.  The  device 
proved  successful,  but  the  subsequent  fate  of 
Oxyntas  is  unknown.] 

OXYRHYNCHUS  ('Ofupvy^of  :  ruins  at  Behne- 
seh),  a  city  of  Middle  Egypt,  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  canal  which  runs  parallel  to  the 
Nile  on  its  western  side  (now  Bahr  Yussuf).  It 
was  the  capital  of  the  Nomos  Oxyrhynchites, 
and  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  the  fish 
called  oxyrynchus. 

[OzENE  ('Ofyvri,  now  Uzen  or  Ougeiri),  in  the 
time  of  Ptolemy  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  La- 
rica,  in  India  intra  Gangem,  and  the  residence 
of  a  prince  who  bore  the  title  Tiascanus.  It 
carried  on  an  extensive  traffic,  exported  onyxes, 
myrrh,  and  fine  cotton  stuff,  and  supplied  the 
great  commercial  city  Barygaza  with  all  the 
necessaries  of  life.] 

OZOOARDANA,  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the. 
Euphrates,  the  people  of  which  preserved  a  lofty 
throne  or  chair  of  stone,  which  they  called  Tra- 
jan's judgment-seat. 

P. 

PACARIS.     Vid.  HYPACYRIS. 

[PACARIUS  DECIMUS,  procurator  of  Corsica  in 
A.D.  69,  wished  to  send  assistance  to  Vitellius, 
but  was  murdered  by  the  inhabitants.] 

PACATIANA.    Vid.  PHRYGIA. 

PACCIUS  or  PACCIUS  ANTIOCHUS,  a  physician 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  who 
was  a  pupil  of  Philonides  of  Catana,  and  lived 
probably  at  Rome.  He  made  a  large  fortune  by. 
the  sale  of  a  certain  medicine  of  his  own  inven- 
tion, the  composition  of  which  he  kept  a  pro- 
found secret.  At  his  death  he  left  his  prescrip- 
tion as  a  legacy  to  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  who, 
in  order  to  give  it  as  wide  a  circulation  as  pos- 
sible, ordered  a  copy  of  it  to  be  placed  in  all  the 
public  libraries. 

PACHES  (Ild^f),  an  Athenian  general  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  took  Mytilene  and  reduced 
Lesbos,  B.C.  427.  On  his  return  to  Athens  he 
was  brought  to  trial  on  some  charge,  and,  per- 
ceiving his  condemnation  to  be  certain,  drew 
his  sword  and  stabbed  himself  in  the  presence 
of  his  judges. 

PACHYMERBI,  GEORGIUS,  an  important  Byzan- 
tine writer,  was  born  about  A.D.  1242  atNicsea, 
but  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  Con- 
stantinople. He  was  a  priest,  and  opposed  the 
union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  Pa- 
chymeres  wrote  several  works,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  a  Byzantine  History,  contain- 
ing an  account  of  the  emperors  Michael  False* 


PACHYNUS 

logus  and  Andronicus  Palasologus  the  elder,  In 
thirteen  books.  The  style  is  remarkably  good 
and  pure  for  the  age.  Edited  by  Possinus, 
Rome,  1666-1669,  2  vols.  fol.,  and  by  Bekker, 
Bonn,  1835,  2  vols.  8vo. 

PACHYNUS  or  PACHYNUM  (now  Capo  Passaro), 
a  promontory  at  the  southeastern  extremity  of 
Sicily,  and  one  of  the  three  promontories  which 
give  to  Sicily  its  triangular  figure,  the  other  two 
being  Pelorum  and  Lilybaeum.  By  the  side  of 
Pachynus  was  a  bay,  which  was  used  as  a  har- 
bor, and  which  is  called  by  Cicero  PORTUS  PA- 
CHVNI  (now  Porto  di  Palo). 

[PACIAJJUS,  bishop  of  Barcelona,  in  Spain, 
flourished  A.D.  370.  He  was  renowned  for  his 
eloquence,  and  wrote  several  books,  especially 
one  against  the  Novatians.  His  works  have 
been  published  by  Tilius,  Paris,  1538,  and  in  the 
Biblioth.  Patrum  Maxima.] 

[PACIDII,  two  generals  of  the  Pompeian  party 
in  Africa  under  Metellus  Scipio,  one  of  whom 
fell  in  the  battle  of  Tegea,  B.C.  46.] 

PACILUS,  the  name  of  a  family  of  the  patrician 
Furia  gens,  mentioned  in  the  early  history  of 
the  republic  :  [the  most  celebrated  were,  1.  C. 
FUBIUS  PACILUS  Fuses,  consul  B.C.  441  with  M'. 
Papirius  Crassus,  censor  B.C.  435  with  M.  Ge- 
ganius  Macerinus,  and  subsequently  one  of  the 
consular  tribunes  in  B.C.  426. — 2.  C.  FUBIUS  P., 
son  of  the  preceding,  consul  B.C.  412  with  Q. 
Fabius  Vibulanus  Ambustus. — 3.  C.  FURIUS  P., 
consul  B.C.  251  with  L.  Caecilius  Metellus  in 
the  first  Punic  war.] 

[PACONIUS,  M.  1.  A  Roman  knight,  violently 
dispossessed  of  his  property  by  the  tribune 
Clodius. — 2.  M.,  a  legatus  of  Silanus,  procon- 
sul of  Asia,  was  one  of  his  accusers  in  A.D. 
22.  Paconius  was  put  to  death  by  Tiberius  on 
a  charge  of  treason.] 

PACORUS  (UuKopof).  1.  Son  of  Orodes  I.,  king 
of  Parthia.  His  history  is  given  under  ARSACES, 
No.  14.— 2.  King  of  Parthia.  Vid.  ARSACES,  No. 
24. 

PACTOLUS  (HaKTuhof :  now  Sarabat),  a  small 
but  celebrated  river  of  Lydia,  rose  on  the  north- 
ern side  of  Mount  Tmolus,  and  flowed  north 
past  Sardis  into  the  Herraus,  which  it  joined 
thirty  stadia  below  Sardis.  The  golden  sands 
of  Pactolus  have  passed  into  a  proverb.  Lydia 
was  long  the  California  of  the  ancient  world,  its 
streams  forming  so  many  gold  "  washings ;"  and 
hence  the  wealth  of  the  Lydian  kings,  and  the 
alleged  origin  of  gold  money  in  that  country. 
But  the  supply  of  gold  was  only  on  the  surface, 
and  by  the  beginning  of  our  era  it  was  so  far 
exhausted  as  not  to  repay  the  trouble  of  collect- 
ing it. 

PACTYAS  (Ila/crvaf),  a  Lydian,  who,  on  the 
conquest  of  Sardis  (B.C.  546),  was  charged  by 
Cyrus  with  the  collection  of  the  revenue  of  the 
province.  When  Cyrus  left  Sardis  on  his  re- 
turn to  Ecbatana,  Pactyas  induced  the  Lydians 
te  revolt  against  Cyrus  ;  but  when  an  army  was 
sent  against  him,  he  first  fled  to  Cyme,  then  to 
Mytilene,  and  eventually  to  Chios.  He  was  sur- 
rendered by  the  Chians  to  the  Persians. 

PACTYE  (Fla/crvf/ :  now  St.  George),  a  town  in 
the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  on  the  Propontis, 
thirty-six  stadia  from  Cardia,  to  which  Alcibia- 
des  retired  when  he  was  banished  by  the  Athe- 
nians, B.C.  407. 


PADUS. 

PACTYICA  (UaKTviKTj),  the  country  of  the  Pae- 
tyes  (lluKTvef),  in  the  northwest  of  India,  west 
of  the  Indus,  and  in  the  thirteenth-  satrapy  of 
the  Persian  empire,  is  most  probably  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Afghanistan,  about  Jellalabad. 

[PACULLA,  ANNIA  or  MINIA,  a  Campanian 
woman,  one  of  the  chief  agents  in  introducing 
the  worship  of  Bacchus  into  Rome,  B.C.  186.] 

PACUVIUS,  M.,  one  of  the  early  Roman  trage- 
dians, was  born  about  B.C.  220,  at  Brundisium, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  the  sister  of 
Ennius.  Pacuvius  appears  to  have  been  brought 
up  at  Brundisium,  but  he  afterward  repaired  to 
Rome.  Here  he  devoted  himself  to  painting 
and  poetry,  and  obtained  so  much  distinction  in 
the  former  art,  that  a  painting  of  his  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Hercules,  in  the  forum  boarium,  was  re- 
garded as  only  inferior  to  the  celebrated  paint- 
ing of  Fabius  Pictor.  After  living  many  years 
at  Rome,  for  he  was  still  there  ift  his  eightieth 
year,  he  returned  to  Brundisium  on  account  of 
the  failure  of  his  health,  and  died  in  his  native 
town,  in  the  ninetieth  year  of  his  age,  B.C.  130. 
We  have  no  further  particulars  of  his  life  save 
that  his  talents  gained  him  the  friendship  of 
Laelius,  and  that  he  lived  on  the  most  intimate 
terms  with  his  younger  rival  Accius.  Pacuvius 
was  universally  allowed  by  the  ancient  writers 
to  have  been  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Latin 
tragic  poets.  (Hor.,  Ep.,  ii.,  1,  56.)  He  is  es- 
pecially praised  for  the  loftiness  of  his  thoughts, 
the  vigor  of  his  language,  and  the  extent  of  his 
knowledge.  Hence  we  find  the  epithet  doctus 
frequently  applied  to  him.  He  was  also  a  favor- 
ite with  the  people,  with  whom  his  verses  con- 
tinued to  be  esteemed  in  the  time  of  Julius  Cae- 
sar. His  tragedies  were  taken  from  the  great 
Greek  writers ;  but  he  did  not  confine  himself, 
like  his  predecessors,  to  a  mere  translation  of 
the  latter,  but  worked  up  his  materials  with 
more  freedom  and  independent  judgment.  Some 
of  the  plays  of  Pacuvius  were  not  based  upon 
the  Greek  tragedies,  but  belonged  to  the  class 
called  Pratextata,  in  which  the  subjects  were 
taken. from  Roman  story.  One  of  these  was 
entitled  Paulus,  which  had  as  its  hero  L.  JSmil- 
ius  Paulus,  the  conqueror  of  Perseus,  king  of 
Macedonia.  The  fragments  of  Pacuvius  are 
published  by  Bothe,  Poet.  Lat.  Scenic.  Fragm., 
Lips.,  1834. 

[PAD^EI  (ttatialoi),  a  rude  nomad  tribe  in 
Northwestern  India  (perhaps  in  the  modern 
Multan  or  Ajmer),  who  not  only  ate  raw  flesh, 
but  also  devoured  the  sick  and  old  of  their  own 
people.] 

PADUS  (nowPo),  the  chief  river  of  Italy,  whose 
name  is  said  to  have  been  of  Celtic  origin,  and 
to  have  been  given  it  on  account  of  the  pine- 
trees  (in  Celtic  padi)  which  grew  on  its  banks. 
In  the  Ligurian  language  it  was  called  ttmhncua 
or  Bodincus.  Almost  all  later  writers  identified 
the  Padus  witli  the  fabulous  Emhmus,  from 
which  amber  was  obtained,  and  hence  the  Roman 
poets  frequently  give  the  name  of  Eridanus  to 
the  Padus.  The  reason  of  this  identification 
appears  to  have  been,  that  the  Phoenician  ves- 
sels received  at  the  mouths  of  the  Padus  the 
amber  which  had  been  transported  by  land  from 
the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  to  those  of  th«  Adriatic. 
The  Padus  rises  from  two  springs  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  Mount  Vesulus  (now  Monte  Vito)  in 

689 


PADUSA. 

tlie  Alps,  and  flows  with  a  general  easterly  di- 
rection through  the  great  plain  of  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
which  it  dfvides  into  two  parts,  Gallia  Cispa- 
dana  and  Gallia  Transpadana.  It  receives  nu- 
merous affluents,  which  drain  the  whole  of  this 
vast  plain,  descending  from  the  Alps  on  the 
north  and  the  Apennines  on  the  south.  These 
affluents,  increased  in  the  summer  by  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snow  on  the  mountains,  frequently 
bring  down  such  a  large  body  of  water  as  to 
cause  the  Padus  to  overflow  its  banks.  The 
whole  course  of  the  river,  including  its  wind- 
ings, is  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 
About  twenty  miles  from  the  sea  the  river  di- 
vides itself  into  two  main  branches,  of  which  i 
the  northern  one  was  called  Padoa  (now  Maestra,  ! 
Po  Grande,  or  Po  delle  Fornaci),  and  the  south-  | 
ern  one  Olana  (nowPo  d'Ariano) ;  and  each  of 
these  now  fajls  into  the  Adriatic  by  several 
mouths.  The'  ancient  writers  enumerate  seven 
of  these  mouths,  some  of  which  were  canals. 
They  lay  between  Ravenna  and  Altinum,  and 
bore  the  following  names,  according  to  Pliny, 
beginning  with  the  southern  and  ending  with 
the  northern:  1.  Padusa,  also  called  Augusta 
Fossa,  was  a  canal  dug  by  Augustus,  which  con- 
nected Ravenna  with  the  Po.  2.  Vatrenus,  also 
called  Eridanum  Ostium  or  Spineticum  Ostium 
(now  Po  di  Primaro),  from  the  town  of  Spina  at 
its  mouth.  3.  Ostium  Caprasiae  (now  Porto  Jn- 
terito  di  bell'  Ochio).  4.  Ostium  Sagis  (now  Porto 
di  Magnavacca).  5.  Olane  or  Volane,  the  south- 
ern main  branch  of  the  river,  mentioned  above. 
6.  Padoa,  the  northern  main  branch,  subdivided 
into  several  small  branches  called  Ostia  Car- 
bonaria.  7.  Fossae  Philistinae,  connecting  the 
river,  by  means  of  the  Tartarus,  with  the  Athesis. 

PADUSA.     Vid.  PADUS. 

P^EAN  (flamy,  Tlaiquv  or  Haiuv'),  that  is,  "  the 
nealing,"  is,  according  to  Homer,  the  designa- 
tion of  the  physician  of  the  Olympian  gods,  who 
heals,  for  example,  the  wounded  Mars  (Ares) 
and  Pluto  (Hades).  After  the  time  of  Homer 
and  Hesiod,  the  word  Paan  became  a  surname 
of  ^Esculapius,  the  god  who  had  the  power  of 
healing.  The  name  was,  however,  used  also 
in  the  more  general  sense  of  deliverer  from  any 
evil  or  calamity,  and  was  thus  applied  to  Apollo 
and  Thanatos,  or  Death,  who  are  conceived  as 
delivering  men  from  the  pains  and  sorrows  of 
life.  With  regard  to  Apollo  and  Thanatos,  how- 
ever, the  name  may  at  the  same  time  contain  an 
allusion  to  naUiv,  to  strike,  since  both  are  also 
regarded  as  destroyers.  From  Apollo  himself 
the  name  Paean  was  transferred  to  the  song 
dedicated  to  him,  that  is,  to  hymns  chanted  to 
Apollo  for  the  purpose  of  averting  an  evil,  and 
to  warlike  songs,  which  were  sung  before  or 
during  a  battle. 

P-EANIA  (llatavia  :  Haiavitvf),  a  demus  in 
Attica,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Mount  Hyrnet- 
tus,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Pandionis.  It  was 
the  demus  of  the  orator  Demosthenes. 

[P^ANius  (Uaiuvtof),  the  author  of  a  trans- 
lation of  the  history  of  Eutropius  into  Greek, 
whose  age  is  uncertain,  but  who  seems  to  have 
lived  not  long  after  Eutropius  himself.  The 
version  is  printed  in  Havercamp's  and  Verheyk's 
editions  iof  Eutropius  ]  , 

P.*MANI,  a  people  of  German  origin  in  Gallia 
Belgica. 

590 


P^RISADES. 


aiovEf),  a  powerful  Thracian  pco 
pie,  who  in  early  times  were  spread  over  a  great 
part  of  Macedonia,  and  Thrace.  According  tc 
a  legend  preserved  by  Herodotus,  they  were  of 
Teucrian  origin  ;  and  it  is  not  impossible,  that 
they  were  a  branch  of  the  great  Phrygian  peo- 
ple, a  portion  of  which  seems  to  have  settled  in 
Europe.  In  Homer  the  Paeonians  appear  33 
allies  of  the  Trojans,  and  are  represented  as 
having  come  from  the  River  Axius.  In  histor- 
ical times  they  inhabited  the  whole  of  the  north 
of  Macedonia,  from  the  frontiers  of  Illyria  to 
some  little  distance  east  of  the  River  Strymon. 
Their  country  .was  called  P^ONIA  (Haiovia). 
The  Paeonians  were  divided  into  several  tribes, 
independent  of  each  other,  and  governed  by 
their  own  chiefs,  though  at  a  later  period  they 
appear  "to  have  owned  the  authority  of  one  king. 
The  Paeonian  tribes  on  the  lower  course  of  the 
Strymon  were  subdued  by  the  Persians,.  B.C. 
513,  and  many  of  them  were  transplanted  to 
Phrygia  ;  but  the  tribes  in  the  north  of  the 
country  maintained  their  independence.  They 
were  long  troublesome  neighbors  to  the  Mace- 
donian monarchs,  whose  territ'ories  they  fre- 
quently invaded  and  plundered  ;  but  they  were 
eventually  subdued  by  Philip,  the  father  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  who  allowed  them  nevertheless 
to  retain  their  own  monarchs.  They  continued 
to  be  governed  by  their  own  kings  till  a  much 
later  period,  and  these  kings  were  often  virtu- 
ally independent  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy. 
Thus  we  read  of  their  king  Audoleon,  whose 
daughter  Pyrrhus  married.  After  the  conquest 
of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans,  168,  the  part  of 
Paeonia  east  of  the  Axius  formed  the  second, 
and  the  part  of  Paeonia  west  of  the  Axius  form 
ed  the  third  of  the  four  districts  into  which  Ma 
cedonia  was  divided  by  the  Romans. 

[P.s6NiA  (Tlacovia').     Vid.  P/EONES.] 

[P.<EON  (Uaiuv").     Vid.  PJEAN  ] 

P-SONIUS  (Uaiuvioc).  1.  Of  Ephesus,  an  arch- 
itect, probably  lived  between  B.C.  420  and  380. 
In  conjunction  with  Demetrius,  he  finally  com- 
pleted the  great  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis)  at 
Ephesus,  which  Chersiphron  had  begun  ;  and, 
withDaphnis  the  Milesian,  he  began  to  build  at 
Miletus  a  temple  of  Apollo,  of  the  Ionic  order. 
The  latter  was  the  famous  Didymaum,  or  tern* 
pie  of  Apollo  Didymus,  the  ruins  of  which  are 
still  to  be  seen  near  Miletus.  The  former  tern* 
pie,  in  which  the  Branchidae  had  an  oracle  of 
Apollo,  was  burned  at  the  capture  of  Mile'us 
by  the  army  of  Darius,  498.  The  new  temple, 
which  was  on  a  scale  only  inferior  to  that  of 
Diana  (Artemis),  was  never  finished.  —  2.  Of 
Mende,  in  Thrace,  a  statuary  and  sculptor,  flour- 
ished about  435. 

P^OPLJE  (TlaioTrAai),  a  Paeonian  people  on  the 
lower  course  of  the  Strymon  and  the  Angites, 
who  were  subdued  by  the  Persians,  and  trans- 
planted to  Phrygia  by  order  of  Darius,  B.C.  513. 
They  returned  to  their  native  country  with  the 
help  of  Aristagoras,  500  ;  and  we  find  them  set- 
tied  north  of  Mount  Pangaeus  in  the  expedition 
of  Xerxes,  480. 

P^RISADES  or  PARISADES  (Tlaipiadorif  or  Tlcpi 
oddijti,  the  name  of  two  kings  of  Bosporus.  1 
Son  of  Leucon,  succeeded  his  brother  Spartacus 
B.C.  349,  and  reigned  thirty-eight  years.  He 
continued  the  same  friendly  relations  with  the 


P^STANUS  SINUS. 

Athenians  which  were  begun  by  his  father  Leu- 
con. — 2.  The  last  monarch  of  the  first  dynasty 
that  ruled  in  Bosporus.  The  pressure  of  the 
Scythian  tribes  induced  Paerisades  to  cede  his 
sovereignty  to  Mithradates  the  Great.  The  date 
of  this  event  can  not  be  placed  earlier  than  112, 
nor  later  than  88. 

P^ESTANUS  SINUS.  Vid.  P^STUM. 
PJBSTUM  (Paestanus),  called  POSIDONIA  (FIo- 
aeiduvla  :  Uoaeiduviurrif)  originally,  was  a  city 
in  Lucania,  situated  between  four  and  five  miles 
southeast  of  the  mouth  of  the  Silarus,  and  near 
the  bay  which  derived  its  name  from  the  town 
(IloaeiduviuTTif  /cd^Trof,  Paestanus  Sinus :  now 
Gulf  of  Salerno).  Its  origin  is  uncertain,  but 
it  was  probably  in  existence  before  it  was  col- 
onized by  the  Sybarites  about  B.C.  524.  It 
soon  became  a  powerful  and  flourishing  city ; 
but,  after  its  capture  by  the  Lucanians  (between 
438  and  424),  it  gradually  lost  the  characteris- 
tics of  a  Greek  city,  and  its  inhabitants  at  length 
c-sased  to  speak  the  Greek  language.  Its  an- 
cient name  of  Posidonia  was  probably  changed 
into  that  of  Paestum  at  this  time.  Under  the 
supremacy  of  the  Romans,  who  founded  a  Latin 
colony  at  Paestum  about  B.C.  274,  the  town 
gradually  sank  in  importance  ;  and  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  it  is  only  mentioned  on  account  of 
the  beautiful  roses  grown  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  ruins  of  Paestum  are  striking  and  magnifi- 
cent. They  consist  of  the  remains  of  walls, 
of  an  amphitheatre,  of  two  fine  temples,  and  of 
another  building.  The  two  temples  are  in  the 
Doric  style,  and  are  some  of  the  most  remark- 
able ruins  of  antiquity. 

P.ESUS  (IlatCTOf),  a  town  in  the  Troad,  men- 
tioned by  Homer,  but  destroyed  before  the  time 
of  Strabo,  its  population  having  been  transplant- 
ed to  Lampsacus.  Its  site  was  on  a  river  of 
the  same  name  (now  Beiram-Dere),  between 
Lampsacus  and  Pariura. 

P^TiNos,  the  name  of  a  family  of  the  Fulvia 
gens,  which  was  eventually  superseded  by  the 
name  of  Nobilior.  Vid.  NOBILIOR. 

P.STUS,  a  cognomen  in  many  Roman  gentes, 
signified  a  person  who  had  a  slight  cast  in  the 
eye. 

PJETUS,  ^Euus.  1.  P.,  probably  the  son  of 
Q.  JSIius  Paetus,  a  pontifex,  who  fell  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Cannae.  He  was  plebeian  aedile  B.C.  204, 
praetor  203,  magister  equitum  202,  and  consul 
201.  In  his  consulship  he  fought  a  battle  with 
the  Boii,  and  made  a  treaty  with  the  Ingauni 
Ligures.  In  199  he  was  censor  with  P.  Scipio 
Africanus.  He  afterward  became  an  augur, 
and  died  174,  during  a  pestilence  at  Rome.  He 
is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  Roman  jurists. — 2. 
SEX.,  brother  of  the  last,  curule  aedile  200, 
consul  198,  and  censor  193  with  Cn.  Cethegus. 
He  was  a  jurist  of  eminence,  and  a  prudent 
man,  whence  he  got  the  cognomen  Catus.  He 
is  described  in  a  line  of  Ennius  as  "  Egregio 
cordatus  homo  Catus  ^Elius  Sextus."  He  is 
enumerated  among  the  old  jurists  who  collect- 
ed or  arranged  the  matter  of  law,  which  he  did 
in  a  work  entitled  Tripartite  or  Jus  JElianum. 
This  was  a  work  on  the  Twelve  Tables,  which 
contained  the  original  text,  an  interpretation, 
and  the  Legis  actio  subjoined.  It  was  probably 
the  first  commentary  written  on  the  Twelve 
Tables.— 3.  Q.,  son  of  No.  1,  was  elected  augur 


PAGUS 

174  in  place  of  his  father,  and  was  consul  167. 
when  he  laid  waste  the  territory  of  the  Ligu- 
rians. 

PJETUS,  P.  AUTRONIUS,  was  elected  consul  for 
B.C.  65  with  P.  Cornelius  Sulla  ;  but  he  and 
Sulla  were  accused  of  bribery  by  L.  Aurelius 
Cotta  and  L.  Manlius  Torquatus,  and  condemn- 
ed. Their  election  was  accordingly  declared 
void,  and  their  accusers  were  chosen  consuls 
in  their  stead.  Enraged  at  his  disappointment, 
Paetus  conspired  with  Catiline  to  murder  the 
consuls  Cotta  and  Torquatus  ;  and  this  design 
is  said  to  have  been  frustrated  solely  by  the 
impatience  of  Catiline,  who  gave  the  signal  pre- 
maturely before  the  whole  of  the  conspirators 
had  assembled.  Vid.  CATILINA.  Paetus  after- 
ward took  an  active  part  in  the  Catilinarian  con- 
spiracy, which  broke  out  in  Cicero's  consulship, 
63.  After  the  suppression  of  the  conspiracy 
Paetus  was  brought  to  trial  for  the  share  he  had 
had  in  it  ;  he  was  condemned,  and  went  into 
exile  to  Epirus,  where  he  was  living  when  Cic- 
ero himself  went  into  banishment  in  58.  Cicero 
was  then  much  alarmed  lest  Paetus  should  make 
an  attempt  upon  his  life. 

PAETUS,  C.  C^SENNIUS,  sometimes  called  CM- 
SONIUS,  consul  A.D.  61,  was  sent  by  Nero  in  63 
to  the  assistance  of  Domitius  Corbulo  in  Ar- 
menia. He  was  defeated  by  Vologeses,  king 
of  Parthia,  and  purchased  peace  of  the  Parthi- 
ans  on  the  most  disgraceful  terms.  After  the 
accession  of  Vespasian  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Syria,  and  deprived  "Antiochus  IV., 
king  of  Commagene,  of  his  kingdom. 

PAETUS  THRASEA.     Vid.  THRASEA. 

PAG^E  or  PEGJE  (Uayai,  Att.  Hrjyai  :  riayafof: 
now  Psal/io),  a  town  in  Megaris,  a  colony  from 
Megara,  was  situated  at  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  Alcyonian  Sea,  and  was  the  most  im- 
portant town  in  the  country  after  Megara.  It 
possessed  a  good  harbor. 

PAGAS.E,  called  by  the  Romans  PAG  AS  A,  -m, 
(Uayaaai  :  now  Volo),  a  town  of  Thessaly,  on 
the  coast  of  Magnesia,  and  on  the  bay  called 
after  it  SINUS  PAGAS^EUS  or  PAGASICDS  (Ila/a- 

OTJTLKOC  KohTTOf  I    HOW  Gulf  of  Volo).       It  W3S  the 

port  of  lolcos,  and  afterward  of  Pherae,  and  is 
celebrated  in  mythology  as  the.  place  where  Ja- 
son built  the  ship  Argo.  Hence  some  of  the  an- 
cients derived  its  name  from  n^yvv[ii  ;  but  others 
connected  the  name  with  the  fountains  (rr^yai) 
in  the  neighborhood.  The  adjective  Pagasceua 
is  applied  to  Jason  on  account  of  his  building 
the  sliip  Argo,  and  to  Apollo  because  he  had  a 
sanctuary  at  Pagasae.  The  adjective  is  also 
used  in  the  general  sense  of  Thessalian  :  thus 
Alcestis,  the  wife  of  Admetus,  is  called  by  Ovid 


[Plolsus,  a  Trojan  warrior,  companion  of 
.<Eneas,  slain  by  Camilla  in  Italy.] 

PAGR^E  (Tluypai:  now  Pagras,  Ba^ras,  Bar- 
pas),  a  city  of  Syria,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Mount  Amanus,  at  the  foot  of  the  pass  called 
by  Ptolemy  the  Syrian  Gates,  on  the  road  be- 
tween Antioch  and  Alexandrea  :  the  scene  of 
the  battle  between  Alexander  Balas  and  Deme- 
trius Nicator,  B.C.  145. 

PAGUS  (Iluyof),  a  remarkable  conHal  hill,  from 
five  hundred  to  six  hundred  feet  high,  a  little 
north  of  Smyrna  in  Ionia.  It  was  crowned  with 
a  shrine  of  Nemesi*,  and  had  a  celebrated  spring 

591 


PAL.EMON. 


(Uafaifiuv).  1.  Son  of  Athamas 
and  Ino,  was  originally  called  Melicertes.  When 
his  mother,  who  was  driven  mad  by  Juno  (Hera), 
had  thrown  herself,  with  her  boy,  into  the  sea, 
both  were  changed  into  marine  divinities,  Ino 
becoming  Leucothea,  and  Melicertes  Palaemon. 
For  details,  vid.  ATHAMAS.  According  to  some, 
Melicertes,  after  his  apotheosis,  was  called  Glau- 
cus,  whereas,  according  to  another  version, 
Glaucus  is  said  to  have  leaped  into  the  sea  from 
Lis  love  of  Melicertes.  The  body  of  Melicertes, 
according  to  the  common  tradition,  was  washed 
by  the  waves,  or  carried  by  dolphins  into  the 
port  Schoenus  on  the  Corinthian  isthmus,  or  to 
that  spot  on  the  coast  where  the  altar  of  Palae- 
mon subsequently  stood.  There  the  body  was 
found  by  his  uncle  Sisyphus,  who  ordered  it  to 
be  carried  to  Corinth,  and  on  the  command  of 
the  Nereides  he  instituted  the  Isthmian  games 
and  sacrifices  of  black  bulls  in  honor  of  the  dei- 
fied Palaemon.  In  the  island  of  Tenedos  it  is 
said  that  children  were  sacrificed  to  him,  and 
the  whole  worship  seems  to  have  had  something 
gloomy  about  it.  The  Romans  identified  Palae- 
mon with  their  own  god  Portunus  or  Portum- 
nus.  Vid.  PORTUNUS.  —  2.  Q.  REMMIUS  PALAE- 
MON, a  grammarian  in  the  reigns  of  Tiberius, 
Caligula,  and  Claudius.  He  was  a  native  of 
Vicentia  (now  Vicenza),  in  the  north  of  Italy,  j 
and  was  originally  a  slave  ;  but  having  been  ; 
manumitted,  he  opened  a  school  at  Rome,  where  ' 
he  became  the  most  celebrated  grammarian  of 
his  time,  though  his  moral  character  was  in- 
famous, He  is  twice  mentioned  by  Juvenal 
(vi.,  451  ;  vii.,  251).  He  was  the  master  of 
Quintilian. 

PAL^EOPSLIS.     Vid.  NEAPOLIS. 

[PAL^PAPHUS  (IlaAcwTra^of).     Vid.  PAPHUS.] 

[PAL^EPHARUS  (near  the  modern  Kranovo  or 
Ondoklari),  a  place  in  the  Thessalian  district 
Pelasgiotis,  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  Mount 
Chalcodonius.] 

PAL^EPHATUS  (IlaAafyaroc).  1-  Of  Athens,  a 
mythical  epic  poet  of  the  ante-Homeric  period. 
The  time  at  which  he  lived  is  uncertain,  but  he 
appears  to  have  been  usually  placed  after  Phe- 
monoe  (vid.  PHEMONOE),  though  some  writers  as- 
signed him  even  an  earlier  date.  —  2.  Of  Paros 
or  Priene,  lived  in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes. 
Suidas  attributes  to  him  the  work  "  On  Incred- 
ible Tales,"  spoken  of  below.  —  3.  Of  Abydus,  an 
historian,  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  is  stated  to  have  been  loved  by  the 
philosopher  Aristotle.  —  4.  An  Egyptian  or  Athe- 
nian, and  a  grammarian.  His  most  celebrated 
work  was  entitled  Troica  (Tput/ta),  which  is 
frequently  referred  to  by  the  ancient  gramma- 
rians. There  is  extant  a  small  work  in  fifty- 
one  sections,  entitled  ITaAatyarof  nepl  aTriaruv, 
or  "  Of  Incredible  Tales,"  giving  a  brief  ac- 
count of  some  of  the  most  celebrated  Greek 
legends.  It  is  an  abstract  of  a  much  larger 
work,  which  is  lost.  It  was  to  the  original 
work  to  which  Virgil  refers  (  Ciris,  88)  :  "  Docta 
Palaephatia  testatur  voce  papyrus."  It  is  doubt- 
ful who  was  the  author  of  this  work  ;  but  as  he 
adopts  the  rationalistic  interpretation  of  the  j 
myths,  he  giust  be  looked  upon  as  a  disciple 
of  Euemerus  (vid.  EVEMERUS),  and  may  thus 
have  been  an  Alexandrine  Greek,  and  the  ; 
•ame  person  as  No.  4.  The  best  edition  is  by  , 
592 


PAL^STINA. 

Westermann,  in  the  Mythographi  Graci,  Bruna- 
wick,  1843. 

PAL^ERUS  (Uahatpoe :  Jlahaipevf),  a  town  on 
the  coast  of  Acarnania,  near  Leucas. 

PAL^ESTE  (now  Palasa),  a  town  of  Epirus,  on 
the  coast  of  Chaonia,  and  a  little  south  of  the 
Acroceraunian  Mountains  :  here  Caesar  landed 
his  forces  when  he  crossed  over  to  Greece  to 
carry  on  the  war  against  Pompey. 

PAL^STINA  (Hahatariv rj,  q  nahaiorivi)  'Zvpirj : 
UaAatarivoe,  Palaestinus,  and  rarely  Paljcstin- 
ensis  :  now  Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land),  is  the 
Greek  and  Roman  form  of  the  Hebrew  word 
which  was  used  to  denote  the  country  of  the 
Philistines,  and  which  was  extended  to  the 
whole  country.  In  the  Scriptures  it  is  called 
CANAAN,  from  Canaan,  the  son  of  Ham,  whose 
descendants  were  its  first  inhabitants ;  the  LAND 
OF  ISRAEL,  the  LAND  OF  PROMISE,  the  LAND  OF 
JEHOVAH,  and  the  HOLY  LAND.  The  Romans 
usually  called  it  JUD.EA,  extending  to  the  whole 
country  the  name  of  its  southern  part.  It  was 
regarded  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  a  part 
of  Syria.  Its  extent  is  pretty  well  defined  by 
natural  boundaries,  namely,  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  west ;  the  mountains  of  Lebanon  on  the 
north  ;  the  Jordan  and  its  lakes  on  the  east,  in 
the  original  extent  of  the  country  as  defined  in 
the  Old  Testament,  but  in  the  wider  and  usual 
extent  of  the  country,  the  Arabian  Desert  was 
its  boundary  on  the  east ;  and  on  the  south  and 
southwest,  the  deserts  which  stretch  north  of 
the  head  of  the  Red  Sea  as  far  as  the  Dead  Sea 
and  the  Mediterranean  :  here  it  was  separated 
from  Egypt  by  the  small  stream  called  in  Scrip- 
ture the  River  of  Egypt  (probably  the  brook  El~ 
Arish),  which  fell  into  the  Mediterranean  at 
Rhinocolura  (now  El-Arish),  the  frontier  town 
of  Egypt.  The  southern  boundary  of  the  ter- 
ritory east  of  Jordan  was  the  River  Arnon  (now 
Wady-el-Mojib).  The  extent  of  country  within 
these  limits  was  about  eleven  thousand  square 
miles.  The  political  boundaries  varied  at  dif- 
ferent periods.  By  the  covenant  of  God  with 
Abraham  (Gen.,  xv.,  18),  the  whole  land  was 
given  to  his  descendants,  from  the  river  of  Egypt 
to  the  Euphrates ;  but  the  Israelites  never  hat 
the  faith  or  courage  to  take  permanent  posses- 
sion of  this  their  lot ;  the  nearest  approach 
made  to  the  realization  of  the  promise  was  in 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon,  when  the  con- 
quests of  the  former  embraced  a  large  part  of 
Syria,  and  the  latter  built  Tadmor  (afterward 
Palmyra)  in  the  Syrian  Desert ;  and,  for  a  time, 
the  Euphrates  seems  to  have  been  the  border 
of  the  kingdom  on  the  northeast  (vid.  2  Sam., 
viii.,  3 ;  1  Chron.,  xviii.,  3).  On  the  west, 
again,  the  Israelites  never  had  full  possession 
of  the  Mediterranean  coast,  a  strip  of  which, 
north  of  Mount  Carmel,  was  always  retained 
by  the  Phoenicians  (vid.  PHOENICE)  ;  and  another 
portion  in  the  southwest  was  held  by  the  Philis- 
tines, who  were  independent,  except  during 
brief  intervals.  On  the  south  and  east,  again, 
portions  of  the  land  were  frequently  subjugated 
by  the  neighboring  people  of  Amalek,  Edom, 
Midian,  Moab,  Ammon,  &c.  On  the  north,  ex- 
cept during  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon, 
Palestine  ceased  at  the  southern  entrance  of 
the  valley  of  Ccelesyria,  and  at  Mount  Hermon  in 
Antilibanus.  In  the  physical  formation  of  Pal- 


PAL^ESTINA. 

estiae,  the  most  remarkable  feature  u  the  de- 
pression which  is  formed  by  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan  and  its  lakes  (md.  JORDANES),  between 
which  and  the  Mediterranean  the  country  is  in- 
tersected by  mountains,  chiefly  connected  with 
the  Lebanon  system,  and  running  north  and 
south.  Between  these  ranges,  and  between 
the  central  range  and  the  western  coast,  are 
some  comparatively  extensive  plains,  such  as 
those  of  Esdraelon  and  Sharon,  and  several 
smaller  valleys ;  in  the  south  of  the  country 
the  mountains  gradually  subside  into  the  rocky 
deserts  of  Arabia  Petraea.  The  valleys  and 
slopes  of  the  hills  are  extremely  fertile,  and 
were  much  more  so  in  ancient  times,  when  the 
soil  on  the  mountain  sides  was  preserved  by 
terraces,  which  are  now  destroyed  through  neg- 
lect or  wantonness.  This  division  of  the  coun- 
try .has  only  a  few  small  rivers  (besides  mount- 
ain streams),  which  fall  into  the  Mediterranean  : 
the  chief  of  them  are  the  Belus,  just  south  of 
Ptolemai's  (now  Acre),  the  Kishon,  flowing  from 
Mount  Tabor,  through  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
and  falling  into  the  Bay  of  Acre  north  of  Mount 
Carmel,  the  Chorseus,  north  of  Caesarea,  the 
Kanah,  west  of  Sebaste  (Samaria),  the  Jarkon, 
north  of  Joppa,  the  Eshcol,  near  Askelon,  and 
the  Besor,  near  Gaza.  On  the  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, the  land  rises  toward  the  rocky  desert  of 
the  Hauran  (the  ancient  Auranitis),  and  the  hills 
bordering  the  Syrian  Desert,  its  lower  portion, 
near  the  river,  forming  rich  pastures,  watered 
by  the  eastern  tributaries  of  the  Jordan,  the 
chief  of  which  are  the  Hieromax,  the  Jabbok, 
and  the  Arnon,  the  last  flowing  into  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Palestine  were 
the  several  tribes  of  Canaanites.  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  recount  in  detail  those  events  with 
which  we  are  familiar  through  the  sacred  his- 
tory :  the  divine  call  of  Abraham  from  Mesopo- 
tamia to  live  as  a  stranger  in  the  land  which 
God  promised  to  his  descendants,  and  the  story 
of  his,  and  his  son's,  and  his  grandson's  resi- 
dence in  it  till  Israel  and  his  family  removed 
to  Egypt :  their  retuin  and  conquest  of  the  land 
of  Canaan  and  of  the  portion  of  territory  east 
of  the.  Jordan,  and  the  partition  of  the  whole 
among  the  twelve  tribes  :  the  contests  with  the 
surrounding  nations,  and  the  government  by 
judges,  till  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy 
under  Saul :  the  conquests  of  David,  the  splen- 
did reign  of  Solomon,  and  the  division  of  the 
kingdom  under  Rehoboam  into  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  including  two  thirds  of  the  country  west 
of  Jordan,  and  all  east  of  it,  and  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  including  the  southern  portion  which 
was  left,  between  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
west,  and  the  Dead  Sea  and  a  small  extent  of 
Jordan  on  the  east :  and  the  histories  of  these 
two  monarchies  down  to  their  overthrow  by 
the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  respectively. 
The  former  of  these  conquests  made  an  import- 
ant change  in  the  population  of  Palestine  by 
the  removal  of  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  the  settle- 
ment in  their  place  of  heathen  nations  from 
other  parts  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  thus  re- 
stricting the  country  occupied  by  the  genuine 
Israelites  within  the  limits  of  the  kingdom  of 
Judah.  Hence  the  names  of  Judaea  and  Jews 
applied  to  the  country  and  the  people  in  their 
38 


subsequent  history.  Between  these  last  ano 
the  mixed  people  of  North  Palestine  a  deadly 
enmity  arose^  the  natural  dislike  of  the  pu>-e 
race  of  Israel  to  heathen  foreigners  being  ag- 
gravated by  the  wrongs  they  suffered  from  them, 
especially  at  their  return  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  and  still  more  by  the  act  of  religious 
usurpation  of  which  the  remnant  of  the  North- 
ern Israelites  were  guilty  at  a  later  period,  in 
setting  up  a  temple  for  themselves  on  Mount 
Gerizim.  Vid.  SAMARIA.  The  date  assigned  to 
the  Assyrian  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
is  B.C.  721.  The  remainder  of  the  history  of 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  (passing  over  its  religious 
history,  which  is  most  important  during  this 
period)  consists  of  alternate  contests  with,  and 
submissions  to,  the  kings  of  Assyria,  Egypt, 
and  Babylon,  till  the  conquest  of  the  country 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  removal  of  a  part 
of  its  people  to  Babylonia,  in  598,  and  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  after 
the  rebellion  of  Zedekiah,  in  588,  when  a  still 
larger  portion  of  the  people  were  carried  cap- 
tive to  Babylon,  while  others  escaped  to  Egypt 
In  584,  during  the  siege  of  Tyre,  Nebuchadnez- 
zar sent  a  further  portion  of  the  Jews  into  cap- 
tivity ;  but  there  was  still  a  considerable  rem- 
nant left  in  the  land,  and  (what  is  very  import- 
ant) foreign  settlers  were  not  introduced  ;  so 
that,  when  Cyrus,  after  overthrowing  the  Baby 
Ionian  empire,  issued  his  edict  for  the  return  of 
the  Jews  to  their  own  land  (B.C.  536),  there 
was  no  great  obstacle  to  their  quiet  settlement 
in  it.  They  experienced  some  trouble  from  the 
jealousy  and  attacks  of  the  Samaritans,  and 
the  changeful  dispositions  of  the  Persian  court ; 
but  at  length,  by  the  efforts  of  Zerubbabel  and 
Joshua,  and  the  preaching  of  Hagg&'  and  Zech- 
ariah,  the  new  temple  was  finished  and  dedi- 
cated in  516,  and  Jerusalem  was  rebuilt.  Fresh 
bands  of  Jewish  exiles  returned  und'3r  Ezra, 
458,  and  Nehemiah,  445 ;  and,  between  ihis  time 
and  that  of  the  Macedonian  conquest,  Judfca 
was  repeopled  by  the  Jews,  and  through  the 
tolerance  of  the  Persian  kings,  it  was  governed 
virtually  by  the  high-priests.  In  B.C.  332,  after 
Alexander  had  taken  Tyre  and  Gaza,  he  visited 
Jerusalem,  and  received  the  quiet  submission 
of  the  Jews,  paying  the  most  marked  respect 
to  their  religion.  Under  the  successors  of  Alex- 
ander, Palestine  Belonged  alternately  to  Egypt 
and  Syria,  the  contest  between  whose  kings  for 
its  possession  are  too  complicated  to  recount 
here ;  but  its  internal  government  seems  to 
have  been  pretty  much  in  the  hands  of  the  high- 
priests,  until  the  tyranny  of  Antiochus  Ey :ph- 
anes  provoked  the  successful  revolt  under  the 
Maccabees  or  Asmonseans,  whose  history  is 
given  under  MACCAB^GI,  and  the  history  of  the 
Idumaean  dynasty,  who  succeeded  them,  is  giv- 
en under  ANTIPATER,  HKRODES,  and  ARCHELAUS. 
The  later  Asmoneean  princes  had  regained  the 
whole  of  Palestine,  including  the  districts  of 
Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Galilee  (besides  Idumaea), 
west  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  several  districts  of 
1  Yr.iM,  Batanea,  Gaulonitis,  Ituraea,  and  Traeh- 
onitis  or  Auranitis,  east  of  it ;  and  this  was  the 
extent  of  Herod's  kingdom.  But,  from  B.C. 
63,  when  Pompey  took  Jerusalem,  the  country 
was  really  subject  to  the  Romans.  At  the  death 
of  Herod,  his  kingdom  was  divided  between  his 

593 


PALAMEDES. 

sonj  as  tetrarchs,  under  the  sanction  of  Au- 
gustus, Archelaus  receiving  Judaea,  Samaria, 
and  Idumaea,  Herod  Antipas  Galilee  and  Percea, 
and  Philip  Batanasa,  Gaulonitis,  and  Trachon- 
itis  ;  all  standing  to  the  Roman  empire  in  a  re- 
lation of  virtual  subjection,  which  successive 
events  converted  into  an  integral  union.  First, 
A.D.  7,  Archelaus  was  deposed  by  Augustus, 
and  Judaea  was  placed  under  a  Roman  procura- 
tor :  next,  about  31,  Philip  died,  and  his  gov- 
ernment was  united  to  the  province  of  Syria,  and 
was  in  37  again  conferred  on  Herod  Agrippa  I., 
with  the  title  of  king,  and  with  the  addition  of 
Abilene,  the  district  round  Damascus.  In  39, 
Herod  Antipas  was  banished  to  Gaul,  and  his 
tetrarchy  was  added  to  the  kingdom  of  Herod 
Agrippa  ;  and  two  years  later  he  received  from 
Claudius  the  government  of  Judaea  and  Samaria, 
and  thus  Palestine  was  reunited  under  a  nom- 
inal king.  On  his  death  in  44,  Palestine  again 
became  a  part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Syria 
under  the  name  of  Judaea,  which  was  governed 
by  a  procurator.  The  Jews  were,  however, 
most  turbulent  subjects  of  the  Roman  empire, 
and  at  last  they  broke  out  into  a  general  rebel- 
lion, which,  after  a  most  sanguinary  war,  was 
crushed  by  Vespasian  and  Titus  ;  and  the  latter 
took  and  destroyed  Jerusalem  in  A.D.  70.  Un- 
der Constantine,  Palestine  was  divided  afresh 
into  the  three  provinces  of  P.  Prima  in  the 
centre,  P.  Secunda  in  the  north,  and  P.  Tertia, 
the  south  of  Judaea,  with  Idumaea. 

PALAMEDES  (Ilayla/i^f)-  !•  Son  of  Nauplius 
and  Clymene.  He  joined  the  Greeks  in  their 
expedition  against  Troy;  but  Agamemnon,  Dio- 
medes,  and  Ulysses,  envious  of  his  fame,  caused 
a  captive  Phrygian  to  write  to  Palamedes  a  let- 
ter in  the  name  of  Priam,  and  bribed  a  servant 
of  Palamedes  to  conceal  the  letter  under  his 
master's  bed.  They  then  accused  Palamedes  of 
treachery ;  upon  searching  his  tent,  they  found 
the  letter  which  they  themselves  had  dictated, 
and  thereupon  they  caused  him  to  be  stoned  to 
death.  When  Palamedes  was  led  to  death,  he 
exclaimed,  "  Truth,  1  lament  thee,  for  thou  hast 
died  even  before  me."  According  to  some  tra- 
ditions, it  was  Ulysses  alone  who  hated  and 
persecuted  Palamedes.  The  cause  of  this  ha- 
tred is  also  stated  differently.  According  to 
some,  Ulysses  hated  him  because  he  had  been 
compelled  by  him  to  join  the  Greeks  against 
Troy  ;  according  to  others,  because  he  had  been 
severely  censured  by  Palamedes  for  returning 
with  empty  hands  from  a  foraging  excursion 
into  Thrace.  The  manner  in  which  Palamedes 
perished  is  likewise  related  differently.  Some 
say  that  Ulysses  and  Diomedes  induced  him  to 
descend  into  a  well,  where  they  pretended  they 
had  discovered  a  treasure,  and  when  he  was 
below  they  cast  stones  upon  him,  and  killed 
him  ;  others  state  that  he  was  drowned  by  them 
while  fishing  ;  and  others,  that  he  was  killed  by 
Paris  with  an  arrow.  The  place  where  he  Was 
killed  is  either  Colonae  in  Troas,  or  in  Tenedos, 
oratGeraestus.  The  story  of  Palamedes,  which 
is  not  mentioned  by  Homer,  seems  to  have  been 
first  related  in  the  Cypria,  and  was  afterward 
developed  by  the  tragic  poets,  especially  by  Eu- 
ripides, and  lastly  by  the  sophists,  who  liked  to 
look  upon  Palamedes  as  their  pattern.  The 
tragic  poets  ant1  sophists  describe  him  as  a  sage 
594 


PALLNURUM. 

among  the  Greeks,  and  as  a  poet ;  and  he  is 
said  to  have  invented  light-houses,  measures, 
scales,  the  discus,  dice,  the  alphabet,  and  the 
art  of  regulating  sentinels. — 2.  A  Greek  gram- 
marian, was  a  contemporary  of  Athenaeus,  who 
introduces  him  as  one  of  the  speakers  in  his 
work. 

PALATINUS  MONS.     Vid.  ROMA. 

PALATIUM.     Vid.  ROMA. 

PALE  (FIu^ :  Iln^etf,  Ion.  UaMtf,  Alt. 
in  Polyb.  na/lateif :  ruins  near  Lixuri),  one 
the  four  cities  of  Cephallenia,  situated  on  a 
height  opposite  Zacynthus. 

PALES,  a  Roman  divinity  of  flocks  and  shep- 
herds, is  described  by  some  as  a  male,  and  by 
others  as  a  female  divinity.  Hence  some  mod- 
ern writers  have  inferred  that  Pales  was  a  com- 
bination of  both  sexes  ;  but  such  a  monstrosity 
is  altogether  foreign  to  the  religion  of  the  Ro- 
mans. Some  of  the  rites  performed  at  the  fes- 
tival of  Pales,  which  was  celebrated  on  the  21st 
of  April,  the  birth-day  of  the  city  of  Rome, 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  divinity  was  a 
female  ;  but,  besides  the  express  statements  to 
the  contrary,  there  are  also  other  reasons  for 
believing  that  Pales  was  a  male  divinity.  The 
name  seems  to  be  connected  with  Palatintis,  the 
centre  of  all  the  earliest  legends  of  Rome,  and 
the  god  himself  was  with  the  Romans  the  em 
bodiment  of  the  same  idea  as  Pan  among  the 
Greeks.  Respecting  the  festival  of  the  Palilia. 
vid.  Diet.  ofAntiq.,  s.v. 

[PALFURIUS  SURA,  one  of  the  delators  under 
Domitian,  was  son  of  a  man  of  consular  rank. 
He  was  expelled  from  the  senate  by  Vespasian, 
and  then  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
Stoic  philosophy,  and  became  distinguished  for 
his  eloquence.  He  was  restored  to  the  senate 
by  Domitian,  and  became  one  of  the  informers 
for  that  emperor.] 

PALICANUS,  LOLLIUS.     Vid.  LOLLIUS. 

[PALICE  (TlctAt/e)?),  a  city  of  Sicily,  founded  by 
Ducetius,  southwest  of  Leontini,  and  having  in 
its  vicinity  the  famous  lakes  and  the  temple  of 
the  deities  called  Palici.  It  was  in  ruins  in  the 
time  of  Diodorus  Siculus.  Vid.  PALICI.] 

PALICI  (naXiKoi),  were  Sicilian  gods,  twin 
sons  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  the  nymph  Thalia, 
the  daughter  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus).  Some- 
times they  are  called  sons  of  Vulcan  (Hephaes- 
tus) by  J^tna,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus.  Thalia, 
from  fear  of  Juno  (Hera),  prayed  to  be  swallowed 
up  by  the  earth  ;  her  prayer  was  granted  ;  but 
in  due  time  she  sent  forth  from  the  earth  twin 
boys,  who,  according  to  the  absurd  etymology 
of  the  ancients,  were  called  ITa/U/fot,  from  TO 
•rciiKiv  lutodai.  They  were  worshipped  in  tho 
neighborhood  of  Mount  J2tna,  near  Palice,  and 
in  the  earliest  times  human  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered to  them.  Their  sanctuary  was  an  asylum 
for  runaway  slaves,  and  near  it  there  gushed 
forth  from  the  earth  two  sulphureous  fountains, 
called  Deilloi,  or  brothers  of  the  Palici,  at  which 
solemn  oaths  were  taken.  The  oaths  were  writ- 
ten on  tablets,  and  thrown  into  one  of  the  fount- 
ains ;  if  the  tablet  swam  on  the  water,  the  oath 
was  considered  to  be  true  ;  but  if  it  sank  down, 
the  oath  was  regarded  as  a  perjury,  and  was  be- 
lieved to  be  punished  instantaneously  by  blind- 
ness or  death. 

PALINURUM  (nowCapePalinuro),  a  promontort 


PALIURUS. 

on  the  western  coast  of  Lucania,  which  was  said 
to  have  derived  its  name  from  Palinurus,  the 
son  of  lasus,  and  pilot  of  the  ship  of  JEneas, 
who  fell  into  the  sea,  and  was  murdered  on  the 
coast  by  the  natives. 

[PALIURUS  (flo^ioupof),  a  town  of  Africa  on 
the  borders  of  Cyrenaica  and  Marmarica,  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name.] 

[PALLA  (IIdA?.a)  or  PALJE  (now  probably  Porto 
Polio),  a  city  on  the  south  coast  of  Corsica,  at  the 
termination  of  the  Roman  road  running  along 
the  eastern  coast.] 

PALLACOPAS  (RaAAaKoTraf),  a  canal  in  Baby- 
lonia, cut  from  the  Euphrates,  at  a  point  eight 
hundred  stadia  (eighty  geographical  miles)  south 
of  Babylon,  westward  to  the  edge  of  the  Arabian 
Desert,  where  it  lost  itself  in  marshes. 

PALLADAS  (IlaXAaJof),  the  author  of  a  large 
number  of  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology, 
was  a  pagan  and  an  Alexandrean  grammarian. 
He  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  of 
the  Christian  era,  for  in  one  of  his  epigrams  he 
speaks  of  Hypatia,  the  daughter  of  Theon,  as 
still  alive.  Hypatia  was  murdered  in  A.D.  415. 

PALLADIUM  (TlaMudiov),  properly  any  image 
of  Pallas  Athena  (Minerva),  but  generally  ap- 
plied to  an  ancient  image  of  this  goddess,  which 
was  kept  hidden  and  secret,  and  was  revered  as 
a  pledge  of  the  safety  of  the  town  where  it  ex- 
isted. Among  these  ancient  images  of  Pallas 
none  is  more  celebrated  than  the  Trojan  Palla- 
dium, concerning  which  there  was  the  following 
tradition  :  Minerva  (Athena)  was  brought  up  by 
Triton ;  and  when  his  daughter  Pallas  and  Mi- 
nerva (Athena)  were  once  wrestling  together 
for  the  sake  of  exercise,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  inter- 
fered in  the  struggle,  and  suddenly  held  the 
aegis  before  the  face  of  Pallas.  Pallas,  while 
looking  up  to  Jupiter  (Zeus),  was  wounded  by 
Minerva  (Athena),  and  died.  Minerva  (Athena), 
in  her  sorrow,  caused  an  image  of  the  maiden 
to  be  made,  round  which  she  hung  the  aegis. 
When  Electra  had  come  as  a  suppliant  to  the 
Palladium,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  hurled  it  down  from 
heaven  upon  the  earth,  because  it  had  been  sul- 
lied by  the  hands  of  one  who  was  no  longer  a 
pure  maiden.  The  image  fell  upon  the  earth  at 
Troy  when  Ilus  was  just  beginning  to  build  the 
city.  Ilus  erected  a  sanctuary  to  it.  Accord- 
ing to  some,  the  image  was  dedicated  by  Elec- 
tra, and  according  to  others,  it  was  given  by 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  Dardanus.  The  image  itself 
is  said  to  have  been  three  cubits  in  height,  with 
its  legs  close  together,  and  holding  in  its  right 
hand  a  spear,  and  in  the  left  a  spindle  and  a 
distaff.  This  Palladium  remained  at  Troy  until 
Ulysses  and  Diomedes  contrived  to  carry  it 
away,  because  the  city  could  not  be  taken  so 
long  as  it  was  in  the  possession  of  that  sacred 
treasure.  According  to  some  accounts,  Troy 
contained  two  Palladia,  one  of  which  was  car- 
ried off  by  Ulysses  and  Diomedes,  while  the 
other  was  conveyed  by  ^Eneas  to  Italy,  or  the 
one  taken  by  the  Greeks  was  a  mere  imitation, 
wlulu  that  which  ^Eneas  brought  to  Italy  was 
the  genuine  image.  But  this  two-fold  Palladium 
was  probably  a  mere  invention,  to  account  for 
its  existence  in  more  than  one  place.  Several 
towns  both  in  Greece  and  Italy  claimed  the 
honor  of  possessing  the  genuine  Trojan  Palla- 
dium, as,  for  example,  Argos  and  Athens,  where 


PALLA  DIUS. 

!  it  was  believed  that  Demophon  took  it  from 
Diomedes  on  his  return  from  Troy.  Vid.  DE- 
MOPHON. This  Palladium  at  Athens,  however, 
was  different  from  another  image  of  Pallas 
there,  which  was  also  called  Palladium,  and 
stood  on  the  acropolis.  In  Italy  the  cities  of 
Rome,  Lavinium,  Luceria,  and  Siris  likewise 
pretended  to  possess  the  Trojan  Palladium. 

PALLADIUS  (Ua7i.Au6tof).  1.  Of  Methone,  a 
sophist  or  rhetorician,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Constantine  the  Great. — 2.  Bishop  of  Helenopo- 
lis, in  Bithynia,  to  which  he  was  raised  A.D.  400. 
He  was  ordained  by  Chrysostom ;  and  on  the 
banishment  of  the  latter,  Palladius  was  accused 
of  holding  the  opinions  of  Origen,  and,  fearful 
of  the  violence  of  his  enemies,  he  fled  to  Rome, 
405.  Shortly  afterward  he  ventured  to  return 
to  the  East,  but  was  arrested  and  banished  to 
the  extremity  of  Upper  Egypt.  He  was  after- 
ward restored  to  his  bishopric  of  Helenopolis, 
from  which  he  was  translated  to  that  of  Aspona 
or  Aspuna  in  Galatia,  perhaps  about  419  or  420. 
Three  works  in  Greek  have  come  down  to  us 
under  the  name  of  Palladius,  but  there  has  been 
considerable  dispute  whether  they  were  written 
by  one  individual  or  more  :  (1  )  Historia  Lausi- 
aca,  "  the  Lausiac  History,"  so  called  from  its 
being  dedicated  to  Lausus,  a  chamberlain  at  the 
imperial  court.  This  work  contains  internal 
proofs  of  having  been  written  by  the  Bishop  of 
Helenopolis.  If  gives  biographical  notices  or 
characteristic  anecdotes  of  a  number  of  ascetics 
with  whom  Palladius  was  personally  acquaint- 
ed, or  concerning  whom  he  received  informa- 
tion from  those  who  had  known  them  person- 
ally. Edited  by  Meursius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1616. 
(2  )  The  Life  of  Chrysostom,  was  probably  writ- 
ten by  a  different  person  from  the  Bishop  of 
Helenopolis.  Edited  by  Bigotius,  Paris,  1680. 
(3.)  De  Gentibus" India  et  Bragmanibus  (Brah- 
mans).  The  authorship  of  this  work  is  uncer- 
tain. It  appears  that  the  writer  himself  had 
visited  India.  Edited  by  Camerarius  in  Libci 
Gnomologicus,  8vo,  Lips.,  without  date  ;  and  by 
Bissaeus,  London,  1665. — 3.  Surnamed  latroso- 
phista,  a  Greek  medical  writer,  of  whose  life 
nothing  is  known.  He  lived  after  Galen.  We 
possess  three  works  commonly  attributed  to 
him,  namely,  two  books  of  commentaries  on 
Hippocrates,  and  a  short  treatise  on  Fevers,  all 
of  which  are  taken  chiefly  from  Galen. — 4.  PAL- 
LADIUS RUTILIUS  TAURUS  ^EMILIANUS,  the  author 
of  a  treatise  De  Re  Rustica,  in  the  form  of  a 
Farmer's  Calendar,  the  various  operations  con- 
nected with  agriculture  and  a  rural  life  being 
arranged  in  regular  order,  according  to  the  sea- 
sons in  which  they  ought  to  be  performed.  It 
is  comprised  in  fourteen  books :  the  first  is  in- 
troductory ;  the  twelve  following  contain  the 
duties  of  the  twelve  months  in  succession,  com- 
mencing with  January ;  the  last  is  a  poem,  in 
eighty-five  elegiac  couplets,  upon  the  art  of 
grafting  (De  Insitione).  A  considerable  portion 
of  the  work  is  taken  from  Columella.  The  date 
of  the  author  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  most  proba- 
ble that  he  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era.  The  work  was  very 
popular  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Edited  in  the 
Scrip tor es  Rei  Rustica  by  Gesner,  Lips.,  1735  ; 
reprinted  by  Ernesti  in  1773,  and  by  Schneider, 
Lips.,  1794. 

595 


PALLANTIA. 

PAH.ANTIA  (Pallantinus  :  now  Palencid),  the 
thief  town  of  the  Vaccaei  in  the  north  of  His- 
pania  Tarraconensis,  and  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Durius.  • 

PALLANTIAS  and  PALLANTIS,  patronymics  giv- 
en to  Aurora,  the  daughter  of  the  giant  Pallas. 

PALLANTIUM  (Tla'M.uvTiov  :  flaAAavrtevf'),  an 
ancient  town  of  Arcadia  near  Tegea,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Pallas,  the  son  of  Lycaon. 
Evander  is  said  to  have  come  from  this  place, 
and  to  have  called  the  town,  which  he  founded 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  Pallantium  (afterward 
Palantlum  and  Palatlum),  after  the  Arcadian 
town.  On  the  foundation  of  Megalopolis,  most 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Pallantium  settled  in  the 
new  city ;  and  the  town  remained  almost  de- 
serted, till  it  was  restored  by  Antoninus  Pius, 
and  exempted  from  taxes  on  account  of  its  sup- 
posed connection  with  the  imperial  city. 

[PALLANTIUS,  epithet  of  Evander.  Vid.  PAL- 
LAS, No.  4.] 

PALLAS  (HaUaf).  1.  One  of  the  Titans,  son 
of  Crius  and  Eurybia,  husband  of  Styx,  and  fa- 
ther of  Zelus,  Cratos,  Bia,  and  Nice. — 2.  A  gi- 
ant, slain  by  Minerva  (Athena)  in  the  battle  with 
the  gods. — 3.  According  to  some  traditions,  the 
father  of  Minerva  (Athena),  who  slew  him  when 
he  attempted  to  violate  her. — 4.  Son  of  Lycaon, 
and  grandfather  of  Evander,  is  said  to  have 
founded  the  town  of  Pallantium  in  Arcadia. 
Hence  Evander  is  called  by  the  poets  Pallantius 
heros. — 5.  Son  of  Evander,  and  an  ally  of  ^Ene- 
as, was  slain  by  the  Rutulian  Turnus. — 6.  Son 
of  the  Athenian  king  Pandion,  and  father  of 
Clytus  and  Butes.  His  two  sons  were  sent 
with  Cephalus  to  implore  assistance  of^Eacus 
against  Minos.  Pallas  was  slain  by  Theseus. 
The  celebrated  family  of  the  Pallantidae  at 
Athens  traced  their  origin  from  this  Pallas. 

PALLAS  (IlaAAuf),  a  surname  of  ATHENA  (Mi- 
nerva). In  Homer  this  name  always  appears 
united  with  that  of  Athena,  as  IlaAAaf  'AOqvTi, 
or  EaJUaf  'AdrjvaiTj ;  but  in  later  writers  we 
also  find  Pallas  alone  instead  of  Athena  (Miner- 
va). Some  ancient  writers  derive  the  name 
from  TruA/lety,  to  brandish,  in  reference  to  the 
goddess  brandishing  the  spear  or  aegis  ;  others 
derive  it  from  the  giant  Pallas,  who  was  slain 
by  Athena  (Minerva).  But  it  is  more  probable 
that  Pallas  is  the  same  word  as  TrdA/laf,  i.  e.,  a 
virgin  or  maiden. 

PALLAS,  a  favorite  freedman  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius.  In  conjunction  with  another  freed- 
man, Narcissus,  he  administered  the  affairs  of 
the  empire.  After  the  death  of  Messalina,  Pal- 
las persuaded  the  weak  emperor  to  marry  Agrip- 
pina ;  and  as  Narcissus  had  been  opposed  to  this 
marriage,  he  now  lost  his  former  power,  and 
Pallas  and  Agrippina  became  the  rulers  of  the 
Roman  world.  It  was  Pallas  who  persuaded 
Claudius  to  adopt  the  young  Domitius  (after- 
ward the  Emperor  Nero),  the  son  of  Agrippina  ; 
and  it  was  doubtless  with  the  assistance  of  Pal- 
las that  Agrippina  poisoned  her  husband.  Nero, 
soon  after  his  accession,  became  tired  of  his 
mother's  control,  and,  as  one  step  toward  eman- 
cipating himself  from  her  authority,  he  deprived 
Pallas  of  all  his  public  offices,  and  dismissed 
him  from  the  palace  in  56.  He  was  suffered  to 
live  unmolested  for  some  years,  till  at  length 
bis  immense  wealth  excited  the  rapacity  of 
596 


PALMYRA. 

Nero,  who  had  him  removed  by  poison  in  63 
His  enormous  wealth,  which  was  acquired  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Claudius,  had  become  proverb- 
ial, as  we  see  from  the  line  in  Juvenal  (i.,  107), 
ego  possideo  plus  Pallante  el  Licinio.  The'brother 
of  Pallas  was  Antonius  or  Claudius  Felix,  who 
was  appointed  by  Claudius  procurator  of  Judaea. 
Vid.  FELIX,  ANTONIUS. 

PALLAS  LACUS.      Vid,  TRITON. 

PALLENE  (fia/Ajyv)?).  1.  (IlaAA^vaiof,  Ila/U 
l.rjviof),  the  most  westerly  of  the  three  penin- 
sulas running  out  from  Chalcidice  in  Mace- 
donia. It  is  said  to  have  been  formerly  called 
Phlegra  (4>/.f'ypa),  and  on  the  narrow  isthmus 
which  connected  it  with  the  main  land  stood 
the  important  town  of  Potidaea. — 2.  (Ua^ijvevf, 
rarely  Hahhtjvaioc,),  a  demus  in  Attica  belong- 
ing to  the  tribe  Antiochis,  was  situated  on  one 
of  the  slopes  of  Pentelicus,  a  few  miles  south- 
west of  Marathon.  It  possessed  a  temple  of 
Minerva  (Athena),  surnamed  Pallenis  (IlaAAj?- 
v/f)  from  the  place  ;  and  in  its  neighborhood  the 
contest  between  Pisistratus  and  the  party  op- 
posed to  him  took  place. 

PALMA  (now  Palma),  a  Roman  colony  on  the 
southwest  coast  of  the  island  Balearis  Major 
(now  Majorca). 

[PALMA,  A.  CORNELIUS,  was  consul  in  A.D. 
99,  and  a  second  time  in  109.  Between  his  first 
and  second  consulships  he  was  governor  of 
Syria,  and  conquered  the  part  of  Arabia  around 
Petra  about  A.D.  105.  He  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  Hadrian  on  the  latter's  accession  to  the 
throne  in  117.] 

PALMARIA  (now  Palmaruola),  a  small  unin- 
habited island  off  the  coast  of  Latium  and  the 
Promontory  Circeium. 

[PALMUS,  a  Trojan  warrior  wounded  by  Me- 
zentius,  who  stripped  him  of  his  armor.] 

PALMYRA  (HdXftvpa :  HaZfivpyvoc,  Palmyre- 
nus  ;  in  the  Old  Testament,  Tadmor :  ruins  at 
Tadmor),  a  celebrated  city  of  Syria,  stood  in  an 
oasis  of  the  great  Syrian  Desert,  which  from 
its  position  must  have  been  in  the  earliest  times 
a  halting-place  for  the  caravans  between  Syria 
and  Mesopotamia.  Here  Solomon  built  a  city, 
which  was  called  in  Hebrew  Tadmor,  that  is, 
the  city  of  palm-trees ;  and  of  this  name  the 
Greek  Hutyvpa  is  a  translation.  It  lies  in  34° 
18'  north  latitude,  and  38°  14'  east  longitude, 
and  was  reckoned  two  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
Roman  miles  from  the  coast  of  Syria,  one  hund- 
red and  seventy-six  northeast  of  Damascus, 
eighty  east  of  Emesa,  and  one  hundred  and 
thirteen  southeast  of  Apamea.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  a  tradition  that  it  was  destroyed  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  we  hear  nothing  of  it  till  the 
time  of  the  government  of  the  East  by  M.  An- 
tonius, who  marched  to  surprise  it,  but  the  in- 
habitants retreated  with  their  movable  property 
beyond  the  Euphrates.  Under  the  early  Ro- 
man emperors  it  was  a  free  city  and  a  great 
commercial  emporium.  Its  position  on  the  bor- 
der between  the  Parthian  and  Roman  dominions 
gave  it  the  command  of  the  trade  of  both,  but 
also  subjected  it  to  the  injuries  of  war.  Under 
Hadrian  and  the  Antonines  it  was  highly  fa- 
vored and  reached  its  greatest  splendor.  The 
history  of  its  temporary  elevation  to  the  rank 
of  a  capital  in  the  third  century  is  related  un- 
der ODENATHUS  and  ZENOBIA.  On  its  capture 


PALMYRENE. 

by  Aurelian  in  270,  it  was  plundered,  and  soon 
afterward  an  insurrection  of  its  inhabitants  led 
to  its  partial  destruction.  It  was  fortified  by 
Justinian,  but  never  recovered  from  its  fall.  In 
the  Arabian  conquest  it  was  one  of  the  first 
cities  taken  ;  but  it  was  still  inhabited  by  a 
small  population,  chiefly  of  Jews,  till  it  was 
taken  and  plundered  by  Timour  (Tamerlane)  in 
1400.  It  has  long  been  entirely  deserted,  ex- 
cept when  a  horde  of  Bedouins  pitch  their  tents 
among  its  splendid  ruins.  Those  ruins,  which 
form  a  most  striking  object  in  the  midst  of  the 
Desert,  are  of  the  Roman  period,  and  decidedly 
inferior  in  the  style  of  architecture,  as  well  as 
in  grandeur  of  effect,  to  those  of  Baalbek  (vid. 
HELIOPOLIS),  the  sister  deserted  city  of  Syria. 
The  finest  remains  are  those  of  the  temple  of 
the  Sun ;  the  most  interesting  are  the  square 
sepulchral  towers  of  from  three  to  five  stories. 
The  streets  and  the  foundations  of  the  houses 
are  traceable  to  some  extent ;  and  there  are 
several  inscriptions  in  Greek  and  in  the  native 
Palmyrene  dialect,  besides  one  in  Hebrew  and 
one  or  two  in  Latin.  The  surrounding  district 
of PALMYRENE  contained  the  Syrian  Desert  from 
the  eastern  border  of  Coilesyria  to  the  Euphra- 
tes. 

[PALMYRENE  (Ha.tyvpr)vfi).     Vid.  PALMYRA.] 

[PALMYS  (Fla^vf),  a  warrior  from  Ascania, 
who  came  to  the  aid  of  the  Trojans  against  the 
Greeks.] 

[PALUS  MVEOTIS  (Meuwnf  Tiifivr/).  Vid.  Mao- 
ris.] 

[PALUDES  POMPTIN^E.  Vid.  POMPTIN.E  PALU- 
DES.] 

PAMISUS  (TLdfuaof).  1.  A  southern  tributary 
of  the  Peneus  in  Thessaly. — 2.  (Now  Pirnatza), 
the  chief  river  of  Messenia,  rises  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  country,  forty  stadia  east  of  Ithome, 
flows  first  southwest,  and  then  south  through 
the  Messenian  plain,  and  falls  into  the  Messe- 
nian  Gulf.— 3.  A  small  river  in  Laconia,  falls  into 
the  Messenian  Gulf  near  Leuctra.  It  was  at 
one  time  the  ancient  boundary  between  Laconia 
and  Messenia. 

[PAMMENES  (Ila^vjyf).  1.  A  Theban  gen- 
eral of  considerable  celebrity,  was  connected 
withEpaminondas  by  political  and  friendly  ties. 
When  Philip  was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  Thebes, 
he  was  placed  under  the  care  of  Pammenes. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  and 
support  of  Megalopolis,  and  defeated  the  forces 
of  the  Persian  king  Ochus.  —  2.  An  Athenian 
rhetorician,  a  contemporary  of  Cicero,  who  calls 
him  the  most  eloquent  man  in  Greece.  M. 
Brutus  studied  under  him.] 

[PAMMON  (IIu^wv),  one  of  the  sons  of  Priam 
and  Hecuba.] 

PAMPHIA  or  PAMPHIUM  (ttapfla,  Ilap^tov),  a 
village  of  JEtolia,  destroyed  by  the  Macedonians. 

PAMPHILA  (Ila/^i/*.;?),  a  female  historian  of 
considerable  reputation,  who  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Nero.  She  is  described  by  some  writers  as 
a  native  of  Epidaurus,  by  others  as  an  Egyp- 
tian. Her  principal  work,  of  which  Photius  has 
given  some  extracts,  was  a  kind  of  Historical 
Miscellany  (entitled  mpulKruv  iaropiituv  virofivri- 
ucirwv  Adyot).  It  was  not  arranged  according 
to  subjects  or  according  to  any  settled  plan,  but 
it  was  more  like  a  common-place  book,  in  which 
each  piece  of  information  was  set  do'-vn  as  it 


PAMPHl^iA. 

fell  under  the  notice  of  the  writer.  Modem 
scholars  are  best  acquainted  with  the  name  of 
Pamphila  from  a  statement  in  her  work,  pre- 
served by  A.  Gellius  (xv.,  23),  by  which  is  as- 
certained the  year  of  the  birth  of  Hellanicus, 
Herodotus,  and  Thucydides  respectively. 

PA.MPHiLus(nd/^Mof).  1.  A  disciple  of  Plato, 
who  is  only  remembered  by  the  circumstance 
that  Epicurus,  when  a  young  man,  heard  him  at 
Samos.  Epicurus  used  to  speak  of  him  with 
great  contempt,  that  he  might  not  be  thought  to 
owe  any  thing  to  his  instruction  ;  for  it  was  the 
great  boast  of  Epicurus  that  he  was  the  sole 
author  of  his  own  philosophy. — 2.  An  Alexan- 
drean  grammarian,  of  the  school  of  Aristarchus, 
and  the  author  of  a  lexicon,  which  is  supposed 
by  some  scholars  to  have  formed  the  foundation 
of  the  lexicon  of  Hesychius.  He  appears  to 
have  lived  in  the  first  century  of  our  era. — 3. 
A  philosopher  or  grammarian  of  Nicopolis,  the 
author  of  a  work  on  agriculture,  of  which  there 
are  considerable  fragments  in  the  Gcoponica. — 
4.  Presbyter  of  Caesarea,  in  Palestine,  saint  and 
martyr,  and  celebrated  for  his  friendship  with 
Eusebius,  who,  as  a  memorial  of  this  intimacy, 
assumed  the  surname  of  Pamphilus.  Vid.  EU- 
SEBIUS. He  suffered  martyrdom  A.D.  307.  The 
life  of  Pamphilus  seems  to  have  been  entirely 
devoted  to  the  cause  of  biblical  literature.  He 
was  an  ardent  admirer  and  follower  of  Origen. 
He  formed,  at  Caesarea,  an  important  public  li- 
brary, chiefly  of  ecclesiastical  authors.  Perhaps 
the  most  valuable  of  the  contents  of  this  library 
were  the  Tctrapla  and  Hexapla  of  Origen,  from 
which  Pamphilus,  in  conjunction  with  Euse- 
bius, formed  a  new  recension  of  the  Septua- 
gint,  numerous  copies  of  which  were  put  into 
circulation. — 5.  Of  Amphipolis,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  Greek  painters,  flourished 
about  B.C.  390-.350.  He  was  the  disciple  of 
Eupompus,  the  founder  of  the  Sicyonian  school 
of  painting,  for  the  establishment  of  which,  how- 
ever,  Pamphilus  seems  to  have  done  much  more 
than  even  Eupompus  himself.  Of  his  own  works 
we  have  most  scanty  accounts  ;  but  as  a  teach- 
er of  his  art  he  was  surpassed  by  none  of  the 
ancient'tnasters.  According  to  Pliny,  he  was 
the  first  artist  who  possessed  a  thorough  ac- 
quaintance with  all  branches  of  knowledge,  es- 
pecially arithmetic  and  geometry,  without  which 
he  used  to  say  that  the  art  could  not  be  per- 
fected. All  science,  therefore,  which  could  in 
any  way  contribute  to  form  the  perfect  artist, 
was  included  in  his  course  of  instruction,  which 
extended  over  ten  years,  and  for  which  the  fee 
was  no  less  than  a  talent.  Among  those  who 
paid  this  price  for  his  tuition  were  Apelles  and 
Melanthius.  Not  only  was  the  school  of  Pam- 
philus remarkable  for  the  importance  which  the 
master  attached  to  general  learning,  but  also 
for  the  minute  attention  which  he  paid  to  accu- 
racy in  drawing. 

PAMPHOS  (Ilu^cjf),  a  mythical  poet,  who  is 
placed  by  Pausanias  later  than  Olen,  and  much 
earlier  than  Homer.  His  name  is  connected 
particularly  with  Attica. 

PAMPHYLIA  (Ha^tAia  : 
Pamphylius),  in  its  original  and  more  restricted 
sense,  was  a  narrow  strip  of  the  southern  caast 
of  Asia  Minor,  extending  in  a  sort  of  arch  along 
the  SIKCBPAMPHYLIUS  (now  Gulf  of  Adalia),  be- 

697 


PAMPHYL1UM  MARE. 

tween  Lycia  on  the  west  and  Cilicia  on  the 
east,  and  on  the  north  bordering  on  Pisidia. 
Its  boundaries,  as  commonly  stated,  were  Mount 
Climax  on  the  west,  the  River  Melas  on  the 
east,  and  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus  on  the  north ; 
but  the  statements  are  not  very  exact :  Strabo 
gives  to  the  coast  of  Pamphylia  a  length  of  six 
hundred  and  forty  stadia,  from  Olbia  on  the 
west  to  Ptolema'/s,  some  distance  east  of  the 
Melas,  and  he  makes  its  width  barely  two  miles ; 
and  there  are  still  other  different  accounts.  It 
was  a  belt  of  mountain  coast-land,  intersected 
by  rivers  flowing  down  from  the  Taurus  in  a 
short  course,  but  several  of  them  with  a  con- 
siderable body  of  water  :  the  chief  of  them,  go- 
ing from  west  to  east,  were  the  CATARRHACTES, 
CKSTRUS,  EURYMEDON,  and  MELAS  (No.  6),  all 
navigable  for  some  distance  from  their  mouths. 
The  inhabitants  were  a  mixture  of  races,  whence 
their  name  Hdp<j>v%.M,  of  all  races  (the  genuine 
old  form,  the  other  in  -tot  is  later).  Besides 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  Semitic  (Syro- 
Arabian)  family  and  Cilicians,  there  were  very 
early  Greek  settlers  and  later  Greek  colonies 
in  the  land.  Tradition  ascribed  the  first  Greek 
settlements  to  MOPSUS,  after  the  Trojan  war, 
from  whom  the  country  was  in  early  times  call- 
ed MOPSOPIA.  It  was  successively  a  part  of 
the  Persian,  Macedonian,  Greco-Syrian,  and 
Pergamene  kingdoms,  and  passed  by  the  will 
of  Attalus  III.  to  the  Romans  (B.C.  130),  under 
whom  it  was  made  a  province ;  but  this  prov- 
ince of  Pamphylia  included  also  Pisidia  and 
Isauria,  and  afterward  a  part  of  Lycia.  Under 
Constantine  Pisidia  was  again  separated  from 
Pamphylia. 

PAMPHYLIUM  MARE,  PAMPHYLIUS  SINUS  (TO 
Ila,u0v/Uov  TreXayof,  IIa//0i)AiOf  /coAfrof :  now 
Gulf  of  Adalia),  the  great  gulf  formed  in  the 
southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor  by  the  direction 
of  the  Taurus  chain  and  by  Mount  Solyma,  be- 
tween the  Promontorium  Sacrum  or  Chelido- 
nium  (now  Cape  Khelidonia),  the  southeastern 
point  of  Lycia,  and  Promontorium  Anemurium 
(now  Cape  Anemour),  the  southern  point  of  Ci- 
licia. Its  depth  from  north  to  south,  from  Pro- 
montorium Sacrum  to  Olbia,  is  reckoned  by 
Strabo  at  three  hundred  and  sixty-seven  stadia 
(36  7  geographical  miles),  which  is  too  little. 

PAMPHYLUS  (Huft^vTios),  son  of  ^Egimius  and 
brother  of  Dymas,  was  king  of  the  Dorians  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Pindus,  and  along  with  the 
Heraclidas  invaded  Peloponnesus. 

PAN  (IIuv),  the  great  god  of  flocks  and  shep- 
herds among  the  Greeks.  He  is  usually  called 
a  son  of  Mercury  (Hermes)  by  the  daughter  of 
Dryops ;  but  he  is  also  described  as  a  son  of 
Mercury  (Hermes)  by  Callisto,  by  CEneis  or 
Thymbris,  or  by  Penelope,  whom  the  god  visited 
in  the  shape  of  a  ram,  or  as  a  son  of  Penelope 
by  Ulysses,  or  by  all  her  suitors  in  common. 
He  was  perfectly  developed  from  his  birth,  and 
when  his  mother  saw  him  she  ran  away  through 
fear ;  but  Mercury  (Hermes)  carried  him  to  Olym- 
pus, where  all  the  gods  were  delighted  with  him, 
and  especially  Bacchus  (Dionysus).  From  his 
delighting  all  the  gods,  the  Homeric  hymn  de- 
rives his  name.  He  was  originally  only  an  Ar- 
cadian god,  and  Arcadia  was  always  the  princi- 
pal seat  of  his  worship.  From  this  country  his 
name  and  worship  afterward  spread  over  other 
598 


PANCHAICUS. 

parts  of  Greece,  but  at  Athens  his  worship  was 
not  introduced  till  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Mar- 
athon. In  Arcadia  he  was  the  god  of  forests, 
pastures,  flocks,  and  shepherds,  and  dwelt  in 
ijrottoes,  wandered  on  the  summits  of  mount- 
ains and  rocks,  and  in  valleys,  either  amusing, 
liimself  with  the  chase,  or  leading  the  dances! 
of  the  nymphs.  As  the  god  of  flocks,  both  or 
wild  and  tame  animals,  it  was  his  province  to 
increase  and  guard  them  ;  but  he  was  also  a 
hunter,  and  hunters  owed  their  success  or  fail- 
ure to  him.  The  Arcadian  hunters  used  to 
scourge  the  statue  of  the  god  if  they,  had  been 
disappointed  in  the  chase.  During  the  heat  of 
mid-day  he  used  to  slumber,  and  was  very  in- 
dignant when  any  one  disturbed  him.  As  the 
god  of  flocks,  bees  also  were  under  his  protec- 
tion, as  well  as  the  coast  where  fishermen  car- 
ried on  their  pursuit.  As  the  god  of  every  thing 
connected  with  pastoral  life,  he  was  fond  of  mu- 
sic, and  the  inventor  of  the  syrinx  or  shepherd's 
flute,  which  he  himself  played  in  a  masterly 
manner,  and  in  which  he  instructed  others  also, 
such  as  Daphnis.  He  is  thus  said  to  have  loved 
the  poet  Pindar,  and  to  have  sung  and  danced 
his  lyric  songs,  in  return  for  which  Pindar  erect- 
ed to  him  a  sanctuary  in  front  of  his  house. 
Pan,  like  other  gods  who  dwelt  in  forests,  was 
dreaded  by  travellers,  to  whom  he  sometimes 
appeared,  and  whom  he  startled  with  sudden 
awe  or  terror.  Thus,  when  Phidippides,  the 
Athenian,  was  sent  to  Sparta  to  solicit  its  aid 
against  the  Persians,  Pan  accosted  him,  and 
promised  to  terrify  the  barbarians  if  the  Athe- 
nians would  worship  him.  Hence  sudden  fright 
without  any  visible  cause  was  ascribed  to  Pan, 
and  was  called  a  Panic  fear.  He  is  further  said 
to  have  had  a  terrific  voice,  and  by  it  to  have 
frightened  the  Titans  in  their  fight  with  the 
gods.  It  seems  that  this  feature,  namely,  his 
fondness  of  noise  and  riot,  was  the  cause  of  his 
being  considered  the  minister  and  companion 
of  Cybele  and  Bacchus  (Dionysus).  He  was,  at 
the  same  time,  believed  to  be  possessed  of  pro- 
phetic powers,  and  to  have  even  instructed 
Apollo  in  this  art.  While  roaming  in  his  forests 
he  fell  in  love  with  Echo,  by  whom  or  by  Pitho 
he  became  the  father  of  lynx.  His  love  of  Sy- 
rinx, after  whom  he  named  his  flute,  is  well 
known  from  Ovid  (Met.,  i.,  691,  seq.).  Fir- 
trees  were  sacred  to  him,  since  the  nymph  Pi- 
tys,  whom  he  loved,  had  been  metamorphosed 
into  that  tree  ;  and  the  sacrifices  offered  to  him 
consisted  of  cows,  rams,  lambs,  milk,  and  honey. 
Sacrifices  were  also  offered  to  him  in  common 
with  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  and  the  nymphs.  The 
various  epithets  which  are  given  him  by  the 
poets  refer  either  to  his  singular  appearance,  or 
are  derived  from  the  names  of  the  places  in 
which  he  was  worshipped.  The  Romans  identi- 
fied with  Pan  their  own  god  Inuus,  and  also 
Faunus,  which  name  is  merely  another  form 
of  Pan.  In  works  of  art  Pan  is  represented  as 
a  voluptuous  and  sensual  being,  with  horns, 
puck-nose,  and  goat's  feet,  sometimes  in  the 
act  of  dancing,  and  sometimes  playing  on  the 
syrinx. 

PANACEA  (IlavuKeia),  i.  e.,  "  the  all-healing," 
a  daughter  of  JSsculapius,  who  had  a  temple  at 
Oropus. 

PANACHAICUS  MONS  (TO  Havaxainov  opof),  a 


PANACEA. 

mountain  h  Achaia,  six  thousand  three  hundred 
feet  high,  immediately  behind  Patrae. 

PANACRA  (Iluva/cpa),  a  mountain  in  Crete,  a 
branch  of  Mount  Ida. 

PAWACTUM  (UdvanTov),  a  town  on  the  frontiers 
of  Attica  and  Boeotia,  originally  belonged  to 
Bceotia,  and,  after  being  a  frequent  object  of 
contention  between  the  Athenians  and  Boeo- 
tians, at  length  became  permanently  annexed  to 
Attica. 

PAN^NUS  (Huvaivof),  a  distinguished  Atheni- 
an painter,  who  flourished  B.C.  448.  He  was 
the  nephew  of  Phidias,  whom  he  assisted  in 
decorating  the  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  at  Olym- 
pia.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  series  of 
paintings  of  the  battle  of  Marathon,  in  the  Pce- 
cile  at  Athens. 

[PAN^TIUS  (Uaramof).  1.  Tyrant  of  Leon- 
tini.  He  was  the  first  who  raised  himself  to 
power  in  that  way  in  Sicily. — 2.  A  native  of 
Tenos,  commanded  a  vessel  of  the  Tenians  in 
the  armament  of  Xerxes  against  Greece,  ap- 
parently by  compulsion,  for,  just  before  the  bat- 
tle of  Salamis,  Panaetius  with  his  vessel  desert- 
ed the  Persians  and  joined  the  Greeks.] 

PAN.ETIUS  (Xlavamof),  a  native  of  Rhodes, 
and  a  celebrated  Stoic  philosopher,  studied  first 
at  Pergamum  under  the  grammarian  Crates, 
and  subsequently  at  Athens  under  the  Stoic 
Diogenes  of  Babylon,  and  his  disciple  Antipater 
of  Tarsus.  He  afterward  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  became  an  intimate  friend  of  Lselius  and  of 
Scipio  Africanus  the  younger.  In  B.C.  144  he 
accompanied  Scipio  on  the  embassy  which  he 
undertook  to  the  kings  of  Egypt  and  Asia  in  al- 
liance with  Rome.  Panaetius  succeeded  Antip- 
ater as  head  of  the  Stoic  school,  and  died  at 
Athens,  at  all  events  before  111.  The  princi- 
pal work  of  Panaetius  was  his  treatise  on  the 
theory  of  moral  obligation  (irept  TOV  Kad/JKovrof), 
in  three  books,  from  which  Cicero  took  the 
greater  part  of  his  work  De  Officiis.  Panaetius 
nad  softened  down  the  harsh  severity  of  the 
older  Stoics,  and,  without  giving  up  their  funda- 
mental definitions,  had  modified  them  so  as  to 
>  make  them  applicable  to  the  conduct  of  life,  and 
'  had  clothed  them  in  the  garb  of  eloquence. 

I'AN.KTOI.IUM,  a  mountain  in  ^Etllia,  near 
Thermon.  in  which  town  the  Panaetolium  or 
general  assembly  of  the  ^Etolians  was  held. 

[PANARA.     Vid.  PANCH^KA.] 

[PANCH^EA  (Flay^a/a),  a  fabled  island  in  the 
Eastern  or  Indian  Ocean,  which  Euhemerus  pre- 
tended to  have  discovered,  and  to  have  found 
in  its  capital,  Panara,  a  temple  of  the  Triphyl- 
ian  Jupiter,  containing  a  column  inscribed  with 
the  date  of  the  births  and  deaths  of  many  of  the 
gods.  (Vid.  EUHEMERUS.)  Virgil  makes  men- 
tion of  Panchaea  artd  its  turifertr.  arena,  by  which 
he  evidently  refers  to  Arabia  Felix.] 

PANDA,  a  river  in  the  country  of  the  Siraci, 
in  the  interior  of  Sarmatia  Asiatica  (Tac.,  Ann., 
xii.,  16). 

PANDAREOS  (Ilavdaptuf),  son  of  Merops  of  Mi- 
letus, is  said  to  have  stolen  from  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  in  Crete  the  golden  dog  which 
Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  had  made,  ar.d  to  have  car- 
ried it  to  Tantalus.  When  Jupiter  (Zeus)  sent 
Mercury  (Hermes)  to  Tantalus  to  claim  the  dog 
back,  Tantalus  declared  that  it  was  not  in  his 
possession.  The  god,  however,  took  the  ani- 


PANDION. 

mal  by  force,  and  threw  Mount  Sipylus  upon 
Tantalus.  Pandareos  fled  to  Athens,  and  thence 
to  Sicily,  where  he  perished  with  his  wife  Har- 
mothoe.  The  story  of  Pandareos  derives  more 
interest  from  that  of  his  three  daughters.  AC- 
don,  the  eldest  of  them,  was  married  to  Zethus, 
the  brother  of  Amphion,  by  whom  she  became 
the  mother  of  Itylus.  From  envy  of  Amphion, 
who  had  many  children,  she  determined  to  mur- 
der one  of  his  sons,  Amaleus,  but  in  the  night 
she  mistook  her  own  son  for  her  nephew,  and 
killed  him.  The  two  other  daughters  of  Pan- 
dareos, Merope  and  Cleodora  (according  to  Pau- 
sanias,  Camira  and  Clytia),  were,  according  to 
Homer,  deprived  of  their  parents  by  the  gods, 
and  remained  as  helpless  orphans  in  the  palace. 
Venus  (Aphrodite),  however,  fed  them  with  milk, 
honey,  and  wine.  Juno  (Hera)  gave  them  beauty 
and  understanding  far  above  other  women.  Di- 
ana (Artemis)  gave  them  dignity,  and  Minerva 
(Athena)  skill  in  the  arts.  When  Venus  (Aphro- 
dite) went  up  to  Olympus  to  arrange  the  nup- 
tials for  her  maidens,  they  were  carried  off  by 
the  Harpies. 

PANDARUS  (Huvdapof).  1.  A  Lycian,  son  of 
Lycaon,  commanded  the  inhabitants  of  Zelea 
on  Mount  Ida  in  the  Trojan  war.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished in  the  Trojan  army  as  an  archer,  and 
was  said  to  have  received  his  bow  from  Apollo. 
He  was  slain  by  Diomedes,  or,  according  to 
others,  by  Sthenelus.  He  was  afterward  hon- 
ored as  a  hero  at  Pinara  in  Lycia. — 2.  Son  of 
Alcanor,  and  twin-brother  of  Bitias,  was  one  of 
the  companions  of  ^Eneas,  and  was  slain  by 
Turnus. 

PANDATARIA  (now  Vendutene),  a  small  island 
in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  off  the  coast  of  Cam- 
pania, to  which  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus, 
was  banished. 

PANDEMOS  (Havd^of),  t.  e.,  "  common  to  all 
the  people,"  a  surname  of  Venus  (Aphrodite), 
used  in  a  two-fold  sense  :  1.  As  the  goddess  of 
low,  sensual  pleasures,  as  Venus  vulgivaga  01 
popularis,  in  opposition  to  Venus  Urania,  or  the 
heavenly  Venus  (Aphrodite).  2.  As  the  goddess 
uniting  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  country  into  one 
social  or  political  body.  Under  the  latter  view 
she  was  worshipped  at  Athens  along  with  Pei- 
tho  (persuasion),  and  her  worship  was  said  to 
have  been  instituted  by  Theseus  at  the  time 
when  he  united  the  scattered  townships  into  one 
great  body  of  citizens.  The  sacrifices  offered 
to  her  consisted  of  white  goats. 

PANDION  (Uavdiuv).  1.  I.  King  of  Athens,  son 
of  Erichthonius  by  the  Naiad  Pasitliea,  was 
married  to  Zeuxippe,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Procne  and  Philomela,  and  of  the  twins 
Erechtheus  and  Butes.  In  a  war  against  Lab- 
dacus,  king  of  Thebes,  he  called  upon  Tereus 
of  Daulis  in  Phocis  for  assistance,  and  after- 
ward rewarded  him  by  giving  him  his  daughter 
Procne  in  marriage.  Vid.  TEREUS.  It  was  in 
his  reign  that  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  and  Ceres 
(Demeter)  were  said  to  have  come  to  Attica. — 
2.  II.  King  of  Athens,  son  of  Cecrops  and  Metia- 
dusa.  Being  expelled  from  Athens  by  the  Me- 
tionidae,  he  fled  to  Megara,  and  there  married 
Pylia,  the  daughter  of  King  Pylas.  When  the 
latter,  in  consequence  of  a  murder,  migrated 
into  Peloponnesus,  Pandion  obtained  the  gov- 
ernment of  Megara.  He  became  the  father  of 

599 


PANDOCUS. 

JSgeus,  Pallas,  Nisus,  Lycus,  and  a  natural  son, 
CEneus,  and  also  of  a  daughter,  who  was  married 
to  Sciron.  After  his  death  his  four  sons,  called 
the  Pandiomda  (IlavAiovi6ai),  returned  from  Me- 
gara  to  Athens,  and  expelled  the  Metionidse. 
/Egeus  ohtained  Athens,  Lycus  the  eastern 
coast  of  Attica,  Nisus  Megaris,  and  Pallas  the 
southern  coast. — [3.  A  Greek  in  the  army  against 
Troy,  a  companion  of  Teucer.] 

[PANDOCUS  (TluvooKOf),  a  Trojan,  slain  by 
Ajax  before  Troy.] 

PANDORA  (Ilavdupa),  the  name  of  the  first 
woman  on  earth.  When  Prometheus  had  stolen 
the  fire  from  heaven,  Jupiter  (Zeus),  in  revenge, 
caused  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  to  make  a  woman 
out  of  earth,  who  by  her  charms  and  beauty 
should  bring  misery  upon  the  human  race.  Ve- 
nus (Aphrodite)  adorned  her  with  beauty ;  Mer- 
cury (Hermes)  bestowed  upon  her  boldness  and 
cunning ;  and  the  gods  called  her  Pandora,  or 
All-gifted,  as  each  of  the  gods  had  given  her 
some  power  by  which  she  was  to  work  the  ruin 
of  man.  Mercury  (Hermes)  took  her  to  Epi- 
metheus,  who  made  her  his  wife,  forgetting  the 
advice  of  his  brother  Prometheus,  that  he  should 
not  receive  any  gifts  from  Jupiter  (Zeus.)  'In 
the  house  of  Epimetheus  was  a  closed  jar,  which 
he  had  been  forbidden  to  open.  But  the  curi- 
osity of  a  woman  could  not  resist  the  tempta- 
tion to  know  its  contents  ;  and  when  she  open- 
ed the  lid,  all  the  evils  incident  to  man  poured 
out.  She  had  only  time  to  shut  down  the  lid, 
and  prevent  the  escape  of  hope.  Later  writers 
relate  that  Pandora  brought  with  her  from  heav- 
en a  box  (and  not  a  jar)  containing  all  human 
ills,  upon  opening  which  all  escaped  and  spread 
over  the  earth,  Hope  alone  remaining.  At  a 
still  later  period,  the  box  is  said  to  have  cpn- 
tained  all  the  blessings  of  the  gods,  which  would 
have  been  preserved  for  the  human  race  had  not 
Pandora  opened  the  vessel,  so  that  the  winged 
blessings  escaped. 

P  \Noosi  A  (Uavdoaia).  1.  (Now  Kastri),  a  town 
of  Epirus  in  the  district  Thesprotia,  on  the  River 
Acheron,  and  in  the  territory  of  the  Cassopaei. — 
2.  (Now  Castel  Franco  ?),  a  town  in  Bruttium, 
near  the  frontiers  of  Lucania,  situated  on  the 
River  Acheron,  and  also  either  upon  or  at  the 
foot  of  three  hills,  was  originally  a  residence  of 
native  CEnotrian  chiefs.  It  was  here  that  Alex- 
ander of  Epirus  fell,  B.C.  326,  in  accordance  with 
an  oracle. 

PANDROSOS  (Udvdpoaof),  i.e.,  "the  all-bedew- 
ing" or  "  refreshing,"  was  a  daughter  of  Ce- 
crops  and  Agraulos,  and  a  sister  of  Erysichthon, 
Herse,  and  Aglauros.  She  was  worshipped  at 
Athens  along  with  Thallo,  and  had  a  sanctu- 
ary there  near  the  temple  of  Minerva  (Athena) 
Polias. 

PANEAS.     Vid.  C.SSAREA,  No.  2. 

PANEUM  or  -JUM  (liuveiov,  Ildvtov,  i.  e.,  Pan's 
abode),  the  Greek  name  of  the  cave,  in  a  mount- 
ain at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  range  of 
Antilibanus.out  of  which  the  River  Jordan  takes 
its  rise,  a  little  above  the  town  of  Paneas  or 
Caesarea  Philippi.  The  mountain,  in  whose 
southern  side  the  cave  is,  was  called  by  the  same 
name,  and  the  surrounding  district  was  called 
Paneas. 

PANG^UM  or  PANG^US  (TLayyatov,  Hayyatoe : 
now  Fangea),  a  celebrated  range  of  mo  -mains 
600 


PANNONIA. 

in  Macedonia,  between  the  Strymon  and  the 
Nestus,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Philippi, 
with  gold  and  silver  mines,  and  with  splendid 
roses. 

PANHELI.F,I»TUS  (HaveZMiviof),  i.  e.,  the  god 
worshipped  by  all  the  Hellenes.  This  surname 
is  said  to  have  been  given  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  by 
yEacus,  when  he  offered  a  propitiatory  sacrifice 
on  behalf  of  all  the  Greeks  for  the  purpose  of 
averting  a  famine.  In  ^Egina  there  was  a  sanc- 
tuary of  Jupiter  (Zeusj'Panhellenius,  which  was 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  ^Eacus ;  and  a 
festival,  Panhellenia,  was  celebrated  there. 

PANIONIUM.  Vid.  MYCALE  ;  and  Diet,  of  Ant., 
s.  v.  PANIONIA. 

PANIUM  (ILmov).  1.  A  town  on  the  coast  of 
Thrace,  near  Heraclea. — [2.  Vid.  PANEUM.] 

PANNONIA,  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
Roman  provinces  between  the  Danube  and  the 
Alps,  was  separated  on  the  west  from  Noricum 
by  the  Mons  Cetius,  and  from  Upper  Italy  by 
the  Alpes  Juliae,  on  the  south  from  Illyria  by  the 
Savus,  on  the  east  from  Dacia  by  the  Danube, 
and  on  the  north  from  Germany  by  the  same 
river.  It  thus  corresponded  to  the  eastern  part 
of  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola,  the  whole 
of  Hungary  between  the  Danube  and  the  Save, 
Slavonia,  and  a  part  of  Croatia  and  Bosnia. 
The  mountains  in  the  south  and  west  of  the 
country,  on  the  borders  of  Illyria,  Italy,  and 
Noricum,' belonged  to  the  Alps,  and  are  there- 
fore called  by  the  general  name  of  the  Alpes 
Pannonicae,  of  which  the  separate  names  are 
Ocra,  Carvancas,  Cetius,  and  Albii  or  Albani 
Montes.  The  principal  rivers  of  Pannonia,  be- 
sides the  Danube,  were  the  DR  AVUS  (now  Brave), 
SAVUS  (now  Save),  and  Arrabo  (now  Raab),  all 
of  which  flow  into  the  Danube.  The  Panno- 
nians  (Pannonii),  sometimes  called  Paeonians 
by  the  Greek  writers,  were  probably  of  Illyrian 
origin,  and  were  divided  into  numerous  tribes. 
They  were  a  brave  and  warlike  people,  but  are 
described  by  the  Roman  writers  as  cruel,  faith- 
less, and  treacherous.  They  maintained  their 
independence  of  Rome  till  Augustus,  after  his 
conquest  of  the  lllyrians  (B.C.  35),  turned  his 
arms  against  the  Pannonians,  who  were  shortly 
afterwaftl  subdued  by  his  general  Vibius.  In 
A.D.  7  the  Pannonians  joined  the  Dalmatians 
and  the  other  Illyrian  tribes  in  their  revolt  from 
Rome,  and  were  with  difficulty  conquered  by 
Tiberius,  after  a  desperate  struggle,  which  last- 
ed three  years  (A.D.  7-9).  It  was  after  the 
termination  of  this  war  that  Pannonia  appears 
to  have  been  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman 
province,  and  was  garrisoned  by  several  Ro- 
man legions.  The  dangerous  mutiny  of  these 
troops  after  the  death  of  Augustus  (A.D.  14) 
was  with  difficulty  quelled  T>y  Drusus.  From 
this  time  to  the  end  of  the  empire  Pannonia 
always  contained  a  large  number  of  Roman 
troops,  on  account  of  its  bordering  on  the  Quadi 
and  other  powerful  barbarous  nations.  We  find 
.at  a  later  time  that  Pannonia  was  the  regular 
quarters  of  seven  legions.  In  consequence  of 
this  large  number  of  troops  always  stationed  in 
the  country,  several  towns  were  founded  and 
numerous  fortresses  were  erected  along  the 
Danube.  Pannonia  originally  formed  only  one 
province,  but  was  soon  divided  into  two  prov- 
inces, called  Pannonia  Superior  and  Pannoniu 


PANOMPILEUS. 

Inferior.  These  were  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  River 
Arrabo  south  as  far  as  the  Savus,  the  country 
west  of  this  line  being  P.  Superior,  and  the  part 
east  P.  Inferior.  Each  of  the  provinces  was 
governed  by  a  separate  propraetor ;  but  they 
were  frequently  spoken  of  in  the  plural  under 
the  name  of  Pannonia'..  In  the  fourth  century, 
the  part  of  P.  Inferior  between  the  Arrabo,  the 
Danube,  and  the  Dravus  was  formed  into  a 
separate  province  by  Galerius,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  Valeria,  in  honor  of  his  wife.  But  as 
P.  Inferior  had  thus  lost  a  great  part  of  its  ter- 
ritory, Constantino  added  to  it  a  portion  of  P. 
Superior,  comprising  the  upper  part  of  the  course 
of  the  Dravus  and  the  Savus.  P.  Superior  was 
now  called  Pannonia  Prima,  and  P.  Inferior 
Pannonia  Secunda ;  and  all  three  Pannonian 
provinces  (together  with  the  two  Noric  prov- 
inces and  Dalmatia)  belonged  to  the  six  Illyrian 
provinces  of  the  Western  Empire.  In  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fifth  century  Pannonia  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  Huns.  After  the  death  of 
Attila  -it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ostro- 
goths, and  subsequently  into  those  of  the  Lan- 
gobards. 

PANOMPH^EOS  (Havo[i$aioe),  i.  e.,  the  author 
of  all  signs  and  omens,  a  surname  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus),  who  had  a  sanctuary  on  the  Hellespont 
between  Capes  Rhceteum  and  Sigeum. 

PANSPE  (ttavoTTTi),^  nymph  of  the  sea,  daugh- 
ter of  Nereus  and  Doris. 

[PANOPES,  one  of  the  followers  of  ^Eneas  in 
his  voyage  to  Italy,  distinguished  at  the  funeral 
games  celebrated  in  Sic"ily  in  honor  of  Anchi- 
ses.] 

PANOPEUS  (ITavoTrevf),  son  of  Phocus  and  As- 
teropaea,  accompanied  Amphitryon  on  his  expe- 
dition against  the  Taphians  or  Teleboans,  and 
took  an  oath  not  to  enflbezzle  any  part  of  the 
booty  ;  l>ut,  having  broken  his  oath,  he  was  pun- 
ished by  his  son  Epeus  becoming  unwarlike. 
He  is  also  mentioned  among  the  Calydonian 
hunters. 

PANOPEUS  (IlavoTrevf,  Horn.),  PANOPE^:(IIavo- 
«-ea<)>  or  PANSPB  (Ilavojny,  Thuc.  ;  ethnic  Hovo- 
irevf,  now  Agio  Vlasi),  an  ancient  town  in  Pho- 
cis,  on  the  Cephisus,  and  near  the  frontiers  of 
Boeotia,  twenty  stadia  west  of  Chaeronea,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Panopeus,  son  of  Pho- 
cus. 

[PANOPION  URBINIUS,  was  proscribed  by  the 
triumvirs  in  B.C.  43,  but  was  preserved  by  the 
fidelity  of  one  of  his  slaves,  who  exchanged 
dresses  with  his  master,  dismissed  him  by  the 
back  door  as  the  soldiers  were  entering  the  villa, 
then  placed  himself  in  the  bed  of  Panopion,  and 
allowed  himself  to  be  killed  for  his  master.] 

PANOPOLIS.      Vid.  CHKMMIS. 

PANOPTES.     Vid.  AROUS. 

PANORMUS  (Ilavo^of),  that  is,  "All-Port," or 
a  place  always  fit  for  landing,  the  name  of  sev- 
eral harbors.  1 .  (Havop/tiTTK,  Panormlta,  Panor- 
mitanus  :  now  Palermo),  an  important  town  on 
the  northern  coast  of  Sicily  and  at  the  mouth 
of  the  River  Orethus,  was  founded  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, and  at  a  later  time  received  its  Greek 
name  from  its  excellent  harbor.  From  the  Phoe- 
nicians it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians, in  whose  power  it  remained  for  a  long 
luae,  and  who  made  it  one  of  the  chief  stations 


PANTHEUM. 

for  their  fleet.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  In 
the  first  Punic  war,  B.C.  254,  and  was  subse- 
quently made  a  Roman  colony.— 2.  (Now  Porto 
Raphti),  the  principal  harbor  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Attica,  near  the  demus  Prasiae,  and  op 
posite  the  southern  extremity  of  Euboea. — 3. 
(Now  Tekieh),  a  harbor  in  Achaia,  fifteen  stadia 
east  of  the  promontory  Rhium— 4.  A  harbor  in 
Epirus,  in  the  middle  of  the  Acroceraunian 
rocks. — 5.  (Ruins  near  Mylopotamo),  a  town  and 
harbor  on  the  northern  coast  of  Crete. — 6.  The 
outer  harbor  of  Ephesus,  formed  by  the  mouth 
of  the  River  Cayster.  Vid.  p.  282 ,  a. 

PANSA,  C.  VIBIUS,  a  friend  and  partisan  of 
Cfesar,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  51,  and 
was  appointed  by  Caesar  in  46  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Cisalpine  Gaul  as  successor  to  M.  Bru- 
tus. Caesar  subsequently  nominated  him  and 
Hirtius  consuls  for  43.  Pansa  was  consul  in 
that  year  along  with  Hirtius,  and  fell  before 
Mutina  in  the  month  of  April.  The  details  are 
given  under  HIRTIUS. 

PANTACYAS,  PANTAGIAS,  or  PANTAGIES  (Hav- 
Ta«vaf :  now  Fiume  di  Porcari),  a  small  river 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  which  flowed  into 
the  sea  between  Megara  and  Syracuse. 

[PANT^ENUS  (Udvraivof),  the  teacher  of  Cle- 
mens of  Alexandrea,  and  master  of  the  cate- 
chetical school  in  that  city  about  A.D.  181 :  in 
philosophy  he  had  been  in  the  Stoic  school,  and 
had  adopted  their  principles,  and  hence  was 
designated  the  Stoic.  He  was  selected,  on  ac- 
count of  his  learning  and  piety,  to  conduct  a 
missionary  enterprise  to  India.] 

PANTALEON  (Tlavral.euv).  1.  Son  of  Ompha- 
lion,  king  or  tyrant  of  Pisa  in  Elis  at  the  period 
of  the  thirty-fourth  Olympiad  (B.C.  644),  as- 
sembled an  army,  with  which  he  made  himself 
master  of  Olympia,  and  assumed  by  force  the 
ole  presidency  of  the  Olympic  games.  The 
Eleans,  on  this  account,  would  not  reckon  this 
as  one  of  the  regular  Olympiads'.  Pantaleon 
assisted  the  Messenians  in  the  second  Mes- 
senian  war. — [2.  A  son  of  Alyattes,  king  of 
Lydia,  by  an  Ionian  woman.  His  claim  to  the 
throne  in  preference  to  his  brother  Croesus  was 
put  forward  by  his  partisans  during  the  lifetime 
of  Alyattes,  but  that  monarch  decided  in  favor 
of  Croesus.  —  3.  A  Macedonian  of  Pydna,  an 
officer  in  the  service  of  Alexander,  who  was 
appointed  by  him  governor  of  Memphis.] 

PANTHEA.     Vid.  ABRADATAS. 

PANTHEUM  (Udvdetov),  a  celebrated  temple 
at  Rome,  in  the  Campus  Martius,  which  is  still 
extant,  and  used  as  a  Christian  church.  It  is 
in  a  circular  form,  surmounted  by  a  dome,  and 
contains  a  noble  Corinthian  portico  of  sixteen 
pillars.  In  its  general  form  it  resembles  the 
Colosseum  in  the  Regent's  Park.  It  was  built 
by  M.  Agrippa  in  his  third  consulship,  B.C.  27, 
as  the  inscription  on  the  portico  still  testifies. 
All  the  ancient  authors  call  it  a  temple,  and 
there  is  no  reason  for  supposing,  as  some  mod- 
ern writers  have  done,  that  it  was  originally  an 
entrance  to  the  public  baths.  The  name  is 
commonly  derived  from  its  being  supposed  to 
be  sacred  to  all  the  gods ;  but  Dion  Cassius 
expressly  states  that  it  was  dedicated  to  Mars 
and  Venus.  The  temple  of  Julius  Caesar  was 
erected  by  Augustus  in  the  interior  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  that  of  Augustus  in  the  pronaos.  I* 

601 


PANTHCEDAS. 

was  restored  by  the  Emperor  Septimius  Seve- 
rus,  A.D.  202.  Between  608  and  610  it  was 
consecrated  as  a  Christian  church,  by  the  pope 
Boniface  IV.,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Em- 
peror Phocas.  In  655  the  plates  of  gilded  bronze 
that  covered  the  roof  were  carried  to  Constan- 
tinople by  command  of  Constans  II.  The  Pan- 
theon is  the  largest  circular  building  of  anti- 
quity ;  the  interior  diameter  of  the  rotunda  is 
one  hundred  and  forty-two  feet,  and  the  height 
from  the  pavement  to  the  summit  about  one 
hundred  and  forty-eight  feet.  The  portico  is 
one  hundred  and  three  feet  wide,  and  the  col- 
umns forty-seven  feet  high. 

[PANTHCEDAS  (n«v0o«5ac),  a  Spartan,  sent  out 
by  the  ephors  in  B.C.  403  against  Clearchus, 
who  had  gone  to  Byzantium  against  orders. 
He  was  slain  in  battle  in  377  against  Pelopidas, 
near  Tanagra.] 

PANTHOUS.COntr.  PANTHUS(riaV000f,  UuvdoVf), 

one  of  the  elders  at  Troy,  husband  of  Phrontis, 
and  father  of  Euphorbus,  Polydamas,  and  Hy- 
perenor.  Hence  both  Euphorbus  and  Polyda- 
mas are  called  Panlhoid.es.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  originally  a  priest  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and 
to  have  been  carried  to  Troy  by  Antenor  on 
account  of  his  beauty.  He  continued  to  be  a 
priest  of  Apollo,  and  is  called  by  Virgil  (JEn., 
'•i,  319)  Othryades,  or  son  of  Othryas. 

[PANTIAS  (Havriaf),  of  Chios,  a  statuary  of 
the  school  of  Sicyon,  son  and  pupil  of  Sostra- 
tus,  who  was  the  seventh  in  the  succession  of 
disciples  from  Aristocles  of  Cydonia.] 

PANTICAP^EUM  (TlavTiKunaiov :  HavriKanaiof, 
HavTiKdTraitvf,  IlavTiKaniuTTis  :  now  Kertsch),  a 
town  in  the  Tauric  Chersonesus,  was  situated 
on  a  hill  twenty  stadia  in  circumference  on  the 
Cimmerian  Bosporus,  and  opposite  the  town  of 
Phanagoria  in  Asia.  It  derived  its  name  from 
the  River  Panticapes.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Milesians  about  B.C.  541,  and  from  its  position 
and  excellent  harbor  soon  became  a  place  of 
great  commercial  importance.  It  was  the  res- 
idence of  the  Greek  kings  of  the  Bosporus,  and 
hence  is  sometimes  called  Bosporus.  Justinian 
caused  it  to  be  surrounded  with  new  walls. 

PANTICAPES  (TlavTiKanqf),  a  river  in  European 
Sarmatia,  which,  according  to  Herodotus,  rises 
in  a  lake,  separates  the  agricultural  and  nomad 
Scythians,  flows  through  the  district  Hylaea, 
and  falls  into  the  Borysthenes.  It  is  usually 
identified  with  the  modern  Samara,  but  without 
sufficient  grounds. 

PANYASIS  (Havvaaif).  1.  A  Greek  epic  poet, 
was  a  native  of  Halicarnassus,  and  a  relation 
of  the  historian  Herodotus,  probably  his  uncle. 
Panyasis  began  to  be  known  about  B.C.  489, 
continued  in  reputation  till  467,  and  was  put  to 
death  by  Lygdamis,  the  tyrant  of  Halicarnas- 
sus, about  457.  The  most  celebrated  of  the 
poems  of  Panyasis  was  his  Heradea  or  Hera- 
deas,  which  gave  a  detailed  account  of  the  ex- 
ploits of  Hercules.  It  consisted  of  fourteen 
books  and  nine  thousand  verses.  Another  poem 
of  Panyasis  bore  the  name  of  lonica  ('luvmu), 
and  contained  seven  thousand  verses  ;  it  relat- 
ed the  history  of  Neleus,  Codrus,  and  the  Ionic 
colonies.  In  later  times  the  works  of  Panyasis 
were  extensively  read  and  much  admired  ;  the 
Alexandrine  grammarians  ranked  him  with  Ho- 
mer, Hesiod,  Pisander,  and  Antimachus,  as  one 
602 


PAPHLAGONIA. 

of  the  five  principal  epic  poets.  [The  frag, 
ments  are  collected  by  Tzschirner,  Panyasidis 
Fragmenta,  &c.,  Breslau,  1842  ;  and  by  Dub- 
ner,  at  the  end  of  Epici  Greeci  Minores,  in  Di- 
dot's  Bibliotheca  Grseca.]-  -2.  A  philosopher, 
also  a  native  of  Halicarnassus,  who  wrote  two 
books  "  On  Dreams"  (Hepi  oveipuv),  was  per 
haps  a  grandson  of  the  poet. 

[PANYASUS  ( llavvaaaof :  now  Spirnazza),  a 
river  of  Illyris  Graeca,  which  empties,  south  of 
Dyrrachium,  into  the  Ionian  Sea.] 

PAPHLAGONIA  (Rafaayovia :  Jlafaayuv,  pi. 
-ovff,  Paphlago),  a  district  on  the  northern  side 
of  Asia  Minor,  between  Bithynia  on  the  west 
and  Pontus  on  the  east,  being  separated  from 
the  former  by  the  River  Parthenius,  and  from 
the  latter  by  the  Halys  ;  on  the  south  it  was  di- 
vided by  the  chain  of  Mount  Olympus  (accord- 
ing to  others  by  Olgassys)  from  Phrygia  in  the 
earlier  times,  but  from  Galatia  afterward  ;  and 
on  the  north  it  bordered  on  the  Euxine.  These 
boundaries,  however,  are  not  always  exactly 
observed.  Xenophon  brings  the  Paphlagonians 
as  far  east  as  Themiscyra  and  the  Jasonian 
promontory.  It  appears  to  have  been  known 
to  the  Greeks  in  the  mythical  period.  The  Ar- 
gonautic  legends  mentioned  Paphlagon,  the  son 
of  Phineus,  as  the  hero  eponymus  of  the  coun- 
try. In  the  Homeric  Catalogue,  Pylaemenes 
leads  the  Paphlagonians,  as  allies  of  the  Tro- 
jans, from  the  land  of  the  Heneti,  about  the 
River  Parthenius,  a  region  famed  for  its  mules  ; 
and  from  this  Pyhemenes  the  later  princes  of 
Paphlagonia  claimed  their  descent,  and  the 
country  itself  was  sometimes  called  PYI-^EMB- 
NIA.  Herodotus  twice  mentions  the  Halys  as 
the  boundary  between  the  Paphlagonians  and 
the  Syrians  of  Cappadocia ;  but  we  learn  also 
from  him  and  from  other  authorities  that  the 
Paphlagonians  were  of  the  same  race  as  the 
Cappadocians  (i.  e.,  the  Semitic  or  Syro-Ara- 
bian),  and  quite  distinct,  in  their  language  and 
their  customs,  from  their  Thracian  neighbors 
on  the  west.  They  were  good  soldiers,  espe- 
cially as  cavalry,  but  uncivilized  and  supersti- 
tious. The  country  had  also  other  inhabitants, 
probably  of  a  different  race,  namely,  the  Heneti 
and  the  Caucones ;  and  Greek  settlements  were 
established  on  the  coast  at  an  early  period.  The 
Paphlagonians  were  first  subdued  by  Croesus. 
Under  the  Persian  empire  they  belonged  to  the 
third  satrapy,  but  their  satraps  made  themselves 
independent,  and  assumed  the  regal  title,  main- 
taining themselves  in  this  position  (with  a  brief 
interruption,  during  which  Paphlagonia  was  sub- 
ject to  Eumenes)  until  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try by  Mithradates,  who  added  the  eastern  part 
of  his  own  kingdom,  and  made  over  the  west- 
ern part  to  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bithynia,  who 
gave  it  to  his  son  Pylaemenes.  After  the  fall 
of  Mithradates  the  Romans  added  the  north  of 
Paphlagonia,  along  the  coast,  to  Bithynia,  and 
the  interior  was  left  to  the  native  princes,  as 
tributaries  to  Rome ;  but,  the  race  of  these 
princes  becoming  soon  extinct,  the  whole  of 
Paphlagonia  was  made  Roman,  and  Augustus 
made  it  a  part  of  the  province  of  Galatia.  It 
was  made  a  separate  province  under  Constan- 
tine  ;  but  the  eastern  part,  from  Sinope  to  the 
Halys,  was  assigned  to  Pontus,  under  the  name 
of  Hellespontus.  Paphlagonia  was  a  mountain- 


PAPHUS. 

• 

ous  country,  being  intersected  from  west  to 
east  by  three  chains  of  the  Olympus  system, 
namely,  the  Olympus  itself  on  the  southern  bor- 
der, Olgassys  in  the  centre,  and  a  minor  chain 
with  no  specific  name  nearer  to  the  coast.  The 
belt  of  land  between  this  last  chain  and  the  sea 
was  very  fertile,  and  the  Greek  cities  of  Amas- 
tris  ana  Sinope  brought  a  considerable  com- 
merce to  its  shore ;  but  the  inland  parts  were 
chiefly  covered  with  native  forests,  which  were 
celebrated  as  hunting  grounds.  The  country 
was  famed  for  its  horses  and  mules,  and  in 
some  parts  there  were  extensive  sheep-walks  ; 
and  its  rivers  were  particularly  famous  for  their 
fish.  The  country  was  divided  into  nine  dis- 
tricts, the  names  of  which  are  not  of  enough 
importance  to  be  specified  here. 

PAPHUS  (Fiance),  son  of  Pygmalion  by  the 
statue  into  which  life  had  been  breathed  by 
Venus  (Aphrodite).  From  him  the  town  of , 
Paphus  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  ;  and 
Pygmalion  himself  is  called  the  Paphian  hero. 
(Ov.,  Met.,  x.,  290.) 

PAPHUS  (Ud<j>os :  Hu^tof),  the  name  of  two 
towns  on  the  western  coast  of- Cyprus,  near 
each  other,  and  called  respectively  "  Old  Pa- 
phos''  (IIa?.ai7ra^of)  and  "  New  Paphos"  (Hd- 
^of  vea).  Old  Paphos  was  situated  near  the 
promontory  Zephyrium,  on  the  River  Bocarus, 
ten  stadia  from  the  coast,  where  it  had  a  good 
harbor  ^  while  New  Paphos  lay  more  inland,  in 
the  midst  of  a  fertile  plain,  sixty  stadia  from 
the  former.  Old  Paphos  was  the  chief  seat  of 
the  worship  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  who  is  said 
to  have  landed  at  this  place  after  her  birth 
among  the  waves,  and  who  is  hence  frequently 
called  the  Paphian  goddess  (Paphia).  Here 
she  had  a  celebrated  temple,  the  high  priest  of 
which  exercised  a  kind  of  religious  superintend- 
ence over  the  whole  island.  Every  year  there 
was  a  grand  procession  from  New  Paphos  to 
the  temple  of  the  goddess  in  the  old  city.  There 
were  two  legends  respecting  the  foundation  of 
Paphos,  one  describing  the  Syrian  king  Cinyras 
as  its  founder,  and  the  other  the  Arcadian  Ag- 
apenor  on  his  return  from  Troy.  These  state- 
ments are  reconciled  by  the  supposition  that 
Cinyras  was  the  founder  of  Old  Paphos  and 
Agapenor  of  New  Paphos.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  of  the  Phoenician  origin  of  Old  Paphos, 
and  that  the  worship  of  Venus  (Aphrodite)  was 
introduced  here  from  the  East ;  but  an  Arcadian 
colony  can  not  be  admitted.  When  Paphos  is 
mentioned  by  later  writers  without  any  epithet, 
they  usually  mean  the  New  City  ;  but  when  the 
name  occurs  in  the  poets,  we  are  generally  to 
understand  the.  Old  City,  as  the  poets,  for  the 
most  part,  speak  of  the  place  in  connection 
with  the  worship  of  Venus  (Aphrodite).  Old 
Paphos  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  but  was  rebuilt  by  order  of 
the  emperor,  and  called  Augusta.  Under  the 
Romans  New  Paphos  was  the  capital  of  one  of 
the  four  districts  into  which  the  island  was  di- 
vided. Old  Paphos  corresponds  to  the  modern 
Kukla  or  Konuklia,  and  New  Paphos  to  the  mod- 
ern Baffa. 

PAPIAS  (Ilaiuaf),  an  early  Christian  writer, 
said  to  have  been  a  hearer  of  the  Apostle  John, 
and  a  companion  of  Polycarp,  was  bishop  of  Hie- 
rapolis,  on  the  borders  of  Phrygia.  He  taught 


PAPREMIS. 

the  doctrine  of  the  Millennium,  maintaining  that 
there  will  be,  for  one  thousand  years  after  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  a  bodily  reign  of  Christ 
on  this  earth.  Only  fragments  of  his  works  are 
extant. 

PAPINIANUS,  ^EMILIUS,  a  celebrated  Roman 
jurist,  was  prefectus  praetorio  under  the  Em- 
peror Septimius  Severus,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  Britain.  The  emperor  died  at  York  A.D.  211, 
and  is  said  to  have  commended  his  two  sons, 
Caracalla  and  Geta,  to  the  care  of  Papinian. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  Caracalla  dismissed 
Papinian  from  his  office,  and  shortly  afterward 
put  him  to  death.  There  are  five  hundred  and 
ninety-five  excerpts  from  Papinian's  works  in 
the  Digest.  These  excerpts  are  from  the  thirty- 
seven  books  of  QucEstioncs,  a  work  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  order  of  the  Edict,  the  nineteen 
books  ofResponsa,  the  two  books  of  Definitiones, 
the  two  books  De  Adulteriis,  a  single  book  De 
Adulteriis,  and  a  Greek  work  or  fragment,  which 
probably  treated  of  the  office  of  aedile  both  at 
Rome  and  in  other  towns.  No  Roman  jurist 
had  a  higher  reputation  than  Papinian.  Nor  is 
his  reputation  unmerited.  It  was  not  solely  be- 
cause of  the  high  station  that  he  filled,  his  pene- 
tration, and  his  knowledge,  that  he  left  an  im- 
perishable name  ;  his  excellent  understanding, 
guided  by  integrity  of  purpose,  has  made  him  thu 
model  of  a  true  lawyer. 

PAPINIUS  STATIUS.     Vid.  STATIUS. 

PAPIRIA  GENS,  patrician  and  plebeian.  Tb.8 
patrician  Papirii  were  divided  into  the  families 
of  Crassus,  Cursor,  Maso,  and  Mugillanus ;  and 
the  plebeian  Papirii  into  those  of  Carbo,  Peetus, 
and  Turdus.  Of  these  the  families  of  CARBO, 
CURSOR,  MASO,  and  MUGILLANUS  alone  require 
mention. 

PAPIRIAN.E  FOSS.E,  a  village  in  Etruria,  on  the 
Via  ^Emilia,  between  Luna  and  Pisa. 

PAPIRIUS,  C.  or  SEX.,  the  author  of  a  supposed 
collection  of  the  Leges  Regise,  which  was  called 
Jus  Papirianum  or  Civile  Papirianum.  He  is 
said  to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Tarquinius 
Superbus. 

PAPIUS  MUTILUS.     Vid.  MUTILUS. 

PAPPUA  (ttaTTTtova),  a  lofty  rugged  mountain 
on  the  extreme  border  of  Numidia,  perhaps  the 
same  as  the  Thamraes  of  Ptolemy,  and  as  the 
mountain  abounding  with  wild  cats,  near  the 
city  of  Melitene,  to  which  Diodorus  Siculus 
refers  (xx.,  58),  but  without  mentioning  its 
name. 

PAPPUS  (Tluirnof),  of  Alexandrea,  one  of  the 
later  Greek  geometers,  is  said  by  Suidas  to  have 
lived  under  Theodosius  (A.D.  379-395).  Of  the 
works  of  Pappus,  the  only  one  which  has  come 
down  to  us  is  his  celebrated  Mathematical  Col- 
lections (MadqpaTiKuv  avvayuyuv  ftiGXia).  This 
work,  as  we  have  it  now  in  print,  consists  of 
the  last  six  of  eight  books.  Only  portions  of 
these  books  have  been  published  in  Greek. 
There  are  two  Latin  editions  of  Pappus  :  the 
first  by  Commandinus,  Pisauri,  1588  ;  and  the 
second  by  Manolessius,  Bononiae,  1660. 

PAPREMIS  (Hdrrpqftif),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
capital  of  the  Nomos  Papremites,  and  sacred  to 
the  Egyptian  god  whom  the  Greeks  identified 
with  Mars  (Ares).  It  is  only  mentioned  by  He- 
rodotus, and  is  perhaps  the  same  as  the  ChoTs 
of  later  times. 

603 


PAPUS./EMILIUS. 

PAPCS,  ^EMILIUS.  1.  M.,  dictator  B.C.  321. — 
2.  Q.,  twice  consul,  282  and  278,  and  .censor 
275.  In  both  his  consulships  and  in  his  censor- 
ship he  had  as  colleague  C.  Fabricius  Luscinus. 
—3.  L.,  consul  225,  defeated  the  Cisalpine  Gauls 
with  great  slaughter.  He  was  censor  220  with 
C.  Flaminius. 

PARACHELOITIS  (HapaxfhuiTif),  the  name  of 
the  plain  in  Acarnania  and  ^Etolia,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Achelous,  and  through  which  that 
river  flows. 

PARACHOATHRAS  (HapaxouOpaf,  rallapaxodBpa: 
now  Mountains  of  Louristan),  a  part  of  the  chain 
of  mountains  forming  the  eastern  margin  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  valley,  was  the  boundary 
between  Susiana  and  Media.  The  same  name 
is  given  to  an  eastern  branch  of  the  chain,  which 
formed  the  boundary  between  Parthia  and  the 
desert  of  Carmania.  Strabo  places  it  too  far 
north. 

PAR^ETACENE  (HapairaKTjvri :  HapaiTaKdi,  TIa- 
patraKrjvoi,  Paraetacae,  Paraetaceni),  the  name  of 
various  mountainous  regions  in  the  Persian  em- 
pire, is  the  Greek  form  of  a  Persian  word,  sig- 
nifying mountainous.  1.  The  best  known  of 
those  districts  was  on  the  borders  of  Media  and 
Persis,  and  was  inhabited  by  a  people  of  Median 
origin,  who  are  mentioned  several  times  by  the 
historians  of  Alexander  and  his  successors. — 
2.  A  district  between  the  rivers  Oxus  and  Jax- 
artes,  on  the  borders  of  Bactria  and  Sogdiana. 
— 3.  A  district  between  Arachosia  and  Drangi- 
ana,  also  called  Sacastana,  from  its  inhabitants, 
the  Scythian  Sacae. 

PAR^ETONIUM  or  AMMONIA  (Hapairdviov,  TJ  'A/i- 
[Mvia  :  now  El-Bareton  or  Marsa-Labeit),  an  im- 
portant city  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  be- 
longed to  Marmarica  in  its  widest  sense,  but 
politically  to  Egypt,  namely,  to  the  Nomos  Libya : 
nence  this  city  on  the  west  and  Pelusium  on 
the  east  are  called  "  cornua  JEgypti."  It  stood 
near  the  Promontory  Artos  or  Pythis  (now  Ras- 
el-Hazcit),  and  was  reckohed  two  hundred  Ro- 
man miles  west  of  Alexandrea,  between  seventy 
and  eighty  miles,  or,  according  to  Strabo,  nine 
hundred  stadia  (all  too  small)  east  of  the  Cata- 
bathmos  Major,  and  one  thousand  three  hundred 
stadia  north  of  Ammonium  in  the  Desert  (now 
Siwafi),  which  Alexander  the  Great  visited  by 
the  way  of  Paraetdnium.  The  city  was  forty 
stadia  in  circuit.  It  was  an  important  sea-port, 
a  strong  fortress,  and  a  renowned  seat  of  the 
worship  of  Isis.  It  was  restored  by  Justinian, 
and  continued  a  place  of  some  consequence  till 
its  complete  destruction  by  the  late  Pasha  of 
Egypt,  Mehemet  Ali,  in  1820. 

PARAGON  SINUS  (Tiapuyuv  Ko^nof :  now  Gulf 
of  Oman),  a  gulf  of  the  Indicus  Oceanus,  on  the 
coast  of  Gedrosia,  namely,  the  gulf  formed  in  the 
northwest  of  the  Indian  Ocean  by  the  approach 
of  the  northeastern  coast  of  Arabia  to  that  of 
Beloochistan  and  Persia,  outside  of  the  entrance 
to  the  Persian  Gulf. 

PARALIA  (IlapaAta),  the  sea-coast  district  of 
Attica,  around  the  Promontory  of  Sunium,  ex- 
tending upward  as  far  as  Halae  Axonides  on  the 
western  coast,  and  Prasiae  on  the  eastern  coast. 
The  inhabitants  of  this  district,  the  Par  alii  (Ilapd- 
Atoi),  were  one  of  the  three  political  parties  into 
which  Attica  was  divided  at  the  time  of  Pisis- 
tratus,  the  other  two  being  the  Diacrii  (biaKpioi), 
604 


PARIS. 

or  Highlanders,  and  the  Pediasii  (Ucduloioi'),  OT 
inhabitants  of  the  plain. 

PARALUS  (IldpaAof),  the  younger  of  the  two 
legitimate  sons  of  Pericles.  He  and  his  brother 
Xanthippus  were  educated  by  their  father  with 
the  greatest  care,  but  they  both  appear  to  have 
been  of  inferior  capacity,  which  was  any  tiling 
but  compensated  by  worth  of  character,  though 
Paralus  seems  to  have  been  a  somewhat  more 
hopeful  youth  than  his  brother.  They  both  fell 
victims  to  the  plague,  B.C.  429. 

PABAPOTAM!I  or  IA  (TLapanoTufiioi,  -afiia  :  now 
Belissi),  an  ancient  town  in  Phocis,  situated  on 
a  steep  hill,  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  River 
Cephisus,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  It 
was  near  the  frontiers  of  Bceotia,  being  only 
forty  stadia  from  Chaeronea,  and  sixty  stadia 
from  Orchomenus.  It  is  probably  mentioned  by 
Homer  (//. ,  ii.,  522).  It  was  destroyed  by  Xerxes, 
but  was  rebuilt,  and  was  destroyed  a  second  time 
in  the  Sacred  war. 

PAR  A  SOFIA  (Hapaaunia),  a  district  in  the  south 
of  Bceotia  on  both  banks  of  the  ^Esopus,  the  in- 
habitants of  which  were  called  Parasbpii  (Tlapa- 
ouirioi). 

[PARASOPIAS  (HapaauTriuf ),  a  city  ofThessaly, 
in  the  district  (Etaea.] 

PARC^E.     Vid.  MOIRJE. 

PARENTIUM  (now  Parenzo),  a  town  in  Istria, 
with  a  good  harbor,  inhabited  by  Roman  citizens, 
but  not  a  Roman  colony,  thirty-one  miles  from 
Pola. 

PARIS  (lidpif),  also  called  ALEXANDER  ('AAef- 
avdpof),  was  the  second  son  of  Priam  and  Hecu- 
ba. Before  his  birth  Hecuba  dreamed  that  she 
had  brought  forth  a  fire-brand,  the  flames  of 
which  spread  over  the  whole  city.  Accordingly, 
as  soon  as  the  child  was  born,  he  was  given  to 
a  shepherd,  who  was  to  expose  him  on  Mount 
Ida.  After  the  lapse  of  five  days,  the  shepherd, 
on  returning  to  Mount  Ida,  found  the  child  still 
alive,  and  fed  by  a  she-bear.  Thereupon  he  car- 
ried the  boy  home,  and  brought  him  up  along 
with  his  own  child,  and  called  him  Paris.  When 
Paris  had  grown  up,  he  distinguished  himself 
as  a  valiant  defender  of  the  flocks  and  shep- 
herds, and  hence  received  the  name  of  Alexan- 
der, i.  e.,  the  defender  of  men.  He  also  suc- 
ceeded in  discovering  his  real  origin,  and  was 
received  by  Priam  as  his  son.  He  now  married 
CEnone,  the  daughter  of  the  river-god  Cebren, 
by  whom,  according  to  some,  he  became  the  fa 
ther  of  Corythus.  But  the  most  celebrated 
event  in  the  life  of  Paris  was  his  abduction  of 
Helen.  This  came  to  pass  in  the  following  way : 
Once  upon  a  time,  when  Peleus  and  Thetis  sol- 
emnized their  nuptials,  all  the  gods  were  invited 
to  the  marriage,  with  the  exception  of  Eris,  01 
Strife.  Enraged  at  her  exclusion,  the  goddess 
threw  a  golden  apple  among  the  guests,  with 
the  inscription,  "To  the  fairest."  Thereupon 
Juno  (Hera),  Venus  (Aphrodite),  and  Minerva 
(Athena)  each  claimed  the  apple  for  herself. 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  ordered  Mercury  (Hermes)  to 
take  the  goddesses  to  Mount  Gargarus,  a  portion 
of  Ida,  to  the  beautiful  shepherd  Paris,  who  was 
there  tending  his  flocks,  and  who  was  to  decide 
the  dispute.  The  goddesses  accordingly  ap- 
peared before  him.  Juno  (Hera)  promised  him 
the  sovereignty  of  Asia  and  great  riches,  Mi 
nerva  (Athena)  great  glory  and  renown  in  war 


PARIS. 

and  Venus  (Aphrodite)  the  fairest  of  women  for 
his  wife.  Paris  decided  in  favor  of  Venus 
(Aphrodite),  and  gave  her  the  golden  apple. 
This  judgment  called  forth  in  Juno  (Hera)  and 
Minerva  (Athena)  fierce  hatred  against  Troy. 
Under  the  protection  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  Paris 
now  sailed  to  Greece,  and  was  hospitably  re- 
ceived in  the  palace  of  Menelaus  at  Sparta. 
Here  he  succeeded  in  carrying  off  Helen,  the 
wife  of  Menelaus,  who  was  the  most  beautiful 
woman  in  the  world.  The  accounts  of  this  rape 
are  not  the  same  in  all  writers.  According  to 
the  more  usual  account,  Helen  followed  her  se- 
ducer wilMngly,  owing  to  the  influence  of  Ve- 
nus (Aphrodite),  while  Menelaus  was  absent  in 
Crete.  Others  relate  that  the  goddess  deceived 
Helen  by  giving  to  Paris  the  appearance  of 
Menelaus ;  and  others,  again,  say  that  Helen 
was  carried  off  by  Paris  by  force,  either  during 
a  festival  or  during  the  chase.  On  his  return 
to  Troy,  Paris  passed  through  Egypt  and  Phoe- 
nicia, and  at  length  arrived  at  Troy  with  Helen 
and  the  treasures  which  he  had  treacherously 
taken  from  the  hospitable  house  of  Menelaus. 
In  regard  to  this  voyage  the  accounts  again  dif- 
fer ;  for,  according  to  some,  Paris  and  Helen 
reached  Troy  three  days  after  their  departure  ; 
whereas,  according  to  later  traditions,  Helen 
did  not  reach  Troy  at  all,  for  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Juno  (Hera)  allowed  only  a  phantom  resembling 
her  to  accompany  Paris  to  Troy,  while  the  real 
Helen  was  carried  to  Proteus  in  Egypt,  and  re- 
mained there  until  she  was  fetched  by  Mene- 
laus. The  abduction  of  Helen  gave  rise  to  the 
Trojan  war.  Before  her  marriage  with  Mene- 
laus she  had  been  wooed  by  the  noblest  chiefs 
in  all  parts  of  Greece.  Her  former  suitors  now 
resolved  to  revenge  her  abduction,  and  sailed 
against  Troy.  Vid.  AGAMEMNON.  Homer  de- 
scribes Paris  as  a  handsome  man,  fond  of  the 
female  sex  and  of  music,  and  not  ignorant  of 
war,  but  as  dilatory  and  cowardly,  and  detested 
by  his  own  friends  for  having  brought  upon  them 
the  fatal  war  with  the  Greeks.  He  fought  with 
Menelaus  before  the  walls  of  Troy,  and  was  de- 
feated, but  was  carried  off  by  Venus  (Aphrodite). 
He  is  said  to  have  killed  Achilles,  either  by  one 
of  his  arrows,  or  by  treachery  in  the  temple  of 
the  Thymbraean  Apollo.  Vid.  ACHILLES.  On 
the  capture  of  Troy,  Paris  was  wounded  by 
Philoctetes  with  an  arrow  of  Hercules,  and  then 
returned  to  his  long-abandoned  wife  CEnone. 
But  she,  remembering  the  wrongs  she  had  suf- 
fered, or,  according  to  others,  being  prevented 
by  her  father,  refused  to  heal  the  wound.  He 
then  went  back  to  Troy  and  died.  OZnone 
quickly  repented,  and  hastened  after  him  with 
remedies,  but  came  too  late,  and  in  her  grief 
hung  herself.  According  to  others,  she  threw 
herself  from  a  tower,  or  rushed  into  the  flames 
of  the  funeral  pile  on  which  the  body  of  Paris 
was  burning.  Paris  is  represented  in  works 
of  art  as  a  beautiful  youth,  without  a  beard, 
with  a  Phrygian  cap,  and  sometimes  with  an 
apple  in  his  hand,  in  the  aot  of  presenting  it  to 
Venus  (Aphrodite). 

PARIS,  the  name  of  two  celebrated  panto- 
mimes. 1.  The  elder  Paris  lived  in  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Nero,  with  whom  he  was  a 
great  favorite.  He  was  originally  a  slave  of 
Domitia.  the  aunt  of  the  emperor,  and  he  pur- 


PARMENIDES. 

chased  his  freedom  by  paying  hei  a  laige  sura 
of  money.  Paris  was  afterward  declared,  by 
order  of  the  emperor,  to  have  been  free-born 
(ingenuus),  and  Domitia  was  compelled  to  re- 
store to  him  the  sum  which  she  had  received 
for  his  freedom.  When  Nero  attempted  to  be- 
come a  pantomime,  he  put  Paris  to  death  as  a 
dangerous  rival. — 2.  The  younger  Paris,  and 
the  more  celebrated  of  the  two,  was  a  native 
of  Egypt,  and  lived  in  the  reign  of  Domitian. 
with  whom  he  was  also  a  great  favorite.  He 
was  put  to  death  by  Domitian  because  he  had 
an  intrigue  with  Domitia,  the  wife  of  the  em< 
peror. 

PARISH.     Vid.  LUTETIA  PARISIORUM. 

PARIUM  (TO  Uupiov  :  Hapiuvof,  Uapirjvof,  Tla- 
piavevf :  ruins  at  Kemer),  a  city  of  Mysia,  on 
the  northern  coast  of  the  Troad,  on  the  Pro- 
pontis,  between  Lampsacus  and  Priapus,  was 
founded  by  a  colony  from  Miletus,  mingled  with 
natives  of  Paros  and  Erythrae,  and  became  a 
flourishing  sea-port,  having  a  better  harbor  than 
that  of  Priapus.  Under  Augustus  it  was  made 
a  Roman  colony,  by  the  name  of  Colonia  Pari- 
ana  Julia  Augusta.  It  was  a  renowned  seat 
of  the  worship  of  Cupid  (Eros),  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus), and  Apollo.  The  surrounding  district 
was  called  37  Uaptav^. 

PARMA  (Parmensis  :  now  Parma),  a  town  in 
Gallia  Cispadana,  situated  on  a  river  of  the 
same  name  and  on  the  Via  ^Emilia,  between 
Placentia  and  Mutina,  was  originally  a  town  of 
the  Boii,  but  was  made  a  Roman  colony  B.C 
183,  along  with  Mutina,  and  from  that  time  be- 
came a  place  of  considerable  importance.  It 
suffered  some  injury  in  the  civil  war  after  Cae- 
sar's death,  but  was  enlarged  and  embellished 
by  Augustus,  and  received  the  name  of  Colonia 
Julia  Augusta.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western 
Empire  it  was  for  a  time  called  Chrysopolis,  or 
the  "  Gold-City,"  but  for  what  reason  we  do 
not  know.  The  country  around  Parma  was 
originally  marshy ;  but  the  marshes  were  drain- 
ed by  the  consul  Scaurus,  and  converted  into 
fertile  land.  The  wool  of  Parma  was  particu- 
larly good. 

PARMENIDES  (UappEvidrjf),  a  distinguished 
Greek  philosopher,  was  a  native  of  Elea  in  Italy. 
According  to  Plato,  Parmenides,  at  the  age  of 
sixty-five,  came  to  Athens  to  the  Panathenaea, 
accompanied  by  Zeno,  then  forty  years  old,  and 
became  acquainted  with  Socrates,  who  at  that 
time  was  quite  young.  Supposing  Socrates  to 
have  been  nineteen  or  twenty  years  of  age  at 
the  time,  we  may  place  the  visit  of  Parmenides 
to  Athens  in  B.C.  448,  and  consequently  his 
birth  in  513.  Parmenides  was  regarded  with 
great  esteem  by  Plato  and  Aristotle ;  and  his 
fellow-citizens  thought  so  highly  of  him,  that 
every  year  they  bound  their  magistrates  to  ren- 
der obedience  to  the  laws  which  he  had  enact- 
ed for  them.  The  philosophical  opinions  of 
Parmenides  were  developed  in  a  didactic  poem, 
in  hexameter  verse,  entitled  On  Nature,  of 
which  only  fragments  remain.  In  this  poem  he 
maintained  that  the  phenomena  of  sense  were 
delusive,  and  that  it  was  only  by  mental  ab- 
straction that  a  person  could  attain  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  only  reality,  a  One  and  All,  a  ccn- 
tinuous  and  self-existent  substance,  which  could 
not  be  perceived  by  the  senses.  But  although 

60f> 


PARMENION. 


PAROPAMISAD^E. 


he  believed  the  phenomena  of  sense  to  be  de- 
lusive, nevertheless  he  adopted  two  elements, 
Warm  and  Cold,  or  Light  and  Darkness.  The 
best  edition  of  the  fragments  of  Parmenides  is 
by  Karsten,  in  Philosophorum  Gr<zc.  Veterum 
Opcr.  Reliquiae,  Amstelod.,  1835. 

PARMENION  (UapfiEviuv).  1.  Son  of  Philotas, 
a  distinguished  Macedonian  general  in  the  serv- 
ice of  Philip  of  Macedon  and  Alexander  the 
Great.  Philip  held  him  in  high  esteem,  and 
used  to  say  of  him  that  he  had  never  been  able 
to  find  more  than  one  general,  and  that  was 
Parmenion.  In  Alexander's  invasion  of  Asia, 
Parmenion  was  regarded  as  second  in  command. 
At  the  three  great  battles  of  the  Granicus,  Issus, 
and  Arbela,  while  the  king  commanded  the  right 
wing  of  the  army,  Parmenion  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  left,  and  contributed  essentially  to 
the  victory  on  all  those  memorable  occasions. 
The  confidence  reposed  in  him  by  Alexander 
appears  to  have  been  unbounded,  and  he  is  con- 
tinually spoken  of  as  the  most  attached  of  the 
king's  friends,  and  as  holding,  beyond  all  ques- 
tion, the  second  place  in  the  state.  But  when 
Philotas,  the  only  surviving  son  of  Parmenion, 
was  accused  in  Drangiana  (B  C.  330)  of  being 
privy  to  the  plot  against  the  king's  life,  he  not 
only  confessed  his  own  guilt  when  put  to  the 
torture,  but  involved  his  father  also  in  the  plot. 
Whether  the  king  really  believed  in  the  guilt 
of  Parmenion,  or  deemed  his  life  a  necessary 
sacrifice  to  policy  after  the  execution  of  his  son, 
he  caused  his  aged  friend  to  be  assassinated  in 
Media  before  he  could  receive  the  tidings  of  his 
son's  death.  The  death  of  Parmenion,  at  the 
age  of  seventy  years,  will  ever  remain  one  of 
the  darkest  stains  upon  the  character  of  Alex- 
ander. It  is  questionable  whether  even  Philo- 
tas was  really  concerned  in  the  conspiracy,  and 
we  may  safely  pronounce  that  Parmenion  had 
no  connection  with  it.  —  2.  Of  Macedonia,  an 
epigrammatic  poet,  whose  verses  were  included 
in  the  collection  of  Philip  of  Thessalonica, 
whence  it  is  probable  that  he  flourished  in,  or 
shortly  before,  the  time  of  Augustus. 

[PARMENISCUS  (HapftevioKOf),  a  grammarian 
and  commentator,  of  whose  writings  a  few  frag- 
ments remain.] 

[PARMENON  (Rappevuv'),  of  Byzantium,  a  cho- 
liambic  poet,  a  few  of  whose  verses  are  pre- 
served in  Athenseus  and  the  scholiasts  :  these 
fragments  are  collected  by  Meineke,  Choliambica 
Focsis  Gracorum,  Berol.,  1845.] 

[PARMYS  (Ilap^vf),  daughter  of  Smerdis,  the 
son  of  Cyrus.  She  became  the  wife  of  Darius 
Hystaspis,  and  was  the  mother  of  Ariomardos.] 

PARNASSUS  (Tlapvaaaos,  Hapvaaof,  Ion.  Tlap- 
V77<r6f),  the  name,  in  its  widest  signification,  of 
a  range  of  mountains,  which  extends  from  (Eta 
and  Corax  southeast  through  Doris  and  Phocis, 
and  under  the  name  of  Cirphis  (Kip^if)  term- 
inates it  the  Corinthian  Gulf  between  Cirrha 
and  Anticyra.  But  in  its  narrower  sense,  Par- 
nassus indicates  the  highest  part  of  the  range  a 
few  miles  north  of  Delphi.  Its  two  highest 
summits  were  called  Tithorea  (Tidopea  :  now 
Velitza),  and  Lycorea  (\vKupsta  :  now  Liakura), 
the  former  being  northwest  and  the  latter  north- 
east of  Delphi ;  and  hence  Parnassus  is  fre- 
quently described  by  the  poets  as  double-headed. 
Immediately  above  Delphi  the  mountain  forms 
606 


a  semicircular  range  of  lofty  rocks,  at  the  foot 
of  which  the  town  was  built.  These  rocks 
were  called  Pkadriades  (Qaii'pitidfe).  or  the  "  Re- 
splendent," from  their  facing  the  south,  and 
thus  receiving  the  full  rays  of  the  sun  during 
the  most  brilliant  part  of  the  day.  The  sides 
of  Parnassus  were  well  wooded  :  at  its  foot 
grew  myrtle,  laurel,  and  olive-trees,  and  higher 
up,  firs  ;  and  its  summit  was  covered  with  snow 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  It  con- 
tained numerous  caves,  glens,  and  romantic 
ravines.  It  is  celebrated  as  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  and  an  inspiring 
source  of  poetry  and  song.  On  Moufh  Lycorea 
was  the  Corycian  cave,  from  which  the  Muse* 
are  sometimes  called  the  Corycian  nymphs 
Just  above  Delphi  was  the  far-famed  Castalian 
spring,  which  issued  from  between  two  cliffs, 
called  Nauplia  and  Hyamplia.  These  cliffs  are 
frequently  called  by  the  poets  the  summits  of 
Parnassus,  though  they  are  in  reality  only  smal? 
peaks  at  the  base  of  the  mountain.  The  mount- 
ain also  was  sacred  to  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  and 
on  one  of  its  summits  the  Thyades  held  their 
Bacchic  revels.  Between  Parnassus  Proper 
and  Mount  Cirphis  was  the  valley  of  the  Plis- 
tus,  through  which  the  sacred  road  ran  from 
Delphi  to  Daulis  and  Stiris ;  and  at  the  point 
where  the  road  branched  off  to  these  two  places 
(called  nxiarri),  CEdipus  slew  his  father  Laius. 
— 2.  A  town  in  the  north  of  Cappadocia,  on  a 
mountain  of  the  same  name  (now  Pascha  Dagh), 
probably  on  the  River  Halys,  and  on  the  road 
between  Ancyra  and  Archelais. 

PARNES  (Uupvtjf,  gen.  Hapvqdof :  now  Ozia 
or  Nozia),  a  mountain  in  the  northeast  of  At- 
tica, in  some  parts  as  high  as  four  thousand 
feet,  was  a  continuation  of  Mount  Cithseron, 
from  which  it  extended  eastward  as  far  as  the 
coast  at  Rhamnus.  It  was  well  wooded,  abound- 
ed in  game,  and  on  its  lower  slopes  produced 
excellent  wine.  It  formed  part  of  the  bound- 
ary between  Boeotia  and  Attica  ;  and  the  pass 
through  it  between  these  two  countries  was 
easy  of  access,  and  was  therefore  strongly  for- 
tified by  the  Athenians.  On  the  summit  of  the 
mountain  there  was  a  statue  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
Parnethius,  and  there  were  likewise  altars  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  Semaleos  and  Jupiter(Zeus)  Om- 
brius  or  Apemius. 

PARNON  (Hdpvuv :  now  Malevo),  a  mountain 
six  thousand  three  hundred  and  thirty-five  feet 
high,  forming  the  boundary  between  Laconia 
and  the  territory  of  Tegea  in  Arcadia. 

PAROPAMISAD^E  (TlapOTra/tioudai)  or  PAROI'A- 
MISII,  the  collective  name  of  several  commu- 
nities dwelling  in  the  southern  slopes  of  Mount 
Paropamisus  (vid.  next  article),  and  of  the  coun- 
try they  inhabited,  which  was  not  known  by 
any  other  name.  It  was  divided  on  the  north 
from  Bactria  by  the  Paropamisus  ;  on  the  west 
from  Aria,  and  on -the  south  from  Drangiana 
and  Arachosia,  by  indefinite  boundaries  ;  and 
on  the  east  from  India  by  the  'River  Indus, 
thus  corresponding  to  the  eastern  part  of  Af- 
ghanistan and  the  strip  of  the  Punjab  west  of 
the  Indus.  Under  the  Persian  empire  it  was 
the  northeasternmost  district  of  Ariana.  It 
was  conquered  by  Alexander  when  he  passed 
through  it  on  his  march  to  India  ;  but  the  peo- 
ple soon  regained  their  independence,  though 


PAROPAMISUS. 

parts  of  the  country  were  nominally  included 
in  the  limits  of  the  Greco-Syrian  and  Bactrian 
kingdoms.  It  is  a  rugged  mountain  region,  in- 
tersected by  branches  of  the  Paropamisus.  In 
the  north  the  climate  is  so  severe  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  ancient  writers,  confirmed  by 
modern  travellers,  the  snow  almost  buries  the 
houses  ;  but  in  the  south  the  valleys  of  the  low- 
er mountain  slopes  yield  all  the  products  of  the 
warmer  regions  of  Asia.  In  its  north  was  the 
considerable  river  Cophes  or  COPHEN  (now  Ca- 
bool),  flowing  into  the  Indus,  and  having  a  trib- 
utary, Choa's,  Choc's,  or  CHOASPES  (No.  2).  The 
particular  tribes,  included  under  the  general 
name  of  Paropamisadae,  were  the  Cabolltae  (Ka- 
6o/Urat)  in  the  north,  whose  name  and  position 
point  to  Cabool,  the  Parsii  (Uapaioi )  in  the  south- 
west, the  Ambautae  (' A.[i6avrai)  in  the  east,  on 
the  River  Choas,  the  Parsuetae  (Hapavrjrai)  on 
the  south,  and  the  'ApiaTo<j>vXoi,  probably  a  dom- 
inant tribe  of  a  different  race,  on  the  west.  At 
'.he  time  of  the  Macedonian  conquest  the  people 
were  little  civilized,  but  quiet  and  inoffensive. 
The  chief  cities  were  Ortospana  and  Alexan- 
drea,  the  latter  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great. 

PAROPAMISUS  (Hapoirdfuoof,  and  several  other 
forms,  of  which  the  truest  is  probably  Hapoird- 
vtffof  :  now  Hindoo- Koosh),  a  word  no  doubt  de- 
rived, as  many  other  words  beginning  like  it, 
from  the  Old  Persian  paru,  a  mountain,  is  the 
name  of  a  part  of  the  great  mountain-chain 
which  runs  from  west  to  east  through  the  cen- 
tre of  the  southern  portion  of  the  highlands  of 
Central  Asia,  and  divides  the  part  of  the  con- 
tinent, which  slopes  down  to  the  Indian  Ocean, 
from  the  great  central  table-land  of  Tartary  and 
T\*bet.  It  is  a  prolongation  of  the  chain  of 
Ana-Taurus.  The  name  was  applied  to  that 
part  of  the  chain  between  the  Sariphi  Mount- 
ains (now  Mountains  of  Kohistan)  on  the  west 
and  Mount  Imaus  (now  Himalaya)  on  the  east, 
or  from  about  the  sources  of  the'  River  Margus 
on  the  west  to  the  point  where  the  Indus  breaks 
through  the  chain  on  the  east.  They  were  be- 
lieved by  the  ancients  to  be  among  the  highest 
mountains  in  the  world  (which  they  are),  and  to 
contain  the  sources  of  the  Oxus  and  the  Indus  ; 
the  last  statement  being  an  error  which  natu- 
rally arose  from  confounding  the  cleft  by  which 
the  Indus  breaks  through  the  chain  with  its  un- 
known source.  When  Alexander  the  Great 
crossed  these  mountains,  his  followers — regard- 
ing the  achievement  as  equivalent  to  what  a 
Greek  considered  as  the  highest  geographical 
adventure,  namely,  the  passage  of  the  Caucasus 
— conferred  this  glory  on  their  chief  by  simply 
applying  the  name  of  Caucasus  to  the  mountain 
chain  which  he  had  thus  passed ;  and  then,  for 
the  sake  of  distinction,  this  chain  was  called 
Caucasus  Indicus,  and  this  name  has  come 
down  to  our  times  in  the  native  form  ofHindoo- 
Koosh,  and  in  others  also.  The  name  Paro- 
pamisus is  also  applied  sometimes  to  the  great 
southern  branch  of  this  chain  (now  Soliman 
Mountains)  which  skirts  the  valley  of  the  Indus 
on  the  west,  and  which  is  more  specifically  call- 
ed PARYETI  or  PARSYKT.*. 

PAROPUS  (Paropinus),  a  small  town  in  the  in- 
'erior  of  Sicily,  north  of  the  Nebrodes  Monies. 

PAROREA  (ttapupcia).  1.  A  town  in  Thrace, 
on  the  frontiers  of  Macedonia,  whose  inhabit- 


PARRHASIUS. 

ants  were  the  same  people  as  the  Paroraei  of 
Pliny. — 2.  Or  PARORIA  (ILapupia),  a  town  in  the 
south  of  Arcadia,  north  of  Megalopolis,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Paroreus,  son  of  Tri- 
colonus,  and  a  grandson  of  Lycaon,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  which  took  part  in  the  building  of  Me- 
galopolis. 

PAROREAT^E  (HapupsuTai),  the  most  ancient 
inhabitants  of  the  mountains  in  Triphylia  in  Elis, 
who  were  expelled  by  the  Minyae. 

PARORIOS.     Vid.  PHRYGIA. 

PAKOS  (Ilupof:  Hdpiof  :  now  Paro),  an  island 
in  the  JEgean  Sea,  one  of  the  larger  of  the  Cyc- 
lades,  was  situated  south  of  Delos  and  west  of 
Naxos,  being  separated  from  the  latter  by  a 
channel  five  or  six  miles  wide.  It  is  about 
thirty-six  miles  in  circumference.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  originally  colonized  by  Cretans,  but 
was  afterward  inhabited  by  lonians,  and  be- 
came so  prosperous,  even  at  an  early  period,  as 
to  send*  out  colonies  to  Thasos  and  to  Parium 
on  the  Propontis.  In  the  first  invasion  of  Greece 
by  the  generals  of  Darius,  Paros  submitted  to 
the  Persians  ;  and  after  the  battle  of  Marathon, 
Miltiades  attempted  to  reduce  the  island,  but 
failed  in  his  attempt,  and  received  a  wound,  of 
which  he  died.  Vid.  MILTIADES.  After  the  de- 
feat of  Xerxes,  Paros  came  under  the  supremacy 
of  Athens,  and  shared  the  fate  of  the  other  Cyc- 
lades.  Its  name  rarely  occurs  in  subsequent 
history.  The  most  celebrated  production  of 
Paros  was  its  marble,  which  was  extensively 
used  by  the  ancient  sculptors.  It  was  chiefly 
obtained  from  a  mountain  called  Marpessa.  The 
Parian  figs  were  also  highly  prized.  The  chief 
town  of  Paros  was  situated  on  the  western  coast, 
and  bore  the  same  name  as  the  island.  The 
ruins  of  it  are  still  to  be  seen  at  the  modern 
Paroikia.  Paros  was  the  birth-place  of  the  poet 
Archilochus.  In  Paros  was  discovered  the  cele- 
brated inscription  called  the  Parian  Chronicle, 
which  is  now  preserved  at  Oxford.  The  in- 
scription is  cut  on  a  block  of  marble,  and  in  its 
perfect  state  contained  a  chronological  account 
of  the  principal  events  in  Greek  history  from 
Cecrops,  B.C.  1582,  to  the  archonship  of  Dio- 
gnetus,  264.  [This  inscription,  so  far  as  it  is 
preserved,  was  reprinted  in  Chandler's  Marmora 
Oxoniensia,  Oxford,  1763,  fol. ;  by  Boeckh  in  his 
Corpus  Inscriptionum  Gracarum,  vol.  ii.,  p.  293, 
sqq. ;  and  by  MUller  in  Fragm.  Hist.  Grate.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  533-590.] 

PARRHASIA  (Uappaaia  :  Happdoioi),  a  district 
in  the  south  of  Arcadia,  to  which,  according  to 
I'aii.s.iiiia.-*,  the  towns  Lycosura,  Thocnia,  Tra- 
pezus,  Proseis,  Acacesium,  Acontium,  Macaria, 
and  Dasea  belonged.  The  Parrhasii  are  said  tu 
have  been  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  Arca- 
dian tribes.  At  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  they  were  under  the  supremacy  of  Manti- 
nea,  but  were  rendered  independent  of  that  city 
by  the  Lacedaemonians.  Homer  (//.,  ii.,  608) 
mentions  a  town  Parrhasia,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Parrhasus,  son  of  Lycaon,  or  by  Pe- 
lasgus,  son  of  Arestor.  The  adjective  Panhasius 
is  frequently  used  by  the  poets  as  equivalent  to 
Arcadian. 

PA  K  RII  ASIUS  (ITa/i/iuffiOf),  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated Greek  painters,  was  a  native  <>t  KplirMis, 
the  son  and  pupil  of  Evenor.  He  practiced  his 
art  chiefly  at  Athena,  and  by  some  writers  he  i-. 

607 


PARS11. 

called  an  Athenian,  probably  because  the  Athe- 
nians had  bestowed  upon  him  the  right  of  citi- 
zenship. He  flourished  about  B.C.  400.  Par- 
rhasius  did  for  painting,  at  least  in  pictures  of 
gods  and  heroes,  what  had  been  done  for  sculp- 
ture by  Phidias  in  divine  subjects,  and  by  Poly- 
cletus  in  the  human  figure :  he  established  a 
canon  of  proportion,  which  was  followed  by  all 
the  artists  that  came  after  him.  Several  inter- 
esting observations  oh  the  principles  of  art 
which  he  followed  are  made  in  a  dialogue  with 
Socrates,  as  reported  by  Xenophon  (Mem.,  iii., 
10).  The  character  of  Parrhasius  was  marked 
n  the  highest  degree  by  that  arrogance  which 
often  accompanies  the  consciousness  of  pre- 
eminent ability.  In  epigrams  inscribed  on  his 
works  he  not  only  made  a  boast  of  his  luxuri- 
ous habits,  but  he  also  claimed  the  honor  of  hav- 
ing assigned  with  his  own  hand  the  precise  lim- 
its of  the  art,  and  fixed  a  boundary  which  never 
was  to  be  transgressed.  Respecting  the  story 
of  his  contest  with  Zeuxis,  tid.  ZEUXIS.  Ofthe 
works  of  Parrhasius,  the  most  celebrated  seems 
to  have  been  his  picture  of  the  Athenian  People. 

PARSII.     Vid.  PAROPAMISAD.S. 

PARSICI  MONTES  (TO.  Hapamu  oprj,  now  Bush- 
kurd  Mountains  in  the  west  of  Beloochistan),  a 
chain  of  mountains  running  northeast  from  the 
Paragon  Sinus  (now  Gulf  of  Oman),  and  forming 
the  boundary  between  Carmania  and  Gedrosia. 
At  the  foot  of  these  mountains,  in  the  west  of 
Gedrosia,  were  a  people  called  PARSID^E,  with  a 
capital  PARSIS  (now  perhaps  Serbah). 

PARSYET^E  (tlapav^rat),  a  people  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Arachosia  and  the  Paropamisadae,  with 
a  mountain  of  the  same  name,  which  is  proba- 
bly identical  with  the  PARYETI  Monies  and  with 
the  Soliman  Mountains. 

PARTHALIS,  the  chief  city  of  the  Calingse,  a 
Iribe  of  the  Gangaridae,  in  India  intra  Gangem, 
at  the  head  of  the  Sinus  Gangeticus  (now  Sea 
of  Bengal). 

[PARTHAON.     Vid.  PORTHAON.] 

PARTHENI.      Vid.  PARTHINI. 

PARTHENIAS  (YlapOeviac),  also  called  PARTHE- 
NIA,  a  small  river  in  Elis,  which  flows  into  the 
Alpheus  east  of  Olympia,  not  far  from  Harpinna. 

PARTHENIUM  (liapQsviov).  1.  A  town  inMysia, 
south  of  Pergamum. — 2.  (Now  Felenk-burun),  a 
promontory  in  the  Chersonesus  Taurica,  on 
which  stood  a  temple  of  the  Tauric  Diana  (Ar- 
temis), from  whom  it  derived  its  name.  It  was 
in  this  temple  that  human  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered to  the  goddess. 

PARTHENIUM  MARE  (TO  HapOevticdv*  7rAayof), 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  be- 
tween Egypt  and  Cyprus. 

PARTHENIUS  (Hapdevioc),  of  Nicaea,  or,  accord- 
ing to  others,  of  Myrlea,  a  celebrated  gramma- 
rian, is  said  by  Suidas  to  have  been  taken  pris- 
oner by  Cinna  in  the  Mithradatic  war,  to  have 
been  manumitted  on  account  of  his  learning, 
and  to  have  lived  to  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  If 
this  statement  is  true,  Parthenius  must  have 
attained  a  great  age,  since  there  were  seventy- 
seven  years  from  the  death  of  Mithradates  to 
the  accession  of  Tiberius.  Parthenius  taught 
Virgil  Greek,  and  he  seems  to  have  been  very 
popular  among  the  distinguished  Romans  of 
his  time.  The  Emperor  Tiberius  imitated  his 
poems,  and  placed  his  works  and  statues  in  the 
608 


PARTHENON. 

public  libraries  along  with  the  most  celebrated 
ancient  writers.  Parthenius  wrote  many  poems, 
but  the  only  one  of  his  works  which  has  come 
down  to  us  is  in  prose,  and  entitled  Tlepl  ipun- 
KUV  iradTiituTuv.  It  contains  thirty-six  brief 
love-stories,  which  ended  in  an  unfortunate 
manner.  It  is  dedicated  to  Cornelius  Callus, 
and  was  compiled  for  his  use,  that  he  might 
avail  himself  of  the  materials  in  the  composi- 
tion of  epic  and  elegiac  poems.  The  best  edi- 
tion is  by  Westermann,  in  the  Mylhographi  Gra- 
ci,  Brunswick,  1843. 

PARTHENIUS  (Ilapflevtof).  1.  A  mountain  on 
the  frontiers  of  Argolis  and  Arcadia,  through 
which  was  an  important  pass  leading  from  Ar- 
golis toTegea.  This  pass  is  still  called  Partheni, 
but  the  mountain  itself,  which  rises  to  the  height 
of  three  thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-three 
feet,  bears  the  name  of  Roino.  It  was  on  this 
mountain  that  Telephus,  the  son  of  Hercules 
and  Auge,  was  said  to  have  been  suckled  by  a 
hind  ;  and  it  was  here,  also,  that  the  god  Pan  is 
said  to  have  appeared  to  Phidippides,  the  Athe- 
nian courier,  shortly  before  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon.— 2.  (Also  HapOevijf.  now  Chati-Su  orBar- 
tan-Su),  the  chief  river  of  Paphlagonia,  rises  in 
Mount  Olgassys,  and  flows  northwest  into  the 
Euxine  ninety  stadia  west  of  Amastris,  forming 
in  the  lower  part  of  its  course  the  boundary  be- 
tween Bithynia  and  Paphlagonia. 

PARTHENON  (6  Hapdevuv,  i.  «.,  the  virgin's 
chamber),  was  the  usual  name  of  one  of  the 
finest,  and,  in  its  influence  upon  art,  one  of  the 
most  important  edifices  ever  built,  the  temple 
of  Minerva  (Athena)  Parthenos  on  the  Acropolis 
of  Athens.  It  was  also  called  HECATOMPEDOW 
('Y,K.aT6unE8ov)  or  HECATOMPEDOS  ('E,KaTcftTre6oc, 
sc.  VEUC),  from  its  being  one  hundred  feet  in  one 
of  its  chief  dimensions,  probably  in  the  breadth 
of  the  top  step  on  which  the  front  pillars  stand 
It  was  erected,  under  the  administration  of 
Pericles,  on  the  site  of  the  older  temple  of  Mi- 
nerva (Athena),  burned  during  the  Persian  in- 
vasion, and  was  completed  by  the  dedication  of 
the  statue  of  the  goddess,  B.C.  438.  Its  archi- 
tects were  Ictinus  and  Callicrates,  but  all  the 
works  were  under  the  superintendence  of  Phidi- 
as. It  was  built  entirely  of  Pentelic  marble  , 
its  dimensions  were  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  English  feet  long,  one  hundred  and  one 
broad,  and  sixty-five  high ;  it  was  fifty  feet  longer 
than  the  edifice  which  preceded  it.  Its  archi- 
tecture was  of  the  Doric  order,  and  of  the  purest 
kind.  It  consisted  of  an  oblong  central  build- 
ing (the  cello,  or  veus),  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  a  peristyle  of  pillars,  forty-six  in  number, 
eight  at  each  end  and  seventeen  at  each  side 
(reckoning  the  corner  pillars  twice),  elevated  on 
a  platform,  which  was  ascended  by  three  steps 
all  round  the  building.  Within  the  porticoes,  at 
each  end,  was  another  row  of  six  pillars,  stand- 
ing on  a  level  with  the  floor  of  the  cella,  and  two 
steps  higher  than  that  of  the  peristyle.  The 
cella  was  divided  into  two  chambers  of  unequal 
size,  the  prod.om.us  orpronaos  (irpodouof,  Trpovaof), 
and  the  opisthodomus  (0-^106060^0^)  or  posticum ; 
the  former,  which  was  the  larger,  contained  the 
statue  of  the  goddess,  and  was  the  true  sanctu- 
ary, the  latter  being  probably  used  as  a  treasury 
and  vestry.  Both  these  chambers  had  innei 
rows  of  pillars  (in  two  stories,  one  over  the  oth- 


PARTHENOPJEUS. 

er),  sixteen  in  the  former  and  four  in  the  latter, 
supporting  the  partial  roof,  for  the  large  cham- 
ber, at  least,  had  its  centre  open  to  the  sky. 
Technically,  the  temple  is  called  peripteral  octa- 
stylc  kypcethral.  It  was  adorned,  within  and 
without,  with  colors  and  gilding,  and  with  sculp- 
tures which  are  regarded  as  the  master-pieces 
of  ancient  art.  The  colossal  chryselephantine 
(ivory  and  gold)  statue  of  Minerva  (Athena), 
which  stood  at  the  end  of  the  prodomus,  opposite 
to  the  entrance,  was  the  work  of  Phidias  him- 
self, and  surpassed  every  other  statue  in  the 
ancient  world,  except  that  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  at 
Olympia  by  the  same  artist.  The  other  sculp- 
tures were  executed  under  the  direction  of 
Phidias  by  different  artists,  as  may  still  be  seen 
by  differences  in  their  style  ;  but  the  most  im- 
portant of  them  were  doubtless  from  the  hand 
of  Phidias  himself :  (1.)  The  tympana  of  the  pedi- 
ments (i.  e.,  the  inner  flat  portion  of  the  triangu- 
lar gable-ends  of  the  roof  above  the  two  end 
porticoes)  were  filled  with  groups  of  detached 
colossal  statues,  those  of  the  eastern  or  prin- 
cipal front  representing  the  birth  of  Minerva 
(Athena),  and  those  of  the  westp^i  front  the 
contest  between  Minerva  (Athenapind  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  for  the  land  of  Attica.  (2.)  In  the 
frieze  of  the  entablature  (i.  e.,  the  upper  of  the 
two  portions  into  which  the  surface  between 
the  columns  and  the  roof  is  divided),  the  me- 
topes between  the  triglyphs  (i.  e.,  the  square  spaces 
between  the  projections  answering  to  the  ends 
of  beams  if  the  roof  had  been  of  wood)  were 
filled  with  sculptures  in  high  relief,  ninety-two 
in  all,  fourteen  on  each  front,  and  thirty-two  on 
each  side,  representing  subjects  from  the  Attic 
mythology,  among  which  the  battle  of  the  Athe- 
nians with  the  Centaurs  forms  the  subject  of 
the  fifteen  metopes  from  the  southern  side,  which 
are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  (3.)  Along  the 
top  of  the  external  wall  of  the  cella,  under  the 
ceiling  of  the  peristyle,  ran  a  frieze,  sculptured 
with  a  representation  of  the  Panathenaic  pro- 
cession in  very  low  relief.  A  large  number  of 
the  slabs  of  this  frieze  were  brought  to  England 
by  Lord  Elgin,  with  the  fifteen  metopes  just  men- 
tioned, and  a  considerable  number  of  other  frag- 
ments, including  some  of  the  most  important, 
though  mutilated,  statues  from  the  pediments ; 
and  the  whole  collection  was  purchased  by  the 
nation  in  1816,  and  deposited  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, where  may  also  be  seen  excellent  models 
of  the  ruins  of  the  Parthenon,  and  of  the  temple 
as  conjecturally  restored.  The  worst  of  the  in- 
juries which  it  has  suffered  from  war  and  pillage 
was  inflicted  in  the  siege  of  Athens  by  the  Vene- 
tians in  1687,  when  a  bomb  exploded  in  the  very 
centre  of  the  Parthenon,  and  threw  down  much 
of  both  the  side  walls.  Its  ruins  are  still, 
however,  in  sufficient  preservation  to  give  a 
good  idea  of  the  construction  of  all  its  principal 
parts. 

PARTHENOP-SOS  (liapOsvorcalo^),  one  of  the 
seven  heroes  who  accompanied  Adrastus  in  his 
expedition  against  Thebes.  He  is  sometimes 
called  a  son  oJWars(Ares)orMilanion  and  Ata- 
lanta,  sometimes  of  Meleager  and  Atalanta,  and 
sometimes  of  Talaus  and  Lysimache.  His  son, 
by  the  nymph  Clymene,  who  marched  against 
Thebes  as  one  of  the  Epigoni,  is  called  Proma- 
chus,  Stratolaus,  Thesimenes,  or  Tlesimenes. 


PARTHIA. 

!  Parthenopaeus  was  killed  at  Thebes  by  Asphodi- 
cus,  Amphidicus,  or  Periclymenus. 

[PARTHENOPE  (Tlapdevonj)),  one  of  the  Sirens 
who  is  said  to  have  given  its  early  and  poetu 
name  to  Neapolis.  Vid.  NEAPOLIS.] 

PARTHENOPSLIS  (HapfcvoTroAif),  a  town  in 
Mffisia  Inferior,  near  the  Pontus  Euxinus;  and 
between  Calatis  and  Tomi. 

PARTHIA,,  PARTHY^IA,  PARTHIENE  (TiapOia, 
TlapOvaia,  TLapOvnvr/ :  Hupdoi,  Hapdvaioi,  Parthi, 
Parthieni:  now  Khorassan),  a  country  of  Asia, 
to  the  southeast  of  the  Caspian.  Its  extent  was 
different  at  different  times ;  but,  as  the  term  was 
generally  understood  by  the  ancient  geogra- 
phers, it  denoted  the  partly  mountainous  and 
partly  desert  country  on  the  south  of  the  mount- 
ains which  hem  in  the  Caspian  on  the  southeast 
(Mons  Labuta),  and  which  divided  Parthia  on  the 
north  from  Hyrcania.  On  the  northeast  and 
east,  a  branch  of  the  same  chain,  called  Masdo- 
ranus,  divided  it  from  Aria ;  on  the  south  the 
deserts  of  Parthia  joined  those  of  Carmania,  and 
further  westward  the  Mons  Parachoathras  di- 
vided Parthia  from  Persis  and  Susiana  ;  on  the 
west  and  northwest  it  was  divided  from  Media 
by  boundaries  which  can  not  be  exactly  marked 
out.  Of  this  district  only  the  northern  part,  in 
and  below  the  mountains  of  Hyrcania,  seems  to 
have  formed  the  proper  country  of  the  Parthi, 
who  were  a  people  of  Scythian  origin.  The  an- 
cient writers  tell  us  that  the  name  means  exiles; 
but  this  is  uncertain.  They  were  a  very  warlike 
people,  and  especially  celebrated  as  horse-arch- 
ers. Their  tactics,  of  which  the  Romans  had 
fatal  experience  in  their  first  wars  with  them, 
became  so  celebrated  as  to  pass  into  a  proverb. 
Their  mail-clad  horsemen  spread  like  a  cloud 
round  the  hostile  army,  and  poured  in  a  shower 
of  darts  ;  and  then  evaded  any  closer  conflict 
by  a  rapid  flight,  during  which  they  still  shot 
their  arrow  backward  upon  the  enemy.  Under 
the  Persian  empire,  the  Parthians,  with  the 
Chorasmii,  Sogdii,  and  Arii,  formed  the  six- 
teenth satrapy  :  under  Alexander  and  the  Greek 
kings  of  Syria,  Parthia  and  Hyrcania  together 
formed  a  satrapy.  About  B.C.  250  they  revolt- 
ed from  the  Seleucidae,  under  a  chieftain  named 
Arsaces,  who  founded  an  independent  mon- 
archy, the  history  of  which  is  given  under  AR- 
SACES. During  the  period  of  the  downfall  of 
the  Syrian  kingdom,  the  Parthians  overran  the 
provinces  east  of  the  Euphrates,  and  about  B.C. 
130  they  overthrew  the  kingdom  of  Bactria,  so 
that  their  empire  extended  over  Asia  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Indus,  and  from  the  Indian 
Ocean  to  the  Paropamisus,  or  even  to  the  Oxus ; 
but  on  this  northern  frontier  they  had  to  main- 
tain a  continual  conflict  with  the  nomad  tribes 
of  Central  Asia.  On  the  west  their  progress 
was  checked  by  Mithradates  and  Tigranes,  till 
those  kings  fell  successively  before  the  Ro- 
mans, who  were  thus  brought  into  collision 
with  the  Parthians.  After  the  memorable  de- 
struction of  Crassusand  his  army,  B.C.  53  (ml. 
CKASSUS),  the  Parthians  threatened  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor ;  but  their  progress  was  stopped  by 
two  signal  defeats,  which  they  suffered  from 
Antony's  legate  Ventidius  in  3'J  and  38.  The 
preparations  for  renewing  the  war  with  Rome 
were  rendered  fruitless  by  the  contest  for  the 
Parthian  throne  between  Phraates  IV.  and  Tir- 

609 


PARTHINL 

tdates,  which  led  to  an  appeal  to  Augustus,  and 
to  the  restoration  of  the  standards  of  Crassus, 
B.C.  20 ;  an  event  to  which  the  Roman  poets 
often  allude  in  terms  of  flattery  to  Augustus, 
almost  as  if  he  had  conquered  the  Parthian  em- 
pire. It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  poets  of  the 
Augustan  age  use  the  names  Parthi,  Persae,  and 
Medi  indifferently.  The  Parthian  empire  had 
now  begun  to  decline,  owing  to  civil  contests 
and  the  defection  of  the  governors  of  provinces, 
and  had  ceased  to  be  formidable  to  the  Romans. 
There  were,  however,  continual  disputes  be- 
tween the  two  empires  for  the  protectorate  of 
the  kingdom  of  Armenia.  In  consequence  of 
one  of  these  disputes,  Trajan  invaded  the  Par- 
thian empire,  and  obtained  possession  for  a  short 
time  of  Mesopotamia ;  but  his  conquests  were 
surrendered  under  Hadrian,  and  the  Euphrates 
again  became  the  boundary  of  the  two  empires. 
There  were  other  wars  at  later  periods,  which 
resulted  in  favor  of  the  Romans,  who  took  Se- 
leucia  and  Ctesiphon,  and  made  the  district  of 
Osroene  a  Roman  province.  The  exhaustion 
which  was  the  effect  of  these  wars  at  length 
gave  the  Persians  the  opportunity  of  throwing 
off  the  Parthian  yoke.  Led  by  Artaxerxes  (Ard- 
shir),  they  put  an  end  to  the  Parthian  kingdom 
of  the  Arsacidae,  after  it  had  lasted  four  hund- 
red and  seventy-six  years,  and  established  the 
Persian  dynasty  of  the  Sassanidae,  A.D.  226. 
Vid.  ARSACES,  SASSANID.S:. 

PARTHINI  or  PARTHENI  (Hapdivoi,  Hapdijvoi'), 
an  Illyrian  people,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dyr- 
rhachium. 

PARTHISCUS  or  PARTHISSTJS,  a  river  in  Dacia, 
probably  the  same  as  the  Tibiscus.  Vid.  TIBIS- 

CC8. 

PARYADRES  (Ilapvadpj/f  :  now  Kara-bel  Dagh, 
or  Kut-Tagh),  a  mountain  chain  of  Western 
Asia,  running  southwest  and  northeast  from  the 
east  of  Asia  Minor  into  the  centre  of  Armenia, 
and  forming  the  chief  connecting  link  between 
the  Taurus  and  the  mountains  of  Armenia.  It 
was  considered  as  the  boundary  between  Cap- 
padocia  (i.  «.,  Pontus  Cappadocius)  and  Arme- 
nia (i.  e.,  Armenia  Minor).  In  a  wide  sense  the 
name  seems  sometimes  to  extend  so  far  north- 
east as  to  include  Mount  Abus  (now  Ararat}  in 
Armenia. 

PARYETI  MONTES  (TO.  Tlapvijruv  opr),  from  the 
Indian  word  paruta,  i.  e.,  a  mountain:  now  Soli- 
inan  Mount),  the  great  mountain  chain  which 
runs  north  and  south  on  the  western  side  of  the 
valley  of  the  Indus,  and  forms  the  connecting 
link  between  the  mountains  which  skirt  the 
northern  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  In- 
dian Ocean,  and  the  parallel  chain,  further  north, 
called  the  Paropamisus  or  Indian  Caucasus ;  or, 
between  the  eastern  extensions  of  the  Taurus 
and  Anti-Taurus  systems,  in  the  widest  sense. 
This  chain  formed  the  boundary  between  Ara- 
chosia  and  the  Paropamisadae :  it  now  divides 
Beloochistan  and  Afghanistan  on  the  west  from 
Scinde  and  the  Punjab  on  the  east,  and  it  meets 
the  Hindoo-Koosh  in  the  northeastern  corner  of 
Afghanistan,  between  Cabool  and  Peshawur.  Its 
ancient  inhabitants  were  called  Paryeta  (IIu- 
pvijTai) ;  and  the  name  Paruta  is  found  in  old 
Persian  inscriptions  and  in  the  Zendavesta  (the 
old  Persian  sacred  book)  as  that  of  a  people. 

PARYSATIS  (ttapvaarif  or  HapvauTi(),  daughter 
610 


PASION. 

!  of  Artaxerxes  I.  Longimanus,  king  of  Persia, 
was  given  by  her  father  in  marriage  to  her  own 
brother  Darius,  surnamed  Ochus,  who  in  B.C. 
424  succeeded  Xerxes  II.  on  the  throne  of  Per- 
sia. The  feeble  character  of  Darius  threw  the 
chief  power  into  the  hands  of  Parysatis,  whose 
administration  was  little  else  than  a  series  of 
murders.  Four  of  her  sons  grew  up  to  man 
hood.  The  eldest  of  these,  Artaxerxes  Mne- 
mon,  was  born  before  Darius  had  obtained  the 
sovereign  power,  and  on  this  pretext  Parysatis 
sought  to  set  aside  his  claims  to  the  throne  in 
favor  of  her  second  son  Cyrus.  Failing  in  this 
attempt,  she  nevertheless  interposed  after  the 
death  of  Darius,  405,  to  prevent  Artaxerxes 
from  putting  Cyrus  to  death,  and  prevailed 
with  the  king  to  allow  him  to  return  to  his  sat- 
rapy in  Asia  Minor.  After  the  death  of  Cyrus 
at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa  (401),  she  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  display  her  grief  for  the  death  of  her 
favorite  son  by  bestowing  funeral  honors  on  his 
mutilated  remains  ;  and  she  subsequently  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  into  her  power  all  the  authors 
of  the  death  of  Cyrus,  whom  she  put  to  death 
by  the  mosfc^cruel  tortures.  She  afterward 
poisoned  Staura,  the  wife  of  Artaxerxes.  The 
feeble  and  indolent  king  was  content  to  banish 
her  to  Babylon  ;  and  it  was  not  long  before  he 
recalled  her  to  his  court,  where  she  soon  re- 
covered all  her  former  influence.  Of  this  she 
availed  herself  to  turn  his  suspicions  against 
Tissaphernes,  whom  she  had  long  hated  as  hav- 
ing been  the  first  to  discover  the  designs  of 
Cyrus  to  his  brother,  and  who  was  now  put  to 
death  by  Artaxerxes  at  her  instigation,  396. 
She  appears  to  have  died  soon  afterward. 

PASARGADA  or  -JE  (naaapydfia,  Ilaaapyudai), 
the  older  of  the  two  capitals  of  Persis  (the  other 
and  later  being  Persepolis),  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Cyrus  the  Great  on  the  spot  where 
he  gained  his  great  victory  over  Astyages.  The 
tomb  of  Cyrus  stood  here  in  the  midst  of  a  beau- 
tiful park.  The  exact  site  is  doubtful.  Strabo 
describes  it  as  lying  in  the  hollow  part  of  Per- 
sis, on  the  River  Cyrus,  southeast  of  Persepo- 
lis, and  near  the  borders  of  Carmania.  Most 
modern  geographers  identify  it  with  Murghab, 
northeast  of  Persepolis,  where  there  are  the 
remains  of  a  great  sepulchral  monument  of  the 
ancient  Persians.  Others  place  it  at  Farsa  or 
at  Darab-gherd,  both  southeast  of  Persepolis, 
but  not  answering  Strabo's  description  in  other 
respects  so  well  as  Murghab.  Others  identify 
it  with  Persepolis,  which  is  almost  certainly  an 
error. 

PASARGADA  (Uaaapyadai),  the  most  noble  of 
the  three  chief  tribes  of  the  ancient  Persians 
the  other  two  being  the  Maraphii  and  Maspii 
The  royal  house  of  the  Achaemenidae  were  of 
the  race  of  the  Pasargadae.  They  had  their  resi- 
dence chiefly  in  and  about  the  city  of  PASARGADA. 

[PASEAs(IIaCTEaf),  father  of  the  Sicyonian  ty- 
rant Abantidas ;  after  the  death  of  his  son  he 
made  himself  tyrant,  but  was  soon  after  slain 
by  Nicocles.] 

PASIAS,  a  Greek  painter,  belonged  to  the  Sic- 
yonian school,  and  flourished  about  B.C.  220. 

PASION  (UaaLuv).     [1.  A  Megarian,  in  the 

|  service  of  Cyrus  the  younger  when  he  besieged 

Miletus :  he  afterward  joined  him  with  seven 

hundred  men  at  Sardis  in  his  expedition  against 


PASIPILE. 

his  brother  Artaxerxes.  Having  taken  offence 
at  Cyrus's  allowing  Clearchus  to  retain  the  sol- 
diers who  had  deserted  from  him  at  Tarsus, 
Pasion  himself  abandoned  the  cause  of  Cyrus, 
and  sailed  away  from  Myriandrus  for  Greece 
with  his  most  valuable  elfects.  He  was  not 
pursued,  and  Cyrus  did  not  even  detain  his  wife 
and  children,  who  were  in  his  power  at  Tralles.] 
— 2.  A  wealthy  banker  at  Athens,  was  origin- 
ally a  slave  of  Antisthenes  and  Archestratus, 
who  were  also  bankers.  In  their  service  he 
displayed  great  fidelity  as  well  as  aptitude  for 
business,  and  was  manumitted  as  a  reward.  He 
afterward  set  up  a  banking  concern  on  his  own 
account,  by  which,  together  with  a  shield  man- 
ufactory, he  greatly  enriched  himself,  while  he 
continued  all  along  to  preserve  his  old  character 
for  integrity,  and  his  credit  stood  high  through- 
out Greece.  He  did  not,  however,  escape  an 
accusation  of  fraudulently  keeping  back  some 
money  which  had  been  intrusted  to  him  by  a 
^foreigner  from  the  Euxine.  The  plaintiff's  case 
is  stated  in  an  oration  of  Isoerates  (rpaTre  fm«6f ), 
still  extant.  Pasion  did  good  service  to  Athens 
with  his  money  on  several  occasions.  He  was 
rewarded  with  the  freedom  of  the  city,  and  was 
enrolled  in  the  demus  of  Acharnae.  He  died  at 
Athens  in  B.C.  370,  after  a  lingering  illness, 
accompanied  with  failure  of  sight.  Toward  the 
end  of  his  life  his  affairs  were  administered  to 
a  great  extent  by  his  freedman  Phormion,  to 
whom  he  let  his  banking  shop  and  shield  manu- 
factory, and  settled  in  his  will  that  he  should 
marry  his  widow  Archippe,  with  a  handsome 
dowry,  and  undertake  the  guardianship  of  his 
younger  son  Pasicles.  His  elder  son,  Apollo- 
dorus,  grievously  diminished  his  patrimony  by 
extravagance  and  law-suits. 

PASIPHAE  (Haai^urj),  daughter  of  Helios  (the 
Sun)  and  Perseis,  and  a  sister  of  Circe  and 
/Eetes,  was  the  wife  of  Minos,  by  whom  she 
became  the  mother  of  Androgeos,  Catreus,  Deu- 
calion, Glaucus,  Acalle,  Xenodice,  Ariadne,  and 
Phaedra.  Hence  Phaedra  is  called  Pasipha&ia 
(Ov.,  Met.,  xv.,  500).  Respecting  the  passion 
of  PasiphaS  for  the  beautiful  bull,  and  the  birth 
of  the  Minotaurus,  vid.  p.  517,  b. 

PASITELES  (llaair&rjf).  1.  A  statuary,  who 
flourished  about  B  C.  468,  and  was  the  teacher 
of  Colotes,  the  contemporary  of  Phidias. — 2.  A 
statuary,  sculptor,  and  silver-chaser,  of  the  high- 
est distinction,  was  a  native  of  Magna  Grsecia, 
and  obtained  the  Roman  franchise  with  his 
countrymen  in  B.C.  90.  He  flourished  at  Rome 
from  about  60  to  30.»  Pasiteles  also  wrote  a 
treatise  in  five  books  upon  celebrated  works  of 
sculpture  and  chasing. 

PASITHEA  (IIa<Tt0ea).  1.  One  of  the  Charites, 
or  Graces,  also  called  Aglaia.— 2.  One  of  the 
Nereids. 

PASITIORIS  (Ilaomypvc  or  Tlaaln-yptf :  now 
probably  [Skat-el- Arab]),  a  considerable  river  of 
Asia,  rising  in  the  mountains  east  of  Mesoba- 
tene,  on  the  confines  of  Media  and  Persia,  and 
flowing  first  west  by  north  to  Mount  Zagros 
or  Parachoathras,  then,  breaking  through  this 
chain,  it  turns  to  the  south,  and  flows  through 
rfusiana  into  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  after 
receiving  the  Eulceus  on  its  western  side.  Some 
geographers  make  the  Pasitigris  a  tributary  of 
the  Tigris 


PATERCULUS,  C.  VELLEIUS. 

PASSARON  (Haaaupuv :  near  Dhramisius,  south- 
west of  Joannina),  a  town  of  Epirus  in  Molos- 
sia,  and  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Molossian 
kings.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans,  to- 
gether with  seventy  other  towns  of  Epirus,  after 
the  conquest  of  Macedonia,  B.C.  168. 

PASSIENUS  CRISPUS.      Vid.  CRISPCS. 

PASSIENUS  PAULUS.      Vid.  PAULUS. 

[PASSIENUS  RCFUS.     Vid.  RUFUS.] 

PAT^ECI  (  HuraiKoi ),  Phoenician  divinities, 
whose  dwarfish  figures  were  attached  to  Phoe- 
nician ships. 

PATALA,  PATALENE.  Vid.  PATTALA,  PATTA- 
LENE. 

PATARA  (-u  Tldrapa  :  Harapevf:  ruins  at  Pa- 
tara),  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Lycia,  was  a 
flourishing  sea-port,  on  a  promontory  of  the 
same  name  (17  Tlardpuv  uxpa),  sixty  stadia  (six 
geographical  miles)  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Xanthus.  It  was  early  colonized  by  Dorians 
from  Crete,  and  became  a  chief  seat  of  the 
worship  of  Apollo,  who  had  here  a  very  cele- 
brated oracle,  which  uttered  responses  in  the 
winter  only,  and  from  whose  son  Patarus  the 
name  of  the  city  was  mythically  derived.  It 
was  restored  and  enlarged  by  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,  who  calleM  it  Arsinofi,  but  it  remained 
better  known  by  its  old  name. 

[PATARBEMIS  (IlarapGrifiif),  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal officers  of  Apries,  king  of  Egypt,  having 
been  sent  to  arrest  and  bring  to  him  Amasis, 
but  having  failed  in  so  doing,  was  shamefully 
mutilated  by  the  king ;  this  conduct  caused  a 
revolt  of  the  Egyptians.] 

PATAVIUM  (Patavlnus  :  now  Padova  or  Padua), 
an  ancient  town  of  the  Veneti  in  the  north  of 
Italy,  on  the  Medoacus  Minor,  and  on  the  road 
from  Mutina  to  Altinum,  was  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Trojan  Antenor.  It  became  a 
flourishing  and  important  town  in  early  times, 
and  was  powerful  enough  in  B.C.  302  to  drive 
back  the  Spartan  king  Cleomenes  with  great 
loss  when  he  attempted  to  plunder  the  surround- 
ing country.  Under  the  Romans  Patavium  was 
the  most  important  city  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
and,  by  its  commerce  and  manufactures  (of 
which  its  woollen  stuffs  were  the  most  cele- 
brated), it  attained  great  opulence.  According 
to  Strabo,  it  possessed  five  hundred  citizens, 
whose  fortune  entitled  them  to  the  equestrian 
rank.  It  was  plundered  by  Attila ;  and,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  revolt  of  its  citizens,  it  was  sub- 
sequently destroyed  by  Agilolf,  king  of  the  Lan- 
gobards,  and  razed  to  the  ground  ;  hence  the 
modern  town  contains  few  remains  of  antiquity. 
Patavium  is  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  the 
historian  Livy.  In  its  neighborhood  were  the 
Aqua  Patavintr,  also  called  Aponi  Fans,  respect- 
ing which,  vid.  p.  78,  b. 

PATERCOLUS,  C.  VELLEIUS,  a  Roman  historian, 
was  probably  born  about  B.C.  19,  and  was  de- 
scended from  a  distinguished  Campanian  fam- 
ily. He  adopted  the  profession  of  arms  ;  and, 
soon  after  he  had  entered  the  army,  he  accom- 
panied C.  Caesar  in  his  expedition  to  the  East, 
and  was  present  with  the  latter  at  his  interview 
with  the  Parthian  king  in  A.D.  2.  Two  years  aft- 
erward, A.D.  4,  he  served  underTiberius  in  Ger- 
many, succeeding  his  father  in  the  rank  of  prse- 
fectus  equitutn,  having  previously  filled  in  suc- 
cessior  ••  :ffice»  ''tribune  of  the  soldiers  and 

611 


PATERNUS,  TARRUNTENUS. 

tribune  of  the  camp.  For  the  next  eight  years 
Paterculus  served  under  Tiberius,  either  as  prae- 
fectus  or  legatus,  in  the  various  campaigns  of 
the  latter  in  Germany,  Pannonia,  and  Dalmatia, 
and,  by  his  activity  and  ability,  gained  the  favor  ! 
of  the  future  emperor.  He  was  quaestor  A.D. 
7,  but  he  continued  to  serve  as  legatus  under 
Tiberius.  He  accompanied  his  commander  on 
his  return  to  Rome  in  12,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  triumphal  procession  of  Tiberius, 
along  with  his  brother  Magius  Celer.  The  two 
brothers  were  praetors  in  15.  Paterculus  was 
alive  in  30,  as  he  drew  up  his  history  in  that 
year  for  the  use  of  M.  Vinicius,  who  was  then 
consul ;  and  it  is  conjectured,  with  much  prob- 
ability, that  he  perished  in  the  following  year 
(31),  along  with  the  other  friends  of  Sejanus. 
The  favorable  manner  in  which  he  had  so  re- 
cently spoken  in  his  history  of  this  powerful 
minister  would  be  sufficient  to  insure  his  con- 
demnation on  the  fall  of  the  latter.  The  work 
of  Paterculus,  which  has  come  down  to  us,  is  a 
brief  historical  compendium  in  two  books,  and 
bears  the  title  C.  Velleii  Paterculi  Historic,  Ro- 
mano, ad  M.  Vinicium  Cos.  Libri  II.  The  begin- 
ning of  the  work  is  wanting,  and  there  is  also  a 
portion  lost  after  the  eighth  chapter  of  the  first 
book.  The  object  of  this  compendium  was  to 
give  a  brief  view  of  universal  history,  but  more 
especially  of  the  events  connected  with  Rome, 
the  history  of  which  occupies  the  main  portion 
of  the  book.  It  commenced  apparently  with  the 
destruction  of  Troy,  and  ended  with  the  year 
30.  In  the  execution  of  his  work,  Velleius  has 
shown  great  skill  and  judgment.  He  does  not 
attempt  to  give  a  consecutive  account  of  all  the 
events  of  history ;  he  seizes  upon  a  few  only 
of  the  more  prominent  facts,  which  he  describes 
at  sufficient  length  to  leave  them  impressed 
upon  the  recollection  of  his  hearers.  His  style, 
which  is  a  close  imitation  of  Sallust's,  is  char- 
acterized by  clearness,  conciseness,  and  en- 
ergy. In  his  estimate  of  the  characters  of  the 
leading  actors  in  Roman  history,  he  generally 
exhibits  both  discrimination  and  judgment;  but 
he  lavishes  the  most  indiscriminate  praises,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  upon  his  patron 
Tiberius.  Only  one  manuscript  of  Paterculus 
has  come  down  to  us ;  and  as  this  manuscript 
abounds  with  errors,  the  text  is  in  a  very  cor- 
rupt state.  The  best  editions  are  by  Ruhn- 
Ken,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1789 ;  by  Orelli,  Lips.,  1835;  by 
Bothe.Turici,  1837;  [and  byKritz,  Lips.,  1840.] 

PATERNUS,  TARRUNTENUS,  a  jurist,  is  probably 
the  same  person  who  was  praefectus  praetorio 
under  Commodus,  and  was  put  to  death  by  the 
emperor  on  a  charge  of  treason.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  work  in  four  books,  entitled  De  Re 
Militari  or  Militarium,  from  which  there  are  two 
excerpts  in  the  Digest. 

PATMOS  (Uurfiof  :  now  Patmo),  one  of  the  isl- 
ands called  Sporades,  in  the  Icarian  Sea,  at 
about  equal  distances  south  ofSamos  and  west 
of  the  Promontorium  Posidium  on  the  coast  of 
Caria,  celebrated  as  the  place  to  which  the 
Apostle  John  was  banished,  and  in  which  he 
wrote  the  Apocalypse.  The  natives  still  affect 
to  show  the  cave  where  St.  John  saw  the  apoc- 
alyptic visions  (TO  on^aiov  rij(  anoKahvipeus). 
On  the  eastern  side  of  the  island  was  a  city  with 
a  harbor. 

613 


PATROCLUS. 


(Uilrpai,  Ilarpe'ff,  Herod.  :  Harpevr, 
now  Patras),  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Achaia, 
was  situated  west  of  Rhium,  near  the  opening 
of  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  called  Aroe  ('Apd??),  and  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  autochthon  Eumelus  ;  and  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  lonians,  to  have  been  taken 
possession  of  by  Patreus,  from  whom  it  derived 
its  name.  The  town  is  rarely  mentioned  in 
early  Greek  history,  and  was  chiefly  of  import- 
ance as  the  place  from  which  the  Peloponnesians 
directed  their  attacks  against  the  opposite  coast 
of^Etolia.  Patrae  was  one  of  the  four  towns 
which  took  the  leading  part  in  founding  the  sec- 
ond Achaean  league.  ,  In  consequence  of  assist- 
ing the  JCtolians  against  the  Gauls  in  B.C.  279, 
Patrae  became  so  weakened  that  most  of  the  in- 
habitants deserted  the  town  and  took  up  their 
abodes  in  the  neighboring  villages.  Under  the 
Romans  it  continued  to  be  an  insignificant  place 
till  the  time  of  Augustus,  who  rebuilt  the  town 
after  the  battle  of  Actium,  again  collected  its 
inhabitants,  and  added  to  them  those  of  Rhypae. 
Augustus  further  gave  Patrae  dominion  over  the 
neighboring  towns,  and  even  over  Locris,  and 
also  bestowed  upon  it  the  privileges  of  a  Roman 
colony  :  hence  we  find  it  called  on  coins  Colonia 
Augusta  Aroe  Patrensis.  Strabo  describes  Pa- 
trae in  his  time  as  a  flourishing  and  populous 
town,  with  a  good  harbor,  and  it  was  frequently 
the  place  at  which  persons  landed  sailing  from 
Italy  to  Greece.  The  modern  Patras  is  still  an 
important  place,  but  contains  few  remains  of 
antiquity. 

PATROCLES  (Harpo/cA^f),  a  Macedonian  gen- 
eral in  the  service  of  Seleucus  I.  and  Antiochus 
I.,  kings  of  Syria.  Patrocles  held,  both  undei 
Seleucus  and  Antiochus,  an  important  govern- 
ment over  some  of  the  eastern  provinces  of  the 
Syrian  empire.  During  the  period  of  his  hold 
ing  this  position,  he  collected  accurate  geo- 
graphical information,  which  he  afterward  pub- 
lished to  the  world  ;  but,  though  he  is  frequently 
cited  by  Strabo,  who  placed  the  utmost  reliance 
on  his  accuracy,  neither  the  title  nor  exact  sub- 
ject of  his  work  is  mentioned.  It  seems  clear, 
however,  that  it  included  a  general  account  of 
India,  as  well  as  of  the  countries  on  the  banks 
of  the  Oxus  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  Patrocles 
regarded  the  Caspian  Sea  as  a  gulf  or  inlet  of 
the  ocean,  and  maintained  the  possibility  of  sail- 
ing thither  by  sea  from  the  Indian  Ocean. 

PATROCLI  INSULA  (HarpoK^ov  vrjaoi;  :  now  Ga- 
daronesi  or  Gaidronisi),  a  small  island  off  the 
southwestern  coast  of  Attfca,  near  Sunium. 

PATROCLUS  (ndTpoKAoforllrtTpoKAjyf),  the  cele- 
brated friend  of  Achilles,  was  son  of  Menoatius 
of  Opus,  and  grandson  of  Actor  and  Jigina, 
whence  he  is  called  Adoridcs.  His  mother  is 
commonly  called  Sthenele,  but  some  mention 
her  under  the  name  of  Periapis  or  Polymele. 
^Eacus,  the  grandfather  of  Achilles,  was  a  broth- 
er of  Mencetius,  so  that  Achilles  and  Patroclus 
were  kinsmen  as  well  as  friends.  While  still  a 
boy,  Patroclus  involuntarily  slew  Clysonymus, 
son  of  Amphidamas.  In  consequence  of  this 
accident,  he  was  taken  by  his  father  to  Peleus 
at  Phthia,  where  he  was  educated  together  with 
Achilles.  He  is  said  to  have  taken  part  in  the 
expedition  against  Troy  on  account  of  his  at- 
tachment to  Achilles.  He  fought  bravely  against 


PATRON. 

the  Trojans,  until  his  friend  withdrew  from  the 
scene  of  action,  when  Patroclus  followed  his 
example.  But  when  the  Greeks  were  hard 
pressed,  he  begged  Achilles  to  allow  him  to  put  | 
on  his  armor,  and  with  his  men  to  hasten  to  the 
assistance  of  the  Greeks.  Achilles  granted  the 
request,  and  Patroclus  succeeded  in  driving  back  i 
the  Trojans  and  extinguishing  the  fire  which  | 
was  raging  among  the  ships.  He  slew  many  j 
enemies,  and  thrice  made  an  assault  upon  the 
walls  of  Troy  ;  but  on  a  sudden  he  was  struck 
by  Apollo,  and  became  senseless.  In  this  state 
Euphorbus  ran  him  through  with  his  lance  from 
behind,  and  Hector  gave  him  the  last  and  fatal 
blow.  Hector  also  took  possession  of  his  armor. 
A  long  struggle  now  ensued  between  the  Greeks 
and  Trojans  for  the  body  of  Patroclus  ;  but  the 
former  obtained  possession  of  it,  and  brought  it 
to  Achil'  :s,  who  was  deeply  grieved,  and  vowed 
to  avenge  the  death  of  his  friend.  Thetis  pro- 
tected the  body  with  ambrosia  against  decom- 
position, until  Achilles  had  leisure  solemnly  to 
burn  it  with  funeral  sacrifices.  His  ashes  were 
collected  in  a  golden  urn  which  Bacchus  (Dio- 
oysus)  had  once  given  to  Thetis,  and  were  de- 
posited under  a  mound,  where  the  remains  of 
Achilles  were  subsequently  buried.  Funeral 
games  were  celebrated  in  his  honor.  Achilles 
and  Patroclus  met  again  in  the  lower  world ;  or, 
according  to  others,  they  continued  after  their 
death  to  live  together  in  the  island  of  Leuce. 

[PATRON,  an  Arcadian,  mentioned  by  Virgil  as 
one  of  those  engaged  in  the  games  celebrated 
by  ^Eneas  in  Sicily  in  honor  of  his  father.] 

PATRON.  [I.  A  native  of  Phocis,  commander 
of  the  Greek  mercenaries  who  accompanied 
Darius  after  the  battle  of  Gaugamela.  When 
Bessus  and  his  accomplices  were  conspiring 
against  Darius,  Patron  with  his  Greeks  remain- 
ed faithful  to  him.] — 2.  An  Epicurean  philoso- 
pher, lived  for  some  time  in  Rome,  where  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  Cicero  and  others.  From 
Rome  he  removed  to  Athens,  and  there  succeed- 
ed Phaedrus  as  president  of  the  Epicurean  school, 
B-C.  52. 

PATTALA.     Vid.  PATTALENE. 

PATTALENE  or  PATALENE  (narraAj/vj?,  Ilara- 
XUM?  :  now  Lower  Scinde),  the  name  of  the  great 
delta  formed  by  the  two  principal  arms  by  which 
the  Indus  falls  into  the  sea.  At  the  apex  of  the 
delta  stood  the  city  PATTALA  or  PATALA  (now 
probably  Hyderaliad).  The  name  is  probably  a 
native  Indian  word,  namely,  the  Sanscrit  patdla, 
which  means  the  western  country,  and  is  applied 
to  the  western  part  of  Northern  India  about  the 
Indus,  in  contradistinction  to  the  eastern  part 
about  the  Ganges. 

PATULCIUS,  a  surname  of  Janus.     Vid.  JANUS. 

PATUMCS  (Tlurovuof :  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Pithom  :  probably  near  Habaseyk  or  Belbels),  an 
Egyptian  city  in  the  Arabian  Desert,  on  the  east- 
ern margin  of  the  Delta,  near  Bubastis,  and  near 
the  commencement  of  Necho's  Canal  from  the 
Nile  to  the  Red  Sea ;  built  by  the  Israelites  dur- 
ing their  captivity  (Exod.,  i.,  11). 

PAUL!NA  or  PAULLINA.  1.  LOLLIA.  Vid.  LOL- 
LIA.--2.  POMPEIA,  wife  of  Seneca  the  philoso- 
pher, and  probably  the  daughter  of  Pompeius 
Paulinus,  who  commanded  in  Germany  in  the 
reign  of  Nero.  When  her  husband  was  con- 
demned to  death,  she  opened  her  veins  along 


PAULUS. 

with  him.  After  the  blood  had  flowed  some 
time,  Nero  commanded  her  veins  to  be  bound 
up  ;  she  lived  a  few  years  longer,  "but  with  a 
paleness  which  testified  how  near  she  had  been 
to  death. 

PAULINUS.  1.  POMPEIUS,  commanded  in  Ger- 
many along  with  L.  Antistius  VeUis  in  A.D.  58, 
and  completed  the  dam  to  restrain  the  inunda- 
tion of  the  Rhine,  which  Drusushad  commenced 
sixty-three  years  before.  Seneca  dedicated  to 
him  his  treatise  De  Brevitatc  Vita ;  and  the  Pom- 
peia  Paulina,  whom  the  philosopher  married, 
was  probably  the  daughter  of  this  Paulinus. — 
2.  SUETONIUS,  propraetor  in  Mauretania,  in  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  A.D.  42,  when 
he  conquered  the  Moors  who  had  revolted,  and 
advanced  as  far  as  Mount  Atlas.  He  had  the 
command  of  Britain  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  from 
59  to  62.  For  the  first  two  years  all  his  under- 
takings were  successful ;  but  during  his  absence 
on  an  expedition  against  the  island  of  Mona 
(now  Anglesey),  the  Britons  rose  in  rebellion 
under  Boadicea  (61).  They  at  first  met  with 
great  success,  but  were  conquered  by  Suetonius 
on  his  return  from  Mona.  Vid.  BOADICEA.  In 
66  he  was  consul ;  and,  after  the  death  of  Nero 
in  68,  he  was  one  of  Otho's  generals  in  the  war 
against  Vitellius.  It  was  against  his  a,dvice  that 
Otho  fought  the  battle  at  Bedriacum.  He  was 
pardoned  by  Vitellius  after  Otho's  death. — 3.  Of 
Milan  (Mediolancnsis),  was  the  secretary  of  St. 
Ambrose,  after  whose  death  he  became  a  dea- 
con, and  repaired  to  Africa,  where,  at  the  re- 
quest of  St.  Augustine,  he  composed  a  biogra- 
phy of  his  former  patron.  This  biography,  and 
two  other  small  works  by  Paulinus,  are  still  ex- 
tant.— 4.  MEROPIUS  PONTIUS  ANICIUS  PAULINUS, 
bishop  of  Nola,  and  hence  generally  designated 
Paulinus  Nolanus,  was  born  at  Bourdeaux,  or  at 
a  neighboring  town,  which  he  calls  Embroma- 
gum,  about  A.D.  353.  His  parents  were  wealthy 
and  illustrious,  and  he  received  a  careful  educa- 
tion, enjoying  in  particular  the  instructions  of 
the  poet  Ausonius.  After  many  years  spent  in 
worldly  honors,  he  withdrew  from  the  world,  and 
was  eventually  chosen  bishop  of  Nola  in  409. 
He  died  in  431.  The  works  of  Paulinus  are 
still  extant,  and  consist  ofEpistolce  (fifty-one  in 
number),  Carmina  (thirty-two  in  number,  com- 
posed in  a  great  variety  of  metres),  and  a  short 
tract  entitled  PassioS.  GenesiiArclatensis.  Ed- 
ited by  Le  Brun,  4to,  Paris,  1685,  reprinted  at 
Veron.,  1736. 

PAULLUS  or  PAULUS,  a  Roman  cognomen  in 
many  gentes,  but  best  known  as  the  name  of  a 
family  of  the  ^Emilia  gens.  The  name  was 
originally  written  with  a  double  /,  but  subse- 
quently with  only  one  /. 

PAULUS (IlaiiAof), Greek wiiters.  I.^EOINETA, 
a  celebrated  medical  writer,  of  whose  personal 
history  nothing  is  known  except  that  he  was 
born  in  ^Bgina,  and  that  he  travelled  a  good 
deal,  visiting,  among  other  places,  Alexandrca. 
He  probably  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sev- 
enth century  after  Christ.  He  wrote  several 
medical  works  in  Greek,  of  which  the  principal 
one  is  still  extant,  with  no  exact  title,  but  com- 
monly called  De  Re  Medica  Libri  Seplem.  This 
work  is  chiefly  a  compilation  from  former  writ- 
ers.  The  Greek  text  has  been  twice  published, 
Venet.,  1528,  and  Basil.,  1538.  There  is  an  ex- 

613 


PAULUS,  .«MILIUS. 

eeilent  English  translation  by  Adams,  London, 
1834,  scy. — 2.  Of  ALEXANDREA,  wrote,  in  A.D. 
378,  an  Introduction  to  Astrology  (Etfayuyj?  elf 
TJJV  (i7roTf/.fff/xar(«7»,  which  has  come  down  to 
us,  edited  by  Schatus  or  Schato,  Wittenberg, 
1586 — 3.  Of  SAMOSATA,  a  celebrated  heresiarch 
of  the  third  century,  was  made  bishop  of  Anti- 
ocli  about  A.D.  260.  He  was  condemned  and 
deposed  by  a  council  held  in  269.  Paulus  de- 
nied the  distinct  personality  of  the  Son  of  God, 
and  maintained  that  the  Word  came  and  dwelt 
in  the  man  Jesus. — 4.  SILENTIARIUS,  so  called, 
because  he  was  chief  of  the  silentiarii,  or  secre- 
taries of  the  Emperor  Justinian.  He  wrote  va- 
rious poems,  of  which  the  following  are  extant: 
(1.)  A  Description  of  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia 
('Ex<j>paoi£  TOV  vaov  rijf  ayiaf  2o0iaf),  consist- 
ing of  one  thousand  and  twenty-nine  verses,  of 
which  the  first  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  are 
iambic,  the  rest  hexameter.  This  poem  gives 
a  clear  and  graphic  description  of  the  superb 
structure  which  forms  its  subject,  and  v;as  re- 
cited by  its  author  at  the  second  dedication  of 
the  church  (A.D.  562),  after  the  restoration  of 
the  dome,  which  had  fallen  in.  Edited  by  Graefe, 
Lips.,  1822,  and  by  Bekker,  Bonn,  1837,  in  the 
Bonn  edition  of  the  Byzantine  historians.  (2.)  A 
Description  of  the  Pulpit  ("Ex^pauif  roy  ufiduvof), 
consisting  of  three  hundred  and  four  verses,  is  a 
supplement  to  the  former  poem.  It  is  printed 
in  the  editions  mentioned  above.  (3.)  Epigrams, 
eighty-three  in  all,  given  in  the  Anthologia. 
Among  these  is  a  poem  On  the  Pythian  Baths, 
(Etf  TU  kv  Hv6i.oif  depfia). 

PAULUS,  ^EMILIUS.  1.  M.,  consul  B.C.  302, 
and  magister  equitum  to  the  dictator  Q.  Fabius 
Maximus  Rullianus,  301.  —  2.  M.,  consul  255 
with  Ser.  Fulvius  Paetinus  Nobilior,  about  the 
middle  of  the  first  Punic  war.  Via.  NOBILIOR, 
No.  1. — 3.  L.,  son  of  No.  2,  consul  219,  when 
he  conquered  Demetrius  off  the  island  of  Pharos 
in  the  Adriatic,  and  compelled  him  to  fly  for 
refuge  to  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia.  He  was 
consul  a  second  time  in  216  with  C.  Terentius 
Varro.  This  was  the  year  of  the  memorable 
defeat  at  Cannae.  Vid.  HANNIBAL.  The  battle 
was  fought  against  the  advice  of  Paulus  ;  and 
he  was  one  of  the  many  distinguished  Romans 
who  perished  in  the  engagement,  refusing  to 
fly  from  the  field  when  a  tribune  of  the  soldiers 
offered  him  his  horse.  Hence  we  find  in  Hor- 
ace (Carm.,  i.,  12),  "  animaeque  magnse  prodi- 
gum  Paulum,  superante  Poeno."  Paulus  was  a 
stanch  adherent  of  the  aristocracy,  and  was 
raised  to  the  consulship  by  the  latter  party  to 
counterbalance  the  influence  of  the  plebeian 
Terentius  Varro.-— 4.  L.,  afterward  surnamed 
MACEDONICUS,  son  of  No.  3,  was  born  about  230 
or  229,  since  at  the  time  of  his  second  consul- 
ship, 168,  he  was  upward  of  sixty  years  of  age 
He  was  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  the  high 
Roman  nobles.  He  would  not  condescend  to 
flatter  the  people  for  the  offices  of  the  state, 
maintained  with  strictness  severe  discipline  in 
the  army,  was  deeply  skilled  in  the  law  of  the 
augurs,  to  whose  college  he  belonged,  and 
maintained  throughout  life  a  pure  and  unspot- 
ted character.  He  was  elected  curule  aedile 
192 ;  was  proetor  191,  and  obtained  Further 
Spain  as  his  province,  where  he  carried  on  war 
with  the  Lusitani ;  and  was  consul  181,  when 
614 


PAULUS,  JULIUS. 

he  conquered  the  IngHUni,  a  Ligurian  people. 
For  the  next  thirteen  years  he  lived  quietly  at 
Rome,  devoting  most  of  his  time  to  the  educa- 
tion of  his  children.     He  was  consul  a  second  ' 
time  in  168,  and  brought  the  war  against  Per- 
seus to  a  conclusion  by  the  defeat  of  the  Mace- 
donian monarch,  near  Pydna,  on  the  22d  of 
June.     Perseus  shortly  afterward  surrendered 
himself  to  Paulus.     Vid.  PERSEUS.     Paulua  re- 
mained in  Macedonia  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  following  year  as  proconsul,  and  arranged 
the  affairs  of  Macedonia,  in  conjunction  with 
ten  Roman  commissioners,  whom  the  senate 
had  dispatched  for  the  purpose.     Before  leav- 
ing Greece  he  marched  into  Epirus,  where,  in 
accordance  with  a  cruel  command  of  the  senate, 
he  gave  to  his  soldiers  seventy  towns  to  be  pil- 
laged because  they  had  been  in  alliance  with 
Perseus.     The  triumph  of  Paulus,  which  was 
celebrated  at  the  end  of  November,  167,  was 
the  most  splendid  that  Rome  had  yet  seen.    It 
lasted  three  days.    Before  the  triumphal  car  of 
yEmilius  walked  the  captive  monarch  of  Mace- 
donia and  his  children,  and  behind  it  were  his 
two  illustrious  sons,  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  and 
P.  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger,  both  of  whom 
had  been  adopted  into  other  families.     But  the 
glory  of  the  conqueror  was  clouded  by  family 
misfortune.     At  this  very  time  he  lost  his  two 
younger  sons  ;  one,  twelve  years  of  age,  died 
only  five  days  before  his  triumph,  and  the  other, 
fourteen  years  of  age,  only  three  days  after  his 
triumph.     The  loss  was  all  the  severer,  since 
he  had  no  son  left  to  carry  his  name  down  to 
posterity.     In  164  Paulus  was  censor  with  Q. 
Marcius  Philippus,  and  died  in  160,  after  a  long 
and  tedious  illness.     The  fortune  he  left  behind 
him  was  so  small  as  scarcely  to  be  sufficient  to 
pay  his  wife's  dowry.    The  Adelphi  of  Terence 
was  brought  out  at  the  funeral  games  exhibited 
in  his  honor.     ^Emilius  Paulus  was  married 
twice.     By  his  first  wife,  Papiria,  the  daughter 
of  C.  Papirius  Maso,  consul  231,  he  had  four 
children,  two  sons,  one  of  whom  was  adopted 
by  Fabius  Maximus  and  the  other  by  P.  Scipio, 
and  two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was  married 
to  Q.  ^Elius  Tubero,  and  the  other  to  M.  Oato, 
son  of  Cato  the  censor.    He  afterward  divorced 
Papiria ;  and  by  his  second  wife,  whose  name 
is  not  mentioned,  he  had  two  sons,  whose  death 
has  been  mentioned  above,  and  a  daughter,  who 
was  a  child  at  the  time  that  her  father  was 
elected  to  his  second  consulship. 

PAULUS,  JULIUS,  one  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed of  the  Roman  jurists,  has  been  supposed, 
without  any  good  reason,  to  be  of  Greek  origin. 
He  was  in  the  auditorium  of  Papinian,  and, 
consequently,  was  acting  as  a  jurist  in  the  reign 
of  Septimius  Severus.  He  was  exiled  by  Ela- 
gabalus,  but  he  was  recalled  by  Alexander  Se- 
verus when  the  latter  became  emperor,  and 
was  made  a  member  of  his  consilium.  Paulus 
also  held  the  office  of  prsefectus  prsetorio :  he 
survived  his  contemporary  Ulpian.  Paulus  was 
perhaps  the  most  fertile  of  all  the  Roman  law 
writers,  and  there  is  more  excerpted  from  him 
in  the  Digest  4han  from  any  other  jurist  ex- 
cept Ulpian.  Upward  of  seventy  separate  works 
by  Paulus  are  quoted  in  the  Digest.  Of  these, 
his  greatest  work  was  Ad  Edictum,  in  eigbtj 
books. 


PAULUS,  PASSIENUS. 

'  PAULUS,  PASSIENUS,  a  contemporary  and  friend 
of  the  younger  Pliny,  was  a  distinguished  Ro- 
man eques,  and  was  celebrated  for  his  elegiac 
and  lyric  poems.  He  belonged  to  the  same 
municipium  (Mevania  in  Umbria)  as  Propertius, 
whom  he  numbered  among  his  ancestors. 

PAUSANIAS  (Ilavaaviaf).  1.  A  Spartan  of  the 
Agid  branch  of  the  royal  family,  the  son  of  Cle- 
ombrotus  and  nephew  of  Leonidas.  Several 
writers  incorrectly  call  him  king  ;  but  he  only 
succeeded  his  father  Cleombrotus  in  the  guard- 
ianship of  his  cousin  Plistarchus,  the  son  of 
Leonidas,  for  whom  he  exercised  the  functions 
of  royalty  from  B.C.  479  to  the  period  of  his 
death.  In  479,  when  the  Athenians  called  upon 
the  Lacedaemonians  for  aid  against  the  Persians, 
the  Spartans  sent  a  body  of  five  thousand  Spar- 
tans, each  attended  by  seven  Helots,  under  the 
command  of  Pausanias.  At  the  Isthmus  Pau- 
sanias  was  joined  by  the  other  Peloponnesian 
allies,  and  at  Eleusis  by  the  Athenians,  and 
forthwith  took  the  command  of  the  combined 
forces,  the  other  Greek  generals  forming  a  sort 
of  council  of  war.  The  allied  forces  amounted 
to  nearly  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand  men. 
Near  Plataeae  in  Bceotia,  Pausanias  defeated  the 
Persian  army  under  the  command  of  Mardonius. 
This  decisive  victory  secured  the  independence 
of  Greece.  Pausanias  received  as  his  reward 
a  tenth  of  the  Persian  spoils.  In  477  the  con- 
federate Greeks  sent  out  a  fleet,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Pausanias,  to  follow  up  their  success 
by  driving  the  Persians  completely  out  of  Eu- 
rope and  the  islands.  Cyprus  was  first  attack- 
ed, and  the  greater  part  of  it  subdued.  From 
Cyprus  Pausanias  sailed  to  Byzantium,  and  cap- 
tured the  city.  The  capture  of  this  city  afford- 
ed Pausanias  an  opportunity  for  commencing 
the  execution  of  the  design  which  he  had  ap- 
parently formed  even  before  leaving  Greece. 
Dazzled  by  his  success  and  reputation,  his  sta- 
tion as  a  Spartan  citizen  had  become  too  re- 
stricted for  his  ambition.  His  position  as  re- 
gent was  one  which  must  terminate  when  the 
king  became  of  age.  He  therefore  aimed  at 
becoming  tyrant  over  the  whole  of  Greece,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  Persian  king.  Among  the 
prisoners  taken  at  Byzantium  were  some  Per- 
sians connected  with  the  royal  family.  These 
he  sent  to  the  king,  with  a  letter,  in  which  he 
offered  to  bring  Sparta  and  the  rest  of  Greece 
under  his  power,  and  proposed  to  marry  his 
daughter.  His  offers  were  gladly  accepted,  and 
whatever  amount  of  troops  and  money  he  re- 
quired for  accomplishing  his  designs.  Pausa- 
nias now  set  no  bounds  to  his  arrogant  and  dom- 
ineering temper.  The  allies  were  so  disgusted 
by  his  conduct,  that  they  all,  except  the  Pelo- 
ponnesians  and  ^Eginetans,  voluntarily  offered 
to  transfer  to  the  Athenians  that  pre-eminence 
of  rank  which  Sparta  had  hitherto  enjoyed.  In 
thib  way  the  Athenian  confederacy  first  took  its 
rise.  Reports  of  the  conduct  and  designs  of 
Pausanias  reached  Sparta,  and  he  was  recalled 
and  put  upon  his  trial ;  but  the  evidence  re- 
specting his  meditated  treachery  was  not  yet 
thought  sufficiently  strong.  Shortly  afterward 
he  returned  to  Byzantium,  without  the  orders 
of  the  ephors,  and  renewed  his  treasonable  in- 
trigues.  He  was  again  recalled  to  Sparta,  was 
again  put  on  his  trial,  and  again  acquitted.  But 


PAUSANIAS. 

even  after  this  second  escape  he  still  continued 
to  carry  on  his  intrigues  with  Persia.  At  length 
a  man,  who  was  charged  with  a  letter  to  Per- 
sia, having  his  suspicions  awakened  by  notic- 
j  ing  that  none  of  those  sent  previously  on  simi- 
!  lar  errands  had  returned,  counterfeited  the  seal 
of  Pausanias  and  opened  the  letter,  in  which 
he  found  directions  for  his  own  death.  He  car- 
ried the  letter  to  the  ephors,  who  prepared  to 
arrest  Pausanias ;  but  he  took  refuge  in  the 
temple  of  Athena  (Minerva)  Chalcicecus.  The 
ephors  stripped  off  the  roof  of  the  temple  and 
built  up  the  door  ;  the  aged  mother  of  Pausa- 
nias is  said  to  have  been  among  the  first  who 
laid  a  stone  for  this  purpose.  When  he  was 
on  the  point  of  expiring,  the  ephors  took  him 
out  lest  his  death  should  pollute  the  sanctuary. 
He  died  as  soon  as  he  got  outside,  B.C.  470. 
He  left  three  sons  behind  him,  Plistoanax,  aft- 
erward king,  Cleomenes,  and  Aristocles. — 2. 
Son  of  Plistoanax,  and  grandson  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  king  of  Sparta  from  B.C.  408  to  394. 
In  403  he  was  sent  with  an  army  into  Attica, 
and  secretly  favored  the  cause  of  Thrasybulus 
and  the  Athenian  exiles,  in  order  to  counteract 
the  plans  of  Lysander.  In  395  Pausanias  was 
sent  with  an  army  against  the  Thebans  ;  but  in 
consequence  of  the  death  of  Lysander,  who  was 
slain  under  the  walls  of  Haliartus  on  the  day 
before  Pausanias  reached  the  spot,  the  king 
agreed  to  withdraw  his  forces  from  Bceotia. 
On  his  return  to  Sparta  he  was  impeached,  and, 
seeing  that  a  fair  trial  was  not  to  be  hoped  for, 
went  into  voluntary  exile,  and  was  condemned 
to  death.  He  was  living  at  Tegea  in  385,  when 
Mantinea  was  besieged  by  his  son  Agesipolis, 
who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne. — 3.  King  of 
Macedonia,  the  son  and  successor  of  Aeropus. 
He  was  assassinated  in  the  year  of  his  acces- 
sion by  Amyntas  II.,  394. — 4.  A  pretender  to 
the  throne  of  Macedonia,  made  his  appearance 
in  367,  after  Alexander  II.  had  been  assassin- 
ated by  Ptolemaeus.  Eurydice,  the  mother  of 
Alexander,  sent  to  request  the  aid  of  the  Athe- 
nian general  Iphicrates,  who  expelled  Pausanias 
from  the  kingdom. — 5.  A  Macedonian  youth  of 
distinguished  family,  from  the  province  of  Ores- 
tis.  Having  been  shamefully  treated  by  Attalus. 
he  complained  of  the  outrage  to  Philip  ;  but,  as 
Philip  took  no  notice  of  his  complaints,  he  di- 
rected his  vengeance  against  the  king  himself. 
He  shortly  afterward  murdered  Philip  at  the 
festival  held  at  ^Egae,  336,  but  was  slain  on  the 
spot  by  some  officers  of  the  king's  guard.  Sus- 
picion rested  on  Olympias  and  Alexander  of 
having  been  privy  to  the  deed  ;  but  with  regard 
to  Alexander,  at  any  rate,  the  suspicion  is  prob- 
ably totally  unfounded.  There  was  a  story  that 
i  Pausanias,  while  meditating  revenge,  having 
asked  the  sophist  Hermocrates  which  was  the 
i  shortest  way  to  fame,  the  latter  replied  that  it 
j  was  by  killing  the  man  who  had  performed  the 
!  greatest  achievements.  —  6.  The  traveller  and 
;  geographer,  was  perhaps  a  native  of  Lydia.  He 
!  lived  under  Antoninus  Pius  and  M.  Aurelius, 
and  wrote  his  celebrated  work  in  the  reign  of 
'  the  latter  emperor.  This  work,  entitled  'EA 
I  iadof  lltpirryijatf,  a  Pcriegesis  or  Itineiary  oj 
Greece,  is  in  *en  books,  and  contains  a  descrip 
tion  of  Attica  and  Megaris  (i.),  Corinthia,  Sic- 
yonia,  Phliasia,  and  Argolis  (ii.),  Laconica  (iii.), 

61ft 


PAUSIAS. 

Messenia  (iv.),  Elis  (v.,  vi.),  Achaea  (vii.),  Arca- 
dia (viii.).  Bceotia  (ix.),  Phocis  (x.).  The  work 
shows  that  Pausanias  visited  most  of  the  places 
in  these  divisions  of  Greece,  a  fact  which  is 
clearly  demonstrated  by  the  minuteness  and 
particularity  of  his  description.  The  work  is 
merely  an  Itinerary.  Pausanias  gives  no  gen- 
eral description  of  a  country  or  even  of  a  place, 
but  he  describes  the  things  as  he  comes  to  them. 
His  account  is  minute  ;  but  it  mainly  refers  to 
objects  of  antiquity  and  works  of  art,  such  as 
buildings,  temples,  statues,  and  pictures.  He 
also  mentions  mountains,  rivers,  and  fountains, 
and  the  mythological  stories  connected  with 
them,  which,  indeed,  are  his  chief  inducements 
to  speak  of  them.  His  religious  feeling  was 
strong,  and  his  belief  sure,  for  he  tells  many 
old  legends  in  true  good  faith  and  seriousness. 
His  style  has  been  much  condemned  by  mod- 
ern critics  ;  but  if  we  except  some  corrupt  pas- 
sages, and  if  we  allow  that  his  order  of  words 
is  not  that  of  the  best  Greek  writers,  there  is 
hardly  much  obscurity  to  a  person  who  is  com- 
petently acquainted  with  Greek,  except  that 
obscurity  which  sometimes  is  owing  to  the  mat- 
ter. With  the  exception  of  Herodotus,  there 
is  no  writer  of  antiquity,  and  perhaps  none  of 
modern  times,  who  has  comprehended  so  many 
valuable  facts  in  a  small  volume*.  The  best 
editions  are  bySiebelis,  Lips.,  1822-1828,  5  vols. 
8vo ;  by  Schubart  and  Walz,  Lips.,  1838-40,  3 
vols.  8vo  ;  [and  by  L.  Dindorf,  Paris,  1845,  8vo.] 

PAUSIAS  (Havaiaf),  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished Greek  painters,  was  a  contemporary 
of  Aristides,  Melanthius,  and  Apelles  (about 
B.C.  360-330),  and  a  disciple  of  Pamphilus.  He 
had  previously  been  instructed  by  his  father 
Brietes,  who  lived  at  Sicyon,  where  also  Pausias 
passed  his  life.  The  department  of  the  art 
which  Pausias  most  practiced  was  painting  in 
encaustic  with  the  oestrum.  His  favorite  sub- 
jects were  small  panel-pictures,  chiefly  of  boys. 
One  of  his  most  celebrated  pictures  was  the 
portrait  of  Glycera,  a  flower-girl  of  his  native 
city,  of  whom  he  was  enamored  when  a  young 
man.  Most  of  his  paintings  were  probably  trans- 
ported to  Rome,  with  the  other  treasures  of  Sic- 
yonian  art,  in  the  aedileship  of  Scaurus,  when 
the  state  of  Sicyon  was  compelled  to  sell  all 
the  pictures  which  were  public  property  in  order 
to  pay  its  debts. 

[PAUSIC.S:  (Tlavainai),  a  people  of  the  Persian 
empire,  classed  under  the  eleventh  general  di- 
vision, dwelling  between  the  Oxus  and  Jaxar- 
tes.] 

PAUSILYPUM  (TO  HavoiTiVnov),  that  is,  the 
"  grief-assuaging,"  was  the  name  of  a  splendid 
villa  near  Neapolis  in  Campania,  which  Vedius 
Pollio  bequeathed  to  Augustus.  The  name  was 
transferred  to  the  celebrated  grotto  (now  Posi- 
lippo)  between  Naples  and  Puzzuoli,  which  was 
formed  by  a  tunnel  cut  through  the  rock  by  the 
architect  Cocceius,  by  command  of  Agrippa. 
At  its  entrance  the  tomb  of  Virgil  is  still  shown. 

[PAUSIRAS  (Havaipaf)  or  PAUSIRIS  (TLavaipif), 
son  of  Amyrtaeus,  the  rebel  satrap  of  Egypt. 
Vid.  AMYRT^US.  Notwithstanding  his  father's 
revolt,  he  was  appointed  by  the  Persian  king  to 
the  satrapy  of  Egypt.] 

PAUSON  (Uavauv),  a  Greek  painter,  who  ap- 
pears, from  the  description  of  Aristotle  (Poet., 
616 


PEDIUS. 

ii.,  $  2),  to  have  lived' somewhat  earlier  than  tne 
time  of  this  philosopher. 

PAUsuL.fl5(Pausulanus  :  now  Monte  dell"  Olmo), 
a  town  in  the  interior  of  Picenum,  between  Urbs 
Salvia  and  Asculum. 

PAVOR.     Vid.  PALLOR. 

PAX,  the  goddess  of  Peace,  called  IKENE  by  the 
Greeks.  Vid.  IRENE. 

PAX  JULIA  or  PAX  AUGUSTA  (now  Beja),  a  Ro- 
man colony  in  Lusitania,  and  the  seat  of  a  con- 
ventus  juridicus,  north  of  Julia  Myrtilis. 

PAXI  (now  Paxo  and  Antipaxo),  the  name  of 
two  small  islands  offthe  western  coast  of  Greece, 
between  Corcyra  and  Leucas. 

PED^UM  or  PED^EUS  (Urjdatov,  accus.,  Horn. 
//.,  xiii.,  172),  a  town  of  the  Troad. 

[PED^EUS  (Uriftalof),  son  of  Antenor,  slain  by 
Meges  in  the  Trojan  war.] 

PEDALIUM  (t\T)6u?i.iov).  1.  (Now  Cape  Ghinazi), 
a  promontory  of  Caria,  on  the  western  side  6f 
the  Sinus  Glaucus,  called  also  Artemisium,  from 
a  temple  of  Artemis  upon  it. — 2.  (Now  Capo  delta 
Grega),  a  promontory  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Cyprus. 

[PEDANIUS,  T.  1.  The  first  centurion  of  the 
principes,  was  distinguished  for  his  bravery  in 
the  second  Punic  war,  B.C.  212. — 2.  PEDANIUS 
SECUNDUS,  praefectus  urbi  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
was  killed  by  one  of  his  own  slaves.] 

PEDASA  (tlf/daaa  :  Tlijdaoevf,  plur.  Hijdaaecf, 
Herod.),  a  very  ancient  city  of  Caria,  was  origin- 
ally a  chief  abode  of  the  Leleges.  Alexander 
assigned  it  to  Halicarnassiis.  At  the  time  of 
the  Roman  empire  it  had  entirely  vanished, 
though  its  name  was  preserved  in  that  of  the 
district  around  its  site,  namely,  PEDASIS  (Tirjda- 
aif).  Its  locality  is  only  known  thus  far,  that 
it  must  have  stood  somewhere  in  the  triangle 
formed  by  Miletus,  Halicarnassus,  and  Strato- 
nicea. 

PEDASUS  (IUjdaaof).  1.  A  town  of  Mysia,  on 
the  Satniois,  mentioned  several  times  by  Homer. 
It  was  destroyed  by  the  time  of  Strabo,  who  says 
that  it  was  a  settlement  of  the  Leleges  on  Mount 
Ida. — [2.  A  city  of  Messenia,  mentioned  by  Ho- 
mer, which  subsequent  writers  sought  to  identify 
with  Methone  or  Corone.] 

[PEDASUS  (H^6aaof),  son  of  Bucolion  and  the 
nymph  Abarbarea,  asd  brother  of  ^Esepus,  slain 
by  Euryalus  under  the  walls  of  Troy.] 

PEDIANUS,  ASCONIUS.     Vid.  ASCONIUS. 

[PEDIEA  (Ueditia :  now  probably  the  ruins  at 
j  Palea-Fiva),  a  place  in  Phocis,  near  the  Cephi 
sus,  between  Neon  and  Tritaea.] 

PEDIUS.     1.  Q.,  the  great-nephew  of  the  dic- 
:  tator  C.  Julius  Caesar,  being  the  grandson  of 
I  Julia,  Caesar's  eldest  sister.    He  served  under 
Caesar  in  Gaul  as  his  legatus,  B.C.  57.      In  55 
I  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  curule  aedileship  with 
j  Cn.  Plancius  and  others,  but  he  lost  his  election. 
i  In  the  civil  war  he  fought  on  Caesar's  side.    He 
i  was  praetor  in  48,  and  in  that  year  he  defeated 
i  and  slew  Milo  in  the  neighborhood  of  Thurii. 
In  45  he  served  against  the  Pompeian  party  in 
Spain.     In  Caesar's  will,  Pedius  was  named  one 
of  his  heirs  along  with  his  two  other  great-neph- 
ews, C.  Octavianus  and  L.  Pinarius,  Octavianus 
obtaining  three  fourths  of  the  property,  and  the 
remaining  one  fourth  being  divided  between 
Pinarius  and  Pedius  :  the  latter  resigned  his 
share  of  the  inheritance  to  Octavianus.    After 


PEDNELISSUS. 

the  tall  of  the  consuls  Hirtius  and  Pansa,  at 
the  battle  of  Mutina,  in  April,  43,  Octavianus 
marched  upon  Rome  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
and  in  the  month  of  August  he  was  elected  con- 
sul along  with  Pedius.  The  latter  forthwith  pro- 
posed a  law,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Lex  Pe- 
dia,  by  which  all  the  murderers  of  Julius  Caesar 
were  punished  with  aqua:  et  ignis  interdictio. 
Pedius  was  left  in  charge  of  the  city,  while  Oc- 
tavianus marched  into  the  north  of  Italy.  He 
died  toward  the  end  of  the  year,  shortly  after  the 
news  of  the  proscription  had  reached  Rome. — 
[2.  Q  ,  grandson  of  No.  1,  was  dumb  from  his 
birth.  He  was  instructed  in  painting  by  the  di- 
rection of  his  kinsman  Messala,  with  the  sanc- 
tion of  Augustus,  and  attained  to  considerable 
excellence  in  the  art,  but  died  while  still  a 
youth.] — 3.  SEXTUS,  a  Roman  jurist,  frequently 
cited  by  Paulus  and  Ulpian,  lived  before  the  time 
of  Hadrian. 

PEDNELISSUS  (Uedvtjhtaoof),  a  city  in  the  in- 
terior of  Pisidia,  and  apparently  on  the  Euryme- 
don,  above  Aspendus  and  Selge.  It  formed  an 
independent  state,  but  was  almost  constantly  at 
war  with  Selge.  Mr.  Fellowes  supposes  its  site 
to  be  marked  by  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  period 
near  Bolkas-Koi,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Eu- 
rymedon. 

PEDO  ALBINOVANUS.     Vid.  ALBINOVANUS. 

PEDCC^EUS,  SEX.  1.  Propraetor  in  Sicily,  B.C. 
~?»  and  75,  in  the  latter  of  which  years  Cicero 
served  under  him  as  quaestor. — 2.  Son  of  the 
preceding,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Atticus  and 
Cicero.  In  the  civil  war  Peducaeus  sided  with 
Caesar,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  in  48  to  the 
government  of  Sardinia.  In  39  he  was  proprae- 
tor in  Spain. 

PEDUM  (Pedanus  :  now  Gallicano),  an  ancient 
town  of  Latium,  on  the  Via  Lavicana,  which  fell 
into  decay  at  an  early  period. 

PEG^E.      Vid.  PAG.*:. 

PEGASIS  (Hriyaaif),  i.  e.,  sprung  from  Pegasus, 
was  applied  to  the  fountain  Hippocrene,  which 
was  called  forth  by  the  hoof  of  Pegasus.  The 
Muses  are  also  called  Pegasides,  because  the 
fountain  Hippocrene  was  sacred  to  them. 

PEGASUS  (ilqyaaotf.  1.  The  celebrated  winged 
horse,  whose  origin  is  thus  related  :  When  Per- 
seus struck  off  the  head  of  Medusa,  with  whom 
Neptune  (Poseidon)  had  had  intercourse  in  the 
form  of  a  horse  or  a  bird,  there  sprang  from  her 
Chrysaor  and  the  horse  Pegasus.  The  latter 
received  this  name  because  he  was  believed  to 
have  made  his  appearance  near  the  sources 
(ffjjyat)  of  Oceanus.  He  ascended  to  the  seats 
of  the  immortals,  and  afterward  lived  in  the 
palace  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  for  whom  he  carried 
tnunder  and  lightning.  According  to  this  view, 
which  is  apparently  the  most  ancient,  Pegasus 
was  the  thundering  horse  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) ; 
but  later  writers  describe  him  as  the  horse  of 
Eos  (Aurora),  and  place  him  among  the  stare. 
Pegasus  also  acts  a  prominent  part  in  the  com- 
bat of  Bellerophon  against  the  Chimaera.  In 
order  to  kill  the  Chimaera,  it  was  necessary  for 
Bellerophon  to  obtain  possession  of  Pegasus. 
For  thia  purpose  the  soothsayer  Polyidus  at 
Corinth  advised  him  to  spend  a  night  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Minerva  (Athena).  As  Bellerophon  was 
asleep  in  the  temple,  the  goddess  appeared  to 
him  in  a  dream,  commanding  him  to  sacrifice  to 


PEI AGONIA. 

Neptune  (Poseidon),  and  gave  him  a  golden 
bridle.  When  he  awoke  he  found  the  bridle, 
offered  the  sacrifice,  and  caught  Pegasus  while 
he  was  drinking  at  the  well  Pirene.  According 
to  some,  Minerva  (Athena)  herself  tamed  and 
bridled  Pegasus,  and  surrendered  him  to  Bel- 
lerophon. After  he  had  conquered  the  Chimera, 
he  endeavored  to  rise  up  to  heaven  upon  his 
winged  horse,  but  fell  down  upon  the  earth 
Vid.  BELLEROPHON.  Pegasus  was  also  regarded 
as  the  horse  of  the  Muses,  and  in  this  connection 
is  more  celebrated  in  modern  times  than  in  an- 
tiquity ;  for  with  the  ancients  he  had  no  con- 
nection with  the  Muses,  except  producing  with 
his  hoof  the  inspiring  fountain  Hippocrene.  The 
story  about  this  fountain  runs  as  follows :  When 
the  nine  Muses  engaged  in  a  contest  with  the 
nine  daughters  of  Pierus  on  Mount  Helicon,  all 
became  darkness  when  the  daughters  of  Pierus 
began  to  sing ;  whereas,  during  the  song  of  the 
Muses,  heaven,  the  sea,  and  all  the  rivers  stood 
still  to  listen,  and  Helicon  rose  heavenward 
with  delight,  until  Pegasus,  on  the  advice  of 
Neptune  (Poseidon),  stopped  its  ascent  by  kick- 
ing it  with  his  hoof.  From  this  kick  there  arose 
Hippocrene,  the  inspiring  well  of  the  Muses,  on 
Mount  Helicon,  which,  for  this  reason,  Persius 
calls  fans  caballinus.  Others,  again,  relate  that 
Pegasus  caused  the  well  to  gush  forth  because 
he  was  thirsty.  Pegasus  is  often  seen  repre- 
sented in  ancient  works  of  art  along  with  Mi- 
nerva (Athena)  and  Bellerophon. — 2.  A  Roman 
jurist,  one  of  the  followers  or  pupils  of  Procu- 
lus,  and  praefectus  urbi  under  Domitian  (Juv., 
iv.,  76).  The  Senatusconsultum  Pegasianura, 
which  was  passed  in  the  time  of  Vespasian, 
when  Pegasus  was  consul  suffectus  with  Pusio, 
probably  took  its  name  from  him. 

[PEIR^EEUS  (Hecpatevc;).     Vid.  PIR.SCS.] 

PEISO  LACUS.     Vid.  PELSO  LACUS. 

PELAGIUS,  probably  a  native  of  Britain,  cele 
brated  as  the  propagator  of  those  heretical  opin 
ions  which  have  derived  their  name  from  him, 
and  which  were  opposed  with  great  energy  by 
his  contemporaries,  Augustine  and  Jerome.  He 
first  appears  in  history  about  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  century,  when  we  find  him  residing  at 
Rome.  In  the  year  409  or  410,  when  Alaric  was 
threatening  the  metropolis,  Pelagius,  accom- 
panied by  his  disciple  and  ardent  admirer  Coeles- 
tius,  passed  over  to  Sicily,  from  thence  pro- 
ceeded to  Africa,  and,  leaving  Ccelestius  at 
Carthage,  sailed  for  Palestine.  The  fame  ol 
his  sanctity  had  preceded  him,  for  upon  his  ar- 
rival he  was  received  with  great  warmth  by 
Jerome  and  many  other  distinguished  fathers 
of  the  Church.  Soon  afterward  the  opinions  Oi 
Pelagius  were  denounced  as  heretical ;  and,  in 
A.D.  417,  Pelagius  and  Ccelestius  were  anathe 
matieed  by  Pope  Innocentius.  A  very  few  onlj 
of  the  numerous  treatises  of  Pelagius  have  de- 
scended to  us.  They  are  printed  with  the  works 
of  Jerome. 

[PELAGON  (He^uyuv).  1.  A  Pylian  warrior, 
served  in  the  Trojan  war  under  Nestor. — 2.  A 
Lycian  warrior  in  the -train  of  Sarpedon. — 3.  A 
Phocian,  son  of  Amphidamas  :  from  him  Cad- 
mus bought  the  cow  which  guided  him  to 
Thebes.] 

PELAGONIA  (TltXayovia  :  Ue^a-yovtf,  pi).  1.  A 
district  in  Macedonia.  The  Pelagones  were  an 

617 


PELARGE. 

ancient  people,  probably  of  Pelasgic  origin,  and 
seem  originally  to  have  inhabited  the  Valley  of 
the  Axius,  since  Homer  calls  Pelagon  a  son  of 
Axius.  The  Pelagones  afterward  migrated 
westward  to  the  Erigon,  the  country  around 
which  received  the  name  of  Pelagon ia,  which 
thus  lay  south  of  Paeonia.  The  chief  town  of 
this  district  was  also  called  Pelagonia  (now  Vi- 
tolia  or  Monastir),  which  was  under  the  Romans 
the  capital  of  the  fourth  division  of  Macedonia. 
It  was  situated  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  not  far  from 
the  narrow  passes  leading  into  Illyria. — 2.  A 
district  in  Thessaly,  called  the  Pelagonian  Tripo- 
lis,  because  it  consisted  of  the  three  towns  of 
Azdrus,  Pythium,  and  Doliche.  It  was  situated 
west  of  Olympus,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Titaresius,  and  belonged  to  Perrhaebia,  whence 
these  three  towns  are  sometimes  called  the 
Perrhsebian  Tripolis.  Some  of  the  Macedonian 
Pelagonians,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  their 
homes  by  the  Paeonians,  migrated  into  this  part 
uf  Thessaly,  which  was  originally  inhabited  by 
Dorians. 

[PELARGE  (Ue^ap-y^),  daughter  of  Potneus, 
wife  of  Isthmiades,  was  instrumental  in  estab- 
lishing the  Cabiri- worship  in  Bceotia,  and  hence 
became  herself  an  object  of  worship.] 

PELASGI  (Ue^aa^oi),  the  earliest  inhabitants 
of  Greece,  who  established  the  worship  of  the 
Dodonaean  Zeus  (Jupiter),  Hephaestus  (Vulcan), 
the  Cabiri,  and  other  divinities  that  belong  to  the 
earliest  inhabitants  of  the  country.  They  claim- 
ed descent  from  a  mythical  hero,  Pelasgus,  of 
whom  we  have  different  accounts  in  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  Greece  inhabited  by  Pelasgians. 
The  nation  was  widely  spread  over  Greece  and 
the  islands  of  the  Grecian  archipelago,  and  the 
name  of  Pelasgia  was  given  at  one  time  to 
Greece.  One  of  the  most  ancient  traditions 
represented  Pelasgus  as  a  descendant  of  Pho- 
roneus,  king  of  Argos ;  and  it  seems  to  have 
been  generally  believed  by  the  Greeks  that  the 
Pelasgi  spread  from  Argos  to  the  other  coun- 
tries of  Greece.  Arcadia,  Attica,  Epirus,  and 
Thessaly  were,  in  addition  to  Argos,  some  of  the 
principal  seats  of  the  Pelasgi.  They  were  also 
found  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  and,  accord- 
ing to  some  writers,  in  Italy  as  well.  Of  the 
language,  habits,  and  civilization  of  this  people, 
we  possess  no  certain  knowledge.  Herodotus 
says  they  spoke  a.  barbarous  language,  that  is,  a 
language  not  Greek ;  but  from  the  facility  with 
which  the  Greek  and  Pelasgic  languages  coa- 
lesced in  all  parts  of  Greece,  and  from  the  fact 
that  the  Athenians  and  Arcadians  are  said  to 
have  been  of  pure  Pelasgic  origin,  it  is  probable 
that  the  two  languages  had  a  close  affinity.  The 
Pelasgi  are  further  said  to  have  been  an  agri- 
cultural people,  and  to  have  possessed  a  consid- 
erable knowledge  of  the  useful  arts.  The.most 
ancient  architectural  remains  of  Greece,  such 
as  the  treasury  or  tomb  of  Atreus  at  Mycenae, 
are  ascribed  to  the  Pelasgians,  and  are  cited  as 
specimens  of  Pelasgian  architecture,  though 
there  is  no  positive  authority  for  these  state- 
ments. 

PELASGIA  (Uefauryia),  an  ancient  name  of  the 
islands  of  Delos  and  Lesbos,  referring,  of  course, 
to  their  having  been  early  seats  of  the  Pelasgi- 
ans. 

PELASGIOTIS  (Ue^aa-yiurif ),  a  district  in  Thes- 
6'8 


PELEUS. 

saly,  between  Hestiaeotis  and  Magnesia.     Vtd 
THESSALIA. 

PELASGUS.      Vtd.  PELASGI. 

PELENDONES,  a  Celtiberian  people  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  between  the  sources  of  the  Du- 
rius  and  the  Iberus. 

PELETHRONIUM  (U&eBpdviov),  a  mountainous 
district  in  Thessaly,  part  of  Mount  Pelion,  where 
the  Lapithae  dwelt,  and  which  is  said  to  have  de- 
rived its  name  from  Pelethronius,  king  of  the 
Lapithse,  who  invented  the  use  of  the  bridle  and 
the  saddle. 

PELEUS  (Tlr/Mf),  son  of  ^Eacus  and  Endeis, 
was  king  of  the  Myrmidons  at  Phthia  in  Thes- 
saly. He  was  a  brother  of  Telamon,  and  step- 
brother of  Phocus,  the  son  of  ^Eacus,  by  the 
Nereid  Psamathe.  Peleus  and  Telamon  re- 
solved to  get  rid  of  Phocus,  because  he  ex- 
celled them  in  their  military  games,  and  Tela- 
mon, or,  according  to  others,  Peleus,  murdered 
their  step-brother.  The  two  brothers  concealed 
their  crime  by  removing  the  body  of  Phocus, 
but  were  nevertheless  found  out,  and  expelled 
by  ^Eacus  from  ^Egina.  Peleus  went  to  Phthia 
in  Thessaly,  where  he  was  purified  from  the 
murder  by  Eurytion,  the  son  of  Actor,  married 
his  daughter  Antigone,  and  received  with  her 
a  third  of  Eurytion's  kingdom.  Others  relate 
that  he  went  to  Ceyx  at  Trachis ;  and,  as  he 
had  come  to  Thessaly  without  companions,  he 
prayed  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  for  an  army  ;  and  the 
god,  to  please  Peleus,  metamorphosed  the  ants 
(fivpfirjKef)  into  men,  who  were  accordingly  call- 
ed Myrmidons.  Peleus  accompanied  Eurytion 
to  the  Calydonian  hunt,  and  involuntarily  killed 
him  with  his  spear,  in  consequence  of  which  he 
fled  from  Phthia  to  lolcus,  where  he  was  again 
purified  by  Acastus,  the  king  of  the  place.  While 
residing  at  lolcus,  Astydamia,  the  wife  of  Acas- 
tus, fell  in  love  with  him ;  but,  as  her  proposals 
were  rejected  by  Peleus,  she  accused  him  to 
her  husband  of  having  attempted  her  virtue. 
Acastus,  unwilling  to  stain  his  hand  with  the 
blood  of  the  man  whom  he  had  hospitably  re- 
ceived, and  whom  he  had  purified  from  his  guilt, 
took  him  to  Mount  Pelion,  where  they  hunted 
wild  beasts  ;  and  when  Peleus,  overcome  with 
fatigue,  had  fallen  asleep,  Acastus  left  him 
alone,  and  concealed  his  sword,  that  he  might 
be  destroyed  by  the  wild  beasts.  When  Peleus 
awoke  and  sought  his  sword,  he  was  attacked 
by  the  Centaurs,  but  was  saved  by  Chiron,  who 
also  restored  to  him  his  sword.  There  are 
some  modifications  of  this  account  in  other  writ- 
ers :  instead  of  Astydamia,  some  mention  Hip- 
polyte,  the  daughter  of  Cretheus ;  and  others 
relate  that  after  Acastus  had  concealed  the 
sword  of  Peleus,  Chiron  or  Mercury  (Hermes) 
brought  him  another,  which  had  been  made  by 
Vulcan  (Hephaestus).  While  on  Mount  Pelion 
Peleus  married  the  Nereid  Thetis,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  Achilles,  though  some  re- 
garded this  Thetis  as  different  from  the  marine 
divinity,  and  called  her  a  daughter  of  Chiron. 
The  gods  took  part  in  the  marriage  solemnity  ; 
Chiron  presented  Peleus  with  a  lance,  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  with  the  immortal  horses,  Balius 
and  Xanthus,  and  the  other  gods  with  arms. 
Eris  or  Strife  was  the  only  goddess  who  was 
not  invited  to  the  nuptials,  and  she  revenged 
herself  by  throwing  an  apple  among  the  guests, 


PELIADES. 

with  the  inscription  "  To  the  fairest."  Vid.  PAR- 
IS. Homer  mentions  Achilles  as  the  only  son 
of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  but  later  writers  state 
that  she  had  already  destroyed  by  fire  six  chil- 
dren, of  whom  she  was  the  mother  by  Peleus, 
and  that,  as  she  attempted  to  make  away  with 
Achilles,  her  seventh  child,  she  was  prevented 
by  Peleus.  After  this,  Peleus,  who  is  also  men- 
tioned among  the  Argonauts,  in  conjunction 
with  Jason  and  the  Dioscuri,  besieged  Acastus 
and  lolcus,  slew  Astydamia,  and  over  the  scat- 
tered limbs  of  her  body  led  his  warriors  into 
the  city.  The  flocks  of  Peleus  were  at  one 
time  worried  by  a  wolf,  which  Psamathe  had 
seat  to  avenge  the  murder  of  her  son  Phocus, 
Jut  she  herself  afterward,  on  the  request  of 
Thetis,  turned  the  animal  into  stone.  Peleus, 
w'ho  had  in  former  times  joined  Hercules  in  his 
i  expedition  against  Troy,  was  foo  old  to  accom- 
pany his  son  Achilles  against  that  city  :  he  re- 
mained at  home,  and  survived  the  death  of  his 
son. 

PELIADES  (Ile/udJef),  the  daughters  of  Pelias. 
Vid.  PELIAS. 

PELIAS  (HeMaf).  I.  Son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
and  Tyro,  a  daughter  of  Salmoneus.  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  once  visited  Tyro  in  the  form  of  the 
river-god  Enipeus,  with  whom  she  was  in  love, 
and  she  became  by  him  the  mother  of  Pelias  and 
Neleus.  To  conceal  her  shame,  their  mother 
exposed  the  two  boys,  but  they  were  found  and 
reared  by  some  countrymen.  They  subsequent- 
ly learned  their  parentage  ;  and,  after  the  death 
of  Cretheus,  king  of  lolcos,  who  had  married 
their  mother,  they  seized  the  throne  of  lolcos, 
to  the  exclusion  of /Eson,  the  son  of  Cretheus 
and  Tyro.  Pelias  soon  afterward  expelled  his 
own  brother  Neleus,  and  thus  became  sole  ruler 
of  lolcos.  After  Pelias  had  long  reigned  over 
lolcos,  Jason,  the  son  of  ^Eson,  came  to  lolcos 
and  claimed  the  kingdom  as  his  right.  In  order 
to  get  rid  of  him,  Pelias  sent  him  to  Colchis  to 
fetch  the  golden  fleece.  Hence  arose  the  cele- 
brated expedition  of  the  Argonauts.  After  the 
return  of  Jason,  Pelias  was  cut  to  pieces  and 
boiled  by  his  own  daughters  (the  Peliades),  who 
had  been  told  by  Medea  that  in  this  manner  they 
might  restore  their  father  to  vigor  and  youth. 
His  son  Acastus  held  funeral  games  in  his  honor 
at  lolcus,  and  expelled  Jason  and  Medea  from 
the  country.  For  details,  xid.  JASON,  MEDEA, 
ARGONAUTS.  The  names  of  several  of  the 
daughters  of  Pelias  are  recorded.  The  most 
celebrated  of  them  was  Alcestis,  the  wife  of 
Admetus,  who  is  therefore  called  by  Ovid  Pclia 
gener. — [2.  A  Trojan,  wounded  by  Ulysses  in 
the  Trojan  war ;  he  survived  the  destruction 
of  the  city,  and  accompanied  .Eneas  to  Italy.] 

PELIDES  (Tl^eidrjf,  Utf.eiuv),  a  patronymic 
from  Peleus,  generally  given  to  his  son  Achilles, 
more  rarely  to  his  grandson  Neoptolemus. 

PELIGNI,  a  brave  and  warlike  people  of  Sabine 
origin  in  central  Italy,  bounded  southeast  by  the 
Marsi,  north  by  the  Marrucini,  south  by  Sam- 
nium  and  the  Frentani,  and  east  by  the  Fren- 
tani  likewise.  The  climate  of  their  country 
was  cold  llor.,  Carm.,  in.,  19,  8) ;  but  it  pro- 
duced a  considerable  quantity  of  flax,  and  was 
celebrated  for  its  honey.  The  Peligni,  like  their 
neighbors,  the  Marsi,  were  regarded  as  magi- 
cians. Their  principal  towns  were  COPFINIDM 


PELLA, 

and  SULMO.  They  offered  a  brave  resistance 
to  the  Romans,  but  concluded  a  peace  with  the 
republic  along  with  their  neighbors  the  Marsi, 
Marrucini,  and  Frentani,  in  B  C.304.  They  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Social  war  (90,  89),  and 
their  chief  town  Corfinium  was  destined  by  the 
allies  to  be  the  new  capital  of  Italy  in  place 
of  Rome.  They  were  subdued  by  Pompeius 
Str&bo,  after  which  time  they  are  rarely  men- 
tioned. 

PELIN^US  MONS  (TO  H&ivaiov  opoc,  or  Ile/MT/- 
valov  :  now  Mount  Elias),  the  highest  mountain 
of  the  island  of  Chios,  a  little  north  of  the  city 
of  Chios,  with  a  celebrated  temple  of  Zeif  Tlehi- 
valoe. 

PEHKNA,  or  more  commonly  PELINN/EUM  (He- 
Aivvn,  Hehivvaiov :  now  Gardhiki),  a  town  of 
Thessaly  in  Hestiaeotis,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Peneus,  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  their  war 
with  Antiochus. 

PELIOW,  more  rarely  PELIOS  (TO  HtjAiov  opof  : 
now  Plessidhi  or  Zagora),  a  lofty  range  of  mount- 
ains in  Thessaly,  in  the  district  of  Magnesia, 
was  situated  between  the  Lake  Boebeis  and  the 
Pagasaean  Gulf,  and  formed  the  promontories 
of  Sepias  and  ^Eantium.  Its  sides  were  cover- 
ed with  wood,  and  on  its  summit  was  a  temple 
of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Actaeus,  where  the  cold  was 
so  severe  that  the  persons  who  went  in  pro- 
cession to  this  temple  once  a  year  wore  thick 
skins  to  protect  themselves.  Mount  Pelion  was 
celebrated  in  mythology.  The  giants  in  their 
war  with  the  gods  are  said  to  have  attempted 
to  heap  Ossa  and  Olympus  on  Pelion,  or  Pelion 
and  Ossa  on  Olympus,  in  order  to  scale  heaven. 
Near  the  summit  of  this  mountain  was  the  cave 
of  the  Centaur  Chiron,  whose  residence  was 
probably  placed  here  on  account  of  the  number 
of  the  medicinal  plants  which  grew  upon  the 
mountain,  since  he  was  celebrated  for  his  skill 
in  medicine.  On  Pelion  also  the  timber  was 
felled  with  which  the  ship  Argo  was  built, 
whence  Ovid  applies  the  term  Pelias  arbor  to 
tWs  ship. 

PELLA  (IleA/la  :  HeMaios,  Pellajus).  1.  (Now 
Alaklisi),  an  ancient  town  of  Macedonia,  in  the 
district  Bottiaea,  was  situated  upon  a  hill,  and 
upon  a  lake  formed  by  the  River  Lydias,  one 
hundred  and  twenty  stadia  from  its  mouth.  It 
continued  to  be  a  place  of  small  importance  till 
the  time  of  Philip,  who  made  it  his  residence 
and  the  capital  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy, 
and  adorned  it  with  many  public  buildings.  It 
is  frequently  mentioned  by  subsequent  writers 
on  account  of  its  being  the  birth-place  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  It  was  the  capital  of  one  of 
the  four  districts  into  which  the  Romans  di- 
vided Macedonia  (aid.  p.  464,  a),  and  was  sub- 
sequently made  a  Roman  colony  under  the  name 
of  Col.  Jul.  Aug.  Pclla.—2.  (Now  El-Bujeh ?), 
the  southernmost  of  the  ten  cities  which  com- 
posed the  Decapolis  in  Peraea,  that  is,  in  Pales- 
tine east  of  the  Jordan,  stood  five  Roman  miles 
southeast  of  Scythopolis,  and  was  also  called 
BovTtf.  It  was  taken  by  Antiochus  the  Great 
in  the  wars  between  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  was 
held  by  a  Macedonian  colony  till  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  Alexander  Jannaeus  on  account  of 
the  refusal  of  its  inhabitants  to  embrace  the 
Jewish  religion.  It  was  restored  and  given 
back  to  its  old  'inhabitants  by  Porapey.  It  was 

619 


PELLJEUS  PAGUS. 

the  place  of  refuge  of  the  Christians  who  fled 
from  Jerusalem  before  its  capture  by  the  Ro- 
mans The  exact  site  of  Pella  is  very  uncer- 
tain. —  3.  A  city  of  Syria  on  the  Orontes,  for- 
merly called  Pharnace,  was  named  Pella  by  the 
Macedonians,  and  afterward  AI-AMKA  (No.  1).  — 
4.  In  Phrygia.  Vid.  PELTJE. 

PELL^US  PAGUS  was  the  name  given  by  Al- 
exander, after  Pella  in  Macedonia,  to  the  dis- 
trict of  Susiana  about  the  mouths  of  the  Tigris  ; 
in  which  he  built  the  city  of  Alexandrea,  after- 
ward called  Charax. 

PELLANA.     Vid.  PELLENE,  No.  2. 

PELLENE  (UE^^vij,  Dor.  HeMdva  :  HeMriv- 
evs  ).  1  .  A  city  in  Achaia,  bordering  on  Sicyonia, 
the  most  easterly  of  the  twelve  Achaean  cities, 
was  situated  on  a  hill  sixty  stadia  from  the  city, 
and  was  strongly  fortified.  Its  port-town  was 
Aristonautae.  The  ancients  derived  its  name 
from  the  giant  Pallas,  or  from  the  Argive  Pel- 
len,  the  son  of  Phorbas.  It  is  mentioned  in  Ho- 
mer ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  Scione,  in  the  pen- 
insula of  Pallene,  in  Macedonia,  professed  to  be 
descended  from  the  Pellenaeans  in  Achaia,  who 
were  shipwrecked  on  the  Macedonian  coast  on 
their  return  from  Troy.  In  the  Peloponnesian 
war  Pellene  sided  with  Sparta.  In  the  later 
wars  of  Greece  between  the  Achaean  and^Eto- 
lian  leagues,  the  town  was  several  times  taken 
by  the  contending  parties.  Between  Pellene 
and  ^Egae  there  was  a  smaller  town  of  the  same 
name,  where  the  celebrated  Pellenian  cloaks 
(HMt.riviaK.al  ^/tatvat)  were  made,  which  were 
given  as  prizes  to  the  victors  in  the  games  at 
this  place.  —  2.  Usually  called  PELLANA,  a  town 
in  Laconia,  on  the  Eurotas,  about  fifty  stadia 
iiorthwest  of  Sparta,  belonging  to  the  Spartan 
Tripolis. 

PELODES  (Jl^udrjf  Tufifiv,  in  App.  HaMeif  : 
now  Armyro),  a  port-town  belonging  to  Buthro- 
tum  in  Epirus,  and  on  a  bay  which  probably  bore 
the  same  name. 

PELOPEA  or  PELOPIA  (HeMireia),  daughter  of 
Thyestes,  dwelt  at  Sicyon,  where  her  father  of- 
fered her  violence,  without  knowing  that  she 
was  his  daughter.  While  pregnant  by  her  fa- 
ther, she  married  her  uncle  Atreus.  Shortly 
afterward  she  bore  a  son  ^Egisthus,  who  event- 
ually murdered  Atreus.  For  details,  md. 


(Hehoiridai),  descendants  of  Pe- 
lops,  e.  g.,  Theseus  (Plut.),  Tantalus,  Atreus(Pe- 
lopeius,  Grid),  Thyestes,  Agamemnon  (Proper  t.), 
Hermione  and  Iphigenia  (Pelopeia  virgo,  Ovid), 
Orestes  (Lucaw.).] 

PELOPIDAS  (Ile^oirldaf),  the  Theban  general 
and  statesman,  son  of  Hippoclus,  was  descend- 
ed from  a  noble  family,  and  inherited  a  large  es- 
tate, of  which  he  made  a  liberal  use.  He  lived 
always  in  the  closest  friendship  with  Epami- 
nondas,  to  whose  simple  frugality,  as  he  could 
not  persuade  him  to  share  his  riches,  he  is  said 
to  have  assimilated  his  own  mode  of  life.  He 
took  a  leading  part  in  expelling  the  Spartans 
from  Thebes,  B.C.  379  ;  and  from  this  time 
until  his  death  there  was  not  a  year  in  which 
he  was  not  intrusted  with  some  important  com- 
mand. In  371  he  was  one  of  the  Theban  com- 
manders at  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  so  fatal  to  the 
Lacedaemonians,  and  joined  Epaminondas  in 
urging  the  expediency  of  immediate  action.  In 
620 


PELOPONNESUS. 

369  he  was  also  one  of  the  generals  in  the  first 
invasion  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Thebans.     Re- 
specting his  accusation  on  his  return  from  this 
campaign,  vid.  p.  281,  b.     In  368  Pelopidas  was 
sent  again  intoThessaly,  on  two  separate  occa- 
sions, in  consequence  of  complaints  against  Al- 
exander of  Pherae.     On  his  first  expedition  Al- 
exander of  Pherae  sought  safety  in  flight ;  and 
Pelopidas  advanced  into  Macedonia  to  arbitrate 
between  Alexander  II.  and  Ptolemy  of  Alorus. 
Among  the  hostages  whom  he  took  with  him 
from  Macedonia  was  the  famous  Philip,  the  fa- 
ther of  Alexander  the  Great.     On  his  second 
visit  to  Thessaly,  Pelopidas  went  simply  as  an 
ambassador,  not  expecting  any  opposition,  and 
unprovided  with  a  military  force.     He  was  seiz- 
ed by  Alexander  of  Pheras,  and  was  kept  in  con- 
finement at  Pher#  till  his  liberation  in '367  by  a 
Theban  force  under  Epaminondas.    In  the  same 
year  in  which  he  was  released  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Susa,  to  counteract  the  Lacedae- 
monian and  Athenian  negotiations  at  the  Per- 
sian court.     In  364  the  Thessalian  towns  again 
applied  to  Thebes  for  protection  against  Alex- 
ander, and  Pelopidas  was  appointed  to  aid  them. 
His  forces,  however,  were  dismayed  by  an 
eclipse  of  the  sun  (June  13),  and,  therefore, 
leaving  them  behind,  he  took  with  him  into 
Thessaly  only  three  hundred  horse.     On  his 
arrival  at  Pharsalus  he  collected  a  force  which 
he  deemed  sufficient,  and  marched  against  Al- 
exander, treating  lightly  the  great  disparity  of 
numbers,  and  remarking  that  it  was  better  as  it 
was,  since  there  would  be  more  for  him  to  con- 
quer.    At  Cynoscephalae  a  battle  ensued,  ii, 
which  Pelopidas  drove  the  enemy  from  their 
ground,  but  he  himself  was  slain  as,  burning 
with  resentment,  he  pressed  rashly  forward  to 
attack  Alexander  in  person.     The  Thebans  and 
Thessalians  made  great  lamentations  for  his 
death,  and  the  latter,  having  earnestly  request- 
ed leave  to  bury  him,  celebrated  his  funeral  with 
extraordinary  splendor. 

[PELOPIS  INSULJE,  nine  islands  on  the  coast 
of  Argolis,  eastward  of  Methana,  between  ^Egi- 
na  and  Calauria.] 

PELOPONNESUS  (rj  He^oTrovvijaof  :  now  Morea"), 
the  southern  part  of  Greece  or  the  peninsula, 
which  was  connected  with  Hellas  proper  by  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth.  It  is  said  to  have  derived 
its  name  Peloponnesus,  or  the  "  Island  of  Pe- 
lops,"  from  the  mythical  Pelops.  Vid.  PELOPS. 
This  name  does  not  occur  in  Homer.  In  his 
time  the  peninsula  was  sometimes  called  Apia, 
from  Apis,  son  of  Phoroneus,  king  of  Argos,  and 
sometimes  Argos ;  which  names  were  given  to 
it  on  account  of  Argos  being  the  chief  power  in 
Peloponnesus  at  that  period.  Peloponnesus 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Corinthian 
Gulf,  on  the  west  by  the  Ionian  or  Sicilian  Sea, 
on  the  south  by  the  Libyan,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Cretan  and  Myrtoan  seas.  On  the  east  and 
south  there  are  three  great  gulfs,  the  Argolic, 
Laconian,  and  Messenian.  The  ancients  com- 
pared the  shape  of  the  country  to  the  leaf  of  a 
plane-tree  ;  and  its  modern  name,  the  Morea  (6 
Mupe'of),  which  first  occurs  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era,  was  given  it  on  ac- 
count of  its  resemblance  to  a  mulberry-leaf. 
Peloponnesus  was  divided  into  various  provin- 
ces, all  of  which  were  bounded  on  one  side  by 


PELOPS. 

the  sea,  with  the  exception  of  ARCADIA,  which 
was  in  the  centre  of  the  country.  These  prov- 
inces, besides  ARCADIA,  were  ACHAIA  in  the 
north,  ELIS  in  the  west,  MESSENIA  in  the  west 
and  south,  LACONIA  in  the  south  and  east,  [AR- 
OOLIS  in  the  east,]  and  CORINTHIA  in  the  east 
and  north.  An  account  of  the  geography  of  the 
peninsula  is  given  under  these  names.  The 
area  of  Peloponnesus  is  computed  to  be  seven 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  seventy-nine  En-  j 
glish  miles,  and  it  probably  contained  a  popu-  j 
lation  of  upward  of  a  million  in  the  flourishing 
period  of  Greek  history.  Peloponnesus  was 
originally  inhabited  by  Pelasgians.  Subsequent- 
ly the  Achaeans,  who  belonged  to  the  ^Eolic 
race,  settled  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts 
of  the  peninsula,  in  Argolis,  Lacohia,  and  Mes- 
senia ;  and  the  lonians  in  the  northern  part,  in 
Achaia ;  while  the  remains  of  the  original  in- 
habitants of  the  country,  the  Pelasgians,  col- 
lected chiefly  in  the  central  part,  in  Arcadia. 
Eighty  years  after  the  Trojan  war,  according  to 
mythical  chronology,  the  Dorians,  under  the 
conduct  of  the  Heraclidae,  invaded  and  conquer- 
ed Peloponnesus  and  established  Doric  states 
in  Argolis,  Laconia,  and  Messenia,  from  whence 
they  extended  their  power  over  Corinth,  Sic- 
yon,  and  Megara.  Part  of  the  Achaean  popula- 
tion remained  in  these  provinces  as  tributary 
subjects  to  the  Dorians,  under  the  name  of  Peri- 
ceci,  while  others  of  the  Achaeans  passed  over 
to  the  north  of  Peloponnesus,  expelled  the  lo- 
nians, and  settled  in  this  part  of  the  country, 
which  was  called  after  them  Achaia.  The  ^Eto- 
lians,  who  had  invaded  Peloponnesus  along  with 
the  Dorians,  settled  in  Elis  and  became  inter- 
mingled with  the  original  inhabitants.  The 
peninsula  remained  under  Doric  influence  dur- 
ing the  most  important  period  of  Greek  history, 
and  opposed  to  the  great  Ionic  city  of  Athens. 
After  the  conquest  of  Messenia  by  the  Spartans, 
it  was  under  the  supremacy  of  Sparta  till  the 
overthrow  of  the  power  of  the  latter  by  the 
Thebans  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  B.C.  371. 

PELOPS  (IIeAoV>),  grandson  of  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
son  of  Tantalus  and  Dione,  the  daughter  of 
Atlas.  Some  writers  call  his  mother  Euryanassa 
or  Clytia.  He  was  married  to  Hippodamia,  by 
whom  he  became  the  father  of  Atreus,  Thyes- 
tes,  Dias,  Cynosurus,  Corinthius,  Hippalmus 
(Hippalcmus  or  Hippalcimus),  Hippasus,  Cleon, 
Arglus,  Alcathous,  JEl'ms,  Pittheus,  Trcezen, 
Nicippe,  and  Lysidice.  By  Axioche  or  the 
nymph  Danais  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  father 
of  Chrysippus.  Pelops  was  king  of  Pisa  in  Elis, 
and  from  him  the  great  southern  peninsula  of 
Greece  was  believed  to  have  derived  its  name 
Peloponnesus.  According  to  a  tradition,  which 
became  very  general  in  later  times,  Pelops  was 
•  a  Phrygian,  who  was  expelled  by  Ilus  from 
Phrygia  (hence  called  by  Ovid,  Met.,  viii.,  622, 
Pelopela  area),  and  thereupon  migrated  with  his 
great  wealth  to  Pisa.  Others  describe  him  as 
a  Paphlagonian,  and  call  the  Paphlagonians 
themselves  IleAoTnyiot.  Others,  again,  represent 
him  as  a  native  of  Greece ;  and  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  in  the  earliest  traditions  Pelops 
was  described  as  a  native  of  Greece  and  not  as 
a  foreign  immigrant ;  and  in  them  he  is  called 
the  tamer  of  horses  and  the  favorite  of  Neptune 
fPoseidon).  The  legends  about  Pelops  consist 


PELOPS. 

mainly  of  the  story  of  his  being  cut  to  pieces 
and  boiled,  of  his  contest  with  CEnomaus  and 
Hippodamia,  and  of  his  relation  to  his  sons  ;  to 
which  we  may  add  the  honors  paid  to  his  re- 
mains. 1.  Pelops  cut  to  pieces  and  boiled  (Kpeovp- 
•yia  IlsAoTrof).  Tantalus,  the  favorite  of  the 
gods,  once  invited  them  to  a  repast,  and  on  that 
occasion  killed  his  own  son,  and  having  boiled 
him,  set  the  flesh  before  them  that  they  might 
eat  it.  But  the  immortal  gods,  knowing  what 
it  was,  did  not  touch  it ;  Ceres  (Demeter)  alone, 
being  absorbed  by  grief  for  her  lost  daughter, 
consumed  the  shoulder  of  Pelops.  Hereupon 
the  gods  ordered  Mercury  (Hermes)  to  put  the 
limbs  of  Pelops  into  a  caldron,  and  thereby 
restore  him  to  life.  When  the  process  was 
over,  Clotho  took  him  out  of  the  caldron,  and 
as  the  shoulder  consumed  by  Ceres  (Demeter) 
was  wanting,  the  goddess  supplied  its  place  by 
one  made  of  ivory  ;  his  descendants  (the  Pelo- 
pidae),  as  a  mark  of  their  origin,  were  believed 
to  have  one  shoulder  as  white  as  ivory. — 2.  Con- 
test with  CEnomaus  and  Hippodamia.  As  an  or- 
acle had  declared  to  CEnomaus  that  he  should 
be  killed  by  his  son-in-law,  he  refused  'giving 
his  fair  daughter  Hippodamia  in  marriage  to  any 
one.  But  since  many  suitors  appeared,  CEno- 
maus declared  that  he  would  bestaw  her  hand 
upon  the  man  who  should  conquer  him  in  the 
chariot-race,  but  that  he  should  kill  all  who 
were  defeated  by  him.  Among  other  suitors 
Pelops  also  presented  himself,  but  when  he  saw 
the  heads  of  his  conquered  predecessors  stuck 
up  above  the  door  of  CEnomaus,  he  was  seized 
with  fear,  and  endeavored  to  gain  the  favor  ol 
Myrtilus,  the  charioteer  of  CEnomaus,  promis 
ing  him  half  the  kingdom  if  he  would  assist  him 
in  conquering  his  master.  Myrtilus  agreed,  and 
left  out  the  linen-pins  of  the  chariot  of  CEnoma- 
us. In  the  race  the  chariot  of  CEnomaus  broke 
down,  and  he  was  thrown  out  and  killed.  Thus 
Hippodamia  became  the  wife  of  Pelops.  But 
as  Pelops  had  now  gained  his  object,  he  was 
unwilling  to  keep  faith  with  Myrtilus  ;  and  ac- 
cordingly, as  they  were  driving  along  a  cliff,  he 
threw  Myrtilus  into  the  sea.  As  Myrtilus  sank, 
he  cursed  Pelops  and  his  whole  race.  Pelops 
returned  with  Hippodamia  to  Pisa  in  Elis,  and 
soon  also  made  himself  master  of  Olympia, 
where  he  restored  the  Olympian  games  with 
greater  splendor  than  they  had  ever  been  cele 
brated  before.— 3.  The  sons  of  Pelops.  Chrysip- 
pus was  the  favorite  of  his  father,  and  was,  in 
consequence,  envied  by  his  brothers.  The  two 
eldest  among  them,  Atreus  and  Thyestes,  with 
the  connivance  of  Hippodamia,  accordingly  mur- 
dered Chrysippus,  and  threw  his  body  into  a 
well.  Pelops,  who  suspected  his  sons  of  the 
murder,  expelled  them  from  the  country.  Hip- 
podamia, dreading  the  anger  of  her  husband,  lied 
to  Midea  in  Argolis,  from  whence  her  remains 
were  afterward  conveyed  by  Pelops  to  Olympia. 
Pelops,  after  his  death,  was  honored  at  Olympia 
above  all  other  heroes.  His  tomb,  with  an  iron 
sarcophagus,  existed  on  the  banks  of  the  Alplie- 
us,  not  far  from  the  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis), 
near  Pisa.  The  spot  on  which  his  sanctuary 
(IleWn-tov)  stood  in  the  Altis  was  said  to  have 
been,  dedicated  by  Hercules,  who  also  offered 
to  him  the  first  sacrifices.  The  magistrates  of 
the  Eleans  likewise  offered  to  him  there  an  an- 

621 


PELORIS. 

nual  sacrifice,  consisting  of  a  black  ram,  with 
special  ceremonies.  The  name  of  Pelops  was 
so  celebrated  that  it  was  constantly  used  by  the 
poets  in  connection  with  his  descendants  and 
the  cities  they  inhabited.  Hence  we  find  Atreus, 
the  son  01  Pelops,  called  Pelopclus  Atreus,  and 
Agamemnon,  the  grandson  or  great-grandson 
of  Atreus,  called  Pdopelus  Agamemnon.  In  the 
same  way,  Iphigenia,  the  daughter  of  Agamem- 
non, and  Hermione,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  are 
each  called  by  Ovid  Pelopela  virgo.  Virgil  (Mn., 
ii.,  193)  uses  the  phrase  Pelopla  mania  to  sig- 
nify the  cities  in  Peloponnesus  which  Pelops 
and  his  descendants  ruled  over ;  and,  in  like 
manner,  Mycenae  is  called  by  Ovid  Pdopelades 
MyceneR. 

PELORIS,  PELORIAS,  or  PELORUS  (Tlehupif,  He- 
Tiupids,  n&upoc :  now  Cape  Faro),  the  northeast- 
ern point  of  Sicily,  was  northeast  of  Messana,  on 
the  Fretum  Siculum,  and  one  of  the  three  prom- 
ontories which  formed  the  triangular  figure  of 
the  island.  According  to  the  usual  story,  it  de- 
rived its  name  from  Pelorus,  the  pilot  of  Hanni- 
bal's ship,  who  was  buried  here  after  being  kill- 
ed by  Hannibal  in  a  fit  of  anger ;  but  the  name 
was  more  ancient  than  Hannibal's  time,  being 
mentioned  by  Thucydides.  On  the  promontory 
there  was  a  temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  and 
a  tower,  probably  a  light-house,  from  which  the 
modern  name  of  the  Cape  (Faro)  appears  to  have 
come. 

PELORUS  (U&upof:  now  probably  Lori  or  Lu- 
ri),  a  river  of  Iberia  in  Asia,  appears  to  have 
been  a  southern  tributary  of  the  Cyrus  (now 
Kour). 

PELSO  or  PEISO  (now  Plaltensee),  a  great  lake 
in  Pannonia,  the  waters  of  which  were  con- 
ducted into  the  Danube  by  the  Emperor  Galeri- 
as,  who  thus  gained  a  great  quantity  of  fertile 
land  for  his  newly- formed  province  of  Valeria. 

PELT^E  (UeTiTai :  Ue^Tijvdf),  an  ancient  and 
flourishing  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  north  of 
Phrygia,  ten  parasangs  from  Celaenae  (Xenoph.), 
and  no  doubt  the  same  place  as  the  PELLA  of  the 
Roman  writers,  twenty-six  Roman  miles  north 
or  northeast  of  Apamea  Cibotus,  to  the  conven- 
tus  of  which  it  belonged.  The  surrounding  dis- 
trict is  called  by  Strabo  TO  UE^T^VOV  irediov.  Its 
site  is  uncertain.  Some  identify  it  with  the 
ruins  eight  miles  south  ofSandakli ;  others,  with 
those  near  Ishekli. 

PELTUINUM  (Peltuinas,  -atis  :  now  Monte  Bel- 
la), a  town  of  the  Vestini  in  Central  Italy. 

PELUSIUM  (Hqhovoiov :  Egypt.  Peremoun  or 
Peromi ;  in  the  Old  Testament,  Sin :  all  these 
names  are  derived  from  nouns  meaning  mud: 
IlijZovaiuTrjs ;  Pelusiota  :  ruins  at  Tineh),  also 
called  ABARIS  in  early  times,  a  celebrated  city 
of  Lower  Egypt,  stood  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
easternmost  mouth  of  the  Nile,  which  was  call- 
ed after  it  the  Pelusiac  mouth,  twenty  stadia 
(two  geographical  miles)  from  the  sea,  in  the 
midst  of  morasses,  from  which  it  obtained  its 
name.  As  the  key  of  Egypt  on  the  northeast, 
and  the  frontier  city  toward  Syria  and  Arabia, 
it  was  strongly  fortified,  and  was  the  scene  of 
many  battles  and  sieges  in  the  wars  of  Egypt 
with  Assyria,  Persia,  Syria,  and  Rome,  from  the 
defeat  of  Sennacherib  near  it  by  Sethon  down 
to  its  capture  by  Octavianus  after  the  battle  of 
Actium.  In  later  times  it  was  the  capital  of 
622 


PENELOPL. 

the  district  of  Augustamnica.     It  was  the  birth 
place  of  the  geographer  Claudius  Ptolemjeus. 

PENATES,  the  household  gods  of  the  Romans, 
both  those  of  a  private  family  and  of  the  state, 
as  the  great  family  of  citizens.  Hence  we  have 
to  distinguish  between  private  and  public  Pena- 
tes. The  name  is  connected  with  penus,  and 
the  images  of  those  gods  were  kept  in  the  pene- 
tralia, or  the  central  part  of  the  house.  The 
Lares  were  included  among  the  Penates ;  both 
names,  in  fact,  are  often  used  synonymously. 
The  Lares,  however,  though  included  in  the 
Penates,  were  not  the  only  Penates ;  foi  each 
family  had  usually  no  more  than  one  Lar,  where- 
as the  Penates  are  always  spoken  of  in  the  plu- 
ral. Since  Jupiter  and  Juno  were  regarded  as 
the  protectors  of  happiness  and  peace  in  the 
family,  these  divinities  were  worshipped  as  Pe- 
nates. Vesta  was  also  reckoned  among  the  Pe- 
nates ;  for  each  hearth,  being  the  symbol  of  do- 
mestic union,  had  its  Vesta.  All  other  Penates, 
both  public  and  private,  seem  to  have  consisted 
of  certain  sacred  relics  connected' with  indefi- 
nite divinities,  and  hence  Varro  says  that  the 
number  and  names  of  the  Ferrates  were  indef- 
inite. Most  ancient  writers  believe  that  the 
Penates  of  the  state  wete  brought  by  ^neas 
from  Troy  into  Italy,  and  were  preserved  first  at 
Lavinium,  afterward  at  Alba  Longa,  and  finally 
at  Rome.  At  Rome  they  had  a  chapel  near 
the  centre  of  the  city,  in  a  place  called  sub  Velia 
As  the  public  Lares  were  worshipped  in  the 
central  part  of  the  city  and  at  the  public  hearth, 
so  the  private  Penates  had  their  place  at  the 
hearth  of  every  house,  and  the  table  also  was 
sacred  to  them.  On  the  hearth  a  perpetual  fire 
was  kept  up  in  their  honor,  and  the  tabje  al- 
ways contained  the  salt-cellar  and  the  firstlings 
of  fruit  for  these  divinities.  Every  meal  that 
was  taken  in  the  house  thus  resembled  a  sacri- 
fice offered  to  the  Penates,  beginning  with  a 
purification  and  ending  with  a  libation,  which 
was  poured  either  on  the  table  or  upon  the 
hearth.  After  every  absence  from  the  hearth, 
the  Penates  were  saluted  like  the  living  inhab- 
itants of  the  house  ;  and  whoever  went  abroad 
prayed  to  the  Penates  and  Lares  for  a  happy  re- 
turn, and  when  he  came  back  to  his  house,  he 
hung  up  his  armor,  staff,  and  the  rike,  by  the 
side  of  their  images. 

PENEIS,  that  is,  Daphne,  daughter  of  the  riv- 
er-god Peneus. 

PENELEOS  (Urive^euf),  son  of  Hippalcmus  and 
Asterope,  and  one  of  the  Argonauts.  He  'vas 
the  father  of  Opheltes,  and  is  also  mentioned 
among  the  suitors  'of  Helen.  He  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Boeotians  in  the  war  against 
Troy,  where  he  slew  Ilioneus  and  Lycon,  and 
was  wounded  by  Polydamas.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  slain  by  Eurypylus,  the  son  of  Telephus. 

PENELOPE  (IL/KeAoTn/,  Hevt^onr],  ttijveAoTreia). 
daughter  of  Icarius  and  Peribcea  of  Sparta,  mar- 
ried Ulysses,  king  of  Ithaca.  (Respecting  her 
marriage,  vid.  ICARIUS,  No.  2.)  By  Ulysses  she 
had  an  only  child,  Telemachus,  who  was  an  in- 
fant when  her  husband  sailed  against  Troy. 
During  the  long  absence  of  Ulysses  she  was  be- 
leaguered by  numerous  and  importunate  suitors, 
whom  she  deceived  by  declaring  that  she  must 
finish  a  large  robe  which  she  was  making  for 
Laertes,  her  aged  father-in-law,  before  she  could 


PENESTA. 

make  up  her  mind.  During  the  da/time  she 
accordingly  worked  at  the  robe,  and  in  the  night 
she  undid  the  work  of  the  day.  By  this  means 
bhe  succeeded  in  putting  off  the  suitors.  But 
at  length  her  stratagem  was  betrayed  by  her 
servants  ;  and  when,  in  consequence,  the  faith- 
ful Penelope  was  pressed  more  and  more  by  the 
impatient  suitors,  Ulysses  at  length  arrived  in 
Ithaca,  after  an  absence  of  twenty  y^ars.  Hav- 
ing recognized  her  husband  by  several  signs, 
she  heartily  welcomed  htm,  and  the  days  of  her 
grief  and  sorrow  were  at  an  end.  Vid.  ULYS- 
SES. While  Homer  describes  Penelope  as  a 
most  chaste  and  faithful  wife,  some  later  writ- 
ers charge  her  with  the  very  opposite  vice,  and 
relate  that  by  Mercury  (Hermes)  or  by  all  the 
suitors  together  she  became  the  mother  of  Pan. 
They  add  that  Ulysses,  on  his  return,  repudiated 
her,  whereupon  she  went  to  Sparta,  and  thence 
to  Mantinea,  where  her  tomb  was  shown  in  after 
times.  According  to  another  tradition,  she  mar- 
ried Telegonus,  after  he  had  killed  his  father 
Ulysses. 

[PENEST.S:  (Hevearat),  according  to  Stephanus 
of  Byzantium,  aThessalian  tribe,  but  according 
to  Livy,  a  warlike  race  of  Grecian  Illyria,  in  the 
district  Pencstia  or  Penestiana  terra,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Thessaly  and  Macedonia.] 

PENEUS  (Ili)vei6().  1.  (Now  Salambria  or  Sa- 
lamria),  the  chief  river  of  Thessaly,  and  one  of 
the  most  important  in  all  Greece,  rises  near  Alal- 
comenae  in  Mount  Lacmon,  a  branch  of  Mount 
Pindus,  flows  first  southeast  and  then  northeast, 
and  after  receiving  many  affluents,  of  which  the 
most  important  were  the  Enipeus,  the  Lethaeus, 
and  the  Titaresius,  forces  its  way  through  the 
Vale  of  Tempe  between  Mounts  Ossa  and  Olym- 
pus into  the  sea.  Vid.  TEMPE.  Asagod,Peneus 
was  called  a  son  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys.  By 
the  Naiad  Creusa  he  became  the  father  of  Hyp- 
seus,  Stilbe,  and  Daphne.  Gyrene  also  is  called 
by  some  his  wife,  and  by  others  his  daughter, 
and  hence  Peneus  is  described  as  the  progeni- 
tor of  Aristaeus. — 2.  (Now  Gasluni),  a  river  in 
Elis,  which  rises  on  the  frontiers  of  Arcadia, 
flows  by  the  town  of  Elis,  and  falls  into  the  sea  be- 
tween the  promontories  Chelonatas  and  Ichthys. 
PENIUS,  a  little  river  of  Pontus,  falling  into 
the  Euxine.  (Ovid,  Ex  Ponto,  iv.,  10.) 
PENNINE  ALPES.  Vid.  ALPES. 
[PENNUS,  JUNIUS  M.  1.  Praetor  B.C.  172,  and 
obtained  Nearer  Spain  for  his  province.  He  was 
consul  B.C.  167,  with  Q.  ^Elius  Paetus,  and  ob- 
tained Pisae  as  his  province. — 2.  M.  JUNIUS,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
126,  in  which  year  he  brought  forward  a  law  for 
expelling  all  strangers  or  foreigners  (peregrini) 
from  Rome.  This  law  was  opposed  by  C.  Grac- 
chus, but  was  carried.  Pennus  was  afterward 
elected  to  the  aedileship,  but  died  before  obtain- 
ing any  higher  honor  in  the  state.] 

PENTAPOLIS  (flfvTujroJUf),  the  name  for  any 
association  of  five  cities,  was  applied  specific- 
ally to,  1.  The  five  chief  cities  of  Cyrenaica  in 
Northern  Africa, 'Gyrene,  Berenice,  Arsinoe, 
Ptolemai's,  and  Apollonia,  from  which,  under  the 
Ptolemies,  Cyrenaica  received  the  name  of 
Pentapolis,  or  Pentapolis  Libyae,  or,  in  the  Ro- 
man writers,  Pentapolitana  Regio.  When  the 
name  occurs  alone,  this  is  its  meaning ;  the 
other  applications  of  it  are  but  rare.— 2.  The 


PENTRf. 

five  cities  of  the  Philistines  in  the  southwest  of 
Palestine,  namely,  Gaza,  Ashdod(Azotus),  Aska- 
Ion,  Gath,  and  Ekron. — 3.  In  the  apocryphal 
Book  of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  (x.,  6),  the  name 
is  applied  to  the  five  "  cities  of  the  plain"  of  the 
southern  Jordan,  Sodom,  Gomorrha,  Adama, 
Zeboi'm,  and  Zoar,  all  of  which  (except  the  last, 
which  was  spared  at  the  intercession  of  Lot) 
were  overthrown  by  fire  from  heaven,  and  the 
valley  in  which  they  stood  was  buried  beneath 
the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

PENTELEUM  (HevT&eiov),  a  fortified  place  in 
the  north  of  Arcadia,  near  Pheneus. 

PENTELICUS  MONS  (TO  TLevrtAiKov  opoc :  now 
Penteli),  a  mountain  in  Attica,  celebrated  for  its 
marble,  which  derived  its  name  from  the  demus 
of  PentSle  (UevT&r]),  lying  on  its  southern  slope. 
It  is  a -branch  of  Mount  Parnes,  from  which  it 
runs  hi  a  southeasterly  direction  between  Athens 
and  Marathon  to  the  coast.  It  is  probably  the 
same  as  the  mountain  called  Brilessus  (Bpdria- 
<7#f)  by  Thucydides  and  others. 

PENTHESILEA  (HevdeoiXtia),  daughter  of  Mars 
(Ares)  and  Otrera,  and  queen  of  the  Amazons. 
After  the  death  of  Hector  she  came  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Trojans,  but  was  slain  by  Achilles, 
who  mourned  over  the  dying  queen  on  account 
of  her  beauty,  youth,  and  valor.  Thersites  rid- 
iculed the  grief  of  Achilles,  and  was,  in  conse- 
quence, killed  by  the  hero.  Thereupon  Diome- 
des,  a  relative  of  Thersites,  threw  the  body  of 
Penthesilea  into  the  River  Scamander ;  but,  ac- 
cording to  others,  Achilles  himself  buried  it  on 
the  banks  of  the  Xanthus. 

PENTHEUS  (IlevfleiJf),  son  of  Echlon  and  Agave, 
the  daughter  of  Cadmus.  He  succeeded  Cad- 
mus as  king  of  Thebes  ;  and  having  resisted  the 
introduction  of  the  worship  of  Bacchus  (Diony- 
sus) into  his  kingdom,  he  was  driven  mad  by  the 
god,  his  palace  was  hurled  to  the  ground,  and  he 
himself  was  torn  to  pieces  by  his  own  mother 
and  her  two  sisters,  Ino  and  Autonoe,  who,  in 
their  Bacchic  phrensy,  believed  him  to  be  a  wild 
beast.  The  place  where  Pentheus  suffered  death 
is  said  to  have  been  Mount  Cithaeron  or  Mount 
Parnassus.  It  is  related  that  Pentheus  got  upon 
a  tree  for  the  purpose  of  witnessing  in  secret 
the  revelry  of  the  Bacchic  women,  but  on  being 
discovered  by  them  was  torn  to  pieces.  Ac- 
cording to  a  Corinthian  tradition,  the  women 
were  afterward  commanded  by  an  oracle  to  dis- 
cover that  tree,  and  to  worship  it  like  the  god 
Bacchus  (Dionysus);  and,  accordingly,  out  of 
the  tree  two  carved  images  of  the  god  were 
made.  The  tragic  fate  of  Pentheus  forms  the 
subject  of  the  Baccha  of  Euripides. 

[PENTHILID^E  (HevdiM6ai),  a  noble  family  at 
Mytilene  in  Lesbos,  who  derived  their  origin 
from  Penthilus,  the  son  of  Orestes,  who  was 
said  to  have  led  a  colony  to  Lesbos.] ' 

PENTHILUS  (TlevOi\o(),  son  of  Orestes  and  Eri- 
gone,  is  said  to  have  led  a  colony  of  ^Eolians  to 
Thrace.  He  was  the  father  of  Echelatus  and 
Damasias. 

PENTRI,  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
tribes  in  Samnium,  were  conquered  by  the  Ro- 
mans along  with  the  other  Samnites,  and  were 
the  only  one  of  the  Samnite  tribes  who  remain- 
ed faithful  to  the  Romans  when  the  rest  of  the 
nation  revolted  to  Hannibal  in  the  second  Punic 
war.  Their  chief  town  was  BOVIANUM. 

623 


PEOR. 

PEOR,  a  mountain  of  Palestine,  in  the  land 
of  Moab,  only  mentioned  in  the  Pentatedch.  It 
was  probably  one  of  the  summits  of  the  mount- 
ains called  Abarim,  which  ran  north  and  south 
through  Moabitis,  along  the  easteni^eide  of  the 
valley  of  the  southern  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea. 

PEOS  ARTEMIDOS  (Ileof,  probably  corrupted 
trom  Sjr&jf,  cave,  'Apre/u/doj- :  ruins  at  Beni  Has- 
san), a  city  of  the  Heptanomis,  or  Middle  Egypt, 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  nearly  opposite 
to  Hermopolis  the  Great,  on  the  western  bank. 
It  is  remarkable  as  the  site  of  the  most  extensive 
rock-hewn  catacombs  in  all  Egypt,  the  walls  of 
which  are  covered  with  sculptures  and  paintings 
of  the  greatest  importance  for  elucidating  Egyp- 
tian antiquities. 

PEPARETHUS  (ttendpr)6o£  :  Ileirap^Btof  :  now 
Piperi),  a  small  island  in  the^Egean  Sea*  off  the 
coast  of  Thessaly,  and  east  of  Halonesus,  with 
a  town  of  the  same  name  upon  it,  and  two  other 
small  places.  It  produced  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  wine.  It  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Halonesus  in  the  war  between  Philip  and 
the  Athenians.  Vid.  HALONESUS. 

[PEPHNOS  (Ilfyvoe).  1.  Acity  on  the  west  coast 
of  Laconia,  twenty  stadia  from  Thalamae.  In 
front  of  it  lay,  2.  A  small  island  of  the  same 
name,  where,  according  to  tradition,  the  Dios- 
curi were  born.] 

PEPHREDO  (HeQpqfiu).     Vid.  GRJEJE. 

PEPUZA  (H€irov£a  :  ruins  near  Besh-Shehr),  a 
C'ty  in  the  west  of  Phrygia,  of  some  note  in  ec- 
clesiastical history. 

PER^EA  (TJ  Hepaia,  sc.  yq  or  #upa,  the  country 
on  the  opposite  side),  a  general  name  for  any  dis- 
trict belonging  to  or  closely  connected  with  a 
country,  from  the  main  part  of  which  it  was 
separated  by  a  sea  or  river,  was  used  specific- 
ally for,  1.  The  part  of  Palestine  east  of  the 
Jordan  in  general,  but  usually,  in  a  more  re- 
stricted sense,  for  a  part  of  that  region,  namely, 
the  district  between  the  Rivers  Hieromax  on 
the  north,  and  Arnon  on  the  south.  Respecting 
its  political  connections  with  the  rest  of  the 
country,  vid.  PAL^ISTINA.  —  2.  PERJEA  RHODIO- 
BUM  (i]  irepaia  TUV  'Podiuv),  also  called  the  Rho- 
dian  Chersonese,  a  district  in  the  south  of  Caria, 
opposite  to  the  island  of  Rhodes,  from  Mount 
Phoenix  on  the  west,  to  the  frontier  of  Lycia  on 
the  east.  This  strip  of  coast,  which  was  reck- 
oned fifteen  hundred  stadia  in  length  (by  sea), 
and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  spots  on 
the  earth,  was  colonized  by  the  Rhodians  at  an 
early  period,  and  was  always  in  close  political 
connection  with  Rhodes  even  under  the  suc- 
cessive rulers  of  Caria ;  and,  after  the  victory 
of  the  Romans  over  Antiochus  the  Great,  B.C. 
190,  it  was  assigned,  with  the  whole  of  Carian 
Doris,  to  the  independent  republic  of  the  Rho- 
dians. Vid.  RHODUS. — 3.  P.  TENEDIORUM  (TTE- 
paia  Teveditiv),  a  strip  of  the  western  coast  of 
Mysia,  opposite  to  the  island  of  Tenedos,  be- 
tween Cape  Sigeum  on  the  north,  and  Alexandrea 
Troas  on  the  south. — 4.  A  city  on  the  western 
coast  of  Mysia,  near  Adramyttium,  one  of  the 
colonies  of  the  Mytilenaeans,  and  not  improb- 
ably preserving  in  its  name  that  of  a  district 
once  called  Peraea  Mytilenaeorum  ;  for  the  peo- 
ple of  Mytilene  are  known  to  have  had  many 
settlements  on  this  coast. 

[PERCENNIUS,  a  common  soldier,  w  is  the  ring-  ! 
624 


PERDICCAS 

|  leader  in  the  formidable  mutiny  of  the  Panno- 
!  nian  legions,  which  broke  out  at  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  A.D.  14.    He  was  killed 
by  order  of  Drusus.] 

PERCOTE  (HepKu-jj,  formerly  HtpKuiti),  accord- 
ing to  Strabo:  now  Borgas  or  Burgus,  Turk., 
and  Percale,  Grk.),  a  very  ancient  city  of  Mysia, 
between  Abydos  and  Lampsacus,  near  the  Hel- 
lespont, on^  river  called  PERCATES,  in  a  beau- 
tiful situation.  It  is  mentioned  by  Homer. 

PERDICCAS  (Tlepdiiacaf).  1.  I.  The  founder  of 
the  Macedonian  monarchy,  according  to  Herodo- 
tus, though  later  writers  represent  Caranus  as 
the  first  king  of  Macedonia,  and  make  Perdiccas 
only  the  fourth.  Vid.  CARANUS.  According  to 
Herodotus,  Perdiccas  and  his  two  brothers,  Gau- 
anes  and  Aeropus,  were  Argives  of  the  race  of 
Temenus,  who  settled  near  Mount  Bermius,  from 
whence  they  subdued  the  rest  of  Macedonia. 
(Herod.,  viii.,  137,  138.)  It  is  clear,  however, 
that  the  dominions  of  Perdiccas  and  his  imme- 
diate successors  comprised  but  a  very  small 
part  of  the  country  subsequently  known  under 
that  name.  Perdiccas  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Argaeus.  —  2.  II.  King  of  Macedonia  from 
about  B.C.  454  to  413,  was  the  son  and  success- 
or of  Alexander  I.  Shortly  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Peloponnesian  war  Perdiccas 
was  at  war  with  the  Athenians,  who  sent  a  force 
to  support  his  brother  Philip,  and  Derdas,  a 
Macedonian  chieftain,  against  the  king,  while 
the  latter  espoused  the  cause  of  Potidasa,  which 
had  shaken  off  the  Athenian  yoke,  B.C.  432.  In 
the  following  year  peace  was  concluded  be- 
tween Perdiccas  and  the  Athenians,  but  it  did 
not  last  long,  and  he  was  during  the  greater 
part  of  his  reign  on  hostile  terms  with  the  Athe- 
nians. In  429  his  dominions  were  invaded  by 
Sitalces,  king  of  the  powerful  Thracian  tribe  of 
the  Odrysians,  but  the  enemy  was  compelled, 
by  want  of  provisions,  to  return  home.  It  was 
in  great  part  at  his  instigation  that  Brasidas  in 
424  set  out  on  his  celebrated  expedition  to  Mac- 
edonia and  Thrace.  In  the  following  year  (423), 
however,  a  misunderstanding  arose  between 
him  and  Brasidas ;  in  consequence  of  which  he 
abandoned  the  Spartan  alliance,  and  concluded 
peace  with  Athens.  Subsequently  we  find  him 
at  one  time  in  alliance  with  the  Spartans,  and 
at  another  time  with  the  Athenians ;  and  it  is 
evident  that  he  joined  one  or  other  of  the  bel- 
ligerent parties  according  to  the  dictates  of  his 
own  interest  at  the  moment. — 3.  III.  King  of 
Macedonia  B.C.  364-359,  was  the  second  son 
of  Amyntas  II.  by  his  wife  Eurydice.  On  the 
assassination  of  his  brother  Alexander  II.  by 
Ptolemy  of  Alorus,  367,  the  crown  of  Macedo- 
nia devolved  upon  him  by  hereditary  right,  but 
Ptolemy  virtually  enjoyed  the  sovereign  power 
as  guardian  of  Perdiccas  till  364,  when  the  lat- 
ter caused  Ptolemy  to  be  put  to  death,  and  took 
the  government  into  his  own  hands.  Of  the 
reign  of  Perdiccas  we  have  very  little  informa- 
tion. We  learn  only  that  he  was  at  one  time 
engaged  in  hostilities  with  Athens  on  account 
of  Amphipolis,  and  that  he  was  distinguished 
for  his  patronage  of  men  of  letters.  He  fell  in 
battle  against  the  Illyrians,  359.— 4.  Son  of  Oron- 
tes,  a  Macedonian  of  the  province  of  Orestis. 
was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  generals 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  accompanied  Alex 


PERDIX. 

ander  throughout  his  campaigns  in  Asia ;  and 
he  king  on  his  death-bed  is  said  to  have  taken 
the  royal  signet- ring  from  his  finger  and  given 
it  to  Perdiccas.  After  the  death  of  the  king 
(323),  Perdiccas  had  the  chief  authority  intrust- 
ed to  him  under  the  command  of  the  new  king 
Arrhidaeus,  who  was  a  mere  puppet  in  his  hands, 
and  he  still  further  strengthened  his  power  by 
the  assassination  of  his  rival  Meleager.  Vid. 
MELEAGER.  The  other  generals  of  Alexander 
regarded  him  with  fear  and  suspicion  ;  and  at 
length  his  ambitious  schemes  induced  Antipater, 
Craterus,  and  Ptolemy  to  unite  in  a  league  and 
declare  open  war  against  Perdiccas.  Thus  as- 
eailed  on  all  sides,  Perdiccas  determined  to 
leave  Eumenes  in  Asia  Minor,  to  make  head 
against  their  common  enemies  in  that  quarter, 
while  he  himself  marched  into  Egypt  against 
Ptolemy.  He  advanced  without  opposition  as 
far  as  Pelusium,  but  found  the  banks  of  the  Nile 
strongly  fortified  and  guarded  by  Ptolemy,  and 
was  repulsed  in  repeated  attempts  to  force  the 
passage  of  the  river ;  in  the  last  of  which,  near 
Memphis,  he  lost  great  numbers  of  men.  There- 
upon his  troops,  who  had  long  been  discontent- 
ed with  Perdiccas,  rose  in  mutiny,  and  put  him 
to  death  in  his  own  tent. 

PERDU  (ITcpdtf),  the  sister  of  Daedalus,  and 
mother  of  Talos,  or,  according  to  others,  the 
sister's  son  of  Daedalus,  figu  .C3  in  the  mytho- 
logical period  of  Greek  art,  as  the  inventor  of 
various  implements,  chiefly  for  working  in  wood. 
Perdix  is  sometimes  confounded  with  Talos  or 
Calos,  and  it  is  best  to  regard  the  various  le- 
gends respecting  Perdix,  Talos,  and  Calos  as 
referring  to  one  and  the  same  person,  namely, 
according  to  the  mythographers,  a  nephew  of 
Daedalus.  The  inventions  ascribed  to  him  are, 
Uie  saw,  the  idea  of  which  is  said  to  have  been 
suggested  to  him  by  the  back-bone  of  a  fish,  or 
the  teeth  of  a  serpent ;  the  chisel ;  the  com- 
passes ;  the  potter's  wheel.  His  skill  excited 
the  jealousy  of  Daedalus,  who  threw  him  head- 
long from  the  temple  of  Minerva  (Athena)  on 
the  Acropolis,  but  the  goddess  caught  him  in  his 
fall,  and  changed  him  into  the  bird  which  was 
named  after  him,  perdix,  the  partridge. 

PEREGRINUS  PBOTEUS,  a  cynic  philosopher, 
born  at  Parium,  on  the  Hellespont,  flourished  in 
the  reign  of  the  Antonines.  After  a  youth  spent 
in  debauchery  and  crimes,  he  visited  Palestine, 
where  he  turned  Christian,  and  by  dint  of  hypoc- 
risy attained  to  some  authority  in  the  Church. 
He  next  assumed  the  cynic  garb,  and  returned 
to  his  native  town,  where,  to  obliterate  the  mem- 
ory of  his  crimes,  he  divided  his  inheritance 
among  the  populace.  He  again  set  out  on  his 
travels,  and  after  visiting  many  places,  and 
adopting  every  method  to  make  himself  conspic- 
uous, he  at  length  resolved  on  publicly  burning 
himself  at  the  Olympic  games  ;  and  carried  his 
resolution  into  effect  in  the  two  hundred  and 
thirty-sixth  Olympiad,  A.D.  165.  Lucian,  who 
knew  Peregrinus,  and  who  was  present  at  his 
strange  self-immolation,  has  left  us  an  account 
of  his  life. 

PERENNA,  ANNA.     Vid.  ANNA. 

PERENNIS,  succeeded  Paternus  in  A.D.  183, 
as  sole  praefect  of  the  praetorians,  and,  Corn- 
modus  being  completely  sunk  in  debauchery  and 

loth,  virtually  ruled  the  empire.  Having,  how- 
40 


PERGAMON. 

ever,  rendered  himself  obnoxious  to  the  sol- 
diery, he  was  put  to  death  by  them  in  186  or 
187.  Dion  Cassius  represents  Perennis  as  a 
man  of  a  pure  and  upright  life  ;  but  the  other 
historians  charge  him  with  having  encouraged 
the  emperor  in  all  his  excesses,  and  urged  h;m 
on  in  his  career  of  profligacy. 

[PERECJS  (IlepEve),  son  of  Elatus  and  Laodit,e, 
brother  of  Stymphalus,  and  father  of  Neaera.] 

PERGA  (lispyrj  :  llep-yaiof :  ruins  at  Murtana), 
an  ancient  and  important  city  of  Pamphylia,  lay 
a  little  inland,  northeast  of  Attalia,  between  the 
Rivers  Catarrhactes  and  Cestrus,  sixty  stadia 
(six  geographical  miles)  from  the  mouth  of  the 
former.  It  was  a  celebrated  seat  of  the  wor- 
ship of  Diana  (Artemis).  On  an  eminence  near 
the  city  stood  a  very  ancient  and  renowned 
temple  of  the  goddess,  at  which  a  yearly  festi- 
val was  celebrated  ;  and  the  coins  of  Perga  bear 
images  of  the  goddess  and  her  temple.  Under 
the  later  Roman  empire,  it  was  the  capital  of 
Pamphylia  Secunda.  It  was  the  first  place  in 
Asia  Minor  visited  by  the  Apostle  Paul  on  his 
first  missionary  journey  (Acts,  xiii.,  13  ;  vid.  also 
xiv.,  25).  Splendid  ruins  of  the  city  are  still 
visible  about  sixteen  miles  northeast  of  Adalia. 

PERGAMA  and  PERGAMIA.  Vid.  PERGAMON. 
No.  1. 

PERGAMON  or  -UM,  PEXGAMOS  or  -us  (TO  Hep- 
ya/tov,  i)  nipyapof :  the  former  by  far  the  most 
usual  form  in  the  classical  writers,  though  the 
latter  is  more  common  in  English,  probably  or 
account  of  its  use  in  our  version  of  the  Bible. 
Rev.,  ii.,  13  ;  in  Latin  it  seldom  occurs  in  the 
nominative,  but,  when  used,  the  form  is  Perga- 
mum  :  Hepyaprjvof,  Pergamenus.  The  word  is 
significant,  connected  with  irvpyof,  a  tower ;  it  is 
used  in  the  plural  form,  -irepya^a,  as  a  com- 
mon noun  by  ^Eschylus,  Prom.,  956;  Euripides, 
Phan.,  1098, 1176).  1.  The  citadel  of  Troy,  and 
used  poetically  for  Troy  itself:  the  poets  also 
use  the  forms  PERGAMA  (~<i  Hep-yapa)  and  PER- 
GAMIA (T)  Hepyafiia,  sc.  ir62.i( )  :  the  king  of  Troy, 
Laomedon,  is  called  Htpyafiidijf,  and  the  Ro- 
mans are  spoken  of  by  Silius  Italicus  as  "  san- 
guis  Pergameus." — 2.  (Ruins  at  Bergamo,  or 
Pergamo),  a  celebrated  city  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus,  and  after 
ward  of  the  Roman  province  of  Asia,  was  situ- 
ated in  the  district  of  Southern  Mysia  called  Teu- 
thrania,  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile 
valleys  in  the  world.  It  stood  on  the  northern 
bank  of  the  River  Cai'cus,  at  a  spot  where  that 
river  receives  the  united  waters  of  two  small 
tributaries,  the  Selinus,  which  flowed  through 
the  city,  and  the  Cetius,  which  washed  its  walls. 
The  navigable  river  Ca'fcus  connected  it  with 
the  sea  at  the  Ela'itic  Gulf,  fiom  which  its  dis- 
tance was  somewhat  less  than  twenty  miles. 
It  was  built  at  the  foot,  and  on  the  lowest  slopes, 
of  two  steep  hills,  on  one  of  which  the  ruins  of 
the  acropolis  are  still  visible,  and  in  the  plain 
below  are  the  remains  of  the  Asclepieum  and 
other  temples,  of  the  stadium,  the  theatre,  and 
the  amphitheatre,  and  of  other  buildings.  The 
origin  of  the  city  is  lost  in  mythical  traditions, 
which  ascribed  its  foundation  to  a  colony  from 
Arcadia  under  the  Heraclid  Tclephus,  and  its 
name  to  Pergamus,  a  son  of  Pyrrhus  and  An- 
dromache, who  made  himself  king  of  Teuthra- 
nia  by  killing  the  king  Arius  in  single  combat 

625 


PERGAMON. 

There  is  also  a  tradition  that  a  colony  of  Epi- 
daurians  settled  here  under  ^Esculapius  (As- 
olepius).  At  all  events,  it  was  already,  in  the 
time  of  Xenophon,  a  very  ancient  cityv  with  a 
mixed  population  of  Teuthranians  and  Greeks  ; 
but  it  was  not  a  place  of  much  importance  until 
the  time  of  the  successors  of  Alexander.  After 
the  defeat  of  Antigonus  at  Ipsus  in  301,  the 
northwestern  part  of  Asia  Minor  was  united  to 
the  Thracian  kingdom  of  LYSIMACHUS,  who  en- 
larged and  beautified  the  city  of  Pergamus,  and 
used  it  as  a  treasury  on  account  of  its  strength 
as  a  fortress.  The  command  of  the  fortress 
was  intrusted  to  PHILET^RUS,  who,  toward  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Lysimachus,  revolted  to  Se- 
leucus,  king  of  Syria,  retaining,  however,  the 
fortress  of  Pergamus  in  his  own  hands ;  and, 
upon  the  death  of  Seleucus  in  280,  Philetaerus 
established  himself  as  an  independent  ruler. 
This  is  the  date  of  the  commencement  of  the 
kingdom  of  Pergamus,  though  the  royal  title 
was  only  assumed  by  the  second  successor  of 
Philetaerus,  ATTALUS  I.,  after  his  great  victory 
over  the  Gauls.  The  successive  kings  of  Per- 
gamus were  PHILET^ERCS,  280-263  ;  EUMENES 
I.,  263-241;  ATTALUS  I.,  241-197;  EUMENES 
II.,  197-159  ;  ATTALUS  II.  PHILADELPHUS,  159- 
138  ;  ATTALUS  III.  PHILOMETOR,  138-133.  For 
the  outline  of  their  history,  vid.  the  articles. 
The  kingdom  reached  its  greatest  extent  after 
the  defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  B.C.  190,  when  the  Romans  bestowed 
upon  Eumenes  II.  the  whole  of  Mysia,  Lydia, 
both  Phrygias,  Lycaonia,  Pisidia,  and  Pamphylia. 
ft  was  under  the  same  king  that  Pergamus 
reached  the  height  of  its  splendor,  and  that  the 
celebrated  library  was  founded,  which  for  a  long 
time  rivalled  that  of  Alexandrea,  and  the  for- 
mation of  which  occasioned  the  invention  of 
parchment,  charta  Pergamena.  This  library  was 
afterward  united  to  that  of  Alexandrea,  having 
been  presented  by  Antony  to  Cleopatra.  Dur- 
ing its  existence  at  Pergamus,  it  formed  the 
centre  of  a  great  school  of  literature,  which  ri- 
valled that  of  Alexandrea.  On  the  death  of  At- 
talus  III.  in  B.C.  133,  the  kingdom,  by  a  bequest 
in  his  will,  passed  to  the  Romans,  who  took  pos- 
session of  it  in  130  after  a  contest  with  the 
usurper  Aristonicus,  and  erected  it  into  the  prov- 
ince of  Asia,  with  the  city  of  Pergamus  for  its 
capital,  which  continued  in  such  prosperity  that 
Pliny  calls  it  "longe  clarissimum  Asia?."  The 
city  was  an  early  seat  of  Christianity,  and  is 
one  of  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  to  whom 
the  apocalyptic  epistles  are  addressed.  St.  John 
describes  it  as  the  scene  of  a  persecution  of 
Christianity,  and  the  seat  of  gross  idolatry, 
which  had  even  infected  the  Church.  The  ex- 
pression "  where  Satan's  seat  is"  is  thought  by 
some  to  refer  to  the  worship  of  the  serpent,  as 
the  symbol  of  ^Esculapius  (Asclepius),  the  pa- 
tron god  of  the  city.  Under  the  Byzantine  em- 
perors, the  capital  of  the  province  of  Asia  was 
transferred  to  Ephesus,  and  Pergamus  lost  much 
of  its  importance.  Among  the  celebrated  na- 
tives of  the  city  were  the  rhetorician  Apollo- 
dorus  and  the  physician  Galen. — 3.  A  very  an- 
cient city  of  Crete,  the  foundation  of  which  was 
ascribed  to  the  Trojans  who  survived  their  city. 
The  legislator  Lycurgus  was  said  to  have  died 
tere,  and  his  grave  was  shown.  The  site  of 
626 


PERIANDER. 

the  city  is  doubtful.     Some  place  it  at  Ferama, 
others  at  Platania. 

PERGAMUS.  Vid.  PERGAMON. 

PERGE.  Vid.  PEROA. 

[PERGUS,  a  lake  of  Sicily,  not  far  from  the 
walls  of  Enna,  on  the  banks  of  which  Proser- 
pina (Persephone)  was  said  to  have  been  col- 
lecting flowers  when  she  was  seized  and  car- 
ried off  by  Pluto  (Hades).] 

PERIANDER  (Utpiavdpof).  1.  Son  of  Cypselus, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  tyrant  of  Corinth,  B.C. 
625,  and  reigned  forty  years,  to  B.C.  585.  His 
rule  was  mild  and  beneficent  at  first,  but  after- 
ward became  oppressive.  According  to  the 
common  story,  this  change  was  owing  to  the 
advice  of  Thrasybulus,  tyrant  of  Miletus,  whom 
Periander  had  consulted  on  the  best  mode  of 
maintaining  his  power,  and  who  is  said  to  have 
taken  the  messenger  through  a  corn-field,  cut- 
ting off  as  he  went  the  tallest  ears,  and  then  to 
have  dismissed  him  without  committing  himself 
to  a  verbal  answer.  The  action,  however,  was 
rightly  interpreted  by  Periander,  who  proceeded 
to  rid  himself  of  the  most  powerful  nobles  in 
the  state.  He  made  his  power  respected  abroad 
as  well  as  at  home ;  and  besides  his  conquest 
of  Epidaurus,  mentioned  below,  he  kept  Corcyra 
in  subjection.  He  was,  like  many  of  the  other 
Greek  Jyrants,  a  patron  of  literature  and  philoso- 
phy, and  Arion  and  Anacharsis  were  in  favor  at 
his  court.  He  was  very  commonly  reckoned 
among  the  Seven  Sages,  though  by  some  he 
was  excluded  from  their  number,  andMyson  of 
Chenae  in  Laconia  was  substituted  in  his  room. 
The  private  life  of  Periander  was  marked  by 
misfortune  and  cruelty.  He  married  Melissa, 
daughter  of  Procles,  tyrant  of  Epidaurus.  She 
bore  him  two  sons,  Cypselus  and  Lycophron, 
and  was  passionately  beloved  by  him ;  but  h6 
is  said  to  have  killed  her  by  a  blow  during  her 
pregnancy,  having  been  roused  to  a  fit  of  anger 
by  a  false  accusation  brought  against  her.  His 
wife's  death  imbittered  the  remainder  of  his 
days,  partly  through  the  remorse  which  he  felt 
for  the  deed,  partly  through  the  alienation  of 
his  younger  son  Lycophron,  inexorably  exasper- 
ated by  his  mother's  fate.  The  young  man's 
anger  had  been  chiefly  excited  by  Procles,  and 
Periander,  in  revenge,  attacked  Epidaurus,  and, 
having  reduced  it,  took  his  father-in-law  pris- 
oner. Periander  sent  Lycophron  to  Corcyra  ; 
but  when  he  was  himself  advanced  in  years,  he 
summoned  Lycophron  back  to  Corinth  to  suc- 
ceed to  the  tyranny,  seeing  that  Cypselus,  his 
elder  son,  was  unfit  to  hold  it,  from  deficiency 
of  understanding.  Lycophron  refused  to  return 
to  Corinth  as  long  as  his  father  was  there ; 
thereupon  Periander  offered  to  withdraw  to 
Corcyra  if  Lycophron  would  come  home  and 
take  the  government.  To  this  he  assented ;  but 
the  Corcyraeans,  not  wishing  to  have  Periander 
among  them,  put  Lycophron  to  death.  Perian 
der  shortly  afterward  died  of  despondency,  at 
the  age  of  eighty,  and  after  a  reign  of  forty 
years,  according  to  Diogenes  LaCrtius.  He  was 
succeeded  by  a  relative,  Psammetichus,  son  of 
Gordias. — 2.  Tyrant  of  Ambracia,  was  contem- 
porary with  his  more  famous  namesake  of  Coi 
inth,  to  whom  he  was  also  related,  being  the 
son  of  Gorgus,  who  was  son  or  brother  to  Cyp 
selus.  Periander  was  deposed  by  the  people 


PERIBCEA. 

probably  after  the  death  of  the  Corinthian  tyrant 
'585). 

PERIBCEA  (UepiSota).     1.  Wife  of  Icarius,  and 
mother  of  Penelope.     Vid.  ICARIUS,  No.  2. — 

2.  Daughter  of  Alcathous,  and  wife   of  Tela- 
mon,  by  whom  she.  became  the  mother  of  Ajax 
and  Teucer.     Some  writers  call  her  Eribcea. — 

3.  Daughter  of  Hipponous,  and  wife  of  CEneus, 
by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Tydeus. 
Vid.  CENEus.-r-4.  Wife  of  King  Polybus  of  Cor- 
inth.— [5.  Daughter  of  Acesamenus,  mother  by 
Axius  of  Pelagon. — 6.  Daughter  ofEurymedon, 
mother  of  Nausithous  by  Neptune  (Poseidon).] 

PERICLES  (flfpf«/l^f).  1.  The  greatest  of 
Athenian  statesmen,  was  the  son  of  Xanthip- 
pus.and  Agariste,  both  of  whom  belonged  to  the 
noblest  families  of  Athens.  The  fortune  of  his 
parents  procured  for  him  a  careful  education, 
which  his  extraordinary  abilities  and  diligence 
turned  to  the  best  account.  He  received  in- 
struction from  Damon,  Zeno  of  Elea,  and  Anax- 
agoras.  With  Anaxagoras  he  lived  on  terms 
of  the  most  intimate  friendship,  till  the  philos- 
opher was  compelled  to  retire  from  Athens. 
From  this  great  and  original  thinker  Pericles 
was  believed  to  have  derived  not  only  the  cast 
of  his  mind,  but  the  character  of  his  eloquence, 
which,  in  the  elevation  of  its  sentiments,  and 
the  purity  and  loftiness  of  its  style,  was  the 
fitting  expression  of  the  force  and  dignity  of  his 
character  and  the  grandeur  of  his  conceptions. 
Of  the  oratory  of  Pericles  no  specimens  remain 
to  us,  but  it  is  described  by  ancient  writers  as 
characterized  by  singular  force  and  energy.  He 
wasdescribed  as  thunderingandlighteningwhen 
he  spoke,  and  as  carrying  the  weapons  of  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus)  upon  his  tongue.  In  B.C.  469,  Peri- 
cles began  to  take  part  in  public  affairs,  forty 
years  before  his  death,  and  was  soon  regarded 
as  the  head  of  the  more  democratical  part  in  the 
state,  in  opposition  to  Cimon.  He  gained  the 
favor  of  the  people  by  the  laws  which  he  got 
passed  for  their  benefit.  Thus  it  was  enacted 
through  his  means  that  the  citizens  should  re- 
ceive from  the  public  treasury  the  price  of  their 
admittance  to  the  theatre,  amounting  to  two 
oboli  apiece  ;  that  those  who  served  in  the 
courts  of  the  Heliaea  should  be  paid  for  their  at- 
tendance ;  and  that  those  citizens  who  served 
as  soldiers  should  likewise  be  paid.  It  was  at 
his  instigation  that  his  friend  Ephialtes  propos- 
ed, in  461,  the  measure  by  which  the  Areopagus 
was  deprived  of  those  functions  which  rendered 
it  formidable  as  an  antagonist  to  the  democrat- 
ical party.  This  success  was  followed  by  the 
ostracism  of  Cimon,  who  was  charged  with  La- 
con  ism,  and  Pericles  was  thus  placed  at  the 
head  of  public  affairs  at  Athens.  Pericles  was 
distinguished  as  a  general  as  well  as  a  states- 
man, and  frequently  commanded  the  Athenian 
armies  in  their  wars  with  the  neighboring  states. 
In  454  he  commanded  the  Athenians  in  their 
campaigns  against  the  Sicyonians  and  Acarna- 
nians  ;  in  448  he  led  the  army  which  assisted  I 
the  Phocians  in  the  Sacred  war ;  and  in  445  he  ; 
rendered  the  most  signal  service  to  the  state  by  i 
recovering  the  island  of  Euboea,  which  had  re- 
volted from  Athens.  Cimon  had  been  previously 
recalled  from  exile,  without  any  opposition  from  • 
Pericles,  but  had  died  in  449.  On  his  death  the  j 
an.'itocratical  party  was  headed  by  Thucydides,  i 


PERICLES. 

the  son  of  Melesias,  but  on  the  ostracism  of  tne 
latter  in  444,  the  organized  opposition  of  the 
aristocratical  party  was  broken  up,  and  Pericles 
was  left  without  a  rival.  Throughout  the  re- 
mainder of  his  political  course  no  one  appeared 
to  contest  his  supremacj  ;  but  the  boundless  in- 
fluence which  he  possessed  was  never  perverted 
by  him  to  sinister  or  unworthy  purposes.  So 
far  from  being  a  mere  selfish  demagogue,  he 
neither  indulged  nor  courted  the  multitude. 
The  next  important  event  in  which  Pericles  was 
engaged  was  the  war  against  Samos,  which  had 
revolted  from  Athens,  and  which  he  subdued 
after  an  arduous  campaign,  440.  The  poet  Soph- 
ocles was  one  of  the  generals  who  fought  with 
Pericles  against  Samos.  For  the  next  ten  years, 
till  the  outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the 
Athenians  were  not  engaged  in  any  considera- 
ble military  operations.  During  this  period  Peri 
cles  devoted  especial  attention  to  the  Athenian 
navy,  as  her  supremacy  rested  on  her  maritime 
superiority,  and  he  adopted  various  judicious 
means  for  consolidating  and  strengthening  her 
empire  over  the  islands  of  the  JSgean.  The 
funds  derived  from  the  tribute  of  the  allies  and 
from  other  sources  were,  to  a  large  extent,  de- 
voted by  him  to  the  erection  of  those  magnifi- 
cent temples  and  public  buildings  which  ren- 
dered Athens  the  wonder  and  admiration  of 
Greece.  Under  his  administration  the  Propy- 
laea,  and  the  Parthenon,  and  the  Odeum  were 
erected,  as  well  as  numerous  other  temples 
and  public  buildings.  With  the  stimulus  af- 
forded by  these  works,  architecture  and  sculp- 
ture reached  their  highest  perfection,  and  some 
of  the  greatest  artists  of  antiquity  were  em- 
ployed in  erecting  or  adorning  the  buildings. 
The  chief  direction  and  oversight  of  the  public 
edifices  was  intrusted  to  Phidias.  Vid.  PHIDIAS. 
These  works  calling  into  activity  almost  every 
branch  of  industry  and  commerce  at  Athens, 
diffused  universal  prosperity  while  they  proceed- 
ed, and  thus  contributed  in  this,  as  well  as  in 
other  ways,  to  maintain  the  popularity  and  in- 
fluence of  Pericles.  But  he  still  had  many  ene- 
mies, who  were  not  slow  to  impute  to  him  base 
and  unworthy  motives.  From  the  comic  poets 
Pericles  had  to  sustain  numerous  attacks.  They 
exaggerated  his  power,  spoke  of  his  party  as 
Pisistratids,  and  called  upon  him  to  swear  that 
he  was  not  about  to  assume  the  tyranny.  His 
high  character  and  strict  probity,  however,  ren- 
dered all  these  attacks  harmless.  But  as  hia 
enemies  were  unable  to  ruin  his  reputation  by 
these  means,  they  attacked  him  through  his 
friends.  His  friends  Phidias  and  Anaxagoras, 
and  his  mistress  Aspasia,  were  all  accused  be- 
fore the  people.  Phidias  was  condemned  and 
cast  into  prison  (vid.  PHIDIAS)  ;  Anaxagoras  was 
also  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  and  quit  Athens  (vid. 
ANAXAGORAB)  ;  and  Aspasia  was  only  acquitted 
through  the  entreaties  and  tears  of  Pericles. 
The  Peloponnesian  war  has  been  falsely  ascribed 
to  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Pericles.  It  is  true 
that  he  counselled  the  Athenians  not  to  yielr 
to  the  demands  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  he 
pointed  out  the  immense  advantages  which  the 
Athenians  possessed  in  carrying  on  the  war; 
but  he  did  this  because  he  saw  that  war  was 
inevitable  ;  and  that,  as  long  as  Athens  retained 
the  great  power  which  she  then  possessed, 

627 


PERICLYMENUS. 

Sparta  would  never  rest  contented.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  war  in  431,  a  Peloponnesian  army 
under  Archidamus  invaded  Attica,  and  upon  his 
advice  the  Athenians  conveyed  their  movable 
property  into  the  city,  and  their  cattle  and  beasts 
of  burden  to  Eubcea,  and  allowed  the  Pelopon- 
nesians  to  desolate  Attica  without  opposition. 
The  next  year  (430),  when  the  Peloponnesians 
again  invaded  Attica,  Pericles  pursued  the  same 
policy  as  before.  In  this  summer  the  plague 
made  its  appearance  in  Athens.  The  Atheni- 
ans, being  exposed  to  the  devastation  of  the  war 
and  the  plague  at  the  same  time,  began  to  turn 
their  thoughts  to  peace,  and  looked  upon  Peri- 
pies  as  the  author  of  all  their  distresses,  inas- 
much as  he  had  persuaded  them  to  go  to  war. 
Pericles  attempted  to  calm  the  public  ferment ; 
but  such  was  the  irritation  against  him  that  he 
was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine.  The  ill  feeling  of 
the  people  having  found  this  vent,  Pericles  soon 
resumed  his  accustomed  sway,  and  was  again 
elected  one  of  the  generals  for  the  ensuing  year 
(429).  Meantime  Pericles  had  suffered  in  com- 
mon with  his  fellow-citizens.  The  plague  car- 
ried off  most  of  his  near  connections.  His  son 
Xanthippus,  a  profligate  and  undutiful  youth, 
his  sister,  and  most  of  his  intimate  friends,  died 
i. 'it.  Still  he  maintained  unmoved  his  calm 
bearing  and  philosophic  composure.  At  last  his 
only  surviving  legitimate  son,  Paralus,  a  youth 
of  greater  promise  than  his  brother,  fell  a  vic- 
tim. The  firmness  of  Pericles  then  at  last  gave 
way :  as  he  placed  the  funeral  garland  on  the 
head  of  the  lifeless  youth,  he  burst  into  tears 
and  sobbed  aloud.  He  had  one  son  remaining, 
his  child  by  Aspasia,  and  he  was  allowed  to  en- 
rol this  son  in  his  own  tribe  and  give  him  his 
own  name.  In  the  autumn  of  429,  Pericles  him- 
self died  of  a  lingering  sickness.  When  at  the 
point  of  death,  as  his  friends  were  gathered 
round  his  bed,  recalling  his  virtues  and  enumer- 
ating his  triumphs,  Pericles,  overhearing  their 
remarks,  said  that  they  had  forgotten  his  great- 
est praise  :  that  no  Athenian  through  his  means 
had  been  made  to  put  on  mourning.  He  sur- 
vived the  commencement  of  the  war  two  years 
and  six  months.  The  name  of  the  wife  of  Peri- 
cles is  not  mentioned.  She  had  been  the  wife 
of  Hipponicus,  by  whom  she  was  the  mother  of 
Callias.  She  bore  two  sons  to  Pericles,  Xan- 
thippus and  Paralus.  She  lived  unhappily  with 
Pericles,  and  a  divorce  took  place  by  mutual 
consent,  when  Pericles  connected  himself  with 
Aspasia.  Of  his  strict  probity  he  left  the  de- 
cisive proof  in  the  fact  that  at  his  death  he  was 
found  not  to  have  added  a  single  drachma  to  his 
hereditary  property.— 2.  Son  of  the  preceding, 
by  Aspasia,  was  one  of  the  generals  at  the  battle 
of  Arginusae,  and  was  put  to  death  by  the  Athe- 
nians with  the  other  generals,  406. 

PERICLYMENUS  (IlepiKhvfievof.)  1.  One  of  the 
Argonauts,  was  son  of  Neleus  and  Chloris,  and 
brother  of  Nestor.  Neptune  (Poseidon)  gave 
him  the  power  of  changing  himself  into  different 
forms,  and  conferred  upon  him  great  strength, 
but  he  was  nevertheless  slain  by  Hercules  at 
the  capture  of  Pylos. — 2.  Son  of  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon) and  Chloris,  the  daughter  of  Tiresias 
of  Thebes.  In  the  war  of  the  Seven  against 
Thebes  he  was  believed  to  have  killed  Parthen- 
opaeus  ;  and  when  he  pursued  Amphiaraue,  the 
628 


PERIPHAS. 

latter,  by  the  command  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  was 
swallowed  up  by  the  earth. 

[PERICTIONE  (HeptKriovri),  daughter  of  Cril- 
ias,  and  mother  of  the  celebrated  philosophei 
PLATO.] 

[PERIDIA,  a  Theban  female,  mother  of  Onytes, 
who  was  slain  by  Turnus  in  Italy.] 

PERIERES  (Ilfpt^p^f).  ].  Son  of  ^Eolus  and 
Enarete,  king  of  Messene,  was  the  father  of 
Aphareus  and  Leucippus  by  Gorgophone.  in 
some  traditions  Perieres  was  called  a  son  of 
Cynortas,  and,  besides  the  sons  above  mention- 
ed, he  is  said  to  have  been  the  father  of  Tyn- 
dareos  and  Icarius. — [2.  Father  of  Borus,  men- 
tioned in  the  Iliad. — 3.  A  Cumaan,  founder  of 
Zancle  in  Sicily.] 

[PERiovHE(nepi-yovvi)),  daughter  of  Sinis,  the 
famous  robber,  who  was  slain  by  Theseus  ;  after 
her  father's  death  Theseus  married  her,  being 
charmed  with  her  beauty,  and  had  by  her  a  son 
named  Melanippus.] 

PERILAUS  (Uep&aof).  1.  Son  of  Icarius  and 
Periboea,  and  a  brother  of  Penelope.— [2.  A  cit- 
izen of  Megara,  who  espoused  the  party  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  and,  according  to  Demos- 
thenes, betrayed  his  country  to  that  monarch, 
but  was  afterward  treated  by  him  with  neglect 
and  contempt.] 

PERILLUS  (IleptA/lof),  a  statuary,  was  the  mak- 
er of  the  bronze  bull  of  the  tyrant  Phalaris,  re- 
specting which,  rid.  further  under  PHALARIS. 
Like  the  makers  of  other  instruments  of  death, 
Perillus  is  said  to  have  become  one  of  the  vic- 
tims of  his  own  handiwork. 

[PERIMEDES  (Tlepipqdrif).  1.  A  companion  of 
Ulysses,  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey. — 2.  Father 
of  Schedius,  who  was  a  commander  of  the  Pho- 
cians  in  the  Trojan  war.] 

[PERIMUS  (Hept/uof),  son  of  Meges,  a  Trojan 
warrior,  slain  by  Patroclus.] 

[PERIMELA,  daughter  of  Hippodamas,  cast  by 
her  father  into  the  sea,  and  changed  by  Neptune 
into  an  island.] 

PERINTHUS  (Hepivdof  :  HepivOiof  :  now  Eski 
Eregli),  an  important  town  in  Thrace,  on  the 
Propontis,  was  founded  by  the  Samians  about 
B.C.  559.  It  was  situated  twenty-two  miles 
west  of  Selymbria,  on  a  small  peninsula,  and  was 
built  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  with  rows  of  houses 
rising  above  each  other  like  seats  in  an  amphi- 
theatre. It  is  celebrated  for  the  obstinate  re- 
sistance which  it  offered  to  Philip  of  Macedon, 
at  which  time  it  was  a  more  powerful  place 
than  Byzantium.  Under  the  Romans  it  still 
continued  to  be  a  flourishing  town,  being  the 
point  at  which  most  of  the  roads  met  leading  to 
Byzantium.  The  commercial  importance  of  the 
town  is  attested  by  its  numerous  coins,  which 
are  still  extant.  At  a  later  time,  but  not  earlier 
than  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  we 
find  it  called  Heradea,  which  occurs  sometimes 
alone  without  any  addition,  and  sometimes  in 
the  form  of  Heradea  Thracia  or  Heradea  Perin- 
thus. 

PERIPHAS  (Ilepj^af).  1.  An  Attic  autochthon, 
previous  to  the  time  of  Cecrops,  was  a  priest 
of  Apollo,  and,  on  account  of  his  virtues,  was 
made  king  of  the  country.  In  consequence  of 
the  honors  paid  to  him,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  wished 
to  destroy  him  ;  but,  at  the  request  of  Apollo,  he 
was  metamorphosed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  into  an 


PERIPHETES. 

eagle,  and  his  wife  likewise  into  a  bird. — [2. 
Son  of  the  ^Etolian  Ochesius,  fell  by  the  hand 
of  Mars  (Ares)  in  the  Trojan  war. — 3.  Son  of 
Epytus,  and  a  herald  of  ^Eneas. — 4.  A  Greek, 
who  was  engaged  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  took 
part  in  the  destruction  of  the  city.] 

PERIPHETES  (IlEp^r^f).  1.  Son  of  Vulcan 
^Hephaestus)  and  Anticlea,  surnamedCbrynetes, 
that  is,  Club-bearer,  was  a  robber  at  Epidaurus, 
who  slew  travellers  with  an  iron  club.  The- 
seus at  last  killed  him,  and  took  his  club  for  his 
»wn  use.  —  [2.  Son  of  Copreus  of  Mycenae,  a 
Greek  warrior  at  Troy,  slain  by  Hector. — 3.  A 
Trojan  warrior,  slain  by  Teucer.] 

[PERISADH  (Uepiauditf),  an  Illyrian  people  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  silver  mines  of  Damas- 
rion,  also  called  Zeaapiiaioi.] 

PERMESSUS  (lieppijaaoc :  novfKefalari),  a  river 
in  Boeotia,  which  descends  from  Mount  Helicon, 
unites  with  the  Olraius,  and  falls  into  the  Lake 
Copais  near  Haliartus.  [Its  waters  were  sa- 
ered  to  the  Muses.] 

PERNE  (Iltpvr/),  a  little  island  off  the  coast  of 
[onia,  opposite  to  the  territory  of  Miletus,  to 
which  an  earthquake  united  it. 

PERO  (Ilij/xj),  daughter  of  Neleus  and  Chloris, 
was  married  to  Bias,  and  celebrated  for  her 
beauty.  [Vid.  MELAMPCS.] 

PERPERENA  (IlepTrepriva,  and  other  forms),  a 
small  town  of  Mysia,  south  of  Adramyttium,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  which  there  were  copper 
mines  and  celebrated  vineyards.  It  was  said 
to  be  the  place  at  which  Thucydides  died. 

PERPERNA  or  PERPENNA  (the  former  is  the 
preferable  form).  1.  M.,  praetor  B.C.  135,  when 
he  carried  on  war  against  the  slaves  in  Sicily, 
and  consul  130,  when  he  defeated  Aristonicus 
in  Asia,  and  took  him  prisoner.  He  died  near 
Pergamum  on  his  return  to  Rome  in  129. — 2. 
M.,  son  of  the  last,  consul  92,  and  censor  86. 
He  is  mentioned  by  the  ancient  writers  as  an 
extraordinary  instance  of  longevity.  He  at- 
tained the  age  of  ninety-eight  years,  and  died 
in  49,  the  year  in  which  the  civil  war  broke  out 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey.  He  took  no  prom- 
inent part  in  the  agitated  times  in  which  he 
lived. — 3.  M.  PERPERNA  VENTO,  son  of  the  last, 
joined  the  Marian  party  in  the  civil  war,  and 
was  raised  to  the  praetorship.  After  the  con- 
quest of  Italy  by  Sulla  in  82,  Perperna  fled  to 
Sicily,  which  he  quitted,  however,  upon  the  ar- 
rival of  Pompey  shortly  afterward.  On  the 
death  of  Sulla  in  78,  Perperna  joined  the  con- 
sul M.  Lepidus  in  his  attempt  to  overthrow  the 
new  aristocratical  constitution,  and  retired  with 
him  to  Sardinia  on  the  failure  of  this  attempt. 
Lepidus  died  in  Sardinia  in  the  following  year, 
77,  and  Perperna,  with  the  remains  of  his  army, 
crossed  over  to  Spain  and  joined  Sertorius. 
Perperna  was  jealous  of  the  ascendency  of  Ser- 
torius, and,  after  serving  under  him  some  years, 
he  and  his  friends  assassinated  Sertorius  at  a 
banquet  in  72.  His  death  soon  brought  the  war 
to  a  close.  Perperna  was  defeated  by  Pompey, 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  was  put  to  death. 

[PERRANTHES,  a  steep  mountain  in  Epirus,  on 
the  western  declivity  of  which  the  city  Ambra-  1 
cia  was  situated.] 

PKRRH.«BI  (Htp'(>ai6oi  or  HepaiBoi),  a  power- 
ful and  warlike  Pelasgic  people,  •  *\o,  according  • 
to  Sl'abo,  migrated  from  Eubce.    to  the  main 


PERSEPHONE. 

land,  and  settled  in  the  districts  of  Hestiaeotis 
and  Pelasgiotis  in  Thessaly.  Hence  the  north- 
ern part  of  this  country  is  frequently  called  Per- 
rhaebia  (Uffipaitia,  UepaiSia),  though  it  nevei 
formed  one  of  the  regular  Thessalian  provinces. 
Homer  places  the  Perrhaebi  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Thessalian  Dodona  and  the  River  Titare- 
sius  ;  and  at  a  later  time  the  name  of  Perrhaebia 
was  applied  to  the  district  bounded  by  Macedo- 
nia and  the  Cambunian  Mountains  on  the  north, 
by  Pindus  on  the  west,  by  the  Peneus  on  the 
south  and  southeast,  and  by  the  Peneus  and 
Ossa  on  the  .east.  The  Perrhaebi  were  mem- 
bers of  the  Amphictyonic  league.  At  an  early 
period  they  were  subdued  by  the  Lapithae  ;  at 
the  time  of  the  P"eloponnesian  war  they  were 
subject  to  the  Thessalians,  and  subsequently  to 
Philip  of  Macedon  ;  but  at  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
man wars  in  Greece  they  appear  independent 
of  Macedonia. 

PERRHID^:  (Effipidat),  an  Attic  demus  near 
Aphidna,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Antiochis. 

PERSABORA  or  PERISABORA  (TL?paa6upa  :  now 
Anbar),  a  strongly-fortified  city  of  Babylonia,  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Euphrates,  at  the  point 
where  the  canal  called  Maarsares  left  the  river. 

PERS^E.     Vid.  PERSIS. 

PERSEUS  (Tlepaaloc),  a  Stoic  philosopher,  was 
a  native  of  Cittium  in  Crete,  and  a  disciple  of 
Zeno.  He  lived  for  some  years  at  the  court  of 
Antigonus  Gonatas,  with  whom  he  seems  to 
have  been  in  high  favor.  Antigonus  appointed 
him  to  the  chief  command  in  Corinth,  where  he 
was  slain  when  the  city  was  taken  by  Aratus, 
B.C. 243. 

PERSE  (Htpari),  daughter  of  Oceanus,  and 
wife  of  Helios  (the  Sun),  by  whom  she  became 
the  mother  of  ^Eetes  and  Circe.  She  is  further 
called  the  mother  of  Pasiphae"  and  Perses.  '  Ho- 
mer and  Apollonius  Rhodins  call  her  Perse, 
while  others  call  her  Perseis  or  Persea. 

PERSEIS,  a  name  given  to  Hecate,  as  the 
daughter  of  Perses  by  Asteria. 

PERSEPHONE  (Ilcpaefovji),  called  PROSERPINA 
by  the  Romans,  the  daughter  of  Zeus  (Jupiter) 
and  Demeter  (Ceres).  In  Homer  she  is  called 
Persephonia(Hepoe$6veia);  the  form  Persephone 
first  occurs  in  Hesiod.  But,  besides  these  forms 
of  the  name,  we  also  find  Persephassa,  Phcrse- 
phassa,  Pergephatta,  Phersephatla,  Pherrcphassa, 
Pherephatta,  and  Phersephonia,  for  which  various 
etymologies  have  been  proposed.  The  Latin 
Proserpina  is  probably  only  a  corruption  of  the 
Greek.  In  Attica  she  was  worshipped  under 
the  name  of  Cora  (Koprj,  Ion.  Kovpr/),  that  is, 
the  Daughter,  namely,  of  Demeter  (Ceres) ;  and 
the  two  were  frequently  called  The  Mother  and 
the  Daughter  (jj  MijTqp  KOI  i]  K.upt)).  Being  the 
infernal  goddess  of  death,  she  is  also  called  a 
daughter  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Styx.  In  Ar- 
cadia she  was  worshipped  under  -the  name  cf 
Despoena,  and  was  called  a  daughter  of  Posei- 
don (Neptune)  Hippius  and  Demeter  (Ceres), 
and  said  to  have  been  brought  up  by  the  Titan 
Anytus.  Homer  describes  her  as  the  wife  of 
Hades  (Pluto),  and  the  formidable,  venerable, 
and  majestic  queen  of  the  Shades,  who  rules 
over  the  souls  of  the  dead,  along  with  her  hus- 
band. Hence  she  is  called  by  later  writers  Juno 
Jnfertut,  Avcrna,  and  Stygia ;  and  the  Erinriyes 
are  said  to  have  been  her  daughters  by  Pluto. 

629 


PERSEPOLIS. 

Groves  sacred  to  her  are  placed  by  Homer  in 
the  western  extremity  of  the  earth,  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  lower  world,  which  is  itself  called 
the  house  of  Persephone  (Proserpina).  The 
story  of  her  being  carried  off  by  Hades  or  Pluto 
against  her  will  is  not  mentioned  by  Homer, 
who  simply  describes  her  as  the  wife  and  queen 
of  Hades.  Her  abduction  is  first  mentioned  by 
Hesiod.  The  account  of  her  abduction,  which 
is  the  most  celebrated  part  of  her  story,  and  the 
wanderings  of  her  mother  in  search  of  her,  and 
the  worship  of  the  two  goddesses  in  Attica  at 
the  festival  of  the  Eleusinia,  are  related  under 
DEMETER.  In  the  mystical  theories  of  the  Or- 
phics,  Persephone  (Proserpina)  is  described  as 
the  all-pervading  goddess  of  nature,  who  both 
produces  and  destroys  every  thing ;  and  she  is 
therefore  mentioned  along,  or  identified  with, 
other  mystic  divinities,  such  as  Isis,  Rhea,  Ge 
(Terra),  Hestia,  Pandora,  Artemis  (Diana),  Hec- 
ate. This  mystic  Persephone  is  further  said  to 
have  become  by  Zeus  (Jupiter)  the  mother  of 
Dionysus  (Bacchus),  lacchus,  Zagreus  or  Saba- 
zius.  Persephone  (Proserpina)  frequently  ap- 
pears in  works  of  art.  She  is  represented  either 
with  the  grave  and  severe  character  of  an  in- 
fernal Juno,  or  as  a  mystical  divinity  with  a 
sceptre  and  a  little  box,  in  the  act  of  being  car- 
ried off  by  Pluto. 

PERSEPOLIS  (Hcpaeno?iiet  Tlepaatiro'ktf  :  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  Istakhar :  now  Takhti-Jemshid,  i.  e., 
Throne  ofJemshid,  or  Chil-Minar,  i.  e.,  Forty  Pil- 
lars :  large  ruins),  is  the  Greek  name,  probably 
translated  from  the  Persian  name,  which  is  not 
recorded,  of  the  great  city  which  succeeded  Pa- 
sargada  as  the  capital  of  Persis  and  of  the  Per- 
sian empire.  From  the  circumstance,  however, 
of  the  conquest  of  the  Babylonian  empire  taking 
place  about  the  time  when  Persepolis  attained 
this  dignity,  it  appears  to  have  been  seldom  used 
as  the  royal  residence.  Neither  Herodotus,  Xen- 
ophon,  Ctesias,  nor  the  sacred  writers  during 
the  Persian  period,  mention  it  at  all,  though  they 
often  speak  of  Babylon,  Susa,  and  Ecbatana  as 
the  capitals  of  the  empire.  It  is  only  from  the 
Greek  writers  after  the  Macedonian  conquest 
that  we  learn  its  rank  in  the  empire,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  consisted  chiefly  in  its  being  one 
of  the  two  burial  places  of  the  kings  (the  other 
being  Pasargada),  and  also  a  royal  treasury ;  for 
Alexander  found  in  the  palace  immense  riches, 
which  were  said  to  have  accumulated  from  the 
time  of  Cyrus.  Its  foundation  is  sometimes  as- 
cribed to  Cyrus  the  Great,  but  more  generally 
to  his  son  Cambyses.  It  was  greatly  enlarged 
and  adorned  by  Darius  I.  and  Xerxes,  and  pre- 
served its  splendor  till  after  the  Macedonian  con- 
quest, when  it  was  burned  ;  Alexander,  as  the 
story  goes,  setting  fire  to  the  palace  with  his 
own  hand  at  the  end  of  a  revel,  by  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  courtesan  Thais,  B.C.  331.  It  was 
not,  however,  so  entirely  destroyed  as  some  his- 
torians represent.  It  appears  frequently  in  sub- 
sequent history,  both  ancient  and  medieval.  It 
is  now  deserted,  but  its  ruins  are  considerable, 
though  too  dilapidated  to  give  any  good  notion 
of  Persian  architecture,  and  they  are  rich  in  cune- 
iform inscriptions.  It  was  situated  in  the  heart 
of  Persis,  in  the  part  called  Hollow  Persis  (KO/AJ? 
IJepatr),  not  far  from  the  border  of  the  Carma- 
nian  Desert,  in  a  beautiful  and  healthy  valley, 
630 


PERSEUS 

watered  by  the  River  Araxes  (now  Bend-Emir), 
and  its  tributaries  the  Modus  and  tho  Cyrus. 
The  city  stood  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Arax- 
es, ami  had  a  citadel  (the  ruins  of  which  are 
still  seen)  built  on  the  levelled  surface  of  a  rock, 
and  inclosed  by  triple  walls  rising  one  above  the 
other  to  the  heights  of  sixteen,  forty-eight,  and 
sixty  cubits,  within  which  was  the  palace,  with 
its  royal  sepulchres  and  treasuries. 

PERSES  (\lipa^).  1.  Son  of  the  Titan  Crius 
and  Eurybia,  and  husband  of  Asteria,  by  whom 
he  became  the  father  of  Hecate. — 2.  Son  of  Per- 
seus and  Andromeda,  described  by  the  Greeks 
as  the  founder  of  the  Persian  nation. — 3.  Son 
of  Helios  (the  Sun)  and  Perse,  and  brother  of 
^Efttes  and  Circe. 

PERSEUS  (Tlcnoevf),  the  famous  Argive  hero, 
was  a  son  of  jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Danag,  and  a 
grandson  of  Acrisius.  An  oracle  had  told  Acris- 
ius  that  he  was  doomed  to  perish  by  the  hands 
of  Danae's  son,  and  he  therefore  shut  up  his 
daughter  in  an  apartment  made  of  brass  or  stone. 
But  Jupiter  (Zeus)  having  metamorphosed  him- 
self into  a  shower  of  gold,  came  down  through 
the  roof  of  the  prison,  and  became  by  her  the 
father  of  Perseus.  From  this  circumstance  Per- 
seus is  sometimes  called  aurigena.  As  soon  as 
Acrisius  discovered  that  Danae"  had  given  birth 
to  a  son,  he  put  both  mother  and  son  into  a 
chest,  and  threw  them  into  the  sea  ;  but  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus)  caused  the  chest  to  land  in  the  island 
of  Seriphos,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  where  Dictys, 
a  fisherman,  found  them,  and  carried  them  to 
Polydectes,  the  king  of  the  country.  They  were 
treated  with  kindness  by  Polydectes ;  but  the 
latter  having  afterward  fallen  in  love  with  Da- 
nae, and  finding  it  impossible  to  gratify  his  de- 
sires in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  Perseus, 
who  had  meantime  grown  up  to  manhood,  he 
sent  Perseus  away  to  fetch  the  head  of  Medu- 
sa, bne  of  the  Gorgons.  Guided  by  Mercury 
(Hermes)  and  Minerva  (Athena),  Perseus  first 
went  to  the  Creese,  the  sisters  of  the  Gorgons, 
took  from  them  their  one  tooth  and  their  one 
eye,  and  would  not  restore  them  until  they 
showed  him  the  way  to  the  nymphs  who  pos- 
sessed the  winged  sandals,  the  magic  wallet, 
and  the  helmet  of  Pluto  (Hades),  which  rendered 
the  wearer  invisible.  Having  received  from  the 
nymphs  these  invaluable  presents,  from  Mercury 
(Hermes)  a  sickle,  and  from  Minerva  (Athena) 
a  mirror,  he  mounted  into  the  air,  and  arrived 
at  the  Gorgons,  who  dwelt  near  Tartessus  on 
the  coast  of  the  ocean,  whose  heads  were  cover- 
ed, like  those  of  serpents,  with  scales,  and  who 
had  large  tusks  like  boars,  brazen  hands,  and 
golden  wings.  He  found  them  asleep,  and  cut 
off  the  head  of  Medusa,  looking  at  her  figure 
through  the  mirror,  for  a  sight  of  the  monster 
herself  would  have  changed  him  into  stone. 
Perseus  put  her  head  into  the  wallet  which  he 
carried  on  his  back,  and  as  he  went  away  he 
was  pursued  by  two  other  Gorgons ;  but  his 
helmet,  which  rendered  him  invisible,  enabled 
him  to  escape  in  safety.  Perseus  then  pro- 
ceeded to  ^Ethiopia,  where  he  saved  and  married 
Andromeda.  Fid.  ANDROMEDA.  Perseus  is  also 
said  to  have  come  to  the  Hyperboreans,  by 
whom  he  was  hospitably  received,  and  to  Atlas, 
whom  he  changed  into  the  mountain  of  the  same 
name  by  the  Gorgon's  head.  On  his  return  to 


PERSEUS. 

Seriphos,  he  found  his  mother  with  Dictys  in  a 
temple,  whither  they  had  fled  from  the  violence 
uf  Polydectes.  Perseus  then  went  to  the  pal- 
ace of  Polydectes,  and  metamorphosed  him  and 
all  his  guests,  and,  some  say,  the  whole  island, 
into  stone  He  then  presented  the  kingdom  to 
Diclys.  He  gave  the  winged  sandals  and  the 
helmet  to  Mercury(Hermes),  who  restored  them 
to  the  nymphs  and  to  Pluto  (Hades),  and  the 
head  of  Gorgon  to  Minerva  (Athena),  who  placed 
it  in  the  middle  of  her  shield  or  breast-plate. 
Perseus  then  went  to  Argos,  accompanied  by 
Danag  and  Andromeda.  Acrisius,  remembering 
the  oracle,  escaped  to  Larissa,  in  the  country 
of  the  Pelasgians  ;  but  Perseus  followed  him,  in 
order  to  persuade  him  to  return.  Some  writers 
state  that  Perseus,  on  his  return  to  Argos,  found 
Prcetus,  who  had  expelled  his  brother  Acrisius, 
in  possession  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  that  Perseus 
slew  Prcetus,  and  was  afterward  killed  by  Mega- 
penthes,  the  son  of  Prcetus.  The  more  common 
tradition,  however,  relates,  that  when  Teutami- 
das,  king  of  Larissa,  celebrated  games  in  honor 
of  his  guest  Acrisius,  Perseus,  who  took  part  in 
them,  accidentally  hit  the  foot  of  Acrisius  with 
the  discus,  and  thus  killed  him.  Acrisius  was 
buried  outside  the  city  of  Larissa,  and  Perseus, 
leaving  the  kingdom  of  Argos  to  Megapenthes, 
the  son  of  Prcetus,  received  from  him  in  ex- 
change the  government  of  Tiryns.  According 
to  others,  Perseus  remained  in  Argos,  and  suc- 
cessfully opposed  the  introduction  of  the  Bac-  ! 
chic  orgies.  Perseus  is  said  to  have  founded  j 
the  towns  of  Midea  and  Mycenae.  By  Androm-  I 
eda  he  became  the  father  of  Perses,  Aieaeus,  i 
Sthenelus,  .Heleus,  Mestor,  Electryon,  Gorgo-  | 
phone,  and  Autochthe.  Perseus  was  worship- 
ped as  a  hero  in  several  places. 

PERSEUS  or  PERSES  (Utpaevs),  the  last  king 
of  Macedonia,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip  V., 
and  reigned  eleven  years,  from  B.C.  178  to  168. 
Before  his  accession  he  persuaded  his  father  to 
put  to  death  his  younger  brother  Demetrius, 
whom  he  suspected  that  the  Roman  senate  in- 
tended to  set  up  as  a  competitor  for  the  throne 
on  the  death  of  Philip.  Immediately  after  his 
accession  he  began  to  make  'preparations  for 
war  with  the  Romans,  which  he  knew  to  be  in- 
evitable, though  seven  years  elapsed  before  act- 
ual hostilities  commenced.  The  war  broke  out 
in  171.  The  first  year  of  the  war  was  marked 
by  no  striking  action.  The  consul  P.  Licinius 
Crassus  first  suffered  a  defeat  in  Thessaly  in 
an  engagement  between  the  cavalry  of  the  two 
armies,  but  subsequently  gained  a  slight  ad- 
vantage over  the  king's  troops.  The  second 
year  of  the  war  (170),  in  which  the  consul  A. 
Hostilius  Mancinus  commanded,  also  passed 
over  without  any  important  battle,  but  was,  on 
the  whole,  favorable  to  Perseus.  0  The  third 
year  (169),  in  which  the  consul  Q.  Marcius 
Philippus  commanded,  again  produced  no  im- 
portant results.  The  length  to  which  the  war 
had  been  unexpectedly  protracted,  and  the  ill 
success  of  the  Roman  arms,  had  by  this  time 
excited  a  general  feeling  in  favor  of  the  Mace- 
donian monarch ;  but  the  ill-timed  avarice  of 
Perseus,  who  refused  to  advance  the  sum  of 
money  which  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  de- 
manded, deprived  him  of  this  valuable  ally;  and 
the  same  unseasonable  niggardliness  likewise 


PERSIS. 

deprived  him  of  the  services  of  twenty  thousand 
Gaulish  mercenaries,  who  had  actually  advanc- 
ed into  Macedonia  to  his  support,  but  retired  on 
failing  to  obtain  their  stipulated  pay.  He  was 
left  to  carry  on  the  contest  against  Rome  sin- 
gle-handed. The  fourth  year  of  the  war  (168) 
was  also  the  last.  The  new  consul,  L.  ^Emilias 
Paulus,  defeated  Perseus  with  great  loss  in  a 
decisive  battle  fought  near  Pydna,  on  June  22, 
168.  Perseus  took  refuge  in  the  island  of  Samo- 
thrace,  where  he  shortly  afterward  surrendered 
with  his  children  to  the  praetor  Cn.  Octavius 
When  brought  before  JUmilius,  he  is  said  to 
have  degraded  himself  by  the  most  abject  sup- 
plications; but  he  was  treated  with  kindness  by 
the  Roman  general.  The  following  year  he 
was  carried  to  Italy,  where  he  was  compelled 
to  adorn  the  splendid  triumph  of  his  conqueror 
(November  30,  167),  and  afterward  cast  into  a 
dungeon,  from  whence,  however,  the  interces- 
sion of  ^Emilius  procured  his  release,  and  he 
was  permitted  to  end  his  days  in  an  honorable 
captivity  at  Alba.  He  -survived  his  removal 
thither  a  few  years,  and  died,  according  to  some 
accounts,  by  voluntary  starvation,  while  others, 
fortunately  with  less  probability,  represent  him 
as  falling  a  victim  to  the  cruelty  of  his  guards, 
who  deprived  him  of  sleep.  Perseus  had  been 
twice  married ;  the  name  of  his  first  wife,  whom 
he  is  said  to  have  killed  with  his  own  hand  in 
a  fit  of  passion,  is  not  recorded  ;  his  second,  La- 
odice,  was  the  daughter  of  Seleucus  IV.  Philo- 
pator.  He  left  two  children  :  a  son,  Alexander, 
and  a  daughter,  both  apparently  by  his  second 
marriage,  as  they  were  mere  children  when  car- 
ried to  Rome.  -Besides  these,  he  had  adopted 
his  younger  brother  Philip,  who  appears  to  have 
been  regarded  by  him  as  the  heir  to  his  throne, 
and  became  the  partner  of  his  captivity. 

PERSIA.     Vid.  PERSIS. 

PERSICI  MONTES.     Vid.  PARSICI  MONTES. 

PERSICUS  SINUS,  PER-SICUM  MARE  (6  Hepainos 
/co^Trof,  i]  HepaiKti  diiTiaoaa,  and  other  forms : 
the  Persian  Gulf),  is  the  name  given  by  the 
later  geographers  to  the  great  gulf  of  the  Mare 
Erythraeum  (now  Indian  Ocean),  extending  in  a 
southeastern  direction  from  the  mouths  of  the 
Tigris,  between  the  northeastern  coast  of  Ara- 
bia and  the  opposite  coast  of  Susiana,  Persis, 
and  Carmania,  to  the  narrow  strait  formed  by 
the  long  tongue  of  land  which  projects  from  the 
northern  side  of  Oman  in  Arabia,  by  which  strait 
it  is  connected  with  the  more  open  gulf  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  called  Paragon  Sinus  (now  Gulf 
of  Oman).  The  earlier  Greek  writers  know 
nothing  of  it.  Herodotus  does  not  distinguish 
it  from  the  Erythraean  Sea.  The  voyage  of 
Alexander's  admiral  Nearchus  from  the  Indus 
to  the  Tigris  made  it  better  known,  but  still  the 
ancient  geographers  in  general  give  very  inac- 
curate statements  of  its  size  and  form. 

PERsiDEs(rifpoe<(h?f,  Uepat]lu6rif),A  patronym 
ic  given  to  the  descendants  of  Perses. 

PERSIS,  and  very  rarely  PERSIA  (i)  Uepaif,  and 
ii  \\i(>niKii,  sc.  } ?;,  the  fern,  adjectives,  the  masc 
being  Ilcpaiicof,  from  the  ethnic  noun  Hepatic,  pi 
Hfpaai,  fern.  Uepaif,  Latin  Persa  and  Perses. 
pi.  Persa: :  in  modern  Persian  and  Arabic,  Far.* 
or  Fanittan,  i.  e.,  ttan,  land  of,  Fars-=0ld  Per- 
sian pars,  horse  or  horseman :  Eng.  Persia),  orig- 
inally a  small  mountainous  district  of  Western 

631 


PERSIS. 

Asia,  lying  on  the  northeastern  side  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  and  surrounded  on  the  other  sides  by 
mountains  and  deserts.  On  the  northwest  and 
north  it  was  separated  from  Susiana,  Media, 
and  Parthia  by  the  little  river  Oroatis  orOrosis, 
and  by  Mons  Parachoathras  ;  and  on  the  east 
from  Carmania  by  no  definite  boundaries  in  the 
Desert.  The  only  level  part  of  the  country  was 
the  strip  of  sea-coast  called  PERSIS  PARALIA  ; 
the  rest  was  intersected  with  branches  of  Mons 
Parachoathras,  the  valleys  between  which  were 
watered  by  several  rivers,  the  chief  of  which 
were  the  ARAXES,  CYRUS,  and  MEDUS  :  in  this 
part  of  the  country,  which  was  called  KOILE 
PERSIS,  stood  the  capital  cities  PASARGADA  and 
PERSEPOLIS.  The  country  has  a  remarkable 
variety  of  climate  and  of  products  ;  the  northern 
mountainous  regions  being  comparatively  cold, 
but  with  good  pastures,  especially  for  camels  ; 
the  middle  slopes  having  a  temperate  climate, 
and  producing  abundance  of  fruit  and  wine;  and 
the  southern  strip  of  coast  being  intensely  hot 
and  sandy,  with  little  vegetation  except  the 
palm-tree.  The  inhabitants  were  a  collection 
of  nomad  tribes  of  the  Indo-European  stock,  who 
called  themselves  by  a  name  which  is  given  in 
Greek  as  ART^EI  ('Apraiot),  and  which,  like  the 
kindred  Median  name  of  ARII  ("Apioi),  signifies 
noble  or  honorable,  and  is  applied  especially  to 
the  true  worshippers  of  Ormuzd  and  followers 
of  Zoroaster :  it  was,  in  fact,  rather  a  title  of 
honor  than  a  proper  name  ;  the  true  collective 
name  of  the  people  seems  to  have  been  Paraca. 
According  to  Herodotus,  they  were  divided  into 
three  classes  or  castes  :  first,  the  nobles  or  war- 
riors, containing  the  three  tribes  of  the  PASAR- 
OAD^E,  who  were  the  most  noble,  and  to  whom 
the  royal  family  of  the  Achsemenidae  belonged, 
the  Marphii,  and  the  Maspii ;  secondly,  the  ag- 
ricultural and  other  settled  tribes,  namely,  the 
Panthialaei,  Derusiaei,  and  Germanii ;  thirdly, 
the  tribes  which  remained  nomadic,  namely,  the 
Daas,  Mardi,  Dropici,  and  Sagartii,  names  com- 
mon to  other  parts  of  Western  and  Central  Asia. 
The  Persians  had  a  close  ethnical  affinity  to  the 
Medes,  and  followed  the  same  customs  and  re- 
.igion.  Vid.  MAGI,  ZOROASTER.  The  simple  and 
warlike  habits  which  they  cultivated  in  their  na- 
tive mountains  preserved  them  from  the  cor- 
rupting influences  which  enervated  their  Median 
brethren  ;  so  that  from  being,  as  we  find  them 
at  the  beginning  of  their  recorded  history,  the 
subject  member  of  the  Medo-Persian  kingdom, 
they  obtained  the  supremacy  under  CYRUS,  the 
founder  of  the  great  Persian  empire,  B.C.  559. 
Of  the  Persian  history  before  this  date  we  know 
but  little  :  the  native  poetical  annalists  of  a  later 
period  are  perfectly  untrustworthy :  the  addi- 
tional light  lately  obtained  from  the  Persian  in- 
scriptions is,  so  far  as  it  goes,  confirmatory  of 
the  Greek  writers,  from  whom,  and  from  some 
small  portions  of  Scripture,  all  our  knowledge 
of  ancient  Persian  history  is  derived.  Accord- 
ing to  these  accounts,  the  Persians  were  first 
subjected  by  the  Medes  under  Phraortes,  about 
B.C.  688,  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the 
great  Median  empire  ;  but  they  continued  to  be 
governed  by  their  own  princes,  the  Achaemeni- 
dae.  An  account  of  the  revolution,  by  which 
the  supremacy  was  transferred  to  the  Persians, 
*»  given  under  CYRUS.  At  this  time  there  ex- 
632 


PERSIS. 

isted  in  Western  Asia  two  other  great  king- 
doms, the  Lydian,  which  comprised  nearly  the 
whole  of  Asia  Minor,  west  of  the  River  Halys, 
which  separated  it  from  the  Medo-Persian  ter- 
ritories, and  the  Babylonian,  which,  besides  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  valley,  embraced  Syria 
and  Palestine.  By  the  successive  conquest  of 
these  kingdoms,  the  dominions  of  Cyrus  were 
extended  on  the  west  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  the 
Euxine,  the  ^Egean,  and  the  Mediterranean,  and 
to  the  frontier  of  Egypt.  Turning  his  arms  in 
the  opposite  direction,  he  subdued  Bactria,  and 
effected  some  conquests  beyond  the  Oxus,  but 
fell  in  battle  with  the  Massagetae.  Vid.  CYRUS. 
His  son  Cambyses  added  Egypt  to  the  empire. 
Vid.  CAMBYSES.  Upon  his  death  the  Magian 
priesthood  made  an  effort  to  restore  the  suprem- 
acy to  the  Medes  (vid.  MAGI,  SMERDIS),  which 
was  defeated  by  the  conspiracy  of  the  seven 
Persian  chieftains,  whose  success  conferred  the 
crown  upon  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes.  This 
king  was  at  first  occupied  with  crushing  rebell 
ions  in  every  part  of  the  empire,  and  with  the 
two  expeditions  against  Scythia  and  Cyrena'ica, 
of  which  the  former  entirely  failed,  and  the  lat- 
ter was  only  partially  successful.  He  conquer- 
ed Thrace,  and  on  the  east  he  added  the  valley 
of  the  Indus  to  the  kingdom  ;  but  in  this  quar- 
ter the  power  of  Persia  seems  never  to  have 
been  much  more  than  nominal.  The  Persian 
empire  had  now  reached  its  greatest  extent, 
from  Thrace  and  Cyrena'ica  on  the  west  to  the 
Indus  on  the  east,  and  from  the  Euxine,  the 
Caucasus  (or,  rather,  a  little  below  it),  the  Cas- 
pian, and  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes  on  the  north, 
to  ^Ethiopia,  Arabia,  and  the  Erythraean  Sea  on 
the  south,  and  it  embraced,  in  Europe,  Thrace 
and  some  of  the  Greek  cities  north  of  the  Eux- 
ine ;  in  Africa,  Egypt  and  Cyrena'ica ;  in  Asia, 
on  the  west,  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  Syria,  the  sev- 
eral districts  of  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  Mesopo 
tamia,  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Susiana,  Atropatene, 
Great  Media ;  on  the  north,  Hyrcania,  Margi- 
ana,  Bactriana,  and  Sogdiana  ;  on  the  east,  the 
Paropamisus.  Arachosia,  and  India  (i.  e.,  part  of 
the  Punjab  and  Scinde) ;  on  the  south,  Persis, 
Carmania,  and  Gedrosia  ;  and  in  the  centre  of 
the  eastern  part,  Parthia,  Aria,  and  Drangiana. 
The  capital  cities  of  the  empire  were  Babylon, 
Susa,  Ecbatana  in  Media,  and,  though  these 
were,  seldom,  if  ever,  used  as  residences,  Pasar- 
gada  and  Persepolis  in  Persia.  (Vid.  the  sev- 
eral articles.)  Of  this  vast  empire  Darius  un- 
dertook the  organization,  and  divided  it  into 
twenty  satrapies,  of  which  a  full  account  is 
given  by  Herodotus.  For  the  other  details  ot 
his  reign,  and  especially  the  commencement  of 
the  wars  with  Greece,  md.  DARIUS-  Of  the  re- 
maining period  of  the  ancient  Persian  historj 
till  the  Maoedonian  conquest,  a  sufficient  ab- 
stract will  be  found  under  the  names  of  the  sev- 
eral kings,  a  list  of  whom  is  now  subjoined . 
(1.)  CYRUS,  B.C.  559-529  ;  (2.)  CAMBYSES,  529- 
522;  (3.)  Usurpation  of  the  pseudo-S.MERDis,  sev- 
en months,  522-521  ;  (4.)  DARIUS  I.,  son  of  Hys- 
taspes, 521-485;  (5.)  XERXES  I.,  485-465;  (6.) 
Usurpation  of  ARTABAMUS,  seven  months,  465- 
464 ;  (7.)  ARTAXERXES  I.  LONGIMANUS,  464-425 ; 
(8.)  XERXES  II.,  two  months;  <9.)  SCKJDIANUS, 
seven  months,  425-424;  (10.)  Ochus,  or  DARICS 
II.  Nothus,  424-405 ;  (11.)  ARTAXERXES  II  Mne- 


PERSIUS  FLACCUS. 

mon,  405-359 ;  (12.)  Ochus,  or  ARTAXERXES  III., 
359-338;  (13.)  ARSES, 338-336;  (14.)DARiusIII. 
Codomannus,  336-331.  Fid.  ALEXANDER.  Here 
the  ancient  history  of  Persia  ends  as  a  king- 
dom ;  hut,  as>  a  people,  the  Persians  proper,  un- 
der the  influence  especially  of  their  religion, 
preserved  their  existence,  and  at  length  regain- 
ed then  independence  on  the  downfall  of  the 
Parthian  empire.  Vid.  SASSANID^E.  In  reading 
the  Roman  poets,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
'hey  constantly  use  Per  see  as  well  as  Medi  as  a 
geneial  term  for  the  nations  east  of  the  Euphra- 
tes and  Tigris,  and  especially  for  the  Parthians. 

PERSIUS  FLACCCS,  A.,  the  poet,  was  a  Roman 
fcnight  connected  by  blood  and  marriage  with 
persons  of  the  highest  rank,  and  was  born  at 
Volaterrse  in  Etruria  on  the  4th  of  December, 
A.D.  34.  He  received  the  first  rudiments  of 
education  in  his  native  town,  remaining  there 
until  the  age  of  twelve,  and  then  removed  to 
Rome,  where  he  studied  grammar  under  the 
celebrated  Remmius  Palaemon,  and  rhetoric  un- 
der Verginius  Flavius.  He  was  afterward  the 
pupil  of  Gornutus  the  Stoic,  who  became  the 
guide,  philosopher,  and  friend  of  his  future  life, 
and  to  whom  he  attached  himself  so  closely 
that  he  never  quitted  his  side.  While  yet  a 
youth  he  was  on  familiar  terms  with  Lucan, 
with  Caesius  Bassus  the  lyric  poet,  and  with 
several  other  persons  of  literary  eminence.  He 
was  tenderly  beloved  by  the  high-minded  Pseius 
Thrasea,  and  seems  to  have  been  well  worthy 
of  such  affection,  for  he  is  described  as  a  virtu- 
ous and  pleasing  youth.  He  died  of  a  disease 
of  the  stomach,  on  the  24th  of  November,  A.D. 
62,  before  he  had  completed  his  twenty-eighth 
year.  The  extant  works  of  Persius,  who,  we 
are  told,  wrote  seldom  and  slowly,  consist  of 
six  short  satires,  extending  in  all  to  six  hundred 
and  fifty  hexameter  lines,  and  were  left  in  an 
unfinished  state.  They  were  slightly  corrected 
after  his  death  by  Comutus,  while  Caesius  Bas- 
sus was  permitted,  at  his  own  earnest  request, 
to  be  the  editor.  In  boyhoo'd  Persius  had  writ- 
ten some  other  poems,  which  were  destroyed 
by  the  advice  of  Cornutus.  Few  productions 
have  ever  enjoyed  more  popularity  than  the  Sat- 
ires ;  but  it  would  seem  that  Persius  owes  no* 
a  little  of  his  fame  to  a  cause  which  naturally 
might  have  produced  an  effect  directly  the  re- 
verse, we  mean  the  multitude  of  strange  terms, 
proverbial  phrases,  far-fetched  metaphors,  and 
abrupt  transitions  which  every  where  embarrass 
our  progress.  The  difficulty  experienced  in  re- 
moving these  impediments  necessarily  impress- 
es both  the  words  and  the  ideas  upon  every  one 
who  has  carefully  studied  his  pages,  and  hence 
no  author  clings  more  closely  to  our  memory. 
The  first  satire  is  superior  both  in  plan  and  ex- 
ecution to  the  rest ;  and  those  passages  in  the 
fifth,  where  Persius  describes  the  process  by 
which  his  own  moral  and  intellectual  faculties 
were  expanded,  are  remarkable  for  their  grace 
and  beauty.  The  best  editions  are  by  Jahn, 
Lips.,  1843,  and  by  Heinrich,  Lips.,  1844. 

PERTINAX,  HELVICS,  Roman  emperor  from 
January  1st  to  March  28th, ^..D.  193,  was  of 
humble  origin,  and  rose  from  the  post  of  centu- 
rion both  to  the  highest  military  and  civil  com- 
mands in  the  reigns  of  M.  Aurelius  and  Com- 
uuxlus.  On  the  murder  of  Commodus  on  the 


PETELTA. 

last  day  of  September,  192,  Pertinax,  who  w 
then  sixty-six  years  of  age,  was  reluctantly  per 
suaded  to  accept  the  empire.  He  commenced 
his  reign  by  introducing  extensive  reforms  into 
the  civil  and  military  administration  of  the  em- 
pire ;  but  the  troops,  who  had  been  accustomed 
both  to  ease  and  license  under  Commodus,  were 
disgusted  with  the  discipline  which  he  attempt- 
ed to  enforce  upon  them,  and  murdered  their 
new  sovereign  after  a  reign  of  two  months  and 
twenty-seven  days.  On  his  death  the  praetorian 
troops  put  up  the  empire  to  sale,  which  was  pur- 
chased by  M.  Didius  Salvius  Julianus.  Vid.  p. 
256,  b. 

PERUSIA  (Peruslnus :  now  Perugia),  an  an- 
cient eity  in  the  eastern  part  of  Etruria,  between 
the  Lake  Trasimenus  and  the  Tiber,  and  one 
of  the  twelve  cities  of  the  Etruscan  confeder- 
acy. It  was  situated  on  a  hill,  and  was  strongly 
fortified  by  nature  and  by  art.  In  conjunction 
with  the  other  cities  of  Etruria,  it  long  resisted 
tbe  power  of  the  Romans,  and  at  a  later  period 
it  was  made  a  Roman  colony.  It  is  memorable 
in  the  civil  wars  as  the  place  in  which  L.  Anto- 
nius,  the  brother  of  the  triumvir,  took  refuge 
when  he  was  no  longer  able  to  oppose  Octavi- 
anus  in  the  field,  and  where  he  was  kept  closely 
blockaded  by  Octavianus  for  some  months,  from 
the  end  of  B.C.  41  to  the  spring  of  40.  Famine 
compelled  ft  to  surrender ;  but  one  of  its  citi- 
zens having  set  fire  to  his  own  house,  the  flames 
spread,  and  the  whole  city  was  burned  to  the 
ground.  The  war  between  L.  Antonius  and 
Octavianus  is  known  from  the  long  siege  of  this 
town  by  the  name  of  the  Bellum  Perusinum.  It 
was  rebuilt  and  colonized  anew  by  Augustus, 
from  whom  it  received  the  surname  of  Augusta. 
In  the  later  time  of  the  empire  it  was  the  most 
important  city  in  all  Etruria,  and  long  resisted 
the  Goths.  Part  of  the  walls  and  some  of  the 
gates  of  Perusia  still  remain.  The  best  pre- 
served of  the  gates  is  now  called  Area  d'Au- 
gusto,  from  the  inscription  AVGVSTA  PERVSIA 
over  the  arch ;  the  whole  structure  is  at  least 
sixty  or  seventy  feet  high.  Several  interesting 
tombs,  with  valuable  remains  of  Etruscan  art, 
have  been  discovered  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
city. 

PESCENNIUS  NIGER.     Vid.  NIGER. 

PESSINUS  or  PESINUS  (Ilecffivovf,  Ueaivovf 
HeooivovvTtof,  fern.  Heaoivovvrlf  :  ruins  at  Bala 
Hisar),  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  southwest- 
ern corner  of  Galatia,  on  the  southern  slope  of 
Mount  Dindymus  or  Agdistis,  was  celebrated  as 
a  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  Cybele,  under  the 
surname  of  Agdistis,  whose  temple,  crowded 
with  riches,  stood  on  a  hill  outside  the  city.  In 
this  temple  was  a  wooden  (Livy  says  stone) 
image  of  the  goddess,  which  was  removed  to 
Rome,  to  satisfy  an  oracle  in  the  Sibylline  books. 
Under  Constantine  the  city  was  made  the  cap- 
ital of  the  province  of  Galatia  Salutaris,  but  it 
gradually  declined  until  the  sixth  century,  after 
which  it  is  no  more  mentioned. 

PETALIA  or  PETAU.S  (now  Petalius'),  an  unin- 
habited and  rocky  island  off  the  southwestern 
coast  of  Eubcea,  at  the  entrance  into  the  Euri- 
pus. 

PETEF.IA  orPKTiLlA  (Ilen/Ma :  Petelinus :  now 
Strongoli),  an  ancient  Greek  town  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Bruttium,  founded,  according  to 

633 


PETENES. 

tradition,  by  Philoctetes.    (Virg.,  JEn.}  iii.,  402.) 
It  was  situated  north  of  Croton,  to  whose  terri- 
tory it  originally  belonged,  but  it  was  afterward  : 
conquered  by  the  Lucanians.    It  remained  faith-  j 
ful  to  the  Romans,  when  the  other  cities  of  Brut- 
tium  revolted  to  Hannibal,  and  it  was  not  till  j 
after  a  long  and  desperate  resistance  that  it  was 
taken  by  one  of  Hannibal's  generals.     It  was 
repeopled  by  Hannibal  with  Bruttians  ;  but  the 
Romans  subsequently  collected  the  remains  of 
the  former  population,  and  put  them  again  in  j 
possession  of  the  town. 

[PETENES.     Vid.  PETIKES.] 

PETEON  (Hereuv :  Hereuvioc),  a  small  town  ' 
in  Boeotia,  of  uncerta'T  site,  dependent  upon  ' 
Haliartus  according  to  some,  and  upon  Tihebes  ! 
according  to  others. 

PETEOS  (Hereuf),  son  of  Orneus,  and  father  | 
of  Menestheus,  was  expelled  from  Athens  by 
^Egeus,  and  went  to  Phocis,  where  he  founded 
Stiris. 

PETILICS  or  PETILLIUS.  1.  CAPITOLINUS.  Vid. 
CAPITOLINUS. — 2.  CEREAUS.  Vid.  CEREALIS. — 

3.  SPURINUS.     Vid.  SPURINUS. 

[PETINES  (ILerivijf)  or  PETENES,  one  of  the 
Persian  generals  at  the  beginning  of  the  war 
with  Alexander :  he  was  slain  at  the  battle  of 
the  Granicus.] 

PETOSIRIS  ( Herder tptf),  an  Egyptian  priest  and 
astrologer,  generally  named  along  with  Nechep- 
sos,  an  Egyptian  king.  The  two  are  said  to  be 
the  founders  of  astrology.  Some  works  on  as- 
trology were  extant  under  his  name.  Like  our 
own  Lilly,  Petosiris  became  the  common  name 
for  an  astrologer.  (Juv.,  vi.,  580.) 

PETOVIO  or  PCETOVIO  (now  Pettau),  a  town  in 
Pannonia  Superior,  on  the  frontiers  of  Noricum, 
and  on  the  Dravus  (now  Drave),  was  a  Roman 
colony  with  the  surname  Ulpia,  having  been 
probably  enlarged  and  made  a  colony  by  Tra- 
jan or  Hadrian.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  towns 
of  Pannonia,  had  an  imperial  palace,  and  was 
the  head-quarters  of  a  Roman  legion.  The  an- 
cient town  was  probably  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Drave,  opposite  the  modern  Pettau,  as  it  is 
only  on  the  former  spot  that  inscriptions,  coins, 
and  other  antiquities  have  been  found. 

PETRA  (17  tlerpa  :  Ilerpaiof ,  Petraeus,  later  Pe- 
trensis),  the  name  of  several  cities  built  on 
rocks  or  in  rocky  places.  1.  A  small  place  in 
the  Corinthian  territory,  probably  on  the  coast, 
.near  the  borders  of  Argolis. — 2.  A  place  in  Elis, 
not  far  from  the  city  of  Elis,  of  which  some  sup- 
pose it  to  have  been  the  acropolis.  The  se- 
pulchral monument  of  the  philosopher  Pyrrho 
was  shown  here. — 3.  (Now  Casa  delta  Pietra), 
also  called  PETR^EA  and  PETRINE  (the  people 
Tlerplvot  and  Petrlni),  an  inland  town  of  Sicily, 
on  the  road  from  Agrigentum  to  Panormus. — 

4.  A  town  on  the  coast  of  Illyricum,  with  a  bad 
harbor. — 5.  A  city  of  Pieria  in  Macedonia. — 
6.  A  fortress  of  the  Meedi  in  Thrace.— 7.  (PI. 
neut.),  a  place  in  Dacia,  on  one  of  the  three 
great  roads  which  crossed  the  Danube. — 8.  In 
Pontus,  a  fortress  built  by  Justinian,  on  a  preci- 
pice on  the  sea-coast,  between  the  rivers  Ba- 
thys  and  Acinasis. — 9.  In  Sogdiana,  near  the 
Oxus  (Q.  Curt.,  vii.,  11).— 10.  By  far  the  most 
celebrated  of  all  the  places  of  this  name  was 
PBTRA  or  PETR.B  (now  Wady-Musa),  in  Arabia 
Petraea,  the  capital  first  of  the  Idumaeans,  and 

634 


PETRONIA. 

afterward  of  the  Nabathseans.  It  is  probably 
the  same  place  which  is  called  Selah  (which 
means,  like  Trsrpa,  a  rock)  and  Joktheel  in  the 
Old  Testament.  It  lies  in  the  midst  of  the 
mountains  of  Seir,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hur, 
just  half  way  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the 
head  of  the  ^lanitic  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  ;i 
valley,  or  rather  ravine,  surrounded  by  almost 
inaccessible  precipices,  which  is  entered  by  a 
narrow  gorge  on  the  east,  the  rocky  walls  of 
which  approach  so  closely  as  sometimes  hardly 
to  permit  two  horsemen  to  ride  abreast.  On 
the  banks  of  the  river  which  runs  through  this 
ravine  stood  the  city  itself,  a  mile  in  length  and 
half  a  mile  in  breadth,  between  the  sides  or  the 
valley,  and  some  fine  ruins  of  its  public  build- 
ings still  remain.  But  this  is  not  all :  the  rocks 
which  surround,  not  only  the  main  valley,  but 
all  its  lateral  ravines,  are  completely  honey- 
combed with  excavations,  some  of  which  were 
tombs,  some  temples,  and  some  private  houses, 
at  the  entrances  to  which  the  surface  of  the 
rock  is  sculptured  into  magnificent  architectural 
fa9ades  and  other  figures,  whose  details  are 
often  so  well  preserved  as  to  appear  but  just 
chiselled,  while  the  effect  is  wonderfully  height- 
ened by  the  brilliant  variegated  colors  of  the 
rock,  where  red,  purple,  yellow,  sky-blue,  black, 
and  white  are  seen  in  distinct  layers.  These 
ruins  are  chiefly  of  the  Roman  period,  when  Pe- 
tra  had  become  an  important  city  as  a  centre 
of  the  caravan  traffic  of  the  Nabathaeans.  At 
the  time  of  Augustus,  as  Strabo  learned  from  a 
friend  who  had  resided  there,  it  contained  many 
Romans  and  other  foreigners,  and  was  governed 
by  a  native  prince.  It  had  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence against  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria,  and 
retained  it  under  the  Romans  till  the  time  of 
Trajan,  by  whom  it  was  taken.  It  was  the 
chief  city  of  the  whole  country  of  Arabia  Pe- 
traea, which  probably  derived  its  name  from  Pe- 
tra ;  and  under  the  later  empire  it  was  the  capi- 
tal of  Palaestina  Tertia. 

PETREIUS,  M.,  a  man  of  great  military  experi- 
ence, is  first  mentioned  in  B.C.  62,  when  he 
served  as  legatus  to  the  proconsul  C.  Antonius, 
and  commanded  the  army  in  the  battle  in  which 
Catiline  perished.  He  belonged  to  the  aristo- 
cratical  party ;  and  in  55  he  was  sent  into  Spain 
along  with  L.  Afranius  as  legatus  of  Pompey,  to 
whom  the  provinces  of  the  two  Spains  had  been 
granted.  Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the 
«ivil  war  in  49,  Caesar  defeated  Afranius  and 
Petreius  in  Spain,  whereupon  the  latter  joined 
Pompey  in  Greece.  After  the  loss  of  the  battle 
of  Pharsalia  (48),  Petreius  crossed  over  to  Af- 
rica, and  took  an  active  part  in  the  campaign  in 
46,  which  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  decisive 
defeat  of  the  Pompeian  army  at  the  battle  of 
Thapsus.  Petreius  then  fled  with  Juba,  and, 
despairing  of  safety,  they  fell  by  each  other's 
hands. 

PETRINUS  (now  Rocca  di  monti  Ragoni),  a 
mountain  near  Sinuessa,  on  the  confines  of  La- 
tium  and  Campania,  on  which  good  wine  was 
grown. 

PETROCORII,  a  people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  in 
the  modern  Perigord.  Their  country  contained 
iron  mines,  and  their  chief  town  was  Vesunna 
(now  Perigueux). 

[PETBONIA,  daughter  of  a  man  of  consular 


PETRONIUS,  C. 

tank,  was  first  the  wife  of  Vitellius,  and  subse- 
quently of  Dolabella.  By  Vitellius  she  had  a 
son  Petronianus,  whom  his  father  put  to  death.] 

[PETRONIUS,  C.  1.  Succeeded  /Elius  Gallus  in 
the  government  of  Egypt,  and  carried  on  war  in 
B.C.  22  against  the  ^Ethiopians,  who  had  invad- 
ed Egypt  under  their  queen  Candace.  Petronius 
not  only  drove  back  the  ^Ethiopians,  but  took 
many  of  their  towns.  He  was  a  friend  of  Her- 
od, and  sent  corn  to  Judaea  when  the  latter 
country  was  visited  by  a  famine. — 2.  TURPILIA- 
NOS,  consul  A.D.  61  with  C.  Caesonius  Paetus, 
succeeded  Suetonius  Paulinus  as  governor  of 
Britain,  but  did  nothing  in  that  capacity,  though 
he  received  the  triumphal  insignia  in  A.D.  65. 
He  was  put  to  death  at  the  commencement  of 
the  reign  of  Galba.] 

PETRONICS,  C.  or  T.,  an  accomplished  volup- 
tuary at  the  court  of  Nero.  He  was  one  of  the 
chosen  companions  of  Nero,  and  was  regarded 
as  director-in-chief  of  the  imperial  pleasures,  the 
judge  whose  decision  upon  the  merits  of  any 
proposed  scheme  of  enjoyment  was  held  as  final 
(dcgantiaR  arbiter).  The  influence  thus  acquir- 
ed excited  the  jealous  suspicions  of  Tigellinus : 
he  was  accused  of  treason  ;  and  believing  that 
destruction  was  inevitable,  he  resolved  to  die  as 
he  had  lived,  and  to  excite  admiration  by  the 
frivolous  eccentricity  of  his  end.  Having  caused 
his  veins  to  be  opened,  he  from  time  to  time 
arrested  the  flow  of  blood  by  the  application  of 
bandages.  During  the  intervals  he  conversed 
with  his  friends,  and  even  showed  himself  in 
the  public  streets  of  Cumae,  where  these  events 
took  place  ;  so  that  at  last,  when  he  sunk  from 
exhaustion,  his  death  (A.D.  66),  although  com- 
pulsory, appeared  to  be  the  result  of  natural  and 
gradual  decay.  He  is  said  to  have  dispatched 
in  his  last  moments  a  sealed  document  to  the 
prince,  taunting  him  with  his  brutal  excesses. 
A  work  has  come  down  to  us  bearing  the  title 
Petronii  Arlitri  Satyricon,  which,  as  it  now  ex- 
ists, is  composed  of  a  series  of  fragments,  chiefly 
in  prose,  but  interspersed  with  numerous  pieces 
of  poetry.  It  is  a  sort  of  comic  romance,  in 
which  the  adventures  of  a  certain  Encolpius  and 
his  companions  in  the  south  of  Italy,  chiefly  in 
Naples  or  its  environs,  are  made  a  vehicle  for 
exposing  the  false  taste  and  vices  of  the  age. 
Unfortunately,  the  vices  of  the  personages  intro- 
duced are  depicted  with  such  fidelity  that  we 
are  perpetually  disgusted  by  the  obscenity  of 
the  descriptions.  The  longest  section  is  gener- 
ally known  as  the  Supper  of  Trimalchio,  present- 
ing us  with  a  detailed  account  of  a  fantastic 
banquet,  such  as  the  gourmands  of  the  empire 
were  wont  to  exhibit  on  their  tables.  Next  in 
interest  is  the  well-known  tale  of  the  Ephesian 
Matron.  A  great  number  of  conflicting  opinions 
have  been  formed  by  scholars  with  regard  to  the 
author  of  the  Satyricon.  Many  suppose  that  he 
is  the  same  person  as  the  C.  or  T.  Petronius 
mentioned  above  ;  and  though  there  are  no 
proofs  in  favor  of  this  hypothesis,  yet  there  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  the  work  belongs  to 
the  first  century,  or,  at  all  events,  is  not  later 
than  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  The  best  edition  is 
by  P.  Burmannus,  4to,  Traj.  ad  llhen.,  1709,  and 
again  Amst.,  1743. 

[PETROSIDIHS,  L.,  a  standard-bearer,  died  fight- 
*ng  bravely  when  Titurius  Sabinus  and  Aurun- 


culeiu  i  Cotta  were  destroyed  with  their  troops 
by  Ambiorix,  B.C.  54.] 

PEUCE  (TlevKi}  :  now  Picsina),  an  island  in 
Mcesia  Inferior,  formed  by  the  two  southern 
mouths  of  the  Danube,  of  which  the  most  south- 
ernly  was  also  called  Peuce,  but  more  commonl} 
the  Sacred  Mouth.  This  island  is  of  a  triangu- 
lar form,  and  is  said  by  the  ancients  to  be  af 
large  as  Rhodes.  It  was  inhabited  by  the  Peu 
cini,  who  were  a  tribe  of  the  Bastarnae,  and  took 
their  name  from  the  island. 

PEUCELA,  PEUCELAOTis(netJ/ce/la,  HeviteAauTis  • 
now  Pekheli  or  Pakholi),  a  city  and  district  in  the 
northwest  of  India  intra  Gangem,  between  the 
rivers  Indus  and  Suastus. 

PEUCESTAS  (UevKearaf),  a  Macedonian,  and  a 
distinguished  officer  of  Alexander  the  Great 
He  had  the  chief  share  in  saving  the  life  of 
Alexander  in  the  assault  on  the  city  of  the  Malli 
in  India,  and  was  afterward  appointed  by  the 
king  to  the  satrapy  of  Persia.  In  the  division 
of  the  provinces  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
(B.C.  323),  he  obtained  the  renewal  of  his  gov- 
ernment of  Persia.  He  fought  on  the  side  o 
Eumenes  against  Antigonus  (317-316),  but  dis- 
played both  arrogance  and  insubordination  in 
these  campaigns.  Upon  the  surrender  of  Eu- 
menes by  the  Argyraspids,  Peucestas  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Antigonus,  who  deprived  him  of 
his  satrapy. 

PEUCETIA.     Vid.  APULI. 

PEUCINI.     Vid.  PEUCE. 

[PHACE  (<£a/c^),  sister  of  Ulysses,  according  tc 
some  accounts  called  Callisto.] 

PHACIUM  ($U.KLOV  :  $aniev<;:  now  Alifaka),  a 
mountain  fortress  of  Thessaly,  in  the  district 
Hestiaeotis,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Peneus, 
northeast  of  Limnaea. 

[PHACUSA  (Qaiiovaa),  the  capital  of  the  Nomos 
Arabia  in  Lower  Egypt,  portions  of  which  were 
on  both  banks  of  the  Nile,  thirty-six  miles  frorp 
Pelusium.  At  this  place  the  canal  began  which 
ran  from  the  Nile  to  the  Arabian  Gulf.  Tha 
ruins  on  this  site  still  bear  the  name  Tell  Fa 
kus.] 

PHACussA(4>a«oi3(T(ja:  now  Fecussa),  an  islanc 
in  the  JGgean  Sea,  one  of  the  Sporades. 

PH.SA  (4><ua),  the  name  of  the  sow  of  Crom- 
myon  in  Megaris,  which  ravaged  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  was  slain  by  Theseus. 

PH-SACES  (<t>a/a«ef,  QairjKtf),  a  fabulous  people 
immortalized  by  the  Odyssey,  who  inhabited  the 
island  SCHERIA  (S^epfo),  situated  at  the  extreme 
western  part  of  the  earth,  and  who  were  gov- 
erned by  King  Alcinous.  Vid.  ALCINOUS.  They 
are  described  by  Homer  as  a  people  fond  of  the 
feast,  the  lyre,  and  the  dance,  and  hence  their 
name  passed  into  a  proverb  to  indicate  persons 
of  luxurious  and  sensual  habits.  Thus  a  glut- 
ton is  called  Phaax  by  Horace  (Ep.,  i.,  15,  24). 
The  ancients  identified  the  Homeric  Schejia 
with  Corcyra,  whence  the  latter  is  called  by  the 
poets  Phaacia.  tellus ;  but  there  is  no  sound  ar- 
gument in  favor  of  the  identity  of  the  two  isl- 
ands, and  it  is  better  to  regard  Scheria  as  alto- 
gether fabulous. 

PH/EAx(4>at'af),  an  Athenian  orator  and  states- 
man, and  a  contemporary  of  Nicias  and  Alcibia- 
des.  Some  critics  maintain  that  the  extant 
speech  against  Alcibiades,  commonly  attributed 
to  Andocides,  was  written  by  Phaeax. 

635 


PILEDIMA. 

[PH.KDIMA  (*aidi]u»?),  a  Persian  lady,  daughter 
of  Otanes,  was  one  of  the  wives  of  Cambyses 
and  of  Smerdis  the  magian.  It  was  through  her 
means  that  the  false  Smerdis  was  detected  and 
exposed.] 

[PH.*DIMUS  (4>a«tyuof).  1.  A  king  of  the  Si- 
donians,  who  hospitably  received  Menelaus  on 
his  return  from  Troy. — 2.  A  native  of  Bisanthe 
in  Macedonia,  or  of  Amastris  in  Paphlagonia, 
an  epigrammatic  poet,  four  of  whose  epigrams 
are  contained  in  the  Greek  Anthology.] 

PHAEDON  (*at'dwv),  a  Greek  philosopher,  vas  a 
native  of  Elis,  and  of  high  birth,  but  was  taken 
prisoner,  probably  about  B.C.  400,  and  was 
brought  to  Athens.  It  is  said  that  he  ran  away 
from  his  master  to  Socrates,  and  was  ransomed 
by  one  of  the  friends  of  the  latter.  Phaedon  was 
present  at  the  death  of  Socrates,  while  he  was 
still  quite  a  youth.  He  appears  to  have  lived  in 
Athens  some  time  after  the  death  of  Socrates, 
and  then  returned  to  Elis,  where  he  became  the 
founder  of  a  school  of  philosophy.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Plistanus,  after  whom  the  Elean  school 
was  merged  in  the  Eretrian.  The  dialogue  of 
Plato,  which  contains  an  account  of  the  death 
of  Socrates,  bears  the  name  of  Phaedon. 

PHAEDRA  (QaiSpa),  daughter  of  Minos  by  Pasi- 
phae  or  Crete,  and  the  wife  of  Theseus.  She 
was  the  step-mother  of  Hippolytus,  the  son  of 
Theseus,  with  whom  she  fell  in  love  ;  but  hav- 
ing been  repulsed  by  Hippolytus,  she  accused 
him  to  Theseus  of  having  attempted  her  dis- 
honor. After  the  death  of  Hippolytus,  his  inno- 
cence became  known  to  his  father,  and  Phaedra 
made  away  with  herself.  For  details,  vid.  HIP- 
POLYTUS. 

PH^EDRIADES.     Vid.  PARNASSUS. 

PHuEDRiAs  (4>a«ty»'af),  a  town  in  the  south  of 
Arcadia,  southwest  of  Megalopolis,  fifteen  stadia 
from  the  Messenian  frontier. 

[PH^EDRIAS  (<t><u<5pwf),  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants 
in  Athens,  as  the  name  is  given  in  Xenophon  ; 
the  common  reading  in  Demosthenes  hasPhaedi- 
mus.] 

PH^DRUS  (*at(Jpof ).  1 .  An  Epicurean  philoso- 
pher, and  the  president  of  the  Epicurean  school 
during  Cicero's  residence  in  Athens,  B.C.  80. 
He  died  in  70,  and  was  succeeded  by  Patron. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  gods  (Uepl 
•&euv),  of  which  an  interesting  fragment  was  dis- 
covered at  Herculaneum  in  1806,  and  published 
by  Petersen,  Hamb.,  1833.  Cicero  was  largely 
indebted  to  this  work  for  the  materials  of  the 
first  book  of  the  De  Natura  Deorum. — 2.  The 
Latin  fabulist,  of  whom  we  know  nothing  but 
what  is  collected  or  inferred  from  his  fables. 
He  was  originally  a  slave,  and  was  brought 
from  Thrace  or  Macedonia  to  Rome,  where  he 
learned  the  Latin  language.  As  the  title  of  his 
work  is  Phatdri  Aug.  Liberti  Fabula  Msopia,  we 
must  conclude  that  he  had  belonged  to  Augus- 
tus, who  manumitted  him.  Under  Tiberius  he 
appears  to  have  undergone  some  persecution 
from  Sejanus.  The  fables  extant  under  the 
name  of  Phaedrus  are  ninety-seven  in  number, 
written  in  iambic  verse,  and  distributed  into  five 
books.  Most  of  the  fables  are  transfusions  of 
the^Esopian  fables,  or  those  which  pass  as  such, 
into  Latin  verse.  The  expression  is  generally 
clear  and  concise,  and  the  language,  with  some 
few  exceptions,  as  pure  and  correct  as  we  should 
636 


PHALACRA. 

expect  from  a  Roman  writer  of  the  Augustan 
age.  But  Phaedrus  has  not  escaped  censure 
when  he  has  deviated  from  his  Greek  model,  and 
much  of  the  censure  is  just.  The  best  fables 
are  those  in  which  he  has  kept  the  closest  to 
his  original.  Many  of  the  fables,  however,  are 
not  .Esopian,  as  the  matter  clearly  shows,  for 
they  refer  to  historical  events  -of  a  much  later 
period  (v.,  1,  8  ;  iii.,  10) ;  and  Phaedrus  himself, 
in  the  prologue  to  the  fifth  book,  intimates  that 
he  had  often  used  the  name  of  JEsop  only  to 
recommend  his  verses.  There  is  also  another 
collection  of  thirty-two  fables  attributed  to 
^Esop,  and  entitled  Epitome  Fabularum,  which 
was  first  published  at  Naples  in  1809,  by  Cas- 
sitti.  Opinions  are  much  divided  as  to  the  gen- 
uineness of  this  collection.  The  probability  is, 
that  the  Epitome  is  founded  on  genuine  Roman 
fables,  which,  in  the  process  of  transcription 
during  many  centuries,  have  undergone  consid- 
erable changes.  The  last  and  only  critical  edi- 
tion of  Phaedrus  is  by  Orelli,  Zurich,  1831. 

PH.SVARETE.      Vid.  SOCRATES. 

PH^ENIAS.     Vid.  PHANIAS. 

PH^ESTUS  (Qaivrof :  Qaiariof.  1.  A  town  m 
the  south  of  Crete,  near  Gortyna,  twenty  sta- 
dia from  the  sea,  with  a  port-town,  Matala  or 
Matalia,  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Heraclid 
Phaestus,  who  came  from  Sicyon  to  Crete.  The 
town  is  mentioned  by  Homer,  but  was  destroyed 
at  an  early  period  by  Gortyna.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  Epimenides,  and  its  inhabitants  were 
celebrated  for  their  wit  and  sarcasm. — 2.  A 
town  ofThessaly,  in  the  district  Thessaliotis. 

PHAETHON  (QatOuv),  that  is,  "  the  shining,"^ 
occurs  in  Homer  as  an  epithet  or  surname  of* 
Helios  (the  Sun),  and  is  used  by  later  writers  as 
a  proper  name  for  Helios  ;  but  it  is  more  com- 
monly known  as  the  name  of  a  son  of  Helios  by 
the  Oceanid  Clymene,  the  wife  of  Merops.  The 
genealogy  of  Phaethon,  however,  is  not  the  same 
in  all  writers,  for  some  call  him  a  son  of  Clym- 
enus,  the  son  of  Helios  by  Merope,  or  a  son  of 
Helios  by  Prote,  or,  lastly,  a  son  of  Helios  by 
the  nymph  Rhode  or  Rhodos.  He  received  the 
significant  name  of  Phaethon  from  his  father, 
and  was  afterward  presumptuous  and  ambitious 
enough  to  request  his  father  to  allow  him  for 
one  day  to  drive  the  chariot  of  the  sun  across 
the  heavens.  Helios  was  induced  by  the  en- 
treaties of  his  son  and  of  Clymene  to  yield,  but, 
the  youth  being  too  weak  to  check  the  horses, 
they  rushed  out  of  their  usual  track,  and  came 
so  near  the  earth  as  almost  to  set  it  on  fire. 
Thereupon  Jupiter  (Zeus)  killed  him  with  a  flash 
of  lightning,  and  hurled  him  down  into  the  River 
Eridanus.  His  sisters,  the  Heliadcs  or  Phaethon- 
tiades,  who  had  yoked  the  horses  to  the  chariot, 
were  metamorphosed  into  poplars,  and  their 
tears  into  amber.  Vid.  HELIAD.S. 

PHAETHONTIADES.     Vid.  HELIAD^E. 

PHAETHUSA.     Vid.  HELIAD^. 

PHAGRES  (<J»ay/M?f :  now  Or/an  or  Or/ana),  an 
ancient  and  fortified  town  of  the  Pierians  in 
Macedonia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pangaeon. 

[PHAGRORION  (Qaypupiov)  or  PHAGRORIOPO- 
LIS  (Qa-ypupioiroAif),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
near  the  canal  extending  from  Phacusa  to  Ar- 
sinoe.] 

[PHALACRA  ($aAo«pa  and  QahaKpai),  a  city  ol 
Cyrenaica,  between  Caenopolis  and  Marabma 


PHAL.ECUS. 

according  to  Pliny,  celebrated  on  account  of  its 
wine.] 

PHAL^ECUS  (QuliaiKoc).  1.  Son  of  Onomar- 
nhus,  succeeded  his  uncle  Phayllus  as  leader  of 
the  Phocians  in  the  Sacred  War,  B.C.  351.  In 
order  to  secure  his  own  safety,  he  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Philip,  by  which  he  was  allowed  to 
withdraw  into  the  Peloponnesus  with  a  body  of 
eight  thousand  mercenaries,  leaving  the  un- 
happy Phocians  to  their  fate,  346.  Phalaecus 
now  assumed  the  part  of  a  mere  leader  of  mer- 
cenary troops,  in  which  character  we  find  him 
engaging  in  various  enterprises.  He  was  slain 
at  the  siege  of  Cydonia  in  Crete. — 2.  A  lyric  and 
epigrammatic  poet,  from  whom  the  metre  called 
PhalcRcian  took  its  name.  Five  of  his  epigrams 
are  preserved  in  the  Greek  Anthology.  His 
date  is  uncertain,  but  he  was  probably  one  of 
the  principal  Alexandrean  poets. 

PHAL.VESI.E  (Qahaiaiai),  a  town  in  Arcadia, 
south  of  Megalopolis,  on  the  road  to  Sparta, 
twenty  stadia  from  the  Laconian  frontier. 

PHALANNA  (fydhavva  :  fyahavvalof  :  now  Kar- 
adjoli),  a  town  of  the  Perrhaebfr  in  the  Th.es- 
salian  district  of  Hestiaeotis,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Peneus,  not  far  from  Tempe. 

PHALANTHUS  (<tdAav0of),  son  of  Aracus,  was 
one  of  the  Laced semonian  Partheniae,  or  the  off- 
spring of  some  marriages  of  disparagement, 
which  the  necessity  of  the  first  Messenian  war 
had  induced  the  Spartans  to  permit.  ( Vid.  Diet, 
of  Antiq.,  art.  PARTHENI.E.)  As  the  Partheniae 
were  looked  down  upon  by  their  fellow-citizens, 
they  formed  a  conspiracy  under  Phalanthus 
against  the  government.  Their  design  having 
.been  detected,  they  went  to  Italy  under  the 
guidance  of  Phalanthus,  and  founded  the  city 
of  Tarentum,  about  B.C.  708.  Phalanthus  was 
afterward  driven  out  from  Tarentum  by  a  sedi- 
tion, and  ended  his  days  at  Brundisium. 

PHALARA  (TO.  *dAopa :  4>a/lapeiif),  a  town  in 
the  Thessalian  district  of  Phthiotis,  on  the  Sinus 
Maliacus,  served  as  the  harbor  of  Lamia. 

[Pii.\LARis,  one  of  the  Trojan  warriors  who 
accompanied  J2neas  to  Italy :  he  was  slain  by 
Turnus.] 

PHALARIS  (4d^.aptf),  ruler  of  Agrigentum  in 
Sicily,  has  obtained  a  proverbial  celebrity  as  a 
cruel  and  inhuman  tyrant ;  but  we  have  scarcely 
any  real  knowledge  of  his  life  and  history.  His 
leign  probably  commenced  about  B.C.  570,  and 
is  said  to  have  lasted  sixteen  years.  He  was 
a  native  of  Agrigentum,  and  appears  to  have 
been  raised  by  his  fellow-citizens  to  some  high 
office  in  the  state,  of  which  he  afterward  avail- 
ed himself  to  assume  a  despotic  authority.  He 
was  engaged  in  frequent  wars  with  his  neigh- 
bors, and  extended  his  power  and  dominion  on 
all  sides,  though  more  frequently  by  stratagem 
than  open  force.  He  perished  by  a  sudden  out- 
break of  the  popular  fury,  in  which  it  appears 
that  Telemachus,  the  ancestor  of  Theron,  must 
have  borne  a  conspicuous  part.  No  circum- 
stance connected  with  Phalaris  is  more  cele- 
brated than  the  brazen  bull  in  which  he  is  said 
to  have  burned  alive  the  victims  of  his  cruelty, 
and  of  which  we  are  told  that  he  made  the  first 
experiment  upon  Us  inventor  Perillus.  This 
latter  story  has  much  the  air  of  an  invention  of 
later  times,  but  the  fame  of  this  celebrated  en- 
gine of  torture  was  inseparabl  associated  with 


PHAN,E. 

the  name  of  Phalaris  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Pindar.  (Pind.,  Pyth.,  i.,  185.)  That  poet  also 
speaks  of  Phalaris  himself  in  terras  which  clear- 
ly prove  that  his  reputation  as  a  barbarous  tyrant 
was  then  already  fully  established,  and  all  sub- 
sequent writers,  until  a  very  late  period,  allude 
to  him  in  terms  of  similar  import.  But  in  the 
later  ages  of  Greek  literature,  there  appears  to 
have  existed  or  arisen  a  totally  different  tradi- 
tion concerning  Phalaris,  which  represented  him 
as  a  man  of  a  naturally  mild  and  humane  dispo- 
sition, and  only  forced  into  acts  of  severity  or 
occasional  cruelty  by  the  pressure  of  circum- 
stances and  the  machinations  of  his  enemies. 
Still  more  strange  is  it  that  he  appears  at  the 
same  time  as  an  admirer  of  literature  and  phi- 
losophy, and  the  patron  of  men  of  letters.  Such 
is  the  aspect  under  which  his  character  is  pre- 
sented to  us  in  two  declamations  commonly  as- 
cribed to  Lucian,  and  still  more  strikingly  in  the 
well-known  epistleg  which  bear  the  name  of 
Phalaris  himself.  These  epistles  are  now  re- 
membered chiefly  on  account  of  the  literary  con- 
troversy to  which  they  gave  rise,  and  the  mas- 
terly dissertation  in  which  Bentley  exposed 
their  spuriousness.  They  are  evidently  the 
composition  of  some  sophist,  though  the  pe- 
riod at  which  the  forgery  was  composed  can  not 
now  be  determined.  The  first  author  who  re- 
fers to  them  is  Stobaeus.  The  best  edition  is 
by  Schaefer,  Lips.,  1823. 

PHALARIUM  (^oAuptof),  a  fortress  named  afte-- 
Phalaris,  near  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  situ- 
ated on  a  hill  forty  stadia  east  of  the  River 
Himera. 

PHALASARNA  (ru  $a%.daapva),  a  town  on  the 
northwestern  coast  of  Crete. 

[PHALCES  (*u^«»?f),  a  Trojan  warrior,  slain 
before  Troy  by  Antilochus.] 

PHALERUM  (QdXrjpov :  '^a^rjpevs),  the  most  east- 
erly of  the  harbors  of  Athens,  and  the  ono 
chiefly  used  by  the  Athenians  before  the  time 
of  the  Persian  wars.  Phalerum  is  usually  de- 
scribed as  the  most  easterly  of  the  three  har- 
bors in  the  peninsula  of  Piraeus  ;  but  this  ap- 
pears to  be  incorrect.  The  names  of  the  three 
harbors  in  the  peninsula  were  Piraeus,  Zea,  and 
Munychia ;  while  Phalerum  lay  southeast  of 
these  three,  nearer  the  city,  at  Hagios  Georgios. 
After  the  establishment  by  Themistocles  of  the 
three  harbors  in  the  peninsula  of  Piraeus,  Phale- 
rum was  not  much  used  ;  but  it  was  connected 
with  the  city  by  means  of  a  wall  called  the 
Phalerian  Wall  ($a.\T)pmbv  retjof).  Paleron  or 
Phalerus  was  also  an  Attic  demus,  containing 
temples  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  Ceres  (Demeter),  and 
other  deities. 

[PHALINUS  (*aXtvof),  a  Zacynthian,  in  the 
service  of  Tissaphernes ;  after  the  battle  of 
Cunaxa,  B.C.  401,  he  accompanied  the  Persian 
heralds  sent  to  the  army  of  the  ten  thousand 
to  require  them  to  lay  down  their  arms  :  he  re- 
turned unsuccessful,  having  been  unable  to  get 
any  satisfactory  answer  from  Clearchus.] 

PHAI.ORU  (*aAup/a),  a  fortified  town  of  Thes- 
saly  in  Hestiaeotis,  north  of  Tricca,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Peneus. 

PHAN^E  ($dvat,  17  $avaia  uKpa  :  now  Cape  Mat~ 
tico),-the  southern  point  of  the  island  of  Chios 
celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Apollo  and  for  its 
excellent  wine. 

637 


PHANAGORIA. 

PHANAGORIA  (Qavayopcta,  and  other  forms  : 
ruins  at  Phanagori,  near  Taman,  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Slraits  of  Ka/a),  a  Greek  city,  found- 
ed by  a  colony  of  Teians  under  Phanagoras,  on 
the  Asiatic  coast  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus. 
It  became  the  great  emporium  for  all  the  traffic 
between  the  coasts  of  the  Palus  Maeotis  and  the 
countries  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Caucasus, 
and  was  chosen  by  the  kings  of  Bosporus  as 
their  capital  in  Asia.  It  had  a  temple  of  Venus 
(Aphrodite)  Apaturos,  and  its  neighborhood  was 
rich  in  olive-yards.  In  the  sixth  century  A.D. 
it  was  destroyed  by  the  surrounding  barbarians. 

PHANAROSA  (Qavupoia),  a  great  plain  of  Pon- 
tus  in  Asia  Minor,  inclosed  by  the  mountain 
chains  of  Paryadres  on  the  east,  and  Lithrus 
and  Ophlimus  on  the  west,  was  the  most  fertile 
part  of  Pontus. 

[PIIANES  (#av7/f),  a  Greek  of  Halicarnassus, 
in  the  service  of  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt,  whom 
he  deserted,  and  went  over  to  Cambyses,  king 
of  Persia  ] 

PHANIAS  or  PH^ENIAS  ($or/af,  Qaiviaf ),  of  Ere- 
sos  in  Lesbos,  a  distinguished  Peripatetic  phi- 
losopher, the  immediate  disciple  of  Aristotle, 
and  the  contemporary,  fellow-citizen,  and  friend 
of  Theophrastus.  He  flourished  about  B.C.  336. 
Phanias  does  not  seem  to  have  founded  a  dis- 
tinct school  of  his  own,  but  he  was  a  most  dili- 
gent writer  upon  every  department  of  philoso- 
phy, as  it  was  studied  by  the  Peripatetics,  espe- 
cially logic,  physics,  history,  and  literature.  His 
works,  all  of  which  are  lost,  are  frequently  quot- 
ed by  later  writers.  One  of  his  works  most  fre- 
quently cited  was  a  sort  of  chronicle  of  his  na- 
tive city,  bearing  the  title  of  npvrdvsic  'Epeaiot. 

PHANOCLES  (^avox^f),  one  of  the  best  of  the 
later  Greek  elegiac  poets,  probably  lived  in  the 
time  of  Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great.  He 
seems  only  to  have  written  one  poem,  which 
was  entitled  'Epurec  r)  ~K.al.oL  The  work,  was 
upon  paderasleia ;  but  the  subject  was  so  treat- 
ed as  to  exhibit  the  retribution  which  fell  upon 
those  who  addicted  themselves  to  the  practice. 
We  still  possess  a  considerable  fragment  from 
the  opening  of  the  poem,  which 'describes  the 
love  of  Orpheus  for  Calais,  and  the  vengeance 
taken  upon  him  by  the  Thracian  women.  The 
fragments  of  Phanocles  are  edited  by  Bach,  Phi- 
lct<z,  Hermesianactis,  atque  Phanoclis  Reliquice, 
Halle,  1829  ;  and  by  Schneidewin,  Delectus  Poes. 
Grac.,  p.  158. 

PHANODEMUS  (4>avo<%iof),  the  author  of  one 
of  those  works  on  the  legends  and  antiquities 
of  Attica,  known  under  the  name  of  Atthides. 
His  age  and  birth-place  are  uncertain,  but  we 
know  that  he  lived  before  the  time  of  Augustus, 
as  he  is  cited  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus. 
[The  last  edition  of  the  fragments  is  in  Miiller's 
Hist.  Grace.  Fragm.,  p.  366-370.] 

[PiiANosTHENEs  (  $avoa6tVT)s ),  an  Andnan, 
was  intrusted  by  the  Athenians  in  B.C.  407  with 
the  command  of  four  ships,  and  was  sent  to 
Andros  to  succeed  Conon  on  that  station.  On 
his  way  he  fell  in  with  two  Thurian  galleys, 
under  the  command  of  Dorieus,  and  captured 
them  with  their  crews.] 

PHANOTE  (now  Gardhiki),  a  fortified  town  of 
Epirus  in  Chaonia,  near  the  Illyrian  frontier. 

PHANTASIA  (Qavraaid),  one  of  those  numerous 
mythical  personages  to  whom  Homer  is  said 
638 


PHARMACUSS^E. 

to  have  been  indebted  for  his  poems.  She  is 
said  to  have  been  an  Egyptian,  the  daughter  of 
Nicarchus,  an  inhabitant  of  Memphis,  and  to 
have  written  an  account  of  the  Trojan  war  and 
the  wanderings  of  Ulysses. 

PHAON  (4>u«»>).  1.  A  boatman  at  Mytilenr, 
is  said  to  have  been  originally  an  ugly  old  man  ; 
but,  in  consequence  of  his  carrying  Venus  (Aph 
rodite)  across  the  sea  without  accepting  pay- 
ment, the  goddess  gave  him  youth  and  beauty 
After  this  Sappho  is  said  to  have  fallen  in  love 
with  him,  and  to  have  leaped  from  the  Leuca- 
dian  rock  when  he  slighted  her  ;  but  this  well- 
known  story  vanishes  at  the  first  approach  of 
criticism.  Vid.  SAPPHO. — [2.  A  freedman  of  the 
Emperor  Nero,  in  whose  villa  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  city  Nero  took  refuge  when  the 
people  rose  against  him,  and  where  he  met  his 
death,  A.D.  68.] 

PHAROS  (<iapdi  or  ^fjpai).  1.  (Qapatevf  or  *I>a- 
pevf),  an  ancient  town  in  the  western  part  of 
Achaea,  and  one  of  the  twelve  Achaean  cities, 
was  situated  on  the  River  Pierus,  seventy  stadia 
from  the  sea.^nd  one  hundred  and  fifty  from 
Patrae.  It  was  one  of  the  states  which  took  an 
active  part  in  reviving  the  Achaean  league  in 
B.C.  281.  Augustus  included  it  in  the  territory 
of  Patrae.  —  2.  (Qapatrrjc,  ^apaidrrif,  ^apdrrjf  : 
now  Kalamata),  an  ancient  town  in  Messenia, 
mentioned  by  Homer,  on  the  River  Nedon,  near 
the  frontiers  of  Laconia,  and  about  six  miles 
from  the  sea.  In  B.C.  180  Pharse  joined  the 
Achaean  league  together  with  the  neighboring 
towns  of  Thuria  and  Abia.  It  was  annexed  by 
Augustus  to  Laconia. — 3.  Originally  PHARIS(<!>U- 
ptf  :  $api.TTie,  <I>apmr»7f),  a  town  in  Laconia,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Eurotas,  south  of  Sparta. — 4.  A 
town  in  Crete,  founded  by  the  Messenian  Pharae. 

[PHARAN  (Qapdv),  a  city  of  Arabia  Petraea,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  a  promontory  of  the  same 
name  (now  Faraun),  between  the  two  arms  of  the 
Sinus  Arabicus,  and  which  is  now  recalled  to 
mind  by  the  Wady  Faran  or  Fircm.] 

[PHARAX  ($dpaf).  1.  One  of  the  council  often 
appointed  by  the  Spartans  in  B.C.  418  to  con- 
trol Agis.  At  the  battle  of  Mantinea  in  that 
year,  he  restrained  the  Lacedaemonians  from 
pressing  too  much  on  the  defeated  enemy,  and 
so  running  the  risk  of  driving  them  to  despair. 
In  B.C.  396  he  laid  siege  with  one  hundred  and 
twenty  ships  to  Caunus,  where  Conon  was  sta- 
tioned, but  was  compelled  to  withdraw  by  the 
approach  of  a  large  force. — 2.  A  Spartan,  sent 
to  negotiate  an  alliance  with  Athens  against 
Thebes,  B.C.  369.] 

PHARB^ETHUS  ($ap6at0of  :  ruins  atHorleyt?), 
the  capital  of  the  Nomos  Pharbaethites  in  Lower 
Egypt,  lay  south  of  Tanis,  on  the  western  side 
of  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile. 

PHARCADON  (<bapica<5uv),  a  town  of  Thessaly, 
in  the  eastern  part  of  Hestiaeotis. 

PHARIS.     Vid.  PHARJE,  No.  3. 

PHARMACUSS^E  (QappaKovoaai).  1.  Two  small 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Attica,  near  Salamis,  in 
the  Bay  of  Eleusis,  now  called  Kyradhes  or  Mc- 
gali  and  Mikri  Kyra :  on  one  of  them  was  shown 
the  tomb  of  Circe. —2.  PHARMACUSA  (Qappa 
Kovffa),  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
one  hundred  and  twenty  stadia  from  Miletus, 
where  King  Attalus  died,  and  near  which  Julius 
Caesar  was  taken  prisoner  by  pirates  when  a 


PHARNABAZUS. 

Yery  young  man.  The  whole  adventure  is  re- 
lated by  Plutarch  (Cas.,  1,  2). 

PHARNABAZUS  (4>a/3vu6a£bf),  son  of  Pharnaces, 
succeeded  his  father  as  satrap  of  the  Persian 
provinces  near  the  Hellespont.  In  B.C.  41 1  and 
the  following  year?,  he  rendered  active  assist- 
ance to  the  Lacedaemonians  in  their  war  against 
the  Athenians.  When  Dercyllidas,  and  subse- 
quently Agesilaus,  passed  over  into  Asia  to 
protect  the  Asiatic  Greeks  against  the  Persian 
power,  we  find  Pharnabazus  connecting  himself 
with  Conon  to  resist  the  Lacedaemonians.  In 
374  Pharnabazus  invaded  Egypt  in  conjunction 
with  Iphicrates,  but  the  expedition  failed,  chiefly 
through  the  dilatory  proceedings  and  the  ex- 
cessive caution  of  Pharnabazus.  The  character 
of  Pharnabazus  is  eminently  distinguished  by 
generosity  and  openness.  He  has  been  charg- 
ed, it  is  true,  with  the  murder  of  Alcibiades  ;  but 
the  latter  probably  fell  by  the  hands  of  others. 
Vid.  ALCIBIADES. 

PHARNACES  ($<ipvd/c?7f).  1.  King  of  Pontus, 
was  the  son  of  Mithradates  IV.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded on  the  throne  about  B.C.  190.  He  car- 
ried on  war  for  some  years  with  Eumenes,  king 
of  Pergamus,  and  Ariarathes,  king  of  Cappado- 
cia,  but  was  obliged  to  conclude  with  them  a 
disadvantageous  peace  in  179.  The  year  of  his 
death  is  uncertain ;  it  is  placed  by  conjecture 
in  156. — 2.  King  of  Pontus,  or  more  properly  of 
the  Bosporus,  was  the  son  of  Mithradates  the 
Great,  whom  he  compelled  to  put  an  end  to  his 
life  in  63.  Vid.  MITHRADATES,  No.  6.  After  the 
death  of  his  father,  Pharnaces  hastened  to  make 
his  submission  to  Pompey,  who  granted  him  the 
kingdom  of  the  Bosporus  with  the  titles  of  friend 
and  ally  of  the  Roman  people.  In  the  civil  war 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  Pharnaces  seized 
the  opportunity  to  reinstate  himself  in  his  fa- 
ther's dominions,  and  made  himself  master  of 
the  whole  of  Colchis  and  the  lesser  Armenia. 
He  defeated  Domitius  Calvinus,  the  lieutenant 
of  Caesar  in  Asia,  but  was  shortly  afterward  de- 
feated by  Csesar  himself  in  a  decisive  action 
near  Zela  (47).  The  battle  was  gained  with 
such  ease  by  Caesar,  that  he  informed  the  sen- 
ate of  his  victory  by  the  words  Veni,  vidi,  vici. 
In  the  course  of  the  same  year  Pharnaces  was 
again  defeated,  and  was  slain  by  Asander,  one 
of  his  generals,  who  hoped  to  obtain  his  mas- 
ter's kingdom.  Vid.  ASANDER. — [3.  Father  of 
Artabazus,  who  commanded  the  Parthians  and 
Chorasmiansin  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  against 
Greece.  —  4.  Son  of  Pharnabazus,  appears  to 
have  been  satrap  of  the  provinces  of  Asia,  near 
the  Hellespont,  as  early  as  B.C.  430.— 5.  A  Per- 
sian of  high  rank,  and  brother-in-law  of  Darius 
Codomannus,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the 
Granicus,  B.C.  334.] 

PHARNACIA  (QapvaKia  :  now  Khcretoun  or  Ke- 
rasunda),  a  flourishing  city  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
coast  of  Pontus  Polemoniacus,  was  built  near 
(some  think  on)  the  site  of  Cerasus,  probably  by 
Pharnaces,  the  grandfather  of  Mithradates  the 
Great,  and  peopled  by  the  transference  to  it  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Cotyora.  It  had  a  large  com- 
merce and  extensive  fisheries,  and  in  its  neigh- 
borhood were  the  iron  mines  of  the  Chalybes. 
It  was  strongly  fortified,  and  was  used  by  Mith- 
rai'ates  in  the  war  with  Rome  for  the  place  of 
relume  of  his  harem. 


PHASAELIS. 

[PHARNASPES  (Qafiuairyc),  a  Persian  of  the 
I  family  of  the  Achaemenida;,  was  the  father  of  Cas- 
\  sandane,  a  favorite  wife  of  Cyrus  the  Great.] 

[PHARNCCHUS  (Qapvovxoc).     1.  An  officer  of 
j  Cyrus  the  elder,  and  one  of  the  chiliarchs  of  hia 
|  cavalry  in  the  war  with  Croesus.     After  the  con- 
|  quest  of  Babylon  he  was  made  satrap  of  the  Hel- 
lespontine  Phrygia  and  JDolis. — 2.  One  of  the 
three  commanders  of  the  cavalry  in  the  army  of 
Xerxes.     A  fall  from  his  horse  occasioned  his 
detention  at  Sardis  while  the  Persians  invaded 
Greece.     By  his  order  the  horse's  legs  were  cut 
off  at  the  knees  on  the  spot  where  he  had  thrown 
his  master. — 3.  A  Lycian  appointed  by  Alexan- 
der the  Great  to  command  the  forces  sent  into 
Sogdiana  against  Spitamenes  in  B.C.  329.] 

PHARSALOS  (Qapaahot;,  Ion.  fyapai)?^  :  Qapod- 
Titof :  now  Pharsa  or  Fersala),  a  town  in  Thes- 
saly,  in  the  district  Thessaliotis,  not  far  from 
the  frontiers  of  Phthiotis,  west  of  the  River 
Enipeus,  and  on  the  northern  slope  of  Mount 
Narthacius.  It  was  divided  into  an  old  and 
new  city,  and  contained  a  strongly-fortified 
acropolis.  In  its  neighborhood,  northeast  of  the 
town  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  Enipeus,  was 
a  celebrated  temple  of  Thetis,  called  Thetidium. 
Near  Pharsalus  was  fought  the  decisive  battle 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  B.C.  48,  which 
made  Caesar  master  of  the  Roman  world.  It  is 
frequently  called  the  battle  of  Pharsalla,  which 
was  the  name  of  the  territory  of  the  town. 

PHARUS  (4»dpof).  1.  (NowPAaros  or  Raudhat- 
el-tin,  i.  e.,  Fig-garden),  a  small  island  off  the 
Mediterranean  coast  of  Egypt,  mentioned  by  Ho- 
mer, who  describes  it  as  a  whole  day's  sail  dis- 
tant from/Egyptus,  meaning  probably,  not  Egypt 
itself,  but  the  River  Nile.  When  Alexander  the 
Great  planned  the  city  of  Alexandrea,  on  the 
coast  opposite  to  Pharos,  he  caused  the  island 
to  be  united  to  the  coast  by  a  mole  seven  sta- 
dia in  length,  thus  forming  the  two  harbors  of 
the  city.  Vid.  ALEXANDREA.  The  island  was 
chiefly  famous  for  the  lofty  tower  built  upon  it 
by  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus  for  a  light-house, 
whence  the  name  ofpharus  was  applied  to  all 
similar  structures.  It  was  in  this  island,  too, 
that,  according  to  the  common  story,  the  sev- 
enty translators  of  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old 
Testament,  hence  called  the  Septuagint,  were 
confined  till  their  work  was  finished.  The  isl- 
and was  well  peopled  according  to  Julius  Cae- 
sar, but  soon  afterward  Strabo  tells  us  that  it 
was  inhabited  only  by  a  fewfishermen. — 2.  (Now 
Lesina  or  Hvar),  an  island  of  the  Adriatic,  off 
the  coast  of  Dalmatia,  east  of  Issa,  with  a  Greek 
city  of  the  same  name  (ruins  at  Citita  Vecchia), 
which  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Romans 
under  . Kmilius  Paulus,  but  probably  rebuilt,  as 
it  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  under  the  name  of 
Pharia. 

[PHARUS  (*Jpof).  1.  The  helmsman  of  Mene- 
laus,  from  whom  the  island  of  Pharus  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile  was  believed  to  have  derived 
its  name. — 2.  A  Rutulian,  slain  by  ^Encas  in 
Italy  in  the  war  with  Turnus.] 

PHARUSII  (Qapovatoi),  a  people  in  the  interior 
(probably  near  the  western  coast)  of  Northern 
Africa,  who  carried  on  a  considerable  traffic  with 
Mauretania. 

PHASAKLIS  (*a(ra»;A/f  :'  now  probably  Ain-el- 
,,  a  city  of  Palestine,  in  the  valley  of  the 
639 


PHASE  LIS. 

jordan,  north  of  Jericho>  built  by  Herod  the 
Great. 

PHASELIS  (^aaTj'kif ,  $aanl.iTT)f :  ruins  at  Tckro- 
ca),  an  important  sea-port  town  of  Lycia,  near 
ihe  borders  of  Pamphylia,  stood  on  the  Gulf  of 
Pamphylia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Solyma,  in  a 
narrow  pass  between  the  mountains  and  the 
sea.  It  was  founded  by  Dorian  colonists,  and 
from  its  position,  and  its  command  of  three  fine 
harbors,  it  soon  gained  an  extensive  commerce. 
It  did  not  belong  to  the  Lycian  confederacy, 
but  had  an  independent  government  of  its  own. 
It  became  afterward  the  head-quarters  of  the 
pirates  who  infested  the  southern  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  was  therefore  destroyed  by  P.  Ser- 
vilius  Isauricus ;  and  though  the  city  was  re- 
stored, it  never  recovered  its  importance.  Pha- 
selis  is  said  to  have  been  the  place  at  which 
the  light,  quick  vessels  called  <j>daritoi  were  first 
built,  and  the  figure  of  such  a  ship  appears  on 
its  coins. 

PHASIS  (4>acr/f).  1.  (Now  Fas  or  Rioni),  a  re- 
nowned river  of  the  ancient  world,  rose  in  the 
Moschici  Montes  (or,  according  to  others,  in  the 
Caucasus,  where,  in  fact,  its  chief  tributaries 
rise),  and  flowed  westward  through  the  plain  of 
Colchis  into  the  eastern  end  of  the  Pontus  Eux- 
inus  (now  Black  Sea),  after  receiving  several  af- 
fluents, the  chief  of  which  were  the  Glaucus  and 
the  Rion  :  the  name  of  the  latter  was  sometimes 
transferred,  as  it  now  is,  to  the  main  river.  It 
was  navigable  about  thirty-eight  miles  above  its 
mouth  for  large  vessels,  and  for  small  ones 
further  up,  as  far  as  Sarapana  (now  Sharapan), 
whence  goods  were  conveyed  in  four  days  across 
the  Moschici  Montes  to  the  River  Cyrus,  and  so 
to  the  Caspian.  It  was  spanned  by  one  hundred 
and  twenty  bridges,  and  had  many  towns  upon 
its  banks.  Its  waters  were  celebrated  for  their 
purity  and  for  various  other  supposed  qualities, 
some  of  a  very  marvellous  nature  ;  but  it  was 
most  famous  in  connection  with  the  story  of 
the  Argonautic  expedition.  Vid.  ARGONAUTS. 
Some  of  the  early  geographers  made  it  the 
boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia ;  it  was  aft- 
erward the  northeastern  limit  of  the  kingdom 
of  Pontus,  and,  under  the  Romans,  it  was  re- 
garded as  the  northern  frontier  of  their  empire 
in  Western  Asia.  Another  notable  circumstance 
connected  with  it  is,  that  it  has  given  name  to 
the  pheasant  (phasianus,  Qaaiavof,  <j>aotaviKbe 
opvif),  which  is  said  to  have  been  first  brought 
to  Greece  from  its  banks,  where  the  bird  is  still 
found  in  great  numbers.  When  the  geography 
of  these  regions  was  comparatively  unknown,  it 
was  natural  that  there  should  be  a  doubt  as  to 
the  identification  of  certain  celebrated  names, 
and  thus  the  name  Phasis,  like  Araxes,  is  ap- 
plied to  different  rivers.  The  most  important 
of  these  variations  isXenophon's  application  of 
the  name  Phasis  to  the  River  Araxes  in  Ar- 
menia. (Anab.,  iv.,  6.) — 2.  Near  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  on  its  southern  side,  was  a  town  of 
the  same  name,  founded  and  fortified  by  the 
Milesians  as  an  emporium  for  their  commerce, 
and  used  under  the  kings  of  Pontus  and  under 
the  Romans  as  a  frontier  fort,  and  now  a  Russian 
fortified  station,  under  the  name  ofPati.  Some 
identify  it  with  Sebastopolis,  but  most  likely 
incorrectly.— 3.  There  was  a  river  of  the  same 
name  in  the  island  of  Taprobane  (now  Ceylon). 
640 


PHEMONOE 

PHAVORIHITS.     Yid.  FAVORINUS. 

PHAVLLUS  (^uii^Aoc).  1.  A  celebrated  athleta 
of  Crotona,  who  had  thrice  gained  the  victory 
at  the  Pythian  games.  He  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Salamis,  B.C.  480.  in  a  ship  fitted  out  at  his 
own  expense. — 2.  A  Phocian,  brother  of  Ono- 
marchus,  whom  lie  succeeded  as  general  of  the 
Phocians  in  the  Sacred  war,  352.  He  died  in 
the  following  year,  after  a  long  and  painful  ill- 
ness. Phayllus  made  use  of  the  sacred  treas- 
ures of  Delphi  with  a  far  more  lavish  hand  than 
either  of  his  brothers,  and  he  is  accused  of  be- 
stowing the  consecrated  ornaments  upon  his 
wife  and  mistresses. 

PHAZANIA  (now  Fezzan),  a  district  of  Libya 
Interior.  Vid.  GARAMANTES. 

PHAZEMON  (bafrnuv  :  now  probably  Marri- 
ican),  a  city  of  Pontus  in  Asia  Minor,  northwest 
of  Amasia,  and  the  capital  of  the  western  dis- 
trict of  Pontus,  called  Phazemonltis  cba&povi- 
Tif),  which  lay  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Halys, 
south  of  Gazelonitis,  and  was  celebrated  for  its 
warm  mineral  springs.  Pompey  changed  the 
name  of  the  city  to  Neapolis,  and  the  district 
was  called  Neapolitis ;  but  these  names  seem 
to  have  been  soon  dropped. 

PHEA  ($«a,  4>eu,  Qeai :  ^eatof),  a  town  on  the 
frontiers  of  Elis  and  Pisatis,  with  a  harbor  situ- 
ated on  a  promontory  of  the  same  name,  and  on 
the  River  lardanus.  In  front  of  the  harbor  was 
a  small  island  called  Pheas  (Qetar.) 

PHECA  or  PHECADUM,  a  fortress  in  Thessaly, 
in  the  district  Hestiaeotis. 

PHEGEUS  ($TjyfVf).  1.  Kingof  Psophis  in  Ar- 
cadia, father  of  Alphesiboea  or  Arsinoe,  of  Pro 
nous  and  Agenor,  or  of  Temenus  and  Axion. 
He  purified  Alcmeeon  after  he  had  killed  his 
mother,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  Alphesiboea 
in  marriage.  Alcmseon  presented  Alphesibcea 
with  the  celebrated  necklace  and  peplus  of  Har- 
monia ;  but  when  Alcmaeon  afterward  wished 
to  obtain  them  again  for  his  new  wife  Callirrhoe, 
he  was  murdered  by  the  sons  of  Phegeus,  by 
their  father's  command.  Phegeus  was  himself 
subsequently  put  to  death  by  the  sons  of  Alc- 
maeon. For  details,  vid.  ALCM.SON. — [2.  Son  of 
Dares,  priest  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  in  Troy, 
slain  in  the  Trojan  war  by  Diomedes. — 3.  Name 
of  two  Trojan  warriors,  cpmpanions  of  ^Eneas, 
slain  by  Turnus  in  Italy.] 

