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^1| 4 J
hji/
THE NEW ENGLISH
i THE
f
NEW ENGLISH
BY
TLT kington-oliphant
OF BALLIOL COLLEGE
VOL. I.
ILonlron
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK
1886
Ail rights reserved.
^
^
1
;i 7.yrtU.
\
PREFACE.
Now that I am bringing out a sketch of the develop-
ment of our English tOngue during the last 600
years, I must begin by repeating my acknowledg-
ments to the authors I named in my former work on
* Old and Middle English/
In the Book I now send forth, I have turned to
good account the Eeprints which we owe to Mr.
Arber and the Shakespere Society. I have made
much use of Mr. Skeat's Dictionary as regards the
origin of our words. I have derived the greatest
help from Dr. Murray's Dictionary, so far as it has
gone. It wiU not be completed, I suppose, until
twenty years hence; a new edition of my present
work, should I live so long, will in that case be a
vast improvement upon the edition now given to the
public.
I am well aware of the many faults that may be
found in my book; men will say that I have left
unread what I ought to have read ; many a favourite
VI PREFACE.
author's name will be suggested, of whom I have
taken little notice. I mujst plead in excuse the fact,
that one man cannot read every thing. In my choice
of authors, I lean to those that are comic and col-
loquial, not to the master spirits of our Literature. I
take little notice of Spenser and Milton, though I dwell
much on the plays left us by Udall and Still.
I start from the time when the germs of New
English were springing up within the tract lying be-
tween London, Oxford, Shrewsbury, and Boston. I
have gone at great length into two particular periods ;
the last thirty years of the Fourteenth Century, and the
twenty years that followed 1520. In this last period
flourished Tyndale and Coverdale, the translators of
the Bible, the one representing the South, the
other the North. After their time, many authors
have to be studied, as they lead up to Shakespere,
the great point to which all ought to tend. So
often have I referred to him, that it would be a
mockery to insert every reference to his name in my
Index.
I have been careful to set out the many Proverbs
to be found in English Literature, and also the various
customs of each age. I have thrown light, wherever
possible, not only upon the old English pronuncia-
tion, but also upon that of France, Germany, and
Italy.
PREFACE. Vll
As to my Index, I have, as a general rule, con-
fined myself to Teutonic and Celtic words, and also
to those Eomance words which have some peculiarity.
Had I inserted every Eomance word I name, I must
have brought out a third Volume. I have derived
much benefit from criticism on my former works ; this
has reached me partly in print, partly by letter; I
hope for many fresh comments on my ' New English,'
and to this end I have given my address.
I have so often laughed at the absurd attempts, much
in vogue, to date buildings and writings as early as pos-
sible, that I have perhaps fallen into the opposite extreme.
Hence I must here withdraw certain remarks of mine
on the 'Eomaunt of the Eose,' vol. i. pp. 400-402 of
my Book. Since I wrote these, Dr. Murray has in-
formed me that without doubt the manuscript of the
Eomaunt, which is at Glasgow, belongs to the Fifteenth
Century. But the very modem forms contained in it,
far more modern than those in the works of Blind
Harry, are most puzzling. I can only repeat once
more that wish of mine, which appears in the note to
vol. i p. 400. The North, in truth, was all along far
in advance of the South, as regards the changes of
language ; and this comes out again two generations
later, when we compare Coverdale with Tyndale. The
Eomaunt of the Eose, I think, is the earliest attempt
in English to imitate the Archaic.
Vlll PREFACE,
I must end by saying that this work on the ' New
English ' will be of small profit to my readers, unless
they first master my book on 'Old and Middle English/
published in 1878.
T. L. KINGTON OLIPHANT.
Gask, Auchterabdee,
October 16, 1886.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
CHAPTER L
A.D. 1300-A.D. 1362.
A.D.
PAGE
Ten Divisions of English ....
1
1300 Dialect of the Irish Pale ....
.2
List of English and French words
3
1307 Statutes of Norwich Gilds ....
4
Ballads of this time .
5
1320 William de Shoreham
6
New Verbs
7
French Phrases ......
8
1321 Poem of Edward the Second's time
9
The Foreign words
10
Northern Metrical Homilies
11
System of rimes ......
12
Gk)ttingen Version of the Cursor Muhdi
13
1330 Auchinleck Poems
14
Romance of the Seven Sages . . . .
15
New use of Verbs ......
16
The Foreign words
17
1337 Manning's Poem
18
His Substantives
19
His Verbs .......
20
His Foreign words .....
21
Specimen of his rimes .....
22
i
X CONTENTS,
A.D. PAGE
1340 The Ayenbite of Inwyt 23
/ French Idioms .
24
The Substantives
25
Terminations ....
. 26
The Verbs .....
. 27
The Foreign words
28
Much French ....
29
New Phra-ses ....
30
Hampole's Pricke of Conscience .
31
The Verbal Nouns
. 32
The Verbs and Adverbs
33
The Foreign words
34
Hampole's Prose Treatises
35
The Nouns and Verbs
36
The French words
37
The Tale of Gamelyn .
38
The Foreign words
39
The Avowing of King Arthur
40
The Foreign words
41
1350 The Alexander ; William of Paleme
42
Specimen of the Poem
43
The Nouns ....
44
The Pronouns and Verbs
45
The Adverbs and Prepositions
46
The Foreign words
47
Legends ; The Usages of Winchester
48
The Foreign words ....
49
Minot ; The Tournament of Tottenham
50
The Foreign words ....
51
1359 Statutes of a Lynne Gild
52
Dan John Gaytrigg ....
53
1360 Northern Legends . .
54
The Foreign words . . .
55
Sir G a wain and the Green Knight
56
The Nouns .....
57
The Verbs
58
CONTENTS,
XI
A.D.
1360 The Foreign words ....
The Lancashire Alliterative Poems
The Nouns .....
The Verbs ...'..
The Pronouns and Prepositions
The Foreign words ....
The French words ....
Two Lancashire Bomances .
The Fairfax Version of the Cursor Mundi
Disappearance of old words .
The Southern Version of the Cui'sor Mundi
North and South compared
Want of some Standard of English
PAOE
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
CHAPTER IL
Chaucer's English.
j:%.,u» J.WA — jxtxj, j.-xf -X.
A glance backward . . . . . .72
Manning's works
73
Spread of East Midland English .
74
Countenance given by Edward III.
. 75
A Lollard Treatise
76
General use of English
77
1362 The York Mysteries .
78
The Foreign words
79
1370 Sir Degrevant
80
The Verbs
81
Early English Poems ; Octavian .
82
Torrent of Portugal ....
83
Richard Coer de Lion .
84
Substantives and Verbs
85
1375 Barbour's Poem on The Bruce
86
xil CONTENTS.
A.D. PAGE
1375 He gives its date 87
The Substantives
88
Adjectives and Pronouns
. 89
Verbs
. 90
Adverbs and Prepositions
91
The Foreign words
92
New meanings of words
93
Barbour's Legends of the Saints .
94
1377 Allegory of Piers Ploughman
95
The three editions of the work
. 96
The Substantives ....
. 97
The contracted Proper Names
98
The Adjectives ....
99
The Verbs and Adverbs
. 100
The Foreign words
. 101
Much French ....
. 102
Sublimity of the Poem
. 103
Mirk's Instructions for Parish Priests
. 104
The new Romance words
. 105
Specimen of the Poem
. 106
Cotton Galba Version ; The Carpenter's
Tooh
107
Sir Cleges .....
108
Chaucer's Poems .....
109
Death of Blanche the Duchess
110
The Foreign words ....
111
Parliament of Fowls, etc.
112
The Troilus
113
The Verbs
114
The Foreign words ....
115
The House of Fame ....
116
The Verbs
117
1390 The Canterbury Tales
118
The Vowels
119
The Consonants .....
120
The Subst-antives ....
121
Many new ones .....
122
CONTENTS.
Xlll
A.D. PAGE
1390 The Adjectives 123
The Pronouns .
•
. 124
The Verbs
•
. 125
Phrases connected with them
•
. 126
The Adverbs
•
. 127
The Prepositions
•
. 128
The Foreign words
•
. 129
The French words
•
. 130
French and English combined
•
. 131
Disappearance of Teutonic words .
•
. 132^
Latin as well as French forms
•
. 133
Chaucer's lines quoted
■
. 134
The Legend of Good Women
•
. 135
The Foreign words
. 136
Purvey's claim for the Bible
»
. 137
1380 Wickliffe's Version of it
» 1
138
He sticks too close to the Vulgate
»
. 139
Mixture of Dialects
1
140
The Verbal Nouns
«
141
The Verbs
«
142
The Adverbs ....
■
143
The Foreign words
fl
144
Wickliffe's Prose Works
f
145
The Substantives
•
146
The Verbs ....
•
147
The Foreign words
•
148
A Greek word appears
■
149
1386 The Rolls of Parliament ; Trevisa
■
150
The Substantives
•
151
The Adjectives ....
«
152
The Verbs ....
•
153
The Foreign words
•
154
Rising influence of the Latin
•
155
An English Will ; Gregory's Chronicle
«
156
1390 English Seimons ....
•
157
English forms of the Mamage Ser
vice .
i
158
VOL. I.
h
XIV
CONTENTS.
A.D.
m
PAOB
1390
Prayers in English ......
159
The Travels attributed to Mandeville .
160
Vowels and Consonants . . . . ,
161
The Substantives . . . .
162
Pronouns, Verbs ......
163
Adverbs ........
164
Prepositions .......
. 165
The French words ......
166
Sometimes preferred to Italian
. 167
Coldingham Records ; The Pearl . . . .
168
St Erkenwald ; Poem on Masonry
. 169
A Salopian Piece .....
. 170
1393
Qower^s Confessio Amantis ....
. 171
He uses some of Chaucer's words .
. 172
The Substantives ......
. 173
The Adjectives .......
174
Pronouns, Verbs ......
. 176
New Phrases
176
Prepositions ......
. 177
The Foreign words . .
178
A York WiU . . ...
. 179
Political Songs ; State Papers
. 180
1397
Gregory's Chronicle ; Rolls of Parliament
. 181
1399
Richard the Redeles
. 182
The Foreign words
. 183
1400
An Apology for the Lollards
. 184
Nouns and Pronouns
. 185
The Foreign iwords
. 186
Many Latin words
187
Romance of Ipomydon ; The Nun
. 188
The Hunting of the Hare .
. 189
Hymns to the Virgin and Chnst .
. 190
1401
Ardeme ; Jack Upland ....
. 191
Letter from the future Henry V. .
. 192
The later York Mysteries ....
. 193
The Verbs
. 194
CONTENTS.
XV
A.D. PAGE
1401 The Adverbs 195
The Foreign words
. 196
The Towueley Mysteries
. 197
First English Hexameters .
. 198
The Substantives
. 199
Some new ones .
. 200
Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs
. 201
Many new Phrases
. 202
Adverbs, Prepositions .
. 203
The Foreign words
. 204
The earliest Robin Hood Ballad
. 205
A specimen of it
. 206
Wills of the Time
. 207
1402 Occleve's Poeins ....
. 208
The Nouns and Verbs .
. 209
The Foreign words
. 210
His views on France .
. 211
1415 The York Pageants .
. 212
1420 Rymer's Documents .
. 213
Ellis's Original Letters
. 214
1422 The Rolls of Parliament
. 215
1426 Old forms remain
. 216
Gregory's Chronicle
. 217
1418 Page on the Siege of Rouen
. 218
HaUiweU's Letters of the Kings .
. 219
1424 A Rutland WiU
. 220
Works of Wickliffe, so called
. 221
An old Lollard Treatise
. 222
Treatise on Hunting .
. 223
Legend of St Edith .
. 224
Poem on Cookery
. 226
Poems of King James I.
. 226
VVyntoun's Chronicle .
. 227
The Adjectives and Verbs .
. 228
The Foreign words
. 229
The Paston Letters of this time
. 230
XVI
CONTENTS,
A.D.
FAOB
1424
Many French words . . . . .
. 231
1426
Audlay's Salopian Poems . . . .
. 232
Poem on Agincourt . . . . .
. 233
Lydgate's Works
. 234
Flemish influence
. 235
The French words
. 236
1433
Lydgate's Legends
. 237
The Babees' Book
. 238
Customs of the time
. 239
Wills of the time
. 240
Northern Wills .
. 241
Paston Letters ; Gregory's Chronicle
. 242
The Rolls of Parliament . . . .
. 243
Standard English comes into vogue
. 244
Provincialisms are dropped . . . .
. 246
A Lancashire Petition . . . .
. 246
Coldingham Papers ; Rymer's Documents
. 247
1436
Poem on English Trade . . . .
. 248
Praise of Hemy V. .... .
. 249
1440
The Gesta Romanonuu . . . .
. 250
The Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs
. 261
The Foreign words
. 262
The Promptorium Parvulorum
. 263
Much change in Vowels . . . .
. 264
The Consonants . . . . .
. 266
The hard g of East Anglia . . . .
. 266
The Substantives . . . . .
. 267
Many new combinations . . . ,
. 268
Change in the meaning of words .
. 269
The Adjectives ......
. 260
Adverbs, Verbs ......
. 261
Grovelling^ thou and ye . . . .
. 262
The Foreign words ....
. 263
Union of Teutonic and French
. 264
Latin sometimes preferred to French
. 266
Fishing Treatise ; Geste of Robin Hood
. 266
CONTENTS.
xvii
A.D.
1440 Many Northern Phrases
1445 Robin and the Potter ; Plumpton Letters
York, Coldingham
Paston Letters
1447 ShiUingford's Letters .
Noun, Pronouns
Verbs, French words .
1449 Pecock's Repressor
His peculiarities
Adjectives, Pronouns .
Verbs ....
Adverbs, Prepositions .
Romance woi-ds .
1450 Chevy Chase ; Religious Poems
Doggerel rimes .
Knight of La Tour-Landry .
Nouns, Pronouns
Foreign words .
Book of Curtesye
Chester Mysteries
Nouns, Verbs
1456 York Wills; Paston Letters
Vowels, Consonants
Nouns, Verbs
Romance words .
Gregory's Chronicle ; Rolls of Parliament
Form of Petitions
1460 Pieces from Hazlitt's Collection
Old Phrases
Lollard Treatises ; Ballads .
Book of Quinte Essence ; Capgrave
Nouns, Verbs
French words
The Wright's Wife ; Plumpton Letters
1465 London Documents ; Gregory's Chronicle
Rolls of Parliament ....
PAOE
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
XVUl
CONTENTS.
A.D.
1465
1467
1469
1470
1473
Paston Letters ....
The Vowels
Consonants, Substantives
Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs
Adverbs .....
Foreign words ....
Titles of Nobles ....
Worcester Document ; Rymer's Papers
Blind Harry's Poem on Wallace .
Scotch and French words
The Coventry Mysteries
Mixture of Northern and Southern
Nouns, Pronouns
Verbs, Adverbs ....
Foreign words ....
MaUor/s History of King Arthur
The Play of the Sacrament .
Second Version of Qesta Romanorum
Revelation of Monk of Evesham .
The Foreign words
The Babees' Book
Political Songs ; Warkworth's Chronicle
Letters of the Kings .
Something remains to be done
PAGE
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
CHAPTER m.
Caxton's English.
1474-1586.
Caxton's birth
. 327
1474 He prints his Recuyell
. 328
His Game of the Chesse
. 329
His Romance words ....
. 330
New French forms ....
. 331
CONTENTS.
XIX
h,Ti.
PAGE
1481 His Reynard the Fox ....
. 332
Proverbs here ......
. 333
Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs
. 334
The French words ....
. 335
1482 His alterations of Trevisa and Chaucer .
. 336
The York Wills
. 337
Rymer's Documents ; RoUs of Parliament
. 338
Paston Letters
. 339
Adjectives, Verbs . . . . ,
. 340
Proverbs * .
. 341
Plumpton Letters
. 342
York Records ; Exeter Guild
. 343
William of Worcester
. 344
Romance words ......
. 345
1483 Catholicon Anglicum
. 346
Consonants, Substantives . . . .
. 347
Adjectives, Verbs
. 348
Foreign words ......
. 349
1490 Digby Mysteries
. 350
Paston Letters
. 351
Letters of Richard 111. ; Rolls of Parliament
. 352
Acts of Parliament ; Plumpton Letters
. 353
York Records .....
. 354
1499 Pynson's Edition of the Promptorium .
. 355
1500 Memoria Technica ; Digby Mysteries .
. 356
Poems from Hazlitt's Collection .
. 357
Romance words ......
. 358
Welsh Phonetic Transcription
. 359
Collier's Dramatic Poetry
. 360
Dunbar
. 361
The Adjectives .
. 362
The Celtic words ....
. 363
The Romance words ....
. 364
Gavin Douglas ; Plumpton Letters
. 365
1506 Letters of Henry VII.
. 366
The Romance words ....
. 367
\
XX CONTENTS,
A.D.
PAGE
1605 Ellis's Letters
. 368
The Romance words ....
. 369
Skeltoii*s Poems of this time
. 370
The Adjectives, Verbs.
. 371
The Foreign words ....
. 372
1509 Fisher's Sermons ....
. 373
The Gtesta Romanorum
. 374
Barclay's Ship of Fools
. 375
The Nouns, Pronouns ....
. 376
Verbs, Adverbs .....
. 377
The Foreign words ....
. 378
Old Proverbs
. 379
English Oaths .....
. 380
Barclay's Eclogues ....
. 381
1520 Halliwell's Letters of the Kings .
. 382
Ellis's Letters
. 383
The Foreign words ....
. 384
Fisher's Sermon against Luther .
. 385
State Papers .....
. 386
The Verbs
. 387
The Romance words
. 388
Wood's Letters of Illustrious Ladies
. 389
The^Nouns, Verbs
. 390
The Romance words . . . . .
. 391
Foxe's Documents ....
. 392
Skelton's Poems of this time
. 393
The Adjectives, Verbs . . . .
. 394
Song of the Lady Bessy . . . .
. 395
Poems from Hazlitt's Collection .
. 396
Coventry Mysteries
. 397
A Northern Mystery . . . . .
. 398
Plays from Dodsley's Collection .
. 399
The Romaunt of the Rose . . . .
. 400
Attempts to imitate Old English .
. 401
The Court of Love . . . .
. 402
The Flower and Leaf
. 403
CONTENTS.
XXI
A.D.
PAGE
1523 Fitzlierbert on Husbandry . . . .
. 404
The Noiina, Verbs
. 405
The Foreign words . . . . .
. 406
Lord Berners's Translation of Froissart
. 407
1526 Tyndale's New Testament . . . .
. 408
His Improvements on Wickliffe .
. 409
The Vowels
. 410
The Consonants, Substantives
. 411
Atonement, Day ......
. 412
The Adjectives
. 413
The Pronouns ......
. 414
The Verbs
. 415
The Adverbs
. 416
The Prepositions ....
. 417
The Romance words ....
. 418
Both French and Latin Forms
. 419
Latin words . . .
. 420
1530 Tyndale^s other writings
. 421
His wrangles with More
. 422
Proverbs quoted by him
. 423
His simple style
. 424
The Vowels
. 425
The Consonants, Substantives
. 426
Atcmement, Swing , Lust
. 427
The Adjectives
. 428
The Pronouns, Verbs ....
. 429
Oversight, Worship ....
. 430
The Adverbs .....
. 431
The Ilomance words ....
. 432
Passion, Curiosity ....
. 433
Words akin to Dutch and German
. 434
1530 Coverdale's share in the Bible
. 435
He is compared with Tyndale
. 436
His obsolete words ....
. 437
Vowels, Consonants, Substantives
. 438
Adjectives .....••
. 439
XXll
CONTENTS.
A.D.
1530
1528
1526
1529
1530
1533
Pronouns, Verbs
The Verbal Noun confused
Adverbs, Prepositions .
Romance words .
Zt6«Z, PeoZ, Precious .
Foreign forms
Roy's Satire on Wolsey
Nouns and Verbs
Rastell's Jest Book
Noims and Verbs
Fish's Supplication for the Beggars
Pieces from Hazlitt's Collection
Palsgrave's EngUsh and French Dictionary
The Consonants .
The Substantives
Bicker, Scavenger
The Adjectives .
Pronouns, Verbs .
The en is often prefixed
Strike, Want
The Adverbs
The Prepositions
The Foreign words
Venturer, bray, part
Temper, luscious, exploit
Manner, rail, rubify .
Jyl of Brentford's Testament
Christ's Kirk ; Heywood's Plays
Horse Races ; Elyot's Qovemour
The Romance words .
The Definitions .
Translations from the Classics
Joy's work against Tyndale
Letters on the Monasteries .
Ellis's Letters
The Nouns
PAOB
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
CONTENTS.
XXlll
A.D. FAOB
1533 Verbs, Romance words 476
Foxe's Documents ....
. 477
Wood's Letters of Royal Ladies .
. 478
Cranmer ; Latimer
. . 479
Bygod's Work on Impropriations
. 480
Earls of Kildare ; Dodsley*s Plays
. 481
1539 Letters on the Monasteries .
. 482
1542 Tunstall ; Udall*s Apophthegms
.483
The Substantives
. 484
The Adjectives .
» 1
. 485
The Pronouns, Verbs .
. 486
To cut, wonted, rake heU
. 487
The Foreign words
. 488
Neat, rrdser, Christian .
. 489
Dviy, devotion, allvde to
. 490
1550 Ralph Roister Doister
. 491
The Verbs
. 492
The Romance words .
. 493
1542 Boorde's Works .
. 494
The Romance words .
. 495
1544 Ascham's Toxophilus .
. 496
The Nouns, Verbs
. 497
The Foreign words
. 498
1546 Hey wood's Proverbs .
. 499
The Romance Phrases
. 500
Proverbs set out
. 501
Those used by Shakespere
. 502
Phrases still current .
. 503
Strange etymology
. 504
Becon's earliest Writings
. 505
Ellis's Letters
. 506
Foxe's Documents
. 507
The Foreign words
. 508
Gardiner's Phrases
. 509
Poems in Hazlitt's Collection
. 510
The Verbs
»
. 511
XXIV
CONTENTS.
A.D.
PAGE
1546 The Foreign words ....
. 512
1548 Thieves' Slang ; Carew ; Turner's Book
. 513
Latimer's Sermons ....
. 514
• The Foreign words ....
. 515
Old Customs .....
. 516
Leland ; Bale's Play ....
. 517
Patten's Account of Somerset's March .
. 518
The Foreign words ....
. 519
Scotch Phrases of the Time .
. 520
1649 The Church Homilies
. 521
Teutonic element in Poetry
. 522
The English Prayer Book .
. 623
1550 Lever's Sermons ....
. 524
1551 Archbishop Hamilton's Catechism
. 525
Dodsley's Plays ; Hutchinson . :
. 526
The Romance words ....
. 527
Ty tier's Documents ....
. 528
Wood's Letters of Ladies . . . .
. 529
Gresham ; Coverdale ; Robinson's Utopia
. 530
Word from the Dutch
. 531
1555 Cavendish, his Life of VVolsey
. 532
The Romance words ....
. 633
Machyn's Diaiy ......
. 634
Eden's Translations . . .
. 535
The Romance words
. 536
Tytler's Documents . . . . .
. 537
1557 Tusser's earliest Poem . . % .
. 538
1558 Knox; Foxe's Martyrs . . . .
. 539
The Substantives
. 540
Imp^ shrovd, handbook
. 541
The Adjectives ......
. 542
The Pronouns
. 643
The Verbs
. 544
Scramble, flirt, cross . . . . .
. 545
Ridley's Northern Phrase . . . .
. 546
The Adverbs
. 547
CONTENTS,
XXV
A.D.
1558 The Foreign words
Manure, canvass, antic
PAGE
. 548
. 549
Touch, promoter, varlet
Latin and Greek words
Cannibal, black guard .
Old English words and form
s
. 550
. 551
. 552
. 553
Foxe^s curious notions .
. 554
Arber's Narratives
. 555
Sea Phrases
. 556
1560 Becon ; Jewel
. 557
Pilkington's Sermons .
1562 Hey wood's Epigrams .
The Substantives, Verbs
. 558
. 559
. 560
The later Homilies
. 561
Stow*s Works
. 662
Play of Appius and Virginia
1566 Gammer Gurton's Needle
. 563
. 564
1567 Damon and Pithias
. 565
Cambyses . . .
Ellis's Letters
. 566
. 567
Gresham's Letters
. 568
The Foreign words
1565 CalfhiU's Treatise
. 569
. 570
The Komance words .
. 571
Ascham's Schoolmaster
. 572
The Romance words .
. 573
1561 Awdeley on Vagabonds
1567 Harman on Thieves .
1 '
. 574
. 575
The Romance words .
• »
. 576
Grindal ; Partridge
1570 Carew ; Levins .
Tarlton ; Lambarde's Kent
. 577
. 578
. 579
The Foreign words
Old words .
. 580
. 581
1673 Googe; Tusser's Poem
The Substantives
. 582
. 583
XXVI CONTENTS.
KAi.
PAGE
1573 The Verbs
• • • 1
. 584
Foreign words, Proverbs
• • ■ i
. 585
Gascoign's Poems
• • • 4
. 586
The Foreign words
• • •
. 587
1576 His Steel Glass .
• • •
. 588
The Foreign words
• • •
. 589
Harvey's Letters
• • • <
. 590
Hooker
• • •
. 591
Treatise on Dogs .
• • •
. 592
The Foreign words
• • •
. 593
1577 HaiTison's Description of
England
. 594
The Adjectives, Verbs
• • «
. 595
The Foreign words
• • • 4
. 596
Old Customs
• ■ •
. 597
Stanyhurst's Description (
)f Ireland
. 598
The Foreign words
• • •
. 599
1582 His Translation of Virgil
• • •
. 600
The Substantives
• • • «
. 601
The Verbs
• « • 1
. 602
The Foreign words
• • •
. 603
1579 Gosson's School of Abuse
• • • 1
. 604
Lyly*s Euphues .
• • • 4
. 605
The Nouns
• • • •
. 606
The Verbs
• • •
. 607
The Foreign words
• • •
. 608
Constitution, sot, precise
• • •
. 609
Proverbs .
• • • «
. 610
1581 Sidney's Sonnets
• • •
. 611
Bamaby Riche .
• • • fl
. 612
His Romance words .
• • • 4
. 613
1583 Stubbes's Anatomy of Abuses
. 614
The Romance words .
• • •
. 615
Fulke's Defence of the English Bible .
. 616
The Romance words .
• • •
. 617
He objects to French English
. 618
1585 Puttenham's Art of English Poesy
. 619
CONTENTS,
A.D.
1586 The Foreign words
The Diction of the Bible
Its influence
It promotes union with Scotland
Great Prose Writers of this Age
Mulcaster's opinion of English
xxvii
PAGE
620
621
622
623
624
625
THE NEW ENGLISH.
CHAPTEE I.
I THINK the English tongue, from first to last, may be
divided into the ten following parts :—
(1) 400-95t). (Pure English, with hardly any ad-
mixture of Danish or Latin.)
(2) 950-1120. (Much admixture of Danish in the
North and East of the Kingdom.
Loss of thousands of Old English
poetic words.)
(3) 1120—1220. (Loss of old inflexions, especially in
the North and East ; also change
in the construction of sentences.)
(4) 1220-1280. (The most disastrous of all periods.
Loss of the power of compound-
ing, and of hundreds of Teutonic
prose words ; the upper class dis-
card English for FrencL)
(5) 1280-1362. (Translation of French romances and
inroad of hundreds of French
words to supply the loss of
Teutonic words. In 1303 the
first well-formed specimen of New
English appears.)
(6) 1362-1474. (A new Standard of English, much
akin to the model of 1303, is
spoken at Court. It is, as yet,
militant, since many dialects are
spoken in the different shires.)
VOL. I. B
THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
(7) 1474-1586. (The new Standard is triumphant in
all the shires south of Trent.
The Printing press and the Refor-
mation seem to fix the language.)
(8) 1586-1660. (The Golden Age of English litera-
ture j prose becomes much more
involved.)
(9) 1660-1750. (The Age of the great Satirists; a
plainer style in prose prevails.)
(10) 1750-1886. (Dr. Johnson infects English prose,
and his evil influence is lasting.
The Good style of the former
period, and the Bad later style,
or Johnsonese, are alike seen in
our day.)
In my former work, I stopped at 1310, to include that
great landmark, Robert of Brunne's early writings. I now
call attention to certain other works of this period — works
in which the English is not so well formed as it was in
the neighbourhood of Rutland. Salop will be very pro-
minent in this chapter; here Northern and Southern English
seem to meet The number of new French words is always
increasing, and the Teutonic element is very slowly
diminishing. From 1290 to 1350 the proportion of
Teutonic nouns, verbs, and adverbs that are now obsolete
is 3 out of 50; from 1350 to 1400 this proportion be-
comes 2 out of 50; from 1400 to 1450 it becomes 1 out
of 50 ; after the last-named year it is hardly worth while
counting. In these calculations we must always set aside
Alliterative poems.
I first cast a glance at the English pieces between 1303
and 1320. Two of these, assigned to Friar Michael of
Kildare, are printed in Mr. FumivaH's 'Philological Society'
publication, p. 152 ; these give us some idea of the dialect
of the Irish Pale soon after 1300. The old 'pawd had
appeared as jpecocic in the Alexander ; it is here written
poiicok, p. 153 ; a curious instance of d, when coupled with
w, being corrupted into ou. The noun hrewester appears,
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 3
which now survives only as a proper name ; we hear of
the coking-stole. In p. 156 stands makUh glad (merry) ;
here the pronoun you is dropped after the verb. In p.
153 stands the new phrase soch an olpir, referring to a pre-
vious noun. There is put it in writte (writing), p. 154 ;
we have also the phrase drink dep, p. 156, and the verb
house (booze), p. 154. We see to supplant the old 0]?, in
wading up to ]>e chymie, p. 161. There is the Scandinavian
noun slete^ p. 157. The French words are ditee (ditty),
draperie, avoir-de-peise, pinch, pillori, poding, sioun (scion),
randvm, (random), consonant, vowel. Birds are cooked in stu,
p. 159 j here the French estuve is clipped; we see the con-
nexion between stove and stew.
In a piece printed in the ' Keliquise Antiquse,' il 1 77, the
verb cast is employed for prcedestinare ; hence our forecast.
There is also lollai, addressed to a babe, whence comes
Mlaby, There is a poem by Michael of Kildare, in the
same book, ii. 190 j here we see the noun thin ovie going,
replacing the old vigang.
In ii. 119 comes another poem of this time ; here we see
the sound ou replacing I, iox fewt4 stands for fealty, p. 120 ;
thus the French turned col into cou. There had been an
Old English word hafenleas (inops), pointing to some such
word as hafen (victus) — this is slightly changed in p. 119 ;
povere is myn having ; havour was to come later. We see
the phrase good fdawe in p. 121, here meaning simply that
Christ made Himself our equal. Something is kept under
a lok, p. 121, a new use of the preposition. There is in
hap (fortasse), p. 121, the source of Lydgate's^rAap5. The
interjection ho/ appears in p. 120, meaning satis ; to cry
ho / was embodied in the English Bible by Coverdale long
afterwards ; hence our carter's wo-ho I We see the French
word riflom (robber). In p. 121 Cristendom stands, not as
formerly for Christian faith, but for all Christian kingdoms.
There is a long list of English words, with their French
equivalents, dating from this time; they are printed in
*Keliqui8B Antiquae,' ii. 78. The ow is clipped, for andeow
becomes anJcel (ankle), a Scandinavian form of the word.
The 0 replaces u, for we see holting-cloth : it replaces a, as
4 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
gode (goad). The old dodges cage is pared down to dayseie.
The former lawerce now becomes larke ; in Scotland it be-
came lauerc^ laverc, la/veroc. The Old English cerlice (char-
lock) is here written szerlok, showing how the proper name
Sherlock arose. The greatest change is navegar into
nauger, afterwards to become auger ; here the v was mis-
taken for u. The d is added, for the old fealefor is seen as
feldefare (fieldfare). The former dweorg appears as dweruf
(dwarf), the / replacing g. The es is added to the old poCy
and pokes ( = veroles) appears.
Among the new substantives are woddekoc, mahssing-fate
(mash-tub). We see pinnes named as part of a cart's
gear.
There is the new verb qmk (of a duck).
The words akin to the Dutch and German are heckle (a
word well known in Scotch politics), and siss, which here
replaces the old hiss.
The Scandinavian words SLve flake, to slaver, splintery kidneiy
and he-litter (the French enfaunter). Here belongs the first
syllable of titemosey which is also found ; we see the noun
laTie with its French translation venel — the latter word is
still used in Scotch towns.
The French words at this time adopted into England,
are core, crikety gules, flute, chiri (cherry). There is aimd
himeSy p. 84, our andirons; the French andier simulating a
Teutonic ending. In the same page the French purceus
appears in English as porceaus (porkers). Our English knel
in p. 79 is translated by the French apel, showing whence
comes a peal of bells. The word raion appears instead of
the old rat ; hence Dandie Dinmont talks of rotUms, Our
garters, written garthors in p. 79, are derived from the
Picard gartier rather than from the literary French jarretier.
English was now coming once more into use, when con-
tracts were to be put in writing. There are the statutes
of two Norwich Gilds, drawn up in 1307 (Early English
Text Society), where we see ]>e dede used as in the ffand-
lyng Synne, without the word man following. The word
gilde is employed in the two senseSy payment and brotherhood,
p. 122. There is the phrase go to law ; and the foreign
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 5
words ■ dirige (dirge), p. 20, Tnesse of requiem, letterede
(learned). We see the phrase, to refuse office, p. 21.
In the Eeligious and Love Poems (Early English Text
Society), p. 221, there is a piece written about this time,
and transcribed fourscore years later. We here have both
the forms rotelen and ratden (rattle) applied to the throat
and the teeth. There is rwuth longe gon (not long ago) ;
Shoreham has almost the same phrase.
There are some poems, mostly Southern, ranging be-
tween 1302 and 1311, in the Political Songs printed by
the Camden Society. King Edward I. is highly praised,
and appears as " he with the longe shonkes," p. 223. The
e replaces u% as gerland (garland) for the French guirlande.
The i ov y replaces e and ce, as in clink and typeth (tippet).
The u replaces o, as in jpur'pos, the French propos-. We see
the proper name Hohhe, not the HoheTdn of Gloucestershire ;
we read of Cheepe, the great London thoroughfare, p. 221.
There are the new nouns pUfcUl and clasp. The custom,
imitated from France, is seen of placing the before a sur-
name, as The Bruytz (Bruce). Many new adjectives are
here formed by adding less to a noun, as nameless, ruthless,
permyless. This revived fashion was now coming in.
Among the verbs we remark the expletive, so mote ich
the/ (so may I thrive) which lasted down to 1550. In p.
222 a person laketh a day — that is, says aktck a day / the
word alack is not found by itself until near 1450. In p.
219 a wager is y-bate, perhaps the first use of the verb bet,
which did not reappear for ages. In p. 187 Frenchmen
beaten in war are said to be bought am,d sold; a phrase
applied afterwards to Eichard III. The verb clap gets
the new meaning pulsare — heads are clapped off; hence our
"clap on the back." There is the verb hoder (our huddle),
akin to the German ; also the Scandinavian filck
The English ballad-maker shows sound Teutonic patriot-
ism when he chuckles over the Flemish victory over the
common enemy at Paris ; still he sprinkles his poem with
long French phrases. He has a pun on the word coning,
the name of the Flemish leader, connecting it with the
French word for rabbit, our cony. He talks of the com-
6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
mime, an awful word in France in 1871. The French
fonn hastifliche is preferred to the Teutonic hastUiche.
The verb charge gets Joinville's new sense of jvhere. There
is the noun hot, our hut. In the French poem (p. 293) we
see the word rascaylle (common soldiers), which was to
bear a far baser meaning in England 250 years later.
There is a Southern piece, compiled about this time,
called * King Solomon's Book of Wisdom,' printed along
with Adam Davy's poems (Early English Text Society).
Here we see newf angel, p. 83, a word afterwards used by
Chaucer. The preposition for is employed to denote
change ; Uleve olde for newe, p. 83. The word salary appears
in the same paga
In the specimens of lijiic Poetry (Percy Society) are
some that seem to date from about the year 1310, as we
see by the great proportion of French words. The form
morewening (morning), p. 60, was peculiar at this time to
the south and west of England ; and the unusual nam (ivit),
p. 96, points to a Southern shire near the place where the
* King Horn ' was compiled. The tmto (usque ad) was a
thoroughly Northern form ; and here we see the old in to,
p. 89. The French words are gingivre, incens, piete (not
pity), also the verb coimseU, p. 95.