[PHELLIAS  (QeUiaf),  a  little  stream  of  Laco- 
nia,  which  empties  into  the  Eurotas,  south  of 
Sparta.] 

[PHELLOE  (QeMori,  near  the  modern  Zakhuli), 
a  small  town  in  the  east  of  Achaia,  forty  stadia 
inland  from  ^Egira,  in  a  well-watered  and  well- 
wooded  district.] 

PHELLUS  (fce'A/lof  or  <I>f/Uof  :  foAA/T^f :  ruins 
near  Saaret),  an  inland  city  of  Lycia,  on  a  mount- 
ain between  Xanthus  and  Antiphellus  ;  the  lat- 
ter having  been  at  first  the  f»ort  of  Phellus,  but 
afterward  eclipsing  it. 

PHELLUSA,  a  small  island  near  Lesbos. 

PHEMIUS  (^ftiof),  a  celebrated  minstrel,  SOB 
of  Terpius,  who  entertained  with  his  song  the 
suitors  in  the  palace  of  Ulysses  in  Ithaca. 

PHEMONOE  (Gnpovon),  a  mythical  Greek  poet- 
ess of  the  ante-Homeric  period,  was  said  tc 
have  been  the  daughter  of  Apollo,  and  his  first 
priestess  at  Delphi,  and  the  inventor  of  the  hex- 
ameter verse.  There  were  poems  which  went 


PHENEUS. 

under  the  name  of  Phemonoe",  like  the  old  re- 
ligious poems  which  were  ascribed  to  Orpheus, 
Musaeus,  and  the  other  mythological  bards. 

PHEXEUS  (&EVEOS  or  Qtveoe  :  QtveuTijf :  now 
Fonia),  a  town  in  the  northeast  of  Arcadia,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Cyllene,  and  on  the  River 
Aroanius.  Its  territory  was  called  PHENEATIS 
(QcveaTcs).  There  were  extensive  marshes  in 
the  neighborhood,  the  waters  of  which,  though 
partly  carried  off  by  a  subterraneous  emissary, 
which  was  supposed  to  have  been  made  by  Her- 
cules, [sometimes  collected,  and  formed  a  con- 
siderable lake].  The  town  was  of  great  antiqui- 
ty. It  is  mentioned  by  Homer,  and  was  said  to 
have  been  built  by  an  autochthon  Pheneus.  It 
contained  a  strongly-fortified  acropolis,  with  a 
temple  of  Minerva  (Athena)  Tritonia ;  and  in 
the  town  itself  were  the  tombs  of  Iphicles  and 
Myrtilus,  and  temples  of  Mercury  (Hermes)  and 
Ceres  (Demeter). 

PHER^E  (Qepai :  Qepaiof  :  now  Vales tino),  an 
ancient  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  southeast  of 
the  Pelasgian  plain,  west  of  Mount  Pelion, 
southwest  of  the  Lake  Bcebeis,  and  ninety  sta- 
dia from  its  port-town  Pagasae  on  the  Pagasaean 
Gulf.  Pherae  is  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the 
residence  of  Admetus,  and  in  history  on  account 
of  its  tyrants,  who  extended  their  power  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  Thessaly.  Of  these  the 
most  powerful  was  Jason,  who  was  made  Ta- 
gus  or  generalissimo  of  Thessaly  about  B.C. 
374.  Jason  was  succeeded  in«370  by  his  two 
brothers  Polydorus  and  Polyphron.  The  former 
was  soon  after  assassinated  by  Polyphron.  The 
latter  was  murdered  in  his  turn  in  369  by  his 
nephew  Alexander,  who  was  notorious  for  his 
cruelty,  and  who  was  put  to  death  in  367  by  his 
wife  Thebe  and  her  three  brothers.  At  a  later 
period  we  read  that  Pheras  was  surrounded  by  a 
number  of  gardens  and  country  houses. 

PHERM.      Vid.  PHAR^E. 

[PHERAULAS  ($epavha()  is  introduced  by  Xen- 
ophon  in  the  Cyropaedia  as  a  Persian  of  hum- 
ble birth,  but  a  favorite  with  Cyrus,  and  distin- 
guished by  qualities  of  body  and  mind  which 
would  not  have  dishonored  the  noblest  rank. 
He  is  described  as  having  become  tired  of  the 
honors  and  elevation  to  which  Cyrus  had  raised 
him,  and  as  having  voluntarily  resigned  them 
to  lead  a  quiet  and  retired  life  such  as  he  had 
before  enjoyed.] 

[PHERECLUS  (^pe/rAof),  a  son  of  Harmonides, 
is  said  to  have  built  the  ship  in  which  Paris 
carried  off  Helen,  and  to  have  been  slain  in  the 
Trojan  war  by  Meriones.] 

PHERECRATES  ($eptKpuTijf),  of  Athens,  one  of 
the  best  poets  of  the  Old  Comedy,  was  contem- 
porary with  the  comic  poets  Cratinus,  Crates, 
Eupolis,  Plato,  and  Aristophanes,  being  some- 
what younger  than  the  first  two,  and  somewhat 
older  than  the  others.  He  gained  his  first  vic- 
tory B.C.  438,  and  he  imitated  the  style  of 
Crates,  whose  actor  he  had  been.  Crates  and 
Pherecrates  very  much  modified  the  coarse  sat- 
ire and  vituperation  of  which  this  sort  of  poetry 
had  previously  been  the  vehicle,  and  construct- 
ed their  comedies  on  the  basis  of  a  regular  plot, 
and  with  more  dramatic  action.  Pherecrates 
did  not,  however,  abstain  altogether  from  per- 
sonal satire,  for  we  see  by  the  fragments  of  his 
plays  that  he  attacked  Alcibiades,.  the  tragic 
41 


PHERON. 

poet  Melanthius,  and  others.  He  invented  a 
new  metre,  which  was  named,  after  him,  ue 
Pherecratean.  The  system  of  the  verse  is 

—  —  LL  w  w  —  —  which  may  be  best  explained 
as  a  choriambus,  with  a  spondee  for  its  base, 
and  a  long  syllable  for  its  termination.  The 
metre  is  very  frequent  in  the  choruses  of  the 
Greek  tragedians,  and  in  Horace,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, Grata  Pyrrha  sub  anlro.  The  extant  titles 
of  the  plays  of  Pherecrates  are  eighteen. 

PHERECYDES  (QepenvSijc).    1.  Of  Syros,  an  isl- 


and in  the  ^Egean,  an  early  Greek  philosopher. 
or  rather  theologian.  He  flourished  about  B.C. 
544.  He  is  said  to  have  obtained  his  knowledge 
from  the  secret  books  of  the  Phoenicians,  and 
to  have  travelled  in  Egypt.  Almost  all  the  an- 
cient writers  who  speak  of  him  state  that  he 
was  the  teacher  of  Pythagoras.  According  to 
a  common  tradition,  he  died  of  the  lousy  dis- 
ease, or  Morbus  Pediculosus  ;  though  others 
give  different  accounts  of  his  death.  The  most 
important  subject  which  he  is  said  to  have 
taught  was  the  doctrine  of  the  Metempsycho- 
sis, or,  as  it  is  put  by  other  writers,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  He  gave 
an  account  of  his  views  in  a  work  which  was 
extant  in  the  Alexandrean  period.  It  was  writ- 
ten in  prose,  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  to  employ  in  the  explanation  of  philosoph- 
ical questions.  —  2.  Of  Athens,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  early  Greek  logographers. 
He  lived  in  the  former  half  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Hellanicus 
and  Herodotus.  His  principal  work  was  a  myth- 
ological history  in  ten  books.  It  began  with  a 
theogony,  and  then  proceeded  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  the  heroic  age  and  of  the  great  fami- 
lies of  that  time.  His  fragments  have  been  col- 
lected by  Sturz,  Pherecydis  Fragmenta,  Lips., 
1824,  second  edition  ;  and  by  C.  and  T.  Miiller, 
in  Fragmenta  Historicum  Gracorum,  vol.  i. 

PHERES  (^prfc)-  1-  Son  of  Cretheus  and  Ty- 
ro, and  brother  of  ^Eson  and  Amythaon  ;  he  was 
married  to  Periclymene,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Admetus,  Lycurgus,  Idomene,  and 
Periapis.  Ho  was  believed  to  have  founded 
the  town  of  Pherae  in  Thessaly.  —  2.  Son  of  Ja- 
son and  Medea.  —  3.  A  follower  of  Pallas,  fought 
on  the  side  of  ^Eneas  against  Turnus,  and  was 
slain  by  Halesus. 

PHERETIADES  ($epi)Tiddjj{),  i.  e.,  a  son  of  Phe- 
res,  is  especially  used  as  the  name  of  Admetus. 

PHERETIMA  (*fpfrt>a),  wife  of  Battus  III., 
and  mother  of  Arcesilaus  III.,  successive  kings 
of  Cyrene.  After  the  murder  of  her  son  by  the 
Barcaeans  (vid.  BATTIAD^E,  No.  6),  Pheretima  fled 
into  Egypt  to  Aryandes,  the  viceroy  of  Darius 
Hystaspis,  and  representing  that  the  death  of 
Arcesilaus  had  been  the  consequence  of  his  sub- 
mission to  the  Persians,  she  induced  him  to 
avenge  it.  On  the  capture  of  Barca  by  the  Per- 
sian army,  she  caused  those  who  had  the  prin- 
cipal share  in  her  son's  murder  to  be  impaled, 
and  ordered  the  breasts  of  their  wives  to  be  cut 
off.  Pheretima  then  returned  to  Egypt,  where 
she  soon  after  died  of  a  painful  and  loathsomo 
disease. 

PHERON  or  PHBROS  (*^>uv,  *fpuf),  king  ol 
Egypt,  and  son  of  Sesostris.  He  was  visited 
with  blindness,  an  hereditary  complaint,  though, 

641 


PHIDIAS. 

according  to  the  legend  preserved  in  Herodo- 
tus, it  was  a  punishment  for  his  presumptuous 
impiety  in  throwing  a  spear  into  the  waters  of 
the  Nile  when  it  had  overflowed  the  fields.  By 
attending  to  the  directions  of  an  oracle  he  was 
cured  ;  and  he  dedicated  an  obelisk  at  Heliop- 
olis  in  gratitude  for  his  recovery.  Pliny  tells 
us  that  this  obelisk,  together  with  another  also 
made  by  him,  but  broken  in  its  removal,  was  to 
be  seen  at  Rome,  in  the  Circus  of  Caligula  and 
Nero,  at  the  foot  of  the  Vatican  Hill.  Pliny  calls 
the  Pheron  of  Herodotus  Nuncoreus  or  Nen- 
coreus,  a  name  corrupted,  perhaps,  from  Me- 
nophtheus.  Diodorus  gives  him  his  father's 
name,  Sesoosis.  Pheron  is  of  course  the  same 
word  as  Pharaoh. 

PHIDIAS  (fotdt'af),  the  greatest  sculptor  and 
statuary  of  Greece.  Of  his  personal  history  we 
possess  but  few  details.  He  was  a  native  of 
Athens,  and  the  son  of  Charmides,  and  was 
born  about  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Marathon, 
B.C.  490.  He  began  to  work  as  a  statuary 
about  464,  and  one  of  his  first  great  works  was 
the  statue  of  Minerva  (Athena)  Promachus, 
which  may  be  assigned  to  about  460.  This 
work  must  have  established  his  reputation  ;  but 
it  was  surpassed  by  the  splendid  productions 
of  his  own  hand,  and  of  others  working  under 
his  direction,  during  the  administration  of  Peri- 
cles. That  statesman  not  only  chose  Phidias 
to  execute  the  principal  statues  which  were  to 
be  set  up,  but  gave  him  the  oversight  of  all  the 
works  of  art  which  were  to  be  erected.  Of 
these  works  the  chief  were  the  Propylaea  of  the 
Acropolis,  and,  above  all,  the  temple  of  Minerva 
(Athena)  on  the  Acropolis,  called  the  Parthenon, 
on  which,  as  the  central  point  of  the  Athenian 
polity  and  religion," the  highest  efforts  of  the 
best  of  artists  were  employed.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  sculptured  ornaments  of  this  tem- 
ple, the  remains  of  which  form  the  glory  of  the 
British  Museum,  were  executed  under  the  im- 
mediate superintendence  of  Phidias ;  but  the 
colossal  statue  of  the  divinity,  made  of  ivory 
and  gold,  which  was  inclosed  within  that  mag- 
nificent shrine,  was  the  work  of  the  artist's  own 
hand.  The  statue  was  dedicated  in  438.  Hav- 
ing finished  his  great  work  at  Athens,  he  went 
to  Elis  and  Olympia,  which  he  was  now  invited 
to  adorn.  He  was  there  engaged  for  about  four 
or  five  years,  from  437  to  434  or  433,  during 
which  time  he  finished  his  statue  of  the  Olym- 
pian Jupiter  (Zeus),  the  greatest  of  all  his  works. 
On  his  return  to  Athens  he  fell  a  victim  to  the 
jealousy  against  his  great  patron,  Pericles, 
which  was  then  at  its  height.  The  party  op- 
posed to  Pericles,  thinking  him  too  powerful  to 
be  overthrown  by  a  direct  attack,  aimed  at  him 
in  the  persons  of  his  most  cherished  friends, 
Phidias,  Anaxagoras,  and  Aspasia.  Vid.  PERI- 
CLES. Phidias  was  first  accused  of  peculation, 
but  this  charge  was  at  once  refuted,  as,  by  the 
advice  of  Pericles,  the  gold  had  been  affixed  to 
the  statue  of  Minerva  (Athena)  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  it  could  be  removed  and  the  weight  of 
it  examined.  The  accusers  then  charged  Phid- 
ias with  impiety,  in  having  introduced  into  the 
battle  of  the  Amazons,  on  the  shield  of  the 
goddess,  his  own  likeness  and  that  of  Peri- 
cles. On  this  latter  charge  Phidias  was  thrown 
"nto  prison,  where  he  died  from  disease  in 
142 


PHIDIAS. 

432.  Of  the  numerous  works  executed  by  Phid- 
ias for  the  Athenians,  the  most  celebrated  was 
the  statue  of  Minerva  (Athena)  in  the  Parthe- 
non, to  which  reference  has  already  been  made. 
This  statue  was  of  that  kind  of  work  which  the 
Greeks  called  chryselephantine,  that  is,  the  statue 
was  formed  of  plates  of  ivory  laid  upon  a  core 
of  wood  or  stone,  for  the  flesh  parts,  while  the 
drapery  and  other  ornaments  were  of  solid  gold. 
The  statue  stood  in  the  foremost  and  larger  cham- 
ber of  the  temple  (prodomus).  It  represented 
the  goddess  standing,  clothed  with  a  tunic  reach- 
ing to  the  ankles,  with  her  spear  in  her  left 
hand,  and  an  image  of  Victory  four  cubits  high 
in  her  right :  she  was  girded  with  the  aegis,  and 
had  a  helmet  on  her  head,  and  her  shield  rested 
on  the  ground  by  her  side.  The  height  of  the 
statue  was  twenty-six  cubits,  or  nearly  forty 
feet,  including  the  base.  The  eyes  were  of  a 
kind  of  marble,  nearly  resembling  ivory,  perhaps 
painted  to  imitate  the  iris  and  pupil ;  there  is 
no  sufficient  authority  for  the  statement  which 
is  frequently  made  that  they  were  of  precious 
stones.  The  weight  of  the  gold  upon  the  statue, 
which,  as  above  stated,  was  removable  at  pleas- 
ure, is  said  by  Thucydides  to  have  been  forty 
talents  (ii.,  13).  Still  more  celebrated  than  his 
statue  of  Minerva  (Athena)  was  the  colossal 
ivory  and  gold  statue  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  which 
Phidias  made  for  the  great  temple  of  this  god, 
in  the  Altis  or  sacred  grove  at  Olympia.  This 
statue  was  regarded  as  the  master-piece,  not 
only  o/  Phidias,  but  of  the  whole  range  of  Gre- 
cian art ;  and  was  looked  upon  not  so  much  as 
a  statue,  but  rather  as  if  it  were  the  actual  man- 
ifestation of  the  present  deity.  It  was  placed 
in  the  prodomus  or  front  chamber  of  the  temple, 
directly  facing  the  entrance.  It  was  only  vis- 
ible, however,  on  great  festivals :  at  other  times 
it  was  concealed  by  a  magnificent  curtain.  The 
god  was  represented  as  seated  on  a  throne  of 
cedar  wood,  adorned  with  gold,  ivory,  ebony, 
stones,  and  colors,  crowned  with  a  wreath  of 
olive,  holding  in  his  right  hand  an  ivory  and  gold 
statue  of  Victory,  and  in  his  left  hand  support- 
ing a  sceptre,  which  was  ornamented  with  all 
sorts  of  metals,  and  sui mounted  by  an  eagle. 
The  throne  was  brilliant  both  with  gold  and 
stones,  and  with  ebony  and  ivory,  and  was  or- 
namented with  figures  both  painted  and  sculp- 
tured. The  statue  almost  reached  to  the  roof, 
which  was  about  sixty  feet  in  height.  The  idea 
which  Phidias  essayed  to  embody  in  this,  his 
greatest  work,  was  that  of  the  supreme  deity 
of  the  Hellenic  nation,  no  longer  engaged  in 
conflicts  with  the  Titans  and  the  Giants,  but 
having  laid  aside  his  thunderbolt,  and  enthroned 
as  a  conqueror,  in  perfect  majesty  and  repose, 
ruling  with  a  nod  the  subject  world.  It  is  re- 
lated that  when  Phidias  was  asked  what  model 
he  meant  to  follow  in  making  his  statue,  he  re- 
plied that  of  Homer  (//.,  i.,  528-530).  The  im- 
itation of  this  passage  by  Milton  gives  no  small 
aid  to  the  comprehension  of  the  idea  (Paradise 
Lost,  iii.,  135-137) : 

"  Thus  while  God  spake,  ambrosial  fragrance  fill'd 
AU  heaven,  and  in  the  blessed  spirits  elect 
Sense  of  aevr  joy  ineffable  diffused." 

The  statue  was  removed  by  the  Emperor  Theo 
dosius  I.  ft>  Constantinople,  where  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  a  fire  in  A.D.  475. 


PHIDIPPIDL'S. 

ing  character  of  the  art  of  Phidias  was  ideal 
beauty,  and  that  of  the  sublimcst  order,  especially 
in  the  representation  of  divinities,  and  of  sub- 
jects connected  with  their  worship.  While  on 
the  one  hand  he  set  himself  free  from  the  stiff, 
and  unnatural  forms  which,  by  a  sort  of  religious 
precedent,  had  fettered  his  predecessors  of  the 
archaic  or  hieratic  school,  he  never,  on  the  other 
hand,  descended  to  the  exact  imitation  of  any 
human  model,  however  beautiful ;  he  never  rep- 
resented that  distorted  action,  or  expressed  that 
vehement  passion,  which  lie  beyond  the  limits 
of  repose  ;  nor  did  he  ever  approach  to  that  al- 
must  meretricious  grace,  by  which  some  of  his 
greatest  followers,  if  they  did  not  corrupt  the 
art  themselves,  gave  the  occasion  for  its  cor- 
ruption in  the  hands  of  their  less  gifted  and 
spiritual  imitators. 

PHIDIPPIDES  or  PHILIPPIDES  (QeidimridTic,  4>i- 
Annrfdi7f),  a  courier,  was  sent  by  the  Athenians 
to  Sparta  in  B.C.  490  to  ask  for  aid  against  the 
Persians,  and  arrived  there  on  the  second  day 
from  his  leaving  Athens.  On  his  return  to 
Athens,  he  related  that  on  his  way  to  Sparta  he 
had  fallen  in  with  Pan  on  Mount  Parthenium, 
near  Tegea,  and  that  the  god  had  bid  him  ask 
the  Athenians  why  they  paid  him  no  worship, 
though  he  had  been  hitherto  their  friend,  and 
ever  would  be  so.  In  consequence  of  this  rev- 
elation, they  dedicated  a  temple  to  Pan  after 
the  battle  of  Marathon,  and  honored  him  thence- 
forth with  annual  sacrifices  and  a  torch-race. 

[Pmnippus  (Qeidnrnof),  a  son  of  Thessalus, 
the  Heraclid,  and  brother  of  Antiphus,  led  the 
warriors  of  the  Sporades  in  thirty  ships  against 
Troy.] 

PH!DON  (*et(5uv).  1.  Son  of  Aristodamidas, 
and  king  of  Argos,  restored  the  supremacy  of 
Argos  over  Cleonae,  Phlius,  Sicyon,  Epidaurus, 
Truezen,  and  .'Egina,  and  aimed  at  extending 
his  dominions  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. The  Pisans  invited  him,  in  the 
eighth  Olympiad  (B.C.  748),  to  aid  them  in  ex- 
cluding the  Eleans  from  their  usurped  presi- 
dency at  the  Olympic  games,  and  to  celebrate 
them  jointly  with  themselves.  The  invitation 
quite  fell  in  with  the  ambitious  pretensions  of 
Phidon,  who  succeeded  in  dispossessing  the 
Eleans  and  celebrating  the  games  along  with 
the  Pisans ;  but  the  Eleans  not  long  after  de- 
feated him,  with  the  aid  of  Sparta,  and  recov- 
ered their  privilege.  Thus  apparently  fell  the 
power  of  Phidon  ;  but  as  to  the  details  of  the 
struggle  we  have  no  information.  The  most 
memorable  act  of  Piiidon  was  his  introduction 
of  copper  and  silver  coinage,  and  a  new  scale 
of  weights  and  measures,  which,  through  his 
influence,  became  prevalent  in  the  Peloponne- 
BUS,  and  ultimately  throughout  the  greater  por- 
tion of  Greece.  The  scale  in  question  was 
known  by  the  name  of  the  ^Eginetan,  and  it  is 
usually  supposed  that  the  coinage  of  Phidon  was 
struck  in  ^Egina ;  but  there  seems  good  reason 
for  believing  that  what  Phidon  did  was  done  in 
Argos,  and  nowhere  else  ;  that  "  Phidonian 
measures"  probably  did  not  come  to  bear  the 
specific  name  of  the  ^ginetan  until  there  was 
another  scale  in  vogue,  the  Euboic,  from  which 
to  distinguish  them  ;  and  that  both  the  epithets 
were  derived,  not  from  the  place  where  the 
cale  first  originated,  but  from  '.he  people  whose 


PHILADELPHIA. 

commercial  activity  tended  to  make  them  most 
generally  known,  in  the  one  case  the  JSgine- 
tans,  in  the  other  case  the  inhabitants  of  Chal- 
cis  and  Eretria. — 2.  An  ancient  Corinthian  leg- 
islator of  uncertain  date. 

PHIGALIA  ($iya?iia,  Qiyuheia,  tfiyoAea  :  4>tya- 
Aerif  :  now  Paolitza),  at  a  later  time  called  PHI- 
ALIA,  a  town  in  the  southwestern  corner  of  Ar 
cadia,  on  the  frontiers  of  Messenia  and  Elis, 
and  upon  the  River  Lymax.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Spartans  B.C.  559,  but  was  afterward  re- 
covered by  the  Phigalians  with  the  help  of  the 
Oresthasians.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  in 
the  later  wars  of  the  Achaean  and  ^Etolian 
leagues.  Phigalia,  however,  owes  its  celebrity 
in  modern  times  to  the  remains  of  a  splendid 
temple  in  its  territory,  situated  about  six  miles 
northeast  of  the  town  at  Bassae  on  Mount  Coty- 
lum.  This  temple  was  built  by  Ictinus,  the  con- 
temporary of  Pericles  and  Phidias,  and  the  arch- 
itect, along  with  Callicrates,  of  the  Parthenon 
at  Athens.  It  was  dedicated  to  Apello  Epi- 
curius,  or  the  Deliverer,  because  the  god  had 
delivered  the  country  from  the  pestilence  during 
the  Peloponnesian  war.  Pausanias  describes 
this  temple  as  the  most  beautiful  one  in  all  Pel- 
oponnesus after  the  temple  of  Minerva  (Athena) 
at  Tegea.  Most  of  the  columns  are  still  stand- 
ing. In  1812  the  frieze  round  the  interior  of 
the  inner  cella  was  discovered,  containing  a  se- 
ries of  sculptures  in  alto-relievo,  representing 
the  combat  of  the  Centaurs  and  the  Lapithaj, 
and  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Amazons.  Their 
height  is  a  little  more  than  two  feet,  and  their 
total  length  is  one  hundred  feet.  They  were 
found  on  the  ground  under  the  spot  which  they 
originally  occupied,  and  were  much  injured  by 
their  fall,  and  by  the  weight  of  the  ruins  lying 
upon  them.  They  were  purchased  for  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  in  1814,  where  they  are  still  pre- 
served, and  are  usually  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Phigalian  Marbles.  They  are  some  of  the 
most  interesting  and  beautiful  remains  of  an- 
cient art  in  this  country. 

PHILA  (*t'Aa),  daughter  of  Antipater,  the  re- 
gent of  Macedonia,  is  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
noblest  and  most  virtuous  women  of  the  age  in 
which  she  lived.  She  was  married  to  Craterus 
in  B.C.  322,  and  after  the  death  of  Craterus, 
who  survived  his  marriage  with  her  scarcely  a 
year,  she  was  again  married  to  the  young  De- 
metrius, the  son  of  Antigonus.  She  shared 
with  her  husband  his  various  vicissitudes  of 
fortune  ;  but  when  he  was  expelled  from  Mac- 
edonia in  287,  she  put  an  end  to  her  own  life 
at  Cassandrea,  unable  to  bear  this  unexpected 
reverse.  She  left  two  children  by  Demetrius  : 
Antigonus,  surnamed  Gonatas,  who  became 
king  of  Macedonia ;  and  a  daughter,  Stratonice, 
married  first  to  Seleucus,  and  afterward  to  his 
son  Antiochus. 

PHILA  (*i'Aa  :  4>*Aatof,  *iAdn?f).  1.  A  town 
of  Macedonia,  in  the  province  Pieria,  situated 
on  a  steep  hill  on  the  Peneus,  between  Diura 
and  Tempe,  and  at  the  entrance  into  Thessaly, 
built  by  Demetrius  II.,  and  named  after  his 
mother  Phila.  —  2.  An  island  off  the  southern 
coast  of  Gaul,  one  of  the  Stcechades. 

[PHILADELPHIA  (QiXa6&<ptia,  now  A II  ah- she  hi , 
i.  e.,  city  of  God).  1.  A  city  of  Lydia,  on  the 
Cogamus,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tmolus,  was 

643 


PHILADELPHIA 

tounded  by  Attalus  Philadelphus,  brother  of-Eu- 
menes,  king  of  Pergamus.  The  place  suffered 
repeatedly  from  violent  shocks  of  earthquakes, 
and,  in  consequence,  had,  by  the  time  of  Strabo, 
become  almost  deserted.  Tacitus  mentions  it 
among  the  towns  restored  by  Tiberius,  after  a 
more  than  ordinary  calamity  of  this  kind.  Phila- 
delphia was  one  of  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia 
mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse.  At  a  later  period 
it  made  a  gallant  resistance  to  the  Turks,  but 
was  finally  subdued  by  Bajazet  in  A.D.  1390. — 
2.  (In  the  Old  Testament,  Rabbath-Ammon  or 
Kabbah),  the  capital  of  the  Ammonites,  situ- 
ated on  the  further  side  of  the  Jordan,  taken 
from  them  by  David.  It  was  called  Philadelphia 
from  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  is  frequently 
mentioned  by  this  name  in  Greek  and  Roman 
writers.  Vid.  RABBATAMANA.] 

PHILADELPHUS  (^t/lade/l^of),  a  surname  of 
Ptolemaeiis  II.,  king  of  Egypt  (vid.  PTOLEM^US), 
and  of  Attains  II.  of  Pergamus.  Vid.  ATTALUS. 

[PHIL.*:  (*iA<u),  an  island  in  the  Nile,  to  the 
south  of  Elephantine,  and  the  southernmost 
point  of  Egypt,  inhabited  in  common  by  Egyp- 
tians and  ^Ethiopians.  The  island  was  cover- 
ed with  temples  and  other  splendid  structures, 
for  it  was  sacred  to  Isis,  and  in  the  little  island 
ABATOS  (q.  •».)  close  to  it  was  the  tomb  of  Osi- 
ris: from  the  magnificent  ruins  still  existing  in 
the  island,  it  is  now  called  Djesiret-el-Birbeh,  i. 
e-,  "  Temple-island."] 

PHIL^ENI  (Qftatvoi),  two  brothers,  citizens  of 
Carthage,  of  whom  the  following  story  is  told  : 
A  dispute  having  arisen  between  the  Carthagini- 
ans and  Cyrenaeans  about  their  boundaries,  it 
was  agreed  that  deputies  should  start  at  a  fixed 
tiir.e  from  each  of  the  cities,  and  that  the  place 
of  their  meeting,  wherever  it  might  be,  should 
thenceforth  form  the  limit  of  the  two  territories. 
The  Philaeni  were  appointed  for  this  service  on 
the  part  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  advanced 
much  further  than  the  Cyrenaean  party.  The 
Cyrenaeans  accused  them  of  having  set  forth  be- 
fore the  time  agreed  upon,  but  at  length  con- 
sented to  accept  the  spot  which  they  had  reach- 
ed as  a  boundary  line,  if  the  Philaeni  would  sub- 
mit to  be  buried  alive  there  in  the  sand.  Should 
they  decline  the  offer,  they  were  willing,  they 
said,  on  their  side,  if  permitted  to  advance  as 
far  as  they  pleased,  to  purchase  for  Gyrene  an 
extension  of  territory  by  a  similar  death.  The 
Philaeni  accordingly  then  and  there  devoted 
themselves  for  their  country  in  the  way  pro- 
posed. The  Carthaginians  paid  high  honors  to 
their  memory,  and  erected  altars  to  them  where 
they  had  died  ;  and  from  these,  even  long  after 
all  traces  of  them  had  vanished,  the  place  still 
continued  to  be  called  "  The  Altars  of  the  Phi- 
laeni." Our  main  authority  for  this  story  is  Sal- 
lust,  who  probably  derived  his  information  from 
African  traditions  during  the  time  that  he  was 
proconsul  of  Numidia,  and  at  least  three  hund- 
red years  after  the  event.  We  can  not,  there- 
fore, accept  it  unreservedly.  The  Greek  name 
by  which  the  heroic  brothers  have  become  known 
to  us — 4>i'Aatvot,  or  lovers  of  praise — seems 
clearly  to  have  been  framed  to  suit  the  tale. 

[PHIL^EUS  ($/Aatof),  a  son  of  the  Telamonian 
Ajax  and  Tecmessa,  from  whom  the  Attic  de- 
mus  of  Philaidae  derived  its  name.] 

PHILAGRIUS  (Qddypiof),  a  Greek  medical  writ- 
644 


PHILEMON. 

er,  born  in  Epirus,  lived  after  Galen  and  before 
Oribasius,  and  therefore  probably  in  the  third 
century  after  Christ.  He  wrote  several  vs  orks, 
of  which,  however,  only  a  few  fragments  re- 
main. 

PHILAMMON  (Qdaftjiuv),  a  mythical  poet  and 
musician  of  the  ante-Homeric  pcriod,*was  said 
to  have  been  the  son  of  Apollo  and  the  nymph 
Chione,  or  Philonis,  or  Leuconoft.  By  the  nymph 
Agriope,  who  dwelt  on  Parnassus,  he  became 
the  father  of  Thamyris  and  Eumolpus.  He  is 
closely  associated  with  the  worship  of  Apollo  al 
Delphi,  and  with  the  music  of  the  cithara.  He 
is  said  to  have  established  the  choruses  of  girls, 
who,  in  the  Delphian  worship  of  Apollo,  sang 
hymns  in  which  they  celebrated  the  births  of 
Latona  (Leto),  Diana  (Artemis),  and  Apollo. 
Pausanias  relates  that  in  the  most  ancient  mu- 
sical contests  at  Delphi,  the  first  who  conquered 
was  Chrysothemis  of  Crete,  the  second  was 
Philammon,  and  the  next  after  him  his  son 
Thamyris. 

PHILARGYRIUS  JUNIUS,  or  PHILARGYRUS,  or  Ju- 
NILIUS  FLAGRIUS,  an  early  commentator  upon 
Virgil,  who  wrote  upon  the  Bucolics  and  Georg- 
ics.  His  observations  are  less  elaborate  than 
those  of  Servius,  and  have  descended  to  us  in  a 
mutilated  condition.  The  period  when  he  flour- 
ished is  altogether  uncertain.  They  are  printed 
in  the  edition  of  Virgil  by  Burmann  ;  [and  in  the 
edition  of  the  commentaries  of  Servius  by  H.  A. 
Lion,  Gottingen,  1825-26.] 

PHILE  or  PHILES,  MANUEL  (Mavovrj/t.  6  Q'rtfjf'), 
a  Byzantine  poet,  and  a  native  of  Ephesus,  was 
born  about  A.D.  1275,  and  died  about  1340.  His 
poem,  DC  Animalium  Proprictalc,  chiefly  extract- 
ed from^Elian,  is  edited  byDe  Paw.Traj.Rhen., 
1739 ;  [and  with  a  revised  text  by  Lehrs  andDiib- 
ner  in  the  Bucolici  Giaeci,  forming  part  of  Di- 
dot's  Bibliotheca  Graeca,  Paris,  1846  ;]  and  his 
other  poems  on  various  subjects  are  edited  by 
Wernsdorf,  Lips.,  1768. 

PHILEAS  (*tAeaf).  1.  A  Greek  geographer  of 
Athens,  whose  time  can  not  be  determined  with 
certainty,  but  who  probably  belonged  to  the  older 
period  of  Athenian  literature.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  a  Periplus,  which  was  divided  into  two 
parts,  one  on  Asia,  and  the  other  on  Europe. — 
[2.  Of  Tarentum,  having  been  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Rome,  he  persuaded  his  countrymen,  who 
were  there  detained  as  hostages,  to  make  their 
escape,  which  they  effected  by  his  aid ;  but,  hav- 
ing been  overtaken  at  Terracina,  tbey  were 
brought  back  td  Rome,  scourged,  and  thrown 
from  the  Tarpeian  rock.]  » 

PHILEMON  (^t^uv).  1.  An  aged  Phrygian 
and  husband  of  Baucis.  Once  upon  a  time, 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Mercury  (Hermes),  assum- 
ing the  appearance  of  ordinary  mortals,  visited 
Phrygia ;  but  no  one  was  willing  to  receive  the 
strangers,  until  the  hospitable  hut  of  Philemon 
and  Baucis  was  opened  to  them,  where  the  two 
gods  were  kindly  treated.  Jupiter  (Zeus)  re- 
warded the  good  old  couple  by  taking  them  to 
an  eminence,  while  all  the  neighboring  district 
was  visited  with  a  sudden  inundation.  On  that 
eminence  Jupiter  (ZeusJ  appointed  them  the 
guardians  of  his  temple,  and  allowed  them  both 
to  die  at  the  same  moment,  and  then  meta- 
morphosed them  into  trees. — 2.  An  Athenian 
poet  of  the  New  Comedy,  was  the  son  of  Da- 


PHILESIUS. 


tnon,  and  a  native  of  Soli  in  Cilicia,  but  at  an 
early  age  went  to  Athens,  and  there  received 
the  citizenship.  He  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Alexander,  a  little  earlier  than  Menander,  whom, 
however,  he  long  survived.  He  began  to  ex- 
hibit about  B  C.  330.  He  was  the  first  poet  of 
the  New  Comedy  in  order  of  time,  and  the  sec- 
ond in  celebrity  ;  and  he  shares  with  Menander 
the  honor  of  its  invention,  or,  rather,  of  reduc- 
ing it  to  a  regular  form.  Philemon  lived  nearly 
one  hundred  years.  The  manner  of  his  death  is 
differently  related  :  some  ascribing  it  to  excess- 
ive laughter  at  a  ludicrous  incident ;  others  to 
joy  at  obtaining  a  victory  in  a  dramatic  contest; 
while  another  story  represents  him  as  quietly 
called  away  by  the  goddesses  whom  he  served 
in  the  midst  of  the  composition  or  representa- 
tion of  his  last  and  best  work.  Although  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Philemon  was  inferior  to 
.Menander  as  a  poet,  yet  he  was  a  greater  favor- 
ite with  the  Athenians,  and  often  conquered  his 
rival  in  the  dramatic  contests.  Vid.  MENANDER. 
The  extant  fragments  of  Philemon  display  much 
liveliness,  wit,  eloquence,  and  practical  knowl- 
edge of  life.  His  favorite  subjects  seem  to  have 
been  love  intrigues,  and  his  characters  were  the 
standing  ones  of  the  New  Comedy,  with  which 
Plautus  and  Terence  have  made  us  familiar. 
The  number  of  his  plays  was  ninety-seven  ;  the 
number  of  extant  titles,  after  the  doubtful  and 
spurious  ones  are  rejected,  amounts  to  about 
fifty-three  ;  but  it  is  very  probable  that  some  of 
these  should  be  assigned  to  the  younger  Phile- 
mon. The  fragments  of  Philemon  are  printed 
with  those  of  Menander  by  Meineke,  Berlin,  1823, 
8vo,  in  his  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Gracorum, 
Beroi.,  1841  ;  (and  by  Fr.  Diibner  at  the  end  of 
the  Aristophanes  in  Didot's  Bibliotheca  Graeca, 
Paris,  1836.] — 3.  The  younger  Philemon,  also  a 
poet  of  the  New  Comedy,  was  a  son  of  the  for- 
mer, in  whose  fame  nearly  all  that  belongs  to 
him  has  been  absorbed,  so  that,  although  he  was 
the  author  of  fifty-four  dramas,  there  are  only 
two  short  fragments,  and  not  one  title,  quoted 
expressly  under  his  name. — 4.  The  author  of  a 
Afft/cdf  TcxvotoyiKov,  the  extant  portion  of  which 
was  first  edited  by  Burney,  Lond.,  1812,  and  aft- 
erward by  Osann,  Berlin,  1821.  The  author  in- 
forms us  that  his  work  was  intended  to  take  the 
place  of  a  similar  lexicon  by  the  grammarian 
Hyperechius-  The  work  of  Hyperechius  was 
arranged  in  eight  books,  according  to  the  eight 
different  parts  of  speech.  Philemon's  lexicon 
was  a  meagre  epitome  of  this  work,  and  the  part 
of  it  which  is  extant  consists  of  the  first  book 
ar.d  the  beginning  of  the  second.  Hyperechius 
lived  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  of  our 
era,  and  Philemon  may  probably  be  placed  in 
the  seventh. 

[PHILESIUS  (*<?.^<Ttof),  an  Achaean,  an  officer 
in  the  army  of  Cyrus  the  younger,  and,  after  the 
treacherous  capture  of  Clearchus  and  the  other 
generals  by  Tissaphernes,  was  chosen  in  the 
place  of  Menon.  He  was  selected  with  Sophae- 
netus,  as  being  the  two  oldest  generals,  to  con- 
duct the  older  men,  the  women  and  children, 
and  the  sick  from  Trapezus  by  sea.  He  is  men' 
tioned  also  in  the  Anabasis  on  several  subse- 
quent occasions.] 

PHILET*RUS  (QMraipof).     1.  Founder  of  the  j 
kingdom  of  Pergamus,  was  a  native  of  Tieium 


PHILINUS. 

in  Paphlagonia,  and  a  eunuch.  He  is  first  men- 
tion'ed  in  the  service  of  Docimus,  the  general  ol 
Antigonus,  from  which  he  passed  into  that  of 
Lysimachus,  who  intrusted  him  with  the  charge 
of  the  treasures  which  he  had  deposited  in  the 
strong  fortress  of  Pergamus.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Lysimachus  he  declared  in  favor 
of  Seleucus,  and,  after  the  death  of  the  latter 
(B.C.  280),  he  took  advantage  of  the  disorders 
in  Asia  to  establish  himself  in  virtual  independ- 
ence. At  his  death  he  transmitted  the  govern- 
ment of  Pergamus,  as  an  independent  state,  to 
his  nephew  Eumenes.  He  lived  to  the  age  of 
eighty,  and  died  apparently  in  263. — 2.  An  Athe- 
nian poet  of  the  Middle  Comedy.  Some  said  he 
was  the  third  son  of  Aristophanes,  but  others 
maintained  that  it  was  Nicostratus.  He  wrote 
twenty-one  plays.  [The  fragments  are  collect- 
ed by  Meineke,  Comic.  Grac.  Fragm.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
640-5,  edit,  minor.] 

PHILETAS  (^tAj/ruf),  of  Cos,  the  son  of  Tele- 
phus,  a  distinguished  Alexandrcan  poet  and 
grammarian,  flourished  during  the  reign  of  the 
first  Ptolemy,  who  appointed  him  tutor  of  his 
son,  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus.  His  death  may 
be  placed  about  B.C.  280.  Philetas  seems  to 
have  been  naturally  of  a  very  weak  constitution, 
which  at  last  broke  down  under  excessive  study 
He  was  so  remarkably  thin  as  to  become  an 
object  for  the  ridicule  of  the  comic  poets,  who 
represented  him  as  wearing  leaden  soles  to  his 
shoes,  to  prevent  his  being  blown  away  by  a 
strong  wind.  His  poetry  was  chiefly  elegiac. 
Of  all  the  writers  in  that  department,  he  was 
esteemed  the  best  after  Callimachus,  to  whom 
a  taste  less  pedantic  than  that  of  the  Alexan- 
drean  critics  would  probably  have  preferred  him ; 
for,  to  judge  by  his  fragments,  he  escaped  the 
snare  of  cumbrous  learned  affectation.  These 
two  poets  formed  the  chief  models  for  the  Ro- 
man elegy ;  nay,  Propertius  expressly  states,  in 
one  passage,  that  he  imitated  Philetas  in  pref- 
erence to  Callimachus.  The  elegies  of  Philetas 
were  chiefly  amatory,  and  a  large  portion  of 
them  was  devoted  to  the  praises  of  his  mistress 
Bittis,  or,  as  the  Latin  poets  give  the  name, 
Battis.  Besides  his  poems,  Philetas  wrote  in 
prose  on  grammar  and  criticism.  His  most  im 
portant  grammatical  work  was  entitled  '.\ranra 
The  fragments  of  Philetas  have  been  collected 
by  Bach,  with  those  of  Hermesianax  and  Pha- 
nocles,  Halis  Sax.,  1829. 

PHILECS,  an  eminent  Ionian  architect,  built 
the  Mausoleum,  in  conjunction  with  SATVRPS, 
and  the  temple  of  Minerva  (Athena)  Polias  at 
Priene.  The  date  of  the  erection  of  the  Mau- 
soleum was  soon  after  B.C.  353,  the  year  in 
which  Mausolus  died  ;  that  of  the  temple  at 
Priene  must  have  been  about  twenty  years  later. 

[PHILIADES  (*«A«i(5j7c).  a  Messenian,  father  of 
Neon  and  Thrasylochus,  the  partisans  of  Philip 
of  Macedon.  It  is  probable  that  Philiades  him 
self  was  attached  to  the  same  party,  as  he  is 
mentioned  by  Demosthenes  in  terms  of  con- 
tempt and  aversion.] 

[PHILINNA  ("tu'Awa)  or  PHIUNE  (QiJ.ivti).  1. 
A  female  dancer  of  Larissa  in  Thessaly,  was  the 
mother  of  Arrhidaeus  by  Philip  of  Macedon. — 
2.  Mother  of  the  poet  Theocritur] 

PHIUNUS  (*t&vof).  1.  A  Greek  of  Agrigen- 
tum,  accompanied  Hannibal  in  his  canpaigns 

646 


PHILIPPI. 

against  Rome,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the  Punic 
wars,  in  which  he  exhibited  much  partiality 
toward  Carthage.— 2.  An  Attic  orator,  a  con- 
temporary of  Demosthenes  and  Lycurgus.  He 
is  mentioned  by  Demosthenes  in  his  oration 
against  Midias,  who  calls  him  the  son  of  Nicos- 
tTatus,  and  says  that  he  was  trierarch  with  him. 
Three  orations  of  Philinus  are  mentioned  by 
the  grammarians. — 3.  A  Greek  physician,  born 
in  the  island  of  Cos,  and  the  reputed  founder 
of  the  sect  of  the  Empirici,  probably  lived  in  the 
third  century  B.C.  'He  wrote  a  work  on  part 
of  the  Hippocratic  collection,  and  also  one  on 
botany. 

PHILIPPI  (QiXiniroi :  Qdimrevf,  Qifanirfioiof, 
ibifamrijvof :  now  Filibah  or  Felibejik"),  a  cele- 
brated city  in  Macedonia  adjecta  (vid.  p.  464,  a), 
was  situated  on  a  steep  height  of  Mount  Pan- 
gjeus,  and  on  the  River  Gangas  or  Gangites, 
between  the  rivers  Nestus  and  Strymon.  It 
was  founded  by  Philip  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
town  CRENIDES  (KpTjvifics),  a  colony  of  the  Tha- 
sians,  who  settled  here  on  account  of  the  val- 
uable gold  mines  in  the  neighborhood.  Philippi 
is  celebrated  in  history  in  consequence  of  the 
victory  gained  here  by  Octavianus  and  Antony 
over  Brutus  and  Cassius,  B.C.  42,  and  as  the 
place  where  the  Apostle  Paul  first  preached  the 
Gospel  in  Europe,  A.D.  53.  The  church  at 
Philippi  soon  became  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  early  Christian  churches :  one  of  Saint 
Paul's  Epistles  is  addressed  to  it.  It  was  made 
a  Roman  colony  by  Octavianus  after  the  vic- 
tory over  Brutus  and  Cassius,  under  the  name 
of  Colonia  Augusta  Julia  Philippensis ;  and  it 
continued  to  be  under  the  empire  a  flourishing 
and  important  city.  Its  sea-port  was  Datum  or 
Datus  on  the  Strymonic  Gulf. 

PHILIPPIDES  (Qifairiridw).  1.  Vid.  PHIDIPPI- 
DES. — 2.  Of  Athens,  the  son  of  Philocles,  is  men- 
tioned as  one  of  the  six  principal  comic  poets 
of  the  New  Comedy  by  the  grammarians.  He 
flourished  about  B.C.  323.  Philippides  seems 
to  have  deserved  the  rank  assigned  to  him,  as 
one  of  the  best  poets  of  the  New  Comedy.  He 
attacked  the  luxury  and  corruptions  of  his  age, 
defended  the  privileges  of  his  art,  and  made  use 
of  personal  satire  with  a  spirit  approaching  to 
that  of  the  Old  Comedy.  His  death  is  said  to 
have  been  caused  by  excessive  joy  at  an  unex- 
pected victory :  similar  tales  are  told  of  the 
deaths  of  other  poets,  as,  for  example,  Sopho- 
cles, Alexis,  and  Philemon.  The  number  of  his 
dramas  is  stated  at  forty-five.  There  are  fif- 
teen titles  extant.  [The  fragments  of  his  plays 
are  collected  by  Meineke,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1116-24, 
edit,  minor.] 

PHILIPPOPOLIS  (•fctAiTTTroTro^.tf :  now  Philippo- 
poli),  an  important  town  in  Thrace,  founded  by 
Philip  of  Macedon  on  the  site  of  a  place  previ- 
ously called  Eumolpias  or  Poneropolis.  It  was 
situated  in  a  large  plain  southeast  of  the  Hebrus, 
on  a  hill  with  three  summits,  whence  it  was 
sometimes  called  Trimontium.  Under  the  Ro- 
man empire  it  was  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  Thracia  in  its  narrower  sense,  and  one  of  the 
most  important  towns  in  the  country. 

PIIILIPPUS  (*t'At7rjrof).  I.  Minor  historical  per- 
sons, i.  Son  of  Alexander  I.  of  Macedonia,  and 
brother  of  Perdiccas  II.,  against  whom  he  re- 
belled in  conjunction  with  Derdas.  The  rebels 
646 


PHILIPPU8. 

were  aided  by  the  Athenians,  B.C.  432. — 2.  Son 
of  Herod  the  Great,  king  of  Judea,  by  his  wife 
Cleopatra,  was  appointed  by  his  father's  will 
tetrarch  of  Ituraea  and  Trachonitis,  the  sover- 
eignty of  which  was  confirmed  to  him  by  the 
decision  of  Augustus.  He  continued  to  rrij/n 
over  the  dominions  thus  intrusted  to  his  char.ii; 
for  thirty-seven  years  (B.C.  4-A.D.  34).  He 
founded  the  city  of  Caesarea,  surnamed  Paneas, 
but  more  commonly  known  as  Caeearea  Philippi, 
near  the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  which  he  named 
in  honor  of  Augustus.  Vid.  CJESAREA,  No.  2. — 
3.  Son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Mariamne,  whose 
proper  name  was  Herodes  Philippus.  He  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  preceding  Philip. 
He  was  the  first  husband  of  Herodias,  who  aft- 
erward divorced  him,  contrary  to  the  Jewish 
law,  and  married  his  half-brother,  Herod  Anti- 
pas.  It  is  Herod  Philip,  and  not  the  preceding, 
who  is  meant  by  the  Evangelists  (Matt',  xiv.,  3  ; 
Mark,  vi.,  17;  Luke,  iii.,  19)  when  they  speak 
of  Philip,  the  brother  of  Herod. 

II.  Kings  of  Macedonia. 

I.  Son  of  Argaeus,  was  the  third  king,  accord- 
ing to  Herodotus  and  Thucydides,  who,  not 
reckoning  CARANUS  and  his  two  immediate  suc- 
cessors (Ccenus  and  Thurimas  or  Turimmas), 
look  upon  Perdiccas  I.  as  the  founder  of  the 
monarchy.  Philip  left  a  son,  named  Aeropus, 
who  succeeded  him.  —  II.  Youngest  son  of 
Amyntas  II.  and  Eurydice,  reigned  B.C.  359- 
336.  He  was  born  in  382,  and  was  brought  up 
at  Thebes,  whither  he  had  been  carried  as  a 
hostage  by  Pelopidas,  and  where  he  received  a 
most  careful  education.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
brother  Perdiccas  III.,  who  was  slain  in  battle 
against  the  Illyrians,  Philip  obtained  the  gov- 
ernment of  Macedonia,  at  first  merely  as  regent 
and  guardian  to  his  infant  nephew  Amyntas ; 
but  at  the  end  of  a  few  months  he  was  enabled 
to  set  aside  the  claims  of  the  young  prince,  and 
to  assume  for  himself  the  title  of  king.  Mace- 
donia was  beset  by  dangers  on  every  side.  Its 
territory  was  ravaged  by  the  Illyrians  on  the 
west,  and  the  Pasonians  on  the  north,  while 
Pausanias  and  Argaeus  took  advantage  of  the 
crisis  to  put  forward  their  pretensions  to  the 
throne.  Philip  was  fully  equal  to  the  emergen- 
cy. By  his  tact  and  eloquence  he  sustained  the 
failing  spirits  of  the  Macedonians,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  introduced  among  them  a  stricter 
military  discipline,  and  organized  their  army  on 
the  plan  of  the  phalanx.  He  first  turned  his 
arms  against  Argaeus,  the  most  formidable  of 
the  pretenders,  since  he  was  supported  by  the 
Athenians.  He  defeated  Argaeus  in  battle,  and 
then  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Athenians. 
He  next  attacked  the  Paeonians,  whom  he  re- 
duced to  subjection,  and  immediately  afterward 
defeated  the  Illyrians  in  a  decisive  battle,  and 
compelled  them  to  accept  a  peace,  by  which 
they  lost  a  portion  of  their  territory.  Thus  in 
the  short  period  of  one  year,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty-four,  had  Philip  delivered  himself  from 
his  dangerous  position,  and  provided  for  the  se- 
curity of  his  kingdom.  But  energy  and  talents 
such  as  his  were  not  satisfied  with  mere  secu- 
rity, and  henceforth  his  views  were  directed, 
not  to  defence,  but  to  aggrandizement.  His  first 


PHILIPPCJS 

efforts  were  directed  to  obtain  possession  of 
the  various  Greek  cities  upon  the  Macedonian 
coast.  Soon  after  his  accession  he  had  with- 
drawn his  garrison  from  Amphipolis,  and  had 
declared  it  a  free  city,  because  the  Athenians 
had  supported  Argaeus  with  the  hope  of  recov- 
ering Amphipolis,  and  his  continuing  to  hold 
the  place  would  have  interposed  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  a  peace  with  Athens,  which  was 
at  that  time  an  object  of  great  importance 
to  him.  But  he  had  never  meant  seriously  to 
abandon  this  important  town;  and  accordingly, 
having  obtained  pretexts  for  war  with  the  Am- 
phipolitans,  he  laid  siege  to  the  town,  and  gain- 
ed possession  of  it  in  358.  The  Athenians 
had  sent  no  assistance  to  Amphipolis,  because 
Philip,  in  a  secret  negotiation  with  the  Athe- 
nians, led  them  to  believe  that  he  was  willing 
to  restore  the  city  to  them  when  he  had  taken 
it,  and -would  do  so  on  condition  of  their  mak- 
ing him  master  of  Pydna.  After  the  capture 
of  Amphipolis,  he  proceeded  at  once  to  Pydna, 
which  seems  to  have  yielded  to  him  without 
a  struggle,  and  the  acquisition  of  which,  by 
his  own  arms,  and  not  through  the  Athenians, 
gave  him  a  pretext  for  declining  to  stand  by 
his  secret  engagement  with  them.  The  hos- 
tile feeling  which  such  conduct  necessarily  ex- 
cited against  him  at  Athens  made  it  most  itn- 
oortant  for  him  to  secure  the  good  will  of  the 
powerful  town  of  Olynthus,  and  to  detach  the 
Olynthians  from  the  Athenians.  Accordingly, 
he  gave  to  the  Olynthians  the  town  of  Potidaea, 
which  he  took  from  the  Athenians  in  356.  Soon 
after  this  he  attacked  and  took  a  settlement  of 
the  Thasians,  called  Crenides,  and,  having  in- 
troduced into  the  place  a  number  of  new  col- 
onists, he  named  it  Philippi  after  himself.  One 
great  advantage  of  this  acquisition  was,  that  it 
put  him  in  possession  of  the  gold  mines  of  the 
district.  From  this  point  there  is  for  some  time 
a  pause  in  the  active  operations  of  Philip.  In 
352  he  took  Methone  after  a  lengthened  siege, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  himself  lost  an  eye. 
The  capture  of  this  place  was  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary in  any  movement  toward  the  south, 
lying  as  it  did  between  him  and  the  Thessalian 
border.  He  now  marched  into  Thessaly  to  aid 
the  Aleuadae  against  Lycophron,  the  tyrant  of 
Pherae.  The  Phocians  sent  a  force  to  support 
Lycophron,  but  they  were  defeated  by  Philip, 
and  their  general  Onomarchus  slain.  This  vic- 
tory gave  Philip  the  ascendency  in  Thessaly. 
He  established  at  Pherae  what  he  wished  the 
Greeks  to  consider  a  free  government,  and  then 
advanced  southward  to  Thermopylae.  The  pass, 
however,  he  found  guarded  by  a  strong  Athe- 
nian force,  and  he  was  compelled,  or  at  least 
thought  it  expedient,  to  retire.  He  now  turned 
his  arms  against  Thrace,  and  succeeded  in  es- 
tablishing his  ascendency  in  that  country  also. 
Meanwhile  Philip's  movements  in  Thessaly  had 
opened  the  eyes  of  Demosthenes  to  the  real 
danger  of  Athens  and  Greece,  and  his  first  Phil- 
ippic (delivered  in  352)  was  his  earliest  attempt 
to  rouse  his  countrymen  to  energetic  efforts 
against  their  enemy  ;  but  he  did  not  produce 
much  effect  upon  the  Athenians.  In  349  Philip 
commenced  his  attacks  on  the  Chalcidian  cities. 
Olynthus,  in  alarm,  applied  to  Athens  for  aid, 
and  Demosthenes,  in  his  three  Olynthiac  ora- 


PHILIPPUS. 

tions  roused  the  people  to  efforts  against  the 
common  enemy,  not  very  vigorous  at  first,  and 
fruitless  in  the  end.  In  the  course  of  three 
years  Philip  gained  possession  of  all  the  Cha' 
cidian  cities,  and  the  war  was  brought  to  a  con 
elusion  by  the  capture  of  Olynthus  itself  in  347. 
In  the  following  year  (346)  he  concluded  peace 
with  the  Athenians,  and  straightway  marched 
into  Phocis,  and  brought  the  Phocian  war  to  an 
end.  The  Phocian  cities  were  destroyed,  and 
their  place  in  the  Amphictyonic  council  was 
made  over  to  the  king  of  Macedonia,  who  was 
appointed  also,  jointly  with  the  Thebans  and 
Thessalians,  to  the  presidency  of  the  Pythian 
games.  Ruling  as  he  did  over  a  barbaric  na- 
tion, such  a  recognition  of  his  Hellenic  charac- 
ter was  of  the  greatest  value  to  him,  especially 
as  he  looked  forward  to  an  invasion  of  the  Per- 
sian empire  in  the  name  of  Greece,  united  un- 
der him  in  a  great  national  confederacy.  Dur- 
ing the  next  few  years  Philip  steadily  pursued 
his  ambitious  projects.  From  342  to  340  he 
was  engaged  in  an  expedition  in  Thrace,  and 
attempted  to  bring  under  his  power  all  the  Greek 
cities  in  that  country.  In  the  last  of  these  years 
he  laid  siege  to  Perinthus  and  Byzantium  ;  but 
the  Athenians,  who  had  long  viewed  Philip's 
aggrandizement  with  fear  and  alarm,  now  re- 
solved to  send  assistance  to  these  cities.  Pho- 
cion  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  arm- 
ament destined  for  this  service,  and  succeeded 
in  compelling  Philip  to  raise  the  siege  of  both 
the  cities  (339).  Philip  now  proceeded  to  carry 
on  war  against  his  northern  neighbors,  and 
seemed  to  give  himself  no  further  concern  about 
the  affairs  of  Greece.  But  meanwhile  his  hire- 
lings were  treacherously  promoting  his  designs 
against  the  liberties  of  Greece.  In  339  the  Am- 
phictyons  declared  war  against  the  Locrians  of 
Amphissa  for  having  taken  possession  of  a  dis- 
trict of  the  sacred  land ;  but  as  the  general 
they  had  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Am- 
phictyonic army  was  unable  to  effect  any  thing 
against  the  enemy,  the  Amphictyons,  at  their 
next  meeting  in  337,  conferred  upon  Philip  the 
command  of  their  army.  Philip  straightway 
marched  through  Thermopylae  and  seized  Elatea. 
The  Athenians  heard  of  his  approach  with  alarm ; 
they  succeeded,  mainly  through  the  influence 
of  Demosthenes,  in  forming  an  alliance  with  the 
Thebans  ;  but  their  united  army  was  defeated 
by  Philip  in  the  month  of  August,  338,  in  the 
decisive  battle  of  Chaeronea,  which  put  an  end 
to  the  independence  of  Greece.  Thebes  paid 
dear  for  her  resistance,  but  Athens  was  treated 
with  more  favor  than  she  could  have  expected. 
Philip  now  seemed  to  have  within  his  reach  the 
accomplishment  of  the  great  object  of  his  am- 
bition, the  invasion  and  conquest  of  the  Per- 
sian empire.  In  a  congress  held  at  Corinth, 
which  was  attended  by  deputies  from  every 
Grecian  state  with  the  exception  of  Sparta,  war 
with  Persia  was  determined  on,  and  the  king 
of  Macedonia  was  appointed  to  command  the 
forces  of  the  national  confederacy.  In  337, 
Philip's  marriage  with  Cleopatra,  the  daughter 
of  Attalus,  one  of  his  generals,  led  to  the  most 
serious  disturbances  in  his  family.  Olympias 
and  Alexander  withdrew  in  great  indignation 
from  Macedonia ;  and  though  they  returned 
home  soon  afterward,  they  continued  to  be  on 

647 


PHILIPPUS. 

nostile  terms  with  Philip.  Meanwhile,  his  prep- 
arations for  his  Asiatic  expedition  were  not 
neglected,  and  early  in  336  he  sent  forces  into 
Asia,  under  Parmenion,  to  draw  over  the  Greek 
cities  to  his  cause.  But  in  the  summer  of  this 
year  he  was  murdered  at  a  grand  festival  which 
he  held  at  ^Egae,  to  solemnize  the  nuptials  of 
his  daughter  with  Alexander  of  Epirus.  His 
murderer  was  a  youth  of  noble  blood,  named 
Pausanias,  who  stabbed  him  as  he  was  walking 
in  the  procession.  The  assassin  was  immedi- 
ately pursued  and  slain  by  some  of  the  royal 
guards.  His  motive  for  the  deed  is  stated  by  Ar- 
istotle to  have  been  private  resentment  against 
Philip,  to  whom  he  had  complained  in  vain  of  a 
gross  outrage  offered  to  him  by  Attalus.  Olym- 
pias  and  Alexander,  however,  were  suspected 
of  being  implicated  in  the  plot.  Vid.  OLYMPIAS. 
Philip  died  in  the  forty-seventh  year  of  his  age 
and  the  twenty-fourth  of  his  reign,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Alexander  the  Great.  Philip  had  a 
great  number  of  wives  and  concubines.  Be- 
sides Olympias  and  Cleopatra,  we  may  men- 
tion, 1.  his  first  wife  Audata,  an  Illyrian  prin- 
cess, and  the  mother  of  Cynane;  2.  Phila,  sister 
of  Derdas  and  Machatas,  a  princess  of  Elymi- 
otis ;  3.  Nicesipolis  of  Pherae,  the  mother  of 
Thessalonica  ;  4.  Philinna  of  Larissa.the  mother 
of  Arrhidasus  ;  5.  Meda,  daughter  of  Cithelas, 
king  of  Thrace  ;  6.  Arsinoe",  the  mother  of  Ptol- 
emy I.,  king  of  Egypt,  with  whom  she  was  preg- 
nant when  she  married  Lagus.  To  these  nu- 
merous connections  temperament  as  well  as 
policy  seems  to  have  inclined  him.  He  was 
strongly  addicted,  indeed,  to  sensual  enjoyment 
of  every  kind  ;  but  his  passions,  however  strong, 
were  always  kept  in  subjection  to  his  interests 
and  ambitious  views.  He  was  fond  of  science 
and  literature,  in  the  patronage  of  which  he  ap- 
pears to  have  been  liberal  ;  and  his  apprecia- 
tion of  great  minds  is  shown  by  his  connection 
with  Aristotle.  In  the  pursuit  of  his  political 
objects  he  was,  as  we  have  seen,  unscrupulous, 
and  ever  ready  to  resort  to  duplicity  and  corrup- 
tion ;  but  when  we  consider  his  humanity  and 
generous  clemency,  we  may  admit  that  he  does 
not  appear  to  disadvantage,  even  morally  speak- 
ing, by  the  side  of  his  fellow-conquerors  of  man- 
kind.— III.  The  name  of  Philip  was  bestowed 
by  the  Macedonian  army  upon  Arrhida;us,  the 
bastard  son  of  Philip  II.,  when  he  was  raised 
to  the  throne  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  He  accordingly  appears  in  the  list 
of  Macedonian  kings  as  Philip  III.  For  his 
life  and  reign,  vid.  ARRHID^EUS. — IV.  Eldest  son 
of  Cassander,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne 
B.C.  296.  He  reigned  only  a  few  months,  and 
was  carried  off  by  a  consumptive  disorder. — V. 
Son  of  Demetrius  II.,  reigned  B.C.  220-178.  He 
was  only  eight  years  old  at  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther Demetrius  (229),  and  the  sovereign  power 
was  consequently  assumed  by  his  uncle  Antigo- 
nus  Doson,  who,  though  he  certainly  ruled  as 
king  rather  than  merely  as  guardian  of  his  neph- 
ew, was  faithful  to  the  interests  of  Philip,  to 
whom  he  transferred  the  sovereignty  at  his 
death  in  220,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  own  chil- 
dren. Philip  was  only  seventeen  years  old  at 
the  time  of  his  accession,  but  he  soon  showed 
that  he  possessed  ability  and  wisdom  superior 
to  his  years.  In  consequence  of  the  defeat  of 
648 


PHILIPPTJS. 

he  Achaeans  and  Aratus  by  the  .Etolians,  the 
brmer  applied  for  aid  to  Philip.  This  was 
granted  ;  and  for  the  next  three  years  Philip 
conducted  wilh  distinguished  success  the  war 
against  the  ^Etolians.  This  war,  usually  called 
the  Social  war,  was  brought  to  a  conclusion  in 
217,  and  at  once  gained  for  Philip  a  distinguish- 
ed reputation  throughout  Greece,  while  his  clem- 
ency and  moderation  secured  him  an  equal  meas- 
ure of  popularity.  But  a  change  came  over  his 
character  soon  after  the  close  of  the  Social  war. 
He  became  suspicious  and  cruel ;  and  having 
Become  jealous  of  his  former  friend  and  coun- 
sellor Aratus,  he  caused  him  to  be  removed  by 
a  slow  and  secret  poison  in  213.  Meantime  he 
lad  become  engaged  in  war  with  the  Romans, 
tn  215  he  concluded  an  alliance  with  Hannibal ; 
but  he  did  not  prosecute  the  war  with  any  ac- 
tivity against  the  Romans,  who  on  their  part 
were  too  much  engaged  with  their  formidable 
adversary  in  Italy  to  send  any  powerful  arma- 
ment against  the  Macedonian  king.  In  211  the 
war  assumed  a  new  character  in  consequence 
of  the  alliance  entered  into  by  the  Romans 
with  the  ^Etolians.  It  was  now  carried  on  with 
greater  vigor  and  alternate  success ;  but  as  Phil- 
ip gained  several  advantages  over  the  J^tolians, 
the  latter  people  made  peace  with  Philip  in  205. 
In  the  course  of  the  same  year  the  Romans  like- 
wise concluded  a  peace  with  Philip,  as  they 
were  desirous  to  give  their  undivided  attention 
to  the  war  in  Africa.  It  is  probable  that  both 
parties  looked  upon  this  peace  as  little  more 
than  a  suspension  of  hostilities.  Such  was 
clearly  the  view  with  which  the  Romans  had 
accepted  it ;  and  Philip  not  only  proceeded  to 
carry  out  his  views  for  his  own  aggrandizement 
in  Greece,  without  any  regard  to  the  Roman  al- 
liances in  that  country,  but  he  even  sent  a  body 
of  auxiliaries  to  the  Carthaginians  in  Africa, 
who  fought  at  Zama  under  Hannibal.  As  soon 
as  the  Romans  had  brought  the  second  Punic 
war  to  an  end,  they  again  declared  war  against 
Philip,  200.  This  war  lasted  between  three 
and  four  years,  and  was  brought  to  an  end  by 
the  defeat  of  Philip  by  the  consul  Flamininus  at 
the  battle  of  Cynoscephalse  in  the  autumn  of  197. 
Vid.  FLAMININUS.  By  the  peace  finally  granted 
to  Philip  (196),  the  king  was  compelled  to  aban- 
don all  his  conquests,  both  in  Europe  and  Asia, 
surrender  his  whole  fleet  to  the  Romans,  and 
limit  his  standing  army  to  five  thousand  men, 
besides  paying  a  sum  of  one  thousand  talents. 
Philip  was  now  effectually  humbled,  and  en- 
deavored to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  the  all- 
powerful  republic.  But  toward  the  end  of  his 
reign  he  determined  to  try  once  more  the  for- 
tune of  war,  and  began  to  make  active  prepara- 
tions for  this  purpose.  His  declining  years 
were  embittered  by  the  disputes  between  his 
sons  Perseus  and  Demetrius ;  and  the  former, 
by  forged  letters,  at  length  persuaded  the  king 
that  Demetrius  was  plotting  against  his  life, 
and  induced  him  to  consent  to  the  execution  of 
the  unhappy  prince.  Philip  was  struck  with  the 
deepest  grief  and  remorse  when  he  afterward 
discovered  the  deceit  that  had  been  practiced 
upon  him.  He  believed  himself  to  be  haunted 
by  the  avenging  spirit  of  Demetrius,  and  died 
shortly  after,  imprecating  curses  upon  Perseus. 
His  death  took  place  in  179,  in  the  fifty-ninth 


PHILIPPUS. 

year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  nearly  forty-two 
years. 

III.  Family  of  the  MarcU  Philippi. 

1.  Q.  MARCIUS  PHILIPPUS,  praetor  188,  with 
Sicily  as  his  province,  and  consul  186,  when  he 
carried  on  war  in  Liguria  with  his  colleague 
Sp.  Posturnius  Albinus.  He  was  defeated  by 
the  enemy  in  the  country  of  the  Apuani,  and  the 
recollection  of  his  defeat  was  preserved  by  the 
name  of  the  saltus  Marcius.  In  169  Philippus 
was  consul  a  second  time,  and  carried  on  the 
war  in  Macedonia  against  Perseus,  but  accom- 
plished nothing  of  importance.  Vid.  PERSEUS. 
In  164  Philippus  was  censor  with  L.  ^Emilius 
Paulus,  and  in  his  censorship  he  set  up  in  the 
city  a  new  sun-dial. — 2.  L.  MARCIUS  PHILIPPUS, 
was  a  tribune  of  the  plebs  104,  when  he  brought 
forward  an  agrarian  law,  and  was  consul  in  91 
with  Sex.  Julius  Caesar.  In  this  year  Philip- 
pus,  who  belonged  to  the  popular  party,  op- 
posed with  the  greatest  vigor  the  measures  of 
the  tribune  Drusus,  who  at  first  enjoyed  the  full 
confidence  of  the  senate.  But  his  opposition 
was  all  in  vain  ;  the  laws  of  the  tribune  were 
carried.  Soon  afterward  Drusus  began  to  be 
regarded  with  mistrust  and  suspicion ;  Philip- 
pus  became  reconciled  to  the  senate,  and  on  his 
proposition  a  senatus  consultum  was  passed, 
declaring  all  the  laws  of  Drusus  to  be  null  and 
void,  9$  having  been  carried  against  the  auspi- 
ces. Vit.  DRUSUS.  In  the  civil  wars  between 
Marius  and  Sulla,  Philippus  took  no  part.  He 
survived  the  death  of  Sulla ;  and  he  is  men- 
tioned afterward  as  one  of  those  who  advocated 
sending  Pompey  to  conduct  the  war  in  Spain 
against  Sertorius.  Philippus  was  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  orators  of  his  time.  (Hor., 
Epist.,  i.,  7,  46.)  As  an  orator  he  was  reck- 
oned only  inferior  to  Crassus  and  Antonius. 
He  was  a  man  of  luxurious  habits,  which  his 
wealth  enabled  him  to  gratify :  his  fish-ponds 
were  particularly  celebrated  for  their  magnifi- 
cence and  extent,  and  are  mentioned  by  the 
ancients  along  with  those  of  Lucullus  and  Hor- 
tensius.  Besides  his  son,  L.  Philippus,  who  is 
spoken  of  below,  he  had  a  step-son,  Gellius  Pub- 
licola.  Vid.  PUBLICOLA. — 3.  L.  MARCIUS  PHILIP- 
PUS,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  56. 
Upon  the  death  of  C.  Octavius,  the  father  of 
Augustus,  Philippus  married  his  widow  Atia, 
and  thus  became  the  step-father  of  Augustus. 
Philippus  was  a  timid  man.  Notwithstanding 
his  close  connection  with  Caesar's  family,  he  re- 
mained neutral  in  the  civil  wars  ;  and  after  the 
assassination  of  Caesar,  he  endeavored  to  dis- 
suade his  step-son,  the  young  Octavianus,  from 
accepting  the  inheritance  which  the  dictator  had 
left  him.  He  lived  till  his  step-son  had  acquired 
the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  world.  He  re- 
stored the  temple  of  Hercules  and  the  Muses, 
and  surrounded  it  with  a  colonnade,  which  is 
frequently  mentioned  under  the  name  of  Porti- 
013  Philippi.  (Clari  monimenta  Philippi,  Ov., 
Fast.,  vi.,  801.) 

IV.  Emperors  of  Rome. 
1.  M.  JULIUS  PHILIPPUS  I.,  Roman  emperor 
A.D.  244-249,  was  an  Arabian  by  birth,  and  en- 
tered the  Roman  army,  in  which  he  rose  to  high 
rank.     He  accompanied  Gordianus  III.  in  his 


PHILISCUS. 

expedition  against  the  Persians ;  and  upon  tne 
death  of  the  excellent  Misitheus  (vid.  MISITH- 
EUS),  he  was  promoted  to  the  vacant  office  of 
praetorian  praefect.  He  availed  himself  of  the 
influence  of  his  high  office  to  excite  discontent 
among  the  soldiers,  who  at  length  assassinated 
Gordian,  and  proclaimed  Philippus  emperor,  244. 
Philippus  proclaimed  his  son  Caesar,  concluded 
a  disgraceful  peace  with  Sapor,  founded  the  city 
of  Philippopolis,  and  then  returned  to  Rome. 
In  245  he  was  engaged  in  prosecuting  a  suc- 
cessful war  against  the  Carpi  on  the  Danube. 
In  248,  rebellions,  headed  by  lotapinus  and  Ma- 
rinus,  broke  out  simultaneously  in  the  East  and 
in  Moesia.  Both  pretenders  speedily  perished, 
but  Decius,  having  been  dispatched  to  recall 
the  legions  on  the  Danube  to  their  duty,  was 
himself  forcibly  invested  with  the  purple  by  the 
troops,  and  compelled  by  them  to  march  upon 
Italy.  Philippus,  having  gone  forth  to  encoun- 
ter his  rival,  was  slain  near  Verona  either  in 
battle  or  by  his  own  soldiers.  The  great  do- 
mestic event  of  the  reign  of  Philippus  was  the 
exhibition  of  the  secular  games,  which  were 
celebrated  with  even  more  than  the  ordinary 
degree  of  splendor,  since  Rome  had  now,  ac- 
cording to  the  received  tradition,  attained  the 
thousandth  year  of  her  existence  (A.D.  248). — 
2.  M.JULIUS  PHILIPPUS  II.,  son  of  the  foregoing, 
was  a  boy  of  seven  at  the  accession  (244)  of 
his  father,  by  whom  he  was  proclaimed  Caesar, 
and  three  years  afterward  (247)  received  the 
title  of  Augustus.  In  249  he  was  slain,  accord- 
ing to  Zosimus,  at  the  battle  of  Verona,  or  mur- 
dered, according  to  Victor,  at  Rome  by  the  prae- 
torians, when  intelligence  arrived  of  the  defeat 
and  death  of  the  emperor. 

V.  Literary. 

1.  Of  Medma,  in  the  south  of  Italy,  a  Greek 
astronomer,  and  a  disciple  of  Plato,  His  ob- 
servations, which  were  made  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus and  in  Locris,  were  used  by  the  astron- 
omers Hipparchus,  Geminus  the  Rhodian,  and 
Ptolemy. — 2.  Of  Thessalonica,  an  epigrammat- 
ic poet,  who,  besides  composing  a  large  num- 
ber of  epigrams  himself,  compiled  one  of  the 
ancient  Greek  Anthologies.  The  whole  num- 
ber of  epigrams  ascribed  to  him  in  the  Greek 
Anthology  is  nearly  ninety ;  but  of  these,  six 
(Nos.  36-41)  ought  to  be  ascribed  to  Lucillius, 
and  a  few  others  are  manifestly  borrowed  from 
earlier  poets,  while  others  are  mere  imitations. 
The  Anthology  ('AvfloAoy/o)  of  Philip,  in  imita- 
tion of  that  of  Meleager,  and  as  a  sort  of  sup- 
plement to  it,  contains  chiefly  the  epigrams  of 
poets  who  lived  in,  or  shortly  before,  the  time 
of  Philip.  The  earliest  of  these  poets  seems  to 
be  Philodemus,  the  contemporary  of  Cicero,  and 
the  latest  Automedon,  who  probably  flourished 
under  Nerva.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  Philip 
flourished  under  Trajan. 

PHILISCUS  (QMaicof).  1.  An  Athenian  poet 
of  the  Middle  Comedy,  of  whom  little  is  known. 
He  must  have  flourished  about  B.C.  400,  or  a 
little  later,  as  his  portrait  was  painted  by  Par- 
rhasius. — 2.  Of  Miletus,  an  orator  or  rhetorician, 
and  the  disciple  of  Isocrates,  wrote  a  life  of  the 
orator  Lycurgus,  and  an  epitaph  on  Lysias. — 
3.  Of  ^Egina,  a  cynic  philosopher,  was  the  dis- 
ciple of  Diogenes  the  Cjnic,  and  the  teacher  of 
649 


PHILISOUS. 

1V  xander  in  grammar. — 4.  Of  Corcyra,  a  dis- 
tinguished tragic  poet,  and  one  of  the  seven 
whi>  formed  the  Tragic  Pleiad  at  Alexandrea, 
»v:>«,  also  a  priest  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  and  in 
tLat  character  he  was  present  at  the  coronation 
piocession  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  in  B.C.  284. 
Ha  wrote  forty- two  dramas — 5.  Of  Rhodes,  a 
sculptor,  several  of  whose  works  were  placed 
in  the  temple  of  Apollo,  adjoining  the  portico 
of  Octavia  at  Rome.  One  of  these  statues  was 
that  of  the  god  himself:  the  others  were  Lato- 
na  and  Diana,  the  nine  Muses,  and  another 
statue  of  Apollo,  without  drapery.  He  proba- 
bly lived  about  B.C.  146.  The  group  of  Muses, 
found  in  the  villa  of  Cassius  at  Tivoli,  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  a  copy  of  that  of  Philiscus. 
Others  take  the  beautiful  statue  at  Florence, 
known  as  the  Apollino,  for  the  naked  Apollo  of 
Philiscus. 

[PHILISCUS  (QiMoicof),  a  native  of  Abydus, 
seht  in  B.C.  368  into  Greece  by  Ariobarzanes  to 
effect  a  reconciliation  between  the  Thehans  and 
Lacedaemonians,  but  he  did  not  fully  succeed  in 
bringing  about  the  object  of  his  mission.  On 
his  return  to  Asia  he  made  himself  master  of 
a  number  of  Greek  states,  over  which  he  exer- 
cieed  a  tyrannical  sway,  till  he  was  at  length 
assassinated  at  Lampsacus  by  Thersagoras  and 
Execestus.] 

PHILISTINE  FOSS&.     Vid.  PADUS. 

PHIUSTION  ($t/U<m'wv).  1.  Of  Nicaea  or  Mag- 
nesia, a  mimographer,  who  flourished  in  the 
time  of  Augustus,  about  A.D.  7.  He  was  an 
actor  as  well  as  a  writer  of  mimes,  and  is  said 
to  have  died  of  excessive  laughter. — 2.  A  phy- 
sician, born  either  at  one  of  the  Greek  towns  in 
Sicily,  or  at  Locri  Epizephyrii  in  Italy,  was  tutor 
to  the  physician  Chrysippus  of  Cnidos,  and  the 
astronomer  and  physician  Eudoxus,  and  there- 
fore must  have  lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.C. 

PHILISTUS  (^t'/Uerrof),  a  Syracusan,  son  of  Ar- 
chonides  or  Archomenides,  was  born  probably 
about  B.C.  435.  He  assisted  Dionysius  in  ob- 
taining the  supreme  power,  and  stood  so  high 
in  the  favor  of  the  tyrant  that  the  latter  intrust- 
ed him  with  the  charge  of  the  citadel  of  Syra- 
cuse ;  but  at  a  later  period  he  excited  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  tyrant  by  marrying,  without  his  con- 
sent, one  of  the  daughters  of  his  brother  Lep- 
tines,  and  was  in  consequence  banished  from 
Sicily.  He  at  first  retired  to  Thurii,  but  after- 
ward established  himself  at  Adria,  where  he 
composed  the  historical  work  which  has  given 
celebrity  to  his  name.  He  was  recalled  from 
exile  by  the  younger  Dionysius  soon  after  his 
accession,  and  quickly  succeeded  in  establishing 
his  influence  over  the  mind  of  the  latter.  He 
exerted  all  his  efforts  to  alienate  Dionysius 
from  his  former  friends,  and  not  only  caused 
Plato  to  be  sent  back  to  Athens,  but  ultimately 
succeeded  in  effecting  the  banishment  of  Dion 
also.  Philistus  was  unfortunately  absent  from 
Sicily  when  Dion  first  landed  in  the  island,  and 
made  himself  master  of  Syracuse,  B.C.  356. 
He  afterward  raised  a  powerful  fleet,  with  which 
he  gave  battle  to  the  Syracusans,  but  having 
been  defeated,  and  finding  himself  cut  off  from 
all  hopes  of  escape,  he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life 
to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enraged 
countrymen.  Philistns  wrote  a  history  of  Sicily, 
which  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  historical 
650 


PHILO. 

works  of  antiquity,  though,  unfortunately,  only  a 
few  fragments  of  it  have  come  down  to  us.  Ii 
consisted  of  two  portions,  which  might  be  re- 
garde'd  either  as  two  separate  works,  or  as  parts 
of  one  great  whole,  a  circumstance  which  ex- 
plains the  discrepancies  in  the  statements  of  the 
number  of  books  of  which  it  was  composed. 
The  first  seven  books  comprised  the  general  his 
tory  of  Sicily,  commencing  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  ending  with  the  capture  of  Agrigen- 
tum  by  the  Carthaginians,  B.C.  406.  The  sec- 
ond part,  which  formed  a  sequel  to  the  first,  con- 
tained the  history  of  the  elder  Dionysius  in  foin 
books,  and  that  of  the  younger  in  two  :  the  lat- 
ter was  necessarily  imperfect.  In  point  of 
style,  Philistus  is  represented  by  the  concurrent 
testimony  of  antiquity  as  imitating  a'nd  even 
closely  resembling  Thucydides,  though  still  fall 
ing  far  short  of  his  great  model.  The  frag- 
ments of  Philistus  have  been  collected  by  Goel- 
ler  in  an  appendix  to  his  work,  De  Situ  et  Origine 
Syracusarum,  Lips.,  1818,  and  by  C.  Mu'ller,  in  the 
Fragmenta  Historicorum  Gracorum,  Paris,  1841. 
PHILO  (4>t/Ujv).  1.  An  ACADEMIC  philosopher, 
was  a  native  of  Larissa  and  a  disciple  of  Clito- 
machus.  After  the  conquest  of  Athens  by  Mith- 
radates  he  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  settled 
as  a  teacher  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  and  had 
Cicero  as  one  of  his  hearers. — 2.  BYBLIUS,  also 
called  HERENNIUS  BYBLIUS,  a  Roman  grammari- 
an, and  a  native  of  Byblus  in  Phoenicia,  as  his 
patronymic  indicates,  was  born  about^tRe  time 
of  Nero,  and  lived  to  a  good  old  age,  having 
written  of  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  He  wrote 
many  works,  which  are  cited  by  Suidas  and  oth- 
ers, but  his  name  is  chiefly  memorable  by  his 
translation  of  the  writings  of  the  Phoenician 
Sanchuniathon,  of  which  considerable  fragments 
have  been  preserved  by  Eusebius.  Vid.  SAN- 
CHUNIATHON.— 3.  Of  BYZANTIUM,  a  celebrated 
mechanician,  and  a  contemporary  of  Ctesibius, 
flourished  about  B.C.  146.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
military  engineering,  of  which  the  fourth  and 
fifth  books  have  come  down  to  us,  and  are  print- 
ed in  the  Veterum  Mathematicorum  Opera  of 
Thevenot,  Paris,  1693.  There  is  also  attributed 
to  this  Philo  a  work  On  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the 
World,  but  this  work  must  have  been  written 
at  a  later  time.  The  seven  wonders  are  the 
Hanging  Gardens,  the  Pyramids,  the  Statue  of 
Jupiter  Olympius,  the  Walls  of  Babylon,  the  Co- 
lossus of  Rhodes,  the  Temple  of  Diana(Artemis) 
at  Ephesus,  and,  we  may  presume  from  the  pro- 
cemium,  the  Mausoleum ;  but  the  laot  is  en- 
tirely wanting,  and  we  have  only  a  fragment  of 
the  Ephesian  temple.  Edited  by  Orelli,  Lips., 
1816. — 4.  JUD^US,  the  Jew,  was  born  at  Alex- 
andrea, and  was  descended  from  a  priestly  fam- 
ily of  distinction.  He  had  already  reached  an 
advanced  age,  when  he  went  to  Rome  (A.D.  40) 
on  an  embassay  to  the  Emperor  Caligula,  in  or- 
der to  procure  the  revocation  of  tbe  decree 
which  exacted  from  the  Jews  divine  homage  to 
the  statue  of  the  emperor.  We  have  no  other 
particulars  of  the  life  of  Philo  worthy  of  record. 
His  most  important  works  treat  of  the  books  of 
Moses,  and  are  generally  cited  under  different 
titles.  His  great  object  was  to  reconcile  the 
sacred  Scriptures  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
Greek  philosophy,  and  to  point  out  the  con- 
formity between  the  two.  He  maintained  that 


PHILO,  Q.  PUBLILIUS. 

the  fundamental  truths  ofGreek  philosophy  were  ' 
derived  from  the  Mosaic  revelation,  and  in  or-  I 
der  to  make  the  latter  agree  more  perfectly  with  j 
the  former,  he  had  recourse  to  an  allegorical  in- 
terpretation of  the  books  of  Moses.  Philo  may 
therefore  be  regarded  as  a  precursor  of  the  Neo- 
Platonic  philosophy.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  by  Mangey,  Lond.,  1742,  2  vols.  fol. — 
5.  A  MEGARIAN  philosopher,  was  a  disciple  of 
Diodorus  Cronus,  and  a  friend  of  Zeno. — 6.  Of 
TARSUS  in  Cilicia,  a  celebrated  physician,  fre- 
quently quoted  by  Galen  and  others. — 7.  ART- 
ISTS. (1.)  Son  of  Antipater,  a  statuary  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
made  the  statue  of  Hephaestion,  and  also  the 
statue  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Ourios,  which  stood  on 
the  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Bosporus,  near  Chalcedon,  and  formed  an 
important  landmark  for  sailors.  It  was  still  per- 
fect in  the  time  of  Cicero  (in  Ferr.,  iv.,  58),  and 
the  base  has  been  preserved  to  modern  times, 
bearing  an  inscription  of  eight  elegiac  verses. — 
(2.)  A  very  eminent  architect  at  Athens  in  the 
time  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Alexander. 
He  built  for  Demetrius  Phalereus,  about  B.C. 
318,  the  portico  of  twelve  Doric  columns  to  the 
great  temple  at  Eleusis.  He  also  constructed 
for  the  Athenians,  under  the  administration  of 
Lycurgus,  a  basin  (armamentarium)  in  the  Pirae- 
us, in  which  one  thousand  ships  could  lie.  This 
work,  which  excited  the  greatest  admiration, 
was  destroyed  in  the  taking  of  Athens  by  Sulla. 
PHILO,  Q.  PUBLH.IUS,  a  distinguished  general 
in  the  Samnite  wars,  and  the  author  of  one  of 
the  great  reforms  in  the  Roman  constitution.  He 
was  consul  B.C.  339,  with  Ti.  ^Emilius  Mamer- 
cinus,  and  defeated  the  Latins,  over  whom  he 
triumphed.  In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
dictator  by  his  colleague  ^Emilius  Mamercinus, 
and,  as  such,  proposed  the  celebrated  Publilia 
Leges,  which  abolished  the  power  of  the  patri- 
cian assembly  of  the  curiae,  and  elevated  the 
plebeians  to  an  equality  with  the  patricians  for 
all  practical  purposes.  (Vid.  Diet.  o/Antiq.,  art. 
PuBLiLLfi  LEGES.)  In  337  Philo  was  the  first 
plebeian  praetor,  and  in  332  he  was  censor  with 
Sp.  Postumius  Albinus.  In  327  he  was  consul 
a  second  time,  and  carried  on  war  in  the  south 
of  Italy.  He  was  continued  in  the  command 
for  the  following  year  with  the  title  of  procon- 
sul, the  first  instance  in  Roman  history  in  which 
a  person  was  invested  with  proconsular  power. 
He  took  Palaepolis  in  326.  In  320  he  was  con- 
sul a  third  time,  with  L.  Papirius  Cursor,  and 
carried  on  the  war  with  success  against  the 
Samnites. 

PHILO,  VETURIUS.  1.  L.,  consul  B.C.  220 
with  C.  Lutatius  Catulus ;  dictator  217,  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  the  comitia :  and  censor  210 
with  P.  Licinius  Crassus  Dives,  and  died  while 
holding  this  office.— 2.  L.,  praetor  209,  with  Cia- 
alpine  Gaul  as  his  province.  In  207  he  served 
under  Claudius  Nero  and  Livius  Salinator  in  the 
campaign  against  Hasdrubal.  In  206  he  was 
consul  with  Q.  Csecilius  Metellus,  and,  in  con- 
junction with-  his  colleague,  carried  on  the  war 
against  Hannibal  in  Bruttium.  He  accompanied 
Scipio  to  Africa,  and  after  the  battle  of  Zanaa, 
202,  was  sent  to  Rome  to  announce  the  news 
of  Hannibal's  defeat. 

PHILOCUARES    ('h/.o^a/w),    a  distinguished 


PHILOCTETES. 

painter,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  is  supposed  by  the 
modern  writers  on  art  to  be  the  same  person  as 
the  brother  of  .-Eschines,  of  whose  artistic  per- 
formances Demosthenes  speaks  contemptuous- 
ly, but  whom  Ulpian  ranks  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguished painters. 

[PHILOCHARIDAS  (^L^oxapidaf),  a  Lacedaemo- 
nian of  distinction,  son  ofEryxidaidas,  employ- 
ed on  several  embassies  during  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.] 

PHILSCHORUS  (<S>i%6x.opof),  a  celebrated  Athe- 
nian writer,  chiefly  known  by  his  Althis,  or  work 
on  the  legends,  antiquities,  and  history  of  Attica. 
He  was  a  person  of  considerable  importance  in 
his  native  city,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Antigo- 
nus  Gonatas  when  the  latter  obtained  possession 
of  Athens,  about  B.C.  260.  His  Atthis  consist- 
ed of  seventeen  books,  and  related  the  history 
of  Attica  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  reigr. 
of  Antiochus  Theos,  B.C.  261.  The  work  is 
frequently  quoted  by  the  scholiasts,  lexicogra- 
phers, as  well  as  other  later  authors.  He  also 
wrote  many  other  works,  the  titles  of  which  are 
preserved  by  Suidas  and  the  grammarians.  The 
fragments  of  Philochorus  have  been  published 
by  Siebelis,  Lips.,  1811,  and  by  Mailer,  Paris 
1841. 

PHILOCLES  (*tAo«^f).  1.  An  Athenian  tragic 
poet,  the  sister's  son  of  JEschylus  ;  his  father's 
name  was  Philopithes.  He  is  said  to  have  com- 
posed one  hundred  tragedies.  In  the  general 
character  of  his  plays  he  was  an  imitator  of 
jEschylus ;  and  that  he  was  not  unworthy  of 
his  great  master,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact 
that  he  gained  a  victory  over  Sophocles,  when 
the  latter  exhibited  his  (Edipus  Tyrannus,  B.C. 
429.  Philocles  was  frequently  ridiculed  by  the 
comic  poets.  —  [2.  An  Athenian  officer,  joined 
with  Conon  in  command  of  the  Athenian  fleet 
after  the  battle  of  the  Arginusse.  He  was  of  a 
cruel  disposition,  and  was  the  author  of  the 
proposal  for  the  mutilation  of  the  prisoners  taken 
in  an  intended  naval  battle.  Having  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  Lysander  at  the  battle  of  ^Egos- 
potaini  in  B.C.  405,  he  was  put  to  death  by  him. 
— 3.  An  officer  and  friend  of  Philip  V.  of  Mace- 
donia, by  whom  he  was  employed  in  several 
embassies,  and  who  intrusted  to  him  the  task 
of  succoring  Eretria  against  the  Romans  and 
others.  He  subsequently  allowed  himself  to  be 
bribed  to  make  a  false  report  against  Demetrius, 
the  son  of  Philip  (rid.  PHILIPPUS  V.),  and  so 
caused  his  death  :  for  this  he  was  tortured  and 
put  to  death  by  Philip.] 

PHILOCRATES  (QitoKpurtic.),  an  Athenian  ora- 
tor, was  one  of  the  venal  supporters  of  Philip  in 
opposition  to  Demosthenes. 

PHILOCTETES  (QttoKTt/njc),  a  son  of  Pceas 
(whence  he  is  called  Pceanttades,  Ov.,  Met.,  xiii., 
313)  and  Dcmonassa,  the  most  celebrated  archer 
in  the  T,  rojan  war.  He  led  the  warriors  from  Me- 
thone,  Thaumacia,  Melibcea,  and  Olizon,  against 
Troy,  in  seven  ships.  But  on  his  voyage  thither 
he  was  left  behind  by  his  men  in  the  island  of 
Lemnos,  because  he  was  ill  of  a  wound  which 
he  had  received  from  the  bite  of  a  snake  ;  and 
Medon,  the  son  of  OTleus  and  Rhcoe,  undertook 
the  command  of  his  troops.  This  is  all  that  the 
Homeric  poems  relate  of  Philoctetes,  with  the 
addition  that  he  returned  home  in  safety ;  1m 
the  cyclic  and  tragic  poets  have  added  numer- 

651 


PHILOCrPRUS. 

ous  details  to  the  story.  Thus  they  relate  tha. 
lie  was  the  friend  and  armor-bearer  of  Her- 
cules, who  instructed  him  in  the  use  of  the  bow, 
and  who  bequeathed  to  him  his  bow,  with  the 
poisoned  arrows.  These  presents  were  a  re- 
ward for  his  having  erected  and  set  fire  to  the 
pile  on  Mount  (Eta,  where  Hercules  burned 
himself.  Philoctetes  was  also  one  of  the  suit- 
ors of  Helen,  and  thus  took  part  in  the  Trojan 
war.  On  his  voyage  to  Troy,  while  staying  in 
the  island  of  Chryse,  he  was  bitten  by  a  snake. 
This  misfortune  happened  to  him  when  he  was 
showing  to  the  Greeks  the  altar  of  Minerva 
(Athena)  Chryse,  or  while  he  was  looking  at  the 
tomb  of  Troilus  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Thym- 
braeus,  or  as  he  was  pointing  out  to  his  com- 
panions the  altar  of  Hercules.  According  to 
some  accounts,  the  wound  in  his  foot  was  not 
inflicted  by  a  serpent,  but  by  his  own  poisoned 
arrows.  The  wound  is  said  to  have  become 
ulcerated,  and  to  have  produced  such  an  intol- 
erable stench,  that  the  Greeks,  on  the  advice  of 
Ulysses,  abandoned  Philoctetes,  and  left  him 
alone  on  the  solitary  coast  of  Lemnos.  He  re- 
mained in  this  island  till  the  tenth  year  of  the 
Trojan  war,  when  Ulysses  and  Diomedes  [ac- 
cording to  Sophocles,  Ulysses  and  Neoptolemus] 
came  to  fetch  him  to  Troy,  as  an  oracle  had  de- 
clared that  the  city  could  not  be  taken  without 
the  arrows  of  Hercules.  He  accompanied  these 
heroes  to  Troy,  and  on  his  arrival  Apollo  sent 
him  into  a  deep  sleep,  during  which  Machaon 
(or  Podalirius,  or  both,  or  ^Esculapius  himself) 
cut  out  the  wound,  washed  it  with  wine,  and 
applied  healing  herbs  to  it.  Philoctetes  was 
thus  cured,  and  soon  after  slew  Paris,  where- 
upon Troy  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks. 
On  his  return  from  Troy  he  is  said  to  have  been 
cast  upon  the  coast  of  Italy,  where  he  settled, 
and  built  Petelia  and  Crimissa.  In  the  latter 
place  he  founded  a  sanctuary  of  Apollo  Alaeus, 
to  whom  he  dedicated  his  bow. 

[PHILOCYPRUS  (4>iAo/cu7rpof),  father  of  Aristo- 
cyprus,  king  of  Soli  in  Cyprus,  contemporary 
and  friend  of  Solon,  who  celebrated  his  praises 
in  an  elegUc  poem.] 

PHILODEMUS  (QMdrjuof'),  of  Gadara  in  Pales- 
tine, an  Epicurean  philosopher  and  epigram- 
matic poet,  contemporary  with  Cicero.  The 
Greek  Anthology  contains  thirty-four  of  his  epi- 
grams, which  are  chiefly  of  a  light  and  amatory 
character,  and  which  quite  bear  out  Cicero's 
statements  concerning  the  licentiousness  of  his 
matter  and  the  elegance  of  his  manner.  (Cic. 
in  Pis.,  28,  29.)  Philodemus  is  also  mentioned 
by  Horace  (Sat.,  i.,  2,  121). 

[PHILODEMUS  (QiMdrifioc).  1.  Of  the  borough 
of  Paeania,  father-in-law  of  the  orator  ^Eschines. 
— 2.  An  Argive,  sent  by  Hieronymus,  king  of 
Syracuse,  to  Hannibal  in  B.C.  215  to  propose 
an  alliance.  In  B.C.  212,  when  Marcellus  was 
besieging  Syracuse,  Philodemus  was  governor 
of  the  fort  Euryalus  on  Epipolae,  and  this  he 
surrendered  to  the  Romans  on  condition  that 
he  and  his  garrison  should  be  allowed  to  depart 
uninjured  to  join  Epicydes  in  Achradina.] 

[PHILCETIUS  (fciAomof),  the  celebrated  cow- 
herd of  Ulysses,  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
Odyssey  :  he  recognized  Ulysses  on  his  return 
to  Ithaca,  and,  along  with  Eumaeus,  aided  him 
Ji  overcoming  the  suitors." 
652 


PHILONIDES 

PHILOLAOS  ($t^6Aaof),  a  distinguished  Pytha- 
gorean philosopher,  was  a  native  of  Croton  or 
Tarentum.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Soc- 
rates, and  the  instructor  of  Simmias  and  Cebes 
at  Thebes,  where  he  appears  to  have  lived  many 
years.  Pythagoras  and  his  earliest  successors 
did  not  commit  any  of  their  doctrines  to  writ 
ing ;  and  the  first  publication  of  the  Pythago 
rean  doctrines  is  pretty  uniformly  attributed  to 
Philolaus.  He  composed  a  work  on  the  Pytha- 
gorean philosophy  in  three  books,  which  Plato  is 
said  to  have  procured  at  the  cost  of  one  hund- 
red minae  through  Dion  of  Syracuse,  who  pur- 
chased it  from  Philolaus,  who  was  at  the  time 
in  deep  poverty.  Other  versions  of  the  story 
represent  Plato  as  purchasing  it  himself  from 
Philolaus  or  his  relatives  when  in  Sicily.  Plato 
is  said  to  have  derived  from  this  work  the  great- 
er part  of  his  Timaeus.  [Several  fragments  of 
this  work,  in  the  Doric  dialect,  have  been  pre- 
served, and  these  have  been  collected  and  edit- 
ed by  Boeckh,  Berlin,  1819.] 

[PuiLOMEDusx  (bikoutdovca),  wife  of  Areith- 
ous  and  mother  of  Menesthius.] 

PHILOMELA  ($(Ao/»/Aa},  daughter  of  King  Pan- 
dion  in  Attica,  who,  being  dishonored  by  her 
brother-in-law  Tereus,  was  metamorphosed  into 
a  nightingale.  The  story  is  given  under  TEREUS. 

[PHiLOMELiDEs  (4>tXo//?/A£/'^f,  properly  son  of 
Philomela),  a  king  in  Lesbos,  who  compelled  his 
guests  to  wrestle  with  him,  was  vanquished  by 
Ulysses.] 

PHILOMELIUM  or  PHILOMELUM  (^iTioft^tov,  or, 
in  the  Pisidian  dialect,  ^do/oify :  $i?.oprifavf, 
Philomelensis  or  Philomeliensis  ;  probably  Ak- 
Sfiehr,  ruins),  a  city  of  Phrygia  Paroreios,  on  the 
borders  of  Lycaonia  and  Pisidia,  said  to  have 
been  named  from  the  numbers  of  nightingales 
in  its  neighborhood.  It  is  mentioned  several 
times  by  Cicero.  According  to  the  division  of 
the  provinces  under  Constantine,  it  belonged  to 
Pisidia.  It  is  still  found  mentioned  at  the  time 
of  the  Crusades  by  the  name  of  Philomene. 

PHILOMELUS  (^iTio^TiOf ),  a  general  of  the  Pho- 
cians  in  the  Phocian  or  Sacred  war,  was  the 
person  who  persuaded  his  countrymen  to  seize 
the  temple  of  Delphi,  and  to  apply  the  riches  of 
the  temple  to  the  purpose  of  defending  them- 
selves against  the  Amphictyonic  forces,  B.C. 
357.  He  commanded  the  Phocians  during  the 
early  years  of  the  war,  but  was  slain  in  battle 
in  353.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  command  by 
his  brother  Onomarchus. 

PHILONIDES  (4>t/lwvi(5^f),  an  Athenian  poet  of 
the  Old  Comedy,  who  is,  however,  better  known 
on  account  of  his  connection  with  the  literary 
history  of  Aristophanes.  It  is  generally  stated 
that  Philonides  was  an  actor  of  Aristophanes, 
who  is  said  to  have  committed  to  him  and  to 
Callistratus  his  chief  characters  ;  but  the  best 
modern  critics  have  shown  that  this  is  an  erro- 
neous statement,  and  that  the  true  state  of  the 
case  is,  that  several  of  the  plays  of  Aristophanes 
were  brought  out  in  the  names  of  Callistratus 
and  Philonides.  We  learn  from  Aristophanes 
himself,  not  only  the  fact  that  he  brought  out 
his  early  plays  in  the  names  of  other  poets,  but 
also  his  reasons  for  so  doing.  In  the  Parabasis 
of  the  Knights  (v.,  514),  he  states  that  he  had 
pursued  this  course,  not  from  want  of  thought, 
but  from  a  sense  of  the  difficulty  of  his  profes- 


sion,  and  from  a  fear  that  he  might  suffer  from 
that  fickleness  of  taste  which  the  Athenians 
had  shown  toward  other  poets,  as  Magnes, 
Crates,  and  Cratinus.  It  appears  that  Aris- 
tophanes used  the  name  of  Philonides,  proba- 
bly, for  the  Clouds,  and  certainly  for  the  Wasps, 
the  Proagon,  the  Amphiaraus,  and  the  Frogs. 
The  DfEtaleis,  the  Babylonians,  the  Acharnians, 
the  Birds,  and  the  Lysistrata  were  brought  out 
in  the  name  of  Callistratus.  Of  the  extant 
plays  of  Aristophanes,  the  only  ones  which  he 
's  known  to  have  brought  out  in  his  own  name 
are  the  Knights,  the  Peace,  and  the  Plutus. 

PHILONOME.     Vid.  TENES. 

PHILOPCEMEN  (QiXonoipnv),  of  Megalopolis  in 
\rcadia,  one  of  the  few  great  men  that  Greece 
reduced  in  the  decline  of  her  political  inde- 
pendence. The  great  object  of  his  life  was  to 
infuse  among  the  Achaeans  a  military  spirit, 
and  thereby  to  establish  their  independence  on 
a  firm  and  lasting  basis.  He  was  the  son  of 
Craugis,  a  distinguished  man  at  Megalopolis, 
and  was  born  about  B.C.  252.  He  lost  his  fa- 
ther at  an  early  age,  and  was  brought  up  by 
Cleander,  an  illustrious  citizen  of  Mantinea.who 
had  been  obliged  to  leave  his  native  city,  and 
had  taken  refuge  at  Megalopolis.  He  received 
instruction  from  Ecdemus  and  Demophanes, 
both  of  whom  had  studied  the  Academic  phi- 
losophy under  Arcesilaus.  At  an  early  age  he 
became  distinguished  by  his  love  of  arms  and 
his  bravery  in  war.  His  name,  however,  first 
occurs  in  history  in  B.C.  222,  when  Megalopolis 
was  taken  by  Cleomenes,  and  in  the  following 
year  (221)  he  fought  with  conspicuous  valor  at 
the  battle  of  Sellasia,  in  which  Cleomenes  was 
completely  defeated.  In  order  to  gain  addi- 
tional military  experience,  he  soon  afterward 
sailed  to  Crete,  and  served  for  some  years  in 
the  wars  between  the  cities  of  that  island.  On 
his  return  to  his  native  country,  in  210,  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  Achaean  cavalry  ; 
and  in  208  he  was  elected  strategus,  or  general 
of  the  Achaean  league.  In  this  year  he  defeat- 
ed Machanidas,  tyrant  of  Lacedaemon,  and  slew 
him  in  battle  with  his  own  hand.  In  201  he 
was  again  elected  general  of  the  league,  when 
he  defeated  Nabis,  who  had  succeeded  Machan- 
idas as  tyrant  of  Lacedaemon.  Soon  afterward 
Poilopcemen  took  another  voyage  to  Crete,  and 
assurrted  the  command  of  the  forces  of  Gortyna. 
He  did  not  return  to  Peloponnesus  till  194.  He 
was  made  general  of  the  league  in  192,  when 
he  again  defeated  Nabis,  who  was*  slain  in  the 
course  of  the  year  by  some  ^Etolian  mercena- 
ries. Philopoemen  was  re-elected  general  of 
the  league  several  times  afterward  ;  but  the 
state  of  Greece  did  not  afford  him  much  further 
opportunity  for  the  display  of  his  military  abili- 
ties. The  Romans  were  now,  in  fact,  the  mas- 
ters of  Greece,  and  Philopoemen  clearly  saw 
that  it  would  be  an  act  of  madness  to  offer  open 
resistance  to  their  authority.  At  the  same  time, 
as  the  Romans  still  recognized  in  words  the  in- 
dependence of  the  league,  Philopcemen  offered 
a  resolute  resistance  to  all  their  encroachments 
upon  the  liberties  of  his  country,  whenever  he 
could  do  so  without  affording  them  any  pretext 
for  war.  In  188,  when  he  was  general  of  the 
league,  he  took  Sparta,  and  treated  it  with  the 
greatest  severity.  He  razed  the  walls  and  for- 


PHILOSTRATUS. 

tifications  of  the  city,  abolished  the  institutions 
of  Lycurgus,  and  compel'ed  the  citizens  to  adopt 
the  Achaean  laws  in  their  stead.  In  183  the 
Messenians  revolted  from  the  Achaean  league. 
Philopcemen,  who  was  general  of  the  league  for 
the  eighth  time,  hastily  collected  a  body  of  cav- 
alry, and  pressed  forward  to  Messene.  He  fell 
in  with  a  large  body  of  Messenian  troops,  by 
whom  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  carried  to 
Messene.  Here  he  was  thrown  into  a  dungeon, 
and  was  compelled  by  Dinocrates  to  drink  pois* 
on.  The  news  of  his  death  filled  the  whole  of 
Peloponnesus  with  grief  and  rage.  An  assem- 
bly was  immediately  held  at  Megalopolis  ;  Ly- 
cortas  was  chosen  general ;  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  invaded  Messenia,  which  was  laid 
waste  far  and  wide  ;  Dinocrates  and  the  chiefs 
of  his  party  were  obliged  to  put  an  end  to  their 
lives.  The  remains  of  Philopcemen  were  con- 
veyed to  Megalopolis  in  solemn  procession  ;  and 
the  urn  which  contained  the  ashes  was  carried 
by  the  historian  Polybius.  His  remains  were 
then  interred  at  Megalopolis  with  heroic  honors, 
and  soon  afterward  statues  of  him  were  erect- 
ed in  most  of  the  towns  belonging  to  the  Acha3- 
an  league. 

PHILOSTEPHANUS  (QiZoarfyavoc),  of  Cyrene, 
an  Alexandrean  writer  of  history  and  geogra- 
phy, the  friend  or  disciple  of  Callimachus,  flour- 
ished under  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus,  about  B. 

C.  249. 

PHILOSTORGIDS  ($iAoor6py<oc).  a  native  of  Bo- 
rissus  in  Cappadocia,  was  born  about  A.D.  358. 
He  wrote  an  ecclesiastical  history,  from  the 
heresy  of  Arius  in  300  down  to  425.  Philos- 
torgius  was  an  Arian,  which  is  probably  the 
reason  why  his  work  has  not  come  down  to  us. 
It  was  originally  in  twelve  books  ;  and  we  still 
possess  an  abstract  of  it,  made  by  Photius. 

PHILOSTRATCS  (^iTioffrparof),  the  name  of  a 
distinguished  family  of  Lemnos,  of  which  there 
are  mentioned  three  persons  in  the  history  of 
Greek  literature.  1.  Son  of  Verus,  taught  at 
Athens  ;  but  we  know  nothing  about  him,  with 
the  exception  of  the  titles  of  his  works,  given 
by  Suidas.  He  could  not,  however,  have  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Nero,  according  to  the  statement 
of  Suidas,  since  his  son  was  not  born  till  the 
latter  part  of  the  second  century. — 2.  FLAVIDI 
PHILOSTRATUS,  son  of  the  preceding,  and  the 
most  eminent  of  the  three,  was  born  about  A. 

D.  182.     He  studied  and  taught  at  Athens,  and 
is  usually  called  the  Athenian,  to  distinguish 
him  from  the  younger  Philostratus  (No.  3),  who 
more  usually  bears,  the  surname  of  the  Lem- 
nian.     Flavius  afterward  removed  to  Rome, 
where  we  find  him  a  member  of  the  circle  of 
literary  men  whom  the  philosophic  Julia  Dom- 
na,  the  wife  of  Severus,  had  drawn  around  her. 
It  was  at  her  desire  that  he  wrote  the  life  of 
Apollonius.     He  was  alive  in  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Philippus  (244-249).     The  following 

!  works  of  Philostratus  have  come  down  to  us  : 
1.  The  Life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana  (TU  if  rbv 
Ttiavto  'AiroWoi>toi>),  in  eight  books.  Vid.  APOL 
i.oNirs,  No.  7.  2.  Lives  of  the  Sophists  (B<ot 
Zodiffrwv),  in  two  books,  contains  the  history 
of  philosophers  who  had  the  character  of  being 
sophists,  and  of  those  who  were  in  reality  ^oph- 
ists.  It  begins  with  the  life  of  Gorgias,  and 
cornea  down  to  the  contemporaries  of  Philostra- 

653 


PHILOTAS. 

tus  in  the  reign  of  Philippus.  3.  Heroica  or 
Herolcus  ('HputKu,  'Hpuinof),  is  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  heroes  en- 
gaged in  the  Trojan  war.  4.  Imagines  (Elicovef), 
in  two  books,  contains  an  account  of  various 
paintings.  This  is  the  author's  most  pleasing 
wprk,  exhibiting  great  richness  of  fancy,  power, 
and  variety  of  delineation,  and  a  rich  exuber- 
ance of  style.  5.  Epistolce  ('EmoTol.ai),  seven- 
ty-tliree  in  number,  chiefly  amatory.  The  best 
editions  of  the  collected  works  of  Philostratus 
are  by  Olearius,  Lips.,  1709,  and  by  Kayser, 
Turic.,  1844. — 3.  PHILOSTRATUS  the  younger, 
usually  called  the  Lemnian,  as  mentioned  above, 
was  a  son  of  Nervianus  and  of  a  daughter  of 
Flavius  Philostratus,  but  is  erroneously  called 
by  Suidas  a  son-in-law  of  the  latter.  He  en- 
joyed the  instructions  of  his  grandfather  and 
of  the  sophist  Hippodromus,  and  had  obtained 
sufficient  distinction  at  the  early  age  of  twenty- 
four  to  receive  exemption  from  taxes.  He  visit- 
ed Rome,  but  he  taught  at  Athens,  and  died  in 
Lemnos.  He  wrote  several  works,  and,  among 
others,  one  entitled  Imagines,  in  imitation  of  his 
grandfather's  work  with  the  same  title,  of  which 
a  portion  is  still  extant. 

PHILOTAS  (4>tXuraf).  [1.  A  Macedonian,  fa- 
ther of  Parmenion,  the  general  of  Alexander 
the  Great.] — 2.  Son  of  Parmenion,  enjoyed  a 
high  place  in  the  friendship  of  Alexander,  and 
in  the  invasion  of  Asia  obtained  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  eralpoi,  or  native  Macedonian  cav- 
alry. He  served  with  distinction  in  the  battles 
of  the  Granicus  and  Arbela,  and  also  on  other 
occasions ;  but  in  B.C.  330,  while  the  army  was 
in  Drangiana,  he  was  accused  of  being  privy  to 
a  plot  which  had  been  formed  by  a  Macedonian, 
named  Dimnus,  against  the  king's  life.  There 
was  no  proof  of  his  guilt ;  but  a  confession  was 
wrung  from  him  by  the  torture,  and  he  was 
stoned  to  death  by  the  troops,  after  the  Mace- 
donian custom.  Vid.  PARMENION. — [3.  A  Mace- 
donian officer  in  the  service  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  received  the  government  of  Cilicia  in 
the  distribution  of  provinces  after  the  death  of 
Alexander.  In  B.C.  321  he  was  deprived  of 
his  government  by  Perdiccas,  but  was  employed 
elsewhere  by  that  general,  as  he  still  continued 
attached  to  the  party  of  Perdiccas,  and  after  the 
death  of  the  regent  united  with  Alcetas,  Atta- 
lus,  and  their  partisans  in  the  contest  against 
Antigonus,  into  whose  power  he  finally  fell.] 

PUILOTIMUS  (QMrtpof).  1.  An  eminent  Greek 
physician,  pupil  of  Praxagoras,  and  fellow-pupil 
of  Herophilus,  lived  in  the  fourth  and  third  cen- 
turies B.C. — [2.  A  freedman  of  Cicero,  or  rather 
of  Terentia,  had  the  chief  management  of  Cic- 
ero's property.] 

PHILOXENUS  ($<a,6fevof).  1.  A  Macedonian 
officer  of  Alexander  the  Great,  received  the 
government  of  Cilicia  from  Perdiccas  in  321. — 
2.  Of  Cythera,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
dithyrambic  poets  of  Greece,  was  born  B.C.  435, 
and  died  380,  at  the  age  of  fifty-five.  He  was 
reduced  to  slavery  in  his  youth,  and  was  bought 
by  the  lyric  poet  Melanippides,  by  whom  he  was 
educated  in  dithyrambic  poetry.  After  residing 
some  years  at  Athens,  he  went  to  Syracuse, 
where  he  speedily  obtained  the  favor  of  Dionys- 
ius,  and  took  up  his'  abode  at  his  court.  But 
soon  afterward  he  offended  Dionysius,  and  was 
054 


PHILUS,  FURIUS. 

cas  into  prison  ;  an  act  of  oppression  wnun 
most  writers  ascribe  to  the  wounded  vanity  of 
the  tyrant,  whose  poems  Philoxenus  not  only 
refused  to  praise,  but,  on  being  asked  to  revise 
one  of  them,  said  that  the  best  way  of  correct- 
ing it  would  be  to  draw  a  black  line  through  the 
whole  paper.  Another  account  ascribes  his  dis- 
grace to  too  close  an  intimacy  with  the  tyrant's 
mistress  Galatea  ;  but  this  looks  like  a  fiction, 
arising  out  of  a  misunderstanding  of  the  object 
of  his  poem  entitled  Cyclops  or  Galatea.  After 
some  time  he  was  released  from  prison,  and  re- 
stored outwardly  to  the  favor  of  Dionysius  ;  but 
he  finally  left  his  court,  and  is  said  to  have  spent 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  Ephesus.  Of  the 
dithyrambs  of  Philoxenus,  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant was  his  Cyclops  or  Galatea,  the  loss  of 
which  is  greatly  to  be  lamented.  Philoxenus 
also  wrote  another  poem,  entitled  Deipnon 
( AefTrvov),  or  the  Banquet,  which  appears  to  have 
been  the  most  popular  of  his  works,  and  of  which 
we  have  more  fragments  than  of  any  other. 
This  poem  was  a  most  minute  and  satirical  de- 
scription of  a  banquet,  and  the  subject  of  it  was 
furnished  by  the  luxury  of  the  court  of  Dionys- 
ius. Philoxenus  was  included  in  the  attacks 
which  the  comic  poets  made  on  all  the  musicians 
of  the  day,  for  their  corruptions  of  the  simpli- 
city of  the  ancient  music  ;  but  we  have  abund- 
ant testimony  to  the  high  esteem  in  which  he 
was  held  both  during  his  life  and  after  his  death. 
[His  fragments  are  collected  by  Bippart  in  Phi- 
loxeni,  Timothei,  Telestis  Dithyr.  Reliquia,  Lips., 
1843.]  —  3.  The  Leucadian,  lived  at  Athens 
about  the  same  time  as  Philoxenus  of  Cythera, 
with  whom  he  is  frequently  confounded  by  the 
grammarians.  Like  his  more  celebrated  name- 
sake, the  Leucadian  was  ridiculed  by  the  poets 
of  the  Old  Comedy,  and  seems  to  have  spent  a 
part  of  his  life  in  Sicily.  The  Leucadian  was  a 
most  notorious  parasite,  glutton,  and  effeminate 
debauchee ;  but  he  seems  also  to  have  had  great 
wit  and  good  humor,  which  made  him  a  favor- 
ite at  the  tables  which  he  frequented.— 4.  A 
celebrated  Alexandrean  grammarian,  who  taught 
at  Rome,  and  wrote  on  Homer,  on  the  Ionic 
and  Laconian  dialect,  and  several  other  gram- 
matical works,  among  which  was  a  Glossary, 
which  was  edited  by  H.  Stephanus,  Paris,  1573. 
— 5.  An  Egyptian  surgeon,  who  wrote  several 
valuable  volumes  on  surgery.  He  must  have 
lived  in  or  before  the  first  century  after  Christ. 
— 6  A  painter  of  Eretria,  the  disciple  of  Nicom- 
achus,  who 'painted  for  Cassander  a  battle  of 
Alexander  with  Darius. 

PHILUS,  FURIUS.  1.  P.,  was  consul  B.C.  223 
with  C.  Flaminius,  and  accompanied  his  col- 
league in  his  campaign  against  the  Gauls  in  the 
north  of  Italy.  He  was  praetor  216,  when  he 
commanded  the  fleet,  with  which  he  proceeded 
to  Africa.  In  214  he  was  censor  with  M.  Atili 
us  Regulus,  but  died  at  the  beginning  of  the 
following  year. —  2.  L.,  consul  136,  received 
Spain  as  his  province,  and  was  commissioned 
by  the  senate  to  deliver  up  to  the  Numantines 
C.  Hostilius  Mancinus,  the  consul  of  the  pre- 
ceding year.  Philus,  like  his  contemporaries 
Scipio  Africanus  the  younger  and  Laelius,  was 
fond  of  Greek  literature  and  refinement.  He 
is  introduced  by  Cicero  as  one  of  the  speakers 
in  his  dialogue  De  Republica 


PH1LYLLITIS 

PHILYLLICS  ($MMu>f),  an  Athenian  comic 
poet,  belongs  to  the  latter  part  of  the  Old  Com- 
edy and  the  beginning  of  the  Middle. 

[PHILYRA  (QiXvpa),  a  daughter  of  Oceanus, 
and  the  mother  of  Chiron  by  Saturn  (Cronus).] 

PHILYREIS  (QdvpTjtf:  probably  the  little  isl- 
and off  Cape  Zefreh,  east  of  Kerasunt-Ada),  an 
island  off  the  northern  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
Pontus),  east  of  the  country  of  the  Mosynoeci, 
and  near  the  promontory  of  Zephyrium  (now 
Zefreh),  where  CHIRON  was  nurtured  by  his 
mother  Philyra. 

PHILYRES  (*t'Avpef),  a  people  on  the  coast  of 
Pontus,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  island  PHI- 
LYREIS. 

PHINEUS  (Qtvevf).  1.  Son  of  Belus  and  An- 
chinoe,  and  brother  of  Cepheus.  He  was  slain 
by  Perseus.  For  details,  vid.  ANDROMEDA  and 
PERSEUS. — 2.  Son  of  Agenor,  and  king  of  Sal- 
mydessus  in  Thrace.  He  was  first  married  to 
Cleopatra,  the  daughter  of  Boreas  and  Orithyia, 
!.A-  whom  he  had  two  children,  Oryithus  (Oar- 
thus)  and  Crambis  ;  but  their  names  are  differ- 
ent in  the  different  legends  :  Ovid  calls  them 
Polydectus  and  Polydorus.  Afterward  he  was 
married  to  Idaea  (some  call  her  Dia,  Eurytia,  or 
Idothea),  by  whom  he  again  had  two  sons, 
Thynus  and  Mariandynus.  Phineus  was  a  blind 
soothsayer,  who  had  received  his  prophetic 
powers  from  Apollo  ;  but  the  cause  of  his  blind- 
ness is  not  the  same  in  all  accounts.  He  is 
most  celebrated  on  account  of  his  being  tor- 
mented by  the  Harpies,  who  were  sent  by  the 
gods  to  punish  him  on  account  of  his  cruelty 
toward  his  sons  by  the  first  marriage.  His 
second  wife  falsely  accused  them  of  having 
made  an  attempt  upon  her  virtue,  whereupon 
Phineus  put  out  their  eyes,  or,  according  to 
others,  exposed  them  to  be  devoured  by  wild 
beasts,  or  ordered  them  to  be  half  buried  in  the 
earth,  and  then  to  be  scourged.  Whenever  a 
meal  was  placed  before  Phineus,  the  Harpies 
darted  down  from  the  air  and  carried-  it  off; 
later  writers  add  that  they  either  devoured  the 
food  themselves,  or  rendered  it  unfit  to  be  eaten. 
When  the  Argonauts  visited  Thrace,  Phineus 
promised  to  instruct  them  respecting  their  voy- 
age if  they  would  deliver  him  from  the  mon- 
sters. This  was  done  by  Zetes  and  Calais,  the 
sons  of  Boreas,  and  brothers  of  Cleopatra. 

*  Vid.  p.  91,  a.     Phineus  now  explained  to  the 
Argonauts  the  further  course  they  had  to  take, 
and  especially  cautioned  them  against  the  Sym- 
plegades.    According  to  another  story,  the  Ar- 
gonauts, on  their  arrival  at  Thrace,  found  the 
sons  of  Phineus  half  buried,  and  demanded  their 
liberation,  which  Phineus  refused.    A  battle 
thereupon  ensued,  in  which  Phineus  was  slain 
by  Hercules.    The  latter  also  delivered  Cleo- 
patra from  her  confinement,  and  restored  the 
kingdom  to  the  sons  of  Phineus  ;  and  on  their 
advice  he  also  sent  the  second  wife  of  Phineus 
back  to  her  father,  who  ordered  her  to  be  put 
to  death.    Some  traditions,  lastly,  state  that 
Phineus  was  killed  by  Boreas,  or  that  he  was 
carried  off  by  the  Harpies  into  the  country  of 
the  Bistones  or  Milchessians.    Those  accounts 

•  in  which  Phineus  is  stated  to  have  put  put  the 
eyes  of  his  sons,  add  that  they  had  their  sight 
restored  to  them  by  the  sons  of  Boreas  or  by 
jEsculapius. 


PHLIUS. 

PHINOPOLIS  (*£vo7ro/Uf),  a  town  in  Thrace,  OK 
the  Pontus  Euxinus,  near  the  entrance  to  the 
Bosporus. 

PHINTIAS  (Qivriaf).  1.  A  Pythagorean,  the 
friend  of  Damon,  who  was  condemned  to  die 
by  Dionysius  the  elder.  For  details,  rid.  DA- 
MON.— 2.  Tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  who  establish- 
ed his  power  over  that  city  during  the  period 
of  confusion  which  followed  the  death  of  Aga- 
thocles  (B.C.  289).  He  founded  a  new  city  on 
the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  to  which  he  gave 
his  own  name,  and  whither  he  removed  all  the 
inhabitants  from  Gela,  which  he  razed  to  the 
ground. 

PHINTONIS  INSULA  (now  Isola  di  Figo),  an  isl- 
and between  Sardinia  and  Corsica. 

PHLEGETHON  (Qheyeduv),  i.  e.,  the  flaming,  a 
river  in  the  lower  world,  in  whose  channel  flow- 
ed flames  instead  of  water. 

PHLEGON  (Qteyuv),  a  native  of  Tralles  in 
Lydia,  was  a  freedman  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
whom  he  survived.  The  only  two  works  of 
Phlegon  which  have  come  down  to  us  are  a 
small  treatise  on  wonderful  events  (Ilepl  &avpa- 
aiuv),  and  another  short  treatise  on  long-lived 
persons  (Ilepl  fiaKpofiiuv),  which  gives  a  list  of 
persons  in  Italy  who  had  attained  the  age  of  a 
hundred  years  and  upward.  Besides  these  two 
works  Phlegon  wrote  many  others,  of  which  the 
most  important  was  an  account  of  the  Olympi- 
ads in  seventeen  books,  from  Ol.  1  to  01.  229 
(A.D.  137).  The  best  edition  of  Phlegon  is  by 
Westermann  in  his  Paradoxographi,  Brunsvig. 
1839. 

PHLEGRA.     Vid.  PALLENE. 

PHLEGR^II  CAMPI  (rd  fyheypaia  ireSia,  or  fy 
$Aeypa  :  now  Solfatara),  the  name  of  the  vol- 
canic plain  extending  along  the  coast  of  Cam- 
pania from  Cumae  to  Capua,  so  called  because 
it  was  believed  to  have  been  once  on  fire.  It 
was  also  named  Laboriae  or  Laborinus  Campus, 
either  on  account  of  its  great  fertility,  which 
occasioned  its  constant  cultivation,  or  on  ac- 
count of  the  frequent  earthquakes  and  internal 
convulsions  to  which  it  was  exposed. 

PHLEGYAS  (Qfoyvaf),  son  of  Mars  (Ares)  and 
Chryse  the  daughter  of  Halmus,  succeeded  Ete- 
ocles  in  the  government  of  Orchomenos  in  Bceo- 
tia,  which  he  called  after  himself  Phlegyantis. 
He  w#s  the  father  of  Ixion  and  Coronis,  the 
latter  of  whom  became  by  Apollo  the  mother 
of  ^Esculapius.  Enraged  at  this,  Phlegyas  set 
fire  to  the  temple  of  the  god,  who  killed  him 
with  his  arrows,  and  condemned  him  to  severe 
punishment  in  the  lower  world.  Phlegyas  is 
represented  as  the  mythical  ancestor  of  the  race 
of  the  Phlegyae,  a  branch  of  the  Minyse,  who 
emigrated  from  Orchomenos  in  Boeotia  and  set- 
tled in  Phocis. 

PH  LI  A  si  A.     Vid.  PHLIUS. 

PHLIUS  (4>A/ot"f,  -ovvrof  :  *Aiu<nof),  the  chief 
town  of  a  small  province  in  the  northeast  of 
Peloponnesus,  whose  territory  PHMASIA  (*Aia- 
aia)  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Sicyonia,  on 
the  west  by  Arcadia,  on  the  east  by  the  terri- 
tory of  Cleonse,  and  on  the  south  by  that  of  Ar- 
gos.  The  greater  part  of  this  country  was  oc- 
cupied by  mountains,  called  Ccelossa,  Carnea- 
tes,  Arantinus,  and  Tricaranon.  According  to 
Strabo,  the  most  ancient  town  in  the  country 
was  Araethyrfca,  which  the  inhabitants  deserted, 

655 


PHLYA. 


PHOCION. 


ana  afterward  founded  Phlius  ;  while  Pausanias 
says  nothing  about  a  migration,  but  relates  that 
the  town  was  first  called  Arantia  from  its  found- 
er Aras,  an  autochthon,  afterward  Araethyrea 
from  the  daughter  of  Aras,  and  finally  Phlius, 
from  Phlius,  a  grandson  of  Temenus.  Phlius 
was  originally  inhabited  by  Argives.  It  after- 
ward passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Dorians,  with 
whom  part  of  the  Argive  population  intermin- 
gled, while  part  migrated  to  Samos  and  Clazo- 
mense.  During  the  greater  part  of  its  history 
it  remained  faithful  to  Sparta. 

[PHLVA  (*AW7 :  QAVCVC),  an  Attic  demus  be- 
longing to  the  tribe  Cecropis,  but  at  a  later  time 
to  the  tribe  Ptolemais.] 

PHLYGONIUM  (fyXvyoviov),  a  small  town  in 
Phocis,  destroyed  in  the  Phocian  war. 

PHOC^EA  (Quanta  :  Qu/caeve,  Phocaee"nsis  :  the 
ruins  called  Karaja-Fokia,  i.  e.,  Old  Fokia,  south- 
west of  Fouges  or  New  Fokia),  the  northernmost 
of  the  Ionian  cities  on  the  western  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  stood  at  the  western  extremity  of 
the  tongue  of  land  which  divides  the  Sinus 
Elaiticus  (now  Gulf  of  Fouges)  on  the  north 
from  the  Sinus  Hermaeus  (now  Gulf  of  Smyrna) 
on  the  south.  It  was  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Phocian  colonists  under  Philogenes  and 
Damon.  It  was  originally  within  the  limits  of 
/Eolis,  in  the  territory  of  Cyme ;  but  the  Cy- 
maeans  voluntarily  gave  up  the  site  for  the  new 
city,  which  was  soon  admitted  into  the  Ionian 
confederacy  on  the  condition  of  adopting  cecists 
of  the  race  of  Codrus.  Admirably  situated,  and 
possessing  two  excellent  harbors,  Naustathmus 
and  Lampter,  Phocaea  became  celebrated  as  a 
great  maritime  state,  and  especially  as  the 
founder  of  the  mos.t  distant  Greek  colonies 
toward  the  west,  namely,  MASSILIA  in  Gaul,  and 
the  still  more  distant,  though  far  less  celebrated, 
city  of  Maenaca  in  Hispania  Baetica.  After  the 
Persian  conquest  of  Ionia,  Phocaea  had  so  de- 
clined that  she  could  only  furnish  three  ships 
to  support  the  great  Ionian  revolt ;  but  the 
spirit  of  her  people  had  not  been  extinguished  ; 
when  the  common  cause  was  hopeless,  and  their 
city  was  besieged  by  Harpalus,  they  embarked, 
to  seek  new  abodes  in  the  distant  west,  and 
bent  their  course  to  their  colony  of  AJalia  in 
Corsica.  During  the  voyage,  however,  a  por- 
tion of  the  emigrants  resolved  to  return  to  their 
native  city,  which  they  restored,  and  which  re- 
covered much  of  its  prosperity,  as  is  proved  by 
the  rich  booty  gained  by  the  Romans  when  they 
plundered  it  under  the  praetor  ^Emilius,  after 
which  it  does  not  appear  as  a  place  of  any  con- 
sequence in  history.  Care  must  be  taken  not 
to  confound  Phocaea  with  Phocis,  or  the  ethnic 
adjectives  of  the  former  QuKaevf  and  Phocaeen- 
sis  with  those  of  the  latter,  <bui<evf  and  Phocen- 
sis :  some  of  the  ancient  writers  themselves 
have  fallen  into  such  mistakes.  It  should  be 
observed,  also,  that  the  name  of  Phocaean  is 
often  used  with  reference  to  Massilia ;  and,  by 
an  amusing  affectation,  the  people  of  Marseilles 
Btill  call  themselves  Phocaeans. 

[PHOCARUM  INSOLA  (&UKUV  vijooe,  now  Tiran, 
near  the  Promontorium  Dsjerm),  i.  e.,  island  of 
seals,  an  island  of  the  Arabicus  Sinus  off  the 
coast  of  Arabia.] 

[PHOCAS  (QuKaf ),  emperor  of  Constantinople 

from  A.D.  602-610.    He  was  a  native  of  Cap- 

656 


sadocia,  of  base  extraction.  For  some  time  he 
was  groom  to  Priscus,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
accession  he  held  the  humble  office  of  centurion. 
His  brutal  courage  raised  him  to  the  throne, 
which  he  disgraced  by  his  infamous  and  tyran- 
nical conduct.  His  reign  was  one  of  defeat, 
disaster,  internal  dissension,  and  sanguinary  ex- 
ecutions. He  was  finally  dethroned  and  mur- 
dered by  Heraclius,  who  succeeded  him  on  the 
throne.] 

PHOCION  (&UKIUV),  the  Athenian  general  at.tl 
statesman,  son  of  Phocus,  was  a  man  of  humble 
origin,  and  appears  to  have  been  born  in  B.C. 
402.  He  studied  under  Plato  and  Xenocrates. 
He  distinguished  himself  for  the  first  time  under 
his  friend  Chabrias,  in  376,  at  the  battle  of 
Naxos ;  but  he  was  not  employed  prominently 
in  any  capacity  for  many  years  afterward.  ID 
354  (according  to  others  in  350)  he  was  sent 
into  Eubcea  in  the  command  of  a  small  force, 
in  consequence  of  an  application  from  Plutar- 
chus,  tyrant  of  Eretria ;  and  he  was  subsequent- 
ly employed  on  several  occasions  in  the  war 
between  the  Athenians  and  Philip  of  Macedon. 
He  frequently  opposed  the  measures  of  Demos- 
thenes, and  recommended  peace  with  Philip ; 
but  he  must  not  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  mer- 
cenary supporters  of  the  Macedonian  monarch. 
His  virtue  is  above  suspicion,  and  his  public 
conduct  was  always  influenced  by  upright  mo- 
tives. When  Alexander  was  marching  upon 
Thebes  in  $35,  Phocion  rebuked  Demosthenes 
for  his  invectives  against  the  king ;  and  after 
the  destruction  of  Thebes,  he  advised  the  Athe- 
nians to  comply  with  Alexander's  demand  for 
the  surrender  of  Demosthenes  and  other  chief 
orators  of  the  anti-Macedonian  party.  This 
proposal  was  indignantly  rejected  by  the  peo- 
ple, and  an  embassy  was  sent  to  Alexander, 
which  succeeded  in  deprecating  his  resentment 
According  to  Plutarch,  there  were  two  embas- 
sies, the  first  of  which  Alexander  refused  to  re- 
ceive, but  to  the  second  he  gave  a  gracious  au- 
dience and  granted  its  prayer,  chiefly  from  re- 
gard to  Phocion,  who  was  at  the  head  of  it. 
Alexander  ever  continued  to  treat  Phocion  with 
the  utmost  consideration,  and  to  cultivate  his 
friendship.  He  also  pressed  upon  him  valuable 
presents ;  but  Phocion  persisted  in  refusing  his 
presents,  begging  the  king  to  leave  him  no  less 
honest  than  he  found  him,  and  only  so  far  avail-  • 
ed  himself  of  the  royal  favor  as  to  request  the 
liberty  of  certain  prisoners  at  Sardis,  which  was 
immediately  granted  to  him.  After  Alexan- 
der's death,  Phocion  opposed  vehemently,  and 
with  all  the  caustic  bitterness  which  character- 
ized him,  the  proposal  for  war  with  Antipater. 
Thus,  to  Hyperides,  who  asked  him  tauntingly 
when  he  would  advise  the  Athenians  to  go  to 
war,  he  answered,  "  When  I  see  the  young  will- 
ing  to  keep  their  ranks,  the  rich  to  contribute 
of  their  wealth,  and  the  orators  to  abstain  from 
pilfering  the  public  money."  When  the  Piraeus 
was  seized  by  Alexander,  the  son  of  Polysper- 
chon,  in  318,  Phocion  was  suspected  of  having 
advised  Alexander  to  take  this  step ;  where- 
upon, being  accused  of  treason  by  Agnonides, 
he  fled,  with  several  of  his  friends,  to  .Alexan-  • 
der,  who  sent  them  with  letters  of  recommend 
ation  to  his  father  Polysperchon.  The  latter, 
willing  to  sacrifice  them  as  a  peace-offering  to 


PHOCIS. 

the  Athenians,  sent  them  back  to  Athens  for 
the  people  to  deal  with  them  as  they  would. 
Here  Phocion  was  sentenced  to  death.  To  the 
last,  he  maintained  his  calm,  and  dignified,  and 
somewhat  contemptuous  bearing.  When  some 
wretched  man  spat  upon  him  as  he  passed  to 
the  prison,  "Will  no  one,"  said  he,  "  check  this 
fellow's  indecency  V  To  one  who  asked  him 
whether  he  had  any  message  to  leave  for  his 
son  Phocus,  he  answered,  "  Only  that  he  bear 
no  grudge  against  the  Athenians."  And  when 
the  hemlock  which  had  been  prepared  was 
found  insufficient  for  all  the  condemned,  and 
the  jailer  would  not  furnish  more  until  he  was 
paid  for  it,  "  Give  the  man  his  money,"  said 
Phocion  to  one  of  his  friends,  "  since  at  Athens 
one  can  not  even  die  for  nothing."  He  perish- 
ed in  317,  at  the  age  of  eighty-five.  The  Athe- 
nians are  said  to  have  repented  of  their  con- 
duct. A  brazen  statue  was  raised  to  the  mem- 
ory of  Phocion,  and  Agnonides  was  condemned 
to  death.  Phocion  was  twice  married,  and  his 
second  wife  appears  to  have  been  as  simple  and 
frugal  in  her  habits  as  himself;  but  he  was  less 
fortunate  in  his  son  Phocus,  who,  in  spite  of 
his  father's  lessons  and  example,  was  a  thor- 
ough profligate.  As  for  Phocion  himself,  our 
commendation  of  him  must  be  almost  wholly 
confined  to  his  private  qualities.  His  fellow- 
citizens  may  have  been  degenerate,  but  he 
made  no  effort  to  elevate  them. 

PHOCIS  (f)  $u/f£f :  QuKJjEf  Horn.,  $UK&C  Herod., 
$w/cEtf  Attic,  Phocenses  by  the  Romans),  a  coun- 
try in  Northern  Greece,  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Locri  Epicnemidii  and  Opuntii,  on 
the  east  by  Bceotia,  on  the  west  by  the  Locri 
Gaols  and  Doris,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Co- 
rinthian Gulf.  At  one  time  it  possessed  a  nar- 
row strip  of  country  on  the  Eubrean  Sea,  with 
the  sea-port  Daphnus,  between  the  territory  of 
the  Locri  Epicnemidii  and  Locri  Opuntii.  It 
was  a  mountainous  and  unproductive  country, 
and  owes  its  chief  importance  in  history  to  the 
fact  of  its  possessing  the  Delphic  oracle.  Its 
chief  mountain  was  PARNASSUS,  situated  in  the 
interior  of  the  country,  to  which,  however,  CNE- 
MIS  on  its  northern  frontier,  CIRPHIS  south  of 
Delphi,  and  HELICON  on  the  southeastern  front- 
ier, all  belonged.  The  principal  river  in  Phocis 
was  the  CEPHISCS,  the  valley  of  which  con- 
tained almost  the  only  fertile  land  in  the  coun- 
try, with  the  exception  of  the  celebrated  Cris- 
saaan  plain  in  the  southwest,  on  the  borders  of 
the  Locri  Ozolae.  Among  the  earliest  inhab- 
itants of  Phocis  we  find  mentioned  Leleges, 
Thracians,  Abantes,  and  Hyantes.  Subsequent- 
ly, but  still  in  the  ante-historical  period,  the 
Phlegyae,  an  Achaean  race,  a  branch  of  the  Min- 
yae  at  Orchomenos,  took  possession  of  the  coun- 
try ;  and  from  this  time  the  main  bulk  of  the 
population  continued  to  be  Achaean,  although 
there  were  Dorian  settlements  at  Delphi  and 
Bulis.  The  Phocians  are  said  to  have  derived 
their  name  from  an  eponymous  ancestor  Pho- 
cus (rid.  PHOCUS),  and  they  are  mentioned  un- 
der this  name  in  the  Iliad.  The  Phocians  played 
no  conspicuous  part  in  Greek  history  till  the 
time  of  Philip  of  Macedon ;  but  at  this  period 
they  became  involved  in  a  war,  called  the 
Phocian  or  Sacred  war,  in  which  the  principal 
states  of  Greece  took  part.  The  Thebans  had 
42 


PHOCYLIDES. 

long  been  inveterate  enemies  of*  the  Phocians , 
and  as  the  latter  people  had  cultivated  a  por- 
tion of  the  Crissaean  plain,  which  the  Amphic- 
tyons  had  declared  in  B.C.  585  should  lie  waste 
forever,  the  Thebans  availed  themselves  of  this 
pretext  to  persuade  the  Amphictyons  to  impose 
a  fine  upon  the  Phocians,  and  upon  their  refu- 
sal to  pay  it,  the  Thebans  further  induced  the 
council  to  declare  the  Phocian  land  forfeited  to 
the  god  at  Delphi.  Thus  threatened  by  the  Am- 
phictyonic  council,  backed  by  the  whole  power 
of  Thebes,  the  Phocians  were  persuaded  by 
Philomelus,  one  of  their  citizens,  to  seize  Del- 
phi, and  to  make  use  of  the  treasures  of  the 
temple  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  the  war. 
They  obtained  possession  of  the  temple  in  B.C. 
357.  The  war  which  ensued  lasted  ten  years, 
and  was  carried  on  with  various  success  on 
each  side.  The  Phocians  were  commanded 
first  by  PHILOMELUS,  B.C.  357-353,  afterward 
by  his  brother  ONOMARCHUS,  353-352,  then  by 
PHAYLLUS,  the  brother  of  the  two  preceding, 
352-351,  and  finally  by  PHAL^CUS,  the  son  of 
Onomarchus,  351-346.  The  Phocians  received 
some  support  from  Athens,  but  their  chief  de 
pendence  was  upon  their  mercenary  troops, 
which  the  treasures  of  the  Delphic  temple  en- 
abled them  to  hire.  The  Amphictyons  and  the 
Thebans,  finding  at  length  that  they  were  un- 
able with  their  own  resources  to  subdue  the 
Phocians,  called  in  the  assistance  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  who  brought  the  war  to  a  close  in 
346.  The  conquerors  inflicted  the  most  signal 
punishment  upon  the  Phocians,  who  were  re- 
garded as  guilty  of  sacrilege.  All  their  towns 
were  razed  to  the  ground  with  the  exception 
of  Abae,  and  the  inhabitants  distributed  in  vil- 
lages, containing  no  more  than  fifty  inhabit- 
ants. The  two  votes  which  they  had  in  the 
Amphictyonic  council  were  taken  away  and 
given  to  Philip. 

PHOCRA  ($6«pa),  a  mountain  of  Northern  Af- 
rica, in  Mauretania  Tingitana,  apparently  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Mulucha,  between  the 
chains  of  the  Great  and  Little  Atlas. 

PHOCUS  ($w«of).  1.  Son  of  Ornytion  of  Cor- 
inth, or,  according  to  others,  of  Neptune  (Posei- 
don), is  said  to  have  been  the  leader  of  a  colony 
from  Corinth  into  the  territory  of  Tithorea  and 
Mount  Parnassus,  which  derived  from  him  the 
name  of  Phocis. — 2.  Son  of  ^Eacus  and  the  Ne- 
reid Psamathe,  husband  of  Asteria  or  Astero- 
dia,  and  father  of  Panopeus  and  Crissus.  He 
was  murdered  by  his  half-brothers  Telamon 
and  Peleus.  Vid.  PELEUS.  According  to  some 
accounts,  the  country  of  Phocis  derived  its 
name  from  him. — 3.  Son  of  Phocion.  Vid.  PHO- 
CION. 

PHOCVLIDES  (*o»cvA/<5»/f),  of  Miletus,  an  Io- 
nian poet,  contemporary  with  Theognis,  was 
born  B.C.  560.  His  poetry  was  chiefly  gnomic, 
and  the  few  fragments  of  it  which  we  possess 
display  that  contempt  for  birth  and  station,  and 
that  love  for  substantial  enjoyment,  which  al- 
ways marked  the  Ionian  character.  These  frag- 
ments, which  are  eighteen  in  number,  are  in- 
cluded in  all  the  chief  collections  of  the  lyric 
and  gnomic  poets.  Some  of  these  collections 
contain  a  didactic  poem,  in  two  hundred  and 
seventeen  hexameters,  entitled  notr/pa  vovtitTi- 
KOV,  to  which  the  name  of  Phocylides  is  attach- 

657 


PHCEBE. 

ed.  but  which  is  indoubtedly  a  forgery,  made  ' 
ince  the  Christian  era. 

PHCEBE  (QoiCtj).    1.  Daughter  of  Uranus  (Cce-  j 
las)  and  Ge  (Terra),  became  by  Coeus  the  moth-  ! 
erof  Asteria  and  Leto  (Latona). — 2.  A  surname  , 
of  Artemis  (Diana)  in  her  capacity  as  the  god- 
dess of  the  moon  (Luna),  the  moon  being  re- 
garded as  the  female  Phoebus  or  sun. — 3.  Daugh- 
ter of  Tyndareos  and  Leda,  and  a  sister  of  Cly- 
taemncstra. — 4.  Daughter  of  Leucippus,  and  sis- 
ter of  Hilaira,  a  priestess  of  Athena  (Minerva), 
was  carried  off  with  her  sister  by  the  Dioscuri,  j 
and  became  by  Pollux  (Polydeuces)  the  mother  j 
of  Mnesileos. 

[PHGEBEUM  ($oi6slov,  in  Hdt.  QoiSf/iov),  a  place 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Sparta  and  not  far  from 
Therapne,  with  a  sanctuary  of  the  Dioscuri,  j 
where  the  ephebi  offered  sacrifices  to  Enya-  ' 
lius.] 

PHCEBIDAS  (QoiGidaf),  a  Lacedaemonian,  who, 
in  B.C.  382,  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  troops  destined  to  re-enforce  his  brother  Eu- 
damidas,  who  had  been  sent  against  Olynthus. 
On  his  way  Phcebidas  halted  at  Thebes,  and 
treacherously  made  himself  master  of  the  Cad- 
mea.  The  Lacedaemonians  fined  Phceoidas  one 
hundred  thousand  drachmas,  but  nevertheless 
kept  possession  of  the  Cadmea.  In  378  he  was 
left  by  Agesilaus  as  harmost  at  Thespiae,  and 
was  slain  in  battle  by  the  Thebans. 

PHCEBUS  ($oi6of),  the  Bright  or  Pure,  occurs 
in  Homer  as  an  epithet  of  Apollo,  and  is  used 
to  signify  the  brightness  and  purity  of  youth. 
At  a  later  time,  when  Apollo  became  connected 
with  the  Sun,  the  epithet  Phoebus  was  a.oo  ap- 
plied to  him  as  the  Sun-god. 

PHCENICE  (^OIVLKTI  :  Phoenicia  is  only  found  in 
a  doubtful  passage  of  Cicero  :  $ou>tf,  pi.  $oivlKef, 
fern.  Qoiviaoa,  Phcenix,  Phcenlces  :  also,  the  adj. 
Punicus,  though  used  specifically  in  connection 
with  Carthago,  is  etymologically  equivalent  to 
Qoivi!;,  by  the  well-known  interchange  of  01  and 
£> :  now  forming  parts  of  the  pashalics  of  Acre 
md  Aleppo},  a  country  of  Asia,  on  the  coast  of 
Syria,  extending  from  the  River  Eleutherus 
jnow  Nahr-el-Kebir)  on  the  north  to  below  Mount 
Carmel  on  the  south,  and  bounded  on  the  east 
by  Ccelesyria  and  Palestine.  (Sometimes, 
though  rarely,  the  name  is  extended  to  the 
whole  western  coast  of  Syria  and  Palestine). 
It  was  a  mountainous  strip  of  coast-land,  not 
more  than  ten  or  twelve  miles  broad,  hemmed 
in  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  chain  of 
Lebanon,  whose  lateral  branches,  running  out 
into  the  sea  in  bold  promontories,  divided  the 
country  into  valleys,  which  are  well  watered  by 
rivers  flowing  down  from  Lebanon,  and  are  ex- 
tremely fertile.  Of  these  rivers,  the  most  im- 
portant are,  to  one  going  from  north  to  south, 
the  Eleutherus  (now  Nahr-el-Kebir) ;  the  Sab- 
baticus  (now  Arka) ;  the  river  of  Tripolis  (now 
Kadisha) ;  the  Adonis  (now  Nahr-Ibrahim),  south 
of  Byblus  ;  the  Lycus  (now  Nahr-el-Kelb),  north 
of  Berytus  ;  the  Magoras  (now  Nahr-Bcirut),  by 
Berytus ;  the  Tamyras  (now  Nahr-el-Damur), 
between  Berytus  and  Sidon  ;  the  Leo,  or  Bos- 
trenus  (now  Nahr-el-Auly),  north  of  Sidon  ;  the 
great  river  (now  Litany  and  Kasimiyeh)  which 
flows  from  Heliopolis  south-southwest  through 
Coelesyria,  and  then,  turning  westward,  falls 
into  the  sea  north  of  Tyre,  and  which  some 
658 


PHffiNICE. 

call,  but  without  sufficient  authority,  the  Leon- 
tes ;  the  Belus  or  Pagida  (now  Numan  or  Rah- 
win)  by  Ptolemai's,  and  the  Kishon  (now  Kishon) 
north  of  Mount  Carmel.  Of  the  promontories 
referred  to,  omitting  a  number  of  less  important 
ones,  the  chief  were,  Theu-prosopon  (now  Ra- 
sesh- Shukah),  between  Tripolis  and  Byblus,  Pro- 
montorium  Album  (now  Ras-el-Abiad,  i.  e.,  While 
Cape),  south  of  Tyre,  and  Mount  Carmel,  be- 
sides those  occupied  by  the  cities  of  Tripolis, 
Byblus,  Berytus,  Sidon,  Tyrus,  and  Ptolemais. 
This  conformation  of  the  coast  and  the  position 
of  the  country  rendered  it  admirably  suited  for 
the  home  of  great  maritime  states  ;  and  accord- 
ingly we  find  the  cities  of  Phoenicia  at  the  head, 
both  in  time  and  importance,  of  all  the  naval 
enterprise  of  the  ancient  world.  For  the  his- 
tory of  those,  great  cities,  vid.  SIDON,  TYRUS, 
and  the  other  articles  upon  them.  As  to  the 
country  in  general,  there  is  some  difficulty  about 
the  origin  of  the  inhabitants  and  of  their  name. 
In  the  Old  Testament  the  name  does  not  occur ; 
the  people  seem  to  be  included  under  the  gen- 
eral designation  of  Canaanites,  and  they  are 
also  named  specifically  after  their  several  cit- 
ies, as  the  Sidonians,  Giblites  (from  Gebal,  i.  e., 
Byblus),  Sinites,  Arkites,  Arvadites,  &c.  The 
name  <botv'iK?}  is  first  found  in  Greek  writers  as 
early  as  Homer,  and  is  derived  by  some  from 
the  abundance  of  palm-trees  in  the  country 
(tyotvi!;,  the  date-palm),  and  by  others  from  the 
purple-red  (<j>oivi!-),  which  was  obtained  from  a 
fish  on  the  coasts,  and  was  a  celebrated  article 
of  Phoenician  commerce;  besides  the  mythical 
derivation  from  Phcenix,  the  brother  of  Cadmus. 
The  people  were  of  the  Semitic  (Syro-Arabian) 
race,  and  closely  allied  to  the  Hebrews,  and 
they  are  said  to  have  dwelt  originally  on  the 
shores  of  the  Erythraean  Sea.  Their  language 
was  a  dialect  of  the  Aramaic,  closely  related 
to  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac.  Their  written  char- 
acters were  the  same  as  the  Samaritan  or  Old 
Hebrew ;  and  from  them  the  Greek  alphabet, 
and  through  it  most  of  the  alphabets  of  Europe, 
were  undoubtedly  derived ;  hence  they  were 
regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  the  inventors  of  let- 
ters. Other  inventions  in  the  sciences  and  arts 
are  ascribed  to  them,  such  as  arithmetic,  as- 
tronomy, navigation,  the  manufacture  of  glass, 
and  the  coining  of  money.  That,  at  a  very 
early  time,  they  excelled  in  the  fine  arts,  is 
clear  from  the  aid  which  Solomon  received  from 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  in  the  building  and  the 
sculptured  decorations  of  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem, and  from  the  references  in  Homer  to  Si- 
donian  artists.  Respecting  Phoenician -litera- 
ture, we  know  of  little  beyond  the  celebrated 
work  of  SANCHUNIATHON.  In  the  sacred  his- 
tory of  the  Israelitish  conquest  of  Canaan,  in 
that  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy,  and  in  the  ear- 
liest Greek  poetry,  we  find  the  Phoenicians  al- 
ready a  great  maritime  people.  Early  formed 
into  settled  states,  supplied  with  abundance  of 
timber  from  Lebanon,  and  placed  where  the  car- 
avans from  Arabia  and  the  East  came  upon  the 
Mediterranean,  they  carried  over  to  the  coasts 
of  this  sea  the  products  of  those  countries,  as 
well  as  of  their  own,  which  was  rich  in  metals, 
and  the  shores  of  which  furnished  the  materials 
of  glass  and  the  purple-fish  already  mentioned 
Their  voyages  and  their  settlements  extended 


PHCENICE. 

ieyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  to  the  western 
coasts  of  Africa  and  Spain,  and  even  as  far  as 
our  own  islands.  Vid.  BRITANNIA,  p  149,  a. 
Within  the  Mediterranean  they  planted  numer- 
ous colonies,  on  its  islands,  on  the  coast  of  Spain, 
and  especially  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
the  chief  of  which  was  CAKTHAGO  ;  they  had 
also  settlements  on  the  Euxine  and  in  Asia 
Minor.  In  the  eastern  seas  we  have  records 
of  their  voyages  to  OPHIR,  in  connection  with 
the  navy  of  Solomon,  and  to  the  coasts  of  A'f- 
rica  under  the  kings  of  Egypt.  Vid.  AFRICA,  p. 
27,  b.  They  were  successively  subdued  by  the 
Assyrians, Babylonians,  Persians,  Macedonians, 
and  Romans  ;  but  neither  these  conquests,  nor 
the  rivalry  of  Carthage,  entirely  ruined  their 
commerce,  which  was  still  considerable  at  the 
Christian  era  ;  on  the  contrary,  their  ships  form- 
ed the  fleet  of  Persia  and  the  Syrian  kings,  and 
partly  of  the  Romans.  Vid.  SIDON,  TYRUS,  &c. 
Under  the  Romans,  Phoenice  formed  a  part  of 
the  province  of  Syria ;  and  under  the  Eastern 
empire,  it  was  erected,  with  the  addition  of 
Ccelesyria,  into  the  province  of  Phcenice  Liba- 
nesia  or  Libanensis. 

PHCENICE  (*otv/«>?).  1-  (Now  Finiki),  an  im- 
portant commercial  town  on  the  coast  of  the 
Epirus,  in  the  district  Chaonia,  fifty-six  miles 
northwest  of  Buthrotum,  in  the  midst  of  a 
marshy  country.  It  was  strongly  fortified  by 
Justinian. — 2.  A  small  island  off  Gallia  Narbo- 
nensis,  belonging  to  the  Stoechades. 

PHCENICIUM  MARE  (TO  boivimov  TreAayof :  2t- 
6ovlr)  -duhaaaa),  the  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
which  washes  the  coast  of  Phoenice. 

PHCENICUS  (faoiviicovf :  Qoivucovvriof,  3>oivi- 
Kovaaiof).  1.  Also  PHCENIX  (Qoivit;),  a  harbor 
on  the  south  of  Crete,  visited  by  St.  Paul  dur- 
ing his  voyage  to  Rome.  (Acts,  xxvii.,  12.) — 
[2.  A  harbor  on  the  south  coast  of  Messenia, 
opposite  the  CEnussae  Insulae.] — 3.  A  sea-port 
of  the  island  of  Cythera.— 4.  (Now  Chesmch  or 
Egri  Limanl),  a  harbor  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Mimas. — 5.  (Ruins  at  De- 
liktash),  a  flourishing  city  in  the  south  of  Lycia, 
on  Mount  Olympus,  with  a  harbor  below  it.  It 
is  often  called  OLYMPUS.  Having  become,  un- 
der the  Romans,  one  of  the  head-quarters  of 
the  pirates,  who  celebrated  here  the  festival  and 
mysteries  of  Mithras,  it  was  destroyed  by  Ser- 
vilius  Isauricus. 

PHCENICUSA.     Vid.  JEoi,\JE  INSUL./E. 

PHCENIX  (*o/vif).  1.  Son  of  Agenor  by  Agri- 
ope  or  Telephassa,  and  brother  of  Europa,  but 
Homer  makes  him  the  father  of  Europa.  Being 
sent  by  his  father  in  search  of  his  sister,  who 
was  carried  off  by  Jupiter  (Zeus),  he  settled  in 
the  country,  which  was  called  after  him  Phoe- 
nicia.— 2.  Son  of  Amyntor  by  Clcobule  or  Hip- 
podamia,  and  king  of  the  Dolopes,  took  part  in 
the  Calydonian  hunt.  His  father  Amyntor  neg- 
lected his  legitimate  wife,  and  attached  himself 
to  a  mistress,  whereupon  Cleobule  persuaded 
her  son  to  seduce  her  rival.  When  Amyntor 
discovered  the  crime,  he  cursed  Phcenix,  who 
shortly  afterward  fled  to  Peleus.  Peleus  re- 
ceived him  kindly,  made  him  the  ruler  of  the 
country  of  the  Dolopes,  on  the  frontiers  of 
Phthia,  and  intrusted  to  him  his  son  Achilles, 
whom  he  was  to  educate.  He  afterward  ac- 
companied Achilles  on  his  expedition  agmnst 


PHOLUS. 

Troy.  According  to  another  tradition,  Phoenix 
did  not  dishonor  his  father's  mistress,  but  she 
merely  accused  him  of  h'aving  made  improper 
overtures  to  her,  in  consequence  of  which  his 
father  put  out  his  eyes.  But  Peleus  took  him 
to  Chiron,  who  restored  to  him  his  sight.  Phoe- 
nix, moreover,  is  said  to  have  called  the  son  of 
Achilles  Neoptolemus,  after  Lycomedes  had  call- 
ed him  Pyrrhus.  Neoptolemus  was  believed  to 
have  buried  Phoenix  at  ETon  in  Macedonia  or  at 
"f  rachis  in  Thessaly.— 3.  A  fabulous  bird  Phce- 
nix, which,  according  to  a  tale  related  to  Herod- 
otus (ii.,  73)  at  Heliopolis  in  Egypt,  visited  that 
place  once  in  every  five  hundred  years,  on  his 
father's  death,  and  buried  him  in  the  sanctuary 
of  Helios.  For  this  purpose  the  Phcenix  was 
believed  to  come  from  Arabia,  and  to  make  an 
egg  of  myrrh  as  large  as  possible  ;  this  egg  he 
then  hollowed  out  and  put  into  it  his  father, 
closing  it  up  carefully,  and  the  egg  was  believed 
then  to  be  of  exactly  the  same  weight  as  before. 
This  bird  was  represented  as  resembling  an 
eagle,  with  feathers  partly  red  and  partly  golden. 
It  is  further  related,  that  when  his  life  drew  to 
a  close,  he  built  a  nest  for  himself  in  Arabia,  to 
which  he  imparted  the  power  of  generation,  so 
that  after  his  death  a  new  phoenix  rose  out  of 
it.  As  soon  as  the  latter  was  grown  up,  he, 
like  his  predecessor,  proceeded  to  Heiiopolis  in 
Egypt,  and  burned  and  buried  his  father  in  the 
temple  of  Helios.  According  to  a  story  which 
has  gained  more  currency  in  modern  times,  the 
Phcenix,  when  he  arrived  at  a  very  old  age 
(some  say  five  hundred,  and  others  one  thousand 
four  hundred  and  sixty-one  years),  committed 
himself  to  the  flames.  Others,  again,  state  that 
only  one  Phcenix  lived  at  a  time,  and  that  when 
he  died  a  worm  crept  forth  from  his  body,  and 
was  developed  into  a  new  Phoenix  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun.  His  death,  further,  took  place  in 
Egypt  after  a  life  of  seven  thousand  and  six 
years.  Another  modification  of  the  same  story 
relates,  that  when  the  Phcenix  arrived  at  the 
age  of  five  hundred  years,  he  built  for  himself 
a  funeral  pile,  consisting  of  spices,  settled  upon 
it,  and  died.  Out  of  the  decomposing  body  he 
then  rose  again,  and,  having  grown  up,  he 
wrapped  the  remains  of  his  old  body  up  in  myrrh, 
carried  them  to  Heliopolis,  and  burned  them 
there.  Similar  stories  of  marvellous  birds  oc- 
cur in  many  parts  of  the  East,  as  in  Persia  the 
legend  of  the  bird  Simorg,  and  in  India  that  of 
the  bird  Semendar. 

PHCENIX  (fcomf).  a  small  river  in  the  south- 
east of  Thessaly,  flowing  into  the  Asopus  neat 
Thermopylae. 

PHCENIX.     Vid.  PHCENICUS,  No.  1. 

PHCETI.K  or  PHYTIA  (4>otre<a<,  Qoiriai,  Qvria, 
Thuc.),  a  town  in  Acarnania,  on  a  hill  west  of 
Stratus. 

PHOLEOANDROS  (QoMyavdpof :  now  Polykan- 
dro),  an  island  in  the  ^Bgean  Sea,  one  of  the 
smaller  Cyclades,  between  Melos  and  Sicinos. 

PHOLOK  ($0X01? :  now  Ulono),  a  mountain  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  Arcadia  and  Elis, 
being  a  southern  continuation  of  Mount  Ery 
manthus,  in  which  the  rivers  Selleis  and  Ladon 
took  their  origin.  It  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
seats  of  the  Centaurs.  Vid.  PHOLUS. 

PHOLUS  (*6Aof).     1.  A  Centaur,  a  son  of  Si 
lenus  and  the  nymph  Melia.     He  was  accident 

659 


PHORBANTIA. 

ally  slain  by  one  of  the  poisoned  arrows  of  Her-  ! 
cules.     The  mountain,  between  Arcadia  and 
Elis,  where  he  was  Juried,  was  called  Pholoe 
after  him.    The  details  of  his  story  are  given 
on  p.  357,  a. — [2.  A  follower  of  ^Eneas,  slain  by  i 
Turnus  in  Italy.] 

PHORBANTIA.     Vid.  LEGATES. 

PHORBAS  (4>6p6af).  1.  Son  of  Lapithes  and 
Orsinome,  and  brother  of  Periphas.  The  Rho- 
dians,  in  pursuance  of  an  oracle,  are  said  to 
have  invited  him  into  their  island  to  deliver  it 
from  snakes,  and  afterward  to  have  honored 
him  with  heroic  worship.  From  this  circum- 
stance he  was  called  Ophiuchus,  and  is  said  by 
some  to  have  been  placed  among  the  stars. 
According  to  another  tradition,  Phorbas  went 
from  Thessaly  to  Olenos,  where  Alector,  king 
of  Elis,  made  use  of  his  assistance  against  Pe- 
lops,  and  shared  his  kingdom  with  him.  Phor- 
bas then  gave  his  daughter  Diogenia  in  mar- 
riage to  Alector,  and  he  himself  married  Hyr- 
mine,  a  sister  of  Alector,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Augeas  and  Actor.  He  is  also  de- 
scribed as  a  bold  boxer,  and  is  said  to  have 
plundered  the  temple  of  Delphi  along  with  the 
Phlegyae,  but  to  have  been  defeated  by  Apollo. 
—  [2.  A  Lesbian,  father  of  Diomede,  whom 
Achilles  carried  off. — 3.  A  Trojan,  father  of  Ili- 
oneus. — 4.  Of  Syene,  son  of  Methion,  confeder- 
ate of  Phineus.  —  5.  One  of  the  followers  of 
^Eneas,  whose  form  was  assumed  by  the  god 
of  Sleep  to  deceive  Palinurus.] 

PHORCIDES,  PHORCYDES,  or  PHORCYNIDES,  that 
is,  the  daughters  of  Phorcus  and  Ceto,  or  the 
Gorgons  and  Graeae.  Vid.  GORGONES  and  GRJEJE. 

PHORCUS,  PHORCYS,  or  PHORCYN  (4>6/j«of,  4>6p- 
KVf,  $6pKw).  1.  A  sea-deity,  is  described  by 
Homer  as  "  the  old  man  of  the  sea,"  to  whom 
a  harbor  in  Ithaca  was  dedicated,  and  is  called 
the  father  of  the  nymph  Thoosa.  Later  writers 
call  him  a  son  of  Pontus  and  Ge  (Terra),  and  a 
brother  of  Thaumas,  Nereus,  Eurybia,  and  Ceto. 
By  his  sister  Ceto  he  became  the  father  of  the 
Graze  and  Gorgones,  the  Hesperian  dragon,  and 
the  Hesperides  ;  and  by  Hecate  or  Cratais,  he 
was  the  father  of  Scylla. — 2.  Son  of  Phaenops, 
commander  of  the  Phrygians  of  Ascania,  assist- 
ed Priam  in  the  Trojan  war,  but  was  slain  by 
Ajax.  —  [3.  A  Rutulian,  father  of  seven  sons, 
who  fought  on  the  side  of  Turnus  against  ^Eneas 
on  his  arrival  in  Italy.] 

PHORMION  (Qop/iiuv).  1.  A  celebrated  Athe- 
nian general,  the  son  of  Asopius.  He  distin- 
guished himself  particularly  in  the  command  of 
an  Athenian  fleet  in  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  where 
with  far  inferior  forces  he  gained  some  brilliant 
victories  over  the  Peloponnesian  fleet  in  B.C. 
429.  In  the  ensuing  winter  he  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Acarnania,  and  advanced  into  the  in- 
terior, where  he  also  gained  some  successes. 
He  was  a  man  of  remarkably  temperate  habits, 
and  a  strict  disciplinarian.  —  2.  A  peripatetic 
philosopher  of  Ephesus,  of  whom  is  told  the 
story  that  he  discoursed  for  several  hours  be- 
fore Hannibal  on  the  military  art  and  the  duties 
of  a  general.  When  his  admiring  auditory  asked 
Hannibal  what  he  thought  of  him,  the  latter  re- 
plied, that  of  all  the  old  blockheads  whom  he 
bad  seep,  none  could  match  Phormion. 

PHORMIS  or  PHORMUS  (4>6p/uf,  Qopfiof),  a  native 
»f  Msenalus  in  Arcadia,  removed  to  Sicily,  where 
660 


PHOTIUS. 

he  became  int.jnate  with  Gelon,  whose  children 
he  educated.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  sol- 
dier, both  under  Gelon  and  Hieron  his  brother 
In  gratitude  for  his  martial  successes,  he  dedi- 
cated gifts  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  at  Olympia,  and  to 
Apollo  at  Delphi.  He  is  associated  by  Aristotle 
with  Epicharmus  as  one  of  the  originators  of 
comedy,  or  of  a  particular  form  of  it. 

PHORONEUS  (Qopuvcvf),  son  of  Inachus  and 
the  Oceanid  Melia  or  Archia,  was  a  brother  of 
JDgialeus  and  the  ruler  ofArgos.  He  was  mar- 
ried to  the  nymph  Laodice,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Niobe,  Apis,  and  Car.  According 
to  other  writers,  his  sons  were  Pelasgus,  lasus, 
and  Agenor,  who,  after  their  father's  death,  di- 
vided the  kingdom  ofArgos  among  themselves. 
Phoroneus  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  of- 
fered sacrifices  to  Juno  (Hera)  at  Argos,  and  to 
have  united  the  people,  who  until  then  had  lived 
in  scattered  habitations,  into  a  city,  which  was 
called  after  him,  uorv  Qopuvixdv.  The  patro- 
nymic Phoronides  is  sometimes  used  for  Ar- 
gives  in  general,  and  especially  to  designate 
Amphiaraus  and  Adrastus. 

PHORONIS  (Qopuvif),  a  surname  of  lo,  being 
according  to  some  a  descendant,  and  according 
to  others  a  sister  of  Phoroneus. 

PHOTIUS  ($uT40f),  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  the  ninth  century,  played  a  distinguished  part 
in  the  political  and  religious  history  of  his  age. 
After  holding  various  high  offices  in  the  Byzan- 
tine court,  he  was,  although  previously  a  lay- 
man, elected  patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  A. 
D.  858,  in  place  of  Ignatius,  who  had  been  de- 
posed by  Bardas,  who  was  all-powerful  at  the 
court  of  his  nephew  Michael  III.,  then  a  minor. 
The  patriarchate  of  Photius  was  a  stormy  one, 
and  full  of  vicissitudes.  The  cause  of  Ignatius 
was  espoused  by  the  Romish  Church,  and  Pho- 
tius thus  became  one  of  the  great  promoters  of 
the  schism  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches.  In  867,  Photius  was  himself  de- 
posed by  the  Emperor  Basil  I.,  and  Ignatius  was 
restored  ;  but  on  the  death  of  Ignatius  in  877, 
Photius,  who  had  meantime  gained  the  favor  of 
Basil,  was  again  elevated  to  the  patriarchate. 
On  the  death  of  Basil  in  886,  Photius  was  ac- 
cused of  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the 
new  emperor  Leo  VI.,  and  was  banished  to  a 
monastery  in  Armenia,  whare  he  seems  to  have 
remained  till  his  death.  Photius  was  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  his  time,  and  in  the  midst 
of  a  busy  life  found  time  for  the  composition  of 
numerous  works,  several  of  which  have  come 
down  to  us.  Of  these  the  most  important  is 
entitled  Myriobiblon  seu  Bibliothcca  (Uvpiofafaov 
r/  BrfhiodfjKT]).  It  may  be  described  as  an  ex- 
tensive review  of  ancient  Greek  literature  by  a 
scholar  of  immense  erudition  and  sound  judg- 
ment. It  is  an  extraordinary  monument  of  lit- 
erary energy,  for  it  was  written  while  the  au- 
thor was  engaged  in  an  embassy  to  Assyria,  at 
the  request  ofPhotius's  brother  Tarasius,  who 
desired  an  account  of  the  books  which  Photius 
had  read  in  his  absence.  It  contains  the  analy- 
ses of,  or  extracts  from,  two  hundred  and  eighty 
volumes ;  and  many  valuable  works  are  only 
known  to  us  from  the  account  which  Photius 
has  given  of  them.  The  best  edition  of  this 
work  is  by  Bekker,  Berlin,  1824-1825.  Photiug 
was  also  the  author  cf  a  Nomocanon,  and  of  » 


PHRAATA. 

Lexicon  or  Glossary,  which  has  reached  us  in  a 
very  imperfect  state.  It  was  first  published  by 
Hermann,  Lips.,  1808,  and  subsequently  at  Lon- 
don, 1822,  from  the  papers  of  Person.  Photius 
likewise  wrote  many  theological  works,  some 
of  which  have  been  published,  and  others  still 
remain  in  MS. 

PHRAATA  (rd  <£puara,  and  other  forms),  a  great 
city  of  Media  Atropatene,  the  winter  residence 
of  the  Parthian  kings,  especially  as  a  refuge  in 
time  of  war,  lay  southeast  of  Gaza,  near  the 
River  Amardus.  The  mountain  fortress  of VEKA 
(Ovcpa),  which  was  besieged  by  Antony,  was 
probably  the  same  place. 

PHRAATACES,  king  of  Parthia.  Vid.  ARSACES, 
No.  16. 

PHRAATES,  the  names  of  four  kings  of  Parthia. 
Vid.  ARSACES,  Nos.  5,  7,  12,  15. 

[PnEADMON  (*pd(5//wi'),  of  Argos,  a  statuary, 
whom  Pliny  places,  as  the  contemporary  of 
Polycletus,  Myron,  &c.,  at  01.  90,  B.C.  420.] 

[PHRAGAND^E,  a  people  of  Thrace,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Macedonia.] 

PHRANZA  or  PHRANZES  (Qpavrtg  or  4>pav7.^f), 
the  last  and  one  of  the  most  important  Byzan- 
tine historians,  was  frequently  employed  on  im- 
portant public  business  by  Constantine  XIII., 
the  last  emperor  of  Constantinople.  On  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  in  1453, 
Phranza  was  reduced  to  slavery,  but  succeeded 
in  making  his  escape.  He  subsequently  retired 
to  a  monastery,  where  he  wrote  his  Chronicon. 
This  work  extends  from  1259  to  1477,  and  is  the 
most  valuable  authority  for  the  history  of  the 
author's  time,  especially  for  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople. It  is  edited  by  Alter,  Vienna,  1796, 
and  by  Bekker,  Bonn,  1838. 

PHRAORTES  (Vpaoprw),  second  king  of  Media, 
and  son  of  Deioces,  whom  he  succeeded,  reigned 
from  B.C.  656  to  634.  He  first  conquered  the 
Persians,  and  then  subdued  the  greater  part  of 
Asia,  but  was  at  length  defeated  and  killed  while 
laying  siege  to  Ninus  (Nineveh),  the  capital  of 
the  Assyrian  empire.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Cyaxares. 

[PHBASAORTES  (Qpaaaoprrif),  son  of  Rheo- 
mithres,  a  Persian,  who  was  appointed  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great  satrap  of  the  province  of  Per- 
sia Proper,  B.C.  331.  He  died  during  the  expe- 
dition of  the  king  to  India.] 

[PHRATAGUNE  (Qparayuvvn),  a  wife  of  Darius 
I.,  king  of  Persia,  whose  two  children  by  this 
monarch  fell  at  the  battle  of  Thermopylae.] 

[PnRATAPHERNEs  (*para^pvi?f ),  leader  of  the 
Parthians,  Hyrcanians,  and  Tapurians  in  the 
army  of  Darius  at  Gaugamela.  He  came  after 
the  death  of  Darius  to  Alexander,  when  the  lat- 
ter entered  Hyrcania,  and  made  his  submission 
to  him.  He  proved  himself  on  several  occa- 
sions worthy  of  confidence,  so  that  Alexander 
gave  back  to  him  his  satrapies  Parthia  and  Hyr- 
cania. In  the  division  of  the  provinces  B.C.  323, 
he  still  retained  Hyrcania.] 

PHRICIUM  (Qpimov),  a  mountain  in  the  east  of 
Locris,  near  Thermopylae. 

PHRICONIS.      Vid.  CYME,  LARISSA,  II.,  2. 

PHRIXA  (*pifa,  Qpi?ai,  Qpifat :  now  Palcofa- 
naro),  a  town  of  Elis  in  Triphylia,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Pisatis,  was  situated  upon  a  steep  hill 
on  the  River  Alpheus,  and  was  thirty  stadia 
from  Olympia.  It  was  founded  by  the  Min- 


PHRYGIA. 

\  yae,  and  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name'fiom 
Phrixus. 

PHRIXUS  ($p{'£of),  son  of  Athamas  and  Ne- 
phele,  and  brother  of  Helle.  In  consequence  of 
the  intrigues  of  his  step-mother  Ino,  he  was  to 
be  sacrificed  to  Jupiter  (Zeus) ;  but  Nephele  res- 
cued her  two  children,  who  rode  away  through 
the  air  upon  the  ram  with  the  golden  fleece,  the 
gift  of  Mercury  (Hermes).  Between  Sigeum 
and  the  Chersonesus,  Helle  fell  into  the  sea, 
which  was  called  after  her,  the  Hellespont ;  but 
Phrixus  arrived  in  safety  in  Colchis,  the  king- 
dom of  ^Eetes,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  Chal- 
ciope  in  marriage.  Phrixus  sacrificed  the  ram 
which  had  carried  him  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Phyx- 
ius  or  Laphystius,  and  gave  its  fleece  to  ^Eetes, 
who  fastened  it  to  an  oak-tree  in  the  grove  of 
Mars  (Ares).  This  fleece  was  afterward  car- 
ried away  by  Jason  and  the  Argonauts.  Vid. 
JASON.  By  Chalcidpe  Phrixus  became  the  fa- 
ther of  Argus,  Melas,  Phrontis,  Cytisorus,  and 
Presbon.  Phrixus  either  died  of  old  age  in  the 
kingdom  of  ^Eetes,  or  was  killed  by  JSetes  in 
consequence  of  an  oracle,  or  returned  to  Orcho- 
menus,  in  the  country  of  the  Minyans. 

PHRIXUS  (*|w'fof),  a  river  in  Argolis,  which 
flows  into  the  Argolic  Gulf  between  Temenium 
and  Lerna. 

[PHRONIMA  (Qpovifti)),  daughter  of  Eteardu:s, 
king  of  Axus  in  Crete,  was,  at  the  instigation 
of  her  step-mother,  cast  into  the  sea,  but  was 
saved,  and  afterward  married  to  Polymnestus, 
to  whom  she  bore  Battus.] 

[PHRONTIS  (*pwrtf).  1.  Son  of  Onetor,  pilot 
of  the  ship  of  Menelaus. — 2.  Wife  of  Pantlious.] 

PHRYGIA  MATER,  a  name  frequently  given  to 
Cybele,  because  she  was  especially  worshipped 
in  Phrygia. 

PHRYGIA  (Qpvyia :  $pvf,  pi.  *pt;y£f,  Phryx, 
Phryges),  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  which  was 
of  very  different  extent  at  different  periods. 
According  to  the  division  of  the  provinces  un- 
der the  Roman  empire,  Phrygia  formed  the 
eastern  part  of  the  province  of  Asia,  and  was 
bounded  on  the  west  by  Mysia,  Lydia,  and  Caria, 
on  the  south  by  Lycia  and  Pisidia,  on  the  east 
by  Lycaonia  (which  is  often  reckoned  as  a  part 
of  Phrygia)  and  Galatia  (which  formerly  belong- 
ed to  Phrygia),  and  on  the  north  by  Bithynia. 
With  reference  to  its  physical  geography,  it 
formed  the  western  part  (as  Cappadocia  did  the 
eastern)  of  the  great  central  table-land  of  Asia 
Minor,  supported  by  the  chains  of  Olympus  on 
the  north  and  Taurus  on  the  south,  and  break- 
ing on  the  west  into  the  ridges  which  separate 
the  great  valleys  of  the  HERMITS,  the  MEANDER, 
&c.,  and  which  forms  the  headlands  of  the  west- 
ern coast.  This  table-land  itself  was  intersect- 
ed by  mountain  chains,  and  watered  by  the  up- 
per courses  and  tributaries  of  the  rivers  just 
mentioned  in  its  western  part,  and  in  its  north 
ern  part  by  those  of  the  RHYNDACUS  and  SANGA- 
RIUS.  These  parts  of  the  country  were  very 
fertile,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Sangarius. 
but  in  the  south  and  east  the  streams  which  de- 
scend from  Taurus  lose  themselves  in  extensive 
salt  marshes  and  salt  lakes,  some  of  which  are 
still  famous,  as  in  ancient  times,  for  their  man- 
ufactures of  salt.  The  Phrygians  were  a  dis- 
tinct and  remarkable  people,  whose  origin  i« 
one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  of  antiquity. 

661 


PHRYGIA. 

They  claimed  a  very  high  antiquity ;  and  ac- 
cording to  the  amusing  account  given  by  He- 
rodotus of  the  absurd  experiment  of  Psammeti- 
chus,  king  of  Egypt,  on  the  first  spontaneous 
speech  of  children,  they  were  thought  to  have 
been  proved  the  most  ancient  of  people.  Else- 
where Herodotus  mentions  a  Macedonian  tra- 
dition that  the  Phryges  formerly  dwelt  in  Ma- 
cedonia, under  the  name  of  Briges  ;  and  later 
writers  add  that  they  passed  over  into  Asia 
Minor  one  hundred  years  after  the  Trojan  war. 
They  are,  however,  mentioned  by  Homer  as 
already  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Sangarius, 
where  later  writers  tell  us  of  the  powerful 
Phrygian  kingdom  of  GORDIUS  and  MIDAS.  Al- 
though any  near  approach  to  certainty  is  hope- 
less, it  would  seem  that  they  were  a  branch  of 
the  great  Thracian  family,  settled,  in  times  of 
unknown  antiquity,  in  the  northwest  of  Asia 
Minor,  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont 
and  Propontis,  and  perhaps  of  the  Euxine,  and 
that  the  successive  migrations  of  other  Thra- 
cian tribes,  as  the  Thyni,  Bithyni,  Mysians, 
and  Teucrians,  drove  them  further  inland,  till, 
from  this  cause,  and  perhaps,  too,  by  the  con- 
quests of  the  Phrygian  kings  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection, they  reached  the  Halys  on  the  east  and 
the  Taurus  on  the  south.  They  were  not,  how- 
ever, entirely  displaced  by  the  Mysians  and  Teu- 
crians from  the  country  between  the  shores  of 
the  Hellespont  and  Propontis  and  Mounts  Ida 
and  Olympus,  where  they  continued  side  by 
side  with  the  Greek  colonies,  and  where  their 
name  was  preserved  in  that  of  the  district  un- 
der all  subsequent  changes,  namely,  PHRYGIA 
MINOR  or  PHRYGIA  HELLESPONTUS.  The  king- 
dom of  Phrygia  was  conquered  by  Croesus,  and 
formed  part  of  the  Persian,  Macedonian,  and 
Syro-Grecian  empires  ;  but,  under  the  last,  the 
northeastern  part,  adjacent  to  Paphlagonia  and 
the  Halys,  was  conquered  by  the  Gauls,  and 
formed  the  western  part  of  GALATIA  ;  and  a  part 
west  of  this,  containing  the  richest  portion  of 
the  country,  about  the  Sangarius,  was  subject- 
ed by  the  kings  of  Bithynia :  this  last  portion 
was  the  object  of  a  contest  between  the  kings 
of  Bithynia  and  Pergamus,  but  at  last,  by  the 
decision  of  the  Romans,  it  was  added,  under  the 
name  of  Phrygia  Epictetus  ($.  eniKTijroc,  i.  e., 
ihe  acquired  Phrygia),  to  the  kingdom  of  Per- 
gamus, to  which  the  whole  of  Phrygia  was  as- 
signed by  the  Romans,  after  the  overthrow  of 
A.ntiochus  the  Great  in  B.C.  190.  With  the 
rest  of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus,  Phrygia  pass- 
ed to  the  Romans  by  the  testament  of  Attalus 
III.,  and  thus  became  a  part  of  the  province  of 
Asia,  B.C.  130.  As  to  the  distinctive  names : 
the  inland  district  usually  understood  by  the 
name  of  Phrygia,  when  it  occurs  alone,  was 
also  called  Great  Phrygia,  or  Phrygia  Proper, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  Lesser  Phrygia,  or 
Phrygia  on  the  Hellespont ;  and  of  this  Great 
or  Proper  Phrygia,  the  northern  part  was  call- 
ed, as  just  stated,  Phrygia  Epictetus,  and  the 
southern  part,  adjacent  to  the  Taurus,  was  call- 
ed, from  its  position,  Phrygia  Parorios  (*.  Trapo- 
oetof).  At  the  division  of  the  provinces  in  the 
fourth  century,  the  last-mentioned  part,  also 
called  Phrygia  Pisidica,  was  assigned  to  Pisid- 
ia,  and  the  southwestern  portion,  about  the 
Maeander,  to  Caria  ;  and  the  remainder  was  di- 
662 


PHRYNICHTIS. 

vided  into  Phrygia  Salutaris  on  the  east,  with 
Synnada  for  its  capital,  and  Pbrygia  Pacati;m;i 
on  the  west,  extending  north  and  south  from 
Bithynia  to  Pamphylia.  Phrygia  was  rich  in 
products  of  every  kind.  Its  mountains  furnish- 
ed gold  and  marble  ;  its  valleys  oil  and  wine  ; 
the  less  fertile  hills  in  the  west  afforded  pasture 
for  sheep,  whose  wool  was  highly  celebrated  ; 
and  even  the  marshes  of  the  southeast  furnish- 
ed abundance  of  salt.  In  connection  with  the 
early  intellectual  culture  of  Greece,  Phrygia  is 
highly  important.  The  earliest  Greek  music, 
especially  that  of  the  flute,  was  borrowed  in 
part,  through  the  Asiatic  colonies,  from  Phrygia, 
and  one  of  the  three  musical  modes  was  called 
the  Phrygian.  With  this  country  also  were 
closely  associated  the  orgies  of  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus), and  of  Cybele,  the  mother  of  the  gods, 
the  Phrygia  Mater  of  the  Roman  poets.  After 
the  Persian  conquest,  however,  the  Phrygians 
seem  to  have  lost  all  intellectual  activity,  and 
they  became  proverbial  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  for  submissiveness  and  stupidity.  It 
should  be  observed  that  the  Roman  poets  con- 
stantly use  the  epithet  Phrygian  as  equivalent 
to  Trojan. 

PHRYNE  (bpvvr)),  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Athenian  helaerae,  was  a  native  of  Thespiae  in 
Boeotia.  Her  beauty  procured  for  her  so  much 
wealth  that  she  is  said  to  have  offered  to  re- 
build the  walls  of  Thebes,  after  they  had  been 
destroyed  by  Alexander,  if  she  might  be  allow- 
ed to  put  up  this  inscription  on  the  walls  : 
"Alexander  destroyed  them,  but  Phryne,  the 
hetaera.-rebuilt  them."  She  had  among  her  ad- 
mirers many  of  the  most  celebrated  men  of  the 
age  of  Philip  and  Alexander,  and  the  beauty  of 
her  form  gave  rise  to  some  of  the  greatest  works 
of  art.  The  most  celebrated  picture  of  Apelles, 
his  "Venus  Anadyomene"  (vid.  APELLES),  is  said 
to  have  been  a  representation  of  Phryne,  who, 
at  a  public  festival  at  Eleusis,  entered  the  sea 
with  dishevelled  hair.  The  celebrated  Cnidian 
Venus  of  Praxiteles,  who  was  one  of  her  lovers, 
was  taken  from  her. 

PHRYNICHUS  (<tpvvixof).  1.  An  Athenian,  and 
one  of  the  early  tragic  poets,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  disciple  of  Thespis.  He  gained  his 
first  tragic  victory  in  B.C.  511,  twenty -four 
years  after  Thespis  (535),  twelve  years  after 
Chffirilus  (523),  and  twelve  years  before  ^Eschy- 
lus  (499) ;  and  his  last  in  476,  on  which  occa- 
sion Themistocles  was  his  choragus,  and  record- 
ed the  event  by  an  inscription.  Phrynichus 
probably  went,  like  other  poets  of  the  age,  to 
the  court  of  Hiero,  and  there  died.  In  all  the 
accounts  of  the  rise  and  development  of  trage- 
dy, the  chief  place  after  Thespis  is  assigned  to 
Phrynichus,  and  the  improvements  which  he 
introduced  in  the  internal  poetical  character  of 
the  drama  entitle  him  to  be  considered  as  the 
real  inventor  of  tragedy.  For  the  light,  ludi- 
crous, Bacchanalian  stories  of  Thespis,  he  sub- 
stituted regular  and  serious  subjects,  taken 
either  from  the  heroic  age,  or  the  heroic  deeds 
which  illustrated  the  history  of  his  own  time. 
In  these  he  aimed,  not  so  much  to  amuse  the 
audience  as  to  move  their  passions ;  and  so 
powerful  was  the  effect  of  his  tragedy  on  the 
capture  of  Miletus,  that  the  audience  burst  into 
tears,  and  fined  the  poet  one  thousand  drachmae, 


PHRYNNIS. 

fcecause  he  had  exhibited  the  sufferings  of  a 
Kindred  people,  and  even  passed  a  law  that  no 
one  should  ever  again  make  use  of  that  drama. 
To  the  light  mimetic  chorus  of  Thespis  he  add- 
ed the  sublime  music  of  dithyrambic  choruses. 
Aristophanes  more  than  once  contrasts  these 
ancient  and  beautiful  melodies  with  the  involved 
refinements  of  later  poets.  Phrynichus  was  the 
first  poet  who  introduced  masks,  representing 
female  persons  in  the  drama.  He  also  paid  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  dances  of  the  chorus, 
[n  the  dramaof  Phrynichus,  however,  the  chorus 
still  retained  the  principal  place,  and  it  was  re- 
served for  ^Eschylus  and  Sophocles  to  bring  the 
dialogue  and  action  into  their  due  position. 
[The  few  fragments  of  Phrynichus  are  given  by 
Wagner  in  Trag.  Grcec.  Fragm.  (in  Didot's  Bibl. 
Graeca),  p.  10-16.] — 2.  A  distinguished  comic 
poet  of  the  Old  Comedy,  was  a  contemporary 
of  Eupolis,  and  flourished  B.C.  429.  [The  frag- 
ments are  given  by  Meineke,  Com.  Grac.  Frag., 
i.,  228-40,  ed.  minor.] — 3.  A  Greek  sophist  and 
grammarian,  described  by  some  as  an  Arabian, 
and  by  others  as  a  Bithynian,  lived  under  M. 
Aurelius  and  Commodus.  His  great  work  was 
entitled  2od£<m/ci)  UapaaKevJj,  in  thirty-seven 
books,  of  which  we  still  possess  a  fragment, 
published  by  Bekker,  in  his  Anecdola  Graca, 
Berol.,  1814,  vol.  i.  He  also  wrote  a  Lexicon 
of  Attic  words  ('E«7.oy^  pijfiuruv  nal  ovopdTuv 
'ATTIKUV),  which  is  extant :  the  best  edition  is 
by  Lobeck,  Lips.,  1830. 

PHRYNNIS  (<tptiwt?)  or  PHRYNIS  ($pvvtf),  a 
celebrated  dithyrambic  poet,  of  the  time  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  was  a  native  of  Mytilene, 
but  flourished  at  Athens.  His  innovations,  ef- 
feminacies, and  frigidness  are  repeatedly  at- 
tacked by  the  comic  poets.  Among  the  innova- 
tions which  he  is  said  to  have  made  was  the 
addition  of  two  strings  to  the  heptachord.  He 
was  the  first  who  gained  the  victory  in  the 
musical  contests  established  by  Pericles,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Panathenaic  festival,  probably 
in  B.C.  445. 

[PHRYNON  (Qpvvuv),  an  Athenian,  who  had 
been  an  Olympian  victor,  and  was  celebrated 
for  his  strength  and  courage,  commanded  the 
Athenian  forces  in  their  contest  with  the  Myti- 
leneans  for  the  possession  of  Sigeum.  He  en- 
gaged in  single  combat  with  Pittacus  (vid.  PIT- 
TACUS),  who  entangled  him  in  a  net,  and  then 
dispatched  him  with  a  trident  and  a  dagger,  just 
as  the  rctiarii  afterward  fought  at  Rome.] 

PHTHIA.     Vid.  PHTHIOTIS. 

PHTHIOTIS  (QBitirif :  QOiurqf),  a  district  in  the 
southeast  of  Thessaly,  bounded  on  the  south  by 
the  Maliac  Gulf,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Pagasaean 
Gulf,  and  inhabited  by  Achacans.  Vid.  THES- 
SALIA.  Homer  calls  it  FHTIUA  (QOirj),  and  men- 
tions a  city  of  the  same  name,  which  was  cele- 
brated as  the  residence  of  Achilles.  Hence  the 
poets  call  Achilles  PfUhius  heros,  and  his  father 
Peleus  Phthius  rex. 

PHTHIRA  (ru  Qdipa,  Qdeipuv  6pof),  a  mountain 
of  Car:<i,  forming  a  part  or  a  branch  of  Latmus, 
inhabited  by  a  people  called  QOipcf. 

PHTHIRSPHAOI  (QQeipofyiyoi,  i.  e.,  eaters  of  lice, 
[or,  according  to  another  derivation,  eater*  of 
fine-cones  (from  <j>6clp,  the  fruit  of  the  xirvf  $6ci- 
popipos)  as  the  Budini  (Hdt.,  iv.,  109).  Vid. 
Hitter,  Vorhalle,  p.  459]),  a  Scythian  people  near 


PHYLE. 

the  Caucasus,  or,  according  to  some,  beyond  the 
River  Rha,  in  Sarmatia  Asiatica. 

PHYA.      Vid.  PISISTRATUS. 

PHYCUS  ($VKOV<;  :  now  Ras-Sem  or  Ras-el- 
Kazat),  a  promontory  on  the  coast  of  Cyrenaica, 
a  little  west  of  Apollonia  and  northwest  of  Cy- 
rene.  It  is  the  northernmost  headland  of  Lib- 
ya east  of  the  Lesser  Syrtis,  and  the  nearest 
point  of  this  coast  to  that  of  Europe,  the  distance 
from  Phycus  to  Tasnarum,  the  southern  prom- 
ontory of  Peloponnesus,  being  two  hundred  and 
eight  miles.  There  was  a  small  town  of  the 
same  name  on  the  headland. 

PHYLACE  ($IMU/H?).  1.  A  smalltown  of  Thes- 
saly in  Phthiotis,  southeast  of  Eretria,  and  east 
of  Enipeus,  on  the  northern  slope  of  Mount 
Othrys.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  Protesilaus. 
— 2.  A  town  of  Epirus  inMolossia. — 3.  A  town 
in  Arcadia,  near  the  sources  of  the  Alpheus,  on 
the  frontiers  of  Tegea  and  Laconia. 

PHYLACUS  ($vAa/cof ).  1.  Son  of  Deion  and  Dio- 
mede,  and  husband  of  Periclymene  or  Clymene, 
the  daughter  of  Minyas,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Iphiclus  and  Alcimede.  He  was 
believed  to  be  the  founder  of  the  town  of  Phy- 
lace,  in  Thessaly.  Either  from  his  name  or 
that  of  the  town,  his  descendants,  Phylacus, 
Iphiclus,  and  Protesilaus,  are  called  Phylacida. 
— [2.  A  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by  Leitus. — 3.  A 
Delphian  hero,  to  whom  a  sanctuary  was  dedi- 
cated at  Delphi. — 4.  Son  of  Histiaeus  of  Samos.] 

PHYLARCHUS  ($v%apxo(),  a  Greek  historical 
writer,  and  a  contemporary  of  Aratus,  was  prob- 
ably a  native  of  Naucratis  in  Egypt,  but  spent 
the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  Athens.  His  great 
work  was  a  history  in  twenty-eight  books,  which 
embraced  a  period  of  fifty-two  years,  from  the 
expedition  of  Pyrrhus  into  Peloponnesus.  B.C. 
272,  to  the  death  of  Cleomenes,  220.  Phylar- 
chus  is  vehemently  attacked  by  Polybius,  who 
charges  him  with  falsifying  history  through  his 
partiality  to  Cleomenes,  and  his  hatred  against 
Aratus  and  the  Achaeans.  The  accusation  is 
probably  not  unfounded,  but  it  might  be  retort- 
ed with  equal  justice  upon  Polybius,  who  has 
fallen  into  the  opposite  error  of  exaggerating 
the  merits  of  Aratus  and  his  party,  and  depre- 
ciating Cleomenes.  The  style  of  Phylarchus 
appears  to  have  been  too  oratorical  and  declam- 
atory ;  but  it  was,  at  the  same  time,  lively  and 
attractive.  The  fragments  of  Phylarchus  have 
been  collected  by  Lucht,  Lips.,  1836  ;  by  BrUck- 
ner,  Vratisl.,  1838  ;  and  by  Miiller,  Fragm.  His- 
tor.  Grac.,  Paris,  1840. 

PHYLAS  (*i>/laf).  1.  King  of  the  Dryopes, 
was  attacked  and  slain  by  Hercules  because  he 
had  violated  the  sanctuary  of  Delphi.  By*his 
daughter  Midea,  Hercules  became  the  father  of 
Antiochus. — 2.  Son  of  Antiochus,  and  grandson 
of  Hercules  and  Midea,  was  married  to  Deiphile, 
by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Hippotas  and  Thero. 
— 3.  King  of  Ephyra  in  Thesprotia,  and  the  fa- 
ther of  Polymele  and  Astyoche,  by  the  latter  of 
whom  Hercules  was  the  father  of  Tlcpolemus. 

PHYLE  (*u^  :  QvMotof :  now  Fili),  a  demus 
in  Attica,  and  a  strongly  fortified  place,  belong- 
ing to  the  tribe  CEneis,  was  situated  on  the  con- 
fines of  Bceotia,  and  on  the  southwestern  slope 
of  Mount  Panics  It  is  memorable  as  the  place 
which  Thrasybulus  and  the'  Athenian  patriots 
seized  soon  after  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian 

663 


PHYLEUS. 

war,  B.C.  404,  and  whence  they  directed  their 
operations  against  the  thirty  tyrants  at  Athens. 

PHYLEUS  (QuAcvf),  son  of  Augeas,  was  ex- 
pelled oy  his  father  from  Ephyra  because  he 
gave  evidence  in  favor  of  Hercules.  (Vid.  p 
357,  b  )  He  then  emigrated  to  Dulichium.  By 
Ctimene  or  Timandra  he  became  the  father  of 
Meges,  who  is  hence  called  Phylides. 

[PHYLLIDAS  (QvMitaf),  a  Theban,  secretary 
to  the  polemarchs  who  held  office  under  Spartan 
protection,  after  the  seizure  of  the  Cadmea  by 
Phcebidas.  He  was  a  secret  enemy  of  the  new 
government,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  plot  formed  by  Pelopidas  for  the 
liberation  of  his  country  from  Spartan  tyranny.] 

PHYLLIS.     Vid.  DEMOPHON,  No.  2. 

PHYLLIS  (*i)AAtf),  a  district  in  Thrace  south 
of  the  Strymon,  near  Mount  Pangaeus. 

[PHYLLIS,  the  nurse  of  Domitian,  whom  she 
buried  after  his  assassination.] 

PHYLLUS  (4>ijAAof :  now  Petrino),  a  town  of 
Thessaly,  in  the  district  Thessaliotis,  north  of 
Metropolis. 

[PHYLO  ($vAw),  one  of  the  female  attendants 
of  Helen.] 

PHYSCA  ($t'<rKa),  a  town  of  Macedonia,  in  the 
district  Eordsea. 

PHYSCON.     Vid.  PTOLEM^EUS. 

PHYSCUS  ($i>£7/cof).  1.  A  city  of  the  Ozolian 
Locrians  in  Northern  Greece. — 2.  (Now  Paitch- 
shin),  a  town  on  the  southern  coast  of  Caria,  in 
the  Rhodian  territory,  with  an  excellent  harbor, 
which  was  used  as  the  port  of  Mylasa,  and  was 
the  landing-place  for  travellers  coming  from 
Rhodes. — 3.  (Now  Odornch),  an  eastern  tribu- 
tary of  the  Tigris  in  Lower  Assyria.  The  town 
of  Opis  stood  at  its  junction  with  the  Tigris. 

PHYT^EUM  (Q-uratov  :  ^vraiof),  a  town  in  ^Eto- 
lia,  southeast  of  Thermum,  on  the  Lake  Tri- 
chonis. 

PICENI.     Vid.  PICENUM. 

PICENTES.     Vid.  PICENUM. 

PICENTIA  (Picentinus  :  now  Vicenzd),  a  town 
in  the  south  of  Campania,  at  the  head  of  the 
Sinus  Paestanus,  and  between  Salernum  and 
the  frontiers  of  Lucania,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  were  compelled  by  the  Romans,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  revolt  to  Hannibal,  to  abandon 
their  town  and  live  in  the  neighboring  villages. 
Between  the  town  and  the  frontiers  of  Lucania, 
there  was  an  ancient  temple  of  the  Argive  Juno, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Jason,  the  Argo- 
naut. The  name  of  Picentini  was  not  confined 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Picentia,  but  was  given  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  coast  of  the  Sinus 
Paeftanus,  from  the  promontory  of  Minerva  to 
the  River  Silarus.  They  were  a  portion  of  the 
Sabine  Picentes,  who  were  transplanted  by  the 
Romans  to  this  part  of  Campania  after  the  con- 
quest of  Picenum,  B.C.  268,  at  which  time  they 
founded  the  town  of  Picentia. 

PICENTINI.     Vid.  PICENTIA  and  PICENDM. 

PICENUM  (Picentes,  sing.  Picens,  more  rarely 
Picentini  and  Piceni),  a  country  in  Central  Ita- 
ly, was  a  narrow  strip  of  land  along  the  west- 
ern coast  of  the  Adriatic,  and  was  "bounded  on 
the  north  by  Umbria,  from  which  it  was  sepa- 
rated by  the  River  JSsis,  on  the  west  by  Um- 
bria and  the  territory  of  the  Sabines,  and  on 
tne  soutn  by  the  territory  of  the  Marsi  and  Ves- 
tini,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  a  range  of 
R64 


PICTOR,  FABIUS. 

hills  and  by  the  River  Matrinus.  It  is  said  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  the  bird  pints, 
which  directed  the  Sabine  immigrants  into  the 
land,  or  from  a  mythical  leader  Picus :  some 
modern  writers  connect  the  name  with  the 
Greek  TTEVKTI,  a  pine-tree,  on  account  of  the  pine- 
trees  growing  in  the  country  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Apennines;  but  none  of  these  etymologies 
can  be  received.  Picenum  formed  the  fifth  re- 
gion in  the  division  of  Italy  made  by  Augustus. 
The  country  was  traversed  by  a  number  of  hills 
of  moderate  height,  eastern  offshoots  of  the 
Apennines,  and  was  drained  by  several  small 
rivers  flowing  into  the  Adriatic  through  the 
valleys  between  these  hills.  The  country  was 
upon  the  whole  fertile,  and  was  especially  cel- 
ebrated for  its  apples ;  but  the  chief  employ- 
ment of  the  inhabitants  was  the  feeding  of 
cattle  and  swine.  The  Picentes,  as  already 
remarked,  were  Sabine  immigrants ;  but  the 
population  of  the  country  appears  to  have  "been 
of  a  mixed  nature.  The  Umbrians  were  in  pos- 
session of  the  land  when  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Sabine  Picentes,  and  some  of  the  Umbrian 
population  became  intermingled  with  their  Sa- 
bine conquerors.  In  addition  to  this,  the  south 
ern  part  of  the  country  was  for  a  time  in  pos- 
session of  the  Liburnians,  and  Ancona  was  oc- 
cupied by  Greeks  from  Syracuse.  In  B.C.  299 
the  Picentes  made  a  treaty  with  the  Romans  ; 
but  having  revolted  in  269,  they  were  defeated 
by  the  consul  Sempronius  Sophus  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  were  obliged  to  submit  to  the  Ro- 
man supremacy.  A  portion  of  the  people  was 
transplanted  to  the  coast  of  the  Sinus  Pasta- 
nus,  where  they  founded  the  town  Picentia. 
Vid.  PICENTIA.  Two  or  three  years  afterward 
the  Romans  sent  colonies  to  Firmum  and  Cas- 
trum  Novum  in  Picenum,  in  order  to  secure 
their  newly-conquered  possession.  The  Picen- 
tes fought  with  the  other  Socii  against  Rome 
in  the  Social  or  Marsic  war  (90-89),  and  receiv- 
ed the  Roman  franchise  at  the  close  of  it. 

PlCTAVI.        Vid.   PlCTONES. 

PICTI,  a  people  inhabiting  the  northern  part  of 
Britain,  appear  to  have  been  either  a  tribe  of 
the  Caledonians,  or  the  same  people  as  the  Cal- 
edonians, though  under  another  name.  They 
were  called  Picti  by  the  Romans,  from  their 
practice  of  painting  their  bodies.  They  are  first 
mentioned  by  the  rhetorician  Enmenius  in  an 
oration  addressed  to  Constantius  Chlorus,  A.D. 
296  ;  and  after  this  time  their  name  frequently 
occurs  in  the  Roman  writers,  and  often  in  con- 
nection with  that  of  the  Scoti.  In  the  next  cen 
tury  we  find  them  divided  into  two  tribes,  the 
Dicaledonae  or  Dicaledones,and  the  Vecturiones 
or  Vecturones.  At  a  still  later  period  their  prin- 
cipal seat  was  in  the  northeast  of  Scotland. 

PICTONES,  subsequently  PICTAVI,  a  powerful 
people  on  the  coast  of  Gallia  Aquitanica,  whose 
territory  extended  north  as  far  as  the  Liger 
(now  Loire),  and  east  probably  as  far  the  River 
Creuse.  Their  chief  town  was  Limonum,  sub- 
sequently Pictavi  (now  Poitiers). 

PICTOR,  FABIUS.  1.  C.,  painted  the  temple 
of  Salus,  which  the  dictator  C.  Junius  Brutus 
Bubulcus  contracted  for  in  his  censorship,  B.C. 
307,  and  dedicated  in  his  dictatorship,  302. 
This  painting,  which  must  have  been  on  the 
walls  of  the  temple,  was  probably  a  representa 


PICUMNUS. 

tion  of  the  battle  which  Bubulcus  had  gained 
against  the  Samnites.  This  is  the  earliest  Ro- 
man painting  of  which  we  have  any  record.  It 
was  preserved  till  the  reign  of  Claudius,  when 
(he  temple  was  destroyed  by  fire.  It\  conse- 
quence of  this  painting,  C.  Fabius  received  the 
surname  of  Picf  OK,  which  was  borne  by  his  de- 
scendants. —  2.  C.,  son  of  No.  1,  consul  269.  — 
3.  N.  (t.  e.,  Numerals),  also  son  of  No.  1,  con- 
sul 266.  —  i.  Q.,  son  of  No.  2,  was  the  most  an- 
cient writer  of  Roman  history  in  prose.  He 
served  in  the  Gallic  war  225,  and  also  in  thw 
second  Punic  war.  His  history,  which  was 
written  in  Greek,  began  with  the  arrival  of 
^Eneas  in  Italy,  and  came  down  to  his  own 
time.  Hence  Polybius  speaks  of  him  as  one  j 
of  the  historians  of  the  second  Punic  war.  [A  | 
few  fragments  of  the  history  of  Pictor  are  col- 
lected by  Krause  in  Fragmenta  Historicorum 
Lat.,  p.  52-63.]—  5.  Q.,  praetor  189,  and  flamen 
Quirinalis.  —  6.  SEE.,  is  said  by  Cicero  to  have 
been  well  skilled  in  law,  literature,  and  antiqui- 
ty. He  lived  about  B.C.  150.  He  appears  to 
he  the  same  as  the  Fabius  Pictor  who  wrote  a 
work  De  Jure  Pontificio,  in  several  books.  He 
probably  wrote  Annals  likewise  in  the  Latin 
language,  since  Cicero  (de  Oral.,  ii.,  12)  speaks 
of  a  Latin  annalist  Pictor,  whom  he  places  after 
Cato,  but  before  Piso  ;  which  corresponds  with 
the  time  at  which  Ser.  Pictor  lived,  but  could 
not  apply  to  Q.  Pictor,  who  lived  in  the  time 
of  the  second  Punic  war. 

PICUMNUS  and  PILUMNUS,  two  Roman  divin- 
ities, were  regarded  as  two  brothers,  and  as  the 
beneficent  gods  of  matrimony  in  the  rustic  re- 
igion  of  the  ancient  Romans.  A  couch  was 
prepared  for  them  in  the  house  in  which  there 
was  a  newly-born  child.  Pilumnus  was  be- 
lieved to  ward  off  all  sufferings  from  the  infant 
with  his  pilum,  with  which  he  taught  to  pound 
the  grain  ;  and  Picumnus,  who,  under  the  name 
of  Sterquilinius,  was  believed  to  have  discov- 
ered the  use  of  manure  for  the  fields,  conferred 
upon  the  infant  strength  and  prosperity.  Hence 
ooth  were  also  looked  upon  as  the  gods  of  good 
deeds,  and  were  identified  with  Castor  and  Pol- 
lux. When  Danaft  landed  in  Italy,  Picumnus 
is  said  to  have  built  with  her  the  town  of  Ar- 
dea,  and  to  have  become  by  her  the  father  of 
Daunus. 

Picus  (UtKOf),  a  Latin  prophetic  divinity,  is 
described  as  a  son  of  Saturnus  or  Sterculus,  as 
the  husband  of  Canens,  and  the  father  of  Fau- 
nus.  In  some  traditions  he  was  called  the  first 
king  of  Italy.  He  was  a  famous  soothsayenand 
augur,  and  as  he  made  use  in  his  prophetic  art 
of  a  picut  (a  woodpecker),  he  himself  was  also 
called  Picus.  He  was  represented  in  a  rude 
and  primitive  manner  as  a  wooden  pillar  with 
a  woodpecker  on  the  top  of  it,  but  afterward 
as  a  young  man  with  a  woodpecker  on  his 
head.  The  whole  legend  of  Picus  is  founded 
on  the  notion  that  the  woodpecker  is  a  prophet- 
ic  bird,  sacred  to  Mars.  Pomona,  it  is  said, 
was  beloved  by  him,  and  when  Circe's  love  for 
him  was  not  requited,  she  changed  him  into  a 
woodpecker,  who,  however,  retained  the  pro- 
phetic powers  which  he  had  formerly  possessed 


(Utdun/f),  of  Percote,  an  ally  of  the 
Trojans,  was  slain  by  Ulysses.] 


PILIA. 

[PIELUS  (HieAof),  son  of  Pyrrhus  and  An- 
dromache, brother  of  Molossus  and  Pergamus.] 

PIERIA  (lliepia  :  Ulepec).  1-  A  narrow  slip  of 
country  on  the  southeastern  coast  of  Macedo- 
nia, extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  Peneus  in 
Thessaly  to  the  Haliacmon,  and  bounded  on  the 
west  by  Mount  Olympus  and  its  offshoots.  A 
portion  of  these  mountains  was  called  by  the 
ancient  writers  PIERUS,  or  the  Pierian  Mount- 
ain. The  inhabitants*  of  this  country,  the  Pie- 
res,  were  a  Thracian  people,  and  are  celebrated 
in  the  early  history  of  Greek  poetry  and  music, 
since  their  country  was  one  of  the  earliest  seats 
of  the  worship  of  the  Muses,  and  Orpheus  is  said 
to  have  been  buried  there.  After  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Macedonian  kingdom  in  Emathia 
in  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  Pieria  was  con- 
quered by  the  Macedonians,  and  the  inhabitants 
were  driven  out  of  the  country. — 2.  A  district 
in  Macedonia,  east  of  the  Strymon  near  Mount 
Pangaeum,  where  the  Pierians  settled,  who  had 
been  driven  out  of  their  original  abodes  by  the 
Macedonians,  as  already  related.  They  pos- 
sessed in  this  district  the  fortified  towns  of 
Phagres  and  Pergamus. — 3.  A  district  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Syria,  so  called  from  the 
Mountain  Pieria,  a  branch  of  the  Amanus,  a 
name  given  to  it  by  the  Macedonians  after  their 
conquest  of  the  East.  In  this  district  was  the 
city  of  Seleucia,  which  is  distinguished  from 
other  cities  of  the  same  name  as  Seleucia  in 
Pieria. 

PIERIDES  (Uifpidef).  1.  A  surname  of  the 
Muses,  which  they  derived  from  Pieria,  near 
Mount  Olympus,  where  they  were  first  worship- 
ped among  the  Thracians.  Some  derived  the 
name  from  an  ancient  king  Pierus,  who  is  said 
to  have  emigrated  from  Thrace  into  Boeotia, 
and  to  have  established  their  worship  at  Thes- 
piae.  Pieris  also  occurs  in  the  singular. — 2. 
The  nine  daughters  of  Pierus,  king  of  Emathia 
(Macedonia),  whom  he  begot  by  Euippe  or  An- 
tiope,  and  to  whom  he  gave  the  names  of  the 
nine  Muses.  They  afterward  entered  into  a 
contest  with  the  Muses,  and,  being  conquered, 
they  were  metamorphosed  into  birds  called  Co- 
lymbas,  lyngx,  Cenchris,  Cissa,  Chloris,  Aca- 
lanthis,  Nessa,  Pipo,  and  Dracontis. 

PIERUS  (IL'rpof).  1.  Mythological.  Vid.  PIE- 
RIDES. — 2.  A  mountain.  Vid.  PIERIA,  No.  1. 

PIETAS,  a  personification  of  faithful  attach- 
ment, love,  and  veneration  among  the  Romans. 
At  first  she  had  only  a  small  sanctuary  at  Rome, 
but  in  B.C.  191  a  larger  one  was  built.  She  ia 
represented  on  Roman  coins  as  a  matron  throw- 
ing incense  upon  an  altar,  and  her  attributes 
are  a  stork  and  children.  She  is  sometimes 
represented  as  a  female  figure  offering  her 
breast  to  an  aged  parent. 

PIETAS  JUL!A.     Vid.  POL  A. 

PIORKS  (II^o^c),  of  Halicarnassus,  either  the 
brother  or  the  son  of  the  celebrated  Artemisia, 
queen  of  Caria.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
author  of  the  Margites,  and  the  Batrachomyo- 
machia. 

[PioRUM  MARE,  called  by  the  Greeks  6  Kpo- 
vtof  'QKtav6{,  the  names  under  which  the  Arctic 
or  Frozen  Ocean  was  known  to  the  ancients.] 

PILIA,  the  wife  of  T.  Pomponius  Atticus,  to 
whom  she  was  marmd  on  the  12th  of  Februa- 
ry, B.C.  56.  In  the  si  mini  M  of  the  following 

665 


PILORUS. 

jear  she  bore  her  husband  a  daughter,  who  sub- 
sequently married  Vipsanius  Agrippa. 

PILORUS  (Fh'Aupof),  a  town  of  Macedonia  in 
Chalcidice,  at  the  head  of  the  Singitic  Gulf. 

PlLUMNUS.        Vid.  PlCUMNUS. 

PIMPLEA  (Hijtirfaia).  a  town  in  the  Macedo- 
nian province  of  Pieria,  sacred  to  the  Muses, 
who  were  hence  called  Pimpleides. 

[PIMPRAMA  (nifiirpapa),  the  capital  city  of  the 
Adrai'stae,  a  tribe  in  the  ribrthwest  of  India  in- 
tra  Gangem.] 

PINARA  (rd  Tlivapa  :  Uivapsvf :  ruins  at  Pinei- 
ro, or  Minara),  an  inland  city  of  Lycia,  some  dis- 
tance west  of  the  River  Xanthus,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Cragus.  Here  Pandarus  was  worship- 
ppd  as  a  hero. 

PINARIA  GENS,  one  of  the  most  ancient  pa- 
trician gentes  at  Rome,  traced  its  origin  to  a 
time  long  previous  to  the  foundation  of  the  city. 
The  legend  related  that  when  Hercules  came 
into  Italy,  he  was  hospitably  received  on  the 
spot  where  Rome  was  afterward  built  by  the 
Potitii  and  the  Pinarii,  two  of  the  most  distin- 
guished families  in  the  country.  The  hero,  in 
return,  taught  them  the  way  in  which  he  was 
to  be  worshipped  ;  but  as  the  Pinarii  were  not 
at  hand  when  the  sacrificial  banquet  was  ready, 
and  did  not  come  till  the  entrails  of  the  victim 
were  eaten,  Hercules,  in  anger,  determined  that 
the  Pinarii  should  in  all  future  time  be  excluded 
from  partaking  of  the  entrails  of  the  victims, 
and  that  in  all  matters  relating  to  his  worship 
they  should  be  inferior  to  the  Potitii.  These 
two  families  continued  to  be  the  hereditary 
priests  of  Hercules  till  the  censorship  of  App. 
Claudius  (B.C.  312),  who  purchased  from  the 
Potitii  the  knowledge  of  the  sacred  rites,  and 
intrusted  them  to  public  slaves  ;  whereat  the 
god  was  so  angry  that  the  whole  Potitia  gens, 
containing  twelve  families  and  thirty  grown-up 
men,  perished  within  a  year,  or,  according  to 
other  accounts,  within  thirty  days,  and  Appius 
himself  became  blind.  The  Pinarii  did  not 
share  in  the  guilt  of  communicating  the  sacred 
knowledge,  and  therefore  did  not  receive  the 
same  punishment  as  the  Potitii,  but  continued 
in  existence  to  the  latest  times.  It  appears  that 
the  worship  of  Hercules  by  the  Potitii  and  Pi- 
narii was  a  sacrum  gentilitium  belonging  to  these 
gentes,  and  that  in  the  time  of  Appius  Claudius 
these  sacra  privata  were  made  sacra  publica.  The 
Pinarii  were  divided  into  the  families  of  Mamer- 
cinus,  Natta,  Posca,  Rusca,  and  Scarpus,  but  none 
of  them  obtained  sufficient  importance  to  require 
a  separate  notice. 

PiNARlus,  L.  [1.  The  commander  of  the  Ro- 
man garrison  at  Enna  in  the  second  Punic  war, 
B.C.  214,  suppressed  with  vigor  an  attempt  at 
insurrection  which  the  inhabitants  made.] — 2. 
The  great-nephew  of  the  dictator  C.  Julius  Cae- 
sar, being  the  grandson  of  Julia,  Caesar's  eldest 
sister.  In  the  will  of  the  dictator,  Pinarius  was 
named  one  of  his  heirs  along  with  his  two  oth- 
er great-nephews,  C.  Octavius  and  Q.  Pedius, 
Octavius  obtaining  three  fourths  of  the  prop- 
erty, and  the  remaining  fourth  being  divided 
between  Pinarius  and  Pedius.  [Pinarius  after- 
ward served  in  the  army  of  the  triumvirs  in  the 
war  against  Brutus  and  Cassius.] 

PINARTJS  (Hivapoc ),  a  river  of  Cilicia,  rising  in 
Mons  Amanus,  and  falling  into  the  Gulf  of  Issus 
666 


PINDARUS. 

near  Issus,  between  the  mouth  of  the  I'yrarnm 
and  the  Syrian  frontier. 

PINDARUS  (fliVJapof).  1  The  greatest  lyric  poet 
of  Greece,  was  born  either  at  Thebes  or  at  Cy- 
noscephalae,  a  village  in  the  territory  of  Thebes, 
about  B.C.  522.  His  family  was  one  of  the 
noblest  in  Thebes,  and  seems  also  to  have  been 
celebrated  for  its  skill  in  music.  The  father  01 
uncle  of  Pindar  was  a  flute-player,  and  Pindar 
at  an  early  age  received  instruction  in  the  art 
from  the  flute-player  Scopelinus.  But  the  youth 
§oon  gave  indications  of  a  genius  for  poetry, 
which  induced  his  father  to  send  him  to  Athens 
to  receive  more  perfect  instruction  in  the  art. 
Later  writers  tell  us  that  his  future  glory  as  a 
poet  was  miraculously  foreshadowed  by  a  swarm 
of  bees  which  rested  upon  his  lips  while  he  was 
asleep,  and  that  this  miracle  first  led  him  to 
compose  poetry.  At  Athens  Pindar  became  the 
pupil  of  Lasus  of  Hermione,  the  founder  of  the 
Athenian  school  of  dithyrambic  poetry.  He  re- 
turned to  Thebes  before  he  completed  his  twen- 
tieth year,  and  is  said  to  have  received  instruc- 
tion there  from  Myrtis  and  Corinna  of  Tanagra, 
two  poetesses  who  then  enjoyed  great  celeb- 
rity in  Bceotia.  With  both  these  poetesses  Pin- 
dar contended  for  the  prize  in  the  musical  con- 
tests at  Thebes ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been 
defeated  five  times  by  Corinna.  Pindar  com- 
menced his  professional  career  as  a  poet  at  an 
early  age,  and  was  soon  employed  by  different 
states  and  princes  in  all  parts  of  the  Hellenic 
world  to  compose  for  them  choral  songs  for 
special  occasions.  He  received  money  and  pres 
ents  for  his  works ;  but  he  never  degenerated 
into  a  common  mercenary  poet,  and  he  contin- 
ued to  preserve  to  his  latest  days  the  respect  of 
all  parts  of  Greece.  He  composed  poems  for 
Hieron,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  Alexander,  son  of 
Amyntas,  king  of  Macedonia,  Theron,  tyrant  of 
Agrigentum,  Arcesilaus,  king  of  Gyrene,  as  well 
as  for  many  free  states  and  private  persons.  He 
was  courted  especially  by  Alexander,  king  of 
Macedonia,  and  Hieron,  tyrant  of  Syracuse  ;  and 
the  praises  which  he  bestowed  upon  the  formei 
are  said  to  have  been  the  chief  reason  which  led 
his  descendant,  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  to 
spare  the  house  of  the  poet  when  he  destroyed 
the  rest  of  Thebes.  Pindar's  stated  residence 
was  at  Thebes,  though  he  frequently  left  home 
in  order  to  witness  the  great  public  games,  and 
to  visit  the  states  and  distinguished  men  who 
courted  his  friendship  and  employed  his  serv- 
ices. Thus  about  B.C.  473  he  visited  the  court 
of  Hieron  at  Syracuse,  where  he  remained  four 
years.  He  probably  died  in  his  eightieth  year 
in  442.  The  only  poems  of  Pindar  which  have 
come  down  to  us  entire  are  his  Epinicia,  or  tri- 
umphal odes.  But  these  were  but  a  small  por- 
tion of  his  works.  Besides  his  triumphal  odes, 
he  wrote  hymns  to  the  gods,  paeans,  dithyrambs, 
odes  for  processions  (npofoSia),  songs  of  maid- 
ens (napdeveia),  mimic  dancing  songs  (v-nopxT)- 
para),  drinking-songs  (a/coAta),  dirges  (drfvoi), 
and  encomia  (cy«w/«a),  or  panegyrics  on  princes. 
Of  these  we  have  numerous  fragments.  Most 
of  them  are  mentioned  in  the  well-known  lines 
of  Horace  (Carm.,  iv.,  2): 

"  Seu  per  audaces  nova  dithyrambos 
Verba  devolvit,  numerigque  fertur 
Lege  solatia : 


PINDASUS. 

Sen  de  >s  (hymns  and  paans)  regesve 

(encomia)  canit,  deorum 
Sanguinem :  .  . . 
Sive  quog  Elea  domum  reducit 
Palma  coelestos  (the  Epinicia)  :  . .  . 
Flebili  eponsaa  juvenemre  raptum 
Plorat"  (the  dirges). 

in  all  of  these  varieties  Pindar  equally  excelled, 
as  we  see  from  the  numerous  quotations  made 
from  them  by  the  ancient  writers,  though  they 
are  generally  of  too  fragmentary  a  kind  to  allow 
us  to  form  a  judgment  respecting  them.  Our 
estimate  of  Pindar  as  a  poet  must  be  formed 
almost  exclusively  from  his  Epinicia,  which  were 
composed  in  commemoration  of  some  victory  in 
the  public  games.  The  Epinicia  are  divided  into 
four  books,  celebrating  respectively  the  victories 
gained  in  the  Olympian,  Pythian,  Nemean,  and 
Isthmian  games.  In  order  to  understand  them 
properly,  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  nature  of  the 
occasion  for  which  they  were  composed,  and  the 
object  which  the  poet  had  in  view.  A  victory 
gained  in  one  of  the  four  great  national  festivals 
conferred  honor  not  only  upon  the  conqueror 
and  his  family,  out  also  upon  the  city  to  which 
he  belonged.  It  was  accordingly  celebrated 
with  great  pomp  and  ceremony.  Such  a  cele- 
bration began  with  a  procession  to  a  temple, 
where  a  sacrifice  was  offered,  and  it  ended  with 
a  banquet  and  the  joyous  revelry,  called  by  the 
Greeks  comus  (KUUOC).  For  this  celebration  a 
poem  was  expressly  composed,  which  was  sung 
by  a  chorus.  The  poems  were  sung  either  dur- 
ing the  procession  to  the  temple,  or  at  the  comus 
at  the  close  of  tne  banquet.  Those  of  Pindar's 
Epinician  odes  which  consist  of  strophes  with- 
out epodes  were  sung  during  the  procession,  but 
the  majority  of  them  appear  to  have  been  sung 
at  the  comus.  In  these  odes  Pindar  rarely  de- 
scribes the  victory  itself,  as  the  scene  was  fa- 
miliar to  all  the  spectators,  but  he  dwells  upon 
the  glory  of  the  victor,  and  celebrates  chiefly 
either  his  wealth  (oA6of )  or  his  skill  (uperjj) :  his 
wealth,  if  he  had  gained  the  victory  in  the  char- 
iot-race, since  it  was  only  the  wealthy  that 
could  contend  for  the  prize  in  this  contest ;  his 
skill,  if  he  had  been  exposed  to  peril  in  the  con- 
test. The  metres  of  Pindar  are  too  extensive 
and  difficult  a  subject  to  admit  of  explanation  in 
the  present  work.  No  two  odes  possess  the 
same  metrical  structure.  The  Doric  rhythm 
chiefly  prevails,  but  he  also  makes  frequent  use 
of  the/Eolian  and  Lydian  as  well.  The  best  edi- 
tions of  Pindar  are  byBockh,  Lips. ,1811-1821,  2 
vols.  4to,  and  byDissen,Gotha,  1830,  2  vola.  8vo, 
of  which  there  is  a  second  edition  by  Schneide- 
win»  Gotha,  1843,  seq. — [2.  Under  the  name  of 
Pindarus  there  exists  a  Latin  poem  in  hexame- 
ter verse,  commonly  called  Epitome  Iliados  Ho- 
meri.  Wernsdorf  tried  to  prove  that  the  name 
of  the  author  was  Pentadius,  from  which  Pin- 
darus was  a  corruption,  but  this  idea  he  after- 
ward abandoned  ;  Bahr  thinks  the  poem  must 
have  been  composed  in  the  third  or  fourth  cen- 
tury A.D. ;  it  is  published  by  Wernsdorf  in  Poctte 
Latini  Minores,vo\.  iv.,pt.  ii.,and  separately,  with 
the  notes  of  Theod.  Van Kooten,  by  H.  Weytingh, 
Lugd.  Bat ,  1809.— 3.  The  freedman  of  C.  Cas- 
sius  Longinus,  put  an  end  to  his  master's  life 
at  the  request  of  the  latter  after  the  loss  of  the 
battle  of  Philippi.] 

(llivnaaof),  a  southern  branch  of 


PIR.EEUS. 

Mount  Temnus  in  Mysia,  extending  to  the  Elal- 
tic  Gulf,  and  containing  the  sources  of  the  River 
Cetius. 

[PiNDENissus  (Pindenissitae  in  pi.  ;  now,  ac- 
cording to  Von  Hammer,  Schahmaran),  a  city  of 
Cilicia,  besieged  and  taken  by  Cicero  during  his 
administration  of  the  province  of  Cilicia.] 

PINDUS  (Jlivdof).  1.  A  lofty  range  of  mount- 
ains in  N<4rthern  Greece,  a  portion  of  the  great 
back-bone  which  runs  through  the  centre  of 
Greece  from  north  to  south.  The  name  of  Pin- 
dus  was  confined  to  that  part  of  the  chain  whicn 
separates  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  and  its  most 
northerly  and  also  highest  part  was  called  LAC- 
MON. — 2.  One  of  the  four  towns  of  Doris,  near 
the  sources  of  a  small  river  of  the  same  name, 
which  flowed  through  Locris  into  the  Cephisus. 

[PlNEOS.        Vid.  PlNNES.] 

PINNA  (Pinnensis  :  now  Civita  diPenna),  the 
chief  town  of  the  Vestini  at  the  foot  of  the  Ap- 
ennines, surrounded  by  beautiful  meadows. 

PlNNES.  PlNNEUS,  Or  PlNEUS,  W3S  the  SOU   of 

Agron,  king  of  Illyria,  by  his  first  wifeTriteuta. 
At  the  death  of  Agron  (B.C.  231),  Pinnes,  who 
w'as  then  a  child,  was  left  in  the  guardianship  of 
his  step-mother  Teuta,  whom  Agron  had  mar- 
ried after  divorcing  Triteuta.  When  Teuta  was 
defeated  by  the  Romans,  the  care  of  Pinnes  de- 
volved upon  Demetrius  of  Pharos ;  but  when 
Demetrius,  in  his  turn,  made  war  against  the 
Romans  and  was  defeated,  Pinnes  was  placed 
upon  the  throne  by  the  Romans,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  pay  tribute. 

[PiNTiA  (Uivria  :  now  Valladolid),  a  city  of  the 
Vaccaei  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  situated  on 
the  road  from  Asturica  to  Caesaraugusta.] 

PINTIJARIA  (TltvTOvapia  :  now  Teneri/e),  one 
of  the  INSULT  FORTUNATE  (now  Canary  Islands) 
off  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  also  called  CON- 
VALLIS,  and,  from  the  perpetual  snow  on  its  peak, 
NIVARIA. 

[PioNiA  (Uiovia  :  Pionites),  a  city  in  the  in- 
terior of  Mysia,  on  the  River  Satniois,  north- 
west of  Antandrus,  and  northeast  of  Gargara, 
said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Pionis,  a  de- 
scendant of  Hercules.] 

PIRAEUS  or  PiR^ECs(rietpatei5f:  now  Porto  Le- 
one or  Porto  Dracone).  1.  The  most  important  of 
the  harbors  of  Athens,  was  situated  in  the  penin- 
sula about  five  miles  southwest  of  Athens.  This 
peninsula,  which  is  sometimes  called  by  the  gen- 
eral name  of  Piraeeus,  contained  three  harbors, 
Piraeus  proper  on  the  western  side,  by  far  the 
largest  of  the  three,  Zea  on  the  eastern  side, 
separated  from  Piraeeus  by  a  narrow  isthmus, 
and  Munychia  (now  Pharnari)  still  further  to  the 
east.  The  position  of  Piraeeus  and.of  the  Athe- 
nian harbors  has  been  usually  misunderstood. 
In  consequence  of  a  statement  in  an  ancient 
scholiast,  it  was  generally  supposed  that  the 
great  harbor  of  Piraeeus  was  divided  into  three 
smaller  harbors,  Zea  for  corn  vessels,  Aphrodis- 
turn  for  merchant  ships  in  general,  and  Can- 
tharus  for  ships  of  war ;  but  this  division  of  the 
Piraeus  is  now  rejected  by  the  best  topogra- 
phers. Zea  was  a  harbor  totally  distinct  from 
the  Piraeus,  as  is  stated  above ;  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Piraeus  seems  to  have  been  used 
by  the  merchant  vessels,  and  the  Cantharus, 
where  the  ships  of  war  were  stationed,  was  on 
the  southern  side  of  the  harbor,  near  the  en 

667 


PIILEUS. 

trance.  It  was  through  the  suggestion  of  The- 
tnistocles  that  the  Athenians  were  induce*-  to 
make  use  of  the  harbor  of  Piraeeus.  Before 
the  Persian  wars  their  principal  harbor  was  Pha- 
lerum,  which  was  not  situated  in  the  Piraean 
peninsula  at  all,  but  lay  to  the  east  of  Munychia. 
Vid.  PHALEBUM.  At  the  entrance  of  the  harbor 
of  Piraaeus  there  were  two  promontories,  the 
one  on  the  right  hand  called  Alcana  ("A/Ut/iOf), 
on  which  was  the  tomb  of  Themistocles,  and 
(he  other  on  the  left  called  Eetionea  ('Hmwve<a), 
in  which  the  Four  Hundred  erected  a  fortress. 
The  entrance  of  the  harbor,  which  was  narrow 
by  nature,  was  rendered  still  narrower  by  two 
mole- heads,  to  which  a  chain  was  attached  to 
prevent  the  ingress  of  hostile  ships.  The  town 
or  demus  of  Piraeus  was  surrounded  with  strong 
fortifications  by  Themistocles,  and  was  connect- 
ed with  Athens  by  means  of  the  celebrated  Long 
Walls  under  the  administration  of  Pericles. 
(Vid.  p.  122,  a.)  The  town  possessed  a  consid- 
erable population,  and  many  public  and  private 
buildings.  The  most  important  of  its  public 
buildings  were  the  Agora  Hippodamia,  a  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Soter,  a  large  stoa,  a  the- 
atre, the  Phreattys  or  tribunal  for  the  admirals, 
the  arsenal,  the  docks,  &c. — [2.  PIRAEUS,  an  open 
roadstead  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Corinthia,  near 
the  Promontory  Spiraeum,  close  to  the  borders  of 
the  territory  of  Epidaurus,  where,  in  the  twenti- 
eth year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  Atheni- 
ans blockaded  a  part  of  the  Peloponnesian  fleet.] 

[PiR^us  (Heipaiof),  son  of  Clytius  in  Ithaca, 
a  friend  of  Telemachus.] 

PiRENE  (Tltiprivri),  a  celebrated  fountain  at 
Corinth,  which,  according  to  tradition,  took  its 
origin  from  Pirene,  a  daughter  of  CEbalus,  who 
here  melted  away  into  tears  through  grief  for 
the  loss  of  her  son  Cenchrias.  At  this  fountain 
Bellerophon  is  said  to  have  caught  the  horse 
Pegasus.  It  gushed  forth  from  the  rock  in  the 
Acrocorinthus,  was  conveyed  down  the  hill  by 
subterraneous  conduits,  and  fell  into  a  marble 
basin,  from  which  the  greater  part  of  the  town 
was  supplied  with  water.  The  fountain  was 
celebrated  for  the  purity  and  salubrity  of  its  wa- 
ter, and  was  so  highly  valued  that  the  poets  fre- 
quently employed  its  name  as  equivalent  to  that 
of  Corinth  itself. 

FIRESIDE  (Iltipeoiai),  probably  the  same  as  the 
IRESI^E  of  Livy,  a  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  dis- 
trict Thessaliotis,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pe- 
neus. 

PiRiTH5us  (TleipiOoof),  son  oflxion  or  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  by  Dia,  was  king  of  the  Lapithae  in  Thes- 
saly, and  married  to  Hippodamia,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  Polypcetes.  When  Pirith- 
oiis  was  celebrating  his  marriage  with  Hippo- 
damia, the  intoxicated  centaur  Eurytion  or  Eu- 
rytus  carried  her  off',  and  this  act  occasioned 
the  celebrated  fight  between  the  Centaurs  and 
Lapithae,  in  which  the  Centaurs  were  defeated. 
Pirithoiis  once  invaded  Attica,  but  when  Theseus 
came  forth  to  oppose  him,  he  conceived  a  warm 
admiration  for  the  Athenian  king,  and  from  this 
time  a  most  intimate  friendship  sprung  up  be- 
tween the  two  heroes.  Theseus  was  present 
at  the  wedding  of  Pirithoiis,  and  assisted  him  in 
his  battle  against  the  Centaurs.  Hippodamia 
afterward  died,  and  each  of  the  two  friends  re- 
solved to  wed  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
668 


PIS.E. 

With  the  assistance  of  Pirithoiis,  Theseus  2ar- 
ried  off  Helen  from  Sparta,  and  placed  her  at 
Aphidnae,  under  the  care  of  J^thra.  Pirithoiis 
was  still  more  ambitious,  and  resolved  to  carry 
off  Persephone  (Proserpina),  the  wife  of  the  king 
of  the  lower  world.  Theseus  would  not  desert 
his  friend  in  the  enterprise,  though  he  knew  the 
risk  which  they  ran.  The  two  friends  accord- 
ingly descended  to  the  lower  world,  but  they 
were  seized  by  Pluto  (Hades)  and  fastened  to  a 
rock,  where  they  both  remained  till  Hercules 
visited  the  lower  world.  Hercules  delivered 
Theseus,  who  had  made  the  daring  attempt  only 
to  please  his  friend,  but  Pirithoiis  remained  for- 
ever Jn  torment  (amatorem  trecenta  Pirithoum  co- 
hibent  catena,  Hor.,  Carm.  iii.,  4, 80).  Pirithoiis 
was  worshipped  at  Athens,  along  with  Theseus, 
as  a  hero. 

[PiRous  (Ueipoof),  son  of  Imbrasus,  a  leader 
of  the  Thracians,  in  alliance  with  the  Trojans, 
slain  by  Thoas.] 

PIRUS  (Uetpof),  PIERUS  (Tltepos),  or  ACHKLOUS, 
the  chief  river  of  Achaia,  which  falls  into  the 
Gulf  of  Patrae  near  Olenus. 

PIRUST^E,  a  people  in  Illyria,  exempted  from 
taxes  by  the  Romans  because  they  deserted 
Gentius  and  passed  over  to  the  Romans. 

PISA  (IL'cra :  Utadrrif),  the  capital  of  Pi  SATIS 
(HiauTif),  the  middle  portion  of  the  province  of 
Elis  in  Peloponnesus.  Vid.  ELIS.  In  the  most 
ancient  times  Pisatis  formed  a  union  of  eight 
states,  of  which,  in  addition  to  Pisa,  we  find 
mention  of  Salmone,  Heraclea,  Harpinna,  Cyce- 
sium,  and  Dyspontium.  Pisa  itself  was  situa- 
ted north  of  the  Alpheus,  at  a  very  short  dis- 
tance east  of  Olympia,  and,  in  consequence  ot 
its  proximity  to  the  latter  place,  was  frequently 
identified  by  the  poets  with  it.  The  history  of 
the  Pisatae  consists  of  their  struggle  with  the 
Eleans,  with  whom  they  contended  for  the  pres- 
idency of  the  Olympic  games.  The  Pisatae  ob- 
tained this  honor  in  the  eighth  Olympiad  (B.C. 
7»8)  with  the  assistance  of  Phidon,  tyrant  of 
Argos,  and  also  a  second  time  in  the  thirty- 
fourth  Olympiad  (644)  by  means  of  their  own 
king  Pantaleon.  In  the  fifty-second  Olympiad 
(572)  the  struggle  between  the  two  tribes  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  conquest  and  destruc- 
tion of  Pisa  by  the  Eleans.  So  complete  was 
the  destruction  of  the  city,  that  not  a  trace  of  it 
was  left  in  later  times  ;  and  some  persons,  as 
we  learn  from  Strabo,  even  questioned  whether 
it  had  ever  existed,  supposing  that  by  the  name 
of  Pisa  the  kingdom  of  the  Pisatae  was  alone 
intended.  The  existence,  however,  of  the  city 
does  not  admit  of  dispute.  Even  after  the  de- 
struction of  the  city,  the  Pisatae  did  not  relin- 
quish their  claims ;  and  in  the  one  hundred  and 
fourth  Olympiad  (364),  they  had  the  presidency 
of  the  Olympic  games  along  with  the  Arcadians, 
when  the  latter  people  were  making  war  with 
the  Eleans. 

PIS;E,  more  rarely  PISA  (Pisanus  :  now  Pita), 
one  of  the  most  ancient  and  important  of  the 
cities  of  Etruria,  was  situated  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Arnus  and  Ausar  (now  Serchio),  about  six 
miles  from  the  sea  ;  hut  the  latter  river  altered 
its  course  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  now  flows 
into  the  sea  by  a  separate  channel.  According 
to  some  traditions,  Pisae  was  founded  by  the 
companions  of  Nestor,  the  inhabitants  of  Pisa 


PISANDER. 

in  Elis,  \\.io  were  driven  apon  the  coast  of  Italy 
on  their  return  from  Troy,  whence  the  Roman 
poets  give  the  Etruscan  town  the  surname 
of  Alphea.  This  legend,  however,  like  many 
others,  probably  arose  from  the  accidental  simi- 
larity of  the  names  of  the  two  cities.  It  would 
seem  that  Pisa  was  originally  a  Pelasgic  town, 
that  it  afterward  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Ligyae,  and  from  them  into  those  of  the  Etrus- 
cans. It  then  became  one  of  the  twelve  cities 
of  Etruria,  and  was,  down  to  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, the  most  northerly  city  in  the  country. 
Pisa  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Ligurian 
wars  as  the  head-quarters  of  the  Roman  legions. 
In  B.C.  180  it  was  made  a  Latin  colony,  and 
appears  to  have  been  colonized  again  in  the 
time  of  Augustus,  since  we  find  it  called  in  in- 
scriptions Colonia  Julia  Pisana.  Its  harbor, 
called  Portus  Pisanus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ar- 
nus,  was  much  used  by  the  Romans  ;  and  in  the 
time  of  Strabo  the  town  of  Pisa  was  still  a  place 
of  considerable  importance  on  account  of  the 
marble-quarries  in  its  neighborhood,  and  the 
quantity  of  timber  which  it  yielded  for  ship- 
building. About  three  miles  north  of  the  town 
were  mineral  springs,  called  Aqua  Pisana,  which 
were  less  celebrated  in  antiquity  than  they  are 
at  the  present  day.  There  is  scarcely  a  vestige 
of  the  ancient  city  in  the  modern  Pisa. 

PISANDER  (TIeiaavdpof).  [1.  Son  of  Maemalus, 
a  leader  of  the  Myrmidons  before  Troy. — 2.  Son 
of  Antimachus,  brother  of  Hippolochus,  a  Tro- 
jan warrior,  slain  by  Agamemnon. — 3.  Another 
Trojan  warrior,  slain  by  Menelaus.] — 4.  Son  of 
Polyctor,  and  one  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope. — 
5.  An  Athenian,  of  the  demus  of  Acharnae,  lived 
in  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  was 
attacked  by  the"  comic  poets  for  his  rapacity  and 
cowardice.  In  412  he  comes  before  us  as  the 
chief  ostensible  agent  in  effecting  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  Four  Hundred.  In  all  the  measures 
of  the  new  government,  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  he  took  an  active  part ;  and  when  The- 
ramenes  and  others  withdrew  from  it,  he  sided 
with  the  more  violent  aristocrats,  and  was  one 
of  those  who,  on  the  counter-revolution,  took 
refuge  with  Agis  at  Decelea.  His  property  was 
confiscated,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  he  ever 
returned  to  Athens. — 6.  A  Spartan,  brother-in- 
law  of  Agesilaus  II.,  who  made  him  admiral  of 
the  fleet  in  395.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
defeated  and^ slain  in  the  sea-fight  off  Cnidus, 
against  Conon  and  Pharnabazus. — 7.  A  poet  of 
Camirus  in  Rhodes,  flourished  about  B.C.  648- 
645.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  in  two 
books  on  the  exploits  of  Hercules,  called  Hcra- 
clea  ('Hpuic^eia).  The  Alexandrean  gramma- 
rians thought  so  highly  of  the  poem  that  they 
received  Pisander,  as  well  as  Antimachus  and 
Panyasis,  into  the  epic  canon  together  with 
Homer  and  Hesiod.  Only  a  few  lines  of  it  have 
been  preserved.  In  the  Greek  Anthology  we 
find  an  epigram  attributed  to  Pisander  of  Rhodes, 
perhaps  the  poet  of  Camirus.  [The  few  re- 
maining fragments  are  published  by  Dubner 
among  the  Poeta  Epici  Minorei,  Paris,  1840.]— 
8.  A  poet  of  Laranda,  in  Lycia  or  Lycaonia,  was 
the  son  of  Nestor,  and  flourished  in  the  reign 
of  Alexander  Severus(  A.  D.  222-235).  He  wrote 
a  poem,  called  'UpuiKal  deoyauiat,  which  prob- 
ably treated  of  the  marriages  of  gods  and  god- 


PISISTRATID.E. 

desses  with  mortals,  and  of  the  heroic  progeny 
thus  produced. 

PISATIS.      Vid.  PISA. 

PISAURUM  (Pisaurensis  :  now  Pesard),  an  an- 
cient town  of  Umbria,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
River  PISAURUS  (now  Foglia),  on  the  road  to 
Ariminum.  It  was  colonized  by  the  Romans  in 
B.C.  186,  and  probably  colonized  a  second  time 
by  Augustus,  si  line  it  is  called  in  inscriptions 
Colonia  Julia  Felix. 

PISAURUS.      Vid.  PISAURUM. 

PISGAH.     Vid..  NEBO. 

PMniA  (%  Tlioi&iKTi :  Htaidrif,  pi.  Hiaidai,  alpo 
Heioidat,  Tiiasldai,  and  Titaidiicoi,  PisiDA,pl.  PISI- 
DM,  anc.  PEISID^E),  an  inland  district  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  by  Lycia  and  Pamphylia  on  the 
south,  Cilicia  on  the  southeast,  Lycaonia  and 
Isauria  (the  latter  often  reckoned  a  part  of  Pi- 
sidia)  on  the  east  and  northeast,  Phrygia  Paro- 
reios  on  the  north,  where  the  boundary  varied 
at  different  times,  and  was  never  very  definite, 
and  Caria  on  the  west.  It  was  a  mountainous 
region,  formed  by  that  part  of  the  main  chain 
of  Mount  Taurus  which  sweeps  round  in  a  semi- 
circle parallel  to  the  shore  of  the  Pamphylian 
Gulf,  the  strip  of  shore  itself,  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountains,  constituting  the  district  of  PAM- 
PHYLIA. The  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  were 
a  warlike  aboriginal  people,  related  apparently 
to  the  Isaurians  and  Cilicians.  They  maintain- 
ed their  independence,  under  petty  chieftains, 
against  all  the  successive  rulers  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  Romans  never  subdued  the  Pisidians  in 
their  mountain  fortresses,  though  they  took 
some  of  the  towns  on  the  outskirts  of  their 
country ;  for  example,  Antiochia,  which  was 
made  a  colony  with  the  Jus  hulk-urn.  In  fact, 
the  northern  part,  in  which  Antiochia  stood, 
had  originally  belonged  to  Phrygia,  and  was 
more  accessible  and  more  civilized  than  the 
mountains  which  formed  the  proper  country  of 
the  Pisidians.  Nominally,  the  country  was  con- 
sidered a  part  of  Pamphylia  till  the  new  sub- 
division of  the  empire  under  Constantine,  when 
Pisidia  was  made  a  separate  province.  The 
country  is  still  inhabited  by  wild  tribes,  among 
whom  travelling  is  dangerous,  and  it  is  there- 
fore little  known.  Ancient  writers  say  that  it 
contained,  amid  its  rugged  mountains,  some 
fertile  valleys,  where  the  olive  flourished ;  and 
it  also  produced  the  gum  storax,  some  medic- 
inal plants,  and  salt.  On  the  southern  slope  of 
the  Taurus,  several  rivers  flowed  through  Pi- 
sidia and  Pamphylia  into  the  Pamphylian  Gulf, 
the  chief  of  which  were  the  Cestrus  and  the 
Catarrhactes ;  and  on  the  north  the  mountain 
streams  form  some  large  salt  lakes,  namely, 
Ascania  (now  Hoiran  and  Egerdir)  south  of 
Antiochia,  Carafius  or  Pusgusa  (now  Bci  Shehr 
or  Kereli)  southeast  of  the  former,  and  Trogitis 
(now  Soghla)  further  to  the  southeast  in  Isau- 
ria. Special  names  were  given  to  certain  dis- 
tricts, which  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  parts 
of  Pisidia,  sometimes  as  distinct  countries, 
namely,  Cibyratis,  in  the  southwest  along  the 
north  of  Lycia,  and  Cabalia,  the  southwestern 
corner  of  Cibyralis  itself;  Milyas,  the  district 
east  of  Cibyratis,  northeast  of  Lycia,  and  north- 
west of  Pamphylia,  and  Isauria,  in  the  cast  of 
Pisidia,  on  the  borders  of  Lycaonia. 

Pi8isT*lTiD.«  (Uciaiarpartiai),  the  legitimate 

669 


PISISTRATTJS. 

sons  of  Pisistiatus.  The  name  is  used  some- 
times to  indicate  only  Hippias  and  Hipparchus, 
and  sometimes  in  a  wider  application,  em- 
bracing the  grandchildren  and  near  connections 
of  Pisistratus  (as  by  Herod.,  viii.,  52,  referring 
to  a  time  when  both  Hippias  and  Hipparchus 
wore  dead). 

PISISTRATUS  (ITetff/arparof),  the  youngest  son 
of  Nestor  and  Anaxibia,  was  a  friend  ofTelem- 
nchus,  and  accompanied  him  on  his  journey  from 
Pylos  to  Menelaus  at  Sparta. 

PISISTRATUS  (neiaiarparof},  an  Athenian,  son 
of  Hippocrates,  was  so  named  after  Pisistratus, 
the  youngest  son  of  Nestor,  since  the  family  of 
Hippocrates  was  of  Pylian  origin,  and  traced 
their  descent  to  Neleus,  the  father  of  Nestor. 
The  mother  of  Pisistratus  (whose  name  we  do 
not  know)  was  cousin-german  to  the  mother  of 
Solon.  Pisistratus  grew  up  equally  distinguish- 
ed for  personal  beauty  and  for  mental  endow- 
ments. The  relationship  between  him  and  So- 
lon naturally  drew  them  together,  and  a  close 
friendship  sprang  up  between  them.  He  as- 
sisted Solon  by  his  eloquence  in  persuading  the 
Athenians  to  renew  their  struggle  with  theMe- 
garians  for  the  possession  of  Salamis,  and  he 
afterward'  fought  with  bravery  in  the  expedi- 
tion which  S^lon  led  against  the  island.  When 
Solon,  after  the  establishment  of  his  constitu- 
tion, retired  for  a  time  from  Athens,  the  old 
rivalry  between  the  parties  of  the  Plain,  the 
Highlands,  and  the  Coast  broke  out  into  open 
feud.  The  party  of  the  Plain,  comprising  chief- 
ly the  landed  proprietors,  was  headed  by  Lycur- 
gus ;  that  of  the  Coast,  consisting  of  the  wealth- 
ier classes  not  belonging  to  the  nobles,  by  Mega- 
cles,  the  son  of  Alcmaeon ;  the  party  of  the  High- 
lands, which  aimed  at  more  of  political  freedom 
and  equality  than  either  of  the  two  others,  was 
tne  one  at  the  head  of  which  Pisistratus  placed 
himself,  because  they  seemed  the  most  likely 
to  be  useful  in  the  furtherance  of  his  ambitious 
designs.  His  liberality,  as  well  as  his  military 
and  oratorical  abilities,  gained  him  the  support 
of  a  large  body  of  citizens.  Solon,  on  his  re- 
turn, quickly  saw  through  the  designs  of  Pisis- 
tratus, who  listened  with  respect  to  his  advice, 
though  he  prosecuted  his  schemes  none  the  less 
diligently.  When  Pisistratus  found  his  plans 
sufficiently  ripe  for  execution,  he  one  day  made 
his  appearance  in  the  agora  with  his  mules  and 
his  own  person  exhibiting  recent  wounds,  pre- 
tending that  he  had  been  nearly  assassinated  by 
his  enemies  as  he  was  riding  into  the  country. 
An  assembly  of  the  people  was  forthwith  call- 
ed, in  which  one  of  his  partisans  proposed  that 
a  body-guard  of  fifty  citizens,  armed  with  clubs, 
should  be  granted  to  him.  It  was  in  vain  that 
Solon  opposed  this ;  the  guard  was  given  him. 
Tbiou^h  the  neglect  or  connivance  of  the  peo- 
pie,  Pisistratus  took  this  opportunity  of  rais- 
ing a  much  larger  force,  with  which  he  seized 
the  citadel,  B.C.  560,  thus  becoming  what  the 
Greeks  called  Tyrant  of  Athens.  Having  se- 
cured to  himself  the  substance  of  power,  he 
made  no  further  change  in  the  constitution  or 
in  the  laws,  which  he  administered  ably  and 
well.  His  first  usurpation  lasted  but  a  short 
time.  Before  his  power  was  firmly  rooted,  the 
factions  headed  by  Megacles  and  Lycurgus  com- 
bined, and  Pisistratus  was  compelled  to  evacu- 
670 


PISISTRATUS. 

ate  Athens.  He  remained  in  banishment  si* 
years.  Meantime  the  factions  of  Megacles  and 
Lycurgus  revived  their  old  feuds,  and  Megacles 
made  overtures  to  Pisistratus,  offering  to  rein- 
state him  in  the  tyranny  if  he  would  connect 
himself  with  him  by  receiving  his  daughter  in 
marriage.  The  proposal  was  accepted  by  Pisis- 
tratus, and  the  following  stratagem  was  devised 
for  accomplishing  his  restoration,  according  to 
the  account  of  Herodotus.  A  damsel  named 
Phya,  of  remarkable  stature  and  beauty,  was 
dressed  up  as  Minerva  (Athena)  in  a  full  suit  of 
armor,  and  placed  in  a  chariot,  with  Pisistratus 
by  her  side.  The  chariot  was  then  driven  to- 
ward the  city,  heralds  being  sent  on  before  to 
announce  that  Minerva  (Athena)  in  person  was 
bringing  back  Pisistratus  to  her  Acropolis.  The 
report  spread  rapidly,  and  those  in  the  city  be- 
lieving that  the  woman  was  really  their  tutela- 
ry goddess,  worshipped  her,  and  admitted  Pisis- 
tratus. Pisistratus  nominally  performed  his  part 
of  the  contract  with  Megacles  ;  but,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  insulting  manner  in  which  he 
treated  his  wife,  Megacles  again  made  common 
cause  with  Lycurgus,  and  Pisistratus  was  a  sec- 
ond time  compelled  to  evacuate  Athens.  He 
retired  to  Eretria  in  Eubrea,  and  employed  the 
next  ten  years  in  making  preparations  to  regain 
his  power.  At  the  end  of  that  time  he  invaded 
Attica  with  the  forces  he  had  raised,  and  also 
supported  by  Lygdamis  of  Naxos  with  a  con- 
siderable body  of  troops.  He  defeated  his  op- 
ponents near  the  temple  of  Minerva  (Athena) 
at  Pallene,  and  then  entered  Athens  without 
opposition.  Lygdamis  was  rewarded  by  being 
established  as  tyrant  of  Naxos,  which  island 
Pisistratus  conquered.  Vid.  LYGDAMIS.  Hav- 
ing now  become  tyrant  of  Athens  for  the  third 
time,  Pisistratus  adopted  measures  to  secure 
the  undisturbed  possession  of  his  supremacy. 
He  took  a  body  of  foreign  mercenaries  into  his 
pay,  and  seized  as  hostages  the  children  of  sev 
eral  of  the  principal  citizens,  placing  them  in 
the  custody  of  Lygdamis  in  Naxos.  He  main- 
tained at  the  same  time  the  form  of'Solon's  in- 
stitutions, only  taking  care,  as  his  sons  did  after 
him,  that  the  highest  offices  should  always  be 
held  by  some  member  of  the  family.  He  not 
only  exacted  obedience  to  the  laws  from  his 
subjects  and  friends,  but  himself  set  the  exam- 
ple of  submitting  to  them.  On  one  occasion  he 
even  appeared  before  the  Areopagus  to  answei 
a  charge  of  murder,  which,  however,  was  not 
prosecuted.  Athens  was  indebted  to  him  for 
many  stately  and  useful  buildings.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  a  temple  to  the  Pyth- 
ian Apollo,  and  a  magnificent  temple  to  the 
Olympian  Jupiter  (Zeus),  which  remained  un- 
finished for  several  centuries,  and  was  at  length 
completed  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  Besides 
these,  the  Lyceum,  a  garden  with  stately  build- 
ings a  short  distance  from  the  city,  was  the 
work  of  Pisistratus,  as  also  the  fountain  of  the 
Nine  Springs.  Pisistratus  also  encouraged  lit- 
erature in  various  ways.  It  was  apparently  un- 
der his  auspices  thatThespis  introduced  at  Ath- 
ens his  rude  form  of  tragedy  (B.C.  535),  and 
that  dramatic  contests  were  made  a  regular 
part  of  the  Attic  Dionysia.  It  is  to  Pisistratus 
that  we  owe  the  first  written  text  of  the  whole 
of  the  poems  of  Homer,  which,  without  his  care 


PISO. 

would  most  likely  now  exist  only  in  a  few  dis- 
jointed fragments.  Vid.  HOMERUS.  Pisistratus 
is  also  said  to  have  been  the  first  person  in 
Greece  who  collected  a  library,  to  which  he 
generously  allowed  the  public  access.  By  his 
first  wife  Pisistratus  had  two  sons,  Hippias  and 
Hipparchus.  By  his  second  wife.  Timonassa, 
he  had  also  two  sons,  lophon  and  Thessalus, 
who  are  rarely  mentioned.  He  had  also  a  bas- 
tard son,  Hegesistratus,  whom  he  made  tyrant 
of  Sigeum,  after  taking  that  town  from  the  Myt- 
ilenaeans.  Pisistratus  died  at  an  advanced  age 
in  527,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  tyranny  by  his 
eldest  son  Hippias ;  but  Hippias  and  his  broth- 
er Hipparchus  appear  to  have  administered  the 
affairs  of  the  state  with  so  little  outward  dis- 
tinction, that  they  are  frequently  spoken  of  as 
though  they  had  been  joint  tyrants.  They  con- 
tinued the  government  on  the  same  principles 
as  their  father.  Thucydides  (vi.,  54)  speaks  in 
terms  of  high  commendation  of  the  virtue  and 
intelligence  with  which  their  rule  was  exer- 
cised till  the  death  of  Hipparchus.  Hipparchus 
inherited  his  father's  literary  tastes.  Several 
distinguished  poets  lived  at  Athens  under  the 
patronage  of  Hipparchus,  as,  for  example,  Simo- 
nides  of  Ceos,  Anacreon  of  Teos,  Lasus  of  Her- 
mione,  and  Onomacritus.  After  the  murder  of 
Hipparchus  in  514,  an  account  of  which  is  given 
under  HARMODIUS,  a  great  change  ensued  in 
the  character  of  the  government.  Under  the 
influence  of  revengeful  feelings  and  fears  for  his 
own  safety,  Hippias  now  became  a  morose  and 
suspicious  tyrant.  He  put  to  death  great  num- 
bers of  the  citizens,  and  raised  money  by  ex- 
traordinary imposts.  His  old  enemies  the  Alc- 
maeonidae,  to  whom  Megacles  belonged,  availed 
themselves  of  the  growing  discontent  of  the  cit- 
izens ;  and  after  one  or  two  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts, they  at  length  succeeded,  supported  by 
a  large  force  under  Cleomenes,  in  expelling  the 
Pisistratidae  from  Attica.  Hippias  and  his  con- 
nections retired  to  Sigeum  in  510.  The  family 
of  the  tyrants  was  condemned  to  perpetual  ban- 
ishment, a  sentence  which  was  maintained  even 
in  after  times,  when  decrees  of  amnesty  were 
passed.  Hippias  afterward  repaired  to  the  court 
of  Darius,  and  looked  forward  to  a  restoration 
to  his  country  by  the  aid  of  the  Persians.  He 
accompanied  the  expedition  sent  under  Datis 
and  Artaphernes,  and  pointed  out  to  the  Per- 
sians the  plain  of  Marathon  as  the  most  suita- 
ble place  for  their  landing.  He  was  now  (490) 
of  great  age.  According  to  some  accounts,  he 
fell  in  the  battle  of  Marathon  ;  according  to  oth- 
ers, he  died  at  Lemnos  on  his  return.  Hippias 
was  the  only  one  of  the  legitimate  sons  of  Pisis- 
tratus who  had  children ;  but  none  of  them  at- 
tained distinction. 

PISO,  CALPURNIUS,  the  name  of  a  distinguish- 
ed plebeian  family.  The  name  of  Piso,  like 
many  other  Roman  cognomens,  is  connected 
with  agriculture,  the  noblest  and  most  honor- 
able pursuit  of  the  ancient  Romans  :  it  comes 
from  the  verb  pisere  or  pinscre,  and  refers  to  the 
pounding  or  grinding  of  corn.  1.  Was  taken 
prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Cannae,  B.C.  216  ;  was 
praetor  urbanus  211,  and  afterward  commanded 
as  propraeter  in  Etruria  210.  Piso  in  his  prae- 
torship  proposed  to  the  senate  that  the  Ludi 
Apollinares,  which  had  been  exhibited  for  tho 


PISO. 

first  time  in  the  preceding  year  (212),  should  be 
repeated,  and  should  be  celebrated  in  future  an- 
nually. The  senate  passed  a  decree  to  this  ef 
feet.  The  establishment  of  these  %ames  by 
their  ancestor  was  commemorated  on  coins  b) 
the  Pisones  in  later  times. — 2.  C.,  son  of  No. 
1,  was  praetor  186,  and  received  Further  Spain 
as  his  province.  He  returned  to  Rome  in  184, 
and  obtained  a  triumph  for  a  victory  he  had 
gained  over  the  Lusitani  and  Celtiberi.  He  was 
consul  in  180,  and  died  during  his  consulship. 

Pisones  with  the  agnomen  Casoninus. 
3.  L.,  received  the  agnomen  Caasoninus  be- 
cause he  originally  belonged  to  the  Csesonia 
gens.  He  was  praetor  in  154,  and  obtained  the 
province  of  Further  Spain,  but  was  defeated  by 
the  Lusitani.  He  was  consul  in  148,  and  was 
sent  to  conduct  the  war  against  Carthage  ;  he 
was  succeeded  in  the  command  in  the  following 
year  by  Scipio. — 4.  L.,  son  of  No.  3,  consul  1 12 
with  M.  Livius  Drusus.  In  107  he  served  as 
legatus  to  the  consul,  L.  Cassius  Longinus,  who 
was  sent  into  Gaul  to  oppose  the  Cimbri  and 
their  allies,  and  he  fell  together  with  the  con- 
sul in  the  battle,  in  which  the  Roman  army  was 
utterly  defeated  by  the  Tigurini  in  the  territory 
of  the  Allobroges.  This  Piso  was  bhe  grandfa- 
ther of  Caesar's  father-in-law,  a  circumstance 
to  which  Caesar  himself  alludes  in  recording  his 
own  victory  over  the  Tigurini  at  a  later  time. 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  7,  12.)— 5.  L.,  son  of  No.  4, 
never  rose  to  any  of  the  offices  of  state,  and  is 
only  known  from  the  account  given  of  him  by 
Cicero  in  his  violent  invective  against  his  son. 
He  married  the  daughter  of  Calventius,  a  na- 
tive of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  who  came  from  Placen- 
tia  and  settled  at  Rome ;  and  hence  Cicero  calls 
his  son,  in  contempt,  a  semi-Placentian.— 6.  L., 
son  of  No.  5,  was  an  unprincipled  debauchee 
and  a  cruel  and  corrupt  magistrate.  He  is  first 
mentioned  in  59,  when  he  was  brought  to  trial 
by  P.  Clodius  for  plundering  a  province,  of  which 
he  had  the  administration  after  his  praetorship, 
and  he  was  only  acquitted  by  throwing  himself 
at  the  feet  of  the  judges.  In  the  same  year 
Caesar  married  his  daughter  Calpurnia ;  and 
through  his  influence  Piso  obtained  the  consul- 
ship for  58,  having  for  his  colleague  A.  Gabinius, 
who  was  indebted  for  the  honor  to  Pompey. 
Both  consuls  supported  Clodius  in  his  measures 
against  Cicero,  which  resulted  in  the  banish- 
ment of  the  orator.  The  conduct  of  Piso  in 
support  of  Clodius  produced  that  extreme  re- 
sentment in  the  mind  of  Cicero  which  he  dis- 
played against  Piso  on  many  subsequent  occa- 
sions. At  the  expiration  of  his  consulship  Piso 
went  to  his  province  of  Macedonia,  where  ho 
remained  during  two  years  (57  and  56),  plun- 
dering the  province  in  the  most  shameless  man- 
ner. In  the  latter  of  these  years  the  senate  re- 
solved that  a  successor  should  be  appointed; 
and  in  the  debate  in  the  senate  which  led  to 
his  recall,  Cicero  attacked  him  in  the  most  un- 
measured terms  in  an  oration  which  has  come 
down  to  us  (De  Protinciit  Consulanbus).  Piso, 
on  his  return  (55),  complained  in  the  senate  of 
the  attack  of  Cicero,  and  justified  the  adminis- 
tration of  his  province,  whereupon  Cicero  re- 
iterated his  charges  in  a  speech  which  is  like 
wise  extant  (In  Pijonem).  Cicero,  howevei 

571 


PISO. 

did  not  venture  to  bring  to  trial  the  father-..!- 
law  of  Csesar.  In  50  Piso  was  censor  with  Ap. 
Claudius  Pulcher.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  vvar*(49)  Piso  accompanied  Pompey  in  his 
flight  from  the  city ;  and  although  he  did  not  go 
with  him  across  the  sea,  he  still  kept  aloof  from 
Cffisar.  He  subsequently  returned  to  Rome, 
and  remained  neutral  during  the  civil  war. 
After  Caesar's  death  (44)  Piso  at  first  opposed 
Antony,  but  is  afterward  mentioned  as  one  of 
his  partisans. — 7.  L.,  son  of  No.  6,  was  consul 
in  15,  and  afterward  obtained  his  province  of 
Pamphylia;  from  thence  he  was  recalled  by 
Augustus  in  11,  in  order  to  make  war  upon  the 
Thracians,  who  had  attacked  the  province  of 
Macedonia.  He  was  appointed  by  Tiberius 
praefectus  urbi.  While  retaining  the  favor  of 
the  emperor,  without  condescending  to  servility, 
he  at  the  same  time  earned  the  good-will  of  his 
fellow-citizens  by  the  integrity  and  justice  with 
which  he  governed  the  city.  He  died  in  A.D. 
32,  at  the  age  of  eighty,  and  was  honored  by  a 
decree  of  the  senate  with  a  public  funeral.  It 
was  to  this  Piso  and  his  two  sons  that  Horace 
addressed  his  epistle  on  the  Art  of  Poetry. 

Pisones  with,  the  agnomen  Frugi. 
8.  L.,  received  from  his  integrity  and  con- 
scientiousness' the  surname  of  Frugi,  which  is 
perhaps  nearly  equivalent  to  our  "man  of  hon- 
or." He  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  149,  in  which 
year  he  proposed  the  first  law  for  the  punish- 
ment of  extortion  in  the  provinces.  He  was 
consul  in  133,  and  carried  on  war  against  the 
slaves  in  Sicily.  He  was  a  staunch  supporter 
of  the  aristocratical  party,  and  offered  a  strong 
opposition  to  the  measures  of  C.  Gracchus. 
Piso  was  censor,  but  it  is  uncertain  in  what 
year.  He  wrote  Annals,  which  contained  the 
history  of  Rome  from  the  earliest  period  to  the 
age  in  which  Piso  himself  lived. — 9.  L.,  son  of 
No.  8,  served  with  distinction  under  his  father 
in  Sicily  in  133,  and  died  in  Spain  about  111, 
whither  he  had  gone  as  propraetor. — 10.  L.,  son 
of  No.  9,  was  a  colleague  of  Verres  in  the  prae- 
torship  74,  when  he  thwarted  many  of  the  un- 
righteous schemes  of  the  latter. — 11.  C.,  son  of 
No.  10,  married  Tullia,  the  daughter  of  Cicero, 
in  63,  but  was  betrothed  to  her  as  early  as  67. 
He  was  quaestor  in  58,  when  he  used  every  ex- 
ertion to  obtain  the  recall  of  his  father-in-law 
from  banishment ;  but  he  died  in  57,  before  Cic- 
ero's return  to  Rome.  He  is  frequently  men- 
tioned by  Cicero  in  terms  of  gratitude  on  ac- 
count of  the  zeal  which  he  had  manifested  in 
his  behalf  during  his  banishment. 

Pisones  without  an  agnomen. 
12.  C.,  consul  67,  belonged  to  the  high  aris- 
tocratical party,  and  in  his  consulship  opposed 
with  the  utmost  vehemence  the  law  of  the  trib- 
une Gabinius  for  giving  Pompey  the  command 
of  the  war  against  the  pirates.  In  66  and  65 
Piso  administered  the  province  of  Narbonese 
Gaul  as  proconsul,  and  while  there  suppressed 
an  insurrection  of  the  Allobroges.  In  63  he 
was  accused  of  plundering  the  province,  and 
was  defended  by  Cicero.  The  latter  charge 
was  brought  against  Piso  at  the  instigation  of 
Csesar ;  and  Piso,  in  revenge,  implored  Cicero, 
out  without  success,  to  accuse  Caesar  as  one  of 

672 


PISO. 

the  conspirators  of  Catiline.— 13.  M.,  usuall) 
called  M.  PUPIUS  Piso,  because  he  was  adopted 
by  M.  Pupius  when  the  latter  was  an  old  man 
He  retained,  however,  his  family  name  Piso 
just  as  Scipio,  after  his  adoption  by  Metellus 
was  called  Metellus  Scipio.  Vid.  METELLUO, 
No.  15.  On  the  death  of  L.  Cinna  in  84,  Piso 
married  his  wife  Annia.  In  83  he  was  appoint- 
ed quaestor  to  the  consul  L.  Scipio ;  but  he 
quickly  deserted  this  party,  and  went  over  to 
Sulla,  who  compelled  him  to  divorce  his  wife 
on  account  of  her  previous  connection  with 
Cinna.  After  his  praetorship,  the  year  of  which 
is  uncertain,  he  received  the  province  of  Spain 
with  the  title  of  proconsul,  and  on  his  return  to 
Rome  in  69,  enjoyed  the  honor  of  a  triumph. 
He  served  in  the  Mithradatic  war  as  a  legatus 
of  Pompey.  He  was  elected  consul  for  61 
through  the  influence  of  Ppmpey.  In  his  con- 
sulship Piso  gave  great  offence  to  Cicero  by 
not  asking  the  orator  first  in  the  senate  for  his 
opinion,  and  by  taking  P.  Clodius  under  his  pro- 
tection after  his  violation  of  the  mysteries  of 
the  Bona  Dea.  Cicero  revenged  himself  on 
Piso  by  preventing  him  from  obtaining  the  prov- 
ince of  Syria,  which  had  been  promised  him. 
Piso,  in  his  younger  days,  had  so  high  ajepu- 
tation  as  an  orator,  that  Cicero  was  taken  to 
him  by  his  father  in  order  to  receive  instruc- 
tion from  him.  He  belonged  to  the  Peripatetic 
school  in  philosophy,  in  which  he  received  in- 
structions from  Staseas. — 14.  CM.,  a  young  no- 
ble who  had  dissipated  his  fortune  by  his  ex- 
travagance and  profligacy,  and  therefore  joined 
Catiline  in  what  is  usually  called  his  first  con- 
spiracy (66).  (For  details,  vid.  p.  183,  a.)  The 
senate,  anxious  to  get  rid  of  Piso,  sent  him  into 
Nearer  Spain  as  quaestor,  but  with  the  rank  and 
title  of  propraetor.  His  exactions  in  the  prov- 
ince soon  made  him  so  hateful  to  the  inhabit- 
ants that  he  was  murdered  by  them.  It  was, 
however,  supposed  by  some  that  he  was  mur- 
dered at  the  instigation  of  Pompey  or  of  Cras- 
sus. — 15.  CN.,  fought  against  Caesar  in  Africa 
(46),  and  after  the  death  of  the  dictator  joined 
Brutus  and  Cassius.  He  was  subsequently  par- 
doned, and  returned  to  Rome  ;  but  he  disdain- 
ed to  ask  Augustus  for  any  of  tne  honors  of  the 
state,  and  was,  without  solicitation,  raised  to 
the  consulship  in  23. — 16.  CN.,  son  of  No.  15, 
inherited  all  the  pride  and  haughtiness  of  his 
father.  He  was  consul  B.C.  7,  and  was  cent 
by  Augustus  as  legate  into  Spain,  where  he 
made  himself  hated  by  his  cruelty  and  avarice. 
Tiberius,  after  his  accession,  was  chiefly  jealous 
of  Germanicus,  his  brother's  son  ;  and  accord- 
ingly, when  the  eastern  provinces  were  assign- 
ed to  Germanicus  in  A.D.  18,  Tiberius  conferred 
upon  Piso  the  command  of  Syria,  in  order  that 
the  latter  might  do  every  thing  in  his  power  tc 
thwart  and  oppose  Germanicus.  Plancina,  the 
wife  of  Piso,  was  also  urged  on  by  Livia,  the 
mother  of  the  emperor,  to  vie  with  and  annoy 
Agrippina.  Germanicus  and  Agrippina  were 
thus  exposed  to  every  species  of  insult  and  op- 
position from  Piso  and  Plancina ;  and  when 
Germanicus  fell  ill  in  the  autumn  of  19,  he  be- 
lieved that  he  had  been  poisoned  by  them.  Piso, 
on  his  return  to  Rome  (20),  was  accused  of  mur- 
dering Germanicus;  the  matter  was  investi- 
gated by  the  senate;  but  before  the  investiga 


PISON. 

lion  came  to  an  end,  Piso  was  found  one  morn- 
ing in  his  room  with  his  throat  cut,  and  his 
sword  lying  by  his  side.  It  was  generally  sup- 
posed that,  despairing  of  the  emperor's  protec- 
tion, he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life ;  but  others 
believed  that  Tiberius  dreaded  his  revealing  his 
secrets,  and  accordingly  caused  him  to  be  put 
to  death.  The  powerful  influence  of  Livia  se- 
cured the  acquittal  of  Plancina. — 17.  C.,  the 
leader  of  the  well-known  conspiracy  against 
Nero  in  A.D.  65.  Piso  himself  did  not  form 
the  plot ;  but  as  soon  as  he  had  joined  it,  his 
great  popularity  gained  him  many  partisans. 
He  possessed  most  of  the  qualities  which  the 
Romans  prized,  high  birth,  an  eloquent  address, 
liberality,  and  affability  ;  and  he  also  displayed 
a  sufficient  love  of  magnificence  and  luxury  to 
suit  the  taste  of  the  day,  which  would  not  have 
tolerated  austerity  of  manner  or  character.  The 
conspiracy  was  discovered  by  Milichus,  a  freed- 
man  of  Flavius  Scevinus,  one  of  the  conspira- 
tors. Piso  thereupon  opened  his  veins,  and 
thus  died.  There  is  extant  a  poem  in  two 
hundred  lines,  containing  a  panegyric  on  a  cer- 
tain Calpurnius  Piso,  who  is  probably  the  same 
person  as  the  leader  of  the  conspiracy  against 
Nero. — 18.  L.,  surnamed  LICINIANUS,  was  the 
son  of  M.  Licinius  Crassus  Frugi,  and  was 
adopted  by  one  of  the  Pisones.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Galba  to  the  throne,  he  adopted  as  his 
son  and  successor  Piso  Licinianus  ;  but  the  lat- 
ter onty  enjoyed  the  distinction  four  days,  for 
Otho,  who  had  hoped  to  receive  this  honor,  in- 
duced the  praetorians  to  rise  against  the  em- 
peror. Piso  fled  for  refuge  into  the  temple  of 
Vesta,  but  was  dragged  out  by  the  soldiers,  and 
dispatched  at  the  threshold  of  the  temple,  A. 
D.  69. 

[PisoN  (Heiffuv),  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants  at 
Athens,  to  gratify  his  cupidity  w*s  the  author 
of  cruel  and  oppressive  enactment  against  the 
raetoeci.] 

PISTOR,  that  is,  the  baker,  a  surname  of  Jupi- 
ter at  Rome,  which  is  said  to  have  arisen  in  the 
following  manner.  When  the  Gauls  were  be- 
sieging Rome,  the  god  suggested  to  the  besieged 
the  idea  of  throwing  loaves  of  bread  among  the 
enemies,  to  make  them  believe  that  the  Ro- 
mans had  plenty  of  provisions,  and  thus  caused 
them  to  give  up  the  siege. 

PISTORIA  or  PISTORIDM  (Pistoriensis :  nowPis- 
tma),  a  small  place  in  Etruria,  on  the  road  from 
Luca  to  Florentia,  rendered  memorable  by  the 
defeat  of  Catiline  in  its  neighborhood. 

[PisTYRus  (Hiffrvpof),  a  place  of  trade  in  the 
interior  of  Thrace,  near  a  salt-lake  of  consider- 
able circuit.] 

PITANA.      Vid.  SPARTA. 

PITANE  (UtravTi :  now  Sanderli),  a  sea-port 
town  of  Mysia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Elaitic  Gulf, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Evenus,  or,  according  to 
some,  of  the  Ca'icus ;  almost  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  under  Titus.  It  was  the  birth-place 
of  the  Academic  philosopher  Arcesilaus. 

PITHECUSA.     Vid.  ^ENAKIA. 

PITHO  (II«0w),  called  SDADA  or  SUADELA  by 
the  Romans,  the  personification  of  Persuasion. 
She  was  worshipped  as  a  divinity  at  Sicyon, 
where  she  was  honored  with  a  temple  in  the 
Hgora.  P.itho  also  occurs  as  a  surname  of  Ve- 
uus  (Aphrodite),  whose  worship  was  said  to 


PITTAUL'S. 

have  been  introduce^  at  Athens  by  Theseus, 
when  he  united  the  country  communities  into 
towns.  At  Athens  the  statues  of  Pitho  and 
Venus  (Aphrodite)  Pandemos  stood  close  to- 
gether, and  atMegara  therjstatue  of  Pitho  stood 
in  the  temple  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  so  that  the 
two  divinities  must  be  conceived  as  closely  con- 
nected, or  the  one,  perhaps,  merely  as  an  attri- 
bute of  the  other. 

[PITHOLAUS  (IletfloAaof),  one  of  the  three 
brothers-in-law  and  murderers  of  Alexander  of 
Pherae.  In  B.C.  352  Pitholaus  and  his  brother 
Lycophron  were  expelled  from  Pherae  by  Philip 
of  Macedon  ;  but  Piiholaus  re-established  him- 
self in  the  tyranny,  and  was  again  driven  out 
by  Philip,  B.C.  349..] 

PITHON  (Tliduv,  also  Tleiduv  and  Uvduv).  1. 
Son  of  Agenor,  a  Macedonian  officer  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  He  received  from  Alexander 
the  government  of  part  of  the  Indian  provinces, 
in  which  he  was  confirmed  after  the  king's 
death.  In  B.C.  316  he  received  from  Antigo- 
mis  the  satrapy  of  Babylon.  He  afterward 
fought  with  Demetrius  against  Ptolemy,  and 
was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Gaza,  312. — 2.  Son 
of  Crateuas  or  Crateas,  a  Macedonian  officei 
of  Alexander,  who  is  frequently  confounded 
with  the  preceding.  After  Alexander's  death 
he  received  from  Perdiccas  the  satrapy  of  Me- 
dia. He  accompanied  Perdiccas  on  his  expedi- 
tion to  Egypt  (321),  but  he  took  part  in  the 
mutiny  against  Perdiccas,  which  terminated  in 
the  death  of  the  latter.  Pithon  rendered  im- 
portant service  to  Antigonus  in  his  war  against 
Eumenes  ;  but  after  the  death  of  Eumenes,  he 
began  to  form  schemes  for  his  own  aggrandize- 
ment, and  was  accordingly  put  to  death  by  An- 
tigonus,  316. 

PITINUM  (Pitinas,  -atis).  1.  (Now  Pitino),  a 
municipium  in  the. interior  ofUmbria,  on  the 
River  Pisaurus,  whence  its  inhabitants  are  call- 
ed in  inscriptions  Pitinates  Pisaurenses.  The 
town  also  bore  the  surname  Mergens. — 2.  A 
town  in  Picenum,  on  the  road  from  Castrum 
Novum  to  Prifernum. 

PITTACUS  (UirraKOf),  one  of  those  early  cul- 
tivators of  letters  who  were  designated  as  "  the 
Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,"  was  a  native  of 
Mytilene  in  Lesbos,  and  was  born  about  B.C. 
652.  He  was  highly  celebrated  as  a  warrior, 
a  statesman,  a  philosopher,  and  a  poet.  He  is 
first  mentioned  in  public  life  as  an  opponent 
of  the  tyrants  of  Mytilene.  In  conjunction  with 
the  brothers  of  Alceeus,  he  overthrew  and  killed 
the  tyrant  Melanchrus,  B.C.  612.  In  606  he 
commanded  the  Mytilenaeans  in  their  war  with 
the  Athenians  for  the  possession  of  Sigeum,  on 
the  coast  of  the  Troad,  and  signalized  himself 
by  killing  in  single  combat  Phrynon,  the  com- 
mander of  the  Athenians.  This  feat  Pittacus 
performed  by  entangling  his  adversary  in  a  net, 
and  then  dispatching  him  with  a  trident  and  a 
dagger,  exactly  after  the  fashion  in  which  the 
gladiators  called  reliant  long  afterward  fought 
at  Rome.  This  war  was  terminated  by  the 
mediation  of  Periander,  who  assigned  the  dis- 
puted territory  to  the  Athenians  ;  but  the  inter- 
nal troubles  of  Mytilene  still  continued.  The 
supreme  power  was  fiercely  disputed  between 
a  succession  of  tyrants,  and  the  aristocratic 
party,  headed  by  Alcaeus  and  his  brother  Anti- 

673 


PITTHEUS. 


PLANCUS. 


menidas  ;  and  the  latter  were  driven  into  exile,  i 
As  the  exiles  tried  to  effect  their  return  by 
force  of  arms,  the  popular  party  chose  Pittacns 
as  their  ruler,  with  absolute  power,  under  the 
title  of  JEsytnnctcs  (aiavfivr/r^).  He  held  this 
office  for  ten  years  (589-579),  and  then  volun- 
tarily resigned  it,  having  by  his  administration 
restored  order  to  the  state,  and  prepared  it  for 
Vre  safe  enjoyment  of  a  republican  form  of  gov- 
ernment. He  lived  in  great  honor  at  Mytilene 
for  ten  years  after  the  resignation  of  his  gov- 
ernment, and  died  in  569,  at  an  advanced  age. 
Of  the  proverbial  maxims  of  practical  wisdom 
which  were  current  under  the  names  of  the 
seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  two  were  ascribed 
to  Pittacus,  namely,  XaAen-dv  eadXov  Iftpcvat, 
and  Kaipov  yvCtQi.. 

PITTHEUS  (Ilirdevf),  king  of  Troezene,  was 
son  of  Pelops  and  Dia,  father  of  ^Ethra,  and 
grandfather  and  instructor  of  Theseus.  When 
Theseus  married  Phaedra,  Pittheus  took  Hippo- 
lytus  into  his  house.  His  tomb  and  the  chair 
on  which  he  had  sat  in  judgment  were  shown 
at  Trcezene  down  to  a  late  time.  He  is  said  to 
have  taught  the  art  of  speaking,  and  even  to 
have  written  a  book  upon  it.  JSthra,  as  his 
daughter,  is  called  Pittheis. 

PITYIA  (TliTveta :  now  probably  Shamelik),  a 
town  mentioned  by  Homer,  in  the  north  of  Mys- 
ia,  between  Parium  and  Priapus,  evidently 
named  from  the  pine  forests  in  its  neighborhood. 

PITYONESUS  (ilirvovrjaof  :  now  Anghistri),  an 
island  off  the  coast  of  Argolis. 

PITYUS  (Hirvovf  :'  now  probably  Pitzundd),  a 
Greek  city  in  Sarmatia  Asiatica,  on  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  the  Euxine,  three  hundred  «nd 
sixty  stadia  northwest  of  Dioscurias.  In  the 
time  of  Strabo  it  was  a  considerable  city  and 
port.  It  was  afterward  destroyed  by  the  neigh- 
boring tribe  of  the  Heniochi,  but  it  was  restored, 
and  long  served  as  an  important  frontier  fort- 
ress of  the  Roman  empire. 

PiTYusA,PiTYussA(ritn>ot;<7a,  Tlirvovaoa,  con- 
tracted from  TriTvoeaaa,  fern,  of  Trirvoeif),  i.  e., 
abounding  in  pine-trees.  1.  The  ancient  name 
of  Lampsacus,  Salamis,  and  Chios. — 2.  A  small 
island  in  the  Argolic  Gulf. — 3.  The  name  of 
two  islands  off  the  southern  coast  of  Spain, 
west  of  the  Baleares.  The  larger  of  them  was 
called  Ebusus  (now  Iviza),  the  smaller  Ophiussa 
(now  Formenterfl) :  the  latter  was  uninhabited. 

PIXODARUS  (IlifueJapof),  prince  or  king  of  Ca- 
na,  was  the  youngest  of  the  three  sons  of  Hec- 
atomnus,  all  of  whom  'Successively  held  the  sov- 
ereignty of  Caria.  Pixodarus  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  throne  by  the  expulsion  of  his  sister 
ADA,  the  widow  and  successor  of  her  brother 
IDRIEUS,  and  held  it  'vithout  opposition  for  five 
years,  B.C.  340-335  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son-in-law  Orontobates. 

PLACENTIA  (Placentinus  :  now  Piacenza),  a 
Roman  colony  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  founded  at  the 
same  time  as  Cremona,  B.C.  219.  It  was  situ- 
ated in  the  territory  of  the  Anamares,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Po,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Trebia,  and  on  the  road  from  Mediolanum 
to  Parma.  It  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the 
Gauls  in  200,  but  was  soon  rebuilt  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  became  an  important  place.  It  con- 
tinued to  be  a  flourishing  town  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Goths. 
674 


PI,AC!A  (IIAaK/);,  Ion. :  Tl?.aicit]v6f),  an  ancient 
Pelasgian  settlement  in  Mysia,  east  of  Cyzicus, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olympus,  seems  to  have 
been  early  destroyed. 

PLACIDIA,  GALLA.     Vid.  GALLA. 

[PLACIDUS,  JULIUS,  the  tribune  of  a  cohort  ol 
Vespasian's  army,  who  dragged  Vitellius  out 
of  the  lurking-place  in  which  he  had  concealed 
himself.] 

PLACITUS,  SEX.,  the  author  of  a  short  Latin 
work  entitled  De  Medicina  (or  Medicamentis)  ex 
Animalibus,  consisting  of  thirty-four  chapters, 
each  of  which  treats  of  some  animal  whose 
body  was  supposed  to  possess  certain  medical 
properties.  As  might  be  expected,  it  contains 
numerous  absurdities,  and  is  of  little  or  no  value 
or  interest.  The  date  of  the  author  is  uncer- 
tain, but  he  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
fourth  century  after  Christ.  The  work  is  print- 
ed by  Stephanus  in  the  Medica  Arlis  Principcs, 
Paris,  fol ,  1567,  and  elsewhere. 

PLACUS  (TlXuKOf),  a  mountain  of  Mysia,  above 
the  city  of  Thebe  :  not  in  the  neighborhood  of 
PLACIA,  as  the  resemblance  of  the  names  had 
led  some  to  suppose. 

PLANARIA  (now  probably  Canaria,  Canary), 
one  of  the  islands  in  the  Atlantic  called  FOR- 

TUNAT^E. 

PLANAS!A.  1.  (Now  Pianosa),  an  island  be- 
tween Corsica  and  the  coast  of  Etruria,  to 
which  Augustus  banished  his  grandson  Agrippa 
Postumus. — 2.  An  island  off  the  southern  coast 
of  Gaul,  east  of  the  Stcechades. 

PLANCIADES,  FULGENT!US.     Vid.  FULGENTIUS. 

PLANCINA,  MUNATIA,  the  wife  of  Cneius  Piso, 
who  was  appointed  governor  of  Syria  in  A.D. 
18.  While  her  husband  used  every  effort  to 
thwart  Germanicus,  she  exerted  herself  equally 
to  annoy  and  insult  Agrippina.  She  was  en- 
couraged in  this  conduct  by  Livia,  the  mother 
of  the  emperor,  who  saved  her  from  condemna- 
tion by  the  senate  when  she  was  accused  along 
with  her  husband  in  20.  (Vid.  Piso,  No.  16.) 
She  was  brought  to  trial  again  in  33,  a  few  years 
after  the  death  of  Livia ;  and,  having  no  longer 
any  hope  of  escape,  she  put  an  end  to  her  life. 

PLANCIOS,  CN.,  first  served  in  Africa  under 
the  propraetor  A.  Torquatus,  subsequently  in 
B.C.  68  under  the  proconsul  Q.  Metellus  in 
Crete,  and  next  in  62  as  military  tribune  in  the 
army  of  C.  Antonius  in  Macedonia.  In  58  he 
was  quaestor  in  Macedonia  under  the  propraetor 
L.  Appuleius,  and  here  he  showed  great  kind- 
ness to  Cicero  when  the  latter  came  to  this 
province  during  his  banishment.  He  was  trib- 
une of  the  plebs  in  56,  and  was  elected  curule 
aedile  with  A.  Plotius  in  54.  But  before  Plan- 
cius  and  Plotius  entered  upon  their  office,  they 
were  accused  by  Juventius  Laterensis  and  L. 
Cassius  Longinus  of  the  crime  of  sodalitium,  01 
the  bribery  of  the  tribes  by  means  of  illegal  as- 
sociations, in  accordance  with  the  Lex  Licinia, 
which  had  been  proposed  by  the  consul  Liciniua 
Crassus  in  the  preceding  year.  Cicero  defend- 
ed Plancius  in  an  oration  still  extant,  and  ob- 
tained his  acquittal.  Plancius  espoused  the 
Pompeian  party  in  the  civil  wars,  and  after 
Caesar  had  gained  the  supremacy,  lived  in  exile 
in  Corcyra. 

PLANCUS,  MUNATIUS,  the  name  of.  a  distio 
guished  plebeian  'amily.  The  surname  Plancus 


PLANCUS,  MUNATIUS. 

signified  a  person  having  flat  splay  feet  without 
any  bend  in  them.  1.  L.,  was  a  friend  of  Julius 
Ccfsar,  and  served  under  him  both  in  the  Gallic 
and  the  civil  wars.  Caesar,  shortly  before  his 
death,  nominated  him  to  the  government  of 
Transalpine  Gaul  for  B.C.  44,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Narbonese  and  Belgic  portions  of 
the  province,  and  also  to  the  consulship  for  42, 
with  U.  Brutus  as  his  colleague.  After  Caesar's 
death  Plancus  hastened  into  Gaul,  and  took  pos- 
session of  his  province.  Here  he  prepared  at 
first  to  support  the  senate  against  Antony  ;  but 
when  Lepidus  joined  Antony,  and  their  united 
forces  threatened  to  overwhelm  Plancus,  the 
latter  was  persuaded  by  Asinius  Pollio  to  fol- 
low his  example,  and  to  unite  with  Antony  and 
Lepidus.  Plancus,  during  his  government  of 
Gaul,  founded  the  colonies  of  Lugdunum  and 
Raurica.  He  was  consul  in  42,  according  to 
the  arrangement  made  by  Caesar,  and  he  subse- 
quently followed  Antony  to  Asia,  where  he  re- 
mained for  some  years,  and  governed  in  suc- 
cession the  provinces  of  Asia  and  Syria.  He 
deserted  Antony  in  32,  shortly  before  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  civil  war  between  the  latter  and 
Octavianus.  He  was  favorably  received  by 
Octavianus,  and  continued  to  reside  at  Rome 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  It  was  on  his 
proposal  that  Octavianus  received  the  title  of 
Augustus  in  27 ;  and  the  emperor  conferred 
upon  him  the  censorship  in  22,  with  Paulus 
JSmilius  Lepidus.  Both  the  public  and  pri- 
vate life  of  Plancus  was  stained  by  numerous 
vices.  One  of  Horace's  odes  (Carm:,  i.,  7)  is 
addressed  to  him.  —  2.  T.,  surnamed  BURSA, 
brother  of  the  former,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  52,  when  he  supported  the  views  of  Pom- 
pey,  who  was  anxious  to  obtain  the  dictatorship. 
With  this  object  he  did  every  thing  in  his  pow- 
er to  increase  the  confusion  which  followed  upon 
the  death  of  Clodius.  At  the  close  of  the  year,  as 
soon  as  his  tribunate  had  expired,  Plancus  was 
accused  by  Cicero  of  Vis,  and  was  condemned. 
After  his  condemnation  Plancus  went  to  Raven- 
na in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  where  he  was  kindly  re- 
ceived by  Caesar.  Soon  after  the  beginning  of 
the  civil  war  he  was  restored  to  his  civic  rights 
by  Caesar,  but  he  appears  to  have  taken  no  part 
in  the  civil  war.  After  Caesar's  death  Plancus 
fought  on  Antony's  side  in  the  campaign  of  Mu- 
tina.  He  was  driven  out  of  Pollentia  by  Pon- 
tius Aquila,  the  legate  of  D.  Brutus,  and  in  his 
flight  broke  his  leg. — 3  CN.,  brother  of  the  two 
preceding,  praetor  elect  44,  was  charged  by  Cae- 
sar in  that  year  with  the  assignment  to  his  sol- 
diers of  lands  at  Buthrotum  in  Epirus.  As  At- 
ticus  possessed  property  in  the  neighborhood, 
Cicero  commended  to  Plancus  with  much  ear- 
nestness the  interests  of  his  friend.  He  was 
praetor  in  43,  and  was  allowed  by  the  senate  to 
join  his  brother  Lucius  (No.  1)  in  Transalpine 
Gaul. — 4.  L.  PLAUTIUS  PLANCUS,  brother  of  the 
three  preceding,  was  adopted  by  a  L.  Plautius, 
and  therefore  took  his  praenomen  as  well  as  no- 
men,  but  retained  his  original  cognomen,  as  was 
the  case  with  Metellus  Scipio  (rid.  METKLLCS, 
No.  15)  and  Pupius  Piso.  Vid.  Pieo,  No.  13. 
Before  his  adoption  his  praenomen  was  Caius. 
He  was  included  in  the  proscription  of  the  tri- 
umvirs, 43,  with  the  consent  of  his  brother  Lu- 
cius, and  was  put  to  death. 


PLANUDES  MAXIMUS. 

PLANUDES  MAXIMUS,  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  of  the  Constantinopolitan  monks  of  the 
last  age  of  the  Greek  empire,  and  was  greatly 
distinguished  as  a  theologian,  grammarian,  and 
rhetorician  ;  but  his  name  is  now  chiefly  inter- 
esting as  that  of  the  compiler  of  the  latest  of 
those  collections  of  minor  Greek  poems,  which 
were  known  by  the  names  of  Garlands  or  An- 
thologiesCS-£<j>avot,'AvOoli>-yiai).  Planudes flour-  • 
ished  at  Constantinople  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fourjpenth  century,  under  the  emperors  An- 
dronicus  II.  and  III.  Palaeologi.  In  A.D.  1327 
he  was  sent  by  Andronicus  II.  as  ambassador 
to  Venice.  As  the  Anthology  of  Planades  was 
not  only  the  latest  compiled,  but  was  also  that 
which  was  recognized  as  The  Greek  Anthology, 
until  the  discovery  of  the  Anthology  of  Constan- 
tinus  Cephalas,  this  is  chosen  as  the  fittest  place 
for  an  account  of  the  Literary  History  of  the 
Greek  Anthology.  1.  Materials.  The  various  col- 
lections, to  which  their  compilers  gave  the  name 
of  Garlands  and  Anthologies,  were  made  up  of 
short  poems,  chiefly  of  an  epigrammatic  char- 
acter, and  in  the  elegiac  metre.  The  earliest 
examples  of  such  poetry  were  furnished  by  the 
inscriptions  on  monuments,  such  as  those  erect- 
ed to  commemorate  heroic  deeds,  the  statues  of 
distinguished  men,  especially  victors  in  the  pub- 
lic games,  sepulchral  monuments,  and  dedica- 
tory offerings  in  temples  (uraft^zara) ;  to  which 
may  be  added  oracles  and  proverbial  sayings. 
At  an  early  period  in  the  history  of  Greek  lit- 
erature, poets'  of  the  highest  fame  cultivated 
this  species  of  composition,  which  received  its 
most  perfect  development  from  the  hand  of  Si- 
monides.  Thenceforth,  as  a  set  form  of  poetry, 
it  became  a  fit  vehicle  for  the  brief  expression 
of  thoughts  and  sentiments  on  any  subject ;  un- 
til at  last  the  form  came  to  be  cultivated  for  its 
own  sake,  and  the  literati  of  Alexandrea  and 
Byzantium  deemed  the  ability  to  make  epigrams 
an  essential  part  of  the  character  of  a  scholar. 
Hence  the  mere  trifling,  the  stupid  jokes,  and 
the  wretched  personalities  which  form  so  large 
a  part  of  the  epigrammatic  poetry  contained  in 
the  Greek  Anthology.— 2.  The  Garland  of  Me- 
leager.  At  a  comparatively  early  period  in  the 
history  of  Greek  literature,  various  persons  col- 
lected epigrams  of  particular  classes,  and  with 
reference  to  their  use  as  historical  authorities  ; 
but  the  first  person  who  made  such  a  collection 
solely  for  its  own  sake,  and  to  preserve  epi- 
grams of  all  kinds,  was  MELEAGER,  a  cynic  phi- 
losopher of  Gadara,  in  Palestine,  about  B.C.  60. 
His  collection  contained  epigrams  by  forty-six 
poets,  of  all  ages  of  Greek  poetry,  up  to  the  most 
ancient  lyric  period.  He  entitled  it  The  Gar- 
land (Sr^avof),  with  reference  to  the  common 
comparison  of  small  beautiful  poems  to  flowers. 
The  same  idea  is  kept  up  in  the  word  Antholo- 
gy (uvBoTioyia),  which  was  adopted  by  the  next 
compiler  as  the  title  of  his  work.  The  Garland 
of  Meleager  was  arranged  in  alphabetical  order, 
according  to  the  initial  letters  of  the  first,  line 
of  each  epigram. — 3.  The  Anthology  of  Philip 
of  Thestalonica  was  compiled  in  the  time  of 
Trajan,  avowedly  In  imitation  of  the  Garland 
of  Meleager,  and  chiefly  with  the  view  of  add- 
ing to  that  collection  the  epigrams  of  more  re- 
cent writers.— 4.  Diogcnianus,  Straton,  and  Di- 
ogenes LatrJiu*.  Shortly  after  Philip,  in  the 

675 


PLANUDES  MAXIMUS. 

reign  01  Hadrian,  the  learned  grammarian,  Di- 
ogenianus  of  Heraclea,  compiled  an  Anthology, 
which  is  entirely  lost.  It  might  have  been  well 
if  the  same  fate  had  befallen  the  very  polluted 
collection  of  his  contemporary,  Straton  of  Sar- 
dis.  About  the  same  time  Diogenes  Lafcrtius 
collected  the  epigrams  which  are  interspersed 
in  his  lives  of  the  philosophers,  into  a  separate 
book.— 5.  Agalhias  Scholaslicus,  who  lived  in 
the  time  of  Justinian,  made  a  collection  entitled 
KtkAof  ETuypcififtiiTuv.  It  was  divided  into  sev- 
en books,  according  to  subjects.  The  pflems 
included  in  it  were  those  of  recent  writers,  and 
chiefly  those  of  Agathias  himself  and  of  his  con- 
temporaries, such  as  Paulus  Silentiarius  and 
Macedonius. — 6.  The  Anthology  of  Constantinus 
Ccphalas,  or  the  Palatine  Anthology.  Constan- 
tinus Cephalas  appears  to  have  lived  about  four 
centuries  after  Agathias,  and  to  have  flourished 
in  the  tenth  century,  under  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantinus Porphyrogenitus.  The  labors  of  pre- 
ceding compilers  may  be  viewed  as  merely  sup- 
plementary to  the  Garland  of  Meleager ;  but  the 
Anthology  of  Constantinus  Cephalas  was  an  en- 
tirely new  collection  from  the  preceding  An- 
thologies and  from  original  sources.  Nothing 
is  known  of  Constantino  himself.  The  MS.  of 
the  Anthology  was  discovered  by  Salmasius  in 
1606,  in  the  library  of  the  Electors  Palatine  at 
Heidelberg.  It  was  afterward  removed  to  the 
Vatican,  with  the  rest  of  the  Palatine  library 
(1623),  and  has  become  celebrated  under  the 
names  of  the  Palatine  Anthology  and  the  Vati- 
can Codex  of  the  Greek  Anthology.  This  MS. 
was  restored  to  its  old  home  at  Heidelberg  after 
the  peace  of  1815.— 7.  The  Anthology  of  Pla- 
nudes  is  arranged  in  seven  books,  each  of  which, 
except  the  fifth  and  seventh,  is  divided  into 
chapters  according  to  subjects,  and  these  chap- 
ters are  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  The 
contents  of  the  books  are  as  follows :  1.  Chief- 
ly fTntisiKTiicd,  that  is,  displays  of  skill  in  this 
species  of  poetry,  in  ninety-one  chapters.  2. 
Jocular  or  satiric  (OKUKTIKU),  chaps.  53.  3.  Se- 
pulchral (iirirvpSia),  chaps.  32.  4.  Inscriptions 
on  statues  of  athletes  and  other  works  of  art,  de- 
scriptions of  places,  &c.,  chaps.  33.  5.  The  Ec- 
phrasis  of  Christodorus,  and  epigrams  on  stat- 
ues of  charioteers  in  the  Hippodrome  at  Con- 
stantinople. 6.  Dedicatory  (elvc^/an/cd),  chaps. 
27.  7.  Amatory  (Ipwri/cd).  Planudes  did  little 
more  than  abridge  and  rearrange  the  Anthology 
of  Constantinus  Cephalas.  Only  a  few  epigrams 
are  found  in  the  Planudean  Anthology  which  are 
not  in  the  Palatine.  The  best  editions  of  the 
Greek  Anthology  are  by  Brunck  and  Jacobs. 
Brunck's  edition,  which  appeared  under  the  ti- 
tle of  Analecta  Veterum  Poetarum  Gracorum,  Ar- 
gentorati,  1772-1776,  3  vols.  8vo,  contains  the 
whole  of  the  Greek  Anthology,  besides  some 
poems  which  are  not  properly  included  under 
that  title.  Brunck  adopted  a  new  arrangement ; 
he  discarded  the  books  and  chapters  of  the  early 
Anthology,  placed  together  all  the  epigrams  of 
each  poet,  and  arranged  the  poets  themselves 
in  chronological  order,  placing  those  epigrams, 
the  authors  of  which  were  unknown,  under  the 
separate  head  of  udeffTrora.  Jacobs's  edition  is 
founded  upon  Brunck's,  but  is  much  superior, 
and  ranks  as  the  standard  edition  of  the  Greek 
Anthology.  It  is  ia  13  vols.  8v»,  natBrtJy,  fa*' 
676 


PLA 1 0. 

volumes  of  the  Text,  one  of  Indices,  and  three 
of  Commentaries,  divided  into  ei«jht  parts,  Lips., 
1795-1814.  After  the  restoration  of  the  MS. 
of  the  Palatine  Anthology  to  the  Tjriversity  of 
Heidelberg,  Jacobs  published  a  separate  edition 
of  the  Palatine  Anthology,  Lips.,  1813-1817,  3 
vols. 

PLATVEA,  more  commonly  PLATJE.*  (UXaraia. 
U^araiui :  HAaraitvf),  an  ancient  city  of  Boeotia, 
on  the  northern  slope  of  Mount  Cithaeron,  not 
far  from  the  sources  of  the  Asopus,  and  on  the 
frontiers  of  Attica.  It  was  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Thebes,  and  its  name  was  com- 
monly derived  from  Plataea,  a  daughter  of  Aso- 
pus. The  town,  though  not  large,  played  an 
important  part  in  Greek  history,  and  experienced 
many  striking  vicissitudes  of  fortune.  At  an 
early  period  the  Plataeans  deserted  the  Boeotian 
confederacy,  and  placed  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  Athens  ;  and  when  the  Persians 
invaded  Attica  in  B.C.  490,  they  sent  one  thou- 
sand men  to  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians, 
and  had  the  honor  of  fighting  on  their  side  at 
the  battle  of  Marathon.  Ten  years  afterward 
(480)  their  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Persian 
army  under  Xerxes  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Thebans,  and  the  place  was  still  in  ruins  in  the 
following  year  (479),  when  the  memorable  bat- 
tle was  fought  in  their  territory  in  which  Mar- 
donius  was  defeated  and  the  independence  of 
Greece  secured.  In  consequence  of  this  vic- 
tory, the  territory  of  Plataeae  was  declared  in- 
violable, and  Pausanias  and  the  other  Greeks 
swore  to  guarantee  its  Independence.  The  sanc- 
tity of  the  city  was  still  further  secured  by  its 
being  selected  as  the  place  in  which  the  great 
festival  of  the  Eleutheria  was  to  be  celebrated 
in  honor  of  those  Greeks  who  had  fallen  in  the 
war.  (Vid.Dict.ofAntiq., art. ELEUTHERIA.)  The 
Plataeans  further  received  from  the  Greeks  \he 
large  sum  of  eighty  talents.  Plataea?  i.&w  en- 
joyed a  prosperity  of  fifty  years ;  but  in  the 
third  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  ('-29)  the 
Thebans  persuaded  the  Spartans  to  attack  the 
town,  and  after  a  siege  of  two  years  at  length 
succeeded  in  obtaining  possession  of  the  place 
(427).  Plataeae  was  now  razed  to  the  ground, 
but  was  again  rebuilt  after  the  peace  of  Antal- 
cidas  (387).  It  was  destroyed  the  third  time 
by  its  inveterate  enemies,  the  Thebans,  in  374. 
It  was  once  more  restored  under  the  Macedo- 
nian supremacy,  and  continued  in  existence  till 
a  very  late  period.  Its  walls  were  rebuilt  by 
Justinian. 

PLATAMODES  (n^ara/judyf  :  now  Aja  Kyria- 
ki),  a  promontory  in  the  west  of  Messenia. 

PLATANA,  -UM,  -us  (Hhardvi),  U^dravov,  HAtl- 
ravoc),  a  fortress  in  Phoenicia,  in  a  narrow  pass 
between  Lebanon  and  the  sea,  near  the  River 
Damuras  or  Tamyras  (now  Damur). 

PLATEA  (IIAorea,  also  -eta,  -fiai,  -<uo),  an  isl- 
and on  the  coast  of  Cyrenaica,  in  Northern  Af- 
rica, the  first  place  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Greek  colonists  under  Battus.  Vid.  C YRENAIC A. 

PLATO  (IIAurwv).  1.  The  comic  poet,  was  a 
native  of  Athens,  contemporary  with  Aristoph- 
anes, Phrynichus,  Eupolis,  and  Pherecrates,  and 
flourished  from  B.C.  428  to  389.  He  ranked 
among  the  very  best  poets  of  the  Old  Comedy. 
From  the  expressions  of  the  grammarians,  and 
from  the  large  nurnbsr  of  fragments  which  are 


PLATO. 

preserved,  it  is  evident  that  his  plays  were  only 
second  in  popularity  to  those  of  Aristophanes. 
Purity  of  language,  refined  sharpness  of  wit, 
and  a  combination  of  the  vigor  of  the  Old  Com- 
edy with  the  greater  elegance  of  the  Middle  and 
the  New,  were  his  chief  characteristics.  Sui- 
das  gives  the  titles  of  thirty  of  his  dramas.  [The 
fragments  of  his  comedies  are  contained  in  Mei- 
neke's  Comic.  Grate.  Fragm.,  vol.  i.,  p.  357-401, 
edit,  minor.] — 2.  The  philosopher,  was  the  son 
of  Ariston  and  Perictione  or  Potone,  and  was 
born  at  Athens  either  in  B.C.  429  or  428.  Ac- 
cording to  others,  he  was  born  in  the  neighbor- 
ing island  of  ^Egina.  His  paternal  family  boast- 
ed of  being  descended  from  Codrus  ;  his  mater- 
nal ancestors  of  a  relationship  with  Solon.  Pla- 
to himself  mentions  the  relationship  of  Criti- 
as,  his  maternal  uncle,  with  Solon.  Originally, 
we  are  told,  he  was  named  after  his  grandfa- 
ther Aristocles,  but  in  consequence  of  the  flu- 
ency of  his  speech,  or,  as  others  have  it,  the 
breadth  of  his  chest,  he  acquired  that  name  un- 
der which  alone  we  know  him.  One  story  made 
him  the  son  of  Apollo ;  another  related  that  bees 
settled  upon  the  lips  of  the  sleeping  child.  He 
is  also  said  to  have  contended,  when  a  youth, 
in  the  Isthmian  and  other  games,  as  well  as  to 
have  made  attempts  in  epic,  lyric,  and  dithy- 
rambie  poetry,  and  not  to  have  devoted  himself 
to  philosophy  till  a  later  time,  probably  after 
Socrates  had  drawn  him  within  the  magic  cir- 
cle of  his  influence.  Plato  was  instructed  in 
grammar,  music,  and  gymnastics  by  the  most 
distinguished  teachers  of  that  time.  At  an  early 
age  he  had  become  acquainted,  through  Craty- 
(us.with  the  doctrines  of  Heraclitus,  and  through 
other  instructors  with  the  philosophical  dogmas 
cf  the  Eleatics  and  of  Anaxagoras.  In  his  twen- 
tieth  year  he  is  said  to  have  betaken  himself 
to  Socrates,  and  became  one  of  his  most  ar- 
dent admirers.  After  the  death  of  Socrates 
(399)  he  withdrew  to  Megara,  where  he  proba- 
bly composed  several  of  his  dialogues,  especial- 
ly those  of  a  dialectical  character.  He  next 
went  to  Cyrene,  through  friendship  for  the  math- 
ematician Theodorus,  and  is  said  to  have  visited 
afterward  Egypt,  Sicily,  and  the  Greek  cities  in 
Lower  Italy,  through  his  eagerness  for  knowl- 
edge. The  more  distant  journeys  of  Plato  into 
the  interior  of  Asia,  to  the  Hebrews,  Babylo- 
nians, and  Assyrians,  to  the  Magi  and  Persians, 
are  mentioned  only  by  writers  on  whom  no  re- 
liance can  be  placed.  That  Plato,  during  his  res- 
idence in  Sicily,  became  acquainted,  through 
Dion,  with  the  elder  Dionysius,  but  very  soon 
fell  out  with  the  tyrant,  is  asserted  by  credible 
witnesses.  But  more  doubt  attaches  to  the 
story,  which  relates  that  he  was  given  up  by  the 
tyrant  to  the  Spartan  ambassador  Pollis,  by  him 
sold  into  ^Egina,  and  set  at  liberty  by  the  Cy- 
renian  Anniceris.  Plato  is  said  to  have  visited 
Sicily  when  forty  years  old,  consequently  in  389. 
After  his  return  he  began  to  teach,  partly  in  the 
gymnasium  of  the  Academy  and  its  shady  av- 
enues, near  the  city,  between  the  exterior  Ce- 
ramicus  and  the  hill  Colonus  Hippius,  and  partly 
in  his  garden,  which  was  situated  at  Colonus. 
He  taught  gratuitously,  and  without  doubt  main- 
ly in  the  form  of  lively  dialogue  ;  yet  on  the  more 
difficult  parts  of  his  doctrinal  system  he  probably 
delivered  also  connected  lectures.  The  more 


PLATO. 

narrow  circle  of  his  disciples  assembled  them- 
selves  in  his  garden  at  common  simple  meals, 
and  it  was  probably  to  them  alone  that  the  in 
scription,  said  to  have  been  set  up  over  the 
vestibule  of  the  house,  "Let  no  one  enter  who 
is  unacquainted  with  geometry,"  had  reference. 
From  this  house  came  forth  his  nephew  Speu- 
sippus,  Xenocrates  of  Chalcedon,  Aristotle,  Her- 
aclides  Ponticus,  Hestiaeus  of  Perinthus,  Philip- 
pus  the  Opuntian,  and  others,  men  from  the  most 
distant  parts  of  Greece.  To  the  wider  cnclo 
of  those  who,  without  attaching  themselves  to 
the  more  narrow  community  of  the  school, 
sought  instruction  and  incitement  fro^i  him, 
such  distinguished  men  asChabrias,  Iphicrates, 
Timotheus,  Phocion,  Hyperides,  Lycurgus,  and 
Isocrates  are  said  to  have  belonged.  Whether 
Demosthenes  was  of  the  number  is  doubtful. 
Even  women  are  said  to  have  attached  them- 
selves to  him  as  his  disciples.  Plato's  occupa- 
tion as  an  instructor  was  twice  interrupted  by 
his  voyages  to  Sicily :  first  when  Dion,  probably 
soon  after  the  death  of  the  elder  Dionysius,  per- 
suaded him  to  make  the  attempt  to  win  the 
younger  Dionysius  to  philosophy ;  the  second 
time,  a  few  years  later  (about  360),  when  the 
wish  of  his  Pythagorean  friends,  and  the  invita- 
tion of  Dionysius  to  reconcile  the  disputes  which 
had  broken  out  between  him  and  his  step-uncle 
Dion,  brought  him  back  to  Syracuse.  His  ef- 
forts were  both  times  unsuccessful,  and  he  owed 
his  own  safety  to  nothing  but  the  earnest  inter- 
cession of  Archytas.  That  Plato  cherished  the 
hope  of  realizing,  through  the  conversion  of  Dio- 
nysius, his  idea  of  a  state  in  the  rising  city  of 
Syracuse,  was  a  belief  pretty  generally  spread 
in  antiquity,  and  which  finds  some  confirmation 
in  the  expressions  of  the  philosopher  himself, 
and  of  the  seventh  Platonic  letter,  which,  though 
spurious,  is  written  with  the  most  evident  ac- 
quaintance with  the  matters  treated  of.  With 
the  exception  of  these  two  visits  to  Sicily,  Plato 
was  occupied  from  the  time  when  he  opened  the 
school  in  the  Academy  in  giving  instruction  and 
in  the  composition  of  his  works.  He  died  in  the 
eighty-second  year  of  his  age,  B.C.  347.  Ac- 
cording to  some,  he  died  while  writing  ;  accord- 
ing to  others,  at  a  marriage  feast.  According 
to  his  last  will,  his  garden  remained  the  property 
of  the  school,  and  passed,  considerably  increased 
by  subsequent  additions,  into  the  hands  of  the 
Neo-Platonists,  who  kept  as  a  festival  his  birth- 
day as  well  as  that  of  Socrates.  Athenians  and 
strangers  honored  his  memory  by  monuments. 
Still  he  had  no  lack  of  enemies  and  enviers. 
He  was  attacked  by  contemporary  comic  poets, 
as  Theopompus,  Alexis,  Cratinus  the  younger, 
and  others,  by  one-sided  Socratics,  as  Antisthe- 
nes,  Diogenes,  and  the  later  Megarics,  and  also 
by  the  Epicureans,  Stoics,  certain  Peripatetics, 
and  later  writers  eager  for  detraction.  Thus 
even  Antisthenes  and  Aristoxenus  charged  him 
with  sensuality,  avarice,  and  sycophancy  ;  and 
others  with  vanity,  ambition,  and  envy  toward 
other  Socratics,  Protagoras,  Epicharmus,  and 
Philolaus. — THE  WRITINGS  OF  PLATO.  These 
writings  have  come  down  to  us  complete,  and 
have  always  been  admired  as  a  model  of  the 
union  of  artistic  perfection  with  philosophical 
acuteness  and  depth.  They  are  in  the  lorm  of 
di  ilogue  ;  but  Plato  was  not  the  first  writer  who 

677 


PLATO. 

employed  th.s  style  of  composition  for  philosoph- 
ical instruction.  Zeno  the  Eleatic  had  already 
written  in  the  form  of  question  and  answer. 
Alexamenus  the  Teian  and  Sophron  in  the 
mimes  had  treated  ethical  subjects  in  the  form 
of  dialogue  Xenophon.^Eschines.Antisthenes, 
Euclides,  and  other  Socratics  also  had  made  use 
of  the  dialogistic  form  ;  but  Plato  lias  handled 
this  form  not  only  with  greater  mastery  than 
any  one  who  preceded  him,  but,  in  all  probabil- 
ity, with  the  distinct  intention  of  keeping  by  this 
very  means  true  to  the  admonition  of  Socrates, 
not  to  communicate  instruction,  but  to  lead  to 
the  spontaneous  discovery  of  it.  The  dialogues 
of  Plato  are  closely  connected  with  one  another, 
and  various  arrangements  of  them  have  been 
proposed.  Schleiermachcr  divides  them  into 
three  series  or  classes.  In  the  first  he  consid- 
ers that  the  germs  of  dialectic  and  of  the  doc- 
trine of  ideas  begin  to  unfold  themselves  in  all 
the  freshness  of  youthful  inspiration  ;  in  the 
second,  those  germs  develop  themselves  further 
by  means  of  dialectic  investigations  respecting 
the  difference  between  common  and  philosoph- 
ical acquaintance  with  things,  respecting  notion 
and  knowledge  (Jofa  and  emorf/un) ;  in  the  third 
they  receive  their  completion  by  means  of  an 
objectively  scientific  working  out,  with  the  sep- 
aration of  ethics  and  physics.  The  first  series 
embraces, according  to  Schleiermacher,  IhePha- 
drus,  Lysis,  Protagoras,  Laches,  Charmides,  Eu- 
thyphron,  and  Parmenides;  to  which  may  be  add- 
ed as  an  appendix,  the  Apologia,  Crito,  Ion,  Hip- 
pias  Minor,  Hipparchus,  Minos,  and  Alcibiades  II. 
The  second  series  contains  the  Gorgias,-The<zte- 
tus,  Me.no,  Euthydemus,  Cratylus,  Sophistes,  Polit- 
icus,  Symposium,  Phado,  andPhilebus;  to  which 
may  be  added  as  an  appendix,  the  Theages, 
Erastce,  Alcibiades  I.,  Menexenus,  Hippias  Major, 
and  Clitophon.  The  third  series  comprises  the 
Republic,  Timaus,  Critias,  and  the  Laws.  This 
arrangement  is  perhaps  the  best  that  has  hith- 
erto been  made  of  the  dialogues,  though  open  to 
exception  in  several  particulars.  The  genuine- 
ness of  several  of  the  dialogues  has  been  ques- 
tioned, but  for  the  most  part  on  insufficient 
grounds.  The  Epinomis,  however,  is  probably 
to  be  assigned  to  a  disciple  of  Plato,  the  Minos 
and  Hipparchus  to  a  Socratic.  The  second  Alci- 
biades was  attributed  by  ancient  critics  to  Xeno- 
phon.  The  Anlerasta  and  Clilophon  are  proba- 
bly of  much  later  origin.  The  Platonic  letters 
were  composed  at  different  periods  :  the  oldest 
of  them,  the  seventh  and  eighth,  probably  by  dis- 
ciples of  Plato.  The  dialogues  Demodocus,  Sisy- 
phus, Eryxias,  Axiochus,  and  those  on  justice  and 
virtue,  were  with  good  reason  regarded  by  an- 
cient critics  as  spurious,  and  with  them  may  be 
associated  the  Hipparchus,  Theages,  and  the  Def- 
initions. The  genuineness  of  the  first  Alcibia- 
des seems  doubtful.  The  smaller  Hippias,  the 
Ion,  and  the  Menexenus,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
are  assailed  by  many  modern  critics,  may  very 
well  maintain  their  ground  as  occasional  com- 
positions of  Plato. — THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  PLATO. 
The  nature  of  this  work  will  allow  only  a  few 
brief  remarks  upon  this  subject.  The  attempt 
to  combine  poetry  and  philosophy  (the  two  funda- 
mental tendencies  of  the  Greek  mind)  gives  to 
the  Platonic  dialogues  a  charm  which  irresisti- 
bly attracts  us,  though  we  may  have  but  a  defi- 
678 


PLATO. 

cient  comprehension  of  their  subject  matter 
Pbto,  like  Socrates,  was  penetrated- with  the 
idea  that  wisdom  is  the  attribute  of  the  God 
head ;  that  philosophy,  springing  from  the  im 
pulse  to  know,  is  the  necessity  of  the  intellectual 
man,  and  the  greatest  of  the  blessings  in  which 
he  participates.  When  once  we  strive  after 
Wisdom  with  the  intensity  of  a  lover,  she  be- 
comes the  true  consecration  and  purification  of 
the  soul,  adapted  to  lead  us  from  the  night-like 
to  the  true  day.  An  approach  to  wisdom,  how- 
ever, presupposes  an  original  communion  with 
Being,  truly  so  called  ;  and  this  communion 
again  presupposes  the  divine  nature  or  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  and  the  impulse  to  become  like 
the  Eternal.  This  impulse  is  the  love  which 
generates  in  Truth,  and  the  deveh  p:ner  (  of  it 
is  termed  Dialectics.  Out  of  the  philosophical 
impulse  which  is  developed  by  Dialectics,  not 
only  correct  knowledge,  but  also  correct  action, 
springs  forth.  Socrates'sdoctrine  respecting  the 
unity  of  virtue,  and  that  it  consists  in  true,  vigor- 
ous, and  practical  knowledge,  is  intended  to  be 
set  forth  in  a  preliminary  manner  in  the  Prota- 
goras and  the  smaller  dialogues  attached  to  it 
They  are  designed,  therefore,  to  introduce  a 
foundation  for  ethics,  by  the  refutation  of  the 
common  views  that  were  entertained  of  morals 
and  of  virtue  ;  for  although  not  even  the  words 
ethics  and  physics  occur  in  Plato,  and  even  dia- 
lectics are  not  treated  of  as  .a  distinct  and  sep- 
arate province,  yet  he  must  rightly  be  regarded 
as  the  originator  of  the  three-fold  division  of 
philosophy,  inasmuch  as  he  had  before  him  the 
decided  object  to  develop  the  Socratic  method 
into  a  scientific  system  of  dialectics,  that  should 
supply  the  grounds  of  our  knowledge  as  well  as 
of  our  moral  action  (physics  and  ethics),  and 
therefore  he  separates  the  general  investiga- 
tions on  knowledge  and  understanding,  at  least 
relatively,  from  those  which  refer  to  physics  and 
ethics.  Accordingly,  the  Theaetetus,  Sophistea, 
Parmenides,  and  Cratylus,  are  principally  dia- 
lectical ;  the  Protagoras,  Gorgias,  Politicus,  Phi- 
lebus,  and  the  Politics,  principally  ethical;  while 
the  Timaeus  is  exclusively  physical.  Plato's 
dialectics  and  ethics,  however,  have  been  more 
successful  than  his  physics.  Plato's  doctrine 
of  ideas  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  parts 
of  his  system.  He  maintained  that  the  exist- 
ence of  things,  cognizable  only  by  means  of 
conception,  is  their  true  essence,  their  idea. 
Hence  he  asserts  that  to  deny  the  reality  of 
ideas  is  to  destroy  all  scientific  research.  He  de- 
parted from  the  original  meaning  of  the  wort* 
idea  (namely,  that  of  form  or  figure),  inasmuch 
as  he  understood  by  it  the. unities  (Ivudef,  uovd- 
def)  which  lie  at  the  basis  of  the  visible,  the 
changeable,  and  which  can  only  be  reached  by 
pure  thinking.  He  included  under  the  expres- 
sion idea  every  thing  stable  amid  the  changes 
of  mere  phenomena,  all  really  existing  and  un- 
changeable definitudes,  by  which  the  changes 
of  things  and  our  knowledge  of  them  are  con- 
ditioned, such  as  the  ideas  of  genus  and  species, 
the  laws  and  ends  of  nature,  as  also  the  prin- 
ciples of  cognition  and  of  moral  action,  and  the 
essences  of  individual,  concrete,  thinking  souls. 
His  system  of  ethics  was  founded  upon  his  dia- 
lectics,  as  is  remarked  above.  Hence  he  as 
serted  that,  not  being  in  a  condition  to  grasp  the 


PLATOR. 

"tlea  of  the  good  with  full  distinctness,  we  are 
able  to  approximate  to  it  only  so  far  as  we  ele- 
vate the  power  of  thinking  to  its  original  purity. 
The  best  editions  of  the  collected  works  of  Plato 
are  by  Bekker,  Berol ,  1816-1818  ;  by  Stall- 
baum,  Gotha,  1827,  seq.,  [not  yet  completed]  ; 
and  by  Orelli  and  others,  Turic.,  1839,  4to. 

[PLATOR.  1.  The  commander  of  Oreum  for 
Philip,  betrayed  the  town  to  the  Romans,  B.C. 
207.— 2.  The  brother  of  Gentius,  the  Illyrian 
king,  called  Plator  by  Livy,  but  Pleuratus  by 
Polybius.  Vid.  PLEURATUS. — 3.  Of Dyrrhachium, 
was  slain  by  Piso,  proconsul  in  Macedonia  B.C. 
57,  although  he  had  been  hospitably  received  in 
the  house  of  Plator] 

PLAOTIA  GENS,  a  plebeian  gens  at  Rome.  The 
name  is  also  written  Plotius,  just  as  we  have 
both  Clodius  and  Claudius.  The  gens  was  di- 
vided into  the  families  of  Hypsceus,  Proculus, 
Silvanus,  Venno,  Venox ;  and  although  several 
members  of  these  families  obtained  the  consul- 
ship, none  of  them  are  of  sufficient  importance 
to  require  a  separate  notice. 

PLAUTIANCS,  FULVIUS,  an  African  by  birth,  the 
fellow-townsman  of  Septimius  Severus.  He 
served  as  prcefect  of  the  praetorium  under  this 
emperor,  who  loaded  him  with  honors  and 
wealth,  and  virtually  made  over  much  of  the 
imperial  authority  into  his  hands.  Intoxicated 
by  these  distinctions,  Plautianus  indulged  in  the 
most  despotic  tyranny,  and  perpetrated  acts  of 
cruelty  almost  beyond  belief.  In  A.D.  202  his 
daughter  Plautilla  was  married  to  Caracalla ; 
but  having  discovered  the  dislike  cherished  by 
Caracalla  toward  both  his  daughter  and  himself, 
and  looking  forward  with  apprehension  to  the 
downfall  which  awaited  him  upon  the  death  of 
the  sovereign,  he  formed  a  plot  against  the  life 
both  of  Septimius  and  Caracalla.  His  treach- 
ery was  discovered,  and  he  was  immediately 
put  to  death,  203.  His  daughter  Plautilla  was 
banished  first  to  Sicily,  and  subsequently  to 
Li  para,  where  she  was  treated  with  the  greatest 
harshness.  After  the  murder  of  Geta  in  212, 
Plautilla  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  her  hus- 
band. 

PLAUTILLA.     Vid.  PLAUTIANDS. 

PLAUTIUS.  1.  A.,  a  man  of  consular  rank, 
who  was  sent  by  the  Emperor  Claudius  in  A.D. 
43  to  subdue  Britain.  He  remained  in  Britain 
four  years,  and  subdued  the  southern  part  of  the 
island.  He  obtained  an  ovation  on  his  return 
to  Rome  in  47. — 2.  A  Roman  jurist,  who  lived 
about  the  time  of  Vespasian,  and  is  cited  by  sub- 
sequent jurists. 

PLAUTUS,  the  most  celebrated  comic  poet  of 
Rome,  was  a  native  of  Sarsina,  a  small  village 
in  Umbria.  He  is  usually  called  M.  Accius  Plau- 
tut,  but  his  real  name,  as  an  eminent  modern 
scholar  has  shown,  was  T.  MACCIUS  PLAUTUS. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is  uncertain,  but  it  may 
be  placed  about  B.C.  254.  He  probably  came 
to  Rome  at  an  early  age,  since  he  displays  such 
a  perfect  mastery  of  the  Latin  language,  and  an 
acquaintance  with  Greek  literature,  which  he 
could  hardly  Lave  acquired  in  a  provincial  town. 
Whether  he  ever  obtained  the  Roman  franchise 
is  doubtful.  When  he  arrived  at  Rome  he  was 
in  needy  circumstances,  and  was  first  employed 
in  the  service  of  the  actors.  With  the  money 
be  had  saved  in  this  inferior  station  he  left 


PLAUTUS. 

Rome  and  set  up  in  business,  but  his  specula 
tions  failed  ;  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  his  ne- 
cessities obliged  him  to  enter  the  service  of  a 
baker,  who  employed  him  in  turning  a  handmill. 
While  in  this  degrading  occupation  he  wrote 
three  plays,  the  sale  of  which  to  the  managers 
of  the  public:  games  enabled  him  to  quit  his 
drudgery  and  begin  his  literary  career.  He  was 
then  probably  about  thirty  years  of  age  (224), 
and  accordingly  commenced  writing  comedies 
a  few  years  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  sec- 
ond Punic  war.  He  continued  his  literary  oc- 
cupation for  about  forty  years,  and  died  in  184, 
when  he  was  seventy  years  of  age.  His  con- 
temporaries at  first  were  Livius  Andronicus  and 
Naevius,  afterward  Ennius  and  Caecilius  :  Ter- 
ence did  not  rise  into  notice  till  almost  twenty 
years  after  his  death.  During  the  long  time 
that  he  held  possession  of  the  stage,  he  was 
always  a  great  favorite  of  the  people  ;  and  he 
expressed  a  bold  consciousness  of  his  own  pow- 
ers in  the  epitaph  which  he  wrote  for  his  tomb, 
and  which  has  come  down  to  us  : 

"  Postquam  est  mortem  nptus  Plautua,  comcedia  luget 
Scena  deserta,  dein  risus,  Indus  jocusque 
Et  numeri  innumeri  siinul  omnes  collacrumarunt." 

Plautus  wrote  a  great  number  of  comedies, 
and  in  the  last  century  of  the  republic  there 
were  one  hundred  and  thirty  plays  which  bore 
his  name.  Most  of  these,  however,  were  not 
considered  genuine  by  the  best  Roman  critics. 
There  were  several  works  written  upon  the  sub- 
ject ;  and  of  these  the  most  celebrated  was  the 
treatise  of  Varro,  entitled  (Jiurstiones  Plautina. 
Varro  limited  the  undoubted  comedies  of  the 
poet  to  twenty-one,  which  were  hence  called 
the  Fabula  Varroniaruz,  These  Varron  ian  com- 
edies are  the  same  as  those  which  have  come 
down  to  our  own  time,  with  the  loss  of  one. 
At  present  we  possess  only  twenty  comedies 
of  Plautus ;  but  there  were  originally  twenty- 
one  in  the  manuscripts,  and  the  Vidularia,  which 
was  the  twenty-first,  and  which  came  last  in 
the  collection,  was  torn  off  from  the  manuscript 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  titles  of  the  twenty- 
one  Varronian  plays  are,  1.  Amphitruo.  2.  Asi- 
naria.  3.  Aulularia.  4.  Captivi.  5.  Curculio. 
6.  Casina.  7.  Cistellaria.  8.  Epidicus.  9.  Bac- 
chides.  10.  Mostellaria.  11.  Mcruzchmi.  12. 
Miles.  13.  Mercator.  14.  Pscudolus.  15.  P<x- 
nulus.  16.  Persa.  17.  Rudens.  18.  Stichus. 
19.  Trinummus.  20.  Truculentus.  21.  Vidu- 
laria. This  is  the  order  in  which  they  occur  ir. 
the  manuscripts,  though  probably  not  the  one 
in  which  they  were  originally  arranged  by  Varro. 
The  present  order  is  evidently  alphabetical ;  the 
initial  letter  of  the  title  of  each  play  is  alone  re- 
garded, and  no  attention  is  paid  to  those  which 
follow:  hence  we  find  Captivi,  Curculio,  Casina, 
Cistellaria:  Mostellaria,  Mentfchmi^Miles,  Mer- 
eator :  Pseudolus,  Panulus,  Persa.  The  play  of 
the  Bacchidcs  forms  the  only  exception  to  the 
alphabetical  order.  It  was  probably  placed  after 
the  Epidicus  by  some  copyist,  because  he  had 
observed  that  Plautus,  in  the  Bacchides  (ii.,  2, 
36),  referred  to  the  Epidicus  as  an  earlier  work. 
The  names  of  the  comedies  are  either  taken 
from  some  leading  character  in  the  play,  or  from 
some  circumstance  which  occurs  in  it :  those 
titles  ending  in  aria  are  adjectives,  giving  a 
general  description  of  the  play :  thus  Asinana 

679 


PLAUTUS. 

is  the  "  Ass-Comedy."  The  comedies  of  Plau- 
tus enjoyed  unrivalled  popularity  among  the 
Romans,  and  continued  to  be  represented  down 
to  the  time  of  Diocletian.  The  continued  popu- 
larity of  Plautus  through  so  many  centuries  was 
owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  his  being  a  na- 
tional poet.  Though  he  founds  his  plays  upon 
Greek  models,  the  characters  in  them  act,  speak, 
and  joke  like  genuine  Romans,  and  he  thereby 
secured  the  sympathy  of  his  audience  more  com- 
pletely than  Terence  could  ever  have  done. 
Whether  Plautus  borrowed  the  plan  of  all  his 
plays  from  Greek  models,  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
The  Cistellaria,  Bacchides,  Panulus,  and  Stichus 
were  taken  from  Menander,  the  Casino,  and  Ru- 
dens  from  Diphilus,  and  the  Mercalor  and  the 
Trinummus  from  Philemon,  and  many  others 
were  undoubtedly  founded  upon  Greek  originals. 
But  in  all  cases  Plautus  allowed  himself  much 
greater  liberty  than  Terence  ;  and  in  some  in- 
stances he  appears  to  have  simply  taken  the 
leading  idea  of  the  play  from  the  Greek,  and  to 
have  filled  it  up  in  his  own  fashion.  It  has  been 
inferred  from  a  well-known  line  of  Horace 
(Epist.,  ii.,  1,  58),  "  Plautus  ad  exemplar  Siculi 
properare  Epicharmi,"  that  Plautus  took  great 
pams  to  imitate  Epicharmus.  But  there  is  no 
correspondence  between  any  of  the  existing 
plays  of  Plautus  and  the  known  titles  of  the 
comedies  of  Epicharmus ;  and  the  verb  prope- 
rare probably  has  reference  only  to  the  liveliness 
and  energy  of  Plautus's  style,  in  which  he  bore 
a  resemblance  to  the  Sicilian  poet.  It  was, 
however,  not  only  with  the  common  people  that 
Plautus  was  a  favorite  ;  educated  Romans  read 
and  admired  his  works  down  to  the  latest  times. 
Cicero  (De  Off.,  i.,  29)  places  his  wit  on  a  par 
with  that  of  the  old  Attic  comedy,  and  St.  Jerome 
used  to  console  himself  with  the  perusal  of  the 
poet  after  spending  many  nights  in  tears  on  ac- 
count of  his  past  sins.  The  favorable  opinion 
which  the  ancients  entertained  of  the  merits 
of  Plautus  has  been  confirmed  by  the  judgment 
of  the  best  modern  critics,  and  by  the  fact  that 
several  of  his  plays  have  been  imitated  by  many 
of  the  best  modern  poets.  Thus  the  Amphitruo 
has  been  imitated  by  Moliere  and  Dryden,  the 
Aulv.la.ria.  by  Moliere  in  his  Avare,  the  Mostel- 
laria  by  Regnard,  Addison,  and  others,  the  Me- 
iKEchmi  by  Shakspeare  in  his  Comedy  of  Errors, 
the  Trinummus  by  Lessing  in  his  Schatz,  and 
so  with  others.  Horace  (De  Arte  Poet.,  270), 
indeed,  expresses  a  less  favorable  opinion  of 
Plautus ;  but  it  must  be  recollected  that  the 
taste  of  Horace  had  been  formed  by  a  different 
school  of  literature,  and  that  he  disliked  the 
ancient  poets  of  his  country.  Moreover,  it  is 
probable  that  the  censure  of  Horace  does  not 
refer  to  the  general  character  of  Plautus's  po- 
etry, but  merely  to  his  inharmonious  verses  and 
to  some  of  his  jests.  The  text  of  Plautus  has 
come  down  to  us  in  a  very  corrupt  state.  It 
contains  many  lacunae  and  interpolations.  Thus 
the  Av.lule.ria  has  lost  its  conclusion,  the  Bac- 
chides  its  commencement,  &c.  Of  the  present 
complete  editions,  the  best  are  by  Bothe,  Lips., 
1834,  2  vols.  8vo,  and  by  Weise,  Quedlinb., 
1837-1838,  2  vols.  8vo,  [2d  edition,  1847-48, 
2  vols.  8vo] ;  but  Ritschl's  edition,  of  which  the 
first  volume  only  has  yet  appeared  (Bonn.,  1849), 
will  far  surpass  all  others. 
680 


PLEURON. 

PLAVIS  (now  Piavc),  a  river  in  Venetia,  in  th« 
north  of  Italy,  which  fell  into  the  Sinus  Ter- 
gestinus. 

PLEIADES  (H%etu6e{ or  Il£Ae<u<fcf),tlie  Pleiads, 
are  usually  called  the  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
Pleione,  whence  they  bear  the  name  of  the  At- 
lanlidcs.  They  were  called  Vergtiia  by  the  Ro- 
mans. They  were  the  sisters  of  the  Hyades, 
and  seven  in  number,  six  of  whom  are  described 
as  visible,  and  the  seventh  as  invisible.  Some 
call  the  seventh  Sterope,  and  relate  that  she  be- 
came invisible  from  shame,  because  she  alone 
among  her  sisters  had  had  intercourse  with  a 
mortal  man  ;  others  call  her  Electra,  and  make 
her  disappear  from  the  choir  of  her  sisters  on 
account  of  her  grief  at  the  destruction  of  the 
house  of  Dardanus.  The  Pleiades  are  said  to 
have  made  away  with  themselves  from  grief  at 
the  death  of  their  sisters,  the  Hyades,  or  at  the 
fate  of  their  father  Atlas,  and  were  afterward 
placed  as  stars  at  the  back  of  Taurus,  where 
they  formed  a  cluster  resembling  a  bunch  of 
grapes,  whence  they  were  sometimes  called 
fJorpvf.  According  to  another  story,  the  Plei- 
ades were  virgin  companions  of  Diana  (Arte- 
mis), and,  together  with  their  mother  Pleione, 
were  pursued  by  the  hunter  Orion  in  Bceotia ; 
their  prayer  to  be  rescued  from  him  was  heard 
by  the  gods,  and  they  were  metamorphosed  into 
doves  (Tre/Utudff),  and  placed  among  the  stars. 
The  rising  of  the  Pleiades  in  Italy  was  about 
the  beginning  of  May,  and  their  setting  about 
the  beginning  of  November.  Their  names  are 
Electra,  Maia,  Taygete,  Alcyone,  Celseno,  Ster- 
ope, and  Merope. 

PLEIONE  (H^rj'iovrj),  a  daughter  of  Oceanus 
and  mother  of  the  Pleiades  by  Atlas.  Vid 
ATLAS  and  PLEIADES. 

[PLEMINIUS,  Q.,  propraetor  and  legatus  of 
Scipio  Africanus,  was  sent  in  B.C.  205  against 
the  town  of  Locri,  in  Southern  Italy,  which  still 
continued  in  the  possession  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians. He  took  the  town,  of  which  he  was  left 
governor  by  Scipio ;  but  his  treatment  of  the 
inhabitants  was  so  cruel  that  they  sent  to  Rome 
to  make  complaint,  and  the  senate  ordered  his 
return ;  he  was  thrown  into  prison  B.C.  204, 
but  died  before  his  trial  came  on.] 

PLEMMYRIUM  (U.\eu(jivpiov  :  now  Punta  di  Gi- 
gante),  a  promontory  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Sicily,  immediately  south  of  Syracuse. 

PLEUMOXII,  a  small  tribe  in  Gallia  Belgica, 
subject  to  the  Nervii. 

PLEURATUS  (IlAeiiparof).  1.  King  of  Illyria, 
was  the  son  of  Scerdila'idas.  His  name  occurs 
as  an  ally  of  the  Romans  in  the  second  Punic 
war,  and  in  their  subsequent  wars  in  Greece. 
—[2.  A  brother  of  Gentius,  and  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. Vid.  PLATOR.  He  was  put  to  death 
by  Gentius  in  order  that  the  king  might  himself 
marry  a  daughter  of  Monunius,  who  had  been 
betrothed  to  Pleuratus. — 3.  A  son  of  Gentius, 
king  of  Illyria,  who  was  taken  prisoner,  together 
with  his  father,  and  carried  captive  to  Rome, 
— 4.  An  Illyrian  exile,  of  whose  services  Per- 
seus, king  of  Macedonia,  availed  himself  on  hia 
embassies  to  Gentius,  king  of  Illyria,  in  B.C 
169.] 

PLEURON  (flAevpuv:  IRetipuvioc),  an  ancient 
city  in  JEtolia,  and  along  with  Calydon  the  most 
important  in  the  country,  was  situated  at  a  lit 


PLINIUS. 

fie  distance  from  the  coast,  northwest  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Evenus,  and  on  the  southern  slope 
of  Mount  Aracynthus  or  Curius.  Pt  was  originally 
inhabited  by  theCuretes.  This  ancient  city  was 
abandoned  by  its  inhal-itants,  when  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  laid  waste  the  surrounding  country, 
and  a  new  city  was  built  under  the  same  name  to 
the  west  of  the  ancient  one.  The  two  cities  are 
distinguished  by  geogr.iphers  under  the  names 
of  Old  Pleuron  and  New  Pleuron  respectively. 

PLINIUS.  1.  C.  PLIN.OS  SECCIJJDUS,  the  cele- 
brated author  of  the  Historia  Naturalis,  and  fre- 
quently called  Pliny  the  elder,  was  born  A.D. 
23,  either  at  Verona  or  Novum  Comum  (now 
Como),  in  the  north  of  Italy.  But  whichever 
was  the  place  of  his  biith,  it  is  certain  that  his 
family  belonged  to  No  rum  Comum,  since  the 
estates  of  the  elder  Pliny  were  situated  there, 
the  younger  Pliny  was  born  there,  and  several 
inscriptions  found  in  the  neighborhood  relate  to 
various  members  of  the  family.  He  came  to 
Rome  while  still  young,  and  being  descended 
from  a  family  of  wealth  and  distinction,  he  had 
the  means  at  his  disposal  for  availing  himself 
of  the  instruction  of  Hie  best  teachers  to  be 
found  in  the  imperial  <;ity.  At  the  age  of  about 
twenty-three  he  went  to  Germany,  where  he 
served  under  L.  PomjiCnius  Secundus,  of  whom 
he  afterward  wrote  a  memoir,  and  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  command  of  a  troop  of  cavalry  (pra- 
fectus  alee).  It  appeals  from  notices  of  his  own 
that  he  travelled  over  most  of  the  frontier  of 
Germany,  having  visited  the  Cauci,  the  sources 
of  the  Danube,  &c.  It  was  in  the  intervals 
snatched  from  his  military  duties  that  he  com- 
posed his  treatise  dt  Jaculatione  equestri.  At 
the  same  time  he  commenced  a  history  of  the 
Germanic  wars,  which  he  afterward  completed 
in  twenty  books.  He  returned  to  Rome  with 
Pomponius  (52),  and  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  jurisprudence.  He  practiced  for  some 
time  as  a  pleader,  but  does  not  seem  to  have 
distinguished  himself  very  greatly  in  that  ca- 
pacity. The  greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Nero 
he  spent  in  retirement,  chiefly,  no  doubt,  at  his 
native  place.  It  may  have  been  with  a  view 
to  the  education  of  his  nephew  that  he  com- 
posed the  work  entitled  Studiosus,  an  extensive 
treatise  in  three  books,  occupying  six  volumes, 
in  which  he  marked  out  the  course  that  should 
be  pursued  in  the  training  of  a  young  orator, 
from  the  cradle  to  the  completion  of  his  educa- 
tion and  his  entrance  into  public  life.  During 
the  reign  of  Nero  he  wrote  a  grammatical  work 
in  eight  books,  entitled  Dubius  Sermo ;  and  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  reign  of  this  emperor  he 
was  appointed  procurator  in  Spain.  He  was 
here  in  71,  when  his  brother-in-law  died,  leav- 
ing his  son,  the  younger  Pliny,  to  the  guardian- 
ship of  his  uncle,  who,  on  account  of  his  ab- 
sence, was  obliged  to  intrust  the  care  of  him  to 
Virginius  Rufus.  Pliny  returned  to  Rome  in 
the  reign  of  Vespasian,  shortly  before  73,  when 
he  adopted  his  nephew.  He  had  known  Ves- 
pasian in  the  Germanic  wars,  and  the  emperor 
received  him  into  the  number  of  his  most  inti- 
mate friends.  It  was  at  this  period  of  his  life 
that  he  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  history  of 
Aufidius  Bassus,  in  thirty-one  books,  carrying 
the  narrative  down  to  his  own  times.  Of  his 
manner  of  life  at  this  period  an  interesting  ac- 


PLINIUS. 

• 

count  has  been  preserved  by  his  nephew  (Epist., 
Hi.,  5).  It  was  his  practice  to  begin  to  spend 
a  portion  of  the  night  in  studying  by  can- 
dle-light, at  the  festival  of  the  Vulcanalia  (to- 
ward the  end  of  August),  at  first  at  a  late  hour 
of  the  night,  in  winter  at  one  or  two  o'clock  in 
the  morning.  Before  it  was  light  he  betook 
himself  to  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  and  after 
executing  such  commissions  as  he  might  be 
charged  with,  returned  home  and  devoted  the 
time  which  he  still  had  remaining  to  study. 
After  a  slender  meal,  he  would,  in  the  summer- 
time, lie  in  the  sunshine  while  some  one  read 
to  him,  he  himself  making  notes  and  extracts. 
He  never  read  any  thing  without  making  ex- 
tracts in  this  way,  for  he  used  to  say  that  there 
was  no  book  so  bad  but  that  some  good  might 
be  got  out  of  it.  He  would  then  take  a  cold 
bath,  and  after  a  slight  repast  sleep  a  very  lit- 
tle, and  then  pursue  his  studies  till  the  time  of 
the  coena.  During  this  meal  some  book  was 
read  to,  and  commented  on  by  him.  At  table, 
as  might  be  supposed,  he  spent  but  a  short  time. 
Such  was  his  mode  of  life  when  in  the  midst 
of  the  bustle  and  confusion  of  the  city.  When 
in  retirement  in  the  country,  the  time  spent  in 
the  bath  was  nearly  the  only  interval  not  allot- 
ted to  study,  and,  that  he  reduced  to  the  nar- 
rowest limits  ;  for  during  all  the  process  of 
scraping  and  rubbing  he  had  some  book  read  to 
him,  or  himself  dictated.  When  on  a  journey 
he  had  a  secretary  by  his  side  with  a  book  and 
tablets.  By  this  incessant  application,  perse- 
vered in  throughout  life,  he  amassed  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  materials,  and  at  his  death  left 
to  his  nephew  one  hundred  and  sixty  volumina 
of  notes  (electorum  commentarii),  written  ex- 
tremely small  on  both  sides.  With  some  reason 
might  his  nephew  say  that,  when  compared  with 
Pliny,  those  who  had  spent  their  whole  lives  in 
literary  pursuits  seemed  as  if  they  had  spent 
them  in  nothing  else  than  sleep  and  idleness. 
From  the  materials  which  he  had  in  this  way 
collected  he  compiled  his  celebrated  Historia 
Naturalis,  which  he  published  about  77.  The  de- 
tails of  Pliny's  death  are  given  in  a  letter  of  the 
younger  Pliny  to  Tacitus  (Ep.,  vi.,  16).  He  per- 
ished in  the  celebrated  eruption  of  Vesuvius, 
which  overwhelmed  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii, 
in  79,  being  fifty-six  years  of  age.  He  was  at  the 
time  stationed  at  Misenum  in  the  command  of 
the  Roman  fleet ;  and  it  was  his  anxiety  to  ex- 
amine more  closely  the  extraordinary  phsenom 
enon,  which  led  him  to  sail  to  Stabise,  where 
he  landed  and  perished.  The  only  work  of 
Pliny  which  has  come  down  to  us  is  his  Histo- 
ria Naturalis.  By  Natural  History  the  ancients 
understood  more  than  modern  writers  would 
usually  include  in  the  subject.  It  embraced 
astronomy,  meteorology,  geography,  mineralo- 
gy, zoology,  botany — in  short,  every  thing  that 
does  not  relate  to  the  results  of  human  skill  or 
the  products  of  human  faculties.  Pliny,  how- 
ever, has  not  kept  within  even  these  extensive 
limits.  He  has  broken  in  upon  the  plan  implied 
by  the  title  of  the  work,  by  considerable  digres- 
sions on  human  inventions  and  institutions 
(book  vii.),  and  on  the  history  of  the  fine  arts 
(xxxv.-xxxvii.).  Minor  digressions  on  similar 
topics  are  also  interspersed  in  various  parts  of 
the  work,  the  arrangement  of  which  in  othei 

681 


PLINIUS. 
• 

respects  exhibits  but  little  scientific  discrimina- 
tion. It  comprises,  as  Pliny  says  in  the  pref- 
ace, twenty  thousand  matters  of  importance, 
drawn  from  about  two  thousand  volumes.  It 
is  divided  into  thirty-seven  books,  the  first  of 
which  consists  of  a  dedicatory  epistle  to  Titus, 
followed  by  a  table  of  contents  of  the  other 
bocks.  When  it  is  remembered  that  this  work 
was  not  the  result  of  the  undistracted  labor  of 
a  life,  but  written  in  the  hours  of  leisure  secured 
from  active  pursuits,  and  that,  too,  by  the  author 
of  other  extensive  works,  it  is,  to  say  the  least, 
a  wonderful  monument  of  human  industry.  It 
may  easily  be  supposed  that  Pliny,  with  his  in- 
ordinate appetite  for  accumulating  knowledge 
out  of  books,  was  not  the  man  to  produce  a 
scientific  work  of  any  value.  He  was  not  even 
an  original  observer.  The  materials  which  he 
worked  up  into  his  huge  encyclopaedic  compila- 
tion were  almost  all  derived  at  second-hand, 
though  doubtless  he  has  incorporated  the  re- 
sults of  his  own  observation  in  a  larger  number 
of  instances  than  those  in  which  he  indicates 
such  to  be  the  case.  Nor  did  he,  as  a  compiler, 
show  either  judgment  or  discrimination  in  the 
selection  of  his  materials,  so  that  in  his  accounts 
the  true  and  the  false  are  found  intermixed. 
His  love  of  the  marvellous,  and  his  contempt 
for  human  nature,  lead  him  constantly  to  intro- 
duce what  is  strange  or  wonderful,  or  adapted 
to  illustrate  the  wickedness  of  man,  and  the  un- 
satisfactory arrangements  of  Providence.  His 
work  is  of  course  valuable  to  us  from  the  vast 
number  of  subjects  treated  of,  with  regard  to 
many  of  which  we  have  no  other  sources  of  in- 
formation. But  what  he  tells  us  is  often  unin- 
telligible, from  his  retailing  accounts  of  things 
with  which  he  was  himself  personally  unac- 
quainted, and  of  which  he  in  consequence  gives 
no  satisfactory  idea  to  the  reader.  Though  a 
writer  on  zoology,  botany,  and  mineralogy,  he 
has  no  pretensions  to  be  called  a  naturalist. 
His  compilations  exhibit  scarcely  a  trace  of 
scientific  arrangement ;  and  frequently  it  can 
be  shown  that  he  does  not  give  the  true  sense 
of  the  authors  whom  he  quotes  and  translates, 
giving  not  uncommonly  wrong  Latin  names  to 
the  objects  spoken  of  by  his  Greek  authorities. 
The  best  editions  of  Pliny's  Natural  History, 
with  a  commentary,  are  by  Hardouin  (Paris, 
1685,  5  vols.  4to  ;  second  edition  1723,  3  vols. 
fol.),  and  by  Panckoucke  (Paris,  1829-1833,  20 
vols.),  with  a  French  translation  and  notes  by 
Cuvier  and  other  eminent  scientific  and  literary 
men  of  France.  The  most  valuable  critical 
edition  of  the  text  of  Pliny  is  hy  Sillig  (Lips., 
1831-1836,  5  vols.  12mo).— 2.  C.  PLINIUS  CJE- 
CILIUS  SECUNDUS,  frequently  called  Pliny  the 
younger,  was  the  son  of  C.  Caecilius,  and  of 
Plinia,  the  sister  of  the  elder  Pliny.  He  was 
born  at  Comum  in  A.D.  61  ;  and  having  lost 
his  father  at  an  early  age,  he  was  adopted  by 
his  uncle,  as  has  been  mentioned  above.  His 
education  was  conducted  under  the  care  of  his 
uncle,  his  mother,  and  his  tutor,  Virginius  Ru- 
fus.  From  his  youth  he  was  devoted  to  letters. 
In  his  fourteenth  year  he  wrote  a  Greek  trage- 
dy. He  studied  eloquence  under  Quintilian. 
His  acquirements  finally  gained  him  the  repu- 
tation of  being  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
the  age  ,  and  his  friend  Tacitus,  the  historian, 
682 


PLINIUS. 

had  the  same  honorable  distinction.  He  was 
also  an  orator.  In  his  nineteenth  year  he  began 
to  speak  in  the  forum,  and  he  was  frequently 
employed  as  an  advocate  before  the  court  of  the 
Centumviri  and  before  the  Roman  senate.  He 
filled  numerous  offices  in  succession.  While  a 
young  man  he  served  in  Syria  as  tribunus  mili- 
tum,  and  was  there;  a  hearer  of  the  stoic  Eu- 
phrates and  of  Artemidorus.  He  was  subse- 
quently quaestor  Ceesaris,  praetor  in  or  about  93, 
and  consul  100,  in  which  year  he  wrote  his 
Panegyricus,  which  is  addressed  to  Trajan.  In 
103  he  was  appointed  propraetor  of  the  province 
Pontica,  where  he  did  not  stay  quite  two  years. 
Among  his  other  functions  he  also  discharged 
that  of  curator  of  the  channel  and  the  banks  of 
the  Tiber.  He  was  twice  married.  His  sec- 
ond wife  was  Calpurnia,  the  grand-daughter  of 
Calpurnius  Fabatus,  and  an  accomplished  wom- 
an ;  she  was  considerably  younger  than  hei 
husband,  who  has  recorded  her  kind  attentions 
to  him.  He  had  no  children  by  either  wife 
born  alive.  The  life  of  Pliny  is  chiefly  known 
from  his  letters.  So  far  as  this  evidence  shows, 
he  was  a  kind  and  benevolent  man,  fond  of  lit- 
erary pursuits,  and  of  building  on  and  improving 
his  estates.  He  was  rich,  and  he  spent  liber- 
ally. He  was  a  kind  master  to  his  slaves. 
His  body  was  feeble,  and  his  health  not  good. 
Nothing  is  known  as  to  the  time  of  his  death. 
The  extant  works  of  Pliny  are  his  Panegyricns 
and  the  ten  books  of  his  Epistola.  The  Pane- 
gyricus is  a  fulsome  eulogium  on  Trajan  ;  it  is 
of  small  value  for  the  information  which  it  con- 
tains about  the  author  himself  and  his  times. 
Pliny  collected  his  own  letters,  as  appears  from 
the  first  letter  of  the  first  book,  which  looks 
something  like  a  preface  to  the  whole  collection. 
It  is  not  an  improbable  conjecture  that  he  may 
have  written  many  of  his  letters  with  a  view 
to  publication,  or  that  when  he  was  writing 
some  of  them  the  idea  of  future  publication  was 
in  his  mind.  However,  they  form  a  very  agree- 
able collection,  and  make  us  acquainted  with 
many  interesting  facts  in  the  life  of  Pliny  and 
that  of  his  contemporaries.  The  letters  from 
Pliny  to  Trajan  and  the  emperor's  replies  are 
the  most  valuable  part  of  the  collection  :  they 
form  the  whole  of  the  tenth  book.  The  letter 
on  the  punishment  of  the  Christians  (x.,  97),  and 
the  emperor's  answer  (x.,  98),  have  furnished 
matter  for  much  remark.  The  fact  of  a  person 
admitting  himself  to  be  a  Christian  was  suffi- 
cient for  his  condemnation  ;  and  the  punish- 
ment appears  to  have  been  death.  The  Chris- 
tians, on  their  examination,  admitted  nothing 
further  than  their  practice  of  meeting  on  a  fixed 
day  before  it  was  light,  and  singing  a  hymn  to 
Christ,  as  God  (quasi  Deo) ;  their  oath  (what- 
ever Pliny  may  mean  by  sacramentum)  was  not 
to  bind  them  to  any  crime,  but  to  avoid  theft, 
robbery,  adultery,  breach  of  faith,  and  denial  of 
a  deposit.  Two  female  slaves,  who  were  said 
to  be  deaconesses  (minittra),  were  put  to  the 
torture  by  Pliny,  but  nothing  unfavorable  to  the 
Christians  could  be  got  out  of  them  :  the  gov- 
ernor could  detect  nothing  except  a  perverse 
and  extravagant  superstition  (super  slitionempra- 
vam  et  immodicam).  Hereupon  he  asked  the 
emperor's  advice,  for  the  contagion  of  the  su 
perstition  was  spreading ;  yet  he  thought  tha 


P_uNTHINE. 

it  might  bu  stopped.  The  emperor,  in  his  reply, 
approves  of  the  governor's  conduct,  as  explain- 
ed in  his  letter,  and  observes  that  no  general 
rule  can  be  laid  down.  Persons  supposed  to  be 
Christians  are  not  to  be  sought  for  :  if  they  are 
accused  and  the  charge  is  proved,  they  are  to 
be  punished ;  but  if  a  man  denied  the  charge, 
and  could  prove  its  falsity  by  offering  his  pray- 
ers to  the  heathen  gods  (diis  nostris),  however 
suspected  he  may  have  been,  he  shall  be  ex- 
cused in  respect  of  his  repentance.  Charges  of 
accusation  (libelli),  without  the  name  of  the  in- 
formant or  accuser,  were  not  to  be  received,  as 
they  had  been  :  it  was  a  thing  of  the  worst  ex- 
ample, and  unsuited  to  the  age.  One  of  the 
best  editions  of  the  Epistolce  and  Panegyricus  is 
by  Schaefer,  Lips.,  1805.  The  best  editions  of 
the  Epistolce  are  by  Cortius  and  Longolius,  Am- 
sterdam, 1734,  and  by  Gierig,  Lips.,  1800. 

PLINTHINE  ( Tlfavdivt]),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
on  the  bay  called  from  it  SINUS  PLINTHINETES 
(H7(.ivdivrJTJif  /c6A,7rof),  was  the  westernmost  city 
of  Egypt  (according  to  its  narrower  limits)  on 
the  frontier  of  Marmarica.  It  stood  a  little  north 
of  Taposiris  (now  Abousir). 

PI.ISTARCHUS  (HfeiaTapxof).  1.  King  of  Sparta, 
was  the  son  and  successor  of  Leonidas,  who 
was  killed  at  Thermopylae  B.C.  480.  He  reign- 
ed from  480  to  458,  but,  being  a  mere  child  at  the 
time  of  his  father's  death,  the  regency  was  as- 
sumed by  his  cousin  Pausanias.  It  appears 
that  the  latter  continued  to  administer  affairs  in 
the  name  of  the  young  king  till  his  own  death, 
about  467.  —  [2.  Son  of  Antipater,  brother  of 
Cassander,  the  Macedonian  king.] 

PL!STHENES  (HXeiodevyc),  son  of  Atreus,  and 
husband  of  Agrope  or  Eriphyle,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  Agamemnon,  Menelaus, 
and  Anaxibia;  but  Homer  makes  the  latter  the 
children  of  Atreus.  Vid.  AGAMEMNON,  ATREUS. 

PLISTI  A  (no  wPreslia),  a  village  in  Samnium,  in 
the  valley  between  Mount  Tifata  and  Taburnus. 

PusxflANAX  or  PLISTONAX  (HheiaToavat; ,  ID.«- 
oruva!-),  king  of  Sparta,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
the  Pausanias  who  conquered  at  Plataeae,  B.C. 
479.  On  the  death  of  Plistarchus  in  458,  with- 
out issue,  Plistoanax  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
being  yet  a  minor.  He  reigned  from  458  to 
408.  In  445  he  invaded  Attica,  but  the  prema- 
ture withdrawal  of  his  army  from  the  enemy's 
territory  exposed  him  to  the  suspicion  of  hav- 
ing been  bribed  by  Pericles.  He  was  punished 
by  a  heavy  fine,  which  he  was  unable  to  pay, 
and  was  therefore  obliged  to  leave  his  country. 
He  remained  nineteen  years  in  exile,  taking  up 
his  abode  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  on 
Mount  Lycaeus  in  Arcadia,  and  having  half  his 
house  within  the  sacred  precincts,  that  he  might 
enjoy  the  benefit  of  the  sanctuary.  During  this 
period  his  son  Pausanias,  a  minor,  reigned  in 
his  stead.  The  Spartans  at  length  recalled  him 
in  426,  in  obedience  to  the  injunctions  of  the 
Delphic  oracle.  But  he  was  accused  of  having 
tampered  with  the  Pythian  priestess  to  induce 
her  to  interpose  for  him,  and  his  alleged  impiety 
in  this  matter  was  continually  assigned  by  his 
enemies  as  the  cause  of  all  Sparta's  misfortunes 
in  the  war,  and  therefore  it  was  that  he  used 
all  his  influence  to  bring  about  peace  with 
Athens  in  421.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Pausanias. 


PLOTINUS. 

PUSTUS  (ILUiffrof :  now  Xeropotamo),  a  smaL 
river  in  Phocis,  which  rises  in  Mount  Parnas- 
sus, flows  past  Delphi,  where  it  receives  the 
small  stream  Castalia,  and  falls  into  the  Cris- 
saean  Gulf  near  Cirrha. 

PLOTINA,  POMPEIA,  the  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Trajan,  and  a  woman  of  extraordinary  merit 
and  virtue.  As  she  had  no  children,  she  per- 
suaded her  husband  to  adopt  Hadrian.  She 
died  in  the  reign  or  Hadrian,  who  honored  hei 
memory  by  mourning  for  her  nine  days,  by  build- 
ing a  temple  in  her  honor,  and  by  composing 
hymns  in  her  praise. 

PLOTINOPOLIS  (TIAurtvoTro^if),  a  town  in 
Thrace,  on  the  road  frorr  Trajanopolis  to  Ha- 
drianopolis,  founded  by  Trajan,  and  named  in 
honor  of  his  wife  Plotina. 

PI.OTINUS  (HAwnvof),  the  originator  of  the 
Neo-Platonic  system,  was  born  at  Lycopolis,  in 
Egypt,  about  A.D.  203.  The  details  of  his  life 
have  been  preserved  by  his  disciple  Porphyry 
in  a  biography  which  has  come  down  to  us. 
From  him  we  learn  that  Plotinus  began  to  study 
philosophy  in  his  twenty-eighth  year,  and  re- 
mained eleven  years  under  the  instruction  of 
Ammonius  Saccas.  In  his  thirty-ninth  year  he 
joined  the  expedition  of  the  Emperor  Gordian 
(242)  against  the  Persians,  in  order  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  philosophy  of  the  Persians 
and  Indians.  After  the  death  of  Gordian  he 
fled  to  Antioch,  and  from  thence  to  Rome  (244). 
For  the  first  ten  years  of  his  residence  at  Rome 
he  gave  only  oral  instructions  to  a  few  friends  • 
but  he  was  at  length  induced  in  254  to  commit 
his  instructions  to  writing.  In  this  manner, 
when,  ten  years  later  (264),  Porphyry  came  to 
Rome  and  joined  himself  to  Plotinus,  twenty- 
one  books  of  very  various  contents  had  been 
already  composed  by  him.  During  the  six  years 
that  Porphyry  lived  with  Plotinus  at  Rome,  the 
latter,  at  the  instigation  of  Amelius  and  Por- 
phyry, wrote  twenty-three  books  on  the  subjects 
which  had  been  discussed  in  their  meetings,  to 
which  nine  books  were  afterward  added.  Of 
the  fifty-four  books  of  Plotinus,  Porphyry  re- 
marks that  the  first  twenty-one  books  were  of 
a  lighter  character,  that  only  the  twenty-three 
following  were  the  production  of  the  matured 
powers  of  the  author,  and  that  the  other  nine, 
especially  the  four  last,  were  evidently  writ- 
ten with  diminished  vigor.  The  correction  of 
these  fifty-four  books  was  committed  by  Ploti- 
nus himself  to  the  care  of  Porphyry.  On  ac- 
count of  the  weakness  of  his  sight,  Plotinua 
never  read  them  through  a  second  time,  to  say 
nothing  of  making  corrections  ;  intent  simply 
upon  the  matter,  he  was  alike  careless  of  orthog- 
raphy, of  the  division  of  the  syllables,  and  the 
clearness  of  his  hand-writing.  The  fifty-four 
books  were  divided  by  Porphyry  into  six  En- 
neadi,  or  sets  of  nine  books.  Plotinus  was  elo- 
quent in  his  oral  communications,  and  was  said 
to  be  very  clever  "in  finding  the  appropriate 
word,  even  if  he  failed  in  accuracy  on  the  whole. 
Besides  this,  the  beauty  of  his  person  was  in- 
creased when  discoursing ;  his  countenance 
was  lighted  up  with  genius,  and  covered  with 
small  drops  of  perspiration.  He  lived  on  the 
scantiest  fare,  and  his  hours  of  sleep  were  re- 
stricted to  the  briefest  time  possible.  He  was 
regarded  with  admiration  and  respect  not  only 

683 


PLOTIUS. 

tiy  men  of  science  like  the  philosopheis  Ame- 
lius,  Porphyry,  the  physicians  Paulinus,  Eusto- 
chius,  and  Zethus  the  Arab,  but  even  by  sena- 
,ors  and  other  statesmen.  He  enjoyed  the  favor 
of  the  Emperor  Gallienus,  and  the  Empress 
Salonina,  and  almost  obtained  from  them  the 
rebuilding  of  two  destroyed  towns  in  Campania, 
with  the  view  of  their  being  governed  according 
to  the  laws  of  Plato.  He  died  at  Puteoli  in 
262.  The  philosophical  system  of  Plotinus  is 
founded  upon  Plato's  writings,  with  the  addition 
of  various  tenets  drawn  from  the  Oriental  phi- 
losophy and  religion.  He  appears,  however,  to 
avoid  studiously  all  reference  to  the  Oriental 
origin  of  his  tenets  ;  he  endeavors  to  find  them 
all  under  the  veil  of  the  Greek  mythology,  and 
points  out  here  the  germ  of  his  own  philosoph- 
ical and  religious  convictions.  Plotinus  is  not 
guilty  of  that  commixture  and  falsification  of 
the  Oriental  mythology  and  mysticism  which  is 
found  in  lamblichus,  Proclus,  and  others  of  the 
Neo-Platonic  school.  The  best  edition  of  the 
Enneads  of  Plotinus  is  by  Creuzer,  Oxonii,  1835, 
3  vols.  4to. 

PLOTIUS,  whose  full  name  was  MARIUS  PLO- 
TIUS SACERDOS,  a  Latin  grammarian,  the  au- 
thor of  De  Metris  Liber,  probably  lived  in  the 
fifth  or  sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  His 
work  is  published  by  Putschius  in  the  Gram- 
maticcE  Latina  Auclores,  Hannov.,  1605,  and  by 
Gaisford  in  the  Scriptores  Latini  Rei  Metricce, 
Oxon.,  1837. 

[PLOTIUS  GALLUS,  of  Lugdunum,  the  first  who 
taught  rhetoric  at  Rome  in  the  Latin  language. 
He  met  with  great  success,  and  had  a  large  num- 
ber of  auditors,  among  whom  was  Cicero.] 

[PLOTIUS  TUCCA.     Vid.  TUCCA.] 

PLUTARCHUS  (Hhovrapxos).  1.  Tyrant  of  Ere- 
tria  in  Euboea,  whom  the  Athenians  assisted  in 
B.C.  354  against  his  rival,  Callias  of  Chalcis. 
The  Athenian  army  was  commanded  by  Pho- 
cion,  who  defeated  Callias  at  Tamynse ;  but 
Phocion,  having  suspected  Plutarchus  of  treach- 
ery, expelled  him  from  Eretria. — 2.  The  biog- 
rapher and  philosopher,  was  born  at  Chaeronea 
in  Boeotia.  The  year  of  his  birth  is  not  known  ; 
but  we  learn  from  Plutarch  himself  that  he  was 
studying  philosophy  under  Ammonius  at  the 
time  when  Nero  was  making  his  progress 
through  Greece,  in  A.D.  66 ;  from  which  we 
may  assume  that  he  was  a  youth  or  a  young 
man  at  that  time.  He  spent  some  time  at 
Rome,  and  in  other  parts  of  Italy  ;  but  he  tells 
us  that  he  did  not  learn  the  Latin  language  in 
Italy,  because  he  was  occupied  with  public  com- 
missions, and  in  giving  lectures  on  philosophy  ; 
and  it  was  late  in  life  before  he  busied  himself 
with  Roman  literature.  He  was  lecturing  at 
Rome  during  the  reign  of  Domitian,  but  the 
statement  of  Suidas  that  Plutarch  was  the  pre- 
ceptor of  Trajan  ought  to  be  rejected.  Plutarch 
spent  the  later  years  of  his  life  at  Chaeronea, 
where  he  discharged  various  magisterial  offices, 
and  held  a  priesthood.  The  time  of  his  death 
is  unknown.  The  work  which  has  immortal- 
ized Plutarch's  name  is  his  Parallel  Lives  (Biot 
Hapa/^Aot)  of  forty-six  Greeks  and  Romans. 
The  forty-six  Lives  are  arranged  in  pairs  ;  each 
pair  contains  the  life  of  a  Greek  and  a  Roman, 
and  is  followed  by  a  comparison  of  the  two  men : 
in  a  few  pairs  the  compar  son  is  omitted  or  lost. 
684 


PLUTARCHUS. 

l\d  seems  to  have  considered  each  pair  of  Live* 
and  the  Parallel  as  making  one  book  (BiftUop). 
The  forty-six  Lives  are  the  following  :  l.  The- 
seus and  Romulus  ;  2.  Lycurgus  and  Nuina  ;  3. 
Solon  and  Valerius  Publicola  ;  4.  Themistocles 
and  Camillus  ;  5.  Pericles  and  Q.  Fabius  Maxi- 
mus  ;  6.  Alcibiades  and  Coriolanus  ;  7.  Timo- 
leon  and  ^Emilius  Paulus  ;  8.  Pelopidas  and 
Marcellus  ;  9.  Aristides  and  Cato  the  Elder ; 
10.  Philopffimen  and  Flamininus  ;  11.  Pyrrhus 
andMarius;  12.  Lysander  and  Sulla;  13.  Cimon 
and  Lucullus  ;  14.  Nicias  and  Crassus  ;  15.  Eu- 
menes  and  Sertorius ;  16.  Agesilaus  and  Pom- 
peius;  17.  Alexander  and  Caesar;  18.  Phocion 
and  Cato  the  younger;  19.  Agis  and  Cleome- 
nes,  and  Tiberius  and  Caius  Gracchi ;  20.  De- 
mosthenes and  Cicero;  21.  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes  and  M.  Antonius  ;  22.  Dion  and  M.  Ju- 
nius  Brutus.  There  are  also  the  Lives  of  Ar- 
taxerxes  Mnemon,  Aratus,  Galba,  and  Otho, 
which  are  placed  in  the  editions  after  the  forty- 
six  lives.  Perhaps  no  work  of  antiquity  has 
been  so  extensively  read  in  modern  times  as 
Plutarch's  Lives.  The  reason  of  their  popu- 
larity is,  that  Plutarch  has  rightly  conceived  the 
business  of  a  biographer :  his  biography  is  true 
portraiture.  Other  biography  is  often  a  dull, 
tedious  enumeration  of  facts  in  the  order  of 
time,  with  perhaps  a  summing  up  of  charactei 
at  the  end.  The  reflections  of  Plutarch  are  nei- 
ther impertinent  nor  trifling ;  his  sound  good 
sense  is  always  there ;  his  honest  purpose  is 
transparent ;  his  love  of  humanity  warms  the 
whole.  His  work  is  and  will  remain,  in  spite 
of  all  the  fault  that  can  be  found  with  it  by  plod- 
ding collectors  of  facts  and  small  critics,  the 
book  of  those  who  can  nobly  think,  and  dare, 
and  do.  The  best  edition  of  the  Lives  is  by 
Sintenis,  Lips.,  1839-1846,  4  vols.  8vo.  Plu- 
tarch's other  writings,  above  sixty  in  number, 
are  placed  under  the  general  title  of  Moralia,  or 
Ethical  works,  though  some  of  them  are  of  a 
historical  and  anecdotical  character,  such  as  the 
essay  on  the  malignity  (KaKoqdeia)  of  Herodo- 
tus, which  neither  requires  nor  merits  refuta- 
tion, and  his  Apophthegmata,  many  of  which 
are  of  little  value.  Eleven  of  these  essays  are 
generally  classed  among  Plutarch's  historical 
works :  among  them  also  are  his  Roman  Ques- 
tions or  Inquiries,  his  Greek  Questions,  and  the 
Lives  of  the  Ten  Orators.  But  it  is  likely 
enough  that  several  of  the  essays  which  are  in- 
cluded in  the  Moralia  of  Plutarch  are  not  by 
him.  At  any  rate,  some  of  them  are  not  worth 
reading.  The  best  of  the  essays  included  among 
the  Moralia  are  of  a  different  stamp.  There  is 
no  philosophical  system  in  these  essays :  pure 
speculation  was  not  Plutarch's  province.  His 
best  writings  are  practical,  and  their  merits  con 
sist  in  the  soundness  of  his  views  on  the  ordi- 
nary events  of  human  life,  and  in  the  benevo- 
lence of  his  temper.  His  "  Marriage  Precepts" 
are  a  sample  of  his  good  sense  and  of  his  hap- 
piest expression.  He  rightly  appreciated  the 
importance  of  a  good  education,  and  he  gives 
much  sound  advice  on  the  bringing  up  of  chil- 
dren. The  best  edition  of  the  Moralia  is  by 
Wyttenbach :  it  consists  of  six  volumes  of  text 
(Oxon.,  1795-1800)  and  two  volumes  of  notes 
(Oxon.,  1810-1821),  [4to,  or  14  vols.,  text  and 
notes,  8vo,  with  a  copious  index  Graecitatis, 


PLUTO. 

2  vols.  8vo,  Oxon.,  1830.]  The  best  editions 
of  all  the  works  of  Plutarch  are  by  Reiske, 
Lips.,  1774-1782,  12  vols.  8vo,  and  by  Hutten, 
1791-1805,  14  vols.  8vo. — 3.  The  younger,  was 
a  son  of  the,  last,  and  is  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  the  author  of  several  of  the  works 
which  pass  usually  for  his  father's,  as,  e.  g-.,  the 
Apophthegmata. — 4.  An  Athenian,  son  of  Nes- 
torius,  presided  with  distinction  over  the  Neo- 
Platonic  school  at  Athens  in  the  early  part  of 
the  fifth  century,  and  was  surnamed  the  Great. 
He  numbered  among  his  disciples  Syrianus  of 
Alexandrea,  who  succeeded  him  as  head  of  the 
school,  and  Proclus  of  Lycia.  He  wrote  com- 
mentaries, which  are  lost,  on  the  "  Timaeus" 
of  Plato,  and  on  Aristotle's  treatise  "  On  the 
Soul."  He  died  at  an  advanced  age,  about  A.D. 
430. 

PLUTO  or  PLUTON  (IIAouruv),  the  giver  of 
wealth,  at  first  a  surname  of  Hades,  the  god  of 
the  lower  world,  and  afterward  used  as  the  real 
name  of  the  god.  In  the  latter  sense  it  first  oc- 
curs in  Euripides.  An  account  of  the  god  is 
given  under  HADES. 

PLUTUS  (IIAotirof),  sometimes  called  Pluton, 
the  personification  of  wealth,  is  described  as  a 
son  of  lasion  and  Demeter  (Ceres).  Vid.  IASION. 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  is  said  to  have  deprived  him  of 
sight,  that  he  might  not  bestow  his  favors  on 
righteous  men  exclusively,  but  that  he  might 
distribute  his  gifts  blindly,  and  without  any  re- 
gard to  merit.  At  Thebes  there  was  a  statue 
of  Tyche  or  Fortune,  at  Athens  one  of  Irene  or 
Peace,  and  at  Thespiae  one  of  Athena  (Minerva) 
Ergane,  and  in  each  of  these  cases  Plutus  was 
represented  as  the  child  of  those  divinities,  sym- 
bolically expressing  the  sources  of  wealth.  He 
seems  to  have  been  commonly  represented  as  a 
boy  with  a  Cornucopia. 

PLUVIALIA  (UXoviTuTia,  Ptol.  :  now  probably 
Ferro},  one  of  the  islands  in  the  Atlantic  called 
FORTUNATE. 

PLUV!US,  i.  e.,  the  sender  of  rain,  a  surname  of 
Jupiter  among  the  Romans,  to  whom  sacrifices 
were  offered  during  long-protracted  droughts. 

PNYTAGORAS  (Flwraydpaf).  1.  Eldest  son  of 
Evagoras,  king  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus,  was  as- 
sassinated along  with  his  father,  B.C.  374. — 
2.  King  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus,  probably  suc- 
ceeded Nicocles,  though  we  have  no  account  of 
his  accession,  or  his  relation  to  the  previous 
monarchs.  He  submitted  to  Alexander  in  332, 
and  served  with  a  fleet  under  that  monarch  at 
the  siege  of  Tyre. 

PODAURICS  ( nodafaipiof ).  1.  Son  of  ^Escula- 
pius  and  Epione  or  Arsinoe,  and  brother  of  Ma- 
chaon,  along  with  whom  he  led  the  Thessalians 
of  Tricca  against  Troy.  He  was,  like  his  broth- 
er, skilled  in  the  medical  art.  On  his  return 
from  Troy  he  was  cast  by  a  storm  on  the  coast 
of  Syros  in  Caria,  where  he  is  said  to  have  set- 
tled. He  was  worshipped  as  a  hero  on  Mount 
Dria. — [2.  A  companion  of  JSneas,  slain  by  Al- 
8us  in  Italy.] 

PODARCES  (Uo6upKw).  1.  The  original  name 
of  Priam.  Vid.  PKIAMUS.— 2.  Son  of  Iphiclus 
and  grandson  of  Phylacus,  was  a  younger  broth- 
er of  Protesilaus,  and  led  the  Thessalians  of 
Phylace  against  Troy. 

POUAROE.     Vid.  HARPYI.«. 

(IIo%),  son  of  Eetion,  a  Trojan  war- 


POLEMON. 

rior  and  friend  of  Hector,  was  slain  by  a  javelin- 
blow  from  Menelaus  in  the  fight  over  the  corpse 
of  Patroclus  ] 

POEAS  (Flot'af),  son  of  Phylacus  or  Thauma- 
cus,  husband  ofMethone,  and  the  father  of  Phi- 
loctetes,  who  is  hence  called  Paantiades,  P<zan- 
tius  hcros,  Pceantia  proles,  and  Paante  satus 
Poeas  is  mentioned  among  the  Argonauts,  and 
is  said  to  have  killed  with  an  arrow  Talaus  in 
Crete.  Poeas  set  fire  to  the  pile  on  which  Her- 
cules burned  himself,  and  was  rewarded  by  the 
hero  with  his  arrows.  Vid.  HERCULES,  PHILOC- 

TETES. 

[PccEEssA  (Tloifieaaa).  1.  A  city  in  Eastern 
Messenia,  on  the  Nedon,  with  a  temple  of  Mi- 
nerva (Athena)  Nedusia.  —  2.  (Ruins  still  called 
al  Tloiricioai),  one  of  the  four  cities  in  Ceos  (the 
inhabitants  of  which  were  removed  to  Carthaea), 
containing  a  sanctuary  of  Apollo  Smintheus,  and 
in  the  vicinity  another  of  Minerva  (Athena)  Ne- 
dusia, .which  Nestor  was  believed  to  have  built 
on  his  return  from  Troy.] 

PCEMANDER  (Holpavdpof),  son  of  Chseresilaus 
and  Stratonice,  was  the  husband  of  Tanagra,  a 
daughter  of  ^Eolus  or  ^Esopus,  by  whom  he  be 
came  the  father  of  Ephippus  and  Leucippus. 
He  was  the  reputed  founder  of  the  town  of  Ta- 
nagra in  Bceotia,  which  was  hence  called  Pce- 
mandria.  When  Pcemander  had  inadvertently 
killed  his  own  son,  he  was  purified  by  Elephe- 
nor. 


PCEMANE.VUS  (HoipavTivof  ;  ethnic,  the  same  : 
now  probably  Maniyas),  a  fortified  place  in  Mys- 
ia,  south  of  Cyzicus,  with  a  celebrated  temple 
of^Esculapius. 

PCENA  (hoLvfi),  a  personification  of  retaliation, 
sometimes  mentioned  as  one  being,  and  some- 
times in  the  plural.  The  Poenae  belonged  to  the 
train  of  Dice,  and  are  akin  to  the  Erinnyes. 

[PffiNi.  1.  Vid.  PHOENICIA,  CARTHAGO.  —  2.  PCE- 
m,  BASTULI,  a  people  of  Hispania  Baetica,  con- 
sisting of  Phoenician  settlers  blended  with  the 
old  inhabitants  of  the  land.] 

PCETOVIO.     Vid.  PETOVJO. 

POOON  (Fluyup,)  the  harbor  of  Trcezen  in  Ar- 
golis.  . 

POLA  (now  Pola),  an  ancient  town  in  Istria, 
situated  on  the  western  coast,  and  near  the 
Promontory  POLATICUM  (now  Punta  di  Promon- 
toria),  which  was  the  most  southerly  point  in 
the  country.  According  to  tradition,  Pola  was 
founded  by  the  Colchians,  who  had  been  sent  in 
pursuit  of  Medea.  It  was  subsequently  a  Ro- 
man colony,  with  the  surname  Pietas  Julia,  and 
became  an  important  commercial  town,  being 
united  by  good  roads  with  Aquileia  and  the  prin- 
cipal towns  of  lllyi  1.1  Its  importance  in  an 
tiquity  is  attested  by  its  magnificent  ruins,  of 
which  the  principal  are  those  of  an  amphithea 
tre,  of  a  triumphal  arch  (Porta  aurea),  erected 
to  L.  Sergius  by  his  wife  Salvia  Postuma,  and 
of  several  temples. 

I'OI.KM.'.N  (nofoftuv).  1.  I.  King  of  Pontus 
and  the  Bosporus,  was  the  son  of  Xenon,  the 
orator  of  Laodicea.  As  a  reward  for  the  serv- 
ices rendered  by  his  father  as  well  as  himself, 
he  was  appointed  by  Antony  in  B.C.  39  to  the 
government  of  Cilicia,  and  he  subsequently  ob- 
tained in  exchange  the  kingdom  of  Pontus.  He 
accompanied  Antony  in  his  expedition  against 
the  Parthians  in  36.  After  the  battle  of  Actium 

68.5 


POLEMON. 

he  was  able  to  make  his  peace  with  Octaviamis, 
who  confirmed  him  in  his  kingdom.  About  the 
year  10  he  was  intrusted  by  Agrippa  with  the 
charge  of  reducing  the  kingdom  of  Bosporus,  of 
which  he  was  made  king  after  conquering  the 
country.  His  reign  after  this  was  long  and 
prosperous ;  he  extended  his  dominions  as  far 
as  the  River  Tanai's  ;  but  having  engaged  in  an 
expedition  against  the  barbarian  tribe  of  the  As- 
purgians,  he  was  not  only  defeated  by  them,  but 
taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death.  By  his  sec- 
ond wife  Pythodoris,  who  succeeded  him  on  the 
throne,  he  left  two  sons,  Polemon  II.,  and  Zenon, 
king  of  Armenia,  and  one  daughter,  who  was 
married  to  Cotys,  king  of  Thrace. — 2.  II.  Son 
ot  the  preceding  and  of  Pythodoris,  was  raised 
to  the  sovereignty  of  Pontus  and  Bosporus  by 
Caligula  in  A.D.  39.  Bosporus  was  afterward 
taken  from  him  by  Claudius,  who  assigned  it  to 
Mithradates,  while  he  gave  Polemon  a  portion 
of  Cilicia  in  its  stead,  41.  In  62,'Polem«n  was 
induced  by  Nero  to  abdicate  the  throrie,  and 
Pontus  was  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  Roman 
province. — 3.  Of  Athens,  an  eminent  Platonic 
philosopher,  was  the  son  of  Philostratus,  a  man 
of  wealth  and  political  distinction.  In  his  youth 
Polemon  was  extremely  profligate ;  but  one  day, 
when  he  was  about  thirty,  on  his  bursting  into 
che  school  ofXenocrates,  at  the  head  of  a  band 
of  revellers,  his  attention  was  so  arrested  by  the 
discourse,  which  chanced  to  be  upon  temper- 
ance, that  he  tore  off  his  garland  and  remained 
an  attentive  listener,  and  from  that  day  he 
adopted  an  abstemious  course  of  life,  and  con- 
tinued to  frequent  the  school,  of  which,  on  the 
death  ofXenocrates,  he  became  the  head,  B.C. 
315.  He  died  in  273,  at  a  great  age.  He  es- 
teemed the  object  of  philosophy  to  be,  to  exer- 
cise men  in  things  and  deeds,  not  in  dialectic 
speculation.  He  placed  the  summum  bonum  in 
living  according  to  the  laws  of  nature. — 4.  Of 
Athens  by  citizenship,  but  by  birth  either  of  Il- 
ium, or  Samos,  or  Sicyon,  a  Stoic  philosopher 
and  an  eminent  geographer,  surnamed  Periege- 
tes  (6  Trspiriyf)Tri<;),  lived  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
Epiphanes,  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
tury B.C.  In  philosophy  he  was  a  disciple  of 
Panaetius.  He  made  extensive  journeys  through 
Greece  to  collect  materials  for  his  geographical 
works,  in  the  course  of  which  he  paid  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  inscriptions  on  votive  offer- 
ings and  on  columns.  As  the  collector  of  these 
inscriptions,  he  was  one  of  the  earlier  contribu- 
tors to  the  Greek  Anthology.  Athenaeus  and 
other  writers  make  very  numerous  quotations 
"rom  his  works.  They  were  chiefly  descrip- 
tions of  different  parts  of  Greece :  some  were 
>n  the  paintings  preserved  in  various  places, 
and  several  are  controversial,  among  which  is 
one  against  Eratosthenes.  [The  fragments  of 
Polemon  have  been  published  by  Preller  in  the 
work  entitled  Polemonis  Periegetce  Fragmenta, 
collegit,  digessit,  notis  auxit  L.  Preller,  Lips., 
1838.] — 5.  ANTONIUS,  a  celebrated  sophist  and 
rhetorician,  flourished  under  Trajan,  Hadrian, 
and  the  first  Antoninus,  and  was  in  high  favor 
with  the  two  former  emperors.  He  was  born 
of  a  consular  family  at  Laodicea,  but  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  at  Smyrna.  His  most 
celebrated  disciple  was  Aristides.  Among  his 
imitators  in  subsequent  times  was  Gregory  Na- 
686 


POLITES. 

zianzen.  His  style  of  oratory  was  imposing 
rather  than  pleasing,  and  his  character  was 
haughty  and  reserved.  During  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  he  was  so  tortured  by  the  gout  that 
he  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  his  existence  ;  he 
had  himself  shut  up  in  the  tomb  of  his  ancestors 
at  Laodicea,  where  he  died  of  hunger  at  the  age 
of  sixty-five.  The  only  extant  work  of  Pole- 
mon is  the  funeral  orations  for  Cynaeglrus  and 
Callimachus,  the  generals  who  fell  at  Marathon, 
which  are  supposed  to  be  pronounced  by  their 
fathers.  These  orations  are  edited  by  Orelli, 
Lips.,  1819.— 6.  The  author  of  a  short  Greek 
work  on  Physiognomy,  which  is  still  extant. 
He  must  have  lived  in  or  before  the  third  cen- 
tury after  Christ,  as  he  is  mentioned  by  Origen, 
and  from  his  style  he  can  not  be  supposed  to 
have  lived  much  earlier  than  this  time.  His 
work  consists  of  two  books  ;  in  the  first,  which 
contains  twenty-three  chapters,  after  proving 
the  utility  of  physiognomy,  he  lays  down  the 
general  principles  of  the  science ;  in  the  second 
book,  which  consists  of  twenty-seven  chapters, 
he  goes  on  to  apply  the  principles  he  had  before 
laid  down,  and  describes  in  a  few  words  the 
characters  of  the  courageous  man,  the  timid, 
the  impudent,  the  passionate,  the  talkative,  &c. 
The  best  edition  of  it  is  by  Franz  in  his  "  Scrip- 
tores  Physiognomoniae  Veteresj"  Altenburg, 
1780. 

POLEMONIOM  (Uofafiuvtov :  Tlo%e/juvio(,  and 
Tlofaftuvievf  :  now  Poleman),  a  city  on  the  coast 
of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  built  by  King  POLE- 
MON (probably  the  second)  on  the  site  of  the 
older  city  of  Side,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Sidenus  (now  Poleman  Chai),  and  at  the  bottom 
of  a  deep  gulf,  with  a  good  harbor.  It  was  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Polemon,  comprising 
the  central  part  of  Pontus,  east  of  the  Iris,  which 
was  hence  called  Pontus  Polemoniacus. 

POLIAS  (IIoAmf),  i.  e.,  "the  goddess  protect- 
ing the  city,"  a  surname  of  Minerva  (Athena) 
at  Athens,  where  she  was  worshipped  as  the 
protecting  divinity  of  the  Acropolis. 

POLICHNA  (HoTiixvT),  Dor.  Jlohixva 
rr/f),  a  town.  1.  In  the  northwest  of  Messenia, 
west  of  Andania. — 2.  In  the  northeast  of  Laco- 
nia. — 3.  In  Chios — 4.  In  Crete,  whose  territo- 
ry bordered  on  that  of  Cydonia. — 5.  In  Mysia, 
in  the  district  Troas,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
^Esepus,  near  its  source. 

POLIEUS  (IIoAtEVf),  "  the  protector  of  the  city," 
a  surname  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  under  which  he 
had  an  altar  on  the  acropolis  at  Athens. 

PoLIORCETES,  DEMETRIUS.        Vid.  DfiMETMUS. 

POLIS  (IToJUf),  a  village  of  the  Locri  Opuntii, 
subject  to  Hyle. 

[POLISMA  (IIo;u<7//a),  a  small  town  of  the  Mys- 
ian  district  Troas,  on  the  Simois,  already  in 
Strabo's  time  in  ruins.] 

POLITES  (Ho^'trw).  1.  Son  of  Priarn  and  Hec- 
uba, and  father  of  Priam  the  younger,  was  a  val- 
iant warrior,  but  was  slain  by  Pyrrhus. — [2.  One 
of  the  companions  of  Ulysses,  changed  by  Circe 
into  swine ;  later  legends  made  him  to  have 
been  stoned  to  death  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
coast  of  Bruttium,  near  Temesa,  for  having  vio- 
lated a  maiden  in  a  fit  of  intoxication  :  in  re- 
venge, his  spirit  is  said  to  have  pursued  them 
until  they  erected  a  temple  to  his  honor,  where 
a  maiden  was  yearly  sacrificed  to  him,  until  Eu 


POLITORIUM. 

thymon  freed  themby  having  vanquished  the  evil 
spirit.] 

POLITORIDM,  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Latium, 
destroyed  by  Ancus  Marcius. 

POLIUCHUS  (Tlofaoi'xof),  i.  e.,  "  protecting  the 
city,"  occurs  as  a  surname  of  several  divinities, 
such  as  Minerva  (Athena)  Chalcicecus  at  Spar- 
ta, and  of  Minerva  (Athena)  at  Athens. 

POLLA,  ARGENTARIA,  the  wife  of  the  poet  Lu- 
can. 

POLLEJVTIA  (Pollentlnus).  1.  (Now  Polcnza), 
a  town  of  the  Statielli  in  Liguria,  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Sturia  and  the  Tanarus,  and  subse- 
quently a  Roman  municipium.  It  was  cele- 
brated for  its  wool.  In  its  neighborhood  Stili- 
cho  gained  a  victory  over  the  Goths  under  Ala- 
ric. — 2.  A  town  in  Picenum,  probably  identical 
with  Urbs  Salvia. — 3.  (Now  Pollcnza),  a  Roman 
colony  on  the  northeastern  point  of  the  Balearis 
Major. 

POLLIO,  ANNIUS,  was  accused  of  treason  (ma- 
istas)  toward  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
out  was  not  brought  to  trial.  He  was  subse- 
quently one  of  Nero's  intimate  friends,  but  was 
accused  of  taking  part  in  Piso's  conspiracy 
against  that  emperor  in  A.D.  63,  and  was  in  con- 
sequence banished. 

POLLIO,  C.  ASINICS,  a  distinguished  orator, 
poet,  and  historian  of  the  Augustan  age.  He 
was  bom  at  Rome  in  B.C.  76,  and  became  dis- 
tinguished as  an  orator  at  an  early  age.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he  joined  Casar, 
and  in  49  he  accompanied  Curio  to  Africa.  Aft- 
er the  defeat  and  death  of  Curio  he  crossed  over 
to  Greece,  and  fought  at  Caesar's  side  at  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia  (48).  He  also  accompanied 
Caesar  in  his  campaigns  against  the  Pompeian 
party  in  Africa  (46)  and  Spain  (45).  He  return- 
ed with  Caesar  to  Rome,  but  was  shortly  after- 
ward sent  back  to  Spain,  with  the  command  of 
the  Further  Province,  in  order  to  prosecute  the 
war  against  Sextus  Pompey.  He  was  in  his 
province  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  death  (44).  He 
took  no  part  in  the  war  between  Antony  and  the 
senate  ;  but  when  Antony  was  joined  by  Lepi- 
dus  and  Octavianus  in  43,  Pollio  espoused  their 
cause,  and  persuaded  L.  Plancus  in  Gaul  to  fol- 
low his  example.  In  the  division  of  the  prov- 
inces among  the  triumvirs,  Antony  received  the 
Gauls.  The  administration  of  the  Transpadane 
Gaul  was  committed  to  Pollio  by  Antony,  and 
he  had  accordingly  the  difficult  task  of  settling 
the  veterans  in  the  lands  which  had  been  as- 
signed to  them  in  this  province.  It  was  upon 
this  occasion  that  he  saved  the  property  of  the 
poet  Virgil  at  Mantua  from  confiscation,  whom 
he  took  under  his  protection  from  his  love  of 
literature.  In  40  Pollio  took  an  active  part  in 
effecting  the  reconciliation  between  Octavianus 
and  Antony  at  Brundisium.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  consul ;  and  it  was  during  his  consul- 
ship that  Virgil  addressed  to  him  his  fourth  Ec- 
logue. In  39  Antony  went  to  Greece,  and  sent 
Pollio  with  a  part  of  his  army  against  the  Par- 
thini,  an  Illyrian  people.  Pollio  defeated  the 
Parthini  and  took  the  Dalmatian  town  of  Sa- 
lonae,  and,  in  consequence  of  his  success,  ob- 
tained the  honor  of  a  triumph  on  the  25th  of 
October  in  this  year.  He  gave  his  son  Asin-. 
lus  Callus  the  agnomen  of  Salonuius  after  the 
town  which  he  had  taken.  It  was  during  his 


POLLIO. 

Illyrian  campaign  that  Virgil  addressed  to  him 
the  eighth  Eclogue.  From  this  time  Pollio 
withdrew  altogether  from  political  life,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  literature.  He 
still  continued,  however,  to  exercise  his  orator- 
ical powers,  and  maintained  his  reputation  for 
eloquence  by  his  speeches  both  in  the  senate 
and  the  courts  of  justice.  He  died  at  his  Tus- 
culan  villa,  A.D.  4,  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his 
age,  preserving  to  the  last  the  full  enjoyment 
of  his  health  and  of  all  his  faculties.  Pollio  de- 
serves a  distinguished  place  in  the  history  of 
Roman  literature,  not  so  much  on  account  of 
his  works  as  of  the  encouragement  which  he 
gave  to  literature.  He  was  not  only  a  patron 
of  Virgil,  Horace  (vid.  Carm.,  ii.,  1),  and  other 
great  poets  and  writers,  but  he  has  the  honor  of 
having  been  the  first  person  to  establish  a  pub- 
lic library  at  Rome,  upon  which  he  expended 
the  money  he  had  obtained  in  his  Illyrian  cam- 
paign. None  of  Pollio's  own  works  have  come 
down  to  us,  but  they  possessed  sufficient  merit 
to  lead  his  contemporaries  and  successors  to 
class  his  name  with  those  of  Cicero,  Virgil,  and 
Sallust  as  an  orator,  a  poet,  and  a  historian.  It 
was,  however,  as  an  orator  that  he  possessed 
the  greatest  reputation.  Catullus  describes  him 
in  his  youth  (Carm.,  xii.,  9)  as  "leporum  diser- 
tus  puer  et  facetiarum,"  and  Horace  speaks  of 
him  in  the  full  maturity  of  his  powers  (Carm., 
ii.,  1,  13)  as  "  Insigne  maestis  praesidium  reis  et 
consulenti,  Pollio,  curiae ;"  and  we  have  also 
the  more  impartial  testimony  of  Quintilian,  the 
two  Senecas,  and  the  author  of  the  Dialogue  on 
Orators  to  the  greatness  of  his  oratorical  pow- 
ers. Pollio  wrote  the  history  of  the  civil  wars 
in  seventeen  books.  It  commenced  with  the 
consulship  of  Metellus  and  Afranius,  B.C.  60, 
in  which  year  the  first  triumvirate  was  formed, 
and  appears  to  have  come  down  to  the  time 
when  Augustus  obtained  the  undisputed  su- 
prem^acy  of  the  Roman  world.  As  a  poet  Pollio 
was  best  known  for  his  tragedies,  which  are 
spoken  of  in  high  terms  by  Virgil  and  Horace, 
but  which  probably  did  not  possess  any  great 
merit,  as  they  are  hardly  mentioned  by  subse- 
quent writers.  The  words  of  Virgil  (Ed.,  in., 
86),  "  Pollio  et  ipse  facit  nova  carmina,"  prob- 
ably refer  to  tragedies  of  a  new  kind,  namely, 
such  as  were  not  borrowed  from  the  Greek, 
but  contained  subjects  entirely  new,  taken  from 
Roman  story.  Pollio  also  enjoyed  great  repu- 
tation as  a  critic,  but  he  is  chiefly  known  in  this 
capacity  for  the  severe  judgment  which  he  pass- 
ed upon  his  great  contemporaries.  Thus  he 
pointed  out  many  mistakes  in  the  speeches  of 
Cicero,  censured  the  Commentaries  of  Caesar 
for  their  want  of  historical  fidelity,  and  found 
fault  with  Sallust  for  affectation  in  the  use  of 
antiquated  words  and  expressions.  He  also 
complained  of  a  certain  Patavinity  in  Livy,  re- 
specting which  some  remarks  are  made  in  the 
life  of  Livy  (p.  444,  b).  Pollio  had  a  son,  C. 
Asinius  Gallus  Saloninus.  Vid.  p.  320.  Asin- 
ius  Gallus  married  Vipsania,  the  former  wife  of 
Tiberius,  by  whom  he  had  several  children, 
namely  .  1.  Asinius  Saloninus.  2.  Asinius  Gal- 
lus. 3.  Asinius  Pollio,  consul  A.D.  23.  4.  Asin 
ins  Agrippa,  consul  A.D.  25.  5.  Asinius  Celer. 
[Pot.Lio,  TRKBBLLIUS.  Vid.  TREBELLIUS.] 
POLLIO,  VEDIUS,  a  Roman  eques  and  a  fri<;nd 
687 


PULLUSCA. 

ol  Augustus,  was  by  birth  a  freedman,  and  has 
obtained  a  place  in  history  on  account  of  his 
riches  and  his  cruelty.  He  was  accustomed  to 
feed  his  lampreys  with  human  flesh,  and  when- 
ever a  slave  displeased  him,  the  unfortunate 
wretch  was  forthwith  thiown  into  the  pond  as 
food  for  the  fish.  On  one  occasion  Augustus 
was  supping  with  him,  when  a  slave  had  the 
misfortune  to  break  a  crystal  goblet,  and  his 
master  immediately  ordered  him  to  be  thrown 
to  the  fishes.  The  slave  fell  at  the  feet  of  Au- 
gustus, praying  for  mercy ;  and  when  the  em- 
peror could  not  prevail  upon  Pollio  to  pardon 
him,  he  dismissed  the  slave  of  his  own  accord, 
and  commanded  all  Pollio's  crystal  goblets  to 
be  broken  and  the  fish-pond  to  be  filled  up.  Pol- 
lio died  B.C.  15,  leaving  a  large  part  of  his  prop- 
erty to  Augustus.  It  was  this  Pollio  who  built 
the  celebrated  villa  of  Pausilypum  near  Naples. 

[POLLUSCA,  a  city  of  the  Volsci  in  Latium, 
belonging  to  the  territory  of  Antium  ;  accord- 
ing to  Nibby,  the  modern  Casal  delta  Mandria, 
with  ruins  of  old  fortifications.] 

POLLUX  or  POLYDEUCES.     Vid.  DIOSCURI. 

POLLUX,  JULIUS  ('lov/Uof  Uo^vSevKi)^.  1.  Of 
Naucratis  in  Egypt,  was  a  Greek  sophist  and 
grammarian.  He  studied  rhetoric  at  Athens 
under  the  sophist  Adrian,  and  afterward  opened 
a  private  school  in  the  city,  where  he  gave  in- 
struction in  grammar  and  rhetoric.  At  a  later 
time  he  was  appointed  by  the  Emperor  Corn- 
modus  to  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at  Athens.  He 
died  during  the  reign  of  Commodus  at  the  age 
of  fifty-eight.  We  may  therefore  assign  A.D. 
183  as  the  year  in  which  he  flourished.  He 
seems  to  have  been  attacked  by  many  of  his 
contemporaries  on  account  of  the  inferior  char- 
acter of  his  oratory,  and  especially  by  Lucian  in 
his  'Pjjropuv  6i6uaKahoc.  Pollux  was  the  author 
of  several  works,  all  of  which  have  perished, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Onomasticon.  This 
work  is  divided  into  ten  books,  each  of  which 
contains  a  short  dedication  to  the  Casar  'Corn- 
modus  :  it  was  therefore  published  before  A.D. 
177,  since  Commodus  became  Augustus  in  that 
year.  Each  book  forms  a  separate  treatise  by 
itself,  containing  the  most  important  words  re- 
lating to  certain  subjects,  with  short  explana- 
tions of  the  meanings  of  the  words.  The  alpha- 
betical arrangement  is  not  adopted,  but  the 
words  are  given  according  to  the  subjects  treat- 
ed of  in  each  book.  The  best  editions  are  by 
Lederlin  and  Hemsterhuis,  Amsterdam,  1706  ; 
by  Dindorf,  Lips.,  1824 ;  and  by  Imm.  Bekker, 
Berol.,  1846. — 2.  A  Byzantine  writer,  the  au- 
thor of  a  Chronicon,  which  treats  at  some  length 
of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  is  therefore 
entitled  'laropia  QVCIKTJ.  Like  most  other  By- 
zantine histories,  it  is  a  universal  history,  be- 
ginning with  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  com- 
ing down  to  the  time  of  the  writer.  The  two 
manuscripts  from  which  this  work  is  published 
end  with  the  reign  of  Valens,  but  the  Paris  man- 
uscript is  said  to  come  down  as  low  as  the  death 
of  Romanus,  A.D.  963.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Hardt,  Munich,  1792. 

POLUS  (riu^of ).  1.  A  sophist  and  rhetorician, 
a  native  of  Agrigentum.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
Gorgias,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  as 
well  as  other  works  mentioned  by  Suidas.  He 
is  introduced  by  Plato  as  an  interlocutor  in  the 
688 


POLYBIUS. 

Gorgias. — 2.  A  celebrated  tragic  actor,  the  son 
of  Charicles  of  Sunium,  and  a  disciple  of  Archi- 
as  of  Thurii.  It  is  related  of  him,  that  at  the 
age  of  seventy,  shortly  before  his  death,  he  act- 
ed in  eight  tragedies  on  four  successive  days. 

POLYTEOOS  (lloTivai-yof  :  now  Polylos  or  An- 
timelos),  an  uninhabited  island  in  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  near  Melos. 

POLYJENUS  (FIoAvatvof).  1.  OfLampsacue,  a 
mathematician  and  a  friend  of  Epicurus,  adopt- 
ed the  philosophical  system  of  his  friend,  arid, 
although  he  had  previously  acquired  great  rep- 
utation as  a  mathematician,  he  now  maintained 
with  Epicurus  the  worthlessness  of  geometry. 
— 2.  Of  Sardis,  a  sophist,  lived  in  the  time  of 
Julius  Caesar.  He  is  the  author  of  four  epi- 
grams in  the  Greek  Anthology.  His  full  name 
was  Julius  Polyanus. — 3.  The  Macedonian,  the 
author  of  the  work  on  Stratagems  in  war  (2-rpa- 
ri/yj^uara),  which  is  still  extant,  lived  about  the 
middle  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
era.  Suidas  calls  him  a  rhetorician,  and  we 
learn  from  Polyaenus  himself  that  he  was  ac- 
customed to  plead  causes  before  the  emperor. 
He  dedicated  his  work  to  M.  Aurelius  and  Verus, 
while  they  were  engaged  in  the  Parthian  war, 
about  A.D.  163,  at  which  time,  he  says,  he  was 
too  old  to  accompany  them  in  their  campaigns. 
This  work  is  divided  into  eight  books,  of  which 
the  first  six  contain  an  account  of  the  strata- 
gems of  the  most  celebrated  Greek  generals, 
the  seventh  of  those  of  barbarous  or  foreign  peo- 
ple, and  the  eighth  of  the  Romans  and  illustri- 
ous women.  Parts,  however,  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh  books  are  lost,  so  that  of  the  nine  hund- 
red stratagems  which  Polyaenus  described,  only 
eight  hundred  and  thirty-three  have  come  down 
to  us.  The  work  is  written  in  a  clear  and  pleas- 
ing style,  though  somewhat  tinged  with  the  ar- 
tificial rhetoric  of  the  age.  It  contains  a  vast 
number  of  anecdotes  respecting  many  of  the 
most  celebrated  men  in  antiquity  ;  but  its  value 
as  a  historical  authority  is  very  much  dimin-- 
ished  by  the  little  judgment  which  the  author 
evidently  possessed,  and  by  our  ignorance  of  the 
sources  from  which  he  took  his  statements.  The 
best  editions  are  by  Maasvicius,  Leyden,  1690 ; 
by  Mursinna,  Berlin,  1756 ;  and  by  Coray,  Paris, 
1809. 

POLYBIUS  (Tlo?t.v6iof).  1.  The  historian,  the 
son  of  Lycortas,  and  a  native  of  Megalopolis,  in 
Arcadia,  was  born  about  B.C.  204.  His  father 
Lycortas  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  of  the  Achaean  league;. and  Polybius  re- 
ceived the  advantages  of  his  father's  instruction 
in  political  knowledge  and  the  military  art.  He 
must  also  have  reaped  great  benefit  from  his 
intercourse  with  Philopo3men,  who  was  a  friend 
of  his  father's,  and  on  whose  death  in  182  Po- 
lybius carried  the  urn  in  which  his  ashes  were 
deposited.  In  the  following  year  Polybius  was 
appointed  one  of  the  ambassadors  to  Egypt,  but 
he  did  not  leave  Greece,  as  the  intention  of 
sending  an  embassy  was  abandoned.  Fron 
this  time  he  probably  began  to  take  part  in  pub 
lie  affairs,  and  he  appears  to  have  soon  obtaine« 
great  influence  among  his  countrymen.  Aftei 
the  conquest  of  Macedonia  in  168,  the  Romar 
commissioners,  who  were  sent  into  the  soutlj 
of  Greece,  commanded,  at  the  instigation  01 
Calibrates,  that  one  thousand  Achaeans  should 


POLYBIUS 

be  carriec.  *D  Rome,  to  answer  the  charge  of 
not  having  assisted  the  Romans  against  Per- 
seus. This  number  included  all  the  best  and 
noblest  part  of  the  nation,  and  among  them  j 
was  Polybius.  They  arrived  in  Italy  in  B.C. 
107,  but,  instead  of  being  put  upon  their  trial, 
they  were  distributed  among  the  Etruscan 
towns.  Polybius  was  more  fortunate  than  the 
rest  of  his  countrymen.  He  had  probably  be- 
come acquainted  in  Greece  with  /Emilius  Pau- 
lus  or  his  sons  Fabius  and  Scipio,  and  the  two 
young  men  now  obtained  permission  from  the  ' 
praetor  for  Polybius  to  reside  at  Rome  in  the  < 
house  of  their  father  Paulus.  Scipio  was  then  1 
eighteen  years  of  age,  and  soon  became  warmly  ' 
attached  to  Polybius.  Scipio  was  accompanied  j 
by  his  friend  in  all  his  military  expeditions,  and 
received  much  advantage  from  his  experience 
and  knowledge.  Polybius,  on  the  other  hand, 
besides  finding  a  liberal  patron  and  protector  in 
Scipio,  was  able  by  his  means  to  obtain  access 
to  public  documents,  and  to  accumulate  mate- 
rials for  his  great  historical  work.  After  re- 
maining in  Italy  seventeen  years,  Polybius  re- 
turned to  Peloponnesus  in  151,  with  the  surviv- 
ing Achoaan  exiles,  who  were  at  length  allowed 
by  the  senate  to  revisit  their  native  land.  He 
•did  not,  however,  remain  long  in  Greece.  He 
joined  Scipio  in  his  campaign  against  Carthage, 
and  was  present  at  the  destruction  of  that  city 
in  146.  Immediately  afterward  he  hurried  to 
Greece,  where  the  Achaeans  were  waging  a  mad 
and  hopeless  war  against  the  Romans.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  arrived  in  Greece  soon  after  the 
capture  of  Corinth  ;  and  he  exerted  all  his  in- 
fluence to  alleviate  the  misfortunes  of  his  coun- 
trymen, and  to  procure  favorable  terms  for  them. 
His  grateful  fellow-countrymen  acknowledged 
the  great  services  he  had  rendered  them,  and 
statues  were  erected  to  his  honor  at  Megalopo- 
lis, Mantinea,  Pallantium,  Tegea,  and  other 
places.  Polybius  seems  now  to  have  devoted 
himself  to  the  composition  of  the  great  histor- 
ical work  for  which  he  had  long  been  collect- 
ing materials.  At  what  period  of  his  life  he 
made  the  journeys  into  foreign  countries  for 
the  purpose  of  visiting  the  places  which  he  had 
to  describe  in  his  history,  it  is  impossible  to 
determine.  He  tells  us  (iii.,  59)  that  he  under- 
took long  and  dangerous  journeys  into  Africa, 
Spain,  Gaul,  and  even  as  far  as  the  Atlantic,  on 
account  of  the  ignorance  which  prevailed  re- 
specting those  parts.  Some  of  these  countries 
he  visited  while  serving  under  Scipio,  who  af- 
forded him  every  facility  for  the  prosecution  of 
his  design.  At  a  later  period  of  his  life  he 
visited  Egypt  likewise.  He  probably  accom- 
panied Scipio  to  Spain  in  134,  and  was  present 
at  the  fall  of  Numantia,  since  Cicero  states  (ad 
Fam.,  v.,  12)  that  Polybius  wrote  a  history  of 
the  Numantine  war.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty-two,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  his 
horse,  about  122.  The  history  of  Polybius  con- 
sisted of  forty  books.  It  began  B.C.  220,  where 
the  history  of  Aratua  left  ofT,  and  ended  at  146, 
in  which  year  Corinth  was  destroyed,  and  the 
independence  of  Greece  perished.  It  consisted 
of  two  distinct  parts,  which  were  probably  pub- 
lished at  different  times,  and  afterward  united 
into  one  work.  The  first  part  comprised  a 
period  of  thirty-five  years,  beginning  with  the 
44 


POLYBIUS. 

second  Punic  war,  and  the  Social  war  in  Greece, 
and  ending  with  the  conquest  of  Perseus  and 
the  downfall  of  the  Macedonian  kingdom  in  163. 
This  was,  in  fact,  the  main  portion  of  his  work, 
and  its  great  object  was  to  show  how  the  Ro- 
mans had  in  this  brief  period  of  fifty-three  years 
conquered  the  greater  part  of  the  world  ;  but 
since  the  Greeks  were  ignorant  for  the  most 
part  of  the  early  history  of  Rome,  he  gives  a 
survey  of  Roman  history  from  the  taking  of  the 
city  by  the  Gauls  to  the  commencement  of  the 
second  Punic  war,  in  the  first  two  books,  which 
thus  form  an  introduction  to  the  body  of  the 
work.     With  the  fall  of  the  Macedonian  king- 
dom the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  dominion 
was  decided,  and  nothing  more  remained  for 
the  other  nations  of  the  world  than  to  yield  sub- 
mission to  the  Romans.     The  second  part  of 
the  work,  which  formed  a  kind  of  supplement 
to  the  former  part,  comprised  the  period  from 
the  conquest  of  Perseus  in  168  to  the  fall  of 
Corinth  in  146.     The  history  of  the  conquest 
of  Greece  seems  to  have  been  completed  in  the 
thirty-ninth  book  ;  and  the  fortieth  book  proba- 
bly contained  a  chronological  summary  of  the 
whole  work.     The  history  of  Polybius  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  works  that  has  come  down 
to  us  from  antiquity.     He  had  a  clear  apprehen- 
sion of  the  knowledge  which  a  historian  must 
possess  ;  and  his  preparatory  studies  were  car- 
ried on  with  the  greatest  energy  and  persever- 
ance.   Thus  he  not  only  collected  with  accu- 
racy and  care  an  account  of  the  events  that  he 
intended  to  narrate,  but  he  also  studied  the 
history  of  the  Roman  constitution,  and  made 
distant  journeys  to  become  acquainted  with  the 
geography  of  the  countries  that  he  had  to  de- 
scribe in  his  work.     In  addition  to  this,  he  had 
a  strong  judgment  and  a  striking  love  of  truth, 
and,  from  having  himself  taken  an  active  part 
|  in  political  life,  he  was  able  to  judge  of  the 
motives  and  actions  of  the  great  actors  in  his- 
i  tofy  in  a  way  that  no  mere  scholar  or  rhetorician 
I  could  possibly  do.     But  the  characteristic  feat- 
!  ure  of  his  work,  and  the  one  which  distinguishes 
!  it  from  all  other  histories  which  have  come 
'•  down  to  us  from  antiquity,  is  its  didactic  nature. 
He  did  not,  like  other  historians,  write  to  afford 
amusement  to  his  readers ;  his  object  was  to 
teach  by  the  past  a  knowledge  of  the  future, 
j  and  to  deduce  from  previous  events  lessons  of 
!  practical  wisdom.    Hence  he  calls  his  work  a 
Pragmateia  (jrpay^am'a),  and  not  a  History  (la- 
:  ropia).     The  value  of  history  consisted,  in  his 
j  opinion,  in  the  instruction  that  might  be  obtain- 
,  ed  from  it.    Thus  the  narrative  of  events  be- 
1  came  in  his  view  of  secondary  importance  ; 
they  formed  only  the  text  of  the  political  and 
!  moral  discourses  which  it  was  the  province  of 
i  the  historian  to  deliver.    Excellent,  however, 
i  as  these  discourses  are,  they  materially  detract 
1  from  the  merits  of  the  history  as  a  work  of  art ; 
!  their  frequent  occurrence  interrupts  the  conti- 
nuity of  the  narrative,  and  destroys,  to  a  great 
i  extent,  the  interest  of  the  reader  in  the  scene* 
which  are  described.    Moreover,  he  frequently 
inserts  long  episodes,  which  have  little  con- 
nection with  the  main  subject  of  his  work,  bo 
'  cause  they  have  a  didactic  tendency.    Thus  wt 
j  find  that  one  whole  hook  (the  sixth)  was  do 
1  voted  to  a  history  of  the  Roman  constitution 

689 


I'OLYBOTES. 

and  ihc  tliirty-fourth  book  seems  to  have  been 
exclusively  a  treatise  on  geography.  The  style 
of  Polybius  bears  the  impress  of  his  mind  ;  and 
as  instruction,  and  not  amusement,  was  the  great 
object  for  which  he  wrote,  he  did  not  seek  to 
please  his  readers  by  the  choice  of  his  phrases 
or  the  composition  of  his  sentences.  Hence 
the  later  Greek  critics  were  severe  in  their  con- 
demnation of  his  style.  The  greater  part  of 
the  history  of  Polybius  has  perished.  We  pos- 
sess the  first  five  books  entire,  but  of  the  rest 
we  have  only  fragments  and  extracts,  some  of 
which,  however,  are  of  considerable  length, 
such  as  the  account  of  the  Roman  army,  which 
belonged  to  the  sixth  book.  There  have  been 
discovered  at  different  times  four  distinct  col- 
lections of  extracts  from  the  lost  books.  The 
first  collection,  discovered  soon  after  the  revival 
of  learning  in  a  MS.  brought  from  Corfu,  con- 
tained the  greater  part  of  the  sixth  book,  and 
portions  of  the  following  eleven.  In  1582  Ursi- 
nus  published  at  Antwerp  a  second  collection 
of  Extracts,  entitled  Exccrpta  de  Legationibus, 
which  were  made  in  the  tenth  century  of  the 
Christian  era  by  order  of  Constantinus  Por- 
phyrogenitus.  In  1634,  Valesius  published  a 
third  collection  of  extracts  from  Polybius,  also 
taken  from  the  Excerpta  of  Constantinus,  en- 
titled Excerpta  de  Virtutibus  ct  Vitiis.  The 
fourth  collection  of  extracts  was  published  at 
Rome  in  1827  by  Angelo  Mai,  who  discovered 
in  the  Vatican  library  at  Rome  the  section  of 
the  Excerpta  of  Constantinus  Porphyrogenitus, 
entitled  Excerpta  de  Sententiis.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  Polybius '  with  a  commentary  is  by 
Schweighaeuser,  Lips.,  1789-1795,  8  vols.  8vo. 
The  best  edition  of  the  text  alone  is  by  Bekker 
(Berol.,  1844,  2  vols.  8vo),  who  has  added  the 
Vatican  fragments.  Livy  did  not  use  Polybius 
till  he  came  to  the  second  Punic  war,  but  from 
that  time  he  followed  him  very  closely.  Cicero 
likewise  chiefly  followed  Polybius  in  the  ac- 
count which  he  gives  of  the  Roman  constitution 
in  his  De  Republica.  The  history  of  Polybius 
was  continued  by  Posidonius  and  Strabo.  Vid. 
POSIDONIUS,  STRABO.  Besides  the  great  his- 
torical work  of  which  we  have  been  speaking, 
Polybius  wrote,  2.  The  Life  of  Philopacmen,  in 
three  books.  3.  A  treatise  on  Tactics.  4.  A 
History  of  the  Numantine  War. — 2.  A  freedman 
of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  read  in  the  senate 
the  will  of  the  emperor  after  his  decease. — 3.  A 
favorite  freedman  of  the  Emperor  Claudius. 
He  was  the  companion  of  the  studies  of  Clau- 
dius ;  and  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  Seneca 
addressed  to  him  a  Consolalio,  in  which  he  be- 
stows the  highest  praises  upon  his  literary  at- 
tainments. Polybius  was  put  to  d?ath  through 
the  intrigues  of  Messalina,  although  he  had  been 
one  of  her  paramours. 

POLYBOTES  (UoXvGurjjf'),  one  of  the  giants 
who  fought  against  the  gods,  was  pursued  by 
Neptune  (Poseidon)  across  the  sea  as  far  as  the 
island  of  Cos.  There  Neptune  (Poseidon)  tore 
away  a  part  of  the  island,  which  was  afterward 
called  Nisyrion,  and,  throwing  it  upon  the  giant, 
buried  him  under  it. 

POLYBOTUS  (UohvGoTof  :  ruins  at  Bulawadin), 
a  city  of  Great  Phrygia,  east  of  Synnada. 

POLYBUS  (II62t;(5of}.  1.  King  of  Corinth,  by 
whom  CEdipus  was.brought  up.  Vid.  OEoirus. 
R90 


POLVCLES 

He  was  the  husband  of  Peribcea  or  Merope. 
Pausanias  makes  him  king  of  Sicyon,  and  de- 
scribes him  as  a  son  of  Mercury  (Hermes)  and 
Chthonophyie,  and  as  the  father  of  Lysianassa, 
whom  he  gave  in  marriage  to  Talaus,  king  of 
the  Argives. — [2.  A  Trojan  warrior,  son  of  An- 
tenor. — 3.  Husband  of  Alcandra,  king  of  Egyp- 
tian Thebes,  guest-friend  of  Menelaus. — 4.  An 
Ithacan,  father  of  the  suitor  Eurymachus. — C. 
|  One  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope,  slain  by  Eumse- 
us. — 6.  A  Phaeacian  mentioned  in  the  Odys- 
J  sey.] — 7.  A  Greek  physician,  one  of  the  pupils 
!  of  Hippocrates,  was  also  his  son-in-law,  and 
I  lived  in  the  island  of  Cos,  in  the  fourth  century 
|  B.C.     Polybus,  with  his  brothers-in-law,  Thes- 
salus  and  Dracon,  were  the  founders  of  the  an- 
cient medical  sect  of  the  Dogmatici.     He  was 
sent  abroad  by  Hippocrates,  with  his  feHow- 
pupils,  during  the  time  of  the  plague,  to  assist 
different  cities  with  his  medical  skill,  and  he 
afterward  remained  in  his  native  country.     He 
has  been  supposed,  both  by  ancient  and  modern 
critics,  to  be  the  author  of  several  treatises  in 
the  Hippocratic  collection. 

POLYCARPUS  (noXti/ca/jTrof),  one  of  the  apos- 
tolical fathers,  was  a  native  of  Smyrna.  The 
date  of  his  birth  and  of  his  martyrdom  are  un- 
certain. He  is  said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of 
the  apostle  John,  and  to  have  been  consecrated 
by  this  apostle  bishop  of  the  church  at  Smyrna. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  he  was  the  angel 
of  the  church  of  Smyrna  to  whom  CHRIST  di- 
rected the  letter  in  the  Apocalypse  (ii ,  8-11) ; 
and  it  is  certain  that  he  was  bishop  of  Smyrna 
at  the  time  when  Ignatius  of  Antioch  passed 
through  that  city  on  his  way  to  suffer  death  at 
Rome,  some  time  between  107  and  116.  Igna 
tius  seems  to  have  enjoyed  much  this  inter- 
course with  Polycarp,  whom  he  had  known  in 
former  days,  when  they  were  both  hearers  of 
the  apostle  John.  The  martyrdom  of  Polycarp 
occurred  in  the  persecution  under  the  emperors 
Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus.  As  he 
was  led  to  death,  the  proconsul  offered  him  his 
life  if  he  would  revile  CHRIST.  "Eighty  and 
six  years  have  I  served  him,"  was  the  reply, 
"  and  he  never  did  me  wrong  :  how,  then,  can  I 
revile  my  King  and  my  Saviour  1"  We  have 
remaining  only  one  short  piece  of  Polycarp,  his 
Letter  to  the  Philippians^hich  is  published  along 
with  Ignatius  and  the  other  apostolical  writers. 
Vid.  IGNATIUS. 

[POLYCASTE  (Uo'XvKuarri').  1.  Daughter  of 
Lygaeus,  wife  of  Icarius,  mother  of  Penelope. 
— 2.  Daughter  of  Nestor  and  Anaxibia,  wife  of 
Telemachus,  to  whom  she  bore  Perseptolis.] 

POLYCLES  (IIoawcAw).  1.  The  name  of  two 
artists.  The  elder  Polycles  was  probably  art 
Athenian,  and  flourished  about  B.C.  370.  He 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  artists  of  the 
later  Athenian  school,  who  obtained  great  ce- 
lebrity by  the  sensual  charms  exhibited  in  their 
works.  One  of  his  chief  works  was  a  celebrated 
statue  of  an  Hermaphrodite.  The  younger 
Polycles  is  placed  by  Pliny  in  155,  and  is  said 
to  have  made  a  statue  of  Juno,  which  was  placed 
in  the  portico  of  Octavia  at  Rome,  when  that 
portico  was  erected  by  Metellus  Macedonicus. 
But  since  most  of  the  works  of  art  with  which 
Metellus  decorated  his  portico  were  not  the 
original  productions  of  living  artists,  but  th* 


POLYCLETUS. 

works  of  former  masters,  it  has  been  conjec- 
tured that  this  Polycles  may  be  no  oilier  than 
the  Athenian  artist  already  mentioned. — [2.  A 
famous  athlete,  often  crowned  at  the  four  great 
games  of  Greece:  his  statue  was  placed  in  the 
sacred  grove  at  Olympia.] 

PJLVCLKTUS  (FIoAikAeirof).  1-  The  Elder,  of 
Argos,  probably  by  citizenship,  and  of  Sicyon, 
probably  by  birth,  was  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated statuaries  of  the  ancient  world  ;  he  was 
also  a  sculptor,  an  architect,  and  an  artist  in 
toreutic.  He  was  the  pupil  of  the  great  Argive 
statuary  Ageladas,  under  whom  he  had  Phidias 
and  Myron  for  his  fellow-disciples.  He  was 
somewhat  youngei  than  Phidias,  and  about  the 
same  age  as  Myron.  He  flourished  about  B.C. 
452-412.  Of  his  personal  history  we  know 
nothing  further.  As  an  artist,  he  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  schools  of  Argos  and  Sicyon,  and 
approached  more  nearly  than  any  other  to  an 
equality  with  Phidias,  the  great  head  of  the 
Athenian  school.  The  essential  difference  be- 
tween these  artists  was  that  Phidias  was  un- 
surpassed in  making  the  images  of  the  gods, 
Polycletus  in  those  of  men.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  works  of  Polycletus  was  his  Dory- 
phorus  or  Spear-bearer,  a  youthful  figure,  but 
with  the  full  proportions  of  a  man.  This  was 
the  statue  which  became  known  by  the  name 
of  Canon,  because  in  it  the  artist  had  embodied 
a  perfect  representation  of  the  ideal  of  the  hu- 
man figure.  Another  of  his  great  works  was 
his  ivory  and  gold  statue  of  Juno  (Hera)  in  her 
temple  between  Argos  and  Mycenae.  This  i 
work  was  executed  by  the  artist  in  his  old  age,  i 
and  was  doubtless  intended  by  him  to  rival 
Phidias's  chryselephantine  statues  of  Minerva 
(Athena)  and  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  though  it  was 
surpassed  by  them  in  costliness  and  size.  The  ; 
goddess  was  seated  on  a  throne,  her  head  j 
crowned  with  a  garland,  on  which  were  work-  } 
ed  the  Graces  and  the  Hours,  the  one  hand 
holding  the  symbolical  pomegranate,  and  the  i 
other  a  sceptre,  surmounted  by  a  cuckoo,  a  bird  ! 
sacred  to  Juno  (Hera)  on  account  of  her  having 
been  once  seduced  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  under  that ' 
form.  This  statue  remained  always  the  ideal 
model  of  Juno  (Hera).  In  the  department  of 
toreutic,  the  fame  of  Polycletus  no  doubt  rest- 
ed chiefly  on  the  golden  ornaments  of  his  statue 
of  Juno  (Hera);  but  he  also  made  small  bronzes 
(tigilla)  and  drinking-vessels  (phiala).  As  an 
architect,  Polycletus  obtained  great  celebrity  by 
the  theatre,  and  the  circular  building  (tholus) 
which  he  built  in  the  sacred  inclosure  of  ^Es- 
culapius  at  Epidaurus. — 2.  The  Younger,  also  a 
statuary  of  Argos,  of  whom  very  little  is  known, 
because  his  fame  was  eclipsed  by  that  of  his 
more  celebrated  namesake,  and,  in  part,  con- 
temporary. The  younger  Polycletus  may  be 
placed  about  400. — 3.  Of  Larissa,  a  Greek  his- 
torian, and  one  of  the  numerous  writers  of  the 
history  of  Alexander  the  Great.  [Most  of  the 
extracts  from  his  histories  refer  to  the  geogra- ! 
phy  of  the  countries  which  Alexander  invaded. 
They  are  collected,  with  a  notice  of  the  author, 
by  C.  MUller,  in  his  Scriplores  Rcrum  Alexandri  '• 
Magni,  p.  129-33,  in  Didot's  Bibliotheca  Grteca, 
Paris,  1846.] — 4.  A  favorite  freedman  of  Nero, 
who  sent  him  into  Britain  to  inspect  the  state 
of  the  island 


POLYCRATES. 

POLYCRATES  (noAwtparj/r).  1-  Of  Samos,  one 
j  of  the  most  fortunate,  ambitious,  and  treacher- 
|  ous  of  the  Greek  tyrants.  With  the  assistance 
of  his  brothers  Pantagnotus  and  Syloson,  he 
made  himself  master  of  the  island  toward  the 
!  latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus.  At  first  he 
shared  the  supreme  power  with  his  brothers ; 
but  he  shortly  afterward  put  Pantagnotus  to 
death,  and  banished  Syloson.  Having  thus  bp- 
1  come  sole  despot,  he  raised  a  powerful  fleet 
|  and  extended  his  sway  over  several  of  the 
!  neighboring  islands,  and  even  conquered  some 
;  towns  on  the  main  land.  He  had  formed  an  al 
liance  with  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt,  who,  how- 
ever, finally  renounced  it  through  alarm  at  the 
;  amazinggoodfortuneof  Polycrates,  which  never 
met  with  any  check  or  disaster,  and  which  there- 
fore was  sure,  sooner  or  later,  to  incur  the  envy 
of  the  gods.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  account  oif 
Herodotus,  who  has  narrated  the  story  of  the 
rupture  between  Amasis  and  Polycrates  in  his 
most  dramatic  manner.  In  a  letter  which  Ama- 
sis wrote  to  Polycrates,  the  Egyptian  monarch 
advised  him  to  throw  away  one  of  his  most  val- 
uable possessions,  in  order  that  he  might  thus 
inflict  some  injury  upon  himself.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  advice,  Polycrates  threw  into  the 
sea  a  seal-ring  of  extraordinary  beauty  ;  but  in 
a  few  days  it  was  found  in  the  belly  of  a  fish, 
which  had  been  presented  to  him  by  a  fisher- 
man. In  the  reign  of  Cambyses,  the  Spartans 
and  Corinthians  sent  a  powerful  force  to  Samos 
in  order  to  depose  the  tyrant ;  but  their  expe- 
dition failed,  and  after  besieging  the  city  forty 
days,  they  left  the  island.  The  power  of  Poly- 
crates now  became  greater  than  ever.  The 
great  works  which  Herodotus  saw  at  Samos 
were  probably  executed  by  him.  He  lived  in 
great  pomp  and  luxury,  and,  like  others  of  the 
Greek  tyrants,  was  a  patron  of  literature  and 
the  arts.  The  most  eminent  artists  and  poets 
found  a  ready  welcome  at  his  court,  and  his 
friendship  for  Anacreon  is  particularly  cele- 
brated. But  in  the  midst  of  all  his  prosperity 
he  fell  by  the  most  ignominious  fate.  Oroetes, 
the  satrap  of  Sardis,  had  formed  a  deadly  hatred 
against  Polycrates.  By  false  pretences,  the  sa- 
trap contrived  to  allure  him  to  the  main  land, 
where  he  was  arrested  soon  after  his  arrival, 
and  crucified,  522. — 2.  An  Athenian  rhetorician 
and  sophist  of  some  repute,  a  contemporary  of 
Socrates  and  Isocrates,  taught  first'  at  Athens 
and  afterward  at  Cyprus.  He  was  the  teach- 
er of  Xni ins  He  wrote,  1.  An  accusation 
of  Socrates,  which  was  a  declamation  on  the 
subject,  composed  some  years  after  the  death 
of  the  philosopher.  2.  A  defence  of  Busiris. 
The  oration  of  Isocrates,  entitled  Busiris,  is  ad- 
dressed to  Polycrates,  and  points  out  the  faults 
which  the  latter  had  committed  in  his  oration 
on  this  subject.  3.  An  obscene  poem,  which 
he  published  under  the  name  of  the  poetess  Phi- 
henis,  for  the  purpose  of  injuring  her  reputation 
— [3.  An  Athenian,  a  lochagus  in  the  army  ot 
the  Greek  auxiliaries  of  the  younger  Cyrus,  a 
friend  of  Xenophon,  whom  he  defended  on  one 
occasion. — 4.  Descended  from  an  iHustrious 
family  at  Argoe,  went  to  the  court  of  Ptolemy 
Philopator,  and  proved  of  great  service  in  drill- 
ing the  Egyptian  troops.  He  commanded  the 
cavalry  on  the  left  wing  ?l  the  battle  of  Raphia 

691 


POLYCTOR. 

in  B.C.  217  against  Antiochus  III.,  in  which 
Antiochus  was  defeated,  and  which  secured  to 
Ptolemy  the  provinces  of  Ccelesyria,  Phoenicia, 
nnd  Palestine.  Although  young,  Polycrates  was 
appointed  governor  of  Cyprus,  which  office  he 
filled  with  ability  and  integrity.  In  his  later 
years  he  appears  to  have  changed  for  the  worse, 
and  to  have  indulged  in  every  vice.] 

[  POLYCTOR  (UoXvurup'),  son  of  Pterelaus,  a 
prince  of  Ithaca.  A  place  in  Ithaca,  Polycto- 
rium,  was  believed  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  him.] 

POLYDAMAS  (IIoAvdujjar).  1.  Son  of  Panthous 
and  Phrontis,  was  a  Trojan  hero,  a  friend  of 
Hector,  and  brother  of  Euphorbus.— 2.  Of  Sco- 
tussa  in  Thessaly,  son  of  Nicias,  conquered  in 
th.3  Pancratium  at  the  Olympic  games  in  01.  93, 
B  C.  408.  His  size  was  immense,  and  the  most 
marvellous  stories  are  related  of  his  strength, 
how  he  killed  without  arms  a  huge  and  fierce 
lion  on  Mount  Olympus,  how  he  stopped  a  char- 
iot at  fell  gallop,  &c.  His  reputation  led  the 
Persian  king,  Darius  Ochus,  to  invite  him  to 
his  court,  where  he  performed  similar  feats. — 
3.  Of  Pharsalus  in  Thessaly,  was  intrusted  by 
his  fellow-citizens,  about  B.C.  375,  with  the  su- 
preme government  of  their  native  town.  He 
afterward  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Jason  of 
Pherae.  On  the  murder  of  Jason  in  370,  his 
brother  Polyphron  put  to  death  Polydamas. 

POLYDECTES  (IIo/U;<5e'/cT7?f).  1.  King  of  the 
island  of  Seriphos,  was  son  of  Magnes,  and 
brother  of  Dictys.  He  received  kindly  Danaft 
and  Perseus,  when  the  chest  in  which  they  had 
been  exposed  by  Acrisius  floated  to  the  island 
of  Seriphos.  His  story  is  related  under  PER- 
SEUS.— 2.  King  of  Sparta,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Eunomus,  the  brother  of  Lycurgus  the  lawgiver, 
and  the  father  of  Charilaiis,  who  succeeded 
him.  Herodotus,  contrary  to  the  other  authori- 
ties, makes  Polydectes  the  father  of  Eunomus. 

POLYDKUCES  (HotodevKw ),  one  of  the  Dioscuri, 
and  the  twin-brother  of  Castor,  called  by  the 
Romans  Pollux.  Vid.  DIOSCURI. 

[PoLYDORA  (FMvtJwpa).  1.  A  daughter  of 
Oceanus  and  Tethys. — 2.  Daughter  of  Meleager 
and  Cleopatra,  was  married  to  Protesilaus.  after 
whose  death  she  made  away  with  herself. — 3. 
Daughter  of  Peleus  and  Antigone  was  a  sister 
of  Achilles,  and  married  to  Spercheius  or  Borus, 
by  whom  she  became  themotherof  Menesthius.j 

POLYDORUS  (Uohvdupof).  1.  Kingof  Thebes, 
son  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia,  husband  of  Nyc- 
te'is,  and  father  of  Labdacus. — 2.  The  youngest 
among  the  sons  of  Priam  and  Laothoe",  was 
slain  by  Achilles.  This  is  the  Homeric  ac- 
count ;  but  later  traditions  make  him  a  son  of 
Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  give  a  different  account 
of  his  death.  One  tradition  relates  that,  when 
Ilium  was  on  the  point  of  falling  into  the  handa 
of  the  Greeks,  Priam  intrusted  Polydorus  and  a 
targe  sum  of  money  to  Polymestor  or  Polym- 
nestor,  king  of  the  Thracian  Chersonesus.  Aft- 
er the  destruction  of  Troy,  Polymestor  killed 
Polydorus  for  the  purpose  of  getting  possession 
of  his  treasures,  and  cast  his  body  into  the  sea. 
His  body  was  afterward  washed  upon  the  coast, 
where  it  was  found  and  recognized  by  his  moth- 
el  Hecuba,  who,  together  with  other  Trojan  cap- 
tives, took  vengeance  upon  Polymestor  by  kill- 
ing his  two  children,  and  putting  out  his  eyes. 


POLYIDUS. 

Another  tradition  stated  that  Polydorus  was  in- 
trusted  to  his  sister  Iliona,  who  was  married  to 
Polymestor.  She  brought  him  up  as  her  own 
son,  while  she  made  every  one  else  believe  that 
her  own  son  Dei'philus  or  Dei'pylus  was  Poly- 
dorus. The  Greeks,  anxious  to  destroy  the 
race  of  Priam,  promised  to  Polymestor  Electra 
for  his  wife,  and  a  large  amount  of  gold,  if  he 
would  kill  Polydorus.  Polymestor  was  pre- 
vailed upon,  and  he  accordingly  slew  his  own 
son.  Polydorus  thereupon  persuaded  his  sis- 
ter Iliona  to  kill  Polymestor. — 3.  King  of  Sparta, 
was  the  son  of  Alcamenes  and  the  father  of 
Eurycrates,  who  succeeded  him.  He  assisted 
in  bringing  the  first  Messenian  war  to  a  conclu- 
sion, B.C.  724.  He  was  murdered  by  Polemar- 
chus,  a  Spartan  of  high  family ;  but  his  name 
was  precious  among  his  people  on  account  of  his 
justice  and  kindness.  Crotona  and  the  Epi- 
zephyrian  Locri  were  founded  in  his  reign. — 4. 
Brother  of  Jason  of  Pherae,  obtained  the  su- 
preme power,  along  with  his  brother  Polyphron, 
on  the  death  of  Jason  in  B.C.  370,  but  was 
shortly  afterward  assassinated  by  Polyphron.— 
5.  A  sculptor  of  Rhodes,  one  of  the  associates 
of  Agesander,  in  the  execution  of  the  celebrated 
group  of  the  Laocoon.  Vid.  AGESANDER. 

POLYEUCTUS  (HohvivKToc),  an  Athenian  orator 
of  the  demus  Sphettus,  was  a  political  friend  of 
Demosthenes,  with  whom  he  worked  in  resist- 
ing the  Macedonian  party. 

POLYGNOTUS  (HoMyvuTOf),  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  Greek  painters,  was  a  native  of  the 
island  of  Thasos,  and  was  honored  with  the  citi- 
zenship of  Athens,  on  which  account  he  is  some- 
times called  an  Athenian.  His  father,  Aglao- 
phon,  was  his  instructor  in  his  art ;  and  he  had 
a  brother,  named  Aristophon,  who  was  also  a 
painter.  Polygnotus  lived  on  intimate  terms 
with  Cimon  and  his  sister  Elpinice ;  and  he 
probably  came  to  Athens  in  B.C.  463,  after  the 
subjugation  of  Thasos  by  Cimon.  He  appears 
to  have  been  at  that  time  an  artist  of  some  repu- 
tation, and  he  continued  to  exercise  his  art  al- 
most down  to  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war  (431).  The  period  of  his  greatest  ar- 
tistic activity  at  Athens  seems  to  have  been 
that  which  elapsed  from  his  removal  to  Athens 
(463)  to  the  death  of  Cimon  (449),  who  employ- 
ed him  in  the  pictorial  decoration  of  the  public 
buildings  with  which  he  began  to  adorn  the 
city,  such  as  the  temple  of  Theseus,  the  Ana- 
ceum,  and  the  Pcecile.  He  afterward  went  to 
Delphi,  when  he  was  employed  with  other  art- 
ists in  decorating  the  buildings  connected  with 
the  temple.  He  appears  to  have  returned  to 
Athens  about  435,  where  he  executed  a  series 
of  paintings  in  the  Propylaea  of  the  Acropolis. 
The  Propylaea  were  commenced  in  437,  and 
completed  in  432.  The  subjects  of  the  pictures 
of  Polygnotus  were  almost  invariably  taken  from 
Homer  and  the  other  poets  of  the  epic  cycle. 
They  appear  to  have  been  mostly  painted  on 
panels,  which  were  afterward  let  into  the  walls 
where  they  were  to  remain. 

POLYHYMNIA.     Vid.  POLYMNIA. 

POLYIDOS  (TloMldof).  1.  Son  of  Cceranus, 
grandson  of  Abas,  and  great-grandson  of  Me- 
lampus.  He  was,  like  his  ancestor  Melampus, 
a  celebrated  soothsayer  at  Corinth,  and  is  de- 
scribed as  the  father  of  Euchenor,  Astycratia 


s.  ULYMEDIliM. 

and  Manto.  When  Alcathous  had  murdered 
his  own  son  Callipolis  at  Megara,  he  was  puri- 
fied by  Polyidus,  who  erected  at  Megara  a  sanc- 
tuary to  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  and  a  statue  of 
the  god. — 2.  A  dithyrambic  poet  of  the  most 
flourishing  period  of  the  later  Athenian  dithy- 
ramb, and  also  skillful  as  a  painter,  was  con- 
temporary with  Philoxenus,  Timotheus,  and 
Telestes,  about  B.C.  400. 

[PoLYMEDiusc  (IIoAv/^&ov),  a  village  of  the 
Mysian  district  Troas,  forty  stadia  from  the 
promontory  of  Lectum,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Assus.] 

[Poi.YMELE  (noAvfir/ty),  daughter  of  Phylas, 
wife  of  Echecles,  by  Mercury  (Hermes)  mother 
of  Eudorus.] 

[POI.YMELUS  (Ho%vfifi%oe)j  a  Trojan  warrior, 
slain  by  Patroclus  before  Troy.] 

POLYMESTOR  Or  PoLYMNESTOR.  Vid.  PoLY- 
DORUS. 

PoLYMNESTUSOrPoLYMNASTUS(IIo/,V/m;<TrOf), 

the  son  of  Meles  of  Colophon,  was  an  epic,  ele- 
giac, and  lyric  poet,  and  a  musician.  He  flour- 
ished B.C.  675-644.  He  belongs  to  the  school 
of  Dorian  music,  which  flourished  at  this  time 
at  Sparta,  where  he  carried  on  the  improve- 
ments of  Thaletas.  The  Attic  comedians  at- 
tacked his  poems  for  their  erotic  character. 
As  an  elegiac  poet,  he  may  be  regarded  as  the 
predecessor  of  his  fellow-countryman,  Mimner- 
mus. 

[PoLYMNESTas  (ILoAvjui'tfffrof).     Vid.  PHRONI- 


POLYMNIA  or  POLYHYMNIA  (HoAVftvia),  daugh- 
ter of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  one  of  the  nine  Muses. 
She  presided  over  lyric  poetry,  and  was  believed 
to  have  invented  the  lyre.  In  works  of  art  she 
was  usually  represented  in  a  pensive  attitude. 
Vid.  Mus.«. 

POLYNICES  (TlohweiKtif),  son  of  CEdipus  and 
Jocasta,  and  brother  of  Eteocles  and  Antigone. 
His  story  is  given  under  ETEOCLES  and  ADRAS- 
TUS. 

[POLYPAIDES.     Vid.  THEOBNIS.] 

POLYPHEMUS  (IIoAttytytoc).  1.  Son  of  Neptune 
.[Poseidon)  and  the  nymph  Thoosa,  was  one  of 
the  Cyclopes  in  Sicily.  Vid.  CYCLOPES.  He  is 
represented  as  a  gigantic  monster,  having  only 
one  eye  in  the  centre  of  his  forehead,  caring 
nought  for  the  gods,  and  devouring  human  flesh. 
He  dwelt  in  a  cave  near  Mount  /Etna,  and  fed 
his  flocks  upon  the  mountain.  He  fell  in  love 
with  the  nymph  Galatea,  but  as  she  rejected 
him  for  Acis,  he  destroyed  the  latter  by  crush- 
ing him  under  a  huge  rock.  When  Ulysses  was 
driven  upon  Sicily,  Polyphemus  devoured  some 
of  his  companions ;  and  Ulysses  would  have 
shared  the  same  fate,  had  he  not  put  out  the 
eye  of  the  monster  while  he  was  asleep.  Vid. 
ULYSSES. — 2.  Son  of  Elatus  or  Neptune  (Po- 
seidon) and  Hippea,  was  one  of  the  Lapithae  at 
Larissa  in  Thessaly.  He  was  married  to  Lao- 
nome,  a  sister  of  Hercules.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  Argonauts,  but  being  left  behind  by  them 
in  Mysia,  he  founded  Cios,  and  fell  fighting 

against  the  Chalybes. 

,      ,         -  T  - 

POLYPHRON  (HoAvQpuv),  brother  ot  Jason  01 
Pherae,  succeeded  to  the  supreme  power  with 
nis  brother  Polydorus  on  the  death  of  Jason  in 
B.C.  370.  Shortly  afterward  he  murdered  Poly- 
dorus. He  exercised  his  power  with  great 


POLYXENA. 

|  cruelty,  and  was  murdered  in  his  turn,  369,  by 
his  nephew  Alexander,  who  proved  a  still  great- 
er tyrant. 

POLYPOSTES  (Uo^vTToiTtjf),  son  of  Ptiithou* 
i  and  Hippodamia,  was  one  of  the  Lapithas,  and 
j  joined  the  Greeks  in  the  Trojan  war. 

POLYRRHENIA  Or  -IUM  (Tlohvpfavia  :    HotoppI/- 

,  a  town  in  Crete,  whose  territory  embraced 
the  whole  western  corner  of  the  island.  It  pos- 
sessed a  sanctuary  of  Dictynna,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  colonized  by  Achaeans  and  Lacedae- 
monians. 

POLYSPERCHON  (IIo/Ui(T7rep;t;(jv),  a  Macedonian, 
and  a  distinguished  officer  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  In  B.C.  323  he  was  appointed  by  Alex- 
ander second  in  command  of  the  army  of  in- 
valids and  veterans,  which  Craterus  had  to  con- 
duct home  to  Macedonia.  He  afterward  served 
under  Antipater  in  Europe,  and  so  great  was 
the  confidence  which  the  latter  reposed  in  him, 
that  Antipater  on  his  death-bed  (3 19)  appointed 
Polysperchon  to  succeed  him  as  regent  and 
guardian  of  the  king,  while  he  assigned  to  his 
own  son  Cassander  the  subordinate  station  of 
chiliarch.  Polysperchon  soon  became  involved 
in  war  with  Cassander,  who  was  dissatisfied 
with  this  arrangement.  It  was  in  the  course 
of  this  war  that  Polysperchon  basely  surrender- 
ed Phocion  to  the  Athenians,  in  the  hope  of 
securing  the  adherence  of  Athens.  Although 
Polysperchon  was  supported  by  Olympias,  and 
possessed  great  influence  with  the  Macedonian 
soldiers,  he  proved  no  match  for  Cassander,  and 
was  obliged  to  yield  to  him  possession  of  Mac- 
|  edoniaabout3l6.  For  the  next  few  years  Poly- 
j  sperchon  is  rarely  mentioned,  but  in  310  he 
j  again  assumed  an  important  part  by  reviving 
the  long-forgotten  pretensions  of  Hercules,  the 
son  of  Alexander  and  Barsine,  to  the  throne  of 
Macedonia.  Cassander  marched  against  him, 
but,  distrusting  the  fidelity  of  his  own  troops,  he 
entered  into  secret  negotiations  with  Poly- 
sperchon, and  persuaded  the  latter,  by  prom- 
ises and  flatteries,  to  murder  Hercules.  From 
this  time  he  appears  to  have  served  under  Cas- 
sander ;  but  the  period  of  his  death  is  not  men 
tioned. 

[PoLYSTRATUs(IIoAvffrparof).  1.  An  eminent 
Epicurean  philosopher,  succeeded  Hermarchus 
as  the  head  of  the  sect,  and  was  himself  succeed- 
ed by  Dionysius.  —  2.  An  epigrammatic  poet, 
who  lived  probably  soon  after  the  taking  of  Cor- 
inth, B.C.  146  :  two  of  his  epigrams  are  given 
in  the  Anthology,  one  of  which  is  on  the  de- 
struction of  Corinth.] 

POLYTIMKTUS  (YlohvTLftrjTOf :  now  Sogd  or  Ko- 
hik  in  Bokhara),  a  considerable  river  of  Sogdiana, 
which,  according  to  Strabo,  vanished  under 
ground  near  Maracanda  (now  Samarkand),  or, 
as  Arrian  says,  was  lost  in  the  sands  of  the 
steppes.  ' 

[POLYTROPUS  (IIoAvrpoTrof),  leader  of  a  troop 
of  mercenaries  in  the  Spartan  service,  seized 
Orchomenus  B.C.  370 ,  he  fell  in  an  attack 
made  by  the  Mantineans  under  Lycomedes  on 
Orchomenus.] 

PO.LYXBNA  ( Ilotaflvi?),  daughter  of  Priam  and 
Hecuba,  was  beloved  by  Achilles.  When  the 
Greeks,  on  their  voyage  home,  were  still  linger- 
ing on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  the  shade  of  Achil- 
les appeared  to  them,  demanding  that  Polyxena 


POLYXENUS 


ho  sacrificed  to  him.  Neoptolemus  ac- 
cordingly sacrificed  her  on  the  tomb  of  his  fa- 
ther. It  was  related  that  Achilles  had  promised 
Priam  to  bring  about  a  peace  with  the  Greeks, 
if  the  king  would  give  him  his  daughter  Polyx- 
cna  in  marriage  ;  and  that  when  Achilles  had 
gone  to  the  temple  of  the  Thymbraean  Apollo, 
lor  the  purpose  .of  negotiating  the  marriage,  he 
was  treacherously  killed  by  Paris.  Another 
tradition  stated  that  Achilles  and  Polyxena  fell 
in  love  with  each  other  when  Hector's  body  was 
delivered  up  to  Priam  ;  and  that  Polyxena  fled 
to  the  Greeks  after  the  death  of  Achilles,  and 
killed  herself  on  the  tomb  of  her  beloved  with 
a  sword. 

'  [PoLYkENUs  (rioAvfei/of),  son  of  Agasthenes, 
grandson  of  Augeas,  father  of  Amphimachus, 
was  the  loader  of  the  Epeans  before  Troy.] 

POLYXO  (Tlo%v!-6).  1.  The  nurse  of  Queen 
Hypsipy  le  in  Lemnos,  was  celebrated  as  a  proph- 
etess. —  2.  An  Argive  woman,  married  to  Tlepo- 
lemus,  son  of  Hercules,  followed  her  husband  to 
Rhodes,  where,  according  to  some  traditions, 
she  is  said  to  have  put  to  death  the  celebrated 
Helen.  Vid.  HELENA. 

POLYZELUS  (IIoA^j/Aof).  1.  Brother  of  Hieron, 
the  tyrant  of  Syracuse.  Vid.  HIERON.  —  2.  Of 
Rhodes,  an  historian,  of  uncertain  date,  wrote 
a  history  of  his  native  country.—  3.  An  Athenian 
comic  poet,  belonging  to  the  last  period  of  the 
Old  Comedy  and  the  beginning  of  the  Middle. 
[His  fragments  are  edited  by  Meineke,  in  Comic. 
Grac.  Fragm.,  vol.  i.,  p.  477-79,  edit,  minor.] 

[POMETIA.        Vid.   SUESSA  PoMETIA.] 

POMONA,  the  Roman  divinity  of  the  fruit  of 
trees,  hence  called  Pomorum  Patrona.  Her  name 
is  evidently  derived  from  Pomum.  She  is  rep- 
resented by  the  poets  as  beloved  by  several  of 
the  rustic  divinities,  such  as  Silvanus,  Picus, 
Vertumnus,  and  others.  Her  worship  must  orig- 
inally have  been  of  considerable  importance, 
since  a  special  priest,  under  the  name  ofjlamen 
Pomonalis,  was  appointed  to  attend  to  her  serv- 
ice. 

[POMP/EDIUS  SILO.     Vid.  SILO.] 

POMPEIA.  1.  Daughter  of  Q.  Pompeius  Rufus, 
son  of  the  consul  of  B.C.  88,  and  of  Cornelia, 
the  daughter  of  the  dictator  Sulla.  She  mar- 
ried C.  Caesar,  subsequently  the  dictator,  in  67, 
but  was  divorced  by  him  in  61,  because  she 
was  suspected  of  intriguing  with  Clodius,  who 
stealthily  introduced  himself  into  her  husband's 
house  while  she  was  celebrating  the  mysteries 
of  the  Bona  Dea.  —  2.  Sister  of  Cn.  Pompey,  the 
triumvir,  married  C.  Memmius,  who  was  killed 
in  the  war  against  Sertorius  in  75.  —  3.  Daughter 
of  the  triumvir  by  his  third  wife  Mucia.  She 
married  Faustus  Sulla,  the  son  of  the  dictator, 
who  perished  in  the  African  war,  46.  She  aft- 
erward married  L.  Cornelius  Cinna,  and  her 
son  by  this  marriage,  Cn.  Cinna  Magnus,  enter- 
ed into  a  conspiracy  against  Augustus.  As  her 
brother  Sextus  survived  her,  she  must  have  died 
before  35.  —  4.  Daughter  of  Sextus  Pompey,  the 
son  of  the  triumvir,  and  of  Scribonia.  At  the 
peace  of  Misenum  in  39  she  was  betrothed  to 
M.  Marcellus,  the  son  of  Octavia,  the  sister  of 
Octavianus,  but  was  never  married  to  him.  She 
accompanied  her  father  in  his  flight  to  Asia,  36. 
—  8.  PAULINA.  Vid.  PAULINA. 

POMPEIANUS,  TIB.  CLAUDIUS,  son  of  a  Roman 
694 


POMPEIUS. 

knight  originally  from  Antioch,  rose  to  the  high- 
est dignities  under  M.  Aurelius.  This  emperor 
gave  him  his  daughter  Lucilla  in  marriage.  He 
lived  to  the  reign  of  Severus. 

POMPKII  (llourrqioi,  Iiofj.iraia,  lloftntjia:  Pom- 
peianus),  a  city  of  Campania,  was  situated  or 
the  coast,  at  the  month  of  the  River  Sarnus,  and 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Vesuvius;  but,  in  conse 
quence  of  I  he  physical  changes  which  the  sur 
rounding  country  has  undergone,  the  ruins  of 
Pompeii  are  found  at  present  about  two  miles 
from  the  sea.  Pompeii  was  first  in  the  hands 
of  the  Oscans,  afterward  of  the  Tyrrhenians, 
and  finally  became  a  Roman  municipium.  It 
was  partly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  A.D. 
63,  hut  was  overwhelmed  in  79,  along  with 
Herculaneum  and  Stabiae,  by  the  great  eruption 
of  Mount  Vesuvius.  The  lava  did  not  reach 
Pompeii,  but  the  town  was  covered  with  suc- 
cessive layers  of  ashes  and  other  volcanic  mat- 
ter, on  which  a  soil  was  gradually  formed. 
Thus  a  great  part  of  the  city  has  been  preserved, 
with  its  market-places,  theatres,  baths,  temples, 
and  private  houses  ;  and  the  excavation  of  it  in 
modern  times  has  thrown  great  light  upon  many 
points  of  antiquity,  such  as  the  construction  of 
Roman  houses,  and,  in  general,  all  subjects  con- 
nected with  the  private  life  of  the  ancients.  The 
first  traces  of  the  ancient  city  were  discovered 
in  1689,  rising  above  the  ground  ;  but  it  was 
not  till  1721  that  the  excavations  were  com- 
menced. These  have  been  continued  with  va- 
rious interruptions  down  to  the  present  day 
and  now  about  half  the  city  is  exposed  to  view 
It  was  surrounded  by  walls,  which  were  abotr 
two  miles  in  circumference,  surmounted  at  in- 
tervals by  towers,  and  containing  six  gates. 

PoMPEi'opSus  (Hoirnrjlovirohif),  the  name  of 
several  cities  founded  or  enlarged  by  Pompey. 
1.  (Now  Task  Kdpri),  an  inland  city  of  Cappa- 
docia,  southwest  of  Sinope,  on  the  River  Am- 
nias  (now  Gdk  Irmak),  a  western  tributary  of 
the  Halys.— 2.  Vid.  POMPELON.T-S.  Vid.  SOLOE. 

POMPEIUS.  1.  Q.  POMPEIUS,  said  to  have  been 
the  son  of  a  flute- player,  was  the  first  of  the 
family  who  rose  to  dignity  in  the  state.  He  was 
consul  in  141,  when  he  carried  on  war  against 
the  Numantines  in  Spain.  Having  been  defeat- 
ed by  the  enemy  in  several  engagements,  he  con- 
cluded a  peace  with  them  ;  but  on  the  arrival 
of  his  successor  in  the  command,  he  disowned 
the  treaty,  which  was  declared  invalid  by  the 
senate.  He  was  censor  in  131  with  Q.  Metel- 
lusMacedonicus. — 2.  Q.  POMPEIUS  RUFUS,  either 
son  or  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  a  zealous 
supporter  of  the  aristocratical  party.  He  was 
tribune  of  the  plebs  100,  praetor  91,  and  con- 
sul 88,  with  L.  Sulla.  When  Sulla  set  out  for 
the  East  to  conduct  the  war  against  Mithra- 
dates,  he  left  Italy  in  charge  of  Pompeius  Rufus, 
and  assigned  to  him  the  army  of  Cn.  Pompeius 
Strabo,  who  was  still  engaged  in  carrying  on 
war  against  the  Marsi.  Strabo,  however,  who 
was  unwilling  to  be  deprived  of  the  command, 
caused  Pompeius  Rufus  to  be  murdered  by  the 
soldiers.  Cicero  mentions  Pompeius  Rufus 
,  among  the  orators  whom  he  had  heard  in  his 

youth. 3.  Q.  POMPEIUS  RUFUS,  son  of  No.  2, 

married  Sulla's  daughter,  and  was  murdered  by 

the  party  of  Sulpicius  and  Marius  in  the  forum 

!  during  the  consulship  of  his  father,  88. — 4.  Q. 


POMPEIUS. 

POMPEIUS  RUFUS,  son  of  No.  3,  anri  grandson  of 
the  dictator  Sulla,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  52, 
when  he  distinguished  himself  as  the  great  par- 
tisan of  the  triumvir  Pompey,  and  assisted  the 
latter  in  obtaining  the  sole  consulship.     Rufus, 
however,  on  the  expiration  of  his  office,  was  ac- 
cused of  Vis,  was  condemned,  and  went  into 
exile  at  Bauli  in  Campania. — 5.  Q.  POMPEIUS 
RUFUS,  praetor  63,  was  sent  to  Capua  to  watch 
over  Campania  and  Apulia  during  Catiline's 
conspiracy.     In  61  he  obtained  the  province 
of  Africa,  with  the  title  of  proconsul — 6.  SEX. 
POMPEIUS,  married  Lucilia,  a  sister  of  the  poet 
C.  Lucilius. — 7.  SEX.  POMPEIUS,  elder  son  of  ' 
No.  6,  never  obtained  any  of  the  higher  offices  i 
of  the  state,  but  acquired  great  reputation  as  a  i 
man  of  learning,  and  is  praised  by  Cicero  for  ' 
his  accurate  knowledge  of  jurisprudence,  geom-  j 
etry,  and  the  Stoic  philosophy. — 8.  SEX.  POM-  : 
PEIUS,  a  descendant  of  No.  7,  consul  A.D.  14,  i 
with  Sex.  Appuleius,  in  which  year  the  Emperor 
Augustus  died.     He  seems  to  have  been  a  pa- 
tron of  literature.     Ovid  addressed  him  several 
letters  during  his  exile  ;  and  it  was  probably 
this  same  Sex.  Pompeius  whom  the  writer  Va-  i 
lerius  Maximus  accompanied  to  Asia,  and  of  i 
whom  he  speaks  as  his  Alexander. — 9.  CN.  POM- 
PEIUS STRABO,  younger  son  of  No.  6,  and  father  , 
of  the  triumvir.     He  was  quaestor  in  Sardinia 
103,  praetor  94,  and  proprator  in  Sicily  in  the 
following  year.     He  was  consul  89,  when  he  i 
carried  on  war  with  success  against  the  allies, 
subduing  the  greater  number  of  the  Italian  peo- 
ple who  were  still  in  arms.    Toward  the  end 
of  the  year  he  brought  forward  the  law  (lex  Pom- 
pern)  which  gave  to  all  the  towns  of  the  Trans- 
padani  the  Jus  Latii  or  Latinitas.     He  continu- 
ed in  the  south  of  Italy  as  proconsul  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  (88),  and  when  Pompeius  Rufus 
(No.  2)  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  in  the 
command  of  the  army,  Strabo  caused  him  to  be 
assassinated  by  the  troops.    Next  year  (87)  the 
Marian  party  obtained  the  upper  hand.     Strabo 
was  summoned  by  the  aristocratical  party  to 
their  assistance;  and,  though  not  active  in  their  [ 
cause,  he  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  city,  and  i 
fought  a  battle  near  the  Colline  Gate  with  Cinna  < 
and  Sertorius.     Shortly  afterward  he  was  killed  i 
by  lightning.    His  avarice  and  cruelty  had  made 
him  hated  by  the  soldiers  to  such  a  degree  that 
they  tore  his  corpse  from  the  bier  and  dragged 
it  through  the  streets.     Cicero  describes  him 
(Brut.,  47)  "  as  worthy  of  hatred  on  account  of 
his  cruelty,  avarice,  and  perfidy."    He  possess- 
ed some  reputation  as  an  orator,  and  still  more 
as  a  general.    He  left  behind  him  a  considerable 
property,  especially  in  Picenum. — 10.  CN.  POM- 
PEIUS MAGNUS,  the  TRIUMVIR,  son  of  No.  9,  was 
born  on  the  30th  of  September,  B.C.  106,  in  the 
consulship  of  Atilius  Serranus  and  Servilius 
C»pio,  and  was,  consequently,  a  few  months 
younger  than  Cicero,  who  was  born  on  the  3d 
of  January  in  this  year,  and  six  years  older  than 
Caesar.    He  fought  under  his  father  in  89  against 
the  Italians,  when  he  was  only  seventeen  years 
of  age,  and  continued  with  him  till  his  death 
two  years  afterward.     For  the  next  few  years 
the  Marian  party  had  possession  of  Italy  ;  and 
accordingly  Pompey,  who  adhered  to  the  aristo- 
cratical party,  was  obliged  to  keep  in  the  back 
ground.    But  when  it  became  known  in  84  that 


POMPEIUS. 

Sulla  was  on  the  point  of  returning  from  Greece 
to  Italy,  Pompey  hastened  into  Picenum,  where 
he  raised  an  army  of  three  legions.  Although 
only  twenty-three  years  of  age,  Pompey  display- 
ed great  military  abilities  in  opposing  the  Marian 
generals  by  whom  he  was  surrounded  ;  and  when 
he  succeeded  in  joining  Sulla  in  the  course  of  the 
year  (83),  he  was  saluted  by  the  latter  with  the 
title  of  Imperator.  During  the  remainder  of  the 
war  in  Italy  Pompey  distinguished  himself  as 
one  of  the  most  successful  of  Sulla's  generals  ; 
and  when  the  war  in  Italy  was  brought  to  a 
close,  Sulla  sent  Pompey  against  the  Marian 
party  in  Sicily  and  Africa.  Pompey  first  pro- 
ceeded to  Sicily,  ^of  which  he  easily  made  him- 
self master  (82) :'  here  he  put  Carbo  to  death. 
In  81  Pompey  crossed  over  to  Africa,  where  he 
defeated  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenorbarbus  and  the 
Numidian  king  Hiarbas,  after  a  hard-fought  bat- 
tle. On  his  return  to  Rome  in  the  same  year, 
he  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the  peo- 
ple", and  was  greeted  by  Sulla  with  the  surname 
of  MAGNUS,  a  name  which  he  bore  ever  after- 
ward, and  handed  down  to  his  children.  Pom- 
pey, however,  not  satisfied  with  this  distinction, 
sued  for  a  triumph,  which  Sulla  at  first  refused  ; 
but  at  length,  overcome  by  Pompey's  importu- 
nity, he  allowed  him  to  have  his  own  way.  Ac- 
cordingly, Pompey,  who  had  not  yet  held  any 
public  office,  and  was  still  a  simple  eques,  en- 
tered Rome  in  triumph  in  September,  81,  and 
before  he  had  completed  his  twenty-filth  year. 
Pompey  continued  faithful  to  the  aristocracy 
after  Sulla's  death  (78),  and  supported  the  con- 
sul Catulus  in  resisting  the  attempts  of  his  col- 
league Lepidus  to  repeal  the  laws  of.Sulla;  and 
when  Lepidus  had  recourse  to  arms  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  (77),  Pompey  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war  against  him,  and  succeeded  in  driving 
him  out  of  Italy.  The  aristocracy,  however, 
now  began  to  fear  the  young  and  successful 
general ;  but  since  Sertorius  in  Spain  had  for 
the  last  three  years  successfully  opposed  Metel- 
lus  Pius,  one  of  the  ablest  of  Sulla's  generals, 
and  it  had  become  necessary  to  send  the  latter 
some  effectual  assistance,  the  senate,  with  con- 
siderable reluctance,  determined  to  send  Pom- 
pey to  Spain,  with  the  title  of  proconsul,  and 
with  equal  powers  to  Metellus.  Pompey  re- 
mained in  Spain  between  five  and  six  years 
(76-71) ;  but  neither  he  nor  Metellus  was  able 
to  gain  any  decisive  advantage  over  Sertorius. 
But  when  Sertorius  was  treacherously  murder- 
ed by  his  own  officer  Perperna  in  82,  the  war 
was  speedily  brought  to  a  close.  Perperna  was 
easily  defeated  by  Pompey  in  the  first  battle, 
and  the  whole  of  Spain  was  subdued  by  the" 
early  part  of  the  following  year  (71).  Pompey  - 
then  returned  to  Italy  at  the  head  of  his  army. 
In  his  march  toward  Rome  he  fell  in  with  the 
remains  of  the  army  of  Spartacus,  which  M. 
CMS-US  had  previously  defeated.  Pompey  cut 
to  pieces  these  fugitives,  and  therefore  claimed 
for  himself,  in  addition  to  all  his  other  exploits, 
the  glory  of  finishing  the  Servile  war.  Pompey 
was  now  a  candidate  for  the  consulship ;  and 
although  he  was  ineligible  by  law,  inasmuch  as 
he  was  absent  from  Rome,  had  not  yet  reached 
the  legal  age,  and  had  not  held  any  of  the  lower 
offices  of  the  state,  still  his  election  was  cer- 
tain. His  military  glory  had  charmed  the  peo 

695 


POMPEIUS. 

pie ;  and  as  it  was  known  that  the  aristocracy 
looked  upon  Pompey  with  jealousy,  they  ceased 
to  regard  him  as  belonging  to  this  party,  and 
hoped  to  obtain,  through  him,  a  restoration  of 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  which  they  had  been 
deprived  by  Sulla.  Pompey  was  accordingly 
elected  consul,  along  with  M.  Crassus  ;  and  on 
the  31st  of  December,  71,  he  entered  the  city 
a  second  time  in  his  triumphal  car,  a  simple 
eques.  In  his  consulship  (70),  Pompey  openly 
broke  with  the  aristocracy,  and  became  the 
great  popular  hero.  He  proposed  and  carried 
a  law,  restoring  to  the  tribunes  the  power  of 
which  they  had  been  deprived  by  Sulla.  He 
also  afforded  his  all-powerful  aid  to  the  Lex 
Aurelia,  proposed  by  the  praetor  L.  Aurelius 
Cotta,  by  which  the  judices  were  to  be  taken  in 
future  from  the  senatus,  equites,  and  tribuni 
aerarii,  instead  of  from  the  senators  exclusive- 
ly, as  Sulla  had  ordained.  In  carrying  both 
these  measures  Pompey  was  strongly  support- 
ed by  Caesar,  with  whom  he  was  thus  brought 
into  close  connection.  For  the  next  two  years 
(69  and  68)  Pompey  remained  in  Rome.  In  67 
the  tribune  A.  Gabinius  brought  forward  a  bill, 
proposing  to  confer  upon  Pompey  the  command 
of  the  war  against  the  pirates  with  extraordi- 
nary powers.  This  bill  was  opposed  by  the 
aristocracy  with  the  utmost  vehemence,  but 
was  notwithstanding  carried.  The  pirates  were 
at  this  time  masters  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
had  not  only  plundered  many  cities  on  the  coasts 
of  Greece  and  Asia,  but  had  even  made  descents 
upon  Italy  itself.  As  soon  as  Pompey  received 
the  command,  he  began  to  make  his  prepara- 
tions for  the  war,  and  completed  them  by  the 
end  of  the  winter.  His  plans  were  formed  with 
great  skill  and  judgment,  and  were  crowned 
with  complete  success.  In  forty  days  he  cleared 
the  Western  Sea  of  pirates,  and  restored  com- 
munication between  Spain,  Africa,  and  Italy. 
He  then  followed  the  main  body  of  the  pirates 
to  their  strong-holds  on  the  coast  of  Cilicia ; 
and  after  defeating  their  fleet,  he  induced  a  great 
part  of  them,  by  promises  of  pardon,  to  surren- 
der to  him.  Many  of  these  he  settled  at  Soli, 
which  was  henceforward  called  Pompeiopolis. 
The  second  part  of  the  campaign  occupied  only 
forty-nine  days,  and  the  whole  war  was  brought 
to  a  conclusion  in  the  course  of  three  months  ; 
so  that,  to  adopt  the  panegyric  of  Cicero  (pro 
Leg.  Man.,  12),  "  Pompey  made  his  preparations 
for  the  war  at  the  end  of  the  winter,  entered 
upon  it  at  the  commencement  of  spring,  and  fin- 
ished it  in  the  middle  of  the  summer."  Pom- 
pey was  employed  during  the  remainder  of  this 
"year  and  the  beginning  of  the  following  in  vis- 
iting the  cities  of  Cilicia  and  Pamphylia,  and 
providing  for  the  government  of  the  newly-con- 
quered (Mstricts.  During  his  absence  from  Rome, 
Pompey  was  appointed  to  succeed  Lucullus  in 
the  command  of  the  war  against  Mithradates 
(66).  The  bill  conferring  upon  him  this  com- 
mand was  proposed  by  the  tribune  C.  Manil- 
ius,  and  was  supported  by  Cicero  in  an  oration 
which  has  come  down  to  us  (pro  Lege  Manilla). 
Like  the  Gabinian  law,  it  was  opposed  by  the 
whole  weight  of  the  aristocracy,  hut  was  carried 
triumphantly.  The  power  of  Mithradates  had 
been  broken  by  the  previous  victories  of  Lucul- 
lus, and  it  was  only  left  to  Pompey  to  bring  the 
693 


POMPEIUS. 

war  to  a  conclusion.  On  the  approach  of  Pom- 
pey, Mithradates  retreated  toward  Armenia,  but 
he  was  defeated  by  the  Roman  general ;  and  as 
Tigranes  now  refused  to  receive  him  into  his 
dominions,  Mithradates  resolved  to  plunge  into 
the  heart  of  Colchis,  and  from  thence  make  his 
way  to  his  own  dominions  in  the  Cimmerian 
Bosporus.  Pompey  now  turned  his  arms  against 
Tigranes  ;  but  the  Armenian  king  submitted  to 
him  without  a  contest,  and  was  allowed  to  con- 
elude  a  peace  with  the  republic.  In  65  Pom- 
pey set  out  in  pursuit  of  Mithradates,  but  he 
met  with  much  opposition  from  the  Iberians  and 
Albanians ;  and  after  advancing  as  far  as  the 
River  Phasis  (now  Faz),  he  resolved  to  leave 
these  savage  districts.  He  accordingly  retraced 
his  steps,  and  spent  the  winter  at  Pontus,  which 
he  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman  province. 
In  64  he  marched  into  Syria,  deposed  the  king 
Antiochus  Asiatieus,  and  made  that  country  also 
a  Roman  province.  In  63  he  advanced  further 
south,  in  order  to  establish  the  Roman  suprem- 
acy in  Phoenicia,  Coelesyria,  and  Palestine. 
The  Jews  refused  to  submit  to  him,  and  shut 
the  gates  of  Jerusalem  against  him,  and  it  was 
not  till  after  a  siege  of  three  months  that  the 
city  was  taken.  Pompey  entered  the  Holy  of 
Holies,  the  first  time  that  any  human  being,  ex- 
cept the  high  priest,  had  dared  to  penetrate  into 
this  sacred  spot.  It  was  during  the  war  in  Pal- 
estine that  Pompey  received  intelligence  of  the 
death  of  Mithradates.  Vid.  MITHRADATES,  No.  6. 
Pompey  spent  the  next  winter  in  Pontus ;  and 
after  settling  the  affairs  of  Asia,  he  returned  to 
Italy  in  62.  He  disbanded  his  army  almost  im- 
mediately after  landing  at  Brundisium,  and  thus 
calmed  the  apprehensions  of  many,  who  feared 
that,  at  the  head  of  his  victorious  troops,  he 
would  seize  upon  the  supreme  power.  He  did 
not,  however,  return  to  Rome  till  the  following 
year  (51),  and  he  entered  the  city  in  triumph 
on  the  30th  of  September.  He  had  just  com- 
pleted his  forty-fifth  year,  and  this  was  the  third 
time  that  he  had  enjoyed  the  honor  of  a  tri- 
umph. With  this  triumph  the  first  and  most 
glorious  part  of  Pompey's  life  may  be  said  to 
have  ended.  Hitherto  his  life  had  been  an  al- 
most uninterrupted  succession  of  military  glory. 
But  now  he  was  called  upon  to  play  a  prominent 
part  in  the  civil  commotions  of  the  common- 
wealth, a  part  for  which  neither  his  natural  tal 
ents  nor  his  previous  habits  had  in  the  least  fit- 
ted him.  It  would  seem  that,  on  his  return  to 
Rome.  Pompey  hardly  knew  what  part  to  take 
in  the  politics  of  the  city.  He  had  been  appoint- 
ed to  the  command  against  the  pirates  and  Mith- 
radates in  opposition  to  the  aristocracy,  and  they 
still  regarded  him  with  jealousy  and  distrust. 
At  the  same  time,  he  was  not  disposed  to  unite 
himself  to  the  popular  party,  which  had  risen 
into  importance  during  his  absence  in  the  East, 
and  over  which  Caesar  possessed  unbounded  in- 
fluence. The  object,  however,  which  engaged 
the  immediate  attention  of  Pompey  was  to  ob- 
tain from  the  senate  a  ratification  for  all  his  acts 
in  Asia,  and  an  assignment  of  lands  which  he 
had  promised  to  his  veterans.  The  senate,  how- 
!  ever,  glad  of  an  opportunity  to  put  an  affront 
upon  a  man  whom  they  both  feared  and  hated, 
•  resolutely  refused  to  sanction  his  measures  in 
:  Asia.  This  was  the  unwisest  thing  the  senate 


POMPEIUS 

could  have  done.  If  they  had  known  their  real ' 
interests,  they  would  have  sought  to  win  Pom- 
pey  over  to  their  side,  as  a  counterpoise  to  the 
growing  and  more  dangerous  influence  of  Cae- 
sar. But  their  short-sighted  pokey  threw  Pom- 
pey  into  Caesar's  arms,  and  thus  sealed  the 
downfall  of  their  party.  Caesar  promised  to  ob- 
tain for  Pompey  the  ratification  of  his  acts,  and 
Pompey,  on  his  part,  agreed  to  support  Caesar 
in  all  his  measures.  That  they  might  be  more 
sure  of  carrying  their  plans  into  execution,  Cae-  ,. 
sar  prevailed  upon  Pompey  to  become  recon-  ' 
ciled  to  Craesus,  with  whom  he  was  at  variance,  | 
but  who,  by  his  immense  wealth,  had  great  in- 
fluence  at  Rome.  The  three  agreed  to  assist  ' 
one  another  against  their  mutual  enemies,  and  j 
thus  was  first  formed  the  first  triumvirate.  This  j 
union  of  the  three  most  powerful  men  at  Rome 
crushed  the  aristocracy  for  the  time.  Support- 
ed by  Pompey  and  Crassus,  Caesar  was  able  in 
his  consulship  (59)  to  carry  all  his  measures. 
Pompey's  acts  in  Asia  were  ratified,  and  Cae- 
sar's agrarian  law,  which  divided  the  rich  Cam- 
panian  land  among  the  poorer  citizens,  enabled 
Pompey  to  fulfill  the  promises  he  had  made  to 
his  veterans.  In  order  to  cement  their  union 
more  closely,  Caesar  gave  to  Pompey  his  daugh- 
ter Julia  in  marriage.  Next  year  (58)  Caesar 
went  to  his  province  in  Gaul,  but  Pompey  re- 
mained in  Rome.  While  Caesar  was  gaining* 
glory  and  influence  in  Gaul,  Pompey  was  grad- 
ually losing  the  confidence  of  all  parties  at  Rome. 
The  senate  hated  and  feared  him ;  the  people 
had  deserted  him  for  their  favorite  Clodius,  and 
he  had  no  other  resource  left  but  to  strengthen 
his  connection  with  Caesar.  Thus  he  came  to 
be  regarded  as  the  second  man  in  the  state,  and 
was  obliged  to  abandon  the  proud  position  which 
he  had  occupied  for  so  many  years.  According 
to  an  arrangement  made  with  Caesar,  Pompey 
and  Crassus  were  consuls  for  a  second  time  in 
55.  Pompey  received  as  his  provinces  'the  two 
Spains,  Crassus  obtained  Syria,  while  Caesar's 
government  was  prolonged  for  five  years  more, 
namely,  from  the  1st  of  January,  53,  to  the  end 
of  the  year  49.  At  the  end  of  his  consulship 
Pompey  did  not  go  in  person  to  his  provinces, 
but  sent  his  legates,  L.  Afranius  and  M.  Petre- 
ius,  to  govern  the  Spains,  while  he  himself  re- 
mained in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city.  His 
object  now  was  to  obtain  the  dictatorship,  and 
to  make  himself  the  undisputed  master  of  the 
Roman  world.  Caesar's  increasing  power  and 
influence  had  at  length  made  it  clear  to  Pom- 
pey that  a  struggle  must  take  place  between 
them,  sooner  or  later.  The  death  of  his  wife 
Julia  in  54,  to  whom  he  was  tenderly  attached, 
broke  one  link  which  still  connected  him  with 
Caesar,  and  the  fall  of  Crassus  in  the  following 
year  (53),  in  the  Parthian  expedition,  removed 
the  only  person  who  had  the  least  chance  of  con- 
testing the  supremacy  with  them.  In  order  to 
obtain  the  dictatorship,  Pompey  secretly  en- 
couraged the  civil  discoid  with  which  the  state 
was  torn  asunder ;  and  such  frightful  scenes  of 
anarchy  followed  the  death  of  Clodius  at  the 
beginning  of  52,  that  the  senate  had  now  no  al- 
ternative but  calling  in  the  assistance  of  Pom- 
pey, who  was  accordingly  made  sole  consul  in 
52.  and  succeeded  in  restoring  order  to  the 
state.  Soon  afterward  Pompey  became  recon- 


POMPEIUS. 

ciled  to  the  aristocracy,  and  was  now  regard^ 
as  their  acknowledged  head.  The  history  of 
the  civil  war  which  followed  is  related  in  the 
life  of  CAESAR.  It  is  only  necessary  to  mention 
here,  that  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  (48)  Pom- 
pey sailed  to  Egypt,  where  he  hoped  to  meet 
with  a  favorable  reception,  since  he  had  been 
the  means  of  restoring  to  his  kingdom  the  father 
of  the  young  Egyptian  monarch.  The  ministers 
of  the  latter,  however,  dreading  Caesar's  ange. 
if  they  received  Pompey,  and  likewise  Pom- 
pey's resentment  if  they  forbade  him  to  land, 
resolved  to  release  themselves  from  their  diffi- 
culties by  putting  him  to  death.  They  accord- 
ingly sent  out  a  small  boat,  took  Pompey  on 
board,  and  rowed  for  the  shore.  His  wife  and 
friends  watched  him  from  the  ship,  anxious  to 
see  in  what  manner  he  would  be  received  by 
the  king,  who  was  standing  on  the  edge  of  the 
sea  with  his  troops  ;  but  just  as  the  boat  reach- 
ed the  shore,  and  Pompey  was  in  the  act  of 
rising  from  his  seat  in  order  to  step  on  land,  he 
was  stabbed  in  the  back  by  Septimius,  who  had 
formerly  been  one  of  his  centurions,  and  was 
now  in  the  service  of  the  Egyptian  monarch. 
Pompey  was  killed  on  the  29th  of  September, 
B.C.  48,  and  had  just  completed  his  fifty-eighth 
year.  His  head  was  cut  off",  and  his  body, 
which  was  thrown  out  naked  on  the  shore,  was 
buried  by  his  freedman  Philippus,  who  had  ac- 
companied him  from  the  ship.  The  head  was 
brought  to  Caesar  when  he  arrived  in  Egypt 
soon  afterward,  but  he  turned  away  from  the 
sight,  shed  tears  at  "the  melancholy  death  of  his 
rival,  and  put  his  murderers  to  death.  Pom- 
pey's untimely  death  excites  pity ;  but  no  one 
who  has  well  studied  the  state  of  parties  at  the 
close  of  the  Roman  commonwealth  can  regret 
his  fall.  There  is  abundant  evidence  to  prove 
that,  had  Pompey's  party  gained  the  mastery, 
a  proscription  far  more  terrible  than  Sulla's 
would  have  taken  place,  and  Italy  and  the  prov- 
inces have  been  divided  as  booty  among  a  few 
profligate  and  unprincipled  nobles.  From  such 
horrors  the  victory  of  Caesar  saved  the  Roman 
world.  Pompey  was  married  five  times.  The 
names  of  his  wives  were,  1.  Antistia.  2.  ^Emil- 
ia. 3.  Mucia.  4.  Julia.  5.  Cornelia. — 11.  CN. 
POMPEIUS  MAGNUS,  elder  son  of  the  triumvir  by 
his  third  wife,  Mucia.  In  the  civil  war  in  48 
he  commanded  a  squadron  of  the  fleet  in  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  After  his  father's  defeat  at  Phar- 
salia, he  crossed  over  to  Africa,  and,  after  re- 
maining there  a  short  time,  sailed  to  Spain 
in  47.  In  Spain  he  was  joined  by  his  brother 
Sextus  and  others  of  his  party,  who  had  fled 
from  Africa  after  their  defeat  at  Thapsus.  Here 
the  two  brothers  collected  a  powerful  army,  but 
were  defeated  by  Caesar  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Munda,  fought  on  the  17th  of  March,  45 
Cneius  escaped  from  the  field  of  battle,  but  was 
shortly  afterward  taken  prisoner  and  put  to 
death. — 12.  SEXTOS  POMPEIUB  MAGNUS,  youngei 
son  of  the  triumvir  by  his  third  wife,  Mucia, 
was  born  75.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  he 
accompanied  hia  father  to  Egypt,  and  saw  him 
murdered  before  his  eyes.  After  the  battle  of 
Munda  and  the  death  of  his  brother,  Sextos  lived 
for  a  time  in  concealment  in  the  country  of  the 
Lacetani,  between  the  Iberus  and  the  Pyrenees ; 
but  when  Caesar  quitted  Spain,  he  collected  a 

697 


POMPEIUS  FESTUS. 

body  of  troops,  and  emerged  from  his  lurking- 
place.     In  the  civil  wars  which  followed  Gas-  j 
ear's  death,  the  power  of  Sextus  increased.    He  ' 
obtained  a  large  fleet,  became  master  of  the  sea,  ! 
and  eventually  took  possession  of  Sicily.     His  ' 
fleet  enajled  him  to  stop  all  the  supplies  of  corn 
which  were  brought  to  Rome  from  Egypt  and 
the  eastern  provinces  ;  and  such  scarcity  began 
to  prevail  in  the  city,  that  the  triumvirs  were 
compelled  by  the  popular  discontent  to  make 
peace  with  Pompey.    This  peace  was  concluded 
at  Misenum  in  39,  but  the  war  was  renewed  in 
the  following  year.     Octavianus  made  great  ef- 
forts to  collect  a  large  and  powerful  fleet,  which 
he  placed  under  the  command  of  Agrippa.     In 
36,  Pompey's  fleet  was  defeated  off  Naulochus 
with  great  loss.      Pompey  himself  fled  from  I 
Sicily  to  Lesbos,   and  from   Lesbos  to  Asia,  j 
Here  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  a  body  of  Anto- 
ny's troops,  and  carried  to  Miletus,  where  he 
was  put  to  death  (35),  probably  by  command  of 
Antony,  though  the  latter  sought  to  throw  the 
responsibility  of  the  deed  upon  his  officers. 

POMPEIUS  FESTUS.     Vid.  FESTUS. 

POMPEIUS  TROGUS.     Vid.  JUSTINUS. 

POMPELON  (now  Pamplona),  which  name  is 
equivalent  to  Pompeiopolis,  so  called  by  the  sons 
of  Pompey,  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Vascones 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  road  from 
Asturica  to  Burdigala. 

[POMPILIUS,  NUMA.     Vid.  NUMA.] 

[POMPILIOS  ANDRON!CUS,  a  Syrian  by  birth, 
taught  rhetoric  at  Rome  in  the  former  half  of 
the  century  before  Christ  •  being  eclipsed  by 
other  grammarians,  he  retired  to  Cumae,  where 
he  composed  many  works,  the  chief  one  of 
which  was  entitled  Annalium  Ennii  Elenchi.] 

POMPONIA.  1.  Sister  of  T.  Fomponius  Atti- 
cus,  was  married  to  Q.  Cicero,  the  brother  of 
the  orator,  B.C.  68.  The  marriage  proved  an 
extremely  unhappy  one.  Q.  Cicero,  after  lead- 
ing a  miserable  life  with  his  wife  for  almost 
twenty-four  years,  at  length  divorced  her  at  the 
end  of  45,  or  in  the  beginning  of  the  following 
year. — 2.  Daughter  of  T.  Pomponius  Atticus. 
She  is  also  called  Caecilia,  because  her  father 
was  adopted  by  Q.  Caecilius,  and  likewise  At- 
tica. She  was  born  in  51,  and  she  was  still 
quite  young  when  she  was  married  to  M.  Vip- 
sanius  Agrippa.  Her  daughter  Vipsania  Agrip- 
pina  married  Tiberius,  the  successor  of  Augus- 
tus. 

POMPONIANA.     Vid.  STOSCHADES. 

POMPONIUS,  SEXTUS,  a  distinguished  Roman 
jurist,  who  lived  under  Antoninus  Pius  and  M. 
Aurelius.  Some  modern  writers  think  that 
there  were  two  jurists  of  this  name.  The  works 
of  Pomponius  are  frequently  cited  in  the  Digest. 

POMPONIUS  ATTICUS.     Vid.  ATTICUS. 

POMPONIUS  BONONIENSIS,  the  most  celebrated 
writer  of  Fabulae  Atellanae,  was  a  native  of  Bo- 
nonia  (now  Bologna),  in  Northern  Italy,  as  his 
surname  shows,  and  flourished  B.C.  91. 

POMPONIUS  MELA.     Vid.  MELA. 

PoMPTiN.fi  PALUDES  (TiofnrTivai  M[ivai :  now 
Palu.de  Pontine  ;  in  English,  the  Pontine  Marsh- 
is),  the  name  of  a  low,  marshy  plain  on  the 
coast  of  Latium,  between  Circeii  and  Terraci- 
na,  said  to  have  been  so  called  after  an  ancient 
town  Pontia,  which  disappeared  at  an  early 
period.  The  plain  is  about  twenty-four  miles 
698 


PONTIA. 

long,  and  from  eight  to  ten  miles  in  breadth. 
The  marshes  are  formed  chiefly  by  the  rivers 
Nymphaeus,  Ufens,  and  Amasenus,  and  some 
other  small  streams,  which,  instead  of  finding 
their  way  into-  the  sea,  spread  over  this  plain" 
Hence  the  plain  is  turned  into  a  vast  number 
of  marshes,  the  miasmas  arising  from  which 
are  exceedingly  unhealthy  in  the  summer.  At 
an  early  period,  however,  they  appear  not  to 
have  existed  at  all,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  have  been 
confined  to  a  narrow  district.  We  are  told  that 
originally  there  were  twenty-three  towns  situ- 
ated in  this  plain  ;  and  in  B.C.  43»,  the  Pomp- 
tinus  Agcr  is  mentioned  as  yielding  a  large 
quantity  of  corn.  Even  as  late  as  312,  the 
greater  part  of  the  plain  must  still  have  been 
free  from  the  marshes,  since  the  censor  Appius 
Claudius  conducted  the  celebrated  Via  Appia  in 
that  year  through  the  plain,  which  must  then 
have  been  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  the  weight 
of  this  road.  In  the  course  of  a  century  and  a 
half  after  this,  the  marshes  had  spread  to  a  great 
extent ;  and,  accordingly,  attempts  were  made 
to  drain  them  by  the  consul  Cethegus  in  160, 
by  Julius  Caesar,  and  by  Augustus.  It  is  usu- 
ally said  that  Augustus  caused  a  navigable  ca- 
nal to  be  dug  alongside  of  the  Via  Appia  from 
Forum  Appii  to  the  grove  of  Feronia,  in  order 
to  carry  off  a  portion  of  the  waters  of  the  marsh- 
res ;  but  this  canal  must  have  been  dug  before 
the  time  of  Augustus,  since  Horace  embarked 
upon  it  on  his  celebrated  journey  from  Rome  to 
Brundisium  in  37,  at  which  time  Octavianus, 
as  he  was  then  called,  could  not  have  underta- 
ken any  of  his  public  works.  Subsequently  the 
marshes  again  spread  over  the  whole  plain,  and 
the  Via  Appia  entirely  disappeared  ;  and  it  was 
not  until  the  pontificate  of  Pius  VI.  that  any  se- 
rious attempt  was  made  to  drain  them.  The 
works  were  commenced  in  1778,  and  the  great- 
er part  of  the  marshes  was  drained  ;  but  the 
plain  is  still  unhealthy  in  the  great  heats  of  the 
summer. 

POMPTINUS,  C.,  was  praetor  B.C.  63,  when  he 
was  employed  by  Cicero  in  apprehending  the 
ambassadors  of  the  Allobroges.  He  afterward 
obtained  the  province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis. 
and  in  61  defeated  the  Allobroges,  who  had  in- 
vaded the  province.  He  triumphed  in  54,  after 
suing  in  vain  for  this  honor  for  some  years. 

PONS,  a  common  name  for  stations  on  the 
Roman  roads  at  the  passage  of  rivers,  some  of 
which  stations  on  the  more  important  roads 
grew  into  villages  or  towns.  1.  P.  Mm  (now 
Pfunzen),  in  Vindelicia,  at  the  passage  of  the 
Inn,  was  a  fortress  with  a  Roman  garrison. — 2. 
P.  AUREOLI  (now  Pontirolo),  in  Gallia  Transpa- 
dana,  on  the  road  from  Bergamum  to  Mediola- 
num,  derived  its  name  from  one  of  the  thirty 
tyrants,  who  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Clau- 
dius in  this  place.— 3.  P.  CAMPANUS,  in  Campa- 
nia, between  Sinuessa  and  Urbana,  on  the  Savo. 
Respecting  the  bridges  of  Rome,  vid.  ROMA. 

PONTIA  (now  Ponza),  a  rocky  island  off  the 
coast  of  Latium,  opposite  Formiae,  which  was 
taken  by  the  Romans  from  the  Volscians,  and 
colonized,  B.C.  313.  Under  the  Romans,  it  was* 
used  as  a  place  of  banishment  for  state  crim- 
inals. There  is  a  group  of  smaller  islands  round 
Pontia,  which  are  sometimes  called  Insulae 
Pontitu. 


PONTINUS. 

PONTINC-S  (Hovrivof),  a  river  and  mountain 
in  Argolis,  near  Lerna,  with  a  sanc'.uary  of  Mi- 
nerva (Athena)  Saitis. 

PONTIUS,  C.,  son  of  HERENNIUS  PONTIUS,  the 
general  of  the  Samnites  in  B.C.  321,  defeated 
the  Roman  army  under  the  two  consuls  T.  Ve- 
turius  Calvinus  and  Sp.  Postumius  Alhinus  in 
one  of  the  mountain  passes  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Caudium.  The  survivors,  who  were  com- 
pletely at  the  mercy  of  the  Samnites,  were  dis- 
missed unhurt  by  Pontius.  They  had  to  sur- 
render their-  arms  and  to  pass  under  the  yoke  ; 
and,  as  the  price  of  their  deliverance,  the  con- 
suls and  the  other  commanders  swore,  in  the 
name  of  the  republic,  to  a  humiliating  peace. 
The  Roman  state,  however,  refused  to  ratify 
the  treaty.  Nearly  thirty  years  afterward,  Pon- 
tius was  defeated  by  Q.  Fabius  Gurges  (292), 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  was  put  to  death  after 
the  triumph  of  the  consul. 

PONTIUS  AQUILA.     Vid.  AQUILA. 

PONTIUS  PILATUS  was  the  sixth  procurator  of 
Judaea,  and  the  successor  of  Valerius  Gratus. 
He  held  the  office  for  ten  years  in  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,  from  A.D.  26  to  36,  and  it  was  during 
his  government  that  CHRIST*  taught,  suffered, 
and  died.  By  his  tyrannical  conduct  he  excited 
an  insurrection  at  Jerusalem,  and  at  a  later 
period  commotions  in  Samaria  also,  which  were 
not  put  down  without  the  loss  of  life.  The  Sa- 
maritans complained  of  his  conduct  to  Vitellius, 
the  governor  of  Syria,  who  deprived  him  of  his 
office,  and  sent  him  to  Rome  to  answer  before 
the  emperor  the  accusations  that  were  brought 
against  him.  Eusebius  states  that  Pilatus  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life  at  the  commencement 
of  the  reign  of  Caligula,  worn  out  by  the  many 
misfortunes  he  had  experienced.  The  early 
Christian  writers  refer  frequently  to  an  official 
report,  made  by  Pilatus  to  the  Emperor  Tibe- 
rius, of  the  condemnation  and  death  of  CHRIST. 
It  is  very  doubtful  whether  this  document  was 
genuine  ;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  acts  of  Pi- 
late, as  they  are  called,  which  are  extant  in 
Greek,  as  well  as  his  two  Latin  letters  to  the 
emperor,  are  the  productions  of  a  later  age. 

PONTIUS  TELESINUS.  1.  A  Samnite,  and  com- 
mander of  a  Samnite  army,  with  which  he 
fought  against  Sulla.  He  was  defeated  by  Sulla 
in  a  hard-fought  battle  near  the  Colline  gate, 
B.C.  82.  He  fell  in  the  fight ;  his  head  was 
cut  off,  and  carried  under  the  walls  of  Praeneste, 
to  let  the  younger  Marius  know  that  his  last 
hope  of  succor  was  gone. — 2.  Brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  shut  up  in  Praeneste  with  the 
younger  Marius,  when  his  brother  was  defeated 
by  Sulla.  After  the  death  of  the  elder  Pontius, 
Marius  and  Telesinus,  finding  it  impossible  to 
escape  from  Praeneste,  resolved  to  die  by  one 
another's  hands.  Telesinus  fell  first,  and  Ma- 
rius put  an  end  to  his  own  life,  or  was  slain  by 
his  slave. 

[PONTONOUS  (Tlovrdvoof),  a  herald  of  Alcino- 
us,  king  of  the  Phaeacians.] 

PONTUS  (6  Udvrof).  1.  The  northeasternmost 
district  of  Asia  Minor,  along  the  coast  of  the  Eux- 
ine,  east  of  the  River  Halys,  having  originally 
no  specific  name,  was  spoken  of  as  the  country 
tv  H6i>T(f),  on  the  Pontus  (Euxinus),  and  hence 
acquired  the  name  of  Pontus,  which  is  first 
found  in  Xenophon's  Anabasit,  The  term,  how- 


PONTUS. 

ever,  was  used  very  indefinitely,  until  the  set 
tlement  of  the  boundaries  of  th«j  country  as  a 
Roman  province.  Originally  it  was  regarded 
as  a  part  of  CAPPADOCIA  ;  but  its  parts  were  best 
known  by  the  names  of  the  different  tribes  who 
dwelt  along  the  coast,  and  of  whom  some  ac- 
count is  given  by  Xenophon  in  the  Anabasis. 
We  leai  n  from  the  legends  of  the  Argonauts, 
who  are  represented  as  visiting  this  coast,  and 
the  Amazons,  whose  abodes  are  placed  about 
the  River  Thermodon,  east  of  the  Iris,  as  well 
as  from  other  poetical  allusions,  that  the  Greeks 
had  some  knowledge  of  these  southeastern 
shores  of  the  Euxine  at  a  very  early  period.  A 
great  accession  to  such  knowledge  was  made 
by  the  information  gained  by  Xenophon  and  his 
comrades  when  they  passed  through  the  coun- 
try in  their  famous  retreat ;  and  long  afterward 
the  Romans  became  well  acquainted  with  it  by 
means  of  the  Mithradatic  war,  and  Pompey's 
subsequent  expedition  through  Pontus  into  the 
countries  at  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus.  The 
name  first  acquired  a  political  rather  than  a  ter- 
ritorial importance,  through  the  foundation  of  a 
new  kingdom  in  it,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century  B.C.,  by  ARIOBARZANES  I.  The 
history  of  the  gradual  growth  of  this  kingdom 
until,  under  Mithradates  VI.,  it  threatened  the 
Roman  empire  in  Asia,  is  given  under  the  names 
of  its  kings,  of  whom  the  following  is  the  list : 
(1.)  ARIOBARZANES  I.,  exact  date  unknown  :  (2.) 
MITHRADATES  I.,  to  B.  C.  363 :  (3.)  ARIOBARZA 
NES  II.,  363-337:  (4.)  MITHRADATES  II.,  337-302- 
(5.)  MITHRADATES  III.,  302-266 :  (6.)  ARIOBAR- 
ZANES III.,  266-2401  (7.)  MITHRADATES  IV.,  240- 
1901  (8.)  PHARNACES  I.,  190-1561  (9.)MiTHRA 

DATES  V.  EUERGETES,  156-120  1    (10.)  MlTHRADA 

TES  VI.  EUPATOR,  120-63:  (11.)  PHARNACES  II. 
63-47.  After  the  death  of  Pharnaces,  the  re 
duced  kingdom  retained  a  nominal  existence  un 
der  his  son  Darius,  who  was  made  king  by  Anto 
ny  in  B.C.  39,  but  was  soon  deposed  ;  and  undei 
POLEMON  I.  and  POLEMON  II.,  till  about  A.D.  62, 
when  the  country  was  constituted  by  Nero  a 
Roman  province.  Of  this  province  the  western 
boundary  was  the  River  Halys,  which  divided 
it  from  Paphlagonia  ;  the  furthest  eastern  limit 
was  the  Phasis,  which  separated  it  from  Col- 
chis ;  but  others  carry  it  only  as  far  as  Trape- 
zus,  and  others  to  an  intermediate  point,  at  the 
River  Acampsis :  on  the  south  it  was  divided 
from  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  and  Armenia  Minor 
by  the  great  chain  of  the  Paryadres  and  by  its 
branches.  It  was  divided  into  the  three  dis- 
tricts of  PONTUS  GALATICUS,  in  the  west,  bor- 
dering on  Galatia,  P.  POLEMONIACUS  in  the  cen- 
tre, so  called  from  its  capital  POLEMONIUM,  and 
P.  CAPPADOCIUS  in  the  east,  bordering  on  Cap 
padocia  (Armenia  Minor).  In  the  new  division 
of  the  provinces  under  Constantine,  these  three 
districts  were  reduced  to  two,  HELENOPONTUS 
in  the  west,  so  called  in  honor  of  the  emperor's 
mother,  Helena,  and  PONTUS  POLEMONUCUS  in 
the  east.  The  country  was  also  divided  into 
smaller  districts,  named  from  the  towns  they 
surrounded  and  the  tribes  who  peopled  them. 
Pontus  was  a  mountainous  country  ;  wild  and 
barren  in  the  east,  where  the  great  chains  ap- 
proach the  Euxine  ;  but  in  the  west  watered  by 
the  great  rivers  HALYS  and  IRIS  and  their  trib- 
utaries, the  valleys  of  which,  as  well  as  the  land 

699 


PONTUS  EUXINUS. 

along  the  coast,  are  extremely  fertile.  Besides 
corn  and  olives,  it  was  famous  for  its  fruit  trees, 
and  some  of  the  best  of  our  common  fruits  are 
said  to  have  been  brought  to  Europe  from  this 
quarter  ;  for  example,  the  cherry  (vid.  CKKASUS). 
The  sides  of  the  mountains  were  covered  with 
fine  timber,  and  their  lower  slopes  with  box  and 
other  shrubs.  The  eastern  part  was  rich  in 
minerals,  and  contained  the  celebrated  iron 
mines  of  the  CHALYBES.  Pontus  was  peopled 
by  numerous  tribes,  belonging  probably  to  very- 
different  races,  though  the  Semitic  (Syro- Arabi- 
an) race  appears  to  have  been  the  prevailing 
one,  and  hence  the  inhabitants  were  included 
under  the  general  name  of  LEUCOSYRI.  The 
chief  of  these  races  are  spoken  of  in  separate 
articles. — [2.  The  part  of  Lower  Mcesia  which 
lay  between  the  Euxine,  the  mouths  of  the  Ister, 
and  Mount  Hsemus,  and  forming,  therefore,  a 
considerable  tract  along  the  shore,  was  some- 
times called  Pontus  :  of  this  frequent  mention 
is  made  in  the  poetry  of  Ovid.  Tomi  lay  in  this 
district,  and  Ovid's  Epistola  e  Ponto  derived 
their  name  from  this  quarter.] 

PONTUS  EUXINUS,  or  simply  PONTUS  (6  Tlovrof, 
Tlovrot;  Ei^eivof :  TO  HOVTIKOV  irtkayos,  Mare 
Euxlnum  :  now  the  Black  Sea,  Turk.  Kara  Den- 
iz,  Grk.  Maurethalassa,  Russ.  Tcheriago  More 
or  Czarne-More,  all  names  of  the  same  mean- 
ing, and  supposed  to  have  originated  from  the 
terror  with  which  it  was  at  first  regarded  by 
the  Turkish  mariners,  as  the  first  wide  expanse 
of  sea  with  which  they  became  acquainted),  the 
great  inland  sea  inclosed  by  Asia  Minor  on  the 
south,  Colchis  on  the  east,  Sarmatia  on  the 
north,  and  Dacia  and  Thracia  on  the  west,  and 
having  no  other  outlet  than  the  narrow  BOSPO- 
RUS THRACIUS  in  its  southwestern  corner.  It 
lies  between  28°  and  41°  30'  east  longitude,  and 
between  41°  and  46°  40'  north  latitude,  its 
length  being  about  seven  hundred  miles,  and 
its  breadth  varying  from  four  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  sixty.  Its  surface  contains  more 
than  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  square 
miles.  It  receives  the  drainage  of  an  immense 
extent  of  country  in  Europe  and  in  Asia ;  but 
much  the  greater  portion  of  its  waters  flows 
from  the  former  continent  by  the  following 
rivers :  the  Ister  or  Danubius  (now  Danube), 
whose  basin  contains  the  greater  part  of  cen- 
tral Europe ;  the  Tyras  or  Danaster  (now  Dnies- 
ter), Hypanis  or  Bogus  (now  Boug),  Borysthe- 
nes  (now  Dnieper),  and  Tanai's  (now  Don), 
which  drain  the  immense  plains  of  Southern 
Russia,  and  flow  into  the  northern  side  of  the 
Euxine,  the  last  of  them  (i.  e.,  the  Tanai's) 
through  the  Palus  Maeotis  (now  Sea  of  Azov). 
The  space  thus  drained  is  calculated  at  above 
eight  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  square  miles, 
or  nearly  one  fifth  of  the  whole  surface  of  Eu- 
rope. In  Asia,  the  basin  of  the  Euxine  contains, 
first,  the  triangular  piece  of  Sarmatia  Asiatica 
between  the  Tanai's  on  the  north,  the  Caucasus 
on  the  south,  and  on  the  east  the  Hippici  Mon- 
tes,  which  form  the  watershed  dividing  the  trib- 
utaries of  the  Euxine  from  those  of  the  Caspi 
an  ;  the  waters  of  this  space  flow  into  the  Ta- 
nais  and  the  Palus  Maeotis,  and  the  largest  of 
them  is  the  Hypanis  or  Vardanes  (now  Kuban), 
which  comes  down  to  the  Palus  Maeotis  and 
the  Euxine  at  theii  junction,  and  divides  its 
700 


POPULONIA 

waters  between  them :  next  we  have  the  nar 
row  strip  of  land  between  the  Caucasus  and  tlie 
northeastern  coast  of  the  sea  ;  then  on  the  east, 
Colchis,  hemmed  in  between  the  Caucasus  and 
Moschici  Monies,  and  watered  by  the  Phasis  ; 
and  lastly,  on  the  south,  the  whole  of  that  part 
of  Asia  Minor  which  lies  between  the  Parya- 
dres  and  Antitaurus  on  the  east  and  southeast, 
the  Taurus  on  the  south,  and  the  highlands  of 
Phrygia  on  the  west,  the  chief  rivers  of  this 
portion  being  the  Iris  (now  Yeshil  Irmak),  the 
Halys  (now  Kizil  Irmak),  and  th%  Sangarius 
(now  Sakariyeh).  The  whole  of  the  Asiatic 
basin  of  the  Euxine  is  estimated  at  one  hundred 
thousand  square  miles.  As  might  be  expected 
from  this  vast  influx  of  fresh  water,  the  watei 
is  much  less  salt  than  that  of  the  Ocean.  The 
waters  which-  the  Euxine  receives  from  the 
rivers  that  flow  directly  into  it,  and  also  from 
the  Palus  Maeotis  (now  Sea  of  Azov)  through 
the  Bosporus  Cimmerius  (now  Straits  of  Kaffa 
or  Yenikaleh),  find  their  exit  at  the  southwestern 
corner,  through  the  Bosporus  Thracius  (now 
Channel  of  Constantinople),  into  the  Propontis 
(now  Sea  of  Marmara),  and  thence  in  a  constant 
rapid  current  through  the  Hellespontus  (now 
Straits  of  Gallipoli  or  Dardanelles)  into  >the  ^Egae- 
um  Mare  (now  Archipelago).  The  Argonautic 
and  other  legends  show  that  the  Greeks  had 
some  acquaintance  with  this  sea  at  a  very  early 
period.  It  is  said  that  they  at  first  called  it 
'At-svof  (inhospitable),  from  the  savage  character 
of  the  races  on  its  coast,  and  from  the  supposed 
terrors  of  its  navigation,  and  that  afterward,  on 
their  favorite  principle  of  euphemism  (i.  e.,  ab- 
staining from  words  of  evil  omen),  they  changed 
its  name  to  Etiftvof,  Ion.  Evfetvof,  hospitable. 
The  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  especially  the  people 
of  Miletus,  founded  many  colonies  and  commer- 
cial emporiums  on  its  shores,  and  as  early  as 
the  Persian  wars  we  find  Athens  carrying  on  a 
regular  trade  with  these  settlements  in  the  corn 
grown  in  the  great  plains  on  its  northern  side 
(the  Ukraine)  and  in  the  Chersonesus  Taurica 
(now  Crimea),  which  have  ever  since  supplied 
Western  Europe  with  large  quantities  of  grain. 
The  history  of  the  settlements  themselves  will 
be  found  under  their  several  names.  The  Ro- 
mans had  a  pretty  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
sea.  An  account  of  its  coasts  exists  in  Greek, 
entitled  "  Periplus  Maris  Euxini,"  ascribed  to 
Arrian,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  Vid 
ARRIANUS. 

POPILIUS    L-ffiNAS.          Vid.  L^ENAS. 
POPLICOLA.        Vid.  PUBLICOLA. 

POPP^EA  SABINA.     Vid.  SABINA. 

POPP^IUS  SABINUS.     Vid.  SABINUS. 

POPULONIA  or  -IUM  (Populoniensis  :  Populo- 
ma),  an  ancient  town  of  Etruria,  situated  on  a 
lofty  hill,  sinking  abruptly  to  the  sea,  and  form- 
ing a  peninsula.  According  to  one  tradition  it 
was  founded  by  the  Corsicans ;  but  according 
to  another  it  was  a  colony  from  Volaterrae,  or 
was  taken  from  the  Corsicans  by  the  Volater- 
rani.  It  was  not  one  of  the  twelve  Etruscan 
cities,  and  was  never  a  place  of  political  import- 
ance ;  but  it  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce, 
and  was  the  principal  sea-port  of  Etruria.  It 
was  destroyed  by  Sulla  in  the  civil  wars,  and 
was  in  ruins  in  the  time  of  Strabo.  There  are 
still  remains  of  the  walls  of  the  ancient  Popu 


PORCIA. 

Ionia,  showing  that  the  city  was  only  about  one 
and  a  half  miles  in  circumference. 

PORCIA.  1.  Sister  of  Cato  Uticensis,  married 
L.  Dornitius  Ahenobarbus,  consul  B.C.  54,  who 
was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  She  died 
in  46. — 2.  Daughter  of  Cato  Uticensis  by  his 
first  wife  Atilia.  She  was  married  first  to  M. 
Bibulus,  consul  59,  to  whom  she  bore  three  chil- 
dren. Bibulus  died  in  48  ;  and  in  45  she  mar- 
ried M.  Brutus,  the  assassin  of  Julius  Caesar. 
She  inherited  all  her  father's  republican  princi- 
ples, and  likewise  his  courage  and  firmness  of 
will.  She  induced  her  husband,  on  the  night  ! 
before  the  fifteenth  of  March,  to  disclose  to  her  j 
the  conspiracy  against  Caesar's  life,  and  she  is 
reported  to  have  wounded  herself  in  the  thigh 
in  order  to  show  that  she  had  a  courageous  soul, 
and  could  be  trusted  with  the  secret.  She  put 
an  end  to  her  own  life  after  the  death  of  Brutus 
in  42.  The  common  tale  was,  that  her  friends, 
suspecting  her  design,  had  taken  all  weapons  • 
out  of  her  way,  and  that  she  therefore  destroyed  j 
herself  by  swallowing  live  coals.  The  real  fact 
may  have  been  that  she  suffocated  herself  by 
the  vapor  of  a  charcoal  fire,  which  we  know  was 
a  frequent  means  of  self-destruction  among  the 
Romans. 

PORCIUS  CATO.     Vid.  CATO. 

PORCIUS  FESTUS.     Vid.  FESTDS. 

PORCIUS  LATRO.      Vid.  LATRO. 

PORCIUS  LICINCS.     Vid.  LICINCS. 

PORPHYRIO,  POMPONIUS,  the  most  valuable 
among  the  ancient  commentators  on  Horace. 
He  lived  after  Festus  and  Aero.  [These  scholia 
are  printed  in  several  editions  of  Horace,  the 
latest  is  that  of  G.  Braunhard,  Lips.,  1831,  seq., 
4  vols.  8vo.] 

PoRpHYRloN  (TlopQvpiuv),  one  of  the  giants 
who  fought  against  the  gods.  When  he  at- 
tempted to  offer  violence  to  Juno  (Hera),  or  to 
throw  the  island  of  Delos  against  the  gods,  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  hurled  a  thunder-bolt  at  him,  and  j 
Hercules  completed  his  destruction  with  his 
arrows. 

PORPHYRIS  (riop^vpt'f ),  an  earlier  name  of  the 
island  of  NISYBOS. 

PORPHVRIUS  (HopQvpiof),  usually  called  POR- 
PHYRY, the  celebrated  antagonist  of  Christianity, 
was  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Neo-Platonic 
school.  He  was  born  A.D.  233,  either  in  Bata- 
nea  in  Palestine  or  at  Tyre.  His  original  name 
was  Malchut,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Syrophce- 
nician  Mdcch,  a  word  which  signified  king. 
The  name  Porphyriuf  (in  allusion  to  the  usual 
color  of  royal  robes)  was  subsequently  devised 
for  him  by  his  preceptor  Longinus.  After  stud- 
ying under  Origen  at  Caesarea,  and  under  Apol-  I 
lonius  and  Longinus  at  Athens,  he  settled  at 
Koine  in  his  thirtieth  year,  and  there  became  a  ; 
diligent  disciple  of  Plotinus.  He  soon  gained 
the  confidence  of  Plotinus,  and  was  intrusted  i 
by  the  latter  with  the  difficult  and  delicate  duty  | 
of  correcting  and  arranging  his  writings.  Vid. 
PLOTINUS.  After  remaining  in  Rome  six  years, 
Porphyry  fell  into  an  unsettled  state  of  mind, 
and  began  to  entertain  the  idea  of  suicide,  in 
order  to  get  free  from  the  shackles  of  the  flesh  ; 
but  on  the  advice  of  Plotinus  he  took  a  voyage 
to  Sicily,  where  he  resided  for  some  time.  It 
was  during  his  residence  in  Sicily  that  he  wrote 
nis  treatise  against  the  Christian  religion,  in 


PORSENA. 

fifteen  books.  Of  the  remainder  of  his  life  we 
know  very  little.  He  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  continued  to  teach  until  his  death,  which 
took  place  about  305  or  306.  Late  in  life  he 
married  Marcella,  the  widow  of  one  of  his 
friends,  and  the  mother  of  seven  children,  with 
the  view,  as  he  avowed,  of  superintending  their 
education.  As  a  writer  Porphyry  deserves  con- 
siderable praise.  His  style  is  tolerably  clear, 
and  not  unfrequently  exhibits  both  imagination 
and  vigor.  His  learning  was  most  extensive. 
A  great  degree  of  critical  and  philosophical 
acumen  was  not  to  be  expected  in  one  so  ar- 
dently attached  to  the  enthusiastic  and  some- 
what fanatical  system  of  Plotinus.  His  attempt 
to  prove  the  identity  of  the  Platonic  and  Aris- 
totelic  systems  would  alone  be  sufficient  to 
show  this.  Nevertheless,  his  acquaintance 
with  the  authors  whom  he  quotes  was  manifest- 
ly far  from  superficial.  His  most  celebrated 
work  was  his  treatise  against  the  Christian  re- 
ligion ;  but  of  its  nature  and  merits  we  are  not 
able  to  judge,  as  it  has  not  come  down  to  us. 
It  was  publicly  destroyed  by  order  of  the  Em- 
peror Theodosius.  The  attack  was  sufficiently 
vigorous  to  call  forth  replies  from  above  thirty 
different  antagonists,  the  most  distinguished  of 
whom  were  Methodius,  Apollinaris,  and  Euse 
bius.  A  large  number,  however,  of  his  works 
has  come  down  to  us,  of  which  his  Life  of 
Pythagoras  and  Life  of  Plotinus  are  some  of 
the  best  known. 

PORPHYRIUS,  PUBLILICS  OpTATiIxus,  a  Roman 
poet,  who  lived  in  the  age  of  Constantine  the 
Great.  He  wrote  a  Panegyric  upon  Constan- 
tine ;  three  Idyllia,  namely,  1.  Ara  Pythia,  2. 
Syrinx,  3.  Organon,  with  the  lines  so  arranged 
as  to  represent  the  form  of  these  objects  ;  and 
five  Epigrams. 

[PORRIMA.        Vid.  PoSTVERTA.] 

PORSENA*  or  PORSENNA,  LARS,  king  of  the 
Etruscan  town  of  Clusium,  marched  against 
Rome  at  the  head  of  a  vast  army,  in  order  to 
restore  Tarquinius  Superbus  to  the  throne.  He 
took  possession  of  the  hill  Janiculum,  and  would 
have  entered  the  city  by  the  bridge  which  con- 
nected Rome  with  the  Janiculum,  had  it  not 
been  for  the  superhuman  prowess  of  Horatius 
Codes,  who  kept  the  whole  Etru^an  army  at 
bay,  while  bis  comrades  broke  down  the  bridge 
behind  him.  Vid.  COCLES.  The  Etruscans  pro- 
ceeded to  lay  siege  to  the  city,  which  soon  be- 
gan to  suffer  from  famine.  Thereupon  a  young 
Roman,  named  C.  Mucius,  resolved  to  deliver 
his  country  by  murdering  the  invading  king. 
He  accordingly  went  over  to  the  Etruscan  camp, 
but,  ignorant  of  the  person  of  Porsena,  killed  the 
royal  secretary  instead.  Seized,  and  threatened 
with  torture,  he  thrust  his  right  hand  into  the 
fire  on  the  altar,  and  there  let  it  burn,  to  show 
how  little  he  heeded  pain.  Astonished  at  his 
courage,  the  king  bade  him  depart  in  peace ; 
and  Scaevola,  as  he  was  henceforward  called, 
told  him,  out  of  gratitude,  to  make  peace  with 
Rome,  since  three  hundred  noble  youths  had 
sworn  to  take  the  life  of  the  king,  and  he  was 
the  first  upon  whom  the  lot  had  fallen.  Por- 
sena thereupon  made  peace  with  the  Romans 
and  withdrew  his  troops  from  the  Janiculum 

Tbil    «!ii;u;!:ty  "!    Ill-    pnnOltUnMa    K    ,l,,iilitlul.      It  in 

ihort  in  Horace  and  Martial,  but  long  in  Virgil. 

701 


PORTHAON. 

after  receiving  twenty  hostages  from  the  Ro- 
mans. Such  was  the  tale  by  which  Roman 
vanity  concealed  one  of  the  earliest  and  great- 
est disasters  of  the  city.  The  real  fact  is,  that 
Rome  was  completely  conquered  by  Porsena. 
This  is  expressly  stated  by  Tacitus  (Hist.,  Hi., 
72),  and  is  confirmed  by  other  writers.  Pliny 
tells  us  that  so  thorough  was  the  subjection  of 
the  Romans  that  they  were  expressly  prohibited 
from  using  iron  for  any  other  purpose  but  agri- 
culture. The  Romans,  however,  did  not  long 
remain  subject  to  the  Etruscans.  After  the 
conquest  of  Rome,  Aruns,  the  son  of  Porsena, 
proceeded  to  attack  Aricia,  but  was  defeated 
before  the  city  by  the  united  forces  of  the  Latin 
cities,  assisted  by  the  Greeks  of  Cumae.  The 
Etruscans  appear,  in  consequence,  to  have  been 
confined  to  their  own  territory  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Tiber,  and  the  Romans  to  have  availed 
themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  recover  their 
independence. 

PORTHAON  (HopQduv*),  son  of  Agenor  and  Epi- 
caste,  was  king  of  Pleuron  and  Calydon  in  Mto- 
lia,  and  married  to  Euryte,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  CEneus,  Agrius,  Alcathous,  Melas, 
Leucopeus,  and  Sterope.  ' 

PORTHMUS  (IlopfyiOf),  a  harbor  in  Euboea,  be- 
longing to  Eretria,  opposite  the  coast  of  Attica. 

PORTUNUS  or  PORTUMNUS,  the  protecting  gen- 
ius of  harbors  among  the  Romans.  He  was  in- 
voked to  grant  a  happy  return  from  a  voyage. 
Hence  a  temple  was  erected  to  him  at  the  port 
of  the  Tiber,  from  whence  the  road  descended 
to  the  port  of  Ostia.  At  his  temple  an  annual 
festival,  the  Portunalia,  was  celebrated  on  the 
17th  of  August.  When  the  Romans  became 
familiar  with  Greek  mythology,  Portunus  was 
identified  with  the  Greek  Palsemon.  Vid.  PA- 

I./EMON. 

PORUS  (Il&pof).  1.  King  of  the  Indian  prov- 
inces east  of  the  River  Hydaspes,  offered  a  for- 
midable resistance  to  Alexander  when  the  lat- 
ter attempted  to  cross  this  river,  B.C.  327.  The 
battle  which  he  fought  with  Alexander  was  one 
of  the  most  severely  contested  which  occurred 
during  the  whole  of  Alexander's  campaigns. 
Porus  displayed  great  personal  courage  in  the 
battle  ;  and  when  brought  before  the  conqueror, 
he  proudly  aemanded  to  be  treated  in  atnanner 
worthy  of  a  king.  This  magnanimity  at  once 
conciliated  the  favor  of  Alexander,  who  not  only 
restored  to  him  his  dominions,  but  increased 
them  by  large  accessions  of  territory.  From 
this  time  Porus  became  firmly  attached  to  his 
generous  conqueror,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
the  Hyphasis.  In  321  Porus  was  treacherous- 
ly put  to  death  by  Eudemus,  who  commanded 
the  Macedonian  troops  in  the  adjacent  province. 
We  are  told  that  Porus  was  a  man  of  gigantic 
stature — not  less  than  five  cubits  in  height ; 
and  his  personal  strength  and  prowess  in  war 
were  not  less  conspicuous  than  his  valor. — 2. 
Another  Indian  monarch,  who,  at  the  time  of 
Alexander's  expedition,  ruled  over  the  district 
termed  Gandaris,  east  of  the  River  Hydraotes. 
His  dominions  were  subdued  by  Hephaestion, 
and  annexed  to  those  of  the  preceding  Porus, 
who  was  his  kinsman. 

POSEIDON  (Uoaeiduv),  called  NEPTUNUS  by  the 
Romans,  was  the  god  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
His  name  seems  to  be  connected  with  jrdrof, 
702 


POSEIDON. 

,  and  norafiof,  according  to  which  he  i 
the  god  of  the  fluid  element.     He  was  a  son  of 
Cronos  (Saturn)  and  Rhea  (whence  he  is  called 
Cronius,  and  by  Latin  poets  Saturmus).     He 
was  accordingly  a  brother  of  Zeus  (Jupiter). 
Hades  (Pluto),  Hera  (Juno),  Hestia  (Vesta),  and 
Demeter  (Ceres),  and  it  was  determined  by  lot 
that  he  should  rule  over  the  sea.     Like  his 
brothers  and   sisters,  he  was,  after  his  birth, 
swallowed  by  his  father  Cronos  (Saturn),  but 
thrown  up  again.    According  to  others,  he  was 
]  concealed  by  Rhea,  after  his  birth,  among  a 
'  flock'  of  lambs,  and  his  mother  pretended  to 
i  have  given  birth  to  a  young  horse,  which  she 
j  gave  to  Cronos  (Saturn)  to  devour.     In  the  Ho- 
meric poems  Poseidon  (Neptune)  is  described 
!  as  equal  to  Zeus  (Jupiter)  in  dignity,  but  less 
powerful.    He  resents  the  attempts  of  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter) to  intimidate  him ;  he  even  threatens  his 
mightier  brother,  and  once  conspired  with  Hera 
(Juno)  and  Athena  (Minerva)  to  put  him  into 
chains ;  but  on  other  occasions  we  find  him 
submissive  to  Zeus  (Jupiter).    The  palace  of 
Poseidon  (Neptune)  was  in  the  depth  of  the  sea 
near  _*Egae  in  Euboaa,  where  he  kept  his  horses 
with  brazen  hoofs  and  golden  manes.     With 
these  horses  he  rides  in  a  chariot  over  the  waves 
of  the  sea,  which  become  smooth  as  he  ap- 
proaches, and  the  monsters  of  the  deep  recog- 
nize him  and  play  around  his  chariot.    General- 
!  ly  he  yoked  his  horses  to  bis  chariot  himself, 
|  but  sometimes  he  was  assisted  by  Amphitrite. 
|  Although  he  generally  dwelt  in  the  sea,  still  he 
I  also  appears  at  Olympus  in  the  assembly  of  the 
!  gods.     Poseidon  (Neptune),  in  conjunction  with 
I  Apollo,  is  said  to  have  built  the  walls  of  Troy 
I  for  Laomedon,  whence  Troy  is  called  Neptuma 
j  Pergama.     Laomedon   refused  to  give   these 
|  gods  the  reward  which  had  been  stipulated,  and 
|  even  dismissed  them  with  threats.     Poseidon 
;  (Neptune),  in  consequence,  sent  a  marine  mon- 
j  ster,  which  was  on  the  point  of  devouring  La- 
omedon's  daughter,  when  it  was  killed  by  Her- 
cules ;  and  he  continued  to  bear  an  implacable 
hatred  against  the  Trojans.     He  sided  with  the 
Greeks  in  the  war  against  Troy,  sometimes 
witnessing  the  contest  as  a  spectator  from  the 
heights  of  Thrace,  and  sometimes  interfering 
in  person,  assuming  the  appearance  of  a  mortal 
hero  and  encouraging  the  Greeks,  while  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  favored  the  Trojans.     In  the  Odyssey, 
Poseidon  (Neptune)  appears  hostile  to  Ulysses, 
whom  he  prevents  from  returning  home  in  con- 
sequence of  his  having  blinded  Polyphemus,  a 
son  of  Poseidon  (Neptune)  by  the  nymph  Thoosa. 
J  Being  the  ruler  of  the  sea  (the  Mediterranean), 
i  he  is  described  as  gathering  clouds  and  calling 
j  forth  storms,  but  at  the  same  time  he  has  it  in 
his  power  to  grant  a  successful  voyage  and  save 
I  those  who  are  in  danger ;  and  all  other  marine 
j  divinities  are  subject'to  him.     As  the  sea  sur- 
rounds and  holds  the  earth,  he  himself  is  de 
scribed  as  the  god  who  holds  the  earth  (yatijo^of ), 
and  who  has  it  in  his  power  to  shake  the  earth 
(evoaixOuv,  K.IVTITTJP  yiif).     He  was  further  re- 
garded as  the  creator  of  the  horse.     It  is  said 
that  when  Poseidon  (Neptune)  and  Athena  (Mi- 
nerva) disputed  as  to  which  of  them  should  give 
the  name  to  the  capital  of  Attica,  the  gods  de- 
cided that  it  should  receive  its  name  from  the 
deity  who  should  bestow  'ipon  man  the  most  use 


POSEIDON. 

till  gift.  Poseidon  (Neptune)  then  created  the 
horse,  and  Athena  (Minerva;  called  forth  the 
olive-tree,  in  consequence  of  which  the  honor 
was  conferred  upon  the  goddess.  According  to 
others,  however,  Poseidon  (Neptune)  did  not 
create  the  horse  in  Attica,  but  in  Thessaly, 
where  he  also  gave  the  famous  horses  to  Pel- 
eus.  Poseidon  (Neptune)  was  accordingly  be- 
lieved to  have  taught 'men  the  art  of  managing 
horses  by  the  bridle,  and  to  have  been  the  orig- 
inator and  protector  of  horse  races.  Hence  he 
was  also  represented  on  horseback,  or  riding  in 
a  chariot  drawn  by  two  or  four  horses,  and  is 
designated  by  the  epithets  Inniof,  "nnrsiof,  or 
t;r7rjof  uva!;.  He  even  metamorphosed  himself 
into  a  horse  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  Deme- 
ter  (Ceres).  The  symbol  of  Poseidon's  (Nep- 
tune's) power  was  the  trident,  or  a  spear  with 
three  points,  with  which  he  used  to  shatter 
rocks,  to  call  forth  or  subdue  storms,  to  shake 
the  earth,  and  the  like.  Herodotus  states  that 
iHe  name  and  worship  of  Poseidon  (Neptune) 
were  brought  into  Greece  from  Libya ;  but  he 
was  probably  a  divinity  of  Pelasgian  origin,  and 
originally  a  personification  of  the  fertilizing 
power  of  water,  from  which  the  transition  to 
regarding  him  as  the  god  of  the  sea  was  not 
difficult.  The  following  legends  respecting 
Poseidon  (Neptune)  deserve  to  be  mentioned. 
In  conjunction  with  Zeus  (Jupiter)  he  fought 
against  Cronos  (Saturn)  and  the  Titans  ;  and  in 
the  contest  with  the  Giants  he  pursued  Poly- 
botes  across  the  sea  as  far  as  Cos,  and  there 
killed  him  by  throwing  the  island  upon  him. 
He  further  crushed  the  Centaurs  when  they 
were  pursued  by  Hercules,  under  a  mountain  in 
Leucosia,  the  island  of  the  Sirens.  He  sued, 
together  with  Zeus  (Jupiter),  for  the  hand  of 
Thetis  ;  but  he  withdrew  when  Themis  proph- 
esied that  the  son  of  Thetis  would  be  greater 
than  his  father.  When  Ares  (Mars)  had  been 
caught  in  the  wonderful  net  by  Hephaestus  (Vul- 
can), the  latter  set  him  free  at  the  request  of 
Poseidon  (Neptune) ;  but  the  latter  god  after- 
ward brought  a  charge  against  Ares  (Mars)  be- 
fore the  Areopagus  for  having  killed  his  son 
Halirrhothius.  At  the  request  of  Minos,  king 
of  Crete,  Poseidon  (Neptune)  caused  a  bull  to 
rise  from  the  sea,  which  the  king  promised  to 
sacrifice ;  but  when  Minos  treacherously  con- 
cealed the  animal  among  a  herd  of  oxen,  the 
god  punished  Minos  by  causing  his  wife  Pas- 
iphao  to  fall  in  love  with  the  bull.  Poseidon 
(Neptune)  was  married  to  Amphitrite,  by  whom 
he  had  three  children,  Triton,  Rhode,  and  Ben- 
thesicyme  ;  but  he  had  also  a  vast  number  of 
children  by  other  divinities  and  mortal  women. 
His  worship  extended  over  all  Greece  and 
Southern  Italy,  but  he  was  more  especially  re- 
vered in  Peloponnesus  and  in  the  Ionic  towns 
os  the  coast.  The  sacrifices  offered  to  him 
generally  consisted  of  black  and  white  bulls ; 
but  wild  boars  and  rams  were  also  sacrificed  to 
him.  Horse  and  chariot  races  were  held  in  his 
honor  on  the  Corinthian  isthmus.  The  Pan- 
ionia,  or  the  festival  of  all  the  lonians  near 
Mycale,  was  celebrated  in  honor  of  Poseidon 
(Neptune).  In  works  of  art,  Poseidon  (Nep- 
•  :ne)  may  be  easily  recognized  by  his  attri- 
l.Jtes,  the  dolphin,  the  horse,  or  the  trident,  and 
ba  was  frequently  represented  in  groups  along 


POSIDONIUS 

with  Amphitrite,  Tritons,  Nereids,  dolphins,  thfi 
Dioscuri,  Palaemon,  Pegasus,  Bellerophontes, 
Thalassa,  Ino,  and  Galene.  His  figure  does  not 
present  the  majestic  calm  which  characterizes 
his  brother  Zeus  (Jupiter) ;  but  as  the  state  of 
the  sea  is»varying,  so  also  is  the  god  represent 
ed  sometimes  in  violent  agitation  and  some- 
times in  a  state  of  repose.  The  Roman  god 
Neptunus  is  spoken  of  in  a  separate  article. 

POSIDIPPUS  (Tloaeidnrnof,  Uoaidnnrof).  1.  An 
Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  New  Comedy,  was 
a  native  of  Cassandrea  in  Macedonia.  He  was 
reckoned  one  of  the  six  most  celebrated  poets 
of  the  New  Comedy.  In  time,  he  was  the  last 
of  all  the  poets  of  the  New  Comedy.  He  began 
to  exhibit  dramas  in  the  third  year  after  the 
death  of  Menander,  that  is,  in  B.C.  289.  [The 
fragments  of  his  plays  are  contained  in  Mei- 
neke's  Comic.  Grac.  Fragm.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1141-49, 
edit,  minor.]— 2.  An  epigrammatic  poet  who 
was  probably  a  different  person  from  the  comic 
poet,  though  he  seems  to  have  lived  about  the 
same  time.  His  epigrams  formed  a  part  of  the 
Garland  of  Meleager,  and  twenty-two  of  them 
are  preserved  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

POSIDIUM  (Tloaeidiov),  the  name  of  several 
promontories  sacred  to  Poseidon  (Neptune).  1. 
(Now  Punla  della  Licosa),  in  Lucania,  opposite 
the  island  Leucosia,  the  southern  point  of  the 
Gulf  of  Paestum. — 2.  In  Epirus,  opposite  the 
northeast  point  of  Corcyra.  —  3.  (Now  Cape 
Stavros),  in  Thessaly,  forming  the  western 
point  of  the  Sinus  Pagasaeus,  perhaps  the  same 
as  the  promontory  which  Livy  (xxxi.,  46)  calls 
Zelasium. — 4.  (Now  Cape  Helcne),  the  south  west- 
ern point  of  Chios- — 5.  On  the  western  coast  of 
Caria,  between  Miletus  and  the  lassius  Sinus, 
with  a  town  of  the  same  name  upon  it. — 6.  On 
the  western  coast  of  Arabia,  with  an  altar  dedi- 
cated to  Poseidon  (Neptune)  by  Ariston,  whom 
Ptolemy  had  sent  to  explore  the  Arabian  Gulf. 
— 7.  (Now  Posseda),  a  sea-port  town  in  Syria,  in 
the  district  Cassiotis. 

POSIDONIA.     Vid.  PJESTUM. 

POSIDONIDM  (HooEiduvtov  :  now  Cape  Possidhi 
or  Kassandfirea),  a  promontory  on  the  western 
coast  of  the  peninsula  Pallene  in  Macedonia, 
not  far  from  Mende. 

POSIDONIUS  (Tloaeiduvioe),  a  distinguished 
Stoic  "philosopher,  was  a  native  of  Apamea  in 
Syria.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  not  known  with 
any  exactness,  but  it  may  be  placed  about  B.C. 
135.  He  studied  at  Athens  under  Panaetius, 
after  whose  death  (112)  Posidonius  set  out  on 
his  travels.  After  visiting  most  of  the  coun- 
tries on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  he  fixed 
his  abode  at  Rhodes,  where  he  became  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Stoic  school.  He  also  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  political  affairs  of  Rhodes,  and 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  in  86.  Cicero, 
when  he  visited  Rhodes,  received  instruction 
from  Posidonius.  Pompey  also  had  a  great  ad- 
miration for  Posidonius,  and  visited  him  twice, 
in  67  and  62.  To  the  occasion  of  his  first  visit 
probably  belongs  the  story  that  Posidonius,  to 
prevent  the  disappointment  of  his  distinguish- 
ed visitor,  though  severely  afflicted  with  the 
gout,  had  a  long  discourse  on  the  topic  that  pain 
is  not  an  evil.  In  51  Posidonius  removed  to 
Rome,  and  appears  to  have  died  soon  afit  ••  at 
the  ago  of  84.  Posidonius  was  a  man  of  exten 

703 


POSTUMIA  CASTRA. 

aive  and  varied  acquirements  in  almost  all  de- 
partmentsof  human  knowledge.    Cicero  thought 
so  highly  of  his  powers  that  he  requested  him 
to  write  an  account  of  his  consulship.     As  a 
physical  investigator  he  was  greatly  superior  to 
the  Stoics  generally,  attaching  himself  in  this 
respect  rather  to  Aristotle.     His  geographical  , 
and  historical  knowledge  was  very  extensive,  j 
He  cultivated  astronomy  with  considerable  dili- 
gence.    He  also  constructed  a  planetary  ma-  > 
chine,  or  revolving  sphere,  to  exhibit  the  daily 
motions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets.     His  '' 
calculation  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth 
differed  widely  from  that  of  Eratosthenes.     He 
made  it  only  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
stadia,  and  his  measurement  was  pretty  gener-  , 
ally  adopted.     None  of  the  writings  of  Posi-  j 
donius  have  come  down  to  us  entire.     His  frag- 
ments are  collected  by  Bake,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1810. 

POSTUMIA  CASTRA  (now  Salado),  a  fortress  in 
Hispania  Baetica,  on  a  hill  near  the  River  Sal- 
sum  (now  Salado). 

POSTUMIA  GENS,  patrician,  was  one  of  the 
most  ancient  patrician  gentes  at  Rome.    Its  : 
members  frequently  held  the  highest  offices  of  | 
the  state,  from  the  banishment  of  the  kings  to  ' 
the  downfall  of  the  republic.    The  most  distin-  ; 
guished  family  in  the  gens  was  that  of  ALBUS 
or  ALBINUS  ;  but  we  also  find  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  republic  families  of  the  names  of 
M'gellus  and  Tubertus. 

POSTUMUS,  whose  full  name  was  M.  Cassia- 
nus  Latinius  Postumus,  stands  second  in  the  list 
of  the  so-called  thirty  tyrants.  Being  nomi- 
nated by  Valerian  governor  of  Gaul,  he  assumed 
the  title  of  emperor  in  A.D.  258,  while  Valerian 
was  prosecuting  his  campaign  against  the  Per- 
sians. Postumus  maintained  a  strong  and  just 
government,  and  preserved  Gaul  from  the  dev- 
astation of  the  warlike  tribes  upon  the  eastern 
border.  After  reigning  nearly  ten  years,  he 
was  slain  by  his  soldiers  in  267,  and  Laelianus 
proclaimed  emperor  in  his  stead. 

POSTVERTA  or  POSTVORTA,  properly  a  surname 
of  Carmenta,  describing  her  as  turning  back- 
ward and  looking  at  the  past,  which  she  re- 
vealed to  poets  and  other  mortals.  In  like  man- 
ner, the  prophetic  power,  with  which  she  looked 
into  the  future,  is  indicated  by  the  surnames 
Antevorta,  Prorsa  (i.  e.,  Provcrsa),  and  Porrima. 
Poets,  however,  have  personified  these  attri- 
butes of  Carmenta,  and  thus  describe  them  as 
the  companions  of  the  goddess. 

POTAMI  or  POTAMUS  (floTOfioi,  HoTafiof :  Hord- 
uiof  :  now  Keratia),  a  demus  in  the  south  of  At- 
tica, belonging  to  the  tribe  Leontis,  where  the 
tomb  of  Ion  was  shown. 

POTAMON  (Horu^uv).  1.  A  rhetorician  of  Myt- 
ilene,  lived  in  the  time  of  Tiberius  Caesar, 
whose  favor  he  enjoyed. — 2.  A  philosopher  of 
Alexandrea,  who  is  said  to  have  introduced  at 
Rome  an  eclectic  sect  of  philosophy.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  lived  at  Rome  a  little  before  the 
time  of  Plotinus,  and  to  have  intrusted  his  chil- 
dren to  the  guardianship  of  the  latter. 

POTENTIA  (Potentinus).  1.  A  town  of  Pice- 
num,  on  the  River  Flosis,  between  Ancona  and 
Castellum  Firmanum,  was  made  a  Roman  col- 
ony in  B.C.  186.— 2.  (Now  Potcnsa),  a  town  of 
Lucania,  on  the  Via  Popilia,  east  of  Forurr  Po- 
pilii. 

704 


PILENESTE. 

PoTHimis,  a  eunuch,  the  guardian  of  the 
young  King  Ptolemy,  recommended  the  assas- 
sination of  Pompey  when  the  latter  fled  to 
Egypt,  B.C.  48.  Pothin^s  plotted  against  Ce- 
sar when  he  came  to  Alexandrea  shortly  after- 
ward, and  was  put  to  death  by  Caesar's  order. 

POTID^A  (ILm'rfata  :  JloTtiaiurric .  now  Pi- 
naka),  a  town  in  Macedonia,  on  the  narrow  isth- 
mus of  the  peninsula  Pallene,  was  a  strongly- 
fortified  place,  and  one  of  considerable  import- 
ance. It  was  a  colony  of  the  Corinthians,  and 
must  have  been  founded  before  the  Persian 
wars,  though  the  time  of  its  foundation  is  not 
recorded.  It  afterward  became  tributary  to 
Athens,  and  its  revolt  from  the  latter  city  in 
B.C.  432  was  one  of  the  immediate  causes  of 
the  Peloponnesian  war.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Athenians  in  429,  after  a  siege  of  more  than  two 
years,  its  inhabitants  expelled,  and  their  place 
supplied  by  Athenian  colonists.  In  356  it  was 
taken  by  Philip,  who  destroyed  the  city,  and 
gave  its  territory  to  the  Olynthians.  Cassan- 
der,  however,  built  a  new  city  on  the  same  site, 
to  which  he  gave  the  nameofCAssANnREA(Ka<r- 
advdpsta  :  Kaffaavdpevfi,  and  which  he  peopled 
with  the  remains  of  the  old  population  and  with 
the  inhabitants  of  Olynthus  and  the  surround- 
ing towns,  so  that  it  soon  became  the  most 
flourishing  city  in  all  Macedonia.  It  was  taken 
and  plundered  by  the  Huns,  but  was  restored 
by  Justinian. 

POTIDANIA,  a  fortress  in  the  northeast  of^Eto- 
lia,  near  the  frontiers  of  Locris. 
POTITII.     Vid.  PINARIA  GENS. 
POTITUS,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  celebrat 
ed  family  of  the  Valeria  gens.    This  family  dis- 
appears about  the  time  of  the  Samnite  wars ; 
but  the  name  was  revived  at  a  later  period  by 
the  Valeria  gens  as  a  praenomen  :  thus  we  find 
"mention  of  a  Potitus  Valerius  Messala,  who  was 
consul  suffectus  in  B.C.  29. 

POTNLE  (Uorviat :  TLorvievf ),  a  small  town  in 
Bceotia,  on  the  Asopus,  ten  stadia  south  of 
Thebes,  on  the  road  to  Plataeae.  The  adjective 
Potniades  (sing.  Potnias)  is  an  epithet  frequently 
given  to  the  mares  which  tore  to  death  Glaucus 
of  Potnise.  Vid.  GLAUCUS,  No.  1. 
PRAASPA.  Vid.  PHRAATA. 
PRACTIUS  (HpunTtoc  :  now  Borgas  or  Muska- 
koi-Su),  a  river  of  the  Troad,  rising  in  Mount 
Ida,  and  flowing  into  the  Hellespont  north  of 
Abydus. 

PR^ENESTE  (Praenestinus :    now  Palcstrina), 
one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  of  Latium,  was 
situated  on  a  steep  and  lofty  hill,  about  twenty 
miles  southeast  of  Rome,  with  which  it  was 
connected  by  a  road  called  Via  Praenestina.    It 
was  probably  a  Pelasgic  city,  but  it  claimed  a 
:  Greek  origin,  and  was  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Telegonus,  the  son  of  Ulysses.     It  wa 
strongly  fortified  by  nature  and  by  art,  and  fre- 
;  quently  resisted  the  attacks  of  the  Roman 
;  Together  with  the  other  Latin  towns,  it  became 
!  subject  to  Rome,  and  was  at  a  later  period  made 
I  a  Roman  colony.    It  was  here  that  the  younger 
:  Marius  took  refuge,  and  was  for  a  considerable 
time  besieged  by  Sulla's  troops.    Praeneste  pos- 
sessed a  very  celebrated  and  ancient  temple  of 
j  Fortuna,  with  an  oracle,  which  is  often  men- 
tioned under  the  name  of  Praenestinae  sortes. 
,  It  also  had  a  temple  of  Juno.    In  consequence 


PRJ3SUS. 

ol  its  lofty  situation,  Praeneste  was  a  cool  at  I 
healthy  residence  in  the  great  heats  of  summer 
(frigidum  Pnzneste,  Hor.,  Carm.,  iii.,  4.  22),  and 
was  therefore  much  frequented  at  that  season 
by  the  wealthy  Romans.  The  remains  of  the 
ancient  walls  and  some  other  antiquities  are 
still  to  be  seen  at  Palestrina. 

PR^ESUS  (Upalaof :  ilpaiaiof),  an  inland  town 
in  the  east  of  Crete,  belonging  to  the  Eteocre- 
tes,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  neighboring 
town  of  Hierapytna. 

PRETORIA  AUGUSTA.      Vid.  AUGUSTA,  No.  4. 

[PE^ETUTH,  a  people  of  Central  Italy,  who  are 
often  assigned  to  Picenum,  though  they  were 
of  a  different  race  from  the  Picentes.  Their  ter- 
ritory was  fertile,  and  celebrated  for  its  wine. 
The  principal  places  in  their  land  were  Inter- 
amna  and  Hadria  (now^4/ri).] 

PRAs(IIpdf,  gen.  Hpairoc :  Hpuvref),  a  town  of 
Thessaly,  in  the  west  of  the  district  Phthiotis, 
on  the  northeastern  slope  of  Mount  Narthacius. 

PRASLE  (Hpaaiai  :  Hpaaievf).  1.  Or  PRASIA 
(Tlpaaia),  a  town  of  the  Eleuthero-lacones,  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Laconia,  was  taken  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Athenians  in  the  second  year  of 
the  Peloponnesian  war.  —  2.  (Now  Prassa),  a 
demus  in  Attica,  south  of  Stiria,  belonging  to 
the  tribe  Pandionis,  with  a  temple  of  Apollo. 

PRASIAK  LACUS  (Tlpaoiai;  Iduvri :  now  Takino), 
a  lake  in  Thrace,  between  the  Strymon  and 
Nestus,  and  near  the  Strymonic  Gulf,  with  silver 
mines  in  the  neighborhood. 

PRASII,  PRXSII,  and  PARRHASII  (Upuaioi :  San- 
scrit Prachinas,  i.  e.,  people  of  the  Eastern  coun- 
try), a  great  and  powerful  people  of  India  on 
the  Ganges,  governed  at  the  time  of  Seleucns 
I.  by  King  SANDROCOTTUS.  Their  capital  city 
was  Palibothra  (now  Patnaj ;  and  the  extent 
of  the  kingdom  seems  to  have  embraced  the 
whole  valley  of  the  Upper  Ganges,  at  least  as 
far  down  as  that  city.  At  a  later  time  the  mon- 
archy declined,  so  that  in  Ptolemy  we  only  find 
the  name  as  that  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  small 
district,  called  Prasiaca  (ITpaata/a/),  about  the 
River  Soa. 

PRASODIS  MARE  (Upaaudt/^  VaAaoffa  or  /coA-. 
irof),  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
about  the  Promontory  PRASUM. 

PHASUM  (Upuaov  aicpuTT/piov  :  now  Cape  Del- 
gado),  a  promontory  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa,  in  10$°  south  latitude,  appears  to  have 
been  the  southernmost  point  to  which  the  an- 
cient knowledge  of  this  coast  extended. 

PRATINAS  (IlpartVaf),  one  of  the  early  tragic 
poets  at  Athens,  whose  combined  efforts  brought 
the  art  to  its  perfection,  was  a  native  of  Phlius, 
and  was  therefore  by  birth  a  Dorian.  It  is  not 
stated  at  what  time  he  went  to  Athens  ;  but  he 
was  older, than  Chcerilus,  and  younger  than  ^Es- 
chylus,  with  both  of  whom  he  competed  for  the 
prize  about  B.C.  500.  The  step  in  the  progress 
of  the  art  which  was  ascribed  to  Pratinas  was 
the  separation  of  the  satyric  from  the  tragic 
drama.  His  plays  were  much  esteemed.  Prat- 
inas also  ranked  high  among  the  lyric  as  well 
as  the  dramatic  poets  of  his  age.  He  may,  per- 
haps, be  considered  to  have  shared  with  his  con- 
temporary Lasus  the  honor  of  founding  the  Athe- 
nian school  of  dithyrambic  poetry.  [The  frag- 
ments of  Pratinas  are  contained  in  Wagner's 
Tragic.  Grac.  Fragm.,  p.  7-10.] 
45 


PRAXITELES. 

PRAXAGORAS  (Flpafayopaf),  a  celebrated  physi 
cian,  was  a  native  of  the  island  of  Cos,  and  lived 
in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the 
medical  sect  of  the  Dogmatic!,  and  was  cele- 
brated for  his  knowledge  of  medical  science  in 
general,  and  especially  for  his  attainments  in 
anatomy  and  physiology. 

PRAXIAS  (Jlpafi'af),  an  Athenian  sculptor  Dr 
the  age  of  Phidias,  but  of  the  more  archaic 
school  of  Calamis,  commenced  the  execution 
of  the  statues  «in  the  pediments  of  the  great 
temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  but  died  while  he 
was  still  engaged  upon  the  work.  His  date 
may  be  placed  about  B.C.  448  and  onward. 

PRAXIDICE  (Hpa^i6iKTj),  i.  e.,  the  goddess  who 
carries  out  the  objects  of  justice,  or  watches 
that  justice  is  done  to  men.  When  Menelaus 
arrived  in  Laconia,  on  his  return  from  Troy,  he 
set  up  a  statue  of  Praxidice  near  Gytheum,  not 
far  from  the  spot  where  Paris,  in  carrying  off 
Helen,  had  founded  a  sanctuary  of  Aphrodite 
(Venus)  Migonitis.  Near  Haliartus,  in  Boeotia, 
we  meet  with  the  worship  of  Praxidicae,  in  the 
plural :  they  were  here  called  daughters  of  Ox 
yges,  and  their  names  were  Alalcomenia,Thelx- 
inoea,  and  Aulis.  In  the  Orphic  poets  Praxidico 
seems  to  be  a  surname  of  Persephone  (Proser- 
pina). 

PR  AXILLA  (Ilpaft/Ua),  of  Sicyon,  a  lyric  poet 
ess,  who  flourished  about  B.C.  450,  and  was  one 
of  the  nine  poetesses  who  were  distinguished 
as  the  Lyric  Muses.  Her  scholia  were  among  the 
most  celebrated  compositions  of  that  species. 
She  belonged  to  the  Dorian  school  of  lyric  po- 
etry, but  there  were  also  traces  of  ^Eolic  influ- 
ence in  her  rhythms,  and  even  in  her  dialect. 
[The  fragments  of  her  poems  are  given  in  Prax- 
illcB  Gr&canica  vatis  qua.  extant  residua,  Upsala, 
1826  ;  and  are  found  also  in  the  collections  t..( 
Schneidewin  and'Bergk.] 

PRAXIPHANES  (Upu^t.<t>tivrif),  a  Peripatetic  phi- 
losopher, a  native  either  of  Mytilene  or  of 
Rhodes,  was  a  pupil  of  Theophrastus,  and  lived 
about  B.C.  322.  Epicurus  is  said  to  have  been 
one  of  his  pupils.  Praxiphanes  paid  especial 
attention  to  grammatical  studies,  and  is  hence 
named  along  with  Aristotle  as  the  founder  and 
creator  of  the  science  of  grammar. 

PRAXITELES  (ripaftreA^f),  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished artists  of  ancient  Greece,  was  both 
a  statuary  in  bronze  and  a  sculptor  in  marble. 
We  know  nothing  of  his  personal  history,  ex- 
cept that  he  was  a  citizen,  if  not  a  native,  of 
Athens,  and  that  his  career  as  an  artist  was  in- 
timately connected  with  that  city.  He  prob- 
ably flourished  about  B.C.  364  and  onward. 
Praxiteles  stands,  with  Scopas,  at  the  head  of 
the  later  Attic  school,  so  called  in  contradistinc- 
tion  to  the  earlier  Attic  school  of  Phidias.  With- 
out attempting  those  sublime  impersonations 
of  divine  majesty  in  which  Phidias  had  been  so 
inimitably  successful,  Praxiteles  was  unsur- 
passed in  the  exhibition  of  the  softer  beauties 
of  the  human  form,  especially  in  the  female 
figure.  The  most  celebrated  work  of  Praxit- 
eles was  his  marble  statue  of  Aphrodite  (Ve- 
nus), which  was  distinguished  from  other  stat- 
ues of  the  goddess  by  the  name  of  the  Cnidians, 
who  purchased  it.  It  was  always  esteemed  tl.- 
most  perfectly  beautiful  of  the.  statues  of  the 
goddess.  Manj  made  the  voyage  to  Cnidus  <;> 

705 


PRAXITHEA. 

pressly  to  behold  it.  So  highly  did  the  Cnidi- 
ans  themselves  esteem  their  treasure,  that  when 
King  Nicomedes  offered  them,  as  the  price  of 
it,  to  pay  off  the  whole  of  their  heavy  public 
debt,  they  preferred  to  endure  any  suffering 
rather  than  part  with  the  work  which  gave  their 
city  its  chief  renown.  It  was  afterward  carried 
to  Constantinople,  where  it  perished  by  fire  in 
the  reign  oMustinian.  Praxiteles  modelled  it 
from  a  favorite  courtesan  named  Phryne,  of 
whom  he  also  made  more  than  one  portrait 
statue.  Another  of  the  celebrated  works  of 
Praxiteles  was  his  statue  of  Eros.  It  was  pre- 
served at  Thespiae,  where  it  was  dedicated  by 
Phryne  ;  and  an  interesting  story  is  told  of  the 
manner  in  which  she  became  possessed  of  it. 
Praxiteles  had  promised  to  give  Phryne  which- 
ever of  his  works  she  might  choose,  but  he  was 
unwilling  to  tell  her  which  of  them,  in  his  own 
opinion,  was  the  best.  To  discover  this,  she 
sent  a  slave  to  tell  Praxiteles  that  a  fire  had 
broken  out  in  his  house,  and  that  most  of  his 
works  had  already  perished.  On  hearing  this 
message,  the  artist  rushed  out,  exclaiming  that 
all  his  toil  was  lost  if  the  fire  had  touched  his 
Satyr  or  his  Eros.  Upon  this,  Phryne  confessed 
the  stratagem,  and  chose  the  Eros.  This  statue 
was  removed  to  Rome  by  Caligula,  restored  to 
Thespiae  by  Claudius,  and  carried  back  by  Nero 
to  Rome,  where  it  stood  in  Pliny's  time  in  the 
schools  of  Octavia,  and  it  finally  perished  in  the 
conflagration  of  that  building  in  the  reign  of 
Titus.  Praxiteles  had  two  sons,  who  were 
also  distinguished  sculptors,  Timarchus  and  Ce- 
phisodotus. 

PRAXITHEA  (Upa^idea},  daughter  of  Phrasimus 
and  Diogenla,  was  the  wife  of  Erechtheus,  and 
mother  of  Cecrops,  Pandorus,  Metion,  Orneus, 
Procris,  Creusa,  Chthonia,  and  Orithyia. 

PRECIANI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Pyrenees. 

PRELIUS  LACUS  (now  Lago  di  Castiglione),  a 
lake  in  Etruria,  near  the  coast,  near  the  north- 
ern end  of  which  was  a  small  island. 

[PREMNIS  (Ilp^/mf).     Vid.  PRIMIS.] 

PREPESINTHCS  (UpeTTEaivdof'),  one  of  the  small- 
er Cyclades,  between  Oliaros  and  Siphnos. 

[PREXASPES  (IIp^fdffTrgf).  1.  A  Persian,  held 
in  the  highest  esteem  and  greatly  trusted  by 
Cambyses :  he  was  employed  by  the  latter  to 
make  away  with  his  brother  Smerdis  secretly. 
His  fidelity  was  severely  tested  on  one  occa- 
sion, when  Cambyses,  in  one  of  his  fits  of  phren- 
sy,  shot  the  son  of  Prexaspes  through  the  heart 
with  an  arrow  before  the  eyes  of  his  parent  to 
prove  that  his  hand  was  steady,  and  that  the 
charge  against  him  of  too  great  fondness  for 
wine  was  unfounded.  When  the  false  Smerdis 
usurped  the  throne,  Cambyses  suspected  Prex- 
aspes of  treachery,  but  the  latter  cleared  him- 
self. Subsequently  the  magi  endeavored  to  gain 
Prexaspes  to  their  side,  but  he,  pretending  at  first 
to  favor  their  views  by  denying  the  assassina- 
tion of  Smerdis,  declared  before  the  assembled 
Persians  the  truth,  and  exposed  the  scheme  of 
the  magi,  and  then  threw  himself  from  the  tow- 
er on  which  he  was  standing. — 2.  Son  of  Aspa- 
thines,  one  of  the  naval  commanders  of  Xerxes.] 

PRIAMIDES,  that  is,  a  son  of  Priam,  by  which 
name  Hector,  Paris,  Helenus,  Deiphobus,  and 
the  other  sons  of  Priam  are  frequently  called. 
706 


PRIAPUS. 

PRIAMUS  (Tlpia/nof),  the  famous  king 
at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  He  was  a  son 
of  Laomedon  and  Strymo  or  Placia.  His  orig- 
inal name  is  said  to  have  been  Podarces,  i.  c., 
"  the  swift-footed,"  which  was  changed  into 
Priamus,  "the  ransomed"  (from  irpiafiat),  be- 
cause he  was  the  only  surviving  son  of  Laom- 
edon, and  was  ransomed  by  his  sister  Hesione 
after  he  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Hercules. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  first  married  to  Arisbe, 
the  daughter  of  Merops,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  ^Esacus ;  but  afterward  he  gave 
up  Arisbe  to  Hyrtacus,  and  married  Hecuba,  by 
whom  he  had  the  following  children :  Hector, 
Alexander  or  Paris,  De'iphobus,  Helenus,  Pam- 
mon,  Polites,  Antiphus,  Hipponous,  Polydorus, 
TroTlus,  Creusa,  Laodice,  Polyxena,  and  Cas- 
sandra. By  other  women  he  had  a  great  many 
children,  besides.  According  to  the  Homeric 
tradition,  he  was  the  father  of  fifty  sons,  nine- 
teen of  whom  were  children  of  Hecuba,  to  whom 
others  add  an  equal  number  of  daughters.  In 
the  earlier  part  of  his  reign  Priam  is  said  to 
have  supported  the  Phrygians  in  thoir  war 
against  the  Amazons.  When  the  Greeks  land- 
ed on  the  Trojan  coast  Priam  was  already  ad- 
vanced in  years,  and  took  no  active  part  in  vhe 
war.  Once  only  did  he  venture  upon  the  field 
of  battle,  to  conclude  the  agreement  respecting 
the  single  combat  between  Paris  and  Menelaus. 
After  the  death  of  Hector,  Priam,  accompanied 
by  Mercury  (Hermes),  went  to  the  tent  of  Achil- 
les to  ransom  his  son's  body  for  burial,  and  ob- 
tained it.  His  death  is  not  mentioned  by  Ho- 
mer, but  is  related  by  later  poets.  When  the 
Greeks  entered  Troy,  the  aged  king  put  on  his 
armor,  and  was  on  the  point  of  rushing  against 
the  enemy,  but  he  was  prevailed  on  by  Hecuba 
to  take  refuge  with  herself  and  her  daughters 
as  a  suppliant  at  the  altar  of  Jupiter  (Zeus). 
While  he  was  tarrying  in  the  temple,  his  son 
Polites,  pursued  by  Pyrrhus,  rushed  into  the 
sacred  spot,  and  expired  at  the  feet  of  his  fa- 
ther, whereupon  Priam,  overcome  with  indig- 
nation, hurled  his  spear  with  feeble  hand  against 
•  Pyrrhus,  but  was  forthwith  killed  by  the  latter. 
Virgil  mentions  (jEn.,  v.,  564)  another  Priam, 
a  son  of  Polites,  and  a  grandson  of  King  Priam. 

PRIANSUS  (Tlptavaof  :  Hpidvcioe,  IlpiavaiEvc), 
a  town  in  Crete,  on  the  southern  coast,  south  of 
Lyctus,  confounded  by  Strabo  with  Praesus. 

PRIAPUS  (II/)/a7rof),  son  of  Bacchus  (Diony- 
sus) and  Venus  (Aphrodite).  It  is  said  that  Ve- 
nus (Aphrodite),  who  was  in  love  with  Bacchus 
(Dionysus),  went  to  meet  the  god  on  bis  return 
from  India,  but  soon  abandoned  him,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Lampsacus  on  the  Hellespont  to  give 
birth  to  the  child  of  the  god.  Juno  (Hera),  who 
was  dissatisfied  with  her  conduct,  caused  her 
to  give  birth  to  a  child  of  extreme  ugliness,  who 
was  named  Priapus.  The  earliest  Greek  poets, 
such  as  Homer  and  Hesiod,  do  not  mention  this 
divinity,  and  it  was  only  in  later  times  that  he 
was  honored  with  divine  worship.  He  was  wor- 
shipped more  especially  at  Lampsacus  on  the 
Hellespont,  whence  he  is  sometimes  called  Hel- 
lespontiacus.  He  was  regtrded  as  the  promoter 
of  fertility  both  in  vegetation  and  in  all  animals 
connected  with  an  agricultural  life  ;  and  in  this 
capacity  he  was  worshipped  as  the  protector  of 
flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  of  bees,  of  the  vine,  ol 


PRIAPUS. 

all  garden  produce,  and  even  of  fishing.  Like 
other  divinities  presiding  over  agricultural  pur- 
suits, he  was  believed  to  be  possessed  of  pro- 
phetic powers,  and  is  sometimes  mentioned  in 
the  plural  As  Priapus  had  many  attributes  in 
common  with  other  gods  of  fertility,  the  Orphics 
identified  him  with  their  mystic  Bacchus  (Dio- 
qygus),  Mercury  (Hermes),  Helios,  &c.  The 
Attic  legends  connect  Priapus  with  such  sens- 
ual and  licentious  beings  as  Conisalus,  Orthanes, 
and  Tychon.  In  like  manner,  he  was  confound- 
ed by  the  Italians  with!  Mutunus  or  Muttunus, 
the  personification  of  the  fructifying  power  in 
nature.  The  sacrifices  offered  to  him  consist- 
ed of  the  first-fruits  of  gardens,  vineyards,  and 
fields,  of  milk,  hone}*,  cakes,  rams,  asses,  and 
fishes.  He  was  represented  in  carved  images, 
mostly  in  the  form  of  hermae,  carrying  fruit  in 
his  garment,  and  either  a  sickle  or  cornucopia 
in  his  hand.  The  hermae  of  Priapus  in  Italy, 
like  those  of  other  rustic  divinities,  were  usu- 
ally painted  red,  whence  the  god  is  called  ruber 
or  rubicundus. 

PRIAPUS  (IIpta;rof,  Ion.  Tlpir)iro<;  :  Hpiairrivof : 
ruins  at  Ka.ra.boa).  1.-  A  city  of  Mysia,  on  the 
Propontis,  east  of  Parium,  with  a  small  but  ex- 
cellent harbor.  It  was  a  colony  of  the  Mile- 
sians, and  a  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  PRIA- 
PUS. The  surrounding  district  was  called  PRIA- 
PIS  (IIpmTn'f)  and  PRIAPENE  (Tlpianr]v^). — [2.  A 
small  island  of  the  JCgean  Sea,  near  Ephesus.] 
PRIENE  (Hptijvri :  Hpiijvevf,  Hptr/i/ios  :  Prien- 
eus,  pi.  Prienenses  :  ruins  at  Samsun),  one  of 
the  twelve  Ionian  cities  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, stood  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  Caria, 
at  the  southern  foot  of  Mount  Mycale,  and  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  Sinus  Latmicus.  Its 
foundation  was  ascribed  mythically  to  the  Ne- 
leid  jEpytus,  in  conjunction  with  Cadmeans, 
from  whom  it  was  also  called  KadjUi?.  It  stood 
originally  on  the  sea-shore,  and  had  two  har- 
bors and  a  small  fleet,  but  the  change  in  the 
coast  by  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Maeander 
left  it  some  distance  inland.  It  was  of  much 
religious  importance  in  connection  with  the  Pa- 
nionian  festival  on  Mount  Mycale,  at  which  the 
people  of  Priene  took  precedence  in  virtue  of 
their  being  the  supposed  descendants  of  those 
of  Helice  in  Greece  Proper.  The  city  was  also 
celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  BIAS. 

PRIFERNUM,  a  town  of  the  Vestini,  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Central  Italy. 

[PRILIS  LACUS,  called  by  Cicero  LACUS  PRE- 
i.iU3  (now  Lago  di  Casliglione),  a  lake  of  Etru- 
ria,  near  the  city  of  Ruscllae,  and  just  above  the 
River  Urnbro  (now  Ombrone).] 

[PRIMIS  or  PREMNIS  (Uplpif  or  Tlpijfivif).  1. 
Called  Magna,  to  distinguish  it  from  No.  2,  sit- 
uated near  the  junction  of  the  Astaboras  with 
the  Nile,  immediately  north  of  the  island  of 
Meroe.— 2.  (Now  Ibrccm,  with  Egyptian  and  Ro- 
man ruins),  on  the  Nile,  further  down  than  No. 
1,  occupied  as  a  frontier  post  by  the  Romans.] 
PRIMUS,  M.  ANTONIUS,  a  native  of  Tolosa  in 
Gaul,  was  condemned  of  forgery  (falsum)  in  the 
reign  of  Nero,  was  expelled  the  senate,  of  which 
ho  was  a  member,  and  was  banished  from  the 
city.  After  the  death  of  Nero  (68),  he  was  re- 
stored to  his  former  rank  by  Galba,  and  appoint- 
ed to  the  command  of  the  seventh  legion,  which 
was  stationed  in  Pannonia.  He  was  one  of  the 


PRISOUS. 

first  generals  in  Europe  who  declared  in  tavor 
of  Vespasian,  and  he  rendered  him  the  most  im- 
portant services.  In  conjunction  with  the  gov- 
ernors of  Moesia  and  Pannonia,  he  invaded  It- 
aly, gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Vitellian 
army  at  Bedriacum,  and  took  Cremona,  which 
he  allowed  his  soldiers  to  pillage  and  destroy. 
He  afterward  forced  his  way  into  Rome,  not- 
withstanding the  obstinate  resistance  of  the  Vi- 
tellian troops,  and  had  the  government  of  the 
city  till  the  arrival  of  Muciantis  from  Syria.  Vid. 
MUCIANUS,  No.  2.  We  learn  from  Martial,  who 
was  a  friend  of  Antonius  Primus,  that  he  was 
alive  at  the  accession  of  Trajan. 

PRISCIANUS,  a  Roman  grammarian,  surnamed 
Ctzsariensis,  either  because  he  was  born  at  Caes- 
area,  or  educated  there.  He  flourished  about 
A.D.  4f>0,  and  taught  grammar  at  Constantino- 
ple. He  was  celebrated  for  the  extent  and 
depth  of  his  grammatical  knowledge,  of  wMch 
he  has  left  the  evidence  in  his  work  on  the  sub- 
ject, entitled  Commentariorum  grammalicorum 
Libri  XVIII.,  addressed  to  his  friend  and  pa- 
tron, the  consul  Julianus.  Other  titles  are,  how- 
ever, frequently  given  to  it.  The  first  sixteen 
books  treat  of  the  eight  parts  of  speech  rec- 
ognized by  the  ancient  grammarians,  letters, 
syllables,  &c.  The  last  two  books  are  on  syn- 
tax. This  treatise  soon  became  the  standard 
work  on  Latin  grammar,  and  in  the  epitome  of 
Rabanus  Maurus  obtained  an  extensive  circu- 
lation. The  other  works  of  Priscianus  still  ex- 
tant are,  1.  A  grammatical  catechism  on  twelve 
lines  of  the  Jfeneid,  manifestly  intended  as  a 
school  book.  2.  A  treatise  on  accents.  3.  A 
treatise  on  the  symbols  used  to  denote  numbers 
and  weights,  and  on  coins  and  numbers.  4.  On 
the  metres  of  Terence.  5.  A  translation  of  the 
ripoyv/ii>u(j//ara  (Praexcrcitamenta)  of  Hermoge- 
nes.  6.  On  the  declensions  of  nouns.  7.  A 
poem  on  the  Emperor  Anastasius,  in  three  hund- 
red and  twelve  hexameters,  with  a  preface  in 
twenty-two  iambic  lines.  8.  A  piece  De  Pon- 
deribus  et  Mcnsuris,  in  verse.  9.  An  Epitome 
phenomenon,  or  De  Sideribus,  in  verse.  10.  A 
free  translation  of  the  Periegesis  of  Dionysius, 
in  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
lines,  manifestly  made  for  the  instruction  of 
youth.  11.  A  couple  of  epigrams.  The  best 
edition  of  Priscianus  is  by  Krehl,  Dps.,  1819- 
20,  2  vols.  8vo. 

PRISCIANUS,  THEODORUS,  a  physician,  and  a 
pupil  of  Vindicianus,  lived  in  the  fourth  century 
after  Christ.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  at 
the  court  of  Constantinople,  and  to  have  attain- 
ed the  dignity  of  Archiater.  He  is  the  author 
of  a  Latin  work,  entitled  Kerum  Mcdicarum  Li- 
bri Quatuor,  published  in  1532,  both  at  Strasburg 
and  at  Basel. 

PRISCUS  (TlploKOf),  a  Byzantine  historian,  was 
a  native  of  Panium  in  Thrace,  and  was  one 
of  the  ambassadors  sent  by  Theodosius  the 
Younger  to  Attila,  A.D.  445.  He  died  about 
471.  Priscus  wrote  an  account  of  his  embassy 
to  Attila,  enriched  bv  digressions  on  the  life  and 
reign  of  that  king.  rl  he  work  was  in  eight  books, 
but  only  fragments  of  it  have  come  down  to  us 
Prisms  was  an  excellent  and  trustworthy  his- 
torian, and  his  style  was  remarkably  elegant 
and  pure.  The  fragments  are  published,  with 
those  of  Dcxippus  and  others,  by  Bekkcr  and 

707 


PRISCUS,  HELVIDIUS. 

Niebuhr,  in  the  Bonn  Collection  of  the  Byzan- 
tines, 1829,  8vo. 

PRISCUS,  HELVIDIUS,  son-in-law  of  Thrasea 
Paetus,  and,  like  him,  distinguished  by  his  love 
of  virtue,  philosophy,  and  liberty.  He  was  quaes- 
tor in  Achaia  during  the  reign  of  Nero,  and  trib- 
une of  the  plebs  A.D.  56.  When  Thrasea  was 
put  to  death  by  Nero  (66),  Priscus  was  banish- 
ed from  Italy.  He  was  recalled  to  Rome  by 
Galha  (68),  but  in  consequence  of  his  freedom 
of  speech  and  love  of  independence,  he  was 
again  banished  by  Vespasian,  and  was  shortly 
afterward  put  to  death  by  order  of  this  emperor. 
His  life  was  written  by  Herennius  Senecio  at 
the  request  of  his  widow  Fannia  ;  and  the  ty- 
rant Dpmitian,  in  consequence  of  this  work, 
subsequently  put  Senecio  to  death,  and  sent 
Fannia  into  exile.  Priscus  left  a  son,  Helvid- 
ius,  who  was  put  to  death  by  Domitian. 

PRISCUS,  SERVILIUS.  The  Prisci  were  an  an- 
cient family  of  the  Servilia  gens,  and  filled  the 
highest  offices  of  the  state  during  the  early  years 
of  the  republic.  They  also  bore  the  agnomen 
of  Structus,  which  is  always  appended  to  their 
name  in  the  East,  till  it  was  supplanted  by  that 
of  Fidenas,  which  was  first  obtained  by  Q.  Ser- 
vilius  Priscus  Structus,  who  took  Fidenae  in  his 
dictatorship,  B.C.  435,  and  which  was  also  borne 
*>y  his  descendants. 

PRISCCS,  TARQUINIUS.     Vid.  TARQUINIDS. 

PRIVERNUM  (Privernas,  -atis  :  now  Piper-no), 
an  ancient  town  of  Latium,  on  the  River  Ama- 
senus,  belonged  to  the  Volscians  It  was  con- 
quered by  the  Romans  at  an  early  period,  and 
was  subsequently  made  a  colony. 

[PRIVERNUS,  a  Rutulian  warrior  under  Tur- 
nus,  slain  by  Capys  ] 

PRO^ERESIUS  (llpoaiptaios ),  a  teacher  of  rhet- 
oric, was  a  native  of  Armenia,  and  was  born 
about  A.D.  276.  He  first  studied  at  Antioch 
under  Ulpian,  and  afterward  at  Athens  under 
Julianus.  He  became  at  a  later  time  the  chief 
teacher  of  rhetoric  at  Athens,  and  enjoyed  a 
very  high  reputation.  He  died  in  368,  in  his 
ninety-second  year. 

[PROBA,  FALCONIA,  a  poetess,  greatly  admired 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  whose  real  name  and 
.the  place  of  whose  nativity  are  uncertain.  Her 
only  production  now  extant,  a  Cento  Virgilia- 
nus,  contains  narratives  in  hexameter  verse  of 
striking  events  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
expressed  in  lines  and  portions  of  lines  derived 
from  the  poems  of  Virgil.  The  best  editions 
of  the  Cento  Virgilianus  are  by  Meibomius, 
Helmst.,  4to,  1597 ;  and  of  Kromayer,  Hal. 
Magd.,  8vo,  1719.] 

PROBALINTHUS  (llpoSuTiivdof  :  Ilpofia/U'ffiOf),  a 
demus  in  Attica,  south  of  Marathon,  belonging 
to  the  tribe  Pandionis. 

PROBATIA  (Ilpofiarta),  a  river  of  Boaotia.which, 
after  passing  through  the  territory  of  Trachin, 
and  receiving  its  tributary  the  Hercyna,  flowed 
into  the  Lake  Copais. 

PROBUS,  JEMILIUS.     Vid.  NEPOS,  CORNELIUS. 

PROBOS,  M.  AURELIUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D. 
276-282,  was  a  native  of  Sirmium  in  Pannonia, 
and  rose  to  distinction  by  his  military  abilities. 
He  was  appointed  by  the  Emperor  Tacitus  gov- 
ernor of  the  whole  East,  and,  upon  the  death 
of  that  sovereign,  the  purple  was  forced  upon 
his  acceptance  by  the  armies  of  Syria.  The 
708 


PROCLUS. 

downfall  of  Florianus  speedily  removed  his  onlj 
rival  (vid.  FLORIANUS),  and  he  was  enthusiastic- 
ally hailed  by  the  united  voice  of  the  senate, 
the  people,  and  the  legions.  The  reign  of  Pro- 
bus  presents  a  series  of  the  most  brilliant 
achievements.  He  defeated  the  barbarians  on 
the  frontiers  of  Gaul  and  Illyricum,  and  in  oth- 
er parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  put  down 
the  rebellions  of  Saturninus  at  Alexandrea,  and 
of  Proculus  and  Bonosus  in  Gaul.  But,  after 
crushing  all  external  and  internal  foes,  he  was 
killed  at  Sirmium  by  his  own  soldiers,  who  had 
risen  in  mutiny  against  him  because  he  had  em- 
ployed them  in  laborious  public  works.  Probus 
was  as  just  and  virtuous  as  he  was  warlike,  and 
is  deservedly  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
and  best  of  the  Roman  emperors. 

PHOBUS,  VALERIUS.  1.  Of  Berytus,  a  Roman 
grammarian,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Nero.  To 
this  Probus  we  may  assign  those  annotations 
on  Terence,  from  which  fragments  are  quoted 
in  the  scholia  on  the  dramatist. — 2.  A  Roman 
grammarian,  flourished  some  years  before  A. 
Gellius,  and  therefore  about  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century.  He  was  the  author  of  com- 
mentaries on  Virgil,  and  possessed  a  copy  of  a 
portion,  at  least,  of  the  Georgics,  which  had 
been  corrected  by  the  hand  of  the  poet  himself. 
These  are  the  commentaries  so  frequently  cited 
by  Servius  ;  but  the  Scholia  in  Bucolica  et  Geor- 
gica,  now  extant  under  the  name  of  Probus,  be- 
long to  a  much  later  period.  This  Probus  was 
probably  the  author  of  the  life  of  Persius,  com- 
monly ascribed  to  Suetonius.  There  is  extant 
a  work  upon  grammar,  in  two  books,  entitled 
M.  Valerii  Probi  Grammatica  Institutiones ;  but 
this  work  was  probably  not  written  by  either  of 
the  preceding  grammarians.  It  is  published  in 
the  collections  of  Putschius,  Hannov.,  1605,  and 
of  Lindemann,  Lips.,  1831. 

PROCAS,  one  of  the  fabulous  kings  of  Alba 
Longa,  succeeded  Aventinus,  and  reigned  twen 
ty-three  years :  he  was  the  father  of  Numitor 
and  Amulius. 

PROCHYTA  (now  Procida),  an  island  off  the 
coast  of  Campania,  near  the  promontory  Mise- 
num,  is  said  to  have  been  torn  away  by  an 
earthquake  either  from  this  promontory  or  from 
the  neighboring  island  of  Pithecusa  or  ^Enaria 

[PROCILLA,  JULIA,  the  mother  of  Agricola.] 

[PROCILLIUS,  a  Roman  historian,  a  contem- 
porary of  Cicero.  He  appears  to  have  written 
on  early  Roman  history,  as  Varro  quotes  his 
account  of  the  origin  of  the  Curtian  Lake,  as  well 
as  on  the  later  history,  as  he  mentions  Pom- 
pey's  triumph  on  his  return  from  Africa.] 

PROCLES  (Hpo/cA^c)  1.  One  of  the  twin  sons 
of  Aristodemus.  For  details,  vid.  EURYSTHENES. 
— [2.  Tyrant  of  Epidaurus,  the  father  of  Lysis 
or  Melissa,  the  wife  of  Periander.  Having  re- 
vealed to  the  son  of  the  latter  the  secret  of  his 
mother's  death  (vid.  PERIANDER),  he  incurred 
the  implacable  resentment  of  Periander,  who 
attacked  and  captured  Epidaurus,  and  took  Pro- 
cles  prisoner] 

PROCLUS  (npo/tAoc).  1.  Surnamed  Diadcchut 
(Amtfofof),  the  successor,  from  his  being  regard- 
ed as  the  genuine  successor  of  Plato  in  doc- 
trine, was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  teachers 
of  the  Neo-Platonic  school.  He  was  born  at  By- 
zantium A.D.  412,  )ut  was  brought  up  at  Xan 


PROCLUS. 

>hus  in  Lycia,  to  which  city  his  parents  belonged, 
and  which  Proclus  himself  regarded  as  his  na- 
tive place.  He  studied  at  Alexandrea  under 
Olympiodorus,  and  afterward  at  Athens  under 
Plutarchus  and  Syrianus.  At  an  early  age  his 
philosophical  attainments  attracted  the  attention 
and  admiration  of  his  contemporaries.  He  had 
written  his  commentary  on  the  Timaeus  of  Pla- 
to, as  well  as  many  other  treatises,  by  his  twen- 
ty-eighth year.  On  the  death  of  Syrianus,  Pro- 
clus succeeded  him  in  his  school,  and  inherited 
from  him  the  house  in  which  he  resided  and 
taught.  Marinus,  in  his  life  of  Proclus,  records, 
with  intense  admiration,  the  perfection  to  which 
his  master  attained  in  all  virtues.  The  highest 
of  these  virtues  were,  in  the  estimation  of  Ma- 
rinus, those  of  a  purifying  and  ascetic  kind. 
From  animal  food  he  almost  totally  abstained  ; 
fasts  and  vigils  he  observed  with  scrupulous 
exactitude.  The  reverence  with  which  he  hon- 
ored the  sun  and  moon  would  seem  to  have 
been  unbounded.  He  celebrated  all  the  import- 
ant religious  festivals  of  every  nation,  himself 
composing  hymns  in  honor,  not  only  of  Grecian 
deities,  but  of  those  of  other  nations  also.  Nor 
were  departed  heroes  and  philosophers  except- 
ed  from  this  religious  veneration  ;  and  he  even 
performed  sacred  rites  in  honor  of  the  departed 
spirits  of  the  entire  human  race.  It  was,  of 
course,  not  surprising  that  such  a  man  should 
be  favored  with  various  apparitions  and  mirac- 
ulous interpositions  of  the  gods.  He  used  to 
tell  how  a  god  had  once  appeared  and  proclaimed 
to  him  the  glory  of  the  city.  Bat  the  still  higher 
grade  of  what,  in  the  language  of  the  school, 
was  termed  the  theurgic  virtue,  he  attained  by 
his  profound  meditations  on  the  oracles,  and  the 
Orphic  and  Chaldaic  mysteries,  into  the  pro- 
found secrets  of  which  he  was  initiated  by  As- 
clepigenia,  the  daughter  of  Plutarchus,  who 
alone  was  in  complete  possession  of  the  theur- 
gic knowledge  and  discipline,  which  had  de- 
scended to  her  from  the  great  Nestorius.  He 
profited  so  much  by  her  instructions  as  to  be 
able,  according  to  Marinus,  to  call  down  rain  in 
a  time  of  drought,  to  stop  an  earthquake,  and 
to  procure  the  immediate  intervention  of /Es- 
culapius  to  cure  the  daughter  of  his  friend 
Archiadas.  Proclus  died  A.D.  485.  During  the 
last  five  years  of  his  life  he  had  become  super- 
annuated, his  strength  having  been  exhausted 
by  his  fastings  and  other  ascetic  practices.  As 
a  philosopher,  Proclus  enjoyed  the  highest  ce- 
lebrity among  his  contemporaries  and  success- 
ors ;  but  his  philosophical  system  is  character- 
ized by  vagueness,  mysticism,  and  want  of  good 
sense.  He  professed  that  his  design  was  not 
to  bring  forward  views  of  his  own,  but  simply 
to  expound  Plato,  in  doing  which  he  proceeded 
on  the  idea  that  every  thing  in  Plato  must  be 
brought  into  accordance  with  the  mystical  the- 
ology of  Orpheus.  He  wrote  a  separate  work 
on  the  coincidence  of  the  doctrines  of  Orpheus, 
Pythagoras,  and  Plato.  It  was  much  in  the 
same  spirit  that  he  attempted  to  blend  together 
the  logical  method  of  Aristotle  and  the  fanciful 
speculations  of  Neo- Platonic  mysticism.  Sev- 
eral of  the  works  of  Proclus  are  still  extant. 
The  most  important  of  them  consist  of  Com- 
mentaries on  Plato,  a  treatise  on  various  theo- 
logical and  philosophical  subjects.  There  is  no 


PROCOPIUS. 

complete  edition  of  Proclus.  The  edition  of 
Cousin  (Paris,  6  vols.  8vo,  1820-1827)  contains 
the  following  treatises  of  Proclus :  On  Provi- 
dence and  Fate  ;  On  Ten  Doubts  about  Provi- 
dence ;  On  the  Nature  of  Evil;  a  Commentary 
on  the  Alcibiades,  and  a  Commentary  on  the 
Parmenides.  The  other  principal  works  of  Pro- 
clus are  :  On  the  Theology  of  Plato,  in  six 
books  ;  Theological  Elements  ;  a  Commentary 
on  the  Timaeus  of  Plato  ;  five  Hymns  of  an 
Orphic  character.  Several  of  these  have  been 
translated  into  English  by  Thomas  Taylor. 
Proclus  was  also  a  distinguished  mathematician 
and  grammarian.  His  Commentaries  on  the 
first  book  of  Euclid,  and  on  the  Works  and  Days 
of  Hesiod,  are  still  extant. — [2.  EUTYCHIUS,  a 
grammarian,  who  flourished  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, born  at  Sicca,  in  Africa.  He  was  the  in- 
structor of  M.  Antoninus,  and  is  called  the  most 
learned  grammarian  of  his  age.] 

PROCNE  (ttpoKnj/),  daughter  of  King  Pandion 
of  Athens,  and  wife  of  Tereus.  Her  story  is 
given  under  TEREUS. 

PROCONNESUS  ( flpoKowTjooc <  or  NpoiKovvriaof, 
i.  e.,  Fawn  Island,  now  Marmara),  an  island  of 
the  Propontis  (now  Sea  of  Marmara),  which 
takes  from  it  its  modern  name,  offUie  northern 
coast  of  Mysia,  northwest  of  the  peninsula  of 
Cyzicus  or  Dolionis.  The  latter  was  also  called 
Proconnesus  from  npot;  (fawn),  because  it  was 
a  favorite  resort  of  deer  in  the  fawning  season, 
whence  it  was  also  called  ELAPHONNESUS  ('EAa 
Qovvriaof,  i.  e.,  deer-island) ;  and  the  two  were 
distinguished  by  the  names  of  Old  and  New 
Proconnesus.  The  island  was  celebrated  for 
its  marble,  and  hence  its  modern  name.  It 
was  the  native  place  of  the  poet  ARISTEAS. 

PKOCOPIUS  (UpoKOTTtos).  1.  A  native  of  Cili- 
cia,  and  a  relative  of  the  Emperor  Julian,  served 
with  distinction  under  Constantius  II.  and  JIK 
lian.  Having  incurred  the  suspicions  of  Jovian 
and  of  his  successor  Valens,  Procopius  remain 
ed  in  concealment  for  about  two  years  ;  but  in 
i  A.D.  365  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Con- 
stantinople, while  Valens  was  staying  at  Caesa- 
rea  in  Cappadocia.  Both  parties  prepared  for 
war.  In  the  following  year  (366)  the  forces  o- 
Procopius  were  defeated  in  two  great  battles. 
Procopius  himself  was  taken  prisoner,  and  put 
to  death  by  order  of  Valens.  — 2.  An  eminent 
Byzantine  historian,  was  born  at  Caesarea,  in 
Palestine,  about  A.D.  500.  He  went  to  Con- 
stantinople when  still  a  young  man,  and  there 
obtained  so  much  distinction  as  an  advocate 
and  a  professor  of  eloquence,  that  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  Belisarius,  who  appointed  him 
his  secretary  in  527.  In  this  capacity  Proco- 
pius accompanied  the  great  hero  on  his  differ- 
ent wars  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Italy,  being  fre 
quently  employed  in  state  business  of  import- 
ance, or  in  conducting  military  expeditions. 
Procopius  returned  with  Belisarius  to  Constan- 
tinople a  little  before  542.  His  eminent  talents 
were  appreciated  by  the  Emperor  Justinian, 
who  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  illustris, 
made  him  a  senator,  and  in  562  created  him 
prefect  of  Constantinople.  Procopius  died  about 
the  same  time  as  Justinian,  565.  As  an  histo- 
rian, Procopius  deserves  great  praise.  His 
style  is  good,  formed  upon  classic  models,  often 
elegant,  and  generally  full  of  vigor.  His  works 

709 


PROCRIS. 

are:  1.  Histories  ('laropiat),  in  eight  books; 
viz.,  two  On  the  Persian  War,  containing  the 
period  from  408-553,  and  treating  more  fully 
of  the  author's  own  times ;  two  On  the  War 
with  the  Vandals,  395-545 ;  four  On  the  Gothic 
War,  or,  properly  speaking,  only  three  hooks, 
'he  fourth  (eighth)  being  a  sort  of  supplement 
containing  various  matters,  and  going  down  to 
the  beginning  of  553.  It  was  continued  by 
Agathias  till  559.  The  work  is  extremely  in- 
teresting ;  the  descriptions  of  the  habits,  &c., 
of  the  barbarians  are  faithful,  and  done  in  a 
masterly  style.  2.  On  the  Public  Buildings  erect- 
ed by  Justinian  (Kria^ara),  in  six  books.  A 
work  equally  interesting  and  valuable  in  its 
kind,  though  apparently  too  much  seasoned 
with  flattery  of  the  emperor.  3.  Anecdota  ('Av- 
£«(5ora),  a  collection  of  anecdotes,  some  of  them 
witty  and  pleasant,  but  others  most  indecent, 
reflecting  upon  Justinian,  the  Empress  Theo- 
dora, Belisarius,  and  other  eminent  persons. 
It  is  a  complete  Chronique  Scandaleuse  of  the 
court  of  Constantinople,  from  549  till  562.  4. 
Oratiimes,  probably  extracts  from  the  "  Histo- 
ry," which  is  rather  overstocked  with  harangues 
and  speeches.  The  best  edition  of  the  collect- 
ed works  of  Procopius  is  by  Dindorf,  Bonn,  3 
vols.  8vo,  1833-1838  ;  [the  best  edition  of  the 
Anecdota  is  by  Orelli,  Lipsiae,  1827,  8vo.] 

PROCRIS  (UpoKpif),  daughter  of  Erechtheus 
and  wife  of  Cephalus.  For  details,  vid.  CEPH- 
ALUS. 

PROCRUSTES  (  UpoKpovarijf  ),  that  is,  "  the 
Stretcher,"  a  surname  of  the  famous  robber 
Polypemon  or  Damastes.  He  used  to  tie  all 
travellers  who  fell  into  his  hands  upon  a  bed  : 
if  they  were  shorter  than  the  bed,  he  stretched 
their  limbs  till  they  were  of  the  same  length  ; 
if  they  were  longer  than  the  bed,  he  made  them 
of  the  same  size  by  cutting  off  some  of  their 
limbs.  He  was  slain  by  Theseus,  on  the  Ce- 
phisus,  in  Attica.  The  bed  of  Procrustes  is 
used  proverbially  even  at  the  present  day. 

PROCULEIUS,  C.,  a  Roman  eques,  one  of  the 
friends  of  Augustus,  was  sent  by  the  latter,  after 
the  victory  at  Actium,  to  Antony  and  Cleopa- 
tra. It  is  of  this  Proculeius  that  Horace  speaks 
(Carm.,  ii.,  2).  He  is  said  to  have  divided  his 
property  with  his  brothers  (perhaps  cousins) 
Caepio  and  Murena,  who  had  lost  their  property 
in  the  civil  wars.  Proculeius  put  an  end  to  his 
life  by  taking  gypsum,  when  suffering  from  a 
disease  in  the  stomach. 

PROCULUS,  the  jurist,  was  the  contemporary 
of  the  jurist  Nerva  the  younger,  who  was  prob- 
ably the  father  of  the  Emperor  Nerva.  The 
fact  that  Proculus  gave  his  name  to  the  school 
or  sect  (Proculiani  or  Proculciani,  as  the  name 
is  also  written)  which  was  opposed  to  that  of 
the  Sabiniani,  shows  that  he  was  a  jurist  of 
note.  Proculus  is  often  ci>ed,  and  there  are 
thirty-seven  extracts  from  him  in  the  Digest 
from  his  eight  books  of  Epistolae.  He  appears 
to  have  written  notes  on  Labeo.  Some  writers 
suppose  that  Proculus  is  the  Licinius  Proculus 
who  was  Praefectus  Praetorio  under  Otho. 

PROCULUS,  JULIUS,  a  Roman  senator,  is  said, 
in  the  legend  of  Romulus,  to  have  informed  the 
sorrowing  Roman  people,  after  the  strange  de 
parture  of  their  king  from  the  world,  that  Rom- 
ulus had  descended  from  heaven  and  appear- 
710 


PRCETUS. 

ed  to  him,  bidding  him  tell  the  people  to  honor 
liim  in  future  as  a  god  under  the  name  of  Quiri- 
nus. 

PRODICUS  (IlpocJt/fOf),  the  celebrated  sophist, 
was  a  native  of  lulis,  in  the  island  of  Ceoe. 
He  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 
and  subsequently  ;  but  the  date  can  not  be  de- 
termined either  of  his  birth  or  of  his  death. 
Prodicus  came  frequently  to  Athens  on  the  pub- 
lic business  of  his  native  city.  He  was  brought 
forward  in  the  Ctvuds  and  the  Birds  of  Aris- 
tophanes, which  belong  respectively  to  B.C  423 
and  414.  Prodicus  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
teachers  of  Isocrates,  and  he  was  alive  at  the 
time  of  the  death  of  Socrates  (399).  Suidas- 
relates  that  Prodicus  was  put  to  death  by  the 
Athenians  as  a  corrupter  of  the  youth,  but  this 
statement  sounds  very  suspicious.  He  is  men- 
tioned both  by  Plato  and  Xenophon  with  more, 
respect  than  the  other  sophists.  Like  Protago- 
ras and  others,  he  travelled  through  Greece,  de- 
livering lectures  for  money,  and  in  this  way  he 
amassed  a  large  fortune.  He  paid  especial  at- 
tention to  the  correct  use  of  words.  We  have 
the  substance  of  one  of  his  lectures  preserved 
by  Xenophon  in  the  well-known  fable  called 
"  The  choice  of  Hercules."  When  Hercules, 
as  he  entered  upon  manhood,  was  upon  the 
point  of  choosing  between  virtue  and  vice,  there 
appeared  to  him  two  women,  the  one  of  digni- 
fied beauty,  adorned  with  purity,  modesty,  and 
discretion,  the  other  of  a  voluptuous  form,  and 
meretricious  look  and  dress.  The  latter  prom- 
ised to  lead  him  by  the  shortest  road,  without 
any  toil,  to  the  enjoyment  of  every  pleasure. 
The  other,  while  she  reminded  him  of  his  an- 
cestors and  his  noble  nature,  did  not  conceal 
from  him  that  the  gods  have  granted  nothing 
really  beautiful  and  good  without  toil  and  laboi. 
The  former  sought  to  deter  him  from  the  path 
of  virtue  by  urging  its  difficulties ;  the  lattei 
impressed  upon  him  the  emptiness  of  pleasure: 
and  the  honor  and  happiness  flowing  from  a  life 
of  virtue.  Thereupon  Hercules  decided  in  fa- 
vor of  virtue. 

PROERNA  (Upospva),  a  town  of  Thessaly,  in 
the  western  part  of  the  district  of  Phthiotis,  on 
the  western  slope  of  Mount  Narthacius,  and 
near  the  sources  of  the  Apidanus. 
PRCETIDES.  Vid.  PROSTUS. 
PRCETUS  (Hpotrof),  son  of  Abas  and  Ocalea, 
and  twin-brother  of  Acrisius.  In  the  dispute 
between  the  two  brothers  for  the  kingdom  of 
Argos,  Pratus  was  expelled,  whereupon  he 
fled  to  lobates,  in  Lycia,  and  married  Antea  or 
Sthenebcea,  the  daughter  of  the  latter.  With 
the  assistance  of  lobates,  Pratus  was  restored 
to  his  kingdom,  and  took  Tiryns,  which  was 
now  fortified  by  the  Cyclopes.  Acrisius  then 
shared  his  kingdom  with  his  brother,  surrender- 
ing to  him  Tiryns,  Midea,  and  the  coast  of  Ar- 
golis.  By  his  wife,  Pratus  became  the  father 
of  three  daughters,  Lysippe,  Iphinoe,  and  Iphi- 
anassa,  who  are 'often  mentioned  under  the  gen- 
eral name  of  PROSTIDES.  When  these  daugh- 
ters arrived  at  the  age  of  maturity,  they  were 
stricken  with  madness,  the  cause  of  which  is 
differently  related.  Some  say  that  it  was  a 
punishment  inflicted  upon  them  by  Bacchus 
(Dionysus)  because  they  had  despised  his  wor- 
ship ;  others  relate  that  they  were  driven  mad 


PROMACHUS. 


PROMETHEUS. 


by  Juno  (Hera)  because  they  presumes  to  con- 
sider themselves  more  handsome  than  ;he  god- 
dess, or  because  they  had  stolen  some  of  the 
gold  of  her  statue.  The  phrensy  spread  to  the 
other  women  of  Argos ;  till  at  length  Proetus 
agreed  to  divide  his  kingdom  between  Melam- 
pus  and  his  brother  Bias,  upon  the  former  prom- 
ising that  he  would  cure  the  women  of  their 
madness.  Melampus  then  chose  the  most  re- 
bust  among  the  young  men,  gave  chase  to  the 
mad  women,  amid  shouting  and  dancing,  and 
drove  them  as  far  as  Sicyon.  During  this  pur- 
suit Iphinoe  died,  but  the  two  other  daughters 
were  cured  by  Melampus  by  means  of  purifica- 
tions, and  were  then  married  to  Melampus  and 
Bias.  The  place  where  the  cure  was  effected 
upon  his  daughters  is  not  the  same  in  all  tradi- 
tions, some  mentioning  the  well  Anigros,  oth- 
ers the  fountain  Clitor  in  Arcadia,  or  Lusi  in 
Arcadia.  Besides  these  daughters,  Prcetus  had 
a  son,  Megapenthes.  When  Bellerophon  came 
to  Proetus  to  be  purified  of  a  murder  which  he 
had  committed,  the  wife  of  Prcetus  fell  in  love 
with  him  ;  but,  as  Bellerophon  declined  her  ad- 
vances, she  charged  him  before  Prcetus  with 
having  made  improper  proposals  to  her.  Prce- 
tus then  sent  Bellerophon  to  lobates,  in  Lycia, 
with  a  letter  desiring  the  latter  to  murder  Bel- 
lerophon. Vid.  BELLEROPHO.V.  According  to 
Ovid  (Met.,  v.,  238),  Acrisius  was  expelled  from 
his  kingdom  by  Prcetus  ;  and  Perseus,  the 

frandson  of  Acrisius,  avenged  his  grandfather 
y  turning  Prcetus  into  stone  by  means  of  the 
head  of  Medusa. 

[PROMACHUS  ( ITpo^a^of ),  a  Boeotian  chief,  son 
of  Alegenor,  slain  by  Acamas  at  the  siege  of 
Troy.] 

PROMETHEUS  (UpofirjOevf),  son  of  the  Titan 
lapetus  and  Clymene,  and  brother  of  Atlas,  Me- 
ncetius,  and  Epimetheus.  His  name  signifies 
"  forethought,"  as  that  of  his  brother  Epime- 
theus denotes  "afterthought."  Once  in  the 
reign  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  when  gods  and  men 
were  disputing  with  one  another  at  Mecone 
(afterward  Sicyon),  Prometheus,  with  a  view 
of  deceiving  Jupiter  (Zeus),  cut  up  a  bull  and 
divided  it  into  two  parts  :  he  wrapped  up  the 
best  parts  and  the  intestines  in  the  skin,  and  at 
the  top  he  placed  the  stomach,  which  is  one  of 
the  worst  parts,  while  the  second  heap  consist- 
ed of  the  bones  covered  with  fat.  When  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  pointed  out  to  him  how  badly  he 
had  made  the  division,  Prometheus  desired  him 
to  choose  ;  but  Jupiter  (Zeus),  in  his  anger,  and 
seeing  through  the  stratagem  of  Prometheus, 
chose  the  heap  of  bones  covered  with  the  fat. 
The  father  of  the  gods  avenged  himself  by  with- 
holding fire  from  mortals,  but  Prometheus  stole 
it  in  a  hollow  tube  (vapOrf,  ferula).  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  thereupon  chained  Prometheus  to  a  pil- 
lar, where  an  eagle  consumed  in  the  daytime 
his  liver,  which  was  restored  in  each  succeed- 
ing night.  Prometheus  was  thus  exposed  to 
perpetual  torture ;  but  Hercules  killed  the  eagle 
and  delivered  the  sufferer,  with  the  consent  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus),  who  in  this  way  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  allowing  his  son  to  gain  immortal 
fame.  Further  in  order  to  punish  men,  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  gave  Pandora  as  a  present  to  Epime- 
theus, in  consequence  of  which  diseases  and 
sufferings  of  every  kind  befell  mortals.  (For 


details,  vid.  PANDORA.)  This  is  an  outline  of 
the  legend  about  Prometheus,  as  contained  in 
the  poems  of  Hesiod.  ^Eschylus,  in  his  trilogy 
Prometheus,  added  various  new  features  to  this 
legend.  Although  Prometheus  belonged  to  the 
Titans,  he  is  nevertheless  represented  by  .Es- 
chylus  as  having  assisted  Jupiter  (Zeus)  against 
the  Titans.  But  when  Jupiter  (Zeus)  wanted 
to  extirpate  the  whole  race  of  man,  whose  place 
he  proposed  to  fill  by  an  entirely  new  race  of 
beings,  Prometheus  prevented  the  execution  of 
the  scheme,  and  saved  mankind  from  destruc- 
tion. Prometheus  further  deprived  them  of 
their  knowledge  of  the  future,  and  gave  them 
hope  instead.  He  taught  them  the  use  of  fire, 
made  them  acquainted  with  architecture,  astron- 
omy, mathematics,  writing,  the  treatment  of 
domestic  animals,  navigation,  medicine,  the  art 
of  prophecy,  working  in  metal,  and  all  the  other 
arts.  But,  as  he  had  acted  in  all  these  things 
contrary  to  the  will  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  the  laticr 
ordered  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  to  chain  him  to  a 
rock  in  Scythia,  which  was  done  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Cratos  and  Bia,  two  ministers  of  Jupitei 
(Zeus).  Prometheus,  however,  still  continued 
to  defy  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  declared  that  it  was 
the  decree  of  fate,  by  which  Jupiter  (Zeus)  was 
destined  to  be  dethroned  by  his  own  son.  As 
Prometheue  steadfastly  refused  to  give  any  ex- 
planation of  this  decree,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  hurled 
him  into  Tartarus,  together  with  the  rock  to 
which  he  was  chained.  After  the  lapse  of  a 
long  time,  Prometheus  returned  to  the  upper 
world,  to  endure  a  fresh  course  of  suffering,  for 
he  was  now  fastened  to  Mount  Caucasus,  and 
his  liver  devoured  by  an  eagle,  as  related  in  the 
Hesiodic  legend.  This  state  of  suffering  was 
to  last  until  some  other  god,  of  his  own  accord, 
should  take  his  place,  and  descend  into  Tar- 
tarus for  him.  This  came  to  pass  when  Chi- 
ron, who  had  been  incurably  wounded  by  an 
arrow  of  Hercules,  desired  to  go  into  Hades  ; 
and  Jupiter  (Zeus)  allowed  him  to  supply  the 
place  of  Prometheus.  According  to  others, 
however,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  himself  delivered  Pro- 
metheus, when  the  Titan  was  at  length  pre- 
vailed upon  to  reveal  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  the  de- 
cree* of  fate,  which  was,  that  if  he  should  be- 
come by  Thetis  the  father  of  a  son,  that  son 
should  deprive  him  of  the  sovereignty.  There 
was  also  a  legend  which  related  that  Prome- 
theus had  created  man  out  of  earth  and  water, 
either  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  human  race, 
or  after  the  flood  of  Deucalion,  when  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  is  said  to  have  ordered  him  and  Minerva 
(Athena)  to  make  men  out  of  the  mud,  and  the 
winds  to  breathe  life  into  them.  Prometheus 
is  said  to  have  given  to  men  a  portion  of  all  the 
qualities  possessed  by  the  other  animals  (Hor., 
Carm.,  i.,  16,  13).  The  kind  of  earth  out  of 
which  Prometheus  formed  men  was  shown  in 
later  times  near  Panopeus  in  Phocis.  In  the 
legend  of  Prometheus,  he  often  appears  in  con 
nection  with  Minerva  (Athena).  Thus  he  is 
said  to  have  been  punished  on  Mount  Caucasus 
for  the  criminal  love  he  entertained  for  her ; 
and  he  is  further  said,  ,with  her  assistance,  to 
have  ascended  into  heaven,  and  there  secretly 
to  have  lighted  his  torch  at  the  chariot  of  Helios, 
in  order  to  bring  down  the  fire  to  man.  At 
Athens  Prometheus  had  a  sanctuary  in  the 

711 


PROMONA. 

.\cademy,  from  whence  a  torch-race  took  place 
n  honor  of  him. 

PROMONA  (npupova :  now  Pctrovacz,  on  Mount 
Promina),  a  mountain  fortress  in  the  interior  of 
Dalmatia. 

[PROMULCS,  a  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by  Turnus 
in  Italy.] 

PRONAPIDES  (UpovaTri^'),  an  Athenian,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  teacher  of  Homer.  He  is 
enumerated  among  those  who  used  the  Pelasgic 
letters,  before  the  introduction  of  the  Phoeni- 
cian, and  is  characterized  as  a  graceful  com- 
poser of  song. 

PRONAX  (ITpura^),  son  of  Talaus  and  Lysi- 
mache,  brother  of  Adrastus  and  Eriphyle,  and 
father  of  Lycurgus  and  Amphithea.  According 
to  some  traditions,  the  Nemean  games  were  in- 
stituted in  honor  of  Pronax. 

PRONNI  (TIpovvoi .  Hpowaiof),  a  town  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Cephallenia,  and  one  of  the 
four  towns  of  the  island. 

PRONOMUS  (Ilpwo/zof),  of  Thebes,  son  of 
CEniadas,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
auletic  musicians  of  Greece  at  the  time  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  He  was  the  instructor  of 
Alcibiades  in  flute-playing.  He  invented  a  new 
sort  of  flute,  the  compass  of  which  was  such 
that  melodies  could  be  played  upon  it  in  all  the 
three  modes  of  music,  the  Dorian,  th«  Phrygian, 
and  the  Lydian,  for  each  of  which,  before  this 
invention,  a  separate  flute  had  been  necessary. 

PRONOUS  (Tlpovooe).  1.  Son  of  Phegeus,  and 
brother  of  Agenor,  in  conjunction  with  whom 
he  slew  Alcmaeon.  (For  details,  vid.  AGENOR 
and  ALCM.EON.) — [2.  A  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by 
Patroclus  in  the  Trojan  war.] 

PRONUBA,  a  surname  of  Juno  among  the  Ro- 
mans, describing  her  as  the  deity  presiding  over 
marriage. 

PROPERTICS,  SEX.  AURELIUS,  the  Roman  poet, 
was  probably  born  about  B.C.  51.  He  tells  us 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Umbria,  where  it  bor- 
ders on  Etruria,  but  no\vhere  mentions  the  ex- 
act spot.  He  was  not  descended  from  a  fami- 
ly of  any  distinction  (ii.,  24,  37),  and  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  paternal  estate  by  an  agrarian  di- 
vision, probably  that  in  36,  after  the  Sicilian 
war.  At  the  time  of  this  misfortune  he  had 
not  yet  assumed  the  toga  virilis,  and  was  there- 
fore under  sixteen  years  of  age.  He  had  al- 
ready lost  his  father,  who,  it  has  been  conjec- 
tured, was  one  of  the  victims  sacrificed  after 
the  taking  of  Perusia  ;  but  this  notion  does  not 
rest  on  any  satisfactory  grounds.  We  have  no 
account  of  Propertius's  education ;  hut  from  one 
of  his  elegies  (iv.,  1)  it  would  seem  that  he  was 
destined  to  be  an  advocate,  but  abandoned  the 
profession  for  that  of  poetry.  The  history  of 
his  life,  so  far  as  it  is  known  to  us,  is  the  his- 
tory of  his  amours,  nor  can  it  be  said  how  much 
of  this  is  fiction.  He  began  to  write  poetry  at 
a  very  early  age,  and  the  merit  of  his  produc- 
tions soon  attracted  the  attention  and  patronage 
of  Maecenas.  This  was  most  probably  shortly 
after  the  death  of  Antony  in  30,  when  Proper- 
tius  was  about  21.  It  was  probably  in  32  or  31 
that  Propertius  first  became  acquainted  with  his 
Cynthia.  She  was  a  native  of  Tibur,  and  her 
real  name  was  Hostia.  As  Propertins  (iii.,  20, 
8)  alludes  to  her  doctus  anus,  it  is  probable  that 
•he  was  a  grand-daughter  of  Hostius,  who  wrote 
712 


PROPONTIS. 

a  j  oem  on  the  Histric  war.  Vid.  HOSTIUS.  She 
seems  to  have  inherited  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  family  talent,  and  was  herself  a  poetess, 
besides  being  skilled  in  music,  dancing,  and 
needle- work.  It  appears  that  Propertius  subse- 
quently married,  probably  after  Cynthia's  death, 
and  left  legitimate  issue,  since  the  younger 
Pliny  twice  mentions  Passienus  Paulus  as  de- 
scended from  him.  This  must  have  been 
through  the  female  line.  The  year  of  Proper- 
tius's death  is  altogether  unknown.  Propertius 
resided  on  the  Esquiline,  near  the  gardens  of 
Maecenas.  He  seems  to  have  cultivated  the 
friendship  of  his  brother  poets,  as  Ponticus, 
Bassus,  Ovid,  and  others.  He  mentions  Virgil 
(ii.,  34,  63)  in  a  way  that  shows  he  had  heard 
parts  of  the  ^Eneid  privately  recited.  But 
though  he  belonged  to  the  circle  of  Maecenas, 
he  never  once  mentions  Horace.  He  is  equal- 
ly silent  about  Tibullus.  His  not  mentioning 
Ovid  is  best  explained  by  the  difference  in  their 
ages ;  for  Ovid  alludes  more  than  once  to  Pro- 
pertius, and  with  evident  affection.  As  an  ele- 
giac poet,  a  high  rank  must  be  awarded  to  Pro- 
pertius, and  among  the  ancients  it  was  a  dis- 
puted point  whether  the  preference  should  be 
given  to  him  or  to  Tibullus.  To  the  modern 
reader,  however,  the  elegies  of  Propertius  are 
not  nearly  so  attractive  as  those  of  Tibullus. 
This  arises  partly  from  their  obscurity,  but  in  a 
great  measure,  also,  from  a  certain  want  of  na- 
ture in  them.  The  fault  of  Propertius  was  too 
pedantic  an  imitation  of  the  Greeks.  His  whole 
ambition  was  to  become  the  Roman  Callima- 
chus  (iv.,  1,  63),  whom,  as  well  as  Philetas  and 
other  of  the  Greek  elegiac  poets,  he  made  his 
model.  He  abounds  with  obscure  Greek  myths, 
as  well  as  Greek  forms  of  expression,  and  the 
same  pedantry  infects  even  his  versification. 
Tibullus  generally,  and  Ovid  almost  invariably, 
close  their  pentameter  with  a  word  contained 
in  an  iambic  foot ;  Propertius,  especially  in  his 
first  book,  frequently  ends  with  a  word  of  three, 
or  four,  or  even  five  syllables.  The  best  edi- 
tions of  Propertius  are  by  Burmann,  Utrecht, 
1780 ;  by  Kuinoel,  Leipzig,  1804 ;  by  Lachmann, 
Leipzig,  1816  ;  and  by  Hertzberg,  Halle,  1844, 
1845. 

PROPHTHASIA  (Hpo$6aaia:  now  probably  Pe- 
shawarun),  the  northernmost  city  of  Drangiana, 
on  the  borders  of  Asia,  was  probably  the  place 
where  PHILOTAS  was  put  to  death. 

PROPONTIS  (rj  HpoirovTif :  now  Sea  of  Mar- 
mara), so  called  from  its  position  with  reference 
to  the  Pontus  (Euxinus),  and  thus  more  fully 
described  as  f/  trpo  TOV  Hovrov  TOV  Evtfeivov  ftd- 
haaaa,  and  "  Vestibulum  Ponti,"  is  the  small 
sea  which  united  the  Euxine  and  the  JEgean 
(vid.  PONTUS  EUXINUS),  and  divides  Europe 
(Thracia)  from  Asia  (Mysia  and  Bithynia).  It 
is  of  an  irregular  oval  shape,  running  out  on 
the  east  into  two  deep  gulfs,  the  Sinus  Astace- 
nus  (now  Gulf  of  Ismid)  and  the  Sinus  Cianus 
(now  Gulf  of  Modonia),  and  containing  several 
islands*  It  received  the  waters  of  the  RHYN 
DACUS  and  other  rivers  of  Eastern  Mysia  an.. 
Western  Bithynia,  flowing  from  Mount  Ida  and 
Olympus ;  and  several  important  Greek  cities 
stood  on  its  shores,  the  chief  of  which  were 
BYZANTIUM  and  HERACLEA  PERINTHUS  on  the 
north,  and  Cvzlcus  on  the  south.  Its  length  i 


PROSCHIUM. 

calculated  by  Herodotus  at  one  thousand  four 
hundred  stadia(one  hundred  and  forty  geograph- 
ical miles)  and  its  greatest  breadth  at  five  hund- 
red stadia  (fifty  geographical  miles),  which  is 
very  near  the  truth. 

PROSCHICM.     Vid.  PYLENE. 

PROSERPINA.     Vid.  PERSEPHONE. 

PROSPAI.TA  (TO  UpoffTrafoa :  IIpoffTraArtof),  a 
demus  in  the  south  of  Attica,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  Acamantis. 

PROSPER,  a  celebrated  ecclesiastical  writer, 
was  a  native  of  Aquitania,  and  flourished  during 
the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century.  He  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  numerous  writings  in 
defence  of  the  doctrines  of  Augustine  against 
the  attacks  of  the  Semipelagians.  Many  of  his 
theological  works  are  extant ;  and  there  are 
two  Chronicles  bearing  his  name:  1.  Chronicon 
Consulate,  extending  from  A.D.  379,  the  date 
at  which  the  chronicle  of  Jerome  ends,  down  to 
455,  the  events  being  arranged  according  to  the 
years  of  the  Roman  consuls.  We  find  short 
notices  with  regard  to  the  Roman  emperors,  the 
Roman  bishops,  and  political  occurrences  in 
general,  but  the  troubles  of  the  Church  are 
especially  dwelt  upon,  and,  above  all,  the  Pe- 
lagian heresy.  2.  Chronicon  Imperiale,  compre- 
hended within  the  same  limits  as  the  preceding 
(379-455),  but  the  computations  proceed  ac- 
cording to  the  years  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
and  not  according  to  the  consuls.  While  it 
agrees  with  the  Chronicon  Consulare  in  its 
general  plan,  it  differs  from  it  in  many  particu- 
lars, especially  in  the  very  brief  allusions  to  the 
Pelagian  controversy,  and  in  the  slight,  almost 
disrespectful  notices  of  Augustine.  The  second 
of  these  Chronicles  was  probably  not  written 
by  Prosper  of  Aquitania,  and  is  assigned  by 
most  critics  to  Prosper  Tiro,  who,  it  is  imagined, 
flourished  in  the  sixth  century.  There  are  like- 
wise several  poems  which  have  come  down  to 
us  under  the  name  of  Prosper.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  Prosper's  works  is  the  Benedictine, 
Paris,  1711. 

PROSYMNA  (Tlpoovpva :  Hpoov/tvalof),  an  an- 
cient town  of  Argolis,  with  a  temple  of  Juno 
(Hera),  north  of  Argos. 

PROTA  (Ilpwro  :  now  Prote),  an  island  in  the 
Propontis,  near  Chalcedon. 

PROTAGORAS  (Ilpwroyopof),  a  celebrated  soph- 
ist, was  born  at  Abdera,  in  Thrace,  probably 
about  B.C.  480,  and  died  about  411,  at  the  age 
of  nearly  seventy  years.  It  is  said  that  Pro- 
tagoras was  once  a  poor  porter,  and  that  the 
skill  with  which  he  had  fastened  together,  and 
poised  upon  his  shoulders,  a  large  bundle  of 
wood,  attracted  the  attention  of  Democritus, 
who  conceived  a  liking  for  him,  took  him  under 
his  care,  and  instructed  him  in  philosophy. 
This  well-known  story,  however,  appears  to 
have  arisen  out  of  the  statement  of  Aristotle, 
that  Protagoras  invented  a  sort  of  porter's  knot 
for  the  more  convenient  carrying  of  burdens. 
In  addition  to  which,  Protagoras  was  about 
twenty  years  older  than  Democritus.  Protag- 
oras was  the  first  who  called  himself  a  sophist, 
and  taught  for  pay ;  and  he  practiced  his  pro- 
fession for  the  space  of  forty  years.  He  must 
have  come  to  Athens  before  B.C.  445,  since  he 
drew  up  a  code  of  laws  for  the  Thurians,  who 
eft  Athens  for  the  first  time  in  that  year. 


PROTEUS. 

Whether  he  accompanied  the  colonists  toThu- 
rii,  we  are  not  informed ;  but  at  the  time  of  the 
plague  (430)  we  find  him  again  in  Athens.  Be- 
tween  his  first  and  second  visit  to  Athens,  he 
had  spent  some  time  in  Sicily,  where  he  had 
acquired  great  fame,  and  he  brought  with  him 
to  Athens  many  admirers  out  of  other  Greek 
cities  through  which  he  had  passed.  His  in- 
structions were  so  highly  valued  that  he  some- 
times received  one  hundred  minae  from  a  pupil ; 
and  Plato  says  that  Protagoras  made  more 
money  than  Phidias  and  ten  other  sculptors. 
In  41 1  he  was  accused  of  impiety  by  Pythodo- 
rus.  one  of  the  Four  Hundred.  His  impeachment 
was  founded  on  his  book  on  the  gods,  which 
began  with  the  statement :  "  Respecting  the 
gods,  I  am  unable  to  know  whether  they  exist 
or  do  not  exist."  The  impeachment  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  banishment,  or,  as  others  affirm, 
only  by  the  burning  of  his  book.  Protagoras 
wrote  a  large  number  of  works,  of  which  the 
most  important  were  entitled  Truth  ('A.A.f/Otia'), 
and  On  the  Gods  (Tlepi  6ew»>).  The  first  con- 
tained the  theory  refuted  by  Plato  in  the  Thea?- 
tetus.  Plato  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  teach- 
ing of  Protagoras  in  the  dialogue  that  bears  his 
name.  Protagoras  was  especially  celebrated 
for  his  skill  in  the  rhetorical  art.  By  way  of 
practice  in  the  art,  he  was  accustomed  to  make 
his  pupils  discuss  Theses  (communes  loci) ;  an 
exercise  which  is  also  recommended  by  Cicero. 
He  also  directed  his  attention  to  language,  and 
endeavored  to  explain  difficult  passages  in  the 
poets. 

[PROTE AS  (FIpuTtaf).  1.  An  Athenian  gen 
eral  in  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the 
son  of  Epicles.  He  was  one  of  the  three  com- 
manders of  the  squadron  sent  out  to  assist  the 
Corcyreans  in  their  contest  with  the  Corinthi- 
ans. Again,  in  the  first  year  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war,  Proteas  was  one  of  the  three  com- 
manders of  the  fleet  of  one  hundred  ships  sent 
round  Peloponnesus. — 2.  Son  of  Andronicus,  a 
Macedonian  officer  in  the  service  of  Antipater.] 

PROTESILAOS  ( Upureai^aof ),  son  of  Iphiclus 
and  Astyoche,  belonged  to  Phylace  in  Thessaly. 
He  is  called  Phylacius  and  Phylacides,  either 
from  his  native  place,  or  from  his  being  a  grand- 
son of  Phylacus.  He  led  the  warriors  of  sev- 
eral Thessalian  places  against  Troy,  and  was 
the  first  of  all  the  Greeks  who  was  killed  by  the 
Trojans,  being  the  first  who  leaped  from  the 
ships  upon  the  Trojan  coast.  According  to  the 
common  tradition,  he  was  slain  by  Hector.  Pro- 
tesilaus  is  most  celebrated  in  ancient  story  for 
the  strong  affection  existing  between  him  and 
his  wife  Laodamia,  the  daughter  of  Acastus. 
(For  details,  vid.  LAODAMIA.)  His  tomb  was 
shown  near  Eleus,  in  the  Thracian  Chersone- 
sus,  where  a  magnificent  temple  was  erected  to 
him.  There  was  a  belief  that  nymphs  had 
planted  elm- trees  around  his  grave,  which  died 
away  when  they  had  grown  sufficiently  high  to 
see  Troy,  and  that  fresh  shoots  then  sprang 
from  the  roots.  There  was  also  a  sanctuary  of 
Protesilaus  at  Phylace,  at  which  funeral  games 
were  celebrated. 

PROTEUS  (ttpurtvf),  the  prophetic  old  man  of 

the  sea,  is  described  i  i  the  earliest  legends  as 

a  subject  of  Neptune  iPoseidon),  whose  flocks 

(tre  seals)  he  tended.    According  to  Homer,  he 

•  713 


PROTHOENOR. 

resided  in  the  island  of  Pharos,  at  the  distance 
of  one  day's  sail  from  the  River  ^Egyptus 
(Nile) ;  whereas  Virgil  places  his  residence  in 
the  island  of  Carpathos,  between  Crete  and 
Rhodes.  At  midday  Proteus  rose  from  the  sea, 
and  slept  in  the  shadow  of  the  rocks  of  the  coast, 
with  the  monsters  of  the  deep  lying  around  him. 
Any  one  wishing  to  learn  from  him  the  future, 
was  obliged  to  catch  hold  of  him  at  that  time ; 
as  soon  as  he  was  seized,  he  assumed  every 
possible  shape,  in  order  to  escape  the  necessity 
of  prophesying  ;  but  whenever  he  saw  that  his 
endeavors  were  of  no  avail,  he  resumed  his 
usual  form,  and  told  the  truth.  After  finishing 
his  prophecy  he  returned  into  the  sea.  Homer 
ascribes  to  him  a  daughter  Idothea.  Another 
set  of  traditions  describes  Proteus  as  a  son  of 
Neptune  (Poseidon),  and  as  a  king  of  Egypt, 
who  had  two  sons,  Telegonus  and  Polygonus  or 
Tmolus.  His  Egyptian  name  is  said  to  have 
been  Cetes,  for  which  the  Greeks  substituted 
that  of  Proteus.  His  wife  is  called  Psamathe 
or  Torone,  and,  besides  the  above-mentioned 
sons,  Theoclymenus  and  Theonoe  are  likewise 
called  his  children.  He  is  said  to  have  hospi- 
tably received  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  during  his> 
wanderings.  Mercury  (Hermes)  brought  to  him 
Helena  after  her  abduction,  or,  according  to 
others,  Proteus  himself  took  her  from  Paris, 
gave  to  the  lover  a  phantom,  and  restored  the 
true  Helen  to  Menelaus  after  his  return  from 
Troy. 

[PROTHOENOR  (TlpoOorjvup),  a  son  of  Areilycus, 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Boeotians  against 
Troy,  where  he  was  slain  by  Polydamas.] 

[PROTHoow  (UpoOduv'),  aTrojan  warrior,  slain 
by  Teucer.] 

[PROTHOUS  (ITp60ooc),  a  son  of  Tenthredon, 
commander  of  the  Magnetes  who  dwelt  about 
Mount  Pelion  and  the  River  Peneus,  was  one 
of  the  Greek  heroes  at  Troy.j 

[PROTO  (IIpuTw),  one  of  the  Nereids.] 
PROTOGENES  (TlpuToyevri?),  a  celebrated  Greek 
painter.  He  was  a  native  of  Caunus,  in  Caria, 
a  city  subject  to  the  Rhodians,  and  flourished 
B.C.  332-300.  He  reside^  at  Rhodes  almost 
entirely ;  the  only  other  city  of  Greece  which 
he  is  said  to  have  visited  is  Athens,  where  he 
executed  one  of  his  great  works  in  the  Propy- 
iaea.  Up  to  his  50th  year  he  is  said  to  have 
lived  in  poverty  and  in  comparative  obscurity, 
supporting  himself  by  painting  ships,  which  at 
that  period  used  to  be  decorated  with  elaborate 
pictorial  devices.  His  fame  had,  however, 
reached  the  ears  of  Apelles,  who,  upon  visiting 
Rhodes,  made  it  his  first  business  to  seek  out 
Protogenes.  As  the  surest  way  of  making  the 
merits  of  Protogenes  known  to  his  fellow-citi- 
zens, Apelles  offered  him,  for  his  finished  works, 
the  enormous  sum  of  fifty  talents  apiece,  and 
thus  led  the  Rhodians  to  understand  what  an 
artist  they  had  among  them  Protogenes  was 
distinguished  by  the  care  with  which  he 
wrought  up  his  pictures.  His  master-piece  was 
the  picture  of  lalysus,  the  tutelary  hero  of 
Rhodes,  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  spent  seven 
years,  or  even,  according  to  another  statement, 
eleven ;  and  to  have  painted  it  four  times  over. 
This  picture  was  so  highly  prized,  even  in  the 
artisVs  lifetime,  that  when  Demetrius  Poliorce- 
tes  was  using  every  effort  to  subdue  Rhodes, 
714 


PRUSIAS. 

he  refrained  from  attacking  the  city  at  its  most 
vulnerable  point,  lest  he  should  injure  this  pic- 
ture, which  had  been  placed  in  that  quarter 
There  is  a  celebrated  story  about  this  picture, 
relating  to  the  accidental  production  of  one  of 
the  most  effective  parts  of  it,  the  foam  at  the 
mouth  of  a  tired  hound.  The  artist,  it  is  said, 
dissatisfied  with  his  repeated  attempts  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect,  at  last,  in  his  vexation, 
dashed  the  sponge,  with  which  he  had  repeat 
edly  effaced  his  work,  against  the  faulty  place  ; 
and  the  sponge,  charged  as  it  was  by  repeated 
use  with  the  necessary  colors,  left  a  mark  in 
which  the  painter  recognized  the  very  foarn 
which  his  art  had  failed  to  produce. 

PROTOGENIA  (Hpuroyeveia),  daughter  of  Deu- 
calion and  Pyrrha,  and  wife  of  Locrus ;  but 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  carried  her  off,  and  became  by 
her  the  father  of  Opus. 

[PROTOMACHUS  ( Hpuropaxof ),  an  Athenian 
commander  at  the  battle  of  the  Arginusse,  had 
charge  of  the  right  wing,  and  defeated  the  ene- 
my. He  retired  into  voluntary  exile  to  avoid 
the  action  brought  at  Athens  against  the  com- 
manders in  that  battle.] 

PROXENUS  (ITpofevof),  a  Boeotian,  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Gorgias,  and  a  friend  of  Xenophon. 
Being  connected  by  the  ties  of  hospitality  with 
the  younger  Cyrus,  the  latter  engaged  him  in 
his  service.  He  was  seized  by  Tissaphernes 
and  put  to  death,  with  the  other  Greek  generals. 
It  was  at  the  invitation  of  Proxenus  that  Xeno- 
phon was  induced  to  enter  the  service  of  Cyrus. 
PRUDENTJUS,  AURELIUS  CLEMENS,  the  earliest 
of  the  Christian  poets  of  any  celebrity,  was  a 
native  of  Spain,  and  was  born  A.D.  348.  After 
practicing  as  an  advocate,  and  discharging  the 
duties  of  a  civil  and  criminal  judge  in  two  im- 
portant cities,  he  received  from  the  Emperoi 
Theodosius,  or  Honorius,  a  high  military  ap- 
pointment at  court ;  but  as  he  advanced  in 
years,  he  became  sensible  of  the  emptiness  of 
worldly  honor,  and  earnest  in  the  exercises  of 
religion.  His  poems  are  composed  in  a  great 
variety  of  metres,  but  possess  little  merit  either 
in  expression  or  in  substance.  The  Latinity  is 
impure,  abounding  both  in  words  altogether  bar- 
barous, and  in  classical  words  employed  in  a 
barbarous  sense  ;  and  the  author  is  totally  igno- 
rant or  regardless  of  the  common  laws  of  pros- 
ody. The  best  editions  of  Prudentius  are  by 
Arevalus,  Rom.,  1788  and  1789,  2  vols.  4to.,  and 
by  Obbarius,  Tubing.,  1845,  8vo. 

PRUSA  or  PRUSIAS  (Upovaa  :  Upovaievf).  1. 
P.  AD  OLYMPUM  (IT.  #  sm  ru  'O/U^fru :  now 
Brusa),  a  great-city  of  Bithynia,  on  the  northern 
side  of  Mount  Olympus,  fifteen  Roman  miles 
from  Cius  and  twenty-five  from  Nicaea,  was 
built  by  Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia,  or,  according 
to  some,  by  Hannibal.— 2.  Some  writers  distin- 
guish from  this  a  smaller  city,  called  P.  AD 
HYPIUM  or  HYPPIUM  (irpbf  T£  'YirTciu  KOTO/IV 
Ptol. ;  sub  Hypio  monte,  Plin.),  which  stoo» 
northwest  of  the  former,  and  was '  originally 
called  CIERUS  (Kiepoc ),  and  belonged  to  the  ter- 
ritory of  Heraclea,  but  was  conquered  by  Pru- 
sias, who  named  it  after  himself.  It  stood 
northwest  of  the  former.  Perhaps  it  is  only 
another  name  for  Cius. 

PRUSIAS  (Upovalaf).  1.  I.  King  of  Bithynia 
from  about  B.C.  228  to  180,  though  the  date 


PRYMNESIA 

neither  of  his  accession  nor  of  his  death  is  ex- 
actly known.  He  was  the  son  of  Zielas,  whom 
he  succeeded.  He  appears  to  have  been  a 
monarch  of  vigor  and  ability,  and  raised  his 
kingdom  of  Bithynia  to  a  much  higher  pitch  of 
power  and  prosperity  than  it  had  previously  at- 
tained. It  was  at  his  court  that  Hannibal  took 
refuge ;  and  when  the  Romans  demanded  the 
surrender  of  the  Carthaginian  general,  the  king 
basely  gave  his  consent,  and  Hannibal  only  es- 
caped falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  by 
a  voluntary  death.— 2.  II.  King  of  Bithynia,  son 
and  successor  of  the  preceding,  reigned  from 
about  180  to  149.  He  courted  assiduously  the 
alliance  of  the  Romans.  He  carried  on  war 
with  Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  with  whom, 
however,  he  was  compelled  by  the  Romans  to 
conclude  peace  in  154.  He  was  slain  in  149  by 
order  of  his  son  Nicomedes,  as  is  related  in  the 
life  of  the  latter.  Vid.  NICOMEDES,  No.  2.  Pru- 
sias  is  described  to  us  as  a  man  in  whom  per- 
sonal deformity  was  combined  with  a  character 
the  most  vicious  and  degraded.  His  passion 
for  the  chase  is  attested  by  the  epithet  of 
the  "  Huntsman"  (Kvi>j?ydf). 

PRYMNESIA  or  PRYMNESUS  (Hpvpvt)oia,  Upvp- 
vrjaoc:,  Upv/tvijaoof :  ruins  at  Seid-el-Ghazi),  a 
city  in  the  north  of  Phrygia,  which  appears,  from 
its  coins,  to  have  been  a  chief  seat  of  the  wor- 
ship of  Midas  as  a  hero. 

[PRYMNEUS  (Upvfivevf),  a  Phaeacian,  one  of 
the  competitors  in  the  games  celebrated  by 
Alcinous  while  Ulysses  was  in  the  Phaeacian 
island.] 

[PRYTANIS  (Upvravif).  I.  A  Lycian  warrior 
at  the  siege  of  Troy,  slain  by  Ulysses. — 2.  A 
companion  of  ^Eneas,  slain  by  Turnus.] 

PRYTANIS  (Hpvravif),  king  of  Sparta,  of  the 
Proclid  line,  was  the  son  of  Eurypon,  and  fourth 
king  of  that  race. 

[PSAMATHE  (iM/zdft?).  1.  Daughter  of  Nereus 
and  Doris,  by  ^Eacus  mother  of  Phocus. — 2. 
Daughter  of  Crotopus  in  Argos,  mother  of 
Linus.] 

PSAMATHUS  (•Zapadoiif,  -ovvTOf :  yra/ifiadovvri- 
of,  irafj/jtaOovaioc'),  a  sea-port  town  in  Laconia, 
near  the  promontory  Taenarum.  . 

PSAMMENITUS  CtafiftrjviTOf),  king  of  Egypt, 
succeeded  his  father  Amasis  in  B.C.  526,  and 
reigned  only  six  months.  He  was  conquered 
by  Cambyses  in  525,  and  his  country  made  a 
province  of  the  Persian  empire.  His  life  was 
spared  by  Cambyses,  but  as  he  was  detected 
shortly  afterward  in  endeavoring  to  excite  a 
revolt  among  the  Egyptians,  he  was  compelled 
to  put  an  end  to  his  life  by  drinking  bull's  blood. 

PSAMMIS  (irupptt),  king  of  Egypt,  succeeded 
his  father  Necho,  and  reigned  from  B.C.  601  to 
595.  He  carried  on  war  against  .Ethiopia,  and 
died  immediately  after  his  return  from  the  latter 
country.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Apries. 

PSAMMITICHUS   Or   PSAMMETICHUS   ("tapfUTlXOt 

or  •JraftpfiTixof),  the  Greek  form  of  the  Egyptian 
PSAMETIK,  a  king  of  Egypt,  and  founder  of  the 
Saitic  dynasty,  reigned  from  B.C.  671  to  617. 
He  was  originally  one  of  the  twelve  kings  who 
obtained  an  independent  sovereignty  in  the  con- 
f'uv  n  which  followed  the  death  of  Setho.  Hav- 
ing been  driven  into  banishment  by  the  other 
kings,  he  took  refuge  in  the  marshes  ;  but 
shortly  afterward,  with  the  aid  of  some  Ionian 


PSYCHE 

and  Carian  pirates,  he  conquered  the  othei 
kings,  and  became  sole  ruler  of  Egypt*  He 
provided  a  settlement  for  his  Greek  mercena 
ries  on  the  Pelusiac  or  eastern  branch  of  the 
Nile,  a  little  below  Bubastis,  and  he  appears  to 
have  mainly  relied  upon  them  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  his  power.  In  order  to  facilitate  in- 
tercourse between  the  Greeks  and  his  other 
subjects,  he  ordered  a  number  of  Egyptian  chil- 
dren to  live  with  them,  that  they  might  learn 
the  Greek  language  ;  and  from  them  sprung  the 
class  of  interpreters.  The  employment  of  for- 
eign mercenaries  by  Psammitichus  gave  great 
offence  to  the  military  caste  in  Egypt ;  and 
being  indignant  at  other  treatment  which  they 
received  from  him,  they  emigrated  in  a  body  of 
two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  men  into  Ethi- 
opia, where  settlements  were  assigned  to  them 
by  the  ^Ethiopian  king.  It  must,  therefore, 
have  been  chiefly  with  his  Ionian  and  Carian 
troops  that  Psammitichus  carried  on  his  wars 
against  Syria  and  Phrenicia.  He  laid  siege  to 
the  city  of  Azotus  (the  Ashdod  of  Scripture)  for 
twenty-nine  years,  till  he  took  it.  As  Psam- 
mitichus had  displeased  a  large  portion  of  his 
subjects  by  the  introduction  of  foreigners,  he 
seems  to  have  paid  especial  court  to  the  priest- 
hood. He  built  the  southern  propylaea  of  the 
temple  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  at  Memphis,  and 
a  s{  lendid  aula,  with  a  portico  round  it,  for  the 
habitation  of  Apis,  in  front  of  the  temple. 

[PSAPHIS  (i"a0/f,  now  Calano  according  to 
Leake),  the  northernmost  demus  of  Attica.] 

PSELCIS  (i-eA/a'f :  ruins  at  Dakke  or  Dekkeh), 
the  chief  city  in  the  Dodecaschcenus,  that  is, 
the  northern  part  of  ^Ethiopia,  which  wa?  adja- 
cent to  Egypt,  to  which  it  was  regarded  iiy  the 
Romans  as  belonging.  The  city  stood  on  the 
.western  bank  of  the  Nile,  between  Syene  and 
Tachompso,  the  latter  of  which  was  so  far 
eclipsed  by  Pselcis  as  to  acquire  the  name  of 
Contrapselcis.  Under  the  later  empire,  Pselcis 
was  garrisoned  by  a  body  of  German  horsemen. 

PSELLUS  ("JreAAof).  1.  MICHAEL  PSELLUS,  the 
elder,  of  Andros,  flourished  in  the  ninth  century 
after  Christ.  He  was  a  learned  man,  and  an 
eager  student  of  the  Alexandrean  philosophy. 
He  was  probably  the  author  of  some  of  the 
works  which  are  ascribed  to  the  younger  Psel- 
lus. — 2.  MICHAEL  CONSTANTIUS  PSELLUS,  the 
younger,  a  far  more  celebrated  person,  flourish- 
ed in  the  eleventh  century  of  our  era.  He  was 
born  at  Constantinople  1020,  and  lived  at  least 
till  1105.  He  taught  philosophy,  rhetoric,  and 
dialectics  at  Constantinople,  where  he  stood 
forth  as  almost  the  last  upholder  of  the  falling 
cause  of  learning.  The  emperors  honored  him 
with  the  title  of  Prince  of  the  Philosophers. 
His  works  are  both  in  prose  and  poetry,  on  a 
vast  variety  of  subjects,  and  distinguished  by 
an  eloquence  and  taste  which  are  worthy  of  a 
better  period.  They  are  too  numerous  to  be 
mentioned  in  this  place. 

PSOPHIS  (*u$i( :  *«0<<Jtof:  now  Khan  of  Tri- 
potamo),  a  town  in  the  northwest  of  Arcadia,  on 
the  River  Erymanthus,  is  said  to  havo  been 
originally  called  PHEOIA.  It  sided  with  the .  1  .'to- 
ll,HIS  against  the  Achaeans,  but  was  taken  B.C. 
219  by  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  who  was  then 
in  alliance  with  the  Achaeans. 

PSYCHE  (*vxn),  "  the  soul,"  occurs,  in  the  lat- 
715 


er  times  of  antiquity,  as  a  personification  of  the 
numan  soul.  Psyche  was  the  youngest  of  the 
three  daughters  of  a  king,  and  excited  by  her 
beauty  the  jealousy  and  envy  of  Venus.  In  or- 
der to  avenge  herself,  the  goddess  ordered  Cupid 
or  Amor  to  inspire  Psyche  with  a  love  for  the 
most  contemptible  of  all  men  ;  but  Cupid  was 
so  stricken  with  her  beauty  that  he  himself  fell 
in  love  with  her.  He  accordingly  conveyed  her 
to  a  charming  spot,  where,  unseen  and  unknown, 
he  visited  her  every  night,  and  left  her  as  soon 
as  the  day  began  to  dawn.  Psyche  might  have 
continued  to  enjoy  this  state  of  happiness  if 
she  had  attended  to  the  advice  of  her  lover,  who 
told  her  never  to  give  way  to  her  curiosity,  or 
to  inquire  who  he  was.  But  her  jealous  sisters 
made  her  believe  that  in  the  darkness  of  night 
she  was  embracing  some  hideous  monster,  and 
accordingly  once,  while  Cupid  was  asleep,  she 
drew  near  to  him  with  a  lamp,  and,  to  her 
amazement,  beheld  the  most  handsome  and 
lovely  of  the  gods.  In  her  excitement  of  joy 
and  fear,  a  drop  of  hot  oil  fell  from  her  lamp 
upon  his  shoulder.  This  awoke  Cupid,  who 
censured  her  for  her  mistrust,  and  escaped. 
Psyche's  happiness  was  now  gone,  and  after 
attempting  in  vain  to  throw  herself  into  a  river, 
she  wandered  about  from  temple  to  temple,  in- 
quiring after  her  lover,  and  at  length  came  to 
the  palace  of  Venus.  There  her  real  sufferings 
began,  for  Venus  retained  her,  treated  her  as  a 
slave,  and  imposed  upon  her  the  hardest  and 
most  humiliating  labors.  Psyche  would  have 
perished  under  the  weight  of  her  sufferings,  had 
not  Cupid,  who  still  loved  her  in  secret,  in- 
visibly comforted  and  assisted  her  in  her  toils. 
With  his  aid  she  at  last  succeeded  in  overcom- 
ing the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  Venus  :  she  be- 
came immortal,  and  was  united  to  him  forever. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  recognize  in  this  lovely  story 
the  idea  of  which  it  is  merely  the  mythical  em- 
bodiment ;  for  Psyche  is  evidently  the  human 
soul,  which  is  purified  by  passions  and  misfor- 
tunes, and  is  thus  prepared  for  the  enjoyment 
of  true  and  pure  happiness.  In  works  of  art 
Psyche  is  represented  as  a  maiden  with  the 
wings  of  a  butterfly,  along  with  Cupid  in  the 
different  situations  described  in  the  allegory. 

PSYCHIUM  (i'^oi'),  A  town  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Crete. 

PSYLLI  (i'v/Uot),  a  Libyan  people,  the  earliest 
known  inhabitants  of  the  district  of  Northern 
Africa  called  Cyrenaica. 

PSYRA  (TO,  ^fvpu. :  "Xvpiof :  now  Ipsara),  a  small 
island  of  the  yEgean  Sea,  forty  stadia  (four  ge- 
ographical miles)  in  circuit,  lying  fifty  stadia 
(five  geographical  miles)  west  of  the  northwest- 
ern point  of  Chios.  It  had  a  city  of  the  same 
name. 

PsYTTALEA.        Vid.  SALAMIS. 

PTELEOS  (Hre/leuf),  a  small  lake  in  Mysia, 
near  Ophrynium,  on  the  coast  of  the  Helles- 
pont. 

PTELEUM  (Hrefaov  :  HTsfauTnf,  HrEfaovaiof). 
1.  (Now  Ftelia),  an  ancient  sea-port  town  of 
Thessaly,  in  the  district  Phthiotis,  at  the  south- 
western extremity  of  the  Sinus  Pagasseus,  was 
destroyed  by  the  Romans. — 2.  A  town  in  Elis 
Triphylia,  said  to  have  been  a  colony  from  the 
preceding. — 3.  A  fortress  of  Ionia,  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  belonging  to  Erythrae. 
716 


PTOLEM^EUS. 

[PTERELAUS  (Fireproof),  son  of  Taphius,  king 
of  the  island  Taphos,  father  of  Comajtbo  :  ac- 
cording to  Strabo,  he  was  a  son  of  DeVoneus.] 

[PTERIA  (Ilrepla),  according  to  Herodotus, 
capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name  belonging 
to  Cappadocia ;  according  to  Stephanus  of  By- 
zantium, however,  who  also  calls  the  place 
Hreptov,  it  was  a  city  of  Media.] 

PTOLEM^US  (IlroAe/Muof ),  usually  called  PTOL- 
EMY. I.  Minor  historical  persons.  1.  Nephew 
of  Antigonus,  king  of  Asia.  He  carried  on  war 
in  Greece  on  behalf  of  Antigonus,  but  in  310  he 
abandoned  the  cause  of  his  uncle,  and  concluded 
a  treaty  with  Cassander  and  Ptolemy  the  son 
of  Lagus.  He  soon  gave  offence  to  the  Egyp- 
tian king,  and  was,  in  consequence,  compelled 
to  put  an  end  to  his  life  by  poison,  B.C.  309.— 
2.  Son  of  Lysimachus,  king  of  Thrace.  He  was 
the  eldest  of  the  three  sons  of  that  monarch  by 
his  last  wife  Arsinoe",  and  the  only  one  who 
escaped  falling  into  the  hands  of  Ptolemy  Cerau- 
nus.  —  3.  Son  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  by 
his  wife  Antigone,  the  step-daughter  of  Ptolemy 
Lagi.  When  only  fifteen  years  of  age  he  was 
left  by  his  father  in  charge  of  his  hereditary  do- 
minions, when  Pyrrhus  himself  set  out  on  his 
expedition  to  Italy,  280.  At  a  later  time  he 
fought  under  his  father  in  Greece,  and  was  slain 
in  the  course  of  Pyrrhus's  campaign  in  the  Pel- 
oponnesus, 272. — 4.  Surnamed  PHILADELPHUS, 
son  of  M.  Antony,  the  triumvir,  by  Cleopatra 
After  the  death  of  Antony,  30,  his  life  was  spar- 
ed by  Augustus  at  the  intercession  of  Juba  and 
Cleopatra,  and  he  was  brought  up  by  Octavia 
with  her  own  children. 

II.  Kings  of  Egypt. 

I.  Surnamed  SOTER,  the  Preserver,  but  more 
commonly  known  as  the  son  of  Lagus,  reigned 
B.C.  323-285.  His  father  Lagus  was  a-Mace- 
donian  of  ignoble  birth,  but  his  mother  Arsinoe" 
had  been  a  concubine  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  on 
which  account  it  seems  to  have  been  generally 
believed  that  Ptolemy  was  in  reality  the  off- 
spring of  that  monarch.  Ptolemy  is  mentioned 
among  the  friends  of  the  young  Alexander  be- 
fore the  death  of  Philip.  He  accompanied  Alex- 
ander throughout  his  campaigns  in  Asia,  an.1 
was  always  treated  by  the  king  with  the  great- 
est favor.  On  the  division  of  the  empire  which 
followed  Alexander's  death  (323),  Ptolemy  ob- 
tained the  government  of  Egypt.  In  321  his 
dominions  were  invaded  by  Perdiccas,  the  re- 
gent ;  but  the  assassination  of  Perdiccas  by  his 
mutinous  soldiers  soon  delivered  Ptolemy  from 
this  danger.  In  the  following  year  Ptolemy  en- 
larged his  dominions  by  seizing  upon  the  im- 
portant satrapy  of  Phoenicia  and  Ccelesyria. 
It  was  probably  during  this  expedition  that  he 
made  himself  .master  of  Jerusalem  by  attacking 
the  city  on  the  Sabbath  day.  A  few  years  after- 
ward (316)  Ptolemy  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Cassander  and  Lysimachus  against  Antig- 
onus, whose  growing  power  had  excited  their 
common  apprehensions.  In  the  war  which 
followed,  Antigonus  conquered  Ccelesyria  and 
Phoenicia  (315,  314) ;  but  Ptolemy  recovered 
these  provinces  by  the  defeat  of  Demetrius,  the 
son  of  Antigonus,  in  312.  In  311  hostilities 
were  suspended  by  a  general  peace.  This  peace, 
however,  was  of  short  duration,  and  Ptolemy 


PTOLEM^US. 

appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  recommence 
the  war.  He  crossed  over  to  Greece,  where  he 
announced  himself  as  the  liberator  of  the  Greeks, 
nut  he  effected  little.  In  306  Ptolemy  was  de- 
feated by  Demetrius  in  a  great  sea-fight  off  Sal- 
amis  in  Cyprus.  In  consequence  of  this  defeat, 
Ptoletny  lost  the  important  island  of  Cyprus, 
which  had  previously  been  subject  to  him.  An- 
tigonus  was  so  much  elated  by  this  victory  as 
to  assume  the  title  of  king,  an  example  which 
Ptolemy,  notwithstanding  his  defeat,  immedi- 
ately followed.  Antigonus  and  Demetrius  fol- 
lowed up  their  success  by  the  invasion  of  Egypt, 
but  'were  compelled  to  return  to  Syria  without 
effecting  any  thing.  Next  year  (305)  Ptolemy 
rendered  the  most  important  assistance  to  the 
Rhodians,  who  were  besieged  by  Demetrius  ; 
and  when  Demetrius  was  at  length  compelled 
to  raise  the  siege  (304),  the  Rhodians  paid  di- 
vine honors  to  the  Egyptian  monarch  as  their 
savior  and  preserver  (Sun/p),  a  title  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  now  bestowed  upon  Ptolemy 
for  the  first  time.  Ptolemy  took  comparatively 
little  part  in  the  contest,  which  led  to  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  Ipsus,  in  which  Antigonus  was 
defeated  and  slain  (301).  The  latter  years  of 
Ptolemy's  reign  appear  to  have1)een  devoted 
almost  entirely  to  the  arts  of  peace,  and  to  pro- 
moting the  internal  prosperity  of  his  dominions. 
In  285  Ptolemy  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  young- 
est son  Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  the  child  of  his 
latest  and  most  beloved  wife,  Berenice,  exclud- 
ing from  the  throne  his  two  eldest  sons  Ptolemy 
Ceraunus  and  Meleager,  the  offspring  of  Euryd- 
ice.  The  elder  Ptolemy  survived  this  event 
two  years,  and  died  in  283.  His  reign  is  vari- 
ously estimated  at  thirty-eight  or  forty  years, 
according  as  we  include  or  not  these  two  years 
which  followed  his  abdication.  The  character 
of  Ptolemy  has  been  generally  represented  in  a 
very  favorable  light  by  historians,  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  if  we  compare  him  with  his  con- 
temporary and  rival  potentates  he  appears  to 
deserve  the  praises  bestowed  upon  his  mildness 
and  moderation.  But  it  is  only  with  this  im- 
portant qualification  that  they  can  be  admitted, 
for  there  are  many  evidences  that  he  did  not 
shrink  from  any  measure  that  he  deemed  requi- 
site in  order  to  carry  out  the  objects  of  his  am- 
bition. But  as  a  ruler  Ptolemy  certainly  de- 
serves the  highest  praise.  By  his  able  and  vig- 
orous administration  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  wealth  and  prosperity  which  Egypt  enjoyed 
for  a  long  period.  Under  his  fostering  care 
Alexandrea  quickly  rose  to  the  place  designed 
for  it  by  its  founder,  that  of  the  greatest  com- 
mercial city  of  the  world.  Not  less  eminent 
were  the  services  rendered  by  Ptolemy  to  the 
advancement  of  literature  and  science.  In  this 
department,  indeed,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish the  portion  of  credit  due  to  the  father 
irom  that  of  his  son ;  but  it  seems  certain  that 
to  the  elder  monarch  belongs  the  merit  of  hav- 
ing originated  those  literary  institutions  which 
assumed  a  more  definite  and  regular  form,  as 
well  as  a  more  prominent  place,  under  his  suc- 
cessor. Such  appears  to  have  been  the  case 
with  the  two  most  celebrated  of  all,  the  Library 
and  the  Museum  of  Alexandrea.  The  first  sug- 
gestion of  these  important  foundations  is  as- 
cribed by  some  writers  to  Demetrius  of  Phalerus, 


PTOLEMJEDS. 

who  spent  all  the  latter  years  of  his  life  at  the 
court  of  Ptolemy.  But  many  other  men  of  lit- 
erary eminence  were  also  gathered  around  the 
Egyptian  king,  among  whom  may  be  especially 
noticed  the  great  geometer  Euclid,  the  philoso- 
phers Stilpo  of  Megara,  Theodorus  of  Cyrene, 
and  Diodorus  surnamed  Cronus  ;  as  well  as  the 
elegiac  poet  Philetas  of  Cos,  and  the  gramma- 
rian Zenodotus.  To  the  two  last  we  are  told 
Ptolemy  confided  the  literary  education  of  his 
son  Philadelphus.  Many  anecdotes  sufficiently 
attest  the  free  intercourse  which  subsisted  be- 
tween the  king  and  the  men  of  letters  by  whom 
he  was  surrounded,  and  prove  that  the  easy  fa 
miliarity  of  his  manners  corresponded  with  his 
simple  and  unostentatious  habits  of  life.  We 
also  find  him  maintaining  a  correspondence  with 
Menander,  whom  he  in  vain  endeavored  to  at- 
tract to  his  court,  and  sending  overtures  prob- 
ably of  a  similar  nature  to  Theophrastus.  Nor 
were  the  fine  arts  neglected  :  the  rival  painters 
Antiphilus  and  Apelles  both  exercised  their 
talents  at  Alexandrea,  where  some  of  their  most 
celebrated  pictures  were  produced.  Ptolemy 
was  himself  an  author  :  he  composed  a  history 
of  the  wars  of  Alexander,  which  is  frequently 
cited  by  later  writers,  and  is  one  of  the  chief 
authorities  which  Arrian  made  the  groundwork 
of  his  own  history. — II.  PHILADELPHUS  (B.C. 
285-247),  the  son  of  Ptolemy  I.  by  his  wife 
Berenice,  was  born  in  the  island  of  Cos,  309. 
His  long  reign  was  marked  by  few  events  of  a 
striking  character.  He  was  engaged  in  war 
with  his  half-brother  Magas,  who  had  governed 
Cyrene  as  viceroy  under  Ptolemy  Soter,  but  on 
the  death  of  that  monarch  not  only  asserted  his 
independence,  but  even  attempted  to  invade 
Egypt.  Magas  was  supported  by  Antiochus  II., 
king  of  Syria  ;  and  the  war  was  at  length  term- 
inated by  a  treaty,  which  left  Magas  in  undis- 
puted possession  of  the  Cyrena'ica,  while  his  in- 
fant daughter  Berenice  was  betrothed  to  Ptol- 
emy, the  son  of  Philadelphus.  Ptolemy  also 
concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Romans.  He  was 
frequently  engaged  in  hostilities  with  Syria, 
which  were  terminated  toward  the  close  of  his 
reign  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  by  which  Ptolemy 
gave  his  daughter  Berenice  in  marriage  to  An- 
tiochus II.  Ptolemy's  chief  care,  however,  waa 
directed  to  the  internal  administration  of  Ma 
kingdom,  and  to  the  patronage  of  literature  and 
science.  The  institutions  of  which  the  founda- 
tions had  been  laid  by  his  father  quickly  rose 
under  his  fostering  care  to  the  highest  pros- 
perity. The  Museum  of  Alexandrea  became 
the  resort  and  abode  of  all  the  most  distin- 
guished men  of  letters  of  the  day.  and  in  the 
library  attached  to  it  were  accumulated  all  the 
treasures  of  ancient  learning.  Among  the  other 
illustrious  names  which  adorned  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  may  be  mentioned  those  of  the  poets 
Philetas  and  Theocritus,  the  philosophers  Hege- 
sias  and  Theodorus,  the  mathematician  Euclid, 
and  the  astronomers  Timocharis,  Aristarchua 
of  Samos,  and  Aratus.  Nor  was  his  patron- 
age confined  to  the  ordinary  cycle  of  Hellenic 
literature.  By  his  interest  in  natural  history 
ho  gave  a  stimulus  to  the  pursuit  of  that  science, 
which  gave  birth  to  many  important  works,  while 
he  himself  formed  collections  of  rare  animala 
within  t  "it-  precincts  of  the  royal  palace.  It  was 

717 


PTOLEMLEUS. 

during  his  reign  also,  and  perhaps  at  his  desire, 
that  Manetho  gave  to  the  world  in  a  Greek  form 
the  historical  records  of  the  Egyptians  ;  and  ac- 
cording to  a  well-known  tradition,  it  was  by  his 
express  command  that  the  Holy  Scriptures  of 
the  Jews  were  translated  into  Greek.  The  new 
cities  or  colonies  founded  by  Philadelphus  in 
different  parts  of  his  dominions  were  extremely 
numerous.  On  the  Red  Sea  alone  we  find  at 
least  two  bearing  the  name  of  Arsinoe,  one 
called  after  another  of  his  sisters  Philotera,  and 
two  cities  named  in  honor  of  his  mother  Bere- 
nice. The  same  names  occur  also  in  Cilicia 
and  Syria  ;  and  in  the  latter  country  he  founded 
the  important  fortress  of  Ptolemais  in  Palestine. 
All  authorities  concur  in  attestingthe  great  pow- 
er and  wealth  to  which  the  Egyptian  monarchy 
was  raised  under  Philadelphus.  He  possessed 
at  the  close  of  his  reign  a  standing  army  of  two 
hundred  thousand  foot  and  forty  thousand  horse, 
besides  war-chariots  and  elephants ;  a  fleet  of 
one  thousand  five  hundred  ships,  and  a  sum  of 
seven  hundred  and  forty  thousand  talents  in  his 
treasury  ;  while  he  derived  from  Egypt  alone 
an  annual  revenue  of  fourteen  thousand  eight 
hundred  talents.  His  dominions  comprised,  be- 
sides Egypt  itself,  and  portions  of  ^Ethiopia,  Ara- 
bia, and  Libya,  the  important  provinces  of  Phoe- 
nicia and  Ccelesyria,  together  with  Cyprus,  Ly- 
cia,  Caria,  and  the  Cyclades ;  and  during  a  great 
part  at  least  of  his  reign,  Cilicia  and  Pamphyl- 
ia  also.  Before  his  death  Cyrene  was  reunited 
to  thn  monarchy  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  Ptol- 
emy with  Berenice,  the  daughter  of  Magas.  The 
private  life  and  relations  of  Philadelphus  do  not 
exhibit  his  character  in  as  favorable  a  light  as 
we  might  have  inferred  from  the  splendor  of  his 
administration.  He  put  to  death  two  of  his 
Brothers,  and  he  banished  his  first  wife  Arsinoe, 
*ve  daughter  of  Lysimachus,  to  Coptos  in  Up- 
per Egypt,  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy.  After  her 
removal  Ptolemy  married  his  own  sister  Arsi- 
noe, the  widow  of  Lysimachus  :  a  flagrant  vio- 
lation of  the  religious  notions  of  the  Greeks, 
hut  which  was  frequently  imitated  by  his  suc- 
cessors. He  evinced  his  affection  for  Arsinoe 
not  only  by  bestowing  her  name  upon  many  of 
his  newly-founded  colonies,  but  by  assuming 
himself  the  surname  of  Philadelphus,  a  title 
which  some  writers  referred  in  derision  to  his 
unnatural  treatment  of  his  two  brothers.  By 
this  second  marriage  Ptolemy  had  no  issue,  but 
his  first  wife  had  borne  him  two  sons — Ptole- 
my, who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne,  and  Ly- 
simachus ;  and  a  daughter,  Berenice,  whose 
marriage  to  Antiochus  II.,  king  of  Syria,  has 
been  already  mentioned. — III.  EUERGETES  (B.C. 
247-222),  eldest  son  and  successor  of  Philadel- 
phus. Shortly  after  his  accession  he  invaded 
Syria,  in  order  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  sister 
Berenice.  Vid.  BERENICE,  No.  2.  He  met  with 
the  most  striking  success.  He  advanced  as  far 
'>.-,  Babylon  and  Susa,  and  after  reducing  all 
Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  and  Susiana,  received 
the  submission  of  all  the  upper  provinces  of 
Asia  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Bactria  and  India. 
From  this  career  of  conquest  he  was  recalled 
by  the  news  of  seditions  in  Egypt,  and  returned 
to  that  country,  carrying  with  him  an  immense 
booty,  comprising,  among  other  objects,  all  the 
statues  of  the  Egyptian  deities  which  had  been 
718 


PTOLEXLEUS. 

carried  off  by  Cambyses  to  Babylon  or  Persia 
These  he  restored  to  their  respective  temples, 
an  act  by  which  he  earned  the  greatest  popu- 
larity with  his  native  Egyptian  subjects,  who 
bestowed  on  him,  in  consequence,  the  title  of 
Euergetes  (the  Benefactor),  by  which  lie  is  gen- 
erally known.  While  the  arms  of  the  king  him- 
self were  thus  successful  in  the  East,  his  fleets 
reduced  the  maritime  provinces  of  Asia,  includ- 
ing Cilicia,  Pamphylia,  and  Ionia,  as  far  as  the 
Hellespont,  together  with  Lysimachia  and  other 
important  places  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  which 
continued  fora  long  period  subject  to  the  Egyp- 
tian rule.  Concerning  the  events  which  followed 
the  return  of  Euergetes  to  his  own  dominions 
(probably  in  243),  we  are  almost  wholly  in  the 
dark  ;  but  it  appears  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
eastern  provinces  speedily  fell  again  into  the 
hands  of  Seleucus,  while  Ptolemy  retained  pos- 
session of  the  maritime  regions  and  a  great  part 
of  Syria  itself.  He  soon  obtained  a  valuable 
ally  in  the  person  of  Antiochus  Hierax,  the 
younger  brother  of  Seleucus,  whom  he  support- 
ed in  his  wars  against  his  elder  brother.  We 
find  Euergetes  maintaining  the  same  friendly 
relations  as  his  father  with  Rome.  During  sthe 
latter  years  of  his  reign  he  subdued  the  Ethio- 
pian tribes  on  his  southern  frontier,  and  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  Adule,  a  port  on  the  Red  Sea, 
where  he  established  an  emporium,  and  set  up 
an  inscription  commemorating  the  exploits  of 
his  reign.  To  a  copy  of  this,  accidentally  pre- 
served to  us  by  an  Egyptian  monk,  Cosmas  In 
dicopleustes,  we  are  indebted  for  much  of  the 
scanty  information  we  possess  concerning  his 
reign.  Ptolemy  Euergetes  is  scarcely  less  cel- 
ebrated than  his  father  for  his  patronage  of  lit- 
erature and  science  ;  he  added  so  largely  to  the 
library  at  Alexandrea  that  he  has  been  some- 
times erroneously  deemed  its  founder.  Eratos- 
thenes, Apollonius  Rhodius,  and  Aristophanes 
the  grammarian,  flourished  at  Alexandrea  dur- 
ing his  reign — sufficient  to  prove  that  the  liter- 
ature and  learning  of  the  Alexandrean  school 
still  retained  their  former  eminence.  By  his 
wife  Berenice,  who  survived  him,  Euergetes 
left  three  children  :  1.  Ptolemy,  his  successor; 
2.  Magas ;  and,  3.  Arsinoft,  afterward  married 
to  her  brother  Ptolemy  Philopator. — IV.  PHILOP- 
ATOR  (B.C.  222-205),  eldest  son  and  successor 
of  Euergetes.  He  was  very  far  from  inheriting 
the  virtues  or  abilities  of  his  father ;  and  his 
reign  was  the  commencement  of  the  decline  of 
the  Egyptian  kingdom,  which  had  been  raised 
to  such  a  height  of  power  and  prosperity  by 
his  three  predecessors.  Its  first  beginning  was 
stained  with  crimes  of  the  darkest  kind.  He 
put  to  death  his  mother  Berenice,  and  his  broth- 
er Magas,  and  his  uncle  Lysimachus,  the  broth- 
er of  Euergetes.  He  then  gave  himself  up  with- 
out restraint  to  a  life  of  indolence  and  luxury, 
while  he  abandoned  to  his  minister  Sosibius  the 
care  of  all  political  affairs.  The  latter  seems 
to  have  been  as  incapable  as  his  master,  and 
the  kingdom  was  allowed  to  fall  into  a  state  of 
the  utmost  disorder,  of  which  Antiochus  the 
Great,  king  of  Syria,  was  not  slow  to  avail  him- 
self. In  the  first  two  campaigns  (219,  218), 
Antiochus  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Ccele- 
syria and  Palestine,  but  in  the  third  year  of  the 
war  (217)  he  was  completely  defeated  by  Plot 


PTOLEM/EUS. 

emy  in  person  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Raphia, 
and  was  glad  to  conclude  a  peace  with  the 
Egyptian  monarch.  On  his  return  from  his 
Syrian  expedition,  Ptolemy  gave  himself  up 
more  and  more  to  every  species  of  vice  and  de- 
bauchery. His  mistress  Agathoclea,  and  her 
brother  Agathocles,  divided  .with  Sosibius  the 
patronage  and  distribution  of  all  places  of  hon- 
or or  profit.  Toward  the  close  of  his  reign  Ptol- 
emy put  to  death  his  wife  Arsinog.  His  de- 
baucheries shortened  his  life.  He  died  in  205, 
leaving  only  one  son,  a  child  of  five  years  old. 
We  find  Ptolemy  following  up  the  policy  of  his 
predecessors  by  cultivating  the  friendship  of  the 
Romans,  to  whom  he  furnished  large  supplies 
of  corn  during  their  struggle  with  Carthage. 
Plunged  as  he  was  in  vice  and  debauchery, 
Philopator  appears  to  have  still  inherited  some- 
thing of  the  love  of  letters  for  which  his  prede- 
cessors were  so  conspicuous.  "We  find  him  as- 
sociating on  familiar  terms  with  philosophers 
arid  men  of  letters,  and  especially  patronising 
the  distinguished  grammarian  Aristarchus. — V. 
EPIPHANES  (B.C.  205-181),  son  and  successor 
of  Ptolemy  IV.  He  was  a  child  of  five  years 
old  at  the  death  of  his  father,  205.  Philip  king 
of  Macedonia  and  Antiochus  III.  of  Syria  de- 
termined to  take  advantage  of  the  minority  of 
Ptolemy,  and  entered  into  a  league  to  divide 
his  dominions  between  them.  In  pursuance  of 
this  arrangement,  Antiochus  conquered  Ccele- 
syria,  while  Philip  reduced  the  Cyclades  and 
the  cities  in  Thrace  which  had  still  remained 
subject  to  Egypt.  In  this  emergency  the  Egyp- 
tian ministers  had  recourse  to  the  powerful  in- 
tervention of  the  Romans,  who  commanded  both 
monarchs  to  refrain  from  further  hostilities,  and 
restore  all  the  conquered  cities.  In  order  to 
evade  this  demand  without  openly  opposing  the 
power  of  Rome,  Antiochus  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Egypt,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  the 
young  king  should  marry  Cleopatra,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Antiochus,  and  receive  back  the  Syrian 
provinces  as  her  dower.  This  treaty  took  place 
in  199,  but  the  marriage  was  not  actually  sol- 
emnized until  six  years  after.  The  adminis- 
tration of  Egypt  was  placed  "In  the  hands  of 
Aristomenes,  a  man  who  was  every  way  worthy 
of  the  charge.  As  early,  however,  as  196,  the 
young  king  was  declared  of  full  age,  and  the 
ceremony  of  his  anacleteria,  or  coronation,  was 
solemnized  with  great  magnificence.  It  was 
on  this  occasion  that  the  decree  was  issued 
which  has  been  preserved  to  us  in  the  celebra- 
*ed  inscription  known  as  the  Rosetta  stone,  a 
•nonument  of  great  interest  in  regard  to  the  in- 
ternal history  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies,  in- 
dependent of  its  importance  as  having  afforded 
the  key  to  the  discovery  of  hieroglyphics.  In 
193  the  marriage  of  Ptolemy  with  the  Syrian 
princess  Cleopatra  was  solemnized  at  Raphia. 
Ptolemy,  however,  refused  to  assist  his  father- 
in-law  in  the  war  against  the  Romans,  which 
was  at  this  time  on  the  eve  of  breaking  out, 
and  he  continued  steadfast  in  his  alliance  with 
Rome.  But  he  derived  no  advantage  from  the 
treaty  which  concluded  it,  and  Antiochus  still 
retained  possession  of  Ccelesyria  and  Phoeni- 
cia. As  long  as  Ptolemy  continued  under  the 
guidance  and  influence  of  Aristomenes,  his  ad- 
ministration was  equitable  and  popular.  Grad- 


PTOLEALfiUS. 

ually,  however,  he  became  estranged  from  hia 
able  and  virtuous  minister,  and  threw  himself 
more  and  more  into  the  power  of  flatterers  and 
vicious  companions,  until  at  length  he  was  in- 
duced to  rid  himself  of  Aristomenes,  who  was 
compelled  to  take  poison.  Toward  the  close  of 
his  reign  Ptolemy  conceived  the  project  of  re- 
covering Ccelesyria  from  Seleucus,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Antiochus,  and  had  assembled  a  large 
mercenary  force  for  that  purpose  ;  but  having, 
by  an  unguarded  expression,  excited  the  appre- 
hensions of  some  of  his  friends,  he  was  cut  off 
by  poison  in  the  twenty-fourth  year  of  his  reign 
and  the  twenty-ninth  of  his  age,  181.  He  left 
two  sons,  both  named  Ptolemy,  who  subse- 
quently ascended  the  throne,  under  the  names 
of  Ptolemy  Philometor  and  Euergetes  II.,  and 
a  daughter  who  bore  her  mother's  name  of  Cleo- 
patra. His  reign  was  marked  by  the  rapid  de- 
cline of  the  Egyptian  monarchy,  for  the  prov- 
inces and  cities  wrested  from  it  during  his  mi- 
nority by  Antiochus  and  Philip  were  never  re- 
covered, and  at  his  death  Cyprus  and  the  Cy- 
rena'ica  were  almost  the  only  foreign  posses- 
sions still  attached  to  the  crown  of  Egypt. — VI. 
PHILOMETOR  (B.C.  181-146),  eldest  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Ptolemy  V.  He  was  a  child  at  the 
death  of  his  father  in  181,  and  the  regency  was 
assumed  during  his  minority  by  his  mother  Cleo- 
patra, who,  by  her  able  administration,  main- 
tained the  kingdom  in  a  state  of  tranquillity. 
But  after  her  death  in  173,  the  chief  power  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Eulaeus  and  Lemeus,  minis- 
ters as  corrupt  as  they  were  incapable,  who  had 
the  rashness  to  engage  in  war  with  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria,  in  the  vain  hope  of  re- 
covering the  provinces  of  Coelesyria  and  Phoe- 
nicia. But  their  army  was  totally  defeated  by 
Antiochus  near  Pelusium,  and  Antiochus  was 
able  to  advance  without  opposition  as  far  as 
Memphis,  '170.  The  young  king  himself  fell 
into  his  hands,  but  was  treated  with  kindness 
and  distinction,  as  Antiochus  hoped  by  his  means 
to  make  himself  the  master  of  Egypt.  On  learn- 
ing the  captivity  of  his  brother,  the  young  Ptol- 
emy, who  was  then  at  Alexandrea  with  his  sis- 
ter Cleopatra,  assumed  the  title  of  king,  un- 
der the  name  of  Euergetes  II.,  and  prepared 
to  defend  the  capital  to  the  utmost.  Aptioohu/ 
hereupon  laid  siege  to  Alexandrea,  hut  fce  was 
unable  to  take  the  city,  and  withdrew  into  Syria, 
after  establishing  Philometor  as  king  at  Mem- 
phis, but  retaining  in  his  hands  the  frontier  fort- 
ress of  Pelusium.  This  last  circumstance,  to- 
gether with  the  ravages  committed  by  the  Syr- 
ian troops,  awakened  Philometor,  who  had  hith- 
erto been  a  mere  puppet  in  the  hands  of  the 
Syrian  king,  to  a  sense  of  his  true  position,  and 
he  hastened  to  make  overtures  of  peace  to  hit 
brother  and  sister  at  Alexandrea.  It  was  agreed 
that  the  two  brothers  should  reign  together,  ana 
that  Philometor  should  marry  his  sister  Cleo- 
patra. But  this  arrangement  did  not  suit  the 
views  of  Antiochus,  who  immediately  renewed 
hostilities.  The  two  brothers  were  unable  to 
offer  any  effectual  opposition,  and  he  had  ad- 
vanced a  second  time  to  the  walls  of  Alexan- 
drea, when  he  was  met  by  a  Roman  embassy, 
headed  by  M.  Popilius  I^cnas,  who  haughtily 
commanded  him  instantly  to  desist  from  hos- 
tilities. Antiochus  did  not  venture  to  disobey, 
719 


PTOLEMJ2US. 

ami  withdrew  to  his  own  dominions,  168.  Dis- 
sensions soon  broke  out  between  the  two  broth- 
ers, and  Euergetes  expelled  Philometor  from 
Alexandrea.  Hereupon  Philometor  repaired  in 
person  to  Rome,  164,  where  he  was  received 
by  the  senate  with  the  utmost  honor,  and  dep- 
uties were  appointed  to  reinstate  him  in  the 
sovereign  power.  This  they  effected  with  lit- 
tle opposition,  but  they  settled  that  Euergetes 
should  obtain  Cyrene  as  a  separate  kingdom. 
Euergetes,  however,  shortly  afterward  laid 
claim  to  Cyprus  as  well,  in  which  he  was  sup- 
ported by  the  Romans;  but  Philometor  refused 
to  surrender  the  island  to  him,  and  in  the  war 
which  ensued,  Euergetes  was  taken  prisoner 
by  his  brother,  who  not  only  spared  his  life,  but 
sent  him  back  to  Cyrene  on  condition  that  he 
should  thenceforth  content  himself  with  that 
kingdom.  The  attention  of  Philometor  appears 
to  have  been  from  this  time  principally  directed 
to  the  side  of  Syria.  Demetrius  Soter  having 
sought,  during  the  dissensions  between  the  two 
brothers,  to  make  himself  master  of  Cyprus, 
Ptolemy  now  supported  the  usurper  Alexander 
Balas,  to  whom  he  gave  his  daughter  Cleopatra 
in  marriage,  150.  But  when  Ptolemy  advanced 
with  an  army  to  the  assistance  of  his  son-in- 
Jaw,  Ammonius,  the  favorite  and  minister  of 
Alexander,  formed  a  plot  against  the  life  of 
Ptolemy ;  whereupon  the  latter  took  away  his 
daughter  Cleopatra  from  her  faithless  husband, 
and  bestowed  her  hand  on  Demetrius  Nicator, 
the  son  of  Soter,  whose  cause  he  now  espoused. 
In  conjunction  with  Demetrius,  Ptolemy  carried 
on  war  against  Alexander,  whom  he  defeated 
:n  a  decisive  battle  ;  but  he  died  a  few  days  aft- 
erward, in  consequence  of  an  injury  which  he 
received  from  a  fall  from  his  horse  in  this  bat- 
tle, 146.  He  had  reigned  thirty-five  years  from 
the  period  of  his  first  accession,  and  eighteen 
from  his  restoration  by  the  Romans.-  Philome- 
tor is  praised  for  the  mildness  and  humanity  of 
his  disposition.  Polybius  even  tells  us  that  not 
a  single  citizen  of  Alexandrea  was  put  to  death 
by  him  for  any  political  or  private  offence.  On 
the  whole,  if  not  one  of  the  greatest,  he  was  at 
least  one  of  the  best  of  the  race  of  the  Ptole- 
mies. He  left  three  children  :  1.  A  son,  Ptol- 
emy, who  was  proclaimed  king  after  his  fa- 
ther's death,  under  the  name  Ptolemy  Eupator, 
but  was  put  to  death  almost  immediately  after 
by  his  uncle  Euergetes.  2.  A  daughter,  Cleo- 
patra, married  first  to  Alexander  Balas,  then  to 
Demetrius  II.,  king  of  Syria ;  and,  3.  Another 
daughter,  also  named  Cleopatra,  who  was  aft- 
erward married  to  her  uncle  Ptolemy  Euergetes. 
— VII.  EUERGETES  II.  or  PHYSCON  (bvanuv),  that 
is,  Big-Belly,  reigned  B.C.  146-117.  His  his- 
tory down  to  the  death  of  his  brother  has  been 
already  given.  In  order  to  secure  undisputed 
possession  of  the  throne,  he  married  his  sis- 
ter Cleopatra,  the  widow  of  his  brother  Phi- 
lometor, and  put  to  death  his  nephew  Ptolemy, 
who  had  been  proclaimed  king  under  the  sur- 
name of  Eupator.  A  reign  thus  commenced  in 
blood  was  continued  in  a  similar  spirit.  Many 
of  the  leading  citizens  of  Alexandrea,  who  had 
taken  part  against  him  on  the  death  of  his  broth- 
er, were  put  to  death,  while  the  populace  were 
given  up  to  the  cruelties  of  his  mercenary  troops, 
and  the  streets  of  the  city  were  repeatedly  del- 
720 


PTOLEMJ2US. 

uged  with  blood.  Thousands  of  the  inhabit 
ants  fled  from  the  scene  of  such  horrors,  ana 
the  population  of  Alexandrea  was  so  greatly 
thinned  that  the  king  found  himself  compelled 
to  invite  foreign  settlers  from  all  quarters  to 
repeople  his  deserted  capital.  At  the  same 
time  that  he  thus  incurred  the  hatred  of  his 
subjects,  by  his  cruelties,  he  rendered  himself 
an  object  of  their  aversion  and  contempt  by 
abandoning  himself  to  the  most  degrading  vi- 
ces. In  consequence  of  these,  he  had  become 
bloated  and  deformed  in  person,  and  enormous- 
ly corpulent,  whence  the  Alexandreans  gave 
him  the  nickname  of  Physcon,  by  which  appel- 
lation he  is  more  universally  known.  His  un- 
ion with  Cleopatra  was  not  of  long  duration. 
He  became  enamored  of  his  niece  Cleopatra 
(the  offspring  of  his  wife  by  her  former  mar- 
riage with  Philometor),  and  he  did  not  hesitate 
to  divorce  the  mother  and  receive  her  daughter 
instead  as  his  wife  and  queen.  By  this  pro- 
ceeding he  alienated  still  more  the  minds  of  his 
Greek  subjects ;  and  his  vices  and  cruelties  at 
length  produced  an  insurrection  at  Alexandrea. 
Thereupon  he  fled  to  Cyprus,  and  the  Alexan- 
dreans declared  his  sister  Cleopatra  queen  (130). 
Enraged  at  this,  Ptolemy  put  to  death  Memphi- 
tis,  his  son  by  Cleopatra,  and  sent  his  head  and 
hands  to  his  unhappy  mother.  But  Cleopatra 
having  been  shortly  afterward  expelled  from 
Alexandrea  in  her  turn,  Ptolemy  found  himself 
unexpectedly  reinstated  on  the  throne  (127). 
His  sister  Cleopatra  fled  to  the  court  of  her 
elder  daughter  Cleopatra,  the  wife  of  Demetrius 
II.,  king  of  Syria,  who  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
fugitive.  Ptolemy,  in  revenge,  set  up  against 
him  a  pretender  named  Zabinas  or  Zebina,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  Alexander  II.  But  the 
usurper  behaved  with  such  haughtiness  to  Ptol- 
emy, that  the  latter  suddenly  changed  his  poli- 
cy, became  reconciled  to  his  sister  Cleopatra, 
whom  he  permitted  to  return  to  Egypt,  and 
gave  his  daughter  Tryphsena  in  marriage  to 
Antiochus  Grypus,  the  son  of  Demetrius.  Ptol- 
emy died  after  reigning  twenty-nine  years  from 
the  death  of  his  brother  Philometor ;  but  he 
himself  reckoned  the  years  of  his  reign  from 
the  date  of  his  first  assumption  of  the  regal  title 
in  170.  Although  the  character  of  Ptolemy 
Physcon  was  stained  by  the  most  infamous 
vices  and  ^y  the  most  sanguinary  cruelty,  he 
still  retained  that  love  of  letters  which  appears 
to  have  been  hereditary  in  the  whole  race  of 
the  Ptolemies.  He  had  in  his  youth  been  a 
pupil  of  Aristarchus,  and  not  only  courted  the 
society  of  learned  men,  but  was  himself  the 
author  of  a  work  called  '"fnoftv^ara,  or  me- 
moirs, which  extended  to  twenty-four  books. 
He  left  two  sons :  Ptolemy,  afterward  known 
as  Soter  II.,  and  Alexander,  both  of  whom  sub- 
sequently ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt ;  and 
three  daughters :  1.  Cleopatra,  married  to  her 
brother  Ptolemy  Soter ;  2.  Tryphaena,  the  wife 
of  Antiochus  Grypus,  king  of  Syria  ;  and,  3.  Se- 
lene, who  was  unmarried  at  her  father's  death. 
To  his  natural  son  Ptolemy,  surnamed  Apion, 
he  bequeathed  by  his  will  the  separate  kingdom 
of  Cyrene.— VIII.  SOTER  II.,  and  also  PHII.O- 
METOR,  but  more  commonly  called  LATHYRUS 
or  LATHURUS  (Aa0oty>of),  reigned  B.C.  117-107 
and  also  89-81.  Although  he  was  of  full  age 


PTOLEM.EUS. 

at  the  time  of  his  father's  death  (117),  he  was 
obliged  to  reign  jointly  with  his  mother,  Cleo- 
patra, who  had  been  appointed  by  the  will  of 
her  late  husband  to  succeed  him  on  the  throne.  ; 
She  was,  indeed,  desirous  of  associating  with  | 
herself  her  younger  son,  Ptolemy  Alexander ;  i 
hut  since  Lathyrus  was  popular  with  the  Alex-  j 
andreans,  she  was  obliged  to  give  way,  and  sent  j 
Alexander  to  Cyprus.     After  declaring  Lathy- 
rus king,  she  compelled  him  to  repudiate  his 
sister  Cleopatra,  of  whose  influence  she  was 
jealous,  and  to  marry  his  younger  sister  Selene  ; 
in  her  stead.     After  reigning  ten  years  jointly 
with  his  mother,  he  was  expelled  from  Alexan- 
drea  by  an  insurrection  of  the  people  which  she 
had  excited  against  him  (107).     His  brother 
Alexander   now  assumed   the   sovereignty  of 
Egypti  m  conjunction  with  his  mother,  while 
Lathyrus  was  able  to  establish  himself  in  the 
possession  of  Cyprus.     Cleopatra,  indeed,  at- 
tempted to  dispossess  him  of  that  island  also, 
but  without  success,  and  Ptolemy  held  it  as  an 
independent  kingdom  for  the  eighteen  years 
during  which  Cleopatra  and  Alexander  reigned 
in  Egypt.     After  the  death  of  Cleopatra  and  i 
the  expulsion  of  Alexander  in  89,  Ptolemy  La-  j 
thyrus  was  recalled  by  the  Alexandreans,  and 
established  anew  on  the  throne  of  Egypt,  which 
he  occupied  thenceforth  without  interruption 
till  his  death  in  81.    The  most  important  event 
of  this  period  was  the  revolt  of  Thebes,  in  Up- 
per Egypt,  which  was  still  poweiful  enough  to  ! 
nold  out  for  nearly  three  years  against  the  arms  j 
of  Ptolemy,  but  at  the  end  of  that  time  was  i 
taken  and  reduced  to  the  state  of  ruin  in  which  j 
it  has  ever  since  remained.     Lathyrus  reigned  I 
in  all  thirty-five  years  and  a  half;  ten  in  con-  J 
junction  with  his  mother  (117-107),  eighteen! 
in  Cyprus  (107-89),  and  seven  and  a  half  as  sole  j 
ruler  of  Egypt.    He  left  only  one  daughter,  | 
Berenice,  called  also  Cleopatra,  who  succeeded 
him  on  the  throne  ;  and  two  sons,  both  named 
Ptolemy,  who,  though  illegitimate,  became  sev- 
erally kings  of  Egypt  and  Cyprus. — IX.  ALEX- 
ANDER I.,  youngest  son  of  Ptolemy  VII.,  reign- 
ed conjointly  with  his  mother  Cleopatra  from 
the  expulsion  of  his  brother  Lathyrus,  B.C.  107 
to  90.    In  this  year  he  assassinated  his  mother ; 
but  he  had  not  reigned  alone  a  year,  when  he 
was  compelled  by  a  general  sedition  of  the  popu- 
lace and  military  to  quit  Alexandrea.     He, 
however,  raised  fresh  troops,  but  was  totally 
defeated  in  a  sea-fight  by  the  rebels ;  where- 
upon Lathyrus  was  recalled  by  the  Alexandre- 
ans to  Egypt,  as  has  been  already  related.    Al- 
exander now  attempted  to  make  himself  master 
of  Cyprus,  and  invaded  that  island,  but  was  de- 
feated and  slain.    He  left  a  son,  Alexander,  who 
afterward  ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt. — X. 
ALEXANDER  II.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  at  I 
Rome  at  the  death  of  Ptolemy  Lathyrus  in  81.  j 
Sulla,  who  was  then  dictator,  nominated  the  I 
young  Alexander  (who  had  obtained  a  high  | 
place  in  his  favor)  king  of  Egypt,  and  sent  him  i 
to  take  possession  of  the  crown.     It  was,  how- 1 
ever,  agreed,  in  deference  to  the  claim*  of  Cle-  ! 
opatra   Berenice,  the   daughter  of  Lathyrus,  ! 
whom  the  Alexandreans  had  already  placed  on 
the  throne,  that  Alexander  should  marry  her, 
and  admit  her  to  share  the  sovereign  power. 
Hi-  complied  with  the  letter  of  this  treaty  by  1 
46 


PTOLEM.EUS. 

marrying  Cleopatra,  but  only  nineteen  days  ait- 
erward  caused  her  to  be  assassinated.  The 
Alexandreans  thereupon  rose  against  their  new 
monarch  and  put  him  to  death. — XI.  DIONYSUS, 
but  more  commonly  known  by  the  appellation 
of  AULETES,  the  flute-player,  was  an  illegitimate 
son  of  Ptolemy  Lathyrus.  When  the  assassin- 
ation of  Berenice  and  the  death  of  Alexander  II. 
had  completed  the  extinction  of  the  legitimate 
race  of  the  Lagidae,  Ptolemy  was  proclaimed 
king  by  the  Alexandreans,  B.C.  80.  He  was 
anxious  to  obtain  from  the  Roman  senate  their 
ratification  of  his  title  to  the  crown,  but  it  was 
not  till  the  consulship  of  Caesar  (59)  that  he  was 
able  to  purchase  by  vast  bribes  the  desired  priv- 
ilege. He  had  expended  immense  sums  in  the 
pursuit  of  this  object,  which  he  was  compelled 
to  raise  by  the  imposition  of  fresh  taxes,  and 
the  discontent  thus  excited  combining  with  the 
contempt  entertained  for  his  character,  led  to 
his  expulsion  by  the  Alexandreans  in  58 
Thereupon  he  proceeded  in  person  to  Rome  to 
procure  from  the  senate  his  restoration.  His 
first  reception  was  promising ;  and  he  procured 
a  decree  from  the  senate  commanding  his 
restoration,  and  intrusting  the  charge  of  effect- 
ing it  to  P.  Lentulus  Spinther,  then  proconsul 
of  Cilicia.  Meanwhile,  the  Alexandreans  sent 
an  embassy  of  one  hundred  of  their  leading  cit- 
izens to  plead  their  cause  with  the  Roman 
senate  ;  but  Ptolemy  had  the  audacity  to  cause 
the  deputies,  on  their  arrival  in  Italy,  to  be 
waylaid,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  murder- 
ed. The  indignation  excited  at  Rome  by  this 
proceeding  produced  a  reaction  :  the  tribunes 
took  up  the  matter  against  the  nobility  ;  and  an 
oracle  was  produced  from  the  Sibylline  books, 
forbidding  the  restoration  of  the  king  by  an 
armed  force.  The  intrigues  and  disputes  thus 
raised  were  protracted  throughout  the  year  56, 
and  at  length  Ptolemy,  despairing  of  a  favorable 
result,  quitted  Rome  in  disgust,  and  withdrew 
to  Ephesus.  But  in  55,  A.  Gabinius,  who  was 
proconsul  in  Syria,  was  induced,  by  the  influ- 
ence of  Pompey,  aided  by  the  enormous  bribe 
of  10,000  talents  from  Ptolemy  himself,  to  un- 
dertake his  restoration.  The  Alexandreans  had 
in  the  mean  time  placed  on  the  throne  of  Egypt 
Berenice,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Ptolemy,  who 
had  married  Archelaus,  the  son  of  the  general 
of  Mithradates,  and  they  opposed  Gabinius  with 
an  army  on  the  confines  of  the  kingdom.  They 
were,  however,  defeated  in  three  successive 
battles,  Archelaus  was  slain,  and  Ptolemy  once 
more  established  on  the  throne,  55.  One  of  his 
first  acts  was  to  put  to  death  his  daughter  Ber- 
enice, and  many  of  the  leading  citizens  of  Alex- 
andrea. He  survived  his  restoration  only  three 
years  and  a  half,  during  which  time  he  was  sup- 
ported by  a  large  body  of  Roman  soldiers  who 
had  been  left  behind  by  Gabinius  for  his  pro- 
tection. He  died  in  51,  after  a  reign  of  twenty- 
nine  years  from  the  date  of  his  first  accession 
He  left  two  sons,  both  named  Ptolemy,  and  two 
daughters,  Cleopatra  and  Arsinoe. — XII.  Eldest 
son  of  the  preceding.  By  his  father's  will  the 
sovereign  power  was  left  to  himself  and  his 
sister  Cleopatra  jointly,  and  Hits  arrangement 
was  carried  into  effect  without  opposition,  51 
Auletes  had  also  referred  the  execution  of  hib 
will  to  the  Roman  senate,  and  tiie  latter  accept- 

73J 


PTOLEM^US. 

«d  the  office,  confirmed  its  provisions,  and  be- 
stowed on  Pompey  the  title  of  guardian  of  the 
young  king.  But  the  approach  of  the  civil  war 
prevented  them  from  taking  any  active  part  in 
the  administration  of  affairs,  which  fell  into  the 
hands  of  a  eunuch  named  Pothinus.  It  was 
not  long  before  dissensions  broke  out  between 
the  latter  and  Cleopatra,  which  ended  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  princess,  after  she  had  reigned 
in  conjunction  with  her  brother  about  three 
years,  48.  Hereupon  she  took  refuge  in  Syria, 
and  assembled  an  army,  with  which  she  in- 
vaded Egypt.  The  young  king,  accompanied 
by  his  guardian,  met  her  at  Pelusium,  and  it 
was  while  the  two  armies  were  here  encamped 
opposite  to  one  another  that  Pompey  landed  in 
Egypt,  to  throw  himself  as  a  suppliant  on  the 
protection  of  Ptolemy ;  but  he  was  assassinated 
by  the  orders  of  Pothinus,  before  he  could  ob- 
tain an  interview  with  the  king  himself.  Short- 
ly after,  Caesar  arrived  in  Egypt,  and  took  upon 
himself  to  settle  the  dispute  between  Ptolemy 
and  his  sister.  But  as  Cleopatra's  charms 
gained  for  her  the  support  of  Caesar,  Pothinus 
determined  to  excite  an  insurrection  against 
Caesar.  Hence  arose  what  is  usually  called 
the  Alexandrean  war.  Ptolemy,  who  was  at 
first  in  Caesar's  hands,  managed  to  escape,  and 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurgents  ;  but 
he  was  defeated  by  Caesar,  and  was  drowned  in 
an  attempt  to  escape  by  the  river  (47). — XIII. 
Youngest  son  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  was  declared 
king  by  Caesar  in  conjunction  with  Cleopatra, 
after  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Ptolemy 
XII.,  47 ;  and  although  he  was  a  mere  boy,  it 
was  decreed  that  he  should  marry  his  sister, 
with  whom  he  was  thu§  to  share  the  power. 
Both  his  marriage  and  regal  title  were,  of 
course,  purely  nominal ;  and  in  43  Cleopatra 
put  him  to  death. 

III.  Kings  of  other  Countries. 
1.  Surnamed  ALORITES,  that  is,  of  Alorus,  re- 
gent, or,  according  to  some  authors,  king  of 
Macedonia.  He  obtained  the  supreme  power 
by  the  assassination  of  Alexander  II.,  the  eldest 
son  of  Amyntas,  B.C.  367,  but  was,  in  his  turn, 
assassinated  by  Perdiccas  III.,  364. —  2.  Sur- 
named APION,  king  of  Cyrene  (117-96),  was  an 
illegitimate  son  of  Ptolemy  Physcon,  king  of 
Egypt,  who  left  him  by  his  will  the  kingdom  of 
the  Cyrenalca.  At  his  death  in  96,  Apion  be- 
queathed his  kingdom  by  his  will  to  the  Roman 
people.  The  senate,  however,  refused  to  ac- 
cept the  legacy,  and  declared  the  cities  of  the 
Cyrenaica  free.  They  were  not  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  a  province  till  near  thirty  years 
afterward.  —  3.  Surnamed  CERAUNUS,  king  of 
Macedonia,  was  the  son  of  Ptolemy  I.,  king  of 
Egypt,  by  his  second  wife  Eurydice.  When 
his  father  in  285  set  aside  the  claim  of  Cerau- 
nus  to  the  throne,  and  appointed  his  younger 
son,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  his  successor,  Ce- 
raunus  repaired  to  the  court  of  Lysimachus. 
After  Lysimachus  had  perished  in  battle  against 
Seleucus  (281),  Ptolemy  Ceraunus  was  received 
by  the  latter  in  the  most  friendly  manner ;  but 
shortly  afterward  (280)  he  basely  assassinated 
Seleucus,  and  took  possession  of  the  Macedo- 
nian throne.  After  reigning  a  few  months,  he 
was  defeated  in  battle  bv  the  Gauls,  taken  pris- 
722 


PTOLEM.EUS. 

oner,  and  put  to  death.— 4.  Tetrarch  of  CHALCH 
in  Syria,  the  son  of  Mennaeus.  He  appears  to 
have  held  the  cities  of  Hcliopolis  and  Chalcia 
as  well  as  the  mountain  district  of  Itursea,  from 
whence  he  was  in  the  habit  of  infesting  Damas- 
cus and  the  more  wealthy  parts  of  Coelesyria 
with  predatory  incursions.  He  reigned  from 
about  70  to  40,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Lysanias. — 5.  King  of  CYPRUS,  was  thfe 
younger  brother  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  king  of 
Egypt,  being,  like  him,  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Ptolemy  Lathyrus.  He  was  acknowledged  as 
king  of  Cyprus  at  the  same  time  that  his  brother 
Auletes  obtained  possession  of  the  throne  of 
Egypt,  80.  He  had  offended  P.  Clodius  by  neg- 
lecting to  ransom  him  when  he  had  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  Cilician  pirates  ;  and  accord- 
ingly Clodius,  when  he  became  tribune  (58), 
brought  forward  a  law  to  deprive  Ptolemy  of 
his  kingdom,  and  reduce  Cyprus  to  a  Roman 
province.  Cato,  who  had  to  carry  into  execu- 
"tion  this  nefarious  decree,  sent  to  Ptolemy,  ad- 
vising him  to  submit,  and  offering  him  his  per- 
sonal safety,  with  the  office  of  high-priest  at 
Paphos,  and  a  liberal  maintenance.  But  the 
unhappy  king  refused  these  offers,  and  put  an 
end  to  his  own  life,  57. — 6.  King  of  EPIRUS,  was 
the  second  son  of  Alexander  II.,  king  of  Epirus, 
and  Olympias,  and  grandson  of  the  great  Pyr- 
rhus.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother,  Pyrrhus  II.,  but  reigned 
only  a  very  short  time.  The  date  of  his  reign 
can  not  be  fixed  with  certainty,  but  as  he  was 
contemporary  with  Demetrius  II.,  king  of  Mac- 
edonia, it  may  be  placed  between  239-229. — 7. 
King  of  MAURETANIA,  was  the  son  and  success- 
or of  Juba  II.  By  his  mother  Cleopatra  he  was 
descended  from  the  kings  of  Egypt,  whose  name 
he  bore.'  The  period  of  his  accession  can  not 
be  determined  with  certainty,  but  we  know  that 
he  was  on  the  throne  in  A.D.  18.  He  continued 
to  reign  without  interruption  till  A.D.  40,  when 
he  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Caligula,  and 
shortly  after  put  to  death,  his  great  riches  hav- 
ing excited  the  cupidity  of  the  emperor. 

IV.  Literary. 

1.  CLAUDIUS  PTOLEM.SUS,  a  celebrated  mathe- 
matician, astronomer,  and  geographer.  Of  Ptol- 
emy himself  we  know  absolutely  nothing  but  his 
date.  He  certainly  observed  in  A.D.  139,  at  Al- 
exandrea ;  and,  since  he  survived  Antoninus, 
he  was  alive  A.D.  161.  His  writings  are  as 
follows  :  1 .  Meyd/lj?  Sviraf if  rijf  'Aurpovo/uaf , 
usually  known  by  its  Arabic  name  of  Almagest. 
Since  the  Tetrabiblus,  the  work  on  astrology, 
was  also  entitled  avvrafa,  the  Arabs,  to  distin- 
guish the  two,  probably  called  the  greater  work 
peyufy,  and  afterward  neyiarri :  the  title  Alma- 
gest is  a  compound  of  this  last  adjective  and  the 
Arabic  article.  The  Almagest  is  divided  into 
thirteen  books.  It  treats  of  the  relations  of  the 
earth  and  heaven  ;  the  effect  of  position  upon 
the  earth  ;  the  theory  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
without  which  that  of  the  stars  can  not  be  un- 
dertaken ;  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars,  and 
those  of  the  five  stars  called  planets.  The  sev- 
enth and  eighth  books  are  the  most  interesting 
to  the  modern  astronomer,  as  they  contain  a 
catalogue  of  the  stars.  This  catalogue  gives 
the  longitudes  and  latitudes  of  one  thousand 


PTOLEM^US. 

«nd  twenty-two  stars,  described  by  their  posi- 
tions in  the  constellations.     It  seems  that  this 
catalogue  is  in  the  main  really  that  of  Hippar- 
chus, altered  to  Ptolemy's  own  time  by  assum- 
ing Use  value  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes 
given  by  Hipparchus  as  the  least  which  could 
be  ;  some  changes  having  also  been  made  by 
Ptolemy's  own  observations.    Indeed,  the  whole 
work  of  Ptolemy  appears  to  have  been  based 
upon  the  observations  of  Hipparchus,  whom  he 
constantly  cites  as  his  authority.     The  best  edi- 
tion of  the  Almagest  is  by  Halma,  Paris,  1813, 
1816,  2  vols.  4to.     There  are  also  two  other 
volumes  by  Halma  (1819-1820),  which  contain 
some  of  the  other  writings  of  Ptolemy. — 2.  Te- 
rpufitfiAof  cvvra^if,  generally  called  Tctrabiblon, 
or  Quadripartitum  de  Apofelcsmatibus  et  Judiciis 
Astrorum.     With  this  goes  another  small  work, 
called  KapTrof,  or  Fructus  Librorum  Suortim,  often 
called  Ccntiloquium,  from  its  containing  a  hund- 
red aphorisms.     Both  of  these  works  are  as- 
trological, and  it  has  been  doubted  by  some 
whether  they  be  genuine.    But  the  doubt  merely 
arises  from  the  feeling  that  the  contents  are  un- 
worthy of  Ptolemy. — 3.  Kavuv  Bamfouv,  a  cata- 
logue of  Assyrian,  Persian,  Greek,  and  Roman 
sovereigns,  with  the  length  of  their  reigns,  sev- 
eral times  referred  to  by  Syncellus. — 4.  *daftf 
uir^avuv  uarepuv  KOI  avvayuyi)  eiriarifiaaetuv,  De 
Apparentiis  et  Significationibus  inerrantium,  an 
annual  list  of  sidereal  phenomena.  —  5,  6.  De  I 
Analemmate  and  Plant spheerium.     These  works  i 
are  obtained  from  the  Arabic.     The  Analemma 
is  a  collection  of  graphical  processes  for  facili-  ! 
tating  the  construction  of  sun-dials.    The  Plani- 
sphere is  a  description  of  the  stereographic  pro- 
jection, in  which  the  eye  is  at  the  pole  of  the 
circle  on  which  the  sphere  is  projected. — 7.  Hgpl 
VTTofteaeav  ruv  irl.avu/j.€vuv,  De  Planetarum  Hy-  ; 
potkcsibus.     This  is  a  brief  statement  of  the 
principal  hypotheses  employed  in  the  Almagest 
for  the  explanation  of  the  heavenly  motions. —  • 
8.  'AppoviKuv  /JtCAm  /.,  a  treatise  on  the  theory  j 
of  the  musical  scale. — 9.  tlcpt  Kpirrjpiov  ical  fiye-  \ 
IIOVIKOV,  De  Judicandi  Facilitate  et  Animi  Princi- 
patti,  a  metaphysical  work,  attributed  to  Ptol- 
emy.— 10.  TeuypaQiKT]  'Y^ijy^f,  in  eight  books, 
the  great  geographical  work  of  Ptolemy.    This 
work  was  the  last  attempt  made  by  the  ancients 
to  form  a  complete  geographical  system  ;  it  was 
accepted  as  the  text-book  of  the  science ;  and 
it  maintained  that  position  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  until  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the 
rapid  progress  of  maritime  discovery  caused  it 
to  be  superseded.     It  contains,  however,  very 
little  information  respecting  the  objects  of  in- 
terest connected  with  the  different  countries 
and  places ;  for,  with  the  exception  of  the  in- 
troductory matter  in  the  first  book,  and  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  work,  it  is  a  mere  catalogue  of  ( 
the  names  of  places,  with  their  longitudes  and  | 
latitudes,  and  with  a  few  incidental  references  ; 
to  objects  of  interest.    The  latitudes  of  Ptol-  j 
emy  are  tolerably  correct ;  but  his  longitudes 
are  very  wide  of  the  truth,  his  length  of  the 
known  world,  from  east  to  west,  being  much  ' 
too  great.     It  is  well  worthy,  however,  of  re- 
mark, in  passing,  that  the  modern  world  owes 
much  to  this  error;  for  it  tended  to  encourage  . 
that  belief  in  the  practicability  of  a  western  ! 
passage  to  the  Indies,  which  occasioned  the  dis-  i 


PTOLEMA1S. 

covery  of  America  by  Columbus.  The  first  boo* 
is  introductory.  The  next  six  and  a  half  books 
(ii.-vii.,  4)  are  occupied  with  the  description  of 
the  known  world,  beginning  with  the  West  of 
Europe,  the  description  of  which  is  contained 
in  book  ii.  ;  next  comes  the  East  of  Europe,  in 
book  iii. ;  then  Africa,  in  book  iv.  ;  then  West- 
ern or  Lesser  Asia,  in  book  v.  ;  then  the  Great- 
er Asia,  in  book  vi. ;  then  India,  the  Chersone- 
sus  Aurea,  Serica,  the  Sina;,  and  Taprobane,  in 
book  vii.,  cc.  1-4.  The  form  in  which  the  de- 
scription is  given  is  that  of  lists  of  places,  witn 
their  longitudes  and  latitudes,  arranged  under 
the  heads,  first,  of  the  three  continents,  and 
then  of  the  several  countries  and  tribes.  Pre- 
fixed to  each  section  is  a  brief  general  descrip- 
tion of  the  boundaries  and  divisions  of  the  part 
about  to  be  described ;  and  remarks  of  a  mis- 
cellaneous character.are  interspersed  among  the 
lists,  to  which,  however,  they  bear  but  a  small 
proportion.  The  remaining  part  of  the  seventh, 
and  the  whole  of  the  eighth  book,  are  occupied 
with  a  description  of  a  set  of  maps  of  the  known 
world.  These  maps  are  still  extant.  The  best 
edition  of  the  Geographia  of  Ptolemy  is  by  Pe- 
trus  Bertius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1619,  fol.  ;  reprinted 
Antwerp,  1624,  fol —2.  Of  Megalopolis,  the  son 
of  Agesarchus,  wrote  a  history  of  King  Ptolemy 
IV.  Philopator. — 3.  An  Egyptian  priest  of  Men- 
des,  who  wrote  on  the  ancient  history  of  Egypt. 
He  probably  lived  under  the  first  Roman  em- 
perors.— 4.  Surnamed  CHEMNUS,  a  grammarian 
of  Alexandrea,  flourished  under  Trajan  and 
Hadrian.  An  epitome  of  one  of  his  works  is 
preserved  by  Photius. 

PTOLEMAIS  (ITro/f/iatf :  TlTo2.tfia.tTnc  and  Hro 
Af/iaet5f).  1.  Also  called  ACE  ('Am;,  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  native  name  Acco,  Old  Testament : 
now,  in  Arabic,  Akka,  French  St.  Jean  d'Acre, 
English  Acre),  a  celebrated  city  on  the  coast  of 
Phoenicia,  south  of  Tyre,  and  north  of  Mount 
Carmel,  lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  bay  surrounded 
by  mountains,  in  a  position  marked  out  by  na- 
ture as  a  key  of  the  passage  between  Ccelesyria 
and  Palestine.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities 
of  Phffinicia,  being  mentioned  in  the  Book  of 
Judges  (i.,  31).  Under  the  Persians  it  was  made 
the  head-quarters  of  the  expeditions  against 
Egypt ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  decline  of  Tyre 
that  it  acquired  its  great  importance  as  a  mili- 
tary and  commercial  city.  The  Ptolemy  who 
enlarged  and  strengthened  it,  and  from  whom  it 
obtained  its  Greek  name,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  Ptolemy  I.  the  son  of  Lagus.  After  the 
change  of  its  name,  its  citadel  continued  to  be 
called  Ace.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  a  col- 
ony, and  belonged  to  Galilee.  To  recount  its 
great  celebrity  in  mediaeval  and  modern  history 
does  not  fall  within  the  province  of  this  work 
— 2.  (At  or  near  the  modern  El-Lahum),  a  small 
town  of  Middle  Egypt,  in  the  Nomos  ArsirjoTtes, 
between  Areinoft  and  Heracleopolis  the  Great. 
— 3.  P.  HKKMII  (FI.  fj'Epficlov,  l\.TO\tfia'iKr] ToA«f : 
now  Mcnshith,  ruins),  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  below  Abydos, 
was  a  place  of  great  importance  under  the  Ptol- 
nmies,  who  enlarged  and  adorned  it,  and  made 
it  a  purely  Greek  city,  exempt  from  all  pecul- 
iarly Egyptian  laws  and  customs.— 4.  P.  THB- 
ROX,  or  EPITHERAS  (II.  Orjpuv,  r\  1x1  ^pac),  a 
port  on  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  coast  of  the  Troglo 

723 


PTOON. 

dytae,  an  emporium  for  the  trade  with  India  and 
Arabia,  but  chiefly  remarkable  in  the  history 
of  mathematical  geography,  inasmuch  as,  the 
sun  having  been  observed  to  be  directly  over  it 
forty-five  days  before  and  after  the  summer  sol- 
stice, the  place  was  taken  as  one  of  the  fixed 
points  for  determining  the  length  of  a  degree 
of  a  great  circle  on  the  earth's  surface. — 5.  (Now 
Tolmelta,  or  Tolometa,  ruins),  on  the  northwest- 
ern coast  of  Cyrenaica,  one  of  the  five  great 
cities  of  the  Libyan  Pentapolis,  was  at  first  only 
the  port  of  BARCA,  which  lay  one  hundred  stadia 
(ten  geographical  miles)  inland,  but  which  was 
so  entirely  eclipsed  by  Ptolema'is  that,  under 
the  Romans,  even  the  name  of  Barca  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  latter  city.  From  which  of  the 
Ptolemies  it  took  its  name,  we  are  not  informed. 
Its  magnificence  is  attested  by  its  splendid  ruins, 
which  are  now  partly  covered  by  the  sea.  They 
are  four  miles  in  circumference,  and  contain  the 
remains  of  several  temples,  three  theatres,  and 
an  aqueduct. 

PTOON  (Uruov:  now  Palea  and  Strutzina),  a 
mountain  in  Bceotia,  an  offshoot  of  Helicon, 
which  extends  from  the  southeast  side  of  the 
Lake  Copais  southward  to  the  coast. 

PUBLICOLA,  Or  POPLICULA,  Or  POPLICOLA,  3  Ro- 

man  cognomen,  signified  "  one  who  courts  the 
people"  (from  populus  and  colo),  and  thus  "  a 
friend  of  the  people."  The  form  Poplicula  or 
Poplicola  was  the  more  ancient,  but  Publicola 
was  the  one  usually  employed  by  the  Romans 
in  later  times. 

PUBLICOLA,  P.  VALERIUS,  took  an  active  part 
in  expelling  the  Tarquins  from  the  city,  and 
was  thereupon  elected  consul  with  Brutus  (B. 
C.  509).  He  secured  the  liberties  of  the  peo- 
ple by  proposing  several  laws,  one  of  the  most 
important  of  which  was  that  every  citizen  who 
was  condemned  by  a  magistrate  should  have 
the  right  of  appeal  to  the  people.  He  also  or- 
dered the  lictors  to  lower  the  fasces  before  the 
people,  as  an  acknowledgment  that  their  power 
was  superior  to  that  of  the  consuls.  Hence  he 
became  so  great  a  favorite  with  the  people, 
that  he  received  the  surname  of  Publicola.  He 
was  consul  three  times  again,  namely,  in  508, 
507,  and  504.  He  died  in  503.  He  was  buried 
at  the  public  expense,  and  the  matrons  mourn- 
ed for  him  ten  months,  as  they  had  done  for 
Brutus.  The  descendants  of  Publicola  bore  the 
same  name,  and  several  of  them  held  the  highest 
offices  of  state  during  the  early  years  of  the  re- 
public. 

PUBLICOLA,  GELLIUS.  1.  L.,  consul  with  Cn. 
Lentulus  Clodianus,  B.C.  72.  Both  consuls 
carried  on  war  against  Spartacus,  but  were  de- 
feated by  the  latter.  In  70  Gellius  was  censor, 
and  in  67  and  66  he  served  as  one  of  Pompey's 
legates  in  the  war  against  the  pirates.  He  be- 
longed to  the  aristocratical  party.  In  63  he 
warmly  supported  Cicero  in  the  suppression  of 
the  Catilinarian  conspiracy.  In  59  he  opposed 
the  agrarian  law  of  Caesar,  and  in  57  he  spoke 
in  favor  of  Cicero's  recall  from  exile.  He  was 
alive  in  55,  when  Cicero  delivered  his  speech 
against  Piso,  but  he  probably  died  soon  after- 
ward. He  was  married  twice.  He  must  have 
reached  a  great  age,  since  he  is  mentioned  as 
'die  contubernalis  of  C.  Papirius  Carbo,  who 
»as  consul  in  120. — 2.  L.,  son  of  the  preceding 
724 


PULCHERIA. 

by  his  first  wife.  He  espoused  the  republican 
party  after  Caesar's  death  (44),  and  went  with 
M.  Brutus  to  Asia.  After  plotting  against  the 
lives  of  both  Brutus  and  Cassius,  he  deserted 
to  the  triumvirs,  Octavianus  and  Antony.  He 
was  rewarded  for  his  treachery  by  the  consul- 
ship in  36.  In  the  war  between  Octavianus 
and  Antony,  he  espoused  the  side  of  the  latter, 
and  commanded  the  right  wing  of  Antony's  flee« 
at  the  battle  of  Actium. — 3.  Brother  probably 
of  No.  1,  is  called  step-son  of  L.  Marcius  Philip- 
pus,  consul  91,  and  brother  of  L.  Marcius  Philip- 
pus,  consul  56.  According  to  Cicero's  account, 
he  was  a  profligate  and  a  spendthrift,  and  having 
dissipated  his  property,  united  himself  to  P. 
Clodius. 

PUBLILIA,  the  second  wife  of  M.  Tullius  Cic- 
ero, whom  he  married  B.C.  46.  As  Cicero 
was  then  sixty  years  of  age,  and  Publilia  quite 
young,  the  marriage  occasioned  great  scandal. 
It  appears  that  Cicero  was  at  the  time  in  great 
pecuniary  embarrassments ;  and  after  the  di- 
vorce of  Terentia,  he  was  anxious  to  contract 
a  new  marriage  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
money  to  pay  his  debts.  Publilia  had  a  large 
fortune,  which  had  been  left  to  Cicero  in  trust 
for  her.  The  marriage  proved  an  unhappy  one, 
as  might  have  been  expected ;  and  Cicero  di- 
vorced her  in  45. 

PUBLILIUS  PHILO.  Vid.  PHILO. 
PUBLILIUS,  VOLERO,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
472,  and  again  471,  effected  an  important  change 
in  the  Roman  constitution.  In  virtue  of  the 
laws  which  he  proposed,  the  tribunes  of  the 
plebs  and  the  aediles  were  elected  by  the  comitia 
tributa  instead  of  by  the  comitia  centuriata,  as 
had  previously  been  the  case,  and  the  tribes  ob- 
tained the  power  of  deliberating  and  determin- 
ing in  all  matters  affecting  the  whole  nation, 
and  not  such  only  as  concerned  the  plebs.  •  Some 
said  that  the  number  of  the  tribunes  was  now 
for  the  first  time  raised  to  five,  having  been 
only  two  previously. 

PUBLIUS  SYRUS.  Vid.  SYRUS. 
PUCINUM  (TloiiKtvov),  a  fortress  in  Istria,  in  the 
north  of  Italy,  on  the  road  from  Aquileia  to  Pola, 
was  situated  on  a  steep  rock,  which  produced 
wine,  mentioned  by  Pliny  under  the  name  of 
Vinum  Pucinum. 

PUDICITIA  (AtJuf),  a  personification  of  mod- 
esty, was  worshipped  both  in  Greece  and  at 
Rome.  At  Athens  an  altar  was  dedicated  to 
her.  At  Rome  two  sanctuaries  were  dedicated 
to  her,  one  under  the  name  of  Pudicitia  patricia, 
and  the  other  under  that  of  Pudicitia  pltbeia. 
The  former  was  in  the  forum  Boarium,  near  the 
temple  of  Hercules.  When  the  patrician  Vir- 
ginia was  driven  from  this  sanctuary  by  the 
other  patrician  women,  because  she  had  mar- 
ried the  plebeian  consul  L.  Volumnius,  she  built 
a  separate  sanctuary  to  Pudicitia  plebcia  in  the 
Vicus  Longus. 

PULCHER,  CLAUDIUS.  Vid.  CLAUDIUS. 
PULCHERIA,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Emperoi 
Arcadius,  was  born  A.D.  399.  In  414,  when 
she  was  only  fifteen  years  of  age,  she  became 
the  guardian  of  her  brother  Theodosius,  and 
was  declared  Augusta  or  empress.  She  had 
the  virtual  government  in  her  hands  during  the 
whole  lifetime  of  her  brother,  who  died  in  450. 
On  his  death  she  remained  at  the  head  of  af 


PULCHRUM  PROMONTORIUM. 

/airs,  and  shortly  afterward  she  married  Mar- 
cian,  with  whom  she  continued  to  reign  in  com- 
mon till  her  death  in  453.  Pulcheria  was  a 
woman  of  ability,  and  was  celebrated  for  her 
piety,  and  her  public  and  private  virtues. 

PULCHRUM  PROMONTORIUM  (xaAov  a.KpuTrjptov'), 
a  promontory  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Car- 
thaginian territory  in  Northern  Africa,  where 
the  elder  Scipio  Africanus  landed ;  probably 
identical  with  the  APOLLINIS  PROMONTORIUM. 

PULLUS,  L.  JUNIUS,  consul  B.C.  249,  in  the 
first  Punic  war.  His  fleet  was  destroyed  by  a 
storm,  on  account,  it  was  said,  of  his  neglect- 
ing the  auspices.  In  despair,  he  put  an  end  to 
his  own  life. 

PUPIENUS  MAXIMUS,  M.  CLODIUS,  was  elected 
emperor  with  Balbinus  in  A.D.  238,  when  the 
senate  received  intelligence  of  the  death  of  the 
two  Gordians  in  Africa  ;  but  the  new  emperors 
were  slain  by  the  soldiers  at  Rome  in  the  same 
year. 

PUPIUS,  a  Roman  dramatist,  whose  composi- 
tions are  characterized  by  Horace  as  the  "lacry- 
tnosa  poemata  Pupi." 

PUR  A  (Ilovpa:  now  probably  Bunpur),  the  cap- 
ital of  Gedrosia,  in  the  interior  of  the  country, 
on  the  borders  of  Carmania. 

•PURPURARL«  INSULT  (now  probably  the  Ma- 
deira group),  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  off  the  northwestern  coast  of  Africa, 
which  are  supposed  to  have  derived  their  name 
from  the  purple  muscles  which  abound  on  the 
opposite  coast  of  Africa  (Gaetulia).  The  islands 
of  Hera  (*Hpa)  and  Autolala  (Ai>roA«/la),  men- 
tioned by  Ptolemy,  appear  to  belong  to  the 
group. 

PURPURKO,  L.  FURIUS,  praetor  B.C.  200,  ob- 
tained Cisalpine  Gaul  as  his  province,  and  gain- 
ed a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Gauls,  who  had 
laid  siege  to  Cremona.  He  was  consul  196, 
when  he  defeated  the  Boii. 

PUTEOLAITUM,  a  country  house  of  Cicero  near 
Puteoli,  where  he  wrote  his  Quastiones  Acade- 
micac,  and  where  the  Emperor  Hadrian  was 
buried. 

PuTKOLiwus  SINUS  (now  Bay  of  Naples'),  a  bay 
of  the  sea  on  the  coast  of  Campania,  between 
the  promontory  Misenum  and  the  promontory  of 
Minerva,  which  was  originally  called  Cumanus, 
but  afterward  Puteolanus,  from  the  town  Pute- 
oli. The  northwest  corner  of  it  was  separated 
by  a  dike  eight  stadia  in  length  from  the  rest 
of  the  bay,  thus  forming  the  LUCRINUS  LACUS. 

PUTEOLI  (Puteolanus  :  now  Pozzuoli),  origin- 
ally named  DIC^ARCHIA  (biKaiapxia,  Ai/catup- 
Xeia:  AtKatapjevf,  AiKaiapxcirrif,  -xinif),  a  cele- 
brated sea-port  town  of  Campania,  situated  on 
a  promontory  on  the  east  side  of  the  Puteolanus 
Sinus,  and  a  little  to  the  east  of  Cumae,  was 
founded  by  the  Greeks  of  Cumae,  B.C.  521,  un- 
der the  name  of  Dicsearchia.  In  the  second 
Punic  war  it  was  fortified  by  the  Romans,  who 
changed  its  name  into  that  of  Puteoli,  either 
from  its  numerous  wells,  or  from  the  stench 
arising  from  the  mineral  springs  in  its  neigh- 
borhood. The  town  was  indebted  for  its  im- 
portance to  its  excellent  harbor,  which  was 
protected  by  an  extensive  mole  formed  from 
the  celebrated  reddish  earth  of  the  neighboring 
hills.  This  earth,  called  Pozzolana,  when  mix- 
ed with  chalk,  forms  an  excellent  cement,  which 


PYLADES. 

in  course  of  time  becomes  as  hard  in  water  as 
stone.  The  mole  was  built  on  arches  like  a 
bridge,  and  seventeen  of  the  piers  are  still  visi- 
ble projecting  above  the  water.  To  this  mole 
Caligula  attached  a  floating  bridge,  which  ex- 
tended as  far  as  Baiee,  a  distance  of  two  miles 
Puteoli  was  the  chief  emporium  for  the  com- 
merce with  Alexandrea  and  with  the  greater  part 
of  Spain.  The  town  was  colonized  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  B  C.  194,  and  also  anew  by  Augustus, 
Nero,  and  Vespasian.  It  was  destroyed  by 
Alaric  in  A.D.  410,  by  Genseric  in  455,  and  also 
by  Totilas  in  545,  but  was  on  each  occasion 
speedily  rebuilt.  There  are  still  many  ruins  of 
the  ancient  town  at  the  modern  Pozzuoli.  Of 
these  the  most  important  are  the  remains  of 
the  temple  of  Serapis,  of  the  amphitheatre 
and  of  the  mole  already  described. 

PUTPUT  (now  probably  Hamamet),  a  sea-port 
town  of  Africa  Propria  (Zeugitana)  on  the  Gulf 
of  Neapolis  (now  Gulf  of  Hamamet).  Its  name 
is  evidently  Phoenician. 

PYDNA  (Hvtiva :  Tlvfivaloc :  now  Kilron),  a 
town  of  Macedonia,  in  the  district  Pieria,  was 
situated  at  a  small  distance  west  of  the  Ther- 
maic  Gulf,  on  which  it  had  a  harbor.  It  was 
originally  a  Greek  colony,  but  it  was  subdued 
by  the  Macedonian  kings,  from  whom,  however, 
it  frequently  revolted.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war  it  was  taken  after  a  long 
siege  by  Archelaus,  and  its  inhabitants  removed 
twenty  stadia  inland  ;  but  at  a  later  period  we 
still  find  the  town  situated  on  the  coast.  It 
again  revolted  from  the  Macedonians,  and  was 
subdued  by  Philip,  who  enlarged  and  fortified 
the  place.  It  was  here  that  Olympias  sustain- 
ed a  long  siege  against  Cassander,  B.C.  317- 
316.  It  is  especially  memorable  on  account  of 
the  victory  gained  under  its  walls  by  ^Emilius 
Paulus  over  Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Mace- 
donia, 168.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  also 
called  Citrum  or  Citrus. 

PYGELA  or  PHYGELA  (ttvyeha,  *vyeAa),  a  small 
town  of  Ionia,  on  the  coast  of  Lydia,  with  a  tem- 
ple of  Diana  (Artemis)  Munychia.  Tradition 
ascribed  its  foundation  to  Agamemnon  on  his 
return  from  Troy. 

PYGMJBI  (Ilvyftaloi,  i..e.,  men  of  the  height  of 
a  KvyfiTi,  i.  e.,  thirteen  and  a  half  inches),  a 
fabulous  people,  first  mentioned  by  Homer  (//., 
iii.,  5),  as  dwelling  on  the  shores  of  Ocean,  and 
attacked  by  cranes  in  spring  time.  The  fable 
is  repeated  by  numerous  writers,  in  various 
forms,  especially  as  to  the  locality,  some 
placing  them  in  ^Ethiopia,  others  in  India,  and 
others  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  earth.  The 
story  is  referred  to  by  Ovid  and  Juvenal,  and 
forms  the  subject  of  several  works  of  art. 

PYGMAL!ON  (UvyndMuv).  1.  King  of  Cyprus 
and  father  of  Metharme.  He  is  said  to  have 
fallen  in  love  with  the  ivory  image  of  a  maiden 
which  he  himself  had  made,  and  therefore  to 
have  prayed  to  Venus  (Aphrodite)  to  breathe  life 
into  it.  When  the  request  was  granted,  Pyg- 
malion married  the  maiden,  and  became  by  her 
the  father  of  Paphus. — 2.  Son  of  Belus  and 
brother  of  Dido,  who  murdered  Sichaeus,  Dido's 
husband.  For  details,  ml.  DIDO. 

PYLADES  (Ilt/AujJjyc).  1  Son  of  Strophius  and 
Anaxibia,  a  sister  of  Agamemnon.  His  father 
was  king  of  Phocis ;  and  after  the  death  of  Aga- 

725 


PYL.E. 

unemnon,  Orestes  was  secretly  carried  to  his 
father's  court.  Here  Pylades  contracted  that 
j'riendship  with  Orestes  which  became  proverb- 
ial. He  assisted  Orestes  in  murdering  his  moth- 
er Clytaemnestra,  and  also  accompanied  him  to 
the  Tauric  Chersonesus ;  and  he  eventually 
married  his  sister  Electra,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Hellanicus,  Medon,  and  Strophius. 
For  details,  rid.  ORESTES. — 2.  A  pantomime 
dancer  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  spoken  of  un- 
der BATHYLLUS. 

PYL*:  (I]v?.ai,  i.  e.,  Gates').  1.  A  general 
name  for  any  narrow  pass,  such  as  THERMOPY- 
LAE, Pylae  Al'ianiae,  Caspiae,  &c.  (Vid.  the  sev- 
eral specific  names.)— 2.  Two  small  islands  at 
the  entrance  into  the  Arabicus  Sinus  (now  Red 
Sea)  from  the  Erythraean  Sea. 

PYLJEMENES  (llvhaiuevrjc),  appears  to  have 
been  the  name  of  many  kings  of  Paphlagonia, 
so  as  to  have  become  a  kind  of  hereditary  ap- 
pellation, like  that  of  Ptolemy  in  Egypt  and 
Arsaces  in  Parthia.  We  have,  however,  very 
little  definite  information  concerning  them. 

[PYL^EUS  (HvTiaiof),  son  of  Lethus,  leader  of 
the  Pelasgians  from  Larissa,  an  ally  of  the  Tro- 
jans.] 

[PYLARTES  (TlvTidprw),  a  Trojan  warrior, 
slain  by  Patroclus.] 

PYLAS  (IIvAa;\  son  of  Cteson,  and  king  of 
Megara,  who,  after  slaying  Bias,  his  own  fa- 
ther's brother,  founded  the  town  of  Pylos  in 
Peloponnesus,  and  gave  Megara  to  Pandion, 
who  had  married  his  daughter  Pylia,  and  ac- 
cordingly was  his  son-in-law. 

PYLENE  (IIu^vj;),  an  ancient  town  of  ^Etolia, 
on  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Aracynthus,  on 
whose  site  PROSCHIUM  was  subsequently  built. 

[PYLON  (IK'Auv),  a  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by 
Polypcetes.] 

PYLOS  (IliUof),  the  name  of  three  towns  on 
the  western  coast  of  Peloponnesus.  1.  In  Elis, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Scollis,  and  about  seventy 
or  eighty  stadia  from  the  city  of  Elis,  on  the 
road  to  Olympia,  near  the  confluence  of  the 
Ladon  and  the  Peneus  It  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Pylon  or  Pylas  of  Megara,  to  have 
been  destroyed  by  Hercules,  and  to  have  been 
afterward  rebuilt  by  the  Eleans. — 2.  In  Triphyl- 
ia,  about  thirty  stadia  from  the  coast,  on  the 
River  Mamaus,  west  of  the  Mountain  Minthe, 
and  north  of  Lepreum. — 3.  In  the  southwest  of 
Messenia,  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
^Egaleos  on  a  promontory  at  the  northern  en- 
trance of  the  basin,  now  called  the  Bay  ofNav- 
arino,  the  largest  and  safest  harbor  in  all  Greece. 
This  harbor  was  fronted  and  protected  by  the 
small  island  of  Sphacteria  (now  Sphagia),  which 
stretched  along  the  coast  about  a  mile  and  three 
quarters,  leaving  only  two  narrow  entrances  at 
each  end.  In  the  second  Messenian  war  the 
inhabitants  of  Pylos  offered  a  long  and  brave 
resistance  to  the  Spartans  ;  but  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Ira,  they  were  obliged  to  quit  their  na- 
tive country  with  the  rest  of  the  Messenians. 
Pylos  now  remained  in  ruins,  but  again  became 
memorable  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when  the 
Athenians  under  Demosthenes  built  a  fort  on 
the  promontory  Coryphasium,  a  little  south  of 
the  ancient  city,  and  just  within  the  northern 
entrance  to  the  harbor  (B.C.  425).  The  at- 
tempts of  the  Spartans  to  dislodge  the  Atheni- 
726 


PYRENE. 

ans  proved  unavailing ;  and  the  capture  by 
Cleon  of  the  Spartans,  who  had  landed  in  the 
island  of  Sphacteria,  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant events  in  the  whole  war.— There  has 
been  much  controversy,  which  of  these  tlm  i 
places  was  the  Pylos  founded  by  Neleus,  and 
governed  by  Nestor  and  his  descendants.  The 
town  in  Elis  has  little  or  no  claim  to  the  honor, 
and  the  choice  lies  between  the  towns  in  Triphyl- 
ia  nnd  Messenia.  The  ancients  usually  decided 
in  favor  of  the  Messenian  Pylos;  but  most  mod- 
ern critics  support  the  claims  of  the  Triphylian 
city. 

[PYRACMON,  one  of  the  assistants  of  Vulcan 
in  forging  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter  (Zeus). 
Vid.  CYCLOPES.] 

[PYRJECHMES  (Uvpaixpw),  leader  of  the  Pzeo- 
I  nians,  an  ally  of  the  Trojans,  slain  by  Patro- 
clus  according  to  Homer,  or  by  Diomedes  ac- 
i  cording  to  Dictys.] 

PYRAMIA  (ra  Uvpu^ia),  a  town  of  Argolis,  in 
!  the  district  Thyreatis,  where  Danaus  is  said  to 
I  have  landed. 

PYRAMKS.     Vid.  THISBE. 

PYRAMUS  (Uvpaftof  :  now  Jihan),  one  of  the 

:  largest  rivers  of  Asia  Minor,  rises  in  the  anti- 

I  Taurus  range,  near  Arabissus  in  Cataonia  (the 

\  southeastern  part  of  Cappadocia),  and  after  run 

ning  southeast,  first  under  ground,  and  then  as 

!  a  navigable  river,  breaks  through  the  Taurus 

1  chain  by  a  deep  and  narrow  ravine,  and  then 

'  flows  southwest  through  Cilicia  in  a  deep  and 

rapid  stream, 'about  one  stadium  (six  hundred 

and  six  feet)  in  width,  and  falls  into  the  sea 

I  near  Mallus.     Its  ancient  name  is  said  to  have 

i  been  Leucosyrus,  from  the  LEUCOSYRI  who  dwelt 

i  on  its  banks. 

[PYRANDER  (Hvpavtipoc),  a  historian  of  an  un- 
known period,  wrote  a  work  entitled  HCMTTOV- 


[PYRASUS  (Tlvpaoof),  a  city  of  the  Thessalian 
district  Phthiotis,  mentioned  by  Homer,  but  al- 
ready in  Strabo's  time  in  ruins  :  it  was  situated 
on  the  coast,  twenty  stadia  (two  geographical 
miles)  from  Thebae,  with  a  Demetrium.] 

[PYRASUS  (Uvpaaof),  a  Trojan  warrior,  slain 
by  Ajax.] 

PYRENE  or  PYREN^J  MONTES  (Hvp^vrj,  TU  lit/ 
prjvala  opij :  now  Pyrenees),  a  range  of  mount- 
ains extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  forming  the  boundary  between 
Gaul  and  Spain.     The  length  of  these  mount- 
ains is  about  two  hundred  and  seventy  miles  in 
a  straight  line  ;  their  breadth  varies  from  about 
'  forty  miles  to  twenty  ;  their  greatest  height  is 
'  between  eleven  thousand  and  twelve  thousand 
!  feet.    The  Romans  first  became  acquainted  with 
j  these  mountains  by  their  campaigns  against  the 
!  Carthaginians  in  Spain  in  the  second  Punic  war. 
i  Their  name,  however,  had  travelled  eastward 
at  a  much  earlier  period,  since  Herodotus  (ii., 
33)  speaks  of  a  city  Pyrene  belonging  to  the 
Celts,  near  which  the  Ister  rises.     The  ancient 
i  writers  usually  derived  the   name  from  nvp, 
"  fire,"  and  then,  according  to  a  common  prac- 
!  tice,  invented  a  story  to  explain  the  false  ety- 
i  mology,  relating  that  a  great  fire  once  raged 
I  upon  the  mountains.     The  name,  however,  is 
!  probably  connected  with  the  Celtic  Byrin  01 
Bryn,  "  a  mountain."     The  continuation  of  the 
mountains  along  the  Mare  Cantabricum  wan 


PYRENES  PROMONTORIUM. 

called  Saltus  Vasconum,  and  still  further  west 
Mons  Vindius  or  Vinnias.  The  Romans  were 
acquainted  with  only  three  passes  over  the  Pyr- 
enees, the  one  on  the  west  near  Carasae  <now 
Garis),  not  far  from  the  Mare  Cantabricuni,  the 
one  in  the  middle  leading  from  Caesaraugusta 
to  Beneharnum  (now  Bareges),  and  the  one  on 
the  east,  which  was  most  frequently  used,  near 
(he  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  by  Juncaria  (now 
Junquera). 

PYRENES  PROMONTORIUM,  or  PROMONTORIUM 
VENERIS  (now  Cape  Creus),  the  southeastern 
extremity  of  the  Pyrenees  in  Spain,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Gaul,  derived  its  second  name  from 
a  temple  of  Venus  on  the  promontory. 

PYRGI.  L  (Uvpyot  or  Uvpyof  :  Hvpyirr^),  the 
most  southerly  town  of  Triphylia  in  Elis,  near 
the  Messenian  frontier,  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  the  Minyae. — 2.  (Pyrgensis :  now  Santa 
Sevcra),  an  ancient  Pelasgic  town  on  the  coast 
of  Etruria,  was  used  as  the  port  of  Care  or 
Agylla,  and  was  a  place  of  considerable  import- 
ance as  a  commercial  emporium.  It  was  at  an 
early  period  the  head-quarters  of  the  Tyrrhenian 
pirates.  It  possessed  a  very  wealthy  temple  of 
Ilithyia,  which  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  plundered 
in  B.C.  384.  Pyrgi  is  mentioned  at  a  later  time 
as  a  Roman  colony,  but  lost  its  importance  un- 
der the  Roman  dominion.  There  are  still  re- 
mains at  Sta  Severa  of  the  ancient  polygonal 
walls  of  Pyrgi. 

[PYROO,  nurse  of  the  children  of  Priam,  ac- 
companied ^Eneas  after  the  destruction  of  Troy, 
and  showed  the  Trojan  women  that  it  was  a 
goddess,  and  not  Beroe,  who  urged  them  to  fire 
the  Trojan  ships  in  Sicily.] 

PYRGOTELES  (IlrpyorA^f),  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  gem  engravers  of  ancient  Greece, 
was  a  contemporary  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
who  placed  him  on  a  level  with  Apelles  and 
Lysippus,  by  naming  him  as  the  only  artist  who 
was  permitted  to  engrave  seal-rings  for  the  king. 

PYRICUS,  a  Greek  painter,  who  probably  lived 
noon  after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  production  of 
small  pictures  of  low  and  mean  subjects. 

PYRiPHLEGETHON(ni>pi0A.£ye0wv),that  is,  flam- 
ing with  fire,  the  name  of  one  of  the  rivers  in 
the  lower  world. 

PYROMACHUS,  the  name  of  two  artists.  The 
name  occurs  in  four  different  forms,  namely, 
Phyromachus,  Phylomachus,  Philomachus,  and 
Pyromachut.  1.  An  Athenian  sculptor,  who 
executed  the  bas-reliefs  on  the  frieze  of  the 
temple  of  Minerva  (Athena)  Polias,  about  B.C. 
415.  The  true  form  of  his  name  appears  to  have 
been  Phyromachus. — 2.  An  artist  who  flourish- 
ed B.C.  295-240,  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  (xxxiv., 
8,  s.  19)  as  one  of  those  statuaries  who  rep- 
resented the  battles  of  Attalus  and  Eumenes 
against  the  Gauls.  Of  these  battles  the  most 
celebrated  was  that  which  obtained  for  Attalus 
I.  the  title  of  king,  about  241.  It  is  supposed 
by  the  best  writers  on  ancient  art  that  the  cel- 
ebrated statue  of  a  dying  combatant,  popularly 
called  the  Dying  Gladiator,  is  a  copy  from  one 
of  the  bronze  statues  in  the  works  mentioned 
by  Pliny.  It  is  evidently  the  statue  of  a  Celt. 

PYRRHA  (Uvppa  :  nvppalof).  1.  A  town  on 
the  western  coast  of  the  island  of  Lesbos,  on 
the  inner  part  of  the  deep  bay  named  after  it, 


PYRRHUS. 

and  consequently  on  the  narrowest  pai  t  of  the 
island. — 2.  A  town  and  promontory  of  Phthio- 
tis  in  Thessaly,  on  the  Pagasaean  Gulf,  and  near 
the  frontiers  of  Magnesia.  Off  this  promontory 
there  were  two  small  islands,  named  Pyrrha 
and  Deucalion. — 3.  A  small  Ionic  town  in  Ca- 
ria,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Sinus  Latmicus, 
and  fifty  stadia  from  the  mouth  of  the  Maeander. 

PYRRHI  CASTRA  (Uvppov  ^upaf),  a  fortified 
place  in  the  north  of  Laconia,  where  Pyrrhus 
probably  encamped  in  his  invasion  of  the  coun- 
try in  B.C.  272. 

PYRRHICHUS  (nvppixof),  a  town  of  the  Eleu-  • 
thero-lacones  in  the  southwest  of  Laconia. 

PYRRHO  (Uvppuv),  the  founder  of  the  Skep- 
tical or  Pyrrhonian  school  of  philosophy,  was  a 
native  of  Elis  in  Peloponnesus,  lie  is  said  to 
have  been  poor,  and  to  have  followed  at  first 
the  profession  of  a  painter.  He  is  then  said  to 
have  been  attracted  to  philosophy  by  the  books 
of  Democritus,  to  have  attended  the  lectures  of 
Bryson,  a  disciple  of  Stilpon,  to  have  attached 
himself  closely  to  Anaxarchus,  and  with  him  to 
have  joined  the  expedition  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  During  the  greater  part  of  his  life  he 
lived  in  retirement,  and  endeavored  to  render 
himself  independent  of  all  external  circumstan- 
ces. His  disciple  Timon  extolled  with  admira- 
tion his  divine  repose  of  soul,  and  his  indiffer- 
ence to  pleasure  or  pain.  So  highly  was  he 
valued  by  his  fellow-citizens  that  they  made 
him  their  high  priest,  and  erected  a  monument 
to  him  after  his  death.  The  Athenians  con- 
ferred upon  him  the  rights  of  citizenship.  We 
know  little  respecting  the  principles  of  his  skep- 
tical philosophy  ;  and  the  ridiculous  tales  told 
about  him  by  Diogenes  Laertius  are  probably  the 
invention  of  his  enemies.  He  asserted  that  cer- 
tain knowledge  on  any  subject  was  unattainable, 
and  that  the  great  object  of  man  ought  to  be  to 
lead  a  virtuous  life.  Pyrrho  wrote  no  works, 
except  a  poem  addressed  to  Alexander,  which 
was  rewarded  by  tUe  latter  in  a  royal  manner. 
His  philosophical  system  was  first  reduced  to 
writing  by  his  disciple  Timon.  He  reached  the 
age  of  ninety  years,  but  we  have  no  mention  of 
the  year  either  of  his  birth  or  of  his  death. 

PYRRHUS  (Tlvppof).  I.  Mythological.  Vid. 
NEOPTOLEMUS. —  2.  I.  King  of  Epirus,  son  of 
^Eacides  and  Phthia,  was  born  B.C.  318.  His 
ancestors  claimed  descent  from  Pyrrhus,  the 
son  of  Achilles,  who  was  said  to  have  settled  in 
Epirus  after  the  Trojan  war,  and  to  have  be- 
come the  founder  of  the  race  of  Molossian  kings. 
On  the  deposition  of  his  father  by  the  Epirots 
(vid.  ^EACIDES),  Pyrrhus,  who  was  then  a  child 
of  only  two  years  old,  was  saved  from  destruc- 
tion by  the  faithful  adherents  of  the  king,  who 
carried  him  to  Glaucias,  the  king  of  the  Tau- 
lantians,  an  Illyrian  people.  Glaucias  took  the 
child  under  his  care,  and  brought  him*.up  with 
his  own  children.  He  not  only  refused  to  sur- 
render Pyrrhus  to  Cassander,  but  about  ten 
years  afterward  he  marched  into  Epirus  at  the 
head  of  an  army,  and  placed  Pyrrhus  on  the 
throne,  leaving  him,  however,  under  the  care 
of  guardians,  as  he  was  then  only  twelve  years 
of  age.  In  the  course  of  four  or  five  years, 
however,  Cassander,  who  had  gained  his  su- 
premacy in  Greece,  prevailed  upon  the  Epirots 
to  expel  their  young  king.  Pyrrhus,  who  was 

727 


PYRRHUS. 


PYRRHUS. 


still  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  joined  Deme- 
trius, who  had  married  his  sister  Dei'damia,  ac- 
companied him  to  Asia,  and  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Ipsus,  301,  in  which  he  gained  great 
renown  for  his  valor.  Antigonus  fell  in  the 
hattle,  and  Demetrius  became  a  fugitive ;  but 
Pyrrhus  did  not  desert  his  brother-in-law  in  his 
misfortunes,  and  shortly  afterward  went  for  him 
as  a  hostage  into  Egypt.  Here  he  was  fortu- 
nate enough  to  win  the  favor  of  Berenice,  the 
wife  of  Ptolemy,  and  received  in  marriage  An- 
tigone, her  daughter  by  her  first  husband.  Ptol- 
emy now  supplied  him  with  a  fleet  and  forces, 
with  which  he  returned  to  Epirus.  Neoptole- 
mus,  who  had  reigned  from  the  time  that  Pyr- 
rhus had  been  driven  from  the  kingdom,  agreed 
to  share  the  sovereignty  with  Pyrrhus.  But 
such  an  arrangement  could  not  last  long,  and 
Pyrrhus  anticipated  his  own  destruction  by  put- 
ting his  rival  to  death.  This  appears  to  have 
happened  in  295,  in  which  year  Pyrrhus  is  said 
to  have  begun  to  reign.  He  was  now  twenty- 
three  years  old,  and  he  soon  became  one  of  the 


the  theatre  and  all  other  public  places,  and  com 
pelled  their  young  men  to  serve  in  his  ranks 
In  the  first  campaign  (280),  the  Roman  consul, 
M.  Valerius  Lsevinus,  was  defeated  by  Pyrrhus 
near  Heraclea,  on  the  bank  of  the  River  Siris. 
The  battle  was  long  and  bravely  contested,  and 
it  was  not  till  Pyrrhus  brought  forward  his  ele- 
phants, which  bore  down  every  thing  before 
them,  that  the  Romans  took  to  flight.  The  loss 
of  Pyrrhus,  though  inferior  to  that  of  the  Ro- 
mans, was  still  very  considerable.  A  large 
proportion  of  his  officers  and  best  troops  had 
fallen;  and  he  said,  as  he  viewed  the  field  of 
battle,  "Another  such  victory,  and  I  must  re- 
turn to  Epirus  alone."  He  therefore  availed 
himself  of  his  success  to  send  his  minister  Cin- 
eas  to  Rome  with  proposals  of  peace,  while  he 
himself  marched  slowly  toward  the  city.  His 
proposals,  however,  were  rejected  by  the  sen- 
ate. He  accordingly  continued  his  march,  rav- 
aging the  Roman  territory  as  he  went  along. 
He  advanced  within  twenty-four  miles  of  Rome ; 
but  as  he  found  it  impossible  to  compel  the  Ro- 


most  popular  princes  of  his  time.  His  daring  j  mans  to  accept  the  peace,  he  retraced  his  steps, 
courage  made  him  a  favorite  with  his  troops,  and  withdrew  into  winter-quarters  to  Taren- 
and  his  affability  and  generosity  secured  the  turn.  As  soon  as  the  armies  were  quartered 
love  of  his  people.  He  seems  at  an  early  age  for  the  winter,  the  Romans  sent  an  embassy  to 
to  have  taken  Alexander  as  his  model,  and  to  I  Pyrrhus  to  endeavor  to  obtain  the  ransom  of 
have  been  fired  with  the  ambition  of  imitating  !  the  Roman  prisoners.  The  ambassadors  were 


his  exploits  and  treading  in  his  footsteps.  His 
eyes  were  first  directed  to  the  conquest  of  Mace- 
donia. By  assisting  Alexander,  the  son  of  Cas- 
sander,  against  his  brother  Antipater,  he  obtain- 
ed possession  of  the  whole  of  the  Macedonian 
dominions  on  the  western  side  of  Greece.  But 
the  Macedonian  throne  itself  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Demetrius,  greatly  to  the  disappointment  of 
Pyrrhus.  The  two  former  friends  now  became 
the  most  deadly  enemies,  and  open  war  broke 
out  between  them  in  291.  After  the  war  had 
been  carried  on  with  great  vigor  and  various 
vicissitudes  for  four  years,  Pyrrhus  joined  the 
coalition  formed  in  287  by»Seleucus,  Ptolemy, 
and  Lysimachus  against  Demetrius.  Lysim- 
achus  and  Pyrrhus  invaded  Macedonia;  Deme- 
trius was  deserted  by  his  troops,  and  obliged  to 
fly  in  disguise ;  and  the  kingdom  was  divided 
between  Lysimachus  and  Pyrrhus.  But  the 
latter  did  not  long  retain  his  portion ;  the  Mace- 
donians preferred  the  rule  of  their  old  general 
Lysimachus,  and  Pyrrhus  was  accordingly  driv- 
en out  of  the  country  after  a  reign  of  seven 
months  (286).  For  the  next  few  years  Pyrrhus 
reigned  quietly  in  Epirus  without  embarking  in 
any  new  enterprise.  But  a  life  of  inactivity 
was  insupportable  to  him,  and  accordingly  he 
readily  accepted  the  invitation  of  the  Taren- 
tines  to  assist  them  in  their  war  against  the 
Romans.  He  crossed  over  to  Italy  early  in  280, 
in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  his  age.  He  took 
with  him  twenty  thousand  foot,  three  thousand 
horse,  two  thousand  archers,  five  hundred  sling- 
ers,  and  either  fifty  or  twenty  elephants,  hav- 
ing previously  sent  Milo,  one  of  his  generals, 
with  a  detachment  of  three  thousand  men.  As 
soon  as  he  arrived  at  Tarentum,  he  began  to 
make  vigorous  preparations  for  carrying  on  the 
war;  and  as  the  giddy  and  licentious  inhabit- 
ants of  Tarentum  complained  of  the  severity  of 
his  discipline,  he  forthwith  treated  them  as 


received  by  Pyrrhus  in  the  most  distinguished 
manner  ;  and  his  interviews  with  C.  Fabricius, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  the  embassy,  form  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  stories  in  Roman  his- 
tory. Vid.  FABRICIUS.  In  the  second  campaign 
(279),  Pyrrhus  gained  another  victory  near  As- 
culum  over  the  Romans,  who  were  commanded 
by  the  consuls  P.  Decius  Mus  and  P.  Sulpicius 
Saverrio.  The  battle,  however,  was  followed 
by  no  decisive  results,  and  the  brunt  of  it  had 
again  fallen,  as  in  the  previous  year,  almost  ex- 
clusively on  the  Greek  troops  of  the  king.  He 
was  therefore  unwilling  to  hazard  his  surviving 
Greeks  by  another  campaign  with  the  Romans, 
and  accordingly  he  lent  a  ready  ear  to  the  in- 
vitations of  the  Greeks  in  Sicily,  who  begged 
him  to  come  to  their  assistance  against  the 
Carthaginians.  The  Romans  were  likewise 
anxious  to  get  rid  of  so  formidable  an  oppo- 
nent, that  they  might  complete  the  subjugation 
of  Southern  Italy  without  further  interruption. 
When  both  parties  had  the  same  wishes,  it  was 
not  difficult  to  find  a  pretext  for  bringing  the 
war  to  a  conclusion.  This  was  afforded  at  the 
beginning  of  the  following  year  (278)  by  one 
of  the  servants  of  Pyrrhus  deserting  to  the 
Romans  and  proposing  to  the  consuls  to  poison 
his  master.  The  consuls  Fabricius  and  ^Emil- 
ius  sent  back  the  deserters  to  the  king,  stating 
that  they  abhorred  a  victory  gained  by  treason. 
Thereupon  Pyrrhus,  to  show  his  gratitude,  sent 
Cineas  to  Rome  with  all  the  Roman  prisoners, 
without  ransom  and  without  conditions ;  and 
the  Romans  granted  him  a  truce,  though  not  a 
formal  peace,  as  he  had  not  consented  to  evac- 
uate Italy.  Pyrrhus  now  crossed  over  into 
Sicily,  where  he  remained  upward  of  two  years, 
from  the  middle  of  478  to  the  latter  end  of  476. 
At  first  he  met  with  brilliant  success,  defeated 
the  Carthaginians,  and  took  Eryx  ;  but  having 
failed  in  an  attempt  upon  Lilybae  im,  he  lost  his 


their  master  rather  than  as  their  ally,  shut  up  I  popularity  with  the  Greeks,  who  began  to  form 
728 


PYRRHUS. 

cabals  and  plots  against  him.  This  led  to  re- 
taliation on  the  part  of  Pyrrhus,  and  to  acts 
which  were  deemed  both  cruel  and  tyrannical 
by  the  Greeks.  His  position  in  Sicily  at  length 
became  so  uncomfortable  and  dangerous  that 
he  soon  became  anxious  to  abandon  the  island. 
Accordingly,  when  his  Italian  allies  again  beg- 
ged him  to  come  to  their  assistance,  he  gladly 
complied  with  their  request.  Pyrrhus  returned 
to  Italy  in  the  autumn  of  276.  In  the  following 
year  (275)  the  war  was  brought  to  a  close. 
Pyrrhus  was  defeated  with  great  loss  near  Ben- 
eventum  by  the  Roman  consul  Curius  Dentatus, 
and  was  obliged  to  leave  Italy.  He  brought 
back  with  him  to  Epirus  only  eight  thousand 
foot  and  five  hundred  horse,  and  had  not  money 
to  maintain  even  these  without  undertaking 
new  wars.  Accordingly,  in  273,  he  invaded 
Macedonia,  of  which  Antigonus  Gonatas,  the 
son  of  Demetrius,  was  then  king.  His  only  | 
object  at  first  seems  to  have  been  plunder  ;  but 
his  success  far  exceeded  his  expectations.  An-  j 
tigonus  was  deserted  by  his  own  troops,  and 
Pyrrhus  thus  became  king  of  Macedonia  a  sec- 
ond time.  But  scarcely  had  he  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom  before  his  restless  spirit 
drove  him  into  new  enterprises.  On  the  invita- 
tion of  Cleonymus,  he  turned  his  arms  against 
Sparta,  but  was  repulsed  in  an  attack  upon  this 
city.  From  Sparta  he  marched  toward  Argos 
in  order  to  support  Aristeas,  one  of  the  leading 
citizens  at  Argos,  against  his  rival  Aristippus, 
whose  cause  was  espoused  by  Antigonus.  In 
the  night  time  Aristeas  admitted  Pyrrhus  into 
the  city  ;  but  the  alarm  having  been  given,  the 
citadel  and  all  the  strong  places  were  seized  by 
the  Argives  of  the  opposite  faction.  On  the 
dawn  of  day  Pyrrhus  saw  that  it  would  be 
necessary  for  him  to  retreat ;  and  as  he  was 
fighting  his  way  out  of  the  city,  an  Argive 
woman  hurled  down  from  the  house-top  a 
ponderous  tile,  which  struck  Pyrrhus  on  the 
back  of  his  neck.  He  fell  from  his  horse  stun- 
ned with  the  blow,  and  being  recognized  by 
some  of  the  soldiers  of  Antigonus,  was  quickly 
dispatched.  His  head  was  cut  off  and  carried 
to  Antigonus,  who  turned  away  from  the  sight, 
and  ordered  the  body  to  be  interred  with  be- 
coming honors.  Pyrrhus  perished  in  272,  in  the 
forty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  twenty- 
third  of  his  reign.  He  was  the  greatest  war- 
rior and  one  of  the  best  princes  of  his  time. 
With  his  daring  courage,  his  military  skill,  and 
his  kingly  bearing,  he  might  have  become  the 
most  powerful  monarch  of  his  day  if  he  had 
steadily  pursued  the  immediate  object  before 
him.  But  he  never  rested  satisfied  with  any 
acquisition,  and  was  ever  grasping  at  some  fresh 
object :  hence  Antigonus  compared  him  to  a 
gambler,  who  made  many  good  throws  with 
the  dice,  but  was  unable  to  make  the  proper  use 
of  the  game.  Pyrrhus  was  regarded  in  subse- 
quent times  as  one  of  the  greatest  generals  that 
had  ever  lived.  Hannibal  said  that  of  all  gen- 
erals Pyrrhus  was  the  first,  Scipio  the  second, 
and  himself  the  third  ;  or,  according  to  another 
version  of  the  story,  Alexander  was  the  first, 
Pyrrhus  the  second,  and  himself  the  'third. 
Pyrrhus  wrote  a  work  on  the  art  of  war,  which 
was  read  in  the  time  of  Cicero;  and  his  com- 
mentaries are  quoted  by  both  Dionysius  and 


PYTHAGORAS. 

Plutarch.  Pyrrhus  married  four  wives  : '  1.  A» 
tigone,  the  daughter  of  Berenice.  2.  A  daugn- 
terof  Audoleon,  kingof  the  Paeonians.  3.  biv- 
cenna,  a  daughter  of  Bardylis,  king  of  ihc 
Illyrians.  4.  Lanassa,  a  daughter  of  Agatho- 
cles  of  Syracuse.  His  children  were,  1.  Ptol- 
emy, born  295  ;  killed  in  battle,  272.  2.  Alex- 
ander, who  succeeded  his  father  as  king  of 
Epirus.  3.  Helenus.  4.  Nereis,  who  married 
Gelon  of  Syracuse.  5.  Olympias,  who  married 
her  own  brother  Alexander.  6.  Deidamia  01 
Laodamia.— 3.  II.  King  of  Epirus,  son  of  Alex- 
ander II.  and  Olympias,  and  grandson  of  Pyr- 
rhus I.,  was  a  child  at  the  time  of  his  father's 
death  (between  262  and  258).  During  his  mi- 
nority the  kingdom  was  governed  by  his  mother 
Olympias.  According  to  one  account,  Olympias 
survived  Pyrrhus,  who  died  soon  after  he  had 
grown  up  to  manhood ;  according  to  another 
account,  Olympias  had  poisoned  a  maiden  to 
whom  Pyrrhus  was  attached,  and  was  herself 
poisoned  by  him  in  revenge. 

PYTHAGORAS  (TlvOayopas').  1.  A  celebrated 
Greek  philosopher,  was  a  native  of  Samos,  and 
the  son  of  Mnesarchus,  who  was  either  a  mer- 
chant, or,  according  to  others,  an  engraver  of 
signets.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  uncertain, 
but  all  authorities  agree  that  he  flourished  in 
the  times  of  Polycrates  and  Tarquinius  Superb- 
us  (B.C.  540-510).  He  studied  in  his  own 
country  under  Creophilus,  Pherecydes  of  Syros, 
and  others,  and  is  said  to  have  visited  Egypt 
and  many  countries  of  the  East  for  the  purpose 
of  acquiring  knowledge.  We  have  not  much 
trustworthy  evidence  either  as  to  the  kind  and 
amount  of  knowledge  which  he  acquired,  or  as 
to  his  definite  philosophical  views.  It  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  he  believed  in  the  transmi- 
gration of  souls ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  pre- 
tended that  he  had  been  Euphorbus,  the  son  of 
Panthus,  in  the  Trojan  war,  as  well  as  various 
other  characters.  He  is  further  said  to  have 
discovered  the  propositions  that  the  triangle 
inscribed  in  a  semicircle  is  right-angled,  that 
the  square  on  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled 
triangle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on 
the  sides.  There  is  a  celebrated  story  of  his 
having  discovered  the  arithmetical  relations  ot 
the  musical  scale  by  observing  accidentally  the 
various  sounds  produced  by  hammers  of  differ- 
ent weights  striking  upon  an  anvil,  and  suspend- 
ing by  strings  weights  equal  to  those  of  the 
different  hammers.  The  retailers  of  the  story, 
of  course,  never  took  the  trouble  to  verify  the 
experiment,  or  they  would  have  discovered  that 
different  hammers  do  not  produce  different 
.-<  iiml-  from  the  same  anvil,  any  more  than  dif- 
ferent clappers  do  from  the  same  bell.  Discov- 
eries in  astronomy  are  also  attributed  to  Pythag- 
oras. There  can  be  little  doubt  that  he  paid 
great  attention  to  arithmetic,  and  its  applica- 
tion to  weights,  measures,  and  the  theory  of 
music.  Apart  from  all  direct  testimony,  how 
ever,  it  may  safely  be  affirmed,  that  the  verj 
remarkable  influence  exerted  by  Pythagoras, 
and  even  the  fact  that  he  was  made  the  hero 
of  so  many  marvellous  stories,  prove  him  to 
have  been  a  man  both  of  singular  capabilities 
and  of  great  acquirements.  It  may  also  be 
affirmed  with  safety  that  the  religious  element 
was  the  predominant  one  in  the  character  of 

729 


PYTHAGORAS. 

Pythagoras,  and  that  religious  ascendency  in 
connection  with  a  certain  mystic  religious  sys- 
tem was  the  object  which  he  chiefly  labored  to 
secure.  It  was  this  religious  element  which 
made  the  profoundest  impression  upon  his  con- 
temporaries. They  regarded  him  as  standing 
in  a  peculiarly  close  connection  with  the  gods. 
The  Crotoniats  even  identified  him  with  the 
Hyperborean  Apollo.  And  without  viewing 
him  as  an  impostor,  we  may  easily  believe  that 
he  himself,  to  some  extent,  shared  the  same 
views.  He  pretended  to  divination  and  proph- 
ecy ;  and  he  appears  as  the  revealer  of  a  mode 
of  life  calculated  to  raise  his  disciples  above  the 
level  of  mankind,  and  to  recommend  them  to 
the  favor  of  the  gods.  No  certainty  can  be  ar- 
rived at  as  to  the  length  of  time  spent  by  Pythag- 
oras in  Egypt  or  the  East,  or  as  to  his  resi- 
dence and  efforts  in  Samos  or  other  Grecian 
cities,  before  he  settled  at  Crotona  in  Italy.  He 
probably  removed  to  Crotona  because  he  found 
it  impossible  to  realize  his  schemes  in  his  na- 
tive country  while  under  the  tyranny  of  Poly- 
crates.  The  reason  why  he  selected  Crotona 
as  the  sphere  of  his  operations  it  is  impossible 
to  ascertain  ;  but  soon  after  his  arrival  in  that 
city  he  attained  extensive  influence,  and  gained 
over  great  numbers  to  enter  into  his  views. 
His  adherents  were  chiefly  of  the  noble  and 
wealthy  classes.  Three  hundred  of  these  were 
formed  into  a  select  brotherhood  or  club,  bound 
by  a  sort  of  vow  to  Pythagoras  and  each  other, 
for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  the  religious  and 
ascetic  observances  enjoined  by  their  master, 
and  of  studying  his  religious  and  philosophical 
theories.  Every  thing  that  was  done  and  taught 
among  the  members  was  kept  a  profound  secret 
from  all  without  its  pale.  It  was  an  old  Pytha- 
gorean maxim,  that  every  thing  was  not  to  be 
told  to  every  body.  There  were  also  gradations 
among  the  members  themselves.  In  the  ad- 
mission of  candidates  Pythagoras  is  said  to 
have  placed  great  reliance  on  his  physiognom- 
ical discernment.  If  admitted,  they  had  to  pass 
through  a  period  of  probation,  in  which  their 
po.wers  of  maintaining  silence  were  especially 
tested,  as  well  as  their  general  temper,  dispo- 
sition, and  mental  capacity. .  As  regards  the 
nature  of  the  esoteric  instruction  to  which  only 
the  most  approved  members  of  the  fraternity 
were  admitted,  some  have  supposed  that  it  had 
reference  to  the  political  views  of  Pythagoras. 
Others  have  maintained,  with  greater  probabili- 
ty, that  it  related  mainly  to  the  orgies,  or  secret 
religious  doctrines  and  usages,  which  undoubt- 
edly formed  a  prominent  feature  in  the  Pytha- 
gorean system,  and  were  peculiarly  connected 
with  the  worship  of  Apollo.  There  were  some 
outward  peculiarities  of  an  ascetic  kind  in  the 
rnode  of  life  to  which  the  members  of  the  broth- 
erhood were  subjected.  Some  represent  him 
as  forbidding  all  animal  food  ;  but  all  the  mem- 
bers can  not  have  been  subjected  to  this  pro- 
hibition, since  the  athletic  Milo,  for  instance, 
could  not  possibly  have  dispensed  with  animal 
food.  According  to  some  ancient  authorities, 
he  allowed  the  use  of  all  kinds  of  animal  food 
except  the  flesh  of  oxen  used  for  ploughing,  and 
rams.  There  is  a  similar  discrepancy  as  to  the 
prohibition  offish  and  beans.  But  temperance 
of  all  kinds  seems  to  have  been  strictly  enjoin- 
730 


PY  fHAGORAS. 

ed.  It  is  also  stated  that  they  had  common 
meals,  resembling  the  Spartan  syssrtia,  at  which 
they  met  in  companies  of  ten.  Considerable 
importance  seems  to  have  been  attached  to 
music  and  gymnastics  in  the  daily  exercises  of 
the  disciples.  Their  whole  discipline  is  repre- 
sented as  tending  to  produce  a  lofty  serenity 
and  self-possession,  regarding  the  exhibition  of 
which  various  anecdotes  were  current  in  anti- 
quity. Among  the  best  ascertained  features  of 
the  brotherhood  are  the  devoted  attachment  of 
the  members  to  each  other,  and  their  sovereign 
contempt  for  those  who  did  not  belong  to  their 
ranks.  It  appears  that  they  had  some  secret 
conventional  symbols,  by  which  members  of 
the  fraternity  could  recognize  each  other,  even 
if  they  had  never  met  before.  Clubs  similar  to 
that  at  Crotona  were  established  at  Sybaris, 
Metapontum,  Tarentum,  and  other  cities  of 
Magna  Graecia.  The  institutions  of  Pythago- 
ras were  certainly  not  intended  to  withdraw 
those  who  adopted  them  from  active  exertion, 
that  they  might  devote  themselves  exclusively 
to  religious  and  philosophical  contemplations. 
He  rather  aimed  at  the  production  of  a  calm 
bearing  and  elevated  tone  of  character,  through 
which  those  trained  in  the  discipline  of  the 
Pythagorean  life  should  exhibit  in  their  per- 
sonal and  social  capacities  a  reflection  of  the 
order  and  harmony  of  the  universe.  Whether 
he  had  any  distinct  political  designs  in  the 
foundation  of  his  brotherhood  is  doubtful ;  but 
it  was  perfectly  natural,  even  without  any  ex- 
press design  on  his  part,  that  a  club  such  as  the 
Three  'Hundred  of  Crotona  should  gradually 
come  to  mingle  political  with  other  objects,  and, 
by  the  facilities  afforded  by  their  secret  and 
compact  organization,  should  speedily  gain  ex- 
tensive political  influence.  That  this  influence 
should  be  decisively  on  the  side  of  aristocracy 
or  oligarchy  resulted  naturally  both  from  the 
nature  of  the  Pythagorean  institutions,  and  from 
the  rank  and  social  position  of  the  members  of 
the  brotherhood.  Through  them,  of  coarse, 
Pythagoras  himself  exercised  a  large  amount 
of  indirect  influence  over  the  affairs  both  of 
Crotona  and  of  other  Italian  cities.  This  Pyth- 
agorean brotherhood  or  order  resembled  in  many 
respects  the  one  founded  by  Loyola.  It  is  easy 
to  understand  how  this  aristocratical  and  ex- 
clusive club  would  excite  the  jealousy  and  hos- 
tility not  only  of  the  democratical  party  in  Cro- 
tona, but  also  of  a  considerable  number  of  the 
opposite  faction.  The  hatred  which  they  had 
excited  speedily  led  to  their  destruction.  The 
populace  of  Crotona  rose  against  them  ;  and  an 
attack  was  made  upon  them  while  assembled 
either  in  the  house  of  Milo,  or  in  some  other 
place  of  meeting.  The  building  was  set  on  fire, 
and  many  of  the  assembled  members  perished  ; 
only  the  younger  and  more  active  escaped. 
Similar  commotions  ensued  in  the  other  cities 
of  Magna  Graecia  in  which  Pythagorean  clubs 
had  been  formed.  As  an  active  and  organized 
brotherhood,  the  Pythagorean  order  was  every 
where  suppressed ;  but  the  Pythagoreans  still 
continued  to  exist  as  a  sect,  the  members  of 
which  kept  up  among  themselves  their  reli- 
gious observances  and  scientific  pursuits,  while 
individuals,  as  in  the  case  of  Archytas,  acquired 
now  and  then  great  political  influence.  Re. 


PYTHAGORAS. 

specting  the  fate  of  Pythagoras  himself,  the  ] 
accounts  varied.  Some  say  that  he  perished  ' 
in  the  temple  with  his  disciples,  others  that 
he  fled  first  to  Tarentum,  and  that,  being  driven 
thence,  he  escaped  to  Metapontum,  and  there 
starved  himself  to  death.  His  tomb  was  shown 
at  Metapontum  in  the  time  of  Cicero.  Accord- 
ing to  some  accounts,  Pythagoras  married  The- 
ano,  a  lady  of  Crotona,  and  had  a  daughter 
Damn,  and  a  son  Telauges,  or,  according  to 
others,  two  daughters,  Damo  and  Myia  ;  while 
other  notices  seem  to  imply  that  he  had  a 
wife  and  a  daughter  grown  up  when  he  came 
to  Crotona.  When  we  come  to  inquire  what 
were  the  philosophical  or  religious  opinions 
held  by  Pythagoras  himself,  we  are  met  at 
the  outset  by  the  difficulty  that  even  the  au- 
thors from  whom  we  have  to  draw  possessed 
no  authentic  records  bearing  upon  the  age  of 
Pythagoras  himself.  If  Pythagoras  ever  wrote 
any  thing,  his  writings  perished  with  him,  or 
not  long  after.  The  probability  is  that  he  wrote 
nothing.  Every  thing  current  under  his  name 
in  antiquity  was  spurious.  It  is  all  but  certain 
that  Philolaus  was  the  first  who  published  the 
Pythagorean  doctrines,  at  any  rate  in  a  written 
form.  (Fid.  PHILOLAUS.)  Still  there  was  so  mark- 
ed a  peculiarity  running  through  the  Pythago- 
rean philosophy,  that  there  can  be  little  question 
as  to  the  germs  of  the  system,  at  any  rate,  hav- 
ing been  derived  from  Pythagoras  himself.  Py- 
thagoras resembled  the  philosophers  of  the  Ionic 
school,  who  undertook  to  solve,  by  means  of  a 
single  primordial  principle,  the  vague  problem 
of  the  origin  and  constitution  of  the  universe  as 
a  whole.  His  predilection  for  mathematical 
studies  led  him  to  trace  the  origin  of  all  things 
to  number,  his  theory  being  suggested,  or  at  all 
events  confirmed,  by  the  observation  of  various 
numerical  relations,  or  analogies  to  them,  in  the 
phenomena  of  the  universe.  Musical  principles 
likewise  played  almost  as  important  a  part  in 
the  Pythagorean  system  as  mathematical  or 
numerical  ideas.  We  find  running  through  the 
entire  system  the  idea  that  order,  or  harmony 
of  relation,  is  the  regulating  principle  of  the 
whole  universe.  The  intervals  between  the 
heavenly  bodies  were  supposed  to  be  determ- 
ined according  to  the  laws  and  relations  of 
musical  harmony.  Hence  arose  the  celebrated 
doctrine  of  the  harmony  of  the  spheres  ;  for 
the  heavenly  bodies,  in  their  motion,  could  not 
but  occasion  a  certain  sound  or  note,  depending 
on  their  distances  and  velocities ;  and  as  these 
were  determined  by  the  laws  of  harmonical  in- 
tervals, the  notes  altogether  formed  a  regular 
musical  scale  or  harmony.  This  harmony,  how- 
ever, we  do  not  hear,  either  because  we  have 
been  accustomed  to  it  from  the  first,  and  have 
never  had  an  opportunity  of  contrasting  it  with 
stillness,  or  because  the  sound  is  so  powerful  as 
to  exceed  our  capacities  for  hearing.  The  ethics 
of  the  Pythagoreans  consisted  more  in  ascetic 
practice,  and  maxims  for  the  restraint  of  the 
passions,  especially  of  anger,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  power  of  endurance,  than  in  scien- 
tific theory.  What  of  the  latter  they  had  was, 
as  might  be  expected,  intimately  connected  with 
their  number-theory.  Happiness  consisted  in 
the  science  of  the  perfection  of  the  virtues  of 
•he  soul,  or  in  the  perfect  science  of  numbers. 


PYTHEAS. 

Likeness  to  the  Deity  was  to  be  the  object  of 
all  our  endeavors,  man  becoming  better  as  he 
approaches  the  gods,  who  are  the  guardians  and 
guides  of  men.  Great  importance  was  attached 
to  the  influence  of  music  in  controlling  the  force 
of  the  passions.  Self-examination  was  strongly 
insisted  on.  The  transmigration  of  souls  was 
viewed  apparently  in  the  light  of  a  process  of 
purification.  Souls  under  the  daminion  of  sen- 
suality either  passed  into  the  bodies  of  animals, 
or,  if  incurable,  were  thrust  down  into  Tartarus, 
to  meet  with  expiation  or  condign  punishment. 
The  pure  were  exalted  to  higher  modes  of  life: 
and  at  last  attained  to  incorporeal  existence 
As  regards  the  fruits  of  this  system  of  training 
or  belief,  it  is  interesting  to  remark,  that  wher- 
ever we  have  notices  of  distinguished  Pyth- 
agoreans, we  usually  hear  of  them  as  men  of 
great  uprightness,  conscientiousness,  and  self- 
restraint,  and  as  capable  of  devoted  and  endur- 
ing friendship.  Vid.  ARCHYTAS,  DAMON,  and 
PHINTIAS. — 2.  Of  Rhegium,  one  of  the  most  cel- 
ebrated statuaries  of  Greece,  probably  flourished 
B.C.  480-430.  His  most  important  works  ap- 
pear to  have  been  his  statues  of  athletes. 

PYTHEAS  (Ilvdeaf).  1.  An  Athenian  orator, 
distinguished  by  his  unceasing  animosity  against 
Demosthenes.  He  had  no  political  principles, 
made  no  pretensions  to  honesty,  and  changed 
sides  as  often  as  suited  his  convenience  or  his 
interest.  Of  the  part  that  he  took  in  political 
affairs  only  two  or  three  facts  are  recorded. 
He  opposed  the  honors  which  the  Athenians 
proposed  to  confer  upon  Alexander,  but  he  aft- 
erward espoused  the  interests  of  the  Macedonian 
party.  He  accused  Demosthenes  of  having  re- 
ceived bribes  from  Harpalus.  In  the  Lamian 
war,  B.C.  322,  he  joined  Antipater,  and  had  thus 
the  satisfaction  of  surviving  his  great  enemy 
Demosthenes.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  au- 
thor of  the  well-known  saying,  that  the  orations 
of  Demosthenes  smelt  of  the  lamp. — 2.  Of  Mas- 
silia  in  Gaul,  a  celebrated  Greek  navigator, 
who  sailed  to  the  western  and  northern  parts 
of  Europe,  and  wrote  a  work  containing  the  re- 
sults of  his  discoveries.  He  probably-lived  in 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  or  shortly  aft- 
erward. He  appears  to  have  undertaken  voy- 
ages, one  in  which  he  visited  Britain  and  Thule, 
and  of  which  he  probably  gave  an  account  in  his 
work  On  the  Ocean ;  and  a  second,  undertaken 
after  his  return  from  his  first  voyage,  in  which 
he  coasted  along  the  whole  of  Europe  from  Ga- 
dira  (now  Cadiz)  to  the  Tanais,  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  which  probably  formed  the  subject  of  his 
Periplus.  Pytheas  made  Thule  a  six  days'  sail 
from  Britain,  and  said  that  the  day  and  the 
night  were  each  six  months  long  in  Thule ; 
hence  some  modern  writers  have  supposed  that 
he  must  have  reached  Iceland,  while  others 
have  maintained  that  he  advanced  as  far  as  the 
Shetland  Islands.  But  either  supposition  is  very 
improbable,  and  neither  is  necessary ;  for  re- 
ports of  the  great  length  of  the  day  and  night 
in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  had  already 
reached  the  Greeks,  before  the  time  of  Pytheas. 
There  has  been  likewise  much  dispute  as  to 
what  river  we  are  to  understand  by  the  Tanais. 
The  most  probable  conjecture  is  that,  upon  reach- 
ing the  Elbe,  Pytheas  concluded  that  he  had  ar- 
rived at  the  Tanais,  separating  Europe  from 

731 


PYTHIAS. 

Asia.  —  3.  A  silver-chaser,  who  flourished  at 
Rome  in  the  age  immediately  following  that  of 
Pompey,  and  whose  productions  commanded  a 
remarkably  high  price. 

PYTHIAS  (TlvOidf).  1.  The  sister  or  adopted 
daughter  of  Hermias,  and  the  wife  of  Aristotle. 
—2.  Daughter  of  Aristotle  and  Pythias. 

PYTHIUM  (TLvdiov).  1.  A  place  in  Attica,  not 
far  from  Eleusie. — 2.  A  town  of  Thessaly  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  district  Hestiaeotis,  which, 
with  Azorus  and  Doliche,  formed  a  Tripolis. 

PYTHIUS  (flvtftof),  a  Lydian,  the  son  of  Atys, 
was  a  man  of  enormous  wealth,  which  he  de- 
rived from  his  gold  mines  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Celsenae  in  Phrygia.  When  Xerxes  arrived 
a\  Celaenae,  Pythius  banqueted  him  and  his 
whole  army.  His  five  sons  accompanied  Xerx- 
es. Pythius,  alarmed  by  an  eclipse  of  the  sun 
which  happened,  came  to  Xerxes,  and  begged 
that  the  eldest  might  be  left  behind.  This  re- 
quest so  enraged  the  king  that  he  had  the  young 
man  immediately  killed  and  cut  in  two,  and  the 
two  portions  of  his  body  placed  on  either  side 
of  the  road,  and  then  ordered  the  army  to  march 
between  them. 

[PYTHO.      Vid.  DELPHI.] 

PYTHOCLIDES  (llvOoKfeiSijt),  a  celebrated  mu- 
sician of  the  time  of  Pericles,  was  a  native  of 
Ceos,  and  flourished  at  Athens,  under  the  pa- 
tronage of  Pericles,  whom  he  instructed  in  his 
art. 

PYTHODORIS  (UvOoSupif),  wife  of  Polemon  I., 
king  of  Pontus.  After  the  death  of  her  husband 
she  retained  possession  of  the  government. 
She  subsequently  married  Archelaus,  king  of 
Oappadocia,  but  after  his  death  (A.D.  17)  re- 
turned to  her  own  kingdom,  of  which  she  con- 
tinued to  administer  the  affairs  herself  until  her 
decease,  which  probably  did  not  take  place  un- 
til A.D.  38.  Of  her  two  sons,  the  one,  Zenon, 
became  king  of  Armenia,  while  the  other,  Pole- 
mon, succeeded  her  on  the  throne  of  Pontus. 

PYTHON  (Ilvduv).  1.  The  celebrated  serpent, 
which  was  produced  from  the  mud  left  on  the 
earth  after  the  deluge  of  Deucalion.  He  lived 
in  the  caves  of  Mount  Parnassus,  but  was  slain 
by  Apollo,  who  founded  the  Pythian  games  in 
commemoration  of  his  victory,  and  received  in 
consequence  the  surname  Pythius. — 2.  Of  Ca- 
tana,  a  dramatic  poet  of  the  time  of  Alexander, 
whom  he  accompanied  into  Asia,  and  whose 
army  he  entertained  with  a  satyric  drama  when 
they  were  celebrating  the  Dionysia  on  the  banks 
of  the  Hydaspes.  The  drama  was  in  ridicule 
of  Harpalus  and  the  Athenians.  [The  frag- 
ments of  Python  are  contained  in  Wagner's 
Trag.  Grac.  Fragm.,  p.  134-136,  Paris,  1846.] 

PYXITES  (Hvft'r^f :  now  Vitzeh),  a  river  of 
Pontus,  falling  into  the  Euxine  near  Trapezus. 

PY.XUS.     Vid.  BUXENTUM. 


Q. 

QUADI,  a  powerful  German  people  of  the 
Suevic  race,  dwelt  in  the  southeast  of  Ger- 
many, between  Mount  Gabreta,  the  Hercynian 
forest,  the  Sarmatian  mountains,  and  the  Dan- 
ube. They  were  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Marcomanni,  with  whom  they  were  always 
closely  united,  on  the  north  by  the  Gothini  and 
Osi,  on  the  east  by  the  lazyges  Metanastae, 
732 


QUADRIFRONS. 

from  whom  they  were  separated  by  the  River 
Granuas  (now  Gran),  and  on  the  south  by  the 
Pannonians,  from  whom  they  were  divided  by 
the  Danube.  They  probably  settled  in  this  dis- 
trict at  the  same  time  as  the  Marcomanni  made 
themselves  masters  of  Bohemia  (vid.  MARCO- 
MANNI) ;  but  we  have  no  account  of  the  earlier 
settlements  of  the  Quadi.  When  Maroboduus, 
and  shortly  afterward  his  successor  Catualda, 
had  been  expelled  from  their  dominions  and  had 
taken  refuge  with  the  Romans  in  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,  the  Romans  assigned  to  the  barbari- 
ans, who  had  accompanied  these  monarchs,  .and 
who  consisted  chiefly  of  Marcomanni  and  Quadi, 
the  country  between  the  Marus  (now  March? 
Morava  1  or  Marosch  ?)  and  Cusus  (now  Waag  ?), 
and  gave  to  them  as  king  Vannius,  who  be- 
longed to  the  Quadi.  Vannius  was  expelled  by 
his  nephews  Vangio  and  Sido,  but  this  new 
kingdom  of  the  Quadi  continued  for  a  lon«  time 
afterward  under  Roman  protection.  In  the 
reign  of  M.  Aurelius,  however,  the  Quadi  join- 
ed the  Marcomanni  and  other  German  tribes  in 
the  long  and  bloody  war  against  the  empire, 
which  lasted  during  the  greater  part  of  that  em- 
peror's reign.  The  independence  of  the  Quadi 
and  Marcomanni  was  secured  by  the  peace 
which  Commodus  made  with  them  in  A.D.  180. 
Their  name  is  especially  memorable  in  the  his- 
tory of  this  war  by  the  victory  which  M.  Aurel 
ius  gained  over  them  in  174,  when  his  army 
was  in  great  danger  of  being  destroyed  by  the 
barbarians,  and  was  said  to  have  been  saved  by 
a  sudden  storm,  which  was  attributed  to  the 
prayers  of  his  Christian  soldiers.  (Vid.  p.  131, 
b.)  The  Quadi  disappear  from  history  toward 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  They  probably 
migrated  with  the  Suevi  further  west. 

QUADRATUS,  one  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  and 
an  Dearly  apologist  for  the  Christian  religion. 
He 'passed  the  early  part  of  his  life  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  was  afterward  bishop  of  the  Church 
at  Athens.  He  presented  his  Apology  to  Ha- 
drian in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign  (A.D.  126). 
This  apology  has  been  long  lost. 

QUADRATUS,  ASINIUS,  lived  in  the  times  of 
Philippus  I.  and  II.,  emperors  of  Rome  (A.D. 
244-249),  and  wrote  two  historical  works  in  the 
Greek  language.  1.  A  history  of  Rome,  in  fif- 
teen books,  in  the  'Ionic  dialect,  called  XiAierj?- 
pic,  because  it  related  the  history  of  the  city, 
from  its  foundation  to  the  thousandth  year  of 
its  nativity  (A.D.  248_),  when  the  Ludi  Saecu- 
lares  were  performed  with  extraordinary  pomp. 
2.  A  history  of  Parthia. 

QUADRATUS,  FANNIUS,  a  contemporary  of 
Horace,  was  one  of  those  envious  Roman  poets 
who  tried  to  depreciate  Horace,  because  his 
writings  threw  their  own  into  the  shade. 

QUADRATUS,  L.  NINNIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  58,  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition 
to  the  measures  of  his  colleague,  P.  Clodius, 
against  Cicero. 

QUADRATUS,  UMMIDIUS.  1.  Governor  of  Syria 
during  the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
and  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Nero, 
from  about  A.D.  51  to  60.— 2.  A  friend  and  ad- 
mirer of  the  younger  Pliny,  whom  he  took  as 
his  model  in  oratory. 

QUADRIFROMS,  a  surname  of  Janus.  It  is  said 
that  after  the  conquest  of  the  Faliscans  an  im- 


UUADRIGARIUS,  Q.  CLAUDIUS. 

age  of  Janus  was  found  with  four  foreheads. 
Hence  a  temple  of  Janus  Quadrifrons  was  after- 
ward built  in  the  Forum  transitorium,  which 
had  four  gates.  The  fact  of  the  god  being  rep- 
resented with  four  heads  is  considered  by  the 
ancients  to  be  an  indication  of  his  being  the  di- 
vinity presiding  over  the  year  with  its  four 
seasons. 

QUADRIGARICS,  Q.  CLAUDIUS,  a  Roman  his- 
torian who  flourished  B.C.  100-78.  His  work, 
which  contained  at  least  twenty-three  books, 
commenced  immediately  after  the  destruction 
of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  and  must  in  all  proba- 
bility have  come  down  to  the  death  of  Sulla, 
since  the  seventh  consulship  of  Marius  was 
commemorated  in  the  nineteenth  book.  By 
Livy  he  is  uniformly  referred  to  simply  as  Clau- 
dius or  Clodius.  By  other  authors  he  is  cited 
as  Quintius,  as  Claudius,  as  Q.  Claudius,  as 
Claudius  Quadrigarius,  or  as  Quadrigarius. 
From  the  caution  evinced  by  Livy  in  making 
use  of  him  as  an  authority,  especially  in  mat- 
ters relating  to  numbers,  it  would  appear  that 
he  was  disposed  to  indulge,  although  in  a  less 
degree,  in  those  exaggerations  which  disfigured 
the  productions  of  his  contemporary  Valerius 
Antias.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  he  is 
nowhere  noticed  by  Cicero.  By  A.  Gellius,  on  I 
the  other  hand,  he  is  quoted  repeatedly,  and  ] 
praised  in  the  wannest  terms. 

QUAKIATKS,  a  people  in  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
on  the  western  slope  of  the  Alpes  Cottiae,  in  the 
valley  of  Queiras. 

QUIES,  the  personification  of  tranquillity,  was 
worshipped  as  a  divinity  by  the  Romans.  She 
had  one  sanctuary  on  the  Via  Lavicana,  proba- 
bly a  pleasant  resting-place  for  the  weary  trav- 
eller, and  another  outside  the  Porta  Collina. 

QOIETOS,  Q.  Lusius.  1.  An  independent  Moor- 
ish chief,  served  with  distinction  under  Trajan 
both  in  the  Dacian  and  Parthian  wars.  Trajan 
made  him  governor  of  Judaea,  and  raised  him  to 
the  consulship  in  A.D.  1 16  or  1 17.  After  Trajan's 
death  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  but  he 
was  suspected  by  Hadrian  of  fomenting  the  dis- 
turbances which  then  prevailed  in  Mauretania, 
and  was  shortly  afterward  put  to  death  by  order 
of  Hadrian. — [2.  C.  FULVIUS,  included  in  the 
list  of  the  thirty  tyrants  enumerated  by  Trebel- 
iius  Pollio,  was  one  of  the  two  sons  of  that  Ma- 
rianus  who  assumed  the  purple  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Valerian.  Having  charge  of  the  east- 
ern provinces,  when  he  heard  of  the  defeat  and 
death  of  his  father  and  brother,  he  took  refuge 
in  Emesa,  where  he  was  besieged,  captured,  and 
slain  by  Odenathus  in  A.D.  262.] 
QUINITIUUS  VABUS.  Vid.  VARUS. 
QUINTIA,  or  QUINCTIA  GENS,  an  ancient  patri- 
cian gens  at  Rome,  was  one  of  the  Alban  houses 
removed  to  Rome  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  and  en- 
rolled by  him  among  the  patricians.  Its  mem- 
bers often  held,  throughout  the  whole  history  of 
the  republic,  the  highest  offices  of  the  state. 
Its  three  most  distinguished  families  bore  the 
names  of  Capitolinus,  Cincinnatut,  and  Flamini- 
nus. 

[QUINTIANUS  AFRANIUS,  a  senator  of  disso- 
lute life,  had  been  ridiculed  by  Nero  in  a  poem, 
and  in  revenge  took  part  in  Piso's  conspiracy 
against  that  emperor.  On  the  detection  of  the 
conspiracy,  he  had  to  put  an  end  to  his  life.} 


QUINTILIANUS,  M.  FABIUS. 

QUINTILIANUS,  M.  FABIUS,  the  most  celebrated 
of  Roman  rhetoricians,  was  born  at  Calagurris 
(now  Calahorra),  in  Spain,  A.D.  40.  If  not  reared, 
at  Rome,  he  must,  at  least,  have  completed  his 
education  there,  for  he  himself  informs  us  that, 
while  yet  a  very  young  man,  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Domitius  Afer,  who  died  in  59.  Hav- 
ing revisited  Spain,  he  returned  from  thence 
(68)  in  the  train  of  Galba,  and  forthwith  began 
to  practice  at  the  bar,  where  he  acquired  con- 
sideiable  reputation.  But  he  was  chiefly  dis- 
tinguished as  a  teacher  of  eloquence,  bearing 
away  the  palm  in  this  department  from  all  his 
rivals,  and  associating  his  name,  even  to  a  prov- 
erb, with  pre-eminence  in  the  art.  Among  hia 
pupils  were  numbered  Pliny  the  younger  and  the 
two  grand-nephews  ofDomitian.  By  this  prince 
he  was  invested  with  the  insignia  and  title  of 
consul  (consularia  ornamcnta),  and  is,  moreover, 
celebrated  as  the  first  public  instructor  who,  in 
virtue  of  the  endowment  by  Vespasian,  received 
a  regular  salary  from  the  imperial  exchequer. 
After  having  devoted  twenty  years,  commenc- 
ing probably  with  69,  to  the  duties  of  his  pro- 
fession, he  retired  into  private  life,  and  is  sup- 
posed  to  have  died  about  118.  The  great  work 
of  Quintilian  is  a  complete  system  of  rhetoric 
in  twelve  books,  entitled  De  Institutione  Orato- 
rio. Libri  XII.,  or  sometimes  Institutiones  Ora- 
torio., dedicated  to  his  friend  Marcellus  Victo- 
rius,  himself  a  celebrated  orator,  and  a  favorite 
at  court.  It  was  written  during  the  reign  of 
Domitian,  while  the  author  was  discharging  his 
duties  as  preceptor  to  the  sons  of  the  emperor's 
niece.  In  a  short  preface  to  his  bookseller  Try- 
pho,  he  acquaints  us  that  he  commenced  this 
undertaking  afte*r  he  had  retired  from  his  labors 
as  a  public  instructor  (probably  in  89),  and  that 
he  finished  his  task  in  little  more  than  two  years. 
The  first  book  contains  a  dissertation  on  the 
preliminary  training  requisite  before  a  youth 
can  enter  directly  upon  the  studies  necessary 
to  mould  an  accomplished  orator,  and  presents 
us  with  a  carefully- sketched  outline  of  the  meth- 
od to  be  pursued  in  educating  children,  from 
the  time  they  leave  the  cradle  until  they  pass 
from  the  hands  of  the  grammarian.  In  the  sec- 
ond book  we  find  an  exposition  of  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  rhetoric,  together  with  an  investiga- 
tion into  the  nature  or  essence  of  the  art.  The 
five  following  are  devoted  to  invention  and 
arrangement  (inventio,  dispositio) ;  the  eighth, 
ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh,  to  composition  (in- 
cluding the  proper  use  of  the  figures  of  speech) 
and  delivery,  comprised  under  the  general  term 
elocutio ;  and  the  last  is  occupied  with  what  the 
author  considers  by  far  the  most  important  por- 
tion of  his  project,  an  inquiry,  namely,  into  va- 
rious circumstances  not  included  in  a  course  of 
|  scholastic  discipline,  but  essential  to  the  forma 
tion  of  a  perfect  public  speaker,  such  as  his 
manners;  his  moral  chaiacter;  the  principles 
by  which  he  must  be  guided  in  undertaking,  in 
preparing,  and  in  conducting  causes ;  the  pe- 
culiar style  of  eloquence  which  he  may  adopt 
with  greatest  advantage  ;  the  collateral  studies 
to  be  pursued  ;  the  age  at  which  it  is  most  suit- 
able to  commence  pleading ;  the  necessity  of 
retiring  before  the  powers  begin  to  fail ;  and 
various  other  kindred  topics.  This  production 
bears  throughout  the  impress  of  a  clear,  sound 


QUINriLLUS,  M.  AURELIUS": 

judgment,  keen  discrimination,  and  pure  taste, 
improved  by  extensive  reading,  deep  reflection, 
and  long  practice.  The  diction  is  highly  polish- 
ed and  •  2ry  graceful.  The  sections  which  pos- 
sess tht  greatest  interest  for  general  readers  are 
those  chapters  in  the  first  book  which  relate  to 
elementary  education,  and  the  commencement 
of  the  tenth  book,  which  furnishes  us  with  a 
compressed  but  spirited  history  of  Greek  and 
Roman  literature.  There  are  also  extant  one 
hundred  and  sixty-four  declamations  under  the 
name  of  Quintilian,  nineteen  of  considerable 
length ;  the  remaining  one  hundred  and  forty- 
five,  which  form  the  concluding  portion  only 
of  a  collection  which  originally  extended  to 
three  hundred  and  eighty-eight  pieces,  are  mere 
skeletons  or  fragments.  No  one  believes  these 
to  be  the  genuine  productions  of  Quintilian,  and 
few  suppose  that  they  proceeded  from  any  one 
individual.  They  apparently  belong  not  only  to 
different  persons,  but  to  different  periods,  and 
neither  in  style  nor  in  substance  do  they  offer 
any  thing  which  is  either  attractive  or  useful. 
Some  scholars  suppose  that  the  anonymous  Di- 
alogus  de  Oratoribus,  usually  printed  among  the 
works  of  Tacitus,  ought  to  be  assigned  to  Quin- 
tilian. The  best  editions  of  Quintilian  are  by 
Burmann,  2  vols.  4to,  Lug.  Bat.,  1720  ;  by  Ges- 
ner,  4to,  Gott. ,  1 738 ;  and  by  Spalding  and  Zumpt, 
6  vols.  8vo,  Lips.,  1798-1829. 

QUINTILLUS,  M.  AURELIUS,  the  brother  of  the 
Emperor  M.  Aurelius  Claudius,  was  elevated  to 
the  throne  by  the  troops  whom  he  commanded 
at  Aquileia  in  A.D.  270.  But  as  the  army  at 
Sirmium,  where  Claudius  died,  h.ad  proclaimed 
Aurelian  emperor,  Quintillus  rjut  an  end  to  his 
own  life,  seeing  himself  deserted  by  his  own 
soldiers,  to  whom  the  rigor  of  his  discipline  had 
given  offence. 

T.  QUINTIUS  CAPITOLINUS  BARBATUS,  a  cele- 
brated general  in  the  early  history  of  the  repub- 
lic, and  equally  distinguished  in  the  internal 
history  of  the  state.  He  frequently  acted  as 
mediator  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians, 
with  both  of  whom  he  was  held  in  the  highest 
esteem.  He  was  six  times  consul,  namely,  in 
B.C.  471,  468,  465,  446,  443,  439.  Several  of 
his  descendants  held  the  consulship,  but  none 
of  these  require  mention  except  T.  QUINTIUS 
PENNUS  CAPITOLINUS  CRISPINUS,  who  was  con- 
sul 208,  and  was  defeated  by  Hannibal. 

QUINTUS,  an  eminent  physician  at  Rome  in 
the  former  half  of  the  second  century  after 
Jhrist.  He  was  so  much  superior  to  his  med- 
tcal  colleagues  that  they  grew  jealous  of  his 
eminence,  and  formed  a  sort  of  coalition  against 
aim,  and  forced  him  to  quit  the  city  by  charg- 
ing him  with  killing  his  patients.  He  died  about 
A.D. 148. 

QuiNTCS  CtJRTIUS.        Vld.  CuRTIUS. 

QUINTUS  SMVRN^EUS  (Koivrof  2/tvpvalof),  com- 
monly called  QUINTUS  CALABER,  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  first  copy  through  which  his 
poem  became  known  was  found  in  a  convent  at 
Otranto  in  Calabria.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
epic  poem  in  fourteen  books,  entitled  ru  ped' 
°Op7poi>,  or  rrapa^eindfieva  'Ofiqpu.  Scarcely  any 
thing  is  known  of  his  personal  history  ;  but  it 
appears  most  probable  that  he  lived  toward  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century  after  Christ.  The 
matters  treated  of  in  his  poem  are  the  events 
734 


RABATHMOBA. 

of  the  Trojan  war  from  the  death  of  Hector  to 
the  return  of  the  Greeks.  In  phraseology,  sim- 
iles, and  other  technicalities,  Quintus  closely 
copied  Homer.  The  materials  for  his  poem  he 
found  in  the  works  of  the  earlier  poets  of  tin; 
epic  cycle.  But  not  a  single  poetical  idea  of 
his  own  seems  ever  to  have  inspired  him.  His 
gods  and  heroes  are  alike  devoid  of  all  charac- 
ter ;  every  thing  like  pathos  or  moral  interest 
was  quite  beyond  his  powers.  With  respect  to 
chronology,  his  poem  is  as  punctual  as  a  diary. 
His  style,  however,  is  clear,  and  marked  on  the 
whole  by  purity  and  good  taste,  without  any 
bombast  or  exaggeration.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  his  work  is  nothing  more  than  an  am- 
plification or  remodelling  of  the  poems  of  Arc- 
tinus  and  Lesches.  He  appears  to  have  also 
made  diligent  use  of  Apollonius.  The  best  edi- 
tion is  by  Tychsen,  Strasburg,  1807  :  [it  is  also 
contained  in  the  Poeta  Epici  Graci  Minorcs,  in 
Didot's  Bibliotheca  Graeca,  Paris,  1840.] 

QUIRINALIS  MONS.     Vid.  ROMA. 

QUIRINUS,  a  Sabine  word,  perhaps  derived 
from  quiris,  a  lance  or  spear.  It  occurs  first 
of  all  as  the  name  of  Romulus,  after  he  had 
been  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  divinity;  and  the 
festival  celebrated  in  his  honor  bore  the  name 
of  Quirinalia.  It  is  also  used  as  a  surname  of 
Mars,  Janus,  and  even  of  Augustus. 

QUIRINUS,  P.  SULPICIUS,  was  a  native  of  Lanu 
vium,  and  of  obscure  origin,  but  was  raised  to 
the  highest  honors  by  Augustus.  He  was  con- 
sul B.C.  12,  and  subsequently  carried  on  war 
against  some  of  the  robber  tribes  dwelling  in 
the  mountains  of  Cilicia.  In  B.C.  1,  Augus- 
tus appointed  him  to  direct  the  counsels  of  his 
grandson  C.  Caesar,  then  in  Armenia.  Some 
years  afterward,  but  not  before  A.D.  5,  he  waa 
appointed  governor  of  Syria,  and  while  in  this 
office  he  took  a  census  of  the  Jewish  people. 
This  is  the  statement  of  Josephus,  and  appears 
to  be  at  variance  with  that  of  Luke,  who  speaks 
as  if  the  census  or  enrollment  of  Cyrenius  (i.  e., 
Quirinus)  was  made  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of 
Christ.  Quirinus  had  been  married  to  JDmilia 
Lepida,  whom  he  divorced  :  but  in  A.D.  20, 
twenty  years  after  the  divorce,  he  brought  an 
accusation  against  her.  The  conduct  of  Quiri- 
nus met  with  general  disapprobation  as  harsh 
and  revengeful.  He  died  in  A.D.  21,  and  was 
honored  with  a  public  funeral. 

QUIZA  (Kovifc :  now  Giza,  near  Oran),  a  mu- 
nicipium  on  the  coast  of  Mauretania  Caesarien 
sis,  in  Northern  Africa,  forty  Roman  miles  west 
of  Arsenaria. 

R. 

RAAMSES  or  RAMESES  (LXX.  'Pafieoa?/),  a  city 
of  Lower  Egypt,  built  as  a  treasure  city  by  the 
captive  Israelites  under  the  oppression  of  the 
Pharaoh  "who  knew  not  Joseph"  (Exod.,  i., 
11),  and  usually  identified  with  HEROOPOLIS. 

RABATHMOBA  ('PafaOftuSa,  i.e.,  Rabbath-Moab 
in  the  Old  Testament ;  also  called  Rabbah,  Ar, 
Ar.-Moab,  and  afterward  Areopolis :  now  Rab- 
bah), the  ancient  capital  of  the  Moabites,  lay  in 
a  fertile  plain  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  south  of  the  River  Arnon,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Moabitis  in  Arabia  Petraea,  or,  accord- 
ing to  the  latter  division  of  the  provinces,  in 
Palaestina  Tertia. 


RABBATAMANA. 

RABBATAMANA  ('PaSaruuava,  i.  e.,  Rabbath- 
Amraou  in  the  Old  Testament ;  ruins  at  Am- 
man), the  ancient  capital  of  the  Ammonites,  lay 
in  Peraea,  on  a  southern  tributary  of  the  Jabbok, 
northeast  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Ptwlemy  II.  Phil- 
adelphus  gave  it  the  name  of  PHILADELPHIA,  and 
it  long  continued  a  flourishing  and  splendid  city. 

RABIRIUS.  1.  C.,  an  aged  senator,  was  ac-~ 
cused  in  B.C.  63,  by  T.  Labienus,  tribune  of  the 
plebs,  of  having  put  to  death  the  tribune  L.Ap- 
puleius  Saturninus  in  100,  nearly  forty  years 
before.  Vid.  SATURNINUS.  The  accusation  was 
set  on  foot  at  the  instigation  of  Caesar,  who 
judged  it  necessary  to  deter  the  senate  from 
resorting  to  arms  against  the  popular  party. 
To  make  the  warning  still  more  striking,  La- 
bienus did  not  proceed  against  him  on  the  charge 
of  majestas,  but  revived  the  old  accusation  of 
perduellio,  which  had  been  discontinued  for  some 
centuries,  since  persons  found  guilty  of  the  lat- 
ter crime  were  given  over  to  the  public  execu- 
t:/>ner  and  hanged  on  the  accursed  tree.  The 
Duumviri  Perdudlionis  appointed  to  try  Rabiri- 
ns  were  C.  Caesar  himself  and  his  relative  L. 
Caesar.  With  such  judges  the  result  could  not 
be  doubtful;  Rabirius  was  forthwith  condemned; 
and  the  sentence  of  death  would  have  been  car- 
ried into  effect,  had  he  not  availed  himself  of 
his  right  of  appeal  to  the  people  in  the  comitia 
of  the  centuries.  The  case  excited  the  great- 
est interest,  since  it  was  not  simply  the  life  or 
death  of  Rabirius,  but  the  power  and  author- 
ity of  the  senate,  which  were  at  stake.  Rabir- 
ius was  defended  by  Cicero  ;  but  the  eloquence 
of  his  advocate  was  of  no  avail,  and  the  people 
would  have  ratified  the  decision  of  the  duum- 
virs, had  not  the  meeting  been  broken  up  by 
the  praetor  Q.  Metellus  Celer,  who  removed 
the  military  flag  which  floated  on  the  Janicu- 
lum.  This  was  in  accordance  with  an  ancient 
custom,  which  was  intended  to  prevent  the 
Campus  Martius  from  being  surprised  by  an  en- 
emy when  the  territory  of  Rome  scarcely  ex- 
tended beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  city. — 2. 
C.  RABIRIUS  POSTUMUS,  was  the  son  of  the  sis- 
ter of  the  preceding.  He  was  born  after  the 
death  of  his  father,  whence  his  surname  Pos- 
tumus;  and  he  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  whence 
his  name  C.  Rabirius.  He  had  lent  large  sums 
of  money  to  Ptolemy  Auletes ;  and  after  the  res- 
toration of  Ptolemy  to  his  kingdom  by  means  of 
Gabinius  in  B  C.  55,  Rabirius  repaired  to  Alex- 
andrea,  and  was  invested  by  the  king  with  the 
office  of  Dicfcetes,  or  chief  treasurer.  In  this 
office  he  had  to  amass  money  both  for  himself 
and  for  Gabinius  ;  but  his  extortions  were  so 
terrible  that  Ptolemy  had  him  apprehended,  ei- 
ther to  secure  him  against  the  wrath  of  the 
people,  or  to  satisfy  their  indignation,  lest  they 
should  drive  him  again  from  his  kingdom.  Ra- 
birius escaped  from  prison,  probably  through  the 
connivance  of  the  king,  and  returned  to  Rome. 
Here  a  trial  awaited  him.  Gabinius  had  been 
sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy  fine  on  account  of  his  I 
extortions  in  Egypt ;  and  as  he  was  unable  to  { 
pay  this  fine,  a  suit  was  instituted  against  Ra-  ; 
birius,  who  was  liable  to  make  up  the  deficien- 
cy if  it  could  be  proved  that  he  had  received 
any  of  the  money  of  which  Gabinius  had  ille- 
gally become  possessed.  Rabirius  was  defend- 
ed  by  Cicero,  and  was  probably  condemned.  He 


RAURACI. 

is  mentioned  at  a  later  time  (46)  as  serving 
under  Cassar,  who  sent  him  from  Africa  into 
Sicily,  in  order  to  obtain  provisions  for  his  army. 
—  3.  A  Roman  poet,  who  lived  in  the  last  years 
of  the  republic,  and  wrote  a  poem  on  the  Civil 
Wars.  A  portion  of  this  poem  was  found  at 
Herculaneum,  and  was  edited  by  Kreyssig,  un- 
der the  title  "  Carminis  Latini  de  hello  Actia- 
co  s.  Alexandrine  fragmenta,"  4to,  Schneeberg, 
1814. 

RACILIUS,  L.,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  56, 
and  a  warm  friend  of  Cicero  and  of  Lentulus 
Spinther.  In  the  civil  war  Racilius  espoused 
Caesar's  party,  and  was  with  his  army  in  Spain 
in  48.  There  he  entered  into  the  conspiracy 
formed  against  the  life  of  Q.  Cassius  Longinus, 
the  governor  of  that  province,  and  was  put  to 
death,  with  the  other  conspirators,  by  Longinus. 

RADAOAISUS,  a  Scythian,  invaded  Italy  at  the 
head  of  a  formidable  host  of  barbarians  in  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Honorius.  He  was  de- 
feated by  Stilicho,  near  Florence,  in  A.D.  408, 
and  was  put  to  death  after  the  battle,  although 
he  had  capitulated  on  condition  that  his  life 
should  be  saved. 

(more  correct  than  Rhaeti).      Vid. 


RAMA  or  ARIMATH^EA  (  'Paftu,  'ApifiaOaia  : 
now  Er-Ram),  a  town  of  Judaea,  north  of  Jeru- 
salem, in  the  mountains  of  Ephraim,  frequently 
mentioned  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 

RAMBACIA  ('PapBaicia),  the  chief  city  of  the 
Oritae,  on  the  coast  of  Gedrosia,  colonized  by 
Alexander  the  Great. 

RAMITHA.     Vid.  LAODICKA,  No.  3. 

RAMSES,  the  "name  of  many  kings  of  Egypt  of 
the  eighteenth,  nineteenth,  and  twentieth  dy- 
nasties. It  was  during  this  era  that  most  of 
the  great  monuments  of  Egypt  were  erected, 
and  the  name  is  consequently  of  frequent  occur- 
rence on  these  monuments,  where  it  appears 
under  the  form  of  Ramessu.  In  Julius  Africa- 
nus  and  Eusebius  it  is  written  Ramses,  Rame- 
ses,  or  Ramesscs.  The  most  celebrated  of  the 
kings  of  this  name  is,  however,  usually  called  Se- 
sostris  by  the  Greek  writers.  Vid.  SESOSTRIS. 

RAPHANA  or  RAPHANE^E  ('PaQaveai  :  ruins  at 
Rafaniat),  a  city  of  Syria,  in  the  district  of  Cas- 
siotis/at  the  northern  extremity  of  Lebanon. 

RAPHIA  or  RAPHEA  ('Pa<pia,  'Pd<j>eta  :  now  Re- 
pha),  a  sea-port  town  in  the  extreme  southwest 
of  Palestine,  beyond  Gaza,  on  the  edge  of  the 
desert.  Having  been  destroyed  in  somo  man- 
ner unknown  to  us,  it  was  restored  by  Gabini- 
us. —  [At  this  place  Ptolemy  Philopator  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  Antiochus  the  Great. 
Vid.  PTOLEMY.] 

[R\po,  a  Rutilian  warrior  in  the  army  of 
Turnus,  slew  Parthenius.] 

RASKNA-.     Vid.  ETRURIA. 

RATIARIA  (now  Arser  Palanka),  an  important 
town  in  Mcusia  Superior,  on  the  Danube,  the 
head-quarters  of  a  Roman  legion,  and  the  st;i- 
tion  of  one  of  the  Roman  fleets  on  the  Danube. 

RATOMAOUS  or  RoToxIous  (now  Rouen),  the 
chief  town  of  the  Vellocasses  in  Gallia  Lugdu- 
nensis. 

RAUIMI  CAMPI.     Vid.  CAMPI  RAUDII. 

KAUKACI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  bounded 
on  the  south  by  the  Helvetii,  on  the  west  l>y 
the  Sequani,  on  the  north  by  the  Tribocci,  and 

735 


RAURANUM. 

on  the  east  by  the  Rhine.  They  must  have 
been  a  people  of  considerable  importance,  as 
twenty-three  thousand  of  them  are  said  to  have 
emigrated  with  the  Helvetii  in  B.C.  58,  and  they 
possessed  several  towns,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant were  Augusta  (now  Angst)  and  Basilia 
(now  Basle  or  Bale). 

RAURANUM  (now  Ruin  or  Raum,  near  Chenay), 
a  town  of  the  Pictones  in  Gallia  Aquitanica, 
south  of  Limonum. 

RAUSIUM  or  RACSIA  (now  Ragusa),  a  IOM  n  on 
the  coast  of  Dalmatia,  is  not  mentioned  till  a 
late  period,  and  only  rose  into  importance  after 
the  destruction  of  Epidaurus. 

RAVENNA  (Ravennas,  -atis  :  now  Ravenna), 
an  important  town  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  on  the 
River  Bedesis,  and  about  a  mile  from  the  sea, 
though  it  is  now  about  five  miles  in  the  interior, 
in  consequence  of  the  sea  having  receded  all 
along  this  coast.  Ravenna  was  situated  in  the 
midst  of  marshes,  and  was  only  accessible  in 
one  direction  by  land,  probably  by  the  road  lead- 
ing from  Ariminum.  The  town  laid  claim  to  a 
high  antiquity.  It  was  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Thessalians  (Pelasgians),  and  afterward 
to  have  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Umbrians, 
but  it  long  remained  an  insignificant  place,  and 
its  greatness  does  not  begin  till  the  time  of  the 
empire,  when  Augustus  made  it  one  of  the  two 
chief  stations  of  the  Roman  fleet.  This  em- 
peror not  only  enlarged  the  town,  but  caused  a 
large  harbor  to  be  constructed  on  the  coast, 
capable  of  containing  two  hundred  and  forty 
triremes,  and  he  connected  this  harbor  with  the 
Po  by  means  of  a  canal  called  Padusa  or  Au- 
gusta Fossa.  This  harbor  was-  called  Classes, 
and  between  it  and  Ravenna  a  new  town  sprung 
up,  to  which  the  name  of  Casarea  was  given. 
All  three  were  subsequently  formed  into  one 
town,  and  were  surrounded  by  strong  fortifica- 
tions. Ravenna  thus  suddenly  became  one  of 
the  most  important  places  in  the  north  of  Italy. 
The  town  itself,  however,  was  mean  in  appear- 
ance. In  consequence  of  the  marshy  nature  of 
the  soil,  most  of  the  houses  were  built  of  wood, 
and  since  an  arm  of  the  canal  was  carried 
through  some  of  the  principal  streets,  the  com- 
munication was  carried  on  to  a  great  extent  by 
gondolas,  as  in  modern  Venice.  The  town,  also, 
was  very  deficient  in  a  supply  of  good  drinking- 
water;  but  it  was  not  considered  unhealthy, 
since  the  canals  drained  the  marshes  to  a  great 
extent,  and  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  pre- 
vented the  waters  from  stagnating.  In  the 
neighborhood  good  wine  was  grown,  notwith- 
standing the  marshy  nature  of  the  soil.  When 
the  Roman  empire  was  threatened  by  the  bar- 
barians, the  emperors  of  the  West  took  up  their 
residence  at  Ravenna,  which,  on  account  of  its 
situation  and  its  fortifications,  was  regarded  as 
impregnable.  After  the  downfall  of  the  West- 
ern empire,  Theodoric  also  made  it  the  capital 
of  his  kingdom  ;  and  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
Gothic  dominion  by  Narses,  it  became  the  resi- 
dence of  the  exarchs  or  the  governors  of  the 
Byzantine  empire  in  Italy  till  the  Lombards 
took  the  town,  A.D.  752.  The  modern  Ravenna 
stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town  ;  the 
village  Porto  di  Fuori  on  the  site  of  Caesarea ; 
and  the  ancient  harbor  is  called  Porto  Vecchio 
del  Caudiano. 
736 


REGILLUS  LACUS. 

REATE  ( Reatinus  :  now  Rieti ),  an  ancient 
town  of  the  Sabines  in  Central  Italy,  said  to 
have  been  fpunded  by  the  Aborigines  or  Pelas- 
gians, was  situated  on  the  Lacus  Velinus  and 
the  Via  Salaria.  It  was  the  chief  place  of  as- 
sembly for  the  Sabines,  and  was  subsequently 
a  praefectura  or  a  municipium.  The  valley  in 
which  Reate  was  situated  was  so  beautiful  that 
it  received  the  name  of  Tcmpe ;  and  in  its 
neighborhood  is  the  celebrated  waterfall,  which 
is  now  known  under  the  name  of  the  fall  of 
Terni  or  the  Cascade  dcllc  Marmorc.  This 
waterfall  owed  its  origin  to  a  canal  constructed 
by  M'.  Curius  Dentatus,  in  order  to  carry  off 
the  superfluous  waters  from  the  Lake  Velinus 
into  the  River  Nar.  It  falls  into  this  river  from 
a  height  of  one  hundred  and  forty  feet.  By  this 
undertaking,  the  Reatini  gained  a  large  quan- 
tity of  land,  which  was  called  Rosea  Rura. 
Reate  was  celebrated  for  its  mules  and  asses. 

RKBILUS,  C.  CANINIUS,  one  of  Caesar's  legatee 
in  Gaul  and  in  the  civil  war.  On  the  last  day 
of  December  in  B.C.  45,  on  the  sudden  death 
of  the  consul  Q.  Fabius  Maximus,  Caesar  made 
Rebilus  consul  for  the  few  remaining  hours  of 
the  day. 

REDICULUS,  a  Roman  divinity,  who  had  a  tern 
pie  near  the  Porta  Capena,  and  who  was  believ- 
ed to  have  received  his  name  from  having  iu- 
duced  Hannibal,  when  he  was  near  the  gates  of 
the  city,  to  return  (redire)  southward.  A  place 
on  the  Appian  road,  near  the  second  mile-stone 
from  the  city,  was  called  Campus  Rediculi. 
This  divinity  was  probably  one  of  the  Lares  of 
the  city  of  Rome. 

REDONES,  a  people  in  the  interior  of  Gallia 
Lugdunensis,  whose  chief  town  was  Condate 
(now  Rennes). 

REDUX,  i.  e.,  "  the  divinity  who  leads  the  trav- 
eller back  to  his  home  in  safety,"  occurs  as  a 
surname  of  Fortuna. 

REGALIANUS,  REGALLIANUS,  or  REGILLIANUS, 
a  Dacian,  who  served  with  distinction  under  the 
emperors  Claudius  and  Valerian.  The  Mee- 
sians,  terrified  by  the  cruelties  inflicted  by  Gal- 
lienus  on  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the  re- 
bellion of  Ingenuus,  suddenly  proclaimed Regali- 
anus  emperor,  and  quickly,  with  the  consent  of 
the  soldiers,  in  a  new  fit  of  alarm,  put  him  tc 
death,  A.D.  263.  Hence  he  is  enumerated  among 
the  thirty  tyrants. 

REGUNA  (now  Villa  de  Rayna),  a  town  in  His- 
pania  Baetica,  on  the  road  from  Hispalis  to 
Emerita. 

REGILLUM,  a  small  place  in  the  Sabine  terri- 
tory, from  which  Appius  Claudius  migrated  tc 
Rome.  Its  site  is  uncertain,  as  it  disappeared 
at  an  early  period. 

REGILLUS,  ^EMILIUS.  1.  M.,  had  been  declar- 
ed consul,  with  T.  Otacilius,  for  B.C.  214,  by 
the  centuria  praerogativa,  and  would  have  been 
elected  had  not  Q.  Fabius  Maximus,  who  pre- 
sided at  the  comitia,  pointed  out  that  there  was 
need  of  generals  of  more  experience  to  cope 
with  Hannibal.  Regillus  died  in  205,  at  which 
time  he  is  spoken  of  as  Flamen  Martialis.— 2. 
L.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  praetor  190,  when 
he  received  the  command  of  the  fleet  in  the  war 
against  Antiochus. 

REGILLUS  LACUS,  a  lake  in  Latium,  memo- 
rable for  the  victory  gained  on  its  banks  by  the 


REGINUM. 

Romans  over  the  Latins,  B.C.  498.  It  was  east 
of  Rome,  in  the  territory  of  Tusculum,  and  be- 
tween Lavicum  and  Gabii ;  but  it  can  not  be 
identified  with  certainty  with  any  modern  lake. 
It  perhaps  occupied  the  site  of  the  valley  of 
Isidore,  which  is  now  dry. 

REGINUM  or  CASTRA  REGINA  (now  Regens- 
lurg),  a  Roman  fortress  in  Vindelicia,  on  the 
Danube,  and  on  the  road  leading  to  Vindobona, 
was  the  head -quarters  of  a  Roman  legion. 

REGIUM  FLUMEN.      Vid.  NAARMALCHA. 

REG!UM  LEPIDI,  REGIUM  LEPIDUM,  or  simply 
REGIUM,  also  FORUM  LEPIDI  (Regienses  a  Le- 
pido  :  now  Reggio),  a  town  of  the  Boii  in  Gallia 
Cisalpina,  between  Mutina  and  Tarentum,  which 
was  probably  made  a  colony  by  the  consul  M. 
JSmilius  Lepidus,  when  he  constructed  the 
^Emilia  Via  through  Cisalpine  Gaul,  though  we 
have  no  record  of  the  foundation  of  the  colony. 

REGULUS,  M.  AQUILIUS,  was  one  of  the  dela- 
tores  or  .informers  in  the  time  of  Nero,  and  thus 
rose  from  poverty  to  great  wealth.  Under  Do- 
mitian  he  resumed  his  old  trade,  and  became 
one  of  the  instruments  of  that  tyrant's  cruelty. 
He  survived  Domitian,  and  is  frequently  spoken 
•f  by  Pliny  with  the  greatest  detestation  and 
contempt.  Martial,  on  the  contrary,  who  flat- 
tered all  the  creatures  of  Domitian,  celebrates 
the  virtues,  the  wisdom,  and  the  eloquence  of 
Regulus. 

REGULUS,  ATILIUS.  1.  M  ,  consul  B.C.  335, 
carried  on  war  against  the  Sidicini. — 2.  M.,  con- 
sul 294,  carried  on  war  against  the  Samnites. — 
3.  M.,  consul  267,  conquered  the  Sallentini,  took 
the  town  of  Brundisium,  and  obtained,  in  con- 
sequence, the  honor  of  a  triumph.  In  256  he 
was  consul  a  second  time  with  L.  Manlius  Vulso 
Longus.  The  two  consuls  defeated  the  Cartha- 
ginian fleet,  and  afterward  landed  in  Africa  with 
a  large  force.  They  met  with  great  and  strik- 
ing success ;  and  after  Manlius  returned  to 
Rome  with  half  of  the  army,  Regulus  remained 
in  Africa  with  the  other  half,  and  prosecuted 
the  war  with  the  utmost  vigor.  The  Cartha- 
ginian generals  IJasdrubal,  Bostar,  and  Hamil- 
car  avoided  the  plains,  where  their  cavalry  and 
elephants  would  have  given  them  an  advantage 
over  the  Roman  army,  and  withdrew  into  the 
mountains.  There  they  were  attacked  by  Reg- 
ulus, and  defeated  with  great  loss  ;  fifteen  thou- 
sand men  are  said  to  have  been  killed  in  battle, 
and  five  thousand  men,  with  eighteen  elephants, 
to  have  been  taken.  The  Carthaginian  troops 
retired  within  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  Regu- 
lus now  overran  the  country  without  opposition. 
Numerous  towns  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  among  others  Tunis,  at  the  distance 
of  only  twenty  miles  from  the  capital.  The 
Carthaginians,  in  despair,  sent  a  herald  to  Reg- 
ulus to  solicit  peace.  But  the  Roman  general 
would  only  grant  it  on  such  intolerable  terms 
that  the  Carthaginians  resolved  to  continue  the 
war  and  hold  out  to  the  last.  In  the  midst  of 
their  distress  and  alarm,  success  came  to  them 
from  an  unexpected  quarter.  Among  the  Greek 
mercenaries  who  had  lately  arrived  at  Carthage 
was  a  Lacedaemonian  of  the  name  of  Xanthip- 
pus.  He  pointed  out  to  the  Carthaginians  that 
their  defeat  was  owing  to  the  incompetency  of 
their  generals,  and  not  to  the  superiority  of  the 
Roman  arms  ;  and  he  inspired  such  confidence 


REGULUS. 

in  the  people  ^at  he  was  forthwith  placed  at 
the  head  of  their  troops.  Relying  on  his  four 
thousand  cavalry  and  one  hundred  elephants, 
Xanthippus  boldly  marched  into  the  open  coun- 
try to  meet  the  enemy.  In  the  battle  which  en- 
sued, Regulus  was  totally  defeated  ;  thirty  thou- 
sand of  his  men  were  slain  ;  scarcely  two  thou- 
sand escaped  to  Clypea  ;  and  Regulus  hirnsel( 
was  taken  prisoner,  with  five  hundred  more 
(B.C.  255).  Regulus  remained  in  captivity  /ni 
the  next  five  years,  till  250,  when  the  Cartha- 
ginians, after  their  defeat  by  the  proconsul  Me- 
tellus,sent  an  embassy  to  Rome  to  solicit  peace, 
or  at  least  an  exchange  of  prisoners.  They  al- 
lowed Regulus  to  accompany  the  ambassadors 
on  the  promise  that  he  would  return  tp  Carthage 
if  their  proposals  were  declined,  thinking  that  he 
would  persuade  his  countrymen  to  agree  to  an 
exchange  of  prisoners  in  order  to  obtain  his  own 
liberty.  This  embassy  of  Regulus  is  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  stories  in  Roman  history.  The 
orators  and  poets  related  how  Regulus  at  first 
refused  to  enter  the  city  as  a  slave  of  the  Car- 
thaginians ;  how  afterward  he  would  not  give 
his  opinion  in  the  senate,  as  he  had  ceased  by 
his  captivity  to  be  a  member  of  that  illustrious 
body  ;  how,  at  length,  when  he  was  allowed  by 
the  Romans  to  speak,  he  endeavored  to  dissuade 
the  senate  from  assenting  to  a  peace,  or  even 
to  an  exchange  of  prisoners  ;  and  when  he  saw 
them  wavering,  from  their  desire  of  redeeming 
him  from  captivity,  how  he  told  them  that  the 
Carthaginians  had  given  him  a  slow  poison, 
which  would  soon  terminate  his  life  ;  and  how, 
finally,  when  the  senate,  through  his  influence, 
refused  the  offers  of  the  Carthaginians,  he 
firmly  resisted  all  the  persuasions  of  his  friends 
to  remain  in  Rome,  and  returned  to  Carthage, 
where  a  martyr's  death  awaited  him.  On  his 
arrival  at  Carthage  he  is  said  to  have  been  put 
to  death  with  the  most  excruciating  tortures. 
It  was  related  that  he  was  placed  in  a  chest 
covered  over  in  the  inside  with  iron  nails,  and 
thus  perished  ;  and  other  writers  stated,  in  ad- 
dition, that  after  his  eyelids  had  been  cut  off, 
he  was  first  thrown  into  a  dark  dungeon,  and 
then  suddenly  exposed  to  the  full  rays  of  a 
burning  sun.  When  the  news  of  the  barbarous 
death  of  Regulus  reached  Rome,  the  senate  is 
said  to  have  given  Hamilcar  and  Bostar,  two 
of  the  noblest  Carthaginian  prisoners,  to  the 
family  of  Regulus,  who  revenged  themselves 
by  putting  them  to  death  with  cruel  torments. 
This  celebrated  tale,  however,  has  not  been  al- 
lowed to  pass  without  question  in  modern  times. 
Many  writers  supposed  that  it  was  invented  in 
order  to  excuse  the  cruelties  perpetrated  by  the 
family  of  Regulus  on  the  Carthaginian  prison- 
ers committed  to  their  custody.  Regulus  was 
one  of  the  favorite  characters  of  early  Roman 
story.  Not  only  was  he  celebrated  on  account 
of  his  heroism  in  giving  the  senate  advice  which 
secured  him  a  martyr's  death,  but  also  on  ac- 
count of  his  frugality  and  simplicity  of  life. 
Like  Fabricius  and  Curius,  he  lived  on  his  he- 
reditary farm,  which  he  cultivated  with  his  own 
hands ;  and  subsequent  ages  loved  to  tell  how 
he  petitioned  the  senate  for  his  recall  from 
Africa  when  he  was  in  the  full  career  of  vic- 
tory, as  his  farm  was  going  to  ruin  in  his  ah- 
sence,  and  his  family  was  suffering  from  want 

737 


REII  APOLLINARES. 

—4.  C.,  surnaraed  SERRANUS,  consul  257,  when 
he  defeated  the  Carthaginian  fleet  off  the  Li- 
parsean  islands,  and  obtained  possession  of  the 
islands  of  Lipara  and  Melite.  He  was  consul 
a  second  time  in  250  with  L.  Manlius  Vulso. 
The  two  consuls  undertook  the  siege  of  Lily- 
baeum  ;  but  they  were  foiled  in  their  attempts 
to  carry  the  place  by  storm,  and  after  losing  a 
great  number  of  men,  were  obliged  to  turn  the 
siege  into  a  blockade.  This  Regulus  is  the  first 
Atilius  who  bears  the  surname  Serranus,  which 
afterward  became  the  name  of  a  distinct  family 
in  the  gens.  The  origin  of  this  name  is  spoken 
of  under  SERRANUS. — 5.  M.,  son  of  No.  3,  was 
consul  227,  and  again  217,  in  the  latter  of  which 
years  he  was  elected  to  supply  the  place  of  C. 
Flaminius,  who  had  fallen  in  the  battle  of  the 
Trasimene  Lake.  He  was  censor  in  214. — 6. 
C.,  consul  225,  conquered  the  Sardinians,  who 
had  revolted.  On  his  return  to  Italy  he  fought 
against  the  Gauls/  and  fell  in  the  battle. 

REII  APOLUNARES  (now  Riez),  a  Roman  col- 
ony in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  with  the  surname 
Julia  Augusta,  east  of  the  River  Druentia,  north 
of  Forum  Voconii,  and  northwest  of  Forum 
Julii. 

REMESIANA  orRoMEsilNA  (now  Mustapha  Pa- 
lanlca),  a  town  in  Mffisia  Superior,  between  Nai- 
sus  and  Serdica. 

REMI  or  RHEMI,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  inhabited  the  country 
through  which  the  Axona  flowed,  and  were 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Nervii,  on  the 
southeast  by  the  Veromandui,  on  the  east  by 
the  Suessiones  and  Bellovaci,  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Nervii.  They  formed  an  alliance  with 
Caesar  when  the  rest  of  the  Belgae  made  war 
against  him,  B.C.  57.  Their  chief  town  was 
Durocortorum,  afterward  called  Remi  (now 
Rheims]. 

REMMIUS  PAL^SMON.     Vid.  PAL^MON. 

REMUS.     Vid.  ROMULUS. 

[REPENTINUS,  CALPCRNIUS,  a  centurion  in  the 
army  in  Germany,  was  put  to  death  on  account 
of  his  fidelity  to  the  Emperor  Galba,  A.D.  69.] 

RESAINA,  RES^ENA,  RESINA  ('Peaatya,  'Piaiva : 
now  Ras-el- Ain),  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  r.ear 
the  sources  of  the  Chaboras,  on  the  road  from 
Carrae  to  Nisibis.  After  its  restoration  and  for- 
tification by  Theodosius,  it  was  called  THEODO- 
SIOPOLIS  (Qeodoaiovirohif).  Whether  it  is  the 
same  as  theResen  of  the  Old  Testament  (Gen., 
x.,  12)  seems  very  doubtful. 

RESTIO,  ANTIUS.  1.  The  author  of  a  sump- 
tuary law  of  uncertain  date,  but  passed  after 
the  sumptuary  law  of  the  consul  ^Emilius  Le- 
pidus,  B.C.  78,  and  before  the  one  of  Caesar. — 
2.  Probably  a  son  of  the  preceding,  proscribed 
by  the  triumvirs  in  43,  but  preserved  by  the 
fidelity  of  a  slave. 

[RETINA  (now  Resina,  east  of  Portici),  a  vil- 
lage on  the  coast  of  Campania,  not  far  from 
Promontorium  Misenum.] 

[RETOVIUM  (now  Retorbio),  a  place  in  the  in- 
terior of  Liguria.] 

REUDIONI,  a  people  in  the  north  of  Germany, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Albis,  north  of  the 
Langobardi. 

REX,  MARCIUS.  1.  Q.,  praetor  B.C.  144,  built 
the  aqueduct  called  Aqua  Marcia,  which  was 
one  of  the  most  important  at  Rome.  Vid.  ROMA, 
739 


XIV.,  p.  753.— 2  Q.,  consul  118,  founded  in  th> 
year  the  colony  of  Narbo  Martius  in  Gaul,  and 
carried  on  war  against  the  Stceni,  a  Ligurian 
people  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps. — 3.  Q.,  consul 
68,  and  proconsul  in  Cilicia  in  the  following 
year.  On  his  return  to  Rome  in  66  he  sued  for 
a  triumph,  but  as  obstacles  were  thrown  in  the 
way  by  certain  parties,  he  remained  outside  the 
city  to  prosecute  his  claims,  and  was  still  there 
when  the  Catilinarian  conspiracy  broke  out  in 
63.  The  senate  sent  him  to  Faesulae  to  watch 
the  movements  of  C.  Mallius  or  Manlius,  Cati- 
line's general.  [Manlius  sent  proposals  of  peace 
to  Marcius,  but  the  latter  refused  to  listen  to  his 
terms  unless  he  consented  to  lay  down  his  arms. 
Marcius  Rex  married  the  eldest  sister  of  Clo- 
dius.  He  died  before  B.C.  61,  without  leaving 
his  brother-in-law  the  inheritance  he  had  ex- 
pected.] 

RHA  (To  :  now  Volga\  a  great  river  of  Asia, 
first  mentioned  by  Ptolemy,  who  describes  it  as 
rising  in  the  north  of  Sarmatia,  in  two  branches, 
Rha  Occidentalis  and  Rha  Orientalis  (now  the 
Volga  and  the  Kama),  after  the  junction  of 
which  it  flowed  southwest,  forming  the  bound- 
ary between  Sarmatia  Asiatica  and  Scythia,  till 
near  the  Tanais  (now  Dora),  where  it  suddenly 
turns  to  the  southeast,  and  falls  into  the  north- 
western part  of  the  Caspian. 

RHADAMANTHUS  ('PaSdpavdof),  son  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  and  Europa,  and  brother  of  King  Minos 
of  Crete.  From  fear  of  his  brother  he  fled  to 
Ocalea  in  Boeotia,  and  there  married  Alcmene. 
In  consequence  of  his  justice  throughout  life, 
he  became,  after  his  death,  one  of  the  judges 
in  the  lower  world. 

RH.STIA,  a  Roman  province  south  of  the 
Danube,  was  originally  distinct  from  Vindelicia, 
and  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Helvetii, 
on  the  east  by  Noricum,  on  the  north  by  Vin- 
delicia, and  on  the  south  by  Cisalpine  Gaul,  thus 
corresponding  to  the  Orisons  in  Switzerland, 
and  to  the  greater  part  of  the  Tyrol.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  first  century,  however,  Vindelicia 
was  added  to  the  province  of  Rhaetia,  whence 
Tacitus  speaks  of  Augusta  Vindelicorum  as 
situated  in  Rhaetia.  At  a  later  time  Rhsetiz 
was  subdivided  into  two  provinces,  Rhatia  Pri- 
ma  and  Rhatia  Secunda,  the  former  of  which  an 
swered  to  the  old  province  of  Rhaetia,  and  the 
latter  to  that  of  Vindelicia.  The  boundaries 
between  the  two  provinces  are  not  accurately 
defined,  but  it  may  be  stated  in  general  that 
they  were  separated  from  each  other  by' the 
Brigantinus  Lacus  (now  Lake  of  Constance)  and 
the  River  CEnus  (now  Inn).  Vindelicia  is 
spoken  of  in  a  separate  article.  Vid.  VINDELI- 
CIA.  Rhaetia  was  a  very  mountainous  country, 
since  the  main  chain  of  the  Alps  ran  through 
the  greater  part  of  the  province.  These  mount- 
ains were  called  Alpes  Rhaeticae,  and  extended 
from  the  Saint  Gothard  to  the  Orleler  by  the 
pass  by  the  Stelvio ;  and  in  them  rose  the 
CEnus  (now  Inn)  and  most  of  the  chief  rivers 
in  the  north  of  Italy,  such  as  the  Athesis  (now 
Adige),  and  the  Addua  (now  Adda).  The  val- 
leys produced  corn  and  excellent  wine,  the  lattei 
of  which  was  much  esteemed  in  Italy.  Augus- 
tus drank  Rhaetian  wine, in  preference  to  all 
others.  The  original  inhabitants  of  the  country, 
the  RH^ETI,  are  said  by  most  ancient  writers  M> 


RHACOT1S. 

have  been  Tuscans,  who  were  driven  out  of  the 
north  of  Italy  by  the  invasion  of  the  Celts,  and 
who  took  refuge  in  this  mountainous  district 
under  a  leader  called  Rhaetus.     Many  modern 
writers  suppose  the  Rhaeti  and  the  Etruscans  to 
have  been  the  same  people,  only  they  invert  the 
ancient  tradition,  and  believe  that  the  Rhaeti 
descended  from  their  original  abodes  on  the 
Alps,  and  settled  first  in  the  north  of  Italy  and  ] 
next  in  the  country  afterward  called  Etruria.  | 
They  support  this  view  by  the  fact  that  the  j 
Etruscans  were  called  in  their  own  language  ! 
Rasena,  which  seems  merely  another  form  of 
Rhffiti,  as  well  as   by  other   arguments,  into 
which  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter  in  this  place. 
It  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  any  certain  conclu- 
sion respecting  the  original  population  of  the 
country.     In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the  coun- 
try was  inhabited  by  various  Celtic  tribes.    The 
Rhaeti  are  first  mentioned  by  Polybius.     They 
were  a  brave  and  warlike  people,  and  caused 
the  Romans  much  trouble  by  their  marauding 
incursions  into  Gaul  and  the  north  of  Italy. 
They  were  not  subdued  by  the  Romans  till  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  and  they  offered  a  brave  and 
desperate  resistance  against  both  Drusus  and  j 
Tiberius,  who  finally  conquered  them.     Rhaetia 
was  then  formed   into  a  Roman  province,  to  j 
which  Vindelicia  was  afterward  added,  as  has  ! 
been  already  stated.    The  victories  of  Drusus  I 
and  Tiberius  were  celebrated  by  Horace  (Carm.  \ 
iv.,  14).     The  Rhaeti  were  divided  into  several  i 
tribes,  such  as  the  LEPONTII,  VENNONES,  TRI-  | 
DENTINI,  &c.     The  only  town  in  Rhaetia  of  any 
importance  was  TRIDENTINUM  (now  Trent). 

[RHACOTIS  ( 'Pa/idinf ),  a  village  of  Lower 
Egypt,  afterward  included  in  the  city  Alexan- 
drea.] 

RHAO^E   (Tayot,   'Paya,  'Paycta  :    'Payi;i»df  : 
ruins  at  Rai,  southeast  of  Tehran),  the  greatest 
city  of  Media,  lay  in  the  extreme  north  of  Great 
Media,  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  mountains 
(Caspius  Mons)  which   border  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  on  the  western  i 
side  of  the  great  pass  through  those  mountains  : 
called  the  Caspiae  Pylae.     It  was  therefore  the  ' 
key  of  Media  toward  Parthia  and  Hyrcania.  i 
Having  been  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  it  was  > 
restored  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  named  EURO-  i 
PUS  (EvpuKoe).     In  the  Parthian  wars  it  was 
again  destroyed,  but  it  was  rebuilt  by  Arsaces,  j 
and  called  ARSACIA  ('Apaania).     In  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  still  a  great  city  under  its  original  ; 
name,  slightly  altered  (Rai) ;  and  it  was  finally  j 
destroyed  by  the  Tartars  in  the  twelfth  century.  ! 
The  surrounding  district,  which  was  a  rugged 
volcanic  region,  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes, 
was  called  'Payiavr). 

RHAMNUS  ('Papvovf,  -ovvrof  :  'Pafivovatof  : 
now  Obrio  Kaslro),  a  demus  in  Attica,  belonging 
to  the  tribe  Mantis,  which  derived  its  name 
from  the  rhamnus,  a  kind  of  prickly  shrub. 
('Pa/jtvovc  is  an  adjective,  a  contraction  of  f>afi- 
vdfif,  which  comes  from  ^uftvof).  Rhamnus 
was  situated  on  a  small  rocky  peninsula  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Attica,  sixty  stadia  from  Mar- 
athon. It  possessed  a  celebrated  temple  of 
Nemesis,  who  is  hence  called  by  the  Latin  poets 
Rhamnu.1^1  dea  or  virgo.  In  this  temple  there 
was  a  colossal  statue  of  the  goddess  made  by 
Agoracritus,  the  disciple  of  Phidias.  Another 


RHEA. 

account,  but  less  trustworthy,  relates  that  tlie 
statue  was  the  work  of  Phidias,  and  was  made 
out  of  the  block  of  Parian  marble  which  the 
Persians  brought  with  them  for  the  purpose  of 
setting  up  a  trophy,  when  they  were  defeated 
at  Marathon.  There  are  still  remains  of  this 
temple,  as  well  as  of  a  smaller  one  to  the  same 
goddess. 

[RAMPHIAS  ('Papfiaf),  a  Lacedemonian,  father 
of  Clearchua,  was  one  of  the  three  ambassadors 
who  were  sent  to  Athens  in  B.C.  432  with  the 
final  demand  of  Sparta  for  the  independence  of 
all  the  Greek  states.  The  demand  was  refused, 
and  the  Peloponnesian  war  ensued.  In  B.C. 
422,  Ramphias,  with  two  colleagues,  command- 
ed a  force  of  nine  hundred  men,  intended  for 
the  strengthening  of  Brasidas  in  Thrace;  but 
their  passage  through  Thessaly  was  opposed  by 
the  Thessalians,  and,  hearing  also  of  the  battle 
of  Amphipolis  and  the  death  of  Brasidas,  they 
returned  to  Sparta.] 

RHAMPSINITUS  fPqp^Kifrof))  one  of  the  an- 
cient kings  of  Egypt,  succeeded  Proteus,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Cheops.  This  king  is  said 
to  have  possessed  immense  wealth ;  and  in  or- 
der to  keep  it  safe,  he  had  a  treasury  built  of 
stone,  respecting  the  robbery  of  which  Herodo- 
tus (ii.,  121)  relates  a  romantic  story,  which 
bears  a  great  resemblance  to  the  one  told  about 
the  treasury  built  by  the  two  brothers  Agame- 
des  and  Trophonius  of  Orchomenus.  Vid.  AGA- 
MEDES.  Rhampsinitus  belongs  to  the  twentieth 
dynasty,  and  is  known  in  inscriptions  by  the 
name  of  Ramessu  Neter-kek-pen. 

RHAPTA  (ra  'Panrd),  the  southernmost  sea- 
port known  to  the  ancients,  the  capital  of  the 
district  of  Barbaria  or  Azania,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Africa.  It  stood  on  a  river  called 
RHAPTUS  (now  Doara),  and  near  a  promontory 
called  RHAPTUM  (now  Formosa),  and  the  people 
of  the  district  were  called  'Pu\j>ioi  AWioirec.. 

[RHATHINES  ('Padivw),  a  Persian,  was  one  of 
the  commanders  sent  by  Pharnabazus  to  aid  the 
Bithynians  in  opposing  the  passage  of  the  Cy- 
rean  Greeks  under  Xenophon  through  Bithynia, 
B.C.  400.  The  satrap's  forces  were  completely 
defeated.  We  hear  again  of  Rhathines  in  B.C. 
396,  as  one  of  the  commanders  for  Pharnabazus 
of  a  body  of  cavalry,  which  worsted  that  of 
Agesilaus  in  a  skirmish  near  Dascylium.] 

RHEA  ('Pt:d,  Epic  and  Ion.  'Pcia,  'Pein,  or  'P6?), 
an  ancient  Greek  goddess,  appears  to  have  been 
a  goddess  of  the  earth.  She  is  represented  as 
a  daughter  of  Uranus  (Coelus)  and  Ge  (Terra), 
and  the  wife  of  Cronos  (Saturn),  by  whom  she 
became  the  mother  of  Hestia  (Vesta),  Demeter 
(Ceres),  Hera  (Juno),  Hades  (Pluto),  Poseidon 
(Neptune),  and  Zeus  (Jupiter).  Cronos  devour- 
ed all  his  children  by  Rhea,  but  when  she  was 
on  the  point  of  giving  birth  to  Zeus  (Jupiter), 
she  went  to  Lyctus  in  Crete,  by  the  advice  of 
her  parents.  When  Zeus  (Jupiter)  was  born, 
she  gave  to  Cronos  (Saturn)  a  stone  wrapped 
up  like  an  infant,  which  the  god  swallowed,  sup- 
posing it  to  be  his  child.  Crete  was  undoubt- 
edly the  earliest  seat  of  the  worship  of  Rhea, 
I  though  many  other  pa.rts  of  Greece  laid  claim 
;  to  the  honor  of  being  the  birth-place  of  Zeus 
(Jupiter).  Rhei  was  afterward  identified  by  the 
Greeks  in  Asia  Minor  with  the  great  Asiatic 
goddess,  known  under  the  name  of  "the  Great 

<  os 


RHEA  SILVIA. 

Mother,"  or  the  "  Mother  of  the  GoUa,"  and  also 
bearing  other  names,  such  as  Cybele,  Agdistis, 
Dindymene,  <kc.  Hence  her  worship  became 
of  a  wild  and  enthusiastic  character,  and  vari- 
ous Eastern  rites  were  added  to  it,  which  soon 
spread  throughout  the  whole  of  Greece.  From 
the  orgiastic  nature  of  these  rites,  her  worship 
becaine  closely  connected  with  that  of  Diony- 
sus (Bacchus).  Under  the  name  of  Cybele  her 
worship  was  universal  in  Phrygia.  Under  the 
name  of  Agdis.tis,  she  was  worshipped  with 
great  solemnity  at  Pessinus  in  Galatia,  which 
town  was  regarded  as  the  principal  seat  of  her 
worship.  Under  different  names  we  might  trace 
the  worship  of  Rhea  even  much  further  east, 
as  far  as  the  Euphrates  and  even  Bactriana. 
She  was,  in  fact,  the  great  goddess  of  the  East- 
ern world,  and  we  find  her  worshipped  there 
under  a  variety  of  forms  and  names.  As  re- 
gards the  Romans,  they  had  from  the  earliest 
times  worshipped  Jupiter  and  his  mother  Ops, 
the  wife  of  Saturn.  During  the  war  with  Han- 
nibal the  Romans  fetched  the  image  of  the 
Mother  of  the  Gods  from  Pessinus ;  but  the 
worship  then  introduced  was  quite  new  to  them, 
and  either  maintained  itself  as  distinct  from  the 
worship  of  Ops,  or  became  united  with  it.  A 
temple  was  built  to  her  on  the  Palatine,  and  the 
Roman  matrons  honored  her  with  the  festival 
of  the  Megalesia.  In  all  European  countries 
Rhea  was  conceived  to  be  accompanied  by  the 
Curetes,  who  are  inseparably  connected  with 
the  birth  and  bringing  up  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  in 
Crete,  and  in  Phrygia  by  the  Corybantes,  Atys, 
and  Agdistis.  The  Corybantes  were  her  en- 
thusiastic priests,  who  with  drums,  cymbals, 
horns,  and  in  fuJl  armor,  -performed  their  orgi- 
astic dances  in  the  forests  and  on  the  mount- 
ains of  Phrygia.  In  Rome  the  Galli  were  her 
priests.  The  lion  was  sacred  to  her.  In  works 
of  art  she  is  usually  represented  seated  on  a 
throne,  adorned  with  the  mural  crown,  from 
which  a  veil  hangs  down.  Lions  appear  crouch- 
ing on  the  right  and  left  of  her  throne,  and  some- 
times she  is  seen  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by 
lions. 

RHEA  SILVIA.     Vid.  ROMULUS. 

RHEB AS  ('Pr/Sat,  'P»;6atof :  now  Riva},  a  river 
of  Bithynia,  in  Asia  Minor,  falling  into  the 
Euxine  northeast  of  Chalcedon  ;  very  small  and 
insignificant  in  itself,  but  much  celebrated  in 
the  Argonautic  legends. 

RHEDSNES.      Vid.  REDONES. 

RHEGIUM  ('Pq-yiov  :  Rheglnus  :  now  Eeggio'), 
a  celebrated  Greek  town  on  the  coast  of  Brut- 
tium,  in  the  south  of  Italy,  was  situated  on  the 
Fret'um  Siculum,  or  the  straits  which  separate 
Italy  and  Sicily.  The  ancients  derived  its  name 
from  the  verb  ^yvv^ii  ("  break"),  because  it  was 
supposed  that  Sicily  was  at  this  place  torn  asun- 
der from  Italy.  Rhegium  was  founded  about 
the  beginning  of  the  first  Messenian  war,  B.C. 
743,  by  ^Eolian  Chalcidians  from  Eubcea  and  by 
Doric  Messemans,  who  had  quitted  their  native 
country  on  the  commencement  of  hostilities  be- 
tween Sparta  and  Messenia.  At  the  end  of  the 
second  Messenian  war,  -668,  a  large  body  of 
Messenians,  under  the  conducUof  the  sons  of 
Aristomenes,  settled  at  Rhegium,  which  now  be- 
came a  flourishing  and  important  city,  and  ex- 
ended  its  authority  over  several  of  the  neigh- 
740 


RHENEA. 

boring  towns.  Even  before  the  Persian  ware 
Rhegium  was  sufficiently  powerful  to  send  three 
thousand  of  its  citizens  to  the  assistance  of  the 
Tarentines,  and  in  the  time  of  the  elder  Diony- 
sius  it  possessed  a  fleet  of  eighty  ships  of  war. 
The  government  was  an  aristocracy,  but  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  Anaxilaus, 
who  was  of  a  Messenian  family,  m:ide  himself 
tyrant  of  the  place.  In  494  this  Anaxilaus  con- 
quered Zancle  in  Sicily,  the  name  of  which  he 
changed  into  Messana.  He  ruled  over  the  two 
cities,  and  on  his  death  in  476  he  bequeathed 
his  power  to  his  sons.  About  ten  years  after- 
ward (466)  his  sons  were  driven  out  of  Rhegi- 
um and  Messana,  and  republican  governments 
were  established  in  both  cities,  which  now  be- 
came independent  of  one  another.  At  a  later 
period  Rhegium  incurred  the  deadly  enm'ty  of 
the  elder  Dionysius  in  consequence  of  a  person- 
al insult  which  the  inhabitants  had  offered  him. 
It  is  said  that  when  he  asked  the  Rhegians  to 
give  him  one  of  their  maidens  for  his  wife,  they 
replied  that  they  could  only  grant  him  the 
daughter  of  their  public  executioner.  Diony- 
sius carried  on  war  against  the  city  for  a  long 
time,  and  after  two  or  three  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts he  at  length  took  the  place,  which  he 
treated  with  the  greatest  severity.  Rhegium 
never  recovered  its  former  greatness,  though  it 
still  continued  to  be  a  place  of  considerable  im- 
portance. The  younger  Dionysius  gave  it  the 
name  of  Phobia,  but  this  name  never  came  into 
general  use,  and  was  speedily  forgotten.  The 
Rhegians  having  applied  to  Rome  for  assistance 
when  Pyrrhus  was  in  the  south  of  Italy,  the 
Romans  placed  in  the  town  a  garrison  of  four 
thousand  soldiers,  who  had  been  levied  among 
the  Latin  colonies  in  Campania.  These  troops 
seized  the  town  in  279,  killed  or  expelled  the 
male  inhabitants,  and  took  possession  of  their 
wives  and  children.  The  Romans  were  too 
much  engaged  at  the  time  with  their  war  against 
Pyrrhus  to  take  notice  of  this  outrage ;  but  when 
Pyrrhus  was  dfiven  out  of  Italy,  they  took  sig- 
nal vengeance  upon  these  Campanians,  and  re- 
stored the  surviving  Rhegians  to  their  city. 
Rhegium  suffered  greatly  from  an  earthquake 
shortly  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  Social 
war,  90  ;  but  its  population  was  augmented  by 
Augustus,  who  settled  here  a  number  of  veter- 
ans from  his  fleet,  whence  the  town  bears  in 
Ptolemy  the  surname  Julium.  Rhegium  was 
the  place  from  which  persons  usually  crossed 
over  to  Sicily,  but  the  spot  at  which  they  em- 
barked was  called  COLUMNA  RHEGINA  ('Pqyivuv 
ffrrj^if  :  now  Torre  di  Carallo),  and  was  one 
hundred  stadia  north  of  the  town.  The  Greek 
language  continued  to  be  spoken  at  Rhegium 
till  a  very  late  time,  and  the  town  was  subject 
to  the  Byzantine  court  long  after  the  downfall 
of  the  Western  empire. 

[RHEGMA  ('P^a),  the  lagoon  formed  by  the 
River  Cydnus  in  Cilicia,  at  its  mouth,  and  which 
served  as  a  harbor  to  the  city  of  Tarsus.] 

RHENEA  ('Pyveia,  also  'Piivij,  'Pqvaia),  former- 
ly called  Orlygia  and  Ccladussa,  an  island  in  the 
^Egean  Sea  and  one  of  the  Cyclades,  west  of 
Delos,  from  which  it  was  divided  by  a  narrow 
strait  only  four  stadia  in  width.  When  Poly- 
crates  took  the  island,  he  dedicated  it  to  Apollo, 
and  united  it  by  a  chain  to  Delos ;  and  Nicias 


RHENUS. 

connected  the  two  islands  by  means  of  a  bridge. 
When  the  Athenians  purified  Delos  in  B.C.  426, 
they  removed  all  the  dead  from  the  latter  island 
to  ilhenea. 

RHENUS.  1.  (Now  Rhein  in  German,  Rhine  in 
English),  one  of  the  great  rivers  in  Europe, 
forming  in  ancient  times  the  boundary  between 
Gaul  and  Germany,  rises  in  Mons  Adula  (now 
St.  Gothard)  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the 
Rhone,  and  flows  first  in  a  westerly  direction, 
passing  through  the  Lacus  Brigantinus  (now 
Lake  of  Constance)  till  it  reaches  Basilia  (now 
Basle),  where  it  takes  a  northerly  direction, 
and  eventually  flows  into  the  ocean  by  several 
mouths.  The  ancients  spoke  of  two  main  arms 
into  which  the  Rhine  was  divided  in  entering 
the  territory  of  the  Batavi,  of  which  the  one  on 
the  east  continued  to  bear  the  nameofRhe- 
nus,  while  that  on  the  west,  into  which  the 
Mosa  (now  Maas  or  Meuse)  flowed,  was  called 
Vahalis  (now  Waal).  After  Drusus,  in  B.C.  12, 
had  connected  the  Flevo  Lacus  (now  Zuyd.tr- 
See)  with  the  Rhine  by  means  of  a  canal,  in 
making  which  he  probably  made  use  of  the  bed 
of  the  Yssel,  we  find  mention  of  three  mouths 
of  the  Rhine.  Of  these  the  names,  as  given  by 
Pliny,  are,  on  the  west,  Helium  (the  Vahalis  of 
other  writers) ;  in  the  centre,  Rhenus ;  and 
on  the  east,  Flevum ;  but  at  a  later  time  we 
Again  find  mention  of  only  two  mouths.  The 
Rhine  is  described  by  the  ancients  as  a  broad, 
rapid,  and  deep  river.  It  receives  many  tribu- 
taries; of  which  the  most  important  were  the 
Mosella  (now  Moselle)  and  Mosa  (now  Maas  or 
Meuse)  on  the  left,  and  the  Nicer  (now  Neckar), 
Mrenus  (now  Main),  and  Luppia  (now  Lippe)  on 
the 'right.  It  passed  through  various  tribes,  of 
which  the  principal  on  the  west  were  the  Nan- 
tuates,  Helvetii,  Sequani,  Mediomatrici,  Triboc- 
ci,  Treviri,  Ubii,  Batavi,  and  Canninefates,  and 
the  principal  on  the  east  were  the  Rhaeti,  Vin- 
delici,  Mattiaci,  Sigambri,  Tencteri,  Usipetes, 
Bructeri,  and  Frisii.  The  length  of  the  Rhine 
is  stated  differently  by  the  ancient  writers.  Its 
whole  course -amounts  to  about  nine  hundred 
and  fifty  miles.  The  inundations  of  the  Rhine 
near  its  mouth  are  mentioned  by  the  ancients. 
Csesar  was  the  first  Roman  general  who  cross- 
ed the  Rhine.  He  threw  a  bridge  of  boats 
across  the  river,  probably  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Cologne.  The  etymology  of  the  name  is 
doubtful ;  some  connect  it  with  rtnnen  or  rinnan, 
according  to  which  it  would  mean  the  "  current" 
or  "stream  ;"  others  with  rhen  or  rein,  that  is, 
the  "  clear"  river. — 2.  (Now  Reno),  a  tributary 
of  the  Padus  (now  Po)  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  near 
Bononia,  on  a  small  island  of  which  Octavianus, 
Antony,  and  Lepidus  formed  the  celebrated  tri- 
umvirate. The  small  river  Lavinius  (now  La- 
vino)  flows  into  the  Rhenus ;  and  Appian  places 
in  the  Lavinius  the  island  on  which  the  trium- 
virate was  formed. 

[RHEOMITHRES  ('Pfo^p^f),  a  Persian,  who 
joined  in  the  general  revolt'of  the  western  prov- 
inces from  Artaxerxes  Mnetnon  in  B.C.  362, 
and  was  employed  by  his  confederates  to  go  to 
Tachos,  king  of  Egypt,  for  aid.  Although  suc- 
cessful in  this  application,  he  made  hia  own 
peace  with  Artaxerxes  by  betraying  a  number 
of  the  rebel  chiefs.  He  was  also  one  of  the 
commanders  of  the  Persian  cavalry  in  the  bat- 


RHIP.EI  MONTES. 

tie  at  the  Granicus,  B.C.  334,  and  feii  in  the 
battle  at  Issus,  B.C.  333.] 

RHEPHAIM,  a  valley  ot'Judaja,  continuous  with 
the  valley  of  Hinnoin,  southwest  of  Jerusalem. 
Rhephaiim  was  also  the  name  of  a  very  ancient 
people  of  Palestine. 

RHESUS  ('P?/CTOf).  1.  A  river-god  in  Bithynia. 
one  of  the  sons  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys. — 2.  Son 
of  King  Ei'oneus  in  Thrace,  marched  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Trojans  in  their  war  with  the 
Greeks.  An  oracle  had  declared  that  Troy 
would  never  be  taken  if  the  snow-white  horses 
of  Rhesus  should  once  drink  the  water  of  the 
Xanthus,  and  feed  upon  the  grass  of  the  Trojan 
plain.  But  as  soon  as  Rhesus  had  reached  the 
Trojan  territory,  and  had  pitched  his  tents  late 
at  night,  Ulysses  and  Diomedes  penetrated  into 
his  camp,  slew  Rhesus  himself,  and  carried  off 
his  horses.  In  later  writers  Rhesus  is  describ 
ed  as  a  son  of  Strymon  and  Euterpe,  or  Calliope, 
or  Terpsichore. 

[RHEXENOR  ('PTjt-rjvup),  son  of  Nausithous, 
the  king  of  the  Phaeacians,  and  accordingly  a 
brother  of  Alcinous.] 

RHIANUS  ('PiafOf),  of  Crete,  a  distinguished 
Alexandrean  poet  and  grammarian,  flourished 
B.C.  222.  He  wrote  several  epic  poems,  one 
of  which  was  on  the  Messenian  wars.  He  also 
wrote  epigrams,  ten  of  which  are  preserved  in 
the  Palatine  Anthology,  and  one  by  Athenaeus. 
His  fragments  are  printed  in  Gaisford's  Poetac 
Minorca  Grtsci ;  and  separately  edited  by  Nic 
Saal,  Bonn,  1831. 

RHIDAGUS,  a  tributary  of  the  River  Ziobetis. 
in  Parthia ;  [but  vid.  ZIOBETIS.] 

RHINOCOLURA  or  RHINOCORURA  (ri'PtvoKoXov- 
pa  or  'PivoKopovpa,  and  q  'PivoKohovpa  or  'Pivo- 
icopovpa  :  now  Kulat-el-Arish),  the  frontier  town 
of  Egypt  and  Palestine,  lay  in  the  midst  of  the 
desert,  at  the  mouth  of  the  brook  (now  El-Arish), 
which  was  the  boundary  between  the  countries, 
and  which  is  called  in  Scripture  the  river  of 
Egypt.  It  was  sometimes  reckoned  to  Syria, 
sometimes  to  Egypt.  Its  name,  "  Thc-cut-o/- 
noscs,"  is  derived  from  its  having  been  the  place 
of  exile  of  criminals  who  had  first  been  so  mu- 
tilated under  the  ^Ethiopian  dynasty  of  kings 
of  Egypt. 

RHINTHON  ('Pivduv),  of  Syracuse  or  Taren- 
tum,  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  a  potter,  was 
a  dramatic  poet,  of  that  species  of  burlesque 
tragedy  which  was  called  yl.vaKoypajia  or  i?.a- 
porpayvdia,  and  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Ptol- 
emy I.,  king  of  Egypt.  When  he  is  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  composers  of  this  burlesque 
drama,  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  he  actually 
invented  it,  but  that  he  was  the  first  to  develop 
in  a  written  form,  and  to  introduce  into  Greek 
literature,  a  species  of  dramatic  composition, 
which  had  already  long  existed  as  a  popular 
amusement  among  the  Greeks  of  Southern  Italy 
and  Sicily,  and  especially  at  Tarentum.  The 
species  of  drama  which  he  cultivated  may  be 
described  as  an  exhibition  of  the  subjects  of 
tragedy,  in  the  spirit  and  style  of  comedy.  A 
poet  of  this  description  was  called  0At-«f  This 
name,  and  that  of  the  drama  itself,  Q/.vaicoypa- 
$ia,  seem  to  have  been  the  genuine  terms 
used  at  Tarentum.  Rhinthon  wrote  thirty-eight 
dramas. 

MONTES  (ru  'Pntaia  bpij,  also  'Plirai\ 
741 


RMIUM. 


RHODOPIS. 


ifje  name  of  a  lofty  range  of  mountains  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  earth,  respecting  which 
there  are  diverse  statements  in  the  ancient 
writers.  The  name  seems  to  have  been  given 
by  the  Greek  poets  quite  indefinitely  to  all  the 
mountains  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  Thus  the  Rhipaei  Monies  are  sometimes 
called  the  Hyperborei  Monies.  Vid.  HYPERBO- 
REI.  The  later  geographical  writers  place  the 
Rhipaean  Mountains  northeast  of  Mount  Alau- 
nus,  on  the  frontiers  of  Asiatic  Sarmatia,  and 
state  that  the  Tanais  rises  in  these  mountains. 
According  to  this  account,  the  Rhipaean  Mount- 
ains may  be  regarded  as  a  western  branch  of 
the  Ural  Mountains. 

RHIUM  ('Piov :  now  Castcllo  di  Mored),  a  prom- 
ontory in  Achaia,  opposite  the  promontory  of 
Antirrhium  (now  Castello  di  Romelia),  on  the 
borders  of  ^Etolia  and  Locris,  with  which  it 
formed  the  narrow  entrance  to  the  Corinthian 
Gulf,  which  straits  are  now  called  the  Little 
Dardanelles.  It  is  sometimes  called  'Axa'iKov 
'Piov,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  opposite  prom- 
ontory, which  was  surnamed  MohvKpiicov  or  Al- 
ruAiKov.  On  the  promontory  of  Rhium  there 
was  a  temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon). 

RmzdNor  RHIZINIUM  ('Pi^uv:  'Pi&virt/f.  now 
Risano),  an  ancient  town  in  Dalmatia,  situated 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  gulf,  called  after  it  Rhi- 
zonaeus  Sinus  (now  Gulf  of  Cattaro).  [It  is 
mentioned  by  Polybius  as  a  strong  place,  to 
which  Teuta,  queen  of  ihe  Illyrians,  withdrew 
on  being  attacked  by  the  Romans.] 

RHODA  or  RHODUS  ('Podrj,  'Po&ot :  nowRozas), 
a  Greek  emporium  on  the  coast  of  the  Indigetae, 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  founded  by  the  Rho- 
dians,  and  subsequently  occupied  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  Massilia. 

RHODANUS  (now  Rh6ne),  one  of  the  chief  riv- 
ers of  Gaul,  rises  in  Mons  Adula  on  the  Pen- 
nine Alps,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Rhine, 
flows  first  in  a  westerly  direction,  and,  after 
passing  through  the  Lacus  Lemanus,  turns  to 
the  south,  passes  by  the  towns  of  Lugdunum, 
Vienna,  Avenio,  and  Arelate,  receives  several 
tributaries,  and  finally  falls  by  several  mouths 
into  the  Sinus  Gallicus  in  the  Mediterranean. 
The  number  of  the  mouths  of  the  Rhone  is 
stated  differently  by  ihe  ancient  writers,  which 
is  not  surprising,  as  the  river  has  frequently  al- 
tered its  course  near  the  sea.  Pliny  mentions 
three  mouths,  of  which  the  most  important  was 
called  Os  Massalioticum,  while  the  two  others 
bore  the  general  name  of  Libyza  ora,  being  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  as  the  Os  Hispani- 
ense  and  the  Os  Metapinum.  Besides  these 
mouths  there  was  a  canal  to  the  east  of  the  Os 
Massalioticum,  called  Fossae.  Mariana,  which 
was  dug  by  order  of  Marius  during  his  war  with 
the  Cimbri,  in  order  to  make  an  easier  connec- 
tion between  the  Rhone  and  the  Mediterranean, 
as  the  mouths  of  the  river  were  frequently 
choked  up  with  sand.  The  Rhone  is  a  very 
rapid  river,  and  its  upward  navigation  is  there- 
fore difficult,  though  it  is  navigable  for  large 
vessels  as  high  as  Lugdunum,  and  by  means  of 
the  Arar  still  further  north. 

RHODE.     Vid.  RHODOS. 

[RHODE A  ('Potato),  a  daughter  of  Oceanus  and 
Tethys,  was  one  of  the  playmates  of  Proser- 
pina (Persephone).] 
742 


RHODU  and  RHODISPOUS  ('PoMa,  'PotiinnoZtf  • 
j  'Podievf ,  'PodtoTcoAirijf :  now  Eski-Hissar,  ruins), 
1  a  mountain  city  of  Lycia,  near  Corydallus,  with 
1  a  temple  of  ^Esculapius  (Asclepius). 

RHODIUS  ('P66iof  :  now  probably  the  Brook  of 
(he  Dardanelles),  a  small   river  of  the  Troad. 
mentioned  by  both  Homer  and  Hesiod.     It  rose 
j  on- the  lower  slopes  of  Mount  Ida,  and  flowec1 
1  northwest  into  the  Hellespont,  between  Abydus 
I  and  Dardanus,  after  receiving  the  Selleis  frorr 
the  west.     It  is  identified  by  some  with  the 
j  River  Tlvdios,  which  Thucydides  mentions,  be- 
tween Cynossema  and  Abydus.     Some  made  it 
erroneously  a  tributary  of  the  ^Esepus.      It  is 
found  mentioned  on  the  coins  of  Dardanus. 

[RHODOGUNE  ('Podojovvrj).  1.  A  daughter  of 
Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  was  given  in  marriage  by 
him  lo  Orontes.  Vid.  ORONTES,  No.  3.  —  2. 
Daughter  of  Mithradates  I.,  king  of  Parthia, 
given  by  him  in  marriage  to  Demetrius  Nicator, 
king  of  Syria.  Vid.  ARSACES,  No.  6.]  , 

[  RHODOPE  ('Po66mi),  a  fountain  nymph,  daugh- 
ter of  the  river-god  Strymon,  wife  of  the  Thra- 
cian  Haemus,  and  mother  of  Hebrus.  She  is 
mentioned  also  among  the  playmates  of  Pro- 
serpina (Persephone).] 

RHODOPE  ('Podoirjj),  one  of  the  highest  ranges 
of  mountains  in  Thrace,  extending  from  Mount 
Scomius,  east  of  the  River  Nestus  and  the 
boundaries  of  Macedonia,  in  a  southeasterly  di- 
rection almost  down  to  the  coast.  It  is  highest 
in  its  northern  part,  and  is  thickly  covered  with 
wood.  Rhodope,  like  the  rest  of  Thrace,  was 
sacred  to  Dionysus  (Bacchus),  and  is  frequently 
mentioned  by  the  poets  in  connection  with  the 
worship  of  this  god. 

[RHODOPHON,  a  Rhodian  statesman,  who" ex- 
erted himself  when  hostilities  broke  out  between 
Perseus  and  the  Romans  to  preserve  unbroken 
the  connection  between  his  countrymen  and  th» 
latter.  He  was  one  of  the  deputies  sent,  B.C 
167,  to  convey  a  golden  crown  to  Rome.] 

RHODOPIS  ('Podunie),  a  celebrated  Greek  court- 
esan, of  Thracian  origin,  was  a  fellow-slave  with 
the  poet  ^Esop,  both  of  them  belonging  to  the 
Samian  ladmon.  She  afterward  became  the 
property  of  Xanthes,  another  Samian,  who  car 
ried  her  to  Naucratis  in  Egypt,  in  the  reign  of 
Amasis,  and  at  this  great  sea-port  she  carried 
on  the  trade  of  an  hetaera  for  the  benefit  of  hei 
master.  While  thus  employed,  Charaxus,  the 
brother  of  the  poetess  Sappho,  who  had  come 
to  Naucratis  as  a  merchant,  fell  in  love  with 
her,  and  ransomed  her  from  slavery  for  a  large 
sum  of  money.  She  was,  in  consequence,  at- 
tacked by  Sappho  in  a  poem.  She  continued  to 
live  at  Naucratis,  and  with  the  tenth  part  of  her 
gains  she  dedicated  at  Delphi  ten  iron  spits, 
which  were  seen  by  Herodotus.  She  is  called 
Rhodopis  by  Herodotus,  but  Sappho  in  her  poem 
spoke  of  her  under  the  name  of  Doricha.  It  is 
therefore  probable  that  Doricha  was  her  real 
name,  and  that  she  received  that  of  Rhodopis, 
which  signifies  the  "  rosy-cheeked,"  on  account 
of  her  beauty.  There  was  a  tale  current  in 
Greece  that  Rhodopis  built  the  third  pyramid. 
It  has  been  conjectured,  with  great  probability, 
that  in  consequence  of  her  name  Rhodopis,  the 
"  rosy-cheeked,"  she  was  confounded  with  Nito- 
cris,  the  beautiful  Egyptian  queen,  and  the  he- 
roine of  rrany  an  Egyptian  legend,  who  is  said 


flHODOS. 

by  the  ancient  chronologers  to  have  built  the 
third  pyramid. 

RHODOS   ('Podof),  sometimes  called  RHODE, 
daughter  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  and  Halia,  or  ! 
of  Helios  and  Amphitrite,  or  of  Neptune  (Posei-  i 
don)  and  Venus  (Aphrodite),  or,  lastly,  of  Oce-  I 
anus.     From  her  the  island  of  Rhodes  is  said 
to  have  derived  its  name  ;  and  in  this  island  she 
bore  to  Helios  seven  sons. 

[RIIODUNTIA  ('Podovvria),  a  fortress  on  Mount 
GEta,  near  Heraclea  and  Thermopylae  ;  accord- 
ing to  Livy,  one  of  the  summits  of  GEta.] 

RnSous  (fi  'Podof :  'Podiof,  Rhodius:  no\vRho- 
dos,  Rhodes),  the  easternmost  island  of  the  ^Ege- 
an,  or,  more  specifically,  of  the  Carpathian  Sea, 
lies  off  the  southern  coast  of  Caria,  due  south  of 
the  promontory  of  Cynossema  (now  Cape  Alou- 
po),  at  the  distance  of  about  twelve  geographical 
miles.  Its  length,  from  northeast  to  southwest, 
is  about  forty-live  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth 
about  twenty  to  twenty-five.  In  early  times  it 
was  called  ^Ethraea  and  Ophiussa,  and  several 
other  names.  The  earliest  Greek  records  make 
mention  of  it.  Mythological  stories  ascribed  j 
its  origin  to  the  power  of  Apollo,  who  raised  it 
from  beneath  the  waves  ;  and  its  first  peopling 
to  the  Telchines,  children  of  Thalatta  (the  Sea), 
upon  whose  destruction  by  a  deluge  the  He- 
liadaj  were  planted  in  the  island  by  Helios, 
where  they  formed  seven  tribes,  and  founded 
a  kingdom,  which  soon  became  flourishing  by 
their  skill  in  astronomy  and  navigation,  and 
other  sciences  and  arts.  These  traditions  ap- 
pear to  signify  the  early  peopling  of  the  island 
by  some  of  the  civilized  races  of  Western  Asia, 
probably  the  Phoenicians.  After  other  alleged 
migrations  into  the  island,  we  come  to  its  Hel- 
lenic colonization,  which  is  ascribed  to  Tlepo- 
lemus,  the  son  of  Hercules,  before  the  Trojan 
war,  and  after  that  war  to  Althaemenes.  Ho- 
mer mentions  the  three  Dorian  settlements  in 
Rhodes,  namely,  Lindus,  lalysus,  and  Camirus  ; 
and  these  cities,  with  Cos,  Cnidus,  and  Hali- 
carnassus,  formed  the  Dorian  Hexapolis,  which 
was  established,  from  a  period  of  unknown 
antiquity,  in  the  southwestern  corner  of  Asia 
Minor.  Rhodes  soon  became  a  great  maritime 
state,  or  rather  confederacy,  the  island  being 
parcelled  out  between  the  three  cities  above 
mentioned.  The  Rhodians  made  distant  voy- 
ages, and  founded  numerous  colonies,  of  which 
the  chief  were  Rhoda  in  Iberia  ;  Gelain  Sicily; 
Parthenope,  Salacia,  Siris,  and  Sybaris  in  Italy ; 
settlements  in  the  Balearic  Islands ;  and,  in 
their  own  neighborhood,  Soli  in  Cilicia,  and 
Gagae  and  Corydalla  in  Lycia.  During  this 
early  period  the  government  of  each  of  the  three 
cities  seems  to  have  been  monarchical ;  but 
about  B.C.  660  the  whole  island  seems  to  have 
been  united  in  an  oligarchical  republic,  the  chief 
magistrates  of  which,  called  prytanes,  were 
taken  from  the  family  of  the  Eratidae,  who  had 
been  the  royal  family  of  lalysus.  Vid.  DIAGO- 
RAS,  DORIEUS.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  Rhodes  was  one  of  those  Dorian 
maritime  states  which  were  subject  to  Athens  ; 
but  in  the  twentieth  year  of  the  war,  412,  it 
joined  the  Spartan  alliance,  and  the  oligarchical 
party,  which  had  been  depressed,  and  their  lead- 
ers, the  Eratidae,  expelled,  recovered  their  for- 
mer power  under  Dorieus.  In  408,  the  new 


RHCECUS. 

capital,  called  RHODUS,  was  built,  and  peopled 
from  the  three  ancient  cities  of  lalysus,  Lindus, 
and  Camirus.  The  history  of  the  island  now 
presents  a  series  of  conflicts  between  the  demo- 
cratical  and  oligarchical  parties,  and  of  subjec- 
tion to  Athens  and  Sparta  in  turn,  till  the  end  of 
the  Social  war,  355,  when  its  independence  wa» 
acknowledged.  Then  followed  a  conflict  with 
the  princes  of  Caria,  during  which  the  island  was 
for  a  time  subject  to  Artemisia,  and,  nominally  at 
least,  to  Idrieus.  During  this  period  there  were 
great  internal  dissensions,  which  were  at  length 
composed  by  a  mixed  form  of  government,  unit- 
ing the  elements  of  aristocracy  and  democracy. 
At  the  Macedonian  conquest,  they  submitted 
to  Alexander;  but,  upon  his  death,  they  expelled 
the  Macedonian  garrison.  In  the  ensuing  wars 
they  formed  an  alliance  with  Ptolemy,  the  son 
of  Lagus,  and  their  city,  Rhodes,  successfully 
endured  a  most  famous  siege  by  the  forces  of 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  who  at  length,  in  admi- 
ration' of  the  valor  of  the  besieged,  presented 
them  with  the  engines  he  had  used  against  the 
city,  from  the  sale  of  which  they  defrayed  the 
cost  of  the  celebrated  Colossus,  which  is  de- 
scribed under  the  name  of  its  artist,  CHARES. 
The  state  now  for  a  long  time  flourished,  with" 
an  extensive  commerce,  and  with  such  a  mari- 
time power  that  it  compelled  the  Byzantines  to 
remit  the  toll  which  they  levied  on  ships  passing 
the  Bosporus.  At  length  they  came  into  con- 
nection with  the  Romans,  whose  alliance  they 
joined,  with  Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  in  the 
war  against  Philip  III.  of  Macedon.  In  the  en- 
suing war  with  Antiochus,  the  Rhodians  gave 
the  Romans  great  aid  with  their  fleet ;  and,  in 
the  subsequent  partition  of  the  Syrian  posses- 
sions of  Asia  Minor,  they  were  rewarded  by 
the  supremacy  of  S.  Caria,  where  they  had 
had  settlements  from  an  early  period.  Vid.  PE- 
R..EA  RHODIORUM.  A  temporary  interruption  of 
their  alliance  with  Rome  was  caused  by  their 
espousing  the  cause  of  Perseus,  for  which  they 
were  severely  punished,  168 ;  but  they  recov- 
ered the  favor  of  Rome  by  the  important  naval 
aid  they  rendered  in  the  Mithradatic  war.  In 
the  civil  wars  they  took  part  with  Cassar,  and 
suffered  in  consequence  from  Cassius,  42,  but 
were  afterward  compensated  for  their  losses  by 
the  favor  of  Antonius.  They  were  at  length 
deprived  of  their  independence  by  Claudius  ; 
and  their  prosperity  received  its  final  blow  from 
an  earthquake,  which  laid  the  city  of  Rhodes  in 
ruins,  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  A.D.  155. 
The  celebrated  medieval  history  of  the  island, 
as  the  seat  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  does  not 
belong  to  this  work.  The  island  is  of  great 
beauty  and  fertility,  with  a  delicious  climate. 
It  was  further  celebrated  as  the  home  of  dis- 
tinguished schools  of  Greek  art  and  of  Greek 
oratory.  The  city  of  Rhodes  was  famous  for 
the  beauty  and  regularity  of  its  architecture, 
and  the  number  of  statues  which  adorned  it; 
it  was  designed  by  Hippodamus  of  Miletus 
(Comp.  I  u.vsrs,  LINDUS,  and  CAMIRUB.) 

RHCECUS  (Tof/cof).  1.  ACentaur,  who,  in  con- 
junction with  Hylaeus,  pursued  Atalanta  in  Ar- 
cadia, but  was  killed  by  her  with  an  arrow.  The 
Roman  poets  call  him  Rhcetus,  and  relate  that 
he  was  wounded  at  the  nuptials  of  Pirithous. — 
2.  Son  of  Phileas  or  Phileus,  of  Samos,  an  ar 

743 


RHCEMETALCES. 

.ihitect  and  statuary  belonging  to  the  earliest 
period  .1  the  history  of  Greek  art,  is  mentioned 
as  the  head  of  a  family  of  Samian  artists.  He 
flourished  about  B.C.  640.  Hewasthefirst  arch- 
itect of  the  great  temple  of  Juno  (Hera)  at  &i- 
mos,  which  Theodoras  completed.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  Smilis  and  Theodorus,  he  constructed 
the  labyrinth  of  Lemnos  ;  and  he,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  his  family  who  succeeded  him,  invented 
the  art  of  casting  statues  in  bronze  and  iron. 

[RHOCMETALCES  ('Po^TuA/ctff).  1.  I.,  king  of 
Thrace,  was  brother  of  Cotys,  and  uncle  and 
guardian  of  Rhascuporis,  at  whose  death,  B.C. 
13,  he  was  expelled  from  Thrace.  About  two 
years  afterward  Rhoemetalces  received  from 
Augustus  his  nephew's  dominions,  with  some 
additions,  since  Tacitus  calls  him  king  of  all 
Thrace.  On  his  death  Augustus  divided  his 
kingdom  between  his  son  Cotys  and  his  brother 
Rhascuporis.  —  2.  II.,  King  of  Thrace,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  and  son  .of  .Rhascuporis,  re- 
ceived a  portion  of  the  Thracian  kingdom  on 
the  deposition  of  his  father.  He  remained  faith- 
ful to  the  Romans,  and  aided  in  putting  down 
the  Thracian  malcontents  in  A.D.  26.  Caligu- 
la, in  A.D.  38,  assigned  the  whole  of  Thrace  to 
'Rhffimetalces.] 

[RHCEO  ('Poiu),  a  daughter  of  Staphylus,  be- 
loved by  Apollo,  to  whom  she  bore  Anius  :  she 
had  been  put  in  a  chest,  and  set  afloat  on  the 
sea  by  her  father,  but  was  wafted  safely  to  Eu- 
bcea  (or  Delos).] 

[RncESACEs('Poi(7d/o?f  inArrian  and  Plutarch; 
'Puna/eric,  Diod.),  a  Persian,  who  deduced  his 
lineage  from  one  of  the  seven  chiefs  who  over- 
threw the  government  of  the  Magi,  was  satrap 
of  Ionia  and  Lydia  about  350  B.C.,  and  was  as- 
sociated with  the  Theban  Lacrates  in  the  war 
against  Egypt.  In  the  battle  at  the  Granicus, 
having  assailed  Alexander,  he  was  slain  by  that 
monarch's  own  hand.  Diodorus  and  Curtius, 
however,  say  that,  having  cleft  the  king's  helmet 
with  his  sword,  his  hand  was  cut  off  by  Clitus.] 

RHOSTEUM  (TO  'Poireiov  uxpov,  rj  'Poirtiuf  0*777, 
'PoiTJjiai  uKTai :  Virg.  Rhcetea  litora  :  now  Cape 
Intcpeh  or  Barbieri),  a  promontory,  or  a  strip  of 
rocky  coast  breaking  into  several  promontories, 
in  Mysia,  on  the  Hellespont,  near  ^Eantium, 
with  a  town  of  the  same  name  (now  probably 
Paleo  Castro). 

RHOSTUS.  1.  A  centaur.  Vid.  RHOECUS. — 2. 
One  of  the  giants,  who  was  slain  by  Bacchus 
(Dionysus) ;  he  is  usually  called  Eurytus. — [3. 
One  of  the  companions  of  Phineus,  slain  by 
Perseus.  —  4.  King  of  the  Marrubii  in  Italy, 
father  of  Anchemolus.  Vid.  ANCHEMOLUS. — 5. 
A  Rutulian  slain  among  the  sine  nomine  plebcm 
by  Euryalus.] 

[RHOMBITES  MAGNUS  and  MINOR  ('PopSiTijf 
psyaf  and  ehdaauv),  two  rivers  of  Asiatic  Sar- 
matia,  which  fell  into  two  bays  of  the  Palus 
Maeotis,  both  abounding  in  fish  :  of  these  the 
smaller,  according  to  Strabo,  was  six  hundred 
stadia  from  the  Anticites;  the  larger,  eight  hund- 
red stadia  northeast  of  the  smaller,  and  just  as 
far  southwest  from  the  Tanais.  The  larger  riv- 
er is  the  modern  Jei,  Jeisse,  or  Jea;  the  smaller, 
the  Tschelbasch  or  the  Beisu  ;  according  to  oth- 
ers, the  Atschujef.} 

[Raosus  or  RHOSSUS  ('Puaof  and  'Picrcroc),  a 
•ea-port  of  Syria,  on  the  Issicus  Sinus,  some- 
744 


RICIMEI* 

what  east  of  the  promontory  named  after  i 
(aKons7.o^  6  'Puoowof,  now  Cape  Torosc  or  Dog's 
Cape),  and  at  the  southern  point  of  the  above- 
named  gulf,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Syrian 
passes.  At  this  mountain  pass  Pococke  iouiul 
ruins  of  ancient  walls,  which  probably  belonged 
to  the  city  Rhosus.] 

[RHOTANUS  ('Poravof,  now,  according  fco  Man- 
nert,  Dalcsani),  a  small  river  of  Corsica,  flowing 
into  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  at  about  the  middle 
of  the  eastern  coast,  not  far  from  Aleria.] 

RHOXOLANI  or  ROXOLANI,  a  warlike  people  in 
European  Sarmatia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Palus 
Maeotis,  and  between  the  Borysthenes  and  the 
Tanais,  usually  supposed  to  be  the  ancestors  of 
the  modern  Russians.  They  frequently  attack- 
ed and  plundered  the  Roman  provinces  south 
of  the  Danube  ;  and  Hadrian  was  even  obliged 
to  pay  them  tribute  They  are  mentioned  as 
late  as  the  eleventh  century.  They  fought  with 
lances  and  with  long  swords  wielded  with  both 
hands ;  and  their  armies  were  composed  chiefly 
of  cavalry. 

[RHUBON  ('PovGuv,  now  probably  the  Dana),  a 
river  of  European  Sarmatia,  falling  into  the  Oce- 
anus  Sarmaticus  between  the  Chronus  and  Tu- 
runtus.] 

RHYNDACUS  ('Pw<5a/c6f  :  now  Edrenos),  or  Ly- 
cus,  a  considerable  river  of  Asia  Minor.  Rising 
in  Mount  Dindymene,  opposite  to  the  sources 
of  the  Hermus,  it  flows  north  through  Phrygia, 
then  turns  northwest,  then  west,  and  then  north, 
through  the  Lake  Apolloniatis,  into  the  Propon- 
tis.  From  the  point  where  it  left  Phrygia,  it 
formed  the  boundary  of  Mysia  and  Bithynia. 
Its  chief  tributary,  which  joins  it  from  the  west 
below  the  Lake  Apolloniatis,  was  called  MACES- 
TUS.  On  the  banks  of  the  Rhyndacus  Lucullus 
gained  a  great  victory  over  Mithradates,  B.C.  73. 

RHYPES  ('Pviref  and  other  forms :  'Pvjratoe), 
one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Achaia,  situated  be- 
tween ^Egium  and  Patrse.  It  was  destroyed  by 
Augustus,  and  its  inhabitants  removed  to  Patrae. 

RHYT!UM  ('Pvriov),  a  town  in  Crete,  mention- 
ed by  Homer,  which  is  identified  by  modern 
writers,  but  without  any  sufficient  reasons,  with 
the  later  Ritymna. 

RICIMER,  the  Roman  "  King-Maker,"  was  the 
son  of  a  Suevian  chief,  and  was  brought  up  at 
the  court  of  Valentinian  III.  He  served  with 
distinction  under  Aetius,  in  the  reign  of  Valen- 
tinian III.  In  A.D.  456  he  commanded  the 
fleet  of  the  Emperor  Avitus,  with  which  he 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Vandals,  and  in 
the  same  year  he  deposed  Avitus ;  but  as  he 
was  a  barbarian  by  birth,  he  would  not  assume 
the  title  of  emperor,  but  gave  it  to  Majorian,  in- 
tending to  keep  the  real  power  in  his  own  hands. 
But  as  Majorian  proved  more  able  and  ener- 
getic than  Ricimer  had  expected,  he  was  put  to 
death  in  461  by  order  of  Ricimer,  who  now 
raised  Libius  Severus  to  the  throne.  On  the 
death  of  Severus  in  465,  Ricimer  kept  the  gov- 
ernment in  his  own  hands  for  the  next  eighteen 
months  ;  but  in  467  Anthemius  was  appointed 
Emperor  of  the  West  by  Leo,  emperor  of  the 
East.  Ricimer  acquiesced  in  the  appointment, 
and  received  the  daughter  of  Anthemius  in  mar- 
riage ;  but  in  472  he  made  war  against  his 
father-in-law,  and  took  Rome  by  storm.  An- 
themius perished  in  the  assault,  and  Olybrius 


MAP  OF  ANCIENT  ROME,  SHOWING  THE  WALLS  OF  SEKVIUS  AND 
THOSE  OF  AURELIAN. 


[To face  p.  7-15. 


CAMPVS     VATICANVS 
PRATA     QVINCTIA 


Gates  in  the  Walls  of  Servius. 

1.  Porta  Collina. 

2.  Porta-  Viminalis. 

3.  Porta  Esquilina. 

4.  Porta  Querquetulana  ? 
a.  Porta  Caelimontana. 

6.  Porta  Capena. 

7.  Porta  Raudusculana  ? 

8.  Porta  Naevia. 

9.  Porta  Minucia. 

10.  Porta  Trigemina. 

11.  Porta  Flumentana. 

12.  Porta  Carmentalis. 

13.  Porta  Ratumena? 

14.  Porta  Fontinalis. 

Gates  in  the  Walls  of  Auretian. 

15.  Porta  Flaminia. 

16.  Porta  Pinciana. 

17.  Porta  Salaria. 

18.  Porta  Nomentana. 


19.  Porta  Clausa. 

20.  Porta  Tiburtina  (.S1.  Lorenzo). 

21.  Porta  Praenestina  (Maggiore). 

22.  Porta  Asinaria. 

23.  Porta  Metrovia? 

24.  Porta  Latina. 

25.  Porta  Appia  (S.  Sebastiano). 

26.  Porta  Ardeatina? 

27.  Porta  Ostiensis. 
•28.  Porta  Portuensis. 

29.  Porta  Aurelia  (S.  Pancrazio). 

30.  Porta  Septimiana. 

31.  Porta  Aurelia  of  Procopius. 

Bridges. 

32.  Pons  ^lius  (Ponte  S.  Angela). 

33.  Pons  Vaticanus  ? 

34.  Pons  Janiculensis  T 

35.  Pons  Fabricius. 

36.  Pons  Cestius. 

37.  Pons  Palatinus  (jEmilius  ?). 

38.  Supposed  remains  of  the  Sublician  Bridge. 


RICINA. 

was  proclaimed  emperor  by  Ricimer,  who  died, 
however,  only  forty  days  after  the  sack  of  Rome. 

RICINA.  1.  (Ricinensis),  a  town  in  Picenum, 
colonized  by  the  Emperor  Severus.  Its  mines 
are  on  the  River  Potenza,  near  Macerata. — 2. 
One  of  the  Ebudse  Insulae,  or  the  Hebrides. 

RIGODULUM  (now  Real),  a  town  of  the  Treviri 
in  Gallia  Belgica,  distant  three  days'  march 
from  Mogontiacum. 

[RiPHEus,  or,  more  correctly,  RHIPEUS  (Ttn-- 
ei5f),  a  Trojan  warrior,  who  joined  the  band  of 
.Eneas  the  night  that  Troy  was  burned,  and 
fought  with  great  bravery  until  he  was  at  length 
overpowered  by  superior  numbers  :  he  is  com- 
mended for  his  piety  and  justice.] 

ROBIGUS  or  ROBIGO,  is  described  by  some 
Latin  writers  as  a  divinity  worshipped  for  the 
purpose  of  averting  blight  or  too  great  heat 
from  the  young  corn-fields.  The  festival  of  the 
Robigalia  was  celebrated  on  the  twenty-fifth  of 
April,  and  was  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Numa.  But  considering  the  uncertainty  of  the 
ancients  themselves  as  to  whether  the  divinity 
was  masculine  or  feminine,  and  that  the  Ro- 
mans did  not  pay  divine  honors  to  any  evil  de- 
mon, it  is  probable  that  the  divinity  Robigus  or 
Robigo  is  only  an  abstraction  of  the  later  Ro- 
mans from  the  festival  of  the  Robigalia. 

ROBUS,  a  fortress  in  the  territory  of  the  Rau-  ! 
raci,  in  Gallia  Belgica,  which  was  built  by  Va- 
tentinian  near  Basilia,  A.D.  374. 