There are the statutes of a Lynne Gild, drawn up in
1316 (English Gilds, Early English Text Society). Among
the new French words are deen (dean), attoume (attorney),
galown, fawty, an ohit, excTisadoun.
William de Shoreham (Percy Society), a Kentish reli-
gious poet, wrote about 1320. He has the form ia for ea
as in the Kentish treatise of 1290; thus diath appears.
He supplants the single e by a, as in harkne (hearken).
He uses e like the Salopians, where Northern England
employed i, and Southern England m/ as in senne (sin),
j[n'ede (pride), mery, and other words ; medlen (meddle), is
used for the Icelandic miSla. In fri and nides, i replaces
e, and foreshadows our present pronunciation. In ele
(oleum) and anelien, the Old English form is preferred to
the more usual French oile ; but the latter is also used by
the poet. The former manhdd now becomes manhod ; with
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 7
us the Southern "hood at the end of a word has almost
always ousted the Northern head. The ou supplants 0 in
fovl (fool), goud^ roude, just as we now pronounce these
words. The anui of the * Ancren Eiwle ' is written anoye,
p. 36. The old raw (series) is found both as rowe and rewe^
just as the two sounds Douk and Dewh (dux) long ran on
side by side. The ydropd of the * Cursor Mundi ' is now
pared down to dropesy, p. 113. The b is struck out, for
cUmme stands for the old clirribe, p. 3. When we see
many our (manger), p. 122, we have a most curious instance
of y supplanting the soft g. The old bruchd (fragilis) is
supplanted by brotel, our brittle. The verb bensy (p. 50)
for benedicere is a remarkable English contraction. The
banns of marriage appear in p. 71, where they are ygred
(cried); also gossibrede, p. 68, so well known in the Irish
statute-book. The noun bleddre is used in p. 2, where we
should now put blimder. The vocative, many is often used
throughout the poem, addressed to the reader. There
are new verbs like hishopy bewUchy bistow (coUocare), bytrmth
(betroth), come aho^ (evenire), dra'^ mto mende (call to
mind). These are the new phrases go a pylgrymage, tyde
what bytyde, p. 107; here the verb is repeated, and the
what stands for whatsoever ; this led to Chaucer's be as be
may. In the phrase wytn&sse Cryst, p. 74, be (sit) is dropped
In p. 64 a particular betrothal will not healde (hold) ; here
the verb is used intransitively. In p. 99 a man may com-
mit theft by wordes that he craketh — that is, falsely utters —
a new sense of the verb ; our schoolboys still speak of
rneridacium as a cracker. The cla{p (pulsare) takes the new
sense of loquiy p. 135 ; clack was to come later. The
past participle agOy first found in Dorset in 1240, is now
applied to time, where a Northern man would have used
sin; nau^t fern agOy "not far ago,'* p. 103. The word
nothing is used for the old nxmght (not) : something is
nothynge loudcy p. 33 ; hence the later nothing loth. The
French bien seems to have led to the new address, Wei,
brother, p. 11. There is a new use of it in p. 16, hou is
hit (that) there bethe so fele? here, moreover, we see the
close connexion between how and why; they are both
8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
instromental cases of wha. The of is now used after verbs
of sense, as in the 'Cursor Mundi;' a word smakdh of
God, p. 48. In p. 109 Satan is called myx (stereos) of
alle myxe ; this foreshadows our '' heart of hearts," and is
a continuation of the '' right he loved of all things," to be
found in the ' Havelok.' There is the new phrase in tokne
that. The attempt at translating the French guSy seen in
the ' Cursor Mundi,' is repeated ; wot the was wo / p. 88 ;
in p. 125 there is another rendering of the que, 0 thai hy
were hlythe ! (0 how blithe they were !)
It is curious to remark how early Northern phrases
found their way into the South, a process that never
ceased We see, in this Kentish writer, Omnin's Weak
Perfect wepte, and the very Scandinavian whatsomevere.
The Northern bard's dwell has travelled down into Kent,
and seems to mean habitare, not morariy in p. 19. There
is the verb i-lykned (similatus) akin to the German ; and
our waver, the Icelandic vafra, is seen in p. 16. By the
side of these new words stands such a form as propheiene,
p. 92, showing how the old Grenitive Plural, long dropped
in the North, lingered on in Kent; where also eadie (beatus)
clings to life, before altogether disappearing.
The new French words are many. The old regnerdon
takes its English form reward, p. 97. Shoreham prefers
the form crouche (hence, Crouchback, a crusader) to the
other forms of cruc-em, croice or cross. The new chalice
supplants the ca^w? of the 'AncrenEiwle/ and corps replaces
core. Instead of stint of, we find cesse of, followed by a
noun, p. 96, whence comes leave off. The word after had
hitherto expressed secrmdum as well as post; but Shoreham
brings in the form acordaunt to, p. 89, which is now most
common with us ; here a French phrase is used to lessen
the weight formerly thrown upon one English preposition ;
this process has been since carried far. In mercy and miseri-
corde, p. 43, the learned author shows that he can bring
in Latin forms as well as French. In p. 56 a mass priest
is called a mynystre; this word was very long in rooting
itself in England. In p. 96 we hear of an auditour of
accounts. There is the new phrase here aryst (arose) qv£s-
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 9
^
/ww, p. 166. The French form coni/rait, not contract,
appears ; and also ewe, showing how eau was once sounded
in France. I have akeady remarked upon Bewly or
Beavlieu Abbey, The former eidl is now replaced by
fynegre, our vinegar ; here one French word supplanted
another. The word soverayn, which we were to make so
much use of, appears to have been employed in Kent
alone at this time ; it is also found in the ^ Ayenbite of
Inwyt/ twenty years later. We now see admynysiraciounf
array, to stanch, caracter, cantle, myrour, oryginal, grain,
chisel ; the adjective sodem is made an adverb by attaching
the Teutonic liche to it. There is ententiflyche and also the
verb atende to, two different forms. A man is concluded in
a dispute, p. 106 ; hence our slang shut up ; he no longer
I'ues a sin, but repents of it, p. 154. All these French
forms show us how the clergy at this time, like the two
other learned professions, loved to wrap up their mysteries
in a tongue far removed from vulgar ken. We feel the
disastrous effects of the policy of Manning, Shoreham,
Hampole, and their fellows, to this day.
There is a well-known poem, of some length, compiled
about 1321, on the miseries of England under Edward II.
(Political Songs, Camden Society). It seems to be due to
a Salopian bard : we see the Active participle in &nde; there
is uch (quisque), which was long one of the marks of this
shire ; there are both the Northern thei and the Southern
thitk; and Orrmin's peculiar overgart, which, moreover,
occurs in another Salopian piece. There is a curious
passage in p. 336 ; we hear that if the king sends for nine
or ten recruits from some town, " the stiffest " (strongest)
are allowed to remain at home on paying ten or twelve
shillings, while helpless wretches are enlisted, the counter-
parts to "most forcible Feeble."
The a replaces e, as parson (a true Salopian form), not
persons, p. 326 j and a distinction seems to be drawn
between him and the priest. The old mor (palus) is now
written mure, our moor. The French hissel is altered into
our bmshel. There are the new substantives daffe^ (stultus)
* Can our duffer come from this ?
lo THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
formed from gedoefte (humilis); sheepish and svmple have
undergone the like degradation. Meanwhile doefte (con-
veniens) survives in deft^ with a meaning most opposite to
the Scotch daft. We hear of the heie wey, and Godes man,
(a man of God). Men murder each other wid wUle, p. 343 ;
hence our "do it with a will." The word girles, p. 337,
means children both male and female. There is the new
adjective unwelcome; shrewed has from a Past Participle
become an adjective ; whence the adverb shrewedlich (mal6)
is formed in p. 326.
The old indefinite man was now dying out, and a substitute
had to be found ; so we see theih wolen bigile the (te), p. 339,
where the last word stands for all mankind. A bragging
squire is said in p. 336 to make it stout — that is, to lord it;
this is a new use of the it which was to be much developed
sixty years later.
We see the verb wagge used both transitively and in-
transitively in pp. 332 and 333. A m&n piketh up food, in
p. 334 ; there are phrases like wel farende (faring) folk
(pinguis) j hu the silver goth (runs away). The up to dotm of
Gloucester now becomes up-so-doun, p. 335, whence came
upside doum 200 years later. There is a new use of at ;
wheat is at foure shillinges, p. 341 ; here some verb like
priced must be dropped.
The Scandinavian words are deie {ancilla, whence came
dairy), bote (ocrea), der^e (caritas).
The French words are taxacion, quarter (of 5^eat), soup,
furred, to institute. In p. 327 we read of a woman kacching
a mate ; a kind of sporting not obsolete in our day. A
priest serves a chapel, p. 327 ; men are served (treated) in a
particular way, p. 330. We see in p. 336 the origin of
" the cut of his clothes ;" we there read of " a newe taille
(fashion) of squierie;" this last word stands for squire's
state. In the same page nurture represents our "good
breeding," a sense of the word that lasted long. One
stanza is directed against barristers, "countoars that
stondeth at the barre;" another against attorneys, p. 339.
In p. 344 assisours are denounced, who come to shire and
hundred (the courts so named), and take bribes; these
I. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 1 1
men are needy, and a distinction is drawn between them
and the rich Justice. One of the most remarkable things
in this piece is the Eomance preposition de set before a
Teutonic verb ; deskatered stands in p. 337 ; it may be that
the de was mistaken for Teutonic to (dis).
In *Eeliquiae Antiquse/ i. 266, we see the phrase casten
drynhe; hence comes "cast a shoe." In p. 291 there is
an amusing piece on music lessons, probably East Anglian ;
here we find the old geac (simpleton) replaced by goke^
whence comes gawky. Some notes of music are com-
pared to a fleshoke ; we compare writing to pothooks.
There is the technical phrase, to hold a note in riht ton ;
afterwards come?, to tuch a note. We hear of the Cesolfa
(sij sol, fa). The verb look adds the sense of videri to that
of videre ; I loke as a lurdeyn, p. 291.
There are some other pieces of this time in * Keliquiae
Antiquse,' ii. 19, 225, and 241. We have already seen
Tuesday written for Teusday in Gloucestershire ; we now
find hoe and floe written for heo and flso ; the uche (quisque)
replaces ech, much as clujpe and hulies had already replaced
clepe and hxlg in the Severn country. There is the new
phrase ^Zay a game, p. 241 j and the new verb hill, applied
to a bird, p. 20. The old soru gives birth to a new noun
soroufolnesse, p. 226. There is ahakward, p. 228, which
was soon to have its first syllable clipped. There is a new
use of the preposition for in p. 19; " Christ save her, for
the fairest may that I ever met ! " here in former times
some such phrase as since I hold her must have come before
the for ; it is equivalent to as heing. There is the verb
kLsh, which is akm to the German ; a man lashes out Latin,
p. 242 j we talk of a horse lashing out. There is the Celtic
rihan (ribbon). The new French words are sing by rote,
rave, enke om (inkhom) ; here enke replaces the French encre.
In another piece of this time, 'Reliquiae Antiquse,' i. 168,
we find fesant henne and fesant cocke, a new way of dis-
tinguishing genders. The keying of a forest is given to a
man, and his dogs are specified.
The * Metrical Homilies,' printed by Mr. Small, seem to
have been compiled in the North about 1320. They have
12 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
much in common with the ^Cursor Mandi;' there are phrases
like overman, squeal, lass, the adverb fair, wherefore and why,
hou vjU (shall) we com, and many other tokens of the
North ; the phrase qua was wrathe hut he? reminds us of
the Tristrem. We find an usage, often repeated by Chaucer;
that of making a rime of two words, spelt in the same way,
if they express different ideas; thus, in p. 131, Elisha
addresses Gehazi —
** Forthi that Godd Naaman helid (sanavit),
Toe thou gift, and sithen it helid (celavisti). "
There is a proverb in p. 167 —
*' 6ot qua sa leses fra hinging
Thef, or bringes up funding (foundling),
Of nauther getes he mensc ne mede. "
The * or y is clipped at the end of a word ; we find
viker (vicar), and Anton; the Scandinavian ras (cursus)
is preferred to the Old English roes. The old deye (mori) is
now altered into dye. The hard h of the North replaces
the French ch in Icemes (a shift), a word that had long been
naturalised in England. The ness is added to an adjective,
as ugliness. We have seen kin amd hyth in the 'Cursor
Mundi,' where the last word may still mean patria, as of
old ; the two nouns seem to have been so coupled together,
that they were mistaken for synonyms; in p. 108 Christ
is lost on the road by His parents, who search for Him
imang thair kith ; Lady Nairne has the same mistake in her
poems; may we meet neighbours, kith and km/ In p. 139
we see the word corsing, which here means iLSury ; later,
it might mean trading; Scott calls Blount "a sworn horse-
corser," In p. 55 St. James speaks of a pilgrim to Com-
postella as "his man;" the town is called Sain Jamis, in
the Genitive, no noun following ; this way of dealing with
proper names is something new. We see the nedes of his
house in p. 80 ; this is the first appearance of the Plural
of need. There is the noun inlate (inlet). The Present
participle of cunnwn (scire) is made an adjective in p. 93 ;
this cv/nnand became cmming thirty years later.
As to pronouns, the Eeflexive Dative, himm ane (solus),
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 13
had been used by Orrmin ; this is altered, the construction
being mistaken, into the genitive hys ane^ p. 69 ; whence
comes the Scotch corruption, his lane, her lane.
In p. 107 the Virgin holds (keeps) house in Nazareth.
There is the new phrase how thaty following a verb,
where the that is not wanted ; the same change took place
in German.
There is the Scandinavian verb mistake.
The French words are Iwrdan, surjpHs, miscarry, dongoun
(career). Christ, we are told in p. 66, was bom in a
poor pentiT, ; this word, two centuries later, was turned
into pent house. There is the new phrase, " to be deliverd
of her child," p. 63.
There is a poem on the Assumption, dating from about
1320, contained in the *King Horn' (Early English Text
Society), p. 75. We here see by and by, meaning statim,
p. 85, its sense for the next 200 years. There is the
curious evelt4 more than once, p. 87 ; a Komance ending is
once more tacked on to a Teutonic root
The (rottingen version of the * Cursor Mundi ' may have
been drawn up about 1320 ; the transcriber, who has added
a little to his original, gives us his name, p. 979.
" Special! for me 3e pray
i>at }>is bock gart dight,
Jonn of Lindbergh, I 3u sai
]>at es mi name ful right."
He was a Northern man, and he keeps many old words
that had to be altered by the later Lancashire and Southern
transcribers. Sometimes he adopts a Southern form, as
when he exchanges the'pen for \ennis (thence), p. 1 7.
Older Version, Oottingen,
Lavedi Lady,
on lang in lenth.
sterns sterris (stars),
kything knawlag.
])ai )>at ))0S >at.
yepe sly.
alle blnrded all lourid.
sue]}elband snadiling band,
scath harm,
licam bodi.
14 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Older Version, OoUingen,
)>ou es man )>u art man.
pur man simple man.
never forperward never mor forward.
Sometimes the sense of a passage is mistaken altogether,
as in line 4288. There is the phrase "evil pack," p. 135,
where the word adds the meaning of turba to its old sense
of sardna. There \& justify in the Scotch sense (do justice),
p. 17. Th&form dais of the older text is here altered into
the brand-new former dais, p. 627. The verb allow may
now take a dative ; the old alou mi wU (praise my will), p.
1146, now becomes alou Trie mi ml (give me credit for my
will), marking a change in the meaning of the French
verb.
In the Statutes of the Lynne Gild of 1329 (Early
English Text Society), we see make god (good) his entrees,
p. 63 ; also the preposition by used as an agent, for the
first time I think, since the *Blickling Homilies j' this
was soon to be repeated in the 'Ayenbite;' provyd be
men, p. 63. There are also the new words sufficient and
p-ofethabU,
I take from Dr. Murray's dictionary two phrases dating
from this time, " aleft he smot and aright ; " our right and
left. The old genitive alra (omnium) was now so little
understood that we find " the cdthrest fairest sete."
The Auchinleck poems (Weber's * Metrical Romances ')
seem to have been compiled about 1330, most likely in
Salop. We find the fer (ignis) of that shire, and there is
a mixture of Southern and Northern forms. In the * Amis
and Amiloun ' (ii. 369) stands chepeing toun, p. 440 ; which
shows how Chipping Norton got its name ; Orrmin, much
earlier, had used chepeing before another noun. English
was now trying to express foreign titles ; in p. 420 stands
Mi lord the DouJce, There is the alliterative wele and wo,
Schvlder-blade is first found in p. 426, and brotherhed comes
in p. 384 ; the latter means brotherly love; in earlier times
it had meant a gild.
Among the adjectives stands the com^2ira,tiye frendeleser ;
as strange a form as the sorf viler of the * Cursor Mundi.'
I.J THE NEW ENGLISH, 15
Layamon's hd and hceil is changed in p. 462 ; hayl arid
hole (sanus et integer). In p. 416 stands we be liche; here
"one to another" is omitted. In p. 468 we see faire ded
(fairly dead) ; here our word for jmlchrh slides into the
sense of omnino; fair had been used for satis in 1220.
As to verbs, in p. 469 stands wo-Ugon; the last part
of the word being the Past Participle of the old begangan
(circumdare). There is the phrase bid (beg) our bread.
The preposition aboid is here turned into an adverb, as
we saw in Shoreham ; Amoraunt bar his lord about, p. 446.
The alaSf for shame of the ' Cursor Mundi ' (where the for
translates ob) now becomes simply /or schame, p. 420.
This piece being probably a Salopian poem, we are not
surprised at meeting a new Celtic verb, pour, which first
appears here. The French words are habergeon, noricerie
(nursery), stay (manere). The verb aprove (testari) is in p.
402, and shows us the origin of our legal word approver.
The Lay Le Freine, one of the Auchinleck Romances,
is in Weber, i. 358. The ge is pared away; for getmn
becomes tuin (geminus). There are the phrases gret vMh
chUde, all the winter-long night, p. 362 ; ^e-long was to
come later). The adjective melche is formed from milk,
p. 364 j hence a milch cow. There is take mi chaunce ;
come is followed by an Infinitive, p. 367, when y com to
have it.
To the county of Salop the *Eomance of the Seven
Sages ' (Weber, iii.) seems to belong ; though the first five
pages and the last forty-five have been taken from another
version of the poem, — a Northern one. There are the new
Salopian terms, sweting and upsodoun; also the Salopian e for
i or u, as kess, pelt, geltif ; there is the Midland active par-
ticiple in end ; niman is used for the Latin ire, as in the West
Midland. There are the Northern sket and the Southern
thUk, the Northern must and the Southern mot (oportet),
tokens of the Great Sundering Line. The 0 becomes ou, for
the old rop (clamor) appears as roupe, p. 47, a word still
in Scotch use. The 5 is added to a word ; as Geraes, our
James, for the former Jame, The ch replaces k, when we
find skriche (screech) for the old skrika ; we still keep both
i6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
screech and shrieL The n is docked, for we find cMkc^ not
chicken, p. 84. The n is preserved in the Salopian gravmt-
mercySy p. 38 ; but it is struck out in the Northern
gramercy, p. 130.
There are the new substantives barli water, dunghill, sea-
side ; there is the new gade, applied to an unwise woman in
p. 102 ; whence perhaps our jade. The adverb is placed
before the noun, for the sake of brevity ; as, thi to-nightes
meting (dream), p. 93. The substantive qualifies the adjec-
tive, as, stanestUl, p. 141. A substantive replaces a verb,
sua, my tuil es to dine, p. 146 ; also, thai war m imll to solas
tham, p. 135.
Among the adjectives we find blind so ston (stone-blind);
there is free stone, p. 118; one of the oldest senses of free was
lordly ; free mason was yet to come. The word good is used
in a new sense in p. 87 ; thou comest hither for no gode.
The old comparative ddre or vMre is now changed into
alder, our older, p. 143.
Among the verbs we remark a new construction of
shall : it replaces the old is to, with the Infinitive ; thy loverd
schol make a fed, p. 72 (purposes to do it). The old mun
can still express the future, and not necessity; see p. 110.
The Auxiliary verb may now stand by itself without any
infinitive following ; a man is bidden to avenge his son ;
he answers, so ich schal, p. 106. This so is equivalent to
thai (id ipsum). We have seen the curious Old English
construction with shovld, where should come stands for our
cams ; this is now transferred to Interrogative sentences ;
who schvlde beget him bvl the king ? in answer to a question
as to paternity, p. 42. There is a strange repetition in p.
119; " into the toure the knight gan gane " (did go). There
are phrases like m^ke redy, make msri, make a bed, make moche
to done (ado), p. 73 ; go about to do it, hold thy peace, is it
comen therto ? (to this point), p. 47. The Intransitive bleed
takes an accusative ; blede thre disch-fol (dishfuls), p. 75.
The welcome is now followed by an Infinitive ; thai war wel-
kfum to sqjom, etc., p. 146. The Scandinavian verb untnen
makes way for the new witness (testari), p. 28. The verb
bob (ferire) gets the new sense of dedpere, p. 87 ; lago bobs
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 17
jewels from his dupe much later. In p. 103 we have
^^'pVak up thin herte." The Old and New constructions
often stand close together ; in p. 114 we have the old fonn,
him dremyd of it; in p. 113 stands, the lady dremyd an
thoght, etc. In the Northern version, p. 109, there is a
peculiar use of hope for putare ; svm hoped he war the fend
of hell ; so we often now use / eaypect for ptdo.
Among the adverbs are how so? what then? thereat, . The
stille (adhuc) in p. 60 was as yet peculiar to the North of
England. The hiMe in p. 64 is used in the Northern
sense of vsqiis ad. To balance this, in the very next page
there is a Salopian use of til for the Latin dtim ; " I shall
never see thee ^iZ I live;" this is repeated in Piers Plough-
man, and in the poem on Freemasonry.
The preposition to now follows do; treachery is i-don to
a bird in p. 89.
There is the verb flap, akin to a Dutch word ; and the
Scandinavian forcrasen (frangere), p. 30, whence comes
crazy. There is ako the Scandinavian crake (corniz) which
survives in cornrcraJce.
Among the French words are gardin, corfu (curfew),
saucer, guest (inquest), female. There are the Interjections
haro! Andfiyfi! p. 63 ; the old datheit appears for almost
the last time in p. 93 ; there is the courtly sauve your grace/
used to an Emperor, p. 28. The word mater is used for
importance; a thing of gret mater, p. 77, The word sure
appears in make them seur of, p. 79. We find beves fiesch,
p. 44; the former word is preserved in our Bibles. A
Teutonic and a Eomance word are coupled in eld age
(senectus), p. 22. A Teutonic word takes a Eomance end-
ing, as geltif (guilty), p. 34 ; we have already seen bond-age.
There is a curious French idiom in p. 27, that he war an-
honge (let him be hanged) ; our fathers always found the
que too much for them. Another French idiom is imitated
in p. 21 ; a command is given, and the one word bletMiche
(volontiers) is answered. A knight asks a lady what chere
she made, p. 121 ; see also p. 149 ; both of these passages
occur in the Northern version of the poem, and refer to the
mind, not to the body. The word boi4 in p. 39 means
VOL. I. c
1 8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
camifex, not fuer; it had already occurred in the 'Havelok' ^
We see the Teutonic hoi (puer) in p. 53.
I have already remarked on one and the same word being
used as a rime, if it expresses two different meanings ; in
p. 47 we have
*' Dame, he saide, pluk up thi cher,
Other tel me whi thou makest swich cher."
Here the first cher means " courage j " the second means
" sad countenance."
Other poems of the Auchinleck manuscript may be read
in Horstmann's * Altenglische Legenden/ pp. Ivii and 242.
The French herher becomes erber^ our arbouVy p. Ivii.
There is the new phrase mani a moder chUd, p. 253 ;
whence comes " every mother^s son,^* There is the very old
form alp (elephas), p. 248. A body is beaten bio and bloc,
p. 248 ; in the next Century this was to become blaJc and
blew. There is a new use of manner ; a man does things
on (in) his best maner, p. 246 ; hence a painter's earliest
manner. There is the Adjective joUes (joyless) ; also lorer
tre (laurus). In a rather later copy of an Auchinleck
legend, on and on is altered into on be on (one by one), p.
246; row by row h&d appeared about 1200. Some other
poems in this Volume seem to belong to 1330 ; we see the
compound longe tayled, p. 332 ; there is the form ]>ou doyst
(not 6^05^ or dest)^ p. 333. The verb daier is used of a friar
preaching, p. 603.
Eobert Manning of Brunne, author of the * Handlyng
Synne,' translated a French historical poem into English
after 1337 ; see p. 243. ^ The unusual word aglifte (territus)
is common to the two pieces written by him ; also aim,
planJcy to-name^niman (ire), manly (fortiter); the former inter-
jection ^w^ now becomes trut! p. 317, perhaps the parent
of our tut / He appears more Northern in his dialect than
he was before, since the present poem has been altered by
^ I remember, at Rome, that the Italian servants were much tickled
with the name of Bowyer, belonging to an English visitor ; it reminded
them of their national hcja (carnifex).
2 I use Hcarne's edition.
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 19
no Southern transcriber. He uses ilky not «c^«, and the
Active participle in and. There are the Northern phrases
unto^ time and tide ; the Godes man of the ' Cursor Mundi '
here becomes Tnan of God,
He changes the French ou into e, as contreve for con-
trouver, our contrive; the form ][)reve was later very near
supplanting ^wt;g,^oz;e / we have already seen gle stand for
gleow. The word eage (oculus) now becomes i^e. What
was written mv/re in 1307 appears here as mire, taking the
new meaning of Mvm, p. 70 ; the old fenn had expressed
both lutum and palus. The new Mo had already stood for
the Teutonic bid (lividus) ; it now stands for the French
bloie (cseruleus), p. 173 ; it may represent the Old English
bleo (cseruleus). The French Jeanne appears as Jone, our
Joan ; Jane was to come later. The g is turned into w —
the Celtic Macdougal hQc^xn^ Macdowall in Galloway; more-
over the French regarder appears as reward, p. 294 j but
this last was to be soon confined to reguerdcm. The t in the
middle is struck out ; we see vanward, whence comes our
vangtiard, TheJJ> undergoes the same lot ; Su]>erei becomes
Surray, p. 16. This J? is turned into t, as sleihte for the
old sleWpe (astutia). The n is clipped ; for on flote becomes
0 flote, our afloat. The final n is clipped ; the Past Parti-
ciple risen becomes rise, whence comes " his anger is m."
The r is^ struck out; the tristre (statio) of 1220 is seen as
triste. The French ss is changed into sch, at the end of a
word, as warnische (garnish).
Among the Substantives we find his side (party), my heved
(overlord), p. 90, seen also as chefe, p. 237; peel (castellum);
castles are won, ilka stik, every stick, p. 113. The name
Jack appears, coming from Jon, Jan, Jankin, Jakkin ; it has
nothing to do with the French Jacques ; there is, moreover,
Hugh, not the Huwe of the * Havelok ; ' also the JVelshery.
The word bank is used of earthworks in besieging a town.
We have already seen go his gaie, we now find go thy ways ;
the use of the Plural is curious. The word samd (arena) is
here used in the Plural, and evese takes the awkward Plural
eveses (eaves). The old guiste of the * Havelok * is confused
with the verb bicwe]>en ; bequest is the result. The word
20 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
"holde takes a new meaning besides that of castdlmn ; we
see to have a hold (power of seizing). The old fee (pecunia)
gets the sense of prcemium. The word bond now means
fo&dus as well as vinculum. The old h'e'^e (supercilium) is
now used for the top of a hill ; Manning talks of hank ne
hr^ ; brae is a famous word in Scotland. The old blade
(folium) gets another meaning, that of lamina. The word
jfoot is now applied to measures; a fote of land, p. 140.
The word tide (tempus) expresses oestus for the first time,
I think, in p. 164; <o take the tide, where the sea is in
question. There are the feudal words vxird amd relefe, p.
214. The word clipper is used in respect of coinage, p.
238. In p. 294 a provost is called a cherle ; this word,
in Lincolnshire as well as in Kent, was becoming a term
of reproach, as had happened long before to its synonym
vUlein, The word town is added to a proper name, as in
the ' Handlyng Synne ; ' Acres toun, p. 143.
There is the phrase, bare as Job, p. 323 ; also so]> (true)
as ]>e gospelle, p. 123.
There is the term tm? body, I think for the first time.
Among the Verbs we see the promise, to live and die with a
man, p. 45; a phrase that was to be common till 1700;
the sweltan of the 'Chronicle' had here vanished. We
hear in p. 46 that men were smyten into elde (grew old);
here, I suspect, is the source of the later stricken in years.
In p. 68 stands ta]ce the lawe (appeal to, occupy) ; the of
was to be added later to this phrase. In p. 70 men upsette
saile (erigunt) ; we should now dock the up ; the Scotch
still talk of the upset price of a thing ; the sense now usually
borne by this word in Southern parts suggests down, not up.
In p. 170 one ship overreaches another — that is, "overtakes.'*
In p. 205 men letflie a quarelle (bolt). In p. 222 comes to
say longly or schorte ; hence our, " the long and short of it
is." In p. 191 stands U salle be ]>am hard, bot, etc. ; we
should say, " it shall go hard, but," etc. ; this usage of but
as quin had come in about 1300. A man is stokked (set in
the stocks), p. 121, the first reference to this punishment.
We see do his bidding, cast lots, keep the sea, I say myn avis
(mind), breke prison, I shrew you, do his devere, raise a tax,
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 21
maka all righiy hear him doun, hald his awen (own), in battle ;
lose his travail (labour) ; we say here " take trovhle for
nothing." We have already seen take flight ; a man now
takes (resorts to) the mountain ; take the field was to come a
few years later. The word carve is now applied to cunning
workmanship, when the brother of Robert Bruce is men-
tioned. There are the new Verbs rank (rankle), overrwa.
There is the phrase or (ere) come a week ; this is the source
of our "a month, come Christmas," where ere must be
dropped ; this is a phrase of the next Century.
There are the Adverbial phrases, bacward ; when he was
overe (across the stream), p. 219. The old bidon, and the
later but if ]>aty coming after a Negative, make way for but
that; none shall say, hot ]>at ^e be bou/n, iL 291.
As to Prepositions we find, at the first, prove it on him,
behind thy back, through (by) divi of ; the over is prefixed to
Romance words, as over-prest (ready).
The words akin to the Dutchand German are cogge (scapha;
hence our cock-boat) ; swal^ (vorago), whence the swallows of
the Mole river j doude (dowdy), sidling (our sidelong), mud
(coupled with mire), to stake (palare), to arm (aim).
The Scandinavian words are mndas (windlass), scop
(scoop), soppe, bouspret, bouline. The Icelandic bdgr bears
the sense of cortinxi prorce, a meaning wanting to the English
bdg or b6k There is " a trip of gile," p. 166 ; whence came
" to trip him." There is the Celtic podel (puddle).
The French words are quash, enbusche (ambush), riff and
raff, date (tempus), voide, duchy, rince, deses (mors), larder,
extent, repent it, vencuse (vanquish), bayard (of a horse), besquite
(biscuit), austere, somons (summons), to convei, navy, mastif,
dowerie, commonwele, commons, rascaile of refuse (applied to
the Scots), rok (the chess-piece), penne, man of arms. The
old French sirwgien is cut down to surgien ; there is also
serch (petere) ; this form, and not chercher, still prevails in
the middle and south of France. To depart, in the sense
of separare, now becomes part
The Picard oauchie (chauss6e) is found here as hjm:4,
afterwards, from a false analogy, corrupted into causeway.
A new French form of the old reaume is here found ; it is
22 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
written roialme. The French let is attached to a Teutonic
root, as hamlet. There is a translation in line 13,757 ;
egle is ern. The French place, replacing the old sioWy is
tacked on to a Teutonic noun, as a restyng-place, p. 16.
We see the legal verb ateyTi, and its participle atteynt of
traytorie; our verb attaint comes from this last. In p. 78
we have the plural cnteltds, which is something new. In
p. 97 stands the phrase avail (depress) his helme; Scott
was fond of vail his bonnet^ In p. 164 tenante appears,
standing for vassal. We have marchis (marchio), p. 177,
our earliest form of the word ; which seems to show that
we should write marquis, not m^irquess. The word eschele
is employed for a division in battle ; the khelcm movement
came much later j mostre (muster) is employed for ostendere,
not for our usual sense congregare. In p. 226 cmitre means
shire, a sense still in vogue, as " in my country." The word
chek is used in the sense of malum in p. 258 ; do him chek.
The noun train expresses mora in p. 263, dolus in p. 295.
The word affray usually here means timor; but in p. 326 it
slides into the sense ofptigna; we still keep the word /my.
We see Germenie, p. 2, the new form that was to replace
Almayn ; the great Flemish city appears as Gaunt, follow-
ing the French, not the native Flemish, sound j the famous
Scotch king (whom the poet saw at Cambridge about 1300),
is jeered at as Robin and Robinet ; Tmrdyn appears as the
diminutive of Thomas, and afterwards was used as an
English sumama
Robert Manning was a sound English patriot, according
to his lights ; he thus writes of the Norman Conquest —
** (William) sette us in servage, of fredom felle j>e floure,
))e Inglis J>orgh taliage lyv^e 3it in sorow fuUe soure (p. 66).
Our fredom j>at day for ever tbke ))e leve (p. 71).
Alle j>is ])raldam, ])at now on Inglond es,
))orgli Normanz it cam, bondage and destres" (p. 261).
His love of freedom, however, does not take in other
countries.
** Wales ! wo be be, j>e fende fe confound !
Scotland, wni ne mot I se be sonken to helle ground ? " (p. 265).
^ Macaulay was rather confused anent this verb, when he talked of
the Volscian vailing his haughty brow.
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 23
He admires King Edward the First intensely, and tells
us that the Royal banner was \re lebardes raumpand, p.
305 ; here we see the beast that was to pollute Portugal
with his hideous presence, as Napoleon asserted.
There are some pieces in the *Eeliquiae Antiquse,' i., which
seem written about 1340. In p. 196 we hear of a cold in
the head, a new phrase ; the lU is still prefixed to nouns
in the old way, as out ydlis (outlying isles), p. 30 ; ovi-
home was to come centuries later. In p. 196 stands thu
schalt be ihelpit, I dare the wedde ; this last phrase is our
common "I bet you." In p. 272 we hear of Prestere
Johan ; in the next page of Iselond and Grenelond. In p.
196 stands rosemaryni; the last syllable was to be clipped
a hundred years later.
There is a piece, written about this time, in ' Religious
and Love Poems ' (Early English Text Society). We see
the new idiom of Adjectives, werse ]>an wod (worse than
mad), p. 248. There is paraffe (paragraph) ; the verb waU
(vigilare) slides into a new meaning (exspectare); the Virgin
waytyd here chylde (at Calvary) — that is, watched for His
coming, but without hostile intent.
In 1279 a French Dominican had drawn up a religious
treatise, which was now, in 1340, turned into the English
of Kent by Dan Michel of Northgate, an aged monk of
Canterbury. He called his book the * Ayenbite of Inwyt,'
or, Remorse of Conscience (Early English Text Society).^
He was the last Englishman who adopted an all but purely
Teutonic style in many of his sentences ; keeping up the
old inflexions which had been dropped in nearly all other
shires; he says himself, p. 262, that he wrote for "lewd
men," mid Engliss of Kent In the same page he sets forth
the Paternoster, the Ave, and the Creed, using but one
foreign word in the whole ; generalliche (Catholic). But in
other parts of his book he brings in shoals of new French
words, and gives us many new attempts at translating
French terms and idioms ; as tirrdich (temporel), ]>et wots ys
(what is worse), to the death, guod cheap, to greate cheape, am^
zvjO greate emperur (un si grand empereur), calouwe mous
^ Every one should read Dr. Morris's valuable Preface to this work.