ROMA  (Romanus  :  now  Rome),  the  capital  of 
Italy  and  of  the  world,  was  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  River  Tiber,  on  the  northwestern 
confines  of  Latium,  about  sixteen  miles  from 
the  sea. — A.  HISTORY  OF  THE  CITY.  Rome  is 
said  to  have  been  a  colony  from  Alba  Longa, 
and  to  have  been  founded  by  Romulus  about 
B.C.  753.  Vid.  ROMULUS.  All  traditions  agree 
that  the  original  city  comprised  only  the  Mons 
Palatinus  or  Pa.la.tium,  and  some  portion  of  the 
ground  immediately  below  it.  It  was  surround- 
ed by  walls,  which  followed  the  line  of  the  Po- 
mozrium  (vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  s.  v.),  and  was  built 
in  a  square  form,  whence  it  was  called  Roma 
Quadrata.  This  city  on  the  Palatine  was  in- 
habited only  by  Latins.  On  the  neighboring 
hills  there  aFso  existed  from  the  earliest  times 
settlements  of  Sabines  and  Etruscans.  The 
Sabine  town,  probably  called  Quirium,  and  in- 
habited by  Quirites,  was  situated  on  the  hills  to 
the  north  of  the  Palatine,  that  is,  the  Quirinalis 
and  Capitolinus,  or  Capitolium,  on  the  latter  of 
which  hills  was  the  Sabine  Arx  or  citadel. 
These  Latin  and  Sabine  towns  afterward  be- 
came united,  according  to  tradition,  in  the  reign 
of  Romulus,  and  the  two  nations  formed  one 
collective  body,  known  under  the  name  of 
"  Populus  Romanus  (et)  Quirites."  The  Etrus- 
cans were  settled  on  Mons  Cetlius,  and  extend- 
ed over  Mont  Cismus  and  Mont  Oppius,  which 
are  part  of  the  Esquiline.  These  Etruscans 
were  at  an  early  period  incorporated  in  the 
Roman  state,  but  were  compelled  to  abandon 
their  seats  on  the  hills,  and  to  take  up  their 
abode  in  the  plains  between  the  Caelius  and  the 
Esquiline,  whence  the  Vicus  Tuscus  derived  its 
name.  Under  the  kings  the  city  rapidly  grew 
in  population  and  in  size.  Ancus  Marcius  add- 
ed the  Mons  Aventinus  to  the  city.  Tr  c  same 
king  also  built  a  fortress  on  the  Janiettlus,  a  hill 


ROMA. 

on  the  other  side  of  the  Tiber,  as  a  protection 
against  the  Etruscans,  and  connected  it  with 
the  city  by  means  of  the  Pons  Sublicius.  Rome 
was  still  further  improved  and  enlarged  by  Tar- 
quinius  Priscus  and  Servius  Tullius.  The  for- 
mer of  these  kings  constructed  the  vast  sewers 
(cloaca),  by  which  the  lower  part  of  the  city  be- 
tween the  Palatine  and  Capitol  was  drained, 
and  which  still  remain  without  a  stone  dis- 
placed. He  also  laid  out  the  Circus  Maximus 
and  the  Forum,  and,  according  to  some  tradi- 
tions, commenced  the  erection  of  the  Capitoline 
temple,  which  was  finished  by  Tarquinius  Su- 
perbus.  The  completion  of  the  city,  however,' 
was  ascribed  to  Servius  Tullius.  This  king 
added  the  Mons  Viminalis  and  Mons  Esquilinus, 
and  surrounded  the  whole  city  with  a  line  of 
fortifications,  which  comprised  all  the  seven 
hills  of  Rome  (Palatinus,  Capitolinus,  Quiri- 
nalis, Calius,  Aventinus,  Viminalis,  Esquilinus). 
Hence  Rome  was  called  Urbs  Septicollis.  These 
fortifications  were  about  seven  miles  in  circum- 
ference. At  the  same  time,  Servius  extended 
the  pomcerium  so  as  to  make  the  sacred  in- 
closure  of  the  city  identical  with  its  walls.  In 
B.C.  390  Rome  was  entirely  destroyed  by  the 
Gauls,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  houses  on 
the  Palatine.  On  the  departure  of  the  barbari- 
ans it  was  rebuilt  in  great  haste  and  confusion, 
without  any  attention  to  regularity,  and  with 
narrow  and  crooked  streets.  After  the  con- 
quest of  the  Carthaginians  and  of  the  monarchs 
of  Macedonia  and  Syria,  the  city  began  to  be 
adorned  with  many  public  buildings  and  hand- 
some private  houses ;  and  it  was  still  further 
embellished  by  Augustus,  who  introduced  great 
improvements  into  all  parts  of  the  city,  and  both 
erected  many  public  buildings  himself,  and  in- 
duced all  the  leading  nobles  of  his  court  to  fol- 
low his  example.  So  greatly  had  the  appear- 
ance of  the  city  improved  during  his  long  and 
prosperous  reign,  that  he  used  to  boast  that  he 
had  found  the  city  of  brick,  and  had  left  it  of 
marble.  Still  the  main  features  of  the  city  re- 
mained the  same  ;  and  the  narrow  streets  and 
mean  houses  formed  a  striking  and  disagreeable 
contrast  to  the  splendid  public  buildings  and 
magnificent  palaces  which  had  been  recently 
erected.  The  great  fire  at  Rome  in  the  reign  of 
Nero  (A.D.  64)  destroyed  two  thirds  of  the  city. 
Nero  availed  himself  of  this  opportunity  to  in 
dulge  his  passion  for  building  ;  and  the  city  now 
assumed  a  more  regular  and  stately  appearance. 
The  new  streets  were  made  both  wide  and 
straight ;  the  height  of  the  houses  was  restrict- 
ed ;  and  a  certain  part  of  each  was  required  to 
be  built  of  Gabian  or  Alban  stone,  which  was 
proof  against  fire.  Rome  had  long  since  ex- 
tended beyond  the  walls  of  Servius  Tullius ; 
but  down  to  the  third  century  of  the  Christian 
era  the  walls  of  this  monarch  continued  to  mark 
the  limits  of  the  city  properly  so  called.  These 
walls,  however,  had  long  since  been  rendered 
quite  useless,  and  the  city  was  therefore  left 
without  any  fortifications.  Accordingly,  the  Em- 
peror Aurelian  determined  to  surround  Rome 
with  new  walls,  which  embraced  the  city  of 
Servius  Tullius  and  all  the  suburbs  which  had 
subsequently  grown  up  around  it,  such  as  the 
M.  Janiculu*  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber, 
and  the  Collit  Hortulorum  or  Mons  Pincianus  on 

746 


ROMA. 

me  left  bank  of  thv  river,  to  the  north  of  the 
Quirinalis.  The  walls  of  Aurelian  were  com- 
menced by  this  emperor  before  he  set  out  on 
his  expedition  against  Zenobia  (A.D.  271),  and 
were  terminated  by  his  successor  Probus.  They 
were  about  eleven  miles  in  circumference.  They 
were  restored  by  Honorius,  and  were  also  part- 
ly rebuilt  by  Belisarius. — B.  DIVISIONS  OF  THE 
CITY.  Home  was  divided  by  Servius  Tullius 
into  four  Regimes  or  districts,  corresponding  to 
the  four  city  tribes.  Their  names  were.  1.  Sub- 
urana,  comprehending  the  space  from  the  Sub- 
ura  to  the  Cselius,  both  inclusive.  2.  Esqui- 
lina,  comprehending  the  Esquiline  Hill.  3.  Col- 
Una,  extending  over  the  Quirinal  and  Viminal. 
4.  Palatina,  comprehending  the  Palatine  Hill. 
The  Capitoline,  as  the  seat  of  the  gods,  and  the 
Aventine,  were  not  included  in  these  regiones. 
These  regiones  were  again  subdivided  into 
twenty-seven  Sacella  Argaeorum,  which  were 
probably  erected  where  two  streets  (compita) 
crossed  each  other.  It  is  probable  that  each  of 
the  four  regiones  contained  six  of  these  sacella, 
and  that  the  remaining  three  belonged  to  the 
Capitoline.  The  division  of  Servius  Tullius 
into  four  regiones  remained  unchanged  till  the 
time  of  Augustus ;  but  this  emperor  made  a 
fresh  division  of  the  city  into  fourteen  regiones, 
which  comprised  both  the  ancient  city  of  Ser- 
vius Tullius  and  all  the  suburbs  which  had  been 
subsequently  added.  This  division  was  made 
by  Augustus  to  facilitate  the  internal  govern- 
ment of  the  city.  The  names  of  the  regiones 
were,  1.  Porto.  Capena,  at  the  southeast  corner 
of  the  city,  by  the  Porta  Capena.  2.  Calimon- 
tium,  northeast  of  the  preceding,  embracing  M. 
Caelius.  3.  Isis  et  Serapis,  northwest  of  No.  2, 
in  the  valley  between  the  Caelius,  the  Palatine 
and  Esquiline.  4.  Via  Sacra,  northwest  of  No. 

3,  embracing  the  valley  between  the  Esquiline, 
Viminal,  and  Quirinal,  toward  the  Palatine.    5. 
Esquilina  cum  Colle  Viminali,  northeast  of  No. 

4,  comprehending  the  whole  of  the  Esquiline 
and  Viminal.     6.  Alia  Semila,  northwest  of  No. 

5,  comprising  the  Quirinal.     7.  Via  Lata,  west 
of  No.  6,  between  the  Quirinal  and  Campus 
Martius.     8.  Forum  Romanum,  south  of  No.  7, 
comprehending  the  Capitoline  and  the  valley 
between  it  and  the  Palatine.     9.  Circus  Fla- 
minius,  northwest  of  No.  8,  extending  as  far  as 
the  Tiber,  and  comprehending  the  whole  of  the 
Campus  Martius.     10.  Palatium,  southeast  of 
No.  8,   containing  the   Palatine.      11.   Circus 
Maximus,  southwest  of  No.  10,  comprehending 
the  plain  between  the  Palatine,  Aventine,  and 
Tiber.     12.  Piscina  Publica,  southeast  of  No. 
11.     13.  Aventinus,  northwest  of  No.  12,  em- 
bracing the  Aventine.     14.  Trans  Tiberim,  the 
only  region  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  con- 
taining the  Insula  Tiberina,  the  valley  between 
the  river  and  the  Janiculus,  and  a  part  of  this 
mountain.    Each  of  these  regiones  was  subdi- 
vided into  a  certain  number  of  Vici,  analogous 
to  the  sacella  of  Servius  Tullius.     The  houses 
were  divided  into  two  different  classes,  called 
respectively  domus  and  insula.    The  former 
were  the  dwellings  of  the  Roman  nobles,  cor- 
responding to  the  modern  palazzi ;   the  latter 
were  the  habitations  of  the  middle  and  lower 
classes.    Each  insula  contained  several  apart- 
ments or  sets  of  apartments,  which  were  let  to 

746 


ROMA. 

different  families,  and  it  was  frequently  sur- 
'  rounded  with   shops.     The   insulae   contained 
!  several  stories  ;  and  as  the  value  of  ground  in- 
creased in  Rome,  they  were  frequently  built  of 
-  a  dangerous  height.     Hence  Augustus  restrict- 
ed the  height  of  all  new  houses  to  seventy  feet, 
and  Trajan  to  sixty  feet.     No  houses  of  any  de- 
scription were  allowed  to  be  built  close  together 
at  Rome,  and  it  was  provided  by  the  Twelve 
Tables  that  a  space  of  at  least  five  feet  should 
be  left  between  every  house.     The  number  of 
insulae,  of  course,  greatly  exceeded  that  of  the 
'  domi.     It  is  stated  that  there  were  forty-six 
thousand  six  hundred  and  two  insulae  at  Rome, 
but  only  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  nine- 
!  ty  domus.  —  C.  SIZE  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE 
'  CITY.     It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  walls  of  Servius  Tullius  was 
about  seven  miles ;  but  a  great  part  of  the  space 
included  within  these  walls  was  at  first  not  eov- 
'  ered  with  buildings.     Subsequently,  as  we  have 
\  seen,  the  city  greatly  extended  beyond  these 
I  limits  ;  and  a  measurement  has  come  down  to 
|  us,  made  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  by  which  it 
;  appears  to  have  been  about  thirteen  miles  in 
'  circumference.     It   was  probably  about  this 
!  time  that  Rome  reached  its  greatest  size.    The 
walls  of  Aurelian  were  only  about  eleven  miles 
in  circuit.     It  is  more  difficult  to  determine  the 
population  of  the  city  at  any  given  period.    We 
learn,  however,  from  the  Monumentum  Ancy- 
ranum,  that  the  plebs  urbana  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus was  three  hundred  and  twenty  thousand. 
This  did  not  include  the  women,  nor  the  sen- 
ators, nor  knights  ;  so  that  the  free  population 
could  not  have  been  less  than  six  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand.     To  this  number  we  must  add 
the  slaves,  who  must  have  been  at  least  as  nu- 
merous as  the  free  population.     Consequently, 
the  whole  population  of  Rome  in  the  time  of 
Augustus  must  have  been  at  least  one  million 
three  hundred  thousand,  and  in  all  probability 
greatly  exceeded  that  number.     Moreover,  as 
we  know  that  the  city  continued  to  increase  in 
j  size  and  population  down  to  the  time  of  Vespa- 
|  sian  and  Trajan,  we  shall  not  be  far  wrong  in 
supposing  that  the  city  contained  nearly  two 
millions  of  inhabitants  in  the  reigns  of  those 
emperors. — D.  WALLS  AND  GATES.     I.  WALLS 
OF  ROMULUS.    The  direction  of  this  wall  is  de- 
scribed by  Tacitus.    Commencing  at  the  Forum 
Boarium,  the  site  of  which  is  marked  by  the 
arch  erected  there  to  Septimius  Severus,  it  ran 
along  the  foot  of  the  Palatine,  having  the  valley 
afterward  occupied  by  the  Circus  Maximus  on 
the  right,  as  far  as  the  altar  of  Census,  nearly 
opposite  to  the  extremity  of  the  Circus  ;  thence 
it  turned  round  the  southern  angle  of  the  Pala- 
tine, followed  the  foot  of  the  hill  nearly  in  a 
straight  line  to  the  Curias  Veteres,  which  stood 
not  far  from  the  site  of  the  Arch  of  Constan- 
tine ;  thence  ascended  the  steep  slope,  at  the 
summit  of  which  stands  the  Arch  of  Titus,  and 
descended  again  on  the  other  side  to  the  angle 
of  the  Forum,  which  was  then  a  morass.    In 
this  wall  there  were  three  gates,  the  number 
prescribed  by  the  rules  of  the  Etruscan  religion. 
1.  Porta  Mugonia  or  Mugionis,  also  called  Porta 
vetus  Palatii,  at  the  northern  slope  of  the  Pala- 
tine, at  the  point  where  the  Via  Sacra  and  the 
Via  Nova  met.     2.  Porta  Romanula,  at  th« 


ROMA. 

western  angle  of  the  hill,  near  the  temple  of 
Victory,  and  between  the  modern  churches  of 
S.  Teodoro  and  Santa  Anastasia.    3.  The  name 
and  position  of  the  third  gate  is  not  mentioned, 
for  the  Porto.  Janualis  appears  to  be  identical 
with  the  Janus  or  archway,  commonly  known 
as  the  temple  of  Janus,  which  stood  on  the  other 
Bide  of  the  Forum,  and  could  have  had  no  con- 
nection with  the  original  city  of  Romulus. — II. 
WALLS  OF  SERVIUS  TULLIUS.     It  is  stated  that 
this  king  surrounded  the  whole  city  with  a  wall 
of  hewn  stone  ;  but  there  are  many  reasons  for 
questioning  this  statement.     The  seven  hills  on 
which  Rome  was  built  were  most  of  them  of 
great  natural  strength,  having  sides  actually 
precipitous,  or  easily  rendered  so  by  cutting 
away  the  soft  tufo  rock.     Instead,  therefore,  of 
building  a  wall  around  the  whole  circuit  of  the 
city,  Servius  Tullus  appears  only  to  have  con- 
nected the  several  hills  by  walls  or  trenches 
drawn  across  the  narrow  valleys  which  separ- 
ated them.     The  most  formidable  part  of  these 
fortifications  was  the  agger  or  mound  which  ex- 
tended across  the  broad  table-land  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  Quirinal,  Esquiline,  and  Vim- 
inal,  since  it  was  on  this  side  that  the  city  was 
most  open  to  the  attacks  of  the  enemy.    The 
agger  was  a  great  rampart  or  mound  of  earth, 
fifty  feet  wide  and  above  sixty  high,  faced  with 
flagstones  and  flanked  with  towers,  and  at  its 
foot  was  a  moat  one  hundred  feet  broad  and  : 
thirty  deep.    There  are  still  traces  of  this  work,  j 
Starting  from  the  southern  extremity  of  this  j 
mound  at  the  Porta  Esquilina,  the  fortifications  i 
of  Servius  ran  along  the  outside  edge  of  the  Cae-  j 
lian  and  Aventine  Hills  to  the  River  Tiber  by  the 
Porta  Trigemina.    From  this  point  to  the  Porta  j 
Flumentana,  near  the  southwestern  extremity  ; 
of  the  Capitoline  Hill,  there  appears  to  have  ! 
been  no  wall,  the  river  itself  being  considered  a  [ 
sufficient  defence.    At  the  Porta  Flumentana  | 
the  fortifications  again  commenced,  and  ran 
along  the  outside  edge  of  the  Capitoline  and  i 
Quirinal  Hills  till  they  reached  the  northern  ex-  j 
tremity  of  the  agger  at  the  Porta  Collina.    The  ' 
number  of  the  gates  in  the  walls  of  Servius  is  un-  | 
certain,  and  the  position  of  many  of  them  is  doubt- 
ful.   Pliny,  indeed,  states  that  their  number  was 
thirty-seven ;  but  it  is  almost  certain  that  this 
number  includes  many  mere  openings  made 
through  the  walls  to  connect  different  parts  of 
the  city  with  the  suburbs,  since  the  walls  of  Ser- 
vius had  long  since  ceased  to  be  regarded.    The  ' 
following  is  a  list  of  the  gates  as  far  as  they  can 
be  ascertained :  1.  Porta  Collina,  at  the  northerly 
extremity  of  the  agger,  and  the  most  northern 
of  all  the  gates,  stood  at  the  point  of  junction  of 
the  Via  Salaria  and  Via  Nomentana,  just  above 
the  northern  angle  of  the  Vigna  det  Certosioi. 
2.  7'.  Viminalis,  south  of  No.  1,  and  in  the  centre 
of  the  agger.     3.  P.  Esquilina,  south  of  No.  2, 
on  the  site  of  the  arch  of  Gallienus,  which  proba- 
bly replaced  it ;  the  Via  Praenestina  and  Labi- 
cana  began  here.    4.  P.  Querquctulana,  south 
of  No.  3.     5.  P.  Caliomontana,  south  of  No.  4, 
on  the  heights  of  Mons  Gselius,  behind  the  hos- 
pital of  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  at  the  point  of 
junction  of  the  two  modern  streets  which  bear 
the  name  of  S.  Stefano  Rotondo,  and  the  SS. 
Quattro  Coronati.    6.  P.  Capcna,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  all  the  Roman  gates,  from  which 


ROMA. 

issued  the  Vi  a  Appia.  It  stood  southwest  of 
No.  5,  and  at  the  southwest  foot  of  the  Caelian, 
on  the  spot  now  occupied  by  the  grounds  of  the 
Villa  Mattel.  7,  8,  9.  P.  "Larernalis,  P.  Rau- 
dusculana,  and  P.  Navia,  three  of  the  most 
southerly  gates  of  Rome,  lying  between  the 
Caelian  and  the  Aventine.  The  walls  of  Ser- 
vius probably  here  took  a  great  bend  to  the 
south,  inclosing  the  heights  of  Sta  Balbina  and 
Sta  Saba.  10.  P.  Minucia,  probably  west  of  the 
three  preceding,  and  on  the  south  of  the  Aven- 
tine. 11.  P.  Trigemina,  on  the  northwest  of 
the  Aventine,  near  the  Tiber  and  the  great  salt 
magazines.  12.  P.  Flumentana,  north  of  the  pre- 
ceding, near  the  southwestern  slope  of  the  Capi- 
tol and  close  to  the  Tiber.  13.  P.  Carmentalis, 
north  of  No.  12,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  south- 
western slope  of  the  Capitoline,  near  the  altar 
of  Carmenta,  and  leading  to  the  Forum  Olitori- 
um  and  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus.  This  gate 
contained  two  passages,  of  which  the  right-hand 
one  was  called  Porta  Scelerata  from  the  time 
that  the  three  hundred  Fabii  passed  through  it, 
and  was  always  avoided.  14.  P.  Ratumenalis, 
north  of  No.  13,  and  at  the  northwestern  slope 
of  the  Capitoline,  leading  from  the  Forum  of 
Trajan  to  the  Campus  Martius.  15.  P.  Fonti- 
nalis,  north  of  No.  14,  on  the  western  slope  of 
the  Quirinal,  also  leading  to  the  Campus  Mar- 
tius. 16.  P.  Sanqualis,  north  of  No.  15,  also 
on  the  western  slope  of  the  same  hill.  17.  P. 
Salutaris,  north  of  No.  16,  on  the  northwestern 
slope  of  the  same  hill,  near  the  temple  of  Salus. 
18.  P.  Triumplialis.  The  position  of  this  gate  is 
quite  uncertain,  except  that  it  led,  more  or  less 
directly,  to  the  Campus  Martius. — III.  WALLS 
OF  AUKELIAN.  These  walls  are  essentially  the 
same  as  those  which  surround  the  modern  city 
of  Rome,  with  the  exception  of  the  part.beyond 
the  Tiber.  The  Janiculus  and  the  adjacent 
suburb  was  the  only  portion  beyond  the  Tiber 
which  was  included  within  the  fortifications  of 
Aurelian  ;  for  the  Vatican  was  not  surrounded 
with  walls  till  the  time  of  Leo  IV.,  in  the  ninth 
century.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber  the 
walls  of  Aurelian  embraced  on  the  north  the 
Collis  Hortulorum  or  Pincianus,  on  the  west 
the  Campus  Martius,  on  the  east  the  Campus 
Esquilinus,  and  on  the  south  the  Mons  Testa 
ceus.  There  were  fourteen  gates  in  the  Aure- 
lian walls,  most  of  which  derived  their  names 
from  the  roads  issuing  from  them.  These  were, 
on  the  northern  side,  1.  P.  Aurelia,  on  the  Tiber 
in  front  of  the  Pons  ^Elius.  2.  P.  Pinciana,  on 
the  hill  of  the  same  name.  3.  P.  Salans,  ex 
tant  under  the  same  name,  but  restored  in  mod 
ern  times.  4.  P.  Nomentana,  leading  to  the  an- 
cient P.  Collina.  On  the  eastern  side,  6.  P. 
Tiburtina,  leading  to  the  old  Porta  Esquilina, 
now  Porta  S.  Lorenzo.  6.  P.  Pranettina,  now 
Porta  Maggiore.  On  the  southern  side,  7.  P. 
Atinaria,  on  the  site  of  the  modern  Porta  S. 
Giovanni.  8.  P.  Afctronit,  or  Melronii,  or  Me- 
trona,  which  has  now  disappeared,  probably  at 
the  entrance  to  the  Celian,  between  S.  Stefano 
Rotondo  and  the  Villa  Mattei.  9.  P.  Latina, 
now  walled  up.  10.  P.  Appia,  now  Porta  S. 
Pancrazio.  The  roads  through  this  gate  and 
through  No.  9  both  led  to  the  old  Porta  Capena. 
11.  P.  Ostiensii,  leading  to  Ostia,  now  Porta  S. 
Paolo.  On  the  western  side,  12.  P.  Portucnsis, 

747 


ROMA. 

on  me  other  side  of  the  Tiber,  near  the  river, 
from  which  issued  the  road  to  Portus.  13.  A 
second  P.  Aurelia,  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Janiculus,  now  Porta  S.  Pancrazio.  14.  P.  Sep- 
timiana,  near  the  Tiber,  which  was  destroyed 
by  Alexander  VI. — E.  BRIDGES.  There  were 
eight  bridges  across  the  Tiber,  which  probably 
ran  in  the  following  order  from  north  to  south  : 

1.  Pons  Julius,  which  was  built  by  Hadrian,  and 
led  from  the  city  to  the  mausoleum  of  that  em- 
peror, now  the  bridge  and  castle  of  St.  Angelo. 

2.  P.  Neronianus,  or  Vaticanus,  which  led  from 
the  CampusMartius  to  the  Vatican  and  the  gar- 
dens of  Caligula  and  Nero.     The  remains  of  its 
piers  may  still  be  seen,  when  the  waters  of  the 
Tiber  are  low,  at  the  back  of  the  Hospital  of 
San  Spirito.    3.  P.  Aurelius,  sometimes,  but 
erroneously,  called  Janiculensis,  which  led  to 
the  Janiculus  and  the  Porta  Aurelia.     It  occu- 
pied the  site  of  the  present  "  Ponte  Sisto," 
which  was  built  by  Sixtus  IV.  upon  the  ruins  of 
the  old  bridge.     4,  5.  P.  Fabricius  and  P.  Ces- 
tius,  the  two  bridges  which  connected  the  In- 
sula  Tiberina  with  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
river,  the  former  with  the  city,  the  latter  with 
the  Janiculus.     Both  are  still  remaining.    The 
P.  Fabricius,  which  was  built  by  one  L.  Fabri- 
cius, curator  viarum,  a  short  time  before  the 
conspiracy  of  Catiline,  now  bears  the  name  of 
"  Ponte  Quattro  Capi."    The  P.  Cestius,  which 
was  built  at  a  much  later  age,  is  now  called 
"Ponte  S.  Bartolommeo."     6.  P.  Senatorius  or 
Palatinus,  below  the  island  of  the  Tiber,  form- 
ed the  communication  between  the  Palatine 
and  its  neighborhood  and  the  Janiculus.     7.  P. 
Sublicius,  the  oldest  of  the  Roman  bridges,  said 
to  have  been  built  by  Ancus  Marcius  when  he 
erected  a  fort  on  the  Janiculus.     It  was  built 
of  woodj  whence  its  name,  which  comes  from 
sublices,   "  wooden    beams."     It  was  carried 
away  several  times  by  the  river,  but  from  a 
feeling  of  religious  respect  was  always  rebuilt 
of  wood  down  to  the  latest  times.    8.  P.  Mil- 
vius  or  Mulvius,  now  "  Ponte  Molle,"  was  sit- 
uated outside  the  city,  north  of  the  P.  ^Elius, 
and  was  built  by  ^Emilius  Scaurus  the  censor. — 
F.  INTERIOR  OF  THE  CITY.     I.  FORA  AND  CAMPI. 
The  Fora  were  open  spaces  of  ground,  paved 
with  stones,  surrounded  by  buildings,  and  used 
as  market  places,  or  for  the  transaction  of  pub- 
lic business.     An  account  of  the  Fora  is  given 
elsewhere.      Vid.  FORUM.     The  Campi  were 
also  open  spaces  of  ground,  but  much  larger, 
covered  with  grass,  planted  with  trees,  and 
adorned  with  works  of  art.    They  were  used 
by  the  people  as  places  of  exercise  and  amuse- 
ment, and  may  be  compared  with  the  London 
parks.     These  Campi  were,  1.  Campus  Mar- 
tins, the  open  plain  lying  between  the  city  walls 
and  the  Tiber,  of  which  the  southern  part,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Circus  Flaminius,  was 
called  Campus  Flaminius,   or  Praia  Flaminia. 
This  plain,  which  was  by  far  the  most  celebrated 
of  all,  is  spoken  of  separately.     Vid.  CAMPUS 
MARTIUS.     2.  Campus  Sceleratus,  close  to  the 
Porta  Collina  and  within  the  walls  of  Servius, 
where  the  vestals  who  had  broken  their  vows 
of  chastity  were  entombed  alive.     3.  Campus 
Agrippa,  probably  on  the  southwestern  slope 
of  the  Pincian  Hill,  east  of  the  Campus  Marthas, 
on  the  right  of  the  Corso,  and  north  of  the  Piazza 

748 


ROMA. 

degli  Apostoli.  4.  Campus  Esquilinus,  outside 
;  of  the  agger  of  Servius  and  near  the  Porta  Es- 
quilina,  where  criminals  were  executed,  and 
1  the  lower  classes  were  buried.  The  grcatei 
part  of  this  plain  was  afterward  converted  into 
pleasure  grounds  belonging  to  the  palace  of 
Maecenas.  5.  Campus  Viminalis,  on  the  east- 
ern slope  of  the  Viminal,  near  the  Villa  Negroni. 
— II.  STREETS  AND  DISTRICTS.  There  are  said 
to  have  been,  in  all,  two  hundred  and  fifteen 
streets  in  Rome.  The  broad  streets  were  call- 
ed Vice  and  Vid;*  the  narrow  streets  Angipor- 
tus.  The  chief  streets  were,  1.  Via  Sacra,  the 
principal  street  in  Rome.  It  began  near  the 
Sacellum  Streniae,  in  the  valley  between  the 
Caelian  and  the  Esquiline,  and,  leaving  the  Fla- 
vian Amphitheatre  (Colosseum)  on  the  left,  ran 
along  the  northern  slope  of  the  Palatine,  pass- 
ing under  the  arch  of  Titus,  and  past  the  Forum 
Romanum,  till  it  reached  the  Capitol.  2.  Via 
Lata,  led  from  the  northern  side  of  the  Capitol 
and  the  Porta  Ratumena  to  the  Porta  Flaminia, 
whence  the  northern  part  of  it  was  called  Via 
Flaminia.  3.  Via  Nova,  by  the  side  of  the  west- 
ern slope  of  the  Palatine,  led  from  the  ancient 
Porta  Romanula  and  the  Velabrum  to  the  Forum, 
and  was  connected  by  a  side  street  with  the  Via 
Sacra.  4.  Vicus  Jugarius,  led  from  the  Porta 
Carmentalis,  under  the  Capitol,  to  the  Forum 
Romanum,  which  it  entered  near  the  Basilica 
Julia  and  the  Lacus  Servilius.  5.  Vicus  Tuscus, 
connected  the  Velabrum  with  the  Forum,  run- 
ning west  of,  and  nearly  parallel  with,  the  Via 
Nova.  It  contained  a  great  number  of  shops, 
where  articles  of  luxury  were  sold,  and  its  in- 
habitants did  not  possess  the  best  of  characters 
(Tusci  turba  impia  vici,  Hor.,  Sat.,  ii.,  3,  228). 
6.  Vicus  Cyprius,  ran  from  the  Forum  to  the 
Esquiline.  The  upper  part  of  it,  turning  on  the 
right  to  the  Urbius  Clivus,  was  called  Scelera- 
tus  Vicus,  because  Tullia  here  drove  her  chariot 
over  the  corpse  of  her  father  Servius.  7.  Vicus 
Patricius,  in  the  valley  between  the  Esquiline 
and  the  Viminal,  in  the  direction  of  the  modern 
Via  Urbana  and  Via  di  S.  Pudenziana.  8.  Vicus 
Africus,  in  the  district  of  the  Esquiline,  but  the 
exact  situation  of  which  can  not  be  determined, 
said  to  have  been  so  called  because  African 
hostages  were  kept  here  during  the  first  Punic 
war.  9.  Vicus  Sandalarius,  also  in  the  district 
of  the  Esquiline,  extending  as  far  as  the  heights 
of  the  Carinae.  Besides  tbe  shops  of  the  shoe- 
makers, from  whom  it  derived  its  name,  it  con- 
tained several  booksellers'  shops.  10.  Vicus 
Vitriarius  or  Vitrarius,  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  city,  near  the  Porta  Capena.  11.  Vicus 
Longus,  in  theVallisQuirini,  between  the  Quir- 
inal  and  Viminal,  now  S.  Vitale.  -12.  Caput 
Africa,  near  the  Colosseum,  the  modern  Via  de 
S.  Quattro  Coronati.  13.  Subura  or  Suburra,  a 
district,  through  which  a  street  of  the  same 
name  ran,  was  the  whole  valley  between  the 
Esquiline,  Quirinal,  and  Viminal.  It  was  one 
of  the  most  frequented  parts  of  the  town,  and 
contained  a  great  number  of  shops  and  brothels 
14.  Velia,  a  height  near  the  Forum,  which  ex 
tended  from  the  Palatine,  near  tbe  arch  of  Ti- 
tus, to  the  Esquiline,  and  which  separated  the 

*  Vicus  properly  signified  a  quarter  of  the  city,  but  the 
principal  street  in  a  vicus  -was  frequently  calle*1,  by  the 
name  of  the  vicus  to  which  it  belonged. 


AOMA. 

valley  of  the  Forum  from  that  of  the  Colosseum. 
On  the  Velia  were  situated  the  Basilica  of  Con- 
stantine  and  the  temple  of  Venus  and  Rome. 
15.  Carina,  a  district  on  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  Esquiline,  or  the  modern  height  of  S. 
Pietro  in  Vincoli,  where  Pompey,  Cicero,  and 
many  distinguished  Romans  lived.  16.  Vela- 
Irnm,  a  district  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Palatine,  between  the  Vicus  Tuscus  and  the 
Forum  Boarium,  was  originally  a  morass.  17. 
jEquimelium,  a  place  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the 
Capitol  and  by  the  side  of  the  Vicus  Jugarius, 
where  the  house  of  Sp.  Maelius  once  stood. 
( Vid.  p.  467,  b.)  18.  Argilctum,  a  district  of  un- 
certain site,  but  probably  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Quirinal,  between  the  Subura,  the 
Forum  of  Nerva,  and  the  Temple  of  Peace. 
The  etymology  of  the  name  is  uncertain  ;  some 
of  the  ancients  derived  it  from  argilla,  "  white 
clay;"  others  from  a  hero  Argus,  a  friend  of 
Evander,  who  is  said  to  have  been  buried  here. 
19.  Lautumia,  a  district  near  the  Argiletum  and 
the  Forum  Piscatorium,  on  which  subsequently 
the  Basilica  Porcia  was  built.  In  this  district 
was  one  of  the  state  prisons,  called  Laulumia, 
or  Career  Lautumiarum. — III.  TEMPLES.  There 
are  said  to  have  been  four  hundred  temples  in 
Rome.  Of  these  the  following,  enumerated  for 
the  most  part  in  chronological  order,  were  the 
principal :  1.  Templum  Jovis  Feretrii,  on  the 
Capitoline,  the  oldest  of  all  the  Roman  temples, 
built,  according  to  tradition,  by  Romulus,  and 
restored  by  Augustus.  2.  T.  Fidei,  likewise  on 
the  Capitoline,  built  by  Numa,  and  restored  suc- 
cessively by  A.  Atilius  Collatinus  andM.  ^Emil- 
ius  Scaurus.  3.  T.  Jani,  also  called  Janus  Bi- 
frons  or  Biformis,  Janus  Geminus,  and  Janus 
Quirinus,  also  built  by  Numa,  was,  properly 
speaking,  not  a  temple,  but  a  passage  with  an 
extrance  at  each  end,  the  gates  of  which  were 
opened  during  war  and  closed  in  times  of  peace. 
It  was  situated  northeast  of  the  Forum  toward 
the  Quirinal.  There  were  also  other  temples 
of  Janus  at  Rome,  of  which  one  was  near  the 
Theatre  of  Marcellus,  and  the  other  near  the 
Forum  of  Nerva.  4.  JEdes  Vesta,  a  round  tem- 
ple built  by  Numa,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
forum,  or  on  the  slope  of  the  Palatine  adjoining 
the  Regia  Numa,  probably  near  Sta  Maria  Lib- 
eratrice.  The  Atrium  Vesta,  also  called  Atrium 
Regitim,  probably  formed  a  part  of  the  Regia 
Numae,  which  may  be  regarded  as  forming  a 
portion  of  the  building  sacred  to  Vesta.  5.  T. 
Diana,  on  the  Aventine.  which  hill  is  hence 
called  by  Martial  Collis  Diana,  built  by  Servius 
Tullius,  as  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  Romans 
and  the  members  of  the  Latin  league,  and  re- 
stored by  Augustus,  probably  near  the  modern 
church  S.  Prisca.  6.  T.  Luna,  frequently  con- 
founded with  the  preceding,  also  built  by  Servius 
Tullius,  and  on  the  Aventine,  probably  on  the 
side  adjoining  the  Circus.  7.  T.  Jovit,  usually 
called  the  Capitolium,  situated  on  the  southern 
summit  of  the  Capitoline  Hill,  was  vowed  by 
Tarquinius  Priscus  and  built  by  Tarquinius  Su- 
perbus.  It  was  the  most  magnificent  of  all  the 
temples  in  Rome,  and  is  described  elsewhere. 
Vid.  C  APITOLIUM.  8.  T.  Saturni,  which  was  also 
used  as  the  JDrarium,  on  the  Clivus  Capitolinus 
and  by  the  Forum,  to  which  it  is  supposed  that  the 
bree  pillars  in  the  Forum  belong.  It  was  built  by 


ROMA. 

Tarquinius  Superbus,  and  restored  successively 
by  L.  Munatius  Plancus  and  Septimius  Severus. 
9.  JEdes  Castoris  or  T.  Castoris  et  Pollucis,  by  the 
Forum,  near  the  fountain  of  Juturna,  in  which 
the  senate  frequently  assembled.  It  was  vowed 
by  the  dictator  A.  Postumius  in  the  great  battle 
with  the  Latins.near  the  Lake  Regillus,  and  was 
successively  restored  by  L.  Metellus  Dalmati- 
cus,  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and  Claudius.  10.  T. 
Mercurii,  between  the  Circus  Maximus  and  the 
Aventine.  11.  T.  Cereris,  on  the  slope  of  the 
Aventine,  near  the  circus.  12.  T.  Apollinis,  be- 
tween the  Circus  Maximus  and  the  theatre  of 
Marcellus,  near  the  Porticus  Octaviae,  where  the 
senate  often  assembled.  13.  T.  Junonis  Re- 
gina,  on  the  Aventine.  14.  T.  Mortis  Extra- 
muranei,  before  the  Porta  Capena,  on  the  Via 
Appia.  15.  T.  Junonis  Moneta,  on  the  area  of 
the  Capitoline,  where  the  house  of  M.  Manlius 
had  stood.  16.  T.  Junonis  Lucina,  on  the  west- 
ern summit  of  the  Esquiline.  17.  T.  Concor- 
dia,  on  the  slope  of  the  Capitoline,  above  the 
Forum,  in  which  the  senate  frequently  assem- 
bled. There  were  probably  two  temples  of  Con- 
cordia,  both  by  the  Forum,  of  which  the  more 
ancient  was  consecrated  by  Camillus,  and  the 
other  by  L.  Opimius  after  the  death  of  C.  Grac- 
chus. The  remains  of  the  ancient  temple  of 
Concordia  are  to  be  seen  behind  the  arch  of  Sep- 
timius Severus.  18.  T.  Salutis,  on  the  slope  of 
the  Quirinal,  near  the  Porta  Salutaris,  adorned 
with  paintings  by  Fabius  Pictor,  burned  down  in 
the  reign  of  Claudius.  19.  T.  Bellona,  before 
the  Circus  Flaminius,  and  near  the  confines  of 
the  Campus  Martius,  in  which  the  senate  as- 
sembled in  order  to  give  audience  to  foreign 
ambassadors,  and  to  receive  applications  from 
generals  who  solicited  the  honor  of  a  triumph. 
20.  T.  Jovis  Victoris,  on  the  Palatine,  between  the 
Domus  August!  and  the  Curia  Vetus.  21.  T. 
Victoria,  on  the  summit  of  the  Palatine,  or  the 
Clivus  Victoriae,  above  the  Porta  Romanula  and 
the  circus,  in  which  the  statue  of  the  mother  of 
the  gods  was  at  first  preserved.  22.  T.  Magnet 
Matris  Idaa,  near  the  preceding  and  the  Casa 
Romuli,  in  which  the  above-named  statue  of  the 
goddess  was  placed  thirteen  years  after  its  ar- 
rival in  Rome.  23.  T.  Jovis  Statoris,  near  the 
arch  of  Titus  on  the  Via  Sacra,  where  the  senate 
frequently  assembled.  24.  T.  Quirini,  on  thB 
Quirinal,  where  also  the  senate  frequently  as- 
sembled, enlarged  and  adorned  by  Augustus. 
25.  T.  Fortune,  built  by  Servius  Tullius  in  the 
Forum  Boarium.  26.  T.  ASsculapii,  in  the  isl- 
and of  the  Tiber,  which  was  called  after  it,  In- 
sula  yEsculapii.  27.  T.  Mentis  and  Vcncris  Ery- 
cina,  both  of  which  were  built  at  the  same  time, 
and  close  to  one  another,  on  the  Capitoline. 
There  was  also  another  temple  of  Venus  Ery- 
cina  before  the  Porta  Collina.  28.  T.  Hanorii 
and  Vtrtutis,  which  were  built,  close  to  one  an 
other,  near  the*Porta  Capena  and  Via  Appia,  by 
Marcellus,  and  adorned  with  Greek  works  of  art 
brought  from  Syracuse.  29.  T.  Jmis,  in  the  isl 
and  of  the  Tiber,  near  the  temple  of  .tsculapius 
30.  T.  Fauni,  in  the  island  of  the  Tiber.  31.  T 
Spei,  in  the  Forum  Olitorium.  32.  T.  Junonii 
Sospita  or  Mat uta,  in  the  Forum  Olitorium,  near 
the  theatre  of  Marcellus.  33.  T.  Pietatis,  in  tho 
Forum  Olitorium,  which  was  pulled  down  in  or- 
der to  make  room  for  the  theatre  of  Marcellus. 

749 


ROMA. 


ROMA. 


84.  JEdes  Fortu.no.  Equestris,  in  the  Campus  Fla- 
minius,  near  the  theatre  of  Pompey,  built  by 
Fulvius  Flaccus,  the  roof  of  which,  made  of 
marble,  was  brought  from  a  temple  of  Juno  Lu- 
cina  in  Bruttium.  It  was  probably  burned  down 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus  or  Tiberius,  since  in 
A.D.  22  we  are  told  there  was  no  temple  of 
Fortuna  Equestris  at  Rome.  There  were  other 
temples  of  Fortuna  on  the  Palatine,  Quirinal, 
<fcc.  35.  JEdes  Herculis  Musarum,  close  to  the 
Porticus  Octaviae,  and  between  the  theatre  of 
Marcellus  and  the  Circus  Flaminius,  huilt  by  M. 
Fulvius  Nobilior,  and  adorned  with  the  statues 
of  the  Muses  brought  from  Ambracia.  36.  T. 
Honoris  et  Virtulis,  built  by  Marius,  but  of  un- 
certain site  :  some  modern  writers  suppose  it  to 
have  been  on  theEsquiline,  others  on  the  Capi- 
toline.  37.  T.  Marlis,  in  the  Campus  Martius, 
near  the  Circus  Flaminius,  built  by  D.  Brutus 
Callaicus,  and  adorned  with  a  colossal  statue 
of  *he  god.  38.  T.  Veneris  Genetricis,  in  the 
Forum  of  Caesar,  before  which  Ceesar's  equestri- 
an statue  was  placed.  39.  T.  Martis  Ultoris,  in 
the  Forum  of  Augustus,  to  which  belong  the 
three  splendid  Corinthian  pillars  near  the  con- 
vent S.  Annunziata.  40.  T.  Apollinis,  on  the 
Palatine,  surrounded  by  a  porticus,  in  which  was 
the  celebrated  Palatine  library.  41.  Pantheon, 
a  celebrated  temple  in  the  Campus  Martius,  built 
by  Agrippa  :  it  is  described  in  a  separate  arti- 
cle. Vid.  PANTHEON.  42.  T.  Augusti,  founded 
by  Tiberius  and  completed  by  Caligula,  on  the 
slope  of  the  Palatine  toward  the  Via  Nova.  It 
stood  before  the  temple  of  Minerva,  from  which 
it  was  probably  separated  by  the  Via  Nova. 

43.  T.  Pads,  one  of  the  most  splendid  temples 
in  the  city,  built  by  Vespasian  on  the  Velia. 

44.  T.  Isidis  et  Serapidis,  in  the  third  Regio, 
which  was  named  after  the  temple.     45.  T.  Ves- 
pasiani  et  Titi,  in  the  Forum  alongside  of  the 
temple  of  Concordia.     46.  T.  Antonini  et  Faus- 
tina, at  the  further  end  of  the  northern  side  of 
the  Forum,  under  the  Velia.   The  remains  of  this 
temple  are  in  the  modern  church  of  S.  Lorenzo 
in  Miranda.     47.  T.  Minerva,  on  the  southern 
side  of  the  Forum,  behind  the  temple  of  Au- 
gustus, built  by  Domitian.     48.  T.  Bontz  Dect, 
a  very  ancient  temple  on  a  spot  of  the  Aventine, 
which  was  called  Saxum  Sacrum,  but  removed 
by  Hadrian,  undoubtedly  on  the  southeastern 
side  of  the  hill,  opposite  the  heights  of  S.  Sabba 
and  S.  Balbina.     49.  T.  Roma  et  Veneris,  subse- 
quently called  T.  Urbis,  a  large  and  splendid 
temple,  built  by  Hadrian,  between  the  Esquiline 
and  Palatine,  northeast  of  the  Colosseum.     It 
was  burned  down  in  the  reign  of  Maxentius,  but 
was  subsequently  restored.    Its  remains  are  be- 
tween the  Colosseum  and  the  Church  of  S.Maria 
or  S.  Francesca  Romana.     50.  T.  Solis,  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  Circus  Maximus.     61.  T.  Her- 
culis, in  the  Forum  Boarium,  probably  the  round 
temple  still  extant  of  S.  Maria  del  Sole,  which 
used  to  be  erroneously  regarded  as  the  temple 
of  Vesta.    There  was  another  temple  of  Her- 
cules by  the  Circus  Maximus,  near  the  Porta 
Trigemina.      52.  T.  Solis,  a  splendid   temple, 
built  by  Aurelian,  east  of  the  Quirinal.     53.  T. 
Flora;,  an  ancient  temple  on  the  southern  point  I 
of  the  Quirinal,  but  the  time  of  its  foundation  is 
not  recorded.     54.  Vulcanale  was  not  a  temple,  | 
but  only  an  area  dedicated  to  the  god,  with  an  | 

750 


altar,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Forum  above 
the  Comitium  :  it  was  so  large  that  not  only 
were  the  Curia Hostilia  andthe^EdesConcnrdim 
built  there,  but  also  a  fish-market  was  ln-M  in 
the  place — IV.  CIRCI.  The  Circi  were  \;\.\-  ;-:i 
for  chariot-races  and  horse-races.  1.  Circus 
Maximus,  frequently  called  simply  the  Circus, 
was  founded  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  in  the  plain 
between  the  Palatine  and  Aventine,  and  was 
successively  enlarged  by  Julius  Ctesar  and  Tra- 
jan. Under  the  emperors  it  contained  seats  for 
f  three  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  persons. 
It  was  restored  by  Constantine  the  Great,  and 
|  games  were  celebrated  in  it  as  late  as  the  sixth 
century.  2.  C.  Flaminius,  erected  by  Flaminius 
in  B.C.  221,  in  the  Praia  Flaminia,  before  the 
Porta  Carmentalis  ;  it  was  not  sufficiently  large 
for  the  population  of  Rome,  and  was  therefore 
seldom  used.  3.  C.Neronis,  erected  by  Caligula 
in  the  gardens  of  Agrippina  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Tiber.  There  was  also  another  C.  Neronis 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Tiber,  near  the  Moles 
Hadriani,  in  the  gardens  of  Domitia.  4.  C.  Pal- 
atinus,  on  the  Palatine,  in  which  the  Ludi  Pala- 
tini  were  celebrated.  There  are  traces  of  it  in 
the  Orto  Roncioni,  on  the  southern  part  of  the 
hill.  5.  C.  Heliogabali,  in  the  gardens  of  this 
emperor,  behind  the  Amphitheatrum  Castrense, 
at  the  eastern  point  of  the  Aurelian  Walls.  6.  C. 
Maxentii,  commonly  called  Circo  di  Caracalla, 
before  the  Porta  Appia,  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  city.  Among  the  Circi  we  may  reckon, 
7.  The  Stadium,  likewise  called  C.  Agonalis  and 
C.  Alexandri,  in  the  Campus  Martius,  erected  by 
Domitian  in  place  of  the  wooden  stadium  built 
by  Augustus.  It  contained  seats  for  thirty-three 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-eight  per- 
sons. Its  remains  still  exist  in  the  Piazza  Na- 
vona. — V.  THEATRES.  Theatres  were  not  built 
at  Rome  till  a  comparatively  late  period,  and 
long  after  the  Circi.  At  first  they  were  only 
made  of  wood  for  temporary  purposes,  and  were 
afterward  broken  up;  but  many  of  these  wood- 
en theatres  were,  notwithstanding,  constructed 
with  great  magnificence.  The  splendid  wooden 
theatre  ofM.  ^Emilius  Scaurus  was  capable  of 
containing  eighty  thousand  spectators.  1 .  Thca- 
trum  Pompeii,  the  first  permanent  stone  theatre, 
was  erected  by  Cneius  Pompey,  B.C.  55,  in  the 
Campus  Martius,  northeast  of  the  Circus  Fla- 
minius, after  the  model  of  the  theatre  ofMyti- 
lene.  It  contained  seats  for  forty  thousand  spec- 
tators. It  was  restored  successively  by  Au- 
gustus, Tiberius,  Caligula,  Diocletian,  and  The- 
odoric.  Its  ruins  are  by  the  Palazzo  Pio,  not 
far  from  the  Campo  di  Fiore.  2.  Th.  Cornclii 
Balbi,  southeast  of  the  preceding,  near  the  Tiber, 
on  the  site  of  the  Palazzo  Cenci.  It  was  dedi- 
cated by  Cornelius  Balbus  in  B.C.  13,  was  partly 
burned  down  under  Titus,  but  was  subsequently 
restored.  It  contained  seats  for  eleven  thou- 
sand six  hundred  persons.  3.  Th.  Marcelli,  in 
the  Forum  Olitorium,  west  of  the  preceding,  be- 
tween the  slope  of  the  Capitoline  and  the  island 
of  the  Tiber,  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Pietas. 
It  was  begun  by  Julius  Caesar,  and  dedicated 
by  Augustus,  in  B.C.  13,  to  the  memory  of  his 
nephew  Marcellus.  It  was  restored  by  Vespa- 
sian, and  perhaps  also  by  Alexander  Severus. 
It  contained  seats  for  twenty  thousand  specta- 
tors. The  remains  of  its  cavea  exist  near  the 


ROMA. 

Piazza  Montanara.  These  were  the  only  three 
theatres  at  Rome,  whence  Ovid  speaks  of  tcrna 
cneatra.  There  was,  however,  an  Odeum  or 
concert-house,  which  may  be  classed  among  the 
theatres.  4.  Odeum,  in  the  Campus  Martins, 
built  by  Domitian,  though  some  writers  attribute 
its  erection  to  Trajan.  It  contained  seats  for 
about  eleven  thousand  persons. — VI.  AMPHI- 
THEATRES. The  amphitheatres,  like'  the  thea- 
tres, were  originally  made  of  wood  for  tempo- 
rary purposes.  They  were  used  for  the  shows 
of  gladiators  and  wild  beasts.  The  first  wooden 
amphitheatre  was  built  by  C.  Scribonius  Curio 
(the  celebrated  partisan  of  Caesar),  and  the  next 
by  Julius  Caesar  during  his  perpetual  dictator- 
ship, B.C.  46.  1.  Amph.  Statilii  Tauri,  in  the 
Campus  Martius,  was  the  first  stone  amphithe- 
atre in  Rome,  and  was  built  by  Statilius  Taurus, 
B.C.  30.  This  edifice  was  the  only  one  of  the 
kind  until  the  building  of  the  Flavian  amphi- 
theatre. It  did  not  satisfy  Caligula,  who  com- 
menced an  amphitheatre  near  the  Septa ;  but 
the  work  was  not  continued  by  Claudius.  Nero 
too,  A.D.  57,  erected  a  vast  amphitheatre  of 
wood,  but  this  was  only  a  temporary  building. 
The  amphitheatre  of  Taurus  was  destroyed  in 
the  burning  of  Rome,  A.D.  64,  and  was  proba- 
bly never  restored,  as  it  is  not  again  mentioned. 
2.  Amph.  Flavium,  or,  as  it  has  been  called  since 
the  time  of  Bede,  the  Colosseum  or  Colisaum,  a 
name  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Colossus  of 
Nero,  which  stood  close  by.  It  was  situated  in 
the  valley  between  the  Caelius,  the  Esquiline, 
and  the  Velia,  on  the  marshy  ground  which  was 
previously  the  pond  of  Nero's  palace.  It  was 
commenced  by  Vespasian,  and  was  completed 
by  Titus,  who  dedicated  it  in  A.D.  80,  when  five 
thousand  animals  of  different  kinds  were  slaugh- 
tered. This  wonderful  building,  of  which  there 
are  still  extensive  remains,  covered  nearly  six 
acres  of  ground,  and  furnished  seats  for  eighty- 
seven  thousand  spectators.  In  the  reign  of 
Macrinus  it  was  struck  by  lightning,  and  so 
much  damage  was  done  to  it  that  the  games 
were  for  some  years  celebrated  in  the  Stadium. 
Its  restoration  was  commenced  by  Elagabalus, 
and  completed  by  Alexander  Severus.  3.  Amph. 
Castrcnse,  at  the  southeast  of  the  Au  relian  Walls. 
— VII.  NAUMACHLE.  These  were  buildings  of  a 
kind  similar  to  the  amphitheatres.  They  were 
used  for  representations  of  sea-fights,  and  con- 
sisted of  artificial  lakes  or  ponds,  with  stone 
eeats  around  them  to  accommodate  the  specta- 
tors. 1.  Naumachia  Julii  Caesaris,  in  the  middle 
part  of  the  Campus  Martius,  called  the  "  Lesser 
Codeta."  This  lake  was  filled  up  in  the  time 
of  Augustus,  so  that  we  find  in  later  writers 
mention  of  only  two  naumachiee.  2.  N.  Au- 
gusti,  constructed  by  Augustus  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Tiber,  under  the  Janiculus,  and  near  the 
Porta  Portuensis.  It  was  subsequently  called 
the  Vetus  Naumachia,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
following  one.  3.  N.  Domitiani,  constructed  by 
the  Emperor  Domitian,  probably  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Tiber,  under  the  Vatican  and  the 
Circus  Neronis.— VIII.  THERMS.  The  thermae 
were  some  of  the  most  magnificent  buildings  of 
imperial  Rome.  They  were  distinct  from  the 
ttalnete,  or  common  baths,  of  which  there  were 
a  great  number  at  Rome.  In  the  therms;  the 
baths  constituted  a  small  part  of  the  building. 


ROMA. 

They  were,  properly  speaking,  a  Roman  itdapt? 
tion  of  the  Greek  gymnasia,  and  besides  thfc 
baths,  they  contained  places  for  athletic  games 
and  youthful  sports,  exedrae  or  public  halls,  por- 
ticoes and  vestibules  for  the  idle,  and  libraries 
for  the  learned.  They  were  decorated  with 
the  finest  objects  of  art,  and  adorned  with 
fountains,  and  shaded  walks  and  plantations. 
1.  Thermee  Agrippa,  in  the  Campus  Martius, 
erected  by  M.  Agrippa.  The  Pantheon,  still 
existing,  is  supposed  by  some,  but  without  suf- 
ficient reason,  to  have  served  originally  as  a 
vestibule  to  these  Thermo;.  2.  Th.  Neronis. 
erected  by  Nero  in  the  Campus  Martius,  along- 
side of  the  Thermae  of  Agrippa  :  they  were 
restored  by  Alexander  Severus,  and  \vere  from 
that  time  called  Th.  Alexandrines.  3.  Th.  Titi, 
on  the  Esquiline,  ne*  the  amphitheatre  of 
this  emperor,  of  which  there  are  still  consid- 
erable remains.  4.  Th.  Trajani,  also  on  the 
Esquiline,  immediately  behind  the  two  pre- 
ceding, toward  the  northeast.  5.  Th.  Com- 
modiana  and  Th.  Sevcriana,  close  to  one  an- 
other, near  S.  Balbina,  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  city.  6.  Th.  Antoniniana,  also  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  city,  behind  the 
two  preceding,  one  of  the  most  magnificent  of 
all  the  Thermae,  in  which  two  thousand  three 
hundred  men  could  bathe  at  the  same  time. 
The  greater  part  of  it  was  built  by  Caracalla, 
and  it  was  completed  by  Elagabalus  and  Alex- 
ander Severus.  There  are  still  extensive  re- 
mains of  this  immense  building  below  S.  Bal- 
bina. 7.  Th.  Diocletiani,  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  city,  between  the  Agger  of  Servius 
and  the  Viminal  and  Quirinai.  It  was  the  most 
extensive  of  all  the  Thermae,  containing  a  li- 
brary, picture  gallery,  Odeum, '&c.,  and  such  im- 
mense baths  that  three  thousand  men  could 
bathe  in  them  at  the  same  time.  There  are 
still  extensive  remains  of  this  building  near  S. 
Maria  d'Angeli.  8.  Th.  Consfantini,  on  the  Qui- 
rinai, on  the  site  of  the  modern  Palazzo  Ros- 
pigliosi,  but  of  which  all  traces  have  disappeai 
ed.  The  following  Thermae  were  smaller  and 
less  celebrated.  9.  Th.  Dccianee,  on  the  Aven- 
tine.  10.  Th.  Surana,  erected  by  Trajan  to  the 
memory  of  his  friend  Sulpicius  Sura,  also  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Aventine,  probably  the  same 
as  the  Th.  Variance.  11.  Th.  Philippi,  near  S. 
Matteo  in  Merulana.  12.  Th.  Agrippina,  on  the 
Viminal,  behind  S.  Lorenzo.  13.  Th.  Caii  et 
Lweii,  on  the  Esquiline,  called  in  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Terme  di  Galluccio. — IX.  BASILICAS. 
The  Basilicae  were  buildings  which  served  as 
courts  of  law,  and  exchanges  or  places  of  meet- 
ing for  merchants  and  men  of  business.  1.  Ba- 
silica Portia,  erected  by  M.  Porcius  Calo,  in  the 
Forum  adjoining  the  Curia,  B.C.  184.  It  was 
burned  down  along  with  the  Curia  in  the  riots 
which  followed  the  death  of  Clod  ins,  52.  3. 
B.  Fulria,  also  called  JEmilia  ct  Fuhia,  because 
it  was  built  by  the  censors  L.  /Emilius  Lepidus 
and  M.  Fulvius  Nobilior  in  179.  It  was  situ- 
ated in  the  Forum  near  the  preceding  one.  It 
was  restored  by  Ataiilius  Paulus  in  the  time  of 
Caesar,  and  was  hence  called  H.  jEnnlia  or  Pauli. 
It  was  dedicated  by  his  son  Paulus^niilius  Lep< 
idus  in  his  consulship,  34.  It  was  (turned  down 
twenty  years  afterward  (14),  and  was  rebuilt 
nominally  by  Paulus  Lepidus,  but  in  reality  by 


ROMA 

Augustus  and  the  friends  of  Paulus.  The  new 
building  was  a  most  magnificent  one  ;  its  col- 
umns of  Phrygian  marble  were  especially  cele- 
brated. It  was  repaired  by  another  Lepidus  in 
the  reign  of  Tiberius,  A.D.  22.  3.  B.  Scmpronia, 
built  by  Ti.  Sempronius  Gracchus,  B.C.  171,  in 
the  Forum  at  the  end  of  the  Vicus  Tuscus.  4. 
B.  Opimia,  in  the  Forum  near  the  temple  of  Con- 
cordia.  5.  B.  Julia,  commenced  by  Julius  Cae- 
sar and  finished  by  Augustus,  in  the  Forum  be- 
tween the  temples  of  Castor  and  Saturn,  prob- 
ably on  the  site  of  the  B.  Sempronia  mentioned 
above.  Some  writers  suppose  that  ^Emilius 
Paulus  built  two  Basilicas,  and  that  the  B.  Julia 
occupied  the  site  of  one  of  them.  6.  B.  Argcn- 
taria,  in  the  Forum  near  the  Clivus  Argentarius 
and  before  the  temple  of  Concordia,  probably 
the  same  as  the  one  mentioned  under  the  name 
of  B.  Vascularia.  The  remains  of  this  building 
are  behind  S.  Martina,  alongside  of  the  Salita 
di  Marforio.  7.  B.  Ulpia,  in  the  middle  of  the 
Forum  of  Trajan,  of  which  there  are  still  con- 
siderable remains.  8.  B.  Constantiana,  between 
the  temple  of  Peace  and  the  temple  of  Rome 
and  Venus. — X.  PORTICOES.  The  porticoes 
(Portions)  were  covered  walks,  supported  by 
columns,  and  open  on  one  side.  There  were 
several  public  porticoes  at  Rome,  many  of  them 
of  great  size,  which  were  used  as  places  of  rec- 
reation, and  for  the  transaction  of  business. 
1.  Porticus  Pompeii,  adjoining  the  theatre  of 
Pompey,  and  erected  to  afford  shelter  to  the 
spectators  in  the  theatre  during  a  shower  of 
rain.  It  was  restored  by  Diocletian,  and  was 
hence  called  P.  Jovia.  2.  P.  Argonautarum,  or 
Neptuni  or  Agrippa,  erected  by  Agrippa  in  the 
Campus  Martius  around  the  temple  of  Neptune, 
and  adorned  with  a  celebrated  painting  of  the 
Argonauts.  3.  P.  Philippi,  by  the  side  of  the 
T.  Herculis  Musarum  and  the  Porticus  Octaviae, 
built  by  M.  Philippus,  the  father-in-law  of  Au- 
gustus, and  adorned  with  splendid  works  of  art. 
4.  P.  Minucii,  in  the  Campus  Martius,  near  the 
Circus  Flaminius,  built  by  Q.  Minucius  Rufus 
in  B.C.  109,  to  commemorate  his  victories  over 
the  Scordisci  and  Triballi  in  the  preceding  year. 
There  appear  to  have  been  two  porticoes  of  this 
name,  since  we  find  mention  ofaMinucia  Vetus 
et  Frumentaria.  It  appears  that  the  tesserae,  or 
tickets,  which  entitled  persons  to  a  share  in  the 
public  distributions  of  corn,  were  given  to  them 
in  tbe  P.  Minucia.  5.  P.  Metelli,  built  by  Q. 
Metellus  after  his  triumph  over  Perseus,  king 
of  Macedonia,  B.C.  146.  It  was  situated  in  the 
Campus  Martius,  between  the  Circus  Flaminius 
and  the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  and  surrounded 
the  two  temples  of  Jupiter  Stator  and  Juno  Re- 
gina.  6:  P.  Octavice,  built  by  Augustus  on  the 
site  of  the  P.  Metelli  just  mentioned,  in  honor 
of  his  sister  Octavia.  It  was  a  magnificent 
building,  containing  a  vast  number  of  works  of 
art  and  a  public  library,  in  which  the  senate 
frequently  assembled ;  hence  it  is  sometimes 
called  Curia  Octavia.  It  was  burned  down  in 
the  reign  of  Titus.  Its  ruins  are  near  the  church 
of  S.  Angelo  in  Pescaria.  7.  P.  Octavia,  which 
must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  P.  Oc- 
taviae just  mentioned,  was  built  by  Cn.  Octa- 
vius,  who  commanded  the  Roman  fleet  in  the 
war  against  Perseus,  king  of  Macedonia.  It 
was  situated  in  the  Campus  Martius,  between 
752 


ROMA. 

i  the  theatre  of  Pompey  and  the  Circus  Flaminms 
It  was  rebuilt  by  Augustus,  and  contained  two 
rows  of  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order,  with 
brazen  capitals,  whence  it  was  also  called  P 
Corinthia.  8.  P.  Europae,  probably  at  the  foot 
of  the  Pincius,  in  which  the  foot-race&  took 
place.  9.  P.  Polic,  built  by  the  sister  of  Agrippa 
in  the  Campus  Agrippae,  in  which  also  foot 
races  took  place.  10.  P.  Lima,  on  the  Esqui- 
line,  surrounding  a  temple  of  Concordia.  11. 
P.  Julia,  or  P.  Caii  et  Lucii,  built  by  Julia  in 
honor  of  these  two  sons  of  Agrippa,  was  prob- 
'  ably  also  situated  on  the  Esquiline  near  the 
|  Thermae  Caii  et  Lucii.  The  following  porticoes 
j  were  less  celebrated  :  12.  P.  Vipsania,  supposed 
I  by  some  writers  to  be  only  a  later  name  of  the 
|  P.  Argonautarum.  13.  P.  Claudia,  on  the  Es 
|  quiline.  —  XI.  TRIUMPHAL  ARCHES.  The  tri- 
umphal arches  (Arcus)  were  structures  peculiar 
to  the  Romans,  and  were  erected  by  victorious 
generals  in  commemoration  of  their  victories 
They  were  built  across  the  principal  streets  of 
the  city,  and,  according  to  the  space  of  their  re- 
spective localities,  consisted  either  of  a  single 
arch-way,  or  of  a  central  one  for  carriages,  with 
two  smaller  ones  on  each  side  for  foot  pas- 
sengers. Ancient  writers  mention  twenty-one 
arches  in  the  city  of  Rome.  Of  these  the  most 
important  were,  1.  Arcus  Fabianus,  also  called 
Fornix  Fabianus,  near  the  beginning  of  the  Via 
Sacra,  built  by  Fabius  Maximus  in  B.C.  121,  in 
commemoration  of  his  victory  over  the  Allo- 
broges.  2.  A.  Drusi,  erected  by  the  senate  in 
B.C.  9,  in  honor  of  Nero  Claudius  Drusus.  It 
was  situated  on  the  Via  Appia,  and  still  exists, 
forming  the  inner  gate  of  the  Porta  di  S.  Sebas- 
tiano.  3.  A.  Augusti,  in  the  Forum  near  the 
house  of  Julius  Caesar.  4.  A.  Tiberii,  near  the 
temple  of  Saturn,  on  the  Clivus  Capitolinus, 
erected  by  Tiberius,  A.D.  16,  in  honor  of  the 
victories  of  Germanicus  in  Germany.  5.  A. 
Claudii,  in  the  plain  east  of  the  Quirinal,  erect- 
ed A.D.  51,  to  commemorate  the  victories  of 
Claudius  in  Britain.  Remains  of  it  have  been 
dug  up  at  the  beginning  of  the  Piazza  di  Sciarra, 
by  the  Via  di  Pietra.  6.  A.  Titi,  in  the  middle 
of  the  Via  Sacra,  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine, 
which  still  exists.  It  was  erected  to  the  honor 
of  Titus,  after  his  conquest  of  Judaea,  but  was 
not  finished  till  after  his  death,  since  in  the 
inscription  upon  it  he  is  called  "  Divus,"  and  he 
is  also  represented  as  being  carried  up  to  heaven 
upon  an  eagle.  The  bas-reliefs  of  this  arch  rep- 
resent the  spoils  from  the  temple  of  Jerusalem 
carried  in  triumphal  procession.  7.  A.  Trajani, 
in  the  Forum  of  this  emperor,  at  the  point  where 
you  enter  it  from  the  Forum  of  Augustus.  8.  A. 
Veri,  on  the  Via  Appia,  erected  to  the  honor  of 
Verus  after  his  victory  over  the  Parthians.  9. 
A.  Marci  Aurdii,  in  the  seventh  Regio,  probably 
erected  to  commemorate  the  victory  of  this  em- 
peror over  the  Marcomanni.  It  existed  under 
different  names  near  the  Piazzo  Fiano  down  to 
1662,  when  it  was  broken  up  by  order  of  Alex-, 
ander  VII.  10.  A.  Septimii  Severi,  in  the  Forum 
at  the  end  of  the  Via  Sacra  and  the  Clivus  Cap- 
itolinus, before  the  temple  of  Concordia,  and  still 
extant  near  the  church  of  SS.  Sergio  e  Bacco, 
was  erected  by  the  senate,  A.D.  203,  in  honor 
of  Septimius  Severus  and  his  two  sons,  Cara- 
calla  and  Geta.  on  account  of  his  victories  over 


ROMA. 

the  Parthians  and  Arabians.  11.  A.  Gordiani, 
on  the  Esquiline.  12.  A.  Gallieni,  erected  to 
the  honor  of  Gallienus  by  a  private  individual, 
M.  Aurelius  Victor,  also  on  the  Esquiline,  south- 
east of  the  Porta  Esquilina.  It  is  still  extant 
near  the  Church  of  S.  Vito.  13.  A.  Diocleliani, 
probably  identical  with  the  A.  Novus  in  the  sev- 
enth Regio.  14.  A.  Constantini,  at  the  entrance 
to  the  valley  between  the  Palatine  and  the  Cae- 
lius,  is  still  extant.  It  was  erected  by  the  sen- 
ate in  honor  of  Constantine  after  his  victory 
over  Maxentius,  A.D.  312.  It  is  profusely  or- 
namented, and  many  of  the  bas-reliefs  which 
adorn  it  were  taken  from  one  of  the  arches 
erected  in  the  time  of  Trajan.  15.  A.  Theodo- 
siani,  Gratiani  et  Valentiniani,  opposite  the  Pons 
^Elius  and  the  Moles  Hadriani. — XII.  CURI#:  or 
SENATE-HOUSES.  1.  Curia.  Hostilia,  frequently 
called  Curia  simply,  was  built  by  Tullus  Hos- 
tilius,  and.  was  used  as  the  ordinary  place  of 
assembly  for  the  senate  down  to  the  time  of 
Julius  Caesar.  It  stood  in  the  Forum,  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  Comitium.  It  was  burned 
to  the  ground  in  the  riots  which  followed  the 
death  of  Clodius,  B.C.  52.  It  was,  however, 
soon  rebuilt,  the  direction  of  the  work  being  in- 
trusted to  Faustus,  the  son  of  the  dictator  Sulla  ; 
but  scarcely  had  it  been  finished,  when  the  sen- 
ate, at  the  suggestion  of  Caesar,  decreed  that  it 
should  be  destroyed,  and  a  temple  of  Fortune 
erected  on  its  site,  while  a  new  curia  should 
be  erected,  which  should  bear  the  name  of  Julia. 
(Vid.  below.)  2.  C.  Pompeia  or  Pompeii,  attach- 
ed to  the  Portico  of  Pompey  in  the  Campus 
Martius.  It  was  in  this  curia  that  Caesar  was 
assassinated  on  the  Ides  of  March.  3.  C.  Julia, 
the  decree  for  the  erection  of  which  has  been 
mentioned  above,  was  finished  and  consecrated 
by  Augustus.  It  did  not  stand  on  the  site  of 
the  Curia  Hostilia,  as  many  modern  writers 
have  supposed,  but  at  the  southwestern  angle 
of  the  Comitium,  between  the  temple  of  Vesta 
and  that  of  Castor  and  Pollux.  4.  C.  Pompili- 
ana,  built  by  Domitian  and  restored  by  Diocle- 
tian, was  the  usual  place  of  the  senate's  meet- 
ing from  the  time  of  Domitian.  It  was  situated 
alongside  of  the  temple  of  Janus,  which  was 
said  to  have  been  built  by  Numa  Pompilius, 
whence  this  curia  was  called  Pompiliana.  — 
XIII.  PRISONS.  There  were  two  public  prisons 
(carcercs)  in  Rome.  The  more  ancient  one, 
called  Career  Mamcrtinus  (a  name,  however, 
which  does  not  occur  in  any  ancient  author), 
was  built  by  Ancus  Maicius  on  the  slope  of  the 
Capitoline  overhanging  the  Forum.  It  was  en- 
larged by  Servius  Tullius,  who  added  to  it  a 
dismal  subterranean  dungeon,  called  from  him 
Tullianum,  where  the  conspirators  of  Catiline 
were  put  to  death.  This  dungeon  was  twelve 
feet  under  ground,  walled  on  each  side,  and 
arched  over  with  stone- work.  It  is  still  extant, 
and  serves  as  a  subterranean  chapel  to  a  small 
church  built  on  the  spot  called  S.  Pietro  in  Car- 
cere.  Near  this  prison  were  the  Scala  Gcmoniat 
or  steps,  down  which  the  boues  of  those  who 
had  been  executed  were  thrown  into  the  Forum, 
to  be  exposed  to  the  gaze  of  the  Roman  popu- 
lace. The  other  state  prison  was  called  Lav.- 
tumicE,  and  was  probably  situated  toward  the 
northern  side  of  the  Forum,  near  thn  Curia 
Hostilia  and  Basilica  Porcia.  Some  writers, 
48 


ROMA. 

j  however,  suppose  Lautumiae  to  be  only  anothei 
name  of  the  Career  Mamertinus.— XIV.  CASTIU 
or  BARRACKS.  1.  Casira  Pretoria,  in  the  north- 
eastern corner  of  the  city,  on  the  slope  of  the 
Quirinal  and  Viminal,  and  beyond  the  Thermae 
of  Diocletian,  were  built  by  the  Emperor  Tibe- 
rius in  the  form  of  a  Roman  camp.  Here  the 
praetorian  troops  or  imperial  guards  were  always 
quartered.  2.  Castra  Pcrcgrina,  on  the  Caelius, 
probably  built  by  Septimius  Severus  for  the  use 
of  the  foreign  troops,  who  might  serve  as  a  coun- 
terpoise against  the  praetorians.  —  XV.  AQCK- 
DUCT».  The  aqueducts  (Aquaductus)  supplied 
Rome  with  an  abundance  of  pure  water  from 
the  hills  which  surround  the  Campagna.  The 
Romans  at  first  had  recourse  to  the  Tiber  and 
to  wells  sunk  in  the  city.  It  was  not  till  B.C. 
313  that  the  first  aque.duct  was  constructed,  but 
their  number  was  gradually  increased  till  they 
amounted  to  fourteen  in  the  time  of  Procopius, 
that  is,  the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
1.  Aqua  Appia,  was  begun  by  the  censor  Ap- 
pius  Claudius  Caecus  in  B.C.  313.  Its  sources 
were  near  the  Via  Praenestina,  between  the 
seventh  and  eighth  mile-stones,  and  its  termina- 
tion was  at  the  Salinae  by  the  Porta  Trigemina. 
Its  length  was  eleven  thousand  one  hundred 
and  ninety  passus,  for  eleven  thousand  one 
hundred  and  thirty  of  which  it  was  carried  un- 
der the  earth,  and  for  the  remaining  sixty  pas- 
sus, within  the  city,  from  the  Porta  Capena  to 
the  Porta  Trigemina,  it  was  on  arches.  No 
traces  of  it  remain.  2.  Anio  Vetus,  commenced 

j  B.C.  273,  by  the  censor  M'.  Curius  Dentatus, 
and  finished  by  M.  Fulvius  Flaccus.  The  wa- 
ter was  derived  from  the  River  Anio,  above  Ti- 
bur,  at  a  distance  of  twenty  Roman  miles  from 
the  city;  but,  on  account  of  its  windings,  its  ac- 
tual length  was  forty- three  miles,  of  which  length 
less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  only  (viz.,  two 
hundred  and  twenty-one  passus)  was  above  the 
ground.  There  are  considerable  remains  of  this 
aqueduct  on  the  Aurelian  wall,  near  the  Porta 
Maggiore,  and  also  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ti- 
voli.  3.  Aqua  Marcia,  which  brought  the  coldest 
and  most  wholesome  water  to  Rome,  was  built 
by  the  praetor  Q.  Marcius  Rex,  by  command  of 
the  senate,  in  B.C.  144.  It  commenced  at  the 
side  of  the  Via  Valeria,  thirty-six  miles  from 
Rome ;  its  length  was  sixty-one  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  ten  and  a  half  passus,  of  which 
only  seven  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty- 
three  were  above  ground  ;  namely,  five  hundred 
and  twenty-eight  on  solid  substructions,  and 
six  thousand  nine  hundred  and  thirty-five  on 
arches.  It  was  high  enough  to  supply  water  to 
the  summit  of  the  Capitoline  Mount.  It  was 
repaired  by  Agrippa  in  his  aedileship,  B.C.  33 
(vid.  below,  No.  6),  and  the  volume  of  its  water 
was  increased  by  Augustus,  by  means  of  the 
water  of  a  spring  eight  hundred  passus  from  it : 
the  short  aqueduct  which  conveyed  this  water 
was  called  Aqua  Augusta,  but  is  never  enumer- 
ated as  a  distinct  aqueduct.  Several  arches  of 
the  Aqua  Marcia  are  still  standing.  4.  Aqua 
Tcpula,  which  was  built  by  the  censors  Cn.  Ser- 
vilius  Caepio  and  L.  Cassius  Longinus  in  B.C. 
127,  began  in  a  spot  in  the  Lucullan  or  Tuscu- 
lan  land,  two  miles  to  the  rijrht  of  the  tenth 
mile-stone  on  the  Via  Latina.  It  was  afterward 
connected  with, — 5.  Aqua  Ju'.\a.  Among  the 

753 


ROMA. 

splendid  public  woncs  executed  by  Agrippa  in 
his  aedileship,  B.C.  33,  was  the  formation  of  a 
new  aqueduct,  and  the  restoration  of  all  the  old 
ones.  From  a  source  two  miles  to  the  right  of 
the  twelfth  mile-stone  of  the  Via  Latina,  he  con- 
structed his  aqueduct  (the  Aqua  Julia)  first  to 
the  Aqua  Tepula,  in  which  it  was  merged  as 
far  as  the  reservoir  (piscina)  on  the  Via  Latina, 
seven  miles  from  Rome.  From  the  reservoir 
the  water  was  carried  along  two  distinct  chan- 
nels, on  the  same  substructions  (which  were 
probably  the  original  substructions  of  the  Aqua 
Tepula  newly  restored),  the  lower  channel  be- 
ing called  the  Aqua  Tepula,  and  the  upper  the 
Aqua  Julia ;  and  this  double  aqueduct  again 
was  united  with  the  Aqua  Marcia,  over  the 
water-course  of  which  the  other  two  were  car- 
ried. The  monument  erected  at  the  junction 
of  these  three  aqueducts  is  still  to  be  seen  close 
to  the  Porta  S  Lorenzo.  It  bears  an  inscrip- 
tion referring  to  the  repairs  under  Caracalla. 
The  whole  course  of  the  Aqua  Julia,  from  its 
source,  amounted  to  fifteen  thousand  four  hund- 
red and  twenty-six  passus,  partly  on  massive 
substructions  and  partly  on  arches.  6.  Aqua 
Virgo,  built  by  Agrippa  to  supply  his  baths.  Its 
water  was  as  highly  esteemed  for  bathing  as 
that  of  the  Aqua  Marcia  was  for  drinking.  It 
commenced  by  the  eighth  mile-stone  on  the  Via 
Collatina,  and  was  conducted  by  a  very  circuit- 
ous route,  chiefly  under  the  ground,  to  the  M. 
Pincius,  whence  it  was  carried  on  arches  to  the 
Campus  Martins  :  its  length  was  fourteen  thou- 
sand one  hundred  and  five  passus,  of  which 
twelve  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-five 
were  under  ground.  7.  Aqua  Alsictina,  some- 
times called  also  Aqua  Augusta,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Tiber,  was  constructed  by  Augustus 
from  the  Lacus  Alsietinus  (Lago  diMartignano), 
which  lay  six  thousand  five  hundred  passus  to 
the  right  of  the  fourteenth  mile-stone,  on  the 
Via  Claudia,  and  was  brought  to  the  part  of  the 
Regio  Transtiberina  below  the  Janiculus.  Its 
length  was  twenty-two  thousand  one  hundred 
and  seventy-two  passus,  of  which  only  three 
hundred  and  fifty-eight  were  on  arches ;  and 
its  water  was  so  bad  that  it  could  only  have 
been  intended  for  the  supply  of  Augustus's  Nau- 
machia,  and  for  watering  gardens.  8,  9.  Aqua 
Claudia  and-4njo  Novus  (or  Aqua  Aniena  Nova), 
the  two  most  magnificent  of  all  the  aqueducts, 
both  commenced  by  Caligula  in  A.D.  36,  and 
finished  by  Claudius  in  A.D.  50.  The  Aqua 
Claudia  commenced  near  the  thirty-eighth  mile- 
stone on  the  Via  Sublacensis.  Its  water  was 
reckoned  the  best  after  the  Marcia.  Its  length 
was  forty-six  thousand  four  hundred  and  six 
passus  (nearly  forty-six  and  a  half  miles),  of 
which  nine  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty- 
seven  were  on  arches.  The  Anio  Novus  began 
at  the  forty-second  mile-stone  on  the  Via  Sub- 
lacensis. Its  length  was  fifty-eight  thousand 
seven  hundred  passus  (nearly  fifty-nine  miles), 
and  some  of  its  arches  were  one  hundred  and 
nine  feet  high.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  city 
these  two  aqueducts  were  united,  forming  two 
channels  on  the  same  arches,  the  Claudia  below 
and  the  Anio  Novus  above.  An  interesting 
monument  connected  with  these  aqueducts  is 
the  gate  now  called  Porta  Maggiore,  which  was 
originally  a  magnificent  double  arch,  by  means 
754 


ROMA. 

of  which  the  aqueduct  was  carried  over  the  Via 
Labicana  and  the  Via  Praenestina.  Over  the 
double  arch  are  three  inscriptions,  which  record 
the  names  of  Claudius  as  the  builder,  and  of 
Vespasian  and  Titus  as  the  restorers  of  the  aque- 
duct. By  the  side  of  this  arch  the  aqueduct 
passes  along  the  wall  of  Aurelian  for  some  dis- 
tance, and  then  it  is  continued  upon  the  Arcus 
Neroniani  or  Caelimontani,  which  were  added 
by  Nero  to  the  original  structure,  and  which 
terminated  at  the  temple  of  Claudius,  which 
was  also  built  by  Nero  on  the  Caelius,  where 
the  water  was  probably  conveyed  to  a  castel- 
lum  already  built  for  the  Aqua  Julia,  and  for  a 
branch  of  the  Aqua  Marcia,  which  had  been  at 
some  previous  lime  continued  to  the  Caelius. 
10.  Aqua  Crabra,  which  had  its  source  near  that 
of  the  Julia,  and  which  was  originally  carried 
right  through  the  Circus  Maximus  ;  but  the 
xvater  was  so  bad  that  Agrippa  would  not  bring 
it  into  the  Julia,  but  abandoned  it  to  the  people 
of  the  Tusculan  land.  Hence  it  was  called 
Aqua  Damnata.  At  a  later  period,  part  of  the 
water  was  brought  into  the  Aqua  Julia.  Con- 
siderable traces  of  it  remain.  11.  Aqua  Traja- 
na,  was  brought  by  Trajan  from  the  Lacus  SaT 
batinus  (now  Bracciano)  to  supply  the  Janiculus 
and  the  Regio  Transtiberina.  12.  Aqua  Alcx- 
andrina,  constructed  by  Alexander  Severus  ;  its 
source  was  in  the  lands  of  Tusculum,  about 
fourteen  miles  from  Rome,  between  Gabii  antf 
the  Lake  Regillus.  Its  small  height  shows  tha. 
it  was  intended  for  the  baths  of  Severus,  which 
were  in  one  of  the  valleys  of  Rome.  13.  Aqua 
Septimiana,  built  by  Septimius  Severus,  was  per- 
haps only  a  branch  of  the  Aqua  Julia,  formed  by 
the  emperor  to  bring  water  to  his  baths.  14. 
Aqua  Algentia  had  its  source  at  Moqnt  Algidus 
by  the  Via  Tusculana.  Its  builder  is  unknown. 
Three  of  these  aqueducts  still  supply  the  modern 
city  of  Rome  with  water.  (l.)The  Acqua  Ver- 
ginc,  the  ancient  Aqua  Virgo,  which  was  re- 
stored by  Pope  Pius  IV.,  and  further  embellish- 
ed by  Benedict  XIV.  and  Clement  XIII.  The 
chief  portion  of  its  waters  gush  out  through  the 
beautiful  Fontana  di  Trevi,  but  it  also  supplies 
twelve  other  public  fountains  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  lower  city.  (2.)  The  Acqua  Felice, 
named  after  the  conventual  name  of  its  re- 
storer, Sixtus  V.  (Fra  Felice),  is  probably  a  part 
of  the  ancient  Aqua  Claudia,  though  some  take 
it  for  the  Alexandrina.  It  supplies  twenty-seven 
public  fountains  and  the  eastern  part  of  the 
city.  (3.)  The  Acqua  Paola,  the  ancient  Alsie- 
tina,  supplies  the  Transtevere  and  the  Vatican, 
and  feeds,  among  others,  the  splendid  fountains 
before  St.  Peter's. — XVI.  SEWERS.  Of  these 
the  most  celebrated  was  the  Cloaca  Maxima, 
constructed  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  which  was 
formed  to  carry  off  the  waters  brought  down 
from  the  adjacent  hills  into  the  Velabrum  and 
valley  of  the  Forum.  It  empties  itself  into  the 
Tiber  nearly  opposite  one  extremity  of  the  In- 
sula  Tiberina.  This  cloaca  was  formed  by 
three  arches,  one  within  the  other,  the  inner- 
most of  which  is  a  semicircular  vault  about 
fourteen  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  still  extant  in 
its  original  state,  with  not  a  stone  displaced. — 
XVII.  PALACES.  I.Pnlatium,  or  the  imperial  pal- 
ace, was  situated  on  the  northeast  side  of  the 
Palatine,  between  the  arch  of  Titus  and  the 


ROMA. 

sanctuary  of  Vesta ;  its  front  was  turned  toward 
the  Forum,  and  the  approach  to  it  was  from  the 
Via  Sacra,  close  by  the  arch  of  Titus.  It  was 
originally  the  house  of  the  orator  Hortensius, 
and  was  enlarged  by  Augustus,  who  made  it  the 
imperial  residence  A  part  of  the  Palatium 
was  called  Donttis,.Tiberiana,  which  was  origin- 
ally a  separate  house  of  Tiberius  on  the  Pala- 
tine, and  was  afterward  united  to  the  palace  of 
Augustus.  It  was  on  the  side  of  the  hill  turned 
toward  the  Circus  and  the  Velabrum,  and  is 
sometimes  called  Postica  Pars  Palatii.  It  was 
through  this  part  of  the  palace  that  the  Emperor 
Otho  fled  into  the  Velabrum.  We  read  of  the 
Domus  Tiberiana  even  after  the  imperial  palace 
had  been  burned  to  the  ground  in  the  reign  of 
Nero ;  whence  it  follows  that  when  the  palace 
was  rebuilt  a  portion  of  it  still  continued  to  bear 
this  name.  The  Palatium  was  considerably  en- 
larged by  Caligula  ;  but  it  did  not  satisfy  Nero's 
love  of  pomp  and  splendor.  Nero  built  two 
magnificent  palaces,  which  must  be  distinguish- 
ed from  one  another.  The  first,  called  the  Da- 
mns Transitoria  Neronis,  covered  the  whole  of 
the  Palatine,  and  extended  as  far  as  the  Esqui- 
line  to  the  gardens  of  Msecenas.  This  palace 
was  burned  to  the  ground  in  the  great  fire  of 
Rome,  whereupon  Nero  commenced  a  new  pal- 
ace, known  by  the  name  of  Domus  Aurea,  which 
embraced  the  whole  of  the  Palatine,  the  Velia, 
the  valley  of  the  Colosseum,  and  the  heights  of 
the  Thermae  of  Titus,  extended  near  the  Esqui- 
line  gate,  and  was  cut  through  not  only  by  the 
Via  Sacra,  but  also  by  other  streets.  The  whole 
building,  however,  was  not  finished  at  the  time 
of  Nero's  death  ;  and  Vespasian  confined  the 
imperial  palace  to  the  Palatine,  converting  the 
other  parts  of  the  Domus  Aurea  into  public  or 
private  buildings.  The  palace  itself  was  not 
finished  till  the  time  of  Dotnitian,  who  adorned 
it  with  numerous  works  of  art.  The  Emperor 
Septimius  Severus  added  on  the  south  side  of 
the  Palatine  a  building  called  the  Seplizonium, 
which  was  probably  intended  as  an  Atrium. 
There  were  considerable  remains  of  this  Sep- 
tizonium  down  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, when  Sixtus  V.  caused  them  to  be  destroy- 
ed, and  the  pillars  brought  to  the  Vatican. 
Among  the  numerous  private  palaces  at  Rome 
the  following  were  some  of  the  most  important. 
2.  Domus  Ciceronis.  close  to  the  Porticos  Catuli, 
probably  on  the  nort  heastern  edge  of  the  Palatine, 
was  built  by  M.  Livius  Drusus,  and  purchased 
by  Cicero  of  one  of  the  Crassi.  It  was  destroy- 
ed by  Claudius  after  the  banishment  of  Cicero, 
hut  was  subsequently  rebuilt  at  the  public  ex- 
pense. 3.  D.  Pompeii,  the  palace  of  Pompey, 
was  situated  in  the  Cannae  near  the  temple  of 
Tellus.  It  was  afterward  the  residence  ofM. 
Antonius.  4.  D.  Crassi,  the  palace  of  L.  Cras- 
sus  the  orator,  on  the  Palatine.  6.  D.  Scauri, 
also  on  the  Palatine,  celebrated  for  its  magnifi- 
cence, subsequently  belonged  to  Clodius.  6.  D. 
Lateranorum,  on  the  eastern  confines  of  the  Cae-  i 
lius,  was  a  palace  originally  belonging  to  the  ] 
distinguished  family  of  the  Plautii  Laterani ;  but , 
after  the  execution  of  Plautius  Lateranus  under  \ 
Nero,  it  became  imperial  property.  It  was  given 
by  Septimius  Severus  to  his  friend  Lateranus, 
and  was  subsequently  the  palace  of  Constantine, 
who  adorned  it  with  great  magnificence.  The 


ROMA. 

modern  palace  of  the  Lateran  occupies  its  site. 
— XVIII.  HORTI.  The  Horti  were  parks  or  gar- 
dens, which  were  laid  out  hy  wealthy  Roman 
nobles  on  the  hills  around  the  city,  and  were 
adorned  with  beautiful  buildings  and  works  of 
art.  1.  Horti  Luculltant,  on  Mount  Pincius, 
which  hill  was  hence  called  CollU  Hortorum. 
They  were  laid  out  by  Lucullus,  the  conqueror 
of  Mithradates.  In  the  reign  of  Claudius  they 
belonged  to  Valerius  Asiaticus,  who  was  put 
to  death  through  the  influence  of  Messalina, 
chiefly  because  she  coveted  the  possession  of 
these  gardens.  From  this  time  they  appear  to 
have  belonged  to  the  imperial  house.  2.  H. 
Sallustiani,  laid  out  by  the  historian  Sallust,  on 
his  return  from  Numidia,  in  the  valley  between 
the  Quirinal  and  the  Pincius.  3.  H.  Claris, 
bequeathed  by  Julius  Caesar  to  the  people,  were 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Janiculus,  probably  on  the  spot  where 
Augustus  afterward  constructed  his  great  Nau- 
machia.  4.  H.  Mceccnaris,  in  the  Campus  Esqui- 
linus,  bequeathed  by  Maecenas  to  Augustus,  and 
frequently  used  by  the  imperial  family.  5.  H. 
Agrippina,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  in 
which  Caligula  built  his  Circus.  It  was  here 
that  Nero  burned  the  Christians  to  serve  as 
lights  for  his  nocturnal  games,  after  previously 
wrapping  them  up  in  pitch.  6  H.  Domitict,  also 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  in  which  Hadrian 
built  his  Mausoleum.  7.  H.  Pallantiani,  on  the 
Esquiline,  laid  out  by  Pallas,  the  powerful  freed- 
man  of  Claudius.  8.  H.  Geta,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Tiber,  laid  out  by  Septimius  Severus. 
— XIX.  SEPULCHRAL  MONUMENTS.  1.  Mavsole- 
um  Augusti,  was  situated  in  the  Carflpus  Mar- 
tius,  and  was  built  by  Augustus  as  the  burial- 
place  of  the  imperial  family.  It  was  surround- 
ed with  an  extensive  garden  or  park,  and  was 
considered  one  of  the  most  magnificent  build- 
ings of  his  reign  ;  but  there  are  only  some  in- 
significant ruins  of  it  still  extant.  2.  Mausoleum 
Hadriani,  was  commenced  by  Hadrian  in  the 
gardens  of  Domitia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  and  was  connected  with  the  city  by  the 
Pons  .4214118 ;  it  was  finished  and  dedicated  by 
Antoninus  Pius,  A.D.  140.  Here  were  buried 
Hadrian,  Antoninus  Pius,  L.  Verus,  Commodus, 
and  probably  also  Septimius  Severus,  Geta,  and 
Caracalla.  This  building,  stripped  of  its  orna- 
ments, still  forms  the  fortress  of  modern  Rome 
(the  castle  of  S.  Angelo).  3.  Mausoleum  Hel- 
ena, a  round  building  on  the  Esquiline,  of  con- 
siderable  extent,  erected  by  Constantine  as  the 
sepulchre  of  his  mother.  Its  remains,  situated 
in  the  street  on  the  right  of  the  Porta  Maggiore. 
are  now  called  Torre  Pignattara.  4.  Sepulcrum 
Scipionum,  the  burial-place  of  the  Scipios,  was 
situated,  left  of  the  Via  Appia,  near  the  Porta 
Capena.  Most  of  the  tombs  of  the  distinguish- 
ed Roman  families  during  the  Republican  pe- 
riod lay  on  the  Via  Appia.  The  tomb  of  the 
Scipios  was  discovered  in  1780,  about  four 
hundred  paces  within  the  modern  Porta  S.  Se- 
bastiano.  It  contained  many  interesting  mon- 
uments and  inscriptions,  which  are  now  de- 
posited in  the  Museo  Pio-Clementino.  5.  Se- 
pulcrum Cteciliet  Metcttec,  erected  to  the  memory 
ui  i ';. cih.i  Metella,  the  daughter  of  MetellusCre- 
ticus,  not  far  from  the  Circus  Maxentii.  This 
imposing  monument  is  still  extant,  and  known 

755 


ROMA. 

oy  the  name  of  Capo  di  Bove.  6.  Scpulcrum 
Cestii,  situated  south  of  the  Aventine,  near  the 
Porta  Ostiensis,  being  partly  within  and  partly 
without  the  walls  of  Aurelian.  This  monument, 
which  is  still  extant,  is  in  the  form  of  a  Pyra- 
mid, and  was  built  in  the  time  of  Augustus  for 
a  certain  C.  Cestius.  7.  Sepulcrum  Septimii 
Scveri,  on  the  Via  Appia,  built  by  Septimius  Se- 
verus  in  his  life-time,  after  the  model  of  his  Sep- 
tizonium.  (Vid.  above,  XVI.,  No.  1).— XIX. 
COLUMNS.  Columns  (Columna)  were  frequently 
erected  at  Rome  to  commemorate  persons  and 
events.  1.  Columna  Mania,  near  the  end  of  the 
Forum,  toward  the  Capitol,  was  erected  to  the 
honor  of  the  consul  C.  Maenius,  who  conquered 
the  Latins  and  took  the  town  of  Antium,  B.C. 
338.  2.  Col.  Rostrata,  also  in  the  Forum,  erect- 
ed in  honor  of  the  consul  C.  Duilius,  to  com- 
memorate his  victory  over  the  Carthaginian 
fleet,  B.C.  260.  The  name  of  Rostrata  was 
given  to  it  from  its  being  adorned  with  the 
beaks  of  the  conquered  ships.  The  inscription 
upon  this  column,  written  in  obsolete  Latin,  is 
still  preserved.  3.  Col.  Trajani,  in  the  Forum, 
in  which  the  ashes  of  the  Emperor  Trajan  were 
deposited.  This  column  is  still  extant,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  monuments  of  an- 
cient Rome.  It  is,  including  the  pedestal,  one 
hundred  and  seventeen  feet  high.  The  top  was 
originally  crowned  with  the  statue  of  the  em- 
pe-or ;  it  is  now  surmounted  by  that  of  the 
apostle  Peter.  A  spiral  bas-relief  is  folded 
round  the  pillar,  which  represents  the  emperor's 
wars  against  Decebalus  and  the  Dacians,  and 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  authorities  for 
archaeological  inquiries.  4.  Col.  Antonini  Pii, 
erected  in  honor  of  Antoninus  Pius  after  his 
death,  consisted  of  a  column  of  red  granite  on 
a  pediment  of  white  marble,  and  was  situated 
in  the  Campus  Martius,  near  the  temple  dedi- 
cated to  this  emperor.  It  stood  at  an  earlier 
period  not  far  from  the  Curia  Innocenziana  on 
Monte  Citorio,  in  the  garden  of  the  Casa  della 
Missione.  At  present  the  basis  only  is  extant, 
and  is  preserved  in  the  garden  of  the  Vatican. 
5.  Col.  M.  Aurelii  Antonini,  generally  called  the 
Antonine  Column,  erected  to  the  memory  of  the 
Emperor  M.  Aurelius,  also  in  the  Campus  Mar- 
tius, and  still  extant.  It  is  an  imitation  of  the 
Column  of  Trajan,  and  contains  bas-reliefs  rep- 
resenting the  wars  of  M.  Aurelius  against  the 
Marcomanni. — XX.  OBELISKS.  The  Obelisks 
(Obelisci)  at  Rome  were  mostly  works  of  Egypt- 
ian art,  which  were  transported  from  Egypt  to 
Rome  in  the  time  of  the  emperors.  Augustus 
caused  two  obelisks  to  be  brought  to  Rome,  one 
of  which  was  erected  in  the  Circus  and  another 
in  the  Campus  Martius.  The  former  was  re- 
stored in  1589,  and  is  called  at  present  the  Fla- 
minian  Obelisk.  Its  whole  height  is  about  one 
hundred  and  sixteen  feet,  and  without  the  base 
about  seventy-eight  feet.  The  obelisk  in  the 
Campus  Martius  was  set  up  by  Augustus  as  a 
sun-dial.  It  stands  at  present  on  the  Monte 
Citorio,  where  it  was  placed  in  1792.  Its  whole 
height  is  about  one  hundred  and  ten  feet,  and 
without  the  base  about  seventy-one  feet.  An- 
other obelisk  was  brought  to  Rome  by  Caligula, 
and  placed  on  the  Vatican  in  the  Circus  of  Ca- 
ligula. It  stands  at  present  in  front  of  St.  Pe 
ter's,  where  it  was  placed  in  1586,  and  its  whole 
756 


ROMULUS. 

height  is  about  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  feet, 
and  without  the  base  and  modern  ornaments  at 
top  about  eighty-three  feet.  But  the  largest 
obelisk  at  Rome  is  that  which  was  originally 
transported  from  Heliopolis  to  Alexandrea  by 
Constantine,  and  conveyed  to  Rome  by  his  son 
Constantius,  who  placed  it  in  the  Circus  Max- 
imiis.  Its  present  position  is  before  the  north 
portico  of  the  Lateral)  church,  where  it  was 
placed  in  1588.  Its  whole  height  is  about  one 
hundred  and  forty-nine  feet,  and  without  the 
base  about  one  hundred  and  five  feet.  There 
are  eight  other  obelisks  at  Rome,  besides  those 
mentioned  above,  but  none  of  them  are  of  his- 
torical importance. — G.  ROADS  LEADING  OUT  or 
ROME.  Of  these  the  most  important  were,  1. 
Via  Lalina,  the  most  ancient  of  the  south  roads, 
which  issued  at  first  from  the  Porta  Capena,  and 
after  the  time  of  Aurelian  from  the  Porta  Latina. 
It  joined  the  Via  Appia  at  Beneventum.  2.  Via 
Appia,  the  Great  South  Road,  also  issued  from 
the  Porta  Capena,  and  was  the  most  celebrated 
of  all  the  Roman  roads.  It  was  commenced  by 
Appius  Claudius  when  censor,  and  was  event 
ually  carried  to  Brundisium.  Vid.  APPIA  VIA. 
3.  Via  Ostiensis,  originally  passed  through  the 
Porta  Trigemina,  afterward  through  the  Porta 
Ostiensis,  and  kept  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber  to 
Ostia.  4.  Via  Porluensis,  issued  from  the  same 
gate  as  the  Via  Ostiensis,  and  kept  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tiber  to  Portus,  the  new  harbor 
founded  by  Claudius,  near  Ostia.  5.  Via  Labi- 
cana,  issued  from  the  Porta  Esquilina,  and  pass- 
ing Labicum,  fell  into  the  Via  Latina  at  the 
station  ad  Bivium,  thirty  miles  from  Rome.  6. 
Via  Prantstina,  originally  the  Via  Gahina,  issued 
at  first  from  the  Porta  Esquilina,  and  subse- 
quently from  the  Porta  Praenestina.  Passing 
through  Gabii  and  Praeneste,  it  joined  the  Via 
Latina  just  below  Anagnia.  7.  Via  Tiburlina, 
issued  originally  from  the  Porta  Esquilina,  or 
from  the  Porta  Viminalis,  and  subsequently 
from  the  Porta  Tiburtina,  and  proceeded  to  Ti- 
bur,  from  which  it  was  continued  under  the 
name  of  the  Via  Valeria,  past  Corfininm  to  Adria. 
8.  Via  Nomentana,  anciently  Ficulnensis,  ran 
from  the  Porta  Collina,  subsequently  from  the 
Porta  Nomentana,  across  the  Anio  to  Nomen- 
tum,  and  a  little  beyond  fell  into  the  Via  Salaria 
at  Eretrum.  9.  Via  Salaria,  ran  from  the  Porta 
Collina,  subsequently  from  the  Porta  Salaria, 
past  Fidenae  to  Reate  and  Asculum  Picenum. 
At  Castrum  Truentinum  it  reached  the  coast, 
which  it  followed  until  it  joined  the  Via  Fla- 
minia  at  Ancona.  10.  Via  Flaminia,  the  Great 
North  Road,  commenced  in  the  censorship  ol 

|  C.  Flaminius,  issued  from  the  Porta  Flaminia, 
and  proceeded  past  Ocriculum,  Narnia,  and  Pi- 

'  saurum  to  Ariminum,  from  which  town  it  was 
continued  under  the  name  of  the  Via^Emilia  to 

!  Placentia  and  Aquileia.  11.  Via  Aurelia,  the 
Great  Coast  Road,  issued  originally  from  the 
Porta  Janiculensis.  It  reached  the  coast  at 

!  Alsium,  and  followed  the  shore  of  the  Lower 

[  Sea  along  Etruria  and  Liguria  by  Genoa,  as  far 
as  Forum  Julii  in  Gaul. 

ROMUI.EA,  an  ancient  town  of  the  Hirpini  in 
Samnium,  on  the  road  from  Beneventum  to  Ta- 

!  rentum,  destroyed  at  an  early  period  by  the  Ro- 

'  mans. 

ROMULUS,  the  founder  of  the  city  of  Rome, 


ROMULUS. 

must  not  be  regarded  as  a  real  personage.  The 
stories  about  him  are  mythical,  and  represent 
the  traditional  belief  of  the  Roman  people  re- 
specting their  origin.  Romulus,  which  is  only 
a  lengthened  form  of  Romus,  is  the  Roman  peo- 
ple represented  as  an  individual.  The  common 
legend  about  Romulus  ran  as  follows  :  At  Alba 
Longa  there  reigned  a  succession  of  kings,  de- 
scended from  lulus,  the  son  of  ^Eneas.  One 
of  the  last  of  these  kings  left  two  sons,  Numi- 
tor  and  Amulius.  The  latter,  who  was  the 
younger,  deprived  Numitor  of  the  kingdom,  but 
allowed  him  to  live  in  the  enjoyment  of  his 
private  fortune.  Fearful,  however,  lest  the 
heirs  of  Numitor  might  not  submit  so  quietly  to 
his  usurpation,  he  caused  his  only  son  to  be 
murdered,  and  made  his  daughter  Silvia,  or 
Rhea  Silvia,  one  of  the  Vestal  virgins.  Silvia 
was  violated  by  Mars,  and  in  course  of  time 
gave  birth  to  twins.  Amulius  doomed  the  i 
guilty  Vestal  and  her  babes  to  be  drowned  in 
the  river.  In  the  Anio  Silvia  exchanged  her 
earthly  life  for  that  of  a  goddess,  and  became 
the  wife  of  the  river  god.  The  stream  carried 
the  cradle  in  which  the  children  were  lying  into 
the  Tiber,  which  had  overflowed  its  banks  far 
and  wide.  It  was  stranded  at  the  foot  of  the 
Palatine,  and  overturned  on  the  root  of  a  wild 
fig-tree,  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Ficus 
Ruminalis,  was  preserved  and  held  sacred  for 
many  ages  after.  A  she-wolf,  which  had  come 
to  drink  of  the  stream,  carried  them  into  her 
den  hard  by,  and  suckled  them,  where  they 
were  discovered  by  Faustulus,  the  king's  shep- 
herd, who  took  the  children  to  his  own  house, 
and  gave  them  to  the  care  of  his  wife,  Acca 
Larentia.  They  were  called  ROMULUS  and  RE- 
MUS, and  were  brought  up  with  the  other  shep- 
herds on  the  Palatine  Hill.  As  they  grew  up, 
they  became  distinguished  by  the  beauty  of  their 
person  and  the  bravery  of  their  deeds,  and 
fought  boldly  against  wild  beasts  and  robbers. 
A  quarrel  having  arisen  between  these  shep- 
herds and  the  herdsmen  of  Numitor,  who  stalled 
their  cattle  on  the  neighboring  hill  of  the  Aven- 
tine,  Remus  was  taken  by  a  stratagem,  during 
the  absence  of  his  brother,  and  carried  off  to 
Numitor.  This  led  to  the  discovery  of  the 
parentage  both  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  who 
now  slew  Amulius,  and  placed  their  grand- 
father Numitor  on  the  throne.  Romulus  and 
Remus  loved  their  old  abode,  and  therefore  left 
Alba  to  found  a  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber. 
A  strife  arose  between  the  brothers  where  the 
city  should  lie  built,  and  after  whose  name  it 
should  be  called.  Romulus  wished  to  build  it 
on  the  Palatine,  Remus  on  the  Aventine.  It 
was  agreed  that  the  question  should  be  decided 
by  augury  ;  and  each  took  his  station  on  the  top 
of  his  chosen  hill.  The  night  passed  away,  and 
as  the  day  was  dawning  Remus  saw  six  vul- 
tures ;  but  at  sun-rise,  when  these  tidings  were 
brought  to  Romulus,  twelve  vultures  flew  by 
him.  Each  claimed  the  augury  in  his  own 
favor  ;  but  the  shepherds  decided  for  Romulus, 
and  Remus  was  obliged  to  yield.  Romulus  now 
proceeded  to  mark  out  the  pomarivm  of  his  city 
{vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  *.  t>.),  and  to  raise  the  wall. 
Remus,  who  still  resented  the  wrong  he  had 
suffered,  leaped  over  the  wall  in  scorn,  where- 
upon he  was  slain  by  his  brother  As  soon  as 


ROMULUS. 

the  city  was  built,  Romulus  found  his  people  toe 
few  in  numbers.  He  therefore  set  apart,  on  the 
Capitoline  Hill,  an  asylum  or  a  sanctuary,  in 
which  homicides  and  runaway  slaves  might 
take  refuge.  The  city  thus  became  filled  with 
men,  but  they  wanted  women.  Romulus,  there- 
fore, tried  to  form  treaties  with  the  neighbor- 
ing tribes,  in  order  to  obtain  connubium,  or  the 
right  of  legal  marriage  with  their  citizens  ;  but 
his  offers  were  treated  with  disdain,  and  he 
accordingly  resolved  to  obtain  by  force  what  . 
he  could  not  gain  by  entreaty.  In  the  fourth 
month  after  the  foundation  of  the  city,  he  pro- 
claimed that  games  were  to  be  celebrated  in 
honor  of  the  god  Consus,  and  invited  his  neigh- 
bors, the  Latins  and  Sabines,  to  the  festival. 
Suspecting  no  treachery,  they  came  in  num- 
bers, with  their  wives  and  children.  But  the 
Roman  youths  rushed  upon  their  guests  and 
carried  off  the  virgins.  The  parents  of  the  vir- 
gins returned  home  and  prepared  for  vengeance. 
The  inhabitants  of  three  of  the  Latin  towns, 
Caenina,  Antemnae,  and  Crustumerium,  took  up 
arms,  one  after  the  other,  and  were  successive- 
ly defeated  by  the  Romans.  Romulus  slew  with 
his  own  hand  Acron,  king  of  Caenina,  and  ded- 
icated his  arms  and  armor,  as  spolia  opima,  to 
Jupiter.  At  last  the  Sabine  king,  Titus  Tatius, 
advanced  with  a  powerful  army  against  Rome. 
The  fortress  of  the  Saturnian,  afterward  called 
the  Capitoline  Hill,  was  surrendered  to  the  Sa- 
bines by  the  treachery  of  Tarpeia,  the  daughter 
of  the  commander  of  the  fortress.  Vid.  TAR- 
PEIA. On  the  next  day  the  Romans  endeavored 
to  recover  the  hill,  and  a  long  and  desperate 
battle  was  fought  in  the  valley  between  the  Pal- 
atine and  the  Capitoline.  At  length,  when  both 
parties  were  exhausted  with  the  struggle,  the 
Sabine  women  rushed  in  between  them,  and 
prayed  their  husbands  and  fathers  to  be  recon- 
ciled. Their  prayer  was  heard  ;  the  two  peo- 
ple not  only  made  peace,  but  agreed  to  form 
only  one  nation.  The  Romans  continued  to 
dwell  on  the  Palatine  under  their  king  Romu- 
lus ;  the  Sabines  built  a  new  town  on  the  Cap- 
itoline and  Quirinal  Hills,  where  they  lived  un- 
der their  king  Titus  Tatius.  The  two  kings 
and  their  senates  met  for  deliberation  in  the 
valley  between  the  Palatine  and  Capitoline  Hills, 
which  was  hence  called  comilium,  or  the  place 
of  meeting.  But  this  union  did  not  last  long. 
Titus  Tatius  was  slain  at  a  festival  at  Lavin- 
ium  by  some  Laurentines,  to  whom  he  had  re 
fused  satisfaction  for  outrages  which  had  been 
committed  by  his  kinsmen  Henceforward 
Romulus  ruled  alone  over  both  Romans  and 
Sabines.  After  reigning  thirty-seven  years,  he 
was  at  length  taken  away  from  the  world.  One 
day,  as  he  was  reviewing  his  people  in  the  Cam- 
pus Martius,  near  the  Goat's  Pool,  the  sun 
was  suddenly  eclipsed,  darkness  overspread  the 
earth,  and  a  dreadful  storm  dispersed  the  peo- 
ple. When  daylight  had  returned  Romulus  had 
disappeared,  for  his  father  Mars  had  carried  him 
,  up  to  heaven  in  a  fiery  chariot  (Quirinus  Mar- 
ti* cguis  Acheronta  fvgit.  Hor,  Carm.,  Hi.,  3). 
Shortly  afterward  he  appeared  in  more  than 
mortal  beauty  to  Proculus  Julius,  and  bade  him 
tell  the  Romans  to  worship  him  as  their  guard- 
ian god  under  the  name  of  Qumuus.  Such  was 
the  glorified  end  of  Romulus  in  the  genuine  le 


ROMULUS  AUGUSTITLUS. 

gend.  But  as  it  staggered  the  faith  of  a  later 
age,  a  tale  was  invented  to  account  for  his  mys- 
terious disappearance.  It  was  related  that  the 
senators,  discontented  with  the  tyrannical  rule 
of  their  king,  murdered  him  during  the  gloom 
of  a  tempest,  cut  up  his  body,  and  carried  home 
the  mangled  pieces  under  their  robes.  As  Rom- 
ulus was  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Rome,  its 
most  ancient  political  institutions  and  the  or- 
ganization of  the  people  were  ascribed  to  him. 
Thus  he  is  said  to  have  divided  the  people  into 
three  tribes,  which  bore  the  names  Ramnes,  Ti- 
ties,  and  Luceres.  The  Ramnes  were  supposed 
to  have  derived  their  name  from  Romulus,  the 
Tities  from  Titus  Tatius  the  Sabine  king,  and 
the  Luceres  from  Lucumo,  an  Etruscan  chief, 
who  had  assisted  Romulus  in  the  war  against 
the  Sabines.  Each  tribe  contained  ten  curiae, 
which  received  their  names  from  the  thirty  Sa- 
bine women  who  had  brought  about  the  peace 
between  the  Romans  and  their  own  people. 
Further,  each  curia  contained  ten  gentes,  and 
each  gens  one  hundred  men.  Thus  the  people, 
accord  ing  to  the  general  belief,  were  divided  orig- 
inally into  three  tribes,  thirty  curiae,  and  three 
hundred  gentes,  which  mustered  three  thou- 
sand men,  who  fought  on  foot,  and  were  called 
a  legion.  Besides  those  there  were  three  hund- 
red horsemen,  called  Celeres,  the  same  body  as 
the  Equites  of  a  later  time.  To  assist  him  in 
the  government  of  the  people,  Romulus  is  said 
to  have  selected  a  number  of  the  aged  men  in 
the  state,  who  were  called  Patres  or  Senatores. 
The  council  itself,  which  was  called  the  senatus, 
originally  consisted  of  one  hundred  members; 
but  this  number  was  increased  to  two  hundred 
when  the  Sabines  were  incorporated  in  the  state. 
In  addition  to  the  senate,  there  was  another  as- 
sembly, consisting  of  the  members  of  the  gentes, 
which  bore  the  name  of  comitia  curiata,  because 
they  voted  in  it  according  to  their  division  into 
curiae. 

RoMCLUS  AUGUSTULUS.   Vid.  AUGUSTULUS. 

ROMULUS  SILVIUS.     Vid.  SILVIUS. 

ROSCIANUM  (now  Rosso.no),  a  fortress  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Bruttium,  between  Thurii  and 
Paternum. 

ROSCILLUS.     Vid.  JEova. 

Roscius.  1.  L.,  a  Roman  ambassador  sent 
to  Fidenae  in  B.C.  438.  He  and  his  three  col- 
leagues were  killed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Fide- 
naj,  at  the  instigation  of  Lar  Tolumnius,  king 
of  the  Veientes.  The  statues  of  ell  four  were 
erected  in  the  Rostra  at  Rome. — 2.  SEX.,  of 
Ameria,  a  town  in  Umbria.  The  father  of  this 
Roscius  had  been  murdered  at  the  instigation 
of  two  of  his  relations  and  fellow-townsmen,  T. 
Roscius  Magnus  and  T.  Roscius  Capito,  who 
coveted  the  wealth  of  their  neighbor.  These 
two  Roscii  struck  a  bargain  with  Chrysogonus, 
the  freedman  and  favorite  of  Sulla,  to  divide  the 
property  of  the  murdered  man  between  them. 
But  as  the  proceeding  excited  the  utmost  in- 
dignation at  Ameria,  and  the  magistrates  of  the 
town  made  an  effort  to  obtain  from  Sulla  the 
restitution  of  the  property  to  the  son,  the  rob- 
bers accused  young  Roscius  of  the  murder  of 
his  father,  and  hired  witnesses  to  swear  to  the 
fact.  Roscius  was  defended  by  Cicero  (B.C. 
80)  in  an  oration  which  is  still  extant,  and  was 
acquitted.  Cicero's  speech  was  greatly  admired 
7fi8 


RUBELLIUS  PLAUTUS. 

at  the  time,  and  though  at  a  later  period  he  found 
I  fault  with  it  himself,  as  bearing  marks  of  youth- 
1  fill  exaggeration,  it  displays  abundant  evidence 
1  of  his  great  oratorical  powers. — 3  Q.,  the  must 
!  celebrated  comic  actor  at  Rome,  was  a  native 
of  Solonium,  a  small  place  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Lanuvium.     His  histrionic  powers  procured 
;  him  the  favor  of  many  of  the  Roman  nobles, 
'  and,  among  others,  of  the  dictator  Sulla,  who 
[  presented  him  with  a  gold  ring,  the  symbol  of 
equestrian  rank.     Roscins  enjoyed  the  friend- 
!  ship  of  Cicero,  who  constantly  speaks  of  him  in 
terms  both  of  admiration  and  affection.     Ros- 
cius was  considered  by  the  Romans  to  have 
reached  such  perfection  in  his  own  profession, 
that  it  became  the  fashion  to  call  every  one 
who  became  particularly  distinguished  in  his 
own  art  by  the  name  of  Roscius.     In  his  youn 
!  ger  years  Cicero  received  instruction  from  Ros- 
cius ;  and  at  a  later  time  he  and  Roscius  often 
used  to  try  which  of  them  could  express  a 
thought  with  the  greatest  effect,  the  orator  by 
his  eloquence,  or  the  actor  by  his  gestures. 
These  exercises  gave  Roscius  so  high  an  opin- 
ion of  his  art,  that  he  wrote  a  work  in  which  he 
compared  eloquence  and  acting.     Like  his  cel- 
ebrated contemporary,  the  tragic  actor  .Esopus, 
Roscius  realized  an  immense  fortune  by  his 
profession.     He  d;ed  in  62.     One  of  Cicero's 
extant  orations  is  entitled  Pro  Q.  Roscio  Comx- 
do.     It  was  delivered  before  the  judex  C.  Piso, 
probably  in  68,  and  relates  to  a  claim  for  fifty 
thousand  sesterces,  which  one  C.  Fannius  Chae- 
rea  brought  against  Roscius. — 4.  FABATUS.    Vid. 
FABATUS. — 5.  OTHO.      Vid.  OTHO. 

ROTOMAGUS.     Vid.  RATOMAGUS. 

ROXANA  (Twfuv)?),  daughter  of  Oxyartes  the 
Bactrian,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Alexander  on 
his  capture  of  the  hill-fort  in  Sogdiana,  named 
"  the  rock,"  B.C.  327.  Alexander  was  so  cap- 
tivated by  her  charms  that  he  married  her. 
Soon  after  Alexander's  death  (323)  she  gave 
birth  to  a  son  (Alexander  ^Egus),  who  was  ad- 
mitted to  share  the  nominal  sovereignty  with 
Arrhidaeus,  under  the  regency  of  Perdiccas. 
Before  the  birth  of  the  boy  she  had  drawn  Sta- 
tira,  or  Barsine,  to  Babylon  by  a  friendly  letter, 
and  there  caused  her  to  be  murdered.  Roxana 
afterward  crossed  over  to  Europe  with  her  son, 
and  placed  herself  under  the  protection  of  Olym- 
pias.  She  shared  the  fortunes  of  Olympias,  and 
threw  herself  into  Pydna  along  with  the  latter, 
where  they  were  besieged  by  Cassander.  In 
316  Pydna  was  taken  by  Cassander,  Olympias 
was  put  to  death,  and  Roxana  and  her  son  were 
placed  in  confinement  in  Amphipolis.  Here 
they  were  detained  under  the  charge  of  Glau- 
cias  till  311,  in  which  year,  soon  after  the  gen- 
eral peace  then  concluded,  they  were  murdered 
in  accordance  with  orders  from  Cassander. 

ROXOLANI.     Vid.  RHOXOLANI. 

[RUBEAS  PROMONTORIUM,  a  promontory  of 
Sarmatia  Europaea,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Rubon.  Mannert  regards  it  as  the  north 
point  of  Curland.] 

[RUBELLIUS  PLAUTUS.  C.,  son  of  Rubellius 
and  of  Julia,  great-grandson  of  the  Emperor  Ti- 
berius, was  involved  in  the  accusations  which 
Junia  Silana  brought  against  Agrippina  A.D.  55 : 
he  was  ordered  by  Nero  to  withdraw  from  Rome 
to  his  estates  in  Asia,  where  he  employed  him- 


RUBI. 

eelf  in  the  study  of  the  Stoic  philosophy;  but  in 
A.D.  62.  Nero's  fears  having  been  a'gain  excited 
against  Ilubellius,  the  latter  was  murdered  by 
order  of  the  emperor.] 

ROBI  (llubustinus  :  now  Ruvo),  a  town  in 
Apulia,  on  the  road  from  Canusium  to  Brundis- 
;um. 

RUBICO,  a  small  river  in  Italy,  falling  into  the 
Adriatic  a  little  north  of  Ariminum,  formed  the 
boundary  in  the  republican  period  between  the 
province  of  Gallia  Cisalpina  and  Italia  Proper. 
It  is  celebrated  in  history  on  account  of  Caesar's 
passage  across  it  at  the  head  of  his  army,  by 
which  act  he  declared  war  against  the  republic. 
A  papal  decree,  issued  in  1756,  declared  the 
modern  Lusa  to  be  the  ancient  Rubico,  but  the 
Pisatello,  a  little  further  north,  has  better  claims 
to  this  honor. 

RUBRA  SAXA,  called  Rubrae  Breves  (sc.  Pe- 
trae)  by  Martial,  a  small  place  in  Etruria  only  a 
few  miles  from  Rome,  near  the  River  Cremera, 
and  on  the  Via  Flaminia.  It  was  near  this  spot 
that  the  great  battle  was  fought  in  which  Max- 
entius  was  defeated  by  Constantine,  A.D.  312. 

[RUBRENUS  LAPPA,  a  later  Roman  tragic  writ- 
er, whose  Atrcus  is  mentioned  by  Juvenal  (vii., 
72).] 

RUBRESUS  LACUS.     Vii.  NARBO. 

RUBRICATUS.  1.  Or  UBDS  (now  Seibous),  a 
considerable  river  of  Numidia  in  Northern  Af- 
rica, rising  in  the  mountains  southeast  of  Cirta 
(now  Constantineh),  flowing  northeast,  and  fall- 
ing into  the  Mediterranean  east  of  Hippio  Regi- 
us (now  Bonah). — 2.  (Now  Llobregat),  a  small 
river  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  flowing  into 
the  sea  west  of  Barcino. 

[RUBRICS.  1.  Tribune  of  the  plebs  alongwith 
C.  Gracchus,  proposed  the  law  for  founding  the 
colony  at  Carthage,  which  was  carried  into  ef- 
fect,.— 2.  Q.  RUBRICS  VARRO,  who  was  declared 
a  public  enemy  along  with  Marius  in  B.C.  88, 
is  mentioned  by  Cicero  as  an  energetic  and  pas- 
sionate accuser. — 3.  One  of  the  companions  of 
Verres  in  his  iniquities. — 4.  L.,  a  senator,  was 
taken  prisoner  by  Caesar  at  the  capture  of  Cor- 
tiniiini  B.C.  49,  and  was  dismissed  by  him  un- 
injured.] 

lluiiituM  MARE.     Vid.  ERYTHR.CCM  MARE. 

RUIH/E  (Rudinus :  now  Roligliano  or  Rugc), 
a  town  of  the  Pucetii  in  Apulia,  on  the  road 
from  Brundisium  to  Venusia,  was  originally  a 
Greek  colony,  and  afterward  a  Roman  muni- 
cipium.  Kudiae  is  celebrated  as  the  birth-place 
of  Ennius. 

RUESIUM,  a  town  of  the  Vellavi  or  Velauni, 
hence  called  simply  Civilas  Vellavorum,  in  Gal- 
lia Aquitanica  (in  the  modern  Velay),  probably 
the  modern  St.  Paulien  or  Paulhan,  on  the  front- 
iers of  Auvergne. 

Rurifjus.  1.  P.  CORNELIUS  RUFINUS,  was  con- 
sul B.C.  290  with  M'.  Curius  Dentatus,  and,  in 
conjunction  with  his  colleague,  brought  the  Sam- 
nite  war  to  a  conclusion,  and  obtained  a  tri- 
umph in  consequence.  He  was  consul  a  sec- 
ond time  in  277,  and  carried  on  the  war  against 
the  Samnites  and  the  Greeks  in  Southern  Italy. 
The  chief  event  of  his  second  consulship  was 
the  capture  of  the  important  town  of  Croton. 
In  275  Rufinus  was  expelled  from  the  senate 
by  the  censors  C.  Fabricius  and  Q.  .Emilius  Pa- 
pus,  on  account  of  his  possessing  ten  pounds  of 


RUFUS,  L.  C^ECILIUS. 

silver  plate.  The  dictator  Sulla  was  descend- 
ed from  this  Rufinus.  His  grandson  was  the 
first  of  the  family  who  assumed  the  surname  of 
Sulla. — 2.  LICINIUS  RUFINUS,  a  jurist,  who  lived 
under  Alexander  Severus.  There  are  in  the 
Digest  seventeen  excerpts  from  twelve  books 
of  Regula  by  Rufinus.— 3.  The  chief  minister 
of  state  under  Theodosius  the  Great,  was  an 
able,  but,  at  the  same  time,  a  treacherous  and 
dangerous  man.  He  instigated  Theodosius  to 
those  cruel  measures  which  brought  ruin  upon 
Antioch,  A.D.  390.  After  the  death  of  Theo- 
dosius in  395,  Rufinus  exercised  paramount  in- 
fluence over  the  weak  Arcadius  ;  but  towaid 
the  end  of  the  year  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  him  by  Eutropius  and  Stilicho,  who  in- 
duced Gainas,  the  Gothic  ally  of  Arcadius,  to 
join  in  the  plot.  Rubinus  was,  in  consequence, 
slain  by  the  troops  of  Gainas. — 4.  Surnamed 
TYRANNICS,  orTuRRANius,  orToRANus,  a  cele- 
brated ecclesiastical  writer,  was  probably  bom 
about  A.D.  345  in  Italy.  He  was  at  first  an  in- 
mate of  the  monastery  at  Aquileia,  and  he  aft- 
erward resided  many  years  at  a  monastery  in 
Palestine,  where  he  became  very  intimate  with 
St.  Jerome.  The  two  friends  afterward  quar- 
reled, and  Jerome  attacked  Rufinus  with  the 
utmost  vehemence  on  account  of  his  support- 
ing the  tenets  of  Origen.  After  remaining  iu 
the  East  for  about  twenty-six  years,  Rufinus 
returned  to  Italy  in  397,  where  he  published  a 
Latin  translation  of  the  Apology  for  Origen  by 
Pamphilus,  and  of  the  books  of  Origen  De  Prin- 
cipiis,  together  with  an  original  tract  DC  Adul 
teratione  Librorum  Origenis.  In  the  preface  to 
the  De  Principiis,  he  quoted  a  panegyric,  which 
Jerome  had  at  an  earlier  period  pronounced 
upon  Origen.  This  led  to  a  bitter  correspond- 
ence between  the  two  former  friends,  which 
was  crowned  by  the  Apologia  of  the  one  adoer- 
sus  Hieronymum,  and  the  Apologia  of  the  othei 
adversus  Rufinum.  Rufinus  died  in  Sicily  in 
410,  to  which  island  he  had  fled  upon  the  inva- 
sion of  Italy  by  Alaric.  Several  of  his  works  arc 
extant,  but  there  is  no  complete  edition  of  them 
— 5.  The  author  of  a  little  poem  in  twenty-two 
lines,  Pasiphaes  Fabula  ex  omnibus  Melris  Hoi  a- 
dams,  which,  as  the  name  imports,  contains  an 
example  of  each  of  the  different  metres  em- 
ployed by  Horace.  His  date  is  quite  uncertain, 
but  he  may  be  the  same  person  with  the  fol- 
lowing.— 6.  A  grammarian  of  Antioch,  whose 
treatise  De  Metris  Comicis,  or,  rather,  extracts 
from  it,  is  contained  in  the  Grammatical  Latvia 
Auctores  Antiqui  of  Putschius,  Hannov.,  1605. 
— 7.  The  author  of  thirty-eight  epigrams  in  the 
Greek  Anthology.  His  date  is  uncertain  ;  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  was  a  Byzantine 
His  verses  are  of  the  same  light,  amatory  char- 
acter as  those  of  Agathias,  Paulus,  Macedonius, 
I  and  others. 

Urn:  .1 .  a  town  in  Campania,  frequently  con- 
!  founded  with  Rufrium. 

RUFRIUM,  a  town  of  the  Hirpini  in  Samnlum. 

Rurus,  CURTIUS.     Vid.  CURTIUS. 

Rurus  EPHKSIUS,  so  called  from  the  place  of 
his  birth,  a  celebrated  Greek  physician,  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Trajan  (A.D.  98-117),  and  wrote 
several  medical  works,  some  of  which  are  still 
extant. 

RUFUS,  L.  Cj-xiuus,  brother  of  P.  Sulla  bt 
759 


RUFUS,  M.  CJ2LIUS. 

the  same  mother,  but  not  by  the  same  father. 
He  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  63,  when  he 
rendered  warm  support  to  Cicero,  and,  in  par- 
ticular, opposed  the  agrarian  law  of  Rullus.  In 
his  prastorship,  57,  he  joined  most  of  the  other 
magistrates  in  proposing  the  recall  of  Cicero 
from  banishment. 

RUFUS,  M.  C^LIUS,  a  young  Roman  noble, 
distinguished  as  an  elegant  writer  and  eloquent 
speaker,  but  equally  conspicuous  for  his  profli- 
gacy and  extravagance.  Notwithstanding  his 
vices,  he  lived  on  intimate  terms  with  Cicero, 
who  defended  him  in  B.C.  56  in  an  oration  still 
extant.  The  accusation  was  brought  against 
him  by  Sempronius  Atratinus,  at  the  instigation 
of  Clodia  Quadrantaria,  whom  he  had  lately  de- 
serted. Clodia  charged  him  with  having  bor- 
rowed money  from  her  in  order  to  murder  Dion, 
the  head  of  the  embassy  sent  by  Ptolemy  Au- 
letes  to  Rome ;  and  with  having  made  an  at- 
tempt to  poison  her.  In  52  Caelius  was  tribune 
of  the  plebs,  and  in  50  aedile.  During  the  years 
51  and  50  he  carried  on  an  active  correspond- 
ence with  Cicero,  who  was  then  in  Cilicia,  and 
many  of  the  letters  which  he  wrote  to  Cicero 
at  that  time  are  preserved  in  the  collection  of 
Cicero's  Letters.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  in  49  he  espoused  Caesar's  side,  and 
was  rewarded  for  his  services  by  the  praetor- 
ship  in  48.  Being  at  this  time  overwhelmed 
with  debt,  he  availed  himself  of  Caesar's  ab- 
sence from  Italy  to  bring  forward  a  law  for  the 
abolition  of  debts.  He  was,  however,  resisted 
by  the  other  magistrates  and  deprived  of  his 
office,  whereupon  he  went  into  the  south  of 
Italy  to  join  Milo,  whom  he  had  secretly  sent 
for  from  Massilia.  Milo  was  killed  near  Thurii 
Before  Caelius  could  join  him  (vid.  MILO),  and 
Caelius  himself  was  put  to  death  shortly  after- 
•vard  at  Thurii. 

RUFUS,  SEXTUS.     Vid.  SEXTUS  RUFUS. 

RUGII,  an  important  people  in  Germany,  orig- 
:nally  dwelt  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  between 
the  Viadus  (now  Oder)  and  the  Vistula.  After 
disappearing  a  long  time  from  history,  they  are 
found  at  a  later  time  in  Attila's  army  ;  and  after 
Attila's  death  they  founded  a  new  kingdom  on 
the  northern  bank  of  the  Danube,  in  Austria 
and  Hungary,  the  name  of  which  is  still  pre- 
served in  the  modern  Rugiland.  They  have 
left  traces  of  their  name  in  the  country  which 
they  originally  inhabited  in  the  modern  Rugen, 
Rugenicaldc,  Rega,  Regenioalde. 

RULLUS,  P.  SERVILIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  63,  proposed  an  agrarian  law,  which  Cicero 
attacked  in  three  orations  which  have  come 
down  to  us.  It  was  the  most  extensive  agra- 
rian law  that  had  ever  been  brought  forward  ; 
but  as  it  was  impossible  to  carry  such  a  sweep- 
ing measure,  it  was  withdrawn  by  Rullus  him- 
self. 

RUPILIUS,  P.,  consul  B.C.  132,  prosecuted 
with  the  utmost  vehemence  all  the  adherents 
of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  who  had  been  slain  in  the 
preceding  year.  In  his  consulship  he  was  sent  | 
into  Sicily  against  the  slaves,  and  brought  the 
servile  war  to  a  close.  He  remained  in  the  isl- 
and as  proconsul  in  the  following  year  ;  and, 
with  ten  commissioners  appointed  by  the  senate, 
he  made  various  regulations  for  the  government 
of  the  piovince,  which  were  known  by  the  name 
760 


RUTENI. 

of  Leges  Rupiliae.  Rupilius  was  condemned  in 
the  tribunate  of  C.  Gracchus,  123,  on  account 
of  his  illegal  and  cruel  acts  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  friends  of  Tiberius  Gracchus.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  youn- 
ger, who  obtained  the  consulship  for  him,  but 
who  failed  in  gaining  the  same  honor  for  his 
brother  Lucius.  He  is  said  to  have  taken  his 
brother's  failure  so  much  to  heart  as  to  have 
died  in  consequence. 

[RUPILIUS  REX,  P.,  of  Prseneste,  having  been 
driven  from  his  native  city,  is  said  to  have 
served  in  Africa  under  Atius  Varus,  and  later, 
when  praetor,  A.U.C.  711,  being  proscribed  by 
Augustus,  to  have  fled  to  the  camp  of  Brutus  : 
here  his  arrogance  made  Horace  a  bitter  ene- 
my to  him,  and  the  poet  subsequently  took  his 
revenge  in  a  bitter  satire  on  Rupilius.] 

RUSCINO,  a  town  of  the  Sordones  or  Sordi  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  on  the  River  Ruscino 
(now  Tet),  and  on  the  road  from  Spain  to  Narbo. 
A  tower  of  the  ancient  town  is  still  extant  neai 
Perpignan,  called  la  Tour  dc  Rousillon. 

RUSELLJE  (Rusellanus  :  ruins  near  Grosscto), 
one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Etruria,  situ- 
ated on  an  eminence  east  of  the  Lake  Prelius 
and  on  the  Via  Aurelia.  It  is  first  mentioned 
in  the  time  of  Tarquinius  Priscus.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Romans  in  B.C.  294,  when  two  thousand 
of  its  inhabitants  were  slain,  and  as  many  more 
made  prisoners.  It  was  subsequently  a  Roman 
colony,  and  continued  in  existence  till  1138, 
when  its  inhabitants  were  removed  to  Grosseto. 
The  walls  of  Rusellae  still  remain,  and  are  some 
of  the  most  ancient  in  Italy.  They  are  formed 
of  enormous  masses  of  travertine,  piled  up  with- 
out regard  to  form,  with  small  stones  inserted 
in  the  interstices.  The  masses  vary  from  six 
to  eight  feet  in  length,  and  from  four  to  eight 
in  height.  The  area  inclosed  by  the  walls  forms 
an  irregular  quadrangle,  between  ten  thousand 
and  eleven  thousand  feet,  or  about  two  miles  in 
circuit. 

RUSICADA  (southeast  of  the  modern  Storah, 
ruins),  a  sea-port  and  Roman  colony  in  Numid- 
ia,  used  especially  as  the  port  of  Cirta. 

RUSPINUM,  a  town  of  Africa  Propria  (Byza- 
cium),  two  miles  from  the  sea,  between  Leptis 
Parva  and  Hadrumetum. 

RUSSADIR  (now  Ras-ud-Dir,  or  Capo  di  Tres 
Forcas  :  Rus  in  ancient  Punic,  and  Ras  in  Ara- 
bic, alike  m$ an  cape),  a  promontory  of  Maure- 
taniaTingitana,  in  Northern  Africa,  on  the  coast 
of  the  Metagonitae.  Southeast  of  it  was  a  city 
of  the  same  name  (now  probably  Melillah). 

RUSTICUS,  FABIUS,  a  Roman  historian,  and  a 
contemporary  of  Claudius  and  Nero. 

RUSTICUS,  L.  JUNIUS  ARULENUS,  more  usually 
called  Arulenus  Rusticus,  but  sometimes  Junius 
Rusticus.  He  was  a  friend  and  pupil  of  Paetua 
Thrasea,  and  an  ardent  admirer  of  the  Stoic 
philosophy.  He  was  put  to  death  by  Domitian, 
because  he  had  written  a  panegyric  upon  Thra- 
sea. 

RUSUCURRUM  (now  Coleah,  opposite  Algier),  a 
considerable  sea-port  in  the  eastern  part  of  Mau- 
retania  Caesanensis,  constituted  a  Roman  col- 
ony under  Claudius. 

RUTENI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  in  the  modern 


RUTILIA. 


SAB.EI. 


Their  chief  town  was  Segodunum, 
afterward  CivitasRutenorum  (now  Rodez).  The 
country  of  the  Ruteni  contained  silver  mines, 
and  produced  excellent  flax. 

[RUTILIA,  the  mother  of  C.  Cotta,  the  orator, 
accompanied  her  son  into  exile  in  B.C.  91,  and 
remained  with  him  abroad  till  his  return  some 
years  afterward.] 

.RUTILIUS  LUPUS.     Vid.  LUPUS. 

RUTILIUS  NUMATIANUS,  CLAUDIUS,  a  Roman 
poet,  and  a  native  of  Gaul,  lived  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
He  resided  at  Rome  a  considerable  time,  where 
he  attained  the  dignity  of  praefectus  urbi  about 
A.D.  413  or  414.  He  afterward  returned  to  his 
native  country,  and  has  described  his  return  to 
Gaul  in  an  elegiac  poem,  which  bears  the  title 
jof  Itinerarmrn,  or  De  Redilu.  Of  this  poem  the 
first  book,  consisting  of  six  hundred  and  forty- 
four  lines,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  second, 
have  come  down  to  us.  It  is  superior  both  in 
poetical  coloring  and  purity  of  language  to  most 
of  the  productions  of  the  age  ;  and  the  passage 
in  which  he  celebrates  the  praises  of  Rome  is 
not  unworthy  of  the  pen  of  Claudian.  Rutilius 
was  a  heathen,  and  attacks  the  Jews  and  monks  ' 
with  no  small  severity.  The  best  edition  is  by 
A.  W.  Zumpt,  Berlin,  1840. 

RUTILIUS  RUFUS,  P.,  a  Roman  statesman  and 
orator.  He  was  military  tribune  under  Scipio 
in  the  Numantine  war,  praetor  B.C.  Ill,  consul 
105,  and  legalus  in  95  under  Q.  Mucius  Scae- 
vola,  proconsul  of  Asia.  While  acting  in  this 
capacity,  he  displayed  so  much  honesty  and 
firmness  in  repressing  the  extortions  of  the  pub- 
licani,  that  he  became  an  object  of  fear  and 
hatred  to  the  whole  body.  Accordingly,  on  his 
return  to  Rome,  he  was  impeached  of  malversa- 
tion (de  repetundis),  found  guilty,  and  compelled 
to  withdraw  into  banishment,  92.  He  retired 
first  to  Mytilene,  and  from  thence  to  Smyrna, 
where  he  fixed  his  abode,  and  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days  in  tranquillity,  having  re- 
fused to  return  to  Rome,  although  recalled  by 
Sulla.  Besides  his  orations,  Rutilius  wrote  an 
autobiography,  and  a  History  of  Rome  in  Greek, 
which  contained  an  account  of  the  Numantine 
war,  but  we  know  not  what  period  it  embraced. 

RUT!LUS,  C.  MABCIUS,  was  consul  B.C.  357, 
when  he  took  the  town  of  Privernum.  In  356 
he  was  appointed  dictator,  being  the  first  time 
that  a  plebeian  had  attained  this  dignity.  "  In 
his  dictatorship  he  defeated  the  Etruscans  with 
great  slaughter.  In  352  he  was  consul  a  sec- 
ond time  ;  and  in  351  he  was  the  first  plebeian 
censor.  He  was  consul  for  the  third  time  in 
344,  for  the  fourth  time  in  342.  The  son  of  this 
Rutilus  took  the  surname  of  Censorinus,  which 
in  the  next  generation  entirely  supplanted  that 
of  Rutilus,  and  became  the  name  of  the  family. 
Vid.  CENSORINUS. 

RUTUBA  (now  Roya),  a  river  on  the  coast  of 
Liguria,  which  flows  into  the  sea  near  Albium 
Intemelium. 

RUTULI,  an  ancient  people  in  Italy,  inhabit- 
ing a  narrow  slip  of  country  on  the  coast  of 
Latium,  a  little  to  the  south  of  the  Tiber.  Their 
chief  town  was  Ardea,  which  was  the  residence 
of  Turnus.  They  were  subdued  at  an  early  pe- 
riod by  the  Romans,  and  disappear  from  history. 
or  RuTuruE  (now  Richborough),  a 


port-town  of  the  Car.tii  in  the  southeast  of  Brit. 
ain,  from  which  persons  frequently  passed  over 
to  the  harbor  of  Gessoriacum  in  Gaul.  Excel- 
lent oysters  were  obtained  in  the  neighborhood 
of  this  place  (Rutupino  edita.  fundo  ostrea,  Juv., 
iv.,  141).  There  are  still,  several  Roman  re- 
mains at  Richborough. 

S. 

SiBA(2o'<5o).  1.  (In  the  Old  Testament,  Sheba), 
the  capital  of  the  SAB.SI  in  Arabia  Felix,  lay  on 
a  high  woody  mountain,  and  was  pointed  out  by 
an  Arabian  tradition  as  the  residence  of  the 
"  Queen  of  Sheba,"  who  went  to  Jerusalem  to 
hear  the  wisdom  of  Solomon.  Its  exact  site  is  » 
doubtful.  —  2.  There  was  another  city  of  the 
same  name  in  the  interior  of  Arabia  Felix,  where 
a  place  Sabea  is  still  found,  about  in  the  centre 
of  El-  Yemen.  —  3.  A  sea-port  town  of  .-Ethiopia, 
on  the  Red  Sea,  south  of  Ptolemai's  Theron.  A 
town  called  Sa&ir  and  2u66ora  is  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy,  who  places  it  on  the  Sinus  Adulitanus  ; 
and  about  in  the  same  position  Strabo  mentions 
a  town  Saba  (2u6at)  as  distinct  from  Saba. 
The  sites  of  these  places  (if  they  are  really  dif- 
ferent) are  sought  by  geographers  at  Nowarat, 
or  Port  Mornington,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
coast  of  Nubia,  and  Massawak  on  Foul  Bay,  on 
the  northeastern  coast  of  Abyssinia. 

SABACON  (2a6n/fwi>),  a  king  of  ^Ethiopia,  who 
invaded  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  the  blind  king 
Anysis,  whom  he  dethroned  and  drove  into  the 
marshes.  The  ^Ethiopian  conqueror  then  reign- 
ed over  Egypt  for  fifty  years,  but  at  length  quit- 
ted the  country  in  consequence  of  a  dream, 
whereupon  Anysis  regained  his  kingdom.  This 
is  the  account  which  Herodotus  received  from 
the  priests  (ii.,  137-140)  ;  but  it  appears  from 
Manetho  that  there  were  three  ^Ethiopian  kings 
who  reigned  over  Egypt,  named  Sabacon,  Se- 
bichus,  and  Taracus,  whose  collective  reigns 
amount  to  forty  or  fifty  years,  and  who  form 
the  twenty-fifth  dynasty  of  that  writer.  The 
account  of  Manetho  is  to  be  preferred  to  that 
of  Herodotus.  It  appears  that  this  ^Ethiopian 
dynasty  reigned  over  Egypt  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighth  century  before  the  Christian  era. 
They  are  mentioned  in  the  Jewish  records. 
The  So,  king  of  Egypt,  with  whom  Hosea,  king 
of  Israel,  made  an  alliance  about  B  C.  722  (3 
Kings,  xvii.,  4),  was  probably  the  same  as  Sebi- 
chus  ;  and  the  Tirhakah,  king  of  the  ^Ethiopi- 
ans, who  was  preparing  to  make  war  against 
Sennacherib  in  711  (Is.,  xxxvii.,9),  is  the  same 
as  Taracus. 

SABJEI  or  SABA  (2a6ci(*o(,  2u6at  :  in  the  Old 
Testament,  Shebaiim),  one  of  the  chief  people 
of  Arabia,  dwelt  in  the  southwestern  corner  of 
the  peninsula,  in  the  most  beautiful  part  of  Ara- 
bia Felix,  the  north  and  centre  of  the  province 
of  El-  Yemen*.  So,  at  least,  Ptolemy  places  them  ; 
but  the  earlier  geographers  give  them  a  wider 
extent,  quite  to  the  south  of  El-  Yemen.  The 
fact  seems  to  be  that  they  are  the  chief  repre- 
sentatives of  a  race  which,  at  an  early  period, 
was  widely  spread  on  both  sides  of  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  Arabia  and 
.Ethiopia  all  but  joined  at  the  narrow  strait  of 
Bab-el-  Mandeb;  and  hence,  probably,  the  con- 
fusion often  made  between  the  Sheba  and  Sebt 

761 


SAB  ATE. 

«f  Scripture,  or  between  the  Shebaiim  of  Arabia 
and  the  Sebaiim  of  ^Ethiopia.  Another  proof 
of  the  wide  extent  of  this  race  is  furnished  by 
the  mention,  in  the  book  of  Job,  of  Sabeans  as 
far  north,  probably,  as  Arabia  Deserta  (Job,  i., 
15).  The  Sabeans  of  El-  Yemen  were  celebrated 
for  their  wealth  and  luxury.  Their  country 
oroduced  all  the  most  precious  spices  and  per- 
fumes of  Arabia,  and  they  carried  on  an  exten- 
sive trade  with  the  East.  Their  capital  was  at 
SABA,  where  we  are  told  that  tbeir  king  was 
kept  a  close  prisoner  in  his  palace.  The  mon- 
archy was  not  hereditary,  but  descended  ac- 
cording to  an  order  of  succession  arranged 
among  the  chief  families  of  the  country. 

SABVTE,  a  town  of  Etruria,  on  tl»e  road  from 
Cosa  to  Rome,  and  on  the  northwestern  corner 
of  a  lake,  which  was  named  after  it  LACUS  SA- 
BATINUS  (now  Lago  di  Bracciano). 

[SABATIA  VADA  or  SABATIUM  VADUM.  Vid. 
SA\O.] 

SABATINI,  a  people  in  Campania,  who  derived 
their  name  from  the  River  Sabatus  (now  Sab- 
bato),  a  tributary  of  the  Calor,  which  flows  into 
the  Vulturnus. 

[SABATRA  or  SOATRA,  a  town  of  Lycaonia, 
where,  according  to  Strabo,  water  was  so  scarce 
as  to  be  an  article  of  sale.  On  the  neighboring 
downs  were  numerous  wild  asses.] 

SABAZIUS  (So6u£tof),  a  Phrygian  divinity,  com- 
monly described  as  a  son  of  Rhea  or  Cybele. 
In  later  times  he  was  identified  with  the  mystic 
Dionysus  (Bacchus),  who  hence  is  sometimes 
called  Dionysus  Sabazius.  For  the  same  reason, 
Sabazius  is  called  a  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  by 
Persephone  (Proserpina),  and  is  said  to  have 
been  reared  by  a  nymph  Nyssa  ;  though  others, 
by  philosophical  speculations,  were  led  to  con- 
sider him  a  son  of  Cabirus,  Dionysus  (Bacchus), 
or  Cronos  (Saturn).  He  was  torn  by  the  Titans 
into  seven  pieces.  The  connection  of  Sabazius 
with  the  Phrygian  mother  of  the  gods  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  he  was  identified,  to  a  certain 
extent,  with  Zeus  (Jupiter)  himself,  who  is  men- 
tioned as  Zeus  (Jupiter)  Sabazius,  both  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  and  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  having  been 
brought  up  by  Cybele  or  Rhea.  His  worship 
and  festivals  (Sabazia)  were  also  introduced 
into  Greece  ;  but,  at  least  in  the  time  of  Demos- 
thenes, it  was  not  thought  reputable  to  take 
part  in  them,  for  they  were  celebrated  at  night 
by  both  sexes  in  a  licentious  manner.  Serpents, 
which  were  sacred  to  him,  acted  a  prominent 
part  at  the  Sabazia  and  in  the  processions  :  the 
god  himself  was  represented  with  horns,  be- 
cause, it  is  said,  he  was  the  first  that  yoked 
oxen  to  the  plough  for  agriculture. 

[SABBATA.      Vid.  SAVO.] 

SABELLI.     Vid.  SABINI. 

SABELLIUS,  an  heresiarch  of  the  third  century, 
of  whose  personal  history  hardly  any  thing  is 
known.  He  broached  his  heresies  in  the  Libyan 
Pentapolis,  of  which  he  appears  to  have  been  a 
native.  His  characteristic  dogma  related  to  the 
Divine  Nature,  in  which  he  conceived  that  there 
was  only  one  hypostasis  or  person,  identifying 
with  each  other  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Spirit,  "  so  that  in  one  hypostasis  there  are  three 
designations"  (uf  elvat  svfua  vitoaruaei  rpeif  bvo- 


the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
762 


SABINI. 

was  the  grand-niece  of  Trajan,  being  the  daugh- 
ter of  Matidia,  who  was  the  daughter  of  Mar- 
ciana,  the  sister  of  Trajan.  Sabina  was  mar- 
ried to  Hadrian  about  A.D.  100  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Plotina,  the  wife  of  Trajan.  The 
marriage  did  not  prove  a  happy  one.  Sabina  at 
length  put  an  end  to  her  life,  and  there  was  a 
report  that  she  had  even  been  poisoned  by  her 
husband.  She  was  certainly  alive  in  136.  and 
probably  did  not  die  till  138,  a  few  months  be- 
fore Hadrian.  She  was  enrolled  among  the  gods 
after  her  decease. 

SABINA,  POPP^EA,  a  woman  of  surpassing  beau- 
ty, but  licentious  morals,  was  the  daughter  of 
T.  Ollius,  but  assumed  the  name  of  her  mater- 
nal grandfather  Poppa?us  Sabinus,  who  had  been 
consul  in  A.D.  9.  She  was  first  married  to 
Rufius  Crispinus,  and  afterward  to  Otho,  who 
was  one  of  the  boon  companions  of  Nero.  The 
latter  soon  became  enamored  of  her ;  and,  in 
order  to  get  Otho  out  of  the  way,  Nero  sent  him 
to  govern  the  province  of  Lusitania  (58).  Pop- 
psea  now  became  the  acknowledged  mistress  of 
Nero,  over  whom  she  exercised  absolute  sway 
Anxious  to  become  the  wife  of  the  emperor, 
she  persuaded  Nero  first  to  murder  his  mother 
Agrippina  (59),  who  was  opposed  to  such  a  dis- 
graceful union,  and  next  to  divorce  and  shortly 
afterward  put  to  death  his  innocent  and  virtu- 
ous wife  Octavia  (62).  Immediately  after  the 
divorce  of  Octavia,  Poppa;a  became  the  wife  of 
Nero.  In  the  following  year  she  gave  birth  to 
a  daughter  at  Antium,  but  the  infant  died  at  the 
age  of  four  months.  In  65  Poppaea  was  preg- 
nant again,  but  was  killed  by  a  kick  from  her 
brutal  husband  in  a  fit  of  passion.  She  was 
enrolled,  among  the  gods,  and  a  magnificent 
temple  was  dedicated  to  her  by  Nero.  Poppaea 
was  inordinately  fond  of  luxury  and  pomp,  and 
took  immense  pains  to  preserve  the  beauty  of 
her  person.  Thus  we  are  told  that  all  her 
mules  were  shod  with  gold,  and  that  five  hund- 
red asses  were  daily  milked  to  supply  her  with 
a  bath. 

SABINI,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  power- 
ful of  the  nations  of  Central  Italy.  The  an- 
cients usually  derived  their  name  from  Sabinus, 
a  son  of  the  native  god  Sancus.  The  different 
tribes  of  the  Sabine  race  were  widely  spread 
over  the  whole  of  Central  Italy,  and  were  con- 
nected with  the  Opicans,  Umbrians,  and  those 
other  nations  whose  languages  were  akin  to  the 
Greek.  The  earliest  traces  of  the  Sabines  are 
found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Amiternum,  at 
the  foot  of  the  main  chain  of  the  Apennines, 
whence  they  spread  as  far  south  as  the  con- 
fines of  Lucania  and  Apulia.  The  Sabines  may 
be  divided  into  three  great  classes,  called  by 
the  names  of  Sabini,  Sabelli,  and  Samnites  re- 
spectively. The  SABINI  proper  inhabited  the 
country  between  the  Nar,  the  Anio,  and  theTi 
her,  between  Latium,  Etruria,  Umbria,  and  Pi 
cenum.  This  district  was  mountainous,  and 
better  adapted  for  pasturage  than  corn.  The 
chief  towns  were  Amiternum,  Reate,  Nursia. 
Cutiliae,  Cures,  Eretum,  and  Nomentum.  The 
SABELLI  were  the  smaller  tribes  who  issued 
from  the  Sabines.  To  these  belong  the  Ves- 
tini,  Marsi,  Marrucini,  Peligni,  Frentani,  and 
Hirpini.  In  addition  to  these  communities,  to 
whom  the  name  of  Sabellians  is  usually  re 


SABINUS. 

stucted,  the  Picentes  in  Picenum,  the  Picenti- 
ni,  who  were  transplanted  from  the  latter  coun- 
try to  Campania,  and  the  Lucani,  were  also  of 
Sabine  origin.  The  SAMNITES,  who  were  by  far 
the  most  powerful  of  all  the  Sabine' communi- 
ties, are  treated  of  in  a  separate  article.  Vid. 
SAMNICM.  There  were  certain  national  charac- 
teristics which  distinguished  the  whole  Sabine 
race.  They  were  a  people  of  simple  and  vir- 
tuous habits,  faithful  to  their  word,  and  imbued 
with  deep  religious  feeling.  Hence  we  find  fre- 
quent mention  of  omens  and  prodigies  in  their 
country.  They  were  a  migratory  race,  and 
adopted  a  peculiar  system  of  emigration.  In 
times  of  great  danger  and  distress  they  vowed 
a  Ver  Sacrum,  or  Sacred  Spring ;  and  all  the 
children  born  in  that  spring  were  regarded  as 
sacred  to  the  god,  and  were  compelled,  at  the 
end  of  twenty  years,  to  leave  their  native  coun- 
try and  seek  a  new  home  in  foreign  lands.  The 
form  of  government  among  the  Sabines  was  re- 
publican, but  in  war  they  chose  a  sovereign 
ruler  (Embratur),  whom  the  Romans  sometimes 
call  dictator  and  sometimes  king.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Sabines  in  Lucania  and  Campa- 
nia, they  never  attained  any  high  degree  of  civ- 
ilization or  mental  culture  ;  but  they  were  al- 
ways distinguished  by  their  love  of  freedom, 
which  they  maintained  with  the  greatest  brave- 
ry- sGJf  this  the  Samnites  were  the  most  stri- 
kingcxample.  After  the  decline  of  the  Etrus- 
can power,  the  Samnites  were  for  a  long  time 
the  greatest  people  in  Italy ;  and  if  they  had  re- 
mained united,  they  might  have  conquered  the 
whole  peninsula.  The  Sabines  formed  one  of 
the  elements  of  which  the  Roman  people  was 
composed.  In  the  time  of  Romulus,  a  portion 
of  the  Sabines,  after  the  rape  of  their  wives  and 
daughters,  became  incorporated  with  the  Ro- 
mans, and  the  two  nations  were  united  into  one 
under  the  general  name  of  Quirites.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  Sabini  proper,  who  were  less 
warlike  than  the  Samnites  and  Sabellians,  were 
finally  subdued  by  M'.  Curius  Dentajus,  B.C. 
290,  and.  received  the  Roman  franchise,  sine 
suffragio.  The  Sabellian  tribes  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  Romans  at  an  early  period, 
namely,  the  Vestini  in  328,  and  the  Marsi,  Mar- 
rucini,  Peligni,  and  Frentani  in  304 ,  but  these 
communities  again  took  up  arms  against  the 
Romans  in  the  Social  war  (90-88),  which  ended 
in  the  complete  subjugation  of  all  the  Sabellian 
tribes.  The  history  of  the  wars  between  the 
Samnites  and  the  Romans  is  given  under  SAM- 
MUM. 

SABINUS.  1.  A  contemporary  poet  and  a 
friend  of  Ovid.  Ovid  informs  us  that  Sabinus 
had  written  answers  to  six  of  the  EpistoLe  Hero- 
idum  of  Ovid.  Three  answers  enumerated  by 
Ovid  in  this  passage  are  printed  in  many  edi- 
tions of  the  poet's  works  as  the  genuine  poems 
of  Sabinus  ;  but  they  were  written  by  a  modern 
scholar,  Angelas  Sabinus,  about  the  year  1467. 
— 2.  M.  Glut's,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  succeed- 
ed Cassius  Longinus,  was  consul  A.D.  69.  He 
was  not  the  Sabinus  from  whom  the  Sabiniani 
took  their  name.  He  wrote  a  work,  Ad  Edic- 
tum  JEdilium  Curulium.  There  are  no  extracts 
from  Caelius  in  the  Digest,  but  he  ia  often  cited, 
sometimes  as  Cselius  Sabinus,  sometimes  by  the 
name  of  Sabinus  only. — 3.  C.  CALVUIUS,  one  o/ 


SABINUS. 

Caesar's  legates  in  the  civil  war,  B.C.  48.  IB 
45  he  received  the  province  of  Africa  from  Cae- 
sar. Having  been  elected  praetor  in  44,  he  ob- 
tained from  Antony  the  province  of  Africa  again; 
but  he  did  not  return  to  Africa,  as  the  senate, 
after  the  departure  of  Antony  for  Mutina,  con- 
ferred it  upon  Q.  Cornificius.  Sabinus  was  con- 
sul 39,  and  in  the  following  year  commanded 
the  fleet  of  Octavianus  in  the  war  with  Sextus 
Pompey.  He  was  superseded  by  Agrippa  in  the 
command  of  the  fleet.  He  is  mentioned,  too, 
at  a  later  time  as  one  of  the  friends  of  Octavia- 
nus.— 4.  T.  FLAVIUS,  father  of  the  Emperor  Ves- 
pasian, was  one  of  the  farmers  of  the  taxes  in 
Asia,  and  afterward  carried  on  business  as  a 
money-lendei  among  the  Helvetians. — 5.  FLA- 
VIUS, elder  son  of  the  preceding,  and  brother  of 
the  Emperor  Vespasian.  He  governed  Mresia 
for  seven  years  during  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
and  held  the  important  office  of  praefectus  urbis 
during  the  last  eleven  years  of  Nero's  reign. 
He  was  removed  from  this  office  by  Galba,  but 
was  replaced  in  it  on  the  accession  of  Otho, 
who  was  anxious  to  conciliate  Vespasian,  who 
commanded  the  Roman  legions  in  the  East. 
He  continued  to  retain  the  dignity  under  Vi- 
tellius ;  but  when  Vespasian  was  proclaimed 
general  by  the  legions  in  the  East,  and  Anto- 
nius  Primus  and  his  other  generals  in  the  West, 
after  the  defeat  of  the  troops  of  Vitellius,  were 
marching  upon  Rome,  Vitellius,  despairing  of 
success,  offered  to  surrender  the  empire,  and 
to  place  the  supreme  power  in  the  hands  of  Sa- 
binius  till  the  arrival  of  his  brother.  The  Ger- 
man soldiers  of  Vitellius,  however,  refused  sub- 
mission to  this  arrangement,  and  resolved  to 
support  their  sovereign  by  arms.  Sabinus 
thereupon  took  refuge  in  the  Capitol,  where  he 
was  attacked  by  the  Vitellian  troops.  In  the 
assault  the  Capitol  was  burned  to  the  ground, 
Sabinus  was  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death 
by  the  soldiers  in  the  presence  of  Vitellius,  who 
endeavored  in  vain  to  save  his  life.  Sabinus 
was  a  man  of  distinguished  reputation  and  of 
unspotted  character.  He  left  two  sons,  Flavius 
Sabinus  and  Flavius  Clemens.  Vid.  CLEMENS. 
— 6.  FLAVICS,  son  of  the  preceding,  married  Ju- 
lia, the  daughter  of  his  cousin  Titus.  He  was 
consul  82,  with  his  cousin  Domitian,  but  was 
afterward  slain  by  the  latter. — 7.  MASSURIUS,  a 
hearer  of  Ateius  Capito,  was  a  distinguished 
jurist  in  the  time  of  Tiberius.  This  is  the  Sa- 
binus from  whom  the  school  of  the  Sabiniani 
took  its  name.  Vid.  CAPITO.  There  is  no  di- 
rect excerpt  from  Sabinus  in  the  Digest,  but  he 
is  often  cited  by  other  jurists,  who  commented 
upon  his  Libri  frcs  Juris  Civilis.  It  is  conjec- 
tured that  Persius  means  to  refer  to  this  work 
(Sat.,  v.,  90)  when  he  says,  "  Excepto  si  quid 
Masuri  rubrica  vetavit."  Massnrius  also  wrote 
numerous  other  works,  which  are  cited  by  name 
in  the  Digest. — 8.  NYMPHIDIUS.  Vid.  NYMPHID- 
ius. — 9.  PoppjEut,  consul  A.D.  9,  was  appoint- 
ed in  the  lifetime  of  Augustus  governor  of  Mce 
sia,  and  was  not  only  confirmed  in  this  govern- 
ment by  Tiberius,  but  received  from  the  latter 
the  provinces  of  Achaia  and  Macedonia  in  ad- 
dition. He  continued  to  hold  these  provinces 
till  his  death  in  35,  having  ruled  over  Moesia 
for  twenty-four  years.  He  was  the  maternal 
grandfather  of  Poppea  Sabina,  the  mistress 

763 


SABIS. 

and  afterward  the  wife  of  Nero. — 10.  Q.  TITU- 
RIUS,  one  of  Caesar's  legates  in  Gaul,  who  per- 
ished along  with  Aurunculeius  Cotta  in  the  at- 
tack made  upon  them  by  Ambiorix  in  B.C.  54. 

SABIS  (now  Sambre).  1.  A  broad  and  deep 
river  in  Gallia  Belgica  and  in  the  territory  of 
the  Ambiani,  falling  into  the  River  Mosa. — 2. 
A  small  river  on  the  coast  of  Carmania. — 3.  Vid. 
SAPIS. 

SABRATA.     Vid.  ABROTONUM. 

SABRINA,  also  called  SABRIANA  (now  Severn), 
a  river  in  the  west  of  Britain,  which  flowed  by 
Venta  Silurum  into  the  ocean. 

[SABRINA  ^ESTOARIUM  or  SABRIANA  ^ESTUA- 
RIUM  (Zabpiava  elfx^atf),  the  estuary  formed  by 
the  River  Sabrina  (now  Severn).  Vid.  SABRINA.] 

[SABURA  or  SABCRRA,  the  commander  of  Ju- 
ba's  forces  in  Africa,  defeated  C.  Curio,  Caesar's 
general,  in  B.C.  49.  He  was  destroyed,  with  all 
his  forces,  in  B.C.  46,  by  P.  SITTIUS.] 

SACADAS  (SaKuda?),  of  Argos,  an  eminent 
Greek  musician,  was  one  of  the  masters  who 
established  at  Sparta  the  second  great  school 
of  music,  of  which  Thaletas  was  the  founder, 
as  Terpander  had  been  of  the  first.  He  gained 
the  prize  for  flute-playing  at  the  first  of  the  mu- 
sical contests  which  the  Amphictyons  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  the  Pythian  games 
(B.C.  590),  and  also  at  the  next  two  festivals  in 
succession  (586,  582).  Sacadas  was  a  compo- 
ser of  elegies  as  well  as  a  musician. 

SAC^E  (2a/tai),  one  of  the  most  numerous  and 
most  powerful  of  the  Scythian  nomad  tribes, 
had  their  abodes  east  and  northeast  of  the 
Massagetae,  as  far  as  Serica,  in  the  steppes  of 
Central  Asia,  which  are  now  peopled  by  the 
Kirghiz  Khasaks,  in  whose  name  that  of  their 
ancestors  is  traced  by  some  geographers.  They 
were  very  warlike,  and  excelled  especially  as 
cavalry,  and  as  archers  both  on  horse  and  foot. 
Their  women  shared  in  their  military  spirit ; 
and,  if  we  are  to  believe  ^Elian,  they  had  the 
custom  of  settling  before  marriage  whether  the 
man  or  woman  should  rule  the  house,  by  the 
result  of  a  combat  between  them.  In  early 
times  they  extended  their  predatory  incursions 
as  far  west  as  Armenia  and  Cappadocia.  They 
were  made  tributary  to  the  Persian  empire,  to 
the  army  of  which  they  furnished  a  large  force 
of  cavalry  and  archers,  who  were  among  the 
best  troops  that  the  kings  of  Persia  had.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  the  name  of  the 
Sacae  is  often  used  loosely  for  other  Scythian 
tribes,  and  sometimes  for  the  Scythians  in  gen- 
eral. 

SACASENE  (Saxadj?^),  a  fertile  district  of  Ar- 
menia Major,  on  the  Rjver  Cyrus  and  the  con- 
fines of  Albania,  so  called  from  its  having  been 
at  one  period  conquered  by  the  Sacae.  A  dis- 
trict of  Drangiana  bore  the  same  name  for  a 
similar  reason. 

SACER  MONS.  1.  An  isolated  hill  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Sabines,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Anio, 
and  west  of  the  Via  Nomentana,  three  miles 
from  Rome,  to  which  the  plebeians  repaired  in 
their  celebrated  secessions.  The  hill  is  not 
called  by  any  special  name  at  the  present  day, 
but  there  is  upon  its  summit  the  Torre  di  Spec- 
ckio. — 2.  A  mountain  in  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis, near  the  Minius,  probably  the  modern  Puer- 
to de  Ralanon,  near  Ponferrada. 
764 


SAGALASSUS 

SACILI,  with  the  surname  Martialium,  a  town 
of  the  Turduli  in  Hispania  Baetica. 

SACRA  VIA.     Vid.  ROMA,  p.  748,  b. 

SACRARIA,  a  town  in  Umbria,  on  the  road  be- 
tween Treba  and  Spoletium,  supposed  by  some 
to  be  identical  with  CHtumni  Fanum  on  tke 
River  Clitumnus. 

[SACRATIVIR,  M.,  of  Capua,  a  Roman  eques, 
who  fell  fighting  on  Caesar's  side  at  the  battle 
of  Dyrrachium,  B.C.  48.] 

SACRIPORTUS,  a  small  place  in  Latium,  of  un- 
certain site,  memorable  for  the  victory  of  Sulla 
over  the  younger  Marius,  B.C.  82. 

[SACROVIR,  JULIUS,  and  JULIUS  FLORUS,  two 
Gauls,  the  former  an  ^Eduan,  the  latter  a  Trevi- 
ran,  were  both  of  noble  family,  and  had  received 
the  Roman  citizenship  on  account  of  their  serv- 
ices. These  chiefs,  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
A.D.  21,  excited  an  insurrection  among  the 
Gauls.  Florus,  who  had  excited  the  Belgae  to 
revolt,  was  soon  overthrown,  while  Sacrovir, 
who  had  stirred  up  the  JEdui,  though  at  first  in 
a  measure  successful,  was  defeated  by  the  Ro- 
man legate  Silius  :  they  both,  after  their  defeat, 
put  themselves  to  death.] 

SACRUM  FLUMEN.  1.  (Now  bias),  a  river  on 
the  western  coast  of  Sardinia. — 2.  (Now  Tavig- 
nano),  a  river  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Corsica, 
which  flowed  into  the  sea  at  Aleria. 

SACRUM  PROMONTSRIUM.  1.  (Now  Cape"  St. 
Vincent),  on  the  western  coast  of  Spain,  said 
by  Strabo  to  be  the  most  westerly  point  in  the 
whole  earth. — 2.  (Now  Cape  Corso),  the  north- 
eastern point  of  Corsica. — 3.(NowCaye/na,also 
Makri,  Efta  Kavi,  orJedi  Burun,  i.  e.,  the  seven 
points),  the  extreme  point  of  the  mountain  Cra- 
gus  in  Lycia,  between  Xanthus  and  Telmissus. 
— 4.  (Now  Cape  Khelidoni),  another  promontory 
in  Lycia,  near  the  confines  of  Pamphylia,  and 
opposite  the  Chelidonian  islands,  whence  it  is 
also  called  PROMONTORIUM  CHELIDONIUM. 

[SADA-LES,  the  son  of  Cotys,  king  of  Thrace, 
was  sent  by  his  father  to  the  assistance  of  Pom- 
pey,  and  fought  on  his  side  against  Caesar  in 
B.C.  48.  In  conjunction  with  Scipioj  he  de- 
feated L.  Cassius  Longinus,  one  of  Caesar's  le- 
gates. He  was  pardoned  by  Caesar  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Pharsalia.  He  died  in  B.C.  42,  leaving 
his  dominions  to  the  Romans.] 

SADYATTES  (Sadwarnyc),  king  of  Lydia,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Ardys,  and  reigned  B.u.  629- 
617.  He  carried  on  war  with  the  Milesians  for 
six  years,  and  at  his  death  bequeathed  the  war 
to  his  son  and  successor  Alyattes.  Vid.  AL- 
YATTES. 

SJBPINUM  or  SEPINUM  (Sepinas, -atis:  now  Se- 
pino),  a  municipium  in  Samnium,  on  the  road 
from  Allifae  to  Beneventum. 

S^TABIS.  1.  (Now  Alcoyl),  a  river  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  west 
of  the  Sucro. — 2.  OTSETABIS  (Setabitanus  :  now 
Jativa),  an  important  town  of  the  Contestani  in 
Hispania  Tarraconensis,  and  a  Roman  muni- 
cipium, was  situated  on  a  hill  south  of  the  Su- 
cro,  and  was  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of 
linen. 

SAGALASSUS  (SayaAaatrof :  now  ruins  at  Al- 
lahshun),  a  large  fortified  city  of  Pisidia,  near 
the  Phrygian  border,  a  day's  journey  southeast 
of  Apamea  Cibotus.  It  lay,  as  its  large  ruins 
still  show,  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre  on 


SAGANUS. 

the  side  of  a  hill,  and  had  a  citadel  on  a  rock 
thirty  feet  high.  Its  inhabitants  were  reckoned 
the  bravest  of  the  Pisidians,  ar.d  seem,  from  the 
word  \aKe daifiuv  on  their  coins,  to  have  claimed 
a  Spartan  origin.  Among  the  ruins  of  the  city 
are  the  remains  of  a  jrery  fine  temple,  of  an 
amphitheatre,  and  of  fifty- two  other  large  build- 
ings. 

SAGANUS  (Sayavdf ),  a  small  river  on  the  coast 
of  Carmania. 

SAGAPA,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Indus. 

SAGARIS  (Ovid,  Ex  Pont.,  iv.,  10,47),  a  river 
of  Sarmatia  Europaea,  falling  into  a  bay  in  the 
northwest  of  the  Euxine,  which  was  called  after 
it  SAGARICUS  SINUS,  and  which  also  received  the 
River  Axiaces.  The  bay  appears  to  be  that  on 
which  Odessa  now  stands,  and  the  rivers  the 
Bol-Koulalnik  and  the  Mal-Koulalnik. 

[SAGARIS,  one  of  the  companions  of  ^Eneas, 
Blain  by  Turnus  in  Italy.] 

SAGARTII  (Soydpnot),  according  to  Herodo- 
tus, a  nomad  people  ofPersis.  Afterward  they 
are  found,  on  the  authority  of  Ptolemy,  in  Me- 
dia and  the  passes  of  Mount  Zagros. 

SAGRA,  a  small  river  in  Magna  Graecia,  on  the 
southeastern  coast  of  Bruttium,  falling  into  the 
sea  between  Caulonia  and  Locri,  on  the  banks 
of  which  a  memorable  victory  was  gained  by 
ten  thousand  Locrians  over  one  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  Crotoniats.  This  victory  ap- 
peared so  extraordinary,  that  it  gave  rise  to  the 
proverbial  expression,  "  It  is  truer  than  what 
happened  on  the  Sagra,"  when  a  person  wished 
to  make  any  strong  asseveration. 

SAGUNTIA.  1.  (Now  Xigonza  or  Gigonza, 
northwest  of  Medina  Sidonia),  a  town  in  the 
western  part  of  Hispania  Baetica,  south  of  the 
Baetis  — 2.  A  town  of  the  Arevaci  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  southwest  of  Bilbilis,  near  the 
Mons  Solarius. 

SAGUNTUM,  more  rarely  SAGUNTOS  (Sagunti- 
nus  :  now  Murviedro),  a  town  of  the  Edetani  or 
Sedetani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  south  of 
the  Iberus,  on  the  River  Palantias,  about  three 
miles  from  the  coast.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Greeks  from  Zacynthus,  with 
whom  Rutulians  from  Ardea  were  intermingled, 
whence  it  is  sometimes  called  Ausonia  Sagun- 
tu*.  It  was  situated  on  an  eminence  in  the 
midst  of  a  fertile  country,  and  became  a  place 
of  great  commercial  importance.  Although 
south  of  the  Iberus,  it  had  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Romans ;  and  its  siege  by  Hannibal, 
B.C.  219,  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  second 
Punic  war.  The  inhabitants  defended  their 
city  with  the  utmost  bravery  against  Hannibal, 
who  did  not  succeed  in  taking  the  place  till 
after  a  siege  of  nearly  eight  months.  The 
greater  part  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  Han- 
nibal ;  but  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  Romans  eight 
years  afterward,  and  made  a  colony.  Sagun- 
tum  was  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of 
beautiful  drinking-cups ;  and  the  figs  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  were  much  valued  in  antiqui- 
ty. The  ruins  of  the  ancient  town,  consisting 
of  a  theatre  and  a  temple  of  Bacchus,  are  extant 
at  Murriedro,  which  is  a  corruption  of  Muri 
tetercs. 

S.us  (Zu?c,  Soiree :  ruins  at  Sa-el-Hajjar),  a 
city  of  Egypt,  in  the  Delta,  on  the  eastern 
of  the  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile.     It  was 


SALAMIS. 

the  ancient  capital  of  Lower  Egypt,  and  con- 
tained  the  palace  and  burial-place  of  the  Pha- 
raohs, as  well  as  the  tomb  of  Osiris.  It  was 
the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  the  Egyptian 
goddess  Neith  (also  called  Sals),  who  had  here 
a  splendid  temple  in  the  middle  of  an  artificial 
lake,  where  a  great  feast  of  lamps  was  cele- 
brated yearly  by  worshippers  from  all  parts  of 
Egypt.  The  city  gave  its  name  to  the  Sa'itei 
Nomos. 

SAITIS  (Zairtf),  a  surname  of  Minerva  (Athe- 
na), under  which  she  had  a  sanctuary  on  Mount 
Pontinus,  near  Lerna,  in  Argolis.  The  name 
was  traced  by  the  Greeks  to  the  Egyptians, 
among  whom  Minerva  (Athena)  was  said  to 
have  been  called  Sals. 

SAL  A.  1.  (Now  Saale),  a  river  of  Germany, 
between  which  and  the  Rhine  Drusus  died.  It 
was  a  tributary  of  the  Albis. — 2.  (Now  Saale), 
also  a  river  of  Germany  and  a  tributary  of  the 
Mcenus,  which  formed  the  boundary  between 
the  Hermunduri  and  Chatti,  with  great  salt 
springs  in  its  neighborhood,  for  the  possession 
of  which  these  two  communities  freo'-.cr.t'v  con- 
tended.—  3.  (Now  Burargag),  a.  river  in  il.c 
northern  part  of  the  western  coast  of  Maureta- 
nia Tingitana,  rises  in  the  Atlas  Minor,  and  falls 
into  the  Atlantic,  north  of  a  town  of  the  same 
name. — 4.  A  river  in  the  same  province,  south 
of  the  one  last  mentioned,  rises  in  the  Atlas- 
Major,  and  falls  into  the  Atlantic  near  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  Mauretania. — 5.  A  Samothra 
cian  town  in  Thrace,  on  the  coast  of  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Hebrus. — 6.  A 
town  in  Pannonia,  on  the  road  from  Sabaria  to 
Poetovio. — 7.  (Now  Shdla),  a  town  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  western  coast  of  Mauretania  Tin- 
gitana, south  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the 
same  name  mentioned  under  No.  3.  This  town 
was  the  furthest  place  in  Mauretania  toward 
the  south  possessed  by  the  Romans ;  for,  al- 
though the  province  nominally  extended  furthe" 
south,  the  Romans  never  fully  subdued  the  no 
mad  tribes  beyond  this  point. 

SALACIA,  the  female  divinity  of  the  sea  among 
the  Romans,  and  the  wife  of  Neptune.  The 
name  is  evidently  connected  with  sal  (u?.f),  and 
accordingly  denotes  the  wide,  open  sea. 

SALACIA  (now  Alcacer  do  Sal),  a  municipium 
of  Lusitania,  in  the  territory  of  the  TurdetanI, 
northwest  of  Pax  Julia  and  southwest  of  Ebora, 

1  with  the  surname  of  Urbs  Imperatoria,  cele- 
brated for  its  woollen  manufactures. 

SALAMIS  (ZaAa/i/f  :  SnAa/ujVtof).  1.  (Now Ko- 
litri),  an  island  off  the  western  coast  of  Attica, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  channel. 
It  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Bay  of 
Eleusis.  Its  form  is  that  of  an  irregujar  semi 

I  circle  toward  the  west,  with  many  small  inden- 

'  tations  along  the  coast.  Its  greatest  length, 
from  north  to  south,  is  about  ten  miles,  and  its 
width,  in  its  broadest  part,  from  east  to  west,  is 
a  little  more.  In  ancient  times  it  is  said  to 
have  been  called  1'ityusta,  from  the  pines  which 
grew  in  it,  and  also  Sara*  and  Cycftrea,  from 
the  names  of  two  native  heroes.  It  is  further 
said  to  have  been  called  Salamis  from  a  daugh- 
ter of  Asopus  of  this  name.  It  was  colonized 
at  an  early  time  by  the  /Eacidsc  of  ^Egina. 
Telamon,  the  son  of . I ;.n-n.-,  fled  thither  aftei 

.  the  murder  of  his  half-brother  Piocus,  and  be- 


SALAPIA. 


SALERNUM. 


came  sovereign  of  the  island.  His  son  Ajax 
accompanied  the  Greeks  with  twelve  Salaminan 
ships  to  the  Trojan  war.  Salarais  continued  an 
independent  state  till  about  the  beginning  of  the 
fortieth  Olympiad  (B.C.  620),  when  a  dispute 
aros<;  for  its  possession  between  the  Megarians 
and  the  Athenians.  After  a  long  struggle,  it 
first  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Megarians,  but 
was  finally  taken  possession  of  by  the  Atheni- 
ans through  a  stratagem  of  Solon  (md.  SOLON), 
and  became  one  of  the  Attic  demi.  It  contin- 
ued to  belong  to  Athens  till  the  time  of  Cas- 
sander,  when  its  inhabitants  voluntarily  surren- 
dered it  to  the  Macedonians,  318.  The  Athe- 
nians recovered  the  island  in  232  through  means 
of  Aratus,  and  punished  the  Salaminians  for 
their  desertion  to  the  Macedonians  with  great 
severity.  The  old  city  of  Salamis  stood  on  the 
south  side  of  the  island,  opposite  ^Egina ;  but 
this  was  afterward  deserted,  and  a  new  city  of 
the  same  name  built  on  the  eastern  coast,  oppo- 
site Attica,  on  a  small  bay  now  called  Ambcla- 
kia.  Even  this  new  city  was  in  ruins  in  the 
time  of  Pausanias.  At  the  extremity  of  the 
southern  promontory  forming  this  bay  was  the 
small  island  of  PSYTTALIA  (now  Lypsokutali), 
which  is  about  a  mile  long,  and  from  two  hund- 
red to  three  hundred  yards  wide.  Salamis  is 
chiefly  memorable  on  account  of  the  great  battle 
fought  off  its  coast,  in  which  the  Persian  fleet  of 
Xerxes  was  defeated  by  the  Greeks,  B.C.  480. 
The  battle  took  place  in  the  strait  between  the  ! 
eastern  part  of  the  island  and  the  coast  of  Attica,  \ 
and  the  Greek  fleet  was  drawn  up  in  the  small 
bay  in  front  of  the  town  of  Salamis.  The  battle 
was  witnessed  from  the  Attic  coast  by  Xerxes, 
who  had  erected  for  himself  a  lofty  throne  on 
one  of  the  projecting  declivities  of  Mount  ^Ega- 
leos. — 2.  A  city  of  Cyprus,  situated  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eastern  coast,  a  little  north  of  the 
River  Pediaeus.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Teucer,  the  son  of  Telamon,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  his  native  island,  from  which  he  had 
been  banished  by  his  father.  Salamis  possess- 
ed an  excellent  harbor,  and  was  by  far  the  most 
important  city  in  the  whole  of  Cyprus.  It  be- 
came subject  to  the  Persians  with  the  rest  of 
the  island ;  bat  it  recovered  its  independence 
«bout  385,  under  Evagoras,  who  extended  his 
sovereignty  over  the  greater  part  of  the  island. 
Vid.  CYPRUS.  Under  the  Romans  the  whole  of 
the  eastern  part  of  the  island  formed  part  of  the 
territory  of  Salamis.  In  the  time  of  Trajan  a 
great  part  of  the  town  was  destroyed  in  an  in- 
surrection of  the  Jews  ;  and  under  Constantino 
it  suffered  still  more  from  an  earthquake,  which 
buried  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  beneath 
its  ruins.  It  was,  however,  rebuilt  by  Constan- 
tino, who  gave  it  the  name  of  Constantia,  and 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  island.  There  are 
still  a  few  ruins  of  this  town. 

SALAPIA  (Salapinus :  now  Salpi),  an  ancient 
town  of  Apulia,  in  the  district  Daunia,  was  sit- 
uated south  of  Sipontum,  on  a  lake  named  after 
it.  According  to  the  common  tradition  it  was 
founded  by  Diomedes,  though  others  ascribe  its 
foundation  to  the  Rhodian  Elpias.  It  is  not 
mentioned  till  the  second  Punic  war,  when  it 
revolted  to  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of  Cannae, 
but  it  subsequently  surrendered  to  the  Romans, 
ind  delivered  to  the  latter  the  Carthaginian  gar- 


|  rison  stationed  in  the  town.  The  original  site 
of  Salapia  was  at  some  distance  from  the  coast 
but,  in  consequence  of  the  unhealthy  exhalations 
arising  from  the  lake  above  mentioned,  the  in- 
habitants removed  to  a  new  town  on  the  sea- 
coast,  which  was  built  by  M.  Hostilius  with  the 
approbation  of  the  Roman  senate,  about  B.C. 
200.  This  new  town  served  as  the  harbor  of 
I  Arpi.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  town  still  exist 
at  some  distance  from  the  coast  at  the  village 
,  of  Salpi. 

SALAPINA  PALUS  (now  Logo  di  Salpi),  a  lake 
of  Apulia,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Cerbalus 
and  Aufidus,  which  derived  its  name  from  the 
!  town  of  Salapia  situated  upon  it,  and  which  M. 
Hostilius  connected  with  the  Adriatic  by  means 
of  a  canal. 

SALARIA,  a  town  of  the  Bastetani  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  and  a  Roman  colony. 

SALARIA  VIA.     Vid.  ROMA,  p.  756,  b 

SALASSI,  a  brave  and  warlike  people  m  Gallia 
Transpadana,  in  the  valley  of  the  Duna,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Graian  and  Pennine  Alps,  whom 
some  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  Salyes  or  Sal- 
luvii  in  Gaul.  They  defended  the  passes  of  the 
Alps  in  their  territory  with  such  obstinacy  and 
courage  that  it  was  long  before  the  Romans 
were  able  to  subdue  them.  At  length,  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  the  country  was  permanently 
occupied  by  Terentius  Varro  with  a  powerful 
Roman  force ;  the  greater  part  of  the  Salassi 
were  destroyed  in  battle,  and  the  rest,  amount- 
ing to  thirty-six  thousand,  were  sold  as  slaves. 
Their  chief  town  was  Augusta  Praetoria  (now 
Aosta),  which  Augustus  colonized  with  soldiers 
of  the  Praetorian  cohorts. 

SALD.S:  (SdA<5ai  :  ruins  at  Boujayah  or  Dd- 
lyz  ?),  a  large  sea-port  town  of  Northern  Africa, 
originally  the  eastern  frontier  town  of  the  king- 
dom of  Mauretania,  afterward  in  Mauretania 
Csesariensis,  and,  after  the  division  of  that  prov- 
ince, the  western  frontier  town  of  Mauretania 
Sitifensis.  Augustus  made  it  a  colony. 

SALDUBA.  1.  (Now  Rio  Verde),  a  river  in  the 
territory  of  the  Turduli  in  Hispania  Baetica,  at 
the  mouth  of  which  was  situated  a  town  of  the 
same  name. — 2.  Vid.  C^ESARAUGUSTA. 

SALE  (Sci/l??),  a  town  on  the  coast  of  Thrace. 

SALEBRO,  a  place  in  Etruria  between  Cosa 
and  Populonium. 

SALEIUS  BASSUS.     Vid.  BASSUS. 

SALEM,  i.  e.,  peace,  the  original  name  of  JERU- 
SALEM (Gen.,  xiv.,  18). 

SALENTINI  or  SALLENTINI,  a  people  in  the 
southern  part  of  Calabria,  who  dwelt  around  the 
promontory  lapygium,  which  is  hence  called 
SALENTINUM  or  SALENTINA..  They  laid  claim  to 
a  Greek  origin,  and  pretended  to  have  come 
from  Crete  into  Italy  under  the  guidance  of  Ido- 
meneus.  They  were  subdued  by  the  Romans 
at  the  conclusion  of  their  war  with  Pyrrhus,  and 
having  revolted  in  the  second  Punic  war,  were 
again  easily  reduced  to  subjection. 

[SALENTINUM  PROMONTORIUM.  Vid.  SALEN- 
TINI.] 

SALERNUM  ( Salernitanus  :  now  Salerno),  an 
ancient  town  in  Campania,  at  the  innermost 
corner  of  the  Sinus  Paestanus,  was  situated  on 
a  height  not  far  from  the  coast,  and  possessed 
a  harbor  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  It  was  made  a 
Roman  colony  at  the  same  time  as  Puteoli,  B.C 


SALGANEUS. 

194 ;  but  it  attained  its  greatest  prosperity  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  after  it  had  been  fortified  by 
the  Lombards. 

SALGANECS  or  SALGANEA  (ZaAyovevf  :  SaAya- 
viof,  ZaA-yavciTTjf),  a  small  town  of  Bceotia,  on 
the  Euripus,  and  on  the  road  from  Anthedon  to 
Chalcis. 

[SAUENDS,  T.,  a  centurion  in  Caesar's  army 
in  Africa,  in  B.C.  46,  induced  the  two  Titii  to 
surrender  their  ship  to  C.  Virgilius,  the  Pom- 
peian  leader.  He  was  subsequently  dismissed 
from  the  army  by  Caesar  with  disgrace. — 2.  CLE- 
MENS, a  senator  in  the  reign  of  Nero.] 

SALINE,  salt-works,  the  name  of  several 
towns  which  possessed  salt-works  in  their  vicin- 
ity. 1.  A  town  in  Britain,  on  the  eastern  coast, 
in  the  southern  part  of  Lincolnshire. — 2.  A  town 
of  the  Suetrii,  in  the  Maritime  Alps,  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  east  of  Reii. — 3.  (Now  Torre  delle 
Saline),  a  place  on  the  coast  of  Apulia,  near  Sa- 
lapia. — 4.  A  place  in  Picenum,  on  the  River  San- 
S*T«.S  (now  Salino). — 5.  (Now  Torda),  a  place  in 
Dacia. — 6.  SALINE  HERCULES,  near  Hercula- 
num,  in  Campania. 

SALINATOR,  LIVIUS.  1.  M.,  consul  B.C.  219 
with  L.  ^Emilius  Paulus,  carried  on  war  along 
with  his  colleague  against  the  Illyrians.  On 
their  return  to  Rome,  both  consuls  were  brought 
to  trial  on  the  charge  of  having  unfairly  divided 
the  booty  among  the  soldiers.  Paulus  escaped 
with  difficulty,  but  Livius  was  condemned.  The 
sentence  seems  to  have  been  an  unjust  one,  and 
Livius  took  his  disgrace  so  much  to  heart  that 
he  left  the  city  and  retired  to  his  estate. in  the 
country,  where  he  lived  some  years  without 
taking  any  part  in  public  affairs.  In  210  the 
consuls  compelled  him  to  return  to  the  city,  and 
in  207  he  was  elected  consul  a  second  time  with 
C.  Claudius  Nero.  He  shared  with  his  col- 
league in  the  glory  of  defeating  Hasdrubal  on 
the  Metaurus.  (For  details,  vid.  NERO,  CLAU- 
DICS,  No.  2).  Next  year  (206)  Livius  was  sta- 
tioned in  Etruria  as  proconsul,  with  an  army, 
and  his  imperium  was  prolonged  for  two  suc- 
cessive years.  In  204  he  was  censor  with  his 
former  colleague  in  the  consulship,  Claudius 
Nero.  The  two  censors  had  long  been  ene- 
mies ;  and  their  long-smothered  resentment 
now  burst  forth,  and  occasioned  no  small  scan- 
dal in  the  state.  Livius,  in  his  censorship,  im- 
posed a  tax  upon  salt,  in  consequence  of  which 
he  received  the  surname  of  Salinator,  which 
seems  to  have  been  given  him  in  derision,  but 
which  became,  notwithstanding,  hereditary  in 
his  family.— 2.  C.,  curule  aedile  203,  and  praetor 
202,  in  which  year  he  obtained  Bruttium  as  his 
province.  In  193  he  fought  under  the  consul 
against  the  Boii,  and  in  the  same  year  was  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  consulship. — 3. 
C.,  praetor  191,  when  he  had  the  command  of 
the  fleet  in  the  war  against  Antiochus.  He  was 
consul  188,  and  obtained  Gaul  as  his  province. 

SALLENTINI.     Vid.  SALENTINI. 

SALLUSTIUS  or  SALUSTIUS  (2aAov<moc).  I. 
Praefectus  Praetorio  under  the  Emperor  Julian, 
with  whom  he  was  on  terms  of  friendship.  Sal- 
lustius  was  a  heathen,  but  dissuaded  the  em- 
peror from  persecuting  the  Christians.  He  was 
probably  the  author  of  a  treatise  lltpl  &tut>  KOI 
Koaftov,  which  is  still  extant.  If  so,  he  was  at- 
tached to  the  doctrines  of  the  Neo-Platonists. 


SALLUSTIUS  CRISPUS. 

The  best  edition  of  this  treatise  is  by  Orellius, 
Turici,  1821.— 2.  A  Cynic  philosopher  of  some 
note,  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
century  after  Christ.  He  was  a  native  of  Eme- 
sa  in  Syria,  and  studied  successively  at  Emesa, 
Alexandrea,  and  Athens.  Sall.ustius  was  sus- 
pected of  holding  somewhat  impious  opinions 
regarding  the  gods.  He  seems,  at  least,  to  have 
been  unsparing  in  his  attacks  upon  the  fanat- 
ical theology  of  the  Neo-Platonists. 

SALLUSTIUS  CRISPUS,  C.,  or  SATAWTIUS.  1. 
The  Roman  historian,  belonged  to  a  plebeian 
family,  and  was  born  B.C.  86  at  Amiternum,  in 
the  country  of  the  Sabines.  He  was  quaestor 
about  59,  and  tribune  of  the  plehs  in  52,  the 
year  in  which  Clodius  was  killed  by  Milo.  In 
his  tribunate  he  joined  the  popular  party,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  opposing  Milo.  It  is  said 
that  he  had  been  caught  by  Milo  in  the  act  of 
adultery  with  his  wife  Fausta,  the  daughter  of 
the  dictator  Sulla ;  that  he  had  received  a  sound 
whipping  from  the  husband,  and  that  he  had 
been  let  off  only  on  payment  of  a  sum  of  money. 
In  50  Sallust  was  expelled  from  the  senate  by 
the  censors,  probably  because  he  belonged  to 
Caesar's  party,  though  some  give  as  the  ground 
of  his  ejection  from  the  senate  the  act  of  adul- 
tery already  mentioned.  In  the  civil  war  he 
followed  Caesar's  fortune.  In  47  we  find  him 
praetor  elect,  by  obtaining  which  dignity  he  was 
restored  to  his  rank.  He  nearly  lost  his  life  in 
a  mutiny  of  some  of  Caesar's  troops  in  Campa- 
nia, who  had  been  led  thither  to  pass  over  into 
Africa.  He  accompanied  Caesar  in  his  African 
war,  46,  and  was  left  by  Caesar  as  the  governor 
of  Numidia,  in  which  capacity  he  is  charged 
with  having  oppressed  the  people,  and  enriched 
himself  by  unjust  means.  He  was  accused  of 
maladministration  before  Caesar,  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  he  was  brought  to  trial.  The  charge 
is  somewhat  confirmed  by  the  fact  of  his  be- 
coming immensely  rich,  as  was  shown  by  the 
expensive  gardens  which  he  formed  (horti  Sal- 
lustiani)  on  the  Quirinalis.  He  retired  into  priv 
acy  after  he  returned  from  Africa,  and  he  pass- 
ed quietly  through  the  troublesome  period  aftei 
Caesar's  death.  He  died  34,  about  four  years 
before  the  battle  of  Actium.  The  story  of  his 
marrying  Cicero's  wife  Terentia  ought  to  be 
rejected.  It  was  probably  not  till  after  his  re- 
turn from  Africa  that  Sallust  wrote  his  histor- 
ical works.  1.  The  Catilina,  or  Bellum  Cattli- 
narium,  is  a  history  of  the  conspiracy  of  Cati- 
line during  the  consulship  of  Cicero,  63.  The 
introduction  to  this  history,  which  some  critics 
admire,  is  only  a  feeble  and  rhetorical  attempt 
to  act  the  philosopher  and  moralist.  The  his- 
j  tory,  however,  is  valuable.  Sallust  was  a  liv- 
1  ing  spectator  of  the  events  which  he  describes, 
'  and,  considering  that  he  was  not  a  friend  of 
Cicero,  and  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar,  he  wrote 
with  fairness.  The  speeches  which  lie  has  in- 
serted in  his  history  are  certainly  his  own  com- 
position ;  but  we  may  assume  that  Caesar's 
speech  was  extant,  and  that  he  gave  the  sub- 
stance of  it.  2.  The  Jugurlha,  or  Bellum  Ju- 
purthinum,  contains  the  history  of  the  war  of 
the  Romans  against  Jugurtha,  king  of  Mmniilia. 
which  began  111  and  continued  until  10G.  It 
is  likely  enough  that  Sallust  was  led  to  \vriu< 
this  work  from  having  resided  in  Africa,  and 

767 


SALMACIS. 

that  he  collected  some  materials  there.  He 
cites  the  Punic  Books  of  King  Hiempsal  as 
authority  for  his  general  geographical  descrip- 
tion (Jug.,  c.  17).  The  Jugurthine  war  has  a 
philosophical  introduction  of  the  same  stamp  as 
that  to  the  Catilina.  As  a  history  of  the  cam- 
paign, the  Jugurthine  war  is  of  no  value  :  there 
is  a  total  neglect  of  geographical  precision,  and 
apparently  not  a  very  strict  regard  to  chronol- 
ogy. 3.  Sallustius  also  wrote  historiarum  Libri 
Quinque,  which  were  dedicated  to  Lucullus,  a 
son  of  L.  Licinius  Lucullus.  The  work  is  sup- 
posed to  have  comprised  the  period  from  the 
consulship  of  M  JCmilius  Lepidus  and  Q.  Luta- 
tius  Catulus,  78,  the  year  of  Sulla's  death,  to 
the  consulship  of  L.  Vulcatius  Tullus  and  M. 
(Emilius  Lepidus,  66,  the  year  in  which  Cicero 
was  praetor.  This  work  is  lost,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  fragments  which  have  been  collected 
and  arranged.  The  fragments  contain,  among 
other  things,  several  orations  and  letters.  Some 
fragments  belonging  to  the  third  book,  and  re- 
lating to  the  war  with  Spartacus,  have  been 
published  from  a  Vatican  MS.  in  the  present 
century.  4.  Duo.  Epislola  de  Re  Publica  ordi- 
nanda,  which  appear  to  be  addressed  to  Caesar 
at  the  time  when  he  was  engaged  in  his  Span- 
ish campaign  (49)  against  Petreius  and  Afra- 
nius,  and  are  attributed  to  Sallust;  but  the  opin- 
ions of  critics  on  their  authenticity  are  divided. 
5.  The  Dedamatio  in  Sallustium,  which  is  at- 
tributed to  Cicero,  is  generally  admitted  to  be 
the  work  of  some  rhetorician,  the  matter  of 
which  is  the  well-known  hostility  between  the 
orator  and  the  historian.  The  same  opinion  is 
generally  maintained  as  to  the  Dedamatio  in 
Ciceronem,  which  is  attributed  to  Sallust.  Some 
of  the  Roman  writers  considered  that  Sallustius 
imitated  the  style  of  Thucydides.  His  language 
is  generally  concise  and  perspicuous  :  perhaps 
his  love  of  brevity  may  have  caused  the  am- 
biguity that  is  sometimes  found  in  his  senten- 
ces. He  also  affected  archaic  words.  Though 
he  has  considerable  merit  as  a  writer,  his  art 
is  always  apparent.  He  had  no  pretensions  to 
great  research  or  precision  about  facts.  His 
reflections  have  often  something  of  the  same 
artificial  and  constrained  character  as  his  ex- 
pressions. One  may  judge  that  his  object  was 
to  obtain  distinction  as  a  writer ;  that  style  was 
what  he  thought  of  more  than  matter.  He  has, 
however,  probably  the  merit  of  being  the  first 
Roman  who  wrote  what  is  usually  called  histo- 
ry. He  was  not  above  his  contemporaries  as  a 
politician  ;  he  was  a  party  man,  and  there  are 
no  indications  of  any  comprehensive  views, 
which  had  a  whole  nation  for  their  object.  He 
hated  the  nobility,  as  a  man  may  do,  without 
loving  the  people.  The  best  editions  of  Sallust 
are  by  Corte,  Lips.,  1724 ;  Gerlach,  Basil.,  1823- 
1831,  3  vols. ;  and  by  Kritz,  Lips.,  1828-1834, 
2  vols.  ;  [second  edition,  1847,  2  vols.]— 2.  The 
grandson  of  the  sister  of  the  historian,  was 
adopted  by  the  latter,  and  inherited  his  great 
wealth.  In  imitation  of  Maecenas,  he  prefer- 
red remaining  a  Roman  eques.  On  the  fall  of 
Maecenas  he  became  the  principal  adviser  of 
Augustus.  He  died  in  A.D.  20,  at  an  advanced 
age.  One  of  Horace's  odes  (Carm.,  ii.,  2)  is 
addressed  to  him. 

[SALMACIS  (2aAua/uf),  a  fountain  in  Halicar- 
768 


SALONINUS,  P.  LICINIUS 

nassus,  the  water  of  which  was  believed  to  nave 
the  property  of  rendering  those  who  bathed  in 
it  effeminate.] 

SALMANTICA  (now  Salamanca),  called  HEL- 
MANTICA  or  HERMANDICA  by  Livy,  ai,d  ELMAN- 
TICA  by  Polybius,  an  important  town  of  the  Vet- 
tones  in  Lusitania,  south  of  the  Durius,  on  the 
road  from  Emerita  to  Caesaraugusta.  It  was 
taken  by  Hannibal.  A  bridge  was  built  here  by 
Trajan,  of  which  the  piers  still  exist. 

SALMONS  or  SALMONIA  (2aAjUui'77,  Safyiuvt'a), 
a  town  of  Elis,  in  the  district  Pisatis,  on  the 
River  Enipeus,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Salmoneus. 

SALMONEUS  (SaAjuwvevf),  son  of  ^Eolus  and 
Enarete,  and  brother  of  Sisyphus.  He  was  first 
married  to  Alcidice  and  afterward  to  Sidero ; 
by  the  former  of  whom  he  became  the  father 
of  Tyro.  He  originally  lived  in  Thessaly,  but 
emigrated  to  Elis,  where  he  built  the  town  of 
Salmone.  His  presumption  and  arrogance  were 
so  great  that  he  deemed  himself  equal  to  Jupi- 
ter (Zeus),  and  ordered  sacrifices  to  be  offered 
to  himself;  nay,  he  even  imitated  the  thunder 
and  lightning  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  but  the  father 
of  the  gods  killed  him  with  his  thunderbolt,  de- 
stroyed his  town,  and  punished  him  in  the  low- 
er world.  His  daughter  Tyro  bears  the  patro- 
nymic Salmonis. 

SALMONIUM  or  SALMONE  (ZaA/uwvuw,  Zafyzeiv??: 
now  Cape  Salmon),  the  most  easterly  promon- 
tory of  Crete. 

SALMYDESSUS,  called  HALMYDESSUS  also  in 
later  times  (Satyvdrjaaof, '  A?.fivdt)0a6<; :  Safyzv- 
Sriaaids :  nowMidja  or  Midjeh),  a  town  of  Thrace, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Euxine,  south  of  the  prom- 
ontory Thynias.  The  name  was  originally  ap- 
plied to  the  whole  coast  from  this  promontory 
to  the  entrance  of  the  Bosporus ;  and  it  was 
from  this  coast  that  the  Black  Sea  obtained  the 
name  of  Pontus  Axenos  ("Afevof),  or  inhospita- 
ble. The  coast  itself  was  rendered  dangerous 
by  shallows  and  marshes,  and  the  inhabitants 
were  accustomed  to  plunder  any  ships  that  were 
driven  upon  them. 

SALO  (now  Xalon),  a  tributary  of  the  Iberus 
in  Celtiberia,  which  flowed  by  Bilbilis,  the  birth- 
place of  Martial,  who  accordingly  frequently 
mentions  it  in  his  poems. 

[SALODURUM.      Vid.  SALORDURUM.] 

SALONA,  SALON^E,  or  SALON  (DuXuv  :  now  Sa- 
lona),  an  important  town  of  Illyria  and  the  cap- 
ital of  Dalmatia,  was  situated  on  a  small  bay  of 
the  sea.  It  was  strongly  fortified  by  the  Ro- 
mans after  their  conquest  of  the  country,  and 
was  at  a  later  time  made  a  Roman  colony,  and 
the  seat  of  a  conventus  juridicus.  The  Emper- 
or Diocletian  was  born  at  the  small  village  Dio- 
clea  near  Salona;  and  after  his  abdication  he 
retired  to  the  neighborhood  of  this  town,  and 
here  spent  the  rest  of  his  days.  The  remains 
of  his  magnificent  palace  are  still  to  be  seen  at 
the  village  of  Spalalro,  the  ancient  SPOLATUM, 
three  miles  south  of  Salona. 

SALONIKA,  CORNELIA,  wife  of  Gallienus  and 
mother  of  Saloninus.  She  witnessed  with  her 
own  eyes  the  death  of  her  husband  before  Mi. 
Ian  in  A.D.  268. 

SALONINUS,  P.  LICINIUS  CORNELIUS  VALERIA- 
NUS,  son  of  Gallienus  and  Salonina,  grandson 
of  the  Emperor  Valerian.  When  his  father  and 


SALORDURUM. 


SAMARIA. 


grandfather  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus  in  [April,  in  conjunction  with  Pax,  Conjordia,  anJ 
A.D.  253,  the  youth  received  the  designation  of  Janus.  It  had  been  customary  at  Rome  even 
Caesar.  Some  years  afterward  he  was  left  in  year,  about  the  time  when  the  consuls  entered 
Gaul,  and  was  put  to  death  upon  the  capture  of  j  upon  their  office,  for  the  augurs  and  other  high- 
Colonia  Agrippina  by  Postumus  in  259,  being  j  priests  to  observe  the  signs  for  the  purpose  of 
about  seventeen  years  old.  j  ascertaining  the  fortunes'  of  the  republic  dur- 

SALORDURUM  (now  Soleure  or  Sololhurn),  a  ing  the  coming  year :  this  observation  of  the 
town  of  the  Helvetii,  on  the  road  from  Aventi-  signs  was  called  augurium  Salutis.  In  the  time 
cum  to  Vindonissa,  was  fortified  by  the  Romans  of  Cicero  this  ceremony  had  become  neglected  ; 
about  A.D.  350.  but  Augustus  restored  it,  and  the  custom  after- 

[SALSUL^E  FONS,  a  fountain  in  the  neighbor-  |  ward  remained  as  long  as  paganism  was  the  re- 
hood  of  the  Sordice  Lacus.  in  Gallia  Narbonen-  |  ligion  of  the  state.  Salus  was  represented,  like 


sis,  south  from  Narbo  :  it  corresponds  to  the 
Fountain  of  Sals es  near  the  Elang  de  Leucale.] 

SALSUM  FLUMEX,  a  tributary  of  the  Baetis,  in 
Hispania  Bactica,  between  Attegua  and  Attubis. 

SALVIANUS,  an  accomplished  ecclesiastical 
writer  of  the  fifth  century,  was  born  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Tre  ves,  and  passed  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  as  a  presbyter  of  the  church  at  Marseilles. 


Fortuna,  with  a  rudder,  a  globe  at  her  feet,  and 
sometimes  in  a  sitting  posture,  pouring  from  a 
patera  a  libation  upon  an  altar,  around  which  a 
serpent  is  winding. 

SALUSTIUS.     Vid.  SALLUSTHJS. 

SALVES  or  SALLUVII,  the  most  powerful  and 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  Ligurian  tribes,  inhab- 
ited the  southern  coast  of  Gaul  from  the  Rhone 


The  following  works  of  Salvianus  are  still  ex-  \  to  the  Maritime  Alps.  They  were  troublesome 
tant :  1.  Adversus  Avaritiam  Libri  IV.,  ad  Eccle-  '  neighbors  to  Massilia,  with  which  city  they  fre- 
tiam  Catholicam,  published  under  the  name  of !  quently  carried  on  war.  They  were  subdued 
Timotheus  about  A.D.  440.  2.  De  Providentia  s.  I  by  the  Romans  in  B.C.  123  after  a  long  and  ob- 
de  Gubernatione  Dei  et  de  Justo  Dei  prasentique  j  stinate  struggle,  and  the  colony  of  Aquae  Sex- 
Judicio  Libri,  written  during  the  inroads  by  the  tiae  was  founded  in  their  territory  by  the  con- 


barbarians  upon  the  Roman  empire,  451-455. 
3.  Epislola  IX.,  addressed  to  friends  upon  fa- 
miliar topics.  The  best  edition  of  these  works 
is  by  Baluzius,  8vo,  Paris,  1684. 

SALVIDIENUS  RUFUS,  Q.,  one  of  the  early 
friends  of  Octavianus  (Augustus),  whose  fleet 
he  commanded  in  the  war  against  Sextus  Pom- 
peius,  B.C.  42.  In  the  Perusinian  war  (41-40) 
he  took  an  active  part  as  one  of  Octavianus's 
legates  against  L.  Antonius  and  Fulvia.  He 
was  afterward  sent  into  Gallia  Narbonensis, 


sul  Sextius. 

SAMACHONITIS  LACUS.    Vid.  SEMECHONITIS  LA- 
CUS. 

SAMARA.     Vid.  SAMAROBRIVA. 

SAMAR!A  (Zapdpeia  :  Heb.  Shomron  ;  Chaldec, 


Shamrain  : 


vf,  2a//ape/r^f,  Samarltes,  pi. 


from  whence  he  wrote  to  M.  Antonius,  offering  \  in  the  centre  of  Palestine,  west  of  the  Jordan. 


,  Sa/uapemn,  Samantae),  afterward  SI- 
BASTE  (Zctiacm/  :  ruins  at  Sebustich),  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  Palestine,  was  built  by  Omri, 
king  of  Israel  (about  B.C.  922),  on  a  hill  in  the 
midst  of  a  plain  surrounded  by  mountains,  just 


to  induce  the  troops  in  his  province  to  desert 
from  Octavianus.  But  Antonius,  who  had  just 
been  reconciled  to  Octavianus,  betrayed  the 
treachery  of  Salvidienus.  The  latter  was  forth- 
with summoned  to  Rome  on  some  pretext,  and 
of  his  arrival  was  accused  by  Octavianus  in  the 
senate,  and  condemned  to  death,  40. 

SALVIUS,  the  leader  of  the  revolted  slaves  in 
Sicily,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Tryphon, 
which  he  assumed.  Vid.  TRYPHON. 

SALVIUS  JULIANOS.     Vid.  JDLIANUS. 

SALVIUS  OTHO.     Vid.  OTHO. 

[SALVIUS  or  SYLVIUS,  otherwise  called  POLE- 
MIUS,  the  author  of  a  sacred  calendar,  drawn  up 
A.D.  448,  which  is  entitled  Laterculus  s.  Index 
Dierum  Festorum,  and  which  includes  heathen 
as  well  as  Christian  festivals,  is  generally  be- 
lieved to  have.been  Bishop  of  Martigny,  in  the 
Valais.] 

SALUS,  a  Roman  goddess,  the  personification 
of  health,  prosperity,  and  the  public  welfare. 
In  the  first  of  these  three  senses  she  answers 
closely  to  the  Greek  Hygieia,  and  was  accord- 
ingly represented  in  works  of  art  with  the  same 
attributes  as  the  Greek  goddess.  In  the  sec- 
ond sense  she  represents  prosperity  in  general. 
In  the  third  sense  she  is  the  goddess  of  the  pub- 
lic welfare  (Salus  publica  or  Romana).  In  this 
capacity  a  temple  had  been  vowed  to  her,  in  the 
year  B.C.  397,  by  the  censor  C.  Junius  Bubul- 
cus,  on  the  Quirinal  Hill,  which  was  afterward 
decorated  with  paintings  by  C.  Fabius  Pictor. 
She  was  worshipped  publicly  on  the  30th  of 
49 


Its  name  was  derived  from  Shemer,  the  owner 
of  the  hill  which  Omri  purchased  for  its  site. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and 
the  chief  seat  of  the  idolatrous  worship  to  which 
the  ten  tribes  were  addicted,  until  it  was  taken 
by  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria  (about  B.C. 
720),  who  carried  away  the  inhabitants  of  the 
city  and  of  the  surrounding  country,  which  is 
also  known  in  history  as  Samaria  (vid.  below), 
and  replaced  them  by  heathen  tribes  from  the 
eastern  provinces  of  his  empire.  These  set- 
tlers, being  troubled  with  the  wild  beasts,  who 
had  become  numerous  in  the  depopulated  coun- 
try, sought  to  propitiate  the  god  of  the  land ; 
and  Esarhaddon  sent  them  a  priest  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi,  who  resided  at  Bethel,  and  taught  them 
the  worship  of  the  true  God.  Tne  result  was 
a  strange  mixture  of  religions  and  of  races. 
When  the  Jews  returned  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  those  of  the  Samaritans  who  wor- 
shipped Jehovah  offered  to  assist  them  in  re- 
building the  temple  at  Jerusalem  ;  but  their  aid 
was  refused,  and  hence  arose  the  lasting  hatred 
between  the  Jews  and  the  Samaritans.  This 
religious  animosity  reached  its  height  when,  in 
the  reign  of  Darius  Nothus,  the  son  of  the  Jew- 
ish high-priest,  having  married  the  daughter  of 
Sanballat,  governor  of  Samaria,  went  over  to 
the  Samaritans  and  became  high-priest  of  a 
temple  which  his  father-in-law  built  for  him  on 
Mount  Gerizim,  near  Sichem.  The  erection  ol 
this  temple  had  also  the  effect  of  diminishing 
the  importance  of  the  city  of  Samaria.  Under 

769 


SAMAROBRIVA. 

Ue  Syrian  kings  and  the  Maccahean  princes, 
we  find  the  name  of  Samaria  used  distinctly  as 
that  of  a  province,  which  consisted  of  the  dis- 
trict between  Galilee  on  the  north  and  Judaea 
on  the  south.  In  the  persecution  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  the  Samaritans  escaped  by  conform- 
ing to  the  king's  edicts  and  dedicating  the  tem- 
ple on  Mount  Gerizira  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Helle- 
nius,  B.C.  167.  As  the  power  of  the  Asmonean 
princes  increased,  they  attacked  the  Samari- 
tans ;  and,  about  B.C.  129,  John  Hyrcanus  took 
and  destroyed  the  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  and 
the  city  of  Samaria.  The  latter  seems  to  have 
been  soon  rebuilt.  Pompey  assigned  the  dis- 
trict to  the  province  of  Syria,  and  Gabinius  for- 
tified the  city  anew.  Augustus  gave  the  dis- 
trict to  Herod,  who  greatly  renovated  the  city 
of  Samaria,  which  he  called  Sebaste,  in  honor 
of  his  patron.  Still,  as  the  Samaritans  contin- 
ued to  worship  on  Mount  Gerizim,  even  after 
their  temple  had  been  destroyed,  the  neighbor- 
ing city  of  Sichem  was  regarded  as  their  cap- 
ital, and,  as  it  grew,  Samaria  declined  ;  and,  by 
the  fourth  century  of  our  era,  it  had  become  a 
place  of  no  importance.  Its  beautiful  site  is 
now  occupied  by  a  poor  village,  which  bears  the 
Greek  name  of  the  city,  slightly  altered,  viz., 
Scbustieh.  As  a  district  of  Palestine,  Samaria 
extended  from  Ginaea  (now  Jenin)  on  the  north, 
toBethhoron,northwestofGibeon,on  thesouth  ; 
or,  along  the  coast,  from  a  little  south  of  Caes- 
area  on  the  north,  to  a  little  north  of  Joppa  on 
the  south.  It  was  intersected  by  the  mountains 
of  Ephraim,  running  north  and  south  through  its 
middle,  and  by  their  lateral  branches,  which 
divide  the  country  into  beautiful  and  fertile  val- 
leys. For  its  political  history  after  the  time  of 
Herod  the  Great,  vid.  PAL^ESTINA.  A  remnant 
of  the  ancient  Samaritans  have  remained  in  the 
country  to  the  present  day,  especially  at  Nablous 
(the  ancient  Sichem),  and  have  preserved  their 
ancient  version  of  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  the 
only  part  of  the  Old  Testament  which  they  ac- 
knowledge. This  version  is  known  as  the  Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch,  and  is  of  vast  importance 
in  biblical  criticism. 

SAMAROBRIVA,  afterward  AMBIANI  (now.4mi- 
ens),  the  chief  town  of  the  Ambiani  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  on  the  River  Samara  ;  whence  its  name, 
which  signifies  Samara-Bridge. 

SAMBANA  (2«/i6cti>a),  a  city  of  Assyria,  two 
days'  journey  north  of  Sittace.  In  its  neigh- 
borhood dwelt  the  people  called  Sambatae  (20/4- 


SAME  A.STJE  (Zapftaarai),  a  people  of  India  intra 
Gangem,  on  the  Lower  Indus,  near  the  island 
Pattalene.  The  fort  of  Sevistan  or  Sehoun  in 
the  same  neighborhood  has  been  thought  to  pre- 
serve their  name,  and  is  by  some  identified  with 
the  Brahman  city  taken  by  Alexander. 

[SAMBCS  (2d//6of  :  now  Tschumbul  or  Sambul), 
a  tributary  of  the  Jomanes  in  India  intra  Gan- 
gem.] 

[SAMBUS  (2a,u6of,  Arr.  ;  2dfof,  Diod.  ;  2a'66ac> 
Plut.),  an  Indian  prince,  whose  kingdom  bor- 
dered on  Pattalene.  When  Alexander  penetrat- 
ed into  India,  Sambus  hastened  to  make  his  sub- 
mission to  him,  and  was  accordingly  left  in  the 
possession  of  his  kingdom.] 

SAME  or  SAMOS  (2dufl,  2d//of),  the  ancient 
name  of  Cephallenia.  Vid.  CEPHALLENIA.  It 
770 


SAMNIUM. 

'  was  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  four  towns  of 
Cephallenia.  The  town  Same  or  Samos  was 
situated  on  the  eastern  coast,  opposite  Ithaca, 
and  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Romans 
B.C. 189. 

SAMIA  (2au«z :  now  Khaiaffa),  a  town  of  Elis 
i  in  the  district  Triphylia,  south  of  Olympia,  be- 
tween Lepreum  and  the  Alpheus,  with  a  citadel 
called  SAMICUM  (2o//£«ov),  the  same  as  the  Ho 
meric  Arene. 

[SAMICUM.     Vid.  SAMIA.] 
SAMINTHUS  (2ci/uv0of  :  near  Phiklia},  a  place 
in  Argolis,  on  the  western  edge  of  the  Argive 
'  plain,  opposite  Mycenae. 

SAMN!UM  (Samnites,  more  rarely  Samnltae, 
i  pi.),  a  country  in  the  centre  of  Italy,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Marsi,  Peligni,  and  Marru- 
cini,  on  the  west  by  Latium  and  Campania,  on 
the  south  by  Lucania,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Frentani  and  Apulia.  The  Samnites  were  an 
i  offshoot  of  the  Sabines,  who  emigrated  from 
i  their  country  between  the  Nar,  the  Tiber,  and 
the  Anio,  before  the  foundation  of  Rome,  and 
settled  in  the  country  afterward  called  Sam- 
nium.  Vid.  SABINI.  This  country  was  at  the 
time  of  their  migration  inhabited  by  Opicans, 
whom  the  Samnites  conquered,  and  whose  lan- 
guage they  adopted  ;  for  we  find,  at  a  later  time, 
1  that  the  Samnites  spoke  Opican  or  Oscan. 
•  Samnium  is  a  country  marked  by  striking  phys- 
|  ical  features.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  occupied 
by  a  huge  mass  of  mountains,  called  at  the  pres- 
ent day  the  Matese,  which  stands  out  from  the 
central  line  of  the  Apennines.  The  circum- 
I  ference  of  the  Matese  is  between  seventy  and 
I  eighty  miles,  and  its  greatest  height  is  six  thou 
i  sand  feet.  The  two  most  important  tribes  of 
the  Samnites  were  the  CAUDINI  and  PENTRI,  of 
whom  the  former  occupied  the  southern  side, 
and  the  latter  the  northern  side  of  the  Matese. 
To  the  Caudini  belonged  the  towns  of  Allifae, 
Telesia,  and  Beneventum  ;  to  the  Pentri,  those 
of  ^Esernia,  Bovianum,  and  Sepinum.  Besides 
these  two  chief  tribes,  we  find  mention  of  the 
Caraceni,  who  dwelt  north  of  the  Pentri,  ana 
to  whom  the  town  of  Aufidena  belonged  ;  ana 
of  the  Hirpini,  who  dwelt  southeast  of  the  Cau- 
dini, but  who  are  sometimes  mentioned  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  Samnites.  The  Samnites  were 
distinguished  for  their  bravery  and  love  of  free- 
dom. Issuing  from  their  mountain  fastnesses, 
they  overran  a  great  part  of  Campania ;  and  it 
was  in  consequence  of  Capua  applying  to  the 
Romans  for  assistance  against  the  Samnites 
that  war  broke  out  between  the  two  nations  in 
B.C.  343.  The  Romans  found  the  Samnites  the 
most  warlike  and  formidable  enemies  whom 
they  had  yet  encountered  in  Italy ;  and  the  war, 
which  commenced  in  343,  was  continued  with 
few  interruptions  for  the  space  of  fifty-three 
years.  It  was  not  till  290,  when  all  their  brav- 
est troops  had  fallen,  and  their  country  had 
been  repeatedly  ravaged  in  every  direction  by 
the  Roman  legions,  that  the  Samnites  sued  for 
peace  and  submitted  to  the  supremacy  of  Rome. 
They  never,  however,  lost  their  love  of  free- 
dom ;  and,  accordingly,  they  not  only  joined  the 
other  Italian  allies  in  the  war  against  Rome  (90), 
but,  even  after  the  other  allies  had  submitted, 
they  still  continued  in  arms.  The  civil  war  be- 
tween Marius  and  Sulla  gave  them  hopes  of  re- 


SAMOLAS. 

covering  their  independence  ;  but  they  were  de-  ' 
feated  before  the  gates  of  Rome  (82),  the  great- 
er part  of  their  troops  fell  in  battle,  and  the  re- 
uiainder  were  put  to  death..  Their  towns  were 
laid  waste,  the  inhabitants  sold  as  slaves,  and 
their  place  supplied  by  Roman  colonists. 

[SAMOLAS  (Sa.u62.ac),  an  Achaean,  one  of  the 
three  commissioners  sent  by  the  Greek  auxili- 
aries of  Cyrus  from  Cotyora  to  Sinope  in  B.C.  i 
400  for  ships  to  convey  the  army  to  Heraclea.  j 
Not  long  after,  when  the  Greeks  were  at  Calpe, 
we  find  Samolas  commanding  a  division  of  the  ! 
reserve  in  the  successful  engagement  with  the  j 
allied  troops  of  the  Bithynians  and  Pharnaba-  j 
zus.] 

SAMOS  or  SAMUS  (Sauof:  2a,//toc,  Samius:  now  i 
Grk.  Samo,  Turk.   Susam  Adassi),  one  of  the 
principal  islands  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  lying  in 
that  portion  of  it  called  the  Icarian  Sea,  off  the 
coast  of  Ionia,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  | 
by  a  narrow  strait  formed  by  the  overlapping  j 
of  its  eastern  promontory  Posidium  (now  Cape  \ 
Colonna)  with  the  westernmost  spur  of  Mount  | 
Mycale,  Promontorium  Trogilium  (now  Cope  S.  i 
Maria).     This  strait,  which  is  little  more  than 
three  fourths  of  a  mile  wide,  was  the  scene  of 
the  battle  of  MYCALE.     The  island  is  formed  by 
a  range  of  mountains  extending  from  east  to 
west,  whence  it  derived  its  name ;  for  2u,«oj-  I 
was  an  old  Greek  word  signifying  a  mountain  :  J 
and  the  same  root  is  seen  in  Same,  the  old  I 
name  of  Cephallenia,  and  Samothrace,  t.  e.,  the  ] 
Thracian  Samos.     The  circumference  of  the 
island  is  about  eighty  miles.     It  was  and  is  very 
fertile ;  and  some  of  its  products  are  indicated 
by  its  ancient  names,  Dryusa,  Anthemura,  Me- 
lamphyllus,  and  Cyparissia.     According  to  the 
earliest  traditions,  it  was  a  chief  seat  of  the 
Carians  and  Leleges,  and  the  residence  of  their 
first  king,  Ancasus  ;  and  was  afterward  colo- 
nized by  ^Eolians  from  Lesbos,  and  by  lonians 
from  Epidaurus.     In  the  earliest  historical  rec- 
ords, we  find  Samos  decidedly  Ionian,  and  a  | 
powerful  member  of  the  Ionic  confederacy. 
Thucydides  tells  us  that  the  Samians  were  the 
first  of  the  Greeks,  after  the  Corinthians,  who 
paid  great  attention  to  naval  affairs.   They  early 
acquired  such  power  at  sea,  that,  besides  ob- 
taining possession  of  parts  of  the  opposite  coast 
of  Asia,  they  founded  many  colonies ;  among 
which  were  Bisanthe  and  Perinthus,  in  Thrace  ; 
Celenderis  and  Nagidus,  in  Cilicia;  Cydonia, 
in  Crete  ;  Dictearchia  (Puteoli),  in  Italy  ;  and 
Zancle  (Messana),  in  Sicily.     After  a  transition 
from  the  state  of  an  heroic  monarchy,  through 
an  aristocracy,  to  a  democracy,  the  island  be- 
came subject  to  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
so-called  tyrants,  POLYCHATES  (B.C.  532),  under 
whom   its  power  and  splendor  reached  their 
highest  pitch,  and  Samos  would  probably  have 
become  the  mjstress  of  the  ^Egean  but  for  the  , 
murder  of  Polycrates.     At  this  period  the  Sa-  i 
mians  had  extensive  commercial  relations  with 
Egypt,  and  they  obtained  from  Amasis  the  priv- 
ilege of  a  separate  temple  at  Naucratis.    Their  j 
commerce  extended  into  the  interior  of  Africa, 
partly  through  their  relations  with  Gyrene,  and  \ 
also  by  means  of  a  settlement  which  they  effect- 
ed in  one  of  the  Oases,  seven  days'  journey 
from  Thebes.     The  Samians  now  became  sub- 
ject to  the  Persian  empire,  under  which  they 


SAMOS. 

were  governed  by  tyrants,  with  a  brief  interval 
at  the  time  of  the  Ionic  revolt,  until  the  battle 
of  Mycale,  which  made  them  independent,  B.C. 
479.  They  now  joined  the  Athenian  confeder- 
acy, <of  which  they  continued  independent  mem- 
bers until  B.C.  440,  when  an  opportunity  arose 
for  reducing  them  to  entire  subjection  and  de- 
priving them  of  their  fleet,  which  was  effected 
by  Pericles  after  an  obstinate  resistance  of  nino 
months'  duration.  (For  the  details,  vid.  the  his 
tories  of  Greece.)  In  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
Samos  held  firm  to  Athens  to  the  last ;  and  in 
the  history  of  the  latter  part  of  that  war,  the 
island  becomes  extremely  important  as  the  head- 
quarters of  the  exiled  democratical  party  of  the 
Athenians.  Transferred  to  Sparta  after  the 
battle  of  ^Egospotami.  405,  it  was  soon  restored 
to  Athens  by  that  of  Cnidus,  394,  but  went 
over  to  Sparta  again  in  390.  Soon  after,  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Persians,  being  conquered 
by  the  satrap  Tigranes  ;  but  it  was  recovered 
by  Timotheus  for  Athens.  In  the  Social  war, 
the  Athenians  successfully  defended  it  against 
the  attacks  of  the  confederated  Chians,  Rho- 
dians,  and  Byzantines,  and  placed  in  it  a  body 
of  two  thousand  cleruchi,  B.C.  352.  After  Alex- 
ander's death,  it  was  taken  from  the  Athenians 
by  Perdiccas,  323,  but  restored  to  them  by 
Polysperchon,  319.  In  the  subsequent  period, 
it  seems  to  have  been  rather  nominally  than 
really  a  part  of  the  Greco-Syrian  kingdom  :  we 
find  it  engaged  in  a  long  contest  with  Priene  on 
a  question  of  boundary,  which  was  referred  to 
Antiochus  II.,  and  afterward  to  the  Roman  sen- 
ate. In  the  Macedonian  war,  Samos  was  taken 
by  the  Rhodians  again,  B.C.  200.  In  the  Syrian 
war,  the  Samians  took  part  with  Antiochus  the 
Great  against  Rome.  Little  further  mention  is 
made  of  Samos  till  the  time  of  Mithradates,  with 
whom  it  took  part  in  his  first  war  against  Rome, 
on  the  conclusion  of  which  it  was  finally  united 
to  the  province  of  Asia,  B.C.  84.  Meanwhile  it 
had  greatly  declined,  and  during  the  war  it  had 
been  wasted  by  the  incursions  of  pirates.  Its 
prosperity  was  partially  restored  under  the  pro- 
prsetorship  of  Q.  Cicero,  B.C.  62,  but  still  more 
by  the  residence  in  it  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
32,  and  afterward  of  Octavianus,  who  made  Sa- 
mos a  free  state.  It  was  favored  by  Caligula, 
but  was  deprived  of  its  freedom  by  Vespasian, 
and  it  sank  into  insignificance  as  early  as  the 
second  century,  although  its  departed  glory  is 
found  still  recorded,  under  the  Emperor  Decius, 
by  the  inscription  on  its  coins,  Zapiuv  irpuruv 
luviaf.  Samos  may  be  regarded  as  almost  the 
chief  centre  of  Ionian  manners,  energies,  lux- 
ury, science,  and  art.  In  very  early  times  there 
was  a  native  school  of  statuary,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  Rhoecus,  to  whom  tradition  ascribed 
the  invention  of  casting  in  metal.  Vid.  RHOJ- 
cus,  TKLECLKS,  THBODORUS.  In  the  hands  of 
the  same  school  architecture  flourished  greatly  ; 
the  Heraeum,  one  of  the  finest  of  Greek  temples, 
was  erected  in  a  marsh,  on  the  western  side  of 
the  city  of  Samos  ;  and  the  city  itself,  especially 
under  the  government  of  Polycrates,  was  fur- 
nished with  other  splendid  works,  among  which 
was  an  aqueduct  pierced  through  a  mountain 
Samian  architects  became  famous  also  beyond 
their  own  island  ;  as,  for  example,  Mandruclca, 
who  constructed  Darius's  bridge  over  the  Bos 

771 


SAMOSATA. 

poms.     In  painting,  the  island  produced  Calli-  ' 
phon,  Theodorus,  Agatharchus,  and  Timanthes.  | 
Its  pottery  was  celebrated  throughout  the  an-  j 
cient  world.     In  literature,  Samos  was  made 
illustrious  by  the  poets  Asius,  Chcerilus,*and  | 
^Eschrion  ;  by  the  philosophers  Pythagoras  and  | 
Melissus  ;  and  by  the   historians  Pagaeus  and  j 
Duris.      The  capital  city,  also  called  SAMOS, 
stood  on  the  southeastern  side  of  the  island,  j 
opposite  Promontorium  Trogilium,  partly  on  the  | 
shore,  and  partly  rising  on  the  hills  behind  in 
the  form  of  an  amphitheatre.     It  had  a  magnif- 
icent harbor,  and  numerous  splendid  buildings, 
among  which,  besides  the  Heraeum  and  other 
temples,  the  chief  were  the  senate-house,  the 
theatre,  and  a  gymnasium  dedicated  to  Eros. 
In  the  time  of  Herodotus,  Samos  was  reckoned 
one  of  the  finest  cities  of  the  world.     Its  ruins 
are  so  considerable  as  to  allow  its  plan  to  be 
traced :    there  are   remains  of  its  walls   and 
towers,  and  of  the  theatre  and  aqueduct.     The 
Heraeum  already  mentioned,  celebrated  as  one 
of  the  best  early  specimens  of  the  Doric  order 
of  architecture,  and  as  the  chief  centre  of  the 
worship  of  Juno  (Hera)  among   the  Ionian 
Greeks,  stood  about  two  miles  west  of  the  city. 
Its  erection  is  ascribed  to  Rhcecus  and  his  sons. 
It  was  burned  by  the  Persians,  but  soon  rebuilt, 
probably  in  the  time  of  Polycrates.    This  second 
temple  was  of  the  Ionic  order,  decastyle  dipte- 
ral, three  hundred  and  forty-six  feet  long  by  one 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  wide,  and  is  spoken 
of  by  Herodotus  as  the  largest  temple  that  he 
knew.     It  was  gradually  filled  with  works  of 
sculpture  and  painting,  of  which  it  was  plunder- 
ed, first  by  the  pirates  in  the  Mithradatic  war, 
then  by  Verres,  and  lastly  by  Marcus  Antonius. 
Nothing  is  left  of  it  but  traces  of  the  founda- 
tions and  a  single  capital  and  base. 

SAMOSATA  (ra  Sa/iderara  :  J^afioaarsvf,  Samo- 
satensis  :  now  Someisat),  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, and  afterward  kingdom,  of  Commagene, 
in  the  north  of  Syria,  stood  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  northwest  of  Edessa.  It  was 
strongly  fortified  as  a  frontier  post  against  Os- 
roene.  In  the  first  century  of  our  era  it  was 
the  capital  of  the  kings  of  Commagene.  It  is 
celebrated  in  literary  history  as  the  birth-place 
of  Lucian,  and  in  church  history  as  that  of  the 
heretic  Paul,  bishop  of  Antioch,  in  the  third 
century.  Nothing  remains  of  it  but  a  heap  of 
ruins  on  an  artificial  mound. 

SAMOTHRACE  (2a/j.o6pait7i,  'Lafj.odpu.Kia,  Ep.  17 
2a/<of  QprjiKir) :  2a/jt60paK£{  :  now  Samothraki), 
a  small  island  in -the  north  of  the  ^Egean  Sea, 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Hebrus  in  Thrace, 
from  which  it  was  thirty-eight  miles  distant. 
It  is  about  thirty-two  miles  in  circumference, 
and  contains  in  its  centre  a  lofty  mountain,  call- 
ed SAOCE,  from  which  Homer  says  that  Troy 
could  be  seen.  Samothrace  bore  various  names 
in  ancient  times.  It  is  said  to  have  been  called 
Melite,  Saonnesus,  Leucosia,  and  more  frequent- 
ly Dardania,  from  Dardanus,  the  founder  of 
Troy,  who  is  reported  to  have  settled  here.  Ho- 
mer calls  the  island  simply  Samos ;  sometimes 
the  Thracian  Samos,  because  it  was  colonized, 
according  to  some  accounts,  from  Samos  on  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Samothrace  was  the  chief 
seat  of  the  worship  of  the  Cabiri  (vid.  CABIRI), 
and  was  celebrated  for  its  religious  mysteries, 
772 


SANCUS. 

which  were  some  of  the  most  famous  in  the 
ancient  world.  Their  origin  dates  from  the 
time  of  the  Pelasgians,  who  are  said  to  have 
been  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  island  ;  and 
they  enjoyed  great  celebrity  down  to  a  very  late 
period,  both  Philip  of  Macedon  and  his  wife 
Olympias  were  initiated  in  them.  The  political 
history  of  Samothrace  is  of  little  importance. 
The  Samothracians  fought  on  the  side  of  Xerxes 
at  the  battle  of  Salamis ;  and  at  this  time  they 
possessed  on  the  Thracian  main  land  a  few 
places,  such  as  Sale,  Serrhion,  Mesambria,  and 
Tempyra.  In  the  time  of  the  Macedonian  kings, 
Samothrace  appears  to  have  been  regarded  as 
a  kind  of  asylum,  and  Perseus  accordingly  fled 
thither  after  his  defeat  by  the  Romans  at  the 
battle  of  Pydna. 

SAMPSICERAMUS,  the  name  of  a  petty  prince 
of  Emesa  in  Syria,  a  nickname  given  by  Cicero 
to  Cneius  Pompeius. 

[SANA  (Sf'tvj?),  a  town  on  the  west  coast  of 
Pallene,  south  of  Potidaea,  a  colony  of  Andros.] 

SANCHUNIATHON  (Say^ouinaflwv),  said  to  have 
been  an  ancient  Phoenician  writer,  whose  works 
were  translated  into  Greek  by  Philo  Byblius, 
who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  first  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  A  considerable  fragment 
of  the  translation  of  Philo  is  preserved  by  Eu- 
sebius  in  the  first  book  of  his  Praparatio  Evan- 
!  gelica.  The  most  opposite  opinions  have  been 
!  held  by  the  learned  respecting  the  authenticity 
j  and  value  of  the  work  of  Sanchuniathon  ;  but 
i  it  is  now  generally  agreed  among  modern 
scholars  that  the  work  was  a  forgery  of  Philo. 
Nor  is  it  difficult  to  see  with  what  object  the 
forgery  was  executed.  Philo  was  one  of  the 
many  adherents  of  the  doctrine  of  Euhemerus, 
that  all  the  gods  were  originally  men,  who  had 
distinguished  themselves  in  their  lives  as  kings, 
warriors,  or  benefactors  of  man,  and  became 
worshipped  as  divinities  after  their  death.  This 
doctrine  Philo  applied  to  the  religious  system 
of  the  Oriental  nations,  and  especially  of  the 
Phoenicians;  and  in  order  to  gain  more  credit 
for  his  statements,  he  pretended  that  they  were 
taken  from  an  ancient  Phoenician  writer.  San- 
chuniathon, he  says,  was  a  native  of  Berytus, 
lived  in  the  time  of  Semiramis,  and  dedicated 
his  work  to  Abibalus,  king  of  Berytus.  The 
fragments  of  this  work  have  been  published 
separately  by  J.  C.  Orelli,  Lips.,  1826.  In  1835 
a  manuscript,  purporting  to  be  the  entire  trans 
lation  of  Philo  Byblius,  was  discovered  in  a 
convent  in  Portugal.  The  Greek  text  was  pub- 
lished by  Wagenfeld,  Bremae,  1837.  It  was  a) 
first  regarded  as  genuine,  but  is  now  universal- 
ly agreed  to  have  been  the  forgery  of  a  later  age. 

SANCUS,  SANGUS,  or  SEMO  SANCUS,  a  Roman 
divinity  said  to  have  been  originally  a  Sabin* 
god,  and  identical  with  Hercules  and  Dius  Fid 
ius.  The  name,  which  is  etymologically  th< 
same  as  Sanclus,  and  connected  with  Sancire 
seems  to  justify  this  belief,  and  characterize! 
Sancus  as  a  divinity  presiding  over  oaths.  San 
cus  also  had  a  temple  at  Rome,  on  the  Quirinal, 
opposite  that  of  Quirinus,  and  close  by  the  gate, 
which  derived  from  him  the  name  of  Sanqbalis 
porta.  This  sanctuary  was  the  same  as  that 
of  Dius  Fidius,  which  was  consecrated  B.C.  405 
by  Sp.  Postumius,  but  was  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Tarquinius  Superbus. 


SANDROCOTTUS. 

SANDKOCOTTUS  (2av<5p6/corrof),  an  Indian  king  j 
at  the  time  of  Seleudus  Nicator,  ruled  over  the 
powerful  nation  of  the  Gangaridae  and  Prasii  on  ! 
the  banks  of  the  Ganges.     He  was  a  man  of 
mean  origin,  and  was  the  leader  of  a  band  of 
robbers  before  he  obtained  the  supreme  power. 
In  the  troubles  which  followed  the  death  of 
Alexander,  he  extended  his  dominions  over  the 
greater  part  of  Northern  India,  and  conquered 
the  Macedonians,  who  had  been  left  by  Alexan- 
der in  the  Punjab.      His  dominions  were  in- 
vaded by  Seleucus,  who  did  not,  however,  suc- 
ceed in  the  object  of  his  expedition  ;  for,  in  the 
peace  concluded  between  the  two  monarchs, 
Seleucus  ceded  to  Sandrocottus  not  only  his 
conquests  in  the  Punjab,  but  also  the  country 
of  the  Paropamisus.     Seleucus,  in  return,  re- 
ceived five  hundred  war  elephants.     Megas- 
thenes  subsequently  resided  for  many  years  at ', 
the  court  of  Sandrocottus  as  the  ambassador  of 
Seleucus.     Vid.  MEGASTHENES.      Sandrocottus  j 
is  probably  the  same  as  the  Chandragupla  of  j 
the  Sanscrit  writers.     The  history  of  Chandra-  , 
gupta  forms  the  subject  of  a  Hindoo  drama,  en- ! 
titled  Mudra  Rakshasa,  which  has  been  trans- 
lated from  the  Sanscrit  by  Prof.  Wilson. 

[SANGA  FABIUS,  Q.,  the  patronus  of  the  Al-  , 
lobroges,  to  whom  the  ambassadors  of  that  peo- 
ple disclosed  the  treasonable  designs  of  Cati-  ! 
line  and  his  accomplices.   Sanga  communicated  ; 
the  intelligence  to  Cicero,  who  was  thus  ena-  '• 
bled  to  obtain  the  evidence  which  led  to  the  ' 
apprehension  and  execution  of  Lentulus  and  his  ; 
associates,  B.C.  63.     Q.  F.  Sanga  is  mentioned 
as  one  of  the  friends  of  Cicero  who  besought 
the  consul  L.  Piso,  in  B.C.  58,  not  to  support  | 
Clodius  in  his  measures  against  Cicero.] 

SANGARIUS,  SANOARIS,  or  SAGARIS  (Sayyuptof, 
Suyyaptf,  Sdypayof  :  now  Sakariyeh),  the  larg- 
est river  of  Asia  Minor  after  the  Halys,  had  its  ; 
source  in  a  mountain  called  Adoreus,  near  the  } 
little  town  of  Sangia,  on  the  borders  of  Gala-  | 
tia  and  Phrygia,  whence  it  flowed  first  north  : 
through    Galatia,   then    west    and    northwest 
through  the  northeastern  part  of  Phrygia,  and  j 
then  north  through  Bithynia,  of  which  it  orig- , 
inally  formed  the  eastern  boundary.     It  fell  at 
last  into  the  Euxine,  about  half  way  between 
the  Bosporus  and  Heraclea.     It  was  navigable  • 
in  the  lower  part  of  its  course.     Its  chief  trib- 
utaries were  the  Tbymbres  or  Thymbrus,  the  ! 
Bathys,  and  the  Gallus,  flowing  into  it  from  the 
\vest. 

SANGIA.     Vid.  SANGARIUS. 

SANMO,  a  name  of  the  buffoon  in  the  mimes, 
derived  from  sanna,  whence  comes  the  Italian 
Zanni  (hence  our  Zany). 

SANNYRION  (Sawvpiuv),  an  Athenian  comic 
poet,  belonging  to  the  latter  years  of  the  Old 
Comedy,  and  the  beginning  of  the  Middle.  He 
flourished  B.C:  407  and  onward.  We  know 
nothing  of  his  personal  history  except  that  his 
excessive  leanness  was  ridiculed  by  Strattis  and 
Aristophanes. 

SANTONES  or  SANTONI,  a  powerful  people  hi 
Gallia  Aquitanica,  dwelt  on  the  coast  of  the 
ocean,  north  of  the  Garumna.  Under  the  Ro- 
mans they  were  a  free  people.  Their  chief 
town  was  Mediolanum,  afterward  Santones 
(now  Saintes).  Their  country  produced  a  spe- 
ries  of  wormwood  which  was  much  valued. 


SAPPHO. 

[SAOCE.     Vid.  SAMOTHRACE.] 

SAOCORAS.      Vid.  MASCAS. 

SAPJEI  (2a7ra?o«,  SuTratot),  a  people  in  Thrace, 
dwelt  on  Mount  Pangaeus,  between  the  Lake 
Bistonis  and  the  coast. 

SAPHAR,  SAPPHAR,  orTAPHAR  (Sd^cpor'A^ap. 
SuTr^ap,  TuQapov  :  ruins  at  Dhafar),  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  Arabia,  stood  oh  the  southern 
coast  of  Arabia  Felix,  opposite  to  the  Aromata 
Promontorium  (now  Cape  Guardafui)  in  Africa. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Homeritae,  a  part  of 
which  tribe  bore  the  name  of  Sapharltae  or  Sap 
pharitae  (Sajr^apmu). 

SAPIS  (now  Savio),  a  small  river  in  Gallia  Cis 
alpina,  rising  in  the  Apennines,  and  flowing  into 
the  Adriatic  south  of  Ravenna,  between  the  Po 
and  the  Aternus. 

SAPOR.     Vid.  SASSANID^E. 

SAPPHO  (Son-pcj,  or,  in  her  own  JSolic  dialect, 
i'uJT^aJ.one  of  the  two  great  leaders  of  the  .Eo 
lian  school  of  lyric  poetry  (Alcaeus  being  the 
other),  was  a  native  of  Mytilene,  or,  as  some 
said,  of  Eresos  in  Lesbos.  Her  father's  name 
was  Scamandronymus,  who  died  when  she  was 
only  six  years  old.  She  had  three  brothers, 
Charaxus,  Larichus,  and  Eurigius.  Charaxus 
was  violently  upbraided  by  his  sister  in  a  poem 
because  he  became  so  enamored  of  the  courte- 
san Rhodopis  at  Naucratis,  in  Egypt,  as  to  ran- 
som her  from  slavery  at  an  immense  price.  Vid. 
CHARAXUS.  Sappho  was  contemporary  with  Al- 
caeus, Stesichorus,  and  Pittacus.  That  she  was 
not  only  contemporary,  but  lived  in  friendly  in- 
tercourse with  Alcaeus,  is  shown  by  existing 
fragments  of  the  poetry  of  both.  Of  the  events 
of  her  life  we  have  no  other  information  than 
an  obscure  allusion  in  the  Parian  Marble,  and 
in  Ovid  (Her.,  xv.,  51),  to  her  flight  from  Myti- 
lene to  Sicily  to  escape  some  unknown  danger, 
between  604  and  592;  and  the  common  story 
that,  being  in  love  with  Phaon,  and  finding  her 
love  unrequited,  she  leaped  down  from  the  Leu- 
cadian  rock.  This  story,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  an  invention  of  later  times.  The 
name  of  Phaon  does  not  occur  in  one  of  Sap- 
pho's poems,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  it 
was  mentioned  in  her  poems.  As  for  the  leap 
from  the  Leucadian  rock,  it  is  a  mere  metaphor, 
which  is  taken  from  an  expiatory  rite  connected 
with  the  worship  of  Apollo,  which  seems  to 
have  been  a  frequent  poetical  image.  At  Myti- 
lene Sappho  appears  to  have  been  the  centre  of 
a  female  literary  society,  most  of  the  members 
of  which  were  her  pupils  in  poetry,  fashion, 
and  gallantry.  Modern  writers  have  indeed  at- 
tempted to  prove  that  the  moral  character  of 
Sappho  was  free  from  all  reproach  ;  but  it  is 
impossible  to  read  the  fragments  which  remain 
of  her  poetry  without  being  forced  to  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  a  female  who  could  write 
such  poetry  could  not  be  the  pure  and  virtuous 
woman  which  her  modern  apologists  pretend. 
Of  her  poetical  genius,  however,  there  can  not 
be  a  question.  The  ancient  writers  ajjret:  in 
expressing  the  most  unbounded  admiration  for 
her  poetry.  Already  in  her  own  age  the  reci- 
tation of  one  of  her  poems  so  affected  Solon 
that  he  expressed  an  earnest  desire  to  learn  it 
before  he  died.  Her  lyric  poems  formed  nine 
books,  but  of  these  only  fragments  have  come 
down  to  us.  The  most  important  is  a  splendid 

773 


SARANC^E. 

ode  to  Aphrodite  (Venus),  of  which  we  perhaps 
possess  the  whole.  The  best  separate  edition 
of  the  fragments  is  by  Neue,  Berol,  1827. 

SARANC.S:,  SARANO^E,  or  SARANGES  (Eapuyyat, 
Sapiyye'ec.  Herod.),  a  people  of  Sogdiana. 

SARAVUS  (now  Saar),  a  small  river  in  Gaul, 
flowing  into  the  Mosella  on  its  right  bank. 

SARDANAPALUS  CZapdavi'nraZof),  the  last  king 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  of  Ninus  or  Nineveh, 
noted  for  his  luxury,  licentiousness,  and  effem- 
inacy. He  passed  his  time  in  his  palace  un- 
seen by  anj  of  his  subjects,  dressed  in  female 
apparel,  and  surrounded  by  concubines.  At 
length  Arbaces,  satrap  of  Media,  and  Belesys, 
the  noblest  of  the  Chaldsean  priests,  resolved  to 
renounce  allegiance  to  such  a  worthless  mon- 
arch, and  advanced  at  the  head  of  a  formidable 
army  against  Nineveh.  But  all  of  a  sudden  the 
effeminate  prince  threw  off  his  luxurious  hab- 
its, and  appeared  an  undaunted  warrior.  Placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  he  twice  de- 
feated the  rebels,  but  was  at  length  worsted  and 
obliged  to  shut  himself  up  in  Nineveh.  Here 
he  sustained  a  siege  for  two  years,  till  at  length, 
finding  it  impossible  to  hold  out  any  longer,  he 
collected  all  his  treasures,  wives,  and  concu- 
bines, and  placing  them  on  an  immense  pile 
which  he  had  constructed,  set  it  on  fire,  and 
thus  destroyed  both  himself  and  them.  The 
enemies  then  obtained  possession  of  the  city. 
This  is  the  account  of  Ctesias,  which  has  been 
preserved  by  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  which  has 
been  followed  by  most  subsequent  writers  and 
ohronologists.  The  death  of  Sardanapalus  and 
the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire  is  placed  B.C. 
876.  Modern  writers,  however,  have  shown 
that  the  whole  narrative  of  Ctesias  is  mythical, 
and  must  not  be  received  as  a  genuine  history. 
The  legend  of  Sardanapalus,  who  so  strangely 
appears  at  one  time  sunk  in  the  lowest  effem- 
inacy, and  immediately  afterward  an  heroic  war- 
rior, has  probably  arisen  from  his  being  the  same 
with  the  god  Sandon,  who  was  worshipped  ex- 
tensively in  Asia,  both  as  a  heroic  and  a  fe- 
male divinity.  The  account  of  Ctesias  is  also 
in  direct  contradiction  to  Herodotus  and  the 
writers  of  the  Old  Testament.  Herodotus  places 
the  revolt  of  the  Medes  from  the  Assyrians  about 
710,  but  relates  that  an  Assyrian  kingdom  still 
continued  to  exist,  which  was  not  destroyed 
till  the  capture  of  Nineveh  by  the  Median  king 
Cyaxares,  about  606.  Further,  the  writers  of 
the  Old  Testament  represent  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire in  its  glory  in  the  eighth  century  before  the 
Christian  era.  It  was  during  this  period  that 
Pul,Tiglath-pileser,  Shalmaneser,  and  Sennach- 
erib appear  as  powerful  kings  of  Assyria,  who, 
not  contented  with  their  previous  dominions, 
subdued  Israel,  Phoenicia,  and  the  surrounding 
countries.  In  order  to  reconcile  these  state- 
ments with  those  of  Ctesias,  modern  writers 
have  invented  two  Assyrian  kingdoms  at  Nin- 
eveh, one  which  was  destroyed  on  the  death 
of  Sardanapalus,  and  another  which  was  estab- 
lished after  that  event,  and  fell  on  the  capture 
of  Nineveh  by  Cyaxares.  But  this  is  a  purely 
gratuitous  assumption,  unsupported  by  any  evi- 
dence. We  nave  only  records  of  one  Assyrian 
empire  and  of  one  destruction  of  Nineveh. 

SARDEMISUS,  a  branch  of  Mount  Taurus,  ex- 
tending southward  on  the  borders  of  Pisidia 
774 


SARDINIA. 

'  and  Pamphylia  as  far  as  PI  aselis  in  J,ycia 
whence  it  was  continued  in  the  chain  called 
Climax.  It  divided  the  district  of  Milyas  from 
Pisidia  Proper. 

SARDENE    (Zapdevri),  a  mountain   of  Mysia, 
north  of  the  Hermus,  near  Cyrne.     The  town 
of  Neontichos  was  built  on  its  side. 
[SARDES.     Vid.  SARDIS.] 
SARDI.      Vid.  SARDINIA. 

[SARDICA,  also  called   ULPIA   SARDICA  (now 
Tnaditza,  near  Sophia),  a  city  of  Moesia  Supe- 
rior, in  a  plain  watered  by  the  River  CEscus.    It 
j  derived  its  name  Ulpia  from  the  inhabitants  of 
j  Ulpia,  in  Dacia  Trajani,  having  been  transfer- 
j  red  thither.     In  its  vicinity  the  Emperor  Max- 
i  imian  was  born,  and  it  was  also  famous  for  a 
council  held  there.] 

SARDINIA  (7  2ap<5u  or  Zapduv,  G.  Sapdovor, 
I  D.  2ap<5oi,  A.  2ap<5u  :  subsequently  Zapduvia, 
2ap(!av(a,  or  2apdr/via :  2ap(5(jof,  2ap<5wtof,  2ap- 
duvwf,  Sardus :  now  Sardinia),  a  large  island 
in  the  Mediterranean,  is  in  shape  in  the  form  of 
a  parallelogram,  upward  of  one  hundred  and 
forty  nautical  miles  in  length  from  north  to 
south,  with  an  average  breadth  of  sixty.  It 
was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  the  largest  of 
the  Mediterranean  islands,  and  this  opinion, 
though  usually  considered  an  error,  is  now 
found  to  be  correct,  since  it  appears  by  actual 
admeasuremept  that  Sardinia  is  a  little  larger 
than  Sicily.  Sardinia  lies  in  almost  a  central 
position  between  Spain,  Gaul,  Italy,  and  Africa. 
The  ancients  derived  its  name  from  Sardus,  a 
son  of  Hercules,  who  was  worshipped  in  the 
island  under  the  name  of  Sardus  pater.  The 
Greeks  called  it  Ichnusa  ('Ixvovaa),  from  its  re- 
semblance to  the  print  of  a  foot,  and  Sandalio- 
tis  (SavdaTiiuTie),  from  its  likeness  to  a  sandal. 
A  chain  of  mountains  runs  along  the  whole  of 
the  eastern  side  of  the  island  from  north  to 
south,  occupying  about  one  third  of  its  surface. 
These  mountains  were  called  by  the  ancients 
Insani  Montes,  a  name  which  they  probably  de- 
rived* from  their  wild  and  savage  appearance, 
and  from  their  being  the  haunt  of  numerous 
robbers.  In  the  western  and  southern  parts  of 
Sardinia  there  are  numerous  plains,  intersected 
by  ranges  of  smaller  hills  ;  but  this  part  of  the 
island  was  in  antiquity,  as  in  the  present  day, 
exceedingly  unhealthy.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Termus  (now  Terijto)  in  the  north,  the 
Thyrsus  (now  Oristano)  on  the  west  (the  larg- 
est river  in  the  island),  and  the  Flumen  Sacrum 
(now  Uras)  and  the  Saeprus  (now  Flumendoso) 
on  the  east.  The  chief  towns  in  the  island 
were,  on  the  northern  coast,  Tibula  (now  Porte 
Polio)  and  Turris  Libyssonis  ;  on  the  southern 
coast,  Sulci  and  Caralis  (now  Cagliari);  on  the 
eastern  coast,  Olbia ;  and  in  the  interior,  Cor- 
nus  (now  Corneto)  and  Nora  (now  Nurri).  Sar- 
dinia was  very  fertile,  but  was  not  extensively 
cultivated,  in  consequence  of  the  uncivilized 
character  of  its  inhabitants.  Still,  the  plains  in 
the  western  and  southern  parts  of  the  island 
produced  a  great  quantity  of  corn,  of  which  a 
large  quantity  was  exported  to  Rome  every 
year.  Among  the  products  of  the  island,  one  ol" 
the  most  celebrated  was  the  Sardonica  hcrba.  a 
poisonous  plant,  which  was  said  to  produce  fa- 
tal convulsions  in  the  person  who  ate  of  it. 
!  These  convulsions  agitated  and  distorted  tan 


SARDINIA. 

mouth  so  that  the  person  appeared  to  laugh, 
though  in  excruciating  pain  ;  hence  the  well- 
known  risus  Sardonicus.  No  plant  possessing 
these  properties  is  found  at  present  in  Sardinia  ;  j 
and  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  whole  tale  may 
have  arisen  from  a  piece  of  bad  etymology,  since 
we  find  mention  in  Homer  of  the  2ap<5uvte>f  ye- 
TiUf  which  can  not  have  any  reference  to  Sar- 
dinia, but  is  probably  connected  with  the  verb 
oa/pciv,  "to  grin."  Another  of  the  principal 
productions  of  Sardinia  was  its  wool,  which  was 
obtained  from  a  breed  of  domestic  animals  be- 
tween a  sheep  and  a  goat,  called  mu&noms. 
The  skins  of  theee  animals  were  used  by  the 
inhabitants  as  clothes,  whence  we  find  them 
often  called  Pelliti  and  Mastrucati.  Sardinia 
also  contained  a  large  quantity  of  the  precious 
metals,  especially  silver,  the  mines  of  which 
were  worked  in  antiquity  to  a  great  extent. 
There  were  likewise  numerous  mineral  springs, 
and  large  quantities  of  salt  were  manufactured 
on  the  western  and  southern  coasts.  The  pop-  | 
nlation  of  Sardinia  was  of  a  very  mixed  kind.  ! 
To  what  race  the  original  inhabitants  belonged  j 
we  are  not  informed  ;  but  it  appears  that  Phoe- ! 
nicians,  Tyrrhenians,  and  Carthaginians  settled  I 
in  the  island  at  different  periods.  The  Greeks  ' 
are  also  said  to  have  planted  colonies  in  the 
island,  but  this  account  is  very  suspicious.  The 
first  Greek  colony  is  said  to  have  been  led  by 
lolaus,  a  son  of  Hercules,  and  from  him  a  tribe 
in  the  island,  called  lolai  ('loAaoi,  'loldeioc,  'lo- 
Aaeff),  or  llienses  ('I/iteif)  derived  their  name. 
These  were  some  of  the  most  ancient  inhabit- 
ants of  Sardinia,  and  were  probably  not  of  Greek, 
but  Tyrrhenian  origin.  Their  name  is  still  pre- 
served in  the  modern  town  of  lliola,  in  the  mid-  j 
die  of  the  western  coast.  We  also  find  in  the  ! 
island  Corsi,  who  had  crossed  over  from  Corsi- 
ca, and  Balari,  who  were  probably  descendants 
of  the  Iberian  and  Libyan  mercenaries  of  the 
Carthaginians,  who  revolted  from  the  latter  in 
the  first  Punic  war,  and  settled  in  the  mount- 
ains. At  a  later  time  all  these  names  became 
merged  under  the  general  appellation  of  SARDI, 
although,  even  in  the  Roman  period,  we  still 
find  mention  of  several  tribes  in  the  island  un- 
der distinct  names.  The  Sardi  are  described 
as  a  rude  and  savage  people,  addicted  to  thiev- 
ery and  lying.  Sardinia  was  known  to  the 
Greeks  as  early  as  B.C.  500,  since  we  find  that 
Histianis  of  Miletus  promised  Darius  that  he 
would  render  the  island  of  Sardo  tributary  to 
his  power.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Carthagin- 
ians at  an  early  period,  and  continued  in  their 
possession  till  the  end  of  the  first  Punic  war. 
Shortly  after  this  event,  the  Romans  availed 
themselves  of  the  dangerous  war  which  the 
Carthaginians  were  carrying  on  against  their 
mercenaries  in  Africa  to  take  possession  of 
Sardinia,  B.C/238.  It  was  now  formed  into  a 
Roman  -province,  under  the  government  of  a 
praetor  but  a  large  portion  of  it  was  only  nom- 
inally subject  to  the  Romans,  and  it  was  not 
till  after  many  years  and  numerous  revolts  that 
the  inhabitants  submitted  to  the  Roman  domin- 
ion. It  was  after  one  of  these  revolts  that  so 
many  Sardinians  were  thrown  upon  the  slave- 
market  as  to  give  rise  to  the  proverb  "Sardi 
venales,"  to  indicate  any  cheap  and  worthless 
.  commodity.  In  fact,  the  inhabitants  of  the 


SARDOUM. 

'mountains  in  the  eastern  side  of  the  island 
were  never  completely  subdued,  and  gave  trou- 
ble to  the  Romans  even  in  the  time  of  Tibe- 
rius. Sardinia  continued  to  belong  to  the  Ro- 
man empire  till  the  fifth  century,  when  it  was 
taken  possession  of  by  the  Vandals. 

SARDIS  or  SARDES  (at  Supdftf,  Ion.  2upfltf{, 
contracted  Zup&f  :  Zdpdtuf,  2ap6iuv6f,  Ion.  2ap- 
dijyrdf,  Sardianus  :  ruins  at  Sart),  one  of  the 
most  ancient  and  famous  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  capital  of  the  great  Lydian  monarchy, 
stood  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  rich  valley 
of  the  Hermus,  at  the  northern  foot  of  Mount 
Tmolus,  on  the  little  River  Pactolus,  thirty  sta- 
dia (three  geographical  miles)  south  of  the  junc- 
tion of  that  river  with  the  Hermus.  On  a  lofty 
precipitous  rock,  forming  an  outpost  of  the  range 
of  Tmolus,  \vas  the  almost  impregnable  citadel, 
which  some  suppose  to  be  the  Hyde  of  Homer, 
who,  though  he  never  mentions  the  Lydians  or 
Sardis  by  name,  speaks  of  Mount  Tmolus  and 
the  Lake  of  Gyges.  The  erection  of  this  cita- 
del was  ascribed  to  Meles,  an  ancient  king  of 
Lydia.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  triple  wall,  and 
contained  the  palace  and  treasury  of  the  Lyd- 
ian kings.  At  the  downfall  of  the  Lydian  em- 
pire it  resisted  all  the  attacks  of  Cyrus,  and 
was  only  taken  by  surprise.  The  story  is  told 
by  Herodotus,  who  relates  other  legends  of  the 
fortress.  The  rest  of  the  city,  which  stood  on 
the  plain  on  both  sides  of  the  Pactolus,  was 
very  slightly  built,  and  was  repeatedly  burned 
down,  first  by  the  Cimmerians,  then  by  the 
Greeks  in  the  great  Ionic  revolt,  and  again,  in 
part  at  least,  by  Antiochus  the  Great ;  but  on 
each  occasion  it  was  restored.  For  its  history 
as  the  capital  of  the  Lydian  monarchy,  vid. 
LYDIA.  Under  the  Persian  and  Greco-Syrian 
empires,  it  was  the  residence  of  the  satrap  of 
Lydia.  The  rise  of  Pergamus  greatly  dimin- 
ished its  importance  ;  but  under  the  Romans  it 
was  still  a  considerable  city,  and  the  seat  of  a 
conventus  juridicus.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius 
it  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake, but  it  was  restored  by  the  emperor's  aid. 
It  was  one  of  the  earliest  seats  of  the  Christian 
religion,  and  one  of  the  seven  churches  of  the 
province  of  Asia,  to  which  St.  John  addressed 
the  Apocalypse  ;  but  the  apostle's  language  im- 
plies that  the  church  at  Sardis  had  already  sunk 
into  almost  hopeless  decay  (Rev.,  iii.,  1,  foil.). 
In  the  wars  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  city  was 
entirely  destroyed,  and  its  site  now  presents  one 
of  the  most  melancholy  scenes  of  desolation  to 
be  found  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities. 
Though  its  remains  extend  over  a  large  sur- 
face on  the  plain,  they  scarcely  present  an  ob- 
ject of  importance,  except  two  or  three  Ionic 
columns,  belonging  probably  to  a  celebrated 
temple  of  Cybele.  The  chief  of  the  other  re- 
mains are  those  of  a  theatre,  stadium,  and  a 
building  supposed  to  be  the  senate-house.  Th« 
triple  wall  of  the  acropolis  can  still  be  traced, 
and  some  of  its  lofty  towers  are  standing.  The 
necropolis  of  the  city  stood  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lake  of  Gyges  (vid.  G\OJEVS  LACUB),  near  which 
the  sepulchre  of  Alyattes  may  still  be  seen.  Vid 
ALYATTKS. 

SARDOUM  or  SARDOMCUM  MARE  (ro  2ap<}£ov 
or  "ZapAuviov  ir&a-yof),  the  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  on  the  west  and  south  of  Sardinia, 

775 


SARDUS. 


SARPEDON. 


separated  from  the  Libyan  Sea  by  a  line  drawn 
from  the  promontory  Lilybaeum  in  Sicily. 

[SARDUS,  a  son  of  Hercules.      Vid.  SARDINIA.]  ; 

[SARE,  a  village  of  the  Maronitae  in  Thrace,  j 
mentioned  by  Livy  (xxxviii.,  41).] 

SAREPTA  or  SAREPHTHA  (SdpsQda,  Sa'penra, 
SuptiirTa:  in   the  Old  Testament,  Zarephalh: 
now  Surafcnd,  Serphant,  or  Tzarphand),  a  city  ' 
of  Phoenicia,  about  ten  miles  south  of  Sidon,  to 
t*-.o  territory  of  which  it  belonged  ;  well  known  ! 
as  the  scene  of  two  miracles  of  Elijah  (1  Kings, 
xvii.).     It  was  celebrated  for  its  wine. 

SARGETIA  (now  Strcl  or  Strey),  a  tributary  of  ! 
the  Marosch),  a  river  in  Dacia,  on  which  was 
situated  the  residence  of  Decebalus. 


SARIPHI  MONTES  (ru  2e2pt^o  6/377  :  now  Haza-  \ 
rth  Mountains),  a  mountain- range  of  Central  | 
Asia,  separating  Margiana  on  the  north  from  ; 
Aria  on  the  south,  and  forming  a  western  part  ; 
of  the  great  chain  of  the  Indian  Caucasus,  j 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  prolongation  | 
through  Central  Asia  of  the  chain  of  Anti-Tau- 
rus. 

SARMAT^E  or  SAUROMATJE:  CZapuurat,  Strabo  ; 
Zavpoudrat,  Herod.),  a  people  of  Asia,  dwelling 
on  the  northeast  of  the  Palus  Maeotis  (now  Sea 
of  Azov),  east  of  the  River  TanaTs  (now  Don), 
which  separated  them  from  the  Scythians  of 
Europe.  This  is  the  account  of  Herodotus, 
who  tells  us  that  the  Sarmatians  were  allied 
to  the  Scythians,  and  spoke  a  corrupted  form 
of  the  Scythian  language  ;  and  that  their  origin 
was  ascribed  to  the  intercourse  of  Scythians 
with  Amazons.  Strabo  also  places  the  Sau- 
romatae  between  the  TanaTs  and  the  Caspian  ; 
but  he  elsewhere  uses  the  word  in  the  much 
more  extended  sense,  in  which  it  was  used  by 
the  Romans  and  by  the  later  geographers.  Vid. 
SARMATIA. 

SARMATIA  (rj  Sapuaria :  Sap//drat,  Saupo,uu- 
rai  •  the  eastern  part  of  Poland,  and  southern 
part  of  Russia  in  Europe),  a  name  first  used  by 
Mela  for  the  part  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia 
extending  from  the  Vistula  (now  Wisla)  and  the 
SARMATICI  MONTES  on  the  west,  which  divided 
it  from  Germany,  to  the  Rha  (now  Volga)  on 
the  east,  which  divided  it  from  Scythia  ;  bound- 
ed on  the  southwest  and  south  by  the  rivers 
Ister  (now  Danube),  Tibiscus  (now  Theiss),  and 
Tyras  (now  Dniester),  which  divided  it  from 
Pannonia  and  Dacia,  and,  further,  by  the  Euxine, 
and  beyond  it  by  Mount  Caucasus,  which  di- 
vided it  from  Colchis,  Iberia,  and  Albania  ;  and 
extending  on  the  north  as  far  as  the  Baltic  and 
the  unknown  regions  of  Northern  Europe.  The 
part  of  this  country  which  lies  in  Europe  just 
corresponds  to  the  Scythia  of  Herodotus.  The 
people  from  whom  the  name  of  Sarmatia  was 
derived  inhabited  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
country.  Vid.  SARMAT^E.  The  greater  part  of 
it  was  peopled  by  Scythian  tribes  ;  but  some 
of  the  inhabitants  of  its  western  part  seem  to 
have  been  of  German  origin,  as  the  VENEDI  on 
the  Baltic,  and  the  IAZYGES,  RHOXOLANI,  and 
HAMAXOBII  in  Southern  Russia  ;  the  chief  of  the 
other  tribes  west  of  the  Tana'is  were  the  Alauni 
or  Alani  Scythae,  a  Scythian  people  who  came 
out  of  Asia  and  settled  in  the  central  parts  of 
Russia.  Vid.  ALANI.  The  people  east  of  the 
Tanals  were  not  of  sufficient  importance  in  an- 
sient  history  to  require  specific  mention.  The  I 
776 


whole  country  was  divided  by  the  River  Tanals 
(now  Don)  into  two  parts,  called  respcctivelv 
Sarmatia  Europasa  and  Sarmatia  Asiatica  (f/  iv 
Ei)pu7rj7  and  rj  cv  'Aaia  SapuaTia) ;  but  it  should 
be  observed  that,  according  to  the  modern  di- 
vision of  the  continent,  the  whole  of  Sarmatia 
belongs  to  Europe.  It  should  also  be  noticed 
that  the  Chersonesus  Taurica  (now  Crimea), 
though  falling  within  the  specified  limits,  was 
not  considered  as  a  part  of  Sarmatia,  but  as  a 
separate  country. 

SARMATICI  PORTJE  (at  Sop^an/cat  •n-v'kat  : 
now  Pass  of  Dariel),  the  central  pass  of  the 
Caucasus,  leading  from  Iberia  to  Sarmatia.  It 
was  more  commonly  called  Caucasia?  Portae. 
Vid.  CAUCASUS.  It  was  also  called  Caspiae  Por- 
tae,  apparently  through  a  confusion  with  the  pass 
of  that  name  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Cauca- 
sus. Vid.  CASPIJE  PORT.*:.  The  remains  of 
an  ancient  wall  are  still  seen  in  the  pass. 

SARMATICI  MONTES  (ru  Sap/wirtwa  op»? :  part 
of  the  Carpathian  Mountains),  a  range  of  mount- 
ains in  Central  Europe,  extending  from  the 
sources  of  the  Vistula  to  the  Danube,  between 
Germany  on  the  west  and  Sarmatia  on  the  east. 

SARMATICUS  OCEANUS  and  PONTUS,  SARMATI- 
CUM  MARE  (IiapuariKOf  uiteavoc  :  now  Baltic),  a 
great  sea,  washing  the  northern  coast  of  Euro- 
pean Sarmatia. 

[SARMENTUS,  a  runaway  slave,  employed  by 
Maecenas  as  a  scribe,  and  forming  one  of  his 
-train  on  the  Brundisian  journey  so  humorous- 
ly described  by  Horace  (Sat.,  i.,  5,  52,  sgq.).'] 

[SARMIA  (now  Guernsey),  an  island  of  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  lying  in  the  channel  between  Gal- 
lia  and  Britannia.] 

SARMIZEGETHUSA  (near  Vachely,  also  called 
Gradischte,  ruins),  one  of  the  most  important 
towns  of  Dacia,  and  the  residence  of  its  kings, 
was  situated  on  the  River  Sargetia  (now  Strel 
or  Strey).  It  was  subsequently  a  Roman  colo- 
ny under  the  name  of  Colonia  Ulpia  Trajana 
Aug.,  and  the  capital  of  the  province  in  which 
a  legion  had  its  head-quarters. 

SARNUS  (now  Sarno),  a  river  in  Campania, 
flowing  by  Nuceria,  and  falling  into  the  Sinus 
Puteolanus  near  Pompeii.  Its  course  was 
changed  by  the  great  eruption  of  Vesuvius, 
A.D.  79.  On  its  banks  dwelt  a  people  named 
Sarrastes,  who  are  said  to  have  migrated  from 
Peloponnesus. 

SAR6N(Sdpow :  in  the  Old  Testament,  Sharon), 
a  most  beautiful  and  fertile  plain  of  Palestine, 
extending  along  the  coast  north  of  Joppa  toward 
Caesarea ;  celebrated  for  its  pastures  and  its 
flowers. 

SARONICUS  SINUS  (Sapuvi/cof  KO^TTOC,  also  no- 
pof,  TTE Aayof,  and  TTOVTOC  :  now  Gulf  of  Egina), 
a  bay  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  lying  between  Attica 
and  Argolis,  and  commencing  between  the 
promontory  of  Sunium  in  Attica  and  that  of 
Scyllaeum  in  Argolis.  It  contains  within  it  the 
islands  of  JEgina  and  Salamis.  Its  name  was 
usually  derived  from  Saron,  king  of  Trcezene, 
who  was  supposed  to  have  been  drowned  in 
this  part  of  the  sea  while  swimming  in  pursuit 
of  a  stag. 

SARPEDON  (ZapxTJAuv).  1.  Son  of  Jupitei 
(Zeus)  and  Europa,  and  brother  of  Minos  and 
Rhadamanthus.  Being  involved  in  a  quarrel 
with  Minos  about  Miletus,  he  took  refuge  witlj 


SARPEDON  PROMONTORIUM. 

Cilix,  whom  he  assisted  against  the  Lycians.  ', 
V:d.  MILETUS.     He  afterward  became  king  of  , 
the  Lycians,  and  Jupiter  (Zeus)  granted  him  the 
privilege  of  living  three  generations. — 2.  Son  of  ; 
^Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Laodamia,  or,  according  to 
others,  of  Evander  and  Deidamia,  and  a  brother  i 
of  Clarus  and  Themon,  was  a  Lycian  prince.  ; 
In  the  Trojan  war  he  was  an  ally  of  the  Tro- 
jans, and  distinguished  himself  by  his  valor, 
but  was  slain  by  Patroclus.    Apollo,  by  the  com- 
mand of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  cleansed  Sarpedon's 
body  from  blood  and  dust,  covered  it  with  am- 
brosia, and  gave  it  to  Sleep  and  Death  to  carry 
into  Lycia,  there  to  be  honorably  buried. 

SARPEDON  PROMONTORIUM  CZapxijduvia  uicpa: 
now  Cape  Lissan  el  Kapek),  a  promontory  of 
Ciiieia,  in  longitude  34°  east,  eighty  stadia  west 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Calycadnus.  In  the  peace 
between  the  Romans  and  Antiochus  the  Great, 
the  western  boundary  of  the  Syrian  kingdom 
was  fixed  here. 

SARPEDONIUM  PROMONTORIUM  (^  SapTrrjtiuvitj 
axpa),  a  promontory  of  Thrace,  between  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers  Melas  and  Erginus,  oppo- 
site the  island  of  Imbros. 

SARRASTES.     Vid.  SARNUS. 

SARS  (now  Sar),  a  small  river  on  the  western 
coast  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  between  the 
Promontorium  Nerium  and  the  Minius. 

SARSINA  (Sarsinas,  -atis  :  now  Sarsina),  an 
ancient  town  of  Umbria,  on  the  River  Sapis, 
southwest  of  Ariminum,  and  subsequently  a  Ro- 
man municipium,  celebrated  as  the  birth-place 
of  the  comic  poet  Plautus. 

SAI  us  (o  2apof  :  now  Seiko.*),  a  considerable 
river  in  the  southeast  of  Asia  Minor.  Rising 
in  the  Anti-Taurus,  in  the  centre  of  Cappadocia, 
it  flows  south  past  Comana  to  the  borders  of 
Cilicia,  where  it  receives  a  western  branch  that 
has  run  nearly  parallel  to  it ;  and  thence,  flow- 
ing through  CiliDia  Campestris  in  a  winding 
course,  it  falls  into  the  sea  a  little  east  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Cydnus,  and  southeast  of  Tarsus. 
Xenophon  gives  three  plethra  (three  hundred 
and  three  feet)  for  its  widthfat  its  mouth. 

[SASERNA.  1.  The  name  of  two  writers,  fa- 
ther and  son,  on  agriculture,  who  lived  in  the 
time  between  Cato  and  Varro. — 2.  C.  and  P., 
two  brothers,  who  served  under  Julius  Caesar 
in  the  African  war,  B.C.  46,  and  one  of  whom 
is  mentioned  by  Cicero  as  a  friend  of  Antonius 
and  Octavianus  after  the  death  of  Caesar.] 

SASO  or  SASOXIS  IXSULA  (now  Saseno,  Sasso- 
10,  Sassa),  a  small  rocky  island  off  the  coast  of 
Hlyria,  north  of  the  Acroceraunian  promontory, 
much  frequented  by  pirates. 

SASPIRES,  or  -i,  or  SATIRES  (2uoirciptf,  Za<r- 
iretpoi,  SaTftpeci  Zainr«p«f)r  a  Scythian  people 
of  Asia,  south  of  Colchis  and  north  of  Media,  in 
an  inland  position  (i.  e.  in  Armenia)  according 
to  Herodotus,  but,  according  to  others,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Euxine. 

SASSANID.*,  the  name  of  a  dynasty  which 
reigned  in  Persia  from  AD.  226  to  A.D.  651. 
1.  ARTAXBRXKS  (the  ARDISHIR  or  ARDSHIR  of 
the  Persians),  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Sassanidae,  reigned  A.D.  228-240.  He  was  a 
son  of  one  Babek,  an  inferior  officer,  who  was 
the  son  of  Sassan,  perhaps  a  person  of  some 
consequence,  since  his  royal  descendants  chose 
to  call  themselves  after  him  Artaxerxes  had 


SASSANIUJB. 

served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of  Ar- 
tabanus,  the  king  of  Parthia,  was  rewarded 
with  ingratitude,  and  took  revenge  in  revolt. 
He  obtained  assistance  from  several  grandees,., 
and  having  met  with  success,  claimed  the 
throne  on  the  plea  of  being  descended  1fom  the 
ancient  kings  of  Persia,  the  progeny  of  the  great 
Cyrus.  The  people  warmly  supported  his  cause, 
as  he  declared  himself  the  champion  of  the  an- 
cient Persian  religion.  In  226  Artabanus  was 
defeated  in  a  decisive  battle,  and  Artaxerxes 
thereupon  assumed  the  pompous  but  national 
title  of  "  King  of  Kings."  One  of  his  first  leg- 
islative acts  was  the  restoration  of  the  pure  re- 
ligion of  Zoroaster  and  the  worship  of  fire.  The 
reigning  branch  of  the  Parthian  Arsacidae  was 
exterminated,  but  some  collateral  brancheswere 
suffered  to  live  and  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of 
Persian  grandees,  who,  along  with  the  Magi, 
formed  a  sort  of  senate.  Having  succeeded  iu 
establishing  his  authority  at  home,  Artaxerxes 
demanded  from  the  Emperor  Alexander  Severus 
the  immediate  cession  of  all  those  portions  of 
the  Roman  empire  that  had  belonged  to  Pers/a 
in  the  time  of  Cyrus  and  Xerxes,  that  is,  the 
whole  of  the  Roman  possessions  in  Asia  as 
well  as  Egypt.  Ah  immediate  war  between 
the  two  empires  was  the  direct  consequence. 
After  a  severe  contest,  peace  was  restored, 
shortly  after  the  murder  of  Alexander  in  237, 
each  nation  retaining  the  possessions  which 
they  held  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  war. — 
2.  SAPOR  I.  (SHAPUR),  the  son  and  successor  of 
Artaxerxes  I.,  reigned  240-273.  He  carried  on 
war  first  against  Gordian  and  afterward  against 
Valerian.  The  latter  emperor  was  defeated  by 
Sapor,  taken  prisoner,  and  kept  in  captivity  for 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  After  the  capture  of 
Valerian,  Sapor  conquered  Syria,  destroyed  An- 
tioch,  and,  having  made  himself  master  of  the 
passes  in  the  Taurus,  laid  Tarsus  in  ashes,  and 
took  Caesarea.  His  further  progress  was  stop- 
ped by  Odenathus  and  Zenobia,  who  drove  the 
king  back  beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  founded  a 
new  empire,  over  which  they  ruled  at  Palmyra. 
In  his  reign  lived  the  celebrated  Mani,  who,  en- 
deavoring to  amalgamate  the  Christian  and  Zo- 
roastrian  religions,  gave  rise  to  the  famous  sect 
of  the  Manichaeans,  who  spread  over  the  whole 
East,  exposing  themselves  to  most  sanguinary 
persecutions  from  both  Christians  and  fire-wor- 
shippers.— 3.  HORMISDAS  I.  (HORMUZ),  son  of 
the  preceding,  who  reigned  only  one  year,  and 
died  274. — 4.  VARANES  orVARARANEs  I.  (B*H- 
RAM  or  BAHARAM),son  of  Hormisdas  I.,  reign- 
ed 274-277.  He  carried  on  unprofitable  ware 
against  Zenobia,  and,  after  her  captivity,  was 
involved  in  a  contest  with  Aurclian,  which, 
however,  was  not  attended  with  any  serious  re- 
sults, on  account  of  the  sudden  death  of  Aure- 
lian  in  275.  In  his  reign  the  celebrated  Mani 
was  put  to  death. — 5.  VARANES  II.  (BAHRAM), 
son  of  Varanes  I.,  reigned  277-294.  He  was 
defeated  by  Carus,  who  took  both  Seleucia  and 
Ctesiphon,  and  his  dominions  were  only  saved 
from  further  conquests  by  the  sudden  death  of 
Carus  (283).—  6.  VARANKS  III.  (BAHRAM),  elder 
son  of  Varanes  II.,  died  after  a  reign  of  eight 
months,  294. — 7.  NARSKB  (N*Rsi),  younger  son 
of  Varanes  II.,  reigned  294-303.  He  carried 
on  a  formidable  war  against  the  Emperor  Dio 

777 


SASSANHXE. 

cletian  The  Roman  army  was  commanded  by 
Gaierius  Caesar,  who  in  the  first  campaign  (296) 
sustained  most  signal  defeats  in  Mesopotamia, 
and  fled  in  disgrace  to  Antioch.  In  the  second 
campaign  Narses  was  defeated  with  great  loss, 
and  \vts  obliged  to  conclude  a  peace  with  the 
Romans,  by  which  he  ceded  to  Diocletian  Mes- 
opotamia, five  small  provinces  beyond  the  Ti- 
gris, the  kingdom  of  Armenia,  some  adjacent 
Median  districts,  and  the  supremacy  over  Iberia, 
the  kings  of  which  were  henceforth  under  the 
protection  of  Rome.  In  303  Narses  abdicated 
in  favor  of  his  son,  and  died  soon  afterward  — 
8.  HORMISDAS  II.  (HORMUZ),  son  of  Narses,  reign- 
ed 303-310.  During  his  reign  nothing  of  im- 
portance happened  regarding  Rome. — 9.  SAPOR 
II.  POSTCMUS  (SHAPUR),  son  of  Hormisdas  II., 
was  born  after  the  death  of  his  father,  and  was 
crowned  in  his  mother's  womb,  the  Magi  plac- 
ing the  diadem  with  great  solemnity  upon  the 
body  of  his  mother.  He  reigned  310-381.  His 
reign  was  signalized  by  a  cruel  persecution  of 
the  Christians.  He  carried  on  war  for  many 
years  against  Constantius  II.  and  his  successors. 
The  armies  of  Constantius  were  repeatedly  de- 
feated ;  Julian,  as  is  related  elsewhere  (vid. 
JULIANUS),  perished  in  battle  ;  and  the  war  was 
at  length  brought  to  a  conclusion  by  Jovian 
ceding  to  the  Persians  the  five  provinces  be- 
yond the  Tigris,  and  the  fortresses  of  Nisibis, 
Singara,  &c.  Iberia  and  Armenia  were  left  to 
their  fate,  and  were  completely  reduced  by  Sa- 
por in  305  and  the  following  year.  Sapor  has 
been  surnamed  the  Great,  and  no  Persian  king 
had  ever  caused  such  terror  to  Rome  as  this 
monarch. — 10.  ARTAXERXES  II.  (ARDISHIR),  the 
successor  of  Sapor  II.,  reigned  381-385.  He 
was  a  prince  of  royal  blood,  but  was  not  a  son 
of  Sapor. — 11.  SAPOR  III.  (SHAPCTR),  reigned  385 
-390.  He  sent  an  embassy  to  Theodosius  the 
Great,  with  splendid  presents,  which  was  re- 
turned by  a  Greek  embassy  headed  by  Stilicho 
going  to  Persia.  Owing  to  these  diplomatic 
transactions,  an  arrangement  was  made  in  384, 
according  to  which  Armenia  and  Iberia  recov- 
ered their  independence.  —  12.  VARANES  IV. 
(BAHRAM),  reigned  A.D.  390-404,  or  perhaps  not 
so  long.  He  was  the  brother  of  Sapor  III.,  and 
founded  Kermanshah,  still  a  flourishing  town. 
— 13.  YESDIGERD!.  (YEZDIJIRD),  surnamed  ULA- 
THIM,  or  the  SINNER,  son  or  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, reigned  404-420  or  421.  He  was  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  Emperor  Arcadius,  who 
is  said  to  have  appointed  him  the  guardian  of 
his  infant  son  and  successor,  Theodosius  the 
Younger.  He  concluded  a  peace  with  Arcadius 
for  one  hundred  years. — 14.  VARANES  V.  (BAH- 
EAM),  son  of  Yesdigerd  I.,  surnamed  GOUR,  or 
the  "  WILD  Ass,"  on  account  of  his  passion  for 
the  chase  of  that  animal,  reigned  420  or  421- 
448.  He  persecuted  his  Christian  subjects  with 
such  severity  that  thousands  of  them  took  ref- 
uge within  the  Roman  dominions.  He  carried 
on  war  with  Theodosius,  which  was  terminated 
by  a  peace  for  one  hundred  years,  which  peace 
lasted  till  the  twelfth  year  of  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Anastasius.  During  the  latter  part 
of  his  reign  Varanes  carried  on  wars  against 
the  Huns,  Turks,  and  Indians,  in  which  he  is 
said  to  have  achieved  those  valorous  deeds  for 
which  he  has  ever  since  continued  to  be  a  fa- 
778 


SASSANID^E. 

vorite  hero  in  Persian  poetry.  He  was  acci- 
dentally drowned  in  a  deep  well  together  with 
his  horse,  and  neither  man  nor  beast  ever  rose 
again  from  the  fathomless  pit. — 15.  YEZDIOERD 
II.,  son  of  the  preceding,  reigned  448-458.  The 
persecul  tons  against  the  Christians  were  re- 
newed b/  him  with  unheard-of  cruelty.  His  re- 
lations with  Rome  were  peaceful.  —  16.  HOR- 
MISDAS III.  (HORMUZ),  and,  17.  PEROSES(F(ROZE), 
sons  of  the  preceding,  claimed  the  succession, 
and  rose  in  arms  against  each  other.  Peroses 
gained  the  throne  by  the  assistance  of  the  White 
Huns,  against  whom  he  turned  his  sword  in 
after  years.  He  perished  in  a  great  battle  with 
them  in  484,  together  with  all  of  his  sons  ex- 
cept  Pallas  and  Cobades.  —  18.  PALLAS  (PAL- 
LASH),  who  reigned  484-488,  had  to  contest  the 
throne  with  Cobades.  He  perished  in  a  battle 
with  his  brother  Cobades  in  488. — 19.  COBADES 
(KOBAD),  reigned  488-498,  and  again  501  or 502- 
531.  The  years  from  498  till  502  were  filled  up 
by  the  short  reign  of,  20.  ZAMES  (JAMASPES). 
The  latter  was  the  brother  of  Cobades,  whom 
he  dethroned,  and  compelled  to  fly  to  the  Huns, 
with  whose  assistance  Cobades  recovered  his 
throne  about  502.  He  carried  on  war  with  suc- 
cess against  the  Emperor  Anastasius;  but  in 
consequence  of  the  Huns,  who  had  previously 
been  his  auxiliaries,  turning  their  arms  against 
him,  he  made  peace  with  Anastasius  in  505,  on 
receiving  eleven  thousand  pounds  of  gold  as  an 
indemnity.  He  also  restored  Mesopotamia  and 
his  other  conquests  to  the  Romans,  being  un- 
able to  maintain  his  authority  there  on  account 
of  the  protracted  war  with  the  Huns.  About 
this  time  the  Romans  constructed  the  fortress 
of  Dara,  the  strongest  bulwark  against  Persia, 
and  situated  in  the  very  face  of  Ctesiphon.  The 
war  with  Constantinople  was  renewed  in  521, 
in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Justin  I. — 21.  CHOS- 
ROES  I.  (KnosRU  or  KHOSREW),  surnamed  Nu- 
SHIRWAN,  or  "  the  generous  mind,"  reigned  531- 
579.  He  carried  on  several  wars  against  the 
Romans.  The  first  war  was  finished  in  532  01 
533,  Justinian  having  purchased  peace  by  an 
annual  tribute  of  four  hundred  and  forty  thou- 
sand pieces  of  gold.  One  of  the  conditions  of 
Chosroes  was,  that  seven  Greek,  but  pagan 
philosophers,  who  had  resided  some  time  at  the 
Persian  court,  should  be  allowed  to  live  in  the 
Roman  empire  without  being  subject  to  the  im- 
perial laws  against  pagans.  The  second  wai 
lasted  from  540  to  561.  Peace  was  concluded 
on  condition  of  Justinian  promising  an  annual 
tribute  of  forty  thousand  pieces  of  gold,  and  re- 
ceiving, in  return,  the  cession  of  the  Persian 
claims  upon  Colchis  and  Lazica.  The  third 
war  broke  out  in  571,  in  the  reign  of  Justin  II., 
but  Chosroes  died  before  it  was  concluded. 
Chosroes  was  one  of  the  greatest  kings  of  Per- 
sia. In  his  protracted  wars  with  the  Romans 
he  disputed  the  field  with  the  conquerors  of 
Africa  and  Italy,  and  with  those  very  generals, 
Tiberius  and  Mauricius,  who  brought  Persia  to 
the  brink  of  ruin  but  a  few  years  after  his  death. 
His  empire  extended  from  the  Indus  to  the  Red 
Sea,  and  large  tracts  in  Central  Asia,  perhaps 
a  portion  of  Eastern  Europe,  recognized  him 
for  a  time  as  their  sovereign.  He  received  em- 
bassies and  presents  from  the  remotest  kings 
of  Asia  and  Africa.  His  internal  government 


SASSULA. 

was  despotic  and  .cruel,  but  of  that  firm  descrip- 
tion which  pleases  Orientals,  so  that  he  still 
lives  in  the  memory  of  the  Persians  as  a  model 
of  justice.  He  provided  for  all  the  wants  of 
his  subjects  ;  and  agriculture,  trade,  and  learn- 
ing were  equally  protected  by  him.  He  caused 
the  best  Greek,  Latin,  and  Indian  works  to  be 
translated  into  Persian. — 22.  HORMISDAS  IV. 
(HORMUZ),  son  of  Chosroes,  reigned  579-590. 
He  continued  the  war  with  the  Romans,  which 
had  been  bequeathed  him  by  his  father,  but  was 
defeated  successively  by  Mauricius  and  Hera- 
clius.  Hormisdas  was  deprived  of  his  sight, 
and  subsequently  put  to  death  by  the  Persian 
aristocracy. — 23.  VARANES  VI.  (BAHRAM)  SHU- 
BIN,  a  royal  prince,  usurped  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  Hormisdas,  and  reigned  590-591.  Un- 
able to  maintain  the  throne  against  Chosroes, 
who  was  supported  by  the  Emperor  Mauricius, 
he  fled  to  the  Turks. — 24.  CHOSROES  II.  (Knos- 
RU)  PURWIZ,  reigned  590  or  591-628.  He  was 
the  son  of  Hormisdas  IV.,  and  recovered  his 
father's  throne  with  the  assistance  of  the  Em- 
peror Mauricius.  After  the  murder  of  Mauri- 
cius, Chosroes  declared  war  against  the  tyrant 
Phocas,  'and  met  with  extraordinary  success. 
In  several  successive  campaigns  he  conquer- 
ed Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  Asia 
Minor,  and  finally  pitched  his  camp  at  Chalce- 
don,  opposite  Constantinople.  At  length  Herac- 
lius  saved  the  empire  from  the  brink  of  ruin, 
and  in  a  series  of  splendid  campaigns  not  only 
recovered  the  provinces  which  the  Romans  had 
lost,  but  carried  his  victorious  arms  into  the 
heart  of  the  Persian  empire.  Borne  down  by 
his  misfortunes,  and  worn  out  by  age  and  fa- 
tigue, Chosroes  resolved,  in  628,  to  abdicate  in 
favor  of  his  son  Merdaza ;  but  Shirweh,  or 
Siroes,  his  eldest  son,  anticipated  his  design; 
and  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  conspirators  seized 
upon  the  person  of  his  father,  deposed  him,  and 
put  him  to  death.  The  Orientals  say  that  Chos- 
roes reigned  six  years  too  long.  No  Persian 
king  lived  in  such  splendor  as  Chosroes ;  and 
however  fabulous  the  Eastern  accounts  respect- 
ing his  magnificence  may  be,  they  are  true  in 
the  main,  as  is  attested  by  the  Western  writers. 
—  25.  SIROES  (SHIRWEH),  reigned  only  eight 
months,  628.  He  concluded  peace  with  the. 
Emperor  Heraclius.  The  numerous  captives 
'were  restored  on  both  sides.  Siroes  also  re- 
stored the  holy  cross  which  had  been  taken  at 
the  conquest  of  Jerusalem.  — 26.  ARTAXERXES 
III.  (ARDISHIR),  the  infant  son  of  Siroes,  was 
murdered  a  few  days  after  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther. He  was  the  last  male  Sassanid.  After 
him  the  throne  was  disputed  by  a  host  of  candi- 
dates of  both  sexes  and  doubtful  descent,  who 
had  no  sooner  ascended  the  throne  than  they 
were  hurried  from  it  into  death  or  captivity. 
The  last  king  was  YKSDIOERD  III ,  who  was  de- 
feated and  slain  in  651  by  Kaleb,  the  general 
of  the  khalif  Abu-Bekr.  Persia  now  became  a 
Mohammedan  country. 

SASSULA,  a  town  in  Latium,  belonging  to  the 
territory  of  Tibur. 

SATAI.A  (ru  SuraAa,  rj  2ara/la),  a  considerable 
town  in  the  northeast  of  Armenia  Minor,  im- 
portant as  the  key  of  the  mountain  passes  into 
Pontus.  It  stood  at  the  junction  of  four  roads 
leading  to  places  on  the  Euxine,  a  little  north 


SATURNINUS. 

of  the  Euphrates,  in  a  valley  surrounded  by 
mountains,  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  Ro- 
man miles  from  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia,  and 
one  hundred  and  thirty-five  from  Trapezus. 
Under  the  later  Roman  empire  it  was  the  sta- 
tion of  the  fifteenth  legion.  Notwithstanding 
the  above  indications,  its  site  has  not  yet  been 
identified  with  certainty. 

SATARCH^E,  a  Scythian  t/ibe  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Tauric  Chersonesus. 

[SATASPES  (2ardCT7r?7f),  a  Persian,  son  of  Te 
aspes,  sentenced  by  Xerxes  to  be  impaled  foj 
having  offered  violence  to  the  daughter  of  Zo- 
pyrus,  the  son  of  Megabyzus  :  this  punishment 
was  remitted  on  condition  of  his  circumnavi- 
gating Africa.  He  set  sail  accordingly  from 
Egypt,  passed  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 
and  continued  his  voyage  for  a  considerable 
time  southward,  but  at  length  became  discour- 
aged, and  returned  home.  Xerxes  thereupon 
caused  the  original  sentence  to  be  executed.] 

SATICULA  (Saticulanus),  a  town  of  Samnium, 
situated  upon  a  mountain  on  the  frontiers  of 
Campania,  probably  upon  one  of  the  furthest 
heights  of  the  mountain  chain  of  Cajaszo.  It 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans  and  colonized 
B.C.  313. 

SATNIOIS  (2arvto«f  :  now  Tuzla),  a  river  in 
the  south  of  the  Troad,  rising  in  Mount  Ida, 
and  flowing  west  into  the  -Egean  north  of  Prom- 
ontorium  Lectum,  between  Larissa  and  Hamax 
itus. 

[SATNIUS  (2«n>tof),  son  of  Enops  and  of  a 
river-nymph  of  the  SatnioYs,  slain  by  Ajax,  son 
of  Oi'leus,  in  the  Trojan  war.] 

[SATR.E  (Sarpat),  a  people  of  Thrace,  on  Mount 
Pangaeus,  between  the  Nestus  and  the  Strymon, 
a  very  brave  race,  and  hence  never  deprived 
of  their  freedom  ;  they  dwelt  upon  lofty  heights 
covered  with  forests  and  snow.  On  one  of  their 
hills  was  an  oracle  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus), 
whose  priests  were  the  Bessi,  whence  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  themselves  were  only  a  branch 
of  the  Bessi.] 

SATRICUM  (Satricanus  :  now  Casale  di  Conca), 
a  town  in  Latium,  near  Antium,  to  the  terri- 
tory of  which  it  belonged.  It  was  destroyed 
by  the  Romans. 

SATURN  P*LUS  (now  Logo  di  Paolo),  a  lake 
or  marsh  in  Latium,  formed  by  the  River  Nym- 
phaeus,  and  near  the  Promontory  Circeium. 

SATURIUM  or  SATUREIUM  (now  Saturo),  a  town 
in  the  south  of  Italy,  near  Tarentum,  celebrated 
for  its  horses.  (Hor,  Sat.,  i.,  6,  59). 

SATURNIA.  1.  An  ancient  name  of  Italy.  Vid. 
ITALIA.  —  2.  (Saturninus  :  now  Saturnia),  for- 
merly called  AURINIA,  an  ancient  town  of  Etru- 
ria,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Pelasgians, 
was  situated  in  the  territory  of  Caletra,  on  the 
road  from  Rome  to  Cosa,  about  twenty  miles 
from  the  sea.  It  was  colonized  by  the  Romans, 
B.C.  183.  The  ancient  town  was  rather  more 
than  two  miles  in  circuit,  and  there  are  still  re- 
mains of  its  walls  and  tombs. 

SATURNINUS  I.,  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants, 
was  a  general  of  Valerian,  by  whom  he  was 
much  beloved.  Disgusted  by  the  debauchery 
of  Gallienus,  he  accepted  from  the  soldiers  the 
title  of  emperor,  but  was  put  to  death  by  the 
troops,  who  could  not  endure  the  sternness  of 
his  discipline.  The  country,  however,  in  which 

779 


SATURNIJSUS. 

these  events  took  place  is  not  mentioned. — II.  A 
native  of  Gaul,  and  an  able  officer,  was  appoint- 
ed by  Aurelian  commander  of  the  Eastern  fron- 
tier, and  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Alexan- 
drea  during  the  reign  of  Probus.  He  was  event- 
ually slain  by  the  soldiers  of  Probus,  although 
the  emperor  would  willingly  have  spared  his  life. 

SATURNINUS,  L.  ANTONIUS,  governor  of  Upper 
Germany  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  raised  a  re- 
bellion against  that  emperor  A.D.  91,  but  was 
defeated  and  put  to  death  by  Appius  Maximus, 
the  general  of  Domitian. 

SATURNINUS,  L.  APPULEIUS,  the  celebrated 
demagogue,  was  quaestor  B.C.  104,  and  tribune 
of  the  plebs  for  the  first  time,  102.  He  entered 
into  a  close  alliance  with  Marius  and  his  friends, 
and  soon  acquired  great  popularity.  He  be- 
came a  candidate  for  the  tribunate  for  the  sec- 
ond time,  100.  At  the  same  time,  Glaucia,  who, 
next  to  Saturninus,  was  the  greatest  demagogue 
of  the  day,  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for 
the  praetorship,  and  Marius  for  the  consulship. 
Marius  and  Glaucia  carried  their  elections  ;  but 
A.  Nonius,  a  partisan  of  the  aristocracy,  was 
chosen  tribune  instead  of  Saturninus.  Nonius, 
however,  was  murdered  on  the  same  evening 
by  the  emissaries  of  Glaucia  and  Saturninus, 
and  early  the  following  morning  Saturninus 
was  chosen  to  fill  up  the  vacancy.  As  soon  as 
he  had  entered  upon  his  tribunate,  he  brought 
forward  an  agrarian  law,  which  led  to  the  ban- 
ishment of  Metellus  Numidicus,  as  is  related 
elsewhere.  Vid.  METELLUS,  No.  10.  Saturni- 
nus proposed  other  popular  measures,  such  as 
a  Lex  Frumentaria,  and  a  law  for  founding  new 
colonies  in  Sicily,  Achaia,  and  Macedonia.  In 
the  comitia  for  the  election  of  the  magistrates 
for  the  following  year,  Saturninus  obtained  the 
tribunate  for  the  third  time,  and  along  with  him 
there  was  chosen  a  certain  Equitius,  a  runaway 
slave,  who  pretended  to  be  a  son  of  Tiberius 
Gracchus.  Glaucia  was  at  the  same  time  a 
candidate  for  the  consulship ;  the  two  other 
candidates  were  M.  Antonius  and  C.  Memmius. 
The  election  of  M.  Antonius  was  certain,  and 
the  struggle  lay  between  Glaucia  and  Memmius. 
As  the  latter  seemed  likely  to  carry  his  election, 
Saturninus  and  Glaucia  hired  some  ruffians  who 
murdered  him  openly  in  the  comitia.  This  last 
act  produced  a  complete  reaction  against  Satur- 
ninus and  his  associates.  The  senate  declared 
them  public  enemies,  and  ordered  the  consuls 
to  put  them  down  by  force.  Marius  was  un- 
willing to  act  against  his  friends,  but  he  had  no 
alternative,  and  his  backwardness  was  compen- 
sated by  the  zeal  of  others.  Driven  out  of  the 
forum,  Saturninus,  Glaucia,  and  the  quasstor 
Saufeius  took  refuge  in  the  Capitol,  but  the  par- 
tisans of  the  senate  cut  off  the  pipes  which  sup- 
plied the  Capitol  with  water.  Unable  to  hold 
out  any  longer,  they  surrendered  to  Marius. 
The  latter  did  all  he  could  to  save  their  lives : 
as  soon  as  they  descended  from  the  Capitol,  he 
placed  them  for  security  in  the  Curia  Hostilia, 
but  the  mob  pulled  off  the  tiles  of  the  senate- 
house,  and  pelted  them  with  the  tiles  till  they 
died.  The  senate  gave  their  sanction  to  these 
proceedings  by  rewarding  with  the  citizenship 
a  slave  of  the  name  of  Scaeva,  who  claimed  the 
honor  of  having  killed  Saturninus.  Nearly  forty 
years  after  these  events,  the  tribune  T.  Labie- 
780 


SATURNUS. 

nus  accused  an  aged  senator  Rabirius  of  having 
been  the  murderer  of  Saturninus.  An  account 
of  this  trial  is  given  elsewhere.  Vid.  RABIR- 
IUS. 

SATURNINUS,  CLAUDIUS,  a  jurist  from  whose 
Liber  Si?igularis  de  Panis  Paganorum  there  is  a 
single  excerpt  in  the  Digest.  He  was  praetor 
under  Antoninus  Pius. 

SATURNINUS,  POMPEIUS,  a  contemporary  of 
the  younger  Pliny,  is  praised  by  the  latter  as  a 
distinguished  orator,  historian,  and  poet.  Sev- 
eral of  Pliny's  letters  are  addressed  to  him. 

SATURNINUS,  C.  SENTIUS.  1.  Propraetor  of 
Macedonia  during  the  Social  war,  and  probably 
for  some  time  afterward.  He  defeated  the 
Thracians,  who  had  invaded  his  province. — 2. 
One  of  the  persons  of  distinguished  rank  who 
deserted  Sextus  Pompeius  in  B.C.  35,  and  pass- 
ed over  to  Octavianus.  He  was  consul  in  19, 
and  afterward  appointed  to  the  government  of 
Syria.  Three  sons  of  Saturninus  accompanied 
him  as  legati  to  Syria,  and  were  present  with 
their  father  at  the  trial  of  Herod's  sons  at  Bery- 
tus  in  B.C.  6. 

SATURNINUS,  VENULEIUS,  a  Roman  jurist,  is 
said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Papinianus,  and  a 
consiliarius  of  Alexander  Severus.  There  are 
seventy-one  excerpts  from  his  writings  in  the 
Digest. 

SATURNIUS,  that  is,  a  son  of  Saturnus,  and  ac- 
cordingly used  as  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  Nep- 
tune, and  Pluto.  For  the  same  reason,  the  name 
of  SATURNIA  is  given  both  to  Juno  and  Vesta. 

SATURNUS,  a  mythical  king  of  Italy,  to  whom 
was  ascribed  the  introduction  of  agriculture  and 
the  habits  of  civilized  life  in  general.  The 
name  is  connected  with  the  verb  sero,  scvi,  sa- 
tum.  The  Romans  invariably  identified  Satur- 
nus with  the  Greek  Cronos,  and  hence  made 
the  former  the  father  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Pluto, 
Juno,  &c.  (vid.  CRONOS)  ;  but  there  is,  in  reality, 
no  resemblance  between  the  attributes  of  the 
two  deities,  except  that  both  were  regarded  as 
the  most  ancient  divinities  in  their  respective 
countries.  The  resemblance  is  much  stronger 
between  Demeter  and  Saturn,  for  all  that  the 
Greeks  ascribe  to  their  Demeter  is  ascribed  by 
the  Italians  to  Saturn.  Saturnus,  then,  deriving 
his  name  from  sowing,»is  justly  called  the  in- 
troducer of  civilization  and  social  order,  both 
of  which  are  inseparably  connected  with  agri- 
culture. His  reign  is  conceived  for  the  same 
reason  to  have  been  the  golden  age  of  Italy,  and 
more  especially  of  the  Aborigines,  his  subjects. 
As  agricultural  industry  is  the  source  of  wealth 
and  plenty,  his  wife  was  Ops,  the  representative 
of  plenty.  The  story  ran  that  the  god  came  to 
Italy,  in  the  reign  of  Janus,  by  whom  he  was 
hospitably  received,  and  that  he  formed  a  set- 
tlement on  the  Capitoline  Hill,  which  was  hence 
called  the  Saturnian  Hill.  At  the  foot  of  lhat 
hill,  on  the  road  leading  up  to  the  Capitol,  there 
stood  in  after  times  the  temple  of  Saturn.  Sat- 
urn then  taught  the  people  agriculture,  sup- 
pressed their  savage  mode  of  life,  and  intro- 
duced among  them  civilization  and  morality. 
The  result  was,  that  the  whole  country  was 
called  Saturnia,  or  the  land  of  plenty.  Saturn 
was  suddenly  removed  from  earth  to  the  abodes 
of  the  gods,  whereupon  Janus  erected  an  altar 
to  him  in  the  forum.  It  is  further  related  thai 


SATYRl. 

Latium  received  its  name  (from  lateo)  from  this 
disappearance  of  Saturn,  who  for  the  same  rea- 
son was  regarded  by  some  as  a  divinity  of  the 
nether  world.  Respecting  the  festival  solem- 
nized by  the  Romans  in  honor  of  Saturn,  vid. 
Diet,  of  Antiq.,  s.  v.  SATURNALIA.  The  statue  of 
Saturnus  was  hollow  and  filled  with  oil,  proba- 
bly to  denote  the  fertility  of  Latium  in  olives  ; 
in  his  hand  he  held  a  crooked  pruning  knife, 
and  his  feet  were  surrounded  with  a  woollen 
ribhon.  In  the  pediment  of  the  temple  of  Sat- 
urn were  seen  two  figures  resembling  Tritons 
with  horns,  and  whose  lower  extremities  grew 
out  of  the  ground  ;  the  temple  itself  was  used 
as  the  treasury  of  the  state,  and  many  laws  also 
were  deposited  in  it. 

SATYRI  (2arvpot),  the  name  of  a  class  of  be- 
ings m  Greek  mythology  who  are  inseparably 
connected  with  the  worship  of  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nyous),  and  represent  the  luxuriant  vital  pow- 
ers of  nature.  Homer  does  not  mention  the 
Satyrs.  Hesiod  describes  them  as  a  race  good 
for  nothing  and  unfit  for  work.  They  are  com- 
monly said  to  be  the  sons  of  Mercury  (Hermes) 
and  Iphthima,  or  of  the  Naiads.  The  Satyrs 
are  represented  with  bristly  hair,  the  nose  round 
and  somewhat  turned  upward,  the  ears  pointed 
at  the  top  like  those  of  animals,  with  two  small 
horns  growing  out  of  the  top  of  the  forehead, 
and  with  a  tail  like  that  of  a  horse  or  goat.  In  j 
works  of  art  they  are  represented  at  different 
stages  of  life ;  the  older  ones  were  commonly 
called  Sileni,  and  the  younger  ones  are  termed 
Satyrisci.  The  Satyrs  are  always  described  as 
fond  of  wine  (whence  they  often  appear  either 
with  a  cup  or  a  thyrsus  in  their  hand),  and  of 
every  kind  of  sensual  pleasure,  whence  they 
are  seen  sleeping,  playing  musical  instruments, 
or  engaged  in  voluptuous  dances  with  nymphs. 
Like  all  the  gods  dwelling  in  forests  and  fields, 
they  were  greatly  dreaded  by  mortals.  Later 
writers,  especially  the  Roman  poets,  confound 
the  Satyrs  with  the  Italian  Fauni,  and  accord- 
ingly represent  them  with  larger  horns  and 
goats'  feet,  although  originally  they  were  quite 
distinct  kinds  of  beings.  Satyrs  usually  appear 
with  flutes,  the  thyrsus,  syrinx,  the  shepherd's 
staff,  cups  or  bags  filled  with  wine ;  they  are 
dressed  with  the  skins  of  animals,  and  wear 
wreaths  of  vine,  ivy,  or  fir.  Representations 
of  them  are  still  very  numerous,  but  the  most 
celebrated  in  antiquity  was  the  Satyr  of  Praxit- 
eles at  Athens. 

SATYRUS  (Surupoc).  1.  I.  King  of  Bosporus, 
was  a  son  of  Spartacus  I.,  and  reigned  B.C.  407 
or  406-393.  He  maintained  friendly  relations 
with  Athens.  He  was  slain  at  the  siege  of  i 
Theudosia  in  393,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  ' 
son-Leucon. — 2.  II.  King  of  Bosporus,  was  the 
eldest  of  the  sons  of  Paerisades  I.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  311,  hut  reigned  only  nine  months. 
— 3.  A  distinguished  comic  actor  at  Athens,  is 
said  to  have  given  instructions  to  Demosthenes 
in  the  art  of  giving  full  effect  to  his  speeches 
by  appropriate  action. — 4.  A  distinguished  Per- 
ipatetic philosopher  and  historian,  who  lived  in 
the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philopator,  if  not  later. 
He  wrote  a  collection  of  biographies,  among 
which  were  lives  of  Philip  and  Demosthenes, 
and  which  is  frequently  cited  by  ancient  writ- 
ers.—5.  A  physician  in  the  second  century  after 


SAXONES. 

Christ,  who  wrote  some  works  which  are  no 
longer  extant. 

SAUCONNA.     Vid.  ARAR. 

SAUFEIUS.  1.  C.,  quaestor  B.C.  100,  was  one 
of  the  partisans  of  Saturninus,  took  refuge  with 
him  in  the  Capitol,  and  was  slain  along  with  his 
leader  when  they  were  obliged  to  surrender  to 
Marius. — 2.  L  ,  a  Roman  eques,  was  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  Atticus,  and  a  warm  admirer  of 
the  Epicurean  philosophy.  He  had  very  val 
uable  property  in  Italy,  which  was  confiscated  by 
the  triumvirs,  but  was  restored  to  him  through 
the  exertions  of  Atticus. 

SAULOE  PARTHAUNISA  (ZavAu?/  HapOavvioa), 
the  later  capital  of  Parthia,  called  by  the  Greeks 
Nisaea.  Its  site  is  not  known. 

SAUROMAT^E.     Vid.  SARMAT^E. 

SAUROMATES  (Savpofidr^f)Hthe  name  of  sev- 
eral kings  of  Bosporus,  who  are  for  the  most 
part  known  only  from  their  coins.  We  find 
kings  of  this  name  reigning  over  Bosporus  from 
the  time  of  Augustus  to  that  of  Constantino. 

SAVERRIO,  P.  SULPICIUS.  1.  Consul  B.C.  304, 
when  he  carried  on  the  war  against  the  Sam- 
nites.  He  was  censor  in  219  with  Sempronius 
Sophus,  his  former  colleague  in  the  consulship. 
In  their  censorship  two  new  tribes  were  form- 
ed, the  Aniensis  and  Terentina. — 2.  Son  of  the 
preceding,  consul  279  with  P.  Decius  Mus,  com- 
manded, with  his  colleague,  against  Pyrrhus. 

SAVO  (now  Saone),  a  river  in  Campania,  which 
flows  into  the  sea  south  of  Sinuessa. 

SAVUS  (now  Save  or  San),  a  navigable  trib- 
utary of  the  Danube,  which  rises  in  the  Carnic 
Alps,  forms  first  the  boundary  between  Noricum 
and  Italy,  and  afterward  between  Pannonia  and 
Illyria,  and  falls  into  the  Danube  near  Singidu- 
num. 

SAXA,  DECIDIUS,  a  native  of  Celtiberia,  was 
originally  one  of  Caesar's  common  soldiers.  He 
was  tribune  of  the  plebs  in  B.C.  44,  and  after 
Caesar's  death  in  this  year  he  took  an  active 
part  in  supporting  the  friends  of  his  murdered 
patron.  He  served  under  M.  Antonius  in  the 
siege  of  Mutina,  and  subsequently  under  both 
Antonius  and  Octavianus  in  their  war  against 
Brutus  and  Cassius.  After  the  battle  of  Philip- 
pi  Saxa  accompanied  Antony  to  the  East,  and 
was  made  by  the  latter  governor  of  Syria.  Her* 
he  was  defeated  by  the  younger  Labienus  and 
the  Parthians,  and  was  slain  in  the  flight  after 
the  battle  (B.C.  40). 

SAXA,  Q.  Vocomt's,  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C. 
169,  proposed  the  Voconia  lex,  which  was  sup- 
ported by  the  elder  Cato,  who  spoke  in  its  fa- 
vor when  he  was  sixty-five  years  of  age.  Re- 
specting this  lex,  tid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  a.  v. 

SAXA  RUBRA.      Viil.  RUBRA  SAXA. 

SAXONES,  a  powerful  people  in  Germany,  who 
originally  dwelt  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Cim- 
bric  Chersonesus,  between  the  rivers  Albis  and 
Chalusus  (now  Tmn),  consequently  in  the  mod- 
ern Holstein.  They  are  not  mentioned  by  Tac- 
itus and  Pliny,  since  these  writers  appear  to 
have  comprehended  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Cimbric  Chersonesus  under  the  general  name 
of  Ciiubri.  The  Saxones  first  occur  in  history 
in  A.D.  286,  when  they  are  mentioned  as  brave 
and  skillful  sailors,  who  often  joined  the  Chau- 
ci  in  piratical  expeditions  against  the  coast  of 
Gaul.  The  Saxones  afterward  appear  at  the 

781 


SOEA  PORTA. 

nead  of  a  powerful  confederacy  of  Gerrnar  com- 
munities, who  became  united  under  the  general 
name  of  Saxons,  and  who  eventually  occupied 
the  country  between  the  Elbe,  the  Rhine,  the 
Lippe,  and  tne  German  Ocean.  A  portion  of 
the  Saxons,  in  conjunction  with  the  Angli,  led 
by  Hengist  and  Horsa,  conquered  Britain,  as  is 
well  known,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. The  Romans  never  came  into  close  con- 
tact with  the  Saxons. 

[Sc^EA  PORTA  (S/ca^  nvXt),  usually  in  pi.  S/rat- 
ai  nvhcu),  a  celebrated  gate  of  Troy,  on  the 
west  side,  toward  the  sea  :  near  it  was  the  tomb 
of  Laomedon.  Vid.  TROJA.] 

SC^EVA,  CASSIUS,  a  centurion  in  Caesar's  army, 
who  distinguished  himself  by  his  extraordinary 
feats  of  valor  at  the  battle  of  Dyrrhachium.  He 
survived  the  battle,  and  is  mentioned  as  one  of 
the  partisans  of  Caesar  after  the  death  of  the 
latter. 

SC^EVOLA,  Q.  CERVIDICJS,  a  Roman  jurist,  lived 
under  Antoninus  Pius.  He  wrote  several  works, 
and  there  are  three  hundred  and  seven  excerpts 
from  him  in  the  Digest. 

SC^EVOLA,  Mucius.  1.  C.,  the  hero  of  a  cel- 
ebrated story  in  early  Roman  history.  When 
King  Porsenna  was  blockading  Rome,  C.  Mu- 
cius,  a  young  man  of  the  patrician  class,  re- 
solved to  rid  his  country  of  the  invader.  He 
went  out  of  the  city,  with  a  dagger  hid  beneath 
his  dress,  and  approached  the  place  where  Por- 
senna was  sitting,  with  a  secretary  by  his  side, 
dressed  nearly  in  the  same  style  as  the  king 
himself.  Mistaking  the  secretary  for  the  king, 
Mucius  killed  him  on  the  spot.  He  was  seized 
by  the  king's  guards,  and  brought  before  the 
royal  seat,  when  he  declared  his  name,  and  his 
design  to  kill  the  king  himself,  and  told  him 
that  there  were  many  more  Romans  ready  to 
attempt  his  life.  The  king,  in  his  passion  and 
alarm,  ordered  him  to  be  burned  alive  unless  he 
explained  more  clearly  what  he  meant  by  his 
vague  threats,  upon  which  Mucius  thrust  his 
right  hand  into  a  fire  which  was  already  lighted 
for  a  sacrifice,  and  held  it  there  without  flinch- 
ing. The  king,  who  was  amazed  at  his  firm- 
ness, ordered  him  to  be  removed  from  the  al- 
tar, and  bade  him  go  away  free  and  uninjured. 
ri'o  make  some  return  to  the  king  for  his  gen- 
erous behavior,  Mucius  told  him  that  there  were 
three  hundred  of  the  first  youths  of  Rome  who 
had  agreed  with  one  another  to  kill  the  king, 
that  the  lot  fell  on  him  to  make  the  first  at- 
tempt, and  that  the  rest  would  do  the  same 
when  their  turn  came.  Mucius  received  the 
name  of  Scaevola,  or  left-handed,  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  loss  of  his  right  hand.  Por- 
senna, being  alarmed  for  his  life,  which  he  could 
not  secure  against  so  many  desperate  men,  made 
proposals  of  peace  to  the  Romans,  and  evacu- 
ated the  territory.  The  patricians  gave  Mucius 
a  tract  of  land  beyond  the  Tiber,  which  was 
thenceforth  called  Mucia  Praia.  The  Mucius 
of  this  story  was  a  patrician,  but  the  Mucii  of 
the  historical  period  were  plebeians. — 2.  Q., 
praetor  B.C.  215,  had  Sardinia  for  his  province, 
where  he  remained  for  the  next  three  .years. 
He  was  decemvir  sacrorum,  and  died  209. — 3. 
Q.,  probably  son  of  No.  2,  was  praetor  179,  with 
Sicily  for  his  province,  and  consul  174. — 4.  P., 
rother  of  No.  3,  was  praetor  with  his  brother 
782 


SC^VOLA,  MUCIUS. 

179,  and  consul  175.  In  his  consulship  he  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Ligurians. — 5.  P.,  probably 
son  of  No.  4,  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  141,  priB- 
tor  urbanus  136,  and  consul  133,  the  year  in 
which  Tiberius  Gracchus  lost  his  life.  In  131 
he  succeeded  his  brother  Mucianus  (cid. MUCIA- 

j  NUS)  as  pontifex  maximus.  Scaevola  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  knowledge  of  the  Jus  Ponti- 

\ficium.  He  was  also  famed  for  his  skill  in  play- 
ing at  ball,  as  well  as  at  the  game  called  Duo- 
decim  Scripta.  His  fame  as  a  lawyer  is  re- 

|  corded  by  Cicero  in  several  passages.  There 
is  no  excerpt  from  his  writings  in  the  Digest, 
but  he  is  cited  several  times  by  the  jurists  whose 

j  works  were  used  for  that  compilation. — 6.  Q., 
called  the  AUGUR,  was  son  of  No.  3,  and  mar 

:  ried  the  daughter  of  C.  Laelius,  the  friend  of 
Scipio  Africanus  the  younger.  He  was  tribune 
of  the  plebs  128,  plebeian  aedile  125,  and  as  prze- 
tor  was  governor  of  the  province  of  Asia  in  121, 
the  year  in  which  C.  Gracchus  lost  his  life.  He 
was  prosecuted  after  his  return  from  his  prov- 
ince for  the  offence  of  repetundae  in  120  by  T. 
Albucius,  but  was  acquitted.  He  was  consul 
117.  He  lived  at  least  to  the  tribunate  of  P. 
Sulpicius  Rufus  88.  Cicero,  who  was  born  106, 
informs  us  that,  after  he  had  put  on  the  toga 
virilis,  his  father  took  him  to  Scaevola,  who  was 
then  an  old  man,  and  that  he  kept  as  close  to 
him  as  he  could,  in  order  to  profit  by  his  re- 
marks. After  his  death  Cicero  became  a  hear- 
er of  Q.  Mucius  Scajvola,  the  pontifex.  The  au- 
gur was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the 
law ;  but  none  of  his  writings  are  recorded.  Mu- 
cia, the  augur's  daughter,  married  L.  Licinius 
Crassus,  the  orator,  who  was  consul  95,  with  Q. 
Mucius  Scsevola,  the  pontifex  maximus ;  whence 
it  appears  that  the  Q.  Mucius,  who  is  one  of  the 
speakers  in  the  treatise  de  Oratore,  is  not  the 
pontifex  and  the  colleague  of  Crassus,  but  the 
augur,  the  father-in-law  of  Crassus.  He  is 
also  one  of  the  speakers  in  the  Lalius  sivc  de 
Amicitia  (c.  1),  and  in  the  de  Republica  (i.,  12). 
— 7.  Q.,  PONTIFEX  MAXIMUS,  was  son  of  No.  5, 
and  is  quoted  by  Cicero  as  an  example  of  a  son 
who  aimed  at  excellence  in  that  which  had 
given  his  father  distinction.  He  was  tribune 
of  the  plebs  in  106,  curule  aedile  in  104,  and  con- 
sul 95,  with  Licinius  Crassus,  the  orator,  as  his 
colleague.  After  his  consulship  Scaevola  was 
the  governor  (proconsul)  of  the  province  of  Asia, 
in  which  capacity  he  gained  the  esteem  of  the 
people  who  were  under  his  government.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  made  pontifex  maximus,  by 
which  title  he  is  often  distinguished  from  Q. 
Mucius  the  augur.  He  lost  his  life  in  the  con- 
sulship of  C.  Marius  the  younger  and  Cn.  Pa- 
pirius  Carbo  (82),  having  been  proscribed  by  the 
Marian  party,  from  which  we  may  conclude  that 
he  belonged  to  Sulla's  party.  His  body  was 
thrown  into  the  Tiber.  The  virtues  of  Scaevola 
are  recorded  by  Cicero,  who,  after  the  death  of 
the  augur,  became  an  attendant  (auditor)  of  the 
pontifex.  The  purity -of  his  moral  character, 
his  exalted  notions  of  equity  and  fair  dealing, 
his  abilities  as  an  administrator,  an  orator,  and 
a  jurist,  place  him  among  the  first  of  the  illus- 
trious men  of  all  ages  and  countries.  He  was, 
says  Cicero,  the  most  eloquent  of  jurists,  and 
the  most  learned  jurist  among  orators.  Q.  Scav 
vola  the  pontifex  is  the  first  Roman  to  whom 


SCALABIS. 

«ve  can  attribute  a  scientific  and  systematic 
handling  of  the  Jus  Civile,  which  he  accom- 
plished in  a  work  in  eighteen  books.  He  also 
wrote  a  Liber  Singularis  Trepl  bpuv,  a  work  on 
Definitions,  or  perhaps,  rather,  short  rules  of 
law,  from  which  there  are  four  excerpts  in  the 
Digest.  This  is  the  oldest  work  from  which 
there  are  any  excerpts  in  the  Digest,  and  even 
these  may  have  been  taken  at  second  hand. 

SCALABIS  (now  Santarcm),  a  town  in  Lusita- 
nia,  on  the  road  from  Olisipo  to  Emerita  and 
Bracara,  also  a  Roman  colony  with  the  sur- 
name Presidium  Julium,  and  the  seat  of  one  of 
the  three  Conventus  Juridici  of  the  province. 
The  town  is  efroneously  called  Scalabiscus  by 
Ptolemy. 

SCALDIS  (now  Scheldt),  an  important  river  in 
the  north  of  Gallia  Belgica,  flowing  into  the 
ocean,  but  which  Caesar  erroneously  makes  a 
tributary  of  the  Mosa.  Ptolemy  calls  this  river 
Tabudas  or  Tabvllas,  which  name  it  continued 
to  bear  in  the  Middle  Ages  under  the  form  of 
Tabul  or  Tabula. 

SCAMANDER  (2/cu/iov<5pof).  i.  A  river  in  the 
western  part  of  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily, 
falling  into  the  sea  near  Segesta. — 2.  The  cel- 
ebrated river  of  the  Troad.  Vid.  TROAS.  As  a 
mythological  personage,  the  river-god  was  call- 
ed Xanthus  by  the  gods.  His  contest  with 
Achilles  is  described  by  Homer  (//.,  xxi.,  136, 
foil.). 

SCAMANDRIUS  (S/ta/*dvc5ptof).  1.  Son  of  Hec- 
tor and  Andromache,  whom  the  people  of  Troy 
called  Astyanax,  because  his  father  was  the 
protector  of  the  city  of  Troy. — [2.  A  Trojan 
warrior,  son  of  Strophius,  slain  by  Menelaus.] 

SCAMBONID^E  (I>Ka(j.6uvi6ai),  a  demus  in  Atti- 
ca, between  Athens  and  Eleusis,  belonging  to 
the  tribe  Leontis. 

SCAMPA  CSKUfnra  '.  now  Skumbi  or  Iscampi),  a 
town  in  the  interior  of  Greek  Illyria,  on  the  Via 
Egnatia,  between  Clodiana  and  Lychnidus. 

SCANDEA  CSnuvdeia),  a  port-town  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  island  Cythera,  forming  the  har- 
bor of  the  town  of  Cythera,  from  which  it  was 
ten  stadia  distant. 

SCANDIA  or  SCANDINAVIA,  the  name  given  by 
the  ancients  to  Norway,  Sweden,  and  the  sur- 
rounding islands.  Even  the  later  Romans  had 
a  very  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula.  They  supposed  it  to  have  been  sur-. 
rounded  by  the  ocean,  and  to  have  been  com- 
posed of  several  islands  called  by  Ptolemy  Scan- 
diae.  Of  these  the  largest  bore  especially  the 
name  of  Scandia  or  Scandinavia,  by  which  the 
modern  Sweden  was  undoubtedly  indicated. 
This  country  was  inhabited  by  the  Hilleviones, 
of  whom  the  Sniones  and  Sitones  appear  to 
have  been  tribes. 

SCANDILA  (now  Scandole),  a  small  island  in 
the  northeast  of  the  Aegean  Sea,  between  Pepa- 
rethos  and  Scyros. 

SCANTIA  SILVA,  a  wood  in  Campania,  in  which 
were  probably  the  Aquae  Scantiac  mentioned  by 
Pliny. 

[SCANTILLA,  MANLIA,  the  wife  of  Didius  Ju- 

lianus,  whom  she  urged  to  buy  the  empire  when 

set  up  for  sale  :  she  enjoyed  the  title  Avgutta, 

during  the  brief  period  of  her  husband's  reign.] 

SCAPTE  HYLE  (SwaTi-r^  vAr;),  also  called,  but 

ess  correctly,  ScAPTESYLE(2Ka7rr»7<TvAj/), a  small 


SCAURUS,  ^EMILIUS. 

town  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  opposite  the  isi- 
and  of  Thasos.  It  contained  celebrated  gold 
mines,  which  were  originally  worked  by  the 
Thasians.  Thucydides,  who  had  some  proper- 
ty in  these  mines,  retired  to  this  place  after  his 
banishment  from  Athens,  and  here  arranged  the 
materials  for  his  history. 

SCAPTIA  (Scaptiensis  or  Scaptius),  an  ancient 
town  in  Latium,  which  gave  its  name  to  a  Ro- 
man tribe,  but  which  disappeared  at  an  early 
period. 

[SCAPULA  QUINTIUS,  T.,  a  Roman  officer,  pass 
ed  over  into  Spain  with  Cn.  Pompeius,  and  took 
an  active  part  against  Caesar  :  he  fought  at  the 
battle  of  Munda,  B.C.  45,  and  after  tlie  battle, 
seeing  that  all  was  lost,  fled  to  Corduba,  and 
there  burned  himself  to  death  on  a  pyre  which 
he  had  erected  for  that  purpose.] 

SCAPULA,  P.  OSTORIUS,  succeeded  A.  Plautius 
as  governor  of  Britain  about  A.D.  50.  He  de- 
feated the  powerful  tribe  of  the  Silures,  took 
prisoner  their  king  Caractacus,  and  sent  him  in 
chains  to  Rome.  In  consequence  of  this  suc- 
cess he  received  the  insignia  of  a  triumph,  but 
died  soon  afterward  in  the  province. 

SCARABANTIA  (now  (Edenburg),  a  town  in  Pan- 
nonia  Superior,  on  the  road  from  Vindobona  to 
Pcetovio,  and  a  municipium  with  the  surname 
Flavia  Augusta. 

SCAR  DON  A  (2/capJ<ji>a  or  Swapduv).  1.  (Now 
Shardona  or  Skardin),  the  chief  town  of  Libur- 
nia  in  Illyria,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Titius, 
twelve  miles  from  its  mouth,  the  seat  of  a  Con- 
ventus Juridicus.  —  21.  (Now  Arbe),  a  small  isl- 
and off  the  coast  of  Liburnia,  also  called  Arba, 
which  was  the  name  of  the  principal  town. 

SCARDUS  or  SCORDUS  MONS  (TO  2*ap<5ov  t>po(), 
a  small  range  of  lofty  mountains,  forming  the 
boundary  between  Moesia  and  Macedonia. 

ScARPHE,  SCARPHEA,  Or  ScARPHIA  (!iKUp<j>7], 


(j>ato£,  2Kap0tof),  a  town  of  the  Epicnemidii  Lo- 
cri,  ten  stadia  from  the  coast,  at  which  the  roads 
united  leading  through  Thermopylae.  It  pos- 
sessed a  harbor  on  the  coast,  probably  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Boagrius. 

SCARPONNA  (now  Charpcignc),  a  town  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  on  the  Mosella,  and  on  the  road  from 
Tullum  to  Divodurum. 

SCATO  or  CATO,  VETTIUS,  one  of  the  Italian 
generals  in  the  Marsic  war,  B.C.  90.  He  de- 
feated the  consuls,  L.  Julius  Caesar  and  P.  Rutil- 
ius  Lupus,  in  two  successive  battles.  He  was 
afterward  taken  prisoner,  and  was  stabbed  to 
death  by  his  own  slave  as  he  was  being  dragged 
before  the  Roman  general,  being  thus  delivered 
from  the  ignominy  and  punishment  that  await- 
ed him. 

SCAURUS,  ^EMIUUS.  1.  M.,  raised  his  family 
from  obscurity  to  the  highest  rank  among  the 
Roman  nobles.  He  was  born  in  B.C.  163.  His 
father,  notwithstanding  his  patrician  descent, 
had  been  obliged,  through  poverty,  to  carry  on 
the  trade  of  a  coal  merchant,  and  left  his  son  a 
very  slender  patrimony.  The  latter  had  thought 
at  first  of  carrying  on  the  trade  ofamoney-k-nd- 
er  ;  but  he  finally  resolved  to  devote  "himself  to 
the  study  of  eloquence,  with  the  hope  of  rising 
to  the  honors  of  the  state.  He  likewise  served 
in  the  army,  where  he  appears  to  have  gained 
some  distinction.  He  was  curule  acdile  in  123 

783 


SCAURUS,  ^MILIUS. 

H j  obtained  the  consulship  in  1 15,  when  he  car- 
ried on  war  with  success  against  several  of  the 
Alpine  tribes.  In  112  he  was  sent  at  the  head 
of  an  embassy  to  Jugurtha ;  and  in  111  he  ac- 
companied the  consul  L.  Calpurnius  Bestia,  as 
one  of  his  legates,  in  the  war  against  Jugurtha. 
The  Numidian  king  bestowed  large  sums  of 
money  upon  both  Bestia  and  Scaurus,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  consul  granted  the  king 
most  favorable  terms  of  peace.  This  disgrace- 
ful transaction  excited  the  greatest  indignation 
at  Rome  ;  and  C.  Mamilius,  the  tribune  of  the 
plebs,  110,  brought  forward  a  bill  by  which  an 
inquiry  was  to  be  instituted  against  all  those 
who  had  received  bribes  from  Jugurtha.  Al- 
though Scaurus  had  been  one  of  the  most  guilty, 
such  was  his  influence  in  the  state  that  he  con- 
trived to  be  appointed  one  of  the  three  quae- 
sitores  who  were  elected  under  the  bill  for 
the  purpose  of  prosecuting  the  criminals.  But, 
though  he  thus  secured  himself,  he  was  unable 
to  save  any  of  his  accomplices.  Bestia  and 
many  others  were  condemned.  In  109,  Scaurus  | 
was  censor  with  M.  Livius  Drusus.  In  his  con-  I 
sulship  he  restored  the  Milvian  bridge,  and  con-  j 
structed  the  JSmilian  road,  which  ran  by  Pisae  i 
and  Luna  as  far  as  Dertona.  In  107  he  was  i 
elected  consul  a  second  time,  in  place  of  L.  Cas- 
sius  Longinus,  who  had  fallen  in  battle  against 
the  Tigurini.  In  the  struggles  between  the 
aristocratical  and  popular  parties,  Scaurus  was 
always  a  warm  supporter  of  the  former.  He 
was  several  times  accused  of  different  offences, 
chiefly  by  his  private  enemies ;  but  such  was 
his  influence  in  the  state  that  he  was  always 
acquitted.  He  died  about  89.  By  his  wife  Cae- 
cilia  Scaurus  had  three  children,  two  sons  men- 
tioned below,  and  a  daughter  ^Emilia,  first  mar- 
ried to  M'.  Glabrio,  and  next  to  Cn.  Pompey, 
subsequently  the  triumvir. — 2.  M.,  eldest  son  of 
the  preceding,  and  step-son  of  the  dictator  Sul- 
la, whom  his  mother  Caecilia  married  after  the 
death  of  his  father.  In  the  third  Mithradatic 
war  he  served  under  Pompey  as  quaestor.  The 
latter  sent  him  to  Damascus  with  an  army,  and 
from  thence  he  marched  into  Judaea  to  settle 
the  disputes  between  the  brothers  Hyrcanus  and 
Aristobulus.  Scaurus  was  left  by  Pompey  in 
the  command  of  Syria  with  two  legions.  Dur- 
ing his  government  of  Syria  he  made  a  preda- 
tory incursion  into  Arabia  Petraea,  but  with- 
drew on  the  payment  of  three  hundred  talents 
by  Aretas,  the  king  of  the  country.  He  was 
curule  aedile  in  58,  when  he  celebrated  the  pub- 
lic games  with  extraordinary  splendor.  The 
temporary  theatre  which  he  built  accommoda- 
ted eighty  thousand  spectators,  and  was  adorned 
in  the  most  magnificent  manner.  Three  hund- 
red and  sixty  pillars  decorated  the  stage,  ar- 
ranged in  three  stories,  of  which  the  lowest  was 
made  of  white  marble,  the  middle  one  of  glass, 
and  the  highest  of  gilt  wood.  The  combats  of 
wild  beasts  were  equally  astonishing.  One 
hundred  and  fifty  panthers  were  exhibited  in  the 
circus,  and  five  crocodiles  and  a  hippopotamus 
were  seen  for  the  first  time  at  Rome.  In  56  he 
was  praetor,  and  in  the  following  year  governed 
the  province  of  Sardinia,  which  he  plundered 
without  mercy.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he  was 
accused  of  the  crime  of  repetundae.  He  was 
defended  by  Cicero,  Hortensius,  and  others,  and 
784 


SCEPSIS. 

was  acquitted,  notwithstanding  his  guilt.  He 
was  accused  again  in  52,  under  Pompey's  new 
law  against  ambitus,  and  was  condemned.  He 
married  Mucia,  who  had  been  previously  the 
wife  of  Pompey,  and  by  her  he  had  one  son 
(No.  4). — 3.  Younger  son  of  No.  1,  fought  under 
the  proconsul,  Q.  Catulus,  against  the  Cimbri  al 
the  Athesis,  and,  having  fled  from  the  field,  was 
indignantly  commanded  by  his  father  not  to  come 
into  his  presence,  whereupon  the  youth  put  an 
end  to  his  life. — 4.  M.,  son  of  No.  2,  and  Mucia, 
the  former  wife  of  Pompey  the  triumvir,  and 
consequently  the  half-brother  of  Sextus  Pom- 
pey. He  accompanied  the  latter  into  Asia  after 
the  defeat  of  his  fleet  in  Sicily,  but  betrayed  him 
into  the  hands  of  the  generals  of  M.  Antonius  in 
35.  After  the  battle  of  Actium  he  fell  into  the 
power  of  Octavianus,  and  escaped  death,  to 
which  he  had  been  sentenced,  only  through  the 
intercession  of  his  mother,  Mucia. — 5.  MAMER- 
cus,  son  of  No.  4,  was  a  distinguished  orator 
and  poet,  but  of  a  dissolute  character.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  senate  at  the  time  of  the  ac- 
cession of  Tiberius,  A.D.  14,  when  he  offend- 
ed this  suspicious  emperor  by  some  remarks 
which  he  made  in  the  senate.  Being  accused 
of  majestas  in  34,  he  put  an  end  to  his  own 
life. 

SCAURUS,  M.  AURELIUS,  consul  suffectus  B.C. 
108,  was  three  years  afterward  consular  legate 
in  Gaul,  where  he  was  defeated  by  the  Cimbri, 
taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death. 

SCAURUS,  Q.  TERENTIUS,  a  celebrated  gram- 
marian who  flourished  under  the  Emperor  Ha- 
drian, and  whose  son  was  one  of  the  preceptors 
of  the  Emperor  Verus.  He  was  the  author  of 
an  Ars  Grammatica,  and  of  commentaries  upon 
Plautus,  Virgil,  and  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace, 
which  are  known  to  us  from  a  few  scattered 
notices  only,  for  the  tract  entitled  Q.  Terentii 
Scauri  de  Orthographia  ad  Theseum  included  in 
the  "  Grammaticae  Latinae  Auctores  Antiqui' 
of  Putschius  (Hannov.,  1605),  is  not  believed  to 
be  a  genuine  production  of  this  Scaurus. 

SCELERATUS  CAMPUS.     Vid.  ROMA,  p.  748,  a. 

SCEN^E  CSiKTjvai,  i.  e.,  the  tents),  a  town  ot 
Mesopotamia,  on  the  borders  of  Babylonia,  on 
a  canal  of  the  Euphrates,  twenty-five  days' jour- 
ney below  Zeugma.  It  belonged  to  the  SCENI 
TJE,  and  was  evidently  only  a  collection  of  tents 
or  huts. 

SCENIT^E  (ZicTjvlTai,  i.  e.,  dwellers  in  tents),  the 
general  name  used  by  the  Greeks  for  the  Beda- 
wee  (Bedouin)  tribes  of  Arabia  Deserta.  It  was 
also  applied  to  nomad  tribes  in  Africa,  who  like- 
wise lived  in  tents. 

SCEPSIS  C2.KTjibi£  :  now  probably  ruins  at  Eski- 
Upshi  or  Eski-Sfiupshe),  an  ancient  city  in  the  in- 
terior of the  Troad,  southeast  of  Alexandrea,  in 
the  mountains  of  Ida.  Its  inhabitants  were  re- 
moved by  Antigonus  to  Alexandrea  ;  but,  being 
permitted  by  Lysimachus  to  return  to  their 
homes,  they  built  a  new  city,  called  ij  via  KU/JTI, 
and  the  remains  of  the  old  town  were  then  call- 
ed UaTiatoK^if.  Scepsis  is  celebrated  in  lit- 
erary history  as  the  place  where  certain  MSS 
of  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus  were  buried,  to 
prevent  their  transference  to  Pergamus.  When 
dug  up  again,  they  were  found  nearly  destroyed 
by  mould  and  worms,  and  in  this  condition  they 
were  ?  emoved  by  Sulla  to  Athens.  The  philos- 


SOERDILAiDAS. 

opher  Metrodorus  and  the  grammarian  Deme-  i 
trins  were  natives  of  Scepsis. 

ScERDII.AIDAS   Or  ScE.RDIL^EDUS   (SKEpJ^Uidaf   ' 

or  I,K£p6iXai6of ),  king  of  Illyria,  was  in  all  prob- 
ability a  son  of  Pleuratus,  and  younger  brother  , 
of  Agion,  both  of  them  kings  of  that  country. 
After  the  defeat  and  abdication  of  Teiita  (B.C. 
229),  he  probably  succeeded  to  a  portion  of  her 
dominions,  but  did  not  assume  the  title  of  king 
till  after  the  death  of  his  nephew  Pinnes.  He 
carried  on  war  for  some  years  against  Philip, 
king  of  Macedonia,  and  thus  appears  as  an  ally 
of  the  Romans.  He  probably  died  about  205,  j 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Pleuratus. 

[ScHEou  (S^eJ/o),  a  large  village  of  Lower 
Egypt,  on  the  great  canal  which  united  Alex- 
andrea  with  the  Canobic  mouth  of  the  Nile,  four 
schoeni  from  Alexandrea,  was  the  station  of  the 
splendid  galleys  in  which  the  prefects  visited  the 
upper  districts.] 

ScHEDlus  (S^ecJtof).  1.  Son  of  Iphitus  and 
Hippolyte,  commanded  the  Phocians  in  the  war 
against  Troy,  along  with  his  brother  Episiro- 
phus.  He  was  slain  by  Hector,  and  his  remains 
were  carried  from  Troy  to  Anticyra  in  PLocis. 
— 2.  Son  of  Perimedes,  likewise  aPhocian  who 
was  killed  at  Troy  by  Hector. 

SCHERA  (Scherinus),  a  town  in  the  interior  of 
Sicily,  in  the  southwest  part  of  the  island. 
SCHERIA.  Vid.  PH.SACES. 
[SCHISTE  ( Via,  ij  axiarn  &$6(,  now  Zimeno  or 
Zemino),  a  road  leading  from  Delphi  over  a  de- 
clivity of  Parnassus  to  Daulis,  and  still  further 
northward,  deriving  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
it  began  in  a  mountain  gorge,  and  then,  two  ge- 
ographical miles  east  of  Delphi,  at  a  place  called 
Tptlf  Kehevdot,  divided  itself  into  two  roads,  one 
to  the  northeast  toward  Daulis,  the  other  to  the 
southeast  toward  Lebadea  or  Helicon.  At  the 
point  where  the  three  roads  met  was  erected 
the  tumulus  to  commemorate  the  murder  of 
Laius  by  CEdipus,  which  was  said  to  have  oc- 
curred there.] 

SCHCENUS  (S^ou-or:  Zjfomevf),  a  town  of 
Boeotia,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  and  on 
the  road  from  Thebes  to  Anthedon. 

SCHOJNUS  (S^otvovf,  -ffiivTOf).  1.  A  harbor  of 
Corinth,  north  of  Cenchreae,  at  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  isthmus. — 2.  A  place  in  the  interior 
of  Arcadia,  near  Methydrium. 

SCIATHUS  (Zxt'aflof :  ^KidOtof.  now  Skiatho), 
a  small  island  in  the  .£gean  Sea,  north  of  Eu- 
boea  and  east  of  the  Magnesian  coast  of  Thes- 
saly,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name  upon  it.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  originally  colonized  by  Pelas- 
gians  from  Thrace.  It  is  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  history  of  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerx- 
es, since  the  Persian  and  Grecian  fleets  were 
stationed  near  its  coasts.  It  subsequently  he- 
came  one  of  the  subject  allies  of  Athens,  but  at- 
tained such  little  prosperity  that  it  only  had  to 
pay  the  small  tribute  of  two  hundred  drachmae 
vearly.  Its  chief  town  was  destroyed  by  the 
last  Philip  of  Macedonia.  At  a  later  time  it  was 
restored  by  Antonius  to  the  Athenians.  Scia- 
thus  produced  good  wine. 

SCIDRDS  (2/c/(5pof),  a  place  in  the  south  of 
Italy,  of  uncertain  site,  in  which  some  of  the 
Sybarites  settled  after  the  destruction  of  their 
own  city. 

SCILLUS   (  2«tA?.ovf,    -ovvrof  :    2/uAAou»r  of, 
50 


SCIPIO. 


,  a  town  of  Elis,  in  the  district  Tn 
phylia,  on  the  River  Selinus,  twenty  stadia 
south  of  Olympia.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Eleans  in  the  war  which  they  carried  on  against 
the  Pisaeans,  whose  cause  had  been  espoused 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Scillus.  The  Lacedaemo- 
nians subsequently  took  possession  of  the  ter 
ritory  of  Scillus  ;  and,  although  the  Eleans  still 
laid  claim  to  it,  they  gave  it  to  Xenophon  after 
his  banishment  from  Athens.  Xenophon  re- 
sided at  this  place  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life,  and  erected  here  a  sanctuary  to  Diana  (Ar- 
temis), which  he  had  vowed  during  the  retreat 
of  the  Ten  Thousand. 

SCINGOMAGUS,  a  small  place  in  the  southeast- 
ern part  of  Gallia  Transpadana,  in  the  kingdom. 
of  Cottius,  west  of  Segusio,  at  the  pass  across 
the  Alps. 

SCIONE  (SKIUVT)  :  2/ttuvafof,  SKttweuf),  the 
chief  town  in  the  Macedonian  peninsula  of  Pal- 
lene,  on  the  western  coast.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  some  Pellenians  of  Achaia, 
who  settled  here  after  their  return  from  Troy. 
It  revolted  from  the  Athenians  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  but  was  retaken  by  Cleon  ;  where- 
upon all  the  men  were  put  to  death,  the  women 
and  children  sold  as  slaves,  and  the  town  given 
to  the  Plataeans. 

Scipio,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  patrician 
family  of  the  Cornelia  gens.  This  name,  which 
signifies  a  stick  or  staff,  is  said  to  have  been 
given  to  the  founder  of  the  family,  because  he 
served  as  a  staff  in  directing  his  blind  father. 
This  family  produced  some  of  the  greatest  men 
in  Rome,  and  to  them  she  was  more  indebted 
than  to  any  others  for  the  empire  of  the  world. 
The  family  tomb  of  the  Scipios  was  discovered 
in  1780,  on  the  left  of  the  Appia  Via,  about  four 
hundred  paces  within  the  modern  Porta  S.  Se- 
bastiano.  The  inscriptions  and  other  curiosi- 
ties are  now  deposited  in  the  Museo  Pio-Clem- 
entino  at  Rome.  1.  P.  CORNELIUS  SCIPIO,  ma- 
gister  equitum  B.C.  396,  and  consular  tribune 
395  and  394.—  2.  L.  CORN.  SCIPIO,  consul  350. 
—  3.  P.  CORN.  SCIPIO  BARBATUS,  consul  328,  and 
dictator  3f)6.  He  was  also  pontifex  maximus.  — 
4.  L.  CORN.  SCIPIO  BARBATUS,  consul  298,  when 
he  carried  on  war  against  the  Etruscans,  and  de- 
feated them  near  Volaterrae.  He  also  served 
under  the  consuls  in  297,  295,  and  293,  against 
the  Samnites.  This  Scipio  was  the  great-grand- 
father of  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal.  The  gen- 
ealogy of  the  family  can  be  traced  with  more 
certainty  from  this  time.  —  5.  CN.  CORN.  SCIPIO 
A  SIN  A,  son  of  No.  4,  was  consul  260,  in  the  first 
Punic  war.  In  an  attempt  upon  the  Liparaan 
islands,  he  was  taken  prisoner  with  seventeen 
ships.  He  probably  recovered  his  liberty  when 
Regulus  invaded  Africa,  for  he  was  consul  a  sec- 
ond time  in  254.  In  this  year  he  and  his  col- 
league, A.  Atilius  Calatinus,  crossed  over  into 
Sicily  and  took  the  town  of  Panormus.  —  6.  L. 
CORN.  SCIPIO,  also  son  of  No.  4,  was  consul  259. 
He  drove  the  Carthaginians  out  of  Sardinia  and 
Corsica,  defeating  Hanno,  the  Carthaginian 
commander.  He  was  censor  in  258.—  7.  P. 
CORN.  SCIPIO  ASINA,  son  of  No.  5,  was  consul 
221,  and  carried  on  war,  with  his  colleague  M. 
Minucius  Rufus,  against  the  Istri,  who  wen 
subdued  by  the  consuls.  He  is  mentioned  again 
in  211,  when  he  recommended  that  the  senate 

785 


SC1PIO. 

snould  recall  all  the  generals  and  armies  from 
Italy  for  *he  defence  of  the  capital,  because  Han- 
nibal was  marching  upon  the  city. — 8.  P.  CORN. 
SCIPIO,  son  of  No.  6,  was  consul,  with  Ti.  Sein- 
pronius  Longus,  in  218,  the  first  year  of  the  sec- 
ond Punic  war.  He  sailed  with  an  army  to 
Gaul,  in  order  to  encounter  Hannibal  before 
crossing  the  Alps  ;  but,  finding  that  Hannibal 
had  crossed  the  Rhone,  and  had  got  the  start  of 
him  by  a  three  days'  march,  he  resolved  to  sail 
back  to  Italy  and  await  Hannibal's  arrival  in 
Cisalpine  Gaul.  But  as  the  Romans  had  an 
army  of  twenty -five  thousand  men  in  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  under  the  command  of  two  praetors,  Scip- 
io  sent  into  Spain  the  army  which  he  had  brought 
with  him,  under  the  command  of  his  brother 
Cn.  Scipio.  On  his  return  to  Italy,  Scipio  took  j 
the  command  of  the  army  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  I 
and  hastened  to  meet  Hannibal.  An  engage-  I 
ment  took  place  between  the  cavalry  and  light-  | 
armed  troops  of  the  two  armies.  The  Romans  j 
were  defeated ;  the  consul  himself  received  a 
severe  wound,  and  was  only  saved  from  death  \ 
by  the  courage  of  his  young  son  Publius,  the 
future  conqueror  of  Hannibal.  Scipio  now  re- 
treated across  the  Ticinus,  crossed  the  Po  also, 
first  took  up  his  quarters  at  Placentia,  and  sub- 
sequently withdrew  to  the  hills  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Trebia,  where  he  was  joined  by  the  oth- 
er consul,  Sempronius  Longus.  The  latter  re- 
solved upon  a  battle,  in  opposition  to  the  advice 
of  his  colleague.  The  result  was  the  complete 
defeat  of  the  Roman  army,  which  was  obliged 
to  take  refuge  within  the  walls  of  Placentia. 
In  the  following  year,  217,  Scipio,  whose  impe- 
rium  had  been  prolonged,  crossed  over  into 
Spain.  He  and  his  brother  Cneius  continued  in 
Spain  till  their  death  in  211  ;  but  the  history  of 
their  campaigns,  though  important  in  their  re- 
sults, is  full  of  confusions  and  contradictions. 
They  gained  several  victories  over  the  enemy, 
and  they  felt  themselves  so  strong  by  the  be- 
ginning of  212,  that  they  resolved  to  cross  the 
Iberus,  and  to  make  a  vigorous  effort  to  drive 
the  Carthaginians  out  of  Spain.  They  accord- 
ingly divided  their  forces,  but  they  we're  defeat- 
ed and  slain  in  battle  by  the  Carthaginians.— 9. 
CN.  CORN.  SCIPIO  CALVUS,  son  of  No.  6,  and 
brother  of  No.  8,  was  consul  222,  with  M.  Clau- 
dius Marcellus.  In  conjunction  with  his  col- 
league, he  carried  on  war  against  the  Insu- 
brians.  In  218  he  carried  on  war  as  the  legate 
of  his  brother  Publius  for  eight  years  in  Spain, 
as  has  been  related  above. — 10.  P.  CORN.  SCIPIO 
AFRICANUS  MAJOR,  son  of  No.  8,  was  born  in  234. 
He  was  unquestionably  one  of  the  greatest  men 
of  Rome,  and  he  acquired  at  an  early  age  the 
confidence  and  admiration  of  his  countrymen. 
His  enthusiastic  mind  led  him  to  believe  that 
he  was  a  special  favorite  of  the  gods,  and  he 
never  engaged  in  any  public  or  private  business 
without  first  going  to  the  Capitol,  where  he  sat 
some  time  alone,  enjoying  communication  from 
the  gods.  For  all  he  proposed  or  executed,  he 
alleged  the  divine  approval ;  and  the  Roman 
people  gave  credit  to  his  assertions,  and  re- 
garded him  as  a  being  almost  superior  to  the 
common  race  of  men.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  Scipio  believed  himself  in  the  divine  reve- 
lations, which  he  asserted  to  have  been  vouch- 
safed to  him,  and  the  extraordinary  success 
786 


SCIPIO. 

which  attended  all  his  enterprises  must  have 
deepened  this  belief.  He  is  first  mentioned  in 
218  at  the  battle  of  the  Ticinus,  when  he  saved 
the  life  of  his  father,  as  has  been  already  re- 
lated. He  fought  at  Cannae  two  years  after- 
ward (216),  when  he  was  already  a  tribune  of 
the  soldiers,  and  was  one  of  the  few  Roman  of- 
ficers who  survived  that  fatal  day.  He  was 
chosen,  along  with  Appius  Claudius,  to  com- 
mand the  remains  of  the  army,  which  had  taken 
refuge  at  Canusium  ;  and  it  was  owing  to  his 
youthful  heroism  and  presence  of  mind  that  the 
Roman  nobles,  who  had  thought  of  leaving  It- 
aly in  despair,  were  prevented  from  carrying 
their  rash  project  into  effect.  He  had  already 
gained  the  favor  of  the  people  to  such  an  extent 
that  he  was  elected  aedile  in  212,  although  he 
had  not  yet  reached  the  legal  age.  In  210,  after 
the  death  of  his  father  and  uncle  in  Spain,  the 
Romans  resolved  to  increase  their  army  in  that 
country,  and  to  place  it  under  the  command  of 
a  proconsul.  But  when  the  people  assembled 
to  elect  a  proconsul,  none  of  the  generals  of  ex- 
perience ventured  to  sue  for  so  dangerous  a  com- 
mand. At  length  Scipio,  who  was  then  barely 
twenty- four,  offered  himself  as  a  candidate,  and 
was  chosen  with  enthusiasm  to  take  the  com- 
mand. His  success  in  Spain  was  striking  and 
rapid.  In  the  first  campaign  (210)  he  took  the 
important  city  of  Carthago  Nova,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  next  three  years  he  drove  the 
Carthaginians  entirely  out  of  Spain,  and  became 
master  of  that  country.  He  returned  to  Rome 
in  206,  and  was  elected  consul  for  the  follow- 
ing year  (205),  although  he  had  not  yet  filled 
the  office  of  praetor,  and  was  only  thirty  years 
of  age.  He  was  anxious  to  cross  over  at  once 
to  Africa,  and  bring  the  contest  to  an  end  at 
the  gates  of  Carthage  ;  but  the  oldest  members 
of  the  senate,  and  among  them  Q.  Fabius  Max- 
imus,  opposed  his  project,  partly  through  timid- 
ity and  partly  through  jealousy  of  the  youthful 
conqueror.  All  that  Scipio  could  obtain  was 
the  province  of  Sicily,  with  permission  to  cross 
over  to  Africa ;  but  the  senate  refused  him  an 
army,  thus  making  the  permission  of  no  prac- 
tical use.  But  the  allies  had  a  truer  view  of 
the  interests  of  Italy  than  the  Roman  senate, 
and  from  all  the  towns  of  Italy  volunteers  flock- 
ed to  join  the  standard  of  the  youthful  hero. 
The  senate  could  not  refuse  to  allow  him  to  en- 
list volunteers  ;  and  such  was  the  enthusiasm 
in  his  favor,  that  he  was  able  to  cross  over  to 
Sicily  with  an  army  and  a  fleet  contrary  to  the 
expectations  and  even  the  wishes  of  the  sen- 
ate. After  spending  the  winter  in  Sicily,  and 
completing  all  his  preparations  for  the  invasion 
of  Africa,  he  crossed  over  to  the  latter  country 
in  the  course  of  the  following  year.  Success 
again  attended  his  arms.  The  Carthaginians 
and  their  ally  Syphax  were  defeated  with  great 
slaughter,  and  the  former  were  compelled  to 
recall  Hannibal  from  Italy  as  the  only  hope  of 
saving  their  country.  The  long  struggle  be- 
tween the  two  nations  was  at  length  brought 
to  a  close  by  the  battle  fought  near  the  city  of 
Zama  on  the  19th  of  October,  202,  in  which 
Scipio  gained  a  decisive  and  brilliant  victory 
over  Hannibal.  Carthage  had  no  alternative 
but  submission  ;  but  the  final  treaty  was  not 
concluded  till  the  following  year  (201).  Scipio 


SCIPIO. 

returned  to  Italy  in  201,  and  entered  Rome  in 
triumph.  He  was  received  with  universal  en- 
thusiasm, and  the  surname  of  Africanus  was 
conferred  upon  him.  The  people  wished  to 
make  him  consul  and  dictator  for  life,  and  to 
erect  his  statue  in  the  comitia,  the  rostra,  the 
curia,  and  even  in  the  Capitol,  but  he  prudently 
declined  all  these  invidious  distinctions.  As 
he  did  not  choose  to  usurp  the  supreme  power, 
and  as  he  was  an  object  of  suspicion  and  dis- 
like to  the  majority  of  the  senate,  he  took  no 
prominent  part  in  public  affairs  during  the  next 
few  years.  He  was  censor  in  199  with  P.  J2H- 
us  Pajtus,  and  consul  a  second  time  in  194  with 
Ti.  Sempronius  Longus.  In  193  he  was  one 
of  the  three  commissioners  who  were  sent  to 
Africa  to  mediate  between  Masinissa  and  the 
Carthaginians ;  and  in  the  same  year  he  was 
one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  Antiochus  at 
Ephesus,  at  whose  court  Hannibal  was  then  re- 
siding. The  tale  runs  that  he  had  there  an  in- 
terview with  the  great  Carthaginian,  who  de- 
clared him  the  greatest  general  that  ever  lived. 
The  compliment  was  paid  in  a  manner  the  most 
flattering  to  Scipio.  The  latter  had  asked, 
"Who  was  the  greatest  general!"  "Alexan- 
der the  Great,"  was  Hannibal's  reply.  "  Who 
was  the  second  !"  "  Pyrrhus."  "  Who  the 
third!"  "Myself,"  replied  the  Carthaginian. 
"  What  would  you  have  said,  then,  if  you  had 
conquered  me!"  asked  Scipio,  in  astonishment. 
"  I  should  then  have  placed  myself  before  Alex- 
ander, before  Pyrrhus,  and  before  all  other  gen- 
erals." In  190  Africanus  served  as  legate  un- 
der his  brother  Lucius  in  the  war  against  An- 
tiochus the  Great.  Shortly  after  his  return,  he 
and  his  brother  Lucius  were  accused  of  having 
received  bribes  from  Antiochus  to  let  the  mon- 
arch off  too  leniently,  and  of  having  appropria- 
ted to  their  own  use  part  of  the  money  which 
had  been  paid  by  Antiochus  to  the  Roman  state. 
The  details  of  the  accusation  are  related  with 
such  discrepancies  by  the  ancient  authorities, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  with  certainty 
the  true  history  of  the  affair,  or  the  year  in 
which  it  occurred.  It  appears,  however,  that 
there  were  two  distinct  prosecutions,  and  the 
following  is  perhaps  the  most  probable  history 
of  the  transaction.  In  187,  two  tribunes  of  the 


SCIPIO. 

of  imprisonment.  The  successful  issue  of  the 
prosecution  of  Lucius  emboldened  his*  enemies 
to  bring  the  great  Africanus  himself  before  the 
people.  His  accuser  was  M.  Naevius,  the  trib- 
une of  the  people,  and  the  accusation  was 
brought  in  185.  When  the  trial  came  on,  anc' 
Africanus  was  summoned,  he  proudly  remind 
ed  the  people  that  this  was  the  anniversary 
of  the  day  on  which  he  had  defeated  Hannibal 
<.t  Zama,  and  called  upon  them  to  follow  him 
to  the  Capitol,  in  order  there  to  return  thanks 
to  the  immortal  gods,  and  to  pray  that  they 
would  grant  the  Roman  state  other  citizens  like 
himself.  Scipio  struck  a  chord  which  vibrated 
on  every  heart,  and  was  followed  by  crowds  to 
the  Capitol.  Having  thus  set  all  the  laws  at 
defiance,  Scipio  immediately  quitted  Rome,  and 
retired  to  his  country  seat  at  Liternum.  The 
tribunes  wished  to  renew  the  prosecution,  but 
Gracchus  wisely  persuaded  them  to  let  it  drop. 
Scipio  never  returned  to  Rome.  He  passed  his 
remaining  days  in  the  cultivation  of  his  estate 
at  Liternum  ;  and,  at  his  death,  is  said  to  have 
requested  that  his  body  might  be  buried  there, 
and  not  in  his  ungrateful  country.  The  year 
of  his  death  is  equally  uncertain,  but  he  prob- 
ably died  in  183.  Scipio  married  JEmilia,  the 
daughter  of  L.  JEmilius  Paulus,  who  fell  at  the 
battle  of  Cannae,  and  by  her  he  had  four  chil- 
dren, two  sons  (Nos.  12,  13)  and  two  daugh- 
ters, the  elder  of  whom  married  P.  Scipio  Nasica 
Corculum  (No.  17),  and  the  younger  Tib.  Grac- 
chus, and  thus  became  the  mother  of  the  two 
celebrated  tribunes.  Vid.  CORNELIA.  —  11.  L. 
CORN.  SCIPIO  ASIATIOUS,  also  called  ASIAGENES 
or  ASIAGENUS,  was  the  son  of  No.  8,  and  the 
brother  of  the  great  Africanus.  He  served  un- 
der his  brother  in  Spain  ;  was  praetor  in  193, 
when  he  obtained  the  province  of  Sicily  ;  and 
consul  in  190  with  C.  Laslius.  The  senate  had 
not  much  confidence  in  his  abilities,  and  it  was 
only  through  the  offer  of  his  brother  Africanus 
to  accompany  him  as  a  legate  that  he  obtained 
the  province  of  Greece  and  the  conduct  of  the 
war  against  Antiochus.  He  defeate'd  Antio- 
chus at  Mount  Sipylus  in  190,  entered  Rome  in 
triumph  in  the  following  year,  and  assumed  the 
surname  of  Asiaticus.  The  history  of  his  accu 
sat  ion  and  condemnation  has  been  already  re- 


people  of  the  name  of  Petillii,  instigated  by  Cato  j  lated  in  the  life  of  his  brother.  He  was  a  can- 
and  the  other  enemies  of  the  Scipios,  required  didate  for  the  censorship  in  184,  but  was  de 
L.  Scipio  to  render  an  account  of  all  the  sums  feated  by  the  old  enemy  of  his  family,  M.  Por- 
of  money  which  he  had  received  from  Antio-  cius  Cato,  who  deprived  Asiaticus  of  his  horse 
chus.  L.  Scipio  accordingly  prepared  his  ac- j  at  the  review  of  the  equites.  It  appears,  there- 
counts,  but  as  he  was  in  the  act  of  delivering  fore,  that  even  as  late  as  this  time  an  eques  did 
them  up,  the  proud  conqueror  of  Hannibal  in-  not  forfeit  his  horse  by  becoming  a  senator. — 
dignantly  snatched  them  out  of  his  hands  and  12.  P.  CORN.  SCIPIO  AFRICANUS,  elder  son  of  the 
tore  them  up  in  pieces  before  the  senate.  But  great  Africanus,  was  prevented  by  his  weak 
this  haughty  conduct  appears  to  have  produced  health  from  taking  any  part  in  public  affairs, 
an  unfavorable  impression,  and  his  brother,  |  Cicero  praises  his  oratiunculae  and  his  Greek 
when  brought  to  trial  in  the  course  of  the  same  j  history,  and  remarks  that,  with  the  greatness  of 
year,  was  declared  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  pay  ,  his  father's  mind,  he  possessed  a  larger  amount 
a  heavy  fine.  The  tribune  C.  Minucius  Augu-  !  of  learning.  He  had  no  son  of  his  own,  but 
rinus  ordered  him  to  be  dragged  to  prison  and  ;  adopted  the  son  of  L.  .Kmilius  Paulus  (vid.  be- 
there  detained  till  the  money  was  paid  ;  where- j  low,  No.  15).  —  13.  L.  or  CN.  CORN.  SCIPIO  Ar- 
upon  Africanus  rescued  his  brother  from  the  RICANUS,  younger  son  of  the  great  Africanus. 
hands  of  the  tribune's  officer.  The  contest  j  He  accompanied  his  father  into  Asia  in  190,  and 
would  probably  have  been  attended  with  fatal  |  was  taken  prisoner  by  Antiochua.  This  Scipio 
results  had  not  Tib.  Gracchus,  the  father  of  the  i  was  a  degenerate  son  of  an  illustrious  sire,  and 
celebrated  tribune,  and  then  tribune  himself,  had  j  only  obtained  the  practorship  in  174  through 
the  prudence  to  release  Lucius  from  the  sentence  |  Cicereius,  who  had  been  a  scriba  of  his  -iither 

7fl7 


SUIPIO. 


SCIPIO. 


giving  way  to  him.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
expelled  from  the  senate  by  the  censors. — 14. 
L.  CORN.  Scii'io  ASUTICUS,  a  descendant  of  No. 
11,  belonged  to  the  Marian  party,  and  was  con- 
sul 83  with  C.  Norbanus.  In  this  year  Sulla 
returned  to  Italy :  Scipio  was  deserted  by  his 
troops,  and  taken  prisoner  in  his  camp  along 
with  his  son  Lucius,  but  was  dismissed  by  Sulla 
uninjured.  He  was,  however,  included  in  the 
proscription  in  the  following  year  (82),  where- 
upon he  fled  to  Massilia,  and  passed  .there  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  His  daughter  was  mar- 
ried to  P.  Sestius. — 15.  P.  CORN.  SCIPIO^EMILI- 
ANUS  AFRICANUS  MINOR,  was  the  younger  son 
of  L.  /Emilius  Paulus,  the  conqueror  of  Mace- 
donia, and  was  adopted  by  P.  Scipio  (No.  12), 
the  son  of  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal.  He  was 
born  about  185.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he 
accompanied  his  father  Paulus  to  Greece,  and 
fought  under  him  at  the  battle  of  Pydna,  168. 
Scipio  devoted  himself  with  ardor  to  the  study 
of  literature,  and  formed  an  intimate  friendship 
with  Polybius  when  the  latter  came  to  Rome 
along  with  the  other  Achaean  hostages  in  167. 
Vid.  POLYBIUS.  At  a  later  period  he  also  cultiva- 
ted the  acquaintance  of  the  philosopher  Panae- 
tius,  and  he  likewise  admitted  the  poets  Lucilius 
and  Terence  to  his  intimacy,  and  is  said  to  have 
assisted  the  latter  in  the  composition  of  his  com- 
edies. His  friendship  with  Laelius,  whose  tastes 
and  pursuits  were  so  congenial  to  his  own,  has 
been  immortalized  by  Cicero's  celebrated  treat- 
ise entitled  "  Laelius  sire  de  Amicitia."  Al- 
though thus  devoted  to  the  study  of  polite  liter- 
ature, Scipio  is  said  to  have  cultivated  the  vir- 
tues which  distinguished  the  older  Romans,  and 
to  have  made  Cato  the  model  of  hist  conduct. 
If  we  may  believe  his  panegyrists,  he  possessed 
all  the  simple  virtues  of  an  old  Roman,  mellow- 
ed by  the  refining  influences  of  Greek  civiliza- 
tion. Scipio  first  served  in  Spain  with  great 
distinction  as  military  tribune  under  the  consul 
L.  Lucullus  in  151.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
third  Punic  war  in  149,  he  accompanied  the  Ro- 
man army  to  Africa,  again  with  the  rank  of 
military  tribune.  Here  he  gained  still  more  re- 
nown. By  his  personal  bravery  and  military 
skill  he  repaired,  to  a  great  extent,  the  mistakes 
of  the  consul  Manilius,  whose  army  on  one  oc- 
casion he  saved  from  destruction.  He  returned 
to  Rome  in  148,  and  had  already  gained  such 
popularity,  that  when  he  became  a  candidate  for 
the  aedileship  for  the  following  year  (147),  he 
was  elected  consul,  although  he  was  only  thirty- 
seven,  and  had  not,  therefore,  attained  the  legal 
age.  The  senate  assigned  to  him  Africa  as  his 
province,  to  which  he  forthwith  sailed,  accom- 
panied by  his  friends  Polybius  and  Laelius.  He 
prosecuted  the  siege  of  Carthage  with  the  ut- 
most vigor.  The  Carthaginians  defended  them- 
selves with  the  courage  of  despair,  and  the  Ro- 
mans were  unable  to  force  their  way  into  the 
city  till  the  spring  of  the  following  year  (146). 
The  inhabitants  fought  from  street  to  street, 
and  from  house  to  house,  and  the  work  of  de- 
struction and  butchery  wenf  on  for  days.  The 
fate  of  this  once  magnificent  city  moved  Scipio 
to  tears,  and,  anticipating  that  a  similar  catas- 
trophe might  one  day  befall  Rome,  he  repeated 
the  lines  of  the  Iliad  (vi.,  448-9),  in  which  Hec- 
tor bewails  the  approaching  fall  of  Troy.  After 
788 


'  reducing  Africa  to  the  form  of  a  Roman  pro* 
ince,  Scipio  returned  to  Rome  in  the  same  year 
and  celebrated  a  splendid  triumph  on  account 
of  his  victory.  The  surname  of  Africanus, 
which  he  had  inherited  by  adoption  from  the 
conqueror  of  Hannibal,  had  been  now  acquired 
by  him  by  his  own  exploits.  In  142  Scipio 
was  censor,  and  in  the  administration  of  the 
duties  of  his  office  he  attempted  to  repress  the 
growing  luxury  and  immorality  of  his  contem- 
poraries. His  efforts,  however,  were  thwart- 
ed by  his  colleague  Mummius,  who  had  him- 
self acquired  a  love  for  Greek  and  Asiatic  lux- 
uries. In  139  Scipio  was  accused  by  Ti.  Clau- 
dius Asellus  of  majestas.  Asellus  attacked  him 
out  of  private  animosity,  because  he  had  been 
deprived  of  his  horse,  and  reduced  to  the  con- 
dition of  an  serarian  by  Scipio  in  his  censorship. 
Scipio  was  acquitted,  and  the  speeches  which 
he  delivered  on  the  occasion  obtained  great 
celebrity,  and  were  held  in  high  esteem  in  a 
later  age.  It  appears  to  have  been  after  this 
event  that  Scipio  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
Egypt  and  Asia  to  attend  to  the  Roman  inter- 
ests in  those  countries.  The  long  continuance 
of  the  war  in  Spain  again  called  Scipio  to  the 
consulship.  He  was  appointed  consul  in  his 
absence,  and  had  the  province  of  Spain  assigned 
to  him  in  134.  His  operations  were  attended 
with  success  ;  and  in  133  he  brought  the  wai 
to  a  conclusion  by  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Nu- 
mantia  after  a  long  siege.  He  now  received 
the  surname  of  Numantinus  in  addition  to  that 
of  Africanus.  During  his  absence  in  Spain  Ti- 
berius Gracchus  had  been  put  to  death.  Scipio 
was  married  to  Sempronia,  the  sister  of  the 
fallen  tribune,  but  he  had  no  sympathy  with  his 
reforms,  and  no  sorrow  for  his  fate.  Upon  his 
return  to  Rome  in  132,  he  did  not  disguise  his 
sentiments,  and  when  asked  in  the  assembly  of 
the  tribes  by  C.  Papirius  Carbo,  the  tribune, 
what  he  thought  of  the  death  of  Tiberius  (Jrac- 
chus,  he  boldly  replied  that  he  was  justly  slain 
(jure  ccesum).  The  people  loudly  expressed 
their  disapprobation  ;  whereupon  Scipio  proudly 
bade  them  to  be  silent.  He  now  took  the  lead 
in  opposing  the  popular  party,  and  endeavored 
to  prevent  the  agrarian  law  of  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus from  being  carried  into  effect.  In  order 
to  accomplish  this  object,  he  proposed  in  the 
senate  (129)  that  all  disputes  respecting  the 
lands  of  the  allies  should  be  taken  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  commissioners  appointed  under 
the  law  of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  and  should  be 
committed  to  other  persons.  This  would  have 
been  equivalent  to  an  abrogation  of  the  law  ; 
and  accordingly,  Fulvius  Flaccus,  Papirius  Car- 
bo,  and  C.  Gracchus,  the  three  commissioners, 
offered  the  most  vehement  opposition  to  his  pro- 
posal. In  the  forum  he  was  accused  by  Carbo 
with  the  bitterest  invectives  as  the  enemy  of 
the  people,  and  upon  his  again  expressing  his 
approval  of  the  death  of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  the 
people  shouted  out,  "  Down  with  the  tyrant.' 
In  the  evening  he  went  home  with  the  intention 
of  composing  a  speech  for  the  following  day ; 
but  next  day  he  was  found  dead  in  his  room. 
The  most  contradictory  rumors  were  circulated 
respecting  his  death,  but  it  was  generally  be- 
lieved that  he  was  murdered.  Suspicion  fell 
upon  various  persons  ;  his  wife  Sempronia  and 


SCIPIO. 

ner  mother  Cornelia  were  suspected  by  some  ; 
Carbo,  Fulvius,  and  C.  Gracchus  by  others.  Of 
all  these,  Carbo  was  most  generally  believed  to 
have  been  guilty,  and  is  expressly  mentioned 
as  the  murderer  by  Cicero.  The  general  opin- 
ion entertained  by  the  Romans  of  a  subsequent 
age  respecting  Scipio  is  given  by  Cicero  in  hi* 
work  on  the  Republic,  in  which  Scipio  is  intro- 
duced as  the  principal  speaker. — 16.  P.  CORN. 
SCIPIO  NASICA,  that  is,  "  Scipio  with  the  pointed 
nose,"  was  the  son  of  Cn.  Scipio  Calvus,  who 
fell  in  Spain  in  211.  (Vid.  No.  9).  He  is  first 
mentioned  in  204  as  a  young  man  who  was 
judged  by  the  senate  to  be  the  best  citizen  in  the 
state,  and  was  therefore  sent  to  Ostia  along  with 
the  Roman  matrons  to  receive  the  statue  of  the 
Idaean  Mother,  which  had  been  brought  from 
Pessinus.  He  wfis  curule  aedile  196  ;  praetor 
in  194,  when  he  fought  with  success  in  Further 
Spain;  and  consul  191,  when  he  defeated  the 
Boii,  and  triumphed  over  them  on  his  return  to 
Rome.  Scipio  Nasica  was  a  celebrated  jurist, 
and  a  house  was  given  him  by  the  state  in  the 
Via  Sacra,  in  order  that  he  might  be  more  easily 
consulted. — 17.  P.  CORN.  SCIPIO  NASICA  COR- 
CULUM,  son  of  No.  16;  inherited  from  his  father 
a  love  of  jurisprudence,  and  became  so  cele- 
brated for  his  discernment  and  for  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  pontifical  and  civil  law,  that  he  re- 
ceived the  surname  of  Corculum.  He  married 
a  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  elder.  He 
was  consul  for  the  first  time  162,  but  abdicated, 
together  with  his  colleague,  almost  immediately 
after  they  had  entered  upon  their  office,  on  ac- 
count of  some  fault  in  the  auspices.  He  was 
censor  159  with  M.  Popilius  Lsenas,  and  was 
consul  a  second  time  in  155,  when  he  subdued 
the  Dalmatians.  He  was  a  firm  upholder  of 
the  old  Roman  habits  and  manners,  and  in  his 
second  consulship  he  induced  the  senate  to  order 
the  demolition  of  a  theatre,  which  was  near 
completion,  as  injurious  to  public  morals.  When 
Cato  repeatedly  expressed  his  desire  for  the  de- 
struction of  Carthage,  Scipio,  on  the  other  hand, 
declared  that  he  wished  for  its  preservation, 
since  the  existence  of  such  a  rival  would  prove 
a  useful  check  upon  the  licentiousness  of  the 
multitude.  He  was  elected  pontifex  maximus 
in  150. — 18.  P.  CORN.  SCIPIO  NASICA  SERAPIO, 
son  of  No.  17,  is  chiefly  known  as  the  leader  of 
the  senate  in  the  murder  of  Tiberius  Gracchus. 
He  was  consul  in  138,  and  in  consequence  of 
the  severity  with  which  he  and  his  colleague 
conducted  the  levy  of  troops,  they  were  thrown 
into  prison  by  C.  Curiatius,  the  tribune  of  the 
plebs.  It  was  this  Curiatius  who  gave  Nasica 
the  nickname  of  Serapio,  from  his  resemblance 
to  a  person  of  low  rank  of  this  name  ;  but,  though 
given  him  in  derision,  it  afterward  became  his 
distinguishing  surname.  In  133,  when  the  tribes 
met  to  re-elect  Tiberius  Gracchus  to  the  tribu- 
nate, and  the  utmost  confusion  prevailed  in  the 
Forum,  Nasica  called  upon  the  consuls  to  save 
the  republic ;  but  as  they  refused  to  have  re- 
course to  violence,  he  exclaimed,  "As  the  con- 
sul betrays  the  state,  do  you  who  wish  to  obey 
the  laws  follow  me  ;"  and,  so  saying,  he  rushed 
forth  from  the  temple  of  Fides,  where  the  senate 
was  sitting,  followed  by  the  greater  number  of 
the  senators.  The  people  gave  way  before 
them,  and  Gracchus  was  assassinated  as  he  at- 


SCIRONIA  SAXA. 

tempted  to  escape.  In  consequence  of  his  con- 
duct  on  this  occasion,  Nasica  became  an  object 
of  such  detestation  to  the  people,  that  the  senate 
found  it  advisable  to  send  him  on  a  pretended 
mission  to  Asia,  although  he  was  pontifex  max- 
imus, and  ought  not,  therefore,  to  have  quitted 
Italy.  He  did  not  venture  to  return  to  Rome, 
and  after  wandering  about  from  place  to  place, 
died  soon  afterward  at  Pergamum.  — 19.  P. 
CORN.  SCIPIO  NASICA,  son  of  No.  18,  was  consul 
111,  and  died  during  his  consulship. — 20.  P. 
CORN.  SCIPIO  NASICA,  son  of  No.  19,  praetor  94, 
is  mentioned  by  Cicero  as  one  of  the  advocates 
of  Sextus  Roscius  of  Ameria.  He  married  Li- 
cinia,  the  second  daughter  of  L.  Crassus,  the 
orator.  He  had  two  sons,  both  of  whom  were 
adopted,  one  by  his  maternal  grandfather  L. 
Crassus  in  his  testament,  and  is  therefore  called 
L.  Licinius  Crassus  Scipio,  and  the  other  by 
Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  Pius,  consul  80,  and  is 
therefore  called  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  Pius  Scip- 
io. This  Scipio  became  the  father-in-law  of 
Cn.  Pompey  the  triumvir,  and  fell  in  Africa  in 
46.  His  life  is  given  under  METELLUS,  No.  15. 
— 21.  CN.  CORN.  SCIPIO  HISPALLUS,  son  of  L. 
Scipio,  who  is  only  known  as  a  brother  of  the 
two  Scipios  who  fell  in  Spain.  Hispallus  was 
praetor  179,  and  consul  171. — 22.  CN.  CORN. 
SCIPIO  HISPALLUS,  son  of  No.  21,  was  praetor 
139,  when  he  published  an  edict  that  all  Chal- 
daeans  (t.  «.,  astrologers)  should  leave  Rome  and 
Italy  within  ten  days. 

[SCIRADIUM  (Zntputiiov),  a  promontory  of  Sala- 
mis,  on  the  north  side  of  the  island,  with  a  tem- 
ple of  Minerva  (Athena)  Sciras.] 

SCIRAS  or  SCLERIAS  (2«t'paf,  2/cA^pt'af),  ofTa- 
rentum,  was  one  of  the  followers  of  Rhinthon 
in  that  peculiar  sort  of  comedy,  or  rather  bur- 
lesque tragedy,  which  was  cultivated  by  the  Do- 
rians of  Magna  Graecia,  and  especially  at  Ta- 
rentum.  Vid.  RHINTHON. 

SCIRAS  (2/ctpaf),  a  surname  of  Minerva  (Athe- 
na), under  which  she  had  a  temple  in  the  Attic 
port  of  Phalerum,  and  in  the  island  of  Salamis. 
The  foundation  of  the  temple  at  Phalerum  is 
ascribed  by  Pausanias  to  a  soothsayer,  Scirus 
of  Dodona,  who  is  said  to  have  come  to  Attica 
at  the  time  when  the  Eleusinians  were  at  war 
with  Erechtheus. 

SCIRITIS  (I«tpmf),  a  wild  and  mountainous 
district  in  the  north  of  Laconia,  on  the  borders 
of  Arcadia,  with  a  town  called  SCIRUS  (S/upof), 
which  originally  belonged  to  Arcadia.  Its  in- 
habitants, the  SCIRITA  (2/uptrai),  formed  a  spe- 
cial division  of  the  Lacedaemonian  army.  This 
body,  which,  in  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  was  six  hundred  in  number,  was  stationed 
in  battle  at  the  extreme  left  of  the  line,  formed 
on  march  the  vanguard,  and  was  usually  em- 
ployed on  the  most  dangerous  kinds  of  service. 

SCIRON  (Zft/puv  or  See/pup),  a  famous  robber 
who  infested  the  frontier  between  Attica  and 
Megaris.  He  not  only  robbed  the  travellers 
who  passed  through  the  country,  but  compelled 
them,  on  the  Scironian  rock,  to  wash  his  feet, 
and  kicked  them  into  the  sea  while  they  were 
thus  employed.  At  the  foot  of  the  rock  there 
was  a  tortoise  which  devoured  the  bodies  of 
the  robber's  victims.  He  was  slain  by  Theseus. 

SOIRONIA  SAXA  (ZKipuvidtf  itirpai,  also  2«c 
:  now  Dtrrtni  Bonne),  large  rocks  on  the 
789 


SCIRRI. 


SCORDISCI. 


Eastern  coast  of  Megaris,  between  which  and 
the  sea  there  was  only  a  narrow  dangerous  pass, 
called  the  Scironian  road  (17  Zmpuvijor  Zxipuvif 
riiWf  :  now  Kaki  Skala).  This  road  was  after- 
ward enlarged  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  The 
name  of  the  rocks  was  derived  from  the  cele- 
brated robber  Sciron. 

SCIRRI  or  SCIRI,  a  people  in  European  Sarma- 
tia,  on  the  northern  coast,  immediately  east  of 
the  Vistula,  in  the  modern  Curland  and  Samo- 
gitien.  The  Sciri  afterward  joined  the  Huns; 
and  to  this  people  belonged  Odoacer,  the  con- 
queror of  Italy. 

SCIRTONIUM  C^Kipruviov),  a  town  in  the  south 
of  Arcadia,  belonging  to  the  district  ^Egytis,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  removed  to  Megalopolis 
upon  the  foundation  of  the  latter. 

SciRTus(S«£'prof:  now  Jillab),  a  river  in  Mes- 
opotamia, flowing  past  Edessa  into  a  small  lake 
near  Charrae.  Its  name,  which  signifies  leap- 
ing, was  derived  from  its  rapid  descent  in  a  se- 
ries of  small  cascades. 

[SCIRUS  (S«tpof,  6).  1.  A  soothsayer  of  Do- 
dona.  Vid.  SCIRAS.  —  2.  CSKipof,  17),  a  town  of 
Laconia.  Vid.  SCIRITIS.  —  3.  (S/ctpof,  6),  a  brook 
near  Scirum,  which  traversed  the  sacred  road 
northwest  of  Athens,  and  watered  the  gardens 
north  of  Dipylon.] 

SCLERIAS.     Vid.  SCIRAS. 

SCODRA  (Scodrensis  :  now  Scodar  or  Scutari), 
one  of  the  most  important  towns  in  Illyricum, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  River  Barbana,  at  the 
southeastern  corner  of  the  Lacus  Labeatis,  and 
about  seventeen  miles  from  the  coast.  It  was 
strongly  fortified,  and  was  the  residence  of  the 
Illyrian  king  Gentius.  It  subsequently  contain- 
ed many  Roman  inhabitants. 

SCODRUS.     Vid.  SCARDUS. 

SCCEDISES,    SCYDISSES,    OT   SCORDISCCS     (2/COt- 

diarjc,  Suvdiaarjc.,  %Kop6iaKoc  :  now  Dassim  Dagh, 
or  Chambu-Bcl  Dagh),  a  mountain  in  the  north- 
east of  Asia  Minor,  dividing  Pontus  Cappado- 
cius  from  Armenia  Minor,  and  forming  a  part 
of  the  same  range  as  Mount  Paryades. 

SOOLLIS  (2Ko/Utf  :  now  Sandamcri),  a  rocky 
mountain  between  Elis  and  Achaia,  three  thou- 
sand three  hundred  and  thirty-three  feet  high, 
which  joins  on  the  east  the  mountain  Lampea. 

SCOLOTI  (SKoAorot),  the  native  name  of  the 
Scythians,  according  to  Herodotus,  is  in  all  prob- 
ability the  Greek  form  of  Slave-nie  or  Slove-nie, 
the  generic  name  of  the-  Slavonian  race.  Vid. 
SCYTHIA.  The  later  Greek  writers  call  them 


SCOLUS  (2/cw/lof  :  2«uAjof,  S/cw^tevf).  1.  An 
ancient  town  in  Boeotia,  on  the  road  from 
Thebes  to  Aphid  nse  in  Attica,  was  situated  on 
the  northern  slope  of  Mount  Cithaeron,  and  forty 
stadia  south  of  the  River  Asopus.  —  2.  A  small 
place  in  Macedonia,  near  Olynthus. 

SCOMBRARIA  (now  Islote),  an  island  in  front  of 
the  bay,  on  the  southeast  coast  of  Spain,  which 
formed  the  harbor  of  Carthago  Nova.  It  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  scombri  or  mackerel 
taken  off  its  coast,  from  which  the  Romans  pre- 
pared their  garum. 

SCOMIOS  MONS  (TO  Z/cojUfov  opo;),  a  mountain 
in  Macedonia,  which  runs  east  of  Mount  Scar- 
dus,  in  the  direction  of  north  to  south  toward 
Mount  Hsemus. 

SCOPAS  (2/f6n-af).  1.  An  ^Etolian,  who  held 
790 


a  leading  position  among  his  countrymen  at  the 
period  of  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Philip 
and  the  Achaeans,  B.C.  220.  He  commanded 
the  JStolian  army  in  the  first  year  of  the  war , 
and  he  is  mentioned  again  as  general  of  the 
JStolians,  when  the  latter  people  concluded  an 
Alliance  with  the  Romans  to  assist  them  against 
Philip  (211)  After  the  close  of  the  war  with 
Philip,  Scopas  and  Dorimachus  were  appointed 
to  reform  the  JCtolian  constitution  (204)  Sco- 
pas had  only  undertaken  the  charge  from  mo- 
tives of  personal  ambition  ;  on  finding  himself 
disappointed  in  this  object,  he  withdrew  to 
Alexandrea.  Here  he  was  received  with  the 
utmost  favor  by  the  ministers  of  the  young 
king,  Ptolemy  V.,  and  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  of  the  army  against  Antiochus  the 
Great.  At  first  he  was  successful,  but  was  aft- 
erward defeated  by  Antiochus  at  Panium,  and 
reduced  to  shut  himself  up  within  the  walls  of 
Sidon,  where  he  was  ultimately  compelled  by 
famine  to  surrender.  Notwithstanding  this  ill 
success,  he  continued  in  high  favor  at  the  Egyp- 
tian court;  but,  having  formed  a  plot  in  196  to 
obtain  by  force  the  chief  administration  of  the 
kingdom,  he  was  arrested'  and  put  to  death. — 
2.  A  distinguished  sculptor,  was  a  native  of 
Paros,  and  appears  to  have  belonged  to  a  fam- 
ily of  artists  in  that  island.  He  flourished  from 
B.C.  395  to  350.  He  was  probably  somewhat 
older  than  Praxiteles,  with  whom  he  stands  at 
the  head  of  that  second  period  of  perfected  art 
which  is  called  the  later  Attic  school  (in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  earlier  Attic  school  of 
Phidias),  and  which  arose  at  Athens  aftur  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  Scopas  was  an  architect 
and  a  statuary  as  well  as  a  sculptor.  He  was 
the  architect  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  (Athe- 
na) Alea  at  Tegea,  in  Arcadia,  which  was  com- 
menced soon  after  B.C.  394.  He  was  one  of 
the  artists  employed  in  executing  the  bas-re- 
liefs which  decorated  the  frieze  of  the  Mauso- 
leum at  Halicarnassus  in  Caria.  A  portion  of 
these  bas-reliefs  is  now  deposited  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  Among  the  single  statues  and 
groups  of  Scopas,  the  best  known  in  modern 
times  is  his  group  of  figures  representing  the 
destruction  of  the  sons  and  daughters  of  Niobe. 
In  Pliny's  time  the  statues  stood  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo  Sosianus.  The  remaining  statues  of 
this  group,  or  copies  of  them,  are  all  in  the 
Florence  Gallery,  with  the  exception  of  the  so- 
called  Ilioneus  at  Munich,  which  some  suppose 
to  have  belonged  to  the  group.  There  is  a  head 
of  Niobe  in  the  collection  of  Lord  Yarborough 
which  has  some  claim  to  be  considered  as  the 
original.  But  the  most  esteemed  of  all  the 
works  of  Scopas,  in  antiquity,  was  his  group 
which  stood  in  the  shrine  of  Cn.  Domitius  in 
the  Flaminian  circus,  representing  Achilles  con- 
ducted to  the  island  of  Leuce  by  the  divinities 
of  the  sea.  It  consisted  of  figures  of  Neptune 
(Poseidon),  Thetis,  and  Achilles,  surrounded  by 
Nereids,  and  attended  by  Tritons,  and  by  an  as- 
semblage of  sea  monsters. 

SCOPAS  (2/coTraf  :  now  Aladan),  a  river  of  Ga- 
latia,  falling  into  the  Sangarius,  from  the  east, 
at  Juliopolis. 

SCORDISCI,  a  people  in  Pannonia  Superior, 
are  sometimes  classed  among  the  Illyrians,  but 
were  the  remains  of  an  ancient  and  powerful 


SCORDISCUS. 

t-eltie  tnr>b.  T'ley  dwelt  between  the  Savus 
and  Dravus. 

SCORDISCUS.      Vid.  SCCEDISES. 

SCOTI,  a  peof-e  mentioned,  together  with  the 
PICTI,  by  the  later  Roman  writers  as  one  of  the 
chief  tribes  of  the  ancient  Caledonians.  They 
dwelt  in  the  south  of  Scotland  and  in  Ireland ; 
and  from  them  the  former  country  has  derived 
its  name. 

SCOTITAS  (2/ron'raf),  a  woody  district  in  the 
north  of  Laconia,  on  the  frontiers  of  Tegea- 
tis. 

SCOTUSSA  (IiKOTovaaa  :  S/corowaafof),  a  very 
ancient  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  district  Pelas- 
giotis,  near  the  source  of  thetDnchestus,  and  not 
far  from  the  hills  Cynoscephalae,  where  Flami- 
ninus  gained  his  celebrated  victory  over  Philip, 
B.C.  197. 

SCRIBOXIA,  wife  of  Octavianus,  afterward  the 
Emperor  Augustus,  had  been  married  twice  be- 
fore. By  one  of  her  former  husbands,  P.  Scip- 
io,  she  had  two  children,  P.  Scipio,  who  was 
consul  B.C.  16,  and  a  daughter,  Cornelia,  who 
was  married  to  Paulus  ^Emilius,  censor  B.C. 
22.  Scribonia  was  the  sister  of  L.  Scribonius 
Libo,  who  was  the  father-in-law  of  Sextus  Pom- 
pey.  Augustus  married  her  in  40,  on  the  ad- 
vice of  Maecenas,  because  he  was  then  afraid 
that  Sextus  Pompey  would  form  an  alliance 
with  Antony  to  crush  him ;  but,  having  re- 
newed his  alliance  with  Antony,  Octavianus 
divorced  her,  in  order  to  marry  Livia,  in  the 
following  year  (39),  on  the  very  day  on  which 
she  had  borne  him  a  daughter,  Julia.  Scribonia 
long  survived  her  separation  from  Octavianus. 
In  A.D.  2  she  accompanied,  of  her  own  accord, 
her  daughter  Julia  into  exile,  to  the  island  of 
Pandataria. 

SCRIBONIUS  CURIO.     Vid.  CURIO. 

SRIBONIUS  LARGUS.     Vid.  LARGUS. 

SCRIBONIUS  LIBO.     Vid.  LIBO. 

SCRIBONIUS  PROCULUS.      Vid.  PROCULUS. 

SCULTENNA  (now  PaTiaro),  a  river  in  Gallia 
Cispadana,  rising  in  the  Apennines,  and  flow- 
ing to  the  east  of  Mutina  into  the  Po. 

SCUPI  (now  Uskub),  a  town  in  Mcesia  Supe- 
rior, on  the  Axius,  and  the  capital  of  Dardania. 
It  was  the  residence  of  the  Archbishop  of  Illyr- 
icum,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  of  the  Servian 
kings. 

SCYDISSES.     Vid.  SCCEDISES. 

So Y LACK  (2/cuAu/o?),  or  SCYLACEI'ON,  an  an- 
cient city  on  the  coast  of  Mysia  Minor,  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Olympus,  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  the  Pelasgians. 

SCYLACIUM,   also    SCYLACKUM    Or    ScYLLETIUM 

(ZKVAUKIOV,  Ztiv/.aKtiov,  2/nvAAjyrtov  :  now  Squil- 
lace),  a  Greek  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Bruttium,  was  situated  on  two  adjoining  hills 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  coast,  between  the 
livers  Csecinus  and  Carcincs.    It  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Athenians.     It  belonged  ; 
to  the  territory  of  Croton,  but  was  subsequently  i 
given  by  the  elder  Dionysius  to  the  Locrians,  ' 
and  came  eventually  into  the  possession  of  the 
Romans.    It  had  no  harbor,  whence  Virgil  (JEn.t 
iii.,5~>3)  speaks  of  it  as  navifragum  Scylaceum. 
From  this  town  the  SCYLACIUS  or  SCYLLKTICUS 
SINUS  (ZKvMTjTiitof  «6^7rof)  derived  its  name. 
The  isthmus  which  separated  this  bay  from  the 
Sinus  Hipponiates,  on  the  western  coast  of 


SCYLLA. 

Bruttium  was  only  twenty  miles  broad,  and 
formed  the  ancient  boundary  of  CEnotria. 

SCYLAX  (S/cwAof).  1.  Of  Caryanda  in  Caria. 
was  sent  by  Darius  Hystaspis  on  a  voyage  of 
discovery  down  the  Indus.  Setting  out  from 
the  city  of  Caspatyrus  and  the  Pactyican  dis- 
trict, Scylax  reached  the  sea,  and  then  sailed 
west  through  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Red  Sea, 
performing  the  whole  voyage  in  thirty  months. 
— 2.  Of  Halicarnassus,  a  friend  of  Panaetius, 
distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the  stars, 
and  for  his  political  influence  in  his  own  state. 
There  is  still  extant  a  Periplus,  containing  a 
brief  description  of  certain  countries  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  and  bearing  the  name  of  Scy- 
lax of  Caryanda.  This  work  has  been  ascribed 
by  some  writers  to  the  Scylax  mentioned  by 
Herodotus,  and  by  others  to  the  contemporary 
of  Panaetius  and  Polybius ;  but  most  modern 
scholars  suppose  the  writer  to  have  lived  in  the 
first  half  of  the  reign  of  Philip,  the  father  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  about  B.C.  350.  It  is 
clear  from  internal  evidence  that  the  Periplus 
must  have  been  composed  after  the  time  of  He- 
rodotus ;  while,  from  its  omitting  to  mention  any 
of  the  cities  founded  by  Alexander,  such  as  Al- 
exandrea  in  Egypt,  we  may  conclude  that  it 
was  drawn  up  before  the  reign  of  Alexander. 
It  is  probable  that  the  author  prefixed  to  his 
work  the  name  of  Scylax  of  Caryanda  on  ac- 
count of  the  celebrity  of  this  navigator.  This 
Periplus  is  printed  by  Hudson,  in  his  Geographi 
GTCKCI  Minores,  and  by  Klausen,  attached  to  his 
fragments  of  Hecataeus,  Berlin,  1831. 

SCYLAX  (2/cii/Uzf :  now  Choterlek-Irmak),  a  riv- 
er in  the  southwest  of  Pontus,  falling  into  the 
Iris,  between  Amasia  and  Gaziura. 

SCYLITZES  or  SCYLITZA,  JOANNES,  a  Byzantine 
historian,  surnamed,  from  his  office,  Curopa- 
lates,  flourished  A.D.  1081.  His  work  extends 
from  the  death  of  Nicephorus  I.  (811)  down  to 
the  reign  of  Nicephorus  Botaniotes  (1078-1081). 
The  portion  of  the  history  of  Cedrenus,  which 
extends  from  the  death  of  Nicephorus  I.  (811) 
to  the  close  of  the  work  (1057),  is  found  ajmost 
verbatim  in  the  history  of  Scylitzes.  Hence  it 
has  been  supposed  that  Scylitzes  copied  from 
Cedrenus,  and  consequently  the  entire  work  of 
Scylitzes  has  not  been  published  separately, 
but  only  the  part  extending  from  1057  to  1080, 
which  has  been  printed  as  an  appendix  to  Cedre- 
nus. Vid.  CEURENUS.  It  is  now,  however,  gen- 
erally admitted  that  Cedrenus  copied  from  Scy- 
litzes. 

SCYLLA  (Z«t5A2o)  and  CHARYBDIS,  the  names 
of  two  rocks  between  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  only 
a  short  distance  from  one  another.  In  the  one 
of  these  rocks  which  was  nearest  to  Italy,  there 
was  a  cave,  in  which  dwelt  Scylla,  a  daughter 
of  Cratecis,  a  fearful  monster,  barking  like  a  dog, 
with  twelve  feet,  and  six  long  necks  and  heads, 
each  of  which  contained  three  rows  of  sharp 
teeth.  The  opposite  rock,  which  was  much 
lower,  contained  an  immense  fig-tree,  under 
which  dwelt  Charybdis,  who  thrice  every  day 
swallowed  down  the  waters  of  the  sea,  and 
thrice  threw  them  up  again  :  both  were  formi- 
dable to  the  ships  which  had  to  pass  between 
them.  This  is  the  Homeric  account.  Later 
traditions  give  different  accounts  of  Scylla's 
parentage.  Some  describe  her  as  a  monster 

79  J 


SCYLLA. 

with  six  heads  of  different  animals,  or  with  only 
three  heads.  One  trailition  relates  that  Scylla 
was  originally  a  beautiful  maiden,  who  often 
played  with  the  nymphs  of  the  sea,  and  was  he- 
loved  hy  the  marine  god  Glaucus.  The  latter 
applied  to  Circe  for  means  to  make  Scylla  re- 
turn his  love ;  but  Circe,  jealous  of  the  fair 
maiden,  threw  magic  herbs  into  the  well  in 
which  Scylla  was  wont  to  bathe,  by  means  of 
which  the  lower  part  of  her  body  was  changed 
into  the  tail  of  a  fish  or  serpent,  surrounded  by 
dogs,  while  the  upper  part  remained  that  of  a 
woman.  Another  tradition  related  that  Scylla 
was  beloved  by  Neptune  (Poseidon),  and  that 
Amphitrite,  from  jealousy,  metamorphosed  her 
into  a  monster.  Hercules  is  said  to  have  killed 
her  because  she  stole  some  of  the  oxen  of  Ge- 
ryon  ;  but  Phorcys  is  said  to  have  restored  her 
to  life.  Virgil  (JE/i.,  vi.,  286)  speaks  of  several 
Scylla;,  and  places  them  in  the  lower  world. 
Charybdis  is  described  as  a  daughter  of  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon)  and  Terra"  (Gaea),  and  a  vora- 
cious woman,  who  stole  oxen  from  Hercules, 
and  was  hurled  by  the  thunderbolt  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  into  the  sea. 

SCYLLA,  daughter  of  King  Nisus  of  Megara, 
who  fell  in  love  with  Minos.  For  details,  vid. 
Nisus  and  MINOS. 

ScvLL-ffiCM  (SKvAAaiov).  1.  (Now  Sciglio),  a 
promontory  on  the  coast  of  Bruttium,  at  the 
northern  entrance  to  the  Sicilian  Straits,  where 
the  monster  Scylla  was  supposed  to  live.  Vid. 
SCYLLA.  —  2.  (Now  Scilla  or  Sciglio),  a  town 
in  Bruttium,  on  the  above-named  promontory. 
There  are  still  remains  of  the  ancient  citadel. 
— 3.  A  promontory  in  Argolis,  on  the  coast  of 
Trcezen,  forming,  with  the  promontory  of  Su- 
nium  in  Attica,  the  entrance  to  the  Saronic 
Gulf.  It  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
Scylla,  the  daughter  of  Nisus.  Vid.  Nisus. 

SCYLLETICUS  SlNUS.       Vid.  ScYLACIUM. 
SCYLLETIUM.        Vid.  ScYLACIUM. 

[SCYLLIAS  or  SCYLLIS  (SKu/Uloyf  (Ion.),  Hdt.  ; 
Stfv/Utf,  Paus.).  a  celebrated  diver  of  Scione  in 
Macedonia.  When  the  Persian  fleet  of  Xerxes 
was  wrecked  off  Mount  Pelion  and  the  Prom- 
ontory of  Sepias,  much  treasure  was  sunk  with 
the  vessels  that  were  overtaken  by  the  storm  ; 
Scyllias  recovered  much  of  this  treasure  for  the 
Persians,  and  also  obtained  considerable  for  him- 
self. Wishing  to  escape  from  the  Persians,  he 
is  said  to  have  swum  under  water  from  Aphe- 
taa  to  Artemisium,  where  the  Greek  fleet  lay,  a 
distance  of  eighty  stadia  (nearly  ten  miles),  and 
to  have  communicated  to  the  Greeks  the  plans 
of  the  Persians.  This  is  the  account  of  He- 
rodotus, who,  in  relating  the  story,  ranks  the 
latter  part  among  the  ^evdeai  eiKf^a  irepl  TOV 
u.v6pb{  TOVJOV.  Pausanias  relates  that  Scyllis 
(as  he  calls  him)  had  his  daughter  Cyana  (al. 
Hydna)  taught  swimming,  and  that  they  two, 
on  occasion  of  the  storm  off  Pelion,  dove  under 
water  and  tore  up  the  anchors  of  the  Persian 
fleet,  thereby  causing  much  loss  to  the  Per- 
sians :  for  this  exploit,  the  Amphictyons  conse- 
crated at  Delphi  statues  of  Scyllis  and  his  daugh- 
ter. The  statue  of  Cyana  (Hydna)  was  among 
those  that  were  carried  from  Delphi  to  Rome 
by  Nero.] 

SCYLLIS.     Vid.  DIPO:NUS. 

SCYMNUS  (Zitvuvof),  of  Chios,  wrote  a  Fcrie- 
792 


SCYTHIA. 

csis,  or  description  of  the  earth,  which  is  re- 
ferred to  by  later  writers  This  work  was  in 
prose,  and  consequently  different  from  the  Pe- 
riegesis  in  Iambic  metre  which  has  come  down 
to  us,  and  which  many  modern  writers  have  er- 
roneously ascribed  to  Scym»us  of  Chios.  The 
poem  is  dedicated  to  Nicomedes  III ,  king  of 
Bithynia,  -who  died  B.C.  74  ;  but  this  is  quite 
uncertain.  The  best  edition  of  the  poem  is  by 
Meineke,  Berlin,  1846. 

[SCYRAS  (^Kvpaf :  now  River  of  Dhikova),  a 
river  in  the  southwest  of  Laconia",  which  rises 
in  Mount  Taygetus,  flows  in  an  easterly  direc- 
tion, and  empties  into  the  Laconicus  Sinus 
south  of  Gytheum.] 

SCYROS  C^Kvpof  :  Zxvpiof  :  now  Scyro),  an  isl- 
and in  the  JEgean  Sea,  east  of  Eubcea,  and  one 
of  the  Sporades.  It  contained  a  town  of  the 
same  name,  and  a  river  called  Cephisus.  Its 
ancient  inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been  Pe- 
lasgians,  Carians,  and  Dolopians.  The  island 
is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  stories  of  the 
mythical  period.  Here  Thetis  concealed  her 
son  Achilles  in  woman's  attire  among  the  daugh- 
ters of  Lycomedes,  in  order  to  save  him  from 
the  fate  which  awaited  him  under  the  walls  of 
Troy.  It  was  here,  also,  that  Pyrrhus,  tho  son 
of  Achilles  by  Deidamla,  was  brought  up,  arid 
it  was  from  this  island  that  Ulysses  fetched  him 
to  the  Trojan  war.  According  to  another  tra- 
dition, the  island  was  conquered  by  Achilles,  in 
order  to  revenge  the  death  of  Theseus,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  treacherously  destroyed  in 
Scyros  by  Lycomedes.  The  bones  of  Theseus 
were  discovered  by  Cimon  in  Scyros,  after  his 
conquest  of  the  island  in  B.C.  476,  and  were 
conveyed  to  Athens,  where  they  were  preserv- 
ed in  the  Theseum.  From  this  time  Scyros 
continued  subject  to  Athens  till  the  period  of 
the  Macedonian  supremacy ;  but  the  Romans 
compelled  the  last  Philip  to  restore  it  to  Ath- 
ens in  196.  The  soil  of  Scyros  was  unpro- 
ductive ;  but  it  was  celebrated  for  its  breed 
of  goats,  and  for  its  quarries  of  variegated 
marble. 

SCYTHIA  (rj  S/cnft/o?,  fj  2/<v6ia,  Ion.  'EKvdirj,  r, 
TUV  %Kvdeuv  xupri,  Herod.  :  SicvOrjc,  Scythes, 
Scytha,  pi.  2,Kv6ai,  Scythae  ;  fern.  ZKt>0tf,  Scythis, 
Scythissa),  a  name  applied  to  very  different 
countries  at  different  times.  The  Scythia  of 
Herodotus  comprises,  to  speak  generally,  the 
southeastern  parts  of  Europe,  between  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains  and  the  River  Tana'is  (now 
Don).  The  Greeks  became  acquainted  with 
this  country  through  their  settlements  on  the 
Euxine  ;  and  Herodotus,  who  had  himself  vis- 
ited the  coasts  of  the  Euxine,  collected  all  the 
information  he  could  obtain  about  the  Scythians 
and  their  country,  and  embodied  the  results  in 
a  most  interesting  digression,  which  forms  the 
first  part  of  his  fourth  book.  The  details,  for 
which  there  is  not  room  in  this  article,  must  be 
read  in  Herodotus.  He  describes  the  country 
as  a  square  of  four  thousand  stadia  (four  hund- 
red geographical  miles)  each  way,  the  western 
boundary  being  the  Ister  (now  Danube)  and  the 
mountains  of  the  Agathyrsi ;  the  southern,  the 
shores  of  the  Euxine  and  Palus  Macotis,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Ister  to  that  of  the  Tana'is, 
this  side  being  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  of 
two  thousand  stadia  each,  by  the  mouth  of  the 


SCYTHIA. 

Borysthcnes  (now  Dnieper) ;  the  eastern  bound- 
ary was  the  Tanai's,  and  on  the  north  Scythia 
was  divided  by  deserts  from  the  Melanchlaeni, 
Androphagi,  and  Budini.  It  corresponded  to 
the  southern  part  of  Russia' in  Europe.  The 
people  who  inhabited  this  region  were  called  by 
the  Greeks  2Kv6ai,  a  word  of  doubtful  origin, 
which  first  occurs  in  Hesiod  ;  but,  in  their  own 
language,  2/c6?.orot,  i.  e.,  Slavonians.  They  were 
believed  by  Herodotus  to  Be  of  Asiatic  origin  ; 
and  his  account  of  them,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  description  given  by  Hippocrates  of 
their  physcial  peculiarities,  leaves  no  doubt  that 
they  were  a  part  of  the  great  Mongol  race,  who 
have  wandered,  from  unknown  antiquity,  over 
the  steppes  of  Central  Asia.  Herodotus  says 
further  that  they  were  driven  out  of  their  abodes 
in  Asia,  north  of  the  Araxes,  by  the  Massage- 
tae  ;  and  that,  migrating  into  Europe,  they  drove 
out  the  Cimmerians.  If  this  account  be  true, 
it  can  hardly  but  have  some  connection  with  the 
irruption  of  the  Cimmerians  into  Asia  Minor,  in 
the  reign  of  the  Lydian  king  Ardys,  about  B.C. 
640.  The  Scythians  were  a  nomad  peopfe,  that 
is,  shepherds  or  herdsmen,  who  had  no  fixed 
habitations,  but  roamed  over  a  vast  tract  of 
country  at  their  pleasure,  and  according  to  the 
wants  of  their  cattle.  They  lived  in  a  kind  of 
covered  wagons,  which  ^Eschylus  describes  as 
"  lofty  houses  of  wicker-work,  on  well-wheeled 
chariots."  They  kept  large  troops  of  horses, 
and  were  most  expert  in  cavalry  exercises  and 
archery  ;  and  hence,  as  the  Persian  king  Da- 
rius found,  when  he  invaded  their  country  (B.C. 
507),  it  was  almost  impossible  for  an  invading 
army  to  act  against  them.  They  simply  re- 
treated, wagons  and  all,  before  the  enemy,  har- 
assing him  with  their  light  cavalry,  and  leaving 
famine  and  exposure,  in  their  bare  steppes,  to 
do  the  rest.  Like  all  the  Mongol  race,  they 
were  divided  into  several  hordes,  the  chief  of 
whom  were  called  the  Royal  Scythians  ;  and  to 
these  all  the  rest  owned  some  degree  of  alle- 
giance. Their  government  was  a  sort  of  pa- 
triarchal monarchy  or  chieftainship.  An  im- 
portant modification  of  their  habits  had,  how- 
ever, taken  place,  to  a  certain  extent,  before 
Herodotus  described  them.  The  fertility  of  the 
plains  on  the  north  of  the  Euxine,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Greek  settlements  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Borysthenes  and  along  the  coast,  had  led 
the  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  Scythia  to  settle 
down  as  cultivators  of  the  soil,  and  had  brought 
them  into  commercial  and  other  relations  with 
the  Greeks.  Accordingly,  Herodotus  mentions 
two  classes  or  hordes  of  Scythians  who  had 
thus  abandoned  their  nomad  life  ;  first,  on  the 
west  of  the  Borysthenes,  two  tribes  of  Hellen- 1 
ized  Scythians,  called  Callipidae  and  Alazoncs  ; 
then,  beyond  these,  "  the  Scythians  who  are 
ploughers  (ZKvdat  dporf/ptf),  who  do  not  grow  j 
their  corn  for  food,  but  for  sale ;"  these  dwelt 
about  the  River  Hypanis  (now  Boug),  in  the  re- 
gion now  called  the  Ukraine,  which  is  still,  as 
it  was  to  the  Greeks,  a  great  corn-exporting 
country.  Again,  on  the  east  of  the  Horysthenes 
were  "the  scytnians  wno  are  nusoanomen 
(2/cv0<u  ytupyoL),  i.  e.,'who  grew  corn  for  Iheir 
own  consumption :  these  were  called  Borys- 
thenita;  by  the  Greeks ;  their  country  extended 
three  days'  journey  ;ast  of  the  Borysthenes  to , 


SCYTHOTAUR1. 

the  River  PANTICAPES.  Beyond  these,  to  the 
east,  dwelt  "  the  nomad  Scythians  (vofiufef  2«v 
6ai),  who  neither  sow  n'or  plough  at  all."  He- 
rodotus expressly  states  that  the  trihes  east  of 
the  Borysthenes  were  not  Scythian.  Of  the  his- 
tory of  these  Scythian  tribes  there  is  little  to 
state,  beyond  the  tradition  already  mentioned, 
that  they  migrated  from  Asia  and  expelled  the 
Cimmerians ;  their  invasion  of  Media,  in  the 
reign  of  Cyaxares,  when  they  held  the  suprem- 
acy of  Western  Asia  for  twenty-eight  years 
and  the  disastrous  expedition  of  Darius  into 
their  country.  In  later  times  they  were  gradu 
ally  overpowered  by  the  neighboring  people,  es 
pecially  the  Sarmatians,  who  gave  their  name 
to  the  whole  country.  Vid.  SARMATIA.  Mean- 
while, the  conquests  of  Alexander  and  his  suc- 
cessors in  Central  Asia  had  made  the  Greeks 
acquainted  with  tribes  beyond  the  Oxus  and 
the  Jaxartes,  who  resembled  the  Scythians,  and 
belonged,  in  fact,  to  the  same  great  Mongol 
race,  and  to  whom,  accordingly,  the  same  name 
was  applied.  Hence,  in  writers  of  the  time  ot 
the  Roman  empire,  the  name  of  Scythia  denotes 
the  whole  of  Northern  Asia,  from  the  River  Rha 
(now  Volga)  on  the  west,  which  divided  it  from 
Asiatic  Sarmatia,  to  Serica  on  the  east,  ex 
tending  to  India  on  the  south.  It  was  divided 
by  Mount  Imaus  into  two  parts,  called  respect- 
ively Scythia  intra  Imaum,  ».  c.,  on  the  north- 
western side  of  the  range,  and  Scythia  extra 
Imaum,  on  its  southeastern  side.  Of  the  peo- 
ple of  this  region  nothing  was  known  except 
some  names ;  but  the  absence  of  knowledge 
was  supplied  by  some  marvellous  and  not  unin- 
teresting fables. 

SCYTHINI  CZtvdivoi),  a  people  on  the  western 
border  of  Armenia,  through  whose  country  the 
Greeks  under  Xenophon  marched  four  days 
journey.  Their  territory  was  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  River  Harpasus,  and  on  the  west  bj 
the  River  Apsarus. 

SCYTHINUS  (ZnvOivof),  of  Tcos,  an  iambic 
poet,  turned  into  verse  the  great  work  of  the 
philosopher  Heraclitus,  of  which  a  considerable 
fragment  is  preserved  by  Stobaeus. 

SCVTHOPOLIS  (2Kv06-o/Uf  :  in  the  Old  Test- 
ament, Bethshean  :  ruins  at  Beisan),  an  im- 
portant city  of  Palestine,  in  the  southeast  of 
Galilee,  according  to  the  usual  division,  bul 
sometimes  also  reckoned  to  Samaria,  some- 
times to  Decapolis,  and  sometimes  to  Coele 
syria.  It  stood  on  a  hill  in  the  Jordan  valley, 
west  of  the  river,  and  near  one  of  its  fords,  id- 
site  was  fertilized  by  numerous  springs  ;  and  to 
this  advantage,  as  well  as  to  its  being  the  centre 
of  several  roads,  it  owed  its  great  prosperity 
and  its  importance  in  the  history  of  Palestine- 
It  is  often  mentioned  in  Old  Testament  his 
tory,  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  undei 
the  Romans.  It  had  a  mixed  population  of  Ca 
naanites,  Philistines, and  Assyrian  settlers;  Jo 
sephus  adds  Scythians,  but  this  is  perhaps  ;ir. 
error,  founded  on  a  false  etymology  of  the  name 
Under  the  later  Roman  empire  it  became  the 
scat  of  the  Archbishop  of  Palsestina  Secunda. 
.iii-i  it  continued  a  flourishing  city  to  the  tim« 
of  the  first  Crusade. 

ScYTHOTAURJ,     TiURI     SrVTH/V,     OT     TAUKO- 

s>  y ni.v.  a  people  of  Sarmatia  Europaea,  jusi 
without  the  Chcrsonesus  Taurica,  between  tin. 


SEBASTE. 


SEGNI. 


rivers  Carcinites  and  Hypanis,  as  far  as  the 
tongue  of  land  called  Dromos  Achilleos. 

SEBASTE(Si6a<rr^  =  Augusta  :  2e6acTj?vof).  1. 
(Now  ruins  at  Ayasti),  a  city  on  the  coast  of 
Cilicia  Aspera,  built  for  a  residence  by  Arche- 
laus,  king  of  Cappadocia,  to  whom  the  Romans 
had  granted  the  sovereignty  of  Cilicia,  and 
named  in  honor  of  Augustus.  It  stood  west  of 
the  Kiver  Lamus,  on  a  small  island  called  Ele- 
ousa,  the  name  of  which  appears  to  have  been 
afterward  transferred  to  the  city. — 2.  (Now  Se- 
giklcr),  a  city  of  Phrygia,  northwest  of  Eume- 
nia. — 3.  Vid.  CABIRA.  This  city  was  also  call- 
ed Zfftzirma. — 4.  Vid.  SAMARIA. 

SKBASTOPOLIS  (SetJaaroKohif :  now  Tarkhal),  a 
city  of  Pontus,  on  the  Iris,  southeast  of  Ama- 
sia,  by  some  identified  with  GAZIURA.  There 
were  some  other  places  of  the  name,  which  do 
not  require  particular  notice. 

SEBENNYTUS  CZefievvvrof,  f/  'ZefievvvriKTi  iro- 
Atf :  now  ruins  at  Semcnnout),  a  considerable 
city  of  Lower  Egypt,  in  the  Delta,  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  the  branch  of  the  Nile  called  after  it 
the  Sebennytic  Mouth,  just  at  the  fork  made  by 
this  and  the  Phatnitic  Mouth,  and  south  of  Busi- 
ris.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Nomos  Sebenny- 
tes  or  Sebennyticus. 

SEBETHUS  (now  Maddaleno),  a  small  river  in 
Campania,  flowing  round  Vesuvius,  and  falling 
into  the  Sinus  Puteolanus  at  the  eastern  side 
of  Neapolis. 

SEBINUS  LACUS  (now  La  go  Sco  or  Iseo),  a  lake 
in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  formed  by  the  River  Ollius 
between  the  lakes  Larius  and  Benacus. 

[SEBOSUS,  STATIUS,  a  writer  on  geography, 
cited  by  Pliny.  He  is,  perhaps,  the  same  as  Se- 
bosus,  the  friend  of  Catulus.] 

SECUNDUS,  POMPONIUS.  1.  A  distinguished 
poet  in  the  reigns  of  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and 
Claudius.  He  was  one  of  the  friends  of  Seja- 
nus,  and  on  the  fall  of  that  minister  in  A.D.  31, 
was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  remained  till 
the  accession  of  Caligula  in  37,  by  whom  he 
was  released.  He  was  consul  in  41,  and  in  the 
reign  of  Claudius  commanded  in  Germany,  when 
he  defeated  the  Chatti.  Secundus  was  an  in- 
timate friend  of  the  elder  Pliny,  who  wrote  his 
life  in  two  books.  His  tragedies  were  the  most 
celebrated  of  his  literary  compositions. — [2.  JU- 
LIUS, a  Roman  orator,  and  a  friend  of  Quintil- 
ian,  is  one  of  the  speakers  in  the  Dialogus  de 
Oratoribus,  usually  ascribed  to  Tacitus.] 

SEDETANI.     Vid.  EDETANI. 

SEDIGITUS,  VOLCATIUS,  from  whose  work~De 
Poetis  A.  Gellius  (xv.,  24)  has  preserved  thir- 
teen iambic  seearians,  in  which  the  principal 
Latin  comic  dramatists  are  enumerated  in  the 
order  of  merit.  In  this  "  Canon,"  as  it  has 
been  termed,  the  first  place  is  assigned  to  Cte- 
cilius  Statius,  the  second  to  Plautus,  the  third 
to  Naevius,  the  fourth  to  Licinius,  the  fifth  to 
Attilius,  the  sixth  to  Terentius,  the  seventh  to 
Turpilius,  the  eighth  to  Trabea,  the  ninth  to 
Luscius,  the  tenth,  "  causa  antiquitalis,"  to  En- 
nius. 

SEDULIUS,  COSLIUS,  of  Seville,  a  Christian  po- 
et, flourished  about  A.D.  450.  Of  his  personal 
history  we  know  nothing.  His  works  are  :  1. 
Paschale  Carmen  s.  Mirabilium  Divinorum  Libri 
V.,  in  heroic  measure.  2.  Veteris  et  Novi  Tes- 
wnenti  Collatio,  a  sort  of  hymn  containing  a 
794 


collection  of  texts  from  the  Old  nrt.i  \Y\v  To* 
laments,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  en- 
able the  reader  to  compare  the  two  dispensa- 
tions. 3.  Hymnus  de  Christo,  an  account  of  the 
life  and  miracles  of  Christ.  4.  DeVcrbi  Incur- 
nalibne,  a  Cento  Virgilianus.  The  best  editions 
are  by  Cellarius,  Hal.,  1704  and  1739  ;  by  Ami- 
zenius,  Leovard.,  1761  ;  and  by  Arevalus,  Rom., 
1794. 

SEDUNI,  an  Alpine  people  in  Gallia  Belgica, 
east  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone,  in  the  modern  Vallais.  Their  chief 
town  was  called  Civitas  Sedunorum,  the  modern 
Sion. 

SEDUSH,  a  German  people,  forming  part  of  the 
army  of  Ariovistus  when  he  invaded  Gaul,  B.C 
58.  They  are  not  mentioned  at  a  later  period, 
and  consequently  their  site  can  not  be  determ 
ined. 

[SEGAI,I,AUNI  or  SEGOVELLAUNI,  a  people  of 
Gallia  Narbonensis,  between  the  Vocontii  and 
Allobroges,  to  whom  Ptolemy  assigns  the  city 
Valentia.] 

SEG'ESAMA  or  SEGiSAMo(Segisamonensis :  now 
Sasamo),  a  town  of  the  Murbogi  or  Turmodigi 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  road  from 
Tarraco  to  Asturica. 

SEGESTA  (Segestanus  :  ruins  near  Alcamo) 
the  later  Roman  form  of  the  town,  called  by  the 
Greeks  EGESTA  or  ^EGESTA  ("Eyecrra,  Aljeara, 
in  Virg.  Acesta  :  'Eyeoratof,  Alyearavof,  Aces- 
ta;us),  situated  in  the  northwest  of  Sicily,  neai 
the  coast,  between  Panorrmis  and  Drepanum 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Trojans 
on  two  small  rivers,  to  which  they  gave  the 
names  of  Simois  and  Scamander  ;  hence  the 
Romans  made  it  a  colony  of  JSneas.  One  tra- 
dition, indeed,  ascribed  to  it  a  Greek  origin  ;  buf 
in  later  times  it  was  never  regarded  as  a  Greek 
city.  Its  inhabitants  were  constantly  engaged 
in  hostilities  with  Selinus  ;  and  it  was  at  theii 
solicitation  that  the  Athenians  were  led  to  em- 
bark in  their  unfortunate  expedition  against  Si- 
cily. The  town  was  taken  by  Agathocles,  who 
destroyed  or  sold  as  slaves  all  its  inhabitants, 
peopled  the  city  with  a  body  of  deserters,  and 
changed  its  name  into  that  of  Dicaeopolis  ;  but 
after  the  death  of  this  tyrant,  the  remains  of 
the  ancient  inhabitants  returned  to  the  city  and 
resumed  their  former  name.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  city,  on  the  road  to  Drepanum,  were 
celebrated  mineral  springs,  called  Aqua  Segcy- 
taruz  or  Aqua  Pintiana. 

SEGESTES,  a  Cheruscan  chieftain,  the  oppo- 
nent of  Arminius.  Private  injuries  embittered 
their  political  feud,  for  Arminius  carried  off  anil 
forcibly  married  the  daughter  of  Segestes.  In 
A.D.  9  Segestes  warned  Quintilius  Varus  of  the 
conspiracy  of  Arminius  and  other  Cheruscan 
chiefs  against  him  ;  but  his  warning  was  disre- 
garded, and  Varus  perished.  In  14  Segestes 
was  forced  by  his  tribesmen  into  a  war  with 
Rome  ;  but  he  afterward  made  his  peace  with 
the  Romans,  and  was  allowed  to  reside  at  Nar- 
bonne. 

SEGETIA,  a  Roman  divinity,  who,  together 
with  Setia  or  Seja  and  Semonia,  was  invoked 
by  the  early  Italians  at  'seed-time,  for  Segetia, 
like  the  two  other  names,  is  connected  with 
se.ro  and  seges. 

SEGNI,  a  German  people  in  Gallia  Belgica 


SEGOBRIGA. 

oetweeu  the  Treveri  and  Eburones,  the  name 
of  whom  is  still  preserved  in  the  modern  town 
of  Sineior  Signei. 

SEGOBRIOA,  the  chief  town  of  the  Celtiheri,  in 
Hispania  Tarraconensis,  southwest  of  Csesarau- 
gusia,  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  mod- 
ern Priego. 

[SEGODUNUM.     Vid.  RUTENI.] 

[SEGONAX.      Vid.  SEGOVAX.] 

SEGONT!A  or  SEGUNTIA,  a  town  of  the  Celti- 
beri,  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  sixteen  miles 
from  Caesaraugusta. 

[SEGONTIACI,  according  to  Caesar  (B.  G.,  v., 
21),  a  people  in  the  extreme  south  of  Britannia.] 

[SEGONTIUM,  a  town  of  Britain,  from  which  a 
road  led  to  Deva  :  its  ruins  are  found  near  Caer- 
narvon, on  the  little  river  Seiont.] 

[SEGOVAX  (where  the  common  text  has  SEGO- 
NAX),  one  of  the  kings  of  the  nations  in  the  south 
of  Britannia,  who  aided  Cassivellaunus  against 
the  Romans  under  Caesar.] 

SEGOVIA.  1.  (Now  Segovia),  a  town  of  the 
Arevaci,  on  the  road  from  Emerita  to  Caesarau- 
gusta. 'A  magnificent  Roman  aqueduct  is  still 
extant  at  Segovia. — 2.  A  town  in  Hispania  Bae- 
tica,  on  the  Flumen  Silicense,  near  Sacili. 

SEGUSIANI,  one  of  the  most  important  com- 
munities in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  bounded  by  the 
Allobroges  on  the  south,  by  the  Sequani  on  the 
east,  by  the  JCdui  on  the  north,  and  by  the  Ar- 
verni  on  the  west.  In  the  time  of  Caesar  they 
were  dependent  on  the  ^Edui.  In  their  terri- 
tory was  the  town  of  Lugdunum,  the  capital  of 
the  province.  . 

SEOUSIO  (now  Susa),  the  capital  of  the  Segu- 
sini  and  the  residence  of  King  Cottius,  was  sit- 
uated in  Gallia  Transpadana,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Cottian  Alps.  The  triumphal  arch  erected  at 
this  place  by  Cottius  in  honor  of  Augustus  is 
still  extant. 

SEIUS  STRABO.  .    Vid.  SEJANUS. 

SEJANUS,  JEu.cs,  was  born  at  Vulsinii,  in 
Etruria,  and  was  the  son  of  Seius  Strabo,  who 
was  commander  of  the  praetorian  troops  at  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Augustus,  A.D.  14.  In  the 
same  year  Sejanus  was  made  the  colleague  of 
his  father  in  the  command  of  the  praetorian 
bands ;  and  upon  his  father  being  sent  as  gov- 
ernor to  Egypt,  he  obtained  the  sole  command 
of  these  troops.  He  ultimately  gained  such  in- 
fluence over  Tiberius,  that  this  suspicious  man, 
who  was  close  and  reserved  to  all  mankind, 
opened  his  bosom  to  Sejanus,  and  made  him  his 
confidant.  For  many  years  he  governed  Tibe- 
rius ;  but,  not  content  with  this  high  position, 
he  formed  the  design  of  obtaining  the  imperial 
power.  With  this  view  he  sought  to  make  him- 
self popular  with  the  soldiers,  and  gave  posts 
of  honor  and  emolument  to  his  creatures  and 
favorites.  With  the  same  object,  he  resolved 
to  get  rid  of  all  the  members  of  the  imperial 
family.  He  debauched  Livia,  the  wife  of  Dru- 
sus,  the  son  of  Tiberius  ;  and  by  promising  her 
marriage  and  a  participation  in  the  imperial 
power,  he  was  enabled  to  poison  Drusus  with 
her  connivance  and  assistance  (23).  An  acci- 
dent increased  the  credit  of  Sejanus,  and  con- 
firmed the  confidence  of  Tiberius.  The  emper- 
or, with  Sejanus  and  others,  was  feasting  in  a 
natural  cave,  between  Amyclae,  which  was  on 
the  sea -coast,  and  the  hills  of  Fundi.  The  en- 


SELEUCIA. 

trance  of  the  cave  suddenly  fell  in  and  crushed 
some  of  the  slaves  ;  and  all  the  guests,  in  alarm, 
tried  to  make  their  escape.  Sejanus,  resting 
his  knees  on  the  couch  of  Titrerius,  and  placing 
his  shoulders  under  the  falling  rock,  protected 
his  master,  and  was  discovered  in  this  posture 
by  the  soldiers  who  came  to  their  relief.  After. 
Tiberius  had  shut  himself  up  in  the  island  of 
Capreae,  Sejanus  had  full  scope  for  his  machina- 
tions ;  and  the  death  of  Livia,  the  mother  of 
Tiberius  (29),  was  followed  by  the  banishment 
of  Agrippina  and  her  sons  Nero  and  Drusus. 
Tiberius  at  last  began  to  suspect  the  designs  of 
Sejanus,  and  felt  that  it  was  time  to  rid  himself 
of  a  man  who  was  almost  more  than  a  rival. 
To  cover  his  schemes  and  remove  Sejanus  from 
about  him,  Tiberius  made  him  joint  consul  with 
himself  in  31.  He  then  sent  Sertorius  Macro 
to  Rome,  with  a  commission  to  take  the  com- 
mand of  the  praetorian  cohorts.  Macro,  after 
assuring  himself  of  the  troops,  and  depriving 
Sejanus  of  his  usual  guard,  produced  a  letter 
from  Tiberius  to  the  senate,  in  which  the  em- 
peror expressed  his  apprehensions  of  Sejanus. 
The  consul  Regulus  conducted  him  to  prison, 
and  the  people  loaded  him  with  insult  and  out- 
rage. The  senate  on  the  same  day  decreed  his 
death,  and  he  was  immediately  executed.  His 
body  was  dragged  about  the  streets,  and  finally 
thrown  into  the  Tiber.  Many  of  the  friends  of 
Sejanus  perished  at  the  same  time ;  and  his  son 
and  daughter  shared  his  fate. 

[SELEMNUS  (S^^uvoc,  now  River  of  Kastritza), 
a  river  of  Achaia,  emptying  near  the  promon- 
tory Rhium,  to  the  waters  of  which  tradition 
ascribed  the  power  of  curing  the  pangs  of  love.] 

SELENE  (Se^v*?),  called  LUNA  by  the  Romans, 
was  the  goddess  of  the  moon,  or  the  moon  per- 
sonified as  a  divine' b^ing.  She  is  called  a 
daughter  of  Hyperion  and  Thia,  and  according- 
ly a  sister  of  Helios  (Sol)  and  Eos  (Aurora); 
but  others  speak  of  her  as  a  daughter  of  Hype- 
rion by  Euryphaessa,  or  of  Pallas,  or  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  and  Latona.  She  is  also  called  Phoebe, 
as  the  sister  of  Phoebus,  the  god  of  the  sun.  By 
Endymion,  whom  she  loved,  and  whom  she  sent 
to  sleep  in  order  to  kiss  him,  she  became  the 
mother  of  fifty  daughters  ;  and  to  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
she  bore  Pandia,  Ersa,  and  Nemea.  Pan  also 
is  said  to  have  had  connection  with  her  in  the 
shape  of  a  white  ram.  Selene  is  described  as 
a  very  beautiful  goddess,  with  long  wings  and 
i  a  golden  diadem.  She  rode,  like  her  brother 
Helios,  across  the  heavens  in  a  chariot  drawn 
by  two  white  horses.  In  later  times  Selene 
was  identified  with  Artemis  or  Diana,  and  the 
worship  of  the  two  became  amalgamated.  In 
works  of  art,  however,  the  two  divinities  are 
usually  distinguished  ;  the  face  of  Selene  being 
more  full  and  round,  her  figure  less  tall,  and 
!  always  clothed  in  a  long  robe  ;  her  veil  forms 
an  arch  over  her  head,  and  above  it  there  is  the 
crescent.  At  Rome  Luna  had  a  temple  on  the 
Avcntine. 

SELENE.     Vid.  CLEOPATRA,  No.  9. 

SELEUCIA,  and  rarely  SELKUCEA  (ErfovKtm : 
ZefavKtvf :  Seleucensis,  Scleucenus),  the  name 
of  several  cities  in  Asia,  built  by  Seleucus  I., 
king  of  Syria.  1.  S.  AD  TIOBIN  (#  titi  TOV  Ti- 
ypi/rof  77oropot),  irpd(  Tiypet,  i?rd  Tiyptof),  also 
called  S.  BABYLONIA  (2.  ft  Iv  VatvXuvi),  S.  As- 

795 


SELEUUIA 


SELEUCUS. 


,  and  S.  PARTHORCM,  a  great  city  on  the 
confines  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  and  for  a 
long  time  the  capital  of  Western  Asia,  until  it 
was  eclipsed  by  GTESIPHON.  Its  exact  site  has 
been  disputed  ;  but  the  most  probable  opinion 
is  that  it  stood  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Ti- 
gris, north  of  its  junction  with  the  Royal  Canal, 
opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  River  Delas  or 
Silla  (now  Diala),  and  to  the  spot  where  Ctesi- 
phon  was  afterward  built  by  the  Parthians.  It 
was  a  little  to  the  south  of  the  modern  city  of 
Bagdad.  Perhaps  a  better  site  could  not  be 
found  in  Western  Asia.  It  commanded  the  nav- 
igation of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  the 
whole  plain  of  those  two  rivers  ;  and  it  stood  at 
the  junction  of  all  the  chief  caravan  roads  by 
which  the  traffic  between  eastern  and  western 
Asia  was  carried  on.  In  addition  to  these  ad- 
vantages, its  people  had,  by  the  gift  of  Seleu  -us, 
the  government  of  their  own  affairs.  It  was 
built  in  the  form  of  an  eagle  with  expanded 
wings,  and  was  peopled  by  settlers  from  Assyria, 
Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  Syria,  and  Judaea.  It 
rapidly  rose,  and  eclipsed  Babylon  in  wealth  and 
splendor.  Even  after  the  Parthian  kings  had 
become  masters  of  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  and 
had  fixed  their  residence  at  Ctesiphon,  Seleu- 
cia,  though  deprived  of  much  of  its  importance, 
remained  a  very  considerable  city.  In  the  reign 
of  Titus,  it  had,  according  to  Pliny,  six  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants.  It  was  burned  by  Trajan 
in  his  Parthian  expedition,  and  again  by  L.  Ve- 
rus,  the  colleague  of  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus, 
when  its  population  is  given  by  different  au- 
thorities as  three  hundred  thousand  or  four 
hundred  thousand.  It  was  again  taken  by  Se- 
verus ;  and  from  this  blow  it  never  recovered. 
In  Julian's  expedition  it  was  found  entirely  de- 
serted.— 2.  SELEUCIA  PIEK!A  (S.  Htepia,  ti  kv  ILe- 
pip,  f/  irpdf  ' \vTLOxcia,  r)  irpbf  •dakuaay,  TJ  cniBa^.- 
haaoia,  ruins,  called  Seleukeh  or  Kepse,  near 
Suadeiah),  a  great  city  and  fortress  of  Syria, 
founded  by  Seleucus  in  April,  B.C.  300,  one 
month  before  the  foundation  of  Antioch.  It 
stood  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  fortress,  on  the 
rocks  overhanging  the  sea,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Pieria,  about  four  miles  north  of  the  Orontes, 
and  twelve  miles  west  of  Antioch.  Its  natural 
strength  was  improved  by  every  known  art  of 
fortification,  to  which  were  added  all  the  works 
of  architecture  and  engineering  required  to 
make  it  a  splendid  city  and  a  great  sea-port, 
while  it  obtained  abundant  supplies  from  the 
fertile  plain  between  the  city  and  Antiocn.  The 
remains  of  Seleucus  I.  were  interred  at  Seleu- 
cia,  in  a  mausoleum  surrounded  by  a  grove.  In 
the  war  with  Egypt,  which  ensued  upon  the 
murder  of  Antiochus  II.,  Seleucia  surrendered 
to  Ptolemy  III.  Euergetes  (B.C.  246).  It  was 
afterward  recovered  by  Antiochus  the  Great 
(219).  In  the  war  between  Antiochus  VIII. 
and  IX.,  the  people  of  Seleucia  made  themselves 
independent  (109  or  108).  Afterward,  having 
successfully  resisted  the  attacks  of  Tigranes  for 
fourteen  years  (84-70),  they  were  confirmed  in 
their  freedom  by  Pompey.  The  city  had  fallen 
entirely  into  decay  by  the  sixth  century  of  our 
era.  There  are  considerable  ruins  of  the  har- 
bor and  mole,  of  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  of  its 
necropolis.  The  surrounding  district  was  called 
SELEUCIS. — 3.  SELEUCIA  AD  BELUM,  a  city  of 
796 


Syria,  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  near  Apa- 
mea.  Its  site  is  doubtful. — 4.  SELEUCIA  TRA- 
CHEOTIS  (now  ruins  at  Selcfkch),  an  important  city 
of  Cilicia  Aspera,  was  built  by  Seleucus  I.  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  River  Calycadnus, 
about  four  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  peopled 
with  the  inhabitants  of  several  neighboring 
cities.  It  had  an  oracle  of  Apollo,  and  annual 
games  in  honor  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  Olympius.  It 
vied  with  Tarsus  in  power  and  splendor,  and 
was  a  free  city  under  the  Romans.  It  has  re- 
markable claims  to  renown  both  in  political  and 
literary  history  :  in  the  former,  as  the  place 
where  Trajan  and  Frederic  Barbarossa  died ; 
in  the  latter,  as  the  birth-place  of  the  philoso- 
phers Athenaeus  and  Xenarchus,  of  the  sophist 
Alexander,  the  secretary  of  M.  Aurelius  Anto- 
ninus, and  of  other  learned  men.  On  its  site 
are  still  seen  the  ruins  of  temples,  porticoes 
aqueducts,  and  tombs.  —  5.  SELEUCIA  IN  MESO 
POTAMIA  (now  Bir),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, opposite  to  the  ford  of  Zeugma,  was  a 
fortress  of  considerable  importance  in  ancient 
military  history. — 6.  A  considerable  city  of  Mar- 
giana,  built  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in  a  beau- 
tiful situation,  and  called  Alexandrea  ;  destroy- 
ed by  the  barbarians,  and  rebuilt  by  Antiochus 
L,  who  named  it  Seleucia  after  his  father  Se- 
leucus I.  The  Roman  prisoners  taken  at  the 
defeat  of  Crassus  by  the  Parthians  were  settled 
here  by  King  Orodes.  —  7.  SELEUCIA  IN  CARIA. 
(Vid.  TRALLES.)  There  were  other  cities  of  the 
name,  of  less  importance,  in  Pisidia,  Pamphylia, 
Palestine,  and  Elymais. 

SELEUCIS  (SeAeD/ctf).  1.  The  most  beautiful 
and  fertile  district  of  Syria,  contain  ing  the  north- 
western part  of  the  country,  between  Mount 
Amanus  on  the  north,  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
west,  the  districts  of  Cyrrhestice  and  Chaly- 
bonitis  on  the  northeast,  the  desert  on  the  east, 
and  Coelesyria  and  the  mountains  of  Lebanon 
on  the  south.  It  included  the  valley  of  the 
Lower  Orontes,  and  contained  the  four  great 
cities  of  Antiocn,  Seleucia,  Laodicea,  and  Apa- 
mea,  whence  it  was  also  called  Tetrapolis.  In 
later  times  the  name  was  confined  to  the  small 
district  north  of  the  Orontes,  the  southern  part 
of  the  former  Seleucis  being  divided  into  Cas- 
siotis,  west  of  the  Orontes,  and  Apamene,  east 
of  the  river. — 2.  A  district  of  Cappadocia.— 3. 
A  name  which  Selecus  I.  endeavored  to  give  to 
the  Caspian  Sea,  in  memory  of  a  voyage  of  ex- 
ploration made  round  it  by  his  command. 

SELEUCUS  (Se/Uwcof),  the  name  of  several 
kings  of  Syria.  I.  Surnamed  NICATOR,  the  found- 
er of  the  Syrian  monarchy,  reigned  B.C.  312- 
280.  He  was  the  son  of  Antiochus,  a  Macedo- 
nian of  distinction  among  the  officers  of  Philip 
II.,  and  was  born  about  358.  He  accompanied 
Alexander  on  his  expedition  to  Asia,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  particularly  in  the  Indian 
campaigns.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  (323) 
he  espoused  the  side  of  Perdiccas,  whom  he  ac- 
companied on  his  expedition  against  Egypt ;  but 
he  took  a  leading  part  in  the  mutiny  of  the  sol- 
diers, which  ended  in  the  death  of  Perdiccas 
(321).  In  the  second  partition  of  the  provinces 
which  followed,  Seleucus  obtained  the  wealthy 
and  important  satrapy  of  Babylonia.  In  the  war 
between  Antigonus  and  Eumenes,  Seleucus  af- 
forded efficient  support  to  the  former ;  but  after 


SELEUCUS. 

•,he  death  of  Eumenes  (316),  Antigonus  began  to 
treat  the  other  satraps  as  his  subjects.  There- 
upon Seleucus  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  induced 
Ptolemy  to  unite  with  Lysimachus  and  Cassan- 
der  in  a  league  against  their  common  enemy. 
In  the  war  that  ensued  Seleucus  took  an  active 
part.  At  length,  in  312,  he  recovered  Babylon  ; 
and  it  is  from  this  period  that  the  Syrian  mon- 
archy is  commonly  reckoned  to  commence. 
This  era  of  the  Seleucidae,  as  it  is  termed,  has 
been  determined  by  chronologers  to  the  1st  of 
October,  312.  Soon  afterward  Seleucus  defeat- 
ed Nicanor,  the  satrap  of  Media,  and  followed 
up  his  victory  by  the  conquest  of  Susiana,  Me- 
dia, and  some  adjacent  districts.  For  the  next 
few  years  he  gradually  extended  his  power  over 
all  the  eastern  provinces  which  had  formed  part 
of  the  empire  of  Alexander,  from  the  Euphrates 
to  the  banks  of  the  Oxus  and  the  Indus.  In  306 
Seleucus  followed  the  example  of  Antigonus 
and  Ptolemy,  by  formally  assuming  the  regal 
title  and  diadem.  In  302  he  joined  the  league 
formed  for  the  second  time  by  Ptolemy,  Ly- 
simachus, and  Cassander,  against  their  com- 
mon enemy  Antigonus.  The  united  forces  of 
Seleucus  and  Lysimachus  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  Antigonus  at  Ipsus  (301),  in  which 
Antigonus  himself  was  slain.  In  the  division 
of  the  spoil,  Seleucus  obtained  the  largest  share, 
being  rewarded  for  his  services  with  a  great 
part  of  Asia  Minor  (which  was  divided  between 
him  and  Lysimachus),  as  well  as  with  the  whole 
of  Syria,  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean. The  empire  of  Seleucus  was  now  by  far 
the  most  extensive  and  powerful  of  those  which 
had  been  formed  out  of  the  dominions  of  Alex- 
ander. It  comprised  the  whole  of  Asia,  from 
the  remote  provinces  of  Bactria  and  Sogdiana 
to  the  coasts  of  Phoenicia,  and  from  the  Paro- 
pamisus  to  the  central  plains  of  Phrygia,  where 
the  boundary  which  separated  him  from  Lysim- 
achus is  not  clearly  defined.  Seleucus  appears 
to  have  felt  the  difficulty  of  exercising  a  vigilant 
control  over  so  extensive  an  empire,  and  ac- 
cordingly, in  293,  he  consigned  the  government 
of  all  the  provinces  beyond  the  Euphrates  to 
his  son  Antiochus,  upon  whom  he  bestowed  the 
title  of  king,  as  well  as  the  hand  of  his  own 
youthful  wife,  Stratonice,  for  whom  the  prince 
had  conceived  a  violent  attachment.  In  288, 
the  ambitious  designs  of  Demetrius  (now  be- 
come king  of  Macedonia)  once  more  aroused 
the  common  jealousy  of  his  old  adversaries,  and 
led  Seleucus  again  to  unite  in  a  league  with 
Ptolemy  and  Lysimachus  against  him.  After 
Demetrius  had  been  driven  from  his  kingdom 
by  Lysimachus,  he  transported  the  seat  of  war 
into  Asia  Minor,  but  he  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render to  Seleucus  in  286.  The  Syrian  king 
kept  Demetrius  in  confinement  till  three  years 
afterward,  but  during  the  whole  of,  that  time 
treated  him  in  a  friendly  and  liberal  manner. 
For  some  time  jealousies  had  existed  between 
Seleucus  and  Lysimachus  ;  but  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  war  between  the  two  monarchs, 
which  terminated  in  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Lysimachus  (281),  is  related  in  the  life  of  the 
latter.  Seleucus  now  crossed  the  Hellespont 
in  order  to  take  possession  of  the  throne  of 
Macedonia,  which  had  been  left  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Lysimachus ;  but  he  had  advanced  no 


SELEUCUS. 

'  farther  than  Lysimachia,  when  he  was  assas- 
j  sinated  by  Ptolemy  Ceraunys,  to  whom,  as  the 
son  of  his  old  friend  and  ally,  he  had  extended 
a  friendly  protection.     His  death  took  place  in 
the  beginning  of  280,  only  seven  months  after 
that  of  Lysimachus,  and  in  the  thirty-second 
year  of  his  reign.    He  %vas  in  his  seventy-eighth 
year.     Seleucus  appears  to  have  carried  out, 
with  great  energy  and  perseverance,  the  pro- 
jects originally  formed  by  Alexander  himself 
for  the  Hellenization  of  his  Asiatic  empire  ;  and 
we  find  him  founding,  in  almost  every  province, 
Greek  or  Macedonian  colonies,  which  became 
so  many  centres  of  civilization  and  refinement. 
Of  these  no  less  than  sixteen  are  mentioned  as 
bearing  the  name  of  Antiochia,  after  his  father  ; 
five  that  of  Laodicea,  from  his  mother;  seven 
were  called  after  himself,  Seleucia  ;  three  from 
the  name  of  his  first  wife,  Apamea ;  and  one 
Stratonicea,  from  his  second  wife,  the  daughter 
of  Demetrius.     Numerous  other  cities,  whose 
names  attest  their  Macedonian  origin — Bercea, 
Edessa,  Pella,  &c.— likewise  owed  their  first 
foundation  to  Seleucus.  —  II.  Surnamed  C.M,- 
LINICUS  (246-226),  was  the  eldest  son  of  Antio- 
chus II.  by  his  first  wife  Laodice.     The  first 
measure  of  his  administration,  or  rather  that 
of  his  mother,  was  to  put  to  death  his  step- 
mother Berenice,  together  with  her  infant  son. 
j  This  act  of  cruelty  produced  the  most  disastrous 
effects.    In  order  to  avenge  his  sister,  Ptolemy 
Euergetes,  king  of  Egypt,  invaded  the  domin- 
ions of  Seleucus,  and  not  only  made  himself 
master  of  Antioch  and  the  whole  of  Syria,  but 
carried  his  arms  unopposed  beyond  the  Euphra- 
tes and  the  Tigris.     During  these  operations 
Seleucus  kept  wholly  aloof;  but  when  Ptolemj 
had  been  recalled  to  his  own  dominions  by  do- 
mestic disturbances,  he  recovered  possession 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  provinces  which  he 
had  lost.     Soon  afterward  Seleucus  became  in- 
volved in  a  dangerous  war  with  his  brother  An- 
|  tiochus  Hierax,  who  attempted  to  obtain  Asia 
j  Minor  as  an  independent  kingdom  for  himself. 
<  This  war  lasted  several  years,  but  was  at  length 
terminated  by  the  decisive  defeat  of  Antiochus, 
who  was  obliged  to  quit  Asia  Minor  and  take 
refuge  in  Egypt.     Seleucus  undertook  an  expe- 
dition to  the  East,  with  the  view  of  reducing 
the  revolted  provinces  of  Parthia  and  Bactria, 
j  which  had  availed  themselves  of  the  disordered 
]  state  of  the  Syrian  empire  to  throw  off  its  yoke. 
I  He  was,  however,  defeated  by  Arsaces,  king  of 
j  Parthia,  in  a  great  battle,  which  was  long  after 
I  celebrated  by  the  Parthians  as  the  foundation 
I  of  their  independence.     After  the  expulsion  of 
Antiochus,  Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  extend- 
ed his  dominions  over  the  greater  part  of  Asia 
Minor ;  and  Seleucus  appears  to  have  been  en- 
i  gaged  in  an  expedition  for  the  recovery  of  these 
1  provinces,  when  he  was  accidentally  killed  by 
a  fall  from  his  horse,  in  the  twenty-first  yeai 
of  his  reign,  226.     He  left  two  sons,  who  suc- 
cessively ascended  the  throne,  Seleucus  Cerau- 
nus  and  Antiochus,  afterward  surnamed   the 
Great.     His  own  surname  of  Calhnicus  was 
probably  assumed  after  his  recovery  of  the  prov 
j  inces  that  had  been  overrun  by  Ptolemy. — III. 
I  Surnamed  CBRAUNUS  (226-223),  eldest  son  and 
successor  of  Seleucus  II.    The  surname  of  Ce- 
•  raunus  was  given  him  In  the  soldiery,  appur 

797" 


SELGE. 


SEMECHONITIS. 


ently  in  derision,  as  he  appears  to  have  been 
feeble  both  in  mind  and  body.  He  was  assas- 
sinated by  two  of  his  officers,  after  a  reign  of 
only  three  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Antiochus  the  Great. — IV.  Surnamed 
PHILOPATOR  (187-175),  was  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Antiochus  the  Great.  The  defeat  of 
his  father  by  the  Romans,  and  the  ignominious  j 
peace  which  followed  it,  had  greatly  diminished 
the  power  of  the  Syrian  monarchy,  and  the 
reign  of  Seleucus  was,  in  consequence,  feeble 
and  inglorious,  and  was  marked  by  no  striking 
events.  He  was  assassinated  in  175  by  one  of 
his  own  ministers.  He  left  two  children  :  De- 
metrius, who  subsequently  ascended  the  throne; 
and  Laodice,  married  to  Perseus,  king  of  Mace- 
donia.— V.  Eldest  son  of  Demetrius  II.,  assum- 
ed the  royal  diadem  on  learning  the  death  of 
his  father,  125  ;  but  his  mother  Cleopatra,  who 
had  herself  put  Demetrius  to  death,  was  indig- 
nant at  hearing  that  her  son  had  ventured  to 
take  such  a  step  without  her  authority,  and 
caused  Seleucus  also  to  be  assassinated. — VI. 
Surnamed  EPIPHANES,  and  also  NICATOR  (95- 
93),,was  the  eldest  of  the  five  sons  of  Antio- 
chus VIII.  Grypus.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
in  95,  he  ascended  the  throne,  and  defeated 
and  slew  in  battle  his  uncle  Antiochus  Cyzice- 
nus,  who  'had  laid  claim  to  the  kingdom.  But 
shortly  after  Seleucus  was  in  his  turn  defeated  j 
by  Antiochus  Eusebes,  the  son  of  Cyzicenus, 
and  expelled  from  Syria.  He  took  refuge  in  : 
Cilicia,  where  he  established  himself  in  the  city  j 
ef  Mopsuestia;  but,  in  consequence  of  his  tyr-  I 
anny,  he  was  burned  to  death  by  the  inhabit- 
ants in  his  palace. 

SELGE  (SeAyj? :  Se/lyttjf :  now  Surk  1  ruins), 
one  of  the  chief  of  the  independent  mountain 
cities  of  Pisidia,  stood  on  the  southern  side  of 
Mount  Taurus,  on  the  Eurymedon,  just  where 
the  river  breaks  through  the  mountain  chain. 
On  a  rock  above  it  was  a  citadel  named  KEO- 
6e6iov,  in  which  was  a  temple  of  Juno  (Hera). 
Its  inhabitants,  who  were  the  most  warlike  of 
all  the  Pisidians,  claimed  descent  from  the  La- 
cedaemonians, and  inscribed  the  name  AaKetiai- 
uuv  on  their  coins.  They  could  bring  an  army 
of  twenty  thousand  men  into  the  field,  and,  as 
late  as  the  fifth  century,  we  find  them  beating 
back  a  horde  of  Goths.  In  a  valley  near  the 
city,  in  the  heart  of  lofty  mountains,  grew  wine, 
and  oil,  and  other  products  of  the  most  luxuri- 
ant vegetation. 

[SELoovvE  (SeAyoovai,  Ptol.),  a  people  on  the 
western  coast  of  Britannia  Barbara,  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  modern  Galloway  and  in  Dum- 
friesshire.'} 

SELINUS  (SeAtvoiJj.-otivrof,  contraction  of  ac- 
Aivoeif,  from  a&ivov,  "parsley").  1.  A  small 
river  on  the  southwestern  coast  of  Sicily,  flow- 
ing by  the  town  of  the  same  name. — 2.  (Now 
Crcstena),  a  river  of  Elis,  in  the  district  Tri- 
phylia,  near  Scillus,  flowing  into  the  Alpheus 
west  of  Olympia. — 3.  (Now  Vostitza),  a  river  of 
Achaia,  rising  in  Mount  Erymanthus. — 4.  A 
tributary  of  the  Caicus  in  Mysia,  flowing  by  the. 
town  of  Pergamum. — 5.  (SeAtvothrtof,  Se/Uvov- 
onof  :  near  the  modern  Castcl  vclrano,  ruins),  one 
of  the  most  important  towns  in  Sicily,  situated 
upon  a  hill  on  the  southwestern  coast,  and  upon 
a  river  of  the  same  name.  It  was  founded  by 
798 


the  Dorians  from  Megara  Hyblsea,  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Sicily,  B.C.  628.  It  soon  attained 
great  prosperity  ;  but  it  was  taken  by  the  Car- 
thaginians in  409,  when  most  of  its  inhabitants 
were  slain  or  sold  as  slaves,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  city  destroyed.  The  population  of 
Selinus  must  at  that  time  have  been  very  con- 
siderable, since  we  are  told  that  sixteen  thou- 
sand men  fell  in  the  siege  and  conquest  of  the 
town,  five  thousand  were  carried  to  Carthage 
as  slaves,  two  thousand  six  hundred  fled  to  Ag- 
rigentum,  and  many  others  took  refuge  in  the 
surrounding  villages.  The  Carthaginians,  how- 
ever, allowed  the  inhabitants  to  return  to  Seli- 
nus in  the  course  of  the  same  year,  and  it  con- 
tinued to  be  a  place  of  secondary  importance 
till  249,  when  it  was  again  destroyed  by  the 
Carthaginians,  and  its  inhabitants  transferred  to 
Lilybffium.  The  surrounding  country  produced 
excellent  wheat.  East  of  Selinus,  on  the  road 
to  Agrigentum,  were  celebrated  mineral  springs 
called  Aqua  Selinuntia,  subsequently  Aqua  La- 
bodcz  or  Labodes,  the  modern  Balks  of  Sciacca. 
There  are  still  considerable  ruins  of  Selinus. — 
6.  (Now  Sclcnti),  a  town  in  Cilicia,  situated  on 
the  coast,  and  upon  a  rock  which  was  almost 
entirely  surrounded  by  the  sea.  In  consequence 
of  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Trajan  in  this 
town,  it  was  for  a  longtime  called  Trajanopolis. 

SELLASIA  (Se/Uacr/a  or  2eAaaia),  a  town  in 
Laconia,  north  of  Sparta,  was  situated  near  the 
River  CEnus,  and  commanded  one  of  the  princi- 
pal passes  leading  to  Sparta.  Here  the  cele- 
brated battle  was  fought  between  Cleomenes 
III.  and  Antigonus  Doson,  B.C.  221,  in  which 
the  former  was  defeated-. 

SELLEIS  (Se/Ufctc)-  1.  A  river  in  Elis,  on 
which  the  Homeric  Ephyra  stood,  rising  in 
Mount  Pholoe",  and  falling  into  the  sea  south 
of  the  Peneus. — 2.  A  river  near  Sicyon. — 3.  A 
river  in  Troas,  near  Arisbe,  and  a  tributary  of 
the  Rhodius. 

SELLI  or  HELLI.     Vid.  DODONA. 

SELYMBRIA  or  SELYBRIA  CS,Tj2.vp6pia,  'Zrj'hvGpia, 
Dor.  SaAa/ufipi'a  :  S^t'jufiptavof :  now  Sclivria), 
an  important  town  in  Thrace,  situated  on  the 
Propontis.  It  was  a  colony  of  the  Megarians, 
and  was  founded  earlier  than  Byzantium.  It 
perhaps  derived  its  name  from  its  founder  Se- 
lys  and  the  Thracian  word  Bria,  a  town.  It 
continued  to  be  a  place  of  considerable  import, 
ance  till  its  conquest  by  Philip,  the  father  of 
Alexander,  from  which  time  its  decline  may  be 
dated.  Under  the  later  emperors  it  was  called 
Eudoxiupolis,  in  honor  of  Eudaxia,  the  wife  of 
Arcadius ;  but  it  afterward  recovered  its  an- 
cient name. 

SfiMECHONITIS  Or   SAMACHONITIS  I-ACUS  (ZfjUE- 

Xuvlrif,  "Zauaxuvlrif,  and  -ITUV  ^.iuvrj :  in  the 
Old  Testament,  Waters  of  Merom  :  now  Nakr. 
d-Huleh),a  small  lake  in  the  north  of  Palestine, 
the  highest  of  the  three  formed  by  the  Jordan, 
both  branches  of  which  fall  into  its  northern 
end,  while  the  river  flows  out  of  its  southern 
end  in  one  stream.  The  valley  in  which  it  lies 
is  inclosed  on  the  west  and  east  by  mountains 
belonging  to  the  two  ranges  of  Lebanon,  form- 
ing a  position  which  has  been  of  military  im- 
portance both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  es- 
pecially as  the  great  Damascus  road  crosses  the 
Jordan  just  below  the  lake.  According  to  the 


SEMELE. 

division  of  Palestine  under  the  Roman  empire, 
it  belonged  to  Galilee,  but  in  earlier  times* un- 
der the  Syrian  kings,  it  was  reckoned  to  Ccele- 
syria. 

SEMEJ.E  (Se/<£/.»7),  daughter  of  Cadmus  and 
Harmonia,  at  Thebes,  and  accordingly  sister  of 
Ino,  Agave,  Autonoe,  and  Polydorus.  She  was 
beloved  by  Jupiter  (Zeus).  Juno  (Hera),  stim- 
ulated by  jealousy,  appeared  to  her  in  the  form 
of  her  aged  nurse  Beroe",  and  induced  her  to  ask 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  visit  her  in  the  same  splendor 
and  majesty  with  which  he  appeared  to  Juno 
(Hera).  Jupiter  (Zeus)  warned  her  of  the  dan- 
ger of  her  request;  but  as  he  had  sworn  to 
grant  whatever  she  desired,  he  was  obliged  to 
comply  with  her  prayer.  He  accordingly  ap- 
peared before  her  as  the  god  of  thunder,  and 
Semele  was  consumed  by  the  lightning  ;  but 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  saved  her  child  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus), with  whom  she  was  pregnant.  Her  son 
afterward  carried  her  out  of  the  lower  world, 
and  conducted  her  to  Olympus,  where  she  be- 
came immortal  under  the  name  of  Thyone. 

SEMIRAMIS  (Zepipufuf)  andNiNus  (Ntvof ),  the 
mythical  founders  of  the  Assyrian  empire  of 
Ninus  or  Nineveh.  Ninus  was  a  great  war- 
rior, who  built  the  town  of  Ninus  or  Nineveh 
about  B.C.  2182,  and  subdued  the  greater  part 
of  Asia.  Semiramis  was  the  daughter  of  the 
fish-goddess  Derceto  of  Ascalon  in  Syria  by  a 
Syrian  youth  ;  but,  being  ashamed  of  her  frail- 
ty, she  made  away  with  the  youth,  and  exposed 
her  infant  daughter.  But  the  child  was  mirac- 
ulously preserved  by  doves,  who  fed  her  till  she 
was  discovered  by  the  shepherds  of  the  neigh- 
borhood. She  was  then  brought  up  by  the  chief 
shepherd  of  the  royal  herds,  whose  name  was 
Simmas,  and  from  whom  she  derived  the  name 
of  Semiramis.  Her  surpassing  beauty  attracted 
the  notice  of  Onnes,  one  of  the  king's  friends 
and  generals,  who  married  her.  He  subse- 
quently sent  for  his  wife  to  the  army,  where 
the  Assyrians  were  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
Bactra,  which  they  had  long  endeavored  in  vain 
to  take.  Upon  her  arrival  in  the  camp  she 
planned  an  attack  upon  the  citadel  of  the  town, 
mounted  the  walls  with  a  few  brave  followers, 
and  obtained  possession  of  the  place.  Ninus 
was  so  charmed  by  her  bravery  and  beauty  that 
he  resolved  to  make  her  his  wife,  whereupon 
her  unfortunate  husband  put  an  end  to  his  life. 
By  Ninus  Semiramis  had  a  son,  Ninyas,  and  on 
the  death  of  Ninus  she  succeeded  him  on  the 
throne.  According  to  another  account,  Semi- 
minis  had  obtained  from  her  husband  permis- 
sion to  rule  over  Asia  for  five  days,  and  availed 
herself  of  this  opportunity  to  cast  the  king  into 
a  dungeon,  or,  as  is  also  related,  to  put  him  to 
deatlCand  thus  obtained  the  sovereign  power. 
Her  fame  threw  into  the  shade  that  of  Ninus  ; 
and  later  ages  loved  to  tell  of  her  marvellous 
deeds  and  her  heroic  achievements.  She  built 
numerous  cities,  and  erected  many  wonderful 
buildings;  and  several  of  the  most  extraordi- 
nary works  in  the  East,  which  were  extant  in 
a  later  age,  and  the  authors  of  which  were  un- 
known, were  ascribed  by  popular  tradition  to 
this  queen.  In  Nineveh  she  erected  a  tomb  for 
her  husband,  nine  s>ladia  high  and  ten  wide  ; 
she  built  the  city  of  Babylon,  with  all  its  won- 
ders ;  and  she  constructed  the  hanging  gardens 


SENECA. 

in  Media,  of  which  later  writers  give  us  such 
strange  accounts.  Besides  conquering  many 
nations  of  Asia,  she  subdued  Egypt  and  a  great 
part  of  /Ethiopia,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  an 
attack  which  she  made  upon  India.  After  a 
reign  of  forty-two  years  she  resigned  the  sov- 
ereignty to  her  son  Ninyas,  and  disappeared 
from  the  earth,  taking  her  flight  to  heaven  in 
the  form  of  a  dove.  The  fabulous  nature  of 
this  narrative  is  apparent.  It  is  probable  that 
Semiramis  was  originally  a  Syrian  goddess,  per- 
haps the  same  who  was  worshipped  at  Asca- 
lon under  the  name  of  Astarte,  or  the  Heavenly 
Aphrodite,  to  whom  the  dove  was  sacred.  Hence 
the  stories  of  her  voluptuousness,  which  were 
current  even  in  the  time  of  Augustus  (Ov.,.4m., 
i.,  5,  11). 

SEMNONES,  more  rarely  SENNONES,  a  German 
people,  described  by  Tacitus  as  the  most  pow- 
erful tribe  of  the  Suevic  race,  dwelt  between 
the  rivers  Viadus  (now  Oder)  and  Albis  (now 
Elbe),  from  the  Riesengebirge  in  the  south  as 
far  as  the  country  around  Frankfurt  on  the  Oder 
and  Potsdam  in  the  north. 

SEMO  SANCUS.     Vid.  SANCUS. 

SEMPRONIA.  1.  Daughter  of  Tib.  Gracchus, 
censor  B.C.  169,  and  sister  of  the  two  celebra- 
ted tribunes,  married  Scipio  Africanus  minor. 
— 2.  Wife  of  D.  Junius  Brutus,  consul  77,  was 
a  woman  of  great  personal  attractions  and  lit- 
erary accomplishments,  but  of  a  profligate  char- 
acter. She  took  part  in  Catiline's  conspiracy, 
though  her  husband  was  not  privy  to  it. 

SEMPRONIA  GENS,  was  of  great  antiquity,  and 
one  of  its  members,  A.  Sempronius  Atratinus, 
obtained  the  consulship  as  early  as  B.C.  497, 
twelve  years  after  the  foundation  of  the  repub- 
lic. The  Sempronii  were  divided  into  many 
families,  of  which  the  ATRATINI  were  patrician, 
but  all  the  others  were  plebeian  :  their  names 
are  ASELLIO,  BL^ESUS,  GRACCHUS,  SOPHUS,  Tu- 
DITANUS. 

SENA  (Senensis).  1.  (Now  Scnigaglia),  sur 
named  GALLICA,  and  sometimes  called  SENO 
GALLIA,  a  town  on  the  coast  of  Umbria,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  small  river  Sena,  was  founded 
by  the  Senones,  a  Gallic  people,  and  was  made 
a  colony  by  the  Romans  after  the  conquest  of 
the  Senones,  B.C.  283.  In  the  civil  war  it  es- 
poused the  Marian  party,  and  was  taken  and 
sacked  by  Pompey. — 2.  (Now  Siena),  a  town  in 
Etruria  and  a  Roman  colony,  on  the  road  from 
Clusium  to  Florentia,  is  only  mentioned  in  the 
times  of  the  emperors. 

SENECA.  1.  M.  ANN-*US,  the  rhetorician,  was 
born  at  Corduba(now  Cordova),  in  Spain,  about 
B.C.  61.  Seneca  was  at  Rome  in  the  early  pe- 
riod of  the  power  of  Augustus,  for  he  says  that 
he  had  seen  Ovid  declaiming  before  Arcllius 
Fuscus.  He  afterward  relumed  to  Spain,  arid 
married  Helvia,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons,  L. 
A  munis  Seneca,  L.  Annseus  Mela  or  Mella,  the 
father  of  the  poet  Lucan,  and  M.  Novatus.  Nova- 
tus  was  the  eldest  son,  ind  took  the  name  of  Ju- 
nius Gallio  upon  being  adopted  by  Junius  Gullio 
Seneca  was  rich,  and  he  belonged  to  the  rijin1.---. 
trian  class.  At  a  later  period  Seneca  returned 
to  Rome,  where  he  resided  till  his  d<  aih,  wliicl 
probably  occurred  near  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Tiberius.  Two  of  Seneca's  works  have  comi 
down  to  us.  1.  Controvertiarum  Lilri  dm  in 

799 


SENECA. 


SENECA 


which  he  addressed  to  his  three  sons.  The 
first,  second,  seventh,  eighth,  and  tenth  books 
only  are  extant,  and  these  are  somewhat  mu- 
tilated :  of  the  other  books  only  fragments  re- 
main. These  Controversiae  are  rhetorical  ex- 
ercises on  imaginary  cases,  filled  with  common- 
places, such  as  a  man  of  large  verbal  memory 
and  great  reading  carries  about  with  him  as  his 
ready  money.  2.  Suasoriarum  Liber,  which  is 
probably  not  complete.  We  may  collect  from 
its  contents  what  the  subjects  were  on  which 
the  rhetoricians  of  that  age  exercised  their  wits : 
«ne  of  them  is,  "  Shall  Cicero  apologize  to  M. 
Antoniusl  Shall  he  agree  to  burn  his  Philip- 
pics, if  Antonius  requires  it  1"  Another  is, 
"  Shall  Alexander  embark  on  the  ocean  1"  If 
there  are  some  good  ideas  and  apt  expressions 
in  these  puerile  declamations,  they  have  no  val- 
ue where  they  stand,  and  probably  most  of  them 
are  borrowed.  No  merit  of  form  can  compen- 
sate for  worthlessness  of  matter.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  these  works  is  by  A.  Schottus,  Heidel- 
berg, 1603,  frequently  reprinted. — 2.  L.  ANN^E- 
us,  the  philosopher,  the  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Corduba,  probably  a  few  years  B.C., 
and  brought  to  Rome  by  his  parents  when  he 
was  a  child.  Though  he  was  naturally  of  a  weak 
body,  he  was  a  hard  student  from  his  youth,  and 
he  devoted  himself  with  great  ardor  to  rhetoric 
and  philosophy.  He  also  soon  gained  distinc- 
tion as  a  pleader  of  causes,  and  he  excited  the 
jealousy  and  hatred  of  Caligula  by  the  ability 
with  which  he  conducted  a  case  in  the  senate 
before  the  emperor.  In  the  first  year  of  the 
reign  of  Claudius  (A.D.  41),  Seneca  was  ban- 
ished to  Corsica  on  account  of  his  intimacy 
with  Julia,  the  niece  of  Claudius,  of  whom  Mes- 
salina  was  jealous.  After  eight  years'  residence 
in  Corsica,  Seneca  was  recalled  (59)  by  the  in- 
fluence of  Agrippina,  who  had  just  married  her 
uncle  the  Emperor  Claudius.  He  now  obtained 
a  praetorship,  and  was  made  the  tutor  of  the 
young  Domitius,  afterward  the  Emperor  Nero, 
who  was  the  son  of  Agrippina  by  a  former  hus- 
band. On  the  accession  of  his  pupil  to  the  im- 
perial throne  (54)  after  the  death  of  Claudius, 
Seneca  became  one  of  the  chief  advisers  of  the 
young  emperor.  He  exerted  his  influence  to 
check  Nero's  vicious  propensities,  but  at  the 
same  time  he  profited  from  his  position  to  amass 
an  immense  fortune.  He  supported  Nero  in 
his  contests  with  his  mother  Agrippina,  and 
.was  not  only  a  party  to  the  death  of  the  latter 
(60),  but  he  wrote  the  letter  which  Nero  ad- 
dressed to  the  senate  in  justification  of  the  mur- 
der. After  the  death  of  his  mother  Nero  aban- 
doned himself  without  any  restraint  to  his  vi- 
cious propensities  ;  and  the  presence  of  Seneca 
soon  became  irksome  to  him,  while  the  wealth 
of  the  •philosopher  excited  the  emperor's  cupid- 
ity. Burrus,  the  praefect  of  the  praetorian  guards, 
who  had  always  been  a  firm  supporter  of  Sen- 
eca, died  in  63  His  death  broke  the  power  of 
Seneca  ;  and  Nero  now  fell  into  the  hands  of 
persons  who  were  exactly  suited  to  his  taste. 
Tigellinus  and  Fennius  Rufus,  who  succeeded 
Burrus  in  the  command  of  the  praetorians,  be- 
gan an  attack  on  Seneca.  His  enormous  wealth, 
his  gardens  and  villas,  more  magnificent  than 
those  of  the  emperor,  his  exclusive  claims  to 
eloquence,  and  his  disparagement  of  Nero's  skill 
800 


in  driving  and  singing,  were  all  urged  against 
him  ;  and  it  was  time,  they  said,  foi  Nero  to  get 
rid  of  a  teacher.  Seneca  heard  of  the  charges 
against  him  :  he  was  rich,  and  he  knew  that 
Nero  wanted  money.  He  asked  the  emperor 
for  permission  to  retire,  and  offered  to  surren 
der  all  that  he  had.  Nero  affected  to  be  grate- 
ful for  his  past  services,  refused  the  proffere»l 
gift,  and  sent  him  away  with  perfidious  assur- 
ances of  his  respect  and  affection.  Seneca  no  Y 
altered  his  mode  of  life,  saw  little  company,  and 
seldom  visited  the  city,  on  the  ground  of  feeble 
health,  or  being  occupied  with  his  philosophical 
studies.  The  conspiracy  of  Piso  (65)  gave  the 
emperor  a  pretext  for  putting  his  teacher  to 
death,  though  there  was  not  complete  evidence 
of  Seneca  being  a  party  to  the  conspiracy.  Sen- 
eca was  at  the  time  returning  from  Campania, 
and  had  rested  at  a  villa  four  miles  from  the 
city.  Nero  sent  a  tribune  to  him  with  the  or- 
der of  death.  Without  showing  any  sign  of 
alarm,  Seneca  cheered  his  weeping  friends  by 
reminding  them  of  the  lessons  of  philosophy. 
Embracing  his  wife  Pompeia  Paulina,  he  prayed 
her  to  moderate  her  grief,  and  to  console  her- 
self for  the  loss  of  her  husband  by  the  reflection 
that  he  had  lived  an  honorable  life.  But  as 
Paulina  protested  that  she  would  die  with  him, 
Seneca  consented,  and  the  same  blow  opened 
the  veins  in  the  arms  of  both.  Seneca's  body 
was  attenuated  by  age  and  meagre  diet ;  the 
blood  would  not  flow  easily,  and  he  opened  the 
veins  in  his  legs.  His  torture  was  excessive  ; 
and,  to  save  himself  and  his  wife  the  pain  of 
seeing  one  another  suffer,  he  bade  her  retire  to 
her  chamber.  His  last  words  were  taken  down 
in  writing  by  persons  who  were  called  in  for  the 
purpose,  and  were  afterward  published.  Sen- 
eca's torments  being  still  prolonged,  he  took 
hemlock  from  his  friend  and  physician,  Statius 
Annseus,  but  it  had  no  effect.  At  last  he  en- 
tered a  warm  bath,  and  as  he  sprinkled  some 
of  the  water  on  tb^e  slaves  nearest  to  him,  he 
said  that  he  made  a  libation  to  Jupiter  the  Lib- 
erator. He  was  then  taken  into  a  vapor  stove, 
where  he  was  quickly  suffocated.  Seneca  died, 
as  was  the  fashion  among  the  Romans,  with 
the  courage  of  a  stoic,  but  with  somewhat  of  a 
theatrical  affectation,  which  detracts  from  the 
dignity  of  the  scene.  Seneca's  great  misfor- 
tune was  to  have  known  Nero  ;  and  though  we 
can  not  say  that  he  was  a  truly  great  or  a  truly 
good  man,  his  character  will  not  lose  by  com- 
parison with  that  of  many  others  who  have  been 
placed  in  equally  difficult  circumstances.  Sen- 
eca's fame  rests  on  his  numerous  writings,  of 
which  the  following  are  extant:  1.  De  Ira,  in 
three  books,  addressed  to  Novatus,  probably 
the  earliest  of  Seneca's  works.  In  the  first 
book  he  combats  what  Aristotle  says  of  Anger 
in  his  Ethics.  2.  De  Consolalione  ad  Hefoiam 
Matrem  Liber,  a  consolatory  letter  to  his  moth- 
er, written  during  his  residence  in  Corsica.  It 
is  one  of  his  best  treatises.  3.  De  Consolations 
ad  Polybium  Liber,  also  written  in  Corsica.  If 
it  is  the  work  of  Seneca,  it  does  him  no  credit. 
Polybius  was  the  powerful  freedman  of  Clau- 
dius, and  the  Consolatio  is  intended  to  comfort 
him  on  the  occasion  of  the  loss  of  his  brother. 
But  it  also  contains  adulation  of  the  emperor, 
and  many  expressions  unworthy  of  a  true  stoic 


SENECA. 

or  of  an  honest  man.  4.  Liber  de  Consolatione 
ad  Mardam,  written  after  his  return  from  exile, 
was  designed  to  console  Marcia  for  the  loss  of 
her  son.  Marcia  was  the  daughter  of  A.  Cre- 
mulius  Cordus.  5.  De  Providentia  Liber,  or 
Qitare  lionis  viris  mala  accidant  cum  sit  Provi- 
dentia, is  addressed  to  the  younger  Lucilius, 
procurator  of  Sicily.  The  question  that  is  here 
discussed  often  engaged  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers :  the  stoical  solution  of  the  difficulty  is 
that  suicide  is  the  remedy  when  misfortune  has 
become  intolerable.  In  this  discourse  Seneca 
says  that  he  intends  to  prove  "  that  Providence 
hath  a  power  over  all  tilings,  and  that  God  is 
always  present  with  us."  6.  De  Animi  Tran- 
quillitate,  addressed  to  Serenus,  probably  writ- 
ten soon  after  Seneca's  return  from  exile.  It 
is  in  the  form  of  a  letter  rather  than  a  treatise  : 
the  object  is  to  discover  the  means  by  which 
tranquillity  of  mind  can  be  obtained.  7.  De  Con- 
stantia  Sapientis  seu  quod  in  sapientem  non  cadit 
injuria,  also  addressed  to  Serenus,  is  founded 
on  the  stoical  doctrine  of  the  impassiveness  of 
the  wise  man.  8.  De  dementia  ad  Neronem 
Casarem  Libri  duo,  written  at  the  beginning  of 
Nero's  reign.  There  is  too  much  of  the  flat- 
terer in  this ;  but  the  advice  is  good.  The  sec- 
ond book  is  incomplete.  It  is  in  the  first  chap- 
ter of  this  second  book  that  the  anecdote  is  told 
of  Nero's  unwillingness  to  sign  a  sentence  of 
execution,  and  his  exclamation,  "  I  would  I 
could  neither  read  nor  wiite."  9.  De  Brevitate 
Vita  ad  Paulinum  Liber,  recommends  the  proper 
employment  of  time  and  the*  getting  of  wisdom 
as  the  chief  purpose  of  life.  10.  De  Vita  Beata 
ad  Gallionem,  addressed  to  his  brother,  L.  Junius 
Gallio,  is  probably  one  of  the  later  works  of 
Seneca,  in  which  he  maintains  the  stoical  doc- 
trine that  there  is  no  happiness  without  virtue  ; 
but  he  does  not  deny  that  other  things,  as  health 
and  riches,  have  their  value.  The  conclusion 
of  the  treatise  is  lost.  II.  De  Olio  aut  Secessu 
Sapientis,  is  sometimes  joined  to  No.  10.  12. 
De  Bencficiis  Libri  teptem,  addressed  to  ^Ebu- 
cius  Liberalis,  is  an  excellent  discussion  of  the 
way  of  conferring  a  favor,  and  of  the  duties  of 
the  giver  and  of  the  receiver.  The  handling  is 
not  very  methodical,  but  it  is  very  complete. 
It  is  a  treatise  which  all  persons  might  read 
with  profit.  13.  Episiola  ad  Lucilium,  one  hund- 
red and  twenty-four  in  number,  are  not  the  cor- 
respondence of  daily  life,  like  that  of  Cicero, 
but  a  collection  of  moral  maxims  and  remarks 
without  any  systematic  order.  They  contain  i 
much  good  matter,  and  have  been  favorite  read- 
ing with  many  distinguished  men.  It  is  pos- 
Bible  that  these  letters,  and,  indeed,  many  of 
Seneca's  moral  treatises,  were  written  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life,  and  probably  after  he  had 
lost  the  favor  of  Nero.  That  Seneca  sought 
consolation  and  tranquillity  of  mind  in  literary 
occupation  is  manifest.  14.  Apocoloct/ntosis,  is 
a  satire  against  the  Emperor  Claudius.  The' 
word  is  a  play  on  the  term  Apotheosis  or  deifi- 
cation, and  is  equivalent  in  meaning  to  Pump- 
kinification,  or  the  reception  of  Claudius  among 
the  pumpkins.  The  subject  was  well  enough, 
but  the  treatment  has  no  great  merit ;  and  Sen- 
eca probably  had  no  other  object  than  to  gratify 
his  spite  against  the  emperor.  15.  Quastwnum  \ 
Naiuralium  Libri  septem,  addressed  to  Lucilius  ; 
5| 


SENECIO. 

Junior,  is  not  a  systematic  work,  but  a  collec 
tion  of  natural  facts  from  various  writers,  Greek 
and  Roman,  many  of  which  are  curious.  The 
first  book  treats  of  meteors,  the  second  of  thun 
der  and  lightning,  the  third  of  water,  the  fourth 
of  hail,  snow,  and  ice,  the  fifth  of  winds,  the 
sixth  of  earthquakes  and  the  sources  of  th« 
Nile,  and  the  seventh  of  comets.  Moral  re 
marks  are  scattered  through  the  work  ;  and,  in- 
deed, the  design  of  the  whole  appears  to  be  to 
find  a  foundation  for  ethic,  the  chief  part  of 
philosophy,  in  the  knowledge  of  nature  (Physic). 
16.  TragadicE,  ten  in  number.  They  are  en- 
titled Hercules  Furens,  Tkyestes,  Thebais  or  P/KE- 
nissa,  Hippolytus  or  Pfusdra,  (Edipus,  Troades 
or  Hecuba,  Medea,  Agamemnon,  Hercules  (Etaus, 
and  Octavia.  The  titles  themselves,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Octavia,  indicate  sufficiently 
what  the  tragedies  are,  Greek  mythological  sub- 
jects treated  in  a  peculiar  fashion.  They  are 
written  in  Iambic  senarii,  interspersed  with 
choral  parts,  in  anapaestic  and  other  metres. 
The  subject  of  the  Octavia  is  Nero's  ill-treat- 
ment of  his  wife,  his  passion  for  Poppaea,  and 
the  exile  of  Octavia.  These  tragedies  are  not 
adapted,  and  certainly  were  never  intended  for 
the  stage.  They  were  designed  for  reading  or 
for  recitation  after  the  Roman  fashion,  and  they 
bear  the  stamp  of  a  rhetorical  age.  They  con- 
tain many  striking  passages,  and  have  some 
merit  as  poems.  Moral  sentiments  and  mSxims 
abound,  and  the  style  and  character  of  Seneca 
are  as  conspicuous  here  as  in  his  prose  works. 
The  judgments  on  Seneca's  writings  have  been 
as  various  as  the  opinions  about  his  character, 
and  both  in  extremes.  It  has  been  said  of  him 
that  he  looks  best  in  quotations  ;  but  this  is  an 
admission  that  there  is  something  worth  quot- 
ing, which  can  not  be  said  of  all  writers.  That 
Seneca  possessed  great  mental  powers  can  not 
be  doubted.  He  had  seen  much  of  human  life, 
and  he  knew  well  what  man  was.  His  philos- 
ophy, so  far  as  he  adopted  a  system,  was  the 
stoical,  "but  it  was  rather  an  eclecticism  of  stoi- 
cism than  pure  stoicism.  His  style  is  antithet- 
ical, and  apparently  labored  ;  and  when  there  is 
much  labor,  there  is  generally  affectation.  Yet 
his  language  is  clear  and  forcible ;  it  is  not 
mere  words:  there  is  thought  always.  It  would 
not  be  easy  to  name  any  modern  writer  who 
has  treated  on  morality,  and  has  said  so  much 
that  is  practically  good  and  true,  or  has  treated 
the  matter  in  so  attractive  a  way.  The  best  edi- 
tions of  Seneca  are  by  J.  F.  Gronovius,  Leiden, 
1649-1658,  4  vols.  12mo  ;  by  Ruhkopf,  Leipzig, 
1797-181 1,  5  vols.  8vo ;  and  the  Bipont  edition, 
Strassburg,  1809,  5  vols.  8vo.  [A  new  edition 
is  in  course  of  publication  by  Fickert,  of  which 
three  volumes  have  appeared,  Leipzig,  1842-5.] 
SENECIO,  HERBNN!US.  1.  Was  a  native  of 
Baetica  in  Spain,  where  he  served  as  quaestor. 
He  was  put  to  death  by  Domitian  on  the  accusa- 
tion of  Metius  Carus,  in  consequence  of  his 
having  written  the  life  of  Helvidius  Priscus, 
which  he  composed  at  the  request  of  Fannia, 
the  wife  of  Helvidius. — [2.  C.  Sosius,  consul 
suflectus  A.D.  98,  and  consul  A.D.  99,  102,  and 
107. — 3.  TULLIUS,  a  friend  of  Nero,  neverthe- 
less took  part  in  Piso's  conspiracy  against  the 
emperor,  and  on  its  detection  was  obliged  to 
put  an  end  to  his  life.] 

801 


SENfA. 

SENIA  (Senensis :  now  Segno,  or  Zcngg),  a 
Roman  colony  in  Liburnia  in  Illyricum,  on  the 
coast,  and  on  the  road  from  Aquileia  to  Siscia. 

SENONES,  a  powerful  people  in  Gallia  Lugdu- 
nensis,  dwelt  along  the  upper  course  of  the  Se- 
(juana  (now  Seine),  and  were  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Parisii,  on  the  west  by  the  Car- 
mites,  on  the  south  by  the  Mdm,  and  on  the 
east  by  the  Lingones  and  Mandubii.  Their 
chief  town  was  Agendicum,  afterward  called 
Senones  (now  Sens).  A  portion  of  this  people 
crossed  the  Alps  about  B.C.  400,  in  order  to 
settle  in  Italy  ;  and  as  the  greater  part  of  Upper 
Italy  was  already  occupied  by  other  Celtic  tribes, 
the  Senones  were  obliged  to  penetrate  a  con- 
siderable distance  to  the  south,  and  took  up 
their  abode  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  between  the 
Rivers  Utis  and  ^Esis  (between  Ravenna  and 
Ancona),  after  expelling  theUmbrians.  In  this 
country  they  founded  the  town  of  Sena.  They 
extended  their  ravages  into  Etruria  ;  and  it  was 
in  consequence  of  the  interference  of  the  Ro- 
mans while  they  were  laying  siege  to  Clusium 
that  they  marched  against  Rome  and  took  the 
city,  B.C.  390.  From  this  time  we  find  them 
engaged  in  constant  hostilities  with  the  Ro- 
mans, till  they  were  at  length  completely  sub- 
dued, and  the  greater  part  of  them  destroyed 
by  the  consul  Dolabella,  283. 

SENTINUM  (Sentinas,  Sentinatis  :  ruins  near 
Sassoferrato),  a  fortified  town  in  Umbria,  not 
far  from  the  River  JCsis. 

[SENTIUS  AUGURINUS,  an  epigrammatic  poet 
in  the  time  of  the  younger  Pliny,  whom  he 
praised  in  his  verses.  One  of  his  poems  in 
praise  of  Pliny  is  preserved  in  a  letter  of  the 
latter.] 

SENTIUS  SATURNINUS.     Vid.  SATURNINUS. 

SEPIAS  (Snnidf :  now  St.  George),  a  promon- 
tory in  the  southeast  of  Thessaly,  in  the  district 
Magnesia,  on  which  a  great  part  of  the  fleet  of 
Xerxes  was  wrecked. 

[SEPINUM  (now  Attilia,  about  ten  miles  from 
Scpino),  a  city  of  the  Samnites,  to  the  south- 
east of  Bovianum :  it  became  a  Roman  colony 
in  the  reign  of  Nero.] 

SEPLASIA,  one  of  the  principal  streets  in  Cap- 
ua, where  perfumes  and  luxuries  of  a  similar 
kind  were  sold. 

SEPPHORIS  (SeTr^upif  :  now  Sefurieh),  a  city 
of  Palestine,  in  the  middle  of  Galilee,  about 
halfway  between  Mount  Carmel  and  the  Lake 
of  Tiberias,  was  an  insignificant  place  until 
Herod  Antipas  fortified  it,  and  made  it  the  cap- 
ital of  Galilee,  under  the  name  of  DIOC^ESAREA. 
It  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  five  Jewish  San- 
hedrim, and  continued  to  flourish  until  the 
fourth  century,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  the 
Caesar  Gallus  on  account  of  a  revolt  of  its  in- 
.  habitants. 

SEPTEM  AQU^E,  a  place  in  the  territory  of  the 
Sabini,  near  Reate. 

SEPTEM  FRATRES  ('ETTTU  adetyoi :  now  Jcbel 
Zatout,  i.  e.,  Apes'  Hill),  a  mountain  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Mauretania  Tingitana,  at  the 
narrowest  part  of  the  Fretum  Gaditanum  (now 
Straits  of  Gibraltar),  connected  by  a  low  tongue 
of  land  with  the  promontory  of  ABYLA,  which  is 
also  included  under  the  modern  name. 

SEPTEM  MARIA,  the  name  given  by  the  an- 
cients to  the  lagoons  formed  at  the  mouth  of 
802 


SERAPION.  ' 

the  Po  by  the  frequent  overflows  of  this  river. 
Persons  usually  sailed  through  these  lagoons 
from  Ravenna  to  Altinum. 

SEPTEMPEDA  (Septempedanus:  now  San  Scv- 
erino),  a  Roman  municipium  in  the  interior  of 
Picenum,  on  the  road  from  Auximum  to  Urba 
Salvia. 

SEPTIMIUS  GETA.      Vid.  GETA. 

SEPTIMIUS  SERENUS.     Vid.  SERKNOS. 

SEPTIMIUS  SEVERUS.      Vid.  SEVERUS. 

SEPTIMIUS  TITIUS,  a  Roman  poet,  whom  Hor- 
ace (i.,  3,  9-14)  represents  as  having  ventured 
to  quaff  a  draught  from  the  Pindaric  spring,  and 
as  having  been  ambitious  to  achieve  distinction 
in  tragedy.  In  this  passage  Horace  speaks  of 
him  under  the  name  of  Titus  ;  and  he  is  prob- 
ably the  same  individual  with  the  Septimius 
who  is  addressed  in  the  sixth  ode  of  the  second 
book,  and  who  is  introduced  in  the  ninth  epistle 
of  the  first  book. 

[SEPTIMIUS,  Q.,  the  translator  of  the  work  on 
the  Trojan  war,  bearing  the  name  of  Dictys 
Cretensis.] 

[SEPYRA,  a  city  of  Cilicia,  at  the  base  of 
Mount  Amanus,  near  Arae  Alexandri,  taken  by 
Cicero  while  proconsul  in  that  province.] 

SEQUANA  (now  Seine),  one  of  the  principal 
rivers  of  Gaul,  rising  in  the  central  parts  of  that 
country,  and  flowing  through  the  province  of 
Gallia  Lugdunensis  into  the  ocean  opposite 
Britain.  It  is  three  hundred  and  forty-six  miles 
in  length.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Ma- 
trona  (now  Marne),  Esia  (now  Oise),  with  its  trib- 
utary the  Axona  (now  Aisne)  and  Incaunns  (now 
Yonne).  This  river  has  a  slow  current,  and 
is  navigable  beyond  Lutetia  Parisiorum  (now 
Paris). 

SEQUANI,  a  powerful  Celtic  people  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  separated  from  the  Helvetii  by  Mons 
Jurassus,  from  the  JEdm  by  the  Arar,  and  from 
the  province  Narbonensis  by  the  Rhone,  inhab- 
iting the  country  called  Fram.he  Comptc  and 
Burgundy.  In  the  later  division  of  the  prov- 
inces of  the  empire,  the  country  of  the  Sequani 
formed  a  special  province  under  the  name  oT 
Maxima  Sequanorum.  They  derived  their  name 
from  the  River  Sequana,  which  had  its  source 
in  the  northwestern  frontiers  of  their  territory; 
but  their  country  was  chiefly  watered  by  the 
rivers  Arar  and  Dubis.  Their  chief  town  was 
Vesontio  (now  Bcsan^on).  They  were  govern- 
ed by  kings  of  their  own,  and  were  constantly 
at  war  with  the  ^Edui. 

SEQUESTER,  VIBIUS,  the  name  attached  to  a 
glossary  which  professes  to  give  an  account  of 
the  geographical  names  contained  in  the  Roman 
poets.  The  tract  is  divided  into  seven  sections : 
1.  Flumina.  2.  Fontes.  3.  Lacus.  4.  Nemora. 
5.  Paludes.  6.  Mantes.  7.  Gcntcs.  To  which, 
in  some  MSS.,  an  eighth  is  added,  containing  a 
list  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  Con- 
cerning the  author  personally  we  know  nothing ; 
and  he  probably  lived  not  earlier  than  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fifth  century.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Oberlinus,  Argent.,  1778. 

SERA.      Vid.  SERICA. 

SERAPIO,  a  surname  of  P.  Cornelius  Scipio 
Nasica,  consul  B.C.  138.  Vid.  SCIPIO,  No.  J8. 

SERAPION  (Zepaniuv),  a  physician  of  Alexan- 
j  drea,  who  lived  in  the  third  century  B.C.  He 
j  belonged  to  the  sect  of  the  Empirici,  and  s't 


SERAPIS. 

much  extended  and  improved  the  system  of 
Philinus,  that  the  invention  of  it  is  by  some  au- 
thors attributed  to  him.  Serapion  wrote  against 
Hippocrates  with  much  vehemence ;  but  neither 
this,  nor  any  of  his  other  works,  is  now  extant. 
He  is  several  times  mentioned  and  quoted  by 
Celsus,  Galen,  and  others. 

SERAPIS  or  SARAPIS  (Saparrtf),  an  Egyptian 
divinity,  whose  worship  was   introduced   into 
Greece  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies.     His  wor- 
ship was  introduced  into  Rome  together  with  j 
thatoflsis.     For  details,  vid.  Isis. 

[SERBONIS  LACUS.      Vid.  SIRBONIS  LACUS.] 

SERUICA  or  SARRICA,  an  important  town  in 
Upper  Moesia,  and  the  capital  of  Dacia  Interior,  j 
situated  in  a  fertile  plain  near  the  sources  of  | 
the  GEscus,  and  on  the  road  from  Naissus  to  ! 
Philippopolis.     It  was  the  birth-place  of  the  ! 
Emperor  Maximianus  ;  it  was  destroyed  by  At- 
tila,  but  was  soon  afterward  rebuilt ;  and  it  bore 
in  the  Middle  Ages  the  name  of  Triaditza.     Its  i 
extensive  ruins  are  to  be  seen  south  of  Sophia. 
Serdica  derived  its  name  from  the  Thracian 
people  SERDI. 

SERENA,  niece  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  fos- 
ter-mother of  the  Emperor  Honorius,  and  wife 
of  Stilicho. 

SERENUS,  ANN^EOS,  one  of  the  most  intimate 
friends  of  the  philosopher  Seneca,  who  dedi- 
cated to  him  his  work  DC  Tranquillitate  and  De 
Constantia.  He  was  praefectus  vigilum  under 
Nero,  and  died  in  consequence  of  eating  a  pois- 
onous kind  of  fungus. 

SERENUS,  Q.  SAMMONICUS,  (or  Samonicus),  en- 
joyed a  high  reputation  at  Rome,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  third  century  after  Christ,  as  a  man 
of  taste  and  varied  knowledge.  As  the  friend 
of  Geta,  by  whom  his  compositions  were  studied 
with  great  pleasure,  he  was  murdered  while  at 
supper,  by  command  of  Caracalla,  A.D.  212, 
leaving  behind  him  many  learned  works.  His 
son,  who  bore  the  same  name,  was  the  precep- 
tor of  the  younger  Gordian,  and  bequeathed  to 
his  pupil  the  magnificent  library  which  he  had 
inherited  from  his  father.  A  medical  poem,  ex- 
tending to  one  hundred  and  fifteen  hexameter 
lines,  has  descended  to  us  under  the  title  Q. 
Sercni  Sammonici  de  Medicina  precccpla  saluber- 
rima,  or  Prcccepta  de  Medicina  parvo  prclio  para- 
bili,  which  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  elder  Sam- 
monicus.  It  contains  a  considerable  amount  of 
information,  extracted  from  the  best  authorities, 
on  natural  history  and  the  healing  art,  mixed  up 
with  a  number  of  puerile  superstitions,  the 
whole  expressed  in  plain  and  almost  prosaic 
language.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Burmann, 
in  his  Poetee  Latini  Minaret  (4to,  Leid.,  1731, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  187-388). 

SERENUS,  A.  SEPTIMIUS,  a  Roman  lyric  poet, 
who  exercised  his  muse  chiefly  in  depicting  the 
charms  of  the  country  and  the  delight  of  rural 
pursuits.  His  works  are  lost,  but  arc  frequent- 
ly quoted  by  the  grammarians. 

SERES.     Vid.  SERICA. 

[SERGESTUS,  a  Trojan  warrior,  who  accom- 
panied ^Eneas  to  Italy  after  the  destruction  of 
Troy,  and  from  whom  the  Sergia  gens  were 
fabled  to  have  derived  their  name  and  lineage,  j 
[SERGIA,  sister  of  Catiline,  was  married  to 
Q.  Ceecilius,  a  Roman  eques.  who  was  slain  by 
his  brother-in-law  during  the  proscription  of 


SERIPHUS. 

Sulla.     Sergia,  like  her  brother,  bore  a  bad  char 
acter.] 

SERGIA  GENS,  patrician.  The  Sergii  traced 
their  descent  from  the  Trojan  Sergestus  (Virg., 
JEn.,  v.,  121).  The  Sergii  were  distinguished 
in  the  early  history  of  the  republic,  and  the  first 
member  of  the  gens  who  obtained  the  consul- 
ship was  L.  Sergius  Fidenas,  in  B.C.  437.  Cat- 
iline belonged  to  this  gens.  Vid.  CATILINA. 
The  Sergii  bore  also  the  surnames  of  Esquili- 
nus,  Fidcna.1,  Orula,  Patdus,  Plancus,  and  Silas  ; 
but  none  of  them  are  of  sufficient  importance 
to  require  a  separate  notice. 

SERGIUS,  a  grammarian  of  uncertain  date,  but 
later  than  the  fourth  century  after  Christ,  the 
author  of  two  tracts ;  the  first  entitled  In  pri- 
mam  Donati  Editionem  Commcntarium  ;  the  sec- 
ond, In  sccundam  Donati  Editionem  Commenta- 
ria.  They  are  printed  in  the  Grammatical  Lati- 
n<z  auctores  antiqui  of  Putschitis  (Hannov.,  1605. 
p.  1816-1838). 

SERICA  (17  ZrjptKTJ,  "Zijptf ;  Seres,  also  rarely  in 
the  sing.  2//p,  Ser),  a  country  in  the  extreme 
east  of  Asia,  famous  as  the  native  region  of  the 
silk-worm,  which  wasalsocalled  aiip;  and  hence 
the  adjective  "  sericus"  for  silken.  The  name 
was  known  to  the  western  nations  at  a  very  early 
period,  through  the  use  of  silk,  first  in  Western 
Asia,  and  afterward  in  Greece.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that,  until  some  time  after  the  com- 
mencement of  our  era,  the  name  had  no  distinct 
geographical  signification.  Serica  and  Seres 
were  simply  the  unknown  country  and  people 
in  the  far  East,  from  whom  the  article  of  com- 
merce, silk,  was  obtained.  At  a  later  period, 
some  knowledge  of  the  country  was  obtained 
from  the  traders,  the  results  of  which  are  re- 
corded by  Ptolemy,  who  names  several  posi- 
tions that  can  be  identified  with  reasonable 
probability,  but  the  detailed  mention  of  which 
does  not  fall  within  the  object  of  this  work. 
The  Serica  of  Ptolemy  corresponds  to  the  north- 
western part  of  China,  and  the  adjacent  por- 
tions of  Thibet  and  Chinese  Tartary.  The  cap- 
ital, SERA,  is  supposed  by  most  to  be  Singan,  on 
the  Hoang-ho,  but  by  some  Peking.  The  coun- 
try was  bounded,  according  to  Ptolemy,  on  the 
north  by  unknown  regions,  on  the  west  by 
Scythia,  on  the  south  and  southeast  by  India 
and  the  Sinae.  The  people  were  said  by  some 
to  be  of  Indian,  by  others  of  Scythian  origin, 
and  by  others  to  be  a  mixed  race.  The  Great 
Wall  of  China  is  mentioned  by  Ammianus  Mar 
cellinus  under  the  name  of  Aggeres  Serium. 

SERIPHUS  (Ztptjof  :  ZepiQtof  :  now  Scrpho), 
an  island  in  the  .tgean  Sea,  and  one  of  the  Cyc- 
lades,  lying  between  Cythnus  and  Siphnus.  It 
was  a  small  rocky  island  about  twelve  miles  in 
circumference.  It  is  celebrated  in  mythology  as 
the  island  where  Danae  and  Perseus  landed 
after  they  had  been  exposed  by  Achsius,  where 
Perseus  was  brought  up,  and  where  he  after- 
ward turned  the  inhabitants  into  stone  with 
the  Gorgon's  head.  Seriphus  was  colonized  by 
lonians  from  Athens,  and  it  was  one  of  the 
few  islands  which  refused  submission  to  Xerx- 
es. At  a  later  time  the  inhabitants  of  Seri- 
phus were  noted  for  their  poverty  and  wretch 
edness ;  and  for  this  reason  the  island  was 
employed  by  the  Roman  emporors  as  a  place 
of  banishment  <br  state  criminals.  The  an- 

803 


SERMYLA. 

cient  writers  relate  that  the  frogs  in  Seriphos 
were  mute. 

SERMYLA  (Sepftvl.ri :  Sep^tJXtof),  a  town  in 
Macedonia,  on  the  isthmus  of  the  peninsula  Si- 
llionia. 

SERRANUS,  ATILIUS.  Serranus  was  originally 
an  agnomen  of  C.  Alilius  Regulus,  consul  B.C. 
257,  hut  afterward  hecame  the  name  of  a  dis- 
tinct family  of  the  Atilia  gens.  Most  of  the  an- 
cient writers  derive  the  name  from  serere,  and 
relate  that  Regulus  received  the  surname  of 
Serranus,  because  he  was  engaged  in  sowing 
when  the  news  was  brought  him  of  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  consulship  (Virg.,  JEn.,  vi.,  845).  It 
appears,  however,  from  coins,  that  Saranus  is 
the  proper  form  of  the  name,  and  some  modern 
writers  think  that  it  is  derived  from  Saranum, 
a  town  of  Umbria.— 1.  C.,  praetor  B.C.  218,  the 
first  year  of  the  second  Punic  war,  and  was  sent 
into  Northern  Italy.  At  a  later  period  of  the 
year  he  resigned  his  command  to  the  consul  P. 
Scipio.  He  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
the  consulship  for  216. — 2.  C.,  curule  aedile  193, 
with  L.  Scribonius  Libo.  They  were  the  first 
sediles  who  exhibited  the  Megalesia  as  ludi  sce- 
nici.  He  was  praetor  185. — 3.  A.,  praetor  192, 
when  he  obtained,  as  his  province,  Macedonia 
and  the  command  of  the  fleet.  He  was  praetor 
a  second  time  in  173.  He  was  consul  in  170. 
— 4.  M.,  praetor  174,  when  he  obtained  the  prov- 
ince of  Sardinia. — 5.  M.,  praetor  152,  in  Further 
Spain,  defeated  the  Lusitani. — 6.  SEX.,  consul 
136.— 7.  C.,  consul  106  with  Q.  Servilius  Cae- 
pio,  the  year  in  which  Cicero  and  Pompey  were 
born.  Although  a  "  stultissimus  homo"  ac- 
cording to  Cicero,  he  was  elected  in  preference 
to  Q.  Catulus.  He  was  one  of  the  senators  who 
took  up  arms  against  Saturninus  in  100. — 8. 
SEX.,  surnamed  GAVIANUB,  because  he  original- 
ly belonged  to  the  Gavia  gens.  He  was  quaes- 
tor in  63  in  the  consulship  of  Cicero,  who  treat- 
ed him  with  distinguished  favor ;  but  in  his 
tribunate  of  the  plebs,  57,  he  took  an  active  part 
n  opposing  Cicero's  recall  from  banishment. 
After  Cicero's  return  to  Rome  he  put  his  veto 
upon  the  decree  of  the  senate  restoring  to  Ci- 
cero the  site  on  which  his  house  had  stood,  but 
he  found  it  advisable  to  withdraw  his  opposition. 

SERRHIUM  (Zepfaiov),  a  promontory  of  Thrace 
in  the.-Egean  Sea,  opposite  the  island  of  Samo- 
thrace,  with  a  fortress  of  the  same  name  upon  it. 

SERTORIUS,  Q.,  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
men  in  the  later  times  of  the  republic,  was  a 
native  of  Nursia,  a  Sabine  village,  and  was  born 
of  obscure  but  respectable  parents.     He  served 
under  Marius  in  the  war  against  the  Teutones  ; 
and  before  the  battle  of  Aquae  Sextiae  (now  Aix), 
B.C.  102,  he  entered  the  camp  of  the  Teutones 
in  disguise  as  a  spy,  for  which  hazardous  un- 
dertaking his  intrepid  character  and  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  Gallic  language  well  qualified  him. 
He  also  served  as  tribunus  militum  in  Spain  j 
under  T.  Didius  (97).     He  was  quaestor  in  91,  [ 
and  had  before  this  time  lost  an  eye  in  battle,  i 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  88,  he  de-  ! 
clared  himself  against  the  party  of  the  nobles,  | 
though  he  was  by  no  means  an  admirer  of  his 
old  commander,  C.  Marius,  whose  character  he 
well  understood.     He  commanded  one  of  the  i 
four  armies  which  besieged  Rome  under  Marius 
and  Cinna.     He  was,  however,  opposed  to  ihe 
804 


SERVILIA. 

bloody  massacre  which  ensued  after  Marius 
and  Cinna  entered  Rome  ;  and  he  was  so  in- 
dignant at  the  horrible  deeds  committed  by  the 
slaves  whom  Marius  kept  as  guards,  that  he  fell 
upon  them  in  their  camp,  and  speared  four  thou- 
sand of  them.  In  83  Sertorius  was  praetor,  and 
either  in  this  year  or  the  following  he  went  into 
Spain,  which  had  been  assigned  to  him  as  his 
province  by  the  Marian  party.  After  collecting 
a  small  body  of  troops  in  Spain,  he  crossed  over 
to  Mauretania,  where  he  gained  a  victory  over 
Paccianus,  one  of  Sulla's  generals.  In  conse- 
quence of  his  success  in  Africa,  he  was  invited 
by  the  Lusitani,  who  were  exposed  to  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Romans,  to  become  their  leader.  He 
gained  great  influence  over  the  Lusitanians  and 
the  other  barbarians  in  Spain,  and  soon  succeed- 
ed in  forming  an  army  which  for  some  years 
successfully  opposed  all  the  power  of  Rome. 
He  also  availed  himself  of  the  superstitious 
character  of  the  people  among  whom  he  was 
to  strengthen  his  authority  over  them.  A  fawn 
was  brought  to  him  by  one  of  the  natives  as  a 
present,  which  soon  became  so  tame  as  to  ac- 
company him  in  his  walks,  and  attend  him  on 
all  occasions.  After  Sulla  had  become  master 
of  Italy,  Sertorius  was  joined  by  many  Romans 
who  had  been  proscribed  by  the  dictator ;  and 
this  not  only  added  to  his  consideration,  hut 
brought  him  many  good  officers.  In  79  Metel- 
lus  Pius  was  sent  into  Spain  with  a  considera- 
ble force  against  Sertorius  ;  but  Metellus  could 
effect  nothing  against  the  enemy.  He  was  un- 
able to  bring  Sertorius  to  any  decisive  battle, 
but  was  constantly  harassed  by  the  guerilla  war- 
fare of  the  latter.  In  77  Sertorius  was  joined 
by  M.  Perperna  with  fifty-three  cohorts.  Vid. 
PERPERNA.  To  give  some  show  of  form  to  his 
formidable  power,  Sertorius  established  a  sen- 
ate of  three  hundred,  into  which  no  provincial 
was  admitted  ;  but,  to  soothe  the  more  distin- 
guished Spaniards,  and  to  have  some  security 
for  their  fidelity,  he  established  a  school  at  Hu- 
esca  (now  Osca),  in  Aragon,  for  the  education 
of  their  children  in  Greek  and  Roman  learning 
The  continued  want  of  success  on  the  part  of 
Metellus  induced  the  Romans  to  send  Pompe) 
to  his  assistance,  but  with  an  independent  com 
mand.  Pompey  arrived  in  Spain  in  76  with 
thirty  thousand  infantry  and  one  thousand  cav- 
alry, but  even  with  this  formidable  force  he  was 
unable  to  gain  any  decisive  advantages  over 
Sertorius.  For  the  next  five  years  Sertorius 
kept  both  Metellus  and  Pompey  at  bay,  and  cut 
to  pieces  a  large  number  of  their  forces.  Ser- 
torius was  at  length  assassinated  in  72  at  a 
banquet  by  Perperna  and  some  other  Roman 
officers,  who  had  long  been  jealous  of  the  au- 
thority of  their  commander. 

SERVILIA.  1.  Daughter  of  Q.  Servilius  Cae- 
pio  and  the  daughter  of  Livia,  the  sister  of  the 
celebrated  M.  Livius  Drusus,  tribune  of  the 
plebs  B.C.  91.  Servilia  was  married  twice; 
first  to  M.  Junius  Brutus,  by  whom  she  became 
the  mother  of  the  murderer  of  Caesar,  and  sec- 
ondly to  D.  Junius  Silanus,  consul  62.  She  was 
the  favorite  mistress  of  the  dictator  Caesar  ;  and 
it  is  reported  that  Brutus  was  her  son  by  Caesar. 
This  tale,  however,  can  not  be  true,  as  Caesai 
was  only  fifteen  years  older  than  Brutus,  the 
former  having  been  born  in  100,  and  the  lattei 


SERVILIA  GENS. 

in  85.     She  survived  both  her  lover  and  her 
son.     After  the  battle  of  Philippi,  Antony  sent  ' 
her  the  ashes  of  her  son. — 2.  Sister  of  the  pre-  : 
ceding,  was   the   second  wife  of  L.  Lucullus,  i 
consul  74.     She  bore  Lucullus  a  son,  but,  like 
her  sister,  she  was  faithless  to  her  husband;  . 
and  the  latter,  after  putting  up  with  her  conduct 
for  some  time  from  regard  to  M.  Cato  Uticen- 
sis,  her  half-brother,  at  length  divorced  her. 

SERVILIA  GENS,  was  one  of  the  Alban  houses  • 
removed  to  Rome  by  Tullus  Hostilius.     This 
gens  was  very  celebrated  during  the  early  ages 
of  the  republic,  and  it  continued  to  produce  men  ; 
of  influence  in  the  state  down  to  the  imperial  j 
period.     It  was  divided  into  numerous  families,  i 
of  which  the  most  important  bore  the  names  of 
AHALA,  C/EPIO,  CASCA,  GLAUCIA,  RUI.LUS,  VATIA. 

SEKVICS  MAURDS  HONORATUS,  or  SERVIUS  MA- 
RIUS  HONORATUS,  a  celebrated  Latin  gramma- 
rian, contemporary  with  Macrobius,  who  intro- 
duces him  among  the  dramatis  personae  of  the 
Saturnalia.  His  most  celebrated  production 
was  an  elaborate  commentary  upon  Virgil. 
This  is,  nominally  at  least,  still  extant ;  but, 
from  the  widely  different  forms  which  it  as-  j 
sumes  in  different  MSS.,  it  is  clear  that  it  must  I 
have  been  changed  and  interpolated  to  such  an  j 
extent  by  the  transcribers  of  the  Middle  Ages  ] 
that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  how  much 
belongs  to  Servius  and  how  much  to  later  hands. 
Even  in  its  present  condition,  however,  it  is 
deservedly  regarded  as  the  most  important  and 
valuable  of  all  the  Latin  Scholia.  It  is  attach- 
ed to  many  of  the  earlier  editions  of  Virgil,  but 
it  will  he  found  under  its  best  form  in  the  edi- 
tion of  Virgil  by  Burmann.  [A  separate  edition 
was  published  by  Lion,  GSttingen,  1825,  2  vols. 
8vo.]  We  possess  also  the  following  treatises 
bearing  the  name  of  Servius  :  1.  In  secundam 
Donati  Editionem  Intcrpretatio.  2.  De  Ratione 
ultimarum  Syllabarum  ad  Aquilinum  Liber.  3. 
Ars  dc  centum  Metris  s.  Cenlimetrum. 

SERVIUS  TULLIUS.     Vid.  TULLIUS. 

SESAMUS  (Sjyaa/fdf),  a  little  coast  river  of 
Paphlagonia,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name : 
both  called  afterward  AMASTRIS. 

SESOSTRIS  (Zeyuarpif ),  the  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  great  King  of  Egypt,  who  is  call- 
ed in  Manetho  and  on  the  monuments  Ramses 
or  Harnesses.  Ramses  is  a  name  common  to 
several  kings  of  the  eighteenth,  nineteenth,  and 
twentieth  dynasties ;  but  Scsostris  must  be  iden-  j 
lifted  with  Ramses,  the  third  king  of  the  nine- 
teenth  dynasty,  the  son  of  Seti,  and  th<>  father 
of  Menephthah.  Sesostris  was  a  great  con- 
queror. He  is  said  to  have  subdued  /Ethiopia, 
the  greater  part  of  Asia,  and  the  Thracians  in 
Europe  ;  and  in  all  the  countries  which  he  con- 
quered he  erected  slel<t,  on  which  he  inscribed 
nis  own  name.  He  returned  to  Egypt  after  an 
absence  of  nine  years,  and  the  countless  cap- 
tives whom  he  brought  back  with  him  were 
employed  in  the  erection  of  numerous  public 
works.  Memorials  of  Ramses-Sesostris  still 
exist  throughout  the  whole  of  Eeypc,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile  to  the  south  of  Nubia  In  the 
remains  of  his  palace-temple  at  Thebes  we  see 
his  victories  and  conquests  represented  on  the 
walls,  and  we  can  still  trace  there  some  of  the 
nations  of  Africa  and  Asia  whom  he  subdued. 
The  name  of  Sesostris  is  not  found  on  rnonu- 


SETTA. 

ments,  and  it  was  probably  a  popular  surname 
given  to  the  great  hero  of  the  nineteenth  dy- 
nasty, and  borrowed  from  Sesostris,  one  of  the 
renowned  kings  of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  01  per- 
haps from  Sesorthus,  a  king  of  the  third  dy- 
nasty. 

[SESSITES  (now  Sessia  or  Scsia),  a  small  river 
of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  flowing  past  Vercellae,  and 
emptying  into  the  Padus  (now  Po).] 

SESTIAN^  AR^E  (now  Cape  Villano),  the  most 
westerly  promontory  on  the  northern  coast  of 
HispaniaTarraconensis  in  Gallaecia,  with  three 
altars  consecrated  to  Augustus. 

SESTINUM  (Sestinas,  -atis  :  now  Sestino),  a 
town  in  Umbria,  on  the  Apennines,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Pisaurus. 

SESTIUS.     Vid.  SEXTIUS. 

SESTUS  (2»?<Tr6f :  S>y<mof:  now  lalova),  a  town 
in  Thrace,  situated  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the 
Hellespont,  opposite  Abydos  in  Asia,  from  which 
it  was  only  seven  stadia  distant.  It  was  found- 
ed by  the  ^Eolians.  It  was  celebrated  in  Gre- 
cian poetry  on  account  of  the  loves  of  Leander 
and  Hero  (vid.  LEANDER),  and  in  history  on  ac- 
count of  the  bridge  of  boats  which  Xerxes  here 
built  across  the  Hellespont.  Sestus  was  always 
reckoned  a  place  of  importance  in  consequence 
of  its  commanding,  to  a  great  extent,  the  passage 
of  the  Hellespont.  It  was  for  some  time  in  the 
possession  of  the  Persians,  but  was  retaken 
by  the  Greeks,  B.C.  478,  after  a  long  siege.  It 
subsequently  formed  part  of  the  Athenian  em- 
pire. 

[SESCVII,  a  people  of  Gallia  Celtica,  inhabit- 
ing part  of  the  department  de  I'Orne  and  of  that 
of  Calvados:  Seez,  in  the  former  of  these,  recalls 
the  ancient  name.] 

SETABIS.      Vid.  S^ETABIS. 

SETHON  (Se0wv),  a  priest  of  Vulcan  (Hephaes- 
tus), made  himself  master  of  Egypt  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Sabacon,  king  of  the  ^Ethiopians,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  Dodecarchia,  or  govern- 
ment of  the  twelve  chiefs,  which  ended  in  the 
sole  sovereignty  of  Psammitichus.  Herodotus 
relates  (ii.,  141)  that  in  Sethon's  reign,  Sana- 
charibus,  king  of  the  Arabians  and  Assyrians, 
advanced  against  Egypt,  at  which  Sethon  was 
in  great  alarm,  as  he  had  insulted  the  warrior 
class,  and  deprived  them  of  their  lands,  and 
they  now  refused  to  follow  him  to  the  war.  But 
the  god  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  came  to  his  assist- 
ance ;  for  while  the  two  armies  were  encamped 
near  Pelusium,  the  field-mice  in  the  night  gnaw- 
ed to  pieces  the  bow-strings,  the  quivers,  and  the 
shield-handles  of  the  Assyrians,  who  fled  on  the 
following  day  with  great  loss.  The  recollection 
of  this  miracle  was  perpetuated  by  a  statue  of 
the  king  in  the  temple  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus), 
holding  a  mouse  in  his  hand,  and  saying,  "  Let 
every  man  look  at  me  and  be  pious."  This  San- 
acharibus  is  the  Sennacherib  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrians  at  Pelu- 
sium is  evidently  only  another  version  of  the 
miraculous  destruction  of  the  Assyrians  by  the 
angel  of  the  Lord,  when  they  had  advanced 
against  Jerusalem  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah. 
According  to  the  Jewish  records,  this  event 
happened  in  B.C.  711. 

SETIA  (Setinus:  now  Sezza.  or  Sesse),  an  an- 
cient town  of  Latium,  in  the  east  of  the  Pontine 
Marshes,  originally  belonged  to  the  Volscian 

805 


SETIUM  PROMONTORIUM. 

confederacy,  but  was  subsequently  taken  by  the  ' 
Romans  and  colonized.     It  was  here  that  the 
Romans  kept  the  Carthaginian  hostages.      It  j 
was  celebrated  for  the  excellent  wine  grown  in  j 
the  neighborhood  of  the  town,  which  was  reck- 
oned in  the  time  of  Augustus  the  finest  wine  in 
Italy. 

[SETIUM  PROMONTORIUM  (now  Cape  Ccttc),  a 
promontory  on  the  south  coast  of  Gallia,  north- 
east of  Agatha  (now  Agde),  and  near  the  island 
Blascon  (now  Brcscon).] 

SEVERUS,  M.  AURELIUS  ALEXANDER,  usually  , 
called  ALEXANDER  SEVERUS,  Roman  emperor  j 
A.D.  222-235,  the  son  of  Gessius  Marcianus  and 
Julia  Mamaea,  and  first  cousin  of  Elagahalus,  ! 
was  born  at  Arce,  in  Phoenicia,  in  the  temple  of  | 
Alexander  the  Great,  to  which  his  parents  had  j 
repaired  for  the  celebration  of  a  festival,  the  1st  j 
of  October,  A.D.  205.  His  original  name  ap-  j 
pears  to  have  been  Alexianus  Bassianus,  the  j 
latter  appellation  having  been  derived  from  his  i 
maternal  grandfather.  Upon  the  elevation  olf 
Elagabalus,  he  accompanied  his  mother  and  the 
court  to  Rome,  a  report  having  been  spread 
abroad  that  he  also,  as  well  as  the  emperor, 
was  the  son  of  Caracalla.  In  221  he  was  adopt- 
ed by  Elagabalus  and  created  Caesar.  The 
names  Alexianus  and  Bassianus  were  laid  aside, 
and  those  of  M.  Aurclius  Alexander  substituted  ; 
M.  Aurclius  in  virtue  of  his  adoption  ;  Alexan- 
der in  consequence,  as  was  asserted,  of  a  direct 
revelation  on  the  part  of  the  Syrian  god.  On 
the  death  of  Elagabalus,  on  the  llth  of  March, 
A.D.  222,  Alexander  ascended  the  throne,  add- 
ing Severus  to  his  other  designations,  in  order 
to  mark  more  explicitly  the  descent  which  he 
claimed  from  the  father  of  Caracalla.  After 
reigning  in 'peace  some  years,  during  which  he 
reformed  many  abuses  in  the  state,  he  was  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Per- 
sia, who  had  lately  founded  the  new  empire  of 
the  Sassanidse  on  the  ruins  of  the  Parthian  mon- 
archy. Alexander  gained  a  great  victory  over 
Artaxerxes  in  232 ;  but  he  was  unable  to  pros- 
ecute his  advantage  in  consequence  of  intelli- 
gence having  reached  him  of  a  great  movement 
among  the  German  tribes.  He  celebrated  a  tri- 
umph at  Rome  in  233,  and  in  the  following  year 
(234)  set  out  for  Gaul,  which  the  Germans  were 
devastating  ;  but,  before  he  had  made  any  prog- 
ress in  the  campaign,  he  was  waylaid  by  a  small 
band  of  mutinous  soldiers,  instigated,  it  is  said, 
by  Maximinus,  and  slain,  along  with  his  moth- 
er, in  the  early  part  of  235,  in  the  thirtieth  year 
of  his  age  and  the  fourteenth  of  his  reign.  Al- 
exander Severus  was  distinguished  by  justice, 
wisdom,  and  clemency  in  all  public  transactions, 
and  by  the  simplicity  and  purity  of  his  private 
life. 

SEVERUS,  A.  C^ECINA.     Vid.  C^ECINA. 

SEVERUS,  CASSIUS,  a  celebrated  orator  and 
satirical  writer  in  the  time  of  Augustus  and  Ti- 
berius, was  born  about  B.C.  50,  at  Longula,  in 
Latium.  He  was  a  man  of  low  origin  and  dis- 
solute character,  but  was  much  feared  by  the 
severity  of  his  attacks  upon  the  Roman  nobles. 
He  must  have  commenced  his  career  as  a  pub- 
lic slanderer  very  early,  if  he  is  the  person 
against  whom  the  sixth  epode  of  Horace  is  di- 
rected, as  is  supposed  by  many  ancient  and  mod- 
ern commentators.  Toward  the  latter  end  of 
806 


SEVERUS,  SEPTIMIUS. 

the  reign  of  Augustus,  Severus  was  banished 
by  Augustus  to  tlie  island  of  Crete  on  account 
of  his  libellous  verses  ;  but  as  he  still  continued 
to  write  libels,  he  was  removed  by  Tiberius,  in 
in  A.D.  24,  to  the  desolate  island  of  Seriphos, 
where  he  died  in  great  poverty  in  the  twenty- 
fifth  year  of  his  exile,  A.D.  33. 

SEVERUS,  CORNELIUS,  the  author  of  a  poem 
entitled  Bcllum  Siculum,  was  contemporary  with 
Ovid,  by  whom  he  is  addressed  in  one  of  the 
Epistles  written  from  Pontus. 

SEVERUS,  FLAVIUS  VALERIUS,  Roman  emper- 
or A.D.  306-307.'  He  was  proclaimed  Caesar 
by  Galerius  in  305 ;  and  on  the  death  of  Con- 
stantius  Chlorus  in  the  following  year,  he  was 
further  proclaimed  Augustus  by  Galerius.  Soon 
afterward  he  was  sent  against  Maxentius,  who 
had  assumed  the  imperial  title  at  Rome.  The 
expedition,  however,  was  unsuccessful ;  and 
Severus,  having  surrendered  at  Ravenna,  was 
taken  prisoner  to  Rome  and  compelled  to  put 
an  end  to  his  life. 

SEVERUS,  LIBIUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D.  461- 
465,  was  a  Lucanian  by  birth,  and  owed  his  ac- 
cession to  Ricimer,  who  placed  him  on  the 
throne  after  the  assassination  of  Majorian. 
During  his  reign  the  real  government  was  in 
the  hands  of  Ricimer.  Severus  died  a  natural 
death. 

SEVERUS,  SEPTIMIUS  L.,  Roman  emperor  A.D. 
193-211,  was  born  146,  near  Leptis  in  Africa. 
After  holding  various  important  military  com- 
mands under  M.  Aurelius  and  Commodus,  he 
was  at  length  appointed  commander-in-chiefof 
the  army  in  Pannonia  and  Illyria.  By  this  army 
he  was  proclaimed  emperor  after  the  death  of 
Pertinax  (193).  He  forthwith  marched  upon 
Rome,  where  Julianus  had  been  made  emperor 
by  the  praetorian  troops.  Julianus  was  put  to 
death  upon  his  arrival  before  the  city.  Vid.  JU- 
LIANUS. Severus  then  turned  his  arms  against 
Pescennius  Niger,  who  had  been  saluted  em- 
peror by  the  eastern  legions.  The  struggle  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  a  decisive  battle  near  Is- 
sus,  in  which  Niger  was  defeated  by  Severus, 
and,  having  been  shortly  afterward  taken  pris- 
oner, was  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  latter 
(194).  Severus  then  laid  siege  to  Byzantium, 
which  refused  to  submit  to  him  even  after  the 
death  of  Niger,  and  which  was  not  taken  till 
196.  The  city  was  treated  with  great  severity 
by  Severus.  Its  walls  were  levelled  with  the 
earth,  its  soldiers  and  magistrates  put  to  death, 
and  the  town  itself,  deprived  of  all  its  political 
privileges,  made  over  to  the  Perinthians.  Dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  this  siege,  Severns  had 
crossed  the  Euphrates  (195)  and  subdued  the 
Mesopotamian  Arabians.  He  returned  to  Italy 
in  196,  and  in  the  same  year  proceeded  to  Gaul 
to  oppose  Albinus,  who  had  been  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  troops  in  that  country.  Albinus 
was  defeated  and  slain  in  a  terrible  battle  fought 
near  Lyons  on  the  19th  of  February,  197.  Se- 
verus returned  to  Rome  in  the  same  year  ;  but 
after  remaining  a  short  time  in  the  capital,  he 
set  out  for  the°East  in  order  to  repel  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Parthians,  who  were  ravaging  Mes- 
opotamia. He  crossed  the  Euphrates  early  in 
198,  and  commenced  a  series  of  operations  which 
i  were  attended  with  brilliant  results.  Seleucia 
and  Babylon  were  evacuated  by  the  enemy,  and 


SEVERUS,  SULPICIUS. 

Ctesiphon  was  taken  and  plundered  after  a  short 
siege.  After  spending  three  years  in  the  East, 
and  visiting  Arabia,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,  Se- 
verus  returned  to  Rome  in  202.  For  the  next 
seven  years  he  remained  tranquilly  at  Rome, 
but  in  203  he  went  to  Britain  with  his  sons 
Caracalla  and  Geta.  Here  he  carried  on  \»^r 
against  the  Caledonians,  and  erected  the  cele- 
hrated  wall,  which  bore  his  name,  from  the  Sol- 
way  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne.  After  remain- 
ing two  years  in  Britain,  he  died  at  Ehoracum 
(York)  on  the  4th  of  February,  211,  in  the  six- 
ty-fifth year  of  his  age  and  the  eighteenth  of 
his  reign. 

SEVERUS,  SULPICIUS,  chiefly  celebrated  as  an 
ecclesiastical  historian,  was  a  native  of  Aquita- 
nia,  and  flourished  toward  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century  under  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  He  was 
descended  from  a  noble  family,  and  was  orig- 
inally an  advocate  ;  but  he  eventually  became 
a  presbyter  of  the  church,  and  attached  himself 
closely  to  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  The  extant 
works  of  Severus  are,  1.  Historia  Sacra,  an  epit- 
ome of  sacred  history,  extending  from  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world  to  the  consulship  of  Stilicho 
and  Aurelianus,  A.D.  400.  2.  Vila  S.  Martini 
Turoncnsis.  3.  Tres  Epistoltr..  4.  Dialogi  duo, 
containing  a  review  of  the  dissensions  which 
had  arisen  among  ecclesiastics  in  the  East  re- 
garding the  works  of  Origen.  5.  Epistola  Sex. 
The  best  edition  of  the  complete  works  of  Se- 
verus is  by  Hieronymus  de  Prato,  4to,  2  vols., 
Veron.,  1741-1754. 

[SEVERUS,  the  architect,  with  Celer,  of  Ne- 
ro's golden  house.] 

[SEVERUS  MONS,  a  rocky  eminence  in  the  land 
of  the  Sabini,  on  the  borders  of  Picenum,  prob- 
ably belonged  to  Mons  Fiscellus  (now  Monti 
delta  Sibilla).] 

[SEVINUS  LACUS.     Vid.  SEBINUS  LACUS. 
[SEVO  MONS  (now  Mount  Kjdlen),  an  exten- 
sive and  lofty  range  of  mountains  in  Scandi- 
navia.] 

SEUTHES  CSev6j]f),  the  name  of  several  kings 
of  the  Odrysians  in  Thrace.  Of  these  the  most 
important  was  the  nephew  of  Sitalces,  whom  he 
succeeded  on  the  throne  in  424.  During  a  long 
reign  he  raised  his  kingdom  to  a  height  of  pow- 
er and  prosperity  which  it  had  never  previously 
attained. 

SEXTI  A  or  SESTIA  GENS,  plebeian,  one  of  whose 
members,  namely,  L.  Sextius  Sextinus  Latera- 
nus,  was  the  first  plebeian  who  obtained  the 
consulship,  B.C.  366. 

SEITI^E  AQU^E.  Vid.  Ayu.>:  SEXTI.S. 
SEXTIUS  or  SESTIUS.  1.  P.,  quaestor  B.C.  63, 
and  tribune  of  the  plebs  57.  In  the  latter  year 
he  took  an  active  part  in  obtaining  Cicero's  re- 
call from  banishment.  Like  Milo,  he  kept  a 
band  of  armed  retainers  to  oppose  P.  Clodius 
and  his  partisans;  and  in  the  following  year 
(56)  he  was  accused  of  Via  on  account  of  his 
violent  acts  during  his  tribunate.  He  was  de- 
fended by  Cicero  in  an  oration  still  extant,  and 
was  acquitted  on  the  14th  of  March,  chiefly  in 
consequence  of  the  powerful  influence  of  Pom- 
pey.  In  53  Sextius  was  proctor.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  civil  war  in  49,  Sextius  first  es- 
poused Pompey's  party,  but  he  afterward  joined 
Caesar,  who  sent  him,  in  48,  into  Cappadocia. 
He  was  alive  in  43,  as  appears  from  Cicero's 


SIBYLLA. 

correspondence. — 2.  L.,  son  of  the  preceding  hj 
his  first  wife,  Postumia.  He  served  under  M. 
Brutus  in  Macedonia,  but  subsequently  became 
the  friend  of  Augustus.  Ot.e  of  Horace's  odes 
is  addressed  to  him.— 3.  T.,  one  of  Caesar's  le- 
gates in  Gaul,  and  afterward  governor  of  the 
province  of  Numidia  or  New  Africa,  at  the  time 
of  Caesar's  death  (44).  Here  he  carried  on  war 
against  Q.  Cornificius,  who  held  the  province  of 
Old  Africa,  and  whom  he  defeated  and  slew  in 
battle. 

SEXTIUS  CALVINUS.     Vid.  CALVINUS. 
SEXTUS  EMPIRICUS,  was  a  physician,  and  re- 
ceived his  name  Empiricus  from  belonging  to 
j  the  school  of  the  Empirici.     He  was  a  contem- 
]  porary  of  Galen,  and  lived  in  the  first  half  of 
the  third  century  of  the  Christian  era.     Noth- 
ing is  known  of  his  life.     He  belonged  to  the 
Skeptical  school  of  philosophy.      Two  of  his 
!  works  are  extant :  1.  Ilvpfruviai  'ICnorvtruasif  q 
I  OKenTiKa  inroftv^fiara,  containing  the  doctrines 
!  of  the  Skeptics  in  three  books.     2.  Ilpbf  rovf 
nadrjuariKovf  avrippijTiKoi,  against  the  Mathe- 
matici,  in  eleven  books,  is  an  attack  upon  all 
positive  philosophy.     The  first  six  books  are  a 
refutation  of  the  six  sciences  of  grammar,  rhet- 
oric, geometry,  arithmetic,  astrology,  and  mu- 
sic.    The  remaining  five  books  are   directed 
against   logicians,  physical  philosophers,   and 
ethical  writers,  and  form,  in  fact,  a  distinct 
work,  which  may  be  viewed  as  belonging  to  the 
"YTTOTviruaeif.    The  two  works  are  a  great  re- 
pository of  doubts;  the  language  is  as  clear  and 
perspicuous  as  the  subject  will  allow.     Edited 
by  Fabricius,  Lips.,  1718.     [A  reimpression  of 
this  edition  appeared  at  Leipzig,  1842,  2  vols. 
8vo  :  a  new  edition,  with  an  amended  text,  was 
published  by  Bekker  at  Berlin,  1842.] 

[SEXTUS,  of  Chaeronea,  Plutarch's  sister's 
son,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  instructor  of  the  Em- 
peror Antoninus  ] 

SEXTUS  RUFUS.  1.  The  name  prefixed  to  a 
work  entitled  De  Regionibus  Urbis  Roma,  pub- 
lished by  Onuphrius  Panvinius  at  Frankfort  in 
1558.  This  work  is  believed  by  the  best  to- 
pographers to  have  been  compiled  at  a  late  pe- 
riod, and  is  not  regarded  as  a  document  of  au- 
thority.— 2.  SEXTUS  RUFUS  is  also  the  name  pre- 
fixed to  an  abridgment  of  Roman  History  in 
twenty-eight  short  chapters,  entitled  Brcviarium 
de  Victoriiy  et  Provinciis  Populi  Romani,  and  ex- 
ecuted by  command  of  the  Emperor  Valens,  to 
whom  it  is  dedicated.  This  work  is  usually 
printed  with  the  larger  editions  of  Eutropius, 
and  of  the  minor  Roman  historians.  Thert  are 
no  grounds  for  establishing  a  connection  be- 
tween Sextus  Rufus  the  historian  and  the  au- 
thor of  the  work  De  Rcgionibus. 

SIH.K  or  SIBI  CZi&ai,  2i6oi),  a  rude  people  in 
the  northwest  of  India  (in  the  Punjab),  above 
the  confluence  of  the  Rivers  Hydaspes  (now 
Jelum)  and  Acesines  (now  Chcnab),  who  were 
clothed  in  skins  and  armed  with  clubs,  and 
whom,  therefore,  the  soldiers  of  Alexander  re- 
garded, whether  seriously  or  in  jest,  as  descend- 
ants of  Hercules. 

SIBYLLA  (2t'6vAAat),  the  name  by  which  sev- 
eral prophetic  women  are  designated.  The  first 
Sibyl,  from  whom  all  the  rest  are  said  to  have 
derived  their  name,  is  called  a  daughter  of  Dar- 
danus  ?n<'  Neso.  Some  authors  mention  only 

807 


SICAMBRI. 

four  Sibyls,  the  Erythraean,  the  Samian,  the 
Egyptian,  and  the  Sardian  ;  but  it  was  more 
commonly  believed  that  there  were  ten,  namely, 
the  Babylonian,  the  Libyan,  the  Delphian  (an 
elder  Delphian,  who  was  a  daughter  of  Zeus 
and  Lamia,  and  a  younger  one),  the  Cimmerian, 
the  Erythraean  (also  an  elder  and  a  younger 
one,  the  latter  of  whom  was  called  Herophilc), 
the  Samian,  the  Cumaean  (sometimes  identified 
with  the  Erythraean),  the  Hellespontian  or  Tro- 
jan, the  Phrygian,  and  the  Tiburtine.  The 
most  celebrated  of  these  Sibyls  is  the  Cumaean, 
who  is  mentioned  under  the  names  of  Hero- 
phile,  Demo,  Phemonoe,  Deiphone,  Demophile, 
and  Amalthea.  She  was  consulted  by  ^Eneas 
before  he  descended  into  the  lower  world.  She 
is  said  to  have  come  to  Italy  from  the  East,  and 
she  is  the  one  who,  according  to  tradition,  ap- 
peared before  King  Tarquinius,  offering  him  the 
Sibylline  books  for  sale.  Respecting  the  Sibyl- 
line books,  vid.  Diet,  of  Anliq.,  art.  SIBYLLINI 
LIBRI. 

SICAMBRI.     Vid.  SYGAMBRI. 

[SICANA  (StKuvj/),  a  city  of  Iberia,  on  the  River 
Sicanus,  whence  tradition  made  the  Sicani  to 
have  emigrated  to  Sicily.  Vid.  SICILIA.] 

SICANI,  SICELI,  SICELIOT^E.     Vid.  SICILIA. 

[SlCANUS.        Vid.  SlCANA.] 

[SICANUS  (S«cai>6f),  a  Syracusan,  son  of  Exe- 
cestus,  one  of  the  generals  of  the  Syracusans 
at  the  time  of  the  Athenian  expedition,  B.C. 
415.  He  was  sent  to  Agrigentum,  which  he 
endeavored  to  regain  by  stratagem  from  the 
party  who  had  seized  upon  it  and  driven  out 
those  favorable  to  Syracuse.  At  the  great  bat- 
tle in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse  he  commanded  a 
wing  of  the  Syracusan  fleet.] 

SICARII  (i.  e.,  assassins),  the  name  given  by 
the  Romans  to  certain  savage  mountain  tribes 
of  the  Lebanon,  who  were,  like  the  Thugs  of 
India,  avowed  murderers  by  profession.  In  the 
same  mountains  there  existed,  at  the  time  of 
the  Crusades,  a  branch  of  the  fanatic  sect  call- 
ed Assassins,  whose  habits  resembled  those  of 
the  Sicarii,  and  whose  name  the  Crusaders  im- 
ported into  Europe  ;  but  these  were  of  Arabian 
origin. 

SICCA  VENERIA  (now  probably  Al-Ka/),  a  con- 
siderable city  of  Northern  Africa,  on  the  fron- 
tier of  Numidia  and  Zeugitana,  built  on  a  hill 
near  the  River  Bagradas.  It  derived  its  name 
from  a  temple  of  Venus,  in  which  the  goddess 
was  worshipped  with  rites  peculiar  to  the  cor- 
responding Eastern  deity  Astarte,  whence  it 
may  be  inferred  that  the  place  was  a  Phoenician 
settlement. 

SICH^EUS,  also  called  Acerbas.    Vid.  ACERBAS. 

SICILIA  (now  Sicily),  one  of  the  largest  islands 
in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  was  supposed  by 
the  ancients  to  be  the  same  as  the  Homeric  isl- 
and Thrinacia  (Qpivaitia),  and  it  was  therefore 
frequently  called  THRINACIA,  TRINACIA,  or  TRI- 
NACRIS,  a  name  which  was  believed  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  triangular  figure  of  the  island. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  Roman  poets  called  it 
TRIQUKTRA.  Its  more  usual  name  came  from 
its  later  inhabitants,  the  Siceli,  whence  it  was 
called  SICELIA  (SjKe/U'a),  which  the  Romans 
changed  into  SICILIA.  As  the  Siceli  also  bore 
the  name  of  Sicani,  the  island  was  also  called 
SICANIA  CZiicavia).  Sicily  is  separated  from  the 
808 


SICILIA 

I  southern  coast  of  Italy  by  a  narrow  cha  ne 
called  FRETUM  SICULUM,  sometimes  simply  FRE 
TUM  (TlopOftoc),  and  also  SCYLL^KUM  FRF.TUM,  of 
j  which  the  modern  name  is  Faro  di  Messina 
The  sea  on  the  east  and  south  of  the  island  was 
also  called  Mare  SICULUM.  The  island  itself  is 
inthe  shape  of  a  triangle.  The  northern  and 
southern  sides  are  about  one  hundred  and  sev 
enty-five  miles  each  in  length,  not  including  the 
windings  of  the  coast ;  and  the  length  of  the 
eastern  side  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
miles.  The  northwestern  point,  the  Promonto- 
rium  Lilybaum,  is  about  ninety  miles  from  Cape 
Bon,  on  the  coast  of  Africa  ;  the  northeastern 
point,  PromontoriumPelorus,  is  about  three  miles 
from  the  coast  of  Calabria  in  Italy ;  and  the 
southeastern  point,  Promontorivm  Pachynus,  is 
sixty  miles  from  the  island  of  Malta.  Sicily 
formed  originally  part  of  Italy,  and  was  torn 
away  from  it  by  some  volcanic  eruption,  as  tho 
ancients  generally  believed.  A  range  of  mount 
ams,  which  are  a  continuation  of  the  Apen- 
nines, extends  throughout  the  island  from  east 
to  west.  The  general  name  of  this  mountain 
range  was  Nebrodi  Monies  (now  Madonia),  of 
which  there  were  several  offshoots  known  by 
different  names.  Of  these  the  most  important 
were  the  celebrated  volcano  ^Etna  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  island,  Eryx  (now  St.  Giuliano) 
in  the  extreme  west,  near  Drepanum,  and  the 
Heraei  Monies  (now  Monti  Sori)  in  the  south, 
running  down  to  the  promontory  Pachynus.  A 
large  number  of  rivers  flow  down  from  the 
mountains,  but  most  of  them  are  dry,  or  nearly 
so,  in  the  summer.  The  soil  of  Sicily  was  very 
fertile,  and  produced  in  antiquily  an  immense 
quantity  of  wheat,  on  which  the  population  of 
Rome  relied  to  a  great  extenl  for  their  subsist- 
|  ence.  So  celebrated  was  it  even  in  early  times 
i  on  account  of  ils  corn,  that  it  was  represented 
!  as  sacred  to  Demeter  (Ceres),  and  as  the  favor- 
ite abode  of  this  goddess.  Hence  it  was  in  this 
island  that  her  daughter  Persephone  (Proser- 
pina) was  carried  away  by  Pluto.  Besides  corn 
the  island  produced  excellent  wine,  saffron, 
honey,  almonds,  and  the  other  soulhern  fruits 
The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Sicily  are  said  to 
have  been  the  savage  Cyclopes  and  Laestry- 
gones  ;  but  these  are  fabulous  beings,  and  the 
first  inhabitanls  menlioned  in  hislory  are  the 
SICANI  (2i/cavot)  or  SICULI  (St/ceAo/),  who  cross- 
ed over  into  the  island  from  Italy.  Some  writ- 
ers,  indeed,  regard  the  Sicani  and  Siculi  as  two 
distinct  tribes,  supposing  the  latter  only  to  have 
migraled  from  Ilaly,  and  the  former  to  have 
been  the  aboriginal  inhabitanls  of  Ihe  country  ; 
but  there  is  no  good  reason  for  making  any  dis- 
tinction between  them.  They  appear  to  have 
been  a  Celtic  people.  According  to  Thucyd- 
ides,  their  original  setllement  was  on  the  River 
Sicanus  in  Iberia  ;  but  as  Thucydides  extends 
Iberia  as  far  as  the  Rhone,  it  is  probable  that 
Sicanus  was  a  river  of  Gaul,  and  it  may  have 
been  the  Sequana,  as  some  modern  writers  sup- 
pose. The  ancient  writers  relate  that  these 
Sicani,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Ligyes  (Li- 
gures),  crossed  the  Alps  and  settled  in  Latium  , 
that,  being  driven  out  of  this  counlry  by  the 
Aborigines  with  the  help  of  Pelasgians,  they 
migrated  to  the  south  of  the  peninsula,  where 
Ihey  lived  for  a  considerable  time  along  with 


SICILIA. 

the  CEnotrians;  and  that  at  last  they  crossed 
over  to  Sicily,  to  which  they  gave  their  name. 
They  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  the  island, 
but  in  later  times  were  found  chiefly  in  the  in- 
terior and  in  the  northern  part ;  some  of  the 
most  important  towns  belonging  to  them  were 
Herbita,  Agyrium,  Adranum,  and  Enna.  The 
next  immigrants  into  the  island  were  Cretans, 
who  are  said  to  have  come  to  Sicily  under  their 
king,  Minos,  in  pursuit  of  Daedalus,  and  to  have 
settled  on  the  southern  coast  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Agrigentum,  where  they  founded  Minoa 
(afterward  Heraclea  Minoa).  Then  came  the 
Elymaei,  a  small  band  of  fugitive  Trojans,  who 
are  said  to  have  built  Entella,  Eryx,  and  Egesta. 
These  Cretans  and  Elymaei,  however,  if  indeed 
they  ever  visited  Sicily,  soon  became  incorpo- 
rated with  the  Siculi.  The  Phoenicians,  like- 
wise, at  an  early  period  formed  settlements,  for 
the  purposes  of  commerce,  on  all  the  coasts  of 
Sicily,  but  more  especially  on  the  northern  and 
northwestern  parts.  They  were  subsequently 
obliged  to  retire  from  the  greater  part  of  their 
settlements  before  the  increasing  power  of  the 
Greeks,  and  to  confine  themselves  to  Motya, 
Solus,  and  Panormus.  But  the  most  important 
of  all  the  immigrants  into  Sicily  were  the 
Greeks.  The  first  body  of  Greeks  who  landed 
in  the  island  were  Chalcidians  from  Eubcea,  and 
Megarians  led  by  the  Athenian  Thucles.  These 
Greek  colonists  built  the  town  of  Naxos,  B.C. 
735.  They  were  soon  followed  by  other  Greek 
colonists,  who  founded  a  number  of  very  flour- 
ishing cities,  such  as  Syracuse  in  734,  Leontini 
and  Catana  in  730,  Megara  Hybla  in  726,  Gela 
in  690,  Selinus  in  626,  Agrigenturn  in  579,  etc. 
The  Greeks  soon  became  the  ruling  race  in  the 
island,  and  received  the  name  of  SICELIOT.E 
(St/ceilturat)  to  distinguish  them  from  the  earlier 
inhabitants.  At  a  later  time  the  Carthaginians 
obtained  a  firm  footing  in  Sicily.  Their  first 
attempt  was  made  in  480 ;  but  they  were  de- 
feated by  Gelon  of  Syracuse,  and  obliged  to  re- 
tire with  great  loss.  Their  second  invasion  in 
409  was  more  successful.  They  took  Selinus 
in  this  year,  and  four  years  afterward  (405)  the 
powerful  city  of  Agrigentum.  They  now  be- 
came the  permanent  masters  of  the  western 
part  of  the  island,  and  were  engaged  in  frequent 
wars  with  Syracuse  and  the  other  Greek  cities. 
The  struggle  between  the  Carthaginians  and 
Greeks  continued,  with  a  few  interruptions, 
down  to  the  first  Punic  war ;  at  the  close  of 
which  (241)  the  Carthaginians  were  obliged  to 
evacuate  the  island,  the  western  part  of  which 
now  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  and 
was  made  a  Roman  province.  The  eastern 
part  still  continued  under  the  rule  of  Hieron  of 
Syracuse  as  an  ally  of  Rome  ;  but  after  the  re- 
volt of  Syracuse  in  the  second  Punic  war,  and 
the  conquest  of  that  city  by  Marcellus,  the  whole 
island  was  made  a  Roman  province,  and  was 
administered  by  a  praetor.  Under  the  Roman 
dominion  more  attention  was  paid  to  agricul- 
ture than  to  commerce  ;  and,  consequently,  the 
Greek  cities  on  the  coast  gradually  declined  in 
prosperity  and  in  wealth.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  province  received  the  Jus  Latii  from  Julius 
Caesar ;  and  Antony  conferred  upon  them,  in 
accordance,  as  it  was  said,  with  Caesar's  will, 
the  full  Roman  franchise.  Augustus,  alter  his 


SICULUS  FLACCUS. 

conquest  of  Sex.  Pompey,  who  had  held  the  isl- 
and for  several  years,  founded  colonies  at  Mes- 
sana,  Tauromenium,  Catana,  Syracuse,  Ther- 
mae, and  Panormus.     On  the  downfall  of  the 
Roman  empire,  Sicily  formed  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Ostrogoths  ;  but  it  was  taken  from 
them  by  Belisarius  in  A.D.  536,  and  annexed 
to  the  Byzantine  empire.     It  continued  a  prov 
ince  of  this  empire  till  828,  when  it  was  con- 
'  quered  by  the  Saracens.     Literature  and  the 
I  arts  were  cultivated  with  great  success  in  the 
!  Greek  cities  of  Sicily.     It  was  the  birth-place 
|  of  the  philosophers  Empedocles,  Epicharmus, 
and  Dicaearchus;  of  the  mathematician  Archi- 
I  medes ;  of  the  physicians  Herodicus  and  Acron ; 
of  the  historians  Diodorus,  Antiochus,  Philis- 
tus,  and  Timaeus  ;  of  the  rhetorician  Gorgias 
•  and  of  the  poets  Stesichorus  and  Theocritus. 
SICI.MA.     Vid.  NEAPOLIS,  No.  5. 
Sicimus.    1.  L.  SICINIUS  BELLUTUS,  the  leader 
j  of  the  plebeians  in  their  secession  to  the  Sa- 
|  cred  Mount  in  B.C.  494.     He  was  chosen  one 
of  the  first  tribunes. — 2.  L.  SICINICJS  DENTATUS, 
called  by  some  writers  the  Roman  Achilles.    He 
is  said  to  have  fought  in  one  hundred  and  twenty 
battles,  to  have  slain  eight  of  the  enemy  in  sin 
gle  combat,  to  have  received  forty-five  wounds 
on  the  front  of  his  body,  and  to  have  accom- 
panied the  triumphs  of  nine  generals,  whose 
victories  were  principally  owing  to  his  valor 
He  was  tribune  of  the  plebs  in  454.     He  was 
put  to  death  by  the  decemvirs  in  450,  because 
!  he  endeavored  to  persuade  the  plebeians  to  se- 
|  cede  to  the  Sacred  Mount.    The  persons  sent 
to  assassinate  him  fell  upon  him  in  a  lonely 
I  spot,  but  he  killed  most  of  them  before  they  suc- 
:  ceeded  in  dispatching  him. 

[SICINNUS  or  SICINUS  (2//t£vvof,   St'/avof),  a 

Persian,  according  to  Plutarch,  a  slave  of  The- 

mistocles,  and  Treudayuydf  to  his  children.     la 

:  B.C.  480  he  was  employed  by  his  master  to  con- 

!  vey  to  Xerxes  the  intelligence  of  fhe  intended 

1  flight  of  the  Greeks  from  Salamis  ;   and  after 

the  battle,  when  the  Greeks  had  desisted  from 

j  the  further  pursuit  of  the  Persians,  Themisto- 

cles  again  sent  Sicinnus,  with  others,  to  Xerxes, 

to  claim  merit  with  him  for  having  dissuaded 

the  Greeks  from  intercepting  his  flight.     As  a 

reward  for  his  services,  Themistocles  afterward 

enriched  Sicinnus,  and  obtained  for  him  the 

citizenship  of  Thespiae.] 

SICINUS  (ZiKivof :  ZiKivirtjf :  now  Sikino),  a 
small  island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  one  of  the  Spo- 
j  rades,  between  Pholegandrus  and  los,  with  a 
town  of  the  same  name.     It  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  called  CEnoe  from  its  cultivation  of 
( the  vine,  but  to  have  been  named  Sicinus  after 
:  a  son  of  Thoas  and  CEnoe.     It  was  probably 
i  colonized  by  the  lonians.    During  the  Persian 
war  it  submitted  to  Xerxes,  but  it  afterward 
formed  part  of  the  Athenian  maritime  empire. 
SICORIS  (now  Scgrc),  a  river  in  Hispania  Tar- 
raconensis,  which  had  its  source  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Cerretani,  divided  the  Ilergetcs  and 
Lacetani,  flowed  by  Ilerda,  and  after  receiving 
the  River  Cinga  (now  Ct'nca),  fell  into  the  Ibe- 
i  rus  near  Octogesa. 

SICULI.     Vid.  SICILIA. 
SICULUM  FRETOM,  SICULVM  MARE.     Vid.  & 
CILIA. 

SICULUS  FLACCUS.     Vid.  FLACCDS. 

809 


SICUM. 

[SicuM  (Ziicovv),  the  northernmost  maritime 
city  of  Dalmatia,  where  the  Emperor  Claudius, 
according  to  Pliny,  planted  a  colony  of  veter- 
ans ] 

SICYONIA  (SiKvtivla),  a  small  district  in  the 
northeast  of  Peloponnesus,  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  territory  of  Corinlh,  on  the  west  by  Ach- 
aia,  on  the  south  by  the  territory  of  Phlius  and 
Cleonaj,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Corinthian 
Gulf.  The  area  of  the  country  was  probably 
eomewhat  less  than  one  hundred  square  miles. 
It  consisted  of  a  plain  near  the  sea,  with  mount- 
ains in  the  interior.  Its  rivers,  which  ran  in  a  i 
northeasterly  direction,  were  Sythason  thefron-  | 
tier  of  Achaia,  Helisson,  Sellei's,  and  Asoptis  in  j 
the  interior,  and  Nemea  on  the  frontier  of  the 
territory  of  Corinth.  The  land  was  fertile,  and 
produced  excellent  oil.  Its  almonds  and  its  fish 
were  also  much  prized.  Its  chief  town  was  Sic- 
foN  (ZtKVfltv  :  ZiKvuviof),  which  was  situated  a 
little  to  the  west  of  the  River  Asopus,  and  at 
the  distance  of  twenty,  or,  according  to  others, 
twelve  stadia  from  the  sea.  The  ancient  city, 
which  was  situated  in  the  plain,  was  destroyed 
by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and  a  new  city,  which 
bore  for  a  short  time  the  name  of  Demetrias,  was 
built  by  him  on  the  high  ground  close  to  the 
Acropolis.  The  harbor,  which,  according  to 
some,  was  connected  with  the  city  by  means  of 
long  walls,  was  well  fortified,  and  formed  a  town 
of  itself.  Sicyon  was  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient cities  of  Greece.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  called  yEgialea  or  JSgiali  (Atytd/Uta, 
A'ryiatoi),  after  an  ancient  king,  ./Egialeus ;  to 
have  been  subsequently  named  Mecone  (Mjy- 
Kuvjj),  and  to  have  been  finally  called  Sicyon 
from  an  Athenian  of  this  name.  Sicyon  is  rep- 
resented by  Homer  as  forming  part  of  the  em- 
pire of  Agamemnon  ;  but  on  the  invasion  of  Pe- 
loponnesus it  became  subject  to  Phalces,  the 
son  of  Temenus,  and  was  henceforward  a  Do- 
rian state.  The  ancient  inhabitants,  however, 
were  formed  into  a  fourth  tribe  called  JCgialeis, 
which  possessed  equal  rights  with  the  three 
tribes  of  the  Hylleis,  Pamphyli,  and  Dymanatae, 
into  which  the  Dorian  conquerors  were  divided. 
Sicyon,  on  account  of  the  small  extent  of  its 
territory,  never  attained  much  political  impor- 
tance, and  was  generally  dependent  either  on 
Argos  or  Sparta.  At  the  time  of  the  second 
Messenian  war  it  became  subject  to  a  succes- 
sion of  tyrants,  who  administered  their  power 
with  moderation  and  justice  for  one  hundred 
years.  The  first  of  these  tyrants  was  Andreas, 
who  began  to  rule  B.C.  676.  He  was  followed 
in  succession  by  Myron,  Aristonymus,  and  Clis- 
thenes,  on  whose  death,  about  576,  a  republican 
form  of  government  was  established.  Clisthe- 
nes  had  no  male  children,  but  only  a  daughter, 
Agariste,  who  was  married  to  the  Athenian 
Megacles.  In  the  Persian  war  the  Sicyonians 
sent  fifteen  ships  to  the  battle  of  Salamis,  and 
three  hundred  hoplites  to  the  battle  of  Plataeae. 
In  the  interval  between  the  Persian  and  the  Pe- 
loponnesian  wars,  the  Sicyonians  were  twice 
defeated  and  their  country  laid  waste  by  the 
Athenians,  first  under  Tolmides  in  456,  and 
again  under  Pericles  in  454.  In  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  they  took  part  with  the  Spartans. 
From  this  time  till  the  Macedonian  supremacy 
heir  history  requires  no  special  mention  ;  but 
810 


SI  DON. 

in  the  middle  of  the  third  century  Sicyon  tor>k 
an  active  part  in  public  affairs,  in  consequence* 
of  its  being  the  native  town  of  Aratus,  \\  ho 
united  it  to  the  Achaean  league  in  251.  Under 
the  Romans  it  gradually  declined ;  and  in  tht: 
time  ofPausanias,  in  the  second  century  of  th* 
Christian  era,  many  of  its  public  buildings  were 
in  ruins.  Sicyon  was  for  a  long  time  the  chief 
seat  of  Grecian  art.  It  gave  its  name  to  one  of 
the  great  schools  of  painting,  which  was  found- 
ed by  Eupompus,  and  which  produced  Pamphi- 
lus  and  Apelles.  It  is  also  said  to  have  been 
the  earliest  school  of  statuary  in  Greece,  which 
was  introduced  into  Sicyon  by  Dipcenus  and 
Scyllis  from  Crete  about  560 ;  but  its  earliest 
native  artist  of  celebrity  was  Canachus.  Ly- 
sippus  was  also  a  native  of  Sicyon.  The  town 
was  likewise  celebrated  for  the  taste  and  skill 
displayed  in  the  various  articles  of  dress  made 
by  its  inhabitants,  among  which  we  find  men- 
tion of  a  particular  kind  of  shoe,  which  was 
much  prized  in  all  parts  of  Greece. 

S!DA,  SIDE  (Zi'd)?,  IttJmyf,  and  StdqTTjf,  Sidites 
and  Sidetes).  1.  (Ruins  at  Eski  Adalia),  a  city 
of  Pamphylia,  on  the  coast,  a  little  west  of  the 
River  Melas.  It  was  an  ^Eolian  colony  from 
Cyme  in  ^Eolis,  and  was  a  chief  seat  of  the 
worship  of  Minerva  (Athena),  who  is  repre- 
sented on  its  coins  holding  a  pomegranate  (ai6r]) 
as  the  emblem  of  the  city.  In  the  division  of 
the  provinces  under  Constantine,  it  was  made 
the  capital  of  Pamphylia  Prima.— 2.  The  old 
name  of  POLEMONIUM,  from  which  a  flat  district 
in  the  northeast  of  Pontus  Polemoniacus,  along 
the  coast,  obtained  the  name  of  Sidene  (2t<5;?w7). 

[SiDENE  (Zidqvr)),  a  town  of  Mysia,  on  the 
Granicus,  already,  in  Strabo's  time,  destroyed.] 

[SiDERo  (2t(5)7/j(j),  wife  of  Salmoneus,  step- 
mother of  Tyro,  was  slain  by  Pelias  in  the  grove 
and  at  the  altar  of  Juno.] 

SIDENUS.     Vid.  POLEMONIUM. 

SIDICINI,  an  Ausonian  people  in  the  north- 
west of  Campania  and  on  the  borders  of  Sam- 
nium,  who,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Samnites, 
united  themselves  to  the  Campanians.  Their 
chief  town  was  Teanum. 

SIDON,  gen.  -ONIS  (Siduv,  gen.  Sttovof,  some- 
times also  Stdovof,  in  the  Old  Testament  Tsidon, 
or,  in  the  English  form,  Zidon  :  2-(5wv,  Zitiuvtof, 
Zidoviof,  Sidonius  :  ruins  at  Saida),  for  a  long 
time  the  most  powerful,  and  probably  the  most 
ancient  of  the  cities  of  Phcenice.  As  early  as 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites  it  is 
called  «•  Great  Zidon"  (Joshua,  xi.,  8).  It  stood 
in  a  plain,  about  a  mile  wide,  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  two  hundred  stadia  (twenty  ge- 
ographical miles)  north  of  Tyre,  four  hundred 
stadia  (forty  geographical  miles)  south  of  Bery- 
tus,  sixty-six  miles  west  of  Damascus,  and  a 
day's  journey  northwest  of  the  source  of  the 
Jordan  at  Paneas.  It  had  a  fine  double  harbor, 
now  almost  filled  with  sand,  and  was  strongly 
fortified.  It  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  maritime 
power  of  Phcenice,  until  eclipsed  by  its  own  col- 
ony, Tyre  (vid.  TYRUS)  ;  and  its  power  on  the 
land  side  seems  to  have  extended  over  all  Phce- 
nice, and  at  one  period  (in  the  time  of  the 
Judges)  over  at  least  a  part  of  Palestine.  In 
the  time  of  David  and  Solomon,  Sidun  appears 
to  have  been  subject  to  the  King  of  Tyre,  It 
probably  regained  its  former  rank,  as  the  first 


SIDONIUS  APOLLINARIS. 

ol  the  Phoenician  cities,  by  its  submission  to 
Shalmanezer  at  the  time  of  the  Assyrian  con- 
quest of  Syria,  for  we  find  it  governed  by  its 
own  king  under  the  Babylonians  and  Persians. 
In  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  against  Greece,  the 
Sidonians  furnished  the  best  ships  in  the  whole 
fleet,  and  their  king  obtained  the  highest  place, 
next  to  Xerxes,  in  the  council,  and  above  the 
King  of  Tyre.  Sidon  received  the  great  blow  to 
her  prosperity  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  III. 
Ochus,  when  the  Sidonians,  having  taken  part 
in  the  revolt  of  Phcenice  and  Cyprus,  and  being 
betrayed  to  Ochus  by  their  own  king  Tennes, 
burned  themselves  with  their  city,  B.C.  351. 
The  city  was  rebuilt,  but  the  fortifications  were 
not  restored,  and  the  place  was  therefore  of 
no  further  importance  in  military  history.  It 
shared  the  fortunes  of  the  rest  of  PHCENICE,  and 
under  the  Romans  it  retained  much  of  its  com- 
mercial importance,  which  it  has  not  yet  en- 
tirely lost.  In  addition  to  its  commerce,  Sidon 
was  famed  for  its  manufactures  of  glass,  the 
invention  of  which  was  said  to  have  been  made 
in  Phoenicia. 

SIDONIUS  APOLLINARIS,  whose  full  name  was 
C.  Sollius  Stdoniiis  Apollintys,  was  born  at  Lug- 
dunum  (now  Lyons)  aboucA.D.  431.  At  an 
early  age  he  married  Papianilla,  the  child  of 
Flavius  Avitus ;  and  upon  the  elevation  of  his 
father-in-law  to  the  imperial  dignity  (456)  he 
accompanied  him  to  Rome,  and  celebrated  his 
consulship  in  a  poem  still  extant.  Avitus  raised 
Sidonius  to  the  rank  of  a  senator,  nominated 
him  prefect  of  the  city,  and  caused  his  statue 
to  be  placed  among  the  effigies  which  graced 
the  library  of  Trajan.  The  downfall  of  Avitus 
threw  a  cloud  over  the  fortunes  of  Sidonius, 
who,  having  been  shut  up  in  Lyons,  and  having 
endured  the  hardships  of  the  siege,  purchased 
pardon  by  a  complimentary  address  to  the  vic- 
torious Majorian.  The  poet  was  not  only  for- 
given, but  was  rewarded  with  a  laurelled  bust, 
and  with  the  title  of  count.  After  passing  some 
years  in  retirement  during  the  reign  of  Severus, 
Sidonius  was  dispatched  to  Rome  (467)  in  the 
character  of  ambassador  from  the  Arverni  to  An- 
themius,  and  on  this  occasion  delivered  a  third 
panegyric  in  honor  of  a  third  prince,  which 
proved  not  less  successful  than  his  former  ef- 
forts, for  he  was  now  raised  to  the  rank  of  a 
patrician,  again  appointed  prefect  of  the  city, 
and  once  more  honored  with  a  statue.  But  a 
still  more  remarkable  tribute  was  soon  after- 
ward rendered  to  his  talents  ;  for,  although  not 
a  priest,  the  vacant  see  of  Clermont  in  Auvergne 
was  forced  upon  his  reluctant  acceptance  (472) 
at  the  death  of  the  bishop  Eparchius.  During 
the  remainder  of  his  life  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  duties  of  his  sacred  office,  and  especially  re- 
sisted with  energy  the  progress  of  Arianism. 
He  died  in  482,  or,  according  to  others,  in  484. 
The  extant  works  of  Sidonius  are,  1.  Carmina, 
twenty-four  in  number,  composed  in  various 
measures  upon  various  subjects.  Of  these  the 
most  important  are  the  three  panegyrics  already 
mentioned.  2.  Epistolarum  Libri  IX.,  contain- 
ing one  hundred  and  forty-seven  letters,  many 
of  them  interspersed  with  pieces  of  poetry. 
They  are  addressed  to  a  wide  circle  of  relatives 
a«M  friends  upon  topics  connected  with  politics, 
literature,  and  domestic  occurren-  -cs,  but  sel- 


SILANIOiY 

dom  touch  upon  ecclesiastical  matters.  The 
writings  of  Sidonius  are  characterued  by  great 
subtlety  of  thought,  expressed  in  phraseology 
abounding  with  harsh  and  violent  metaphors. 
Hence  he  is  generally  obscure  ;  but  his  works 
throughout  bear  the  impress  of  an  acute,  vigor- 
ous, and  highly-cultivated  intellect.  The  best 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Sirmond,  4to, 
Paris,  1652. — [2.  A  sophist  in  Athens  in  the 
second  century  after  Christ.] 

SIDUS  (2t<Joi5f,  -ovvrof :  StJowrtof),  a  fortified 
place  in  the  territory  of  Corinth,  on  the  bay  of 
Cenchreae,  and  a  little  to  the  east  of  Crommyon. 
It  was  celebrated  for  its  apples. 

SIDUSSA  (Zidovaaa),  a  small  place  in  Lydia, 
belonging  to  the  territory  of  the  Ionian  city  of 
Erythrse. 

SIDYMA  (ru  Zidvfia:  ruins  at  Tortoorcar  Hi- 
sar),  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Lycia,  on  a  mount- 
ain, north  of  the  mouth  of  Xanthus. 

SIOA  (2t'ya),  a  considerable  sea-port  town  of 
Mauretania  Caesariensis,  on  a  river  of  the  same 
name,  the  mouth  of  which  opened  into  a  large 
bay,  which  formed  the  harbor  of  the  town.  Its 
site  has  not  been  identified  with  certainty. 

[SiGEt  CAMPI,  in  the  ^Eneid  of  Virgil  (vii., 
294),  the  region  around  the  Sigeum  Promonto- 
rium.] 

SIGEUM  (now  Yenisheri),  the  northwestern 
promontory  of  the  Troad,  of  Asia  Minor,  and  of 
all  Asia,  and  the  southern  headland  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Hellespont,  opposite  to  the  Prom- 
ontorium  Mastusium  (now  Cape  Holies'),  at  the 
extremity  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese.  It  is 
here  that  Homer  places  the  Grecian  fleet  and 
camp  during  the  Trojan  war.  Near  it  was  a 
sea- port  town  of  the  same  name,  which  was  the 
object  of  contention  between  the  ^Eolians  and 
the  Athenians  in  the  war  in  which  Pittacus  dis~ 
tinguished  himself  by  his  valor,  and  in  which  Al- 
caeus  lost  his  shield.  Vid.  PITTACUS,  ALC^EUS. 
It  was  afterward  the  residence  of  the  Pisistra- 
tidae,  when  they  were  expelled  from  Athens.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  people  of  Ilium  soon  after 
the  Macedonian  conquest. 

SIGNIA  (Signinus  :  now  Segni),  a  town  in  La- 
tium,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Volscian  Mount- 
ains, founded  by  Tarquinius  Priscus.  It  was 
celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Jupiter  Urius,  for 
its  astringent  wine,  for  its  pears,  and  for  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  pavement  for  the  floors  of  houses, 
called  opus  Signinum,  consisting  of  plaster  made 
of  tiles  beaten  to  powder  and  tempered  with 
mortar.  There  are  still  remains  of  the  polygo- 
nal walls  of  the  ancient  town. 

[SIORIANE  ("Ziypiavri),  an  extensive  tract  of 
country  in  the  southeast  of  Media.] 

SIGRIUM  (Ziypiov :  now  Sigri),  the  western 
promontory  of  the  island  of  Lesbos. 

SILA  SILVA  (now  Sila),  a  large  forest  in  Brut- 
tniiii.  on  the  Apennines,  extending  south  of  Con- 
sentia  to  the  Sicilian  Straits,  a  distance  of  seven 
hundred  stadia.  It  was  celebrated  for  the  ex- 
cellent pitch  which  it  yielded. 

[SII.ANA  (now  probably  Poliana),  a  city  in  the 
western  part  of  Thessaly,  south  of  the  Peneus.] 

SILANION  (ZiXavluv),  a  distinguished  Greek 
statuary  in  bronze,  was  an  Athenian  and  a  con- 
temporary of  Lysippus,  and  flourished  324.  The 
statues  of  Silanion  belonged  to  two  classes,  ideal 
and  actual  portraits.  Of  the  former  the  most 

811 


SILANUS,  JUNIUS. 

celebrated  was  his  dying  Jocasta,  in  which  a 
deadly  paleness  was  given  to  the  face  by  the 
mixture  of  silver  with  the  bronze.  His  statue 
of  Sappho,  which  stood  in  the  prytancum  at  Syr- 
acuse in  the  time  of  Verres,  is  alluded  to  by 
Cicero  in  terms  of  the  highest  praise. 

SILANUS,  JUNIUS.  1.  M.,  was  praetor  212  B.C. 
In  210  he  accompanied  P.  Scipio  to  Spain,  and 
served  under  him  with  great  distinction  during 
the  whole  of  the  war  in  that  country.  He  fell 
in  battle  against  the  Boii  in  196,  fighting  under 
the  consul  M.  Marcellus. — 2.  D.,  surnamed  MAN- 
LIANUS,  son  of  the  jurist  T.  Manlius  Torquatus, 
but  adopted  by  a  D.  Junius  Silanus.  He  was 
praHor  142,  and  obtained  Macedonia  as  his  prov- 
ince. Being  accused  of  extortion  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  province,  the  senate  referred  the 
investigation  of  the  charges  to  his  own  father 
Torquatus,  who  condemned  his  son,  and  banish- 
ed him  from  his  presence ;  and  when  Silanus 
hanged  himself  in  grief,  his  father  would  not  at- 
tend his  funeral. — 3.  M.,  consul  109,  fought  in 
this  year  against  the  Cimbri  in  Transalpine 
Gaul,  and  was  defeated.  He  was  accused  in 
104,  by  the  tribune  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus, 
in  consequence  of  this  defeat,  but  was  acquitted. 
— 4.  D.,  stepfather  of  M.  Brutus,  the  murderer 
of  Caesar,  having  married  his  mother  Servilia. 
He  was  elected  consul  in  63  for  the  following 
year ;  and  in  consequence  of  his  being  consul 
designatus,  he  was  first  asked  for  his  opinion  by 
Cicero  in  the  debate  in  the  senate  on  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  Catilinarian  conspirators.  He 
was  consul  62,  with  L.  Licinius  Murena,  along 
with  whom  he  proposed  the  Lex  Licinia  Julia. 
— 5.  M.,  son  of  No.  4  and  of  Servilia,  served  in 
Gaul  as  Caesar's  legatus  in  53.  After  Caesar's 
murder  in  44,  he  accompanied  M.  Lepidus  over 
the  Alps  ;  and  in  the  following  year  Lepidus 
sent  him  with  a  detachment  of  troops  into  Cis- 
alpine Gaul,  where  he  fought  on  the  side  of 
Antony.  He  was  consul  in  25.  He  had  two 
sisters,  one  married  to  M.  Lepidus,  the  triumvir, 
and  the  other  to  C.  Cassius,  one  of  Caesar's  mur- 
derers.— 6.  M.,  consul  A.D.  19,  with  L.  Norbanus 
Balbus.  In  33  his  daughter  Claudia  was  mar- 
ried to  C.  Caesar,  afterward  the  Emperor  Calig- 
ula. Silanus  was  governor  of  Africa  in  the 
reign  of  Caligula,  but  was  compelled  by  his 
fathei-in-law  to  put  an  end  to  his  life.  Julius 
Graecinus,  the  father  of  Agricola,  had  been  or- 
dered by  Caligula  to  accuse  Silanus,  but  he  de- 
clined the  odious  task. — 7.  APP.,  consul  A.D.  28, 
with  P.  Silius  Nerva.  Claudius,  soon  after  his 
accession,  gave  to  Silanus  in  marriage  Domitia 
Lepida,  the  mother  of  his  wife  Messalina,  and 
treated  him  otherwise  with  the  greatest  dis- 
tinction. But  shortly  afterward,  having  refused 
the  embraces  of  Messalina,  he  was  put  to  death 
by  Claudius,  on  the  accusations  of  Messalina 
and  Narcissus.  The  first  wife  of  Silanus  was 
/Emilia  Lepida,  the  proneptis  or  great-grand- 
daughter of  Augustus. — 8.  M.,  son  of  No.  7,  con- 
sul 46.  Silanus  was  proconsul  of  Asia  at  the 
succession  of  Nero  in  54,  and  was  poisoned  by 
command  of  Agrippina,  who  feared  that  he  might 
avenge  the  death  of  his  brother  (No.  9),  and 
thai  his  descent  from  Augustus  might  lead  him 
to  be  preferred  to  the  youthful  Nero. — 9.  L., 
also  a  son  of  No  7,  was  betrothed  to  Octavia, 
the  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Claudius ;  but 
812 


SILICIUS. 

when  Octavia  was  married  to  Nero  in  48,  Siia 
nus  knew  that  his  fate  was  sealed,  and  there- 
fore put  an  end  to  his  life. — 10.  D.  JUNIUS  TOR- 
QUATUS SILANUS,  probably  also  a  son  of  No.  7, 
was  consul  53.  He  was  compelled  by  Nero  in 
64  to  put  an  end  to  his  life,  because  he  had 
boasted  of  being  descended  from  Augustus. —  . 
1 1.  L.  JUNIUS  TORQUATUS  SILANUS,  son  of  No.  8, 
and  consequently  the  atnepos,  or  great-great- 
great-grandson  of  Augustus.  His  descent  from 
Augustus  rendered  him  an  object  of  suspicion 
to  Nero.  He  was  accordingly  accused  in  65 ; 
was  sentenced  to  banishment ;  and  was  shortly 
afterward  put  to  death  at  Barium  in  Apulia. 

SILARUS  (now  Silaro),  a  river  in  Lower  Italy, 
forming  the  boundary  between  Lucania  and 
Campania,  rises  in  the  Apennines,  and,  after 
receiving  the  Tanager  (now  Negri)  and  Calor 
(now  Galore),  falls  into  the  Sinus  Paestanus  a 
little  to  the  north  of  Paestum.  Its  water  is  said 
to  have  petrified  plants. 

SILENUS  (Sei^vdf).  1.  (Mythological.)  It  is 
remarked  in  the  article  Satyri  that  the  older 
Satyrs  were  generally  termed  Sileni ;  but  one 
of  these  Sileni  is  commonly  the  Silenus,  who 
always  accompanie*'tbe  god,  and  whom  he  is 
said  to  have  brought  up  and  instructed.  Like 
the  other  Satyrs,  he  is  called  a  son  of  Mercury 
(Hermes) ;  but  others  make  him  a  son  of  Pan 
by  a  nymph,  or  of  Terra  (Gaea).  Being  the  con- 
stant companion  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  he  is 
said,  like  the  god,  to  have  been  born  at  Nysa. 
Moreover,  he  took  part  in  the  contest  with  the 
Giants,  and  slew  Enceladus.  He  is  described 
as  a  jovial  old  man,  with  a  bald  head,  a  puck 
nose,  fat  and  round  like  his  wine  bag,  which  he 
always  carried  with  him,  and  generally  intox- 
icated. As  he  could  not  trust  his  own  legs,  he 
is  generally  represented  riding  on  an  ass,  or 
supported  by  other  Satyrs.  In  every  other  re- 
spect he  is  described  as  resembling  his  brethren 
in  their  love  of  sleep,  wine,  and  music.  He  is 
mentioned,  along  with  Marsyas  and  Olympus, 
as  the  inventor  of  the  flute,  which  he  is  often 
seen  playing ;  and  a  special  kind  of  dance  was 
called  after  him  Silenus,  while  he  himself  is 
designated  as  the  dancer.  But  it  is  a  peculiar 
feature  in  his  character  that  he  was  conceived 
also  as  an  inspired  prophet,  who  knew  all  the 
past  and  the  most  distant  future,  and  as  a  sage 
who  despised  all  the  gifts  of  fortune.  When 
he  was  drunk  and  asleep,  he  was  in  the  power 
of  mortals,  who  might  compel  him  to  prophesy 
and  sing  by  surrounding  him  with  chains  of 
flowers. — 2.  (Literary.)  A  native  of  Calatia, 
[wrote  a  work  entitled  St/ce/U/cd  in  at  least  three 
books ;  he  also  wrote  an  account  of  the  cam- 
paigns of  Hannibal,  in  whose  camp  he  was,  and 
with  whom  he  lived  as  long  as  fortune  permit- 
ted, says  Cornelius  Nepos  :  he  was  also]  a  writ- 
er upon  Roman  history.— 3.  It  was  probably  a 
different  writer  from  the  last,  who  is  quoted 
several  times  by  Athenaeus  and  others  as  the 
author  of  a  work  on  foreign  words.  [Silenus 
also  compiled  a  collection  of  fabulous  histories.] 

SILICENSE  FLUMEN,  a  river  in  Hispania  Bae- 
tica,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Corduba,  probably 
the  Guadajoz,  or  a  tributary  of  the  latter. 

[Sincius,  P.  (CORONAS),  one  of  the  judices 
appointed  to  try  the  conspirators  against  th'e 
life  of  Caesar  in  B.C.  43,  according  to  the  Lex 


SILIUS  ITALICUS. 

Pedia.  He  voted  for  the  acquittal  of  M.  Brutus, 
and  was,  on  this  account,  afterward  proscribed 
by  the  triumvirs.] 

SILIUS  ITALICUS,  C.,  a  Roman  poet,  was  born 
about  A.D.  25.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  uncer- 
tain, as  is  also  the  import  of  his  surname  Ital- 
icus.  From  his  early  years  he  devoted  himself 
to  oratory  and  poetry,  taking  Cicero  as  his  mod- 
el in  the  former  and  Virgil  in  the  latter.  He 
acquired  great  reputation  as  an  advocate,  and 
was  afterward  one  of  the  Centum  viri.  He  was 
consul  in  68,  the  year  in  which  Nero  perished  ; 
he  was  admitted  to  familiar  intercourse  with 
Vitellius,  and  was  subsequently  proconsul  of 
Asia.  His  two  favorite  residences  were  a  man- 
sion near  Puteoli,  formerly  the  Academy  of 
Cicero,  and  the  house  in  the  vicinity  of  Naples 
once  occupied  by  Virgil;  and  here  he  continued 
to  reside  until  he  had  completed  his  seventy- 
fifth  year,  when,  in  consequence  of  the  pain 
caused  by  an  incurable  disease,  he  starved  him- 
self to  death.  The  great  work  of  Silius  Ital- 
icus  was  a  heroic  poem  in  seventeen  books,  en- 
titled Punica,  which  has  descended  to  us  en- 
tire. It  contains  a  narrative  of  the  events  of 
the  second  Punic  war,  from  the  capture  of  Sa- 
guntum  to  the  triumph  of  Scipio  Africanus. 
The  materials  are  derived  almost  entirely  from 
Livy  and  Polybius.  It  is  a  dull,  heavy  per- 
formance, and  hardly  deserves  the  name  of  a 
poem.  The  best  editions  are  by  Drakenborch, 
4to,  Traj.  ad  Rhen.,  1717,  and  Ruperti,  2  vols. 
8vo,  Goetting.,  1795. 

[SiLo  ABRONIUS.     Vid.  ABRONIUS  SILO.] 

SILO,  Q.  POMP^EDIUS,  the  leader  of  the  Marsi 
in  the  Social  war,  and  the  soul  of  the  whole  un- 
dertaking. He  fell  in  battle  against  Q.  Metellus 
Pius,  B.C.  88,  and  with  his  death  the  war  came 
to  an  end. 

SILO  (ZtAw,  ST/AW,  ZT/^WK,  2i?,ovv :  in  the  Old 
Testament,  Shiloh  and  Shilon  :  ruins  at  Sei- 
lun),  a  city  of  Palestine,  in  the  mountains  of 
Ephraim,  in  the  district  afterward  called  Sama- 
ria; important  as  the  seat  of  the  sacred  ark  and 
the  tabernacle  from  the  time  of  Joshua  to  the 
capture  of  the  ark  in  the  time  of  Eli,  after  which 
it  seems  to  have  fallen  into  insignificance,  though 
it  is  occasionally  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

SILO  AH,  SILOAM  (StAwd,  ZtAud/K  :  in  the  Old 
Testament,  Shiloah  :  now  Siloah),  a  celebrated 
fountain  in  the  southeast  of  Jerusalem,  just 
without  the  city,  at  the  southern  entrance  of 
the  valley  called  Tyropoeon,  between  the  hills  of 
Zion  and  Moriah.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  ebb 
and  flow  of  its  waters  at  the  different  seasons. 

[SILPIA,  a  city  of  Hispania  Beelica,  north  of 
the  Baetis,  to  be  sought  for  in  the  Sierra  More- 
na.  Reichard  considers  it  as  identical  with  the 
'HAtyya  of  Polybius,  which  lay  in  this  same  re- 
gion, and  as  corresponding  to  the  modern  Li- 
nares.'] i 

SILSILIS  (S/Afft/Uc  :  now  ruins  at  Hajjar  Scl- 
sclih  or  Jebd  Selselch),  a  fortified  station  in  Up- 
per Egypt,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile, 
south  of  Apollinopolis  the  Great.  The  name 
signifies  the  Rock  or  Hill  of  a  Chain,  and  is  de- 
rived from  the  circumstance  of  the  river  flow- 
ing here  in  a  ravine  so  narrow  that  a  chain  can 
easily  be  stretched  across  it  to  command  the 
navigation. 


SIMARISTUS. 

SILURES,  a  powerful  people  in  Britain,  inhao- 
iting  South  Wales,  long  offered  a  formidable  re- 
sistance to  the  Romans,  and  were  the  only  peo- 
ple in  the  island  who  at  a  later  time  maintained 
their  independence  against  the  Saxons. 

[SiLus,  AI.BUCIUS  C.,  a  Roman  rhetorician,  a 
native  of  Novaria,  in  the  north  of  Italy,  was 
sedile  in  his  native  town.  Having  left  Novaria 
in  consequence  of  a  public  insult,  he  repaired 
to  Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  there 
acquired  great  renown  by  his  oratory  in  the 
school  of  Plancus.  Failing  in  one  of  his  causes 
as  a  pleader,  he  left  Rome  for  Milan,  but  finally 
retired  to  his  native  town,  and  there  put  an  end 
to  his  life.] 

[SiLus  DOMITIUS,  the  former  husband  of  Ar- 
ria  Galla,  whom  he  quietly  surrendered  to 
Piso.] 

SILVANUS,  a  Latin  divinity  of  the  fields  and 
forests,  to  whom  in  the  earliest  times  the  Tyr- 
rhenian Pelasgians  are  said  to  have  dedicated 
a  grove  and  a  festival.  He  is  also  called  the 
protector  of  the  boundaries  of  fields.  In  con- 
nection with  woods  (syhestris  deus),  he  espe- 
cially presided  over  plantations,  and  delighted 
in  trees  growing  wild  ;  whence  he  is  represent- 
ed as  carrying  the  trunk  of  a  cypress.  Respect- 
ing his  connection  with  cypress,  moreover,  the 
following  story  is  told.  Silvanus,  or,  accord- 
ing to  others,  Apollo,  once  killed  by  accident  a 
hind  belonging  to  the  youth  Cyparissus,  with 
whom  the  god  was  in  love  :  the  youth,  in  con- 
sequence, died  of  grief,  and  was  metamorphosed 
into  a  cypress.  Silvanus  is  further  described 
as  the  divinity  protecting  the  flocks  of  cattle, 
warding  off  wolves,  and  promoting  their  fertil- 
ity. Being  the  god  of  woods  and  flocks,  he  is 
also  described  as  fond  of  music ;  the  syrinx 
was  sacred  to  him,  and  he  is  mentioned  along 
with  the  Pans  and  Nymphs.  Later  writers  even 
identified  Silvanus  with  Pan,  Faunns,  Inuus, 
and  JEgipan.  In  the  Latin  poets,  as  well  as  in 
works  of  art,  he  always  appears  as  an  old  man, 
but  as  cheerful  and  in  love  with  Pomona.  The 
sacrifices  offered  to  him  consisted  of  grapes, 
corn-ears,  milk,  meat,  wine,  and  pigs. 

SILVIUM  (Silvinus),  a  town  of  the  Peucetii  in 
Apulia,  on  the  borders  of  Lucania,  twenty  miles 
southeast  of  Venusia. 

SILVIUS,  the  son  of  Ascanius,  is  said  to  have 
been  so  called  because  he  was  born  in  a  wood. 
All  the  succeeding  kings  of  Alba  bore  the  cog- 
nomen Silvius.  The  series  of  these  mythical 
kings  is  given  somewhat  differently  by  Livy, 
Ovid,  and  Dionysius,  as  the  following  list  will 
show  : 

Livy.  Odd.  Dionyiius. 

1.  JEne&s.  JEneta.        JEw.t*. 

2.  Ascanius.  Ascanius.     Ascanius. 

3.  Silvius.  Silvius.         Silvius. 

4.  /Kin-its  Silvius.  /Kncns  Sl/vius. 

5.  Latinus  Silvius.       Latinus.       Latinus  Silvias. 

6.  Alba.  Alba.  Alba. 

7.  Atys.  Epytus.        Capetus. 

8.  Capys.  Capys.         Capys  Silvius. 

9.  Capetus.  Capetus.      Calpetus. 

10.  Tiberioiis.  Tiberinus.  Tibcrinus. 

11.  Agrippa.  Remulus.  Agrijipa. 

12.  Romulus  Silvias.  Acrota.  AlladiuB. 

13.  Aventinus.  Aventinus.  Aventinus. 

14.  Proca.  Palatinus.  Proms. 

15.  Amulius.  Amulius.  Atnulius. 

(Z<^d/3«jTOf),  a  Greek  gramma- 
813 


SIMBRIVII  LACUS. 

nan,  author  of  a  work  entitled  Swuwjta  in  at 
least  four  hooks.] 

[SIMBRIVII  LACUS,  called  by  Tacitus  SIMBRUI- 
NA  STAGNA,  three  small  lakes  formed  by  the 
Anio,  in  Latium,  between  Sublaqueum  and  Tre- 
ba,  famed  for  the  coolness  and  salutary  proper- 
ties of  their  waters.  They  were  used  by  Clau- 
dius to  increase  the  volume  of  the  Ar/un  Clau- 
dia (cid.  ROMA,  p.  754,  a),  and  by  Nero  to  irrigate 
and  beautify  his  Sublaquean  villa.] 

SIMMIAS  (Striae).  1.  Of  Thebes,  first  the 
disciple  of  the  Pythagorean  philosopher  Philo- 
latls,  and  afterward  the  friend  and  disciple  of 
Socrates,  at  whose  death  he  was  present,  hav- 
ing come  from  Thebes  with  his  brother  Cebes. 
The  two  brothers  are  the  principal  speakers, 
besides  Socrates  himself,  in  the  Ph.ced.on.  Sim- 
mias  wrote  twenty -three  dialogues,  on  philo- 
sophical subjects,  all  of  which  are  lost. — 2.  Of 
Rhodes,  a  poet  and  grammarian  of  the  Alexan- 
drean  school,  flourished  about  B.C.  300.  The 
Greek  Anthology  contains  six  epigrams  ascribed 
to  Simmias,  besides  three  short  poems  of  that 
fantastic  species  called  griphi  or  carmina  figu- 
rata,  that  is,  pieces  in  which  the  lines  are  so 
arranged  as  to  make  the  whole  poem  resemble 
the  form  of  some  object ;  those  of  Simmias  are 
entitled,  from  their  forms,  the  Wings  (nrepvyec), 
the  Egg  (uov),  and  the  Hatchet  (Trefaicvc). 

[SIMMIAS  (iy^ut'ar),  a  Macedonian,  son  of  An- 
dromenes,  phalanx-leader  in  the  army  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  at  the  battle  of  Arbela.  He 
was  charged,  along  with  his  brothers  Amyntas, 
Polemon,  and  Attalus,  with  being  concerned  in 
the  conspiracy  of  Philotas,  but  was  acquitted.] 

SIMOIS.  Vid.TROAs.  As  a  mythological  per- 
sonage, the  river-god  Simois  is  the  son  of  Ocea- 
nus  and  Tethys,  and  the  father  of  Astyochus 
and  Hierotnneme. 

[SiMoisius  (Ztpof/fftof),  a  Trojan  warrior,  son 
of  Anthemion,  slain  in  battle  by  Ajax,  son  of 
Telamon.  He  was  called  Simoisius  because  he 
was  born  on  the  banks  of  the  Simois.] 

SIMON  (2i//wv).  1.  One  of  the  disciples  of 
Socrates,  and  by  trade  a  leather-cutter.  Soc- 
rates was  accustomed  to  visit  his  shop,  and 
converse  with  him  on  various  subjects.  These 
conversations  Simon  afterward  committed  to 
writing,  in  thirty-three  dialogues,  all  of  which 
are  lost. — 2.  Of  ^Egina,  a  celebrated  statuary  in 
bronze,  who  flourished  about  B.C.  475. 

SIMONIDES  (2</iwv«J>7f).  1-  Of  Amorgos,  was 
the  second,  both  in  time  and  in  reputation,  of 
the  three  principal  iambic  poets  of  the  early  pe- 
riod of  Greek  literature,  namely,  Archilochus, 
Simonides,  and  Hipponax.  He  was  a  native 
of  Samos,  whence  he  led  a  colony  to  the  neigh- 
boring island  of  Amorgos,  where  he  founded 
three  cities,  Minoa,  ^Egialus,  and  Arcesine,  in 
the  first  of  which  he  fixed  his  own  abode.  He 
flourished  about  B.C.  664.  Simonides  was  most 
celebrated  for  his  iambic  poems,  which  were  of 
two  species,  gnomic  and  satirical.  The  most 
important  of  his  extant  fragments  is  a  satire 
upon  women,  in  which  he  derives  the  various, 
though  generally  bid  qualities  of  women  from 
the  variety  of  their  origin  ;  thus  the  uncleanly 
woman  is  formed  from  the  swine  ;  the  cunning 
woman,  from  the  fox  ;  the  talkative  woman, 
from  the  dog,  and  so  on.  The  oest  separate 
edition  of  the  fragments  of  Simonides  of  Amor- 
814 


SIMPLICIUS 

gos  is  by  Weleker,  Bonn,  1835  —2.  Of  Ceos 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  lyric  poets  of  Greece, 
was  the  perfecter  of  the  Elegy  and  Epigram, 
and  the  rival  of  Lasus  and  Pindar  in  the  Dithy- 
ramb and  the  Epinician  Ode.  He  was  born  at 
lulis,  in  Ceos,  B.C.  556,  and  was  the  son  of 
Leoprepes.  He  appears  to  have  been  brought 
up  to  music  and  poetry  as  a  profession.  From 
his  native  island  he  proceeded  to  Athens,  prob- 
ably on  the  invitation  of  Hipparchus,  who  at- 
tached him  to  his  society  by  great  rewards. 
After  remaining  at  Athens  some  time,  probably 
even  after  the  expulsion  of  Hippias,  he  went  to 
Thessaly,  where  he  lived  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Aleuads  and  Scopads.  He  afterward  re- 
turned to  Athens,  and  soon  had  the  noblest  op- 
portunity of  employing  his  poetic  powers  in  the 
celebration  of  the  great  events  of  the  Persian 
wars.  In  489  he  conquered  ^Eschylus  in  the 
contest  for  the  prize  which  the  Athenians  of- 
fered for  an  elegy  on  those  who  fell  at  Mara- 
thon. Ten  years  later  he  composed  the  epi- 
grams which  were  inscribed  upon  the  tomb  of 
the  Spartans  who  fell  at  Thermopylae,  as  well 
as  an  encomium  on  the  same  heroes ;  and  he 
also  celebrated  the  battles  of  Artemisium  and 
Salamis,  and  the  great  men  who  commanded  in 
them.  He  had  completed  his  eightieth  year, 
when  his  long  poetical  career  at  Athens  was 
crowned  by  the  victory  which  he  gained  with- 
the  dithyramhic  chorus  (477),  being  the  fifty- 
sixth  prize  which  he  had  carried  oft'.  Shortly 
after  this  he  was  invited  to  Syracuse  by  Hiero, 
at  whose  court  he  lived  till  his  death  in  467. 
Simonides  was  a  great  favorite  with  Hiero,  and 
was  treated  by  the  tyrant  with  the  greatest  mu- 
nificence. He  still  continued,  when  at  Syra- 
cuse, to  employ  his  rnuse  occasionally  in  the 
service  of  other  Grecian  states.  Simonides  is 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  mnemonic 
art,  and  of  the  long  vowels  and  double  letters  in 
the  Greek  alphabet.  He  made  literature  a  pro- 
fession, and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
took  money  for  his  poems;  and  the  reproach 
of  avarice  is  too  often  brought  against  him  by 
his  contemporary  and  rival,  Pindar,  as  well  as 
by  subsequent  writers,  to  be  altogether  discred- 
ited. The  chief  characteristics  of  the  poetry 
of  Simonides  were  sweetness  (whence  his  sur- 
name of  Mcliccrtes)  and  elaborate  finish,  com- 
bined with  the  truest  poetic  conception  and  per- 
fect power  of  expression,  though  in  originality 
and  fervor  he  was  far  inferior,  not  only  to  the 
early  lyric  poets,  such  as  Sappho  and  Alcaeus, 
but  also  to  his  contemporary  Pindar.  He  was 
probably  both  the  most  prolific  and  the  most 
generally  popular  of  all  the  Grecian  lyric  poets. 
The  general  character  of  his  dialect  is  the  Epic, 
mingled  with  Doric  and  JEolic  forms.  The  best 
edition  of  his  fragments  in  a  separate  form  is 
by  Schneidewin,  Bruns.,  1835.— [3.  An  Athe- 
nian genqfal,  who  seized  upon  Eion,  in  Thrace, 
in  the  course  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  B.C. 
425,  but  held  it  for  a  short  time,  since  he  was 
soon  expelled  with  loss  by  the  Chalcidians  and 
Bottiaeans.] 

SiMPLicIus  (2i0jrAi/tiof),  one  of  the  last  phi- 
losophers of  the  Neo-Platonic  school,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Cilicia,  and  a  disciple  of  Ammonius  and 
Damascius.  In  consequence  of  the  persecu- 
tions to  which  the  pagan  philosophers  were  ev 


SIMYRA. 

posed  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  Simplicius  was 
one  of  the  seven  philosophers  who  took  refuge 
at  the  court  of  the  Persian  king  Chosrogs. 
These  philosophers  returned  home  about  A.D. 
533.  in  consequence  of  a  treaty  of  peace  con- 
cluded between  Chosroes  and  Justinian,  in 
which  the  former  had  stipulated  that  the  phi- 
losophers should  be  allowed  to  return  without 
risk,  and  to  practice  the  rites  of  their  paternal 
faith.  Of  the  subsequent  fortunes  of  the  seven 
philosophers  we  learn  nothing,  nor  do  we  know 
where  Simplicius  lived  and  taught.  Simplicius 
wrote  commentaries  on  several  of  Aristotle's 
works.  His  commentaries  on  the  Categories, 
on  the  De  Calo,  on  the  Physica  Auscultatio, 
and  on  the  De  Anima,  are  extant.  In  explain- 
ing Aristotle,  Simplicius  endeavors  to  show  that 
Aristotle  agrees  with  Plato  even  on  those  points 
which  the  former  controverts ;  but,  though  he 
attaches  himself  too  much  to  the  Neo-Plato- 
nists,  his  commentaries  are  marked  by  sound 
6^-nse  and  real  learning.  He  also  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Enchiridion  of  Epictetus,  which 
is  likewise  extant,  [and  published  in  Schweig- 
haeuser's  EpictctecE  Philosophies  Monumenta,\o\. 
iv. ;  and  in  Didot's  Scriptores  Ethici  Graci,  Par- 
is, 1840.] 

SIMYRA  (TO.  2/ui'pa  :  now  Zamura  or  Sumore), 
a  fortress  on  the  coast  of  Phoenice,  between  Or- 
thosias  and  the  mouth  of  the  Eleutherus,  of  no 
importance  except  as  being  the  point  from  which 
the  northern  part  of  Lebanon  was  usually  ap- 
proached. 

SIN^E  (Smu),  the  easternmost  people  of  Asia, 
of  whom  nothing  but  the  name  was  known  to 
the  western  nations  till  about  the  time  of  Ptol- 
emy, who  describes  their  country  as  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Serica,  and  on  the  south  and  west 
by  India  extra  Gangem.  It  corresponded  to  the 
southern  part  of  China  and  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Burmese  peninsula.  The  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  the  knowledge  of  the  ancient  geographers 
concerning  it  does  not  fall  within  the  province 
of  this  work. 

SINAI  or  SIN  A  (LXX.  Stvu  :  now  Jelel-et-  Tur), 
a  cluster  of  dark,  lofty,  rocky  mountains  in  the 
southern  angle  of  the  triangular  peninsula  in- 
closed between  the  two  heads  of  the  Red  Sea, 
and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  deserts  on  the 
borders  of  Egypt  and  Palestine.  The  name, 
whicli  signifies  a  region  of  broken  and  cleft  rocks, 
is  used  in  a  wider  sense  for  the  whole  penin- 
sula, which  formed  a  part  of  Arabia  Petraea,  and 
was  peopled,  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  by  the 
Amalekites  and  Midianites,  and  afterward  by 
the  Nabathaean  Arabs.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
name  is  applied,  in  a  narrower  sense,  to  one 
particular  ridge  in  the  Sinaitic  group  of  mount- 
ains running  north  and  south,  and  terminated  by 
two  summits,  of  which  the  one  on  the  north  is 
called  Jlorcb,  and  the  one  on  the  south  Sinai  or 
Jebel  Musa,  i.  e.,  Moses'  Mount.  From  the  lat- 
ter name,  assigned  by  tradition,  it  has  usually, 
but  too  hastily,  been  inferred  that  the  southern 
summit  was  that  on  which  God  gave  the  law  to 
Moses.  The  fact  seems,  however,  to  be  that 
Sinai  and  Horeb  in  the  Old  Testament  are  both 
general  names  for  the  whole  group,  the  former 
being  used  in  the  first  four  books  of  Moses,  and 
the  latter  in  Deuteronomy ;  and  that  the  sum- 
mil  on  which  the  law  was  given  was  probably 


SINON. 

that  on  the  north,  or  the  one  usually  called 
Horeb. 

SINDA  (2u><5a  :  2iv(5et<f,  Sindensis).  1.  A  city 
of  Pisidia,  north  of  Cibyra,  near  the  River  Cau- 
laris. — 2,  3.  Vid.  SINDI. 

SINDI  (2o><Jcu).  1.  A  people  of  Asiatic  Sar- 
matia,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Euxine,  and 
at  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus.  They  probably 
dwelt  in  and  about  the  peninsula  of  Tainan  (be- 
tween the  Sea  of  Azov  and  the  Black  Sea),  and 
to  the  south  of  the  River  Hypanis  (now  Kou- 
ban).  They  had  a  capital  called  SINDA  (now 
Anapa?),  with  a  harbor  (Stv<5//cdf  fanijv).  Their 
country  is  called  SmJ/K)?.  They  are  also  men- 
tioned by  the  names  of  SINDONES  and  SINDIANI. 
— 2.  A  people  on  the  eastern  coast  of  India  ex- 
;  tra  Gangem  (in  Cochin  China),  also  called  SIND^E 
(2m5a<),  and  with  a  capital  city,  SINDA. 

SINDICE.     Vid.  SINDI. 

SINDOMANA  (now  Sehwun  ?),  a  city  of  India, 
on  the  lower  course  of  the  Indus,  near  the  isl- 
and of  Pattalene. 

SINDUS  (2iWof),  a  town  in  the  Macedonian 
district  of  Mygdonia,  on  the  Thermaic  Gulf,  and 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Echedorus. 

SINGARA  (TU  2tyyapa  :  now  Sinjarl),  a  strong- 
ly fortified  city  and  Roman  colony  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Mesopotamia,  eighty-four  Roman  miles 
south  of  Nisibis.  It  lay  in  a  dry  plain,  at  the 
!  foot  of  Mount  Singaras  (now  Sinjar),  an  east- 
ern prolongation  of  Mount  Masius.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  of  Constantius  by  Sapor, 
through  which  the  place  was  lost  to  the  Ro- 
mans. 

SINOIDUNUM  (now  Belgrad),  a  town  in  Moesia 
Superior,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Savus  and  the 
Danube,  was  a  strong  fortress,  and  the  head- 
quarters of  a  legion. 

[SiNGiLi  or  SINGILIS,  a  town  of  Hispania  Bas- 
tica,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  found  at  Castillon.] 

SINGITICUS  SINUS.     Vid.  SINGUS. 

SINGUS  (2/yyof  :  StyyaiOf),  a  town  in  Mace- 
donia, on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula  Si- 
thonia,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  Sinus  Sin- 
giticus. 

SINIS  or  SINNIS  (2t'wf  or  Zivvif ),  son  of  Poly- 
pemon,  Pemon  or  Neptune  (Poseidon)  by  Sylea, 
the  daughter  of  Corinthus.  He  was  a  robber, 
who  frequented  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  and 
killed  the  travellers  whom  he  captured  by  fast- 
ening them  to  the  top  of  a  fir-tree,  which  he 
curbed,  and  then  let  spring  up  again.  He  him- 
self was  killed  in  this  manner  by  Theseus.  The 
name  is  connected  with  oivouai. 

SINON  (Sa-uv),  son  of  ^Esimus,  or,  according 
to  Virgil  (/En.,  ii.,  79),  of  Sisyphus,  and  grand- 
son of  Autolicus,  was  a  relation  of  Ulysses, 
whom  he  accompanied  to  Troy.  After  the 
Greeks  had  constructed  the  wooden  horse,  Si- 
non  mutilated  his  person  in  order  to  make  the 
Trojans  believe  that  he  had  been  maltreated  by 
the  Greeks,  and  then  allowed  himself  to  be 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Trojans.  lip  informed 
!  the  Trojans  that  the  wooden  horse  had  been 
j  constructed  as  an  atonement  for  the  Palladium 
which  had  been  carried  off  by  the  Greeks,  and 
;  that  if  they  would  drag  it  into  their  own  city, 
1  Asia  would  gain  the  supremacy  over  Greece. 
i  The  Trojans  believed  the  deceiver,  and  dragged 
I  the  horse  into. the  city;  whereupon  Sinon,  in 

816 


SINOPE. 


SIRBONIS  LACUS. 


the  dead  of  night,  let  the  Greeks  out  of  the  horse, 
who  thus  took  Troy. 

SINOPE  (StvwTn? :  StvuwEVf,  Sinopensis  :  ruins 
at  Sinopc,  Sinoub),  the  most  important  of  all  the 
Greek  colonies  on  the  shores  of  the  Euxine, 
stood  on  the  northern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  on 
the  western  headland  of  the  great  hay  of  which 
the  delta  of  the  River  Halys  forms  the  eastern 
headland,  and  a  little  east  of  the  northernmost 
promontory  of  Asia  Minor.  Thus  placed,  and 
built  on  a  peninsula,  the  neck  of  which  formed 
two  Cie  harhors,  it  had  every  advantage  for  be- 
coming a  great  maritime  city.  Its  foundation 
was  referred  mythically  to  the  Argonaut  Auto- 
lycus,  who  was  worshipped  in  the  city  as  a 
hero,  and  had  an  oracle  ;  but  it  appears  in  his- 
tory as  a  very  early  colony  of  the  Milesians. 
Having  been  destroyed  in  the  invasion  of  Asia 
by  the  Cimmerians,  it  was  restored  by  a  new 
colony  from  Miletus,  B.C.  632,  and  soon  became 
the  greatest  commercial  city  on  the  Euxine. 
Several  colonies  were  established  by  the  Sino- 
pians  on  the  adjacent  coasts,  the  chief  of  which 
were  Cotyora,  Trapezus,  and  Cerasus.  Its  ter- 
ritory, called  SINOPIS  (2u>u7r/f,  also  2tvw7rmf), 
extended  to  the  banks  of  the  Halys.  It  remain- 
ed an  independent  state  till  it  was  taken  by 
Pharnaces  I.,  king  of  Pontus.  It  was  the  birth- 
place and  residence  of  Mithradates  the  Great, 
who  enlarged  and  beautified  it.  After  an  ob- 
stinate resistance  to  the  Romans  under  Lucul- 
lus,  it  was  taken  and  plundered,  and  proclaimed 
a  free  city.  Shortly  before  the  murder  of  Julius 
Caesar,  it  was  colonized  by  the  name  of  Julia 
Caesarea  Felix  Sinope,  and  remained  a  flourish- 
ing city,  though  it  never  recovered  its  former 
importance.  At  the  time  of  Constantine,  it  had 
declined  so  much  as  to  be  ranked  second  to 
Amasia.  In  addition  to  its  commerce,  Sinope 
was  greatly  enriched  by  its  fisheries.  It  was 
the  native  city  of  the  renowned  cynic  philoso- 
pher Diogenes,  of  the  comic  poet  Diphilus,  and 
of  the  historian  Baton. 

SINTICA,  a  district  in  Macedonia,  inhabited  by 
the  Thracian  people  SINTI,  extended  east  of 
Crestonia  and  north  of  Bisaltia  as  far  as  the 
Strymon  and  the  Lake  Prasias.  Its  chief  town 
was  Heraclea  Sintica.  The  Sinti  were  spread 
over  other  parts  of  ancient  Thrace,  and  are 
identified  by  Strabo  with  the  Sintians  (Sorter) 
of  Homer,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Lemnos. 

SINUESSA  (Sinuessanus  :  now  Rocca  di  Man- 
dragonc),  the  last  city  of  Latium  on  the  confines 
of  Campania,  to  which  it  originally  belonged, 
was  situated  on  the  sea-coast  and  on  the  Via 
Appia,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  country.  It  was 
colonized  by  the  Romans,  together  with  the 
neighboring  town  of  Minturnae,  B.C.  296.  It 
possessed  a  good  harbor,  and  was  a  place  of 
considerable  commercial  importance.  In  its 
neighborhood  were  celebrated  warm  baths,  called 

A(JU.*  SlNUESSAN.ffl. 

SIGN.     Vid.  JERUSALEM. 

[SiPH^E  (2i0ai)  or  TIPH^E,  a  port  town  of  Bre- 
otia,  on  the  Mare  Alcyonium,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Thisbe  and  the  port  Eutretus,  where, 
according  to  Pausanias,  was  a  temple  of  Her- 
cules, at  which  yearly  games  were  celebrated. 
It  was  famed,  also,  as  the  birth-place  of  Tiphys, 
the  pilot  of  the  Argo ;  Miiller  and  Kiepert  iden- 
tify it  with  the  modern  Aliki.'}  . 
911 


SIPHNUS  (2/0fOf  :  S/pvtof  :  now  Siphno)..  an 
island  in  the  JSgean  Sea,  forming  one  of  tlis 
Cyclades,  southeast  of'  Seriphus.  It  is  of  an 
oblong  form,  and  about  forty  miles  in  circum- 
ference. Its  original  name  was  Merope  ;  and 
it  was  colonized  by  lonians  from  Athens.  In 
consequence  of  their  gold  and  silver  mines,  of 
which  the  remains  are  still  visible,  the  Siphnians 
attained  great  prosperity,  and  were  regarded  in 
the  time  of  Herodotus  as  the  wealthiest  of  the 
fslanders.  Their  treasury  at  Delphi,  in  which 
they  deposited  the  tenth  of  the  produce  of  theii 
mines,  was  equal  in  wealth  to  that  of  any  othei 
Greek  state.  Their  riches,  however,  exposed 
them  to  pillage  ;  and  a  party  of  Samian  exiles 
in  the  time  of  Polycrates  invaded  the  island, 
and  compelled  them  to  pay  one  hundred  talents 
Siphnus  was  one  of  the  few  islands  which  re 
fused  tribute  to  Xerxes  ;  and  one  of  its  ships 
fought  on  the  side  of  the  Greeks  at  Salamis. 
At  a  later  time  the  mines  were  less  productive  ; 
and  Pausanias  relates  that  in  consequence  of 
the  Siphnians  neglecting  to  send  the  tithe  of 
their  treasure  to  Delphi,  the  god  destroyed  their 
mines  by  an  inundation  of  the  sea.  The  moral 
character  of  the  Siphnians  stood  low,  and  hence 
to  act  like  a  Siphnian  (ZiQvid&tv)  became  a 
term  of  reproach. 

SIPONTUM  or  SIPUNTOM  (Sipontinus  :  now  Si- 
panto),  called  by  the  Greeks  SIPUS  CZmovf,  -ovv 
rof),  an  ancient  town  in  Apulia,  in  the  district 
of  Daunia,  on  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Gar- 
ganus,  and  on  the  coast.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Diomedes,  and  was  of  Greek  origin. 
It  was  colonized  by  the  Romans,  under  whom 
it  became  a  place  of  some  commercial  import- 
ance. The  inhabitants  were  removed  from  th« 
town  by  King  Manfred  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
in  consequence  of  the  unhealthy  nature  of  the 
locality,  and  were  settled  in  the  neighboring 
town  of  Manfredonia,  founded  by  this  monarch. 

SiPYLUs(St7rvAof :  now  Sipuli-Dagh),  a  mount- 
ain of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  of  volcanic  forma- 
tion, and  rent  and  splintered  by  frequent  earth- 
quakes. It  is  a  branch  of  the  T molus,  from  the 
main  chain  of  which  it  proceeds  northwest  along 
the  course  of  the  River  Hermus  as  far  as  Mag- 
nesia and  Sipylum.  It  is  mentioned  by  Homer. 
The  ancient  capital  of  Maeonia  was  said  to  have 
been  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  mountain  chain, 
and  to  have  been  called  by  the  same  name  ;  but 
it  was  early  swallowed  up  by  an  earthquake, 
and  its  site  became  a  little  lake  called  Sale  ot 
Saloe,  near  which  was  a  tumulus,  supposed  to 
be  the  grave  of  Tantalus.  The  mountain  was 
rich  in  metals,  and  many  mines  were  worked 
in  it. 

SIRACENE  (StpamfvjJ).  1.  A  district  of  Hyr- 
cania. — 2.  A  district  of  Armenia  Major. — 3.  Vid. 

SlRACENI. 

SlRACENI,  SlRACI,  SlRACES  (ZlpaKTfVOt,  ZtpdKOl, 

SipanEf),  a  powerful  people  of  Sarmatia  Asiatica, 
dwelt  in  the  district  of  Siracene,  east  of  the 
Palus  Maeotis,  as  far  as  the  River  Rha  (now 
Volga).  The  Romans  were  engaged  in  a  war 
with  them  in  A.D.  50. 

SIRBONIS  LACUS  (2ip6uvi6of  Mfivij,  afterward 
2ip6uvif  Mfivri  and  "Lip6uv  :  now  Sabakat  Bar- 
dowal),  a  large  and  deep  lake  on  the  coast  of 
Lower  Egypt,  east  of  Mount  Casius.  Its  circuit 
was  one  thousand  stadia.  It  was  strongly  im- 


SIRENES. 

pregnated  with  asphaltus.  A  connection  (called 
ro  Enpeyfta)  existed  between  the  lake  and  the 
Mediterranean  ;  but  this  being  stopped  up,  the 
lake  grew  continually  smaller  by  evaporation, 
and  it  is  now  nearly  dry. 

SIRENES  (Sftpr/pff),  sea-nymphs  who  had  the 
power  of  charming  by  their  songs  all  who  heard 
them.  When  Ulysses  came  near  the  island  on 
the  beach  of  which  the"  Sirens  were  sitting,  and 
endeavoring  to  allure  him  and  his  companions, 
he  stuffed  the  ears  of  his  companions  with  wax, 
and  tied  himself  to  the  mast  of  his  vessel,  until 
he  was  so  far  off  that  he  could  no  longer  hear 
their  song.  According  to  Homer,  the  island 
of  the  Sirens  was  situated  between  ^Eoea  and 
the  rock  of  Scylla,  near  the  southwestern  coast 
of  Italy ;  but  the  Roman  poets  place  them  on 
the  Campanian  coast.  Homer  says  nothing  of 
their  number,  but  later  writers  mention  both 
their  names  and  number ;  some  state  that  they 
were  two,  Aglaopheme  and  Thelxiepla  ;  and 
others  that  there  were  three,  Pisinoe,  AgJaope, 
and  Thelxiepla,  or  Parthenope,  Ligia,  and  Leu- 
cosia.  They  are  called  daughters  of  Phorcus, 
of  Achelous  and  Sterope,  of  Terpsichore,  of 
Melpomene,  of  Calliope,  or  of  Gaea.  The  Sirens 
are  also  connected  with  the  legends  of  the  Ar- 
gonauts and  the  rape  of  Proserpina  (Perseph- 
one). When  the  Argonauts  sailed  by  the  Si- 
rens, the  latter  began  to  sing,  but  in  vain,  for 
Orpheus  surpassed  them;  and  as  it  had  been 
decreed  that  they  should  live  only  till  some  one 
hearing  their  song  should  pass  by  unmoved,  they 
threw  themselves  into  the  sea,  and  were  meta- 
morphosed into  rocks.  Later  poets  represent 
them  as  provided  with  wings,  which  they  are 
said  to  have  received  at  their  own  request,  in 
order  to  be  able  to  search  after  Proserpina  (Per- 
sephone), or  as  a  punishment  from  Ceres  (De- 
ineter)  for  not  having  assisted  Proserpina  (Per- 
sephone), or  from  Venus  (Aphrodite),  because 
they  wished  to  remain  virgins.  Once,  how- 
ever, they  allowed  themselves  to  be  prevailed 
upon  by  Juno  (Hera)  to  enter  into  a  contest  with 
the  Muses,  and,  being  defeated,  were  deprived 
of  their  wings. 

SIRENUS.E,  called  by  Virgil  (JEn.,  v.,  864)  Si- 
RENUM  scorn.!,  three  small  uninhabited  and 
rocky  islands  near  the  southern  side  of  the 
Promontorium  Misenum,  off  the  coast  of  Cam- 
pania, which  were,  according  to  tradition,  the 
abode  of  the  Sirens. 

[SiRicius  (S<p/«tof),  of  Neapolis  in  Palestine, 
a  sophist  of  the  fourth  century  A.D.,  a  pupil  of 
Andromachus,  lived  and  taught  a  considerable 
time  at  Athens,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled  Pro- 
gymnasmata.] 

SIRIS.  1.  (Now  Sinno),  a  river  in  Lucania, 
flowing  into  the  Tarentine  Gulf,  memorable  for 
the  victory  which  Pyrrhus  gained  on  its  banks 
over  the  Romans. — 2.  (Now  Torre  di  Senna),  an 
ancient  Greek  town  in  Lucania,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  preceding  river.  Its  locality  was  un- 
healthy ;  and  after  the  foundation  of  the  neigh- 
boring town  of  Heraclea  by  the  Tarentines,  the 
inhabitants  of  Siris  were  removed  to  the  new 
town,  of  which  Siris  now  became  the  harbor. 

SiRMfo  (now  Sirmione),  a  beautiful  promon- 
tory on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Lacus  Bena- 
2us  (now  Lngo  di  Garda),  on  which  Catullus 
had  an  estate. 
53 


SISYGAMBIS. 

SIRMIUM  (now  Mitrovitz),  an  important  city  in 
Pannonia  Inferior,  was  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Savus.  It  was  founded  by  the  Taurisci, 
and  under  the  Romans  became  the  capital  of 
Pannonia,  and  the  head-quarters  of  all  their 
operations  in  their  wars  against  the  Dacians 
and  the  neighboring  barbarians.  It  contained 
a  large  manufactory  of  arms,  a  spacious  forum. 
an  imperial  palace,  etc.  It  was  the  residence 
of  the  admiral  of  the  first  Flavian  fleet  on  the 
Danube,  and  the  birth-place  of  the  Emperor 
Probus. 

[SISAMNES  (ZioapvTif),  a  Persian  judge  under 
Cambyses,  who  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death 
for  allowing  himself  to  be  bribed  to  an  unjust 
decision,  and  then  had  his  skin  stripped  off  and 
fastened  on  the  judicial  bench  where  he  had  sat 
in  judgment.  To  this  bench  he  appointed  his 
son  Otanes,  enjoining  upon  him  to  keep  his 
father's  fate  ever  in  mind.] 

SISAPON  (now  Almaden  in  the  Sierra  Morena), 
an  important  town  in  Hispania  Baetica,  north 
of  Corduba,  between  the  Baetis  and  Anas,  cele- 
brated for  its  silver  mines  and  Cinnabar. 

[SISCENNIUS  IACCHUS,  an  early  Roman  gram- 
marian, who  taught  in  Gallia  Togata.] 

SISCIA  (now  Sissek),  called  SEOESTA  by  Ap 
pian,  an  important  town  in  Pannonia  Superior, 
situated  upon  an  island  formed  by  the  rivers 
Savus,  Colapis,  and  Odra,  and  on  the  road  from 
^Emona  to  Sirmium.  It  was  a  strongly-fortified 
place,  and  was  conquered  by  Tiberius  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  from  which  time  it  became 
the  most  important  town  in  all  Pannonia.  It 
was  probably  made  a  colony  by  Tiberius,  and 
was  colonized  anew  by  Septimius  Severus.  At 
a  later  time  its  importance  declined,  and  Sir- 
mium became  the  chief  town  in  Pannonia. 

SISENNA,  L.  CORNELIUS,  a  Roman  annalist, 
was  praetor  in  the  year  when  Sulla  died  (B.C. 
78),  and  probably  obtained  Sicily  for  his  prov- 
ince in  77.  From  the  local  knowledge  thus  ac- 
quired he  was  enabled  to  render  good  service 
to  Verres,  whose  cause  he  espoused.  Dunn? 
the  piratical  war  (67)  he  acted  as  the  legate  of 
Pompey,  and  having  been  dispatched  to  Crete 
in  command  of  an  army,  died  in  that  island  at 
the  age  of  about  fifty-two.  His  great  work,  en- 
titled Historic,  which  contained  the  history  of 
his  own  time,  extended  to  at  least  fourteen  or 
nineteen  books,  [though  the  number  is  uncer- 
tain]. Cicero  pronounces  Sisenna  superior  as 
an  historian  to  any  of  his  predecessors.  In  ad- 
dition to  his  Historic*,  Sisenna  translated  the 
Milesian  fables  of  Aristides,  and  he  also  com- 
posed a  commentary  upon  Plautus.  [The  frag- 
ments of  his  Historice  are  collected  by  Krause 
in  his  Historicorum  Romanorum  Fragmenta,  p. 
303-315.] 

SISYGAMBIS  (2t<n5ya/u6tf),  mother  of  Darius 
Codomannus,  the  last  king  of  Persia,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Alexander  after  the  battle  of  Issus, 
B.C.  333,  together  with  the  wife  and  daughters 
of  Darius.  Alexander  treated  these  captives 
with  the  greatest  generosity  and  kindness,  and 
displayed  toward  Sisygambis,  in  particular,  a 
reverence  and  delicacy  of  conduct,  which  is  one 
of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  his  character. 
On  her  part,  Sisygambis  became  so  strongly  at- 
tached to  her  conqueror,  that  she  felt  his  death 
as  a  blow  not  less  severe  than  that  of  her  own 

817 


SISYPHIDES. 


SMERDIS. 


»on  ;  and,  overcome  by  this  long  succession  of 
misfortunes,  she  put  an  end  to  her  own  life  by 
voluntary  starvation. 

[SISYPHIDES.      Vid.  SISYPHUS.] 

SISYPHUS  ("Ziavfyof),  son  of  .^Eolus  and  Ena- 
rete,  whence  he  is  called  JEolides.  He  was 
married  to  Merope,  a  daughter  of  Atlas  or  a 
Pleiad,  and  became  by  her  the  father  of  Glaucus, 
Ornytion  (or  Porphyrion),  Thersander,  and  Hal- 
mus.  In  later  accounts  he  is  also  called  a  son 
of  Autolycus,  and  the  father  of  Ulysses  by  An- 
ticlea  (vid.  ANTICLEA),  whence  we  find  Ulysses 
sometimes  called  Sisyphidcs.  He  is  said  to  have 
built  the  town  of  Ephyra,  afterward  Corinth. 
As  king  of  Corinth  he  promoted  navigation  and 
commerce,  but  he  was  fraudulent,  avaricious, 
and  deceitful.  His  wickedness  during  life  was 
severely  punished  in  the  lower  world,  where  he 
had  to  roll  up  hill  a  huge  marble  block,  which, 
as  soon  as  it  reached  the  top,  always  rolled  down 
again.  The  special  reasons  for  this  punishment 
are  not  the  same  in  all  authors ;  some  relate 
that  it  was  because  he  had  betrayed  the  designs 
of  the  gods  ;  others,  because  he  attacked  trav- 
ellers, and  killed  them  with  a  huge  block  of 
stone  ;  and  others,  again,  because  he  had  be- 
trayed to  Asopus  that  Jupiter  (Zeus)  had  car- 
ried off  ^Egina,  the  daughter  of  the  latter.  The 
more  usual  tradition  related  that  Sisyphus  re- 
quested his  wife  not  to  bury  him,  and  that,  when 
she  complied  with  his  request,  Sisyphus  in  the 
lower  world  complained  of  this  seeming  neg- 
lect, and  obtained  from  Pluto  (Hades)  or  Proser- 
pina (Persephone)  permission  to  return  to  the 
upper  world  to  punish  his  wife.  He  then  re- 
fused to  return  to  the  lower  world,  until  Mer- 
cury (Hermes)  carried  him  off  by  force ;  and 
this  piece  of  treachery  is  said  to  have  been  the 
cause  of  his  punishment. 

SlTACE  Or  SlTTACE  (ZlTUKJ},  SlTTUKq  :  fUJHS  at 

Eski-  Bagdad),  a  great  and  populous  city  of 
Babylonia,  near  but  not  on  the  Tigris,  and  eight 
parasangs  within  the  Median  wall.  Its  prob- 
able site  is  marked  by  a  ruin  called  the  Tower 
of  Nimrod.  It  gave  the  name  of  Sittacene 
to  the  district  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Ti- 
gris east  of  Babylonia  and  northwest  of  Susi- 
ana. 

SITALCES  (2£rd?.K»/f),  king  of  the  Thracian 
tribe  of  the  Odrysians,  was  a  son  of  Teres, 
whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne.  He  increas- 
ed his  dominions  by  successful  wars,  so  that 
they  ultimately  comprised  the  whole  territory 
from  Abdera  to  the  mouths  of  the  Danube,  and 
from  Byzantium  to  the  sources  of  the  Strymon. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Athe- 
nians, and  in  429  he  invaded  Macedonia  with  a 
vast  army,  but  was  obliged  to  retire  through 
failure  of  provisions. 

[SITHON  (Ziduv),  king  of  Thrace,  and  father 
of  Pallene.  Vid.  SITHONIA.] 

SITHONIA  (2t0wvi'a),  the  central  one  of  the 
three  peninsulas  running  out  from  Chalcidice  in 
Macedonia,  between  the  Toronaic  and  Singitic 
Gulfs.  The  Thracians.«riginally  extended  over 
the  greater  part  of  Macedonia  ;  and  the  ancients 
derived  the  name  of  Sithonia  from  a  Thracian 
king  Sithon.  We  also  find  mention  of  a  Thra- 
cian people,  Sithonii,  on  the  shores  of  the  Pon- 
tusEuxinus;  and  the  poets  frequently  use  Si- 
818 


thonls  and  Sithonius  in  the  general  sense  o' 
Thracian. 

SITIKI  (Sm^a  :  ruins  at  Selif),  an  inland  cit* 
of  Mauretania  Caesariensis,  on  the  borders  ot 
Numidia,  stood  upon  a  hill,  in  an  extensive  and 
beautiful  plain.  It  first  became  an  important 
place  under  the  Romans,  who  made  it  a  colony ; 
and,  upon  the  subdivision  of  Mauretania  Cae- 
sariensis  into  two  provinces,*  it  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  eastern  province,  which  was  Call- 
ed after  it  Mauretania  Sitifensis. 

[Smus.     Vid.  SITTIUS.] 

SITONES,  a  German  tribe  in  Scandinavia,  be- 
longing to  the  race  of  the  Suevi. 

SITTACE,  SITTACENE.      Vid.  SITACE. 

SITTIUS  or  Smus,  P.,  of  Nuceria  in  Campa- 
nia, was  connected  with  Catiline,  and  went  to 
Spain  in  B.C.  64,  from  which  country  he  cross- 
ed over  into  Mauretania  in  the  following  year. 
It  was  said  that  P.  Sulla  had  sent  him  into 
Spain  to  excite  an  insurrection  against  the  Ro- 
man government;  and  Cicero  accordingly,  when 
he  defended  Sulla  in  62,  was  obliged  to  deny 
the  truth  of  the  charges  that  had  been  brought 
against  Sittius.  Sittius  did  not  return  to  Rome. 
His  property  in  Italy  was  sold  to  pay  his  debts, 
and  he  continued  in  Africa,  where  he  fought  in 
the  wars  of  the  kings  of  the  country.  He  join- 
ed Caesar  when  the  latter  came  to  Africa,  in  46, 
to  prosecute  the  war  against  the  Pompeian 
party.  He  was  of  great  service  to  Caesar  in 
this  war,  and  at  its  conclusion  was  rewarded 
by  Caesar  with  the  western  part  of  Numidia, 
where  he  settled  down,  distributing  the  land 
among  his  soldiers.  After  the  death  of  Caesar, 
Arabio,  the  son  of  Masinissa,  returned  to  Af- 
rica, and  killed  Sittius  by  stratagem. 

SIUPH  CSiov<f>),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  in  the 
Saitic  nome,  only  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (ii., 
172). 

SMARAGDUS  Mows  (S/uupaycSof  opoj- :  now  Jchel 
Zaburah),  a  mountain  of  Upper  Egypt,  near  the 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  north  of  Berenice.  The 
extensive  emerald  mines,  from  which  it  obtain- 
ed its  name,  were  worked  under  the  ancient 
kings  of  Egypt,  under  the  Ptolemies,  and  under 
the  Romans.  They  seem  to  have  been  ex- 
hausted, as  only  very  few  emeralds  are  now  and 
then  found  in  the  neighborhood. 

[SMENUS  (S/z^vof,  now  River  of  Passava),  a 
small  stream  of  Laconia,  rising  in  Mount  Tay- 
getus,  flowing  by  Las,  and  emptying  into  the 
Sinus  Laconicus  near  Gytheum.] 

SMERDIS  (2//e'p(5tf),  the  son  of  Cyrus,  was  mur- 
dered by  order  of  his  brother  Cambyses.    The 
death  of  Smerdis  was  kept  a  profound  secret ;  and 
accordingly,  when  the  Persians  became  weary 
of  the  tyranny  of  Cambyses,  one  of  the  Magians, 
named  Patizlthes,  who  had  been  left  by  Cam- 
byses in  charge  of  his  palace  and  treasures, 
availed  himself  of  the  likeness  of  his  brother  to 
the  deceased  Smerdis  to  proclaim  this  brother 
as  king,  representing  him  as  the  younger  son 
of  Cyrus.     Cambyses  heard  of  the  revolt  in 
Syria,  but  he  died  of  an  accidental  wound  in  the 
!  thigh  as  he  was  mounting  his  horse  to  march 
j  against  the  usurper.    The  false  Smerdis  was  ac- 
I  knowledged  as  king  by  the  Persians,  and  reign- 
!  ed  for  seven  months  without  opposition.     The 
j  leading  Persian  nobles,  however,  were  not  quite 
!  free  from  suspicion  ;  and  this  suspicion  was  in- 


SMERDOMENES. 

creased  by  the  king  never  inviting  any  of  them 
to  the  palace,  and  never  appearing  in  public. 
Among  the  nobles  who  entertained  these  suspi- 
cions was  Otanes,  whose  daughter  Phaedima  had 
been  one  of  the  wives  of  Cambyses,  and  had  been 
transferred  to  his  successor.  The  new  king 
had  some  years  before  been  deprived  of  his  ears 
by  Cyrus  for  some  offence ;  and  Otanes  per- 
suaded his  daughter  to  ascertain  whether  her 
master  had  really  lost  his  ears.  Phaedima  found 
out  that  such  was  the  fact,  and  communicated 
the  decisive  information  to  her  father.  Otanes 
thereupon  formed  a  conspiracy,  and,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  six  other  noble  Persians,  succeeded 
in  forcing  his  way  into  the  palace,  where  they 
slew  the  false  Smerdis  and  his  brother  Pati- 
zithes  in  the  eighth  month  of  their  reign,  B.C. 
521.  The  usurpation  of  the  false  Smerdis  was 
an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Medes,  to  whom 
the  Magians  belonged,  to  obtain  the  supremacy, 
of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  Cyrus.  The 
assassination  of  the  false  Smerdis  and  the  ac- 
cession of  Darius  Hystaspis  again  gave  the  as- 
cendency to  the  Persians  ;  and  the  anniversary 
of  the  day  on  which  the  Magians  were  massa- 
cred was  commemorated  among  the  Persians 
by  a  solemn  festival,  called  Magophonia,  on 
which  no  Magian  was  allowed  to  show  himself 
in  public.  The  real  nature  of  the  transaction 
is  also  shown  by  the  revolt  of  the  Medes  which 
followed  the  accession  of  Darius. 

[SMERDOMENES  (Luepo'ofifVTjc.),  son  of  Otanes, 
was  one  of  the  generals  who  had  the  supreme 
command  of  the  land  forces  of  Xerxes  in  his  in- 
vasion of  Greece.] 

[SMILAX,  a  beautiful  nymph  enamoured  of 
Crocus :  she  was  changed  by  the  gods  into  a 
flower.  Vid.  CROCUS.] 

SMILIS  (2//iA<f),  son  of  Euclides,  of  ^Egina, 
a  sculptor  of  the  legendary  period,  whose  name 
appears  to  be  derived  from  o/jftn,  a  knife  for 
carving  wood,  and  afterward  a  sculptor's  chisel. 
Smilis  is  the  legendary  head  of  the  ^Eginetan 
school  of  sculpture,  just  as  Daedalus  is  the  le- 
gendary head  of  the  Attic  and  Cretan  schools. 

SMINTHECS  (2/uv0n>f),  a  surname  of  Apollo, 
which  is  derived  by  some  from  auivQa^,  a  mouse, 
and  by  others  from  the  town  of  Sminthe  in 
Troas.  The  mouse  was  regarded  by  the  an- 
cients as  inspired  by  the  vapors  arising  from 
the  earth,  and  as  the  symbol  of  prophetic  power. 
In  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Chryse  there  was  a 
statue  of  the  god  by  Scopas,  with  a  mouse  under 
its  foot,  and  on  coins  Apollo  is  represented  car- 
rying a  mouse  in  his  hands.  Temples  of  Apol- 
\o  Smintheus  and  festivals  (Sminthla)  existed 
in  several  parts  of  Greece. 

SMYRNA  (2/ivpva)  or  MYRRHA.  For  details, 
'.id  ADONIS. 

SMYRNA,  and  in  many  MSS.  ZMYRNA  (Zfttpva  : 
Ion.  'Lfivpvri :  2//vpvoZof,  Smyrnaeus :  now  Smyr- 
na, Turk.  Izmir),  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
flourishing  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  only 
one  of  the  great  cities  on  its  western  coast 
which  has  survived  to  this  day,  stood  in  a  po- 
sition alike  remarkable  for  its  beauty  and  for 
other  natural  advantages.  Lying  just  about  the 
centre  of  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor;  on 
the  banks  of  the  little  River  Meles,  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  deep  bay,  the  Sinus  Hermwus  or  Smyr- 
nacus  (now  Gulf  of  Smyrna),  which  formed  a 


SMYRNA. 

safe  and  immense  harbor  for  the  largest  ship* 
up  to  the  very  walls  of  the  city ;  at  the  foot  of 
the  rich  slopes  of  Tmolus  and  at  the  entrance 
to  the  great  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Hermus,  in 
which  lay  the  great  and  wealthy  city  of  Sardis; 
and  in  the  midst  of  the  Greek  colonies  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  JCgean  ;  it  was  marked  out 
by  nature  as  one  of  the  greatest  emporiums  for 
the  trade  between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  has 
preserved  that  character  to  the  present  day. 
There  are  various  accounts  of  its  origin.  The 
most  probable  is  that  which  represents  it  as  an 
^Eolian  colony  from  Cyme.  At  an  early  period 
it  fell,  by  a  stratagem,  into  the  hands  of  the  lo- 
nians  of  Colophon,  and  remained  an  Ionian  city 
from  that  time  forth  :  this  appears  to  have  hap- 
pened before  Ol.  23  (B.C.  688).  As  to  the  time 
when  it  became  a  member  of  the  Panionic  con- 
federacy, we  have  only  a  very  untrustworthy 
account,  which  refers  its  admission  to  the  reign 
of  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus.  Its  early  history 
is  also  very  obscure.  There  is  an  account  in 
Strabo  that  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Lydian 
king  Sadyattes,  and  that  its  inhabitants  were 
compelled  to  live  in  scattered  villages  until  after 
the  Macedonian  conquest,  when  the  city  was 
rebuilt,  twenty  stadia  from  its  former  site,  by 
Antigonus ;  but  this  is  inconsistent  with  Pin- 
dar's mention  of  Smyrna  as  a  beautiful  city. 
Thus  much  is  clear,  however,  that  at  some  pe- 
riod the  old  city  of  Smyrna,  which  stood  on  the 
northeastern  side  of  the  Hermaean  Gulf,  was 
abandoned,  and  that  it  was  succeeded  by  a  new 
city,  on  the  southeastern  side  of  the  same  gulf 
(the  present  site),  which  is  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Antigonus,  and  which  was  enlarged  and 
beautified  by  Lysimachus.  This  new  city  stood 
partly  on  the  sea-shore  and  partly  on  a  hill  called 
Mastusia.  It  had  a  magnificent  harbor,  with 
such  a  depth  of  water  that  the  largest  ships 
could  lie  alongside  the  quays.  The  streets  were 
paved  with  stone,  and  crossed  one  another  at 
right  angles.  The  city  soon  became  one  of  the 
greatest  and  most  prosperous  in  the  world.  It 
was  especially  favored  by  the  Eomans  on  ac- 
count of  the  aid  it  rendered  them  in  the  Syrian 
and  Mithradatic  wars.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  con- 
ventus  juridicus.  In  the  Civil  Wars  it  was 
taken  and  partly  destroyed  by  Dolabella,  but  it 
soon  recovered.  It  occupies  a  distinguished 
place  in  the  early  history  of  Christianity,  as  one 
of  the  only  two  among  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia  which  St.  John  addresses  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse without  any  admixture  of  rebuke,  and  as 
the  scene  of  the  labors  and  martyrdom  of  Poly- 
carp.  In  the  years  A.D.  178-180,  a  succession 
of  earthquakes,  to  which  the  city  has  always 
been  much  exposed,  reduced  it  almost  to  ruins  ; 
but  it  was  restored  by  the  Emperor  M.  Antoni- 
nus. In  the  successive  wars  under  the  Eastern 
empire  it  was  frequently  much  injured,  but  al- 
ways recovered  ;  and,  under  the  Turks,  it  has 
survived  repeated  attacks  of  earthquake,  fire, 
and  plague,  and  still  remains  the  great  commer- 
cial city  of  the  Levant.  There  are  but  few 
ruins  of  the  ancient  city.  In  addition  to  all  hei 
other  sources  of  renown,  Smyrna  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  cities  which  claimed  the  birth  of 
Homer.  The  poet  was  worshipped  as  a  Hero 
in  a  magnificent  building  called  the  Homereiim 
Near  the  sea-shore  there  stood  a 
819 


SMYRNA  TRACHEA. 

magnificent  temple  of  Cybele,  whose  head  ap- 
pears on  the  coins  of  the  city.  The  other  di- 
vinities chiefly  worshipped  here  were  Nemesis 
and  the  nymph  Smyrna,  the  heroine  eponymus 
of  the  place,  who  had  a  shrine  on  the  banks  of 
the  River  Meles. 

SMYRNA  TRACHEA.     Vid.  EPHESUS. 

SMYRN.SUS  SINUS  ( Spvpvaiuv  /coAjrof,  2/zvp-  j 
vatKOf  Ko/ln-of  :   now  Guljof  Jsrmr  or  Smyrna), 
the  great  gulf  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  at  the  bottom  of  which  Smyrna  stands. 
Its  entrance  lies  between  Promontorium  Me-  ! 
Ix»na  (now  Cape  Kara  Burnu)  on  the  west,  and 
Phocsea  (now  Fokia)  on  the  east.     Its  depth  was  ! 
reckoned  at  three  hundred  and  fifty  stadia.     It  j 
received  the   River   Hermus,  whence  it  was  j 
called  Hermeus  Sinus  ("Epfjeiof  Ko/ljrof).     It  is  [ 
sometimes  also  called  MsXyrov  Ko/U-of,  from  the  j 
little  river  Meles,  on  which  Old  Smyrna  stood. 

SOANES  (26<u>£f),  a  powerful  people  of  the 
Caucasus,  governed  by  a  king  who  could  bring 
two  hundred  thousand  soldiers  into  the  field. 
The  mountain  streams  of  the  country  contained 
gold,  which  was  separated  by  collecting  the 
water  in  sheep-skins,  whence  the  matter-of-fact 
interpreters  derived  the  legend  of  the  golden 
fleece.  According  to  Strabo,  the  habits  of  the 
people  were  such  that  they  stood  in  remarkable 
need  of  other  "  washings."  They  are  also  called 
SUANI  and  SUANOCOLCHI  (Zovaroi,  SovavoKoX- 
Xoi),  and  their  land  Suania  (Zovavia). 

[SOATRA  (Sdarpa,  Saiuzrpa),  a  small  town  of 
Lycaonia,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Apamea  Ci- 
botus,  very  scantily  supplied  with  water.  Ac- 
cording to  Texier,  its  site  corresponds  to  the 
modern  village  Su  Vermcss,  which  means,  "  here 
is  no  water  to  be  found."] 

SOCRATES  (2w«pdr^f).  1.  The  celebrated 
Athenian  philosopher,  was  born  in  the  demus 
Alopece,  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
Athens,  B.C.  469.  His  father  Sophroniscus 
was  a  statuary ;  his  mother  Phaenarete  was  a 
midwife.  In  his  youth  he  followed  the  profes- 
sion of  his  father,  and  attained  sufficient  pro- 
ficiency to  havf  executed  the  group  of  clothed 
Graces  which  was  preserved  in  the  Acropolis, 
and  was  shown  as  his  work  down  to  the  time 
of  Pausanias.  The  personal  qualities  of  Soc- 
rates were  marked  and  striking.  His  physical 
constitution  was  healthy,  robust,  and  enduring 
to  an  extraordinary  degree.  He  was  capable 
of  bearing  fatigue  or  hardship,  and  indifferent 
to  heat  or  cold,  in  a  measure  which  astonished 
all  his  companions.  He  went  barefoot  in  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  even  during  the  winter 
campaign  at  Potidaea,  under  the  severe  frosts 
of  Thrace  ;  and  the  same  homely  clothing  suf- 
ficed for  him  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer. 
His  ugly  physiognomy  excited  the  jests  both  of 
his  friends  and  enemies,  who  inform  us  that  he 
had  a  flat  nose,  thick  lips,  and  prominent  eyes 
like  a  satyr  or  Silenus.  Of  the  circumstances 
of  his  life  we  are  almost  wholly  ignorant :  he 
served  as  an  hoplite  at  Potidaea,  Delium,  and 
Amphipolis  with  great  credit  to  himself.  He 
seems  never  to  have  filled  any  political  office 
until  406.  in  which  year  he  was  a  member  of 
the  senate  of  Five  Hundred,  and  one  of  the  Pry- 
tanes,  when  he  refused,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
trial  of  the  six  generals,  to  put  an  unconstitu- 
tional question  to  the  vote,  in  spite  of  all  per- 
820 


SOCRATES. 

sonal  hazard.  He  displayed  the  same  moia! 
courage  in  refusing  to  obey  the  order  of  the 
Thirty  Tyrants  for  the  apprehension  of  Leon 
the  Salaminian.  At  what  time  Socrates  re- 
linquished his  profession  as  a  statuary  we  do 
not  know  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  all  the  middle 
and  later  part  of  his  life  at  least  was  devoted 
exclusively  to  the  self-imposed  task  of  teach- 
ing; excluding  all  other  business,  public  of 
private,  and  to  the  neglect  of  all  means  of  for- 
tune. But  he  never  opened  a  school,  nor  diil 
he,  like  the  sophists  of  his  time,  deliver  publii 
lectures.  Every  where,  in  the  market  place, 
in  the  gymnasia,  and  in  the  work-shops,  he 
sought  and  found  opportunities  for  awakening 
and  guiding,  in  boys,  youth,  and  men,  moral 
consciousness  and  the  impulse  after  self-knowl- 
edge respecting  the  end  and  value  of  our  ac- 
tions. His  object,  however,  was  only  to  aid 
them  in  developing  the  germs  of  knowledge 
which  were  already  present  in  them,  not  to  com- 
municate to  them  ready-made  knowledge  ;  and 
he  therefore  professed  to  practice  a  kind  of 
mental  midwifery,  just  as  his  mother  Phaenarete 
exercised  the  corresponding  corporeal  art.  Un- 
weariedly  and  inexorably  did  he  fight  against 
all  false  appearance  and  conceit  of  knowledge, 
in  order  to  pave  the  way  for  correct  knowledge. 
Consequently  to  the  mentally  proud  and  the 
mentally  idle  he  appeared  an  intolerable  bore, 
and  often  experienced  their  bitter  hatred  and 
calumny.  This  was  probably  the  reason  why 
he  was  selected  by  Aristophanes,  and  the  other 
comic  writers,  to  be  attacked  as  a  general  rep- 
resentative of  philosophical  and  rhetorical  teach- 
ing ;  the  more  so,  as  his  marked  and  repulsive 
physiognomy  admitted  so  well  of  being  imitated 
in  the  mask  which  the  actor  wore.  The  audi- 
ence at  the  theatre  would  more  readily  recog- 
nize the  peculiar  figure  which  they  were  ac- 
customed to  see  every  day  in  the  market-place, 
than  if  Prodicus  or  Protagoras,  whom  most  of 
them  did  not  know  by  sight,  had  been  brought 
on  the  stage ;  nor  was  it  of  much  importance 
either  to  them  or  to  Aristophanes  whether  Soc- 
rates was  represented  as  teaching  what  he  did 
really  teach,  or  something  utterly  different.  At- 
tached to  none  of  the  prevailing  parties,  Socra- 
tes found  in  each  of  them  his  friends  and  his 
enemies.  Hated  and  persecuted  by  Critias, 
Charicles,  and  others  among  the  Thirty  Tyrants, 
who  had  a  special  reference  to  him  in  the  de- 
cree which  they  issued,  forbidding  the  teaching 
of  the  art  of  oratory,  he  was  impeached  after 
their  banishment  and  by  their  opponents.  An 
orator  named  Lycon,  and  a  poet  (a  friend  of 
Thrasybulus)  named  Meletus,  had  united  in  the 
impeachment  with  the  powerful  demagogue 
Anytus,  an  embittered  antagonist  of  the  soph- 
ists and  their  system,  and  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  band  which,  setting  out  from  Phyle,  forced 
their  way  into  the  Piraeus,  and  drove  out  the 
Thirty  Tyrants.  The  judges  also  are  described 
as  persons  who  had  been  banished,  and  who  had 
returned  with  Thrasybulus.  The  chief  articles 
of  impeachment  were,  that  Socrates  was  guilty 
of  corrupting  the  youth,  and  of  despising  the 
tutelary  deities  of  the  state,  putting  in  theii 
place  other  new  divinities.  At  the  same  time 
it  had  been  made  a  matter  of  accusation  ag;iinsi 
him,  that  Critias,  the  most  ruthless  of  the  T>- 


SOCRATES. 


SOCRATES. 


rants,  had  come  forth  from  his  school.  Some 
expressions  of  his,  in  which  he  had  found  fault 
with  the  domocratical  mode  of  electing  by  lot, 
had  also  been  brought  up  against  him  ;  and  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  use  was  made  of  his 
friendly  relations  with  Theramenes,  one  of  the 
most  influential  of  the  Thirty,  with  Plato's  uncle 
Charmides,  who  fell  by  the  side  of  Critias  in 
the  struggle  with  the  popular  party,  and  with 
other  aristocrats,  in  order  to  irritate  against  him 
the  party  which  at  that  time  was  dominant. 
The  substance  of  the  speech  which  Socrates 
delivered  in  his  defence  is  probably  preserved 
by  Plato  in  the  piece  which  goes  under  the  name 
of  the  "  Apokigy  of  Socrates."  Being  con- 
demned by  a  majority  of  only  six  votes,  he  ex- 
presses the  conviction  that  he  deserved  to  be 
maintained  at  the  public  cost  in  the  Prytaneum, 
and  refuses  to  acquiesce  in  the  adjudication  of 
imprisonment,  or  a  large  fine,  or  banishment. 
He  will  assent  to  nothing  more  than  a  fine  of 
sixty  minae,  on  the  security  of  Plato,  Crito,  and 
other  friends.  Condemned  to  death  by  the 
judges,  who  were  incensed  by  this  speech,  by  a 
:najority  of  eighty  votes,  he  departs  from  them 
with  the  protestation  that  he  would  rather  die 
after  such  a  defence  than  live  after  one  in  which 
he  should  have  endeavored  to  excite  their  pity. 
The  sentence  of  death  could  not  be  carried  into 
execution  until  after  the  return  of  the  vessel 
which  had  been  sent  to  Delos  on  the  periodical 
Theoric  mission.  The  thirty  days  which  inter- 
vened between  its  return  and  the  condemnation 
of  Socrates  were  devoted  by  him  to  poetic  at- 
tempts (the  first  he  had  ever  made),  and  to  his  us- 
ual conversation  with  his  friends.  One  of  these 
conversations,  on  the  duty  of  obedience  to  the 
laws,  Plato  has  reported  in  the  Crito,  so  called 
after  the  faithful  follower  of  Socrates,  who  had 
endeavored  without  success  to  persuade  him  to 
make  his  escape.  In  another,  imitated  or  work- 
ed up  by  Plato  in  the  Phado,  Socrates,  immedi- 
ately before  he  drank  the  cup  of  hemlock,  de- 
veloped the  grounds  of  his  immovable  convic- 
tion of  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  He  died 
with  composure  and  cheerfulness  in  his  seven- 
tieth year,  B.C.  399.  Three  peculiarities  dis- 
tinguished Socrates  :  1.  His  long  life,  passed  in 
contented  poverty  and  in  public  dialectics,  of 
which  we  have  already  spoken.  2.  His  persua- 
sion of  a  special  religious  mission.  He  had 
been  accustomed  constantly  to  hear,  even  from 
his  childhood,  a  divine  voice — interfering,  at 
moments  when  he  was  about  to  act,  in  the  way 
of  restraint,  but  never  in  the  way  of  instiga- 
tion. Such  prohibitory  warning  was  wont  to 
come  upon  him  very  frequently,  not  merely  on 
great,  but  even  on  small  occasions,  intercepting 
what  he  was  about  to  do  or  to  say.  Though 
later  writers  speak  of  this  as  the  Daemon  or  Ge- 
nius of  Socrates,  he  himself  does  not  personify 
it,  but  treats  it  merely  as  a  "  divine  sign,  a  pro- 
phetic or  supernatural  voice."  He  was  accus- 
tomed not  only  to  obey  it  implicitly,  but  to  speak 
of  it  publicly  and  familiarly  to  others,  so  that 
the  fact  was  well  known  both  to  his  friends  and 
to  his  enemies.  3.  His  great  intellectual  orig- 
inality, both  of  subject  and  of  method,  and  his 
power  of  stirring  and  forcing  the  germ  of  in- 
quiry and  ratiocination  in  others  He  was  the 
first  who  turned  his  thoughts  and  discussions 


distinctly  to  the  subject  of  ethics,  and  was  the 
i  first  to  proclaim  that  "  the  proper  study  of  man- 
kind is  man."     With  the  philosophers  who  prc- 
:  ceded  him,  the  subject  of  examination  had  been 
I  Nature,  or  the  Kosmos  as  one  undistinguisbable 
I  whole,  blending  together  cosmogony,  astrono- 
j  my,  geometry,  physics,  metaphysics,  &c.     In 
,  discussing  ethical  subjects,  Socrates  employed 
I  the  dialectic  method,  and  thus  laid  the  founda- 
i  tion  of  formal  logic,  which  was  afterward  ex- 
]  panded  by  Plato,  and  systematized  by  Aristotle. 
j  The  originality  of  Socrates  is  shown  by  the  re- 
sults he  achieved.    Out  of  his  intellectual  school 
sprang,  not  merely  Plato,  himself  a  host,  but  all 
the  other  leaders  of  Grecian  speculation  for  the 
next  half  century,  and  all  those  who  continued 
the  great  line  of  speculative  philosophy  down 
I  to  later  times.     Euclid  and  the  Megaric  school 
of  philosophers — Aristippus  *nd  the  Cyrenaic 
Antisthenes  and  Diogenes,  the  first  of  those 
called  the  Cynics — all  emanated  more  or  less 
directly  from  the  stimulus  imparted  by  Socrates, 
though  each  followed  a  different  vein  of  thought. 
Ethics  continued  to  be  what  Socrates  had  first 
made  them,  a  distinct  branch  of  philosophy, 
alongside  of  which  politics,  rhetoric,  logic,  and 
other  speculations  relating  to  man  and  society, 
gradually  arranged  themselves;  all  of  them  more 
popular,  as  well  as  more  keenly  controverted, 
than  physics,  which  at  that  time  presented  com- 
paratively little  charm,  and  still  less  of  attain- 
able certainty.     There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
individual  influence  of  Socrates  permanently 
enlarged  the  horizon,  improved  the  method,  and 
multipled  the  ascendant  minds  of  the  Grecian 
speculative  world  in  a  manner  never  since  par- 
alleled.   Subsequent  philosophers  may  have  had 
a  more  elaborate  doctrine,  and  a  larger  number 
of  disciples  who  imbibed  their  ideas  ;  but  none 
of  them  applied  the  same  stimulating  method 
with  the  same  efficacy,  and  none  of  them  struck 
out  of  other  minds  that  fire  which  sets  light  to 
original  thought.    (A  great  part  of  this  article 
is  taken  from  Mr.  Grote's  account  of  Socrates 
in  his  History  of  Greece.)— [2.  An  Athenian,  son 
of  Antigenes,  was  one  of  the  three  commanders 
sent  out  with  a  fleet  in  B.C.  431  to  ravage  the 
coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.    They  did  not  effect 
much,  being  foiled  in  an  attack  on  Methone  by 
the  opportune  arrival  of  Brasidas. — 3.  An  Ach- 
aean, one  of  the  commanders  of  the  Greek  mer- 
cenaries of  Cyrus  the  younger,  joined  that  prince 
at  Sardis  with  five  hundred  heavy-armed  men. 
He  was  one  of  the  generals  who  accompanied 
Clearchus  to  the  tent  of  Tissaphernes,  when 
they  were  all  treacherously  seized  by  that  sa- 
trap, and  subsequently  put  to  death  by  order 
1  of  Artaxerxes  himself.] — 4.  The  ecclesiastical 
|  historian,  was  born  at  Constantinople  about  A.  D. 
j  379.     He  was  a  pupil  of  Ammonius  and  Hel- 
;  ladius,  and  followed  the  profession  of  an  advo- 
'  cate  in  his  native  city,  whence  he  is  surnamed 
!  Scholasticus.    The  Eccleiiastical  History  of  Soc- 
rates extends  from  the  reign  of  Constantino  the 
Great,  300,  to  that  of  the  younger  Theodosins, 
439.     He  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  less 
bigotry  than  most  of  his  contemporaries,  and 
the  very  difficulty  of  determining  from  internal 
evidence  some  points  of  his  religious   belief 
may  be  considered  as  arguing  his  comparative 
liberality.     His  history  is  divided  into  seven 

821 


SODOMA. 


SOLINUS. 


!>ooks  His  work  is  included  in  the  editions  of 
the  ancient  Greek  ecclesiastical  historians  by 
Valesius,  Paris,  1668;  reprinted  at  Mentz,  1677; 
by  Reading,  Camb.,  1720. 

SODOMA,  gen.  -orum  and  -ae,  also  -UM,  gen.  -i, 
and  -i,  gen. -drum  (rd  2d<Jo^a :  Sodo/u'njf,  So- 
rlomita),  a  very  ancient  city  of  Canaan,  in  the 
beautiful  valley  of  Siddim  (#  Zodopmf),  closely 
connected  with  Gomorrha,  over  which,  and  the 
other  three  "  cities  of  the  plain,"  the  King  of 
Sodom  seems  to  have  had  a  sort  of  supremacy. 
In  the  book  of  Genesis  we  find  these  cities  as 
subject,  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  to  the  King  of 
Elam  and  his  allies  (an  indication  of  the  early 
supremacy  in  Western  Asia  of  the  masters  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  valley),  and  their  at- 
tempt to  cast  off  the  yoke  was  the  occasion  of 
the  first  war  on  record.  (Gen.,  xiv.)  Soon  aft- 
erward, the  abominable  sins  of  these  cities  call- 
ed down  the  divine  vengeance,  and  they  were 
all  destroyed  by  fire  from  heaven,  except  Zoar, 
which  was  spared  at  the  intercession  of  Lot. 
The  beautiful  valley  in  which  they  stood  was 
overwhelmed  by  the  Jordan  and  converted  into 
the  Dead  Sea,  whose  bituminous  waters  still 
bear  witness  to  the  existence  of  the  springs  of 
asphaltus  ("slime-pits"  in  our  version)  of  which 
the  valley  of  Siddim  was  full.  It  used  to  be 
assumed  that,  before  the  destruction  of  the  cities 
of  the  plain,  the  Jordan  flowed  on  into  the  Red 
Sea ;  [and  this  opinion  is  supported  by  recent  ob- 
servations on  the  nature  of  the  country  around 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea;  while 
others  maintain  that]  there  was  probably  al- 
ways a  lake  which  received  the  waters  both  of 
the  Jordan  and  the  river  which  still  flows  into 
the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea;  and  [that] 
the  nature  of  the  change  seems  to  have  con- 
sisted in  the  enlargement  of  this  lake  by  a  great 
depression  of  the  whole  valley.  The  site  of 
Sodom  was  probably  near  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  the  lake. 

SCEMIS  or  SO^MIAS,  JULIA,  daughter  of  Julia 
Maesa,  and  mother  of  Elagabalus,  either  by  her 
husband  Sextus  Varius  Marcellus,  or,  according 
to  the  report  industriously  circulated  with  her 
own  consent,  by  Caracalla.  After  the  acces- 
sion of  her  son,  she  became  his  chosen  coun- 
sellor, and  seems  to  have  encouraged  and  shared 
his  follies  and  enormities.  She  took  a  place  in 
the  senate,  which  then,  for  the  first  time,  wit- 
nessed the  intrusion  of  a  woman,  and  was  her- 
self the  president  of  a  sort  of  female  parliament, 
which  held  its  sittings  in  the  Quirinal,  and  pub- 
lished edicts  for  the  regulation  of  all  matters 
connected  with  the  morals,  dress,  etiquette,  and 
equipage  of  the  matrons.  She  was  slain  by  the 
praetorians,  in  the  arms  of  her  son,  on  the  llth 
of  March,  A.D. 222. 

SOGDIANA  (fi  ZoycJtavj?  or  ZovyoiavTJ :  Old  Per- 
sian, Sughda  :  "Zoyiioi,  Soydiavoi,  Sovydiavoi : 
parts  of  Turkestan  and  Bokhara,  including  the 
district  still  called  Sogd),  the  northeastern  prov- 
ince of  the  ancient  Persian  empire,  separated 
on  the  south  from  Bactriana  and  Margiana  by 
the  upper  course  of  the  Oxus  (now  Jihoun) ;  on 
the  east  and  north  from  Scythia  by  the  Sogdii 
Comedarum  and  Oxii  Mountains  (now  Kara- 
Dagh,  Alatan  and  Ak  Tag/i),  and  by  the  upper 
course  of  the  Jaxartes  (now  Sihoun),  and  bound- 
ed on  the  northwest  by  the  great  deserts  east 
822 


of  the  Sea  of  Aral.  The  southern  part  of  tho 
country  was  fertile  and  populous.  It  was  con- 
quered by  Cyrus,  and  afterward  by  Alexander, 
both  of  whom  marked  the  extreme  limits  of 
their  advance  by  cities  on  the  Jaxartes,  Gyres- 
chata  and  Alexandreschata.  After  the  Mace- 
donian conquest  it  was  subject  to  the  kings, 
first  of  Syria  and  then  of  Bactria,  till  it  was 
overrun  by  the  barbarians.  The  natives  of  the 
country  were  a  wild,  warlike  people  of  the  great 
Arian  race,  resembling  the  Bactrians  in  their 
character  and  customs. 

SOGDIANUS  (Zoy&atxJf),  was  one  of  the  ille- 
gitimate sons  of  Artaxerxes  I.  Longimanus. 
The  latter,  on  his  death  in  B.C.  425,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  legitimate  son  Xerxes  II.,  but  this 
monarch,  after  a  reign  of  only  two  months,  was 
murdered  by  Sogdianus,  who  now  became  king. 
Sogdianus,  however,  was  murdered  in  his  turn, 
after  a  reign  of  seven  months,  by  his  brother 
Ochus.  Ochus  reigned  under  the  name  of  Da- 
rius II. 

SOGDII  MONTES.     Fid.  SOGDIANA. 

SOL.     Vid.  HELIOS. 

SOLI  or  SOLOE  (26Aot)-  1-  (Ethnic,  ZoAevf, 
Solensis  :  ruins  at  Mezetlu),  a  city  on  the  coast 
of  Cilicia,  between  the  rivers  Lamus  and  Cyd- 
nus,  said  to  have  been  colonized  by  Argives  and 
Lydians  from  Rhodes.  It  was  a  flourishing  city 
in  the  time  of  Alexander,  who  fined  its  people 
two  hundred  talents  for  their  adhesion  to  the 
Persians.  The  city  was  destroyed  by  Tigranes, 
who  probably  transplanted  the  inhabitants  to  Ti- 
granocerta.  Pompey  restored  the  city  after  his 
war  with  the  pirates,  and  peopled  it  with  the 
survivors  of  the  defeated  bands  ;  and  from  this 
time  forth  it  was  called  POMPEIOPOLIS  (Ho^nrji- 
ovTroAif).  It  was  celebrated  in  literary  history 
as  the  birth-place  of  the  Stoic  philosopher  Chry- 
sippus,  of  the  comic  poet  Philemon,  and  of  the 
astronomer  and  poet  Aratus.  Its  name  has  been 
curiously  perpetuated  in  the  grammatical  word 
solecism  (solcecismus),  which  is  said  to  have 
been  first  applied  to  the  corrupt  dialect  of  Greek 
spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  this  city,  or,  as 
some  say,  of  Soli  in  Cyprus. — 2.  (Ethnic,  26- 
Aiof :  ruins  at  Aligora,  in  the  valley  of  Solea),  a 
considerable  sea-port  town  in  the  western  part 
of  the  northern  coast  of  Cyprus,  on  a  little  riv- 
er. According  to  some,  it  was  a  colony  of  the 
Athenians,  while  others  ascribed  its  erection  to 
a  native  prince  [Philocyprus]  acting  under  the 
advice  of  Solon,  and  others  to  Solon  himself: 
the  last  account  is  doubtless  an  error.  It  had 
temples  of  Isis  and  Venus  (Aphrodite),  and  there 
were  mines  in  its  vicinity. 

SOLICINIUM,  a  town  in  Roman  Germany  (the 
Agri  Decumates),  on  the  mountain  Pirus,  where 
Valentinian  gained  a  victory  over  the  Alemanni 
in  A.D.  369,  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
modern  Heidelberg. 

SOLINUS,  C.  JULIUS,  the  author  of  a  geo- 
graphical compendium,  divided  into  fifty-seven 
chapters,  containing  a  brief  sketch  of  the  world 
as  known  to  the  ancients,  diversified  by  histor- 
ical notices,  remarks  on  the  origin,  habits,  re- 
ligious rites,  and  social  condition  of  various  na- 
tions enumerated.  The  arrangement,  and  fre- 
quently the  very  words,  are  derived  from  the 
Natural  History  of  Pliny,  but  little  knowledge, 
care,  or  judgment  is  displayed  in  the  selection. 


SOUS  AQUA. 

We  know  nothing  of  Solinus  himself,  but  he 
must  have  lived  after  the  reign  of  Alexander 
Severus  and  before  that  of  Constantine.  He 
may,  perhaps,  be  placed  about  A.D.  238.  We 
learn  from  the  first  of  two  prefatory  addresses, 
that  an  edition  of  the  work  had  already  passed 
into  circulation,  in  an  imperfect  state,  without 
the  consent  or  knowledge  of  the  author,  under 
the  appellation  Collectanea  Rcrum  Mcmorabil- 
ium,  while  on  the  second,  revised,  corrected, 
and  published  by  himself,  he  bestowed  the  more 
ambitious  title  of  Polyhistor ;  and  hence  we  find 
the  treatise  designated  in  several  MSS.  as  C. 
Julii  Solini  Grammatici  Polyhistor  ab  ipso  cditus 
ct  recognitus.  The  most  notable  edition  is  that 
of  Salmasius,  published  at  Utrecht  in  1689,  pre- 
fixed to  his  "  Plinianae  Exercitationes,"  the 
whole  forming  two  large  folio  volumes. 

[Sous  AQUA  ('H/U'ov  vdup),  a  fountain  and 
stream  of  the  island  Panchaea,  off  the  coast  of 
Arabia  Felix.] 

Sous  FONS.      Vid.  OASIS,  No.  3. 

Sous  LACUS  (Mftvri  'HeiUoto),  a  lake  in  the 
far  East,  from  which,  in  the  old  mythical  sys- 
tem of  the  world,  the  sun  rose  to  make  his  daily 
course  through  heaven.  Some  of  the  matter- 
of-fact  expositors  identified  it  with  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Another  lake  of  the  same  name  was  im- 
agined by  some  of  the  poets  in  the  far  West, 
into  which  the  sun  sank  at  night. 

Sous  MONS.     Vid.  SOLOIS. 

Sous  PROMONTOKIUM  (uKpa.  'HAt'ou  icpu  :  now 
Riis  Anfir),  a  promontory  of  Arabia  Felix,  near 
the  middle  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 

[SOLMISSUS  (SoA/Mtaadf),  a  mountain  of  Ionia, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Ephesus.] 

SOLOE.      Vid.  SOLI. 

SOLOIS  (SoAoetf :  now  Cape  Cantin,  Arab.  Has 
el  Houdik),  a  promontory  running  far  out  into 
the  sea,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  western 
coast  of  Mauretania.  Herodotus  believed  it 
to  be  the  westernmost  headland  of  all  Libya. 
Upon  it  was  a  Phoenician  temple  of  Neptune 
(Poseidon).  The  later  geographers  under  the 
Romans  mention  a  Moss  Sous  ('H/U'ou  opof), 
which  appears  to  be  the  same  spot,  its  name 
being  probably  a  corruption  of  the  Greek  name. 

SOLOM  (2(5Auv),  the  celebrated  Athenian  leg- 
islator, was  born  about  B.C.  638.  His  father 
Execestides  was  a  descendant  of  Codrus,  and 
his  mother  was  a  cousin  of  the  mother  of  Pisis- 
tratus.  Execestides  had  seriously  crippled  his 
resources  by  a  too  prodigal  expenditure ;  and 
Solon  consequently  found  it  either  necessary 
or  convenient  in  his  youth  to  betake  himself  to 
the  life  of  a  foreign  trader.  It  is  likely  enough 
that  while  necessity  compelled  him  to  seek  a 
livelihood  in  some  mode  or  other,  his  active  and 
inquiring  spirit  led  him  to  select  that  pursuit 
which  would  furnish  the  amplest  means  for  its 
gratification.  Solon  early  distinguished  himself 
by  his  poetical  abilities.  His  first  effusions 
were  in  a  somewhat  light  and  amatory  strain, 
which  afterward  gave  way  to  the  more  digni- 
fied and  earnest  purpose  of  inculcating  profound 
reflections  or  sage  advice.  So  widely,  indeed, 
did  his  reputation  spread,  that  he  was  ranked 
as  one  of  the  seven  sages,  and  his  name  ap- 
pears in  all  the  lists  of  the  seven.  The  occa- 
sion which  first  brought  Solon  prominently  for- 
ward as  an  actor  on  the  political  stage  was  the 


SOLON. 

contest  between  Athens  and  Megara  respecting 
the  possession  of  Salamis.  The  ill  success  of 
the  attempts  of  the  Athenians  to  make  them- 
selves masters  of  the  island,  had  led  to  the  en- 
actment of  a  law  forbidding  the  writing  or  say- 
ing any  thing  to  urge  the  Athenians  to  renew 
the  contest.  Solon,  indignant  at  this  dishonor- 
able renunciation  of  their  claims,  hit  upon  the 
device  of  feigning  to  be  mad ;  and,  causing  a 
report  of  his  condition  to  be  spread  over  the 
city,  he  rushed  into  the  agora,  and  there  recited 
a  short  elegiac  poem  of  one  hundred  lines,  in 
which  he  called  upon  the  Athenians  to  retrieve 
their  disgrace  and  reconquer  the  lovely  island. 
Pisistratus  (who,  however,  must  have  been  ex 
tremely  young  at  the  time)  came  to  the  sup- 
port of  his  kinsman  ;  the  pusillanimous  law  was 
rescinded,  war  was  declared,  and  Solon  himself 
appointed  to  conduct  it.  The  Megarians  were 
driven  out  of  the  island,  but*  tedious  war  en- 
sued, which  was  finally  settled  by  the  arbitra- 
tion of  Sparta.  Both  parties  appealed,  in  sup- 
port of  their  claim,  to  the  authority  of  Homer  ; 
;  and  it  was  currently  believed  in  antiquity  thai 
I  Solon  had  surreptitiously  inserted  the  line  (//., 
j  ii.,  558)  which  speaks  of  Ajax  as  ranging  his 
ships  with  the  Athenians.  The  Spartans  de- 
cided in  favor  of  the  Athenians  about  B.C.  596. 
Solon  himself,  probably,  was  one  of  those  who 
received  grants  of  land  in  Salamis,  and  this  may 
account  for  his  being  termed  a  Salaminian. 
Soon  after  these  events  (about  595)  Solon  took 
a  leading  part  in  promoting-hostilities  on  behalf 
of  Delphi  against  Cirrha,  and  was  the  mover  of 
the  decree  of  the  Amphictyons  bv  which  was 
was  declared.  It  does  not  appear,  however, 
what  active  part  he  took  in  the  war.  Accord- 
ing to  a  common  story,  which,  however,  rests 
only  on  the  authority  of  a  late  writer,  Solon 
hastened  the  surrender  of  the  town  by  causing 
the  waters  of  the  Plistus  to  be  poisoned.  It 
was  about  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  this  war. 
that,  in  consequence  of  the  distracted  state  of 
Attica,  which  was  rent  by  civil  commotions, 
Solon  was  called  upon  by  all  parties  to  mediate 
between  them,  and  alleviate  the  miseries  that 
prevailed.  He  was  chosen  archon  594,  and  un- 
der that  legal  title  was  invested  with  unlimited 
!  power  for  adopting  such  measures  as  the  ex- 
igencies of  the  state  demanded.  In  fulfillment 
of  the  task  intrusted  to  him,  Solon  addressed 
himself  to  the  relief  of  the  existing  distress. 
This  he  effected  with  the  greatest  discretion 
and  success  by  his  celebrated  disburdening  or- 
dinance (attauxdeia'),  a  measure  consisting  of 
various  distinct  provisions,  calculated  to  re- 
lieve the  debtors  with  as  little  infringement  as 
possible  on  the  claims  of  the  wealthy  creditors. 
The  details  of  this  measure,  however,  are  in- 
volved in  considerable  uncertainty.  We  know 
that  lie  depreciated  the  coinage,  making  the 
mina  to  contain  one  hundred  drachmae  instead 
of  seventy-three  ;  that  is  to  say,  seventy-three 
of  the  old  drachmae  produced  one  hundred  of 
the  new  coinage,  in  which  obligations  were  to 
i  be  discharged,  so  that  the  debtor  saved  rather 
more  than  a  fourth  in  every  payment.  The 
success  of  the  Seisachtheia  procured  for  Solon 
such  confidence  and  popularity  that  he  was  fur- 
ther charged  with  the  task  of  entirely  remod- 
elling the  constitution.  As  a  preliminary  step, 

823 


SOLON. 

he  repealed  all  the  laws  of  Draco  except  those  > 
relating  to  bloodshed.  Our  limits  only  allow  us 
to  glance  at  the  principal  features  of  the  constitu- 
tion established  by  Solon.  This  constitution  was 
based  upon  the  timocratic  principle,  that  is,  the 
title  of  citizens  to  the  honors  and  offices  of  the 
state  was  regulated  by  their  wealth.  All  the  cit- 
izens were  distributed  into  four  classes.  The 
first  class  consisted  of  those  who  had  an  an- 
nual income  of  at  least  five  hundred  medimni  of 
dry  or  liquid  produce  (equal  to  five  hundred  drach- 
mae, a  medimnus  being  reckoned  at  a  drachma), 
and  were  called  Pentacosiomedimni.  The  second 
class  consisted  of  those  whose  incomes  ranged 
between  three  hundred  and  five  hundred  medim- 
ni or  drachmae,  and  were  called  Hippeis  C\mrti(, 
'Intrijf),  from  their  being  able  to  keep  a  horse, 
and  bound  to  perform  military  service  as  cav- 
alry. The  third  cjass  consisted  of  those  whose 
incomes  varied  between  two  hundred  and  three 
hundred  medimni  or  drachmae,  and  were  termed 
Zeugitce  (Zevylrai).  The  fourth  class  included 
all  whose  property  fell  short  of  two  hundred 
medimni  or  drachmae,  and  bore  the  name  of 
Thetes.  The  first  three  classes  were  liable,  to 
direct  taxation,  in  the  form  of  a  graduated  in- 
come tax.  A  direct  tax,  however,  was  an  ex- 
traordinary, and  not  an  annual  payment.  The 
fourth  class  were  exempt  from  direct  taxes,  but 
of  course  they,  as  well  as  the  rest,  were  liable 
to  indirect  taxes.  To  Solon  was  ascribed  the 
institution  of  the  Boule  (Povhij),  or  deliberative 
assembly  of  Four  Hundred,  one  hundred  mem- 
bers being  elected  from  each  of  the  four  tribes. 
He  greatly  enlarged  the  functions  of  the  Eccle- 
sia  (eKKtycia'),  which  no  doubt  existed  before 
his  time,  though  it  probably  possessed  scarcely 
more  power  than  the  assemblies  which  we  find 
described  in  the  Homeric  poems.  He  gave  it 
the  right  of  electing  the  archons  and  other  mag- 
istrates, and,  what  was  even  more  important, 
made  the  archons  and  magistrates  accountable 
directly  to  it  when  their  year  of  office  was  ex- 
pired. He  also  gave  it  what  was  equivalent  to 
a  veto  upon  any  proposed  measure  of  the  Boule, 
though  it  could  not  itself  originate  any  measure. 
Besides  the  arrangement  of  the  general  political 
relations  of  the  people,  Solon  was  the  author  of 
a  great  variety  of  special  laws,  which  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  arranged  in  any  systematic 
manner.  Those  relating  to  debtors  and  credit- 
ors have  been  already  referred  to.  Several  had 
for  their  object  the  encouragement  of  trade  and 
manufactures.  Foreign  settlers  were  not  to  be 
naturalized  as  citizens  unless  they  carried  on 
some  industrious  pursuit.  If  a  father  did  not 
teach  his  son  some  trade  or  profession,  the  son 
was  not  liable  to  maintain  his  father  in  his  old 
age.  The  council  of  Areopagus  had  a  general 
power  to  punish  idleness.  Solon  forbade  the 
exportation  of  all  produce  of  the  Attic  soil  ex- 
cept olive  oil.  He  was  the  first  who  gave  to 
those  who  died  childless  the  power  of  disposing 
of  their  property  by  will.  He  enacted  several 
laws  relating  to  marriage,  especially  with  re- 
gard to  heiresses.  The  rewards  which  he  ap- 
pointed to  be  given  to  victors  at  the  Olympic 
and  Isthmian  games  are  for  that  age  unusually 
large  (five  hundred  drachmas  to  the  former  and 
one  hundred  to  the  latter).  One  of  the  most 
curious  of  his  regulations  was  that  which  de- 
824- 


SOLYGIA. 

nounced  atimia  against  any  citizen  who,  on  the 
outbreak  of  a  sedition,  remained  neutral.  The 
laws  of  Solon  were  inscribed  on  wooden  rollers 
(dfoi/f  f )  and  triangular  tablets  (/a'pfo/c),  and  were 
set  up  at  first  in  the  Acropolis,  afterward  in  the 
Prytaneum.  The  Athenians  were  also  indebt- 
ed to  Solon  for  some  rectification  of  the  calen- 
dar. It  is  said  that  Solon  exacted  from  the 
people  a  solemn  oath,  that  they  would  observe 
his  laws  without  alteration  for  a  certain  space 
— ten  years  according  to  Herodotus — one  hund- 
red years  according  to  other  accounts.  It  is  re- 
lated that  he  was  himself  aware  that  he  had 
been  compelled  to  leave  many  imperfections  in 
his  system  and  code.  He  is  said  to  have  spoken 
of  his  laws  as  being  not  the  best,  but  the  best 
which  the  Athenians  would  have  received. 
After  he  had  completed  his  task,  being,  we  are 
told,  greatly  annoyed  and  troubled  by  those  who 
came  to  him  with  all  kinds  of  complaints,  sug- 
gestions, or  criticisms  about  his  laws,  in  order 
that  he  might  not  himself  have  to  propose  any 
change,  he  absented  himself  from  Athens  for 
ten  years,  after  he  had  obtained  the  oath  above 
referred  to.  He  first  visited  Egypt,  and  from 
thence  proceeded  to  Cyprus,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  great  distinction  by  Philocyprus, 
king  of  the  little  town  of  JEpea.  Solon  per- 
suaded the  king  to  remove  from  the  old  site, 
and  build  a  new  town  on  the  plain.  The  new 
settlement  w:as  called  Soli,  in  honor  of  the  illus- 
trious visitor.  He  is  further  said  to  have  visit- 
ed Lydia  ;  and  his  interview  with  Croesus  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  stories  in  antiquity. 
Vid.  CRCESUS.  During  the  absence  of  Solon  the 
old  dissensions  were  renewed,  and  shortly  after 
his  arrival  at  Athens,  the  supreme  power  was 
seized  by  Pisistratus.  The  tyrant,  after  his 
usurpation,  is  said  to  have  paid  considerable 
court  to  Solon,  and  on  various  occasions  to  have 
solicited  his  advice,  which  Solon  did  not  with- 
hold. Solon  probably  died  about  558,  two  years 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  constitution,  at  the 
age  of  eighty.  There  was  .a  story  current  in 
antiquity  that,  by  his  own  directions,  his  ashes 
were  collected  and  scattered  round  the  island 
of  Salamis.  Of  the  poems  of  Solon  several 
fragments  remain.  They  do  not  indicate  any 
great  degree  of  imaginative  power,  but  their 
style  is  vigorous  and  simple.  Those  that  were 
called  forth  by  special  emergencies  appear  to 
have  been  marked  by  no  small  degree  of  energy. 
The  fragments  of  these  poems  are  incorporated 
in  the  collections  of  the  Greek  gnomic  poets ; 
and  there  is  also  a  separate  edition  of  them  by 
Bach,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1825. 

[SOLONIUS  CAMPUS,  a  tract  of  the  Lanuvian 
district  in  Latium.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
speaks  of  an  Etruscan  city  named  Solonium, 
from  which  Romulus  received  aid  in  his  war 
with  the  Sabines.] 

[SOLORIUS  MONS,  a  mountain  range  of  Hispa- 
nia,  commencing  at  the  sources  of  the  Baetis, 
and  stretching  in  a  southern  direction.  It  form- 
ed in  a  part  of  its  course  the  boundary  between 
Tarraconensis  and  Baetica.] 

SOLUS  (SoAorci  -ovvrof,  contraction  of  So/loetf : 
SoAeiro'Of),  called  SOLUNTUM  (Solentinus)  by  the 
Romans,  an  ancient  town  on  the  northern  coast 
of  Sicily,  between  Panormus  and  Thermae. 

[SoLvoU  (ZoTiii-yua,  now  Galataki),  a  smal 


SOLYMA. 

place  in  the  Corinthian  territory  on 
/.d0of,  twelve  stadia  from  the  coast  of  the  Bay 
of  Cenchreae :  Nicias  here  defeated  a  body  of 
Corinthian  troops  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.] 

SOLYMA  (ru.  Sd/lv.ua).  1.  (Now  Taktalu-Dagh) 
the  mountain  range  which  runs  parallel  to  the 
eastern  coast  of  Lycia,  and  is  a  southern  con- 
tinuation of  Mount  Climax.  Sometimes  the 
whole  range  is  called  Climax,  and  the  name  of 
Solyma  is  given  to  its  highest  peak. — 2.  Another 
name  of  JERUSALEM. 

SOLYMI.      Vid.  LYCIA 

SOM.VCS  (VTVOC),  the  personification  and  god 
of  Sleep,  is  described  as  a  brother  of  Death 
(ddvarof,  morg),  and  as  a  son  of  Night.  In 
works  of  art,  Sleep  and  Death  are  represented 
alike  as  two  youths,  sleeping  or  holding  invert- 
ed torches  in  their  hands.  Vid.  MORS. 

SONTIUS  (now  Isonzo),  a  river  in  Venetia,  in 
the  north  of  Italy,  rising  in  the  Carnic  Alps,  and 
falling  into  the  Sinus  Tergestinus  east  of  Aqui- 
ieia. 

[Sonus  (Suvof,  now  Son,  Sana,  or  Soned),  a 
large  tributary  of  the  Ganges,  on  the  right  side ; 
at  the  junction  of  this  river  with  the  Ganges, 
Palibothra  was  situated.] 

[SOPATER  (SwTrorpof).  1.  One  of  the  generals 
elected  by  the  Syracusans  on  the  murder  of 
Hieronymus  in  B.C.  215. — 2.  A  general  of  Phil- 
ip V.  of  Macedonia,  crossed  over  to  Africa  in 
B.C.  203  with  a  body  of  four  thousand  troops  to 
assist  the  Carthaginians.  He  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Romans  with  many  of  his  soldiers. 
3.  An  Acarnanian,  the  commander  of  Philip's 
garrison  at  Chalcis,  was  slain  with  most  of  his 
troops  in  B.C.  200. — 4.  One  of  the  generals  of 
Perseus,  slain  in  battle  with  the  Romans  in 
LJ.C.  171. — 5.  A  native  of  Halicyae  in  Sicily,  a 
man  of  wealth  and  consideration,  condemned 

)hy  Verres.— 6.  Chief  magistrate  (proagorus)  of 
Tyndaris  in  Sicily,  a  witness  against  Verres, 
who  had  treated  him  with  indignity.] 

SOPATER  (Sun-arpof)-  1.  Of  Paphos,  a  writer 
of  parody  and  burlesque  (favapoypuQof'),  who 
flourished  from  B.C.  323  to  283.— 2.  Of  Apamea, 
a  distinguished  sophist,  the  head  for  some  time 
of  the  school  of  Plotinus,  was  a  disciple  of  lam- 
blichus,  after  whose  death  (before  A.D.  330)  he 
went  to  Constantinople.  Here  he  enjoyed  the 
favor  and  personal  friendship  of  Constantine, 
who  afterward,  however,  put  him  to  death  (be- 
tween A.D.  330  and  337),  from  the  motive,  as 
was  alleged,  of  giving  a  proof  of  the  sincerity  of 
his  own  conversion  to  Christianity.  There  are 
several  grammatical  and  rhetorical  works  ex- 
tant under  the  name  of  Sopater,  but  the  best 
critics  ascribe  these  to  a  younger  Sopater,  men- 
tioned below. — 3.  The  younger  sophist,  of  Apa- 
mea or  of  Alexandrea,  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
about  two  hundred  years  later  than  the  former. 
Besides  his  extant  works  already  alluded  to, 
Photius  has  preserved  an  extract  of  a  work  en- 
titled the  historical  Extract*  (R/cAoyjy),  which  con- 
tained a  vast  variety  of  facts  and  figments,  col- 
lected from  a  great  number  of  authors.  The 
remains  of  his  rhetorical  works  are  contained 
in  Walz's  Rketores  Graci. 

[SopHjENBTua  (So^atVerof),  a  native  of  Stym- 
phalus  in  Arcadia,  who  joined  Cyrus  the  youn- 
ger in  his  expedition  against  Artaxerxes  with 
one  thousand  heavy-armed  men.  He  is  called 


SOPHOCLES. 

I  by  Xenophon  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  generals. 
|  and  was  deputed  to  meet  Ariaeus  and  the  Per 
;  sians  after  the  treacherous  seizure  of  Clearchua 
!  and  his  companions.  On  the  arrival  of  the 
!  Greeks  at  Cotyora,  Sophajnetus  was  fined  for 
!  his  negligence  in  allowing  part  of  the  cargoes 
j  of  the  vessels,  which  brought  the  old  men, 
i  women,  and  children  from  Trapezus,  to  be  pil- 
i  fered.  In  Stephanus  of  Byzantium,  Sophsnetus 
|  is  quoted  four  times  as  author  of  a  Kvpov  'Avci- 
j  Saaif,  and  Miiller  supposes  him  to  be  the  same 
with  the  general  of  Cyrus.  Vid.  Miiller,  Hist. 
Gra-c.  Fragm.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  74.] 

[SOPHANES  (2u0av)?f),  an  Athenian,  of  the 
i  deme  Decelea,  slew  in  single  combat  Euryba- 
tes,  the  leader  of  the  thousand  Argives  sent  to 
aid  the  ^Eginetans  against  the  Athenians  in 
B.C.  491  At  the  battle  of  Plataeae,  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  valor  above  all  his  coun- 
trymen. He  was  slain  in  battle,  while  engaged 
in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  colonize  Amphi- 
polis  in  B.C.  465.] 

SOPHENE  CSu(j>rjV7J,  later  2u<j>av7jvri),  a  district 
of  Armenia  Major,  lying  between  the  ranges  of 
Antitaurus  and  Masius ;  separated  from  Meli- 
tene  in  Armenia  Minor  by  the  Euphrates,  from 
Mesopotamia  by  the  Antitaurus,  and  from  the 
eastern  part  of  Armenia  Major  by  the  River 
Nymphius.  In  the  time  of  the  Greek  kings  of 
Syria,  it  formed,  together  with  the  adjacent  dis- 
trict of  Acilisene,  an  independent  western  Ar- 
menian kingdom,  which  was  subdued  and  united 
to  the  rest  of  Armenia  by  Tigranes. 

SOPHILCS  (Sci0iAof),  a  comic  poet  of  the  mid- 
dle comedy,  was  a  native  of  Sicyon  or  of  Thebes, 
and  flourished  about  B.C.  348.  [A  few  frag- 
ments remain  of  his  plays,  collected  inMeineke's 
Comic.  Grate.  Fragm.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  794-6,  edit,  min.] 
[SOPHILUS.  Vid.  SOPHOCLES.] 
SOPHOCLES  ( So^o«?.^f ).  1.  The  celebrated 
tragic  poet,  was  born  at  Colonus,  a  village  little 
more  than  a  mile  to  the  northwest  of  Athens, 
B.C.  495.  He  was  thirty  years  younger  than 
^Eschylus,  and  fifteen  years  older  than  Euripi- 
des. His  father's  name  was  Sophilus  or  Sophil- 
lus,  of  whose  condition  in  life  we  know  nothing 
for  certain ;  but  it  is  clear  that  Sophocles  re- 
ceived an  education  not  inferior  to  that  of  the 
sons  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens  of 
Athens.  To  both  of  the  two  leading  branches 
of  Greek  education,  music  and  gymnastics,  he 
was  carefully  trained,  and  in  both  he  gained  the 
prize  of  a  garland.  Of  the  skill  which  he  had 
attained  in  music  and  dancing  in  his  sixteenth 
year,  and  of  the  perfection  of  his  bodily  form, 
we  have  conclusive  evidence  in  the  fact  that, 
when  the  Athenians  were  assembled  in  solemi, 
festival  around  the  trophy  which  they  had  set 
up  in  Salamis  to  celebrate  their  victory  over  the 
fleet  of  Xerxes,  Sophocles  was  chosen  to  lead, 
naked  and  with  lyre  in  hand,  the  chorus  which 
danced  about  the  trophy,  and  sang  the  songs  of 
triumph,  480.  His  first  appearance  as  a  dram- 
atist took  place  in  468,  under  peculiarly  inter- 
esting circumstances ;  not  only  from  the  fact 
that  Sophocles,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven, 
came  forward  as  the  rival  of  the  veteran  ^Eschy 
Ins,  whose  supremacy  had  been  maintained  dur 
ing  an  entire  generation,  but  also  from  the  char- 
acter of  the  judges.  The  solemnities  of  the 
Great  Dionysia  were  rendered  more  imposing 

S25 


SUPHOCLES. 

by  the  occasion  of  the  return  of  Cimon  from  his 
expedition  to  Scyros,  bringing  with  him  the 
bones  of  Theseus.  Public  expectation  was  so 
excited  respecting  the  approaching  dramatic 
contest,  and  party  feeling  ran  so  high,  that  Ap- 
sephion,  the  archon  eponymus,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  appoint  the  judges,  had  not  yet  ventured 
to  proceed  to  the  final  act  of  drawing  the  lots 
for  their  election,  when  Cimon,  with  his  nine 
colleagues  in  the  command,  having  entered  the 
theatre,  the  archon  detained  them  at  the  altar, 
and  administered  to  them  the  oath  appointed 
for  the  judges  in  the  dramatic  contests.  Their 
decision  was  in  favor  of  Sophocles,  who  re- 
ceived the  first  prize ;  the  second  only  being 
awarded  to  ^Eschylus,  who  was  so  mortified  at 
his  defeat  that  he  left  Athens  and  retired  to 
Sicily.  From  this  epoch  Sophocles  held  the 
supremacy  of  the  Athenian  stage,  until  a  formi- 
dable rival  arose  in  Euripides,  who  gained  the 
first  prize  for  the  first  time  in  441.  The  year 
4tO  is  a  most  important  era  in  the  poet's  life. 
In  the  spring  of  that  year  he  brought  out  the 
earliest  of  his  extant  dramas,  the  Antigone,  a 
play  which  gave  the  Athenians  such  satisfaction, 
especially  on  account  of  the  political  wisdom  it 
displayed,  that  they  appointed  him  one  of  the 
ten  slrategi,  of  whom  Pericles  was  the  chief,  in 
the  war  against  Samos.  It  would  seem  that  in 
this  war  Sophocles  neither  obtained  nor  sought 
for  any  military  reputation :  he  is  represented 
as  good-humoredly  repeating  the  judgment  of 
Pericles  concerning  him,  that  he  understood 
the  making  of  poetry,  but  not  the  commanding 
of  an  army.  The  family  dissensions  which 
troubled  his  last  years  are  connected  with  a 
well-known  and  beautiful  story.  His  family 
consisted  of  two  sons,  lophon,  the  offspring  of 
Nicostrate,  who  was  a  free  Athenian  woman, 
and  Ariston,  his  son  by  Theoris  of  Sicyon  ;  and 
Ariston  had  a  son  named  Sophocles,  for  whom 
bis  grandfather  showed  the  greatest  affection, 
lophon,  who  was  by  the  laws  of  Athens  his 
father's  rightful  heir,  jealous  of  his  love  for  the 
young  Sophocles,  and  apprehending  that  Sopho- 
cles purposed  to  bestow  upon  his  grandson  a 
large  proportion  of  his  property,  is  said  to  have 
summoned  his  father  before  the  Phratores,  who 
seem  to  have  had  a  sort  of  jurisdiction  in  family 
affairs,  on  the  charge  that  his  mind  was  affect- 
ed by  old  age.  As  his  only  reply,  Sophocles 
exclaimed,  "If  I  am  Sophocles,  I  am  not  beside 
myself;  and  if  I  am  beside  myself,  I  am  not 
Sophocles  ;"  and  then  he  read  from  his  GEdipus 
at  Colonus,  which  was  lately  written,  but  not  yet 
brought  out,  the  magnificent  parados,  beginning, 

EviTTTrou,  &VE,  Tflfds  ^wpaf, 

whereupon  the  judges  at  once  dismissed  the 
case,  and  rebuked  lophon  for  his  undutiful  con- 
duct. Sophocles  forgave  his  son,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  reconciliation  was  referred  to  in 
the  lines  of  the  CEdipus  at  Colonus,  where  Antig- 
one pleads  with  her  father  to  forgive  Polyni- 
ces,  as  other  fathers  had  been  induced  to  for- 
give their  bad  children  (v.  1192,  foil.).  Sopho- 
cles died  soon  afterward  in  406,  in  his  ninetieth 
year.  All  the  various  accounts  of  his  death 
and  funeral  are  of  a  fictitious  and  poetical  com- 
plexion. According  to  some  writers,  he  was 
choked  by  a  grape  ;  another  writer  related  that 
826 


SOPHOCLES. 

in  a  puoli  •  recitation  of  the  Antigone  he  sustain- 
ed his  voice  so  long  without  a  pause  that, 
through  the  weakness  of  extreme  age,  he  lost 
his  breath  and  his  life  together;  while  others 
ascribed  his  death  to  excessive  joy  at  obtaining 
a  victory.  By  the  universal  consent  of  the  besl 
critics,  both  of  ancient  and  of  modern  times,  the 
tragedies  of  Sophocles  are  the  perfection  of  the 
Greek  drama.  The  subjects  and  style  of  Sopho- 
cles are  human,  while  those  of  ^Eschylus  are 
essentially  heroic.  The  latter  excite  terror, 
pity,  and  admiration,  as  we  view  them  at  a  dis- 
tance ;  the  former  bring  those  same  feelings 
home  to  the  heart,  with  the  addition  of  sympa- 
thy and  self-application.  No  individual  human 
being  can  imagine  himself  in  the  position  of 
Prometheus,  or  derive  a  personal  warning  from 
the  crimes  and  fate  of  Clytemnestra ;  bu*  even- 
one  can,  in  feeling,  share  the  self-devotion  ol 
Antigone  in  giving  up  her  life  at  the  call  of 
fraternal  piety,  and  the  calmness  whicti  come 
over  the  spirit  of  CEdipus  when  he  is  reconciled 
to  the  gods.  In  ^Eschylus,  the  sufferers  are  the 
victims  of  an  inexorable  destiny  ;  but  SophocJes 
brings  more  prominently  into  view  those  faults 
of  their  own,  which  form  one  element  of  the 
destiny  of  which  they  are  the  victims,  and  is 
more  intent  upon  inculcating,  as  the  lesson 
taught  by  their  woes,  that  wise  calmness  and 
moderation,  in  desires  and  actions,  in  prosperity 
and  adversity,  which  the  Greek  poets  and  phi- 
losophers celebrate  under  the  name  of  outypoavvn. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  never  descends  to  that 
level  to  which  Euripides  brought  down  the  art, 
the  exhibition  of  human  passion  and  suffering 
for  the  mere  purpose  of  exciting  emotion  in  the 
spectators,  apart  from  a  moral  end.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  two  poets  is  illustrated  by 
the  saying  of  Sophocles,  that  "  he  himself  rep- 
resented men  as  they  ought  to  be,  but  Euripides 
exhibited  them  as  they  are."  The  number  of 
plays  ascribed  to  Sophocles  was  one  hundred 
and  thirty.  He  contended  not  only  with  JEs- 
chylus  and  Euripides,  but  also  with  Chffirilus, 
Aristias,  Agathon,  and  other  poets,  among  whom 
was  his  own  son  lophon  ;  and  he  carried  off  the 
first  prize  twenty  or  twenty-four  times,  frequent 
ly  the  second,  and  never  the  third.  It  is  re- 
markable, as  proving  his  growing  activity  and 
success,  that  of  his  one  hundred  and  thirteen 
dramas,  eighty-one  were  brought  out  after  his 
fifty-fourth  year,  and  also  that  all  his  extant 
dramas,  which  of  course,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
grammarians,  were  his  best,  belong  to  this  latiei 
period  of  his  life.  The  seven  extant  tragedies 
weie  probably  brought  out  in  the  following 
chronological  order :  Antigone,  Electra,  Trachin- 
ice,  CEdipus  Tyrannus,  Ajax,  Philoctetes,  CEdipus 
at  Colonus  :  the  last  of  these  was  brought  out, 
after  the  death  of  the  poet,  by  his  grandson. 
Of  the  numerous  editions  of  Sophocles,  the 
most  useful  one  for  the  ordinary  student  is  that 
by  Wunder,  Gothre  et  Erfurdt,  1831-1846, 2  vols 
8vo.  [Four  parts  have  reached  a  second  edi- 
tion, begun  1839  ;  and  the  other  three  a  third. 
A  useful  edition,  comprising  most  of  Wunder's 
notes  in  English,  was  published  by  Mitchell, 
London,  1841-4,  2  vols.  8vo :  a  full  and  learn- 
ed commentary  on  Sophocles  is  contained  in 
Ellendt's  Lexicon  Sophocleum,  Konigsberg,  1835, 
2  vols.  8vo."|— 2.  Son  of  Ariston  and  grandson 


SOPHONISBA. 

if  tie  elder  Sophocles,  was  also  an  Athenian 
tragic  poet.  The  love  of  his  grandfather  toward 
him  has  been  already  mentioned.  In  401  he 
brought  out  the  (Edijms  at  Colonus  of  his  grand- 
father ;  hut  he  did  not  begin  to  exhibit  his  own 
dramas  till  396. — [3.  An  Athenian  orator,  whose 
oration  for  Euctemon  is  quoted  by  Aristotle. 
Ruhnken  supposes  that  he  is  the  same  as  the 
Sophocles  mentioned  by  Xenophon  as  one  of 
the  Thirty  Tyrants.] 

SOPHONISBA,  daughter  of  the  Carthaginian 
general  Hasdrubal,  the  son  of  Cisco.  She  had 
been  betrothed  by  her  father,  at  a  very  early 
age,  to  the  Numidian  prince  Masinissa  ;  but,  at 
a  subsequent  period,  Hasdrubal  being  desirous 
to  gain  over  Syphax,  the  rival  monarch  of  Nu- 
midia,  to  the  Carthaginian  alliance,  offered  him 
the  hand  of  his  daughter  in  marriage.  The 
beauty  and  accomplishments  of  Sophonisba  pre- 
vailed over  the  influence  of  Scipio :  Syphax 
married  her,  and  became  the  zealous  supporter 
and  ally  of  Carthage.  Sophonisba,  on  her  part, 
was  assiduous  in  her  endeavors  to  secure  his 
adherence  to  the  cause  of  her  countrymen. 
After  the  defeat  of  Syphax,  and  the  capture  of 
his  capital  city  of  Cirta  by  Masinissa,  Sophonis- 
ba fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  upon 
whom,  however,  her  beauty  exercised  so  pow- 
erful an  influence  that  he  determined  to  marry 
her  himself.  Their  nuptials  were  accordingly 
celebrated  without  delay,  but  Scipio  (who  was 
apprehensive  lest  she  should  exercise  the  same 
influence  over  Masinissa  which  she  had  pre- 
viously done  over  Syphax)  refused  to  ratify  this 
arrangement,  and,  upbraiding  Masinissa  with 
his  weakness,  insisted  on  the  immediate  sur- 
render of  the  princess.  Unable  to  resist  this 
command,  the  Numidian  king  spared  her  the 
humiliation  of  captivity  by  sending  her  a  bowl 
of  poison,  which  she  drank  without  hesitation, 
and  thus  put  an  end  to  her  own  life. 

SOPH  RON  (2o9poi>),  of  Syracuse,  was  the  prin- 
cipal writer  of  that  species  of  composition  call- 
ed the  Mime  (ftlpof),  which  was  one  of  the  nu- 
merous varieties  of  the  Dorian  Comedy.  He 
flourished  about  B.C.  460-420.  When  Sophron 
is  called  the  inventor  of  mimes,  the  meaning  is, 
that  he  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  literary  com- 
position a  species  of  amusement  which  the 
Greeks  of  Sicily,  who  were  pre-eminent  for 
broad  humor  and  merriment,  had  practiced  from 
time  immemorial  at  their  public  festivals,  and 
the  nature  of  which  was  very  similar  to  the 
Spartan  Deicelettat.  Such  mimetic  perform- 
ances prevailed  throughout  the  Dorian  states 
under  various  names.  One  feature  of  the  Mimes 
of  Sophron,  which  formed  a  marked  distinction 
between  them  and  comic  poetry,  was  the  na- 
ture of  their  rhythm.  There  is,  however,  some 
difficulty  in  determining  whether  they  were  in 
mere  prose,  or  in  mingled  poetry  and  prose,  or 
in  prose  with  a  peculiar  rhythmical  movement, 
but  no  metrical  arrangement.  With  regard  to 
the  substance  of  these  compositions,  their  char- 
acter, so  far  as  it  can  be  ascertained,  appears 
to  have  been  ethical ;  that  is,  the  scenes  repre- 
sented were  those  of  ordinary  life,  and  the  lan- 
guage employed  was  intended  to  bring  out  more 
clearly  the  characters  of  the  persons  exhibited 
in  those  scenes,  not  only  for,  the  amusement, 
but  also  for  the  instruction  of  the  spectators. 


SORDICE. 

Plato  was  a  great  admirer  of  Sophron,  and  the 
philosopher  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
made  the  Mimes  known  at  Athens.  The  se- 
rious purpose  which  was  aimed  at  in  the  works 
of  Sophron  was  always,  as  in  the  Attic  Com- 
edy, clothed  under  a  sportive  form  ;  and  it  can 
easily  be  imagined  that  sometimes  the  lattei 
element  prevailed,  even  to  the  extent  of  oh- 
scenity,  as  the  extant  fragments  and  the  paral- 
lel of  the  Attic  Comedy  combine  to  prove.  The 
best  collection  of  the  fragments  of  Sophron  is 
by  Ahrens,  De  Graca  Lingua  Dialectis. 

SOPHRONISCUS.      Vid.  SOCRATES. 

[SopHROsYKE  CZuQpoavvT)),  daughter  of  Dio- 
nysius  the  elder  and  of  Aristomache,  the  sister 
of  Dion,  was  married  to  her  half-brother,  the 
younger  Dionysius.] 

SOPHUS,  P.  SEMPRONIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  310,  and  consul  304,  is  mentioned  as  one 
of  the  earliest  jurists,  and  is  said  to  have  owed 
his  name  of  Sophus  or  Wise  to  his  great  merits. 

SOPIAN^E  (now  Funfkirchen),  a  town  in  Pan- 
nonia  Inferior,  on  the  road  from  Mursa  to  Vin- 
dobona,  the  birth-place  of  the  Emperor  Max- 
iminus. 

[SOPOLIS  (ScjTroAif).  1.  Son  of  Hermodorus, 
commanded  the  Amphipolitan  cavalry  in  the 
army  of  Alexander,  in  the  battle  against  the 
Triballians,  on  the  banks  of  the  Lyginus,  in  B.C. 
335 ;  he  also  commanded  a  troop  of  horse  at 
the  battle  of  Arbela  in  331. — 2.  A  distinguished 
painter,  flourished  at  Rome  in  the  middle  of  the 
first  century  B.C.,  and  is  said  by  Cicero  to  have 
been  the  head  of  a  school  of  painters.] 

SORA.  1.  (Soranus :  now  Sora),  a  town  iix 
Latium,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Liris, 
and  north  of  Arpinum,  with  a  strongly-fortified 
citadel.  It  was  the  most  northerly  town  of  the 
Volsci  in  Latium,  and  afterward  joined  the  Sam- 
nites ;  but  it  was  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
and  was  twice  colonized  by  them,  since  the  in- 
habitants had  destroyed  the  first  body  of  col- 
onists. There  are  still  remains  of  the  polyg- 
onal walls  of  the  ancient  town. — 2.  A  town  in 
Paphlagonia  of  uncertain  site. 

SORACTE  (now  Monte  di  S.  Oreste),  a  celebra- 
ted mountain  in  Etruria,  in  the  territory  of  the 
Falisci,  near  the  Tiber,  about  twenty-four  miles 
from  Rome,  but  the  summit  of  which,  frequent- 
ly covered  with  snow,  was  clearly  visible  from 
the  city.  (Vides  ut  alia  stet  nive  candidum  So- 
ractf,  Hor,  Carm.,  i.,  9.)  The  whole  mountain 
was  sacred  to  Apollo,  and  on  its  summit  was  a 
temple  of  this  god.  At  the  festival  of  Apollo, 
celebrated  on  this  mountain,  the  worshippers 
passed  over  burning  embers  without  receiving 
any  injury.  (Virg.,  JEn.,  xi.,  785,  seq.) 

SORANUS.  1.  A  Sabine  divinity,  usually  iden- 
tified with  Apollo,  worshipped  on  Mount  So- 
racte.  Vid.  SORACTE. — 2.  The  name  of  several 
physicians,  of  whom  the  most  celebrated  seems 
to  have  been  a  native  of  Ephesus,  and  to  have 
practiced  his  profession  first  at  Alexandrea,  and 
afterward  at  Rome,  in  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and 
Hadrian,  A.D.  98-138.  There  are  several  med- 
ical works  still  extant  under  the  name  of  Sora- 
nus, but  whether  they  were  written  by  the  na- 
tive of  Ephesus  can  not  be  determined. 

SORDICK  (now  Etang  de  Leucate),  a  lake  in 
Gallia  Narbonensis,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees, 
formed  by  the  River  Sordis. 

827 


SORDONES. 


SOTION. 


SORDONES  or  SORDI,  a  small  people  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  whose 
chief  town  was  Ruscino. 

[SosiA  GALLA,  a  favorite  of  Agrippina,  the 
widow  of  Germanicus,  was  involved  in  the 
charge  of  treason  against  her  husband  C.  Silius, 
and  sent  into  exile  by  Tiberius.] 

Soslinus  (Su<T/&of),  a  distinguished  Lacedae- 
monian grammarian,  who  flourished  in  the  reign 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (about  B.C.  251),  and 
was  contemporary  with  Callimachus. 

[SOSICLES  (Suffuse),  a  Corinthian  deputy  to 
the  congress  which  had  in  consideration  the 
restoration  of  Hippias  to  the  tyranny  of  Athens. 
His  earnest  opposition  to  that  measure  induced 
the  allies  to  abandon  the  project.] 

SOSIGENES  (Su<7iyifKJ7f),  the  peripatetic  phi- 
losopher, was  the  astronomer  employed  by  Ju- 
lius Caesar  to  superintend  the  correction  of  the 
calendar  (B.C.  46).  He  is  called  an  Egyptian, 
but  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  an  Alexan- 
drean  Greek.  Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  art.  CALEN- 
IURIUM. 

SOSIPHANES  (Su<Tt0dw?f),  the  son  of  Sosicles 
of  Syracuse,  was  one  of  the  seven  tragedians 
who  were  called  .the  Tragic  Pleiad.  He  was 
born  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Philip,  and  flour- 
ished B.C.  284.  [A  few  fragments  remain,  col- 
lected in  Wagner's  Tragic.  Grac.  Fragm.,  p. 
157-8.] 

[Sosis  (Socrtf),  a  Syracusan,  who  joined  Cy- 
rus the  younger  with  three  hundred  Greek  mer- 
cenaries.] 

SOSITHEUS  (Sufftfeof),  of  Syracuse  or  Athens, 
or  Alexandrea  in  the  Troad,  was  a  distinguished 
tragic  poet,  one  of  the  Tragic  Pleiad,  and  the 
antagonist  of  the  tragic  poet  Homer.  He  flour- 
ished about  B.C.  284.  [The  fragments  of  his 
tragedies  are  collected  in  Wagner's  Tragic. 
Grac.  Fragm.,  p.  149-152.]  . 

Sosius.  1.  C.,  quaestor  B.C.  66,  and  praetor 
49.  He  was  afterward  one  of  Antony's  princi- 
pal lieutenants  in  the  East.  He  was  appointed 
by  Antony,  in  38,  governor  of  Syria  and  Cilicia 
in  the  place  of  Ventidius.  Like  his  predeces- 
sor jn  the  government,  he  carried  on  the  mil- 
itary operations  in  his  province  with  great  suc- 
cess. In  37  he  advanced  against  Jerusalem 
along  with  Herod,  and  after  hard  fighting  be- 
came master  of  the  city,  and  placed  Herod  upon 
the  throne.  In  return  lor  these  services,  An- 
tony obtained  for  Sosius  the  honor  of  a  triumph 
in  34,  and  the  consulship  in  32.  Sosius  com- 
manded the  left  wing  of  Antony's  fleet  at  the 
battle  of  Actium.  He  was  afterward  pardoned 
by  Octavianus,  at  the  intercession  of  L.  Arrun- 
tius.—  2.  The  name  of  two  brothers  (Sosii), 
booksellers  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Horace. 
They  were  probably  freedmen,  perhaps  of  the 
Sosius  mentioned  above. 

SOSPITA,  that  is,  the  "  saving  goddess,"  was 
a  surname  of  Juno  at  Lanuvium  and  at  Rome, 
in  both  of  which  places  she  had  a  temple.  Her 
worship  was  very  ancient  in  Latium,  and  was 
transplanted  from  Lanuvium  to  Rome. 

SOSTHENES  (2ua6evr;ti,  a  Macedonian  officer 
of  noble  birth,  who  obtained  the  supreme  di- 
rection of  affairs  during  the  period  of  confusion 
which  followed  the  invasion  of  the  Gauls.  He 
defeated  the  Gauls  in  280.  He  is  included  by 
the  chronologers  among  the  kings  of  Macedo- 
828 


nia,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  he  ever  as- 
sumed the  royal  title. 

SOSTRATUS  (Swffrparof),  the  name  of  at  least 
four,  if  not  five,  Grecian  artists,  who  have  been 
frequently  confounded  with  one  another.  1.  A 
statuary  in  bronze,  the  sister's  son  of  Pythago- 
ras of  Rhegium,  and  his  disciple,  flourished 
about  B.C.  424.—  2.  Of  Chios,  the  instructor  of 
Pantias,  flourisned  about  B.C.  400.  —  3.  A  slat 
uary  in  bronze,  whom  Pliny  mentions  as  a  con- 
temporary of  Lysippus,  at  01.  114,  B.C.  323,  the 
date  of  Alexander's  death.  It  is  probable,  how 
ever,  that  he  was  identical  with  the  following. 
—  4.  The  son  of  Dexiphanes,  of  Cnidus,  was  one 
of  the  great  architects  who  flourished  during 
and  after  the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He 
built  for  Ptolemy  I.,  the  son  of  Lagus,  the  cel- 
ebrated Pharos  of  Alexandrea.  He  also  em- 
bellished his  native  city,  Cnidus,  with  a  work 
which  was  one  of  the  wonders  of  ancient  archi- 
tecture, namely,  a  portico,  or  colonnade,  sup- 
porting a  terrace,  which  served  as  a  promenade. 
—5.  An  engraver  of  precious  stones,  whose 
name  appears  on  several  very  beautiful  cameos 
and  intaglios. 

Sosus  (Soffof),  of  Pergamus,  a  worker  in  mo- 
saic, and,  according  to  Pliny,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  all  who  practiced  that  art. 

SOTADES  (Surdityc)-  !•  An  Athenian  comic 
poet  of  the  Middle  Comedy,  who  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  more  celebrated  poet  of 
Maronea.  —  2.  A  native  of  Maronea  in  Thrace, 
flourished  at  Alexandrea  about  B.C.  280.  He 
wrote  lascivious  poems  (called  ^vo/cef  or  Kivat- 
6ot)  in  the  Ionian  dialect,  whence  they  were 
also  called  'luviKol  %6-yot.  They  were  also  call- 
ed Sotadean  poems  (Swrudeta  {Zc/zara).  It  would 
seem  that  Sotades  carried  his  lascivious  and 
abusive  satire  to  the  utmost  lengths  ;  and  the 
freedoms  which  he  took  at  last  brought  him 
into  trouble.  According  to  Plutarch,  he  made 
a  vehement  and  gross  attack  on  Ptolemy  Phil- 
adelphus, on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage  with 
his  sister  Arsinofi,  and  the  king  threw  him  into 
prison,  where  he  remained  for  a  long  time.  Ac- 
cording to  Athenaeus,  the  poet  attacked  both 
Lysimachus  and  Ptolemy,  and,  having  fled  from 
Alexandrea,  he  was  overtaken  at  Caunus  by 
Ptolemy's  general  Patroclus,  who  shut  him  up 
in  a  leaden  chest  and  cast  him  into  the  sea. 

SOTER  (2wn?p),  i.  e.,  "  the  Saviour"  (Lat.  Ser- 
vator  or  Sospes),  occurs  as  the  surname  of  sev- 
eral divinities,  especially  of  Zeus  (Jupiter).  It 
was  also  a  surname  of  Ptolemaeus  I.,  king  of 
Egypt,  as  well  as  of  several  of  the  other  later 
Greek  kings. 

[SOTERICHUS  (Suriypi^of),  of  the  Oasis,  an  epic 
poet  and  historian  of  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Diocletian.  To  him  are  ascribed  an  Encommm 
on  Diocletian,  a  poem  entitled  BaaaapiKa  T/TOI 
AiovvataKu,  one  on  Pantheia  of  Babylon,  anoth- 
er on  Ariadne,  a  life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana, 
a  poetical  history  of  the  capture  of  Thebes  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  entitled  Hvduv  %  'AAefav- 
dpiaKov,  and  others.] 

[SoTERicus  MARCIUS,  a  freedman,  from  whom 
L.  Crassus  purchased  his  Tusculan  villa.] 

SOTION  (Sur/uv).  1.  A  philosopher,  and  a 
native  of  Alexandrea,  who  flourished  at  the  close 
of  the  third  centu/y  B.C.  He  is  chiefly  re- 
markable as  the  author  of  a  work  (entitled  Ata 


SOTTIATES. 


SPARTA. 


to-(ai.)  on  the  successive  teachers  in  t.ie  differ-  ' 
ent  philosophical  schools.  —  2.  A  philosopher, 
and  also  a  native  of  Alexandrea,  who  lived  in  i 
the  age  of  Tiberius.     He  was  the  instructor  of 
Seneca,  who  derived  from  him  his  admiration 
of  Pythagoras.     It  was  perhaps  this  Sotion  who 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  anger,  quoted 
by  Stobaeus. — 3.  A  Peripatetic  philosopher,  men-  ; 
tioned  by  A.  Gellius,  is  probably  a  different  per- 
son from  either  of  the  preceding. 

SOTTIATES  or  SOTIATES,  a  powerful  and  war- 
like people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  on  the  frontiers 
of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  were  subdued  by  P.  Cras- 
sus,  Caesar's  legate,  after  a  hard-fought  battle. 
The  modern  Sds  probably  represents  the  an- 
cient town  of  this  people. 

[Sous  (26of),  one  of  the  earliest  kings  of 
Sparta,  son  of  Procles,  whom  he  succeeded  on 
the  throne,  and  father  of  Eurypon,  from  whom 
the  Proclid  kings  were  called  Eurypontidae.] 

SOZOMENUS  (Su^o/uevof),  usually  called  Sozo- 
MEN  in  English,  was  a  Greek  ecclesiastical  his- 
torian of  the  fifth  century.  He  was  probably  a 
native  of  Bethelia  or  Bethel,  a  village  near  Gaza 
in  Palestine.  His  parents  were  Christians.  He 
practiced  as  an  advocate  at  Constantinople, 
whence  he  is  surnamed  Scholasticus ;  and  he 
was  still  engaged  in  his  profession  when  he 
wrote  his  history.  His  ecclesiastical  history, 
which  is  extant,  is  in  nine  books,  and  is  dedi- 
cated to  the  Emperor  Theodosius  II.  It  com- 
mences with  the  reign  of  Constantine,  and 
comes  down  a  little  later  than  the  death  of  Ho- 
norius,  A.D.  423.  The  work  is  incomplete,  and 
breaks  off  in  the  middle  of  a  chapter.  The  au- 
thor, we  know,  had  proposed  to  bring  it  down 
to  439,  the  year  in  which  the  history  of  Socra- 
tes ends.  Sozomen  excels  Socrates  in  style, 
but  is  inferior  to  the  latter  in  soundness  of  judg- 
ment. The  history  of  Sozomen  is  printed  along 
with  the  other  Greek  ecclesiastical  historians. 
Vid.  SOCRATES. 

SOZOPOLIS,  afterward  SUSUPOLIS  (2<j£o7ro/Ur, 
Zufrvnofas :  ruins  at  Susu),  a  considerable  city 
of  Pisidia,  in  a  plain  surrounded  by  mountains, 
north  of  Termessus.  » 

SPARTA  (TZndpTT],  Dor.  2?rapra  :  ZTraprtarj/f, 
Spartiites,  Spartanus),  also  called  LACED^MON 
( A.aKs6aifiui>:  A.aKcdat/i6viof,  Lacedaemonius),  the 
capital  of  Laconia  and  the  chief  city  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus, was  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Eurotas  (now  7ri),  about  twenty  miles  from  the 
sea.  It  stood  on  a  plain  which  contained  within 
it  several  rising  grounds  and  hills.  It  was 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Eurotas,  on  the 
northwest  by  the  small  river  CEnus  (now  Kele- 
sina),  and  on  the  southeast  by  the  small  river 
Tiasa  (now  Magula),  both  of  which  streams  fell 
into  the  Eurotas.  The  plain  in  which  Sparta 
stood  was  shut  in  on  the  east  by  Mount  Mene- 
laium,  and  on  the  west  by  Mount  Taygetus  ; 
whence  the  city  is  called  by  Homer  "  the  hollow 
Laccdaemon.'  It  was  of  a  circular  form,  about 
six  miles  in  circumference,  and  consisted  of 
several  distinct  quarters,  which  were  originally 
separate  villages,  and  which  were  never  united 
into  one  regular  town.  Its  site  is  occupied  by 
the  modern  villages  of  Magula  and  Psykhiko; 
and  the  principal  modern  town  in  the  neighbor- 
hood is  Miitra,  which  lies  about  two  miles  to 
the  west,  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Taygetus 


During  the  flourishing  times  of  Greek  independ- 
ence, Sparta  was  never  surrounded  by  walls, 
since  the  bravery  of  its  citizens,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  access  to  it,  were  supposed  to  render 
such  defences  needless.  It  was  first  fortified 
by  the  tyrant  Nabis  ;  but  it  did  not  possess  reg- 
ular walls  till  the  time  of  the  Romans.  Sparta, 
unlike  most  Greek  cities,  had  no  proper  Acropo- 
lis, but  this  name  was  only  given  to  one  of  the 
steepest  hills  of  the  town,  on  the  summit  of 
which  stood  the  temp  c  of  Athena  Poliuchos 
or  Chalcioecus.  Five  distinct  quarters  of  the 
city  are  mentioned  :  1.  Pitane  (flmiw/ :  Ethnic 
HiravuTTif),  which  appears  to  have  been  the 
most  important  part  of  the  city,  and  in  which 
was  situated  the  Agora,  containing  the  council- 
house  of  the  senate,  and  the  offices  of  the  pub- 
lic magistrates.  It  was  also  surrounded  by  va- 
rious temples  and  other  public  buildings.  Of 
these  the  most  splendid  was  the  Persian  Stoa 
or  portico,  originally  built  of  the  spoils  taken  in 
the  Persian  war,  and  enlarged  and  adorned  at 
later  times.  A  part  of  the  Agora  was  called  the 
Chorus  or  dancing  place,  in  which  the  Spartan 
youths  performed  dances  in  honor  of  Apollo. 
2.  Limna  (\ifivat),  a  suburb  of  the  city,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Eurotas,  northeast  of  Pitane,  was 
originally  a  hollow  spot  covered  with  water.  3. 
Mesoa  or  Messoa  (Meo-oa,  Mecrodo :  Eth.  Meaao- 
ur'j/c),  also  by  the  side  of  the  Eurotas,  southeast 
of  the  preceding,  containing  the  Dromus  and 
the  Platanistas,  which  was  a  spot  nearly  sur- 
rounded with  water,  and  so  called  from  the  plane- 
trees  growing  there.  4.  Cynosura  (Kvv6$ovpa  •. 
Kwocovpevf),  in  the  southwest  of  the  city,  and 
south  of  Pitane.  5.  JEgiia.  (Alysldai),  in  the 
northwest  of  the  city,  and  west  of  Pitane.  The 
two  principal  streets  of  Sparta  ran  from  the 
Agora  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  city  :  these 
were,  1.  Apheta  or  Aphetdis  ('AQtrai,  'A^erotf, 
sc.  6ft6f),  extending  in  a  southeasterly  direction 
past  the  temple  of  Dictynna  and  the  tombs  of 
the  Eurypontidae  ;  and,  2.  Skias  (S/auf),  run- 
ning nearly  parallel  to  the  preceding  one,  but 
further  to  the  east,  and  which  derived  its  name 
from  an  ancient  place  of  assembly,  of  a  circulai 
form,  called  Skias.  The  most  important  re- 
mains of  ancient  Sparta  are  the  ruins  of  the 
theatre,  which  was  near  the  Agora.  Sparta  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Lacedaemon,  a  son 
of  Zeus  and  Taygete,  who  married  Sparta,  the 
daughter  of  Eurotas,  and  called  the  city  a^fter 
the  name  of  his  wife.  His  son  Amyclas  is  said 
to  have  been  the  founder  of  Amyclae,  wnich 
was  for  a  long  time  a  more  important  town  than 
Sparta  itself.  In  the  mythical  period,  Argos 
was  the  chief  city  in  Peloponnesus,  and  Sparta 
is  represented  as  subject  to  it.  Here  reigned 
Menelaus,  the  younger  brother  of  Agamemnon  ; 
and  by  the  marriage  of  Orestes,  the  son  of  Aga- 
memnon, with  Hermione,  the  daughter  of  Mene- 
laus, the  two  kingdoms  of  Argos  and  Sparta  be- 
came united.  The  Dorian  conquest  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus, which,  according  to  tradition,  took 
place  eighty  years  after  the  Trojan  war,  made 
Sparta  the  capital  of  the  country.  Laconia  fell 
to  the  share  of  the  two  sons  of  Aristodemus, 
Eurysthenes  and  Procles,  who  took  up  their 
residence  at  Spaita,  and  ruled  over  the  kingdom 
conjointly.  The  old  inhabitants  of  the  country 
maintaine  themselves  at  Amyclae,  which  was 

829 


SPARTA. 

not  conquered  for  a  long  time.  After  the  com- 
plete subjugation  of  the  country  we  find  three 
distinct  classes  in  the  population :  the  Dorian 
conquerors,  who  resided  in  the  capital,  and  who 
were  called  Spartiatae  or  Spartans ;  the  Peri- 
O2ci  or  old  Achaean  inhabitants,  who  became 
tributary  to  the  Spartans,  and  possessed  no  po- 
litical rights  ;  and  the  Helots,  who  were  also  a 
portion  of  the  old  Achaean  inhabitants,  but  were 
reduced  to  a  state  of  slavery.  From  various 
causes  the  Spartans  became  distracted  by  intes- 
tine quarrels,  till  at  length  Lycurgus,  who  be- 
longed to  the  royal  family,  was  selected  by  all 
parties  to  give  a  new  constitution  to  the  state. 
The  date  of  Lycurgus  is  uncertain ;  but  it  is 
impossible  to  place  it  later  than  B.C.  825.  The 
constitution  of  Lycurgus,  which  is  described  in 
a  separate  article  (vid.  LYCURGUS),  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  Sparta's  greatness.  She  soon  became 
aggressive,  and  gradually  extended  her  sway 
over  the  greater  part  of  Peloponnesus.  In  B.C. 
743  the  Spartans  attacked  Messenia,  and  after 
a  war  of  twenty  years  subdued  this  country, 
723.  In  685  the  Messenians  again  took  up 
arms,  but  at  the  end  of  seventeen  years  were 
again  completely  subdued,  and  their  country 
from  this  time  forward  became  an  integral  por- 
tion of  Laconia.  For  details,  vid.  MESSENIA. 
After  the  close  of  the  second  Messenian  war 
the  Spartans  continued  their  conquests  in  Pelo- 
ponnesus. They  defeated  the  Tegeans,  and 
wrested  the  district  of  Thyreae  from  the  Ar- 
gives.  At  the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion, 
they  were  confessedly  the  first  people  in  Greece ; 
and  to  them  was  granted  by  unanimous  consent 
the  chief  command  in  the  war.  But  after  the 
final  defeat  of  the  Persians,  the  haughtiness  of 
Pausanias  disgusted  most  of  the  Greek  states, 
particularly  the  lonians,  and  led  them  to  trans- 
fer the  supremacy  to  Athens  (477).  From  this 
time  the  power  of  Athens  steadily  increased, 
and  Sparta  possessed  little  influence  outside  of 
the  Peloponnesus.  The  Spartans,  however, 
made  several  attempts  to  check  the  rising  great- 
ness of  Athens,  and  their  jealousy  of  the  latter 
led  at  length  to  the  Peloponnesian  war  (431). 
This  war  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  Athens, 
and  the  restoration  of  the  supremacy  of  Sparta 
over  the  rest  of  Greece  (404).  But  the  Spar- 
tans did  not  retain  this  supremacy  more  than 
thirty  years.  Their  decisive  defeat  by  the  The- 
bans  under  Epaminondas  at  the  battle  of  Leuc- 
tra'(371)  gave  the  Spartan  power  a  shock  from 
which  it  never  recovered ;  and  the  restoration 
of  the  Messenians  to  their  country  two  years 
afterward  completed  the  humiliation  of  Sparta. 
Thrice  was  the  Spartan  territory  invaded  by 
the  Thebans,  and  the  Spartan  women  saw  for 
the  first  time  the  watch-fires  of  an  enemy's 
camp.  The  Spartans  now  finally  lost  their  su- 
premacy over  Greece,  but  no  other  Greek  state 
succeeded  to  their  power ;  and  about  thirty 
years  afterward  the  greater  part  of  Greece  was 
obliged  to  yield  to  Philip  of  Macedon.  The 
Spartans,  however,  kept  haughtily  aloof  from 
the  Macedonian  conqueror,  and  refused  to  take 
part  in  the  Asiatic  expedition  of  his  son  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  Under  the  later  Macedonian 
monarchs  the  power  of  Sparta  still  further  de- 
clined ;  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  were  neg- 
lected, luxury  crept  into  the  state,  the  number 
830 


SPARTACUS. 

of  citizens  diminished,  and  the  landed  property 
became  vested  in  a  few  families.     Agis  endeav- 

I  ored  to  restore  the  ancient  institutions  of  Ly- 

1  curgus,  but  he  perished  in  the  attempt  (240). 

]  Cleomencs  III.,  who  began  to  reign  23G,  was 
more  successful.  He  succeeded  in  putting  the 
ephors  to  death,  and  overthrowing  the  existing 
government  (225) ;  and  he  then  made  a  redis- 
tribution of  the  landed  property,  and  augmented 
the  number  of  the  Spartan  citizens  by  admit- 
ting some  of  the  Perioeci  to  this  honor.  His 
reforms  infused  new  blood  into  the  state,  and 
for  a  short  time  he  carried  on  war  with  success 
against  the  Achaeans.  But  Aratus,  the  general 
of  the  Achaeans,  called  in  the  assistance  of  An- 
tigonus  Doson,  the  king  of  Macedonia,  who  de- 

'  feated  Cleomenes  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Sel- 
lasia  (221),  and  followed  up  his  success  by  the 
capture  of  Sparta.  Sparta  now  sank  into  insig- 
nificance, and  was  ruled  by  a  succession  of  na- 
tive tyrants,  till  at  length  it  was  compelled  to 
abolish  its  peculiar  institutions,  and  to  join  the 
Achaean  league.  Shortly  afterward  it  fell,  with 
the  rest  of  Greece,  under  the  Roman  power. 

SPARTACUS,  the  name  of  several  kings  of  the 
Cimmerian  Bosporus.  1.  Succeeded  the  dynasty 
of  the  Archeanactidae  in  B.C.  438,  and  reigned 
until  431.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Seleu- 
cus.  —  2.  Began  to  reign  in  427,  and  reigned 
twenty  years.  He  was  succeeded  in  407  by  his 
son  Satyrus. — 3.  Succeeded  his  father  Leucon 
in  353,  and  died,  leaving  his  kingdom  to  his  son 
Parysades  in  348. — 4.  Son  of  Eumelus,  began 
to  reign  in  304,  and  reigned  twenty  years. 

SPARTACUS,  by  birth  a  Thracian,  was  success- 
ively a  shepherd,  a  soldier,  and  a  chief  of  ban- 
ditti. On  one  of  his  predatory  expeditions  he 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  sold  to  a  trainer  of  glad- 
iators. In  73  he  was  a  member  of  the  company 
of  Lentulus,  and  was  detained  in  his  school  at 
Capua,  in  readiness  for  the  games  at  Rome. 
He  persuaded  his  fellow-prisoners  to  make  an 
attempt  to  gain  their  freedom.  About  seventy 
of  them  broke  out  of  the  school  of  Lentulus,  and 
took  refuge  in  the  crater  of  Vesuvius.  Sparta- 
cu%was  chosen  leader,  and  was  soon  joined  by 
a  number  of  runaway  slaves.  They  were  block- 
aded by  C.  Claudius  Pulcher  at  the  head  of  three 
thousand  men,  but  Spartacus  attacked  the  be- 
siegers and  put  them  to  flight.  His  numbers 
rapidly  increased,  and  for  two  years  (B.C.  73- 
71)  he  defeated  one  Roman  army  after  another, 
and  laid  waste  Italy,  from  the  foot  of  the  Alps 
to  the  southernmost  corner  of  the  peninsula. 
After  both  the  consuls  of  72  had  been  defeated 
by  Spartacus,  M.  Licinius  Crassus,  the  praetor, 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  war. 
Crassus  carried  on  the  contest  with  vigor  and 
success,  and,  after  gaining  several  advantages 
over  the  enemy,  at  length  defeated  them  on  the 
River  Silarus  in  a  decisive  battle,  in  which  Spar- 
tacus was  slain.  The  character  of  Spartacus 
has  been  maligned  by  the  Roman  writers.  Cic- 
ero compares  the  vilest  of  his  contemporaries 
to  him :  Horace  speaks  of  him  as  a  common 
robber  ;  none  recognize  his  greatness,  but  the 
terror  of  Iris  name  survived  to  a  late  period  of 
the  empire.  Accident  made  Spartacus  a  shep- 
herd, a  freebooter,  and  a  gladiator ;  nature  form, 
ed  him  a  hero.  The  excesses  of  his  followers 
he  could  not  always  repress,  and  his  efforts  tc 


SPARTARIUS. 

restrain  them  often  cost  him  his  popularity.  But 
ne  was  in  himself  not  less  mild  and  just  than 
he  was  able  and  valiant. 

SPARTARIUS  CAMPUS.      Vid.  CARTHAGO  NOVA. 

SPARTI  (Sjraproi,  from  oneipu),  the  Sown-Men, 
is  the  name  given  to  the  armed  men  who  sprang 
from  the  dragon's  teeth  sown  by  Cadmus,  and 
who  were  believed  to  be  the  ancestors  of  the 
five  oldest  families  at  Thebes. 

SPARTIANUS,  -.-Ebius,  one  of  th& Scriptores  His- 
toric Augusta,  lived  in  the  time  of  Diocletian 
and  Constantine,  and  wrote  the  biographies  of, 
1.  Hadrianus  and  ^Elius  Verus  ;  2.  Didius  Juli- 
anus  ;  3.  Severus  ;  4.  Pescennius Niger;  5.  Car- 
acalla ;  6.  Geta.  For  the  editions  of  Spartia- 
nus,  vid.  CAPITOLINUS. 

SpARTonus  (STrdprw^of),  a  town  in  the  Mace- 
donian peninsula  of  Chalcidice,  north  of  Olyn- 
thus. 

SPAUTA  (2-ayra  :  now  Lake  of  Urmi),  a  large 
salt-lake  in  the  west  of  Media,  whose  waters 
v  ere  singularly  bitter  and  acrid.  It  was  also 
called  Matiana  (Martav?  Tufivjj)  from  the  name 
of  the  people  who  dwelt  around  it. 

SPERCHEUS  (Sn-ep^etof  :  now  Elladha),  a  river 
in  the  south  of  Thessaly,  which  rises  in  Mount 
Tymphrestus,  runs  in  an  easterly  direction 
through  the  territory  of  the  ^Enianes,  and 
through  the  district  Malis,  and  falls  into  the  in- 
nermost corner  of  the  Sinus  Maliacus.  As  a 
river-god  Spercheus  is  a  son  of  Oceanus  and 
Terra  (Ge),  and  the  father  of  Menesthius  by 
Polydora,  the  daughter  of  Peleus.  To  this  god 
Peleus  dedicated  the  hair  of  his  son  Achilles, 
in  order  that  he  might  return  in  safety  from  the 
Trojan  war. 

SPES,  the  personification  of  Hope,  was  wor- 
shipped at  Rome,  where  she  had  several  tem- 
ples, the  most  ancient  of  which  had  been  built 
in  B.C.  354,  by  the  consul  Alilius  Calatinus, 
near  the  Porta  Carmentalis.  The  Greeks  also 
worshipped  the  personification  of  Hope,  Elpis, 
and  they  relate  the  beautiful  allegory,  that  when 
Epimetheus  opened  the  vessel  brought  to  hitn 
by  Pandora,  from  which  all  manner  of  evils 
were  scattered  over  the  earth,  Hope  alone  re- 
mained behind.  Hope  was  represented  in 
works  of  art  as  a  youthful  figure,  lightly  walk- 
ing in  full  attire,  holding  in  her  right  hand  a 
flower,  and  with  the  left  lifting  up  her  garment. 

SPEUSIPPUS  ( SrrerifftTTTrof ),  the  philosopher, 
was  a  native  of  Athens,  and  the  son  of  Eury- 
medon  and  Potone,  a  sister  of  Plato.  He  ac- 
companied his  uncle  Plato  on  his  third  journey 
to  Syracuse,  where  he  displayed  considerable 
ability  and  prudence.  He  succeeded  Plato  as 
president  of  the  Academy,  but  was  at  the  head 
of  the  school  for  only  eight  years  (B.C.  347- 
339).  He  died,  as  it  appears,  of  a  lingering 
paralytic  illness.  He  wrote  several  works,  all 
of  which  are  lost,  in  which  he  developed  the 
doctrines  of  his  great  master. 

SPHACTERIA.     Vid.  PYLOS,  No.  3. 

SPH^RIA  ("Zfyaipia  :  now  Poros),  an  island  off 
the  coast  of  Trcezen  in  Argolis,  and  between  it 
and  the  island  of  Calauria,  with  the  latter  of 
which  it  was  connected  by  means  of  a  sand- 
bank. Here  Sphaerus,  the  charioteer  of  Pelops, 
is  said  to  have  been  buried. 

[SPH./ERUS  (S^atpof).      Vid.  SPH/KIUA.] 

),  a  Stoic  philosopher,  stud- 


SPITHRIDATES. 

fed  first  under  Zeno  of  Citium,  and  afterward 
under  Cleanthes.  He  lived  at  Alexandrea  dur- 
ing the  reigns  of  the  first  two  Ptolemies.  He 
also  taught  at  Lacedaemon,  and  was  believed  to 
have  had  considerable  influence  in  moulding  the 
character  of  Cleomenes.  He  was  in  repute 
among  the  Stoics  for  the  accuracy  of  his  defini- 
tions. He  was  the  author  of  several  works,  all 
of  which  are  lost. 

SPHENDALE  (20£vr5a?i7/ :  S^evdaAerf),  a  demus 
of  Attica  belonging  to  the  tribe  Hippothoontis, 
on  the  frontiers  of  Bceotia,  between  Tanagra  and 
Decelea. 

SPHETTUS  (S^rrof  :  S^rrtof),  a  demus  in 
the  south  of  Attica,  near  the  silver  mines  of 
Sunium,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Acamantis. 

[SpHODRiAs  (Z^otfpt'af),  Spartan  harmost  at 
Thespise  B.C.  378,  attempted  in  a  time  of  peace 
to  seize  upon  the  Piraeus.  Having  failed  in  the 
undertaking,  he  was  tried  by  the  Spartan  ephors, 
but  acquitted  through  the  influence  of  Agesilaus. 
He  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  B.C.  371.] 

SPHINX  (20t'yf,  gen.  S^tyydf),  a  she-monster, 
daughter  of  Orthus  and  Chimaera,  born  in  the 
country  of  the  Arimi,  or  of  Typhon  and  Echidna, 
or  lastly  of  Typhon  and  Chimaera.  She  is  said 
to  have  proposed  a  riddle  to  the  Thebans,  and 
to  have  murdered  all  who  were  unable  to  guess 
it.  CEdipus  solved  it,  whereupon  the  Sphinx 
slew  herself.  (For  details,  vid.  CEDIPUS.)  The 
legend  appears  to  have  come  from  Egypt,  but 
the  figure  of  the  Sphinx  is  represented  some 
what  differently  in  Greek  mythology  and  art. 
The  Egyptian  Sphinx  is  the  figure  of  a  lion 
without  wings  in  a  lying  attitude,  the  upper  part 
of  the  body  being  that  of  a  human  being.  The 
Sphinxes  appear  in  Egypt  to  have  been  set  up 
in  avenues  forming  the  approaches  to  temples. 
The  common  idea  of  a  Greek  Sphinx,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  that  of  a  winged  body  of  a  lion, 
the  breast  and  upper  part  being  the  figure  of  a 
woman.  Greek  Sphinxes,  moreover,  are  not 
always  represented  in  a  lying  attitude,  but  ap- 
pear in  different  positions,  as  it  might  suit  the 
fancy  of  the  sculptor  or  poet.  Thus  they  appear 
with  the  face  of  a  maiden,  the  breast,  feet,  and 
claws  of  a  lion,  the  tail  of  a  serpent,  and  the 
wings  of  a  bird.  Sphinxes  were  frequently  in 
troduced  by  Greek  artists  as  ornaments  of  ar- 
chitectural works. 

SPINA.  1.  (Now  Spinazzino),  a  town  in  Gal- 
lia  Cispadana,  in  the  territory  of  the  Lingones, 
on  the  most  southerly  of  the  mouths  of  the  Po, 
which  was  called  after  it  Ostium  Spineticum. 
It  was  a  very  ancient  town,  said'to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Greeks,  but  in  the  time  of  Strabo 
had  ceased  to  be  a  place  of  any  importance. — 
2.  (Now  Spino),  a  town  in  Gallia  Transpadana, 
on  the  River  Addua. 

[SPINO,  a  small  stream  in  or  near  Rome, 
which,  Cicero  says,  together  with  the  Almo, 
Nodinus,  Tiberinus,  and  other  flowing  waters, 
was  invoked  in  the  prayers  of  the  augurs.] 

SPINTHARUS  (ZxivBapof),  of  Heraclea  on  the 
Pontus,  a  tragic  poet,  contemporary  with  Aris- 
tophanes, who  designates  him  as  a  barbarian 
and  a  Phrygian.  He  was  also  ridiculed  by  the 
other  comic  poets. 

[SPITHRIDATKS  (SjnfytttJurj/f ),  a  Persian  com- 
mander sent  by  Pharnabazus  to  oppose  the  [ins- 
sage  of  the  ten  thousand  through  Bithyniu 

831 


SPOLATUM. 


STATIUS. 


B  C.  -100.  Ho  afterward  revolted  from  the  Per-  ! 
sians,  and  joined  Agesilaus. — 2.  Satrap  of  Lydia 
and  Ionia  under  Darius  Codomanntis,  was  one 
of  the  Persian  commanders  at  the  battle  of  the 
Granicus  in  B.C.  334,  in  which  battle,  while  Al- 
exander was  engaged  with  Rhoesaces,  Spithri- 
dates  attacked  him  from  behind,  and  had*raised 
his  sword  to  strike,  when  Clitus,  anticipating  the 
blow,  cut  off  his  arm.  (Compare  RUCKSACKS)  ] 

SPOLATUM.      Vid.  SALONA. 

SPOLETIUM  or  SPOLETUM  (Spoletinus :  now 
Spolcto),  a  town  in  Umbria.on  the  Via  Flaminia, 
colonized  by  the  Romans  B  C.  242.  It  suffered 
severely  in  the  civil  wars  between  Sulla  and 
Marius.  At  a  later  time  it  was  taken  by  Toti- 
las  ;  but  its  walls,  which  had  been  destroyed  by 
the  Goths,  were  restored  by  Narses. 

SPORADES  (STropdeJcf,  sc.  vijooi,  from  oneipu), 
a  group  of  scattered  islands  in  the  ^Egean  Sea, 
off  the  island  of  Crete  and  the  western  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  so  called  in  opposition  to  the  Cyc- 
lades,  which  lay  in  a  circle  around  Delos.  The 
division,  however,  between  these  two  groups 
of  islands  was  not  well  denned ;  and  we  find 
some  of  the  islands  at  one  time  described  as 
belonging  to  the  Sporades,  and  at  another  time 
as  belonging  to  the  Cyclades. 

SPURINNA,  VESTRITIUS.  1.  The  haruspex  who 
warned  Caesar  to  beware  of  the  Ides  of  March. 
It  is  related  that,  as  Caesar  was  going  to  the 
senate-house  on  the  fatal  day,  he  said  to  Spu- 
rinna  in  jest,  "  Well,  the  Ides  of  March  are 
come,"  upon  which  the  seer  replied,  "  Yes,  they 
are  come,  but  they  are  not  past." — 2.  A  Roman 
general,  who  fought  on  the  side  of  Otho  against 
the  Vitellian  troops  in  the  north  of  Italy.  In 
the  reign  of  Trajan  he  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Bructeri.  Spurinna  lived  on  terms  of  the  closest 
friendship  with  the  younger  Pliny,  from  whom 
we  learn  that  Spurinna  composed  lyric  poems. 
There  are  extant  four  odes,  or  rather  fragments 
of  odes,  in  choriambic  measure,  ascribed  to  Spu- 
rinna, and  which  were  first  published  by  Bar- 
thius  in  1613.  Their  genuineness,  however,  is 
very  doubtful. 

SPURINUS,  Q.  PETILLIUS,  preetor  urbanus  in 
B.C.  181,  in  which  year  the  books  of  King  Nu- 
ma  Pompilius  are  said  to  have  been  discovered 
upon  the  estate  of  one  L.  Petillius.  Spurinus 
obtained  possession  of  the  books,  and  upon  his 
representation  to  the  senate  that  they  ought  not 
to  be  read  and  preserved,  the  senate  ordered 
them  to  be  burned.  Vid.  NUMA.  Spurinus 
was  consul  in  176,  and  fell  in  battle  against  the 
Ligurians. 

STABLE  (Stabianus  :  now  Castell  a  Mare  di 
Stabia),  an  ancient  town  in  Campania,  between 
Pompeii  and  Surrentum,  which  was  destroyed 
by  Sulla  in  the  Social  War,  but  which  continued 
to  exist  as  a  small  place  down  to  the  great  erup- 
tion of  Vesuvius  in  A.D.  79,  when  it  was  over- 
whelmed along  with  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum. 
It  was  at  Stabiae  that  the  elder  Pliny  perished. 

STAGIRUS,  subsequently  STAGIRA  (2ruy«pof, 
ra  Srdyctpa,  rj  Sray«'pa:  Srayetptrj/f :  now  Stav- 
ro),  a  town  of  Macedonia  in  Chalcidice,  on  the 
Strymonic  Gulf,  and  a  little  north  of  the  isthmus 
which  unites  the  promontory  of  Athos  to  Chal- 
cidice. It  was  a  colony  of  Andros,  was  found- 
ed B.C.  656,  and  was  originally  called  Orthago- 
ria.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  Aris- 
832 


totle,  and  was  in  consequence  restored  by  Phil- 
ip, by  whom  it  had  been  destroyed. 

STAPHYLUS  (Srci^v/of),  son  of  Bacchus  (Diu- 
nysus)  and  Ariadne,  or  of  Theseus  and  Ariadne, 
and  was  one  of  the  Argonauts.  By  Chrysothe- 
mis  he  became  the  father  of  three  daughters, 
Molpadia,  Rhoeo,  and  Parthenos. 

[STASEAS,  of  Neapolis,  a  peripatetic  philoso- 
pher, who  lived  many  years  at  Rome  with  M 
Piso,  and  was  also  on  friendly  terms  with  Ci- 
cero.] 

STASINUS  (SraoiVof),  of  Cyprus,  an  epic  poet, 
to  whom  some  of  the  ancient  writers  attributed 
the  poem  of  the  Epic  Cycle,  entitled  Cypriu 
(Kvnpia).  In  the  earliest  historical  period  of 
Greek  literature  the  Cypria  was  accepted  with- 
out question  as  a  work  of  Homer ;  and  it  is  not 
till  we  come  down  to  the  times  of  Athenaeus 
and  the  grammarians  that  we  find  any  mention 
of  Stasinus.  Stasinus  was  said  to  be  the  son- 
in-law  of  Homer,  who,  according  to  one  story, 
composed  the  Cypria,  and  gave  it  to  Stasinus  as 
his  daughter's  marriage  portion  ;  manifestly  an 
attempt  to  reconcile  the  two  different  accounts, 
which  ascribed  it  to  Homer  and  Stasinus.  The 
Cypria  was  the  first,  in  the  order  of  the  events 
contained  in  it,  of  the  poems-of  the  Epic  Cycle 
relating  to  the  Trojan  war.  It  embraced  the 
period  antecedent  to  the  beginning  of  the  Iliad, 
to  which  it  was  designed  to  form  an  introduc- 
tion. 

STATIELLI,  STATIELLATES,  or  STATIELLENSES, 
a  small  tribe  in  Liguria,  south  of  the  Po,  whose 
chief  town  was  Statiellae  Aquae  (now  Acqui),  on 
the  road  from  Genua  to  Placentia. 

STATILIA  MESSALINA.     Vid.  MESSALINA 

STATILIUS  TAURUS.     Vid.  TAURUS. 

[STATILIUS,  L.,  a  man  of  equestrian  rank,  was 
one  of  Catiline's  conspirators,  and  was  put  to 
death  with  Lentulus  and  the  others  in  the  Tul- 
lianum.] 

STATIRA  (Sra'mpa).  1.  Wife  of  Artaxerxes 
II.,  king  of  Persia,  was  poisoned  by  Parysatis, 
the  mother  «*f  the  king,  who  was  a  deadly  ene- 
my of  Statira. — 2.  Sister  and  wife  of  Darius  III., 
celebrated  as  the  most  beautiful  woman  of  her 
time.  She  was  taken  prisoner  by  Alexander, 
together  with  her  mother-in-law  Sisygambis  and 
her  daughters,  after  the  battle  of  Issus,  B.C.  333. 
They  were  all  treated  with  the  utmost  respect 
by  the  conqueror,  but  Statira  died  shortly  be- 
fore the  battle  of  Arbela,  331.— 3.  Also  called 
BARSINE,  elder  daughter  of  Darius  III.  Vid. 
BARSINE. 

STATIUS  MURCUS.     Vid.  MURCUS. 

[STATIUS.  1.  A  literary  slave  of  Q.  Cicero, 
whom  he  subsequently  manumitted,  had  given 
offence  to  M.  Cicero,  as  appears  from  the  lat- 
ter's  letters. — 2.  GELLIUS,  a  general  of  the  Sam- 
nites,  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  and  taken 
prisoner  in  B.C.  305.] 

STJLTIUS,  P.  PAPINIUS,  was  born  at  Neapolis 
about  A.D.  61,  and  was  the  son  of  a  distinguish- 
ed grammarian.  He  accompanied  his  father  to 
Rome,  where  the  latter  acted  as  the  preceptor 
of  Domitian,  who  held  him  in  high  honor.  Un- 
der the  skillful  tuition  of  his  father,  the  young 
Statius  speedily  rose  to  fame,  and  became  pecu- 
liarly renowned  for  the  brilliancy  of  his  extem- 
poraneous effusions,  so  that  he  gained  the  prize 
three  times  in  the  Alban  contests  ;  but  having, 


STATONIA. 

after  a  long  career  of  popularity,  been  vanquish- 
ed in  the  quinquennial  games,  he  retired  to  Ne- 
apolis,  the  place  of  his  nativity,  along  with  his 
wife  Claudia,  whose  virtues  he  frequently  com- 
memorates. He  died  about  A  D.  96.  It  has 
been  inferred  from  a  passage  in  Juvenal  (vii., 
82),  that  Statius,  in  his  earlier  years  at  least, 
was  forced  to  struggle  with  poverty  ;  hut  he 
appears  to  have  profited  by  the  patronage  of 
Domitian  (Silt.,  iv.,  2),  whom  he  addresses  in 
strains  of  the  most  fulsome  adulation.  The  ex- 
tant works  of  Statius  are  :  1.  Silvarum  Libri  V., 
a  collection  of  thirty-two  occasional  poems, 
many  of  them  of  considerable  length,  divided 
into  five  books.  To  each  book  is  prefixed  a 
dedication  in  prose,  addressed  to  some  friend. 
The  metre  chiefly  employed  is  the  heroic  hex- 
ameter, but  four  of  the  pieces  (i.,  6  ;  ii.,  7  ;  iv., 
3,  9)  are  in  Phalaecian  hendecasyllabics,  one 
(iv.,  5)  in  the  Alcaic,  and  one  (iv.,  7)  in  the 
Sapphic  stanza.  2.  Thebcudos  Libri  XII.,  an 
heroic  poem  in  twelve  books,  embodying  the 
ancient  legends  with  regard  to  the  expedition 
of  the  Seven  against  Thebes.  3.  Achilleidos 
Libri  II.,  an  heroic  poem  breaking  off  abruptly. 
According  to  the  original  plan,  it  would  have 
comprised  a  complete  history  of  the  exploits  of 
Achilles,  but  was  probably  never  finished.  Sta- 
tius may  justly  claim  the  praise  of  standing  in 
the  foremost  rank  among  the  heroic  poets  of  the 
Silver  Age.  He  is  in  a  great  measure  free  from 
extravagance  and  pompous  pretensions ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  no  portion  of  his  works  do  we 
find  the  impress  of  high  natural  talent  and  im- 
posing power.  The  pieces  which  form  the  Sil- 
vae,  although  evidently  thrown  off  in  haste,  pro- 
duce a  much  more  pleasing  effect  than  the  am- 
bitious poems  of  the  Thebaid  or  the  Achilleid. 
The  best  editions  of  the  SUva  are  by  Markland, 
Lond.,  1728,  and  by  Sillig,  Dresd.,  1827.  The 
best  edition  of  the  complete  works  of  Statius  is 
by  Lemaire,  4  vols.  «vo,  Paris,  1825-1830. 

STATONIA  (Statoniensis),  a  town  in  Etruria, 
and  a  Roman  praefectura,  on  the  River  Albinia, 
and  on  the  Lacus  Statoniensis,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  which  were  stone  quarries,  and  excel- 
lent wine  was  grown. 

STATOR,  a  Roman  surname  of  Jupiter,  describ- 
ing  him  as  staying  the  Romans  in  their  flight 
from  an  enemy,  and  generally  as  preserving  the 
existing  order  of  things. 

STECTORIUM  (Zrfxropiov:  now  Afioum  Kara- 
Hisar  1),  a  city  of  Great  Phrygia,  between  Pel- 
tffi  and  Synnadia. 

STENTOR  (Sr<?i>rup),  a  herald  of  the  Greeks  in 
the  Trojan  war,  whose  voice  was  as  loud  as 
that  of  fifty  other  men  together.  His  name  has 
become  proverbial  for  any  one  shouting  with  an 
unusually  loud  voice. 

STENTORIS  LACCJS.     Vid.  HEBRUS. 

STENYCLERUS  (SrevtWAvpof,  Dor.  2rfvt5«A.a- 
pof  :  SrevvKAjypfof ),  a  town  in  the  north  of  Mes- 
senia,  which  was  the  residence  of  the  Dorian 
kings  of  the  country.  After  the  time  of  the 
third  Messenian  war  the  town  is  no  longer  men- 
tioned ;  but  its  name  continued  to  be  given  to 
an  extensive  plain  in  the  north  of  Messenia. 

STEPHANE  or  -is  (Sre^dvj?,  Sre^avt'f :  now  Ste- 
fanio),  a  sea-port  town  of  Paphlagonia,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Mariandyni. 

STEPHANUS  (Sr^avof).  1.  An  Athenian  com- 
53 


STESICHORUS. 

ic  poet  of  the  New  Comedy,  was  probably  the 
son  of  Antiphanes,  some  of  whose  plays  he  is 
said  to  have  exhibited. — 2.  Of  Byzantium,  the 
author  of  the  geographical  lexicon  entitled  Elk- 
nico.  ('E#»'«cu),  of  which,  unfortunately,  we  pos- 
sess only  an  epitome.  Stephanus  was  a  gram- 
marian at  Constantinople,  and  lived  after  the 
time  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  and  before  that 
of  Justinian  II.  His  work  was  reduced  to  an 
epitome  by  a  certain  Hermolaus,  who  dedica- 
ted his  abridgment  to  the  Emperor  Justinian 
II.  According  to  the  title,  the  chief  object  of 
the  work  was  to  specify  the  gentile  names  de- 
rived from  the  several  names  of  places  and 
countries  in  the  ancient  world.  But,  while  this 
is  done  in  every  article,  the  amount  of  informa- 
tion given  went  far  beyond  this.  Nearly  every 
article  in  the  epitome  contains  a  reference  to 
some  ancient  writer,  as  an  authority  for  the 
name  of  the  place ;  but  in  the  original,  as  we 
see  from  the  extant  fragments,  there  were  con- 
siderable quotations  from  the  ancient  authors, 
besides  a  number  of  very  interesting  partieu 
lars,  topographical,  historical,  mythological,  and 
others.  Thus  the  work  was  not  merely  what 
it  professed  to  be,  a  lexicon  of  a  special  branch 
of  technical  grammar,  but  a  valuable  dictionary 
of  geography.  How  great  would  have  been  its 
value  to  us,  if  it  had  come  down  to  us  unmuti- 
lated,  may  be  seen  by  any  one  who  compares 
the  extant  fragments  of  the  original  with  the 
corresponding  articles  in  the  epitome.  These 
fragments,  however,  are  unfortunately  very 
scanty.  The  best  editions  of  the  Epitome  of 
Stephanus  are  by  Dindorf,  Lips.,  1825,  &c.,  4 
vols.  ;  by  Westermann,  Lips.,  1839,  8vo ;  and 
by  Meineke,  Berlin,  1849,  vol.  i. 

STERCULIUS,  STERCUTIUS,  or  STERQUILINUS,  a 
surname  of  Saturnus,  derived  from  Stercus, 
manure,  because  he  had  promoted  agriculture 
by  teaching  the  people  the  use  of  manure.  This 
seems  to  have  been  the  original  meaning,  though 
some  Romans  state  that  Sterculius  was  a  sur- 
name of  Picumnus,  the  son  of  Faunus,  to  whom 
likewise  improvements  in  agriculture  are  as- 
cribed. 

STEROPE  (Srepon-j?),  one  of  the  Pleiads,  wife 
ofQEnomaus,  and  daughter  of  Hippodamla. 

STEROPES.     Vid.  CYCLOPES. 

[STERTINIUS,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  whom  Hor- 
ace (Sat.,  ii.,  3, 296),  in  derision,  calls  the  eighth 
of  the  wise  men  :  the  scholiast  says  that  he 
wrote  two  hundred  and  thirty  books  on  the 
Stoic  philosophy  in  the  Latin  language.] 

STESICHORUS  (Sr^ff^opof),  of  Himera  in  Sic- 
ily, a  celebrated  Greek  poet,  contemporary  with 
Sappho,  Alcseus,  Pittacus,  and  Phalaris,  is  said 
to  have  been  born  B.C.  632,  to  have  flourished 
about  608,  and  to  have  died  in  552,  at  the  age 
of  eighty.  Of  the  events  of  his  life  we  have 
only  a  few  obscure  accounts.  Like  other  great 
poets,  his  birth  is  fabled  to  have  been  attended 
by  an  omen  ;  a  nightingale  sat  upon  the  babe's 
lips,  and  sung  a  sweet  strain.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  carefully  educated  at  Catana,  and 
afterward  to  have  enjoyed  the  friendship  of 
Phalaris,  the  tyrant  of  Agrigentum.  Many  writ- 
ers relate  the  fable  of  his  being  miraculously 
struck  with  blindness  after  writing  an  attacl. 
upon  Helen,  and  recovering  his  sight  when  he 
had  composed  a  Palinodia.  He  is  said  to  have 

833 


STESICLES. 

been  buried  at  Catana  by  a  gate  of  the  city, 
which  was  called  after  him  the  Stesichorean 
gate.  Stesichorus  was  one  of  the  nine  chiefs 
of  lyric  poetry  recognized  by  the  ancients.  He 
stands,  with  Alcman,  at  the  head  of  one  branch 
of  the  lyric  art,  the  choral  poetry  of  the  Do- 
rians. He  was  the  first  to  break  the  monotony 
of  the  strophe  and  antistrophe  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  epode,  and  his  metres  were  much 
more  varied,  and  the  structure  of  his  strophes 
more  elaborate,  than  those  of  Alcman.  His 
odes  contained  all  the  essential  elements  of  the 
perfect  choral  poetry  of  Pindar  and  the  trage- 
dians. The  subjects  of  his  poems  were  chiefly 
heroic  ;  he  transferred  the  subjects  of  the  old 
epic  poetry  to  the  lyric  form,  dropping,  of  course, 
the  continuous  narrative,  and  dwelling  on  iso- 
lated adventures  of  his  heroes.  He  also  com- 
posed poems  on  other  subjects.  His  extant  re- 
mains may  be  classified  under  the  following 
heads:  1.  Mythical  Poems.  2.  Hymns,  Enco- 
mia, Epithalamia,  Paeans.  3.  Erotic  Poems, 
and  Scholia.  4.  A  pastoral  poem,  entitled  Daph- 
nis.  5.  Fables.  6.  Elegies.  The  dialect  of  Ste- 
sichorus was  Dorian,  with  an  intermixture  of 
the  epic.  The  best  edition  of  his  fragments  is 
by  Kleine,  Berol.,  1828. 

[STESICLES  (Sr^trt/fA^f,  called  by  Diodorus 
Krjytn  «/.??£•),  was  sent  by  the  Athenians  with  six 
hundred  peltastae  to  aid  the  Corcyreans  against 
the  Lacedaemonians  under  Mnasippus,  B.C.  373. 
He  was  successful,  and  caused  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Lacedaemonians  from  Corcyra.] 

STESIMBROTUS  (2r^a/y«6porof),  of  Thasos,  a 
rhapsodist  and  historian  in  the  time  of  Cimon 
and  Pericles,  who  is  mentioned  with  praise  by 
Plato  and  Xenophon,  and  who  wrote  a  work 
upon  Homer,  the  title  of  which  is  not  known. 
He  also  wrote  some  historical  works. 

STHENEBCEA  (20fve'6oio),  called  ANTEA  by 
many  writers,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Lycian 
king  lobates,  and  the  wife  of  Proetus.  Respect- 
ing her  love  for  Bellerophon,  t>id.  BELLERO- 


who  strongly  urged  the  declaration  of  war  against 
Athens  in  the  assembly  of  the  Spartans  and 
their  allies  before  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and 
contributed  greatly  to  that  determination  on  the 
part  of  the  assembly.] 

STHENELUS  (Zdevehoi;).  1.  Son  of  Perseus  and 
Andromeda,  king  of  Mycenae,  and  husband  of 
Nicippe,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Al- 
cinoe,  Medusa,  and  Eurystheus.  The  latter,  as 
the  great  enemy  of  Hercules  (vid.  HERCULES), 
is  called  by  Ovid  Sthenelelus  hostis.  —  2.  Son  of 
Androgeos  and  grandson  of  Minos.  He  accom- 
panied Hercules  from  Paros  on  his  expedition 
against  the  Amazons,  and,  together  with  his 
brother  Alcaeus,  he  was  appointed  by  Hercules 
ruler  of  Thasos  —  3.  Son  of  Actor,  likewise  a 
companion  of  Hercules  in  his  expedition  against 
the  Amazons  ;  but  he  died,  and  was  buried  in 
Paphlagonia,  where  he  afterward  appeared  to 
the  Argonauts.  —  4.  Son  of  Capaneusand  Evadne, 
belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Anaxagoridae  in 
Argos,  and  was  the  father  of  Cylarabes  ;  but, 
according  to  others,  his  son's  name  was  Come- 
tes.  He  was  one  of  the  Epigoni,  by  whom 
Thebes  was  taken,  and  he  commanded  the  Ar- 
gives  under  Diomedes  in  the  Trojan  war,  being 
834 


STILPC 

the  faithful  friend  and  companion  of  Diomedes 
He  was  one  of  the  Greeks  concealed  in  the 
wooden  horse,  and  at  the  distribution  of  the 
booty,  he  was  said  to  have  received  an  image 
of  a  three-eyed  Jupiter  (Zeus),  which  was  in 
after  times  shown  at  Argos.  His  own  statue 
and  tomb  also  were  believed  to  exist  at  Argos. 
—  5.  Father  of  Cycnus,  who  was  metamorph- 
osed into  a  swan.  Hence  we  find  the  swan 
called  by  Ovid  St/tenclcis  volucris  and  Sthendeia 
proles.  —  6.  A  tragic  poet,  contemporary  with 
Aristophanes,  who  attacked  him  in  the  Wasps. 

STHENO.     Vid.  GORGONES. 

[STICHIUS  (Sr^i'of),  a  leader  of  the  .Athe- 
nian forces  in  the  Trojan  war,  was  slain  by  Hec- 
tor.] 

STILICHO,  son  of  a  Vandal  captain  under  the 
Emperor  Valens,  became  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished generals  of  Theodosius  I.  On  the 
death  of  Theodosius,  A.D.  395,  Stiliclio  became 
the  real  ruler  of  the  West  under  the  Emperor  Ho- 
norius  ;  and  his  power  was  strengthened  by  the 
death  of  his  rival  Rufinus  (vid.  RUFINUS),  and  by 
the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Maria  to  Honorius. 
His  military  abilities  saved  the  Western  em- 
pire ;  and  after  gaining  several  victories  over 
the  barbarians,  he  defeated  Alaric  at  the  deci- 
sive battle  of  Pollentia,  403,  and  compelled  him 
to  retire  from  Italy.  In  405  he  gained  another 
great  victory  over  Radagaisus,  who  had  invad- 
ed Italy  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  host  of  bar- 
barians. These  victories  raised  the  ambition 
of  Stilicho  to  so  high  a  pitch  that  he  aspired 
to  make  himself  master  of  the  Roman  empire  ; 
but  he  was  apprehended  and  put  to  death  at 
Ravenna  in  408. 

STILO,  L.  JELivs  PR^ECONINUS,  a  celebrated 
Roman  grammarian,  one  of  the  teachers  of 
Varro  and  Cicero.  He  received  the  surname 
of  Praeconinus  because  his  father  had  been  a 
praeco,  and  that  of  Stilo  on  account  of  his  com- 
positions. He  belonged  to  the  aristocratical 
party,  and  accompanied  Q.  Metellus  Numidicus 
into  exile  in  B.C.  100.  He  wrote  Commenta- 
ries on  the  Songs  of  the  Saliiandon  the  Twelve 
Tables,  a  work  De  Prologuiis,  &c.  He  and  his 
son-in-law,  Ser.  Claudius,  may  be  regarded  as 
the  founders  of  the  study  of  grammar  at  Rome. 
Some  modern  writers  suppose  that  the  work  on 
Rhetoric  ad  C.  Herennium,  which  is  printed  in 
the  editions  of  Cicero,  is  the  work  of  this  ^Elius, 
but  this  is  mere  conjecture. 

STILPO  (Srt'ATrwv),  a  celebrated  philosopher, 
was  a  native  of  Megara,  and  taught  philosophy 
in  his  native  town.  According  to  one  account, 
he  engaged  in  dialectic  encounters  with  Diodo- 
rus Cronus  at  the  court  of  Ptolemaeus  Soter ; 
while,  according  to  another,  he  did  not  comply 
with  the  invitation  of  the  king  to  visit  Alexan- 
drea.  He  acquired  a  great  reputation  ;  and  so 
high  was  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held,  that 
Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigonus,  spared  his 
house  at  the  capture  of  Megara.  He  is  said  to 
have  surpassed  his  contemporaries  in  inventive 
power  and  dialectic  art,  and  to  have  inspired 
almost  all  Greece  with  a  devotion  to  the  Mega- 
rian  philosophy.  He  seems  to  have  made  the 
idea  of  virtue  the  especial  object  of  his  consid- 
eration. He  maintained  that  the  'wise  man 
ought  not  only  to  overcome  every  evil,  but  not 
even  to  be  affected  by  any. 


STIMO. 

[STIMO,  a  village  of  Thessaly,  near  Gomphi, 
mentioned  by  Livy.] 

STIMULA,  the  name  of  Semele,  according  to 
some  critics, among  the  Romans. 

STIRIA  (Smpt'u  :  Sreiptevf :  ruins  on  the  bay 
Porto  Rafti),  a  demus  in  Attica,  southeast  of 
Brauron,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Pandionis,  to 
which  there  was  a  road  from  Athens  called 
SraptaK?  oJof.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  The- 
ramenes  and  Thrasybulus. 

STOB/EUS,  JOANNES  ('ludvvrjf  6  Srofiatoj-),  de- 
rived his  surname  apparently  from  being  a  na- 
tive of  Stobi  in  Macedonia.  Of  his  personal 
history  we  know  nothing.  Even  the  age  in 
which  halived  can  not  be  fixed  with  accuracy, 
but  he  must  have  been  later  than  Hierocles  of 
Alexandrea,  whom  he  quotes.  Probably  he  did 
not  live  very  long  after  him,  as  he  quotes  no 
writer  of  a  later  date.  We  are  indebted  to  Sto- 
basus  for  a  very  valuable  collection  of  extracts 
from  earlier  Greek  writers.  Stobaeus  was  a 
man  of  extensive  reading,  in  the  course  of  which 
he  noted  down  the  most  interesting  passages. 
The  materials  which  he  had  collected  in  this 
way  he  arranged,  in  the  order  of  subjects,  for 
die  use  of  his  son  Septimius.  This  collection 
of  extracts  has  come  down  to  us,  divided  into 
two  distinct  works,  of  which  one  bears  the  title 
of  'E/cAo^-at  (pvaiicai  6ia/.EKTiKal  nal  fjdiKai  (Ec- 
logat  Physica,  etc.),  and  the  other  the  title  of 
'AvOohoyiov  (Florilegium  or  Sermones).  The  Ec- 
loga:  consist  for  the  most  part  of  extracts  con- 
veying the  views  of  earlier  poets  and  prose  writ- 
ers on  points  of  physics,  dialectics,  and  ethics. 
The  Florilegium,  or  Sermones,  is  devoted  to  sub- 
jects of  a  moral,  political,  and  economical  kind, 
and  maxims  of  practical  wisdom.  Each  chap- 
ter of  the  Eclogae  and  Sermones  is  headed  by 
a  title  describing  its  matter.  The  extracts  quot- 
ed in  illustration  begin  usually  with  passages 
from  the  poets,  after  whom  come  historians, 
orators,  philosophers,  and  physicians.  To  Sto- 
baeus we  are  indebted  fona  large  proportion  of 
the  fragments  that  remain  of  the  lost  works  of 
poets.  Euripides  seems  to  have  been  an  espe- 
cial favorite  with  him.  He  has  quoted  above 
five  hundred  passages  from  him  in  the  Ser- 
mones, one  hundred  and  fifty  from  Sophocles, 
and  above  two  hundred  from  Menander.  In  ex- 
tracting from  prose  writers,  Stobaeus  sometimes 
quotes  verbatim,  sometimes  gives  only  an  epit- 
ome of  the  passage.  The  best  editions  of  the 
Eclogae  are  by  Heeren,  Gotting.,  1792-1801,  4 
vols.  8vo,  [and  by  Gaisford,  Oxford,  1850,  2 
vols.  8vo],  and  of  the  Florilegium  by  Gaisford, 
Oxon.,  1822,  4  vols.  8vo. 

STOBI  (Zro6(K  :  2ro&nof),  a  town  of  Macedo- 
nia, and  the  most  important  place  in  the  dis- 
trict Paeonia,  was  probably  situated  on  the  River 
Erigon,  north  of  Thessalonica  and  northeast  of 
Heraclca.  It  was  made  a  Roman  colony  and  a 
municipium,  and  under  the  later  emperors  was 
the  capital  of  the  province  Macedonia  II.  or 
Salutaris.  It  was  destroyed  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century  by  the  Goths  ;  but  it  is  still  men- 
tioned by  the  Byzantine  writers  as  a  fortress 
under  the  name  of  Stypeum  ("Zrinciov).  Its  site 
is  unknown  ;  for  the  modern  Istib,  which  is 
n  si  i  ally  supposed  to  stand  upon  the  site  of  Stobi, 
lies  too  far  to  the  northeast. 

STCECHAUES   INSULT   (now  Isle  d'Htercs),  a 


STRABO 

group  of  five  small  islands  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, off  the  coast  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  and 
east  of  Massilia,  on  which  the  Massiliotes  kept 
an  armed  force  to  protect  their  trade  against 
pirates.  The  three  larger  islands  were  called 
Prote,  Mese  or  Pomponiana,  and  Hypaea,  the 
modern  Porquerolle,  Port  Croz,  and  Isle  de  Le- 
vant ordu  Titan  ;  the  two  smaller  ones  are  prob- 
ably the  modern  Ratoneau  and  Promegne. 

STCENI,  a  Ligurian   people  in  the  Maritime 

Alps,  conquered  by  Q.  Marcius  Rex  B.C.  118, 

before  he  founded  the  colony  of  Narbo  Martius. 

STRABO,  a  cognomen  in  many  Roman  gentes, 

!  signified  a  person  who  squinted,  and  is  accord- 

I  ingly  classed  with  Patus,  though  the  latter  word 

l  did  not  indicate  such  a  complete  distortion  of 

!  vision  as  Strabo. 

STRABO,  the  geographer,  was  a  native  of  Ama- 
I  sia  in  Pontus.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  un 
I  known,  but  may  perhaps  be  placed  about  B.C. 
|  54.  He  lived  during  the  whole  of  the  reign  of 
j  Augustus,  and  during  the  early  part,  at  least, 
of  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  He  is  supposed  to 
I  have  died  about  A.D.  24.  He  received  a  care- 
j  ful  education.  He  studied  grammar  under  Aris- 
!  todemusatNysa  inCaria,  and  philosophy  undei 
Xenarchus  of  Seleucia  in  Cilicia  and  Boethus 
of  Sidon.  He  lived  some  years  at  Rome,  and 
also  travelled  much  in  various  countries.  We 
learn  from  his  own  work  that  he  was  with  his 
friend  ^Elius  Gallus  in  Egypt  in  B.C.  24.  He 
wrote  an  historical  work  ('IcsTopina  "tnofivijfiaTa) 
in  forty-three  books,  which  is  lost.  It  began 
where  the  history  of  Polybius  ended,  and  was 
probably  continued  to  the  battle  of  Actium.  He 
also  wrote  a  work  on  Geography  (TeuypaQiKd), 
in  seventeen  books,  which  has  come  down  to 
us  entire,  with  the  exception  of  the  seventh, 
of  which  we  have  only  a  meagre  epitome.  Stra- 
bo's  work,  according  to  his  own  expression, 
was  not  intended  for  the  use  of  all  persons.  It 
was  designed  for  all  who  had  had  a  good  edu- 
cation, and  particularly  for  those  who  were  en- 
gaged in  the  higher  departments  of  adminis- 
tration. Consistently  with  this  view,  his  plan 
does  not  comprehend  minute  description,  except 
j  when  the  place  or  the  object  is  of  great  interest 
I  or  importance  ;  nor  is  his  description  limited  to 
the  physical  characteristics  of  each  country  ;  it 
comprehends  the  important  political  events  of 
which  each  country  has  been  the  theatre,  a  no- 
tice of  the  chief  cities  and  the  great  men  who 
have  illustrated  them  ;  in  short,  whatever  was 
most  characteristic  and  interesting  in  every 
country.  His  work  forms  a  striking  contrast 
with  the  geography  of  Ptolemy,  and  the  dry  list 
of  names,  occasionally  relieved  by  something 
adilcil  to  them,  in  the  geographical  portion  of 
the  Natural  History  of  Pliny.  It  is,  in  short,  a 
book  intended  for  reading,  and  it  may  be  read  ; 
a  kind  of  historical  geography.  Strabo's, lan- 
guage is  generally  clear,  except  in  those  pas- 
sages where  the  text  has  been  corrupted  ;  it  is 
appropriate  to  the  matter,  simple  and  without 
affectation.  The  first  two  books  of  Strabo  are 
an  introduction  to  his  Geography,  and  contain 
his  views  on  the  form  and  magnitude  of  the 
earth,  and  other  subjects  connected  with  math- 
ematical geography.  In  the  third  book  he  be- 
gins his  description  :  he  devotes  eight  books  to 
Europe  ;  six  to  Asia ;  and  the  seventeenth  and 

835 


STRABO. 

last  to  Egypt  and  Libya.  The  best  editions  of 
Stral>o  are  by  Casaubon,  Geneva,  1587,  and 
Paris,  1620,  fol. — reprinted  by  Almeloveen,  Am- 
sterdam, 1707,  and  by  Falconer,  Oxford,  1807, 
a  vuls.  fol. — by  Siebenkees,  and  Tzschucke, 
Lips.,  1811,  7  vols.  8vo  ;  by  Coraes,  Paris,  1815, 
seq.,  4  vols.  8vo  ;  and  by  Kramer,  Berlin,  1814, 
seq.,  of  which  only  two  volumes  have  yet  ap- 
peared. This  last  is  by  far  the  best  critical  edi- 
tion. 

STKABO,  FANNIUS.  1.  C.,  consul  B.C.  161 
with  M.  Valerius  Messala.  In  their  consulship 
the  rhetoricians  were  expelled  from  Rome. — 2. 
C.,  son  of  the  preceding,  consul  122.  He  owed 
bis  election  to  the  consulship  chiefly  to  the  in- 
fluence of  C.  Gracchus,  who  was  anxious  to  pre- 
vent his  enemy  Opimius  from  obtaining  the  of- 
fice. But  in  his  consulship  Fannius  supported 
the  aristocracy,  and  took  an  active  part  in  op- 
posing the  measures  of  Gracchus.  He  spoke 
against  the  proposal  of  Gracchus,  who  wished 
to  give  the  Roman  franchise  to  the  Latins,  in 
a  speech  which  was  regarded  as  a  master-piece 
in  the  time  of  Cicero.— 3.  C.,  son-in-law  of  La> 
lius,  and  frequently  confounded  with  No.  2.  He 
served  in  Africa,  under  Scipio  Africanus,  in  146, 
and  in  Spain,  under  Fabius  Maxirnus,  in  142. 
He  is  introduced  by  Cicero  as  one  of  the  speak- 
ers both  in  his  work  De  Republica  and  in  his 
treatise  De  Amicitia.  He  owed  his  celebrity  in 
literature  to  his  History,  which  was  written  in 
Latin,  and  of 'which  Brutus  made  an  abridg- 
ment. 

STRABO,  SEIUS.     Vid.  SEJANUS. 

STRATOCLES  (Srparo/c/byf),  an  Athenian  orator^ 
and  a  friend  of  the  orator  Lycurgus.  He  was 
a  virulent  opponent  of  Demosthenes,  whom  he 
charged  with  having  accepted  bribes  from  Har- 
palus.  Stratocles  especially  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  extravagant  flattery  of  Demetrius. 

STRATON  (Srpurwv).  1.  Son  of  Arcesilaus  of 
Lampsacus,  was  a  distinguished  peripatetic  phi- 
losopher, and  the  tutor  of  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus.  He  succeeded  Theophrastus  as  head  of 
the  school  in  B.C.  288,  and,  after  presiding  over 
it  eighteen  years,  was  succeeded  by  Lycon.  He 
devoted  himself  especially  to  the  study  of  naU 
ural  science,  whence  he  obtained  the  appella- 
tion of  Physicus.  Cicero,  while  speaking  high- 
ly of  his  talents,  blames  him  for  neglecting  the 
most  necessary  part  of  philosophy,  that  which 
has  respect  to  virtue  and  morals,  and  giving 
himself  up  to  the  investigation  of  nature.  Stra- 
ton  appears  to  have  held  a  pantheistic  system, 
the  specific  character  of  which  can  not,  how- 
ever, be  determined.  He  seems  to  have  denied 
the  existence  of  any  god  out  of  the  material  uni- 
verse, and  to  have  held  that  every  particle  o£ 
matter  has  a  plastic  and  seminal  power,  but 
without  sensation  or  intelligence;  and  that  life, 
sensation,  and  intellect  are  but  forms,  accidents, 
and  affections  of  matter.  Some  modern  writ- 
ers have  regarded  Straton  as  a  forerunner  of 
Spinoza,  while  others  see  in  his  system  an  an- 
ticipation of  the  hypothesis  of  monads. — 2.  Of 
Sardis,  an  epigrammatic  poet,  and  the  compiler 
of  a  Greek  Anthology,  devoted  to  licentious 
subjects.  Vid.  PLANUDES. — 3.  A  physician  of 
Berytus  in  Phoenicia,  one  of  whose  medical 
formulae  is  quoted  by  Galen. — 4.  Also  a  phy- 
sician, and  a  pupil  of  Erasistratus  in  the  third 
836 


STRATUS. 

century  B.C.,  who  appears  to  have  lived  on 
very  intimate  terms  with  his  tutor. 

STRATONicE(2rpaTovkj?).  1.  Wife  of  Antigo 
nus,  king  of  Asia,  by  whom  she  became  tho 
mother  of  Detnetrius  Poliorcetes — 2.  Daughtei 
of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  and  Phila,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Antipater.  In  300,  at  which  time  she 
could  not  have  been  more  than  seventeen  years 
of  age,  she  was  married  to  Seleucus,  king  of 
Syria.  Notwithstanding  the  disparity  of  their 
ages,  she  lived  in  harmony  with  the  old  king  for 
|  some  years,  when  it  was  discovered  that  her 
I  step-son  Antiochus  was  deeply  enamored  of 
her,  and  Seleucus,  in  order  to  save  the  life  of 
his  son,  which  was  endangered  by  the  vio- 
lence of  his  passion,  gave  up  Stratonice  in  mar- 
riage to  the  young  prince.  She  bore  three  chil- 
dren to  Antiochus  :  1.  Antiochus  II.,  surnamed 
Theos ;  2.  Apama,  married  to  Magas,  king  of 
Gyrene  ;  and,  3.  Stratonice.— 3.  Daughter  of  the 
preceding  and  of  Antiochus  I.,  was  married  to 
Demetrius  II.,  king  of  Macedonia.  She  quitted 
Demetrius  in  disgust  on  account  of  his  second 
marriage  with  Phthia,  the  daughter  of  Olym- 
pias,  and  retired  to  Syria.  Here  she  was  put 
to  death  by  her  nephew  Seleucus  II.,  against 
whom  she  had  attempted  to  raise  a  revolt. — 4. 
1  Daughter  of  Antiochus  II.,  king  of  Syria,  mar- 
ried to  Ariarathes  III.,  king  of  Cappadocia. — 5. 
One  of  the  favorite  wives  of  Mithradates  the 
Great. 

STRATONICEA  (2rparovt«?ta,  "LrpaTOvinr] :  Zrpa- 
roviKsvf,  Stratoniceus,  Stratonicensis  :  now  ru- 
ins at  Eski-Hisar),  one  of  the  chief  inland  cities 
ofCaria,  built  by  Antiochus  I.  Soter,  who  forti- 
fied it  strongly,  and  named  it  in  honor  of  his 
wife  Stratonice.  It  stood  east  of  Mylasa,  and 
south  of  Alabanda,  near  the  River  Marsyas,  a 
southern  tributary  of  the  Maeander.  Under  the 
Romans  it  was  a  free  city,  and  it  was  improved 
by  Hadrian.  Near  it  stood  the  great  temple  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  Chrysaoreus,  the  centre  of  the 
national  worship  of  the  Carians.  There  is  some 
reason  to  believe  that  Stratonicea  stood  on  the 
site  of  a  former  city,  called  Idrias,  and,  still  ear- 
lier, Chrysaoris. 

[STRATONICUS  (Srparoi'tKof),  of  Athens,  a  dis- 
tinguished musician  of  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  famed  for  his  wit,  and  the  large  num- 
ber of  pupils  attending  his  musical  instructions. 
He  is  said  to  have  visited  Nicocles  in  Cyprus, 
and  there  to  have  met  his  death  by  his  too  great 
independence.] 

STRATONIS  TURRIS.     Vid.  C^ESAREA,  No.  3. 

STRATTIS  (Srpa'rrtf  or  Srpurif),  an  Athenian 
poet  of  the  Old  Comedy,  flourished  from  B.C. 
412  to  380.  [His  fragments  are  collected  in 
Meineke's  Comic.  Grac.  Fragm.,  vol.  i.,  p.  428- 
441,  edit,  minor.] 

STRATUS  (Srpdrof).  1.  (Zrpunoj- :  ruins  near 
Lepenu  or  Lcpanon),  the  chief  town  in  Acarna- 
nia,  ten  stadia  west  of  the  Achelous.  Its  terri- 
tory was  called  STRATICE.  It  was  a  strongly- 
fortified  town,  and  commanded  the  ford  of  the 
Achelous  on  the  high  road  from  ^Etolia  to  Acar- 
nania.  Hence  it  was  a  place  of  military  im- 
portance, and  was  at  an  early  period  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the^Etolians. — 2.  A  town  in  Ach- 
aia,  afterward  called  DVME. — 3.  A  town  in  the 
west  of  Arcadia,  in  the  territory  of  Thelpusa: 
perhaps  the  same  as  the  Homeric  Stratia. 


STRONGYLE. 

J!5TRONGYa,E.        Vid.  NxxOS. 

STRONGYLION  CZrpo-ftvlduv),  a  distinguished 
Gree.k  statuary,  flourished  during  the  last  thirty 
or  forty  years  of  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

STROPHADES  INSUL/E  (Srpo^ufof),  formerly 
called  PLOTM  (FIAwrat  :  now  Strofadia  and 
Stritalt),  two  islands  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  off  the 
coast  of  Messenia  and  south  of  Zacynthus. 
The  Harpies  were  pursued  'to  these  islands  by 
the  sons  of  Boreas ;  and  it  was  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  latter  returning  from  these 
islands  after  the  pursuit  that  they  are  supposed 
to  have  obtained  the  name  of  Strophades. 

STROPHIUS  (Srpo^tof)  1.  King  of  Phocis,  son 
of  Crissus  and  Antiphatia,  and  husband  of  Cyd ra- 
gora,  Anaxibia,  or  Astyochia,  by  whom  he  be- 
came the  father  of  Astydamia  and  Pylades.  Vid. 
ORESTES. — [2.  Father  of  Scamandrius,  mention- 
ed in  the  Iliad  (v.,  49).] 

STRUCHATES  (Srpot^arrf),  a  Median  people, 
mentioned  only  by  Herodotus  (i.,  101). 

[STRYHE  (Srpv/ui?:  Srpty^fdf,  ZTpvpijoiof,  and 
Srpv/uoiof),  on  the  Lissus,  a  city  of  the  Thasii 
in  Thrace  :  also  claimed  as  their  own  by  the 
Maronit*,  who  contended  with  the  Thasians 
for  its  possession.] 

STRYMON(now&7ruma,  by  the  Turks  Karasu),  \ 
an  important  river  in  Macedonia,  forming  the 
boundary   between  that  country   and  Thrace  j 
down  to  the  time  of  Philip.     It  rose  in  Mount  j 
Scomius,  flowed  first  south  and  then  southeast,  | 
passed  through  the  Lake  Prasias,  and,  imme- 
diately south  of  Amphipolis,  fell  into  a  bay  of 
the  JSgeau  Sea,  called  after  it  STRYMONICUS  SI- 
NUS.   The  numerous  cranes  on  its  banks  are 
frequently  mentioned  by  ancient  writers. 

STRYMONII  (^Tpvpovioi),  the  old  name,  accord- 
ing to  Herodotus,  of  the  Bithynians,  who  mi- 
grated into  Asia  Minor  from  the  banks  of  the 
River  Strymon.  Bithynia  was  sometimes  call- 
ed Strymonis. 

STUBERA,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  in  the  district 
Paeonia,  probably  on  the  River  Erigon. 

StYMPHiLlDEs.     Vid.  STYMPHALUS. 

STVMPHALIS  (Srt^o/U'f)-     1.  A  lake  in  Arca- 
dia.    Vid,  STYMPHALCS. — 2.  A  district  in  Mace-  j 
donia,  between  Atintania  and  Elimiotis. 

STYMPHALUS  (Srty^aAof,  2ri^>?A.of :  2rvp-  j 
jufaof),  a  town  in  the  northeast  of  Arcadia,  the 
territory  of  which  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  i 
Achaia,  on  the  east  by  Sicyonia  and  Phliasia,  on  \ 
the  south  by  the  territory  of  Mantinea,  and  on 
the  west  by  that  of  Orchomenus  and  Pheneus. 
The  district  was  one  of  military  importance, 
since  it  commanded  one  of  the  chief  roads 
from  Arcadia  to  Argolis.  Its  name  is  said  to 
have  been  derived  from  Stymphalus,  a  son  of 
Elatus  and  grandson  of  Areas.  The  town  it- 
self was  situated  on  a  mountain  of  the  same 
name,  and  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Lake 
STYMPHALIS  (Srty^a/^'f :  now  Zaraka),  on  which 
dwelt,  according  to  tradition,  the  celebrated 
birds  called  STYMPHAUDES  (£rv/(^aA/dec)t  de- 
stroyed by  Hercules.  (For  details,  vid.  p.  357, 
b.)  From  this  lake  issued  the  River  Stympha- 
lus, which,  after  a  short  course,  disappeared  un- 
der Around,  and  was  supposed  to  appear  again 
as  the  River  Erasinus  in  Argolis. 

STVRA  (rd  Srvpo :  Zrvpfvf :  now  Stura),  a 
town  in  Eubcea,  on  the  southwestern  coast,  not 
ur  from  Carystus,  and  nearly  opposite  Mara-  , 


SUCCABAR. 

thon  in  Attica.  The  inhabitants  were  original!) 
Dryopes,  though  they  subsequentlydenied  their 
descent  from  this  people.  They  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Persian  war,  and  fought  at  Artemis- 
ium,  Salamis,  and  Plataas.  They  afterward  be- 
came subject  to  the  Athenians,  and  paid  a  year- 
ly tribute  of  twelve  hundred  drachmae.  The 
town  was  destroyed  in  the  Lamian  war  by  the 
Athenian  general  Phaedrus,  and  its  territory  was 
annexed  to  Eretria. 

STYX  (2rvf),  connected  with  the  verb  arv-yiu, 
to  hate  or  abhor,  is  the  name  of  the  principal 
river  in  the  nether  world,  around  which  it  flows 
seven  times.  Styx  is  described  as  a  daughter 
of  Oceanus  and  Tethys.  As  a  nymph  she  dwelt 
at  the  entrance  of  Hades,  in  a  lofty  grotto  which 
was  supported  by  silver  columns.  As  a  river, 
Styx  is  described  as  a  branch  of  Oceanus,  flow- 
ing from  its  tenth  source  ;  and  the  River  Co- 
cytus,  again,  is  a  branch  of  the  Styx.  By  Pallas 
Styx  became  the  mother  of  Zelus  (zeal),  Nice 
(victory),  Bia  (strength),  and  Cratos  (power). 
She  was  the  first  of  all  the  immortals  who  took 
her  children  to  Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  assist  him 
against  the  Titans  ;  and,  in  return  for  this,  her 
children  were  allowed  forever  to  live  with  Ju- 
piter (Zeus),  and  Styx  herself  became  the  di- 
vinity by  whom  the  most  solemn  oaths  were 
sworn.  When  one  of  the  gods  had  to  take  an 
oath  by  Styx,  Iris  fetched  a  cup  full  of  water 
from  the  Styx,  and  the  god,  while  taking  the 
oath,  poured  out  the  water. 

STYX  (2™f :  now  Mavra-neria),  a  river  in  the 
north  of  Arcadia,  near  Nonacris,  descending 
from  a  high  rock,  and  falling  into  the  Crathis. 
The  ancients  believed  that  the  water  of  this 
river  was  poisonous ;  and,  according  to  one  tale, 
Alexander  the  Great  was  poisoned  by  it.  It 
was  said,  also,  to  break  all  vessels  made  of  glass, 
stone,  metal,  and  any  other  material  except  of 
the  hoof  of  a  horse  or  a  mule. 

SUADA,  the  Roman  personification  of  persua- 
sion, the  Greek  Pltho  (Iletftj),  also  called  by  the 
diminutive  Suadela. 

SUAGELA  (Sbt'dycAa),  an  ancient  city  of  Caria, 
near  Myndus,  was  the  burial-place  of  the  old 
kings  of  the  country. 

SUASA  (Suasanus :  now  S.  Lorenzo),  a  mu- 
nicipium  in  Umbria,  on  the  Sena. 

SCASTUS.     Vid.  CHOASPES,  No.  2. 

SOBERTUM  or  SUDERTUM  (Sudertanus :  now 
Sovrctto),  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Etruria. 

SUBLAQUBUM  (Sublacensis  :  now  Subiaco),  a 
small  town  of  the  yEqui  in  Latium,  on  the  Anio, 
near  its  source.  Near  it  stood  the  celebrated 
villa  of  Claudius  and  Nero  (Villa  Sublacensis) ; 
and  from  it  was  derived  the  name  of  the  Via 
Sublacensis,  which  was  a  branch  of  the  Via  Ti- 
burtina. 

SUBLICIOS  PONS.     Vid.  ROMA,  p.  748,  a. 

Srin-R.  1.  A  town  of  the  Laeetani  in  Ilispa- 
niaTarraconensis,  east  ofTarraco,  described  by 
some  as  a  town  of  the  Cosctani,  and  by  others, 
again,  as  a  town  of  the  Ilergetes. — 2.  (Now 
Sulu  or  Culm),  &  river  in  Mauretania  Tingitana, 
flowing  past  tho  colony  Banasa  into  the  At- 
lantic Ocean. 

ScnuRA  or  SUBURRA.     Vid.  ROMA,  p.  748,  b. 

SUBZUPAR  A  (now  Zarvi),  a  town  in  Thrace,  on 
the  road  from  Philippopolis  to  Hadrianopolis. 

SUCCABAR  (2ov£u&jppt,  Ptol. :  now  Mazunu!), 

837 


SUCCI. 

an  inland  city  of  Mauretania  Caesariens'u,  south-  ' 
east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Chinalaph.     It  was  a 
colonia,  and  is  mentioned  by  Ammianus  Mar-  j 
cellinus  under  the  name  of  oppidum  Sugar-ba-  j 
ritanum. 

Succi  or  SUCCORUM  ANGUSTI.S:.     Vid.  H/EMUS. 

SUCRO.  1.  (Now  Xucar),  a  river  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  rising  in  a  southern  branch  of 
Mount  Idubeda,  in  the  territory  of  the  Celtiberi, 
and  falling  south  of  Valentia  into  a  gulf  of  the 
Mediterranean  called  after  it  Sinus  Sucronensis 
(now  Gulf  of  Valencia). — 2.  (Now  Cullera),  a 
town  of  the  Edetani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis, 
on  the  preceding  river,  and  between  the  Iberus 
and  Carthago  Nova. 

SUDERTUM.        Vid.  SUBERTUM. 

SUDETI  MONTES,  a  range  of  mountains  in  the 
southeast  of  Germany,  in  which  the  Albis  takes 
its  rise. 

SUEL  (now  Fuengirola),  a  town  in  Hispania 
Bsetica,  on  the  road  from  Malaca  to  Gades. 

SUESSA  AURUNCA  (Suessanus :  now  Sessa),  a 
town  of  the  Aurunci  in  Latium,  east  of  the  Via 
Appia,  between  Minturnae  and  Teanum,  on  the 
western  slope  of  Mons  Massicus.  It  was  situ- 
ated in  a  beautiful  district  called  Vescinus  ager, 
whence  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  town 
itself  was  at  one  time  called  Vescia.  It  was 
made  a  Roman  colony  in  the  Samnite  wars,  but 
must  have  been  afterward  colonized  afresh, 
since  we  find  it  called  in  inscriptions  Col.  Julia 
Felix.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  the  poet  Lucil- 
ius. 

SUESSA  POMETIA  (Suessanus),  also  called  P6- 
IIETIA  simply,  an  ancient  and  important  town  of 
the  Volsci  in  Latium,  south  of  Forum  Appii, 
conquered  by  the  Romans  under  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  and  taken  a  second  time  and  sacked 
by  the  consul  Servilius.  It  was  one  of  the 
twenty-three  cities  situated  in  the  plain  after- 
ward covered  by  the  Pomptine  Marshes,  which 
are  said  indeed  to  have  derived  their  name  from 
this  town. 

SUESSETANI,  a  people  in  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
ais,  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  Sedetani. 

SUESSIONES  or  SUESSONES,  a  powerful  people 
in  Gallia  Belgica,  who  were  reckoned  the  bravest 
of  all  the  Belgic  Gauls  after  the  Bellovaci,  and 
who  could  bring  fifty  thousand  men  into  the  field 
in  Caesar's  time.  Their  King  Divitiacus,  shortly 
before  Caesar's  arrival  in  the  country,  was  reck- 
oned the  most  powerful  chief  in  all  Gaul,  and 
had  extended  his  sovereignty  even  over  Britain. 
The  Suessiones  dwelt  in  an  extensive  and  fer- 
tile country  east  of  the  Bellovaci,  south  of  the 
Veromandui,  and  west  of  the  Remi.  They  pos- 
sessed twelve  towns,  of  which  the  capital  was 
Noviodunum,  subsequently  Augusta  Suessonum 
or  Suessones  (now  Soissons). 

SUESSULA  (Suessulanus:  now  Torre  di  Ses- 
sola),  a  town  in  Samnium,  on  the  southern  slope 
of  Mount  Tifata. 

SUETONIUS  PAULINUS.     Vid.  PAULINUS. 

SUETONIUS  TRANQUILLUS,  C.,  the  Roman  his- 
torian, was  born  about  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Vespasian.  His  father  was  Suetonius 
Lenis,  who  was  a  tribune  of  the  thirteenth  le- 
gion in  the  battle  of  Bedriacum,  in  which  Otho 
was  defeated.  Suetonius  practiced  as  an  advo- 
cate at  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Trajan.  He  lived 
on  intimate  terms  with  the  younger  Pliny,  many 
838 


SUEVI. 

of  whose  letters  arc  addressed  to  hyn.  At  tne 
request  of  Pliny,  Trajan  granted  to  Suetonius 
the  jus  trium  liberorum  ;  for,  though  he  was  mar- 
ried, he  had  not  three  children,  which  number 
was  necessary  to  relieve  him  from  various  legal 
disabilities.  Suetonius  was  afterward  appoint- 
ed private  secretary  (Magister  Epistolarum)  to 
Hadrian,  but  was  deprived  of  this  office  by  the 
emperor,  along  with  Septicius  Clarus,  the  Pra> 
fect  of  the  Praetorians,  on  the  ground  of  asso- 
ciating with  Sabina,  the  emperor's  wife,  without 
his  permission.  Suetonius  wrote  many  works, 
of  which  the  only  ones  extant  are,  Vita  Duo 
decim  Ccesarum,  or  the  twelve  emperors,  of 
whom  the  filjst  is  C.  Julius  Caesar,  and  the  last 
is  Domitian  ;  Liber  de  illustribus  Grammalicis  ; 
Liber  de  claris  Rhetoribus  ;  Vita  Terentii,  Hora- 
tii,  Persii,  Lucani,  Juvenalis,  Plinii  Majoris.  His 
chief  work  is  his  Lives  of  the  Caesars.  Sueto- 
nius does  not  follow  the  chronological  order  in 
his  Lives,  but  he  groups  together  many  things 
of  the  same  kind.  His  language  is  very  brief 
and  precise,  sometimes  obscure,  without  any 
affectation  of  ornament.  He  certainly  tells  a 
prodigious  number  of  scandalous  anecdotes 
about  the  Caesars,  but  there  was  plenty  to  tell 
about  them  ;  and  if  he  did  not  choose  to  sup- 
press those  anecdotes  which  he  believed  to  be 
true,  that  is  no  imputation  on  his  veracity.  As 
a  great  collection  of  facts  of  all  kinds,  the  work 
on  the  Caesars  is  invaluable  for  the  historian 
of  this  period.  His  judgment  and  his  honesty 
have  both  been  attacked  by  some  modern  critics ; 
but  we  are  of  opinion  that,  on  both  grounds,  a 
careful  study  of  his  work  will  justify  him.  The 
friendship  of  the  younger  Pliny  is  evidence  in 
favor  of  his  integrity.  The  treatise  De  illustri- 
bus Grammalicis  and  that  De  claris  Rhetoribus 
are  probably  only  parts  of  a  larger  work.  They 
contain  a  few  biographical  and  other  notices, 
that  are  occasionally  useful.  It  has  been  con- 
jectured that  the  few  scanty  lives  of  the  Latin 
poets,  already  enumerated,  belonged  to  a  larger 
work  De  Poetis.  If  this  conjecture  be  true, 
the  short  notice  of  the  elder  Pliny  may  not  be 
by  Suetonius.  A  work  entitled  De  Viris  Illus- 
tribus, which  has  been  attributed  both  to  Sue- 
tonius and  the  younger  Plinius,  is  now  unani- 
mously assigned  to  Aurelius  Victor.  The  best 
editions  of  Suetonius  are  by  P.  Burmann,  Am- 
sterdam, 1736,  2  vols.  4to,  and  by  Baumgarten- 
Crusius,  Lips.,  1816,  3  vols.  8vo. 

SUEVI,  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  powerful 
races  of  Germany,  or,  more  properly  speak- 
ing, the  collective  name  of  a  great  number  of 
German  tribes,  who  were  grouped  together  on 
account  of  their  migratory  mode  of  life,  and 
spoken  of  in  opposition  to  the  more  settled 
tribes,  who  went  under  the  general  name  of  In- 
gaevones.  The  Suevi  are  described  by  all  the 
ancient  writers  as  occupying  the  greater  half 
of  all  Germany ;  but  the  accounts  vary  respect- 
ing the  part  of  the  country  which  they  inhabit- 
ed.  Caesar  represents  them  as  dwelling  east 
of  the  Ubii  and  Sygambri,  and  west  of  the  Che- 
rusci,  and  their  country  as  divided  into  one 
hundred  cantons.  Strabo  makes  them  extend 
in  an  easterly  direction  beyond  the  Albis,  and 
in  a  southerly  as  far  as  the  sources  of  the  Dan- 
ube. Tacitus  gives  the  name  of  Suevia  to  the 
whole  of  the  east  of  Germany  from  the  Danube 


STIFENAS,  M.  NONIUS 

to  the  Baltic.  At  a  later  time  the  collective 
name  of  the  Suevi  gradually  disappeared  ;  and 
the  different  tribes  of  the  Sue  vie  race  were  each 
called  hy  their  distinctive  names.  In  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  third  century,  however,  we  again 
*ind  a  people  called  Suevi,  dwelling  between 
the  mouth  of  the  Main  and  the  Black  Forest, 
whose  name  is  still  preserved  in  the  modern 
Suabia  ;  but  this  people  was  only  a  body  of  bold 
adventurers  from  various  German  tribes,  who 
assumed  the  celebrated  name  of  the  Suevi  in 
consequence  of  their  not  possessing  any  distin- 
guishing appellation. 

SUFENAS,  M.  NONIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs  in 
B.C.  56,  fought  on  Pompey's  side  at  the  battle  j 
ofPharsalia. 

SUFES  (now  Sbiba),  a  city  of  Northern  Africa, 
in  the  Carthaginian  territory  (Byzacena). 

SUFETULA  (now  Sfaitla),  a  city  of  Byzacena, 
south  of  Sufes,  of  which  its  name  is  a  diminu- 
tive. It  became,  however,  a  much  more  im- 
portant place,  as  a  chief  centre  of  the  roads  in 
the  interior  of  the  province  of  Africa.  Its  ruins  ; 
are  magnificent. 

SUIDAS  (SowJaf),  a  Greek  lexicographer,  of  • 
whom  nothing  is  known.     No  certain  conclu-  , 
sions  as  to  the  age  of  the  compiler  can  be  de-  j 
rived  from  passages  in  the  work,  since  it  may  1 
have  received  numerous  interpolations  and  ad-  ' 
ditions.     Eustathius,  who  lived  about  the  end  | 
of  the  twelfth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  ! 
quotes  the  Lexicon  of  Suidas  ;  and  there  are  I 
passages  in  the  Lexicon  referring  to  Michael  ' 
Psellus,  who  lived  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  ! 
century.    The  Lexicon  of  Suidas  is  a  dictionary 
of  words  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  with 
some  few  peculiarities  of  arrangement ;  but  it  j 
contains  both  words  which  are  found  in  diction-  j 
aries  of  languages,  and  also  names  of  persons  j 
and  places,  with  extracts  from  ancient  Greek 
writers,  grammarians,  scholiasts,  and  lexicog- 
raphers, and  some  extracts  from  later  Greek 
writers.     The  names  of  persons  comprehend 
both  persons  who  are  mentioned  in  sacred  and 
in  profane  history,  which  shows  that  if  the  work 
is  by  one  hand,  it  is  by  a  Christian.     No  well- 
conceived  plan  has  been  the~basis  of  this  work  ; 
it  is  incomplete  as  to  the  number  of  articles, 
and  exceedingly  irregular  and  unequal  in  the 
execution.    Some  articles  are  pretty  complete, 
others  contain  no  information  at  all.    As  to  the 
biographical  notices,  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  Suidas  or  the  compiler  got  them  all  from 
one  source,  which,  it  is  further  supposed,  may 
be  the  Onomatologos  or  Pinax  of  Hesychius  of 
Miletus.     The  Lexicon,  though  without  merit 
as  to  its  execution,  is  valuable  both  for  the  liter- 
ary history  of  antiquity,  for  the  explanation  of 
words,  and  for  the  citations  from  many  ancient 
jvriters.     The  best  editions  of  the  Lexicon  are 
<9y  Kiister,  Cambridge,   1705,  3  vols.  fol.  ;    by 
Gaisford,  Oxford,  1834, 3  vols.  fol. ;  and  by  Bern- 
nardy,  4to,  Halle,  1834-50  (not  yet  complete). 

SUIONES,  the  general  name  of  all  the  German 
tribes  inhabiting  Scandinavia. 

SUISMONTIUM,  a  mountain  in  Liguria. 

SULCI   (Sulcitanus  :    now  Sulci),  an   ancient 
town  in  Sardinia,  founded  by  the  Carthaginians, 
and  a  place  of  considerable  maritime  and  com- 
mercial importance.    It  was  situated  on  a  prom-  ! 
ontory  on  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  islan'!.  I 


SULLA,  CORNELIUS. 

SULGAS  (now  Sorgue),  a  river  in  Gaul,  de 
scending  from  the  Alps,  and  flowing  into  the 
Rhone  near  Vindalum. 

SULLA,  CORNELIUS,  the  name  of  a  patrician 
family.  This  family  was  originally  called  Ku 
finus  (vid.  RUFINUS),  and  the  first  member  of  it 
who  obtained  the  name  of  Sulla  was  P.  Come 
lius  Sulla,  mentioned  below  (No.  1).  The  origin 
of  the  name  is  uncertain.  Most  modern  writers 
suppose  that  it  is  a  word  of  the  same  significa- 
tion as  Rufus  or  Rufinus,  and  refers  simn^  to 
the  red  color  of  the  hair  or  the  complexion; ;  but 
it  has  been  conjectured  with  greater  probability 
that  it  is  a  diminutive  of  Sura,  which  was  a  cog- 
nomen in  several  Roman  gentes.  It  would  be 
formed  from  Sura  on  the  same  analogy  a^uclla 
from  pucra,  and  tenellus  from  tener.  There  is 
no  authority  for  writing  the  word  Sylla,  as  is 
clone  by  many  modern  writers.  On  coins  and 
inscriptions  we  always  find  Sula  or  Sulla,  never 
Sylla.  1.  P.,  great-grandfather  of  the  dictator 
Sulla,  and  grandson  of  P.  Cornelius  Rufinus, 
who  was  twice  consul  in  the  Samnite  wars. 
Vid.  RUFINUS,  CORNELIUS.  His  father  is  not 
mentioned.  He  was  flamen  dialis,  and  likewise 
praetor  urbanus  and  peregrinus  in  B.C.  212, 
when  he  presided  over  the  first  celebration  of 
the  Ludi  Apollinares. — 2.  P.,  son  of  No.  1,  and 
grandfather  of  the  dictator  Sulla,  was  praetor  in 
186. — 3.  L.,  son  of  No.  2,  and  father  of  the  dic- 
tator Sulla,  lived  in  obscurity,  and  left  his  son 
only  a  slender  fortune. — 4.  L.  surnamed  FELIX, 
the  dictator,  was  born  in  138.  Although  his 
father  left  him  only  a  small  property,  his  means 
were  sufficient  to  secure  for  him  a  good  educa- 
tion. He  studied  the  Greek  and  Roman  litera- 
ture with  diligence  and  success,  and  appears 
early  to  have  imbibed  that  love  for  literature 
and  art  by  which  he  was  distinguished  through- 
out life.  At  the  same  time  he  prosecuted  pleas- 
ure with  equal  ardor,  and  his  youth,  as  well  as 
his  manhood,  was  disgraced  by  the  most  sensual 
vices.  Still  his  love  of  pleasure  did  not  absorb 
all  his  time,  nor  did  it  emasculate  his  mind  ;  for 
no  Roman  during  the  latter  days  of  the  repub- 
lic, with  the  exception  of  Julius  Caesar,  had  a 
clearer  judgment,  a  keener  discrimination  of 
character,  or  a  firmer  will.  The  slender  prop- 
erty of  Sulla  was  increased  by  the  liberality  of 
his  step-mother  and  of  a  courtesan  named  Ni- 
copolis,  both  of  whom  left  him  all  their  fortune. 
His  means,  though  still  scanty  for  a  Roman  no- 
ble, now  enabled  him  to  aspire  to  the  honors  of 
the  state.  He  was  quaestor  in  107,  when  he 
served  under  Marius  in  Africa.  Hitherto  he 
had  only  been  known  for  his  profligacy  ;  but  he 
displayed  both  zeal  and  ability  in  the  discharge 
of  his  duties,  and  soon  gained  the  approbation 
of  his  commander,  and  the  affections  of  the  sol- 
diers. It  was  to  Sulla  that  Jugurtha  was  de- 
livered by  Bocchus  ,  and  the  quaestor  thus 
shared  with  the  consul  the  glory  of  bringing 
this  war  to  a  conclusion.  Sulla  himself  was  so 
proud  of  his  share  in  the  success,  that  he  had  a 
seal  ring  engraved,  representing  the  surrender 
of  Jugurtha,  which  he  continued  to  wear  till  the 
day  of  his  death.  Sulla  continued  to  serve  un- 
der Marius  with  great  distinction  in  the  cam- 
paigns against  the  Cimbi  i  and  Teutones ;  but 
Marius  becoming  jealous  of  the  rising  fame  of 
his  officer,  Sulla  left  Marius  in  102,  and  took  a 

839 


SULLA,  CORNELIUS. 

command  under  the  colleague  of  Marius,  Q. 
Catulus,  who  intrusted  the  chief  management 
of  the  war  to  Sulla.     Sulla  now  returned  to 
Rome,  where  he  appears  to  have  lived  quietly 
for  some  years.     He  was  praetor  in  93,  and  in 
the  following  year  (92)  was  sent  as  proprsetor 
into  Cilicia,  with  special  orders  from  the  senate 
to  restore  Ariobarzanes  to  his  kingdom  of  Cap- 
padocia,  from  which  he  had  been  expelled  by 
Mithradates.     Sulla  met  with  complete  success. 
He  defeated  Gordius,  the  general  of  Mithrada- 
tes, in  Cappadocia,  and  placed  Ariobarzanes  on 
the  throne.     The  enmity  between  Marius  and 
Sulla  now  assumed  a  more  deadly  form.     Sul- 
la's ability  and  increasing  reputation  had  already 
led  the  aristocratical  party  to  look  up  to  him  as 
one  of  their  leaders  ;  and  thus  political  animos- 
ity was  added  to  private  hatred.     In  addition 
to  this,  Marius  and  Sulla  were  both  anxious  to 
obtain   the   command    of  the    impending  war 
against  Mithradates  ;    and  the  success  which 
attended  Sulla's  recent  operations  in  the  East 
had  increased  his  popularity,  and  pointed  him 
out  as  the  most  suitable  person  for  this  import- 
ant command.     About  this  time  Bocchus  erect- 
ed in  the  Capitol  gilded  figures,  representing  the 
surrender  of  Jugurtha  to  Sulla,  at  which  Marius 
was  so  enraged  that  he  could  scarcely  be  pre- 
vented from  removing  them  by  force.    The  ex-  | 
asperation  of  both  parties  became  so  violent  that  j 
they  nearly  had  recourse  to  arms  against  each 
other;  but  the  breaking  out  of  the  Social  war  | 
hushed  all  private  quarrels  for  the  time.    Mari-  j 
us  and  Sulla  both  took  an  active  part  in  the  war  \ 
against  the  common  foe.     But  Marius  was  now  j 
advanced  in  years  ;  and  he  had  the  deep  morti-  • 
fication  of  finding  that  his  achievements  were  j 
thrown  into  the  shade  by  the  superior  energy' 
of  his  rival.     Sulla  gained  some  brilliant  vie-  j 
lories  over  the  enemy,  and  took  Bovianum,  the  : 
chief  town  of  the  Samnites.     He  was  elected 
consul  for  88,  and  received  from  the  senate  the 
command  of  the  Mithradatic  war.     The  events 
which  followed — his  expulsion  from  Rome  by 
Marius,  his  return  to  the  city  at  the  head  of  his 
legions,  and  the  proscription  of  Marius  and  his  j 
leading  adherents — are  related  in  the  life  of  Ma- 
rius.   Sulla  remained  at  Rome  till  the  end  of  the  j 
year,  and  set  out  for  Greece  at  the  beginning  of 
87,  in  order  to  carry  on  the  war  against  Mithra- 
dates.    He  landed  at  Dyrrhachium,  and  forth- 
with marched  against  Athens,  which  had  be- 
come the  head-quarters  of  the  Mithradatic  cause 
in  Greece.     After  a  long  and  obstinate  siege, 
Athens  was  taken  by  storm  on  the  1st  of  March 
in  86,  and  was  given  up  to  rapine  and  plunder. 
Sulla  then  marched  against  Archelaus,  the  gen- 
eral of  Mithradates,  whom  he  defeated  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Chaeronea  in  Bceotia  ;  and  in 
the  following  year  he  again  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  same  general  near  Orchome- 
nus.     But  while  Sulla  was  carrying  on  the  war 
with  such  success  in  Greece,  his  enemies  had 
obtained  the  upper  hand  in  Italy.     The  consul 
Cinna,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  Rome  by  his 
colleague  Octavius,  soon  after  Sulla's  departure 
from  Italy,  had  entered  it  again  with  Marius  at 
the  close  of  the  year.    Both  Cinna  and  Marius 
were  appointed  consuls  86,  and  all  the  regula- 
tions of  Sulla  were  swept  away.     Sulla,  how- 
evet,  would  not  return  to  Italv  till  he  had  brought 
840 


SULLA,  CORNELIUS. 

the  war  against  Mithradates  to  a  conclusion. 
After  driving  the  generals  of  Mithradates  out 
of  Greece,  Sulla  crossed   the  Hellespont    and 
early  in  84  concluded  a  peace  with  the  kin;;  of 
Pontus.     He  now  turned  his  arms  against  Fim- 
bria,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  Marian 
party  as  his  successor  in  the  command.     But 
the  troops  of  Fimbria  deserted  their  general, 
who  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.     Sulla  now  pre- 
[  pared  to  return  to  Italy.     After  leaving  his  le- 
gate, L.  Licinius  Murena,  in  command  of  the 
province  of  Asia,  with  two  legions,  he  set  sail 
with  his  own  army  to  Athens.     While  prepar- 
ing for  his  deadly  struggle  in  Italy,  he  did  not 
lose  his  interest  in  literature.     He  carried  with 
him  from  Athens  to  Rome  the  valuable  library 
of  Apellicon  of  Tens,  which  contained  most  of 
the  works  of  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus.    Vid. 
APELLICON.     He  landed  at  Brundisium  in  the 
spring  of  83.     The  Marian  party  far  outnum- 
bered him  in  troops,  and  had  every  prospect  of 
victory.      By  bribery  and  promises,  however, 
Sulla  gained  over  a  large  number  of  the  Marian 
soldiers,  and  he  persuaded  many  of  the  Italian 
towns  to  espouse  his  cause.     In  the  field  his 
efforts  were  crowned  by  equal  success  ;  and  he 
was  ably  supported  by  several  of  the  Roman 
nobles,  who  espoused  his  cause   in  different 
parts  of  Italy.     Of  these  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished was  the  young  Cn.  Pompey,  who 
was  at  the  time  only  twenty-three  years  of  age. 
Vid.  POMPEIUS,  No.  10.     In  the  following  year 
(82)  the  struggle  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
decisive  battle  gained. by  Sulla  over  the  Sam- 
nites and  Lucanians  under  Pontius  Telesinus 
before  the  Colline  gate  of  Rome.    This  victory 
was  followed  by  the  surrender  of  Praeneste  and 
the  death  of  the  younger  Marius,  who  had  takep 
refuge  in  this  town.     Sulla  was  now  master  of 
Rome  and  Italy ;  and  he  resolved  to  take  the 
most  ample  vengeance  upon  his  enemies,  and 
to  extirpate  the  popular  party.     One  of  his  first 
acts  was  to  draw  up  a  list  of  his  enemies  who 
were  to  be  put  to  death,  called  a  Proscriptw.    It 
was  the  first  instance  of  the  kind  in  Roman 
history.     All  persons  in  this  list  were  outlaws 
who  might  be  kille'd  by  any  one  with  impunity, 
even  by  slaves  ;  their  property  was  confiscated 
to  the  state,  and  was  to  be  sold  by  public  auc- 
tion ;  their  children  and  grandchildren  lost  then 
votes  in  the  comitia,  and  were  excluded  from 
all  public  offices.     Further,  all  who  killed  a  pro- 
scribed person  received  two  talents  as  a  re- 
ward, and  whoever  sheltered  such  a  person  was 
punished  with  death.     Terror  now  reigned,  not 
only  at  Rome,  but  throughout  Italy.    Fresh  lists 
of  the  proscribed  constantly  appeared.    No  one 
was  safe  ;  for  Sulla  gratified  his  friends  by  plac- 
ing in  the  fatal  lists  their  personal  enemies,  01 
persons  whose  property  was  coveted  by  his  ad- 
herents.   The  confiscated  property,  it  is  true, 
belonged  to  the  state,  and  had  to  be  sold  by  pub- 
lic auction,  but  the  friends  and  dependents  of 
Sulla  purchased  it  at  a  nominal  price,  as  no  one 
dared  to  bid  against  them.     The  number  of  per- 
sons who  perished  by  the  proscriptions  is  stated 
differently,  but  it  appears  to  have  amounted  to 
many  thousands.     At  the  commencement  of 
these  horrors  Sulla  had  been  appointed  dictator 
for  as  long  a  time  as  he  judged  to  be  necessary. 
This  was  toward  the  close  of  81.    Sulla's  chief 


SULLA,  CORNELIUS. 

object  in  being  invested  with  the  dictatorship 
was  to  carry  into  execution,  in  a  legal  manner,  1 
the  great  reforms  which  he  meditated  in  the  j 
constitution  and  the  administration  of  justice. 
He  had  no  intention  of  abolishing  the  republic, 
and,  consequently,  he  caused  consuls  to  be  elect- 
ed for  the  following  year,  and  was  elected  to  the  ' 
office  himself  in  80,  while  he  continued  to  hold 
the  dictatorship.    The  general  object  of  Sulla's 
reforms  was  to  restore,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
ancient  Roman  constitution,  and  to  give  back 
to  the  senate  and  the  aristocracy  the  power 
which  they  had  lost.     Thus   he  deprived  the 
tribunes  of  the  plebs  of  all  real  power,  and  abol- 
ished altogether  the  legislative  and  judicial  func- 
tions of  the  comitia  tributa.     At  the  beginning 
of  81,  he  celebrated  a  splendid  triumph  on  ac- 
count of  his  victory  over  Mithradates.     In  a 
speech  which  he  delivered  to  the  people  at  the 
close  of  the  ceremony,  he  claimed  for  himself 
the  surname  of  Felix,  as  he  attributed  his  sue-  : 
cess  in  life  to  the  favor  of  the  gods.     In  order 
to  strengthen  his  power,  Sulla  established  mili-  | 
tary  colonies  throughout  Italy.     The  inhabit-  ! 
ants  of  the  Italian  towns,   which  had  fought 
against  Sulla,  were  deprived  of  the  full  Roman 
franchise,  and  were  only  allowed  to  retain  the 
commercium :  their  land  was  confiscated  and 
given  to  the  soldiers  who  had  fought  under  him. 
Twenty-three  legions,  or,  according  to  another 
statement,  forty-seven  legions,  received  grants 
of  land  in  various  parts  of  Italy.     A  great  num-  ! 
ber  of  these  colonies  was  settled  in  Etruria,  the  I 
population  of  which  was  thus  almost  entirely  | 
changed.     These  colonies  had  the  strongest  in-  : 
terest  in  upholding  the  institutions  of  Sulla,  I 
since  any  attempt  to  invalidate  the  latter  would  j 
have  endangered  their  newly-acquired  posses- 
sions.    Sulla  likewise  created  at  Rome  a  kind 
of  body-guard  for  his  protection  by  giving  the  ; 
citizenship  to  a  great  number  of  slaves  who  had  ! 
belonged  to  persons  proscribed  by  him.     The  i 
slaves  thus  rewarded  are  said  to  have  been  as  j 
many  as  ten  thousand,  and  were  called  Cornelii  . 
after  him  as  their  patron.      After  holding  the 
dictatorship  till  the  beginning  of  79,  Sulla  re-  ! 
signed  this  office,  to  the  surprise  of  all  classes,  j 
He  retired  to  his  estate  at  Puteoli,  and  there,  j 
surrounded  by  the  beauties  of  nature  and  art,  j 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  those  lit-  j 
erary  and  sensual  enjoyments  in  which  he  had  j 
always  taken  so  much  pleasure.     His  dissolute 
mode  of  life  hastened  his  death.    The  imme-  i 
diate  cause  of  his  death  was  the  rupture  of  a 
blood-vessel,  but  some  time  before  he  had  been 
Buffering  from  the  disgusting  disease,  which  is 
known  in  modern  times  by  the  name  of  Morbus 
Pediculosus,  orPhthiriasis.    He  died  in  78,  in  the 
sixtieth  year  of  his  age.    He  was  honored  with  | 
a  public  funeral,  and  a  monument  was  erected 
to  him  in  the  Campus  Martins,  the  inscription 
on  which  had  been  composed  by  himself.     It 
stated  that  none  of  his  friends  ever  did  him  a 
kindness,  and  none  of  his  enemies  a  wrong,  ' 
without  being  fully  repaid.     Sulla  was  married 
five  times  :  1.  To  Ilia  or  Julia,  who  boro  him  a 
daughter,  married  to  Q.  Pompeius  Rufus,  the 
son  of  Sulla's  colleague  in  the  consulship  in  88  ;  j 
2.  To  ^Elia;  3.  To  Coelia;  4.  To  Cecilia  Me-  \ 
tella,  who  bore  him  a  son,  who  died  before  Sulla, 
and  likewise  twins,  a  son  and  a  daughter ;  5.  | 


SULMO. 

Valeria,  who  bore  him  a  daughter  after  his 
death.  Sulla  wrote  a  history  of  his  own  life 
and  times,  called  Memoirs  (T7ro//v^ara).  It 
was  dedicated  to  L.  Lucullus,  and  extended  to 
twenty-two  books,  the  last  of  which  was  finish- 
ed by  Sulla  a  few  days  before  his  death.  He 
also  wrote  Fabulae  Atellanae,  and  the  Greek 
Anthology  contains  a  short  epigram  which  is 
ascribed  to  him. — 5.  FAUSTUS,  son  of  the  dic- 
tator by  his  fourth  wife  Caecilia  Metella,  and  a 
twin  brother  of  Fausta,  was  born  not  long  be- 
fore 88,  the  year  in  which  his  father  obtained 
the  first  consulship.  He  and  his  sister  received 
the  names  of  Faustus  and  Fausta  respectively 
on  account  of  the  good  fortune  of  their  father. 
At  the  death  of  his  father  in  78,  Faustus  and 
his  sister  were  left  under  the  guardianship  of 
L.  Lucullus.  Faustus  accompanied  Pompey 
into  Asia,  and  was  the  first  who  mounted  the 
walls  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  in  63.  In  60 
he  exhibited  the  gladiatorial  games  which  his 
father  in  his  last  will  had  enjoined  upon  him. 
In  54  he  was  quaestor.  In  52  he  received  from 
the  senate  the  commission  to  rebuild  the  Curia 
Hostilia,  which  had  been  burned  down  in  the 
tumults  following  the  murder  of  Clodius,  and 
which  was  henceforward  to  be  called  the  Curia 
Cornelia,  in  honor  of  Faustus  and  his  father. 
He  married  Pompey's  daughter,  and  sided  with 
his  father-in-law  in  the  civil  war.  He  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  and  subse- 
quently joined  the  leaders  of  his  party  in  Africa. 
After  the  battle  of  Thapsus  in  46,  he  attempted 
to  escape  into  Mauretania,  but  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  P.  Sittius,  and  carried  to  Caesar.  Upon 
his  arrival  in  Caesar's  camp  he  was  murdered 
by  the  soldiers  in  a  tumult.  Faustus  seems 
only  to  have  resembled  his  father  in  his  extrava- 
gance. We  know  from  Cicero  that  he  was 
overwhelmed  with  debt  at  the  breaking  out  of 
the  civil  war. — 6.  P.,  nephew  of  the  dictator, 
was  elected  consul  along  with  P.  Autronius 
Paetus  for  the  year  65,  but  neither  he  nor  his 
colleague  entered  upon  the  office,  as  they  were 
accused  of  bribery  by  L.  Torquatus  the  younger, 
and  were  condemned.  It  was  currently  be- 
lieved that  Sulla  was  privy  to  both  of  Catiline's 
conspiracies,  and  he  was  accordingly  accused 
of  this  crime  by  his  former  accuser,  L.  Torqua- 
tus, and  by  C.  Cornelius.  He  was  defended  by 
Hortensius  and  Cicero,  and  the  speech  of  the 
latter  on  his  behalf  is  still  extant.  He  was  ac- 
quitted ;  but,  independent  of  the  testimony  of 
Sallust  (Cat.,  17),  his  guilt  may  almost  be  in- 
ferred from  the  embarrassment  of  his  advocate. 
In  the  civil  war  Sulla  espoused  Caesar's  cause. 
He  served  under  him  as  legate  in  Greece,  and 
commanded  along  with  Caesar  himself  the  right 
wing  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  (48).  He  died 
in  45. — 7.  SERV.,  brother  of  No.  6,  took  part  in 
both  of  Catiline's  conspiracies.  His  guilt  was 
so  evident  that  no  one  was  willing  to  defend 
him;  but  we  do  not  read  that  he  was  put. to 
death  along  with  the  other  conspirators. 

SULMO  (Sulmonensis).  1.  (Now  Sulmona),  a 
town  of  the  Peligni,  in  the  country  of  the  Sa- 
bines,  seven  miles  south  of  Corfinium,  on  the 
road  to  Capua,  and  situated  on  two  small  mount- 
ain streams,  the  water  of  which  was  exceed- 
ingly cold  :  hence  we  find  the  town  called  by 
the  poets  gclidus  Sulmo.  It  is  celebrated  as  tho 

841 


SULPICIA, 

birth-place  o(  Ovid.  It  was  (bstroyed  by  Sulla, 
but  was  afteiward  restored,  and  is  mentioned 
as  a  Roman  colony. — 2.  (Now  Sermoncta),  an 
ancient  town  of  the  Volsci  in  Latium,  on  the 
Ufens,  which  had  disappeared  in  Pliny's  time. 

SULPICIA,  a  Roman  poetess,  who  flourished 
toward  the  close  of  the  first  century,  celebrated 
for  sundry  amatory  effusions,  addressed  to  her 
husband  Calenus.  Their  general  character  may 
be  gathered  from  the  expressions  of  Martial, 
Ausonius,  and  Sidonius  Apollinaris,  by  all  of 
whom  they  are  noticed.  There  is  extant  a  sa- 
tirical poem,  in  seventy  hexameters,  on  the 
edict  of  Domitian,  by  which  philosophers  were 
banished  from  Rome  and  from  Italy,  which  is 
ascribed  to  Sulpicia  by  many  modern  critics. 
It  is  generally  appended  to  the  editions  of  Ju- 
venal and  Persius. 

SULPICIA  GENS,  was  one  of  the  most  ancient 
Roman  gentes,  and  produced  a  succession  of 
distinguished  men,  from  the  foundation  of  the 
republic  to  the  imperial  period.  The  chief  fam- 
ilies of  the  Sulpicii  during  the  republican  period 
bore  the  names  of  CAMERINUS,  GALBA,  GALLUS, 
RUFUS  (given  below),  SAVERRIO. 

SULPICIUS  APOLLINARIS,  a  contemporary  of 
A.  Gellius,  was  a  learned  grammarian.  There 
are  two  poems  in  the  Latin  Anthology  purport- 
ing to  be  written  by  Sulpicius  of  Carthage, 
whom  some  identify  with  the  above-named  Sul- 
picius Apollinaris.  One  of  these  poems  con- 
sists of  seventy-two  lines,  giving  the  argument 
of  the  twelve  books  of  Virgil's  ^-Eneid,  six  lines 
being  devoted  to  each  book. 

SULPICIUS  RUFUS.  1.  P.,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished orators  of  his  time,  was  born  B.C. 
124.  He  commenced  public  life  as  a  supporter 
of  the  aristocratical  party,  and  acquired  great 
influence  in  the  state  by  his  splendid  talents 
while  he  was  still  young.  In  93  he  was  quaes- 
tor, and  in  89  he  served  as  legate  of  the  consul 
Cn.  Pompeius  Strabo  in  the  Marsic  war.  In 
88  he  was  elected  to  the  tribunate  ;  but  he  de- 
serted the  aristocratical  party,  and  joined  Ma- 
rius.  The  causes  of  this  sudden  change  are 
not  expressly  stated  ;  but  we  are  told  that  he 
was  overwhelmed  with  debt ;  and  there  can  be 
little  deubt  that  he  was  bought  by  Marius.  Sul- 
picius brought  forward  a  law  "n  favor  of  Marius 
and  his  party,  of  which  an  account  is  given  un- 
der MAKIVJS.  When  Sulla  marched  upon  Rome 
at  the  head  of  his  army,  Marius  and  Sulpicius 
took  to  flight.  Marius  succeeded  in  making  his 
escape  to  Africa,  but  Sulpicius  was  discovered 
in  a  villa  and  put  to  death. — 2.  P.,  probably  sou 
or  grandson  cf  th3  last,  was  one  of  Cwsar'e  le- 
gates in  Gaul  and  in  the  civil  war.  He  was 
praetor  in  48.  Cicero  addresses  him  in  45  as 
imperator.  It  appears  that  he  was  at  that  time 
in  Illyricum,  along  with  Vatinius.  —  3.  SERV., 
with  the  surname  LEMONIA,  indicating  the  tribe 
to  which  he  belonged,  was  a  contemporary  and 
friend  of  Cicero,  and  of  about  the  same  age. 
He  first  devoted  himself  to  oratory,  and  he 
studied  this  art  with  Cicero  in  his  youth.  He 
afterward  studied  law  ;  and  he  became  one  of 
the  best  jurists  as  well  as  most  eloquent  orators 
of  his  age.  He  was  quaestor  of  the  district  of 
Ostia  in  74  ;  curule  aedile  69  ;  praetor  65  ;  and 
consul  51  with  M.  Claudius  Marcellus.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  espoused  Csesar's  side  in  the  civil 
811 


SURIUS. 

war,  and  was  appointed  by  Caesar  proconsul  of 
Achaia  (46  or  45).  He  died  in  43  in  the  camp 
of  M.  Antony,  having  been  sent  by  the  senate 
on  a  mission  to  Antony,  who  was  besieging  Dec. 
Brutus  in  Mutina.  Sulpicius  wrote  a  great  num- 
ber of  legal  works.  He  is  often  cited  by  the 
jurists  whose  writings  are  excerpted  in  the  Di- 
gest ;  but  there  is  no  excerpt  directly  from  him 
in  the  Digest.  He  had  numerous  pupils,  the 
most  distinguished  of  whom  were  A.  Ofilius  and 
Alfenus  Varus.  There  are  extant  in  the  collec- 
tion of  Cicero's  Epistles  (ad  p'am.,  iv.)  two  let- 
ters from  Sulpicius  to  Cicero,  one  of  which  is 
the  well-known  letter  of  consolation  on  the 
death  of  Tullia,  the  daughter  of  the  orator.  The 
same  book  contains  several  letters  from  Cicero 
to  Sulpicius.  He  is  also  said  to  have  written 
some  erotic  poetry.  Sulpicius  left  a  son  Ser- 
vius,  who  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Cicero's 
correspondence. 

[SUMETIA  (Zovjujprla),  an  ancient  city  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Arcadia,  in  the  district  Maena- 
lia,  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Suma- 
teus,  a  son  of  Lycaon  :  after  the  founding  of 
Megalopolis,  it  fell  into  decay.] 

SUMMANUS,  a  derivative  from  summus,  the 
highest,  an  ancient  Roman  or  Etruscan  divin- 
ity, who  was  equal  or  even  of  higher  rank  than 
Jupiter.  In  fact,  he  may  be  regarded  as  the  Ju- 
piter of  the  night ;  for,  as  Jupiter  was  the  god 
of  heaven  in  the  bright  day,  so  Summanus  was 
the  god  of  the  nocturnal  heaven,  and  hurled  his 
thunderbolts  during  the  night.  Summanus  had 
a  temple  at  Rome  near  the  Circus  Maximus,  and 
there  was  a  representation  of  him  in  the  pedi- 
ment of  the  Capitoline  temple. 

SUNIUM  (JJovviov :  Sovv-uvf :  now  Cape  Co- 
lonni),  a  celebrated  promontory  forming  the 
southern  extremity  of  Attica,  with  a  town  of 
the  same  name  upon  it.  Here  was  a  splendid 
temple  of  Minerva  (Athena),  elevated  three 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  the  columns  of 
which  are  still  extant,  and  have  given  the  mod- 
ern name  to  the  promontory.  It  was  fortified 
by  the  Athenians  in  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
and  remains  of  the  ancient  walls,  with  the  tem- 
ple of  Minerva  (Athena),  are  still  extant. 

SUNONKNSIS  LACUS  (now  Lake  Sabanjah),  a 
lake  in  Bithynia,  between  the  Ascania  Palus 
and  the  River  Sangarius,  near  Nicomedia. 

SUPERBUS,  TARQUINIUS.      Vid.  TARQUINIUS. 

[SupERVM,  MARE.      Vid.  ADRIA.] 

SUHA,  LENTULUS.     Vid.  LENTULUS,  No.  9. 

SURA,  L.  LICINIUS,  an  intimate  friend  of  Tra- 
jan, and  three  times  consul,  in  A.I).  98, 102,  and 
107.  On  the  death  cf  Sura,  Trajan  honored  him 
with  a  public  funeral,  and  erected  baths  to  per- 
petuate his  memory.  Two  of  Pliny's  letters 
are  addressed  to  him. 

SURA  (SoCpa :  now  Surie),  a  town  of  Syria, 
in  the  district  Chalybonitis,  on  the  Euphrates, 
a  little  west  of  Thapsacus. 

SURANI  or  SUARNI  (SovpavoC),  a  people  of  Sar- 
matia  Asiatica,  near  the  Portae  Caucasiae  and 
the  River  Rha.  Their  country  contained  many 
gold  mines. 

SUKENAS,  the  general  of  the  Parthians  who 
defeated  Crassus  in  B.C.  54.  Vid.  CRASSUS. 

SURIUS  (Sovptof),  a  tributary  of  the  Phasis  in 
Colchis,  the  water  of  which  had  the  power  of 
forming  petrifactions.  At  its  confluence  with 


SURRENTINI  COLLES. 

the  Phasis  stood  a  town  named  SURIUM  (2ov- 
piov).  The  plain  through  which  it  flows  is  still 
called  Stiram. 

SURRENTINI  COLLES.     Vid.  SURRENTUM. 

SURRENTUM  (Suncntinus  :  now  Sorrento),  an 
ancient  town  of  Campania,  opposite  Capreae, 
and  situated  on  the  promontory  (Promontorium 
Mincr»<z,  now  Punta  delta  Campanella)  sepa- 
rating the  Sinus  Paestanus  from  the  Sinus  Pu- 
teolanus.  It  was  subsequently  a  Roman  col- 
ony, and  on  the  hills  (Surrentini  Colles)  in  its 
neighborhood  was  grown  one  of  the  best  wines 
in  Italy,  which  was  strongly  recommended  to 
convalescents  on  account  of  its  thinness  and 
wholesomeness. 

SUSA,  gen.  -ORUM  (ru  Sovaa  :  in  the  Old  Test- 
ament, Shushan  :  2ov<j(of,  Susianus  :  ruins  at 
S/ius),  the  winter  residence  of  the  Persian  kings, 
stood  in  the  district  Cissia  of  the  province  Su- 
siana,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  River  Cho- 
aspes.  Its  name  in  old  Persian  signifies  Lily, 
and  that  flower  is  said  to  abound  in  the  plain  in 
which  the  city  stood.  It  was  of  a  Quadrangular 
form,  one  hundred  and  twenty  (or,  according  to 
others,  two  hundred)  stadia  in  circuit,  and  with- 
out fortifications  ;  but  it  had  a  strongly-fortified 
citadel,  containing  the  palace  and  treasury  of 
the  Persian  kings.  The  Greek  name  of  this 
citadel,  Memnonice  or  Memnonium,  is  perhaps 
a  corruption  of  the  Aramaic  Maaninon,  a  fort- 
ress ;  and  this  easy  confusion  of  terms  gave  rise 
to  the  fable  that  the  city  was  founded  by  Titho- 
nus,  the  father  of  Memtion.  A  historical  tra- 
dition ascribes  its  erection  to  Darius,  the  son  of 
Hystaspes,  but  it  existed  already  in  the  time  of 
Daniel.  (Dan.,  viii.,2.)  (There  is,  however,  a 
difficulty  as  to  the  identification  of  the  Shushan 
of  Daniel  with  the  Susa  of  the  Greeks,  and  as 
to  the  true  position  of  the  River  Ulai  or  Eu- 
laeus,  which  can  not  be  -discussed  within  the 
'imits  of  this  article.)  The  climate  of  Susa  was 
very  hot,  and  hence  the  choice  of  it  for  the  win- 
ter palace.  It  was  here  that  Alexander  and  his 
generals  celebrated  their  nuptials  with  the  Per- 
sian princesses,  B.C.  325.  The  site  of  Susa  is 
riow  marked  by  extensive  mounds,  on  which 
are  found  fragments  of  bricks  and  broken  pot- 
tery, with  cuneiform  inscriptions. 

SUSARION  (Zovdapt'wv),  to  whom  the  origin  of 
the  Attic  Comedy  is  ascribed,  was  a  native  of 
Megara,  whence  he  removed  into  Attica,  to  the 
village  of  Icaria,  a  place  celebrated  as  a  seat  of 
the  worship  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus).  This  ac- 
count agrees  with  the  claim  which  the  Mega- 
rians  asserted  to  the  invention  of  comedy,  and 
which  was  generally  admitted.  Before  the  time 
of  Susarion,  there  was,  no  doubt,  practiced  at 
Icaria  and  the  other  Attic  villages,  that  extem- 
pore jesting  and  buffoonery  which  formed  a 
marked  feature  of  the  festivals  of  Bacchus  (Dio- 
nysus) ;  but  Susarion  was  the  first  who  so  reg- 
ulated this  species  of  amusement  as  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  Comedy,  properly  so  called.  The 
Megaric  comedy  appears  to  have  flourished,  in 
its  full  development,  about  B.C.  600  and  on- 
ward ;  and  it  was  introduced  by  Susarion  into 
Attica  between  580-564. 

[SusiA  (Sovot'a  :  now  Susen  or  Suteni),  a  city 
of  Aria,  on  the  borders  of  Parthia,  probably  iden- 
tical with  the  Suphtho.  of  Ptolemy,  and  assigned 
by  him  to  Parthia.]' 


SYBARIS. 

SUSIANA,  -E,  or  Susis  (r)  2ov(iav7J,  rj  Souoif : 
nearly  corresponding  to  Khuzistan),  one  of  the 
chief  provinces  of  the  ancient  Persian  empire, 
lay  between  Babylonia  and  Persis,  and  between 
Mount  Parachoatras  and  the  head  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  In  this  last  direction,  its  coast  ex- 
tended from  the  junction  of  the  Euphrates  with 
the  Tigris  to  about  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Oroatis  (now  Tab).  It  was  divided  from  Per- 
sis on  the  southeast  and  east  by  a  mountainous 
tract,  inhabited  by  independent  tribes,  who  made 
even  the  kings  of  Persia  pay  them  for  a  safe 
passage.  The  chief  pass  through  these  mount- 
ains was  called  Susides  or  Persides  Portae  (2ot> 
ffiJef  Tribal,  ai  irvTiai  ai  TIepaidtf,  Soiwadef  TTE- 
rpai) :  its  position  is  uncertain  ;  perhaps  it  was 
the  pass  of  Kclahi  Sefid,  in  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Tab.  On  the  north  it  was  separated  from 
Great  Media  by  Mount  Charbanus,  an  eastern 
branch  of  Mount  Zagros,  which  contained  the 
sources  of  the  chief  rivers  of  Susiana,  the  CHO- 
ASPES,  the  COPRATES,  and  the  EUL^EUS  (the  PA- 
SITIGRIS  came  from  the  mountains  on  the  east). 
On  the  west  it  was  divided  from  Assyria  by  an 
imaginary  line  drawn  south  from  near  the  Me- 
dian pass  in  Mount  Zagros  to  the  Tigris,  and 
from  Babylonia  by  the  Tigris  itself.  The  coun- 
try was  mountainous  and  cool  in  the  north,  and 
low  and  very  hot  in  the  south,  and  the  coast 
along  the  Persian  Gulf  was  marshy.  The  mount- 
ains were  inhabited  by  various  wild  and  inde- 
pendent tribes,  and  the  plains  by  a  quiet  agri- 
cultural people,  of  the  Semitic  race,  called  Su- 
sii  or  Susiani. 

SUTRIOM  (Sutrlnus:  now  Sutri),  an  ancient 
town  of  Etruria,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Sal- 
tus  Ciminius,  and  on  the  road  from  Vulsinii  to 
Rome.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  at  an  early 
period  ;  and  in  B.C.  383,  or  seven  years  after 
the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  it  was  made 
a  Roman  colony.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  fidel- 
ity to  Rome,  and  was,  in  consequence,  besieged 
several  times  by  the  Etruscans.  On  one  occa- 
sion it  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  the  Etrus- 
cans, but  was  retaken  by  Camillus  in  the  same 
day,  whence  arose  the  proverb  ire  Sutrium. 
There  are  still  remains  of  the  walls  and  tombs 
of  the  ancient  town. 

SYAGER(Svaypof)  1.  One  of  the  alleged  ante- 
Homeric  poets,  is  said  to  have  flourished  after 
Orpheus  and  Mtisaeus,  and  to  have  been  the  first 
who  sang  the  Trojan  war. — [2.  A  Lacedaemo- 
nian, deputy  from  Sparta  when  the  Greeks  sent 
to  Gelon  of  Syracuse  to  ask  his  aid  against 
Xerxes,  rejected,  on  behalf  of  his  state,  Gelon's 
demand  to  have  the  supreme  command  of  the 
expedition.] 

SYAGRUS  (Svaypof  u/cpa),  the  greatest  promon- 
tory of  Arabia,  is  described  differently  by  differ- 
ent ancient  writers,  but  is  most  probably  to  be 
identified  with  the  easternmost  headland  of  the 
whole  peninsula,  Ras-el-Had. 

SYBARIS  (Ztifaptf).  1.  (Now  Coscile  or  Siba- 
ri),  a  river  in  Lucania,  flowing  by  the  city  of 
the  same  name,  and  falling  into  the  (.' rat  his. 
It  derived  its  name  from  the  fountain  Sybaris, 
near  Bura,  in  Achaia. — 2.  (2v6ap/rj7f,  Sybarita), 
a  celebrated  Greek  town  in  Lucama,  was  sit- 
uated between  the  rivers  Sybaris  and  Crathis, 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  Tarentine  Gulf,  and 
near  the  confines  of  Brultium.  It  was  founded 

843 


SYBOTA. 

B.C.  720  by  Achaeans  and  Trcezenians,  and  soon 
attained  an  extraordinary  degree  of  prosperity 
and  wealth.  It  carried  on  an  extensive  com- 
merce with  Asia  Minor  and  other  countries  on 
the  Mediterranean,  and  its  inhabitants  became 
so  notorious  for  their  love  of  luxury  and  pleas- 
ure, that  their  name  was  employed  to  indicate 
any  voluptuary.  At  the  time  of  their  highest 
prosperity  their  city  was  fifty  stadia,  or  upward 
of  six  miles  in  circumference,  and  they  exer- 
cised dominion  over  twenty-five  towns,  so  that 
we  are  told  they  were  able  to  bring  into  the 
field  three  hundred  thousand  men,  a  number, 
however,  which  appears  incredible.  But  their 
prosperity  was  of  short  duration.  The  Achaeans 
having  expelled  the  Troezenian  part  of  the  pop- 
ulation, the  latter  took  refuge  at  the  neighbor- 
ing city  of  Croton,  the  inhabitants  of  which  es- 
poused their  cause.  In  the  war  which  ensued 
between  the  two  states,  the  Sybarites  were  com- 
pletely conquered  by  the  Crotoniats,  who  fol- 
lowed up  their  victory  by  the  capture  of  Syba- 
ris,  which  they  destroyed  by  turning  the  waters 
of  the  River  Crathis  against  the  town,  B.C.  510. 
The  greater  number  of  the  surviving  Sybarites 
took  refuge  in  other  Greek  cities  in  Italy ;  but 
a  few  remained  near  their  ancient  town,  and 
their  descendants  formed  part  of  the  population 
of  Thurii,  which  was  Bounded  in  443  near  Syba- 
ris.  Vid.  THURII. 

SYBOTA  (ra  2u6ora  :  2u&mof  :  now  Syeota), 
a  number  of  small  islands  off  the  coast  of  Epi- 
rus,  and  opposite  the  promontory  Leucimne  in 
Corcyra,  with  a  harbor  of  the  same  name  on 
the  main  land.  It  was  here  that  a  naval  battle 
was  fought  between  the  Corcyraeans  and  Co- 
rinthians, B.C.  432,  just  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

SYCH^SUS  or  SICH^US,  also  called  ACERBAS. 
Vid.  ACERBAS. 

SYCHAR,  SYCHEM.     Vid.  NEAPOLIS,  No.  5. 

[SYCURIUM,  according  to  Livy.a  place  in  Thes- 
salian  Pelasgiotis,  at  the  base  of  Mount  Ossa.] 

[SYEDRA  (in  Strabo  2v6pq),  a  town  on  the 
coast  of  Cilicia  Aspera,  between  Coracesium 
and  Selinoe.] 

SYENE  (I,vqvr) :  'ZvTivirrif  and  ^vr/v^rrif,  Sy- 
enites :  ruins  at  Assouan),  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt, 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  just  below  the 
First  Cataract.  It  has  been  in  all  ages  the 
southern  frontier  city  of  Egypt  toward  ^Ethio- 
pia, and  under  the  Romans  it  was  kept  by  a 
garrison  of  three  cohorts.  From  its  neighbor- 
hood was  obtained  the  fine  red  granite  called 
Syenites  lapis.  It  was  also  an  important  point 
in  the  astronomy  and  geography  of  the  ancients, 
as  it  lay  just  under  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  and 
was  therefore  chosen  as  the  place  through  which 
they  drew  their  chief  parallel  of  latitude.  Of 
course  the  sun  was  vertical  to  Syene  at  the 
time  of  the  summer  solstice,  and  a  well  was 
shown  in  which  the  reflection  of  the  sun  was 
then  seen  at  noon  ;  or,  as  the  rhetorician  Aris- 
tides  expresses  it,  the  disc  of  the  sun  covered 
the  well  as  a  vessel  is  covered  by  its  lid. 

SYENNESIS  (Zvevvecrtf),  a  common  name  of 
the  kings  of  Cilicia.  Of  these  the  most  import- 
ant are,  1.  A  king  of  Cilicia,  who  joined  with 
Labynetus  (Nebuchadnezzar)  in  mediating  be- 
tween Cyaxares  and  Alyattes,  the  kings  re- 
spectively of  Media  and  Lydia,  probably  in  B.C. 
844 


SYMMACHUS,  Q.  AURELIUS. 

610. —2.  Contemporary  with  Darius  Hystaspis 
to  whom  he  was  tributary.  His  daughter  was 
married  to  Pixodarus. — 3.  Contemporary  with 
Artaxerxes  II.  (Mnemon),  ruled  over  Cilicia, 
when  the  younger  Cyrus  marched  through  his 
country  in  his  expedition  against  his  brother 
Artaxerxes.  [Vid.  EPYAXA.] 

SYGAMBRI,  SUOAMBRI,  SIOAMBRI,  SYCAMBRI  or 
SICAMBKI,  one  of  the  most  powerful  tribes  of 
Germany  at  an  early  time,  belonged  to  the  Is 
tffivones,  and  dwelt  originally  north  of  the  Ubii 
on  the  Rhine,  whence  they  spread  toward  the 
north  as  far  as  the  Lippe.  The  Sygambri  are 
mentioned  by  Caesar,  who  invaded  their  terri- 
tory. They  were  conquered  by  Tiberius  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  and  a  large  number  of  them 
were  transplanted  to  Gaul,  where  they  received 
settlements  between  the  Maas  and  the  Rhine 
as  Roman  subjects.  The  portion  of  the  Sy- 
gambri who  remained  in  Germany  withdrew 
further  south,  probably  to  the  mountainous 
country  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Taunus. 
Shortly  afterward  they  disappear  from  history, 
and  are  not  mentioned  again  till  the  time  of 
Ptolemy,  who  places  them  much  further  north, 
close  to  the  Bructeri  and  the  Langobardi,  some- 
where between  the  Vecht  and  the  Yssel.  At  a 
still  later  period  we  find  them  forming  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  confederacy  known  under 
the  name  of  Franci. 

SYLLA.     Vid.  SULLA. 

SYLLIUM  (2t)2,/Uov  :  probably  ruins  near  Bol 
kassku,  north  of  Legelahkoi),  a  strongly- fortifie, 
town  of  Pamphylia,  on  a  mountain  forty  stadia 
(four  geographical  miles)  from  the  coast,  be- 
tween Side  and  Aspendus. 

[SYLOSON  (ZvAoauv),  son  of  ^Eaces,  younger 
brother  of  Polycrates,  the  tyrant  of  Samos. 
Banished  by  his  brother,  he  went  to  Egypt,  and 
thence  to  Persia,  after  the  accession  of  Darius, 
who  rewarded  him  for  some  previous  favor  with 
the  tyranny  of  the  island  of  £amos.  Syloson 
ruled  Samos  till  his  death,  and  was  succeeded 
in  the  sovereignty  by  his  son  ^Eaces.] 

SYLVANUS.     Vid.  SILVANUS. 

SYLVIUS.     Vid.  SILVIUS.  ^ 

SYM^THUS  (Zvpaidoc  :  now  Giaretta),  a  river 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily  and  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  ./Etna,  forming  the  boundary  between 
Leontini  and  Catana,  on  which  stood  the  town 
of  Centuripae. 

SYME  CSv/trj :  2v//atof,  "Zvfisvf :  now  Symi),  a 
small  island  off  the  southwestern  coast  of  Caria, 
lay  in  the  mouth  of  the  Sinus  Doridis,  to  the 
west  of  the  promontory  of  Cynossema.  It  was 
one  of  the  early  Dorian  states,  that  existed  in 
the  southwest  of  Asia  Minor  before  the  time  of 
Homer.  Its  connection  both  with  Cnidus  and 
with  Rhodes,  between  which  it  lay,  is  indicated 
by  the  tradition  that  it  was  peopled  by  a  colony 
from  Cnidus  led  by  Chthonius,  the  son  of  Nep 
tune  (Poseidon)  and  of  Syme,  the  daughter  01 
lalysus.  Some  time  after  the  Trojan  war,  the 
Carians  are  said  to  have  obtained  possession  of 
the  island,  but  to  have  deserted  it  again  in  con- 
sequence of  a  severe  drought.  Its  final  settle- 
ment by  the  Dorians  is  ascribed  to  the  time  of 
their  great  migration.  The  island  was  reckon- 
ed at  thirty-five  miles  in  circuit.  It  had  eight 
harbors  and  a  town,  which  was  also  called  Syme. 

SYMMACHUS,  Q.  AURELIUS,  a   distinguished 


'SYMPLEGADES. 

scholar,  statesman,  and  orator  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era.     By 
his  example  and  authority,  he  inspired  for  a  time 
new  life   and  vigor  into  the  literature  of  his 
country.     He  was  educated  in  Gaul ;  and,  hav- 
ing discharged  the  functions  of  quaestor  and 
praetor,  he  was  afterward  appointed  (A.D.  365) 
Corrector  of  Lucania  and  the  Bruttii ;  and  in 
373  he  was  proconsul  of  Africa.     His  zeal  for 
the  ancient   religion  of  Rome  checked  for  a 
while  the  prosperous  current  of  his  fortunes, 
and  involved  him  in  danger  and  disgrace.    Hav- 
ing been  chosen  by  the  senate  to  remonstrate 
with  Gratian  on  the  removal  of  the  altar  of  Vic- 
tory (382)  from  their  council  hall,  and  on  the 
curtailment  of  the  sums  annually  allowed  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  Vestal  Virgins,  and  for 
the  public  celebration  of  sacred  rites,  he  was 
ordered  by  the  indignant  emperor  to  quit  his 
presence,  and  to  withdraw  himself  to  a  distance 
of  one  hundred  miles  from  Rome.     Nothing 
daunted  by  this  repulse,  when  appointed  praefect 
of  the  city  (384)  after  the  death  of  his  perse- 
cutor, he  addressed  an  elaborate  epistle  to  Va- 
lentinianus,  again  urging  the  restoration  of  the 
pagan  deities  to  their  former  honors.     This  ap- 
plication was  resisted  by  St.  Ambrose,  and  was 
again  unsuccessful.     Symmachus  afterward  es- 
poused the  cause  of  the  usurper  Maximus  (387) ; 
but  he  was  pardoned  by  Theodosius,  and  raised  ' 
to  the  consulship  in  391.     His  personal  charac-  j 
ter  seems  to  have  been  unimpeachable,  as  he  ! 
performed  the  duties  of  the  high  offices  which  i 
he  filled  in  succession  with  a  degree  of  mild-  ] 
ness,    firmness,   and   integrity   seldom    found 
among  statesmen  in  that  corrupt  age.     The  ex-  | 
tant  works  of  Symmachus  are,  1 .  Epislolarum  \ 
Libri  X.,  published  after  his  death  by  his  son.  ' 
The  last  book  contains  his  official  correspond- 
ence, and  is  chiefly  composed  of  the  letters  pre- 
sented by  him  when  praefect  of  the  city  to  the 
emperors  under  whom  he  served.    The  remain- 
ing books  comprise  a  multitude  of  epistles,  ad- 
dressed to  a  wide  circle  of  relations,  friends, 
and  acquaintances.     2.  Novem  Orationum  Frag-  j 
menta,  published  for  the  first  time  by  Mai  from  ! 
a  palimpsest  in  the  Ambrosian  library,  Mcdiolan. ,  j 
1815.    The  best  editions  of  the  epistles  are  by 
Juretus,  Paris,  1604,  and  by  Scioppius,  Mogunt., 
1608. 

[SYMPLEOADES  (Su/<;rA>7yu<5ef).     Vid.  CYANE.B 
INSUL/E  ] 

SY.NESIUS  (Suveatof),  one  of  the  most  elegant 
of  the  ancient  Christian  writers,  was  a  native  ! 
of  Cyrene,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ! 
Greek  literature,  first  in  his  own  city,  and  after-  : 
ward  at  Alexandrea,  where  he  heard  Hypatia. 
He  became  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  eloquence  ! 
and  poetry,  as  well  as  in  philosophy,  in  which  i 
he  was  a  follower  of  Plato.     About  A.D.  397,  ! 
he  was  sent  by  his  fellow- citizens  of  Cyrene  on  i 
an  embassy  to  Constantinople,  to  present  the  i 
Emperor  Arcadius  with  a  crown  of  gold,  on 
which  occasion  he  delivered  an  oration  on  the  ! 
government   of  a   kingdom    (irepl   (laodtiat )  ! 
which  is  still  extant.     Soon  after  this  he  em-  ; 
braced  Christianity,  and  in  410  was  ordained 
bishop  of  Ptolemals,  the  chief  city  of  the  Libyan 
Pentapolis.     He  presided  over  his  diocese  with 
energy  and  success  for  about  twenty  years,  and 
died  about  430.    His  writings  have  been  objects 


SYRACUSE. 

of  admiration  both  to  ancient  and  modern  schol- 
ars, and  have  obtained  for  him  the  surname 
of  Philosopher.  The  best  edition  of  his  works 
is  by  Morel,  Paris,  1612;  much  improved  and 
enlarged,  Paris,  1633  ;  reprinted,  1640.  [His 
"Ypvoi  (Hymns),  ten  in  number,  are  contained 
in  Boissonade'sLynci  Graci,  Paris,  1825, 18mo.] 

SYNNADA,  also  SYNNAS  (r«  Siivvada  :  "Zvvva- 
devf,  Synnadensis  :  now  probably  ruins  at  Afiom- 
Kara-Hisar),  a  city  in  the  north  of  Phrygia  Sal- 
utaris,  at  first  inconsiderable,  but  afterward  a 
place  of  much  importance,  and,  from  the  time 
of  Constantino,  the  capital  of  Phrygia  Salutaris. 
It  stood  in  a  fruitful  plain,  planted  with  olives, 
near  a  mountain  from  which  was  quarried  the 
very  celebrated  Synnadic  marble,  which  was  of 
a  beautiful  white,  with  red  veins  and  spots  (Sw- 
vadtKOf  /U'0of,  Synnadicus  lapis,  called  also  Do- 
cimiticus,  from  a  still  nearer  place,  Docimia). 

SYPHAX  (2v0a£)>  king  of  the  Massssylians, 
the  westernmost  tribe  of  the  Numidians.  His 
history  is  related  in  the  life  of  his  contemporary 
and  rival,  MASINISSA.  Syphax  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  Masinissa  B.C.  203,  and  was  sent  by 
Scipio,  under  the  charge  of.Laelius,  to  Rome. 
Polybius  states  that  he  was  one  of  the  captives 
who  adorned  the  triumph  of  Scipio,  and  that  he 
died  in  confinement  shortly  after.  Livy,  on  the 
contrary,  asserts  that  he  was  saved  from  that 
ignominy  by  a  timely  death  at  Tibur,  whither 
he  had  been  transferred  from  Alba. 

SYRACO.      Vid.  SYRACUSE. 

SYRACUSE  CZvpaKovaai  or  'Zvpunoooai,  Ion. 
SvprJKOvoai,  also  Svpaicovaai,  SvpaKovarj :  2vpa- 
Kovaio?,  SvpaKoaiof,  Syracusanus  ;  now  Siracu- 
sa  in  Italian,  Syracuse  in  English),  the  wealth- 
iest and  most  populous  town  in  Sicily,  was  sit- 
uated on  the  southern  part  of  the  eastern  coast, 
four  hundred  stadia  north  of  the  promontory 
Plemmyrium,  and  ten  stadia  northeast  of  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Anapus,  near  the  lake  or 
marsh  called  Syraco  (Svpa/co),  from  which  it 
derived  its  name.  It  was  founded  B.C.  734, 
one  year  after  the  foundation  of  Naxos,  by  a 
colony  of  Corinthians  and  other  Dorians,  led 
by  Archias  the  Corinthian.  The  town  was  orig- 
inally confined  to  the  island  Ortygia  lying  im- 
mediately off  the  coast ;  but  it  afterward  spread 
over  the  neighboring  main  land,  and  at  the 
time  of  its  greatest  extension  under  the  elder 
Dionysius  it  consisted  of  five  distinct  towns, 
each  surrounded  by  separate  walls.  Some  writ- 
ers, indeed,  describe  Syracuse  as  consisting  of 
four  towns,  but  this  simply  arises  from  the 
fact  that  Epipolae  was  frequently  not  reckoned 
a  portion  of  the  city.  These  five  towns  were, 
1.  ORTYOIA  ('Oprvyia),  frequently  called  simply 
the  ISLAND  (Ndaof  or  N?/<rof),  an  island  of  an 
oblong  shape,  about  two  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, lying  between  the  Great  Harbor  on  the 
west  and  the  Little  Harbor  on  the  east.  It 
was,  as  has  been  already  remarked,  the  por- 
tion of  the  city  first  built,  and  it  contained  the 
citadel  or  Acropolis,  surrounded  by  double  walls, 
which  Timoleon  caused  to  be  destroyed.  In 
this  island  also  was  the  celebrated  fountain  of 
Arethusa.  It  was  originally  separated  from  the 
main  land  by  a  narrow  channel,  which  was  sub- 
sequently filled  up  by  a  causeway ;  but  this 
causeway  must  at  a  still  later  time  have  been 
swept  away  since  we  find  in  the  Roman  period 

845 


SYRACUSE. 

tnat  the  island  w  as  connected  with  the  rsain  land 
by  means  of  a  bridge. — 2.  ACHRADINA  ('Ajpo- 
Mvij),  occupied  originally  the  high  ground  of  the 
peninsula  north  of  Ortygia,  and  was  surrounded 
on  the  north  and  east  by  the  sea.  The  lower 
ground  between  Achradina  and  Ortygia  was  at 
first  not  included  in  the  fortifications  of  either, 
but  was  employed  partly  for  religious  proces- 
sions and  partly  for  the  burial  of  the  dead.  At 
the  time  of  the  siege  of  Syracuse  by  the  Athe- 
nians in  the  Peloponnesian  war  (415),  the  city 
consisted  only  of  the  two  parts  already  men- 
tioned, Ortygia  forming  the  inner  and  Achra- 
dina the  outer  city,  but  separated,  as  explained 
above,  by  the  low  ground  between  the  two. — 
3.  TYCHK  (Tv^j?),  named  after  the  temple  of 
Tyche  or  Fortune,  was  situated  northwest  of 
Achradina,  in  the  direction  of  the  port  called 
Trogilus.  At  the  time  of  the  Athenian  siege 
of  Syracuse  it  was  only  an  unfortified  suburb, 
but  it  afterward  became  the  most  populous  part 
of  the  city.  In  this  quarter  stood  the  Gymna- 
sium.— 4.  NEAPOLIS  (N«z  7ro>Uc).  nearly  south- 
west of  Achradina,  was  also,  at  the  time  of  the 
Athenian  siege  of  Syracuse,  merely  a  suburb, 
and  called  TEMENITES,  from  having  within  it 
the  statue  and  consecrated  ground  of  Apollo 
Temenites.  Neapolis  contained  the  chief  the- 
atre of  Syracuse,  which  was  the  largest  in  all 
Sicily,  and  many  temples. — 5.  EPIPOL/E  (al  'E?rt- 
fro^at),  a  space  of  ground  rising  above  the  three 
quarters  of  Achradina,  Tyche,  and  Neapolis, 
which  gradually  diminished  in  breadth  as  it 
rose  higher,  until  it  ended  in  a  small  conical 
mound.  This  rising  ground  was  surrounded 
with  strong  walls  by  the  elder  Dionysius,  and 
was  thus  included  in  Syracuse,  which  now  be- 
came one  of  the  .most  strongly  fortified  cities  of 
the  ancient  world.  The  highest  point  of  Epi- 
polfe  was  called  Euryelus  (Ev/ovj?3,of),  on  which 
stood  the  fort  Labdulum  (\u66ahov).  After  Epi- 
polae  had  been  addod  to  the  city,  the  circumfer- 
ence of  Syracuse  was  one  hundred  and  eighty 
stadia,  or  upward  of  twenty-two  English  miles  ; 
and  the  entire  population  of  the  city  is  supposed 
to  have  amounted  to  five  hundred  thousand 
eouls  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  prosperity.  Syr- 
acuse had  two  harbors.  The  Great  Harbor, 
still  called  Porto  Maggiore,  is  a  splendid  bay 
about  five  miles  in  circumference,  formed  by  the 
island  Ortygia  and  the  promontory  Plemmy- 
rium.  The  Small  Harbor,  also  called  Laccius 
(Au/c/aof),  lying  between  Ortygia  and  Achradi- 
na, was  capacious  enough  to  receive  a  large 
fleet  of  ships  of  war.  There  were  several  stone 
quarries  (laulumia)  in  Syracuse,  which  are  fre- 
quently mentioned  by  ancient  writers,  and  in 
which  the  unfortunate  Athenian  prisoners  were 
confined.  These  quarries  were  partly  in  Achra- 
dina, on  the  descent  from  the  higher  ground  to 
the  lower  level  toward  Ortygia,  and  partly  in 
Neapolis,  under  the  southern  cliff  of  Epipolae. 
From  them  was  taken  the  stone  of  which  the 
city  was  built.  On  one  side  of  these  quarries 
is  the  remarkable  excavation,  called  the  Ear  of 
Dionysius,  in  which  it  is  said  that  this  tyrant 
confined  the  persons  whom  he  suspected,  and 
that  he  was  able  from  a  little  apartment  above 
to  overhear  the  conversation  of  his  captives. 
This  tale,  however,  is  clearly  an  invention. 
The  city  was  supplied  with  water  from  an  aque- 
846 


SYRIA. 

I  duct,  which  waa  constructed  by  Gelon  and  irn 
I  proved  by  Hieron.  It  was  brought  through 
Epipolae  and  Neapolis  to  Achradina  and  Orlygia. 
The  modern  city  of  Syracuse  is  confined  to  the 
;  island.  The  remaining  quarters  of  the  ancient 
|  city  are  now  uninhabited,  and  their  position 
|  marked  only  by  a  few  ruins.  Of  these  the  most 
;  important  are  the  remains  of  the  great  theatre, 
and  of  an  amphitheatre  of  the  Roman  period. 
The  government  of  Syracuse  was  originally  an 
aristocracy  ;  and  the  political  power  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  landed  proprietors,  called  Geomori 
or  Gamori.  In  course  of  time  the  people,  having 
increased  in  numbers  and  wealth,  expelled  the 
Geomori  and  established  a  democracy.  But 
this  form  of  government  did  not  last  long.  Ge- 
lon espoused  the  cause  of  the  aristocratical 
party,  and  proceeded  to  restore  them  by  force 
of  arms  ;  but  on  his  approach  the  people  opened 
the  gates  to  him,  and  he  was  acknowledged 
without  opposition  tyrant  or  sovereign  of  Syr- 
acuse, B.C.  485.  Under  his  rule  and  that  of 
his  brother  Hieron,  Syracuse  was  raised  to  an 
unexampled  degree  of  wealth  and  prosperity. 
!  Hieron  died  in  467,  and  was  succeeded  by  hia 
brother  Thrasybulus  ;  but  the  rapacity  and  cru- 
elty of  the  latter  soon  provoked  a  revolt  among 
his  subjects,  which  led  to  his  deposition  and  the 
establishment  of  a  democratical  form  of  govern- 
ment. The  next  most  important  event  in  the 
history  of  Syracuse  was  the  siege  of  the  city  by 
the  Athenians,  which  ended  in  the  total  de- 
struction of  the  great  Athenian  armament  in 
413.  The  democracy  continued  to  exist  in  Syr- 
acuse till  406,  when  the  elder  Dionysius  made 
himself  tyrant  of  the  city.  After  a  long  and 
prosperous  reign,  he  was  succeeded  in  367 
by  his  son,  the  younger  Dionysius,  who  was 
finally  expelled  by  Timoleon  in  343.  A  repub- 
lican form  of  government  was  again  establish- 
ed; but  it  did  not  last  long;  and  in  317  Syra- 
cuse fell  under  the  sway  of  Agathocles.  This 
tyrant  died  in  289  ;  and  the  city  being  distract- 
ed by  factions,  the  Syracusans  voluntarily  con- 
ferred the  supreme  power  upon  Hieron  II.,  with 
the  title  of  king,  in  270.  Hieron  cultivated 
friendly  relations  with  the  Romans ;  but  on  his 
death  in  216,  at  the  advanced  age  of  ninety-two, 
his  grandson  Hieronymus,  who  succeeded  him, 
espoused  the  side  of  the  Carthaginians.  A  Ro- 
man army  under  Marcellus  was  sent  against 
Syracuse  ;  and  after  a  siege  of  two  years,  during 
which  Archimedes  assisted  his  fellow-citizens 
by  the  construction  of  various  engines  of  war 
(vid.  ARCHIMEDES),  the  city  was  taken  by  Mar- 
cellus in  212.  From  this  time  Syracuse  became 
a  town  of  the  Roman  province  of  Sicily. 

[SYRACUSANUS  PoRTUS  (SvpOKoatOf  %t[li)V,  HOW 

Porto  Vecchio),  a  harbor  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Corsica,  where  the  Syracusans  had  probably  es- 
tablished a  factory  for  their  trade  :  according  to 
Diodorus,  it  was  the  best  harbor  in  the  island.] 

SYRGIS  (Supyif),  according  to  Herodotus,  a 
great  river  of  European  Sarmatia,  rising  in  the 
country  of  the  Thyssagetae,  and  flowing  through 
the  land  of  the  Maeotae  into  the  Palus  Maeotis. 
It  has  not  been  identified  with  certainty. 

SYRIA  DBA  (Zvpcij  tfedf),  "the  Syrian  god- 
dess," a  name  by  which  the  Syrian  Astarte  or 
Aphrodite  is  sometimes  designated.  This  As- 
tarte was  a  Syrian  divinity,  resembling  in  many 


SYRIA. 


points  the  Greek  Aphrodite.  It  is  not  improb-  ' 
able  that  the  latter  was  originally  the  Syrian 
Astarte  ;  for  there  can  he  no  doubt  that  the 
worship  of  Aphrodite  came  from  the  East  to 
Cyprus,  and  thence  was  carried  into  the  south 
of  Greece. 

SYRIA  (tj  Zvpia,  in  Aramaean  Surja  :  Supof,  | 

Syrus,  and  sometimes  2vptof,  SyrTus  :  now  So- 

ristan,  Arab.  Esh-Sham,  i.  e.,  the  land  on  the  left, 

Syria),  a  country  of  Western  Asia,  lying  along 

the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  be- 

tween Asia  Minor  and  Egypt.    In  a  wider  sense 

the  word  was  used  for  the  whole  tract  of  coun- 

try bounded   by  the   Tigris  on   the   east,  the 

mountains  of  Armenia  and  Cilicia  on  the  north, 

the  Mediterranean  on  the  west,  and  the  Arabian 

Desert  on  the  south  ;  the  whole  of  which  was 

peopled  by  the  Aramaean  branch  of  the  great 

Semitic  (or  Syro-Arabian)  race,  and  is  included 

in  the  Old  Testament  under  the  name  of  Aram. 

This  region  may  be  well  described  physically 

a«  the  great  triangular  depression  of  Western 

Asia  encircled  on  the  north  and  northeast  by 

the  Taurus  and  its  prolongation  to  the  south- 

east, or,  in  other  words,  by  the  highlands  of 

Cilicia,  Cappadocia,  Armenia,  and  Aria  ;  and 

subsiding  on  the  south  and  west,  into  the  Med- 

iterranean and  the  Great  Desert  of  Arabia. 

Even  a  wider  extent  than  this  is  often  given  to 

Syria,  so  as  to  include  the  eastern  part  of  Asia 

Minor,  as  far  as  the  River  Halys  and  the  Euxine. 

The  people  were  of  the  same  races,  and  those 

of  the  north  of  the  Taurus  in  Cappadocia  and 

Pontus  are  called  White  Syrians  (vid.  LEUCO- 

SYRI),  in  contradistinction  to  the  people  of  darker 

complexion  in  Syria  Proper,  who  are  sometimes 

even    called   Black    Syrians  (Svpot   p'/lavef). 

Even  when  the  name  of  Syria  is  used  in  its  or- 

dinary narrower  sense,  it  is  often  confounded 

with  Assyria,  which  only  differs  from  Syria  by 

having  the  definite  article  prefixed.    Again,  in 

the  narrower  sense  of  the  name,  Syria  still  in- 

cludes two  districts  which  are  often  considered 

as  not  belonging  to  it,  namely,  PHCENICE  and 

PALESTINE,  and  a  third  which  is  likewise  often 

considered  separate,  namely,  CCELESYRIA  ;  but 

this  last  is  generally  reckoned  a  part  of  Syria. 

In  this  narrower  sense,  then,  Syria  was  bound- 

ed on  the  west  (beginning  from  the  south)  by 

Mount  Hermon,  at  the  southern  end  of  Antilib- 

anus,  which  separated  it  from  Palestine,  by  the 

range  of  Libanus,  dividing  it  from  Phcenice, 

by  the  Mediterranean,  and  by  Mount  Amanus, 

which  divided  it  from  Cilicia  ;  on  the  north 

(where  it  bordered  on  Cappadocia)  by  the  main 

chain  of  Mount  Taurus,  almost  exactly  along 

the  parallel  of  thirty-eight  degrees  of  north  lat- 

itude, and  striking  the  Euphrates  just  below 

Juliopolis,  and  considerably  above  Samosata  : 

hence  the  Euphrates  forms  the  eastern  bound- 

ary, dividing  Syria  first  from  a  very  small  por- 

tion of  Armenia,  and  then  from  Mesopotamia, 

to  about  or  beyond  the  thirty-sixth  parallel  of 

north  latitude,  whence   the  southeastern  and 

southern  boundaries,  toward  Babylonia  and  Ara- 

bia, in  the  Great  Desert,  are  exceedingly  indefi- 

nite.   (Compare  ARABIA.)    The  western  part  of 

the  southern  boundary  ran  just  below  Damas- 

cus, being  formed  by  the  highlands  of  Trachon- 

itis.    The  western  part  of  the  country  was  in- 

tersected by  a  series  of  mountains,  running 


south  from  the  Taurus,  under  the  names  of 
AMANUS,  PIERIA,  CASIUS,  BARGYLUS,  and  LIBA- 
\us,  and  A.VTILIBANUS  ;  and  the  northern  part, 
between  the  Amanus  and  the  Euphrates,  was 
also  mountainous.  The  chief  river  of  Syria 
was  the  ORONTES,  and  the  smaller  rivers  CHA- 
LUS  and  CHRYSORRHOAS  were  also  of  importance 
The  valleys  among  the  mountains  were  fertile, 
especially  in  the  northern  part :  even  the  east, 
which  is  now  merged  in  the  great  desert  of 
Arabia,  appears  to  have  had  more  numerous 
and  more  extensive  spaces  capable  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  supported  great  cities,  the  ruins  of 
which  now  stand  in  the  midst  of  sandy  wastes. 
In  the  earliest  historical  period,  Syria  contained 
a  number  of  independent  kingdoms,  of  which 
DAMASCUS  was  the  most  powerful.  These  were 
subdued  by  David,  but  became  again  independ- 
ent at  the  end  of  Solomon's  reign  ;  from  which 
time  we  find  the  kings  of  Damascus  sometimes 
at  war  with  the  kings  of  Israel,  and  sometimes 
in  alliance  with  them  against  the  kings  of  Judah, 
till  the  reign  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of  Assyria, 
who,  having  been  invited  by  Ahaz,  king  of  Ju- 
dah, to  assist  him  against  the  united  forces  of 
Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel, 
took  Damascus,  and  probably  conquered  all  Syr- 
ia, about  B.C.  740.  Having  been  a  part  suc- 
cessively of  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  Persian, 
and  Macedonian  empires,  it  fell,  after  the  battle 
of  Ipsus  (B.C.  301),  to  the  share  of  Seleucus 
Nicator,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  great  king- 
dom of  the  Seleucidae,  whose  history  is  given  in 
the  articles  SELEUCUS,  ANTIOCHUS,  DEMETRI-US, 
&c.  In  this  partition,  however,  Coelesyria  and 
Palestine  went,  not  to  Syria,  but  to  Egypt,  and 
the  possession  of  those  provinces  became  the 
great  source  of  contention  between  the  Ptole- 
mies and  the  Seleucids.  By  the  irruptions  of 
the  Parthians  on  the  east,  and  the  unsuccessful 
war  of  Antiochus  the  Great  with  the  Romans 
on  the  west,  the  Greek-Syrian  kingdom  was  re- 
duced to  the  limits  of  Syria  itself,  and  became 
weaker  and  weaker,  until  it  was  overthrown  by 
TIGRANES,  king  of  Armenia,  B.C.  79.  Soon 
afterward,  when  the  Romans  had  conquered 
Tigranes  as  well  as  Mithradates,  Syria  was 
quietly  added  by  Pompey  to  the  empire  of  the 
republic,  and  was  constituted  a  province  B.C. 
54  ;  but  its  northern  district,  COMMAGENE,  was 
not  included  in  this  arrangement.  As  the  east- 
ern province  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  with  its 
great  desert  frontier,  Syria  was  constantly  ex- 
posed to  the  irruptions  of  the  Parthians,  and, 
after  them,  of  the  Persians ;  but  it  long  re- 
mained one  of  the  most  flourishing  of  the  prov- 
inces. The  attempt  of  Zenobia  to  make  it  the 
seat  of  empire  is  noticed  under  PALMYRA  and 
ZENOBIA.  While  the  Roman  emperors  defend- 
ed this  precious  possession  against  the  attacks 
of  the  Persian  kings  with  various  success,  a 
new  danger  arose,  as  early  as  the  fourth  centu- 
ry, from  the  Arabians  of  the  Desert,  who  began 
to  be  known  under  the  name  of  Saracens  ;  and, 
when  the  rise  of  Mohammed  had  given  to  the 
Arabs  that  great  religious  impulse  which  revo- 
lutionized the  Eastern  world,  Syria  was  the  first 
great  conquest  that  they  made  from  the  Eastern 
empire,  A.D.  632-638.  In  the  time  immediate- 
ly succeeding  the  Macedonian  conquest,  Syria 
was  regarded  as  consisting  of  two  parts  ;  the 

847 


SYRI.E  PORT.-E. 


SVTRTIS. 


oorlh,  including  the  whole  country  down  to  the 
beginning  of  the  Lebanon  range,  and  the  south, 
consisting  of  COJLESYRIA  in  its  more  extended 
sense.  The  former,  which  was  called  Syria 
Proper,  or  Upper  Syria  (#  uvu  Zvpia,  Syria  Su- 
perior), was  divided  into  four  districts  or  tetrar- 
chies,  which  were  named  after  their  respective 
capitals,  Seleucis,  Antiochene,  Laodiccne,  and 
Apatnene.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  divided 
into  ten  districts,  named  (mostly  after  their  cap- 
ital cities)  Commagene,  Cyrrhestlce,  Pierta,  Se- 
leucis, Chalcidlce,  Chalybonltis,  Palmyrene,  Ap- 
amene,  Cassiotis,  and  Laodicene  ;  but  the  last 
is  sometimes  included  under  Cassiotis.  (Vid. 
the  ^several  articles.)  Constantine  the  Great 
separated  from  Syria  the  two  northern  districts, 
namely,  Commagene  andCyrrhestice,  and  erect- 
ed them  into  a  distinct  province,  called  Euphra- 
tensis  or  Euphratesia ;  and  the  rest  of  Syria 
was  afterward  divided  by  Theodosius  II.  into 
the  two  provinces  of  Syria  Prima,  including  the 
sea-coast  and  the  country  north  of  Antioch,  and 
having  that  city  for  its  capital ;  and  Syria  Se- 
cunda,  the  district  along  the  Orontes,  with  Ap: 
amea  for  its  capital :  the  eastern  districts  no 
longer  formed  a  part  of  Syria,  but  had  fallen  un- 
der the  power  of  the  Persians. 

SYBILS:  PORT^E  (al  2vpiai  irvAat :  now  Pass  of 
Bcilan),  a  most  important  pass  between  Cilicia 
and  Syria,  lying  between  the  shore  of  the  Gulf 
of  Issus  on  the  west,  and  Mount  Amanus  on 
the  east.  Xenophon,  who  called  the  pass  (or, 
rather,  its  fortifications)  the  Gales  of  Cilicia  and 
of -Syria,  describes  it  as  three- stadia  in  length 
and  very  narrow,  with  walls  built  from  the 
mountains  to  the  sea  at  both  ends  (the  Cilician 
and  the  Syrian),  and  gates  in  the  walls  (Anab., 
i.,  4).  These  walls  and  gates  are  not  mention- 
ed by  the  historians  of  Alexander. 

SYRUNUS  (Svpmvdf),  a  Greek  philosopher  of 
the  Neo-Platonic  school,  was  a  native  of  Alex- 
andrea,  and  studied  at  Athens  under  Plutarchus, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  head  of  the  Neo-Platonic 
school  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century. 
The  most  distinguished  of  his  disciples  was 
Proclus,  who  regarded  him  with  the  greatest 
veneration,  and  gave  directions  that  at  his  death 
he  should  be  buried  in  the  same  tomb  with  Syr- 
ianus.  Syrianus  wrote  several  works,  some  of 
which  are  extant.  Of  these  the  most  valuable 
are  the  commentaries  on  the  Metaphysics  of 
Aristotle. 

SYRINX,  an  Arcadian  nymph,  who,  being  pur- 
sued by  Pan,  fled  into  the  River  Ladon,  and  at 
her  own  request  was  metamorphosed  into  a 
reed,  of  which  Pan  then  made  his  flute. 

SYRINX  (Svptyf),  a  great  and  strongly-fortified 
city  of  Hyrcania,  and  the  capital  of  the  province 
under  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria.  Perhaps  it  is 
only  the  Greek  name  of  the  city  called,  in  the 
native  language,  Zadrakarta. 

[SYRO,  an  Epicurean  philosopher  at  Rome, 
on  friendly  terms  with  Cicero :  Baehr  thinks  he 
is  the  same  as  the  Syro  who  instructed  Virgil 
in  the  Epicurean  philosophy.] 

SYROS  or  SYRUS  (Stfpof,  called  I>vpii)  by  Ho- 
mer, and  2vpa  by  a  few  writers :  Jtipiof  :  now 
Syra),  an  island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  and  one  of 
the  Cyclades,  lying  between  Rhenea  and  Cyth- 
nus.  It  is  described  by  the  ancients  as  twenty 
Roman  miles  in  circumference,  and  as  rich  in 
848 


pastures,  wine,  and  corn.  It  contained  two 
towns,  one  on  the  eastern  side,  and  one  on  the 
western  side  of  the  island  ;  of  the  latter  there 
are  still  remains  near  the  modern  harbor  of  Ma- 
ria delta  Grasia.  The  philosopher  Pherecydes 
was  a  native  of  Syros. 

SYRTIS,  gen.  -inos  (Evprif,  gen.  -iio$  and  -euf, 
Ion.  -tof),  the  Greek  name  for  each  of  the  two 
great  gulfs  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa,  is  derived  by  ancient  writers 
from  ffvpu,  to  draw,  with  reference  to  the  quick- 
sands by  which,  in  the  Greater  Syrtis  at  least, 
ships  were  liable  to  be  swallowed  up ;  but 
modern  scholars  generally  prefer  the  derivation 
from  the  Arabic  sert^=a  sandy  desert,  which  is 
at  the  present  day  applied  to  the  country  along 
this  coast,  the  REOIO  SYRTICA  of  the  ancients. 
Both  were  proverbially  dangerous,  the  Greater 
Syrtis  from  its  sand-banks  and  quicksands,  and 
its  unbroken  exposure  to  the  northern  winds, 
the  Lesser  from  its  shelving  rocky  shores,  its 
exposure  to  the  northeastern  winds,  and  the 
consequent  variableness  of  the  tides  in  it.  1. 
SYRTIS  .MAJOR  (fj  utyul.i)  Zvprte  :  now  Gulf  of 
Sidra),  the  eastern  of  the  two.  is  a  wide  and 
deep  gulf  on  the  shores  ofTripolita  and  Cyre- 
naica,  exactly  opposite  to  the  Ionic  Sea,  or 
mouth  of  the  Adriatic,  between  Sicily  and  Pelo- 
ponnesus. Its  greatest  depth,  from  north  to 
south,  is  about  one  hundred  and  ten  geograph- 
ical miles  ;  its  width  is  about  two  hundred  and 
thirty  geographical  miles,  between  Cephalse 
Promontorium  (now  Ras  Kharra)  on  the  west, 
and  Boreum  Promontorium  (now  Ras  Tcyottas) 
on  the  east.  (Strabo  gives  its  width  as  fifteen 
hundred  stadia,  its  depth  fifteen  hundred  to 
eighteen  hundred,  and  its  circuit  four  thousand 
to  five  thousand).  The  Great  Desert  comes 
down  close  to  its  shores,  forming  a  sandy  coast. 
Vid.  S  YRTIC  A  REGIO.  The  terror  of  being  driver, 
on  shore  in  it  is  referred  to  in  the  narrative  of 
Saint  Paul's  voyage  to  Italy  (Acts,  xxvii.,  17, 
"  fearing  lest  they  should  fall  into  the  Syrtis'') ; 
and  the  dangers  of  a  march  through  the  loose 
sand  on  its  shores,  sometimes  of  a  burning  heat, 
and  sometimes  saturated  with  sea-water,  were 
scarcely  less  formidable.  —  SYRTIS  MINOR  (f) 
(j.iKpa  "Zvprif:  now  Gulf  of  Khabs),  lies  in  the 
southwestern  angle  of  the  great  bend  formed  by 
the  northern  coast  of  Africa  as  it  drops  down 
to  the  south  from  the  neighborhood  of  Car- 
thage, and  then  bears  again  to  the  east ;  in 
other  words,  in  the  angle  between  the  eastern 
coast  of  Zeugitana  and  Byzacena  (now  Tunis) 
and  the  northern  coast  of  Tripolitana  (now 
Tripoli).  Its  mouth  faces  the  east,  between 
Caput  Vada  or  Brachodes  Promontorium  (now 
Ras  Kapoudiah)  on  the  north,  and  the  island 
called  Meninx  or  Lotophagitis  (now  Jerbah)  on 
the  south.  In  its  mouth,  near  the  northern  ex- 
tremity, lie  the  islands  of  Cercina  and  Cercini- 
tis,  which  were  often  regarded  as  its  northern 
extremity.  Its  dimensions  are  differently  given, 
partly,  perhaps,  on  account  of  the  different  poinle 
from  which  they  were  reckoned.  The  Greek 
geographers  give  the  width  as  six  hundred 
stadia  (sixty  geographical  miles),  and  the  cir- 
cuit sixteen  hundred  stadia  :  the  Romans  give 
one  hundred  Roman  miles  for  the  width,  and 
three  hundred  for  the  circuit.  The  true  width 
(between  Ras  Kapoudiah  and  the  eastern  poinf 


SYRTICA  REGIO. 


TACITUS. 


of  Jerbah)  is  about  eighty  geographical  miles, 
and  the  greatest  depth,  measured  westward 
from  the  line  joining  those  points,  is  about 
sixty-five  geographical  miles.  In  Herodotus, 
the  word  Syrtis  occurs  in  a  few  passages,  with- 
out any  distinction  between  the  Greater  and  the 
Less.  It  seems  most  probable  that  he  means 
to  denote  by  this  term  the  Greater  Syrtis,  and 
that  he  included  the  Lesser  in  the  Lake  TRI- 
TONIS. 

SYRTICA  REGIO  (f)  ZvpTiicii :  now  the  western 
part  of  Tripoli),  the  special  name  of  that  part  of 
the  northern  coast  of  Africa  which  lay  between 
the  two  Syrtes,  from  the  River  Triton,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  Syrtis  Minor,  on  the  west,  to  the 
Philaenorum  Arae,  at  the  bottom  of  the  Syrtis 
Major,  on  the  east.  It  was,  for  the  most  part,  a 
very  narrow  strip  of  sand,  interspersed  with 
salt  marshes,  between  the  sea  and  a  range  of 
mountains  forming  the  edge  of  the  Great  Desert 
(now  Sahara),  with  only  here  and  there  a  few 
spots  capable  of  cultivation,  especially  about  the 
River  Cinyps.  It  was  peopled  by  Libyan  tribes, 
the  chief  of  whom  were  the  Lotophagi,  Macss, 
Psylli,  and  Nasamones ;  and  several  Egyptian 
and  Phoenician  colonies  were  settled  on  the 
coast  at  an  early  period.  The  Greeks  of  Cy- 
rene  disputed  with  the  Carthaginians  the  pos- 
session of  this  district  until  it  was  secured  to 
Carthage  by  the  self-devotion  of  the  PHIL.SJJI. 
Under  the  Romans  it  formed  a  part  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Africa.  It  was  often  called  TRIPOLITA- 
NA,  from  its  three  chief  cities,  ABROTONCM,CEA, 
and  LEPTIS  MAGNA  ;  and  this  became  its  usual 
name  under  the  later  empire,  and  has  been 
handed  down  to  our  own  time  in  the  modern 
name  of  the  Regency  of  Tripoli. 

SYRTJS,  a  slave  brought  to  Rome  some  years 
before  the  downfall  of  the  republic,  and  desig- 
nated, according  to  the  usual  practice,  from  the 
country  of  his  birth.  He  attracted  attention, 
while  yet  a  youth,  by  his  accomplishments  and 
wit,  was  manumitted  by  his  master,  who  prob- 
ably belonged  to  the  Clodia  gens,  assumed  the 
name  of  Publius,  from  his  patron,  and  soon  be- 
came highly  celebrated  as  a  mimographer.  He 
may  be  said  to  have  flourished  B.C.  45.  His 
mimes  were  committed  to  writing,  and  exten- 
sively circulated  at  an  early  period  ;  and  a  col- 
lection of  pithy  moral  sayings,  extracted  from 
his  works,  appears  to  have  been  used  as  a 
school-book  in  the  boyhood  of  St.  Jerome.  A 
compilation  of  this  description,  extending  to  up- 
ward of  one  thousand  lines  in  iambic  and  tro- 
chaic measures,  every  apophthegm  being  com- 
prised in  a  single  line,  and  the  whole  arranged 
alphabetically,  according  to  the  initial  letter  of 
the  first  word  in  each,  is  now  extant  under  the 
title  Publii  Syri  Sentential.  These  proverbs  have 
been  drawn  from  various  sources,  and  are  evi- 
dently the  work  of  many  different  hands ;  but 
a  considerable  number  may  be  ascribed  to  Sy- 
rus  and  his  contemporaries.  The  best  editions 
of  the  Sententia  are  by  Havercamp,  Lugd.  Bat , 
1708,1727;  by  Orelli,  Lips.,  1822 ;  and  by  Bothc, 
in  his  Poctarum  Latin.  Scenicorum  Fragmcnta, 
Lips  .  1834. 

SYTIIAS  (2«$af),  a  river  on  the  frontiers  of 
Achaia  and  Sicyonia. 
64 


T. 

TABJH  (Tu6ai :  Tofr/wc).     1.    Now  Tapi),  a 
small  inland  town  of  Sicily. — 2.  (Now  Dawas), 
'  a  city  of  Caria,  on  the  borders  if  Phrvgia. — 3. 
i  A  city  of  Persis,  in  the  district  of  Paraetacene, 
i  on  the  road  from  Ecbatana  to  Persepolis. 
TABERN/E.     Vid.  TRES  TABERN^E. 
[TABRACA.      Vid.  THABRACA.] 
TABURNUS  (now  Tabtirno),  a  mountain  belong- 
!  ing  half  to  Campania  and  half  to  Samnium.    Its 
southern  side  was  very  fertile,  and  was  cele- 
brated for  its  olive  grounds.      It  shut  in  the 
Caudine  Pass  on  its  southern  side. 

TACAPE  (TaKunq  :  now  large  ruins  at  Khabs), 
a  city  of  Northern  Africa,  in  the  Regio  Syrtica, 
at  the  innermost  angle  of  the  Syrtis  Minor,  to 
which  the  modern  town  gives  its  name.  Under 
the  Romans,  it  at  first  belonged  to  Byzacena, 
but  it  was  afterward  raised  to  a  colony  and 
made  the  western  town  of  Tripolitana.  It  had 
an  indifferent  harbor.  A  little  to  the  west  was 
the  bathing  place,  called,  from  its  warm  min- 
eral springs,  Aquae Tacapitanae (now  ElHammat- 
el-  Khabs). 

TACFARINAS,^  Numidian  in  the  reign  of  Ti- 
berius, had  originally  served  among  the  auxil- 
iary troops  in  the  Roman  army,  but  he  desert- 
ed ;  and,  having  collected  a  body  of  freeboot- 
ers, he  became  at  length  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  Musulamii,  a  powerful  people  in 
the  interior  of  Numidia,  bordering  on  Maureta- 
nia.  For  some  years  he  defied  the  Roman  arms, 
but  was  at  length  defeated  and  slain  in  battle 
by  Dolabella,  A.D.  24. 

TACHOMPSO  (Ta^o/^u,  also  Tacompsos,  Plin., 
and  MeraKopibu,  Ptol.),  afterward  CONTRAPSEL- 
cis,  a  city  in  the  Dodecaschcenus,  that  is,  the 
part  of  ^Ethiopia  immediately  above  Egypt, 
built  on  an  island  (now  Derar  1)  near  the  east- 
ern bank  of  the  river,  a  little  above  Pselcis, 
which  stood  on  the  opposite  bank.  Vid.  PSELCIS. 
TACHOS  (Ta^wf),  king  of  Egypt,  succeeded 
Acoris,  and  maintained  the  independence  of  his 
country  for  a  short  time  during  the  latter  end 
of  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II.  He  invited  Cha- 
brias,  the  Athenian,  to  take  the  command  of  his 
fleet,  and  Agesilaus  to  undertake  the  supreme 
command  of  all  his  forces.  Both  Chabrias  and 
Agesilaus  came  to  Egypt ;  but  the  latter  was 
much  aggrieved  in  having  only  the  command 
of  the  mercenaries  intrusted  to  him.  Accord- 
ingly, when  Nectanabis  laid  claim  to  the  Egyp- 
tian  crown,  Agesilaus  deserted  Tachos,  and  es- 
poused the  cause  of  Nectanabis,  who  thus  be- 
came King  of  Egypt  B.C.  361. 