24 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
(chauve soriz), weMe dyade (mortgage), yno^bote (satisfac-
tion), dede of armeSy ]>e meste (most) beloved, ]>e corUrarie,
aboiUestondinges (circumstances), ]>e writinge (FEcriture), mi
Ihord (monsieur), in ]>et case, hou hi hyeth foles ! \e o]>re zyde,
p. 89 (de Tautre c6t^). The 'French, femme, as in the *Ancren
Eiwle,' evidently suggested tvifman (ancilla), in p. 67. The
foreign vyleyne (uncourteous) is left untranslated in p. 194 ;
but in p. 76 we hear that no cherl can enter heaven ; this
Teutonic word, which had once stood for freeman, plainly
owes its secondary and lower sense to the French vUein,
which had long before acquired a baser meaning. The ill-
sounding word derived from Bulgaria, the term of abuse
that is now so common both on French and English lips,
is always appearing in this treatise; it here stands for
heretic only. The French construction of prepositions with
the infinitive is very plain in p. 134t, be god to wor]>ssipie
(by worshipping God). Another translation from the
French is this ; man robs himself of his freedom ine grot
del, p. 86 ; our great deal is in constant use now. Noble-
men are called greate men, p. 25 6 ; a translation of les
grands. The French position of adjectives is seen in voder
gostlich (ghostly father). The prejudice of heretics against
making an oath upon any occasion whatever is referred to
in p. 63 ; the sin of wasting Sunday in idleness and folly
is reproved in p. 213. The French writer bears hard on
Jews and Caorsins for usury.
On the other hand, the *Ayenbite,* as has been re-
marked, is a most Teutonic work, and we here see the
Southern speech, the most uncorrupted of all our dialects,
in much of its old glory. The peculiarities of Shoreham
are once more repeated, such as medl4 for the French
m^Ue, and minister in the sense of sacerdos. A Middle
English poem of 1240 is set out in p. 129. Our translator
has some very old forms, such as traw (arbor), tek]> (docet),
e^tende (octavus) ; this last reminds us of the Old Frisian
tinge in the Southern Homilies of 1120. The French re
in verbs is rendered by again, as to ayenwe^e. The use of
that as the neuter of the Definite article still lingers on.
But even in Kent change is at work. The old forms fader
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 25
is turned into versk, voder ^ p. 129 ; and the old Southern
oj? (usque ad) seems to have vanished since 1300. The
employment of Verbal nouns has come down from the
North ; also the words 506, hog^ scold, pk (ligo), and the
interjection eif In p. 235 we see the proverb, to zuiche
Ihorde mkh Trmme, " like master, like man."
In Vowels the a replaces ea; the old hleapetvmce becomes
Ihapwince, on the road to lapwiiig. The e is clipped, for the
French esduse becomes sduse, our sluice ; it replaces a, as
germ for game; the form elifaTis is written for olifant, p. 224 j
the old jpt5a forms the plural pesen. The ea is turned into ye,
showing the old sound of the word, as in yecMe and yerthe.
The Kentish ie, sounded like the French ^, is again found,
as sopier (supper). We see the two forms, deau and deawe
(ros) in p. 91. The Latin Boethius becomes Boeice in p.
174; this led to a new sound of oi, soon to be further
developed; we still have the proper name Boyce. The
Southern 0 replaces a; wdse becomes wose, our ooze; we
have also lompef bronch, ronsoim, sclomdre, and many such.
The 0 replaces e; isme]>ed becomes ismo]>ed (smoothed).
The u is inserted in hione and gws (anser) ; the old French
pUous is seen as pitefaous, our piteous.
As to the Consonants, the he is inserted before Icmgian ;
we now see our verb belong. The n is struck out ; we see
agrwnd for on grovrnd, p. 91 ; spmnere (aranea) becomes
spiDpre, our spider; what was elsewhere dronken is pared
down to dronJce, The r is inserted; Manning's provende
hecoiaes provendre. The former evencristene (fellow Christian)
is seen as emcristen. We find the form pad, meaning pass,
p. 252 ; we now give a distinct meaning to each of these
variations of the Verb.
Among the new Substantives are makere (Creator), vol-
nesse (fulness), spekeman (spokesman), ^porn-hog (hedgehog),
gememan (gamester), hyere-zigginge (hearsay), wedercoc, on-
treu]>e (untruth), slacnesse. The revivers of Old English in
our day speak of fore-words, not prefaces; had they consulted
the * Ayenbite * they would have seen that vorespeche, the
old forespoec, if spelt in the modern way, would have been
the right word to use, since the Old English forword meant
26 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
an agreement. In p. 22 we read of the out-kesHnges (oflf-
shoots) of a tree ; our outcast has a most different meaning.
In p. 259 we find the phrase, a man of worssvpe; hence we
now call a magistrate " your worship." In p. 49 stands a
man of ]>e wordle (world), opposed to a man of religion ;
we have slightly altered the sense of the first of these.
In p. 56 hysinesse still means care, as in the North ; but
hydhede is now coined to express curiosity, p. 231 (hence our
busybody), and also exquisiteness, p. 228. In p. 1 leaf is used
with reference to a book. In p. Ill lost expresses eager
devoutness; and in the same way, in p. 31, onlusthede is
used as a synonym for sloth ; we should now call it listless-
ness. The noun wit is used in p. 251, both in singular and
plural, to express wisdom ; alle o]>re wyttes ys folie ; wit \a
further used to translate the French sevis ; in, ano]>re wyt, p.
96. A word bears two meanings in one sentence in p.
126 ; sle-^e, our sleight, expresses first the virtue of prud-
ence, then the wiliness of the Devil ; in 1180 it had stood
for shll. In p. 266 stands the new ;?oJ? zigger ; but this
does not express a soothsayer, as we now use the word,
but simply a speaker of truth. We have a definition of
the lately-coined ri^fvolnesse in p. 153 ; it seems to be the
quality that hits the happy mean between two extremes ;
whoever has it will be a sound judge. The Old English
ending hed is so much in favour that it is added to French
roots; we see vUhed and pourhed ; another form of the
latter here found is pov/rt4, whence comes the Scotch jmi/r-
tith; sohret4 is preferred to the old syf ernes. In p. 160
men bear fruit to the voile (full) ; this last word is a
Substantive, not an adjective, for geetad to fylle is found
before the Norman Conquest. Hence our full has long
represented two different parts of speech. The old fell
is evidently giving place to skin, at least in the South.
A good man is spoken of in p. 136 as }?e milde herte;
hence our "hearts of oak." We hear of Jeremiah's
brechgerdel in p. 205 ; hence must have come Bracegirdle,
the name of a famous English actress. A new noun,
torrwchelhede (too-much-ness), is coined in p. 248 to denote
excess; we now talk of "much of a muchness." As to
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 27
Verbal nouns, we find the new form inguoyngey p. 264, a
translation of the French entree ; the old ingang, in^ong had
now vanished. In the page before, we find the cumbrous
ate verste guomge m ; a remarkable change in the method
of compounding. In p. 190 we come upon the ovi-guoinge
(gate) of Milan, replacing utgang, out^ong, as we saw twenty
years earlier.
As to Adjectives, the ending ftU is gaining ground ; we
have sleuvoUe (slothful), harmvolle, worJcvol, restvol, lostvol, and
other new forms. In p. 114 hate is coupled with evelwyl
(ill-will). In p. 123 we hear grat guod of a man ; in p. 209
a prayer comes not to gode (to any good). A sailor, when
called by his captain, yerrveth ase wode, p. 140 ; we should
here say « runs like mad ; " this is a curious dropping of
one before the adjective.
In Pronouns, the great innovation is the phrase J?e Uke
zelvCf p. 190 (the self-same); here our author, confused be-
tween la mSme chose and lui mime, has used two different
English words to translate mim>e. In p. 1 28 we see he coml^
to hirrirzelve — that is, to his senses. The Passive participle
form, this done, occurred in Old English ; we now find the
Relative coupled with a participle at the beginning of the
sentence, as huych y-graunted, p. 264 ; a very foreign idiom.
In p. 116 it is said that we should not hate on ]>e o]>er ; this
paved the way for our "one another," the nominative
followed by the accusative.
Among the Verbs we remark two Auxiliaries coupled
with only one infinitive following, ase he ssel (shall) arid Tnay
do, p. 136. When describing the absence of Past and Future
the author writes wy\>oute wes (was), wy]>oute ssel by (shall
be), p. 104 ; in our day an old horse is called "one of the
has beens " (fuimus Troes). There is hedeaw, hedew, also the
phrases, pnde him (himself), make markat, make mem/yrie of,
make semblont (semblance), that, etc. ; make ham way (make
way for them), breke Swnday, yeve zouke (give suck), do good
to, do diligence to keep, etc. ;^ see to it, have Ipet e^e to (have
an eye to), have compassioim, have to done mid (do with), stop
^ We see by these makes and dos the influence of the French /arre
upon England.
28 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
the ear. In p. ^^ hypocrites tmi]c£p ham guode; we should
say " make themselves out to be good." In p. 42 let is
used in a new sense ; let a benefice^ with no dative following ;
as we say " let a house." Our version of non possum quin,
dating from 1300, is now further extended; in p. 219
stands hou ssolde (should) he hot overcome, etc. I once more
call attention to the hardest idiom in English : in p. 42
men commit simony hy nmrkai makmde. This wde here
representing the old ing of Verbal nouns, as in the * Homi-
lies' of 1120, compiled not far from Kent.
As to Adverbs, new ones are here made by adding Ikhe
to Active Participles Present. The where, answering to a
Relative, is much employed, as whereof, wherhy, etc. We
say "take bribes right and left;" in p. 40 the translator
from the French writes the longer ari^thalf and alefthalf.
In p. 153 we read of equity proceeding ari^t ase line; the
strcBC, our straight, seems not to have been preserved in the
South. In p. 67 mention is made of men who are friends
togidere ; a new use of the Adverb. There is a new phrase
in p. 112; this bread surpasses all things he ver (by far) ;
hou ver is in p. 89. New adverbs are formed like hodUich,
vairliche, torongliche.
Among the new uses of Prepositions we remark the
phrase, " to pray God hetuene ]>ine te]> " (teeth) — that is to
say, "in thine heart," p. 210. The confusion between on
and in appears in p. 222, where the old on \am gerad gives
birth to ine ]>o onderstondvnge (upon that understanding).
In p. 248 t(^)pe alle Ipinges stands for super omnia; this
toppe, a truly Kentish phrase, must have given birth to our
atop of. One of the Old English senses of hi (secundum) is
continued in p. 170 ; he his wille. This hi, translating the
French par, is beginning to oust the old Teutonic of (the
Latin ah), placed before the agent ; in p. 270 comes J?e
werm is ymad he him.
The new words akin to the Dutch and German are
scorn (scum), schoren (fulcire), clapper, and rekeninge (compu-
tatio) ; there is flinder (papilio), whence came Becon's
flUermmis (vespertilio), a word still known in Kent. We
find a vast proportion of French words in "this most Teu-
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 29
tonic work ; \fe are reminded of the ' Ancren Riwle/ Take
such sentences as the following : — \ise vowr virtms hahhe^p
diverse offices and mochel ham diverse^ in hire worJces ase zay]>
an cddjUosofey p. 124 ; (he) his eritage wastede and dispendede
ine rihaudie and levede lecherusliche, p. 128. Sometimes the
Teutonic and Romance s3monyms are set down in the same
page, as bo^samnssse, obedience; ssewere, mirov/r; forttme, hap;
his propre blod, elsewhere his o^en; to derm and damni, p.
1 37 ; hardiesse is wrongly substituted for hardness in p.
162 j sleau^e \>et me clepe]> ins clergie accidye, P- 16; magnani-
mity is said in p. 164 to be he^nesse, gratnesse, and noblesse
of wylhede. We see amonest (admonish), bargayn^ difference^
article, ingrat, devine (diviner), simulacion, glorify, propreliche,
profit, exUe, aproprie, dayn (deign), germain, level, destincti
(distinguish), discrecion, condescend, fiance (affiance), magnifi-
cence, orrible, scrivein (scrivener), fomicacim, echo, resemble,
adversary, glue, heiron (heron), lavmde (lawn), sause, maistresse,
perseverance, ariere (arrear), sttcre, emeroyd (emerald), to com-
parison, spirituel, paysUhle, have his conversacion in heaven,
fructify, treat, fry, confusion, afronti, suspicious, terestre, leaven,
laver, edefye, grochvndeliche (grudgingly), regne, substansiel,
condemn, virtues cardinales, ordenely, strait, examine, refu
(refuge), sfostinance, tabernacle, flechi (flinch), russoles (rissoles),
ahmdanse, magestd, tribe, innumerable, fisike, pope's bulle,
region, temperance, soigneus (careful). The adjective quaint
had come to mean elegant, gay, out of the common ; ^ it once
slides into the meaning oi proud, p. 89 ; a new word, curious,
to be found in p. 176, was now used side by side with the
old quaint all over England. In p. 40 legal costes are em-
ployed in our sense of the term. In p. 96 Christ's thoughts
are called oneste ; but in p. 47 ladies adorn themselves
honesteliche to befool the men ; here the adverb must mean
gorgeously. The Old English la leof has now become lyeve
sire (dear sir), p. 21 3. In p. IS ipriv^ appears as a term for
intimsite friend ; 300 years later England used the Spanish
form privado in this sense. The un is prefixed to a
Romance verb in unjoin. We see the source of our "a
round sum,*' in p. 234, where the tale of an hondred betokne]}
^ Our quaint still means "out of the common."
30 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
WM rounde figure. We know Shakespere*s use of the word
quarrel (negotium) ; in p. 142 the pious man takes his
quereles to God ; the oldest French meaning of this word
is lUes. In p. 180 a good man becomes a post in God's
temple ; this explains our phrase, " from pillar to post."
There are phrases like evele an eyse (ill at ease), in general,
stones of pis (price), mochel in dette, he is in porpos to, etc.,
be in possession of. - There is the terrible word hassasis, p.
140, our assassm; it is here brought in to illustrate the
obedience of a servant to his master. We know that deer,
sheep, etc., are both Singular and Plural ; we now find the
French pair undergoing the same process ; vele (m&nj)pai/re
of robes, p. 258. In p. 152 we find the verb entremetti,
which still lingers in Scotland as intromit, though not in
the SoutL We see here both the French form parfit and
the revived Latin form perfection, both gentHesse and genty-
let4, the old devoutly and the new devocion, corump and
corupt ; avoerie and adopcioun are found in the same sentence,
p. 101. We have already seen porpos or purpos ; we now
light upon the verb proposent, p. 180, which by an over-
sight is left in its French form ; we still may either purpose
or propose. We have here both provendre and porveyam^ce,
A new French verb comes in under two different forms in
p. 95,flouri and florisse. There are the two forms greynere
and gemiere, granary and garner. We have condut (in the
sense of conduit) ; the other form conduct was to come later.
We see subprior, which keeps closer to the Latin than
Shoreham's sudeakne. We read in p. 61 of a fell beast
called hyane (hyaena). In p. 26 the word papelard stands
for a hypocrite ; it was afterwards to give birth to pope
holy. In p. 51 we light upon the tavernyer or tavern-
haunter ; this has given rise to an English surname. The
triacle of p. 17 means a remedy for poison; from this
comes treacle. We see boundes (fines), a word which has a
puzzling resemblance to the many English nouns derived
from bimd. There is the comparative graciouser, like a
similar form in Hampole, much about the same time.
The old adverbial liche is added to French roots, as
grevousliche. One of our commonest phrases, in£^ mene time
I. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 3 1
comes in p. 36 ; and in \e mene whUe is found ten years
later. The adjective stable, as we see here, had driven out
the Old English sta]>el (stabilis). In p. 68 we see graces
(favours) in the plural; we still say ** stand in her good
graces." The word mess (epula) had come to England
fifty years earlier ; it is now made a verb, for we see the
Verbal noun messmges in p. 71. The verb pay is used here
both for placere and solvere. In p. 96 confort is used for
solamen.
Sometimes a French word hopelessly puzzles the Kentish
monk, as vendange, chenaille (canaille), corv4e ; the happy
Englishman of 1340 knew less about this last word than
did the French peasant of 1789. In p. 153 we hear of
four humours or qualites ; in p. 129 these are said to be in
the body ; in Chaucer they refer to the mind ; in p. 157
men are said to be colrih, sanguinien, fleumatike, and melan-
conien. In p. 59 preterit is explained as referring to ]>inge
ypassed, present as referring to nou. I may remark that
between 1330 and 1340 three different forms of the
Greek word for the huge earth-shaking beast were found
in England ; alp (yip), olifant, and the elifans of the present
work. The old augrim is now encroached upon by a new
French form, algorisms; and the two ran parallel with
each other till 1625, after which the new form triumphed.
The hermit Hampole's long poem, the * Pricke of Con-
science,' may date from 1340. It is in the Yorkshire
dialect, and at once became popular all over England ; for
there remain Southern versions of the piece, dating from
about 1350.^ Since Alfred's time no long English poem
had hitherto been compiled, that was to enjoy an unbroken
popularity for 180 years; we know that the * Pricke of
Conscience,' together with Wickliflfe's works, was studied
in secret by Lollard heretics so late as 1520.^ This is a
proof that our tongue kept fairly steady, in her adherence
to old words, after 1290.
^ Dr. Morris had edited it in the Philological Society's Early English
volume, 1862-64 ; he has prefixed an invaluable dissertation on the
Northern dialect.
2 Foxe (Catley's edition), iv. 236.
32 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
The e supplants the i, for trkherie now yields the ad-
jective trecherus. The converse of this takes place, when
we find chimnd and libard; the latter form is used by
Cowper. The forms move and remove appear, where m£ve
and remove would have been written in other parts of Eng-
land. The Yorkshire gude (bonus) appears again. As to
the Consonants, / is struck out of the middle of a word,
for Orrmin's abufan now becomes oboune (the Scotch dboon),
in the North. There is a curious confusion between / and
p, the French estoffer and the English stoppan, when in p.
198 devils stop (stuff) the sinful in the fire. The h is
altered into gh, for our form heghest (highest) stands in p.
28. The g is lopped from the end of a word ; Layamon's
romng (spoliatio) becomes ravin, p. 92. In p. 52 regard
(this is not reguerdon) is changed into reward, just as the
old gharma became our warm. The Past Participle loses the
final d ; fretted (ornatus) becomes /re<^, p. 245. The n is
added, for bedreda becomes bedreden (bedridden), p. 23 ; it is
inserted in the Scandinavian way, for the Southern ]>rette]>e
(thirteenth) becomes threttende. The 5 supplants the old r ;
lure and froren become losse and frosen ; the s is added to
form the Genitive of hell; helles is in p. 77 ; the old in
midde becomes in middes (amidst). The 3 had long been
mistaken for z ; hence the French citeien, cite^en, becomes
cUesayne, p. 240. The rmkit of the year 1240 is now
turned into our rush (ruere), p. 1 98.
The Northern love of Verbal nouns is again seen ; there
is a curious idiom in p. 208 ; we hear of a stone of ane
hv/ndreth mens lyftyng. The favourite Northern habit of
compounding with ness is shown in the new word endlesnes,
p. 219.
On turning to the Adjectives we see in p. 248 the new
forms Tierrer (propior) and nerrest ; these would have been
earlier rherre and riext / half of this last word's burden was
thus taken away. In p. 22 a man's head becomes dysfg ;
the adjective before this time had meant nothing but stultus.
The new happy appears, p. 37. We see in wate (wet) and
drie, an instance of Adjectives being used as substantives.
The epithet imready had been applied to King -^thelred,
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, ZZ
meaning that he was " void of rede " (counsel) ; but this
adjective changes its meaning in p. 55, to denote unpre-
'pa/red. In p. 35 stands the new idiom, freshe to assayle us ;
fresh in p. 144 is further applied to wounds, as if they had
been newly inflicted.
A new fashion now arises of prefixing of to the Relative,
and thus forming a Genitive; the Relative is separated
from its antecedent, a very bad habit; in p. 108 comes
ten ]>inges, ]>at touches ]>e day, of whilk Qpinges) sum sal be, etc.
So much had the old aire (omnium) gone out of use, that
in p. 209 stands the pleonasm ]>e alther-heghest place of alle.
In p. 250 stands Ukan til other] a foretaste of our curious
idiom coupling each other, which arose more than a hundred
years later. Hampole goes out of his way to write ]>e
tother alle (omnes alios), a Plural In p. 219 stands a
thowsand thowsand, an idiom still kept in our Bible ; the
French million was to come a few years later.
Among the Verbs we remark stand in stede, beg or borrow,
muke end of put til pain, be in prayers, do me Ipat favour, gold
wasfyned, p. 74. The verb speed had hitherto been Intransi-
tive, but in p. 169 we hear of a process being sped. There
is the new Participle unxmawen in p.. 10. We find a curious
jumble of Infinitive idioms in p. 97.
* * Mak yiir payn cees,
And 'pam of 'Pair payn to haf relees. *'
To hunger had hitherto been an Impersonal Verb, as me
hungre]> ; in p. 166 stands / kimgerd; changes like this are
nearly always due to the North. In p. 201 we find both
to new and to renovel, the English and French synonyms ;
our renew is a compound of the two, and came fifty years
later.
Among the Adverbs we see the new up-swa-doune ; also,
in p. 19, turn up ]>at es doun. Instead of the Southern never-
theless stands in p. 100 never ]>e latter, and this is sometimes
used by Tyndale. There is also over sone, p. 106. In p.
94 we find any time, without the at that should have been
prefixed ; any way, any how, were to follow. An Adverb,
as in the * Cursor Mundi,' is formed from an Active Parti-
VOL. I. D
34 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
ciple, vMwndly^ p. 155. In p. 8 we see, whd wonder es yfy
etc.
Among the Prepositions we find the phrases wnder colour
ofi by way of grace^ p. 98 ; something like this last we saw
in the * Cursor Mundi.' The poet says that he will imagine
something, on myne awen head ; we should now say " on my
own account." In p. 170 stands impossibel til hym; the
oldest English would have employed the Dative case after
the adjective. In p. 52 stands take reward (regard) to; in
p. 250 smell sweet to others ; this last seems to stand for " to
the thinking of others," the French d mon avis.
We see moute (moult) akin to the Dutch muiten. The
Scandinavian words are swipp (sweep, pass quickly), dosed,
tattered, clomsen, whence comes our clumsy; midding (ster-
quilinium), the Scotch midden ; awkward, here an adverb ;
slouh (cutis).
Among the French words are tysyk, despair, unproperly,
auctentik, mote (moat), assethe (assets), joyntly, suffishant,
moment, trance, spere (sphere). The French caroigne appears
both as carion and carayne. The French haraigne appears
as barran, with the accent on the first syllable, in p. 70. A
man is accused, in p. 80, hyfor ]>e cuntrd; and four lines
afterwards men give ^pair verdite. In p. 164 we first hear
of a sergeavmt, in the legal sense of the word. In p. 213
mention is made of blessings and ]>air contraryes ; a new use
of this Adjectiva Allege in this poem expresses both the
Old English alecgan and the French alleguer. The new
words were somewhat puzzling to the poet; in p. 81 he
writes recoverere for our recovery. French phrases continue
to oust our old Prepositions ; we now see the source of our
as regards and with regard to ; in p. 202 stands als to regard
of payne ; in p. 242 comes als to regard to blys. Playne is
opposed to m^imtainous in p. 173. Garette is used, p. 245,
of the watch-towers of heaven. In p. 108 Christ comes
in proper parson. In p. 142 the Latin austerus and the
English stern are ingeniously combined in awsteme. The
verb rewel (rule) is formed from the Noun, and another
verb, muse, is found for almost the first time ; it is curious
that these two verbs were also making their appearance in
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 35
Kent at this very same date, 1340. There are new forms,
such as unproperlyy unstableness, peaceableness. In p. 221
comes the line
** Als properly als possible may 6c."
We should now strike out the last two words. Deserve
is first followed by an Infinitive in p. 225, and we, further
on, in p. 230, find certayne to have,
Hampole of course uses a number of Northern phrases,
such as Twght hot, scvlk, scald, stour, win to, almus, hurtle, new-
made, fone (pauci), face to face, he behoves, even (just) contrary,
three days and a half, draw a tretis. He has the expov/nd of
the * Cursor Mundi,* and also a new form, eocposkion ; we
have formed words in English from ponere and positus alike.
There is the Northern le (lee), not leow, which is still pro-
nounced lew in Dorset. We still sound sfatiM in the French
way, as Hampole writes it, though we imitate the old Latin
form subtilty in writing the word.
Besides the poem just considered, we have some prose
treatises of Hampole's (Early English Text Society). They
show us what our religious dialect was to be ; many French
and Latin words appear, and are used far less sparingly
than in Tyndale's works, 200 years later. Indeed, it may
be laid down that nearly all the Eomance words, to be
found in our Version of the Bible, were known in England
during the Fourteenth Century. Some of these foreign
terms appeared in Kent about the same time as in York-
shire, that is, in 1340. The Northern dialect of Hampole
reminds us of the ' Cursor Mundi ; ' we see once more awk-
wardly-formed Adverbs, such as lawlyly; also ^pire, ]>of, ]>ose,
]>ou is, a being, no force, enterely, a person, by mine ane, it
byhovys be lufed ; the Verbal Nouns abound. One of the
Treatises, p. 19, has been turned into a more Southern
dialect ; here wem (erant) and goth (eunt) appear.
As to Vowels, u often replaces 0, as blude, duse (facit) ;
there is oys as well as use, p. 1 3 ; this word must have
been pronounced by Yorkshiremen in the true French way,
not like the corrupt yuse of the Severn country. As in
Hampole's poetry, repreved makes way for reproffed. There
36 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
is a new instance of u being mistaken for v^ just as the
French Jueu became /t^v, Jnif ; in p. 23 plentivos is written
for jplenteiums, and this often is found as pkntifous in the
next Century.
Among the Substantives the ending ness is making way
even in French words, as grevesnes. The new form bisiness
had already appeared in the * Cursor Miindi ; ' this is now
made Plural in p. 20, besynessis. Another new Plural,
lUcyngis, is found in p. 21. Men have a goode wille to a
person, p. 23. The habit, first noticed in the ' Ayenbite,'
is continued of setting an adverb after a Verbal Noun, and
treating the whole as one word which may be followed by
a Genitive ; consaU es doynge awaye of reches, p. 12; the
Scotch loujpmg-on stane is curious. We lost much when
we threw aside our power of prefixing prepositions or
adverbs to verbs and verbal nouns.
A new ending of Adjectives appears ; the foreign able is
tacked on to a Teutonic root ; we see lufdbyll (loveable) in
p. 2 ; and the Northern Wickliflfe was rather later to use
qvsnchable. The needful in the * Ancren Riwle ' had meant
nothing but avidus ; it now, p. 22, takes the sepse of
Tiecessarms, as we use the word
Among the Verbs there are phrases like in tym to come,
turne ]>e braynes, ptU his traiste i/n, be-warre of certayne thyngesy
p. 40 ; gyfe stede (place) to hym, set in order, take in vayne.
We see breke offe and also leve of with no Accusative follow-
ing ; stvikei of sinnes had been found in 1180, but this last
of is now turned into an Adverb. Participles Active and
Passive are coupled in the phrase, ]>e lufarvde and ]>e lufed,
p. 34. We saw, about 1310, the French en followed by an
Active Participle, which was all literally translated into
English ; this idiom is now confused with that of Verbal
Nouns followed by a Genitive; in p. 15 comes it lyes in
lufynge of Godd,
The expression cefre ]>e Oder man, found in the ' Chronicle '
for 1087, is now changed ; we see Uke o]>er day (every second
day), p. 41. We have already seen as to this; as for now
first translates qiu)d special ad ; \%s desire may be hadd, as forr
]>e vertu of it, in habyte, p. 34.
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 37
Among the Prepositions we find mfh employed after
iahe^ as was foreshadowed in 1280; vMh whas lufe it es
takyn (captivated), p. 2. The by is employed before the
agent, as in the *Ayenbite ' previously ; goodis hepte bi (hi ser-
vantis, p. 23. We had long had the phrase, weep over a
thing ; this use of oxier (something like the Latin de) is now
extended ; thynke over thh synnes, p. 36. This over is one of
the few prepositions with which we can still compound; it is
here fastened tog, foreign root; the verb overtravdl (overwork)
is in p. 17 ; over was to replace for. We see for the first
time our verb overlay, which was long peculiar to the North.
We find a new Verb in p. 12, coming from the Scandi-
navian tang (sea weed), a man may be tagyld (entangled)
with various hindrances.
The new French words are many. The foreign Adjec-
tive in otts is made to take our signs of Comparison, a
process now most alien to literary English, though in 1340
it was found both in Yorkshire and in Kent ; delycyouseste
stands in p. 2. The Adjective imwcerUys is used as a Sub-
stantive, p. 11 ; the Latin word had been brought into
France by the clergy not many ages before this time.
Hampole speaks of thynges rmUll or inrmoUU, p. 11. The
French corruption sugettis is found in p. 24, differing
from the Latin subiecte used in another part of England
about this time. We see our common abill to do any-
thing, p. 16, which seems to come from the French habile.
In p. 24 stands on the contrary wise ; in our Bible the two
first words are dropped. Shoreham had used mi/nister for
a priest ; here in p. 11 we see a new sense of the word,
mynystyrs of ]>e kynge. In p. 15 the word comfort, used in
the Plural, seems to change its meaning from strength to
pleasure; there is also comfortable. In p. 24 we first find
the word curate, used like the French cur4 and Spanish
cura, for one who has the cure of souls. We read here of
prelates and olper curatis ; and this sense lasted in England
for more than 200 years ; indeed, in our Liturgy, curate is
still used for a parish priest. Skelton's iho force, after
lasting for 200 years before that poet's time, has now
been supplanted by Tyndale's wo matter ; in p. 21 we see
38 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
it hryngith into my herte much m/iter to love hym, where
mater stands for constraining force, as in our what is the
matter? In p. 25, Christ left the conversacion of men, and
went into disserte (desert), and conti/rmed in prayers alone.
In p. 37 we see maystry, where the old French sense of
dominium has slid into vis ; hence our mmterful. In p. 1
a man savours things, in p. 44 he savours of things, a Scrip-
tural idiom of ours. There are the words, doctour, to clere,
concupiscence, sensualite, transform, essential, secondary, illusion,
fantasy, frensy, he processe of tyme, refreyn things, to oommune
with, disposed, frequently, increase, desire, acordandly, unavisedly,
at ]>e instaum,ce of, inperfite ; enjoye in it stands in p. 44, where
we should say rejoice, and the two verbs were long used as
synonjons.
The *Tale of Gamelyn,' lately printed by Mr. Skeat,
seems to me to belong to the year 1340 or thereabouts, if
we weigh the proportion of French and obsolete Teutonic
words. It bears marks of the South, but has an East
Midland tinge, and may belong to North Warwickshire. The
Northern words, never found far to the South of the Great
Sundering Line, are lithe (audire), gate (via), skeet (cito), serk
(indusium), ferde (timor), hond-fast, awe (timor), not the
Southern eye. There are certain forms found earUer in
the *Havelok,' such as queste (bequest), alther (omnium),
rig (dorsum). On the other hand, there are certain Severn
forms, such as huyre (hire), abegge (abye), the Salopian to
rightes ; a whole line on Seynt Jame in Galys is quoted,
twice over, from a Salopian poem of 1320. The Present
ending en is encroaching upon e^^, as we wiln (volumus),
we spenden. There is the old construction, better is us ther,
than, etc., p. 23, also p. 20 ; this is very different from the
they hadden leovere steorve of the Alexander. Another old
construction is in p. 22, it hen the schirrefes men.
The 0 supplants the common u or eo in dqlful, p. 18.
Among the new Substantives are draw-welle, a talkyng
(tale). An outlaw is proclaimed wolves-heed, p. 26, an un-
usual word since the Conquest. The word man is needlessly
added to another substantive, as jugge-man (judex), p. 31 ;
hence the later fisherman and heggarman. The word deer
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 39
(ferae) is now set apart to express cerm^ p. 4; and this
change may be seen in Lancashire about the same time.
We know the Irish 8(yrra a Ut ; the source of this is in p.
33; soTwe have (him) thit rekkef The Double Accusative
is seen in hind him foot and hondcy p. 15.
The word side had for some time been driving out half;
in p. 17 stands if I fayle on my syde (part). Men tell Jww
the wynd was went, p. 26 (how things turned). There is
the new phrase, light of foot, p. 6. An outlaw's followers
are called his mery m^n, p. 29 ; also his songe m/en, p. 26.
The new great is encroaching on the old vnoche ; in p. 9
stands a gret fool, and eight lines lower, a m/)che schrewe.
We have already seen nothing of his ; we now have, in p.
10, m/any tomes of thyne. Among the Verbs are do al that
in me is, draw blood, kepe his day. The verb breed is
applied in a new sense ; a landowner breeds forth beasts,
p. 14. An official is reviled as broke-bak scherreve, p. 27 ;
a new formation, like the later crook-back. Men dress (set)
things to-rightes, p. 2 ; this Adverb (few recognise it) is the
source of our setting things to rights. The adjective fyn is
used as an Adverb; eat wd and fyn, p. 17; the Scotch often
say, "he's doing fine." The never is used for Twt in p. 22,
as in Orrmin ; we have frendes never oon. The up is used
as a verb in ^, 20, he up with his staf. The more usual
adverb halfmge is replaced by by halves, p. 6. Jurors are
on a quest (inquest), p. 32 ; go on an errand was a very old
phrase. A man is rwtne (taken) irdo counseil, p. 26 ; the
last word was soon to mean a secret.
There is the Scandinavian loft, p. 6, meaning a garret ;
the Old English lyft (later lift or luft) meant only air.
The new French words are dress (ponere), pestel, courser,
catour (caterer), toret (turret). The spenser (steward) ap-
pears in p. 16, whence a great English family took its
name. The word quest is shortened from the older en-
queste, p. 29. A justice has a clerk, p. 31 ; a new sense of
the word. In p. 32 we hear of the barre in a court of justice.
This poem is curious as introducing us to the machinery
of the future Kobin Hood ballads; it sets before us the
maister outlawe, who walks under woode schawes, with his
40 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
imerry mm; his kindness to the poor, and his enmity to
abbots and monks, p. 29 ; his encounters with the Sheriff,
on whom due vengeance is taken. The name Robin Hood
was not to appear in English verse until 1377. There is
an incident, afterwards adopted by Shakespere ; the young
hero, persecuted by his elder brother, is followed by his
faithfii servant Adam, who had hort loJckes; the pair, when
very hungry, Hght upon outlaws sitting at meat.
Some Northern poems, that seem to belong to 1340,
may be read in Horstmann's *Altenglische Legenden,' p. 77
and 454. There is the new hanA-dogge, p. 78 ; it is also
called a hourde. In Scotland we may still hear the Impera-
tive away you ^o/ in p. 79 the command is given, here ^e ga
and venge me. In p. 465 something is not for ]>e &es/e, anew
phrase. There is the word tope (ovis) in p. 79 ; our tup.
We see the Superlative chef est; also, I defye \>e.
In p. 334 may be found a poem which from the dialect
seems to me to have been composed in the Rutland district;
there are very few forms now obsolete.
The Avowynge of King Arthur may be found in Rob-
son's * Three Early English Metrical Romances' (Camden
Society). This piece, probably due to Lancashire, seems to
be older than the other two printed with it, and may
belong to 1340. The Consonant / is struck out, for seofon
niht becomes senny^t^ p. 81. There are phrases like stokkes
and stonis, mayn and my7,te^ thay ar gode frindus (friends).
The word deor had hitherto expressed any beast ; it seems
now and henceforward to be set aside for cervus. Some-
thing is in the sunm^e, p. 89 (sunlight). The ranks of society
are placed before us in a line found in p. 80 ; Jcny^te, squyer,
^oman] knave, are alike entertained in hall ; the third word
here bears more than its sense in the * Cursor Mundi,' an
able-bodied man. In p. 63 a steed is said to be starke ded;
here the adjective changes iromfortis to rigidus, in a physical
sense. The it appears again : a knight vows to wake hit
(keep awake), p. 61. The word any, as we saw before, is
coming into vogue; in p. 78 stands wille 7,e any more? In
p. 89 a tun bursts in six or in sevyn, the source of our well-
known phrase, "at sixes and sevens.'* A space of time.
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 41
whether past or future, if it be in contact with the present,
may be expressed by tlm or ihese; in p. 91 stands ilw^
Tfi sege this sevyn ^ere, Orrmin's rrmn had expressed nothing
but futurity ; we now see it express necessity ; thou mun
(must)^ay, p. 69. Men are bidden to sle carCy our hill care,
p. 81. In p. 76 stands / dar lay; here wager is dropped.
In p. 90 stands cast himself away; this phrase long after-
wards gave birth to the noun castaway.