TACITUS.  1.  C.  CORNELIUS,  the  historian. 
The  time  and  place  of  his  birth  are  unknown. 
He  was  a  little  older  than  the  younger  Pliny, 
who  was  barn  A.D.  61.  His  father  was  prob- 
ably Cornelius  Tacitus,  a  Roman  eques,  who  is 
mentioned  as  a  procurator  in  Gallia  Belgica, 
and  who  died  in  79.  Tacitus  was  first  promo- 
led  by  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  and  he  received 
other  favors  from  his  sons  Titus  and  Domitian. 
In  78  he  married  the  daughter  of  C.Julius  Agric- 
ola,  to  whom  he  had  been  betrothed  in  the  pre- 
ceding year,  while  Agricola  was  consul.  In  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  and  in  A.D  88,  Tacitus  was 
praetor,  and  he  assisted  as  one  of  the  quindecem- 

849 


TACITUS. 

riri  at  the  solemnity  of  the  Ludi  Seculares 
which  were  celebrated  in  that  year.  Agricola 
died  at  Rome  in  93,  but  neither  Tacitus  nor  the 
daughter  of  Agricola  was  then  with  him.  It  is 
not  known  where  Tacitus  was  during  the  last 
illness  of  Agricola.  In  the  reign  of  Nerva,  97, 
Tacitus  was  appointed  consul  suffectus,  in  the 
place  of  T.  Virginius  Rufus,  who  had  died  in 
that  year,  and  whose  funeral  oration  he  deliv- 
ered. We  know  that  Tacitus  had  attained  ora- 
torical distinction  when  the  younger  Pliny  was 
commencing  his  career.  He  and  Tacitus  were 
appointed  in  the  reign  of  Nerva  (99)  to  conduct 
the  prosecution  of  Marius,  proconsul  of  Africa. 
Tacitus  and  Pliny  were  most  intimate  friends. 
In  the  collection  of  the  letters  of  Pliny  there 
are  eleven  letters  addressed  to  Tacitus.  The 
time  of  the  death  of  Tacitus  is  unknown,  but 
he  appears  to  have  survived  Trajan,  who  died 
117.  Nothing  is  recorded  of  any  children  of 
his,  though  the  Emperor  Tacitus  claimed  a  de- 
scent from  the  historian,  and  ordered  his  works 
to  be  placed  in  all  (public)  libraries.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  extant  works  of  Tacitus:  1.  Vita. 
Agricolce,  the  life  of  Agricola,  which  was  writ- 
ten after  the  death  of  Domitian,  96,  as  we  may 
probably  conclude  from  the  introduction,  which 
was  certainly  written  after  Trajan's  accession. 
This  life  is  justly  admired  as  a  specimen  of  bi- 
ography. It  is  a  monument  to  the  memory  of 
a  good  man,  and  an  able  commander  and  ad- 
ministrator, by  an  affectionate  son-in-law,  who 
has  portrayed,  in  his  peculiar  manner  and  with 
many  masterly  touches,  the  virtues  of  one  of 
the  most  illustrious  of  the  Romans.  2.  Histo- 
ric, which  were  written  after  the  death  of  Ner- 
va, 98,  and  before  the  Annales.  They  compre- 
hended the  period  from  the  second  consulship 
of  Galba,  68,  to  the  death  of  Domitian,  96,  and 
the  author  designed  to  add  the  reigns  of  Nerva 
and  Trajan.  The  first  four  books  alone  are  ex- 
tant in  a  complete  form,  and  they  comprehend 
only  the  events  of  about  one  year.  The  fifth 
book  is  imperfect,  and  goes  no  further  than  the 
commencement  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Ti- 
tus, and  the  war  of  Civilis  in  Germany.  It  is 
not  known  how  many  books  of  the  Histories 
there  were,  but  it  must  have  been  a  large  work 
if  it  was  all  written  on  the  same  scale  as  the 
first  five  books.  3.  Annales,  which  commence 
with  the  death  of  Augustus,  14,  and  comprise 
the  period  to  the  death  of  Nero,  68,  a  space  of 
tifty-four  years.  The  greater  part  of  the  fifth 
book  is  lost,  and  also  the  seventh,  eighth,  ninth, 
tenth,  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh,  and  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth,  which  is  the  last  book. 
These  lost  parts  comprised  the  whole  of  Calig- 
ula's reign,  the  first  five  years  of  Claudius,  and 
the  last  two  of  Nero.  4.  De.  Moribus  et  Populis 
Germania,  a  treatise  describing  the  Germanic 
nations.  It  is  of  no  value  as  a  geographical 
description  ;  the  first  few  chapters  contain  as 
much  of  the  geography  of  Germany  as  Tacitus 
knew.  The  main  matter  is  the  description  of 
the  political  institutions,  the  religion,  and  the 
habits  of  the  various  tribes  included  under  the 
denomination  of  Germani.  The  value  of  the 
information  contained  in  this  treatise  has  often 
been  discussed,  and  its  credibility  attacked  ;  but 
we  may  estimate  its  true  character  by  observ- 
ing the  precision  of  the  writer  as  to  those  Ger- 
850 


TACITUS. 

i  mans  who  were  best  known  to  the  Romans 
from  being  near  the  Rhine.  That  the  hearsay 
accounts  of  more  remote  tribes  must  partake 
of  the  defects  of  all  such  evidence,  is  obvious ; 
and  we  can  not  easily  tell  whether  Tacitus  em- 
bellished that  which  he  heard  obscurely  told. 
But  to  consider  the  Germany  as  a  fiction  is  one 
of  those  absurdities  which  need  only  be  record- 
ed,  not  refuted.  5.  Dialogus  de  Oraloribus.  If 
this  dialogue  is  the  work  of  Tacitus,  and  it  prob 
ably  is,  it  must  be  his  earliest  work,  for  it  waa 
written  in  the  sixth  year  of  Vespasian  (c.  17). 
The  style  is  more  easy  than  that  of  the  Annals, 
more  diffuse,  less  condensed ;  but  there  is  no 
obvious  difference  between  the  style  of  this 
Dialogue  and  the  Histories,  nothing  so  striking 
as  to  make  us  contend  for  a  different  author- 
ship. Besides  this,  it  is  nothing  unusual  for 
works  of  the  same  author,  which  are  written  at 
different  times,  to  vary  greatly  in  style,  espe- 
cially if  they  treat  of  different  matters.  The 
old  MSS.  attribute  this  Dialogue  to  Tacitus. 
The  Annals  of  Tacitus,  the  work  of  a  mature 
age,  contain  the  chief  events  of  the  period 
which  they  embrace,  arranged  under  their  sev- 
eral years.  There  seems  no  peculiar  propriety 
in  giving  the  name  of  Annales  to  this  work, 
simply  because  the  events  are  arranged  in  the 
order  of  time.  The  work  of  Livy  may  just  as 
well  be  called  Annals.  In  the  Annals  of  Tac- 
itus, the  Princeps  or  Emperor  is  the  centre  about 
which  events  are  grouped.  Yet  the  most  im- 
portant public  events,  both  in  Italy  and  the  prov- 
inces, are  not  omitted,  though  every  thing  is 
treated  as  subordinate  to  the  exhibition  of  im- 
perial power.  The  Histories,  which  were  writ- 
ten before  the  Annals,  are  in  a  more  diffuse 
style,  and  the  treatment  of  the  extant  part  is 
different  from  that  of  the  Annals.  Tacitus 
wrote  the  Histories  as  a  contemporary ;  the 
Annals  as  not  a  contemporary.  They  are  two 
distinct  works,  not  parts  of  one,  which  is  clear- 
ly shown  by  the  very  different  proportions  of 
the  two  works  :  the  first  four  books  of  the  His- 
tories comprise  about  a  year,  and  the  first  four 
books  of  the  Annals  comprise  fourteen  years. 
The  moral  dignity  of  Tacitus  is  impressed 
upon  his  works  ;  the  consciousness  of  a  love 
of  truth,  of  the  integrity  of  his  purpose.  His 
great  power  is  in  the  knowledge  of  the  human 
mind,  his  insight  into  the  motives  of  human 
conduct ;  and  he  found  materials  for  this  study 
in  the  history  of  the  emperors,  and  particular- 
ly Tiberius,  the  arch-hypocrite,  and  perhaps  halt 
madman.  His  Annals  are  filled  with  dramatic 
scenes  and  striking  catastrophes.  He  labor- 
ed to  produce  effect  by  the  exhibition  of  great 
personages  on  the  stage ;  but  as  to  the  mass 
of  the  people  we  learn  little  from  Tacitus.  The 
|  style  of  Tacitus  is  peculiar,  though  it  bears 
some  resemblance  to  Sallust.  In  the  Annals  it 
is  concise,  vigorous,  and  pregnant  with  mean- 
ing ;  labored,  but  elaborated  with  art,  and  strip- 
ped of  every  superfluity.  A  single  word  some- 
times gives  effect  to  a  sentence,  and  if  the 
meaning  of  the  word  is  missed,  the  sense  of 
the  writer  is  not  reached.  Such  a  work  is  prob- 
ably the  result  of  many  transcriptions  by  the 
I  author.  In  the  Annals  Tacitus  is  generally 
I  brief  and  rapid  in  his  sketches  ;  but  he  is  some- 
!  times  minute,  and  almost  tedious,  when  hf 


T^ENARUM. 

comes  to  work  out  a  dramatic  scene.  Nor  does 
he  altogether  neglect  his  rhetorical  art  when  he 
has  an  opportunity  for  displaying  it.  The  con- 
densed style  of  Tacitus  sometimes  makes  him 
obscure,  but  it  is  a  kind  of  obscurity  that  is  dis- 
pelled by  careful  reading.  Yet  a  man  must  read 
carefully  and  often  in  order  to  understand  him  ; 
and  we  can  not  suppose  that  Tacitus  was  ever 
a  popular  writer.  His  real  admirers  will  per- 
haps always  be  few;  his  readers  fewer  still. 
The  best  editions  of  the  complete  works  of 
Tacitus  are  byOberlin,  Lips.,  I80l,2vols.  8vo; 
by  Bekker,  Lips.,  1831,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  by  Orelli, 
Zurich,  1846  and  1848,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  [and  by 
Ritter,  Cambridge,  1848,  4  vols.  8vo].— 2.  M. 
CLAUDIUS,  Roman  emperor  from  the  25th  of 
September,  A.D.  275,  until  April,  A.D.  276.  He 
was  elected  emperor  by  the  senate  after  the 
death  of  Aurelian,  the  army  having  requested 
the  senate  to  nominate  a  successor  to  the  im- 
perial throne.  Tacitus  was  at  the  time  seventy 
years  of  age,  and  was  with  difficulty  persuaded 
to  accept  the  purple.  The  high  character  which 
he  had  borne  before  his  elevation  to  the  throne, 
he  amply  sustained  during  his  brief  reign.  He 
endeavored  to  repress  the  luxury  and  licentious- 
ness of  the  age  by  various  sumptuary  laws,  and 
he  himself  set  an  example  to  all  around  by  the 
abstemiousness,  simplicity,  and  frugality  of  his 
own  habits.  The  only  military  achievement  of 
this  reign  was  the  defeat  and  expulsion  from 
Asia  Minor  of  a  party  of  Goths,  who  had  car- 
ried their  devastation  across  the  peninsula  to 
the  confines  of  Cilicia.  He  died  either  at  Tar- 
sus or  at  Tyana,  about  the  9th  of  April,  276. 

T^ENAEUM  (Taivapov  :  now  C*pc  Matapan),  a 
promontory  in  Laconia,  forming  the  southerly 
point  of  the  Peloponnesus,  on  which  stood  a 
celebrated  temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  pos- 
sessing an  inviolable  asylum.  A  little  to  the 
north  of  the  temple  and  the  harbor  of  Achilleus 
was  a  town  also  called  T^EVARUM  or  T<ENARITS, 
and  at  a  later  time  C^NEPOLIS.  It  was  situa- 
ted forty  stadia  from  the  extreme  point  of  the 
promontory,  and  was  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Taenarus,  a  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  or  Icarius,  or 
Elatus.  On  this  promontory  was  a  cave,  through 
which  Hercules  is  said  to  have  dragged  Cerbe- 
rus t«  the  upper  world.  Here  also  was  a  stat- 
ue of  Arion  seated  on  a  dolphin,  since  he  is 
said  to  have  landed  at  this  spot  after  his  mirac- 
ulous preservation  by  a  dolphin.  In  the  time 
of  the  Romans  there  were  celebrated  marble 
quarries  on  the  promontory. 

TAG.*  (Tayai  :  now  Dameghan  ?),  a  city  men- 
tioned by  Polybius  as  in  Parthia,  on  the  border 
toward  Hyrcania,  apparently  the  same  place 
which  Strabo  calls  TAPE  (Tdirrj),  and  reckons  to 
Hyrcania. 

TAGASTE  (ruins  at  Tagilt),  an  inland  town 
of  Numidia,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Bagradas,  re- 
markable as  the  birth-place  of  St.  Augustine. 

TAGES,  a  mysterious  Etruscan  being,  who  is 
described  as  a  boy  with  the  wisdom  of  an  old 
man.  Once  when  an  Etruscan,  of  the  name  of 
Tarchon,  was  ploughing  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Tarquinii,  there  suddenly  rose  out  of  the 
ground  Tages,  the  son  of  a  Genius  Jovialis,  and 
grandson  of  Jupiter.  When  Tages  addressed 
Tarchon,  the  latter  shrieked  with  fear,  where- 
upon other  Etruscans  hastened  to  him,  and  in 


TAMARA. 

a  short  time  all  the  people  of  Etruria  were  as- 
sembled around  him.  Tages  now  instructed 
them  in  the  art  of  the  haruspices,  and  died  im- 
mediately after.  The  Etruscans,  who  had  lis- 
tened attentively  to  his  instructions,  afterward 
wrote  down  all  he  had  said,  and  thus  arose  the 
books  of  Tages,  which,  according  to  some,  were 
twelve  in  number. 

[TAGRUS  (now  Yunto  in  the  chain  of  Sierra  de 
Albardos),  a  mountain  of  Lusitania,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Olisippo.] 

TAGUS  (Spanish  Tajo,  Portuguese  Tejo,  En- 
glish Tagus)',  one  of  the  chief  rivers  in  Spain, 
rising  in  the  land  of  the  Celtiberians,  between 
the  mountains  Orospeda  and  Idubeda,  and,  af»_;r 
flowing  in  a  westerly  direction,  falling  into  the 
Atlantic.  The  whole  course  of  the  Tagus  ex- 
ceeds five  hundred  and  fifty  English  miles.  At 
its  mouth  stood  Olisippo  (now  Lisbon).  The 
ancient  writers  relate  that  much  gold  sand  and 
precious  stones  were  found  in  the  Tagus. 

TALABRIGA,  a  town  in  Lusitania,  between 
yEminium  and  Lagobriga. 

TALASSIUS  or  TALASSES.      Vid.  THALASSIUS. 

TALAURA  (r<i  TdAuupa  :  now  Tnrkhall),  a  for- 
tress in  Pontus,  used  by  Mithradates  the  Great 
as  a  residence,  and  supposed  by  some  to  be 
identical  with  Gaziura. 

TALAUS  (Tu?.aor),  son  of  Bias  and  Pero,  and 
king  of  Argos.  He  was  married  to  Lysimache 
(Eurynome  or  Lysianassa),  and  was  father  of 
Adrastus,  Parthenopaeus,  Pronax,  Mecisteus, 
Aristomachus,  and  Eriphyle.  He  occurs  among 
the  Argonauts,  and  his  tomb  was  shown  at  Ar- 
gos. The  patronymic  Talaionidcs  (Talalovidrjs) 
is  given  to  his  sons,  Adrastus  and  Mecisteus. 

TALMIS  (ruins  at  El-Kalabsheh),  a  city  of  the 
Dodecaschoenus,  that  is,  the  district  of  ^Ethiopia 
immediately  above  Egypt,  stood  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Nile,  south  of  Taphis,  and  north  of 
Tutzis.  Its  ruins  consist  of  an  ancient  rock- 
hewn  temple,  with  splendid  sculptures,  and  of 
a  later  temple  of  the  Roman  period,  in  the  midst 
of  which  stands  the  modern  village.  There 
was  a  place  on  the  opposite  bank  called  Contra 
Talmis. 

TALNA,  JUVENTIUS.     Vid.  THALNA. 

TALOS  (TuAwc)-  1-  Son  of  Perdix,  the  sistet 
of  Daedalus.  For  details,  tid.  PERDIX.  —  2.  A 
man  of  brass,  the  work  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus) 
This  wonderful  being  was  given  to  Minos  by  Ju- 
piter (Zeus)  or  Vulcan  (Hephaestus),  and  watch- 
ed the  island  of  Crete  by  walking  round  the 
island  thrice  every  day.  Whenever  he  saw 
strangers  approaching,  he  made  himself  red  hot 
in  fire,  and  then  embraced  the  strangers  when 
they  landed. 

[TAI.THYBIAD>«,  a  family  in  Sparta,  deducing 
their  origin  from  Talthybius,  holding  the  office 
of  herald  as- an  hereditary  honor.] 

TALTHYBIUS  (Ta%6v6tof),  the  herald  of  Aga- 
memnon at  Troy.  He  was  worshipped  as  a 
hero  at  Sparta  and  Argos,  where  sacrifices  also 
were  offered  to  him. 

[TALUS,  a  companion  of  ^Eneas,  slain  by  Tur- 
nus  in  Italy.] 

TAMARA.  1.  Or  TAMARIS  (now  Tambrc),  a 
small  river  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the 
coast  of  Galleecia,  falling  into  the  Atlantic  be- 
tween the  Minius  and  the  Prnmontorium  Ne- 
rium — 2.  (Now  Tamcrton,  near  Plymouth),  a 

851 


TAMARICI. 

town  of  the  Damnonii  in  the  south  of  Britain, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Tamarus. 

TAMARICI,  a  people  in  Gallaecia,  on  the  River 
Tamara. 

T  AMARIS.     Vid.  TAMARA. 

TAMARUS  (now  Tamar),  a  river  in  the  south 
^f  Britain. 

TAMASSUS  or  TAMASUS  (Tafiaaoof,  Tuftaaof  : 
To^oom/c.  Tojudcr/oc),  probably  the  same  as  the 
Homeric  TEMESE  (Tt^atj),  a  town  in  the  middle 
of  Cyprus,  northwest  of  Olympus,  and  twenty- 
nine  miles  southeast  of  Soloe,  on  the  road  from 
the  latter  place  to  Tremithus,  was  situated  in 
a  fertile  country  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  ex- 
tensive copper  mines.  Near  it  was  a  celebrated 
plain  (ager  Tamaseus),  sacred  to  Venus.  (Ov., 
Met.,  x.,  644.) 

TAMBRAX  (Td^6pa^),  a  great  city  of  Hyrcania, 
on  the  northern  side  of  Mount  Coronus,  men- 
tioned by  Polybius.  It  is  perhaps  the  same 
place  which  Strabo  calls  TalaGponn. 

TAMESIS  or  TAMESA  (now  Thames),  a  river  in 
Britain,  flowing  into  the  sea  on  the  eastern 
coast,  on  which  stood  Londinium.  Caesar  cross- 
ed the  Thames  at  the  distance  of  eighty  Roman 
miles  from  the  sea,  probably  at  Cowey  Stakes, 
near  Oatlands  and  the  confluence  of  the  Wey. 
There  have  been  found  in  modern  times  in  the 
ford  of  the  river  at  this  spot  large  stakes,  which 
are  supposed  to  have  been  the  same  as  were 
fixed  in  the  water  by  Cassivellaunus  when  he 
attempted  to  prevent  Caesar  from  crossing  the 
river. 

TAMNA  (Tdpva),  a  very  great  city  in  the  south- 
west of  Arabia  Felix,  the  capital  of  the  Cataba- 
ni.  It  maintained  a  caravan  traffic,  in  spices 
and  other  products  of  Arabia,  with  Gaza,  from 
which  its  distance  was  reckoned  one  thousand 
four  hundred  and  thirty-six  Roman  miles. 

TAMOS  (Ta//wf),  a  native  of  Memphis  in  Egypt, 
was  lieutenant  governor  of  Ionia  under  Tissa- 
phernes.  He  afterward  attached  himself  to  the 
service  of  the  younger  Cyrus  ;  upon  whose 
death  he  sailed  to  Egypt,  where  he  hoped  to 
find  refuge  with  Psammetichus,  on  whom  he 
had  conferred  an  obligation.  Psammetichus, 
however,  put  him  to  death,  in  order  to  possess 
himself  of  his  money  and  ships. 

TAMPHILUS  or  TAMPILUS,  BJEBIUS.  1.  CN., 
tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  204  ;  praetor  199, 
when  he  was  defeated  by  the  Insubrians  ;  and 
consul  182,  when  he  fought  against  the  Liguri- 
ans  with  success.  —  2.  M.,  brother  of  the  last, 
was  praetor  192,  and  served  in  Greece  both  in 
this  year  and  the  following,  in  the  war  against 
Antiochus.  In  181  he  was  consul,  when  he 
defeated  the  Ligurians. 

TAMYN^E  (Tapvvai),  a  town  in  Eubcea,  on 
Mount  Cotylaeum,  in  the  territory  of  Eretna, 
with  a  temple  of  Apollo,  said  to  have  been  built 
by  Admetus.  Here  the  Athenians  under  Pho- 
cion  gained  a  celebrated  victory  over  Callias  of 
Chalcis,  B.C.  354. 

TAMYRACA  (TapvpanTi),  a  town  and  promon- 
tory of  European  Sarmatia,  at  the  innermost 
corner  of  the  Sinus  Carcinites,  which  was  also 
called  from  this  town  Sinus  Tamyraces  (Ta/<- 


TAMYRAS   or  DAMURAS   (Ta/ivpaf,  &a/j.ovpaf  : 

now  Damur,  or  JVahr-el-Kadi),  a  little  river  of 

Phoenicia,  rising  on  Mount  Lihar.us,  and  falling 

852 


TANIS. 

into  the  Mediterranean  about  half  way  between 
Sidon  and  Berytus. 

TANAGER  (now  Negro),  a  river  of  Lucanla, 
rising  in  the  Apennines,  which,  after  flowing  in 
a  northeasterly  direction,  loses  itself  under  the 
earth  near  Polla  for  a  space  of  about  two  miles, 
and  finally  falls  into  the  Silarus  near  Forum 
Popilii. 

TANAGRA  (Tuvaypa  :  Tavaypaiof :  now  Gri~ 
madha  or  Grimala),  a  celebrated  town  of  Bceo- 
tia,  situated  on  a  steep  ascent  on  the  left  banh 
)f  the  Asopus,  thirteen  stadia  from  Oropus,  and 
two  hundred  stadia  from  Plataeae,  in  the  district 
Tanagraea,  which  was  also  called  Poemandris. 
Tanagra  was  supposed  to  be  the  same  town  as 
the  Homeric  Graea.  The  most  ancient  inhab- 
itants are  said  to  have  been  the  Gephyraei,  who 
came  with  Cadmus  from  Phoenicia  ;  but  it  was 
afterward  taken  possession  of  by  the  ^Eolian 
Boeotians.  It  was  a  place  of  considerable  com- 
mercial importance,  and  was  celebrated,  among 
other  things,  for  its  breed  of'  fighting  cocks. 
At  a  later  time  it  belonged  to  the  Boeotian  con- 
federacy. Being  near  the  frontiers  of  Attica, 
it  was  frequently  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the 
Athenians  ;  and  near  it  the  Athenians  sustain- 
ed a  celebrated  defeat,  B.C.  457. 

TANAIS  (Tdvale).  1.  (Now  Don,  i.  e.,  Water), 
a  great  river,  which  rises  in  the  north  of  Sar- 
matia Europaea  (about  the  centre  of  Russia),  and 
flows  to  the  southeast  till  it  comes  near  the 
Volgfa,  when  it  turns  to  the  southwest,  and  falls 
into  the  northeastern  angle  of  the  Palus  Maeotis 
(now  Sea  of  Azov)  by  two  principal  mouths  and 
several  smaller  ones.  It  was  usually  consider- 
ed the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia.  Its 
chief  tributary  was  the  Hyrgis  or  Syrgis  (now 
probably  Donets). — 2.  (Ruins  near  Kassatchei), 
a  city  of  Sarmatia  Asiatica,  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  southern  mouth  of  the  Tanai's,  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  sea.  It  was  founded  by  a 
colony  from  Miletus,  and  became  a  very  flour- 
ishing emporium.  It  reduced  to  subjection  sev- 
eral of  the  neighboring  tribes,  but  in  its  turn  it 
became  subject  to  the  kings  of  Bosporus.  It 
was  destroyed  by  Polemon  on  account  of  an  at 
tempted  revolt,  and,  though  afterward  restored, 
it  never  regained  its  former  prosperity. 

[TANAIS.  1.  A  Rutulian  warrior  under  Tur- 
nus,  slain  by  ^Eneas. — 2.  A  freedman  of  Maece- 
nas, or,  as  some  say,  of  L.  Munatius  Plancus, 
mentioned  by  Horace  (Sat.,  i ,  1, 105).] 

TANAQUIL.     Vid.  TARQUINIUS. 

[TANARUS,  (now  Tanaro),  a  river  of  Liguria, 
which  flows  down  from  the  Alpes  Maritimae,  and 
after  receiving  the  Stura,  Fevos,  and  Urbis,  falls 
into  the  Padus  (nowPo).] 

TANETUM  (Tanetanus  :  now  Taneto),  a  town 
of  the  Boii  in  Gallia  Cispadana,  between  Mutina 
and  Parma. 

TANIS  (Tuvtf  :  in  the  Old  Testament,  Zoan  : 
Taverns  =  ruins  at  San),  a  very  ancient  city  of 
Lower  Egypt,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Delta,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  arm  of  the  Nile,  which  was 
called  after  it  the  Tanitic,  and  on  the  southwest- 
ern side  of  the  great  lake  between  this  and  the 
Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile,  which  was  also 
called,  after  the  city,  Tanis  (now  Lake  of  Men- 
zaleh).  It  was  one  of  the  capitals  of  Lower 
Egypt  under  the  early  kings,  and  was  said  by 
tradition  to  have  been  the  residence  of  the  court 


TANTALIDES. 


TAPURI. 


n  the  time  of  Moses.     It  was  the  chief  city  of 
the  Tanltes  Nomos. 

"TANTALIDES.  Vid.  TANTALUS,  No.  1,  atlfi.n.'} 
TANTALUS  ( Tu'vraAof ).  1.  Son  of  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  and  Pluto.  His  wife  is  called  hy  some 
Euryanassa,  by  others  Tayg~te  or  Diorie,  and 
by  others  Clytia  or  Eupryto.  He  was  the  father 
of  Pelops,  Broteas,  and  Niobe.  All  traditions 
agree  in  stating  that  he  was  a  wealthy  king ;  but 
while  some  call  him  King  of  Lydia,  others  de- 
scribe him  as  King  of  Argos  or  Corinth.  Tan- 
talus is  particularly  celebrated  in  ancient  story 
for  the  terrible  punishment  inflicted  upon  him 
after  his  death  in  the  lower  world,  the  causes 
of  which  are  differently  stated  hy  the  ancient 
authors.  According  to  the  common  account, 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  invited  him  to  his  table,  and  com* 
municated  his  divine  counsels  to  him.  Tanta- 
lus divulged  the  secrets  thus  intrusted  to  him  ; 
and  he  was  punished  in  the  lower  world  by  be- 
ing afflicted  with  a  raging  thirst,  and  at  the 
same  time  placed  in  the  midst  of  a  lake,  the 
waters  of  which  always  receded  from  him  as 
soon  as  he  attempted  to  drink  them.  Over  his 
head,  moreover,  hung  branches  of  fruit,  which 
receded  in  like  manner  when  he  stretched  out 
his  hand  to  reach  them.  In  addition  to  all  this, 
there  was  suspended  over  his  head  a  huge  rock, 
ever  threatening  to  crush  him.  Another  tradi- 
tion relates  that,  wishing  to  test  the  gods,  he 
cut  his  son  Pelops  in  pieces,  boiled  them,  and 
set  them  before  the  gods  at  a  repast.  A  third 
account  states  that  Tantalus  stole  nectar  and 
ambrosia  from  the  table  of  the  gods  and  gave 
them  to  his  friends  ;  and  a  fourth,  lastly,  relates 
the  following  story.  Rhea  caused  the  infant 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  his  nurse  to  be  guarded  in 
Crete  by  a  golden  dog,  whom  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
afterward  appointed  guardian  of  his  temple  in 
Crete.  Pandareus  stole  this  dog,  and,  carrying 
him  to  Mount  Sipylus  in  Lydia,  gave  him  to 
Tantalus  to  take  care  of.  But  when  Pandareus 
demanded  the  dog  back,  Tantalus  took  an  oath 
that  he  had  never  received  it.  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
thereupon  changed  Pandareus  into  a  stone,  and 
threw  Tantalus  down  from  Mount  Sipylus. 
Others,  again,  relate  that  Mercury  (Hermes)  de- 
itiattded  the  dog  of  Tantalus,  and  that  the  per- 
jury was  committed  before  Mercury  (Hermes). 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  buried  Tantalus  under  Mount 
Sipylus  as  a  punishment;  and  there  his  tomb 
was  shown  in  later  times.  The  punishment  of 
Tantalus  was  proverbial  in  ancient  times,  and 
from  it  the  English  language  has  borrowed  the 
verb  "to  tantalize,"  that  is,  to  hold  out  hopes 
or  prospects  which  can  not  be  realized.  The 
patronymic  Tantalidet  is  frequently  given  to  the 
descendants  of  Tantalus.  Hence  we  find  not 
only  his  son  Pelops,  but  also  Atreus,  Thyestes, 
Agamemnon,  Menelaus,  and  Orestes  called  hy 
this  name.— 2.  Son  of  Thyestes,  who  was  killed 
by  Atreus.  Others  call  him  a  son  of  Broteas. 
He  was  married  to  Clytaemnestra  before  Aga- 
memnon, and  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  killed 
by  Agamemnon. — 3.  Son  of  Amphion  and  Niobe. 
TANUB  orTANAUs(Tarof  orTavooc:  now  Ka- 
nt), a  river  in  the  district  of  Thyreatis,  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Peloponnesus,  rising  in  Mount 
Parnon,  and  falling  into  the  Thyreatic  Gulf 
after  forming  the  boundary  between  Argolis 
and  Cynuria 


TAOCE  (Tatar]  :  now  Bunder- Height),  a  city  on 
the  coast  of  Persis,  near  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Granis,  used  occasionally  as  a  royal  residence. 
The  surrounding  district  was  called  TO.OKIJVJJ. 

TAOCIII  (Tufi^oj)i  a  people  of  Pontus,  on  the 
borders  of  Armenia,  frequently  mentioned  by 
Xenophon  in  the  Anabasis. 

TAPE.      Vid.  TAG^E. 

TAPHI.E  INSULT,  a  number  of  small  islands 
in  the  Ionian  Sea,  lying  between  the  coasts  of 
Leucadia  and  Acarnania.  They  were  also  call- 
ed the  islands  of  the  Teleboae,  and  their  inhab- 
itants were  in  like  manner  named  TAPHU  (Tu- 
(f>ioi)  or  TELEBO^E  (T^efioat)-  The  largest  of 
these  islands  is  called  TAPHUS  (Ta^of)  by  Ho- 
mer,  but  TAPHIUS  (Tayiovc)  or  TAPHIUSA  (Ta<>t- 
ovoa)  by  later  writers.  They  are  mentioned  in 
Homer  as  the  haunts  of  notorious  pirates,  and 
are  celebrated  in  mythology  on  account  of  the 
war  carried  on  between  them  and  Electryon, 
king  of  Mycenae. 

TAPHIASSUS  (TaQinaffos  :  now  Macrivoro  and 
Rigani),  a  mountain  in  ^Etolia  and  Locris,  prop- 
erly only  a  southwestern  continuation  of  Mounts 
OEta  and  Corax. 

TAPHIS  (ruins  at  Tapa),  a  city  of  the  Dode- 
caschoenus,  that  is,  the  district  of  ^Ethiopia  im- 
mediately above  Egypt,  stood  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Nile,  south  of  Tzitzis,  and  north  of 
Talmis.  It  is  also  called  Taft'f  and  Ilamf. 
There  was  a  town  on  the  opposite  bank  called 
Contra  Taphis. 

TAPHR^E  or  TAPHROS  (TuQpai  orTu^pof :  Tu- 
<t>pto(),  a  town  on  the  isthmus  of  the  Chersone- 
sus  Tauiica,  so  called  because  a  trench  or  ditch 
was  cut  across  the  isthmus  at  this  point. 

TAPHUS.     Vid.  TAPHI.E. 

TAPOSIRIS  (Tairuaeipif,  Tanoaipie,  TaQocipif, 
i.  e.,  the.  tomb  of  Osiris  :  ruins  at  Ahousir),  a  city 
of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the  northwestern  frontier, 
in  the  Libya  Nomos,  near  the  base  of  the  long 
tongue  of  land  on  which  Alexandrea  stood,  cel- 
ebrated for  its  claim  to  be  considered  the  burial- 
place  of  Osiris.  Mention  is  also  made  of  a  Less- 
er Taposiris  (fj  fiiicpu.  Tairooeipif)  near  it. 

TAPROBANE  (Tarrpo&ivj? :  now  Ceylon),  a  great 
island  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  opposite  to  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  India  intra  Gangem.  The 
Greeks  first  became  acquainted  with  it  through 
the  researches  of  Onesicritus  in  the  time  of 
Alexander,  and  through  information  obtained 
by  residents  in  India ;  and  the  Roman  geogra- 
phers acquired  additional  knowledge  respecting 
the  island  through  an  embassy  which  was  sent 
from  it  to  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Claudius.  Of 
the  accounts  given  of  it  by  the  ancients,  it  is 
only  necessary  here  to  state  that  Ptolemy  makes 
it  very  much  too  large,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  gives  much  too  small  a  southward  extension 
to  the  peninsula  of  India. 

TAPURI  (Tdrrovpoi  or  Tairovpoi),  a  powerful 
people,  apparently  of  Scythian  origin,  who  dwelt 
in  Media,  on  the  borders  of  Parthia,  south  of 
Mount  Coronus.  They  also  extended  into  Mar- 
giana,  and  probably  further  north  on  tbo  past- 
ern side  of  the  Caspian,  where  their  original 
abodes  seem  to  have  been  in  the  mountains 
called  by  their  name.  The  men  wore  black 
clothes  and  long  hair,  and  the  women  white 
clothes  and  hair  cut  close.  They  were  much 
i  addicted  to  drunkenness. 

853 


TAPURI  MONTES. 

TAPUKI  MONTES  (TO  Tuirovpa  dpi)),  a  range  of 
mountains  on  the  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  in- 
habited by  the  TAPURI. 

TABAS.      Vid.  TAKENTUM. 

TARBELLI,  one  of  the  most  important  people 
in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  between  the  ocean  (hence 
called  Tarbcllicum  aquor  and  Tarbcllus  Occanus) 
and  the  Pyrenees  (hence  called  Tarbclla  Py- 
rcne).  Their  country  was  sandy  and  unpro- 
ductive, but  contained  gold  and  mineral  springs. 
Their  chief  town  was  AQVJE  TARBELI.IC./E  or 
AUGUSTS,  on  the  Aturus  (now  Dacqs  on  the 
Adour). 

TARCHON,  son  of  Tyrrhenus,  who  is  said  to 
have  built  the  town  of  Tarquinii.  (Vid.  TAR- 
QUINII.)  Virgil  represents  him  as  coming  to  the 
assistance  of  ^Eneas  against  Turnus. 

TARKNTINUS  SINUS  (TapevTivo?  /co^Trof  :  now 
Gulf  of  Tarentum),  a  great  gulf  in  the  south  of 
Italy,  between  Bruttium,  Lucania,  and  Calabria, 
beginning  west  near  the  Promontorium  Lacini- 
um,  and  ending  east  near  the  Promontorium 
lapygium,  and  named  after  the  town  of  Taren- 
tum. According  to  Strabo,  it  is  one  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  twenty  stadia  in  circuit,  and 
the  entrance  to  it  is  seven  hundred  stadia  wide. 

TARENTUM,  called  TARAS  by  the  Greeks  (Tu- 
pnf,  -avrof :  Tapsvrivof,  Tarentinus :  now  Ta- 
ranto),  an  important  Greek  city  in  Italy,  situa- 
ted on  the  western  coast  of  the  peninsula  of 
Calabria,  and  on  a  bay  of  the  sea,  about  one 
hundred  stadia  in  circuit,  forming  an  excellent 
harbor,  and  being  a  portion  of  the  great  Gulf  of 
Tarentum.  The  city  stood  in  the  midst  of  a 
beautiful  and  fertile  country,  south  of  Mount 
Aulon  and  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Galesus. 
It  was  originally  built  by  the  lapygians,  who  are 
said  to  have  been  joined  by  some  Cretan  colo- 
nists from  the  neighboring  town  of  Uria,  and  it 
derived  its  name  from  the  mythical  Taras,  a  son 
of  Poseidon.  The  greatness  of  Tarentum,  how- 
ever, dates  from  B.C.  708,  when  the  original 
inhabitants  were  expelled,  and  the  town  was 
taken  possession  of  by  a  strong  body  of  Lace- 
daemonian Partheniae  under  the  guidance  of 
Phalanthus.  Vid.  PHALANTHUS.  It  soon  be- 
came the  most  powerful  and  flourishing  city  in 
the  whole  of  Magna  Graecia,  and  exercised  a 
kind  of  supremacy  over  the  other  Greek  cities 
in  Italy.  It  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce, 
possessed  a  considerable  fleet  of  ships  of  war, 
and  was  able  to  bring  into  the  field,  with  the 
assistance  of  its  allies,  an  army  of  thirty  thou- 
sand foot  and  three  thousand  horse.  The  city 
itself,  in  its  most  flourishing  period,  contained 
twenty-two*thousand  men  capable  of  bearing 
arms.  The  government  of  Tarentum  was  dif- 
ferent at  various  periods.  In  the  time  of  Da- 
rius Hystaspis,  Herodotus  speaks  of  a  king  (t.  «., 
a  tyrant)  of  Tarentum  ;  but  at  a  later  period  the 
government  was  a  democracy.  Archytas,  who 
was  born  at  Tarentum,  and  who  lived  about 
B.C.  400,  drew  up  a  code  of  laws  for  his  native 
city.  With  the  increase  of  wealth  the  citizens 
became  luxurious  and  effeminate,  and  being 
hard  pressed  by  the  Lucanians  and  other  bar- 
barians in  the  neighborhood,  they  were  obliged 
to  apply  for  aid  to  the  mother  country.  Archi- 
damus,  son  of  Agesilaus,  was  the  first  who  came 
to  their  assistance  in  B.C.  338 ;  and  he  fell  in 
battle  fighting  on  their  behalf.  The  next  prince 
854 


TARPEIA. 

whom  they  invited  to  succor  them  was  Alex 
ander,  king  of  Epirus.  and  uncle  to  Alexander  the 
Great.  At  first  he  met  with  considerable  sue 
cess,  but  was  eventually  defeated  and  slain  by 
the  Bruttii,  in  326,  near  Pandosia,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Acheron.  Shortly  afterward  the  Taren- 
tines  had  to  encounter  a  still  more  formidable 
enemy.  Having  attacked  some  Roman  ships, 
and  then  grossly  insulted  the  Roman  ambassa- 
'dors  who  had  been  sent  to  demand  reparation, 
war  was  declared  against  the  city  by  the  pow- 
erful republic.  The  Tarentines  Were  saved  for 
a  time  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  who  came  to 
their  help  in  280 ;  but  two  years  after  the  de- 
feat of  this  monarch  and  his  withdrawal  from 
Italy,  the  city  was  taken  by  the  Romans  (272). 
In  the  second  Punic  war  Tarentum  revolted 
from  Rome  to  Hannibal  (212) ;  but  it  was  re- 
taken by  the  Romans  in  207,  and  was  treated 
by  them  with  great  severity.  From  this  time 
Tarentum  declined  in  prosperity  and  wealth. 
It  was  subsequently  made  a  Roman  colony,  and 
it  still  continued  to  be  a  place  of  considerable 
importance  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  Its  in- 
habitants retained  their  love  of  luxury  and  ease ; 
and  it  is  described  by  Horace  as  molle  Tarentum 
and  imbdle  Tarentum.  Even  after  the  downfall 
of  the  Western  Empire  the  Greek  language  was 
still  spoken  at  Tarentum  ;  and  it  was  long  one 
of  the  chief  strongholds  of  the  Byzantine  empire 
in  the  south  of  Italy.  The  town  of  Tarentum 
consisted  of  two  parts,  viz,,  of  a  peninsula  or 
island  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  and  of  a 
town  on  the  main  land,  which  was  connected 
with  the  island  by  means  of  a  bridge.  On  the 
northwest  corner  of  the  island,  close  to  the  en- 
trance of  the  harbor,  was  the  citadel ;  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  town  was  situated  southwest 
of  the  isthmus.  The  modern  town  is  confined 
to  the  island  or  peninsula  on  which  the  citadel 
stood.  The  neighborhood  of  Tarentum  pro- 
duced the  best  wool  in  all  Italy,  and  was  also 
celebrated  for  its  excellent  wine,  figs,  pears,  and 
other  fruits.  Its  purple  dye  was  also  much 
valued  in  antiquity. 

TARICHEA,  or  -EJE,  or  JEJE  (Tapixeia,-eai,  aiai : 
ruins  at  El-Kerch),  a  town  of  Galilee,  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  strong^ 
fortified,  and  with  a  turbulent  population,  who 
gave  the  Romans  much  trouble  during  the  Jew- 
ish war.  It  obtained  its  name  from  the  quanti- 
ties of  the  fish  of  the  neighboring  lakes  which 
were  salted  here. 

TARNE  (Tapvy),  a  city  of  Lydia,  on  Mount 
Tmolus,  mentioned  by  Homer.  Pliny  mentions 
simply  a  fountain  of  the  name. 

TARPA,  Sp.  M-ECIUS,  was  engaged  by  Pom- 
peius  to  select  the  plays  that  were  acted  at  his 
games  exhibited  in  B.C.  55.  Tarpa  was  like- 
wise employed  by  Augustus  as  a  dramatic  cen- 
sor. 

TARPEIA,  daughter  of  Sp.  Tarpeius,  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  Roman  citadel  on  the  Saturnian 
Hill,  afterward  called  the  Capitoline,  was  tempt- 
ed by  the  gold  on  the  Sabine  bracelets  and  col- 
lars to  open  a  gate  of  the  fortress  to  T.  Tatius 
and  his  Sabines.  As  they  entered,  they  threw 
upon  her  their  shields,  and  thus  crushed  her  to 
death.  She  was  buried  on  the  hill,  and  her 
memory  was  preserved  by  the  name  of  the  Tar- 
peian  Rock,  which  was  given  to  a  part  of  the 


TARPHE. 

Capitoline.  A  -egend  still  exis^  at  Rome, 
which  relates  that  the  fair  Tarpeia  ever  sits  in 
the  heart  of  the  hill,  covered  with  gold  and  jew- 
els, and  bound  by  a  spell. 

TARPHE  (Tdp^iy),  a  town  in  Locris,  on  Mount 
(Eta,  mentioned  by  Homer,  and  subsequently 
called  Pliarygse. 

TARQUINIA.      Vid.  TARQUINIUS. 

TAKQU!\II  (Tarquiniensis  :  now  Turchina, 
near  Corneto),  a  city  of  Etruria,  situated  on  a  hill 
and  on  the  River  Marta,  southeast  of  Cosa  and 
on  a  road  leading  from  the  latter  town  to  Rome. 
It  was  one  of  the  twelve  Etruscan  cities,  and 
was  probably  regarded  as  the  metropolis  of  the 
Confederation.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Tarchon,  the  son  or  brother  of  Tyrrhenus, 
who  was  the  leader  of  the  Lydian  colony  from 
Asia  to  Italy.  It  was  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Tarquinii  that  the  seer  Tages  appeared,  from 
whom  the  Etruscans  learned  their  civil  and  re- 
ligious polity.  Vid.  TAGES.  According  to  one 
account,  Tarquinii  was  founded  by  Thessalians, 
that  is,  Pelasgians  ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  was  an  original  Etruscan  city,  and  that 
Tarchon  is  merely  a  personification  of  the  race 
of  the  Tyrrhenians.  It  was  at  Tarquinii  that 
Demaratus,  the  father  of  Tarquinius  Priscus, 
settled  ;  and  it  was  from  this  city  that  the  Tar- 
quinian  family  came  to  Rome.  After  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Tarquinius  Superbus  from  Rome,  the 
Tarquinienses,  in  conjunction  with  the  Veien- 
tes,  espoused  his  cause,  but  they  were  defeated 
by  the  Romans.  From  this  time  the  Tarquin- 
ienses were  frequently  engaged  in  war  with  the 
Romans  ;  but  they  were  at  length  obliged  to 
submit  to  Rome  about  B.C.  310.  Tarquinii  was 
subsequently  made  a  Roman  colony  and  a  mu- 
nicipium ;  but  it  gradually  declined  in  import- 
ance ;  and  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  of  the 
Christian  era  it  was  deserted  by  its  inhabit- 
ants, who  founded  Corneto  on  the  opposite  hill. 
There  are  few  remains  of  the  ancient  city  it- 
self; but  the  cemetery  of  Tarquinii,  consisting 
of  a  vast  number  of  subterraneous  caves  in  the 
hill  on  which  Corneto  stands,  is  still  in  a  state 
of  excellent  preservation,  and  contains  numer- 
ous Etruscan  paintings  :  here  some  of  the  most 
interesting  remains  of  Etruscan  art  have  been 
discovered  in  modern  times. 

TARQUINIUS,  the  name  of  a  family  in  early 
Roman  history,  to  which  the  fifth  and  seventh 
kings  of  Rome  belonged.  The  legend  of  the 
Tarquins  ran  as  follows.  Demaratus,  their  an- 
cestor, belonged  to  the  noble  family  of  the  Bac- 
chiadic  at  Corinth,  and  fled  from  his  native  city 
when  the  power  of  his  order  was  overthrown 
by  Cypselus.  He  settled  at  Tarquinii  in  Etru- 
ria, where  he  had  mercantile  connections.  He 
married  an  Etruscan  wife,  by  whom  he  had  two 
sons,  Lucumo  and  Aruns.  The  latter  died  in 
the  lifetime  of  his  father,  leaving  his  wife  preg- 
nant ;  but  as  Demaratus  was  ignorant  of  this 
circumstance,  he  bequeathed  all  his  property  to 
Lucumo,  and  died  himself  shortly  afterward. 
But,  although  Lucumo  was  thus  one  of  the  most 
wealthy  persons  at  Tarquinii,  and  had  married 
Tanaquil,  who  belonged  to  a  family  of  the  high- 
est rank,  he  was  excluded,  as  a  stranger,  from 
all  power  and  influence  in  the  state.  Discon- 
tented with  this  inferior  position,  and  urged  on 
by  his  wife,  he  resolved  to  leave  Tarquinii  and 


TARQUINIUS. 

remove  to  Rome.  He  accordingly  set  out  for 
Rome,  riding  in  a  chariot  with  his  wife,  and  ac- 
companied by  a  large  train  of  followers.  When 
they  had  reached  the  Janiculus,  an  eagle  seized 
his  cap,  and,  after  carrying  it  away  to  a  great 
height,  placed  it  again  upon  his  head.  Tana- 
quil, who  was  skilled  in  the  Etruscan  science 
of  -vagury,  bade  her  husband  hope  for  the  high- 
est nonor  from  this  omen.  Her  predictions 
were  soon  verified.  The  stranger  was  receiv- 
ed with  welcome,  and  he  and  his  followers  were 
admitted  to  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens.  He 
took  the  name  of  L.  TARQUINIUS,  to  which  Livy 
adds  PRISCUS.  His  wealth,  his  courage,  and 
his  wisdom  gained  him  the  love  both  of  Ancus 
Marcius  and  of  the  people.  The  former  ap- 
pointed him  guardian  of  his  children;  and,  when 
he  died,  the  senate  and  the  people  unanimously 
elected  Tarquinius  to  the  vacant  throne.  The 
reign  of  Tarquinius  was  distinguished  by  great 
exploits  in  war  and  by  great  works  in  peace. 
He  defeated  the  Latins  and  Sabines  ;  and  the 
latter  people  ceded  to  him  the  town  of  Collatia, 
where  he  placed  a  garrison  under  the  command 
of  Egerius,  the  son  of  his  deceased  brother 
Aruns,  who  took  the  surname  of  Collatinus. 
Some  traditions  relate  that  Tarquinius  defeated 
the  Etruscans  likewise.  Among  the  important 
works  which  Tarquinius  executed  in  peace,  the 
most  celebrated  are  the  vast  sewers  by  which 
the  lower  parts  of  the  city  were  drained,  and 
which  still  remain,  with  not  a  stone  displaced, 
to  bear  witness  to  his  power  and  wealth.  He 
is  also  said  in  some  traditions  to  have  laid  out 
the  Circus  Maximus  in  the  valley  which  had 
been  redeemed  from  water  by  the  sewers,  and 
also  to  have  instituted  the  Great  or  Roman 
Games,  which  were  henceforth  performed  in 
the  Circus.  The  Forum,  with  its  porticoes  and 
rows  of  shops,  was  also  his  work,  and  he  like- 
wise began  to  surround  the  city  with  a  stone 
wall,  a  work  which  was  finished  by  his  success- 
or, Servius  Tullius.  The  building  of  the  Cap- 
itoline temple  is,  moreover,  attributed  to  the 
elder  Tarquinius,  though  most  traditions  as- 
cribe this  work  to  his  son,  and  only  the  vo%v  to 
the  father.  Tarquinius  also  made  some  changes 
in  the  constitution  of  the  state.  He  added 
one  hundred  new  members  to  the  senate,  who 
were  called  patres  minorum  gentium,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  old  senators,  who  were 
now  called  patres  majortim  gentium.  He  wished 
to  add  to  the  three  centuries  of  equites  estab- 
lished by  Romulus  three  new  centuries,  and  to 
call  them  after  himself  and  two  of  his  friends. 
His  plan  was  opposed  by  the  augur  Attus  Na- 
vius,  who  gave  a  convincing  proof  that  the  gods 
were  opposed  to  his  purpose.  Vid.  NAVIUS.  Ac- 
cordingly, he  gave  up  his  design  of  establishing 
new  centuries,  but  to  each  of  the  former  centu- 
ries  he  associated  anotherunder  the  same  name, 
so  that  henceforth  there  were  the  first  and  sec- 
ond Ramnes,  Tities,  and  Luceres.  He  increased 
the  number  of  Vestal  Virgins  from  four  to  six. 
Tarquinius  was  murdered  after  a  reign  of  thir- 
ty-eight years  at  the  instigation  of  the  sons  of 
Ancus  Marcius.  But  the  latter  did  not  secure 
the  reward  of  their  crime,  for  Servius  Tullins, 
with  the  assistance  of  Tanaquil,  succeeded  to 
the  vacant  throne.  Tarquinius  left  two  sons 
and  two  daughters.  His  two  sons,  L.  Tarquin 

855 


TARQUINIUS. 

ius  and  Aruns,  were  subsequently  married  to 
the  two  daughters  of  Servius  Tullius.  One  of 
his  daughters  was  married  to  Servius  Tullius, 
and  the  other  to  M.  Brutus,  by  whom  she  be- 
came the  mother  of  the  celebrated  L.  Brutus, 
the  first  consul  at  Rome.  Servius  Tullitis, 
whose  life  is  given  under  TULLIUS,  was  mur- 
dered, after  a  reign  of  forty-four  years,  by  his 
son-in-law  L.  Tarquinius,  who  ascended  the  va- 
cant throne. — 2.  L.  TARQUINIUS  SUPERBUS  com- 
menced his  reign  without  any  of  the  forms  of 
election.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  his  reign  was 
to  abolish  the  rights  which  had  been  conferred 
upon  the  plebeians  by  Servius  ;  and,  at  the  same 
time,  all  the  senators  and  patricians  whom  he 
mistrusted,  or  whose  wealth  he  coveted,  were 
put  to  death  or  driven  into  exile.  He  surround- 
ed himself  by  a  body-guard,  by  means  of  which 
he  was  enabled  to  do  what  he  liked.  His  cru- 
elty and  tyranny  obtained  for  him  the  surname 
of  Supcrbus.  But,  although  a  tyrant  at  home, 
he  raised  Rome  to  great  influence  and  power 
among  the  surrounding  nations.  He  gave  his 
daughter  in  marriage  to  Octavius  Mamilius  of 
Tusculum,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Latin 
chiefs  ;  and  under  his  sway  Rome  became  the 
head  of  the  Latin  confederacy.  He  defeated 
the  Volscians,  and  took  the  wealthy  town  of 
Suessa  Pometia,  with  the  spoils  of  which  he 
commenced  the  erection  of  the  Capitol  which 
his  father  had  vowed.  In  the  vaults  of  this 
temple  he  deposited  the  Sibylline  hooks,  which 
the  king  purchased  from  a  sibyl  or  prophetess. 
She  had  offered  to  sell  him  nine  books  for  three 
hundred  pieces  of  gold.  The  king  refused  the 
offer  with  scorn.  Thereupon  she  went  away 
and  burned  three,  and  then  demanded  the  same 
price  for  the  six.  The  king  still  refused.  She 
again  went  away  and  burned  three  more,  and 
still  demanded  the  same  price,  for  the  remaining 
three.  The  king  now  purchased  the  three  books, 
and  the  sibyl  disappeared.  He  next  engaged 
in  war  with  Gabii,  one  of  the  Latin  cities,  which 
refused  to  enter  into  the  league.  Unable  to 
take  the  city  by  force  of  arms,  Tarquinius  had 
recourse  to  stratagem.  His  son,  Sextus,  pre- 
tending to  be  ill-treated  by  his  father,  and  cov- 
ered with  the  bloody  marks  of  stripes,  fled  to 
Gabii.  The  infatuated  inhabitants  intrusted  him 
with  the  command  of  their  troops  ;  whereupon 
he  sent  a  messenger  to  his  father  to  inquire 
how  he  should  deliver  the  city  into  his  hands. 
The  king,  who  was  walking  in  his  garden  when 
the  messenger  arrived,  made  no  reply,  but 
kept  striking  off  the  heads  of  the  tallest  pop- 
pies with  his  stick.  Sextus  took  the  hint. 
He  put  to  death  or  banished  all  the  leading 
men  of  the  place,  and  then  had  no  difficulty 
in  compelling  it  to  submit  to  his  father.  In 
the  midst  of  his  prosperity,  Tarquinius  fell 
through  a  shameful  outrage  committed  by  one 
of  his  sons.  Tarquinius  and  his  sons  were  en- 
gaged in  besieging  Ardea,  a  city  of  the  Rutu- 
lians.  Here,  as  the  king's  sons,  and  their  cous- 
in Tarquinius  Collatinus,  the  son  of  Egerius, 
were  feasting  together,  a  dispute  arose  about 
the  virtue  of  their  wives.  As  nothing  was  do- 
ing in  the  field,  they  mounted  their  horses  to 
visit  their  homes  by  surprise.  They  first  went 
to  Rome,  where  they  surprised  the  king's  daugh- 
ters at  a  splendid  banquet.  They  then  hasten- 
856 


TARQUINIUS. 

ed  to  Collatte,  and  there,  though  it  was  late  in 
the  night,  they  found  Lucretia,  the  wife  of  Col- 
latinus, spinning  amid  her  handmaids.  The 
beauty  and  virtue  of  Lucretia  had  fired  the  evil 
passions  of  Sejhus.  A  few  days  afterward  he 
returned  to  Collatia,  where  he  was  hospitably 
received  by  Lucretia  as  her  husband's  kinsman. 
In  the  dead  of  night  he  entered  the  chamber 
with  a  drawn  sword :  by  threatening  to  lay  a 
slave  with  his  throat  cut  beside  her,  whom  he 
would  pretend  to  have  killed  in  order  to  avenge 
her  husband's  honor,  he  forced  her  to  yield  to 
his  wishes.  As  soon  as  Sextus  had  departed, 
Lucretia  seht  for  her  husband  and  father.  Col- 
latinus came,  accompanied  by  L.  Brutus  ;  Lu- 
cretius, with  P.  Valerius,  who  afterward  gained 
the  surname  of  Publicola.  They  found  her  in 
an  agony  of  sorrow.  She  told  them  what  had 
happened,  enjoined  them  to  avenge  her  dis- 
honor, and  then  stabbed  herself  to  death.  They 
all  swore  to  avenge  her.  Brutus  threw  off  his 
assumed  stupidity,  and  placed  himself  at  their 
head.  They  carried  the  corpse  to  Rome.  Bru- 
tus, who  was  tribunus  celerum,  summoned  the 
people,  and  related  the  deed  of  shame.  All 
classes  were  inflamed  with  the  same  indigna- 
tion. A  decree  was  passed  deposing  the  king, 
and  banishing  him  and  his  family  from  the  city. 
The  army,  encamped  before  Ardea,  likewise  re- 
nounced  their  allegiance  to  the  tyrant.  Tar- 
quinius, with  his  two  sons,  Titus  and  Aruns, 
took  refuge  at  Caere  in  Etruria.  Sextus  re- 
paired to  Gabii,  his  own  principality,  where  he 
was  shortly  after  murdered  by  the  friends  of 
those  whom  he  had  put  to  death.  Tarquinius 
reigned  twenty-four  years.  He  was  banished 
B.C.  510.  The  people  of  Tarquinii  and  Veii 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  exiled  tyrant,  and 
marched  against  Rome.  The  two  consuls  ad- 
vanced to  meet  them.  A  bloody  battle  was 
fought,  in  which  Brutus  and  Aruns,  the  son  of 
Tarquinius,  slew  each  other.  Tarquinius  next 
repaired  to  Lars  Porsena,  the  powerful  king  of 
Clusium,  who  marched  against  Rome  at  the 
head  of  a  vast  army.  The  history  of  this  mem- 
orable expedition  is  related  under  PORSENA. 
After  Porsena  quitted  Rome,  Tarquinius  took 
refuge  with  his  son-in-law,  Mamilius  Octavius 
of  Tusculum.  Under  the  guidance  of  the  lat- 
ter, the  Latin  states  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
exiled  king,  and  declared  war  against  Rome. 
The  contest  was  decided  by  the  celebrated  bat- 
tle of  the  Lake  Regillus,  in  which  the  Romans 
gained  the  victory  by  the  help  of  Castor  and 
Pollux.  Tarquinius  himself  wds  wounded,  but 
escaped  with  his  life  ;  his  son  Sextus  is  said  to 
have  fallen  in  this  battle,  though,  according  to 
another  tradition,  as  we  have  already  seen,  he 
was  slain  by  the  inhabitants  of  Gabii.  Tarquin- 
ius Superbus  had  now  no  other  state  to  whom 
he  could  apply  for  assistance.  He  had  already 
survived  all  his  family ;  and  he  now  fled  to 
Aristobulus  at  Cumae,  where  he  died  a  wretch- 
ed and  childless  old  man.  Such  is  the  story 
of  the  Tarquins,  according  to  the  ancient  writ- 
ers ;  but  this  story  must  not  oe  received  as  a 
real  history.  The  narrative  contains  numer- 
ous inconsistencies  and  impossibilities.  The 
following  is  only  one  instance  out  of  many.  We 
are  told  that  the  younger  Tarquinius,  who  was 
expelled  from  Rome  in  mature  age,  was  the  son 


TARQUINIUS,  L 

of  the  king  who  ascended  the  throne  one  hund- 
red and  seven  years  previously  in  the  vigor  of 
life ;  and  Servius  Tullius,  who  married  the 
daughter  of  Tarquinius  Priscus  shortly  before 
lie  ascended  the  throne,  is  represented  imme- 
diately after  his  accession  as  the  father  of  two 
daughters  whom  he  marries  to  the  brothers  of 
his  own  wife  ! 

[TARQintfias,  L.,  one  of  those  engaged  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Catiline,  turned  informer,  and  ac- 
cused M.  Crassus  of  being  privy  to  the  design.] 

[Ti.RQUINIUS,  COLLATINUS..    Vld.  CoLLATIJJUS.] 

[TARQUITIUS,  L.,  of  a  patrician  family,  but  so 
poor  that  he  had  to  serve  in  the  army  on  foot ; 
was  appointed  by  the  dictator  Cincinnatus  his 
master  of  horse.] 

[TARQUITUS,  a  Latin  warrior,  son  of  Faunus 
and  Dryope,  aided  Turnus  against  ^Eneas,  and 
was  slain  by  the  latter.]  . 

TARRACINA  (Tarracinensis  :  now  Tcrracina), 
naore  anciently  called  ANXUR  (Anxurates,  PI.), 
an  ancient  town  of  Latium,  situated  fifty-eight 
miles  southeast  of  Rome,  on  the  Via  Appia  and 
upon  the  coast,  with  a  strongly-fortified  citadel 
upon  a  high  hill,  on  which  stood  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Anxurus.  It  was  probably  a  Pelasgian 
town  originally ;  but  it  afterward  belonged  to 
the  Volsci,  by  whom  it  was  called  Anxur.  It 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  Tarracina,  and  it  was  made  a  Roman 
colony  B.C.  329.  Three  miles  west  of  the  town 
stood  the  grove  of  Feronia,  with  a  temple  of 
this  goddess.  The  ancient  walls  of  the  citadel 
of  Tarracina  are  still  visible  on  the  slope  of 
Montecchio. 

TARRACO  (Tarraconensis  :  now  Tarragona), 
an  ancient  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Spain, 
situated  on  a  rock  seven  hundred  and  sixty  feet 
high,  between  the  River  Iberus  and  the  Pyre- 
nees, on  the  River  Tulcis.  It  was  founded  by 
the  Massilians,  and  was  made  the  head-quar- 
teis  of  the  two  brothers  P.  and  Cn.  Scipio,  in 
their  campaigns  against  the  Carthaginians  in 
the  second  Punic  war.  It  subsequently  became 
a  populous  and  flourishing  town  ;  and  Augustus, 
who  wintered  here  (B.C.  26)  after  his  Canta- 
brian  campaign,  made  it  the  capital  of  one  of 
the  three  Spanish  provinces  (Hispania  Tarra- 
conensis) and  also  a  Roman  colony.  Hence 
we  find  it  called  Colonia  Tarraconensis,  also 
Col.  Viclrix  Togata  and  Col.  Julia  Victrix  Tar- 
raconcnsis.  The  modern  town  of  Tarragona  is 
built  to  a  great  extent  with  the  remains  of  the 
ancient  city  ;  and  Roman  inscriptions  may  fre- 
quently be  seen  imbedded  in  the  walls  of  the 
modern  houses.  The  ancient  Roman  aqueduct, 
having  been  repaired  in  modern  times,  still  sup- 
plies the  modern  city  with  water;  and  at  a 
short  distance  to  the  ndrthwest  of  Tarragona, 
along  the  sea-coast,  is  a  Roman  sepulchre  call- 
ed the  tower  of  the  Scipios,  although  the  real 
place  of  the  burial  of  the  Scipios  is  quite  un- 
known. 

TARRUNTEXUS  PATERNUS.     Vid.  PATKKNUS. 

TARSIA  (Topafy:  now  Has  Jird  or  Cape  Cer- 
tet),  a  promontory  of  Carmania,  on  the  coast  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  near  the  frontier  of  Persia. 
The  neighboring  part  of  the  coast  of  Carmania 
was  called  Tarsiana. 

TARSIUS  (oTupatof :  now  Tarza  or  Baliketri), 
a  river  ol  Mysia,  rising  in  Mount  Temnus,  and 


TARSUS. 

flowing  northeast,  through  the  Miletopolites  J-  •.- 
cus,  into  the  Macestus. 

TARSUS,  TARSOS  (Toptrof,  Tapaoi,  Tepaof ,  6ap- 
ffof :  Tapaevf,  Tarsensis  :  ruins  at  Tersus),  the 
chief  city  of  Cilicia,  stood  near  the  centre  of 
Cilicia  Campestris,  on  the  River  Cydmns  about 
twelve  miles  above  its  mouth,  in  a  very  large 
and  fertile  plain  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus, 
the  chief  pass  through  which  (Pylae  Ciliciae)led 
down  to  Tarsus.  Its  position  gave  it  the  full 
benefit  of  the  natural  advantages  of  a  fertile 
country,  and  the  command  of  an  important  high- 
way of  commerce.  It  had  also  an  excellent 
harbor,  twelve  miles  from  the  city,  which  is 
filled  up  with  sand.  The  city  was  of  unknown 
antiquity.  Some  ascribed  its  foundation  to  the 
Assyrian  king  Sardanapalus ;  others  to  Perseus, 
in  connection  with  whose  legend  the  name  of 
the  city  is  fancifully  derived  from  a  hoof  (rap- 
crdf)  which  the  winged  horse  Pegasus  lost  here ; 
and  others  to  the  Argive  chieftain  Triptolemus, 
whose  effigy  appears  on  the  coins  of  the  city. 
All  that  can  be  determined  with  certainty  seems 
to  be  that  it  was  a  very  ancient  city  of  the  Syr- 
ians, who  were  the  earliest  known  inhabitants 
of  this  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  that  it  received 
Greek  settlers  at  an  early  period.  In  the  time 
of  Xenophon,  who  gives  us  the  first  historical 
notice  of  Tarsus,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Cili- 
cian  prince  Syennesis,  and  was  taken  by  Cyrus. 
(Compare  CILICIA.)  At  the  time  of  the  Mace- 
donian invasion,  it  was  held  by  the  Persian 
troops,  who  were  about  to  burn  it,  when  they 
were  prevented  by  Alexander's  arrival.  After 
playing  an  important  part  as  a  military  post  in 
the  wars  of  the  successors  of  Alexander,  and 
under  the  Syrian  kings,  it  became,  by  the  peace 
between  the  Romans  and  Antiochus  the  Great, 
the  frontier  city  of  the  Syrian  kingdom  on  the 
northwest.  As  the  power  of  the  Seleucidae  de- 
clined, it  suffered  much  from  the  oppression  of 
its  governors,  and  from  the  wars  between  the 
members  of  the  royal  family.  At  the  time  of 
the  Mithradatic  war,  it  suffered,  on  the  one 
hand,  from  Tigranes,  who  overran  Cilicia,  and, 
on  the  other,  from  the  pirates,  who  had  their 
strongholds  in  the  mountains  of  Cilicia  Aspera, 
and  made  frequent  incursions  into  the  level 
country.  From  both  these  enemies  it  was  res- 
cued by  Pompey,  who  made  it  the  capital  of  the 
new  Roman  province  of  Cilicia,  B.C.  66.  In 
the  civil  war  it  took  part  with  Caesar,  and  as- 
sumed, in  his  honor,  the  name  of  JULIOPOLIS. 
For  this  the  inhabitants  were  severely  punished 
by  Cassius,  but  were  recompensed  by  Antony 
who  made  Tarsus  a  free  city.  Under  Augus- 
tus the  city  obtained  immunity  from  taxes, 
through  the  influence  of  the  emperor's  tutor, 
the  Stoic  Athenodorus,  who  was  a  native  of  the 
place.  It  enjoyed  the  favor,  and  was  called  by 
the  names,  of  several  of  the  later  emperors.  It 
was  the  scene  of  important  events  in  the  wars 
with  the  Persians,  the  Arabs,  and  the  Turks, 
and  also  in  the  Crusades.  The  people  of  Tar- 
sus were  celebrated  for  fheir  mental  power, 
their  readiness  in  repartee,  and  their  fondness 
for  the  study  of  philosophy.  Among  the  most 
distinguished  natives  of  the  place  were  the  Sto- 
ics Antipatcr,  Archedemus,  Heraclides,  Nestor, 
Zeno,  and  the  two  Athcnodori ;  the  Academic* 
Nestor ;  the  Epicureans  Diogenes,  celebrated 

857 


TARTARUS. 


TAUROSCVTfL*:. 


for  his  powers  of  improvising,  Lysias,  who  was 
for  a  time  tyrant  of  the  city,  and  Plutiades  ;  the 
tragic  poets  Dionysides  and  Bion  ;  the  satiric 
poets  Demetrius  and  Boethes,  who  was  also  a 
troublesome  demagogue  ;  the  grammarians  Ar- 
temidorus,  Diodorus,  and  Hermogenes ;  the  his- 
torian Hermogenes  ;  the  physicians  Herodotus 
and  Philo ;  and,  above  all,  the  apostle  Paul,  who 
belonged  to  one  of  several  families  of  Jews,  who 
had  settled  at  Tarsus  in  considerable  numbers 
under  the  Persian  and  Syrian  kings. 

TARTARUS  (Tdprapof ),  son  of  ^Ether  and  Terra 
(Ge),  and  by  his  mother  Terra  (Ge)  the  father 
of  the  Gigantes  Typhoeus  and  Echidna.  In 
the  Iliad  Tartarus  is  a  place  beneath  the  earth, 
as  far  below  Hades  as  Heaven  is  above  the 
earth,  and  closed  by  iron  gates.  Later  poets 
describe  Tartarus  as  the  place  in  the  lower 
world  in  which  the  spirits  of  wicked  men  are 
punished  for  their  crimes  ;  and  sometimes  they 
use  the  name  as  synonymous  with  Hades,  or  the 
lower  world  in  general. 

[TARTARUS  (now  Tartaro),  a  small  river  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  joining  one  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Po,  and  forming  marshes  (paludes  Tartari  flu- 
minis,  Tacit.).] 

TARTESSUS  (Tapr^aoof :  Tapr^aaiof),  an  an- 
cient town  in  Spain,  and  one  of  the  chief  settle- 
ments of  the  Phoenicians,  probably  the  same  as 
the  Tarshish  of  Scripture.  The  position  of  this 
town  has  occasioned  much  dispute.  Most  of 
the  ancient  writers  place  it  at  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Baetis,  which,  they  say,  was  originally 
called  Tartessus.  Others  identify  it,  with  more 
probability,  with  the  city  of  Carteia  on  Mount 
Calpe,  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.  The  whole  coun- 
try west  of  Gibraltar  was  also  called  TARTESSIS. 

TARUSCON  or  TARASCON  (Tarusconienses : 
now  Tarascon),  a  town  of  the  Salyes  in  Gaul, 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Rhone,  north  of  Are- 
late,  and  east  of  Nemausus. 

TARVISIUM  (Tarvisanus :  now  Treviso),  a 
town  of  Venetia,  in  the  north  of  Italy,  on  the 
River  Silis,  which  became  the  seat  of  a  bishop- 
ric, and  a  place  of  importance  in  the  Middle 
Ages. 

TATIANUS  (Tanavof ),  a  Christian  writer  of  the 
second  century,  was  born  in  Assyria,  and  was 
originally  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  He  was  after- 
ward converted  to  Christianity,  according  to 
some  accounts,  by  Justin  Martyr,  with  whom, 
at  any  rate,  he  was  very  intimate.  After  Jus- 
tin's death  Tatian  quitted  Rome,  where  he  had 
resided  for  some  time,  and  returned  into  the 
East.  There  he  imbibed  and  promulgated  views 
of  a  Gnostic  character,  and  gave  rise  to  a  new 
sect,  called  after  him  Tatiani.  Tatian  wrote 
numerous  works,  of  which  there  is  still  extant 
an  Address  to  the  Greeks  (UjOOf  "E/.A??vaf),  in 
which  he  points  out  the  superiority  of  Christi- 
anity to  the  heathen  religion.  The  best  edition 
of  this  work  is  by  Worth,  Oxford,  1700. 

TATIUS>,  T.,  king  of  the  Sabines.  Vid.  ROM- 
ULUS. 

TATTA  (j?  Tarra:.now  Tuz-Gol),  a  great  salt 
lake  in  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  Phryg- 
ian table-land,  on  the  confines  of  Phrygia,  Ga- 
latia,  Cappadocia,  and  Lycaonia.  It  supplies 
the  whole  surrounding  country  with  salt,  as  it 
doubtless  did  in  ancient  times. 

TAUUHIRA  or  TEUCH!RA  (Tatfteipa,  Tevyeipa : 
858 


ruins  at  Taukra),  a  colony  of  Cyrene,  on  the 
northwestern  coast  of  Cjrenaica,  in  Northern 
Africa.  Under  the  Ptolemies  it  was  called  Ar- 
sinoe,  and  was  one  of  the  five  cities  of  the  Lib- 
yan  Pentapolis.  It  became  a  Roman  colony, 
and  was  fortified  by  Justinian.  It  was  a  chief 
seat  of  the  worship  of  Cybele,  who  had  here  a 
great  temple  and  an  annual  festival. 

TAULANTJI  (TauAui/rtot),  a  people  of  Illyria,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Epidamnus,  frequently  men- 
tioned by  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  One 
of  the  most  powerful  kings  was  Glaucias,  a  con- 
temporary of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  fought 
against  the  latter  monarch,  and  at  a  later  period 
afforded  an  asylum  to  the  in£jnt  Pyrrhus,  and 
refused  to  surrender  him  to  Cassander. 

TAUNUS  (now  Taunus),  a  range  of  mountains 
in  Germany,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Moenus  (now  Main)  and  the  Rhine. 

TAURASIA'.      Vid.  TAURINI. 
•     TAURENTUM  and  TAURO!S  (Tavpoevnov,  Tav 
poeif,  -evrof),  a  fortress  belonging  to  Massilia, 
and  near  the  latter  city,  on  the  southern  coast 
of  Gaul. 

TAURI,  a  wild  and  savage  people  in  European 
Sarmatia,  who  sacrificed  all  strangers  to  a  god- 
dess whom  the  Greeks  identified  with  Artemis. 
An  account  of  this  goddess  is  given  elsewhere 
(p.  Ill,  b).  The  Tauri  dwelt  in  the  peninsula 
which  was  called  after  them  Chersonesus  Tau- 
rica.  Vid.  CHERSONESUS,  No.  2. 

TAURIANUM  (now  Tauretto),  a  town  of  Brut- 
tium,  on  the  Via  Popilia,  twenty-three  miles 
southeast  of  Vibo. 

TAURINI,  a  people  of  Liguria  dwelling  on  the 
upper  course  of  the  Po,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps. 
Their  chief  town  was  Taurasia,  afterward  col- 
onized by  Augustus,  and  called  Augusta  Tauri- 
norum  (now  Turin). 

TAURIS  (now  Torcola),  a  small  island  off  the 
coast  of  Illyria,  between  Pharus  and  Corcyra. 

TAURISCI,  a  Celtic  people  in  Noricum,  and 
probably  the  old  Celtic  name  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation of  the  country.  They  were  subsequently 
called  Norici  by  the  Romans,  after  their  capital 
Noreia. 

TAUROIS.     Vid.  TAURENTUM. 

TAU'ROMENIUM  (Tavpopeviov :  Tavpoftevirw, 
Tauromenitanus  :  now  Taormina),  a  city  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  situated  on  Mount  Tau- 
rus, from  which  it  derived  its  name,  and  founded 
B.C.  358  by  Andromachus  with  the  remains  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Naxos,  whose  town  had  been 
destroyed  by  Dionysius  nearly  fifty  years  before. 
Vid.  NAXQS,  No.  2.  Tauromenium  soon  be- 
came a  large  and  flourishing  city;  but,  in  con- 
sequence of  its  espousing  the  side  of  Sex.  Pom- 
pey  against  Augustus,  most  of  its  inhabitants 
were  expelled  from  the  city,  and  their  place  sup- 
plied by  a  colony  of  Roman  veterans  :  hence  we 
find  the  town  called  Col.  Augusta  Tauromenitana. 
From  this  time  Tauromenium  became  a  place 
of  secondary  importance.  The  hills  in  the 
neighborhood  produced  excellent  wine.  There 
are  still  remains  of  the  ancient  town,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  a  splendid  theatre  cut  out 
of  the  rock,  and  capable' of  holding  from  thirty 
thousand  to  forty  thousand  spectators,  from 
which  we  may  form  some  idea  of  the  populous- 
ness  of  Tauromen  um. 

TAUROSCYTH.S:.     Vid.  SCYTHOTAURI. 


TAURUNUM. 

TAURI'XUM  (now  Scmlin),  a  strongly-fortified 
town  in  Pannonia,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sa- 
vus  and  the  Danube. 

TAURUS,  STATILIUS,  a  distinguished  general  of 
Octavianus.  At  the  battle  of  Actium,  B.C.  31, 
he  commanded  the  land  forces  of  Oclavianus, 
which  were  drawn  up  on  the  shore.  In  29  he 
defeated  the  Cantabri,  Vaccaei,  and  Astures. 
He  was  consul  in  26  ;  and  in  16,  when  the  em- 
peror went  to  Gaul,  the  government  of  the  city 
and  of  Italy  was  left  to  Taurus,  with  the  title 
of  praefectus  urbi.  In  the  fourth  consulship 
of  Augustus,  30,  Taurus  built  an  amphitheatre 
of  stone  at  his  own  expense.  Vid.  ROMA,  p. 
751,  a. 

TAURUS  (6  Tavpof,  from  the  Aramaean  Tur,  a 
high   mountain:   now    Taurus,   Ala-Dagh,   and 
other  special  names),  a  great  mountain  chain 
of  Asia.     In  its  widest  extent,  the  name  was 
applied,  by  the  later  geographers,  to  the  whole 
of  the  great  chain  which  runs  through  Asia 
from  west  to  east,  forming  the  southern  margin 
of  the  great  table-land  of  Central  Asia,  which  it 
divides  from  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  from  Syria  and  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
valley,  from  the  low  lands  on  the  north  shore 
of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  from  the  two  great 
peninsulas  of  India.    But  this  is  not  a  common 
use  of  the  name.     In  its  usual  signification,  it 
denotes  the  mountain  chain  in  the  south  of  Asia 
Minor,  which  begins  at  the  Sacrum  or  Chelido- 
nium  Promontorium  at  the  southeast  angle  of 
Lycia,  surrounds  the  Gulf  of  Pamphylia,  passing 
through  the  middle  of  Pisidia;  then  along  the 
southern  frontier  of  Lycaonia  and  Cappadocia, 
which  it  divides  from  Cilicia  and  Commagene  ; 
thence,  after  being  broken  through  by  the  Eu- 
phrates, it  proceeds  almost  due  east  through  the 
south  of  Armenia,  forming  the  water-shed  be- 
tween the  sources  of  the  Tigris  on  the  south, 
and  the  streams  which  feed  the  Upper  Euphrates 
and  the  Araxes  on  the  north  ;  thus  it  continues 
as  far  as  the  southern  margin  of  the  Lake  Ar- 
sissa,  where  it  ceases  to  bear  the  name  of  Tau- 
rus, and  is  continued  in  the  chain  which,  under 
the  names  of  Niphates,  Zagros,  &c.,  forms  the 
northeastern  margin  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphra- 
tes valley.    This  main  chain  sends  offbranches 
which  are  nearly  as  important  as  itself.     In  the 
middle  of  the  frontier  between  Cilicia  and  Cap- 
padocia, east  of  the  Cilician  Gates,  the  ANTI- 
TAURUS  branches  off  to  the  northeast.     In  the 
cast  of  Cilicia,  the  AMANUS  goes  off  to  the  south- 
west and  south.     Immediately  east  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, a  branch  proceeds  to  the  southeast, 
forming,  under  the  name  9f  MASIUS,  the  frontier 
between  Armenia  and  Mesopotamia,  and  di- 
viding the  valley  of  the  Upper  Tigris  from  the 
waters  which  flow  through  Mesopotamia  into 
the  Euphrates.     The  Taurus  is  of  moderate 
height,  for  the  most  part  steep,  and  wooded  to 
the  summit.     Its  general  character  greatly  re- 
sembles the  mountains  of  Central  Germany. 

TAVIUM  (Taoviov,  Tavjoy  :  now  probably  ruins 
at  Boghaz  Kieui),  the  capital  of  the  Trocmi,  in 
Galatia,  stood  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Halys 
but  at  some  distance  from  the  river,  and  formec 
the  centre  of  meeting  for  roads  leading  to  al 
parts  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  therefore  a  place 
of  considerable  commercial  importance.  It  hac 
a  temple  and  bronze  colossus  of  Jupiter  (Zeus). 


TECT.EUS. 

TAXILA  or  TAXIALA  (rd  TuftArr,  Taft'oAa),  an 
mportant  city  of  India  intra  Gangem,  stood  in 
a  large  and  fertile  |..Iain  between  the  Indus  and 
,he  Hydaspes,  and  was  the  capital  of  the  Indian 
king  Taxiles  in  the  time  of  Alexander.  Its 
josition  has  not  been  identified.  It  is  not,  as 
Vlajor  Rennell  supposed,  Attack;  and  there  is 
no  largo  city  remaining  which  exactly  answers 
to  its  position. 

TAXILES  (Tafi'Aj/f).  1.  An  Indian  prince  or 
dng,  who  reigned  over  the  tract  between  the 
Indus  and  the  Hydaspes  at  the  period  of  the  ex- 
pedition of  Alexander,  B.C.  327.  His  real  name 
was  Mophis  or  Omphis,  and  the  Greeks  appear 
to  have  called  him  Taxiles  orTaxilas,  from  the 
name  of  his  capital  city  of  Taxila,  near  the 
modern  Attock.  On  the  approach  of  Alexander 
he  hastened  to  meet  him  with  valuable  presents, 
and  was  in  consequence  confirmed  in  his  king- 
dom by  the  Macedonian  monarch. — 2.  A  general 
in  the  service  of  Mithradates  the  Great,  and  one 
of  those  in  whom  he  reposed  the  highest  con- 
fidence. 

TAYGETE  (Tavyertj),  daughter  of  Atlas  and 
Pleione,  one  of  the  Pleiades,  from  whom  Mount 
Taygetus  in  Laconia  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name.  By  Zeus  (Jupiter)  she  became  the  moth- 
er of  Lacedaemon  and  of  Eurotas. 

TAYGETUS,  or  TAYGETUM,  or  TAYGETA  (Taiiye- 
f,  Tavyerov,  ra  Tatiyera,  pi.),  a  lofty  range  of 
mountains  of  a  wild  and  savage  character,  sep- 
arating Laconia  and  Messenia,  and  extending 
from  the  frontiers  of  Arcadia  down  to  the  Prom- 
ontorium Taenarum.  Its  highest  points  were 
called  Taletus  and  Evoras,  about  three  miles 
south  of  Sparta.  Taygetus  is  said  to  have  de- 
rived its  name  from  the  nymph  Taygete. 

TEANUM  (Teanensis).  1.  APULUM  (near  Ponte 
Rotto),  a  town  of  Apulia,  on  the  River  Frento, 
and  the  confines  of  the  Frentani,  eighteen  miles 
from  Larinum. — 2.  SIDICINUM  (now  Tcano),  an 
important  town  of  Campania,  and  the  capital  of 
the  Sidicini,  situated  on  the  northern  slope  of 
Mons  Massicus  and  on  the  Via  Praenestina,  six 
miles  west  of  Cales.  It  was  made  a  Roman 
colony  by  Augustus ;  and  in  its  neighborhood 
were  some  celebrated  medicinal  springs. 

TEARUS  (Teapof  :  now  Tcara,  Dcara,  or  Dcrc), 
a  river  of  Thrace,  the  waters  of  which  were 
useful  in  curing  cutaneous  diseases.  Herodo- 
tus relates  that  it  rises  from  thirty-eight  fount- 
ains, all  flowing  from  the  same  rock,  some  warm 
and  others  cold.  It  falls  into  the  Contadesdus ; 
this  into  the  Agrianes ;  and  tire  latter  again  into 
the  Hebrus. 

TEATE  (Teatinus :  now  Chieli),  the  capital  of 
thy  Marrucini,  situated  on  a  steep  hill  on  the 
River  Aternus,  and  on  the  road  from  Aternum 
to  Corfinium. 

TECMESSA  (Tc'/t/ujfaaa),  the  daughter  of  the 
Phrygian  king  Teleutas,  whose  territory  was 
ravaged  by  the  Greeks  during  a  predatory  ex- 
cursion from  Troy.  Tecmessa  was  taken  pris- 
oner, and  was  given  to  Ajax,  the  son  of  Tela- 
mon,  by  whom  she  had  a  son,  Eurysaces. 

TECMON  (TeKftuv),  a  town  of  the  Molossi  in 
Epirus. 

TECTVEUS  and  ANGKLION  (TcKraiof  KOI  'Ayye- 
Muv),  early  Greek  statuaries,  who  are  always 
mentioned  together.  They  were  pupils  of  Di- 
and  Scyllis,  and  instructors  of  Gallon  of 
859 


TECTOSAGKS. 


TELECLIDES. 


;£gina  ;  and  therefore  they  must  have  flourish- 
ed about  B.C.  548. 

TECT6sAOES(TfKrd<rayef).  l.InGallia.  Vid. 
VOLCJE. — 2.  In  Asia  Minor.  Vid.  GALATIA. 

TECUM  or  TICIS  (now  Tedi),  a  river  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  in  the  territory  of  the  Sardones, 
called  Illiberis  by  the  Greeks,  from  a  town  of 
this  name  upon  the  river. 

TEDANIUS,  a  river  in  Illyricum,  separating  la- 
pydia  and  Liburnia. 

TEGEA(Teyeo).  1.  (Te-ycdrnc.:  now  Piali),  an 
important  city  of  Arcadia,  and  the  capital  of  the 
district  TEGEATIS  (Teyeurtf),  which  was  bound- 
ed on  the  east  by  Argolis  and  Laconia,  on  the 
south  by  Laconia,  on  the  west  by  Maenalia,  and 
on  the  north  by  the  territory  of  Mantinea.  It 
was  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  of  Arcadia, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Tegeates, 
the  son  of  Lycaon.  It  was  formed  out  of  nine 
small  townships,  which  were  united  into  one 
city  by  Aleus,  who  was  thus  regarded  as  the 
real  founder  of  the  city.  At  a  later  time  we 
find  Tegea  divided  into  four  tribes,  each  of 
which  possessed  a  statue  of  Apollo  Agyieus, 
who  was  especially  honored  in  Tegea.  The 
Tegeatae  long  resisted  the  supremacy  of  Sparta ; 
and  it  was  not  till  the  Spartans  discovered  the 
bones  of  Orestes  that  they  were  enabled  to 
conquer  this  people.  The  Tegeatae  sent  three 
thousand  men  to  the  battle  of  Plataeae,  in  which 
vhey  were  distinguished  for  their  bravery.  They 
remained  faithful  to  Sparta  in  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war  ;  but  after  the  battle  of  Leuctra  they 
joined  the  rest  of  the  Arcadians  in  establishing 
their  independence.  During  the  wars  of  the 
Achaean  league  Tegea  was  taken  both  by  Cle- 
omenes,  king  of  Sparta,  and  Antigonus  Doson, 
king  of  Macedonia,  and  the  ally  of  the  Achaeans. 
It  continued  to  be  a  place  of  importance  in  the 
time  both  of  Strabo  and  Pausanias.  Its  most 
splendid  public  building  was  the  temple  of  Mi- 
nerva (Athena),  which  was  the  largest  and 
most  magnificent  building  in  the  Peloponnesus. 
It  was  erected  soon  after  B.C.  394,  in  place  of  a 
more  ancient  temple  of  this  goddess,  which  was 
burned  down  in  this  year.  The  architect  was 
Scopas,  and  the  sculptures  in  the  pediments 
were  probably  by  the  hand  of  Scopas  himself. — 
2.  A  town  in  Crete,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Agamemnon. 

TELAMON  (T&ctfiuv),  son  of  ^Eacus  and  En- 
de'is,  and  brother  of  Peleus.  Having  assisted 
Peleus  in  slaying  their  half-brother  Phocus  (vid. 
PELEUS),  Telamon  was  expelled  from  ^Egina 
and  came  to  Salamis.  Here  he  was  first  mar- 
ried to  Glauce,  daughter  of  Cychreus,  king  of 
the  island,  on  whose  death  Telamon  became 
king  of  Salamis.  He  afterward  married  Peri- 
bcea  or  Eribcea,  daughter  of  Alcathous,  by  whom 
he  became  the  father  of  Ajax,  who  is  hence  fre 
quently  called  Telamoniades  and  Telamonius  he 
ros.  Telamon  himself  was  one  of  the  Calydo 
nian  hunters  and  one  of  the  Argonauts.  He 
was  also  a  great  friend  of  Hercules,  whom  h 
joined  in  his  expedition  against  Laomcdon  01 
Troy,  which  city  he  was  the  first  to  enter.  H 
there  erected  an  altar  to  Hercules  Callinicus  o 
Alexicacus.  Hercules,  in  return,  gave  to  him 
Theanira  or  Hesione,  a  daughter  of  Laomedon 
by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Teucer  ant 
Trambelus.  On  this  expedition  Telamon  and 
860 


Hercules  also  fought  against  the  Meropes  in 
Cos,  on   account   of  Chalciope,  the  beautiful 
daughter  of  Eurypylus,  the  king  of  the  Meropes, 
and  against  the  giant  Alcioneus,  on  the  isth- 
mus of  Corinth.     Telamon  likewise  accompa- 
ied  Hercules  on  his  expedition  against  the  Am- 
zons,  and  slew  Mclanippe. 

TELAMON  (now  Telamone'),  a  town  and  harboi 
f  Etruria,  a  few  miles  south  of  the  River  Um- 
ro,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Telamon  on 
is  return  from  the  Argonautic  expedition.  In 
ts  neighborhood  a  great  victory  was  gained 
ver  the  Gauls  in  B.C.  225.  It  was  here  that 
Vlarius  landed  on  his  return  from  Africa  in  87. 
7elamon  was  undoubtedly  the  port  of  the  great 
Etruscan  city  recently  discovered  in  its  neigh- 
orhood,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient 
Vetulonia. 

[TELAMONIADES.     Vid.  TELAMON.] 
TELCHINES  (Te^u-ef),  a  family  or  a  tribe, 
said  to  have  been  descended  from  Thalassa  or 
'oseidon.    They  are  represented  in  three  dif- 
erent  aspects:  1.  As  cultivators  of  the  soil  and 
ministers  of  the  gods.     As  such  they  came  from 
rete  to  Cyprus,  and  from  thence  to  Rhodes, 
where  they  founded  Camirus,  lalysus,  and  Lin- 
dus.      Rhodes,  which  was  named  after  them 
Telchinis,  was   abandoned   by  them,  because 
,hey  foresaw  that  the  island  would  be  inunda- 
ed.    They  then  spread  in  different  directions. 
Lycus  went  to  Lycia,  where  he  built  the  temple 
of  the  Lycian  Apollo.     This  god  had  been  wor- 
shipped by  them  at  Lindus,  and  Juno  (Hera)  at 
lalysus  and  Camirus.    Nymphs,  also,  are  called 
after  them  Telchiniae.    Neptune  (Poseidon)  was 
intrusted  to  them  by  Rhea,  and  they  brought 
him  up  in  conjunction  with  Caphira,  a  daughter 
of  Oceanus.     Rhea,  Apollo,  and  Jupiter  (Zeus), 
however,  are  also  described  as  hostile  to  the 
Telchines.    Apollo  is  said  to  have  assumed  the 
shape  of  a  wolf,  and  to  have  thus  destroyed  the 
Telchines,  and  Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  have  over- 
whelmed them  by  an  inundation.     2.  As  sorcer- 
ers and  envious  damons.     Their  very  eyes  and 
aspect  are  said  to  have  been  destructive.    They 
had  it  in  their  power  to  bring  on  hail,  rain,  and 
snow,  and  to  assume  any  form  they  pleased ; 
they  further  mixed  Stygian  water  with  sulphur, 
in  order  thereby  to  destroy  animals  and  plants. 
3.  As  artists,  for  they  are  said  to  have  invented 
useful  arts  and  institutions,  and  to  have  made 
images  of  the  gods.     They  worked  in  brass  and 
iron,  made  the  sickle  of  Saturn  (Cronos)  and 
the  trident  of  Neptune  (Poseidon).     This  last 
feature  in  the  character  of  the  Telchines  seems 
to  have  been  the  reason  of  their  being  classed 
with  the  Idaean  Dactyls  ;  and  Strabo  even  states 
that  those  of  the  nine  Rhodian  Telchines  who  ao 
companied  Rhea  to  Crete,  and  there  brought  up 
the  infant  Jupiter  (Zeus),  were  called  Curetes. 
TELEBO^E.     Vid.  TAPHIJE. 
TELEBOAS  (T»?Ae66af ),  a  river  of  Armenia  Ma- 
jor, falling  into  the  Euphrates ;  probably  iden- 
tical with  the  ARSANIAS. 

[TELEBOAS,  a  centaur,  son  of  Ixion  and  Ne- 
phele.] 

TELECLIDKS  (TijfaKleitnc.),  a  distinguished 
Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  Old  Comedy,  flour- 
ished about  the  same  time  as  Crates  and  Crati- 
nus,  and  a  little  earlier  than  Aristophanes.  He 
was  an  earnest  advocate  of  peace,  and  a  great 


TELECLUS. 

admirer  of  the  ancient  manners  of  the  age  of 
Themistocles.  [The  few  fragments  remaining 
of  his  comedies  are  contained  in  Meineke's 
Comic.  Grerc.  Fragm.,  vol.  i.,  p.  130-138,  edit, 
minor  ] 

TELECLUS  (T^£«?.of),  king  of  Sparta,  eighth 
of  the  Agids,  and  son  of  Archelaus.  He  was 
slain  by  the  Messenians,  in  a  temple  of  Diana 
(Artemis)  Limnatis,  on  the  borders.  His  death 
was  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  first  Messe- 
nian  war,  B.C.  743. 

TELEGONUS  (Tj/Ae'yovof),  son  of  Ulysses  and 
Circe.  After  Ulysses  had  returned  to  Ithaca, 
Circe  sent  out  Telegonus  in  search  of  his  fa- 
ther. A  storm  cast  his  ship  on  the  coast  of 
Ithaca,  and,  being  pressed  by  hunger,  he  began 
to  plunder  the  fields.  Ulysses  and  Telemachus, 
being  informed  of  the  ravages  caused  by  the 
stranger,  went  out  to  fight  against  him  ;  but 
Telegonus  ran  Ulysses  through  with  a  spear 
which  he  had  received  from  his  mother.  At 
the  command  of  Minerva  (Athena),  Telegonus, 
accompanied  by  Telemachus  and  Penelope, 
went  to  Circe  in  JEsea,  there  buried  the  body 
of  Ulysses,  and  married  Penelope,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  Italus.  In  Italy  Telego- 
nus was  believed  to  have  been  the  founder  of 
the  towns  of  Tusculum  and  Praeneste.  He  left 
a  daughter  Mamilia,  from  whom  the  family  of 
the  Mamilii  traced  their  descent. 

TELEMACHUS  (TyAfyza^of),  son  of  Ulysses  and 
Penelope.  He  was  still  an  infant  when  his  fa- 
ther went  to  Troy ;  and  when  the  latter  had 
been  absent  from  home  nearly  twenty  years, 
Telemachus  went  to  Pylos  and  Sparta  to  gather 
information  concerning  him.  He  was  hospita- 
bly received  by  Nestor,  who  sent  his  own  son 
to  conduct  Telemachus  to  Sparta.  Menelaus 
also  received  him  kindly,  and  communicated  to 
him  the  prophecy  of  Proteus  concerning  Ulys- 
ses. From  Sparta  Telemachus  returned  home ; 
and  on  his  arrival  there  he  found  his  father, 
whom  he  assisted  in  slaying  the  suitors.  Ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  Telemachus  became 
the  father  of  Perseptolis  either  by  Polycaste, 
the  daughter  of  Nestor,  or  by  Nausicaa,  the 
daughter  of  Alcinous.  Others  relate  that  he 
was  induced  by  Minerva  (Athena)  to  marry 
Circe,  and  became  by  her  the  father  of  Latinus ; 
or  that  he  married  Cassiphone,  a  daughter  of 
Circe,  but  in  a  quarrel  with  his  mother-in-law 
slew  her,  for  which  he  was  in  his  turn  killed  by 
Cassiphone.  One  account  makes  Telemachus 
the  founder  of  Clusium  in  Etruria. 

TELEMUS  (T^Ae/iOf),  son  of  Eurymus,  and  a 
celebrated  soothsayer. 

[TELEON  (TeMuv),  an  Athenian,  a  son  of 
Ion,  husband  of  Zeuxippe,  and  father  of  the  Ar- 
gonaut Butes.  From  him  the  Teleontes  (TcAt- 
ovrtf)  derived  their  name.] 

TELEPHASSA  (T^i^naaa),  wife  of  Agenor,  and 
mother  of  Europa,  Cadmus,  Phcenix,  and  Cilix. 
She,  with  her  sons,  went  out  in  search  of  Euro- 
pa,  who  had  been  carried  off  by  Jupiter  (Zeus) ; 
but  she  died  on  the  expedition,  and  was  buried 
by  Cadmus. 

TELEPHUS  (TjJAe^oc),  son  of  Hercules  and 
Auge,  the  daughter  of  King  Aleus  of  Tegea. 
As  soon  as  he  was  born  he  was  exposed  by  his 
grandfather,  but  was  reared  by  a  hind  (Ma^of), 
and  educated  by  King  Corythus  in  Arcadia. 


TELLEN^E. 

On  reaching  manhood,  he  consulted  the  Delphic 
oracle  to  learn  his  parentage,  and  was  ordered 
to  go  to  King  Teuthras  in  Mysia.  He  there 
found  his  mother,  and  succeeded  Teuthras  on 
the  throne  of  Mysia.  He  married  Laodice  or 
Astyoche,  a  daughter  of  Priam;  and  he  attempt- 
ed to  prevent  the  Greeks  from  landing  on  the 
coast  of  Mysia.  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  however, 
caused  him  to  stumble  over  a  vine,  whereupon 
he  was  wounded  by  Achilles.  Being  informed 
by  an  oracle  that  the  wound  could  only  be  cured 
by  him  who  had  inflicted  it,  Telephus  repaired 
to  the  Grecian  camp ;  and  as  the  Greeks  had 
likewise  learned  from  an  oracle  that  withoui 
the  aid  of  Telephus  they  could  not  reach  Troy, 
Achilles  cured  Telephus  by  means  of  the  rus\ 
of  the  spear  by  which  he  had  been  wounded. 
Telephus,  in  return,  pointed  out  to  the  Greeks 
the  road  which  they  had  to  take. 

TELEPTE.      Vid.  THALA. 

TELESIA  (Telesinus  :  now  Telcse),  a  town  In 
Samnium,  on  the  road  from  Allifae  to  Benevtr. 
turn,  taken  by  Hannibal  in  the  second  Punk 
war,  and  afterward  retaken  by  the  Romans.  I; 
was  colonized  by  Augustus  with  a  body  of  vet 
erans.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  Pontius,  wht; 
fought  against  Sulla,  and  who  was  hence  sur 
named  Telesinus. 

TELESILLA  (TeMoiMa'),  of  Argos,  a  celebra 
ted  lyric  poetess  and  heroine,  flourished  about 
B.C.  510.  In  the  war  of  Argos  against  Sparta 
she  not  only  encouraged  her  countrymen  by  he ' 
lyre  and  song,  but  she  took  up  arms  at  the  hear 
of  a  band  of  her  countrywomen,  and  greatly 
contributed  to  the  victory  which  they  gained 
over  the  Spartans.  In  memory  of  this  exploit, 
her  statue  was  erected  in  the  temple  of  Venus 
(Aphrodite)  at  Argos,  with  the  emblems  of  a 
poetess  and  a  heroine ;  Mars  (Ares)  was  wor- 
shipped in  that  city  as  a  patron  deity  of  wom- 
en ;  and  the  prowess  of  her  female  associates 
was  commemorated  by  the  annual  festival  call- 
ed Hybristica.  Only  two  complete  verses  of 
her  poetry  are  extant,  [edited  by  Bergk,  in  his 
Poet  a  Lyrici  Greed,  p.  742-3.] 

TELESINUS,  PONTIUS.      Vid.  PONTIUS. 

[TELESINUS,  C.Lucius,  consul  A.D.  66  with 
Suetonius  Paulinus.  He  was  banished  by  Do- 
mitian  for  his  love  of  philosophy.] 

TELESTAS  or  TELESTES  (TeAfora 
of  Selinus,  a  distinguished  poet  of  the  later 
Athenian  dithyramb,  flourished  B.C.  398.  A 
few  lines  of  his  poetry  are  preserved  by  Athe- 
naeus,  [edited  by  Bergk  in  his  Poctac  Lyrici  Gra- 
ci,  p.  864-6.] 

TELETHRIUS  (TeAt'flptof),  a  mountain  in  the 
north  of  Euboea,  near  Histieea. 

[TELETHUSA,  wife  of  Ligdus  and  mother  of 
Iphis.  Vid.  IPHIS,  No.  4.] 

[TELEUTIAS  (Te A«m'af),  a  Spartan,  was  broth- 
er on  the  mother's  side  to  Agesilaus  II.,  by 
whose  influence  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet,  in  B.C.  393,  in  the  war  of  the 
Lacedaemonians  against  Corinth  and  the  other 
states  of  the  hostile  league.  After  various 
successful  enterprises  in  different  quarters,  he 
was  sent  as  general  against  the  Olynthians 
in  B.C.  382;  but,  while  making  an  assault  on 
this  city,  he  was  slain  in  a  sally  of  the  inhabit- 
ants.] 

TKLLKNAC,  a  town  in  Latium    between  the 

861 


TELLIAS. 

later  Via  Ostiensis  and  the  Via  Appia,  destroyed 
by  Ancus  Marcius. 

[TELIAAS  (TeTiTiiat).  1.  Of  Elis,  a  distinguish- 
ed seer,  was  one  of  the  commanders  of  the  Pho- 
cians  in  a  war  against  the  Thessalians  a  few 
years  hefore  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes. 
After  the  defeat  of  the  Thessalians,  his  statue 
was  erected  by  the  Phocians  in  the  temple  at 
Delphi. — 2.  One  of  the  generals  of  the  Syracu- 
sans  when  their  city  was  besieged  by  the  Athe- 
nians during  the  Peloponnesian  war.] 

TELLUS.      Vid.  GJEA. 

TEI.MESSUS  or  TELMISSUS  (Tefy/J7<T<rof,  Tefy/tcr- 
o6f :  TetyqooEVf,  Tetyiaarif).  1.  (Ruins  at  Mei, 
the  port  of  Maori),  a  city  of  Lycia,  near  the  bor- 
ders of  Caria,  on  a  gulf  called  Telmissicus  Si- 
nus, and  close  to  the  promontory  Telmissis. — 
2.  A  town  of  Caria,  sixty  stadia  (six  geograph- 
ical miles)  from  Halicarnassus,  celebrated  for 
the  skill  of  its  inhabitants  in  divination.  It  is 
often  identified  with  the  former  place. 

TELO  MARTIUS  (now  Toulon),  a  port-town  of 
Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the  Mediterranean,  is 
rarely  mentioned  by  the  ancient  writers,  and 
did  not  become  a  place  of  importance  till  the 
downfall  of  the  Roman  empire. 

TELOS  (Tijbof.  Tfaiof :  now  Telos  or  Pisko- 
} '),  a  small  island  of  the  Carpathian  Sea,  one 
of  the  Sporades,  lay  off  the  coast  of  Caria, 
southwest  of  the  mouth  of  the  Sinus  Doridis, 
between  Rhodes  and  Nisyrus.  It  was  also 
called  Agathussa. 

TELPHUSSA.      Vid.  THELPUSA. 

TEMENIDJE.     Vid.  TEMENUS. 

TEMENITES  (Ttfitvirrjf),  a  surname  of  Apollo, 
derived  from  his  sacred  temenus  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Syracuse. 

TEMENUS  (T;;//cvof),  son  of  Aristomachus,  was 
one  of  the  Ileraclidae  who  invaded  Peloponne- 
sus. After  the  conquest  of  the  peninsula,  he 
received  Argos  as  his  share.  His  descendants, 
thb  Temenidae,  being  expelled  from  Argos,  are 
said  to  have  founded  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia, 
whence  the  kings  of  Macedonia  called  them- 
selves Temenidae. 

TEMESA  or  TEMPSA  (Temesaeus  or  Tempsa- 
nus :  now  Torre  del  Lupi),  a  town  in  Bruttium, 
on  the  Sinus  Terinaeus,  was  one  of  the  most 
ancient  Ausonian  towns  in  the  south  of  Italy, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  afterward  colonized 
by  a  body  of  yEtolians  under  Thoas.  At  a  still 
later  time  it  was  successively  in  the  possession 
of  the  Locrians,  of  the  Bruttians,  and  finally 
of  the  Romans,  who  colonized  it  in  B.C.  196. 
Some  of  the  ancients  identified  this  town  with 
Temese,  mentioned  by  Homer  as  celebrated  for 
its  copper  mines ;  but  the  Homeric  town  was 
probably  in  Cyprus. 

TEMNUS.  1.  (TO  Tfj[j.vov  opof :  novrMorador 
Ak  Dagh),  a  mountain  of  Mysia,  extending 
eastward  from  Ida  to  the  borders  of  Phrygia, 
and  dividing  Mysia  into  two  parts.  It  contains 
the  sources  of  the  Macestus,  Mysius,  Cai'cus, 
and  Evenus. — 2.  (Now  Mcnimen  1  or  Guzal-Hi- 
sarl),  a  city  of  ^Eolis,  in  the  northwest  of  Lyd- 
ia  (some  say  in  Mysia),  on  the  western  bank  of 
the  Hermus,  thirty  miles  south  of  Cyme.  It 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius,  and  in  that  of  Titus  (Pliny's 
time)  it  ro  longer  existed. 

TEMVE  (Te^rr^,  contraction  of  Teinrea),  a  beau- 
Sea 


TEiVEDOS. 

tiful  and  romantic  valley  in  the  north  of  Thes- 
saly,  between  Mounts  Olympus  and  Ossa, 
through  which  the  Peneus  escapes  into  the 
sea.  The  lovely  scenery  of  this  glen  is  fre- 
quently described  by  the  ancient  poets  and  de- 
claimers  ;  and  it  was  also  celebrated  as  one  of 
the  favorite  haunts  of  Apollo,  who  had  trans- 
planted his  laurel  from  this  spot  to  Delphi.  The 
whole  valley  is  rather  less  than  five  miles  in 
length,  and  opens  gradually  to  the  east  into  a 
!  spacious  plain.  Tempe  is  also  of  great  import 
ance  in  history,  as  it  is  the  only  pass  through 
which  an  army  can  invade  Thessaly  from  the 
north.  In  some  parts  the  rocks  on  each  side 
of  the  Peneus  approach  so  close  to  each  other 
as  only  to  leave  room  between  them  for  the 
stream  ;  and  the  road  is  obliged  to  be  cut  out 
of  the  rock  in  the  narrowest  point.  Tempe  is 
the  only  channel  through  which  the  waters  of 
the  Thessalian  plain  descend  into  the  sea;  and 
it  was  the  common  opinion  in  antiquity  that 
these  waters  had  once  covered  the  country  with 
a  vast  lake,  till  an  outlet  was  formed  for  them 
by  some  great  convulsion  in  nature,  which  rent 
the  rocks  of  Tempe  asunder.  So  celebrated 
was  the  scenery  of  Tempe  that  its  name  was 
given  to  any  beautiful  valley.  Thus  we  find  a 
Tempe  in  the  land  of  the  Sabines  near  Reate, 
through  which  the  River  Velinus  flowed  ;  and 
also  a  Tempe  in  Sicily,  through  which  the  River 
Helorus  flowed,  hence  called  by  Ovid  Tempe 
Heloria. 

[TEMPSA.     Vid.  TEMESA.] 

TEMPYRA,  a  town  in  Thrace,  at  the  foot  of  a 
narrow  mountain  pass,  between  Mount  Rhodope 
and  the  coast.  , 

TENCTERI  or  TENCHTERI,  a  people  of  Ger- 
many, dwelling  on  the  Rhine,  between  the  Ruhr 
and  the  Sieg,  south  of  the  Usipetes,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  whom  their  name  usually  occurs. 
They  crossed  the  Rhine  together  with  the  Usip- 
etes, with  the  intention  of  settling  in  Gaul ;  but 
they  were  defeated  by  Caesar  with  great  slaugh- 
ter, and  those  who  escaped  took  refuge  in  the 
territories  of  their  southern  neighbors  the  Sy- 
gambri.  The  Tencteri  afterward  belonged  to 
the  league  of  the  Cherusci,  and  at  a  still  latei 
period  they  are  mentioned  as  a  portion  of  thn 
confederacy  of  the  Franks. 

[TENEA  (Tevfa  :  Teve<iT7}<; :  now  Chiliomodi), 
a  small  town  in  the  interior  of  Corinthia,  said  to 
have  been  colonized  by  some  Trojan  captives 
brought  from  Tenedos  by  the  Greeks.  It  was 
celebrated  as  the  place  where  CEdipus  was 
brought  up  by  his  supposed  father  Polybus.  Its 
inhabitants  could  likewise  boast  that  the  great- 
er part  of  the  colonists  who  followed  Archias 
to  Syracuse  were  their  fellow-citizens.  Hav 
ing  submitted  to  the  Roman  power  without  re- 
sistance, it  escaped  the  destruction  that  over 
whelmed  Corinth.] 

TENEDOS  orTgNEDus  (TeveSof :  Tiv£6iof :  now 
Tenedos),  a  small  island  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  off 
the  coast  of  Troas,  of  an  importance  very  dis- 
proportionate to  its  size,  on  account  of  its  posi- 
tion near  the  mouth  of  the  Hellespont,  from 
which  it  is  about  twelve  miles  distant.  Its  dis- 
tance from  the  coast  of  the  Troad  was  forty 
stadia  (four  geographical  miles),  and  from  Les- 
bos fifty-six  stadia :  its  circuit  was  eighty  stadia. 
It  was  called,  in  early  times,  by  the  names  of 


TENES. 

"Jalydna,  Leucophrys,  Phcenice,  and  Lyrnessus. 
""he  mythical  derivation  of  its  usual  name  is 
rom  Tenes,  son  of  Cycnus.  It  had  an  ^Eolian 
city  of  the  same  name,  with  two  harbors.  Its 
name  appears  in  sevgral  proverbs,  such  as  Ttv- 
ediof  TTFACKVf,  T.  uvdpuKOf,  T.  atJAr/rtff ,  T.  KO.KOV. 
It  appears  in  the  legend  of  the  Trojan  war  as 
the  station  to  which  the  Greeks  withdrew  their 
fleet,  in  order  to  induce  the  Trojans  to  think 
thai  they  had  departed,  and  to  receive  the  wood- 
en horse.  In  the  Persian  war  it  was  used  by 
Xerxes  as  a  naval  station.  It  afterward  be- 
came a  tributary  ally  of  Athens,  and  adhered  to 
her  during  the  whole  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
and  down  to  the  peace  of  Antalcidas,  by  which 
it  was  surrendered  to  the  Persians.  At  the 
Macedonian  conquest  the  Tenedians  regained 
their  liberty.  In  the  war  against  Philip  III., 
Attalus  and  the  Romans  used  Tenedos  as  a  naval 
station,  and  in  the  Mithradatic  war  Lucullus 
•'lined  a  naval  victory  over  Mithradates  off  the 
island.  About  this  time  the  Tenedians  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  Alexandrea 
Troas.  The  island  was  celebrated  for  the  beau- 
ty of  its  women. 

TENES  or  TENNES  (Tew>?f),  son  of  Cycnus 
and  Proclea,  and  brother  of  Hemithea.  Cycnus 
was  King  of  Colonae  in  Troas.  His  second  wife 
was  Philonome,  who  fell  in  love  with  her  step- 
son ;  but  as  he  repulsed  her  advances,  she  ac- 
cused him  to  his  father,  who  threw  both  his  son 
and  daughter  in  a  chest  into  the  sea.  But  the 
chest  was  driven  on  the  coast  of  the  island  of 
Leucophrys,  of  which  the  inhabitants  elected 
him  king,  and  which  he  called  Tenedos,  after 
his  own  name.  Cycnus  at  length  heard  of  the 
innocence  of  his  son,  killed  Philonome,  and 
went  to  his  children  in  Tenedos.  Here  both 
Cycnus  and  Tenes  were  slain  by  Achilles.  Te- 
nes was  afterward  worshipped  as  a  hero  in  Ten- 
edos. 

TENDS  (T^voc  :  Tr'ivtof  :  now  Tino),  a  small 
island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  southeast  of  Andros 
and  north  of  Delos.  It  is  about  fifteen  miles 
in  length.  It  was  originally  called  Hydrusso. 
(Tdpovffcra)  because  it  was  well  watered,  and 
Ophiusso.  CO<j>tovaaa)  because  it  abounded  in 
snakes.  It  possessed  a  town  of  the  same  name 
on  the  site  of  the  modern  5.  Nicolo.  It  had  also 
a  celebrated  temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon), 
which  is  mentioned  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Tiberius.  The  wine  of  Tenos  was  celebrated  in 
antiquity,  and  is  still  valued  at  the  present  day. 

TENTYRA  (TCI  TtvTvpa  :  Tevrvplrw,  Tentyri- 
tes  :  ruins  at  Denderah),  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt, 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  between  Aby- 
dos  and  Coptos,  with  celebrated  temples  of 
Athor  (the  Egyptian  Venus),  Isis,  and  Typhon. 
Its  people  were  distinguished  for  their  hatred 
of  the  crocodile ;  and  upon  this  and  the  con- 
trary propensities  of  the  people  of  Ombi,  Juve- 
nal founds  his  fifteenth  satire.  Vid.  OMBI. 
There  are  still  magnificent  remains  of  the  tem- 
ples of  Athor  and  of  Isis  :  in  the  latter  was 
found  the  celebrated  Zodiac,  which  is  now  pre- 
served at  Paris. 

TKOS  (i)  Tcof :  Tj?iOf,  Teius :  now  Sighajik), 
one  of  the  Ionian  cities  on  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  renowned  as  the  birth-place  of  Anacreon 
and  Hecataeus.  It  stood  on  the  southern  side 
of  the  isthmus  which  connects  the  peninsula  of 


TERENTIUS  AFER,  P. 

j  Mount  Mimas  with  the  main  land  of  Lydia,  at 
the  bottom  of  the  bay  between  the  promontories 
of  Coryceum  and  Myonnesus.  It  was  a  flour- 
ishing sea-port,  until,  to  free  themselves  from 
the  Persian  yoke,  most  of  its  inhabitants  retired 
to  Abdera.  It  was  still,  however,  a  place  of 
importance  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors. 
It  had  two  harbors,  and  a  celebrated  temple  of 
Bacchus  (Dionysus). 

TEREDON  (Tepjjduv  :  now  probably  Dorah),  a 
city  of  Babylonia,  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Tigris,  below  its  junction  with  the  Euphrates, 
and  not  far  from  its  mouth.  It  was  a  great  em- 
porium for  the  traffic  with  Arabia.  It  is  no 
doubt  the  DIRIDOTIS  (btpiduTif)  of  Arrian. 

TERENTIA.  1.  Wife  of  M.  Cicero,  the  orator, 
to  whom  she  bore  two  children,  a  son  and 
daughter.  She  was  a  woman  of  sound  sense 
and  great  resolution  ;  and  her  firmness  of  char- 
acter was  of  no  small  service  to  her  weak  and 
vacillating  husband  in  some  important  periods 
of  his  life.  On  his  banishment  in  B.C.  58,  Te- 
rentia  by  her  letters  endeavored  to  keep  up  Ci- 
cero's fainting  spirits,  and  she  vigorously  exert- 
ed herself  on  his  behalf  among  his  friends  in 
Italy.  During  the  civil  war,  however,  Cicero 
was  offended  with  her  conduct,  and  divorced 
her  in  46.  Shortly  afterward  he  married  Pub- 
lilia,  a  young  girl  of  whose  property  he  had  the 
management.  Terentia  could  not  have  been 
less  than  fifty  at  the  time  of  her  divorce,  and 
therefore  it  is  not  probable  that  she  married 
again.  It  is  related,  indeed,  by  Jerome,  that 
she  married  Sallust  the  historian,  and  subse- 
quently Messala  Corvinus  ;  but  these  marriages 
are  not  mentioned  by  any  other  writer,  and  may 
therefore  be  rejected.  Terentia  is  said  to  have 
attained  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  three. — 2. 
Also  called  TERENTILLA,  the  wife  of  Maecenas, 
and  also  one  of  the  favorite  mistresses  of  Au- 
gustus. The  intrigue  between  Augustus  and 
Terentia  is  said  to  have  disturbed  the  good  un- 
derstanding which  subsisted  between  the  em- 
peror and  his  minister,  and  finally  to  have  oc- 
casioned the  retirement  of  the  latter. 

TERENTIANUS  MAURUS,  a  Roman  poet,  proba- 
bly lived  at  the  end  of  the  first  or  the  beginning 
of  the  second  century,  under  Nerva  and  Trajan, 
and  was  a  native  of  Africa,  as  his  surname, 
Maurus,  indicates.  There  is  still  extant  a  poem 
of  Terentianus,  entitled  De  Literis,  Syllabis,  Pe- 
dibus,  Metris,  which  treats  of  prosody  and  the 
different  kinds  of  metre  with  much  elegance  and 
skill.  The  work  is  printed  by  Santen  and  Van 
Lennep,  Traj.  ad  Rhen.,  1825,  and  by  Lach- 
mann,  Berol.,  1836. 

TERENTICS  AFKR,  P.,  usually  called  TERENCE, 
the  celebrated  comic  poet,  was  born  at  Carthage 
B.C.  195.  By  birth  or  purchase  he  became  the 
slave  of  P.  Terentius  Lucanus,  a  Roman  sena- 
tor. A  handsome  person  and  promising  talents 
recommended  Terence  to  his  master,  who  af- 
forded him  the  best  education  of  the  age,  and 
finally  manumitted  him.  On  his  manumission, 
according  to  the  usual  practice,  Terence  as- 
sumed his  patron's  nomen,  Terentius,  having 
been  previously  called  Publius  or  Publipor.  The 
Andria  was  the  first  play  offered  by  Terence  for 
representation.  The  curule  aediles  referred  the 
piece  to  Ceecilius,  then  one  of  the  most  popular 
play-writers  at  Rome.  Unknown  and  meanly 

863 


TERENTIUS  AFER,  P. 

clad,  Terence  began  to  read  from  a  low  stool 
bis  opening  scene.  A  few  verses  showed  the 
elder  poet  that  no  ordinary  writer  was  before 
him,  and  the  young  aspirant,  then  in  his  twenty- 
seventh  year,  was  invited  to  share  the  couch 
and  supper  of  his  judge.  This  reading  of  the 
Andria,  however,  must  have  preceded  its  per- 
formance nearly  two  years,  for  Caecilius  died  in 
168,  and  it  was  not  acted  till  166.  Meanwhile, 
copies  were  in  circulation,  envy  was  awakened, 
and  Luscius  Lavinius,  a  veteran,  and  nol.  very 
successful  play-writer,  began  his  unwearied  at- 
tacks on  the  dramatic  and  personal  character 
of  the  author.  The  Andria  was  successful,  and, 
aided  by  the  accomplishments  and  good  address 
of  Terence  himself,  war-  the  means  of  introduc- 
ing him  to  the  most  refined  and  intellectual  cir- 
cles of  Rome.  His  chief  patrons  were  Laelius 
and  the  younger  Scipio,  both  of  whom  treated 
him  as  an  equal,  and  are  said  even  to  have  as- 
sisted him  in  the  composition  of  his  plays. 
After  residing  some  years  at  Rome,  Terence 
went  to  Greece,  and  while  there  he  translated 
one  hundred  and  eight  of  Menander's  comedies. 
He  never  returned  to  Italy,  and  we  have  vari- 
ous accounts  of  his  death.  According  to  one 
story,  after  embarking  at  Brundisium,  he  was 
never  heard  of  more  ;  according  to  others,  he 
died  at  Stymphalus  in  Arcadia,  in  Leucadia,  or 
at  Patrae  in  Achaia.  One  of  his  biographers  said 
he  was  drowned,  with  all  the  fruits  of  his  so- 
journ in  Greece,  on  his  home-passage.  But 
the  prevailing  report  was,  that  his  translations 
of  Menander  were  lost  at  sea,  and  that  grief  for 
their  loss  caused  his  death.  He  died  in  the 
thirty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  in  159,  or  in  the 
year  following.  He  left  a  daughter,  but  noth- 
ing is  known  of  his  family.  Six  comedies  are 
all  that  remain  to  us  ;  and  they  are  probably  all 
that  Terence  produced.  His  later  versions  of 
Menander  were,  in  all  likelihood,  from  their 
number  and  the  short  time  in  which  they  were 
made,  merely  studies  for  future  dramas  of  his 
own.  His  plays  were  brought  forward  at  the 
following  seasons.  1.  Andria,  "the  Woman  of 
Andros,"  so  called  from  the  birth-place  of  Gly- 
cerium,  its  heroine,  was  first  represented  at  the 
Megalesian  Games,  on  the  fourth  of  April,  166. 
2.  Hecyra,  "the  Step-Mother,"  produced  at  the 
Megalesian  Games  in  165.  3.  Heauton-timorou- 
menos,  "the  Self-Tormentor,"  performed  at  the 
Megalesian  Games,  163.  4.  Eunuchus,  "the 
Eunuch,"  played  at  the  Megalesian  Games,  162. 
It  was  at  the  time  the  most  popular  of  Terence's 
comedies.  5.  Phormio,  was  performed  in  the 
same  year  with  the  preceding,  at  the  Roman 
Games  on  the  first  of  October.  6.  A  delphi,  "  the 
Brothers,"  was  acted  for  the  first  time  at  the 
funeral  games  of  L.  ^Emilius  Paullus,  160.  The 
comedies  of  Terence  have  been  translated  into 
most  of  the  languages  of  modern  Europe,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  Plautus,  were,  on  the  re- 
vival of  the  drama,  the  models  of  the  most  re- 
fined play- writers.  The  ancient  critics  are 
unanimous  in  ascribing  to  Terence  immaculate 
purity  and  elegance  of  language,  and  nearly  so 
in  denying  him  vis  comica.  But  it  should  be 
recollected  that  four  of. Terence's  six  plays  are 
more  or  less  sentimental  comedies,  in  which 
vis  comica  is  not  a  primary  element.  Moreover, 
Terence  is  generally  contrasted  with  P  autus, 
MM 


TERIAS. 

with  whom  he  had  very  little  in  common. 
Granting  to  the  elder  poet  the  highest  genius 
for  exciting  laughter,  and  a  natural  force  which 
his  rival  wanted,  there  will  remain  to  Terence 
greater  consistency  of  plot  and  character,  closer 
observation  of  generic  afld  individual  distinc- 
tions, deeper  pathos,  subtler  wit,  more  skill  and  • 
variety  in  metre  and  in  rhythm,  and  a  wider 
command  of  the  middle  region  between  sport 
and  earnest.  It  may  be  objected  that  Terence's 
superiority,  in  these  points  arises  from  his  copy- 
ing his  Greek  originals  more  servilely.  But  no 
servile  copy  is  an  animated  copy,  and  we  have 
corresponding  fragments  enough  of  Menander 
to  prove  that  Terence  retouched  and  sometimes 
improved  his  model.  In  summing  up  his  merits 
we  ought  not  to  omit  the  praise  which  has  been 
universally  accorded  him — that,  although  a  for- 
eigner and  a  freedman,  he  divides  with  Cicero 
and  Caesar  the  palm  of  pure  Latinity.  The  best 
editions  of  Terence  are  by  Bentley,  Cantab., 
1726,  4to,  Amstel,  1727,  4to,  Lips.,  1791,  8vo ; 
by  Westerhovius,  Hagae  Com.,  1727,  2  vols. 
4to  ;  and  by  Stallbaum,  Lips.,  1830,  8vo. 

TERENTIUS  CULLEO.     Vid.  CULLED. 

TERENTIUS  VARRO.     Vid.  VARRO. 

TERES  (Trjpj/f).  1.  King  of  the  Odrysae  and 
father  of  SITALCES,  was  the  founder  of  the  great 
Odrysian  monarchy.— 2.  King  of  a  portion  of 
Thrace  in  the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 

TEREUS  (Tnpeve),  son  of  Mars  (Ares),  king  of 
the  Thracians  in  Daulis,  afterward  Phocis. 
Pandion,  king  of  Attica,  who  had  two  daughters, 
Philomela  and  Procne,  called  in  the  assistance 
of  Tereus  against  some  enemy,  and  gave  him 
his  daughter  Procne  in  marriage.  Tereus  be- 
came by  her  the  father  of  Itys,  and  then  con- 
cealed her  in  the  country,  that  he  might  thus 
marry  her  sister  Philomela,  whom  he  deceived 
by  saying  that  Procne  was  dead.  At  the  same 
time  he  deprived  Philomela  of  her  tongue.  Ovid 
(Met.,  vi.,  565)  reverses  the  story  by  stating  that 
Tereus  told  Procne  that  her  sister  Philomela 
was  dead.  Philomela,  however,  soon  learned 
the  truth,  and  made  it  known  to  her  sister  by  a 
few  words  which  she  wove  into  a  peplus.  Proc- 
ne thereupon  killed  her  own  son  Itys,  and  served 
up  the  flesh  of  the  child  in  a  dish  before  Tereus. 
She  then  fled  with  her  sister.  Tereus  pursued 
them  with  an  axe,  and  when  the  sisters  were 
overtaken,  they  prayed  to  the  gods  to  change 
them  into  birds.  Piocne  accordingly  became 
a  nightingale,  Philomela  a  swallow,  and  Te- 
reus a  hoopoo.  According  to  some,  Procne  be- 
came a  swallow,  Philomela  a  nightingale,  and 
Tereus  a  hawk. 

TERGESTE  (Terge^tinus :  now  Trieste),  a  town 
of  Istria,  on  a  bay  in  the  northeast  of  the  Adri- 
atic Gulf,  called  after  it  Tergestinus  Sinus.  It 
was  at  first  an  insignificant  place,  with  which 
the  Romans  became  acquainted  in  their  wars 
with  the  lapydes  ;  but  under  the  Roman  domin- 
ion it  became  a  town  of  considerable  commer- 
cial importance.  It  was  made  a  Roman  colony 
by  Vespasian. 

TERIA  (Tijpsirjf  opof  aM,  Horn.),  a  mountain 
of  Mysia,  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cyz- 
icus.  Some  identified  it  with  a  hill  near  Lamp- 
sacus,  on  which  was  a  temple  of  Cybele. 

TERIAS  (now  Guaralunga),  a  river  in  Sicily, 
near  Leontini. 


TERIBAZUS. 


TERTULLIANUS. 


or  TIRIBAZUS  (Tvpi'SasOf,  Ti(.ida- 
fcc),  a  Persian,  high  in  the  favor  of  Artaxerxes 
II.,  and  when  he  was  present,  as  Xenophon 
Bays,  no  one  else  had  the  honor  of  helping  the 
monarch  mount  his  horse.  At  the  time  of  the 
retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  in  B.C.  401,  Te- 
ribazas  was  satrap  of  Western  Armenia,  and, 
when  the  Greeks  had  reached  the  River  Tele- 
boas  on  the  frontier  of  his  territory,  he  himself 
rode  up  to  their  camp  and  proposed  a  truce,  on 
condition  that  both  parties  should  abstain  from 
molesting  each  other,  the  Greeks  taking  only 
what  they  needed  while  in  his  country.  Teri- 
bazus,  however,  did  not  intend  to  keep  his  word, 
but  waited  to  assail  the  Greeks  in  a  mountain 
pass,  which  the  latter,  on  learning  his  design, 
secured,  and  having,  besides,  attacked  the  camp 
of  the  satrap,  put  the  barbarians  to  flight.  Sub- 
sequently he  aided  the  Lacedaemonians  until 
superseded  in  B.C.  392,  and  again  after  his  res- 
toration in  B.C.  388.  Various  charges  having 
been  brought  against  him,  he  was  put  on  his  trial 
and  triumphantly  acquitted.  After  this  Arta- 
xerxes promised  him  Amastris,  and  afterward 
Atossa,  in  marriage,  and  having  each  time 
broken  his  word,  Teribazus  excited  an  insurrec- 
tion, but  was  betrayed,  and  slain  by  the  king's 
guards.] 

TERIDATES.     Vid.  TIRIDATES. 

TERINA  (Terinaeus :  now  St.  Eufemia),  a  town 
on  the  western  coast  of  Bruttium,  from  which 
the  Sinus  Terinaeus  derived  its  name.  It  was 
a  Greek  city  founded  by  Croton,  and  was  origi- 
nally a  place  of  some  importance ;  but  it  was 
destroyed  by  Hannibal  in  the  second  Punic  war. 

[TERINAEUS  SINUS  (now  Gulf  of  St.  Eufemia). 
Vid.  TERINA.] 

TERIOLIS  or  TERIOLA  CASTRA,  a  fortress  in 
Raetia,  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  coun- 
try of  the  Tyrol.  Its  site  is  still  occupied  by 
the  Castle  of  Tyrol,  lying  above  Meran,  to  the 
north  of  the  road. 

TERMANTIA,  TERMES,  or  TERMESUS  (Termes- 
tinus  or  Termesius  :  now  Ermita  de  nuestra  Sc- 
nora  de  Tiermes),  a  town  of  the  Arevaci  in  His- 
pania  Tarraconensis,  originally  situated  on  a 
steep  hill,  the  inhabitants  of  which  frequently 
resisted  the  Romans,  who  compelled  them,  in 
consequence,  to  abandon  the  town,  and  build  a 
new  one  on  the  plain,  B.C.  98. 

TERMERA  (TU  Tippcpa),  a  Dorian  city  in  Caria, 
on  the  Promontory  Termerium  (Teppipiov ),  the 
northwestern  headland  of  the  Sinus  Ceramicus. 
Under  the  Romans  it  was  a  free  city. 

TERMESSUS  (Tep/^rjaaof,  and  other  forms: 
ruins  probably  at  Sfienet),  a  city  of  Pisidia,  high 
up  on  the  Taurus,  in  the  pass  through  which 
the  River  Catarrhactes  flowed.  It  was  almost 
impregnable  by  nature  and  art,  so  that  even 
Alexander  did  not  attempt  to  take  it. 

TERMINUS,  a  Roman  divinity  presiding  over 
boundaries  and  frontiers.  His  worship  is  said 
to  have  been  instituted  by  Numa,  who  ordered 
that  every  one  should  mark  the  boundaries  of 
his  landed  property  by  stones  consecrated  to 
Jupiter,  and  at  these  boundary-stones  every 
year  sacrifices  should  be  offered  at  the  festival 
of  the  Terminalia.  The  Terminus  of  the  Ro- 
man state  originally  stood  between  the  fifth  and 
sixth  mile-stone  on  the  road  toward  Laurentum, 
near  a  place  called  Festi.  Another  public  Ter- 
55 


minus  stood  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  in  the  Cap 
itol.  It  is  said  that  when  this  temple  was  to  bo 
founded,  all  the  gods  gave  way  to  Jupiter  and 
Juno,  with  the  exception  of  Terminus  and  Ju- 
ventas,  whose  sanctuaries  the  auguries  would 
not  allow  to  be  removed.  This  was  taken  as 
an  omen  that  the  Roman  state  would  remain 
ever  undiminished  and  young,  r.~  <1  the  chapels 
of  the  two  divinities  were  inclosed  within  the 
walls  of  the  new  temple.  It  is,  however,  proba- 
ble that  the  god  Terminus  is  no  other  than  Ju- 
piter himself,  in  the  capacity  of  protector  of 
boundaries. 

[TERMUS,  a  small  river  of  Sardinia,  flowing 
into  the  sea  on  the  western  or  northern  coast.] 

TERPANDER  (Tepiravdpof),  the  father  of  Greek 
music,  and  through  it  of  lyric  poetry.  He  was 
a  native  of  Antissa  in  Lesbos,  and  flourished  be- 
tween B.C.  700  and  650.  He  removed  from 
Lesbos  to  Sparta,  and  there  introduced  his  new 
system  of  music,  and  established  the  first  mu- 
sical school  or  system  that  existed  in  Greece. 
He  added  three  strings  to  the  lyre,  which  before 
his  time  had  only  four  strings,  thus  making  it 
seven-stringed.  His  music  produced  a  power- 
ful effect  upon  the  Spartans,  and  he  was  held  in 
high  honor  by  them  during  his  life  and  after  his 
death.  He  was  the  first  who  obtained  a  victory 
in  the  musical  contests  at  the  festival  of  the 
Carnea  (676).  We  have  only  three  or  four  frag- 
ments^of  the  remains  of  his  poetry. 

[TERPIUS,  father  of  the  celebrated  minstrel 
Phemius,  who  is  hence  called  by  Homer  Ter- 
piades  (Tepiridtiijf).] 

TERPSICHORE  (Teptpixopa),  one  of  the  nine 
Muses,  presided  over  the  choral  song  and  dan- 
cing. Vid.  Mus-s. 

TERRA.     Vid.  G^BA. 

TERRACINA,  more  usually  written  TARRACINA. 
Vid.  TARRACINA. 

[TERRASIDIUS,  T.,  one  of  Caesar's  officers  in 
Gaul,  was  sent  to  the  Unelli  to  obtain  corn  in 
B.C.  57,  but  detained  a  prisoner  by  them.] 

[TERTIA,  a  female  actress,  and  one  of  the  fa- 
vorite mistresses  of  Verres  in  Sicily.] 

[TERTIA  or  TERTULLA.     Vid.  JUNIA,  No.  2.] 

TERTULLIANCS,  Q.  SEPTIMICS  FLORENS,  usu 
ally  called  TERTULLIAN,  the  most  ancient  of  the 
Latin  fathers  now  extant.  Notwithstanding  the 
celebrity  which  he  has  always  enjoyed,  our 
knowledge  of  his  personal  history  is  extremely 
limited,  and  is  derived  almost  exclusively  from 
a  succinct  notice  by  St.  Jerome.  From  this  we 
learn  that  Tertullian  was  a  native  of  Carthage, 
the  son  of  a  proconsular  centurion  (an  officer 
who  appears  to  have  acted  as  a  sort  of  aid-de- 
camp to  provincial  governors) ;  that  he  flourish- 
ed chiefly  during  the  reigns  of  Septimius  Seve« 
rus  and  of  Caracalla  ;  that  he  became  a  presby- 
ter, and  remained  orthodox  until  he  had  reached 
the  term  of  middle  life,  when,  in  consequence  of 
the  envy  and  ill-treatment  which  he  experienced 
on  the  part  of  the  Roman  clergy,  he  went  over 
to  the  Montanists,  and  wrote  several  books  in 
defence  of  those  heretics ;  that  he  lived  to  a 
great  age,  and  was  the  author  of  many  works. 
His  birth  may  be  placed  about  A.D.  160,  and  his 
death  about  240.  The  most  interesting  of  his 
numerous  works  is  his  Apologia,  or  defence  of 
Christianity.  It  was  written  at  Carthage,  prob- 
ably during  the  reign  of  Severus.  The  writings 

865 


TESTA. 

of  Tertullian  sl.ow  that  he  was  a  man  of  varied 
learning  ;  but  his  style  is  rough,  abrupt,  and  ob- 
scure, abounding  in  far-fetched  metaphors  and 
extravagant  hyperboles.  The  best  editions  of 
the  complete  works  of  Tertullian  are  the  edit, 
of  Venice,  1744,  fol  ,  and  that  by  Scmler  and 
Schutz,  6  vols.  8vo,  Hal.,  1770.  There  is  a  good 
edition  of  the  Apologclicus  by  Havercamp,  8vo, 
Lugd.  Bat.,  1710,  [and  of  the  Apolog.  and  Ad 
Nationes  by  Oehler,  Halle,  1849.] 

TESTA,  C.  TREBATIUS,  a  Roman  jurist,  and  a 
contemporary  and  friend  of  Cicero.  He  was 
recommended  by  Cicero  to  Julius  Caesar  during 
his  proconsulship  of  Gaul,  and  he  followed 
Caesar's  party  after  the  civil  war  broke  out. 
Cicero  dedicated  to  Trebatius  his  book  of  Top- 
tea,  which  he  wrote  to  explain  to  him  this  book 
of  Aristotle.  Trebatius  enjoyed  considerable 
reputation  under  Augustus  as  a  lawyer.  Hor- 
ace addressed  to  him  the  first  satire  of  the  sec- 
ond book.  Trebatius  was  a  pupil  of  Q.  Corne- 
lius Maximus,  and  master  of  Labeo.  He  wrote 
some  books  DC  Jure  Civili  and  De  Religionibus. 
He  is  often  cited  in  the  Digest,  but  there  is  no 
direct  excerpt  from  his  writings. 

TETHYS  (TjjOvc),  daughter  of  Ccelus  (Uranus) 
and  Terra  (Gaea),  and  wife  of  Oceanus,  by  whom 
she  became  the  mother  of  the  Oceanides  and 
of  the  numerous  river-gods.  She  also  educated 
Juno  (Hera),  who  was  brought  to  her  by  Rhea. 

[TETRAPOLIS,  a  union  of  four  cities  or  states  ; 
of  these  the  most  important  were,  1.  The  Attic 
Tctrapolis  (TerpuTroAff  TTJC  'ArrtK^f),  a  district 
of  Attica  lying  northward  from  Athens,  com- 
posed of  CEnoe",  Marathon,  Probalinthus,  and 
Tricorythus,  founded  by  Xuthus.  2.  The  Dori- 
an. Vid.  DORIS.  3.  The  Syrian  (rr/f  Svpj'af,  or 
Se/Uv/ct'f ),  composed  of  Antiochia,  Apamea,  La- 
odicea,  and  Seleucia.] 

TETRICA,  a  mountain  on  the  frontiers  of  Pi- 
cenum  and  the  land  of  the  Sabines,  belonging 
to  the  great  chain  of  the  Apennines. 

TETRICUS,  C.  PESUVIUS,  one  of  the  Thirty  Ty- 
rants, and  the  last  of  the  pretenders  who  ruled 
Gaul  during  its  separation  from  the  empire  un- 
der Gallienus  and  his  successor.  He  reigned 
in  Gaul  from  A.D.  267  to  274,  and  was  defeat- 
ed by  Aurelian  in  274  at  the  battle  of  Chalons, 
on  which  occasion  he  was  believed  to  have  be- 
trayed his  army  to  the  emperor.  It  is  certain 
that  although  Tetricus,  along  with  his  son,  grac- 
ed the  triumph  of  the  conqueror,  he  was  imme- 
diately afterward  treated  with  the  greatest  dis- 
tinction by  Aurelian. 

TEUCER  (Teikpof).  1.  Son  of  the  river-god 
Scamander  by  the  nymph  Idaea,  was  the  first 
king  of  Troy,  whence  the  Trojans  are  some- 
times called  Teucri.  Dardanus  of  Samothrace 
came  to  Teucer,  received  his  daughter  Batea 
or  Arisbe  in  marriage,  and  became  his  success- 
or in  the  kingdom.  According  to  others,  Dar- 
danus was  a  native  prince  of  Troy,  and  Scaman- 
der and  Teucer  immigrated  into  Troas  from 
Crete,  bringing  with  them  the  worship  of  Apollo 
Smintheus. — 2.  Son  of  Telamon  and  Hesione, 
was  a  step-brother  of  Ajax,  and  the  best  archer 
among  the  Greeks  at  Troy.  On  his  return  from 
the  Trojan  war,  Telamon  refused  to  receive 
him  in  Salamis,  because  he  had  not  avenged  the 
death  of  his  brother  Ajax.  Teucer  thereupon 
sailed  away  in  search  of  a  new  home,  which  he 
866 


TEUTONES. 

found  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  which  was  given 
to  him  by  Belus,  king  of  Sidon.  He  there  found- 
ed the  town  of  Salamis,  and  married  Eune,  the 
daughter  of  Cyprus,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Asteria. 

TEUCRI.      Vid.  MYSIA,  TROAS. 

TEUMESSUS  (Tev/ujaaof),  a  mountain  in  Bceo- 
tia,  near  Hypatus,  and  close  to  Thebes,  on  the 
road  from  the  latter  place  to  Chalcis.  It  was 
from  this  mountain  that  Bacchus  (Dionysus),, 
enraged  with  the  Thebans,  sent  the  fox  which 
committed  such  devastations  in  their  territory. 

TEUTA  (Tevru),  wife  of  Agron,  king  of  the 
Illyrians,  assumed  the  sovereign  power  on  the 
death  of  her  husband,  B.C.  231.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  injuries  inflicted  by  the  piratical 
expeditions  of  her  subjects  upon  the  Italian 
merchants,  the  Romans  sent  two  ambassadors 
to  demand  satisfaction,  but  she  not  only  refus- 
ed to  comply  with  their  demands,  but  caused 
the  younger  of  the  two  brothers  to  be  assassin- 
ated on  his  way  home.  War  was  now  declared 
against  her  by  the  Romans.  The  greater  part 
of  her  territory  was  soon  conquered,  and  she 
was  obliged  to  sue  for  peace,  which  was  grant- 
ed to  her  (B.C.  228)  on  condition  of  her  giving 
up  the  greater  part  of  her  dominions. 

[TEtJTAMiAs  (Tevrafiiae),  a  king  of  Larissa  in 
Thessaly,  and  father  of  the  Pelasgian  Lethus.] 

TEUTHRANIA.     Vid.  MYSIA. 

TEDTHRAS  (Tevdpafi.  1.  An  ancient  king  ol 
Mysia,  who  married,  or,  according  to  other  ac- 
counts, adopted  as  his  daughter  Auge,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Aleus.  He  also  received  with  hospitality 
her  son  Telephus,  when  the  latter  came  to  Asia 
in  search  of  his  mother.  He  was  succeeded  in 
the  kingdom  of  Mysia  by  Telephus.  Vid.  TEL- 
EPH0S.  The  fifty  daughters  of  Teuthras,  given 
as  a  reward  to  Hercules,  are  called  by  Ovid 
Teulhrantia  turba. — [2.  A  Greek  warrior  of  Mag- 
nesia, slain  by  Hector  before  Troy. — 3.  A  com- 
panion of  .iEneas,  slain  in  battle  against  the 
Rutuli  in  Italy.] 

TEUTHRAS  (Tei>dpa<; :  now  probably  Demirji- 
Dagh),  a  mountain  in  the  Mysian  district  of 
Teuthrania,  a  southwestern  branch  of  Temnus. 
It  contains  a  celebrated  pass,  called  the  Iron 
Gates  (Dcmir  Kapa),  through  which  all  caravans 
between  Smyrna  and  Brusa  (the  ancient  Pru- 
sias)  must  needs  pass. 

TEUTOBURGIENSIS  SALTUS,  a  range  of  hills  in 
Germany,  covered  with  wood,  extending  north 
of  the  Lippe,  from  Osnabriick  toPaderborn,  and 
known  in  the  present  day  by  the  name  of  the 
Teutoburger  Wald  or  Lippische  Wald.  It  is  cel- 
ebrated on  account  of  the  defeat  and  destruc 
tion  of  Varus  and  three  Roman  legions  by  the 
Germans  under  Arminius,  A.D.  9. 

[TEUTOMATUS,  son  of  Ollovicon,  king  of  the 
Nitiobriges,  joined  Vercingetorix  with  a  body 
of  cavalry  :  being  suddenly  attacked  by  Cas- 
sar's  soldiers  while  reposing  in  his  tent,  he  with 
difficulty  escaped  half  naked  from  the  camp.] 

TEUTONES  or  TEUTONI,  a  powerful  people  in 
Germany,  who  invaded  Gaul  and  the  Roman 
dominions  along  with  the  Cimbri  at  the  latter 
end  of  the  second  century  B.C.  The  history 
of  their  invasion  is  given  under  CIMBRI.  The 
name  Teutones  is  not  a  collective  name  of 
the  whole  people  of  Germany,  as  some  writ- 
ers have  supposed,  but  only  of  one  particulai 


THABOR. 

tribe,  who  probably  dwelt  on  the  coast  of  the 
Baltic,  near  the  Cimbri. 

THABOR,  TABOR,  or  ATABYRIUM  ('AraGvptov, 
LXX.  :  'IraSvptov,  Joseph.  :  now  Jcbcl  Tur),  an 
isolated  mountain  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon  in  Galilee,  between  seventeen 
hundred  and  eighteen  hundred  feet  high.  Its 
summit  was  occupied  by  a  fortified  town  under 
the  Maccabees  and  the  Romans.  This  is  quite 
enough  to  prove  that  it  can  not  be,  as  a  local 
tradition  asserts,  the  lonely  mountain  on  which 
our  Saviour  was  transfigured,  although  the  tra- 
dition has  been  bolstered  up  by  a  variation  of  the 
modern  name  of  the  mountain,  which  makes  it 
Jcbcl  Ntir,  i.  e.,  the  Mountain  of  Light. 

THABRACA  or  TABRACA  (&u6puKa,  TuGadpa  : 
now  Tabarca),  a  city  of  Numidia,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  River  Tusca,  and  on  the  frontier  toward 
Zeugitana. 

THAIS  (9<i?f),  a  celebrated  Athenian  courte- 
san, who  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  on 
his  expedition  into  Asia.  Her  name  is  best 
known  from  the  story  of  her  having  stimulated 
the  conqueror,  during  a  great  festival  at  Per- 
sepolis,  to  set  fire  to  the  palace  of  the  Persian 
kings  ;  but  this  anecdote,  immortalized  as  it 
has  been  by  Dryden's  famous  ode,  is  in  all  prob- 
ability a  mere  fable.  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander, Thais  attached  herself  to  Ptolemy  Lagi, 
by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  two  sons, 
Leontiscus  and  Lagus,  and  of  a  daughter,  Irene. 

THALA  (GuAa),  a  great  city  of  Numidia,  men- 
tioned by  Sallust  and  other  writers,  and  prob- 
ably identical  with  TELEPTE  (TeAeTrrj?)  or  THE- 
LEPTE,  a  city  in  the  south  of  Numidia,  seventy- 
one  Roman  miles  northwest  of  Capsa.  It  was 
the  southwestern  frontier  town  toward  the 
desert,  and  was  connected  by  a  road  with  Ta- 
cape  on  the  Syrtis  Minor.  It  is  probably  to  be 
identified  with  Fcrianah,  or  with  the  large  ruins 
near  it  called  Medinah  el  Kadima. 

THALAM^:  (Qa.7Mfi.ai).  1.  A  fortified  town  in 
Elis,  situated  in  the  mountains  above  Pylos. — 
2.  A  town  in  Messenia,  probably  a  little  to  the 
east  of  the  River  Pamisus. 

THALASSIUS,  TALASSIUS,  or  TALASSIO,  a  Ro- 
man senator  of  the  time  of  Romulus.  At  the 
time  of  the  rape  of  the  Sabine  women,  when  a 
maiden  of  surpassing  beauty  was  carried  off  for 
Thalassius,  the  persons  conducting  her,  in  order 
to  protect  her  against  any  assaults  from  others, 
exclaimed  "  for  Thalassius."  Hence,  it  is  said, 
arose  the  wedding  shout  with  which  a  bride  at 
Rome  was  conducted  to  the  house  of  her  bride- 
groom. 

TH ALES  (9a?.ijf),  the  Ionic  philosopher,  and 
one  of  the  Seven  Sages,  was  born  at  Miletus 
about  B.C.  636,  and  died  about  546,  at  the  age 
of  ninety,  though  the  exact  date  neither  of  his 
birth  nor  of  his  death  is  known.  He  is  said  to 
have  predicted  the  eclipse  of  the  snn,  which 
happened  in  the  reign  of  the  Lydian  king  Alyat- 
les;  to  have  diverted  the  course  of  the  Halys 
in  the  time  of  Croesus;  and  later,  in  order  to 
unite  the  lonians  wben  threatened  by  the  Per- 
sians, to  have  instituted  a  federal  council  in 
Teos.  In  the  lists  of  the  Seven  Sages  his  naraa 
seems  to  have  stood  at  the  head  ;  and  he  dis- 
played his  wisdom  both  by  political  sagacity 
and  by  prudence  in  acquiring  wealth.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  founders  in  Greece  of  the  study 


THAPSACUS. 

of  philosophy  and  mathematics.  In  the  lattei 
science,  however,  we  find  attributed  to  him  only 
proofs  of  propositions  which  belong  to  the  first 
elements  of  geometry,  and  which  could  not  pos- 
sibly have  enabled  him  to  calculate  the  eclipses 
of  the  sun  and  the  course  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  He  may,  however,  have  obtained  his 
knowledge  of  the  higher  branches  of  mathemat- 
ics from  Egypt,  which  country  he  is  said  to  have 
visited.  Thales  maintained  that  water  is  the 
origin  of  things,  meaning  thereby  that  it  is 
water  out  of  which  every  thing  arises  and  into 
which  every  thing  resolves  itself.  Thales  left 
no  works  behind  him. 

THALES  or  THALETAS  (GaJljJf,  9a/b?raf),  the 
celebrated  musisian  and  lyric  poet,  was  a  na 
tive  of  Gortyna  in  Crete.  On  the  invitation  of 
the  Spartans  he  removed  to  Sparta,  where,  by 
the  influence  of  his  music,  he  appeased  the 
wrath  of  Apollo,  who  had  visited  the  city  with 
a  plague,  and  composed  the  factions  of  the  cit- 
izens, who  were  at  enmity  with  each  other.  He 
founded  the  second  of  the  musical  schools  which 
flourished  at  Sparta,  the  first  having  been  es- 
tablished by  Terpander.  The  date  ofThaletas 
is  uncertain,  but  he  may  probably  be  placed 
shortly  after  Terpander.  Vid.  TERPANDER. 

THALIA  (&u?.eia,  Qal.ia).  1.  One  of  the  nine 
Muses,  and,  at  least  in  later  times,  the  Muse  of 
Comedy.  Vid.  Mus.«:.  —  2.  One  of  the  Nereides. 

—  3.  One  of  the  Charites  or  Graces. 
THALLO.     Vid.  HOR^E. 

THALNA  or  TALNA,  M'.  JUVENTIUS,  was  trib- 
une of  the  plebs  B.C.  170,  praetor  167,  and  con- 
sul 163,  when  he  subdued  the  Corsicans.  The 
senate  voted  him  a  thanksgiving,  and  he  was 
so  overcome  with  joy  at  the  intelligence,  which 
he  received  as  he  was  offering  a  sacrifice,  that 
he  dropped  down  dead  on  the  spot. 

[THALPIUS  (9d?.7rtof),  son  of  Eurytus,  one  of 
the  suitors  of  Helen,  and  therefore  compelled  to 
take  part  in  the  expedition  against  Troy  ;  he  led 
the  Epei  in  ten  vessels.] 

TIIAMBES  (QufitiTjs,  QufifiTjs,  Quftrif),  a  mount- 
ain in  the  east  of  Numidia,  containing  the  source 
of  the  River  Rubricatus. 

THAMYDENI  or  THAMYD!T^S  (Qafivdqvoi,  Qajiv- 
61701),  a  people  of  Arabia  Felix,  on  the  coast  of 
the  Sinus  Arabicus,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Thc- 
mond. 

THAMYRIS  orTnAMYRAS  (Qapvpir).  1.  An  an- 
cient Thracian  bard,  was  a  son  of  Philammon 
and  the  nymph  Argiope.  In  his  presumption  he 
challenged  the  Muses  to  a  trial  of  skill,  and,  being 
overcome  in  the  contest,  v'as  deprived  by  them 
of  his  sight  and  of  the  power  of  singing.  He 
was  represented  with  a  broken  lyre  in  his  hand. 

—  [2.  A  Trojan  warrior,  companion  of  /Eneas 
after  the  fall  of  Troy  ;  slain  by  Turnus  in  Italy.] 

THANATOS.     Vid.  MORS. 
THAPSA,  a  city  of  Northern  Africa,  probably 
identical  with  RUSICADA. 
THAPSACUS  (QaKof  :  in  the  Old  Testament, 


Thiphsach  :  an  Aramean  word  signifying  aford: 
Oa\f>aKrji'6f  :  ruins  at  the  ford  of  El-JJamman, 
near  Rakkah),  a  city  of  Syria,  in  the  province 
of  Chalybonilis,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, two  thousand  stadia  south  of  Zeugma,  and 
fifteen  parasangs  from  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Chaboras  (the  Araxcs  of  Xenophon).  At  this 
place  was  the  usual  and,  for  a  long  time,  the  only 

867 


THAPSUS. 

ford  of  the  Euphrates,  by  which  a  passage  was 
made  between  Upper  and  Lower  Asia. 

THAPSUS  (Bathos :  Gu^uof).  1.  A  city  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  on  a  peninsula  of  the 
same  name  (now  /so/a  degli  Magnisi),  founded 
by  Dorian  colonists  from  Megara,  who  soon 
abandoned  it  in  order  to  found  Megara  Hybla. 
— 2.  (Ruins  at  Demas\  a  city  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Byzacena,  in  Africa  Propria,  where 
Caesar  finally  defeated  the  Pompeian  army,  and 
finished  the  civil  war,  B.C.  46. 

TnASosor  THAsus(6a'<70f  :  Bi'iatof  :  now  Tha- 
to  or  Tasso),  an  island  in  the  north  of  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Thrace,  and  opposite  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Nestus.  It  was  at  a  very 
early  period  taken  possession  of  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians on  account  of  its  valuable  gold  mines. 
According  to  tradition,  the  Phoenicians  were 
led  byThasus,  son  of  Poseidon  or  Agenor,  who 
came  from  the  East  in  search  of  Europa,  and 
from  whom  the  island  derived  its  name.  Tha- 
sos  was  afterward  colonized  by  the  Parians,  B.C. 
708,  and  among  the  colonists  was  the  poet  Ar- 
chilochus.  Besides  the  gold  mines  in  Thasos 
itself,  the  Thasians  possessed  still  more  valua- 
ble gold  mines  at  Scapte  Hyle,  on  the  opposite 
coast  of  Thrace.  The  mines  in  the  island  had 
been  most  extensively  worked  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians, but  even  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  they 
were  still  productive.  The  clear  surplus  rev- 
enue of  the  Thasians  before  the  Persian  con- 
quest amounted  to  two  hundred,  and  some- 
times even  to  three  hundred  talents  (£46,000, 
£66,000),  of  which  sum  the  mines  in  Scapte 
Hyle  produced  eighty  talents,  and  those  in  the 
island  somewhat  less.  They  possessed  at  this 
time  a  considerable  territory  on  the  coast  of 
Thrace,  and  were  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
powerful  tribes  in  the  north  of  theJSgean.  They 
were  subdued  by  the  Persians  under  Mardonius, 
and  subsequently  became  part  of  the  Athenian 
maritime  empire.  They  revolted,  however, 
from  Athens  in  B.C.  465,  and  after  sustaining  a 
siege  of  three  years,  were  subdued  by  Cimon  in 
463.  They  were  obliged  to  surrender  to  the 
Athenians  all  their  possessions  in  Thrace,  to 
destroy  their  fortifications,  to  give  up  their  ships, 
and  to  pay  a  large  tribute  for  the  future.  They 
again  revolted  from  Athens  in  411,  and  called 
in  the  Spartans,  but  the  island  was  again  re- 
stored to  the  Athenians  by  Thrasybulus  in  407. 
In  addition  to  its  gold  mines,  Thasos  was  cel- 
ebrated for  its  marble  and  its  wine.  The  soil, 
however,  is  otherwise  barren,  and  merits,  even 
at  the  present  day,  the  description  applied  to  it 
by  the  poet  Archilochus,  "  an  ass's  back-bone, 
overspread  with  wild  wood."  The  principal 
town  in  the  island,  also  called  Thasos,  was  sit- 
uated on  the  northern  coast  upon  three  emi- 
nences. There  are  still  a  few  remains  of  the 
ancient  town. 

[THAUMACI  (now  Dhomoko),  a  city  of  Phthio- 
tis,  in  Thessaly,  situated  on  a  lofty  and  perpen- 
dicular rock,  which  rendered  it  a  place  of  great 
strength.  The  ancients  derived  its  name  from 
the  singularity  of  its  position,  and  the  astonish- 
ment it  caused  when  first  reached  (Bavfiaicoi, 
from  -Savfia,  "  wonder").] 

THAUMAS  (Gav/zaf),  son  of  Pontus  and  Terra 
(Ge),  and  by  the  Oceanid  Electra,  the  father 
•.if  Iris  and  the  Harpies.  Hence  Iris  is  call- 
868 


THEBJE 
ed  Thanmantias,  Thaumantis,  and  Thaumanten 

THE^ETETUS  (Gfa/r^rof),  an  Athenian,  the  son 
of  Euphronius  of  Sunium,  is  introduced  as  one 
of  the  speakers  in  Plato's  Thcatetus  and  Sophia- 
tes,  in  which  dialogues  he  is  spoken  of  as  a  no- 
ble and  well-disposed  youth,  and  ardent  in  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  especially  in  the  study  of 
geometry. 

THEACENES  (Geayev^f).  1.  Tyrant  of  Mega- 
ra, obtained  his  power  about  B.C.  630,  having 
espoused  the  part  of  the  commonalty  against 
the  nobles.  He  was  driven  out  before  his  death. 
He  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Cylon. 
Vid.  CYLON. — 2.  A  Thasian,  the  son  ofTimos- 
thenes,  renowned  for  his  extraordinary  strength 
and  swiftness.  He  gained  numerous  victories 
at  the  Olympian,  Pythian,  Nemean,  and  Isth- 
mian games,  and  is  said  to  have  won  thirteen 
hundred  crowns.  He  flourished  B.C.  480. 

THEANO  (Geavo),  daughter  of  Cisseus,  wife 
of  Antenor,  and  priestess  of  Minerva  (Athena) 
at  Ilion. 

THEANO  (Gcavw),  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
female  philosophers  of  the  Pythagorean  school, 
appears  to  have  been  the  wife  of  Pythagoras, 
and  the  mother  by  him  of  Telauges,  Mnesarchus, 
Myia,  and  Arignote  ;  but  the  accounts  respect- 
ing her  were  various.  Several  letters  are  ex- 
tant under  her  name  ;  and,  though  they  are  not 
genuine,  they  are  valuable  remains  of  a  period 
of  considerable  antiquity. 

THEB.S: (QijGat),  in  the  poets  sometimes TIIEBE 
(Qr/67),  Dor.  Qrj6a),  afterward  DIOSPOLIS  MAGNA 
(AidfTToAtc  /Jfyu^ty,  i-  e.,  Great  City  of  Jove),  in 
Scripture,  No  or  No  AMMON,  was  the  capital  of 
Thebais  or  Upper  Egypt,  and,  for  a  long  time, 
of  the  whole  country.  It  was  reputed  the  old- 
est city  of  the  world.  It  stood  in  about  the 
centre  of  the  Thebaid,  on  both  banks  of  the 
Nile,  above  Coptos,  and  in  the  Nomos  Coptites. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  ^Ethiopians ; 
but  this  is,  of  course,  only  a  form  of  the  tradi- 
tion which  represents  the  civilization  of  Upper 
Egypt  as  having  come  down  the  Nile.  Others 
ascribed  its  foundation  to  Osiris,  who  named  it 
after  his  mother,  and  others  to  Busiris.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  at  the  height  of  its  splen- 
dor, as  the  capital  of  Egypt,  and  as  a  chief  seat 
of  the  worship  of  Ammon,  about  B.C.  1600.  The 
fame  of  its  grandeur  had  reached  the  Greeks  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Homer,  who  describes  it, 
with  poetical  exaggeration,  as  having  a  hund- 
red gates,  from  each  of  which  it  could  send  out 
two  hundred  war-chariots  fully  armed.  Homer's 
epithet  of"  Hundred-Gated"  (eKa-6/*irv%oi)  is  re- 
peatedly applied  to  the  city  by  later  writers.  Its 
real  extent  was  calculated  by  the  Greek  writers 
at  one  hundred  and  forty  stadia  (fourteen  geo- 
graphical miles)  in  circuit ;  and  in  Strabo's  time, 
when  the  long  transference  of  the  seat  of  pow- 
er to  Lower  Egypt  had  caused  it  to  decline 
greatly,  it  still  had  a  circuit  of  eighty  stadia. 
That  these  computations  are  not  exaggerated, 
is  proved  by  the  existing  ruins,  which  extend 
from  side  to  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  here 
about  six  miles  wide ;  while  the  rocks  which 
bound  the  valley  are  perforated  with  tombs. 
These  ruins,  which  are,  perhaps,  the  most  mag- 
nificent in  the  world,  inclose  within  their  site 
the  four  modern  villages  of  Carnac,  Luxor,  Me- 


THEB.E. 

dinet  Alou,  and  Gournou  ;  the  two  former  on  the 
eastern,  and  the  two  latter  on  the  western  side 
of  the  river.  They  consist  of  temples,  colossi, 
sphinxes,  and  obelisks,  and,  on  the  western 
side,  of  tombs,  many  of  which  are  cut  in  the 
rock  and  adorned  with  paintings,  which  are  still 
as  fresh  as  if  just  finished.  These  ruins  are  re- 
markable alike  for  their  great  antiquity  and  for 
the  purity  of  their  style.  It  is  most  probable 
that  the  great  buildings  were  all  erected  before 
the  Persian  invasion,  when  Thebes  was  taken 
by  Cambyses,  and  the  wooden  habitations  burn- 
ed ;  after  which  time  it  never  regained  the  rank 
of  a  capital  city ;  and  thus  its  architectural  mon- 
uments escaped  that  Greek  influence  which  is 
so  marked  in  the  edifices  of  Lower  Egypt. 
Among  its  chief  buildings,  the  ancient  writers 
mention  the  MEMNONICJM,  with  the  two  colossi 
in  front  of  it,  the  temple  of  Ammon,  in  which 
one  of  the  three  chief  colleges  of  priests  was 
established,  and  the  tombs  of  the  kings.  To 
describe  the  ruins  and  discuss  their  identifica- 
tion would  far  exceed  the  limits  of  this  article. 
THEB^L  in  Europe.  1.  (Qf/fxn,  in  poetry  Qr/Grj, 
Doric  Qr,6a :  Qrjdaiof,  fern.  Qrj6ai^,  Thebanus, 
fern.  Thebais :  now  Theba,  Turkish  Stiva),  the 
chief  city  in  Boeotia,  was  situated  in  a  plain 
southeast  of  the  Lake  Helice  and  northeast  of 
Plataeae.  Its  acropolis,  which  was  an  oval  emr 
/nence  cf  no  great  height,  was  called  CADMEA 
(Kafya'a),  because  it  was  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Cadmus,  the  leader  of  a  Phoenician 
colony.  On  each  side  of  this  acropolis  is  a 
small  valley,  running  up  from  the  Theban  plain 
into  the  low  ridge  of  hills  by  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated from  that  of  Plataeae.  Of  these  valleys, 
the  one  to  the  west  is  watered  by  the  Dirce, 
and  the  one  to  the  east  by  the  Ismenus ;  both 
of  which,  however,  are  insignificant  streamlets, 
though  so  celebrated  in  ancient  story.  The 
greater  part  of  the  city  stood  in  these  valleys, 
and  was  built  some  time  after  the  acropolis. 
It  is  said  that  the  fortifications  of  the  city  were 
constructed  by  Amphion  and  his  brother  Zethus ; 
and  that,  when  Amphion  played  his  lyre,  the 
stones  moved  of  their  own  accord  and  formed 
the  wall.  The  territory  of  Thebes  was  called 
THEBAIS  (9i?6a?f ),  and  extended  eastward  as  far 
as  the  Eubcean  Sea.  No  city  is  more  celebrated 
in  the  mythical  ages  of  Greece  than  Thebes. 
It  was  here  that  the  use  of  letters  was  first  in- 
troduced from  Phoenicia  into  Western  Europe. 
It  was  the  reputed  birth-place  of  the  two  great 
divinities,  Dionysus  and  Hercules.  It  was  also 
the  native  city  of  the  great  seer  Tiresias,  as 
well  as  of  the  great  musician  Amphion.  It  was 
the  scene  of  the  tragic  fate  of  (Edipus,  and  of 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  wars  in  the  myth- 
ical annals  of  Greece.  Polynices,  who  had 
been  expelled  from  Thebes  by  his  brother  Eteo- 
cles,  induced  six  other  heroes  to  espouse  his 
cause,  and  marched  against  the  city  ;  but  they 
were  all  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Thebans, 
with  the  exception  of  Adrastus,  Polynices  and 
Eteocles  falling  by  each  other's  hands.  This 
is  usually  called  the  war  of  the  "  Seven  against 
Thebes."  A  few  years  afterward,  "  the  Epigo- 
ni,"  or  descendants  of  the  seven  heroes,  march- 
ed against  Thebes  to  revenge  their  fathers' 
death ;  they  took  the  city  and  razed  it  to  the 
ground.  Thebes  is  not  mentioned  by  Homer 


j  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Greek  cities  which 
fought  against  Troy,  as  it  was  probably  sup- 
posed not  yet  to  have  recovered  from  its  dev- 
astation by  the  Epigoni.  It  appears,  however, 
at  the  earliest  historical  period  as  a  large  and 
flourishing  city ;  and  it  is  represented  as  pos- 
sessing seven  gates,  the  number  assigned  to  it 
in  the  ancient  legends.  Its  government,  after 
the  abolition  of  monarchy,  was  an  aristocracy, 
or,  rather,  an  oligarchy,  which  continued  to  he 
the  prevailing  form  of  government  for  a  long 
time,  although  occasionally  exchanged  for  that 
of  a  democracy.  Toward  the  end  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  however,  the  oligarchy  finally 
disappears,  and  Thebes  appears  under  a  demo- 
cratical  form  of  government  from  this  time  till 
it  became  with  the  rest  of  Greece  subject  to  the 
Romans.  The  Thebans  were  from  an  early  pe- 
riod inveterate  enemies  of  their  neighbors,  the 
Athenians.  Their  hatred  of  the  latter  people 
was  probably  one  of  the  reasons  which  induced 
them  to  desert  the  cause  of  Grecian  liberty  in 
the  great  struggle  against  the  Persian  power. 
In  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  Thebans  naturally 
espoused  the  Spartan  side,  and  contributed  not 
j  a  little  to  the  downfall  of  Athens.  But,  in  com- 
mon with  the  other  Greek  states,  they,  soon 
!  became  disgusted  with  the  Spartan  supremacy, 
|  and  joined  the  confederacy  formed  against  Spar- 
j  ta  in  B.C.  394.  The  peace  of  Antalcidas  in  387 
I  put  an  end  to  hostilities  in  Greece ;  but  the 
treacherous  seizure  of  the  Cadmea  by  the  La- 
cedaemonian general  Phcebidas  in  382,  and  its 
recovery  by  the  Theban  exiles  in  379,  led  to  a 
war  between  Thebes  and  Sparta,  in  which  the 
former  not  only  recovered  its  independence,  but 
forever  destroyed  the  Lacedaemonian  suprem- 
acy. This  was  the  most  glorious  period  in  the 
Theban  annals  ;  and  the  decisive  defeat  of  the 
Spartans  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra  in  371  made 
Thebes  the  first  power  in  Greece.  Her  great- 
ness, however,  was  mainly  due  to  the  pre-emi- 
nent abilities  of  her  citizens,  Epaminondas  and 
Pelopidas  ;  and  with  the  death  of  the  former  at 
the  battle  of  Mantinea  in  362,  she  lost  the  su- 
premacy which  she  had  so  recently  gained. 
Soon  afterward  Philip  of  Macedon  began  to  ex- 
ercise a  paramount  influence  over  the  greater 
part  of  Greece.  The  Thebans  were  induced,  by 
the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  to  forget  their 
old  animosities  against  the  Athenians,  and  to 
join  the  latter  in  protecting  the  liberties  of 
Greece  ;  but  their  united  forces  were  defeated 
by  Philip,  at  the  battle  of  Chaeronea,  in  338. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  Philip  and  the  accession 
of  Alexander,  the  Thebans  made  a  last  attempt 
to  recover  their  liberty,  but  were  cruelly  pun- 
ished by  the  young  king.  The  city  was  taken 
by  Alexander  in  336,  arid  was  entirely  destroy- 
ed, with  the  exception  of  the  temples,  and  the 
house  of  the  poet  Pindar  ;  six  thousand  inhab- 
itants were  slain,  and  thirty  thousand  sold  as 
slaves.  In  316  the  city  was  rebuilt  by  Cassan- 
der,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  In 
290  it  was  taken  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and 
again  suffered  greatly.  Dicttarchus,  who  flour- 
ished about  this  time,  has  left  us  an  interesting 
account  of  the  city.  He  describes  it  as  about 
seventy  stadia  (nearly  nine  miles)  in  circumfer 
ence,  in  form  nearly  circular,  and  in  appearance 
somewhat  gloomy.  He  says  that  it  is  plenti- 


THEBAIS. 

fully  provided  with  water,  and  contains  better 
gardens  than  any  other  city  in  Greece  ;  that  it 
is  most  agreeable  in  summer,  on  account  of  its 
plentiful  supply  of  cool  and  fresh  water,  and  its 
large  gardens  ;  but  that  in  winter  it  is  very 
unpleasant,  being  destitute  of  fuel,  exposed  to 
floods  and  cold  winds,  and  frequently  visited  by 
heavy  falls  of  snow.  He  further  represents  the 
people  as  proud  and  insolent,  and  always  ready 
to  settle  disputes  by  fighting  rather  than  by  the 
ordinary  course  of  justice.  It  is  supposed  that 
trie  population  of  the  city  at  this  time  may  have 
been  between  fifty  thousand  and  sixty  thousand 
souls.  After  the  Macedonian  period  Thebes 
rapidly  declined  in  importance  ;  and  it  received 
its  last  blow  from  Sulla,  who  gave  half  of  its 
territory  to  the  Delphians.  Strabo  describes  it 
as  only  a  village  in  his  time  ;  and  Pausanias, 
who  visited  it  in  the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  says  that  the  Cadmea  alone  was 
then  inhabited.  The  modern  town  is  also  con- 
fined to  this  spot,  and  the  surrounding  country 
is  covered  with  a  confused  heap  of  ruins.  —  2. 
Surnamed  PHTHIOTIC^E  (Qfj6ai  ai  $6i<jnfiec),  an 
important  city  of  Thessaly  in  the  district  Phthi- 
otis,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  coast,  and 
with  a  good  harbor.  —  3.  A  town  in  Lucania, 
rarely  mentioned. 

THEBAIS.     Vid.  ^EGYPTUS. 

THESE  (6176)7  TffOTrAa/c/T?),  a  city  of  Mysia,  on 
the  wooded  slope  of  Mount  Placus,  destroyed 
by  Achilles.  It  was  said  to  have  been  the  birth- 
place of  Andromache  and  Chryseis.  It  existed 
;n  the  historical  period,  but  by  the  time  of  Stra- 
bo it  had  fallen  into  ruin,  and  by  that  of  Pliny  it 
had  vanished.  Its  site  was  near  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Adramyttium,  where  a  beautiful 
tract  of  country  was  named,  after  it,  Thebanus 
campus  (TO  Qfi6r)£  nediov). 

[THECHES  MONS  (O^J?f,  a  summit  of  the  range 
called  PARYADRES  :  now  Kop  Tagh),  a  mount- 
ain on  the  borders  of  Pontus  and  Colchis,  from 
which  the  Greek  troops  of  Cyrus  under  Xeno- 
phon  first  got  a  view  of  the  sea  (Euxine).] 

THECOA  or  TEKOA  (QeKoa,  Joseph.  :  Qenue, 
LXX.  :  ruins  at  Tekua),  a  city  of  Judaea,  on  the 
edge  of  the  desert,  six  miles  south  of  Bethlehem, 
and  twelve  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  was  the 
birth-place  of  the  prophet  Amos.  (Vid.  also  2 
Chron.,  xi.)  In  the  time  of  Jerome  it  was  a 
mere  village. 

THELPUSA  or  TELPHUSSA  (Qehnovoa,  Teipoucr- 
aa  :  Tetyovoiof  :  ruins  near  Vanena),  a  town  in 
Arcadia,  on  the  River  Ladon. 

[THELXIEPEIA,  one  of  the  Sirens.     Vid.  SIRE- 

NES.] 

[THELXINOE,  one  of  the  earlier  Muses.     Vid. 


THEMAN,  a  city  of  the  Edomites,  in  Arabia 
Petraea,  whose  people  were  celebrated  for  their  i 
wisdom. 

THEMIS  (Q^tf),  daughter  of  Coelus  (Uranus)  ; 
and  Terra  (Ge),  was  married  to  Jupiter  (Zeus),  i 
by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  the  Horae,  j 
Eunomia,  Dice  (Astraea),  Irene,  and  of  the  Moe-  j 
rae.     In  the  Homeric  poems,  Themis  is  the  per- 
sonification of  the  order  of  things  established 
by  law,  custom,  and  equity,  whence  she  is  de-  j 
ecribed  as  reigning  in  the  assemblies  of  men,  ! 
^aud  as,  convening,  by  the  command  of  Jupiter 
'(Zeus),  the  assembly  of  the  gods.     She  dwells  , 
870 


THEMISTOCLES. 

in  Olympus,  and  is  on  friendly  terms  with  Jun« 
(Hera).  She  is  also  described  as  a  prophetic 
divinity,  and  is  said  to  have  been  in  possession 
of  the  Delphic  oracle  as  the  successor  of  Terra 
(Ge),  and  previous  to  Apollo.  Nymphs  believed 
to  be  daughters  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Themis 
lived  in  a  cave  on  the  River  Eridanus,  and  the 
Hesperides  also  are  called  daughters  of  Jupitei 
(Zeus)  and  Themis.  She  is  often  represented 
on  coins  resembling  the  figure  of  Minerva 
(Athena)  with  a  cornucopia  and  a  pair  of  scales. 

THEMISCYRA  (Qeftiaxvpa'),  a  plain  on  the  coast 
of  Pontus,  extending  east  of  the  River  Iris,  be- 
yond the  Thermodon,  celebrated  from  very  an- 
cient times  as  the  country  of  the  Amazons.  It 
was  well  watered,  and  rich  in  pasture.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  Thermodon  was  a  city  of  the  same 
name,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  time  of 
Augustus.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  present 
Thermeh  occupies  its  site.  Vid.  THERMODON. 

THEMISON  (Qefiiauv),  a  celebrated  Greek  phy- 
sician, and  the  founder  of  the  medical  sect  of 
the  Methodici,  was  a  native  of  Laodicea  in 
Syria,  and  lived  in  the  first  century  B.C.  He 
wrote  several  medical  works,  but  of  these  only 
the  titles  and  a  few  fragments  remain.  The 
physician  mentioned  by  Juvenal  was  probably  a 
contemporary  of  the  poet,  and  consequently  a 
different  person  from  the  founder  of  the  Metho- 
dici. 

THEMISTIUS  (Qe^iaTiof),  a  distinguished  phi- 
losopher and  rhetorician,  was  a  Paphlagonian, 
and  flourished,  first  at  Constantinople  and  after- 
ward at  Rome,  in  the  reigns  of  Constantius, 
Julian,  Jovian,  Valens,  Gratian,  and  Theodosius. 
He  enjoyed  the  favor  of  all  those  emperors,  and 
was  promoted  by  them  to  the  highest  honors  of 
the  state.  After  holding  various  public  offices, 
and  being  employed  on  many  important  em- 
bassies, he  was  made  prefect  of  Constantinople 
by  Theodosius,  A.D.  384.  So  great  was  the 
confidence  reposed  in  him  by  Theodosius,  that, 
though  Themistius  was  a  heathen,  the  emperor 
intrusted  his  son  Arcadius  to  the  tutorship  of 
the  philosopher,  387.  The  life  of  Themistius 
probably  did  not  extend  beyond  390.  Besides 
the  emperors,  he  numbered  among  his  friends 
the  chief  orators  and  philosophers  of  the  age, 
Christian  as  well  as  heathen.  Not  only  Liba- 
nius,  but  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  also  was  his 
friend  and  correspondent,  and  the  latter,  in  an 
epistle  still  extant,  calls  him  the  "  king  of  argu- 
ments." The  orations  (irofartKol  Aoyoi)  of  The- 
mistius, extant  in  the  time  of  Photius,  were 
thirty-six  in  number,  of  which  thirty-three  have 
come  down  to  us  in  the  original  Greek,  and  one 
in  a  Latin  version.  The  other  two  were  sup- 
posed to  be  lost,  until  one  of  them  was  discov- 
ered by  Cardinal  Maio,  in  the  Ambrosian  Libra- 
ry at  Milan,  in  1816.  The  best  edition  of  the 
Orations  is  by  Dindorf,  Lips.,  1832,  8vo. 

[THEMISTO  (&e/uaTu),  of  Cyprus,  mother  of 
Homer,  according  to  one  tradition.] 

THEMISTOCLES  (QtpioTOKMjc),  the  celebrated 
Athenian,  was  the  son  of  Neocles  and  Abroto- 
non,  a  Thracian  woman,  and  was  born  about 
B.C.  514.  In  his  youth  he  had  an  impetuous 
character  ;  he  displayed  great  intellectual  pow- 
er combined  with  a  lofty  ambition  and  desire 
of  political  distinction.  He  began  his  career 
by  setting  himself  in  opposition  to  those  who 


THEMISTOCLES. 

had  most  power,  among  whom  Aristides  was 
the  chief.  The  fame  which  Miltiades  acquired 
by  his  generalship  at  Marathon  made  a  deep 
impression  on  Themistocles  ;  and  he  said  that 
the  trophy  of  Miltiades  would  not  let  him  sleep. 
His  rival  Aristides  was  ostracized  in  483,  to 
which  event  Themistocles  contributed ;  and 
from  this  time  he  was  the  political  leader  in 
Athens.  In  481  he  was  archon  eponymus.  It 
was  about  this  time  that  he  persuaded  the  Athe- 
nians to  employ  the  produce  of  the  silver  mines 
of  Laurium  in  building  ships,  instead  of  dis- 
tributing it  among  the  Athenian  citizens.  His 
great  object  was  to  draw  the  Athenians  to  the 
sea,  as  he  was  convinced  that  it  was  only  by 
their  fleet  that  Athens  could  repel  the  Persians 
and  obtain  the  supremacy  in  Greece.  Upon 
the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes,  Themisto- 
cles was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Athe- 
nian fleet ;  and  to  his  energy,  prudence,  fore- 
sight, and  courage  the  Greeks  mainly  owed 
their  salvation  from  the  Persian  dominion.  Upon 
the  approach  of  Xerxes,  the  Athenians,  on 
the  advice  of  Themistocles,  deserted  their  city, 
and  removed  their  women,  children,  and  infirm 
persons  to  Salamis,  ^Egina,  and  Troezen ;  but, 
as  soon  as  the  Persians  took  possession  of 
Athens,  the  Peloponnesians  were  anxious  to  re- 
tire to  the  Corinthian  isthmus.  Themistocles 
used  all  his  influence  in  inducing  the  Greeks  to 
remain  and  fight  with  the  Persians  at  Salamis, 
and  with  the  greatest  difficulty  persuaded  the 
Spartan  commander  Eurybiades  to  stay  at  Sal- 
amis.  But  as  soon  as  the  fleet  of  Xerxes  made 
its  appearance,  the  Peloponnesians  were  again 
anxious  to  sail  away  ;  and  when  Themistocles 
saw  that  he  should  be  unable  to  persuade  them 
to  remain,  he  sent  a  faithful  slave  to  the  Persian 
commanders,  informing  them  that  the  Greeks 
intended  to  make  their  escape,  and  that  the 
Persians  had  now  the  opportunity  of  accomplish- 
ing a  noble  enterprise,  if  they  would  only  cut 
off  the  retreat  of  the  Greeks.  The  Persians 
believed  what  they  were  told,  and  in  the  night 
their  fleet  occupied  the  whole  of  the  channel 
between  Salamis  and  the  main  land.  The 
Greeks  were  thus  compelled  to  fight ;  and  the 
result  was  the  great  and  glorious  victory,  in 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  fleet  of  Xerxes 
was  destroyed.  This  victory,  which  was  due 
to  Themistocles,  established  his  reputation 
among  the  Greeks.  On  his  visiting  Sparta,  he 
was  received  with  extraordinary  honors  by  the 
Spartans,  who  gave  Eurybiades  the  palm  of 
bravery,  and  to  Themistocles  the  palm  of  wis- 
dom and  skill,  with  a  crown  of  olive,  and  the 
best  chariot  that  Sparta  possessed.  The  Athe- 
nians began  to  restore  their  ruined  city  after 
the  barbarians  had  left  the  country,  and  The- 
mistocles advised  them  to  rebuild  the  walls,  and 
to  make  them  stronger  than  before.  The  Spar- 
tans sent  an  embassy  to  Athens  to  dissuade 
them  from  fortifying  their  city,  for  which  we 
can  assign  no  motive  except  a  miserable  jeal- 
ousy. Themistocles,  however,  went  on  an  em- 
bassy to  Sparta,  where  he  amused  the  Spartans 
with  lies  till  the  walls  were  far  enough  ad- 
vanced to  be  in  a  state  of  defence.  It  was 
upon  his  advice,  also,  that  the  Athenians  forti- 
fied the  port  of  Piraeus.  The  influence  of  The- 
mistocles docs  not  appear  to  have  survived  the 


THEMISTOCLES. 

expulsion  of  the  Persians  from  Greece  and  the 
fortification  of  the  ports.  He  was  probably  just- 
ly accused  of  enriching  himself  by  unfair  means, 
for  he  had  no  scruples  about  the  way  of  accom- 
plishing an  end.  A  story  is  told  that  after  the 
retreat  of  the  fleet  of  Xerxes,  when  the  Greek 
fleet  was  wintering  at  Pagasae,  Themistocles 
told  the  Athenians  in  the  public  assembly  that 
he  had  a  scheme  to  propose  which  was  benefi- 
cial to  the  state,  but  could  not  be  expounded  to 
the  many.  Aristides  was  named  to  receive 
the  secret,  and  to  report  upon  it.  His  report 
was  that  nothing  'could  be  more  profitable  than 
the  scheme  of  Themistocles,  but  nothing  more 
unjust ;  and  the  Athenians  abided  by  the  report 
of  Aristides.  In  471  Themistocles  was  ostra- 
cized from  Athens,  and  retired  to  Argos.  After 
the  discovery  of  the  treasonable  correspondence 
of  Pausanias  with  the  Persian  king,  the  Lace- 
daemonians sent  to  Athens  to  accuse  Themisto- 
cles of  being  privy  to  the  design  of  Pausanias. 
Thereupon  the  Athenians  sent  off  persons  with 
the  Lacedaemonians  with  instructions  to  arrest 
Themistocles  (466).  Themistocles,  hearing  of 
what  was  designed  against  him,  first  fled  from 
Argos  to  Corcyra,  and  then  to  Epirus,  where 
he  took  refuge  in  the  house  of  Admetus,  king 
of  the  Molossi,  who  happened  to  be  from  home. 
Admetus  was  no  friend  to  Themistocles,  but 
his  wife  told  the  fugitive  that  he  would  be  pro- 
tected if  he  would  take  their  child  in  his  arms 
and  sit  on  the  hearth.  The  king  soon  came  in, 
and,  respecting  his  suppliant  attitude,  raised  him 
up,  and  refused  to  surrender  him  to  the  Lace- 
daemonian and  Athenian  agents.  Themistocles 
finally  reached  the  coast  of  Asia  in  safety. 
Xerxes  was  now  dead  (465),  and  Artaxerxes 
was  on  the  throne.  Themistocles  went  up  to 
visit  the  king  at  his  royal  residence  ;  and  on 
his  arrival  he  sent  the  king  a  letter,  in  which  he 
promised  to  do  the  king  a  good  service,  and 
prayed  that  he  might  be  allowed  to  wait  a  year, 
and  then  to  explain  personally  what  brought 
him  there.  In  a  year  he  made  himself  master 
of  the  Persian  language  and  the  Persian  usages, 
and,  being  presented  to  the  king,  he  obtained 
the  greatest  influence  over  him,  and  such  as  no 
Greek  ever  before  enjoyed  ;  partly  owing  to  his 
high  reputation  and  the  hopes  that  he  gave  tc 
the  king  of  subjecting  the  Greeks  to  the  Per- 
sians. The  king  gave  him  a  handsome  allo"  • 
ance,  after  the  Persian  fashion  ;  Magnesia  sup- 
plied him  with  bread  nominally,  but  paid  him  an- 
nually fifty  talents.  Lampsacus  supplied  wine, 
and  Myus  the  other  provisions.  Before  he  could 
accomplish  any  thing  he  died ;  some  say  that 
he  could  not  perform  his  promise  to  the  king. 
A  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  the 
Agora  of  Magnesia,  which  place  was  within  his 
government.  It  is  said  that  his  bones  were 
secretly  taken  to  Attica  by  his  relations,  and 
privately  interred  there.  Themistocles  died  in 
449,  at  the  age  of  sixty-five.  Themistocles  un- 
doubtedly possessed  great  talents  as  a  states- 
man, great  political  sagacity,  a  ready  wit,  and 
excellent  judgment :  but  he  was  not  an  honest 
man ;  and,  like  many  other  clever  men  with 

,  little  morality,  he  ended  his  career  unhappily 
and  ingloriously,  an  exile  and  a  traitor  too. 

I  Twenty-one  letters  attributed  to  Themistocles 
are  spurious. 

R7I 


THEMISTOGENES. 

THEMISTOGENES  (Geniffroyevqc.),  of  Syracuse,  ' 
is  said  by  Xcnophon  (Hell.,  in.,  1,  $  2),  to  have 
written  a  work  on  the  Anabasis  of  Cyrus  ;  but 
most  modern  writers,  following  the  statement  ; 
of  Plutarch,  suppose  that  Xenophon  really  re- 1 
fers  to  his  own  work,  to  which  he  prefixed  the 
name  of  Themistogenes. 

THEOCLES  (Geo/c?.vf),  son  of  Hegylus,  was  a 
Lacedajmonian  statuary,  and  one  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  Dipcenus  and  Scyllis.  He  therefore 
flourished  about  B.C.  550. 

THEOCLYMENUS  (QeoK^vjisvof),  son  of  Poly- 
phides  of  Hyperasia,  and  a  descendant  of  Me-  j 
lampus,  was  a  soothsayer,  and,  in  consequence 
of  a  murder,  was  obliged  to  take  to  flight,  and 
came  to  Telemachus  when  the  latter  quitted 
Sparta  to  return  to  Ithaca. 

THEOCOSMOS  (Gco/coff^of),  of  Megara,  a  statu-  ! 
ary,  flourished  about  B.C.  435-430. 

THEOCRITUS  (Qconpiros).     1.  Of  Chios,  an  or- 
ator, sophist,  and  perhaps  an  historian,  in  the  ; 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great.     He  was  contem- 
porary with  Ephorus  and  Theopompus ;  and  the  > 
latter  was  his  fellow-citizen  and  political  oppo- 
nent, Theopompus  belonging  to  the  aristocratic 
and  Macedonian,  a«d  Theocritus  to  the  demo- 
cratic and  patriotic  party.     Theocritus  is  said 
to  have  also  given  deep  offence  to  Alexander  by 
the  sarcastic  wit,  which  appears  to  have  been 
the  chief  cause  of  his  celebrity,  and  which  at  I 
last  cost  him  his  life.     He  was  put  to  death  by  ; 
Antigonus,  in  revenge  for  a  jest  upon  the  king's  | 
single  eye.     None  of  his  works  are  extant  with  ; 
the  exception  of  two  or  three  epigrams,  among 
which  is  a  very  bitter  one  upon  Aristotle. —  ; 
2.  The  celebrated  bucolic  poet,  was  a  native  of  j 
Syracuse,  and  the  son  of  Praxagoras  and  Phi-  I 
linna.     He  visited  Alexandrea  during  the  latter 
end  of  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  where  he  re-  j 
ceived  the  instruction  of  Philetas  and  Asclepi-  j 
ades,  and  began  to  distinguish  himself  as  a  poet. 
His  first  efforts  obtained  for  him  the  patronage 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who  was  associated  j 
in  the  kingdom  with  his  father,  Ptolemy  Soter,  j 
in  B.C.  285,  and  in  whose  praise,  therefore,  the 
poet  wrote  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  seven-  . 
teenth  Idyls.     At  Alexandrea  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  poet  Aratus,  to. whom  he  ad- 
dressed his  sixth  Idyl.     Theocritus  afterward 
returned  to  Syracuse,  and  lived  there  under 
Hiero  II.     It  appears  from  the  sixteenth  Idyl 
that  Theocritus  was  dissatisfied,  both  with  the 
want  of  liberality  on  the  part  of  Hiero  in  reward- 
ing him  for  his  poems,  and  with  the  political  state 
of  his  native  country.     It  may  therefore  be  sup- 
posed that  he  devoted  the  latter  part  of  his  life  i 
almost  entirely  to  the  contemplation  of  those  ! 
scenes  of  nature  and  of  country  life,  on  his  rep- 
resentations of  which  his  fame  chiefly  rests. 
Theocritus  was  the  creator  of  bucolic  poetry  as 
a  branch  of  Greek,  and,  through  imitators,  such 
as  Virgil,  of  Roman  literature.    The  bucolic 
idyls  of  Theocritus  are  of  a  dramatic  and  mi- 
metic character.     They  are  pictures  of  the  or- 
dinary life  of  the  common  people  of  Sicily ; 
whence  their  name,  ildr),  tiiv^ia.     The  pasto- 
ral poems  and  romances  of  later  times  are  a 
totally  different  sort  of  composition  from  the 
bucolics  of  Theocritus,  who  knows  nothing  of 
the  affected  sentiment,  the  pure  innocence,  and 
he  primeval  simplicity,  which  have  been  as- 
872 


THEODORETUS. 

cribed  to  the  imaginary  shepherds  of  a  fictitious 
Arcadia.  He  merely  exhibits  simple  and  faith- 
ful pictures  of  the  common  life  of  the  Sicilian 
people,  in  a  thoroughly  objective,  although  truly 
poetical  spirit.  Dramatic  simplicity  and  truth 
are  impressed  upon  the  pictures  exhibited  in  his 
poems,  into  the  coloring  of  which  he  has  thrpwn 
much  of  the  natural  comedy  which  is  always 
seen  in  the  common  life  of  a  free  people.  The 
collection,  which  has  come  down  to  us  under  the 
name  of  Theocritus,  consists  of  thirty  poems, 
called  by  the  general  title  of  Idyls,  a  fragment 
of  a  few  lines  from  a  poem  entitled  Berenice,  and 
twenty-two  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 
But  these  Idyls  are  not  all  bucolic,  and  were 
not  all  written  by  Theocritus.  Those  idyls, 
of  which  the  genuineness  is  the  most  doubtful, 
are  the  twelfth,  seventeenth,  eighteenth,  nine- 
teenth, twentieth,  twenty-sixth,  twenty-sev- 
enth, twenty-ninth,  and  thirtieth.  The  dialect 
of  Theocritus  is  a  mixed  or  eclectic  dialect,  in 
which  the  new  or  softened  Doric  predominates. 
The  best  editions  of  Theocritus  are  by  Kiess- 
ling,  Lips.,  1819,  by  Wiistemann,  Gothse,  1830, 
[by  Wordsworth,  Camb.,  1844,  and  by  Ameis 
in  the  Poeta.  Bucolici  et  Didactici,  Paris,  1846.] 

THEODECTES  (6fO(!e'Krj?f),  of  Phaselis,  in  Pam- 
phylia,  was  a  highly  distinguished  rhetorician 
and  tragic  poet  in  the  time  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
don.  He  was  the  son  of  Aristander,  and  a  pu- 
pil of  Isocrates  and  Aristotle.  The  greater  part 
of  his  life  was  spent  at  Athens,  where  he  died 
at  the  age  of  forty-one.  The  people  of  his  na- 
tive city  honored  the  memory  of  Theodectes 
with  a  statue  in  their  agora,  which  Alexander, 
when  he  stopped  at  Phaselis  on  his  march  to- 
ward Persia,  crowned  with  garlands,  to  show 
his  respect  for  the  memory  of  a  man  who  had 
been  associated  with  himself  by  means  of  Aris- 
totle and  philosophy.  The  passages  of  Aris- 
totle, in  which  Theodectes  is  mentioned,  show 
the  strong  regard  and  high  esteem  in  which  he 
was  held  by  the  philosopher.  Theodectes  de- 
voted himself,  during  the  first  part  of  his  life, 
entirely  to  rhetoric,  and  afterward  he  turned  his 
attention  to  tragic  poetry.  He  was  a  profes- 
sional teacher  of  rhetoric  and  composer  of  ora- 
tions for  others,  and  was  in  part  dependent  on 
this  profession  for  his  subsistence.  None  of 
the  works  of  Theodectes  have  come  down  to 
us.  He  wrote  fifty  tragedies,  which  were  very 
popular  among  his  contemporaries.  His  treatise 
on  rhetoric  is  repeatedly  referred  to  by  the  an- 
cient writers. 

THEODOKSTUS  (QtodupijTofi,  an  eminent  ec- 
clesiastic of  the  fifth  century,  was  born  at  An- 
tioch  about  A.D.  393,  and  was  made  bishop  of 
Cyrus,  or  Cyrrhus,  a  small  city  near  the  Eu- 
phrates, in  420  or  423.  He  was  accused  of  be- 
ing a  Nestorian,  and  was  in  consequence  de- 
posed at  the  second  council  of  Ephesus  in  449 
but  he  was  restored  to  his  diocese  at  the  coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon,  in  451,  upon  his  anathemati- 
zing Nestorius  and  his  doctrines.  He  appears 
to  have  died  in  457  or  458.  Theodoret  was  a 
man  of  learning  and  of  sound  judgment.  The 
most  important  of  his  works  are,  1.  Commen- 
taries on  various  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  in  which  he  adopts  the  method, 
not  of  a  continuous  commentary,  but  of  propo- 
sing and  solving  those  difficulties  whhh  h« 


THEODORIAS. 

thinks  likely  to  occur  to  a  thoughtful  reader. 

2.  An  Ecclesiastical  History,  in  five  books,  in- 
tended as  a  continuation  of  the  History  of  Eu- 
sebius.     It  begins  with  the  history  of  Arianisrn, 
under  Constantino  the  Great,  and  ends  in  429. 

3.  An  apologetic  treatise,  intended  to  exhibit 
the  confirmations  of  the  truth  of  Christianity 
contained  in  the  Gentile  philosophy.     4.  Ten 
Orations  on  Providence.      The  complete  edi- 
tions of  Theodoret  are  by  Sirmond  and  Gamier, 
5  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1642-1684,  and  by  Schulze 
and  Noesselt,  Halae  Sax.,  1769-1774,  5  vols.  in 
ten  parts,  8voi 

THEODORIAS.      Vid.  VACCA. 

THEoooRicasor  THEODERICUS.  I.I.  King  of 
the  Visigoths  from  A.D.  418  to  451,  was  the  suc- 
cessor of  Wallia,  but  appears  to  have  been  the 
son  of  the  great  Alaric.  He  fell  fighting  on  the 
side  of  Ae'tius  and  the  Romans  at  the  great 
battle  of  Chalons,  in.  which  Attila  was  defeated, 
451.— 2.  II.  King  of  the  Visigoths  A.D.  452- 
466,  second  son  of  Theodoric  I.  He  succeeded 
to  the  throne  by  the  murder  of  his  brother  Tlio- 
rismond.  He  ruled  over  the  greater  part  of 
Gaul  and  Spain.  He  was  assassinated  in  466 
by  his  brother  Euric,  who  succeeded  him  on  the 
throne.  Theodoric  II.  was  a  patron  of  letters 
and  learned  men.  The  poet  Sidonius  Apollina- 
ris  resided  for  some  time  at  his  court.— -3.  Sur- 
named  the  GREAT,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Theodemir  in  475.  He  was 
aUfirst  an  ally  of  Zeno,  the  emperor  of  Constan- 
tinople, but  was  afterward  involved  in  hostili- 
ties with  the  emperor.  In  order  to  get  rid  of 
Theodoric,  Zeno  gave  him  permission  to  invade 
Italy,  and  expel  the  usurper  Odoacer  from  the 
country.  Theodoric  entered  Italy  in  489,  and 
after  defeating  Odoacer  in  three  great  battles, 
laid  siege  to  Ravenna,  in  which  Odoacer  took 
refuge.  After  a  siege  of  three  years,  Odoacer 
capitulated,  on  condition  that  he  and  Theodoric 
should  rule  jointly  over  Italy  ;  but  Odoacer  was 
soon  afterward  murdered  by  his  more  fortunate 
rival  (493).  Theodoric  thus  became  master  of 
Italy,  which  he  ruled  for  thirty-three  years,  till 
his  death  in  526.  His  long  reign  was  prosper- 
ous and  beneficent,  and  under  his  sway  Italy 
recovered  from  the  ravages  to  which  it  had  been 
exposed  for  so  many  years.  Theodoric  was 
also  a  patron  of  literature  ;  and  among  his  min- 
isters were  Cassiodorus  and  Boethius,  the  two 
last  writers  who  can  claim  a  place  in  the  litera- 
ture of  ancient  Rome.  But  prosperous  as  had 
been  the  reign  of  Theodoric,  his  last  days  were 
darkened  by  disputes  with  the  Catholics,  and 
by  the  condemnation  and  execution  of  Boethius 
and  Symmachus,  whom  he  accused  of  a  con- 
spiracy to  overthrow  the  Gothic  dominion  in 
Italy.  His  death  is  said  to  have  been  hastened 
by  remorse.  It  is  related  that  one  evening, 
when  a  large  fish  was  served  on  the  table,  he 
fancied  that  he  beheld  the  head  of  Symmachus, 
and  was  so  terrified  that  he  took  to  his  bed,  and 
died  three  days  afterward.  Theodoric  was 
buried  at  Ravenna,  and  a  monument  was  erect- 
ed to  his  memory  by  his  daughter  Amalasun- 
tha.  His  ashes  were  deposited  in  a  porphyry 
vase,  which  is  still  to  be  seen  at  Ravenna. 

THEODORIDAS  (Qeo6upi6af),  of  Syracuse,  a 
lyric  and  epigrammatic  poet,  who  lived  about 
B.C.  235.  He  had  a  place  in  the  Garland  of 


THEODORUS. 

Meleager.     There  are  eighteen  of  his  epigrams 
in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

THEODORUS  (0e6<Jwpof).  1.  Of  Byzantium,  a 
rhetorician,  and  a  contemporary  of  Plato,  whu 
speaks  of  him  somewhat  contemptuously.  Ci- 
cero describes  him  as  excelling  rather  in  the 
theory  than  the  practice  of  his  art. — 2.  A  philos- 
opher of  the  Cyrenaic  school,  to  one  branch  of 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  "  Theodorians," 
Qeoiupeioi.  He  is  usually  designated  by  ancient 
writers  the  Atheist.  He  was  a  disciple  of  the 
younger  Aristippus,  and  was  banished  from  Cy- 
rene,  but  on  what  occasion  is  not  stated.  He 
then  went  to  Athens,  and  only  escaped  being 
cited  before  the  Areopagus  by  the  influence  of 
Demetrius  Phalereus.  He  was  afterward  ban- 
ished from  Athens,  probably  with  Demetrius 
(307),  and  went  to  Alexandrea,  where  he  was 
employed  in  the  service  of  Ptolemy,  son  of  La- 
gus,  king  of  the  Macedonian  dynasty  in  Egypt; 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  he  shared  the  overthrow 
and  exile  of  Demetrius.  While  in  the  service 
of  Ptolemy,  Theodoras  was  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  Lysimachus,  whom  he  offended  by  the  free- 
dom of  his  remarks.  One  answer  which  he 
made  to  a  threat  of  crucifixion  which  Lysima- 
chus had  used,  has  been  celebrated  by  many 
ancient  writers  :  "  Employ  such  threats  to  those 
courtiers  of  yours  ;  for  it  matters  not  to  Theo- 
dorus  whether  he  rots  on  the  ground  or  in  the 
air."  He  returned  at  length  to  Cyrene,  where 
he  appears  to  have  ended  his  days. — 3.  An 
eminent  rhetorician  of  the  age  of  Augustus,  was 
a  native  of  Gadara,  in  the  country  east  of  the 
Jordan.  He  settled  at  Rhodes,  where  Tiberius, 
afterward  emperor,  during  his  retirement  (B.C. 
6-A.D.  2)  to  that  island,  was  one  of  his  hearers. 
He  also  taught  at  Rome  ;  but  whether  his  set- 
tlement at  Rome  preceded  that  at  Rhodes  is 
uncertain.  Theodorus  was  the  founder  of  a 
school  of  rhetoricians,  called  "  Theodorei,"  as 
distinguished  from  "  Apollodorei,"  or  followers 
of  Apollodorus  of  Pergamus,  who  had  been  the 
tutor  of  Augustus  Caesar  at  Apollonia.  Theo- 
dorus wrote  many  works,  all  of  which  are  lost. 
— 4.  A  Greek  monk,  surnamed  Prodromes,  who 
lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century. 
He  was  held  in  great  repute  by  his  contempo- 
raries as  a  scholar  and  philosopher,  and  wrote 
upon  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  Several  of 
his  works  have  come  down  to  us,  of  which  the 
following  may  be  mentioned  :  1.  A  metrical  ro- 
mance, in  nine  books,  on  the  loves  of  Rhodanthe 
and  Dosicles,  written  in  iambic  metre,  and  ex- 
hibiting very  little  ability.  2.  A  poem  entitled 
Galeomypmachia,  in  iambic  verse,  on  "  the  battle 
of  the  mice  and  cat,"  in  imitation  of  the  Homeric 
Batrachomyomachia.  This  piece  is  often  ap- 
pended to  the  editions  of  ^Esop  and  Babrius. — 
5.  The  name  of  two  ancient  Samian  artists. 
(1.)  The  son  of  Rhoecus,  and  brother  of  Tele- 
cles,  flourished  about  B.C.  600,  and  was  an  ar- 
chitect, a  statuary  in  bronze,  and  a  sculptor  in 
wood.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  Heraeum  at 
Samos,  in  the  erection  of  which  it  may  there- 
fore be  supposed  that  he  was  engaged  as  well 
as  his  father.  Or,  considering  the  time  which 
such  a  building  would  occupy,  the  treatise  may 
perhaps  be  ascribed  to  the  younger  Theodorus. 
He  was  also  engaged  with  his  father  in  the 
erection  of  the  labyrinth  of  Lemnos ;  and  he 

873 


THEODOSIOPOLIS. 


THEODOSIUS. 


prepared  the  foundation  of  the  temple  of  Diana 
(Artemis),  at  Ephesus.  In  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Telecles,  he  made  the  wooden  statue  of 
Apollo  Pythius  for  the  Samians,  according  to 
the  fixed  rules  of  the  hieratic  style. — (2.)  The 
son  of  Telecles,  nephew  of  the  elder  Theodorus, 
and  grandson  of  Rhfficus,  flourished  about  560, 
in  the  times  af  Crcesus  and  Polycrates,  and  ob- 
tained such  lenown  as  a  statuary  in  bronze,  that 
the  invention  of  that  art  was  ascribed  to  him, 
in  conjunction  with  his  grandfather.  He  also 
practiced  the  arts  of  engraving  metals  (roptvTtKrj, 
calatura),  and  of  gem-engraving  ;  his  works  in 
those  departments  being  celebrated  gold  and 
silver  craters,  and  the  ring  of  Polycrates. 

THEODOSIOPOLIS  ( Qeo^oaiovno^if  :  probably 
Erzeroum),  a  city  of  Armenia  Major,  south  of 
the  Araxes,  and  forty-two  stadia  south  of  the 
mountain  which  contains  the  sources  of  the  Eu- 
phrates :  built  by  Theodosius  II.  as  a  mountain 
fortress :  enlarged  and  strengthened  by  Anas- 
tasius  and  Justinian.  Its  position  made  it  a 
place  of  commercial  importance.  There  were 
other  cities  of  the  name,  but  none  of  any  great 
consequence. 

THEODOSIUS.  I.  Surnamed  the  GREAT,  Ro- 
man emperor  of  the  East  A.D.  378-395,  was 
the  son  of  the  general  Theodosius  who  re- 
stored Britain  to  the  empire,  and  was  beheaded 
at  Carthage  in  the  reign  of  Valens,  376. .  The 
future  emperor  was  born  in  Spain  about  346. 
He  received  a  good  education  ;  and  he  learned 
the  art  of  war  under  his  own  father,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  his  British  campaigns.  During 
his  father's  lifetime  he  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  Duke  (dux)  of  Mcesia,  where  he  defeated  the 
Sarmatians  (374),  and  saved  the  province.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  he  retired,  before  court 
intrigues,  to  his  native  country.  He  acquired  a 
considerable  military  reputation  in  the  lifetime 
of  his  father ;  and  after  the  death  of  Valens, 
who  fell  in  battle  against  the  Goths,  he  was  pro- 
claimed Emperor  of  the  East  by  Gratian,  who 
felt  himself  unable  to  sustain  the  burden  of  the 
empire.  The  Roman  empire  in  the  East  was 
then  in  a  critical  position  ;  for  the  Romans  were 
disheartened  by  the  bloody  defeat  which  they 
had  sustained,  and  the  Goths  were  insolent  in 
their  victory.  Theodosius,  however,  showed 
himself  equal  to  the  difficult  position  in  which 
he  was  placed ;  he  gained  two  signal  victories 
over  the  Goths,  and  concluded  a  peace  with  the 
barbarians  in  382.  In  the  following  year  (383) 
Maximus  assumed  the  imperial  purple  in  Brit- 
ain, and  invaded  Gaul  with  a  powerful  army. 
In  the  war  which  followed  Gratian  was  slain  ; 
and  Theodosius,  who  did  not  consider  it  prudent 
to  enter  into  a  contest  with  Maximus,  acknowl- 
edged the  latter  emperor  of  the  countries  of 
Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain,  but  he  secured  toVa- 
lentinian,  the  brother  of  Gratian,  Italy,  Africa, 
and  Western  Illyricum.  But  when  Maximus 
expelled  Valentinian  from  Italy  in  387,  Theo- 
dosius espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter,  and 
marched  into  the  West  at  the  head  of  a  pow- 
erful army.  After  defeating  Maximus  in  Pan- 
nonia,  Theodosius  pursued  him  across  the  Alps 
to  Aquileia.  Here  Maximus  was  surrendered 
by  his  own  soldiers  to  Theodosius,  and  was  put 
to  death.  Theodosius  spent  the  winter  at  Mi- 
.an,  and  in  the  following  year  (389)  he  entered 
874 


Rome  in  triumph,  accompanied  by  Valentinian 
and  his  own  son  Honorius.  Two  events  in  the 
life  of  Theodosius,  about  this  time,  may  be  men- 
tioned as  evidence  of  his  uncertain  character 
and  his  savage  temper.  In  387,  a  riot  took  place 
at  Antioch,  in  which  the  statues  of  the  ernper 
or,  of  his  father,  and  of  his  wife  were  thrown 
down;  but  these  idle  demonstrations  were  quick- 
ly suppressed  by  an  armed  force.  Whfii  Theo- 
dosius heard  of  these  riots,  lie  degraded  Antioch 
from  the  rank  of  a  city,  stripped  it  of  its  pos- 
sessions and  privileges,  and  reduced  it  to  the 
condition  of  a  village  dependent  on  Laodicea. 
But,  in  consequence  of  the  intercession  of  Anti- 
och and  the  senate  of  Constantinople,  he  par- 
doned the  city,  and  all  who  had  taken  part  in 
the  riot.  The  other  event  is  an  eternal  brand 
of  infamy  on  the  name  of  Theodosius.  In  390, 
while  the  emperor  was  at  Milan,  a  serious  riot 
broke  out  at  Thessalonica,  in  which  the  impe- 
rial officer  and  several  of  his  troops  were  mur- 
dered. Theodosius  resolved  to  take  the  most 
signal  vengeance  upon  the  whole  city.  An  army 
of  barbarians  was  sent  to  Thessalonica ;  the 
j  people  were  invited  to  the  games  of  the  Circus ; 
and  as  soon  as  the  place  was  full,  the  soldiers 
received  the  signal  for  a  massacre.  For  three 
i  hours  the  spectators  were  indiscriminately  ex- 
i  posed  to  the  fury  of  the  soldiers,  and  seven  thou- 
!  sand  of  them,  or,  as  some  accounts  say,  more 
than  twice  that  number,  paid  the  penalty  of  the 
insurrection.  St.  Ambrose,  the  archbishop*of 
Milan,  represented  to  Theodosius  his  crime  in  a 
letter,  and  told  him  that  penitence  alone  could 
efface  his  guilt.  Accordingly,  when  the  emper- 
or proceeded  to  perform  his  devotions  in  the 
usual  manner  in  the  great  church  of  Milan,  the 
archbishop  stopped  him  at  the  door,  and  demand 
ed  an  acknowledgment  of  his  guilt.  The  con 
science-struck  Theodosius  humbled  himself  be- 
fore the  Church,  which  has  recorded  his  penance 
as  one  of  its  greatest  victories.  He  laid  aside 
the  insignia  of  imperial  power,  and  in  the  pos- 
ture of  a  suppliant,  in  the  church  of  Milan,  en- 
treated pardon  for  his  great  sin  before  all  the 
congregation.  After  eight  months,  the  emperor 
was  restored  to  communion  with  the  church. 
Theodosius  spent  three  years  in  Italy,  during 
which  he  established  Valentinian  II.  on  the 
throne  of  the  West.  He  returned  to  Constan- 
tinople toward  the  latter  end  of  391.  Valentin- 
ian was  slain  in  392  by  Arbogastes,  who  raised 
Eugenius  to  the  empire  of  the  West.  This  in- 
volved Theodosius  in  a  new  war  ;  but  it  ended 
in  the  defeat  and  death  both  of  Eugenius  an<i 
Arbogastes  in  394.  Theodosius  died  at  Milan, 
four  months  after  the  defeat  of  Eugenius,  on  the 
17th  of  January,  395.  His  two  sons,  Arcadius 
j  and  Honorius,  had  already  been  elevated  to  the 
j  rank  of  Augusti,  and  it  was  arranged  that  the 
empire  should  be  divided  between  them,  Arca- 
dius having  the  East,  and  Honorius  the  West. 
Theodosius  was  a  firm  Catholic,  and  a  fierce 
opponent  and  persecutor  of  the  Arians  and  all 
heretics.  It  was  in  his  reign,  also,  that  the 
formal  destruction  of  paganism  took  place  ;  and 
we  stiil  possess  a  large  number  of  the  laws  of 
Theodosius,  prohibiting  the  exercise  of  the  pa- 
gan religion,  and  forbidding  the  heathen  worship 
under  severe  penalties,  in  some  cases  extending 
to  death.— II.  Roman  emperor  of  the  East,  A.D. 


THEODOTA. 

408^50,  was  born  in  401,  and  was  only  seven 
years  of  age  at  the  death  of  his  father  Arcadius, 
whom  he  succeeded.  Theodosius  was  a  weak 
prince  ;  and  his  sister  Pulcheria,  who  became 
his  guardian  in  417,  possessed  the  virtual  gov- 
ernment of  the  empire  during  the  remainder  of 
his  long  reign.  The  principal  external  events 
in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  were  the  war  with 
the  Persians,  which  only  lasted  a  short  time 
(421-422),  and  was  terminated  by  a  peace  for 
one  hundred  years,  and  the  war  with  the  Huns, 
who  repeatedly  defeated  the  armies  of  the  em- 
peror, and  compelled  him,  at  length,  to  conclude 
a  disgraceful  peace  with  them  in  447  or  448. 
Theodosius  died  in  450,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  sister  Pulcheria,  who  prudently  took  for  her 
colleague  in  the  empire  the  senator  Marcian, 
and  made  him  her  husband.  Theodosius  had 
been  married,  in  421,  to  the  accomplished  Athe- 
nais,  the  daughter  of  the  sophist  Leontius,  who 
received  at  her  baptism  the  name  of  Eudocia. 
Their  daughter  Eudoxia  was  married  to  Valen- 
tinian  III.,  the  emperor  of  the  West.  In  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  and  that  of  Valentinian  III. 
was  made  the  compilation  called  the  Codex  Theo- 
dosianus.  It  was  published  in  438.  It  consists 
of  sixteen  books,  which  are  divided  into  titles, 
with  appropriate  rubricae  or  headings  ;  and  the 
constitutions  belonging  to  each  title  are  ar- 
ranged under  it  in  chronological  order.  The 
first  five  books  comprise  the  greater  part  of  the 
constitution  which  relates  to  Jus  Pricalum ;  the 
sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  books  contain  the  law 
that  relates  to  the  constitution  and  administra- 
tion ;  the  ninth  book  treats  of  criminal  law;  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  treat  of  the  public  revenue 
and  some  matters  relating  to  procedure ;  the 
twelfth,  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth 
oooks  treat  of  the  constitution,  and  the  admin- 
istration of  towns  and  other  corporations  ;  and 
the  sixteenth  contains  the  law  relating  to  ec- 
clesiastical matters.  The  bestjedition  of  this 
Code,  with  a  commentary,  is  that  of  J.  Gotho- 
fredus,  which  was  edited  after  his  death  by  A. 
Marville,  Lyon,  1665,  six  vols.  fol.  ;  and  after- 
ward by  Hitter,  Leipzig,  1736-1745,  fol.  The 
best  edition  of  the  text  alone  is  that  by  Hanel, 
in  the  Corpus  Juris  Antejustiniancum,  Bonn, 
1837.— III.  Literary.  1.  Of  Bithynia,  a  mathe- 
matician, mentioned  by  Strabo  and  by  Vitruvi- 
us,  the  latter  of  whom  speaks  of  him  as  the  in- 
ventor of  a  universal  sun-dial. — 2.  OfTripolis, 
a  u'iatlieinatician  and  astronomer  of  some  dis- 
tinction, who  appears  to  have  flourished  later 
than  the  reign  of  Trajan.  He  wrote  several 
works,  of  which  the  three  following  are  extant, 
and  have  been  published.  1.  ZpaipiKd,  a  treat- 
ise on  the  properties  of  the  sphere,  and  of  the 
circles  described  on  its  surface.  2.  Uepl  fipepuv 
xal  VVK.TUV.  3.  Htpl  oiKqacuv. 

THEODOTA  (OfotJor^),  an  Athenian  courtesan, 
and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  persons  of  that 
class  in  Greece,  is  introduced  as  a  speaker  in 
Xenophon's  Memorabilia  (iii.,  11)-  She  at  last 
attached  herself  to  Alcibiades,  and,  after  his 
murder,  she  performed  his  funeral  rites. 

THEOONIS  (Qeoyvtf).  1.  Of  Megara,  an  ancient 
elegiac  and  gnomic  poet,  is  said  to  have  flour- 
ished B  C.  548  or  544.  He  may  have  been  born 
about  570,  and  would  therefore  have  been  eighty 
at  the  commencement  of  the  Persian  wars,  490, 


TIIEOPHANES. 

at  which  time  we  know,  from  his  own  writings, 
that  he  was  alive.  Theognis  belonged  to  the 
oligarchical  party  in  his  native  city,  and  in  its 
fates  he  shared.  He  was  a  noble  by  birth,  and 
all  his  sympathies  were  with  the  nobles.  They 
are,  in  his  poems,  the  dyadoi  and  iadtoi,  and  the 
commons  the  Hanoi  and  8eiXoi,  terms  which,  in 
fact,  at  that  period,  were  regularly  used  in  this 
political  signification,  and  not  in  their  later  eth 
ical  meaning.  He  was  banished  with  the  lead- 
ers of  the  oligarchical  party,  having  previously 
been  deprived  of  all  his  property  ;  and  most  of 
his  poems  were  composed  while  he  was  an  ex- 
ile. Most  of  his  political  verses  are  addressed 
to  a  certain  Cyrnus,  the  son  of  Polypas.  The 
other  fragments  of  his  poetry  are  of  a  social, 
most  of  them  of  a  festive  character.  They  place 
us  in  the  midst  of  a  circle  of  friends,  who  formed 
a  kind  of  convivial  society  :  all  the  members  of 
this  society  belonged  to  the  class  whom  the  poet 
calls  "  the  good."  The  collection  of  gnomic 
poetry,  which  has  come  down  to  us  under  the 
name  of  Theognis,  contains,  however,  many 
additions  from  later  poets.  The  genuine  frag- 
ments of  The^pgnis  contain  much  that  is  highly 
poetical  in  thought,  and  elegant  as  well  as  for- 
ci.ble  in  expression.  The  best  editions  are  by 
Bekker,  Lips.,  1815,  and  fecond  ed.,  1827,  8vo  ; 
by  Welcker,  Francof,  1826,  8vo  ;  and  by  Orel- 
lius,  Turic.,  1840,  4to. — 2.  A  tragic  poet,  con- 
temporary with  Aristophanes,  by  whom  he  is 
satirized. 

THEON  (6ewv).  1.  The  name  of  two  mathe- 
maticians who  are  often  confounded  together. 
The  first  is  Theon  the  elder,  of  Smyrna,  best 
known  as  an  arithmetician,  who  lived  in  the 
time  of  Hadrian.  The  second  is  Theon  the 
younger,  of  Alexandrea,  the  father  of  HYPATIA, 
best  known  as  an  astronomer  and  geometer, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  elder. 
Both  were  heathens,  a  fact  which  the  date  of 
the  second  makes  it  desirable  to  state ;  and 
each  held  the  Platonism  of  his  period.  Of  The- 
on of  Smyrna,  all  that  we  have  left  is  a  portion 
of  a  work  entitled  Ttiv  KOTU  na6riuartKr)v  xpriai~ 
fiuv  «f  TT/V  TOV  n?.urwvof  uvayvuaiv.  The  por- 
tion which  now  exists  is  in*  two  books,  one  on 
arithmetic  and  one  on  music  :  there  was  a  third 
on  astronomy,  and  a  fourth,  Hep2  rr/r  KO<T//<J>  dp- 
fiovias.  The  best  edition  is  by  Gelder,  Leyden, 
1827.  Of  Theon  of  Alexandrea  the  following 
works  have  come  down  to  us:  1.  Scholia  on 
Aratus.  2.  Edition  of  Euclid.  3.  Commentary 
on  the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy,  addressed  to  his 
son  Epiphanius.  4.  Commentaryon  the  Tables 
of  Ptolemy. — 2.  JSuus  THEON,  of  Alexandrea,  a 
sophist  and  rhetorician  of  uncertain  date,  wrote 
several  works,  of  which  one,  entitled  Propym- 
nasmata  (Ylpoyv^vdauaTa),  is  still  extant.  It  is 
a  useful  treatise  on  the  proper  system  of  prep- 
aration for  the  profession  of  an  orator,  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  laid  down  by  Hermogenes  and 
Aphthonius.  One  of  the  best  editions  is  by 
Finckh,  Stuttgard,  1834.— 3.  Of  Samos,  a  paint- 
er, who  flourished  from  the  time  of  Philip  on- 
ward to  that  of  the  successors  of  Alexander. 
The  peculiar  merit  of  Theon  was  his  prolific 
fancy. 

THEONSE  (Biovoij),  daughter  of  Proteus  and 
Psammathe,  also  called  Idothea.  Vid.  IDOTHEA. 

THEUPHANES  (6to$avris\      1.  CN.  POMPEIUI 

875 


THEOPHILUS. 

THEOPHANES,  of  Mytilene,  in  Lesbos,  a  learned 
Greek,  and  one  of  the  most  intimate  friends  of 
Pompey.  Pompey  appears  to  have  made  his  ac- 
quaintance during  the  Mithradatic  war,  and  soon 
became  so  much  attached  to  him  that  he  pre- 
sented to  him  the  Roman  franchise  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  army,  after  a  speech  in  which  lie 
eulogized  his  merits.  This  occurred  about  B.C. 
62;  and  in  the  course  of  the  same  year  The- 
ophanes  obtained  from  Pompey  the  privileges 
of  a  free  state  for  his  native  city,  although  it 
had  espoused  the  cause  of  Mithradates.  The- 
ophanes  came  to  Rome  with  Pompey ;  and  on 
the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  he  accompa- 
nied his  patron  to  Greece.  Pompey  appointed 
him  commander  of  the  Fabri,  and  chiefly  con- 
sulted him  and  Lucceius  on  all  important  mat- 
ters in  the  war,  much  to  the  indignation  of  the 
Roman  nobles.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia, 
Theophanes  fled  with  Pompey  from  Greece,  and 
it  was  owing  to  his  advice  that  Pompey  went 
to  Egypt.  After  the  death  of  his  patron,  The- 
ophanes took  refuge  in  Italy,  and  was  pardoned 
by  Caesar.  After  his  death,  the  Lesbians  paid 
divine  honors  to  his  memory.  ,  Theophanes 
wrote  the  history  of  Pompey's  campaigns,  in 
which  he  represented  Jhe  exploits  of  his  patren 
in  the  most  favorable  light. — 2.  M.  POMPEIUS 
THEOPHANES,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  sent  to 
Asia  by  Augustus,  in  the  capacity  of  procurator, 
and  was,  at  the  time  that  Strabo  wrote,  one  of 
the  friends  of  Tiberius.  The  latter  emperor, 
however,  put  his,  descendants  to  death  toward 
the  end  of  his  reign,  A.D.  33,  because  their  an- 
cestor had  been  one  of  Pompey's  friends,  and 
had  received  after  his  death  divine  honors  from 
the  Lesbians. — 3.  A  Byzantine  historian,  flour- 
ished most  probably  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixth  century  of  our  era.  He  wrote,  in  ten 
books,  the  history  of  the  Eastern  empire  dur- 
ing the  Persian  war  under  Justin  II.,  from  A.D. 
567  to  581.  The  work  itself  is  lost,  but  some 
extracts  from  it  are  preserved  by  Photius. — 4. 
Also  a  Byzantine  historian,  lived  during  the 
second  half  of  the  eighth  century  and  the  early 
part  of  the  ninth.  In  consequence  of  his  sup- 
porting the  cause  ftf  image  worship,  he  was 
banished  by  Leo  the  Armenian  to  the  island  of 
Samothrace,  where  he  died  in  818.  Theopha- 
nes wrote  a  Chronicon,  which  is  still  extant, 
beginning  at  the  accession  of  Diocletian  in  277, 
and  coming  down  to  811.  It  consists,  like  the 
Chronica  of  Eusebius  and  of  Syncellus,  of  two 
parts,  a  history  arranged  according  to  years, 
and  a  chronological  table,  of  which  the  former 
is  very  superior  to  the  latter.  It  is  published 
in  the  Collections  of  the  Byzantine  writers,  Par- 
is, 1655,  fol.,  Venet.,  1729,  fol. 

THEOPHILUS  (Geo^iAof).  1.  An  Athenian  com- 
ic poet,  most  probably  of  the  Middle  Comedy. — 
2.  An  historian  and  geographer,  quoted  by  Jo- 
sephus,  Plutarch,  and  Ptolemy. — 3.  Bishop  of 
Antioch  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century 
of  our  era,  and  the  author  of  one  of  the  early 
apologies  for  Christianity  which  have  come 
down  to  us.  This  work  is  in  the  form  of  a  let- 
ter to  a  friend,  named  Autolycus,  who  was  still 
a  heathen,  but  a  man  of  extensive  reading  and 
great  learning.  It  was  composed  A.D.  180,  a 
year  or  two  before  the  death  of  Thecphilus. 
The  best  edition  is  that  by  Wolf,  Hamb  ,  1724, 
876 


THEOPHIIASTUS. 

8vo. — 4.  Bishop  of  Alexandrea  in  the  latter  part, 
of  the  fourth  and  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  cen- 
turies of  our  era,  and  distinguished  for  his  per- 
secutions of  the  Origenists  and  for  his  hostility 
to  Chrysostom.  He  died  A.D.  412.  A  few  re- 
mains of  his  works  have  come  down  to  us. — 5. 
One  of  the  lawyers  of  Constantinople  who  were 
employed  by  Justinian  on  his  first  Code,  on  the 
Digest,  and  on  the  composition  of  the  Insti- 
tutes. Vid.  JUSTINIANUS.  Theophilus  is  the  au- 
thor of  the  Greek  translation  or  paraphrase  of 
the  Institutes  of  Justinian  which  has  come 
down  to  us.  It  is  entitled  'Ivtmrovra  QtoQ&ov 
'\vTiKsvoupoe,  Instiluta  Theophili  Antecensoris. 
It  became  the  text  for  the  Institutes  in  the 
East,  where  the  Latin  language  was  little 
known,  and  entirely  displaced  the  Latin  text. 
The  best  edition  is  by  Reitz,  Haag.,  1751, 2  vols. 
4to. — 6.  THEOPHILUS  PROTOSPATHARIUS,  the  au- 
thor of  several  Greek  medical  works,  which  are 
still  extant.  Protospatharius  was  originally  a 
military  title  given  to  the  colonel  of  the  body- 
guards of  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople  (Spath- 
arii),  but  afterward  became  also  a  high  civil  dig- 
nity. Theophilus  probably  lived  in  the  seventh 
century  after  Christ.  Of  his  works  the  two 
most  important  are,  1.  Hepl  rjjf  rot  'AvOpuirov 
KaTCHTKevrjf,  De  Corporis  Humani  Fabrica,  an  an- 
atomical and  physiological  treatise  in  five  books. 
The  best  edition  is  by  Greenhill,  Oxon.,  1842, 
8vo.  2.  Hepi  Ovpuv,  De  Urinis,  of  which  the 
best  edition  is  by  Guidot,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1703  (and 
1731),  8vo. 

THEOPHRASTUS  (Geo^paorof),  the  Greek  phi- 
losopher, was  a  native  of  Eresus  in  Lesbos,  and 
studied  philosophy  at  Athens,  first  under  Plato, 
and  afterward  under  Aristotle.  He  became  the 
favorite  pupil  of  Aristotle,  who  is  said  to  have 
changed  his  original  name  ofTyrtamus  toTheo- 
phrastus  (or  the  Divine  Speaker),  to  indicate  the 
fluent  and  graceful  address  of  his  pupil ;  but 
this  tale  is  scamely  credible.  Aristotle  named 
Theophrastus  his  successor  in  the  presidency 
of  the  Lyceum,  and  in  his  will  bequeathed  to 
him  his  library  and  the  originals  of  his  own 
writings.  Theophrastus  was  a  worthy  success- 
or of  his  great  master,  and  nobly  sustained  the 
character  of  the  school.  He  is  said  to  have  had 
two  thousand  disciples,  and  among  them  such 
men  as  the  comic  poet  Menander.  He  was 
highly  esteemed  by  the  kings  Philippus,  Cas- 
sander,  and  Ptolemy,  and  was  not  the  less  the 
object  of  the  regard  of  the  Athenian  people,  as 
was  decisively  shown  when  he  was  impeached 
of  impiety ;  for  he  was  not  only  acquitted,  but 
his  accuser  would  have  fallen  a  victim  to  his 
calumny,  had  not  Theophrastus  generously  in- 
terfered to  save  him.  Nevertheless,  when  the 
philosophers  were  banished  from  Athens  in 
B.C.  305,  according  to  the  law  of  Sophocles, 
Theophrastus  also  left  the  city,  until  Philo,  a 
disciple  of  Aristotle,  in  the  very  next  year 
brought  Sophocles  to  punishment,  and  procured 
the  repeal  of  the  law.  From  this  time  Theo- 
phrastus continued  to  teach  at  Athens  with- 
out any  further  molestation  till  his  death.  He 
died  in  287,  having  presided  over  the  Lyceum 
about  thirty-five  years.  His  age  is  differently 
stated.  According  to  some  accounts,  he  lived 
eighty-five  years  ;  according  to  others,  one 
hundred  and  seven  years.  He  is  said  to  have 


THEOPHYLACTO'S. 

closed  his  life  with  the  complaint  respecting 
the  short  duration  of  human  existence,  that  it 
ended  just  when  the  insight  into  its  problems 
was  beginning.  The  whole  population  of  Ath- 
ens took  part  in  his  funeral  obsequies.  He  be- 
queathed his  library  to  Neleus  of  Scepsis.  Theo- 
phrastus  exerted  himself  to  carry  out  the  philo- 
sophical system  of  Aristotle,  to  throw  light  upon 
the  difficulties  contained  in  his  books,  and  to 
fill  up  the  gaps  in  them.  With  this  view  he 
wrote  a  great  number  of  works,  the  great  ob- 
ject of  which  was  the  development  of  the  Aris- 
totelian philosophy.  -Unfortunately,  most  of 
these  works  have  perished.  The  following  are 
alone  extant:  1.  Characteres  (f/diKol  xapaKTijpef), 
in  thirty  chapters,  containing  descriptions  of  vi- 
cious characters.  2.  A  treatise  on  sensuous 
perception  and  its  objects  (irepi  aiadfiaeuf  \_nai 
ala6nr<Jv]).  3.  A  fragment  of  a  work  on  meta- 
physics (r&v  fiera  TO.  fyvaiKu).  4.  On  the  History 
of  Plants  (nepi  Qvrtiv  iaropiaf),  in  ten  books, 
one  of  the  earliest  works  on  botany  which  have 
come  down  to  us.  5.  On  the  Causes  of  Plants 
(ire pi  Qvrtiv  ainuv),  originally  in  eight  books,  of 
which  six  are  still  extant.  6.  Of  Stones  (nepl 
Mduv).  The  best  editions  of  the  complete  works 
of  Theophrastus  are  by  Schneider,  Lips.,  1818- 
21,  5  vols.,  and  by  Wimmer,  Vratislaviae,  1842, 
of  which,  however,  the  first  volume  has  only 
yet  appeared.  The  best  separate  edition  of  the 
Characteres  is  by  Ast,  Lips.,  1816. 

THEOPHVLACTUS  (Geo^iiAaAcrof).  1.  Surnamed 
SIMOCATTA,  a  Byzantine  historian,  lived  at  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  held  some  public  offices 
under  Heraclius,  about  A.D.  610-629.  His  chief 
work  is  a  history  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Maurice,  in  eight  books,  from  the  death  of  Ti- 
berius II.  and  the  accession  of  Maurice  in  582, 
down  to  the  murder  of  Maurice  and  his  chil- 
dren by  Phocas  in  602.  The  best  edition  of 
this  work  is  by  Bekker,  Bonn,  1834,  8vo.  There 
is  also  extant  another  work  of  Theophylactus, 
entitled  Quastioncs  Physica,  of  which  the  best 
edition  is  by  Boissonade,  Paris,  1835,  8vo. — 2. 
Archbishop  of  Bulgaria,  flourished  about  A.D. 
1070  and  onward,  is  celebrated  for  his  com- 
mentaries on  the  Scriptures,  which  are  founded 
on  the  commentaries  of  Chrysostom,  and  are  of 
considerable  value. 

THEOPOMPHS  (Oedrro^n-of).  1.  King  of  Sparta, 
reigned  about  B.C.  770-720.  He  is  said  to  have 
established  the  ephoralty,  and  to  have  been 
mainly  instrumental  in  bringing  the  first  Mes- 
senian  war  to  a  successful  issue.— 2.  Of  Chios, 
a  celebrated  Greek  historian,  was  the  son  of 
Damasistratus  and  the  brother  of  Caucalus,  the 
rhetorician.  He  was  born  about  B.C.  378.  He 
accompanied  his  father  into  banishment,  when 
the  latler  was  exiled  on  account  of  his  espous- 
ing the  interests  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  out  he 
was  restored  to  his  native  country  in  the  forty- 
fifth  year  of  his  age  (333),  in  consequence  of  i 
the  letters  of  Alexander  the  Great,  in  which  he 
exhorted  the  Chians  to  recall  their  exiles.  In 
what  year  Theopompus  quitted  Chios  with  his 
father  is  uncertain  ;  but  we  know  that  before  he 
left  his  native  country,  he  attended  the  school ; 
of  rhetoric  which  Isocrates  opened  at  Chios,  j 
and  that  he  profited  so  much  by  the  lessons  of 
nis  great  master  as  to  be  regarded  by  the  an- 
cients as  the  most  distinguished  of  all  his  schol- , 


THEOPOMPUS. 

ars.  Ephorus  the  historian  was  a  fellow-stu- 
dent with  him,  but  was  of  a  very  different  char- 
acter ;  and  Isocrates  used  to  say  of  them,  that 
Theopompus  needed  the  bit  and  Ephorus  the 
spur.  In  consequence  of  the  advice  of  Isocra- 
tes, Theopompus  did  not  devote  his  oratorical 
powers  to  the  pleading  of  causes,  but  gave  his 
chief  attention  to  the  study  and  composition  of 
history.  Like  his  master  Isocrates,  however, 
he  composed  many  orations  of  the  kind  called 
Epidcictic  by  the  Greeks,  that  is,  speeches  on 
set  subjects  delivered  for  display,  such  as  eu- 
logiums  upon  states  and  individuals.  Thus  in 
352  he  contended  at  Halicarnassus  with  Nau- 
crates  and  his  master  Isocrates  for  the  prize 
of  oratory,  given  by  Artemisia  in  honor  of  her 
husband,  and  gained  the  victory.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Chios  in  333,  Theopompus,  who  was  a 
man  of  great  wealth  as  well  as  learning,  nat- 
urally took  an  important  position  in  the  state  ; 
but  his  vehement  temper,  and  his  support  of 
the  aristocratical  party,  soon  raised  against 
him  a  host  of  enemies.  Of  these,  one  of  the 
most  formidable  was  the  sophist  Theocritus. 
As  long  as  Alexander  lived,  his  enemies  dared 
not  take  any  open  proceedings  against  Theo- 
pompus ;  and  even  after  the  death  of  the  Mace- 
donian monarch  he  appears  to  have  enjoyed  for 
some  years  the  protection  of  the  royal  house. 
Theopompus  was  supported  by  Alexander,  and 
after  his  death  by  the  royal  house  ;  but  he 
was  eventually  expelled  from  Chios  as  a  dis 
turber  of  the  public  peace,  and  fled  to  Egypt 
to  Ptolemy  about  305,  being  at  the  time  sev- 
enty-five years  of  age.  We  are  informed  that 
Ptolemy  not  only  refused  to  receive  Theo- 
pompus, but  would  even  have  put  him  to  death 
as  a  dangerous  busy-body,  had  not  some  of  hi? 
friends  interceded  for  his  life.  Of  his  further 
fate  we  have  no  particulars.  None  of  the 
works  of  Theopompus  have  come  down  to  us, 
but  the  following  were  his  chief  works  :  1.  'E/l- 
^.nviKal  laropiai  or  Zwrafrc  'RMnvinuv,  A  His- 
tory of  Greece,  in  twelve  books,  which  was  a 
continuation  of  the  history  of  Thucydides.  It 
commenced  in  B.C.  411,  at  the  point  where  the 
history  of  Thucydides  breaks  off,  and  embraced 
a  period  of  seventeen  years,  down  to  the  battle 
of  Cnidus  in  394.  2.  QdnnriKd,  also  called 
'IffTopiai  (/cor1  It-oxtv),  The  History  of  Philip, 
father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  in  fifty-eight 
books,  from  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  360, 
to  his  death,  336.  This  work  contained  numer- 
ous digressions,  which  in  fact  formed  the  great- 
er part  of  the  whole  work;  so  that  Philip V., 
king  of  Macedonia,  was  able,  by  omitting  them 
and  retaining  only  what  belonged  to  the  proper 
subject,  to  reduce  the  work  from  fifty-eight 
books  to  sixteen.  Fifty-three  of  the  fifty-eight 
books  of  the  original  work  were  extant  in  the 
ninth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  and  were 
read  by  Photius,  who  has  preserved  an  abstract 
of  the  twelfth  book.  3.  Orationes,  which  were 
chiefly  Panegyrics,  and  what  the  Greeks  called 
I,vft6ov%evTiKoi  Aoyoj.  Of  the  latter  kind,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  was  addressed  to  Alexan- 
der on  the  state  of  Chios.  Theopompus  is 
praised  by  ancient  writers  for  his  diligence  and 
accuracy,  but  is  at  the  same  time  said  to  have 
taken  more  pleasure  in  blaming  than  in  com- 
mending;  and  many  of  his  judgments  rcspect- 

877 


THEOXENIUS. 

ing  events  and  characters  were  expressed  with 
such  acrimony  and  severity  that  several  of  the 
ancient  writers  speak  of  his  malignity,  and  call 
him  a  reviler.  The  style  of  Theopompus  was 
formed  on  the  model  of  Isocrates,  and  possess- 
ed the  characteristic  merits  and  defects  of  his 
master.  It  was  pure,  clear,  and  elegant,  but 
deficient  in  vigor,  loaded  with  ornament,  and  in 
general  too  artificial.  The  best  collections  of 
the  fragments  of  Theopompus  are  by  Wichers, 
Lugd.  Bat ,  1829,  and  byC.  and  Theod.  Muller, 
in  the  Fragmenta  Historicorum  Gracorum,  Paris, 
1841. — 3.  An  Athenian  comic  poet,  of  the  Old 
and  also  of  the  Middle  Comedy,  was  the  son  of 
Theodectes  or  Theodorus,  or  Tisamenus.  He 
wrote  as  late  as  B.C  380.  His  extant  frag- 
ments contain  examples  of  the  declining  purity 
of  the  Attic  dialect. 

THEOXENIUS  (Oeofmof),  a  surname  of  Apollo 
and  Mercury  (Hermes).  Respecting  the  festi- 
val of  the  Theoxenia,  vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  s.  v. 
.  THERA  (Qrjpa  :  Qrjpatof :  now  Santorin),  an  isl- 
and in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  and  the  chief  of  the  Spo- 
rades,  distant  from  Crete  seven  hundred  stadia, 
and  twenty-five  Roman  miles  south  of  the  island 
of  los.  It  is  described  by  Strabo  as  two  hund- 
red stadia  in  circumference,  but  by  modern 
travellers  as  thirty-six  miles,  and  in  figure  ex- 
actly like  a  horse-shoe.  Thera  is  clearly  of  I 
volcanic  origin.  It  is  covered  at  the  present  ! 
day  with  pumice-stone  ;  and  the  rocks  are  burn- 
ed and  scorched.  It  is  said  to  have  been  form- 
ed by  a  clod  of  earth  thrown  from  the  ship  Argo, 
and  to  have  received  the  name  of  Calliste  when 
it  first  emerged  from  the  sea.  Therasia,  a 
small  island  to  the  west,  and  called  at  the  pres- 
ent day  by  the  same  name,  was  torn  away  from 
Thera  by  some  volcanic  convulsion.  Thera  is 
said  to  have  been  originally  inhabited  by  Phoe- 
nicians, but  was  afterward  colonized  by  Lace- 
daemonians and  Minyans  of  Lemnos,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Spartan  Theras,  who  gave  his 
name  to  the  island.  In  B.C.  631  Battus  con- 
ducted a  colony  from  Thera  to  Africa,  where  he 
founded  the  celebrated  city  of  Gyrene.  Thera 
remained  faithful  to  the  Spartans,  and  was  one 
of  the  few  islands  which  espoused  the  Spartan 
cause  at  the  commencement  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war. 

THERAMBO  (0fpd/i6u,  also  Qpuft6o(),  a  town  of 
Macedonia  on  the  peninsula  Pallene. 

THERAMENES  (BypapEvijc),  an  Athenian,  son 
of  Hagnon,  was  a  leading  member  of  the  oli- 
garchical government  of  the  Four  Hundred  at 
Athens  in  B.C.  411.     In  this,  however,  he  does 
not  appear  to  have  occupied  as  eminent  a  sta- 
tion as  he  had  hoped  to  fill,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  the  declaration  of  Alcibiades  and  of  the 
army  at  Samos  against  the  oligarchy  made  it 
evident  to  him  that  its  days  were  numbered.  | 
Accordingly  he  withdrew  from  the  more  violent  ; 
aristocrats,  and  began  to  cabal  against  them  ; 
and  he  subsequently  took  not  only  a  prominent  ; 
part  in  the  deposition  of  the  Four  Hundred,  but 
came  forward  as  the  accuser  of  Antiphon  and  ; 
Archeptolemus,   who   had   been  his   intimate 
friends,  but  whose  death  he  was  now  the  mean  j 
and  cowardly  instrument  in  procuring.     At  the  I 
battle  of  Arginusse  in  406,  Theramenes  held  a  ; 
subordinate  command  in  the  Athenian  fleet,  and  : 
he  was  one  of  those  who,  after  the  victory,  were  \ 
878 


THERICLES. 

commissioned  by  the  generals  to  repair  to  tne 
scene  of  action  and  save  as  many  as  possible 
of  the  disabled  galleys  and  their  crews.  A 
storm,  it  is  said,  rendered  the  execution  of  the 
order  impracticable  ;  yet,  instead  of  trusting  to 
this  as  his  ground  of  defence,  Theramenes 
thought  it  safer  to  divert  the  popular  anger  from 
himself  to  others  ;  and  it  appears  to  have  been 
chiefly  through  his  machinations  that  the  six 
generals  who  had  returned  to  Athens  were  con- 
demned to  death.  After  the  capture  of  Athens 
by  Lysander,  Theramenes  was  chosen  one  of 
the  Thirty  Tyrants  (404).  He  endeavored  to 
check  the  tyrannical  proceedings  of  his  col- 
leagues, foreseeing  that  their  violence  would  be 
fatal  to  the  permanence  of  their  power.  His 
opposition,  however,  had  no  effect  in  restrain- 
ing them,  but  only  induced  the  desire  to  rid 
themselves  of  so  troublesome  an  associate, 
whose  former  conduct,  moreover,  had  shown  that 
no  political  party  could  depend  on  him,  and  who 
had  earned,  by  his  trimming,  the  nickname  of 
KoOopvoc — a  boot  which  might  be  worn  on  either 
foot.  He  was  therefore  accused  by  Critias  be- 
fore the  council  as  a  traitor,  and  when  his  nom- 
inal judges,  favorably  impressed  by  his  able  de- 
fence, exhibited  an  evident  disposition  to  acquit 
him,  Critias  introduced  into  the  chamber  a  num- 
ber of  men  armed  with  daggers,  and  declared 
that,  as  all  who  were  not  included  in  the  priv- 
ileged Three  Thousand  might  be  put  to  death 
by  the  sole  authority  of  the  Thirty,  he  struck 
the  name  of  Theramenes  out  of  that  list,  and 
condemned  him  with  the  consent  of  all  his  col- 
leagues. Theramenes  then  rushed  to  the  altar, 
which  stood  in  the  council-chamber,  but  was 
dragged  from  it  and  carried  off  to  execution. 
When  he  had  drunk  the  hemlock,  he  dashed 
out  the  last  drops  from  the  cup,  exclaiming, 
"  This  to  the  health  of  the  lovely  Critias !" 
Both  Xenophon  and  Cicero  express  their  ad- 
miration of  the  equanimity  which  he  displayed 
in  his  last  hour  ;  but  surely  such  a  feeling  is 
sadly  out  of  place  when  directed  to  such  a  man. 

THERAPN^E  (Qfpcnrvai,  also  QepuTrvt),  Dor.  9c- 
punva  :  Qeparrvatof).  1.  A  town  in  Laconia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Eurotas,  and  a  little  above 
Sparta.  It  received  its  name  from  Therapne, 
daughter  of  Lelex,  and  is  celebrated  in  mythol- 
ogy as  the  birth-place  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  and 
contained  temples  of  these  divinities  as  well  as 
temples  of  Menelaus  and  Helen,  both  of  whom 
were  said  to  be  buried  here. — 2.  A  town  in  Bce- 
otia,  on  the  road  from  Thebes  to  the  Asopus. 

[THERAPNE  (Qcpd^vrj).     Vid.  THERAPNE,  No 

1-] 

THERAS.     Vid.  THERA. 

THERASIA.      Vid.  THBRA. 

THERICLES  (QripiK^r),  a  Corinthian  potter, 
whose  works  obtained  such  celebrity  that  they 
became  known  throughout  Greece  by  the  name 
of  QrjpiKfaia  (sc.  norripia)  or  KV^IKES  QijptK^eiat 
(or  -at),  and  these  names  were  applied  not  only 
to  cups  of  earthen-ware,  but  also  to  those  of 
wood,  glass,  gold,  and  silver.  Some  scholars 
make  Thericles  a  contemporary  of  Aristopha- 
nes ;  but  others  deny  the  existence  of  Thericles 
altogether,  and  contend  that  the  name  of  these 
vases  is  a  descriptive  one,  derived  from  the 
figures  of  animals  (dfipia)  with  which  they  were 
adorned. 


THERMA. 

THERMA  (Qeppt] :  Qep/^atoc),  a  town  in  Mace- 
donia, afterward  called  Thessaloniea  (vid.  THES- 
SALO.VICA),  situated  at  the  northeastern  extrem- 
ity of  a  great  gulf  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  lying  be- 
tween Thessaly  and  the  peninsula  Chalcidice, 
and  called  THERMAICUS  or  THERM^EUS  SINUS 
(Beptualof  /coAn-of),  from  the  town  at  its  head. 
This  gulf  was  also  called  Macedonicus  Sinus  : 
its  modern  name  is  Gulf  of  Saloniki. 

THERMS  (Qippai),  a  town  in  Sicily,  built  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Himera  after  the  destruction 
of  the  latter  city  by  the  Carthaginians.  For 
details,  vid.  HIMERA. 

THERMAICUS  SINUS.     Vid.  THERMA. 

TiiERMODON(0£pjUudui' :  now  Thermeh),  a  river 
of  Pontus,  in  the  district  of  Themiscyra,  the 
reputed  country  of  the  Amazons,  rises  in  a 
mountain  called  Amazonius  Mons  (and  still 
called  Mason  Dagh),  near  Phanarcea,  and  falls 
into  the  sea  about  thirty  miles  east  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Iris,  after  a  short  course,  but  with  so  ' 
large  a  body  of  water,  that  its  breadth,  accord- 
ing to  Xenophon,  was  three  plethra  (above  three 
hundred  feet),  and  it  was  navigable.  At  its 
mouth  was  the  city  of  Themiscyra  ;  and  there 
is  still,  on  the  western  side  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Thermeh,  a  place  of  the  same  name,  Thermeh. 

THERMOPYLAE,  often  called  simply  PYL^E  (6fp- 
uoirvXai,  Ilvilat),  that  is,  the  Hot  Gates,  or  the 
Gates,  a  celebrated  pass  leading  from  Thessaly 
into  Locris.  It  lay  between  Mount  CEta  and  j 
an  inaccessible  morass,  forming  the  edge  of  the 
Maliac  Gulf.  At  one  end  of  the  pass,  close  to 
Anthela,  the  mountain  approached  so  close  to 
the  morass  as  to  leave  room  for  only  a  single 
carriage  between  ;  this  narrow  entrance  formed 
the  western  gate  of  Thermopylae.  About  a 
mile  to  the  east  the  mountain  again  approached 
close  to  the  sea,  near  the  Locrian  town  of  Al-  ! 
peni,  thus  forming  the  eastern  gate  of  Ther- 1 
mopylae.  The  space  between  these  two  gates 
was  wider  and  more  open,  and  was  distinguish- 
ed by  its  abundant  flow  of  hot  springs,  which 
were  sacred  to  Hercules :  hence  the  name  of 
the  place.  Thermopylae  was  the  only  pass  by 
which  an  enemy  could  penetrate  from  northern 
into  Southern  Greece,  whence  its  great  import-  • 
ance  in  Grecian  history.  It  is  especially  cele- 
brated on  account  of  the  heroic  defence  of  Le-  j 
onidas  and  the  three  hundred  Spartans  against  { 
the  mighty  host  of  Xerxes  ;  and  they  only  fell 
through  the  Persians  having  discovered  a  path 
over  the  mountains,  and  thus  being  enabled  to 
attack  the  Greeks  in  the  rear.  This  mountain 
path  commenced  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Trachis,  ascended  the  gorge  of  the  River  Aso- 
pus  and  the  hill  called  Anopxa,  then  crossed 
the  crest  of  CEta,  and  descended  in  the  rear  of 
Thermopylae,  near  the  town  of  Alpeni. 

THERMUM  or  THERMA  (Qipuov  or  ra  Qfpfia), 
a  town  of  the^Etolians,  near  Stratus,  with  warm 
mineral  springs,  was  regarded  for  some  time  as 
the  capital  of  the  country,  since  it  was  the  place 
of  meeting  of  the  JStolian  confederacy. 

THERMUS,  Mmuclus.  1.  Q  ,  served  under 
Scipio  as  tribunus  militum  in  the  war  against 
Hannibal  in  Africa  in  B.C.  202;  was  tribune 
of  the  plebs20l  ;  curule  sedile  197  ;  and  praetor 
196,  when  he  carried  on  war  with  great  success 
in  Nearer  Spain.  He  was  consul  in  193,  and 
carried  on  war  against  the  Ligurians  in  this  and 


,  THESEUS. 

the  two  following  years.  Or!  his  return  to  Rome 
in  190,  a  triumph  was  refused  him,  through  the 
influence  of  M.  Cato,  who  delivered  on  the  oc 
casion  his  two  orations  entitled  De  dccemHomin 
ibus  and  De  falsis Pugnis.  Thermus  was  killed 
in  188,  while  fighting  under  Cn.  Manlius  Vulso 
against  the  Thracians. — 2.  M.,  propraetor  in  81, 
accompanied  L.  Murena,  Sulla's  legate,  into 
Asia.  Thermus  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
Mytilene,  and  it  was  under  him  that  Julius  Cae- 
sar served  his  first  campaign  and  gained  his 
first  laurels.— 3.  Q.,  propraetor  51  and  50  in  Asia, 
where  he  received  many  letters  from  Cicero, 
who  praises  his  administration  of  the  province. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he  espous- 
ed the  side  of  Pompey. 

THERON  (Qf/puv),  tyrant  of  Agrigentum  in 
Sicily,  was  the  son  of  ^Enesidemus,  and  de- 
scended from  one  of  the  most  illustrious  fam- 
ilies in  his  native  city.  He  obtained  the  su- 
preme power  about  B.C.  488,  and  •  retained  it 
till  his  death  in  472.  He  conquered  Hirriera  in 
482,  and  united  this  powerful  city  to  his  own 
dominions.  He  was  in  close  alliance  with  Ge- 
lon,  ruler  of  Syracuse  and  Gela,  to  whom  he 
had  given  his  daughter  Demarete  in  marriage ; 
and  he  shared  with  Gelon  in  the  great  victor)' 
gained  over  the  Carthaginians  in  480.  On  the 
death  of  Gelon  in  478,  Theron  espoused  the 
cause  of  Polyzelus,  who  had  been  driven  into 
exile  by  his  brother  Hieron.  Theron  raised  an 
army  for  the  purpose  of  reinstating  him,  but 
hostilities  were  prevented,  and  a  peace  con- 
cluded between  the  two  sovereigns. 

THERSANDER  (Qepaavdpof),  son  of  Polynices 
and  Argia,  and  one  of  the  Epigoni,  was  married 
to  Demonassa,  by  whom  he  became  the  father 
of  Tisamenus.  He  went  with  Agamemnon  to 
Troy,  and  was  slain  in  that  expedition  by  Tele- 
phus.  His  tomb  was  shown  at  Elaea  in  Mysia, 
where  sacrifices  were  offered  to  him.  Virgil 
(JEn.,  ii.,  261)  enumerates  Thersander  among 
the  Greeks  concealed  in  the  wooden  horse. 
Homer  does  not  mention  him. 

[THERSILOCHUS  (9ep<rt'Ao^of),  aPaeonian  chief- 
tain, an  ally  of  the  Trojans,  killed  by  Achilles.] 

THERS!TES  (QepotTTjc),  son  of  Agrius,  the  most 
deformed  [and  ugliest  of  the  Greeks  that  came 
beneath  the  walls  of  Troy,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  the  most  loquacious  busy  body  and  fault- 
finder in  the  Greek  army.  He  was  especially 
fond  of  abusing  Achilles  and  Ulysses  ;  and,  on 
one  occasion,  having  assailed  Agamemnon  him- 
self with  his  revilings,  Ulysses  inflicted  sum- 
mary punishment  upon  him  with  his  sceptre  in 
the  assembly  of  the  Greeks,  and  caused  him  to 
sit  down  quietly.]  According  to  the  later  poets, 
he  was  killed  by  Achilles  because  he  had  ridi- 
culed him  for  lamenting  the  death  of  Penthe- 
silea,  queen  of  the  Amazons. 

THESEUS  (Qtjaevc),  the  great  legendary  hero 
of  Attica,  was  the  son  of  ;Egeus,  king  of  Athens, 
and  of  ^Ethra,  the  daughter  of  Pittheus,  king 
of  Troezen.  He  was  brought  up  at  Troezen  ; 
and  when  he  reached  maturity,  he  took,  by  his 
mother's  directions,  the  sword  and  sandals,  the 
tokens  which  had  been  left  by  ^Egeus,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Athens.  Eager  to  emulate  Hercules, 
he  went  by  land,  displaying  his  prowess  by  de- 
stroying the  robbers  and  monsters  that  infested 
the  country.  Periphetes,  Sinis,  Pha?a  the  Crom 

879 


THESEUS. 

myonian  sow,  Sciron,  Cercyon,  and  Procrustes 
fell  before  him.  At  Athens  he  was  immediately 
recognized  by  Medea,  who  laid  a  plot  for  poison- 
ing him  at  a  banquet  to  which  he  was  invited. 
By  means  of  the  sword  which  he  carried,  The- 
seus was  recognized  by  ^Egeus,  acknowledged 
as  his  son,  and  declared  his  successor.  The  • 
sons  of  Pallas,  thus  disappointed  in  their  hopes  : 
of  succeeding  to  the  throne,  attempted  to  se- 
cure the  succession  by  violence,  and  declared 
war ;  but,  being  betrayed  by  the  herald  Leos,  I 
were  destroyed.  The  capture  of  the  Maratho-  I 
nian  bull,  which  had  long  laid  waste  the  sur- 
rounding country,  was  the  next  exploit  of  The- 
seus. After  this  Theseus  went  of  his  own  ac- 
cord as  one  of  the  seven  youths,  whom  the 
Athenians  were  obliged  to  send  every  year, 
with  seven  maidens,  to  Crete,  in  order  to  be 
devoured  by  the  Minotaur.  When  they  arrived 
it  Crete,  Ariadne,  the  daughter  of  Minos,  be- 
came enamored  of  Theseus,  and  provided  him 
with  a  sword  with  which  he  slew  the  Minotaur, 
and  a  clew  of  thread  by  which  he  found  his  way  j 
out  of  the  labyrinth.  Having  effected  his  ob-  j 
ject,  Theseus  sailed  away,  carrying  off  Ariadne.  | 
There  were  various  accounts  about  Ariadne ; 
but,  according  to  the  general  account,  Theseus 
abandoned  her  in  the  island  of  Naxos  on  his 
way  home.  Vid.  ARIADNE.  He  was  generally 
believed  to  have  had  by  her  two  sons,  QEnopioji 
and  Staphylus.  As  the  vessel  in  which  The- 
seus sailed  approached  Attica,  he  neglected  to 
hoist  the  white  sail,  which  was  to  have  been 
the  signal  of  the  success  of  the  expedition  ; 
whereupon  ^Egeus,  thinking  that  his  son  had 
perished,  threw  himself  into  the  sea.  Vid. 
/EGEUS.  Theseus  thus  became  King  of  Athens. 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  adventures 
of  Theseus  was  his  expedition  against  the  Ama- 
zons. He  is  said  to  have  assailed  them  before 
they  had  recovered  from  the  attack  of  Hercules, 
and  to  have  carried  off  their  queen  Antiope. 
The  Amazons,  in  their  turn,  invaded  Attica, 
and  penetrated  into  Athens  itself;  and  the  final 
battle  in  which  Theseus  overcame  them  was 
fought  in  the  very  midst  of  the  city.  By  An- 
tiope Theseus  was  said  to  have  had  a  son  named 
Hippolytus  orDemophoon,  and  after  her  death  to 
have  married  Phaedra.  ( Vid.  HIPPOLYTUS,  PHAE- 
DRA.) Theseus  figures  in  almost  all  the  great 
heroic  expeditions.  He  was  one  of  the  Argo- 
nauts (the  anachronism  of  the  attempt  of  Me- 
dea to  poison  him  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
noticed) ;  he  joined  in  the  Calydonian  hunt, 
and  aided  Adrastus  in  recovering  the  bodies 
of  those  slain  before  Thebes.  He  contracted 
a  close  friendship  with  Pirithous,  and  aided 
him  and  the  Lapithae  against  the  Centaurs. 
With  the  assistance  of  Pirithous  he  carried 
off  Helen  from  Sparta  while  she  was  quite  a 
girl,  and  placed  her  at  Aphidna?,  under  the 
care  of  J^thra.  In  return,  he  assisted  Pirith- 
ous in  his  attempt  to  carry  off  Proserpina  (Per- 
sephone) from  the  lower  world.  Pirithous  per- 
ished in  the  enterprise,  and  Theseus  was  kept 
in  hard  durance  until  he  was  delivered  by  Her- 
cules. Meantime  Castor  and  Pollux  invaded 
Attica,  and  carried  off  Helen  and  JCthra,  Aca- 
demus  having  informed  the  brothers  where 
they  were  to  be  found.  (Fid.  ACADEMUS.)  Me- 
nestheus  also  endeavored  to  incite  the  peo- 
880 


THESPLE. 

pie  against  Theseus,  who,  on  his  return,  found 
himself  unable  to  re-establish  his  authority, 
and  retired  to  Scyros,  where  he  met  with  a 
treacherous  death  at  the  hands  of  Lycomedes. 
The  departed  hero  was  believed  to  hjve  ap- 
peared to  aid  the  Athenians  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon.  In  469  the  bones  of  Theseus  were 
discovered  by  Cimon  in  Scyros,  and  brougl  t  to 
Athens,  where  they  were  deposited  in  a  teuple 
(the  Thcscum)  erected  in  honor  of  the  hero.  A 
considerable  part  of  this  temple  still  remains, 
forming  one  of  the  most  interesting  monuments 
of  Athens.  A  festival  in  honor  of  Theseus  was 
celebrated  on  the  eighth  day  of  each  month,  es- 
pecially on  the  eighth  of  Pyanepsion.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  Theseus  is  a  purely  legendary 
personage.  Nevertheless,  in  later  times  the 
Athenians  came  to  regard  him  as  the  author  of 
a  very  important  political  revolution  in  Attica. 
Before  his  time  Attica  had  been  broken  up  into 
twelve  petty  independent  states  or  townships, 
acknowledging  no  head,  and  connected  only  by 
a  federal  union.  Theseus  abolished  the  sep- 
arate governments,  and  erected  Athens  into  the 
capital  of  a  single  commonwealth.  The  festival 
of  the  Panathenaea  was  instituted  to  commem- 
orate this  important  revolution.  Theseus  is 
said  to  have  established  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment, retaining  in  his  own  hands  only  certain 
definite  powers  and  functions.  He  is  further 
said  to  have  distributed  the  Athenian  citizens 
into  the  three  classes  of  Eupatridae,  Geomori, 
and  Demiurgi.  It  would  be  a  vain  task  to  at- 
tempt to  decide  whether  there  is  any  historical 
basis  for  the  legends  about  Theseus,  and  still 
more  so  to  endeavor  to  separate  the  historical 
from  the  legendary  in  what  has  been  preserved. 
The  Theseus  of  the  Athenians  was  a  hero  who 
fought  the  Amazons,  and  slew  the  Minotaur, 
and  carried  off  Helen.  A  personage  who  should 
be  nothing  more  than  a  wise  king,  consolidating 
the  Athenian  commonwealth,  however  possible 
his  existence  might  be,  would  have  no  historical 
reality.  The  connection  of  Theseus  with  Po- 
seidon (Neptune),  the  national  deity  of  the  Ionic 
tribes,  his  coming  from  the  Ionic  town  Trcezen, 
forcing  his  way  through  the  Isthmus  into  Atti- 
ca, and  establishing  the  Isthmia  as  an  Ionic 
Panegyris,  rather  suggest  that  Theseus  is,  at 
least  in  part,  the  mythological  representative  of 
an  Ionian  immigration  into  Attica,  which,  add- 
ing, perhaps,  to  the  strength  and  importance  of 
Ionian  settlers  already  in  the  country,  might 
easily  have  led  to  that  political  aggregation  of 
the  disjointed  elements  of  the  state  which  is 
assigned  to  Theseus. 

THESMIA  or  THESMOPHOROS  (Ocaula,  GCCT^O^O 
pof),  that  is,  "  the  law-giver,"  a  surname  of  De- 
meter  (Ceres)  and  Persephone  (Proserpina),  in 
honor  of  whom  the  Thesmophoria  were  cele- 
brated at  Athens  in  the  month  of  Pyanepsion. 

THESPUE  or  THESPIA  (Oeantiai,  Qtcnnai,  Qsa- 
TTEia,  Qtcnua  :  Qeaxiei'e,  Qeoiriddqc,  Thespiensis : 
now  Eremo  or  Rimolcastro),  an  ancient  town  in 
Boeotia,  on  the  southeastern  slope  of  Mount  Hel- 
icon, at  no  great  distance  from  the  Crissaean 
Gulf.  Its  inhabitants  did  not  follow  the  exam- 
ple of  the  other  Boeotian  towns  in  submitting 
to  Xerxes,  and  a  number  of  them  bravely  fought 
under  Leonidas  at  Thermopylae,  and  perished 
with  the  Spartans.  Their  city  was  burned  to 


THESPIS. 

the  ground  by  the  Persians,  but  was  subse- 
quen*'y  rebuilt.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  the 
Fhebans  made  themselves  masters  of  the  town. 
At  Thespiae  was  preserved  the  celebrated  mar- 
ble statue  of  Eros  by  Praxiteles,  who  had  given 
it  to  Phryne,  by  whom  it  was  presented  to  her 
native  town.  Vid.  PRAXITELES.  From  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  town  to  Mount  Helicon  the  Muses 
are  called  Thespiades,  and  Helicon  itself  is 
named  the  Thcspia  rupes. 

THESPIS  (9e<T7i7c).  the  celebrated  father  of 
Greek  tragedy,  was  a  contemporary  of  Pisistra- 
tus,  and  a  native  of  Icarus,  one  of  the  demi  in 
Attica,  where  the  worship  of  Bacchus  (Diony- 
sus) had  long  prevailed.  The  alteration  made 
by  Thespis,  and  which  gave  to  the  old  tragedy 
a  new  and  dramatic  character,  was  very  simple 
but  very  important.  He  introduced  an  actor, 
for  the  sake  of  giving  rest  to  the  chorus,  and 
independent  of  it,  in  which  capacity  he  proba- 
bly appeared  himself,  taking  various  parts  in 
the  same  piece,  under  various  disguises,  which 
he  was  enabled  to  assume  by  means  of  the  linen 
masks,  the  invention  of  which  is  ascribed  to 
him.  The  first  representation  of  Thespis  was 
in  B.C.  535.  For  further  details,  md.  Diet,  of 
Antiq.,  art.  TRAGCEDIA. 

THESPIUS  (Ge'ffmof),  son  of  Erechtheus,  who, 
according  to  some,  founded  the  town  of  Thes- 
piae in  Boeotia.  His  descendants  are  called 
Thespiadce. 

THESPROTI  (9e(T7rporo/),  a  people  of  Epirus, 
inhabiting  the  district  called  after  them  THES- 
PROTIA (Oeanpuria)  or  THESPBOTIS  (Qeffirpurif), 
which  extended  along  the  coast  from  the  Am- 
bracian  Gulf  northward  as  far  as  the  River  Thy- 
amis,  and  inland  as  far  as  the  territory  of  the 
Molossi.  The  southeastern  part  of  the  country 
Dn  the  coast,  from  the  River  Acheron  to  the 
Ambracian  Gulf,  was  called  Cassopaea,  from  the 
town  Cassope,  and  is  sometimes  reckoned  a 
distinct  district.  The  Thesproti  were  the  most 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Epirus,  and  are  said  to 
have  derived  their  name  from  Thesprotus,  the 
eon  of  Lycaon.  They  were  Pelasgians,  and 
their  country  was  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the 
Pelasgie  nation.  Here  was  the  oracle  of  Dodo- 
na,  the  great  centre  of  the  Pelasgie  worship. 
From  Thesprotia  issued  the  Thessalians,  who 
took  possession  of  the  country  afterward  called 
Thessaly.  In  the  historical  period  the  Thes- 
protians  were  a  people  of  small  importance, 
having  become  subject  to  the  kings  of  the  Mo- 
lossians. 

THESSALIA  (QtoffaZia  or  QerraMa  :  QctraaMf 
or  Of  rro?.6f ),  the  largest  division  of  Greece,  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Cambunian  Mount- 
ains, which  separated  it  from  Macedonia ;  on 
the  west  by  Mount  Pindus,  which  separated  it 
from  Epirus ;  on  the  east  by  the  ^tgean  Sea ; 
and  on  the  south  by  the  Maliac  Gulf  and  Mount 
CEta,  which  separated  it  from  Locris,  Phocis, 
and  ^Etolia.  Thessaly  Proper  is  a  vast  plain, 
lying  between  the  Cambunian  Mountains  on 
the  north  and  Mount  Othrys  on  the  south. 
Mount  Pindus  on  the  west,  and  Mounts  Ossa  and 
Pelion  on  the  east.  It  is  thus  shut  in  on  every 
side  by  mountain  barriers,  broken  only  at  the 
northeastern  corner  by  the  valley  and  defile 
of  Tempe,  which  separates  Oasa  from  Olym- 
pus, and  is  the  only  road  through  which  an  in- 
M 


+          THESSALIA. 

vader  can  enter  Thessaly  from  the  west.  This 
plain  is  drained  by  the  River  Peneus  and  its 
affluents,  and  is  said  to  have  been  originally  a 
vast  lake,  the  waters  of  which  were  afterward 
carried  off  through  the  Vale  of  Tempe  by  some 
sudden  convulsion,  which  rent  the  rocks  of 
this  valley  asunder.  The  Lake  of  Nessonis,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Ossa,  and  that  of  Bcr.bcis,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Pelion,  are  supposed  to  have 
been  remains  of  this  vast  lake.  In  addition  to 
the  plain  already  described,  there  were  two 
other  districts  included  under  the  general  name 
of  Thessaly  :  one  called  Magnesia,  being  a  long, 
narrow  strip  of  country,  extending  along  the 
coast  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  from  Tempe  to  the 
Pagasaean  Gulf,  and  bounded  on  the  west  by 
Mounts  Ossa  and  Olympus ;  and  the  other  be- 
ing a  long  narrow  vale  at  the  extreme  south 
of  the  country,  lying  between  Mounts  Othrys 
and  CEta,  and  drained  by  the  River  Sperche- 
us.  Thessaly  is  said  to  have  been  originally 
known  by  the  names  of  Pyrrha,  JEmonia,  and 
JEolis.  The  two  former  appellations  belong 
to  mythology ;  the  latter  refers  to  the  period 
when  the  country  was  inhabited  by  ^Eolians, 
who  were  afterward  expelled  from  the  coun- 
try by  the  Thessalians  about  sixty  years  after 
the  Trojan  war.  The  Thessalians  are  said  to 
have  come  from  Thesprotia ;  but  at  what  pe- 
riod their  name  became  the  name  of  the  coun- 
try can  not  be  determined.  It  does  not  occur 
in  Homer,  who  only  mentions  the  several  prin- 
cipalities of  which  it  was  composed,  and  does 
not  give  any  general  appellation  to  the  country. 
Thessaly  was  divided  in  very  early  times  into 
four  districts  or  tetrarchies,  a  division  which 
we  still  find  subsisting  in  the  Peloponnesian 
war.  These  districts  were  Hestia-.otis,  Pelasgio- 
tis,  Thessaliotis,  and  Phthiotis.  They  comprised, 
however,  only  the  great  Thessalian  plain  ;  and 
besides  them,  we  find  mention  of  four  other  dis- 
tricts, viz.,  Magnesia,  Dolopia,  (Etaa,  and  Malis. 
Thus  there  were  eight  districts  altogether. 
Perrheebia  was,  properly  speaking,  not  a  district, 
since  Perrhaebi  was  the  name  of  a  Pelasgie 
people  settled  in  Hestiajotis  and  Pelasgiotis. 
Vid.  PERRH/EBI.  1.  HESTI^EOTIS  ('EortaiiJTif  or 
'Eemurif),  inhabited  by  the  Hestiabta  ('EffTiai- 
UTOL  or  'Effrfurat),  the  northwestern  part  of 
Thessaly,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Macedonia, 
on  the  west  by  Epirus,  on  the  east  by  Pelasgi- 
otis, and  on  the  south  by  Thessaliotis :  the  Pe- 
neus may  be  said  in  general  to  have  formed  its 
southern  limit. — 2.  PELASGIOTIS  (IlfAaaytunf), 
inhabited  by  the  Pelasgiola  (Hefao-yMTat),  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Thessalian  plain,  was  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  Macedonia,  on  the  west  by 
Hestiaeotis,  on  the  east  by  Magnesia,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Sinus  Pagasaeus  and  Phthiotis. 
The  name  shows  that  it  was  originally  inhabited 
by  Pelasgians ;  and  one  of  the  chief  towns  in 
the  district  was  Larissa,  which  was  of  Pelas- 
gie origin. — 3.  TiiEssAi.idfis  (Qcoaa'A.tuTtf),  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  Thessalian  plain,  so 
called  because  it  was  first  occupied  by  the  Thes- 
salians  who  came  from  Thesprotia.  It  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Hestiaeotis,  on  the 
west  by  Epirus,  on  the  east  by  Pelasgiotis,  and 
on  the  south  by  Dolopia  and  Phthiotis. — 1 
PHTHIOTIS  (*0wr<f),  inhabited  by  the  Ph/hiiit-t 
(*0«ira<)>  the  southeast  of  Thessaly,  bounded 

881 


THESSALIA. 

on  the  north  by  Thessaliotis,  on  the  west  by 
Dolopia,  on  the  south  by  the  Sinus  Maliacus, 
and  on  the  east  by  the  Pagasaean  Gulf.  Its  in- 
habitants were  Achaeans,  and  are  frequently 
called  the  Achaean  Phthiotaj.  It  is  in  this  dis- 
trict that  Homer  places  Phthia  and  Hellas 
Proper,  and  the  dominions  of  Achilles — 5.  MAG- 
NESIA. Vid.  MAGNESIA. — 6.  DOIX>PIA  (AoAoTr/a), 
inhabited  by  the  Ddlope*  (A6/Wff),  a  small  dis- 
trict bounded  on  the  east  by  Phthiotis,  on  the 
north  by  Thessaliotis,  on  the  west  by  Athama- 
nia,  and  on  the  south  by  CEtaea.  They  were 
an  ancient  people,  for  they  are  not  only  men- 
tioned by  Homer  as  fighting  before  Troy,  but 
they  also  sent  deputies  to  the  Amphictyonic  as- 
sembly.— 7.  CEivEA  (OlTttla),  inhabited  by  the 
(EtcEi  (OiTaloi)  and  JEnianes  (\lviuvef),  a  dis- 
trict in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Spercheus,  lying 
between  Mounts  Othrys  and  CEta,  and  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Dolopia,  on  the  south  by  Phocis, 
and  on  the  east  by  Malis. — 8.  MAI.IS.  Vid.  MA- 
LI s. — History  of  Thessaly.  The  Thessalians,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  were  a  Thesprotian  tribe. 
Under  the  guidance  of  leaders,  who  are  said  to 
have  been  descendants  of  Hercules,  they  in- 
vaded the  western  part  of  the  country,  afterward 
called  Thessaliotis,  and  drove  out  or  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  Penestae  or  bondsmen  the  an- 
cient .-Eolian  inhabitants.  The  Thessalians 
afterward  spread  over  the  other  parts  of  the 
country,  compelling  the  Perrhaebi,  Magnetes, 
Achaaan  Phthiotae,  etc.,  to  submit  to  their  au- 
thority and  pay  them  tribute.  The  population 
of  Thessaly,  therefore,  consisted,  like  that  of 
Laconia,  of  three  distinct  classes:  1.  The  Pe- 
nestae, whose  condition  was  nearly  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Helots.  2.  The  subject  people,  cor- 
responding to  the  Perioeci  of  Laconia.  3.  The 
Thessalian  conquerors,  who  alone  had  any  share 
in  the  public  administration,  and  whose  lands 
were  cultivated  by  the  Penestae.  For  some 
time  after  the  conquest,  Thessaly  was  governed 
by  kings  of  the  race  of  Hercules  ;  but  the  kingly 
power  seems  to  have  been  abolished  in  early 
times,  and  the  government  in  the  separate  cities 
became  oliga/chical,  the  power  being  chiefly  in 
the  hands  of  a  few  great  families  descended 
from  the  ancient  kings.  Of  these,  two  of  the 
most  powerful  were  the  Aleuadae  and  the  Sco- 
padae,  the  former  of  whom  ruled  at  Larissa,  and 
the  latter  at  Cranon  or  Crannon.  These  nobles 
had  vast  estates  cultivated  by  the  Penestae ; 
they  were  celebrated  for  their  hospitality  and 
princely  mode  of  life ;  and  they  attracted  to 
their  courts  many  of  the  poets  and  artists  of 
Southern  Greece.  At  an  early  period  the  Thes- 
salians were  united  into  a  confederate  body. 
Each  of  the  four  districts  into  which  the  coun- 
try was  divided  probably  regulated  its  affairs 
by  some  kind  of  provincial  council;  and,  when 
occasion  required,  a  chief  magistrate  was  elect- 1 
ed  under  the  name  of  Tagus  (Tnyof),  whose  j 
commands  were  obeyed  by  all  the  four  districts. 
His  command  was  of  a  military  rather  than  of 
a  civil  nature,  and  he  seems  to  have  been  ap-  i 
pointed  only  n  case  of  war.  We  do  not  know  \ 
the  extent  of  his  constitutional  power,  nor  the 
time  for  which  he  held  his  office ;  probably  ! 
neither  was  precisely  fixed,  and  depended  on  ' 
the  circumstances  of  the  time  and  character  of  j 
Hie  individual.  This  confederacy,  however,  i 
882 


THESSALONICA. 

was  not  of  much  practical  benefit  to  the  The»- 
salian  people,  and  appears  to  have  been  only 
used  by  the  Thessalian  nobles  as  a  means  of 
cementing  and  maintaining  their  power.  The 
Thessalians  never  became  of  much  importance 
in  Grecian  history.  They  submitted  to  the  Per- 
sians on  their  invasion  of  Greece,  and  they  ex- 
ercised no  important  influence  on  Grecian  af- 
fairs till  after  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
About  this  time  the  power  of  the  aristocratical 
families  began  to  decline,  and  Lycophron,  who 
had  established  himself  as  a  tyrant  at  Pherae, 
offered  a  formidable  opposition  to  the  great  aris- 
tocratical families,  and  endeavored  to  extend 
his  power  over  all  Thessaly.  His  ambitious 
schemes  were  realized  by  Jason,  the  successor, 
and  probably  the  son  of  Lycophron,  who  caused 
himself  to  be  elected  Tagus  about  B.C.  374. 
While  he  lived  the  whole  of  Thessaly  was 
united  as  one  political  power,  and  he  began  to 
aim  at  making  himself  master  of  all  Greece, 
when  he  was  assassinated  in  370.  The  office 
of  Tagus  became  a  tyranny  under  his  success- 
ors, Polydorus,  Polyphron,  Alexander,  Tisiphon, 
and  Lycophron ;  but  at  length  the  old  aristo- 
cratical families  called  in  the  assistance  of 
Philip  of  Macedonia,  who  deprived  Lycophron 
of  his  power  in  353,  and  restored  the  ancient 
government  in  the  different  towns.  The  coun 
try,  however,  only  changed  masters  ;  for  a  few 
years  later  (344)  Philip  made  it  completely  sub- 
ject to  Macedonia,  by  placing  at  the  head  of  the 
four  divisions  of  the  country  governors  devoted 
to  his  interests,  and  probably  members  of  the 
ancjent  noble  families,  who  had  now  become 
little  better  than  his  vassals.  From  this  time 
Thessaly  remained  in  a  state  of  dependence 
upon  the  Macedonian  kings,  till  the  victory  of 
T.  Flamininus  at  Cynoscephalae  in  197  again 
gave  them  a  semblance  of  independence  under 
the  protection  of  the  Romans. 

TnEssALONicA  (BeaoaXoviKT]),  daughter  of 
Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  by  his 
wife  or  concubinfe  Nicesipolis  of  Pherae.  She 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Cassander  along  with 
Olympias  on  the  capture  of  Pydna  in  B.C.  317 ; 
and  Cassander  embraced  the  opportunity  to 
connect  himself  with  the  ancient  royal  house 
of  Macedonia  by  marrying  her.  By  Cassander 
she  became  the  mother  of  three  sons,  Philip, 
Antipater,  and  Alexander ;  and  her  husband 
paid  her  the  honor  of  conferring  her  name  upon 
the  city  of  Thessalonica,  which  he  founded  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Therma.  (Vid.  below.) 
After  the  death  of  Cassander,  Thessalonica  was 
put  to  death  by  her  son  Antipater,  295. 

THESSALONICA  (Qtaaahovlnri,  also 
Ktia :  QeacdkoviKevi;  :  now  Saloniki),  more  an- 
ciently THERMA  (Qep/^rj :  Qeppalof),  an  ancient 
city  in  Macedonia,  situated  at  the  northeastern 
extremity  of  the  Sinus  Thermaicus.  Under 
the  name  of  Therma  it  was  not  a  place  of  much 
importance.  It  was  taken  and  occupied  by  the 
Athenians  a  short  time  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Peloponnesian  war  (B.C.  432),  but 
was  soon  afterward  restored  by  them  to  Per- 
diccas.  It  was  made  an  important  city  by  Cas- 
sander, who  collected  in  this  place  the  inhabit- 
ants of  several  adjacent  towns  (about  B.C. 
315),  and  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Thessalo- 
nica, in  honor  of  his  wife,  the  daughter  of  Philip 


THESSALUS. 

*nd  sister  of  Alexander  the  Great.  From  this 
time  it  became  a  large  and  flourishing  city.  Its 
harhor  was  well  situated  for  commercial  inter- 
course with  the  Hellespont  and  the  JSgean  ; 
and  under  the  Romans  it  had  the  additional  ad- 
vantage of  lying  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  which  led 
from  the  western  shores  of  Greece  to  Byzantium 
and  the  East.  It  was  visited  by  the  Apostle 
Paul  about  A.D.  53 ;  and  about  two  years  after- 
ward he  addressed  from  Corinth  two  epistles 
to  his  converts  in  the  city.  Thessalonica  con- 
tinued to  be,  under  the  empire,  one  of  the  most 
important  cities  of-  Macedonia ;  and  at  a  later 
time  it  became  the  residence  of  the  prefect,  and 
the  capital  of  the  Illyrian  provinces.  It  is  cele- 
brated at  this  period  on  account  of  the  fearful 
massacre  of  its  inhabitants  by  order  of  Theodo- 
sius,  in  consequence  of  a  riot  in  which  some  of 
the  Roman  officers  had  been  assassinated  by 
the  populace.  Vid.  THEODOSIUS. 

[THESSALUS  (Qeaaal.of).  1.  Son  of  Hercu- 
les and  Chalciope  (the  daughter  of  Eurypylus, 
king  of  Cos),  and  father  of  Phidippus  and  Anti- 
phus. — 2.  An  eminent  tragic  actor  in  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  whose  special  favor  he 
enjoyed,  and  whom  he  served  before  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne,  and  afterward  accompanied 
on  his  expedition  into  Asia.] 

THESSALUS  (QfaoaAof.)  I.  A.  Greek  physi- 
cian, son  of  Hippocrates,  passed  some  of  his 
time  at  the  court  of  Archelaus,  king  of  Mace- 
donia, who  reigned  B.C.  413-399.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  sect  of  the  Dogmatic!, 
and  is  several  times  highly  praised  by  Galen, 
who  calls  him  the  most  eminent  of  the  sons 
of  Hippocrates.  He  was  supposed  by  some  of 
the  ancient  writers  to  be  the  author  of  several 
of  the  works  that  form  part  of  the  Hippocratic 
Collection,  which  he  might  have  compiled  from 
notes  left  by  his  father. — 2.  Also  a  Greek  phy- 
sician, was  a  native  of  Tralles  in  Lydia,  and 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  medical  sect  of  the 
Methodici.  He  lived  at  Rome  in  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Nero,  A.D.  64-68,  to  whom  he 
addressed  one  of  his  works  ;  and  here  he  died 
and  was  buried,  and  his  tomb  was  to  be  seen 
in  Pliny's  time  on  the  Via  Appia.  He  consid- 
ered himself  superior  to  all  his  predecessors  ; 
he  asserted  that  none  of  them  had  contributed 
any  thing  to  the  advance  of  medical  science,  and 
boasted  that  he  could  himself  teach  the  art  of 
healing  in  six  months.  He  is  frequently  men- 
tioned by  Galen,  but  always  in  terms  of  contempt 
and  ridicule.  None  of  his  works  are  extant. 

THESTIUS  (Qeariof),  son  of  Mars  (Ares)  and 
Demonice  or  Androdice,  and,  according  to  oth- 
ers, son  of  Agenor,  and  grandson  of  Pleuron,  the 
king  of  .lEtolia.  He  was  the  father  of  Iphiclus, 
Euippus,  Plexippus,  Eurypylus,  Leila,  Althaea, 
and  Hypermnestra.  His  wife  is  not  the  same 
in  all  traditions,  some  calling  her  Leucippe  or 
Laophonte,  a  daughter  of  Pleuron,  and  others 
Deidamla.  The  patronymic  THESTIADES  is 
given  to  his  grandson  Meleager,  as  well  as  to 
his  sons,  and  the  female  patronymic  THESTIAS 
to  his  daughter  Althaea,  the  mother  of  Melea- 
ger. 

TIIESTOR  (QccTup).  1.  Son  of  Idmon  and 
Laothoe,  and  father  of  Calchas,  Theoclyme- 
nus,  Leucippe,  and  Theonofi.  The  patronymic 
TIIKSTORIDES  is  frequently  given  to  his  son 


THILSAPHATA. 

Calchas. — [2.  A  Trojan  warrior,  son  of  Enops 
slain  by  Patroclus.] 

THETIS  (Gene),  one  of  the  daughters  of  Ne- 
reus  and  Doris,  was  the  wife  of  Peleus,  by 
whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Achilles.  As 
a  marine  divinity,  she  dwelt  like  her  sisters, 
the  Nereids,  in  the  depth  of  the  sea,  with  her 
father  Nereus.  She  there  received  Bacchus 
(Dionysus)  on  his  flight  from  Lycurgus,  and 
the  god,  in  his  gratitude,  presented  her  with  a 
golden  urn.  When  Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  was 
thrown  down  from  heaven,  he  was  likewise  re- 
ceived by  Thetis.  She  had  been  brought  up  by 
Hera  (Juno),  and  when  she  reached  the  age  of 
maturity,  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Hera  (Juno)  gave 
her,  against  her  will,  in  marriage  to  Peleus 
Poseidon  (Neptune)  and  Zeus  (Jupiter)  himself 
are  said  by  some  to  have  sued  for  her  hand  ;  but 
when  Themis  declared  that  the  son  of  Thetis 
would  be  more  illustrious  than  his  father,  both 
gods  desisted  from  their  suit.  Others  state 
that  Thetis  rejected  the  offers  of  Zeus  (Jupiter), 
because  she  had  been  brought  up  by  Hera 
(Juno) ;  and  the  god,  to  revenge  himself,  de- 
creed that  she  should  marry  a  mortal.  Chiron 
then  informed  Peleus  how  he  might  gain  pos- 
session of  her,  even  if  she  should  metamorphose 
herself;  for  Thetis,  like  Proteus,  had  the  power 
of  assuming  any  form  she  pleased  ;  and  she  had 
recourse  to  this  means  of  escaping  from  Peleus, 
but  the  latter,  instructed  by  Chiron,  held  the 
goddess  fast  till  she  again  assumed  her  proper 
form,  and  promised  to  marry  him.  The  wed- 
ding of  Peleus  was  honored  with  the  presence 
of  all  the  gods,  with  the  exception  of  Eris  or 
Discord,  who  was  not  invited,  and  who  avenged 
herself  by  throwing  among  the  assembled  gods 
the  apple,  which  was  the  source  of  so  much 
misery.  Vid.  PARIS.  After  Thetis  had  become 
the  mother  of  Achilles,  she  bestowed  upon  him 
the  tenderest  care  and  love.  Vid.  ACHILLES. 

THEUPOHS  (QeovxoTiif),  a  later  name  given  to 
the  city  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  on  account  of  its 
eminence  in  the  early  history  of  Christianity. 

THEUPROSOPON  (Qeov  npofuirov,  i.  e.,  the.  face 
of  a  god:  now  Ras-esh-Shukeh;  Arab.  Wejch- 
cl-Khiar,  i.  e.,  a  face  of  stone),  a  lofty  rugged 
promontory  on  the  coast  of  Phcenice,  between 
Tripolis  and  Byblus,  formed  by  a  spur  of  Leb- 
anon, and  running  far  out  to  sea.  Some  travel- 
lers have  fancied  that  they  can  trace  in  its  side 
view  that  resemblance  to  a  human  profile  which 
its  name  implies. 

THEVESTE  (OtoveoTfi :  ruins  at  Tebessa),  a  con- 
siderable city  of  Northern  Africa,  on  the  frontier 
of  Numidia  and  Byzacena,  at  the  centre  of  sev- 
eral roads.  It  was  of  comparatively  late  ori- 
gin, and  a  Roman  colony.  Among  its  recently 
discovered  ruins  are  a  fine  triumphal  arch  and 
the  old  walls  of  the  city,  the  circuit  of  which 
was  large  enough  to  have  contained  forty  thou- 
sand inhabitants. 

THIA  (0«'a),  daughter  of  Ccelus  (Uranus)  and 
Terra  (Ge),  one  of  the  female  Titans,  became  by 
Hyperion  the  mother  of  Helios,  Eos  (Aurora), 
and  Selene,  that  is,  she  was  regarded  as  thu 
deity  from  whom  all  light  proceeded. 

[TiiiBRON.      ViJ.  THIMBRON.] 

THILSAPHATA  (now  probably  Tell  Afad,  be 
tween  Mosul  and  Sinjar),  a  town  of  Mesopota- 
mia near  the  Tigris. 

883 


THILUTHA. 

TIIILCTHA,  a  fort  in  the  south  of  Mesopotamia, 
.111  an  island  in  the  Euphrates.  Some  identify 
it  with  Olabus,  and  that  with  the  fort  now  called 
Zohia  or  Juba  in  about  34°  north  latitude. 


A  Lacedaemonian,  was  sent  as  harmost  in  B.C. 
400,  with  an  army  of  five  thousand  men,  to  aid 
the  lonians  against  Tissaphernes.  He  arrived 
in  Asia  about  the  time  of  the  return  of  the  Greek 
mercenaries  of  Cyrus  from  Upper  Asia,  and  at 
once  engaged  them  to  serve  with  him  against 
Tissaphernes  and  Pharnabazus.  With  their 
aid  he  captured  several  cities.  —  2.  A  Lacedae- 
monian, an  officer  under  Harpalus,  Macedonian 
satrap  of  Babylon.  After  his  death  he  got  pos- 
session of  his  treasures,  fleet,  and  army,  and 
laid  siege  to  Cyrene  in  Africa.  He  took  their 
port  Apollonia,  and  would  have  succeeded  but 
for  the  desertion  of  his  officer  Mnasicles,  under 
whose  direction  the  Cyreneans  recovered  most 
of  what  they  had  previously  lost.  A  force  having 
been  sent  against  him  from  Egypt  under  Ophel- 
ias, he  was  defeated,  and  soon  after  fell  into  the 
hands  of  some  Libyans,  by  whom  he  was  deliv- 
ered up,  taken  to  Apollonia,  and  crucified.] 

THIXJE  or  THINA  (Qivai,  Qlva),  a  chief  city  of 
the  SIN^E,  and  a  great  emporium  for  the  silk  and 
wool  trade  of  the  extreme  East.  Some  seek  it 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  China,  others  on  the 
southeastern  coast  of  Cochin-China. 

THIODAMAS  (Qeioddfiaf),  father  of  Hylas,  and 
King  of  the  Dryopes. 

THIS  (9«'f  :  QIV'ITTJC),  a  great  city  of  Upper 
Egypt,  capital  of  the  Thinites  Nomos,  and  the 
seat  of  some  of  the  ancient  dynasties.  It  was 
either  the  same  place  as  ABYDUS  (No.  2),  or 
was  so  near  it  as  to  be  entirely  supplanted  by 
Abydus. 

THISBE  (QioGrj),  a  beautiful  Babylonian  maid- 
en, beloved  by  Pyramus.  The  lovers,  living  in 
adjoining  houses,  often  secretly  conversed  with 
each  other  through  a  hole  in  the  wall,  as  their 
parents  would  not  sanction  their  marriage. 
Once  they  agreed  upon  a  rendezvous  at  the 
tomb  of  Ninus.  Thisbe  arrived  first,  and,  while 
she  was  waiting  for  Pyramus,  she  perceived  a 
lioness  which  had  just  torn  to  pieces  an  ox,  and 
took  to  flight.  While  running  she  lost  her  gar- 
ment, which  the  lioness  soiled  with  blood.  In 
the  mean  time  Pyramus  arrived,  and,  finding  her 
garment  covered  with  blood,  he  imagined  that 
she  had  been  murdered,  and  made  away  with 
himself  under  a  mulberry-tree,  the  fruit  of  which 
henceforth  was  as  red  as  blood.  Thisbe,  who 
afterward  found  the  body  of  her  lover,  likewise 
killed  herself. 

THISBE,  afterward  THISB^E  (QiaGrj,  Qio6ai  : 
QtoSaloc,  Qta6evc.  :  now  Kakosia),  a  town  of 
Boeotia,  on  the  borders  of  Phocis,  and  between 
Mount  Helicon  and  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  It  was 
famed  for  its  number  of  wild  pigeons,  which 
are  still  found  in  abundance  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Kakosia. 

THISOA  (Qtiaoa  ;  QCIOOUTTIC),  a  town  in  Ar- 
cadia, on  Mount  Lycaeus,  called  after  a  nymph 
of  the  same  name. 

[Tnius  (GetotJf,  now  Kutufarina),  a  river  in 
Northern  Laconia,  which  joins  the  Alpheus  on 
the  borders  of  Arcadia.] 

THMUIS  (Qfiovif  :  ruins  at  Tmaie,  near  Man~ 
tourah),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  a  canal  on 
884 


THOON. 

'  the  eastern  side  of  the  Mendesian  mouth  of  the 
i  Nile.     It  was  a  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  the 
!  god  Mendes  (the  Egyptian  Pan),  under  the  sym- 
bol of  a  goat ;  and,  according  to  Jerome,  the 
word  Thmuls  signifies  goat.     It  was  the  chief 
city  of  the  Nomos  ThmuTtes,  which  was  after- 
ward united  with  the  Mendesian  Nomos. 

THOANTEA,  a  surname  of  the  Taurian  Artemis, 
derived  from  Thoas,  king  of  Tauris. 

THOAS  (Goaf.)  1.  Son  of  Andrsemon  and 
Gorge,  was  king  of  Calydon  and  Pleuron,  in 
^Etolia,  and  sailed  with  forty  ships  against  Troy. 
— 2.  Son  of  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  and  Ariadne, 
was  king  of  Lemnos,  and  married  to  Myrina,  by 
whom  he  became  the  father  of  Hypsipyle  and 
Sicinus.  When  the  Lemnian  women  killed  all 
the  men  in  the  island,  Hypsipyle  saved  her 
father  Tboas,  and  concealed  him.  Afterward, 
however,  he  was  discovered  by  the  other  wom- 
en and  killed  ;  or,  according  to  other  accounts, 
he  escaped  to  Taurus,  or  to  the  island  of  OZnoe 

|  near  Eubcea,  which  was  henceforth  called  Si- 
cinus.  The  patronymic  THOANTIAS  is  given  to 
Hypsipyle,  as  the  daughter  of  Thoas. — 3.  Son 
of  Borysthenes,  and  king  of  Tauris,  into  whose 
dominions  Iphigenia  was  carried  by  Diana  (Ar- 
temis) when  she  was  to  ^ave  been  sacrificed. 
— [4.  Son  of  Jason  and  Hypsipyle,  grandson  of 
No.  2,  according  to  Homer,  while  others  called 
him  Deiphilus  or  Nebrophonus.  —  5.  Son  of 
Icarius  and  Peribcea,  brother  of  Penelope.  — 

i  6.  A  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by  Menelaus  at  the 
siege  of  Troy. — 7.  A  Trojan  warrior,  accom- 

j  panied  ^Eneas  to  Italy,  where  he  was  slain  by 
Halesus.] 

THOMAS  MAGISTER,  a  rhetorician  and  gram- 
marian, who  flourished  about  A.D.  1310.  He 
was  a  native  of  Thessalonica,  and  lived  at  the 
court  of  the  Emperor  Andronicus  Palaeologus  I., 
where  he  held  the  offices  of  marshal  (Magistcr 
Officiorum')  and  keeper  of  the  archives  ( Charto- 
phylax) ;  but  he  afterward  retired  to  a  monas- 
tery, where  he  assumed  the  name  of  Theodulus. 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  ancient 
Greek  authors.  His  chief  work,  which  ha? 
come  down  to  us,  is  a  Lexicon  of  Attic  Word* 
(/card  ' A7i<j>u6TjTov  bvofiuruv  'Arrtxuv  'E/t/toya£), 
compiled  from  the  works  of  the  elder  gramma 
rians,  such  as  Phry  nichus,  Ammonius,  Herodian 
and  Mceris.  The  work  has  some  value  on  ac- 
count of  its  containing  much  from  the  eldei 
grammarians,  which  would  otherwise  have  been 
lost ;  but,  when  Thomas  deserts  his  guides,  he 
often  falls  into  the  most  serious  errors.  The  . 
best  edition  is  by  Ritschl,  Halis  Sax.,  1831, 
1832,  8vo. 
[THON  (6wv),  husband  of  Polydamna,  re- 

]  nowned  for  his  wealth,  a  king  in  Egypt,  receiv- 
ed Menelaus  hospitably  when  he  came  thither 
with  Helen  after  the  Trojan  war,  and  bestowed 
rich  presents  upon  him,  while  Polydamna  was 
equally  liberal  to  Helen.  Herodotus  makes 
Paris  and  Helen  to  have  arrived  there  from 
Sparta,  and  to  have  been  detained  by  Thonis 
(Ouvif),  the  guard  of  the  Canobic  mouth  of  the 
Nile,  until  delivered  to  Proteus,  who  kept  Helen 
until  the  visit  of  Meiielaus  in  search  of  her  after 
the  fall  of  Troy.] 

[THOOSA  (Qouaa),  daughter  of  Phorcys,  moth- 
er of  Polyphemus  by  Neptune  (Poseidon).] 
[THOON  (Q6uv\    1.  One  of  the  giants,  slain  by 


THORICUS. 

the  Macrae. — 2.  Son  of  Phaenops,  a  Trojan  war- 
rior, slain  along  with  his  brother  Xanthus  by 
Diomedes. — 3.  A  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by  Ulys- 
ses.— 4.  A  Phaeacian,  who  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  games  celebrated  by  Alcinous  it 
honor  of  Ulysses.] 

THORICUS  (Qopmof  or  QoptKof  :  QoptKiof,  Qopi- 
*tv<  now  Thcriko),  one  of  the  twelve  ancient 
towns  in  Attica,  and  subsequently  a  demus  be- 
longing to  the  tribe  Acamantis,  was  situated  on 
the  southeastern  coast,  a  little  above  Sunium, 
and  was  fortified  by  the  Athenians  toward  the 
close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  There  are 
still  extensive  remains  of  the  ancient  town. 

THORNAX  (Q6pva£ :  now  Patlalka),  a  mount- 
ain in  Laconia,  northeast  of  Sparta,  on  which 
stood  a  celebrated  temple  of  Apollo. 

THOSPITES  LACDS  (Quaking  7(.i[ivr) :  now  Gol- 
iik  ?),  a  lake  in  Armenia  Major,  through  which 
the  Tigris  flows.  The  lake,  and  the  surround- 
ing district,  also  called  Thospltis,  were  both 
named  from  a  city  Thospia  (Quanta)  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  lake. 

THRiciA(9paKJ7,  Ion.  0pj7K»7,,  Qpritisij,  QprjiKit/: 
0p?f,  pi.  Gpa/ccf,  Ion.  Gpyi  and  Qprii!;,  pi.  Qp^- 
KEf,  Qpr/iKes:  Thrax,  pl.Thraces),  was  in  earlier 
times  the  name  of  the  vast  space  of  country 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danube,  on  the 
south  by  the  Propontis  and  the  ./Egean,  on  the 
east  by  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  and  on  the  west 
by  the  River  Strymon  and  the  easternmost  of 
the  Illyrian  tribes.  It  was  divided  into  two 
parts  by  Mount  Ilaemus  (now  the  Balkan),  run- 
ning from  west  to  east,  and  separating  the  plain 
of  the  Lower  Danube  from  the  rivers  which 
fall  into  the  ^Egean.  Two  extensive  mountain 
tanges  branch  off  from  the  southern  side  of 
Mount  Haemus,  one  running  southeast  toward 
Constantinople,  and  the  other,  called  Rhodope, 
east  of  the  preceding  one,  and  also  running  in 
a  southeasterly  direction  near  the  River  Nes- 
tus.  Between  these  two  ranges  there  are  many 
plains,  which  are  drained  by  the  Hebrus,  the 
largest  river  in  Thrace.  At  a  later  time  the 
name  Thrace  was  applied  to  a  more  limited  ex- 
tent of  country.  The  district  between  the  Stry- 
mon and  the  Nestus  was  added  to  Macedonia 
by  Philip,  and  was  usually  called  Macedonia 
Adjecta.  Vid.  MACEDONIA.  Under  Augustus  the 
part  of  the  country  north  of  the  Ila-mus  was 
made  a  separate  Roman  province  under  the 
name  of  Moesia  (vid.  M(ESIA)  ;  but  the  district 
between  the  Strymon  and  the  Nestus  had  been 
previously  restored  to  Thrace  by  the  Romans. 
The  Roman  province  of  Thrace  was  according- 
ly bounded  on  the  west  by  the  River  Nestus, 
which  separated  it  from  Macedonia,  on  the  north 
by  Mount  Haemus,  which  divided  it  from  Moesia, 
on  the  east  by  the  Euxine,  and  on  the  south  by 
the  Propontis  and  ^Egean.  Thrace,  in  its  wid- 
est extent,  was  peopled  in  the  times  of  Herod- 
otus and  Thucydides  by  a  vast  number  of  dif- 
ferent tribes  ;  but  their  customs  and  character 
were  marked  by  great  uniformity.  Herodotus 
says  that,  next  to  the  Indians,  the  Thracians 
were  the  most  numerous  of  all  races,  and  if 
united  under  one  head  would  have  been  irre- 
sistible. He  describes  them  as  a  savage,  cruel, 
and  rapacious  people,  delighting  in  blood,  but 
brave  and  warlike.  According  to  his  account, 
which  is  confirmed  by  other  writers,  the  Thra-  , 


THRACIA. 

cian  chiefs  sold  their  children  for  exportation 
to  the  foreign  merchant ;  they  purchased  their 
wives  from  their  parents ;  they  punctured  or 
tattooed  their  bodies,  and  those  of  the  women 
belonging  to  them,  as  a  sign  of  noble  birth ;  they 
despised  agriculture,  and  considered  it  most 
honorable  to  live  by  war  and  robbery.  Deep 
drinking  prevailed  among  them  extensively, 
and  their  quarrels  over  their  wine-cups  were 
notorious  even  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  (Hoi 
Carm.,  i.,  27.)  They  worshipped  deities,  whom 
the  Greeks  assimilated  to  Ares,  Dionysus,  and 
Artemis :  the  great  sanctuary  and  oracle  of 
their  god  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  was  in  one  of  the 
loftiest  summits  of  Mount  Rhodope.  The  tribes 
on  the  southern  coast  attained  to  some  degree  of 
civilization,  owing  to  the  numerous  Greek  col 
onies  which  were  founded  in  their  vicinity  ;  but 
the  tribes  in  the  interior  seem  to  have  retained 
their  savage  habits,  with  little  mitigation,  down 
to  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire.  In  earlier 
times,  however,  some  of  the  Thracian  tribes 
must  have  been  distinguished  by  a  higher  de- 
gree of  civilization  than  prevailed  among  them 
at  a  later  period.  The  earliest  Greek  poets, 
Orpheus,  Linus,  Musaeus,  and  others,  are  all 
represented  as  coming  from  Thrace.  Eumol- 
pus,  likewise,  who  founded  the  Eleusinian  mys- 
teries at  Attica,  is  said  to  have  been  a  Thra- 
cian, and  to  have  fought  against  Erechtheus, 
ki»g  of  Athens.  We  also  find  mention  of  the 

j  Thracians  in  other  parts  of  Southern  Greece  : 

j  thus  they  are  said  to  have  once  dwelt  both  in 
Phocis  and  Boeotia.  They  were  also  spread 
over  a  part  of  Asia  :  the  Thynians  and  Bithyn- 
ians,  and  perhaps  also  the  Mysians,  were  mem- 
bers of  the  great  Thracian  race.  Even  Xen- 

;  ophon  speaks  of  Thrace  in  Asia,  which  extend- 

i  ed  along  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bosporus  as  far 
asHeraclea.  The  principal  Greek  colonies  along 

I  the  coast,  beginning  at  the  Strymon  and  going 
eastward,  were  AMPHIPOLIS,  at  the  mouth  of  the 

j  Strymon ;  ABDERA,  a  little  to  the  west  of  the 
Nestus ;  DIC^EA  or  Dicaepolis,  a  settlement  of 

j  Maronea ;  MARONEA  itself,  colonized  by  the 
Chians  ;  STRYME,  a  colony  of  the  Thasians  ; 
MESEMBRIA,  founded  by  the  Samothracians  ; 
and  wExos,  a  Lesbian  colony  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Hebrus.  The  Thracian  Chersonesus  was 
probably  colonized  by  the  Greeks  at  an  early 
period,  but  it  did  not  contain  any  important 
Greek  settlement  till  the  migration  of  the  first 
Miltiades  to  the  country,  during  the  reign  of 
Pisistratus  at  Athens.  Vid.  CHERSONESUS.  On 
the  Propontis  the  two  chief  Greek  settlements 
were  those  of  PERINTHUS  and  SKLYMBRIA  ;  and 

;  on  the  Thracian  Bosporus  was  the  important 
town  of  BYZANTIUM.  There  were  only  a  few 
Greek  settlements  on  the  southwest  coast  of 
the  Euxine  ;  the  most  important  were  those  of 
APOLLONIA,  ODESSUS,  CALLATIS.TOMI,  renowned 
as  the  place  of  Ovid's  banishment,  and  ISTRIA, 
near  the  southern  mouth  of  the  Danube.  The 
Thracians  are  said  to  have  been  conquered  by 
Sesostris,  king  of  Egypt,  and  subsequently  to 
have  been  subdued  by  the  Teucrians  and  Mys- 
ians ;  but  the  first  really  historical  fact  respect- 
ing them  is  their  subjugation  by  Megabazus,  the 
general  of  Darius.  After  the  Persians  had  been 
driven  out  of  Europe  by  the  Greeks,  the  Thra- 
cians recovered  their  independence ;  and  at  th« 

885 


THRASEA. 

beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  almost  all 
the  Thracian  tribes  were  united  under  the  do- 
minion of  Sitalces,  king  of  the  Odrysae,  whose 
kingdom  extended  from  Abdera  to  the  Euxine 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Danube.  In  the  third 
year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  (B.C.  429),  Sital- 
ces, who  had  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the 
Athenians,  invaded  Macedonia  with  a  vast  army 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  but  was 
compelled,  by  the  failure  of  provisions,  to  return 
home  after  remaining  in  Macedonia  thirty  days. 
Sitalces  fell  in  battle  against  the  Triballi  in  424, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Seuthes,  who, 
during  a  long  reign,  raised  his  kingdom  to  a 
height  of  power  and  prosperity  which  it  had 
never  previously  attained,  so  that  his  regular 
revenues  amounted  to  the  annual  sum  of  four 
hundred  talents,  in  addition  to  contributions  of 
gold  and  silver  in  the  form  of  presents  to  a  near- 
ly equal  amount.  After  the  death  of  Seuthes, 
which  appears  to  have  happened  a  little  before 
the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  we  find  his 
powerful  kingdom  split  up  into  different  parts  ; 
and  when  Xenophon,  with  the  remains  of  the 
ten  thousand  Greeks,  arrived  on  the  opposite 
coast  of  Asia,  another  Seuthes  applied  to  him 
for  assistance  to  reinstate  him  in  his  dominions. 
Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  re- 
duced the  greater  part  of  Thrace;  and  after  the 
death  of  Alexander,  the  country  fell  to  the  share 
of  Lysimachus.  It  subsequently  formed  a  part 
of  the  Macedonian  dominions,  but  it  continued 
to  be  governed  by  its  native  princes,  and  was 
only  nominally  subject  to  the  Macedonian  mon- 
archs.  Even  under  the  Romans  Thrace  was 
for  a  long  time  governed  by  its  own  chiefs,  and 
we  do  not  know  at  what  period  it  was  made 
into  a  Roman  province. 

THRASEA  P^ETUS,  P.,  a  distinguished  Roman 
senator  and  Stoic  philosopher  in  the  reign  of 
Nero,  was  a  native  of  Patavium,  and  was  prob- 
ably born  soon  after  the  death  of  Augustus.  He 
appears  at  an  early  period  of  his  life  to  have 
made  the  younger  Cato  his  model,  of  whose  life 
he  wrote  an  account.  He  married  Arria,  the 
daughter  of  the  heroic  Arria,  who  showed  her 
husband  Caecina  how  to  die  ;  and  his  wife  was 
worthy  of  her  mother  and  her  husband.  At  a 
later  period  he  gave  his  own  daughter  in  mar- 
riage to  Helvidius  Priscus,  who  trod  closely  in 
the  footsteps  of  his  father-in-law.  After  in- 
curring the  hatred  of  Nero  by  the  independence 
of  his  character  and  the  freedom  with  which 
he  expressed  his  opinions,  he  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  senate  by  command  of  the  em- 
peror, A.D.  66.  By  his  execution  and  that  of 
his  friend  Barea  Soranus,  Nero,  says  Tacitus, 
resolved  to  murder  Virtue  herself.  The  pane- 
gyric of  Thrasea  was  written  by  Arulenus  Rus- 
ticus,  who  was,  in  consequence,  put  to  death  by 
Domitian. 

[THRASIUS  (Qpiiaiof).  1.  A  Trojan  warrior, 
slain  by  Achilles. — 2.  A  soothsayer  of  Cyprus, 
who  told  Busiris  that  by  sacrificing  a  stranger 
to  the  gods,  he  would  cause  a  drought  which  then 
prevailed  to  cease ;  Busiris  tried  the  experi- 
ment with  the  seer  himself] 

THRASYBULUS  (0paov6ovXo<-).      1.  Tyrant  of 
Miletus,  was  a  contemporary  of  Periander  and 
Alyattes,  the  king  of  Lydia.     He  was  intimate- 
ly connected  with  Thrasybulus.     The  story  of 
886 


THRAUSTUS. 

the  mode  in  which  Thrasybulus  gave  his  advice 
to  Periander  as  to  the  best  means  of  securing 
his  power,  is  given  under  PERIANDER. — 2.  A  cel- 
ebrated Athenian,  son  of  Lycus.  Kc  was  zeal- 
ously attached  to  the  Athenian  democracy,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  overthrowing  the  oli- 
garchical government  of  the  Four  Hundred  in 
B  C.  411.  This  is  the  first  occasion  on  which 
he  is  mentioned  ;  but  from  this  time  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  conduct  of  the  war.  On 
the  establishment  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  at  Ath- 
ens he  was  banished,  and  was  living  in  exile  at 
Thebes  when  the  rulers  of  Athens  were  perpe- 
trating their  excesses  of  tyranny.  Being  aided 
by  the  Thebans  with  arms  and  money,  he  col- 
lected a  small  band,  and  seized  the  fortress  of 
Phyle.  He  next  marched  upon  the  Pirseus, 
which  fell  into  his  hands  ;  and  from  this  place 
he  carried  on  war  for  several  months  against 
the  Ten,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  govern- 
ment, and  eventually  he  obtained  possession  of 
Athens,  and  restored  the  democracy,  403.  In 
390  he  commanded  the  Athenian  fleet  in  the 
^Egean,  and  was  slain  by  the  inhabitants  of  As- 
pendus.  —  3.  Brother  of  Gelon  and  Hieron,  ty- 
rants of  Syracuse.  He  succeeded  Hieron  in 
the  government  B.C.  467,  and  was  soon  after- 
ward expelled  by  the  Syracusans,  whom  he 
had  provoked  by  his  rapacity  and  cruelty.  He 
withdrew  to  Locri,  in  Italy,  and  there  ended 
his  days. 

THRASYD^US  (Opaavdalof),  tyrant  of  Agrigen- 
tum,  was  the  son  and  successor  of  Theron,  B.C. 
472.  Shortly  after  his  accession  he  was  defeat- 
ed by  Hieron  of  Syracuse,  and  the  Agrigentines 
immediately  took  advantage  of  this  disaster  to 
expel  him  from  their  city.  He  made  his  escape 
to  Greece,  but  was  arrested  at  Megara,  and  pub- 
licly executed. 

THRASYLLUS  or  THRASYLUS  (Qptiav'M.of,  Qpu- 
ffvXof).  1.  An  Athenian,  who  actively  assisted 
Thrasybulus  in  opposing  the  oligarchical  revo- 
lution in  B.C.  411.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
manders at  the  battle  of  Arginusae,  and  was 
among  the  six  generals  who  returned  to  Athens 
and  were  put  to  death,  406. — 2.  A  celebrated 
astrologer  at  Rhodes,  with  whom  Tiberius  be- 
came acquainted  during  his  residence  in  that 
island,  and  whom  he  ever  after  held  in  the  high- 
est honor.  He  died  in  A.D.  36,  the  year  before 
Tiberius,  and  is  said  to  have  saved  the  lives  of 
many  persons  whom  Tiberius  would  otherwise 
have  put  to  death,  by  falsely  predicting  for  this 
very  purpose  that  the  emperor  would  live  ten 
years  longer.  The  son  of  this  Thrasyllus  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  skill,  and  he  is  said  to 
have  predicted  the  empire  to  Nero. 

THRASYMACHus(9po<n'//a£oc),a  native  of  Chal- 
cedon,  was  a  sophist,  and  one  of  the  earliest  cul- 
tivators of  the  art  of  rhetoric.  He  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Gorgias.  He  is  introduced  by 
Plato  as  one  of  the  interlocutors  in  the  Politia, 
and  is  referred  to  several  times  in  the  Phaedrus. 

THRASYMEDES  (Qpaav^drjf),  son  of  the  Pylian 
Nestor  and  Anaxibia,  accompanied  his  father  on 
the  expedition  against  Troy,  and  returned  with 
him  to  Pylos. 

[THRASYMELUS  ( epaav^of ),  in  the  Iliad, 
charioteer  of  Sarpedon,  slain  by  Patroclus.] 

THRASYMENUS.     Vid.  TRASIMENUS. 

[THRAUSTUS   (Qpavorof,   Xen.,   or  Qpaiarof 


THRIA. 

Diod.),  a  city  of  the  Acrorei  inKlis,  not  far  from 
the  herders  of  Arcadia.] 

[THRIA  (Qpia),  a  village  of  Attica,  from  which 
the  surrounding  district  was  called  THRIASIUS 
CAMPUS  (-6  Qpiuawv  7te(5i'ov),  a  part  of  the  Eleu- 
sinian  plain  extending  between  the  range  of 
.-Egaleus  and  Eleusis,  along  the  borders  of  the 
bay,  and  to  the  north  of  it,  and  famed  for  its 
fertility.^ 

THKON!UM  (Qpoviov  :  Qpoviof,  Opovirvf  :  now 
Romani),  the  chief  town  of  the  Locri  Epicne- 
midii,  on  the  River  Boagrius,  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  sea,  with  a  harbor  upon  the  coast. 

[THRINAKIA  (Qptvaicia).      Vid.  SICILIA.] 

[THRYUM  (Qpvov,  near  the  modern  Agulinitza), 
a  city  in  Triphylia  in  EHs,  on  the  Alpheus,  near 
the  borders  of  the  Pylians,  corresponding  to  the 
later  Epitalium.] 

THUCYDIDES  (QovKvdiSrif).  1.  An  Athenian 
statesman,  of  the  demus  Alopece,  son  of  Mele- 
sias.  After  the  death  of  Cimon  in  B.C.  449, 
Thucydides  became  the  leader  of  the  aristocrat- 
ic party,  which  he  concentrated  and  more  thor- 
oughly organized  in  opposition  to  Pericles.  He 
was  ostracized  in  444,  thus  leaving  the  undis- 
puted political  ascendency  to  Pericles.  He  left 
two  sons,  Melesias  and  Stephanus  ;  and  a  son 
of  the  former  of  these,  named  Thucydides  after 
his  grandfather,  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates. — 2. 
The  great  Athenian  historian,  of  the  demus  Hali- 
mus,  was  the  son  of  Olorus  or  Orolus  and  Heg- 
esipyle.  He  is  said  to  have  been  connected 
with  the  family  of  Cimon  ;  and  we  know  that 
Miltiades,  the  conqueror  of  Marathon,  married 
Hegesipyle,  the  daughter  of  a  Thracian  king 
called  Olorus,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother 
of  Cimon  ;  and  it  has  been  conjectured  with 
much  probability  that  the  mother  of  Thucydides 
was  a  grand-daughter  of  Miltiades  and  Hegesip- 
yle. According  to  a  statement  of  Pamphila 
(md.  PAMPHILA),  Thucydides  was  forty  years  of 
age  at  the  commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  or  B.C.  431,  and  accordingly  he  was  born 
•  in  471.  There  is  a  story  in  Lucian  of  Herodo- 
tus having  read  his  History  at  the  Olympic 
games  to  the  assembled  Greeks ;  and  Suidas 
adds  that  Thucydides,  then  a  boy,  was  present, 
and  shed  tears  of  emulation  ;  a  presage  of  his 
own  future  historical  distinction.  But  this  cel- 
ebrated story  ought  probably  to  be  rejected  as 
a  fable.  Thucydides  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
structed in  oratory  by  Antiphon,  and  in  philoso- 
phy by  Anaxagoras ;  but  whether  these  state- 
ments are  to  be  received  can  not  be  determin- 
ed. It  is  certain,  however,  that,  being  an  Athe- 
nian of  a  good  family,  and  living  in  a  city  which 
was  the  centre  of  Greek  civilization,  he  must 
have  had  the  best  possible  education :  that  he 
was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  cultivated  un- 
derstanding his  work  clearly  shows.  He  in-  j 
forms  us  that  he  possessed  gold  mines  in  that 
part  of  Thrace  which  is  opposite  to  the  island 
of  Thasos,  and  that  he  was  a  person  of  the 
greatest  influence  among  those  in  that  part  of 
Thrace.  This  property,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, he  had  from  his  ancestors  :  according 
to  other  accounts,  he  married  a  rich  woman  of 
Scaptesyle,  and  received  them  as  a  portion  with 
her.  Thucydides  left  a  son  called  Timotheus ; 
and  a  daughter  also  is  mentioned,  who  is  said 
to  have  written  the  eighth  book  of  the  History 


THUCYDIDES. 

of  Thucydides.  Thucydides  (ii.,  48)  was  one 
of  those  who  suffered  from  the  great  plague 
of  Athens,  and  one  of  the  few  who  recovered. 
We  have  no  trustworthy  evidence  of  Thucyd- 
ides having  distinguished  himself  as  an  ora- 
tor, though  it  is  not  unlikely  that  he  did,  for 
his  oratorical  talent  is  shown  by  the  speeches 
that  he  has  inserted  in  his  history.  He  was, 
however,  employed  in  a  military  capacity,  and 
he  was  in  command  of  an  Athenian  squadron 
of  seven  ships  at  Thasus,  B.C.  424,  when  Eu 
cles,  who  commanded  in  Amphipolis,  sent  for 
his  assistance  against  Brasidas,  who  was  before 
that  town  with  an  army.  Brasidas,  fearing 
the  arrival  of  a  superior  force,  offered  favor- 
able terms  to  Amphipolis,  which  were  readily 
accepted,  for  there  were  few  Athenians  in  the 
place,  and  the  rest  did  not  wish  to  make  re- 
sistance. Thucydides  arrived  at  Eion,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Strymon,  on  the  evening  of  the 
same  day  on  which  Amphipolis  surrendered  ; 
and  though  he  was  too  late  to  save  Amphipolis, 
he  prevented  Eion  from  falling  into  the  hand 
of  the  enemy.  In  consequence  of  this  failure, 
Thucydides  became  an  exile,  probably  to  avoid 
a  severer  punishment ;  for  Cleon,  who  was  at 
this  time  in  great  favor  with  the  Athenians,  ap- 
pears to  have  excited  popular  suspicion  against 
him.  There  are  various  untrustworthy  ac- 
counts as  to  his  place  of  residence  during  his 
exile  ;  but  we  may  conclude  that  he  could  not 
safely  reside  in  any  place  which  was  under 
Athenian  dominion,  and  as  he  kept  his  eye  on 
the  events  of  the  war,  he  must  have  Jived  in 
those  parts  which  belonged  to  the  Spartan  al- 
liance. His  own  words  certainly  imply  that, 
during  his  exile,  he  spent  much  of  his  time 
either  in  the  Peloponnesus  or  in  places  which 
were  under  Peloponnesian  influence  (v.,  26) ; 
and  his  work  was  the  result  of  his  own  experi- , 
ence  and  observations.  His  minute  description 
of  Syracuse  and  the  neighborhood  leads  to  the 
probable  conclusion  that  he  was  personally  ac- 
quainted with  the  localities  ;  and  if  he  visited 
Sicily,  it  is  probable  that  he  also  saw  some  parts 
of  Southern  Italy.  Thucydides  says  that  he 
lived  twenty  years  in  exile  (v.,  26) ;  and  as  his 
exile  commenced  in  the  beginning  of  423,  he 
may  have  returned  to  Athens  in  the  beginning 
of  403,  about  the  time  when  Thrasybulus  liber- 
ated Athens.  Thucydides  is  said  to  have  been 
assassinated  at  Athens  soon  after  his  return  ; 
but  other  accounts  place  his  death  in  Thrace. 
There  is  a  general  agreement,  however,  among 
the  ancient  authorities  that  he  came  to  a  violent 
end.  His  death  can  not  be  placed  later  than  401. 
The  time  when  he  composed  his  work  has  been 
a  matter  of  dispute.  He  informs  us  himself  that 
he  was  busy  in  collecting  materials  all  through 
the  war  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  (i ,  22), 
and,  of  course,  he  would  register  them  as  he  got 
them.  Plutarch  says  that  he  wrote  the  work  in 
Thrace  ;  but  the  work,  in  the  shape  in  which  we 
have  it,  was  certainly  not  finished  until  after  the 
close  of  the  war,  and  he  was  probably  engaged 
upon  it  at  the  time  of  his  death.  A  question  has 
been  raised  as  to  the  authorship  of  the  eighth 
and  last  book  of  Thucydides,  which  breaks  off  in 
the  twenty-first  year  of  the  war  (411).  It  dif- 
fers from  all  the  other  books  in  containing  no 
speeches,  and  it  has  also  been  supposed  to  be 

887 


THUCYDIDES. 

Inferior  to  the  rest  as  a  piece  of  composition. 
Accordingly,  several  ancient  critics  supposed 
that  the  eighth  book  was  not  by  Thucydides  : 
some  attribute!  it  to  his  daughter,  and  some  to 
Xenophon  or  Theopompus,  because  both  of  them 
continued  the  history.  The  words  with  which 
Xenophon's  Hellenica  commence  (fiera  6e  ravra) 
may  chiefly  have  led  to  the  supposition  that  he 
was  the  author,  for  his  work  is  made  to  appear 
as  a  continuation  of  that  of  Thucydides  ;  but 
this  argument  is  in  itself  of  little  weight ;  and 
besides,  both  the  style  of  the  eighth  book  is  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  Xenophon,  and  the  manner 
of  treating  the  subject,  for  the  division  of  the 
year  into  summers  and  winters,  which  Thucyd- 
ides has  observed  in  his  first  seven  books, 
is  continued  in  the  eighth,  but  is  not  observed 
by  Xenophon.  The  rhetorical  style  of  The- 
opompus, which  was  the  characteristic  of  his 
writing,  renders  it  also  improbable  that  he  was 
the  author  of  the  eighth  book.  It  seems  the 
simplest  supposition  to  consider  Thucydides 
himself  as  the  author  of  this  book,  since  he 
names  himself  as  the  author  twice  (viii.,  6,  60) ; 
but  it  is  probable  that  he  had  not  the  opportuni- 
ty of  revising  it  with  the  same  care  as  the  first 
seven  books.  It  is  stated  by  an  ancient  writer 
that  Xenophon  made  the  work  of  Thucydides 
known,  which  may  be  true,  as  he  wrote  the  first 
two  books  of  his  Hellenica,  or  the  part  which 
now  ends  with  the  second  book,  for  the  purpose 
of  completing  the  history.  The  work  of  Thucyd- 
ides, from  the  commencement  of  the  second 
book,  is  chronologically  divided  into  winters  and 
summers,  and  each  summer  and  winter  make  a 
year  (ii.,  1).  His  summer  comprises  the  time 
from  the  vernal  to  the  autumnal  equinox,  and 
the  winter  comprises  the  period  from  the  au- 
tumnal to  the  vernal  equinox.  The  division 
into  books  and  chapters  was  probably  made  by 
the  Alexandrine  critics.  The  history  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war  opens  the  second  book  of 
Thucydides,  and  the  first  is  introductory  to  the 
history.  He  begins  his  first  book  by  observ- 
ing that  the  Peloponnesian  war  was  the  most 
important  event  IB  Grecian  history,  which  he 
shows  by  a  rapid  review  of  the  history  of  the 
Greeks  from  the  earliest  periods  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war  (i.,  1-21).  After  his 
introductory  chapters  he  proceeds  to  explain 
the  alleged  grounds  and  causes  of  the  war  :  the 
real  cause  was,  he  says,  the  Spartan  jealousy 
of  the  Athenian  power.  His  narrative  is  inter- 
rupted (c.  89-118),  after  he  has  come  to  the 
time  when  the  Lacedaemonians  resolved  on  war, 
by  a  digression  on  the  rise  and  progress  of  the 
power  of  Athens  ;  a  period  which  had  been 
either  omitted  by  other  writers,  or  treated  im- 
perfectly, and  with  little  regard  to  chronology, 
as  by  Hellanicus  in  his  Attic  history  (c.  97).  He 
resumes  his  narrative  (c.  119)  with  the  negoti- 
ations that  preceded  the  war  ;  but  this  leads  to 
another  digression  of  some  length  on  the  trea- 
son of  Pausanias  (c.  128-134),  and  the  exile  of 
Themistocles  (c.  135-138).  He  concludes  the 
book  with  the  speech  of  Pericles,  who  advised 
the  Athenians  to  refuse  the  demands  of  the  Pel- 
oponnesians  ;  and  his  subject,  as  already  ob- 
served, begins  with  the  second  book.  A  history 
which  treats  of  so  many  events,  which  took 
place  at  remote  spots,  could  only  be  written,  in 
888 


THUCYDIDES. 

the  time  of  Thucydides,  by  a  man  who  took  grea» 
pains  to  ascertain  facts  by  personal  inquiry.  In 
modern  times  facts  are  made  known  by  printing 
as  soon  as  they  occur ;  and  the  printed  records 
of  the  time,  newspapers  and  the  like,  are  often 
the  only  evidence  of  many  facts  which  become 
history.  When  we  know  the  careless  way  in 
which  facts  are  now  reported  and  recorded  by 
very  incompetent  persons,  often  upon  very  indif- 
ferent and  hearsay  testimony,  and  compare  with 
such  records  the  pains  that  Thucydides  took  to 
ascertain  the  chief  events  of  a  war,  with  which  he 
was  contemporary,  in  which  he  took  a  share  as 
a  commander,  the  opportunities  which  his  means 
allowed,  his  great  abilities,  and  serious,  earnest 
character,  it  is  a  fair  conclusion  that  we  have  a 
more  exact  history  of  a  long  eventful  period  by 
Thucydides  than  we  have  of  any  period  in  mod- 
ern history  equally  long  and  equally  eventful. 
His  whole  work  shows  the  most  scrupulous  care 
and  diligence  in  ascertaining  facts ;  his  strict 
attention  to  chronology,  and  the  importance  that 
he  attaches  to  it,  are  additional  proof  of  his  his- 
torical accuracy.  His  narrative  is  brief  and 
concise :  it  generally  contains  bare  facts  ex- 
pressed in  the  fewest  possible  words ;  and  when 
we  consider  what  pains  it  must  have  cost  him 
to  ascertain  these  facts,  we  admire  the  self- 
denial  of  a  writer  who  is  satisfied  with  giving 
facts  in  their  naked  brevity,  without  ornament, 
without  any  parade  of  his  personal  importance, 
and  of  the  trouble  that  his  matter  cost  him.  A 
single  chapter  must  sometimes  have  represent- 
ed the  labor  of  many  days  and  weeks.  Such  a 
principle  of  historical  composition  is  the  evi- 
dence of  a  great  and  elevated  mind.  The  his- 
tory of  Thucydides  only  makes  an  octavo  vol- 
ume of  moderate  size;  many  a  modern  writer 
would  have  spun  it  out  to  a  dozen  volumes,  and 
so  have  spoiled  it.  A  work  that  is  for  all  ages 
must  contain  much  in  little  compass.  He  sel- 
dom makes  reflections  in  the  course  of  his  nar- 
rative :  occasionally  he  has  a  chapter  of  politi- 
cal and  moral  observations,  animated  by  the 
keenest  perception  of  the  motives  of  action 
and  the  moral  character  of  man.  Many  of  his 
speeches  are  political  essays,  or  materials  for 
them  ;  they  .f  e  not  mere  imaginations  of  hia 
own  for  rhetorical  effect ;  they  contain  the  gen- 
eral sense  of  what  was  actually  delivered  aa 
nearly  as  he  could  ascertain,  and  in  many  in- 
stances he  had  good  opportunities  of  knowing 
what  was  said,  for  he  heard  some  speeches  de- 
livered (i.,  22).  His  opportunities,  his  talents, 
his  character,  and  his  subject,  all  combined  to 
produce  a  work  that  stands  alone,  and  in  its 
kind  has  neither  equal  nor  rival.  His  pictures 
are  sometimes  striking  and  tragic,  an  effect  pro- 
duced by  severe  simplicity  and  minute  particu- 
larity. Such  is  the  description  of  the  plague 
of  Athens.  Such,  also,  is  the  incomparable  his- 
tory of  the  Athenian  expedition  to  Sicily,  and 
its  melancholy  termination.  A  man  who  thinks 
profoundly  will  have  a  form  of  expression  which 
is  stamped  with  the  character  of  his  mind  ;  and 
the  style  of  Thucydides  is  accordingly  conciee, 
vigorous,  and  energetic.  We  feel  that  all  the 
words  were  intended  to  have  a  meaning,  and 
have  a  meaning:  none  of  them  are  idle.  Yet 
he  is  sometimes  harsh  and  obscure ;  and  prob- 
ably he  was  so,  even  to  his  own  countrymen. 


THULE. 

So.ne  of  his  sentences  are  very  involved,  and 
the  connection  and  dependence  of  the  parts  are 
often  difficult  to  seize.  The  best  editions  of 
Thucydides  are  by  Bekker,  Berlin,  1821,  3  vols. 
8vo ;  by  Poppo,  Leipzig,  10  vols.  8vo,  1821- 
1838,  of  which  two  volumes  are  filled  with  pro- 
legomena ;  by  Haack,  with  selections  from  the 
Greek  Scholia  and  short  notes,  Leipz.,  1820,  2 
vols.  8vo ;  by  Goller,  2  vols.  8vo,  Leipz.,  1826, 
[2d  edit.,  1836,  2  vols.  8vo] ;  by  Arnold,  3  vols. 
8vo.  Oxford,  1830-1835,  [2d  edit.,  Oxford,  1840-. 
1842  ;  3d  edit.,  with  copious  indexes,  still  unfin- 
ished ;  by  Kriiger,  with  grammatical  and  brief 
explanatory  notes,  Berlin,  1846,  2  vols.  8vo; 
and  by  Poppo  (school  edit.),  with  brief  notes, 
Erfurt  and  Gotha,  1843-1848,  still  incomplete.] 

THULE  (Bov^r/),  an  island  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  German  Ocean,  regarded  by  the  an- 
cients as  the  most  northerly  point  on  the  whole 
earth.  It  is  first  mentioned  by  Pytheas,  the 
celebrated  Greek  navigator  of  Massilia,  who 
undertook  a  voyage  to  Britain  apd  Thule,  of 
which  he  gave  a  description  in  his  work  on  the 
Ocean.  All  subsequent  writers  who  speak  of 
Thule  appear  to  have  taken  their  accounts  from 
that  of  Pytheas.  According  to  Pytheas,  Thule 
was  six  days'  sail  from  Britain ;  and  the  day 
and  night  there  were  each  six  months  long. 
He  further  stated  that  in  Thule  and  those  dis- 
tant parts  there  was  neither  earth,  sea,  nor  air, 
but  a  sort  of  mixture  of  all  these,  like  to  the 
mollusca,  in  which  the  earth,  and  the  sea,  and 
every  thing  else  were  suspended,  and  which 
could  not  be  penetrated  either  by  land  or  by  sea. 
Many  modern  writers  suppose  the  Thule  of 
Pytheas  to  be  the  same  as  Iceland,  while  oth- 
ers regard  it  as  a  part  of  Norway.  The  Thule 
of  Ptolemy,  however,  lay  much  farther  to  the 
south,  and  should  probably  be  identified  with 
the  largest  of  the  Shetland  Islands. 

THUR!I,  more  rarely  THURIUM  (Qovpioi,  Qov- 
PLOV  :  Qovpiof,  Qovpuvf,  Thurius,  Thuiinus : 
now  Terra  nuova),  a  Greek  city  in  Lucania, 
founded  B.C.  443,  near  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Sybaris,  which  had  been  destroyed  more  than 
sixty  years  before.  Vid.  SYBARIS.  It  was  built 
by  the  remains  of  the  population  of  Sybaris,  as- 
sisted by  colonists  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  but 
especially  from  Athens.  Among  these  colonists 
were  the  historian  Herodotus  and  the  orator 
Lysias,  the  latter  of  whom,  however,  was  only 
a  youth  at  the  time,  and  subsequently  returned 
to  Athens.  The  new  city,  from  which  the  re- 
mains of  the  Sybarites  were  soon  expelled, 
rapidly  attained  great  power  and  prosperity,  and 
became  one  of  the  most  important  Greek  towns 
in  the  south  of  Italy.  Thus  we  are  told  that 
the  Thurians  were  able  to  bring  fourteen  thou- 
sand foot  soldiers  and  one  thousand  horse  into 
the  field  against  the  Lucanians.  -In  the  Sam- 
nite  wars  Thurii  received  a  Roman  garrison  ; 
but  it  revolted  to  Hannibal  in  the  second  Punic 
war.  The  Carthaginian  general,  however,  at  a 
later  time,  not  trusting  the  Thurians,  plundered 
the  town,  and  removed  three  thousand  five 
hundred  of  its  inhabitants  to  Croton.  The  Ro- 
mans subsequently  sent  a  Latin  colony  to  Thu- 
rii, and  changed  its  name  into  Copiae ;  but  it 
continued  to  retain  its  original  name,  under 
which  it  is  mentioned  by  Caesar  in  the  civil  war 
as  a  municipium. 


THYMELE 

[THURIUS  MONS  (TO  Qovptov  opo?,  according 
I  to  Plutarch,  also  called  TO  'Op66-rrayov  opof),  a 
I  mountain  of  Bceotia,  south  of  Chreronea,  on  the 
;  right  bank  of  the  Cephisus,  containing  the  sour- 
ces of  the  River  Morius.] 

[THYAMIA  (&vapia),  a  strong  place  in  the  south 
|  of  Sicyonia,  on  the  borders  of  Phliasia,  and  an 
,  object  of  contention  between  the  two  states.] 

THYAMIS  (Gvo/u? :  now  Kalama),  a  river  in 
i  Epirus,4  forming  the  boundary  between  Thes- 
|  protia  and  the  district  of  Cestryna,  and  flowing 
into  the  sea  opposite  Corcyra  and  near  a  prom- 
ontory of  the  same  name. 

THYADES.     Vid.  THYIA. 

THYAMUS  (Qvafiof),  a  mountain  in  Acarnama, 
south  of  Argos  Amphilochicum. 

[THYATIRA  (OvaTeipa  r«  :  now  Akhissar,  with 
important  ruins),  a  considerable  city  in  the 
northern  part  of  Lydia,  near  Mysia,  on  the  River 
Lycus,  a  branch  of  the  Hyllus ;  according  to 
Strabo,  a  Macedonian  colony ;  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  or,  at  least,  greatly 
enlarged,  as  others  mention  an  earlier  place  on 
the  site  called  Pelopia  and  Euhippe.  It  was 
celebrated  for  its  purple  dye,  but  still  more  as 
an  early  seat  of  Christianity  and  one  of  the  sev- 
en churches  of  the  Apocalypse.] 

THYESTES  (QvtoTT/f ),  son  of  Pelops  and  Hip- 
podamia,  was  the  brother  of  Atreus  and  ths 
father  of^Egisthus.  His  story  is  given  under 
ATREUS  and  ^GISTHUS. 

[THYESTIADES  (QveartdSrjf'),  son  or  grandson 
of  Thyestes,  as  JSgisthus  is  called  in  the  Odys- 
sey, &c.] 

THYIA  (Qvia),  a  daughter  of  Castalius  or  Ce- 
phisseus,  became  by  Apollo  the  mother  of  Del- 
phus.  She  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  sac 
rifice  to  Bacchus  (Dionysus),  and  to  celebrate  or- 
gies in  his  honor.  From  her  the  Attic  women, 
who  went  yearly  to  Mount  Parnassus  to  cele- 
brate the  Dionysiac  orgies  with  the  Delphian 
Thyiades,  received  themselves  the  name  of 
THYIADES  or  THYADES.  This  word,  however, 
comes  from  &vu,  and  properly  signifies  the 
raging  or  frantic  women. 

THYMBRA  (Qvfitipi)).  1.  A  city  of  the  Troad, 
north  of  Ilium  Vetus,  on  a  hill  by  the  side  of 
the  River  THYMBRIUS,  with  a  celebrated  temple 
of  Apollo,  who  derived  from  this  place  the  epi- 
thet Thymbraeus.  The  surrounding  plain  still 
bears  the  same  name. — 2,  A  wooded  district  in 
Phrygia,  no  doubt  connected  with  THYMBRIUM. 

[THYMBRAEUS  (QvpSpalof).  1.  Vid.  THYMBRA, 
No.  1. — 2.  A  Trojan  warrior,  slain  by  Diomedes.j 

THYMBBIA  (Qvp6pla),  a  place  in  Caria,  on  the 
Maeander,  four  stadia  east  of  Myus,  with  a  Cha- 
ronium,  that  is,  a  cave  containing  mephitio  va- 
por. 

THYMBRIUM  (Qvptptov  :  Thymbriani),  a  small 
town  of  Phrygia,  ten  parasangs  west  of  Tyriae- 
um,  with  the  so-called  fountain  of  Midas  (Xen., 
Anab.,  i.,  2). 

THYMBRIUS  (Qvfi6pio(:  now  Thimbrck),  a  river 
of  the  Troad,  falling  into  the  Scamander.  At 
the  present  day  it  flows  direct  into  the  Helles- 
pont ;  and,  on  this  and  other  grounds,  some 
doubt  whether  the  Thimbrek  is  the  ancient  river. 

THYMELI,  a  celebrated  mima  or  actress  in 
the  reign  of  Domitian,  with  whom  she  was  a 
great  favorite.  She  frequently  acted  along  with 
Latinus. 

'  889 


THYMCETES. 

THYMCETES  (Qvftoirtjd  1-  One  of  the  elders  of 
Troy.  A  soothsayer  had  predicted  that  on  a 
certain  day  a  boy  should  be  born  by  whom  Troy 
should  be  destroyed.  On  that  day  Paris  was 
born  to  Priam,  and  Munippus  to  Thymoetes. 
Priam  ordered  Munippus  and  his  mother  Cylla 
to  be  killed.  Hence  Virgil  (jEn.,  ii.,  31)  repre- 
sents .^Eneas  saying  that  it  was  doubtful  wheth- 
er Thymoetes  advised  the  Trojans  to  draw  the 
wooden  horse  into  the  city,  in  order  to  revenge 
himself. — [2.  A  Trojan  warrior,  accompanied 
jEneas  to  Italy,  and  was  there  slain  in  the  war 
with  Turnus.] 

THYNI  (Qwoi),  a  Thracian  people,  whose  orig- 
inal abodes  were  near  Salmydessus,  but  who 
afterward  passed  over  into  BITHTNIA. 

THYNIA  (Qvvia).  1.  The  land  of  the  Thyni 
in  Thrace. — 2.  Another  name  for  BITHYNIA. — 3. 
Vid.  THYNIAS. 

THYNIAS  or  THYNIA  (Qvviaf,  Qvvia}.  1.  (Now 
Inada),  a  promontory  on  the  coast  of  Thrace, 
northwest  of  Salmydessus,  with  a  town  of  the 
same  name. — 2.  (Now  Kirpe),  a  small  island  of 
the  Euxine,  on  the  coast  of  Bithynia,  near  the 
Promontorium  Calpe,  also  called  Apollonia  and 
Daphnusa. 

THYONE  (Qvuvtj),  the  name  of  Semele,  under 
which  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  fetched  her  from 
Hades,  and  introduced  her  among  the  immor- 
tals. Hence  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  is  also  called 
THYONEUS.  Both  names  are  formed  from  tiveiv, 
"  to  be  inspired." 

THYREA  (Qvpia,  Ion.  Qvpcij :  Qvpst'irrif),  the 
chief  town  in  Cynuria,  the  district  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Laconia  and  Argolis,  was  situated  upon 
a  height  on  the  bay  of  the  sea  called  after  it 
SINUS  THYREATES  (Qvpeunif  /coP.Trof).  It  was 
for  the  possession  of  Thyrea  that  the  celebra- 
ted battle  was  fought  between  the  three  hund- 
red Spartans  and  three  hundred  Argives.  The 
territory  of  Thyrea  was  called  THYREATIS  (&v- 


THYSDRUS,  TISDRUS,  or  TUSDRUS 
ruins  at  El-Jemm),  a  large  fortified  city  of  By- 
zacena,  northwest  of  the  promontory  Brachodes 
(now  Ras  Kapoudiah).  Under  the  Romans  it 
was  a  free  city.  It  was  here  that  the  Emperor 
Gordian  assumed  the  purple. 

THYSSAGET^E  (Qvoaa-yerai),  a  people  of  Sar- 
matia  Asiatica,  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Pa- 
lus  Maeotis. 

THYSSUS  (Qvoaoe  or  Qvaaof),  a  town  of  Mace- 
donia, on  the  peninsula  of  Acte. 

TIARANTUS,  a  river  of  Scythia  and  a  tributary 
of  the  Danube. 

[TIASA  (Tiaaa :  now  Magula),  a  small  river 
of  Laconia,  flowing  by  Sparta  into  the  Eurotas. 
Vid.  SPARTA,  p.  829,  a.] 

TIBARENI  or  TIBARI  (TiSapijvot,  Ti6apoi,  a 
quiet  agricultural  people  on  the  northern  coast 
of  Pontus,  east  of  the  River  Iris. 

TIBERIAS.     1.  (TiGepiuc :  Tifiepicvf),  a  city  of 
Galilee,  on  the  southwestern  shore  of  the  Lake 
of  Tiberias,  built  by  Herod  Antipas  in  honor  of 
the  Emperor  Tiberius.    After  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  it  became  the  seat  of  the  Jewish 
sanhedrim.    Near  it  were  the  warm  baths  of 
Emmaus. — 2.  (TtSfpiuf,   "kifivT)  it  TiGcpiuv),  or 
GENNESARET  (Ttwrjaaptr,  iidup  Tevvqadp,  i)  Tev-  \ 
vjfaaptTif),  also  the  SEA  OF  G'ALILEE  (TJ  -ddhaaca  \ 
Atu'ac),  in  the  Old  Testament,  CHINN*:-  1 
890 


TIBERIUS. 

RETH  (now  Bahr  Tubariyeh),  the  second  of  the 

three  lakes  in  Palestine  formed  by  the  course 

of  the  Jordan.     Vid.  JORDANES.     Its  length  ia 

eleven  or  twelve  geographical  miles,  and  its 

breadth  from  five  to  six.     It  lies  deep  among 

fertile  hills,  has  very  clear  and  sweet  water, 

and  is  full  of  excellent  fish.     Its  surface  issev- 

!  en  hundred  and  fifty  feet  below  the  level  of  the 

!  Mediterranean.     In  the  time  of  our  Saviour  its 

5  shores  were  covered  with  populous  villages, 

but  they  are  now  almost  entirely  deserted.     Its 

eastern  coast  belonged  to  the  districts  of  De- 

capolis  and  Gaulonitis. 

TIBERINUS,  one  of  the  mythical  kings  of  Alba, 
son  of  Capetus,  and  father  of  Agrippa,  is  said  to 
have  been  drowned  in  crossing  the  River  Alba, 
which  was  hence  called  Tiberis  after  him,  and 
of  which  he  became  the  guardian  god. 

TIBKRIOPOLIS  (Tifypiovnofaf),  a  city  of  Great 
Phrygia,  near  Eumenia. 

TIBERIS,  also  TIBRIS,  TYBRIS,  THYBRIS,  AM- 
NIS  TIBERINUS,  or  simply  TIBERINUS  (now  Ti- 
ber or  Tevere),  the  chief  river  in  Central  Italy, 
on  which  stood  the  city  of  Rome.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  orginally  called  Albula,  and  to  have 
received  the  name  of  Tileris  in  consequence  of 
Tiberinus,  king  of  Alba,  having  been  drowned 
in  it.  It  has  been  supposed  that  Albula  was  the 
Latin  and  Tiberis  the  Etruscan  name  of  the  riv- 
er. The  Tiber  rises  from  two  springs  of  limpid 
water  in  the  Apennines,  near  Tifernum,  and 
flows  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  separating 
Etruria  from  Umbria,  the  land  of  the  Sabines, 
and  Latium.  After  flowing  about  one  hundred 
and  ten  miles  it  receives  the  Nar  (now  Nera), 
and  from  its  confluence  with  this  river  its  reg- 
ular navigation  begins.  Three  miles  above 
Rome,  at  the  distance  of  nearly  seventy  miles 
from  the  Nar,  it  receives  the  Anio  (now  Teve- 
ronc),  and  from  this  point  becomes  a  river  of 
considerable  importance.  Within  the 'walls  of 
Rome,  the  Tiber  is  about  three  hundred  feet 
wide  and  from  twelve  to  eighteen  feet  deep. 
After  heavy  rains,  the  river  in  ancient  times,  as 
at  the  present  day,  frequently  overflowed  its 
banks,  and  did  considerable  mischief  to  the  low- 
er parts  of  the  city.  (Hor.,  Carm.,  i.,  2)  At 
Rome  the  maritime  navigation  of  the  river  be- 
gins ;  and  at  eighteen  miles  from  the  city,  and 
about  four  miles  from  the  coast,  it  divides  into 
two  arms,  forming  an  island,  which  was  sacred 
to  Venus,  and  called  Insula  Sacra  (now  /so/a 
Sagra).  The  left  branch  of  the  river  runs  into 
the  sea  by  Ostia,  which  was  the  ancient  harbor 
of  Rome  ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  accumula 
tion  of  sand  at  the  mouth  of  the  left  branch,  the 
right  branch  was  widened  by  Trajan,  and  was 
made  the  regular  harbor  of  the  city,  under  the 
name  of  Porlus  Romanus,  Portus  Augusti,  or 
simply  Portus.  The  whole  length  of  the  Tiber, 
with  its  windings,  is  about  two  hundred  miles. 
The  waters  of  the  river  are  muddy  and  yellow- 
ish, whence  it  is  frequently  called  by  the  Roman 
poets  flavus  Tiberis.  The  poets  also  give  it 
the  epithets  of  Tyrrhenus  because  it  flowed  past 
Etruria  during  the  whole  of  its  course,  and  of 
Lydius  because  the  Etruscans  are  said  to  have 
been  of  Lydian  origin. 

TIBERIUS.  1.  Emperor  of  Rome  A.D.  14-37. 
His  full  name  was  TIBERIUS  CLAUDIUS  NERO 
CAESAR.  He  was  the  son  of  T.  Claudius  Nero 


TIBERIUS. 

and  of  Livia,  and  was  born  on  the  16th  of  No- 
vember, B  C.  42,  before  his  mother  married  Au- 
gustus. Tiberius  was  tall  and  strongly  made, 
and  his  health  was  very  good.  His  face  was 
handsome,  and  his  eyes  were  large.  He  was 
carefully  educated,  and  he  became  well  acquaint- 
ed with  Greek  and  Latin  literature.  His  master 
in  rhetoric  was  Theodoras  of  Gadara.  Though 
not  without  military  courage,  as  his  life  shows, 
he  had  a  great  timidity  of  character,  and  was 
of  a  jealous  and  suspicious  temper  ;  and  these 
qualities  rendered  him  cruel  after  he  had  ac- 
quired power.  In  the  latter  years  of  his  life, 
particularly,  he  indulged  his  lustful  propensities 
in  every  way  that  a  depraved  imagination  could 
suggest :  lust  and  cruelty  are  not  strangers. 
He  affected  a  regard  to  decency  and  to  exter- 
nals. He  was  the  prince  of  hypocrites ;  and 
the  events  of  his  reign  are  little  more  than  the 
exhibition  of  his  detestable  character.  In  B.C. 
11,  Augustus  compelled  Tiberius,  much  against 
his  will,  to  divorce  his  wife  Vipsania  Agrip- 
pina,  and  to  marry  Julia,  the  widow  of  Agrippa 
and  the  emperor's  daughter,  with  whom  Tibe- 
rius, however,  did  not  long  live  in  harmony. 
Tiberius  was  thus  brought  into  still  closer  con- 
tact with  the  imperial  family ;  but,  as  Caesar 
and  L.  Caesar,  the  grandsons  of  Augustus,  were 
still  living,  the  prospect  of  Tiberius  succeeding 
to  the  imperial  power  seemed  very  remote.  He 
was  employed  by  Augustus  on  various  military 
services.  In  20  he  was  sent  by  Augustus  to 
restore  Tigranes  to  the  throne  of  Armenia.  It 
was  during  this  campaign  that  Horace  address- 
ed one  of  his  epistles  to  Julius  Floras  (i.,  12), 
who  was  serving  under  Tiberius.  In  15,  Dru- 
sus  and  his  brother  Tiberius  were  engaged  in 
warfare  with  the  Raeti,  and  the  exploits  of  the 
two  brothers  were  sung  by  Horace  (Carm.,  iv., 
4,  14).  In  13  Tiberius  was  consul  with  P. 
Quintilius  Varus.  In  11,  while  his  brother  Dru- 
sus  was  fighting  against  the  Germans,  Tiberius 
conducted  the  war  against  the  Dalmatians  and 
against  the  Pannonians.  Drusus  died  in  9, 
owing  to  a  fall  from  his  horse.  On  the  news 
of  the  accident,  Tiberius  was  sent  by  Augustus 
to  Drusus,  whom  he  found  just  alive.  Tiberius 
returned  to  the  war  in  Germany,  and  crossed 
the  Rhine.  In  7  he  was  consul  a  second  time. 
In  6  he  obtained  the  tribunitia  potestas  for  five 
years,  but  during  this  year  he  retired,  with  the 
emperor's  permission,  to  Rhodes,  where  he  spent 
the  next  seven  years.  Tacitus  says  that  his 
chief  reason  for  leaving  Rome  was  to  get  away 
from  his  wife,  who  treated  him  with  contempt, 
and  whose  licentious  life  was  no  secret  to  her 
husband  ;  probably,  too,  Ije  was  unwilling  to 
stay  at  Rome  when  the  grandsons  of  Augustus 
were  attaining  years  of  maturity,  for  there  was 
mutual  jealousy  between  them  and  Tiberius. 
He  returned  to  Rome  A.D.  2.  He  was  relieved 
from  one  trouble  during  his  absence,  for  his 
wife  Julia  was  banished  to  the  island  of  Panda- 
taria  (B.C.  2),  and  he  never  saw  her  again. 
After  the  deaths  of  L.  Caesar  (A.D.  2)  and  C. 
Caesar  (A.D.  4),  Augustus  adopted  Tiberius, 
with  the  view  of  leaving  to  him  the  imperial 
power ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  he  required  Ti- 
berius to  adopt  Germanicus,  the  son  of  his 
brother  Drusus,  though  Tiberius  had  a  son  Dru- 
sus by  his  wife  Vipsania.  From  the  year  of 


TIBERIUS. 

]  his  adoption  to  the  death  of  Augustus,  Tiberius 
was  in  command  of  the  Roman  armies,  though 
he  visited  Rome  several  times.  He  was  sent 
into  Germany  A.D.  4.  He  reduced  all  Illyricum 
to  subjection  A.D.  9  ;  and  in  A.D.  12  he  had  the 
honor  of  a  triumph  at  Rome  for  his  German  and 
Dalmatian  victories.  On  the  death  of  Augus- 
tus at  Nola,  on  the  19th  of  August,  A.D.  14, 
Tiberius,  who  was  on  his  way  to  Illyricum,  was 
immediately  summoned  home  by  his  mother 
Livia.  He  took  the  imperial  power  without  any 
opposition,  affecting  all  the  while  a  great  reluct- 
ance. He  began  his  reign  by  putting  to  death 
Postumus  Agrippa,  the  surviving  grandson  of 
Augustus,  and  he  alleged  that  it  was  done  pur- 
suant to  the  command  of  the  late  emperor. 
When  he  felt  himself  sure  in  his  place,  he  be- 
gan to  exercise  his  craft.  He  took  from  the 
i  popular  assembly  the  election  of  the  magistrates, 
[  and  transferred  it  to  the  senate.  The  news  of 
;  the  death  of  Augustus  roused  a  mutiny  among 
I  the  legions  in  Pannonia,  which  was  quelled  by 
Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius.  The  armies  on 
the  Rhine  under  Germanicus  showed  a  disposi- 
tion to  reject  Tiberius,  and,  if  Germanicus  had 
been  inclined  to  try  the  fortune  of  a  campaign, 
he  might  have  had  the  assistance  of  the  Ger- 
man armies  against  his  uncle.  But  Germani- 
cus restored  discipline  to  the  army  by  his  firm- 
ness, and  maintained  his  fidelity  to  the  new  em- 
peror. The  first  year  of  his  reign  was  marked 
by  the  death  of  Julia,  whom  Augustus  had  re 
moved  from  Pandataria  to  Rhegium.  The  deatl 
of  Germanicus  in  the  East,  in  A.D.  19,  relieveo 
Tiberius  from  all  fear  of  a  rival  claimant  to  the 
throne  ;  and  it  was  believed  by  many  that  Ger- 
manicus had  been  poisoned  by  order  of  Tibe- 
rius. From  this  time  Tiberius  began  to  indulge 
with  less  restraint  in  his  love  of  tyranny,  and 
many  distinguished  senators  were  soon  put  to 
death  on  the  charge  of  treason  against  the  em- 
peror (Idsa  majestas').  Notwithstanding  his  sus- 
picious nature,  Tiberius  gave  his  complete  con- 
fidence to  Sejanus,  who  for  many  years  pos- 
sessed the  real  government  of  the  state.  This 
ambitious  man  aimed  at  the  imperial  power. 
In  23,  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  was  poisoned 
by  the  contrivance  of  Sejanus.  Three  years 
afterward  (26)  Tiberius  left  Rome  and  with- 
drew into  Campania.  He  never  returned  to  the 
city.  He  left  on  the  pretext  of  dedicating  tem- 
ples in  Campania,  but  his  real  motives  were  his 
dislike  to  Rome,  where  he  heard  a  great  deal 
that  was  disagreeable  to  him,  and  his  wish  to 
indulge  his  sensual  propensities  in  private.  In 
order  to  secure  still  greater  retirement,  he  took 
up  his  residence  (27)  in  the  island  of  Capreae. 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  Campanian  coast. 
The  death  of  Livia  (29),  the  emperor's  mother, 
released  Tiberius  from  one  cause  of  anxiety. 
He  had  long  been  tired  of  her  because  she  wish- 
ed to  exercise  authority,  and  one  object  in  tear- 
ing Rome  was  to  be  out  of  her  way.  Liv  ia's 
death  gave  Sejanus  and  Tiberius  free  scope,  for 
Tiberius  never  entirely  released  himself  from  a 
kind  of  subjection  to  his  mother,  and  Sejanus 
did  not  venture  to  attempt  the  overthrow  of 
Livia's  influence.  The  destruction  of  Agrip- 
pina  and  her  children  was  now  the  chief  pur- 
pose of  Sejanus  :  he  finally  got  from  the  tyrant 
(31)  the  reward  that  was  hia  just  desert,  an  ig 

Mi 


TIBILIS. 

nominious  death.  Vid.  SEJANUS.  The  death  of 
Sejanus  was  followed  by  the  execution  of  his 
friends  ;  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,  Rome  continued  to  be  the  scene  of 
tragic  occurrences.  Tiberius  died  on  the  16th 
of  March,  37,  at  the  villa  of  Lucullus,  in  Mise-  j 
num.  He  was  seventy-eight  years  of  age,  and 
had  reigned  twenty-two  years.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Cains  (Caligula),  the  son  of  German- 
icus,  but  he  had  himself  appointed  no  successor. 
Tiberius  did  not  die  a  natural  death.  It  was 
known  that  his  end  was  rapidly  approaching, 
and  having  had  a  fainting  fit,  he  was  supposed 
to  be  dead.  Thereupon  Caius  came  forth  and 
was  saluted  as  emperor ;  but  he  was  alarmed 
by  the  intelligence  that  Tiberius  had  recovered 
and  called  for  something  to  eat.  Caius  was  so 
frightened  that  he  did  not  know  what  to  do ; 
but  Macro,  the  praefect  of  the  praetorians,  with 
more  presence  of  mind,  gave  orders  that  a  quan- 
tity of  clothes  should  be  thrown  on  Tiberius, 
and  that  he  should  be  left  alone.  In  the  time 
of  Tiberius  lived  Valerius  Maximus,  Velleius 
Paterculus,  Phaedrus,  Fenestella,  and  Strabo ; 
also  the  jurists  Massurius  Sabinus,  M.  Cocceius 
Nerva,  and  others.  Tiberius  wrote  a  brief  com- 
mentary of  his  own  life,  the  only  book  that  the 
Emperor  Domitian  studied  :  Suetonius  made 
use  of  it  for  his  life  of  Tiberius.  Tiberius  also 
wrote  Greek  poems,  and  a  lyric  poem  on  the 
death  of  L.  Caesar.— 2.  A  philosopher  and  soph- 
ist, of  unknown  time,  the  author  of  numerous 
works  on  grammar  and  rhetoric.  One  of  his 
works,  on  the  figures  in  the  orations  of  Demos- 
Ihenes  (Kepi  ruv  napa  Aqpoadsvei  oxTjpuruv),  is 
still  extant,  and  has  been  published. 

TIBILIS  (now  Hammam  Miskoutenl),  a  town 
of  Numidia,  in  Northern  Africa,  on  the  road  from 
Cirta  to  Carthage,  with  warm  springs,  called 
Aquae  Tibilitanae. 

TIBISCUM,  a  towH  of  Dacia  and  a  Roman  mu- 
nicipium  on  the  River  Tibiscus. 

TIBISCUS  or  TIBISSUS,  probably  the  same  as 
the  PARTHISCUS  or  PARTHISSUS  (now  Theiss},  a 
river  of  Dacia,  forming  the  western  boundary 
of  that  country,  rising  in  the  Montes  Carpates, 
and  falling  into  the  Danube. 

TIBULLUS,  ALBIUS,  the  Roman  poet,  was  of 
equestrian  family.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
certain ;  but  he  died  young,  soon  after  Virgil. 
His  birth  is  therefore  placed  by  conjecture  B.C. 
54,  and  his  death  B.C.  18.  Of  his  youth  and 
education,  absolutely  nothing  is  known.  The 
estate  belonging  to  the  equestrian  ancestors  of 
Tibullus  was  at  Pedum,  between  Tibur  and 
Praeneste.  This  property,  like  that  of  the  other 
great  poets  of  the  day,  Virgil  and  Horace,  had 
been  either  entirely  or  partially  confiscated  dur- 
ing the  civil  wars ;  yet  Tibullus  retained  or  re- 
covered part  of  it,  and  spent  there  the  better 
portion  of  his  short,  but  peaceful  and  happy  life. 
His  great  patron  was  Messala,  whom  he  accom- 
panied in  31  into  Aquitania,  whither  Messala 
had  been  sent  by  Augustus  to  suppress  a  formi- 
dable insurrection  which  had  broken  out  in  this 
province.  Part  of  the  glory  of  the  Aquitanian 
campaign,  which  Tibullus  celebrates  in  language 
of  unwonted  loftiness,  redounds,  according  to 
the  poet,  to  his  own  fame.  He  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Atax  (Aude  in  Languedoc),  which 
broke  the  Aquitanian  rebellion.  In  the  follow- 
89» 


TIBULLUS. 

ing  year  (30),  Messala,  having  pacified  Gaul, 
was  sent  into  the  East.  Tibullus  set  out  in  his 
company,  but  was  taken  ill,  and  obliged  to  re- 
main in  Corcyra,  from  whence  he  returned  to 
Rome.  So  ceased  the  active  life  of  Tibullus  ; 
his  life  is  now  the  chronicle  of  his  poetry  and 
of  those  tender  passions  which  were  the  in- 
spiration of  his  poetry.  The  first  object  of  his 
attachment  is  celebrated  under  the  poetic  name 
of  Delia.  To  Dojia  are  addressed  the  first  six 
elegies  of  the  first  book.  The  poet's  attach- 
ment to  Delia  had  begun  before  he  left  Rome 
for  Aquitania.  But  Delia  seems  to  have  been 
faithless  during  his  absence  from  Rome.  On 
his  return  from  Corcyra  he  found  her  ill,  and 
attended  her  with  affectionate  solicitude  (Elcg., 
i.,  5),  and  hoped  to  induce  her  to  retire  with  him 
into  the  country.  But  first  a  richer  lover  ap- 
pears to  have  supplanted  him  with  the  incon- 
stant Delia ;  and  afterward  there  appears  a 
husband  in  his  way.  The  second  book  of  Ele- 
gies is  chiefly  devoted  to  a  new  mistress  named 
Nemesis.  Besides  these  two  mistresses  Tibul- 
lus was  enamored  of  a  certain  Glycera.  He 
wrote  elegies  to  soften  that  cruel  beauty,  whom 
there  seems  no  reason  to  confound  either  with 
Delia,  the  object  of  his  youthful  attachment,  or 
with  Nemesis.  Glycera,  however,  is  not  known 
to  us  from  the  poetry  of  Tibullus,  but  from  the 
ode  of  Horace,  which  gently  reproves  him  for 
dwelling  so  long  in  his  plaintive  elegies  on  the 
pitiless  Glycera.  The  poetry  of  his  contempo- 
raries shows  Tibullus  as  a  gentle  and  singularly 
amiable  man.  To  Horace  especially  he  was  an 
object  of  warm  attachment.  Besides  the  ode 
which  alludes  to  his  passion  for  Glycera  (Hor., 
Carm.,  i.,  33),  the  epistle  of  Horace  to  Tibullus 
gives  the  most  full  and  pleasing  view  of  his 
poetical  retreat,  and  of  his  character:  it  is 
written  by  a  kindred  spirit.  Horace  does  hom- 
age to  that  perfect  purity  of  taste  which  distin- 
guishes the  poetry  of  Tibullus;  he  takes  pride 
in  the  candid  but  favorable  judgment  of  his  own 
satires.  The  time  of  Tibullus  he  supposes  to 
be  shared  between  the  finishing  his  exquisite 
small  poems,  which  were  to  surpass  even  those 
of  Cassius  of  Parma,  up  to  that  time  the  models 
of  that  kind  of  composition,  and  the  enjoyment 
of  the  country.  Tibullus  possessed,  according 
to  his  friend's  notions,  all  the  blessings  of  life — 
a  competent  fortune,  favor  with  the  great,  fame, 
health  ;  and  he  seemed  to  know  how  to  enjoy 
all  those  blessings.  The  first  two  books  alone 
of  the  Elegies,  under  the  name  of  Tibullus,  are 
of  undoubted  authenticity.  The  third  if  the 
work  of  another,  a  very  inferior  poet,  ^tiether 
Lygdamus  be  a  real  ^or  fictitious  name  or  not. 
This  poet  was  much  younger  than  Tibullus,  foi 
he  was  born  in  the  year  of  the  battle  of  Mutina, 
43.  The  hexameter  poem  on  Messala,  which 
opens  the  fourth  book,  is  so  bad  that,  although 
a  successful  elegiac  poet  may  have  failed  when 
he  attempted  epic  verse,  it  can  not  well  be  as- 
cribed to  a  writer  of  the  exquisite  taste  of  Ti- 
bullus. The  smaller  elegies  of  the  fourth  book 
have  all  the  inimitable  grace  and  simplicity  of 
Tibullus.  With  the  exception  of  the  thirteenth 
(of  which  some  lines  are  hardly  surpassed  by 
Tibullus  himself),  these  poems  relate  to  the  love 
of  a  certain  Sulpicia,  a  woman  of  noble  birth, 
for  Cerinthus,  the  real  or  fictitious  name  of  a 


TIBUR. 

beautiful  youth.     Nor  is  there  any  improbability  ' 
in  supposing  that  Tibullus  may  have  written 
elegies  in  the  name  or  by  the  desire  of  Sulpicia.  : 
If  Sulpicia  was   herself  the  poetess,  she  ap- 
proached  nearer  to  Tibullus   than   any  other 
writer  of  elegies.     The  first  book  of  Elegies 
alone  seems  to  have  been  published  during  the 
author's  life,  probably  soon  after  the  triumph  of 
Messala  (27)      The  second  book  no  doubt  did 
not  appear  till  after  the  death  of  Tibullus.    With 
it,  according  to  our  conjecture,  may  have  been 
published  the  elegies  of  his  imitator,  perhaps  his 
friend  and  associate  in  the  society  of  Messala, 
Lygdamus  (if  that  be  a  real  name),  i.  e.,  the 
third  book ;   and  likewise  the  fourth,  made  up  \ 
of  poems  belonging,  as  it  were,  to  this  intimate 
society  of  Messala,  the  Panegyric  by  some  name- 
less author,  which,  feeble  as  it  is,  seems  to  be 
of  that  age  ;  the  poems  in  the  name  of  Sulpicia,  ! 
with  the  concluding  one,  the  thirteenth,  a  frag- 
ment of  Tibullus  himself.     The  best  editions  of  ; 
Tibullus  are  by  Lachmann,  Berol.,  1829,  and  by 
Dissen,  Gbttingen,  1835. 

TIBUR  (Tiburs,  pi.  Tiburtes,  Tiburtlnus  :  now 
Tivoli),  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  of  La- 
tium,  sixteen  miles  northeast  of  Rome,  situated 
on  the  slope  of  a  hill  (hence  called  by  Horace 
supinum  Tibur),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Anio, 
which  here  forms  a  magnificent  water-fall.     It 
is  said  to  have  been  originally  built  by  the  Sic- 
uli,  and  to  have  afterward  passed  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Aborigines  and  Pelasgi.    Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  it  derived  its  name  from  Tibur- 
tus,  son  of  Catillus,  who  emigrated  from  Greece 
with  Evander.      It  was  afterward  one  of  the 
chief  towns  of  the  Latin  league,  and  became 
subject  to  Rome  with  the  other  Latin  cities  on 
the  final  subjugation  of  Latium  in  B.C.  338.  Un- 
der the  Romans  Tibur  continued  to  be  a  large 
and  flourishing  town,  since  the  salubrity  and 
beautiful  scenery  of  the  place  led  many  of  the 
most  distinguished  Roman  nobles  to  build  here 
magnificent  villas.     Of  these  the  most  splendid 
was  the  villa  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  in  the 
extensive  remains  of  which  many  valuable  spec- 
imens of  ancient  art  have  been  discovered. 
Here  also  the  celebrated  Zenobia  lived  after 
adorning  (he  triumph  of  her  conqueror  Aure- 
lian.     Horace  likewise  had  a  country  house 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Tibur  which  he  prefer- 
red  to  all  his  other  residences.    The  deity  chief- 
ly worshipped  at  Tibur  was  Hercules ;  and  in 
the  neighborhood  was  the  grove  and  temple  of 
the  Sibyl  Albunea,  whose  oracles  were  consult- 
ed from  the  most  ancient  times.     Vid.  ALBU- 
NEA.   The  surrounding  country  produced  ex- 
cellent ulives,  and  also  contained  some  celebra- 
ted stone  quarries.    There  was  a  road  from 
Rome  leading  to  Tibur,  called  Via  Tiburtina, 
which  was  continued  from  the  town  under  the 
name  of  the  Via  Valeria,  past  Corfinium  to  Adria. 
TICIIIS  or  TKCUM.     Vid.  TECUM. 
TICHIUSSA  (Tetxiovaaa),  a  fortress  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Miletus. 

TicinuM  (Ticinensis  :  now  Pavia),  a  town  of 
the  Lsevi,  or,  according  to  others,  of  the  Insu- 
bres,  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ticinus.  It  was  subsequently  a  Roman  muni- 
cipium ;  but  it  owed  ita  greatness  to  the  Lom- 
bard kings,  who  made  it  the  capital  of  their  do- 
minions. The  Lombards  gave  it  the  name  of 


TIGRANES. 


Papia,  which  it  still  retains  under  the  slightly 
changed  form  of  Pavia. 

TicixDs  (now  Tcssino),  an  important  river  in 
Gallia  Cisalpina,  rises  in  Mons  Adula,  and  after 
flowing  through  Lacus  Verbanus  (now  Lago 
Maggiore),  falls  into  the  Po  near  Ticinum.  It 
was  upon  the  bank  of  this  river  that  Hannibal 
gained  his  first  victory  over  the  Romans  by  the 
defeat  of  P.  Scipio,  B.C.  218. 

TIFATA,  a  mountain  in  Campania,  east  of  Ca- 
pua, near  which  the  Samnites  defeated  the  Cam- 
panians,  and  where  at  a  later  time  Sulla  gained 
a  victory  over  the  proconsul  Norbanus.  On  this 
mountain  there  was  a  temple  of  Diana,  and  also 
one  of  Jupiter  of  some  celebrity. 

TIFERNUM.  1.  TIBERINUM  (Tifemates  Tiberi- 
ni,  pi.  :  now  Citta  di  Castello'),  a  town  of  Um 
bria,  near  the  sources  of  the  River  Tiber, 
whence  its  surname,  and  upon  the  confines  of 
Etruria.  Near  this  town  the  younger  Pliny  had 
a  villa. — 2.  METAURENSE  (Tifernates  Metauren- 
ses :  now  S.  Angela  in  Vado),  a  town  in  Um- 
bria,  east  of  the  preceding,  on  the  River  Metau- 
rus,  whence  its  surname. — 3.  A  town  in  Sam- 
nium,  on  the  River  Tifernus. 

TIFERNUS  (now  Biferno),  a  river  of  Samnium, 
rising  in  the  Apennines,  and  flowing  through 
the  country  of  the  Frentani  into  the  Adriatic. 

TIGELLINUS  SOPHONIUS,  the  son  of  a  native 
of  Agrigentum,  owed  his  rise  from  poverty  and 
!  obscurity  to  his  handsome  person  and  his  un- 
I  scrupulous  character.    He  was  banished  to  Scyl- 
I  laceum  in  Bruttii  (A.D.  39-40)  for  an  intrigue 
i  with  Agrippina  and  Julia  Livilla,  sisters  of  Ca- 
'  ligula.     He  was  probably  among  the  exiles  re- 
:  stored  by  Agrippina,  after  she  became  empress, 
I  since  early  in  Nero's  reign  he  was  again  in  fa- 
i  vor  at  court,  and  on  the  death  of  Burrus  (63) 
|  was  appointed  praetorian  prefect  jointly  with 
!  Fenius  Rufus.    Tigellinus  ministered  to  Nero's 
i  worst  passions,  and  of  all  his  favorites  was  the 
most  obnoxious  to  the  Roman  people.    He  in- 
flamed his  jealousy  or  his  avarice  against  the 
noblest  members  of  the  senate  and  the  most 
pliant  dependants  of  the  court.     In  65,  Tigelli- 
nus entertained  Nero  in  his  ^Emilian  gardens 
with  a  sumptuous  profligacy  unsurpassed  even 
in  that  age,  and  in  the  same  year  shared  with 
him  the  odium  of  burning  Rome,  since  the  con- 
flagration had  broken  out  on  the  scene  of  the 
banquet.     On  Nero's  fall  he  joined  with  Nym- 
phidius  Sabinus,  who  had  succeeded  Fenius 
Rufus  as  praetorian  prefect,  in  transferring  the 
allegiance  of  the  soldiers  to  Galba.    The  people 
clamorously  demanded  his  death.    During  the 
brief  reign  of  Galba  his  life  was  spared,  but  on 
the  accession  of  Otho  he  was  compelled  to  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life. 

TioBLLlus  HERMSGENES.  Vid.  HERMOGENES. 
TIGRANES  (Tiypuvrjf),  kings  of  Armenia.  1. 
Reigned  B.C.  96-56  or  55.  He  united  under 
his  sway  not  only  all  Armenia,  but  several  of 
the  neighboring  provinces,  such  as  Atropateno 
and  Gordyene,  and  thus  raised  himself  to  a  de- 
gree of  power  far  superior  to  that  enjoyed  by 
any  of  his  predecessors.  He  assumed  the  pomp- 
ous title  of  king  of  kings,  and  always  appeared 
in  public  accompanied  by  some  of  his  tributary 
princes  as  attendants.  His  power  was  also 
greatly  strengthened  by  his  alliance  with  Mith- 
radates  the  Great,  king  of  Pontus,  whose  daugh- 

893 


TIGRANES. 

ter  Cleopatra  he  had  married  at  an  early  period 
of  his  reign.     In  consequence  of  the  dissensions 
in  the  royal  family  of  Syria,  Tigranes  was  en- 
abled in  83  to  make  himself  master  of  the  whole 
Syrian   uionarchy  from  the  Euphrates  to  the 
sea.     He  was  now  at  the  summit  of  his  power, 
and  continued  in  the  undisputed  possession  of 
these  extensive  dominions  for  nearly  fourteen 
years.      At  the  instigation  of  his   son-in-law 
Mithradates,  he  invaded  Cappadocia  in  74,  and 
is  said  to  have  carried  off  into  captivity  no  less 
than  three   hundred  thousand  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, a  large  portion  of  whom  he  settled  in  his 
newly-founded  capital  of  Tigranocerta.     Vid. 
TIGRANOCERTA.     In  other  respects  he  appears 
to  have  furnished  little  support  to  Mithradates 
in  his  war  against  the  Romans ;  but  when  the 
Romans   haughtily   demanded   from   him   the 
surrender  of  Mithradates,  who  had  taken  ref- 
uge in  his  dominions,  he  returned  a  peremp- 
tory refusal,  accompanied  with  an  express  dec- 
laration  of  war.     Lucullus  invaded  Armenia 
In  69,  defeated  the  mighty  host  which  Tigranes 
led  against  him,  and  followed  up  his  victory 
by  the  capture  of  Tigranocerta.     In  the  fol- 
lowing year  (68)  the  united  forces  of  Tigranes 
and  Mithradates  were  again  defeated  by  Lu- 
cullus ;  but  the   mutinous  disposition  of  the 
Roman  troops  prevented  Lucullus  from  gain- 
ing any  further  advantages  over  the  Armenian 
king,  and  enabled  the  latter  not  only  to  regain 
his  dominions,  but  also  to  invade  Cappadocia. 
The  arrival  of  Pompey  (66)  soon  changed  the 
face  of  events.     Mithradates,  after  his  final  de- 
feat by  Pompey,  once  more  threw  himself  upon 
the  support  of  his  son-in-law ;  but  Tigranes, 
who  suspected  him  of  abetting  the  designs  of 
his  son  Tigranes,  who  had  rebelled  against  his 
father,  refused  to  receive  him,  while  he  himself 
hastened  to  make  overtures  of  submission  to 
Pompey.     That  general  had  already  advanced 
into  the  heart  of  Armenia  under  the  guidance 
of  the  young  Tigranes,  when  the  old  king  re- 
paired in  person  to  the  Roman  camp,  and,  pre- 
senting himself  as  a  suppliant  before  Pompey, 
laid  his  tiara  at  his  feet.     By  this  act  of  humili- 
ation he  at  once  conciliated  the  favor  of  the  con- 
queror,, who  treated  him  in  a  friendly  manner, 
and  left  him  in  possession  of  Armenia  Proper 
with  the  title  of  king,  depriving  him  only  of  the 
provinces  of  Sophene  and  Gordyene,  which  he 
erected  into  a  separate  kingdom  for  his  son  Ti- 
granes.   The  elder  monarch  was  so  overjoyed  at 
obtaining  these  unexpectedly  favorable  terms, 
that  he  not  only  paid  the  sum  of  six  thousand 
talents  demanded  by  Pompey,  but  added  a  large 
sum  as  a  donation  to  his  army,  and  continued 
ever  after  the  steadfast  friend  of  the  Roman  gen- 
eral.    He  died  in  56  or  55,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Artavasdes. — 2.  Son  of  Artavasdes, 
and  grandson  of  the  preceding.     He  was  living 
an  exile  at  Rome,  when  a  party  of  his  country- 
men, discontented  with  the  rule  of  his  elder 
brother,  Artaxias,  sent  to  request  that  he  should 
be  placed  on  the  throne.    To  this  Augustus  as- 
sented, and  Tiberius  was  charged  with  the  duty 
of  accomplishing  it,  a  task  which  he  effected 
apparently  without  opposition  (B.C.  20). 

TIGRANOCERTA  (ra  TtypavoKepra  and  rj  Tiyp., 
».  «.,  in  Armenian,  the  City  of  Tigranes  :  ruins 
at  Scrt),  the  later  capital  of  Armenia,  built  by 
894 


TIM^US. 

Tigranes  on  a  height  by  the  River  Nicephorius, 
in  the  valley  between  Mounts  Masius  and  Ni- 
phates.  It  was  strongly  fortified,  and  peopled 
chiefly  with  Macedonians  and  Greeks,  forcibly 
removed  from  Cappadocia  and  Cilicia ;  but,  aflei 
the  defeat  of  Tigranes  by  Lucullus  under  its 
walls,  these  people  were  permitted  to  return  to 
their  homes.  The  city  was,  at  the  same  time, 
partially  destroyed  ;  but  it  still  remained  a  con- 
siderable place. 

TIGRIS,  generally  -IDOS  and  -is  (6  Tiypi^,  gen- 
erally Tiypidof  and  Tj'y/nof,  also  Tiyprjc,  gener- 
ally TiypijTOf :  now  Tigris),  a  great  river  of 
Western  Asia,  rises  from  several  sources  on  the 
southern  side  of  that  part  of  the  Taurus  chain 
called  Niphates,  in  Armenia,  and  flows  south- 
east, first  through  the  narrow  valley  between 
Mount  Masius  and  the  prolongation  of  Mount. 
Niphates,  and  then  through  the  great  plain  which 
is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  last-named  chain, 
till  it  falls  into  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
after  receiving  the  Euphrates  from  the  west. 
(Compare  EUPHRATES  )  Its  other  chief  tribu- 
taries, all  falling  into  its  eastern  side,  were  the 
NICEPHORIUS  or  CENTRITES,  the  LYCUS,  the  CA- 
PRUS,  the  PHYSCUS,  the  GORGUS,  SILLAS,  or  DK- 
LAS,  the  GYNDES,  and  the  CHOASPES.  It  divided 
Assyria  and  Susiana  on  the  east,  from  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Babylonia,  and  (at  its  mouth)  Arabia, 
on  the  west.  The  name  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  PASITIGRIS. 

TIGUKINI,  a  tribe  of  the  Helvetii,  who  joined 

the  Cimbri  in  invading  the  country  of  the  Allo- 

broges  in  Gaul,  where  they  defeated  the  consul 

L.  Cassius  Longinus,  B.C.  107.     They  formed 

in  the  time  of  Caesar  the  most  important  of  the 

four  cantons  (pagi)  into  which  the  Helvetii  were 

divided.     It  was  perhaps  from  this  people  that 

1  the  town  of  Tigurum  (now  Zurich)  derived  its 

j  name,  though  this  name  does  not  occur  in  any 

\  ancient  writer. 

TILPHUSIUM   (Ti7(.<f>ovaiov,   Tttyoiioaiov,  Dor. 
aiov :  Ti^ovaiof,  Dor.  Tityuaiof ),  a  town 
in  Boeotia,  situated  upon  a  mountain  of  the 
!  same  name,  south  of  Lake  Copais,  and  between 
Coronea  and  Haliartus.     It  derived  its  name 
'•  from  the  fountain  Tilphusa,  which  was  sacred 
to  Apollo,  and  where  Tiresias  is  said  to  havts 
;  been  buried. 

j ,    TIMJEUS  (Tt/iaiof).     1.  The  historian,  was  the 

i  son  of  Andromachus,  tyrant  of  Tauromenium, 

I  in  Sicily.     Timaeus  attained  the  age  of  ninety- 

j  six  ;  and  though  we  do  not  know  the  exact  date 

i  either  of  his  birth  or  death,  we  can  not  be  fai 

wrong  in  placing  his  birth  in  B.C.  352,  and  his 

:  death   in  256.     Timaeus   received  instruction 

from  Philiscus,  the  Milesian,  a  disciple  of  Isoc- 

j  rates  ;  but  we  have  no  further  particulars  of 

his  life,  except  that  he  was  banished  from  Sicily 

by  Agathocles,  and  passed  his  exile  at  Athens, 

where  he  had  lived  fifty  years  when  he  wrote 

the  thirty-fourth  took  of  his  history.     The  great 

work  of  Timaeus  was  a  history  of  Sicily  from 

the  earliest  times  to  264,  in  which  year  Polybiua 

commences  the  introduction  to  his  work.    This 

history  was  one  of  great  extent.     We  have  a 

quotation  from  the  thirty-eighth  book,  and  there 

were  probably  many  books  after  this.    The  value 

and  authority  of  Timaeus  as  an  historian  have 

been  most  vehemently  attacked  by  Polybius  in 

many  parts  of  his  work.    Most  of  the  charges 


TIMAGENES. 


TIMESITHETJS. 


of  Polybius  appear  to  have  been  well  founded  ; 
but  he  has  not  only  omitted  to  mention  some 
of  the  peculiar  excellences  of  Timaeus,  but  has 
even  regarded  these  excellences  as  deserving 
the  severest  censure.  Thus  it  was  one  of  the 
great  merits  of  Timasus,  for  which  he  is  loudly 
denounced  by  Polybius,  that  he  altempted  to 
give  the  myths  in  their  simplest  and  most  gen- 
uine form,  as  related  by  the  most  ancient  writ- 
ers. Timaeus,  also,  collected  the  materials  of 
his  history  with  the  greatest  diligence  and  care, 
a  fact  which  even  Polybius  is  obliged  to  admit. 
He  likewise  paid  very  great  attention  to  chro- 
nology, and  was  the  first  writer  who  introduced 
the  practice  of  recording  events  by  Olympiads, 
which  was  adopted  by  almost  all  subsequent 
writers  of  Greek  history.  The  fragments  of 
Timaeus  have  been  collected  by  Goller,  in  his 
De  Situ  et  Online  Syracusarum,  Lips.,  1818,  and 
by  Car.  and  Theod.  Miiller,  in  the  Fragmcnta 
Historic.  Gmc.,  Paris,  1841.  — 2.  Of  Locri,  in 
Italy,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher,  is  said  to  have 
been  a  teacher  of  Plato.  There  is  an  extant 
work,  bearing  his  name,  written  in  the  Doric 
dialect,  and  entitled  ircpl  ^v^df  KOO/JLOV  KOI  tyvaios : 
but  its  genuineness  is  very  doubtful,  and  it  is 
in  all  probability  nothing  more  than  an  abridg- 
ment of  Plato's  dialogue  of  Timaeus.  The  best 
edition  is  by  Gelder,  Leyden.  1836.  —  3.  The 
Sophist,  wrote  a  Lexicon  to  Plato,  addressed  to 
a  certain  Gentianus,  which  is  still  extant.  The 
time  at  which  he  lived  is  quite  uncertain.  He 
is  usually  placed  in  the  third  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  which  produced  so  many  ardent 
admirers  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  such  as 
Porphyry,  Longinus,  Plotinus,  &c.  The  Lexi- 
con is  very  brief,  and  bears  the  title  Tt/taiov 
aoftarov  kn  rijv  rov  nfaiTuvof  l-sfruv.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  work  has  received  several  inter- 
polations, especially  in  explanations  of  words 
occurring  in  Herodotus.  But  it  is  one  of  great 
value,  and  the  explanations  of  words  are  some 
of  the  very  best  which  have  come  down  to  us 
from  the  ancient  grammarians.  It  has  been  ed- 
ited by  lluhnken,  Leyden,  1754,  and  again,  Ley- 
den,  1789 ;  and  by  Koch,  Leipzig,  1828  and  1833. 

TIMAGENES  (T^ayt'vj/f),  a  rhetorician  and  a 
historian,  was  a  native  of  Alexandrea,  from 
which  place  he  was  carried  as  a  prisoner  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  first  employed  as  a  slave 
in  menial  offices,  but  being  liberated  by  Faustus 
Sulla,  the  son  of  the  dictator,  he  opened  a  school 
of  rhetoric,  in  which  he  taught  with  great  suc- 
cess. (Comp.  Hor.,  Ep.,  i.,  19,  15.)  The  Em- 
peror Augustus  induced  him  to  write  a  history 
of  his  exploits  ;  but  having  offended  Augustus 
by  sarcastic  remarks  upon  his  family,  he  was 
forbidden  the  palace  ;  whereupon  he  burned  his 
historical  works,  gave  up  his  rhetorical  school, 
and  retired  from  Rome  to  the  house  of  his 
friend  Asinius  Pollio  at  Tusculum.  He  aAer- 
ward  went  to  the  East,  and  died  at  Dabanum  in 
Mesopotamia. 

[TiMAOENiDAstTtjuayw'Jaf  or-/(5)7r),aTheban, 
son  of  Herpys,  advised  Mardonius  in  his  inva- 
sion of  Greece  to  occupy  the  passes  of  Mount 
Cithacron,  so  as  to  cut  off  the  re-enforcements 
and  supplies  that  were  coming  through  them  to 
the  Greeks.  After  the  battle  of  Plataew,  his  sur- 
lender  (with  that  of  the  other  Theban  traitors 
to  the  national  cause)  was  demanded,  and  he 


was  finally  given  up  at  his  own  instigation. 
But  instead  of  a  trial,  which  he  had  expected, 
he  was  sent  with  the  other  culprits  to  Corinth 
by  Pausanias,  and  there  put  to  death.] 

TIMANTHES  (TiftuvBrif),  a  celebrated  Greek 
painter  at  Sicyon,  contemporary  with  Zeuxis 
and  Parrhasius,  about  B.C.  400.  The  master- 
piece of  Timanthes  was  his  celebrated  picture 
of  the  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia,  in  which  Agamem- 
non was  painted  with  his  face  hidden  in  his 
mantle.  The  ancient  critics  tell  us  that  the 
picture  showed  Iphigenia  standing  by  the  altar, 
surrounded,  among  the  assistants,  by  Calchas, 
whose  prophetic  voice  had  demanded  her  sacri- 
fice, and  whose  hand  was  about  to  complete  it ; 
Ulysses,  who  had  brought  her  from  her  home, 
and  Menelaus,  her  father's  brother,  all  manifest- 
ing different  degrees  of  grief,  so  that,  when  the 
artist  had  painted  the  sorrow  of  Calchas,  and 
the  deeper  sorrow  of  Ulysses,  and  had  added  all 
his  powers  to  express  the  woe  of  Menelaus,  his 
resources  were  exhausted,  and,  unable  to  give 
a  powerful  expression  to  the  agony  of  the  father, 
he  covered  his  head  with  a  veil.  But  this  is 
clearly  not  the  reason  why  Timanthes  hid  the 
face  of  Agamemnon.  The  critics  ascribe  to 
impotence  what  was  the  forbearance  of  judg- 
ment. Timanthes  felt  like  a  father  :  he  did  not 
hide  the  face  of  Agamemnon  because  it  was 
beyond  the  possibility,  but  because  it  w-as  be- 
yond the  dignity  of  expression.  If  he  made 
Agamemnon  bear  his  calamity  as  a  man,  he 
made  him  also  feel  it  as  a  man.  It  became  the 
leader  of  Greece  to  sanction  the  ceremony  with 
his  presence,  but  it  did  not  become  the  father  to 
see  his  daughter  beneath  the  dagger's  point. 

[TIMASION  (Tipaaiuv),  a  Dardanian,  served  un- 
der Clearchus  in  Asia,  and  afterward  joined  the 
expedition  of  the  younger  Cyrus  against  Arta- 
xerxes.  After  the  arrest  and  murder  of  the 
generals  by  Tissaphernes,  Timasion  was  chosen 
in  the  place  of  Clearchus,  and  he  and  Xenophon, 
as  the  youngest,  had  command  of  the  rear. 
When  the  army  had  reached  Cotyora,  he  en- 
deavored to  extort  money  as  well  as  the  means 
of  conveyance  from  some  of  the  neighboring 
cities  by  the  report  of  Xenophon's  intention  to 
found  a  city  in  Pontus,  but  was  foiled  by  Xen- 
ophon's refusing  to  lend  himself  to  his  designs. 
Timasion,  in  the  subsequent  movements,  contin- 
ued with  Xenophon  until  they  crossed  over  into 
Europe,  and  also  entered  with  him  into  the  serv- 
ice of  Seuthes.  After  this  he  probably  return- 
ed to  Asia  with  the  army,  when  it  entered  the 
Spartan  service  under  Thimbron.] 

TIMAVUS  (now  Timavo),  a  small  river  in  the 
north  of  Italy,  forming  the  boundary  between 
Jstria  andYenetia,  and  falling  into  the  Sinus 
Tergestinus  in  the  Adriatic,  between  Tergeste 
and  Aquileia.  This  river  is  frequently  cele- 
brated by  the  poets  and  other  ancient  writers, 
who  speak  of  its  numerous  sources,  its  lake, 
and  its  subterraneous  passage  ;  but  these  ac- 
counts seem,  to  a  great  extent,  fabulous. 

[Ti.MKsi AS  (Tiuijaiaf),  or  TIMESIUS  (Tipf/aioc), 
of  Clazomenae,  was  the  first  founder  of  the  col- 
ony of  Abdcra  in  Thrace.  He  was  expelled  by 
the  Thracians,  but  was  afterward  worshipped 
as  a  hero  at  Abdera  by  the  Teians,  who  found- 
ed a  second  colony  at  that  place.] 

(TtpqoiOcof),  a  Trapezuniiiui. 
895 


TIMOCLES. 

proxcnus  of  the  Mossynceci,  sent  by  the  Greeks 
under  Xenophon  to  treat  with  the  Mossynceci 
about  a  passage  through  their  territory :  in  an 
interview  between  the  magistrates  of  the  Mos- 
synceci and  the  Greek  generals,  Timesitheus  act- 
ed as  interpreter.] 

TIMOCLES  (T^o/f^f),  a  distinguished  Athe- 
nian comic  poet  of  the  Middle  Comedy,  who 
lived  at  a  period  when  the  revival  of  political 
energy,  in  consequence  of  the  encroachments 
of  Philip,  restored  to  the  Middle  Comedy  much 
of  the  vigor  and  real  aim  of  the  Old.  He  is  con- 
spicuous for  the  freedom  with  which  he  dis- 
cussed public  men  and  measures,  as  well  as  for 
the  number  of  his  dramas  and  the  purity  of  his 
style.  He  flourished  from  about  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century  B.C.  till  after  324,  so  that  at 
the  beginning  of  his  career  he  was  in  part  con- 
temporary with  Antiphanes,  and  at  the  end  of 
it  with  Menander.  [The  fragments  of  his  Com- 
edies are  edited  by  Meineke  in  the  Comic.  Grac. 
Fragm.,  vol.  ii.,  798-811,  edit,  minor.] 

[TIMOCRATES  (Ti/zoKpar»/f).  1.  A  Lacedaemo- 
nian, one  of  the  three  counsellors  sent  to  assist 
Cnemus  after  his  first  defeat  by  Phormion  in 
the  Corinthian  Gulf  in  B.C.  429.  In  the  second 
battle  there,  shortly  after,  Timocrates  having 
had  the  vessel,  on  board  which  he  himself  was, 
sunk  by  an  Athenian  galley,  slew  himself,  and 
his  body  was  washed  into  the  harbor  of  Naupac- 
tus. — 2.  An  Athenian,  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners for  concluding  the  fifty  years'  truce  be- 
tween Athens  and  Sparta  in  B.C.  421,  and  also 
the  separate  treaty  between  these  states  in  the 
same  year.— 3.  An  Athenian,  in  B.C.  406,  was 
a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  be- 
fore which  the  generals  who  had  conquered  at 
Arginusae  gave  in  their  account.  (Perhaps  the 
same  as  No.  2.) — 4.  A  Rhodian,  who  was  sent 
into  Greece  by  the  satrap  Tithraustes  in  B.C. 
395,  taking  with  him  fifty  talents  wherewith  to 
bribe  the  leading  men  in  the  several  states  to 
excite  a  war  against  Sparta  at  home,  and  so  to 
compel  the  return  of  Agesilaus  from  his  vic- 
torious career  in  Asia.  Plutarch  calls  him  Her- 
mocrates. — 5.  A  Lacedaemonian,  was  one  of  the 
ambassadors  who  were  sent  to  Athens  in  B.C. 
369  to  settle  the  terms  of  alliance  between  the 
Athenians  and  the  Spartans. — 6.  A  Syracusan, 
who  commanded  a  squadron  of  twelve  galleys 
sent  by  Dionysius  the  younger  to  the  aid  of 
Sparta  in  B.C.  366.  The  arrival  of  this  force 
enaoled  the  Spartans  to  reduce  Sellasia,  which 
had  revolted  from  them.] 

TIMOCREON  (TiuoKpluv),  of  Rhodes,  a  lyric 
poet,  celebrated  for  the  bitter  and  pugnacious 
spirit  of  his  works,  and  especially  for  his  attacks 
on  Themistocles  and  Simonides.  He  was  a  na- 
tive oflalysus  in  Rhodes,  whence  he  was  ban- 
ished on  the  then  common  charge  of  an  inclina- 
tion toward  Persia  (pqdiopof) ;  and  in  this  ban- 
ishment he  was  left  neglected  by  Themistocles, 
who  had  formerly  been  his  friend,  and  his  con- 
nection by  the  ties  of  hospitality.  Timocreon 
was  still  flourishing  after  B.C.  471,  since  one 
of  his  poems,  of  which  we  have  a  fragment, 
was  an  attack  upon  Themistocles  after  the  exile 
of  the  latter.  It  appears  that  Timocreon  was 
a  man  of  prodigious  strength,  which  he  sustain- 
ed by  great  voracity. 

TIMOLEON  (TiuoMuv),  son  of  Timodemus  or 
896 


TIMOLEON. 

Timaenetus  and  Demariste,  belonged  to  one  of 
the  noblest  families  at  Corinth.  His  early  life 
was  stained  by  a  dreadful  deed  of  blood.  We 
are  told  that  so  ardent  was  his  love  of  liberty, 
that  when  his  brother  Timophanes  endeavored 
to  make  himself  tyrant  of  their  native  city,  Ti- 
moleon  murdered  him  rather  than  allow  him  to 
destroy  the  liberty  of  the  state.  The  murder 
was  perpetrated  just  before  an  embassy  arrived 
from  several  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily,  beg- 
ging the  Corinthians  to  send  assistance  to  the 
island,  which  was  distracted  by  internal  dissen- 
sions, and  was  expecting  an  invasion  of  the 
Carthaginians.  It  is  said  that  the  Corinthians 
were  at  the  very  moment  of  the  arrival  of  the 
Sicilians  deliberating  respecting  Timoleon's  act, 
and  had  not  come  to  any  decision  respecting  it ; 
and  that  they  avoided  the  difficulty  of  a  decision 
by  appointing  him  to  the  command  of  the  Sicil- 
ian expedition,  with  the  singular  provision,  that 
if  he  conducted  himself  justly  in  the  command, 
they  would  regard  him  as  a  tyrannicide,  and 
honor  him  accordingly  ;  but  if  otherwise,  they 
would  punish  him  as  a  fratricide.  To  whatever 
causes  Timoleon  owed  his  appointment,  his  ex 
traordinary  success  more  than  justified  the  con- 
fidence which  had  been  reposed  in  him.  His 
history  reads  almost  like  a  romance  ;  and  yet 
of  the  main  facts  of  the  narrative  we  can  not 
entertain  any  reasonable  doubt.  Although  the 
Corinthians  had  readily  assented  to  the  requests 
of  the  Sicilians  in  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mander, they  were  not  prepared  to  make  many 
sacrifices  in  their  favor,  and  accordingly  it  was 
only  with  ten  triremes  and  seven  hundred  mer- 
cenaries that  Timoleon  sailed  from  Corinth  to 
repel  the  Carthaginians,  and  restore  order  to  the 
Sicilian  cities.  He  reached  Sicily  in  B.C.  344, 
and  straightway  marched  against  Syracuse,  of 
two  quarters  of  which  he  obtained  possession 
In  the  following  spring(343),  Dionysius,  despair 
ing  of  success,  surrendered  the  citadel  to  Ti 
moleon,  on  condition  of  his  being  allowed  to  de- 
part in  safety  to  Corinth.  Vid.  DIONYSIUS. 
Timoleon  soon  afterward  obtained  possession  ol 
the  whole  of  Syracuse.  He  destroyed  the  cita- 
del, which  had  been  for  so  many  years  the  seat 
and  bulwark  of  the  power  of  the  tyrants,  and 
restored  the  democratical  form  of  government. 
He  then  proceeded  to  expel  the  tyrants  from  the 
other  Greek  cities'of  Sicily,  but  was  interrupt 
ed  in  this  undertaking  by  a  formidable  invasion 
of  the  Carthaginians,  who  landed  at  Lilybaeum 
in  339,  with  an  immense  army,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Hasdrubal  and  Hamilcar,  consisting  ol 
seventy  thousand  foot  and  ten  thousand  horse 
Such  an  overwhelming  force  struck  the  Greeks 
with  consternation  and  dismay.  So  great  was 
their  alarm,  that  Timoleon  could  only  induce 
twelve  thousand  men  to  march  with  him  against 
the  Carthaginians.  But  with  this  small  force 
he  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Carthagin- 
ians on  the  river  Crimissus  (339.)  This  vie 
tory  justly  ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  gained 
by  Greeks  over  barbarians.  The  booty  which 
Timoleon  acquired  was  prodigious  ;  and  some 
of  the  richest  of  the  spoils  he. sent  to  Corinth 
and  other  cities  in  Greece,  thus  diffusing  the 
glory  of  his  victory  throughout  the  mother  coua- 
try.  Timoleon  now  resolved  to  carry  into  exe- 
cution his  project  of  expelling  all  the  tyrants 


TIMOMACHUS 

;from  Sicily.  Of  these,  two  of  the  most  power- 
ful, Hicetas  of  Leontini,  and  Mamercus  of  Ca- 
lana,  had  recourse  to  the  Carthaginians  for  as- 
sistance, who  sent  Gisco  to  Sicily  with  a  fleet 
of  seventy  ships  and  a  body  of  Greek  mercena- 
ries. Although  Gisco  gained  a  few  successes 
at  first,  the  war  was,  upon  the  whole,  favorable 
to  Timoleon,  and  the  Carthaginians  were  there- 
fore glad  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  latter  in 
338,  by  which  the  River  Halycus  was  fixed  as 
the  boundary  of  the  Carthaginian  and  Greek 
dominions  in  Sicily.  It  was  during  the  war 
with  Gisco  that  Hicetas  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Timoleon,  and  was  massacred  by  his  order.  His 
wife  and  daughters  were  carried  to  Syracuse, 
where  they  were  executed  by  the  people,  as  a 
satisfaction  to  the  manes  of  Dion,  whose  wife 
Arete  and  sister  Aristomache  had  both  been  put 
to  death  by  Hicetas.  This  is  one  of  the  greatest 
stains  upon  Timoleon's  character,  as  he  might 
easily  have  saved  these  unfortunate  women  if 
he  had  chosen.  After  the  treaty  between  the 
Carthaginians  and  Timoleon,  Mamercus,  being 
unable  to  maintain  himself  in  Catana,  fled  to 
Messana,  where  he  took  refuge  with  Hippon, 
tyrant  of  that  city.  Timoleon  quickly  followed, 
and  besieged  Messana  so  vigorously  by  sea  and 
land,  that  Hippon,  despairing  of  holding  out, 
attempted  to  escape  by  sea,  but  was  taken  and 
put  to  death  in  the  public  theatre.  Mamercus 
now  surrendered,  stipulating  only  for  a  public 
trial  before  the  Syracusans,  with  the  condition 
that  Timoleon  should  not  appear  as  his  accuser. 
Hut  as  soon  as  he  was  brought  into  the  assem- 
oly  at  Syracuse,  the  people  refused  to  hear  him, 
and  unanimously  condemned  him  to  death.  Thus 
almost  all  the  tyrants  were  expelled  from  the 
Greek  cities  in  Sicily,  and  a  democratical  form 
of  go-vernment  established  in  their  place.  Ti- 
moleon, however,  was  in  reality  the  ruler  of  Si- 
cily, for  all  the  states  consulted  him  on  every 
matter  of  importance  ;  and  the  wisdom  of  his 
rule  is  attested  by  the  flourishing  condition  of 
the  island  for  several  years  even  after  his  death. 
He  did  not,  however,  assume  any  title  or  office, 
but  resided  as  a  private  citizen  among  the  Syr- 
acusans. Timoleon  died  in  337,  having  become 
blind  a  short  time  before  his  death.  He  was 
buried  at  the  public  expense  in  the  market-place 
at  Syracuse,  where  his  monument  was  after- 
ward surrounded  with  porticoes  and  a  gymna- 
sium, which  was  called  after  him  the  Timoleon- 
teum.  Annual  games  were  also  instituted  in 
his  honor. 

TIMOMACHUS  (Ti/iopajof),  a  distinguished 
painter  of  Byzantium,  lived  in  the  time  of  Ju- 
lius Caesar  (according  to  Pliny),  who  purchased 
two  of  his  pictures,  the  Ajax  and  Medea,  for  the 
immense  sum  of  eighty  Attic  talents,  and  ded- 
icated them  in  the  temple  of  Venus  Genitrix. 
It  has  been  supposed,  however,  by  some  mod- 
ern w  iters,  that  Timomachus  lived  at  an  ear- 
lier period. 

TIMON  (Tipuv).  I.  The  son  of  Timarchus  of 
Phlius,  a  philosopher  of  the  sect  of  the  Skeptics, 
flourished  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
about  B.C.  279,  and  onward.  He  first  studied 
philosophy  at  Megara,  under  Stilpon,  and  then 
returned  home  and  married.  He  next  went  to 
Klis  with  his  wife,  and  heard  Pyrrhon,  whose 
tenets  ho  adopted.  Driven  from  Elis  by  strait- 
57 


riMOTHEUS. 

ened  circumstances,  he  spent  some  time  on  the 
Hellespont  and  the  Propontis,  and  taught  at 
Chalcedon  as  a  sophist  with  such  success  that 
he  realized  a  fortune.  He  then  removed  to 
Athens,  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
life,  with  the  exception  of  a  short  residence  at 
Thebes.  He  died  at  the  age  of  almost  ninety. 
Timon  appears  to  have  been  endowed  by  nature 
with  a  powerful  and  active  mind,  and  with  that 
quick  perception  of  the  follies  of  men  which  be- 
trays its  possessor  into  a  spirit  of  universal  dis- 
trust both  of  men  and  truths,  so  as  to  make  him 
a  skeptic  in  philosophy  and  a  satirist  in  every 
thing.  He  wrote  numerous  works  both  in  prose 
and  poetry.  The  most  celebrated  of  his  poems 
were  the  satiric  compositions  called  Silli  (ai\- 
Xot),  a  word  of  somewhat  doubtful  etymology, 
but  which  undoubtedly  describes  metrical  com- 
positions of  a  character  at  once  ludicrous  and 
sarcastic.  The  invention  of  this  species  of 
poetry  is  ascribed  to  Xenophanes  of  Colophon. 
Vid.  XENOPHANES.  The  Silli  of  Timon  were  in 
three  books,  in  the  first  of  which  he  spoke  in  his 
own  person,  and  the  other  two  are  in  the  form 
of  a  dialogue  between  the  author  and  Xenopha- 
nes of  Colophon,  in  which  Timon  proposed  ques- 
tions, to  which  Xenophanes  replied  at  length. 
The  subject  was  a  sarcastic  account  of  the  ten- 
ets of  all  philosophers,  living  and  dead  ;  an  un- 
bounded field  for  skepticism  and  satire.  They 
were  in  hexameter  verse,  and,  from  the  way  in 
which  they  are  mentioned  by  the  ancient  writ- 
ers, as  well  as  from  the  few  fragments  of  them 
which  have  come  down  to  us,  it  is  evidenttthat 
they  were  very  admirable  productions  of  their 
kind.  The  fragments  of  his  poems  are  collected 
by  Wolke,  DC  Gracorum  Sillis,  Varsav.,  1820  ; 
and  by  Paul,  Dissertatio  de  Silks,  Berol ,  1821. — 
2.  The  Misanthrope  (6  fiiauvdpuxof ),  lived  in  the 
time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  was  an 
Athenian,  of  the  demos  of  Colyttus,  and  his 
father's  name  was  Echecratides.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  ingratitude  he  experienced,  and 
the  disappointments  he  suffered  from  his  early 
friends  and  companions,  he  secluded  himself  en- 
tirely from  the  world,  admitting  no  one  to  his 
society  except  Alcibiades,  in  whose  reckless  and 
variable  disposition  he  probably  found  pleasure 
in  tracing  and  studying  an  image  of  the  world 
he  had  abandoned  ;  and  at  last  he  is  said  to  have 
died  in  consequence  of  refusing  to  suffer  a  sur- 
geon to  come  to  him  to  set  a  broken  limb.  One 
of  Lucian's  pieces  bears  his  name. 

[TiMopiiANEs  (T^o^dt^f),  the  brother  of  Ti- 
moleon.    Vid.  TIMOLEON.] 

TIMOTHEUS  (Ttfideeof).  1.  Son  of  Conon,  the 
famous  general,  was  himself  a  distinguished 
Athenian  general.  He  was  first  appointed  to 
a  public  command  in  B.C.  378,  and  from  this 
time  his  name  frequently  occurs  as  one  of  the 
Athenian  generals  down  to  356.  In  this  year 
he  was  associated  with  Iphicratcs,  Menestheus, 
and  Chares  in  the  command  of  the  Athenian 
fleet.  In  consequence  of  his  conduct  in  this 
war,  he  was  arraigned  in  354,  and  condemned 
to  the  crushing  fine  of  one  hundred  talents 
(more  than  £24,000).  Being  unable  to  pay  the 
fine,  he  withdrew  to  Chalcis  in  Eubcea,  where 
he  died  shortly  after.  The  Athenians  sub 
sequenlly  remitted  nine  tenths  of  the  penalty, 
and  allowed  his  son  Canon  to  expend  the  re 

107 


TINA. 

niamder  on  the  repair  of  the  walls,  which  the 
famous  Conon  had  restored. — 2.  Son  of  Clear- 
chus,  the  tyrant  of  Heraclea  on  the  Euxine, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  the  sovereignty  B.C. 
353.  There  is  extant  a  letter  addressed  to  him 
hy  Isocrates. — 3.  A  celebrated  musician  and 
poet  of  the  later  Athenian  dithyramb,  was  a 
native  of  Miletus,  and  the  son  of  Thersander. 
He  was  born  B.C.  446,  and  died  in  357,  in  the 
ninetieth  year  of  his  age.  .  Of  the  details  of  his 
life  we  have  very  little  information.  He  was 
at  first  unfortunate  in  his  professional  efforts. 
Even  the  Athenians,  fond  as  they  were  of  nov- 
elty, were  offended  at  the  bold  innovations  of 
Timotheus,  and  hissed  off  his  performance.  On 
this  occasion  it  is  said  that  Euripides  encour- 
aged Timotheus  by  the  prediction  that  he  would 
soon  have  the  theatres  at  his  feet.  This  predic- 
tion appears  to  have  been  accomplished  in  the 
vast  popularity  which  Timotheus  afterward  en- 
joyed. The  Ephesians  rewarded  him,  for  his 
dedicatory  hymn  to  Diana  (Artemis),  with  the 
sum  of  one  thousand  pieces  of  gold  ;  and  the  last 
accomplishment  by  which  the  education  of  the 
Arcadian  youth  was  finished,  was  learning  the 
nomes  of  Timotheus  and  Philoxenus.  Timo- 
theus is  said  to  have  died  in  Macedonia.  He 
delighted  in  the  most  artificial  and  intricate 
forms  of  musical  expression,  and  he  used  in- 
strumental music,  without  a  vocal  accompani- 
ment, to  a  greater  extent  than  any  previous 
composer.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of  his 
innovations,  as  the  means  of  introducing  all 
the  ethers,  was  his  addition  to  the  number  of 
the  strings  of  the  cithara.  Respecting  the  pre- 
cise nature  of  that  addition  the  ancient  writers 
are  not  agreed  ;  but  it  is  most  improbable,  from 
the  whole  evidence,  that  the  lyre  of  Timotheus 
had  eleven  strings.  It  is  said  that,  when  Timo- 
theus visited  Sparta,  and  entered  the  musical 
contest  at  Carnea,  one  of  the  ephors  snatched 
away  his  lyre,  and  cut  from  it  the  strings,  four 
in  number,  by  which  it  exceeded  the  seven- 
stringed  lyre  of  Terpander,  and,  as  a  memorial 
of  this  public  vindication  of  the  ancient  simplic- 
ity of  music,  and  for  a  warning  to  future  inno- 
vators, the  Lacedaemonians  hung  up  the  muti- 
lated lyre  of  Timotheus  in  their  Scias.  With 
regard  to  the  subjects  of  his  compositions,  and 
the  manner  in  which  he  treated  them,  we  have 
abundant  evidence  that  he  eveji  went  beyond 
the  other  musicians  of  the  period  in  the  liber- 
ties which  he  took  with  the  ancient  myths,  in 
the  attempt  to  make  his  music  imitative  as  well 
as  expressive,  and  in  the  confusion  of  the  dif- 
ferent departments  of  lyric  poetry ;  in  one  word, 
in  the  application  of  that  false  principle,  which 
also  misled  his  friend  Euripides,  that  pleasure 
is  the  end  of  poetry. — 4.  A  distinguished  flute- 
player  of  Thebes,  flourished  under  Alexander 
the  Great,  on  whom  his  music  made  so  power- 
ful an  impression,  that  once,  in  the  midst  of  a 
performance  by  Timotheus  of  an  OrthianNome 
to  Athena,  Alexander  started  from  his  seat  and 
seized  his  arms. — 5.  A  statuary  and  sculptor, 
whose  country  is  not  mentioned,  but  who  be- 
longed to  the  later  Attic  school  of  the  time  of 
Scopas  and  Praxiteles.  He  was  one  of  the  art- 
ists who  executed  the  bas-reliefs  which  adorned 
the  frieze  of  the  Mausoleum,  about  B.C.  352. 
[TINA  (now  Tyne),  a  river  of  Britannia,  north 
898 


TIRESIAS. 

of  the  Vedra,  marking  the  eastern  termination 
of  the  wall  of  Hadrian.] 

TINGIS  (rj  Tiyyif :  now  Tangier),  a  city  of 
Mauretania,  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  Fre- 
lum  Gaditanum  (now  Straits  of  Gibraltar),  was 
a  place  of  very  great  antiquity.  It  was  made 
by  Augustus  a  free  city,  and  by  Claudius  a  col- 
ony, and  the  capital  of  Mauretania  Tingitana. 

TINIA  (now  Timia),  a  small  river  in  Umbria, 
rising  near  Spoletium,  and  falling  into  the  Ti- 
ber after  receiving  the  Clitumnus. 

[TlPHJE.        Vid.  SlPH/E.] 

[TIPHYS  (Tt^i'f ),  son  of  Hagnius,  or,  accordit^ 
to  others,  of  Phorbas,  born  at  Tiphae  or  Siphae 
in  Bceotia.  or  at  Aphormium,  in  the  territory  of 
the  Thespians,  was  the  pilot  of  the  Argo,  but 
died  before  the  Argonauts  reached  Colchis.] 

TIRESIAS  (Teipr/aiaf),  a  Theban,  son  of  Eu- 
eres  and  Chariclo,  was  one  of  the  most  renown- 
ed soothsayers  in  all  antiquity.  He  was  blind 
from  his  seventh  year,  but  lived  to  a  very  old 
age.  It  was  believed  that  his  blindness  was 
occasioned  by  his  having  revealed  to  men  tilings 
which  they  ought  not  to  have  known,  or  by  his 
having  seen  Athena  while  she  was  bathing,  on 
which  occasion  the  goddess  deprived  him  of 
sight  by  sprinkling  water  upon  his  face.  Chari- 
clo prayed  to  Minerva  (Athena)  to  restore  his 
sight,  but  as  the  goddess  was  unable  to  do  this, 
she  conferred  upon  him  the  power  of  under- 
standing the  voices  of  birds,  and  gave  him  a 
staff,  with  the  help  of  which  he  could  walk  as 
safely  as  if  he  had  his  eyesight.  Another  tra- 
dition accounts  for  his  blindness  in  the  follow- 
ing manner.  Once,  when  on  Mount  Cithaeron 
(others  say  Cyllene),  he  saw  a  male  and  a  fe- 
male serpent  together  ;  he  struck  at  them  with 
his  staff,  and  as  he  happened  to  kill  the  female, 
he  himself  was  metamorphosed  into  a  woman. 
Seven  years  later  he  again  saw  two  serpents, 
and  now  killing  the  male,  he  again  became  a 
man.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Juno  (Hera),  when  disputing  whether  a  man 
or  a  woman  had  more  enjoyments,  referred  the 
matter  to  Tiresias,  who  declared  that  women 
enjoyed  more  pleasure  than  men.  Juno  (Hera), 
indignant  at  the  answer,  deprived  him  of  sight, 
but  Jupiter  (Zeus)  gave  him  the  power  of  proph- 
ecy, and  granted  him  a  life  which  was  to  last 
for  seven  or  nine  generations.  In  the  war  of 
the  Seven  against  Thebes,  he  declared  that 
Thebes  should  be  victorious  if  Meneeceus  would 
sacrifice  himself;  and  during  the  war  of  the 
Epigoni,  when  the  Thebans  had  been  defeated, 
he  advised  them  to  commence  negotiations  of 
peace,  and  to  avail  themselves  of  the  opportu- 
nity that  would  thus  be  afforded  them  to  take 
to  flight.  He  himself  fled  with  them  (or,  ac- 
cording to  others,  he  was  carried  to  Delphi  as 
a  captive),  but  on  his  way  he  drank  from  the 
well  of  Tilphossa  and  died.  His  daughter  Man- 
to  (or  Daphne)  was  sent  by  the  victorious  Ar- 
gives  to  Delphi  as  a  present  to  Apollo.  Even 
in  the  lower  world  Tiresias  was  believed  to  re- 
tain the  powers  of  perception,  while  the  souls 
of  other  mortals  were  mere  shades,  and  there 
also  he  continued  to  use  his  golden  staff.  His 
tomb  was  shown  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Tilphusian  well  near  Thebes,  and  in  Macedonia 
likewise.  The  place  near  Thebes  where  he  had 
observed  the  birds  was  pointed  out  as  a  remark 


TIRIBAZUS. 

able  spot  e/en  in  later  times.  The  blind  seer 
Tiresias  acts  so  prominent  a  part  in  the  myth- 
ical history  of  Greece  that  there  is  scarcely  any 
event  with  which  he  is  not  connected  in  some 
way  or  other  ;  and  this  introduction  of  the  seer 
in  so  many  occurrences  separated  by  long  in- 
tervals of  time,  was  facilitated  by  the  belief  in 
his  long  life. 

[TIRIBAZUS  (Tipi6afrs).     Vid.  TERIBAZUS.] 

1  IRIDATES  or  TERIDATES  (T^ptdar^f).  1.  The 
second  king  of  Parthia.  Vid.  ARSACES  II. — 2. 
King  of  Armenia,  and  brother  of  Vologeses  I. 
Arsaces,  No.  23),  king  of  Parthia.  He  was 
made  King  of  Armenia  by  his  brother,  but  was 
driven  out  of  the  kingdom  by  Corbulo,  the  Ro- 
man general,  and  finally  received  the  Arme- 
nian crown  from  Nero  at  Rome  in  A.D.  63. 

TIRO,  M.  TULLIUS,  the  freedman  of  Cicero,  to 
whom  he  was  an  object  of  tender  affection.  He 
appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  very  amiable  dis- 
position and  highly-cultivated  intellect.  He  was 
not  only  the  amanuensis  of  the  orator,  and  his 
assistant  in  literary  labor,  but  was  himself  an 
author  of  no  mean  reputation,  and  notices  of 
several  works  from  his  pen  have  been  preserved 
by  ancient  writers.  It  is  supposed  by  many 
that  Tiro  was  the  chief  agent  in  bringing  to- 
gether and  arranging  the  works  of  his  illustri- 
ous patron,  and  in  preserving  his  correspond- 
ence from  being  dispersed  and  lost.  After  the 
death  of  Cicero,  Tiro  purchased  a  farm  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Puteoli,  where  he  lived  until 
he  reached  his  hundredth  year.  It  is  usually 
believed  that  Tiro  was  the  inventor  of  the  art 
of  short-hand  writing  among  the  Romans;  and 
aence  abbreviations  of  this  description,  which 
are  common  in  MSS.  from  the  sixth  century 
downward,  have  very  generally  been  designa- 
ted by  the  learned  as  Not<e  Tironiana. 

TIRYNS  (Tipws,  -wOof.  Tipvv6io{),  an  ancient 
town  in  Argolis,  southeast  of  Argos,  and  one  of 
the  most  ancient  in  all  Greece,  is  said  to  liave 
been  founded  by  Prcetus.  the  brother  of  Acris- 
ius,  who  built  the  massive  walls  of  the  city  with 
the  help  of  the  Cyclopes.  Proetus  was  succeed- 
ed by  Perseus  ;  and  it  was  here  that  Hercules 
was  brought  up.  Hence  we  find  his  mother  Alc- 
mena  called  Tirynthia,  and  the  hero  himself  Ti- 
ryntfiiut.  Homer  represents  Tiryns  as  subject 
to  Argos ;  the  town  was  at  a  later  time  destroyed 
by  the  Argives,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants 
were  removed  to  Argos.  Tiryns  was  built  upon 
a  hill  of  small  extent,  rising  abruptly  from  the 
dead  level  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  re- 
mains of  the  city  are  some  of  the  most  interest- 
ing in  all  Greece,  and  are,  with  those  of  Myce- 
nae, the  most  ancient  specimens  of  what  is  called 
Cyclopian  architecture.  They  consist  of  masses 
of  enormous  stones,  rudely  piled  in  tiers  above 
one  another. 

TISAMENUS  (Tiaaftevof.)  I.  Son  of  Orestes 
and  Hermione,  was  king  of  Argos,  but  was  de- 
prived of  his  kingdom  when  the  Heraclidre  in- 
vaded Peloponnesus.  He  was  slain  in  a  battle 
against  the  Heraclidae,  and  his  tomb  was  after- 
ward shown  at  Helicc,  from  which  place  his  re- 
mains were  subsequently  removed  to  Sparta  by 
command  of  an  oracle. — 2.  Son  of  Thersander 
and  Demonassa,  was  king  of  Thebes,  and  the 
father  of  Autesion.— 3.  An  Elean  soothsayer, 
of  the  family  of  the  Clytiadte.  He  was  assured 


TISSAPHERNES. 

by  the  Delphic  oracle  that  he  should  be  success 
ful  in  five  great  conflicts.  Supposing  this  to  be 
a  promise  of  distinction  as  an  athlete,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  gymnastic  exercises  ;  but  the 
Spartans,  understanding  the  oracle  to  refer,  not 
to  gymnastic,  but  to  military  victories,  made 
great  offers  to  Tisamenus  to  induce  him  to  take 
with  their  kings  the  joint  command  of  their  ar- 
mies. This  he  refused  to  do  on  any  terms  short 
of  receiving  the  full  franchise  of  their  city,  which 
the  Spartans  eventually  granted.  He  was  pres- 
ent with  the  Spartans  at  the  battle  of  Plataeae, 
B.C.  379,  which  was  the  first  of  the  five  con- 
flicts referred  to  by*  the  oracle.  The  second 
was  with  the  Argives  and  Tegeans  at  Tegea ; 
the  third,  with  the  Arcadians  at  Dipaea ;  the 
fourth  was  the  third  Messenian  War  (465-455) ; 
and  the  last  was  the  battle  of  Tanagra,  with  the 
Athenians  and  their  allies,  in  457. 

TISIA  (Tisiates,  pi.),  a  town  in  Bruttium,  in 
the  Sila  Silva,  of  uncertain  site. 

[Tisus,  of  Syracuse,  one  of  the  earliest  writ- 
ers on  rhetoric,  a  pupil  of  Corax,  who  was  said  to 
have  invented  the  rhetorical  art.  Vid.  CORAX.] 

TISICRATES,  an  eminent  Greek  statuary  of  the 
school  of  Lysippus,  to  whose  works  those  of 
Tisicrates  so  nearly  approached  that  many  of 
them  were  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
works  of  the  master. 

TlSIPHONE.        Vid.  EUMENIDES. 

TISSA  (Tissiensis,  Tissinensis),  a  town  in  Si- 
cily north  of  Mount  ^Etna. 

TISSAPHERNES  (TiffaaQepvijf),  a  famous  Per- 
sian, who  was  appointed  satrap  of  Lower  Asia 
in  B.C.  414.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Spartans  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  but  he  did 
not  give  them  any  effectual  assistance,  since  his 
policy  was  not  to  allow  either  Spartans  or  Athe- 
nians to  gain  the  supremacy,  but  to  exhaust 
the  strength  of  both  parties  by  the  continuance 
of  the  war.  His  plans,  however,  were  thwarted 
by  the  arrival  of  Cyrus  in  Asia  Minor  in  407. 
This  prince  supplied  the  Lacedaemonians  with 
cordial  and  effectual  assistance.  Tissaphernes 
and  Cyrus  were  not  on  good  terms  ;  and  after 
the  death  of  Darius,  they  were  engaged  in  con- 
tinual disputes  about  the  cities  in  the  satrapy 
of  the  former,  over  which  Cyrus  claimed  domin- 
ion. The  ambitious  views  of  Cyrus  toward  the 
throne  at  length  became  manifest  to  Tissapher- 
nes, who  lost  no  time  in  repairing  to  the  king 
with  information  of  the  danger.  At  the  battle 
of  Cunaxa  in  401,  he  was  one  of  the  four  gen- 
erals  who  commanded  the  army  of  Artaxerxes, 
and  his  troops  were  the  only  portion  of  the  left 
wing  that  was  not  put  to  flight  by  the  Greeks 
When  the  ten  thousand  had  begun  their  retreat, 
Tissaphernes  professed  his  great  anxiety  to 
serve  them,  and  promised  to  conduct  them 
tome  in  safety.  In  the  course  of  the  inarch 
le  treacherously  arrested  Clearchus  and  foui 
of  the  other  generals,  who  were  put  to  death. 

er  this,  Tissaphcrnes  annoyed  and  harassed 
the  Greeks  in  their  march,  without,  however, 
•eriously  impeding  it,  till  they  reached  the  Car- 
duchian  Mountains,  at  which  point  he  gave  up 
the  pursuit.  Not  long  after,  Tissaphernes,  as  a 
reward  for  his  great  services,  was  invested  by 
the  king,  in  addition  to  his  own  satrapy,  with 
all  tLj  authority  which  Cyrus  had  enjoyed  in 
Western  Asia.  On  his  arrival  he  claimed  do* 

899 


TITANES. 

minion  over  the  Ionian  cities,  which  applied  to 
Sparta  for  aid.  Their  request  was  granted,  and 
the  Spartans  carried  on  war  against  Tissapher- 
nes  with  success  for  some  years  under  the  com- 
mand successively  of  Thimbron,  Dercyllidas, 
and  Agesilaus  (400-395).  The  continued  want 
of  success  on  the  part  of  Tissaphernes  led  to 
grievous  complaints  against  him  ;  and  the 
charges  were  transmitted  to  court,  where  they 
were  backed  by  all  the  influence  of  Parysatis, 
eager  for  revenge  on  the  enemy  of  Cyrus,  her 
favorite  son.  The  result  was,  that  Tithraustes 
was  commissioned  by  the  king  to  put  Tissapher- 
nes to  death  and  to  succeed  him  in  his  govern- 
ment, which  was  accordingly  done  (395). 

TITANES  (Tt-dvtf,  sing.  TITUV,  Ion.  TITTJVCC  : 
fern.  TtravaJef,  sing.  Ttravif).  1.  The  sons  and 
daughters  of  Ccelus  (Uranus)  and  Terra  (Ge), 
originally  dwelt  in  heaven,  whence  they  are 
called  Ovpaviuvef  or  Qiipavi&ai.  They  were 
twelve  in  number,  six  sons  and  six  daughters, 
namely,  Oceanus,  Coeus,  Crius,  Hyperion,  lap- 
etus,  Cronus,  Thia,  Rhea,  Themis,  Mnemosyne, 
Phoebe,  and  Tethys ;  but  their  names  are  dif- 
ferent in  other  accounts.  It  is  said  that  Uranus 
(Ceelus),  the  first  ruler  of  the  world,  threw  his 
sons,  the  Hecatoncheires  (hundred-handed) — 
Briareus,  Cottys,  Gyes,  and  the  Cyclopes  Ar- 
ges,  Steropes,  and  Brontes  —  into  Tartarus. 
Gaga  (Terra),  indignant  at  this,  persuaded  the 
Titans  to  rise  against  their  father,  and  gave  to 
Cronus  (Saturn)  an  adamantine  sickle.  They 
did  as  their  mother  bade  them,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Oceanus.  Cronus  (Saturn),  with  his 
sickle,  unmanned  his  father,  and  threw  the  part 
into  the  sea  :  from  the  drops  of  his  blood  there 
arose  the  Erinyes  Alecto,  Tisiphone,  and  Me- 
gaera.  The  Titans  then  deposed  Uranus  (Cee- 
lus), liberated  their  brothers  who  had  been 
cast  into  Tartarus,  and  raised  Cronus  (Saturn) 
to  the  throne.  But  Cronus  (Saturn)  hurled  the 
Cyclopes  back  into  Tartarus,  and  married  his 
sister  Rhea.  Having  been  foretold  by  Gaea 
(Terra)  and  Uranus  (Ceelus)  that  he  should  be 
dethroned  by  one  of  his  own  children,  he  swal- 
lowed successively  his  children  Hestia  (Vesta), 
Demeter  (Ceres),  Hera  (Juno),  Hades  (Pluto), 
and  Poseidon  (Neptune).  Rhea,  therefore,  when 
she  was  pregnant  with  Zeus  (Jupiter),  went  to 
Crete,  and  gave  birth  to  the  child  in  the  Dictaean 
Cave,  where  he  was  brought  up  by  the  Curetes. 
When  Zeus  (Jupiter)  had  grown  up,  he  availed 
nimself  of  the  assistance  of  Thetis,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Oceanus,  who  gave  to  Cronus  (Saturn) 
a  potion  which  caused  him  to  bring  up  the  stone 
and  the  children  he  had  swallowed.  United 
with  his  brothers  and  sisters,  Zeus  (Jupiter) 
now  began  the  contest  against  Cronus  (Saturn) 
and  the  ruling  Titans.  This  contest  (usually 
called  the  Titanomachia)  was  carried  on  in 
Thessaly,  Cronus  (Saturn)  and  the  Titans  oc- 
cupying Mount  Othrys,  and  the  sons  of  Cronus 
(Saturn)  Mount  Olympus.  It  lasted  ten  years, 
till  at  length  Gaea  (Terra)  promised  victory  to 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  if  he  would  deliver  the  Cyclopes 
and  Hecatoncheires  from  Tartarus.  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter) accordingly  slew  Cam pe,  who  guarded  the 
Cyclopes,  and  the  latter  furnished  him  with 
thunder  and  lightning.  The  Titans  then  were 
overcome,  and  hurled  down  into  a  cavity  below 
Tartarus,  and  the  Hecatoncheires  were  set  to 
000 


TITUS  FLAVIUS. 

guard  them.  It  must  be  observed  that  the  fight 
of  the  Titans  is  sometimes  confounded  by  an- 
cient writers  with  the  fight  of  the  Gigantes. — 
2.  The  name  Titans  is  also  given  to  those  di- 
vine or  semi-divine  beings  who  were  descended 
from  the  Titans,  such  as  Prometheus,  Hecate, 
Latona,  Pyrrha,  and  especially  Helios  (the  Sun) 
and  Selene  (the  Moon)  as  the  children  of  Hype- 
rion and  Thia,  and  even  the  descendants  of 
Helios,  such  as  Circe. 

TiTAREsIus  (TiTapricnof  :  now  Elassonitiko  or 
Xeragh.i),  a  river  of  Thessaly,  also  called  Euro- 
pus,  rising  in  Mount  Titarus,  flowing  through 
the  country  of  the  Perrhaebi,  and  falling  into  the 
Peneus  southeast  of  Phalanna.  Itswaterswere 
impregnated  with  an  oily  substance,  whence  it 
was  said  to  be  a  branch  of  the  infernal  Styx. 

TITHONUS  (TiOuvof),  son  of  Laomedon  and 
Strymo,  and  brother  of  Priam.  By  the  prayers 
of  Eos  (Aurora),  who  loved  him,  he  obtained 
from  the  gods  immortality,  but  not  eterr.dl  youth, 
in  consequence  of  which  he  completely  shrunk 
together  in  his  old  age,  whence  an  old  decrepit 
man  was  proverbially  called  Tithonus.  As  he 
could  not  die,  Eos  (Aurora)  changed  him  into  a 
cicada. 

TITHOREA.     Vid.  NEON. 

TITHRAUSTES  (TiOpavarTif),  a  Persian,  wno 
succeeded  Tissaphernes  in  his  satrapy,  and  put 
him  to  death  by  order  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon, 
B.C.  395.  Being  unable  to  make  peace  with 
Agesilaus,  he  sent  Timocrates,  the  Rhodian, 
into  Greece  with  fifty  talents,  to  distribute 
among  the  leading  men  in  the  several  states,  in 
order  to  induce  them  to  excise  a  war  against 
Sparta  at  home. 

TITIANUS,  JULIUS,  a  Roman  writer,  was  the 
father  of  the  rhetorician  Titianus,  who  taught 
the  younger  Maximinus.  The  elder  Titianus 
may  therefore  be  placed  in  the  reigns  of  Corn- 
modus,  Pertinax,  and  Severus.  He  was  called 
the 'ape  of  his  age,  because  he  had  imitated 
every  thing.  All  his  works  are  lost. 

TITINIUS,  a  Roman  dramatist,  whose  produc- 
tions belonged  to  the  department  of  the  Coma- 
din  Togata,  is  commended  by  Varro  on  account 
of  the  skill  with  which  he  developed  the  char- 
acters of  the  personages  whom  he  brought  upon 
the  stage.  It  appears  that  he  was  younger  than 
Caecilius,  but  older  than  Terence,  and  flourished 
about  B.C.  170.  The  names  of  upward  of 
fourteen  plays,  together  with  a  considerable 
number  of  short  fragments,  have  been  preserv- 
ed hy  the  grammarians. 

Tmus  SEPTIMIUS.      Vid.  SEPTIMIUS. 

[TITORMUS  (Tiropfiof),  a  herdsman  of  JStolia, 
renowned  for  his  great  strength,  which  so  far 
surpassed  that  of  the  celebrated  Milo  of  Cro- 
tona,  that  the  latter  is  said  to  have  exclaimed, 
on  witnessing  a  display  of  his  physical  powers, 
"  Oh,  Jupiter !  hast  thou  begotten  in  this  man 
another  Hercules  for  us !"] 

TITUS  FLAVIUS  SABJNUS  VESPASIANUS,  Roman 
emperor  A.D.  79-81,  commonly  called  by  his 
praenomen  TITUS,  was  the  son  of  the  Emperor 
Vespasianus  and  his  wife  FlaviaDomitilla.  He 
was  born  on  the  30th  of  December,  A.D.  40. 
When  a  young  man  he  served  as  tribunus  mil- 
itum  in  Britain  and  in  Germany  with  great 
credit.  After  having  been  quaestor,  he  had  the 
command  of  a  legion,  and  served  under  hi* 


TITUS  FLAVIUS. 

father  in  the  Jewish  wars.  Vespasian  returned 
to  Italy  after  he  had  been  proclaimed  emperor 
on  the  first  of  July,  A.D.  69  ;  but  Titus  remain- 
ed in  Palestine  to  prosecute  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem, during  which  he  showed  the  talents  of 
a  general  with  the  daring  of  a  soldier.  The 
siege  of  Jerusalem  was  concluded  by  the  cap- 
ture of  the  place  on  the  8th  of  September,  70. 
Titus  returned  to  Italy  in  the  following  year 
(71),  and  triumphed  at  Rome  with  his  father. 
He  also  received  the  title  of  Csesar,  and  became 
the  associate  of  Vespasian  in  the  government. 
His  conduct  at  this  time  gave  no  good  promise, 
and  the  people  looked  upon  him  as  likely  to  be 
another  Nero.  He  was  accused  of  being  ex- 
cessively addicted  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table, 
of  indulging  lustful  passions  in  a  scandalous 
way,  and  of  putting  suspected  persons  to  death 
with  very  little  ceremony.  His  attachment  to 
Berenice,  the  sister  of  Agrippa  II.,  also  made 
him  unpopular.  Titus  became  acquainted  with 
her  when  he  was  in  Judaea,  and  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  she  followed  him  to  Rome 
with  her  brother  Agrippa,  and  both  of  them 
lodged  in  the  emperor's  residence.  It  was  said 
that  Titus  had  promised  to  marry  Berenice, 
but  as  this  intended  union  gave  the  Romans 
great  dissatisfaction,  he  sent  her  away  from 
Rome  after  he  became  emperor.  Titus  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  79,  and  his  government 
proved  an  agreeable  surprise  to  those  who  had 
anticipated  a  return  of  the  times  of  Nero.  His 
brother  Domitian  was  accused  of  having  enter- 
tained designs  against  Titus  ;  but,  instead  of 
punishing  him,  Titus  endeavored  to  win  his 
affection,  and  urged  him  not  to  attempt  to  gain 
by  criminal  means  that  power  which  he  would 
one  day  have  in  a  legitimate  way.  During  his 
whole  reign  Titus  displayed  a  sincere  desire  for 
the  happiness  of  the  people,  and  he  did  all  that 
he  could  to  relieve  them  in  times  of  distress. 
He  assumed  the  office  of  pontifex  maximus  aft- 
er the  death  of  his  father,  and  with  the  purpose, 
as  he  declared,  of  keeping  his  hands  free  from 
blood  ;  a  resolution  which  he  kept.  Two  patri- 
cians, who  were  convicted  by  the  senate  of  a 
conspiracy  against  him,  were  pardoned,  and 
treated  with  kindness  and  confidence.  He 
checked  all  prosecutions  for  the  crime  of  l<zsa 
majesta*,  and  he  severely  punished  all  informers. 
The  first  year  of  his  reign  is  memorable  for  the 
great  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which  desolated  a 
large  part  of  the  adjacent  country,  and  buried 
with  lava  and  ashes  the  towns  of  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii.  Titus  endeavored  to  repair  the 
ravages  of  this  great  eruption  :  he  sent  two  con- 
sulars  with  money  to  restore  the  ruined  towns, 
and  he  applied  to  this  purpose  the  property  of 
those  who  had  been  destroyed,  and  had  left  no 
next  of  kin.  At  the  beginning  of  the  following 
year  (80)  there  was  a  great  fire  at  Rome,  which 
lasted  three  days  and  three  nights,  and  destroy- 
ed the  Capitol,  the  library  of  Augustus,  the  the- 
atre of  Pompeius,  and  other  public  buildings, 
besides  many  houses.  The  emperor  declared 
that  he  should  consider  all  the  loss  as  his  own, 
and  he  set  about  repairing  it  with  great  activity  ; 
he  took  even  the  decorations  of  the  imperial 
residences,  and  sold  them  to  raise  money.  The 
eruption  of  Vesuvius  was  followed  by  a  dread- 
ful pestilence,  which  called  for  fresh  exertions 


TMOLUS. 

on  the  part  of  the  benevolent  emperor.  In  this 
year  he  completed  the  great  amphitheatre  called 
the  Colosseum,  which  had  been  commenced  by 
his  father ;  and  also  the  baths  called  the  baths 
of  Titus.  The  dedication  of  these  two  edifices 
was  celebrated  by  spectacles  which  lasted  one 
hundred  days ;  by  a  naval  battle  in  the  old 
naumachia,  and  fights  of  gladiators  :  on  one  day 
alone  five  thousand  wild  animals  are  said  to 
have  been  exhibited,  a  number  which  we  may 
reasonably  suspect  to  be  exaggerated.  He  died 
on  the  thirteenth  of  September,  81,  after  a  reign 
of  two  years,  two  months,  and  twenty  days. 
He  was  in  the  forty-first  year  of  his  age.  There 
were  suspicions  that  he  was  poisoned  by  Domi- 
tian. There  is  a  story  that  Dornitian  came  be- 
fore Titus  was  dead,  and  ordered  him  to  be  de- 
serted by  those  about  him :  according  to  an- 
other story,  he  ordered  him  to  be  thrown  into  a 
vessel  full  of  snow,  under  the  pretext  of  cooling 
his  fever.  Titus  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Domitian.  His  daughter  Julia  Sabina  was  mar- 
ried to  Flavius  Sabinus,  his  cousin,  the  son  of 
Flavius  Sabinus,  the  brother  of  Vespasian. 
Titus  is  said  to  have  written  Greek  poems  and 
tragedies ;  he  was  very  familiar  with  Greek. 
He  also  wrote  many  letters  in  his  father's  name 
during  Vespasian's  life,  and  drew  up  edicta. 

TITYUS  (Ttrvdf),  son  of  Terra  (Gaea),  or  of 
Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Elara,  the  daughter  of  Or- 
chomenus,  was  a  giant  in  Euboea.  Instigated 
by  Juno  (Hera),  he  attempted  to  offer  violence 
to  Latona  (Leto)  or  Diana  (Artemis),  when  she 
passed  through  Panopaeus  to  Pytho,  but  he  was 
killed  by  the  arrows  of  Diana  (Artemis)  or  Apol- 
lo ;  according  to  others,  Jupiter  (Zeus)  destroy- 
ed him  with  a  flash  of  lightning.  He  was  then 
cast  into  Tartarus,  and  there  he  lay  outstretch- 
ed on  the  ground,  covering  nine  acres,  with  two 
vultures  or  snakes  devouring  his  liver.  His  de- 
struction by  the  arrows  of  Diana  (Artemis)  and 
Apollo  was  represented  on  the  throne  of  Apollo 
at  Amyclae. 

Tius  or  TIUM  (Tt'of,  Tiov,  also  Trjlov :  now 
Tios  or  Tilios),  a  sea-port  town  of  Bithynia,  on 
the  River  Billanis  ;  a  colony  from  Miletus,  and 
the  native  place  of  Philetaerus,  the  founder  of 
the  Pergamene  kingdom. 

TLEPOLEMUS  (T^no^efioc ),  son  of  Hercules  by 
Astyoche,  daughter  of  Phylas,  or  by  Astydamia, 
daughter  of  Amyntor.  He  was  King  of  Argos, 
but  after  slaying  his  uncle  Licymnius  he  was 
obliged  to  take  to  flight ;  and,  in  conformity  with 
the  command  of  an  oracle,  he  settled  in  Rhodes, 
where  he  built  the  towns  of  Lindos,  lalysus,  and 
Camirus.  He  joined  the  Greeks  in  the  Trojan 
war  with  nine  ships,  but  was  slain  by  Sarpcdon. 

TLOS  (TAwr,  gen.  TAu  :  TAwn5f,  T/Uu'r^c  :  ru- 
ins near  Dourer),  a  considerable  city  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Lycia,  about  two  and  a  half  miles  east 
of  the  River  Xanthus,  on  the  road  leading  over 
Mount  Massicytus  to  Cibyra. 

TMAROS.     Vid.  TOMARUS. 

TMOLUS  (T/uuAof),  god  of  Mount  Tmolus  In 
Lydia,  is  described  as  the  husband  of  Pluto  (or 
Omphale)  ami  father  of  Tantalus,  and  is  said  to 
have  decided  the  musical  contest  between  Apol 
lo  and  Pan. 

TMOI.US  or  TIMOLUB  (T//<iAof :  now  Kisilja 
Musa.  Dagk),  a  celebrated  mountain  of  Asia 
Minor,  running  east  and  west  through  the  ceo 

901 


TOGATA,  GALLIA. 

tre  of  L)dia,  and  dividing  the  plain  of  the  Her- 
mus,  on  the  north,  from  that  of  the  Cayster,  on 
the  south.  At  its  eastern  end  it  joins  Mount 
Messogis,  thus  entirely  inclosing  the  valley  of 
the  Cayster.  On  the  west,  after  throwing  out 
the  northwestern  branch  called  Sipylus,  it  runs 
far  out  into  the  ^Egean,  forming,  under  the  name 
of  Mimas,  the  great  Ionian  peninsula,  beyond 
which  it  is  still  further  prolonged  in  the  island 
of  Chios.  On  its  northern  side  are  the  sources 
of  the  Pactolus  and  the  Cogamus  ;  on  its  south- 
ern side  those  of  the  Cayster.  It  produced 
wine,  saffron,  zinc,  and  gold. 

TOGATA,  GALLIA.     Vid.  GALLIA. 

TOLBIACUM  (now  Zitlpich),  a  town  of  Gallia 
Belgica,  on  the  road  from  Colonia  Agrippina  to 
Treviri. 

TOLENT!NUM  (Tolinas,  -atis  :  now  Tolentino), 
a  town  of  Picenum,  on  a  height  on  the  River 
Flusor  (now  Chienle). 

TOLENUS  or  TELONIUS  (now  Turanu),  a  river 
in  the  land  of  the  Sabines,  rising  in  the  country 
of  the  Marsi  and  ^Equi,  and  falling  into  the 
Velinus. 

TOLETUM  (now  Toledo),  the  capital  of  the  Car- 
petani  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  situated  on 
the  River  Tagus,  which  nearly  encompasses  the 
town,  and  upon  seven  hills.  According  to  tra- 
dition, it  was  founded  by  Jews,  who  fled  thither 
when  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  who  called  it  Tolcdoth,  or  the  "  city  of  gen- 
erations." It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  under 
the  proconsul  M.  Fulvius,  B.C.  192,  when  it  is 
described  as  a  small  but  fortified  town.  It  was 
celebrated  in  ancient,  as  well  as  in  modern 
times,  for  the  manufactory  of  swords ;  but  it 
owed  its  greatness  to  the  Gothic  kings,  who 
made  it  the  capital  of  their  dominions.  It  still 
contains  many  Roman  remains. 

TOLISTOBOGI,  TOLISTOBOJI  (To^iarodo-yioi,  To- 
3.taTo66'ioi,  ToAt<rro&jy(oi).  Vid.  GALATIA. 

[Tor,MiDEs  (To/^u%).  1.  An  Athenian  gen- 
eral, who  ravaged  the  coast  of  the  Peloponne- 
sus in  B.C.  455,  burned  the  Spartan  arsenal  at 
Gythium,  took  Naupactus,  and  settled  there  the 
Messenians  who  left  their  country  on  its  con- 
quest by  the  Spartans.  He  afterward  under- 
took an  expedition  to  quell  a  disturbance  in 
Chaeronea  and  Orchomenus,  but  was  defeated 
and  slain. — 2.  An  Elean,  a  herald  in  the  Greek 
army  of  Cyrus,  considered  the  best  herald  of 
his  day.] 

TOLOPHON  (To'Xo^uv  -.  Tohotiioviof),  also  called 
COLOPHON  (KoZoQuv),  a  town  of  Locris,  on  the 
Corinthian  Gulf. 

TOLOSA  (now  Tolouse),  a  town  of  Gallia  Nar- 
bonensis,  and  the  capital  of  the  Tectosages,  was 
situated  on  the  Garumna,  near  the  frontiers  of 
Aquitania.  It  was  subsequently  made  a  Roman 
colony,  and  was  surnamed  Palladia.  It  was  a 
large  and  wealthy  town,  and  contained  a  cele- 
brated temple,  in  which  great  riches  were  de- 
posited. In  this  temple  there  is  said  to  have 
been  preserved  a  great  part  of  the  booty  taken 
by  Brennus  from  the  temple  at  Delphi.  The 
town  and  temple  were  plundered  by  the  consul 
Q.  Servilius  Caepio  in  B.C.  106;  but  the  sub- 
sequent destruction  of  his  army  and  his  own 
unhappy  fate  were  regarded  as  a  divine  punish- 
ment for  his  sacrilegious  act.  Hence  arose  the 
proverb  Anrum  Tolosanum  habet.  There  are 
902 


TORQUATUS. 

the  ruins  of  a  small  amphitheatre  and  some 
other  Roman  remains  at  the  modern  town. 

[TOLUMNIUS,  an  augur  among  the  Rutulians, 
who  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery,  was 
the  means  of  preventing  the  completion  of  a 
friendly  compact  between  Turnus  and  ^Eneas, 
and  was  slain  in  the  subsequent  conflict.] 

TOLUMNIUS,  LAR,  king  of  the  Veientes,  to 
whom  Fidenae  revolted  in  B.C.  438,  and  at 
whose  instigation  the  inhabitants  of  Fidena; 
slew  the  four  Roman  ambassadors  who  had 
been  sent  to  Fidenae  to  inquire  into  the  reasons 
of  their  recent  conduct.  Statues  of  these  am- 
bassadors were  placed  on  the  Rostra  at  Rome, 
where  they  continued  till  a  late  time.  In  the 
war  which  followed,  Tolumnius  was  slain  in 
single  combat  by  Cornelius  Cossus,  who  dedi 
cated  his  spoils  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Fere 
trius,  the  second  of  the  three  instances  in  which 
the  spolia  opima  were  won. 

TOMARUS  or  TMARUS  (To/iapof,  T/uipof  :  now 
Tomaro),  a  mountain  in  Epirus,  in  the  district 
Molbssia,  between  the  Lake  Pambotis  and  the 
River  Arachthus,  near  Dodona. 

TOMEUS  (To/iEi'f  :  now  Kondozoni),  a  mount- 
ain in  Messema,  east  of  the  promontory  Cory- 
phasium. 

TOM!  or  TOMIS  (Tofioi,  Td/^f  :  Tofifvc,  Tomi- 
ta  :  now  Tomiswar  or  Jegni  Pangola),  a  town 
of  Thrace  (subsequently  Mcesia),  situated  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Euxine,  and  at  a  later 
time  the  capital  of  Scythia  Minor.  According 
to  tradjfion,  it  was  called  Tomi  (from  rifivu, 
"  cut")  because  Medea  here  cut  to  pieces  the 
body  of  her  brother  Absyrtus.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  a  colony  of  the  Milesians.  It  is  renowned 
as  the  place  of  Ovid's  banishment. 

TOMYRIS  (To/n'pjf  ),  a  queen  of  the  Massagetae 
who  dwelt  south  of  the  Araxes  (Jaxartes),  by 
whom  Cyrus  was  slain  in  battle  B.C.  529. 

[TONGILIUS.  1.  A  dissolute  young  Roman. 
mentioned  contemptuously  by  Cicero  among 
the  favorites  of  Catiline.  —  2.  A  lawyer  under 
Adrian,  noted  for  his  avarice,  ridiculed  by  Juve 
nal.] 

[TOPAZOS,  an  island  on  the  western  side  of 
the  Sinus  Arabicus.  Vid.  OPHIODES.] 

TORNADOTUS.     Vid.  PHYSCUS,  No.  3. 

or  TOROMICUS  SINUS  (Tnpuvalof, 


now  Gulf  of  Cassandhra  or  Hagios-  Mamas). 
Vid.  TORONE,  No.  1.] 

TORONE  (Topuvy  :  Topuvatof).  1.  A  town  of 
Macedonia,  in  the  district  Chalcidice,  and  on 
the  southwestern  side  of  the  peninsula  Sitho- 
nia,  from  which  the  gulf  between  the  peninsu- 
las Sithonia  and  Pallene  was  called  Sinus  Toro- 
naicus.  —  [2.  Vid.  TORYNE.] 

TORQUATUS,  the  name  of  a  patrician  family  of 
the  Manlia  gens.  1.  T.  MANLIUS  IMPERIOSUS 
TORQUATUS,  the  son  of  L.  Manlius  Capitolinus 
Imperiosus,  dictator  B.C.  363,  was  a  favorite 
hero  of  Roman  storyr  Manlius  is  said  to  have 
been  dull  of  mind  in  his  youth,  and  was  brought 
up  by  his  father  in  the  closest  retirement  in  the 
country.  When  the  tribune  M.  Pomponius  ac- 
cused the  elder  Manlius  in  B.C.  362,  on  ac- 
count of  the  cruelties  he  had  practiced  in  his 
dictatorship,  he  endeavored  to  excite  an  odium 
against  him  by  representing  him  at  the  same 
time  as  a  cruel  and  tyrannical  father.  As  soon 


TORQUATUS. 

as  the  younger  Manlius  heard  of  this,  he  hur- 
ried to  Rome,  obtained  admission  to  Pomponius 
early  in  the  morning,  and  compelled  the  trib- 
une, by  threatening  him  with  instant  death  if 
he  did  not  take  the  oath,  to  swear  that  he  would 
drop  the  accusation  against  his  father.  In  361 
Manlius  served  under  the  dictator  T.  Quintius 
Pennus  in  the  war  against  the  Gauls,  and  in 
this  campaign  earned  immortal  glory  by  slaying 
in  single  combat  a  gigantic  Gaul.  From  the 
dead  body  of  the  barbarian  he  took  the  chain 
(torques)  which  had  adorned  him,  and  placed  it 
around  his  own  neck ;  and  from  this  circum- 
stance he  obtained  the  surname  of  Torquatus. 
He  was  dictator  in  353,  and  again  in  349.  He 
was  also  three  times  consul,  namely,  in  347, 
344,  and  in  340.  In  the  last  of  these  years 
ToFquatus  and  his  colleague  P.  Decius  Mus 
gained  the  great  victory  over  the  Latins  at  the 
foot  of  Vesuvius,  which  established  forever  the 
supremacy  of  Rome  over  Latium.  Vid.  DECIUS. 
Shortly  before  the  battle,  when  the  two  armies 
were  encamped  opposite  to  one  another,  the 
consuls  published  a  proclamation  that  no  Ro- 
man should  engage  in  single  combat  with  a 
Latin  on  pain  of  death.  Notwithstanding  this 
proclamation,  the  young  Manlius,  the  son  of  the 
consul,  provoked  by  the  insults  of  a  Tusculan 
noble  of  the  name  of  Mettius  Geminus,  accept- 
ed his  challenge,  slew  his  adversary,  and  bore 
the  bloody  spoils  in  triumph  to  his  father.  Death 
was  his  reward.  The  consul  would  not  over- 
look this  breach  of  discipline,  and  the  unhappy 
youth  was  executed  by  the  lictor  in  presence  of 
the  assembled  army.  This  severe  sentence 
rendered  Torquatus  an  object  of  detestation 
among  the  Roman  youths  as  long  as  he  lived  ; 
and  the  recollection  of  his  severity  was  pre- 
served in  after  ages  by  the  expression  Manliana 
imperia. — 2.  T.  MANLIUS  TORQUATUS,  consul  B.C. 
235,  when  he  conquered  the  Sardinians ;  cen- 
sor 231,  and  consul  a  second  time  in  224.  He 
possessed  the  hereditary  sternness  and  severity 
of  his  family,  and  we  find  him  opposing  in  the 
senate  the  ransom  of  those  Romans  who  had 
been  taken  prisoners  at  the  fatal  battle  of  Can- 
nae.  In  217  he  was  sunt  into  Sardinia,  where 
he  carried  on  the  war  with  success  against  the 
Carthaginians  and  the  Sardinians.  He  was  dic- 
tator in  210. — 3.  T.  MANUUS  TORQUATUS,  con- 
sul 165  with  Cn.  Octavius.  He  inherited  the 
severity  of  his  ancestors,  of  which  an  instance 
is  related  in  the  condemnation  of  his  son,  who 
had  been  adopted  by  D.  Junius  Silanus.  Vid. 
SILANUS,  No.  1. — 4.  L.  MANLIUS  TORQUATUS,  con- 
sul B.C.  G5  with  L.  Aurelius  Cotta.  Torquatus 
and  Cotta  obtained  the  consulship  in  conse- 
quence of  the  condemnation,  on  account  of  brib- 
ery, of  P.  Cornelius  Sulla  and  P.  Autronius  Pae- 
tus,  who  had  been  already  elected  consuls.  Aft- 
er his  consulship  Torquatus  obtained  the  prov- 
ince of  Macedonia.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
suppressing  the  Catilinarian  conspiracy  in  63 ; 
and  he  also  supported  Cicero  when  he  was  ban- 
ished in  58. — 6.  L.  MANLIUS  TORQUATUS,  son  of 
No.  4,  accused  of  bribery,  in  66,  the  consuls 
elect,  P.  Cornelius  Sulla  and  P.  Autronius  Pae- 
tus,  and  thus  secured  the  consulship  for  his  fa- 
ther. He  was  closely  connected  with  Cicero 
during  the  praetorship  (65)  and  consulship  (63) 
of  the  latter.  In  62  he  brought  a  second  accu- 


TRACHONITIS 

sation  against  P.  Sulla,  whom  he  now  charged 
with  having  been  a  party  to  both  of  Catil'ne's 
conspiracies.  Sulla  was  uelended  by  Hotten- 
sius  and  by  Cicero  in  a  speech  which  is  still 
extant.  Torquatus,  like  his  father,  belonged  to 
the  aristocratical  party,  and  accordingly  opposed 
Caesar  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in 
49.  He  was  praetor  in  that  year,  and  was  sta- 
tioned at  Alba  with  six  cohorts.  He  subse- 
quently joined  Pompey  in  Greece,  and  in  the 
following  year  (48)  he  had  the  command  of  Ori- 
cum  intrusted  to  him,  but  was  obliged  to  sur- 
render both  himself  and  the  town  to  Caesar, 
who,  however,  dismissed  Torquatus  uninjured. 
After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  Torquatus  went  to 
Africa,  and  upon  the  defeat  of  his  party  in  that 
country  in  46  he  attempted  to  escape  to  Spain 
along  with  Scipio  and  others,  but  was  taken 
prisoner  by  P.  Sittius  at  Hippo  Regius,  and 
slain  together  with  his  companions.  Torquatus 
was  well  acquainted  with  Greek  literature,  and 
is  praised  by  Cicero  as  a  man  well  trained  in 
every  kind  of  learning.  He  belonged  to  the 
Epicurean  school  of  philosophy,  and  is  intro- 
duced by  Cicero  as  the  advocate  of  that  school 
in  his  dialogue  De  Finibus,  the  first  book  of 
which  is  called  Torquatus  in  Cicero's  letters  to 
Atticus. — 6.  A.  MANLIUS  TORQUATUS,  praetor  in 
52,  when  he  presided  at  the  trial  of  Milo  for 
bribery.  -On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
he  espoused  the  side  of  Pompey,  and  after  the 
defeat  of  the  latter  retired  to  Athens,  where  he 
was  living  in  exile  in  45.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Cicero,  who  addressed  four  letters  to 
him  while  he  was  in  exile. 

TORQUATUS  SILANUS.     Vid.  SILANUS. 

[TORYNE  (Topvvi))  or  TORONE  (Topuvq,  near 
Perga),  a  haven  in  Thesprotia,  where  the  fleet 
of  Augustus  was  moored  for  a  short  time  pre- 
vious to  the  battle  of  Actium.] 

TOXANDRI,  a  people  in  GalliaBelgica,  between 
the  Menapii  and  Morini,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Scald  is. 

TRABEA,  Q.,  a  Roman  comic  dramatist,  who 
occupies  the  eighth  place  in  the  canon  of  Vol- 
catius  Sedigitus.  Vid.  SEDIGITUS.  The  peri- 
od when  he  flourished  is  uncertain,  but  he  has 
been  placed  about  B.C.  130.  No  portion  of  his 
works  has  been  preserved  with  the  exception  of 
half  a  dozen  lines  quoted  by  Cicero,  [edited  in 
Bothe's  Poete  Scenici  Latin.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  29-30.] 

TRACHALUS,  GALERIUS,  consul  A.D.  68  with 
Silius  Italicus,  is  frequently  mentioned  by  his 
contemporary  Quintilian  as  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  orators  of  his  age. 

TRACHIS  or  TRACIIIN  (Tpa^if,  Ion.  Tp^/f, 
Tpaxiv-  Tpaxiviof).  1.  Also  called  HERACLEA 
TRACHINIJE,  or  HBRACLEA  PHTHIOTIDIS,  or  sim 
ply  HERACLEA  ('Hpu/ctata  tj  kv  Tpn^ivaif,  or  'H 
tj  fv  T/>afm),  a  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  dis 
trict  Malis,  celebrated  as  the  residence  of  Her 
cules  for  a  time.— 2.  A  town  of  Phocis,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Boeotia,  and  on  the  slope  of  Mount 
Helicon,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lebadea. 

TRACHONITIS  or  TRACHON  (Tpo^uvinf,  Tpd- 
jwv),  the  northern  district  of  Palestine  beyond 
the  Jordan,  lay  between  Antilibanus  and  the 
mountains  of  Arabia,  and  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  territory  of  Damascus,  on  the  east 
by  Auranitis,  on  the  south  by  Ituraea,  and  on 
the  west  by  Gaulanitis.  It  was  for  the  most 

903 


TRADUCTA,  JULIA. 

part  a  sandy  desert,  intersected  by  two  ranges 
of  rocky  mountains,  called  Trachones  (Tpa^u- 
i/£f),  the  caves  in  which  gave  lefuge  to  numer- 
ous bands  of  robbers.  For  its  political  rela- 
tions under  the  Asmoneean  and  Idumaean  prin- 
ces, vid.  PAL^STINA.  Under  the  Romans  it 
belonged  sometimes  to  the  province  of  Judsea 
and  sometimes  to  that  of  Arabia.  It  forms  part 
of  the  Hauran. 

[TRADUCTA,  JULIA  (now  Tarifd),  a  town  in 
Hispania  Baetica,  owed  its  origin  to  the  Ro- 
mans, who  transported  (whence  the  name  Tra- 
ducta)  hither 'the  inhabitants  of  Zelas,  a  town  in 
Africa,  near  Tingis,  adding  some  colonists  of 
their  own  to  the  number.] 

TRAGIA,  TRACING,  or  TRAGIAS  (Tpayia,  Tpa- 
yiai,  Tpoyt'af),  a  small  island  (or  more  than 
one)  in  the  JSgean  Sea,  near  Samos,  probably 
between  it  and  Pharmacussa,  where  Pericles 
gained  a  naval  victory  over  the  Samians,  B.C. 
439. 

TRAGURIUM  (now  Trau  or  Troghie),  a  town 
of  Dalmatia,  in  Illyricum,  celebrated  for  its  mar- 
ble, and  situated  on  an  island  connected  with 
ttie  main  land  by  means  of  a  mole. 

TRAJANOPOLIS.  1.  (Now  Orickovo),  a  town  in 
the  interior  of  Thrace,  on  the  Hebrus,  founded 
by  Trajan. — 2.  A  town  of  Cilicia.  Vid.  SELI- 
NUS. — 3.  A  town  in  Mysia,  on  the  borders  of 
Phrygia. 

TRAJANUS,  M.  ULPIUS,  Roman  emperor  A.D. 
98-117,  was  born  at  Italica,  near  Seville,  the 
18th  of  September,  52.  He  was  trained  to 
arms,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the  East 
and  in  Germany.  He  was  consul  in  91,  and  at 
the  close  of  97  he  was  adopted  by  the  Emperor 
Nerva,  who  gave  him  the  rank  of  Caesar  and 
the  names  of  Nerva  and  Germanicus,  and, 
shortly  after,  the  title  of  imperator  and  the  trib- 
unitia  potestas.  His  style  and  title  after  his 
elevation  to  the  imperial  dignity  were  Imperator 
Casar  Nerva  Trajanus  Augustus.  He  was  the 
first  emperor  who  was  born  out  of  Italy.  Nerva 
died  in  January,  98,  and  was  succeeded  by  Tra- 
jan, who  was  then  at  Cologne.  His  accession 
was  hailed  with  joy,  and  he  did  not  disappoint 
the  expectations  of  the  people.  He  was  a  man 
adapted  to  command.  He  was  strong  and  heal- 
thy, of  a  majestic  appearance,  laborious,  and 
inured  to  fatigue.  Though  not  a  man  of  letters, 
he  had  good  sense,  a  knowledge  of  the  world, 
and  a  sound  judgment.  His  mode  of  living  was 
very  simple,  and  in  his  campaigns  he  shared 
all  the  sufferings  and  privations  of  the  soldiers, 
by  whom  he  was  both  loved  and  feared.  He 
was  a  friend  to  justice,  and  he  had  a  sincere  de- 
sire for  the  happiness  of  the  people.  Trajan 
did  not  return  to  Rome  for  some  months,  being 
employed  in  settling  the  frontiers  on  the  Rhine 
and  the  Danube.  He  entered  Rome  on  foot,  ac- 
companied by  his  wife  Pompeia  Plotina.  This 
lady  is  highly  commended  by  Pliny  the  younger 
for  her  modest  virtues,  and  her  affection  to  Mar- 
ciana,  the  sister  of  Trajan.  In  A.D.  101  Trajan 
left  Rome  for  his  campaign  against  the  Daci. 
Decebalus,  king  of  the  Daci,  had  compelled  Do- 
mitian  to  purchase  peace  by  an  annual  payment 
of  money ;  and  Trajan  determined  on  hostili- 
ties; This  war  employed  Trajan  between  two 
and  three  years  ;  but  it  ended  with  the  defeat 
of  Decebalus,  who  sued  for  peace  at  the  feet 
904 


TRAJECTUM. 

of  the  Roman  emperor.  Trajan  assumed  tho 
name  of  Dacicus,  and  entered  Rome  in  triumph 
[103).  In  the  following  year  (104)  Trajan  com- 
menced his  second  Dacian  war  against  Dece- 
balus, who,  it  is  said,  had  broken  the  treaty. 
Decebalus  was  completely  defeated,  and  put  an 
end  to  his  life  (106).  In  the  course  of  this  war 
Trajan  built  (105)  a  permanent  bridge  across  the 
Danube  at  a  place  now  called  Szernecz.  The 
piers  were  of  stone  and  of  an  enormous  size, 
but  the  arches  were  of  wood.  After  the  death 
of  Decebalus  Dacia  was  reduced  to  the  form 
of  a  Roman  province  ;  strong  forts  were  built 
in  various  places,  and  Roman  colonies  were 
planted.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  col 
umn  at  Rome,  called  the  Column  of  Trajan,  was 
erected  to  commemorate  his  Dacian  victories 
On  his  return  Trajan  had  a  triumph,  and  he  ex 
hibited  games  to  the  people  for  one  hundred  anfl 
twenty-three  days.  Eleven  thousand  animals 
were  slaughtered  during  these  amusements  ; 
and  an  army  of  gladiators,  ten  thousand  men, 
gratified  the  Romans  by  killing  one  another. 
About  this  time  Arabia  Petraea  was  subjected 
to  the  empire  by  A.  Cornelius  Palma,  the  gov- 
ernor of  Syria ;  and  an  Indian  embassy  came 
to  Rome.  Trajan  constructed  a  road  across  the 
Pomptine  marshes,  and  built  magnificent  bridges 
across  the  streams.  Buildings,  probably  man- 
siones,  were  constructed  by  the  side  of  this 
road.  In  114  Trajan  left  Rome  to  make  war 
on  the  Armenians  and  the  Parthians.  He  spent 
the  winter  of  114  at  Antioch,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  invaded  the  Parthian  dominions 
The  most  striking  and  brilliant  success  attend 
ed  his  arms.  In  the  course  of  two  campaigns 
(115-116)  he  conquered  the  greater  part  of  the 
Parthian  empire,  and  took  the  Parthian  capital, 
Ctesiphon.  In  116  he  descended  the  Tigris 
and  entered  the  Erythraean  Sea  (the  Persian 
Gulf).  While  he  was  thus  engaged  the  Par- 
thians rose  against  the  Romans,  but  were  again 
subdued  by  the  generals  of  Trajan.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Ctesiphon,  Trajan  determined  to  give 
the  Parthians  a  king,  and  placed  the  diadem  on 
the  head  of  Parthamaspates.  In  117  Trajan 
fell  ill,  and,  as  his  complaint  ^rew  worse,  he  set 
out  for  Italy.  He  lived  to  reach  Selinus  in  Ci- 
licia, afterward  called  Tr-ijanopolis,  where  he 
died  in  August,  117,  after  a  reign  of  nineteen 
years,  six  months,  and  fifteen  days.  His  ashes 
were  taken  to  Rome  in  a  golden  urn,  carried  in 
triumphal  procession,  and  deposited  under  the 
column  which  bears  his  name.  He  left  no  chil- 
dren, and  he  was  succeeded  by  Hadrian.  Tra- 
jan constructed  several  great  roads  in  the  em- 
pire ;  he  built  libraries  at  Rome,  one  of  which, 
called  the  Ulpia  Bibliotkeca,  is  often  mentioned  ; 
and  a  theatre  in  the  Campus  Martius.  Hia 
great  work  was  the  Forum  Trajanum,  in  the 
centre  of  which  was  placed  the  column  of  Tra- 
jan. Under  the  reign  of  Trajan  lived  Sextus 
Julius  Frontinus,  C.  Cornelius  Tacitus,  the 
younger  Pliny,  and  various  others  of  less  note. 
Plutarch,  Suetonius,  and  Epictetus  survived 
Trajan.  The  jurists  Juventius  Celsus  and  Ne 
ratius  Priscus  were  living  under  Trajan. 

TRAJANUS  PORTUS.     Vid.  CENTUM  CELL^E. 

TRAJECTUM  (now  Utrecht),  a  town  of  the  B? 
tavi,  on  the  Rhine,  called  at  a  later  time  Trajet 
•us  Rheni,  or  Ad  Rhenum. 


TRALLES. 

TRALLES  orTRALLis  (at  TpaA/le 
TpaMuavue,  Trallianus  :  ruins  at  Ghiusel  Hisar, 
near  Aidin),  a  flourishing  commercial  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  reckoned  sometimes  to  Ionia  and 
sometimes  to  Caria,  It  stood  on  a  quadrangular 
height  at  the  southern  foot  of  Mount  Messogis 
(with  a  citadel  on  a  higher  point),  on  the  banks 
of  the  little  river  Eudon,  a  northern  tributary  of 
the  Maeander,  from  which  the  city  was  distant 
eighty  stadia  (eight  geographical  miles).  The 
surrounding  country  was  extremely  fertile  and 
beautiful,  and  hence  the  city  was  at  first  called 
Anthea  ("Avfcta).  Under  the  Seleucidae  it  bore 
the  names  of  Seleucia  and  Antiochia.  It  was 
inhabited  by  a  mixed  population  of  Greeks  and 
Carians.  There  was  a  less  important  city  of 
the  same  name  in  rhrygia,  if,  indeed,  it  be  not 
the  same. 

[TRANIPS^E  (Tpavfycu),  a  people  of  Thrace, 
mentioned  along  with  the  Melanditae  (oid.  ME- 
LANDEPT^E)  and  Thyni,  by  Seuthes,  in  the  Anab- 
asis of  Xenophon,  as  forming  part  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  his  father  Maesades.] 

TRANQUILLUS,  SUETONIUS.    Vid.  SUETONIUS. 

TRANSCELLENSIS  MONS,  a  mountain  of  Maure- 
tania  Ceesariensis,  between  Caesarea  and  the 
River  Chinalaph. 

[TRANS  TIBERIM  or  TRANSTIBERINA,  a  region 
of  Home.  Vid.  ROMA,  p.  746,  a,  No.  14.] 

TRAPEZOPOLIS  (Tpans&viro'hif)  a  town  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Cadmus, 
on  the  confines  of  Caria  and  Phrygia.  Its  site 
is  uncertain. 

TRAPEZUS  (Tpairffrvs  :  Tpanf£ovvTco<;  and 
•  otwof).  1.  (Near  Mavria),  a  city  of  Arcadia, 
on  the  Alpheus,  the  name  of  which  was  myth- 
ically derived  from  the  Tpunefc,  or  altar,  on 
which  Lycaon  was  said  to  have  offered  human 
sacrifices  to  Jo*e.  At  the  time  of  the  building 
of  Megalopolis,  the  inhabitants  of  Trapezus, 
rather  than  be  transferred  to  the  new  city,  mi- 
grated to  the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  and  their 
city  fell  to  ruin. — 2.  (Now  Tarabosan,  Trabezun, 
or  Trebizond),  a  colony  of  Sinope,  at  almost  the 
extreme  east  of  the  northern  shore  of  Asia 
Minor.  After  Sinope  lost  her  independence, 
Trapezus  belonged  first  to  Armenia  Minor,  and 
afterward  to  the  kingdom  of  Pontus.  Under 
the  Romans  it  was  made  a  free  city,  probably 
by  Pompey,  and,  by  Trajan,  the  capital  of  Pon- 
tus Cappadocius.  Hadrian  constructed  a  new 
harbor ;  and  the  city  became  .a  place  of  first-rate 
commercial  importance.  It  was  also  strongly 
fortified.  It  was  taken  by  the  Goths  in  the 
-eign  of  Valerian ;  but  it  had  recovered,  and 
was  in  a  flourishing  state  at  the  time  of  Justin- 
ian, who  repaired  its  fortifications.  In  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  it  was  for  some  time  the  seat  of  a  frag- 
ment of  the  Greek  empire,  called  the  empire  of 
Trebizond.  It  is  now  the  second  commercial 
port  of  the  Black  Sea,  ranking  next  after 
Odessa. 

TRASIMENUS  LACDS  (now  Logo  di  Perugia), 
sometimes,  but  not  correctly,  written  THRASY- 
MENUS,  a  lake  in  Etruria,  between  Clusium  and 
Perusia,  memorable  for  the  victory  gained  by 
Hannibal  over  the  Romans  under  Flaminius, 
B.C.  217. 

TREBA  (Trebanus  :  now  Trett),  a  town  in 
Latium,  near  the  sources  of  the  Anio,  north- 
east of  Anagnia. 


TREBULA. 

TREBATIUS  TESTA.     Vid.  TESTA. 

[TREBELLIANUS,  C.  ANNIUS,  a  Cilician  pirate, 
proclaimed  himself  Roman  emperor  (one  of  the 
so-called  thirty  tyrants)  A.D.  264,  but  was  de- 
feated and  slain  in  Isauria  by  one  of  the  gen- 
erals of  Gallienus.] 

TREBELLIUS  POLLIO,  one  of  the  six  Scriplores 
Historic  Augusta, flourished  under  Constantine, 
and  was  anterior  to  Vopiscus.  His  name  is 
prefixed  to  the  biographies  of,  1.  The  two  Va- 
leriani,  father  and  son ;  2.  The  Gallieni ;  3.  The 
Thirty  Tyrants  ;  4.  Claudius,  the  last-named 
piece  being  addressed  to  Constantine.  We  learn 
from  Vopiscus  that  the  lives  written  by  Trebel- 
lius  Pollio  commenced  with  Philippus  and  ex- 
tended down  to  Claudius.  Of  these,  all  as  far 
as  the  Valeriani,  regarding  whom  but  a  short 
fragment  remains,  have  been  lost.  [For  edi- 
tions, vid.  CAPITOLINUS,  JULIUS.] 

TREBIA  (now  Trebbia),  a  small  river  in  Gallia 
Cisalpina,  falling  into  the  Po  near  Placentia. 
It  is  memorable  for  the  victory  which  Hannibal 
gained  over  the  Romans,  B.C.  218.  This  river 
is  generally  dry  in  summer,  but  is  filled  with  a 
rapid  stream  in  winter,  which  was  the  season 
when  Hannibal  defeated  the  Romans. 

TREBONIUS,  C.,  played  rather  a  prominent 
part  in  the  last  days  of  the  republic.  He  com- 
menced public  life  as  a  supporter  of  the  aristo- 
cratical  party,  and  in  his  queestorship  (B.C.  60) 
he  attempted  to  prevent  the  adoption  of  P.  Cio- 
dius  into  a  plebeian  family.  He  changed  sides 
soon  afterward,  and  in  his  tribunate  of  the  plebs 
(55)  he  was  the  instrument  of  the  triumvirs  in 
proposing  that  Pompey  should  have  the  two 
Spains,  Crassus  Syria,  and  Caesar  the  Gauls  and 
Illyricum  for  another  period  of  five  years.  This 
proposal  received  the  approbation  of  the  comi- 
tia,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  Lex  Trebonia. 
For  this  service  he  was  rewarded  by  being  ap- 
pointed one  of  Caesar's  legates  in  Gaul,  where 
he  remained  till  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
war  in  49.  In  the  course  of  the  same  year  he 
was  intrusted  by  Caesar  with  the  command  of 
the  land  forces  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Massilia. 
In  48  Trebonius  was  city-praetor,  and  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties  resisted  the  seditious  at- 
tempts of  his  colleague  M.  Caelius  Rufus  to  ob- 
tain by  force  the  repeal  of  Caesar's  law  respect- 
ing  the  payment  of  debts.  Toward  the  end  of 
47,  Trebonius,  as  pro- praetor,  succeeded  Q.  Cas- 
sius  Longinus  in  the  government  of  Further 
Spain,  but  was  expelled  from  the  pfovince  by  a 
mutiny  of  the  soldiers  who  espoused  the  Pom 
peian  party.  Caesar  raised  him  to  the  consul 
ship  in  October,  45,  and  promised  him  the  prov- 
ince of  Asia.  In  return  for  all  these  honors  and 
favors,  Trebonius  was  one  of  the  prime  movers 
in  the  conspiracy  to  assassinate  Ccesar,  and 
after  the  murder  of  his  patron  (44)  he  went  as 
proconsul  to  the  province  of  Asia.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  (43),  Dolabella,  who  had  received 
from  Antonius  the  province  of  Syria,  surprised 
the  town  of  Smyrna,  where  Trebonius  was  then 
residing,  and  slew  him  in  his  bed. 

TREBULA  (Trebulanus).  1.  (Now  Tregghia), 
a  town  in  Samnium,  situated  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  mountains  of.Cajazzo. — 2.  MUTUSCA, 
a  town  of  the  Sabines  of  uncertain  site. — 3.  SUP' 
FENA,  also  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  and  of  uncei 
tain  site. 

905 


TRERUS. 

TRKRCS  (now  Sacco),  a  river  in  Latium,  and 
•  tributary  of  the  Liris. 

TKES  TABKRN.*.  1.  A  station  on  the  Via  Ap- 
pia  in  Latium,  between  Aricia  and  Forum  Appii. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  account  of  St.  Paul's  jour- 
ney to  Rome. — 2.  (Now  Borghctto),  a  station  in 
Gallia  Cisalpina,  on  the  road  from  Placentia  to 
Mediolanum. 

THETUM  (TprjTov :  now  Cape  Bugiaroni,  or  Ras 
Seba  Rous,  i.  e.  Seven  Capes'),  a  great  promon- 
tory on  the  coast  of  Numidia,  forming  the  west- 
ern headland  of  the  Sinus  Olcachites  (now  Bay 
of  Storah). 

TREVIRI  or  TREVERI,  a  powerful  people  in 
Gallia  Belgica,  who  were  faithful  allies  of  the 
Romans,  and  whose  cavalry  was  the  best  in  all 
Gaul.  The  River  Mosella  flowed  through  their 
territory,  which  extended  westward  from  the 
Rhine  as  far  as  the  Remi.  Their  chief  town 
was  made  a  Roman  colony  by  Augustus,  and 
was  called  AUGUSTA  TREVIRORUM  (now  Trier  or 
Trevcs).  It  stood  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mo- 
sella, and  became  under  the  later  empire  one  of 
the  most  flourishing  Roman  cities  north  of  the 
Alps.  It  was  the  capital  of  Belgica  Prima  ;  and 
after  the  division  of  the  Roman  world  by  Diocle- 
tian (A.D.  292)  into  four  districts,  it  became  the 
residence  of  the  Caesar  who  had  the  govern- 
ment of  Britain,  Gaul,  and  Spain.  Here  dwelt 
Constantius  Chlorus  and  his  son  Constantine 
the  Great,  as  well  as  several  of  the  subsequent 
emperors.  The  modern  city  still  contains  many 
nteresting  Roman  remains.  They  belong,  how- 
ever, to  the  latter  period  of  the  empire,  and  are 
consequently  not  in  the  best  style  of  art.  The 
most  important  of  these  remains  is  the  Porto. 
Nigra  or  Black  Gate,  a  large  and  massive  build- 
ing in  an  excellent  state  of  preservation.  In 
addition  to  this,  we  have  extensive  remains  of 
the  Roman  baths,  of  the  amphitheatre,  and  of 
the  palace  of  Constantine.  The  piers  of  the 
bridge  over  the  Moselle  are  likewise  Roman. 
At  the  village  of  Igel,  about  six  miles  from 
Treves,  is  a  beautiful  Roman  structure,  being  a 
four-sided  obelisk,  more  than  seventy  feet  high, 
covered  with  carvings,  inscriptions,  and  bas- 
reliefs.  There  has  been  much  dispute  respect- 
ing the  object  for  which  this  building  was  erect- 
ed ;  but  it  appears  to  have  been  set  up  by  two 
brothers,  named  Secundini,  partly  as  a  funeral 
monument  to  their  deceased  relatives,  partly  to 
celebrate  their  sister's  marriage,  which  is  rep- 
resented on  one  of  the  bas-reliefs  by  the  figures 
of  a  man  and  woman  joining  hands. 

TRIARIUS,  VALERIUS.  1.  L.,  quaestor  urbanus 
B.C.  81,  and  propraetor  in  Sardinia  77,  when  he 
repulsed  Lepidus,  who  had  fled  into  that  island 
after  his  unsuccessful  attempt  to  repeal  the  laws 
of  Sulla.  Triarius  served  under  Lucullus  as 
one  of  his  legates  in  the  war  against  Mithrada- 
tes,  and  at  first  gained  considerable  distinction 
by  his  zeal  and  activity.  In  68  Triarius  was 
dispatched  to  the  assistance  of  Fabius,  who  had 
been  intrusted  with  the  defence  of  Pontus,  while 
Lucullus  invaded  Armenia,  and  who  was  now 
attacked  by  Mithradates  with  overwhelming 
numbers.  Triarius  compelled  Mithradates  to 
assume  the  defensive,  and  early  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  commenced  active  operations  against 
the  Pontic  king.  Anxious  to  gain  the  victory 
over  Mithradates  before  the  arrival  of  Lucullus, 
906 


TRIDENTUM. 

Triarius  allowed  himself  to  be  attacked  at  a  dis 
advantage,  and  was  defeated  with  great  slaugh- 
ter near  Zela. — 2.  P.,  son  of  the  preceding,  ac- 
cused M.  ^Emilius  Scaurus,  in  54,  first  of  repe- 
tundas  and  next  of  ambitus.  Scaurus  was  de- 
fended on  both  occasions  by  Cicero. — 3.  C.,  a 
friend  of  Cicero,  who  introduces  him  as  one  <>i 
the  speakers  in  his  dialogue  De  Finibus,  anil 
praises  his  oratory  in  his  Brutus.  He  fought  on 
Pompey's  side  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  Tri- 
anus  perished  in  the  civil  wars,  probably  in  Af- 
rica, for  Cicero  speaks  in  45  of  his  death,  and 
adds,  that  Triarius  had  left  him  the  guardian  of 
his  children. 

TRIBALU,  a  powerful  people  in  Thrace,  a 
branch  of  the  Getae  dwelling  along  the  Danube, 
who  were  defeated  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
B.C.  335,  and  obliged  to  sue  for  peace. 

TRIBOCCI,  a  German  people,  settled  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  between  Mount  Vogesus  and  the  Rhine, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Strasburg. 

TRIBONIANUS,  a  jurist,  commissioned  l>y  Jus- 
tinianus,  with  sixteen  others,  to  compile  the  Di- 
gest or  Pandect.  For  details,  vid.  JUSTINIANUS. 

TRICALA.     Vid.  TRIOCALA. 

TRICARANON  ( Tpinupavov  :  TpiKapavevf),  a 
fortress  in  Phliasia,  southeast  of  Phlius,  on  a 
mountain  of  the  same  name. 

TRICASSES,  TRICASII,  or  TRICASSINI,  a  people 
in  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  east  of  the  Senones, 
whose  chief  town  was  Augustobona,  afterward 
Tricassffi  (now  Troyes). 

TRICASTINI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
between  the  Cavares  and  Vocontii,  inhabiting  a 
narrow  slip  of  country  between  the  Drome  and 
the  Iseve.  Their  chief  town  was  Augusta  Tri- 
castinorum,  or  simply  Augusta  (now  Aouste). 

TRICCA,  subsequently  TRICALA  (TpiKKi),  Tpiiea- 
7(.a :  now  Trikkala),  an  ancient  town  of  Thes- 
saly,  in  the  district  Hestiaeotis,  situated  on  the 
Lethaeus,  north  of  the  Peneus.  Homer  repre- 
sents it  as  governed  by  the  sons  of  ^Esoulapius  ; 
and  it  contained  in  later  times  a  celebrated  tem- 
ple of  this  god. 

TRICHONIS  (Tpixuvif  :  now  Zygos  or  Vrakho- 
ri),  a  large  lake  in  JCtolia,  east  of  Stratos  and 
north  of  Mount  Aracynthus. 

TRICHONIUM  (Tpi%ijviov  :  Tptxuvievf),  a  town 
in  ^Etolia,  east  of  Lake  Trichonis. 

TRICIPITINUS,  LUCRETIUS.  Vid.  LUCRETI* 
GENS. 

TRICOI.ONI  (TpiKQ^uvoi :  Tputohuvevf),  a  town 
of  Arcadia,  a  little  north  of  Megalopolis,  of 
which  a  temple  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  alone 
remained  in  the  time  of  Pausanias. 

TRICORII,  a  Ligurian  people  in  Gallia  Narbo- 
nensis, a  branch  of  the  Sallyi,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Massilia  and  Aquae  Sextiae. 

TRICORYTHUS  (Tptnopvdof :  Tpmopvatof),  a  de- 
mus  in  Attica,  belonging  to  the  tribe  Aiantis, 
between  Marathon  and  Rhamnus. 

TRICRANA  (Tpinpava  :  now  Trikhiri),  an  island 
off  the  coast  of  Argolis,  near  Hermione. 

TRIDENTUM  (now  Trent,  in  Italian  Trento),  the 
capital  of  the  TRIDENTINI,  and  the  chief  town  of 
Raetia,  situated  on  the  River  Athesis  (now 
Adige),  and  on  the  pass  of  the  Alps  leading  to 
Verona.  Its  greatness  dates  from  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  it  is  chiefly  celebrated  on  account 
of  the  ecclesiastical  council  which  assembled 
within  its  walls  A.D.  1545. 


TRIERES. 


TR1PTOLEMUS. 


TKIERES  or  TRIERIS  (TpjTjpj/f  :  now  Enfehl), 
n  small  fortress  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  be- 
l\veen  Tripolis  and  the  Promontorium  Theu- 
prosopon. 

TRIFANUM,  a  town  in  Latium  of  uncertain  site, 
between  Minturnae  and  Sinuessa. 

[TRIMERUS  (now  Tremiti),  an  island  on  the 
coast  of  Apulia,  one  of  the  DIOMEDE^  INSUL.* 
(q.  r.),  where  Julia,  the  grand-daughter  of  Au- 
gustus, died  in  exile.] 

[TRIMONTIUM.     Vid.  PHLIPPOPOLIS.] 
.  TRINACRIA.      Vid.  SICILIA. 

TRINEMES  or  TRINEMIA  (Tpivs/ieif,  Tpivepeia  : 
Tpivfptvc),  a  demus  in  Attica,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  Cecropis,  on  Mount  Parnes. 

[TRINIUM  (flumen,  now  Trigno),  a  small  river 
in  the  country  of  the  Frentani,  afforded  a  good 
harbor  for  ships  (flumen  portuosum,  Plin.).] 

TRINOBANTES,  one  of  the  most  powerful  peo- 
ple of  Britain,  inhabiting  the  modern  Essex. 
They  are  mentioned  in  Caesar's  invasion  of 
Britain,  and  they  offered  a  formidable  resist- 
ance to  the  invading  force  sent  into  the  island 
by  the  Emperor  Claudius. 

[TRIO,  L.  FULCINIUS,  a  notorious  informer  un- 
der Tiberius,  and  one  of  the  friends  and  favor- 
ites of  that  emperor  :  in  A.D.  20  he  accused  Pi- 
so  before  the  consuls,  and  for  that  service  was 
still  further  honored  by  Tiberius.  In  A.D.  35 
he  was  thrown  into  prison  on  suspicion,  and 
there  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.] 

TRIOCALA  or  TRICALA  (Tpto/caXa,  Tp£«aAa  : 
TpiKaXivof,  Tricallnus  :  near  Calata  Bcllota),  a 
mountain  fortress  in  the  interior  of  Sicily,  near 
the  Crimisus,  was  in  the  Servile  war  the  head- 
quarters of  the  slaves,  and  the  residence  of  their 
leader  Tryphon. 

TRIOPAS  (TptoTrac  or  Tp/o^/),  son  of  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  and  Canace,  a  daughter  of  yEolus,  or 
of  Helios  and  Rhodos,  and  the  father  of  Ipht- 
media  and  Erysichthon.  Hence  his  son  Ery- 
sichthon  is  called  Triopems,  and  his  grand- 
daughter Mestra  or  Metra,  the  daughter  of  Ery- 
sichthon, Triopeis.  Triopas  expelled  the  Pelas- 
gians  from  the  Dotian  plain,  but  was  himself 
obliged  to  emigrate,  and  went  to  Caria,  where 
he  founded  Cnidus  on  the  Triopian  promontory. 
His  son  Erysichthon  was  punished  by  Ceres 
(Demeter)  with  insatiable  hunger  because  he 
had  violated  her  sacred  grove  ;  but  others  re- 
late the  same  of  Triopas  himself. 

TRIOPIA  orTRioPioN,an  early  name  of  CNIDOS. 

TRIOP!UM  (TptOKiov  :  now  Cape  Krio),  the 
promontory  which  terminates  the  peninsula  of 
Cnidus,  forming  the  southwestern  headland  of 
Caria  and  of  Asia  Minor.  Upon  it  was  a  temple 
of  Apollo,  surnamed  Triopius,  which  was  the 
centre  of  union  for  the  states  of  DORIS.  Hence 
it  was  also  called  the  Sacred  Promontory  (dxpu- 
TTjpinv  hpbv). 

TRIPHYLIA  (Tpt^vAto  :  Tpi<f>v\toc),  the  south- 
ern portion  of  Elis,  lying  between  the  Alpheus 
and  the  Neda,  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  the  three  different  tribes  by  which  it  was 
peopled.  Its  chief  town  was  PYLOS. 

[TRIPHYLUS  (TpfyvAof  ),  son  of  Areas  and  Lao- 
damia,  the  legendary  hero  eponymus  of  Tri- 
phylia.] 

TRIPODISCUS  (TpnroiiffKOf  :  TpiirodlaKiof  :  ru- 
ins near  Dcnceni),  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Me- 
garis,  northwest  of  Megara. 


TRIPOLIS  (TptTrotaf  :  Tpt7roAtr»?f),  is  properly 
the  name  of  a  confederacy  composed  of  three 
cities,  or  a  district  containing  three  cities,  but 
it  is  also  applied  to  single  cities  which  had  some 
such  relation  to  others  as  to  make  the  name  ap- 
propriate. 1.  In  Arcadia,  comprising  the  three 
cities  of  Callia,  Dipoena,  and  Nonacris  :  its  name 
is  preserved  in  the  modern  town  of  Tripolitza. 

—  2.  T.  PELAGONIA,  in  Thessaly,  comprising  the 
three  towns  of  Azorus,  Doliche,  and  Pythium. 

—  3.  In  Rhodes,  comprising  the  three  Dorian 
cities  Lindus,  lalysus,  and  Camirus.     Vid.  RHO- 
DUS.  —  4.  (Now  Ka.sk  Yeniji),  a  city  on  the  Mae- 
ander,  twelve  miles  west  of  Hierapolis,  on  the 
borders  of  Phrygia,  Caria,  and  Lydia,  to  e;ich 
of  which  it  is  assigned  by  different  authorities. 

—  5.  (Now  Tireboli),  a  fortress  on  the  coast  of 
Pontus,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name  (now  Ti- 
reboli Su),  ninety  stadia  east  of  the  Promonto- 
rium Zephyrium  (now  Cape  Zefreh).  —  6.  (Now 
Tripoli,  Tarafiulus),  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia, 
consisted  of  three  distinct  cities,  one  stadium 
(six  hundred  feet)  apart,  each  having  its  own 
walls,  but  all  united  in  a  common  constitution, 
having  one  place  of  assembly,  and  forming  in 
reality  one  city.     They  were  colonies  of  Tyre, 
Sidon,  and  Aradus  respectively.     Tripolis  stood 
about  thirty  miles  south  of  Aradus,  and  about 
the  same  distance  north  of  Byblus,  on  a  bold 
headland  formed  by  a  spur  of  Mount  Lebanon. 
It  had  a  fine  harbor   and  a  flourishing  com 
merce.     It  is  now  a  city  of  about  fifteen  thou 
sand  inhabitants,  and  the  capital  of  one  of  the 
pachalics  of  Syria,  that  of  Tripoli.  —  7.  The  dis- 
trict on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  between 
the  two  Syrtes,  comprising  the  three  cities  of 
Sabrata  (or  Abrotonum),  CEa,  and  Leptis  Mag- 
na,  and  also  called  Tripolitana  Regio.   Vid.  SYR- 
TICA.     Its  name  is  preserved  in  that  of  the  re- 
gency of  Tripoli,  the  western  part  of  which  an- 
swers to  it,  and  in  that  of  the  city  of  Tripoli, 
probably  the  ancient  CEa. 

TRIPOLITANA  REGIO.  Vid.  SYRTICA,  TRIPOLIS, 
No.  7. 

TRIPTOLKMUS  (TpiTrroAe^of),  son  of  Celeus, 
king  of  Eleusis,  and  Metanira  or  Polymnia. 
Others  describe  him  as  son  of  King  Eleusis  by 
Cothonea,  or  of  Oceanus  and  Gaea,  or  of  Trochi- 
lus  by  an  Eleusinian  woman.  Triptolemus  was 
the  favorite  of  Demeter  (Ceres),  and  the  invent- 
or of  the  plough  and  agriculture,  and  of  civiliza- 
tion, which  is  the  result  of  it.  He  was  the  great 
hero  in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  According 
to  the  common  legend,  he  hospitably  received 
Demeter  at  Eleusis  when  she  was  wandering 
in  search  of  her  daughter.  The  goddess,  in 
return,  wished  to  make  his  son  Demophon  im- 
mortal, and  placed  him  in  the  fire  in  order  to 
destroy  his  mortal  parts  ;  but  Metanira  scream- 
ed out  at  the  sight,  and  the  child  was  consumed 
by  the  flames.  As  a  compensation  for  this  be- 
reavement, the  goddess  gave  to  Triptolemus  a 
chariot  with  winged  dragons  and  seeds  of  wheat 
In  this  chariot  Triptolemus  rode  over  the  earth, 
making  man  acquainted  with  the  blessings  of 
agriculture.  On  his  return  to  Attica,  (Virus 
endeavored  to  kill  him,  but  by  the  command  of 
Demeter  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  country 
to  Triptolemus,  who  now  established  the  wor- 
ship of  Demeter,  and  institued  the  Thesmopho- 
ria.  Triptolemus  is  represented  in  works  of 

907 


TRIT^EA. 

art  as  a  youthful  hero,  sometimes  with  the  peta- 
sus,  on  a  chariot  drawn  by  dragons,  and  holding 
in  his  hand  a  sceptre  and  corn  ears. 

TRITJEA  (Tpiraia:  Tptraievf).  1.  A  town  of 
Phocis,  northwest  of  Cleonae,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Cephisus,  and  on  the  frontiers  of  Locris. 
— 2.  One  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Achaia,  one 
hundred  and  twenty  stadia  east  of  Pharaj,  and 
near  lie  frontiers  of  Arcadia.  Augustus  made 
it  dependent  upon  Patrae. 

[TKITANT^ECHMES  (TptTavraixftw)-  1.  A  Per- 
sian satrap  of  Babylon,  son  of  Artabazus. — 2.  A 
son  of  Artabanus,  and  cousin  of  Xerxes,  was 
one  of  the  commanders  of  the  Persian  infantry 
when  the  barbarians  invaded  Greece  in  B.C. 
480.] 

TRITO  or  TRITOGEN!A  (Tpiru  or  Tpiroyeveia, 
and  Tptroyev^f),  a  surname  of  Minerva  (Athe- 
na), which  is  explained  in  different  ways.  Some 
derive  it  from  Lake  Tritonis  in  Libya,  near  which 
she  is  said  to  have  been  born  ;  others  from  the 
stream  Triton,  near  Alalcomenae  in  Bceotia, 
where  she  was  worshipped,  and  where,  accord- 
ing to  some  statements,  she  was  also  born  ; 
the  grammarians,  lastly,  derive  the  name  from 
Tpiru,  which,  in  the  dialect  of  the  Athamani- 
ans,  is  said  to  signify  "head,"  so  that  it  would  be 
the  goddess  born  out  of  the  head  of  her  father. 

TRITON  (Tpiruv),  son  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) 
and  Amphitrite  (or  Celaeno),  who  dwelt  with  his 
father  and  mother  in  a  golden  palace  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea,  or,  according  to  Homer,  at  JEgae. 
Later  writers  describe  him  as  riding  over  the 
sea  on  horses  or  other  sea-monsters.  Some- 
times we  find  mention  of  Tritons  in  the  plu- 
ral. Their  appearance  is  differently  described  ; 
though  they  are  always  conceived  as  having 
the  human  figure  in  the  upper  part  of  their  bod- 
ies, and  that  of  a  fish  in  the  lower  part.  The 
chief  characteristic  of  Tritons  in  poetry  as  well 
as  in  works  of  art  is  a  trumpet  made  out  of  a 
shell  (concha),  which  the  Tritons  blow  at  the 
command  of  Neptune  (Poseidon)  to  soothe  the 
restless  waves  of  the  sea. 

TRITON  FL.,  TRITONIS,  or  TRITONITIS  PALUS 
(Tpiruv,  TpcTuvif,  Tpiruvirif),  a  river  and  lake 
on  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Libya,  which  are 
mentioned  in  several  old  Greek  legends,  espe- 
cially in  the  mythology  of  Minerva  (Athena), 
whom  one  account  represented  as  born  on  the 
Lake  Tritonis,  and  as  the  daughter  of  the  nymph 
of  the  same  name,  and  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) : 
hence  her  surname  of  TpiTo-yeveia.  When  the 
Greeks  first  became  acquainted  geographically 
with  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  they  identified 
the  gulf  afterward  called  the  Lesser  SYRTIS 
with  the  Lake  Tritonis.  This  seems  to  be  the 
notion  of  Herodotus,  in  the  story  he  relates  of 
Jason  (iv.,  178,  179).  A  more  exact  knowledge 
of  the  coast  showed  them  a  great  lake  be- 
yond the  inmost  recess  of  the  Lesser  Syrtis, 
to  which  the  name  Tritonis  was  then  applied. 
This  lake  had  an  opening  to  the  sea,  as  well  as 
a  river  flowing  into  it,  and  accordingly  the  ge- 
ographers represented  the  River  Triton  as  ris- 
ing in  a  mountain  called  Zuchabari,  and  form- 
ing the  Lake  Tritonis  on  its  course  to  the  Less- 
er Syrtis,  into  which  it  fell.  The  lake  is  un- 
doubtedly the  great  salt  lake,  in  the  south  of 
Tunis,  called  El-Sibkah;  but  as  this  lake  has 
DO  longer  an  opening  to  the  sea,  and  the  whole 
908 


TROAS. 

coast  is  much  altered  by  the  inroads  of  ths 
sands  of  the  Sahara,  it  seems  impossible  to 
identify  the  river  :  some  suppose  that  it  is  rep- 
resented by  the  Wady-cl-Khabs.  Some  of  the 
ancient  writers  gave  altogether  a  different  lo- 
cality to  the  legend,  and  identify  the  Triton  with 
the  river  usually  called  LATHON  in  Cyrenaica  ; 
and  Apollonius  llhodius  even  transfers  the  name 
to  the  Nile. 

TRIVICUM  (now  Trivico),  a  small  town  in  Sam 
nium,  situated  among  the  mountains  separating 
Samnium  from  Apulia. 

TEOAS  (T)  Tpudf,  sc.  x&Pa> lne  feminine  of  the 
adjective  Tpuf :  Tpuadrif  :  now  Chan),  the  ter- 
ritory of  Ilium  or  Troy,  formed  the  northwest- 
ern part  of  Mysia.  It  was  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  ^Egean  Sea,  from  Promontorium  Lectum 
to  Promontorium  Sigeum,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Hellespont ;  on  the  northwest  by  the  Hel- 
lespont, as  far  as  the  River  Rhodius,  below 
Abydus  ;  on  the  northeast  and  east  by  the 
mountains  which  border  the  valley  of  the  Rho- 
dius, and  extend  from  its  sources  southward  to 
the  main  ridge  of  Mount  Ida,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  northern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Adramyt- 
tium  along  the  southern  foot  of  Ida  ;  but  on  the 
northeast  and  east  the  boundary  is  sometimes 
extended  so  far  as  to  include  the  whole  coast 
of  the  Hellespont,  and  part  of  the  Propontis,  and 
the  country  as  far  as  the  River  Granicus,  thus 
embracing  the  district  of  Dardania,  and  some- 
what more.  Strabo  extends  the  boundary  still 
further  east,  to  the  River  ^Esepus,  and  also 
south  lo  the  Caicus ;  but  this  clearly  results 
from  his  including  in  the  territory  of  Troy  that 
of  her  neighboring  allies.  The  Troad  is  for  the 
most  part  mountainous,  being  intersected  by 
Mount  IDA  and  its  branches  :  the  largest  plain 
is  that  in  which  Troy  stood.  The  chief  rivers 
were  the  SATNOIS  on  the  south,  the  RHODIUS  on 
the  north,  and  the  Scamander  and  Simons  in  the 
centre.  These  two  rivers,  so  renowned  in  the 
legends  of  the  Trojan  war,  flow  from  two  dif- 
ferent points  in  the  chain  of  Mount  Ida,  and 
unite  in  the  plain  of  Troy,  through  which  the 
united  stream  flows  northwest,  and  falls  into 
the  Hellespont  east  of  the  promontory  of  Sige- 
um. The  Scamander,  also  called  Xanthus,  is 
usually  identified  with  the  Mender eh-  Chai,  and 
the  Simoi's  with  the  Gumbrek ;  but  this  subject 
presents  difficulties  which  can  not  be  discussed 
within  the  limits  of  the  present  article.  The 
precise  locality  of  the  city  of  Troy,  or,  accord- 
ing to  its  genuine  Greek  name,  Ilium,  is  also 
the  subject  still  of  much  dispute.  First,  there 
is  the  question  whether  the  Ilium  of  Homer 
had  any  real  existence  ;  next,  whether  the  ILI- 
UM VETDS  of  the  historical  period,  which  was 
visited  by  Xerxes  and  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
was  on  the  same  site  as  the  city  of  Priam.  The 
most  probable  opinion  seems  to  be  that  which 
places  the  original  city  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
plain,  on  a  moderate  elevation  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Ida,  and  its  citadel  (called  Pergama, 
nip-yapa)  on  a  loftier  height,  almost  separated 
from  the  city  by  a  ravine,  and  nearly  surround- 
ed by  the  Scamander.  This  city  seems  never 
to  have  been  restored  after  its  destruction  by 
the  Greeks.  The  JEolian  colonists  subsequent- 
ly  built  a  new  city,  on  the  site,  as  they  doubtless 
believed,  of  the  old  one,  but  really  much  lowei 


TROCMI. 

down  the  plain  ;  and  this  city  is  the  TRSJA  or 
ILIUM  VETUS  of  most  of  the  ancient  writers. 
After  the  time  of  Alexander,  this  city  declined, 
and  a  new  one  was  built  still  further  down  the 
plain,  below  the  confluence  of  the  Simo'is  and 
Scamander,  and  near  the  Hellespont,  and  this 
was  called  ILIUM  NOVOM.  Under  the  Romans, 
this  city  was  honored  with  various  immunities, 
as  the  only  existing  refresentative  of  the  an- 
cient Ilium.  Its  substantial  importance,  how- 
ever, was  entirely  eclipsed  by  that  of  ALEXAN- 
DREi  TROAS. — For  the  general  political  history 
of  the  Troad,  see  MYSIA.  The  Teucrians,  by 
whom  it  was  peopled  at  a  period  of  unknown 
antiquity,  were  a  Thracian  people.  Settling  in 
the  plain  of  the  Scamander,  they  founded  the  city 
of  Ilium,  which  became  the  head  of  an  extens- 
ive confederacy,  embracing  not  only  the  north- 
west of  Asia  Minor,  but  much  of  the  opposite 
shores  of  Thrace,  and  with  allies  in  Asia  Minor 
iven  as  far  as  Lycia,  and  evidently  much  in  ad- 
vance of  the  Greeks  in  civilization.  The  myth- 
ical account  of  the  origin  of  the  kingdom  is 
briefly  as  follows.  Teucer,  the  first  king  in  the 
Troad,  had  a  daughter,  who  married  Dardanus, 
the  chieftain  of  the  country  northeast  of  the 
Troad.  Vid.  DARDANIA.  Dardanus  had  two 
sons,  Ilus  and  Erichthonius  ;  and  the  latter  was 
the  father  of  Tros,  from  whom  the  country  and 
people  derived  the  names  of  Troas  and  Troes. 
Tros  was  the  father  of  Ilus,  who  founded  the 
city,  which  was  called  after  him  ILIUM,  and  also, 
after  his  father,  TROJA.  The  next  king  was 
LAOMEDON,  and  after  him  Priam.  Vid.  PRIAMUS. 
In  his  reign  the  city  was  taken  and  destroyed 
by  the  confederated  Greeks,  after  a  ten  years' 
siege.  Vid.  HELENA,  ALEXANDER,  AGAMEMNON, 
ACHILLES,  HECTOR,  AJAX,  ULYSSES,  NEOPTOLE- 
MOS,  ^ENEAS,  &c.,  and  HOMERUS.  To  discuss 
the  historical  value  of  this  legend  is  not  the 
province  of  this  work  :  it  is  enough  to  say  that 
we  have  in  it  evidence  of  a  great  conflict,  at  a 
very  early  period,  between  the  great  Thracian 
empire  in  the  northwest  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the 
rising  power  of  the  Achaeans  in  Greece,  in 
which  the  latter  were  victorious  ;  but  their  vic- 
tory was  fruitless,  in  consequence  of  their  com- 
paratively low  civilization,  and  especially  of 
their  want  of  maritime  power.  The  chronolo- 
gers  assigned  different  dates  for  the  capture  of 
Troy  :  the  calculation  most  generally  accepted 
placed  it  in  B.C.  1 184.  This  date  should  be 
carefully  remembered,  as  it  forms  the  starting 
point  of  various  computations ;  but  it  should  also 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  date  is  of  no  historical 
authority.  (There  is  not  spaed  to  explain  this 
matter  here.)  The  subsequent  history  of  the 
Troad  presents  an  entire  blank  till  we  come  to 
the  period  of  the  great  ^Colic  migration,  when  it 
merges  in  that  of  JLOLIS  and  MYSIA.  In  writers 
of  the  Roman  period,  the  name  Troas  is  often 
used  by  itself  for  the  city  of  ALEXANDREA  TROAS. 

TROCMI  or  -n.     Vid.  GALATIA. 

TROBS.     Vid.  TROAS. 

TRCEZEN  (Tpotftv,  more  rarely Tpoi&i-T/ :  Tpoi- 
C>/vtof  :  now  Dhamala),  the  capital  of  TI«KZEN!A 
(Tpot&via),  a  district  in  the  southeast  of  Argo- 
lis,  on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  and  opposite  the  island 
of  ^Egina.  The  town  was  situated  at  some 
little  distance  from  the  coast,  on  which  it  pos- 
sessed a  harbor  called  POGON  (Iloywv),  opposite 


TROTILUM. 

the  island  of  Calauria.  Troezen  was  a  very  an 
cient  city,  and  is  said  to  have  been  originally 
called  Poseidonia,  on  account  of  its  worship  of 
Poseidon  (Neptune).  It  received  the  name  of 
Trcezen  from  Troezen,  one  of  the  sons  of  Pelops  ; 
and  it  is  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  place 
where  Pittheus,  the  maternal  grandfather  of 
Theseus,  lived,  and  where  Theseus  himself  was 
born.  Trcezen  was  for  a  long  time  dependent 
upon  the  kings  of  Argos  ;  but  in  the  historical 
period  it  appears  as  an  independent  state.  It 
was  a  city  of  some  importance,  for  we  read  that 
the  Trcezenians  sent  five  ships  of  war  to  Sala- 
mis  and  one  thousand  heavy-armed  men  to  Pla- 
taeae.  When  the  Persians  entered  Attica,  the 
Trcezenians  distinguished  themselves  by  the 
kindness  with  which  they  received  the  Atheni- 
ans, who  were  obliged  to  abandon  their  city. 

TROGILIJE,  three  small  islands,  named  Psilon, 
Argennon,  and  Sandalion,  lying  off  the  promon- 
tory of  Trogilium.  Vid.  MYCALE. 

[TROGILIUM  PROMONTORIUM  (Tpuyifaov  aicpu- 
TTipiov).  Vid.  MYCALE.] 

TROGITIS  LACUS.     Vid.  PJSIDIA. 

TROGLODYTE  (TpuyhodvTat,  i.  e.,  dwellers  in 
caves),  the  name  applied  by  the  Greek  geogra- 
phers to  various  uncivilized  people,  who  had  no 
abodes  but  caves,  especially  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  western  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  along  the 
shores  of  Upper  Egypt  and  ^Ethiopia.  The 
whole  of  this  coast  was  called  Troglodyfice 
(TpuyA.o6vTiKTi).  There  were  also  Troglodytae 
in  Moesia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube. 

TROGUS,  POMPEIUB.     Vid.  JUSTINUS. 

TROILIUM.     Vid.  TROSSULUM. 

TROILUS  (TputAof),  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba, 
or,  according  to  others,  son  of  Apollo.  He  fell 
by  the  hands  of  Achilles. 

TROJA  (Tpoia,  Ion.  Tpoit),  Ep.  Tpoia  :  Tpeif, 
Tpwof,  Ep.  and  Ion.  Tpuior,  fern  Tpuuc,  &c. : 
Tros,  Troi'us,  Trojanus,  fem.  Troas,  pi.  Troadea 
and  Trolades),  the  name  of  the  city  of  Troy  or 
Ilium,  also  applied  to  the  country.  Vid.  TROAS. 

TROPHONIUS  (TpoQuviof),  son  of  Erginus,  king 
of  Orchomenus,  and  brother  of  Agamedes.  He 
and  his  brother  built  the  temple  at  Delphi  and 
the  treasury  of  King  Hyrieus  in  Bceotia.  For 
details,  vid.  AGAMEDES.  Trophonius,  after  his 
death,  was  worshipped  as  a  hero,  and  had  a  cel- 
ebrated oracle  in  a  cave  near  Lebadea  ici  Bceo- 
tia. (Vid.  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  art.  ^IASULUM.) 

TROS  (Tpwf),  son  of  Erichthonius  and  Aety- 
oche,  and  grandson  of  Dardanus.  He  was  mar- 
ried to  Callirrhoe,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Ilus,  Assaracus,  and  Ganyrnedes,  and 
was  King  of  Phrygia.  The  country  and  people 
of  Troy  derived  their  name  from  him.  He  [re- 
ceived from  Jupiter  (Zeus)  as  a  compensation 
for  his  son  Ganymedes  a  pair  of  divine  horses.] 
Vnl.  GANYMEDES. 

TROSSULUM  (Trossulanus  :  now  Tr:aso),  a 
town  in  Etruria,  nine  miles  from  Volsinii,  which 
is  said  to  have  been  taken  by  some  Roman 
equites  without  the  aid  of  foot  soldiers  ;  whence 
the  Roman  equites  obtained  the  name  of  Tros- 
euli.  Some  writers  identify  this  town  with 
Troilium,  which  was  taken  by  thr  Romans  B.C. 
293 ;  but  they  appear  to  have  been  different 
places. 

TROT!LUM  (TpunXov  :  now  Trontcllo),  a  town 
of  Sicily,  on  the  road  from  Syracuse  to  Leontini 

909 


TRUENTUM. 

,  a  town  of  Picenum,  on  the  River 
Truentus  or  Truentinus  (now  Tronto). 

TRUTULENSIS  PORTUS,  a  harbor  on  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  Britain,  near  the  estuary  Taus 
(now  Tay),  but  of  which  the  exact  site  is  un- 
known. 

TRYPHIODORUS  (TpvQiodupotf,  a  Greek  gram- 
marian and  poet,  was  a  native  of  Egypt;  but 
nothing  is  known  of  his  personal  history.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century  of 
the  Christian  era.  Of  his  grammatical  labors 
we  have  no  record  ;  but  one  of  his  poems  has 
come  down  to  us,  entitled  'J/Uou  uXwcrtf,  the  Cap- 
ture of  Ilium,  consisting  of  six  hundred  and 
ninety-one  lines.  From  the  small  dimensions 
of  it,  it  is  necessarily  little  but  a  sketch.  The 
best  editions  are  by  Northmore,  Cambridge, 
1791,  London,  1804  ;  by  Schafer,  Leipzig,  1808  ; 
and  by  Wernicke,  Leipzig,  1819. 

TRYPHON  (Tpv<j>uv).  1.  DIODOTUS,  a  usurper 
of  the  throne  of  Syria  during  the  reign  of  De- 
metrius II.  Nicator.  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander Balas  in  B.C.  146,  T ryphon  first  set  up 
Antiochus,  the  infant  son  of  Balas,  as  a  pretend- 
er against  Demetrius;  but  in  142  he  murdered 
Antiochus  and  reigned  as  king  himself.  Try- 
phon  was  defeated  and  put  to  death  by  Antio- 
chus Sidetes,  the  brother  of  Demetrius,  in  139, 
after  a  reign  of  three  years. — 2.  SALVIUS,  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  revolted  slaves  in  Sicily, 
was  supposed  to  have  a  knowledge  of  divina- 
tion, for  which  reason  he  was  elected  king  by 
the  slaves  in  103.  He  displayed  considerable 
abilities,  and  in  a  short  time  collected  an  army 
of  twenty  thousand  foot  and  two  thousand  horse, 
with  which  he  defeated  the  propraetor  P.  Licin- 
ius  Nerva.  After  this  victory  Salvius  assumed 
all  the  pomp  of  royalty,  and  took  the  surname 
of  Tryphon,  probably  because  it  had  been  borne 
by  Diodotus,  the  usurper  of  the  Syrian  throne. 
He  chose  the  strong  fortress  of  Triocala  as  the 
seat  of  his  new  kingdom.  Tryphon  was  defeat- 
ed by  L.  Lucullus  in  102,  and  was  obliged  to 
take  refuge  in  Triocala.  But  Lucullus  failed  in 
taking  the  place,  and  returned  to  Rome  without 
effecting  any  thing  more.  Lucullus  was  suc- 
ceeded by  C.  Servilius  ;  and  on  the  death  of 
Tryphon,  about  the  same  time,  the  kingdom  de- 
volved upon  Athenion,  who  was  not  subdued 
till  101. 

TRYPHONINUS,  CLAUDIUS,  a  Roman  jurist, 
wrote  under  the  reigns  of  Septimius  Severus 
and  Caracalla. 

TUBANTES,  a  people  of  Germany,  allies  of  the 
Cherusci,  originally  dwelt  between  the  Rhine 
and  the  Yssel ;  in  the  time  of  Germanicus,  on 
the  southern  bank  of  the  Lippe,  between  Pader- 
born,  Hamm,  and  the  Armsberger  Wald  ;  and 
at  a  still  later  time  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Thiiringer  Wald,  between  the  Fulda  and  the 
Werra.  Subsequently  they  are  mentioned  as  a 
part  of  the  great  league  of  the  Franci. 

TUBERO,  ^Euus.  1.  Q.,  son-in-law  of  L. 
yEmilius  Paulus,  served  under  the  latter  in  his 
war  against  Perseus,  king  of  Macedonia.  This 
Tubero,  like  the  rest  of  his  family,  was  so  poor 
that  he  had  not  an  ounce  of  silver  plate  till 
his  father-in-law  gave  him  five  pounds  of  plate 
from  the  spoils  of  the  Macedonian  monarch. — 
2.  Q  ,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  pupil  of  Panae- 
tius,  and  is  called  the  Stoic.  He  had  a  reputa- 
910 


TUDITANUS. 

tion  for  talent  and  legal  knowledge.  He  was 
praetor  in  128,  and  consul  snffectus  in  118.  He 
was  an  opponent  of  Tib.  Gracchus,  as  well  as 
of  C.  Gracchus,  and  delivered  some  speeches 
against  the  latter,  123.  Tubero  is  one  of  the 
speakers  in  Cicero's  dialogue  de  Rcpullica.  The 
passages  in  the  Digest  in  which  Tubero  is  cited 
do  not  refer  to  this  Tubero,  but  to  No.  4. — 3. 
L  ,  an  intimate  friend  of  Cicero.  He  was  a  re- 
lation and  a  school-fellow  of  the  orator,  had 
served  with  him  in  the  Marsic  war,  and  had  aft- 
erward served  under  his  brother  Quintus  as 
legate  in  Asia.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war,  Tubero,  who  had  espoused  the  Pom- 
peian  party,  received  from  the  senate  the  prov- 
ince of  Africa  ;  but  as  Atius  Varus  and  Q.  Liga- 
rius,  who  likewise  belonged  to  the  aristocratical 
party,  would  not  surrender  it  to  him,  he  passed 
over  to  Pompey  in  Greece.  He  was  afterward 
pardoned  by  Caesar,  and  returned  with  his  son 
Quintus  to  Rome.  Tubero  cultivated  literature 
and  philosophy.  He  wrote  a  history,  and  the 
philosopher  ^Enesidemus  dedicated  to  him  his 
work  on  the  skeptical  philosophy  of  Pyrrhon. — 
4.  Q.,  son  of  the  preceding.  In  46  he  made  a 
speech  before  C.  Julius  Caesar  against  Q.  Liga- 
rius,  who  was  defended  by  Cicero  in  a  speech 
which  is  extant  (Pro  Q.  Ligario).  Tubero  ob- 
tained considerable  reputation  as  a  jurist.  He 
had  a  great  knowledge  both  of  Jus  Publicum 
and  Privatum,  and  he  wrote  several  works  on 
both  these  divisions  of  law.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Servius  Sulpicius,  and  the  daugh- 
ter of  Tubero  was  the  mother  of  the  jurist  C. 
Cassius  Longinus.  Like  his  father,  Q.  Tubero 
wrote  a  history.  Tubero  the  jurist,  who  is  often 
cited  in  the  Digest,  is  this  Tubero ;  but  there 
is  no  excerpt  from  his  writings. 

TUCCA,  PLOTIUS,  a  friend  of  Horace  and  Vir- 
gil. The  latter  poet  left  Tucca  one  of  his  heirs, 
and  bequeathed  his  unfinished  writings  to  him 
and  Varius,  who  afterward  published  the  JEneid 
by  order  of  Augustus. 

TUDER  (Tuders,  -tis :  now  Todi),  an  ancient 
town  of  Umbria,  situated  on  a  hill  near  the 
Tiber,  and  on  the  road  from  Mevania  to  Rome. 
It  was  subsequently  made  a  Roman  colony. 
There  are  still  remains  of  the  polygonal  walla 
of  the  ancient  town. 

TUDITANUS,  SEMPRONIUS.  1.  M.,  consul  B.C. 
240,  and  censor  230.— 2.  P.,  tribune  of  the  sol- 
diers at  the  battle  of  Cannae  in  216,  and  one  of 
the  few  Roman  officers  who  survived  that  fatal 
day.  In  214  he  was  curule  aedile  ;  in  213  prae- 
tor, with  Ariminum  as  his  province,  and  was 
continued  in  the  command  for  the  two  follow- 
ing years  (212,  211).  He  was  censor  in  209 
with  M.  Cornelius  Cethegus,  although  neither 
he  nor  his  colleague  had  yet  held  the  consul- 
ship. In  205  he  was  sent  into  Greece  with  the 
title  of  proconsul,  for  the  purpose  of  opposing 
Philip,  with  whom,  however,  he  concluded  a 
treaty,  which  was  ratified  by  the  Romans.  Tu 
ditanus  was  consul  in  204,  and  received  Bruttii 
as  his  province.  He  was  at  first  defeated  by 
Hannibal,  but  shortly  afterward  he  gained  a  de- 
cisive victory  over  the  Carthaginian  general. — 
3.  C.,  plebeian  tedile  198,  and  praetor  197,  whe.D 
he  obtained  Nearer  Spain  as  his  province.  He 
was  defeated  by  the  Spaniards  with  great  loss, 
and  died  shortly  afterward  of  a  wound  which 


TULCIS. 

he  had  received  in  the  battle. — 4.  M.,  tribune 
of  the  plebs  193 ;  praetor  189,  when  he  obtain- 
ed Sicily  as  his  province  ;  and  consul  185.  In 
his  consulship  he  carried  on  war  in  Liguria,  and 
defeated  the  Apuani,  while  his  colleague  was 
equally  successful  against  the  Ingauni.  He 
was  carried  off  by  the  great  pestilence  which 
devastated  Rome  in  174. — 5.  C.,  praetor  132,  and 
consul  129.  In  his  consulship  he  carried  on 
war  against  the  lapydes  in  Illyricum,  over  whom 
he  gained  a  victory  chiefly  through  the  military 
skill  of  his  legate,  D.  Junius  Brutus.  Tudita- 
nus  was  an  orator  and  a  historian,  and  in  both 
obtained  considerable  distinction. 

TULCIS,  a  river  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Spain, 
near  Tarraco. 

TULINGI,  a  people  of  Gaul  of  no  great  import- 
ance, who  dwelt  on  the  Rhine,  between  the 
Rauraci  and  the  Helvetii. 

TULLIA,  the  name  of  the  two  daughters  of 
Servius  Tullius,  the  sixth  king  of  Rome.  Vid. 

T'JLLIUS. 

TOLLIA,  frequently  called  by  the  diminutive 
FuLLiSLA,  was  the  daughter  of  M.  Cicero  and 
Terenlia,  and  was  probably  horn  B.C.  79  or  78. 
She  was  betrothed  in  67  to  C.  Calpurnius  Piso 
Frugi,  whom  she  married  in  63  during  the  con- 
sulship of  her  father.  During  Cicero's  banish- 
ment Tullia  lost  her  first  husband.  She  was 
married  again  in  56  to  Furius  Crassipes,  a 
young  man  of  rank  and  large  property ;  but  she 
did  not  live  with  him  long,  though  the  time  and 
the  reason  of  her  divorce  are  alike  unknown. 
In  50  she  was  married  to  her  third  husband,  P. 
Cornelius  Dolabella,  who  was  a  thorough  profli- 
gate. The  marriage  took  place  during  Cicero's 
absence  ia  Cilicia,  and,  as  might  have  been  an- 
ticipated, was  not  a  happy  one.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  civil  war  in  49,  the  husband  and 
the  father  of  Tullia  espoused  opposite  sides. 
While  Dolabella  fought  for  Caesar,  and  Cicero 
look  refuge  in  the  camp  of  Pompey,  Tullia  re- 
mained in  Italy.  On  the  19th  of  May,  49,  she 
was  delivered  of  a  seven  months'  child,  which 
died  soon  afterward.  After  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  Dolabella  returned  to  Rome  ;  but  he  con- 
tinued to  lead  a  dissolute  and  profligate  life,  and 
at  length  (46)  a  divorce  took  place  by  mutual 
consent.  At  the  beginning  of  45  Tullia  was 
delivered  of  a  son.  As  soon  as  she  was  suffi- 
ciently recovered  to  bear  the  fatigues  of  a  jour- 
ney, she  accompanied  her  father  to  Tusculum, 
but  she  died  there  in  February.  Her  loss  was 
a  severe  blow  to  Cicero.  Among  the  many 
consolatory  letters  which  he  received  on  the 
occasion  is  the  well-known  one  from  the  cele- 
brated jurist  Serv.  Sulpicius  (ad  Fam.,  iv.,  5). 
To  dissipate  his  grief,  Cicero  drew  up  a  treatise 
on  Consolation. 

TCLLIA  GENS,  patrician  and  plebeian.  The 
patrician  Tullii  were  one  of  the  Alban  houses, 
which  were  transplanted  to  Rome  in  the  reign 
of  Tullus  Hostilius.  The  patrician  branch  of 
the  gens  appears  to  have  become  extinct  at  an 
early  period  ;  for,  after  the  early  times  of  the 
republic,  no  one  of  the  name  occurs  for  some 
centuries,  and  the  Tullii  of  a  later  age  are  not 
only  plebeians,  but,  with  the  exception  of  their 
bearing  the  same  name,  can  not  be  regarded  as 
having  any  connection  with  the  ancient  gens. 
The  first  plebeian  Tullius  who  rose  to  the  hon- 


TULLIUS,  SERVIUS. 

ors  of  the  state  was  M.  Tullius  Decula,  con« 
sul  B.C.  81,  and  the  next  was  the  celebrated 
orator  M.  Tullius  Cicero.  Vid.  CICERO. 

TULLIANUM.     Vid.  ROMA,  p.  753,  a. 

TULLIUS,  SERVIUS,  the  sixth  king  of  Rome. 
The  account  of  the  early  life  and  death  of  Ser- 
vius Tullius  is  full  of  strange  marvels,  and  tan 
not  be  regarded  as  possessing  any  title  to  a  real 
historical  narrative.  His  mother,  Ocrisia,  was 
one  of  the  captives  taken  at  Corniculum,  and 
became  a  female  slave  of  Tanaquil,  the  wife  of 
Tarquinius  Priscus.  He  was  born  in  the  king'? 
palace,  and,  notwithstanding  his  servile  origin, 
was  brought  up  as  the  king's  son,  since  Tana- 
quil, by  her  powers  of  divination,  had  foreseen 
the  greatness  of  the  child  ;  and  Tarquinius  placed 
such  confidence  in  him,  that  he  gave  him  his 
daughter  in  marriage,  and  intrusted  him  with 
the  exercise  of  the  government.  His  rule  was 
mild  and  beneficent ;  and  so  popular  did  he  be- 
come, that  the  sons  of  Ancus  Marcius,  fearing 
lest  they  should  be  deprived  of  the  throne  which 
they  claimed  as  their  inheritance,  procured  the 
assassination  of  Tarquinius.  Vid.  TARQUINIUS 
They  did  not,  however,  reap  the  fruit  of  their 
crime,  for  Tanaquil,  pretending  that  the  king's 
wound  was  not  mortal,  told  the  people  that  Tar- 
quinius would  recover  in  a  few  days,  and  that 
he  had  commanded  Servius,  meantime,  to  dis- 
charge the  duties  of  the  kingly  office.  Servius 
forthwith  began  to  act  as  king,  greatly  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  people  ;  and  when  the  death 
of  Tarquinius  could  no  longer  be  concealed,  he 
was  already  in  firm  possession  of  the  royal  pow- 
er. The  reign  of  Servius  is  almost  as  barren 
of  military  exploits  as  that  of  Numa.  The  only 
war  which  Livy  mentions  is  one  against  Veii, 
which  was  brought  to  a  speedy  conclusion.  The 
great  deeds  of  Servius  were  deeds  of  peace ; 
and  he  was  regarded  by  posterity  as  the  author 
of  all  their  civil  rights  and  institutions,  just  as 
Numa  was  of  their  religious  rites  and  ordinan- 
ces. Three  important  events  are  assigned  to 
Servius  by  universal  tradition.  First,  he  gave 
a  new  constitution  to  the  Roman  state.  The 
two  main  objects  of  this  constitution  were  to 
give  the  plebs  political  independence,  and  to 
assign  to  property  that  influence  in  the  state 
which  had  previously  belonged  to  birth  exclu- 
sively. In  order  to  carry  his  purpose  into  ef- 
fect, Servius  made  a  two-fold  division  of  the 
Roman  people,  one  territorial,  and  the  other  ac- 
cording to  property.  For  details,  vid.  Diet,  of 
Antiq.,  art.  COMITIA.  Secondly,  he  extended 
the  pomoerium,  or  hallowed  boundary  of  the 
city,  and  completed  the  city  by  incorporating 
with  it  the  Quirinal,  Viminal,  and  Esquiline 
hills.  Vid.  ROMA.  Thirdly,  he  established  an 
important  alliance  with  the  Latins,  by  which 
Rome  and  the  cities  of  Latium  became  tho 
members  of  one  great  league.  By  his  new  con- 
stitution Servius  incurred  the  hostility  of  the 
patricians,  who  conspired  with  I,.  Tarquinius 
to  deprive  him  of  his  life  and  of  his  throne. 
His  death  was  the  subject  of  a  legend,  which 
ran  as  follows.  Servius,  soon  after  his  suc- 
cession, gave  his  two  daughters  in  marriage  to 
tho  two  sons  of  Tarquinius  Priscus.  L.  Tar- 
quinius, the  elder,  was  married  to  a  quiet  and 
gentle  wife  ;  Aruns,  the  younger,  to  an  aspiring 
and  ambitious  woman.  The  character  of  tho 

911 


TULLIUS  TIRO. 

Jwo  brotheis  was  the  very  opposite  of  the  wives 
who  had  fallen  to  their  lot ;  for  Lucius  was 
proud  and  haughty,  but  Aruns  unambitious  and 
quiet.  The  wife  of  Aruns,  fearing  that  her^ua- 
band  would  tamely  resign  the  sovereignty  to  his 
elder  brother,  resolved  to  destroy  both  her  fa- 
ther and  her  husband.  She  persuaded  Lucius 
to  murder  his  wife,  and  she  murdered  her  own 
husband,  and  the  survivors  straightway  married. 
Tullia  now  urged  her  husband  to  murder  her  fa- 
ther ;  and  it  was  said  that  their  design  was  hast- 
ened by  the  belief  that  Servius  entertained  the 
thought  of  laying  down  his  kingly  power  and 
establishing  the  consular  form  of  government. 
The  pfuricians  were  equally  alarmed  at  this 
scheme.  Their  mutual  hatred  and  fears  united 
them  closely  together  ;  and  when  the  conspir- 
acy was  ripe,  Tarquinius  entered  the  Forum  ar- 
rayed in  the  kingly  robes,  seated  himself  in  the 
royal  chair  in  the  senate-house,  and  ordered  the 
senators  to  be  summoned  to  him  as  their  king. 
At  the  first  news  of  the  commotion,  Servius 
hastened  to  the  senate-house,  and,  standing  at 
the  door-way,  ordered  Tarquinius  to  come  down 
from  the  throne.  Tarquinius  sprang  forward, 
seized  the  old  man,  and  flung  him  down  the 
stone  steps.  Covered  with  blood,  the  king  was 
hastening  home,  but,  before  he  reached  it,  he 
was  overtaken  by  the  servants  of  Tarquinius 
and  murdered.  Tullia  drove  to  the  senate- 
house,  and  greeted  her  husband  as  king ;  but 
her  transports  of  joy  struck  even  him  with  hor- 
ror. He  bade  her  go  home ;  and  as  she  was 
returning,  her  charioteer  pulled  up  and  pointed 
out  the  corpse  of  her  father  lying  in  his  blood 
across  the  road.  She  commanded  him  to  drive 
on ;  the  blood  of  her  father  spirted  over  the 
carriage  and  on  her  dress ;  and  from  that  day 
*brward  the  street  bore  the  name  of  the  Vicus 
Sceleratus,  or  Wicked  Street.  The  body  lay 
unburied,  for  Tarquinius  said  scoffingly,  "Rom- 
ulus too  went  without  burial ;"  and  this  impi- 
ous mockery  is  said  to  have  given  rise  to  his 
surname  of  Superbus.  Servius  had  reigned  for- 
ty-four years.  His  memory  was  long  cherished 
by  the  plebeians. 

TULLIUS  TIRO.     Vid.  TIRO. 

TULLUM  (now  TOM/),  the  capital  of  the  Leuci, 
a  people  in  the  southeast  of  Gallia  Belgica,  be- 
tween the  Matrona  and  Mosella. 

TULLUS  HOSTILIUS,  third  king  of  Rome,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  grandson  of  Hostus  Hos- 
tilius,  who  fell  in  battle  against  the  Sabines  in 
the  reign  of  Romulus.  His  legend  ran  as  fol- 
lows :  Tullus  Hostilius  departed  from  the  peace- 
ful ways  of  Numa,  and  aspired  to  the  martial 
renown  of  Romulus.  He  made  Alba  acknowl- 
edge Rome's  supremacy'  in  the  war  wherein 
the  three  Roman  brothers,  the  Horatii,  fought 
with  the  three  Alban  brothers,  the  Curiatii,  at 
the  Fossa  Cluilia.  Next  he  warred  with  Fide- 
nae  and  with  Veii,  and  being  straitly  pressed  by 
their  joint  hosts,  he  vowed  temples  to  Pallor 
and  Pavor — Paleness  and  Panic.  And  after  the 
fight  was  won,  he  tore  asunder  with  chariots 
Mettius  Fufetius,  the  king  or  dictator  of  Alba, 
because  he  had  desired  to  betray  Rome  ;  and 
he  utterly  destroyed  Alba,  sparing  only  the  tem- 
ples of  the  gods,  and  bringing  the  Alban  people 
.  to  Rome,  where  he  gave  them  the  Caelian  Hill 
to  dwell  on.  Then  he  turned  himself  to  war 
912 


TURIASSO. 

with  the  Sabines ;  and  being  again  straitened 
in  fight  in  a  wood  called  the  Wicked  Wood,  he 
vowed  a  yearly  festival  to  Saturn  and  Ops,  and 
to  double  the  number  of  the  Salii,  or  priests  of 
Manners.  And  when,  by  their  help,  he  had  van- 
quished the  Sabines,  he  performed  his  vow,  and 
its  records  were  the  feasts  Saturnalia  and  Opa- 
lia.  In  his  old  age,  Tullus  grew  weary  of  war- 
ring ;  and  when  a  pestilence  struck  him  and 
his  people,  and  a  shower  of  burning  stones  fell 
from  heaven  on  Mount  Alba,  and  a  voice  as  of 
the  Alban  gods  came  forth  from  the  solitary 
temple  of  Jupiter  on  its  summit,  he  remembered 
the  peaceful  and  happy  days  of  Numa,  and  sought 
to  win  the  favor  of  the  gods,  as  Numa  had  done, 
by  prayer  and  divination.  But  the  gods  heeded 
neither  his  prayers  nor  his  charms,  and  when 
he  would  inquire  of  Jupiter  Elicius,  Jupiter  was 
wroth,  and  smote  Tullus  and  his  whole  house 
with  fire.  Perhaps  the  only  historical  fact  em- 
bodied in  the  legend  of  Tullus  is  the  ruin  ol 
Alba. 

[TULLUS,  VOLCATIUS.  1.  L.,  consul  B.C.  66 
with  M'.  ^Emilius  Lepidus.  After  his  consul- 
ship he  lived  in  retirement,  and  during  the  civil 
wars  took  no  part  in  public  affairs.  He  had 
approved  of  Cicero's  measures  against  the  ac- 
complices of  Catiline,  and  spoke  on  the  subject 
in  the  senate. — 2.  C.,  probably  son  of  No.  1, 
fought  under  Caesar  in  the  Gallic  war,  and  also 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Dyrrachi- 
um  in  B.C.  48. — 3.  L.,  son  of  No.  1,  was  practoi 
urbanus  in  B.C.  46,  and  consul  with  Octavianus 
in  B.C.  33.] 

TUNES  or  TUNIS  (Tvvrif,  Tovvif  :  Tvvrjaaiof  : 
now  Tunis),  a  strongly-fortified  city  of  North- 
ern Africa,  stood  at  the  bottom  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian Gulf,  ten  miles  southwest  of  Carthage,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  little  river  Catada.  At  the 
time  of  Augustus  it  had  greatly  declined,  but  it 
afterward  recovered,  and  is  now  the  capital  of 
the  regency  of  Tunis.  .  » 

TUNGRI,  a  German  people  who  crossed  the 
Rhine,  and  settled  in  Gaul  in  the  country  for- 
merly occupied  by  the  Aduatici  and  the  Ebu- 
rones.  Their  chief  town  was  called  TUNQRI  or 
ADUACA  TONGRORUM  (now  Tongerri),  on  the  road 
from  Castellum  Morinorum  to  Colonia  Agrip- 
pina. 

[TURBO.  1.  A  gladiator  of  small  stature,  but 
great  courage,  mentioned  by  Horace  ("  et  idem 
Corpore  majorem  rides  Turbonis  in  armis  Spir- 
itum  et  incessum,"  Sat.,  ii.,  3,  310-11). — 2.  A 
distinguished  commander,  and  governor  foi 
some  time  of  Pannonia  under  Hadrian.] 

TURDETANI,  the  most  numerous  people  in 
Hispania  Baetica,  dwelt  in  the  south  of  the  prov- 
ince, on  both  banks  of  the  Baetis,  as  far  as  Lusi- 
tania.  They  were  regarded  as  the  most  civil- 
ized people  in  all  Spain.  Their  country  was 
called  TUSDETANIA. 

TURDULI,  a  people  in  Hispania  Baetica,  situa- 
ted to  the  east  and  south  of  the  Turdetani,  with 
whom  they  were  closely  connected.  The  names, 
in  fact,  appear  identical. 

TURIA  or  TURIUM  (now  Guadalaviar),  a  rivei 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Spain,  flowing  into  the 
sea  at  Valentia,  memorable  for  the  battle  fought 
on  its  banks  between  Pompey  and  Sertorius. 

TURIASSO  (Turiassonensis  :  now  Tarrazona) 
a  town  of  the  Celtiberi  in  Hispania  Tarraconen 


TURICUM. 


TYDEUS. 


t is,  on  the  road  from  Caesaraugusta  to  Numan- 
iia.  It  possessed  a  fountain,  the  water  of  which 
was  said  to  be  very  excellent  for  hardening 
iron. 

[TuKicuM  (Turicensis,  now  Zurich),  a  town 
in  the  territory  of  the  Helvetii,  on  the  Limagus 
(now  Limmat).] 

TURNUS  -fTi}pj/of).  1.  Son  of  Daunus  and 
Venilia,  and  king  of  the  Ilutuli  at  the  time  of 
the  arrival  of  ^Eneas  in  Italy.  He  was  a  broth- 
er of  Juturna,  and  related  to  Amata,  the  wife 
of  King  Latinus  ;  and  he  fought  against  ^Eneas 
because  Latinus  had  given  to  the  Trojan  hero 
his  daughter  Lavinia,  who  had  been  previously 
promised  to  Turnus.  He  appears  in  the  JEneid 
as  a  brave  warrior ;  but  in  the  end  he  fell  by 
the  hand  of  J2neas. — 2.  A  Roman  satiric  poet, 
was  a  native  of  Aurunca,  and, lived  under  Ves- 
pasian and  Domitian.  We  possess  thirty  hex- 
ameters, forming  a  portion  of,  apparently,  a  long 
satiric  poem,  the  subject  being  an  enumeration 
of  the  crimes  and  abominations  which  charac- 
terized the  reign  of  Nero.  These  lines  are  as- 
cribed by  some  modern  scholars  to  Turnus. 

TURNUS  HERDONIUS.     Vid.  HERDONIUS. 

Tu  RONES,  TURONI  or  TURONII,  a  people  in  the 
interior  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  between  the  Au- 
lerci,  Andes,  and  Pictones.  Their  chief  town 
was  C.ESARODUNUM,  subsequently  TURONI  (now 
Tours),  on  the  Liger  (now  Loire). 

TURPILIUS,  SEXTUS,  a  Roman  dramatist, 
whose  productions  belonged  to  the  department 
of  Comoedia  Palliata.  The  titles  of  thirteen  or 
fourteen  of  his  plays  have  been  preserved,  to- 
gether with  a  few  fragments.  He  died,  when 
very  old,  at  Sinuessa  in  B.C.  101.  He  stands 
seventh  in  the  scale  of  Volcatius  Sedigitus. 
Vid.  SEDIGITUS.  [His  fragments  are  collected 
in  Bothe's  Focta  Scenici  Latinorum,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
77-94.] 

TURPIO,  L.  AMBIVIUS,  a  very  celebrated  actor 
in  the  time  of  Terence,  in  most  of  whose  plays 
be  acted. 

TURRIS  HANNIBALIS  (ruins  at  Bourj  Salcktah), 
a  castle  on  the  coast  of  Byzacena,  between 
Thapsus  and  Acliolla,  belonging  to  Hannibal, 
who  embarked  here  when  he  fled  to  Antiochus 
the  Great. 

TURRIS  STRATONIS.     Vid.  C^ESAREA,  No.  3. 

TUSCANIA  (Tuscaniensis  :  now  Toscanella),  a 
town  of  Etruria,  on  the  River  Marta,  rarely  men- 
tioned by  ancient  writers,  but  celebrated  in  mod- 
ern times  on  account  of  the  great  number  of 
Etruscan  antiquities  which  have  been  discov- 
ered in  its  ancient  tombs. 

Tusci,  Tuscu.  Vid.  ETRURIA. 

TUSCULUM  (Tusculanus:  ruins  near  Frascati), 
an  ancient  town  of  Latium,,  situated  about 
ten  miles  southeast  of  Rome,  on  a  lofty  sum- 
mit of  the  mountains,  which  are  called  after  the 
town  TUSCULANI  MONTES,  and  which  are  a  con- 
tinuation of  Mons  Albanus.  Tusculum  was 
one  of  the  most  strongly  fortified  places  in  all 
Italy,  both  by  nature  and  by  art.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Telegonus,  the  son  of 
Ulysses  ;  and  it  was  always  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  Latin  towns.  Its  importance 
in  the  time  of  the  Roman  kings  is  shown  by 
Tarquinius  Superbus  giving  his  daughter  in 
marriage  to  Octavius  iMamilius,  the  chiefof Tus- 
culum. At  a  late--  time  it  became  a  Roman 
58 


I  municipium,  and  was  the  birth-place  of  several 

1  distinguished  Roman  families.     Cato  the  cen- 

|  sor  was  a  native  of  Tusculum.  Its  proximity 
to  Rome,  its  salubrity,  and  the  beauty  of  its 

:  situation  made  it  a  favorite  residence  of  the 

'  Roman  nobles  during  the  summer.  Cicero, 
among  others,  had  a  favorite-villa  at  this  place, 
which  he  frequently  mentions  under  the  name 
of  TUSCULANUM.  The  site  of  this  villa  is  not 
exactly  known  ;  some  placing  it  near  Grotta 
Ferrata,  on  the  road  from  Frascati  to  the  Alban 
Lake,  and  others  near  La  Rufinella.  The  ruins 
of  ancient  Tusculum  are  situated  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  mountain,  about  two  miles  alxive 

|  Frascati. 

TUTICANUS,  a  Roman  poet  and  a  friend  _>f 
Ovid,  who  had  translated  into  Latin  verse  a 
portion  of  the  Odyssey. 

TUTZIS  (ruins  at  Garshce  or  Gucrfey  Hassan), 
a  city  in  the  Dodecaschoenus,  that  is,  the  part 
of  ^Ethiopia  immediately  above  Egypt,  on  the 

j  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  north  of  Pselcis,  and 
south  of  Talmis. 

TYANA  (Tvava  :  Tvavtvf.  ruins  at  Kiz  Hisar), 

!  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  stood  in  the  south  of  Cap- 
padocia,  at  the  northern  foot  of  Mount  Taurus, 
on  the  high  road  to  the  Cilician  Gates,  three 
hundred  stadia  from  Cybistra,  and  four  hundred 
from  Mazaca,  in  a  position  of  great  natural 

!  strength,  which  was  improved  by  fortifications. 
Under  Caracalla  it  was  made  a  Roman  colony. 
In  B.C.  272  it  was  taken  by  Aurelian,  in  the 

|  war  with  Zenobia,  to  whose  territory  it  then 
belonged.  Valens  made  it  the  chief  city  pf 
Cappadocia  Secunda.  In  its  neighborhood  was 

i  a  great  temple  of  Jupiter,  by  the  side  of  a  lake 
in  a  swampy  plain  ;  and  near  the  temple  was  a 
remarkable  effervescing  spring  called  Asmabae- 
on.     Tyana  was  the  native  place  of  Apollonius, 
the  supposed  worker  of  miracles.     The  south- 
ern district  of  Cappadocia,  in  which  the  city 
stood,  was  called  Tyanitis 
TYCHE.     Vid.  FORTUNA. 
TYCHE.     Vid.  SYRACUSE. 
[TYCHIUS  (Tv^iof),  of  Hyle,  a  mythical  artifi- 
cer, mentioned  by  Homer  as    the  maker  of 
Ajax's  shield  of  seven  ox-hides,  covered  with  a 
plate  of  brass.] 

TYDEUS  (Tvdfi>(),  son  of  CEneus,  king  of  Caly- 
don,  and  Peribcea.  He  was  obliged  to  leavr- 
Calydon  in  consequence  of  some  murder  which 
he  had  committed,  but  which  is  differently  de- 
scribed by  the  different  authors,  some  saying 
that  he  killed  his  father's  brother,  Melas,  Lyco- 
peus,  or  Alcathous  ;  others,  that  he  slew  Thoas 
or  Aphareus,  his  mother's  brother  ;  others,  that 
he  slew  his  brother  Olen.ias  ;  and  others,  again, 
that  he  killed  the  sons  of  Melas,  who  had  revolt- 
ed against  CEneus.  He  fled  to  Adrastus  at  Ar- 
gos,  who  purified  him  from  the  murder,  and 
gave  him  his  daughter  Deipyle  in  marriage,  by 
whom  he  became  the  father  of  Diomedes,  who 
is  hence  frequently  called  TYDIDES.  He  ac- 
companied Adrastus  in  the  expedition  against 
Thebes,  where  he  was  wounded  by  Melanippus, 
who,  however,  was  slain  by  him.  When  Tyd- 
eus  lay  on  the  ground  wounded,  Minerva  (Athe- 
na) appeared  to  him  with  a  remedy  which  she 
had  received  from  Jupiter  (Zeus),  and  which 
was  to  make  him  immortal.  This,  however, 
was  prevented  by  a  stratagem  of  Amphiaraus 

913 


TYLOS. 

who  hated  Tydeus,  for  he  cut  off  the  head  of 
Melanippus  and  brought  it  to  Tydeus,  who  di- 
vided it  and  ate  the  brain,  or  devoured  some  of 
the  flesh.  Minerva  (Athena),  seeing  this,  shud- 
dered, and  left  Tydeus  to  his  fate,  who  conse- 
quently died,  and  was  buried  by  Macon. 

TYLOS  or  TYRO'S  (Tii'Aof,  Tvpnf  :  now  Bah- 
rein), an  island  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  off  the  coast 
of  Arabia,  celebrated  for  its  pearl  fisheries. 

TYMBRES  or  TEMBROGIUS  (now  Pursck),  a  river 
of  Phrygia,  rising  in  Mount  Dindymene,  and 
flowing  past  Cotyaeum  and  Dorylasum  into  the 
Sangarius.  It  was  the  boundary  between  Phry- 
gia Epictetus  and  Phrygia  Salutaris. 

TYMNES  ( Tvpvrjs )»  an  epigrammatic  poet, 
whose  epigrams  were  included  in  the  Garland 
of  Meleager,  but  respecting  whose  exact  date 
wo  have  no  further  evidence.  There  are  seven 
of  his  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

TYMPH^EI  (TvfHpaloi),  a  people  of  Epirus,  on 
the  borders  of  Thessaly,  so  called  from  Mount 
TYMPHE  (Tv^tj),  sometimes,  but  less  correctly, 
written  STYMPHE  (I,rvu<j>Ti).  Their  country  was 
called  TYMPH^EA  (Tv/jifaia'). 

TYMPHRESTUS  (Tvft^pijarof  :  now  Elladha),  a 
mountain  in  Thessaly,  in  the  country  of  the 
Dryopes,  in  which  the  River  Spercheus  rises. 

TYNDAREOS  (Tvvdupeof),  not  TYNDARUS,  which 
is  not  found  in  classical  writers,  was  son  of  Pe- 
rieres  and  Gorgophone,  or,  according  to  others, 
son  of  CEbalus,  by  the  nymph  Batia  or  by  Gor- 
gophone. Tyndareus  and  his  brother  Icarius 
were  expelled  by  their  step-brother  Hippocoon 
and  his  sons  ;  whereupon  Tyndareus  fled  to 
Thestius  in  ^Etolia,  and  assisted  him  in  his  wars 
against  his  neighbors.  In  ^Etolia  Tyndareus 
married  Leda,  the  daughter  of  Thestius,  and 
was  afterward  restored  to  Sparta  by  Hercules. 
By  Leda,  Tyndareus  became  the  father  of 
Timandra,  Clytaemnestra,  and  Philonoe.  One 
night  Leda  was  embraced  both  by  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Tyndareus,  and  the  result  was  the  birth  of 
Pollux  and  Helena,  the  children  of  Jugiter 
(Zeus),  and  of  Castor  and  Clytaemnestra,  the 
children  of  Tyndareus.  The  patronymic  TYN- 
DARID.<E  is  frequently  given  to  Castor  and  Pol- 
lux, and  the  female  patronymic  TYNDARIS  to 
Helen  and  Clytaemnestra.  When  Castor  and 
Pollux  had  been  received  among  the  immortals, 
Tyndareus  invited  Menelaus  to  come  to  Spar- 
ta, and  surrendered  his  kingdom  to  him. 

TYNPARIS  orTYNDARiUM  (Tvvdapif ,  Tvvddpiov : 
Tyndaritanns :  now  Tindarc),  a  town  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Sicily,  with  a  good  harbor,  a 
little  west  of  Messana,  near  the  promontory  of 
the  same  name  founded  by  the  elder  Dionysius, 
B.C.  396,  which  became  an  important  place.  It 
was  the  head-quarters  of  Agrippa,  the  general 
of  Octavianus,  in  the  war  against  Sextus  Pom- 
pey.  The  greater  part  of  the  town  was  subse- 
quently destroyed  by  an  inundation  of  the  sea. 

[TYP^EUS  (Tvxaiov  opof),  a  craggy  elevation 
In  Elis,  between  Scillus  and  the  Alpheus,  in  the 
direction  of  Olympia.  from  which  the  law  de- 
creed that  women  should  be  hurled,  who  had 
infringed  the  regulations  excluding  them  from 
appearing  at  the  Olympic  games.] 

TYPHON  or  TYPHOEUS  (Tvtjiduv,  Tvtyuevf,  con- 
tracted into  Tu^uf),  a  monster  of  the  primitive 
world,  is  described  sometimes  as  a  destructive 
hurricane,  and  sometimes  as  a  fire-breathing 
914 


TYRAS. 

giant.  According  to  Homer,  he  was  concealed 
in  the  earth  in  the  country  of  the  Arimi  (Elv 
'A.pi/j.otf,  of  which  the  Latin  poets  have  made 
Inarime),  which  was  lashed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
with  flashes  of  lightning.  In  Hesiod,  Typhaon 
and  Typhoeus  are  two  distinct  beings.  Typha- 
on is  represented  as  a  son  of  Typhoeus,  and  a 
fearful  hurricane,  who  by  Echidna  "became  the 
father  of  the  dog  Orthus,  Cerberus,  the  Lernasan 
hydra,  Chimaera,  and  the  Sphinx.  Typhoeus,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  called  the  youngest  son  of 
Tartarus  and  Terra  (Gaea),  or  of  Juno  (Hera) 
alone,  because  she  was  indignant  at  Jupiter 
(Zeus)  having  given  birth  to  Minerva  (Athena). 
He  is  described  as  a  monster  with  one  hundred 
heads,  fearful  eyes,  and  terrible  voices  ;  he 
wanted  to  acquire  the  sovereignty  of  gods  and 
men,  but  was  subdued,  after  a  fearful  struggle, 
by  Jupiter  (Zeus),  with  a  thunderbolt.  He  be- 
got the  winds,  whence  he  is  also  called  the 
father  of  the  Harpies  ;  but  the  beneficent  winda 
Notu's,  Boreas,  Argestes,  and  Zephyrus,  were 
not  his  sons.  ^Eschylus  and  Pindar  describe 
him  as  living  in  a  Cilician  cave.  He  is  further 
said  to  have  at  one  time  been  engaged  in  a 
struggle  with  all  the  immortals,  and  to  have 
been  killed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  with  a  flash  of 
lightning  ;  he  was  buried  in  Tartarus  under 
Mount  yEtna,  the  work-shop  of  Hephaestus, 
which  is  hence  called  by  the  poets  Typhois  JEi- 
na.  The  later  poets  frequently  connect  Ty- 
phoeus with  Egypt.  The  gods,  it  is  said,  unable 
to  hold  out  against  him,  fled  to  Egypt,  where, 
from  fear,  they  metamorphosed  themselves  into 
animals,  with  the  exception  of  Jupiter  (Zeus) 
and  Minerva  (Athena). 

TYRAGET^E.TYRICETVE,  orTYRANCET-a:,  a  peo- 
ple in  European  Sarmatia,  probably  a  branch  of 
the  Getae,  dwelling  east  of  the  River  Tyras. 

TYRANNION  (Tvpavviuv).  1.  A  Greek  gram 
marian,  a  native  of  Amisus  in  Pontus,  was  orig 
inally  called  Theophrastus,  but  received  from 
his  instructor  the  name  of  Tyrannion  on  account 
of  his  domineering  behavior  to  his  fellow-disci- 
ples. In  B.C.  72  he  was  taken  captive  by  Lu- 
cullus,  who  carried  him  to  Rome.  He  was 
given  by  Lucullus  to  Murena,  who  manumitted 
him.  At  Rome  Tyrannion  occupied  himself  in 
teaching.  He  was  also  employed  in  arranging 
the  library  of  Apellicon,  which  Sulla  brought  to 
Rome.  This  library  contained  the  writings  of 
Aristotle,  upon  which  Tyrannion  bestowed  con- 
siderable care  and  attention.  Cicero  speaks  in 
the  highest  terms  of  the  learning  and  ability  of 
Tyrannion.  Tyrannion  amassed  considerable 
wealth,  and  died  at  a  very  advanced  age  of  a 
paralytic  stroke. — 2.  A  native  of  Phoenicia,  the 
son  of  Artemidorus,  and  a  disciple  of  the  pre- 
ceding. His  original  name  was  Diocles.  He 
was  taken  captive  in  the  war  between  Antony 
and  Octavianus,  and  was  purchased  by  Dymas,  a 
freedman  of  the  latter.  By  him  he  was  pre- 
sented to  Terentia.  the  wife  of  Cicero,  who  man- 
umitted him.  He  taught  at  Rome,  and  wrote 
a  great  number  of  works,  which  are  all  lost. 

TYRAS  (Tvpac.,  Tvpw  :  now  Dniester),  subse- 
quently called  DANASTRIS,  a  river  in  European 
Sarmatia,  forming,  in  the  lower  part  of  its 
course,  the  boundary  between  Dacia  and  Sar- 
matia, and  falling  into  the  Pontus  Euxinus 
north  of  the  Danube.  At  its  mouth  there  was 


TYRES. 

&  town  of  the  same  name,  probably  on  the  site 
of  the  modern  Ackjcrmann. 

[TYRES,  brother  of  Teuthras,  one  of  the  com- 
panions of  ^Eneas,  fought  in  Italy  against  Tur- 
nus.] 

TVBI.SUM  (Tvpiaiov  :  now  Ilghun),  a  city  of 
Lycaonia,  described  by  Xenophon  (in  the  Anab- 
asis) as  twenty  parasangs  west  of  Iconium. 
It  lay  due  west  of  Laodicea. 

TVRO  (Tvpu),  daughter  of  Salmoneus  and  Al- 
cidice.  She  was  wife  of  Cretheus,  and  beloved 
by  the  river-god  Enipeus  in  Thessaly,  in  whose 
form  Neptune  (Poseidon)  appeared  to  her,  and 
became  by  her  the  father  of  Pelias  and  Neleus. 
By  Cretheus  she  was  the  mother  of  JEson, 
Pheres,  and  Amythaon. 

TVRRHENI,  TYBRHENIA.     Vid.  ETEURIA. 

TYUKHENUM  MARE.      Vid.  ETRURIA. 

TYRRHENOS  (Tvppqvof  or  Tvpaijvoc),  son  of 
the  Lydian  king  Atys  and  Callithea,  and  brother 
of  Lydus,  is  said  to  have  led  a  Pelasgian  colony 
from  Lydia  into  Italy,  inlo  the  country  of  the 
Urnbrians,  and  to  have  given  to  the  colonists 
his  name,  Tyrrhenians.  Others  call  Tyrrhqnus 
a  son  of  Hercules  by  Omphale,  or  of  Telephus 
and  Hiera,  and  a  brother  of  Tarchon.  The 
name  Tarchon  seems  to  be  only  another  form 
of  Tyrrhenus. 

TYRRHEUS,  a  shepherd  of  King  Latinus.  As 
Ascanius  was  hunting,  he  killed  a  tame  stag  be- 
longing to  Tyrrheus,  whereupon  the  country 
people  took  up  arms,  which  was  the  first  con- 
flict in  Italy  between  the  natives  and  the  Tro- 
jan settlers. 

TYRT^KUS  (Tvpratof  or  Tv'pratof),  son  of  Ar- 
chembrotus,  of  Aphidnae  in  Attica.  According 
to  the  older  tradition,  the  Spartans,  during  the 
second  Messenian  war,  were  commanded  by  an 
oracle  to  take  a  leader  from  among  the  Athe- 
nians, and  thus  to  conquer  their  enemies,  where- 
upon they  chose Tyrtaeus  as  their  leader.  Later 
writers  embellish  the  story,  and  represent  Tyr- 
taeus as  a  lame  schoolmaster,  of  low  family  and 
reputation,  whom  the  Athenians,  when  applied 
to  by  the  Lacedaemonians  in  accordance  with 
the  oracle,  purposely  sent  as  the  most  inefficient 
leader  they  could  select,  being  unwilling  to  as- 
sist the  Lacedaemonians  in  extending  their  do- 
minion in  the  Peloponnesus,  but  little  thinking 
that  the  poetry  of  Tyrtaeus  would  achieve  that 
victory  which  his  physical  constitution  seemed 
to  forbid  his  aspiring  to.  Many  modern  critics 
reject  altogether  the  account  of  the  Attic  origin 
of  Tyrtaeus,  and  maintain  that  the  extant  frag- 
ments of  his  poetry  actually  furnish  evidence 
of  his  being  a  Lacedaemonian.  But  it  is  impos- 
sible to  arrive  at  any  positive  decision  upon  the 
subject.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  poems 
of  Tyrtaeus  exercised  an  important  influence 
upon  the  Spartans,  composing  their  dissensions 
at  home,  and  animating  their  courage  in  the 
field.  In  order  to  appease  their  civil  discords, 
he  composed  his  celebrated  elegy  entitled  "  Le- 
gal'Order"  (Evvopia),  which  appears  to  have 
had  a  wondrous  effect  in  stilling  the  excited 
passions  of  the  Spartans.  But  still  more  cele- 
brated were  the  poems  by  which  he  animated 
the  courage  of  the  Spartans  in  their  conflict 
with  the  Messentans.  These  poems  were  of 
two  kinds ;  namely,  elegies,  containing  exhorta- 
tions to  constancy  and  courage,  and  descriptions 


TZETZES. 

of  the  glory  of  fighting  bravely  for  one's  native 
land  ;  and  more  spirited  compositions,  in  the 
anapaest'c  measure,  which  were  intended  as 
marching  songs,  to  be  performed  with  the  music 
of  the  flute.  He  lived  to  see  the  success  of  his 
efforts  in  the  entire  conquest  of  the  Messeriians, 
and  their  reduction  to  the  condition  of  Helots. 
He  therefore  flourished  down  to  B.C.  668,  which 
was  the  last  year  of  the  second  Messenian  war. 
The  best  separate  edition  of  the  fragments  of 
his  poems  is  by  Bach,  with  the  remains  of  the 
elegiac  poets  Callinus  and  Asius,  Lips.,  1831. 

TYRUS  (Tt'-pof :  Aram.  Tura  :  in  the  Old  Test- 
ament, Tsor :  Tvptoc,  Tyrlus  :  ruins  at  Sur),  one 
of  the  greatest  and  most  famous  cities  of  the 
ancient  world,  stood  on  the  coast  of  Phcenice, 
about  twenty  miles  south  of  Sidon.  It  was  a 
colony  of  the  Sidonians,  and  is  therefore  called 
in  Scripture  "  the  daughter  of  Sidon."  It  grad- 
ually eclipsed  the  mother  city,  and  came  to  be 
the  chief  place  of  all  Phcenice  for  wealth,  com- 
merce, and  colonizing  activity.  In  the  time  of 
Solomon,  we  find  its  king,  Hiram,  who  was  also 
King  of  Sidon,  in  close  alliance  with  the  Hebrew 
monarch,  whom  he  assisted  in  building  the  tem- 
ple and  his  palace,  and  in  commercial  enter- 
prises. Respecting  its  colonies  and  maritime 
enterprise,  vid.  PHCENICE  and  CARTHAGO.  The 
Assyrian  king  Shalmaneser  laid  siege  to  Tyre 
for  five  years,  but  without  success.  It  was 
again  besieged  for  thirteen  years  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  there  is  a  tradition  that  he  took  it, 
but  the  matter  is  not  quite  certain.  At  the  pe- 
riod when  the  Greeks  began  to  be  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  city,  its  old  site  had  been  abandon- 
ed, and  a  new  city  erected  on  a  small  island 
about  half  a  mile  from  the  shore,  and  a  mile  in 
length,  and  a  little  north  of  the  remains  of  the 
former  city,  which  was  now  called  Old  Tyre 
(TlahaiTvpof).  With  the  additional  advantage 
of  its  insular  position,  this  new  city  soon  rose 
to  a  prosperity  scarcely  less  than  that  of  its 
predecessor  ;  though,  under  the  Persian  kings, 
it  seems  to  have  ranked  again  below  Sidon. 
Vid.  SIDON.  In  B.C.  322  the  Tyrians  refused 
to  open  their  gates  to  Alexander,  who  laid  siege 
to  the  city  for  seven  months,  and  united  the 
island  on  which  it  stood  to  the  main  land  by  a 
mole  constructed  chiefly  of  the  ruins  of  Old 
Tyre.  This  mole  has  ever  since  formed  a  per- 
manent connection  between  the  island  and  the 
main  land.  After  its  capture  and  sack  by  Alex- 
ander, Tyre  never  regained  its  former  conse- 
quence, and  its  commerce  was  for  the  most 
part  transferred  to  Alcxandrea.  It  recovered, 
however,  sufficiently  to  be  mentioned  as  a  strong 
fortress  and  flourishing  port  under  the  early  Ro 
man  emperors.  Septimius  Severus  made  it  a 
Roman  colony.  It  was  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
and  Jerome  calls  it  the  most  beautiful  city  of 
Phoenicia.  It  was  a  place  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  medieval  history,  especially  as  one 
of  the  last  points  held  by  the  Christians  on  the 
coast  of  Syria.  The  wars  of  the  Crusades  com- 
pleted its  ruin,  and  its  site  is  now  occupied  by 
a  poor  village  ;  and  even  its  ruins  are  for  the 
most  part  covered  by  the  sea.  Even  the  site 
of  Babylon  does  noNpresent  a  more  striking  ful- 
filment of  prophecy. 

TzKTiEs(T#rf77f).  1.  JOANNES,  a  Greek  gram- 
marian of  Constantinople,  flourished  about  A.D. 

915 


TZITZIS. 


ULYSSES. 


1150.  His  writings  bear  evident  traces  of  the 
extent  of  his  learning,  and  not  less  of  the  inor- 
dinate self-conceit  with  which  they  had  filled 
him.  He  wrote  a  vast  number  of  works,  of 
which  several  are  still  extant.  Of  these  the 
two  following  are  the  most  important :  1.  Iliaca, 
which  consists  properly  of  three  poems,  collect- 
ed into  one  under  the  titles  Tu  jrpo  'Oftf/pov,  TU 
'Opjjpov,  KOI  TU  ucff  'Ouripov.  The  whole  amounts 
to  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy-six 
lines,  and  is  written  in  hexameter  metre.  It  is 
a  very  dull  composition.  Edited  by  Bekker, 
Berlin,  1816.  2.  Chiliades,  consisting  in  its  pres- 
ent form  of  twelve  thousand  six  hundred  and 
sixty-one  lines.  This  name  was  given  to  it  by 
the  first  editor,  who  divided  it,  without  refer- 
ence to  the  contents,  into  thirteen  divisions  of 
one  thousand  lines,  the  last  being  incomplete. 
Its  subject-matter  is  of  the  most  miscellaneous 
kind,  but  embraces  chiefly  mythological  and  his- 
torical narratives,  arranged  under  separate  ti- 
tles, and  without  any  further  connection.  The 
following  are  a  few  of  them,  as  they  occur : 
Croesus,  Midas,  Gyges.  Codrus,  Alcmaeon,  &c. 
It  is  written  in  bad  Greek,  in  that  abominable 
make-believe  of  a  metre  called  political  verse. 
Edited  by  Kiessling,  Lips.,  1826.  —  2.  ISAAC, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  the  author  of  a  val- 
uable commentary  on  the  Cassandra  of  Lyco- 
phron,  printed  in  most  of  the  editions  of  Lyco- 
phron;  [best  edit,  by  Miiller,  Lips.  1811,3vols] 
TZITZIS  orTzuTzis  (ruins  south  of  Deboul),  a 
city  in  the  north  of  the  Dodecaschcenus,  that  is, 
the  part  of  ^Ethiopia  immediately  above  Egypt, 
a  little  south  of  Parembole,  and  considerably 
north  of  Taphis. 

U. 

UBII,  a  German  people,  who  originally  dwelt 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  but  were  trans- 
ported across  the  river  by  Agrippa  in  B.C.  37, 
at  their  own  request,  because  they  wished  to  es- 
cape the  hostilities  of  the  Suevi.  They  took 
the  name  of  Agrippenses,  from  their  town  Co- 
LONIA  AGRIPPINA. 

UCALEGON  (OvKa/.eyuv),  one  of  the  elders  at 
Troy,  whose  house  was  burned  at  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  city. 

UCUBIS,  a  town  inHispania  Baetica,  nearCor- 
duba. 

UFENS  (now  U/ente),  a  river  in  Latium,  flow- 
ing from  Setia,  and  falling  into  the  Amasenus. 

UFFUGUM,  a  town  in  Bruttium,  between  Scyl- 
lacium  and  Rhegium. 

UGERNUM  (now  Bcaucaire),  a  town  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  on  the  road  from  Nemausus  to 
Aquae  Sextiae,  where  Avitus  was  proclaimed 
emperor. 

ULIA  (now  Monlcmayor),  a  Roman  municip- 
ium  in  Hispania  Baetica,  situated  upon  a  hill, 
and  upon  the  road  from  Gades  to  Corduba. 

ULIARUS  or  OLARIONENSIS  INSULA  (now  Ole- 
row),  an  island  off  the  western  coast  of  Gaul,  in 
the  Aquitanian  Gulf. 

ULPIANUS.  1.  DOMITICS  ULPIANUS,  a  celebra- 
ted jurist,  derived  his  origin  from  Tyre  in  Phoe- 
nicia, but  was  probably  n«t  a  native  of  Tyre 
himself.  The  time  of  his  birth  is  unknown. 
The  greater  part  of  his  juristical  works  were 
written  during  the  sole  reign  of  Caracalla,  es- 
916 


pecially  the  two  great  works  Ad  Edictum  ana 
the  Lilri  ad  Sabinum.     He  was  banished  or  de- 

;  prived  of  his  functions  under  Elagabalus,  who 

'  became  emperor  217  ;  but  on  the  accession  of 
Alexander  Severus,  222,  he  became  the  emper- 
or's chief  adviser.  The  emperor  conferred  on 
Ulpian  the  office  of  Scriniorum  magister,  and 
made  him  a  consiliarius.  He  also  held  the  of- 
fice of  Praefectus  Annonae,  and  he  was  likewise 
made  Praefectus  Praetorio.  Ulpian  perished  in 
the  reign  of  Alexander  by  the  hands  of  the  sol- 
diers, who  forced  their  way  into  the  palace  at 
night,  and  killed  him  in  the  presence  of  the  em- 
peror and  his  mother,  228.  His  promotion  to 
the  office  of  prsefectus  praetorio  was  probably 
an  unpopular  measure.  A  great  part  of  the  nu- 
merous writings  of  Ulpian  were  still  extant  in 
the  time  of  Justinian,  and  a  much  greater  quan- 
tity is  excerpted  from  him  by  the  compilers  of 
the  Digest  than  from  any  other  jurist.  The 
number  of  excerpts  from  Ulpian  is  said  to  be 
two  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty-two  ;  and 
many  of  the  excerpts  are  of  great  length,  and 
altogether  they  form  about  one  third  of  the 
whole  body  of  the  Digest.  The  excerpts  from 
Paulus  and  Ulpian  together  make  about  one 
half  of  the  Digest.  Ulpian's  style  is  perspicu- 
ous, and  presents  fewer  difficulties  than  that  of 
many  of  the  Roman  jurists  who  are  excerpted 
in  the  Digest.  The  great  legal  knowledge,  the 
good  sense,  and  the  industry  of  Ulpian  place 
him  among  the  first  of  the  Roman  jurists  ;  and 
he  has  exercised  a  great  influence  on  the  juris- 
prudence of  modern  Europe  through  the  copi- 
ous extracts  from  his  writings  which  have  been 
preserved  by  the  compilers  of  Justinian's  Di- 
gest. We  possess  a  fragment  of  a  work  under 
the  title  of  Domitii  Ulpiani  Fragmenta  ;  it  con- 
sists of  twenty- nine  titles,  and  is  a  valuable 
source  for  the  history  of  the  Roman  law.  The 

j  best  editions  are  by  Hugo,  Berlin,  1834,  and  by 
Becking,  Bonn,  1836.— 2.  Of  Antioch,  a  soph- 

!  ist,  lived  in  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
and  wrote  several  rhetorical  works.  The  name 
of  Ulpianus  is  prefixed  to  extant  Commentariea 
in  Greek  on  eighteen  of  the  orations  of  Demos- 
thenes, and  it  is  usually  stated  that  they  were 
written  by  Ulpianus  of  Antioch.  But  the  Com- 
mentaries have  evidently  received  numerous 
additions  and  interpolations  from  some  gram- 
marian of  a  very  late  period.  They  are  printed 
in  several  editions  of  the  Attic  orators. 
ULPIUS  TRAJANUS.  Vid.  TRAJANUS. 
ULTOR,  "  the  avenger,"  a  surname  of  Mars, 
to  whom  Augustus  built  a  temple  at  Rome  in 
the  Forum,  after  taking  vengeance  upon  the 
murderers  of  his  great-uncle,  Julius  Caesar. 

VLVBRJE    (Ulubranus,  Ulubrensis),    a   small 
town  in  Latium,  of  uncertain  site,  but  in  the 

j  neighborhood  of  the  Pontine  Marshes. 

ULYSSES,  ULYXES,  or  ULIXES,  called   ODYS- 
SEUS ('Odvffoevf)  by  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  prin- 

I  cipal  Greek  heroes  in  the  Trojan  war.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Homeric  account,  he  was  a  son 
of  Laertes  and  Anticlea,  the  daughter  of  Au- 
tolycus,  and  was  married  to  Penelope,  the 

,  daughter  of  Icarius,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Telemachus.  But,  according  to  a  iat- 

j  er  tradition,  he  was  a  son  of  Sisyphus  and  An- 
ticlea, who,  being  with  child  by  Sisyphus,  was 

;  married  to  Laertes,  and  thus  gave  birth  to  him 


ULYSSES. 

*ither  after  her  arrival  in  I'haca  or  on  her  way 
thither.     Later  traditions  further  state  that,  be- 
sides Telemachus,  Ulysses  became  by  Penelope 
the  father  of  Arcesilaus  or  Ptoliporthus  ;  and, 
by  Circe,  the  father  of  Agrius,  Latmus,  Telego- 
nus,  and  Cassiphone  ;  by  Calypso,  of  Nausith- 
ous  and  Nausinous  or  Alison,  Telegonus,  and 
Teledamus  ;  and,  lastly,  by  Evippe,  of  Leonto- 
phron,  Doryclus  or  Euryalus.     The  name  Odys- 
seus is  said  to  signify  the  angry.     The  story  of 
Ulysses  ran  as  follows  :  When  a  young  man, 
Ulysses  went  to  see  his  grandfather  Autolycus 
near  Mount  Parnassus.    There,  while  engaged 
in  the  chase,  he  was  wounded  by  a  boar  in  his 
knee,  by  the  scar  of  which  he  was  subsequently 
recognized  by  Euryclea.    Even  at  that  age  he 
was  distinguished  for  courage,  for  knowledge  of 
navigation,  for  eloquence,  and  for  skill  as  a  nego- 
tiator; and  on  one  occasion,  when  the  Messeni- 
ans  had  carried  off  some  sheep  from  Ithaca,  La- 
ertes sent  him  to  Messene  to  demand  reparation. 
He  there  met  with  Iphitus,  who  was  seeking  the 
tiorses  stolen  from  him,  and  who  gave  him  the 
famous  bow  of  Eurytus.      This  bow  Ulysses 
used  only  in  Ithaca,  regarding  it  as  too  great  a 
treasure  to  be  employed  in  the  field,  and  it  was 
so  strong  that  none  of  the  suitors  was  able  to 
handle  it.   According  to  some  accounts,  he  went 
to  Sparta  as  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen  ;  and 
he  is  said  to  have  advised  Tyndareus  to  make 
the  suitors  swear  that  they  would  defend  the 
shosen  bridegroom  against  any  one  who  should 
insult  him  on  Helen's  account.     Tyndareus,  to 
show  him  his  gratitude,  persuaded  his  brother 
to  give  Penelope  in  marriage  to  Ulysses ;  or, 
according  to  others,  Ulysses  gained  her  by  con-  I 
quering  his  competitors  in  the  foot-race.  Homer,  | 
however,  mentions  nothing  of  all  this,  and  states  • 
that  Agamemnon,  who-visited  Ulysses  in  Ithaca,  j 
prevailed  upon  him  only  with  great  difficulty  to  ( 
join  the  Greeks  in  their  expedition  against  Troy.  | 
Other  traditions  relate  that  he  was  visited  by  j 
Menelaus  and  Agamemnon,  and  that  Palamedes  , 
more  especially  induced  him  to  join  the  Greeks. 
When  Palamedes  came  to  Ithaca,  Ulysses  pre- 
tended to  be  mad  :  he  yoked  an  ass  and  ox  to 
a  plough,  and  began  to  sow  salt.     Palamedes,  \ 
to  try  him,  placed  the  infant  Telemachus  before  ; 
the  plough,  whereupon  the  father  could  not  con-  j 
tintie  to  play  his  part.     He  stopped  the  plough,  j 
and  was  obliged  to  undertake  the  fulfillment  of  | 
the  promise  he  had  made  when  he  was  one  of  j 
the  suitors  of  Helen.     This  occurrence  is  said  | 
to  have  been  the  cause  of  his  hatred  of  Palame- 
des.    Being  now  himself  gained  for  the  under- 
taking, he  contrived  to  discover  Achilles,  who 
was  concealed  among  the  daughters  of  King 
Lycomedes.    Vid.  ACHILLES.    Before,  however, 
the  Greeks  sailed  from  home,  Ulysses,  in  con- 
junction  with  Menelaus,  went  to  Troy  for  the  ; 
purpose  of  inducing  the  Trojans  to  restore  Helen 
and  her  treasures.    When  the  Greeks  were  as- 
sembled at  Aulis,  Ulysses  joined  them  with 
twelve  ships  and  men  from  Cephallenia,  Ithaca,  i 
Neritus,  Crocylia,  Zacynthus,  Samos,  and  the 
coast  of  Epirus.     During  the  siege  of  Troy  he  •, 
distinguished  himself  as  a  valiant  and  undaunt- 
ed warrior,  but  more  particularly  as  a  cunning 
spy,  and  a  prudent  and  eloquent  negotiator. 
After  the  death  of  Achilles,  Ulysses  contended 
for  his  amor  with  the  Telamonian  Ajax,  and 


ULYSSES. 

gained  the  prize.     He  is  said  by  some  to  have 
devised  the  stratagem  of  the  wooden  horse,  and 
he  was  one  of  the  heroes  concealed  within  it. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  taken  part  in  carrying 
off  the  palladium.     But  the  most  celebrated  part 
of  his  story  consists  of  his  adventures  after  the 
destruction  of  Troy,  which  form  the  subject  of 
the  Homeric  poem  called  after  him,  the  Odyssey. 
After  the  capture  of  Troy  he  set  out  on  his  voy- 
age home,  but  was  overtaken  by  a  storm  and 
thrown  upon  the  coast  of  Ismarus,  a  town  of 
the  Cicones,  in  Thrace,  north  of  the  island  of 
Lemnos.     He  plundered  the  town,  but  several 
of  his  men  were  cut  off  by  the  Cicones.     From 
thence  he  was  driven  by  a  north  wind  toward 
Malea  and  to  the  Lotophagi  on  the  coast  of 
Libya.     Some  of  his  companions  were  so  much 
delighted  with  the  taste  of  the  lotus  that  they 
wanted  to  remain  in  the  country,  but  Ulysses 
|  compelled  them  to  embark  again,  and  continued 
j  his  voyage.     In  one  day  he  reached  the  goat- 
j  island,  situated  north  of  the  country  of  the  Lo- 
tophagi.    He  there  left  behind  eleven  ships,  and 
with  one  he  sailed  to  the  neighboring  island  of 
the   Cyclopes   (the  western   coast  of  Sicily), 
where,  with  twelve  companions,  he  entered  the 
cave  of  the  Cyclops  Polyphemus,  a  son  of  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon)  and  Thoosa.     This  giant  de- 
voured, one  after  another,  six  of  the  compan- 
ions of  Ulysses,  and  kept  the  unfortunate  Ulys- 
ses and  the  six  others  as  prisoners  in  his  cave. 
In  order  to  save  himself,  Ulysses  contrived  to 
make  the  monster  drunk  with  wine,  and  then, 
with  a  burning  pole,  deprived  him  of  his  one 
eye.     He  now  succeeded  in  making  his  escape 
with  his  friends,  by  concealing  himself  and  them 
under  the  bodies  of  the  sheep  which  the  Cyclops 
let  out  of  his  cave.    In  this  way  Ulysses  reached 
his  ship.    The  Cyclops  implored  his  father  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon)  to  take  vengeance  upon  Ulys- 
ses, and  henceforth  .the  god  of  the  sea  pursued 
the  wandering  king  with  implacable  enmity. 
Ulysses  next  arrived  at  the  island  of  ^Eolus  ; 
and  the  god  gave  him,  on  his  departure,  a  bag 
of  winds,  which  were  to  carry  him  home  ;  but 
the  companions  of  Ulysses  opened  the  bag,  and 
the  winds  escaped,  whereupon  the  ships  were 
driven  back  to  the  island  of  ..Bolus,  who  indig- 
nantly refused  all  further  assistance.     After  a 
voyage  of  six  days,  Ulysses  arrived  atTelepylos, 
the  city  of  Lamus,  in  which  Antiphates  ruled 
over  the  Laestrygones,  a  sort  of  cannibals.    This 
place  must  probably  be  sought  somewhere  in 
the  north  of  Sicily.    Ulysses  escaped  from  them 
with  only  one  ship ;  and  his  fate  now  carried 
him  to  a  western  island,  J2aea,  inhabited  by 
the  sorceress  Circe.     Part  of  his  people  were 
sent  to  explore    the    island,    but   they   were 
changed  by  Circe  into  swine.    Eurylochus  alone 
escaped,  and  brought  the  sad  news  to  Ulysses, 
who,  when  he  was  hastening  to  the  assistance 
of  his  friends,  was  instructed  by  Mercury  (Her- 
mes) by  what  means  he  could  resist  the  magic 
powers  of  Circe.     He  succeeded  in  liberating 
his  companions,  who  were  again  changed  into 
men,  and  were  most  hospitably  treated  by  the 
sorceress.     When  at  length  Ulysses  begged  for 
leave  to  depart,  Circe  desired  him  to  descend 
into  Hades  and  to  consult  the  seer  Tiresias. 
He  now  sailed  west,  right  across  the  river  Oce- 
anus,  and  having  landed  on  the  other  side,  in 

917 


ULFSSES. 

the  country  of  the  Cimmerians,  where  Helios  ! 
does  not  shine,  he  entered  Hades,  and  consult-  ! 
ed  Tiresias  ahout  the  manner  in  which  he  might 
reach  his  native  land.  Tiresias  informed  him 
of  the  danger  and  difficulties  arising  from  the 
anger  of  Neptune  (Poseidon),  but  gave  him  hope 
that  all  would  yet  turn  out  well,  if  Ulysses  and 
his  companions  would  leave  the  herds  of  Helios 
in  Thrinacia  uninjured.  Ulysses  now  returned 
to  ^Esa,  where  Circe  again  treated  the  stran- 
gers kindly,  told  them  of  the  dangers  that  yet 
awaited  them,  and  of  the  means  of  escaping. 
The  wind  which  she  sent  with  them  carried 
them  to  the  island  of  the  Sirens,  somewhere 
near  the  western  coast  of  Italy.  The  Sirens 
sat  on  the  shore,  and  with  their  sweet  voices 
attracted  all  that  passed  by,  and  then  destroyed 
them.  Ulysses,  in  order  to  escape  the  danger, 
filled  the  ears  of  his  companions  with  wax,  and 
fastened  himself  to  the  mast  of  his  ship,  until  he 
was  out  of  the  reach  of  the  Sirens'  song.  His  j 
ship  next  sailed  between  Scylla  and  Charyb- 
dis,  two  rocks  between  Thrinacia  and  Italy.  As 
the  ship  passed  between  them,  Scylla,  the  mon- 
ster inhabiting  the  rock  of  the  same  name,  car- 
ried off  and  devoured  six  of  the  companions  of 
Ulysses.  From  thence  he  came  to  Thrinacia, 
the  island  of  Helios,  who  there  kept  his  sacred 
herds  of  oxen.  Mindful  of  the  advice  of  Tire- 
sias and  Circe,  Ulysses  wanted  to  sail  past,  but 
his  companions  compelled  him  to  land.  He 
made  them  swear  not  to  touch  any  of  the  cat- 
tle ;  but  as  they  were  detained  in  the  island  by 
storms,  and  were  hungry,  they  killed  the  finest 
of  the  oxen  while  Ulysses  was  asleep.  After 
some  days  the  storm  abated,  and  they  sailed 
away,  but  soon  another  storm  came  on,  and 
heir  ship  was  destroyed  by  Jupiter  (Zeus)  with 
a  flash  of  lightning.  All  were  drowned  with 
the  exception  of  Ulysses,  who  saved  himself  by 
means  of  the  mast  and  planks,  and  after  ten 
days  reached  the  island  of  Ogygia,  inhabited  by 
the  nymph  Calypso.  She  received  him  with 
kindness,  and  desired  him  to  marry  her,  prom- 
ising immortality  and  eternal  youth  if  he  would 
consent,  and  forget  Ithaca.  But  he  could  not 
overcome  his  longing  after  his  own  home.  Mi- 
nerva (Athena),  who  had  always  protected  Ulys- 
ses, induced  Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  promise  that  her 
favorite  hero,  notwithstanding  the  anger  of  Nep- 
tune (Poseidon),  should  one  day  return  to  his 
native  island,  and  take  vengeance  on  the  suitors 
of  Penelope.  Mercury  (Hermes)  carried  to  Ca- 
lypso the  command  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  to  dismiss 
Ulysses.  The  nymph  obeyed,  and  taught  him 
how  to  build  a  raft,  on  which,  after  remaining 
eight  years  with  her,  he  left  the  island.  In 
eighteen  days  he  came  in  sight  of  Scheria,  the 
island  of  the  Phacacians,  when  Neptune  (Posei- 
don) sent  a  storm,  which  cast  him  off  the  raft. 
By  the  assistance  of  Leucothea  and  Minerva 
(Athena),  he  reached  Scheria  by  dint  of  swim- 
ming. The  exhausted  hero  slept  on  the  shore 
until  he  was  awoke  by  the  voices  of  maidens. 
He  found  Nausicaa,  the  daughter  of  King  Alci- 
nous  and  Arete,  who  conducted  the  hero  to  her 
father's  court.  He  was  there  honored  with 
feasts  and  contests,  and  the  minstrel  Demodo- 
cus  sang  of  the  fall  of  Troy,  which  moved  Ulys- 
ses to  tears ;  and,  being  questioned  about  the 
cause  of  his  emotion,  he  related  his  whole  his- 
918 


ULYSSES 

tory.  At  length  he  was  sent  home  in  a  ship. 
One  night,  as  he  h;id  fallen  asleep  in  his  ship, 
it  reached  the  coast  of  Ithaca  ;  the  Phacacians 
who  had  accompanied  him  carried  him  on  shore, 
and  left  him.  He  had  now  been  away  from 
Ithaca  for  twenty  years,  and  when  he  awoke  he 
did  not  recognize  his  native  land,  for  Alhena, 
that  he  might  not  be  recognized,  had  enveloped 
him  in  a  cloud.  As  he  was  lamenting  his  fate, 
the  goddess  informed  him  where  he  was,  and 
advised  him  how  to  take  vengeance  upon  the 
enemies  of  his  house.  During  his  absence,  his 
father  Laertes,  bowed  down  by  grief  and  old 
age,  had  withdrawn  into  the  country,  his  mother 
Amiclea  had  died  of  sorrow,  his  son  Telemachus 
had  grown  up  to  manhood,  and  his  wife  Penel- 
ope had  rejected  all  the  offers  that  had  been 
made  to  her  by  the  importunate  suitors  from 
the  neighboring  islands.  During  the  last  few- 
years  more  than  a  hundred  nobles  of  Ithaca, 
Same,  Dulichium,  and  Zacynthus  had  been  suing 
for  the  hand  of  Penelope,  and  in  their  visits  to 
her  house  had  treated  all  that  it  contained  as 
if  it  had  been  their  own.  That  he  might  be  able 
to  take  vengeance  upon  them,  it  was  necessary 
that  he  should  not  be  recognized.  Minerva 
(Athena)  accordingly  metamorphosed  him  into 
an  unsightly  beggar,  and  he  was  kindly  received 
by  Eumseus,  the  swine-herd,  a  faithful  servant 
of  his  house.  While  staying  with  Eumajus,  his 
son  Telemachus  returned  from  Sparta  and  Py- 
los,  whither  he  had  gone  to  obtain  information 
concerning  his  father.  Ulysses  made  himself 
known  to  him,  and  with  him  deliberated  upon 
the  plan  of  revenge.  In  the  disguise  of  a  beg- 
gar he  accompanied  Telemachus  and  Eumseus 
to  the  town.  The  plan  of  revenge  was  now 
carried  into  effect.  Penelope,  with  great  diffi- 
culty, was  made  to  promise  her  hand  to  him 
who  should  conquer  the  others  in  shooting  with 
the  bow  of  Ulysses.  As  none  of  the  suitors 
was  able  to  draw  this  bow,  Ulysses  himself  took 
it  up  and  then  began  to  attack  the  suitors.  He 
was  supported  by  Athena  and  his  son,  and  all 
fell  by  his  hands.  Ulysses  now  made  himself 
known  to  Penelope,  and  went  to  see  his  aged 
father.  In  the  mean  time  the  report  of  the  death 
of  the  suitors  was  spread  abroad,  and  their  rel- 
atives rose  in  arms  against  Ulysses  ;  but  Athe- 
na, who  assumed  the  appearance  of  Mentor, 
brought  about  a  reconciliation  between  the  peo- 
ple and  the  king.  It  has  already  been  remark- 
ed that  in  the  Homeric  poems  Ulysses  is  rep- 
resented as  a  prudent,  cunning,  inventive,  and 
eloquent  man,  but,  at  the  same  time,  as  a  brave, 
bold,  and  persevering  warrior,  whose  courage 
no  misfortune  or  calamity  could  subdue,  but 
later  poets  describe  him  as  a  cowardly,  deceit- 
ful, and  intriguing  personage.  Respecting  the 
last  period  of  his  life  the  Homeric  poems  give 
us  no  information,  except  the  prophecy  of  Tire- 
sias, who  promised  him  a  painless  death  in  a 
happy  old  age  ;  but  later  writers  give  us  differ- 
ent accounts.  According  to  one,  Telegonus, 
the  son  of  Ulysses  by  Circe,  was  sent  out  by 
his  mother  to  seek  his  father.  A  storm  cast 
him  upon  Ithaca,  which  he  began  to  plunder  in 
order  to  obtain  provisions.  Ulysses  and  Telem- 
achus attacked  him,  but  he  slew  Ulysses,  and 
his  body  was  afterward  carried  to  JEaea.  Ac 
cording  to  some,  Circe  recalled  Ulysses  to  life 


UMBRENUS. 


URSUS. 


in,  in,  on  his  arrival  in  Tyrrhenia,  he  was 
burned  on  Mount  Perge.  In  works  of  art  Ulys- 
ses is  commonly  represented  as  a  sailor,  wear- 
ing a  semi-oval  cap. 

[UMBRENUS,  P.,  one  of  the  accomplices  of  Cat- 
iline ;  he  was  a  freedman,  and  had  followed  the 
business  of  a  negotiator  in  Gaul,  and  was  for 
that  reason  employed  to  gain  over  the  ambas- 
sadors of  the  Allobroges  to  favor  the  designs  of 
the  conspirators.] 

UMBRIA,  called  by  the  Greeks  OMBRICA  (t) 
'O/j.6ptKr}),  a  district  of  Italy,  bounded  on  the 
north  by.Gallia  Cisalpina,  from  which  it  was 
separated  by  the  River  Rubicon  ;  on  the  east 
by  the  Adriatic  Sea  ;  on  the  south  by  Picenum, 
from  which  it  was  separated  by  the  River  ^sis, 
and  by  the  land  of  the  Sabines,  from  which  it 
was  separated  by  the  River  Nar  ;  and  on  the 
west  by  Etruria,  from  which  it  was  separated 
by  the  Tiber.  Under  Augustus  it  formed  the 
sixth  Regio  of  Italy.  The  Apennines  ran 
through  the  western  part  of  the  country,  but  it 
contained  many  fertile  plains  on  the  coast.  Its 
inhabitants,  the  UMBRI  (sing.  Umber),  called  by 
the  Greeks  UMBRICI  COpSpiicoi),  were  one  of  the 
most  ancient  races  of  Italy,  and  were  connect- 
ed with  the  Opicans,  Sabines,  and  those  other 
tribes  whose  languages  were  akin  to  the  Greek. 
The  Umbri  were  at  a  very  early  period  the 
most  powerful  people  in  Central  Italy,  and  ex- 
tended across  the  peninsula  from  the  Adriatic 
to  the  Tyrrhene  seas.  Thus  they  inhabited  the 
country  afterward  called  Etruria  ;  and  we  are 
expressly  told  that  Crotona,  Perusia,  Clusium, 
and  other  Etruscan  cities  were  built  by  the 
Umbrians.  They  were  afterward  deprived  of 
their  possessions  west  of  the  Tiber  by  the  Etrus- 
cans, and  confined  to  the  country  between  this 
river  and  the  Adriatic.  Their  territories  were 
still  further  diminished  by  the  Senones,  a  Gallic 
people,  who  took  possession  of  the  whole  coun- 
try on  the  coast,  from  Ariminum  to  the  ^Esis. 
The  Umbri  were  subdued  by  the  Romans  B.C. 
307  ;  and  after  the  conquest  of  the  Senones  by 
the  Romans  in  283,  they  again  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  country  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic. 
This  district,  however,  continued  to  be  called 
Ager  Gallicus  down  to  a  late  period.  The  chief 
towns  of  Umbria  were  ARIMINUM,  FANUM  FOR- 
TUNE, MEVANIA,  TUDER,  NARNIA,  and  STOLE- 
TIUM. 

[UMBRICIUS,  a  diviner,  who  predicted  to  Galba, 
shortly  before  his  death,  that  a  plot  threatened 
him.] 

[UMBRO,  a  famous  magician,  from  the  coun- 
try of  the  Marsi,  aided  Turnus  against  the  Tro- 
jans, but  was  slain  in  battle  :  he  was  brother 
of  the  nymph  Angitia.] 

UMBRO  (now  Ombrone),  one  of  the  largest  riv- 
ers in  Etruria,  falling  into  the  Tyrrhene  Sea, 
near  a  town  of  the  same  name. 

UMMIDJUS  QUADRATUS.      Vid.  QUADRATUS. 
UNEI.U,  a  people  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Gaul,  on  a  promontory  opposite  Britain  (the 
modern  Colanlin),  belonging  to  the  Armorici. 

[UNSINOU  (now  the  Hunzt,  flowing  by  Gronm- 
ftn),  a  conjectural  emendation  in  Tacitus  (Ann., 
i.,  70)  for  the  Viturgit,  a  river  of  Germania, 
flowing  into  the  Oceanus  Germanicus.J 

UPIS  (Ot-7rif).  1.  A  surname  of  Artemis  (Di- 
ana) as  the  goddess  assisting  women  in  child- 


birth.  —  2.  The  name  of  a  mythical  l/emg,  who 
is  said  to  have  reared  Artemis  (Diana),  and  who 
is  mentioned  by  Virgil  as  one  of  the  nymphs  in 
her  train.  The  masculine  Upis  is  mentioned 
by  Cicero  as  the  father  of  Artemis  (Diana). 
UR.  Vid.  EDESSA. 

URANIA  (Qvpavia).  1.  One  of  the  Muses,  a 
daughter  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  by  Mnemosyne.  The 
ancient  bard  Linus  is  called  her  son  by  Apollo, 
and  Hymenaeus  also  is  said  to  have  been  a  son 
of  Urania.  She  was  regarded,  as  her  name  in- 
dicates, as  the  Muse  of  Astronomy,  and  was 
represented  with  a  celestial  globe,  to  which  she 
points  with  a  small  staff  —  2.  Daughter  of  Oce- 
anus and  Tethys,  who  also  occurs  as  a  nymph 
in  the  train  of  Persephone  (Proserpina).  —  3.  A 
surname  of  Aphrodite  (Venus),  describing  her 
as  "the  heavenly,"  or  spiritual,  to  distinguish 
her  from  Aphrodite  Pandemos.  Plato  repre- 
sents her  as  a  daughter  of  Uranus  (Ccelus),  be- 
gotten without  a  mother.  Wine  was  not  used 
in  the  libations  offered  to  her. 

URANUS  (Ovpavof),  CCELUS,  or  HEAVEN,  some- 
times called  a  son,  and  sometimes  the  husband 
of  Gsea  (Earth).  By  Gaea  Uranus  became  the 
father  of  Oceanus,  Coeus,  Crius,  Hyperion,  lape- 
tus,  Thia,  Rhia,  Themis,  Mnemosyne,  Phoebe, 
Tethys,  Cronos  (Saturn);  of  the  Cyclopes 
Brontes,  Steropes,  Arges  ;  and  of  the  Hecalon- 
cheires  Coitus,  Briareus,  and  Gyes.  Accord- 
ing to  Cicero,  Uranus  also  was  the  father  of 
Mercury  by  Dia,  and  of  Venus  by  Hemera.  Ura- 
nus hated  his  children,  and  immediately  after 
their  birth  he  confined  them  in  Tartarus,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  he  was  unmanned  and  de- 
throned by  Cronos  (Saturn)  at  the  instigation 
of  Gaea  (Terra).  Out  of  the  drops  of  his  blood 
sprang  the  Gigantes,  the  Melian  nymphs,  and, 
according  to  some,  Silenus,  and  from  the  foam 
gathering  around  his  limbs  in  the  sea  sprang 
Aphrodite  (Venus). 

URBIGENUS  PAGUS.     Vid.  HELYETH. 
URBINUM  (Urbinas,  -atis).    1.  HORTENSE  (now 
Urbcno),  a  town  in  Umbria  and  a  municipium, 
situated  on  a  steep  round  rock.—  2.  METAURENSE 
(now  Urbania),  a  town  in  Umbria,  on  the  River 
Metaurus,  and  not  far  from  its  source. 
URBS  SALVIA.     Vid.  POLLENTIA,  No.  2. 
URCI,  a  town  of  the  Bastetani  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  on  the  coast,  and  on  the  road 
from  Castulo  to  Malaca. 

URCINIUM  (now  Orcine),  a  town  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Corsica. 

URGO  or  GORGON  (now  Gorgona),  an  island 
off  the  coast  of  Etruria,  north  of  Ilva. 

URIA  (Urias  •  now  Oria),  called  HYRIA  (Tpt'jj) 
by  Herodotus,  a  town  in  Calabria,  on  the  road 
from  Brundisium  to  Tarentum,  was  the  ancient 
capital  of  lapygia,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Cretans  under  Minos. 

URIUM,  a  small  town  in  Apulia,  from  which 
the  Sinus  Urias  took  its  name,  being  the  bay 
on  the  northern  side  of  Mount  Garganus,  oppo- 
site the  Diomedean  islands. 
URSEIUS  FEROX.     Vid.  FEROX. 
[!;RSO  (Ovpauv  :  now  Osnha,  with  ruins  and 
inscriptions),  a  city  of  Hispania  Baetica,  also 
called  Gcnua  Urbanorum;  this  was  the  last  hold 
of  the  partisans  of  Pompey  in  Spain.] 

l'n-i  -.  a  contemporary  of  Domitian,  whom 
dissuaded  from  killing  his  wife  Domitia. 
919 


USCANA. 

Statins  addressed  to  him  a  poem  of  consolation 
on  the  death  of  a  favorite  slave  (Silo.,  ii.,  6), 
and  he  also  mentions  him  in  the  Preface  to  the 
second  book  of  his  .S'/'/nr. 

USCANA,  a  large  town  in  Illyria,  on  a  tributary 
of  the  Aous,  and  in  the  district  Penestiana. 

USIPETES  or  USIPII,  a  German  people,  who, 
being  driven  out  of  their  abodes  by  the  Suevi, 
crossed  the  Rhine  and  penetrated  into  Gaul ; 
but  they  were  defeated  by  Caesar,  and  compelled 
to  recross  the  river.  They  were  now  received 
by  the  Sigambri,  and  allowed  to  dwell  on  the 
northern  bank  of  the  Lippe  ;  but  we  afterward 
find  them  south  of  the  Lippe  ;  and  at  a  still 
later  time  they  become  lost  under  the  general 
•ame  of  Alemanni. 

[UspE,  the  capital  of  the  Siraceni  or  Siraci, 
a  people  of  Sarmatia  Asiatica.] 

USTICA,  a  valley  near  the  Sabine  villa  of  Hor- 
ace. 

UTICA  (TJ  'Iru/cij  or  Own'/o;  :  'IrvKatof,  Uticen- 
sis:  ruins  at  Bou-  Skater),  the  greatest  city  of 
ancient  Africa,  after  Carthage,  was  a  Phoeni- 
cian colony,  older  (and,  if  the  chronologers  are 
to  be  trusted,  much  older)  than  Carthage.  Like 
others  of  the  very  ancient  Phoenician  colonies 
in  the  territory  of  Carthage,  Utica  maintained 
a  comparative  independence,  even  during  the 
height  of  the  Punic  power,  and  was  rather  the 
ally  of  Carthage  than  her  subject.  Itfstood  on 
the  shore  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian Gulf,  a  little  west  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Bagradas,  and  twenty-seven  Roman  miles  north- 
west of  Carthage ;  hut  its  site  is  now  inland, 
in  consequence  of  the  changes  effected  by  the 
Bagradas  in  the  coast-line.  Vid.  BAGRADAS.  In 
the  third  Punic  war,  Utica  took  part  with  the 
Romans  against  Carthage,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  greatest  part  of  the  Carthaginian  ter- 
ritory. It  afterward  became  renowned  to  all 
future  time  as  the  scene  of  the  last  stand  made 
by  the  Pompeian  party  against  Caesar,  and  of 
the  glorious,  though  mistaken,  self-sacrifice- of 
the  younger  Cato.  Vid.  CATO. 

UTUS  (now  Vid),  a  river  in  Mcesia  and  a  trib- 
utary of  the  Danube,  falling  into  the  latter  riv- 
er at  the  town  Utus.  It  is  perhaps  the  same 
river  as  the  Artanes  of  Herodotus. 

UXAMA  (now  Osma),  a  town  of  the  Arevaci 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  road  from 
Asturica  to  Caesaraugusta,  fifty  .miles  west  of 
Numantia. 

UXANTIS  (now  Ushant),an  island  off  the  north- 
western coast  of  Gaul. 

UXELLODUNUM,  a  town  of  the  Cadurci  in  Gal- 
lia  Aquitanica,  situated  on  a  steep  hill,  rising 
out  of  the  plain,  at  the  foot  of  which  a  river 
flowed.  It  is  probably  the  same  as  the  modern 
Capedenac,  on  the  Lot. 

UXENTUM  (Uxentinus  :  now  Ugento),  a  town 
in  Calabria,  northwest  of  the  lapygian  promon- 
tory. 

Uxli  (O5ftoO,  a  warlike,  people,  of  predatory 
habits,  who  had  their  strongholds  in  Mount 
Parachoathras,  on  the  northern  border  of  Per- 
sis,  in  the  district  called  UXIA  (Ov%ia),  but  who 
also  extended  over  a  considerable  tract  of  coun- 
try m  Media. 


920 


VALENS. 


V. 

VACC.I,  VAOA,  or  VABA  (Ovaya,  Bdya  :  now 
Bcja),  a  city  of  Zeugitana  in  Northern  Africa, 
on  the  borders  of  Numidia,  on  an  eastern  trib- 
utary of  the  River  Tusca,  a  good  day's  journey 
south  of  Utica.  It  was  a  great  emporium  for 
the  trade  between  Hippo,  Utica,  and  Carthage, 
and  the  interior.  It  was  destroyed  by  Metellus 
in  the  Jugurthine  war,  but  was  restored  and  col- 
onized by  the  Romans.  Its  fortifications  were 
renewed  by  Justinian,  who  named  it  Theodo- 
rias  in  honor  of  his  wife. 

VACC^EI,  a  people  in  the  interior  of  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  occupying  the  modern  Tore,  Pa- 
lencia,  Burgos,  and  Valladolid,  east  of  the  As- 
tures,  south  of  the  Cantabri,  west  of  the  Cel- 
tiberi,  and  north  of  the  Vettones.  Their  chief 
towns  were  PALLANTIA  and  INTERCATIA. 

[VACCUS,  M.  VITRUVIUS,  general  of  the  Fun- 
dani  and  Privernates  in  their  revolt  against  the 
Romans  in  B.C.  330  :  he  had  a  house  at  Rome 
on  the  Palatine,  which  was  destroyed  (after  the 
suppression  of  the  revolt  and  the  death  of  Vac- 
cus),  and  its  site  made  public  under  the  name 
of  Vacci  prata.~\ 

[VACUNA,  a  Sabine  divinity, identical  with  Vic- 
toria. She  had  an  ancient  sanctuary  near  Hor- 
ace's villa  at  Tibur,  and  another  at  Rome.  The 
Romans,  however,  derived  the  name  from  va- 
cuus,  and  said  that  she  was  a  divinity  to  whom 
the  country  people  offered  sacrifices  when  the 
labors  of  the  field  were  over,  that  is,  when  they 
were  at  leisure,  vacui  ] 

VADA.  1.  A  fortress  of  the  Batavi  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  east  of  Batavodurum. — 2.  VADA  SAB- 
BATIA  (now  Vado),  a  town  of  Liguria,  on  the 
coast,  which  was  the  harbor  of  Sabbata  or  Savo. 
— 3.  VADA  VOLATERRANA  (now  Torre  di  Vado), 
a  small  town  on  the  coast  of  Etruna,  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Volaterrae. 

VADICASSII,  a  people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Sequana. 

VADIMONIS  LACUS  (now  Lago  di  Bassano),  a 
small  lake  of  Etruria  of  a  circular  form,  with 
sulphureous  waters,  and  renowned  for  its  float- 
ing islands,  a  minute  description  of  which  is 
given  by  the  younger  Pliny.  It  is  celebrated  in 
history  for  the  defeat  of  the  Etruscans  in  two 
great  battles,  first  by  the  dictator  Papirius  Cur- 
sor in  B.C.  309,  from  the  effects  of  which  the 
Etruscans  never  recovered  ;  and  again  in  283. 
when  the  allied  forces  of  the  Etruscans  and 
Gauls  were  routed  by  the  consul  Cornelius  Do- 
\  labella.  The  lake  has  so  shrunk  in  dimensions 
in  modern  times  as  to  be  only  a  small  stagnant 
pond,  almost  lost  in  the  tall  reeds  and  bulrush- 
es which  grow  in  it. 

VAGEDRUSA,  a  small  river  in  Sicily,  between 
Camarina  and  Gela. 

VAGIENNI,  a  small  people  in  Liguria,  whose 
chief  town  was  Augusta  Vagiennorum.  Theii 
site  is  uncertain,  but  they  perhaps  dwelt  near 
'Saluzzo. 

VAHALIS.     Vid.  RHENUS. 
[VALA,  C.  NUMONIUS,  a  friend  of  Horace,  who 
addressed  to  him  the  fifteenth  of  the  first  book 
of  Epistles.] 

VALENS,  emperor  of  the  East  A.D.  364-378 
was  born  about  A.D.  328.  and  was  made  em- 


VALENS,  ABURNUS. 

peror  by  his  brother  Valentinian.  Vid.  VALEN- 
TIKIANUS.  The  greater  part  of  Valens's  reign  is 
occupied  by  his  wars  with  the  Goths.  At  first 
he  gained  great  advantages  over  the  barba- 
rians, and  concluded  a  peace  with  them  in  370, 
on  the  condition  that  they  should  not  cross  the 
Danube.  In  376  the  Goths  were  driven  out  of 
their  country  by  the  Huns,  and  were  allowed 
by  Valens  to  cross  the  Danube,  and  settle  in 
Thrace  and  the  country  on  the  borders  of  the 
Danube.  Dissensions  soon  arose  between  the 
Romans  and  these  dangerous  neighbors,  and  in 
37T  the  Goths  took  up  arms.  Valens  collect- 
ed a  powerful  army,  and  marched  against  the 
Goths  ;  but  he  was  defeated  by  them  with  im- 
mense slaughter^  near  Hadrianople,  on  the  9th 
of  August,  378.  Valens  was  never  seen  after 
the  battle ;  some  say  he  died  on  the  field,  and 
others  relate  that  he  was  burned  to  death  in  a 
peasant's  house,  to  which  he  was  carried,  and 
which  the  barbarians  set  fire  to  without  know- 
ing who  was  in  it.  The  reign  of  Valens  is  im- 
portant in  the  history  of  the  empire  on  account 
of  the  admission  of  the  Goths  into  the  coun- 
tries south  of  the  Danube,  the  commencement 
of  the  decline  of  the  Roman  power.  The  fu- 
rious contests  between  the  rival  creeds  of  the 
Catholics  and  the  Arians  also  characterize  this 
reign. 

VALENS,  ABDRNUS,  also  called  ABURNIUS,  one 
of  the  jurists  who  are  excerpted  in  the  Digest, 
belonged  to  the  school  of  the  Sabinians.  He 
flourished  under  Antoninus  Pius. 

VALENS,  FABIUS,  one  of  the  principal  generals 
of  the  Emperor  Vitellius  in  A.D.  69,  marched 
into  Italy  through  Gaul,  and,  after  forming  a 
junction  with  the  forces  of  Caecina,  defeated 
Otho  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Bedriacum,  which 
secured  for  Vitellius  the  sovereignty  of  Italy. 
Vitellius  raised  Valens  and  Caecina  to  the  con- 
sulship, and  be  left  the  whole  government  in 
their  hands.  Valens  remained  faithful  to  Vi- 
tellius, when  Antonius  Primus,  the  general  of 
Vespasian,  marched  into  Italy ;  but  as  he  had 
not  sufficient  forces  to  oppose  Antonius  after 
the  capture  of  Cremona,  he  resolved  to  sail  to 
Gaui  and  rouse  the  Gallic  provinces  to  espouse 
the  cause  of  Vitellius;  but  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner at  the  islands  called  Stcechades  (now  Hi- 
eres),  off  Massilia,  and  was  shortly  afterward 
put  to  death  at  Urbinum  (now  Urbino). 

VALENTIA.  l.(Now  Valencia),  the  chief  town 
of  the  Edetani,  on  the  River  Turia,  three  miles 
from  the  coast,  and  on  the  road  from  Carthago 
Nova  to  Castulo.  It  was  founded  by  Junius 
Brutus,  who  settled  here  the  soldiers  of  Viria- 
thus  ;  it  was  destroyed  by  Pompey,  but  it  was 
soon  afterward  rebuilt  and  made  a  Roman  col- 
ony. It  continued  to  be  an  important  place 
down  to  the  latest  times. — 2.  (Now  Valence),  a 
town  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the  Rhone,  and 
a  Roman  colony.  Some  writers  call  it  a  town 
of  the  Cavares,  and  others  a  town  of  the  Segel- 
launi. — 3.  A  town  of  Sardinia,  of  uncertain  site, 
but  which  some  writers  place  on  the  eastern 
coast,  between  Portus  Sulpicii  and  Sorabile. — 
4.  Or  VALBNTIUM,  a  town  in  Apulia,  ten  miles 
from  Brundisium. — 5.  A  province  in  the  north 
of  Britain,  beyond  the  Roman  wall,  which  ex- 
ieted  only  for  a  short  time.  Vid.  BRITANNIA. 
.  I.,  lloinan  emperor  A.D. 


VALENTINIANUS. 

364-375,  was  the  son  of  Gratianus,  and  was  born 
A.D.  321,  at  Cibalis  in  Pannonia.  His  first  wife 
was  Valeria  Severa,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  the  Emperor  Giatianus.  He  held  im- 
portant military  commands  under  Julian  and 
Jovian  ;  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  Feb- 
ruary, 364,  Valentinian  was  elected  emperor  by 
the  troops  at  Nicaea.  A  few  weeks  after  his 
elevation  Valentinian  elected  his  brother  Va- 
lens emperor,  and  assigned  to  him  the  East, 

|  while  he  himself  undertook  the  government  of 
the  West.  Valentinian  was  a  Catholic,  though 
his  brother  Valens  was  an  Arian  ;  but  he  did 
not  persecute  either  Arians  or  heathens.  He 
possessed  good  abilities,  prudence,  and  vigor  of 
character..  He  had  a  capacity  for  military  mat- 
ters, and  was  a  vigilant,  impartial,  and  labori- 
ous administrator ;  but  he  sometimes  punished 
with  excessive  severity.  The  greater  part  of 
Valentinian's  reign  was  occupied  by  the  wars 
against  the  Alemanni,  and  the  other  barbarians 
on  the  Roman  frontiers.  His  operations  were 
attended  with  success.  He  not  only  drove  the 
Alemanni  out  of  Gaul,  but  on  more  than  one 
oc'casion  crossed  the  Rhine  and  carried  the  war 
into  the  enemy's  country.  His  usual  residence 
was  Treviri  (Treves).  In  375  he  went  to  Car- 
nuntum,  on  the  Danube,  in  order  to  repel  the 
Quadi  and  Sarmatians,  who  had  invaded  Pan- 
nonia. After  an  indecisive  campaign,  he  took 
up  his  winter  quarters  at  Bregetio.  In  this 
piace,  while  giving  an  audience  to  the  deputies 
of  the  Quadi,  and  speaking  with  great  heat,  he 
fell  down  in  a  fit,  and  expired  suddenly  on  the 
17th  of  November. — II.,  Roman  emperor  A.D. 
375-392,  younger  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
proclaimed  Augustus  by  the  army  after  his  fa- 
ther's death,  though  he  was  then  only  three  or 
four  years  of  age.  His  elder  brother  Gratia- 
nus, who  had  been  proclaimed  Augustus  during 
the  lifetime  of  their  father,  assented  to  the 
choice  of  the  army,  and  a  division  of  the  West 
was  made  between  the  two  brothers.  Valen- 
tinian had  Italy,  Illyricum,  and  Africa.  Gratian 
had  the  Gauls,  Spain,  and  Britain.  In  383  Gra- 
tian was  defeated  and  slain  by  Maximus,  who 
left  Valentinian  a  precarious  authority  out  of 
fear  of  Theodosius,  the  emperor  of  the  East ; 
but  in  387  Valentinian  was  expelled  from  Italy 
by  Maximus,  and  fled  for  refuge  to  Theodosius. 
In  388  Theodosius  defeated  Maximus,  and  re- 
stored Valentinian  to  his  authority  as  emperor 
of  the  West.  Theodosius  returned  to  Constan- 
tinople in  391,  and  in  the  following  year  (392) 
Valentinian  was  murdered  by  the  general  Ar- 
gobastes,  who  raised  Eugenius  to  the  throne. 
Valentinian  perished  on  the  15th  of  May,  being 
only  a  few  months  above  twenty  years  of  age. 
His  funeral  oration  was  pronounced  by  St.  Am- 
brose.— III. .Roman  emperor  A.D.  425-455,  was 
born  419,  and  was  the  son  of  Constantius  III. 
by  Placid ia,  the  sister  of  Honorius,  and  the 
daughter  of  Theodosius  I.  He  was  declared 
Augustus  in  425  by  Theodosius  II.,  and  was 
placed  over  the  West ;  but  as  he  was  only  six 
years  of  age,  the  government  was  intrusted  to 
his  mother  Piacidia.  During  his  long  reign  the 

I  empire  was  repeatedly  exposed  to  the  invasions 
of  the  barbarians  ;  and  it  was  only  the  military 
abilities  of  Aetius  which  saved  the  empire  from 

I  ruin.  In  429,  the  Vandals,  under  Genseric, 

921 


TALERIA. 

crossed  over  into  Africa,  which  they  cor/juered, 
and  of  which  they  continued  in  possession  till 
the  reign  of  Justinian.  The  Goths  likewise  es- 
tablished themselves  in  Gaul ;  but  Afitius  final- 
ly made  peace  with  them  (439),  and  with  their 
assistance  gained  a  great  victory  over  Attila 
and  the  vast  army  of  the  Huns  at  Chalons  in 
451.  The  power  and  influence  of  Afitius  ex- 
cited the  jealousy  and  fears  of  Valentinian, 
who  murdered  his  brave  and  faithful  general  in 
454.  In  the  following  year  the  emperor  him- 
self was  slain  by  Petronius  Maximus,  whose 
wife  he  had  violated.  He  was  a  feeble  and  con- 
temptible prince,  and  had  all  the  vices  that  in 
a  princely  station  disgrace  a  man's  character. 

VALERIA.  1.  Sister  of  P.  Valerius.  Publicola, 
advised  the  Roman  matrons  to  ask  Veturia,  the 
mother  of  Coriolanus,  to  go  to  the  camp  of  Cor- 
iolanus  in  order  to  deprecate  his  resentment. — 
2.  The  last  wife  of  Sulla,  was  the  daughter  of 
M.  Valerius  Messala,  and  bore  a  daughter  soon 
after  Sulla's  death. — 3.  GALERIA  VALERU,  daugh- 
ter of  Diocletian  and  Prisca,  was,  upon  the  re- 
construction of  the  empire  in  A.D.  292,  united 
to  Galerius,  one  of  the  new  Caesars.  After  the 
death  of  her  husband  in  311,  Valeria  rejected 
the  proposals  of  his  successor  Maximinus,  who, 
in  consequence,  stripped  her  of  her  possessions, 
and  banished  her  along  with  her  mother.  After 
the  death  of  Maximinus,  Valeria  and  her  moth- 
er were  executed  by  order  of  Licinius,  315. — 4. 
MESSALI.VA.  Vid.  MESSALINA. 

VALERIA  GENS,  one  of  the  most  ancient  pa- 
trician houses  at  Rome.  The  Valerii  were  of 
Sabine  origin,  and  their  ancestor  Volesus  or  Vo- 
lusus  is  said  to  have  settled  at  Rome  with  Ti- 
tus Tatius.  One  of  the  descendants  of  this 
Volesus,  P.  Valerius,  afterward  surnamed  Pub- 
licola, plays  a  distinguished  part  in  the  story  of 
the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  and  was  elected  con- 
sul in  the  first  year  of  the  republic,  B.C.  509; 
From  this  time  forward  down  to  the  latest  pe- 
riod of  the  empire,  for  nearly  one  thousand 
years,  the  name  occurs  more  or  less  frequently 
in  the  Fasti,  and  it  was  borne  by  the  emperors 
Maximinus,  Maximianus,  Maxentius,  Diocle- 
tian, Constantius,  Constantine  the  Great,  and 
others.  The  Valeria  gens  enjoyed  extraordi- 
nary honors  and  privileges  at  Rome.  Their 
house  at  the  bottom  of  the  Velia  was  the  only 
one  in  Rome  of  whjch  the  doors  were  allowed 
to  open  back  into  the  street.  In  the  Circus  a 
conspicuous  place  was  set  apart  for  them,  where 
a  small  throne  was  erected,  an  honor  of  which 
there  was  no  other  example  among  the  Ro- 
mans. They  were  also  allowed  to  bury  their 
dead  within  the  walls.  The  Valerii  in  early 
times  were  always  foremost  in  advocating  the 
rights  of  the  plebeians,  and  the  laws  which  they 
proposed  at  various  times  were  the  great  char- 
ters of  the  liberties  of  the  second  order.  Vid. 
Diet,  of  Antiq.,  s.  v.  LEGES  VALERIA.  The  Va- 
leria gens  was  divided  into  various  families  un- 
der the  republic,  the  most  important  of  which 
bore  the  names  of  CORVUS,  FLACCUS,  LJBVINUS, 
MESSALA,  PUBLICOLA,  and  TRIARIUS. 

VALERIA,  a  province  in  Pannonia  formed  by 
Galerius,  and  named  in  honor  of  his  wife.  Vid. 
PANNONIA. 

VALERIANUS.  1.  Roman  emperor  A.D.  253- 
260,  whose  full  name  was  P.  LIPINIUS  VALE- 
122 


VALERIUS  MAXIMUS. 

!  RIANUS.     Valerian  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 
'  the  troops  whom  he  was  leading  against  the 
usurper  .Lmiliamis.     Valerian  proclaimed  his 
son  Gallienus  Augustus,  and  first  carried  on 
war  against  the  Goths,  whom  he  defeated  (257). 
But  though  the  barbarians  still  threatened  the 
Roman  frontiers  on  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine, 
the  conquests  of  the  Persians,  who  had  crossed 
the  Euphrates  and  stormed  Antioch,  compelled 
!  him  to  hasten  to  the  East.    For  a  time  his 
i  measures  were  both  vigorous  and  successful. 
I  Antioch  was  recovered,  and  the  Persian  king 
i  Sapor  was  compelled  to  fall  back  behind  the 
.  Euphrates  ;   but  the  emperor,  flushed  by  his 
•  good  fortune,  followed  too  rashly.    He  was  sur- 
!  rounded,  in  the  vicinity  of  Edessa,  by  the  count- 
|  less  horsemen  of  his  active  foe  ;  he  was  en- 
!  trapped  into  a  conference,  taken  prisoner  (260), 
i  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  captiv- 
j  ity,  subjected  to  every  insult  which  Oriental 
cruelty  could  devise.    After  death  his  skin  was 
stuffed  and  long  preserved  as  a  trophy  in  the 
chief  temple  of  the  nation. — 2.  Son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, but  not  by  the  same  mother  as  Gallie- 
nus.    He  perished  along  with  Gallienus  at  Mi- 
lan in  268.     Vid.  GALLIENUS. 
VALERIUS.     Vid.  VALERIA  GENS. 
VALERIUS   VOLUSUS   MAXIMUS,   M'.,   was    a 
brother  of  P.  Valerius  Publicola,  and  was  dic- 
tator in  B.C.  494,  when  the  dissensions  be- 
tween the  burghers  and  commonalty  of  Rome 
de  Nexis  were  at  the  highest.     Valerius  was 
popular  with  the  plebs,  and  induced  them  to  en- 
list for  the  Sabine  and  JEquian  wars,  by  prom- 
ising that  when  the  enemy  was  repulsed,  the 
condition  of  the  debtors  (nexi)  should  be  alle- 
viated.    He  defeated  and  triumphed  over  the 
Sabines ;  but,  unable  to  fulfill  his  promise  to 
the  commons,  resigned  his  dictatorship.    The 
plebs,  seeing  that  Valerius  at  least  had  kept 
faith  with  them,  escorted  him  honorably  home. 
As  he  was  advanced  in  life  at  the  time  of  his 
dictatorship,  he  probably  died  soon  after.   There 
were  several  descendants  of  this  Valerius  Max- 
imus, but  none  of  them  are  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  require  special  mention. 

VALERIUS  MAX!MUS,  is  known  to  us  as  the 
compiler  of  a  large  collection  of  historical  anec- 
dotes, entitled  De  Faclis  Diclisque  Memorabilibus 
Libri  IX.,  arranged  under  different  heads,  the 
sayings  and  doings  of  Roman  worthies  being, 
moreover,  kept  distinct  in  each  division  from 
those  of  foreigners.  He  lived  in  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Tiberius,  to  whom  he  dedicated 
his  work.  Of  his  personal  history  we  know- 
nothing,  except  the  solitary  circumstance,  re- 
corded by  himself,  that  he  accompanied  Sextus 
Pompeius  into  Asia  (ii.,  6,  $  8),  the  Sextus 
Pompeius,  apparently,  who  was  consul  A.D.  14, 
at  the  time  when  Augustus  died.  The  subjects 
treated  of  in  the  work  are  of  a  character  so 
miscellaneous,  that  it  would  be  impossible, 
without  transcribing  the  short  notices  placed  at 
the  head  of  each  chapter,  to  convey  a  clear  idea 
of  the  contents.  In  some  books  the  topics  se 
lected  for  illustration  are  closely  allied  to  each 
other,  in  others  no  bond  of  union  can  be  traced. 
Thus  the  first  book  is  entirely  devoted  to  mat- 
ters connected  with  sacred  rites  ;  the  second 
book  relates  chiefly  to  certain  remarkable  civil 
institutions  ;  the  third,  'nurth,  fifth,  and  sixth. 


VALERIUS  FLACCUS. 

to  the  more  prominent  social  virtues ;  but  in 
the  seventh  the  chapters  De  Strategematis,  De 
Repulsis,  are  abruptly  followed  by  those  De 
Necessitate,  De  Testamentis  Rescissis,  De  Ratis 
Testamentis  et  Insperatis.  In  an  historical  point 
of  view,  the  work  is  by  no  means  without  value, 
since  it  preserves  a  record  of  many  curious 
events  not  to  be  found  elsewhere  ;  but  from 
the  errors  actually  detected  upon  points  where 
we  possess  more  precise  information,  it  is  mani- 
fest that  we  must  not  repose  implicit  confidence 
in  the  statements,  unless  where  they  are  cor- 
roborated by  collateral  testimony.  The  work 
of  Valerius  Maximus  became  very  popular  in 
the  later  times  of  the  empire  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  It  was  frequently  abridged,  and  we  still 
possess  an  abridgment  of  it  made  by  Julius 
Paris.  The  best  editions  of  the  original  work 
are  by  Torrenius,  Leid.,  1726,  and  by  Kappius, 
Lips.,  1782. 

VALERIUS  FLACCDS.     Vid.  FLACCUS. 

[VALGIUS.  1.  The  father-in-law  of  Rullus. 
who  proposed  the  agrarian  law  in  the  consul- 
ship of  Cicero,  which  was  opposed  by  the  latter. 
It  appears  from  Cicero  that  Valgius  had  ob- 
tained much  confiscated  property  in  the  time  of 
Sulla.— 2.  A.,  the  son  of  a  senator,  deserted  the 
Pompeian  party  in  the  Spanish  war,  B.C.  45, 
and  went  over  to  Caesar. — 3.  C.  VALGIUS  HIPPI- 
ANUS,  the  son  of  Q.  Hippius,  was  adopted  by 
a  certain  C.  Valgius.] 

VALGIUS  RUFUS,  C.,  a  Roman  poet,  and  a  con- 
temporary of  Virgil  and  Horace,  the  latter  of 
whom  ranks  him  along  with  Varins,  Maecenas, 
and  Virgil,  among  those  friends  of  genius  whose 
approbation  far  more  than  compensated  for  the 
annoyance  caused  by  the  attacks  of  his  detract- 
ors. 

VANDALI,  VANDALII,  or  VINDALII,  a  confeder- 
acy of  German  nations,  probably  of  the  great 
Suevic  race,  to  which  the  Burgundiones,  Goth- 
ones,  Gepidae,  and  Rugii  belonged.  They  dwelt 
originally  on  the  northern  coast  of  Germany, 
but  were  afterward  settled  north  of  the  Mar- 
comanni,  in  the  Riesengebirge,  which  are  hence 
called  Vandalici  Monies.  They  subsequently 
appear  for  a  short  time  in  Dacia  and  Pannonia  ; 
but  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  (A.D. 
409)  they  traversed  Germany  and  Gaul,  and  in- 
vaded Spain.  In  this  country  they  subjugated 
the  Alani,  and  founded  a  powerful  kingdom,  the 
name  of  which  is  still  preserved  in  Andalusia 
(Vandalusia).  In  A.D.  429  they  crossed  over 
into  Africa,  under  their  king  Genseric,  and  con- 
quered all  the  Roman  dominions  in  that  coun- 
try. Genseric  subsequently  invaded  Italy,  and 
took  and  plundered  Rome  in  455.  The  Vandals 
continued  masters  of  Africa  till  535,  when  their 
kingdom  was  destroyed  by  Belisarius,  and  an- 
nexed to  the  Byzantine  empire. 

VANGIONES,  a  German  people,  dwelling  along 
the  Rhine,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  modern 
Worm*. 

VAKAORI.     Vid.  VERAORI. 
[VARDJKI,  an  Illy rico-Dalmatian  nation,  whom 
Pliny  styles  "  populatores  quondam  Italiae."] 

VARDULI,  a  people  in  Hispania  Tarraconen- 
sis,  west  of  the  Vascones,  in  the  modern  Gui- 
puzcoa  and  Alava. 

[VARENUS,  L.,  a  centurion  in  Caesar's  army, 
distinguished  himself,  along  with  T.  I'ullio,  by 


VARRO,  TEREMiiuS. 

a  daring  act  of  bravery,  when  the  camp  of  Q. 
Cicero  was  besieged  by  the  Nervii  in  B.C  54.] 

[VARGULA,  a  friend  of  C.  Julius  Ceesar  Strabo, 
was  noted  as  a  wit.] 

VARGUNTEIUS,  a  senator,  and  one  of  Catiline's 
conspirators,  undertook,  in  conjunction  with  C. 
Cornelius,  to  murder  Cicero  in  B.C.  63,  but 
their  plan  was  frustrated  by  information  con- 
veyed to  Cicero  through  Fulvia.  He  was  after- 
ward brought  to  trial,  but  could  find  no  one  to 
defend  him. 

VARIA  (now  Fares),  a  town  of  the  Berones  in 
Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  Iberus,  which 
was  navigable  from  this  town. 

VARINI,  a  people  of  Germany,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Albis,  north  of  the  Langobardi. 

VARIUS.  1.  Q.  VARIUS  HYBRIDA,  tribune  of 
the  plebs  B.C.  90,  was  a  native  of  Sucro  in 
Spain,  and  received  the  surname  of  Hybrida 
because  his  mother  was  a  Spanish  woman.  In 
his  tribuneship  he  carried  a  lex  de  majestate,  in 
order  to  punish  all  those  who  had  assisted  or 
advised  the  Socii  to  take  up  arms  against  the 
Roman  people.  Under  this  law  many  distin- 
guished senators  were  condemned  ;  but  in  the 
following  year  Varius  himself  was  condemned 
under  his  own  law,  and  was  put  to  death.— 2. 
L.  VARIUS  RUFUS,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
poets  of  the  Augustan  age,  the  companion  and 
friend  of  Virgil  and  Horace.  By  the  latter  he 
is  placed  in  the  foremost  rank  among  the  epic 
bards,  and  Quintilian  has  pronounced  that  his 
tragedy  ofThyestes  might  stand  a  comparison 
with  any  production  of  the  Grecian  stage.  He 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Maecenas,  and  it  was 
to  the  recommendation  of  Varius,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  that  of  Virgil,  that  Horace  was  in- 
debted for  an  introduction  to  the  minister,  about 
B.C.  39.  Virgil  appointed  Plotius  Tucca  and 
Varius  his  literary  executors,  and  they  revised 
the  ^Eneid.  Hence  Varius  was  alive  subse- 
quent to  B.C.  19,  in  which  year  Virgil  died. 
Only  the  titles  of  three  works  of  Varius  have 
been  preserved  :  1 .  De  Morte.  2.  Panegyricus  in 
CasaremOctavianum.  3.  The  tragedy  Thyestes. 
Only  a  very  few  fragments  of  these  poems  are 
extant. 

VARRO, ATACINUS.  (Vid. below, VARRO, No. 3.) 

VARRO,  CINGONIUS,  a  Roman  senator  under 
Nero,  supported  the  claims  of  Nymphidius  to 
the  throne  on  the  death  of  Nero,  and  was  put 
to  death  in  consequence  by  Galba,  being  at  the 
time  consul  designatus. 

VARRO,  TERENTICS.  1.  C.,  consul  B.C.  216 
with  L.  .-Kmilius  Paulus.  Varro  is  said  to  have 
been  the  son  of  a  butcher,  to  have  carried  on 
business  himself  as  a  factor  in  his  early  years, 
and  to  have  risen  to  eminence  by  pleading  the 
causes  of  the  lower  classes  in  opposition  to  the 
opinion  of  all  good  men.  Notwithstanding  the 
strong  opposition  of  the  aristocracy,  he  was 
raised  to  the  consulship  by  the  people,  who 
thought  that  it  only  needed  a  man  of  energy  at 
the  head  of  an  overwhelming  force  to  bring  the 
war  against  Hannibal  to  a  close.  His  colleague 
was  L.  Kmilius  Paulus,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
aristocratical  party.  The  two  consuls  were  de- 
feated by  Hannibal  at  the  memorable  battle  of 
Cannae.  Vid.  HANNIBAL.  The  battle  was  fought 
by  Varro  against  the  advice  of  Paulus.  The  lio- 
i  man  army  was  all  but  annihilated.  Paulus  and 

923 


VARRO,  TERENT1US. 

*lmost  all  the  officers  perished.    Varro  was  one 
of  the  few  who  escaped  and  reached  Venusia  in 
safety,  with  about  seventy  horsemen.    His  con- 
duct after  the  battle  seems  to  have  been  deserv- 
ing of  high  praise.    He  proceeded  to  Canusium 
where  the  remnant  of  the  Roman  army  had  taken 
refuge,  and  there   adopted   every  precaution 
which  the  exigencies  of  the  case  required.    Hi 
conduct  was  appreciated  by  the  senate  and  the 
people,  and  his  defeat  was  forgotten  in  the  serv- 
ices he  had  lately  rendered.     On  his  return  to 
the  city  all  classes  went  out  to  meet  him,  and 
the  senate  returned  him  thanks  because  he  had 
not  despaired  of  the  commonwealth.   "He  con- 
tinued to  be  employed  in  Italy  for  several  suc- 
cessive years  in  important  military  commands 
till  nearly  the  close  of  the  Punic  war. — 2.  The 
celebrated  writer,  whose  vast  and  varied  erudi- 
tion in  almost  every  department  of  literature 
earned  for  him  the  title  of  the  "  most  learned 
of  the  Romans."    He  was  born  B.C.  116,  and 
was  trained  under  the  superintendence  of  L. 
jElius  Stilo  Praeconinus,  and  he  afterward  re- 
ceived instruction  from  Antiochus,  a  philoso- 
pher of  the  Academy.     Varro  held  a  high  naval 
command  in  the  wars  against  the  pirates  and 
Mithradates,  and  afterward  served  as  the  lega- 
tus  of  Pompeius  in  Spain  in  the  civil  war,  but 
was  compelled  to  surrender  his  forces  to  Caesar. 
He  then  passed  over  into  Greece,  and  shared 
the  fortunes  of  the  Pompeian  party  till  after  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia,  when  he  sued  for  and  ob- 
tained the  forgiveness  of  Caesar,  wfio  employ- 
ed him  in  superintending  the  collection  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  great  library  designed  for  pub- 
lic use.     For  some  years  after  this  period  Varro 
remained  in  literary  seclusion,  passing  his  time 
chiefly  at  his  country  seats  near  Cumae  and  Tus- 
culum,  occupied  with  study  and  composition. 
Upon  the  formation  of  the  second  triumvirate, 
his  name  appeared  up»n  the  list  of  the  pro- 
scribed ;  but  he  succeeded  in  making  his  escape, 
and,  after  having  remained  for  some  time  con- 
cealed, he  obtained  the  protection  of  Octavianus. 
The  remainder  of  his  career  was  passed  in  tran- 
quillity, and  he  continued  to  labor  in  his  favor- 
ite studies,  although  his  magnificent  library  had 
been  destroyed,  a  loss  to  him  irreparable.     His 
death  took  place  B.C.  28,  when  he  was  in  his 
eighty-ninth  year.    Not  only  was  Varro  the  most 
learned  of  Roman  scholars,  but  he  was  likewise 
the  most  voluminous  of  Roman  authors.    We 
have  his  own  authority  for  the  assertion  that  he 
had  composed  no  less  than  four  hundred  and 
ninety  books  ;  but  of  these  only  two  works  have 
come  down  to  us,  and  one  of  them  in  a  mutila- 
ted form.     The  following  is  a  list  of  the  princi- 
pal works,  both  extant  and  lost :  1 .  De  Re  Rustica 
Libri  III.,  still  extant,  was  written  when  the  au- 
thor was  eighty  years  old,  and  is  the  most  import- 
ant of  all  the  treatises  upon  ancient  agriculture 
now  extant,  being  far  superior  to  the  more  vo- 
luminous production  of  Columella,  with  which 
alone  it  can  be  compared.    The  best  editions 
are  in  the  Scriptores  Rei  Rustica  veteres  Latini 
by  Gesner,  4to,  2  vols.,  Lips.,  1735,  and  by 
Schneider,  8vo,  4  vols.,  Lips.,  1794-1797.     2. 
De  Lingua  Latina,  a  grammatical  treatise  which 
extended  to  twenty-four  books ;  but  six  only 
(v.-x.)  have  been  preserved,  and  these  are  in  a 
mutilated  condition.    The  remains  of  this  treat- 
824 


VARUS,  ALFENUS. 

ise  are  particularly  valuable,  in  so  far  as  they 
have  been  the  means  of  preserving  many  terms 
and  forms  which  would  otherwise  have  been 
altogether  lost,  and  much  curious  information 
is  here  treasured  up  connected  with  the  ancient 
usages,  both  civil  and  religious,  of  the  Romans 
The  best  editions  are  by  Spengel,  8vo,  Berol., 
1826,  and  by  Miiller,  8vo,  Lips.,  1833.  3.  Sen- 
tcntia.  One  hundred  and  sixty-five  Sententia, 
or  pithy  sayings,  have  been  published  by  Devit 
under  the  name  of  Varro,  Patav.,  1843.  It  is 
manifest  that  these  sayings  were  not  strung  to- 
gether by  Varro  himself,  but  are  scraps  gleaned 
out  of  various  works,  probably  at  different  times 
and  by  different  hands.  4.  Antiquitaluin  Librt, 
divided  into  two  sections.  Antiquitales  Rerum 
humanarum,  in  twenty-five  books,  and  Antiqui- 
tates  Rerum  divinarum,  in  sixteen  books.  This 
was  Varro's  great  work  ;  and  upon  this  chiefly 
his  reputation  for  profound  learning  was  based  ; 
but,  unfortunately,  only  a  few  fragments  of  it 
have  come  down  to  us.  With  the  second  sec- 
tion of  the  work  we  are,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, familiar,  since  Augustine  drew  very  largely 
from  this  source  in  his  "  City  of  God."  5.  Sat- 
ura,  which  were  composed,  not  only  in  a  variety 
of  metres,  but  contained  an  admixture  of  prose 
also.  Varro,  in  these  pieces,  copied  to  a  certain 
extent  the  productions  of  Menippus  the  Gada- 
rene  (vid.  MENIPPUS),  and  hence  designated  them 
as  Satura  Menippca  s.  Cynicce.  Thoy  appear 
to  have  been  a  series  of  disquisitions  on  a  vast 
variety  of  subjects,  frequently,  if  not  uniformly, 
couched  in  the  shape  of  dialogue,  the  object 
proposed  being  the  inculcation  of  moral  lessons 
and  serious  truths  in  a  familiar,  playful,  and 
even  jocular  style.  The  best  edition  of  the 
fragments  of  these  Saturee  is  by  CEhler,  M.  Te- 
rentii  Varronis  Saturarum  Menippearum  Rcliquice, 
Quedlingb.,  1844.  Of  the  remaining  works  of 
Varro  we  possess  little  except  a  mere  catalogue 
of  titles. — 3.  P.,  a  Latin  poet  of  considerable 
celebrity,  surnamed  ATACINUS,  from  the  Atax, 
a  river  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  his  native  prov- 
ince, was  born  B.C.  82.  Of  his  personal  history 
nothing  further  is  known.  He  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  composer  of  the  following  works, 
of  which  a  few  inconsiderable  fragments  only 
have  come  down  to  us  ;  but  some  of  them  ought 
perhaps  to  be  ascribed  to]  his  illustrious  con- 
temporary M.  Terentius  Varro  :  1.  Argonautica, 
probably  a  free  translation  of  the  well-known 
poem  by  Apollonius  Rhodius.  Upon  this  piece 
the  fame  of  Varro  chiefly  rested.  It  is  referred 
to  by  Propertius,  by  Ovid,  and  by  Statius.  2. 
Chorographia  s.  Cosmographia,  appears  to  have 
been  a  metrical  system  of  astronomy  and  geog- 
raphy. 3.  Libri  Navalcs,  appears  to  have  been 
a  poem  upon  navigation. 

VARUS,  a  cognomen  in  many  Roman  gentes, 
signified  a  person  who  had  his  legs  bent  in- 
ward, and  was  opposed  to  Valgus,  which  signi- 
fied a  person  having  his  legs  turned  outward. 

VIRUS,  ALFENUS.  1.  A  Roman  jurist,  was  a 
jupil  of  Servius  Sulpicius,  and  the  only  pupil 
of  Servius  from  whom  there  are  any  excerpts 
n  the  Digest.  The  scholiast  on  Horace  (Sat., 
.,  3,  130)  tells  us  that  the  "  Alfenus  vafer"  of 
Horace  was  the  lawyer,  and  that  he  was  a  na- 
tive of  Cremona,  where  he  .carried  on  the  trade 
of  a  barber  or  a  botcher  of  shoes  (for  there  are 


VARUS,  AT1US. 

both  readings,  sutor  and  tonsor) ;  that  he  same 
to  Rome,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Servius 
Sulpicius,  attained  the  dignity  of  the  consulship, 
and  was  honored  with  a  public  funeral. — 2.  A 
general  of  Vitellius,  in  the  civil  war  in  A.D. 
69,  and  perhaps  a  descendant  of  the  jurist. 

VARUS,  ATIUS.  I.  P.,  a  zealous  partisan  of 
Pompey  in  the  civil  war,  was  stationed  in  Pice- 
num  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in  B.C. 
49.  He  subsequently  crossed  over  into  Africa, 
and  took  possession  of  the  province,  which  was 
then  governed  by  Q.  Ligarius.  Vid.  LIGARIUS. 
In  consequence  of  his  having  been  propraetor  of 
Africa  a  few  years  previously,  Varus  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  country  and  the  people,  and 
was  thus  able  to  raise  two  legions  without  much 
difficulty.  Meantime,  L.  ^Elius  Tubero,  who 
had  received  from  the  senate  the  province  of 
Africa,  arrived  to  take  the  command  ;  but  Va- 
rus would  not  even  allow  him  to  land,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  sail  away.  In  I  lie  course  of  the 
same  year,  Varus,  assisted  by  King  Juba,  defeat- 
ed Curio,  Caesar's  legate,  who  had  crossed  over 
from  Sicily  to  Africa.  Vid.  CURIO.  Varus 
fought  with  the  other  Pompeians  in  Africa 
against  Caesar  in  46 ;  but  after  the  battle  of 
Thapsus  he  sailed  away  to  Cn.  Pompey  in  Spain. 
He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Munda,  and  his  head  was 
carried  to  Caesar.  —  2.  Q.  ATIUS  VARUS,  com- 
mander of  the  cavalry  under  C.  Fabius,  one  of 
Caesar's  legates  in  Gaul,  and  probably  the  same 
as  the  Q.  Varus  who  commanded  the  cavalry 
under  Domitius,  one  of  Caesar's  generals  in 
Greece  in  the  war  with  Pompey.  It  is  sup- 
posed by  many  modern  writers  that  he  is  the 
same  person  as  the  Varus  to  whom  Virgil  dedi- 
cated his  sixth  eclogue,  and  whose  praises  the 
poet  also  celebrates  in  the  ninth  (ix.,  27),  from 
which  poems  we  learn  that  Varus  had  obtained 
renown  in  war. 

VARUS,  QUINTILIUS.  1.  SEX.,  quaestor  B.C. 
49,  belonged  to  the  Pompeian  party.  He  fell 
into  Caesar's  hands  at  the  capture  of  Corfinium, 
but  was  dismissed  by  Caesar.  He  afterward 
fought  under  Brutus  and  Cassius  against  the 
triumvirs ;  and  after  the  loss  of  the  battle  of 
Philippi,  he  fell  by  the  hands  of  his  freedmen, 
who  slew  him  at  his  own  request. — 2.  P.,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  consul  B.C.  13,  and  was 
subsequently  appointed  to  the  government  of 
Syria,  where  he  acquired  enormous  wealth. 
Shortly  after  his  return  from  Syria  he  was  made 
governor  of  Germany  (probably  about  A.D.  7). 
Drusus  had  conquered  a  great  part  of  Central 
Germany  as  far  as  the  Visurgis  (now  Weser)  ; 
and  Varus  received  orders  from  Augustus  to  in- 
troduce the  Roman  jurisdiction  into  the  newly- 
conquered  country.  The  Germans,  however, 
were  not  prepared  to  submit  thus  tamely  to  the 
Roman  yoke,  and  found  a  leader  in  Arminius,  a 
noble  chief  of  the  Cherusci,  who  had  previously 
served  in  the  Roman  army.  Arminius  organ- 
ized a  general  revolt  of  all  the  German  tribes 
between  the  Visurgis  and  the  Weser,  but  kept 
his  design  a  profound  secret  from  Varus,  with 
whom  he  continued  to  live  on  the  most  friendly 
terms.  When  he  had  fully  matured  his  plans, 
he  suddenly  attacked  Varus,  at  the  head  of  a 
countless  host  of  barbarians,  as  the  Roman  gen- 
eral was  marching  with  his  three  legions  through 
a  pass  of  the  Saltus  Teutoburgitntii,  a  range  of 


VATIA  ISAURICUS. 

hills  covered  with  wood,  which  extends  north 
of  the  Lippe  from  Osnabriick  to  Paderborn,  and 
is  known  in  the  present  day  by  the  name  of  the 
Teutoburgerwald  or  Lippische  Wald.  The  bat- 
tle lasted  three  days,  and  ended  with  the  en- 
tire destructien  of  the  Roman  army.  Varus  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life.  His  defeat  was  follow- 
ed by  the  loss  of  all  the  Roman  possessions  be- 
tween the  Weser  and  the  Rhine,  and  the  latter 
river  again  became  the  boundary  of  the  Roman 
dominions.  When  the  news  of  this  defeat 
reached  Rome,  the  whole  city  was  thrown  into 
consternation  ;  and  Augustus,  who  was  both 
weak  and  aged,  gave  way  to  the  most  violent 
grief,  tearing  his  garments,  and  calling  upon  Va- 
rus to  give  him  back  his  legions.  Orders  were 
issued,  as  if  the  very  empire  was  in  danger ; 
and  Tiberius  was  dispatched  with  a  veteran 
army  to  the  Rhine. 

VARUS  (now  Var  or  Faro),  a  river  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  forming  the  boundary  between 
this  province  and  Italy,  rises  in  Mount  Cema  in 
the  Alps,  and  falls  Into  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
between  Antipolis  and  Nicaea. 

VASATES,  a  people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  on  the 
Garumna,  whose  chief  town  was  Cossium  (now 
Bazas),  on  the  road  from  Burdigala  to  Elusa. 

VASCONES,  a  powerful  people  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  between  the 
Iberus  and  the  Pyrenees,  in  the  modern  Na- 
varre and  Guipuzco.  Their  chief  towns  were 
POMPELON  and  CALAGURRIS.  They  were  a  brave 
people,  and  fought  in  battle  bare-headed.  Un- 
der the  empire  they  were  regarded  as  skillful 
diviners  and  prophets.  Their  name  is  still  re- 
tained in  that  of  the  modern  Basques. 
VASCONUM  SALTUS.  Vid.  PYRENE. 
VASIO  (now  Vaison),  a  considerable  town  of 
the  Vocontii  in  Gallia  Narbonensis. 

[VASIUS,  T.,  one  of  the  conspirators  agains 
Q.  Cassius  Longinus,  propraetor  of  Furthej 
Spain  in  B.C.  48.] 

VATIA  ISAURICUS,  P.  SERVILIUS.  1.  Consul  in 
B.C.  79,  was  sent  in  the  following  year  as  pro- 
consul to  Cilicia,  in  order  to  clear  the  seas  of 
the  pirates,  whose  ravages  now  spread  far  and 
wide.  He  carried  on  the  war  with  great  ability 
and  success,  and  from  his  conquest  of  the  Isauri 
he  obtained  the  surname  of  Isauricus.  After 
giving  Cilicia  the  organization  of  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, he  entered  Rome  in  triumph  in  74.  After 
his  return  Servilius  took  a  leading  part  in  pub- 
lic affairs.  In  70  he  was  one  of  the  judices  at 
the  trial  of  Verres  ;  in  66  he  supported  the  roga- 
tion of  Manilius  for  conferring  upon  Pompey  the 
command  of  the  war  against  the  pirates;  in  63 
he  was  a  candidate  for  the  dignity  of  pontifex 
maximus,  but  was  defeated  by  Julius  Caesar  ;  in 
the  same  year  he  spoke  in  the  senate  in  favor 
of  inflicting  the  last  penalty  of  the  law  upon  the 
Catilinarian  conspirators  ;  in  67  he  joined  the 
other  nobles  in  procuring  Cicero's  recall  from 
banishment ;  in  56  he  opposed  the.  restoration 
of  Ptolemy  to  his  kingdom  .  and  in  55  he  was 
censor  with  M.  Valerius  Messala  Niger.  He 
took  no  part  in  the  civil  wars,  probably  on  ac- 
count of  his  advanced  age,  and  died  in  44. — 2. 
Praetor  54,  belonged  originally  to  the  aristocrat- 
ical  party,  but  espoused  Cesar's  side  on  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  and  was  consul 
i  with  Caesar  in  48.  In  46  he  governed  the  prov- 

925 


VATICANUS  MONS. 

in  Jo  of  Asia  as  proconsul,  during  which  time 
Cicero  wrote  to  him  several  letters.  After  the 
death  of  Caesar  in  44,  he  supported  Cicero  and 
(he  rest  of  the  aristocratical  party,  in  opposition 
to  Antony.  But  he  soon  changed  sides  again, 
became  reconciled  to  Antony,  and  was  made 
consul  a  second  time  in  41. 

[VATICANUS  MONS.  Vid.  ROMA,  p.  747,  b, 
748,  a.] 

VATINIUS.  1.  P.,  a  political  adventurer  in  the 
last  days  of  the  republic,  who  is  described  by 
Cicero  as  one  of  the  greatest  scamps  and  vil- 
lains that  ever  lived.  His  personal  appearance 
was  unprepossessing ;  his  face  and  neck  were 
covered  with  swellings,  to  which  Cicero  alludes, 
calling  him  the  struma  civitatis.  Vatinius  was 
quaestor  B.C.  63,  and  tribune  of  the  plebs  59, 
when  he  sold  his  services  to  Caesar,  who  was 
then  consul  along  with  Bibulus.  It  was  Vatin- 
ius who  proposed  the  bill  to  the  people  by 
which  Caesar  received  the  provinces  of  Cisal- 
pine Gaul  and  Illyricum  for  five  years.  Vatini- 
us continued  to  take  an  active  part  in  political 
affairs.  In  56  he  appeared  as  a  witness  against 
Milo  and  Sestius,  two  of  Cicero's  friends,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  orator  made  a  vehement 
attack  upon  the  character  of  Vatinius,  in  the 
speech  which  has  come  down  to  us.  Vatinius 
was  praetor  in  55,  and  in  the  following  year  (54) 
he  was  accused  by  C.  Licinius  Calvus  of  having 
gained  the  praetorship  by  bribery.  He  was  de- 
fended on  this  occasion  by  Cicero,  in  order  to 
please  Caesar,  whom  Cicero  had  offended  by  his 
former  attack  upon  Vatinius.  Soon  afterward 
Vatinius  went  to  Gaul,  where  we  find  him  serv- 
ing in  51.  He  accompanied  Caesar  in  the  civil 
war,  and  was  made  consul  suffectus  for  a  few 
days,  at  the  end  of  December,  47.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  following  year  he  was  sent  into 
Illyricum,  where  he  carried  on  the  war  with 
success.  After  Caesar's  death  he  was  compell- 
ed to  surrender  Dyrrhachium  and  his  army  to 
Brutus,  who  had  obtained  possession  of  Mace- 
donia, because  his  troops  declared  in  favor  of 
Brutus.  —  2.  Of  Benventum,  one  of  the  vilest 
and  most  hateful  creatures  of  Nero's  court, 
equally  deformed  in  body  and  in  mind.  He  was 
originally  a  shoemaker's  apprentice,  next  earned 
his  living  as  one  of  the  lowest  kinds  of  scurrtz 
or  buffoons,  and  finally  obtained  great  power 
and  wealth  by  accusing  the  most  distinguished 
men  in  the  state.  A  certain  kind  of  drinking- 
cups,  having  nasi  or  nozzles,  bore  the  name  of 
Vatinius,  probably  because  he  brought  them  into 
fashion.  Juvenal  alludes  (v.,  46)  to  a  cup  of 
this  kind. 

VATRENUS.     Vid.  PADUS. 

VECTIS  or  VECTA  (now  Isle  of  Wight),  an  isl- 
and off  the  southern  coast  of  Britain,  with  which 
the  Romans  became  acquainted  before  their 
conquest  of  Britain,  by  means  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Massilia,  who  were  accustomed  to  visit 
this  island  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  tin.  It  is 
related  by  Diodorus  that  at  low  water  the  space 
between  Vectis  and  the  coast  of  Britain  was  al- 
most entirely  dry,  so  that  the  Britons  used  to 
bring  tin  to  the  island  in  wagons.  It  was  con- 
quered by  Vespasian  in  the  reign  of  Claudius. 

VEDIDS  POLLIO.     Vid.  POLLIO. 

VEOETIUS,  FLA  vies  RENATCJS,  the  author  of  a 
treatise  Rei  Militaris  Instituta,  or  Epitome  Rei 
926 


VEIL 

Militaris,  dedicated  to  the  Emperor  Valentinian 
II.  The  materials  were  derived,  according  to 
the  declaration  of  the  writer  himself,  from  Cato 
the  Censor,  De  Disciplina  Mililari,  from  Cor 
nelius  Celsus,  from  Frontinus,  from  Paternus, 
and  from  the  imperial  constitutions  of  Augustus, 
Trajan,  and  Hadrian.  The  work  is  divided  into 
five  books.  The  first  treats  of  the  levying  and 
training  of  recruits,  including  instructions  foi 
the  fortification  of  a  camp  *,  the  second,  of  the 
different  classes  into  which  soldiers  are  divided, 
and  especially  of  the  organization  of  the  legion  ; 
the  third,  of  the  operations  of  an  army  in  the 
field  ;  the  fourth,  of  the  attack  and  defence  of 
fortresses ;  the  fifth,  of  marine  warfare.  The 
value  of  this  work  is  much  diminished  by  the 
fact  that  the  usages  of  periods  the  most  remote 
from  each  other  are  mixed  together  into  one 
confused  mass,  and  not  unfreqtiently,  we  have 
reason  to  suspect,  are  blended  with  arrange- 
ments which  never  existed,  except  in  the  fancy 
of  the  author.  The  best  edition  is  by  Schwe- 
belius,  Norimberg,  1767,  and  by  Oudendorp  and 
Bessel,  Argent.,  1806. 

[VEHILIUS,  praetor  B.C.  44,  refused  to  receive 
a  province  from  Antony,  and  said  that  he  would 
obey  the  senate  alone.] 

[VEIANIUS,  a  celebrated  gladiator  in  the  time 
of  Horace,  who  had  retired  to  a  small  estate  in 
the  country,  after  dedicating  his  arms  in  the 
temple  of  Hercules  at  Fundi  in  Latium.] 

VEIENTO,  FABRICIUS,  was  banished  in  the  reign 
of  Nero,  A.D.  62,  in  consequence  of  his  having 
published  several  libels.  He  afterward  return- 
ed to  Rome,  and  became  in  the  reign  of  Domi- 
tian  one  of  the  most  infamous  informers  and 
flatterers  of  that  tyrant.  He  also  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Nerva. 

VEII  (Veiens,  -entis,  Veientanus  :  now  /so/a 
Farnesc),  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  powerful 
cities  of  Etruria,  situated  on  the  River  Cremlra, 
about  twelve  miles  from  Rome.  It  possessed 
a  strongly-fortified  citadel,  built  on  a  hill  rising 
precipitously  from  the  deep  glens  which  bound 
it,  save  at  the  single  point  where  a  narrow  ridge 
unites  it  to  the  city.  It  was  one  of  the  twelve 
cities  of  the  Etruscan  Confederation,  and  appa- 
rently the  largest  of  all.  As  far  as  we  can  judge 
from  its  present  remains,  it  was  about  seven 
miles  in  circumference,  which  agrees  with  the 
statement  of  Dionysius,  that  it  was  equal  in 
size  to  Athens.  Its  territory  (Ager  Veiens)\vzs 
extensive,  and  appears  originally  to  have  ex- 
tended on  the  south  and  east  to  the  Tiber;  on 
the  southwest  to  the  sea,  embracing  the  salinae 
or  salt-works  at  the  mouth  of  the  river ;  and 
on  the  west  to  the  territory  of  Caere.  The  Ci- 
minian  forest  appears  to  have  been  its  north- 
western boundary ;  on  the  east  it  must  have 
embraced  all  the  district  south  of  Soracte  and 
eastward  to  the  Tiber.  The  cities  of  Capena 
and  Fidenae  were  colonies  of  Veii.  Veii  was  a 
powerful  city  at  the  time  of  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  and  the  most  formidable  and  dangerous 
of  nor  neighbors.  The  Veientes  were  engaged 
in  a..Tiost  unceasing  hostilities  with  Rome  for 
more  than  three  centuries  and  a  half,  and  we 
have  records  of  fourteen  distinct  wars  between 
the  two  nations.  Veii  was  at  length  taken  by 
the  dictator  Camillus,  after  a  siege  which  is  said 
to  have  lasted  ten  years.  The  city  fell  into  his 


VEIOVIS. 

hands,  according  to  the  common  story,  by  means 
of  a  cuniculus  or  mine,  which  was  carried  by 
Camillus  from  the  Roman  camp  under  the  city 
into  the  citadel  of  Veii.  So  well  built  and  spa- 
cious wasVeii,  that  the  Romans  were  anxious, 
after  the  destruction  of  their  own  city  by  the 
Gauls  in  390,  to  remove  to  Veii,  and  are  said  to 
have  been  only  prevented  from  carrying  their 
purpose  into  effect  by  the  eloquence  of  Camillus. 
From  this  time  Veii  was  abandoned  ;  but  after 
the  lapse  of  ages  it  was  colonized  afresh  by 
Augustus,  and  made  a  Roman  municipium. 
The  new  colony,  however,  occupied  scarcely  a 
third  of  the  ancient  city,  and  had  again  sunk 
into  decay  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  From  this 
time  Veii  disappears  entirely  from  history,  and, 
on  the  revival  of  letters,  even  its  site  was  long 
an  object  of  dispute.  It  is  now  settled,  how- 
ever, beyond  a  doubt,  that  it  stood  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of 'the  hamlet  of  Isola  Farnese,  where 
several  remains  of  the  ancient  city  have  been 
discovered.  Of  these  the  most  interesting  is 
its  cemetery ;  but  there  is  now  only  one  tomb 
remaining  open,  which  was  discovered  in  the 
winter  of  1842-3,  and  contains  many  interesting 
remains  of  Etruscan  art. 

VEIOVIS,  a  Roman  deity,  whose  name  is  ex- 
plained by  some  to  mean  "  little  Jupiter,"  while 
others  interpret  it  "  the  destructive  Jupiter," 
and  identify  him  with  Pluto.  Veiovis  was  prob- 
ably an  Etruscan  divinity  of  a  destructive  na- 
ture, whose  fearful  lightnings  produced  deaf- 
ness in  those  who  were  to  be  struck  by  them, 
even  before  they  were  actually  hurled.  His 
temple  at  Rome  stood  between  the  Capitol  and 
the  Tarpeian  Rock ;  he  was  represented  as  a 
youthful  god  armed  with  arrows. 

VELABRUM.     Vid.  ROMA,  p.  749,  a. 

VELAUNI  or  VELLAVI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Aqui- 
tanica,  in  the  modern  Velay,  who  were  origin- 
ally subject  to  the  Arverni,  but  subsequently 
appear  as  an  independent  people. 

VELEDA,  a  prophetic  virgin,  by  birth  belonged 
to  the  Bructeri,  and  was  regarded  as  a  divine 
being  by  most  of  the  nations  in  Central  Ger- 
many in  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  She  inhabited 
a  lofty  tower  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  River 
Luppia  (now  Lippe).  She  encouraged  Civilis 
in  his  revolt  against  the  Romans,  but  she  was 
afterward  taken  prisoner  and  carried  to  Rome. 

VELIA  or  ELBA,  also  called  HYELE  ('EAt'a, 
'Yf'Aj?,  the  different  forms  are  owing  to  the  word 
having  originally  the  ^Eolic  digamma,  which  the 
Romans  changed  into  V:  Velienses  orEleates, 
pi. :  now  CasteW  a  Mare  delta  Brucca),  a  Greek 
town  of  Lucania,  on  the  western  coast,  between 
Paestum  and  Buxentum,  was  founded  by  the 
Phocacans,  who  had  abandoned  their  native  city 
to  escape  from  the  Persian  sovereignty,  about 
B.C.  543.  It  was  situated  about  three  miles 
east  of  the  River  Hales,  and  possessed  a  good 
harbor.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of 
the  philosophers  Parmenides  and  Zeno,  who 
founded  a  school  of  philosophy  usually  known 
under  the  name  of  the  Eleatic.  It  possessed  a 
celebrated  temple  of  Demeter  (Ceres).  Cicero, 
who  resided  at  Velia  at  one  time,  frequently 
mentions  it  in  his  correspondence  ;  and  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  reckoned  a  healthy  place. 
(Hor.,  Ep.,  i.,  15.)  In  the  time  of  Strabo  it  had 
ceased  to  be  a  town  of  importance. 


VENETIA. 

VELINUS  (now  Velino),  a  river  in  the  territory 
of  the  Sabines,  rising  in  the  central  Apennines, 
and  falling  into  the  Nar.  This  river  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Reate  overflowed  its  banks 
and  formed  several  small  lakes,  the  largest  of 
which  was  called  LACUS  VELINUS  (now  Pie  di 
Lugo,  also  Lago  delle  Marmore).  In  order  to  car- 
ry off  these  waters,  a  channel  was  cut  through 
the  rocks  by  Curius  Dentatus,  the  conqueror 
of  the  Sabines,  by  means  of  which  the  waters 
of  the  Velinus  were  carried  through  a  narrow 
gorge  to  a  spot  where  they  fall  from  a  height  of 
several  hundred  feet  into  the  River  Nar.  This 
fall,  which  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  Eu 
rope,  is  known  at  the  present  day  by  the  name 
of  the  Fall  of  Terni,  or  the  Caduta  delle  Mar- 
more. 

VELITR^:  (Veliternus :  now  Vellctri),  an  an 
cient  town  of  the  Volscians  in  Latium,  but  sub- 
sequently belonging  to  the  Latin  league.  It 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  and  colonized 
at  an  early  period,  but  it  frequently  revolted 
from  Rome.  It  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  the 
birth-place  of  the  Emperor  Augustus. 

VELIUS  LONOUS,  a  Latin  grammarian,  known 
to  us  from  a  treatise  De  Orthographia,  still  ex- 
tant, printed  in  the  "  Grammatical  Latinae  Auc- 
tores  Antiqui"  of  Putschius,  4to,  Hanov.,  1605. 
Velius  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  Virgil,  which 
is  mentioned  by  Macrobius. 

VELLAUNODUNUM  (now  Beaume),  a  town  of  the 
Senones  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis. 

VELLAVI.     Vid.  VELAUNI. 

[VEI.LEIUS  C.,  a  Roman  senator,  introduced 
by  Cicero  as  one  of  the  supporters  of  the  Epi- 
curean philosophy  in  his  "  De  Natura  Deorum:" 
he  was  a  friend  of  the  orator  L.  Crassus.] 

VELLEIUS  PATERCULUS.     Vid.  PATERCULUS. 

VELLOCASSES,  a  people  in  Gallia  Lugdunen 
sis,  northwest  of  the  Parisii,  extending  along 
the  Sequana  as  far  as  the  ocean  :  their  chief 
town  was  RATOMAGUS. 

VENAFRUM  (Vehafranus :  now  Venafri),&  towp 
in  the  north  of  Samnium,  near  tne  River  Vul- 
turnus,  and  on  the  confines  of  Latium,  celebra- 
ted for  the  excellence  of  its  olives. 

VENEDI  or  VENEDI,  a  people  in  European 
Sarmatia,  dwelling  on  the  Baltic  east  of  the 
Vistula.  The  SINUS  VENEDICUS  (now  Gulf  of 
Rija),  and  the  VENEDICI  MONTES,  a  range  of 
mountains  between  Poland  and  East  Prussia, 
were  called  after  this  people. 

VENERIS  PROMONTORIUM.  Vid.  PYRENES  PRO- 
MONTORIUM. 

VENERIS  PORTUS  or  PYREN^I  PORTUS,  a  sea- 
port town  of  the  Indigetes  in  Hispania  Tarra- 
conens's,  near  the  Promontorium  Veneris,  and 
on  the  frontiers  of  Gaul. 

VENETIA.  1.  A  district  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
was  originally  included  under  the  general  name 
of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  but  was  made  by  Augustus 
the  tenth  Regio  of  Italy.  It  was  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  River  Athesis,  which  separated 
it  from  Gallia  Cisalpina ;  on  the  north  by  the 
Carnic  Alps ;  on  the  east  by  the  River  Tima- 
vus,  which  separated  it  from  Istria  ;  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Adriatic  Gulf.  This  country  was, 
and  is,  very  fertile,  and  its  inhabitants  enjoyed 
great  prosperity.  The  chief  productions  of  the 
country  were  excellent  wool,  a  sweet  hut  much- 
prized  wine,  and  race-horses.  Dionysius,  the 

927 


VENETUS  LACUS. 

tyrant  of  Syracuse,  is  said  to  have  kept  a  stud 
of  race-horses  in  this  country.  Its  inhabitants, 
the  VENETI,  frequently  called  HENKTI  ('Everoi) 
by  the  Greeks,  were  commonly  said  to  be  de- 
scendants of  the  Paphlagonian  Heneti,  whom 
Antenor  led  into  the  country  after  the  Trojan 
war;  but  this  tale,  like  so  many  others,  has 
evidently  arisen  from  the  mere  similarity  of  the 
name.  Others  supposed  the  Veneti  to  be  a 
hranch  of  the  Celtic  Veneti  in  Gaul ;  but  this 
supposition  is  disproved  by  the  express  testi- 
mony of  Polybius,  that  they  spoke  a  language 
entirely  different  from  the  Celtic ;  and  that  they 
had  no  connection  with  the  Celts,  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  they  were  always  on 
hostile  terms  with  the  Celtic  tribes  settled  in 
Italy.  Herodotus  regards  them  as  an  Illyrian 
race ;  and  all  writers  are  agreed  that  they  did 
not  belong  to  the  original  population  of  Italy. 
In  consequence  of  their  hostility  to  the  Celtic 
tribes  in  Iheir  neighborhood,  they  formed  at  an 
early  period  an  alliance  with  Rome  ;  and  their 
country  was  defended  by  the  Romans  against 
their  dangerous  enemies.  On  the  conquest  of 
the  Cisalpine  Gauls,  the  Veneti  likewise  be- 
came included  under  the  Roman  dominions ; 
and  they  were  almost  the  only  people  in  Italy 
who  became  the  subjects  of  Rome  without  of- 
fering any  resistance.  The  Veneti  continued 
to  enjoy  great  prosperily  down  to  the  time  of 
the  Marcomannic  wars,  in  the  reign  of  the  Em- 
peror Aurelius  ;  but  from  this  time  their  coun- 
try was  frequently  devastated  by  the  barba- 
rians who  invaded  Italy ;  and  at  length,  in  the 
fifth  century,  many  of  its  inh  Hants,  to  escape 
the  ravages  of  the  Huns  under  Attila,  took  ref- 
uge in  the  islands  off  their  coast,  on  which  now 
stands  the  city  of  Venice.  The  chief  towns  of 
Venetia  in  ancient  times  were  PATAVIUM,  AL- 
TINUM,  and  AQUILEIA.  The  two  latter  carried  on 
an  extensive  commerce,  and  exported,  among 
other  things,  large  quantities  of  amber,  which 
was  brought  from  the  Baltic*  through  the  inte- 
rior of  Europe  to  these  cities. — 2.  A  district  in 
the  northwest  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  inhabited 
by  the  Veneti,  who  were  a  brave  people,  and 
the  best  sailors  in  all  Gaul.  Off  their  coast 
was  a  group  of  islands  called  INSULT  VENE- 

T1CX. 

VENETUS  LACUS.     Vid.  BRIGANTINUS  LACUS. 

VENILIA,  a  nymph,  daughter  of  Pilumnus, 
sister  of  Amata  (the  wife  of  King  Latinus),  and 
mother  of  Turnus  and  Juturna  by  Daunus. 

VENNONES,  a  people  of  Raetia,  and,  according 
to  Strabo,  the  mdtet  savage  of  the  Raetian  tribes, 
inhabiting  the  Alps  near  the  sources  of  the 
Athesis  (nowAdige). 

[VENNONIUS.  1.  An  early  Roman  annalist, 
placed  by  Cicero  immediately  after  Fannius  in 
his  enumeration  of  Roman  historians.  No  frag- 
ments of  his  works  remain  ;  a  few  references 
are  collected  by  Krause,  Histor.  Rom.  Fragm., 
p.  175-6. — 2.  SEXTUS,  one  of  the  instruments 
of  Verres  in  oppressing  the  Sicilians.— 3.  C.,  a 
money-lender  (negotiator)  in  Cilicia,  a  friend  of 
Cicero,  solicited,  but  unsuccessfully,  a  prafec- 
tura  from  the  latter.] 

VENTA.  1.  BELGARUM  (now  Winchester),  the 
chief  town  of  the  Belgae  in  Britain.  The  mod- 
ern city  still  contains  several  Roman  remains. 

2.  IcENORUM.        Vid.  ICENI. 3.  SlLURUM  (HOW 

928 


VENTIDIUS  BASSUS. 

Carwent),  a  town  of  the  Silures  in  Britain,  in 
Monmouthshire. 

VENTI  (uvtfioi),  the  winds.  They  appear  per- 
sonified, even  in  the  Homeric  poems,  but,  at 
the  same  time,  they  are  conceived  as  ordinary 
phenomena  of  nature.  The  master  and  ruler 
of  all  the  winds  is  ^Eolus,  who  resides  in  the 
island  ^Eolia  (vid.  ^Eotus) ;  but  the  other  gods 
also  exercise  a  power  over  them.  Homer  men- 
tions by  name  Boreas  (north  wind),  Eurus  (east 
wind),  Notus  (south  wind),  and  Zephyrus  (west 
wind).  When  the  funeral  pile  of  Patroclus 
could  not  be  made  to  burn,  Achilles  promised 
to  offer  sacrifices  to  the  winds  ;  and  Iris  accord- 
ingly hastened  to  them,  and  found  them  feast- 
ing in  the  palace  of  Zephyrus  in  Thrace.  Bo- 
reas and  Zephyrus  thereupon  straightway  cross- 
ed the  Thracian  Sea  into  Asia,  to  cause  the  fire 
to  blaze.  According  to  Hesiod,  the  beneficial 
winds,  Notus,  Boreas,  Argestes,  antl  Zephyrus, 
were  the  sons  of  Astraeus  and  Eos ;  and  the  de- 
structive ones,  such  as  Typhon,  are  said  to  be 
the  sons  of  Typhoeus.  Later,  especially  philo- 
sophical, writers  endeavored  to  define  the  winds 
more  accurately,  according  to  their  places  in  the 
compass.  Thus  Aristotle,  besides  the  four  prin- 
cipal winds  (Boreas  or  Aparciias,  Eurus,  Notus, 
and  Zephyrus),  mentions  three,  the  Meses,  Cai- 
cias,  and  Apeliotes,  between  Boreas  and  Eurus; 
between  Eurus  and  Notus  he  places  the  Phce- 
nicias ;  between  Notus  and  Zephyrus  he  haa 
only  the  Lips  ;  and  between  Zephyrus  and  Bo 
reas  he  places  the  Argestes  (Olympias  or  Sci- 
ron)  and  the  Thrascias.  It  must  further  be  ob- 
served that,  according  to  Aristotle,  the  Eurus 
is  not  due  east,  but  southeast.  In  the  Museum 
Pio-Clementinum  there  exists  a  marble  monu- 
ment upon  which  the  winds  are  described  with 
their  Greek  and  Latin  names,  viz.,  Septentrio 
(Aparctias),  Eurus  (Euros  or  southeast),  and 
between  these  two  Aquilo  (Boreas),  Vulturnua 
(Caicias),  and  Solanus  (Apheliotes).  Between 
Eurus  and  Notus  (Notes)  there  is  only  one,  the 
Euroauster  (Euronotus) ;  between  Notus  and 
Favonius  (Zephyrus)  are  marked  Austro-Africus 
(Libonotus)  and  Africus  (Lips) ;  and  between 
Favonius  and  Septentrio  we  find  Chorus  (lapyx) 
and  Circius  (Thracius).  The  winds  were  rep- 
resented by  poets  and  artists  in  different  ways ; 
the  latter  usually  represented  them  as  beings 
with  wings  at  their  heads  and  shoulders.  The 
most  remarkable  monument  representing  the 
winds  is  the  octagonal  tower  of  Andronicus 
Cyrrhestes  at  Athens.  Each  of  the  eight  sides 
of  the  monument  represents  one  of  the  eight 
principal  winds  in  a  flying  attitude.  A  mov- 
able Triton  in  the  centre  of  the  cupola  pointed 
with  his  staff  to  the  wind  blowing  at  the  time. 
All  these  eight  figures  have  wings  at  theit 
shoulders,  all  are  clothed,  and  the  peculiarities 
of  the  winds  are  indicated  by  their  bodies  and 
various  attributes.  Black  lambs  were  offered 
as  sacrifices  to  the  destructive  winds,  and  white 
ones  to  favorable  or  good  winds.  Boreas  had  a 
temple  on  the  River  Ilissus  in  Attica ;  and 
Zephyrus  had  an  altar  on  the  sacred  road  to 
Eleusis. 

VENTIDIUS  BASSUS,  P.,  a  celebrated  Roman 
general,  was  a  native  of  Picenum,  and  \vaa 
taken  prisoner  by  Pompeius  Strabo  in  the  So- 
cial war  (B.C.  89),  and  carried  to  Rome.  When 


VENULUS. 

fee  grew  up  to  man's  estate,  he  got  a  poor  living 
by  undertaking  to  furnish  mules  and  vehicles 
for  those  magistrates  who  went  from  Rome  to 
administer  a  province.  In  this  humble  employ- 
ment he  became  known  to  C.  Julius  Caesar, 
ivhom  he  accompanied  into  Gaul.  In  the  Civil 
war  he  executed  Caesar's  orders  with  ability, 
and  became  a  favorite  of  his  great  commander 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  tribune  of  the  plebs, 
and  was  made  a  praetor  for  B.C.  43.  After  Cae- 
sar's death  Ventidius  sided  with  M.  Antony  in 
the  war  of  Mutina  (43),  and  in  the  same  year 
was  made  consul  suffectus.  In  39  Antony  sent 
Ventidius  into  Asia  to  oppose  Labienus  and  the 
Parthians.  He  conducted  this  war  with  distin- 
guished ability  and  success.  In  the  first  cam- 
paign (39)  he  defeated  the  Parthians  and  Labi- 
onus,  the  latter  of  whom  was  slain  in  his  flight 
after  the  battle ;  and  in  the  second  campaign 
(38)  Ventidius  gained  a  still  more  brilliant  vic- 
ory  over  the  Parthians,  who  had  again  invaded 
Syria.  Pacorus,  the  king's  son,  fell  in  this  bat- 
tle. Antony,  however,  far  from  being  pleased 
with  the  success  of  Ventidius,  showed  great 
jealousy  of  him,  and  dismissed  him  from  his 
employment.  Yet  his  services  were  too  great 
to  be  overlooked,  and  he  had  a  triumph  in  No- 
vember, 38.  Nothing  more  is  known  of  him. 
Ventidius  was  often  cited  as  an  instance  of  a 
man  who  rose  from  the  lowest  condition  to  the 
highest  honors  ;  a  captive  became  a  Roman 
consul  and  enjoyed  a  triumph  ;  but  this  was  in 
a  period  of  revolution. 

[VENULUS,  a  Latin  chieftain  (according  to 
Servius,  originally  from  Argos),  sent  by  Turnus 
to  Diomedes  to  persuade  him  to  lend  aid  against 
JEnias  and  the  Trojans :  he  was  subsequently 
captured  by  Tarchon,  and  carried  off  the  field 
after  a  fierce  struggle.] 

VENUS,  the  goddess  of  love  among  the  Ro- 
mans. Before  she  was  identified  with  the  Greek 
Aphrodite,  she  was  one  of  the  least  important 
divinities  in  the  religion  of  the  Romans ;  but 
still  her  worship  seems  to  have  been  establish- 
ed at  Rome  at  an  early  time.  There  was  a 
stone  chapel  with  an  image  of  Venus  Murtca  or 
Murcia  in  the  Circus,  near  the  spot  where  the 
altar  of  Census  was  concealed.  This  surname 
was  said  to  be  the  same  as  Myrtea  (from  myr- 
ius,  a  myrtle),  and  to  indicate  the  fondness  of 
the  goddess  for  the  myrtle-tree.  In  ancient 
times  there  is  said  to  have  been  a  myrtle  grove 
in  front  of  her  sanctuary  below  the  Aventine. 
Another  ancient  surname  of  Venus  was  Cloa- 
•ina,  which  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from 
her  image  having  been  found  in  the  great  sew- 
er (cloaca) ;  but  this  tale  is  nothing  but  an  ety- 
mological inference  from  the  name.  It  is  sup- 
posed by  modern  writers  that  this  surname  sig- 
nifies the  "  Purifier,"  from  cloare  or  cluere,  "  to 
wash"  or  "  purify."  The  statue  of  Venus  un- 
der this  surname  was  set  up  by  T.  Tatius  in  a 
temple  near  the  forum.  A  third  ancient  sur- 
name of  Venus  is  Calva,  under  which  she  had 
two  temples  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Capitol. 
Some  believed  that  one  of  them  had  been  built 
by  Ancus  Marcius,  because  his  wife  was  in 
danger  of  losing  her  hair  ;  others  thought  that 
it  was  a  monument  of  a  patriotic  act  of  the 
Roman  women,  who,  during  the  siege  of  the 
JJrauls,  cut  off  their  hair  and  gave  it  to  the  men 
59 


VERCELLJ3. 

to  make  strings  for  their  bows  ;  and  others, 
again,  supposed  it  to  refer  to  the  fancies  and 
caprices  of  lovers,  calvere  signifying  ••  to  tease." 
But  it  probably  refers  to  the  fact  that  on  her 
wedding-day  the  bride,  either  actually  or  sym- 
bolically, cut  off  a  lock  of  hair  to  sacrifice  ii  to 
Venus.  In  these,  the  most  ancient  surnames 
of  Venus,  we  must  recognize  her  primitive  chai- 
acter  and  attributes.  In  later  times  her  wor- 
ship became  much  more  extended,  and  her  iden- 
tification with  the  Greek  Aphrodite  introduced 
various  new  attributes.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  second  Punic  war,  the  worship  of  Venus 
Erycina  was  introduced  from  Sicily,  and  a  tem- 
ple was  dedicated  to  her  on  the  Capitol,  to 
which  subsequently  another  was  added  outside 
the  Colline  gate.  In  the  year  B.C.  114,  a  Ves- 
tal virgin  was  killed  by  lightning ;  and  as  the 
general  moral  corruption,  especially  among  the 
Vestals,  was  believed  to  be  the  cause  of  this 
disaster,  the  Sibylline  books,  upon  being  con- 
sulted, commanded  that  a  temple  should  be  built 
to  Venus  Verticordia  (the  goddess  who  turns 
the  hearts  of  men)  on  the  Via  Salaria.  After 
the  close  of  the  Samnite  war,  Fabius  Gurges 
founded  the  worship  of  Venus  Obsequens  and 
Postvorta  ;  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger,  that 
of  Venus  Genitrix,  in  which  he  wa,s  afterward 
followed  by  Caesar,  who  added  that  of  Venus 
Victrix.  The  worship  of  Venus  was  promoted 
by  Caesar,  who  traced  his  descent  from  ^Eneas, 
who  was  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Mars  and 
Venus.  The  month  of  April,  as  the  beginning 
of  spring,  was  thought  to  be  peculiarly  sacred 
to  the  goddess  of  love.  Respecting  the  Greek 
goddess,  vid.  APHRODITE. 

VENUSIA  (Venusinus  :  now  Venosa),  an  an- 
cient town  of  Apulia,  south  of  the  River  Aufi- 
dus,  and  near  Mount  Vultur,  situated  in  a  ro- 
mantic country,  and  memorable  as  the  birth- 
place of  the  poet  Horace.  It  was  originally  a 
town  of  the  Hirpini  in  Samnium  ;  and  after  its 
original  Sabellian  inhabitants  had  been  driven 
out  by  the  Romans,  it  was  colonized  by  tho 
latter,  B.C.  291,  and  formed  an  important  mili- 
tary station.  Here  the  remnants  of  the  Roman 
army  took  refuge  alter  the  fatal  battle  of  Cannae, 
216. 

VERAGRI  or  VARAGRI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Bel- 
gica,  on  the  Pennine  Alps,  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Dranse  and  the  Rhone. 

[VERANIUS,  Q.,  appointed  by  Tiberius  Caesar 
legatus  or  governor  of  Cappadocia,  when  that 
country  was  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman 
province,  A.D.  18.  Veranius  was  one  of  the 
friends  of  Germanicus,  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  prosecution  of  Cn.  Piso.  He  was  consul 
in  A.D.  49,  and  in  A.D.  58,  under  Nero,  he  suc- 
ceeded Didius  Gallus  as  governor  of  Britain, 
but  died  there  within  a  year.] 

VERBANUS  LACUS  (now  Lago  Maggiore),  a  lake 
in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  and  the  largest  lake  in  all 
Italy,  being  about  forty  miles  in  length  from 
north  to  south  :  its  greatest  breadth  is  eight 
miles.  It  is  formed  by  the  River  Ticinus  and 
other  streams  descending  from  the  Alps;  and 
the  River  Ticinus  issues  from  its  southern  ex- 
tremity. [In  it  are  the  Borromcan  islands,  the 
admiration  of  travellers.] 

Vi:i!<  KI.I..I:  (Vercellensis  :  now  Vercelli),  the 
chief  town  of  the  Libici  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  and 

929 


VERCINGETORIX. 

subsequently  a  Roman  municipium,  and  a  place 
of  considerable  importance. 

VERCINGETORI.T,  the  celebrated  chieftain  of 
the  Arverni,  who  carried  on  war  with  great 
ability  against  Caesar  in  B.C.  52.  The  history  of 
this  war  occupies  the  seventh  book  of  Caesar's 
Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  war.  Vercingeto- 
rix  fell  into  Caesar's  hands  on  the  capture  of 
Alesia,  was  subsequently  taken  to  Rome,  where 
he  adorned  the  triumph  of  his  conqueror  in  45, 
and  was  afterward  put  to  death. 

VERETUM  (Veretinus :  now  Alessano),  more 
anciently  called  BARIS,  a  town  in  Calabria,  on 
the  road  from  Leuca  to  Tarentum,  and  six 
hundred  stadia  southeast  of  the  latter  city. 

VERG.E,  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Bruttium, 
of  uncertain  site. 

VERGELLUS,  a  rivulet  in  Apulia  crossing  the 
plain  of  Cannae,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
choked  by  the  dead  bodies  of  the  Romans  slain 
in  the  memorable  battle  against  Hannibal. 

VERGILIUS.      Vid.  VIRGILIUS. 

VERGINIUS.     Vid.  VIRGTNIUS. 

VEROLAMIUM  or  VERULAMIUM  (now  Old  Veru- 
lam,  near  St.  Alban's),  the  chief  town  of  the 
Catuellani  in  Britain,  probably  the  residence  of 
the  King  Cassivellaunus,  which  was  conquered 
by  Caesar.  It  was  subsequently  made  a  Roman 
municipium.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Britons 
under  Boadicea,  in  their  insurrection  against 
the  Romans,  but  was  rebuilt,  and  continued  to 
be  an  important  place. 

VEROMANDUI,  a  people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  be- 
tween the  Nervii  and  Suessiones,  in  the  mod- 
ern Vcrmandois.  Their  chief  town  was  AUGUSTA 
VEROMANDUORUM  (now  St.  Quentin). 

VERONA  (Veronensis  :  now  Verona),  an  im- 
portant town  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  on  the  River 
Athesis,  was  originally  the  capital  of  the  Euga- 
nei,  but  subsequently  belonged  to  the  Cenomani. 
At  a  still  later  time  it  was  made  a  Roman  col- 
ony, with  the  surname  Augusta  ;  and  under  the 
empire  it  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most  flour- 
ishing towns  in  the  north  of  Italy.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Catullus,  and,  according  to  some 
accounts,  of  the  elder  Pliny,  though  others  make 
him  a  native  of  Comum.  It  is  celebrated  on 
account  of  the  battle  fought  in  its  neighborhood 
in  the  Campi  Raudii,  by  Marius  against  the 
Cimbri,  and  also  by  the  victory  of  Theodoric 
the  Great  over  Odoacer.  Theodoric  took  up 
his  residence  in  this  town,  whence  it  is  called 
by  the  German  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages 
Dietrichs  Bern,  to  distinguish  it  from  Bern  in 
Switzerland.  There  are  still  many  Roman  re- 
mains at  Verona,  and,  among  others,  an  amphi- 
theatre in  a  good  state  of  preservation. 

VERRES,  C.,  was  quaestor  B.C.  82,  to  Cn.  Pa- 
pirius  Carbo,  and  therefore,  at  that  period,  be- 
longed to  the  Marian  party.  He,  however,  de- 
serted Carbo  and  went  over  to  Sulla,  who  sent 
him  to  Beneventum,  where  he  was  allowed  a 
share  of  the  confiscated  estates.  Verres  next 
appears  as  the  legate  of  Cn.  Cornelius  Dolabella, 
praetor  of  Cilicia  in  80-79,  and  one  of  the  most 
rapacious  of  the  provincial  governors.  On  the 
death  of  the  regular  quaestor  C.  Malleolus,  Ver- 
res became  the  pro-quaestor  of  Dolabella.  In 
Verres  l>Aibella  found  an  active  and  unscru- 
pulous agent,  and,  in  return,  connived  at  his 
excesses.  But  the  pro-quaestor  proved  as  faith- 
930 


VERRES. 

less  to  Dolabella  as  he  had  been  to  Carbo,  and 
turned  evidence  against  him  on  his  prosecution 
by  M.  Scaurus  in  78.  Verres  was  praetor  ur- 
hanus  in  74,  and  afterward  pro-praetor  in  Sicily, 
where  he  remained  nearly  three  years  (73-71). 
The  extortions  arid  exactions  of  Verres  in  the- 
island  have  become  notorious  through  the  cele 
brated  orations  of  Cicero.  No  class  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Sicily  was  exempted  from  his  ava- 
rice, his  cruelty,  or  his  insults.  The  wealthy 
had  money  or  works  of  art  to  yield  up  ;  the 
middle  classes  might  be  made  to  pay  heavier 
imposts  ;  and  the  exports  of  the  vineyards,  the 
arable  land,  and  the  loom,  he  saddled  with 
heavier  burdens.  By  capricious  changes  or 
violent  abrogation  of  their  compacts,  Verres 
reduced  to  beggary  both  the  producers  and  the 
farmers  of  the  revenue.  His  three  years'  rule 
desolated  the  island  more  effectually  than  the 
two  recent  Servile  wars,  and  than  the  old  strug- 
gle between  Carthage  and  Rome  for  the  pos- 
session of  the  island.  So  diligently  did  he  em- 
ploy his  opportunities,  that  he  boasted  of  having 
amassed  enough  for  a  life  of  opulence,  even  if 
he  were  compelled  to  disgorge  two  thirds  of  his 
plunder  in  stifling  inquiry  or  purchasing  an  ac- 
quittal. As  soon  as  he  left  Sicily,  the  inhabit- 
ants resolved  to  bring  him  to  trial.  They  com- 
mitted the  prosecution  to  Cicero,  who  had  been 
Lilybaean  quaestor  in  Sicily  in  75,  and  had  prom- 
ised his  good  offices  to  the  Sicilians  whenever 
they  might  demand  them.  Cicero  heartily  en- 
tered into  the  cause  of  the  Sicilians,  and  spared 
no  pains  to  secure  a  conviction  of  the  great 
criminal.  Verres  was  defended  by  Hortensius, 
and  was  supported  by  the  whole  power  of  the 
aristocracy.  At  first  his  partisans  attempted  to 
stop  the  prosecution  by  bribes,  flatteries,  and 
menaces;  but,  finding  this  to  be  impossible, 
they  endeavoured  to  substitute  a  sham  prose- 
cutor in  the  place  of  Cicero.  Hortensius  there- 
fore offered  as  prosecutor  Q.  Caecilius  Niger, 
who  had  been  quaestor  to  the  defendant,  had 
quarrelled  with  him,  and  had  consequently,  it 
was  alleged,  the  means  of  exposing  officially  his 
abuse  of  the  public  money.  But  the  Sicilians 
rejected  Caecilius  altogether,  not  merely  as  no 
match  for  Hortensius,  but  as  foisted  into  the 
cause  by  the  defendant  or  his  advocate.  By  a. 
technical  process  of  the  Roman  law,  called  Div- 
inatio,  the  judices,  without  hearing  evidence,  de- 
termined from  the  arguments  of  counsel  alone 
who  should  be  appointed  prosecutor.  They  de- 
cided in  Cicero's  favor.  The  oration  which 
Cicero  delivered  on  this  occasion  was  the  Dw- 
inatio  in  Q.  Cacilium.  The  pretension?  of  Cae- 
cilius were  thus  set  aside.  Yet  hope  did  not 
forsake  Verres  and  his  friends.  Evidence  foi 
the  prosecution  was  to  be  collected  in  Sicily  it- 
self. Cicero  was  allowed  one  hundred  and  ten 
days  for  the  purpose.  Verres  once  again  at- 
tempted to  set  up  a  sham  prosecutor,  who  un- 
dertook to  impeach  him  for  his  former  extor- 
tions in  Achaia,  and  to  gather  the  evidence  in 
one  hundred  and  eight  days.  But  the  new  prose 
cutor  never  went  even  so  far  as  Brundisium  ir 
quest  of  evidence,  and  the  design  was  abar 
doned.  Instead  of  the  one  hundred  and  ter 
days  allowed,  Cicero,  assisted  by  his  cousir 
Lucius,  completed  his  researches  in  fifty,  am 
returned  with  a  mass  of  evidence  and  a  cro\v< 


VERRUGO. 

of  witnesses  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  isl- 
and. Hortensius  now  grasped  at  his  last  chance 
of  an  acquittal,  and  it  was  not  an  unlikely  one. 
Could  the  impeachment  be  put  off  to  the  next 
vear,  Verres  was  safe.  Hortensius  himself 
would  then  be  consul,  with  Q.  MeteJ/us  for  his 
colleague,  and  M.  Metellus  would  be  praetor  ur- 
oanus.  For  every  firm  and  honest  judex  whom 
the  upright  M.  Acilius  Glabrio,  then  prxtor  ur- 
banus,  had  named,  a  partial  or  venal  substitute 
would  be  found.  Glabrio  himself  would  give 
place  as  quaesitor  or  president  of  the  court  to  M. 
Metellus,  a  partisan,  if  not  a  kinsman,  of  the 
defendant.  It  was  already  the  month  of  July. 
The  games  to  he  exhibited  by  Cn.  Pompey  were 
fixed  for  the  .-niddle  of  August,  and  would  oc- 
cupy a  fortnight ;  the  Roman  games  would  im- 
mediatefr  succeed  them,  and  thus  forty  days  in- 
terven*  between  Cicero's  charge  and  the  reply 
of  Bjrtensius,  who  again,  by  dexterous  adjourn- 
ments, would  delay  the  proceedings  until  the 
games  of  Victory,  and  the  commencement  of 
the  new  year.  Cicero  therefore  abandoned  all 
thought  of  eloquence  or  display,  and  merely  in- 
troducing his  case  in  the  first  of  the  Verrine 
orations,  rested  all  his  hopes  of  success  on  the 
weight  of  testimony  alone.  Hortensius  was 
quite  unprepared  with  counter-evidence,  and 
after  the  first  day  he  abandoned  the  cause  of 
Verres.  Before  the  nine  days  occupied  in  hear- 
ing evidence  were  over,  Verres  quitted  the  city 
in  despair,  and  was  condemned  in  his  absence. 
He  retired  to  Marseilles,  retaining  so  many  of 
his  treasures  of  art  as  to  cause  eventually  his 
proscription  by  M.  Antony  in  43.  Of  the  seven 
Verrine  orations  of  Cicero,  two  only,  the  Div- 
inatto  and  the  Actio  Prima,  were  spoken,  while 
the  remaining  five  were  compiled  from  the  de- 
positions after  the  verdict.  Cicero's  own  divi- 
sion of  the  impeachment  is  the  following  : 


1.  Preliminary 
These  alone  were  spoken  : 


I.  Orations 
founded  on 
the  Depo- 
sitions. 


!~3.  Verres's  official  life  to  B.C.  73. 

4.  Jurisdictio  Siciliensis. 

5.  Oratio  Frumentaria. 


These  were  circulated  as  documents  or  mani- 
festoes of  the  cause  after  the  flight  of  Verres. 

VKRRUOO,  a  town  of  the  Volsci  in  Latium,  of 
uncertain  site. 

VERTICORDIA.     Vid.  VENUS. 

VERTUMNUS  or  VORTUMHUS,  is  said  to  have 
been  an  Etruscan  divinity,  whose  worship  was 
introduced  at  Rome  by  an  ancient  Vulsinian 
colony  occupying  at  first  the  Cielian  Hill,  and 
afterward  the  vicus  Tuscus.  The  name  is  evi- 
dently connected  with  verlo,  and  formed  on  the 
analogy  of  alumnus  from  alo,  whence  it  must 
signify  "the  god  who  changes  or  metamorpho- 
ses himself."  For  this  reason  the  Romans  con- 
nected Vertumnus  with  all  occurrences  to  which 
the  verb  verto  applies,  such  as  the  change  of 
seasons,  purchase  and  sale,  the  return  of  rivers 
to  their  proper  beds,  &c.  But,  in  reality,  the 
god  was  connected  only  with  the  transforma- 
tion of  plants  and  their  progress  from  blossom 
to  fruit.  Hence  the  story,  that  when  Vertum- 


VESPASIANUS,  T.  FLAVIUS  SABINLS. 

nus  was  in  love  with  Pomona,  he  assumed  all 
possible  forms,  until  at  last  he  gained  his  end 
by  metamorphosing  himself  into  a  blooming 
youth.  Gardeners  accordingly  offered  to  him 
the  first  produce  of  their  gardens  and  garlands 
of  budding  flowers.  The  whole  people  celebra- 
ted a  festival  to  Vertumnus  on  the  23d  of  Au- 
gust, under  the  name  of  the  Vortumnalia,  denot- 
ing the  transition  from  the  beautiful  season  of 
autumn  to  the  less  agreeable  one.  He  had  a 
temple  in  the  vicus  Tuscus,  and  a  statue  of  him 
stood  in  the  vicus  Jugarius,  near  the  altar  of 
Ops.  The  story  of  the  Etruscan  origin  seems 
to  be  sufficiently  refuted  by  his  genuine  Roman 
name,  and  it  is  much  more  probable  that  the 
worship  of  Vertumnus  was  of  Sabine  origin. 
The  importance  of  the  worship  of  Vertumnus 
at  Rome  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
attended  to  by  a  special  flamen  (flamcn  Vortttm- 
nalis). 

VERUL^E  (Vertilanus  :  now  Veroli),  a  town  of 
the  Hernici  in  Latium,  southeast  of  Aletrium, 
and  north  of  Frusino,  subsequently  a  Roman 
colony. 

VERULAMIUM.     Vid.  VEROLAMIUM. 

VEROS,  L.  AURELICS,  the  colleague  of  M.  Au- 
relius  in  the  empire,  AD.  161-169.  He  was 
born  in  130,  and  his  original  name  was  L.  Ceion- 
ius  Commodus.  His  father,  L.  Ceionius  Corn- 
modus,  was  adopted  by  Hadrian  in  136  ;  and  on 
the  death  of  his  father  in  138,  he  was,  in  pur- 
suance of  the  command  of  Hadrian,  adopted, 
along  with  M.  Aurelius,  by  M.  Antoninus.  On 
the  death  of  Antoninus  in  161,  he  succeeded  to 
the  empire  along  with  M.  Aurelius.  The  histo- 
ry of  his  reign  is  given  under  AURELIUS.  Verus 
died  suddenly  at  Altinum,  in  the  country  of  the 
Veneti,  toward  the  close  of  169.  He  had  been 
married  to  Lueilla,  the  daughter  of  his  colleague. 

VESCINUS  AGER.      Vid.  SUESSA  AURUNCA. 

VESEVUS.      Vid.  VESUVIUS. 

VESONTIO  (now  Besan$on),  the  chief  town  of 
the  Sequani  in  Gallia  Belgica,  situated  on  the 
River  Dubis  (now  Doubs),  which  flowed  around 
the  town,  with  the  exception  of  a  space  of  six 
hundred  feet,  on  which  stood  a  mountain,  form- 
ing the  citadel  of  the  town,  and  connected  with 
the  latter  by  means  of  walls.  Vesontio  was  an 
important  place  under  the  Romans,  and  still 
contains  ruins  of  an  aqueduct,  a  triumphal  arch, 
and  other  Roman  remains. 

VESPASIANUS,  T.  FLAVIUS  SABiNUs,  Roman 
emperor  A.D.  70-79,  was  born  in  the  Sabine 
country  on  the  seventeenth  of  November,  A.D. 
9.  His  father  was  a  man  of  mean  condition,  of 
Reate,  in  the  country  of  the  Sabini.  His  moth- 
er, Vespasia  Polla,  was  the  daughter  of  a  prae- 
fectus  castrorum,  and  the  sister  of  a  Roman 
senator.  She  was  left  a  widow  with  two  sons, 
Flavins  Sabinus  and  Vespasian.  Vespasian 
served  as  tribunus  militum  in  Thrace,  and  was 
quaestor  in  Crete  and  Gyrene.  He  was  after- 
ward aedile  and  praetor.  About  this  time  he 
took  to  wife  Flavia  Domitilla,  the  daughter  of  a 
Roman  eques,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  both 
of  whom  succeeded  him.  In  the  reign  of  Clau- 
dius he  was  sent  into  Germany  as  legatus  le- 
gionis ;  and  in  43  he  held  the  same  command 
in  Britain,  and  reduced  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He 
was  consul  in  51,  and  proconsul  of  Africa  un- 
der Nero.  He  was  at  this  time  very  poor,  and 

931 


VESTA. 

was  accused  of  getting  money  by  dishonorable 
means.  But  lie  had  a  great  military  reputation, 
and  he  was  liked  by  the  soldiers.  Nero  after- 
ward sent  him  to  the  East  (66),  to  conduct  the 
war  against  the  Jews.  His  conduct  of  the  Jew- 
ish war  had  raised  his  reputation,  when  the  war 
broke  out  between  Otho  and  Vitellius  after  the 
death  of  Galba.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor 
at  Alexandrea  on  the  first  of  July,  69,  and  soon 
after  all  through  the  East.  Vespasian  came  to 
Rome  in  the  following  year  (70),  leaving  his  son 
Titus  to  continue  the  war  against  the  Jews 
Titus  took  Jerusalem  after  a  siege  of  five 
months  ;  and  a  formidable  insurrection  of  the 
Batavi,  headed  by  Civilis,  was  put  down  about 
the  same  period.  Vespasian,  on  his  arrival  at 
Rome,  worked  with  great  industry  to  restore 
order  in  the  city  and  in  the  empire.  He  dis- 
banded some  of  the  mutinous  soldiers  of  Vitel- 
lius, and  maintained  discipline  among  his  own. 
He  co-operated  in  a  friendly  manner  with  the 
senate  in  the  public  administration.  The  sim- 
plicity and  frugality  of  his  mode  of  life  formed 
a  striking  contrast  with  the  profusion  and  lux- 
ury of  some  of  his  predecessors,  and  his  exam- 
ple is  said  to  have  done  more  to  reform  the 
morals  of  Rome  than  all  the  laws  which  had 
ever  been  enacted.  He  lived  more  like  a  pri- 
vate person  than  a  man  who  possessed  supreme 
power  :  he  was  affable  and  easy  of  access  to  all 
persons.  The  personal  anecdotes  of  such  a 
man  are  some  of  the  most  instructive  records 
of  his  reign.  He  was  never  ashamed  of  the 
meanness  of  his  origin,  and  ridiculed  all  attempts 
to  make  out  for  him  a  distinguished  genealogy. 
When  Vologeses,  the  Parthian  king,  addressed 
to  him  a  letter  commencing  in  these  terms, 
"  Arsaces,  king  of  kings,  to  Flavius  Vespasia- 
nus,"  the  answer  began,  "  Flavius  Vespasianus 
to  Arsaces,  king  of  kings."  If  it  be  true,  as  it 
is  recorded,  that  he  was  not  annoyed  at  satire 
or  ridicule,  he  exhibited  an  elevation  of  charac- 
ter almost  unparalleled  in  one  who  filled  so  ex- 
alted a  station.  He  knew  the  bad  character  of 
his  son  Domitian,  and  as  long  as  he  lived  he 
kept  him  under  proper  restraint.  The  stories 
that  are  told  of  his  avarice  and  of  his  modes  of 
raising  money,  if  true,  detract  from  the  dignity 
of  his  character ;  and  it  seems  that  he  had  a 
taste  for  little  savings,  and  for  coarse  humor. 
Yet  it  is  admitted  that  he  was  liberal  in  all  his 
expenditure  for  purposes  of  public  utility.  In 
71  Titus  returned  to  Rome,  and  both  father  and 
son  triumphed  together  on  account  of  the  con- 
quest of  the  Jews.  The  reign  of  Vespasian  was 
marked  by  few  striking  events.  The  most  im- 
portant was  the  conquest  of  North  Wales  and 
the  island  of  Anglesey  by  Agricola,  who  was 
sent  into  Britain  in  78.  In  the  summer  of  79, 
Vespasian,  whose  health  was  failing,  went  to 
spend  some  time  at  his  paternal  house  in  the 
mountains  of  the  Sabini.  By  drinking  to  excess 
of  cold  water,  he  damaged  his  stomach,  which 
was  already  disordered.  But  he  still  attended 
to  business,  just  as  if  he  had  been  in  perfect 
health ;  and  on  feeling  the  approach  of  death, 
he  said  that  an  emperor  should  die  standing ; 
and,  in  fact,  he  did  actually  die  in  this  posture, 
on  the  twenty-fourth  of  June,  79,  being  sixty- 
nine  years  of  age. 

VESTA,  one  of  the  great  Roman  divinities, 
932 


VEST1N1. 

identical  with  the  Greek  HESTIA  both  in  name 
and  import.    She  was  the  goddess  of  the  hearth, 
and  therefore  inseparably  connected  with  the 
Penates ;    for  ^Eneas  was    believed    to    have 
brought  the  eternal  fire  of  Vesta  from  Troy 
along  with  the  images  of  the  Penates  ;  and  the 
praetors,  consuls,  and  dictators,  before  entering 
upon  their  official  functions,  sacrificed,  not  only 
to  the  Penates,  but  also  to  Vesta  at  Lavinium. 
In  the  ancient  Roman  house,  the  hearth  was  the 
central  part,  and  around  it  all  the  inmates  daily 
assembled  for  tl.eir  common  meal  (ccena) ;  every 
meal  thus  taken  was  a  fresh  bond  of  union  and 
affection  among  the  members  of  a  family,  and 
at  the  same  time  an  act  of  worship  of  Vesta, 
combined  with  a  sacrifice  to  her  and  the  Pe- 
nates.    Every  dwelling. house  therefore  was,  in 
some  sense,  a  temple  of  Vesta;   bu»  a  public 
sanctuary  united  all  the  citizens  of  11*3  state 
into  one  large  family.     This  sanctuary  sto^d  in 
the  Forurn,  between  the  Capitoline  and  Pa\a- 
tine  hills,  and  not  far  from  the  temple  of  thb 
Penates.     The  temple  was  round,  with  a  vault- 
ed roof,  like  the  impluvium  of  private  houses,  so 
that  there  is  no  reason  to  regard  that  form  as 
an  imitation  of  the  vault  of  heaven.     The  god- 
dess was  not  represented  in  her  temple  by  a 
statue,  but  the  eternal  fire  burning  on  her  hearth 
or  altar  was  her  living  symbol,  and  was  kept 
up  and  attended  to  by  the  Vestals,  her  virgin 
priestesses.     As  each  house,  and  the  city  itself, 
so  also  the  country  had  its  own  Vesta,  and  the 
latter  was  worshipped  at  Lavinium,  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  Latins,  where  she  was  worshipped 
and  received  the  regular  sacrifices  at  the  hands 
of  the  highest  magistrates.     The  goddess  her- 
self was  regarded  as  chaste  and  pure,  like  hei 
symbol,  the  fire  ;  and  the  Vestals  who  kept  up 
the   sacred  fire  were   likewise  pure   maidens. 
Respecting   their  duties   and   obligations,  vid. 
Diet,  of  Antiq.,  art.  VESTAI.KS.     On  the  first  of 
March  in  every  year,  her  sacred  fire,  and  the 
laurel-tree  which  shaded  her  hearth,  were  re- 
newed, and  on  the  fifteenth  of  June  her  temple 
was  cleaned  and  purified.     The  dirt  WPS  carried 
into  an  angiportus  behind  the  temple,  which 
was  locked  by  a  gate  that  no  one  might  enter 
it.     The  day  on  which  this  took  place  was  a 
dies  nefastus,  the  first  half  of  which  was  thought 
to  be  so  inauspicious,  that  the  priestess  of  Juno 
was  not  allowed  to  comb  her  hair  or  to  cut  her 
nails,  while  the  second  half  was  very  favorable 
to  contracting  a  marriage  or  entering  upon  other 
important   undertakings.      A  few  days  before 
that  solemnity,  on  the  ninth  of  June,  the  Vesta- 
lia  was  celebrated  in  honor  of  the  goddess,  on 
which  occasion  none  but  women  walked  to  the 
temple,  and  that  with  bare  feet.     On  one  of 
these  occasions  an  altar  had  been  dedicated  to 
Jupiter  Pistor.     Respecting  the  Greek  goddess, 
vid.  HESTIA. 

VESTINI,  a  Sabellian  people  in  Central  Italy, 
lying  between  the  Apennines  and  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  and  separated  from  Picenum  by  the  River 
Matrinus,  and  from  the  Marrucini  by  the  River 
Aternus.  They  are  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  Marsi,  Marrucini,  and  Peligni ;  but 
they  subsequently  separated  from  these  tribes, 
and  joined  the  Samnites  in  their  war  against 
Rome.  They  were  conquered  by  the  Romans 
B.C.  328,  and  from  this  time  appear  as  the  al- 


VESULUS. 

lies  of  Rome.  They  joined  the  other  allies  in 
the  Marsic  war,  and  were  conquered  by  Pom- 
peius  Strabo  in  .89.  They  made  a  particular 
kind  of  cheese,  which  was  a  great  favorite  with 
the  Romans. 

VfisaLus.      Vid.  ALPES. 

VESUVIUS,  also  called  VESEVDS,  VESBIUS,  or 
VESVICS,  the  celebrated  volcanic  mountain  in 
Campania,  rising  out  of  the  plain  southeast  of 
Neapolis.  There  are  no  records  of  any  erup- 
tion of  Vesuvius  before  the  Christian  era,  but 
the  ancient  writers  were  aware  of  its  volcanic 
nature  from  the  igneous  appearance  of  its  rocks. 
The  slopes  of  the  mountain  were  extremely  fer- 
tile, hut  the  top  was  a  rough  and  sterile  plain, 
on  which  Spartacus  and  his  gladiators  were  be- 
eieged  by  a  Roman  army.  In  A.D.  63  the  vol- 
cano gave  the  first  symptoms  of  agitation  in 
an  earthquake,  which  occasioned  considerable 
damage  to  several  towns  in  its  vicinity  ;  and 
on  the  24th  of  August,  A.D.  79,  occurred  the 
first  great  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which  over- 
whelmed the  cities  of  Stabise,  Herculaneum, 
and  Pompeii.  It  was  in  this  eruption  that  the 
elder  Pliny  lost  his  life.  Vid.  PLINIUS.  There 
have  been  numerous  eruptions  since  that  time, 
which  have  greatly  altered  the  shape  of  the 
mountain.  Its  present  height  is  three  thousand 
two  hundred  feet. 

VETERA  or  CABTRA  VETERA.  Vid.  CASTRA, 
No.  5. 

VETRANIO,  commanded  the  legions  in  Illyria 
and  Pannonia  at  the  period  (A.D.  350)  when 
Constans  was  treacherously  destroyed  and  his 
throne  seized  by  Magnentius.  Vetranio  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  his  troops ;  but  at  the 
end  of  ten  months  he  resigned  his  pretensions 
in  favor  of  Constantius,  by  whom  he  was  treat- 
ed with  great  kindness,  and  permitted  to  retire 
to  Prusa,  in  Bithynia,  where  he  passed  the  re- 
maining six  years  of  his  life. 

VETTIUS,  L.,  a  Roman  eques,  in  the  pay  of 
Cicero  in  B.C.  63,  to  whom  he  gave  some  val- 
uable information  respecting  the  Catilinarian 
conspiracy.  He  again  appears  in  59  as  an  in- 
former. In  that  year  he  accused  Curio,  Cicero, 
L.  Lucullus,  and  many  other  distinguished  men, 
of  having  formed  a  conspiracy  to  assassinate 
Pompey.  This  conspiracy  was  a  sheer  inven- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  injuring  Cicero,  Curio, 
and  others ;  but  there  is  difficulty  in  determin- 
ing who  were  the  inventors  of  it.  Cicero  re- 
garded it  as  the  work  of  Caesar,  who  used  the 
tribune  Vatinius  as  his  instrument.  At  a  later 
period,  when  Cicero  had  returned  from  exile, 
and  feared  to  provoke  the  triumvir,  he  threw 
the  whole  blame  upon  Vatinius.  Vettius  gave 
evidence  first  before  the  senate,  and  on  the 
next  day  before  the  assembly  of  the  people ; 
but  his  statements  were  regarded  with  great 
suspicion,  and  on  the  following  morning  he  was 
found  strangled  in  prison,  to  which  the  senate 
had  sent  him.  It  was  given  out  that  he  had 
committed  suicide  ;  but  the  marks  of  violence 
were  visible  on  his  body,  and  Cicero  at  a  later 
time  charged  Vatinius  with  the  murder. 

VETTIUS  SCATO.      Vid.  SCATO. 

VETTONES  or  VECTONES,  a  people  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Lusitania,  east  of  the  Lusitani  and  west 
of  the  Carpetani,  extending  from  the  Durius  to 
the  Tagus. 


VETUS,  ANTISTIUS. 

VETULONIA,  VETULONIUM,  or  VETULONII,  an 
ancient  city  of  Etruria,  and  one  of  the  twelve 
cities  of  the  Etruscan  confederation.  From  this 
city  the  Romans  are  said  to  have  borrowed  the 
insignia  of  their  magistrates — the  fasces,  sella 
curulis,  and  toga  praetexta — as  well  as  the  use  of 
the  brazen  trumpet  in  war.  After  the  time  of  the 
Roman  kings  we  find  no  further  mention  of  Ve- 
tulonia,  except  in  the  catalogues  of  Pliny  and 
Ptolemy,  both  of  whom  place  it  among  the  in- 
land colonies  of  Etruria.  Pliny  also  states  that 
there  were  hot  springs  in  its  neighborhood  not 
far  from  the  sea,  in  which  fish  were  found,  not- 
withstanding the  warmth  of  the  water.  The 
very  site  of  the  ancient  city  was  supposed  to 
have  been  entirely  lost ;  but  it  has  been  dis- 
covered within  the  last  few  years  near  a  small 
village  called  Magliano,  between  the  River  Osa 
and  the  Albegna,  and  about  eight  miles  inland. 
It  appears  to  have  had  a  circuit  of  at  least  four 
and  a  half  miles. 

VETURIA  GENS,  anciently  called  VETUSIA,  pa- 
trician and  plebeian.  The  Veturii  rarely  occur 
in  the  later  times  of  the  republic,  and  after  B.C. 
206,  when  L.  Veturius  Philo  was  consul,  their 
name  disappears  from  the  Fasti.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished families  in  the  gens  bore  the  names 
CALVINUS,  CrcuRmus,  and  PHILO. 

VETCRIUS  MAMURIUS  is  said  to  have  been  the 
armorer  who  made  the  eleven  ancilia  exactly 
like  the  one  that  was  sent  from  heaven  in  the 
reign  of  Numa.  His  praises  formed  one  of  the 
chief  subjects  of  the  songs  of  the  Salii.  Even 
the  ancients  themselves  doubted  in  the  re- 
ality of  his  existence :  Varro  interpreted  his 
name  as  equivalent  to  vctus  mcmoria.  Some 
modern  writers  regard  Mamurius  Veturius  as 
an  Etruscan  artist,  because  he  is  said  to  have 
made  a  brazen  image  of  the  god  Vertum- 
nus. 

VETUS,  ANTISTIUS.  1.  Propraetor  in  Further 
Spain  about  B.C.  68,  under  whom  Caesar  served 
as  quaestor. — 2.  C.,  son  of  the  preceding,  quaes- 
tor in  61,  and  tribune  of  the  plebs  in  57,  when 
he  supported  Cicero  in  opposition  to  Clodius. 
In  the  Civil  war  he  espoused  Caesar's  party, 
and  we  find  him  in  Syria  in  45  fighting  against 
Q.  Caecilius  Bassus.  In  34  Vetus  carried  on 
war  against  the  Salassi,  and  in  30  was  consul 
suffectus.  He  accompanied  Augustus  to  Spain 
in  25,  and  on  the  illness  of  the  emperor  contin- 
ued the  war  against  the  Cantabri  and  Astures, 
whom  he  reduced  to  submission. — 3.  C  ,  son  of 
No.  2,  consul  B.C.  6 ;  and  as  he  lived  to  see 
both  his  sons  consuls,  he  must  have  been  alive 
at  least  as  late  as  A.D.  28.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Velleius  Paterculus. — 4.  L.,  grandson  of  No.  3, 
and  consul  with  the  Emperor  Nero,  A.D.  55. 
In  58  he  commanded  a  Roman  army  in  Ger- 
many, and  formed  the  project  of  connecting  the 
Mosella  (now  Moselle)  and  the  Arar  (now  Sa- 
one)  by  a  canal,  and  thus  forming  a  communi- 
cation between  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Northern  Ocean,  as  troops  could  be  conveyed 
down  the  Rhone  and  the  Saonc  into  the  Mo- 
selle through  the  canal,  and  down  the  Moselle 
into  the'  Rhine,  and  so  into  the  ocean.  Vetus 
put  an  end  to  his  life  in  65,  in  order  to  antici- 
pate his  sentence  of  death,  which  Nero  had  re 
solved  upon.  Vetus  was  the  father-in-law  of 
Rubellius  Plautus. 

933 


VIADUS. 

(now  Oder),  a  river  of  Germany,  fall- 
ing into  the  Baltic. 

ViBlos  PANSA.     Vid.  PANSA. 

VIBIUS  SEQUESTER.      Vid.  SEQUESTER. 

VIBO  (Vibonensis  :  now  Bivona),  the  Roman 
form  of  the  Greek  town  HIPPONIUM  ('Innuviov  : 
'IniruviuTw),  situated  on  the  southwestern  coast 
of  Bruttium,  and  on  a  gulf  called  after  it  SINUS 
VIBONENSIS  or  HIPPONIATES.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Locri  Epizephyrii ;  but  it 
was  destroyed  by  the  elder  Dionysius,  who  trans- 
planted its  inhabitants  to  Syracuse.  It  was  aft- 
erward restored  ;  and  at  a  later  time  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Bruttii,  together  with  the  other 
Greek  cities  on  this  coast.  It  was  taken  from 
the  Bruttii  by  the  Romans,  who  colonized  it 
B.C.  194,  and  called  it  VIBO  VALENTIA.  Cicero 
speaks  of  it  as  a  municipium  ;  and  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  it  was  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
cities  in  the  south  of  Italy. 

VIBULANUS,  the  name  of  the  most  ancient 
family  of  the  FABIA  GENS.  It  was  so  powerful 
in  the  early  times  of  the  republic  that  three 
brothers  of  the  family  held  the  consulship  for 
seven  years  in  succession,  B.C.  485-479.  The 
last  person  of  the  gens  who  bore  this  surname 
was  Q.  Fabius  Vibulanus,  consul  412.  This 
Vibulanus  assumed  the  agnomen  of  Ambustus; 
and  his  descendants  dropped  the  name  of  Vibu- 
lanus and  took  that  of  Ambustus  in  its  place. 
In  the  same  way  Ambustus  was  after  a  time 
supplanted  by  that  of  Maximus. — 1.  Q.  FABIUS 
VIBULANUS,  consul  485,  when  he  carried  on  war 
with  success  against  the  Volsci  and  JCqui,  and 
consul  a  second  time  in  482.  In  480  he  fought 
under  his  brother  Marcus  (No.  3)  against  the 
Etruscans,  and  was  killed  in  battle.  —  2.  K., 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  quaestor  parricidii 
in  485,  and  along  with  his  colleague  L.  Valerius 
accused  Sp.  Cassius  Viscellinus,  who  was,  in 
consequence,  condemned  by  the  votes  of  the 
populus.  He  was  consul  in  484,  when  he  took 
an  active  part  in  opposing  the  agrarian  law, 
which  the  tribunes  of  the  people  attempted  to 
bring  forward.  In  481  he  was  consul  a  second 
time,  and  in  479  a  third  time,  when  he  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  plebeians,  to  whom  he  had  be- 
come reconciled.  As  his  propositions  were  re- 
jected with  scorn  by  the  patricians,  he  and  his 
house  resolved  to  quit  Rome  altogether,  where 
they  were  regarded  as  apostles  f:y  their  own 
order.  They  determined  to  found  a  settlement 
on  the  banks  of  the  Cremera,  a  small  stream 
that  falls  into  the  Tiber  a  few  miles  above  Rome. 
According  to  the  legend,  the  consul  Kaeso  went 
before  the  senate,  and  said  that  the  Fabii  were 
willing  to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  Veientes 
alone  and  at  their  own  cost.  Their  offer  was 
joyfully  accepted,  for  the  patricians  were  glad 
to  see  them  expose  themselves  voluntarily  to 
such  dangers.  On  the  day  after  Kaeso  had 
made  the  proposal  to  the  senate,  three  hundred 
and  six  Fabii,  all  patricians  of  one  gens,  assem- 
bled on  the  Quirinal  at  the  house  of  Kaeso,  and 
from  thence  marched  with  the  consul  at  their 
head  through  the  Carmental  gate.  They  pro- 
ceeded straight  to  the  banks  of  the  Cremera, 
where  they  erected  a  fortress.  Here  they  took 
up  their  abode  along  with  their  families  anc 
clients,  and  for  two  years  continued  to  devas- 
tate the  territory  of  Veii.  They  were  at  length 


VICTOR,  SEX.  AURELIUS. 

destroyed  by  the  Veientes  in  477.  Ovid  says 
that  the  Fabii  petlshed  on  the  Ides  of  February  ; 
Hit  all  other  authorities  state  that  they  were 
destroyed  on  the  day  on  which  the  Romans 
were  subsequently  conquered  by  the  Gauls  at 
the  Allia,  that  is,  on  the  15th  before  the  Kal- 
nds  of  Sextilis,  June  the  17th.  The  whole 
Fabia  gens  perished  at  the  Cremera  with  the 
exception  of  one  individual,  the  son  of  Marcus, 
from  whom  all  the  later  Fabii  were  descended. 

3.  M.,  brother  of  the  two  preceding,  was  con- 
sul 483,  and  a  second  time  480.  In  the  latter 
year  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Etrus- 
cans, in  which,  however,  his  colleague  the  con- 
sul Cincinnatus  and  his  brother  Q.  Fabius  were 
milled. — 4.  Q.,  son  of  No.  3,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  only  one  of  the  Fabii  who  survived  the  de- 
struction of  his  gens  at  the  Cremera,  but  he 
could  not  have  been  left  behind  at  Rome  on  ac- 
count of  his  youth,  as  the  legend  relates,  since 
lie  was  consul  ten  years  afterward.  He  was 
consul  467,  a  second  time  in  465,  and  a  third 
time  in  459.  Fabius  was  a  member  of  the  sec- 
ond decemvirate  (450),  and  went  into  exile  on 
the  deposition  of  the  decemvirs. 

VIBULLIUS  RUFUS,  L.,  a  senator  and  a  friend 
of  Pompey,  who  made  him  prsefectus  fabriim 
in  the  Civil  war.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  Cae- 
sar at  dorfinium  (49),  and  a  second  time  in 
Spain  later  in  the  year.  When  Ccesar  landed 
in  Greece  in  48.  he  dispatched  Vibullius  to  Pom- 
pey with  offers  of  peace.  Vibullius  made  the 
greatest  haste  to  reach  Pompey,  in  order  to  give 
him  the  earliest  intelligence  of  the  ariival  of 
his  enemy  in  Greece. 

VICENTIA  or  VICETIA,  less  correctly  VINCEN- 
TIA  (Vicentinus :  now  Vicenza),  a  town  in  Vene- 
tia,  in  the  north  of  Italy,  and  a  Roman  muni- 
cipium  on  the  River  Togisonus. 

VICTOR,  SEX.  AURELIUS,  a  Latin  writer,  flour- 
ished in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  under 
the  Emperor  Constantius  and  his  successors 
He  was  born  of  humble  parents,  but  rose  to  dis- 
tinction by  his  zeal  in  the  cultivation  of  litera- 
ture. Having  attracted  the  attention  of  Julian 
when  at  Sirmium,  he  was  appointed  by  that 
prince  governor  of  one  division  of  Pannonia. 
At  a  subsequent  period,  he  was  elevated  by 
Theodosius  to  the  high  office  of  city  prefect, 
and  he  is  perhaps  the  same  as  the  Sex.  Aure- 
lius  Victor  who  was  consul  along  with  Valen- 
tinian  in  A.D.  373.  The  following  works,  which 
present  in  a  very  compressed  form  a  continu- 
ous record  of  Roman  affairs,  from  the  fabulous 
ages  down  to  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius, have  all  been  ascribed  to  this  writer; 
but  the  evidence  upon  which  the  determination 
of  authorship  depends  is  very  slender,  and  in 
all  probability  the  third  alone  belongs  to  the 
Sex.  Aurelius  Victor  whom  we  have  noticed 
above :  1.  Origo  Gentis  Romance,  in  twenty- 
three  chapters,  containing  the  annals  of  the  Ro- 
man race,  from  Janus  and  Saturnus  down  to 
the  era  of  Romulus.  It  is  probably  a  produc- 
tion of  some  of  the  later  grammarians,  who 
were  desirous  of  prefixing  a  suitable  introduc- 
tion to  the  series.  2.  De  Viris  illustribus  Urbis 
Roma,  in  eighty-six  chapters,  commencing  with 
the  birth  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  and  conclud- 
ing with  the  death  of  Cleopatra.  3.  De  C<z*ari- 
bus,  in  forty-two  chapters,  exhibiting  short  biog- 


VfCTOR,  PUBLIUS. 

raphies  of  the  emperors  from  Augustus  to  Con- 
stantius.  4.  Epitome  de  Cctsartbus,  in  forty- 
eight  chapters,  commencing  with  Augustus  and 
concluding  with  Theodosius.  These  lives  agree 
for  the  most  part  almost  word  for  word  with  the 
preceding,  hut  variations  may  here  and  there 
be  detected.  Moreover,  the  first  series  term- 
inates with  Constantius,  but  the  second  comes 
down  as  low  as  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  The 
best  edition  of  these  four  pieces  is  by  Arntze- 
nius,  Anst.  et  Traj.  Bat.,  1733,  4to. 

VICTOR,  PUBLICS,  the  name  prefixed  to  an  enu- 
meration of  the  principal  buildings  and  monu- 
ments of  ancient  Rome,  distributed  according 
to  the  regions  of  Augustus,  which  has  generally 
been  respected  as  a  work  of  great  authority  by 
Italian  antiquaries.  The  best  modern  scholars, 
however,  ^re  agreed  that  this  work,  and  a  sim- 
ilar production  ascribed  to  SEXTUS  RUFUS,  can 
not  be  received  in  their  present  state  as  an- 
cient at  all,  but  must  be  regarded  as  mere  pieces 
of  patch- work,  fabricated  not  earlier  than  the 
fifteenth  century. 

VICTORIA,  the  personification  of  victory  among 
the  Romans.  It  is  said  that  Evander,  by  the 
command  of  Minerva,  dedicated  on  Mount  Pal- 
atine a  temple  of  Victoria,  the  daughter  of  Pal- 
las. On  the  site  of  this  ancient  temple  a  new 
one  was  built  by  L.  Postumius  during  the  war 
with  the  Sarnniies,  and  M.  Porcius  Cato  added 
to  it  a  chape!  of  Victoria  Virgo.  In  later  times 
there  existed  three  or  four  sanctuaries  of  Vic- 
tory at  Rome.  Respecting  the  Greek  goddess 
of  Victory,  vid.  NICE. 

VICTORIA  or  VICTORINA,  the  mother  of  Victo- 
rinus,  after  whose  death  she  was  hailed  as  the 
mother  of  camps  (Mater  Castrorum) ;  and  coins 
were  struck  bearing  her  effigy.  Feeling  une- 
qual to  the  weight  of  empire,  she  transferred 
her  power  first  to  Marius,  and  then  toTetricus, 
by  whom  some  say  that  she  was  slain,  while 
others  affirm  that  she  died  a  natural  death. 

VICTORIOUS.  1.  One  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants, 
was  the  third  of  the  usurpers  who  in  succession 
ruled  Gaul  during  the  reign  of  Gallienus.  He 
was  assassinated  at  Colonia  Agrippina  by  one  of 
his  own  officers  in  A.D.  268,  after  reigning  some- 
what more  than  a  year. — 2.  Bishop  of  Pettaw,  on 
the  Drave,  in  Styria,  hence  distinguished  by  the 
epithet  Petavionentis  or  Pictavicnsis,  flourished 
A.D.  270-290,  and  suffered  martyrdom  during 
the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  probably  in  303. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  but 
all  his  works  are  lost. — 3.  C.  MARIOS  VICTORI- 
OUS, surnamed  Afer  from  the  country  of  his 
birth,  taught  rhetoric  at  Rome  in  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century  with  so  much  reputation  that 
his  statue  was  erected  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan. 
In  his  old  age  he  professed  Christianity  ;  and 
when  the  edict  of  Julian,  prohibiting  Christians 
from  giving  instruction  in  polite  literature,  was 
promulgated,  Victorinus  chose  to  shut  up  his 
school  rather  than  deny  his  religion.  Besides 
his  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  and  other 
theological  works,  many  of  which  are  extant, 
Victorinus  wrote,  1.  Commentarius  s.  Expotitw 
in  Ciceronis  libros  de  Inventione,  the  best  edition 
•»f  which  is  in  the  fifth  volume  of  Orelli's  edi- 
tion of  Cicero.  2.  Art  Grammatiea  de  Ortho- 
fraphia  et  Ratione  Metrorum,  a  complete  and  vo- 
luminous treatise  upon  metres,  in  four  books, 


VINDELICIA. 

printed  in  the  Grammatics:  Latinte  Auctores  An* 
tiqui  of  Putschius,  Hannov.,  1605,  [and  in  the 
Scriptores  Lat.  Rei  Metr.  by  Gaisford,  Oxford, 
1837.]  The  fame  enjoyed  by  Victorinus  as  a 
public  instructor  does  not  gain  any  accession 
from  his  works.  The  exposition  of  the  De  In- 
ventione is  more  difficult  to  comprehend  than 
the  text  which  it  professes  to  explain.  —  4. 
MAXIMUS  VICTORINUS.  We  possess  three  short 
tracts  :  I.  De  Re  Grammalica  ;  2.  De  Carmine 
Heroico  ;  3.  De  Ratiune  Melrorum  ;  all  apparent- 
ly the  work  of  the  same  author,  and  usually  as- 
cribed in  MSS.  to  a  Maximus  Victorinus  ;  but 
whether  we  ought  to  consider  him  the  same 
with  the  rhetorician  who  flourished  under  Con- 
stanlius,  or  as  an  independent  personage,  it  is 
impossible  to  decide.  They  were  printed  in  the 
collection  of  Putschius,  Hannov.,  1605,  and  in 
that  of  Lindemann,  Lips.,  1831. 

VICTRIX.     Vid.  VENUS. 

[VIDRUS  (now  Vechtl),  a  small  stream  of  Ger- 
mania,  between  the  Rhenus  and  the  Amisia.] 

VIDUCASSES,  a  tribe  of  the  Armorici  in  Gallia 
Lugdunensis,  south  of  the  modern  Caen. 

VIENNA  (Viennensis  :  now  Vienne),  the  chief 
town  of  the  Allobroges  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis, 
situated  on  the  Rhone,  south  of  Lugdunum.  It 
was  subsequently  a  Roman  colony,and  awealthy 
and  flourishing  town.  Under  the  later  emper- 
ors it  was  the  capital  of  the  province,  called  aft- 
er it  Gallia  Viennensis.  The  modern  town  con- 
tains several  Roman  remains,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  a  temple,  supposed  to  have  been 
dedicated  to  Augustus,  and  now  converted  into 
a  museum. 

[  VIGELLIUS,  M.,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  who  lived 
with  Panaetius.] 

[ViGENNA  (no\7  Vienne),  a  river  of  Gallia, 
rising  in  the  country  pf  the  Lemovices,  and 
falling  into  the  Liger  (now  Loire).] 

VILLIUS  ANNALIS.      Vid.  ANNALIS. 

VIMINALIS.      Vid.  ROMA. 

VINCENTIUS,  surnamed  LIRINENSIS,  from  the 
monastery  in  the  island  of  Lerins,  where  he  of- 
ficiated as  a  presbyter.  He  was  by  birth  a  na- 
tive of  Gaul,  and  died  in  the  reign  of  Theodo- 
sius and  Valentinian,  about  A.D.  450.  His 
fame  rests  upon  a  treatise  against  heretics, 
composed  in  434.  It  commonly  bears  the  title 
Commonitorium  pro  Catholica  fidci  antiquitatt  et 
universitatc  adversus  pro/anas  omnium  Hceretico 
rum  novitales.  The  standard  edition  is  that  ol 
Baluzius,  8vo,  Paris,  1663,  1669,  1684 

VINDALUM,  a  town  of  the  Cavares  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Sulgas  and  the  Rhone. 

VINDELICIA,  a  Roman  province  south  of  the 
Danube,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danube 
which  separated  it  from  Germany,  on  the  we&» 
by  the  territory  of  the  Helvetii  in  Gaul,  on  the 
south  by  Raetia,  and  on  the  east  by  the  River 
CEnus  (now  Inn),  which  separated  it  from  Nor- 
icum,  thus  corresponding  to  the  northeastern 
part  of  Switzerland,  the  southeast  of  Baden, 
the  south  of  Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria,  and  the 
northern  part  of  the  Tyrol.  It  was  originally 
part  of  the  province  of  Raetia,  and  was  con- 
quered by  Tiberius  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 
At  a  later  time  Raetia  was  divided  into  t\vt. 
provinces,  Ratio.  Prima  and  Ratio.  Sccti*da, 
the  latter  of  which  names  was  gradually  sup- 

935 


VIND.EX,  C.  JULIUS. 

planted  by  that  of  Vindelicia.  It  was  drained 
by  the  tributaries  of  the  Danube,  of  which  the 
most  important  were  the  Licias  or  Licus  (now 
Lech),  with  its  tributary  the  Vindo,  Vinda,  or 
Virdo  (now  Wertach),  the  Isarus  (now  Isar),  and 
CEnus  (now  Inn).  The  eastern  part  of  the  La- 
cus  Brigantinus  (now  Lake  of  Constance)  also 
belonged  to  Vindelicia.  The  greater  part  of 
Vindelicia  was  a  plain,  but  the  southern  portion 
was  occupied  by  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Alpes 
Rsetica;.  It  derived  its  name  from  its  chief  in- 
habitants, theViNDELici,  a  warlike  people  dwell- 
ing in  the  south  of  the  country.  Their  name  is 
said  to  have  been  formed  from  the  two  rivers 
Vindo  and  Licus  ;  but  it  is  more  likely  connect- 
ed with  the  Celtic  word  Vind,  which  is  found  in 
the  names  Fm/obona,  Fnzrfomagus,  Fiwdonis- 
sa,  &c.  The  Vindelici  were  a  Celtic  people, 
and  were  closely  connected  with  the  Rseti,  with 
whom  they  are  frequently  spoken  of  by  the  an- 
cient writers,  and  along  with  whom  they  were 
subdued  by  Tiberius,  a?  is  mentioned  above. 
The  other  tribes  in  Vindelicia  were  the  Brigan- 
tii  on  the  Lake  of  Constance,  the  Licatii  or  Li- 
cates  on  the  Lech,  and  the  Breuni  in  the  north 
of  Tyrol,  on  the  Brenner.  The  chief  town  in 
the  province  was  Augusta  Vindelicorum  (now 
Augsburg),  at  the  confluence  of  Vindo  and  the 
Licus,  which  was  made  a  Roman  colony  A.D. 
14,  and  was  the  residence  of  the  governor  of 
the  province.  This  town,  together  with  the 
other  towns  of  Vindelicia,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Alernanni  in  the  fourth  century,  and  from 
this  time  the  population  of  the  country  appears 
to  have  been  entirely  Germanized. 

VJNDEX,  C.  JULIUS,  propraetor  of  Gallia  Cel- 
tica  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  was  the  first  of  the 
Roman  governors  who  disowned  the  authority 
of  Nero  (A.D.  68).  He  did  not,  however,  as- 
pire to  the  empire  himself,  but  offered  it  toGal- 
ba.  Virginius  Rufus,  the  governor  of  Upper 
Germany,  marched  with  his  army  against  Vin- 
dex.  The  two  generals  had  a  conference  be- 
fore Vesontio  (now  Besanfon),  in  which  they 
appear  to  have  come  to  some  agreement ;  but 
as  Vindex  was  going  to  enter  the  town,  he  was 
attacked  by  the  soldiers  of  Virginius,  and  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life. 

[VINDICIANUS,  an  eminent  physician  in  the 
time  of  Valentinian,  A.D.  364-375 :  there  are 
extant  a  letter  addressed  by  him  to  the  em- 
peror, and  a  poem  on  the  medical  art  usually 
ascribed  to  him,  though  others  assign  it  to  Mar- 
cellus  Empiricus.  The  poem  is  appended  to 
several  editions  of  Celsus,  and  is  contained  also 
in  Burmann's  Pocta  Latini  Minores.] 

VINDICIUS,  a  slave,  who  is  said  to  have  given 
information  to  the  consuls  of  the  conspiracy 
which  was  formed  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Tarquins,  and  who  was  rewarded  in  conse- 
quence with  liberty  and  the  Roman  franchise. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  slave  manu- 
mitted by  the  Vindicta,  the  name  of  which  was 
derived  by  some  persons  from  that  of  the  slave ; 
but  it  is  unnecessary  to  point  out  the  absurdity 
of  this  etymology. 

VINDILI.      Vid.  VANDILI. 

VINIJILIS  (now'  Belle  Isle),  one  of  the  isl- 
ands of  the  Veneti,  off  the  northwestern  coast 
of  Gaul. 

VINDIUS  or  VINNIUS,  a  mountain  in  the  north- 
936 


VIRBIUS. 

west  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  forming  the 
boundary  between  the  Cantabri  and  Astures. 

VINDOBONA  (now  Vienna,  English  ;  Wien,  Ger- 
man), a  town  in  Pannonia,  on  the  Danube,  was 
originally  a  Celtic  place,  and  subsequently  a 
Roman  municipium.  Under  the  Romans  it  be- 
came a  town  of  importance  ;  it  was  the  chief 
station  of  the  Roman  fleet  on  the  Danube,  and 
the  head  quarters  of  a  Roman  legion.  It  was 
taken  and  plundered  by  Attila,  but  continued  to 
be  a  flourishing  town  under  the  Lombards.  It 
was  here  that  the  Emperor  M.  Aurelius  died, 
A.D.  180. 

VINDONISSA  (now  Windisch),  a  town  in  Gallia 
Belgica,  on  the  triangular  tongue  of  land  be- 
tween the  Aar  and  Reuss,  was  an  important 
Roman  fortress  in  the  country  of  the  Helvetii. 
Several  Roman  remains  have  been  discovered 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town  ;  and  the  foun- 
dations of  walls,  the  traces  of  an  amphitheatre, 
and  a  subterranean  aqueduct  are  still  to  be 
seen. 

[VmiciANUs,  M.  C^ELIUS,  tribune  of  the  plebs 
B.C.  53,  exerted  himself  to  raise  Pompey  to 
the  dictatorship,  and  was,  in  consequence,  de- 
feated when  he  became  a  candidate  for  the  cu- 
rule  sedileship  in  B.C.  51.  In  the  Civil  war  he 
espoused  the  cause  of  Caesar,  who  left  him  in 
Pontus  with  two  legions  after  the  conquest  of 
Pharnaces  in  B.C.  48.] 

[Vixicius  or  VINUCIUS.  1.  L.,  tribune  of  the 
plebs  B.C.  51,  put  his  veto  on  a  senatuscon- 
sultum,  directed  against  Caesar  :  perhaps  the 
same  Vinicius  as  the  one  who  was  consul  suf- 
fectus  in  B.C.  33. — 2.  M.,  born  at  Gales,  in  Cam- 
pania, was  consul  with  C.  Cassius  Longinus  in 
A.D.  30,  in  which  year  Paterculus  dedicated  his 
work  to  him.  Vid.  PATERCULUS.  In  A  D.  33 
Tiberius  gave  Julia  Livilla,  daughter  of  Ger- 
manicus,  in  marriage  to  Vinicius;  he  was  con- 
sul a  second  time  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  A.D. 
45  ;  though  in  the  following  year  he  was  put  to 
death  by  Messalina,  to  whom  he  had  become 
an  object  of  suspicion,  and  whose  advances  he 
had  repulsed.] 

VINIUS,  T.,  consul  in  A.D.  69  with  the  Eto- 
peror  Galba,  and  one  of  the  chief  advisers  of 
the  latter  during  his  brief  reign.  He  recom- 
mended Galba  to  choose  Otho  as  his  successor, 
but  he  was,  notwithstanding,  killed  by  Otho's 
soldiers  after  the  death  of  Galba. 

VIPSANIA  AGRIPPINA.  1.  Daughter  of  M.  Vip- 
sanius  Agrippa  by  his  first  wife  Pomponia,  the 
daughter  of  T.  Pomponius  Atticus,  the  friend  of 
Cicero.  Augustus  gave  her  in  marriage  to  his 
step-son  Tiberius,  by  whom  she  was  much  be- 
loved ;  but  after  she  had  borne  him  a  son,  Dru- 
sus,  Tiberius  was  compelled  to  divorce  her  by 
the  command  of  the  emperor,  in  order  to  marry 
Julia,  the  daughter  of  the  latter.  Vipsania  aft- 
erward married  Asinius  Gallus.  She  died  in 
A.D.  20.— 2.  Daughter  of  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa 
by  his  second  wife  Julia,  better  known  by  the 
name  of  Agrippina.  Vid.  AGKIPPINA. 

VIPSANIUS  AGRIPPA,  M.      Vid.  AGRIPPA. 

VIRBIUS,  a  Latin  divinity  worshipped  along 
with  Diana  in  the  grove  at  Aricia,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Alban  Mount.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  same  as  Hippolytus,  who  was  restored  to 
life  by  /Esculapius  at  the  request  of  Diana.  He 
was  placed  by  this  goddess  under  the  care  of  the 


VIRDO.  , 

nymph  Aricia,and  received  the  name  of  Virbius. 
By  this  nymph  he  became  the  father  of  a  son, 
who  was  also  called  Virbius,  and  whom  his 
mother  sent  to  the  assistance  of  Turnus  against 
JEneas. 

VlEDO.       Vid.  VlNDELICIA. 

[ViRGiLUNus,  Q.  FABIUS,  the  legatus  of  Ap- 
pius  Claudius  Pulcher  in  Cilicia  in  B.C.  51.  He 
espoused  the  cause  of  Pompey  on  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  war  in  B.C.  49.] 

ViRclLics  or  VERGILICS  MARO,  P.,  the  Roman 
poet,  was  bora  on  the  15th  of  October,  B.C.  70, 
at  Andes  (now  Pietola),  a  small  village  near 
Mantua,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul.  Virgil's  father  prob- 
ably had  a  small  estate  which  he  cultivated : 
his  mother's  name  was  Maia.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  Cremona  and  Mediolanum  (now  Milan), 
and  he  took  the  toga  virilis  at  Cremona  on  the 
day  on  which  he  commenced  his  sixteenth  year, 
in  55.  It  is  said  that  he  subsequently  studied 
at  Neapolis  (now  Naples),  under  Parthenius,  a 
native  of  Bithynia,  from  whom  he  learned 
Greek.  He  was  also  instructed  by  Syron,  an 
Epicurean,  and  probably  at  Rome.  Virgil's 
writings  prove  that  he  received  a  learned  edu- 
cation, and  traces  of  Epicurean  opinions  are 
apparent  in  them.  The  health  of  Virgil  was 
always  feeble,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  his 
attempting  to  rise  by  those  means  by  which  a 
Roman  gained  distinction,  oratory  and  the  prac- 
tice of  arms.  After  completing  his  education, 
Virgil  appears  to  have  retired  to  his  paternal 
farm,  and  here  he  may  have  written  some  of 
the  small  pieces  which  are  attributed  to  him,  the 
Cuhz,  Ciris,  Morelum,  and  others.  After  the 
battle  of  Philippi  (42)  Octavianus  assigned  to 
his  soldiers  lands  in  various  parts  of  Italy  ;  and 
the  neighborhood  of  Cremona  and  Mantua  was 
one  of  the  districts  in  which  the  soldiers  were 
planted,  and  from  which  the  former  possessors 
were  dislodged.  Virgil  was  thus  deprived  of 
his  property.  It  is  said  that  it  was  seized  by  a 
veteran  named  Claudius  or  Clodius,  and  that 
Asinius  Pollio,  who  was  then  governor  of  Gallia 
Transpadana,  advised  Virgil  to  apply  to  Octa- 
vianus at  Rome  for  the  restitution  of  his  land, 
and  Octavianus  granted  his  request.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  Virgil  wrote  the  Eclogue  which  stands 
first  in  our  editions  to  commemorate  his  grati- 
tude to  Octavianus.  Virgil  became  acquainted 
with  Maecenas  before  Horace  was,  and  Horace 
(Sat.,  i  ,  5,  and  6, 55,  <kc.)  was  introduced  to  Mae- 
cenas by  Virgil.  Whether  this  introduction  was 
in  41  or  a  little  later,  is  uncertain  ;  but  we  may 
perhaps  conclude,  from  the  name  of  Maecenas  not 
being  mentioned  in  the  Eclogues  of  Virgil,  that 
he  himself  was  not  on  those  intimate  terms  with 
Maecenas  which  ripened  ir.to  friendship  until 
after  they  were  written.  Horace,  in  one  of  his 
Satires  (Sat.,  i.,  5),  in  which  he  describes  the 
journey  from  Rome  to  Brundisium,  mentions 
Virgil  as  one  of  the  party,  and  in  language 
which  shows  that  they  were  then  in  the  closest 
intimacy.  The  most  finished  work  of  Virgil 
his  Gcorgica,  an  agricultural  poem,  was  under- 
taken at  the  suggestion  of  Maecenas  (Georg., 
Hi.,  41).  The  concluding  lines  of  the  Georgica 
were  written  at  Naples  (Gcorp.,  iv.,  559),  and 
the  poem  was  completed  after  the  battle  of  Ac- 
tium,  B.C.  31,  while  Octavianus  was  in  the  East. 
iCompare  Georg.,  iv.,  560,  and  ii.,  171.)  His 


VIRGILIUS. 

Eclogues  had  all  been  completed,  and  probably 
Before  the  Georgica  were  begun  (Georg.,  iv., 
565).  The  epic  poem  of  Virgil,  the  JEneid,  was 
probably  long  contemplated  by  the  poet.  While 
Augustus  was  in  Spain  (27),  he  wrote  to  Virgil 
;o  express  his  wish  to  have  some  monument  of 
tiis  poetical  talent.  Virgil  appears  to  have  com- 
menced the  jEneid  about  this  time.  In  23  died 
Marcellus,  the  son  of  Octavia,  Caesar's  sister,  hy 
tier  first  husband  ;  and  as  Virgil  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity of  gratifying  his  patron,  he  introduced 
into  his  sixth  book  of  the  JCneid  (883)  the  well- 
known  allusion  to  the  virtues  of  this  youth,  who 
was  cut  off  by  a  premature  death.  Octavia  is 
said  to  have  been  present  when  the  poet  was 
reciting  this  allusion  to  her  son,  and  to  have 
fainted  from  her  emotions.  She  rewarded  the 
poet  munificently  for  his  excusable  flattery.  As 
Marcellus  did  not  die  till  23,  these  lines  were 
of  course  written  after  his  death,  but  that  does 
not  prove  that  the  whole  of  the  sixth  book  was 
written  so  late.  A  passage  in  the  seventh  book 
(606)  appears  to  allude  to  Augustus  receiving 
back  the  Parthian  standards,  which  event  be- 
longs to  20.  When  Augustus  was  returning 
from  Samos,  where  he  had  spent  the  winter  of 
20,  he  met  Virgil  at  Athens.  The  poet,  it  is 
said,  had  intended  to  make  a  tour  of  Greece, 
but  he  accompanied  the  emperor  to  Megara  and 
thence  to  Italy.  His  health,  which  had  been 
long  declining,  was  now  completely  broken,  and 
he  died  soon  after  his  arrival  at  Brundisium  on 
the  twenty-necond  of  September,  19,  not  having 
quite  completed  his  fifty-first  year.  His  re- 
mains were  transferred  to  Naples,  which  had 
been  his  favorite  residence,  and  placed  on  the 
road  from  Naples  to  Puteoli  (now  Pozzuoli), 
where  a  monument  is  still  shown,  supposed  to 
be  the  tomb  of  the  poet.  The  inscription  said 
to  have  been  placed  on  the  tomb, 

"  Mantua  me  gcnuit,  Calabri  rapuere,  tenet  nunc 
Parthenope.     Cecini  pascua,  rura,  duces," 

we  can  not  suppose  to  have  been  written  by  the 
poet.  Virgil  named,  as  heredes  in  his  testa- 
ment, his  half-brother  Valerius  Proculus,  to 
whom  he  left  one  half  of  his  property,  and  also 
Augustus,  Maecenas,  L.  Varius.and  PlotiusTuc- 
ca.  It  is  said  that  in  his  last  illness  he  wished 
to  burn  the  ^Eneid,  to  which  he  had  not  given 
the  finishing  touches,  but  his  friends  would  not 
allow  him.  Whatever  he  may  have  wished  to 
be  done  with  the  ^Eneid,  it  was  preserved  and 
published  by  his  friends  Varius  and  Tucca.  The 
poet  had  been  enriched  by  the  liberality  of  his 
patrons,  and  he  left  behind  him  a  considerable 
property,  and  a  house  on  the  Esquiline  Hill,  neai 
the  gardens  of  Maecenas.  He  used  his  wealth 
liberally,  and  his  library,  which  was  doubtless  a 
good  one,  was  easy  of  access.  He  used  to  send 
his  parents  money  every  year.  His  father,  who 
became  blind,  did  not  die  before  his  son  had  at- 
tained a  mature  age.  Two  brothers  of  Virgil 
also  died  before  him.  In  his  fortunes  and  his 
friends  Virgil  was  a  happy  man.  Munificent 
patronage  gave  him  ample  means  of  enjoyment 
and  of  leisure,  and  he  had  the  friendship  of  all 
the  most  accomplished  men  of  the  day,  among 
whom  Horace  entertained  a  strong  affection  for 
him.  He  was  an  amiable,  good-tempered  man, 
free  from  the  meai  passions  of  envy  and  jeal- 

937 


Y7KGILIUS. 

:  avid  ''•  aJ  bui  health  he  was  prosperous. 
Aij  fa»ac,  which  was  established  in  his  life-time, 
was  cherishod  after  his  death,  as  an  inheritance 
m  which  every  Roman  had  3  share ;  and  his 
works  became  school-books  even  before  the 
death  of  Augustus,  and  continued  such  for  cen- 
turies after.  The  learned  poems  of  Virgil  soon 
gave  employment  to  commentators  and  critics. 
Aulus  Gellius  has  numerous  remarks  on  Virgil, 
arid  Macrobius,  in  his  Saturnalia,  has  filled  four 
books  (iii.-vi.)  with  his  critical  remarks  on  Vir- 
gil's poems.  One  of  the  most  valuable  com- 
mentaries on  Virgil,  in  which  a  great  amount  01' 
curious  and  instructive  matter  has  been  pre- 
served, is  that  of  Servius.  Vid.  SERVIUS.  Vir- 
gil is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  Latin 
authors,  not  so  much  for  the  form  of  the  ex- 
pression, though  that  is  sometimes  ambiguous 
enough,  but  from  the  great  variety  of  knowledge 
that  is  required  to  attain  his  meaning  in  all  its 
fullness.  Virgil  was  the  great  poet  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  too.  To  him  Dante  paid  the  homage 
of  his  superior  genius,  and  owned  him  for  his 
master  and  his  model.  Among  the  vulgar  he 
had  the  reputation  of  a  conjurer,  a  necromancer, 
a  worker  of  miracles  :  it  is  the  fate  of  a  great 
name  to  be  embalmed  in  fable.  The  ten  short 
poems  called  Bucolica  were  the  earliest  works 
of  Virgil,  and  probably  all  written  between  41 
and  37.  These  Bucolica  are  not  Bucolica  in 
the  same  sense  as  the  poems  of  Theocritus, 
which  have  the  same  title.  They  have  all  a 
Bucolic  form  and  coloring,  but  some  of  them 
have  nothing  more.  They  are  also  called  Eclo- 
gae  or  Selections,  but  this  name  may  not  have 
originated  with  the  poet.  Their  merit  consists 
in  their  versification,  which  was  smoother  and 
more  polished  than  the  hexameters  which  the 
Romans  had  yet  seen,  and  in  many  natural  and 
simple  touches.  But  as  an  attempt  to  transfer 
the  Syracusan  muse  into  Italy,  they  are  certainly 
a  failure,  and  we  read  the  pastorals  of  Theo- 
critus and  of  Virgil  with  a  very  different  degree 
of  pleasure.  The  fourth  Eclogue,  entitled  Pol- 
lio,  which  may  have  been  written  in  40,  after 
the  peace  of  Brundisium,  has  nothing  of  the 
pastoral  character  about  it.  It  is  allegorical, 
mystical,  hajf  historical  and  prophetical,  enig- 
matical— any  thing,  in  fact,  but  Bucolic.  The 
first  Eclogue  is  Bucolic  in  form  and  in  treatment, 
with  an  historical  basis.  The  second  Eclogue, 
the  Alexis,  is  an  amatory  poem,  with  a  Bucolic 
coloring,  which,  indeed,  is  the  characteristic  of 
all  Virgil's  Eclogues,  whatever  they  may  be  in 
substance.  The  third,  the  fifth,  the  seventh, 
and  the  ninth  are  more  clearly  modelled  on  the 
form  of  the  poems  of  his  Sicilian  prototype ;  and 
the  eighth,  the  Pharmaceutria,  is  a  direct  imita- 
tion of  the  original  Greek.  The  tenth,  entitled 
Gallus,  perhaps  written  the  last  of  all,  is  a  love 
poem,  which,  if  written  in  elegiac  verse,  would 
be  more  appropriately  called  an  elegy  than  a  Bu- 
colic. The  Georgica,  or  "  Agricultural  Poem,'' 
in  four  books,  is  a  didactic  poem,  which  Virgil 
dedicated  to  his  patron  Maecenas.  He  treats  of 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  in  the  first  book,  of 
fruit-trees  in  the  second,  of  horses  and  other 
cattle  in  the  third,  and  of  bees  in  the  fourth. 
In  this  poem  Virgil  shows  a  great  improve- 
ment both  in  his  taste  and  in  his  versification. 
Neither  in  the  Georgics  nor  elsewhere  has  Vir- 
938 


,  VIRGILIUS. 

gil  the  merit  of  striking  originality  ;  his  chief 
merit  consists  in  the  skillful  handling  of  borrow- 
ed materials.  His  subject,  which  was  by  no 
means  promising,  he  treated  in  a  manner  both 
instructive  and  pleasing ;  for  he  has  given 
many  useful  remarks  on  agriculture,  and  diver- 
sified the  dryness  of  didactic  poetry  by  numer- 
ous allusions  and  apt  embellishments,  and  some 
occasional  digressions  without  wandering  too 
far  from  his  main  matter.  In  the  first  book  he 
enumerates  the  subjects  of  his  poem,  among 
which  is  the  treatment  of  bees  ;  yet  the  man- 
agement of  bees  seems  but  meagre  material  for 
one  fourth  of  the  whole  poem,  and  the  author 
accordingly  had  to  complete  the  fourth  book 
with  matter  somewhat  extraneous — the  long 
story  of  Aristaeus.  The  Georgica  is  the  most 
finished  specimen  of  the  Latin  hexameter  which 
we  have  ;  and  the  rude  vigor  of  Lucretius  and 
the  antiquated  rudeness  of  Ennius  are  here  re- 
placed by  a  versification  which  in  its  kind  can 
not  be  surpassed.  The  Georgica  are  also  the 
most  original  poem  of  Virgil,  for  he  found  little 
in  the  Works  and  r>ays  of  Hesitfd  that  could 
furnish  him  with  Lints  for  the  treatment  of  his 
subject,  and  we  are  not  aware  that  there  was 
any  work  which  he  could  exactly  follow  as  a 
whole.  For  numerous  single  lines  he  was  in- 
debted to  his  extensive  reading  of  the  Greek 
poets.  The  Mneid,  or  adventures  of  .<Eneas 
after  the  fall  of  Troy,  is  an  cpi<?  poem  on  the 
model  of  the  Homeric  poems.  It  was  founded 
upon  an  old  Roman  tradition  ihst  ^Eneas  and 
his  Trojans  settled  in  Italy,  and  were  the/ound- 
ers  of  the  Roman  name.  In  the  £rst  book  we 
have  the  story  of  JSneas  being  driven  by  a 
storm  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  beurg' hospi- 
tably received  by  Dido,  queen  of  Carthage,  to 
whom  he  relates  in  the  episode  of  the  second 
and  third  books  the  fall  of  Troy  and  his  wander- 
ings. In  the  fourth  book  the  poet  has  elabo- 
rated the  story  of  the  attachment  of  Dido  and 
./Eneas,  the  departure  of  ^Eneas  in  obedience 
to  the  will  of  the  gods,  and  the  suicide  of  the 
Carthaginian  qaeen.  The  fifth  book  contains 
the  visit  to  Sicily,  and  the  sixth  the  landing  of 
.Eneas  at  Cumee  in  Italy,  and  his  descent  to  the 
infernal  r.egions,  where  he  sees  his  father  An- 
chises,  and  has  a  prophetic  vision  of  the  gloriou* 
destinies  of  his  race  and  of  the  future  heroes  of 
Rome.  In  the  first  six  books  the  adventures  of 
Ulysses  in  the  Odyssey  are  the  model,  and  these 
books  contain  more  variety  of  incident  and  sit- 
uation than  those  which  follow.  The  critics 
have  discovered  an  anachronism  in  the  visit  of 
;Eneas  to  Carthage,  which  is  supposed  not  Jo 
have  been  founded  until  two  centuries  after  the 
fall  of  Troy,  but  this  is  a  matter  which  we  may 
leave  without  discussion,  or  admit  without  al- 
lowing it  to  be  a  poetical  defect.  The  last  six 
books,  the  history  of  the  struggles  of  ^Eneas  in 
Italy,  are  founded  on  the  model  of  the  battles 
of  the  Iliad.  Latinus,  the  king  of  the  Latini, 
offers  the  Trojan  hero  his  daughter  Lavinia  in 
marriage,  who  had  been  betrothed  to  Tunr.is, 
the  warlike  king  of  the  Rutuli.  The  contest  i.*» 
ended  by  the  death  of  Turnus,  who  falls  by  the 
hand  of  ^Eneas.  The  fortunes  of^Eneas  anu 
his  final  settlement  in  Italy  are  the  subject  of 
the  ^Eneid,  but  the  glories  of  Rome  and  of  th« 
Julian  house,  to  which  Augustus  belonged,  as« 


V1RGIL1US. 

Indirectly  the  poet's  theme.  In  the  first  hook  ' 
the  foundation  of  Alba  Longa  is  promised  by 
Jupiter  to  Venus  (Mneid,  i.,  254),  and  the  trans- 
fer of  empire  from  Alba  to  Rome  ;  from  the 
line  of^Eneas  will  descend  the  "Trojan  Cae- 
sar," whose  empire  will  only  be  limited  by  the 
ocean,  and  whose  glory  by  the  heavens.  The 
future  rivalry  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  and 
the  ultimate  triumphs  of  Rome  are  predicted. 
The  poems  abound  in  allusions  to  the  history  of 
Rome  ;  and  the  aim  of  the  poet  to  confirm  and 
embellish  the  popular  tradition  of  the  Trojan 
origin  of  the  Roman  state,  and  the  descent  of 
the  Julii  from  Venus,  is  apparent  all  through  the 
poem.  It  is  objected  to  the  ^Eneid  that  it  has 
not  the  unity  of  construction  either  of  the  Iliad 
or  of  the  Odyssey,  and  that  it  is  deficient  in  that 
antique  simplicity  which  characterizes  these 
two  poems.  ^Eneas,  the  hero,  is  an  insipid 
kind  of  personage,  and  a  much  superior  interest 
is  excited  by  the  savage  Mezentius,  and  also  by 
Turuus,  the  unfortunate  rival  of  JSneas.  Virgil 
imitated  other  poets  besides  Homer,  and  he  has 
occasionally  borrowed  from  them,  especially 
from  Apollonius  of  Rhodes.  If  Virgil's  subject 
was  difficult  to  invest  with  interest,  that  is  his 
apology ;  but  it  can  not  be  denied  that  many 
parts  of  his  poem  are  successfully  elaborated, 
and  that  particular  scenes  and  incidents  are 
treated  with  true  poetic  spirit.  The  historical 
coloring  which  pervades  it,  and  the  great  amount 
of  antiquarian  learning  which  he  has  scattered 
through  it,  makfe  the  JSrieid  a  study  for  the  his- 
torian of  Rome.  Virgil's  good  sense  and  taste 
are  always  conspicuous,  and  make  up  for  the 
defect  of  originality.  As  a  whole,  the  ^Eneid 
leaves  no  strong  impression,  which  arises  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  not  really  a  national  poem, 
like  the  Iliad  or  the  Odyssey,  the  monument  of 
an  age  of  which  we  have  no  other  literary  mon- 
ument ;  it  is  a  learned  poem,  the  production  of 
an  age  in  which  it  does  not  appear  as  an  em- 
bodiment of  the  national  feeling,  but  as  a  mon- 
ument of  the  talent  and  industry  of  an  individ- 
ual. Virgil  has  the  merit  of  being  the  best  of 
the  Roman  epic  poets,  superior  both  to  Ennius 
who  preceded  him,  and  on  whom  he  levied  con- 
tributions, and  to  Lucan,  Silius  Italicus,  and  Va- 
lerius Flaccus,  who  belong  to  a  later  age.  The 
passion  for  rhetorical  display,  which  character- 
izes all  the  literature  of  Rome,  is  much  less 
offensive  in  Virgil  than  in  those  who  followed 
him  in  the  line  of  epic  poetry.  The  larger  edi- 
tions of  Virgil  contain  some  short  poems,  which 
are  attributed  to  him,  and  may  have  been  among 
bis  earlier  works.  The  Culex,  or  Gnat,  is  a  kind 
of  Bucolic  poem,  in  four  hundred  and  thirteen 
hexameters,  often  very  obscure  ;  the  Ciris,  or 
the  mythus  of  Scylla,  the  daughter  of  Nisus, 
king  of  Megara,  in  five  hundred  and  forty-one 
hexameters,  has  been  attributed  to  Cornelius 
Callus  and  others  ;  the  Morctum,  in  one  hundred 
and  twenty-three  verses,  the  name  of  a  com- 
pound mess,  is  a  poem  in  hexameters,  on  the 
daily  labor  of  a  cultivator,  but  it  contains  only 
the  description  of  the  labors  of  the  first  part  of 
the  day,  which  consist  in  preparing  the  More- 
turn  ;  the  Copa,  in  elegiac  verse,  is  an  invita- 
tion by  a  female  tavern-keeper  or  servant  at- 
tached to  a  Caupona,  to  passengers  to  come  in 
and  enjoy  themselves.  There  are  also  fourteen 


VIRGINIUS  RUFUS. 

short  pieces  in  various  metres,  classed  undei 
the  general  name  of  Cutakcta.  That  addressed 
"  Ad  Venerem"  shows  that  the  writer,  whoever 
he  was,  had  a  talent  for  elegiac  poetry.  Of  the 
numerous  editions  of  Virgil,  the  best  are  by 
Burmann,  Amsterdam,  1746,  4  vols.  4to  ;  by 
Heyne,  1767-1775,  Lips.,  4  vols.  8vo,  of  which 
the  fourth  edition  contains  important  improve- 
ments by  Wagner,  Lips.,  1830,  5  vols.  8vo  ; 
and  by  Forbiger,  Lips.,  1845-1846,  3  vols.  8vo 
(second  edition). 

[ViRGiuus,  C.,  praetor  B.C.  62,  had  Q.  Cicero 
as  one  of  his  colleagues.  Next  year,  B.C.  61, 
he  governed  Sicjly  as  propraetor,  where  P.  Clo- 
dius  served  under  him  as  quaestor.  He  was 
still  in  Sicily  in  B.C.  58,  when  Cicero  was  ban- 
ished, and  refused  to  allow  the  latter  refuge  in 
his  province.  In  the  Civil  war  Virgilius  es- 
poused the  cause  of  Pompey,  and  had  the  com- 
mand of  Thapsus,  together  with  a  fleet,  in  B.C. 
46.  After  the  battle  of  Thapsus,  Virgilius  at 
first  refused  to  surrender  the  town,  but  subse- 
quently, seeing  resistance  hopeless,  he  surren- 
dered the  place  to  Caninius  Rebilus.] 

VIRGINIA,  daughter  of  L.  Virginius,  a  brave 
centurion,  was  a  beautiful  and  innocent  girl, 
betrothed  to  L.  Icilius.  Her  beauty  excited  the 
lust  of  the  decemvir  Appius  Claudius,  who  got 
one  of  his  clients  to  seize  the  damsel  and  claim 
her  as  his  slave.  The  case  was  brought  before 
the  decemvir  for  decision  ;  her  friends  begged 
him  to  postpone  his  judgment  till  her  father 
could  be  fetched  from  the  camp,  and  offered  to 
give  security  for  the  appearance  of  the  maiden. 
Appius,  fearing  a  riot,  agreed  to  let  the  cause 
.stand  over  till  the  next  day ;  but  on  the  follow- 
ing morning  he  pronounced  sentence,  assigning 
Virginia  to  his  freedman.  Her  father,  who  had 
come  from  the  camp,  seeing  that  all  hope  was 
gone,  prayed  the  decemvir  to  be  allowed  to 
speak  one  word  to  the  nurse  in  his  daughter's 
hearing,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  she  was 
really  his  daughter.  The  request  was  granted  ; 
Virginius  drew  them  both  aside,  and  snatching 
up  a  butcher's  knife  from  one  of  the  stalls, 
plunged  it  in  his  daughter's  breast,  exclaiming, 
"  There  is  no  way  but  this  to  keep  thee  free." 
In  vain  did  Appius  call  out  to  stop  him.  The 
crowd  made  way  for  him  ;  and,  holding  his 
bloody  knife  on  high,  he  rushed  to  the  gate  of 
the  city,  and  hastened  to  the  Roman  camp. 
The  result  is  known.  Both  camp  and  city  rose 
against  the  decemvirs,  who  were  deprived  of 
their  power,  and  the  old  form  of  government 
was  restored.  L.  Virginius  was  the  first  who 
was  elected  tribune,  and  he  hastened  to  take 
revenge  upon  his  cruel  enemy.  By  his  orders 
Appius  was  dragged  to  prison  to  await  his  trial, 
and  he  there  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  in  order 
to  avoid  a  more  ignominious  death. 

VIRGINIA  or  VEROINIA  GENS,  patrician  and 
plebeian.  The  patrician  Virginii  frequently  filled 
the  highest  honors  of  the  state  during  the  early 
years  of  the  republic.  They  all  bore  the  cog- 
nomen of  Tricostiis,  but  none  of  them  are  of 
sufficient  importance  to  require  a  separate  no- 
tice. 

VIROINIUS,  L.,  father  of  Virginia,  whose  tragic 
fate  occasioned  the  downfall  of  the  decemvirs, 
B.C.  449.  Vid.  VIRGINIA. 

VIROINIUS  RUFUS,  consul  A.D.  63,  and  gov- 

939 


VIRIATHUS. 

ernor  of  Upper  Germany  at  the  time  of  the  re- 
volt of  Julius  Vindex  in  Gaul  (68).  The  sol- 
diers of  Virginius  wished  to  raise  him  to  the 
empire  ;  but  he  refused  the  honor,  and  marched 
against  v-ndex,  who  perished  before  Vesontio. 
Vid.  VINDEX.  After  the  death  of  Nero,  Vir- 
ginius supported  the  claims  of  Galba,  and  ac- 
companied him  to  Rome.  After  Otho's  death, 
the  soldiers  again  attempted  to  proclaim  Virgin- 
ius emperor,  and,  in  consequence  of  his  refusal 
of  the  honor,  he  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life. 
Virginius  died  in  the  reign  of  Nerva,  in  his  third 
consulship,  A.D.  97,  at  eighty-three  years  of  age. 
He  was  honored  with  a  public  funeral,  and  his 
panegyric  was  pronounced  by  the  historian  Tac- 
itus, who  was  then  consul.  The  younger  Pliny, 
of  whom  Virginius  had  been  the  tutor  or  guard- 
ian, also  mentions  him  with  praise. 

VIRIATHUS,  a  celebrated  Lusitanian,  is  de- 
scribed by  the  Romans  as  originally  a  shepherd 
»r  huntsman,  and  afterward  a  robber,  or,  as  he 
would  be  called  in  Spain  at  the  present  day,  a 
guerilla  chief.  His  character  is  drawn  very 
favorably  by  many  of  the  ancient  writers,  who 
celebrate  his  justice  and  equity,  which  was 
particularly  shown  in  the  fair  division  of  the 
spoils  he  obtained  from  the  enemy.  Viriathus 
was  one  of  the  Lusitanians  who  escaped  the 
treacherous  and  savage  massacre  of  the  people 
by  the  proconsul  Galba  in  B.C.  150.  Vid.  GALBA, 
No.  2.  He  was  destined  to  be  the  avenger  of 
his  country's  wrongs.  He  collected  a  formida- 
ble force,  and  for  several  successive  years  he 
defeated  one  Roman  army  after  another.  At 
length,  in  140,  the  proconsul  Fabius  Servilianus 
concluded  a  peace  with  Viriathus  in  order  to 
save  his  army,  which  had  been  inclosed  by  the 
Lusitanians  in  a  mountain  pass,  much  in  the 
same  way  as  their  ancestors  had  been  by  the 
Samnites  at  the  Caudine  Forks.  The  treaty 
was  ratified  by  the  senate  ;  but  Servilius  Caepio, 
who  had  succeeded  to  the  command  of  Further 
Spain  in  140,  renewed  the  war,  and  shortly  aft- 
erward procured  the  assassination  of  Viriathus 
by  bribing  three  of  his  friends. 

VIRIDOMARUS.  1.  Or  BRITOMARTUS,  the  lead- 
er of  the  Gauls,  slain  by  Marcellus.  Vid.  MAR- 
CELLUS,  No.  1. — 2.  Or  VIRDUMARUS,  a  chieftain 
of  the  ^Edui,  whom  Caesar  had  raised  from  a 
low  rank  to  the  highest  honor,  but  who  after- 
ward joined  the  Gauls  in  their  great  revolt  in 
B.C.  52. 

[ViRiDovix,  the  chieftain  of  the  Unelli,  was 
conquered  by  Q.  Titurius  Sabinus,  Caesar's  le- 
gatus  in  B.C.  56.] 

VIRTUS,  the  Roman  personification  of  manly 
valor.  She  was  represented  with  a  short  tunic, 
her  right  breast  uncovered,  a  helmet  on  her 
head,  a  spear  in  her  left  hand,  a  sword  in  the 
right,  and  standing  with  her  right  foot  on  a  hel- 
met. A  temple  of  Virtus  was  built  by  Marcel- 
lus close  to  one  of  Honor.  Vid.  HONOR. 

VISCELLINUS,  SP.  CASSIUS.  Vid.  CASSIOS, 
No.  1. 

[Viscas.  1.  Surnamed  Thurinus,  probably 
from  his  native  place  Thurii  in  Calabria,  a  poet 
and  friend  of  Horace  and  Maecenas,  one  of  the 
guests  at  the  supper  of  Nasidienus  described  by 
Horace  (Sac.,  ii.,  8,  20). — 2.  VIBIUS  Visccs,  a 
Roman  knight,  who,  though  possessed  of  great 
wealth  and  enjoying  the  favor  of  Augustus,  pre- 
940 


VITELLIUS. 

ferred  remaining  in  the  equestrian  order:  h» 
was  the  father  o*f  the  two  Visci,  who  are  praised 
as  poets,  and  were  on  intimate  terms  with  Hor- 
ace.] 

VISTULA  (now  Vistula,  English;  Weickscl, 
German),  an  important  river  of  Germany,  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  Germany  and  Sarma- 
tia,  rising  in  the  Hercynia  Silva,  and  falling  into 
the  Mare  Suevicum  or  the  Baltic. 

VISURGIS  (now  Weser),  an  important  river  of 
Germany,  falling  into  the  German  Ocean.  Ptol- 
emy makes  it  rise  in  Mount  Meliboeus,  because 
the  Romans  were  not  acquainted  with  the  south- 
ern course  of  the  Weser  below  Minden. 

VITELLIUS.  1.  L.,  father  of  the  emperor, 
was  a  consummate  flatterer,  and  by  his  arts 
gained  promotion.  After  being  consul  in  A.D. 
34,  he  had  been  appointed  governor  of  Syria, 
and  had  made  favorable  terms  of  peace  with  Ar- 
tabanus.  But  all  this  only  excited  Caligula's 
jealousy,  and  he  sent  for  Vitellius  to  put  him  to 
death.  The  governor  saved  himself  by  his  ab- 
ject humiliation  and  the  gross  flattery  which 
pleased  and  softened  the  savage  tyrant.  He 
paid  the  like  attention  to  Claudius  and  Messa- 
lina,  and  was  rewarded  by  being  twice  consul 
with  Claudius,  and  censor. — 2.  L.,  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  brother  of  the  emperor,  was  con- 
sul in  48.  He  was  put  to  death  by  the  party  of 
Vespasian  on  his  brother's  fall. — 3.  A.,  Roman 
emperor  from  January  2d  to  December  22d, 
A.D.  69,  was  the  son  of  No.  1.  He  was  consul 
during  the  first  six  months  of  48,  and  his  broth- 
er Lucius  during  the  six  following  months.  He 
had  some  knowledge  of  letters  and  some  elo- 
quence. His  vices  made  him  a  favorite  of  Ti- 
berius, Caius  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero,  who 
loaded  him  with  favors.  People  were  much  sur- 
prised when  Galba  chose  such  a  man  to  com- 
mand the  legions  in  Lower  Germany,  for  he  had 
no  military  talent.  His  great  talent  was  eat- 
ing and  drinking.  The  soldiers  of  Vitellius  pro- 
claimed him  emperor  at  Colonia  Agrippinensis 
(now  Cologne)  on  the  2d  of  January,  69.  His 
generals  Fabius  Valens  and  Caecina  marched 
into  Italy,  defeated  Otho's  troops  at  the  decisive 
battle  of  Bedriacum,  and  thus  secured  for  Vi- 
tellius the  undisputed  command  of  Italy.  The 
soldiers  of  Otho,  after  the  death  of  the  latter, 
took  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  Vitellius.  Vitellius 
reached  Rome  in  July.  He  did  not  disturb  any 
person  in  the  enjoyment  of  what  had  been  given 
by  Nero,  Galba,  and  Otho,  nor  did  he  confis- 
cate any  man's  property.  Though  some  of 
Otho's  adherents  were  put  to  death,  he  let  the 
next  of  kin  take  their  property.  But,  though  he 
showed  moderation  in  this  part  of  his  conduct, 
he  showed  none  in  his  expenses.  He  was  a 
glutton  and  an  epicure,  and  his  chief  amuse- 
ment was  the  table,  on  which  he  spent  enor- 
mous sums  of  money.  Meantime  Vespasian, 
who  had  at  first  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
Vitellius,  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Alexan 
drea  on  the  1st  of  July.  Vespasian  was  speed- 
ily recognized  by  all  the  East ;  and  the  legions 
of  Illyricum,  under  Antonius  Primus,  entered 
the  north  of  Italy  and  declared  for  Vespasian. 
Vitellius  dispatched  Caecina  with  a  powerful 
force  to  oppose  Primus  ;  but  Caecina  was  not 
faithful  to  the  emperor.  Primus  defeated  the 
Vitellians  in  two  battles,  and  afterward  took 


VITIA. 

and  pillaged  the  city  of  Cremona.  Primus  then 
marched  upon  Rome,  and  forced  his  way  into 
the  city,  after  much  fighting.  Vitellius  was 
seized  in  the  palace,  led  through  the  streets 
with  every  circumstance  of  ignominy,  and  drag- 
ged to  the  Gemoniae  Scalae,  where  he  was  killed 
with  repeated  blows.  His  head  was  carried 
about  Rome,  and  his  body  was  dragged  into  the 
Tiber ;  but  it  was  afterward  interred  by  his 
wife  Galeria  Fundana.  A  few  days  before  the 
death  of  Vitellius,  the  Capitol  had  been  burned 
in  the  assault  made  by  his  soldiers  upon  this 
building,  where  Flavius  Sabinus,  the  brother  of 
the  Emperor  Vespasian,  had  taken  refuge. 

[VITIA,  the  mother  of  Fufius  Geminus,  was 
put  to  death  by  Tiberius  in  A.D.  32  because  she 
had  lamented  the  execution  of  her  son,  who 
had  been  consul  in  A.D.  29.] 

VITRUVIUS  POLLIO,  M.,  the  author  of  the  cel- 
ebrated treatise  on  Architecture,  of  whom  we 
know  nothing  except  a  few  facts  contained  in 
scattered  passages  of  his  own  work.     He  ap- 
pears to  have  served  as  a  military  engineer  un- 
der Julius  Caesar,  in  the  African  war,  B.C.  46, 
and  he  was  broken  down  -with  age  when  he 
composed  his  work,  which  is  dedicated  to  the 
Emperor  Augustus.     (The  name  of  the  emper- 
or is  not  mentioned  in  the  dedication,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  Augustus.)    Tho 
object  of  his  work  appears  to  have  had  refer- 
ence to  himself  as  well  as  to  his  subject.    He 
professes  his  intention  to  furnish  the  emperor 
wKh  a  standard  by  which  to  judge  of  the.  build- 
ings he  had  already  erected,  as  well  as  of  those 
which  he  might  afterward  erect ;  which  can 
have  no  meaning,  unless  he  wished  to  protest 
against  the  style  of  architecture  which  prevail- 
ed in  the  buildings  already  erected.     That  this 
was  »°ally  his  intention  appears  from  several 
other  arguments,  and  especially  from  his  fre- 
quent references  to  the  unworthy  means  by 
which  architects  obtained  wealth  and  favor, 
with  w\uch  ht  contrasts  his  own  moderation 
and  contfcntmem  in  his  vnore  obscure  position. 
In  a  word,  <M)mphrativeIy  unsuccessful  as  an 
architect,  for  \ve  haie  no  building  of  his  men- 
tioned except  the  basihca  at  Fanum,  he  attempt- 
ed to  establish  his  repuvation  as  a  writer  upon 
the  theory  of  his  art ;  and  in  this  he  has  been 
tolerably  successful.    His  work  is  a  valuable 
compendium  of  those  written   by  numerous 
Greek  architects,  whom  he  mentions  chiefly  in 
the  preface  to  his  seventh  book,  and  by  some 
Roman  writers  on  architecture,    lu  chief  de- 
fects are  its  brevity,  of  which  Vitruvius  him- 
self boasts,  and  which  he  often  carries  so  far  as 
to  be  unintelligible,  and  the  obscurity  of  the 
style,  arising  in  part  from  the  natural  difficulty 
of  technical  language,  but  in  part  also  from  the 
author's  want  of  skill  in  writing,  and  sometimes 
from  his  imperfect  comprehension  of  his  Greek 
authorities.     His  work  is  entitled  De  Architec- 
tura  Libri  X.    'In  the  Fir*/  Book,  after  the  ded 
ication  to  the  emperor,  and  a  general  descrip- 
tion of  the  science  of  architecture,  and  an  ac- 
count of  the  proper  education  of  an  architect 
he  treats  of  the  choice  of  a  proper  site  for  a 
city,  the  disposition  of  its  plan,  its  fortifications 
and  the  several  buildings  within  it.     The  Sec 
and  Book  is  on  the  materials  used  in  building 
The  Third  and  Fourth  Books  are  devoted  to 


VOLATERR^E. 

temples  and  the  four  orders  of  architecture  em- 
ployed in  them,  namely,  the  Ionic,  Corinthian, 
Doric,  and  Tuscan.  The  Fifth  Book  relates  to 
mblic  buildings,  the  Sixth  to  private  houses, 
and  the  Seventh  to  interior  decorations.  The 
Eighth  is  on  the  subject  of  water  ;  the  mode  of 
finding  it ;  its  different  kinds  ;  and  the  various 
modes  of  conveying  it  for  the  supply  of  cities. 
The  Ninth  Book  treats  of  various  kinds  of  sun- 
dials and  other  instruments  for  measuring  time ; 
and  the  Tenth  of  the  machines  used  in  build- 
ng,  and  of  military  engines.  Each  book  has  a 
>reface,  upon  some  matter  more  or  less  con- 
nected with  the  subject ;  and  these  prefaces 
are  the  source  of  most  of  our  information  about 
the  author.  The  best  editions  of  Vitruvius  are 
those  of  Schneider,  3  vols.,  Lips.,  1807,  1808, 
Svo  ;  of  Stratico,  4  vols.,  Udino,  1825-30,  with 
)lates  and  a  Lexicon  Vitruvianum ;  and  of  Mari- 
ni,  4  vols.,  Rom.,  1836,  fol. 

[Vivisci.     Vid  BITURIGES,  No.  2.] 
VOCATES,  a  people  in  Gallia  Aquitanica,  dwell- 
ing in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Tarusates,  Sos- 
siates,  and  Elusates,  probably  in  the  modern 
Tursan  or  Teursan. 

VOCETICIS  (now  Bozlerg),  a  mountain  in  Gal- 
lia Belgica,  an  eastern  branch  of  the  Jura. 
VOCONIUS  SAXA.  Vid.  SAXA. 
VOCONTII,  a  powerful  and  important  people  in 
Gallia  Narbonensis,  inhabiting  the  southeastern 
part  of  Dauphine,  and  a  part  of  Provence,  be- 
tween the  Drac  and  the  Durance,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Allobroges,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  Salyes  and  Albiceci.  Their  country  con- 
tained large  and  beautiful  valleys  between  the 
mountains,  in  which  good  wine  was  grown. 
They  were  allowed  by  the  Romans  to  live  un- 
der their  own  laws,  and,  though  in  a  Roman 
province,  they  were  the  allies  and  not  the  sub 
jecls  of  Rome. 

ouKuus  or  VOSOESCS  (now  Vosgcs),  a  range 
of  mountains  in  Gaul,  in  the  territory  of  the 
Lingonac,  running  parallel  to  the  Rhine,  and 
separatiag  its  basin  from  that  of  the  Mosella. 
The  rivers  Sequana  (now  Seine),  Arar(now  Sa- 
6ne),  and  the  Mosella  (now  Moselle),  rise  in 
these  mountains. 

VOLANDCM,  a  strong  fortress  in  Armenia  Ma- 
jor, some  days' journey  west  of  Artaxata,  men- 
tioned by  Tacitus  (Ann.,  xiii.,  39). 

A7oLATERR.<E  (Volaterranus  ;  now  Volaterra), 
called  by  the  Etruscans  VELATHRI,  one  of  the 
twelve  cities  of  the  Etruscan  Confederation, 
was  built  on  a  lofty  hill,  about  eighteen  thou 
sand  English  feet  above  the  level  cf  the  sea 
rising  from  a  deep  valley,  and  precipitous  01 
every  side.  The  city  was  about  four  or  five 
miles  in  circuit.  It  was  the  most  northerly  city 
of  the  Confederation,  and  possessed  an  extens- 
ive territory.  Its  dominions  extended  eastward 
as  far  as  the  territory  of  Arretium,  which  was 
fifty  miles  distant ;  westward  as  far  as  the  Med- 
iterranean, which  was  more  than  twenty  miles 
off;  and  southward  at  least  as  far  as  Populonia, 
which  was  either  a  colony  or  an  acquisition  of 
Volatcrrae.  In  consequence  of  possessing  the 
two  great  ports  of  Luna  and  Populonia,  Vola- 
terras,  though  so  far  inland,  was  reckoned  as  one 
of  the  powerful  maritime  cities  of  Etruria.  Vol- 
aterrae  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  five  cities 
which,  acting  independently  of  the  rest  of  Etru- 

941 


VOL  A  TERR  AN  A  VADA. 

ria,  determined  to  aid  the  Latins  against  Tar- 
quinius  Priscus ;  but  its  name  is  rarely  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  Romans,  and  we 
have  no  record  of  its  conquest  by  the  latter. 
Volaterrae,  like  most  of  ttie  Etruscan  cities, 
espoused  the  Marian  party  against  Sulla  ;  and 
such  was  the  strength  of  its  fortifications,  that 
it  was  not  till  after  a  siege  of  two  years  that 
the  city  fell  into  Sulla's  hands.  Cicero  speaks 
of  Volaterrse  as  a  municipium,  and  a  military 
colony  was  founded  in  it  under  the  triumvirate. 
It  continued  to  be  a  place  of  importance  even 
after  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  ;  and  it 
was  for  a  time  the  residence  of  the  Lombard 
kings,  who  fixed  their  court  here  on  account  of 
the  natural  strength  of  the  site.  The  modern 
town  covers  but  a  small  portion  of  the  area  oc- 
cupied by  the  ancient  city.  It  contains,  how- 
ever, several  interesting  Etruscan  remains. 
Of  these  the  most  important,  in  addition  to  the 
ancient  walls,  are  the  family  tomb  of  the  Cae- 
cinae,  and  a  double  gateway,  nearly  thirty  feet 
deep,  united  by  parallel  walls  of  very  massive 
character. 

VoLATERRANA  VADA.        Vid.  VADA,  No.  3. 

VOLC.S,  a  powerful  Celtic  people  in  Gallia 
Narbonensis,  divided  into  the  two  tribes  of  the 
Volcae  Tectosages  and  the  Volcae  Arecomici, 
extending  from  the  Pyrenees  and  the  frontiers 
of  Aquitania  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the 
Rhone.  They  lived  under  their  own  laws, 
without  being  subject  to  the  Roman  governor 
of  the  province,  and  they  also  possessed  the 
Jus  Latii.  The  Tectosages  inhabited  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  country  from  the  Pyrenees  as 
far  as  Narbo,  and  the  Arecomici  the  e,astern 
part  from  Narbo  to  the  Rhone.  The  chief  town 
of  the  Tectosages  was  TOLOSA.  A  portion  of 
the  Tectosages  left  their  native  country  under 
Brennus,  and  were  one  of  the  three  great  tribes 
into  which  the  Galatians  in  Asia  Minor  were 
divided.  Vid.  GA^ATIA. 

VOLCATIUS  SEDIGITUS.     Vid.  SEDIGITUS. 

[VOLCATIOS  TULLUS,  C.,  a  Roman  officer,  who 
was  left  by  Uaesar  in  charge  of  the  bridge  over 
the  Rhine  when  he  was  setting  out  on  the  ex- 
pedition against  Ambiorix.] 

VOLCI  or  VOLCI.  1.  (Volcientes,  pi.:  now 
Vulci),  an  inland  city  of  Etruria,  about  eighteen 
miles  northwest  of  Tarquinii,  was  about  two 
miles  in  circuit,  and  was  situated  upon  a  hill 
of  no  great  elevation.  Of  the  history  of  this 
city  we  know  nothing.  It  is  only  mentioned  in 
the  catalogues  of  the  geographers  and  in  the 
Fasti  Capitolini,  from  which  we  learn  that  its 
citizens,  in  conjunction  with  the  Volsinienses, 
were  defeated  by  the  consul  Tib.  Coruncanius, 
B.C.  280.  But  its  extensive  sepulchres,  and 
the  vast  treasures  of  ancient  art  which  they 
contain,  prove  that  Vulci  must  at  one  time  have 
been  a  powerful  and  flourishing  city.  These 
tombs  were  only  discovered  in  1828,  and  have 
yielded  a  greater  number  of  works  of  art  than 
have  been  discovered  in  any  other  parts  of 
Etruria. — 2.  (Volcentes,  Volcentani,  pi.  :  now 
Vallo),  a  town  in  Lucania,  thirty-six  miles 
southeast  of  Prestum,  on  th3  road  to  Buxentum. 

VoLERO  PlJBLILIDS.        Fid.  PcBLILlOS. 
[VoLESUS.        Vld.  VOLUSUS.] 

VOLOGESES,  the  name  of  five  kings  of  Parthia. 
Vid.  AHSACES,  Nos.  23,  27,  28  29,  30. 
942 


VOLUSIANUS. 

[VoLscENs,  a  Rutulian  warrior  in  the  army 
of  Turnus  ;  he  encountered  Nisus  and  Euryalus 
as  they  were  returning  from  their  expedition  to 
the  Rutulian  camp,  loaded  with  booty,  slew  Eu 
ryalus,  and  was  himself  slain  by  Nisus.] 

VOLSCI,  an  ancient  people  in  Latium,  but 
originally  distinct  from  the  Latins,  dwelt  on 
both  sides  of  the  River  Liris,  and  extended 
down  to  the  Tyrrhene  Sea.  Their  language 
was  nearly  allied  to  the  Umbrian.  They  were 
from  an  early  period  engaged  in  almost  unceas- 
ing hostilities  with  the  Romans,  and  were  no. 
completely  subdued  by  the  latter  till  B.C.  338, 
from  which  time  they  disappear  from  history. 

VOLSINII  or  VULSINII  (Volsiniensis  :  now  Bol- 
sena), called  VELSINA  or  VELSUNA  by  the  Etrus- 
cans, one  of  the  most  ancient  and  most  power- 
ful of  the  twelve  cities  of  the  Etruscan  Confed- 
eration, was  situated  on  a  lofty  hill  on  the  north- 
eastern extremity  of  the  lake  called  after  it 
LACUS  VOLSINIENSIS  and  VULSINIENSIS  (now 
Logo  di  Bolscna).  Volsinii  is  first  mentioned 
in  B.C.  392,  when  its  inhabitants  invaded  the 
Roman  territory,  but  were  easily  defeated  by 
the  Romans,  and  were  glad  to  purchase  a  twen- 
ty years'  truce  on  humiliating  terms.  The  Vol- 
sinienses  also  carried  on  war  with  the  Romans 
in  311,  294,  and  280,  but  were  on  each  occasion 
defeated,  and  in  the  last  of  these  years  appear 
to  have  been  finally  subdued.  On  their  final 
subjugation  their  city  was  razed  to  the  ground 
by  the  Romans,  and  its  inhabitants  \vere  com- 
pelled, to  settle  on  a  less  defensible  site  in  the 
plain.  The  new  city,  on  which  stands  the  mod- 
ern Bolsena,  also  became  a  place  of  importance. 
It  was  the  birth-place  of  Sejanus,  the  favorite  of 
Tiberius.  Of  the  ancient  city  there  are  scarcely 
any  remains.  It  occupied  the  summit  of  the 
highest  hill,  northeast  of  Bolsena,  above  the  re- 
mains of  a  Roman  amphitheatre.  Fiom  the 
Lacus  Volsiniensis  the  River  Marta  issues  ;  and 
the  lake  contains  two  beautiful  islands. 

[VOLTUMNA,  an  Etrurian  godaess,  at  whose 
temple  on  Mons  Ciminius  (q.  v.)  the  Etrurian 
Confederation  used  to  hold  their  general  as- 
semblies.] 

VOLTURCIUS  or  VULTBRCIUS,  T.,  of  Crotona, 
one  of  Catiline's  conspirators,  was  sent  by  Len- 
tulus  to  accompany  the  ambassadors  of  the  Al- 
lobroges  to  Catiline.  Arrested  along  with  the 
ambassadors  on  (he  Mulvian  bridge,  and  brought 
before  the  senate  by  Cicero,  Volturcius  turned 
informer  upon  obtaining  the  promise  of  pardon. 

[VoLTUKNUS.        Vid.  VULTURNCS.] 

VOLUMNIA,  wife  of  Coriolanus.     Vid.  CORIO- 

LANUS. 

VOLUPIA  or  VOLOPTAS,  the  personification  of 
sensual  pleasure  among  the  Romans,  was  hon- 
ored with  a  temple  near  the  porta  Romanula. 

[VOLUSENUS  QUADRATUS,  C.,  a  tribune  of 
soldiers  under  Caesar  in  his  Gallic  wars,  is 
spoken  of  by  the  latter  as  a  brave  and  prudent 
officer,  and  was  therefore  employed  on  several 
difficult  and  dangerous  enterprises.  At  a  later 
period  in  the  war  he  was  praefectus  equitum  in 
the  contest  with  Commius,  king  of  the  Atreba- 
tes,  under  Antony,  and  afterward,  as  tribune  of 
the  plebs  in  B.C.  43,  was  one  of  the  supporters 
of  Antony.] 

VOLUSIANUS,  son  of  the  Emperor  Trebonianus 
Callus,  upon  whom  his  father  conferred  the 


VOLUSIUS  M^ECIANUS. 

title  of  Caesar  in  A.D.  251,  and  of  Augustus  in 
252.  He  was  slain  along  with  his  father  in 
254.  Vid.  CALLUS. 

VOLUSIUS  MJECIANUS,  L.,  a  jurist,  was  in  the 
consilium  of  Antoninus  Pius,  and  was  one  of  the 
feachers  of  M.  Aurelius.  Maecianus  wrote  sev- 
eral works  ;  and  there  are  forty-four  excerpts 
from  his  writings  in  the  Digest.  A  treatise, 
De  Asse  et  Ponderibus,  is  attributed  to  him,  but 
there  is  some  doubt  about  the  authorship.  It 
is  edited  by  Booking,  Bonn,  1831. 

VOLUSUS  or  VOLESUS.  [1.  One  of  the  most 
distinguished  chiefs  in  the  army  of  Turnus  ; 
had  command  of  the  infantry  of  the  Volsci  and 
the  Rutuli.] — 2.  The  reputed  ancestor  of  the 
Valeria  gens,  who  is  said  to  have  settled  at 
Rome  with  Titus  Tatius.  Vid.  VALERIA  GENS. 

[VoLux,  the  son  of  Bocchus,  king  of  Maure- 
tania,  sent  by  his  father,  at  the  head  of  a  large 
body  of  cavalry,  to  meet  Sulla,  and  escort  him 
to  the  royal  presence.] 

VOMANUS,  (now  Vomano),  a  small  river  in 
Picenum. 

VONONES,  the  name  of  two  kings  of  Partbia. 
Vid.  AKSACES,  Nos.  18,  22. 

VOPISCUS,  a  Roman  praenomen,  signified  a 
twin  child  who  was  born  safe,  while  the  other 
twin  died  before  birth.  Like  many  other  an- 
cient Roman  praenomens,  it  was  afterward  used 
as  a  cognomen. 

VOPISCUS,  FLAVIUS,  a  native  of  Syracuse,  and 
one  of  the  six  Scriptores  Historic  Augusta,  flour- 
ished about  A.D.  300.  His  name  is  prefixed  to 
the  biographies  of,  1.  Aurelianus;  2.  Tacitus; 
3.  Florianus  ;  4.  Probus ;  5.  The  four  tyrants, 
Firmus,  Saturninus,  Proculus,  and  Bonosus  ; 
6.  Carus  ;  7.  Numerianus  ;  8.  Carinus  ;  at  this 
point  he  stops,  declaring  that  Diocletian,  and 
those  who  follow,  demand  a  more  elevated  style 
of  composition.  For  editions,  vid.  CAPITOLINUS. 

[VORANUS,  a  person  mentioned  in  the  Satires 
of  Horace  as  a  notorious  thief,  said  to  have  been 
a  freedman  of  Q.  Lutatius  Catulus.] 

VOSCESUS.     Vid.  VOGESUS. 

VOTIENUS  MONTANUS.       Vid.  MoNTANUS. 

VULCANISE  INSUL^E.     Vid.  JEoLUE  INSULTS. 

VULCANUS,  the  Roman  god  of  fire,  whose 
name  seems  to  be  connected  with  fulgere,  ful- 
gur,  and  fulmen.  His  worship  was  of  consid- 
erable political  importance  at  Rome,  for  a  tem- 
ple is  said  to  have  been  erected  to  him  close  by 
the  comitium  as  early  as  the  time  of  Romulus 
and  Tatius,  in  which  the  two  kings  used  to 
meet  and  settle  the  affairs  of  the  state,  and 
near  which  the  popular  assembly  was  held. 
Tatius  is  reported  to  have  established  the  wor- 
ship of  Vulcan  along  with  that  of  Vesta,  and 
Romulus  to  have  dedicated  to  him  a  quadriga 
after  his  victory  over  the  Fidenates,  and  to 
have  set  up  a  statue  of  himself  near  the  tem- 

Ele.  According  to  others,  the  temple  was  built 
y  Romulus  himself,  who  also  planted  near  it 
the  sacred  lotus-tree  which  still  existed  in  the 
days  of  Pliny.  These  circumstances,  and  what 
is  related  of  the  lotus-tree,  show  that  the  tem- 
ple of  Vulcan,  like  that  of  Vesta,  was  regarded 
as  a  central  point  of  the  whole  state,  and  hence 
it  was  perhaps  not  without  a  meaning  that  the 
temple  of  Concord  was  subsequently  built  with- 
in the  same  district.  The  most  ancient  festi- 
val in  honor  of  Vulcan  seems  to  have  been  the 


XANTHICLES. 

Pornacalia  or  Furnalia,  Vulcan  being  the  gofl 
of  furnaces  ;  but  his  great  festival  was  called 
Vulcanalia,  and  was  celebrated  on  the  23d  of 
August.  The  Roman  poets  transfer  all  the  sto- 
ries which  are  related  of  the  Greek  Hephaestus 
to  their  own  Vulcan,  the  two  divinities  having 
in  the  course  of  time  been  completely  identi- 
fied. Respecting  the  Greek  divinity,  vid.  HE- 
PHAESTUS. 

VULCI.     Vid.  VOLCI. 

VULGIENTES,  an  Alpine  people  in  Gallia  Nar- 
i>ooensis,  whose  chief  town  was  Apia  Julia 
(now  Apt). 

VULSINII.     Vid.  VOLSINII. 

VULSO,  MANLIUS.  1.  L.,  consul  B.C.  256  with 
M.  Atilius  Regulus.  He  invaded  Africa  along 
with  his  colleague.  For  details,  vid.  REGULUS, 
No.  3.  Vulso  returned  to  Italy  at  the  fall  of 
the  year  with  half  of  the  army,  and  obtained  the 
honor  of  a  triumph.  In  250  Vulso  was  consul  a 
second  time  with  T.  Atilius  Regulus  Serranus, 
and  with  his  colleague  commenced  the  siege  of 
Lilybaeum. —  2.  CN.,  curule  aedile  197,  praetoi 
with  Sicily  as  his  province  195,  and  consul  189. 
He  was  sent  into  Asia  in  order  to  conclude  the 
peace  which  Scipio  Asiaticus  had-  made  with 
Antiochus,  and  to  arrange  the  affairs  of  Asia 
He  attacked  and  conquered  the  Gallograeci  01 
Galatians  in  Asia  Minor  without  waiting  for  any 
formal  instructions  from  the  senate.  He  set 
out  on  his  return  to  Italy  in  188,  but  in  his 
march  through  Thrace  he  suffered  much  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Thracians,  and  lost  a  con 
siderable  part  of  the  booty  he  had  obtained  ir 
Asia.  He  reached  Rome  in  187.  His  triumph 
was  a  brilliant  one,  but  his  campaign  in  Asiu 
had  a  pernicious  influence  upon  the  morals  of 
his  countrymen.  He  had  allowed  his  army  ev 
ery  kind  of  license,  and  his  soldiers  introduced 
into  the  city  the  luxuries  of  the  East. 

[VuLTEius  MENA,  an  auctioneer  in  Rome,  a 
freedman  of  the  family  of  the  Vulteii  or  Volteii 
who  was  leading  a  happy  life  till  Marcius  Phi 
lippus  took  him  under  his  protection  and  at 
tempted  to  better  his  condition  ;  from  the  ill  ef 
fects  produced  by  this  change  or  elevation,  Hor 
ace  draws  a  lesson  of  instruction.] 

VULTUR,  a  mountain  dividing  Apulia  and  Lu- 
cania  near  Venusia,  is  a  branch  of  the  Apen- 
nines. It  is  celebrated  by  Horace  as  one  of 
the  haunts  of  his  youth.  From  it  the  southeast 
wind  was  called  VULTURNUS  by  the  Romans. 

[VULTURCIUS,  T.        Vid.  VOLTURCIUS.] 

VULTURNUM  (now  Castcl  di  Volturno),  a  town 
in  Campania,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Vultur- 
nus,  was  originally  a  fortress  erected  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  second  Punic  war.  At  a  later  time 
it  was  made  a  colony. 

VULTURNUS  (now  Volturno),  the  chief  river 
in  Campania,  rising  in  the  Apennines  in  Sam- 
nium,  and  falling  into  the  Tyrrhene  Sea.  Its 
principal  affluents  are  the  Calor  (now  Calore), 
Tamarus  (now  Tamaro),  and  Sabatus  (now  Sa- 


X. 


[XANTHICLF.S  (Eavflt/rAifc),  an  Achaean,  chosen 
general  by  the  Greek  mercenaries  of  Cyrus  in 
the  place  of  his  countryman  Socrates,  when  the 
latter  had  been  treacherously  seized  by  Tissa 

943 


XANTHIPPE. 

phernes,  B.C.  401,  along  with  Clearchus.  When 
the  army  reached  Cotyora,  Xanthicles  was  one 
of  those  fined  fora  deficiency  in  the  cargoes  of 
the  ships  which  had  brought  the  soldiers  from 
Trapezus,  and  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners.] 

XANTHIPPE  (SavdinnTj),  wife  of  Socrates,  said 
to  be  a  woman  of  a  peevish  ana  quarrelsome 
disposition. 

XANTHIPPUS  (Auvdiinrof).  1.  Son  of  Ariphron 
and  father  of  Pericles.  In  B.C.  490,  he  im- 
peached Miltiades  on  his  return  from  his  un- 
successful expedition  against  the  island  of  Pa- 
ros.  He  succeeded  Themistocles  as  command- 
er of  the  Athenian  fleet  in  479,  and  commanded 
the  Athenians  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Mycale. 
— 2.  The  elder  of  the  two  legitimate  sons  of 
Pericles,  Paralus  being  the  younger.  For  de- 
tails, vid.  PARALUS.  —  3.  The  Lacedaemonian, 
who  commanded  the  Carthaginians  against  Reg- 
ulus.  For  details,  vid.  REGULUS,  No.  3.  Xan- 
thippus  appears  to  have  left  Carthage  a  short 
time  after  his  victory  over  Regulus. 

[XANTHO  (Savdu),  a  daughter  of  Oceanus  and 
Tethya  one  of  the  nymphs  in  the  train  of  Cy- 
rene._  4 

[XANTHUS  (H«i>0of),  a  son  of  Phaenops,  broth- 
er of  Thoon,  a  warrior  in  the  Trojan  army,  slain 
by  Diomedes.] 

XANTHUS  (Savdof).  1.  A  lyric  poet,  older 
than  Stesichorus,  who  mentioned  him  in  one  at 
least  of  his  poems,  and  who  borrowed  from  him 
in  some  of  them.  Xanthus  may  be  placed  about 
B.C.  650.  No  fragments  of  his  poetry  survive. 
—2.  A  celebrated  Lydian  historian,  older  than 
Herodotus,  who  flourished  about  B.C.  480.  The 
genuineness  of  the  Four  Books  of  Lydian  Histo- 
ry which  the  ancients  possessed  under  the  name 
of  Xanthus,  and  of  which  some  considerable 
fragments  have  come  down  to  us,  was  question- 
ed by  some  of  the  ancient  grammarians  them- 
selves. There  has  been  considerable  contro- 
versy respecting  the  genuineness  of  this  work 
among  modern  scholars.  It  is  certain  that 
much  of  the  matter  in  the  extant  fragments  is 
spurious  ;  and  the  probability  appears  to  be  that 
the  work  from  which  they  are  taken  is  the  pro- 
duction of  an  Alexandrean  grammarian,  found- 
ed upon  the  genuine  work  of  Xanthus.  [The 
fragments  of  Xanthus  are  collected  in  Creuzer's 
Historicorum  Gr<zc.  Antiquiss.  Fragmenta,  Hei- 
delb.,  1806 ;  and  in  Miiller's  Hist.  Grac.  Fragm., 
vol.  i.,  p.  36-44,  Paris,  1841.] 

XANTHUS  (Siivflof),  rivers.  1.  Vid.  SCAMAN- 
DER. — 2.  (Now  Echen  Chai},  the  chief  river  of 
Lycia,  rises  in  Mount  Taurus,  on  the  borders 
of  Pisidia  and  Lycia,  and  flows  south  through 
Lycia,  between  Mount  Cragus  and  Mount  Mas- 
sicytus,  in  a  large  plain  called  the  Plain  of  Xan- 
thus (TO  Sdvdiov  ireSiov),  falling  at  last  into  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  a  little  west  of  Patara. 
Though  not  a  large  river,  it  is  navigable  for  a 
considerable  part  of  its  course. 

XANTHUS  (Hdi>0of  :  S<iv6tof,  Xanthius  :  ruins 
at  Gunik),  the  most  famous  city  of  Lycia,  stood 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  sixty  stadia  from  its  mouth.  Twice  in 
the  course  of  its  history  it  sustained  sieges, 
which  terminated  in  the  self  destruction  of  the 
inhabitants  with  their  property,  first  against  the 
Persians  under  Harpagus,  and  long  afterward 
944 


XENOCLES. 

against  the  Romans  under  Brutus.  The  city 
was  never  restored  after  its  destruction  on  the 
latter  occasion.  Xanthus  was  rich  in  templea 
and  tombs,  and  other  monuments  of  a  most  in- 
teresting character  of  art.  Among  its  temples 
the  most  celebrated  were  those  of  Sarpedon  and 
of  the  Lycian  Apollo  ;  besides  which  there  was 
a  renowned  sanctuary  of  Latona  (ro  At/riJov), 
near  the  River  Xanthus,  ten  stadia  from  its 
mouth,  and  sixty  stadia  from  the  city.  The 
splendid  ruins  of  Xanthus  have  recently  been 
thoroughly  explored  by  Sir  C.  Fellowes  and  his 
coadjutors,  and  several  important  remains  of  its 
works  of  art  are  now  exhibited  in  the  British 
Museum  under  the  name  of  the  Xanthian  Mar- 
bles. 

XENABCHUS  (Sevapxof).  1.  Son  of  Sophron, 
and,  like  his  father,  a  celebrated  writer  of  mimes. 
He  flourished  during  the  Rhegian  war  (B.C. 
399-389),  at  the  court  of  Dionysius.  —  2.  An 
Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  Middle  Comedy, 
who  lived  as  late  as  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  [The  fragments.,  of  his  comedies  are 
given  by  Meineke,  in  his  Comic.  Grttc.  Fragm., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  811-15,  edit,  minor.]— 3.  Of  Seleucia 
in  Cilicia,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher  and  gram- 
marian in  the  time  of  Strabo,  who  heard  him. 
He  taught  first  at  Alexandrea,  afterward  at  Ath- 
ens, and  last  at  Rome,  where  he  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Augustus. 

XENIADES  (Hmuftyf),  a  Corinthian,  who  be- 
came the  purchaser  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic 
when  he  was  taken  by  pirates  and  sold  as  a 
slave. 

[XENIAS  (Em'af).  1.  A  Parrhasian,  one  of 
the  commanders  of  mercenaries  in  the  service 
of  Cyrus  the  younger,  whom  he  accompanied, 
with  a  body  of  three  hundred  men,  to  court, 
when  he  was  summoned  thither  by  his  father 
Darius  in  B.C.  405.  After  the  return  of  Cyrus 
to  Western  Asia,  Xenias  commanded  for  him 
the  garrisons  in  the  several  Ionian  states,  and 
with  the  greater  portion  of  these  troops,  viz., 
four  thousand  heavy  armed  men,  he  joined  the 
prince  in  his  expedition  against  Artaxerxes. 
At  Tarsus  a  large  body  of  his  troops  and  of 
those  of  Pasion  left  their  standards  for  that  of 
Clearchus  ;  and  Cyrus  having  allowed  the  latter 
to  retain  them,  Xenias  and  Pasion  abandoned  the 
army  at  Myriandrus,  and  sailed  away  to  Greece 
— 2.  An  Elean  of  great  wealth,  was  a  proxenus 
of  Sparta,  and  connected  by  private  ties  of  hos- 
pitality with  King  Agis  II.  In  B  C.  400,  during 
the  war  between  Sparta  and  Elis,  Xenias  and 
his  oligarchical  partisans  made  an  attempt  to 
overpower  their  opponents  and  to  subject  their 
country  to  the  Spartans,  but  they  were  defeated 
and  driven  into  exile  by  Thrasidaeus,  the  leader 
of  the  democracy.] 

XENIPPA  (now  probably  Uratippa),  a  city  of 
Sogdiana,  mentioned  by  Curtius. 

XENOCLES  (SevonZf/f).  1.  An  Athenian  tragic 
poet,  son  of  Carcinus,  who  was  also  a  tragic 
poet,  and  a  contemporary  of  Aristophanes,  who 
attacks  him  on  several  occasions.  His  poetry 
seems  to  have  been  indifferent,  and  to  have  re- 
sembled the  worse  parts  of  Euripides  ;  but  he 
obtained  a  victory  over  Euripides  B.C.  415. 
There  was  another  tragic  poet  of  the  name  of 
Xenocles,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  of  whom 
no  particulars  are  recorded. — 2.  An  Athenian 


XENOCRATES. 

architect,  of  the  demos  of  Cholargos,  was  one 
of  the  architects  who  superintended  the  erection 
of  the  temple  of  Ceres  (Demeter)  at  Eleusis,  in 
the  time  of  Pericles. 

XENOCRATES  (Hei>o«cpdr77f).  1.  The  philoso- 
pher, was  a  native  of  Chalcedon.  He  was  born 
B.C.  396,  and  died  314,  at  the  age  of  eighty-two. 
He  attached  himself  first  to  ./Eschines  the  So- 
cratrr,  and  afterward,  while  still  a  youth,  to 
Plato,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Syracuse.  Aft- 
er the  death  of  Plato  he  betook  himself,  with 
Aristotle,  to  Hermias,  tyrant  of  Atarneus  ;  and, 
after  his  return  to  Athens,  he  was  repeatedly 
sent  on  embassies  to  Philip  of  Macedonia,  and 
at  a  later  time  to  Antipater  during  the  Lamian 
war.  He  is  said  to  have  wanted  quick  appre- 
hension and  natural  grace ;  but  these  defects 
were  more  than  compensated  by  persevering 
industry,  pure  benevolence,  freedom  from  all 
selfishness,  and  a  moral  earnestness  which  ob- 
tained for  him  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  the 
Athenians  of  his  own  age.  Yet  he  is  said  to 
have  experienced  the  fickleness  of  popular  fa- 
vor, and,  being  too  poor  to  pay  the  protection- 
money  (neroiiuov),  to  have  been  saved  only  by 
the  courage  of  the  orator  Lycurgus.  He  be- 
came president  of  the  Academy  even  before  the 
death  of  Speusippus,  who  was  bowed  down  by 
sickness,  and  he  occupied  that  post  for  twenty- 
five  years.  The  importance  of  Xenocrates  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  Aristotle  and  Theophras- 
tus  wrote  upon  his  doctrines,  and  that  Pansetius 
and  Cicero  entertained  a  high  regard  for  him. 
Of  his  numerous  works  only  the  titles  have 
come  down  to  us. — 2.  A  physician  of  Aphrodis- 
ias  in  Cilicia,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  first 
century  after  Christ.  Besides  some  short  frag- 
ments of  his  writings,  there  is  extant  a  little 
essay  by  him,  entitled  tlepl  7%  uiro  TUV  'Evvdpuv 
Tpo<t>jjf,  "  De  Alimento  ex  Aquatilibus,"  which 
is  an  interesting  record  of  the  slate  of  Natural 
History  at  the  time  in  which  he  lived.  Edited 
by  Franz,  1774,  Lips.,  and  by  Coray,  1794,  Neap., 
and  1814,  Paris.— 3.  A  statuary  of  the  school  of 
Lysippus,  was  the  pupil  either  of  Tisicrates  or 
of  Euthycrates.  He  also  wrote  works  upon  the 
art.  He  flourished  about  B.C.  260. 

XENOCRITCS  (ScvoK/MTOf),  of  Locri  Epizephy- 
rii,  in  Lower  Italy,  a  musician  and  lyric  poet, 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  second  school  of 
Dorian  music,  which  was  founded  by  Thaletas, 
and  was  a  composer  of  Paeans. 

XENOPHANES  (Ecfo^avf??),  a  celebrated  philos- 
opher, was  a  native  of  Colophon,  and  flourished 
between  B.C.  540  and  500.  He  was  a  poet  as 
well  as  a  philosopher,  and  considerable  frag- 
ments have  come  down  to  us  of  his  elegies,  and 
of  a  didactic  poem  "  On  Nature."  According 
to  the  fragments  of  one  of  his  elegies,  he  had 
left  his  native  land  at  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
and  had  already  lived  sixty-seven  years  in  Hel- 
las, when,  at  the  age  of  ninety-two,  he  com- 
posed that  elegy.  Tie  quitted  Colophon  as  a 
fugitive  or  exile,  ai.d  must  have  lived  some  time 
at  Elea  (Velia)  in  Italy,  as  he  is  mentioned  as 
the  founder  of  the  Eleatic  school  of  philosophy. 
He  sung  in  one  of  his  poems  of  the  foundation 
of  Velia.  Xenophanes  was  usually  regarded  in 
antiquity  as  the  originator  of  the  Eleatic  doc- 
trine of  the  oneness  of  the  universe.  The 
Deity  was  in  his  view  the  animating  power  of 
60 


XENOPHON. 

the  universe,  which  is  expressed  by  Aristotle 
in  the  words,  that,  directing  his  glance  on  the 
whole  universe,  Xenophanes  said,  "  God  is  the 
One."  [His  fragments  are  contained  in  Kar 
sten's Xenophanis  Col.  CarminumReliquia,Brux~ 
ellis,  1830.] 

XENOPHON  (£evo<puv).  1.  The  Athenian,  was 
the  son  of  Gryllus,  and  a  native  of  the  demus 
Erchla.  The  time  of  his  birth  is  not  known,  but 
it  is  approximated  to  by  the  fact  that  Xenophon 
fell  from  his  horse  in  the  flight  after  the  battle 
of  Delium,  and  was  taken  up  by  Socrates,  the 
philosopher,  on  his  shoulders,  and  carried  a  dis- 
tance of  several  stadia.  The  battle  of  Delium 
was  fought  B.C.  424  between  the  Athenians 
and  Boeotians,  and  Xenophon  therefore  could 
not  well  have  been  born  after  444.  The  time 
of  his  death,  also,  is  not  mentioned  by  any  an- 
cient writer.  Lucian  says  that  he  attained  to 
above  the  age  of  ninety,  and  Xenophon  himself 
mentions  the  assassination  of  Alexander  of 
Pherae,  which  happened  in  357.  Between  424 
and  357  there  is  a  period  of  sixty-seven  years, 
and  thus  we  have  evidence  of  Xenophon  being 
alive  nearly  seventy  years  after  Socrates  saved 
his  life  at  Delium.  Xenophon  is  said  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Socrates  at  an  early  age,  which  is 
consistent  with  the  intimacy  which  might  have 
arisen  from  Socrates  saving  his  life.  The  most 
memorable  event  in  Xenophon's  life  is  his  con- 
nection with  the  Greek  army,  which  marched 
under  Cyrus  against  Artaxerxes  in  401.  Xeno- 
phon himself  mentions  (Anab.,  iii.,  1)  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  he  joined  this  army. 
Proxenus,  a  friend  of  Xenophon,  was  already 
with  Cyrus,  and  he  invited  Xenophon  to  come 
to  Sardis,  and  promised  to  introduce  him  to  the 
Persian  prince.  Xenophon  consulted  his  mas- 
ter Socrates,  who  advised  him  to  consult  the 
oracle  of  Delphi,  for  it  was  rather  a  hazardous 
matter  for  him  to  enter  the  serv&e  of  Cyrus, 
who  was  considered  to  be  the  friend  of  the  Lac- 
edaemonians and  the  enemy  of  Athens.  Xeno 
phon  went  to  Delphi,  but  he  did  not  ask  the  god 
whether  he  should  go  or  not :  he  probably  had 
made  up  his  mind.  He  merely  asked  to  what 
gods  he  should  sacrifice  in  order  that  he  might 
be  successful  in  his  intended  enterprise.  Soc- 
rates was  not  satisfied  with  his  pupil's  mode 
of  consulting  the  oracle,  but  as  he  had  got  an 
answer  he  told  him  to  go  ;  and  Xenophon  went 
to  Sardis,  which  Cyrus  was  just  about  to  leave. 
He  accompanied  Cyrus  into  Upper  Asia.  In 
the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  Cyrus  lost  his  life,  his 
barbarian  troops  were  dispersed,  and  the  Greeks 
were  left  alone  on  the  wide  plains  between  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.  It  was  after  the 
treacherous  massacre  of  Clearchus  and  other 
of  the  Greek  commanders  by  the  Persian  sa- 
trap Tissaphernes  that  Xenophon  came  forward. 
He  had  held  no  command  in  the  army  of  Cyrus, 
nor  had  he,  in  fact,  served  as  a  soldier.  He  was 
now  elected  one  of  the  generals,  and  took  the 
principal  part  in  conducting  the  Greeks  in  their 
memorable  retreat  along  the  Tigris  over  the 
high  table-lands  of  Armenia  to  Trapezus  (Tre- 
bizond),  on  the  Black  Sea.  From  Trapezus  the 
troops  were  conducted  to  Chrysopolis,  which  is 
opposite  to  Byzantium.  The  Greeks  were  in 
great  distress,  and  some  of  them,  under  Xeno- 
phon, entered  the  service  of  Seuthes,  king  of 

945 


XENOPHON. 

Thrace.  As  the  Lacedaemonians  under  Thim- 
bron  were  now  at  war  with  Tissaphernes  and 
Pharnabazus,  Xenophon  and  his  troops  were  in- 
vited to  join  the  army  of  Thimbron,  and  Xeno- 
phon led  them  to  Pergamus  to  join  Thimhron, 
399.  Xenophon,  who  was  very  poor,  had  made 
an  expedition  into  the  plain  of  the  Caicus  with 
his  troops  before  they  joined  Thimbron,  to  plun- 
der the  house  and  property  of  a  Persian  named 
Asidates.  The  Persian,  with  his  women,  chil- 
dren, and  all  his  movables,  was  seized ;  and 
Xenophon,  by  this  robbery,  replenished  his 
empty  pockets  (Anab.,  vii ,  8,  23).  He  tells  the 
story  himself  as  if  he  were  not  ashamed  of  it. 
Socrates  was  put  to  death  in  399,  and  it  seems 
probable  that  Xenophon  was  banished  either 
shortly  before  or  shortly  after  that  event.  Xen- 
ophon was  not  banished  at  the  time  when  he 
was  leading  the  troops  back  to  Thimbron  (Anab., 
vii.,  7,  57),  but  his  expression  rather  seems  to 
imply  that  his  banishment  must  have  followed 
soon  after.  It  is  not  certain  what  he  was  do- 
ing after  the  troops  joined  Thimbron.  As  we 
know  nothing  of  his  movements,  the  conclusion 
ought  to  be  that  he  stayed  in  Asia,  and  prob- 
ably with  Thimbron  and  his  successor  Dercyl- 
lidas.  Agesilaus,  the  Spartan  king,  was  com- 
manding the  Lacedaemonian  forces  in  Asia 
against  the  Persians  in  396,  and  Xenophon  was 
with  him  at  least  during  part  of  the  campaign. 
When  Agesilaus  was  recalled  (394),  Xenophon 
accompanied  him ;  and  he  was  on  the  side  of 
the  Lacedaemonians  in  the  battle  which  they 
fought  at  Coronea  (394)  against  the  Athenians. 
It  seems  that  he  went  to  Sparta  with  Agesilaus 
after  the  battle  of  Coronea,  and  soon  after  he 
settled  at  Scillus,  in  Elis,  not  far  from  Olympia, 
a  spot  of  which  he  has  given  a  description  in 
the  Anabasis  (v.,  3,.  7,  &c.).  Here  he  was  join- 
ed by  his  w^fe  Philesia  and  his  children.  His 
children  were  educated  in  Sparta.  Xenophon 
was  now  an  exile,  and  a  Lacedaemonian  so  far 
as  he  could  become  one.  His  time  during  his 
long  residence  at  Scillus  was  employed  in  hunt- 
ing, writing,  and  entertaining  his  friends  ;  and 
perhaps  the  Anabasis  and  part  of  the  Helleniea 
were  composed  here.  The  treatise  on  hunting 
and  that  on  the  horse  were  probably  also  writ- 
ten during  this  time,  when  amusement  and  ex- 
ercise of  that  kind  formed  part  of  his  occupa- 
tion. Xenophon  was  \t  last  expelled  from  his 
quiet  retreat  at  Scillus  by  the  Eleans  after  re- 
maining there  about  twenty  years.  The  sen- 
tence of  banishment  from  Athens  was  repealed 
on  the  motion  of  Eubulus,  but  it  is  uncertain  in 
what  year.  In  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  which 
was  fought  362,  the  Spartans  and  the  Athe- 
nians were  opposed  to  the  Thebans,  and  Xeno- 
phon's  two  sons,  Gryllns  and  Diodorus,  fought 
on  the  side  of  the  allies.  Gryllus  fell  in  the 
same  battle  in  which  Epaminondas  lost  his  life. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  Xenophon  ever  re- 
turned to  Athens.  He  is  said  to  have  retired 
to  Corinth  after  his  expulsion  from  Scillus,  and 
as  we  know  nothing  more,  we  assume  that  he 
died  there.  The  Hipparckicus  and  the  treatise 
on  the  revenues  of  Athens  were  written  after 
the  repeal  of  the  decree  of  banishment.  The 
events  alluded  to  in  the  Epilogus  to  the  Cyrapae.- 
dia  (viii.,  8,  4)  show  that  the  Epilogus  at  least 
was  written  after  362.  The  time  of  his  death 
946 


XENOPHON. 

may  have  been  a  few  years  later.  The  follow 
ing  is  a  list  of  Xenophon's  works  :  1.  The.^4naAo- 
tis  (' Avuteuif),  or  the  History  of  the  Expedition 
of  the  Younger  Cyrus,  and  of  the  retreat  of  the 
Greeks,  who  formed  part  of  his  army.  It  is  di- 
vided into  seven  books.  This  work  has  immor- 
talized Xenophon's  name.  It  is  a  clear  and 
pleasing  narrative,  written  in  a  simple  style, 
free  from  affectation  ;  and  it  gives  a  great  deal 
of  curious  information  on  the  country  which 
was  traversed  by  the  retreating  Greeks,  and  on 
the  manners  of  the  people.  It  was  the  first 
work  which  made  the  Greeks  acquainted  with 
some  portions  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  it 
showed  the  weakness  of  that  extensive  mon- 
archy. The  skirmishes  of  the  retreating  Greeks 
with  their  enemies,  and  the  battles  with  some 
of  the  barbarian  tribes,  are  not  such  events 
as  elevate  the  work  to  the  character  of  a  mili- 
tary history,  nor  can  it,  as  such,  be  compared 
with  Caesar's  Commentaries.  2.  The  Helleniea 
('EUriviKu)  of  Xenophon  are  divided  into  seven 
books,  and  comprehend  the  space  of  forty-eight 
years,  from  the  time  when  the  history  of  Thu- 
cydides  ends  (via.  THUCYDIDES)  to  the  battle  of 
Mantinea,  362.  The  Helleniea  is  generally  a  dry 
narrative  of  events,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the 
treatment  of  them  which  gives  a  special  inter- 
est to  the  work.  Some  events  of  importance 
are  briefly  treated,  but  a  few  striking  incidents 
are  presented  with  some  particularity.  3.  The 
Cyropa.dia  (Kvpoiratdeia'),  in  eight  books,  is  a 
kind  of  political  romance,  the  basis  of  which  is 
the  history  of  Cyrus,  the  founder  of  the  Persian 
monarchy.  It  shows  how  citizens  are  to  be 
made  virtuous  and  brave ;  and  Cyrus  is  the 
model  of  a  wise  and  good  ruler.  Asa  history  it 
has  no  authority  at  all.  Xenophon  adopted  the 
current  stories  as  to  Cyrus  and  the  chief  events 
of  his  reign,  without  any  intention  of  subjecting 
them  to  a  critical  examination  ;  nor  have  we 
any  reason  to  suppose  that  his  picture  of  Per- 
sian morals  and  Persian  discipline  is  any  thing 
more  than  a  fiction.  Xenophon's  object  was  to 
represent  what  a  state  might  be,  and  he  placed 
the  scene  of  his  fiction  far  enough  off  to  give  it 
the  color  of  possibility.  His  own  philosophical 
notions  and  the  usages  of  Sparta  were  the  real 
materials  out  of  which  he  constructed  his  polit- 
ical system.  The  Cyropadia  is  evidence  enough 
that  Xenophon  did  not  like  the  political  consti- 
tution of  his  own  country,  and  that  a  well-or- 
dered monarchy  or  kingdom  appeared  to  him 
preferable  to  a  democracy  like  Athens.  4.  The 
Agesilaus  ('Ayj/ffWoof)  is  a  panegyric  on  Agesi 
laus  II.,  king  of  Sparta,  the  friend  of  Xenophon. 
5.  The  Hipparchicus  ('IirirapxiKoc.)  is  a  treatise 
on  the  duties  of  a  commander  of  cavalry,  and  it 
contains  many  military  precepts.  6.  The  De  Re 
Equestri,  a  treatise  on  the  Horse  ('ImriKri),  was 
written  after  the  Hipparchicus,  to  which  treatise 
he  refers  at  the  end  of  the  treatise  on  the  Horse. 
The  treatise  is  not  limited  to  horsemanship,  as 
regards  the  rider :  it  shows  how  a  man  is  to 
avoid  being  cheated  in  buying  a  horse,  how  a 
horse  is  to  be  trained,  and  the  like.  7.  The 
Cynegeticus  (Kt/vjyym/cof)  is  a  treatise  on  hunt- 
ing ;  and  on  the  dog,  and  the  breeding  and  train- 
ing of  dogs;  on  the  various  kinds  of  game,  am1 
the  mode  of  taking  them.  It  is  a  treatise  writ 
ten  by  a  genuine  sportsman,  who  loved  the  et- 


XENOPHON. 

ercise  and  the  excitement  of  the  chase  ;  and  it 
may  be  read  with  delight  by  any  sportsman  who 
deserves  the  name.  8,  9.  The  Respublica  Lace- 
damoniorum  and  Respublica  Athenienstum,  the 
two  treatises  on  the  Spartan  and  Athenian 
states  (AoKedaijuovtov  IIoAtm'a,  and  'A.dr]vaiuv 
IIoAtr«'a),  were  not  always  recognized  as  gen- 
uine works  of  Xenophon,  even  by  the  ancients. 
They  pass,  however,  under  his  name,  and  there 
is  nothing  in  the  internal  evidence  that  appears 
to  throw  any  doubt  on  the  authorship.  The 
writer  clearly  prefers  Spartan  to  Athenian  insti- 
tutions. 10.  The  De  Vectigalibus,  a  treatise  on 
the  Revenues  of  Athens  (Uopoi ;/  nepi  IfyofoJuv) 
is  designed  to  show  how  the  public  revenue  of 
Athens  may  be  improved.  1 1.  The  Memorabilia 
of  Socrates,  in  four  books  CAirouvjiuovevpara 
2«/cpurovf ),  was  written  by  Xenophon  to  defend 
the  memory  of  his  master  against  the  charge 
of  irreligion  and  of  corrupting  the  Athenian 
youth.  Socrates  is  represented  as  holding  a 
series  of  conversations,  in  which  he  develops 
and  inculcates  moral  doctrines  in  his  peculiar 
fashion.  It  is  entirely  a  practical  work,  such 
as  we  might  expect  from  the  practical  nature 
of  Xenopuon's  mind,  and  it  professes  to  exhibit 
Socrates  as  he  taught.  It  is  true  that  it  may 
only  exhibit  one  side  of  the  Socratic  argument- 
ation, and  that  it  does  not  deal  in  those  subtle- 
ties and  verbal  disputes  which  occupy  so  large 
a  space  in  some  of  Plato's  dialogues.  Xeno- 
phon was  a  hearer  of  Socrates,  an  admirer  of 
his  master,  and  anxious  to  defend  his  memory. 
The  charges  against  Socrates  for  which  he  suf- 
fered were,  that  "  Socrates  was  guilty  of  not 
believing  in  the  gods  which  the  state  believed 
in,  and  of  introducing  other  new  daemons  (J<u- 
uovia) :  he  was  also  guilty  of  corrupting  the 
youth."  Xenophon  replies  to  these  two  charges 
specifically  ;  and  he  then  goes  on  to  show  what 
Socrates's  mode  of  life  was.  The  whole  treatise 
is  intended  to  be  an  answer  to  the  charge  for 
which  Socrates  was  executed,  and  it  is,  there- 
fore, in  its  nature,  not  intended  to  be  a  complete 
exhibition  of  Socrates.  That  it  is  a  genuine  pic- 
ture of  the  man  is  indisputable,  and  it  is  the  most 
valuable  memorial  that  we  have  of  the  practical 
philosophy  of  Socrates.  1 2.  The  Apology  of  Soc- 
rates (  AnoTioyla  2w«p«rovf  irpbf  rovf  diKaardf) 
is  a  short  speech,  containing  the  reasons  which 
induced  Socrates  to  prefer  death  to  life.  It  is 
not  a  first-rate  performance,  and  is  considered 
oy  some  critics  not  to  have  been  written  by 
Xenophon.  13.  The  Symposium  CZvuiroaiov), 
or  Banquet  of  Philosophers,  in  which  Xenophon 
delineates  the  character  of  Socrates.  The 
speakers  are  supposed  to  meet  at  the  house  of 
Callias,  a  rich  Athenian,  at  the  celebration  of 
the  great  Panathenaea.  Socrates  and  others 
are  the  speakers.  The  piece  is  interesting  as 
a  picture  of  an  Athenian  drinking  party,  and  of 
the  amusement  and  conversation  with  which 
it  was  diversified.  The  nature  of  love  and 
friendship  is  discussed.  14.  The  Hit.ro  ('lepuv 
fj  TvpavvtKOf)  is  a  dialogue  between  King  Hiero 
and  Simonides,  in  which  the  king  speaks  of  the 
dangers  and  difficulties  incident  to  an  exalted 
elation,  and  the  superior  happiness  of  a  private 
man.  The  poet,  on  the  other  hand,  enumerates 
the  advantages  which  the  possession  of  power 
fives,  and  the  means  which  it  offers  of  obliging 


XERXES. 
I 

and  doing  services.  15.  (Economicus 
t/t6f)  is  a  dialogue  between  Socrates  and  Crito- 
bulus,  in  which  Socrates  gives  instruction  in 
the  art  called  CEconomic,  which  relates  to  the 
administration  of  a  household  and  of  a  man's 
property.  This  is  one  of  the  best  treatises  of 
Xenophon.  All  antiquity  and  all  modern  writ- 
ers agree  in  allowing  Xenophon  great  me'rit 
as  a  writer  of  a  plain,  simple,  perspicuous,  and 
unaffected  style.  His  mind  was  not  adapted 
for  philosophical  speculation  :  he  looked  to  the 
practical  in  all  things  ;  and  the  basis  of  his 
philosophy  was  a  strong  belief  in  a  divine  me- 
diation in  the  government  of  the  world.  The 
best  edition  of  Xenophon's  complete  works  is 
by  Schneider,  Lips.,  1815,  6  vols.  8vo,  [of  which 
the  first,  second,  and  fourth  volumes  have  been 
re-edited  and  much  improved  by  Bornemann, 
containing,  the  first,  Cyropadia,  Leipzig,  1838  ; 
the  second,  Anabasis,  1825 ;  the  fourth,  Memora- 
bilia, 1829  ;  and  the  sixth,  containing  the  Opus- 
cula  politica,  equestria,  venatica,  by  Sauppe,  1838  : 
the  best  separate  editions  of  the  more  important 
works  are,  of  the  Cyropadia,  by  Poppo,  Leip- 
zig, 1821,  and  by  Jacobitz,  Leipzig,  1843 ;  of 
the  Anabasis,  by  Poppo,  Leipzig,  1827,  and  by 
Kruger,  Halle,  1826;  of  the  Memorabilia,  by 
Kiihner,  Gotha,  1841 ;  of  the  Historia  Grccca, 
from  the  text  of  Dindorf,  with  selected  notes, 
at  the  University  Press,  Oxford,  1831  :  in  addi- 
tion may  be  mentioned,  as  useful  in  the  study  of 
Xenophon,  Sturz's  Lexicon  Xenophonteum,  4 
vols.  8vo,  1801-1804.J— 2.  The  Ephesian,  the 
author  of  a  romance,  still  extant,  entiled  Ephe- 
siaca,  or  the  Loves  of  Anthia  and  Abrocomas 
('E0f<7ia«u,  ra  KOTO,  'Avffiav  /cat  'A6poic6fii)v).  The 
style  of  the  work  is  simple,  and  the  story  is 
conducted  without  confusion,  notwithstanding 
the  number  of  personages  introduced.  The  ad- 
ventures are  of  a  very  improbable  kind.  The 
age  when  Xenophon  lived  is  uncertain.  He  is 
probably  the  oldest  of  the  Greek  romance  writ- 
ers. The  best  editions  of  his  work  are  by 
Peerlkamp,  Harlem,  1818,  andbyPassow,  Lips., 
1833. 

XERXES  (Stpt-rjf).  1.  King  of  Persia  B.C. 
485-465.  The  name  is  said  by  Herodotus  (vi., 
98)  to  signify  the  warrior,  but  it  is  probably  the 
same  word  as  the  Zend  ksathra  and  the  San- 
crit  kshatra,  "  a  king."  Xerxes  was  the  son  of 
Darius  and  Atossa.  Darius  was  married  twice. 
By  his  first  wife,  the  daughter  of  Gobryas,  he 
had  three  children  before  he  was  raised  to  the 
throne  ;  and  by  his  second  wife,  Atossa,  the 
daughter  of  Cyrus,  he  had  four  children  after 
he  had  become  kintr.  Artabazanes,  the  eldest 
son  of  the  former  marriage,  and  Xerxes,  the 
eldest  son  of  the  latter,  each  laid  claim  to  the 
succession  ;  but  Darius  decided  in  favor  ot 
Xerxes,  no  doubt  through  the  influence  of  his 
mother  Atossa,  who  completely  ruled  Darius. 
Xerxes  succeeded  his  father  at  the  beginning  of 
485.  Darius  had  died  in  the  midst  of  his  prep- 
arations against  Greece,  which  had  been  inter- 
rupted by  the  revolt  of  the  Egyptians.  The 
first  care  of  Xerxes  was  to  reduce  the  latter 
people  to  subjection.  He  accordingly  invaded 
Egypt  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  of 
his  reign  (B.C.  484),  compelled  the  people  again 
to  submit  to  the  Persian  yoke,  and  then  re- 
turned to  Persia,  leaving  his  brother  Achav 

947 


XERXES. 

menes  governor  of  Egypt.  The  next  four  years 
were  devoted  to  preparations  for  the  invasion 
of  Greece.  In  the  spring  of  480  he  set  out  from 
Sardis  on  his  memorable  expedition  against 
Greece.  He  crossed  the  Hellespont  by  a  bridge 
of  boats,  and  continued  his  march  through  the 
Thracian  Chersonese  till  he  reached  the  plain 
of  Doriscus,  which  is  traversed  by  the  River 
Hebrus.  Here  he  resolved  to  number  both  his 
land  and  naval  forces.  Herodotus  has  left  us  a 
most  minute  and  interesting  catalogue  of  the 
nations  comprising  this  mighty  army,  with  their 
various  military  equipments  and  different  modes 
of  fighting.  The  land  forces  contained  forty- 
six  nations.  (Herod.,  vii.,  61,  foil.)  In  his 
march  through  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  Xerxes 
received  a  still  further  accession  of  strength  ; 
and  when  he  reached  Thermopylae,  the  land  and 
sea  forces  amounted  to  two  million,  six  hundred 
and  forty-one  thousand,  six  hundred  and  ten 
fighting  men.  This  does  not  include  the  at- 
tendants, the  slaves,  the  crews  of  the  provision- , 
ships,  &.c.,  which,  according  to  the  supposition 
of  Herodotus,  were  more  in  number  than  the 
fighting  men ;  but,  supposing  them  to  have  been 
equal,  the  total  number  of  male  persons  who 
accompanied  Xerxes  to  Thermopylae  reach  the 
astounding  sum  of  five  million,  two  hundred 
and  eighty-three  thousand,  two  hundred  and 
twenty !  Such  a  vast  number  must  be  dis- 
missed as  incredible  ;  but,  considering  that  this 
army  was  the  result  of  a  maximum  of  effort 
throughout  the  empire,  and  that  provisions  had 
been  collected  for  three  years  before  along  the 
line  of  Tnarch,  we  may  well  believe  that  the 
numbers  of  Xerxes  were  greater  than  were  ever 
assembled  in  ancient  times,  or  perhaps  at  any 
known  epoch  of  history.  After  the  review  of 
Doriscus,  Xerxes  continued  his  march  through 
Thrace.  On  reaching  Acanthus,  near  the  isth- 
mus of  Athos,  Xerxes  left  his  fleet,  which  re- 
ceived orders  to  sail  through  the  canal  that  had 
been  previously  dug  across  the  isthmus — and 
of  which  the  remains  are  still  visible  (vid. 
ATHOS) — and  await  his  arrival  at  Therme,  aft- 
erward called  Thessalonica.  After  joining  his 
fleet  at  Therme,  Xerxes  marched  through  Mac- 
edonia and  Thessaly  without  meeting  with  any 
opposition  till  he  reached  Thermopylae.  Here 
the  Greeks  resolved  to  make  a  stand.  Leoni- 
das,  king  of  Sparta,  conducted  a  land  force  to 
Thermopylae  ;  and  his  colleague  Eurybiades 
sailed  with  the  Greek  fleet  to  the  north  of  Eu- 
bcea,  and  took  up  his  position  on  the  northern 
coast,  which  faced  Magnesia,  and  was  called 
Artemisium  from  the  temple  of  Artemis  be- 
longing to  the  town  of  Hestisea.  Xerxes  ar- 
rived in  safety  with  his  land  forces  before  Ther- 
mopylae, but  his  fleet  was  overtaken  by  a  vio- 
lent storm  and  hurricane  off  the  coast  of  Sepias 
in  Magnesia,  by  which  at  least  four  hundred 
ships  of  war  were  destroyed,  as  well  as  an  im- 
mense number  of  transports.  Xerxes  attempt- 
ed to  force  his  way  through  the  Pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae, but  his  troops  were  repulsed  again  and 
again  by  Leonidas ;  till  a  Malian,  of  the  name 
of  Ephialtes,  showed  the  Persians  a  pass  over 
the  mountains  of  (Eta,  and  thus  enabled  them 
to  fall  on  the  rear  of  the  Greeks.  Leonidas  and 
his  Spartans  disdained  to  fly,  and  were  all  slain. 
Vid.  LEONIDAS.  On  the  same  days  on  which 
948 


XIPHILINUS. 

Leonidas  was  fighting  with  the  land  forces  of 
Xerxes,  the  Greek  ships  at  Artemisium  attack- 
ed the  Persian  fleet.  In  the  first  battle  the 
Greeks  had  the  advantage,  and  in  the  following 
night  the  Persian  ships  suffered  still  more  from 
a  violent  storm.  Two  days  afterward  the  con- 
test was  renewed,  and  both  sides  fought  with 
the  greatest  courage.  Although  the  Greeks  at 
the  close  still  maintained  their  position,  and  had 
destroyed  a  great  number  of  the  enemy's  ships, 
yet  their  own  loss  was  considerable,  and  half 
the  Athenian  ships  were  disabled.  Under  these 
circumstances,  the  Greek  commanders  aban 
doned  Artemisium  and  retired  to  Salamis,  oppo- 
site the  southwest  coast  of  Attica.  It  was  now 
too  late  to  send  an  army  into  Bceotia,  and  Attica 
thus  lay  exposed  to  the  full  vengeance  of  the 
invader.  The  Athenians  removed  their  wom- 
en, children,  and  infirm  persons  to  Salamis, 
.lEgina,  and  Trcezen.  Meantime  Xerxes  march 
ed  through  Phocis  and  Bceotia,  and  at  length 
reached  Athens.  About  the  same  time  that 
Xerxes  entered  Athens,  his  fleet  arrived  in  the 
bay  of  Phalerum.  He  now  resolved  upon  an 
engagement  with  the  Greek  fleet.  The  history 
of  this  memorable  battle,  of  the  previous  dis- 
sensions among  the  Greek  commanders,  and  of 
the  glorious  victory  of  the  Greeks  at  the  last, 
is  related  else  where.  Vid.  THEMISTOCLES.  Xerx- 
es witnessed  the  battle  from  a  lofty  seat,  which 
was  erected  for  him  on  the  shores  of  the  main 
land,  on  one  of  the  declivities  of  Mount  JEsa.- 
leos,  and  thus  beheld  with  his  own  eyes  the  de- 
feat and  dispersion  of  his  mighty  armament. 
Xerxes  now  became  alarmed  for  his  own  safe- 
ty, and  resolved  to  leave  Greece  immediately. 
He  was  confirmed  in  his  resolution  by  Mardo- 
nius,  who  undertook  to  complete  the  conquest 
with  three  hundred  thousand  of  his  troops. 
Xerxes  left  Mardonius  the  number  of  troops 
which  he  requested,  and  with  the  remainder 
set  out  on  his  march  homeward.  He  reached, 
the  Hellespont  in  forty -five  days  from  the  time 
of  his  departure  from  Attica.  On  arriving  at 
the  Hellespont,  he  found  the  bridge  of  boats  de- 
stroyed by  a  storm,  and  he  crossed  over  to  Asia 
by  ship.  He  entered  Sardis  toward  the  end  of 
the  year  480.  In  the  following  year,  479,  the 
,war  was  continued  in  Greece ;  but  Mardonius 
was  defeated  at  Plataeae  by  the  combined  forces 
of  the  Greeks,  and  on  the  same  day  another 
victory  was  gained  over  the  Persians  at  My- 
cale  in  Ionia.  Next  year,  478,  the  Persians  lost 
their  last  possession  in  Europe  by  the  capture 
of  Sestos  on  the  Hellespont.  Thus  the  strug- 
gle was  virtually  brought  to  an  end,  though  the 
war  still  continued  for  several  years  longer. 
We  know  little  more  of  the  personal  history  of 
Xerxes.  He  was  murdered  in  465,  after  a  reign 
of  twenty  years,  by  Artabanus,  who  aspired  to 
become  king  of  Persia.  Xerxes  was  succeed 
ed  by  his  son  ABTAXERXES  I. — II.  The  only  Ie. 
gitimate  son  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  succeeded  his 
father  as  King  of  Persia  in  425,  but  was  mur- 
dered  after  a  short  reign  of  only  two  months  by 
his  half-brother  Sogdianus,  who  thus  became 
king. 

XiPHiLlNos  (SijMvoc'),  of  Trapezus,  was  a 
monk  at  Constantinople,  and  made  an  abridg- 
ment of  Dion  Cassius  from  the  thirty-sixth  to 
the  eightieth  book,  at  the  command  of  the  Ent 


XIPHOMA. 

peror  Michael  VII.  Ducas,  who  reigned  from 
A.D.  1071  to  1078.  The  work  is  executed  with 
carelessness,  and  is  only  of  value  as  preserving 
the  main  facts  of  the  original,  the  greater  part 
of  which  is  lost.  It  is  printed  along  with  Dion 
Cassias. 

XIPHONIA  (Sifuvia  :  now  Capo  di  5.  Croce),  a 

omontory  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  above 
Syracuse,  with  a  harbor  (Sujtuveiof  At//j?v). 

Xois  or  CHOI'S  (Hoi'f,  £o;;f,  Xdtf),  an  ancient 
city  of  Lower  Egypt,  north  of  Leontopolis,  on 
an  island  of  the  Nile,  in  the  Nomos  Sebennyti- 
cus,  the  seat,  at  one  time,  of  a  dynasty  of  Egyp- 
tian kings.  It  appears  to  have  entirely  perished 
under  the  Roman  empire,  and  its  site  is  very 
doubtful.  Some  identify  it  with  the  Papremis 
of  Herodotus. 

XCTHUS  (SovOof),  son  of  Hellen  by  the  nymph 
Orseis,  and  a  brother  of  Dorus  and  ^Eolus.  He 
was  king  of  Peloponnesus,  and  the  husband  of 
Creusa,  the  daughter  of  Erechtheus,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  Achaeus  and  Ion.  Others 
state  that  after  the  death  of  his  father  Hellen, 
Xuthus  was  expelled  from  Thessaly  by  his 
brothers,  and  went  to  Athens,  where  he  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Erechtheus.  After  the 
death  of  Erechtheus,  Xuthus,  being  chosen  ar- 
bitrator, adjudged  the  kingdom  to  his  eldest 
brother-in-law  Cecrops,  in  consequence  of  which 
he  was  expelled  by  the  other  sons  of  Erech- 
theus, and  settled  in  ^Egialus  in  Peloponnesus. 

XYLINE,  a  town  of  Pisidia,  between  Corbasa 
and  Termessus,  mentioned  by  Livy  (xxxviii., 
15). 

XYNIA  or  XYNLSS  (Svvla  :  Zvvievf :  now  Tau- 
kli),  a  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  district  of  Phthi- 
otis,  east  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name  (/}  gvviuf 
TkifivT) :  now  Nizero  or  Dereli). 

XYPETE  (Avnerr):  Svireraiuv,  Svirereuv,  &VTTE- 
laiuvevc,  Svirtrevf,  £vn£riof),  said  to  have  been 
anciently  called  TEOJA,  a  demus  of  Attica  be- 
longing to  the  tribe  Cecropis,  near  Piraeus. 

Z. 

ZABATUS  (ZaSarof).     Vid.  LYCUS,  No.  5. 

[ZABDICENE,  a  district  in  Mesopotamia,  in 
which  was  a  city  named  Zabda  or  Bezabda.] 

ZABE  (Zu6tj),  a  name  applied,  under  the  later 
emperors,  to  the  southern  part  of  Numidia,  as 
far  as  the  border  of  the  Great  Desert. 

[ZABUS,  a  river  of  Assyria,  called  by  the  Mac- 
edonians Caprus.  Vid.  CAPRUS.] 

ZACYNTHCS  (Zunvv dof :  ZaKvvdiof,  Zacynthi- 
us :  now  Zante),  an  island  in  the  Ionian  Sea, 
off  the  coast  of  Elis,  about  forty  miles  in  cir- 
cumference. It  contained  a  large  and  flourish- 
ing town  of  the  same  name  upon  the  eastern 
coast,  the  citadel  of  which  was  called  Psophis. 
There  are  two  considerable  chains  of  mount- 
ains in  the  island.  The  ancient  writers  men- 
tion Mount  Elatus,  which  is  probably  the  same 
as  the  modern  Scopo  in  the  southeast  of  the  isl- 
and, and  which  rises  to  the  height  of  one  thou- 
sand five  hundred  and  nine  feet.  Zacynlhus 
was  celebrated  in  antiquity  for  its  pitch  wells, 
which  were  visited  by  Herodotus,  and  which 
still  supply  a  large  quantity  of  bitumen.  About 
one  hundred  tons  of  bitumen  are  at  the  present 
day  annually  extracted  from  these  wells.  Za- 
eynthus  was  inhabited  by  a  Greek  population  at 


ZALEUCUS. 

an  early  period.  It  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  Zacynthus,  a  son  of  Darclanus,  who 
colonized  the  island  from  Psophis  in  Arcadia; 
and,  according  to  an  ancient  tradition,  the  Za- 
cynthians  founded  the  town  of  Saguntum  in 
Spain.  Vid.  SAGUNTUM.  The  island  is  frequent- 
ly mentioned  by  Homer,  who  speaks  of  it  as  the 
"  woody  Zacynthus."  It  was  afterward  colo- 
nized by  Achaeans  from  Peloponnesus.  It  form- 
ed part  of  the  maritime  empire  of  Athens,  and 
continued  faithful  to  the  Athenians  during  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  At  a  later  time  it  was  sub- 
ject to  the  Macedonian  monarchs,  and  on  the 
conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  latter.  It  is  now  one  of 
the  Ionian  islands  under  the  protection  of  Great 
Britain. 

ZADRACARTA  (ZaSpaKapra),  one  of  the  capital 
cities  and  royal  residences  in  Hyrcania,  lay  at 
the  northern  foot  of  the  chief  pass  through 
Mount  Coronus.  (Compare  TAP^E.) 

ZAGREUS  (ZaypfVf),  a  surname  of  the  mystic 
Dionysus  (biovvaof  ^ftmof),  whom  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter), in  the  form  of  a  dragon,  is  said  to  have 
begotten  by  Persephone  (Proserpina),  before 
she  was  carried  off  by  Pluto.  He  was  torn  to 
pieces  by  the  Titans ;  and  Athena  (Minerva) 
carried  his  heart  to  Zeus  (Jupiter). 

ZAGROS  or  -us  (6  Zaypof  and  TO  Zuyptov  opof, 
now  Mountains  of  Kurdistan  and  Louristan),  the 
general  name  for  the  range  of  mountains  form- 
ing the  southeastern  continuation  of  the  Tau- 
rus, and  the  eastern  margin  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  valley,  from  the  southwestern  side 
of  the  Lake  Arsissa  (now  Van)  in  Armenia,  to 
the  northeastern  side  of  the  head  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  and  dividing  Media  from  Assyria  and 
Susiana.  More  specifically,  the  name  Zagros 
was  applied  to  the  central  part  of  the  chain,  the 
northern  part  being  called  the  mountains  of  the 
Cordueni  or  Gordyaei,  and  the  southern  part 
Parachoathras. 

ZAITHA  or  ZAUTHA  (ZavBd),  a  town  of  Meso- 
potamia, on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Euphrates, 
twenty  Roman  miles  south  of  Circesium,  re- 
markable as  the  place  at  which  a  monument 
was  erected  to  the  murdered  Emperor  Gordian 
by  his  soldiers. 

ZALEUCUS  (ZdfavKof ),  the  celebrated  lawgiver 
of  the  Epizephyrian  Locrians,  is  said  by  some 
to  have  been  originally  a  slave,  but  is  described 
by  others  as  a  man  of  good  family.  He  could 
not,  however,  have  been  a  disciple  of  Pythago- 
ras, as  some  writers  state,  since  he  lived  up- 
ward of  one  hundred  years  before  Pythagoras. 
The  date  of  the  legislation  of  Zaleucus  is  as- 
signed to  B.C.  660.  His  code  is  stated  to  have 
been  the  first  collection  of  written  laws  that  the 
Greeks  possessed.  The  general  character  of 
his  laws  was  severe ;  but  they  were  observed 
for  a  long  period  by  the  Locrians,  who  obtained, 
in  consequence,  a  high  reputation  for  legal  or- 
der. Among  other  enactments,  we  are  told  that 
the  penalty  of  adultery  was  the  loss  of  the  eyes. 
There  is  a  celebrated  story  of  the  son  of  Zaleu- 
cus having  become  liable  to  this  penalty,  and 
the  father  himself  suffering  the  loss  of  one  eye 
that  his  son  might  not  be  utterly  blinded.  It  is 
further  related  that  aiming  his  laws  was  on<- 
forbidding  any  citizen,  under  penalty  of  death,  in 
enter  the  senate  house  in  arms.  On  one  occa 


ZALMOXIS. 

•ion,  however,  on  a  sudden  emergency  in  time 
of  war,  Zaleucus  transgressed  his  own  law, 
which  was  remarked  to  him  by  one  present ; 
whereupon  he  fell  upon  his  own  sword,  declar- 
ing that  he  wou  d  himself  vindicate  the  law. 
Other  authors  tell  the  same  story  of  Charon- 
das,  or  of  Diocles. 

ZALMOXIS  or  ZAMOLXIS  (ZuP^oftf,  ZuftoX^if), 
said  to  have  been  so  called  from  the  bear's  skin 
(Zdtyof)  in  which  he  was  clothed  as  soon  as  he 
was  born.  He  was,  according  to  the  story  cur- 
rent among  the  Greeks  on  the  Hellespont,  a 
Getan,  who  had  been  a  slave  to  Pythagoras  in 
Samos,  but  was  manumitted,  and  acquired  not 
only  great  wealth,  but  large  stores  of  knowledge 
from  Pythagoras,  and  from  the  Egyptians,  whom 
he  visited  in  the  course  of  his  travels.  He  re- 
turned among  the  Getae,  introducing  the  civili- 
zation and  the  religious  ideas  which  he  had 
gained,  especially  regarding  the  immortality  of 
the  soul.  He  was  said  to  have  lived  in  a  sub- 
terraneous cave  for  three  years,  and  after  that 
to  have  again  made  his  appearance  among  the 
Getae.  Herodotus  inclines  to  place  the  age  of 
Zalmoxis  a  long  time  before  Pythagoras,  and 
expresses  a  doubt  not  only  about  the  story  it- 
self, but  as  to  whether  Zalmoxis  were  a  man, 
or  an  indigenous  Getan  deity.  The  latter  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  real  state  of  the  case. 
The  Getae  believed  that  the  departed  went  to 
him. 

ZAMA  REGIA  (Zd/ua :  Zamensis  :  now  Zowa- 
reen,  southeast  of  Kaf),  a  strongly-fortified  city 
in  the  interior  of  Numidia,  on  the  borders  of  the 
Carthaginian  territory.  It  was  the  ordinary 
residence  of  King  Juba,  who  had  here  his  treas- 
ury and  his  harem.  It  was  the  scene  of  one  of 
the  most  important  battles  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  that  in  which  Hannibal  was  defeated  by 
Scipio,  and  the  second  Punic  war  was  ended, 
B.C.  202.  Strabo  tells  us  that  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  Romans ;  but  if  so,  it  must  have  been 
restored,  for  we  find  it  mentioned  under  the  em- 
pire as  a  colony  and  a  bishop's  see.  Pliny  and 
Vitruvius  speak  of  a  fountain  in  its  neighbor- 
hood. There  were  unimportant  places  of  the 
same  name  in  Cappadocia  and  Mesopotamia. 

ZANCLE.     Vid.  MESSANA. 

ZAPAORTENE,  a  city  in  the  southeast  of  Par- 
thia,  in  the  mountains  of  the  Zapaorteni. 

ZARADRUS  (now  Sutlej),  a  river  of  Northern 
India,  now  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Punjab. 
It  rises  from  two  principal  sources  beyond  the 
Himalaya,  and  falls  into  the  Hyphasis  (now 
Gharra). 

ZARANG^E  or  -I,  or  SARANG.S  (Zapdyyot,  2a- 
pdyyat),  a  people  in  the  north  of  Drangiana,  on 
the  confines  of  Aria.  The  close  resemblance 
of  their  name  to  the  generic  name  of  all  the 
people  of  Drangiana,  that  is,  Drangse,  suggests 
a  doubt  whether  they  ought  to  be  specifically 
distinguished  from  them. 

ZARAX  or  ZAREX  (Zdpaf,  Zapj?f).  1.  The  cen- 
tral part  of  the  chain  of  mountains,  extending 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  Laconia  from  Mount 
Parnon,  on  the  frontiers  of  Argolis,  down  to  the 
promontory  Malea. — 2.  (Now  Jcraka),  a  town  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Laconia,  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  o/the  same  name. 

ZARIASPE.      Vid.  BACTRA. 

ZARIASPIS,  an  earlier,  probably  the  native 
950 


ZEISTO. 

name  for  the  river  on  which  Bactra  stood,  and 
which  is  usually  called  Bactrus.  Vid.  BACTRA 
The  people  on  its  banks  were  called  Zariaspae. 

ZELA  or  ZIELA  (rd  Zrjha  :  now  Zillefi),  a  city 
in  the  south  of  Pontus,  not  far  south  of  Amasia, 
and  four  days'  journey  east  of  Tavium.  It 
stood  on  an  artificial  hill,  and  was  strongly  for- 
tified. Near  it  was  an  ancient  and  famous  tem- 
ple of  Anaitis  and  other  Persian  deities,  in  which 
great  religious  festivals  were  held.  The  sur- 
rounding district  was  called  Zeletis  or  Zelltis. 
At  Zela  the  Roman  general  Valerius  Triarius 
was  defeated  by  Mithradates ;  but  the  city  is 
more  celebrated  for  another  great  battle,  that  in 
which  Julius  Caesar  defeated  Pharnaces,  and  of 
which  he  wrote  this  dispatch  to  Rome  :  VENI  : 
VIDI  :  Via. 

[ZELA'RCHUS  (Z^Aa/syof),  an  inspector  of  the 
market  (dyopavdpos )  among  the  Greek  mercena- 
ries of  Cyrus,  attacked  by  the  soldiers  for  some 
real  or  imaginary  misconduct  in  his  official  duty 
while  they  were  at  Trapezus  ;  avoided  the  at- 
tack, and  escaped  from  Trapezus  by  sea.] 

ZELASICM,  a  Thessalian  town  in  the  district 
Phthiotis,  of  uncertain  site. 

ZELIA  (ZeTieia),  an  ancient  city  of  Mysia,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Ida,  and  on  the  River  JEse- 
pus,  eighty  stadia  from  its  mouth,  belonging  to 
the  territory  of  Cyzicus.  At  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander's invasion  the  head-quarters  of  the  Per- 
sian army  were  fixed  here. 

ZELUS  £Z^-°c).  the  personification  of  zeal  or 
strife,  is  described  as  a  son  of  Pallas  and  Styx, 
and  a  brother  of  Nice. 

ZENO,  ZENON  (Ziyvov).  1.  The  founder  of  the 
Stoic  philosophy,  was  a  native  of  Citium  in  Cy- 
prus, and  the  son  of  Mnaseas.  He  began  at  an 
early  age  to  study  philosophy  through  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Socratic  philosophers,  which  his  fa- 
ther was  accustomed  to  bring  back  from  Athens 
when  he  went  thither  on  trading  voyages.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-two,  or,  according,  to  others, 
of  thirty  years,  Zeno  was  shipwrecked  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Piraeus ;  whereupon  he  was  led 
to  settle  in  Athens,  and  to  devote  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  study  of  philosophy.  According  to 
some  writers,  he  lost  all  his  property  in  the  ship- 
wreck ;  according  to  others,  he  still  retained  a 
large  fortune  ;  but,  whichever  of  these  accounts 
is  correct,  his  moderation  and  contentment  be 
came  proverbial,  and  a  recognition  of  his  virtues 
shines  through  even  the  ridicule  of  the  corair 
poets.  The  weakness  of  his  health  is  said  to 
have  first  determined  him  to  live  rigorously  and 
simply ;  but  his  desire  to  make  himself  inde- 
pendent of  all  external  circumstances  seems  to 
have  been  an  additional  motive,  and  to  have  led 
him  to  attach  himself  to  the  cynic  Crates.  In 
opposition  to  the  advice  of  Crates,  he  studied 
under  Stilpo  of  the  Megaric  school ;  and  he  sub- 
sequently received  instruction  from  the  two 
other  contemporary  Megarics,  Diodorus  Cronus 
and  Philo,  and  from  the  Academics  Xenocrates 
and  Polemo.  The  period  which  Zeno  thus  de- 
voted to  study  is  said  to  have  extended  to 
twenty  years.  At  its  close,  and  after  he  had 
developed  his  peculiar  philosophical  system,  he 
opened  his  school  in  the  porch  adorned  with  the 
paintings  of  Polygnotus  (Stoa.  Facile),  which,  at 
an  earlier  time,  had  been  a  place  in  which  poets 
met.  From  this  place  his  disciples  were  called 


ZENOBIA. 

Stoics.  Among  the  warm  admirers  of  Zeno  was 
Antigonus  Gonatas,  king  of  Macedonia.  The 
Athenians  likewise  placed  the  greatest  confi- 
dence in  him,  and  displayed  the  greatest  esteem 
for  him  ;  for,  although  the  well-known  story  that 
they  deposited  the  keys  of  the  fortress  with  him, 
as  the  most  trustworthy  man,  may  be  a  later 
invention,  there  seems  no  reason  for  doubting 
the  authenticity  of  the  decree  of  trfe  people  by 
which  a  golden  crown  and  a  public  burial  in  the 
Ceramicus  were  awarded  to  him.  The  Athe- 
nian citizenship,  however,  he  is  said  to  have  de- 
clined, that  he  might  not  become  unfaithful  to 
his  native  land,  where,  in  return,  he  was  highly 
esteemed.  We  do  not  know  the  year  either  of 
Zeno's  birth  or  death.  He  is  said  to  have  pre- 
sided over  his  school  for  fifty-eight  years,  and 
to  have  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  still  alive  in  the  one  hundred 
and  thirtieth  Olympiad  (B.C.  260).  Zeno  wrote 
numerous  works;  but  the  writings  of  Chrysip- 
pus  and  the  later  Stoics  seem  to  have  obscured 
those  of  Zeno,  and  even  the  warm  adherents  of 
the  school  seem  seldom  to  have  gone  back  to 
the  books  of  its  founder.  Hence  it  is  difficult 
to  ascertain  how  much  of  the  later  Stoic  philos- 
ophy really  belongs  to  Zeno.  —  2.  The  Eleatic 
philosopher,  was  a  native  of  Elea  (Velia)  in 
Italy,  son  of  Teleutagoras,  and  the  favorite  dis- 
ciple of  Parmenides.  He  was  born  about  B.C. 
488,  and  at  the  age  of  forty  accompanied  Par- 
menides to  Athens.  Vid.  PARMENIDES.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  resided  some  time  at  Athens,  and 
is  said  to  have  unfolded  his  doctrines  to  men 
like  Pericles  and  Callias  for  the  price  of  one 
hundred  mime.  Zeno  is  said  to  have  taken  part 
in  the  legislation  of  Parmenides,  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  which  the  citizens  of  Elea  had  pledged 
themselves  every  year  by  an  oath.  His  love 
of  freedom  is  shown  by  the  courage  with  which 
he  exposed  his  life  in  order  to  deliver  his  native 
country  from  a  tyrant.  Whether  he  perished 
in  the  attempt,  or  survived  the  fall  of  the  tyrant, 
is  a  point  on  which  the  authorities  vary.  They 
also  state  the  name  of  the  tyrant  differently. 
Zeno  devoted  all  his  energies  to  explain  and 
develop  the  philosophical  system  of  Parmeni- 
des. Vid.  PARMENIDES. — 3.  An  Epicurean  phi- 
losopher, a  native  of  Sidon,  was  a  contemporary 
of  Cicero,  who  heard  him  when  at  Athens.  He 
was  sometimes  termed  Coryphttus  Epicureorum. 
He  seems  to  have  been  noted  for  the  disrespect- 
ful terms  in  which  he  spoke  of  other  philoso- 
phers. For  instance,  he  called  Socrates  the  At- 
tic buffoon.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Appllodorus, 
and  is  described  as  a  clear-headed  thinker  and 
perspicuous  expounder  of  hia  views. 

ZENOBIA,  queen  of  Palmyra.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband  Odenathus,  whom,  according  to 
some  accounts,  she  assassinated  (A.D.  266),  she 
assumed  the  imperial  diadem  as  regent  for  her 
sons,  and  discharged  all  the  active  duties  of  a 
sovereign.  But  not  content  with  enjoying  the 
independence  conceded  by  Gallienus  and  toler- 
ated by  Claudius,  she  sought  to  include  all  Syr- 
ia, Asia,  and  Egypt  within  the  limits  of  her 
sway,  and  to  make  good  the  title  which  she 
claimed  of  Queen  of  tho  East.  By  this  rash 
ambition  she  lost  both  her  kingdom  and  her  lib- 
erty. She  was  defeated  by  Aurelian,  taken  pris- 
oner on  the  capture  of  Palmyra  (273),  and  car- 


ZENODOTTJS. 

ried  to  Rome,  where  she  a'dorned  the  triumph 
of  her  conqueror  (274).  Her  life  was  spared  by 
Aurelian,  and  she  passed  the  remainder  of  her 
years  with  her  sons  in  the  vicinity  of  Tibur 
(now  Tivoli).  Longinus  lived  at  her  court,  and 
was  put  to  death  on  the  capture  of  Palmyra. 
Vid.  LONGINUS. 

ZENOBIA  (Zi)vo6ia :  now  Chelebi  or  Zelebi),  a 
city  of  Chalybonitis,  in  Syria,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  three  days' journey  both  from 
Sura  and  from  Circesium.  It  was  founded  by 
Zenobia. 

ZENOBICS  (Zjjv66io^),  lived  at  Rome  in  the 
time  of  Hadrian,  and  was  the  author  of  a  col- 
lection of  proverbs  in  Greek,  which  have  come 
down  to  us.  In  this  collection  the  proverbs  are 
arranged  alphabetically,  and  divided  into  hund- 
reds. The  last  division  is  incomplete,  the  to- 
tal number  collected  being  five  hundred  and 
fifty-two.  It  is  printed  in  the  collection  of 
Schottus  (Ilapoiuiai  'EAA^vt/cat,  Antwerp,  1612), 
[in  the  Parxmiographi  Greed  of  Gaisford,  Ox- 
ford, 1836,  and  of  Leutsch  and  Schneidewin, 
GSttingen,  1839.] 

ZENODORUS,  a  Greek  artist,  who  made  for  Ne- 
ro the  colossal  statue  of  that  emperor,  which  he 
set  up  in  front  of  the  Golden  House,  and  which 
was  afterward  dedicated  afresh  by  Vespasian 
as  a  statue  of  the  Sun.  It  was  one  hundred 
and  ten  feet  in  height. 

ZENODOTIUM  or  -IA  (ZjjvodoTiov,  ZrjvodoTia),  a 
fortress  in  the  north  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the 
small  tributary  of  the  Euphrates  called  Bilecha, 
a  little  above  Nicephorium,  and  below  Ichnae. 
It  was  a  Macedonian  settlement,  and  the  only 
one  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Mesopotamia  which 
did  not  revolt  from  the  Parthians  at  the  ap- 
proach of  Crassus. 

ZENODOTUS  (Zrjvodorof).  1.  Of  Ephesus,  a 
celebrated  grammarian,  was  the  first  superin- 
tendent of  the  great  library  at  Alexandrea,  and 
flourished  under  Ptolemy  Philadelphia  about 
B.C.  208.  Zenodotus  was  employed  by  Phila- 
delphus,  together  with  his  two  great  contempo- 
raries, Alexander  the  ^Etolian,  and  Lycophron 
the  Chalcidian,  to  collect  and  revise  all  the 
Greek  poets.  Alexander,  we  are  told,  under- 
took the  task  of  collecting  the  tragedies,  Lyco- 
phron the  comedies,  and  Zenodotus  the  poems 
of  Homer  and  of  the  other  illustrious  poets. 
Zenodotus,  however,  devoted  his  chief  atten- 
tion to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  Hence  he  is 
called  the  first  Reviser  (Aiopft/nfr)  of  Homer, 
and  his  recension  (At6pdu<r<c)  of  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  obtained  the  greatest  celebrity.  The 
corrections  which  Zenodotus  applied  to  the 
text  of  Homer  were  of  three  kinds.  1.  He  ex- 
punged verses.  2.  He  marked  them  as  spuri- 
ous, but  left  them  in  his  copy.  3.  He  intro- 
duced new  readings,  or  transposed  or  altered 
verses.  The  great  attention  which  Zenodotus 
paid  to  the  language  of  Homer  caused  a  new 
epoch  in  the  grammatical  study  of  the  Greek 
language.  The  results  of  his  investigations  re- 
specting the  meaning  and  the  use  of  words 
were  contained  in  two  works  which  lie  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  a  Glossary  (TXuoaat\ 
and  a  Dictionary  of  barbarous  or  foreign  phra- 
ses.— 2.  Of  Alexandrea,  a  grammarian,  lived 
after  Aristarchus,  whose  recension  of  the  Ho- 
meric poems  he  attacked. 

9M 


ZEPHYRA. 

ZEFHYRA.     Vid.  HALICARNASSUS. 

ZEPHYRIUM  (Zeyvptov,  sc.tmpurrjpiov,  i.e.,  the 
teeticrn  promontory),  the  name  of  several  prom- 
ontories of  the  ancient  world,  not  all  of  which, 
however,  faced  the  west.  The  chief  of  them 
were  the  following  :  I.  In  Europe.  1.  (Now 
Capo  di  Brussano),  a  promontory  in  Bruttium, 
forming  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  coun- 
try, from  which  the  Locri,  who  settled  in  the 
neighborhood,  are  said  to  have  obtained  the 
name  of  Epizephyrii.  Vid.  p.  445,  b. — 2.  A  prom- 
ontory on  the  western  coast  of  Cyprus. — II.  In 
Asia.  1.  In  Pontus  (now  Cape  Zefrch),  a  head- 
land west  of  TRIPOLIS,  with  a  fort  and  harbor 
of  the  same  name. — 2.  Vid.  CARIA. — 3.  In  Cili- 
cia  (now  probably  Cape  Cavaliere),  a  far-pro- 
jecting promontory,  west  of  Promontorium 
Sarpedon.  Some  make  it  the  headland  east  of 
Promontorium  Sarpedon,  and  just  south  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Calycadnus,  which  Polybius,  Ap- 
pian,  and  Livy  call  by  the  same  name  as  the 
river,  Calycadnus. — III.  In  Africa  (now  Kasser 
Maarah),  a  headland  on  the  northeastern  coast 
of  Cyrena'ica,  west  of  Darnis. 

ZEPHYRUS  (Zfyvpof),  the  personification  of 
the  west  wind,  is  described  by  Hesiod  as  a  son 
of  Astrseus  and  Eos  (Aurora).-  Zephyrus  and 
Boreas  are  frequently  mentioned  together  by 
Homer,  and  both  dwelt  together  in  a  palace  in 
Thrace.  By  the  Harpy  Podarge,  Zephyrus  be- 
came the  father  of  the  horses  Xanthus  and 
Balius,  which  belonged  to  Achilles ;  but  he 
was  married  to  Chloris,  whom  he  had  carried 
off  by  force,  and  by  whom  he  had  a  son  Car- 
pus. 

[ZERNA  (Zernensis),  a  city  of  Dacia,  a  Ro- 
man colony,  situated  a  short  distance  east  of 
the  Pons  Trajani :  it  is  sometimes  called  Colo- 
nia.  Zernensium.] 

ZERYNTHUS  (ZypyvBos  :  ZijpvvBiof),  a  town  of 
Thrace,  in  the  territory  of  .-Enos,  with  a  temple 
of  Apollo  and  a  cave  of  Hecate,  who  are  hence 
called  Zerynthius  and  Zerynthia  respectively. 
Some  writers,  however,  place  the  Zerynthian 
cave  of  Hecate  in  Samothrace. 

ZETES  (Z^nyf)  and  CALAIS  (KdAoi'f),  sons  of 
Boreas  and  Orithyia,  frequently  called  the  Bo- 
READ^E,  are  mentioned  among  the  Argonauts, 
and  are  described  as  winged  beings.  Their  sis- 
ter Cleopatra,  who  was  married  to  Phineus, 
king  of  Salmydessus,  had  been  thrown  with  her 
sons  into  prison  by  Phineus  at  the  instigation 
of  his  second  wife.  Here  she  was  found  by 
Zetes  and  Calais,  when  they  arrived  at  Salmy- 
dessus in  the  Argonautic  expedition.  They  lib- 
erated their  sister  and  his  children,  gave  the 
kingdom  to  the  latter,  and  sent  the  second  wife 
of  Phineus  to  her  own  country,  Scythia.  Oth- 
ers relate  that  the  Boreadae  delivered  Phineus 
from  the  Harpies  ;  for  it  had  been  foretold  that 
the  Harpies  might  be  killed  by  the  sons  of  Bo- 
reas, but  that  the  sons  of  Boreas  must  die  if 
they  should  not  be  able  to  overtake  the  Har- 
pies. Others,  again,  state  that  the  Boreadae  per- 
ished in  their  pursuit  of  the  Harpies,  or  that 
Hercules  killed  them  with  his  arrows  near  the 
island  of  Tenos.  Different  stories  were  rela- 
ted to  account  for  the  anger  of  Hercules  against 
the  Boreadae.  Their  tombs  were  said  to  be  in 
Tenos,  adorned  with  sepulchral  stelae,  one  of 
which  moved  whenever  the  wind  blew  from  the 
952 


ZEUS. 

north.     Calais  is  also  mentioned  as  the  founder 
of  the  Campanian  town  of  Cales. 

ZETHUS  (ZijOof),  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and 
Antiope,  and  brother  of  Amphion.  For  details, 
vid.  AMPHION. 

ZEUGIS,  ZEUGITANA  RKGIO  (rj  Ztvyiravri  : 
northern  part  of  7'unz«),  the  northern  district 
of  Africa  Propria.  Vid.  AFRICA. 

ZEUGMA  (Zevypa,  \.  exjunction:  now  probably 
Rumkaleh),  a  city  of  Syria,  on  the  borders  of 
Commagene  and  Cyrrhestice,  built  by  Seleucus 
Nicator,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates, 
at  a  point  where  the  river  was  crossed  by  a 
bridge  of  boats,  which  had  been  constructed  by 
Alexander  the  Great :  hence  the  name.  After- 
ward, when  the  ford  of  Thapsacus  became  im- 
passable for  travellers,  on  account  of  the  hordes 
of  Arabs  who  infested  the  banks  of  the  Lower 
Euphrates,  the  bridge  at  Zeugma  gave  the  only 
passage  over  the  river. 

ZEUS  (Zfvf),  called  JUPITER  by  the  Romans, 
the  greatest  of  the  Olympian  gods,  was  a  son 
of  Cronos  (Saturn)  and  Rhea,  a  brother  of  Po- 
seidon (Neptune),  Hades  (Pluto),  Hestia  (Ves- 
ta), Demeter  (Ceres),  Hera  (Juno),  and  was  also 
married  to  his  sister  Hera  (Juno).  When  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  and  his  brothers  distributed  among 
themselves  the  government  of  the  world  by  lot, 
Poseidon  (Neptune)  obtained  the  sea,  Hades 
(Pluto)  the  lower  world,  and  Zeus  (Jupiter)  the 
heavens  and  the  upper  regions,  but  the  earth 
became  common  to  all.  According  to  the  Ho- 
meric account,  Zeus  (Jupiter)  dwelt  on  Mount 
Olympus  in  Thessaly,  which  was  believed  to 
penetrate  with  its  lofty  summit  into  heaven  it- 
self. He  is  called  the  father  of  gods  and  men, 
the  most  high  and  powerful  among  the  immor- 
tals, whom  all  others  obey.  He  is  the  supreme 
ruler,  who,  with  his  counsel,  manages  every 
thing;  the  founder  of  kingly  power,  and  of  law 
and  of  order,  whence  Dice,  Themis,  and  Neme- 
sis are  his  assistants.  For  the  same  reason,  he 
protects  the  assembly  of  the  people  (ayopaiof), 
the  meetings  of  the  council  ((Jovlaiof),  and  as 
he  presides  over  the  whole  state,  so  also  over 
every  house  and  family  (tpKeioc).  He  also 
watched  over  the  sanctity  of  the  oath  (bpKiof) 
and  the  laws  of  hospitality  (fmof),  and  pro- 
tected suppliants  (ixeVtof).  He  avenged  those 
who  were  wronged,  and  punished  those  who 
had  committed  a  crime,  for  he  watched  the  do- 
ings and  sufferings  of  all  men  (Eirotyiof).  He 
was  further  the  original  source  of  all  prophet- 
ic power,  from  whom  all  prophetic  sign's  and 
sounds  proceeded  (navo^alo^).  Every  thing 
good  as  well  as  bad  comes  from  Zeus  (Jupiter) ; 
according  to  his  own  choice,  he  assigns  good  or 
evil  to  mortals  ;  and  fate  itself  was  subordinate 
to  him.  He  is  armed  with  thunder  and  light- 
ning, and  the  shaking  of  his  aegis  produces  storm 
and  tempest :  a  number  of  epithets  of  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  in  the  Homeric  poems  describe  him 
as  the  thunderer,  the  gatherer  of  clouds,  and 
the  like.  He  was  married  to  Hera  (Juno),  by 
whom  he  had  two  sons,  Ares  (Mars)  and  He 
phaestus  (Vulcan),  and  one  daughter,  Hebe. 
Hera  (Juno)  sometimes  acts  as  an  independent 
divinity  ;  she  is  ambitious,  and  rebefe  against 
her  lord,  but  she  is  nevertheless  inferior  to  him, 
and  is  punished  for  her  opposition  ;  his  amours 
with  other  goddesses  or  mortal  women  are  ne 


ZEUS 

concealed  from  her,  though  they  generally  rouse 
her  jealousy  and  revenge.  During  the  Trojan 
war,  Zeus  (Jupiter),  at  the  request  of  Thetis, 
favored  the  Trojans,  until  Agamemnon  repaired 
the  wrong  he  had  done  to  Achilles.  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter), no  doubt,  was  originally  a  god  of  a  por- 
tion of  nature.  Hence  the  oak,  with  its  eatable 
fruit,  and  the  fertile  doves,  were  sacred  to  him 
at  Dodona  and  in  Arcadia.  Hence,  also,  rain, 
storms,  and  the  seasons  were  regarded  as  his 
work  ;  and  hence,  likewise,  the  Cretan  stories 
of  milk,  honey,  and  the  cornucopia.  In  the  Ho- 
meric poems,  however,  this  primitive  character 
of  a  personification  of  certain  powers  of  nature 
is  already  effaced  to  some  extent,  and  the  god 
appears  as  a  political  and  national  divinity,  as 
the  king  and  father  of  men,  as  the  founder  and 
protector  of  all  institutions  hallowed  by  law, 
custom,  or  religion.  Hesiod  also  calls  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  the  son  of  Cronos  (Saturn)  and  Rhea, 
and  the  brother  of  Hestia  (Vesta),  Demeter 
(Ceres),  Hera  (Juno),  Hades  (Pluto),  and  Po- 
seidon (Neptune).  Cronos  (Saturn)  swallowed 
his  children  immediately  after  their  birth ;  but 
when  Rhea  was  pregnant  with  Zeus  (Jupiter), 
she  applied  to  Uranus  (Coelus)  and  Ge  (Terra) 
to  save  the  life  of  the  child.  Uranus  (Coelus) 
and  Ge  (Terra)  therefore  sent  Rhea  to  Lyctos 
in  Crete,  requesting  her  to  bring  up  her  child 
there.  Rhea  accordingly  concealed  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter) in  a  cave  of  Mount  ^Egaeon,  and  gave  to 
Cronos  (Saturn)  a  stone  wrapped  up  in  cloth, 
which  he  swallowed  in  the  belief  that  it  was 
bis  son.  Other  traditions  state  that  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter) was  born  and  brought  up  on  Mount  Dicte 
or  Ida  (also  the  Trojan  Ida),  Ithome  in  Messe- 
nia,  Thebes  in  Bcsotia,  JEgion  in  Achaia,  or 
Olenos  in  ^Etolia.  According  to  the  common 
account,  however,  Zeus  (Jupiter)  grew  up  in 
Crete.  In  the  mean  time,  Cronos  (Saturn),  by 
a  cunning  device  of  Ge  (Terra)  or  Metis,  was 
made  to  bring  up  the  children  he  had  swal- 
lowed, and  first  of  all  the  stone,  which  was 
afterward  set  up  by  Zeus  (Jupiter)  at  Delphi. 
The  young  god  now  delivered  the  Cyclopes 
from  the  bonds  with  which  they  had  been  fet- 
tered by  Cronos  (Saturn),  and  they,  in  their 
gratitude,  provided  him  with  thunder  and  light- 
ning. On  the  advice  of  Ge  (Terra),  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter) also  liberated  the  hundred-armed  Gigan- 
tes,  Briareos,  Cottus,  and  Gyes,  that  they  might 
assist  him  in  his  fight  against  the  Titans.  The 
Titans  were  conquered  and  shut  up  in  Tartarus, 
where -they  were  henceforth  guarded  by  the 
Hecatoncheires.  Thereupon  Tartarus  and  Ge 
(Terra)  begot  Typhoeus,  who  began  a  fearful 
struggle  with  Zeus  (Jupiter),  but  was  con- 
quered. Zeus  (Jupiter)  now  obtained  the  do- 
minion of  the  world,  and  chose  Metis  for  his 
wife.  When  she  was  pregnant  with  Athena 
(Minerva),  he  took  the  child  out  of  her  body 
and  concealed  it  in  his  head,  on  the  advice  of 
Uranus  (Ccelus)  and  Ge  (Terra),  who  told  him 
that  thereby  he  would  retain  the  supremacy  of 
the  world ;  for  if  Metis  had  given  birth  to  a 
son,  this  son  (so  fate  had  ordained  it)  would 
have  acquired  the  sovereignty.  After  this,  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  became  the  father  of  the  Horse  and 
Moerae  by  his  second  wife  Themis  ;  of  the 
Charites  by  Eurynome ;  of  Persephone  (Proser- 
pina) by  Demeter  (Ceres);  of  the  Muses  by 


ZEU&. 

Mnemosyne  ;  of  Apollo  and  Artemis  (Diana)  by 
Leto  (Latona) ;  and  of  Hebe,  Ares  (Mars),  and 
Ilithyia  by  Hera  (Juno).  Athena  was  born  out  of 
the  head  of  Zeus  (Jupiter) ;  while  Hera  (Juno), 
on  the  other  hand,  gave  birth  to  Hephaestus 
(Vulcan)  without  the  co-operation  of  Zeus  (Ju- 
piter). The  family  of  the  Cronidae  accordingly 
embraces  the  twelve  great  gods  of  Olympus, 
Zeus  (Jupiter,  the  head  of  them  all),  Poseidon 
(Neptune),  Apollo,  Ares  (Mars),  Hermes  (Mer- 
cury), Hephaestus  (Vulcan),  Hestia  (Vesta),  De- 
meter  (Ceres),  Hera  (Juno),  Athena  (Minerva), 
Aphrodite  (Venus),  and  Artemis  (Diana).  These 
twelve  Olympian  gods,  who  in  some  places 
were  worshipped  as  a  body,  were  recognized 
not  only  by  the  Greeks,  but  were  adopted  also 
by  the  Romans,  who,  in  particular,  identified 
their  Jupiter  with  the  Greek  Zeus.  In  survey- 
ing the  different  local  traditions  about  Zeus,  it 
would  seem  that  originally  there  were  several, 
or  at  least  three,  divinities  which  in  their  re- 
spective countries  were  supreme,  but  which  in 
the  course  of  time  became  united  in  the  minds 
of  the  people  into  one  great  national  divinity. 
We  may  accordingly  speak  of  an  Arcadian,  Do- 
doncean,  Cretan,  and  a  national  Hellenic  Zeus. 
1.  The  Arcadian  Zeus  (Zeif  Avxaiof)  was  born, 
according  to  the  legends  of  the  country,  in  Ar- 
cadia, either  on  Mount  Parrbasium  or  on  Mount 
Lycaeus.  He  was  brought  up  there  by  the  nymphs 
Thisoa,  Neda,  and  Hagno.  Lycaon,  a  son  of 
Pelasgus,  erected  a  temple  to  Zeus  Lycaeus  on 
Mount  Lycaeus,  and  instituted  the  festival  of  the 
Lycea  in  honor  of  him.  Vid.  Lvc^us,  LYCAON. 
No  one  was  allowed  to  enter  this  sanctuary 
of  Zeus  Lycaeus  on  Mount  Lycaeus.  2.  The 
Dodon.ac.an  Zeus  (Zevf  AoduvaZof  or  HcXaaytKOf) 
possessed  the  most  ancient  oracle  in  Greece,  at 
Dodona  in  Epirus,  from  which  he  derived  his 
name.  At  Dodona  Zeus  was  mainly  a  prophetic 
god,  and  the  oak  tree  was  sacred  to  him ;  but 
there,  too,  he  was  said  to  have  been  reared 
by  the  Dodonaean  nymphs  (Hyades).  Respect- 
ing the  Dodonaean  oracle  of  Zeus,  vid.  Diet, 
of  Antiq.,  art.  ORACULUM.  3.  The  Cretan  Zeus 
(Zeiif  A«Taiof  or  Kpjfraycvjfc).  We  have  al- 
ready given  Hesiod's  account  of  this  god.  He 
was  brought  up  in  a  cave  of  Mount  Dicte  bj 
the  Curetes  and  the  nymphs  Adrastia  and  Ida, 
the  daughters  of  Melisseus.  They  fed  him  with 
the  milk  of  the  goat  Amalthea,  and  the  bees  of 
the  mountain  provided  him  with  honey.  Crete 
is  called  the  island  or  nurse  of  the  great  Zeus, 
and  his  worship  there  appears  to  have  been  very 
ancient.  4.  The  national  Hellenic  Zeus,  near 
whose  temple  at  Olympia,  in  Elis,  the  great  na- 
tional panegyris  was  celebrated  once  in  four 
years.  There,  too,  Zeus  was  regarded  as  the 
father  and  king  of  gods  and  men,  and  as  the 
supreme  god  of  the  Hellenic  nation.  His  statua 
there  was  executed  by  Phidias,  a  few  years  be 
fore  the  outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the 
majestic  and  sublime  idea  of  this  statue  having 
been  suggested  to  the  artist  by  the  tvords  of 
Homer  (//.,  i.,  527).  Vid.  PHIDIAS.  The  Greek 
and  Latin  poets  give  to  Zeus  or  Jupiter  an  im- 
mense number  of  epithets  and  surnames,  which 
are  derived  partly  from  the  places  where  he  was 
worshipped,  and  partly  from  his  powers  and 
functions.  The  eagle,  the  oak,  and  the  sum- 
mils  of  mountains  were  sacred  to  him,  and  his 

953 


ZEUXIDAMUS. 

sacrifices  generally  consisted  of  goats,  bulls, 
and  cows  His  usual  attributes  are  the  sceptre, 
eagle,  thunderbolt,  and  a  figure  of  Victory  in 
his  hand,  and  sometimes  also  a  cornucopia. 
The  Olympian  Zeus  sometimes  wears  a  wreath 
of  olive,  and  the  Dodonaean  Zeus  a  wreath  of 
oak  leaves.  In  works  of  art  Zeus  is  generally 
represented  as  the  omnipotent  father  and  king 
of  gods  and  men,  according  to  the  idea  which 
had  been  embodied  in  the  statue  of  the  Olym- 
pian Zeus  by  Phidias.  Respecting  the  Roman 
god,  vid.  JUPITER. 

ZEUHDAMCS  (Ztvf/JajUOf).  1.  King  of  Sparta, 
and  tenth  of  the  Enrypontidae.  He  was  grand- 
son of  Theopompus,  and  father  of  Anaxidamus, 
who  succeeded  him.  —  2.  Son  of  Leotychides, 
king  of  Sparta.  He  was  also  named  Cyniscus. 
He  died  before  his  father,  leaving  a  son,  Archi- 
damus  II. 

ZECXIS  (Zeii&f),  the  celebrated  Greek  painter, 
who  excelled  all  his  contemporaries  except  Par- 
phasius,  was  a  native  of  Heraclea  (probably  of 
the  city  of  this  name  on  the  Euxine),  and  flour- 
ished B.C.  424-400.  He  came  to  Athens  soon 
after  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
when  he  had  already  achieved  a  great  reputa- 
tion, although  a  young  man.  He  passed  some 
time  in  Macedonia,  at  the  court  of  Archelaiis, 
for  whom  he  decorated  the  royal  palace  at  Pella 
with  paintings,  probably  soon  after  413.  He 
must  have  spent  some  time  in  Magna  Graecia, 
as  we  learn  from  the  story  respecting  the  pic- 
ture of  Helen,  which  he  painted  for  the  city  of 
Croton  ;  and  it  is  also  probable  that  he  visited 
Sicily,  as  we  are  told  that  he  gave  away  one 
of  his  pictures  to  the  Agrigentines.  His  travels 
through  Greece  itself  were  no  doubt  extensive 
We  find  him  at  Olympia,  where  he  made  ah  os- 
tentatious display,  before  the  eyes  of  all  Greece, 
of  the  wealth  which  his  art  had  brought  him, 
by  appearing  in  a  robe  embroidered  with  his 
own  name  in  letters  of  gold.  After  acquiring 
a  great  fortune  by  the  exercise  of  his  art,  he 
adopted  the  custom  of  giving  away  his  pictures, 
because  no  adequate  price  could  be  set  upon 
them.  The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown.  The 
master-piece  of  Zeuxis  was  his  picture  of  Helen, 
in  painting  which  he  had  as  his  models  the  five 
most  beautiful  virgins  of  Croton,  whom  he  was 
allowed  to  select  for  this  purpose  from  among 
all  the  virgins  of  the  city.  It  was  painted  for 
the  temple  of  Juno  at  Croton.  This  picture 
and  its  history  were  celebrated  by  many  poets, 
who  preserved  the  names  of  the  five  virgins 
upon  whom  the  choice  of  Zeuxis  fell.  The  ac- 
curate imitation  of  inanimate  objects  was  a  de- 
partment of  the  art  which  Zeuxis  and  his  young- 
er rival  Parrhasius  appear  to  have  carried  al- 
most to  perfection.  The  well-known  story  of 
the  trial  of  skill  in  that  species  of  painting  be- 
tween these  two  artists,  if  not  literally  true,  in- 
dicates the  opinion  which  was  held  in  ancient 
times  of  iheir  powers  of  imitation.  In  this  con- 
test the  picture  of  Zeuxis  represented  a  bunch 
of  grapes,  so  naturally  painted  that  the  birds 
flew  at  the  picture  to  eat  the  fruit ;  upon  which 
the  artist,  confident  in  this  proof  of  his  success, 
cafed  upon  his  rival  no  longer  to  delay  to  draw 
aside  the  curtain  and  show  his  picture  ;  but  the 
picture  ot  Parrhasius  was  the  curtain  itself, 
which  Zeuxis  had  mistaken  for  real  drapery. 
954 


ZONARAS. 

On  discovering  his  error,  Zeuxis  honorably 
yielded  the  palm  to  Parrhasius,  saying  that  he 
himself  had  deceived  birds,  but  Parrhasius  an 
artist.  Besides  this  accuracy  of  imitation,  many 
of  the  works  of  Zeuxis  displayed  great  dramatic 
power.  This  appears  to  have  been  especially 
the  case  with  his  Infant  Hercules  strangling  the 
Serpent,  where  the  chief  force  of  the  composi- 
tion consisted  in  the  terror  of  Alcmena  and  Am- 
phitryon as  they  witnessed  the  struggle.  An- 
other picture,  in  which  he  showed  the  same 
dramatic  power,  applied  to  a  very  different  sub- 
ject, was  his  Female  Hippocentaur,  and  which 
was  lost  in  a  shipwreck  off"  Cape  Malea,  on  its* 
way  to  Rome,  whither  it  had  been  sent  by  Sulla. 

ZiKLAG(Ze'/ffMa,  St/reAa),  a  town  in  the  south- 
west of  Palestine,  belonging  to  the  Philistines 
of  Gath,  whose  king  Achish  gave  it  to  David 
for  a  residence  during  his  exile  from  the  court 
of  Saul.  On  David's  accession  to  the  kingdom, 
it  was  united  to  Judah. 

[ZiLU,  ZELIS  (Z^(f),  ZELES  (ZeA^c),  ZELAS 
or  ZILIS  (now  Ar-Zila),  an  ancient  Punic  city 
in  Mauretania  Tingitana,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river 
of  the  same  name,  south  of  Tingis  ;  after  the 
time  of  Augustus,  a  Roman  colony,  with  the  ap- 
pellation Julia  Constantia :  according  to  Strabo, 
its  inhabitants  were  transferred  to  a  town  in 
Spain.  Vid.  TRADUCTA  JULIA.] 

ZIOBETIS  ([not  Zioberis  as  commonly  written, 
vid.  Zumpt  ad  Curt.,  vi.,  10],  now  Jinjerari),  a 
river  of  Parthia,  [the  same  as  the  Stiboetes 
(2rt6oi'n7f)  of  Diodorus,  flows  a  short  distance, 
then  disappears  under  ground  ;  after  a  subter- 
ranean course  of  three  hundred  stadia  it  re- 
appears, and  flows  on  in  a  broader  current  until 
it  unites  with  the  Ridagnus.  Forbiger,  follow- 
ing Mannert,  considers  the  united  stream  the 
CHOATRES  of  Ammianus  (now  Adschi-Su).] 

ZION.     Vid.  JERUSALEM. 

ZOAR  or  TSOAR,  ZOARA  or  ZOARAS  'Zoap,  Z6- 
apa:  LXX.,  Ztryup  and  Zo-yopa :  now  probably 
ruins  in  Ghor  el  Mezraa,  on  the  Wady  el  Deraah), 
originally  called  BELA,  a  city  on  the  southeast 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  belonging  first  to  the  Moabites, 
and  afterward  to  the  Arabs.  In  the  time  of 
Abraham  it  was  the  smallest  of  the  "  cities  of 
the  plain,"  and  was  saved,  at  the  intercession 
of  Lot, .from  the  destruction  which  fell  upon 
Sodom  and  Gomorrha. 

ZCETIUM  Or   ZtETEUM   (ZoiTtOV,  ZoiTClOV  '.    Zoi- 

rcievr),  a  town  of  Arcadia,  in  the  district  Eutre- 
sia,  north  of  Megalopolis. 

ZOILUS  (ZwiAof),  a  grammarian,  was  a  native 
of  Amphipolis,  and  flourished  in  the  time  of 
Philip  of  Macedon.  He  was  celebrated  for  the 
asperity  with  which  he  assailed  Homer.  He 
found  fault  with  him  principally  for  introducing 
fabulous  and  incredible  stories  in  his  poems. 
From  the  list  that  we  have  of  his  writings,  it 
also  appears  that  he  attacked  Plato  and  Isocra- 
tes.  His  name  became  proverbial  for  a  captious 
and  malignant  critic. 

ZONARAS,  JOANNES  ('ludvvrjc  6  Zurapuf),  a 
celebrated  Byzantine  historian  and  theologian, 
lived  in  the  twelfth  century  under  the  emperors 
Alexus  I.  Comnenus  and  Calo- Joannes.  Be- 
sides his  theological  works,  there  are  still  ex- 
tant, 1.  Annales  (xpoviKov),  in  eighteen  books, 
from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  death  of 
Alexis  in  1118.  It  is  compiled  from  various 


ZONE. 


ZYGANTES. 


authors,  whose  very  words  Zonaras  fre- 
quently retains.  The  earlier  part  is  chiefly 
taken  from  Josephus  ;  and  in  the  portion  which 
relates  to  Roman  history,  he  has,  for  the  most 
part,  followed  Dion  Cassius.  In  consequence 
of  the  latter  circumstance,  the  Annals  of  Zona- 
ras are  of  great  importance  in  studying  the  early 
history  of  Rome.  Of  the  first  twenty  books  of 
Dion  Cassius  we  have  nothing  but  the  abstract 
of  Zonaras;  and  even  of  the  later  books,  of 
which  Xiphilinus  has  made  a  more  full  epitome, 
Zonaras  has  preserved  many  statements  of 
Dion  which  are  entirely  omitted  by  Xiphilinus. 
The  best  editions  are  by  Du  Fresne  du  Cange, 
Paris,  1686,  fol.  ;  and  by  Finder,  Bonn,  1841, 
8vo.  2.  A  Lexicon,  edited  by  Tittmann,  Lips., 
1808,  4to. 

ZONK  (Zuvri  :  Zuvaiof),  a  town  of  Thrace,  on 
a  promontory  of  the  same  name  in  the  J2gean, 
where  Orpheus  is  said  to  have  sung. 

ZOPYRUS  (ZuTrvpof).  1.  A  distinguished  Per- 
rian,  son  of  Megabyzus.  After  Darius  Hystas- 
pis  had  besieged  Babylon  for  twenty  months  in 
vain,  Zopyrus  resolved  to  gain  the  place  for  his 
master  by  the  most  extraordinary  self-sacrifice. 
Accordingly,  one  day  he  appeared  before  Darius 
with  his  body  mutilated  in  the  most  horrible 
manner  ;  both  his  ears  and  nose  were  cut  off, 
and  his  person  otherwise  disfigured.  After  ex- 
plaining to  Darius  his  intentions,  he  fled  to  Bab- 
ylon as  a  victim  of  the  cruelty  of  the  Persian 
king.  The  Babylonians  gave  him  their  confi- 
dence, and  placed  him  at  the  head  of  their  troops. 
He  soon  found  means  to  betray  the  city  to  Da- 
rius, who  severely  punished  the  inhabitants  for 
their  revolt.  Darius  appointed  Zopyrus  satrap 
of  Babylon  for  life,  with  the  enjoyment  of  its 
entire  revenues.  —  [2.  The  son  of  Megabyzus, 
and  grandson  of  the  preceding,  revolted  from 
the  Persians,  and  fled  to  Athens.]—  3.  The  Phys- 
iognomist, attributed  many  vices  to  Socrates  in 
an  assembly  of  his  disciples,  who  laughed  at 
him  and  at  his  art  in  consequence  ;  but  Socrates 
admitted  that  such  were  his  natural  propensi- 
ties, but  said  that  they  had  been  overcome  by 
philosophy.  —  [4.  A  Thracian,  a  slave  of  Pericles, 
assigned  by  him,  as  the  least  useful,  from  old 
age,  of  all  his  slaves,  to  Alcibiades  as  his  paeda- 
gogus  ]  —  5.  A  surgeon  at  Alexandrea,  the  tutor 
of  Apollonius  Citiensis  and  Posidonius,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  first  century  B.C.  '  He  in- 
vented an  antidote,  used  by  Mithradates,  king 
of  Pontus. 