Among the Adverbs we find / telle 30 as guy (why), p. 85 ;
there is no need of the as here ; it is prefixed, just as in
as at this time, as yet; and in our age as how ? is sometimes
found. In p. 67 stands guethwr (quo) is thou on way? the
source of our whither away ? The expression a far land was
good Old EngHsh ; we now hear of the fur (far) syde of the
li^te, p. 88 j the side most distant from the light. The
translation of the Latin quin by but, already seen in 1300,
is continued ; it now stands after nemo as well as after non;
is none of ^0 but he munfele, p. 76.
We see the verb dotur (totter), p. Q5, akin to the Dutch.
There is the Scandinavian tame (lacus). The French plat is
now discarded for the Icelandic /a^r/ "to fell a msLnflatte'^
is in p. 67. The Celtic pert (bold) reappears, after a long
disuse, in p. 66.
Among the French words are rebound, bugle, palmer,
beuteous. Curious (already seen in the * Ayenbite ') is a word
that took root in Northern England, and seems here to
mean " well-dressed," applied to maidens, p. 83 ; it took
the sense of carefully made in France in this century, hav-
ing before meant careful. We hear of rialle servys in p. 80 ;
the idea survives in our to pay royally. Chess is played on
a chekkere, p. 84; this noun afterwards gave birth to a
verb ; it had been written escheker in 1280. A boar casts
up his stuffe, p. 59 ; this word was not as yet used for fur-
niture. There is take entente, p. 9 1 ; the en was clipped
later. Our issice is written usshe, p. 89, which reminds us
of the Italian usdre. The word prisoner had hitherto meant
a gaoler ; it now takes our modem meaning. Cheer had
hitherto expressed vultus ; it now connects itself with feast-
ing ; we cannot well be merry on an empty stomach ;
42 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
men who have been eating and drinking are said to make
als mirry chere als hit were ^ole day (yule), p. 91. In p. 70
a man is prins of iche jplay ; hence " the prince of letter
writers," and such like phrases, implying thorough mastery
of some art.
We have an Alliterative poem on Alexander, compiled
about 1340 (Early English Text Society, William 6f
Palerne). It seems due to a Salopian bard; the e is
much used, as grendes for grindes ; there are the three
forms kid, hid, and Jced (notus), and other marks of the
West end of the Great Sundering Line. We see here both
the old guell and the new kill. In p. 199 sli and conning
become debased in their meaning, for they are used of a
magician bent on a wicked act. The hero's pride is shown
by his using thou, not ye, even to his father and mother.
There are the phrases give up gost, as happes (ut fit), cast (a
nativity), go with child, prened (pinned) to the earth. There
is the curious verb incle the truthe, p. 196, "to hint, give
an inkling of, the truth ;" this may be Danish. There is a
new idiom in p. 190 ; they ask Philip to be lord of their
land, ]>ei to holden of hym. Here a participle, such as being
bound, is dropped after ]>ei; and the Nominative replaces
the old Dative Absolute.
There is the Scandinavian rap (ictus), and two words
akin to the German; droun (our verb drone) and drift,
which here means driving power.
Among the French phrases are his peple (soldiers) ; he
was thought able (skilful). The word inkest is used for
blackest, p. 212. In France, about this time, letters of
reprisal were granted to an injured man, to pass the march
and avenge himself on the foreign foe; the verb mark
comes often in this poem, meaning ulcisd; see p. 193.
Hence, our lettei^s of mark.
The English translation of the Romance of William of
Palerne seems to be due to the same hand that gave us
the Alexander. This question is discussed in the Preface
by Mr. Skeat, the editor of this poem for the Early English
Text Society. The translator of the present piece, who
made his version about 1350, seems to have been a poet
I. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 43
of renown in his day. He had a high-born patron, the
Earl of Hereford, a man more fit for peace than war, one
of the great nobles who were fostering the growth of our
language about this time j the work of translation from
French into English, as we know, had been going on for
seventy years. The Alliterative poet thus appeals to English
gratitude —
" Ye that liken in love swiche jinges to here,
Prei3es for ])at gode Lord ])at gart ))is do make,
The hende Erl of Hereford, Humfray de Bonne ;
The gode king Edwardes dou3ter was his dere moder ;
He let make >is mater in ))is maner speche,
For hem j)at knowe no Frensche, ne never understond " (p. 175).
We owe to the Salopian love of e that we have, as in
this work, dent as well as the older dint (ictus) ; we con-
fuse the former with the Latin mdent. There are here the
two forms lebard and lyhard ; the latter was used by
Cowper. There is a change of letters in the old porm
(spectare), which now becomes jprie ; Chaucer was to write
later pore and j^rie ; there was also pire, our peer. An i
is inserted when fasoun becomes fadoun (fashion). An 0
is thrown out when do of (exue) is made dof in p. 79.
Orrmin's huten becomes hoten, our hoot; the word now
means simply damare^ not vituperare, as in Orrmin's
work. The u replaces y in mureSy our moors ; it is written
mires in other places of this poem. The old reafere (latro)
is seen here as revour, an imitation of the French ending.
The form sow, as well as sew, is used for suere in p. 62 ;
the Participle is here scmed, but we have made it Strong
since this time, writing it sewn. There are the two forms
sur and seurte. There is the curious form beuaute (bewty)
in p. 131.
The w was so often written for g that, as in Hampole,
reward is written for regard (look), p. 109; and wallop
occurs for gallop. In this poem gest stands for both ho^es
and historia, the Teutonic and the Romance ; these we now
distinguish by spelling. The old diken (fodere) is found as
well as the new digge, which last we have now made a
Strong Verb. The J? is inserted in leng]>en (to prolong), p.
44 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
39, the old lengan. The n is struck out> for we find a slape,
not an, slepe, p. 69. The r is making its way into the old
gome (the kindred homo) ; in p. 74 we hear of a gome of
Grece; in p. 62 this is written a grom of Grecej our
bridegroom (the bredgome of the 'Ayenbite') was yet to
come.
The curious word hakkes (vestes) appears in p. 72 ; it
seems to be Salopian, being afterwards used in Piers Plow-
man ; we still have the slang term hags for an important
part of our raiment ; Lord Eldon was called " Old Bags."
We hear of the hacches of a ship ; the word comes from
the old hceca (a bar). The word boro^ is still used in the
Singular both for a borough of men and for a burrow of
rabbits, as of old -, wmwe also is employed for both nrmne
and cfras. The term wench is used in the honourable sense
of the West Midland; it is applied to a Princess in p. QQ ]
gerlSf a West country word, had hitherto meant children ;
but the same Princess and her attendant are called gaye
gerles, p. 35. We see here repeated the old terms of endear-
ment of the Severn country, sweting, my swete hert ; besides
these, there are in p. 59, mi hony, mi herty dere; in p. 66
comes lef liif (vita). In p. 139 William calls the werwolf
mi swete dere best; we have also swete Sir, faire friendes.
There are new terms, such as holier (collier), lif-timSy egge tol
(edged tool), a drove of beasts. We see the double Accusa-
tive in folwe him o (one) fote, p. 130. The noun fill is
now extended beyond eating and drinking ; hhe his fille, p.
33. In p. 101 a new phrase is repeated; a queen is di^t
to ri^tes. There is another new phrase, his guene on hire
side was, etc., p. 173 ; where an addition is made to a pre-
vious statement, and it is implied that the queen did not
fall below the king. In p. 122 we find to make it olper gate ;
this phrase long afterwards was turned mto another guess,
which became common in the Eighteenth Century.
Among the Adjectives tidi is in constant use, now mean-
ing not only seasonable, but fair, worthy. We mark the
change of sad from gravis to tristis in p. 28, where a sad
sikyng (sighing) is mentioned. We see waywarde, p. 128,
which is short for awayward. The word worthy (dignus) is
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 45
turned into a Substantive, as we use it j \at worlpeis chaum-
ber, p. 33. There is lonely, where the a at the beginning
has been docked ; and botless (without remedy). The old
seoc forms a new adjective, seldy (sickly), p. 55. The new
word gamsma (gamesome) stands in p. 135; to be after-
wards used by Shakespere.
As to the Pronouns, Mr. Skeat> the editor of the poem,
gives an admirable dissertation <m the use of thou and ye
in this piece; see his Preface, p. xli. In p. 142 we have
the curious phrase tw hum (man) hut hemself tweyne (none
but their two selves). There is the old ballad phrase selplpe
it mi^t he no heter in p. 171. The word any, as in Hampole,
is coming more and more into vogue ; as more ]>an any m^t
elles, p. 130. This dies is much used iov- alius; dav/nger or
duresse or amy despit dies, p. 136; we limit ourselves now
to "any thing else," and "any one else." In p. 134 a re-
quest is made of the hero to let men go ; the answer is ]>at
I wol; a new use of ^pat, like so I shall. Persons go on
oMe four, like beasts ; this phrase was used in Lanca-
shire about the same time. Another use of the numeral,
continued from very old times, is in p. 109 ; ]>ei he five so
fele (many) as we. There is a new idiom in p. 166 which
saves repetition ; 3^/ he was heloved, ^U was Meliors as moche
or more; here so is dropped.
We see the verb hell applied to the roar of a bull, p. 66;
this sense lasted about a hundred years longer, and the verb
was then confined to deer. There is the new verb ferk, to
be afterwards used by Shakespere ; it is said to be formed
from the sound. In p. 137 swdt changes its meaning; it
no longer bears its old sense of die, but is used as a
synonym for siooon; swdter was to come later. In p. 38 a
lady says, y am done (morior) ; this perhaps stands for for-
done; in our time the phrase is, " I am done for." In p.
121 something is said to bode good; the verb later was used
in a more confined sense than before, when it had expressed
nuniiare. The word override is used for vastare; in our time
it can only be used of a horse ill-treated. In p. 140 lete
me alhne is used for do not trouble yov/rself. There are
phrases like it com in his minde, hold to bale, make silens,
46 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
to make, schorl tale. The Infinitive is dropped in easy talk ;
A says, "The beast fears us not;" B answers, I ne wot whi
it schuldy p. 102. In p. 63 a man fears that bears would
have mad of him mete ; the gamekeeper in Pickwick thinks
that Mr. Winkle will "make cold meat of some of us."
We see the Weak cfre'pt^ not the old Strong cr&pe^ which
lasted down to the Eeformation. There is a curious change
in break; the beast was broken into halle (irrupit), p. 139 ;
this is an imitation of wa^s come (venit).
Among Adverbs, as well as other parts of speech, any is
making its way; onwhar (any where) stands in p. 64 j on
any wise, p. 60, led to our any how. There is how so? p. 39 ;
it isfer to Ipat cuntre; up happe^ the forerunner of Lydgate's
perhaps ; in p. 92 happili (our haply) stands for casu; in p.
133 it seems to expre&s felidter ; fifty years later a differ-
ence was to be made, by means of spelHng, between the two
adverbs derived from hap. We see hut ^it used for tamen,
p. 73, a kind of needless repetition ; it was soon to be used
in the work called by Mandeville's name. In p. 110 men
are exhorted to fight, though the enemies were eft as fele
(as many again). There is a curious phrase in p. 159, it
liked him wel ille, a kind of contradiction in terms. The
old wellnigh is now clipped; in p. 171 stands nei'^ wepande
for wo. In p. 134 stands as wel as we kunne. The word
harde now means cito as well as durb; hie as harde as ]>ei mi^t,
p. 42; our hard all is well known. In p. 61 a girl is talliche
attired ; this word for eleganter is said to come from the
Old English tela (bene); we still hear. people talk of tall
(fine) English. The adverb gamely in p. 19 m.Q2Ji'& jumnde ;
we have since given it another meaning, that of fm-titer.
We see a distinction marked between 3a (yea) and ^is; the
latter being the more forcible of the two, just as nay is
stronger than no; this distinction lasted down to the
Reformation ; see Mr. Skeat's note on this point.
As to Prepositions, we remark that of, for, and to are
often prefixed to Verbs, proving that the poem was written
far from the East Midland country. The U now first gains
the force of adipisd; to com hi skynnes, p. 60 — a most curious
idiom. The at is developed ; healed atte best, p. 57 (in the
I. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 47
best way) ; armed ai alle poyntes^ p. 107 ; attefulUy p. 156 ;
at arst (first), p. 41 ; atte last, p. 52. We see att cdle in p.
1 5, I think, for the first time ; it seems here to mean hy all
means; we generally use it for omnino. We have our common
sche was out of ]>e weye in p. 41. There is a new use
of to; I hope to hevene king, p. 43 ; here the hope has some
affinity to vow. There is a new use of about; a man
b&fis bred aboute him, p. 64 — that is, bears bread on his per-
son. As to 071, we find sche brou^t hem on weie, p. 62 ; an
extension of the old phrase " on an errand." The idiom
that appeared in 1320 is repeated in p. 53 ; Crist 7,if hem
ioye for ]>e menskfullest messageres ]>at ever to me come; hence
our "begone for a fool ;" here th.Q for reminds us of /<9r '^at
(quia). We find a common phrase of ours, fm* al ]>e world
such a wolf as we see here; the for seems to English
maugre ; " though all the world should deny it." The old
sense of to (the Latin dis) was becoming obsolete ; for we
have the pleonasm to-broke onpeces, p. Ill; in the next line
something is shivered al to peces ; it is just possible that in
the last phrase the to has more in common with dis than
with ad.
We see the oath Marie beginning a sentence, p. 154,
where the by is dropped ; this phrase, marry, msiy still be
heard in Yorkshire.
The Scandinavian words are the three verbs glimer, spy,
and strike (streak).
The words akin to the Dutch are frau^t (freighted), and
to hamper.
Among the many French words is the adverb cherli
(benign^). We see the Plural wages, the French gages ; it
usually became the Singular wage in the North. There
are the two forms pitous and piteuous; agrieve is sometimes
used where we should drop the first letter ; asaie, not essay,
is the form used in this Century. The term seute (the old
French corruption of secutio) stands both for cav^sa and
venatio. We see lege man ; lege lord had already appeared
in the 'Cursor Mundi.' lHh^flaket of this poem was after-
wards to become flagon. There is our common " a numbre
of bestes," p. 78. The word soverayne is used for any
48 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
superior, such as a provost j hence, in our day, "a sovereign
remedy." The title sire is used by a lady to her lover ; a
king addresses a clown as sire kowherde^ p. 170. We
followed the French way as yet in talking of the Spapnols ;
our present form of the word came forty years later.
There are phrases like in the wsne while, jpore jmple (people) ;
also fetureSy harness (horse trappings, p. 137), metury kour-
teour, remnant, amiabul, waste (irritus). We have here the
French tax; we imitate the Spanish form of the word
when we write task. Mention is made in p. 151 of a gaie
maide; this adjective became the established epithet for
ladies in English ballads. A man rejoices (fruitur) a
realm in p. 132 j this sense of the word lasted for another
Century and more in England. In p. 102 the verb conjure
is used to a supposed ghost or spirit; in p. 15 the word is
used simply to express a command. The verb meve (our
move) simply means iter facer e in p. 137; also remewe,
p. 49. The verb restore, p. 129, means restituere; but in p.
94 a park is restored (stocked) with beasts. In p. 117 we
read of the coupyng togadere of knights ; this word, coming
from the French coup, gave us our verb cope. Mention is
made of the pers (peers) of Spain, p. 129 ; we now make
a distinction in spelling between this word and pairs of
gloves. A new French preposition is now coming in;
tidings touchend her father, p. 51 ; Littr^ gives no instance
of this new-formed preposition before Froissart.
Two Legends of St. Katherine that are in Horstmann*s
* Altenglische Legenden,' pp. 236 and 260, seem to belong to
the year 1350. In p. 264 comawnde (commendo) is written
for the proper commende, as we see by the rime. There
is the new phrase pvi out eyyn, piU to dede (death) ; this
put was much encroaching on do about this time. The
Participle had always, in the oldest English, followed verbs
expressing finire ; we now see, in p. 263, leve fyghtynge;
here we now insert an off.
Somewhere about 1350 *l?e old usages of ]?e Cite of
Wynchestre, J?at have]? be y-used in )?e tyme of oure
elderne,' seem to have been compiled; they exist in a
roll, drawn up about forty years later. I gave a specimen
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 49
of this in Old and Middle English, p. 482.^ We here see
what Standard English would have been in our time had
not London supplanted the older capital of Wessex and
England j the Southern dialect is well marked ; all the
Present Plurals end in el?, and rm stands for the indefinite
mom. These are the three forms — \elke^ IpUkey ]>ulke (iste) ;
e was a favourite letter in Hampshire as in Kent, for we
find meche, legge (lodge), p. 363 j the u is also prominent in
sullere, bu]^, and o-lupy.
The old deagan (tingere) now gives birth to the Noun
dyh^er, our dyer, p. 359. The old mosddre becomes mader
(madder). The y is inserted in ffyshyere (fisher), p. 353,
which reminds us of the Severn country. The interchange
between w and b is seen in hy^owte (without), p. 349, just
as Bill was to come from Will.
We hear of men, p. 349, who are called the "hevedes
(heads) of l?e Cite;" and also, p. 362, of ")?e heved
answere;" here we should now use chief. The noun sale
appears, and the very old term smergavel (grease tax), p.
359. The fine old phrase, god men and trewe, stands in
p. 359.
There is the expression to hald stal (stall) of shop-
keepers. To chaffar becomes a verb for the first time in
p. 357. We hear in our days of the output of mines ; this
word is found as a verb in p. 362. The oiA foresaid is now
written afore-ysayd (aforesaid).
Two words have crept down to Winchester from the
North — holleche (omnino) and lane.
There are two new terms that we have in common with
the Dutch — tanner and talw^ (tallow).
The French words are many, for law terms abound in
this piece ; we have coroner, fraunk (free), pultrye, pulter,
engrosie, severaleche (severally), ern/plete, atacJiment, defendaunt.
We hear of comrmme law, p. 361. In p. 354 custome is
owed to the King, a sense born by the French word 200
years earlier. Names are entered; houses are y-charched
(charged) with certain rates, and in p. 358 we read of
horse charche. We see ]>inges ]>at touched the rewle of ]>e town,
1 * English Gilds' (Early English Text Society), p. 349.
VOL. I. E
5o THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
p. 349, as in Lancashire ; the French verb had borne this
meaning in its own country in the previous Century.
Lawrence Minot wrote several short poems in the
Northern dialect on the victories of Edward III. ; they are
in the collection of the Master of the Rolls (* Political Poems,'
vol. i.) He alters the old rwi^e into rig, our rye^ and writes
siile for the old digd. He speaks of the Genevayse at Cressy,
following the Italian rather than the French form. We
had hitherto talked of Almain ; Minot now writes about
the Ihiche tongue, which here expresses German both High
and Low, p. 63. We see the verb hove (manere) here
taking the sense of float, and used in connection with the
sea.
In the English Gilds there is a Norwich document of
1350 ; here we find the shortened forms sexteyn (sekestein)
and derge (dirige). There is the new French verb to oward
(award) hem, p. 35 (from eswardeir) ; also the phrase han
(have) for his travaille, where we should say trouble.
There are some pieces in *ReliquiaB Antiquae,' ii. 38, 85,
108, which seem to belong to 1350. The word bote had
hitherto meant remedium ; it now becomes comrrwdum ; hit
is no bote (use) to mote, ii. p. 108 ; the phrase to-bote (prae-
terea) had long been used in England. There are the
phrases retme in his dette (in debt to him), beg or borrow.
We see the source of our take advantage of in p. 38 — a
dishonest steward, when giving in his accounts, puttes hym-
self to avauntage, there he shuld be in arerage. There is the
new adverb apase (apace), p. 98.
In Higden's Latin Chronicle, drawn up about this time,
we see the two forms FoukirJce and Fouchyrche (the Scotch
Falkirk), Again, the I is replaced by u in Meuros (Melrose),
as the French col had become cou. The d is struck out, for
both Sccerdburgh and Scarbwgh (Scarborough) are found.
See Trevisa (Master of the Rolls), viii. 286, 304.
There are some pieces in Hazlitt's Collection which seem
to date from about 1350. Among them is the * Tournament
of Tottenham,' a laughable burlesque of chivalry, iii. 82,
perhaps due to North Lincolnshire ; and the * Tale of the
Basyn,* which may be Salopian, iii. 44. The a supplants e ;
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 51
we see parson (clericus), and Harry (not Herry, Henry) ; the
s replaces /, as snese (sneeze) for the old fneos-an. We see
the Un tacked on to proper names, as Hawkin (Hobbekin),
Perhm (Peterkin), Dawkin, Timkin, Tomkm ; these are still
in use as surnames ; there is also Gregge (Gregory), and
Tirry (Terence). We read of Bayarde the blynde, a horse,
iii. 87 ; this proverbial phrase lasted for 250 years and
more. In iii. 53 lewdriess adds the sense of libido to that
of iTisdentia; this usage, probably Salopian, was followed
by Awdlay, the blind Salopian bard, seventy years later.
There are the new Substantives potter, whelebarow, cucry
(cookery) ; burlesque arms are said to be quartered with
the mone li^t, iii. 89 ; hence our moon^sMne (nonsense).
We light upon the hygh horde (table) in hall. In iii. 91
rich bears the new sense of laughable; that was a rich
si^t. In iii. 93 we have, I think, the first appearance of
the much disputed word cokeney, here meaning a delicacy ;
it retained the sense of delicate, pampered, for 230 years.
There is the new phrase of this time, falle in my detie,
iii. 46 — that is, "in debt to me." A Numeral is now
first coupled with every ; every five (iii. 93), "each mess of
five persons ; " an had long been prefixed to hundred and
thousand.
Among the Verbs are go betwene (play the mediator),
lead the dance, break heads. There is our phrase for mvngere,
a literal translation of facere aquam, iii. 47 ; this was used
by Coverdale in his translation of the Bible.
We have the phrase, " they taught him how the katte did
snese," iii. 45; something like our "which way the cat
jumped.'' There is the oath, be cocks swete wounde, iii. 53;
an early instance of softening down the Deity's name.
There is the merry Chaucerian tehef iii. 91.
We see the Scandinavian gravy and trip (move along
lightly) ; hitherto it had been a wrestler's phrase. Also the
Celtic basket.
The French words are experiment, batter, quarter (arms),
seasoned, charlett (like our apple chariot), f(yrsed meat, where
0 replaces a. There is the verb pleese, instead of the old
pay; his speciaM, iii. 52, where favov/rite is understood;
52 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
/Sw-5, in the Plural. In iii. 83 it is doubtful whether
hachdery refers to a company of knights or to a company of
unwedded men. The verb dress is now used for coquere,
iii. 96 ; men in the next page dresse (address) themselves
to a dance.
The Northern Eomance of Sir Eglamour ('Thornton
Komances/ Camden Society) seems to date from about
1350. We see the French norke contracted into norse,
p. 157, and dm turned into dewke, p. 147, a truly
English change. In p. 159 the transcriber eighty years
later has turned into fiorse what was evidently written has
(raucus). There is the substantive patte (ictus), p. 172,
perhaps iromplxttan (ferire). We see in p. 144 hys fvlle
of fyght The ending lin is added to a word, as hoglin, p.
144. The more is still used by us in the sense of major, in
the rrwre pity ; this may be found in p. 122. The word
unwelde adds the new sense of ingens to that of impotens, p.
134.
Among the Verbs we see make signs, take the field,
take him to his foot (fight on foot), p. 145 ; this has led
to "take to his heels." In p. 131 one knight strikes his
trowthe to another ; hence comes " strike a bargain." In
p. 146 stands yf (give) you joy of, etc.; here the /, which
should head the sentence, is dropped. In p. 132 comes
God sylde yow (requite you), a future Shakesperian phrase.
We see the new word sfompe, which is common to us and
the Dutch, applied to a mutilated limb. There is the
Scandinavian verb splatt, p. 141, which Shakespere was
to make split. As to French words, simple stands for
humUis, in p. 124 ; we know Scott's gentle and simple. We
read of the gentyls (like nobles), p. 125 ; also of a knight's
armes (heraldic) ; he hare aserre (azure) a grype of gold, p.
164. There are the verbs chronicle and bay (latrare) ; also
forces (copiae) ; ye parte gode frende, p. 1 27. In p. 1 25 stands
the adjuration, for Goddys pete, which led to our "/or pity^s
sake" A steed is called "rede as any roone" (roan), p.
146.
There are the statutes of a Lynne Gild (Early English
Text Society), drawn up in 1359 ; where we see Make Monr
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 53
unday^ P- 97; also hoteri {buttery)] and have on Jmnde, used
of money.
To this time the prose treatises of Dan John Gaytrigg
and some other Northern productions seem to belong,
though transcribed fourscore years later; they are in
'Religious Pieces in prose and verse' (Early English
Text Society). Many words and phrases, afterwards used
by Wickliffe, occur in these pieces. The a supplants e in
true Northern fashion, for we see the name Barnard ; the
n is struck out ; gamermnt becomes garment. There are the
new substantives dulness, lowliness ; the n^ess was coming in ;
for the Southern freoscipe here appears as ffrenes, p. 38.
We see good followed by to, gude I arm to my chosyne, p. 56.
The Participle is used much Hke an Adjective; how luffande
(loving) he es, p. 56. In p. 8 we see an early instance of
a mistake common in our days, the wrongful transposition
of ordy ; it ought anely to he gyffene to ]>am ]>at, etc. (to them
alone that, etc.).
Among the Verbs we find, have part with, do your office,
keep it to yourself; the put is coming forward, for there is,
put him down (crush), put upon him (lay to his charge).
There is a curious idiom of the Past Participle Absolute in
p. 1 9, often afterwards repeated ; he hose keped ]>e, and many
o^er loste (while others are lost). The Participle lykande
(liking) is used to express jucundus, p. 49 ; the Yorkshire
Coverdale brought this sense into our Bible in the first
chapter of Daniel.
A new idiom appears in p. 55 ; the as is now prefixed
to an Active Participle; it was stylle, as heynge dome (dumb) ;
the as touching was coming in about this time. We now
prefix as, if, though, and while to Active Participles. The off
is used to express thoroughness; he suppede it off, p. 93.
Among the French words we see a communer, cure of
sawle (souls), spice (species), the reverse, chantress. There is
the verb^^, afterwards to be altered into fix, and noyous
(noisome). The French en is now set before Teutonic
words, as to enpride him, p. 23 ; this process was to be
carried far, and to be much favoured by Shakespere.
There are many Northern poems in Horstmann's * Alten-
54 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
glische Legenden' that may be referred to 1360 ; see pp. 1-
188. The a replaces g, as guarele. The e is cHpped in
lufd (amatus) and f(md (fonned), p. 158. The o replaces
i, as venom. The final y is cHpped ; CecUl stands for Cecily ^
p. 159. The V is struck out; lavender becomes lander^ p.
156; laundress was to come 200 years later. The
sh now expresses the sound of ch at the beginning of a
French word; sheynes (vincula) is in p. 104; I think this
is the earliest notice we have of the change of initial ch
into 5^. The z replaces 5, as ze, zour (ye, your),' p. 115;
this peculiarity lasted for 200 years in Scotland, and
may be remarked in the captive Queen Mary's letters.
Among the new Substantives we see a home-cuming^
godsande (godsend), slaghter man, sekk dathe (sackcloth), men
of halikirk (churchmen, priests), p. 1 75. As to the Adjec-
tives ; fiends will not cease for thin ne thik (for any cause),
p. 99 ; these we now transpose. The word vnld gets the
new sense of stultus, p. 14; it later, like nice, took the
further meaning of lascivus. The word good is in full use ;
there is the Vocative gude Sir, p. 38; gude man is applied to
a Prince, with reference to his wife, who is called his gude
lady, p. 84. Two adjectives are coupled, I think, for the
first time in p. 21 ; a grete blak dog. A substantive is
dropped in the phrase, )?e werst es, when, etc., p. 38. As to
Pronoims, there is the new phrase that I have already re-
marked on, ever (every) thritty, p. 58.
Among the Verbs we find, mxike gud end, jmt it to them,
gif batail, ask a question, take rote, have chose (choice), it came
out (was known), have me excused, days were cumen and gane,
spread the bord (hence our slang noun spread). The verb
leave is now used of testators; riches was left hym, p. 12.
There was a phrase of 1300, his might is benome; now, men
are bynomen (benumbed), p. 34, a curious instance of the
advance of the Passive voice. The verb rise gets the new
sense of rebell, p. 143. We see by the Verbal noun, in p.
57, that the verb hert (encourage) must have appeared;
Palsgrave was to write it hearten. There is the new mislive
and fob (decipere), p. 138, whence Shakespere's fob off.
The old verb roupe (clamare, p. 187) seems to have been
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 55
confined to the North after 1220 ; it is still in Scotch use.
There is a new phrase translated from the French, p. 11 ;
w)ghi mthstanding that; it was soon to appear in Southern
prose. The Infinitive follows love; ])ai loffed to lig, p. 31.
Some word like able is dropped in, here is none for to let
(stop) ]?6, p. 48. There is a curious Double Infinitive in p.
69 ; Simon is worthy to have schame to tak on him Goddes
name; the to tak represents for taking. We still use the
phrase it shovM seem that; in p. 145 stands a guene, ]>at
Goddes m/oder, him thoght, svM seme. The North, unlike the
South, turns French verbs into Strong verbs, as not proven,
and the old fan (fined, ceased) ; we see rave for arrived in
p. 86.
We have the first hint of across in p. 15; two ways
meet on cros. The predicate is not repeated after the
adverb in the phrase, sum war ded, and sum fid nere, p. 52.
The verb is dropped after and ; how sail I live, and ]>ou
awaie ^ p. 178. As to Prepositions, there are answer to ]>am,
sworn to chastity, out of sight, out of minde (insanus), at ])i
bidding, boun (bound) into Ingland, p. 42. The old wi]>
might sometimes mean ab ; hence we see part with all (his
goods), p. 38 ; we can now use mth in this sense after ^r^
and dispense. There is also chaunge his wede m]> a beggar,
p. 177. Prepositions were now separated from the verbs
to which they had been prefixed ; the old ]>urhboren becomes
bare (bore) him thurgh, p. 135.
There is rostiren (gridiron) akin to the German; also
the Scandinavian verb glore (glower), and pople (bubble).
Among the Eomance words are caldron, rosin, case (pi
relics), a hamper, sachel, lunatike, gaudes (nugse), defame,
disease (incommodum), pynacle, fawchone, a convers (convert),
preve sele, province, A man marries a girl to another person,
p. 1 2. The word point gets a new sense ; prove his poynt
(purpose), p. 26. The Pope is called the chef curate of
Cristendome, p. 51 ; and curate is elsewhere used for parish
priest. A man gives his voice (vote) to another, p. 150.
A person is confused for shame, p. 156. The word bill
appears in p. 161, meaning something written; this old
simple sense still lingers at Eton. The verb cease now
56 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
governs an Infinitive, p. 65. There is the affirmation, / vMl
warandy made after a statement, p. 104. The foreign en is
set before Teutonic roots, as enhigh (exalt), p. 51 ; this was
to become a favourite coinage in later years. There is the
curious mongrel blame-worthi, p. 141. Diana appears in
male guise, p. 39 ; the god Dyane, The Latin original,
whence these Legends were compiled, is plainly visible in
pople of Pictavi (men of Poitiers), p. 155.
One of the stories in the * Handlyng Synne ' is referred
to in p. 150.
In the same book stands Ipotis, p. 340, which seems to
date from this time. There is the curious form i'^ete for
the old ge-eten (eaten), p. 346. There is ill in the sense of
mains, a mark of the North, p. 344 ; also the Scandinavian
whethene (whence) and nim (ire), p. 344, a mark of the East
Midland, though the dialect of the piece is Southern. There
are the forms stene (stone) to ded (death) ; qiielle takes the
new sense of opprimere, besides its old sense of occidere ;
quell his pouste (power), p. 345. There are see-cost (coast)
and omnipotent.
In the * Legends of the Holy Rood ' (Early English Text
Society) there is a Northern piece which seems to date
from about 1360. In p. 125 stands to set on (a man) =
attack; here some such word as hand must have been
dropped after the verb.
About 1360 the poem of Syr Grawayn and the Grene
Knight (Early English Text Society) seems to have been
compiled ; the author has borrowed much from a French
original, but is so EngHsh as to give a hundred lines to a fox
hunt, calling the victim reniarde, the earliest description
that we possess of that chase. There is so French a phrase
as Nowel for Christmas, p. 3 ; the hero in p. 25 asks for
bone hostel (hospitaHty). The poem has various Lancashire
marks, such as uche, much, ho (ilia), J^ay, hem, ]>ose, guile (hwile).
The a replaces u and i ; hence we now find our verb
start. The e replaces o, hence welkin ; it is clipped, for the
old efese becomes evez, our eaves. The i stands for ow, for
Hampole's verb worow becomes wori, our worry, p. 61 ;
hill (occidere) replaces cull. The French Iram is written
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 57
hrawne. We now find ahof (above) no longer hove or
abufan.
As to Consonants the g is thrown out, for the old isgkel is
seen as ysse-ikUe (icicle), p. 24, and the old Perfect Usgod as
Usied (busied), p. 4 ; the g is replaced by w, as tow (trahere).
The name Gawain is altered into Wawain whenever the
alliteration requires it. The d is turned into ^, as in the
last letter of the oath Ugog^ p. 13. The sound sc now
becomes shy for we see schaterande, p. 66 ; we may now use
scatter and shatter in different senses. What was elsewhere
of newe is seen as o-7iewe (anew), p. 3. The I is struck out ;
tealtrian (whence the Scotch tolter) becomes totter; r is
added, for the yerh fait of 1240 heaomes falter.
We see the Teutonic nes added to foreign words, as
forsnes (strength), p. 21. There are new nouns like S2>ere
len]>e, half-sfoster, sideboard, foreland, irons, char cole (wood turned
to coal), blod-haund, wod-crafL We read of Nm ^eres day, p.
63 j the Christmas season is called ]>e halidaye^, p. 33. The
word clothes is applied to bed-gear, p. 38. The word grome
is connected with horses, p. 36. Arthur's Table is called a
bro]>erhede, p. 80. The French ess is tacked on to a Teutonic
root, as goddes (goddess), p. 78. We know the phrase "a
cast of thine office;" in p. 77 kest expresses dolus. In p.
49 we see the word trweluf; in p. 20 certain knots are
called trulofe^. The word world is coming in to express
indefinite thought ; whethen (whence) in worlde he were, p.
28 ; wyth al ]?e VKmder of ]>e worlde, p. 8. Hampole had
talked of the Five Wittes (senses); in p. 78 a man is
robbed of his wytte^, which last word seems here to stand
for intelledus, as in the * Ayenbite.' There is rock as well as
roche ; Skeat quotes stanrocca from the Old English : the
word may be Celtic. In p. 49 a lady calls herself "a
young thing," a phrase not yet lost. In p. 51 a sword is
called a b'ont (brand).
Among the Adjectives we find crabbed, also the Superla-
tives welcomest and cursedest. Substantives are dropped in
the phrase in hot and cold, p. 59. There are phrases' like
the hy^e table, a bry^t grene, p. 7 ; now ar we even, p. 52.
There is the truly Lancashire idiom, hunters of the best, p. 37.
58 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
The phrase owe &are word had been used in 1240 ; in p. 34
we find / Imm but hare three days; it is easy to see how
our barely came later to English vix.
As to Pronouns, Shakespere was fond of using in^ as an
expletive, as Petruchio's knock me here soundly (the docrr) ;
in p. 64 we find he graylpe^ (arrays) me Sir Gawayn, where
ms is not wanted. The it is becoming prominent, as hit is
tvx) myle henne^ p. 34 ; ^pat is ho (she), p. 78. In the pre-
ceding page a French idiom is imitated in myn honoured
ladye^ ; here the pronoun would not have been used earlier.
The Plural, we alone, is in p. 39. In p. 23 comes mo (more)
ny^te^ than innoghe (enough). We know the common
phrase, "no more nor (than) he did;" in p. 49 we have
more or (than) a hundreth.
Among the Verbs the old swap gets the new sense of
"make an exchange," p. 35; in the same way, the verb
chop, later, bore the two senses of ferire and mutare. In
p. 49 comes the expression, / am bihalden (bound), which
was later to be followed by a Dative. The verb mark seems
to gain a new sense somewhat beyond the sense of videre
used by Layamon ; a man merkkez wet a boar before hitting
him with his weapon, p. 51. The verb swenge becomes
intransitive in p. 52 ; ^pay swengen (go) to hoTne, There was
always a noun hrod, and now we find the transitive verb
rele (volvo) ; the French rouler had most likely some influ-
ence here. The verb blush in this poem keeps its old
meaning rubere, but takes a new sense miueri, p. 26 ; from
the last comes the noun blusch (look), p. 1 7 ; and we still
say " at the first blush." The common Passive Participle
pight is changed into pyched, p. 25. The old tim^n had
meant nothing but accidere; in p. 71 we first find our
phrase " to tim£ a thing." There is the curious Imperative,
haf at ]>e Ipenne, p. 73, a challenge afterwards repeated in
the ^Townley Mysteries.^ Here the Imperative seems to
stand for the Future, as in the later " fast bind, fast find."