ZOROASTER  or  ZOROASTRF.S  (Zupouorprjr),  the 
ZARATHUSTRA  of  the  Zendavesta,  and  the  ZER- 
DUSHT  of  the  Persians,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Magian  religion.  The  most  opposite  opinions 
have  been  held  both  by  ancient  and  modern 
writers  respecting  the  time  in  which  he  lived  ; 
but  it  is  quite  impossible  to  come  to  any  conclu- 
sion on  the  subject.  As  the  founder  of  the  Ma- 
gian religion,  he  must  be  placed  in  remote  anti- 
quity, and  it  may  even  be  questioned  whether 
such  a  person  ever  existed.  This  religion  was 


probably  of  Bactrian  origin,  and  from  thence 
spread  eastward  ;  and  the  tradition  which  rep- 
resents Zoroaster  a  Mede  sprang  up  at  a  later 
time,  when  the  chief  seat  of  his  religion  was  in 
Media,  and  no  longer  in  the  further  East.  There 
were  extant  in  the  later  Greek  literature  sev- 
eral works  bearing  the  name  of  Zoroaster  ;  but 
these  writings  were  forgeries  of  a  later  age,  ano 
belong  to  the  same  class  of  writings  as  tho 
works  of  Hermes  Trismegistus,  Orpheus,  &c 
There  is  still  extant  a  collection  of  oracles  as 
cribed  to  Zoroaster,  which  are  of  course  spuri 
ous.  They  have  been  published  by  Morell 
Paris,  1595;  by  Obsopaeus,  Paris,  1507,  and  b> 
others. 

[ZORZINES  or  ZORSINES,  king  of  the  Siraci,  a 
people  of  Sannatia  Asiatica,  in  whose  territory 
was  the  city  USPE,  taken  by  the  Romans  in  the 
reign  of  Claudius.] 

[ZOSIMUS,  a  learned  freedman  of  the  youngei 
Pliny,  remarkable  for  his  talents  as  a  comedian 
and  musician,  as  well  as  for  his  excellence  as 
a  reader.] 

ZOSIMUS  (Zuoifio?),  a  Greek  historian,  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  the  younger  Theodosius. 
He  wrote  a  history  of  the  Roman  empire  in  six 
books,  which  is  still  extant.  This  work  must 
have  been  written  after  A.D.  425,  as  an  event 
is  mentioned  in  it  which  took  place  in  that  year. 
The  first  book  comprises  a  sketch  of  the  history 
of  the  early  emperors,  down  to  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Diocletian  (305).  The  second,  third, 
and  fourth  books  are  devoted  to  the  history  of 
the  fourth  century,  which  is  treated  much  less 
concisely.  The  fifth  and  sixth  books  embrace 
the  period  from  395  to  410,  when  Attalus  was 
deposed.  The  work  of  Zosimus  is  mainly 
(though  not  altogether)  an  abridgment  or  com- 
pilation of  the  works  of  previous  historians.  His 
style  is  concise,  clear,  pure,  and  not  unpleasing. 
His  chief  fault  as  an  historical  writer  is  his  neg- 
lect of  chronology.  Zosimus  was  a  pagan,  and 
comments  severely  upon  the  faults  and  crimes 
of  the  Christian  emperors.  Hence  his  credibil- 
ity has  been  assailed  by  several  Christian  writ- 
ers. There  are,  no  doubt,  numerous  errors  of 
judgment  to  be  found  in  the  work,  and  some- 
times (especially  in  the  case  of  Constantine)  an 
intemperate  expression  of  opinion,  which  some- 
what exaggerates,  if  it  does  not  distort,  the  truth. 
But  he  does  not  seem  fairly  chargeable  with  de- 
liberate invention  or  willful  misrepresentation. 
The  best  editions  are  by  Reitemeier,  Lips., 
1784,  [and  by  Imm.  Bekker,  Bonn,  1837.] 

ZOSTER  (now  Cape  of  Vari),  a  promontory  on 
the  west  of  Attica,  between  Phalerum  and  Su- 
nium.  It  was  a  sacred  spot,  and  contained  al- 
tars of  Leto  (Latona),  Artemis  (Diana),  and 
Apollo. 

ZYGANTES  or  GYOANTES  (Zvyairff,  Tvyavrtf), 
a  people  of  Libya,  whom  Herodotus  places  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Lake  Triton.  Others 
mention  a  city  Zygantis  and  a  people  Zyges  on 
the  coast  of  Marmarica 

955 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES 


OF 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  HISTORY, 

CIVIL  AND  LITERARY, 

FROM  THE  FIRST  OLYMPIAD,  B.C.  776,  TO  THE  FALL  OF 
THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE,  A.D.  476. 

WITH 

TABLES  OF  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MEASURES, 
WEIGHTS,  AND  MONEY, 


EDITED    BY 


WILLIAM  SMITH,  LL.D., 

1DITOB   OF  THE    DICTIONARIES    OF  GREEK  AND   KOMAN   AXTKJUmM,   AND 
BIOGRAPHY   AND   MYTHOLOGY. 


[From  the  Dictionarie*  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology,  and  Antiqmtiet.] 


Iff  A  -T     l  Arv  CjO  TO 71" Of 

I U 11  J.      LL  11 U  J.  U  U  Li.  U  f  1 U  J. 


'("!  O  T  TT      ~/T   AL       r  ^A  {f       fT  ~^f\     f        "*-T  ^?  f-Y  O   ?  ' 

i  a  I  H  1(1  A  M  »  )  ).i  11  /i  A  1  ill  ill  11  x 


i'  •{  ''  -I  '  :-  T  M  i  I  ^'  \  J  '  -  1  0 


rniT 


KAIOJI  o/1,  aaaaa  ^10 

YaVlOM  (IKA  .8THOiaVf 


?.<I,JJ  tHT3I/ia  MALI  II W 

E£iRr#i'iT:x  X>.MOX  UVJA.  ;?  .UXOITJKI  ^irr  -10  SSTI 


I.  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 

1.  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF  GREEK  HISTORY, 

VKOH    THE    FIRST    OLYMPIAD,  B.C.    776,    TO    THE    FALL    OF    CORINTH,   B.C.    146. 

2.  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF  ROMAN  HISTORY, 

FROM  THE  FOUNDATION  OF  THE  CITY,  B.C.  753,  TO  THE  FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMFIU, 

A.D.  476. 

3.  PARALLEL  YEARS, 

THAT  IS,  THE  YEARS  BEFORE  THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA,  THE  YEARS  FROM  THE  FOUNDATION  OF 

ROME,  AND  THE  OLYMPIADS. 


4.  LISTS  OF  THE  ATHENIAN  ARCHONS  EPONYMI,  AND  OF  THE  KINGS  OF 

THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  MONARCHIES  : 

Kings  of  Egypt,  Kings  of  Egypt  (the  Ptolemies), 

Kings  of  Media,  Kings  of  Pergamus, 

Kings  of  Lydia,  Kings  of  Bithynia, 

Kings  of  Persia,  Kings  of  Pontus, 

Kings  of  Sparta,  Kings  of  Cappadocia, 

Kings  of  Macedonia,  Kings  of  Rome, 

Kings  of  Syria,  Emperors  of  Rome, 

And  Emperors  of  Constantinople.    . 

.v.-rfi'-I  I-''-'"  >-l  -IVX  S  -\  '.-..•  'J->  cr.,.£c-jlf  fififfi^  .HIV 

.?3Jw;;.;A  vHA  (5)  .r?i.r£s!£  tL/pLT  >,\) 

,a  :x 


II.  TABLES  OF  MEASURES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MONEY, 


FROM    THE    DICTIONARY    OF    GREEK    AUD    ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

<«»  tb«  construction  of  these  Tables,  the  same  authorities  have  been  used  as  those  referred  to  in 
;je  articles  in  the  body  of  the  work.  Particular  acknowledgment  is  due  of  the  assistance  which 
has  been  derived  from  the  Tables  of  Hussey  and  Wurm.  The  last  two  Tables  (of  Greek  and  Ro- 
man money)  have  been  taken  without  alteration  from  Mr.  Hussey's,  because  they  were  thought 
incapable  of  improvement,  except  one  addition  in  the  Table  of  Attic  Money.  All  the  calcula- 
tions, however,  have  been  made  de  «oro,  even  where  the  results  are  the  same  as  in  Mr.  Hussey's 
Tables. 

The  Tables  are  so  arranged  as  to  exhibit  the  corresponding  Greek  and  Roman  measures  in 
direct  comparison  with  each  other.  In  some  of  the  Tables  the  values  are  given,  not  only  in  our 
several  measures,  but  also  in  decimals  of  a  primary  unit,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  calcula- 
tions. In  others,  approximate  rallies  are  given,  that  is,  values  which  differ  from  the  true  ones  by 
some  small  fraction,  and  which,  from  their  simplicity,  will  perhaps  be  found  far  more  useful  foi 
ordinary  purposes  than  the  precise  quantities,  while  the  error,  in  each  case,  can  easily  be  correct- 
ed. Fuller  information  will  be  found  tinder  MENSURA,  NUMMUS,  PONDERA,  and  the  specific 
names,  in  the  DICTIONARY  OF  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


Table 

I.  Greek  Measures  of  Length. 

(1.)  Smaller  Measures. 
II.  Roman  Measures  of  Length. 

(1.)  Smaller  Measures. 
Ill    Greek  Measures  of  Length. 
(2.)  Land  and  Itinerary. 
IV.  Roman  Measures  of  Length. 

(2.)  Land  and  Itinerary. 
V.  Greek  Measures  of  Surface. 
VI.  Roman  Measures  of  Surface. 

VII.  Greek  Measures  of  Capacity. 

(1.)  Liquid  Measures. 

VIII.  Roman  Measures  of  Capacity. 

(1.)  Liquid  Measures. 


Table 
IX.  Greek  Measures  of  Capacity. 

(2.)  Dry  Measures. 
X.  Roman  Measures  of  Capacity. 

(2.)  Dry  Measures. 
XI.  Greek  Weights. 
XII.  Greek  Money. 

XIII.  Roman  Weights. 

(1.)  The  As  and  its  Divisions. 

XIV.  Roman  Weights. 

(2.)  Subdivisions  of  the  Uncia. 
XV.  Roman  Money. 

(I.)  Before  Augustus. 
XVI.  Roman  Money. 

(2.)  After  Augustus. 


W.  8. 


RULE  S 


CONVERSION  OF  THE  OLYMPIADS  AND  THE  YEARS  OF  ROME  (A.U.C.)  INTO  YEARS 
BEFORE  AND  AFTER  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 

THE  Olympiads  commenced  in  the  year  3938  of  the  Julian  period,  or  B.C.  776.  Each  Olym- 
piad contains  4  years.  The  year  of  Rome  commenced  B.C.  753. 

To  ascertain  the  years  before  or  after  Christ  of  any  Olympiad,  take  the  number  of  Olympiads 
actually  completed,  multiply  that  number  by  4,  and  if  the  product  be  lets  than  776,  subtract  that 
product  from  776  ;  the  remainder  will  be  the  years  before  Christ.  If  the  product  be  more  than 
776,  subtract  776  from  that  product,  and  the  remainder  will  b«  the  years  after  Christ. 

We  thus  obtain  the  year  before  or  after  Christ  of  the  last  complete  Olympiad :  we  must  now 
include  the  single  years  of  the  current  Olympiad.  To  put  down  these  correctly — if  btfore  Christ, 
subtract  the  last  completed  year  (viz.,  the  number  1,  2,  or  3  immediately  preceding) ;  if  after  Christ, 
add  the  current  year ;  the  product  will  be  the  year  before  or  after  Christ,  corresponding  to  the 
current  year  of  the  current  Olympiad. 

For  Example  :  Let  the  3d  year  of  the  87th  Olympiad  be  the  year  to  be  converted.  The  num- 
ber of  Olympiads  actually  completed  is  86  ;  multiply  that  number  by  4,  and  the  total  will  be  344 
Subtract  this  number  (being  less  than  776)  from  776,  and  the  remainder  will  be  432 ;  subtract 
further  the  last  completed  year  of  the  current  Olympiad  (viz.,  2),  and  the  year  430  before  Christ 
will  be  the  corresponding  year. 

Suppose  it  were  the  2d  year  of  the  248th  Olympiad.  Multiply  247,  the  number  of  Olympiads 
actually  completed,  by  4,  and  the  total  will  be  988  ;  as  that  number  is  larger  than  776,  deduct  776 
from  988,  and  the  remainder,  212,  will  be  the  year  of  the  last  complete  Olympiad  :  add  2  for  the 
current  year  of  the  current  Olympiad,  and  214  after  Christ  (A.D.  214)  will  be  the  corresponding 
year. 

To  find  the  year  before  or  after  Christ  which  corresponds  to  any  given  year  of  the  Building  of 
Rome,  add  1  year  (for  the  current  year)  to  753,  and  from  the  total,  754,  subtract  the  given  year 
of  Rome  ;  the  remainder  will  be  the  corresponding  year  before  Christ.  If  the  given  year  of  Rome 
exceed  753,  subtract  753  from  the  given  number,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  corresponding 
year  after  Christ. 

For  Example :  Caesar  invaded  Britain  in  the  year  of  Rome  699.     Deduct  699  from  754,  and 
that  event  ia  seen  to  correspond  with  the  year  B.C.  55.     The  Romans  finally  left  Britain  in  the 
year  of  Rome  1179.     Subtract  753  from  1179,  and  the  remainder,  426,  will  be  the  year  of  our 
Lord  in  which  that  event  took  place. 
61 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF  GREEK  HISTORY, 

FROM  THE   FIRST   OLYMPIAD,  B.C.  776,   TO  THE   FALL  OF  CORINTH,  B.C.   146. 


776  Coreebus  the  Elean  gains  the  victory  in  the  foot-race 
at  the  Olympic  games.  The  Olympic  games  were 
instituted  by  Iphitus  the  Elean  about  B.C.  884,  but 
the  Olympiads  were  not  employed  aa  a  chronolog- 
ical era  till  the  victory  of  Coroebus. 

775  Arctinus  of  Miletus,  the  Cyclic  poet,  flourished. 

774  Fandosia  and  Metapontum,  in  Italy,  founded. 

765  Cinsethon  of  Lacedcemon,  the  Cyclic  poet,  flourished. 

761  Eumelna  flourished. 

753  Antimachus  of  Teos  flourished. 

750  Miletus  at  the  height  of  its  power.  Many  of  its  colo- 
nies founded  about  this  tine  or  a  little  later. 

748  Phidon,  tyrant  of  Argos,  celebrntes  the  8th  Olympic 
games.  He  introduced  copper  and  silver  coinage, 
and  a  new  scale  of  weights  and  measures,  through- 
out the  Peloponnesus. 

745  The  first  annual  Prytanis  at  Corinth,  90  years  before 
the  reign  of  Cypselus. 

744  Eumelus  of  Corinth,  the  Cyclic  poet,  flourished. 

743  The  beginning  of  the  first  war  between  the  Messcni- 
ana  and  the  Lacedaemonians. 

736  Callinus  of  Ephesua,  the  earliest  Greek  elegiac  poet, 
flourished. 

735  Naxos,  in  Sicily,  founded  by  the  Chalcidians  of  Eu- 

t  •  A  boaa. 

734  Syracuse  founded  by  Archias  of  Corinth. 

730  Leontium  and  Catana,  in  Sicily,  founded. 

728  Megara  Hyblsa,  in  Sicily,  founded. 

Fhilolaus  of  Corinth,  the  Theban  lawgiver,  flour- 
ished. 

723  End  of  the  first  Messenian  war.  The  Messenians  were 
obliged  to  submit  after  the  capture  of  Ithome,  and 
to  pay  a  heavy  tribute  to  the  Lacedaemonians. 

721  Sybaris,  in  Italy,  founded  by  the  Achaeans. 

718  War  between  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Argivci. 

716  Gyges  begins  to  reign  in  Lydia.  This  dynasty  reigned, 
according  to  Herodotus,  160  years,  and  terminated 
B.C.  546  by  the  fall  of  Croesus. 

/12  Astacus  founded  by  the  Megarians. 
Callinus  of  Ephesus  flourished. 

710  Croton  or  Crotona,  in  Italy,  founded  by  the  Achte- 
ana.  Soon  after  the  foundation  of  Croton  the  Ozo- 
Uan  Locriang  founded  the  Epizcphyrian  Locri  in 
Italy. 

709  Deioccs  begins  to  reign  in  Media.  The  Medea  revolt- 
ed from  the  Assyrians  after  the  death  of  Sennache- 
rib in  B.C.  711.  The  Assyrians,  according  to  He- 
rodotus, had  governed  Upper  Asia  for  530  years. 
This  account  givca  B.C.  710  +  520  =  B.C.  1230  for 
the  commencement  of  the  Assyrian  dominion.  The 
Median  kings  reigned  150  years.  Sec  B.C.  687  and 
559. 

708  Tarcntum  founded  by  the  Lacedaemonian  Parthcniop, 

under  Phalanlhua. 
Thasos  and  Parium,  on  the  Propontia,  Tounded  by  the 

Parians. 

Archilochua  of  Paros,  the  Iambic  poet,  accompanied 
the  colony  to  Thasos,  being  then  in  the  flower  of 
his  age. 


693  Simonidea  of  Amorgos,  the  lyric  poet,  flourished. 
Glaucus  of  Chios,  a  statuary  in  metal,  flourished.    He 
was  distinguished  as  the  inventor  of  the  art  of  sol- 
dering metals. 
690  Foundation  of  Gela  in  Sicily,  and  of  Phaselis  in  Panv 

phylia. 

687  The  empire  of  the  Medea  is  computed  by  Herodotus 
to  commence  from  this  date,  the  23d  year  of  their 
independence.  It  lasted  128  years,  and  terminated 
in  B.C.  559. 

Archilochus  flourished.     See  B.C.  708. 
685  The  beginning  of  the  second  Messenian  war. 
683  First  annual  archon  at  Athens. 

Tyrtffius,  the  Athenian  poet,  came  to  Sparta  after  the 
first  success  of  the  Messenians,  and  by  his  martial 
songs  roused  the  faulting  courage  of  the  Lacede- 
monians. 

G78  Ardyg,  king  of  Lydia,  succeeded  Gyges. 
675  Foundation  of  Cyzicus  by  the  Megarians 
674  Foundation  of  Chalcedon  by  the  Megariana. 
672  The  Pisata,  led  by  Pantaleon,  revolt  from  the  EIean», 

and  espouse  the  cause  of  the  Messenians. 
Alcman,  a  native  of  Sardis  in  Lydia,  and  the  chief  lyr- 
ic poet  of  Sparta,  flourished. 
670  Psammetichus,  king  of  Egypt,  begins  to  reign. 
669  The  Argives  defeat  the  Lacedaemonians  at  Hysice. 
668  End  of  the  second  Messenian  war,  according  to  Pau- 

sanias. 

665  Thaletas  of  Crete,  the  lyric  poet  and  musician,  flour- 
ished. 
664  A  sea-fight  between  the  Corinthians  and  Corcyraans. 

the  most  ancient  sea-fight  recorded. 
662  Zaleucus,  the  lawgiver  in  Locri  Epizephyrii,  flour- 
ished. 

657  Byzantium  founded  by  the  Megarians. 
656  Phraortea,  king  of  Media,  aucceeda  Delocea. 
C55  The  Bacchindos  expelled  from  Corinth.    Cypaelua 

begins  to  reign.    He  reigned  30  years. 
654  Foundation  of  Acanthus,  Stagira,  Abdera,  and  Lamp- 
sac  us. 

651  Birth  of  Pittacua,  according  to  Suidas. 
648  Himera  in  Sicily  founded. 

647  Piaander,  the  epic  poet  of  Camirut,  in  Rhodes,  flour- 
ished. 
644  Pantaleon,  king  of  Pisa,  celebrates  the  Olympic  game* 

Terpandcr  flourished. 
635  Snrdis  taken  by  the  Cimmerians  in  the  reign  of  Ardyt. 
634  Phraortca,  king  of  Media,  slain  by  the  Assyrians,  and 
auccecded  by  his  aon  Cyaxarea.    Irruption  of  the 
Scythians  into  Asia,  who  interrupt  Cyaxarea  in  thr 
aiegc  of  Nineveh. 
631  Cyrene,  in  Libya,  founded  by  Battua  of  Then. 
630  Mimncrmua  flourished. 
629  Foundation  of  Sinope  by  the  Milesians.    Sadyattea, 

king  of  Lydia,  aucceeda  Ardya. 
625  Pcriandcr  aucceeda  Cypaelua  at  Corinth.    He  reigned 

40  years. 

Arion  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Periander. 
621  Legislation  of  Dracon  at  Athena. 


9G4 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


620  Attempt  of  Cylon  to  make  himself  master  of  Athens. 
Be  had  been  victor  in  the  Olympic  games  in  B.C. 
640.     Assisted  by  Thcagenes,   tyrant  of  Megara, 
whose  daughter  he  had  married,  he  seized  the  cit- 
adel, but  was  there  besieged  by  the  archon  Mega- 
cles,  the  Alcmn;oiud.    Cylon  and  his  adherents  sur- 
rendered on  a  promise  that  their  lives  should  be 
spared,  but  they  were  put  to  death. 
617  Alyattes,  king  of  Lydia,  succeeds  Sadyattes. 
616  Neco,  king  of  Egypt,  succeeds  Psammetichus. 
812  Peace  between  Alyattes,  king  of  Lydia,  and  Miletus, 

in  the  12th  year  of  the  war. 
811  Pittacus  overthrows  the  tyranny  of  Melanchrus  at 

Mytilene. 

Sappho,  Alcseus,  and  Stesichorus  flourished. 
610  Birth  of  Anaximander. 

607  Scythians  expelled  from  Asia  by  Cyaxares,  king  of 
Media,  after  holding  the  dominion  of  it  for  28  years. 
606  Nineveh  taken  by  Cyaxares. 

Combat  between  Pittacus  and  Phrynon,  the  com- 
mander of  the  Athenians. 

Alcaeus  fought  in  the  wars  between  the  Mytilenseans 
and'  Athenians,  and  incurred  the  disgrace  of  leav- 
ing his  shield  on  the  field. 
600  Psatnmis,  king  of  Egypt,  succeeds  Neco. 

Massilia,  in  Gaul,  founded  by  the  Phocseans. 
599  Camarina,  in  Sicily,  founded  135  years  after  Syracuse. 
596  Epimenides,  the  Cretan,  came  to  Athens. 
995  Apries,  lung  of  Egypt,  succeeds  Psammis. 
Birth  of  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia. 
Commencement  of  the  Cirrhsean  or  Sacred  War, 

which  lasted  10  years. 
594  Legislation  of  Solon,  who  was  Athenian  archon  in 

this  year. 

592  Anacharsis  came  to  Athens. 
591  Cirrha  taken  by  the  Amphictyons. 

Arcesilatts  I.,  king  of  Cyrene,  succeeds  Battua  I. 
589  Commencement  of  the  government  of  Pittacus  at 
Mytilene.    He  held  the  supreme  power  for  10  years 
under  the  title  of  JEsymnetes. 
Alcseus  the  poet  in  exile,  and  opposed  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Pittacus. 
586  The  conquest  of  the  Cirrhoeans  completed  and  the 

Pythian  games  celebrated. 

The  seven  wise  men  flourished.  They  were,  accord- 
ing to  Plato,  Thales,  Pittacus,  Bias,  Solon,  Cleobu- 
Ins,  Myson,  Chilon.  The  first  four  were  universally 
acknowledged.  Periander,  whom  Plato  excluded, 
•was  admitted  by  some. 
Sacadas  of  Argos  gained  the  prize  in  music  in  the 

first  three  Pythia,  B.C.  586,  582,  578. 
585  Death  of  Periander. 
582  Clisthenes  of  Sicyon,  victor  in  the  second  Pythia. 

Agrigentum  founded. 
581  The  dynasty  of  the  Cypselidse  ended. 
579  Pittacus  resigns  the  government  of  Mytilene. 
575  Battus  II.,  king  of  Cyrene,  succeeds  Arcesilaus  I.    Na- 
val empire  of  the  Phoc«enns. 

572  The  war  between  Pisa  and  Elis  ended  by  the  subjec- 
tion of  the  Pisans. 
jEsopm  flourished. 
570  Accession  of  Phalaris,  tyrant  of  Agrigentum.    He 

reigned  16  years. 
569  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt,  succeeds  Apries. 

Death  of  Pittacus,  10  years  after  his  abdication. 
M6  The  Panathenaea  instituted  at  Athens. 

Eugamon  flourished. 
364  Alalia,  in  Corsica,  founded  by  the  Phocteans. 


560  Pisistratus  usurps  the  government  of  Athens. 
Thales  is  nearly  eighty  years  of  age. 
Ibycus  of  Rhegium,  the  lyric  poet,  flourished. 
559  Cyrus  begins  to  reign  in  Persia.    The  Median  empire 

ended.    See  B.C.  687. 
Heraclea,  on  the  Euxinc,  founded. 
Anacrcon  begins  to  be  distinguished. 
556  Simonides  of  Ceos,  the  lyric  poet,  born. 
553  Stesichorus  died. 
549  Death  of  Phalaris  of  Agrigentum. 
548  The  temple  at  Delphi  burned. 

Anaximenes  flourished. 
546  Sardis  taken  by  Cyrus,  and  the  Lydian  monarchy 

overthrown. 

Hipponax,  the  Iambic  poet,  flourished. 
544  Pherecydes  of  Syros,  the  philosopher,  and  Theognis 

of  Megara,  the  poet,  flourished. 
539  Ibycus  of  Rhegium,  the  lyric  poet,  flourished. 
538  Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus. 

Xenophanes  of  Colophon,  the  philosopher,  flourished 
535  Thespis,  the  Athenian,  first  exhibits  tragedy. 
532  Polycrates  becomes  tyrant  of  Samos. 
531  The  philosopher  Pythagoras  and  the  poet  Anacreon 
flourished.    All  accounts  make  them  contemporary 
with  Polycrates. 
529  Death  of  Cyrus  and  accession  of  Cambyses  as  king 

of  Persia. 

527  Death  of  Pisistratus,  33  years  after  his  first  usurpation. 
525  Cambyses  conquers  Egypt  hi  the  fifth  year  of  hi* 

reign. 
War  of  the  Lacedaemonians  against  Polycrates  of  Sa- 

mos. 

Birth  of  JEschylus. 
Anacreon  and  Simonides  came  to  Athens  in  the  reign 

of  Hipparchus. 

523  Cbcerilus  of  Athens  first  exhibits  tragedy. 
522  Polycrates  of  Samos  put  to  death. 
521  Death  of  Cambyses,  usurpation  of  the  Magi,  and  ac- 
cession of  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes,  to  the  Persian 
throne. 
Hecateeus  and  Dionysius  of  Miletus,  the  historians, 

flourished. 

520  Melanippides  of  Melos,  the  dithyrambic  poet,  flour- 
ished. 
519  Platceae  places  itself  under  the  protection  of  Athens. 

Birth  of  Cratinus,  the  comic  poet 
518  Birth  of  Pindar. 
514  Hipparchus,  tyrant  of  Athens,  slain  by  Harmodhu 

and  Aristogiton. 

511  Phrynicus,  the  tragic  poet,  flourished. 
510  Expulsion  of  Hippias  and  his  family  from  Athens. 
The  ten  tribes  instituted  at  Athens  by  Clisthenes. 
TelesUla  of  Argos,  the  poetess,  flourished. 
504  Charon  of  Lampsacus,  the  historian,  flourished. 
503  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus,  the  philosopher,  and  Lasui 

of  Hermione,  the  lyric  poet,  flourished. 
501  Naxos  besieged  by  Aristagoras   and  the    Persians. 
Upon  the  failure  of  this  attempt,  Aristagoras  de- 
termines to  revolt  from  the  Persians. 
Hecataeus  the  historian  took  part  in  the  deliberations 

of  the  lonians  respecting  the  revolt 
500  Aristagoras  solicits  aid  from  Athens  and  Sparta. 

Birth  of  Apaxagoras  the  philosopher. 
499  First  year  of  the  Ionian  revolt     The  lonians,  assisted 

by  the  Athenians,  burn  Sardis. 
./Eschylus,  aged  25,  first  exhibits  tragedy. 
498  Second  year  of  the  Ionian  revolt    Cyprus  recovered 
by  the  Persians. 


GREEK  HISTORY. 


965 


#7  Third  year  of  the  Ionian  revolt    Aristagoras  slain  in 

Thrace. 

Death  of  Pythagoras,  according  to  Eusebius 
496  Fourth  year  of  the  Ionian  revolt.    Histiseus  comes 

down  to  the  coast 

Birth  of  Hellanicus  of  Mytilene,  the  historian. 
495  Fifth  year  of  the  Ionian  revolt 

Birth  of  Sophocles. 

494  Sixth  and  last  year  of  the  Ionian  revolt  The  loni- 
ans  defeated  in  a  naval  battle  near  Miletus,  and  Mi- 
letus taken. 

493  The  Persians  take  the  islands  of  Chios,  Lesbos,  and 
Tenedos.  Miltiades  fled  from  the  Chersoncsus  to 
Athens.  He  had  been  in  the  Chersonesus  twenty- 
two  years,  having  succeeded  hia  brother  Stesagoras 
in  the  government  in  B.C.  515. 
492  Mardonius,  the  Persian  general,  invades  Europe,  and 

unites  Macedonia  to  the  Persian  empire. 
491  Darius  sends  heralds  to  Greece  to  demand  earth  and 

water. 

War  between  Athens  and  JEgina. 
Demaratus,  king  of  Sparta,  deposed  by  the  intrigues 

of  his  colleague  Cleomenes.  He  flies  to  Darius. 
490  Datis  and  Artaphernes,  the  Persian  generals,  invade 
Europe.  They  take  Eretria  in  Euboea,  and  land  in 
Attica  under  the  guidance  of  Hippias.  They  are 
defeated  at  Marathon  by  the  Athenians  under  the 
command  of  Miltiades. 

^schylus  fought  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  set  35. 
489  Miltiades  attempts  to  conquer  Naxus,  but  is  repulsed. 
He  is  accused,  and,  unable  to  pay  the  fine,  in  which 
he  was  condemned,  is  thrown  into  prison,  where 
he  died. 

Panyasis  the  poet  the  uncle  of  Herodotus,  flourished. 
487  Chionides,  the  Athenian  comic  poet,  first  exhibits. 
486  Revolt  of  Egypt  from  the  Persians  in  the  fourth  year 

after  the  battle  of  Marathon. 
485  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  succeeds  Darius. 

Gelon  becomes  master  of  Syracuse. 
484  Egypt  reconquered  by  the  Persians. 
Herodotus  bora. 

jEschylus  gains  the  prize  in  tragedy. 
Achaeus,  the  tragic  poet,  born. 

483  Ostracism  of  Aristides.  He  was  recalled  from  ban- 
ishment three  years  afterward. 

481  Tbemistocles  the  leading  man  at  Athens.  He  per- 
suades his  countrymen  to  build  a  fleet  of  200  ships, 
that  they  might  be  able  to  resist  the  Persians. 
tfiO  Xerxes  invades  Greece.  He  set  out  from  Sardis  at 
the  beginning  of  the  spring.  The  battles  of  Thcr- 
mopyta  and  Artemisinm  were  fought  at  the  time 
of  the  Olympic  games.  The  Athenians  deserted 
their  city,  which  was  taken  by  Xerxes.  The  battle 
of  Salamis,  in  which  the  fleet  of  Xerxes  was  de- 
stroyed, was  fought  in  the  autumn. 
Birth  of  Euripides. 

Fherecydes  of  Athens,  the  historian,  flourished. 
479  After  the  return  of  Xerxes  to  Asia,  Mardonius,  who 
was  left  in  the  command  of  the  Persian  army, 
passed  the  winter  in  Thessaly.  In  the  spring 
be  marches  southward,  and  occupies  Athens  ten 
months  after  its  occupation  by  Xerxes.  At  the 
battle  of  Plateeaj,  fought  in  September,  be  Is  defeat 
ed  by  the  Greeks  under  the  command  of  Pausanins. 
On  the  same  day  the  Persian  fleet  is  defeated  off 
Mycale  by  the  Greek  fleet  Scstos  besieged  by  the 
Greeks  in  the  autumn,  and  surrendered  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring. 


479  Antiphon,  the  Athenian  orator,  born. 

Choerilus  of  Samos,  the  epic  poet  probably  born. 
478  Sestos  taken  by  the  Greeks.    Hieron  succeeds  Gelon 
The  history  of  Herodotus  terminates  at  the  siege  of 

Sestos. 

477  In  consequence  of  the  haughty  conduct  of  Pausanias, 
the  maritime  allies  place  themselves  under  the  su- 
premacy of  Athens.  Commencement  of  the  Athe- 
nian ascendency  or  empire,  which  lasted  about  sev- 
enty years — sixty-five  before  the  ruin  of  the  Athe- 
nian affairs  in  Sicily,  seventy-three  before  the  cap- 
ture of  Athens  by  Lysander. 
Epicharmus,  the  comic  poet,  flourished  in  the  reign 

of  Hieron. 

476  Cimon,  commanding  the  forces  of  the  Athenians  and 
of  the  allies,  expels  the  Persians  from  Eion,  on  the 
Strymon,  and  then  takes  the  island  of  Scyros,  where 
the  bones  of  Theseus  are  discovered. 
Phrynichus  gains  the  prize  in  tragedy. 
Simonides,  ret.  80,  gains  the  prize  in  the  dithyrambic 

chorus. 
474  Naval  victory  of  Hieron  over  the  Tuscans. 

Death  of  Theron  of  Agrigentum. 
472  The  Persa  of  j£schylus  performed. 
471  Themistocles,  banished  by  ostracism,  goes  to  Argo*. 

Pausanias  convicted  of  treason  and  put  to  death. 
Thucydides,  the  historian,  born. 
Timocreon  of  Rhodes,  the  lyric  poet,  flourished  in  the 

time  of  Themistocles. 
469  Pericles  begins  to  take  part  hi  public  affairs,  forty 

years  before  bis  death. 
468  Mycenae  destroyed  by  the  Argives. 
Death  of  Aristides. 
Socrates  bom. 

Sophocles  gained  his  first  tragic  victory. 
467  Death  of  Hieron.  . 

Andocides,  the  orator,  born. 
Simonides,  set  90,  died. 
466  Naxos  revolted  and  subdued. 

Great  victory  of  Cimon  over  the  Persians  at  the  RiT 

er  Eurymedon,  in  Pamphylia. 
Themistocles  flies  to  Persia, 

After  the  death  of  Hieron,  Thrasybulus  ruled  Syr» 
cose  for  a  year,  at  the  end  of  which  time  a  demo 
crutical  form  of  government  was  established. 
_    Diagoras  of  Melos  flourished. 
465  Revolt  of  Thasos. 

Death  of  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  and  accession  of  Ar- 

taxerxes  I. 
464  Earthquake  at  Sparta,  and  revolt  of  the  Helots  and 

Mesteoians. 
Cimon  marches  to  the  assistance  of  the  Lacednmo- 

nions. 

Zeno  of  Elea  flourished. 
463  Thasos  subdued  by  Cimon. 

Xanthus  of  Lydia  continued  to  write  history  in  UM 

reign  of  Artaxerxes. 

461  Cimon  marches  a  second  time  to  the  assistance  of  the 
Lacedemonians,  but  his  offers  are  declined  by  the 
latter,  and  the  Athenian  troops  sent  back.  Ostra- 
cism of  Cimon. 

Pericles  at  the  head  of  public  affairs  at  Athens. 
460  Revolt  of  Inaros,  and  first  year  of  the  Egyptian  wai. 
which  lasted  six  years.    The  Athenians  sent  assist 
ance  to  the  Egyptians.  . 

Democritui  and  Hippocrates  born. 
459  Gorglas  flourished. 
458  Lysias  born. 


966 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


458  The  Oresttia  of  ./Escbylus  performed. 
457  Battle*  in  the  Megarid,  between  the  Athenian*  and 
Corinthians.    The  Lacedaemonians  march  into  Do- 
ris, to  assist  the  Dorians  against  the  Phocians.    On 
their  return,  they  are  attacked  by  the  Athenians  at 
Tansgra,  but  the  latter  are  defeated.    The  Atheni- 
ans commence  building  their  long  walls,  which 
were  completed  in  the  following  year. 
Panyasis,  the  uncle  of  Herodotus,  put  to  death  by 

Lygdamis. 
456  The  Athenians,  commanded  by  Myronides,  defeat  the 

Thebans  at  CEnophyta. 
Recall  of  Cimon  from  exile. 
Herodotus  set  25.    Thucydides  set  15. 
Herodotus  is  said  to  have  recited  his  history  at  the 
Olympic  games  when  Thucydides  was  a  boy.    The 
recitation  may  therefore  be  placed  in  this  year,  if 
the  tale  be  true,  which  is  very  doubtful. 
Death  of  jEschylus,  set  69. 

455  The  Messenians  conquered  by  the  Lacedaemonians  in 
the  tenth  year  of  the  war.  Tolmides,  the  Athenian 
general,  settles  the  expelled  Messenians  at  Naupac- 
tas.  See  B.C.  464.  Tolmides  sails  round  Pelopon- 
nesus with  an  Athenian  fleet,  and  does  great  injury 
to  the  Peloponnesians. 

End  of  the  Egyptian  war  in  the  sixth  year.    See  B.C. 
460.    All  Egypt  conquered  by  the  Persians,  except 
the  marshes,  where  Amyrtasus  continued  to  hold 
ont  for  some  years.    See  B.C.  449. 
Euripides,  set.  25,  first  gains  the  prize  in  tragedy. 
454  Campaign  of  Pericles  at  Sicyon  and  in  Acarnania. 

Crntinus,  the  comic  writer,  flourished. 
451  Ion  of  Chios,  the  tragic  writer,  begins  to  exhibit. 
450  Five  years'  truce  between  the  Athenians  and  Pelopon- 
nesians,  made  through  the  intervention  of  Cimon. 
Anaxagoras,  set  50,  withdraws  from  Athens,  after  re- 
siding there  thirty  years. 

Crates,  the  comic  poet,  and  Bacchylides,  flourished. 
449  Renewal  of  the  war  with  Persia.    The  Athenians  send 
assistance  to  Amyrtseus.    Death  of  Cimon,  and  vic- 
tory of  the  Athenians  at  Salamis,  in  Cyprus. 
448  Sacred  war  between  the  Delphians  and  Fhocians  for 
the  possession  of  the  oracle  and  temple.    The  Lac- 
edaemonians assisted  the  Delphians,  and  the  Athe- 
nians the  Phocians. 

447  The  Athenians  defeated  at  Coronea  by  the  Boeotians. 
445  Revolt  of  Euboea  and  Megara  from  Athens.    The  five 
years'  truce  having  expired  (see  B.C.  450),  the  Lac- 
,  edsemonians,  led  by  Plistoanax,  invade  Attica.    Aft- 

er the  Lacedaemonians  had  retired,  Pericles  recov- 
ers Eubcea.  The  thirty  years'  truce  between  Athens 
and  Sparta. 

444  Pericles  begins  to  have  the  sole  direction  of  public  af- 
fairs at  Athens.    Thucydides,  the  son  of  Milesias, 
the  leader  of  the  aristocratic al  party,  ostracized. 
Melissus  and  Empedocles,  the  philosophers,  flour- 
ished. 
443  The  Athenians  send  a  colony  to  Thurii,  in  Italy. 

Herodotus,  set.  41,  and  Lysias,  set  15,  accompany  this 

colony  to  Thurii. 

<41  Euripides  gains  the  first  prize  in  tragedy. 
}40  Samos  revolts  from  Athens,  but  is  subdued  by  Peri- 
cles in  the  ninth  month. 

Sophocles,  set.  55,  was  one  of  the  ten  Athenian  gener- 
•  als  who  fought  against  Samos. 
Melissus,  the  philosopher,  defends  Samos  against  Per- 
icles. 
A  decree  to  prohibit  comedy  at  Athens. 


439  Athens  at  the  height  of  its  glory. 
437  Colony  of  Agnon  to  Amphipolis. 

The  prohibition  of  comedy  repealed. 
436  Isocrates  born. 

Cratinus,  the  comic  poet,  gains  the  prize. 
435  War  between  the  Corinthians  and  Corcyrtenns  OB 
account  of  Epidamnus.    The  Corinthians  defeated 
by  the  Corcyrssans  in  a  sea-fight 

434  The  Corinthians  make  great  preparations  to  carry  on 
the  war  with  vigor. 

Lysippus,  the  comic  poet,  gains  the  prize. 
433  The  Corcyraeans  and  Corinthians  send  embassies  to 
Athens  to  solicit  assistance.    The  Athenians  form  a 
defensive  alliance  with  the  Corcyraeans. 
432  The  Corcyrasans,  assisted  by  the  Athenians,  defeat  the 
Corinthians  in  the  spring.    In  the  same  year  Poti- 
daea  revolts  from  Athens.    Congress  of  the  Polo- 
ponnesians  in  the  autumn  to  decide  upon  war  with 
Athens. 

Andocides  the  orator,  one  of  the  commanders  of  the 
Athenian  fleet  to  protect  the  Corcyrjeans  against 
the  Corinthians. 

Anaxagoras,  prosecuted  for  impiety  at  Athens,  with- 
draws to  Lampsacus,  where  he  died  about  four 
years  afterward. 

Aspasia  prosecuted  by  the  comic  poet  Hermippus, 
but  acquitted  through  the  influence  of  Pericles. 

Prosecution  and  death  of  Phidias. 
431  First  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The  Thebans 
make  an  attempt  upon  PlatsesB  two  months  before 
midsummer.  Eighty  days  afterward,  Attica  ia  in- 
vaded by  the  Peloponnesians.  Alliance  between 
the  Athenians  and  Sitalces,  king  of  Thrace. 

Hellanicus  set  65,  Herodotus  sat  53,  Thucydides  set. 
40,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 

The  Medea  of  Euripides  exhibited. 
430  Second  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Second  in 
vasion  of  Attica. 

The  plague  rages  at  Athens. 

429  Third  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Potidssa  sur- 
renders to  the  Athenians  after  a  siege  of  more  than 
two  years.    Naval  actions  of  Phormio  in  the  Co- 
rinthian gulf.     Commencement  of  the  siege  of  Pla-    - 
taeae.    Death  of  Pericles  in  the  autumn. 

Birth  of  Plato,  the  philosopher. 

Eupolis  and  Phrynichus,  the  comic  poets,  exhibit 
428  Fourth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Third  inva- 
sion of  Attica.    Revolt  of  all  Lesbos  except  Me- 
thymna.    Mytilene  besieged  toward  the  autumn. 

Death  of  Anaxagoras,  set.  72. 

The  Hippolytus  of  Euripides  gains  the  first  prize. 

Plato,  the  comic  poet,  first  exhibits. 
427  Fifth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Fourth  inva- 
sion of  Attica.  Mytilene  taken  by  the  Athenians 
and  Lesbos  recovered.  The  demagogue  Cleon  be- 
gins to  have  great  influence  in  public  affairs.  Pla- 
tasse  surrendered  to  the  Peloponnesians.  Sedition 
at  Corcyra.  The  Athenians  send  assistance  to  the 
Leontinians  in  Sicily. 

Aristophanes,  the  comic  poet,  first  exhibits.  He  gains 
the  prize  with  the  play  called  AairaAtTy,  which  is 
lost 

Gorgias  ambassador  from  Leontini  to  Athens.    He 

was  probably  now  nearly  sixty  years  of  age. 
426  Sixth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    The  Pelopon- 
nesians do  not  invade  Attica  in  consequence  of  an 
earthquake. 

Lustration  of  J)elos. 


<SREEK  HISTORY. 


967 


(26  The  Babylonians  of  Aristophanes. 
425  Seventh  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Fifth  inva- 
sion of  Attica.    Demosthenes  takes  possession  of 
Pylos.    The  Spartans  in  the  island  of  Sphacteria 
surrendered  to  Cleon  seventy-two  days  afterward. 
Eruption  of  Mount  /Etna. 
Accession  of  Darius  Nothus. 
The  Acharnians  of  Aristophanes. 

424  Eighth,  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Kicias  rava- 
ge* the  coast  of  Laconia  and  captures  the  island  of 
Cythera.    March  of  Brasidas  into  Thrace,  who  ob- 
tains possession  of  Acanthus  and  Amphipolis.    The 
Athenians  defeated  by  the  Thebans  at  Delium. 
Socrates  and  Xenophon  fought  at  the  battle  of  Delium. 
Thucydides,  the  historian,  commanded  at  Amphipolis. 
The  Knightt  of  Aristophanes. 
423  Ninth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.     Truce  for  a 

year. 
Thucydides  banished  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of 

Ampliipolis.    He  was  20  years  in  exile. 
The  Clouds  of  Aristophanes  first  exhibited. 
Antiochus  of  Syracuse  brought  down  his  history  to 

this  date. 

422  Tenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Hostilities  in 
Thrace  between  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Atheni- 
ans.   Both  Brasidas  and  Cleon  fall  in  battle.    Athe- 
nian citizens  at  this  time  computed  at  20,000. 
The   Watps  of  Aristophanes,  and  second  exhibition 

of  the  Cloudt. 
Death  of  Cratinus. 

Protagoras,  the  sophist,  comes  to  Athens. 
421  Eleventh  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Truce  for 
fifty  years  between  the  Athenians  and  Lacedaemo- 
nians.   Though  this  truce  was  not  formally  de- 
clared to  be  at  an  end  till  B.C.  414,  there  were,  not- 
withstanding, frequent  hostilities  meantime. 
The  MapiKu?  and  KrfXaKtj  of  Eupolis. 
<20  Twelfth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Treaty  be- 
tween the  Athenians  and  Argives  effected  by  means 
of  Alcibiades. 
The  *Aypio«  of  Pherecrates.    The  \\n6\vxot  of  Eu- 

polis. 

419  Thirteenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Alcibia- 
des marches  into  Peloponnesus. 
The  Peace  of  Aristophanes. 

4 18  Fourteenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The  Athe- 
nians send  a  force  into  Peloponnesus  to  assist  the 
Argives  against  the  Lacedaemonians,  but  are  defeat- 
ed at  the  battle  of  M  an  tin  ca.  Alliance  between  Spar- 
ta and  Argos. 

4 17  Fifteenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
41(5  Sixteenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    The  Athe- 
nians conquer  Meloa. 
Agathon,  the  tragic  poet,  gains  the  prize. 
415  Seventeenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    The 
Athenian  expedition  against  Sicily.    It  sailed  after 
midsummer,  commanded  by  Nicias,  Alcibiades,  and 
Lnmachus.    Mutilation  of  the  Hernias  at  Athens 
before  the  fleet  sailed.    The  Athenians  take  Cat*- 
na.    Alcibiadus  is  recalled  home :  he  make*  his  es- 
cape, and  takes  refage  with  the  Lacedaemonians. 
Andocides,  the  orator,  imprisoned  on  the  mutilation 
of  the  Hcrniai.    He  escapes  by  turning  informer. 
He  afterward  went  to  Cyprus  and  other  countries. 
Xcnocies,  the  tragic  poet,  gains  the  first  prize. 
Archippus,  the  comic  poet,  gains  the  prize. 
414  Eighteenth  ycnr  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Second 
campaign  in  Sicily.     The  Athenians  Invest  Syra- 


cuse.    Gylippus,  the  Lacedaemonian,  comes  to  th« 
assistance  of  the  Syracusans. 

The  S!rd$  and  Amphiaraus  (a  lost  drama)  of  Aris- 
tophanes. 

Amipsias,  the  comic  poet,  gains  the  prize  with  hie 

KdJItaoral. 

413  Nineteenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Invasion 
of  Attica  and  fortification  of  Decelea,  on  the  advice 
of  Alcibiades. 

Third  campaign  in  Sicily.  Demosthenes  sent  with  a 
large  force  to  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  To- 
tal destruction  of  the  Athenian  army  and  fleet.  Ni- 
cias and  Demosthenes  surrender  and  are  put  to 
death  on  the  12th  or  13th  of  September,  16  or  17 
days  after  the  eclipse  of  the  moon,  which  took  place 
on  the  27th  of  August 

Hegemon  of  Thasos,  the  comic  poet,  was  exhibiting 
his  parody  of  the  Gigantomachia  when  the  news 
arrived  at  Athens  of  the  defeat  in  Sicily. 
412  Twentieth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The  Les- 
bians revolt  from  Athens.  Alcibiades  sent  by  the 
Lacedaemonians  to  Asia  to  form  a  treaty  with  the 
Persians.  He  succeeds  in  his  mission,  and  forma  a 
treaty  with  Tissaphernes,  and  urges  the  Athenian 
allies  in  Asia  to  revolt  The  Athenians  make  uee 
of  the  1000  talents  deposited  for  extreme  emerg- 
encies. 

The  Andromeda  of  Euripides. 

411  Twenty-first  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Democ- 
racy abolished  at  Athens,  and  the  government  in- 
trusted to  a  council  of  Four  Hundred.  This  coun- 
cil holds  the  government  four  months.  The  Athe- 
nian army  at  Samos  recalls  Alcibiades  from  exile 
and  appoints  him  one  of  their  generals.  He  is  aft- 
erward recalled  by  a  vote  of  the  people  at  Athens. 
but  he  remained  abroad  for  the  next  four  years  at 
the  head  of  the  Athenian  forces.  Miudarus,  the 
Lacedaemonian  admiral,  defeated  at  Cynossema. 

Antiphon,  the  orator,  had  a  great  share  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Four  Hundred.  After  their  down, 
fall  he  is  brought  to  trial  and  put  to  death. 

The  history  of  Thucydides  suddenly  breaks  off  in  the 
middle  of  this  year. 

The  Lytistrata  and  Thetmophoriaxusa  of  Aristophanes 

Lysias  returns  from  Thurii  to  Athens. 
410  Twenty -second  year  of  the  Peloponnesinn  war.    Min- 
darus  defeated  and  slain  by  Alcibiadea  at  Cyzicus. 
409  Twenty -third  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

The  Philoctcta  of  Sophocles. 

Plato,  ffit  20,  begins  to  hear  Socrates. 
408  Twenty-fourth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    Al- 
cibiades  recovers  Byzantium. 

The  Ortttei  of  Euripides. 

Tho  Pliitiis  of  Aristophanes. 

407  Twenty-fifth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Alcfbi- 
ades  returns  to  Athens.  Lysander  appointed  the 
Lacedaemonian  admiral  and  supported  by  Cyrus, 
who  this  rear  received  the  government  of  the  coun- 
tries on  the  Asiatic  coast  Antiochus,  the  lieutenant 
of  Alcibiades,  defeated  by  Lysander  at  Notium  in 
the  absence  of  Aleibiades.  Alcibiades  is  in  conse- 
quence banished,  and  ten  new  generals  appointed. 

Antiphancs,  the  comic  poet,  born. 

406  Twenty-sixth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Calli 
cratidas,  who  succeeded  Lysander  as  Lacedaemo- 
nian admiral,  defeated  by  the  Athenians  in  the  sea- 
fight  off  the  Argimuaa  islands.  The  Athenian  gen- 
erals condemned  to  death,  because  they  bad  not 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


picked  up  the  bodies  of  those  who  bad  fallen  in  the 
battle. 
406  Pionysius  becomes  master  of  Syracuse. 

Death  of  Euripides. 

Death  of  Sophocles. 

Philistus  of  Syracuse,  the  historian,  espoused   the 

cause  of  Dionysius. 

<05  Twenty-seventh  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Ly- 
sandcr  defeats  the  Athenians  off  JEgospotami,  and 
takes  or  destroys  all  their  fleet  with  the  exception 
of  eight  ships,  which  fled  with  Conon  to  Cyprus. 

The  Frogs  of  Aristophanes  acted  in  February  at  the 

Lensea. 

404  Twenty-eighth  and  last  year  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war.  Athena  taken  by  Lysander  in  the  spring,  on 
the  16th  of  the  month  Munychion.  Democracy 
abolished,  and  the  government  intrusted  to  thirty 
men,  usually  called  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 

The  Thirty  Tyrants  held  their  power  for  eight  months, 
till  Thrasybulus  occupied  Fbyle  and  advanced  to 
the  Piraeus. 

Death  of  Alcibiades  during  the  tyranny  of  the  Thirty. 

Lysias  banished  after  the  battle  of  vEgospotami. 
403  Thrasybulus  and  his  party  obtain  possession  of  the 
Piraeus,  from  whence  they  carried  on  war  for  sev- 
eral months  against  the  Ten,  the  successors  of  the 
Thirty.  They  obtain  possession  of  Athens  before 
Hecatombteon  (July) ;  but  the  contest  between  the 
parties  was  not  finally  concluded  till  Boedromion 
(September).  The  date  of  the  amnesty,  by  which 
the  exiles  were  restored,  was  the  12th  of  Boedro- 
mion. Euclides  was  archon  at  the  time. 

Thucydidea,  set.  68,  Lysias,  and  Andocides  return  to 

Athena. 

101  Expedition  of  Cyrus  against  his  brother  Artaxerxes. 
He  falls  in  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  which  was  fought 
in  the  autumn.  His  Greek  auxiliaries  commence 
their  return  to  Greece,  usually  called  the  retreat 
of  the  Ten  Thousand. 

First  year  of  the  war  of  Lacedsemon  and  Elis. 

Xenophon  accompanied  Cyrus,  and  afterward  was 
the  principal  general  of  the  Greeks  in  their  retreat. 

Ctesias,  the  historian,  was  physician  at  the  court  of 
Artaxerxes  at  this  time. 

The  fEdipus  at  Colonut  of  Sophocles  exhibited,  after 
bis  death,  by  his  grandson  Sophocles.  See  B.C.  406. 

Tclcstcs  gains  a  dithyrambic  prize. 
400  Return  of  the  Ten  Thousand  to  Greece. 

Second  year  of  the  war  of  Lacedsemon  and  Elis. 

The  speech  of  Andocides  on  the  Mysteries :  he  is  now 

about  67  years  of  age. 

399  The  Lacedtemoniwis  send  Thimbron  with  an  army 
to  assist  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  against  Tissapher- 
nes  and  Pharnabazua.  The  remainder  of  the  Ten 
Thousand  incorporated  with  the  troops  of  Thim- 
bron. In  the  autumn  Thimbron  was  superseded 
by  Dercyllidas. 

Third  and  last  year  of  the  war  of  Lacedcemon  and 
Elis. 

Death  of  Socrates,  net.  70. 

Plato  withdraws  to  Megara. 
398  Dercyllidas  continues  the  war  in  Asia  with  success. 

Ctesias  brought  his  Persian  History  down  to  this  year. 

Astydamas,  the  tragic  poet,  first  exhibits. 

Philoxenug,  Timotheus,  and  Telestea  flourished. 
397  Dercyllidas  still  continues  the  war  in  Asia. 
396  Agtsilaua  supersedes  Dercyllidas.     First  campaign 
|M  . ,.    of  Agcsilaus  in  Asia.    He  winters  at  Ephesus. 


396  Sophocles,  the  grandaon  of  the  great  Sophocles,  bs 
gins  to  exhibit  this  year  in  his  own  name.    See  B.C. 
401. 
Xenocrates,  the  philosopher,  born. 

395  Second  campaign  of  Agesilaus  in  Asia.  He  defeats 
Tissaphernes,  and  becomes  master  of  Western 
Asia.  Tissaphernes  superseded  by  Tithraustcs. 
who  sends  envoys  into  Greece  to  induce  the  Greek 
elates  to  declare  war  against  Lacedsemon.  Com- 
mencement of  the  war  of  the  Greek  states  against 
Lacedemon.  Lysander  slain  at  Haliartus. 
Plato,  tut  34,  returns  to  Athens. 

394  Agesilaus  recalled  from  Asia  to  fight  against  the  Greek 
states,  who  had  declared  war  against  Lacedtemon. 
He  passed  the  Hellespont  about  midsummer,  and 
was  at  the  entrance  of  Boeotia  on  the  14th  of  Au- 
gust. He  defeats  the  allied  forces  at  Coronaa.  A 
little  before  the  latter  battle,  the  Lacedterr  jnians 
also  gained  a  victory  near  Corinth ;  but  about  the 
same  time,  Conon,  the  Athenian  admiral,  tr.d  Phar- 
nabazus,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Pisnnder, 
the  Spartan  admiral,  off  Cnidus. 
Xenophon  accompanied  Agesilaus  froor.  Ada,  and 
fought  against  his  country  at  Coronea.  He  was,  in 
consequence,  banished  from  Athens.  lie  retired 
under  Lacedaemonian  protection  to  P/l'.us,  where 
he  composed  his  works. 

Theopompus  brought  his  history  down  to  this  year. 
It  embraced  a  period  of  17  years,  from  the  battle 
of  Cynossema,  B.C.  411,  to  the  batUu  of  Cnidos, 
B.C.  394. 

393  Sedition  at  Corinth  and  victory  of  the  Lacedemoni- 
ans at  Lechteum.    Pharnabazus  and  Conon  ravage 
.   the  coasts  of  Peloponnesus.     Conon  begins  to  re- 
store the  long  walls  of  Athens  and  the  fortifications 
of  the  Piraeus. 

392  The  Lacedaemonians  under  Agesilaus  ravage  the  Co- 
rinthian territory,  but  a  Spartan  mora  ia  cut  to 
pieces  by  Iphicrates. 
The  Ecclesiazustt  of  Aristophanes. 

391  Expedition  of  Agesilaus  into  Acarnania. 

Speech  of  Andocides  "  On  the  Peace."    He  is  ban- 
ished. 
Plato,  the  comic  poet,  exhibits. 

390  Expedition  of  Agesipolis  into  Argolis.  The  Persians 
again  espouse  the  cause  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  and 
Conon  is  thrown  into  prison.  The  Athenians  assist 
Evagoras  of  Cyprus  against  the  Persians.  Thr«- 
sybulus,  the  Athenian  commander,  is  defeated  and 
slain  by  the  Lacedaemonian  Teleutias  at  Aspendus. 

389  Agyrrhiua  sent,  as  the  successor  of  Thrasybulus,  to 

Aspendus,  and  Iphicratea  to  the  Hellespont 
Plato,  tet.  40,  goes  to  Sicily  :  the  first  of  the  three  voy 

ages. 
jEschines  born  about  this  time. 

388  Antalcidas,  the  Lacedaemonian  commander  on  tlia 
Asiatic  coast,  opposed  to  Iphicrates  and  Chabrias. 
The  second  edition  of  the  Plutut  of  Aristophanes. 

387  The  peace  of  Antalcidas. 

Antiphanes,  the  comic  poet,  begins  to  exhibit 

386  Restoration  of  Plateaas,  and  independence  of  the  towns 
of  Boeotia. 

385  Destruction  of  Mantinea  by  the  Lacediemonians  un- 
der Agesipolis. 
Great  sea-fight  between  Evagoras  and  the  Persians. 

384  Birth  of  Aristotle. 

382  First  year  of  the  Olynthian  war.  The  Laced»monl 
ans  commanded  by  Teleutiaa. 


GREEK  HISTORY. 


969 


382  Pheebidas  seizes  the  Cadmea.  the  citadel  of  Thebes. 

This  was  before  Teleutias  marched  to  Olynthus. 
Birth  of  Demosthenes. 
381  Second  year  of  the  Olynthian  war.    Teleutias  slain, 

and  the  command  taken  by  Agesipolis. 
380  Third  year  of  the  Olynthian  war.    Death  of  Agesipo- 
lis, who  is  succeeded  by  Polybiades. 
The  Panegyricut  of  Isocrates. 
379  Fourth  and  last  year  of  the  Olynthian  war.     The 

Olynthians  surrender  to  Polybiades. 
Surrender  of  Phlius,  after  a  siege  of  20  months,  to 

Agesilaus. 
The  Cadmea  recovered  by  the  Theban  exiles  in  the 

winter. 

178  Cleombrotus  sent  into  Boeotia  in  the  middle  of  win- 
ter, but  returned  without  effecting  any  thing.  The 
Lacedaemonian  Sphodrias  makes  an  attempt  upon 
the  Piraeus.  The  Athenians  form  an  alliance  with 
the  Thebans  against  Sparta.  First  expedition  of 
Agesilaus  into  Boeotia. 
Death  of  Lysiaa. 

177  Second  expedition  of  Agesilaus  into  Boeotia 
374  Cleombrotus  marches  into  Bceotia,  and  sustains  a 

slight  repulse  at  the  passes  of  Cithseron. 
The  Lacedaemonian  fleet  conquered  by  Chabrias  off 
Naxos,  and  the  Athenians  recover  the  dominion  of 
the  sea. 
Tenth  and  last  ye4r  of  the  war  between  Evagoras 

and  the  Persians. 

Demosthenes  left  an  orphan  in  his  seventh  year. 
Anaxanclrides,  the  comic  poet,  flourished. 
175  Cleombrotus  sent  into  Phocis,  which  had  been  invaded 
by  the  Thebans.  who  withdraw  into  their  own  coun- 
try on  his  arrival. 
Araros,  the  son  of  Aristophanes,  first  exhibits  com- 

edy. 

Eubulus,  the  comic  poet,  flourished. 
374  The  Athenians,  jealous  of  the  Thebans,  conclude  a 
peace  with  Lacedaemon.    Timotheus,  the  Atheni- 
an commander,  takes  Corcyra,  and  on  his  return 
to  Athens  restores  the  Zacynthian  exiles  to  their 
country.    This  leads  to  a  rcqpwal  of  the  war  be- 
tween Athena  and  Lacediemon. 
Second  destruction  of  Platete. 
Jason  elected  Tagus  of  Thessaly. 
Isocrates  advocated  the  cause  of  the  Plateaus  in  bis 

MAaraiKaf. 

373  The  Lacedemonians  attempt  to  regain  possession  of 
Corcyra,  and  send  Mnasippus  with  a  force  for  the 
purpose,  but  he  is  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Corey* 
rat-am.  Iphicratcs,  with  Cullistrntus  and  Chabrial 
as  his  colleagues,  sent  to  Corcyra. 
Prosecution  of  Timotheus  by  Call Lstratu*  and  Iphic- 

rate*.      Timotheus  is  acquitted. 
372  Timotheus  goes  to  Asia.    Iphicrates  continued  in  the 

command  of  a  fleet  in  the  Ionian  Sea. 
The  most  eminent  orators  of  this  period  were  Leoni- 
das,  CoUistratus,  Aristophon  the  Azeninn,  Ccpha- 
lus  the  Colyttian,  Thraiybulus  the  Colyttinn,  and 
Diophautus. 

Astydamas  gains  the  prize  in  tragedy. 
S71  Congress  at  Sparta,  and  general  peace,  from  which 
the  Thebans  were  excluded,  because  they  would 
not  grant  the  independence  of  ihe  Boeotian  towns. 
The  Lacedaemonians,  commanded  by  Cleombrotus 
invade  Bruotia,  but  are  defeated  by  the  Thebans 
under  Epaminondas  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra. 
Foundation  oi  Megalopolis. 


370  Expedition  of  Agesilaus  into  Arcadia. 

Jason  of  Pheree  slain.  After  the  interval  of  a  year, 
Alexander  of  Pherao  succeeds  to  his  power  in 
Thessaly. 

369  First  invasion  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Thebang. 
They  remain  in  Peloponnesus  four  months,  and 
found  Messene. 

368  Second  invasion  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Theban*. 
Expedition  of  Pelopidas  to  Thessaly.    He  is  impris- 
oned by  Alexander  of  Pherae,  but  Epaminondas 
obtains  his  release. 
Eudoxus  flourished. 
A  p  hare  us  begins  to  exhibit  tragedy. 
367  Arcbidamus  gains  a  victory  over  the  Arcadians. 
Embassy  of  Pelopidas  to  Persia. 
Death  of  the  elder  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  after  a  reign 

of  38  years. 

Aristotle,  aet  17,  comes  to  Athens. 
366  Third  invasion  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Thebans. 

The  Archidamua  of  Isocrates. 
365  War  between  Arcadia  and  Elis. 
364  Second  campaign  of  the  war  between  Arcadia  and 
Elis.    Battle  of  Olympia  at  the  time  of  the  games. 
Demosthenes,   aet.  18,   delivers  his  oration  against 

Apbobus. 

362  Fourth  invasion  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Thebans, 
Battle  of  Mantinea,  in  June,  in  which  Epaminondas 
{skilled. 
Xenophon  brought  down  his  Greek  history  to  the 

battle  of  Mantinea. 

yEschines,  the  orator,  aet  27,  is  present  at  Mantinea. 
361  A  general  peace  between  all  the  belligerents,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Lacedtemonians,  because  the  latter 
would  not  acknowledge  the  independence  of  the 
Messenians. 
Agesilaus  goes  to  Egypt  to  assist  Tachos,  and  dies  in 

the  winter,  when  preparing  to  return  home. 
Birth  of  Dinarchus,  the  orator. 

360  War  between  the  Athenians  and  Olynthians  for  the 
possession  of  Ampbipolis.    Timotheus,  the  Atheni- 
an general,  repulsed  at  Amphipolis. 
Theopompus  commenced  his  history  from  this  year. 
359  Accession  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  set  23.     Ho 
defeats  Argseus,  who  laid  claim  to  the  throne,  de- 
clares Amphipolis  a  free  city,  and  makes  peace  with 
the  Athenians.    He  then  defeats  the  Pteonians  and 
Illyrians. 
Death  of  Alexander  of  Phcrse,  who  was  succeeded 

by  Tisiphonus. 

358  Amphipolis  taken  by  Philip.  Expedition  of  the  Athe- 
nians into  Euboea. 

357  Chios,  Rhodes,  and  Byzantium  revolt  from  Athens. 
First  year  of  the  Social  War.  Chares  and  Chabri- 
as sent  against  Chios,  but  fail  in  their  attempt  upon 
the  island.  Chabrias  killed. 

The  Pbocians  seize  Delphi.    Commencement  of  the 
Sacred  War.    The  Thebans  and  the  Locrians  are 
the  chief  opponents  of  the  Phociani. 
Dion  sail*  from  Zacynthus  and  lands  in  Sicily  about 

September. 
Death  of  Democritus,  aet.  104,  of  Hippocrates,  ajt  104, 

and  of  the  poet  TimoUieus. 
356  Second  year  of  the  Social  war 

Birth  of  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip  and  Olympias, 

at  the  time  of  the  Olympic  games. 
Potidea  taken  by  Philip,  who  gives  it  to  Olynthus. 
Dionysius  the  younger  expelled  from  Syracuse  by 
Dion,  after  a  reign  of  12  years. 


970 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


B.C 
356 


355 

354 

353 
352 


351 
349 


348 
347 


346 


T45 
344 


343 


342 


139 


Philistus,  the  historian,  espouses  the  side  of  Dionys- 

ius, but  is  defeated  and  slain. 
The  speech  of  Isocrates  De  Pace. 
Third  and  last  year  of  the  Social  War.    Peace  con- 

cluded between  Athens  and  her  former  allies. 
Trial  and  condemnation  of  Timotheus. 
Demosthenes  begins  to  speak  in  the  assemblies  of  the 

people. 
Philip  seizes  upon  PagassB,  and  begins  to  besiege  Me- 

thone. 

Death  of  Dion. 
Philip  takes  Methone  and  enters  Thessaly.    He  de- 

feats and  slays  Onomarchus,  the  Phocian  general, 

expels  the  tyrants  from  Pliers,  and  becomes  mas- 
'  ter  of  Thessaly.    He  attempts  to  pass  Thermopy- 

lae, but  is  prevented  by  the  Athenians. 
War  between  Lacedsemon  and  Megalopolis. 
The  first  Philippic  of  Demosthenes. 
Speech  of  Demosthenes  for  the  Rhodians. 
The  Olynthians,  attacked  by  Philip,  ask  succor  from 

Athens. 

The  Olynthiac  orations  of  Demosthenes. 
Olynthian  war  continued. 
The  speech  of  Demosthenes  against  Midias. 
Olynthus  taken  and  destroyed  by  Philip. 
Death  of  Plato,  set.  82.    Speusippus  succeeds  Plato. 

Aristotle,  upon  the  death  of  Plato,  went  to  Atarnse. 
Anaxandrides,  the  comic  poet,  exhibits. 
Peace  between  Philip  and  the  Athenians. 
Philip  overruns  Phocis  and  brings  the  Sacred  war  to 

an  end,  after  it  had  lasted  ten  years.    All  the  Pho- 

cian cities,  except  Abae,  were  destroyed. 
Oration  of  Isocrates  to  Philip. 
Oration  of  Demosthenes  on  the  Peace. 
Speech  of  jEschines  against  Timarchus. 
Timoleon  sails  from  Corinth  to  Syracuse,  to  expel 

the  tyrant  Dionysius. 
Aristotle,  after  three  years'  stay  at  Atarnas,  went  to 

Mytilene. 

The  second  Philippic  of  Demosthenes. 
Timoleon  completes  the  conquest  of  Syracuse. 
Dionysius  was  thus  finally  expelled.    He  had  regained 

the  sovereignty  after  his  first  expulsion  by  Dion. 
Disputes  between  Philip  and  the  Athenians.   An  Athe- 

nian expedition  is  sent  into  Acarnania  to  counteract 

Philip,  who  was  in  that  country. 
The  speech  of  Demosthenes  respecting  Halonnesus. 
The  speeches  of  Demosthenes  and  jEschincs,  Iltpt 

TIapairpt.o6etas. 
Philip's  expedition  to  Thrace.    He  is  opposed  by  Di- 

opithes,  the  Athenian  general  at  the  Chersonesus. 
Aristotle  comes  to  the  court  of  Philip. 
Death  of  Menander. 
leocrntes,  set.  94,  began  to  compose  the  Panathenaic 

oration. 

Philip  is  still  hi  Thrace,  where  he  wintered. 
jtlie  oration  of  Demosthenes  on  the  Chersonesus,  in 

which  he  vindicates  the  conduct  of  Diopithes,  and 

the  third  and  fourth  Philippics. 
Birth  of  Epicurus. 

Philip  besieges  Selymbria,  Perinthus,  and  Byzantium. 
Isocrates  completes  the  Panathenaic  oration.    See 

B.C.  342. 
Ephorus  brought  down  his  history  to  the  siege  of  Pe- 

rinthus. 
Renewal  of  the  war  between  Philip  and  the  Atheni- 

ans.   Phocion  compels  Philip  to  raise  the  siege 
both  of  Byzantium  and  Perinthua. 


339  Xenocrates  succeeds  Spcuslppus  at  the  Academy. 

338  Philip  is  chosen  general  of  the  Amphictyons,  to  carry 

on  the  war  against  Amphissa.   He  marches  through 

ThermopyluB,  and  seizes  Elatea.    The  Athenians 

•     form  an  alliance  with  the  Thebans ;  but  their  united 

forces  are  defeated  by  Philip  at  the  battle  of  Chw 

ronea,  fought  on  the  7th  of  Metageitnion  (August). 

Philip  becomes  master  of  Greece.     Congress  lit 

Corinth,  in  which  war  is  declared  by  Greece  against 

Persia,  and  Philip  appointed  to  conduct  it 

Death  of  Isocrates,  a?t  98. 

337  Death  of  Timoleon. 

336  Murder  of  Philip,  and  accession  of  his  son  Alexander, 

set.  20. 
Dinarchus,  set  26,  began  to  compose  orations. 

335  Alexander  marches  against  the  Thracians,  Triballi, 
and  Illyrians.    While  he  is  engaged  in  the  war, 
Thebes  revolts.    He  forthwith  marches  southward, 
and  destroys  Thebes. 
Philippides,  the  comic  poet,  flourished. 

334  Alexander  commences  the  war  against  Persia.  Ha 
crosses  the  Hellespont  in  the  spring,  defeats  the 
Persian  satraps  at  the  Granicus  in  the  month  Thar- 
gelion  (May),  and  conquers  the  western  part  of 
Asia  Minor. 
Aristotle  returns  to  Athens. 

333  Alexander  subdues  Lycia  in  the  whiter,  collects  his 
forces  at  Gordium  in  the  spring,  and  defeats  Darius 
at  Issus  late  in  the  autumn. 

332  Alexander  takes  Tyre,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months, 
in  Hecatombaeon  (July).  He  takes  Gaza  in  Sep- 
tember, and  then  marches  into  Egypt,  which  sub- 
mits to  him.  In  the  winter  he  visits  the  oracle  of 
Amnion,  and  gives  orders  for  the  foundation  of  Al 
exandrea. 
Stephanus,  the  comic  poet,  flourished. 

331  Alexander  sets  out  from  Memphis  in  the  spring, 
marches  through  Phoenicia  and  Syria,  crosses  tho 
Euphrates  at  Thapsacus  in  the  middle  of  the  sum- 
mer, and  defeats  Darius  again  at  Arbela  or  Gauga- 
mela  on  the  1st  of  October.  He  wintered  at  Per- 
sepolis.  « 
In  Greece,  Agis  is  defeated  and  slain  by  Antipater. 

330  Alexander  marches  into  Media,  and  takes  Ecbatana. 
From  thence  he  sets  out  in  pursuit  of  Darius,  who 
is  slain  by  Bessus.  After  the  death  of  Darius,  Al- 
exander conquers  Hyrcania,  and  marches  in  pur- 
suit of  Bessus  through  Drangiana  and  Arachosia, 
toward  Bactria. 

The  speech  of  ./Eschines  against  Ctesiphon,  and  tho 
speech  of  Demosthenes  on  the  Crown.    ^Eschines, 
after  his  failure,  withdrew  to  Asia. 
Speech  of  Lycurgus  against  Leocrates. 
Philemon  began  to  exhibit  comedy,  during  the  reign 
of  Alexander,  a  little  earlier  than  Menander. 

329  Alexander  marches  across  tho  Paropamisus  in  the 
winter,  passes  the  Oxus,  takes  Bessus,  and  reaches 
the  Jaxartes,  where  he  founds  a  city  Alexandrea. 
He  subsequently  crosses  the  Jaxartes,  and  defeats 
the  Scythians.  He  winters  at  Bactra. 

328  Alexander  is  employed  during  the  whole  of  this  cam 

paign  in  the  conquest  of  Sogdiana. 
Crates,  the  cynic,  flourished. 

327  Alexander  con  pletes  the  conquest  of  Sogdiana  early 
in  the  spring.  He  marries  Roxana,  the  daughter 
of  Oxyartes,  a  Bactrian  prince.  After  the  subjuga- 
tion of  Sogdiana,  Alexander  returns  to  Bactra,  from 
whence  he  marches  to  invade  India.  He  crosse* 


GREEK  HISTORY. 


971 


the  Hydaspes,  and  defeats  Poms.  He  continues 
his  march  as  far  as  the  Hyphasis,  but  is  there  com- 
pelled by  his  troops  to  return  to  the  Hydaspes.  In 
the  autumn  he  begins  to  sail  down  the  Hydaspes 
and  the  Indus  to  the  ocean,  which  he  reached  in 
July  in  the  following  year. 

326  Alexander  returns  to  Persia  with  part  of  his  troops 
through  Gedrosia.  He  sends  Nearchus  with  the 
fleet  to  sail  from  the  mouths  of  the  Indus  to  the  Per- 
sian Gult  Nearchus  accomplishes  the  voyage  in 
129  days. 

325  Alexander  reaches  Susa  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 
Toward  the  close  of  it  he  visits  Ecbatana,  where 
Hephsastion  dies.    Campaign  against  the  Cosseei 
in  the  winter. 
324  Alexander  reaches  Babylon  in  the  spring. 

Harpalus  comes  to  Athens,  and  bribes  many  of  the 

Greek  orators. 

Demosthenes,  accused  of  having  received  a  bribe 
from  Harpalus,  is  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of  50 
talents.    He  withdraws  to  Troszen  and  jEgina. 
323  Death  of  Alexander  at  Babylon  in  June,  after  a  reign 

of  twelve  years  and  eight  months. 
Division  of  the  satrapies  among  Alexander's  generals. 
The  Greek  states  make  war  against  Macedonia,  usu- 
ally called  the  Lamian  war.    Leosthenes,  the  Athe- 
nian general,  defeats  Antipatcr,  and  besieges  Lamia, 
in  which  Antipater  had  taken  refuge.    Death  of  Le- 
osthenes. 

Demosthenes  returns  to  Athens. 
Hyperides  pronounces  the  funeral  oration  over  those 

who  had  fallen  in  the  Lamian  war. 
Epicurus,  eet.  18,  conies  to  Athens. 
Death  of  Diogenes,  the  cynic. 

322  Leonnatus  comes  to  the  assistance  of  Antipater,  but 
is  defeated  and  slain.    Craterus  comes  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Antipater.    Defeat  of  the  confederates  at 
the  battle  of  Crannon  on  the  7th  of  August.    End 
of  the  Lamian  war.    Munychia  occupied  by  the 
Macedonians  on  the  19th  of  September. 
Death  of  Demosthenes  on  the  14th  of  October. 
Death  of  Aristotle,  let  63,  at  Chalcis,  whither  he  had 

withdrawn  from  Athens  a  few  months  before. 
321  Antipater  and  Craterus  cross  over  into  Asia,  to  carry 
on  war  against  Perdiccas.  Craterus  is  defeated  and 
slain  by  Eumenes,  who  had  espoused  the  side  of 
Perdiccas.  Perdiccas  Invades  Egypt,  where  he  is 
slain  by  his  own  troops.  Partition  of  the  provinces 
at  Triparadisus. 

Menander,  a.-t  20,  exhibits  his  first  comedy. 
320  Antigonus  carries  on  war  against  Eumencs. 
319  Death  of  Antipater,  after  appointing  Polysperchon  re 

gent,  and  his  son  Cassander  chiliarch. 
Escape  of  Eumenes  from  Norn,  where  ho  had  been 

long  besieged  by  Antigonus. 

Demadcs  put  to  death  by  Cassander. 

318  War  between  Cassander  and  Polysperchon  in  Greece. 

The  Athenians  put  Phocion  to  death.    Athens  is 

conquered  by  Cassander,  who  places  it  under  the 

government  of  Demetrius  Phalcreus. 

917  Eumenes  is  appointed  by  Polysperchon  commander 

of  the  royal  forces  in  the  East,  and  is  opposed  by 

Antigonus.    Battle  of  Gabicnc,  between  Eumencs 

and  Antigonus. 

Death  of  Arridteus,  Philip,  and  Eurydice.' 
Olympias  returns  to  Macedonia,  and  is  besieged  by 

Cassanrler  at  Pydna. 
S10  Last  battle  between  Anticorus  and  Kumcnoi.    Eu 


surrendered  by  the  Argyraspids,  and  put  to 
death.  Antigonus  becomes  master  of  Asia.  Solea- 
cus  flies  from  Babylon,  and  takes  refuge  with  Ptole 
my  in  Egypt. 

Cassander  takes  Pydna,  and  puts  Olympias  to  death. 
He  marries  Thessalonice,  the  daughter  of  Philip, 
and  keeps  Roxana  and  her  son  Alexander  IV.  in 
custody.    Cassander  rebuilds  Thebes. 
315  Coalition  of  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  Cassander,  and  Ly- 
eimachus  against  Antigonus.    First  year  of  the  war 
Polemon  succeeds  Xenocrates  at  the  Academy. 
314  Second  year  of  the  war  against  Antigonus.    Success- 
es of  Cassander  in  Greece.    Antigonus  conquers 
Tyre,  and  winters  in  Phrygia. 
Death  of  the  orator  JBschines,  a?t  75. 
313  Third  year  of  the  war  against  Antigonus. 
312  Fourth  year  of  the  war  against  Antigonus.    Ptolemy 
and  Seleucus  defeat  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigo- 
nus, at  Gaza.    Seleucus  recovers  Babylon  on  the 
1st  of  October,  from  which  the  era  of  the  Seleucr- 
dsB  commences. 
311  General  peace. 

Murder  of  Roxana  and  Alexander  IV.  by  Cassander. 
310  Hercules,  the  son  of  Alexander  and  Barsine,  a  pre- 
tender to  the  throne. 

Ptolemy  appears  as  liberator  of  the  Greeks.    Renew- 
al of  hostilities  between  him  and  Antigonus. 
Agathocles  lands  in  Africa. 
Epicurus,  at  31,  begins  to  teach  at  Mytilene  and 

Lampsacus. 
309  Hercules  murdered  by  Polysperchon. 
308  Ptolemy's  expedition  to  Greece. 
307  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigonus,  becomes  master  of 

Athens.    Demetrius  Phalereus  leaves  the  city. 
The  orator  Dinarchus  goes  into  exile. 
306  Demetrius  recalled  from  Athens.    He  defeats  Ptole- 
my in  a  great  sea-fight  off  Salamis  in  Cyprus.    Aft- 
er that  battle  Antigonus  assumes  the  title  of  king, 
and  his  example  is  followed  by  Ptolemy,  Seleucus 
Lysiinachus,  and  Cassander. 

Antigonus  invades  Egypt,  but  is  compelled  to  retreat 
Epicurus  settles  at  Athens,  where  he  teaches  about 

36  years,  till  his  death,  at  the  age  of  72. 
305  Rhodes  besieged  by  Demetrius. 
304  Demetrius  makes  peace  with  the  Rhodians,  and  re- 
turns to  Athens. 
303  Demetrius  carries  on  the  war  in  Greece  with  success 

against  Cassander. 
302  War  continued  In  Greece  between  Demetrius  and 

Cassandcr. 

Demochares,  the  nephew  of  Demosthenes,  banished. 
Archedicus,  the  comic  poet,  flourished. 
301  Demetrius  crosses  over  to  Asia. 

Battle  of  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia,  about  the  month  of  Au- 
gust in  which  Lyeimachus  and  Seleucus  defeat  An- 
tigonus and  Demetrius.  Antigonus,  oet  81,  falls  in 
the  battle. 

Hicronymus  of  Cardln,  the  historian,  flourished. 
300  Demetrius  obtains  possession  of  Cilicia,  and  marrief 

his  daughter  Stratonice  to  Sclcucus. 
Birth  of  Lycon,  the  Peripatetic. 
297  Demetrius  returns  to  Greece,  and  makes  an  attempt 

upon  Athens,  but  is  repulsed. 

Death  of  Cassandcr,  and  accession  of  his  son  Philip. 

296  Death  of  Philip,  and  accession  of  his  brother  Antipatcr. 

Demetrius  takes  Salamis  and  .£gina,  and  lays  e'we 

to  Athene. 
Pyrrhus  returns  to  Epirus. 


972 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


B.C. 

295  Demetrius  takes  Athens 

294  Demetrius  makes  an  expedition  into  Peloponnesus. 
Civil  war  in  Macedonia  between  the  two  brothers 

Antipater  and  Alexander. 
Demetrius  becomes  king  of  Macedonia. 
292  Demetrius  conquers  Thebes. 

Dinarchus  returns  from  exile. 

991  I . ysiinnrhus  defeated,  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Gets. 
Second  insurrection  of  Thebes  against  Demetrius. 
Pyrrhus  invades  Thessaly,  but  is  obliged  to  retire  be- 
fore Demetrius. 
Death  of  Menander,  aat  52. 

290  Demetrius  takes  Thebes  a  second  time.    He  cele- 
brates the  Pythian  games  at  Athens. 
289  Demetrius  carries  on  war  against  Pyrrhus  and  the 
JEtoliatis.    He  marries  Lanassa,  one  of  the  wives 
of  Pyrrhus,  and  the  daughter  of  Agathocles. 
Posidippus,  the  comic  poet,  begins  to  exhibit 
888  Death  of  Agathocles. 

287  Coalition  against  Demetrius.    He  is  driven  out  of 
Macedonia,  and  bis  dominions  divided  between  Ly- 
simnchus  and  Pyrrhus. 
Demetrius  sails  to  Asia. 
Pyrrhus  driven  out  of  Macedonia  by  Lysimachug, 

after  seven  months'  possession. 
Strato  succeeds  Theophrastus. 
286  Demetrius  surrenders  himself  to  Seleucus,  who  keeps 

him  in  captivity. 
285  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus  is  associated  in  the  kingdom 

by  his  father. 

284  Demetrius,  aet.  54,  dies  in  captivity  at  Apamea,  in  Syria. 
283  Death  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  set  84. 
281  Lysimachus  is  defeated  and  slain  by  Seleucus  at  the 

battle  of  Corupedion. 
S80  Seleucus  murdered  by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,   seven 

months  after  the  death  of  Lysimachus. 
Antiochus  I.,  the  son  of  Seleucus,  becomes  King  of 
Asia,  Ptolemy  Ceraunus  King  of  Thrace  and  Mace- 
donia. 

Pyrrhus  crosses  into  Italy. 

Irruption  of  the  Gauls  and  death  of  Ptolemy  Cernu- 
nus.    He  is  succeeded  by  his  brother  Meleager,  who 
reigns  only  two  months. 
Kise  of  the  Achaean  league. 
Demosthenes  honored  with  a  statue  on  the  motion  of 

his  nephew  Demochares. 
Birth  of  Chrysippus. 

i.  .'  Antipater  King  of  Macedonia  for  a  short  time.  Sos- 
thenes,  the  Macedonian  general,  checks  the  Gauls. 
The  Gauls,  under  Brennus,  invade  Greece,  but  Bren- 
nus  and  a  great  part  of  his  army  are  destroyed  at 
Delphi.  Death  of  Sosthenes. 
KV  Antigonus  Gonatas  becomes  King  of  Macedonia. 

Zeno  of  Cittium  flourished  at  Athens. 
S7J  Birth  of  Eratosthenes. 
274  Pyrrhus  returns  to  Italy. 

Birth  of  E»phorion. 
278  Pyrrhus  invades  Macedonia,  and  expels  Antigonus 

Gonatas. 
272  Pyrrhus  invades  Peloponnesus,  and  perishes  in  an 

attack  on  Argos.    Antigonus  regains  Macedonia. 
270  Death  of  Epicurus,  set  72. 
262  Death  of  Philemon,  the  comic  poet,  set  97. 
251  Arabia  delivers  Sicyon,  and  unites  it  to  the  Achaean 

league. 

250  Arsaces  founds  the  Parthian  monarchy. 
243  Aratus,  a  second  time  general  of  the  Achsean  league, 
delivers  Corinth  from  the  Macedonians. 


241  Agin  IV.,  king  of  Sparta,  put  to  death  in  consequence 
of  his  attempts  to  reform  the  state. 

239  Death  of  Antigonus,  and  accession  of  his  son  Deme- 
trius II. 

236  Cleomenes  HI.  becomes  King  of  Sparta. 

229  Death  of  Demetrius  II.,  and  accession  of  Antigonuj 
Doson,  who  was  left  by  Demetrius  guardian  of  his 
son  Philip. 

227  Cleomenea  commences  war  against  the  Achaean 
league. 

2£6  Cleomenes  carries  on  the  war  with  success  against 
Aratus,  who  is  again  the  general  of  the  Achsenn 
league. 

225  Reforms  of  Cleomenes  at  Sparta. 

224  The  Acheeans  call  in  the  assistance  of  Antigonua  Do- 
son  against  Cleomenes. 

222  Mantinea  taken  by  Antigonus  and  Megalopolis  by 
Cleomenes. 

221  Antigonus  defeats  Cleomenes  at  Sellasia,  and  obtains 
possession  of  Sparta.  Cleomenes  sails  to  Egypt, 
where  he  dies.  Extinction  of  the  royal  line  of  the 
Heraclidaa  at  Sparta. 

220  Death  of  Antigonus  Doson,  and  accession  of  Philip 

V.,  8Bt  17. 

The  Acheeans  and  Aratus  are  defeated  by  the  ^toli- 

ans.    The  Acheeans  apply  for  assistance  to  Philip, 

who  espouses  their  cause.    Commencement  of  the 

Social  war. 

The  history  of  Aratus  ended  in  this  year,  and  that  at 

Polybius  commences. 
219  Successes  of  Philip.    He  invades  yEtolia  and  El'i, 

and  winters  at  Argos. 
Phylarchus,  the  historian,  flourished. 
218  Continued  successes  of  Philip.    He  again  invades 

jEtolia,  and  afterward  Laconia. 
217  Third  and  last  year  of  the  Social  war.    Peace  co*- 

eluded. 

215  Philip  concludes  a  treaty  with  Hannibal. 
214  Eratosthenes  nourished. 
213  Philip  removes  Aratus  by  poison. 

Birth  of  Carneades. 
212  Death  of  Archimedes  at  the  capture  of  Syracuse  by 

the  Romans. 

211  Treaty  between  Rome  and  the  Italians  against  Philip 
210  The  Romans  take  jEgina. 
209  Philip  invades  Elis. 
208  Philip  marches  into  Peloponnesus  to  assist  the  Achas- 

ans. 
Philopcemen  is  elected  general  of  the  Achsean  league, 

and  effects  important  reforms  in  the  army. 
207  Philopcemen  defeats  and  slays  Machanidas,  tyrant  of 

Lacedsemon,  at  the  battle  of  Mantinea. 
Death  of  Chrysippus,  who  was  succeeded  by  Zeno 

of  Tarsus. 
205  The  jEtolians  make  peace  with  Philip. 

Philip's  treaty  with  Rome. 
202  Nabis,  tyrant  of  Lacedaemon,  takes  Messene. 

Philip  makes  war  upon  the  Rhodians  and  Attains. 
201  Philopcemen,  general  of  the  Acheeans,  defeats  Naliii. 

Philip  takes  Chios,  and  winters  in  Caria. 
200  Philip  returns  to  Macedonia.    War  between  Philip 
and  Rome,  which  continues  till  B.C.  197.    See  the 
Roman  Tables. 

Aristophanes,  the  grammarian,  flourished. 
197  Philip  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Cynoscephalss 
196  Greece  declared  free  by  Flamininus  at  the  Isthmiw 

games. 
194  Death  of  Eratosthenes,  est.  80. 


GREEK  HISTORY. 


973 


Ml 

192  Philopoemen  defeats  Nabis,  who  ia  afterward  slain  by 
the  jEtolians.  Lacedzmon  ia  added  by  Philopoe- 
men  to  the  Achaean  league. 

Antiochus  cornea  into  Greece  to  assist  the  JStolians 
against  the  Romans.    He  winters  at  Chalcis. 

191  Antiochus  and  the  jEtolians  defeated  by  the  Romans 
at  the  battle  of  Thermopylae. 

190  The  Romans  besiege  Amphissa,  and  grant  a  truce  to 
the  ^Etolians. 

189  The  Romans  besiege  Ambracia,  and  grant  peace  to 
the  iEtolians. 

188  Philopoemen  again  general  of  the  Achaean  league,  sub- 
jugates Sparta,  and  abrogates  the  laws  of  Lycurgus. 

183  The  Messenians  revolt  from  the  Achaean  league. 
They  capture  and  put  to  death  Philopoemen,  set  70. 

i82  Polybtua,  the  historian,  carries  the  urn  at  the  funeral 
of  Philop<Bmeo« 


B.C. 

179  Death  of  Philip  and  accession  of  Perseua. 

171  War  between  Perseua  and  Rome,  which  continues 

till  B.C.  168.    See  the  Roman  Tables. 
168  Defeat  and  capture  of  Perseus  by  ^Emilius  Paulus. 

Division  of  Macedonia. 
167  One  thousand  of  the  principal  Acbsans  are  sent  to 

Rome. 

Polybius  is  among  the  Achaean  exi!es. 
151  Return  of  the  Achaean  exiles. 
149  Andriacua,  pretending  to  be  the  son  of  Perseua,  lay* 

claim  to  the  Macedonian  throne. 
143  Andriscua  conquered  by  Metellus. 
147  Macedonia,  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman  province. 

War  between  Rome  and  the  Achaeans. 
146  Destruction  of  Corinth  by  Mummiua.    Greece  be- 
comes a  Roman  province.    [Although  this  is  denied] 
IB  an  able  dissertation,  by  C.  f.  Hermann.] 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF  ROMAN  HISTORY, 


FROM  THE  FOUNDATION  OF  THE  CITY,  B.C.  753,  TO  THE  FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE,  A.D.  476 


B.C. 

753  Foundation  of  Rome  on  the  Palatine  Mount,  on  the 
Palilia,  the  21st  of  April.  This  is  the  era  of  Varro. 
According  to  Cato,  Rome  was  founded  in  B.C.  751 ; 
according  to  Polybius,  in  B.C.  750 ;  according  to 
Fabius  Pictor,  in  747. 

753  Romulus,  first   Roman  king,  reigned  thirty-seven 
to       years.    Rape  of  the  Sabine   women.     Conquest 
716      of  the  Cffininenses,  Crustumini,  and  Antemnates. 
War  and  league  with  the  Sabines,  who  settle  on 
the  Capitoline  and  Quirinal,  under  their  king  Ta- 
tius.    Tatius  slain  at  Laurentum.    Wars  with  Fi- 
denffi  and  Veil. 
716  Interregnum  for  a  year. 

T16  Numa  Pompilius,  second  Roman  king.    The  length 

to       of  Numa's  reign  is  stated  differently.    Livy  makes 

673      it  43  years  ;  Cicero,  who  follows  Polybius,  39  years. 

Constant  peace  during  Numa's  reign.    Institution 

of  religious  ceremonies  and  regulation  of  the  year. 

673  Tullus  Hostilius,  third  Roman  king,  reigned  32  years. 

to       Destruction  of  Alba,  and  removal  of  its  inhabitants 

641      to  Rome.    War  with  Veil  and  Fiden».    League 

with  the  Latins. 

640  Ancus  Marcius,  fourth  Roman  king,  reigned  24  years. 
to  Origin  of  the  plebeians,  consisting  of  conquered 
616  Latins  settled  on  the  Aventine.  Extension  of  the 

city.    Ostia  founded. 

616  L.  Tarquinius  Priscus,  fifth  Roman  king.     Greatness 
to       of  the  Roman  monarchy.    Great  public  works  un- 
578      dertaken.    Conquest  of  the  Sabines  and  Latins. 
The  senate  increased  to  300.    The  number  of  the 
equites  doubled.    Institution  of  the  minores  gentes. 
578  Servius  Tullius,  sixth  Roman  king,  reigned  44  years, 
to       He  adds  the  Esquiline  and  Viminalis  to  the  city, 
534      and  surrounds  the  city  with  a  stone  wall.    Consti- 
tution of  Servius  Tullius.    Institution  of  the  30  ple- 
beian tribes,  and  of  the  comitia  centuriata. 
534  L.  Tarquinius  Superbus,  last  Roman  king.    The  con- 
to       stitution  of  Servius  Tullius  abrogated.    Tarquin  be- 
510      comes  ruler  of  Latium.    Makes  war  upon  the  Vol- 
scians,  and  conquers  Suessa  Pometia.    Sends  colo- 
nies to  Sigma  and  Circeii.    Expulsion  of  the  Tar- 
quins  and  establishment  of  the  republic. 
909  Cost.  L.  Junius  Brutus.     Slain  in  battle. 

L.  Tarquinius  Collatinus.    Abdicated. 
Sp.  Lucretius  Tricipitinus.    Died. 
M.  Horatius  Pulvillus. 
P.  Valerius  Poplicola. 

War  with  the  Etruscans,  and  death  of  Brutus  la  bat- 
tle.   First  treaty  with  Carthage. 
W8  Cos*.  P.  Valerius  Poplicola  II. 

T.  Lucretius  Tricipitinus. 
War  with  Porsena,  king  of  Clusium. 
507  Cos*.  P.  Valerius  Poplicola  III. 
M.  Horatius  Pulvillus  H. 
Dedication  of  the  Capitoline  temple  by  the  consul 

Horatius. 
506  Coss.  Sp.  Lartius  Flavus  ».  Rufus. 

T.  Henninius  Aquilinus. 
505  Coss.  M.  Valerius  Volusus. 


B.C. 

P.  Postumius  Tubertus. 
504  Cos*.  P.  Valerius  Poplicola  IV. 

T.  Lucretius  Tricipitinus  II. 
Appius  Claudius  removes  to  Rome. 
503  Cos*.  P.  Postumius  Tubertus  II. 

Agrippa  Mencnius  Lanatas. 
Death  of  P.  Valerius  Poplicola. 
502  Cos*.  Opiter  Virgiuius  Tricostus. 

Sp.  Cassius  Viscellinus. 
501  Co**.  Postumus  Cominius  Auruncus. 

T.  Lartius  Flavus  ».  Rufus. 

Institution  of  the  dictatorship.    T.  Lartins  Flavus  «, 
Rufus  was  the  first  dictator,  and  Sp.  Cassius  Vi» 
cellinus  the  first  magister  equitum. 
500  Cos*.  Ser.  Sulpicius  Camerinus  Cornutus. 

M.  Tullius  Longus.    Died. 
499  Cos*.  T.  ^Ebutius  Elva. 

P.  Veturius  Geminus  Cicurinus. 
498  Cos*.  T.  Lartius  Flavus  *.  Ru/us  II. 
Q.  Clcelius  (Volcula)  Siculus. 
Diet.  A.  Postumius  Albus  Regillensis. 
Mag.  Eq.  T.  jEbutius  Elva. 

Battle  of  Lake  Regillus,  in  which  the  Latins  are  de- 
feated by  the  Romans.    Some  writers  place  this 
battle  in  B.C.  496,  in  which  year  Postumius  was 
consul. 
497  Coss.  A.  Sempronius  Atratinus. 

M.  Minucius  Augurinus. 
496  Cost.  A.  Postumius  Albus  Regillensis. 

T.  Virginius  Tricostus  Caeliomontanua. 
Tarquinius  Superbus  dies  at  Cumse. 
495  Cos*.  Ap.  Claudius  Sabinus  Regillensis. 

P.  Servilius  Priscus  Structus. 

Oppression  of  the  plebeians  by  the  patricians.    The 
tribes  increased  from  20  to  21  by  the  addition  of  the 
tribus  Claudia. 
494  Coss.  A.  Virginius  Tricostns  Cseliomontanus. 

T.  Veturius  Geminus  Cicurinus. 
Diet.  M'.  Valerius  Volusus  Maximus. 
Mag.  Eq.  <J.  Servilius  Priscus  Structus. 
First  secession  of  the  plebs  to  the  Sacred  Mount.    In- 
stitution of  the  Tribuni  plebis  and  JEdiles  plcbis. 
Colony  sent  to  Velitree. 
493  Cos*.  Sp.  Cassius  Viscellinus  II. 

Postumus  Cominius  Auruncus  II. 
Treaty  with  the  Latins  concluded  by  Sp.  Cassiua 

War  with  the  Volscians,  and  capture  of  Corioli. 
492  Cos*.  T.  Geganius  Macerinus. 
P.  Minucius  Augurinus. 

Lex  Icilia.    Famine  at  Rome.    Colony  sent  to  Norba. 
491  Coss.  M.  Minucius  Augurinus  II. 

A.  Sempronius  Atratinus  II. 

M.  Coriolanus  goes  into  exile  among  the  Vclsciana. 
490  Co**.  Q.  Sulpicius  Camerinus  Cornutus. 

Sp.  Lartius  Flavus  *.  Rufus  II. 
489  Co**.  C.  Julius  -Julns. 

P.  Pinarius  Mamercinus  Rufus. 
The  Volscians,   commanded  by  Coriolanus,   attack 
Rome. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES,  ETC. 


975 


B.C 

488  Con.  Sp.  Nnutiua  Rutilus. 

Sex.  Furius  Medullinus  Fusus. 
Successes  of  Volscians.    Retreat  of  Coriolanus. 
487  Cos*.  T.  Sicinius  Sabinus. 
C.  Aquilius  Tuscus. 
486  Cos$.  Proculus  Virginius  Tricostus  Rutilus. 

Sp.  Cassius  Visccllinus  III. 
League  concluded  by  Sp.  Cnssiua  with  the  Hernici. 

First  agrarian  law  proposed  by  Sp.  Cassius. 
485  Cos*.  Ser.  Cornelius  Cossus  Maluginensis. 

Q.  Fabius  Vibulanus. 
Condemnation  and  death  of  Cassias. 
484  Cost.  L.  jEmilius  Mnmercus. 

K.  Fabius  Vibulanus. 
483  Cos*.  M.  Fabius  Vibulanns. 

L.  Valerius  Potitus. 
War  with  Veii,  which  lasts  several  years.    Power  of 

the  Fabia  gens. 
482  Cos*.  C.  Julius  Julus. 

Q.  Fabius  Vibulanus  II. 
481  Cos*.  K.  Fabius  Vibulanus  II. 

Sp.  Furius  Medullinus  Fusus. 
480  Con.  Cn.  Manlius  Cincinnatus. 

M.  Fabius  Vibulanus  II. 
Manlius  falls  in  battle  against  the  Etruscans. 
479  Co**.  K.  Fabius  Vibulanus  III. 

T.  Virginius  Tricostus  Rutilus. 
The  Fabia  gens  undertakes  the  war  with  Veii,  and 

stations  itself  on  the  Cremera. 
478  Cos*.  L.  jEmilius  Mamercus  U. 

C.  Servilius  Structus  Ahala.    Died. 
Opiter  Virginius  Tricostus  Esquilinus. 
477  COM.  C.  Horatius  Pulvillus. 
T.  Menenius  Lanatus. 
Destruction  of  the  Fabii  at  the  Cremera. 
47G  Co»».  A.  Virginius  Tricoitus  Rutilus. 
Sp.  Servilius  Priscus  Structus. 
The  Veientes  take  the  Janiculum. 
475  Co»».  P.  Valerius  Poplicola. 

C.  Nautius  Rutilus. 

Impeachment  of  the  ex-consul  Serrilius  by  the  trib- 
unes. 
474  Cos*.  A.  Manlius  Vulso. 

L.  Furius  Medullinus  Fusus. 
The  census  taken.    Lustrum  VIII.   Forty  years' tmce 

with  VeiL 
473  Cos*.  L.  jEmilius  Mamercus  III. 

Vopiscus  Julius  Julus. 
Murder  of  the  tribune  Genucius. 
472  COM.  L.  Pinarius  Mamercinus  Rufus. 

P.  Furius  Medullinus  Fusus. 
Publilius  Volero,  trib.  pi.,  proposes  the  Publilia  lex. 
471  COM.  Ap.  Claudius  Sabinus  Regillensii. 

T.  QuLnctius  Capitolinus  Barbatus. 
PubUlius.  again  elected  trib.  pi.,  carries  the  Publilia 
lex,  which  enacted  that  the  plebeian  magistrates 
should  be  elected  by  the  comitia  tribute.    Wars 
with  the  jEquians  and  Volscian*.    Ap.  Claudius, 
the  consul,  deserted  by  his  army. 
470  COM.  L.  Valerius  Pititiu  II. 

Ti.  .F.milius  Mamercus. 
Impeachment  of  the  ex-consul  Ap.  Claudius,  who 

dies  before  his  trial. 
469  Can.  A.  Virginius  Tricostus  Csliomontenus. 

T.  Numicius  Priscus. 
403  COM.  T.  Quinctius  Capitolinus  Barbatus  II. 

Q.  Serrilius  Friscus  Structus 
Antium  taken  by  the  Romans. 


467  Cos*.  Ti.  .F.milius  Mamercus  IL 

Q.  Fabius  Vibulanus. 
Colony  sent  to  Antium. 
466  Coss.  Sp.  Postumius  Albus  Regillensis. 
Q.  Servilius  Priscus  Structus  II. 
465  Coss.  Q.  Fabius  Vibulanus  II. 

T.  Quinctius  Capitolinus  Barbatus  III. 
War  with  the  jEquians. 

461  Cos*.  A.  Postumius  Albug  Regillensis. 

Sp.  Furius  Medullinus  Fusus. 
War  with  the  ^Equiane. 
463  Coss.  P.  Servilius  Priscus  Structus. 

L.  .fibutius  Elva. 
Pestilence  at  Rome. 

462  Coss.  L.  Lucretius  Tricipitinus. 

T.  Veturius  Geminus  Cicurinus. 
C.  Terentillus  Arsa,  trib.  pi.,  proposes  a  revision  of 
the  laws.    The  consuls  triumph  over  the  Volscians 
and  ^Equians. 
461  Coss.  P.  Volumnius  Amintinus  Callus. 

Ser.  Sulpicius  Camerinus  Cornutus. 
Struggles  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians  re- 
specting the  law  of  Terentillus,  which  are  contin- 
ued till  B.C.  451.    Accusation  and  condemnation 
of  K.  Quinctius,  the  son  of  Cincinnatus. 
460  Coss.  C.  Claudius  Sabinue  Regillensis. 
P.  Valerius  Poplicola  II.    Died 
L.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus. 

During  the  contentions  of  the  patricians  and  plebei- 
ans, the  Capitol  is  seized  by  Herdonius.    The  con- 
sul Valerius  is  killed  in  recovering  it 
459  Cos*.  Q.  Fabius  Vibulanus  III. 

L.  Cornelius  Maluginensis. 

War  with  the  Volscians  and  .£quians.    Antium  re 
volts,  and  is  conquered.    Peace  with  the  .Equians 
458  COM.  L.  Minucius  Esquilinus  Augurinus. 

C.  Nautius  Rutilus  II. 
Diet.  L.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Tarquitius  Flaccus. 

War  with  the  .£quiana  and  Sabines.    The  Roman 
army  shut  in  by  the  enemy,  but  delivered  by  the 
dictator  Cincinnatus. 
457  Co«.  C.  Horatius  Pulvillus  II. 

Q.  Minucius  Esquilinus  Augurinus. 
Tribunes  of  the  plebs  increased  from  five  to  ten. 
456  Cos*.  M.  Valerius  (Lactuca)  Maximus. 

Sp.  Virginius  Tricostus  Cceliomontanu*. 
The  Mons  Aventinus  is  assigned  to  the  plebeians  by 

the  law  of  the  tribune  Icilius. 
455  Cos*.  T.  Romilius  Rocus  Vaticanua. 

C.  Veturius  Geminus  Cicurinus. 
Victory  over  the  jEquiana. 
454  Cos*.  Sp.  Torpeius  Montanus  Capitolinus. 

A.  Aternius  Varus  Fontinalis. 

The  patricians  yield.    See  B.C.  461.    Three  commis- 
sioners arc  sent  into  Greece  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  Grecian  laws. 
453  COM.  Sex.  Quinctilius  Varus. 

P.  Curiatius  Fcstiu  Trigcminus. 
A  famine  and  pestilence. 
452  Co**.  P.  Scstius  Capitolinus  Vaticanus. 

T.  Menenius  Lanatus. 

The  ambassadors  return  from  Greece.    It  is  resolved 
to  appoint  Decemviri,  from  whom  there  should  be 
no  appeal  (provocatio). 
451  COM.  Ap.  Claudius  Crassinus  Regillensis  Sabinus  II 

Abdicated. 
T.  Genucius  Augurinus.    Abdicated. 


»76 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


B.C 

*5l  Dtcentiri.  Ap.  Claudius  Cratsinus  RegillcnsU  Sabi- 

nus. 

T.  Genucius  Augurinus. 
Sp.  Veturius  Crassus  Cicurinus: 
C.  Julius  Julus. 
A.  Manlius  Vulso. 

Ser.  Sulpiclus  Camerinus  Cornutus. 
P.  Sestius  Capitolinus  Vaticanus. 
P.  Curiatiua  Festus  Trigeminus. 
T.  Romilius  Hocus  Vaticanus. 
Sp.  Poatumiua  Albus  Uegillensis. 
Laws  of  the  Ten  Tables  promulgated. 
M  Dtemtiri.  Ap.  Claudius  Crassinus  Regillensis  Sabi- 

nus  II. 

M.  Cornelius  Maluginensis. 
L.  Sergius  Esquilinus. 
L.  Kinucius  Esquilinus  Augurinus. 
T.  Antonius  Merenda. 
Q.  Fabiua  Vibulanus. 
Q.  I'oetilius  Libo  Visolus. 
K.  Duilius  Loogus. 
Sp.  Oppius  Cornicen. 
M'.  Rabuleius. 
Two  additional  tables  are  added,  thus  making  the 

laws  of  the  Twelve  Table*. 
449  Cost.  L.  Valerius  Poplicola  Potitus. 

M.  Horatius  Barbatus. 

The  decemvirs  continue  illegally  in  the  possession  of 
power.  In  consequence  of  the  death  of  Virginia, 
the  plebeians  secede  to  the  Mons  Sacer.  The  de- 
cemvirs deposed,  and  the  old  form  of  government 
restored.  Valerius  and  Horatius  appointed  consuls. 
The  Leges  Valerias  Horatia?  increase  the  power 
of  the  plebeians.  Successful  war  of  the  consuls 
against  the  jEquians  and  Sabines. 
448  COM.  Lar  Herminiua  JEquilinus  (Cononisanus). 

T.  Virginius  Tricostus  Ceeliomontanus. 
Lex  Trebonia. 
447  Con.  M.  Geganius  Maccrinus. 

C.  Julius  Julus. 

The  qutEBtora  are  for  the  first  time  elected  by  the 
people,  having  been  previously  appointed  by  the 
consuls. 
446  Cot*.  T.  Quinctiua  Capitolinus  Barbatus  IV. 

Agrippa  Furius  MeduUinus  Fusus. 
War  with  the  Volscians  and  JBquians. 
445  COM.  M.  Genucius  Augurinus. 

C.  Curtius  Philo. 

Lex  Canuleia  establishes  connubium  between  the  pa- 
tricians and  plebeians :  it  is  proposed  to  elect  the 
consuls  from  the  patricians  and  plebeians,  but  it  is 
enacted  that  Tribuni  militum  with  consular  power 
shall  be  elected  indifferently  from  the  two  orders. 
444  COM.  L.  Papirws  Mugillanua. 

L.  Sempronius  Atratinua. 

Three  Tribuni  militum  with  consular  power  appoint- 
ed, but  they  are  compelled  to  abdicate  from  a  defect 
in  the  auspices.    Consuls  appointed  in  their  place. 
443  COM.  M.  Geganius  Macerinus  II. 

T.  Quinctius  Capitolinus  Barbatus  V. 
Censora.  L.  Papirius  Mugillanus. 

L.  Sempronius  Atratinus. 

Institution  of  the  censorship.    The  history  of  Dionys- 
ius  breaks  off  in  this  year.    Victory  over  the  Vol- 
scians. 
443  COM.  M.  Fabiua  Vibulanus. 

Postumus  ^Ebu tius  Elva  Cornicen. 
Colony  founded  at  Ardea  ..- 1  .  L 


B.C. 

441  COM.  C.  Furius  Pacilus  Fusus. 

M'.  Papirius  Crassus. 
440  COM.  Proculus  Geganius  Macerinus. 

L.  Meneniua  Lanatus. 

A  famine  at  Rome.    A  Prefect**  Annonx  appointed 
for  the  first  time.    Sp.  Meelius  distributes  corn  to 
the  poor. 
439  COM.  T.  Quinctius  Capitolinus  Barbatus  VI. 

Agrippa  Menenius  Lanatus. 
Diet.  L.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus  II. 
Mag.  Eq.  C.  Servilius  Structna  Ahala. 
Sp.  Maelius  summoned  before  the  dictator,  and  killed 
by  the  magister  equitum  when  he  refused  to  obey 
the  summons. 

438  III.  Tribuni  Militvm  contulari  potettate  (Liv.,ir.,  16). 
The  inhabitants  of  Fidente  revolt,  and  place  them- 
selves under  the  protection  of  Veii.    Murder  of  the 
Roman  ambassadors. 
437  COM.  M.  Geganius  Macerinus  HI. 

L.  Sergius  (Fidenas). 
Diet.  Mam.  .£milius  Mamercinus. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus. 
Fidenre  reconquered.    The  Veientes  defeated. 
436  COM.  M.  Cornelius  Maluginensis. 

L.  Papirius  Crassus. 
435  COM.  C.  Julius  Julus  II. 

L.  Virginius  Tricostus. 
Diet.  Q.  Servilius  Priscus  Structus  (Fidenas). 
Mag.  Eq.  Postumus  jEbutius  Elva  Cornicen. 
CenM.  C.  Furius  Pacilus  Fusus. 

M.  Geganius  Macerinus. 

434  ///.  Trio.  Mil  cont.pot.    (Liv,  ir.,  23.) 

433  ///.  Trib.  Mil.  cont.pot.    (Liv,  iv.,  25.) 

Diet.  Mam.  JEmilius  Mamercinus  IL 

Mag.  Eq.  A.  Postumfus  Tubertus. 

The  Lex  jEmilia  of  the  dictator  limits  the  duration 

of  the  censorship  to  eighteen  months. 
432  ///.  Trib.  Mil.  con*,  pot.  (Liv.,  iv,  25.) 
431  COM.  T.  Quinctins  Pennus  Cincinnatu* 

C.  Julius  Mento. 
Did.  A.  Poatumius  Tubertus. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Julius  Julus. 
Great  victory  over  the  JEquians  and  Volscians  at 

Mount  Algidus. 
430  Cost.  C.  Papirius  Crassus. 

L.  Julius  Julus. 
429  COM.  L.  Sergius  Fidenas  n. 

Hostus  Lucretius  Tricipitinus. 
428  COM.  A.  Cornelius  Cossus. 

T.  Quinctius  Pennus  Cincinnatus  IL 
427  COM.  C.  Servilius  Structus  Ahala. 

L.  Papirius  Mugillanus  n. 
War  declared  against  Veii  by  the  vote  of  the  comiti*, 

centuriata. 

426  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  cont.pot.    (Liv,  iv,  31.) 
Diet.  Mam.  JEmllius  Mamercinus  III. 
Mag.  Eq.  A.  Cornelius  Cossus. 
War  with  Veii.    Fidena  again  revolts,  is  retaken  and 

destroyed. 
425  IV.  Trib.  Ma.  ctmt.  pot.    (Liv,  iv,  35.) 

Truce  with  Veii  for  twenty  years. 
424  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  amt.  pot.    (Liv,  iv,  35.) 
Cent*.  L.  Julius  Julus. 

L.  Papirius  Crassus. 
423  COM.  C.  Sempronius  Atratinus. 

Q.  Fabiua  Vibulanns. 

War  with  the  Volscians.    Volturnum  taken  by  the 
Samnites. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


977 


<23  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.  (LiT.,  iv  42.) 
421  Cogs.  N.  Fabiua  Vibulanus. 

T.  Quinctius  Capitolinus  Barbatus. 
The  number  of  the  qusestora  increased  from  two  to 

four. 
420  JV.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv.,  iv,  44.) 

Conquest  of  the  Greek  city  of  (Jumee  by  the  Campa- 

nians. 

419  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  iv,  44.) 
418  ///.  Trib.  Mil  cons.  pot.    (Liv.,  iv.,  45.) 
Diet.  Q,  Servilius  Priscus  Fidenas  II. 
Mag.  Eg.  C.  Servilius  (Structus)  Axilla. 
Censs.  L.  Papirius  Mugillanus. 

Mam.  .£  milius  Mamercinus. 
Defeat  of  the  ^Equians,  Lavici  taken,  and  a  colony 

sent  thither. 

417  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.  (Liv.,  iv,  47.) 
416  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.  (Liv.,  iv,  47.) 
415  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.  (Liv.,  iv.,  49.) 
414  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.  (Liv,  iv,  49.) 

War  with  the  ^Equians.  Bola  conquered.  Postu- 
mius,  the  consular  tribune,  killed  by  the  soldiers. 
From  this  time  the  power  of  the  .-Equians  and 
Volscians  declines,  chiefly  through  the  increasing 
might  of  the  Samnites. 
413  Cost.  A.  Cornelius  Cossus. 

L.  Furius  Mcdullinus. 
412  Cost.  Q.  Fabius  Vibulanus  Ambustug. 

C.  Furius  Pacilus. 
411  Cos*.  M.  Papirius  Mugillanus. 

C.  Nautius  Rutilus. 
410  Cots.  M'.  /Emilius  Mamercinus. 

C.  Valerius  Potitus  Volusus. 
M.  Maenius,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  proposes  an  agrarian 

law. 
409  Cess.  Cn.  Cornelius  Cossus. 

L.  Furius  Medullinus  IF. 

Three  of  the  four  qucestors  are  plebeians,  being  the 
first  time  that  the  plebeians  had  obtained  this  office. 

401  77/.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  iv.,  56.) 
Diet.  P.  Cornelius  Rutilus  Cossus. 
Mag.  Eq.  C.  Servilius  (Structus)  Ahala. 

407  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  eons.  pot.    (Liv,  iv,  57.) 

Expiration  of  the  truce  with  VeiL     See  B.C.  425. 
The  truce  was  made  for  twenty  years ;  but  the 
years  were  the  old  Roman  years  of  ten  months. 
The  Romans  defeated  by  the  Volscians. 
406  IV.  Trib.  Mil.  cons,  pot,    (Liv,  iv,  58.) 

War  with  the  Vobcians.    Anxur,  afterward  called 

Tarracina,  taken.    War  declared  against  Veii.    Pay 

decreed  by  the  senate  to  the  Roman  soldiers  for  the 

first  time.  ' 

405  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  iv,  61.) 

Siege  of  Veii,  which  lasts  ten  years.    See  B.C.  396. 
404   VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv.,  ir,  61.) 

An  eclipse  of  the  sun  recorded  in  the  Annales  Maxi- 
mi  as  occurring  on  the  Nones  of  June.  (Cic,  de 
Rep.,  \.,  16.) 

403  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv.,  v,  1.) 
Cents.  M.  Furius  Camillas. 

M.  Postumius  Albinus  Rcgillensis. 
Livy  counts  the  censors  among  the  consular  tribunes, 
whom  he  accordingly  makes  eight  in  number. 

402  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  8.) 

Defeat  of  the  Romans  before  VeiL    Anxur  recovered 

by  the  Volscians. 

101  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  10.) 
400  Kf  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  12.) 
62 


400  Anxur  recovered  by  the  Romans. 
399  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  13.) 

A  pestilence  at  Rome.    A  Lectistcrnium  instituted 

for  the  first  time. 
398  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  14.) 

An  embassy  sent  to  consult  the  oracle  at  Delphi. 
397  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  16.) 
396  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv.,  v,  18.) 
Diet.  M.  Furius  Camillus. 
Mag.  Eq.  P.  Cornelius  Maluginensis. 
Capture  of  Veii  by  the  dictator  Camillus. 
395  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  24.) 
394  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  26.) 

Peace  made  with  the  Falisci. 
393  Coss.  L.  Valerius  Potitus.    Abdicated. 

P.  Cornelius  Maluginensis  Cossus.    Abdicated. 
L.  Lucretius  Flavus  (Tricipitinus). 
Ser.  Sulpicius  Camerinus. 
Censs.  L.  Papirius  Cursor. 

C.  Julius  Julus.     Died. 
M.  Cornelius  Maluginensis. 
Distribution  of  the  Veientine  territory  among  the 

plebeians. 
392  Coss.  L.  Valerius  Potitus. 

M.  Manlius  Capitolinus. 
391  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  32.) 

Camillus  banished.    War  with  Volsinii.    The  Gauls 

invade  Etruria  and  lay  siege  to  Clusium. 
390  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  v,  36.) 
Diet.  M.  Furius  Camillus  II. 
Mag.  'Eq.  L.  Valerius  Potitus. 
ROME  TAKEN  BY  THE  GAULS.    The  Romans  are  de- 
feated at  the  battle  of  the  Allia  on  the  16th  of  July 
(Niebuhr,  vol.  ii,  note  1179),  and  the  Gauls  entered 
Rome  on  the  third  day  after  the  battle.     Camillu* 
recalled  from  exile  and  appointed  dictator.    The 
Gauls  leave  Rome  after  holding  it  seven  months. 
389  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  tons.  pot.    (Liv,  vi,  1.) 
Diet.  M.  Fui-ius  Camillus  HI. 
Mag .  Eq.  C.  Servilius  Ahala. 

Rome  rebuilt  The  Latins  and  Hernicans  renounce 
their  alliance  with  Rome.  Rome  attacked  by  the 
surrounding  nations,  but  Camillus  gains  victories 
over  them. 

388  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  vL,  4.) 
387  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  vi,  5.) 

The  number  of  the  Roman  tribes  increased  from  21 
to  25,  by  the  addition  of  four  new  tribes,  the  Stella 
tina,  Tromentina,  Sabatina,  and  Arnitnsis 
386  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  vi,  6.) 
Defeat  of  the  Antiates  and  Etruscans. 
385  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  eons.  pot.    (Liv,  vi,  11.) 
Diet.  A.  Cornelius  Cossus. 
Mag.  Eq.  T.  Quinctius  Capitolinus. 
Defeat  of  the  Volscians.    A  colony  founded  at  Satri 
cum.    The  patricians  accuse  M.  Manlius  Capitoli 
nus  of  aspiring  to  royal  power. 
384  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  eons.  pot.    (Liv,  vi,  18.) 

Manlius  is  brought  to  trial,  condemned,  and  put  to 

death. 
383  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  vt,  21.) 

The  Ager  Pomptinm  assigned  to  the  plebeian*.    A 

colony  founded  at  Nepete. 
382  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  'cons.  pot.    (Liv,  ri,  22.) 

War  with  Praeneste. 

381  VL  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (LJv,  vi,  22.) 

War  with  Prencste  and  the  Volscians. 

360  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv,  vi.,  27.) 


978 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


380  Cent*.  C.  Sulpicius  Camcrinus.     Abdicated. 

Sp.  Postumius  Regillensis  Albinus.    Vied. 
Diet.  T.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus  Capitolinua. 
Mag.  Eq.  A.  Scmpronini  Atratinus. 
Prseneste  taken  by  the  dictator. 
379  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  com.  pot.    (Liv.,  vL,  30.) 
378  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.     (Liv.,  vi,  31.) 
Cents.  Sp.  Servilius  Priscus. 

Q.  Cloelius  Siculus. 

377  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons,  pot.    (Liv.,  vL,  32.) 
376  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cont.  pot.    Their  names  are  not  meu- 
tioned  by  Livy,  but  Diodorus  (XT.,  71)  has  pre- 
served the  names  of  four  of  them. 
The  ROGATIONES  LICINIJE  proposed  by  C.  Licinius 
and  L.  Sextius,  the  tribunes  of  the  people,  to  im- 
prove the  condition  of  the  plebeians,  and  to  in- 
crease their  political  power. 

375  C.  Licinius  and  L.  Sextius  re-elected  tribunes  every 
to       year ;  and  as  the  patricians  would  not  allow  the 
371      Rogations  to  become  laws,  the  tribunes  prevented 
the  election  of  all  patrician  magistrates  during  these 
years. 
370  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv.,  vi.,  36.) 

C.  Licinius  and  L.  Sextius,  who  are  again  elected 
tribunes,  allow  consular  tribunes  to  be  chosen  thto 
year,  on  account  of  the  war  with  Velitra.  Licini- 
us and  Sextius  continue  to  be  re-elected  down  to 
B.C.  367. 

369  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv.,  vi.,  36.) 
368  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv.,  vi.,  38.) 
Diet,  M.  Furius  Camilhis  IV. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  JEmilius  Mamercinus. 
Diet.  P.  Manlius  Capitoltnus. 
Mag.  Eq.  C.  Licinius  Calvus. 
367  VI.  Trib.  Mil.  cons.  pot.    (Liv.,  vi.,  42.) 
Diet.  M.  Fnrius  Camillas  V. 
Mag.  Eq.  T.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus  Capttolinua. 
The  ROGATIONES  LICINI.K  passed.    One  of  the  con- 
suls was  to  be  chosen  from  the  plebeians ;  but  a 
new  magistracy  was   instituted,   the   prsetorship, 
which  was  to  be  confined  to  the  patricians.    Ca- 
millus,  the  dictator,  conquers  the  Gauls,  and  dedi- 
cates a  temple  to  Concordia  to  celebrate  the  recon- 
ciliation of  the  two  orders. 
366  Coss.  L.  jEmilius  Mamercinus. 

L.  Sextius  Sextinus  Lateranus. 
Cents.  A.  Postumius  Regillensis  Albinus. 

C.  Sulpicius  Peticus. 
FIRST  PLEBEIAN  CONSUL,  L.  Sextius. 
FIEST  PR.KTOR,  L.  Furius  Camillus. 
365  Coss.  L.  Genucius  Aventinensis. 

Q.  Servilina  Ahala. 

Pestilence  at  Rome.    Death  of  Camillas. 
364  Coss.  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus. 

C.  Licinius  Calvus  Stolo. 

The  pestilence  continues.  Ludi  scenici  first  insti- 
tuted. 

J63  Coss.  Cn.  Genucius  Aventinensis. 
L.  jftmilius  Mamercinus  II. 
Dirt.  L.  Manlius  Capitolinus  Imperiosus. 
Hag.  Eg.  L.  Pinarius  Natta. 
Cents.  M.  Fabius  Ambustua. 
L.  Furius  Mcdullinus. 
362  Coss.  Q.  Servilius  Ahala  II. 

L.  Genucius  Aventinensis  II. 
Diet.  Ap.  Claudius  Crassinus  Regillensis. 
Mag.  Eq.  P.  Cornelius  Scapula. 
Half  of  the  Tribuni  Militum  for  the  first  time  elected 


B.c 

by  the  people.    Earthquake  at  Rome.    Self-devo 
tii in  of  Curtius. 
361  Cost.  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus  II. 

C.  Licinius  Calvus  Stolo  IL 
Diet.  T.  Quinctius  Pennus  Capitolinus  Crispinus. 
Mag.  Eq.  Ser.  Cornelius  Maluginensis. 
Invasion  of  the  Gauls.    T.  Manlius  kills  »  Gaul  in  sin- 
gle combat,  and  acquires  the  surname  uf  Torquatua. 
360  Coss.  C.  Poetelius  Libo  Visolus. 

M.  Fabiua  Ambustus. 
Diet.  Q.  Servilius  Ahala. 
Mag.  Eg.  T.  Quinctius  Pennus  Capitolinus  Crispi- 

MM. 
War  with  the  Gauls  and  Tiburtines,  who  are  defeated 

by  the  dictator. 
359  Coss.  M.  Popilius  Ltenas. 

Cn.  Manlius  Capitolinus  Imperiosus. 
358  Coss.  C.  Fabius  Ambustus. 
C.  Plautius  Proculus. 
Diet.  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus. 
Mag.  Eq.  M.  Valerius  Poplicola. 
Plautius  defeats  the  Hernicans,  and  Sulpicius  the 
Gauls.     Fabius  fights  unsuccessfully  against  the 
Tarquinienses.    Renewal  of  the  alliance  with  La- 
tium.    Lex  Poetelia  de  ambitu,  proposed  by  the  trib- 
une Poetelius.    The  number  of  tribes  increased 
from  25  to  27  by  the  addition  of  the  Pomptina  and 
Publilia. 
337  Coss.  C.  Marcius  Rutilus. 

Cn.  Manlius  Capitolinus  Imperiosus  II. 
Lex  Duilia  et  Mit-nia  de  unciario  fenore,  restoring  the 
rate  of  interest  fixed  by  the  Twelve  Tables.    Lex 
Manila  de  vicesima  manumissorum. 
Privernum  taken.    C.  Licinius  fined  for  an  infraction 

of  his  own  law. 
356  Coss.  M.  Fabius  Ambustus  II. 

M.  Popilius  Leenas  II. 
Diet.  C.  Martius  Rutilus. 
Mag.  Eq.  C.  Plautius  Proculus. 
FIRST  PLEBEIAN  DICTATOR,  C.  Marcins  Rutilus,  con 

quers  the  Etruscans. 
355  Coss.  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus  III. 

M.  Valerius  Poplicola. 
Both  consuls  patricians,  in  violation  of  the  Licinian 

law. 
354  Cos*.  M.  Fabius  Ambustus  III. 

T.  Quinctius  Pennus  Capitolinus  Crispinus. 
Both  consuls  again  patricians.    League  with  the  Sam- 

nites. 

353  Coss.  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus  IV. 
M.  Valerius  Poplicola  II. 
•  Diet.  T.  Manlius  Imperiosus  Torquatua. 
Mag.  Eg.  A.  Cornelius  Cossus  Arvina. 
War  with  Care  and  Tarquinii.    Truce  made  with 

Ctere  for  100  years. 
352  Cos*.  P.  Valerius  Poplicola. 
C.  Marcius  Rutilus  II. 
Diet.  C.  Julius  Julus. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  JEmilius  Mamercinus. 
Quinqueviri  Mensarii  appointed  for  a  general  liqoida 

tion  of  debts. 
351  Cos*.  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus  V. 

T.  Quinctius  Pennus  Capitolinus  Crispinus  II. 
Diet.  M.  Fabius  Ambustus. 
Mag.  Eq.  Q.  Servilius  Ahala. 
Censs.  Cn.  Manlius  Capitolinus  Imperiosus. 

C.  Marcius  Rutilus. 
FIBST  PLEBJKJAJT  CENSOR,  C.  Marcius  Rutilus.    War 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


979 


with  the  Tarquinienses,  to  whom  a  truce  for  4( 
years  is  granted. 
350  Cost.  M.  Popilius  Ltenas  HL 

L.  Cornelius  Scipio. 
Diet.  L.  Furius  Camillas. 
Mag.  Eg.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio. 
The  Gauls  defeated  by  the  consul  Popilius. 
3-10  Cos*.  L.  Furius  Camillus. 

Ap.  Claudius  Crassinus  Regillensis.    Died. 

Diet.  T.  Manlius  Imperiosus  Torquatus  II. 

Mag.  Eg.  A.  Cornelius  Cossus  Arvina  II. 

Both  consuls  patricians.    The  Gauls  defeated  by  the 

consul  Camillus.    M.  Valerius  Corvus  kills  a  Gaul 

in  single  combat 

348  Cost.  M.  Valerius  Corvus. 

M.  Popilius  Leenas  IV. 
Diet.  C.  Claudius  Crassinus  Regillensis. 
Mag.  Eg.  C.  Livius  Denter. 
Renewal  of  the  treaty  with  Carthage. 
347  Coss.  T.  Manlius  Imperiosus  Torquatus. 

C.  Plautius  Venno  Hypsteus. 
Reduction  of  the  rate  of  interest. 
346  COM.  M.  Valerius  Corvus  II. 

C.  Poetelius  Libo  VUolus. 
Second  celebration  of  the  Lndi  Steculares.     War 

with  the  Volscians.     Satricum  taken. 
345  Cost.  M.  Fabius  Dorso. 

Ser.  Sulpicius  Camcrinus  Rufus. 
Diet.  L.  Furius  Camillus  II. 
Mag.  Eg.  Cn.  Manlius  Capitolinus  Imperiosus. 
War  with  the  Aurunci. 
344  Cos*.  C.  Marcius  Rutilus  III. 

T.  Manlius  Imperiosus  Torquatus  H. 
Diet.  P.  Valerius  Poplicola. 
Mag.  Eg.  Q,  Fabius  Ambustus. 
JEdca  Monctae  dedicated. 
J43  Coss.  M.  Valerius  Corvus  HL 

A.  Cornelius  Cossus  Arvina. 

FIRST  SAMNITE  WAX.    The  Campanians  place  them- 
selves under  the  protection  of  the  Romans,  who 
send  the  two  consuls  against  the  Samnites.    Vale- 
rius defeats  the  Samnites  at  Mount  Gaurus. 
342  Con.  C.  Marcius  Rutilus  IV. 

Q.  Servilius  Ahala. 
Diet.  M.  Valerius  Corvus. 
Mag.  Eg.  L.  ^Emilias  Mamercinus  Privernas. 
Insurrection  of  the  Roman  army  at  Capua.    Various 
concessions  made  to  the  plebeians :   that  no  one 
should  hold  the  same  magistracy  till  after  the  ex- 
piration of  ten  years,  that  no  one  should  hold  two 
magistracies  in  the  same  year,  and  that  both  con- 
suls might  be  plebeians.    Lex  Gcnucia  forbade  the 
taking  of  interest 
341  Coss.  C.  Plautius  Vcnno  Ilypsceus  II. 

L.  .t'.mijius  Mamcrcinuf  Privernas. 
Peace  and  alliance  with  the  Samnites. 
MO  Caw.  T.  Manlius  Imperiosus  Torquatus  IIL 

P.  Decius  Mus. 
Diet.  L.  Papirius  Crnssus. 
Mag.  Eg.  L.  Papirius  Cursor. 

LATIN  WAR.     Self-devotion  of  Decius  and  defeat  of 
the  Latins  at  Mount  Vesuvius.    The  Latins  become 
the  subjects  of  Rome. 
339  COM.  Tl.  yf.milius  Mamercinus. 

Q.  Publiltus  Philo. 
Diet.  Q.  Publilius  Philo. 
Mag.  Eg.  D.  Junlus  Brutus  Pc.tva. 
The  Latins  renew  the  war  and  are  defected.    Tb« 


Leges  Publilia?,  proposed  by  the  dictator,  (1.)  giva 
to  the  plebiscita  the  force  of  leges  (i/«  plebiscita  on- 
nes  Quintet  tenerent)  •  (2.)  abolish  the  veto  of  tho 
curite  on  the  measures  of  the  comitia  centuriata 
(3.)  enact  that  one  of  the  censors  must  be  a  ple- 
beian. 
338  Cost.  L.  Furius  Camillus. 

C.  Mienius. 

Subjugation  of  Latium  concluded. 
337  Coss.  C.  Sulpicius  Longus. 

P.  /Elius  Pastas. 

Diet.  C.  Claudius  Crassinus  Regillensis. 
Mag.  Eg.  C.  Claudius  Hortator. 
FIRST  PLEBEIAN  PRJKTOB,  Q.  Publilius  Philo.    The 
prtttorehip  was  probably  thrown  open  to  the  ple- 
beians by  his  laws. 

336  Cost.  L.  Papirius  Crassns. 

K.  DuUius. 

Peace  with  the  Gauls. 
335  Coss.  M.  Valerius  Corvus  (Calenus)  IV. 

M.  Atilius  Regulus. 

Diet.  L.  ,};nii;ius  Mamercinus  Privernas. 
Mag.  Eg.  Q,  Publilius  Phflo. 
Gales  taken. 
334  Cos*.  T.  Veturius  Calvinus. 

Sp.  Postumius  Albinus  (Caudinus) 
Diet.  P.  Cornelius  Rufinus. 
Mag.  Eg.  M.  Antonius. 
Colony  sent  to  Cales. 
333  Cos*.  (L.  Papirius  Cursor. 

C.  Poetelins  Libo  Visolus  II.) 

The  consuls  of  this  year  are  not  mentioned  by  any 
ancient  authority,  and  are  inserted  here  on  con 
jecture. 
332  Coss.  A.  Cornelius  Cossus  Arvina  II. 

Cn.  Domitius  Calvinus. 
Diet.  M.  Papirius  Crassus. 
Mag.  Eg.  P.  Valerius  Poplicola. 
C«i««.  Q.  Publilius  Philo. 

Sp.  Postumius  Albinus. 

The  civitas  given  to  the  Acerrani.    Two  new  tribei 
added,  Macia  and  Scaptia.    The  Samnites  and  Lu- 
canians  fight  with  Alexander,  king  of  Epirus,  who 
makes  a  treaty  with  the  Romans. 
331  Coss.  M.  Claudius  Marcellus. 

C.  Valerius  Potitus  Flaccus. 
Diet.  Cn.  Quintilius  Varus. 
Mag.  Eg.  L.  Valerius  Potitus. 
330  Coss.  L.  Papirius  Crassus  II. 

L.  Plautius  Venno. 
Revolt  of  Fundi  and  Prlvcrnum. 
329  Coss.  L.  .Kmilius  Mamercinus  Privcrnas  II. 

C.  Plautius  Declaims. 
Privcrnum  taken.    The  civitas  given  to  the  Privcr- 

nates.    A  colony  sent  to  Anxur  (Tarracina). 
328  Coss.  C.  Plautius  Decianus  (Venox)  II. 

P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Barbatus. 
A  colony  sent  to  Fregellw. 

337  COM.  L.  Cornelius  Lcntulus. 

a  Publilius  Phflo  II. 
Diet.  M.  Claudius  Marcellus. 
Mag.  Eg.  Sp.  Postumius  Albinos. 
War  with  Pals-polls. 
326  COM.  C.  Poetelius  Libo  Visolus  III. 

L.  Papirius  Mugillanus  (Cursor  II.). 
SECOND  SAMNITK  WA«.    Paltepolis  taken.   Lex  Pea. 
trim  ct  Papiria  enacted  that  no  plebeian  should  b» 
come  •  netut. 


930 

DC. 

325  COM.  L.  Furius  Camillus  II. 
D.  Junius  Brutus  Scseva. 
Diet.  L.  Papirius  Cursor. 
Mag .  Eg.  Q,  Fabius  Maximus  Rullinnus.    Abdicated. 

L.  Papirius  Crassus. 

324  The  Dictator  and  Magister  Equitum  continued  in  of- 
fice this  year  by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  without  any 
eonsuli.    Defeat  of  the  Sammies. 
S23  COM.  C.  Sulpicius  Longus  II. 
U.  Aulius  Cerrctanus. 
S22  COM.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus. 

L.  Fulvius  Curvus. 
Diet.  A.  Cornelius  Cossus  Arvina. 
Mag.  Eq.  M.  Fabius  Ambustus. 
The  Samnites  defeated. 
321  COM.  T.  Veturius  Calvinus  II. 

Sp.  Postumius  Albinus  II. 
Diet.  Q.  Fabius  Ambustus. 
Mag.  Eq.  P.  .(Elius  Psetus. 
Diet.  M.  .£milius  Papua. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Valerius  Flaccus. 
Surrender  of  the  Roman  army  to  the  Samnites  at  the 
Caudine  Forks.    The  Romans  refuse  to  ratify  the 
peace  with  the  Samnites  made  by  the  consul,  and 
continue  the  war. 
320  COM.  Q.  Publilius  Philo  HI. 

L.  Papirius  Cursor  IL  (III.). 
Diet.  C.  Meenius. 
Mag.  Eq.  M.  FosHus  Flaccinator. 
Diet.  L.  Cornelius  Lentulus. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Papirius  Cursor  II. 
Diet.  T.  Manlius  Imperiosus  Torquatus. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Papirius  Crassus. 
U19  Coss.  L.  Papirius  Cursor  III.  (Mugillanus). 

Q.  Aulius  Cerretanus  II. 
Defeat  of  the  Samnites  by  Papirius. 
318  Coss.  M.  Foslius  Flaccinator. 

L.  I'lautius  Venno. 
Cents.  L.  Papirius  Crassus. 

C.  Maenius. 
Truce  made  with  the  Samnites  for  two  years.    Two 

new  tribes  added,  Ufentina  and  Falerina. 
317  COM.  C.  Junius  Bubulcus  Brutus. 

Q.  .Emilius  Barbula. 
316  COM.  Sp.  Nautius  Rutilus. 
M.  Popilius  Lffinas. 

Diet.  L.  .dnilius  Mamercinus  Privernaa  IT. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Fulvius  Curvus. 
The  Samnites  renew  the  war. 
315  COM.  Q.  Publilius  Philo  IV. 
L.  Papirius  Cursor  IV. 
Diet.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus. 
Mag.  Eq.  Q.  Aulius  Cerretanus.    Slain  in  battle. 

C.  Fabius  Ambustus. 
314  COM.  M.  Pcetelius  Libo. 

C.  Sulpicius  Longus  III. 
Diet.  C.  Msenius  II. 
Mag.  Eg.  M.  Foslius  Flaccinator  IL 
Victory  over  the  Samnites.    Insurrection  and  subju- 
gation of  the  Campanians. 
313  COM.  L.  Papirius  Cursor  V. 

C.  Junius  Bubulcus  Brutus  IL 
Colonies  founded  by  the  Romans  at  Saticula,  Suessa, 

and  the  island  Pontia. 
312  COM.  M.  Valerius  Maximus. 

P.  Deeius  Mus. 
Diet.  C.  Sulpicius  Longus. 
Mag.  £5.  C.  Junius  Bubulcus  Brutus. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


B.C. 

312  Centi.  Ap.  Claudius  Ceecu*. 
C.  Plautius  (Venox). 

The  censor  Claudius  constructs  the  Via  Appia  and 
the  Aqua  Appia ;  and,  in  order  to  gain  popularity, 
distributes  the  libertini  among  all  the  tribes. 
311  COM.  C.  Junius  Bubulcus  Brutus  III. 

Q.  jEmilius  Barbula  II. 
The  Etruscans  declare  war  against  the  Romans,  but 

are  defeated.     Victory  over  the  Samnites. 
310  COM.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus  II. 

C.  Marcius  Rutilus  (Censorinus). 
The  Etruscans  again  defeated.    Ap.  Claudius  contin- 
ues censor  after  the  abdication  of  his  colleague,  in 
defiance  of  the  Lex  ^Emilia.    The  Samnitea  and 
Etruscans  defeated. 
309  Diet.  L.  Papirius  Cursor  IL 

Mag.  Eq.  C.  Junius  Bubulcus  Brutus  II. 
No  consuls  this  year.    The  Samnites  and  Etruscans 
again  defeated. 

306  COM.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus  in. 

P.  Deeius  Mus  II. 

The  Samnites  again  defeated.  War  with  the  Marsi 
and  Peligni. 

307  COM.  Ap.  Claudius  Cajcus. 

L.  Volumnius  Flamma  Violens. 
Cents.  M.  Valerius  Maximus. 

C.  Junius  Bubulcus  Brutus. 

Fabius,  proconsul,  defeats  the  Samnites  at  Allifaj. 
306  COM.  P.  Cornelius  Arvina. 

Q.  Marcius  Tremulus. 
Diet.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Barbatua. 
Mag.  Eq.  P.  Deeius  Mus. 
Insurrection  and  subjugation  of  the  Hcrnieang. 

303  COM.  L.  Postumiua  Megellus. 

Ti.  Minucius  Augurinus.     Slain  in  battle. 
M.  Fulvius  Curvus  Paetinus. 

Victorious  campaign  against  the  Samnites.  Bovia- 
num  taken. 

304  COM.  P.  Sulpicius  Saverrio. 

P.  Sempronius  Sophus. 
Cents.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus. 

P.  Deeius  Mus. 

Peace  concluded  with  the  Samnites.     The  .£quians 
defeated  with  great  slaughter.     Peace  with  the 
Marrucini,  Marsi,  Peligni.    The  censors  place  all 
the  libertini  in  the  four  city  tribes. 
Cn.  Flavius  makes  known  the  civile  jus,  and  publish- 
es a  calendar  of  the  dies  fasti  and  nefasti. 
303  COM.  L.  Genucius  Aventinensis. 

Ser.  Cornelius  Lentulus  (Rufinus). 
Colonies  sent  to  Sora  and  Alba. 
302  COM.  M.  Livius  Dentcr. 

M.  /Emilius  Paullus. 
Diet.  C.  Junius  Bubulcus  Brutus. 
Mag.  Eg.  M.  Titinius. 
The  ./Eqxu'ans  renew  the  war,  but  are  easily  defeated 

by  the  dictator. 

301  Diet.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus  II. 
Mag.  Eq.  M.  ^inilius  Paullus. 
Diet.  M.  Valerius  Corvus  II. 
Mag.  Eq.  C.  Sempronius  Sophus. 
No  consuls  this  year.    War  with  the  Marsi  and  Etrus- 
cans. 
300  COM.  Q.  Appuleius  Pansa. 

M.  Valerius  Corvus  V. 

The  Lex  Ogulnia  increases  the  number  of  the  pon- 
tiffs and  «ugurs,  and  enacts  that  four  of  the  pontiffs 
and  five  of  the  augurs  shall  always  be  plebeian!. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


98' 


B.C. 

300  The  Lex  Valeria  dtprotocatione  re-enacted  the  former 
law,  which  had  been  twice  before  passed  on  the 
proposition  of  different  members  of  the  same  gens. 
V9  Coss.  M.  Fulvius  Petrous. 

T.  Manlius  Torquatus.    Died. 
M.  Valerius  Corvus  VL 
Cents.  P.  Sempronius  Sophus. 

P.  Sulpicius  Saverrio. 
Two  new  tribes  formed,  the  Anientis  and  Termtina. 

A  colony  sent  to  Narnia  among  the  Umbrians. 
298  Cow.  L.  Cornelius  Scipio. 

Cn.  Fulvius  Maximus  Centumalus. 
THIRD  SAMNITE  WAR.     The  Samnites  invade  the 
territory  of  the  Lucanians,  the  allies  of  the  Romans, 
which  occasions  a  war.     The  Samnites  defeated  at 
Bovianum ;  the  Etruscans  at  Volaterrse.    Colony 
founded  at  CarseolL 
297  Cost.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus  IV. 

P.  Decius  Mus  III. 

The  war  continued  in  Samnium.    The  Etruscans  re- 
main quiet  this  year. 
296  Cost.  L.  Volumnius  Flamma  Violens  H. 

Ap.  Claudius  Ctecus  II. 

The  war  continued  in  Samnium,  and  also  in  Etruria. 
»5  Cost.  Q,  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus  V. 

P.  Decius  Mus  IV. 
Great  defeat  of  the  Samnites,  Etruscans,  Umbrians, 

and  Gauls  at  Sentinum. 
294  Cots.  L.  Posrumius  Mcgellus  IL 

M.  Atilius  Regulus. 
Cents.  P.  Cornelius  Arvina. 

C.  Marcius  Rutilus  (Censorinus). 

War  continued  in  Samnium   and  Etruria.     Three 

cities  in  Etruria,  Volsinii,  Perusia,  and  Arretium 

sue  for  peace :  a  truce  is  made  with  them  for  4( 

years. 

<03  COM.  L.  Papirius  Cursor. 

8p.  Carvilius  Maximus. 
The  Samnites  defeated  with  great  loss.    First  sun 

dial  set  up  at  Rome. 
292  Cost.  Q,  Fabius  Maximus  Gurges. 

D.  Junius  Brutus  Sceeva. 

The  consul  Fabius  defeated  by  the  Samnites ;  but  his 

father,  Q.  Fabius  Maximus,  gams  a  great  victory 

over  the  Samnites,  from  which  they  never  rec 

Pontius,  the  Samnite  general,  taken  prisoner. 

291  Cost.  L.  Postumiua  Megellus  III. 

C.  Junius  Brutus  Bubulcus. 

The  Samnites  hopelessly  continue  the  struggle.    Co 

minium  taken.    A  colony  sent  to  Venusia. 
290  COM.  P.  CorneHu*  Rufinus. 
M'.  Curiua  Pentntus. 
Both  consuls  invade  Samnium.    The  Samnitet  sub 
mit,  and  cue  for  peace.    Conclusion  of  the  Samnite 
wars,  which  had  lasted  53  years.     See  B.C.  343. 
289  Coss.  M.  Valerius  Maximus  C'orvinus. 

Q.  Csedicius  Nocrua. 
Triumviri  Capitales  instituted.     Colonies  lent  to  Caa 

trutn,  Scnn,  and  Hadria. 
288  COM.  Q.  Marcius  Tremulns  IL 

P.  Cornelius  Arvina  II. 
287  COM.  M.  Claudius  Marccllus. 

C.  Nautius  Rutilus. 
286  COM.  M.  Valerius  Maximus  Fotitus. 

C.  JEtint  Pffitus. 

Diet.  Q.  Hortensius. 

Last  secession  of  the  plebs.    The  Lex  nortcnsin  o 

the  dictator  confirms  more  fully  the  privileges  o 


the  plebeians.    The  Lex  Maenia  was  very  probablf 
passed  in  this  year. 
"85  Cots.  C.  Claudius  Canina. 

M.  jEmilius  Lepidus. 
284  Cott.  C.  Servilius  Tucca. 

L.  Caecilius  Metellus  Denter. 
283  COM.  P.  Cornelius  Dolabella  Maximus. 
Cn.  Domitius  Calvinus  Maximus. 

Cents 

Q.  Csedicius  Noctua.    Abdicated. 
The  Gauls  besiege  Arretium,  and  defeat  the  Romans. 
In  the  course  of  the  same  year  the  Gauls  and  Etrus- 
cans are  defeated  by  the  Romans. 
282  Cots.  C.  Fabricius  Luscinus. 

Q.  jEmilius  Papus. 

The  Boii  defeated :  peace  made  with  them.    The 
Samnites  revolt,  but  are  defeated  together  with  the 
Lucanians  and  Bruttians.     The  Romans   relieve 
Thurii.    The  Tarentines  attack  a  Roman  fleet 
281  Cost.  L.  .jEmilius  Barbula. 

Q.  Marcius  Philippus. 

PYRRHUS  ARRIVES  IN  ITALY.    He  came  upon  the  in- 
vitation of  the  Tarentines,  to  assist  them  in  their 
war  against  the  Romans. 
280  Cots.  P.  Valerius  Lsevinus. 

Ti.  Coruncanius. 
Diet.  Cn.  Domitius  Calvinus  Maximus. 

Mag.  Eq 

Cents. 

Cn.  Domitius  Calvinus  Maximus. 
The  Romans  defeated  by  Pyrrhus  near  Heraclca. 
279  Cots.  P.  Sulpicius  Saverrio. 

P.  Decius  Mus. 
The  Romans  again  defeated  by  Pyrrhus  near  Ascu- 

lum. 
278  Cost.  C.  Fabricius  Luscinns  II. 

Q.  jEmilius  Papus  II. 

Pyrrhus  passes  over  into  Sicily.    The  Romans  carry 
on  the  war  with  success  against  the  nations  of 
Southern  Italy,  who  had  sided  with  Pyrrhus. 
277  COM.  P.  Cornelius  Rufinus  II. 

C.  Junius  Brutus  Bubulcus  II. 
276  Coss.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Gurges  II. 

C.  Gcnucius  Clcpsinn. 
Diet.  P.  Cornelius  Rufinus. 

Mag.  Eq 

Pyrrhus  returns  to  Italy. 
275  COM.  M'.  Curius  Dentatus  H. 
L.  Cornelius  Lentulus. 
Censt.  C.  Fabricius  Luscinus. 

Q.  jGmilius  Papus. 
Total  defeat  of  Pyrrhus  near  Bcne  ventum.    He  leave* 

Italy. 

274  Con.  M'.  Curius  Dentatus  III. 
Ser.  Cornelius  Mcrenda. 
273  COM.  C.  Claudius  Caninn  II. 

C.  Fabius  Dorso  Licinus.    Died. 
C.  Fabricius  Luscinus  HI. 
Embassy  from  Ptolcmteus  Philadelphus  to  Rome. 

Colonies  sent  to  Posidonla  and  Cosa. 
272  COM.  L.  Papirius  Cursor  II. 

8p.  Cirvilius  Maximus  II. 
Centt.  M'.  Curius  Dentarus. 

L.  Papirius  Cursor. 
Conclusion  of  the  war  in  Southern  Italy.    Tarcntun 

submits. 

271  COM.  C.  Quinctius  Clnudui. 
L.  Genucin*  Clcpiina. 


982 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


B.C. 

271  lUicgium  is  taken,  and  the  soldiers  of  the  Catnpanian 
legion,  who  had  seized  the  city,  are  taken  to  Rome 
and  put  to  death. 

270  Cot*.  C.  Genucius  Clepsina  II. 
Cn.  Cornelius  Blasio. 

2C9  Coti.  Q.  Ogulnius  Callus. 

C.  Fabius  Pictor. 

Silver  money  first  .coined  at  Rome. 
868  Cott.  Ap.  Claudius  Crassus  Rufus. 

P.  Sempronius  Sopbus. 
The  Picentines  defeated  and  submit  to  the  Romans. 

Colonies  founded  at  Ariminum  and  Beneventum. 
267  Cot*.  M.  Atilius  Regulus. 

L.  Julius  Libo. 

The  Sallentines  defeated  and  Brundisium  taken. 
2C6  Coat.  N.  Fabius  Pictor. 

D.  Junius  Pera. 

The  Sallentines  submit.    Subjugation  of  Italy  com- 
pleted. 
265  COM.  Q,  Fabius  Maximus  Gurges  III. 

L.  Mamilius  Vitulus. 
Censs.  Cn.  Cornelius  Blasio. 

C.  Morcius  Rutilus  II.  (Censorinns). 
1564  Coss.  Ap.  Claudius  Caudex. 

M.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 

FIRST  PUNIC  WAB.    First  year.    The  consul  Claudi- 
us crosses  over  into  Sicily,  and  defeats  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  Syracusans.    Gladiators  exhibited  for 
the  first  time  at  Rome. 
263  Coss.  M'.  Valerius  Maximus  (Messala). 

M*.  Otacilius  Crassus.   • 
Diet.  Cn.  Fulvius  Maximus  Centumalns. 
Mag.  Eg.  Q.  Marcius  Fhilippus. 
Second  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  two  consuls 
cross  over  into  Sicily,  and  raise  the  siege  of  Messa- 
na.    Iliero  makes  peace  with  the  Romans. 
262  Coss.  L.  Postumius  (Megellus). 

Q,  Mamilius  Vitulus. 

Third  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  two  contuls 
lay  siege  to  Agrigentum,  which  is  taken  after  a 
siege  of  seven  months. 
261  Coss.  L.  Valerius  Flaccus. 
T.  Otacilius  Crassus. 

Fourth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  Carthagini- 
ans ravage  the  coast  of  Italy. 
260  Coss.  Cn.  Cornelius  Scipio  Asina. 

C.  Duilius. 

Fifth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  Romans  first 
build  a  fleet    The  consul  Duilius  gains  a  victory 
by  sea  over  the  Carthaginians. 
259  Coss.  L.  Cornelius  Scipio. 

C.  Aquilius  Florus. 

Sixth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  consul  Cor- 
nelius attacks  Sardinia  and  Corsica.    His  colleague 
carries  on  the  war  in  Sicily. 
858  Coss.  A.  Atilius  Culntinus. 

C.  Sulpicius  Paterculus. 
Censs.  C.  Duilius. 

L.  Cornelius  Scipio. 

Seventh  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  two  con- 
suls carry  on  the  war  in  Sicily,  but  without  much 
success. 
857  Cost.  C.  Atilius  Regulus  (Serranus). 

Cn.  Cornelius  Blasio  II. 
Diet.  Q.  Ogulnius  Callus. 
Mag.  Eq.  M.  Laetorius  Plancianus. 
Eighth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  consul  Atili- 
us gains  a  naval  victory  offTyndaria. 


256  Coss.  L.  Manlius  Vulso  Longns. 
Q.  Cu-clicius.     Died. 
M.  Atilius  Regulus  II. 

Ninth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.  The  two  consuls, 
Manlius  and  Regulus,  defeat  the  Carthaginians  by 
sea  and  land  in  Africa.  Success  of  the  Roman 
arms  in  Africa.  Manlius  returns  to  Rome  with 
part  of  the  army.  Regulus  remains  in  Africa. 
255  Cot*.  Ser.  Fulvius  PaJtinus  Nobilior. 

M.  ./Em  ill  us  Paullus. 

Tenth  y«ar  of  the  first  Punic  war.  Regulus  contin 
ues  the  war  in  Africa  with  great  success,  defeats  the 
Carthaginians,  and  takes  Tunis,  but  is  afterward 
defeated  by  the  Carthagininns  under  the  command 
of  Xantbippus,  and  taken  prisoner.  The  Romans 
equip  a  large  fleet,  which  defeats  the  Carthaginians, 
and  carries  off  from  Africa  the  survivors  of  the 
army  of  Regulus ;  but  on  its  return  to  Italy  it  ia 
wrecked,  and  most  of  the  ships  are  destroyed. 
254  Coss.  Cn.  Cornelius  Scipio  Asina  II. 

A.  Atilius  Calatinus  II. 

Eleventh  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  Romans, 
in  three  months,  build  another  fleet  of  220  ships. 
They  take  Panormus. 
253  Coss.  Cn.  Servilius  Csepio. 

C.  Sempronius  Bltesus. 
Censs.  D.  Junius  Pera.    Abdicated. 

L.  Postumius  Megellus.    Died. 
Twelfth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  two  con- 
suls ravage  the  coast  of  Africa.    On  their  return  to 
Italy,  the  Roman  fleet  is  again  wrecked.    The  sen- 
ate resolve  not  to  build  another  fleet.    Tib.  Corun- 
canius  the  first  plebeian  Pontifex  Maximus. 
252  Coss.  C.  Aurelius  Cotta. 

P.  Servilius  Geminus. 
Censs.  M'.  Valerius  Maximus  Messala. 

P.  Sempronius  Sophus. 

Thirteenth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  two  con- 
suls carry  on  the  war  in  Sicily.   Capture  of  Himera 
251  Coss.  L.  Csscilius  Metellus. 

C.  Furius  Pacilus. 
Fourteenth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  two 

consuls  carry  on  the  war  in  Sicily. 
250  Cost.  C.  Atilius  Regulus  (Serranus)  II. 

L.  Manlius  Vulso  (Longus)  II. 
Fifteenth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.  Great  victory 
of  the  proconsul  Metellus  at  Panormus.  Regulue 
sent  to  Rome  to  solicit  peace,  or,  at  least,  an  ex- 
change of  prisoners.  The  Romans,  on  the  contra- 
ry, resolve  to  prosecute  the  war  with  the  greatest 
vigor.  A  new  fleet  built  The  two  consuls  lay 
siege  to  Lilybteum. 

[Arsaces  founds  the  Parthian  monarchy.] 
249  Coss.  P.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

L.  Junius  Pullus. 
Diet.  M.  Claudius  Glicia.    Abdicated. 

A.  Atilius  Calatinus. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Ciecilius  Metellus. 
Sixteenth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  consttl 
Claudius  defeated  by  sea.    He  is  commanded  by 
the  senate  to  nominate  a  dictator,  and  nominates, 
in  scorn,  Glicia,  who  had  been  his  scribe,  but  who 
is  compelled  to  resign.    The  fleet  of  the  other  con- 
sul is  wrecked.     The  dictator  Atilius   Calatinus 
crosses  over  into  Sicily,  being  the  first  dictatoi 
who  carried  on  war  out  of  Italy. 
248  Cots.  C.  Aurelius  Cotta  H. 

P.  Serviiius  Geminus  IL 
'* A  '  J. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


983 


ML 

248  Seventeenth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  con- 
suls carry  on  the  war  in  Sicily. 
247  Coss.  L.  Caecilius  Metellus  IL 

N.  Fubius  Butco. 
Cents.  A.  Atilius  Calatinus. 

A.  Manlius  Torquatua  Atticus. 

Eighteenth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    Hamilcar 
Barca  appointed  general  of  the  Carthaginians.    He 
ravages  the  coasts  of  Italy.    The  citizens  at  the  cen- 
sus are  251,222. 
[Birth  of  Hannibal.] 
246  Coss.  M'.  Otacilius  Crassus  IL 

M.  Fabius  Licinus. 
Diet.  Ti.  Coruncanius. 
idag.  Eg.  M.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 

Nineteenth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    During  this 

year,  and  for  several  successive  years,  the  war  is 

.  chiefly  defensive.    Both  parties  are  exhausted  with 

the  struggle.    Hamilcar  carries  on  the  war  with 

great  skill. 

245  Coss.  M.  Fabius  Buteo. 
C.  Atilius  Bulbus. 

Twentieth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war. 
244  Coss.  A.  Manlius  Torquatus  Atticus. 

C.  Sempronius  Bla-sus  II. 
Twenty-first  year  of  the  first  Punic  war. 
243  Cots.  C.  Fundanius  Fundulus. 

C.  Sulpicius  Callus. 

Twenty-second  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  con- 
sul Fundanius  defeats  Hamilcar  in  Sicily.    A  sec- 
ond prtetor  appointed  for  the  first  time. 
242  Coss.  C.  Lutatius  Catulus. 

A.  Postumius  Albums. 

Twenty-third  year  of  the  first  Punic  war.    The  Ro- 
mans again  build  a  fleet. 
241  Cost.  A.  Manlius  Torquatus  Atticus  IL 

Q.  Lutatius  Cerco. 

Cents.  C.  AureHus  Cotta. 

M.  Fabius  Buteo. 

Twenty-fourth  and  last  year  of  the  first  Punic  war. 
The  proconsul  Catulus  defeats  the  Carthaginians 
by  sea,  off  the  jEgates.  Peace  made  with  the  Car- 
thaginians. Sicily  becomes  a  Roman  province. 
Revolt  and  conquest  of  the  FaliscL  War  of  the 
Carthaginians  with  the  mercenaries.  The  citizens 
at  the  census  are  251,000. 
240  Cots.  C.  Claudius  Centho. 

M.  Sempronius  Tuditanus. 
A  colony  sent  to  Spoletium.    The  Sardinians  revolt 

from  Carthage. 
Livius   Andronicui   begins   to   exhibit  tragedies  at 

Rome. 
339  COM.  C.  Manlius  Turrinus. 

Q.  Valerius  Falto. 
Q.  Ennius,  the  poet,  born. 
838  Cott.  Ti.  Scmproniui  Gracchus. 

P.  Valerius  Falto. 

The  Romans  carry  on  war  with  the  Boil  and  Liguri- 
ans.  The  Floralia  instituted.  Conclusion  of  the 
war  of  the  Carthaginians  agninft  their  mercenaries 
after  it  bad  lasted  three  years  and  four  month*. 
The  Carthaginians  are  obliged  to  surrender  Sar- 
dinia and  Corsica  to  the  Roman*.  Uunilcar  sent 
into  Spain. 
237  Cott.  L.  Cornelius  Lcntulut  Caudinu*. 

Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 

War  continued  with  the  Boii  and  Llguriani. 
836  Con.  P.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Caudinu*. 


C.  Licinius  Varus. 
Centt.  L.  Cornelius  I.t  ntulus  Caudinus. 

Q.  Lutatius  Cerco.    Died. 

The  Transalpine  Gauls  cross  the  Alps  on  the  invita- 
tion of  the  Boii ;  but,  in  consequence  of  dissensions 
with  the  Boii,  they  return  home. 
The  Romans  carry  on  war  with  the  Ligurians  and 

Corsicans. 
235  Cost.  T.  Manlius  Torquatus. 

C.  Atilius  Bulbus  II. 

The  Sardinians  rebel  at  the  instigation  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians, but  are  subdued.    The  temple  of  Janus  is 
shut  for  the  second  tune. 
The  poet  Nsevius  flourished. 
234  Coss.  L.  Postumius  Albinus. 

Sp.  Carvilius  Maximus. 
Cents.  C.  Atilius  Bulbus. 

A.  Postumius  Albinus. 

War  with  the  Ligurians,  Corsicans,  and  Sardinians, 
who  were  secretly  urged  by  the  Carthaginians  to 
revolt 

Birth  of  M.  Porcius  Cato. 
233  Coss.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosus. 

M'.  Pomponius  Matho. 
War  with  the  Ligurians  and  Sardinians. 
232  COM.  M.  ^Emilius  Lcpidus. 

M.  Publicius  Malleolus. 
The  two  consuls  carry  on  war  in  Sardinia.    The 

agrarian  law  of  the  tribune  C.  Flaminius. 
231  COM.  M.  Pomponius  Matho. 

C.  Papirius  Maso. 
Diet.  C.  Duilius. 
Mag.  Eg.  C.  Aurelius  Cotta. 
Cmss.  T.  Manlius  Torquatus.    Abdicated. 

Q,  Fulvius  Flaccus.    Abdicated. 
The  Sardinians  and  Cortlcans  subdued.    Sp.  Carvili 
us  divorces  his  wife,  the  first  instance  of  divorce  at 
Rome.    Other  dates  are  given  for  this  event 
230  COM.  M.  .Emilius  Barbula. 

M.  Junius  Pern. 
Cents.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosus. 

M.  Sempronius  Tuditanus. 
War  with  the  Ligurians. 
229  COM.  L.  Postumius  Albinus  IL 
Cn.  Fulvius  Centumalus. 

War  with  the  Illyrians,  who  are  easily  subdued. 
Death  of  Hamilcar  in  Spain,  who  is  succeeded  in 
the  command  by  Hasdrubal. 
228  Cott.  Sp.  Carvilius  Maximus  II. 

'  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosus  IL 
Postumius,  the  proconsul,  who  had  wintered  in  Illyr- 
icum,  makes  peace  with  Teuta,  queen  of  the  lllyri- 
ans.    First  Roman  embassy  to  Greece.    Hasdrubal 
makes  a  treaty  with  the  Romans. 
227  COM.  P.  Valerius  Flaccua. 
M.  Atilius  Kegulus. 

Number  of  preetors  increased  from  two  to  four. 
226  COM.  M.  Valerius  Mcssala. 

L.  Apustiu*  Fullo. 
225  COM.  L.  £milius  Papus. 

C.  Atilius  Regulu*.     Slain  in  battU. 
Centt.  C.  Claudius  Centho. 

M.  Juniu*  Per*. 

WA»  WITH  Tilt  GAULS.     The  Transalpine  Gaul* 

cross  the  Alps  and  Join  the  Cisalpine  Gauls.    Their 

united  forces  defeated  by  the  consul  £miliH*.    The 

consul  Atiliu*  falls  in  the  battle. 

Q.  Fabius  Pictor,  the  historian,  served  in  the  Gallic 


84 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


B.C 

war.    Ho  was  a  contemporary  of  the  historian  L. 
Cincius  Alimentus. 
20J  COM.  T.  Manlius  Torquatus  II. 

Q.  Fulviu*  Flaccus  II. 
Diet.  L.  Ceecilius  Mctellua. 
Mug.  Eq.  N.  Fabius  Buteo. 
Second  year  of  the  Gallic  war.    The  Boii  submit. 
Plautus,  perhaps,  began  to  exhibit  in  this  year.    See 

the  article  PLAUTUS. 
233  Coss.  C.  Flamming. 

P.  Furius  Pbilus. 
Third  year  of  the  Gallic  war.    The  consul  Flaminiui 

crosses  the  Po  and  defeats  the  Insubrians. 
521  Cots.  Cn.  Cornelius  Scipio  Calvus. 

M.  Claudius  Marcellus. 

Fourth  and  last  year  of  the  Gallic  war.    The  Insubri- 
ans, defeated  by  the  consul  Marcellus,  submit  to  the 
Romans.    The  consul  Marcellus  wins  the  spolia 
opima. 
821  Cost.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Asina. 

M.  Minucius  Rufus. 
Diet.  Q,  Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosua. 
Mag.  Eg.  C.  Flaminius. 

War  with  the  Istri,  who  are  subdued.    Hannibal  suc- 
ceeds Hasdrubal  in  the  command  of  the  Carthagin- 
ian army  in  Spain. 
220  Cow.  L.  Veturius  Philo. 

C.  Lutatius  Catulns. 
Cents.  L.  ^milius  Papus. 

C.  Flaminius. 

The  censors  place  the  libertini  in  the  four  city  tribes. 
Flaminius  makes  the  Via  Flaminia  and  builds  the 
Circus  Flaminius.  The  citizens  at  the  census  are 
270,213. 

219  Coss.  M.  Livius  Salinator. 
L.  ./Emilius  Paulus. 

Second  Illyrian  war  against  Demetrius  of  Pharos, 
who  is  conquered  by  the  consul  JEmilius.    Hanni- 
bal takes  Saguntum  after  a  siege  of  eight  months, 
and  winters  at  Carthago  Nova. 
The  poet  Pacuvius  born  fifty  years  before  Attius. 
First  medical  shop  opened  at  Rome  by  Archagathus, 
a  Greek,  to  whom  the  Romans  granted  the  jus  Qui- 
ritium. 
218  Cow.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio. 

Ti.  Sempronius  Longus. 

SECOND  PUNIC  WAR.  First  year.  Hannibal  began 
his  march  from  Carthago  Nova  at  the  commence- 
ment of  spring,  and  reached  Italy  in  five  months. 
He  defeats  the  Romans  at  the  battles  of  the  Ticinus 
and  the  Trebia,  and  winters  in  Liguria.  Cn.  Scipio 
carries  on  the  war  with  success  in  Spain. 
L.  Cincius  Alimentus  wrote  an  account  of  Hannibal's 

passage  into  Italy. 
217  Cots.  Cn.  Servilius  Geminus. 

C.  Flaminius  II.    Slain  in  battle. 
M.  Atilius  Regulus  II. 
Diet.  Q,  Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosus  II. 
Mag.  Eq.  M.  Minucius  Rufus. 
Diet.  L.  Veturius  Philo. 
Mag.  Eq.  M.  Pomponius  Matho. 
Second  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    Hannibal 
marches  through  the  marshes  into  Etruria,  and  de- 
feats Flaminius  at  the  battle  of  the  Lake  Trasime 
mis.    Fabius  Maximus,  elected  dictator  by  the  peo- 
ple, will  not  risk  a  battle.    Hannibal  marches  into 
Apulia,  where  he  passes  the  whiter.    The  war  con 
tinued  in  Spain. 


B.C. 

216  Cost.  C.  Terentius  Varro. 

L.  uEmilius  Paulus  L.    Slain  in  battle. 
Diet.  M.  Junius  Pera. 
Mag.  Eq.  Ti.  Sempronius  Gracchus. 
Diet,  sine  Mag.  Eq.  M.  Fabius  Buteo. 
Third  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    Great  defeat 
of  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of  Canna;,  on  the  2d 
of  August.    Revolt  of  Capua  and  many  other  cities. 
The  war  continued  in  Spain.    Death  of  Iliero. 
215  Co»».  Ti.  Sempronius  Gracchus. 

L.  Postumius  Albinus  III.    Slain  in  battle. 
M.  Claudius  Marcellus  II.     Abdicated. 
Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosus  HI. 
Fourth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    The  war  be- 
gins to  turn  in  favor  of  the  Romans.    Marcellus 
gains  a  victory  over  Hannibal  near  Nola.    The  Ro- 
mans conquer  the  Carthaginians  in  Sardinia.     Suc- 
cess of  P.  and  Cn.  Scipio  in  Spain.    Treaty  of  Han- 
nibal with  Philip,  king  of  Macedon.    The  sumptua- 
ry law  of  the  tribune  C.  Oppius. 
214  Cost.  <J.  Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosus  IV. 

M.  Claudius  Marcellus  III. 
Cents.  M.  Atilius  Regulus.    Abdicated. 

P.  Furius  Philus.    Died. 

Fifth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    Hannibal  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Tarentum.    Marcellus  is  sent  into 
Sicily.    He  besieges  Syracuse,  but  turns  the  siego 
into  a  blockade.     War  continued  in  Spain. 
213  Cos*.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus. 

Ti.  Sempronius  Gracchus  II. 
Diet.  C.  Claudius  Centho. 
Mag.  Eq.  Q..  Fulvius  Flaccus. 

Sixth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.  Hannibal  con 
tinues  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tarentum.  Marcel- 
lus continues  the  siege  of  Syracuse.  Successes  of 
P.  and  Cn.  Scipio  in  Spain.  They  think  of  cross- 
ing  over  to  Africa.  War  between  the  Romans  and 
Philip. 

212  Cots.  Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus  III. 
Ap.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

Seventh  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    Hannibal 
takes  Tarentum.     Marcellus  takes  Syracuse.    P. 
and  Cn.  Scipio  defeated  and  slain  in  Spain.     Insti- 
tution of  the  Ludi  Apollinares. 
Death  of  Archimedes. 
211  Cogs.  Cn.  Fulvius  Centumalus. 

P.  Sulpicius  Galba  Maximus. 

Eighth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.  Hannibal  at- 
tempts in  vain  to  raise  the  siege  of  Capua.  Ths 
Romans  recover  Capua.  P.  Scipio  is  sent  into 
Spain  toward  the  end  of  the  summer.  The  ^Etoll- 
ans  desert  Philip  and  conclude  a  treaty  with  tht 
Romans. 
210  COM.  M.  Claudius  Marcellus  IV. 

M.  Valerius  Litvinus. 
Diet.  Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 
Mag.  Eq.  P.  Licinius  Crassus  Dives. 
Cents.  L.  Veturius  Philo.    Died. 

P.  Licinius  Crassus  Dives.    Abdicated. 
Ninth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    Hannibal  fight* 
a  drawn  battle  with  Marcellus.    In  Sicily,  Lsevinu* 
takes  Agrigentum.    In  Spain,  Scipio  takes  Cartha- 
go Nova.    The  citizens  at  the  census  are  137,108. 
209  Cos*.  Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus  IV. 

Q,  Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosus  V. 
Censs.  M.  Cornelius  Cethegus. 

P.  Sempronius  Tuditanus. 
Tenth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    The  consul 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


985 


B.C. 

Fabius  recovers  Tarentum.    In  Spain,  Scipio  gains 
a  victory  near  Bascula.    In  this  year  the  number 
of  Roman  colonies  was  thirty. 
266  Coss.  M.  Claudius  Marcellus  V.     Slain  in  battle. 

T.  Quinctius  (Pennus  Capitolinus)  Crispinus. 

Died. 

Diet.  T.  Manlius  Torquatus. 
Mag.  Eq.  C.  Servilius. 

Eleventh  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.  The  two 
consuls  defeated  by  Hannibal  near  Venusia ;  Mar- 
cellus is  slain.  Continued  success  of  Scipio  in 
Spain.  Hasdrubal  crosses  the  Pyrenees  and  win- 
ters in  Gaul. 
307  Coss.  C.  Claudius  Nero. 

M.  Livius  Salinator  II. 
Diet.  M.  Livius  Salinator. 
Mag.  Eg.  Q.  Ccecilius  Metcllus. 
Twelfth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    Hasdrubal 
crosses  the  Alps  and  inarches  into  Italy  ;  is  defeat- 
ed on  the  Metaurus  and  slain.     The  Romans  carry 
on  the  war  in  Greece  against  Philip  :    they  take 
Oreum,  in  Euboea.     Continued  success  of  Scipio 
in  Spain. 
Livius  Andronicus  was  probably  still  alive  in  this 

year. 
906  Cos*.  L.  Veturius  Phite. 

Q.  Ceecilius  Metellus. 

Thirteenth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    The  con- 
suls march  into  Bruttii.    Hannibal  remains  inactive. 
Scipio  becomes  master  of  Spain ;  he  crosses  orer 
into  Africa,  and  makes  a  league  with  Syphax. 
SOS  Cos*.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  (Africanua). 

P.  Licinius  Crassus  Dive*. 
Diet.  Q,  Caecilius  Metellus. 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Veturius  Philo. 

Fourteenth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.     The  war 
continued  in  Bruttii.    Scipio  crosses  over  into  Sic- 
ily, where  he  passes  the  winter.    Peace  concluded 
between  Rome  and  Philip. 
904  COM.  M.  Cornelius  Cethegus. 

P.  Sempronius  Tuditanus. 
Cents.  M.  Livius  Salinator. 

C.  Claudius  Nero. 
Fifteenth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    The  war 
continued  in  Bruttii.     Hannibal  conquered  near 
Croton.    Scipio  crosses  over  to  Africa.    The  citi- 
zens at  the  census  are  214,000. 
F.nniu§,  the  poet,  is  brought  to  Rome  by  the  quaestor 

Cato,  from  Sardinia. 
303  Cos*.  Cn.  Servilius  Ccepio. 

C.  Servilius. 

Diet.  P.  Sulpicius  Galba  Maximal. 
Mag.  Eq.  M.  Servilius  Pulex  Geminui. 
Sixteenth  year  of  the  second  Punic  war.    Scipio 
prosecutes  the  war  with  success  in  Africa.    Defeat 
of  the  Carthaginians  and  Syphax ;  Syphax  is  taken 
prisoner.    Hannibal  leaves  Italy,  and  crosses  over 
to  Africa. 
902  COM.  M.  Servilius  Pulex  Gcminu*. 

Ti.  Claudius  Nero. 
Diet.  C.  Servilius. 
Mag.  Eq.  P.  JE\iu»  Psetu*. 

Seventeenth  year  of  the  sccfiud  Punic  war.  Hanni- 
bal i<  defeated  by  Scipio  at  the  decisive  battle  of 
Zama.  The  Carthaginians  sue  for  peace.  After 
this  year  no  dictator  was  appointed  for  130  rears, 
till  Sulla. 
Death  of  the  poet  Nsevius 


201  Coss.  Cn.  Cornelius  Lentulus. 

P.  JElius  Pa-tus. 
Eighteenth  and  last  year  of  the  second  Punic  war 

Peace  granted  to  the  Carthaginians. 
200  Cost.  P.  Sulpicius  Galba  Maximus  II. 

C.  Aurelius  Cotta. 

Renewal  of  the  war  with  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia 
Sulpicius  sent  into  Greece.    War  with  the  Insubri- 
an  Gauls.    Colony  sent  to  Venusium. 
L99  Coss.  L.  Cornelius  Lentulus. 

P.  Villius  Tappulus. 
Censs.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus. 

P.  ^Elius  Peetus. 

War  continued  against  Philip  and  the  Gauls.    Sulpi- 
cius succeeded  in  the  command  in  Greece  by  Vil- 
lius.   Colony  sent  to  Narnia. 
198  Coss.  Sex.  JElius  Paetus  Catus. 
T.  Quinctius  Flamininus. 
War  continued  against  Philip  and  the  Gauls.    Villius 

is  succeeded  by  Flamininus. 
197  Coss.  C.  Cornelius  Cethegus. 

Q.  Minucius  Rufus. 

War  continued  against  Philip  and  the  Gauls.  Defeat 
of  Philip  by  Flamininus  at  the  battle  of  Cynoscepha- 
lae,  in  the  autumn.  Peace  concluded  with  Philip. 
Number  of  praetors  increased  to  six.  Lex  Porcia 
de  protocatione. 
196  Coss.  L.  Furius  Purpureo. 

M.  Claudius  Marcellus. 

War  continued  against  the  Gauls.  The  consuls  de- 
feat the  Insubrians  and  the  Boii.  Flamininus  pro- 
claims the  independence  of  Greece  at  the  Isthmian 
games.  Hannibal  takes  refuge  at  the  court  of  An- 
tiochus.  Triumviri  Epulones  created  by  the  Lex 
Licinia. 
195  COM.  L.  Valerius  Flaccus. 

M.  Porcius  Cato. 

War  continued  against  the  Gauls.   Flamininus  march- 
es against  Nabis,  the  tyrant  of  Sparta.    Liberation 
of  Argos.    Order  restored  in  Spain  by  the  consul 
Cato.    The  Lex  Oppia  repealed. 
Birth  of  Terence. 
194  Coss.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus  II. 

TL  Sempronius  Longus. 
Ccnss.  Sex.  .£lius  Paetus  Catus. 

C.  Cornelius  Cethegus. 

War  continued  against  the  Gauls.  Flamininus  and 
Cato  return  to  Rome,  and  triumph.  The  Romans 
found  several  colonies  this  year,  in  Campania,  Lu- 
cania,  Apulia,  and  Bruttii.  In  this  year  the  sena- 
tors receive  separate  seats  at  the  Roman  game*. 
The  citizens  at  the  census  are  143,704. 
193  Cos*.  L.  Cornelius  Mcrula. 

Q.  Minucius  Thennus. 
War  continued  against  the  Gauls.    Ambassadors  tent 

to  Philip. 
192  COM.  L.  Quinctius  Flamininus. 

Cn.  Domitiui  Ahenobarbui. 
War  with  the  Gauls  continued.    Philip  crosses  over 

into  Greece  on  the  invitation  of  the  ^Etolians. 
The  Fanvlus  of  Plautus  probably  represented  in  this 

year. 
191  COM.  P.  Cornelia*  Scipio  Nasica. 

M'.  Acilius  Glabrio. 

Wx*  WITH  ANTIOCHUS.  The  consul  Acilius  defeat* 
Antiochus  at  Thermopylae  The  Romans  defeat  the 
fleet  of  Antiochus.  He  winters  in  Phrygia.  The 
consul  Cornelius  defeat*  the  Boii,  who  submit  Tha 


936 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


colony  of  Boncnia  founded  in  their  country  in  the 
following  year. 
191  The  Pseudolus  of  Plautus  probably  represented  in 

this  year. 
190  Cos*.  L.  Cornelius  Scipio  (Asiaticue). 

C.  Lielius. 

The  consul  L.  Scipio  crosses  into  Asia,  and  deteats 
Antiochus  at  the  battle  of  Magnesia.  Peace  made 
with  him,  but  not  ratified  till  B.C.  188. 

180  Co**.  M.  Fulvius  Nobilior. 

Cn.  Manlius  Vulso. 
Ccnss.  T.  Quinctins  Flamininus. 

M.  Claudius  Marcellus. 

The  consul  Fulvius  subdues  the  /Etolians.  Peace 
made  with  them.  The  consul  Manlius  conquers 
the  Galatians  in  Asia  Minor.  The  citizens  at  the 
census  are  258,318. 

Ennius  accompanies  Fulvius  into  /Etolia. 
188  Cosa.  M.  Valerius  Messala. 
C.  Lirius  Snlinntor. 

Manlius  remains  in  Asia,  and  ratifies  the  peace  with 
Antiochus.    He  returns  home  through  Thrace  and 
Macedonia,  and  is  attacked  by  the  Thracians. 
187  Cos*.  M.  Gemilius  Lepidus. 

C.  Flatninius. 

The  two  consuls  carry  on  war  against  the  Ligurians. 
L.  Scipio  accused  of  embezzlement  in  the  war  with 
Antiochus,  and  is  condemned.  He  was  accused 
by  the  Petillii,  tribunes  of  the  plebs,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Cato. 
186  Cost.  Sp.  Postumius  Albinus. 

Q.  Marcius  Philippus. 
War  continued  against  the  Ligurians.    The  Senatus- 

consultum  de  Bacchannlibus. 
185  Co**.  Ap.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

M.  Sempronius  Tuditanus. 

War  continued  against  the  Ligurians.    P.  Scipio  Af- 
ricanus  accused  by  M.  Nasvius.    He  retires  from 
Rome  before  his  trial. 
184  Co**.  P.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

L.  Porcius  Licinus. 
Ccnss.  L.  Valerius  Flaccus. 

M.  Porcius  Cato. 

War  continued  against  the  Ligurians.    Cato  exer- 
cises his  censorship  with  great  severity ;   expels 
Flamininus  from  the  senate,  and  deprives  L.  Scipio 
of  his  equus  publicns. 
Death  of  Plautus. 
183  Cos*.  M.  Claudius  Marcellus. 

Q.  Fabius  Labeo. 

War  continued  against  the  Ligurians.    Death  of  Scip- 
io Africanus.    (The  year  of  his  death  it  rariously 
stated.)    Death  of  Hannibal. 
182  Cost.  Cn.  Bsebius  Tamphilus. 

L.  .£miliug  Paulus. 

War  continued  against  the  Ligurians.  Two  praetors 
sent  into  Spain. 

181  Cots.  P.  Cornelius  Cethegus. 

M.  Bajbius  Tamphilus. 

War  continued  against  the  Ligurians.  The  Ligures 
Ingauni  submit  to  the  Romans.  Lex  Cornelia  Bae- 
bia  de  ambitu.  The  sumptuary  law  of  the  trib- 
une Orchius.  Discovery  of  the  alleged  books  of 
Numa. 
180  Cos*.  A.  Postumius  Albinus. 

C.  Calpurnius  Piso.    Died. 
Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 
War  continued  against  the  Liguriang.    The  Ligurea 


B.C. 

Apuani  transplanted  to  Samnium.     Colony  sent  to 
Pisa.    The  Lex  Annalis  of  the  tribune  Villius  fixes 
the  age  at  which  the  magistracies  might  be  held. 
179  Co**.  L.  Manlius  Acidinus  Fulvianus. 

Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 
Cents.  L.  ^Bmilius  Lepidus. 
M.  Fulvius  Nobilior. 

War  continued  against  the  Ligurians.  They  are  de 
feated  by  the  consul  Fulvius.  Tib.  Gracchus,  the  fa 
ther  of  the  two  tribunes,  subdues  the  Celtiberians  in 
Spain.  Death  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  ac- 
cession of  Perseus.  The  citizens  at  the  census  are 
273,294. 

Caacilius,  the  comic  poet,  flourished. 
178  Cos*.  M.  Junius  Brutus. 
A.  Manlius  Vulso. 
War  with  the  Istrians. 
177  Co**.  C.  Claudius  Pulchor. 

Ti.  Sempronius  Gracchus. 

Subjugation  of  the  Istrians  by  the  consul  Claudius, 
who  also  defeats  the  Ligurians.     Colonies  founded 
at  Luna  and  Lucca.     The  consul  Gracchus  carries 
on  war  against  the  Sardinians,  who  had  revolted. 
176  Co**.  Q.  Petillius  Spurinus.     Slain  in  battle. 
Cn.  Cornel.  Scipio  Hispallus.    Died. 
C.  Valerius  Lcevinus. 

War  continued  against  the  Ligurians.    The  consul 
Petillius  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Ligurians.     Grac- 
chus subdues  the  Sardinians. 
175  Co»«.  P.  Mucius  Scaevola. 

M.  JEmilius  Lepidus  II 

War  continued  against  the  Ligurians,  who  are  defeat 
ed  by  the  consuls.    Gracchus  returns  to  Rome,  and 
triumphs  over  the  Sardinians.    Origin  of  the  pror- 
erb  Sardi  vmales. 
174  Co**.  Sp.  Postumius.  Albinus  Paullulus. 

Q.  Mucius  Scsevola, 
Censs.  Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 

A.  Postumius  Albinus. 
The  censors  order  the  streets  of  Rome  to  be  paved. 

The  citizens  at  the  census  are  269,015. 
173  Co**.  L.  Postumius  Albinus. 

M.  Popillius  Laenas. 
Popillius  defeats  the  Lignrians. 
Ennius  is  now  in  his  67th  year. 
172  Co**.  C.  Popillius  Ltenas. 

P.  .ffilius  Ligus. 

Eumenes  comes  to  Rome  to  denounce  Perseus. 
171  Co**.  P.  Licinius  Crassus. 
C.  Cassius  Longinus. 

WAR  WITH  PEBSEUS.    First  year.    The  consul  Licia- 
ius  carries  on  the  war  with  success  against  Per- 
seus.   He  winters  in  Boeotin  and  Thessaly. 
170  Cos*.  A.  Hostilius  Mancinus. 

A.  Atilius  Serranus. 
Second  year  of  the  war  against  Perseus.    The  consul 

Hostilius  Mancinus  commands  in  Macedonia. 
Birth  of  the  poet  Accius  or  Aldus. 
169  Co**.  Q.  MarciuB  Philippus  II. 

Cn.  Servilius  Csepio. 
Cents.  C.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

Ti.  Sempronius  Gracchus. 

Third  year  of  the  war  against  Perseus.  The  consul 
Marcius  commands  in  Macedonia.  The  Lex  Voco- 
nia.  The  libertini  placed  in  the  four  city  tribes  by 
the  censor  Gracchus.  Tne  citizens  at  the  census 
are  312,805. 
Death  of  Ennius. 


KOMAN  HISTORY. 


987 


B.C. 

168  Con.  L.  -EmUius  Paulus  IL 

C.  Licinius  Crassus. 

Fourth  and  last  year  of  the  war  against  Perseus. 
The  consul  .Emilius  Paulus  defeats  Perseus  at  the 
battle  of  Pydna,  on  tl:e  22d  of  June.    Perseus  short- 
ly afterward  taken  prisoner.    End  of  the  Macedo- 
nian monarchy.    War  with  the  Illy  rians :  the  war 
is  ended  in  30  days. 
Death  of  Caicilius,  the  comic  poet 
167  Cois.  Q.  jsiius  Ptetus. 

M.  Junius  Pennus. 

yEmilius  Paulus  settles  the  affairs  of  Greece.    He  de- 
stroys seventy  towns  in  Epirus.    More  than  1000 
principal  Achsaans  are  sent  to  Rome :  among  them 
is  the  historian  Polybius. 
36  Cost.  M.  Claudius  Marcellus. 

C.  Sulpicius  Callus. 
The  consuls  defeat  the  Alpine  Gauls  and  the  Liguri- 

ans. 

The  Andria.  of  Terence  exhibited. 
165  COM.  T.  Manlius  Torquatus. 

Cn.  Octavius. 

The  Htcyra  of  Terence  exhibited. 
164  Coss.  A.  Manlius  Torquatus. 

Q.  Cassius  Longinus.    Died. 
Cenit.  L.  jEmilius  Paulus. 

Q.  Marcius  Philippns. 
The  citizens  at  the  census  nre  327,022. 
163  Cots.  Ti.  Sempronius  Gracchus  II. 

M*.  Juventius  Thalna. 
The  Coreicans  rebel,  but  are  subdued  by  the  consul 

Juventius. 

The  Heautontimorumenos  of  Terence  exhibited. 
162  Coss.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica.     Abdicated. 
C.  Marcius  Figulus.    Abdicated. 
P.  Cornelius  Lentuhis. 
Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbu*. 
1G1  COM.  M.  Valerius  Messala.  « 

C.  Fannius  Strabo. 

The  philosophers   and  rhetoricians  banished  from 
Rome.    The  sumptuary  law  of  the  consul  Fannius. 
The  Eunuchus  and  Phormio  of  Terence  exhibited. 
160  Cost.  L.  Anicius  Callus. 

M.  Cornelius  Cethegus. 
The  Pontine  marshes  drained.    Death  of  L.  JBmilius 

Paulas. 
The  Adclpki  of  Terence  exhibited  at  the  funeral 

games  of  £milius  Paulus. 
159  Con.  Cn.  Cornelius  Dolabella. 

M.  Fulvins  Nobilior. 
Ccnti.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica. 

M.  Popillius  Lena*. 

The  citizens  at  the  census  arc  338,314.    A  water- 
clock  set  up  at  Rome  by  the  ccnior  Scipio. 
Death  of  Terence. 
158  Con.  M.  iEmiliu*  Lcpidu*. 
C.  Popillius  Lsena*  II. 
157  Con.  Sex.  Julius  Caesar. 

L.  Aurclius  Creates. 
Ariarathcs  V.  Philopator  comes  to  Rome.    A  colony 

was  founded  at  Auximum,  in  Piccnum. 
156  COM.  L.  Cornelius  Lentului  Lupus. 

C.  Marcius  Figulus  IL 

The  consul  Marcius  carries  on  war  against  tho  Dal- 
matians. 
155  Con.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica  IL 

M.  Claudius  Marcellus  II. 
The  consul  Sciyio  subdue*  the  Dalmatians.    The 


Athenians  send  an  embassy  to  Rome,  consisting 
of  the  philosophers  Diogenes,  CritolaUs.  and  Car- 
neades,  to  obtain  a  remission  of  the  fine  of  500  tal- 
ents, which  they  had  been  sentenced  to  pay  aftei 
the  war  with  Perseus. 
154  Coss.  Q.  Opimius. 

L.  Postumius  Albinus.    Died. 
M'.  Acilius  Glabrio. 
Ccnss.  M.  Valerius  Messala. 
C.  Cassius  Longinus. 

The  consul  Opimius  is  sent  against  the  Oxybii,  Trans- 
alpine Gauls.   The  citizens  at  the  census  are  324,000. 
The  poet  Pacuvius  nourished. 
153  Coss.  Q.  Fulvius  Nobilior. 

T.  Annius  Luscus. 

In  this  year  the  consuls  for  the  first  time  enter  on 
their  office  on  the  1st  of  January.    War  with  the 
Celtiberians  in  Spain  begins.     It  is  conducted  un- 
successfully by  the  consul  Nobilior. 
152  Coss.  M.  Claudius  Marcellus  III. 

L.  Valerius  Flaccus.    Died. 
The  consul  Marcellus  conducts  the  war  in  Spain  with 

more  success. 

151  Coss.  L.  Licinius  Lucullus. 
A.  Postumius  Albinus. 

The  consul  Lucullus  and  the  prsator  Sulpicius  Galba 
conduct  the  war  in  Spain.  Lucullus  conquers  th« 
Vaccaei,  Cantabri,  and  other  nations ;  bat  Galba  ia 
defeated  by  the  Lusitanians.  Return  of  the  Achas- 
an  exiles. 
Postumius  Albinus,  the  consul,  was  a  writer  of  Roman 

history. 
150  Coss.  T.  Quinctius  Flamininus. 

M'.  Acilius  Balbus. 

Galba,  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  most  treacheroui- 
ly  destroys  the  Lusitanians.  Viriathus  was  among 
the  few  who  escaped. 

Cato,  set  84,  brought  down  his  Ori fines  to  this  period. 
149  Coss.  L.  Marcius  Censorinus. 

M'.  Manilius. 

THIRD  PUNIC  WAB.    First  year.    The  consuls  land 
in  Africa.     Death  of  Masinissa,  set  90.    The  Lex 
Calpurnia  of  the  tribune  L.  Calpurnius  Piso  de  repe- 
tundit  (malversation  and  extortion  by  the  govern- 
ors of  the  provinces),  which  was  the  first  law  on 
the  subject    A  pscudo-Philippus,  named  Andris- 
cus,  appears  in  Macedonia,  but  is  defeated  and  slam 
within  a  year. 
Death  of  Cato,  ast  85. 
L.  Calpurnius  Piso,  the  author  of  the  law  de  repcti**- 

dii,  was  an  historian. 
148  COM.  Sp.  Postumius  Albinus  Magnus. 

L.  Calpurnius  Piso  Cattonius. 

Second  year  of  the  third  Punic  war.    The  picudo- 
Philippus  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Q.  Mctel- 
lu*,  the  praator.    Success  of  Viriathus  in  Lusitania. 
Birth  of  Lucilius. 
147  Con.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus  .ICmilianuj. 

C.  I.ivius  Driuu*. 
Cenn.  L.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Lupus. 

L.  Marcius  Ccnsorinus. 

Third  year  of  the  third  Punic  war.    Scipio  croue* 
over  to  Africa.    War  declared  between  Rome  and 
the  Achaean*.    Continued  success  of  Viriathu*  in 
Luntanla.    The  citizen*  at  the  census  are  322,000. 
146  Cos*.  Cn.  Comcliui  Lentulu*. 
L.  Muniiuiui  Achaicu*. 
Fourth  and  last  year  of  the  third  Punic  war.  Carthage 


988 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


B.C 

146      taken  by  Scipio  and  razed  to  the  ground  :  its  terri- 
tory made  a  Roman  province.     The  Achceans  de- 
feated by  Mummius,  Corinth  taken,  and  the  Roman 
province  of  Achaia  formed  (but  vid.  p.  000  of  Ta- 
bles).   Continued  success  of  Virinthus  in  Lusitnnia. 
Cassius  Hemina,  the  historian,  nourished. 
C.  Fannius,  the  historian,  serves  with  Scipio  at  Car- 
thage. 
145  Cos$.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  -lEmilianus. 

L.  Hostilius  Mancinus. 
The  consul  Fabius  commands  in  Spain  against  Viria- 

thus,  and  carries  on  the  war  successfully. 
144  Coss.  Ser.  Sulpicius  Galba. 

L.  Aurelius  Cotta. 

Fabius  continues  in  Spain  as  proconsul. 
143  Cots.  Ap.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

Q.  Csecilius  Metellus  Macedonicus. 
Commencement  of  the  Numantine  war.    The  consul 
Metfllus  commands  in  Nearer  Spain,  to  carry  on 
the  war  against  the  Numantines.    The  prastor  Q. 
Pompeius  continues  in  Further  Spain,  to  carry  on 
the  war  against  Viriathus  and  the  Lusitanians.    Me- 
tellus prosecutes  the  war  with  success,  but  Pom- 
peius is  defeated  by  Viriathus.    Another  pretender 
in  Macedonia  defeated  and  slain. 
142  COM.  L.  Cecilius  Metellus  Calvus. 

Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Servilianus. 
Cenii.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus  (./Emilianus). 

L.  Mummius  Achaicus. 

Q.  Metellus  continues  in  Nearer  Spain  as  proconsul. 
The  consul  Servilianus,  in  Further  Spain,  carries 
on  war  against  Viriathus.    The  citizens  at  the  cen- 
sus are  328,442. 
M.  Antonius,  the  orator,  born. 
Fannius,  the  historian,  serves  in  Spain. 
41  Coss.  Cn.  Servilius  Csepio. 

Q.  Pompeius. 

Fabius  Servilianus  remains  as  proconsul  in  Further 
Spain  :  is  defeated  by  Viriathus,  and  makes  a  peace 
with  him,  which  is  ratified  by  the  senate.     The  con- 
sul Pompeius  succeeds  Metellus  in  Nearer  Spain : 
his  unsuccessful  campaign. 
140  Cot>.  C.  La-lius  Sapiens. 
Q.  Servilius  C  tepid. 

Ceepio  succeeds  Fabius  in  Further  Spain,  renews  the 
war  with  Viriathus,  and  treacherously  causes  his 
assassination.  Pompeius  continues  as  proconsul  in 
Nearer  Spain ;  is  defeated  by  the  Numantines,  and 
makes  a  peace  with  them,  but  afterward  denies  that 
he  did  so. 

Crassus,  the  orator,  born. 
Attius,  set.  30,  and  Pacuvius,  set  80,  both  exhibit  in 

this  year. 

139  Coif.  Cn.  Calpurnius  Piso. 
M.  Popillius  Laenas. 

Cffipio  remains  as  proconsul  in  Further  Spam.    The 
consul   Popillius  succeeds   Pompeius  in  Nearer 
Spain. 
138  Con.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica  Serapio. 

D.  Junius  Brutus  (Callaicus). 

The  consul  Brutus  succeeds  Csepio  in  Further  Spain : 
he  subdues  Lusitania.    Popillius  remains  as  consul 
in  Nearer  Spain,  and  is  defeated  by  the  Numantines. 
137  Con.  M.  £milius  Lepidus  Porcina. 

C.  Hostilius  Mancinus.    Abdicated. 
Brutus  remains  in  Further  Spain  as  proconsul,  and 
completes  the  subjugation  of  Lusitania.    The  con- 
tul  Mancinus  succeeds  Popillius  in  Nearer  Spain  : 


B.C. 

he  is  defeated  by  the  Numantines,  and  makes  • 
peace  with  them,  which  the  senate  refuses  to  ratify. 
136  Coss.  L.  Furius  Philus. 

Sex.  Atilius  Serranus. 
Cents.  Ap  Claudius  Pulcher. 

Q.  Fulvius  Nobilior. 

Brutus  remains  in  Further  Spain  as  proconsul,  and 
subdues  the  Galled.  The  proconsul  Lcpidus,  who 
had  succeeded  Mancinus  in  Nearer  Spain,  is  defeat- 
ed by  the  Vacctei.  The  citizens  at  the  census  are 
323,923. 

135  Con.  Ser.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 
Q.  Calpurnius  Piso. 

The  consul  Piso  succeeds  Lepidus  in  Nearer  Spain, 
but  carries  on  the  war  without  success.    The  con- 
sul Flnccus  defeats  the  Vardrei  in  Illyricum. 
134  Coss.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus  yEiniliaims  II. 

C.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 

Scipio  is  elected  consul  to  end  the  Numantine  war. 
He  receives  Nearer  Spain  as  his  province,  and  car- 
ries on  the  war  with  vigor.    Servile  war  in  Sicily : 
the  consul  Fulvius  sent  against  the  slaves. 
Sempronius  Asellio,  the  historian,  served  at  Numantia. 
133  Cost.  P.  Mucius  Scsevola. 

L.  Calpurnius  Piso  Frugi. 

Numantia  taken  by  Scipio  and  destroyed.    The  consul 
Piso  defeats  the  slaves  in  Sicily.     Tib.  Gracchus, 
tribune  of  the  plebs,  his  legislation  and  murder. 
132  Cost.  P.  Popillius  Lsenas. 

P.  Rupilius. 

End  of  the  Servile  war  in  Sicily.    Return  and  tri- 
umph of  Scipio. 
131  Coss.  P.  Licinius  Crassus  Mucianus. 

L.  Valerius  Flaccus. 
Ccnss.  Q.  Csecilius  Metellus  Macedonicus. 

Q.  Pompeius  Rufus. 

The  consul  Crassus  carries  on  war  with  Aristonutua 
in  Asia.  The  affairs  of  Sicfly  settled  by  Rupilius, 
the  proconsul.  C.  Papirius  Carbo,  tribune  of  the 
plebs,  brings  forward  laws  which  are  opposed  by 
Scipio  Africanus  and  the.  aristocracy.  Both  cen- 
sors plebeians  for  the  first  time.  The  citizens  are 
317,823. 
130  Coss.  C.  Claudius  Pulcher  Lentulus. 

,        M.  Perperna. 

Aristonicus  defeats  and  slays  Crassus.    He  is  defeat- 
ed and  taken  prisoner  by  the  consul  Perperna. 
129  Coie.  C.  Sempronius  Tuditanus. 

M'.  Aquillius. 

The  consul  Aquillius  succeeds  Perperna  in  Asia.    Ar- 
istonicus put  to  death.   The  consul  Sempronius  car- 
ries on  war  against  the  lapydes.    Death  of  Scipio 
Africanus,  at  the  age  of  56. 
128  Cow.  Cn.  Octavius. 

T.  Annius  Luscus  Rufus. 
127  Coss.  L.  Cassius  Longinus  Ravilla. 

L.  Cornelius  China. 
126  Coss.  M.  jEmilius  Lepidus. 
L.  Aurelius  Orestes. 

The  consul  Aurelius  puts  down  a  rebellion  in  Sardinia. 
C.  Gracchus  goes  to  Sardinia  as  qusestor.  M.  Ju- 
nius  Pennus,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  carries  a  law  or- 
dering all  aliens  to  quit  Rome.  The  Ludi  Ssecul*. 
res  celebrated  for  the  fourth  time. 
125  Con.  M.  Plautius  Hypsseus. 

M.  Fulvius  Flaccus. 
Cents.  Cn-  Servilius  Coapio. 

L.  Cassius  Longin*  s  Kavilla, 


ROMAN  HISTOK*. 


989 


125  The  consul  Flnccus  subdues  the  Salluvii  in  Trans- 
alpine Gaul.    L.  Opimius,  the  prsetor,  destroys  Fre- 
gellse,  which  had  revolted.    Aurelius  remains  in 
Sardinia  with  Gracchus.    The  citizens  are  390,736. 
124  Cots.  C.  Cassius  Longinua. 
C.  Sextius  Calvinus. 

War  in  Transalpine  Gaul  continued.     The  consul 
Calvinus  defeats  the  Allobroges  and  Arverni.    C. 
Gracchus  returns  to  Rome  from  Sardinia. 
123  COM.  Q.  Csecilius  Metellus  (Balearicua). 

T.  Quinctius  Flamininus 

C.  Gracchus,  tribune  of  the  plebs,  brings  forward  his 
Leges  Sempronias.  A  colony  sent  to  Carthage. 
Sextius  Calvinus  remains  in  Transalpine  Gaul  as 
proconsul.  The  consul  Metellus  subdues  the  Ba- 
learian  islands. 
L.  Coelius  Antipater,  the  historian,  flourished  in  the 

time  of  C.  Gracchus. 
122  Cos*.  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbua. 

C.  Fannius  Strabo. 

C.  Gracchus  tribune  of  the  plebs  a  second  time.    Com- 
pletion of  the  conquest  of  the  Salluvii  in  Transal- 
pine Gaul,  and  foundation  of  Aquae  Sextiaa  by  the 
proconsul  Sextius  Calvinus. 
121  Cos*.  L.  Opimius. 

Q.  Fabius  Maximus  (Allobrogicus). 
Death  of  C.  Gracchus.    The  proconsul  Domitius  de- 
feats the  Allobroges.    The  consul  Fabius  likewise 
defeats  the  Allobroges  and  Arverni,  who  submit  to 
the  Romans. 
120  COM.  P.  Manilius. 

C.  Papirius  Carbo. 
Censt.  L.  Calpumius  Piso  Frugi. 

Q.  Ctecilius  Metellus  Balearicus. 
119  Con.  L.  Cuacilius  Metellus  (Dalmaticus). 

L.  Aurelius  Cotta. 
C.  Marius  tribune  of  the  plebs. 
The  orator  L.  Crassus  (set.  21)  accuses  Carbo. 
118  Cos*.  M.  Porcius  Cato.    Died. 

Q.  Marciua  Rex. 

The  consul  Marcius  conquers  the  .Stoeni,  a  Gallic  na- 
tion.   A  colony  founded  at  Narbo  Martius.    Death 
of  Micipsa. 
117  Co**.  P.  Csecilius  Metellue  Diadcmatus. 

Q.  Mucius  ScEBvola. 

The  consul  Mctcllua  subdues  the  Dalmatians.   Ambas- 
sadors arc  sent  to  Numidia,  who  restore  Adhcrbal. 
116  Co**.  C.  Liciniui  Gota. 

Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Eburnua. 
Birth  of  Varro. 

115  Co**.  M.  jEmilius  Scaurus. 
M.  Cssciliua  Metellua. 
Cmit.  L.  Ceciliua  Metellua  Dnlmaticua. 

Cn.  Domitiua  Ahenobarbui. 
The  citizens  at  the  cenaus  are  394,336. 
114  COM.  M.  Aciliut  Balbua. 

C.  Porciua  Cato. 

The  consul  Cato  defeated  by  the  Scordltcl  in  Thrace. 
Birth  of  the  orator  Hortenaius. 
113  Co**.  C.  Ceciliua  Metellus  Caprariua. 

Cn.  Papiriua  Carbo. 

Commencement  of  the  war  against  the  Cimbrt  and 
Teuton!.  They  defeat  the  consul  Cnrbo  near  No- 
reia,  but,  instead  of  penetrating  into  Italy,  croaa  into 
Gaul.  The  consul  Metellua  carriea  on  the  war  auc- 
ceaafully  ngainst  the  Thracians. 
112  COM.  M.  Livius  Drusus. 

L.  Calpurnius  Piao  Cteeonius. 


112  Jugurtha  kills  Adherbal.    The  consul  Drusus  com- 

mands  in  Thrace,  and  defeats  the  Scordisci. 
Ill  Co**.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica.    Died. 

L.  Calpurnius  Bestia. 

JUGURTHINE  WAB.     First  year.    The  consul  Calpur 
nius  Bestia  is  bribed  by  Jugurtha,  and  grants  him 
peace. 
110  COM.  M.  Minueius  Rufus. 

Sp.  Postumius  Albinus. 

Second  year  of  the  Jugurthine  war.  Jugurtha  comes 
to  Rome,  but  quits  it  again  secretly,  in  consequcnca 
of  the  murder  of  Massiva.  The  consul  Albinus  com- 
mands in  Africa,  but  returns  to  Rome  to  hold  th* 
comitia,  leaving  his  brother  Aulus  in  the  command. 
The  consul  Minueius  fights  against  the  Thracians. 
109  Cos*.  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  (Numidicua). 

M.  Junius  Silanus. 
''    Censs.  M.  jtmilius  Scaurus.    Abdicated. 

M.  Livius  Drusus.    Died. 

Third  year  of  the  Jugurthine  war.  Aulus  is  defeated 
in  January  by  Jugurtha,  and  concludes  a  peace, 
which  the  senate  refuses  to  ratify.  The  consul 
Metellus  sent  into  Africa,  and  carries  on  the  war 
with  success.  The  consul  Silanus  ia  defeated  by 
the  Cimbri.  The  proconsul  Minueius  defeats  tha 
Thracians. 

Birth  of  T.  Pomponius  Atticus. 
108  Co**.  Scr.  Sulpicius  Galba. 

L.  Hortensiua.     Condemned. 
M.  Aurelius  Scaurua. 
Censs.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Allobrogicus. 

C.  Licinius  Geta, 

Fourth  year  of  the  Jugurthine  war.    Metellua  con 
tinucs  in  the  command  as  proconsul,  and  defeat! 
Jugurtha. 
107  Co**.  L.  Cassius  Longinua.     Slain. 

C.  Marius. 

Fifth  year  of  the  Jugurthine  war.  The  consul  Mnrms 
succeeds  Metcllus  in  the  command.  The  consul 
Caasiua  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Cimbri  and  their 
allies. 

106  Co**.  C.  Atilius  Serranus. 
Q.  Scrvilius  Ceepio. 

Sixth  and  last  year  of  the  Jugurthine  wur.  Marius 
continues  in  the  command  as  proconsul.  Jugurtha 
is  captured.  Birth  of  Cn.  Pompeiua  on  the  30th 
of  September. 

Birth  of  Cicero  at  Arpinum  on  the  3d  of  January. 
105  COM.  P.  Rutiliua  Rufua. 

Cn.  Mailing  Maximua. 
The  Cimbri  defeat  Q.  Scrvilius  Ctepio,  proconsul, 

and  Cn.  Mallius,  consul. 
104  COM.  C.  Marius  If. 

C.  Flaviua  I  iinlirin. 

Triumph  of  Mariui.     Preparations  against  the  Cim- 
bri,  who  march  into  Spain.    The  Lex  Domitia  of 
tin'  tribune  Cn.  Domitiua  Ahcnobarbua  givca  to  th» 
people  the  right  of  electing  the  priest*. 
103  Co<».  C.  Marina  HI. 

L.  Aurelius  Orestes.     Died. 
Continued  preparations  against  the  Cimbri. 
The  Tfrcut  of  Attiua  exhibited. 
Death  of  Luciliua. 
102  COM.  C.  Mariua  IV. 

Q.  Lutatiua  CMiiln«. 
Cenii.  Q  Ceeciliua  Metellua  Numidlcut. 
C.  Cnciliua  Mctollua  Caprariua. 
The  Cimbri  return  from  Spain  into  Gaul.    Maria* 


990 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


B.C. 

completely  defeats  the  Teuton!  at  the  battle  of 
Aquaa  Sextiee.    The  consul  Catulus  stationed  in 
Northern  Italy.    A  second  servile  war  arises  in 
Sicily,  and  was  ended  by  the  proconsul  Aquilius 
in  B.C.  99.    It  was  badly  conducted  by  L.  Lucul- 
1ns  and  C.  Servilius. 
KH  Cos*.  C.  Marius  V. 
M'.  Aquilius. 

Marius  joins  the  proconsul  Catulus  in  Northern  Italy. 
They  defeat  the  Cimbri  in  the  Campi  Raudii,  near 
•Verona.  The  consul  Aquilius  sent  against  the  slaves 
in  Sicily. 
100  Cost.  C.  Marius  VI. 

L.  Valerius  Flaccus. 

Sedition  and  death  of  L.  Appuleius  Saturninus,  the 
tribune  of  the  plebs.    Banishment  of  Mctellus  Nu- 
midicus.    Birth  of  C.  Julius  Ceesar  on  the  12th  of 
July. 
99  Cosa.  M.  Antonius. 

A.  Postumius  Albinus. 

Return  of  Metellus  Numidicus  to  Rome.  The  servile 
war  in  Sicily  ended  by  M'.  Aquilius,  the  proconsul. 

96  Coss.  Q.  Cascilius  Metellus  Nepos. 

T.  Didius. 

War  with  the  Celtiberians  breaks  out.  Didius  com- 
mands in  Spain.  Q.  Sertorius  serves  under  him. 
I.ex  Ciecilia. 

97  Com.  Cn.  Cornelius  Lentulus. 

P.  Licinius  Crassus. 
Censs.  L.  Valerius  Flaccus. 

M.  Antonius. 

Didius  remains  in  Spain  as  proconsul,  and  fights  suc- 
cessfully against  the  Celtiberians.    • 
96  Coss.  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus. 

C.  Cassius  Longinus. 

Ptolemajus,  king  of  Cyrene,  dies,  and  leaves  his  king- 
dom to  the  Romans. 
95  Coss.  L.  Licinius  Crassus. 
Q,  Mucius  Sctevola. 
Firth  of  Lucretius. 
94  Coss.  C.  Ccelius  Caldus. 

L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus. 
93  COM.  C.  Valerius  Flaccus. 

M.  Herennius. 
92  Coss.  C.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

M.  Perpema. 
Censs.  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus. 

L.  Licinius  Crassus. 

Sulla,  proprietor,  is  sent  to  Asia;  he  restores  Ario- 
barzanes  to  the  kingdom  of  Cappadocia,  and  re- 
ceives an  embassy  from  the  king  of  the  Parthians, 
the  first  public  transaction  between  Rome  and  Par- 
thia. 
91  Cos*.  L.  Marcius  Philippus. 

Sex.  Julius  Ceesar. 

M.  Livius  the  tribune  of  the  plebs.    His  legislation. 
He  attempts  to  give  the  franchise  to  the  Italian  al- 
lies, but  is  assassinated  by  his  opponents. 
Death  of  the  orator  Crassus. 
90  Coss.  L.  Julius  Caesar. 

P.  Rutilius  Lupus.     Main. 
THE  MABSIC  OR  SOCIAL  WAR.    The  Lex  Julia  of  the 

consul  gives  the  franchise  to  all  the  Latins. 
•9  Cos*.  Cn.  Pompeius  Strabo. 

L.  Porcius  Cato.    Slain. 
Censs.  P.  Licinius  Crassus. 

L.  Julius  Ceesar. 
Successes  of  the  Romans  in  the  Manic  war     Ascu- 


lum  taken.  The  franchise  granted  to  all  the  coi». 
federate  towns  of  Italy,  and  the  Latin  franchise  to 
the  Transpadnni.  The  new  citizens  enrolled  by  the 
census  in  eight  new  tribes. 

Cicero  serves  under  Pompeius  in  the  Marslc  war. 
88  Coss.  L.  Cornelius  Sulla  (Felix). 

Q  Pompeius  Rufus.     Slain. 

End  of  the  Marsic  war.    The  Samnites  alone  continue 
in  arms.     Sulla  receives  the  command  of  the  war 
against  Mithradates.    This  occasions  the  civil  ware 
of  Marius  and  Sulla.     Marius  expels  Sulla  from 
Rome,  and  receives  from  the  tribes  the  command 
of  the  Mithradatic  war.    Sulla  marches  upon  Rome 
with  his  army,  enters  the  city,  and  proscribes  Ma- 
rius and  the  leading  men  of  his  party. 
Cicero  hears  Philo  and  Molo  at  Rome. 
87  Coss.  Cn.  Octavius.     Slain. 

L.  Cornelius  Cinna.    Abdicated. 
L.  Cornelius  Merula.     Slain. 

Sulla  crosses  over  to  Greece  to  conduct  the  war 
against  Mithradates.  He  is  opposed  by  Archelafts, 
the  general  of  Mithradates ;  lays  siege  to  Athens. 
The  consul  Cinna  espouses  the  side  of  Marius. 
Cinna  and  Marius  enter  Rome,  and  massacre  their 
opponents.  The  consul  Octavius,  the  orator  M, 
Antonius,  and  other  distinguished  men,  put  to 
death. 

Sisenna,  the  historian,  described  these  times. 
Birth  of  Catullus. 
86  Coss.  L.  Cornelius  Cinna  II. 
C.  Marins  VII.    Died. 
L.  Valerius  Flaccus  II. 
C«nss.  L.  Marcius  Philippus. 

M.  Perperna. 

Death  of  Marius,  set.  70.    Sulla  continues  the  war 
against  Mithradates ;   takes  Athens  on  the  1st  of 
March  ;  defeat*  Archelaiis  in  Boeotia.    Flaccus,  who 
is  elected  consul  in  Marius's  place,  receives  the 
command  of  the  Mithradatic  war,  and  crosses  over 
to  Asia ;  he  is  murdered  by  Fimbria. 
Birth  of  Sallust. 
85  Coss.  L.  Cornelius  Cinna  III. 

Cn.  Papirius  Carbo. 

Sulla  begins  to  treat  with  Archelaiis  respecting  the 
terms  of  peace.    Fimbria  prosecutes  the  war  in 
Asia  with  success  against  Mithradates. 
84  Coss.  Cn.  Papirius  Carbo  II. 

L.  Cornelius  Cinna  IV.     Slain. 

Peace    concluded  between  Mithradates  and  Sulla. 
After  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  Sulla  marches 
against  Fimbria,  who  kills  himself. 
83  Coss.  L.  Cornelius  Scipio  Asiaticus. 

L.  Norbanus  Balbus. 

Sulla  returns  to  Italy  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 
Civil  war  between  him  and  the  Marian  party.  Cn. 
Pompeius  (set.  23)  takes  an  active  part  in  Sulla's 
favor.  Q.  Sertorius  flies  to  Spain.  The  Capitol 
burned  on  the  6th  of  July.  L.  Murena,  the  pro- 
praetor, renews  the  war  against  Mithradates. 
82  Cos*.  C.  Marius.  Slew  himtdf. 

Cn.  Papirius  Carbo  IIL    Slain. 
Diet.  L.  Cornelius  Sulla  Felix 
Mag.  Eq.  L.  Valerius  Flaccus. 
Victories  of  Sulla  and  his  generals.    Capture  of  Prae- 
neste,  and  death  of  the  younger  Marius,  the  consul. 
Sulla  is  undisputed  master  of  Italy.    He  is  appoint- 
ed dictator  for  an  indefinite  period ;  proscribes  his 
opponents.    Cn.  Pompeiua  is  sent  to  Sicily,  to  car 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


991 


B.C. 

ry  on  war  against  the  Jl.arians.    Q.  Sertorius  holds 
out  in  Spain. 
82  Birth  of  P.  Terentius  Varro  Atacinus,  the  poet 

Birth  of  C.  Licinius  Calvus,  the  orator. 
81  Coss.  M.  Tullius  Decula. 

Cn.  Cornelius  Dolabella. 

Sulla  continues  dictator.    His  legislation.    Successful 
campaign  of  Cn.  Pomperos  in  Africa;  returns  to 
Rome,  and  triumphs. 
Cicero's  (eet  26)  oration  Pro  Qm'ntto. 
Valerius  Cato,  the  grammarian  and  poet,  flourished. 
80  Coss   L.  Cornelius  Sulla  Felix  II. 
Q.  Ctecilius  Metellus  Pius. 

Sulla  continues  dictator,  but  holds  the  consulship  as 
well    Siege  and  capture  of  My tilene,  in  Asia :  C. 
Julius  Cffisar  (set.  20)  was  present  at  the  siege. 
Cicero's  (ffit.  27)  oration  Pro  Sex.  Roscio  Amerino, 
79  Coss.  P.  Servilius  Vatia  (Isauricus). 

Ap.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

Sulla  lays  down  his  dictatorship.    Metellus,  procon- 
sul, goes  to  Spain  to  oppose  Sertorius. 
Cicero  (set  28)  goes  to  Athens. 

76  Coss.  M.  jEmilius  Lepidus. 

a  Lutatius  Catulus. 

Death  of  Sulla,  set.  60.  The  consul  Lepidus  attempts  to 
rescind  the  laws  of  Sulla,  but  is  opposed  by  his  col- 
league Catulus.  Metellus  continues  the  war  against 
Sertorius.  P.  Servilius  Vatia  is  sent  as  proconsul 
against  the  pirates  on  the  southern  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor. 

Cicero  (»t  29)  hears  Molo  at  Rhodes. 

Sallust's  history  began  from  this  year. 

77  Coss.  I).  Junius  Brutus. 

Mam.  jEmilius  Lepidus  Livianus. 
Lepidus  takes  up  arms,  is  defeated  by  Catulus  at  the 
Mulvian  bridge,  and  retires  to  Sardinia,  where  he 
dies  in  the  course  of  the  year.     Sertorius  is  joined 
by  M.  Perperna,  the  legate  of  Lepidus.    Cn.  Pom- 
peius  is  associated  with  Metellus  in  the  command 
against  Sertorius. 
Cicero  (set.  30)  returns  to  Rome. 
7C  Coss.  Cn.  Octavius. 

L.  Scribonius  Curio. 

Metellus  and  Pompeius  carry  on  the  war  against  Ser- 
torius unsuccessfully. 
Cicero  (wt.  31)  engaged  in  pleading  causes. 
Birth  of  Asinius  Pollio. 
T5  Coss.  L.  Octavius. 

C.  Aurelius  Cotta. 

War  with  Sertorius  continued.    The  proconsul  P. 
Servilius  Vatia.  who  was  sent  against  the  pirates 
in  B.C.  78,  subdues  the  Isauriana,  and  receives  the 
surname  of  Isauricus.    The  proconsul  C.  Scribo- 
nius  Curio  commands  in  Macedonia,  subdues  the 
Dardnni,  and  penetrates  as  far  as  the  Danube. 
Cicero  (aet  32)  queestor  in  Sicily. 
74  COM.  L.  Licinius  Lucullus. 

M.  Aurelius  Cotta. 

War  with  Sertorius  continued.  Renewal  of  the  war 
with  Mithradates :  Lucullus  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand ;  he  cnrrici  on  the  war  with  t uccess,  and 
relieves  Cyzicus,  which  waf  besieged  by  Mithra- 
dates. 

Cicero  (set  33)  returns  from  Sicily  to  Rome. 
73  Cou.  M.  Terentius  Varro  Lucullu*. 

C.  Caisius  Vnrua. 

War  with  Scrtorius  continued.  Mithradatei  if  de- 
feated by  Lucullus  near  Cyzicus.  Commencement 


of  the  war  in  Italy  against  the  gladiators  command- 
ed by  Spartacus.    The  consul  M.  Lucullus  succeeds 
Curio  in  Macedonia,  and  subdues  the  Besei  in  this 
or  the  following  year. 
72  Coss.  L.  Gellius  Poplicola. 

Cn.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Clodianus. 
Murder  of  Sertorius ;  defeat  and  death  of  Perperna; 
end  of  the  war  in  Spain.    Lucullus  follows  Mithra- 
dates into  Pontus.    The  two  consuls  are  defeated 
by  Spartacus. 
71  Coss.  P.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Sura. 

Cn.  Aufidius  Orestes. 

War  with  Mithradates  continued.    Mithradates  flics 
into  Armenia  to  his  son-in-law  Tigranes.    Sparta- 
cus defeated  and  slain  by  M.  Licinius  Crassus,  prae- 
tor.   Pompeius,  on  his  return  from  Spain,  falls  in 
with  and  destroys  some  of  the  fugitives. 
70  Coss.  Cn.  Pompeius  Magnus. 
Licinius  Crassus  Dives. 
Censs.  L.  Gellius  Poplicola. 

Cn.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Clodianus. 
War  with  Mithradates  continued,  but  no  active  oper- 
ations this  year.    Lucullus  is  engaged  in  regulating 
the  affairs  of  Asia  Minor :  Mithradates  remains  in    , 
Armenia.    Pompeius  restores  to  the  tribunes  the 
power  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  Sulla. 
The  Lex  Aurelia  enacts  that  the  judices  are  to  be 
•  taken  from  the  senators,  equites,  and  tribuni  a-rarii, 
instead  of  from  the  senators  exclusively,  as  Sulla 
had  ordained. 

Cicero  (set  37)  impeaches  Verres ;  he  delivers  the 
orations  In  Q.  Cacilium  Divinatio  and  Ac'.io  I.  in 
Verrem. 

Birth  of  Virgil 
69  Cow.  Q,  Hortenshif. 

Q.  Cecilius  Metellus  (Creticus). 
War  with  Mithradates  continued.    Lucullus  invades 
Armenia,  defeats  Tigranes,  and  takes  Tigranocerta. 
The  Capitol  dedicated  by  Q.  Cntulus. 
Cicero  (set  38)  curule  eedile.    His  orations  Pro  M. 

Fonteio  and  Pro  A.  Ctrcina. 
68  Coss.  L.  Csecilius  Metellus.    Died. 

Q.  Marcius  Rex. 

War  with  Mithradates  continued.    Lucullus  defeats 
Tigranes  and  Mithradates  on  the  Arsnnias,  and  lays 
siege  to  Nisibis.    Q.  Metellus,  proconsul,  conducts* 
the  war  in  Crete. 
67  COM.  C.  Cnlpurnius  Piso. 
M'.  Acilius  Glabrio. 

War  with  Mithradates  continued.  Mutiny  in  the  army 
of  Lucullus.  He  marches  back  to  Pontus,  whither 
Mithradates  bad  preceded  him,  and  had  defeated  C. 
Triarius,  the  legate  of  Lucullus.  The  war  against 
the  pirates  is  committed  to  Cn.  Pompeius  by  the 
Lex  Gabinia.  Metellus  concludes  the  war  in  ( 'rotes 
either  in  this  or  the  following  year.  L.  Krocius 
<  Mho,  tribune  of  the  plcbi,  carried  u  Inw  that  the 
cquitcs  should  have  separate  acnu  in  the  theatre. 
M.  Terentius  Varro  serves  under  Pompcius  in  the 
war  against  the  pirates. 
66  COM.  M'.  jEmilius  Lepidus. 

L.  Volratius  Tullui. 

War  with  Mitbradates  continued.  The  conduct  of  it 
if  committed  to  Cn.  Pompoms  by  die  Lex  Manilla. 
He  had  already  brought  the  war  against  the  pirates 
to  •  clofe.  He  invades  Armenia,  and  makes  peace 
with  Tigranef.  Mithradates  retires  into  the  Cim- 
merian Bosporus. 


9!>2 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


C6  Ci'»-ro  (ast  41),  praetor,  delivers  the  orations  Fro 
Lege  Manilla  and  Pro  A.  Cluentio. 

65  Cosi.  I*.  Cornelius  Sulla.  ) 

>  Did  not  enter  upon,  office. 
P.  Autronius  Paetus.  ) 

L.  Aurelius  Cottn. 
L.  Manlius  Torquatus. 
Ccnss.  Q.  Lutatius  Catulus.     Abdicated. 

M.  Liciniug  Crassus  Dives.    Abdicated. 
War  with  Mithradatcs  continued.    Pompeius  pursues 
Mithradates,  and  fights  ngainst  the  Albanians  and 
Iberians.    Catiline's  first  conspiracy.    Caesar  (ict. 
35)  is  curule  aedile. 
Birth  of  Q.  Horatius  Flaccus. 
W  Coss.  L.  Julius  Caesar. 

C.  Marcius  Figulus. 
Censs.  L.  Aurelius  Cotta. 

Pompeius  returns  from  the  pursuit  of  Mithradatcs. 
He  makes  Syria  a  Roman  province,  and  winters 
there. 

Cicero's  (set.  43)  oration  In  Toga  Candida. 
"S3  Coss.  M.  Tullius  Cicero. 

C.  Antonius. 

Death  of  Mithradates.    Pompeius  subdues  Phoenicia 
and  Palestine,  and  takes  Jerusalem  after  a  siege  of 
three  months.    Catiline's  second  conspiracy  detect- 
ed and  crushed  by  Cicero.    Birth  of  Augustus. 
Cicero  (set  44)  delivered  many  orations  in  his  consul- 
ship.   Those  which  are  extant  were  delivered  in 
the  following  order :   (1.)  De  Lege  Agraria ;   (2.) 
Pro  C.  Rabirio ;  (3.)  In  CtUilinam ;  (4.)  Pro  Mu- 
rena. 
62  Coss.  D.  Junius  Silanus. 

L.  Licinius  Murena. 

Defeat  and  death  of  Catiline.  Pompeins  returns  to 
Italy.  Caesar  (set  38)  is  praetor;  Cato  is  tribune 
of  the  people. 

Cicero's  (ajt.  45)  oration  Pro  P.  Sulla. 
61  Coss.  M.  Pupius  Piso  Calpurnianus. 

M.  Valerius  Messala  Niger. 

Triumph  of  Pompeius  on  the  28th  and  29th  of  Sep. 
tember.  Trial  and  acquittal  of  P.  Clodius.  Caesar 
(aet  39),  propraetor,  obtains  the  province  of  Fur- 
ther  Spain. 

Cicero's  (aet  46)  oration  Pro  Archia. 
JO  Coss.  L.  Afranius. 
•  Q.  Cfficilius  Metellus  Celer. 

Caesar's  victories  in  Spain.    He  returns  to  Rome. 
His  coalition  with  Pompeius  and  Crassus,  usually 
called  the  First  Triumvirate. 
59  Coss.  C.  Julius  Caesar  (set.  41). 

M.  Calpurnius  Bibulus. 

The  agrarian  law  of  Caesar.  The  acts  of  Pompeius 
in  Asia  ratified.  Caesar  receives  the  provinces  of 
Cisalpine  and  Transalpine  Gaul  and  lllyricum  for 
five  years. 

Cicero's  (set.  48)  oration  Pro  L.  Flaeco. 
Birth  of  T.  Livius,  the  historian. 
53  Coss.  L.  Calpurnius  Piso  Caesoninus. 

A.  Gabinius. 

Caesar's  (set.  42)  first  campaign  in  Gaul ;  he  defeats 
the  Helvetii  and  Ariovistus.  P.  Clodius  is  tribune 
of  the  plebs. 

Cicero  (aet  49)  is  banished. 
57  Coss.  P.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Spinther. 

Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  Nepos. 

Caesar's  (aet  43)  second  campaign  in  Gaul.  He  de- 
feats the  Belgae.  The  superintendence  of  the  an- 
nona  committed  to  Pompeius,  with  extraordinary 


B.C. 

powers,  for  five  years.    Ftolcmauus  Aulctes  i 
to  Rome. 

Cicero  (aet.  50)  recalled  from  banishment. 
56  Coss.  Cn.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Marcelliuus. 

L.  Marcius  Philippus. 

Csesnr's  (aet.  44)  third  campaign  in  Gaul.    He  con- 
quers the  Veneti  in  the  northwest  of  Gaul.     Caesar 
met  Pompeius  and  Crassns  nt  Luca  in  April,  and 
made  arrangements  for  thn  continuance  of  their 
power.    Clodius  is  curule  eedile. 
Cicero's  (set.  51)  orations,  (1.)  Pro  Sextio  ;  (2.)  In  Va- 
tinium ;  (3.)  De  Harnspicum  Responsis  ;  (4.)  De  Pro- 
vinciis  Consularibus ;  (5.)  Pro  M.  Calio  Rufo ;  (6.) 
Pro  L.  Cornelia  Balbo. 
55  Coss.  Cn.  Pompeius  Magnus  II. 

M.  Licinius  Crassus  II. 
Ccnss.  M.  Valerius  Messala  Niger. 

P.  Servilius  Vatia  Isauricus. 

Caesar's  (oat.  45)  fourth  campaign  in  Gaul.  He  cross- 
es the  Rhine :  he  invades  Britain.  Assignment  of 
the  provinces  to  the  triumvirs  by  the  Lex  Trebo- 
nia.  Caesar  receives  the  Gauls  nnd  lllyricum  for 
five  years  more ;  Pompeius  the  Spains,  and  Cras- 
BUS  Syria.  Ptolemaeus  Auletes  restored  to  Egypt 
by  A.  Gabinios. 
Cicero  (ret.  52)  composes  his  De  Oratore.  His  speech 

In  Pisonem. 

Virgil  (cet.  Ifi)  assumes  the  toga  virilis. 
54  Coss.  L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus. 

Ap.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

Caesar's  (aet.  46)  sixth  campaign  in  Gaul.    His  second 
expedition  into  Britain:  war  with  Ambiorix  in  the 
winter.     Crassus  marches  against  the  Parthians. 
Cicero  (aet.  53)  composes  his  De  Republica.    His  ora- 
tions Pro  M.  Scauro,  Pro  Plancio,  Pro  C.  Rabirio 
Postumo. 
53  Coss.  Cn.  Domitius  Calvinus. 

M.  Valerius  Messala. 

Caesar's  (aet  47)  seventh  campaign  in  Gaul.    He  again 
crosses  the  Rhine.    Defeat  and  death  of  Crassus 
by  the  Parthians. 
Cicero  (set.  54)  elected  augur. 
52  Coss.  Cn.  Pompeius  Magnus  III.    Sole  consul  for  th* 

first  part  of  the  year. 

Ex  Kal.  Sexlil.  Q,  Caecilius  Metellus  Pius  Scipio. 
Caesar's  (net  48)  eighth  campaign  in  Gaul.    Insurrec- 
tion in  Gaul ;  Caesar  takes  Alesia  and  Vercingeto- 
rix.    Death  of  Clodius  in  January :  riots  at  Rome: 
Pompeius  sole  consul. 
Cicero's  (aet.  55)  oration  Pro  Milone.    He  compose* 

his  De  Legibns. 
Death  of  Lucretius. 
51  Coss.  Ser.  Sulpicius  Rufus. 

M.  Claudius  Marcellus. 

Caesar's  (set.  49)  ninth  campaign  in  Gaul.    Subjuga 
tion  of  the  country.    The  consul  Marcellus  pro 
poses  measures  against  Caesar. 
Cicero  (Bet.  56)  goes  as  proconsul  to  Cilicia. 
50  Coss   L.  ^Emilius  Paulus. 

C.  Claudius  Marcellus. 
Censs.  Ap.  Claudius  Pulcher. 

L.  Calpurnius  Piso  Caesoninus. 
Caesar  (set  50)  spends  the  year  in  Cisalpine  GnaL 

Measures  of  Pompeius  against  Caesar. 
Cicero  (ffit.  57)  leaves  Cilicia,  and  reaches  Brundu*- 

um  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
Death  of  Hortens:ns. 
Sallust  is  expelled  the  senate. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


993 


49  Cos*.  C.  Claudius  Marceflus. 

L.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Cms. 
Diet,  without  Mag.  Eq.  C.  Julius  Caesar. 
Commencement  of  the  civil  war  between  Caesar  (set. 
51)  and  Pompeius.     Caesar  marches  into  Italy,  and 
pursues  Pompeius  to  Brundisium.  Pompeius  leaves 
Italy  in  March,  and  crosses  over  to  Greece.     Cassar 
goes  to  Rome,  and  then  proceeds  to  Spain,  where 
he  conquers  Afranius  and  Petreius,  the  legati  of 
Pompcius.    He  returns  to  Rome,  is  appointed  dic- 
tator for  the  election  of  the  consuls,  resigns  the  of- 
fice at  the  end  of  11  days,  and  then  goes  to  Brun- 
disium, in  order  to  cross  over  into  Greece. 
Cicero  (eet  58)  comes  to  Rome,  but  crosses  over  to 

Greece  in  the  month  of  June. 
48  Cow.  C.  Julius  Caesar  II. 

P.  Servilius  Vatia  Isauricus. 

Caesar  (aet  52)  lands  in  Greece,  defeats  Pompeius  at 

the  battle  of  Pbarsalia  in  the  month  of  August. 

Murder  of  Pompeius  (aet  58)  before  Alexandrea. 

Caesar  comes  to  Egypt :  Alexandrine  war. 

Cicero  (aet  59)  returns  to  Italy  after  the  battle  of 

Pharsalia,  and  arrives  at  Brundisium. 
7  Diet.  C.  Julius  Ceesar  II. 
Mag.  Eq.  M.  Antonius. 
Coss.  Q.  Fufius  Calenus. 

P.  Vatinius. 

Caesar  (a;t.  53)  dictator  the  whole  year.  The  consuls 
Calenus  and  Vatinius  were  only  appointed  at  the 
end  of  the  year.  Caesar  concludes  the  Alexandrine 
war,  marches  into  Pontus,  and  conquers  Pharna- 
ces ;  arrives  in  Italy  in  September.  He  crosses 
over  to  Africa  before  the  end  of  the  year,  to  carry 
on  war  against  the  Pompeians. 

Cicero  (aet.  CO)  meets  Caesar  at  Brundisium,  is  par- 
doned by  him,  and  returns  to  Rome. 
46  Coss.  C.  Julius  Caesar  III. 

M.  .lEmiliua  Lepidus. 

Caesar  (a3t  54)  defeats  the  Pompeians  at  the  battle  of 
Thnpsus  in  April.  Death  of  Cato,  eet  48.  Cassar 
returns  to  Rome  and  triumphs.  Reformation  of 
the  calendar  by  Caesar. 

Cicero  (set  61)  composes  his  Brutui  and  Partitiones 
Oratoriit.  His  orations  Pro  Marccllo  and  Pro  Li- 
gario. 

Sallust  praetor,  and  accompanies  Caesar  in  the  Afri- 
can war. 
15  Diet   C.  Julius  Caesar  III. 

Mag.  Eq.  M.  ./Kniiliua  Lepidus. 
.     Cot.  without  colleague.  C.  Julius  Caesar  IV. 
Cots.  Q.  Fubius  Maximus.     Died. 
C.  Caninius  Rebilus. 
C.  Treboniiu. 

Ctesar  (jft.  5o)  defeats  U«e  Pompeians  in  Spain  at  the 
battle  of  Munda  in  March.  Triumph  of  Caesar. 
He  is  made  consul  for  ten  years,  and  dictator  and 
censor  for  life. 

Cicero  (act  Gv!)  divorces  Terentia ;  marries  Publilia ; 
loses  his  daughter  Tullia ;  divorce*  Publilia.    He 
composes  his  Orator,  Academics.,  De  i'inibui.    His 
oration  Pro  Deiotarv. 
44  Diet.  C.  Julius  Ctesar  IV. 

Mag.  Eq.  M.  yKmilius  Lepidus  II. 
Mag.  Eq.  C.  Octaviui. 

Mag.  Eq.  Co.  Domitius  Calvinus.  Dia  not  enter  vpon. 
COM.  C.  Julius  Caesar  V.    Auasiinattd. 
M.  Antonius. 
P.  Cornelius  Dolabclla 
63 


44  MUBDEE  OF  CAESAR  (aet  56)  on  the  15th  of  March.  Oc- 
tavianus,  on  the  death  of  Csesar,  comes  from  Apol- 
lonia  to  Rome.  M.  Antonius  withdraws  from  Rome, 
and  proceeds  to  Cisalpine  Gaul  at  the  end  of  Novem- 
ber, to  oppose  D.  Brutus :  he  is  declared  a  public 
enemy  by  the  senate. 

•  Cicero  (ast.  63)  composes  his  Tusculaitte  Tirputatio 
nes,  De  ffatura  Deorum,  De  Divinationr,  De  Fate, 
De  Amicitia,  De  Senectute,  De  Gloria,  Topica,  DC  Of- 
Jiciit.    His  orations  Philippica  I.,  in  the  senate;  Phi- 
lippica. II.  (not  spoken) ;  Philippica  HI.,  in  the  sen- 
ate ;  Philippica  IV.,  before  the  people. 
43  Coss.  C.  Vibius  Pansa.    Died. 
A.  Hirtius.     Slain. 

C.  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus.    Abdicated. 
C.  Carrinas. 
Q.  Pedius.    Died. 
P.  Ventidius. 

Siege  of  Mutina :  death  of  the  consuls  Pansa  and  Hir- 
tius.   M.  Antonius  is  defeated,  and  flies  to  Gaul. 
Octavianus  comes  to  Rome,  and  is  elected  consul. 
The  murderers  of  Caesar  outlawed.     SECOND  TRI- 
UMVIRATE formed  by  Octavianus,  Antonius,  and  Le- 
pidus :  they  take  the  title  Triumviri  Reipublioz  Con- 
ttituendtt :  they  proscribe  their  enemies. 
Cicero  (aet  64)  proscribed  and  put  to  death ;  the  re- 
maining Philippic  orations  delivered  in  this  year 
Birth  of  Ovid. 

Death  of  Laberius,  the  mimographer. 
42  Cos*.  L.  Munatius  Plancus. 

M.  .£milius  Lepidus  II. 
Cents.  L.  Antonius  Pietas. 

P.  Sulpicius. 

War  in  Greece,  between  the  triumvirs  and  the  repub- 
lican party.    Battle  of  Philippi,  and  death  of  Cat 
sius.    Second  battle  of  Philippi,  and  death  of  Bnt 
tus.    Birth  of  Tiberius,  afterward  emperor. 
Horace  (aet  23)  fights  at  the  battle  of  Philippi. 
41  Coss.  L.  Antonius  Pietas. 

P.  Servilius  Vatia  Isauricus  II. 

War  of  Perusia.  The  consul  L.  Antonius  and  Fulvla, 
the  wife  of  M.  Antonius,  oppose  Octavianus.  An- 
tonius is  besieged  in  Perusia  toward  the  end  of  the 
year. 

40  Coss.  Cn.  Domitius  Calvinus  II.    Abdicated. 
C.  Asinius  Pollio. 
L.  Cornelius  Balbua. 
P.  Canidius  Crassus. 

Capture  of  Perusia.    Death  of  Fulvia.    Reconciliation 
between  Octnvianus  and  M.  Antonius,  who  conclude 
a  pence  at  Brundisium  :  M.  Antonius  marries  Octa- 
via,  the  sister  of  Octavianus.    Labienus  and  the 
Parthians  invade  Syria. 
Cornelius  Ncpoi  flourished. 
39  Con.  L.  Marcius  Censorinus. 

C.  Calvisius  Sabinus. 

Octavianus  and  Antonius  have  an  interview  with  Sex 
Pompeius  at  Misenum,  and  conclude  a  peace  with 
him.  M.  Antonius  spends  the  winter  at  Athene. 
Ventidius,  the  legntus  of  Antonius,  defeats  the  Par- 
thians :  death  of  Labienus.  Birth  of  Julia,  the 
daughter  of  OcUvianus. 
Horace  (set  26)  is  introduced  to  Maecenas  by  Virgil 

and  Varius. 

38  Con.  Ap.  Claudius  Pulcher 
C.  Norbnnus  Flsrrus. 

War  between  Ortavinnus  and  Sex.  Pompeius.  Octo 
vianus  marries  Li  via.  \cntidius  again  defeats  the 


994 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


B.C. 

Farthians,  and  drives  them  out  of  Syria.    Death 
of  Facorus.    Sossius,  the  legatus  of  An tonius,  con- 
quers the  Jews. 
38  Horace  (set  27)  is  engaged  upon  the  first  book  of  his 

Satires. 
37  Cos*.  M.  Agrippa. 

L.  Caninius  Onllus.     Abdicated. 
T.  Statilius  Taurus. 

Antonius  conies  to  Italy.    Renewal  of  the  Triumvi- 
ratc  for  another  period  of  five  years.    Octavianus 
employs  this  year  in  preparations  against  Sex.  Pom- 
peius.    Agrippa  crosses  the  Rhine. 
Varro  (et  80)  composes  his  De  Re  Rustica. 
36  Coss.  L.  Gelh'us  Poplicola.    Abdicated. 
M.  Cocceius  Nerva.    Abdicated. 
L.  Munatius  Plancus  II. 
C.  Sulpicius  Quirinus. 

Defeat  of  Sex.  Pompeius,  who  flies  to  Asia.    Lepidus 
ceases  to  be  one  of  the  triumvirs.    M.  Antonius  in- 
vades the  Parthian  dominions  late  in  the  year,  and 
is  obliged  to  retreat  with  great  loss. 
35  Coss.  L.  Comifirius. 

Sex.  Pompeius. 

Sex.  Pompeius  (set.  39)  is  put  to  death  in  Asia.    Oc- 
tavianus defeats  the  Illyrians. 
34  COM.  L.  Scribonius  I.ibo. 

M.  Antonius.  Abdicated. 
L.  Sempronius  Atratinus. 
Ex  Cat.  Jul.  Paul.  jEmilius  Lepidus. 

C.  Memmius. 

Ex  Kal.  Nov.  M.  Hcrennius  Picens. 
Octavianus  defeats  the  Dalmatians.  Antonius  invades 

and  subdues  Armenia. 
Death  of  Sallust. 

33  Coss.  Imp.  Cajsar  Augustus  II.    Abdicated. 
L.  Volcatins  Tullus. 
P.  Autronius  Fetus. 
Ex  Kql.  MaL  L.  Flavius. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  C.  Fonteius  Capita. 
M'.  Acilius  (Aviola). 
Ex  Kal.  Sept.  L.  Vinucius, 
Ex  Kal.  Oct.  L.  Laronius. 

Rupture  between  Octavianus  and  Antonius.  Both 
parties  prepare  for  war.  In  this  year  Octavianus 
is  called,  in  the  Fasti,  Imperator  Cesar  Augustus, 
though  the  titles  of  Imperator  and  Augustus  were 
not  conferred  upon  him  till  B.C.  27.  Agrippa  sedile. 
Horace  (et.  32)  probably  publishes  the  second  book 

of  his  Satires. 

32  Coss.  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobnrbus. 
C.  Sosius. 

Ex  Kal.  Jul.  L.  Cornelius. 
Ex  Kal.  Nov.  N.  Valerius. 
Antonius  divorces  Octavia.    War  declared  against 

Antonius  at  the  conclusion  of  the  year. 
Death  of  A tticus. 
31  COM.  Imp.  Cesar  Augustus  IIL 

M.  Valerius  Messala  Corvinus. 
Ex  Kal.  Mai.  M.  Titius. 
Ex  Kal.  Oct.  Cn.  Pompeius. 
Antonius  defeated  nt  the  battle  of  Actium  on  the  2d 

of  September.    Octavianus  proceeds  to  the  East. 
Horace  («etat  34)  probably  publishes  his  book  of 

Epodes. 

90  Cots.  Imp.  Cesar  Augustus  IV. 
M.  Licinius  Crassus. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul  C.  Antistius  Vetus. 
Ex  Id.  Sept.  M.  Tullius  Cicero. 


/.'.-  Kal.  Nov.  L.  Ssnlus. 

Death  of  Antonius  (ait.  51)  and  Cleopatra.  Egypt 
made  a  Roman  province.  Octavianus  passes  the 
winter  at  Samos. 

OCTAVIANUS  SOLE  RULER  OK  THE  ROMAN  WORLD. 
Cornelius  Callus,   the  poet,   appointed  prcofect  of 

Egypt. 

29  COM.  Imp.  Cesar  Augustus  V. 
Sex.  Appuleius. 

Ex  Kal.  Jul.  Potitus  Valerius  Messala. 
Ex  Kal.  Nov.  C.  Furnius. 
C.  Cluvius. 

Octavianus  returns  to  Rome  and  celebrates  three  tri- 
umphs, Dalmatian,  Actian,  Alexandrine.    Templo 
of  Janus  closed. 
28  COM.  Imp.  Caesar  Augustus  VI. 

M.  Agrippa  II. 
Census  taken  by  the  consuls.    The  citizens  at  the 

census  are  4,164,000. 
Death  of  Varro. 
27  Cos*.  Imp.  Ceesar  Augustus  VII. 

M.  Agrippa  III. 

Octavianus  receives  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  accept* 
the  government  for  ten  years.  Division  of  the  prov- 
inces between  him  and  the  senate.  Augustus  goes 
into  Spain.  Messala  triumphs  on  account  of  his 
conquest  of  the  Aquitani,  probably  in  the  preceding 
year. 

Tibullus  accompanied  Messala  into  Aquitania. 
26  Cos*.  Imp.  Cesar  Augustus  VIII. 

T.  Statilius  Taurus  II. 
Augustus  conducts  the  war  in  Spain.    Death  of  Cor 

nelius  Gallus. 
25  COM.  Imp.  Cesar  Augustus  IX. 

M.  Junius  Silanus. 

Augustus  continues  to  conduct  the  war  in  Spain,  and 
subdues  the  Cantabri.  The  Salassi  subdued  by  A. 
Terentius  Varro,  and  the  colony  of  Augustus  Pre- 
toria  (Aosta)  founded  in  their  country.  The  tem- 
ple of  Janus  shut  a  second  time.  Marcellus  mar- 
ries Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus. 
24  COM.  Imp.  Cesar  Augustus  X. 

C.  Norbanus  Flaccus. 
Augustus  returns  to  Rome.    jElius  Gallus  marches 

against  the  Arabians. 
Virgil  is  now  employed  upon  the  jEneid. 
Horace  (et.  41)  publishes  the  first  three  books  of  his 

Odes  in  this  or  the  following  year. 
23  Cost.  Imp.  Cesar  Augustus  XI.    Abdicated. 
A.  Terentius  Varro  Murena.    Died 
L.  Sestius. 
Cn.  Calpurnius  Piso. 

Augustus  is  invested  with  the  tribunician  power  lor 
life.    Death  of  Marcellus.    An  embassy  from  the 
Parthians :  Augustus  restores  the  son  of  Phraates, 
but  keeps  Tiridates  at  Rome. 
22  COM.  M.  Claudius  Marcellus  Alscrninus 

L.  Arruntius. 
Censs.  It.  Munatius  Plancus. 

Paul.  .flSmilius  Lepidus. 

Conspiracy  of  Murena  detected  and  punished.    Can- 
dace,  queen  of  the  ^Ethiopians,  invades  Egypt.    Re- 
volt of  the  Cantabri  in  Spain. 
21  COM.  M.  Lollius. 

Q,  ,Emilius  Lepidus. 

Augustus  goes  to  the  East,  and  spends  the  winter  at 
Samos.  Agrippa  marries  Julia,  the  daughter  of 
Augustus  and  widow  of  Marcellus. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


995 


B.C. 

30  Cos$.  M.  Appuleius. 

F.  Silius  Nerva, 

The  Parthians  restore  the  Roman  standards.    Ambas- 
sadors come  to  Augustus  from  the  Indians.    Augus- 
tus winters  again  at  Samoa.    Birth  of  C.  Caesar,  the 
grandson  of  Augustus. 
19  COM.  C.  Sentius  Satuminus. 
Q.  Lucretius  Vespillo. 
Ex  Kal.  JuL  M.  Vinucius. 
Augustus  returns  to  Rome.    The  Cantabri  are  finally 

subdued. 
Death  of  Virgil. 
18  Cost.  P.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Marcellinus. 

C.  Cornelius  Lentulus. 
Augustus  accepts  the  empire  for  five  years.     The 

Lex  Julia  of  Augustus  De  Maritandis  Ordinibus. 
Death  of  Tibullus. 

Horace  (net.  47)  publishes  the  first  book  of  his  Epis- 
tles about  this  time. 
17  COM.  C.  Furnius. 

C.  Junius  Silanus. 
The  Liidl  Saculares  celebrated.  Birth  of  L.  Cesar,  the 

grandson  of  Augustus.    Agrippa  is  sent  into  Asia. 
Horace  (tet.  48)  writes  his  Carmen  Sacttlare. 
16  Cost.  L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus. 
P.  Cornelius  Scipio. 
Ez  Kal.  Jut.  L.  Tarius  Rufus. 

Agrippa  is  in  Asia,  where  his  friendship  is  cultivated 
by  Herod.    The  Germans  defeat  the  Roman  artny 
under  Lollius.    Augustus  sets  out  for  GauL 
15  Cost.  M.  Living  Drusu*  Libo. 

L.  Calpurnius  Piso. 

Augustus  remains  in  Gaul.    Tiberius  and  Drusus  sub- 
due the  Ra;ti  and  Vindolici. 
14  Cots.  M.  Licinius  Crassus. 

Cn.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Augur. 
Augustus  remains  in  Gaul. 

13  Co»>.  TL  Claudius  Nero  (oftericard  TL  Caesar  Augus- 
tus). 

P.  QuinctiliM  Varus. 

Augustus  returns  from  Gaul,  and  Agrippa  from  Asia. 
Horace  (sat  52)  publishes  the  fourth  book  of  his  Odes. 
12  COM.  M.  Valerius  Messala  Barbatus  Appianus.    Died. 
P.  Sulpicius  Quirinus.    Abdicated. 
C.  Valgius  Rufus.    Abdicated. 
C.  Caninius  Rebilus.    Died. 
L.  Volusius  Saturninur. 

Death  of  Agrippa  in  March,  in  his  51st  year.    Death 
of  Lcpidus.    Augustus  become*  pontifex  maximus. 
II  COM.  Q.  JEH\t»  Tubero. 

Paul.  Fabius  Maximo*.  . 

Drusus  carries  on  wnr  against  the  Germans,  and  Ti- 
berius against  the  Dalmatians  and  Pannoninns.    Ti- 
berias marries  Julia.    Death  of  Octavia,  the  sister 
of  Augustus. 
10  COM.  Julius  Antonius. 

Q.  Kabiiis  Maximus  Africanus. 

Augustus  is  in  Gaul.     He  returns  to  Romo  at  the  end 
of  the  year  with  Tiberius  and  Drusus.    Birth  of 
Claudius,  afterward  emperor. 
S*  COM.  Nero  Claudius  Drusus  Germanicus.     IHed. 

T.  Quinctiiu  (Pennus  Capitolinu*)  Crispinus. 
Drusus  sent  against  the  Germans,  and  dies  during  the 

war. 

The  history  of  Livy  ended  with  the  death  of  Drains. 
9  COM.  C.  Marcius  Consorinus. 

C.  Asinlus  Gallus. 
Augustus  accepts  the  empire  a  third  time.  The  month 


of  Sextilis  receives  his  name.    Tiberius  succeeds 
his  brother  in  the  war  against  the  Germans.    Cen- 
sus taken  by  Augustus.     Death  of  Maecenas. 
Death  of  Horace,  aet  57. 
7  COM.  Ti.  Claudius  Nero  II. 
Cn.  Calpurnius  Piso. 
Tiberius  returns  to  Rome  from  Germany,  but  soon 

afterward  sets  out  again  to  the  same  country. 
6  COM.  D.  LaJius  Balbus. 
C.  Antistius  Vetus. 

Tiberius  receives  the  tribunician  power  for  fire  years, 
and  retires  to  Rhodes,  where  he  remained  scren 
years. 
5  COM.  Imp.  Caesar  Augustus  XII. 

L.  Cornelius  Sulla. 
C.  Ca-sar  receives  the  toga  virilis. 
4  COM.  C.  Calvisius  Sabinus. 

L.  Passienus  Rufus.    • 
BIHTH  OF  JESUS  CHRIST.    Death  of  Herod,  king  of 

Judaea. 

3  Cos*.  L.  Cornelius  Lentulus. 
M.  Valerius  Messalinus. 
Birth  of  Galba,  afterward  emperor. 
2  COM.  Imp.  Cassar  Augustus  XIII.     Abdicated. 
M.  Plautius  Silvanus.    Abdicated. 
Q.  Fabricius. 
L.  Caninius  Gallus. 
L.  Caesar  receives  the  toga  virilis.     Banishment  of 

Julia, 

Ovid  publishes  his  poem  De  Arte  Amandi. 
1  COM.  Cossus  Cornelius  Lentulus. 

L.  Calpurnius  Piso. 
BIRTH  OF  JESUS  CHRIST,  according  to  the  common 

era.    C.  Caesar  is  sent  into  the  East 
AD. 

1  COM.  C.  Caesar. 

L.  .£milius  Paulus. 
War  in  Germany. 

2  COM.  P.  Vinucius. 

P.  Alfenius  Varus. 

Ez  Kal  JuL  P.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Scipio. 

T.  Quinctius  Crispinus  Valeria- 

nus. 

Interview  of  C.  Caeear  with  Phraates,  king  of  Partial. 
L.  Caesar  dies  at  Massilia,  on  his  way  to  Spain.    Ti- 
berius returns  to  Rome. 
Velleius  Paterculus  serves  under  C.  Cesar. 

3  COM.  L.  jElius  Lamia 

M.  Scrvilius. 

F.z  Kal.  Jul.  P.  Siliuf . 

L.  Voluiius  Satuminus. 

Augustus  accepts  the  empire  for  a  fourth  period  ol 
ten  years. 

4  COM.  Sex.  jElius  Catus. 

C.  Sentius  Satuminus. 

£z  Kal.  Jul  C.  Clodiua  Licinus. 

Cn.  Sentius  Satuminus. 

Death  of  C.  Caasar  in  Lycia.    Tiberius  adopted  by  Au- 
gustus.   Tiberius  sent  to  carry  on  the  war  against 
the  Germans. 
Velleius  Paterculus  serves  under  Tiberius  in  Gcr 

many. 
Death  of  Asinius  Pollio. 

5  COM.  L.  Valerias  Messala  Volesus. 

CD.  Cornelius  Cinna  Magnus. 
Kt  Kal  Jul.  C.  Ateins  Capito. 

C.  Vibius  Postumus. 
Second  campaign  of  Tiberius  iu  Germany 


.    <B 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


6  Con.  M.  ./Emilias  Lepidai. 

L.  Airuiitius.     Abdicated. 
L.  Nonius  Asprenaa. 

Third  campaign  of  Tiberius  in  Germany.  Revolt  of 
the  Pannonians  and  Dalmatians. 

7  Con.  A.  Licinius  Nerva  SUianus. 

Q.  Ceecilius  Metellus  Creticus. 
Germanicus  is  sent  into  Germany.     First  campaign 

of  Tiberias  in  Illyricum  against  the  Pannonions  and 

Dalmatians. 
Velleius  Paterculus  qu  teg  tor. 

8  Coss.  M.  Furius  Camillas. 

Sex.  Nonius  Quinctilianus. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  L.  Apronius. 

A.  Vibius  Habitus. 
Second  campaign  of  Tiberius  in  Illyricum. 

9  Cots.  C.  Poppseus  Sabinus. 

Q.  Sulpicius  Cemerinus. 

Ex  Kal.  Jul.  M.  Papius  Mutilns. 

Q.  Popp»us  Secundus. 

Third  and  last  campaign  of  Tiberius  in  Illyricum. 
Subjugation  of  the  Dalmatians.  Defeat  of  Quintil- 
ius  Varus,  and  destruction  of  his  army.  The  Ro- 
mans lose  all  their  conquests  in  Germany  east  of 
the  Rhine.  Birth  of  Vespasian,  afterward  emperor. 
Exile  of  Ovid. 

10  Coss.  P.  Cornelius  Dolabella. 

C.  Junius  Silanus. 

Ex  Kal.  Jul.  Ser.  Cornelius  Lentulns  Malugi- 

nensis. 
Tiberius  again  sent  to  Germany. 

11  Coss.  M.  jEmilius  Lepidus. 

T.  Statilius  Taurus. 
F.I.  Kal.  Jul.  L.  Cassius  Longinus. 
Tiberius  and  Germnnicus  cross  the  Rhine,  and  carry 
en  war  in  Germany. 

12  Coss.  Germanicus  Ciesar. 

C.  Fonteius  Capito. 

Ex  Kal.  Jul.  C.  Visellius  Varro. 
Tiberius  returns  to  Rome  and  triumphs. 
Birth  of  Caligula. 
Ovid  publishes  his  Trislia. 

13  Coss.  C.  Silius. 

L.  Munatius  I'lancus. 
Augustus  accepts  the  empire  a  fifth  time  for  ten  years. 

14  Coss.  Sex.  Pompeius. 

Sex.  Appuleius. 

Census  taken  :  the  citizens  are  4,197,000.  Death  of 
Augustus  at  Nola,  in  Campania,  on  the  19th  of  Au- 
gust, in  the  76th  year  of  his  age. 

TIBERIUS  (set.  56)  succeeds  Augustus  as  emperor. 
Revolt  of  the  legions  in  Paunonia  and  Germany. 
Death  of  Agrippa  Postumus,  the  grandson,  and  of 
Julia,  the  daughter,  of  Augustus. 

15  Cots.  Drusus  Caesar. 

C.  Norbanus  Flnccus. 

Tiberii  2. — Germanicus  carries  on  war  against  the 
Germans. 

16  Coss.  T.  Statilius  Sisenna  Taurus. 

L.  Scribonius  Libo. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  P.  Pomponius  Greecinus. 
Tiberji  3. — Germanicus  continues  the  war  in  Germa- 
ny, but  is  recalled  by  Tiberius.    Rise  of  Sejanus. 
IT  Coss.  C.  Csecttius  Rufus. 

L.  Pomponius  Flaccus. 

Tiberii  4.  —  Germanicus  returns  to  Rome  and  tri- 
umphs. He  is  sent  into  the  East.  Great  earth- 
quake in  Asia  War  in  Africa  against  Tacfarinas. 


A.1). 

18  COM.  Ti.  Cesar  Augustus  III.    Abdicated. 

Germanicus  Cesar  II 

L.  .Si-ius  Tubero. 

Tiberii  5. — Germanicus  is  in  the  East. 
Death  of  Ovid  and  of  Li  vy . 

19  Coss.  M.  Junius  Silanus. 

L.  Norbanus  Bnlbus. 

Tiberii  6. — Germanicus  visits  Egypt,  and  return*  to 
Syria,  where  he  dies  in  his  34th  year.  Drusus  car- 
ries on  war  in  Germany  with  success.  The  Jews 
are  banished  from  Italy. 

20  Coss.  M.  Valerius  Messala. 

M.  Aurelius  Cotta. 

Tiberii  7.— Agrippina,  the  wife  of  Germanicus,  coane* 
to  Rome.  Trial  and  condemnation  of  Piso. 

21  Coss.  Ti.  Caesar  Augustus  IV. 

Drusus  Ciesar  II. 

Tiberii  8. — Junius  Bliesus  is  sent  into  Africa  against 
Tacfarinas. 

22  Coss.  D.  Haterius  Agrippa. 

C.  Sulpicius  Galba. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  M.  Cocceius  Nerva. 
C.  Vibius  Runnus. 
Tiberii  9. — The  tribunician  power  is  granted  to  Dru- 

6U8. 

23  Coss.  C.  Asinius  Pollio. 

C.  Antistius  Vetus. 

Tiberii  10.— Death  of  Drusus :  he  is  poisoned  by  So- 
janus. 

24  Coss.  Ser.  Cornelius  Cethegus. 

L.  Visellius  Varro. 
Tiberii  11.— End  of  the  African  war  by  the  death  ol 

Tacfarinas. 
Birth  of  the  elder  Pliny. 

25  Cos*.  M.  Asinius  Agrippa. 

Cossus  Cornelius  Lentnlus. 

Tiberii  12. — Cremutius  Cordus,  the  historian,  is  ac- 
cused, and  dies  of  voluntary  starvation. 

26  Coss.  C.  Calvisius  Sabinus. 

Cn.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Gsetulicus. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  Q.  Marcius  Barea. 

T.  Rustius  Nummius  Gallus. 

Tiberii  13. — Tiberius  withdraws  into  Campania,  and 
never  returns  to  Rome.  Poppseus  Sabinus  carrie* 
on  war  successfully  against  the  Thracians. 

27  Cb»s.  M.  Licinius  Crassus  Frugi. 

L.  Calpurniua  Piso. 
Tiberii  14. 

28  Cuss.  Ap.  Junius  Silanus. 

P.  Silius  Netva. 
Suf.  Q.  Junius  Bliesus. 
L.  Antistius  Vetus. 

Tiberii  15.— Death  of  Julia,  the  grand-daughter  of  Au- 
gustus. Agrippina,  the  daughter  of  Germanicus,  ia 
married  to  Domitius  Ahenobarbus:  Nero  was  th» 
issue  of  this  marriage.  Revolt  of  the  Frisii. 

29  Coss.  L.  RubelHus  Geminus. 

C.  Fufius  Geminus. 
Suf.  A.  Plautius. 

L.  Nonius  Asprenas. 
Tiberii  16.— Death  of  Livia,  the  mother  of  Tiberm*, 

30  Co*s.  M.  Vimicius. 

L.  Cassius  Longinns. 
Suf.  C.  Cassius  Longinus. 
1,.  Nffivius  Surdinus. 
Tiberii  17. 

Asinius  Gallus  is  imprisoned. 
Velleius  Paterculus  writes  his  history  in  this  year. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


997 


A.D 

31  COM.  Ti.  Csesar  Augustus  V. 

L.  JElma  Sejanus. 
Suf.  VH.  Id.  Mai.  Faust  Cornelius  Sulla. 

Sextidiug  Catullinus. 
Kal.  Jul.  L.  Fulcinius  Trio. 
KaL  Oct.  P.  Memmius  Regulus. 
Tiberii  18. — Fall  and  execution  of  Sejanus. 

32  Coss.  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus. 

M.  Furius  Camillas  Scribonianus. 

Svf.  Kal.  Jul.  A.  Vitellius. 
Tiberii  19.— Birth  of  Otbo. 

33  Coif.  Ser.  Sulpicius  Galba  (afterward  CSBS.  Aug.). 

L.  Cornelius  Sulla  Felix. 

Suf.  Kal.  Jul  L.  Salvius  Otho. 
Tiberii  20. — Agrippina  and  her  son  Drusus  are  put  to 

death. 
Death  of  Asinius  Callus  and  of  Cassius  Severus. 

34  Coss.  L.  Vitellius. 

Paul.  Fabius  Persicus. 
Tiberii  21. 
Birth  of  Persiug. 

35  Cost.  C.  Cestius  Gallus  Camcrinus. 

M.  Servilius  Nonianus. 
Tiberii  22. 

36  Coss.  Sex.  Papinius  Allienus. 

Q.  Plautius. 
Tiberii  23. 

37  Cose.  Cn.  Acerronius  Proculus. 

C.  Petronius  Pontius  Nigrinus. 
Suf.  Kal.  Jul.  C.  Cesar  Augustus  Germanicus. 
Ti.   Claudius   (afterward   Cees. 

Aug.). 

Death  of  Tiberius  (set  78),  March  16th. 
CALIGULA  emperor  (set.  25).    He  puts  to  death  Tibe- 
rius, the  son  of  Drusus.    Birth  of  Nero. 
36  Coss.  M.  Aquilius  Julianus. 
P.  Nonius  Asprenas. 

Caligula;  2.— l^path  of  Brasilia,  the  sister  of  Caligula. 
Birth  of  Josephus. 

39  Cost.  C.  Caesar  Augustus  Germanicus  II. 
L.  Apronius  Cwsianus. 
Suf.  Kal  Ftbr.  Sanquinius  Maximus. 
Jul.  Cn.  Domitius  Corbulo. 
Stpt.  Domitius  Afer. 

Caligulas  3.— Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  in 
deposed,  and  his  dominions  given  to  Agrippa.  Ca- 
ligula sets  out  for  Gaul. 

10  COM.  C.  Caesar  Augustus  Germanicus  III.     (Sole  eon- 

,ul.) 

Suf.  Id.  Jan.  L.  Gcllius  Poplicola. 
M.  Cocceius  Nerva. 
(Kal.  Jul.    Sex.  Junius  Celer. 

Sex.  Nonius  Quinctilianus.) 

Caligulsa  4. — Caligula  is  it  Lugdnnum  (I.yon)  on  the 
1st  of  January.    His  mad  expedition  to  the  Ocean : 
he  returns  to  Rome  in  triumph. 
Philo  Judeeus  is  sent  from  Alcxandrca  as  an  ambas- 
sador to  Caligula. 
The  poet  Lucan  is  brought  to  Rome. 

11  COM.  C.  Cesar  Augustus  Germanicus  IV. 

Cn.  Sontius  Saturnlnu*. 

Suf.  vn.  /./.  Jan.  Q.  Pomponiuf  Sccundns. 
Caligula  (set  29)  slain,  January  24th. 
CLAUDIUS  emperor  (sat  49).    Agrippa  receives  Judea 
and  Samaria.    The  Germans  defeated  by  Galba  and 
Gabinius. 

Seneca  publishes  his  De  Ira  Libri  tret.  He  is  exiled 
in  this  year 


42  COM.  Ti.  Claud.  Cses.  Aug.  Germanicus  II. 

C.  Ctecina  Largus. 

Suf.  Kal.  Mart.  (C.  Vibius  Crispus). 
Claudii  2. — Mauretania  U  conquered  and  divided  into 

two  provinces.    Deaths  of  Psetus  and  Arria. 
Asconius  Pedianus  flourished. 

43  COM.  Ti.  Claud.  Cess.  Aug.  Germanicus  III. 

L.  Vitellius  II. 

Suf.  Kal.  Mart.  (P.  Valerius  Asiat). 
Claudii  3. — Expedition  of  Claudius  into  Britain. 
Martial  born  March  1st 

44  COM.  L.  Quinctius  Crispinus  Secundus. 

M.  Statilius  Taurus. 

Claudii  4. — Claudius  returns  to  Rome  and  triumphs. 
Death  of  Agrippa,  king  of  Judea. 

45  COM.  M.  Vinutius  IL 

Taurus  Statilius  Corvinus. 
Suf.  M.  Cluvius  Rufus. 

Pompcius  Silvanus. 
Claudii  5. 
Domitius  Afer  flourished. 

46  COM.  .  .  .  Valerius  Asiaticus  IL 

M.  Junius  Silanus. 
Suf.  P.  Suillius  Ruftis. 

P.  Ostorius  Scapula. 
Claudii  6. 

47  Coss.  Ti.  Claud.  Cses.  Aug.  Germanicus  IV. 

L.  Vitellius  III. 
Suf.  Kal.  Mart.  (Ti.  Plautiua  Silvanus  JEtttr 

nus.) 

Claudii  7 — Ludi  Saeculares  celebrated.  Corbulo  com- 
mands in  Lower  Germany,  and  reduces  the  Frisii 
to  submission. 

48  COM.  A.  Vitellins  (aftertcard  Aug.). 

L.  Vipstanus  Poplicola. 
Suf.  Kal.  JuL  L.  Vitellius. 

(C.  Calpuraius  Piso.) 
Censt.  Ti.  Claudius  Caes.  Aug.  Germanicus. 

L.  Vitellius. 

Claudii  8. — Mcssalina,  the  wife  of  Claudius,  is  put  to 
death. 

49  COM.  Q.  Veranius. 

C.  (A.)  Pompeius  Gallus. 
(Suf.  L.  Memmius  Pollio. 
Q.  Allius  Maximus.) 
Claudii  9. — Claudius  marries  Agrippina. 
Seneca  recalled  from  exile. 

50  COM.  C.  Antistius  Vctus. 

M.  Suillius  Nerulinui. 

Claudii  10. — Claudius  adopts  Domitius  Ahcnobarbud 
(afterward  the  Emperor  Nero),  the  son  of  Agrippi- 
na. In  Britain,  the  Silurcs  arc  defeated  by  Ostori 
us,  and  their  leader,  Carartacus,  is  captured. 

51  COM.  Ti.  Claud.  C»s.  Aug.  Germanicus  V. 

Ser.  Cornelius  Orfitus. 
Suf.  Kal.  Jul.  (C.  Minicius  Fundanus. 
C.  Vctcnniur  Severus.) 
Kal.  ffot.  T.  Flavins  Vespaslanos  (after- 

tcard  Ca?l.  Aug.). 

Claudii  11.— Nero  receives  the  toga  virills.  Burnu 
appointed  prefect  of  the  prastorlans  by  the  influ- 
ence of  Agrippina. 

52  COM.  Faustus  Cornelius  Sulla. 

L.  Salvius  Otho  Titianus. 
(Suf.  Kal.  Jul.  Servilius  Baron  Sornnus. 

C.  Llcinius  Mucianus.) 
AW  Nov.  L.  Cornelius  Sulla. 
T.  Flavius  Sabinus. 


998 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


A.D. 

Clmndii  12. 

53  Cots.  T>.  Junius  Silanus. 

Q.  Haterius  Antoninus. 

Claudii  13.— Nero  marries  Octavia,  the  daughter  of 
Claudius. 

54  COM.  M.  Asinius  Morcellus. 

M'.  Acilius  Aviol.i. 

Claudius  (let  63)  poisoned  October  12th. 
NEHO  emperor  (set  17).    Corbulo  appointed  to  the 
command  in  Armenia,  and  continues  in  the  East 
some  years. 
85  Cost.  Noro  Claud.  Cses.  Aug.  Germanicus. 

L.  Antistius  Vetus. 
Neronis  2. — Britannicus  (ant  14)  is  poisoned. 

56  COM.  Q.  Volusius  Saturninus. 

P.  Cornelius  Scipio. 
Neronis  3. 
Seneca  publishes  his  De  Cltmentia  Libri  IT. 

57  Coss.  Nero  Claud.  Ctes.  Aug.  Germanicus  II. 

L.  Calpurnins  Fiso. 

Suf.  L.  Cwsius  Martialis. 
Neronis  4. 

58  Con.  Nero  Claud.  Civa.  Aug.  Germanicus  in. 

M.  Valerius  Messala. 

Neronis  5.— Corbulo  drives  Tigranes  out  of  Armenia, 
and  takes  Artaxata,  his  cnpital.   Nero  is  in  lore  with 
Poppeea  Sabina,  the  wife  of  Otho.    Otho  is  sent  into 
Lusitanin,  where  he  remained  ten  years. 
09  Cots.  C.  Vipstanus  Apronianus. 

C.  Fonteius  Capita. 

Neronis  6. — Agrippina,  the  mother  of  Nero,  is  mur- 
dered by  his  order. 
Death  of  Domitius  Afer. 

60  COM.  Nero  Claud.  Cees.  Aug.  Germanicus  IV. 

Cossus  Cornelius  Lentulus. 
Neronis?.— Complete  subjugation  of  Armenia  by  Cor- 
bulo.   The  Quinquennalia  instituted  by  Nero. 

61  Cois.  C.  Petronius  Turpilianus. 

C.  Csesonius  Paetus. 

Neronis  8. — Insurrection  in  Britain  under  Boadicea : 

she  is  conquered  by  Suetonius  Paullinus.    Galba 

commands  in  Spain,  where  he  continued  till  he 

was  elected  emperor. 

Birth  of  Pliny  the  younger. 

02  COM.  P.  Marius  Celsus. 

L.  Asinius  Callus. 

Suf.  L.  Annseus  Seneca. 

Trebellius  Mnximus. 
Neronis  9.— Nero  divorces  Octavia,  and  puts  her  to 
death  shortly  afterward.    He  marries  Poppma  Sa- 
bina.   Death  of  Burrus,  the  praetorian  prefect 
Death  of  Persius. 
63  Cots.  C.  Memmius  Regulus. 

L.  Virginius  Rufus. 
Neronis  10. 
Seneca  completes  his  Naturales  Quastionts  after  this 

year. 
C4  Coss.  C.  Lttcanius  Bassus. 

M.  Licinius  Crassus  Frugi. 
Neronis  11. — Great  fire  at  Rome.    First  persecution 

of  the  Christians. 
85  Coss.  A.  Licinius  Nerva  Silianus. 

M.  Vestinus  Atticus. 
Neronis  12. — Piso's  conspiracy  against  Nero  detectec 

and  suppressed.    Death  of  Poppeea  Sabina. 
Seneca  the  philosopher,  and  Lucan  the  poet,  put  to 

death. 
•6  COM.  C.  Lucius  Telesinus. 


C.  Suetonius  Paullinus, 

Neronis  13. — Tiridates  comes  1 5  Rome,  and  receive* 
the  crown  of  Armenia  from  the  emperor.  Nero 
then  goes  to  Greece.  The  Jewish  war  begins,  and  is 
continued  for  some  years.  It  is  finished  in  A.D.  70. 

Martial  comes  to  Rome. 

67  Coss.  L.  Fonteius  Capito. 

C.  Julius  Rufus. 

Neronis  14. — Nero,  in  Greece,  enters  the  contests  at 
the  Olympic  games.  He  puts  Corbulo  to  death. 
He  returns  to  Rome  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Ves- 
pasian conducts  the  war  against  the  Jews. 

68  COM.  Silius  Italicus.    Abdicated. 

Galcrius  Trachalus.    Abdicated. 
Nero  Claud.  Cms.  Aug.  Germanicus  V.  (without 
colleague). 
Suf.  Kal.  Jul.  M.  Plautius  Silvanus. 

M.   Salvius    Otho    (afterward 

Cses.  Aug.). 
Suf.  Kal.  Sept.  C.  Bellicus  Natalis. 

P.  Cor.  Scip.  Asiaticus. 

In  Gaul,  Vindex  revolts,  and  proclaims  Galba  em- 
peror.   Nero  (ait  30)  kills  himself  on  June  9th. 
GALBA  empeior.  Vespasian  continues  the  war  against 
the  Jews. 

69  COM.  Ser.  Sulpicius  Galba  Cassar  Augustus  II. 

T.  Vinius  (Junius).     Slain. 

Ex  Kal.  Mart.  T.  Virginius  Rufus. 

L.  Pompeius  Vopiscus. 
Ex  Kal.  Mai.  M.  Cselius  Sabinus. 
T.  Flavius  Sabinus. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  T.  Arrius  Antoninus. 
P.  Marius  Celsus  II. 
Ex  Kal.  Sept.  C.  Fabius  Valens. 

A.  Licin.  Ctec.     Condemned. 
Ex  pr.  Kal.  Nov.  Roscius  Regulus. 
Ex  Kal.  Nov.  Cn.  CsecUius  Simplex. 

C.  Quinctius—'Vtticus. 
GALBA  (tet.  73)  is  slain  January  lorn.  Otho  had  formed 

a  conspiracy  against  him. 

OTHO  (BRt  36)  emperor  from  January  15th  to  bis 
death,  April  16th,  was  acknowledged  as  emperor 
by  the  senate  on  the  death  of  Galba. 
VITELLIUS  (a3t  54)  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Co- 
logne on  January  2d,  acknowledged  as  emperor  by 
the  senate  on  the  death  of  Otho,  and  reigned  till 
bis  death,  December  22d. 

VESPASIAN  (set  60)  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Al- 
exandrea  on  July  1st,  and  was  acknowledged  as 
emperor  by  the  senate  on  the  death  of  Vitellius. 
On  the  death  of  Galba  followed  the  civil  war  between 
Otho  and  Vitellius.    The  generals  of  Vitellius  march 
into  Italy,  and  defeat  the  troops  of  Otho  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Bedriacum.    Thereupon  Otho  put  an  end  to 
his  own  life  at  Brixellum,  April  16th.    Vitellius  is 
in  Gaul  at  the  time  of  Otho's  death ;  he  visits  the 
field  of  battle  toward  the  end  of  May,  and  then  pro- 
ceeds to  Rome.    Meantime  the  generals  of  Vespa- 
sian invade  Italy,  take  Cremona,  and  march  upon 
Rome.    They  force  their  way  into  Rome,  and  kill 
Vitellius,  December  22d.  The  Capitol  burned.   Th« 
war  against  the  Jews  suspended  this  year. 
70  COM.  Imp.  T.  Flavius  Vespasianus  Augustus  II. 
T.  Caesar  Vespasianus. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  C.  Licinius  Mucianus  IL 

P.  Valerius  Asiaticns 
Ex  Kal.  Nov.  L.  Annius  Bassus. 
C.  Caecina  Paetus. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


990 


70  Vespasiani  2. — Vespasian  proceeds  to  Italy,  andleaYes 

his  eon  Titus  to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  Jews. 
Titus  takes  Jerusalem,  after  a  siege  of  nearly  five 
months.  Insurrection  in  Batavia  and  Gaul,  headed 
by  Civilis;  it  commenced  in  the  preceding  year, 
before  the  capture  of  Cremona.  It  is  put  down  in 
this  year  by  Cerialia. 

71  QMS.  Imp.  T.  Flavius  Vespasianus  Augustus  III. 

M.  Cocceius  Nerva  (afiervard  Imp.  Gees.  Aug.). 
Ex  KaU  Mart.  T.  Cesar  Domilianus. 
Cn.  Pedius  Castus. 

C.  Valerius  Festus. 

Vespasiani  3. — Titus  returns  to  Italy.  Triumph  of 
Vespasian  and  Titus.  The  temple  of  Janus  closed. 

72  Cost.  Imp.  T.  Flavius  Vespasianus  Augustus  IV. 

T.  Caesar  Vespasianus  II. 
Vespasiani  4. — Commageneis  reduced  to  a  province. 

73  Coss.  T.  Caesar  Domitianus  II. 

M.  Valerius  Messalinus. 
Vespasiani  5. 

74  Cost.  Imp.  T.  Flavius  Vespasianus'Augustns  V. 

T.  Cesar  Vespasianus  III.    Abdicated. 
Ez  Kal.  Jul.  T.  Caesar  Domitianus  III. 
Cents.  Imp.  T.  Flavius  Vespasianus  Augustus. 

T.  Caesar  Vespasianus. 

Vespasiani  6. — Censors  appointed  for  the  last  time. 
The  dialogue  De  Oraloribus  is  written  in  the  6th  of 
Vespasian. 

75  Coss.  Imp.  T.  Flavius  Vespasianus  Augustus  VI. 

T.  Caesar  Vespasianus  IV. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  T.  Caesar  Domitianus  IV. 
M.  Licinius  Mucianus  III. 
Vespasiani  7.— Temple  of  Peace  completed. 
71  Cost.  Imp.  T.  Flavius  Vespasianus  Augustus  VII. 
T.  Csssar  Vespasianus  V. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  T.  CIBS.  Domitianus  V.  (T.  Plau- 

tius  Silvanus  ^Elianus  II.). 
Vespasian!  8.— Birth  of  Hadrian. 

77  Cost.  Imp.  T.  Flavius  Vespasianus  Augustus  VIII. 

T.  Caesar  Vespasianus  VI. 

Ex  Kal.  Jul.  T.  Cesar  Domitianus  VI. 

Cn.  Julius  Agricola. 

Vcspasiani  9. — Pliny  dedicates  his  Hittoria  ffaturalit 
to  Titus,  when  consul  for  the  sixth  tune. 

78  Cot*.  L.  Ceionius  Commodus. 

D..Novius  Priscus. 

Vespasiani  10.— Agricola  takes  the  command  in  Brit- 
ain :  he  subdues  the  Ordovices,  and  takes  the  island 
of  Mona. 
70  COM.  Imp.  T.  Flavius  Vespasianus  Augustus  IX. 

T.  Caesar  Vespasianus  VII. 
Death  of  Vespasian  (aet  69),  June  23d. 
TITUS  emperor  (sat  38).    Second  campaign  of  Agric- 
ola in  Britain.    Eruption  of  Vesuvius  on  August 
34th,  and  destruction  of  Ilcrculancum  and  Pompeii. 
Death  of  the  elder  Pliny  (aat.  56)  in  the  eruption  of 

Vesuvius.    The  younger  Pliny  was  now  18. 
80  Coss.  Imp.  Titus  Caesar  Vespasianus  Augustus  VIII. 
T.  Caesar  Domitianus  VII. 
Suf.  L.  jtlius  Plautius  Lamia. 

Q.  Pactumcius  Fronto. 
Suf.  M.  Tillius  (Tittius)  Frugt 

T.  Vinicius  Juliantu. 

Till  2.— Great  fire  at  Rome.  Completion  of  the  Am- 
phitheatre (Colosseum)  and  Baths  commenced  by 
Vespasian:  Titus  exhibits  games  on  the  occasion 
for  100  days.  Third  campaign  of  Agricola  in  Brit- 
ain :  he  advances  as  far  as  the  Frith  of  Tay. 


81  Coss.  L.  Flavius  Silva  Nonius  Bassus. 

Asinius  Pollio  Verrucosus. 

Ex  Kal.  Mai.  L.  Vettins  Paullus, 

T.  Junius  Montanus. 

Death  of  Titus  (aet  40)  on  September  13th. 
DOMITIAN  emperor  (aeL  30).    Fourth  campaign  of 
Agricola  in  Britain. 

82  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  Domitianus  Augustus  VIIL 

T.  Flavius  Sabinus. 

Domitiani  2.— The  Capitol  restored.  Fifth  campaign 
of  Agricola  in  Britain. 

83  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  Domitianus  Augustus  IX. 

Q.  Petilius  Kufus  II. 

Domitiani  3. — Expedition  of  Domitian  against  th« 
Catti.  Sixth  campaign  of  Agricola  in  Britain :  he 
defeats  the  Caledonians. 

84  Coss.  Imp.  Caesnr  Domitianus  Augustus  X. 

Ap.  Junius  Sabinns. 

Domitiani  4. — Domitian  returns  to  Rome  and  tri- 
umphs ;  he  assumes  the  title  of  Germanicus,  and 
receives  ten  consulships  and  the  censorship  for 
life.  Seventh  campaign  of  Agricola  in  Britain :  he 
defeats  Galgacus. 

85  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  Domitianus  Augustus  XL 

T.  Aurelius  Fulvus. 
Domitiani  5.— Agricola  recalled  to  Rome. 

86  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  Domitianus  Augustus  XII. 

S«r.  Cornelius  Dolabella  Petronianus. 

Suf.  C.  Secius  Campanus. 

Domitiani  6. — The  Dacians,  under  Decebalus,  mako 
war  upon  the  Romans.  Birth  of  Antoninus  Pius. 

87  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  Domitianus  Augustus  XIII. 

A.  Volusius  Saturninus. 
Domitiani  7. 

88  Cost.  Imp.  Caesar  Domitianus  Augustus  XIV. 

L.  Minucius  Rufus. 

Domitiani  8. — The  Ludi  Saeculares  celebrated. 
Tacitus  praetor. 

89  COM.  T.  Aurelius  Fulvns  IL 

A.  Sempronius  Atratinus. 
Domitiani  9. 

Quintilian  teaches  at  Rome. 

Tacitus  leaves  Rome  four  years  before  the  death  ol 
Agricola,  See  A.D.  93. 

90  Cost.  Imp.  Caesar  Domitianus  Augustus  XV. 

M.  Cocceius  Nerva  IL 

Domitiani  10.  — The  philosophers  expelled  from 
Rome.  Domitian  defeated  by  the  Quad!  and  Mar- 
comannl.  He  purchases  a  peace  of  Decebalusj 

Pliny  (sat  29)  praetor. 

91  COM.  M'.  Acilius  Glabrio. 

M.  Ulpius  Trajanus  (nftmcard  Imp.  Cefl.  Aug.). 
Suf.  Q.  Valerius  Vcgetus. 

P.  Mct(ilius  Sccundus). 

Domitiani  11. — Domitian  celebrates  a  triumph  on  ac- 
count of  his  pretended  victory  over  the  Dacians. 
Insurrection  of  L.  Antonius  in  Germany,  who  U 
defeated  by  the  generals  of  Domitian. 

92  COM.  Imp.  Csaiar  Doruitiamu  Augustus  XVI. 

Q.  Volusius  Saturninus. 

F.r  Id.  Jan.  L.  Vcnu(leiu«  Apronianus). 

Ex  Kal.  Mai.  L.  Stertinius  Avitui. 

TL 

Ei  Kal.  Srpt.  C.  Junius  Silanus. 

Q.  Arr 

Domitiani  12. 

93  COM.  Pompcius  Collegm. 

Cornelius  Priscus. 


1000 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


93  Svf.  M.  Lolliua  Paullinus  Valerius  Asiaticus 

Saturninus. 

C.  Antius  Aulus  Julus  Torquatus. 
Domitiani  13. — Parmatian  war.    Domitian  set  forth 
in  May,  A.D.  93,  and  returned  in  January,  A.D.  94. 
Death  of  Agricola  (jet.  56). 
Josephus  (set  56)  finishes  his  Antiquities. 

94  Cos*.  L.  Nonius  Torquatus  Asprenaa. 

T.  Sextius  Magiua  Lateranns. 

Suf.  L.  Sergius  Paullus. 
Domitiani  14. 
Statius  publishes  his  Thebait  about  this  time. 

95  Cess.  Imp.  Caesar  Domitianus  Augustus  XVII. 

T.  Flaviua  Clemens. 

Domitiani  15.— The  consul  Clemens  put  to  death. 
Persecution  of  the  Christians. 

96  Cost.  C.  Manilas  Valens. 

C.  Antistius  Vetua. 

Domitian  (set.  44)  slain  September  18th. 
NEHVA  emperor  (ast  63). 

97  Cost.  Imp.  Nerva  Caesar  Augustus  III. 

T.  Virginius  Rufua  III. 

Nervse  2.— M.  Ulpius  Trajanus  is  adopted  by  Nerva. 
Frontinua  is  appointed  Curator  Aquarum. 

98  Cost.  Imp.  Nerva  Caesar  Augustus  IV. 

Nerva  Trajanus  Caesar  II. 

Ex  KaL  Jul.  C.  Sosius  Senecio. 

L.  Licinius  Sura. 
Ex  Kal.  Oct.  Afranius  Dexter. 
Death  of  Nerva  (set.  65),  January  25th. 
TBAJAN  emperor  (set.  41).    Trajan,  at  his  accession, 

is  at  Cologne. 
Pliny  is  appointed  Praefectus  ^rarii. 

99  COM.  A.  Cornelius  Palma. 

C.  Sosius  Senecio  (II.). 
Trajani  2.— Trajan  returns  to  Rome. 
Martial  publishes  a  second  edition  of  book  x,  of  his 

Epigrams. 

WO  COM.  Imp.  Caesar  Nerva  Trajanus  Augustus  III. 
Sex.  Julius  Frontinus  III. 
Ex  Kal.  Mart.  M.  Cornelius  Pronto. 
Ex  Kal.  Sept.  C.  Plinius  CaJcilius  Secundus. 

Cornutus  Tertullus. 
Ex  Kal.  Nov.  Julius  Ferox. 
Acutius  Nerva. 

L.  Roscius  ./Elianns. 

Ti.  Claudius 'Saccrdos. 
Trajani  3. 

fc'Uny,  consul,  delivers  his  Panegyricus  in  the  senate 
in  the  beginning  of  September.  Pliny  and  Tacitus 
accuse  Marius  Priscus. 

Martial  probably  published  book  xi.  at  Rome  in  this 
year.    In  the  course  of  the  year  he  withdrew  to 
Spain,  from  which  he  had  been  absent  35  yean. 
101  Cost.  Imp.  Caesar  Nerva  Trajanus  Augustus  IV. 
Sex.  Articuleius  Paetus. 
Ex  Kal.  Mart.  Cornelius  Scipio  Orfitus. 
Ex  Kal.  Mai.  Bsebius  Macer. 

M.  Valerius  Paullinus. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  C.  Rubrius  Callus. 
Q.  Caelius  Hispo. 

Trajani  4. — First  Dacian  war.    Trajan  commands  in 
person,  and  crosses  the  Danube.    Hadrian  quaestor. 
103  COM.  C.  Sosius  Senecio  III. 
L.  Licinius  Sura  II. 
Ex  Kal.  Jul.  M'.  Acilius  Rufug. 

C.  Caecilius  Classicus. 
Trajani  5. — Dacian  war  continued. 


103  Cost.  Imp.  Caesar  Nerva  Trajanus  Augustas  V. 

L.  Appius  Maximus  IT. 

(Suf.  C.  Minicius  Fundanus. 
C.  Vettennius  Sevcrus.) 

Trajani  6. — Trajan  defeats  the  Dacians,  and  grants 
peace  to  Decebalus.     He  returns  to   Rome,  tri- 
umphs, and  assumes  the  name  of  Dacicut. 
Pliny  arrives  at  his  province  of  Bithynia  in  Septem- 
ber. 

104  COM Suranus. 

P.  Neratius  Marcellus. 

Trajani  7. — Second  Dacian  war.  Hadrian  serves  un- 
der Trajan  in  this  war. 

Pliny  writes  from  his  province  to  Trajan  concerning 
the  Christians. 

Martial  (aet.  62)  publishes  book  xii.  at  Bilbilis,  in  Spain. 

105  COM.  Ti.  Julius  Candidu*  II. 

C.  Antius  Aulus  Julius  Quadratus  II. 
Trajani  8. — Dacian  war  continued.    Trajan  builds  a 
stone  bridge  over  the  Danube. 

106  Cots.  L.  Ceionius  Commodus  Verus. 

L.  Titius  Cercalis. 

Trajani  9. — End  of  the  Dacian  war,  and  death  of  DC- 
ccbalus.  Dacia  is  made  a  Roman  province.  Tra 
jan  returns  to  Rome,  and  triumphs  a  second  time 
over  the  Dacians.  Arabia  Petrsea  conquered  by 
Cornelius  Palma. 

107  COM.  L.  Licinius  Sura  III. 

C.  Sosius  Senecio  IV. 
Suf.  ....  Suranus  II. 

C.  Julius  Servilius  Ursus  Servianiu. 
Trajani  10. 

108  COM.  Ap.  Annius  Trebonins  Gallus. 

M.  Atilius  Metilius  Bradua. 
Suf.  (C.  Julius  Africanus. 
Clodius  Crispinus.) 
L.  Verulanus  Severus. 
Trajani  11. 

109  Cos*.  A.  Cornelius  Palma  IL 

C.  Calvisius  Tullus  II. 
Suf.  P.   ^Elius  Hadrianus    (afterward  Imp. 

CKS.  Aug.). 
M.  Trebatius  Priscus. 
Trnjani  12. 

110  COM.  Ser.  Salvidienus  Orfitus. 

M.  Peducaeus  Priscinus. 
Suf.  (P.  Calvisius  Tullus. 

L.  Annius  Largus.) 
Trajani  13. 

111  COM.  M.  Calpurnius  Piso. 

L.  Rusticus  Junianus  Bolanus. 
Suf.  C.  Julius  Servilius  Ursus  Servianus  IL 

L.  Fabius  Justus. 
Trajani  14. 

112  COM.  Imp.  Cesar  Nerva  Trajanus  Augustus  VL 

T.  Sextius  Africanus. 
Trajani  15. 

113  COM.  L.  Publicius  Celsus  H. 

C.  Clodius  Crispinus. 
Trajani  16. — The  column  of  Trajan  erected. 

114  COM.  Q.  Ninnius  Hasta. 

P.  Manilius  Vopiscus. 

Trajani  17.— Parthian  war.  Trajan  leaves  Italy  in  the 
autumn,  and  spends  the  winter  at  Antioch. 

115  COM.  L.  Vipstanus  Messala. 

M.  Pedo  Vergilianus. 

Trajani  18.— Parthian  war  continued.  Trajan  con- 
quers Armenia.  Great  earthquake  at  Antioch  at 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


1001 


the  beginning  of  the  year.    Sedition  ai  the  Jews  in 
Greece  and  Egypt          •• 
Martyrdom  of  Ignatius. 

116  Cose.  (yEmilius)  jElianus. 

(L.)  Antistius  Vetus. 

Trajani  19. — Parthian  war  continued.  Trajan  takes 
Ctesiphon,  and  sails  down  the  Tigris  to  the  ocean. 
Revolt  of  the  Parthians  suppressed  by  the  generals 
of  Trajan.  Trajan  assumes  the  name  of  Parthicus. 

117  Case.  Quinctius  Niger. 

C.  Vipstanus  Aproniamis. 

Ex  Kal.  Jul.  M.  Erucius  Clarus. 

Ti.  Julius  Alexander. 

Sedition  of  the  Jews  in  Cyrene  and  Egypt  suppressed. 
Trajan  (set  60)  dies  at  Selinus,  in  Cilicia,  on  hia  re- 
tarn  to  Italy,  August  8th. 

HADRIAN  emperor  (aet  42).  He  was  at  Antioch  at 
the  death  of  Trajan. 

118  Coss.  Imp.  Cesar  Trajanus  Hadrianus  Augustus  II. 

Ti.  Claudius  Fuscus  Salinator. 

Hadriani  2.— Hadrian  comes  to  Rome:  he  sets  out 
for  Mcesia,  in  consequence  of  a  wfr  with  the  Sar- 
matians ;  a  conspiracy  against  him  discovered  and 
suppressed ;  he  returns  to  Italy,  and  intrusts  the 
command  of  Dacia  to  Marcius  Turbo. 

Juvenal  flourished. 

119  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  Trajanus  Hadrianus  Augustus  HI. 

C.  Junius  Rusticus. 

Hadriani  3. — Turbo  is  appointed  praetorian  prefect 
in  the  place  of  Attianus,  and  Clarus  in  the  place  of 
Similis. 
ISO  Con.  L.  Catilius  Severus. 

T.  Aurelius  Fulvus  (aftentwrd  Imp.  Csei.  Anto- 
ninus Aug.  Pius). 

Hadriani  4. — Hadrian  begins  a  journey  through  all  the 
provinces  of  the  empire.  He  visits  Gaul  a»d  Ger- 
many. 

121  Coss.  M.  Annius  Verus  IL 

Augur. 

Hadriani  5. — Hadrian  visits  Britain  and  Spain.  He 
passes  the  winter  at  Tarraco,  in  Spain.  Birth  of 
M.  Aurelius. 

122  COM.  M'.  Acilius  Aviola. 

C.  Corellius  Pansa. 

Hadriani  6. — Hadrian  visit*  Athens,  where  he  passes 
the  winter. 

123  COM.  Q.  Articuleius  Peetinus. 

L.  Venuleiiu  Apronianus. 
Hadriani  7. 

124  Con.  M'.  Acilius  Qlabrio. 

C.  Bellicius  Torquatnm. 
Hadriani  8. 

125  COM.  Valerius  Asiaticus  IL 

Titius  Aquilinu*. 
Hadriani  9.— Hadrian  i«  at  Athena. 

126  Cost.  M.  Anniu*  Verus  III. 

.  .  .  Eggius  Ambibnlus. 
Hadriani  10.— Birth  of  IVrtinar.     Death  of  SimilU. 

127  COM.  T.  Atilius  Titianui. 

M.  Squilla  Cinllicanus. 
Hadriani  11. 
1S8  Con.  L.  Nonius  Torquatui  Asprenas  IL 

M.  Annius  l.ibo. 
Hadriani  12. 

129  COM.  P.  Juventius  CcUus  II. 
Q.  Julius  Balbus. 
Suf.  C.  Neratius  Marcellns  II. 
Co   Lollius  Galliu. 


Hadriani  13. — Hadrian  passes  the  winter  at  Athens. 

130  Coss.  Q.  Fabius  Catullinus. 

M.  Flavius  A  per. 
Hadriani  14. — Hadrian  visits  Judca  and  Egypt 

131  Coss.  Ser.  Octavius  Laenas  Pontianus. 

M.  Antonius  Kufinus. 

Hadriani  15.— Hadrian  visits  Syria.  The  Jewish  war 
begins. 

132  Coss.  C.  Serius  Augurinus. 

C.  Trebius  Sergianug. 

Hadriani  16.'— The  Jewish  war  continues.  The  Edic- 
turn  Perpetuum  promulgated. 

133  Coss.  M.  Antonius  Hiberus. 

Nummius  Sisenna. 
Hadriani  17. — The  Jewish  war  continues. 

134  Coss.  C.  Julius  Servilius  Ursus  Servianus  III. 

C.  Vibius  Juventius  Varus. 
Hadriani  18. — The  Jewish  war  continues. 

135  Coss Lupercus. 

Atticus. 

Suf.  .  .  .  Pontianus. 
.  .  .  Atilianus. 
Hadriani  19. — The  Jewish  war  continues. 

136  Coss.  L.  Ceionius  Commodus  Verus. 

Sex.  Vetulenus  Civica  Pompeianus. 
Hadriani  20. — The  Jewish  war  ended.  Hadrian  adopts 
L.  ./Elius  Verus,  and  confers  upon  him  the  title  of 
Caesar. 

137  Coss.  L.  .lEHus  Verus  Caesar  II. 

P.  Co3lius  Balbinus  Vibulius  Pius. 
Hadriani  21. 

138  Cost.  .  i Niger. 

Camerinus. 

Death  of  L.  Verus,  January  1st  Hadrian  adopt* 
Antoninus  Pius,  and  gives  him  the  title  of  Ctesar, 
February  25th.  Death  of  Hadrian  (eat  62),  July 
10th. 

ANTONINUS  Prcs  emperor  (set  51). 

139  Coss.  Imp.  T.  JEl.  C»sar  Ant  Augustus  Pius  IL 

C.  Bruttius  Prawns  II. 
Antonini  2. 

140  Coss.  Imp.  T.  jEl.  Csesar  Ant  Augustus  Pius  III. 

M.  .£lius  Aurelius  Verus  Caesar  (afterward  Imp. 

Augustus). 
Antonini  3. 

141  COM.  M.  Peduceeus  Stloga  Priscinus. 

T.  Hoanius  Severus. 
Antonini  4.— Death  of  Faustina. 

142  Coss.  L.  Stutius  Quadratus. 

C.  Cuspius  Rufous. 
Antonini  5. 

143  Cos*.  C.  Bellicius  Torquatus. 

Ti.  Claudius  Atticus  Hcrodes. 
Antonini  6. 
Pronto  flourished. 

144  COM.  P.  I.ollianus  Avitus. 

C.  Gaviui  Maximo*. 
Antonini  7. 
VaJentinui,  the  heretic,  flourished. 

145  COM.  Imp.  T.  JE\.  COM.  Ant  Ang.  Pius  IV. 

M.  Aurelius  Ca-sar  II. 
Antonini  8 

146  COM.  Sex.  Frurius  Clarus  II. 

Cn.  Claudius  Severn*. 
Antonini  9.— Birth  of  Severn*. 

147  COM.  C.  Anuius  Largu*. 

C.  Prast  Pacatu*  Mconalinus. 
Antonini  10. — M.  Aurolius  marries  Faustina,  th«  em- 


.002 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


peror's  daughter,  and  receivei  the  tribunician  pow- 
er.   The  Ludi  Sreculares  celebrated. 

Galen  (aet  17)  begins  to  study  medicine. 

Appian  published  his  Histories  about  this  time. 

148  Coss Torquatus. 

Salvius  Julianas. 
Antonini  11. 

149  Coss.  Ser.  Scipio  Orfitus. 

Q.  Nonius  Priscus. 
Antonhii  12. 

150  Coss Gallicanus. 

.  .  Antistius  Vetus. 
Antonini  13. 
Marcian,  the  heretic,  flourished. 

151  Coss.  Sex.  Quintilius  Condianus. 

Sex.  Quintilius  Maximus. 
Antonini  14. 
Justin  Martyr  publishes  his  Apology. 

152  Coss.  M.  Acilius  Glabrio. 

M.  Valerius  Homullus. 
Antonini  15. 
Hegesippus  flourished. 

153  Cos*.  C.  Bruttius  Praesens. 

A.  Junius  Rufinus. 
Antonini  1G. 

154  Coss.  L.  S.\ms  Aurelius  Commodus  (aftencard  Imp. 

CBS.  Aug.). 
T.  Sextius  Lateranus. 
Antonini  17. 
Birth  of  Bardesanes. 

155  Coss.  C.  Julius  Severus. 

M.  Junius  Rufinus  Sabinianus.      « 
Ex.  Kal.  Nov.  Antius  Pollio. 

Opimianus. 
Antonini  18. 

156  Coss.  M.  Ceionius  Silvanus. 

C.  Serius  Augurinus. 
Antonini  19. 

157  Co»s.  M.  Civica  Barbarus. 

M.  Metilius  Regulua. 
Antonini  20. 

158  Coss.  Sex.  Sulpicius  Tertullus. 

C.  Tineius  Sacerdos. 
Antonini  21. 

159  Coss.  Plautius  Quintillng. 

Statius  Priscus. 
Antonini  22. 
Galen  (;et.  29)  at  Pergamus. 

160  Coss.  Ap.  Annius  Atilius  Bradua. 

T.  Clodius  Vibius  Varus. 
Antonini  23. 

161  Cos*.  M.  jElius  Verus  Caesar  III. 

L.  jElius  Aurelius  Commodus  II. 

Death  of  Antoninus  Pius  (aet.  74),  March  7. 

M.  AUBELIUS  (set.  39)  emperor.  He  associates  with 
him  in  the  empire  L.  VEBUS  (aet  31).  There  are 
thus  two  AuguBtL  Birth  of  Comroodus,  son  of  M. 
Aurelius,  on  August  31st 

162  Cos*.  Q.  Junius  Rusticus. 

C.  Vettius  Aquilinns. 

Suf.  Q.  Flavius  Tertullus. 

Anrelii  2. — War  with  the  Parthians.    Verug  seta  forth 
to  the  East,  to  conduct  the  war  against  the  Parthi- 
ans.   M.  Aurcliua  remains  at  Rome. 
183  Coss.  M.  Pontius  Lselinnus. 

Pastor. 

Suf.  Q,  Mustius  Priscui. 
Aurelii  3. — Parthian  war  continued 


164  Coss.  M.  Pompeius  Macrinui. 

P.  Juvcntius  Celsus. 

Aurelii  4. — Parthian  war  continued.  Marriage  of  V» 
rus  and  LuciHa. 

165  Cos*.  M.  Gavius  Orfitus. 

L.  Arrius  Pudens. 
Aurelii  5. — Parthian  war  continued. 

166  Cos*.  Q.  Servilius  Pudens. 

L.  Fufidius  Pollia. 
Aurelii  6. — Parthian  war  finished.     Triumph  of  M. 

Aurelius  and  Verus.    Commodus  receives  the  title 

of  CtKsnr. 
Martyrdom  of  Polycarp. 

167  Coss.  Imp.  CBBS.  L.  Aur.  Verus  August  HI. 

M.  Ummidius  Quadrntus. 

Aurelii  7.— A  pestilence  at  Rome.    War  with  the  Mar- 

comanni  and  Quadi.    Both  emperors  leave  Rome, 

in  order  to  carry  on  this  war,  and  winter  at  Sir- 

mium. 

Galen  (aet.  37)  practices  medicine  at  Rome  during  the 

pestilence. 
166  Coss.  L.  Wnuleius  Apronianus  H. 

L.  Sergius  Paullus  II. 
Aurelii  8. — The  barbarians  submit  to  the  emperors, 

but  soon  renew  the  war. 
Athenagoras  writes  his  Apology. 

169  Coss.  Q.  Sosius  Priscus  Senecio. 

P.  Ccelius  Apollinaris. 
Aurelii  9.— Death  of  Verus  (set  39). 

170  Coss.  M.  Cornelius  Cethegus. 

C.  Erucius  Clarus. 

Aurelii  10. — Aurelius  continues  the  war  against  the 
Marcomanui. 

171  Coss.  T.  Statilius  Severua. 

L.  Alfidius  Herennianus. 
Aurelii  11. 

172  Coss Maximus. 

Orfitus. 

Aurelii  12. — Aurelius  continues  the  war  against  the 
Marcomanni ;  he  assumes  the  title  Germanicus, 
which  is  also  conferred  upon  Commodus 

173  Coss.  M.  Aurelius  Severus  II. 

Ti.  Claudius  Pompeianus. 
Aurelii  13. 

174  Coss Callus. 

Flaccus. 

Aurelii  14. — Aurelius  continues  the  war  against  the 
Marcomanni.  Victory  over  the  Quadi.  Miracle 
of  the  Thundering  Legion.  (Vid.  p.  131,  b.) 

175  Coss.  Calpurnius  Piso. 

M.  Salvius  Julianus. 

Aurelii  15. — Peace  concluded  with  the  Marcomanni 
and  the  other  barbarians.  Revolt  of  Cassias  Avidi- 
as  In  the  East :  he  is  slain  after  three  months.  Au- 
relius goes  to  the  East.  Commodus  receives  the 
toga  virilis.  Death  of  Faustina. 

176  Cots.  T.  Vitras'us  Pollio  IL 

M.  Flavius  Aper  II. 

Aurelii  16. — Aurelius  visits  Athens  on  his  return  from 
the  East.  He  triumphs  on  December  23d  with 
Commodus. 

177  Coss.  Imp.  L.  Aurelius  Commodus  Aug. 

M.  Plautius  Quintilius. 
Aurelii  17. — Commodus  receives  the  tribunician  po» 

er.    Persecution  of  the  Christians  in  GauL 
Irenaeus  becomes  Bishop  of  Lyon  in  GauL 

178  Cos*.  Gavius  Orfitus. 

Julianus  Rufus. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


1003 


i.n 


Aurelii  18.— Renewal  of  the  war  with  the  Marcoman- 
ni  and  the  northern  barbarians.  Aurelius  sets  out 
with  Commodus  to  Germany.  Earthquake  at 
Smyrna. 

179  Cos.?.  Imp.  L.  Aurelius  Commodus  Aug.  II. 

P.  Marciug  Verus. 

Ex  Kal.  Jul.  P.  Helvius   Pertinax   (afterward 

Imp.  C»s.  Aug.). 
M.  Didias  Severus  Julianus  (after- 
ward Imp.  CSBS.  Aug.). 
Aurelii  19.— Defeat  of  the  Marcomanni. 

180  Cost.  C.  Bruttius  Prsesens. 

Sex.  Quintilius  Condianus. 
Death  of  M.  Aurelius  (set.  58)  at  Vindobona  (Vienna) 

or  Sirmium,  March  17th. 
COMMODUS  (set  19)  emperor.     Commodus  makes 

peace  with  the  Marcomanni  and  other  barbarians, 

and  returns  to  Rome. 

181  Cots.  Imp.  M.  Aurelius  Commodus  Antoninus  Aug.  III. 

L.  Antistius  Burrus. 
Commodi  2. 

182  Coss Mamertinus. 

Rufus. 

Ex  Kal.  Jul.  JEmilius  Juncus. 
Atilius  Soverua. 
Commodi  3. 

183  Coss.  Imp.  M.  AureliusCommodusAntoninusAug.lv. 

C.  Aufidiua  Victorinus  II. 
Ex  Kal.  Feorv  L.  Tutilius  Pontius  Gcntianns. 
Ex  Kal.  Mai.  M.  Herennius  Secundus. 
M.  Egnatius  Postumus. 

, T.  Pactumeius  Magnus. 

L.  Septimius  F ' 

Commodi  4. —  Conspiracy  of  Lucilla,  the  sister  of 
Commodus,  against  the  emperor,  but  it  is  sup- 
pressed. 

184  Cuss.  L.  Cossonius  Eggius  Marullus. 

Cn.  Papirius  jElianus. 

Suf.  C.  Octavius  Vindex. 

Commodi  5. — Ulpiui  Marcellus  defeats  the  barbarians 
in  Britain. 

IBS  Coss. Maternus. 

Bradua. 

Commodi  6.— Death  of  Perennis. 
Birth  of  Origen. 

186  COM.  Imp.  M.  Aurelius  Commodus  Antoninus  Aug.  V. 

(M*.  Acihus)  Glabrio  II 
Commodi  7. 

187  Cott Crispinus. 

jElianus. 

Commodi  8. 

188  COM Fuscianus  II. 

M.  Servilius  Silanus  II. 
Commodi  9.— Birth  of  Caracalla. 

189  COM.  Junius  Silanus. 

Servilius  Silanus. 
Commodi  10.— Death  of  Clcander. 

190  Con.  Imp.  M.  Aurelius  Commodus  Antoninus  Aug.  VI. 

M.  Petroniua  Scptimianus. 
Commodi  11. 

191  Con.  (Caos)lus  Pedo  Apronianus. 

M.  Valerius  Bradua  (Mauricun). 
Commodi  12.— Fire  at  Rome.    Commodus  assumes 
the  name  of  Hercules. 

192  COM.  Imp.  L.  .£Hui  Aurclius  Commodus  Aug.  VII. 

P.  Helvius  Pertinax  II. 

Commodi  13. — Commodus  (ait  31)  (lain  on  Decem- 
ber 21st 


A.D. 

193  COM.  d.  Sosius  Falco. 

C.  Julius  Erucius  Clarus. 

Suf.  Flavius  Claudius  Sulpicianns. 

L.  Fabius  Gilo  Septimianus 
Suf.  Kal.  Mai.  Silius  Messala. 
Suf.  Kal.  Jul.    JE\iue. 

Probus. 

PERTINAX  (vet.  66)  emperor,  reigned  from  January 

1st  to  March  28th,  when  he  was  slain.    Thereupon 

the  praetorian  troops  put  up  the  empire  to  sale, 

which  was  purchased  by  M.  Didius  Salvius  Julianus. 

JULIANUS  (ait.  56)  emperor,  reigned  from  March  28rh 

to  June  1st 

'.SEPTIMIUS  SEVEEUS  (ast.  46)  is  proclaimed  emperor 
by  the  legions  in  Pannonia.  lie  comes  to  Rome 
'and  is  acknowledged  as  emperor  by  the  senate. 
After  remaining  a  short  time  at  Rome  he  proceeds 
to  the  East,  where  the  legions  had  declared  Pescen- 
nius  Niger  emperor.  Severus  confers  the  title  of 
Csesar  upon  Clodius  Albinus  in  Britain. 

194  Co**.  Imp.  CKS.  L.  Septimius  Severus  Augustus  II. 

D.  Clodius  Albinus  Ca'snr. 

Severi  2.— Defeat  and  death  of  Niger.  Severus  lays 
siege  to  Byzantium,  which  continues  to  hold  out 
after  the  death  of  Niger. 

195  Cos*.  Scapula  Tertullus. 

Tineius  Clemens. 

Severi  3.— Siege  of  Byzantium  continued.  Severus 
crosses  the  Euphrates,  and  subdues  the  Mesopota- 
mian  Arabians. 

196  COM.  C.  Domitius  Dexter  II. 

L.  Valerius  Meesala  Thrasia  1'riscus. 
Severi  4. — Capture  of  Byzantium.  Severus  returns 
to  Rome.  He  confers  the  title  of  Cffisar  upon  his 
son  Bassianus,  whom  be  calls  M.  Aurelius  Antoni- 
nus, but  who  is  better  known  by  his  nickname  Car- 
acalla. Severus  proceeds  to  Gaul  to  oppose  Albi- 
nus. 

197  COM.  Ap.  Claudius  Lateranus. 

Rufmus. 

Severi  5. — Albinus  defeated  and  slain  by  Severus, 
February  19th.  Severus  proceeds  to  the  East  to 
carry  on  war  against  the  Parthian*. 

198  COM Saturninus. 

Callus. 

Severi  6. — Severus  carries  on  the  Parthian  war  with 
success :  he  takes  Ctesiphon.  Caracalla  is  declared 
Augustus,  and  his  brother,  L.  Septimius  Geta,  Cav 
•ar. 

199  COM.  P.  Cornelias  Annulinus  IL 

M.  Aundius  Fronto. 
Severi  7. — Sevcrus  lays  siege  to  Atra,  but  U  repulsed. 

200  COM.  TL  Claudius  Severus. 

C.  Aufidius  Victorinus. 
Severi  8. — Severus  continues  in  the  East 

201  COM.  L.  Annius  Fabianus. 

M.  Nonius  Arrius  Mucinus. 

Sever!  9. — Severus  continues  in  the  East  with  Cant 
calls,  CaracalU  receives  the  toga  virilia. 

202  COM.  Imp.  CBJS.  L.  Scptim.  Severus  Aug.  III. 

Imp.  C«es.  M.  Aurel.  Antoninus  Aug. 
Severi  10.— Persecution  of  the  Christians.    Severus 
returns  to  Rome.    He  celebrates  the  Decennalia 
and  the  marriage  of  CaracalU  and  Plautilla 

203  COM.  C.  Fulvlus  Plautianus  II. 

P.  Scptimius  Get*. 

Beveri  11.  —  PUutianns  slain.  The  arch  of  Scverui. 
celebrating  his  victories,  is  dedicated  in  this  year. 


1004 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


OP  gen  (tct.  18)  teaches  at  Alexandrea. 

204  COM.  L.  Fnbius  Cilo  Septimianus  II. 

M.  Annius  Flavius  Libo. 
Seven  12. — The  Ludi  Sssculares  are  celebrated. 

205  Coss.  Imp.  Ctes.  M.  Aurel.  Antoninus  Aug.  II. 

P.  Septimius  Geta  Cissar. 
Seven"  13. 

206  Cots.  M.  Nummius  Albinus. 

Fulvius  ^milianus. 
Severi  14. 

207  Cos* A  per. 

.  Maximus. 

Severi  15.— War  in  Britain. 
Tertullian  publishes  his  work  against  Marcion. 

208  Coss.  Imp.  Cses.  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus  Aug.  III. 

P.  Septimius  Geta  Csesar  II. 

Severi  16. — Severus  goes  to  Britain  with  his  two  sons 
Caracalla  and  Geta. 

209  Coss.  Civica  Pompeianus. 

Lollianus  Avitus. 

Severi  17.  — JBeverus  invades  Caledonia.     Geta  re- 
ceives the  title  of  Augustus. 
Tertullian  writes  his  treatise  De  Pallia. 

210  Coss.  M'.  Acilius  Faustinus. 

Triarius  Rufinus. 

Severi  18. — The  wall  in  Britain  completed  by  Seve- 
rus. 

Fapinian,  the  jurist  and  the  praafect  of  the  praetorians, 
was  with  Severus  in  Britain. 

211  Coss.  (Q.  Hedius  Rufus)  Lollianus  Gentianus. 

Pomponius  Bassus. 

Death  of  Severus  (»t.  64)  at  Eboracum  (York),  Feb- 
ruary 4th. 

CARACALLA  (aet.  23)  emperor ;  but  his  brother  GETA 
(set  22)  had  been  associated  with  him  in  the  em- 
pire by  their  father.  Caracalla  and  Geta  return  to 
Rome. 

Tertullian  publishes  his  letter  ad  Scapvlam. 

212  Coss.  C.  Julius  Asper  II. 

C.  Julius  Asper. 

Caracallse  2. — Geta  murdered  by  his  brother's  orders. 
Papinian  and  many  other  distinguished  men  put  to 
death. 

213  Coss.  Imp.  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus  Aug.  IV. 

D.  Ccelius  Balbinus  II. 

Suf,  (M.  Antonius  Gordianus  (afterward  Imp. 

CBS.  Aug.). 
Helvius  Pertinax.) 
Caracallae  3. — Caracalla  goes  to  Gaul. 

214  Coss Messalla, 

Sabinus. 

Caracallee  4. — Caracalla  attacks  the  Alemanni,  visits 
Dacia  and  Thracia,  and  winters  at  Nicomedia. 

215  Coss Liutus  II. 

Cerealis. 

Caracallee  5. — Caracalla  goes  to  Antioch  and  thence 
to  Alexandrea, 

216  Coss.  Vatius  Sabinus  II. 

Cornelius  Anulinus. 

Caracallae  6.  —  Caracalla  passes  the  Euphrates  and 
makes  war  against  the  Parthians.  He  winters  at 
Edessa. 

217  Coss.  C.  Bruttius  Prassena. 

T.  Messius  Extricatus  II. 

Caracalla  (ret.  29)  slain  near  Edessa,  April  8th. 

MACKINUS  (net.  53)  emperor.  He  confers  the  title  of 
Caesar  upon  his  son  Diadumenianua.  He  is  de- 
feated by  the  Parthians,  and  purchases  peace  by  the 


A.D. 

payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money.    Ho  then  re- 
tires to  Syria. 

Dion  Cassias  is  at  Rome  at  the  time  of  Caracalla's 
death. 

218  Coss.  Imp.  Cses.  M.  Opil.  Sev.  Mac.  Aug.  II. 

C.  Oclatinus  Adventus. 
Suf.  Imp.  ( 'if.--.  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus  (Ela- 

gabalus)  Aug. 

Sedition  of  the  army  during  their  winter  in  Syria :  n 

great  part  espouse  the  cause  of  Elagabalus.    Ma« 

crinus  is  defeated  near  Antioch,  June  8th,  and  is 

shortly  afterward  put  to  death. 

ELAGABALUS  (ast.  14)  emperor.    He  winters  at  Nice- 

media. 
Dion  Cassiua  is  governor  of  Pergamus  and  Smyrna. 

219  Coss.  Imp.  Cffisar  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus  (Elagabalus) 

Aug.  II. 

Q.  Tineius  Sacerdos  II. 
Elagabali  2. — Elagabalus  comes  to  Rome. 

220  Coss.  Imp.  Caas.  M.  Aurel.  Anton.  (Elagabalus)  Aug. 

HI. 

P.  Valerius  Eutychianus  Comazon  II. 
Elagabali  3. 

221  Coss.  Grains  Sabinianua 

Claudius  Selfiucus. 

Elagabali  4. — Elagabalus  adopts  and  confers  the  title 
of  Csesar  upon  Bassianus  Alexianus  (set.  13),  better 
known  by  the  name  of  Alexander  Severus. 

222  Coss.  Imp.  Cffis.  M.  Aurel.  Anton.  (Elagabalus)  Aug. 

IV. 

M.  Aurelius  Alexander  Cssar. 
.Elagabalus  (sat.  18)  slain  March  llth. 
ALEXANDER  SEVERUS  emperor  (eet.  14) 
The  jurists  Ulpian  and  Paulus  are  among  the  coun- 
sellors of  Alexander  Severus. 

223  Coss.  L.  Marius  Maximus  II. 

L.  Roscius  jEliamu. 
Alexandri  2. 

224  Coss.  Claudius  Julianus  II. 

L.  Bruttius  Quinctiua  Crispinus. 
Alexandri  3. 

225  Coss Fuscua  II. 

Dexter. 

Alexandri  4. 

226  Coss.  Imp.  Cass.  M.  Aur.  Sev.  Alex.  Aug.  II. 

Marcellus  II. 

Alexandri  5. — The  Parthian  empire  overthrown  by 

Artaxerxes  (Ardishir),  who  founds  the  new  Persian 

kingdom  of  the  Sassanidffl. 
Origen  at  Antioch. 

227  Coss Albinus. 

Maximus. 

Alexandri  6. 

228  Coss Modestus  It. 

Probus. 

Alexandri  7. — Ulpian  killed  by  the  soldiers. 
Origen  a  presbyter. 

229  Coss.  Imp.  Caea.  M.  Aur.  Sev.  Alex.  Aug.  HI. 

Cassius  Dio  II. 
Alexandri  8. 
Dion  Cassius  consul  a  second  time :  after  bis  second 

consulship,  he  retired  to  Bithynia. 
Origen  composes  several  works  at  Alexandrea. 

230  Coss.  L.  Viriua  Agricola. 

Sex.  Catius  Clementinut. 
Alexandri  9. 

231  Coss.  .  .  .  Claudius  Pompeiann*. 

T.  Fl.  .  .  •  Pelignianus. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


1005 


A.D. 


Alexandri  10. — Alexander  marches  against  the  Per- 
sians. • 
Origen  leaves  Alexandrea  and  settles  at  Ceesarea. 

232  Coss Lupus. 

Maximus. 

AlexarTdri  11. — Alexander  defeats  the  Persians  in  Mes- 
opotamia, and  returns  to  Antioch. 

Gregory  of  Neocsesarea  is  the  disciple  of  Origen  at 
Ctesarea. 

233  COM Maximus. 

Paternus. 

Alexandri  12.— Alexander  returns  to  Rome  and  tri- 
umphs. 
Birth  of  Porphyry. 

234  Coss Maximus  II. 

(C.  Ccelius)  Urbanus. 

Alexandri  13. — Alexander  carries  on  war  against  the 
Germans. 

335  Coss Severus. 

Quinctianus. 

Alexander  (set.  27)  slain  by  the  soldiers  in  Gaul,  Feb- 
ruary 10th.  His  mother  Mammaea  slain  along  with 
him. 

MAXIMINCS  emperor. 
Origen  writes  his  De  Martyrio. 

236  Coss.  Imp.  Maximinus  Pius  Aug. 

Africanus. 

Maximini  2. — Maximinus  defeats  the  Germans. 

237  Cost.  (P.  Titius)  Perpetuug. 

(L.  Ovinius  Rusticus)  Cornelianus. 
Stif.  Junius  Silanus. 

Messius  Gallicanus. 

Maximini  3. — Maximinus  again  defeats  the  Germans 
and  winters  at  Sirmium. 

238  Coss Pius. 

Proculus  Pontianas. 
Suf.  Ti.  Claudius  Julianus. 
.  .  Celsus  ^Elianue. 

GOBDIANUS  I.  and  II.,  father  and  son,  were  proclaim- 
ed emperors  in  Africa,  and  are  acknowledged  by 
the  senate  :  they  were  proclaimed  in  February  and 
•were  slain  in  March.  After  their  death,  M.  do- 
dius  Pupii-ims  MAXIMUS  and  D.  CasHus  BALBINUS 
are  appointed  emperors  by  the  senate :  they  confer 
the  title  of  Caesar  upon  Gordianus,  a  grandson  of 
Gordianus  I.  Maximinus  hears  of  the  elevation  of 
the  Gordians  in  his  winter  quarters  at  Sirmium,  and 
forth  with  marches  to  ward  Italy.  When  he  reaches 
Hemona,  about  240  miles  from  Sirmiura,  he  hears 
of  the  elevation  .of  Maximus  and  Balbinus.  He 
reaches  Aquileia  (60  miles  from  Hemona),  and  is 
there  slain  by  his  soldiers,  along  with  his  son  Maxi- 
mus, in  April.  Maximus,  the  emperor,  was  then  at 
Ravenna:  he  returns  to  Rome,  and  is  slain  along 
with  Balbinus,  about  the  middle  of  June.  The  sol- 
diers proclaim 

GOBDIANUS  III.  emperor  (aet  12). 

839  Coss  Imp.  Ca>s,  M.  Antonius  Gordlanu*  (III.)  Aug. 

M.  Acilius  Aviola. 
Gordiani  2. 
Philostratus  flourished. 

840  Coss Sabinus  IL 

Venustui. 

Gordiani  3.— Sedition  in  Africa  suppressed. 
941  Cos.  Imp.  Cues.  M.  Antonius  Gordianut  (HI.)  Pius 

Pel.  II. 

Gordiani  4.— Gordian  marries  the  daughter  of  Misith- 
ous,  and  seta  out  to  the  East  to  carry  on  the  war 


against  the  Persians.    Sapor  I.  succeeds  his  father 
Artaxerxes  as  King  of  Persia. 

242  Coss.  C.  Vettius  Atticus. 

C.  Asinius  Pnetcxtatus. 

Gordiani  5. — GorUian,  with  the  assistance  of  his  fa- 
ther-in-law Misithcus,  defeats  the  Persians. 
Plotinus  is  in  Persia. 

243  Coss.  L.  Annius  Arrianus. 

C.  Cervonius  Papus. 
Gordiani  6. — Death  of  Misitheus. 

244  Coss.  (L.  Armenius)  Peregrinus. 

(A.  Fulvius)  ,£miltanu3. 

Gordian  (set  18)  is  slain  by  the  contrivance  of  Phil- 
ip, the  praetorian  prefect  in  Mesopotamia,  in  the 
spring. 

PHILIPPUS  I.  emperor.  Philip  confers  the  title  of  C«- 
sar  upon  his  son,  the  younger  Philip,  and  returns  to 
Rome. 

Plotinus  is  at  Rome. 

245  Coss.  Imp.  Cioear  M.  Julius  Philippus  Augustus. 

.  .  .  Junius  Titianus. 
Philippi  2. — War  with  the  Carpi,  on  the  Danube. 

246  Coss Prajsens. 

Albinus. 

Philippi  3. 

Origen  (aet  61)  composes  his  work  against  CeUua 
about  this  time. 

247  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  M.  Julius  Philippus  Augustus  II. 

M.  Julius  Philippus  Caesar. 

Philippi  4.— Philip  bestows  the  rank  of  Augustus  upon 
his  son,  the  younger  Philip. 

248  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  M.  Julius  Philippus  (I.)  Aug.  HI. 

Imp.  Caesar  M.  Julius  Philippus  (II.)  Aug.  II. 
Philippi  5.— The  Ludi  Sieculares  are  celebrated. 
Cyprian  is  appointed  Bishop  of  Carthage. 

249  Coss.  (A.  Fulvius)  jEmilianus  II. 

.  .  Junius  Aquilinus. 
The  two  Philips  are  slain  in  September  or  October, 

at  Verona.  I 

DECIUS  emperor.    He  confers  the  title  of  Ciesar  upon 

his  son  Herennius  Ktruscus. 

250  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  C.  Messius  Quintus  Trajanus  De- 

cius  Aug.  II. 

Annius  Maximus  Gratus. 

Decii  2. — Great  persecution  against  the  Christians,  in 
which  Fabinnus,  bishop  of  Rome,  perishes. 

251  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  C.  Messius  Quintus  Trajanui  Po- 

ems Aug.  III. 

Q.  Hercnnius  Ktrusrus  Mcssius  Decius  Cesar. 
Decius  carries  on  war  against  the  Goths.    He  is  slaia 
in  November,  together  with  his  son    liercnnius 
Etruscus. 

CALLUS  Trebonianus  emperor.  The  title  of  Augus- 
tus is  conferred  upon  Uostilianus,  a  younger  SOB 
of  Dccius.  <  Julius  confers  the  title  of  Cassar  upon 
his  son  Volusinnus. 

252  Con.  Imp.  Cws.C.  VibiusTrcbonianusGallusAug.il. 

C.  Vibius  Volusinnus  Cmmr. 

Galli  2. — Volusianus  is  elcvatnd  to  the  rank  cf  Augus- 
tus. Gnllus  return*  to  Rome.  Commencement  of 
a  great  pestilence,  which  rages  for  15  ycnrs..  Death 
of  I Ii i-t iliiiinn. 

253  Cos*.  Imp.  Caesar  C.  Vibiui  Volusianus  Augustus  IL 

M.  Valerius  Maximus. 

Galli  3. — ,/EMILIANU*  Is  proclaimed  emperor  in  Mm- 
tia.     VAI.KRI  A.NVS  i*  proclaimed  emperor  in  Reetia. 
Death  of  Origen  («t  68). 

254  COM.  Imp.  Can.  P.  Uciniiu  Valcriauus  Augustus  II 


1006 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


Imp.  CEBS.  P.  Licinius  GaJienus  Augustus. 

jEmilianus  marches  into  Italy.    Callus  and  Volusia- 

nus  elain  by  their  own  troops  in  February.     ^Emil- 

ianus  slain  by  his  own  troops  in  May.    VAI.K  JUA.NTS 

emperor.    His  eon  GALLIENUS  is  made  Augustus. 

255  Coss.  Imp.  Cms.  P.  Licinius  Valerianus  Augustus  III. 

Imp.  Csesar  P.  Licinius  Gallienus  Augustus  II. 
Valeriani  et  Gallieni  3. — The  barbarians  begin  to  in- 
vade the  empire  on  all  sides.    Tho  Goths  invade 
Illyricum  and  Macedonia.    Gallienus  is  in  Gaul. 

256  Coss.  (M.)  Valerius  Maximus  II. 

(M'.  Acilius)  Glabrio. 
Val.  et  Gnllieni  4. — The  Franks  invade  Spain. 

257  Cos*.  Imp.  Cwsar  P.  Licinius  Valerianus  Aug.  IV. 

Imp.  Caesar  P.  Licinius  Gallienus  Aug.  III. 
(Suf.  a.  d.  XL  K.  Jun.  M.  Ulpius  Crinitus. 

L.  Domitius  Aurelia- 
nus  (afterward  Imp. 
Cses.  Aug.). 

Val.  et  Gallieni  5.— Aurelian  defeats  the  Goths. 
958  Coss.  Mcmmius  Tuscus. 

Bassus. 

Val.  et  Gallieni  6.— Valerian  sets  out  for  the  East,  to 
carry  on  war  against  the  Persians.  Persecution  of 
the  Christians.  While  the  empire  is  invaded  by  the 
barbarians,  and  Valerian  is  engaged  in  the  Persian 
war,  the  legions  in  different  parts  of  the  empire  pro- 
claim their  own  generals  emperors.  These  usurp- 
ers are  known  by  the  name  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 
Postumus  is  proclaimed  emperor  in  Gaul.  The 
Goths  take  Trapezus. 
Martyrdom  of  Cyprian. 

259  Coss ^Emilianua. 

Bassus. 

Val.  et  Gallieni  7.— The  Goths  plunder  Bithynia. 

260  Coss.  P.  Cornelius  Ssecularis  II. 

.  .  Junius  Donatus  (II.). 

Val.  et  Gallieni  8. — Saloninus,  the  son  of  Valerian,  put 
to  death  b'y  Postumus.  Valerian  is  taken  prisoner 
by  Sapor,  the  Persian  king.  The  Persians  are  driv- 
en back  by  Odenathus,  the  ruler  of  Palmyra.  In- 
genuus  and  Regalianus  are  proclaimed  emperors. 

261  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  P.  Licinius  Gallienus  Aug.  IV. 

L.  Petronius  Taurus  Volusianus. 
Gallieni  9. — Macrianus,  Valens,  and  Calpurnius  Piso 
are  proclaimed  emperors  :  the  two  latter  are  easily 
put  down,  but  Macrianus  marches  from  Syria  to  at- 
tack Gallienus. 

262  Coss.  Imp.  Ceesar  P.  Licinius  Gallienus  Aug.  V. 

Faustina?. 

Gallieni  10. — Aureolus  is  proclaimed  emperor:  he  de- 
feats and  slays  Macrianus,  with  his  two  sons,  in  II- 
lyricum.  The  Goths  ravage  Greece  and  Asia  Minor. 
The  Persians  take  and  plunder  Antioch. 

263  Coss. Albinus  II. 

Maximus  Dexter. 
Gallieni  11. 

Porphyry  is  at  Rome  in  this  and  the  following  year 
564  Coss.  Imp.  Ciesar  P.  Licinius  Gallienus  Aug.  VI. 

Saturninus. 

Gallieni  12. — Odenathus  is  declarejj  Augustus.    First 

council  upon  Paul  of  Samosata. 
265  Coss.  P.  Licinius  Valerianus  Valeriani  Aug.  f.  II. 

(L.  Caesonius)  Lucillus  (Macer  Rufinianns.) 
Gallieni  13. — Postumus  continues  emperor  hi  Gaul, 
and  repels  the  barbarians  :  he  associates  Victorinus 
with  him  in  the  empire. 
,    Death  of  Dionysius  of  Alexandrea. 


A.D. 

266  Coss.  Imp.  Ceesar  P.  Licinius  Gallienus  VIL 

Sabinillus. 

Gallieni  14. 

267  Coss Paternus. 

Arccsilaus. 

Gallieni  15. — Odenuthus  is  slain,  and  is  succeeded  by 
his  wife  Zenobia,  who  governs  with  Vabalathus. 
Postumus  is  slain :  many  usurpers  in  succession 
assume  the  empire  in  Gnul :  it  is  nt  last  in  posses- 
sion of  Tetricus. 

263  Coss Paternut  II. 

Marinianus. 

Gallienus  slain  in  March  by  the  arts  of  Aureoius. 
CLAUDIUS  II.,  surnaraed  Gothicus,  emperor.    Awrco- 

lus  slain.     Claudius  defeats  the  Alemanni. 
Porphyry  retires  to  Sicily. 

269  Cot*.  Imp.  Caesar  M.  Aurelius  Claudius  Aug.  II. 

Paternus. 

Claudii  2. — Claudius  gains  a  great  victory  over  th» 
Goths.  Zenobia  invades  Egypt. 

270  Coss Antiochianus. 

Orfitus. 

Claudius  again  defeats  the  Goths.  Death  of  Claudius, 
at  Sirmium,  in  the  summer.  Aurelian  proclaimed 
emperor  at  Sirmium,  and  Quintillus,  the  brother 
of  Claudius,  at  Rome.  Quintillus  puts  an  end  to 
his  own  life. 

AURELIAN  emperor.  He  comes  to  Rome,  and  then 
proceeds  to  Pannonia,  to  repel  the  barbarians.  Be- 
fore the  end  of  the  year  he  returns  to  Italy,  to  at- 
tack the  Marcomanni  and  Alemanni,  who  are  in 
Italy. 

Death  of  Flotinus  in  Campania. 

Paul  of  Samosata  deposed. 

271  Coss.  Imp.  Cassar  L.  Domitius  Aurelianus  Aug.  II. 

Ceionius  Virius  Bassus  II. 

Aureliani  2. — Aurelian  defeats  the  Marcomanni  and 
Alemanni  in  Italy.  Aurelian  returns  to  Rome,  and 
begins  to  rebuild  the  wall*. 

272  Coss Quietus. 

Voldumianus. 

Aureliani  3. — Aurelian  goes  to  the  East,  and  makes 
war  upon  Zenobia,  whom  he  defeats  and  besieges 
in  Palmyra.  Hormisdas  succeeds  Sapor  as  King 
of  Persia. 

Manes  flourished. 

273  Coss.   M.  Claudius  Tacitus   (afterward  Imp.   Csesar 

Aug.). 

.  .  Placidianus. 

Aureliani  4. — Aurelian  takes  Zenobia  prisoner.  He 
proceeds  to  Egypt,  and  puts  down  the  revolt  of 
Firmus.  Varanes  I.  succeeds  Hormisdas  as  King 
of  Persia. 

Longinus  put  to  death  on  the  capture  of  Palmyra. 
2!  i  Coss.  Imp.  Csesar  L.  Domitius  Aurelianus  Aug.  III. 

C.  Julius  Capitolinus. 

Aureliani  5. — Aurelian  goes  to  Gaul  to  put  down  Tcfr 
ricus,  who  had  reigned  there  from  the  end  of  A.D. 
267.  Submission  of  Tetricus.  Aurelian  returns  to 
Rome  and  triumphs:  both  Zenobia  and  Tetricus 
adorn  his  triumph.  Aurelian  founds  a  temple  to 
the  Sun. 

275  Coss.  Imp.  Ctesar  L.  Domitius  Aurelianus  Aug.  IV. 
T.  Nochis  Marcellinus. 
Suf.  Aurelius  Gordianus. 

Vettius  Cornificius  Gordianus. 

Aurelian  slain  in  March.  After  an  interregnum  of  six 
months,  M.  Claudius  Tacitus  is  proclaimed  emperor. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


A.D. 

TACITUS  emperor. 
276  Cost.  Imp.  Caesar  M.  Claudius  Tacitus  Aug.  II. 

/Emiiianus. 

Suf.  wElius  Scorpianus. 

Death  of  Tacitus.    Florianus,  the  brother  of  Tacitus, 

ia  proclaimed  emperor  at  Rome,  and  M.  Aurelius 

I'robus  in  the  East.     Florianus  sets  out  to  the  East 

to  oppose  Probus,  but  is  slain  at  Tarsus. 

FROBUS  emperor.     Varanes  II.  succeeds  Varanes  I. 

as  King  of  Persia. 
877  Coss.  Imp.  Csesar  M.  Aurelius  Probus  Aug. 

M.  Aurelius  Paullinus. 
Probi  2. — Probus  defeats  the  barbarians  in  Gaul. 

278  Coss.  Imp.  Cesar  M.  Aurelius  Probus  Aug.  II. 

Lupus. 

Probi  3. — Probus  defeats  the  barbarians  in  Illyricum. 

279  Coss.  Imp.  Caesar  M.  Aurelius  Probus  Aug.  III. 

Nonius  Paternus  II. 

Probi  4. — Probus  reduces  the  Isaurians  and  the  Blein- 
myes.  Saturninus  revolts  in  the  East 

280  Coss Messalla. 

Gratus. 

Probi  5. — Saturninus  ia  slain.  Probus  returns  to 
Rome,  and  then  proceeds  to  Gaul,  where  he  puts 
down  the  revolt  of  Proculus  and  Bonosus,  either  in 
this  year  or  the  following. 

Cyrillus  is  Bishop  of  Antioch. 

281  Coss.  Imp.  Csesar  M.  Aurelius  Probus  Aug.  IV. 

Tiberianus. 

Probi  6. 

282  Coss.  Imp.  Cesar  M.  Aurelius  Probus  Aug.  V. 

Victorinus. 

Probus  is  slain  at  Sirmium  in  September. 
CAKUS  emperor. 

283  Coss.  Imp.  CUBS.  M.  Aurelius  Cams  Aug. 

M.  Aurelius  Carinua  Cari  Aug.  f.  Cesar. 

Suf.  M.  Aurelius  Numerianus  Cari  Aug.  f. 

Caesar. 
Matronianus. 

Carinus  and  Numerianus,  the  sons  of  Cams,  are  as- 
sociated with  their  father  in  the  empire.  Carinus 
is  sent  into  Gau! ;  and  Came,  with  Numerianus,  pro- 
ceeds to  the  East  Cams  subdues  the  Sarmatians 
on  his  march  from  Sirmium  to  the  East  Cams 
carries  on  the  war  against  the  Persians  with  suc- 
cess, but  dies  near  Ctesiphon. 

284  Con.  Imp.  C«es.  M.  Aurelius  Carinus  Aug.  II. 

Imp.  Cee.  M.  Aurelius  Numerianus  Aug.  II. 
Suf.  C.  Valerius  Dioclctianus  (oftencard  Imp. 

Aug.). 

Annius  Batsus. 
(Suf.  M.  Aur.  Valcr.  Maximianus  [afterward 

Imp.  Caw.  Aug.] 

M.  Juniiif  Maximuf .) 

Nnmeriamif  returns  from  Persia  with  the  array,  but 

if  flain  by  Aper  it  Pcrintlius  In  the  beginning  of 

September. 

DIOCLETIAN  emperor. 

285  Coss.  Imp.  Caes.  C.  Valerius  Dtoclctianus  Aug.  II. 

Ariitobulus. 

Dioctetiani  2.— War  between  Diocletian  nnd  Cnrinus 

in  Mcesia,    Carinus  is  slain.     Diocletian  wintcri  at 

Nicomedia. 

J86  Cots.  M.  Junius  Maximui  II. 

Vettius  Aquilinui. 

Diocletiani  3.— MAXIMIANUS  is  dccl«red  Augustus  on 

April  1st,  and  is  sent  by  Diocletian  into  Gaul.    Max- 

imianus  defeats  the  barbarians  in  Gaul. 


287  Coss.  'mp.  Ca>s.  C.  Val.  Diocletianus  Aug  III. 

Imp.  Caes.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximianus  Aug. 
Diocletiani  4  :  Maximiani  2. — Maximianus  again  de- 
feats the  barbarians  in  Gaul.    Carausius  assumes 
the  purple  in  Britain. 

288  Coss.  Imp.  Ces.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximianus  Aug.  II. 

Pomponius  Januarius. 

Diocletiani  5 :  Maximiani  3. — Preparations  of  Maxim 
ianus  against  Carausius. 

289  Cow.  M.  Macrins  Bassus. 

L.  Ragonius  Quintianus. 

Diocletiani  6  :  Maximiani  4.— Naval  war  between  Ca- 
rausius and  Maximianus.  Carausius  defeats  Max- 
imianus. 

Mamertinus  delivers  his  Panegyricus  Mazimiano. 

290  Coss.  Imp.  Caes.  C.  Valerius  Diocletianus  Aug.  IV. 

Imp.  Caes.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximianus  Aug.  III. 

Diocletiani  7  :  Maximiani  5.  —  The  emperors  grant 
peace  to  Carausius  and  allow  him  to  retain  inde- 
pendent sovereignty. 

Lactantius  nourished  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 

291  Cos* Tiberianus  II. 

Cassius  Dio. 

Diocletiani  8 :  Maximiani  6. — Diocletian  and  Maximi- 
anus  have  a  conference  at  Milan.  Maximianus  cel- 
ebrates the  Quinquennalia. 

Mamertinus  delivers  the  Genethliacus  Maximiano. 

292  Co»s Hannibalianus. 

Asclepiodotus. 

Diocletiani  9  :  Maximiani  7.— Constantins  CUorus  and 
Galerius  are  proclaimed  Caesars ;  and  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Roman  world  is  divided  between  tho 
two  August!  and  the  two  Cssars.  Diocletian  had 
the  government  of  the  East,  with  Nicomedia  as  his 
residence:  Maximianus,  Italy  nnd  Africa,  with  Mi- 
lan as  his  residence :  Constantius.  Britain,  Gaul,  and 
Spain,  with  Treves  as  his  residence  :  Galerius,  Illyr- 
icum, and  the  whole  line  of  the  Danube,  with  Sir- 
mium as  his  residence. 

293  COM.  Imp.  Ces.  C.  Valerius  Diocletianus  Aug.  V. 

Imp.  Caes.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximianus  Aug.  IV. 
Diocletiani  10  :  Maximiani  8. — Caraufius  is  slain  by 
Allcctus,  who  assumes  the  purple,  and  maintains 
the  sovereignty  in  Britain  for  three  years.  Varane* 
III.  succeeds  Varanes  II.  as  King  of  Persia,  and  ii 
himself  succeeded  by  Narscs  in  the  course  of  the 
same  year. 

294  COM.  Fl.  Val.  Constantius  Cesar. 

Gal.  Val.  Maximianus  Caesar. 
Diocletiani  11 :  Maximiani  9. 

295  Coss Tuscus. 

Anulinui. 

Dioclcdanl  12  :  Maximiani  10  —  Defeat  of  the  Carpi. 
29G  Con.  Imp.  Cms.  C.  Valerius  Dioclctianus  Aug.  VI. 

Fl.  Val.  Connnntius  Cesar  II. 
Diocletiani  13:  Maximiani  11.— Conttantius  recover* 

Britain. 

Arnobius  published  his  work  Adrersus  Gtnlei. 
297  COM.  Imp.  COM.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Mnximianus  Aug.  V. 

Gal.  Val.  Mnximmni*  Cwsar  II. 
Diocletiani  14:    Miximiani  12.  —  Diocletian   defeat* 
Achlllrus  in  Egypt     Maximianus  defeats  the  Qtiin 
quegcntiani  in  Africa.     Galerius  carries  on  war 
•gainst  the  Persians  unsuccessfully. 
Eumcnim  delivers  the  Panegyricus  Conttantin 
M  COM.  Antrim  Fausttu  (II.). 

Vlrlui  Gallui. 
Diocletiani  15:  Maximiani  13.— Galerius  collects  frcib 


1008 

4.D. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


forces  and  defeat*  the  Persians  in  Armenia.    Norses 
concludes  a  peace  with  the  Romans. 
S99  Cots.  Imp.  CBBS.  C.  Valerius  Diocletianus  Aug.  VII. 
Imp.  Cses.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximianus  Aug.  VI. 
Diocletiani  16  :  Maximiani  14. — Defeat  of  the  Marco- 

manni. 
Eumenius    delivers    his    oration    Pro    Instaurandit 

Scfiolu. 
JOO  Cots.  Fl.  Val.  Constantius  Ctesar  HI. 

Gal.  Val.  Maximianus  Caesar  III. 
Diocletiani  17 :  Maximiani  15. 

301  Cots. Titianus  II. 

Nepotianus. 

Diocletiani  18  :  Maximiani  16. — Hormisdas  II.  suc- 
ceecfs  Karses,  king  of  Persia. 

302  Coss.  Fl.  VaL  Constantius  Caesar  IV. 

Gal.  Val.  Maximianus  Ciesar  IV. 
Diocletiani  19 :   Maximiani  17. — Diocletian  and  Max- 
imianus triumph. 

303  Coss.  Imp.  C»s.  C.  Valerius  Diocletianus  Aug.  VIII. 

Imp.  Cms.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximianus  Aug.  VII. 
Diocletiani  20  :   Maximiani  18.— Persecution  of  the 
Christians.    Diocletian  celebrates  the  Vicennalia  at 
Rome. 

304  Cos*.  Imp.  Cses.  C.  Valerius  Diocletianus  Aug.  IX. 

Imp.  Ca?s.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximianus  Aug.  VIII. 
Diocletiani  21 :  Maximiani  19. — Diocletian  enters  upon 
his  consulship  at  Ravenna  on  January  1st,  and  is  at 
Nicomedia  at  the  close  of  the  year. 

305  Coss.  Fl.  Val.  Constantius  Cajsar  V. 

Gal.  Val.  Maximianus  Caesar  V 

Diocletian  abdicates  at  Nicomedia  on  May  1st,  and 
compels  Maximianus  to  do  the  same.  Constantius 
and  Galerius,  the  Caesars,  are  declared  August! ;  and 
Seterus  and  Maximinus  Daza  are  declared  the 
Caesars. 

CONSTANTIUS  I.  and  GALEKIUS  emperors. 

306  Cost.  Imp.  Cses.  Fl.  Val.  Constantius  Aug.  VL 

Imp.  Caes.  Gal.  Val.  Maximianus  Aug.  VI. 
Suf.  P.  Cornelius  Anulinus. 

Constant!!  2  :  Galerii  2.  —  Death  of  Constant!  <is  at 
York,  in  Britain.  CONSTANTINUS,  who  was  in  Brit- 
ain at  the  time,  assumes  the  title  of  Caesar,  and  is 
acknowledged  as  Caesar  by  Galerius.  SEVEBUS, 
the  Caesar,  was  proclaimed  Augustus  by  Galerius. 
MAXENTIUS,  the  son  of  Maximianus,  is  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  praetorian  troops  at  Rome,  but  his 
authority  is  not  recognized  by  the  two  August!  and 
the  two  Cassars.  The  commencement  of  Constan- 
tino's reign  is  placed  in  this  year,  though  he  did  not 
receive  the  title  of  Augustus  till  A.D.  308. 

CONSTANTINUS  I.  begins  to  reign. 

Vopiscus  publishes  the  life  of  Aurelian. 

307  Coss.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximianus  IX. 

FL  Val.  Constantinus  Caesar. 

Constantini  2 :  Galerii  3. — Severus  is  defeated  and 
slain  by  Maxentius  in  Italy.  Galerius  makes  an  un- 
successful attack  upon  Rome. 

LiciNrcs  is  declared  Augustus  by  Galerius.  Galerius 
confers  the  title  of  gilii  Aufustorum  upon  Constan- 
tino and  Maximinus. 

308  Coss.  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximianus  X. 

Imp.  Cues.  GaL  Val.  Maximianus  Aug.  Vn. 
Constantini  3  :  Galerii  4  :  Licinii  2.  —  Galerius  de- 
clares Constantine  and  Maximinus  August!.  There 
are  thus  four  August! :  1.  Galerius.  2.  Licinius. 
3.  Constantine.  4.  Maximinus,  besides  the  usurper 
Maxentius. 


Wfl 


31] 


312 


313 


31-1 


315 


31G 


317 


318 


3:0 


320 


3-il 


First  year  after  consulship  of  M.  Aur.  Val.  Maximir 

nun  X. 

Imp.  C.  G.  V.  Maximi- 
anus Aug.  VII. 
Constantini  4  :   Galerii  5 :   Licinii  3.  —  Sapor  II.  suo- 

ceeds  Hormisdas  II.  as  King  of  Persia. 
Second  year  after  consulship  of  M.  Aur.  Vnl.  Maxirni- 

anus  X. 
Imp.  C.  G.  V.  Maxim- 

ianus  Aug.  VIL 

Constantini  5  :  Galerii  6 :  I.icinii  4. — Maximianus,  tW 
colleague  of  Diocletian,  is  put  to  death  at  Massiluu 
Euraenii  Panegyricus  Constantino. 
Coss.  Imp.  Cass.  Gal.  Val.  Maximianus  Aug.  VIIL 

(Imp.  Caes.  Val.  Licinianus  Licinins  Aug.) 
Constantini  6 :  Licinii  5. — Edict  to  stop  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians.    Death  of  Galerius.    Liciniu* 
and  Maximinus  divide  the  East  between  them. 
Eumenii  Gratiarum  Actio  Constantino. 
Coss.  Imp.  Cres.  Fl.  Val.  Constantinus  Aug.  II. 

Imp.  Caes.  Val.  Licinianus  Licinius  Aug.  IL 
Constantini  7  :   Licinii  6. — War  of  Constantine  and 
Maxentius.    Constantine  marches  into  Italy.    Max- 
entius is  finally  defeated  at  Saxa  Rubra,  not  fur  from 
the  Cremera,  and  perishes  in  his  flight,  in  the  Tiber, 
Oct.  27.    The  Jndictions  commence  Sept  1st 
lamblichus  flourished. 
Coss.  Imp.  CBBS.  F).  Val.  Constantinus  Aug.  III. 

Imp.  Cses.  Val.  Licinianus  Licinius  Aug.  III. 
Constantini  8  :   Licinii  7. — Constantine  and  Licinius 
meet  at  Milan  ;   Licinius  marries  Constantia,  the 
sister  of  Constantine.    War  between  Licinius  and 
Maximinus  :  the  latter  is  defeated  at  Heraclea  on 
April  30th,  and  dies  a  few  months  afterward  at  Tar- 
sus.    Constantine  and  Licinius  thus  become  the 
sole  Augusti.     Edict  in  favor  of  the  Christians 
Death  of  Diocletian. 
Coss.  C.  Ceionius  Rufius  Volusianus  II. 

Annianus. 

Constantini  9 :  Licinii  8. — War  between  Constantine 
and  Licinius.  Licinius  is  defeated  first  at  Cibalis  in 
Pnnnonia,  andafterwardatAdrianople.  Peace  is  then 
concluded  on  condition  that  Licinius  should  resign 
to  Constantine  Illyricum,  Macedonia,  and  Achaia. 
Coss.  Imp.  Caes.  Fl.  Val.  Constantinus  Aug.  IV. 

Imp.  Caes.  Val.  Licinianus  Licinius  Aug.  IV. 
Constantini  10 :  Licinii  9. 

Cuss. Sabinns. 

Rufinus. 

Constantini  11 :  Licinii  10 

Coss. Gallicanus. 

Bassus. 

Constantini  12 :  Licinii  11. — The  rank  of  Ciesar  is  con- 
ferred upon  Crispus  and  Constantine,  the  sons  of 
the  Emperor  Constantine.  and  upon  Licinius.  the 
son  of  the  Emperor  Licinius. 
Coss.  Imp.  Caes.  Val.  Licinianus  Licinius  Aug.  V. 

Fl.  Jul.  Crispus  Caesar. 
Constantini  13 :  Licinii  12. 
Coss.  Imp.  Cses.  Fl.  Val.  Constantinus  Aug.  V. 

Fl.  VaL  Licinianus  Licinius  Cassar. 
Constantini  14  :  Licinii  13. 
Coss.  Imp.  Caes.  Fl.  Val.  Constantinus  Aug.  VI. 

Fl.  CL  Constantinus  Cajsar. 
Constantini  15:  Licinii  14.— Crispus  defeats  the  Franki 

in  Gaul. 
Coss.  Fl.  Jul.  Crispus  Caesar  II. 

FL  CL  Constantinus  Caesar  11 


Xv. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 

A.D. 


100» 


Constantini  16 :  Lieinii  15. 
Nazarii  Pantgyrious  Constantino. 
232  Coss.  Petrouius  Probianus. 

Aniciua  Julianus. 

Constantini  17 :  Lieinii  16. — Constantine  defeats  the 
Sarmations,  and  pursues  them  across  the  Danube. 

323  Coss.  Acilius  Severus. 

Vettius  Rufinus. 

Constantini  18. — War  between  Constantine  and  Li- 
cinius.  Constantine  defeats  Licinius  near  Adriano- 
ple  on  July  3d,  and  again  at  Chalet-don  on  Septem- 
ber 18th.  Licinius  surrenders  himself  to  Constan- 
tine. Constantius,  the  son  of  Constantine,  is  ap- 
pointed Caesar  November  8th.  Constantine  is  now 
sole  Augustus,  and  his  three  sons,  Crispus,  Con- 
stantine,  and  Constantius,  are  Caesars. 

324  Coss.  Fl.  Jul.  Crispus  Ctesar  III. 

FI.  CI.  Constantinus  Csesar  III. 
Constantini  19.— Licinius  is  put  to  death  by  command 
of  Constantine. 

325  Coss Paullinus. 

•  ......  Juliaiius. 

Constantini  20.— The  Vicennalia  of  Constantine.  The 
Christian  council  of  Nicaea  (Nice)  :  it  is  attended 
by  318  bishops,  and  adopts  the  word  bufovotov. 

326  Coss.  Imp.  Cces.  FL  VaL  Constantinus  Aug.  VII.    ' 

Fl.  Jul.  Constantinus  Caesar. 

Constantini  21. — Constantine  celebrates  the  Vicenna- 
lia at  Rome.  Crispus  and  the  younger  Licinius 
are  put  to  death.  Constantine  leaves  Rome,  and 
never  returns  to  it  again. 

327  Cots. Constantinus. 

Maximus. 

Constantini  22. — Death  of  Fausta.  Constantine  founds 
Helenopolis,  in  honor  of  his  mother  Helena. 

328  Cos* Januarinus. 

Justus. 

Constantini  23. 

Libanius  (ait.  14)  it  at  Antioch. 

329  Coss.  Imp.  Cws.  FL  Val.  Constantinus  Aug.  Vfll. 

Fl.  Cl.  Constantinus  C»aar  IV. 
Constantini  24. 

330  Cost. Gallicanus. 

Symmachus. 

Constantini  25.— Dedication  of  Constantinople,  which 
Covitantine  makes  the  capital  of  his  empire. 

331  Cost   (Aniiiue)  Bbssus. 

Ablavius. 

Onstantini  26.— Birth  of  Julian. 
Ljrtta  of  Hieronymus  (St.  Jerome). 

33S  Cost I'acatianus. 

Ililarianus. 

Constantini  27. — War  with  the  Goth* :  they  are  de- 
feated by  Constantine  Cffisar. 

333  COM.  Fl.  Jul.  Dclmatius  (aftericard  Cesar). 

Zenophilus. 

Conitantini  28.— Constans,  the  ton  of  Constantine,  is 
made  Ca-sar.  Famine  and  pestilence  in  Syria. 

334  COM.  L.  Ranius  Acontiiu  Optatus. 

Auicius  Paullinus. 

Constantini  29.— The  Sarmatiani  receive  settlements 
in  the  empire.    Caloccenu,  a  usurper  in  Cyprus,  is 
•lain  by  Delmutius. 
235  COM.  Julius  ConsUntiut. 

Ceionius  Rufus  Albinut. 

Constantini   30. — The   Triccnnolia   of  Constantine. 
Delmatius  or  Dalmatius,  and  llanniballianus,  the 
nephews  of  the  emperor,  are  made  Casaara.    A 
R4 


fresh  distribution  of  the  provinces  made  aaiottg 
the  five  Caesars. 

Athanasius,  bishop  of  Alexandrea,  is  deposed  by  tha 
council  at  Tyre,  and  goes  into  exile. 

336  Cos*.  Fl.  Popillius  Nepotianus. 

Facundus. 

Constantini  31. — Marriage  of  Constantius. 

337  Coss Felicianus. 

T.  Fabius  Titianus. 

Death  of  Constantine  in  May  :  he  is  baptized  before 
his  death  by  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia.  He  was  at 
the  time  making  preparations  for  war  with  tha 
Persians. 

CONSTANTINUS  II.,  CONSTANTIUS  II.,  and  CONSTANI 
are  declared  Augusti.  The  Ctesars  Delmatius  and 
llanniballianus,  and  the  other  relations  of  the  late 
emperor,  are  put  to  death. 

338  COM Ursus. 

Polemius. 

Constantini  II.,  Constantii  II.,  Constants  2.— Constan- 
tius carries  on  the  war  against  the  Persians.  First 
siege  of  Nisibis  by  the  Persians. 

Athanasius  returns  from  exile. 

339  COM.  Imp.  Cffis.  Fl.  JuL  Constantius  Aug.  IL 

Imp.  CSBS.  Fl.  Jul.  Constans  Aug. 
Constantini  II.,  Constantii  IL,  Constintis  3.— Constau- 
tius  carries  on  the  war  against  the  Persians.    Cow- 
Btantine  is  at  Treves,  and  Constans  at  Sirmium 

340  COM Acindynus. 

L.  Aradius  Val.  Proculus. 

Constantii  IL,  Constantis  4. — War  between  Constan- 
tino II.  and  Constans.  Constantine  II.  is  defeated 
and  slain  :  Constans,  in  consequence,  become*  sjlc 
emperor  of  the  West 

Acacius  succeeds  Eusebius  as  Bishop  of  Caasarea. 

341  COM.  Antonius  Marcellinus. 

Petronius  Probinus. 

Constantii  IL,  Constantis  5. — Constans  carries  or  v*r 
against  the  Franks.  A  law  agaiast  pagan  sacrifice! 
promulgated.  Arian  synod  of  Antioch.  Athanasitu 
is  deposed  by  the  synod  of  Antioch :  he  goes  to 
Rome,  and  is  protected  by  Constans. 

342  COM.  Imp.  Ces.  Fl.  Jul.  Constantius  Aug.  III. 

*     Imp.  Cces.  FL  Jul.  Constans  Aug.  IL 
Constantii  II.,  Constantis  6. — Constans  defeats  th« 
Franks.    Sedition  at  Constantinople. 

343  COM.  M.  Mu-cius  Memmlus  Furius  Placidua. 

(Fl.  PUidius)  Romulus. 

Constantii  IL,  Constantis  7. — Constans,  In  Britain,  car- 
ries on  war  against  the  Picts  and  Scots. 

Firmicus  Mnternus  addresses  his  work  De  Error* 
Profanarum  Rcligionun  to  Conitantius  and  COM- 
stans. 

344  COM Leontius. 

Sallustiuf. 

Constantii  IL,  Constantis  8.— Earthquake  in  Pontu* 

345  COM Anmiitim. 

Albinus. 

Constantii  IL,  Constantia  9.— Earthquakes  In  Greet* 
and  Italy. 

346  COM.  Imp.  CH-S.  Fl.  Jul.  Constantiua  Aug.  IV. 

Imp.  (Vs.  Fl.  Jul.  Constant  Aug.  III. 
Constantii  IL,  Constantia  10.— Second  siege  of  NUibi* 

by  the  Persians. 
Libanius  Ittat  Nicomedia. 

347  COM Ruflnua. 

Eusebius. 

Constantil  IL,  Constantii  11.  — Council  of  Bardie*, 


1010 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


ID. 

which  pronounced  the  Council  of  Nice  to  be  suffi- 
cient 

Athanasius  restored  by  the  Council  of  Sardica. 
Themistius's  oration  irtpl  0iAavO/>uirf'a(. 
348  COM.  Fl.  Philippus. 

FLSalia. 
Constantii  II.,  Constantis  12.— The  Persians  invade 

Mesopotamia :  battle  of  Singara. 
Prudentius  born. 

M9  Coss Limenius. 

Aco  Catulinus. 
Constantii  II.,  Constantis  13. 

Libanius's  Panegyric  upon  Constantius  and  Constans. 
Athanasius  returns  to  Alexandria. 

350  COM. Sergius. 

Nigrinianus. 

Constantii  II.  14. — Death  of  Constans  at  Helena. 

Magnentius  assumes  the  purple  at  Augnstodunum 
(Autun),  in  Gaul,  Nepotianus  at  Rome,  and  Vclra- 
nio  at  Mursa,  in  Pannonia.  Nepotianus  is  slain  in 
28  days  after  his  elevation.  Constantius  marches 
to  the  West,  and  deposes  Vetranio  in  December,  10 
months  after  his  elevation.  Third  siege  of  Nisibis 
by  the  Persians  during  the  absence  of  Constantius 
in  the  West 

351  Coss.  Magnentius  Aug. 

Gaiso. 

Constantii  II.  15. — Constantius  appoints  his  cousin 
Gallus  Caesar,  and  sends  him  to  the  East  to  conduct 
the  war  against  the  Persians.  Magnentius  appoints 
his  brother  Decentius  Caesar.  War  between  Con- 
stantius and  Magnentius.  Constantius  defeats  Mag- 
nentius at  the  battle  of  Mursa.  Julian  abandons 
Christianity. 

352  COM.  Decentius  Caes. 

Paullus. 

Constantii  II.  16. — Constantius  drives  Magnentius  into 
GauL  Revolt  of  the  Jews. 

353  COM.  Imp.  Cses.  FL  Jul.  Constantius  Aug.  Vt. 

Fl.  Jul.  Constantius  Gallus  Caesar  II. 

Constantii  II.  17. — Magnentius  is  defeated  by  Constan- 
tius in  Gaul,  and  puts  an  end  to  his  own  life.  Mar- 
riage of  Constantius  and  Eusebia.  Gallus  acts  with 
cruelty  at  Antioch. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus  in  the  East  with  Ursicinus. 

Libanias  is  at  Antioch. 

354  COM.  Imp.  Cms.  Fl.  Jul.  Constantius  Aug.  VII. 

Fl.  JuL  Constantius  Gallus  Caesar  III. 

Constantii  II.  18. — Constantius  is  in  Gaul  in  the  early 
part  of  the  year,  and  winters  at  Milan.  By  his  or- 
ders Gallus  is  put  to  death  at  Pola,  in  Istria. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus  is  at  Milan. 

Birth  of  Augustine. 

355  COM.  Fl.  Arbitio. 

Fl.  Lollianus. 

Constantii  II.  19. — Silvanus  assumes  the  purple  in 
Gaul,  but  is  slain.  Julian  is  declared  Caesar,  and 
appointed  to  the  command  of  Gaul.  Synod  of  Mi- 
lan, by  which  Athanasius  is  condemned. 

Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and  Basil  of  Caesarea  study  at 
Athens  together. 

356  COM.  Imp.  Caes.  Fl.  Jul.  Constantius  Aug.  VIII. 

FL  Cl.  Julianus  Caesar. 

Constantii  II.  20.— First  campaign  of  Julian  in  Gaul. 
Athanasius  is  expelled  from  Alexandria,  and  retires 

to  the  desert. 

987  COM.  Imp.  Cees.  Fl.  Jul.  Constantius  Aug.  IX 
Fl.  Cl.  Jnlianus  Caesar  II. 


i  Caesar  III. 

ilian  is  proclaimed  Augustus  by 

is.    Constantius  winters  at  Con- 


A.D. 

Constantii  n.  21. — Second  campaign  of  Julian:  jie  de- 
feats the  Alemanni,  and  crosses  the  Rhine.  Con- 
stantius visits  Rome. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus  is  at  Sirmium. 

358  Coss Datiantu. 

Neratius  Cerealis. 

Constantii  II.  22. — Third  campaign  of  Julian :  he  de- 
feats the  Franks,  and  again  crosses  the  Rhine.  Con- 
stantius crosses  the  Danube,  and  carries  on  war 
against  the  Quad!  Earthquake  at  Nicomedia 

Aurelius  Victor  flourished. 

359  Coss.  Fl.  Eusebius. 

Fl.  Hypatius. 

Constantii  II.  23. — Fourth  campaign  of  Julian:  ho 
crosses  the  Rhine  a  third  time,  and  lays  waste  the 
country  of  the  Alemanni :  he  winters  at  Paris.  Sa- 
por invades  Mesopotamia,  and  takes  Amida  after  a 
long  siege.  Synods  of  Ariminum  and  Seleucia. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus  serves  in  the  war  against  Sa- 
por. 

360  COM.  Imp.  Caes.  Fl.  Jul.  Constantius  Aug.  X. 

Fl.  Cl.  Julianus  Caesar  III. 
Constantii  II.  24.— Julian 
the  soldiers  at  Paris, 
stantinople,  and  carries  on  war  in  person  against 
Sapor.  Successes  of  the  Persians,  who  take  Sin- 
gara. Constantius  winters  at  Antioch. 

361  COM.  Fl.  Taurus. 

Fl.  Florentius. 

Preparations  for  war  between  Constantius  and  Julian. 
Constantius  sets  out  for  Europe,  but  dies  on  his 
march  in  Cilicia.  Julian  meantime  had  moved 
down  the  Danube  to  Sirmium,  and  heard  of  the 
death  of  Constantius  before  reaching  Constantinople. 

JULIANUS  emperor. 

Aurelins  Victor  still  alive. 

362  COM.  Cl.  Mamertinus. 

Fl.  Nevitta. 
Juliani  2. — Julian  spends  the  first  part  of  the  year  at 

Constantinople  and  then  sets  out  for  Antioch,  where 

he  winters.    He  favors  the  pagans. 
Julian  wrote  his  Casarts  and  many  of  his  other  works 

in  this  year. 

Libanius  is  patronized  by  Julian. 
Athanasius,  who  had  returned  to  Alexandras,  is  driven 

out  again  by  Julian. 

363  Cos*.  Imp.  Caes.  Fl.  Cl.  Julianus  Aug.  IV. 

Fl.  Sallustius. 

Julian  attempts  to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Jerusalem. 
He  sets  out  from  Antioch  against  the  Persians,  en- 
ters Mesopotamia,  takes  several  towns,  crosses  the 
Tigris,  but  is  obliged  to  retreat  through  want  of 
provisions :  in  his  retreat  he  is  slain. 

JOVIAN  emperor.  He  is  compelled  to  conclude  a  dis- 
graceful peace  with  the  Persians  :  he  winters  at 
Ancyra. 

Athanasius  is  restored  by  Jovian. 

364  Coss.  Imp.  Caes.  Fl.  Jovianus  Aug. 

Fl.  Varronianus  Joviani  Aug.  f.  N.  F 

Jovian  dies  in  February. 

VAI.ENTINIAN  I.  is  proclaimed  emperor  on  February 
6th.  He  associates  his  brother  VAIENS  with  him 
in  the  empire.  Valentinian  undertakes  the  govern- 
ment of  the  West  and  gives  to  Valens  the  East 

Eutropius  concludes  his  history. 

365  COM.  Imp.  Cees.  Fl.  Valentinianus  Aug. 

Imp.  Caes.  Fl.  Valens  Aug. 
Valentinianl  I-,  Valentis  2.  —  Valentinian  sets  out  for 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


1011 


«  • 


Gaul  to  repel  the  Alemanni.     Revolt  of  Procopius 
in  the  East.    War  between  Valens  and  Procopius. 
Libanius  (eet  51)  composes  his  Funeral  Oration  on 
Julian. 

366  Con.  FL  Gratianus  Valentiniani  Aug.  f.  N.  P. 

Dagalaiphus. 

Valentiniani  I.,  Valentis  3. — The  Alemanni  are  defeat- 
ed in  Gaul.    Procopius  is  defeated  and  slain. 
Apollinarius,  the  heretic,  flourished. 

367  Con.  Fl.  Lupicinus. 

FL  Jovinus. 

Valentiniani  I.,  Valentis  4.  —  Valens  carries  on  war 
against  the  Goths.  In  Britain  Theodosius  defeats 
the  Picts  and  Scots.  GRATIANXJS,  the  son  of  Valen- 
tinian,  is  declared  Augustus. 

368  Cost.  Imp.  Caes.  Fl.  Valentinianus  Aug.  IL 

Imp.  Ctes.  FL  Vnlens  Aug.  IL 

Valentiniani  I.,  Valentis  5 :  Gratiani  2.— Second  cam- 
paign of  the  Gothic  war.    The  Alemanni  take  and 
plunder  Moguntiacum.     Valentinian  crosses  the 
Rhine  and  defeats  the  Alemanni. 
309  Cots.  Fl.  Valentinianus  Valentiniani  Aug.  f.  N.  P. 

Victor. 

Valentiniani  I.,  Valentis  6:   Gratiani  3. — Third  cam- 
paign of  the  Gothic  war.    Valentinian  fortifies  the 
Rhine. 
J70  Cost.  Imp.  Cass.  Fl.  Valentinianus  Aug.  III. 

Imp.  Cees.  FL  Valens  Aug.  III. 

Valentiniani  I,  Valentis  7 :  Gratiani  4.— Valens  con- 
cludes a  peace  with  the  Goths.  Irruption  of  the 
Saxons :  they  are  routed  by  Sererus. 

371  Cost.  Imp.  Cees.  FL  Gratianus  Aug.  II. 

Sex.  Anicius  Petronius  Probus. 
Valentiniani  I.,  Valentis  8 :  Gratiani  5.— Valentinian 
passes  the  Rhine. 

372  Cost.  FL  Domitius  Modestns. 

FL  Arintheus. 

Valentiniani  I.,  Valentis  9  :  Gratiani  6.  —  Revolt  of 
Firmus  in  Mauretania. 

373  Cost.  Imp.  Cses.  Fl.  Valentinianus  Aug.  IV. 

Imp.  Cses.  Fl.  Valens  Aug.  IV. 
Valentiniani  I.,  Valentis  10 :  Gratiani  7. — Theodosius 

sent  against  Firmus. 
Death  of  Athanasins  on  May  2d. 
774  Cots.  Imp.  Cies.  Fl.  Gratianus  Aug.  HI. 

C.  Equitius  Valen*. 

Valentiniani  I.,  Valentis  11 :  Gratiani  a— The  Quadi 
and  Sarmatians  invade  Pannonia.    Murder  of  Para, 
king  of  Armenia,  by  order  of  Valens. 
375  Con.  Post  ContultUum  Gratiani  HI. 

EquitiL 

Valentiniani  I.,  Valentis  12:  Gratiani  9.— Valentinian 
goes  to  Carnuntum  and  represses  the  barbarians. 
He  dies  at  Bregctio  November  17th. 
VALENTINIAN  II.,  the  younger  son  of  Valentinian  I., 

is  proclaimed  Augustus. 
Ambrosius  bishop  of  Milan. 
Epiphanius  writes  Iltfi  a'ipietuv. 
T76  COM.  Imp.  CBS.  Fl.  Valens  Aug.  V. 

Imp.  CIPS.  Fl.  Valentimanus  (II.)  Aug. 
Valentis  13  :   Gratiani  10  :  Valentiniani  II.  2.  — Th« 
Huns  expel  the  Goths.    The.  Goths  cross  the  Dan- 
ube, and  are  allowed  by  Valens  to  settle  in  Thrace. 
Theodosius  slain  at  Carthage. 
177  Con.  Imp.  CBJS.  Fl.  Gratianus  Aug.  IV. 

Fl.  Merobaudei. 

Valentis  14  :  Gratiani  11  :  Valentiniani  'I.  3  —The 
GoUiJ  rebel :  war  with  the  Goths. 


378  COM.  Imp.  FL  Valens  Aug.  V. 

Imp.  FL  Valentinianus  (II.)  Aug.  IL 
Valentis  15  :  Gratiani  12  :  Valentiniani  II.  4.— Th« 
Goths  defeat  the  Romans  with  immense  slaughter 
near  Adrianople :  Valens  falls  in  the  battle.  Gra- 
tian  had  previously  defeated  the  Leutienses  Ale- 
manni at  Argentaria,  and  was  advancing  to  the  as- 
sistance of  Valens,  when  he  heard  of  the  death  of 
the  latter. 

Ammianus  MarcclHnvu  concludes  his  history. 
The  Chronicon  of  Hieronymus  ends  at  the  death  of 
Valens. 

379  Co**.  D.  Magnus  Ausonius. 

Q.  Clodius  Hermogenianus  Olybrius. 

Gratiani  13  :  Valentiniani  II.  5 :  Theodosii  I.  1. 

THEODOSIUS  I.  is  proclaimed  Augustus  by  Gratinnus, 
and  placed  over  the  East  Theodosius  defeats  the 
Goths.  The  Lombards  appear.  Artaxerxes  suc- 
ceeds Sapor  II.  as  king  of  the  Persians. 

Ausonius  returns  thanks  to  Gratian,  who  had  appoint- 
ed him  consul  (ad  Gratianum  gratiarum  actio  pro 
consulatu). 

380  Con.  Imp.  Fl.  Gratianus  Aug.  V. 

Imp.  FL  Theodosius  (I.)  Aug. 

Gratiani  14 :  Valentiniani  II.  6 :  Theodosii  I.  2.— The- 
odosius again  defeats  the  Goths.  He  expels  the 
Arians  from  the  churches,  and  is  zealous  for  the 
Catholic  faith. 

Death  of  Basil  of  Csesarea. 

381  Cost.  Fl.  Syagrius. 

FL  Eucherius. 

Gratiani  15 :  Valentiniani  II.  7 :  Theodosii  I.  3. — Death 
of  Athanaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths.  Council  of 
Constantinople. 

Gregory  of  Nazianzus  is  declared  bishop  of  Constan- 
tinople :  be  withdraws  into  retirement,  and  Necta- 
rius  is  chosen  in  his  stead. 
383  COM.  Antonius. 

Afranius  Syagrius. 
Gratiani  16  :  Valentiniani  II.  8  :   Theodosii  I.  4.  — 

Peace  with  the  Goths.    Alaric  begins  to  reign. 
Ausonius  brought  down  his  Fasti  to  the  consuls  of 
this  year. 

383  COM.  Fl.  Merobandes  II. 

FL  Saturninus. 

Valentiniani  II.  9 :  Theodosii  L  5.— A*CAOIU«  U  pro- 
claimed Augustus  by  his  father  Theodosius.  Re- 
volt of  Maximus  in  Britain.  War  between  Gratia- 
nus  and  Maximus  in  Gaul.  Gratianus  U  slain. 
Theodosius  makes  a  peace  with  Maximus,  by  which 
Maximus  is  acknowledged  emperor  of  Spain,  Gaul, 
and  Britain,  and  Valentinian  is  secured  in  the  pos- 
session of  Italy  and  Africa.  Accession  of  Sapor  III., 
king  of  Persia, 

384  Cos*.  Fl.  Rlcomer. 

FL  ( 'li-nrchus. 

Valentiniani  II.  10:  Thoodosii  I.  6.— Birth  of  Hono- 
rius,  the  son  of  Theodosius.  Treaty  with  Persia. 
Symmachus,  prwfect  of  the  city,  addresses  the  em- 
perors, urging  them  to  replace  the  altar  of  Victory 
in  the  senate ;  but  is  opposed  by  Ambrose. 

385  COM.  Imp.  FL  Arcadius  Aug. 

Bauto. 
Valentinimi  II.  11:  Theodosii  I.  7.— Sacrifice*  pro 

hibitcd  in  the  East  by  a  law  of  Theodosius. 
Augustine  U  at  Milan. 

386  COM.  Fl.  Honorius  Theodosii  Aug.  {.  tt.  P. 

Euodius. 


012 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


VHlentininni  II.  12  :  Theodoeil  I.  8.— The  Greothingi 
conquered  on  the  Danube,  and  transplanted  to 
Phrygia. 

Hieronymus  (St  Jerome)  visits  Egypt  and  returns  to 
Bethlehem. 

Chrysostom  a  presbyter. 
187  Cost.  Imp.  Fl.  Valentinianus  (II.)  Aug.  III. 
Eutropius, 

Valentiniani  II.  13:  Theodosii  I.  9.— Sedition  at  Anti- 
och.  Valentinian  is  expelled  from  Italy  by  Max- 
imus.  Theodosius  prepares  for  war  with  Maximus. 

The  orations  of  Libanius  and  Chrysoatom  respecting 
the  riots  at  Antioch. 

388  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (I.)  Aug.  II. 

Cynegius. 

Valentiniani  II.  14  :  Theodosii  I.  10.— War  between 
Theodosius  and  Maximns.  Maximus  is  slain  at  Aqui- 
leia :  his  son  Victor  is  slain  in  Gaul  by  Arbogastes, 
the  general  of  Theodosius.  Theodosius  winters  at 
Milan.  Accession  of  Varanes  IV.,  king  of  Persia. 

389  Coss.  FL  Timasius. 

Fl.  Promotus. 
Valentiniani  II.  15  :   Theodosii  I.  11.  —  Theodosius 

visits  Rome.    He  winters  at  Milan. 
Drepanius  delivers  his  Panegyricus  at  Rome  in  the 

presence  of  Theodosius. 

390  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Valentinianus  (II.)  Aug.  IV. 

Neoterius. 

Valentiniani  II.  16  :   Theodosii  I.  12.  —  Massacre  at 
Thessalonica  by  order  of  Theodosius :  he  is  in  con- 
sequence excluded  from  the  church  at  Milan  by 
Ambrose  for  eight  months.    The  temple  of  Serapis 
at  Alexandren  is  destroyed. 
Death  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus. 
;»91  Coss.  Tatianus. 

Q.  Aurelius  Symmachus. 

Valentiniani  II.  17  :  Theodosii  I.  13. — Theodosius  re- 
turns to  Constantinople. 

392  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Arcadius  Aug.  II. 

Fl.  Rufinus. 
Theodosii  1. 14. — Valentinian  II.  is  slain  by  Arbogastes, 

who  raises  ECGENIUS  to  the  empire  of  the  West. 
Hieronymus  writes  his  work  De  Viris  lllustribus. 

393  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (I.)  Aug.  III. 

Abundantius. 
Theodosii  I.  15. — HONORTUS  is  proclaimed  Augustus 

by  his  father  Theodosius.     Preparations  for  war 

between  Theodosius  and  Eugenius. 
Hieronymus  (St  Jerome)  publishes  his  work  In  Jo 

vianum. 

394  Cos*.  Imp.  Fl.  Arcadius  Aug.  III. 

Imp.  Fl.  Honorius  Aug.  II. 

Theodosii  1. 16. — War  between  Theodosius  and  Eu- 
genius. Victory  of  Theodosius  near  Aquileia :  Eu- 
genius is  slain,  and  Arbogastes  kills  himself  two  days 
after  the  battle. 

395  Coss.  Anicius  Hermogenianus  Olybrius. 

Anicius  Probinus. 

Death  of  Theodosius  at  Milan. 

ARCADU-S  (set.  18)  and  HONORIUS  (set.  11)  emperors  : 
Arcadius  of  the  East,  and  Honorius  of  the  West. 
Honorius  is  committed  to  the  care  of  Stilicho. 
Marriage  of  Arcadius.  Arcadius  is  at  first  governed 
by  Rufinus,  who  is  slain  in  November,  and  then  by 
Eutropius.  Alaric  ravages  Thrace  and  the  north 
of  Greece.  Stilicho  crosses  the  Alps  to  attack  him. 

Claudian,  the  poet,  nourished. 

Socrates,  the  ecclesiastical  historian,  flourished. 


A.T> 

3%  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Arcadius  Aug.  IV. 
Imp.  Fl.  Honorius  Aug.  HI. 

Arcadii  et  Honorii  2. — Alaric  ravages  the  south  of 

Greece.    Stilicho's  second  expedition  against  Alaric. 

Claudian's  De  III.  Consulatu  Honorii  Aug.  and  In 

Rufinum.    Hieronymus  (St.  Jerome)  continues  to 

write. 

397  Coss.  Fl.  Ca?sarius. 

Nonius  Atticus. 
Arcadii  et  Honorii  3.— Revolt  of  Gildo  in  Africa,  nnd 

consequent  scarcity  of  food  at  Rome.     Birth  of 

Flacilla,  (he  daughter  of  Arcadius. 
Symmachus  writes  (Ep.t  iv.,  4)  to  Stilicho. 
Death  of  Ambrose. 
Hieronymus  (St.  Jerome)  continues  to  write. 

398  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Honorius  Aug.  IV. 

Fl.  Eutychianus. 

Arcadii  et  Honorii  4.  —  Marriage  of  Honoiius  with 
Maria,  the  daughter  of  Stilicho.  Defeat  and  death 
of  Gildo. 

Claudian's  De  IV.  Consulatu  Honorii  Aug.,  Epithnla- 
mium  Honorii  Aug.  et  Maria,  De  Bella  Gildonico. 

Chrysostom  succeeds  Nestorius  as  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

399  Cos*.  Eutropius.     Slain  in  office. 

Fl.  Mallius  Theodorus. 

Arcadii  et  Honorii  5. — Birth  of  Pulchcria,  the  second 
daughter  of  Arcndius.  Tribigildus  ravages  Phrygiii. 
Fall  of  Eutropius  in  his  own  consulship :  he  is  first 
banished  to  Cyprus,  and  then  recalled  and  put  to 
death  at  Chalcedon.  Accession  of  Yezdijird  I., 
king  of  Persia. 

Claudian's  In.  Fl.  Mallii  Theodori  consulatum  and  In 
Eutropium. 

400  Coss.  Fl.  Stilicho. 

Aurelianus. 

Arcadii  et  Honorii  6. —  Revolt  of  Gainas  r  he  is  de- 
feated, and  retires  beyond  the  Danube. 
Claudian's  In  Primiim  Consulatum  Fl.  Stilichonii. 
Sulpicius  Severus  flourished. 

401  Coss.  Fl.  Vincentius. 

Fl.  Fravitta. 

Arcadii  et  Honorii  7. — Gainas  is  slain  in  Thrace,  and 
his  head  is  brought  to  Constantinople.  Birth  of 
Theodosins  II.,  the  son  of  Arcadius. 

402  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Arcadius  Aug.  V. 

Imp.  Fl.  Honorius  Aug.  V. 
Arcadii  et  Honorii  8. — Alaric  invades  Italy. 
Hieronymus  writes  Adv.  Rnjinnm,  and  other  works. 

403  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug. 

Fl.  Rumoridus. 
Arcadii  et  Honorii  9.— Battle  of  Pollentia,  and  retreat 

of  Alaric. 

Claudian's  De  Bella  Getieo. 
Prudentins  writes  In  Symmachum. 
Chrysostom  is  banished  by  means  of  Endoxia:  a  tu 

mult  followed,  nnd  he  is  recalled. 

404  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Honorius  Aug.  VI. 

Aristasnetus. 
Arcadii  et  Honorii  10.  —  Ravages  of  the  Isanrian*. 

Death  of  Eudoxin. 

Claudian's  De  VI.  Consulatu  Honorii  Aug. 
Chrysostom  is  banished  »  second  time. 

405  Coss.  Fl.  Stilicho  II. 

Anthemios. 

Arcadii  et  Honorii  11.— The  ravages  of  the  Isaurian* 
continue.  RmJagaisus  invades  Italy,  but  is  defeated 
by  Stilicho. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


1013 


A.D. 


Chryeostom  is  in  exile  at  Cucusus. 
406  Cots.  Imp.  Fl.  Arcadius  Aug.  VI. 
Anicius  Petronius  Probus. 
Arcadii  et  Honorii  12. — The  ravages  of  the  Isaurians 

continue.    The  Vandals  enter  GauL 
Chrysostom  is  in  exile  at  Arabissus. 
Hieronymus  writes  Advcrsus  Vigilantium. 
107  Cost.  Imp.  Fl.  Honorius  Aug.  VII. 

Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  II. 
Arcadii  et  Honorii  13. — The  ravages  of  the  Isaurians 
continue.    Revolt  of  Constantine  in  Britain.    Death 
of  Chrysostom  on  his  way  from  Arabissus  to  Pityus. 

408  Cost.  Anicius  Bassus. 

Fl.  Philippus. 

Honorii  15 :  Theodosii  II.  1. — Death  of  Arcadius  and 
accession  of  THEODOSHJS  II.  (art.  7).  Stilicho  is 
slain  at  Ravenna.  Alaric  invades  Italy  and  besieges 
Rome:  he  retires  on  the  payment  of  a> large  sum 
of  money. 

409  Cots.  Imp.  Fl.  Honorius  Aug.  VIII. 

Imp.  FL  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  HL 
Honorii  15 :  Theodosii  II.  2. — Alaric  besieges  Rome 
a  second  time,  and  by  his  influence  ATTALUS  is 
proclaimed  emperor  in  place  of  Honorius.  Pla- 
cidia,  the  daughter  of  Theodosius  I.,  is  taken  pris- 
oner by  Alaric.  Revolt  of  Gerontius  in  Spain  :  he 
proclaims  Maxim  us  emperor.  The  Vandals  invade 
Spain. 

410  Cost.  Fl.  Varanes. 

(Tertullus). 

Honorii  16:  Theodosii  II.  3. —  Attains  is  deposed. 
Alaric  besieges  Rome  a  third  time,  which  he  takes 
and  plunders.  Death  of  Alaric  near  Rhegium,  on 
his  way  to  Sicily.  He  is  succeeded  by  Ataulphus. 

The  history  of  Zosimus  ends. 

Birth  of  Proclus. 

411  Cot.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  IV.  (without  col- 

league). 

Honorii  17 :  Theodosii  II.  4. — War  between  the  usurp- 
ers Constantine  and  Gerontius.  Expedition  of  Con- 
stantius,  the  general  of  Honorius,  against  Constan- 
tino and  Gerontius.  Death  of  Constantine  and  Ge- 
rontius. 
112  Cou.  Imp.  FL  Honoring  Aug.  IX. 

Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  V. 
Honorii  18 :  Theodosii  II.  5.— Jovinus  is  proclaimed 
emperor  in  Gaul.     Ataulphus  makes  peace  with 
Honorius  and  enters  Gaul. 
Cyril  succeeds  Theophilus  at  Alexandria. 

413  COM.  Lucius. 

Heraclianus.     Slain  in  ofce. 

Honorii  19  :  Theodosii  II.  6.— Jovinus  is  slain  in  Gaul 
by  Ataulphus.  Heraclianus  revolts  in  Africa  and 
invades  Italy,  but  i*  defeated  and  slain 

414  Cot*.  FL  fonatantius. 

Fl.  Constant. 

Honorii  20 :  Theodosii  II.  7.— Marriage  of  Ataulphus 
and  Flacidia,  the  daughter  of  Theodosius  L  At- 
talus  is  again  proclaimed  emperor  by  Ataulphus. 
Ataulphus  passes  into  Spain.  Pulcheria,  the  sister 
of  Theodosius  II.,  is  proclaimed  empress  at  Con- 
stantinople. Persecution  of  the  Christians  in  Persia. 
115  Cots.  Imp.  FL  Honorius  Aug.  X. 

'Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  VL 
Uonorii  21 :  Theodosii  IL  8.— Ataulphus  is  slain  in 

Spain,  and  is  succeeded  by  Wallia. 
Orosius  writes  his  Apologia  contra  Pelagium  ttt  Ar 
I'ftrii  Liber  talc. 


416  Cots.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  VII. 

Junius  Quartus  Palladius. 
Honorii  22:  Theodosii  II.  9.  — Wallia  makes  peace 

with  Honorius,  restores  to  him  his  sister  Placidia, 

and  surrenders  Attalus. 
Pelagius  is  in  Palestine,  where  Hieronymus  (St  J« 

rome)  is  still  alive. 
Rutilius  Numatianus  writes  his  ftinerarium. 

417  Cost.  Imp.  Fl.  Honorius  Aug.  XI. 

FL  Constantius  II. 

Honorii  23 :  Theodosii  II.  10.— Honorius,  who  has  no 
children,  gives  his  sister  Placidia  in  marriage  to 
Constantius.  War  of  the  Goths  in  Spain. 

Orosius  ends  his  history. 

418  Cosa.  Imp.  FL  Honorius  Aug.  XII. 

Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  VIII. 
Honorii  24:  Theodosii  II.   11 — The  Goths  subduo 
Spain,  and  return  to  Gaul :  death  of  Wallia,  who 
is  succeeded  by  Theodoric  I.    Aquiunia  is  ceded 
to  the  Goths,  whose  king  resides  at  Tolosa. 

419  Cuss.  Monaxius. 

Plintas. 

Honorii  25  :- Theodosii  II.  12.— Birth  of  Valentinian 
III.,  the  son  of  Constantius  and  Placidia.  War  be- 
tween the  Suevi  and  Vandals  in  Spain. 

420  Cost.  Imp.  FL  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  IX. 

Fl.  Constantius  III. 

Honorii  26:  Theodosii  II.  13. — Accession  of  Varanes 
V,  king  of  Persia.  Persecution  of  the  Christiana 
in  Persia. 

421  COM.  Eustathius. 

Agricola. 

Honorii  27 :  Theodosii  II.  14. — Constantius  is  deelar 
ed  Augustus,  but  dies  at  the  end  of  seven  months 
Theodosius  marries  Eudocia  (originally  named 
Athenais).  War  with  the  Persians. 

422  COM.  Imp.  Fl.  Honorius  Aug.  XIIL 

Imp.  FL  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  X. 
Honorii  28 :  Theodosii  II.  15.— Birth  of  Eudoxia,  the 
daughter  of  Theodosius  and  Eudocia.    Peace  con- 
cluded* with  the  Persians. 

423  COM.  Asclepiodotus. 

FL  Avitus  Marininnus. 

Honorii  29 :  Theodosii  II.  16.— Death  of  Honorius  iu 
August. 

424  COM.  Castlnus. 

Victor. 

Theodosii  II,  17. — Valentinian,  the  son  of  Constan 
tius  and  Placidia,  is  appointed  Cesar  by  Tbeodo 
sius  at  Thessalonica.  Joannes  immediately  as- 
sumcs  the  purple  at  Ravenna. 

425  COM.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  XI. 

FL  Placidius  Valcntinianus  Ciesar. 

Theodosii  II.  18 :  Vulentiniani  III.  1. —  VALENTIN-IAN 
III.  is  declared  Augustus,  and  placed  over  the  West 
Defeat  and  death  of  the  usurper  Joannes.  Aetiiu 
attacks  the  Goths  in  GauL 

Philostorgius  concludes  his  history. 

426  COM.  Imp.  FL  Thcodosius  (II.)  Aug.  XII. 

Imp.  FL  riacldiu*  ValentinUnu*  (III.)  Aug.  II. 
Theodosii  II.  19  :  ValcnOniani  III.  •>. 
Proclus  studies  at  Alexandria. 

427  CMS.  Hicrius. 

Ardaburius. 

TheodosU  II.  20 ;  Valcntiniani  (II.  3.— Revolt  of  Bool 
faclus  In  Africa. 

428  COM.  FL  Felix. 

Taurus. 


1014 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF 


Theododi  II.  21 ;  Valentmiani  III.  4.— Aetius  carries 
on  war  in  Gaul  against  the  Franks.  Death  of  Gun- 
deric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  and  accession  of  Gen- 
seric. 

Nestorius,  the  heretic,  appointed  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. 
429  Cost.  Florcntius. 
Dionysius. 

Theodosii  IL  22 :  Valentiniani  III.  5.— The  Vandals 
cross  over  into  Africa  under  their  king  Genseric : 
they  were  called  into  Africa  by  Bonifacius. 
t30  Cots.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  XIII. 

Imp.  Fl.  Placidius  Valentinianus  (III.)  Aug.  HI. 
Theodosii  IL  23:  Valentiniani  HI.  6.— Bonifacius  is 
reconciled  with  Placidia.    War  of  Bonifacius  with 
the  Vandals.    Siege  of  Hippo. 
Death  of  Augustine  (set  75). 
tU  COM.  Bassus. 

FL  Antiocboa. 

Theodosii  II.  24:  Valentiniani  III.  7.  — Capture  of 
Hippo.    Defeat  of  Bonifacius,  who  leaves  Africa. 
The  Vandals  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  Africa. 
Council  of  Ephesus. 
Nestorius  is  deposed  at  the  council  of  Ephesus. 

432  Cots.  Aetius. 

Valerius. 

Theodosii  II.  25:  Valentiniani  III.  8.— War  between 
Bonifacius  and  Aetius.  Death  of  Bonifacius. 

433  Cots.  Imp.  FL  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  XIV. 

Fetronius  Maximus. 
Theodosii  II.  26 :  Valentiniani  IH.  9. 

434  Cost.  Ariovindus. 

Aspar. 

Theodosii  II.  27 :  Valentiniani  III.  10.— Attila  and  his 
brother  Bleda  become  kings  of  the  Huns.  Honoria 
(set  16),  the  sister  of  Valentinian,  is  banished  from 
Constantinople  on  account  of  incontinency :  she  is 
said,  in  consequence,  to  have  written  to  Attila  to 
offer  herself  as  his  wife,  and  to  invite  him  to  invade 
the  empire. 

Vincentius  Lirinensis  writes  Adversut  Hacreticos. 

435  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  XV. 

fmp.  Fl.  Placid.  Valentinianus  (III.)  Aug.  IV. 
Theodosii  II.  28 :  Valentiniani  IIL  11.— Peace  with 
Genseric.    Aetius  defeats  the  Burgundians  in  Gaul. 

436  Coss.  Fl.  Anthemius  Isidorus. 

Senator. 

Theodosii  II.  29 :  Valentiniani  IH.  12.— War  with  the 
Burgundiana  and  the  Goths  in  GauL  Theodcric, 
king  of  the  Goths,  lays  siege  to  Narbo. 

437  Coss.  Aetius  II. 

Sigisbuldus. 

Theodosii  H.  30:  Valentiniani  III.  13.— The  war  with 
the  Burgundians  and  Goths  continues.  Aetius  de- 
feats the  Burgundians,  and  raises  the  siege  of  Nar- 
bo. Genseric  persecutes  the  Catholics  in  Africa. 
Valentinian  comes  to  Constantinople,  and  marries 
Eudoxia,  the  daughter  of  Theodosius. 

Proclus  in  Athens. 

438  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  XVI. 

Anicius  Acilius  Glabrio  Faustus. 
Theodosii  II.  31 :  Valentiniani  IH.  14.— The  war  with 
the  Goths  continues.    The  Codex  Theodosianus  is 
published. 

439  Cost.  Imp.  FL  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  XVII. 

Festus. 

Theodosii  II.  32 :  Valentiniani  III.  15.— Theodoric, 
who  is  besieged  at  Tolosa,  sallies  forth  and  defeats 


Litorius.  the  Roman  general.    Peace  is  made  witfc 
the  Goths.    Carthage  is  taken  by  Genseric. 
Nestorius  is  still  living  in  exile. 

440  Cots.  Imp.  FL  Placid.  Valentinianus  (III.)  Aug.  V. 

Anatolius. 
Theodosii  II.  33:  Valentiniani  III.  16.— Genseric  in 

vades  Sicily. 

Leo  is  made  Bishop  of  Rome. 
Salvianus  publishes  his  work  De  Gubeniatione  Vtt. 

441  Cot,  Cyrus  (without  colleague). 

Theodosii  II.  34  :  Valentiniani  HI.  17.— War  with  thu 
Vandals.  The  Huns,  under  Attila,  pass  the  Danub* 
and  lay  waste  Illyricum. 

442  Coss.  Eudoxius. 

FL  Dioacorus. 

Theodosii  II.  35:  Valentiniani  III.  18 — The  Huns  con 
tinue  their  ravages  in  Illyricum  and  Thrace. 

443  Coss.  .Petronius  Maximus  II. 

Paternus  s.  Paterius. 
Theodosii  II.  36:  Valentiniani  HI.  19. 

444  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Theodosius  (II.)  Aug.  XVIII 

Albinus. 

Theodosii  II.  37 :  Valentiniani  III.  20.— Endocia  re- 
tires to  Jerusalem. 

445  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Placid.  Valentinianus  (III.)  Aug.  VI. 

Nonius  s.  Nomus. 
Theodosii  II.  38 :  Valentiniani  III.  21. 

446  Coss.  Aetius  III. 

Q.  Aurelius  Symmachus. 

Theodosii  II.  39 :  Valentiniani  III.  22.— In  Spain,  th« 
Vandals  defeat  Vitus,  the  Roman  general,  and  lay 
waste  the  Roman  dominions.  The  Britons  beg  as- 
sistance of  Aetius  to  defend  them  against  the  PicU 
and  Scots,  but  it  is  refused  them. 

447  Coss.  Callepiut  ».  Alypius. 

Ardaburius. 

Theodosius  II.  40 :  Valentiniani  HI.  23.— Attila  crosses 
the  Danube,  and  lays  waste  the  provinces  of  the 
Eastern  empire  in  Europe :  he  penetrates  as  far  as 
Thermopylse.  Arrival  of  the  Saxons  in  Britain. 

448  Coss.  Ilufius  Pratextatus  Postumianus. 

Fl.  Zeno. 

Theodosii  II.  41 :  Valentiniani  III.  24.— Embassies  to 
and  from  Attila.  Rechiarius,  the  king  of  the  Suevi, 
ravages  the  Roman  dominions  in  Spain. 

Priscus,  the  Byzantine  writer,  accompanies  the  em- 
bassy to  Attila. 

449  Coss.  Protogenes. 

As  terras. 

Theodosii  II.  42 :  Valentiniani  III.  25.— A  new  embas- 
sy is  sent  to  Constantinople.  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople, which  condemns  Eutyches.  Council  of 
Ephesus,  which  condemns  Flavianns. 

450  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Placid.  Valentinianus  (HI.)  Aug.  VIL 

Gennadins  Avienus. 

Valentiniani  III.  26:  Marciani  1. — Death  of  Theodo- 
sius, who  left  no  children. 

MAKCIAN  is  declared  emperor  of  the  East :  he  marries 
Pulcheria.  Attila  threatens  both  the  Eastern  and 
Western  empires. 

451  Coss.  Imp.  FL  Marcianus  Aug. 

Adelphius. 

Valentiniani  III.  27 :  Marciani  2.— Attila  invades  Gaul 
He  is  defeated  at  Chalons  by  ABtius  and  Theodorie, 
the  king  of  the  Goths.  Theodoric  falls  in  the  battle, 
and  is  succeeded  by  his  son  Torismond.  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  at  which  Marcian  was  present 

452  Coss.  Asporaciue. 


ROMAN  HISTORY. 


1015 


Fl.  Ilerculanus. 

Valentiniani  III.  28:  Marciani  3. — A  ttila  invades  Italy, 
and  takes  Aquileia  after  a  siege  of  three  months  : 
after  ravaging  the  whole  of  Lorabardy,  he  recross- 
es  the  Alps.  Death  of  Torismond,  and  accession 
of  Theodoric  II. 

Leo,  bishop  of  Rome,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Attila. 
Jj3  Cots.  Vincomalus. 

Opilio. 
Valentiniani  III.  29:  Marciani  4.— Death  of  A  ttila  and 

dispersion  of  his  army.    Death  of  Pulcheria. 
rj4  Cast.  Aetius. 

Studius. 

Valentiniani  III.  30 :  Marciani  5. — Aetius  is  slain  by 
Valentinian. 

455  Cos*.  Imp.  Fl.  Placid.  Valentinianus  (III.)  Aug.  VIII. 

Procopius  Anthemius  (afterward  Imp.  Aug.). 
Marciani  6. — Valentinian  is  slain  in  March  by  Petro- 

nius  Maximns,  whose  wife  he  had  violated. 
MAXIMUS  is  proclaimed  emperor  of  the  West,  but 

is  slain  in  July,  when  Genseric  was  approaching 

Rome. 

Genseric  takes  and  plunders  Rome. 
AVITUS  is  proclaimed  in  Gaul  emperor  of  the  West, 

in  July,  through  the  means  of  Theodoric  II.,  king 

of  the  Goths. 
Leo  intercedes  with  Genseric. 

456  Coss.  Varanes. 

Joannes. 

Marciani  7. — Theodoric  invades  Spain,  conquers  the 
Suevi,  and  kills  their  king  Rechiarias.  Ricimer, 
the  commander  of  Avitus,  gains  a  naval  victory 
over  Genseric.  Avitus  is  deposed  by  means  of  Ri- 
cimer. 

Sidonius  Apollinaris,  the  son-in-law  of  Avitus,  writes 
his  Panegyrical  Avito. 

457  Cos*.  Fl.  Constantinus. 

Rufus. 

Leonis  1  :  Majoriani  1.— Death  of  Mercian  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year. 

LEO  I.,  emperor  of  the  East,  is  raised  to  the  empire 
by  Aspar. 

MAJOBIAN,  emperor  of  the  West,  is  raised  to  the  em- 
pire by  Ricimer. 

458  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Leo  (I.)  Aug. 

Imp.  Jul.  Majorianus  Aug. 

Leonis  2 :  Majoriani  2.— The  Vandals  land  in  Africa 
and  are  defeated.  Naval  preparations  of  Majorian 
against  the  Vandals.  Majorian  crosses  the  Alps  in 
the  winter,  in  order  to  settle  the  affairs  of  Gaul  be- 
fore invading  Africa.  Earthquake  at  Antioch.  Ac- 
cession of  Firoze  or  Peroses  as  a  king  of  Persia. 

Sidonius  Apollinaris  addresses  his  Panegyrical  Majo- 
riano. 

459  Con.  Patricias. 

Fl.  Ricimer. 

Leonis  3 :  Majoriani  3.— Majorian  defeats  Theodoric 
II.,  king  of  the  Goths ;  peace  is  concluded  between 
Majorian  and  Theodoric. 
480  Con.  Magnus. 

Apollonius. 

Leonis  4  :  Majoriani  4. — Majorian  marches  into  Spain, 
intending  to  pass  over  into  Africa,  but  his  fleet  is 
completely  destroyed  by  the  Vandals  at  Carthage- 
na.    Majorian  concludes  a  treaty  with  Genseric ; 
he  returns  to  Gaul,  and  winters  there. 
401  Cos*.  Sererinns. 
Dagalaiphus. 


Leonis  5:  Majoriani  5.— Majorian  returns  to  Italy 
where  he  is  deposed  and  put  to  death  by  order  ot 
Ricimer,  who  raises  Libius  Severus  to  the  Rinpire 

SEVERUS  emperor  of  the  West 

462  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Leo  (I.)  Aug.  1L 

Imp.  Lib.  Severus  Aug. 

Leonis  6 :  Severi  2. — Genseric  renews  the  war,  ana 
ravages  Italy.  Theodoric  IL  renews  the  war  in 
Gaul,  and  obtains  possession  of  Narbo. 

463  Cots.  Fl.  Caecina  Basilius. 

Vivianus. 

Leonis  7 :  Severi  3. — Theodoric  II.  attempts  to  ob- 
tain possession  of  the  whole  of  the  Roman  domin- 
ion in  Gaul,  but  is  defeated  by  ^Egidius.  Theodoric 
rules  over  the  greater  part  of  Spain. 

464  Coss.  Rusticns. 

Fl.  Anicius  Olybrius. 
Leonis  8 :  Severi  4.— Death  of  .flSgidius. 

465  Coss.  Fl.  Basiliscus. 

Herminericus  s.  Arminericus. 
Leonis  9. — Death  of  Severus.    No  emperor  of  the 
West  is  appointed  for  this  and  the  following  year : 
Ricimer  keeps  the  power  in  his  own  hands. 

466  Cos*.  Imp.  Fl.  Leo  (I.)  Aug.  HL 

(Tatianus.) 

Leonis  10.— Theodoric  II.  is  slain  by  his  brother  Eu- 
ric,  who  succeeds  him. 

467  COM.  Pusteus. 

Joannes. 
Leonis  11 :  Anthemii  1. — Ricimer  applies  to  Leo  to 

appoint  an  emperor  of  the  West:   Leo  appoints 

Procopius  Anthemius. 
ANTHEMIUS  emperor  of  the  West     He  gives  his 

daughter  in  marriage  to  Ricimer. 
Sidonius  Apollinaris  comes  to  Rome. 

468  Cos.  Imp.  Proc.  Anthemius   Aug.  II.   (.without   col- 

league). 

Leonis  12:  Anthemii  2. — War  with  Genseric.  Tha 
Roman  forces  land  in  Africa,  but  the  expedition 
fails  through  the  misconduct  of  Basiliscus. 

Sidonius  Apollinaris  writes  his  Panegyricu*  Anthenia 
bis  Cbnsuli. 

469  Cos*.  FL  Marcianus. 

Fl.  Zeno  (afterward  Imp.  Gees.  Aug.). 
Leonis  13  :   Anthemii  3. — Zcno,  the  Isaurian,  after- 
ward the  emperor,  marries  Ariadne,  the  daughter 
of  Leo.    This  excites  tho  jealousy  of  the  powerful 
minister  Aspar. 

470  Coss.  Jordanes. 

Severus. 

Leonis  14 :  Anthemii  4.— Ettric,  king  of  the  Visigoths, 
takes  Arelatc  and  Massilia,  and  defeats  tho  Britons 
who  had  come  to  tho  assistance  of  tho  provincials 

471  Coss.  Imp.  Fl.  Leo  (I.)  Aug.  IV. 

Anicius  Probianus. 

Leonis  15 :  Anthemii  5.— Aspar  Is  slain  by  order  of 
Leo. 

472  COM.  Festus. 

Marcianus. 

Leonis  16.— War  between  Ricimer  and  Anthemius. 
Ricimer  appoints  Anicius  OLVBHIUS  emperor,  and 
lays  siege  to  Rome,  which  he  takes  by  storm  in 
July :  Authcmius  perishes  In  the  assault  Both  Ric- 
imer and  Olybrius  die  later  in  tho  year. 

473  Cos.  Imp.  Leo  (I.)  Aug.  V.  (vitkout  coll»»gut). 
Leonis  17.— Loo  associates  with  him  in  the  cmpiro 

his  grandson  Leo.    OLTCXUVS  is  proclaimed  en 
peror  in  the  West 


1016 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  OF  ROMAN  HISTORY 


474  Cot.  Imp.  Leo  (II.)  Aug.  (without  eolleofw). 

Death  of  Leo  I.,  and  accession  of  LEO  II.  The  latter 
associates  his  father  with  him  in  the  empire.  Leo 
II.  dies  toward  the  end  of  the  year,  and  is  succeed- 
ed by  ZEXO.  Glycerius  is  deposed,  and  JULIUS 
NEPOS  appointed  emperor  of  the  West. 

475  Cot.  Imp.  Zeno  Aug.  II.  (without  colleague). 
Zenonis  2.— Julius  Nepos  is  deposed  by  Orestes,  who 


A.D. 

makes  his  own  son  ROMULUS  AUGUSTULUS  em- 
peror of  the  West. 
476  Cost.  Fl.  Basiliscus  II. 

Armatus. 

Zenonis  3. — The  barbarians  invade  Italy  under  Odo- 
acer.  Orestes  is  defeated  and  slain.  Romulus  Au- 
gustulus  is  deposed.  Odoacer  is  acknowledged  as 
King  of  Italy.  END  op  THK  WESTERN  KMPIBK. 


The  preceding  Chronological  Tables  have  been  drawn  up  chiefly  from  the  Faiti  Hellenici  and  Fasti  Romani  of  Mr 
Clinton,  from  the  Gricchische  and  RSmische  Zeittafeln  by  Fischer  and  Soetbeer,  and  from  the  Annalet  Picferum  Rfg- 
HOTUM  et  Populorum  by  Zumpt. 


PARALLEL    YEARS. 


u.c. 

or.. 

B.C. 

u.c.|  or- 

B.C. 

U.C. 

OL. 

B.C. 

u.c. 

or- 

B.C. 

U.C 

OL. 

B.C. 

U.C 

OL. 

B.C. 

U.C 

OL. 

l.l 

689 

es 

4 

602 

152 

3 

515 

239 

2 

428 

326 

88.1 

341 

413 

4 

2ft 

500 

'j 

2 

688 

66 

23.1 

601 

153 

4 

514 

240 

3 

427 

327 

2 

340 

414 

110.1 

501 

4 

3 

687 

67 

2 

600 

154 

45.1 

513 

241 

4 

426 

328 

3 

339 

415 

2 

25i 

502 

132.  1 

4 

686 

68 

3 

599 

155 

2 

512 

242 

67.1 

425 

329 

4 

338 

416 

3 

251 

503 

2 

2.1 

685 

69 

4 

598 

156 

3 

511 

243 

2 

424 

330 

89.1 

337 

417 

4 

250 

504 

3 

2 

684 

70 

24.1 

597 

157 

4 

510 

244 

3 

433 

331 

2 

336 

418 

111.1 

249 

505 

4 

3 

683 

71 

2 

506 

158 

46.1 

509 

245 

4 

422 

332 

3 

335 

419 

o 

248 

506 

133.1 

4 

682 

72 

3 

595 

159 

2 

508 

24t> 

68.1 

421 

a-M 

4 

334 

420 

3 

247 

507 

o 

3.1 

681 

73 

4 

594 

160 

3 

507 

247 

2 

420 

334 

90.1 

333 

421 

4 

246 

508 

3 

2 

680 

74 

25.1 

593 

161 

4 

506 

248 

3 

419 

335 

o 

332 

422 

112.1 

245 

509 

4 

3 

679 

75 

2 

592 

162 

47.1 

505 

249         4 

418 

336 

3 

331 

42J 

2 

244 

510 

134.1 

4 

678 

76 

3 

591 

163 

2 

504 

250 

69.1 

417 

337 

4 

330 

424 

3 

243 

511 

2 

4.1 

677 

77 

4 

590 

164 

3 

503 

251 

2 

416 

338 

91.1 

329 

425 

4 

245 

512 

3 

2 

676 

78 

26.1 

589 

165 

4 

502 

252J        3 

415 

339 

2 

328 

426 

113.1 

241 

513 

t 

3 

675 

79 

2 

588 

166 

48.1 

501 

253         4 

414 

340 

3 

327 

427 

o 

240 

514 

135.  1 

4 

674 

80 

3 

587 

167 

2 

500 

254    70.1 

413 

341 

4 

326 

428 

3 

239 

515 

2 

5.1 

673 

81 

4 

586 

168 

3 

499 

255         2 

412 

342 

92.  1 

325 

429 

4 

238 

516 

3 

2 

672 

82 

27.1 

585 

169 

4 

498 

256]        3 

411 

343 

2 

324 

430 

114.1 

237 

517 

4 

3 

671 

83 

2 

584 

170 

49.1 

497 

257 

4 

410 

344 

3 

383 

431 

2 

236 

518 

136.1 

4 

670 

84 

3 

583 

171 

2 

496 

258 

71.1 

409 

345 

4 

322 

•  432 

3 

235 

519 

6.1 

669 

85 

4 

582 

172 

3 

495 

259 

2 

408 

346 

93.1 

321 

433 

4 

234 

520 

3 

2 

668 

86 

28.1 

581 

173 

4 

494 

260         3 

407 

347 

2 

320 

434 

115.1 

253 

551 

4 

3 

667 

87 

2 

580 

174 

50.1 

493 

261         4 

406 

348 

3 

319 

435 

2 

232 

522 

137.1 

1 

4 

666 

88 

3 

579 

175 

2 

492 

262   72.1 

405 

349 

4 

318 

436 

3 

231 

523 

2 

2 

7.1 

665 

89 

4 

578 

176 

3 

491 

263 

2 

404 

350 

94.1 

317 

437 

4 

230 

524 

3 

3 

2 

664 

90 

29.1 

577 

177 

4 

490 

264 

3 

403 

351 

o 

316 

438 

116.1 

229 

525 

4 

4 

3 

663 

91 

2 

576 

178 

51.1 

489 

265 

4 

402 

352 

3 

315 

439 

2 

23g 

5-26 

138.1 

5 

4 

662 

92 

3 

575 

179 

2 

488 

266    73.  1 

401 

353 

4 

314 

440 

3 

227 

5?7 

2 

6 

8.1 

661 

93 

4 

574 

180 

3 

487 

267         2 

400 

354 

95.1 

313 

441 

4 

226 

528 

3 

7 

2 

660 

94 

30.1 

573 

181 

4 

486 

268         3 

399 

355 

2 

312 

442 

117.1 

225 

52!i 

4 

8 

3 

659 

95 

2 

572 

182 

52.1 

485 

269|        4 

398 

356 

3 

311 

443 

2 

224 

530 

139.1 

9 

4 

658 

96 

3 

571 

183 

2 

484 

270   74.1 

397 

357 

4 

310 

444 

3 

223 

531 

o 

10 

9.1 

i;.-,7 

97 

4 

570 

184 

3 

483 

271         2 

396 

358 

96.1 

309 

445 

4 

O.M 

532 

3 

11 

2 

656 

98 

31.1 

569 

185 

4 

482 

272         3 

395 

359 

2 

308 

446 

118.1 

221 

533 

4 

12 

3 

655 

99 

2 

568 

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4 

5 

749 

4 

87 

840 

3 

179 

932 

3 

271 

1024 

3 

363 

1116 

3 

455 

1208 

3 

658 

171.1 

4 

750 

194.1 

88 

841 

4 

180 

933 

4 

272 

1025 

4 

364 

1117 

4 

456 

1209 

4 

659 

2 

3 

751 

2 

89 

842 

217.1 

181 

934 

240.1 

273 

1026 

263.1 

365 

1118 

286.1 

457 

1210 

309.1 

660 

3 

2 

752 

3 

90 

843 

g 

182 

935 

2 

274 

1027 

2 

366 

1119 

2 

458 

1211 

2 

661 

4 

1 

753 

4 

91 

844 

3 

183 

936 

3 

275 

1028 

3 

367 

1120 

3 

459 

1212 

3 

662 

172.1 

A.D. 

92 

845 

4 

184 

937 

4 

276 

1029 

4 

368 

1121 

4 

460 

1213 

4 

663|    2 

1 

754 

195.1 

93 

846 

218.1 

185 

938 

241.1 

277 

1030 

264.1 

369 

1122 

287.1 

461 

1214 

310.1 

6641    3 

2 

755 

2 

94 

847 

2 

186 

939 

2 

278 

1031 

2 

370 

1123 

2 

462 

1215 

2 

665 

4 

3 

756 

3 

95 

848 

3 

187 

940 

3 

279 

1032 

3 

371 

1124 

3 

463 

1216 

3 

666  173.  1 

4 

757 

4 

96 

849 

4 

188 

941 

4 

280 

1033 

4 

372 

1125 

4 

464 

1217 

4 

667 

2 

5 

758 

196.1 

97 

850 

219.1 

189 

942 

242.1 

281 

1034 

265.1 

373 

1126 

288.1 

465 

1218 

311.1 

668 

3 

6 

759 

2 

98 

651 

2 

190 

943 

2 

282 

1035 

2 

374 

1127 

2 

466 

1219 

2 

669 

4 

7 

760 

3 

99 

852 

3 

191 

944 

3 

2831036 

3 

375 

1128 

3 

467 

220 

3 

670 

174.1 

8 

761 

4 

100 

853 

4 

192 

945 

4 

284 

1037 

4 

376 

1129 

4 

468 

1221 

4 

671 

2 

9 

762 

197.1 

101 

854 

220.1 

193 

946 

243.1 

285 

1038 

266.1 

3771130 

289.1 

469 

1222 

312.  1 

672 

3 

10 

763 

'  2 

102 

855 

2 

194 

947 

2 

286 

1039 

2 

378 

1131 

2 

470 

223 

2 

673 

4 

11 

764 

3 

103 

856 

3 

195 

948 

3 

287 

1040 

3 

379 

1132 

3 

471 

224 

3 

674 

175.1 

12 

765 

4 

104 

857 

4 

196 

949 

4 

288 

1041 

4 

380 

1133 

4 

472 

225 

4 

675 

2 

13 

766 

198.1 

105 

858 

221.1 

197 

950 

244.1 

289 

1042 

267.1 

381 

1134 

290.1 

473 

226 

313.1 

676 

3 

14 

767 

2 

106 

859 

2 

198 

951 

2 

290 

1043 

2 

382 

1135 

2 

474 

227 

2 

677 

4 

15 

768 

3 

107 

860 

3 

199 

952 

3 

291 

1044 

3 

383 

1136 

3 

475 

228 

3 

678 

176.1 

16 

769 

4 

108 

861 

1 

200 

953 

4 

292 

1045 

4 

384 

1137 

4 

476 

229 

4 

FROM  B.C.  496  TO  B.C.  292. 


OU    B.C. 

OL.    B.C. 

71    496    Hipparchua. 
495    Philippug. 

426    Euthynus. 
425    Stratocles. 

494     Pythocrjtug. 

89    424    Isarchus. 

493    Themiatocleg. 

423    Amynias. 

72    492    Diognetus. 

422    Alcteus. 

491    Hybrilides. 

421     Aristion. 

490     Phfenippus. 

90    420    Astyphilug. 

469    Aristides. 

419    Archiag. 

73    488     Anchiscs. 

418    Antiphon. 

487        

417    Euphemug. 

486        

91    416    Arimnestug. 

485    Philocrates. 

415    Cbabriag. 

74    484     Leostratus. 

414    Pigander. 

483    Nicodemus. 

413    Cleocritug. 

482    Themiatocleg  ? 

92    412    Calliag. 

481     Cebriat 

411    Theopompug. 

75    480    Calliadeg. 

410    Glaucippus. 

479    Xanthippug. 

409    Diocleg. 

478    Timosthenea. 

93    408    Euctemon. 

477    Adimantug. 

407    Antigencs. 

76    476    Phffidon. 

406    Calliag. 

475    Dromoclidea. 

405    Alexiag. 

474    Acestoridea. 

94    404    (Pythodorug). 

473    Menon. 

403    Euclideg. 

77    472    Chareg. 

402    Micon. 

471     1'raxiergus. 

401     Xemirietus. 

470    Demotion. 

95    400    Lacbeg. 

469     Apsepbion. 

399    Arigtocrateg. 

78    468    Theagenidea. 

398    Ithycleg. 

467     Lysistratus. 

397    Suniadeg. 

466     I.ysanias. 

96    396    Pbormion. 

465    Lysitheug. 

395    Diophantug. 

79    464    Archidemidea. 

394     Eubulidcg. 

463    Tlepolemua. 

393    Demostratua. 

462    Conon. 

97    392    PhUocleg. 

461    Evippug. 

391    Nicoteleg. 

80    460    Plirnsiclides. 

390    Demostratua. 

459    PhUocleg. 

389    Antipater. 

458    Bion. 

98    388    Pyrrbion. 

457     Mnesithideg. 

387    Theodotua. 

81    456    Calliag. 

386    Mygtichideg. 

455     Sosistratug. 

385    Dexitlieag. 

454     Arts  ton. 

99    384    Diotrepheg. 

453    Lyeicratcs. 

383    Phanostratug. 

82    452    Cheerepharies. 

382    Evander. 

451     Antidotug. 

381    Detnophilug. 

450     Eutliydemug. 

100    380    Pytheag. 

449     Pedicug. 

379    Nicon. 

83    448    Philigcug. 

378    Nauginicua. 

447    Timarthides. 

377    Calliag. 

446    Callimachug. 

101    376    Charigander. 

445    Lysimachidcg. 

375     Hippodnmas. 

84     444     Praxiteles. 

374    Socratidca. 

443    Lyianiag. 

373    Astcus. 

442    Dtphilua. 

102    372    Alciathcnca. 

441    Ti  modes. 

371    Phragiclidea. 

85    440    Morychideg. 

370    Dygnicetua. 

439    Glaucideg. 

369    I.ysistratus. 

438    Theodonia. 

103    368    Nauiigcnea. 

437    Euthymcneg. 

367    Polyzelua. 

86    436    Lyiimachug. 
435    Antiochidei. 

366    Cephi«odorug. 
3fi5    Chion. 

434    Crateg. 

104    364    TimocratM 

433    Apgeudeg. 

363    Chariclidea 

87    432    Pythodorug. 

362    Molon. 

431     Kuthydemug. 

361     Nirophrmug. 

430    Apollodorus. 
429    Kpaminon. 

106    360    Calllmcdeg. 
359    Eucharittui. 

88    428    Diotimua. 

338    Cephiaodotva. 

427    Euclcg  (Euclideg). 

Philippug. 


LISTS  OF  KINGS. 


1  KINGS  OF  EGYPT. 

Tr».    B.C.  B.C 

Yrs     m.   B.C.  B.C. 

4.  Alyattes 

reigned  57    617-560 

1.  Psammetichus 

reigned  54    0    671-617 

5.  Croesus 

"       14    560-546 

S.  Neco 

'«       16    0    617-601 

3.  Psammia 

"          60    601-595 

IV.  KINGS  OF  PERSIA. 

4.  Apries 

"        25    0    595-570 

Yre.   m.   B.C.  B.C 

5.  Amasis 

«        44    0    570-526 

1.  Cyrus 

reigned  30    0    559-529 

6.  Psamtncnitua 

06    526-525 

2.  Cambyses 

75    529-522 

3.  Smerdis 

"          07    522-522 

II.  KINGS  OF  MEDIA. 

4.  Darius  I.  Hyetaspis. 

"        36    0    521-185 

Jn.  B.C.  B.C. 

5.  Xerxes  I. 

"        20    0    485-165 

1.  Deioces 

reigned  53    709-656 

6.  Artabanua 

"          07    465-465 

2.  Phraortea 

22    656-634 

7.  Artaxerxea  I.  Longimanua 

"        40    0    465-425 

3.  Cyaxarea 

"        40    634-594 

8.  Xerxes  II. 

"          02    425-425 

4.  Astyagea 

35    594-559 

9.  Sogdianus 
10.  Darius  11.  Nothus 

«         07    425-425 
"        19    0    424-405 

in.  KINGS  OF  LYDIA. 

11.  Artaxerxes  II.  Mnemon 

"        46    0    405-359 

Yrn.  B.C.  B.C. 

12.  Ochus 

"        21    0    359-338 

1.  Gyges 

reigned  38    716-678 

13.  Arses 

"          20    338-336 

2.  Ardys 

49    678-629 

14.  Darius  III.  Codomannua 

"          4  11    336-331 

3.  Sadyattes 

"        12    629-617 

V.  KINGS  OF  SPARTA. 

1.  ABISTODEMUS. 

2.  EDRYSTHENES. 

2.    PllOCLES. 

3.  Agis  I. 

3.  Foils. 

4.  Echestratua. 

4.  Eurypon 

5.  Labotas. 

5.  Prytnnis 

6.  Doryssus. 

6.  Eunomua. 

7.  Agcsilaus  L 

7.  Polydectea. 

8.  Archclaus. 

8.  Charilaus. 

9.  Teleclus. 

9.  Nicandcr. 

10.  Alcamenea. 

10.  Theopompua. 

11.  Polydorua. 

_ 

12.  Eurycrates. 

11.  Zeuxidamus. 

13.  Anaxander. 

12.  Anaxidamus. 

14.  Eurycratides. 

13.  Archidamua  I. 

15.  Leon. 

Tr».      B.C.  BC.      14.  Agesicles. 

Yr».    B.C.  B.C 

16.  Anaxandrides 

reigned                    520      15.  Ariston. 

17.  Cleomenes 

"       29       520-491      16.  Demaratus. 

18.  Leonidas 

"        11        491-480      17.  Leotychides 

reigned  22    491-469 

19.  Pliatarchus 

"        22        480-458 

•20.  Plistoanax 

"        50        458-408      18.  Archidamus  II. 

"        42    469-427 

21.  Pausanias 

"        14        408-394      19.  Agis  II. 

"        29    427-398 

22.  Agesipolis  I. 

"        14        394-380      20.  Agesilaus  II. 

37    398-361 

23.  Cleombrotua  I. 

"         9        380-371 

24.  Agesipolia  II. 

'«          1        371-370 

25.  Cleomenes  II. 

"        61        370-309      21.  Archidamus  III. 

23    361-338 

22.  Agis  III. 

"          8    338-330 

23.  Eudamidas  I. 

26.  Areual. 

"        44        309-265      24.  Archidamus  IV. 

27.  Acrotatua 
28.  Areus  II. 

[11      265-f264)     25.  Eudamidas  II. 
"       [8]  [264J-[256J 

29.  Leonidaa  II. 

26.  Agia  IV. 

"          4    244-240 

30.  Cleombrotua  II. 

Leonidas  again. 

27.  Eurydamidns. 

31.  Cleomenea  III.       • 

"       16       236-220      28.  Archidamus  V. 

3"J.  Agesipolis  III. 

VI.  KINGS  OF  MACEDONIA. 

YM.    m.    B.C.  B.C 

Tn.   m.     B.C.  B.C. 

20.  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 

reigned    7    0    294-287 

1.  Perdiccas  I. 

21.  Pyrrhus 

"          07    287-28C 

2.  Argseus. 

22.  Lysimachus 

56    286-28C 

3.  Philippus  I. 

PtolemBBus  Ceraunus  1 

4.  Aeropus. 

Meleager 

5.  Alcetas. 

Antipater 

6.  Amyntas  I. 
7.  Alexander  I. 

I540]-[5001 
[500]-[454] 

Soethenes                    > 
Ptolemceus 

«          30    280-277 

8.  Perdiccas  II. 

[4541-  413 

Alexander 

9.  Archelaus 
10.  Orestes  and  Aeropus 
11.  Pausanias 

reigned  14    0     413-399 
"         50     399-394 
1    0     394-393 

Pyrrhus  again 
23.  Antigonus  Gonatas 
24.  Demetrius  II. 

»        44    0    283-239 
«        10    0    239-229 

12.  Amyntas  II. 
13.  Alexander  II. 

24    0     393-369 
2    0      369-367 

25.  Antigonus  Doson 
26.  Philippus  V. 

"          90    229-220 
«•        42    0    220-178 

Ptoleraaeus  Alorites 

3    0     367-364 

27.  Perseus 

11    0    176-167 

14.  Perdiccas  III. 

5    0     364-359 

15.  Phffippus  II. 

23    0     359-336 

VH  KINGS  OF  SYRIA. 

16.  Alexander  III.  the  Great 

13    0     336-323 

Yr».   B.C.  B.C. 

17.  Philippus  III.  Aridisus 

"          70     323-316 

1.  Seleucus  I.  Nicator 

reigned  32    312-2W 

Olympias 

"          10     316-315 

,  2.  Antiochus  I.  Soter 

"        19    280-261 

18.  Cas»ander 

«        19    0     315-296 

3.  Antiochus  II.  Theos 

"        15    261-246 

19.  Philippus  IV. 

"          10      296-295 

4.  Seleucus  IL  Callinicua 

"        30    246-2i.'G 

LISTS  OF  KINGS. 


Tre.  B.C.  B.C. 

Tre.   B.C.  B.C 

5.  Seleucus  III.  Ceraunua                 reigned    3    236-323 

12.  Ariarathes  VII.                             reigned    6      42-  36 

6.  Antiochus  III.  the  Great                              36    223-187 

A.D. 

7.  Seleucus  IV.  Philopator                               12    187-175 

13.  Archelatts                                             «        50      36-  15 

8.  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes                             11    175-164 

9.  Antiochus  V.  Eupator                                    2    164-162 

XIII.  KINGS  OF  PARTHIA. 

10.  Demetrius  I.  Soter                                       12    162-150 
11.  Alexander  Bala                                                 5    150-146 

The  kings  of  Parthia  are  given  in  chronological  order 
under  AKSACES. 

12.  Demetrius  II.  Nicator  ) 

AntiochusVI.               S.                      "               146-137 

XIV.  KINGS  OF  PERSIA  (SA3SANHXE). 

Trypho                         ) 
13.  Antiochus  VII.  Sidetes                        "         9    137-128 

A  list  of  these  kings  is  given  on  p.  777-9. 

Demetrius  11.  Nicator  (again)             "               128-125 

XV.  KINGS  OF  ROME. 

14.  Seleucus  V.                                                          125-125 

15.  Antiochus  VIII.  Grypus    )                 •               ,„-_  9- 
16.  Antiochus  IX.  Cyzicenus  $ 
17.  Seleucus  VI.                      1 

Tre.   B.C.  B.C. 

1.  Romulus                                       reigned  38    753-715 
2.  Nnma  Pompilius                                 "        42    715-673 
3.  Tullus  Hostiliua                                  "        32    673-641 

18.  Antiochus  X.  Eusebes 

4.  Ancus  Marciua                                    "        24    641-616 

19.  Philippus                                                               oe    QO 
20.  Demetrius  III.  Euc»rus    (                « 

5.  L.  Tarquinius  Priscus                         "        38    616-578 
6.  Servius  Tullius                                   "        44    578-534 

21.  Antiocbus  XI.  Epiphanes  1 
22.  Antiochus  XII.  Dionysus  J 

7.  L.  Tarquinius  Superbus                     "        25    534-510 

Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia                 "        14      83-69 

XVI.  EMPERORS  OF  ROME. 

23.  Antiochus  X1IL  Asiaticus                   "         4      69-  65 

Tn.  A.D.  A.U. 

VIII.  KINGS  OF  EGYPT. 

Augustus                                                                             14 
Tiberius                                             reigned  23      14-  37 

Tre.      B.C.  B.C. 

Caligula                                                                4      37-  41 

1.  Ptolemasus  I.  Soter                   reigned  38  (40)  323-285 

Claudius                                                              13      41-54 

2.  Ptolemwus  11.  Philadelphus         "         36  (38)  285-247 

Nero                                                                    14      54-68 

a  Ptolemwus  III.  Evcrgetes            "         25          247-222 

Galba                                                                       08-  09 

4.  Ptolemwus  IV.  Philopator           "         17          222-205 

Otho                                                                             69-  69 

5.  Ptolemitms  V.  Epiphanes             "         24          205-181 

Vitellius                                                                       6!)-  69 

6.  Ptolemasus  VI.  Philometor          "         35          181-146 

Vespasian                                                            10      69-  79 

7.  Ptolenwus  V1L  Evergetes  II. 

Titus                                                                     2      79-  81 

orPhyscon                                "         29          146-117 

Domitian                                                             15      81-  96 

8.  Ptolemajus  VIII.  Soter  II.  or 

Nerva                                                                    2      96-  99 

Lathy  rus                                   "         36          117-  81 

Trajan                                                                 19      98-117 

[Ptoletnseus  IX.  Alexander  I.] 

Hadrian                                                               21    117-138 

Cleopatra. 

Antoninus  Pins                                                23    138-161 

Ptolemieus  X.  Alexander  II.        M                       81-  80 

(M.  Aureliua                                                     19    161-180 

9.  Ptolcmwus  XI.  Dionysus  or 

>  L.  Verus                                                            8     161-169 

Auletes                                      "  ,      29           80-  51 

Commodus                                                         12    180-193 

10.  Cleopatra                                      "         21           51-  30 

Pertinax                                                                     193-193 

[PtoU-majus  XII. 

Julianus                                                                      193-193 

Ptoleinseus  XIII.] 

Septimius  Sevenu                                             18    193-211 

<  Caracalla                                                           6    211-217 

DC.  KINGS  OF  PERGAMUS. 

)  Geta                                                                   1    211-212 

Tr».   B.C.  B.C. 

Macrinus                                                               1    217-218 

1.  Philetserns                                      reigned  17    280-263 

Elagabalus                                                            4    218-222 

2.  Eumenes  I.                                          "        22    263-241 

Alexander  Severus                                            13    222-235 

3.  Attalus  I.                                              "        44    241-197 

Maximinus                                                           3    235-238 

4.  Eumeneg  II.                                         "        38    197-159 
5.  Attnlus  H.  Philadelphug                      "        21    159-138 

C  Gordianus  I.   >                                                       <wa_oTo 
\  Gordianus  II.  J 

6.  Attalus  III.  Philometor                        »          5    138-133 

<  Pupiunus  Maximus  )                                                "18-233 

i  Balbinus 

X.  KINGS  OF  BITHYNIA. 

Gordianus  III.                                                       6    238-244 

Tr».      B.C.     B.C. 

Philippus                                                              5    244-249 

1.  Zipostes. 

Decivw                                                                   2    249-251 

2.  Nicomedes  I.                           reigned    28     278  -[250] 

Trcbonianus  Galltt*      „                                      3    251-254 

3.  Ziclas                                               "          22    [250]-  228] 

/F.milianua                                                                     2./>3-253 

4.  Prusias  I.                                      "         46     228  -[180] 

C  Valerian                                                            7    2:O-260 

5.  Prustns  II.                                     "         31     [180]-  149 

>  Gallicnui                                                         15    2.VJ-268 

6.  Nicomedes  II.  Epipbane«             "         58     149  -    91 

Claudius  II.                                                          2    268-270 

'   Nicomedes  III.  Philopator          "         17       91  -   74 

Aureliaa                                                               5    270-275 

Tacitus                                                                  1    275-276 

XI.  KINGS  OF  PONTUS. 

Florianus                                                                   276-276 

Tre.      B.C.     B.C. 

Probus                                                              6    278-888 

1.  Ariobarzanes  I. 

ninn                                                                    1    283-283 

2.  Mithradates  I. 

JCarinuf          )                                                   ^    283-284 

3.  AriobHrzancs  II.                      reigned    26     363-337 

Numerianus  j 

4.  Mithriid»te«  II.                                        35     337  -  302 

Diocletian                                                       21    284-3<b 

5.  Mithradates  III.                            "         36     302  -  2fi6 

Mnximian                                                        19    286-903 

6.  Ariobarzanes  IIL                          "         26]    266  -  240 

Conitantiu*  I.  Chlorut                                        1     3IXV306 

7.  Mithrad«tes  IV.                             "          50]  [240  -  190 

((iulrriui                                                                6    305-311 

8.  Pharnaces  I.                                 "      •  34]    190  -  156 

<  Conntantine  I.  the  Grol                                31     :»6-:n7 

9.  Mithradates  V.  Ercrnctcs            "         36]  [156  -  120 

iHclnius                                                           16    307-323 

10.  MithrHdatcs  VI.  Eupator             "         57     120  -    63 

(  Constantine  II.                                                 3    £17-340 

11.  Phnrnaccs  II.                                 "         16       63-47 

<  ConttMidut  II.                                                24    Xr7-361 

I  Constans  I.                                                      13    317-350 

XII.  KINGS  OF  CAPPADOCIA. 

Julian                                                                        3    361-363 

Tre.  ac'n.c. 

Jovian                                                                   1    363-364 

1.  Datames. 
2.  Ariamnes  I. 

WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

3.  Ariarathcs  L 

Trt.  A.n.  A.n. 

4.  Ariarathes  II.                                reigned    7    315-008 

Valrntinlan  I.                                       reigned  11    :M4-:i75 

5.  Ariamnes  II. 

Grntian                                                          *        16    367-383 

6.  Ariurxthes  HI. 

Valcntinian  II.                                           "        17    375-392 

7.  Arinrathe*  IV.                                      "        58    220-162 

Thro(lo»iu«  I.  (Emperor  of  the  West 

8.  Ariarathes  V.                                       "32    162-1.10 

as  well  u  of  the  Emit)                           "         3    392-3<)5 

9.  Ariarathes  VI.                                        "        34     130-  96 

Honorius                                                   "        98    295-423 

10.  Ariol.arznne«  I.                                               30      93-  63 

Thcodonius  II.  (Emperor  of  the  West 

11.  Ariobarzancs  II.                                  "        SI      63-42 

MwclluoftheEMt)                          "         2    423-429 

1022 


LISTS  OF  KINGS. 


Tri.  A.D.  A.D. 

Valentinian  HI. 

reigned  30    425-455 

Petronius  Maximus 

455-455 

Avitus 

1    455-456 

Majorian 

4    457-461 

Libius  Severus 

4    461-465 

Antheming 

5    467-472 

Olybrius 

472-472 

Glycerius 

473-474 

Julius  Nepos 

474-475 

Romulus  Augustulus 

"               475-476 

EASTERN  EMPIRE. 

Yrs.  A.D.  A.D. 

Valens 

reigned  14    364-378 

Theodosius  I. 

"        16    378-395 

Arcadius 

«'        13    395-408 

rhcodosius  II. 

42    408-450 

Marcian 

7    450-457 

Leo  I.  Thrax 

"        17    457-474 

Leo  II. 

"               474-474 

Zeno 

«        17    474-491 

Anastasius  I 

"        27    491-518 

Justin  I. 

"          9    518-527 

Justinian  L 

"        39    527-565 

Justin  II. 

"        13    565-578 

Tiberius  II. 

«          4    578-582 

Mauricius 

"        20    582-602 

Phocas 

"          P    602-610 

Heraclius  I. 

"        31    610-641 

Constantine  III.,  also  called  ) 
Heraclius  II.                        $ 

641-641 

Heracleonas 

"               641-641 

Constans  II. 

'        27    641-668 

Constantine  IV.  Pogonatufl 

'        17    668-685 

Justinian  II.  Rhinotmetua 

1        10    685-695 

Leontius 

'          3    695-698 

Tiberius  Absimarus 

1          6    698-704 

Justinian  II.  (again) 

'   '         7    704-711 

Philippicus  or  Phileplcus 

'          2    711-713 

Anaetasius  II. 

"          3    713-716 

Theodosius  HI. 

1    716-717 

Leo  HI.  Isaurus 

"        24    717-741 

Constantine  V.  Copronymus 

"       34    741-775 

[Artavasdes,  usurper.] 
Leo  IV.  Chazarus 

"          5    775-780 

Const/inline  VI. 

"        17    780-797 

Irene 

"          5    797-802 

Nicephorus 

•   "          9    802-811 

Stauracius 

811-811 

Michael  I.  Rhangabo 

"          2    811-813 

Leo  V.  Armenius 

"          7    813-620 

Michael  II.  Balbus 

"          9    820-829 

Theophilus 

"        12    829-842 

Michael  III. 

"        25    842-867 

Basil  I.  Macedo 

"        19    867-886 

Leo  VI.  Sapiens 

"        25    886-911 

Constantine  VII.  Porphyrogenitus 
Alexander,  colleague  of  Constan-  ) 
tine  VII.                                       I 

«        48    911-959 
"          1    911-912 

Romanus  I.  Lecapenus,  colleague  ) 

"        25    919-944 

Constantino  VIII.,  Stephanus,  'i 
sons  of  Romanus  I.,  reigned  > 
five  weeks  ) 

Romanus  II. 

Nicephorus  II.  Phocas 

Joannes  I.  Zimisces 

Basil  II.,  colleague  of  Joannes  I. 
for  seven  years 

Constantino  IX.,  colleague  of  Basil  > 
II.  for  forty-nine  years 

Romanus  III.  Argyrus 

Michael  IV.  Paphlago 

Michael  V.  Calaphatea 

Zoe  and  Theodora 

Constantino  X.  Monomachus 

Theodora  (again) 

Michael  VI.  Stratioticus 

Isaac  I.  Comnenus 

Constantine  XI.  Ducas 

Romanus  IV.  Diogenes 

Michael  VII.  Ducas 

Nicephorus  III.  Botaniates 

Alexis  or  Alexius  I.  Comnenus 

Joannes  II.  Comnenus  or  Calo-  ) 
Joannes  > 

Manuel  I.  Comnenus 

Alexis  I.  or  Alexius  II.  Comnenus 

Andronicus  I.  Comnenus    . 

Isaac  II.  Angelus 

Alexis  or  Alexius  III.  Angelus 

Alexis  or  Alexius  IV.  Angelus 

Alexis  or  Alexius  V.  Ducas 


Bald  win  I. 

Henry 

Peter  "  1217- 

Robert  "         7    1221-1228 

Baldwin  II.  "       33    1228-1261 

GREEK  EMPERORS  OF  NIC^EA. 

Trs.    A.D    A.D 

Theodorus  I.  Lascaris  reigned  16    1206  1222 

Joannes  III.  Vatatzes  "        33    1222-1255 

Theodorus  II.  Lascaris  "          4    1255-1259 

Joannes  IV.  Lascaris  "          1     1259-1260 

Michael  VIII.  PalsBologus  "         1    1260-1261 

GREEK  EMPERORS  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE  AGAIN. 

Yrs.     A.D.  A.D 

Michael  VIII.  Palteologus  reigned  21    1261-1282 


Andronicus  II.  Palaeologus  "  46  1282-1328 
Michael  IX.  Paleeologus  (associated 

with  Andronicus  II.  in  the  em- 
pire). 

Andronicus  III.  Palseologus  "  13  1328-1341 

Joannes  V.  Cantacuzenus  "  13  1342-1355 

Joannes  VI.  Palseologus  «'  36  1355-1391 

Manuel  II.  Palasologus  "  34  1391-1425 

Joannes  VII.  Palaeologus  "  23  1425-1448 

Constantine  XIII.  Palseologtu  "  5  1448  1453 


Tr.. 

A.D.  A.D 

reigned 

944-944 

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A.D.  A.D. 

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TABLES  01'  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


TABLE    XI. 

GRECIAN  WEIGHTS. 


1.  Ratios  of  the  three  chief  Systems. 

^^inetan  :  Euboic  or  old  Attic  

::      6    :      5 

:  :      5    :      3 

::138|  :  100 

or  :  :  100    :    72 
or::    25    :    18 

The  jEginetan  Talejit=6000  vEginetan 
Euboic           "      =5000                 " 
Solonian*      "      =3600                  " 

Drachmae  =7200  Euboic  =  10,000  Solonian 
=6000       "      =    8333J      " 
=4320       "      =    6000       " 

*  Also  called  the  Attic  Silver  Talent.    When  Attic  weights  are  spoken  of  without  nny  further  distinction,  these 
are  generally  intended. 


2.  .Siginetan  Weights. 

Exact* 

Approximate. 

Ib. 

oz. 

grs. 

Ib. 

oz. 

grs. 

Obol  ('O/3oAds)  

i< 

1 
95 

11 
It 

9 

14 

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6         |  Drachma  (Apaxpf])  

600      |      100      |  Mina  (Mi/a)  

36,000    |     6000          60     |  Talent  (TaAairoi/)  .  . 

*  In  this  and  the  other  tables  the  English  weights  used  are  those  of  the  avoirdupois  scale  as  fixed  by  statute ; 
nnmtly,  the  grain  =  the  Troy  grain,  the  ounce  =  437  J  grains,  the  pound  =  16  ounces  =  7000  grains. 
t  Or  i  of  an  ounce. 


3.  Enboic  or  Attic  Commercial  Weights. 

Ezact. 

Approximate. 

Ib. 

oz. 

grs. 

Ib. 

oz. 

grs. 

Obol  

tt 
tt 

1 

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5 

2 

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92-3611£ 
48-611J 
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*  See  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  p.  933,  b.,  934,  a.    It  is  here  assumed  that  the  Attic  commnrcinl  mina  was  exactly  138|  silver 
drachmae,  not  138,  as  stated  in  the  decree.    The  difference  is  not  quite  half  a  grain  in  the  drachma. 


4.  Attic  Commercial  Weights  Increased.* 

Exact. 

Approximate. 

Ib. 

oz. 

gr»- 

Ib. 

ox. 

grs. 

1  Mina  —  150  Drachmae  (silver)  

1 

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6 
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1  Talent  —  65  Mins  (commercial)  

*  See  fiict  of  Antiq.,  page  934,  a. 

t  Here,  as  in  the  preceding  table,  the  commercial  mina  is  taken  as  equal  to  138^  drachmae,  not  138. 


5.  Attic  Silver  Weights. 

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oz. 

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it 
tt 
tt 
57 

It 

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it 

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i   

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Mina  

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100 

36,000 

6000 

60     |  Talent  

*  This  value  is,  if  any  thing,  too  small.     Bockh  makes  it  67-4.     Respecting  other  scales  of  weight  see  PONDERA, 
io  Diet,  of  Antiq. 
t  Or  i  of  an  ounce. 


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University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

305  De  Neve  Drive  -  Parking  Lot  17  •  Box  951388 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA  90095-1388 
Return  this  material  to  the  library  from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


OCT  02  2001 

SRLF 
QUARTER  LOAN 


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A 661 241  636"