There is our common phrase bryng to ])e poynt, bend hi^ brows,
to layke (play) enterludes, put prys on, I leve wel (believe).
The old stiked (haesit) now becomes stek, our stv^k, p. 5 ; an
unusual change. The Infinitive follows other verbs, as fail
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 59
to do Uf bom to do it. The Active Participle is dropped ; a
man in p. 15 appears, his hed in his hande. The Passive
Participle seems to imitate the Latin usage ; something is
done in p. 31, wyth leve la^t (after leave had been got).
There is the new phrase she dos Mr forth (gets herself out),
p. 42; settes hym out (proficiscitur), p. 51. The old might
(potuit) is often here replaced by coude. There is a new
sense of following ; a man's body is described, and we are
told that he has all his features fol^ande, p. 5 ; we here
plainly see how the Latin secundum arose. A knight's
clothes, in p. 28, sit on him sendy; this sit had meant decere
in the 'Ancren Riwle;' Jit was to come later. Gawain's
host, in p. 30, entertains him, and afterwards Icnowes him
— ^that is, greets him familiarly ; hence our " I won't know
him ; " Coverdale brought this Northern sense of know into
our Bible. The old Ugrowen is now supplanted by over-
grown, p. 70. The verb ring is used of echoes as well as
of bells ; a torrent rushed and rongSy p. 70.
Among the Adverbs stands thtbs much; at J?ys 071^3, p. 35
(for this once). There is nue cmrnmn (new come), he'^y
honowred. The on was coming into use as an adverb;
'^resch on, p. 73 — ^that is, "go on thrashing;" this on was
supplanting the older forth.
We see a new use of Prepositions in the following
phrases ; you have more sly^t hi ]>e half p. 49 ; at his helez
(heels), p. 61 ; she was at him, p. 47 ; a boar bides at ]>e bay
(at bay), p. 50 ; do hit out of honde (at once), p. 73.
There is the hunting cry hay I Ivay I in p. 46, and the
oath Mary I
The Scandinavian words are a flat (planum), blunder, rah
(vapor), to whar (whir), tayse (tease), blear, sleet, sway, froth, bole;
dok (cauda), which has given us a verb, is in p. 7. We hear
that mist muged on the moor, p. 6 6 ; hence our muggy weather.
The words akin to the Dutch and German are waist,
tap, blubber, rabble, baldrich, halow (to holloa), whijp off, to
dravel (drivel).
There is glaver from the Welsh, p. 46 ; this may be akin
to blather and to the Scotch clavers; there is also the Celtic
loupe (fenestra), whence comes our loop-hole.
6o THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Among the French words are jeopardy, warble, prayere
(prairie, p. 25), paper, crevice, to endyne, daliaunce, disport,
display, repayre (ire), corser, unmanerli, unbar, frenge (fringe),
spinny, favMes, couardise, hautesse (superbia), sever, excellent,
remord, rescue ; also the Shakesperian brache (canis). We
see a cors (of dishes), p. 4 ; stuffe is used for material, p.
19 ; a helmet is staffed within, p. 20. Comatmd, in p. 77,
is written where we should use commend ; one single vowel
can make a great difference in the meaning of our words.
There is vesture, which took long to come South. A man
dresses an article upon his person, p. 65 ; here the verb is
about to slide into our present most usual employment of
it. The old twofold of these now becomes double of these, p.
16. In p. 37 we hear of male dere (stags). We see kenel,
preserving the Norman sound ken of canis ; the more usual
chien. In p. 11 a French word is written melly (combat),
and this form ought to be revived in our own days. The
substantive dainty is made an adjective in p. 40, meaning
eximius. The adjective chef is coming into fashion, as ]>e
chef gate. An old lady is called an auncian (ancient), p.
30. The colour blue is mentioned in p. 62 ; it is from the
Old French bloie (cseruleus), and this sound a hundred years
later transformed our Teutonic bla or bh (lividus). The verb
plede, taken from the law courts, is transferred to common
life in p. 42, and means simply rogare. In p. 34 require
is used for rogare, as it still is in Scotland. The words
patron and soverayn express dominus ; and place stands for
Tnansio, p. 13, as we still use it; maneres, in p. 30, is used
for courteous behaviour. The word tryfle expresses some-
thing concrete, not abstract, in p. 31 ; it stands for the
ornaments of a lady's front. The verb peine (cruciare)
stands for laborare in p. 33 ; hence our later take pains.
What we call "the manners of society," appear as ]>e coste^
of compaynye, p. 47 ; hence the later company manners, A
man may debate with himself, p. 69 ; but the word usually
expressed pugnare. Men part (separate from each other),
p. 79.
The * Alliterative Poems in the West Midland Dialect,'
edited by Dr. Morris for the Early English Text Society,
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 6i
are found in the same manuscript as the Sir Gawayne.
They too belong to Lancashire, and seem to date from
1360; there are many Scandinavian fonns, and the h) (ilia),
which still lingers in the above-named county; we see the
Northern thay^ and the Southern Ih&r and 'hem ; there is ucK
The verb sclrni or sclmn stands for our shdl^ and is still
alive in the Lancashire schmnoL
Among the Vowels the ee encroaches on the old m and
eo; we see Caldee (Chaldsea), and/e63 (fleece). The old stiom
becomes stern. The o is found instead of a, as '^ose (isti) ;
yro (dolor) replaces yrd, p. 92. The u and y may be seen
coupled together in some words.
The Consonant h is seen in the verb haHter, p. 41, where
we should use palter or falter. The g is softened into 3,
in ovry^ed, one-eyed, p. 41 ; here too the d is added at
the end, which is new. So also swogan (sonare) becomes
sou^e, our sough, p. 96. A French word appears ajspartryk,
with the consonant made hard at the end ; the vowel a
has here replaced a French e. For fluctus we have the
three forms wage, wa^e, and wawe. The r is added to
a word, for the verb wealtian becomes waiter, our welter.
The 5 is clipped ; the Adverb grovelings becomes grovelinge,
and was later to be mistaken for a Participle. .The
French is is turned into ish or kh at the end of words ;
we see cherisch, anguych.
Among the Substantives is stokkez, the well-known instru-
ment of correction. also/e^^rW/ many sea terms are used
in describing Jonah's voyage, crossayl (the first instance of
cross appearing as a compound) among them. We see the
source of our "further afield," when the Lord in p. 41 bids
His servants seek for guests ferre out in ]>e felde. There
is the Alliterative, ]>e wynde & ]?e weder (procella), p. 51,
which was to become a favourite phrase. Jonah is said to
plunge into the whale's belly hele over hed, p. 100, our head
over heels; a journey is called a ]>re dayes dede, p. 102. We
see the old fele-hyn side by side with the new birds of rmay
kyndes, p. 82 ; here the old cyn (genus) gets confounded
with cynde (natura). There are new words like cupborde,
dotage, rift (fragmentum). We see how our "worse for
62 THE NEW ENGLISH, [cha p
wear" arose, when in p. 71 the pearl is said to wax so
old in weryng. In p. 49 we hear of the walle-heved (well-
head). The word wench is employed in an honourable
sense in p. 75, very differently from the London usage of
the year 1390. In p. 47 we find pene^y cattle pens. The
Yorkshire corhun of 1290 becomes corbyy p. 51, a word well
known in Scotland. In p. 78 stokkes and stones become
idols. It is remarked, as something curious, that Belshazzar
called his concubines ladieSy p. 78. The word foule^ ex-
presses domestic poultry in p. 39. The warla^e (warlock)
of the North now first expresses m<agus, p. 84. Our knavey
hitherto standing for jpuer or servm, gets the new meaning
of nehulo in p. 63 ; the Sodom rioters are there called wekked
knave^. In p. 82 a man is said to be dronkken as the devd.
Turning to the Adjectives, in p. 94 ti/pped is used for our
present extreme. We see skilfvly lily-white; ugly is used with
an abstract noun, as an logly tmhapy p. 64. In this piece
gray]>ely stands for dto or vere; the word still lives in
Lancashire as gradely. The new adjective no'^ty (naughty)
appears in p. 78. In p. 59 srmlpely stands for easily, just
as Milton used it. We hear of sluchched clothes in p. 102;
this comes from slutch or slichy a word for mud ; we often
talk now of slosh and slouching.
In p. 56 stands J?is one'^ (this once), with no Preposition
before it. Lot boasts of the beauty of his daughters in p.
63, none fairer, J>a3 / hit say (though I say it) ; this is
soon repeated in Piers Ploughman. We see the new
Adverb hiloghe (below) in p. 41, a very late compound of
he with an Adjective. The Yorkshire no^ot appears in p.
71. In p. 58 a city is said to be distant, no myle^ mo ]>en
tweyne, not more than two miles ; Orrmin had already
used m/yre for longer. In p. 93 comes "to have ]>e wers"
(worse). When the excitement at Sodom is described, it
is said that the borough was al up; a new sense con-
ferred upon the up. Abraham, moreover, was up in the
morning, p. 67.
Among the Verbs we see Orrmin's intransitive use
oikeep, p. 45 ; he kepes no better; in the next page comes
the phrase to keep to a tMng. In p. 39 a man is said
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 63
to be forhodm ]>at hor^e (forbidden the town); the use
of the Passive voice was extending. When the Flood
came, men feng to ]>e fly^t (took to flight), p. 49. Oxen
pulle in a plow, p. 40 ; the word is all but new. We find
the new verbs, shout, lult (Scotch lilt), wappe (our whop),
clat^ (clash), a variation of clack. We saw war (cave) in
1170; this now becomes wa/r ]>e in p. 72. A man bet
down a city, p. 76 ; he might also type down the same, p.
106. The source of our musical strike up is found in p.
79 ; trumpen strake steven (voice). In p. 95 seamen we^en
ankres ; a new sense of the old wegan (vehere). There is
the form hjave his will; ba]>e ]>em in Mod, p. 75, which recalls
a High German phrase. A tree is sette to do something, in
p. 186. Some verbs change their meaning; thus hamper
in p. 76 stands for to pack up. Before this time hove had
been used of a man ; it is now used of Noah's dove ; we
make a distinction between a ship's hoving and a bird's
hovering. There is a Dutch word daesen, to lose one's wits;
this becomes transitive in p. 83, where we hear of a dasande
drede, our daze, Pople stands for mere in p. 101 ; hence
may come ovocpop, A construction, long disused, reappears
when a noun is prefixed to a Past Participle ; the Ark is
day daubed, p. 52, but hunger -bitten was in the oldest
English. Our Poets have for the last few Centuries been
fond of this revived construction.
As to Pronouns, the it is used to begin a sentence,
representing a noun that is to follow, hit was hous inno^e,
(enough) ]>e heven, p. 62; so Burke wrote, "It is gone,
that sensibility," etc. A new idiom is seen in p. 46 ; the
poet, speaking of pairs, says that they are to plese ayther
other ; here both the Nominative and the Dative follow
the verb, as in our common each other. In p. 48 Noah's
family in the Ark is called a rmymf of a^te (eight) ; this is
something like Orrmin's ]>e tale of ehhte.
As to the Prepositions, we see in p. 94 at ]>e poynt ;
also at alle peryles, like the at oil erodes of the * Cursor
Mundi ;' hence comes " at your peril." In the next
page a man shoots too schort of his aim, just as fail in
English was followed by of In p. 99 an adverb is turned
64 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
into a preposition, adcmn ]>e depe; in the year 1250 of
would have come before the Article. We see the source
of our "putting up tvUh hardship" in p. 104, where we
hear of Gfod^s longe abydyng wyth lur (loss) ; contra was one
of the meanings of this Preposition. We say, " by virtue
of ruthj" but in p. 100 this appears as ]7W3 (through)
vertu of rauthe. There is our common onfote.
Among the Interjections we see 0, 0 repeated at the
beginning of a sentence in p. 63, where Lot remonstrates
with the Sodom rioters. In p. 97 Jonah is asked by his
shipmates, " WTuU ]>e devel hat^ ]>ou don ? "
There is the Celtic gotim.
The words akin to the Dutch and German, now first
found on our shores, are clem (well known in Lancashire
strikes), slobber. In Dutch, laager (lower) stands for sinis-
ter; in this piece we find laddebord, our larboard, p. 95.
There is swol^ (vorago), our swallows.
The Scandinavian words are damp, smouldery smut (filth),
blunter, gills (fauces), hurry, shyg (shy, scrupulous), gall
(vulnus), trill (volvere), fettle (providere), lomerande (lumber-
ing), bale (of goods), bracken, Basse (apex), p. 51, reminds
us of Dunmail's Eaise in the Lake Country. The
Scandinavian ^pjokka (ferire), diflFering from the Old English
^pacdan (palpare), gives birth to \facces, our thwacks, p. 101.
The Danish odd bears two meanings in this piece ; in p.
50 we hear that Noah was six hundred years old "&
none odde ^eres;" in p. 65 Lot is told that he shall be saved
oddely ]>yn one — that is, "exceptionally and thyself alone."
When we now use odd as an adjective, it is usually in a
sneering sense ; in this poem odd denotes something nobly
above the common. There is the Swedish rakel (hasty), to
be written rake-hell in more modern times. We see the
Danish trine (ire), which Scott used as a slang term, " trine
to the nubbing-cheat." The verb loltrande is used in p.
105 to describe Jonah lolling in his bower; this, like our
loiter, seems to come from the Scandinavian lotra (go lazily).
There are also here two words still in Scotch use, loof and
wamble.
Among the French words in the poem are surely, frok,
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 65
capstan^ goblet, the bases, daub, donjotm, to founder, to fester,
scoter; decree, dbyme, primate, orange, express, sonet (an instru-
ment), pomgarnade, displese, to 'portray, to bib, to glene, soUe
(humus), festival, status, hourle (hurly burly), destiny, plyant,
berfray (belfry), lege (subject), sewer (dapifer), alarom, chariote,
to deime, a divine, a devinor, governor, declare. In p. 67 we
first read of a soun & an hayre (son and heir). In p. 57
Abraham sets out a feast, and the guest mad god chere ; we
have seen make merry cheer, in the Lancashire poem of 1340.
A man is prayed (bidden) to a feast, p. 40 ; another serves
salt at supper, p. 67. Words are lanced (launched forth),
p. 102. In p. 62 men are said to be nyse for objecting to
salt in their food ; this marks the addition of fastidious to
the old meaning of the word, foolish, wanton. Comfort, as
in Hampole, exchanges the idea of strength for that of
pleasure in p. 91, where chastity is said to be God's com-
fort. The honest is used for honourable in p. 42 ; honestly
arayed; hence the Northern greeting, "honest man !" The
substantive bay is used in its architectural sense in p. 79.
English endings and prefixes are added to French roots, as
masterful, unhonest, merciless, logging, English and French
words stand side by side in the phrase (p. 101), \e gote^ of
]>y guteres (miswritten guferes). In p. 97 men are herded out
of the ship ; this verb comes from the French harier, not
from the English hergian, though there is a confusion be-
tween the two. In p. 103 we- see the home -bom verb
samne, and in p. 78 the kindred French assemble, Belshaz-
zar, in p. 89, is to be deprived; here no noun follows.
Something voyds (disappears) in p. 84 ; hence the common
avoid/ In p. 75 comes chav/ndeler (our chomdelier), and
three lines further on stands the old condelestik. In p. 73
those besieged in Jerusalem are so shut up that they can
forray no goods; the chief object of plundering inroads
was fodder or forage. We now confine coast to the sea-
side ', but in p. 66, as later in our Bible, it might be applied
to any borders. The word port had hitherto been used in
England for urbs ; it now goes back to its rightful sense of
harbour, p. 94. The French defend becomes "fend off'* in
p. 73, and this is still in use. A bower has gracious leaves,
VOL. I. F
\
66 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
p. 105, thus expressing the Latin grains. In p. 52 Noah
receives the returning dove rmytly (neatly, cleverly). In
p. 78 a man is avised (minded) to do something; we now
keep this French word to translate monere, Belshazzar
asks the meaning of ]>e tyxk (text) of the writing on the
wall, p. 86. In p. 73 stands the Ime,
** He used abominaciones of idolatrye. "
This specimen shows the inroad of French that wa« going
on all through this century. The phrase a traverce appears
in p. 81, leading to our later across.
To Lancashire belong two Eomances, printed by Mr.
Eobson (Camden Society) — the Anturs of Arther and Sir
Amadace j they seem to have been composed about 1360.
We may remark a change in vowels ; a trothe is plighted
in p. 17, not the old trowth; thus the word became two-
pronged, and our troth and truth express diflFerent shades of
meaning. The word deliciom is here cut down to licuyus,
and this is also written Imiits (luscious), p. 17. The con-
fusion between u and v continues ; povretie is written pourU,
p. 40, as in the *Ayenbite;' the Scotch ^or^i^A.
The Northern wedsdts (mortgage) appears in p. 28.
The origin of our hairbreadth crops up in p. 21 j him lakket
no more to be slayne, butte the brede of hore. Our furst inne
the fid stands in p. 43 ; it refers to a tournament. We
see the phrase mylke quyte.
Among the Verbs are deave, p. 11, which has now
become transitive. In p. 38 we hear of a gentUman bomne^
and in p. 16 of a man fre bom ; it is curious that the
Adjective should stand before the Participle. In the latter
page comes the verb Tmdch, bearing the sense of to equal.
We find the legal to have and to hold, p. 24 ; pvite away
servants ; be of gvd chere. The verb vrrek (wreck) appears
in p. 44. There is a curious confusion between the Active
Participle and the Verbal Noun in p. 15 ; on hereand horn
alle, in the hearing of them all. We have already seen on£
of the best; we now, p. 26, find bischoppus of the beste.
There is a word akin to the Dutch — delle (vallis).
The Scandinavian gives us nascty, our nasty, p. 7.
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 67
Among the French words are spiritiuiltS, session', revenge,
dippus (eclipse), sometoii/r (sumpter), wage, the Northern
form of our Noun wages. The word spirit is cut down to
sprete, p. 5, Shakespere's sprUe ; the word gost is found in .
the same page. Instead of the thousand thousand of the
Old English the word miliun appears in p. 9. The form
soget has been seen already; we now find suhiecte, p. 12, an
imitation of the Latin form. The French verb broder
appears as Irauder, p. 16; it was long afterwards confused
with the English braid, thanks to the twofold sound of oi ;
the upshot is the broidered hair of the English Bible. In
p. 1 7 stondart stands for a taper of very large size ; hence
come our standard trees. In p. 30 a man thinks he has
ke'^te his dede (caught his death). In p. 20 a horse bears
the name of Gresdle, our Grizzel ; this is something like
Bayard, the name of Edward the First's steed at the storm
of Berwick. In p. 21 stuffe stands for equipment ; this led
to its sense of furnitwre. In p. 25 comes the verb doue
(endow) ; and in p. 55 is the Alliterative / dar savdy say.
The French names of the different pieces of armour may
be read in p. 14.
We have already examined two Versions of the * Cursor
Mundi;' we now come to a later version (the Fairfax),
drawn up in Lancashire about 1360 (Early English Text
Society). I give a few reasons, which incline me to set
the date of this version not earlier than the year specified.
There is the phrase touduint synne (de peccato), p. 1494,
also found in * William of Palerne ;' there is a new phrase
of Barbour's : a priest ought to be knawande (a knowing
man), p. 1514; undo is used for perdere, as in the Lanca-
shire Alliterative Poems of this date. There are Chaucer's
new expressions egment (incitatio) and the foul fiend. The
old word aght (opes) is altered into gode, p. 1542; it was
soon to disappear altogether. The old gum (homo) is turned
into grome, p. 1010. Politeness is making progress; the
thou of the older Version is now altered into ye, when a lady
is addressed, p. 256.
There are many tokens of Lancashire speech, such as
ho (ilia), the verb breed with no Accusative following, and
68 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
ffraideli (readily), not the graithli of the Yorkshire versions ;
the word is peculiar to the North and North-West. There
is mone for oportet, p. 1458. The change of the su into shi
is most constant, as squete^ squUk, sqiui, etc. The gh is in
favour, as halghes, draghes (drags) ; the at is used for to, as
at make. We see both iche and ilka for guisque ; both smhe
and sguUh In p. 1428 comes the line, ho ne ^ildis ham
"jpaire m>ede (she yields them not their meed); a curious
medley of Northern and Southern pronouns ; that the
Southern element is plain to this day in Lancashire is a
curious fact ; there is the very Southern form sormfvl, not
sorfvl ; 0 often replaces a, as fonding. The i supplants «,
as iriJc, The t is added to s, as quilist (whilst). The Old
English siker is often turned into the Latin sicure. We
know how often in old-fashioned books / may be mistaken
for one form of s; of this there is an early instance in
p. 1370 ; his moder fines (ceases) to soru is here turned into
his m/oder synnis to sorou; we see how the old fneosan became
sneeze. There is the new word drem^ reder, p. 242, where
all the other Versions have dremer. There is our common
phrase the gode ship, p. 1422. The old all and soms now
becomes an (one) avid al, p. 98. In p. 910 stands bakker
ma/re (more into the background), a most curious develop-
ment of the old a hak.
The Lancashire version, though drawn up many years
after the oldest Yorkshire version, is sometimes more faith-
ful to what the original must have been, as in p. 1491,
where true Shrift is said to be, tureiande, Umisome, jpropre,
stedefast; in the earliest version the two first words are
corrupted into torei and turnsum.
We can here mark the rapid disappearance of old words
between 1290 and 1360.
1290.
1360.
to spell
to preiche.
traistnes
stabelnes.
biweft awai
putte away.
to frith
to spare.
werp it awai
do it awai.
site
mischief.
Drightin
God.
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 69
1290.
1360.
Ram en
to gedder.
like
cnntree.
sere
diverse.
quakinwise
on quat wise.
on ]>i8kin wis
on suche wise.
anlepi
smerl
anly.
noynt (anoint).
tholmodnes
mekenes.
if ))ou es
if ))ou he.
he bettis
he amendis.
he worthes
he becomes.
grete (fletus)
sorou.
he be him an
he be his ane (by himself).
suernes
slauth.
nyth
envy.
sele
joy-
tinsel (loss)
tyning.
quilum
snm-time.
In p. 1521 suernes (ignavia) is so utterly mistaken as
to be written squenng (swearing). Words like brixd^ to7',
gersum, and others had become so obsolete that there is no
attempt to give any synonym. In p. 1414 lohan had been
made to rime with nrmdan; the Lancashire transcriber
changes the proper name into John.
As to Eomance words, two forms of one verb, ca/rk
and charge are both found.; we hear of a heart being out of
state, p. 1384, where we should now talk of condition. We
read of Lagh Canoun (canon law), in p. 1490.
I may here insert the Southern Version of the * Cursor
Mundi,' which seems to have been made about this time,
since it has the new touchynge ]>e apostlis in the sense of de,
p. 21. It may have been compiled near Warwickshire, for
we see horesones, p. 681 ; we have the Midland nor for ne
in p. 205. There is now a day (the old idceges), p. 187 ;
n>ow a dayes is found in the Salopian * Piers Ploughman.'
The decay of old Teutonic words in the South, as dis-
tinguished from the North, is here most obvious; this
process may be remarked from 1290 down to the last
Scotch ballad published in our time.
I here give a few words, common to most of the Northern
Versions of this piece, that have been struck out of this
70
THE NEW ENGLISH,
[chap.
Southern version, something quite diflferent being substi-
tuted—
doght (valuit), late, (vultus), diii (claudere), lird (decet),
mm 0 wale (delecti), v)ra (angulus), wonges (gense), gkt (cus-
todire), sld]^ (vestigium), bamfeme (proles), to spa (praedi-
cere), p. 1088 ; loveword (laus), gisel (hostage), graid (paratus),
femd (comitatus), thainhede (servitium), smore (suffocare),
hirpild (rugosus), yark (facere), umgang (circuit), dioslinges
(electi).
Northern Version,
Southern Version,
demster
domes man.
most we suffer
mut we suffer.
doghtyhede
nobel-hede.
fra )>ef en
fro )>at tyme.
alkin blis
al maner blis.
delve it
bury hit.
]>e oncall of his nam
]>e calling on his name.
to spire
suitn
to ask.
sone.
farli fair
wondir faire.
mister
nede.
wat ))0U
wostou.
aghtel
fenke.
tnrep
chiding.
feires til us
falle> us.
half feir)) of eln
foure ellen & an halfe.
overrrjan
hy man.
fair waites
aspies.
forfarlid
mased.
titter
souner.
mistrow
misbileve.
umbilaid
aboute bileide.
steckle
dore.
ay has it
ever ha> it.
ferrer
fur>er.
hals him
toke him aboute 'pe necke
]>is ilke man
>is same mon.
mai fall
hit may be.
bihoved >aira
shulde ]>ei.
to grape
to grope,
to speke.
to carp
In this Southern Version we see the long-lived Salopian
mhe (quisque); the Northern ]>air (illorum), er, leli, and
mekil are altered into her, ben, ti-uly, and mychel. We see
the Participial form weldonde (wielding), p. 251. The
I.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 71
Southern irbroitgM, p. 121, is peculiar to this Version. The
Northern fell (mons) was not understood, and was turned
into feldy p. 171. The Northern levenmg (fulmen) is made
leUi/ng, our lightenmg ; the old form had been leit. The
Northern stand aw is changed into stonde in awe. The word
stok takes a new meaning in p. 533, meaning dormis (family).
This Version sometimes evidently gives the best reading of
the original manuscript, as in line 4317.
There is no want of English poems between 1300 and
1360, but there is evidently a want of some Standard, such
as there had been down to 1 1 20. A few great men were now
at last ready to come forward, and to stamp their impress
upon the New English tongue. The sketch, already given
by Robert of Brunne, was now to be filled up and to be
made permanent, though a few of his Northern peculiarities
were to be swept away.
CHAPTEE 11.
CHAUCERIAN ENGLISH.
1362-1474.
Before entering upon the new style of English spoken in
London in 1362, and soon to become a model for all the
shires South of Trent, we must give a glance backward.
It may often be remarked that one form of a great speech
drives another form before it. Thus, in our own day, the
High German is always encroaching on its Northern neigh-
bour the Low German ; and the Low German, in its turn,
is always encroaching upon its Northern neighbour the
Scandinavian. Something of the like kind might have
been seen in England six himdred years ago ; but with us
the Dano- Anglian speech of the Midland was working down
Southwards towards London and Oxford all through the
Thirteenth Century. Its influence may be seen so early as
the * Essex Homilies * of 1 1 80 ; many years later we find a
still clearer token of the change. In some hundred Plural
substantives that had been used by Layamon soon after
1200, the Southern ending in en was replaced by the Mid-
land ending in es, when Layamon's work came to be written
out afresh after 1250. East Midland works became popular
in the South, as may be seen by the transcript of the
* Havelok * and the * Harrowing of Hell.' In the * Horn,' a
Southern work, we find the Present Plural en of the Mid-
land verb replacing the older Plural in eth. In the * Alex-
ander ' (perhaps a Warwickshire work) the Midland /, she,
they, and beon encroach upon the true Southern ich, heo, hi,
and heoth. Even in Kent we find marks of change : in the
CHAP. II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 73
sermons of 1290 the contracted forms lord and made are
seen instead of louerd and maked, Abeady mid (cum) was
making way for the Northern mtk This was the state of
things when the *Handlyng Synne' was given to England
soon after 1 303 ; it was believed, though wrongly, to be
the translation of a work of the great Bishop Eobert's, and
it seems to have become the great pattern ; from it many
a friar and parson all over England must have borrowed
the weapons wherewith the Seven Deadly Sins (these
play a great part in English song) might be assailed. We
have seen another work of Robert Manning's, *Medy-
tacyuns of the Soper of our Lorde,* a translation from
Buonaventura, the well-known oracle of Franciscans abroad.
The popularity of these works of the Lincolnshire bard
must have spread the influence of the East Midland further
and further. Manning heralded the changes in English,
alike by his large proportion of French words and by his
small proportion of those Teutonic words that were sooner
or later to drop.
The following examples will show how the best English
of our day follows the East Midland, and eschews the
Southern speech that prevailed in London about the year
1300. A is what Manning would have written ; B is what
was spoken at London in Manning's time.
A, But she and thei are fyled with synnes, and so I have sayd to
that lady ilk day ; answer, men, is hyt nat so ?
B. Ac heo and hi beoth ifuled mid sunnen, and so ichabbe iseid to
thilke levedy uche day ; answereth, men, nis it nought so ?
The last sentence is compiled mainly from the works of
Davie, of whom I gave a specimen at page 484 of my
former work. It is interesting to see what the tongue of
London was thirty years before her first great poet came
into the world.
Eobert of Gloucester could say in 1300 that England
was the only country that held not to her own speech, her
" high men " being f oreigners.^ This reproach was taken
^ Robert might have found the same phsenomenon in parts of
Hungary. I have quoted his words at page 479 of ' Old and Middle
English.'
74 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
away sixty years later. By that time it was becoming
clearer and clearer that a New Standard of English had
arisen, of which Eobert Manning was the patriarch ; much
as Gadmon had been the great light of the Northern
Anglian that had fallen before the Danes, and as Alfred
had been the great light of the Western Saxon that had
fallen before the Frenchmen. Throughout the Fourteenth
Century the speech of the shires near Eutland was spread-
ing in all directions ; it at length took possession of Oxford
and London, and more or less influenced such men as Wick-
liffe and Chaucer. Gower, when a youth, had written in
Latin and French ; when old, he wrote in English little
differing from that of Manning. This dialect moreover
made its way into the North : let any one compare the
* York Mysteries' of 1360 with the version of them made
forty years later, and he will see the influence of the Mid-
land tongue. 1 The Western shires bordering on North
Wales had long employed a medley of Southern and
Northern forms ; these were now settling down into some-
thing very like Manning's speech, as may be seen in the
Salopian specimen given by me. Kent, Gloucestershire,
and Lancashire were not so ready to welcome the dialect
compounded in or near Eutland ; their resistance seems to
have lasted throughout the Fourteenth Century ; and the
bard who wrote * Piers Ploughman's Vision ' after the year
1362, holds to the speech of his own Western shire.
Chaucer has given us a most spirited sketch of the York-
shire speech as it was in his day.^ The Northern English
had become the Court language at Edinburgh. The
Southern dialect, the most unlucky of all our varieties, gave
way before her Mercian sister: Dane conquered Saxon.
After 1420 no purely Southern English work, of any length,
was produced for 440 years. Shakespere, in his Lear,
^ Gamett's * Essays,' p. 192 : swylke^ alane, and sail are changed into
suche, alloTie, and shalle ; and other words in the same way.
^ The Southerner, on entering Leeds, still reads the old Northern
names of Kirkgate and Briggate on two great thoroughfares. May
the Leeds magistrates have more wit than those of Edinburgh, whom
Scott upbraids for affectation in substituting the modem Square for
the ancient Close /
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 75
tries his hand upon the Somersetshire tongue \ and it also
figures in one of the best of the Eeformation ballads to be
found in Bishop Percy's collection. But Mr. Barnes in our
own day was the first to teach England how much pith and
sweetness still lingered in the long -neglected homely
tongue of Dorset ; it seems more akin to Middle English
than to New English.^
A few improvements, not as yet brought from the North,
were still wanting; but about 1360 our land had a
Standard tongue of her own, welcome alike in the Palace
and in the cottage. King Edward the Third, not long
after Cressy, lent his countenance to the mother-tongue of
his trusty billmenand bowmen. He in 1349 had his
shield and surcoat embroidered with his own motto, on
this wise : —
"Hay, hay, the wythe swan.
By Godes soule, I am thy man."
His doublet bore another English device : "it is as it is." ^
Trevisa says that before the great Plague of 1349 high and
low alike were bent on learning French ; it was a common
custom: "but sith it is somedele chaunged." In 1362, a
great date indeed, English was made the language of the
Law-courts ; and this English was neither that of Hampole
to the North of the Humber, nor that of Herebert to the
South of the Thames. Our old freedom and our old speech
had been alike laid in the dust by the great blow of 1066:
the former had arisen once more in 1215 and had been
thriving amain ever since; the latter was now at last
enjoying her own again.
We may look upon Chaucer's English as the speech
spoken at Court in the latter days of King Edward IH. ;
high and low alike now prided themselves upon being
Englishmen, and held in scorn all men of outlandish birth.
The earlier and brighter days of King Harold seemed to
have come back again; Hastings had been avenged at
^ We there see the true old Wessex sound of ea.
^ Warton gives the * "Wardrobe Account, * in Latin, with Edward's
directions for his devices. — * History of English Poetry,' ii. 32.
(Edition of 1840.)
76 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Cressy, and our islanders found none to match them in
fight, whether the field might lie in France, in Spain, or in
Italy. King Edward was happy in his knights, and happy
also in the men whom he could employ in civil business,
men like Wickliffe and Chaucer.
Not only the Court but a University was now lending
its sanction to the speech of the common folk. In 1384
William of Nassington laid a translation into English rimes
before the learned men of Cambridge. The Chancellor
and the whole of the University spent four days over the
work ; on the fifth day they pronounced it to be free from
heresy and to be grounded on the best authority. Had
any errors been found in it, the book would have been
burnt at once.^ For the last thirty years there had been
a great stirring up of the English mind ; many works on
religion had been put forth both in the North and the
West, as may be seen in the Preface to Wickliffe's Bible,
edited not many years since.
The middle of the Fourteenth Century was the time
when English, as it were, made a fresh start, and was
prized by high and low alike. I take what follows from
an old Lollard work, put forth about 1460, and printed
eighty years later, when the term Lollard was being
swallowed up by the term Lutheran: "Sir William
Thorisbyjarchebishop of Yorke ^ did do draw a treatyse in
englishe by a worshipfuU clercke whose name was Gatryke,
in the whiche were conteyned the articles of beleve, the
seven dedly syiines, the seven workes of mercy, the X com-
maundmentes. And sent them in small pagines to the
commyn people to learne it and to knowe it, of which yet
many a copye' be in england. . . . Also it is knowen to
many men in ye tyme of King Eicherd ye II. yat into a
parlement was put a bible (bUI) by the assent of II arch-
bisshops and of the clergy to adnuUe the bible that tyme
translated into Englishe with other Englishe bookes of the
exposicion off the gospells ; whiche when it was harde and
seyn of lordes and of the comones, the duke of Lancaster
^ * Thornton Romances ' (Camden Society), p. xx.
2 This Prelate, in 1361, began the choir of York Minster.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 77
Jhon answered thereto ryght sharpely, sayenge this sen-
tence : We will not be refuse of all other nacions ; for
sythen they have Goddes law whiche is the lawe of oure
belefe in there owne langage, we will have oures in Englishe
whosoever say naye. And this he affermyd with a great
othe. Also Thomas Arundell Archebishoppe of Canter-
bury sayde in a sermon at Westmester at the buryenge of
Quene Anne, that it was more joye of here than of any
woman that ever he knewe. For she an alien borne hadde
in englishe all the IIII gospels with the doctours upon them.
And he said that she had sent them to him to examen and
he saide that they were good and trewe." ^ Here we see
that English had kept its ground in the Palace ; an intru-
sion which would have seemed strange, I suspect, to
Edward the Second, the grandfather of stout Duke John.
Not long after the Duke's death, an inscription in English
was graven upon the brass set up in Higham Ferrars
church to the memory of Archbishop Chicheley's brother.
In 1362, or soon afterwards, two renowned English
poets must have been at work — Chaucer in London ; the
author of * Piers Ploughman' not far from the Severn.
They both went on writing for nearly forty years. Of the
two, the rustic bard has the more sublime passages ; the
Court poet, who took long to arrive at his full powers, ex-
cels in painting the manners of mankind. He had no real
successor for two hundred years ; he was the great model ;
and many poets must have won renown by copying his
style, or even fathering their works upon him.
The once despised English now came to be used, not
only in legal documents and religious tracts, but even in
Church prayers, Royal proclamations, and Parliamentary
business ; Henry V., a truly national King, gave a great
impulse to the use of his native tongue, and in his own
writings replaced certain Southern forms by the Northern
words that we still use. It is true that English poetry all
but died out in the fifty years after Lydgate's time, remind-
^ Arber's Keprint of *Kede me and be nott wrothe,* page 176. In
page 157 will be found a Fifteenth Century pun ; the endowing of the
clergy should be called " all amiss," rather than " almes."
78 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
ing us of the ninety years that followed the Norman Con-
quest \ but at the same moment our prose made a sudden
start, and became a most forcible weapon in the hands of
Pecock, Fortescue, and Mallory. Provincial forms, at least
to the South of Trent, were now retiring more and more
from the public gaze ; at last Gaxton and his printing press
were about to give a complete victory to the Standard
English, spoken at London in 1474 ; this press was also to
arrest the decay of our old Teutonic words, a decay which,
since 1290, had been most slow and gradual.
The Old English Drama may well stand at the head
of the English works dealt with in this Chapter. The
Mysteries, of which mention had already been made in the
* Handlyng Synne,' now come before us. The earliest of the
York Plays may date from about this time, though the
manuscript containing them is due to a later period.^ So
popular were these Mysteries, that they were performed
every year at York down' to 1579 ; they seem to have been
dropped, just when theatres began to flourish at London.
Some of these works date from about 1360 ; others seem
to be about forty years later \ these last I shall analyse
further on.^ The Northern writer uses mtm for the
Southern togedery p. 107. The he is clipped, when ^^ get a
bairn" replaces beget, p. 104. The k replaces p ; the old
clappe (strepitus), appears as women's clakke, p. 344. The
Northern addition of th is seen in hountithy p. 122 ; hence
the Scotch poortitk There are the new Substantives, home
sjpone, skelp (ictus) ; there is the rare fordele (commodum),
used afterwards by Gresham and Hey wood. In p. 109
woman kynde expresses mvHeres, just as the word is used by
Scott's Antiquary. A babe is called a mytyng, p. 141, a
new application of the term mite, A woman is addressed
as my love, p. 424, a new phrase. We hear of cwsedness,
^ These havelbeen well edited by Miss Toulmin Smitli (Clarendon
Press), and are printed from the Ashbnrnham Manuscript. They
appeared in July 1885, just in time to be inserted here.
2 In distinguishing the dates of the Mysteries I have been guided
chiefly by the proportion of French words used ; the word dovMes occurs
in the later, but not in the earlier, Mysteries. The system of rimes
is also very difTerent.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 79
p. 501 ; the Americans, who retain so many Yorkshire
phrases, still talk of mssedness. In p. 513 stands /or-Jjo^A^
(propositum) ; we have changed the sense of this. As to
the Adjectives, the old p'cetig had meant astutus, it now gets
our later sense of the word ; a boy is likely to turn out a
jpraty (fine) swayne, p. 170. The word dowty (bonus) begins
to slide into fortis ; knights are dowty in dedis, p. 404. We
read of high cmd lowe (all men) ; no man is the wiser (knows
a secret), p. 419. As to Pronouns, a child was (mres two,
p. 109 (belonging to us two); men are none of his, p. 503
(not his friends) ; we hear of ]?e selve and ]>e same (the later
self-same), p. 512. The any is inserted needlessly; "why
that tree any more than others ? " p. 23 ; it is the same with
ever ; " what ever can this be 1" p. 1 88 ; this last perhaps led
to the new form for whatsoever. The one refers to a previous
noun; "if you have no sword, buy one" p. 238. The old
althir mast is used, p. 110, where Gower was soon to use
most of all. Among the Verbs are look him in the face, lie
in store, Joseph makes a trijppe into Egypt, p. 142; the
verb trip had been lately used for moving lightly. The
verb be takes the new sense of vadere in p. 339 ; / ha.ve
bene (to) garre make itydi great change. The verb mt was
always undergoing corruption; in p. 501 something is
weten (notum) ; a form that would have startled an earlier
generation. The old to (dis) was dropping in the North,
though it was to keep its ground in the South for nearly
200 years longer; the verb to-ryff (rive asunder), p. 107,
stands quite by itself. On the other hand, the North was
to prefix for to Verbs, long after these forms had been
dropped in the South. We find the new phrase erlye and
late, p. 163. In p. 512 stands "your help to them was
not at hams " (ready, familiar) ; hence, a man is now said
to be not at home in certain pursuits. There is the Inter-
jection colle/ p. 119; which is suggested as an old form
of golly / There are the Scandinavian words dasta/rd and
balk (trabs). Among the French words are dewly, rivet,
novelty^ novellis (news), seeges (chairs), oblissh (oblige). A
certain act is called a bad bargayne, p. 103; here there is
no notion of trade. In carpentering mesures are taken, p.
8o THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
42 ; this noun was to have a greatly extended sense. The
word Btaie stands for dignity, as in Barbour, p. 24. The
verb sdze gets the new sense of caperey p. 416. There is
the French cry, as armes (to arms !) p. 152. The Latin is
used for stage directions in p. 190; hence our eoceunt, etc
The ruffians who crucify our Lord swear by Mahounde, p.
346. A more elaborate system of riming stanzas begins to
come in ; see pp. 143, 237, 340, 347 ; but this was to be
much further developed in the later * York Mysteries ' of
1 400. I give a specimen of the earlier rimes —
'* In lele wedlak )>ou lede >e,
LefFe hir no3t, I forbid fe,
Na syn of hir jjou neven.
But till hir fast ]>ou spede )>e,
And of hir noght )>ou drede jje,
It is Goddis sande of heven " (p. 110).
In the statutes of a Lynne Gild of 1368 we see the
official called the hdleman^ p. 55 ; also, if U nede be; here
we usually strike out the U, There is also falsed with the
new meaning of mendadum ; hitherto it had meant a state
of mind. There are the Norfolk peculiarities geve and xal.
In 1371 were drawn up certain English rules for the
masons at work upon York Minster.^ We here see Saynte
Elmnes, where day is dropped. The Celtic clock (campana)
appears for the first time in English ; it was to supplant
the French oriloge ; noon is smitten by the docke ; we now
replace smUe by strike. We read of dyner tyme, of a loge^ a
building for masons, a famous word in our day ; also of the
dose of the cathedral.
The poem on Sir Degrevant ('Thornton Romances,'
Camden Society) seems to belong to 1370, or so; it is
Northern, but has the Lancashire ho (ilia) ; and there is the
whom (hu-ome) for domus^ which still prevails in that
county; also the new Celtic word gown. The rime has
sometimes been altered by the transcriber, as mom into
moroWy p. 215 ; fas into foas, p. 250.
The a is clipped, for we find fray (pugna) instead of
affray, p. 248 ; there are the two forms troth and trou^th (pig-
1 Britton's * Cathedrals,' York, p. 80.
n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 8i
nus) ; we now make a difference between them. The I is
added, for the verb tuse becomes tousd (Scott's towzle\ p.
239. The old word nooke is applied to the comer of a letter,
p. 184. The hero overthrows many knights in a tourna-
ment, and brings their horses, as prizes, to stake, p. 223 ;
can this be the source of our winning the stakes ? A man
makes a remark one (in) his play, p. 248 ; here the noun
refers, not to action, but to speech ; it would have been
earlier, in his game, A new Adjective is compounded in p.
245, a two-hmde stuerde, something like the old twy-ecged
(two-edged).
As to Verbs, the old phrase ic hit eom had been
altered in the * Cursor Mundi ' to ^at ilk es /, and now be-
comes ht/t ys I, -p. 207 ; Chaucer still has the old form.
There are the phrases maJce delay, set hea/rt on. We have
two new sporting terms, to dram rivers, p. 182, and to hunt
forests, p. 184 j that is, the game that is in them. The old
how so ever now undergoes a change ; how ever that hyt be
stands in p. 213. There are new constructions oifor; as,
fourfy for one, p. 208, a phrase also used by Barbour at this
time; we should now alter the for into to. In p. 218
stands a gift for a kyng ; here some adjective like rrveet is
dropped before the preposition. The foreign afraid is now
followed by of, like the native afeard ; afreyd of the haight,
p. 188. The fashionable oath of this time is hinted at in
p. 249, where a man is described as swearing by hones a/nd
blood. We see Chaucer's Celtic word enop (applied to
crystal), whence our kmb was to come. Among the new
French words are hart of grese, bagge (badge), banneret, servi-
tor; scalmuse (shawms), knigM erraurd. In p. 183 we read
of a knight's place, that is, domain or manor ; also of his
tenmmtrie. In p. 192 chase is used for silva. The old wild
deor now makes way for ivyld best, p. 197 ; here stags are
meant. The word trayn gains the new meaning of comitatus,
p. 224. In p. 228 a Imight is described as dress4; this
may here refer either to his fine horse or to his fine clothes.
In p. 189 we read of lords of honor e, leading to our "man
of honour" and "maid of honour." In p. 205 comes the
favourite ballad phrase, " Ihesu save thee md see / "
VOL. I. G
82 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
We see the word de (aisle of a church) in a Latin in-
scription of 1370 quoted in Dr. Murray's * Dictionary.'
In the * Early English Poems' and * Lives of Saints/
published by Mr. Furnivall in 1862, there are some pieces
that may date from 1370. The dialect is mostly Southern,
except that stii, not st^A^Ti, occurs in p. 136. We see 'poysi
{oT poesy, p. 135, a sign that the oy now stood for something
besides the French ou and i. In p. 129 a man is boun to
begge, "ready to beg," or "forced to beg," for there seems
here a confusion between the Scandinavian bun (paratus)
and the English bound (coactus). In p. 122 stands love hym
best of eny ]>ing (of all) ; Chaucer has something like this.
The verb sit governs an Accusative ; sekenesse sittep me, p.
129, hence the later "sit a horse." We see cast acomdes, put
]n trust in him, do execution (slay), p. 119. Among the French
words are, to raump (of lions), queristre (chorister), lettome
(lectern), countures round (counters), fantctsie, I mseure thee,
]>e cours of kynde (nature), p. 119; hence comes our of
course.
The ' Romance of the Emperor Octavian ' (Percy Society)
may date from iabout 1370. It has the very old word
heere (exercitus), elsewhere obsolete ; it was compiled in the
North, as , we see the forms lowse (solvere), wepande, alle-kyn,
put til dethe, thro (acer). The poem has been transcribed
by a Southern writer, who has changed geste into yeste, land
into lande, rearm into redlme, p. 18; perhaps odur (alius)
into wodur, p. 13. He was evidently puzzled by the
Northern ferly (wondrous), p. 49. The a is clipped in
semblyd, but prefixed in avefogyd ; the French hde undergoes
the usual English change and becomes lewte. The s is
struck out, for the old daies light appears as day lyght. The
old verbs mcenan (significare) and myntan (statuere) are
here confused, as in Chaucer ; we see in p. 9, he unste not what
hyt mente. The ]> replaces d in thdhw, our thither, p. 8.
The phrase man child now starts to life again after a long
sleep ; we also hear of no chUdys play, p. 35. We see the
source of our bowsprit in p. 18, where the sailors catch up
an oar or a ^ytt (a projecting piece of wood). There
seems to be a forestalling of our modem slang in p. 59 ;
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 83
the earls and barons are said to be holde and swelle (elati).
In p. 49 one side is said to be the hettur in the fight, a new
sense of the adjective, like our "who is the best man."
The Indefinite hi/t or it again appears; hi/t was rvoxe nyght,
p. 12. In p. 45 a question is put as to the rank of a
champion ; the answer is Twdur lesse nm^ more than yf hyt my-
self e Tvore (were), meaning that the champion was myself.
Among the Verbs are the phrases, find her way, corns of elde
(age). The old bid now gains the sense of invitare / thethur
was he bede, p. 8. We see the new French words lyenas
(lioness), floryns, scabard, A burgess is called " Clement the
velayn" (villain), p. 21, where the word keeps its old sense.
In p. 5 Eome is said to be wrong-heyred (ruled by the wrong
heir), a remarkable instance of turning a noun into a Past
Participle. In p. 34 two men fight till one becomes maystyt^-
the sense of vincei^e was coming into this word. A man
refers to a horse in p. 54, and says, to the emperov/r therwith
y wylle present hym ; here a new idiom appears, which the
transcriber plainly did not understand.
The Eomance of * Torrent of Portugal,' edited by Mr.
Halliwell, seems to have been compiled about 1370 ; it has
much in common with the Lancashire poems, and is full of
Northern words, such as to byrl wine, momyng, aye where
(ubique), gar, she rmn (must). But it seems to have been
transcribed in the next Century, perhaps in Salop or further
to the South; there are forms like litulle and wowndus
(wounds). The ane (unus), in p. 69, has been elsewhere
altered into won; there is also whome (home), p. 32. The
rimes give a clue to the true old readings; thus the gas
and to in p. 5 have been changed into goos and taJcythe,
much to the loss of harmony ; travel and satUe become trovel
and sole. The old herberwe becomes harbwrrow (harbour), p.
1 2 ; the r is struck out, for forester appears as foster, whence
comes a well-known proper name. The n is inserted, for
the foreign Portugal is seen as Portingale, a form that long
lingered in England. As to the Substantives, the word
hnave stands, as in Lancashire, not for puer or servus, but
for nebuh ; it is here applied to a savage giant, p. 6, and
this sense of the word appears again in the last edition of
84 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
* Piers Plowman ' put forth by the aged author; see Skeat's
edition, p. 169. The term vxird had hitherto stood for
cmtos and custodia ; but now, by an odd freak of language,
it expresses the opposite, pupUlus, p. 67. In p. 104 a
knight's lance is called a tymbei\ Among the Adjectives,
hlcB loses its old meaning lividus and expresses ccenUetLS, being
confounded with the French bloie, later bleu; asure hlay
occurs in p. 95. We have now dropped the Northern
manfulle, found in p. 7, except for adverbs, and we have
stuck to the Southern mardy. We find hys squyerys they
momyd, p. 5 ; this insertion of they is something unusual.
Two Strong Verbs are weakened, for we see swellyd and
helpt. We come upon if so be that, to unbrydel, lay about him,
win erthe (ground) on hym, p. 28; irwugh to lyve uppon.
Something like Manning's idiom, which substituted the
Infinitive for a causal sentence, is now repeated; what
ellythe yow for to flee f p. 41 ; who made the^ so bold here to
dwelle ^ p. 8 ; we know our / m^ade bold to, etc., where a ms
is dropped. There is plainly a translation of fais tu in p.
86 ; what m^akist thou (here ?). A new Adverb is coined by
adding ward to a Preposition, "we have been here two
years and onward on the third," p. 92 ; we should say " well
on in the third." In p. 44 a giant's eye is owte. We find
the Adjective handsom, p. 55, which here means handy, con-
venient ; it is akin to a Dutch word ; the old sense remains
in the phrase in our later writers, "bring us off" handsomely."
There is the Scandinavian gale (aura) ; the word in its own
country meant rabidus. The French words are plate (of
armour), force (in the sense of eocercitus), p. 89 ; pile (a
building). In p. 13 stands / uoole be thy warrant that, etc.
The word poyntes is used in a new sense in p. 77, the poyntes
of children, that is, their beauties of person ; we talk of
"the points of a woman."
The Komance of Eichard Coer de Lion (Weber's edition)
seems to date from about 1370, and may be due to Salop ;
there is a mixture of Northern and Southern forms. Thus
in one line, p. 54, stands beth in pes, lystenes my tale. There
are gar, mekU, am, pi'ickande ; on the other hand, we find
fuyr* There is the Celtic pouke, and the Salopian kenddy,
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 85
fmrye^ and dmie (ictus) ; this last was to oust dmd^ and to
circumscribe dird. There is a new idiom that reminds us
of Piers Ploughman, armys of his owm, p. 177.
There is a tendency to contract ; sjnrit and heron appear
as spryk and hern ; the form to-morrow^ just as we spell it,
is in p. 92. Orrmin's bdaace now becomes ^o^te. The old
ganed is softened into yaned (yawned) ; and toh is written
tov^h. The de is clipped at the beginning, for the Glou-
cestershire word defensable appears as fensabU (our Fencibles).
The well-known name laiymer (interpreter), which had be-
fore been written latiner (from the Latin), stands in p. 97,
showing the interchange of m and n. The Verb win forms
its Past Participle in toon, not in wunnen, p. 74. The words
oukmeste and vitermeste are both found in p. 115 ; here the
r is inserted, as we saw before in shrill and anerlL
Among the Substantives we find the naval terms top-
castle andforeship; in p. 99 is the sailor's cry, hevelow and
rumbeloo} The French ard is tacked on to a Teutonic root,
to compound taylwrd (caudatus), p. 31 ; a favourite joke
against Englishmen in those days ; it lasted for 200 years.
A new noun is formed from brew, p. 121 ; the brotmys so
well known in Scotland. In p. 175 the Adjective herteles,
being coupled with flint, shows that heart might now bear
the sense of compassion,
Layamon had long before employed the phrase many a
man; this is now carried further, for in p. 194 stands maT^^e
tuas the m/m that corns. We saw in Layamon's Second
Text the new phrase, nothing of his; this usage also is
extended in p. 138 ; non off thy golde. The phrase two so
■fde (twice as many) occurs both in p. 122 and in p. 251; it
is a continuation of a very old English idiom, as, six swa
micd.
Among the Verbs we hear of every freehoHdande, p. 51 ;
here the Participle stands for a noun. The old verb fremien
had been used before of abstract things, as freme (perform)
his wUle- in the * Havelok ; ' it is now applied to physical
objects, as frame the tree-castel, p. 73, and it becomes a
^ We seem to have dropped the I from the first word ; Kingsley, in
his novels, often refers to the second.
86 THE NEW ENGLISH, Ichap.
synonym ior fabricate. To fall on stands for assail, p. 213.
The French creoice, croudie, had long before given birth to a
verb for cmce signare; this is imitated in p. 84 by the
Icelandic form kross; he is crossed a pilgrim. The herUe
herte of Gloucester becomes take herte, p. 225. In p. 52
stands fond he no man hym to myssay ; here the adjective
ready is dropped after man. There are phrases such as
hangyd he he thai, etc., wenie to grounde, grind his teeth, make
playn (thorough) werk of-p. lil ; lay a deff ear to, wind wp a
brig (bridge), nMke it al sure, not sicker. The verb set
imitates verbs like come, for in p. 123 stands the smine vxis
sette.
Among the Adverbs we find ones more, p. 193 ; fro so
ferre, p. 142. The other form of the old swa is also ex-
tended in use ; we read in p. 253 that fifteen hundred bare
wine and oils manye (bare) bread.
As to the Prepositions, in stands after arrive, and not
the more usual at; aryve in Normandye, p. 254. This
in has supplanted the old on; he bad hem goo, in Godes
name, p. 196. The King can buy fowls, neythyr for love,
neythyr for eye (awe), p. 59 ; we now usually contrast love
and money. Our hand-to-hand fighting is foreshadowed in
p. 1 73 ; hand be hand to geve bekyr.
The Interjection what now/ stands in p. 62. There is
the verb bale and tray (alveolus), common to us and to the
Dutch. The Scandinavian words are rap (pulsare) and
girth; this latter takes the Icelandic th, not the Old
English d. Toss is the Scandinavian for spargere; in p. 170
stands mn the toss; there is also fetlock. The French
words are canevas, in despite of, in present, to brace, to gash,
tried silver. We find Bismarck's well-known frye inne owre
owne gres, p. 175. In p. 6 we see dborde, our aboard ; Dr.
Murray makes this a newly-imported French phrase, which
was soon regarded as connected with the Old English bord.
The word moble stands for furniture, p. 253; in p. 160
Richard pays the Saracens their rent ; like our " give them
theur bellyful."
In 1375 John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen,
gathered up the traditions of his Century, and wrote his
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 87
poem on the exploits of Kobert the Bruce.^ He himself
^ ' In the tyme of the compiling
Off this buk, ...
wes the yer off grace
A thousand, thre hundyr, sevynty
And fyve.
The work exists in a transcript, made rather more than a
hundred years later. The Teutons of the North had not
as yet begun to call their language " broad Scotch ; " our
poet speaks of his Northern dialect as the " Inglis toung,"
p. 72. He was rewarded with a pension, which was paid
down to the time of his death, towards the end of 1396.
The old verb waiter becomes welter ; on the other hand
renge becomes rawnge; Ralph and fealty are seen as Bauf
a,ndfewty. On the other hand saiLce is written salss, p. 58.
The two forms yeman and yovynmn are found in the one
page, 96. The former chevetain is altered into chyftan, and
the same love of contraction appears in Irchery, Irsche (Irish),
p. 321. We see knelit for the old knelede, p. 411, a truly
Scotch form. We have Marjory instead of Margeri, in p.
408. The 0 replaces ou, for Gloucestre is written Glosystyr,
p. 67 ; there is also swour (juravit), and repruff, p. 82 ; Broile
is written for Brute^ and hroil for Irule ; hence the Gaelic
rua (red) was long afterwards written roy^ as Rob Eoy. In
p. 20 poison appears as pus-ou/n. But the ^ sound of oi is
also found, as in the verb convoy, also written conwey^ in
other parts of the poem ; hence we have two verbs with
different shades of meaning in our day. Our word for satis
appears both as enewch and inew. The Abbey of Rievaulx
is found as Byfuowis, p. 377 ; the original au here, which
Barbour must have pronounced like ou, is in our days
sounded in the other way, like the French d, Bivds. The
b is struck out, for chrnnber is written chamur, p. 24 ; there
is also Northummyrland, The connexion between / and J? is
very plain, when Methven is written Meffayn, p. 32. The
old u was mistaken for v, hence the French lieutenant appears
as lufftenande, p. 281. But there is a fashion of supplanting
V by w, as in chewalrus ; so the old dboven becomes aboivyne,
^ Jamieson's Edition, of 1869.
88 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
p. 344, which doubtless led the way to oho(m ; so lavender
becomes layndar (our laundress), and the two fonns are found
in p. 320. The g is struck out in the middle, as Bryd for
Briffida, p. 389 ; in that page the old rig (dorsum) main-
tains itself against all Southern corruption, as it still does.
In the same way the noun ^ek is found, not speech, in p.
82. We see yei for the East Anglian gate (porta) ; it still
takes the soft sound sometimes in the North. The old
nrnga (acervus) is written mow, p. 68. The quh is used for
the old hw, as quhen for hwen. The old word jfor homage is
written manredyn in the right way, p. 321, and is cor-
rupted into mcmreni, through a false analogy, p. 98. The
old frith becomes fyrth (of Forth) in the true Northern
way of transposing ; it is here applied to sea and not to
wood.
As to Substantives, the Eomance endings, tacked on to
Teutonic roots, are coming in; we find not only thyrldome
(thraldom) but also thrillage, p. 6, like the bondage of 1303;
there is also yemcmry, p. 76; the new dewUry (devilry)
appears in p. 86 ; there is also Irchery (Irishry). There are
the new Substantives, undertaMng, mainland, auiecome, (ex-
cursus), slewth-hwnd, mfar (inroad), armful, owting (excursus) ;
here a Preposition gives birth to a Verbal noun. In p.
44 men do a thing with a wUl, here the article is inserted ;
in p. 54 men bring all thair thing (property) ; in p. 255
something has last (endurance), a word well known in our
races; in p. 300 men lie slain all in a lump; in p. 343 an
enterprise is begun ivith all hcmdis; in p. 392 cannon are
called crakys of wer (war). The old wakeman becomes a
wach, p. 201. In p. 325 men are sent on before to take
herbery (harbour) for the army ; in the next page these men
are called herbryouris, our harbingers, showing here a change
of meaning. In p. 340 crcme bears the sense of engine,
not bird. The old gle is used of the joy of heaven in p.
412, just as mirth was used 200 years later; these words
can now bear only a far lower meaning. We see some new
proper names; Thom Dicson, p. 97, seems to show that
Richard had now become Dick ; there are Jhone Thomassone,
and OUbertson; GHlbert is seen as Qib (whence comes Gibson)
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 89
in p. 299. The s(m in these proper names reminds us of
Scandinavia. In p. 205 we hear of Wilyame Francwss^
called Fravmsoys m p. 212, which was thought to be a
synonym of the French word FransaiSy a FranUs man. The
Spanish town Corunna was long known as the Groyne {oy
for u\ and appears as grwnye in p. 414 ; Barbour's modern
editor evidently cannot tell what to make of the word,
printing it without a capital letter. A well-known Celtic
province appears as BretaymU^ riming with Spainye, p. 414.
We hear both of the Scottis and of Scottismm, hence the later
Scotsman.
There are some new Adjectives, such as scaithfrd, fvrred,
craggy, and the new form Sotheroun, p. 358. The word mid
(medius) had been already set before many nouns, and we
now see mydivatter, p. 62, and myd caus4 (via), p. 365. From
strength is formed strengtU, p. 84, just as lengthy has arisen
in our own time. The Northern form of expressing p^or
was waw ; this is turned into warrer in p. 105. The
meaning of spedig changes from faustus to cder in p. 127.
Our sheer also gains a new sense ; there is schor crag in p.
189 (sheer precipice). The old hindem/i becomes henmaist.
There is both the Teutonic cumbyrsum and the Eomance
combrowss (cumbrous). The last syllable is pared away
from likely in it wes lik that he mycht haiff ccmqueryt, p.
321 ; a corruption to penetrate to London fifty years
later. In p. 77 syndry (sundry) bears first its old meaning
separaius, and then takes a new sense, something like
guidam; othyr syndry (sundry other men), as we use it
mostly now.
As to Pronouns, we saw de ton in 1230; this is seen
again in on the ta hand, p. 323, and it became a regular
Scotch legal phrase. Barbour is fond of thai and thairis, he
and his. We have already seen "do thy best;" in p. 358
comes all thair mast (most) assaUyeit thai (doing their
utmost). In p. 321 we see fra end till uthyr; we should now
say " from one end to the other." Barbour used qwheyn
for pauci ; in Scotland the phrase " a wheen folk " may still
be heard; this keeps alive the old hvxm (parvus), which
Southern England seems to have lost for the last 700
90 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
years. In p. 399 comes we war ymw to put, etc. ; here
the third word is in the Plural, (numerous enough). The
question is asked in p. 389 quhat folk ar thai ? the first
word answering here to quotvs. In p. 263 a man is de-
scribed as the thrid best knychty a very terse phrase. In p.
373 stands he wes auchty thowsand ; to this we should now
add sl/rong.
There are many new phrases where Verbs are employed,
such as, Jiald in cheyff, set a man on him, maJce thair acqtientance,
put to confvsioune, put thaim to the flycht, giff and tak, make
him way, tak his mage, the wawys (waves) hreaky brek (mere)
on thaim, draw aynd (breath), / am in aynd, tak aynd, lay the
dath (cloth), get on fute, he is gottyn in the tawre, set tryst to,
tak (leap) the wall, make a stopping (halt), p. 147, draw ner to
him, lede hay, do his part, tak the feyld, tak gret rowme, brek
aray, to say suth (sooth), have na ha/rt to help thaim, to set wachis,
mak na schawing (show) of, a weyll-maid body, mak chang
(exchange) of, nycht was fallyn, it mayd (told) agayn us. The
verb undo adds the meaning of perdere to its old meaning
solvefi'e, p. 8. We see he had spyis owt, p. 323 ; here an
Active Participle, like lying, should be the last word but
one. The English verb for vigUare had hitherto been in-
transitive ; but we now find thai war wachit (watched), p.
397. On the other hand, fling is intransitive as before,
but also governs an Accusative, p. 331. There is a sudden
change of tense, well known to ballad-makers, in p. 413 ;
instead of saying in the narrative, " they had him," we find
thai haiffhad him. In p. 93 stands he put him to the se; we
now drop the him and the the. We saw in 1270 that so
many hens m>ake a flock ; in p. 115 this is carried further,
he with thaim maid fyfty. The noun way is now followed by
an Infinitive, he was set in gud way to conguer the land, p.
321. Men had hitherto blown an instrument; they now
blow tunes on it ; blaw the retreit, p. 347. There is the
new verb quhethir, our quiver, in p. 353 ; it is said to come
from the old cwifer (impiger). There is may fall, like the
French, peui ^tre, in p. 416. In p. 393 men get wyt of some-
thing ; perhaps we have confounded wit with wind in later
times. We saw hold on his way ; the noun is now dropped,
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 91
and hold forth (proficisci) is in p. 387 ; the phrase is in our
days confined to the pulpit.
Among the Adverbs stands nerar togiddyr. We now
sometimes hear a phrase " he is far away the best ; " in p.
305 stands fer way ma (more) than thai. This fer now ex-
presses not only p'ociU but multum, when set before a
Comparative ; /er maiTf p. 31, and this comes often in
Barbour ; folk are hard pressyty p. 355. The in is struck
out that should have come before na tuyss, p. 124 ; this led
long afterwards to our no how ; we saw no wayes in the
'Cursor.' So vnth is struck out in the middle of the
phrase, he folowit gud speid, p. 122. The form off seems
here to be appropriated to the adverb, leaving the other form
of for the preposition ; tvith hudis (hoods) off, p. 390. In
1300 the phrase as in a Tywesday had been used ; we now
see, p. 126, as a^ this tyme, which remains in our Prayer
Book ; here as is not wanted. In p. 412 as, with an Infini-
tive, is opposed to so with an Adjective; a wholly new
idiom ; a man undertakes sa hey empriss as to her, etc. ;
hence our tuUl you be so good as to, etc. What Chaucer
called otherwise appears in Barbour as othir wayis, p. 6 ;
leastways is often heard now. The latter poet is not satis-
fied with the old fullic (turpiter), but has fovlyly ; and is
fond of repeating this ly in Adverbs, as halyly, manlyly, a
process that we dislike.
As to Prepositions, we see ane till ane, p. 17, our man
for man ; to win and tUl occupy stand side by side in p. 6.
In p. 36 a bridle slips off his hand; we have already found
in this poem the two forms of this preposition. We have
seen strong of hand ; a slight addition is made in p. 29, where
we hear of a worthy kn/ycht off his hand. We had in 1290
the Northern phrase the stalvxyrthest geant of one ; this leads
the way to Barbour's best off a knycht of all England, p.
375 ; hence the later a jewel of a man, A man might
always go ofti an errand ; this brings us to he was fer on his
way, p. 60. In p. 140 the army is all on ster (astir). We
saw on his healfe in 1076 ; in p. 176 men are slain upon Uk
party. The poet uses ner in the sense of prope with an
Accusative following ; neh (nigh) had been treated in this
92 THE NE W ENGLISH, [ch A p.
way much earlier. The phrase ai lead had long been
known; in p. 106 stands ai the maist. In p. 169 comes
the expression twa for ane; in p. 145 we have it more
at length; thai war sex guhar he ives ane. The old over
all had meant vUqm; it now means above all things, as
in p. 412.
There are some new phrases, used as Interjections, as on
thaim! a war-cry which comes pretty often ; till armys swythf
(quick to arms), p. 32 ; hdp I help I p. 35.
The Scandmavian whisk, morass, moss (palus), appear;
also schald, schold (shallow), whence comes our shoal. There
is the verb ruffle, akin to the German ; also h/t, our kit.
There are the Celtic loiLch (loch), brae, glen-, bog, stab, brawl.
Hie French words are iniquity, endenture, plumage, rally, the
plains, capital ennymy, priv6 consaile, raiss (French raz), abase,
pryss (aestimare), ayr aperand, ayr male, sent (odor), retenew,
fagald (faggot), base (low), distvyst (disused), quarter ofamyle,
novelty, warand (warren), monymentis (muniments), a taUye,
regret, enamel. The word cariage is first found in p. 158,
where it means the gear for carrying the army's baggage.
A new word for */ appears ; supposs they did so, p. 55 ; this
comes often in later Scotch writers. There is the new track,
which has nothing to do with trace. The French had in
this Century exchanged their old cataigne, chevetaine, for a
near imitation of capitanem ; and Barbour has capitaine, soon
to be adopted by Chaucer. The verb venge is making an
end of the old wreak. In p. 30 towers are bataUlyt (em-
battled). The Teutonic vm, is often set before Romance
roots, as unarmed; we see also under-wardein, fortravaUlit,
wmbeverov/nd (circumdatus) ; this umJbe seems to have been
little known in the South after 1280. Men cum to purpos
(proposed end), p. 48 ; in our day they speak to the pur-
pose. In p. %6 secider stands for layman, and is not opposed
to regular. In p. 74 we see the verb confuse; we have this
(formed from the Past Participle) as well as confound, formed
from the Infinitive. In p. 95 an English knight bears the
name of Sanct Jhon, with the accent on the first word, thus
foreshadowing our well-known Sinjon. In p. 15 a knight
is described as sweyt in cumpany ; 1 suppose that stuive would
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 93
be the wOrd favoured by our modem writers. In p. 115
a man is at first discouraged by his enemies, but after-
wards tais Ull him his spyritis ; this strange Plural (it
appeared in France during this Century) here expresses
courage. In p. 138 men press the king; in p. 173 he presses
on them. What we call two thirds appears in p. 140 as twa
partis of thaim. In p. 1 45 deer are in sesoun. We have
seen entente ; in p. 205 it wes his ententiotm to, etc. In p.
309 a man is vsyt to fight, in p. 222 he uses to fight; we
may now employ tised for soleham^ but not use for soleo, a
curious instance of English nicety. In p. 285 a general
dresses his men ; the verb is still used in this military
sense. We see ciiidly (with no idea of inlyimanity) coupled
with fighting in p. 337, and with vmmding in p. 347; it is in
our time often used to intensify a phrase, as cruel bad. In
p. 421 comes soverane price, where the first word expresses
maxirmis; Piers Ploughman, much about the same time,
has soverdn salve (remedy). The scouts, sent ahead of an
army, are called discomriomis, p. 388, hence our scourefrs.
The word simple takes •the meaning stultus^ p. 7, besides its
old sense of humUis, which is seen in p. 22. The verb trete
expresses tradare in p. 10 ; Wyntoun afterwards used it in
the same sense ; in p. 64 the king tretyt with certain folk ;
and trety stands in p. 216. The old lenten (ver) was going
out ; for this the Icelandic were is used. The word hounU
expresses a valiant feat in p. 45. In p. 97 stuff ib used
in its Lancashire sense for equipment or means ; the con-
fusion between the verbs stop and stuff is very plain in
p. 342, where so many ships come that the haven is stoppyt,
A person of high rank does things in a quiet easy way ;
hence an engine is pressed up to a wall gentUly, p. 354 ;
we now make a great diflFerence between genteelly and gently.
Our verb v/nna/n (own) has come to stand for confiteri as well
as concedere ; in the same way a man makes granting (con-
fession) of his sins in p. 381. The verb avise (scrutari)
takes the new sense oi monere in p. 32 ; we make it advise.
When Sant Jago is mentioned in p. 417 he is called Saynd
Jak ; this is the French Jacques, not the shortened form of
Teutonic Janhin.
94 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
I may mention that Barbour has many phrases that
carry the mind to Scotland, such as hmd^ thai gaderyt
(assembled, p. 328), bailie, we be aqwent, thowless, peel
(castellum), he behoved to, weird. He has many expressions
already found in Northern writers, such as morning, wUfvl
( volens), fall to it, hamlet, sad (fessus), of myself, smertly (cito),
get the ourhand, p. 202. He abounds in Verbal Nouns, and
is fond of adding ness to Eomance roots, as tenderness. For
pecm stands catdl, p. 122 ; this Northern sense of the word
did not come to London until after 1500. The Old
English Mode held its ground in the South, but was written
blowde by Barbour.
He] wrote mn^y Legends of the Saints, to be read in
Horstmann's * Altenglische Legenden,' pp. 189-208. The
0 replaces e, as gottin for geten; he had gottine (gotten), p.
194. The d is added to round off a word, as eapond
(expound), p. 194; the rightful eapone is in p. 202. The
n is inserted) as ensamplar for the usual esample, p.. 206 ;
this en is preserved in our Bibles. Among the new Sub-
stantives are slavmes, wantones ; the ^word slicht (sleight) is
now first used of a trick of the body, not of the mind, p.
201 ; donmie (doom) in p. 204 means only the judgment or
thought of the mind. Among the Adjectives are thankful,
nere of kin to, ill will. The foreign plenteous takes a Teu-
tonic ending, and becomes plenttois, p. 202 ; just the op-
posite case to that of righteous. We hear of ripe age, p.
193 ; elsewhere, a man may be ripe in conversation; here
the adjective slides into the sense of sapiens, and is thus
used a few years later by King James I.; hence Shake-
spere'sn^e scholar. Among the Verbs are do an erand,
take charge, burst out into teres, p. cviii., pity may be inbome
(innate). One of the old senses of sceotan had been tor-
guere; hence men are schot into a place, p. 201, as we shoot
rubbish. The verb cleave (haerere), which had hitherto
been Weak, makes its Perfect clafe, p. 196. There is the
new phrase syd be syd (side), p. 207.
We see the Scandinavian swamp derived from swim;
men through dropsy are made swampe, p. 208.
Among the Romance words are heretable, retentive, ex-
n.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 95
presly, demand^ inflame, comprehend. There is determe in the
sense of statuere, our determine, p. 194. hight fails a man,
p. 196. The verb chase takes the sense of ahigere, p. 201 ;
a sense borne sixty years later by the other form of the
French verb, catch. The verb inform has the sense of
insti-uere, p. 204. The verb excede begins to supplant the
old pass, as later in Tyndale. The verb conjure means
simply orare, p. 203. The two forms werdaune and reward
may be seen in p. 205. There is line of flesh (family), and
change his thocht (mind), p. 205.
We have the statutes of a London Gild of 1375 (Early
English Text Society, p. 1), which are not unlike Chaucer's
dialect; we find both beth and ben (sunt); the Infinitive
and the prefix to the Past Participle are clipped. There is
noght for not, and the Southern sustren and o]>er (aut).
Orrmin's same and somewhat have now reached London.
We have here ]>e most wyse instead of the old wisest ; also
do her diligence, do ]>e duytes, the first appearance of the last-
named substantive in England. Two foreign words are
used as prepositions ; touchyng ]>e profit (which we saw in
Salop in 1350), and duryng his mvpresonement ; in France the
Participle would have stood last. The form acompt is found,
whence comes Shakespere's day ofcompt; the statutes of
the Gild are called a papir, leading the way to our state
paper. In a Lynne Gild of 1376 (in the same volume) we
read of a man of gode conversacioun (a word u'sed in this
sense in France down to Calvin's time), and of paying fees,
a new sense of the last word. There is a later Lynne Gild
of 1383, where the old Midland Participle in ende is often
found. We here find, as in 1350, the Verbal Noun fol-
lowed by an adverb ; have a spekyng togedyr (conference), p.
52 ; a phrase like this makes us mourn over the loss of our
old compounding power. We find, also, the phrase in tyrm
comyng, p. 53. There are the statutes of a Norwich Gild
in 1385, where stands the word sporyer (spurrier), p. 42;
here the y or i of the Severn country is inserted before the
Teutonic er. The form cladde, a Scandinavian word that we
saw in East Anglia in 1230, appears once more in p. 43.
I place, under the year 1377, the far-renowned Allegory
96 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
of Piers Ploughman, written as it seems by a poet who
dwelt on the Great Sundering Line, and who therefore
used both Southern and Midland forms. The author
seems to have belonged to Salop. He brought out three
editions of his great Alliterative work; the first half
of it in 1362, the whole in 1377, a third, with additions
and corrections, in 1393.^ Many copies, made from his
original text (a most popular work), still survive, and
show a great variety of disJects about the year 1400 ; thus
we have bridale, bredale, IrudMe, and hruydale, all four ; also
ruschey rischey reshe. His Southern leanings are shown by
forms like which (qualis), hue (ilia), hy (illi), hwre (audire),
^om (cucurrit), ac (sed), o ]>ing, church, wantowen (lascivus),
and the Genitive Plural of a new word, lollwrene. Among
the Northern forms are gar (facere), tU (ad), lov/pe (saliat, p.
76), aren, ^g^- We see both diJce and di(^ for fossa.
There is the favourite Salopian Plural Substantive ending
in uSy as frerus ; also the Salopian form selver for sUver.
The a replaces the French 'e, as garlaunde for the former
gerland; also eo, for teor becomes tar; also o, for mal
(macula) becomes mole. The e replaces eo, as wekCf our
unck; it replaces o, as wdJdn. The French du (debitus)
appears as dewe and diwe, showing our love for the ew
sound, as we turned Ihtc into Dewk; there is also devi
(dolor), p. 145. On the other hand, the old seowian (the
kindred Latin suere) appears not only as sew but as sow ;
we now unluckily sound it as so, and confound it with the
verb for seminare. We have seen pore (spectare) in the
year 1280; another form piren (our peer) now crops up.
There is hritd (fragilis) as well as the older hrotel We
have seen bowiar in 1300 ; lawyer is now found in the same
way. We find both rea/rMy remm, and ream/e for regnvm.
The different manuscripts show the uncertainty about the
sound of letters; thus our hoU (pustula) appears in p. 431,
but is also written hde, hyle, and hde ; boil (bullire) is seen
in this form, and also as huyl, p. 383 ; toil (laborare) is in
p. 422, with the variations tvle, tUe, and tyle. The com-
^ See Mr. Skeat's admirable edition of this author (Early English
Text Society).
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 97
bination huMA marks the Severn country, as do forms not
equally long-lived, such as pruyde and fuyr. The old stdl
(sedes) is replaced by stovil ; the cloches of Mapes give birth
to the verb ducche ; and the word for anas appears both as
ddke and duke.
As to Consonants, the h is inserted, as slumb&t* for the
old slvmer. The k sound is preserved in a foreign com-
parative adverb, as reverenUoker^ p. 141 ; and poke is used
instead of pouch ; there are the new forms cull and Mil for
occidere, as well as the old quell, p. 423. The old synegen
(peccare) holds its ground by the side of the new synnen, p.
229 ; but Layamon's ni^ene (novem) becomes nine. The for-
mer gelmned is now seen as ylmt, p. 108. There are the two
forms drouhjpe and droghte. Ninth is seen for the first time
with n inserted ; but elsewhere the n is struck out, as in
a slepe, p. 88 ; we have a window a worchyng, p. 44, where
this a (on) first stands before a Verbal Noun. Hampole's
in rmddes becomes amyddes (amidst), p. 164. The s is
inserted ; haptesme appears, not baptim ; and ^e/n, is some-
times written si]>eneSy on the road to stTw^. As to r, we
find hors (raucus) as well as hos, the old hds. The old
wydewa now becomes widewer (widower).
We saw spUhred in 1280 ; much longer compound names
are now formed, as Sire W^erch-vjeHwith-thyn-ha/nd, JVaryn
wrynge-lawe ; a horse is called soffrertU-ich-see-my4yme, p. 72.
In these phrases Bunyan did not go quite so far as his
Salopian forerunner. The ending estre no longer expressed
a female, for we see wafrestre (wafer maker), and canonistre
(canonist); spin/nester in p. 107 expresses, not our idea
connected with the word, but spinner. The brewester of one
copy, p. 156, has been altered into ale^fe in another.
Webba did not last beyond the year 1400; it is replaced
by wever and webbesteVj which no longer means textrix, as of
old. Our common goer is formed from the verb, for we
find forgoere ; go was supplanting gang. The old ending ern
was now all but gone ; instead of the former breawoern we
find brewhouse, p. 163. The word ravine gives birth to another
noun, ravener, p. 309. The kin at the end of proper names
is in full use, as fFatkin, Haukin ; it is tacked on to Eomance
VOL. I. H
98 THE NEW ENGLISH. [ohap.
words, B&fauntekyn (infant), p. 1 59. Manning's Joan appears
as Jonet ; his nigim now becomes nigard, p. 359. The con-
fusion between Teutonic and Romance endings is very plain
in tale-tdlour, p. 442. There are new nouns, as tUeiW, lohy
(looby), kyUm (kitten), kUte^ors (cutpurse), styties (lupanar),
pikstaf, hangman^ pykefporse^ latch, brocage, hrocor (broker),
horwton (borough town), bavde (lena), batte-ndde (packneedle),
lande-leper (pilgrim), collop, ragamoffin (applied to a fiend),
kynde wit (Latimer's mother wit), vnsp, worsted, heggefiie, hous-
bonderie. We see the two forms lord and losd (nebulo) ;
the word loUer here means a fellow, who, under pretence of
religion, lives in idleness ; a few years later it was to be
applied to heretics. In p. 134 we see the old, all but
obsolete, form bergh (coUis), which we now write barrow;
our iceberg is a word borrowed from our Teutonic brethren.
Team, which had meant sequda, is first applied to oxen in
p. 158. We hear, in p. 197, that something is not worth
a carse ; here is the change from ci^ess to a sound like our
curse. We see wyrdes (destinies) in p. 227 ; this was be-
coming obsolete, at least in the South, for most of the
manuscripts alter it into words. The suffix kin is dropped
in proper names like T&mme, Watte, Symme, Bette ; we find
here Letice, Hicke, Sesse (Cis); in p. 350 the Good Samaritan's
horse is called both Lyarde and Bayarde, Pemel, whence the
poet Pamell derived his name, is the short for Petronilla,
and is usually here applied to a bad character. On the
other hand. Piers the Ploughman, standing for Christ him-
self, is sometimes called Ferkin, p. 173 ; the name became
afterwards a synonym for an impostor. In p. 75 a man
pays handy-dandy, one of the first instances of our truly
English love of a jingle, such as Skelton employed. Old
forms, like ingang and gang (ire), are seen for the last time
in the South. In p. 141 we learn that it is hard to know,
in the churchyard, a knight from a knave or a queyne from
a queene; the higher and lower meanings of the old cwtn |
are here brought into sharp contrast, thanks to spelling.
In former times ceorl had been used for freeman; in p. %%
the word had sunk so low that it is altered in one manu-
script into yrdll ; see also p. 401. The term wench is applied
\
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 99
to the Virgin in p. 336, and to a harlot in p. 422 ; the
honourable sense was to prevail in the North, the base
sense in the SoutK It is curious that hoy had been used
for a torturer or hangman ever since 1280, reminding us
of the Italian hoja ; this meaning reappears in p. 371.
Girl in p. 162 still bears its old Salopian meaning child.
Our word mirth had then a far loftier sense than now ; in
p. 374 it is applied to the feelings with which we should
regard Christ's birth ; this survives in the phrase " awful
mirth," applied, in a hymn, to the service of God. We hear
of men bolted (fettered) with iron, p. 146 ; holt had added
the sense of catena to its old meaning sagitta. The word
grote had been used for fragmentum ; it now expresses a
coin, p. 107. Prayer had been expressed by hede; this
latter is now transferred to the little round substances used
to reckon the number of prayers said ; we find a peire of
hedes. We saw, about 1300, the phrases no manere harm
and nakin harm ; we now, in p. 374, have the longer-lived
eny kynde of creature side by side with eny Icynne yynge, p.
153. A drunken man is carried to bed, in p. 118, withal
]>e wo of ]>e warlde; we should now say "with all the
trouble in the world." A noun has another noun of price
prefixed to it in the phrase halpeny ale, p. 156. In p. 163
an Adverb is tacked on to a noun ; leperes ahoute, " roving
over the land." In p. 1 25 stands in yywre de^p-deynge (dying) ;
the form " die the death " had been often used ; death is
now set before the Verbal Noun. Both grom and gome are
employed in this poem. In p. 384 comes the new phrase
"they are mine, body and soule" In p. 128 the Sun is
darkened for a tyme.
Among the new Adjectives are haudi, lausi, ]>rede-hare,
peyvesshe (peevish), wederwise, wet-shod, hler-eyed. There is
hytelhrowed, which we now confound with beetle, whereas it
comes from the Old English Utian (acuere). A Passive
Participle is made an Adjective and takes a Comparative,
blessedere, p. 223; there is also broke-legged, p. 146, where
two Past Participles are united. The Adjective is pre-
fixed to an Active Participle, lowe-lyvinge men, p. 257.
When we see a Southern phrase like a muche (great) man,
loo THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
we understand how Much Wenlock came to exist down to
our days; another form of the word remains in Mickle
Benton, further to the North. The Americans talk of
"having a good time;" in p. 373 the Jews are told yywre
goode dayes hed\> don.
As to Pronouns, Matzner quotes a curious idiom from
this poet ; Lord, y^worshiped be the ; this explains our ii^s me;
in the same way the French employ moi, toi, and lui as
Nominatives. We saw nothing of his in 1260; the idiom
is now extended, for we find moneye of thyn otoen. In p.
405 stands our common furst andformest.
Among Verbs there is a new idiom, why calle hym Crist ?
here shofuM ye is dropped before the Infinitive. There is a
curious exchange of would for shoM in ich sholde ra]>ere sterve,
p. Ill ; we still say "I should prefer to starve." In p.
382 stands ich wol beo brent, unless, etc. ; this is the idiom
used in more modem curses. There are new verbs like
wrangle (from wring), unpid: a lock, herd (congregari), throb.
In go to werke, p. 105, nothing toilsome is suggested ;
nothing but pleasure is in the speaker's mind. In p. 440
God, it is said, made all things, and nempnede hem names —
the first hint of our calling names. In p. 407 something
cam out (became known). The poet sometimes forms
happy new compounds, as land-tylynge people, p. 213;
other poets should tread in his steps. In p. 110 we see
how overreach came to mean cheat ; a rogue, when reaping,
overreaches into his neighbour's corn.
Among the Adverbs there is a most curious survival of
the old form lytulum and lytvlvm, p. 327. This seems ta
show that our poet, like Layamon, was a student of
antiquity ; in further proof of this he writes gon a begged,
"go a begging," p. 146, in imitation of the old gan an
huntath, " go a hunting." In p. 88 trees were blown down,
and twrned wpvxird here tayl ; we now say " tail upward."
In p. 444 we see how hardly came to express vvx, seventy
years later ; ful hard is if they recover. In p. 406 Christ
is killed on croys-toise, the source of the Biblical Adverb
cross wise. The adverb happily had been hitherto used for
fdidter ; in p. 136 it is cut down to hapliche, and expresses
<■■»
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. loi
fortasse ; here is an instance of the omission of one letter
in a word enabling us to express two different shades of
meaning. There is now a dayes, p. 199 ; and also a nyghteSy
p. 356. In p. 165 stands drynke deepe, where the last word
is meant for an Adverb. The adverb abrode (abroad) is
here opposed to in doors, a new meaning.
Among the Prepositions we see our common for al ]>atf
p. 360. The for in the sense of ob now follows a Sub-
stantive as well as a verb; surgiens for synnes. In p. 137
stands U ouht ]>at ich kmwe ; in the * Cursor Mundi ' for had
been used for this hi. In p. 313 men are at here mttes end.
The Interjections are haw (bah), harow and help 1 a straw
for it ! of this Chaucer was fond ; the oath hy my soule stands
in p. 245. The toper's chorus is hoy/ trolyf lolly/ p. 145 ;
something like the Shakesperian hey, nonny, nonny / especi-
ally the first word. How little objection was felt to oaths
about 1370 we may learn from the following instance —
Piers stands sometimes for Christ, sometimes for the Church,
yet the oath hy God/ is put into his mouth, p. 416.
The Scandinavian words are arate, which in one manu-
script is rate (exprobrare), to-luggen (lug to pieces), histle,
mffe (manica), to hy-sloher.
The new words, akin to the Dutch and German, are
cramp, nip, cough, loll, jog, plot (locus), tavmy, galp (yelp),
houken (whence Shakespere's hack basket).
The Celtic words are hck, cohler, tinker, rvh, spike, horre
(burr) in the throat, cruddes {croddes and creyme, p. 155). The
bahan of 1220 is now seen as baU,
The poet's birthplace must be fixed somewhere near the
Severn; there are a few words that remind us of the
Herefordshire poems of 1280, such as tike, capel, gobelyn,
nrwmd (mumble), dozen. There is Layamon's gyves, and the
Western pouke. The i of the Severn country, inserted
before er, is often seen, as cotier, tUier ; also yrew (cecidit),
asyde, and vauntwarde. There are the Salopian gerls
(children), daffe, and garnement.
Among the many French words are boucher (butcher),
Jurer, panel, gable, wince, flux, labourer, ague, drugs, mor-
gage, registre, buttress, gill, mange (munch), blammanger.
I02 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
rov/nd of bacoUy enhdbit, lachesse, construe^ russety patent^
rave, famine^ controller, match (for fire), grammar, to rut,
to houpen (our whoop), for mercies sake, pous (pulse), lure,
wayves and stray^ves. We see the Church words provisours,
rectour (p. 37), curatour, fraternite, ijidiUgence, meson-diea ; a
friar confesses a man, p. 216. Among the lawyers are
serjatmtes, ]>at serven atte harre, p. 10. A doctour is a church-
man in p. 264, a physician in p. 435. The word gaUer, p.
51, is used where prisonei^ (custos) was employed in the
year 1 230 ; the last word had already begun to express a
man confined. The word ergo, taken from the Schools, is
used for therefore. We hear of puwes (pews) in p. 102.
In p. 440 brybour, first appearing in English, is used in
the sense of latro, and this sense it bore for two cen-
turies; Littr6 says that the old French briban (a vagrant)
is connected with the Italian birbantel In p. 316 a creature
honours his creatour ; here the two ways of writing the
French ov, are found useful; in p. 374 we hear of a
comely creature, just as we now say " a fine creaturfe ; "
Chaucer attached a worse meaning to this word. In p.
262 a beggar is called a pmre \yng ; this has become
one of our commonest phrases. Among the coins, here
mentioned, are the rwble and the floreyn. The word tutour
expresses cfiistos, p. 18, which it long retained in Scotch law.
The word gerdel seems to undergo the same change that it
did in Barbour; we hear of Job the gentel, p. 231 ; still
further, gentiles are opposed to Jews in p. 315. The
French cachier was henceforth, as a general rule, to be set
apart for capere, and was not to express aUgere ; this last
was to be expressed by the other form chacier (chase).
In p. 356 the catch fire of the *Ancren Riwle' is repeated;
one manuscript alters the Teutonic lacchen (capere) into the
French cacchen, p. 272; I have no doubt the two words
were often confounded. A person is conged in p. 71 ; the
word cong4 has been revived in later times. The Romance
passed imitates the Teutonic ago ; he said, seven ^er passed,
p. 12. We saw, in the year 1290, a doseyn of doggen; the
idiom changes in p. 73 ; a dosene capones ; so a payre gloves,
p. 109. The Teutonic and Romance are yoked in one
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 103
word, dohlefoldy p. 176; also parcelmele (our piecemeal), p.
47 ; apartie (apart) stands in p. 263 like the around of
1300. The French maner appears in a Participle, p. 192 ;
a wel y-manered mayde ; this must, in our day, always have
an Adverb before it. The word seems to have been made
a verb in England earlier than in France. In p, 112 we
hear of an erraunt usurer, the source of Barclay's variation
arratd ; in p. 167 stands 'pawre, paderdes (suflTerers). The
town Lucca becomes Lukes, p. 81. But Latin forms, in
matters religious, supplant their French descendants ; thus
we find restitumn, excite, baptism, corps, simile. We see the
verb alay in p. 311, where we should now write alloy ;
the two forms of spelling this word are still used in two
diflTerent senses. In p. 116a man is named nompeyr (um-
pire) ; the n was docked fourscore years later ; this is just
the contrary to what took place in forming the nonce.
There is a strange form juvente for youth. The propor-
tion of French words is sometimes very large, as
"He passede forth pacientliche to perpetuel blisse (p. 211).
Astrouomyens al day in here art faillen (p. 312).
And Porw penaunce and passioun and parfyt byleyve (p. 323).
Matrimonye, a moiste frut, >at multiplie> Pe peple (p. 333).
Adjectif and substantyf unite asken,
Accordaunce in kynde, in cas, and in numbre '* (p. 60).
There is a reference to the hangman of Tybome, p. 115;
to rimes of Kobyn Hode, p. 121 ; to the flitch of Done-
mo we, p. 193; to the preaching at St. PauVs, p. 264; to
the Arches (court), p. 433. Wicked men in holy orders
are compared, in p. 311, to bad money with the King's
stamp upon it ; Burns has a similar idea, applied to good
men, "the gowd for a' that." We have a Shakesperian
phrase in 203, cast out both lyne and levell.
No English verse had as yet reached such a height
of sublimity as the Passus xxi of this poem, treating
of Christ's death and descent into hell. The bard
here, strong in the old national Alliteration, soars above
Chaucer, and above every other English writer for the
next 200 years. The aforesaid subject had already given
birth to some of the very best lines in the * Cursor
I04 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Mundi ; ' English literature, from first to last, owes much
to religion.
Much about the same time that the second edition of
'Piers Ploughman' was given to the world, a Canon of
Lilleshall in Shropshire, named Mirk (Early English Text
Society), drew up a rimed code of instructions for parish
priests. We have it in a copy made about sixty years
later ; the obsolete Teutonic and the French seem to belong
to about the year 1380 ; there are such old forms as syngen
(peccare) and forme (primus). We have the same mixture
of Northern and Southern forms, so often remarked on
before \ heo and scho, heth and are, thilke and that ; also
such marked Salopian forms as nche (quisque) and fer
(igms). The last syllable of the curious whatskyn {quicunque,
p. 7), seems a compromise between the so of the South and
the kin of the North, tacked on to the what
The gh replaces the older h; we find dogh (dough),
and egh]>e (octavus), where Manning had written eightejpe,
the Old English eahto]>a. The n is inserted in passyngere,
p. 26.
There are new Substantives like hmsebreker^ hodymoke,
the parent of huggermiLgger, that is, something hidden; huyde
hyt not in hodyrmke^ p. 62. We see the noun lychtuake, p.
45, for the first time, the word so beloved by the Laird of
Monkbarns; the Old English word for undertaker was
Ucmann, The word attercoppe (aranea), which was written
at full length in Norfolk sixty years later, is cut down to
coppe, p. 59, whence comes our cobweb. There is the
curious holy hallowes in p. 23 ; here the Substantive keeps
the old vowel, while in the Adjective it is changed into
0 ; the two words have become so changed in form that a
pleonasm is the upshot. The old ancre of 1300. now
becomes ankeras (nun, p. 41), taking the ess that was now
fast becoming naturalised in England. There is a curious
instance of the double Genitive in p. 23 ; Seynt Mary,
Goddes moder of hevene.
As to Adjectives, in p. 7 we hear of an odde weddynge,
that is, irregular y much as in Lancashire the word had ex-
pressed our exceptional; an odd child (nothus) is still a
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 105
Yorkshire phrase. We see a mark of the Severn country
when fell adds the sense of calUdus to its old meaning
crvdelis ; slegh and f el, p. 46 ; here the Latin (icer seems to
be the connecting link. From the old pic is formed the
Adjective pyked, p. 2 ; applied to shoes that end in a peak.
We hear that men ought to kneel to the Host in the
road, fayre ne fowle ; a terse alliteration, where he the weather
is dropped, p. 10.
Among the Pronouns whyche still keeps ^^s true old
meaning gualis, p. 1. In p. 21 a priest burns ]>at (those)
ylke same hondes ; a curious instance of the Old and the
New words for idem being yoked together. We saw at alle
in the Salopian poem of 1350 ; we now, in p. 56, have hy
Thon o]>er way at al.
As to Verbs, need is now followed by an Accusative, heo
nedeth lore, p. 28. We are reminded of the cut of a coat
in p. 2 ; a priest is forbidden to wear cuttede clothes. There
were two Old English verbs, beorgan (tueri) and borgian
(mutuari) ; the former, corrupted into borwe, had been
much used down to this time; henceforward it gave
place, at least in the South, to the latter verb, our
borrow, as in p. 32. The old folowe (baptizare) was now
going out, to be replaced by crystene,?^ in pp. 5, 18; the
latter had been used before the Conquest. The phrase
ashe the banns stands in p. 7.
Among the Adverbs we find welyngly (voluntarie), found
also in Chaucer ; this of old had been wUleliche in the South.
The Preposition for seems in p. 31 to get the sense of
agai/nst or until ; leve bysynes for apon ]>e werkeday. The
source of many new Interjections is to be found in the
following lines : —
** Hast ]>ou be wonet to swere als,
By goddes bones or herte, fals,
What by hys woundes, nayles, or tre " (p. 30).
We see the new Eomance words sylahvl, howsynge (horse-
trappings), quart In p. 23 depart is used both for abire
and separare. We find " they prokereth a person to be fam^d,"
p. 22 ; we have now confounded this Celtic word with the
Latin procure, which had come in eighty years earlier.
io6 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
The old noun syse is used for measure^ p. 39 ; hence our
to size men, on parade. We read of the game hares, our
prison bars, or prisoner's base. The curatour of * Piers
Ploughman' is again used for parish priest Some of the
reverend gentlemen used sory laten, as Mirk says, when
baptizing; thus, I folowe ]>e in rmnina patria & filia spiritus
sanctia, Amen, p. 18; so long as the first syllable of the
words is right, the baptism is to stand good. Confirma-
tion, he tells us,
* * In lewde mennes menynge
Is i-called -pe byspynge " (p. 20).
This verb bishop had already been used by Shoreham.
Those interested in the Sabbath question will fasten upon
the following lines, showing the usage of Wat Tyler's time : —
** Hast ]>ow holden yyn haliday
And spend hyt wel to Goddes pay ?
Hast ))0u any werke >at day i-wro5t,
Or synned sore in dede or ])03t ?
For schotynge, for wrastelynge, & o>er play,
For goynge to >e ale on halyday,
For syngynge, for roytynge, & syche fare
fat ofte ye sowle doth myche care.
ferfore j)ey schule here halyday
Spene only God to pay.
And 3ef "pey do any o]>er fynge,
)>en serve God by here cunnynge,
>en ))ey breke]) Goddes lay
And holde]) not here halyday. '*
There are some pieces in the * Eeliquise Antiquae '
which seem to belong to 1380; these are in I. 38, 51,
and 59. Manning's old verb rank is now altered to rande,
with the usual insertion of the I, p. 52. There are the new
nouns sponful, seel sJdn, marigolde. The verb riddle (cribrare)
is used in a new sense, p. 41, ryddid gownes ; hence, to
riddle with shot. There is the new verb pampe (pamper),
and the curious verb gorwoimd, p. 55, coming from gar
(jaculum); by 1525 this verb was to be shortened into
gore. The French verbs are ten^he, suet, unordynate. There
is spicer, which has become one of our proper names.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 107
Among articles of ladies' dress, named in p. 41, are
yacfces (jackets) and crakawis. The French is still counted
the language of leechcraft, for side-ache here appears as mal
de flaunke in p. 52, the first appearance, I think, of flank
in English. One of the sins of nuns about this time was
undertaking to teach curtesie to their boarders, the sons and
daughters of lords, thus throwing aside God's service for
pride and luxury ; see p. 42.
We may here consider that version of the ' Cursor
Mundi ' which goes by the name of the * Cotton Galba *
(Early English Text Society). It is a Northern work ; in
p. 1569 comes a byword, afterwards repeated in Scott's
*Waverley,' gangand fote ay getes fode. Such words as
nithing and v/rmayt appear, I think, for the last time ;
there are also formfader, rose (jactatio), which are not
often found after 1380. The old maineath (perjury) is
fairly well spelt in p. 1543; in p. 1575 it is corrupted
into mani ath. Among the words dropped in the North
since 1290 are to weird (destine), bemester ; gmtkin ]>ing
is turned into any thing, p. 1533 ; do him understand
becomes mak him to understand in p. 1562. Many old
words, found in Lancashire and Salop in 1350, are now
dropped, such as withermn, selcuth, last (culpa), m^ele (loqui) ;
a man is no longer grathed to a state, but is ordained to it,
p. 1562.
There are some pieces in the First volume of Hazlitt's
* Early Popular Poetry ' which may date from 1380 ; they
are due to the North and the Midland. In the amusing
* Debate of the Carpenter's Tools * we find tK all the short
for thou will, p. 79 ; this process was to be carried very
far 200 years later ; the m,orwe now becomes morow (eras),
p. 81 ; there is the Northern hayle (trahere), not the
Southern haul. ' There is the Substantive alemfe ; the
word gyn is used as a snare for animals, p. 15. A man,
an admirer of high spirits, wishes to know if his guest
be any felow (vir), p. 25 ; we still say, "not half a fellow."
In p. 83 crow is used for a tool, not for a bird ; it is our
crowbar. In p. 86 a person thinkes no synne to go to the
alehouse. There is the phrase thorow thyke and thin^ p.
io8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
15, used later by Chaucer. In p. 24 fresh is opposed to
salt meat; there is unhappy (unlucky), p. 81. A man
asks how fer may it he to a town, p. 19, a new phrase;
there is also take cold, p. 88. There is the adverb soft,
p. 83, standing by itself; it here stands for stop/ The ne
is coupled with yet before an Imperative in p. 89, express-
ing moreovery do not, etc. There is the phrase by ought that
I canne se, p. 89.
There are the Danish words styke (steak), uimble, and
thimble ; these pieces belong to the Danelagh.
The Romance words are servisable, flecher (arrow-trim-
mer), prentys, fraud, gouge, rule, plane (carpenter's tools),
polyff (pulley). In p. 45 and p. 83 stands the verb forteyn
{fortune, in the sense of accidere), a verb which Tyndale
loved, but was unable to hand down to us. There is
the new verb cheer, used also by Wickliflfe. The adjective
clere is employed in a new sense ; twenty merke (marks) clere,
p. 81. In p. 83 crewyll (cruel) is used to express ax^r, as
it is still sometimes used in our day. The noun mene (via)
appears in p. 84 ; we now often make it Plural. In p. 85
stands reule the roste. In p. 88 we light upon a startling
change, the day is vary longe ; here is the adverb that was
to supplant swith (vald6), which did not long survive 1400.
In p. 43 wives use the baskefysyke; this unusual word,
I suspect, means stuprum; in Wickliffe's works (Early
English Text Society), p. 157, stands basefisik, used in the
same sense ; the term was so uncommon that the earliest
copyists of the Reformer's works did not understand it, and
wrote base instead of base} In p. 80 stands the proverb : —
**That lyghtly cum, schall lyghtly go."
The poem on Sir Cleges (Weber, i 331) may date
from about 1 380 ; it has Wickliffe's new gladsum, replac-
ing the old glcedlic. There is a curious new idiom, formed
upon the they had lever (potius), of 1300 ; thowe haddyst be
better have gold, p. 349 ; here the Dative thee makes way for
a Nominative ; the English for est mihi and ha^eo are con-
^ The editor of WicklifFe's * Treatises,' at my suggestion, had the
manuscripts searched ; the word is there undoubtedly written base.
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 109
fused. The pronoun is dropped in hxsi no tonge ? p. 345.
In p. 339 we have what may this he ? we now substitute can
for may. Men do not slink away, but slake away, p. 334.
We have newelth for novelty, to contend him, make pressynge
(to press forward).
England had the honour of giving birth to one of the
two great poets of the Middle Ages, — of the two bright stars
that enlighten the darksome gap of fourteen hundred years
between Juvenal and Ariosto. Dante had been at work
upon the loftiest part of his *Divina Commedia' at the pre-
cise time that Manning was compiling his 'Handlyug
Synne,' the first thoroughly-formed pattern of the New
English ; the great Italian was now to be followed by a
Northern admirer, of a somewhat lower order of genius
indeed, but still a bard who ranks very high among poets
of the second class. Chaucer was born in London, a city
that boasts a more tuneful brood than any single spot in
the world ; for this early bard was to have for his fellow-
townsmen Spenser, Milton, Pope, and B3rron. Never has
English life been painted in more glowing hues than by
Chaucer; his lines will be more long-lived than the frescoes
of Orcagna, which are dropping off the Pisan cloister;
though poet and painter belong to the same date.
We see in Chaucer's many works the remnants of the
old Southern dialect, long spoken at London; there are
forms like axe (rogare), her, hem, doughtren, ne, nis, nas,
thUke, I v)U he your, mochsl, suster, honde, olde, ashen (cineres),
ago, 0 (unus), awaketh (the Imperative addressed to a person).
There is also the Prefix to the Past Participle, as y-hete,
y-ronnen. On the other hand there are many forms and
phrases that have by this time come down from the North,
such as thei han, am, she (not heo), those (most seldom),
holly (omnino), hy and hy, to and fro, sware, unto, until, highte
(altitudo), gruh (fodere), lad, fvlli, sin (as well as sM), in as
much, onward, what ails him to, etc., who was who, snih, take
upon him to, etc., take to Tne (hserere), / trow, it may wd he,
see thou do it, give away, lem (docere), God forhid/ folkes
(homines), kind (benignus), still (toujours), clad, till, gate
(via), whilom, not, doest, latter, hegonnest, he whidi that (this is
no THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
very common), for ought that, for the nones, homli, I say, fall
to it, plow (not sulh), if so hejhat, if. that, blade (lamina), rush
(ruere), iw force (no matter), as for, rising to stele, I am used
to blow, carle, loth (invitus), governinges, dreminges, chastising,
wont, felaw of youres, pour, farewel, curate, mistake me, entirely
(thoroughly), behalf, stour, stand in stede, bein^ (essentia),
blunder, she-wolf. The Northern bird (avis) sometimes
supplants the old brid. The verb take is driving out mm.
Several forms from the Severn country had by this time
made their way to London, such as that made he with the best,
aside, upsodoum, wele or wo, bowyer, make it qudnt, lady mine,
ones on a time, how now, be at on, at large, for all the world,
son in law, badder, touching this, swiche as it is, harry (trahere),
houp (clamare). The old seith as muchel ase of the *Hali
Meidenhad' now becomes as much to sayn as. The word
knave, as in Lancashire, becomes a term of abuse ; indeed,
many Lancashire phrases of 1360 may be found in Chaucer.
His poems seem to have a range of about thirty-five years.
So popular was he that some of his works were turned into
the Northern dialect, thus reversing the usual order of
things ; in one manuscript we see bather (amborum), and
fae (hostis).
I now consider Chaucer's poems continuously. I begin
with one of his earliest works, that on the 'Death of Blanche
the Duchess' (Chaucer Society, part ii. 213). We see the
owe supplant e; pyle becomes pylowe, p. 220. In p. 223
the French it la bonne heme (I am glad to hear it) seems to
be Englished by yn good tyme. In p. 239 a certain lady's
symple recorde (tale) is said to be trew as any bonde ; the first
use of the noun for a legal document. In the same page
stands trewar-tongyd ; here the Comparative is used in com-
pounds; we have already seen hard-hearted. In p. 217
streams make a dedly slepynge soum, ; hence " a dead sleep."
Chaucer is fond of adding ish to an adjective ; we see here
fattyssh, also flesshy, p. 239. He uses the Northern werre
(pejor) for the sake of the rime, p. 230. In p. 236 the
Duchess is called my swete right all hirselve, that is, she was
distinguished from all others ; our sense of he was all himself
is rather different. Another use of all is seen in body, herte.
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 1 1 1
wnd all, p. 216; this did not become common until
Tyndale's time. About the year 1300 we heard of anefewe
fulla/ris ; the first word, representing the Plural soli, now
means qwdwm ; a few wdlys, p. 217. In p. 226 the poet
stands as styll as ought (anything), a new phrase. In p.
241 we read of a half wwde, used for purposes of trickery.
Among the Verbs are have the vMte to, etc., sing low and high,
overshoot him (run beyond him), play a game, well grounded,
hit folwyd (followed) that she was, etc., to hang the hed, put
it yn ryms. Among the Adverbs is full, employed in full
mmvy a yer, p. 249. The nx) and nay are used in the middle
of a sentence ; no man could do it, no, not Joseph, p. 221,
your eyen, myn, nay, all that saw her, p. 242. There is the
phrase swea/r as I heste kmde, p. 247. The les is added to
dred to express sine dvbio, p. 234 ; and dredles paved the
way for doutles, which we still use as an Adverb. The old
on ]>am gerad ]>cet makes way for the new up (upon) a con-
dicyoun thai, etc., p. 234. There is the cry 0 howe / (oho !)
to awaken sleepers, p. 218. There is the new oath by the
masse, p. 239 ; this lasted into the Eighteenth Century.
The adjuration, as help me Ood I comes often.
There is the Celtic knack (trick), p. 242, used also by
Wickliffe.
Among the Romance words are nycety (stultitia), mate,
powne (pawn), parte (carriage), vary, annex, process of time,
herse, assured maner, govefrness, astate (dignity), as in Barbour.
A new French preposition was coming into our compounds;
we see the verb countrefete. The verb carole adds the
meaning of canere to its old sense saltare, p. 236. The word
pair one takes the new sense of exemplar, p. 238 ; we now
write it pattern; superior must be the connecting link
between the two meanings borne by patrone. There is the
phrase to save (attend heedfully to) Mr umrshipe ; hence our
" save a horse up a hill." How entirely a word's meaning
may be altered appears in p. 250, where a queynte dream is
talked of; here the old cognUus, cuirU, queynte gets the
opposite sense of incognitus, something strange or out of the
way. So the Teutonic seli (felix) had shifted its meaning
to infelix. The Eomance purely now imitates the Old
1 1 2 THE NE W ENGLISH, [chap.
English dome,^ meaning orrmino^ p. 215. In p, 218 stands
a guater hifore daye (a quarter of an hour) ; here there is a
great ellipse. In p. 220 we hear of saiyn de owter mere;
French could alone express certain articles of lady's dress.
We find the noun erUettm, p. 221, our twne; we have this
variation of the French as well as tone. In p. 238 dyshryve
expresses videre^ our descry ; the French had both descrivre
and the later descrire. We hear of Sprewse (Prussia) in p.
241 ; the prefixing of s is most curious. In p. 246 ^ the
dysmall appears ; this has been derived from disrtie and the
payment of tUhes, a time of sorrow; see Skeat on this
point.
I now take some of the other earliest efforts of Chaucer's
genius, the 'Parliament of Fowls/ the *A B C/ and * Anelida
and Arcite.' ^
We see k replace ch^ as in the North ; lykerotis for lecher-
cms; the / is mistaken for long s, as flight (sleight) and
flaterie, p. 154. The word feling is now applied to the
mind, not to the body. A dame holds her lover in strict
subjection ; it is said that he is sarvant unto hir ladishippe
(power), p. 160; hence came the title of honour. A
person's colour is said to resemble that of asshen (ashes).
A lover, seeing a lady, cladde him in her huwe (wore her
colours), p. 156. We hear of watir fovle^ and of Seynt
Valentynes day, when birds choose their mates. Old phrases
were going out; sotde hele is altered into sovles helthe in one
manuscript. Among the Adjectives we find our seamen's
phrase, the northe northe west, p. 68. The Teutonic hard is
confused with the French hardi ; the hardy asshe (tree), p.
62. The Adjective hust (whist) stands for tacUm, -p, 174.
Among the Verbs are give it wp (cease from it), take accion,
hear of no mercy ; this last phrase we always use in the
negative. Fowls lay their heads togedir, p. 88. The English
for vellem is dropped in ra]>ere dye thm to do so, p. 166.
Another verb is dropped in but to the poynie, p. 76. As to
Adverbs, the so is used something like vaMh ; a yere ys not
so long to endure, p. 96. In p. 168 stands the phrase, say
ovie of the way (odd). The hy is used in a new sense ; it
^ I here use the works of the Chaucer Society, part ii.
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 1 13
had often been used after the verb know ; we now see in
p. 50 I mene this he love. In p. 134 we have fals to him,
Chaucer is fond of a phrase \\kQ flowr of oMejioures, p. 124.
There is the Scandinavian word scant (parens), p. 134.
Among the French words are cormerauntef entrike (en-
snare), roimdel, portray, princess, governowresse, superlaiyf, lese
(leash), nusance, tryumphe, laurer (laurel), to corect (writing),
disshevele, p. 66, In p. 68 we hear first of a dedely wound,
then of a mortale stroke, A verb is formed from the
Teutonic crampe (spasmus) ; and this takes the French ish
at the end, p. 158. Arrow heads are tempred in water, p.
64, a new use of the verb. In p. 90 a lady may be
stramge to her lover; that is, imfriencUy, There is the
new phrase good feith, p. 175. We see the expressions
receyve unto mercy, to dbsente you, have no foMesye to debate,
p. 175; here the first noun takes the new meaning of
liking. The adjective pleyne, in p. 154, signifies /mn^, open ;
hence the Plaindealer, A lover has away tinges and besynesse
(care) upon his lady, p. 164 ; here the idea of attendance or
service first comes into the word wait. In p. 142 St. John
is called a virgyne ; a new use of the word. The old sotell
and the new Latin form subtU may be seen struggling
together in the manuscripts; see p. 152.
We now turn to the two poems written in the middle
of Chaucer's life — the * Troilus ' and the * House of Fame.' ^
The former is interesting as being the first work in which
we trace the influence of the New Italian upon English ;
Boccacio's * Filostrato ' supplied our own bard with many
ideas.
In the first stanza of this work the sound of oy seems
to undergo a change ; for Troye and joye are made to rime
with fro ye (from you). The r is struck out ; rruBscre (mesh)
gives birth to the verb mask, p. 167. Among the Sub-
stantives are trapdore, twiste, overhaste, unrest, a blab, crowisfeet
(under the eye). We have already seen ladyship ; a man
is now requested to do something of ^our lordship, p. 91,
like "of your charity." There is a new compound, a let-
game, p. 124, like our marplot. The word selynesse keeps
^ Chaucer Society, part ii.
VOL. I. 1
1 1 4 THE NE W ENGLISH, [chap.
its old sense oifelkity in p. 134. The old leof makes way
for love (amans), p. 244 ; folk see their loves wedded. In-
struments are sometimes delicious through vjynde, p. 248.
A woman tells prophecies by fierte, p. 286 ; a new phrase.
An Old English usage is continued when Troie toun is spoken
of, p. 268. Chaucer is fond of adding ess to nouns; as
herdess (shepherdess). In the 25 th stanza the heroine is
said to be matchless, just as A is our first letter ; this is
the first hint of our "A one."
Among the new Adjectives are thrifty, unholsom,
womanish; this last was formerly tvifmcmlic, Chaucer is
fond of the ending ish; he coins marmysh in stanza 41, to
express the reverse of womanly perfection. He also adds
this ish to the French adjective fole, making folisL He
has the Superlative konnyngest. There is the phrase a lame
word in p. 41 ; whence our lame excuse, A prosperous man,
in p. 163, is said to sit warme; hence our warm (thriving)
manj and our tenants sit at so much rent. A lady promises
her friend my good wurde, p. 271. There are the phrases
str eight as lyne, m short The Adjective is set after the
Vocative, as v/nde dere, lady hright ; it is made a Substan-
tive, for in p. 20i flatte is opposed to egge (edge).
As to Pronouns, a lover is said to have it hot, p. 164,
192 ; here the indefinite it, referring to nothing before,
reappears. Chaucer is fond of this or that. He revives a
French idiom unknown since 1220 ; fox ]>at ^e ben/ p. 161.
The half is now placed before an accusative ; rruike Jialvendel
]>e fare, p. 244.
Among the Verbs are unsitting (soon to become tmfitti/ng),
mutter, to Uhlotte (blot), hvmme, unlove, forecast, wrvpin. There
are the phrases, they fell to speak, it fell that (accidit), set at
rest, to sand paths, dy for laghtir, fever takes him, hold thee clos
(keep close), douncast look, make up charters, wele yshape (well
shaped, of a lady), reise ]>e country, fold armes, set the world
at six & seven, p. 193; his herte mysforyaff him, p. 222,
(the later misgave), dwell oute caste from joy, bring out a word,
make resistence, drawe his bree]>, yeve him audience, fynd in
thyn herte to, etc. The verb mean is in great use, as the
explanatory / mean, p. 122 ; he menUh it in good wise, p.
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH. 1 1 5
66 ; \ow menyst wele, p. 117. We have already seen play
king in 1300; a <Ae is now inserted ; pley ]>e tiraunt, p. 85.
Chaucer preserves the old form lorn (perditus). In p. 291
stands he went excfosmg her ; we should now put in on after
the perfect The to is now set between dare and the
following Infinitive (a strange corruption), dare to love; there
is also sworn to hold it We see the curious phrase in
stanza 48, your hire is quit, God wot how. In stanza 41
a lady's limbs answer to womanhood ; here the verb gets a
new meaning, " be consistent with."
^ Among the Adverbs are, v/nfelingli, out and out ]>e worthiest,
p. 67; parfourme it out; inly. There is the terse phrase, to
save his lyf and eUis not, p. 61, where the last two words
mean, "which is otherwise impossible." An adjective is
used for an adverb, take it /aire and softe, p. 244 ; here the
last words slip into the meaning of quietly. The at next is
cut down in p. 283, when ye nexte see v/pon me.
As to Prepositions, we find arme in arme, wi]> al myn hert,
for oght I can aspye, I speke wnder correction, at ]>e werste, what
they wold sey to it (de eo). This to is sometimes dropped ;
in p. 279 we see both vmte to Mr and also vnite Mr, The
phrase /or God^s love becomes for love of God, p. 173; we
confine the older idiom to sake. A lady's attendants are
called women about her, p. 129; implying respectful at-
tendance, a new use of the Preposition. Chaucer has over-
renne (beat in running), p. 223 ; this in his later works he
altered into outrwn.
There is the Low German noun lash, and also roore
(tumultus), whence our later uproar. There is the
Scandinavian verb jo^npre, our jumble.
Among the Eomance words are collateral, a pacient (of
a physician), misconstrue, lytargie (lethargy), is descended from,
wele disposyd (inclined), chekmate, guerdon, in mewe (prison),
scarmysshe, tendre herted, impressions (thoughts), proliodte, to
plye him, sentement, dissimule, templis (tempora), our desertis,
source, mocyon, rudeness, vulgarly, mardall (martial), cote
armwe, ume, rosy, my memorie. There are the phrases
p'ess Mm upon her, make his adew, direct a book to. The cry,
mea culpa, stands in p. 59, a foretaste of the many Latin
ii6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
phrases that were to be brought into English about 1550.
There is the noun refrdn (burden of a song, p. 97) ; this
has been revived in our day. We see the phrase pley
rakett to and fro, p. 187 ; the noun has lately become very
popular. The name Pandarus is contracted into the ill-
omened Fandar to suit the rime, p. 272. The word passion
no longer means suffering, but is applied to emotions, p.
196. In p. 213 we hear of a pregnant argumerU (forcible
or constraining). Littr^ gives no use of the adjective used
in this sense in France, until the Sixteenth Century; it
is odd that in England the word should make its first ap-
pearance with this secondary meaning. The old foldsc is
supplanted by poeplisshy our vulgar and base, p. 231. A
Greek hero loses the last consonant in his name, as Diomede,
In p. 236 straunge stands for minis, a new sense; tmcouth
has assumed senses something like strange. We have
already seen trewar tongyd ; the Superlative now comes
into compounds, for strengest fey]>ed stands in stanza 143.
In p. 258 we hear of tyme passed, present tyme, and futv/re
tyme. The form recomatmde (recommend) stands in p. 283,
riming with comaunde.
We see certain proverbs, as, of harmys two ]>e lasse is for
to chese, p. 58 ; every ]>ing a hygynnyng hath, p. 65 ; hit is not
good a slepyng hound to wake, p. 132 ; al ]mg ha]> tyme, p.
135 ; make vertu of necessite, p. 227 ; vxmder laste hit IX
nyghtes in a toun, p. 192. Chaucer had sound notions of
language ;
** Ye know wel )>is, in fourme of speche is chaunge
Withyn a thowsand 3eer, and wordis tho
That haddyn pris now wondur nyce & straunge
Us ]>mkip hem " (p. 42).
Chaucer's ' House of Fame ' must have been written soon
after his ' Troilus.* There are here the Northern phrases
how that, vx)ful, alleskynnes (all kinds of), pel (castellum), as
now. The d replaces ]>, as qmd he (dixit), a form copied
long afterwards by More. The s is inserted in sterisman,
and the old wealhnute (walnut) becomes walsh note, p. 216.
Among the new Substantives are huntress, potful. There
is the phrase to here it was no gams (joke), p. 221. The
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 117
Sun's chariot is still called a cart% p. 206. The word
spryng is used for a dance in p. 215 ; and there we also see,
in one manuscript, hove daunce (court dance), connected with
German musicians ; this strange word is elsewhere altered
into love daunce ; Gower also uses this German hove. There
is a curious new idiom of the Double Genitive in p. 222 ;
Englishmen before this time had talked of the king's son 0/
France ; but we now see the Ood of loves name ; this comes
very sparingly in the next forty years. A house is said to
be full of gyges, p. 234, whence our whirligig, seemingly
meaning the same. Chaucer's favourite ish is employed in
the adjective Troianysshe, not Trojan, p. 185. He further
has grenyssh, p. 226 ; the first combination of ish, I think,
with adjectives of colour. There is the phrase so stvyft as
thought, p. 234. In p. 217 stands alle and every man ojfhem.
In p. 230 stands wostow whatte (do you know what t); I tell
you what (aliquid) was to come in Shakespere. In p. 240
men say / not (nescio) never what, a new phrase. The
what (aliquid) is repeated in p. 238 ; / herde thinges, what a
lovde and what in ere ; hence our " what with A and what
with B." There is our curious Interrogative idiom, what did
Eolus hut he toke out hys trumpe, p. 226. We see a new
phrase for quidam; oon I koude nevene (name), p. 196.
Among Verbs we find my hert betes, take goode herte, do yow
favour, wot how I stonde. In p. 218 the Goddess is y-stalled ;
I suspect this form led to our installed. There is a curious
new idiom of the Subjunctive, dreme he harefote, dreme he
shod, p. 183, like the later come weal, come woe. The verb
ken had hitherto stood for sdre ; it now means videre in p.
194 ; kenne with myn ye (eye) ; a kenning in this sense was
soon to become a sea term. The old chop (secare) gets the
new meaning oiferire, p. 231 ; that of mutare was to come
later. The verb start now becomes transitive ; stert an hare,
p. 199. There is the new verb humble (sonare), formed
from the sound, p. 209 ; in Scotland a certain waterfall is
known as the Hummel Bummel. The verb lilt appears in
connection with music, a lUtyng horne, p. 214. The pre-
position for now replaces after ; to go for Eolus (to bring
him), p. 224. The interjection a is now used before nouns,
ii8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
a Iwrges^ larges I p. 217 ; it was soon to precede the names
of knights as a war cry.
Among the Romance words are signal^ soar, casually,
fmtinine, sicamour, oracle, sisowres (scissors), the contraryes,
conservatyf, p. 204 ; palpable, fumigacums, saturnyne, at poynt
devys, Chlaxy, agreable, is perched, poach, currour (courier), to
entremedle, to acheke (check). We see the new French jowes,
our jaws, p. 230 ; this was doubtless confounded with the
old Teutonic ceafl, choule, jowl. The verb wayte (expectare)
seems to get the new sense of morari; love may last a
season, but imyte upon the condusyon, p. 189. In p. 199 a
man has devocion to Cupido, a new phrase. The word poetry
was something new ; it stands for poema in p. 221 ; it is
used in our present sense, p. 204. In p. 206 we read of
eyryssh bestes (air-dwelling animals) ; perhaps our adjective
eerie may come from this. There is the phrase no fors (no
matter), p. 208 ; this lasted for 150 years. In p. 235 we
hear of dearth, fire, and of divers accident ; here the word
seems to slide into the sense of mischance. We read of a
pelet Old of goime, and also of the poudre, that produces the
effect, p. 226. In p. 239 a goddess confers names after her
disposicioun ; here the word may mean either uMl or order,
Chaucer is fond of using see (sedes) for a throne, but this
did not take root We see vrnfanuruse, p. 212 (unknown
to fame), very different from our infamous. There is the
noun pursevant (pursuivant), p. 217 ; here the v may per-
haps have taken the place of a «*, as in pursuer. In p. 227
easy is opposed to fast ; hence our " easy all ! "
In p. 187 comes the proverb hyt is not al golde that glareth.
In p. 217 the victim flayed by Apollo appears as Marcia,
a lady.
We now come to the * Canterbury Tales,' compiled in
the fulness of Chaucer's powers.^ As to Vowels, a replaces
ce, as bladder and rafter for blcedre and rcefter ; before this
time these had been written bleddre and refter ; the a re-
places e, as bramble for bremble ; the a replaces ea, for mearh
(medulla) gives rise to the form rrmrie bones; the a replaces
eo, as hart for heort (cervus), which had before hQ^nhert. The
^ I here use the Aldine edition of the Poets, Pickering's.
11. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 1 19
ai replaces eg, as hair for hxr ; praiere comes instead of
preiere. The French ai becomes ia, in fustian (fustaine) ;
Chaucer makes it a word of three syllables, ii. 3. The e
replaces t, as sleke for the old slike (Isevis), and disc now
splits up into two forms, desk and dish The e replaces 0,
as yernan for the Northern yonmn ; it replaces y, as shelf for
scylfe^ werde (fatum) for wyrd. The Kentish forms mery and
bery (sepelire) are adopted by Chaucer ; but he has mirthe
as well as merthe; also fUthe and sippe, not the Southern
ftUthe and supe. Three variations of vowels were still striv-
ing for the mastery in London, for we find in Chaucer
hrustles, bristles, berstles, all three. The former leien, the
Past Participle of lie (jacere), is now written lien, the form
kept in our Prayer Book ; the ie is the Kentish way of
sounding the French i ; the i replaces e, for there is divel
for devU, as in Ireland ; it replaces 0, for parosche becomes
parishe. The old oreistm becomes orison, iii. 204, with
the accent on the first vowel. Chaucer turns the old akern
into acorn; he is fond of doubling the 0, as in mood, flood,
cook ; he uses the two forms, corone and crovms ; he turns
y into 0, as copper for the 'old cyperen. The form oi might
be sounded either as the French 02* or as the French t,
thus we see the noun devoir from debere : this was soon to
be written by Englishmen as both devure and devei\ The
ow replaces a ^ or 3 ; wUig (salix) is written vnlwe and also
wUow ; belg (foUis) is seen as belous (bellows) ; the word had
taken the Plural form ninety years earlier. The Past Parti-
ciple of sowen (serere) is here y-sowe; the Participle of
seowen (suere) is here sewed. We have now confounded
these two Verbs, answering in sound to the French sou
and siou, and we have further made the Weak seowen a
Strong Verb, as regards the Past Participle. What was
usually written roll is now route; we see both flood and
floud ; the old ule (bubo) becomes owle, not changing its
sound. The form oi, not ui, seems to be favoured ; Shore-
ham's armoie is repeated ; this verb, iii. 323, implies sheer
boredom, and is nearer to the modem ennui than to annoy-
ance, Chaucer adopts the forms fruit and guise. The oy
was now becoming a favourite combination in France ;
I20 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
SO he has, not only real and rial^ but also royal. He
has both hea'oii and heuU^ the French and English forms of
one sound. The tree iw^ eow^ is now written ew^ our yew.
The French word for debUus appears as dewe, ii. 91, but it
takes the Gloucester form diie, ii. 280 ; there is also dutee;
we have insisted on changing the French sound ou into
the thoroughly English iou (ew). We see yonge Hew of
Lincoln, not the older form Huwe, We find in Chaucer
our national habit of contracting ; we get rid of the sound
of vowels; soverainetee, ii. 198, is sounded like sovrantee.
We have the line in ii. 200 —
" That litel wonder is though I walwe and wind."
Here the e in wonder and the e in walwe are both dropped.
So, a little further on, in p. 203 —
"Poverte a spectakel is, as thinketh me."
Here both the e in poverte and the last e in spectakel drop.
In iii. 67 we have the first hint of ifs (est) —
** It is an honour to everich that is here."
As a general rule, English throws back the accent to the
third syllable from the end ; so in iii. 233 stands
" That referreth to thy confusion."
So AchUles and Luci/na take the accent on the first syllable.
It is the same with hatailles, iii. 164.
As to Consonants, Chaucer ruled that we should write
tempt instead of the other form of the word tent; this latter
had been already bespoken in the North as a form of
attend. The b becomes^/ kembed is seen as kemped, ii. 64;
hence our vmkempt. Not only p but / is inserted, for the
old forgitoly Gower's foryetel, is now written forgetful. We
see the old chirk, not our modem chirp. We find ark, ii.
133, where we should now write arch (arcus). The c is
struck out ; ]>rescwold becomes threswold (threshold). The
g is changed into ck and thus forms a new verb ; tug gives
birth to tuck; a friar is ytucked hie, ii. 220. Chaucer
writes gailer for the jailer of Piers Ploughman ; we may
now write either gaol or jail. The gh is in full force, this
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH,
121
being an old London form ; hough is written for ftoA, with
the last consonants probably unsounded ; cough is also
found, and draught. We see the form markis, and this
pronunciation may still be heard in our day. The d is
inserted in hegge, hedge^ and in air ; so alder (alnus), the
later eldeTy appears. The interchange between r and 5 is
seen in the North Western glimerin, which becomes glimsing,
our glimpse, ii. 308. There is the form pace, as well as pass.
The old ps is now transposed ; waps becomes waq). The
wawes (fluctus) of the Tristrem now become waves, iL 147,
with the usual confusion of u and v.
On turning to Substantives, the foreign ard, ardie, ap-
pears in dotard, slogardie. The foreign ry was coming in,
as goldsmithry, deiery, yemanrie. The er is freely tacked on,
as thou glader of the mount, ii. 66 ; a vertuous liver, ii. 163.
The ending ness was encroaching on hed ; shrewedness re-
places Shoreham's schreuhede ; there is also homlinesse, ml-
fulnesse. There is both likdihed and likeliness, jolinesse,
douhlenesse, strangenesse, scantnesse. New words are formed
by adding man, as court-man (courtier), ii. 281. As to
Proper names, jacke fool is used, ii. 110, much like our
Tom fool ; hence come jackass and jackanapes. We see the
names Simkin, Hodge, MahUy ; the prison of Newgate has
become proverbial, ii. 132. We light upon Jubaltare
(Gibraltar). The es is no longer tacked on to a Latin
word to form the Genitive, like the old Juliuses ; we see
PhUippus sone applied to Alexander, iii. 172. We see
cokenay already employed as a term of reproach, ii. 125.
The word ship becomes feminine ; and this, in our days, is
the gender of a man of war. On the other hand, the
month of May is masculine, iii. 8. The Verbal Nouns are
freely used ; pending silver, iii. 231 ; gon a begging, iii 28 ;
his helping stands for his help (service), ii. 82 ; so my willing
(voluntas), ii. 2^6 -, to my supposing, ii. 268. The Pre-
positions are set after Nouns, in phrases like a bringer out
of hesinesse, the bUding up of chirches, as we saw in earlier
writers. The word forfex is translated by the Plural sheres,
not by the Singular, ii. 189. Bight also takes a plural;
have your lights, ii. 286. In ii. 128 we hear of two pigges in
122 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
a poke. In ii. 214 min owen hoy is used as a term of en-
dearment. The word jpley is now used for a theatrical
piece. The French ecuy a piece of money, is Englished by
sheld. There are new Substantives like ouiiider, thwitel
(whittle), meremaiden (no longer merewif), chip, bever hat,
baggepipe, wallet^ brestplate, twinUing of an eye, hertes ese,
night-cap, gossomer (goose summer film), milksop, hrov/a bred,
chvk, on his tiptoon, bakemete. The word fane, which earlier
meant a streamer, is now used to express our vane. There
is shrimp, that is, an object contracted very small, from the
old verb scrymman. In iii. 327 every sinful man is a cherl
(servus) to sinne ; cherlish is used for our blackguardly in p.
26. The word monger was coming in, tacked on to other
nouns, as guestmonger. The French age is added on to cot ;
the word cotin was used for our cottage to the South of the
Channel The word ]>v/rhfaru had of old meant camera ; it
now takes our sense of the word, and appears as thwrghfare.
The term girles is used iov pudloe, ii. 20, and not in the
West country sense of children. The old hlcedel (a pump)
is used for a cook's ladle, p. 60. The Old English moere-
fcec now becomes the nightes mare (nightmare). The old
lenten, as in Trevisa, was making way for a new term;
in iii. 13 we hear of the spring flood. The old crop now
takes a new sense — that of seges. The word irni is used,
not for dolium, as usual, but to express a measure ; tonne-
gret, ii. 60. The old ^erde (virga) also expresses a measure ;
something is a ^erde long. We read of the pipes
of a man's lungs, iL 82. A person does not take in
boarders, but holds guests to borde, ii. 95. In stand in his
light, ii. 101, the last word gets a new meaning. Wench is
not used by Chaucer in the honourable sense of the North
country ; in ii. 108 it stands for ancUla ; it is applied to no
one higher than a miller's daughter. Old January's wife
says,
'^ I am a gentil woman, and no wenche.''
In iii. 251 we learn that women, high and low alike, may
fall a prey to the seducer.
** But, for the gentil is in estat above,
She shal be cleped his lady and his love ;
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 123
And, for that other is a poure woman,
She shal be cleped his weTvche and his lemman."
Chaucer and Dr. Johnson both employed the word aforesaid
in the same evil sense. Leman also is sadly degraded from
its old meaning, as we see here. The word jU conveyed
the notion of certare of old ; in ii 126 the noun stands for
nothing so serious, and prepares the way for our fit of cough-
ing, and such like. Our green has long Englished stultus ;
in ii. 138 we hear of grenehed orfolie. There is a change
in herbergeoWy ii 162; it no longer means harbovrers, but
men who go before, our harbingers; this is Barbour's
change. The word loUer has changed its meaning since
Piers Ploughman wrote, and now implies heresy, iii 59.
The old sense of thing (causa) is well marked in iii 176 ;
a man was slain far no thing but for chivcUrie. Adam and
Eve are said to have made themselves h^eches in Paradise,
iii. 281, a word which has given a name to one English
version of the Bible. There is the usual love of Allitera-
tion in the sentence, all min heritage^ toun and tour, ii 301 ;
there is also hous a/nd home.
Among the Adjectives we find a new use of the Super-
lative, fairest of the fair^ ii 66, where aire fairest would have
been used earlier. The Substantive may be dropped, as
thurgh thick and thinne, ii 121. The word lihtsma (facilis)
is formed from another adjective, as gladsum had already
been. The les is added to a foreign root, as a tiUdes
tiraunty iii 251. Chaucer is fond oi fvl as an Adjectival
ending ; he replaces the old hatelic by hateful. We talk of
a horsy man ; but Chaucer coined horsly when he wanted an
Adjective of this kind. He writes sli sometimes for the
old slehy and uses it in a bad sense ; and here he is followed
by Gower. There are new Adjectives like coltish, tusked,
lemed, dogerel. There is stibbome, said to mean " stiff as a
stubJ^ We have phrases like broune as is a bery, to speke
brode (plainly), ii. 23 (hence a broad joke); this is the short and
plain, ii. 33 (long and sliort of it) ; at the leste way (least-
ways), ii. 34, have the beter, upright as a bolt, piping hot, besy as
bees, a black bill shone as the jet, iii. 181. There is a new
Alliterative phrase, tJie foule fend fetche me, ii. 215. In ii.
124 '^HE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
208 a promise is made to strike a man out of mire lettres
hlake; this is the source of our black books. In ii. 249 we
hear of vnse and ripe wordes ; the last adjective, as used in
this sense, had now come South. A very long Adjectival
phrase is spun in iii. 1, twenty-pound-wo7'th lond. The word
sad gets the meaning of tristis, as in the North; in ii. 253
it is applied to sorrowful Grisildis. An Adjective is
strengthened by prefixing a Substantive, as bolt upright.
Among the Pronouns we see ye and thou both used in a
prayer to God, iii. 7 ; also in an address to parents, ii. 141 ;
also in a speech to an adored wife, iL 301. On the other
hand, a master uses thou to a pupil, and the pupil addresses
the master with ye, iii. 317. In you were nede to resten, iii.
63, the first word is in the Dative, like Shakespere's "you
were best go." In ii 305 stands nis non, no, nouther he ne
she; a Northern form of male and female. In iii. 158
Fortune overthrows hire man; that is, the man on whom
she has her eye. We see the old Dative of it very plainly
when we read of the Paternoster ; it comprehendeth m him-
self all good, iii. 358. The Indefinite it comes more into
vogue ; it priketh in my side, that is, " I am pricked," ii. 215 ;
it nedeth not reherse, I wol awrttre (adventure) U, ii. 125,
like the make it stout (ruffle it) of 1320. The which some-
times keeps its true old meaning, that of the kindred qualis ;
as, herkeneth whiche a miracle befell, ii. 80 ; / shal tellen which
a gret honour it is to be, etc., ii. 206 ; this was to be replaced
by Barclay's whai 120 years later. The which is also used
as a Masculine Eelative ; thise riotov/res, of which I tell, iii.
49 ; also as a Neuter Eelative (Gower is fond of this) ;
herd all thing which (he) spake, iii. 221 ; there is also the
Northern the which; also for fere of which, referring to an
Antecedent. The what is more used ; he told him as ye han
herd, ye wot wel what, ii. 233. It is employed in asking
about a man's profession ; is he a derk or nan ? tell what he
is, iii. 219. Orrmin's what now encroaches upon the old
which (qualis) ; / have declared what thing is penance, iii. 260.
The such is used indefinitely like the French tel ; prentices
appoint to meet in swiche a strete, ii. 130. In iii. 68 we
have the abrupt command, no more of this, with no Verb.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 125
In ii 182 we get the first hint of our all the same; a man
is buried ; all is his tomb not so carious as, etc. The word
one takes a Plural ; herkeneth, felaweSy we three hen all ones,
ii. 50 ; a foretaste of little ones. In saw him al atone, ii. 276,
the al (all) comes twice over. We now say all right in
token of compliance; Chaucer's phrase for this was al
ready, Sire, ii. 277. He employs every body, ii. 153.
Enough now takes a Genitive ; he saw ynou of other folk, ii.
218. The development of any was going on fast; in ii.
319 stands to riden any where ; in ii. 296 love him best of any
creaiv/re ; here all creatures would have stood earlier. There
is the phrase to rise a ten or twelve, ii. 321 ; here of the clock
is dropped ; foure of the clok stands in iii. 256 ; that is, four
strokes of the bell. We saw mare harm is in the year 1 220 ;
Chaucer prefixes a the to the more, iii. 251. There is the
new way of Englishing the Latin ipse ; eke the veray hogges
were fered, iii. 197; in copying deeds, about this time,
scribes were wont to affirm, " this is the very copy of the
grant;" so truthful that it might be taken for the deed
itself.
Among the Verbs we see a new idiom, we han ben waytynge,
ii. 28 ; this is an advance on " I am seeking," which dates
from the earliest times. We remarked the idiom of the year
1300, "to have the streets empty," where have answers to
facere ; this have is now followed by the Infinitive as well
as by an Adjective ; chese to han mefovde, . . . and be to you a
trewe wif, ii. 203 ; hence ** I would have you go." Chaucer
has a startling innovation, wholly unneeded, in the Active
Participle, which he perhaps confused with its Passive
brother ; a swerd yham^gvag by a thred ; Milton most likely
had this in his mind when he wrote about " a star-ypointing
pyramid." Chaucer has both mot and muste, the old and
the new, in one couplet in ii 295. His may, contrary to
old usage, expresses licet rather than possum. The sholde
now and then stands for our would, as in ii. 305 ; but it
comes far seldomer than in Caxton; our language was
losing some of its weight and gravity in 1390. The can
and coude are sometimes used in their old sense of scire.
We saw in 1 280 an imitation of the French sarhs alter ; our
126 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
hy now follows in the wake of mihout ; by having grete posses-
sions, iil 131. The Infinitive follows bind; as ybomden to
helpe me ; the old bov/n, (paratus) had long been followed by
an Infinitive. There are new verbs like caterwaw (of a cat),
clottered, mv/nch, jitigle, unhorse, prolle (scrutari). The verb get
was acquiring a Middle sense ; a man geteth him to drivJce,
iii. 334 j this is like Orrmin's take, Tlie Danish forkaste
(rejicere) had been used in Kent ; but Chaucer couples fore,
not for, with the verb, and talks of something forecaste
(devised beforehand). The old snoesen (ferire) now takes
the sense of our sneeze, iiL 246 ; this is the Dutch niezen;
the old fnesen still survived. The verb turn is applied to
the turner's trade, ii. 117. The verb shape now expresses
not only creare, but dirigere; as in our " shape his course ;"
he shope hint' to lie thUke night, ii 221. To crak, ii. 292, is
used in the Scotch sense of the word, loqui The verb
uyreke here retains one of its oldest senses, exercere ; wreke
his ire on it, iii. 170 ; it was soon to lose its other meaning
of tUdsci and to be replaced by avenge. The expletive
/ gesse, so much used in America, appears in Chaucer, as in
Wickliffe, ii. 303. We have heard before of sworn brethren;
we now see thy boren man, ii. 290. Chaucer has both /
schrewe and / beshrewe, formed from the Noun. The old
writhe now becomes intransitive ; she writhed away, ii. 98,
and it is, moreover, turned into a Weak verb. There are
barbarous forms like thou ivisted, ii. 35; thou wotest, ii. 69.
A verb is dropped in the phrase, o word er I go, ii. 223.
The verb trip is now coupled with dancing. The verb
whine is applied to a horse, ii 179; we now distinguish
this sense of the word from its other meaning by writing
it whinny. With us, sufferers sing out; Chaucer makes
them only sing, ii 207. The Imperative come of stands
in ii. 215, where Scotsmen would now say, come away,
and where Englishmen would say, come along. There are
phrases like it tikelith me, yeres ago, have the higher hand,
ring it out, take his ese, make tarying, be in praiere, he was bore
{borne) down, he was swome adou/n, wel ygrowen, knit his
browes, wet Mr whistle, speke him fayre, hold compagnie with,
let things slide, to set gemmss in gold, have a bad nrnne, do
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 127
oheisancey do a frendes twm to, have love to thee, the thing is
ygon so fer, sail Mr corns, drive a bargain, take thy deth, to go
to the point, give in charge to, rrwrdre wol out, God hlesse my
sovle, kepe it close, I sette (put) case, put out his eyen, take
effect, make all good, to go sorweful, go nigh the sothe, God spede
you. The Teutonic and Eomance synonyms stand side by
side in the line,
"This wif was not aferde ne afiraide " (iii. 72).
The Celtic and Teutonic synonyms are found much in the
same way —
** Right as a swerd forcutteth and forkerveth " (iii. 255).
Among his Adverbs Chaucer employs the Northern where
for the dependent ubi, not the old there, iiL 31. Sometimes
whereas stands for this vM, referring to place, as in ii. 210 ;
hwar ase appeared for uUcimque so far back as 1220. This
whereas slides into a new meaning in iii. 113, taking the
sense of quum; you acted thus, whereas it had hen necessarie to
act otherwise. Another shade of meaning, that of quoniam,
was to come thirty years later. The as is now, without any
need, prefixed to yet (adhuc) and now ; no word as yet spake
he, ii. 205; maken no defence as now, iii. 130. The that,
taking the sense of quia, follows not, as in very early times ;
lo thin ende, nxit only that thou faintest mannes mind, ii. 160.
The preposition without is now used to English nisi ; without
ye list your grace shewe. A case is dropped after a preposi-
tion, and the latter consequently seems to become an
Adverb; his herd was shave as neighe as he can (nigh the skin),
ii. 18. There is belike, ii. 96; for the nones seems to be
used as a mere expletive, when the Miller is described as
a stout carle for the nones. There are new phrases like rigM
(just) now, as fer as ever I can (know), nay but, ther is more
behinde, clap the window to, where the last word is not a Pre-
position. Chaucer prefixes litel to a Comparative, as litel
better. The doutles, like Barbour's dredles, is used as an
Adverb, and not as an Adjective, ii. 135. The synonyms
wel neigh and the later almost are coupled in one line, ii.
323. Chaucer, when describing a tournament, imparts
128 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
wonderful spirit to his verse by putting adverbs before the
verbs; as in gon the speres, out gon the swerdes, etc. We
have akeady seen mid alls and of Me used for orrmino ; we
now come to the more lasting phrase, spare it not at all, ii.
220 ; no joy e at all, ii. 199, as in Mirk. Beside may mean
either the old juxta or the new etiam in the following
passage : —
"Not only in the toun,
But eke beside in many a regioun " (ii. 249).
The Adverbial ending is most awkward when added to an
Adjective in ly, as Chaucer's comelily. The old other . . .
other (aut . . . aut) is now changed for a new form, other
(either) conscience or ire, ii. 166. There is a needless insertion
of elles in iii. 80, an holy man, as mortices hen, or elles ought to
he. We have seen the improper ferther in the Tristram ;
the old ferrest is now changed into for]>esL The new what
though is used to English etiamsi, iii. 180. A backbiter is
said to praise his neighbour, but still he maketh a " hut " at
the laste ende, iii. 298 ; here the hU seems to be made a
substantive.
Turning to the Prepositions, the to follows Past Parti-
ciples; chosen therto, ii. 63 ; home to thraldom, ii. 141; there
is also redy to his hond, ii. 207, like the it lay to hand of the
* Cursor Mundi.' The to supplants for in have it to myself
alone, iii. 55 ; it is an honour to everich, iii. 57. The to wUle
of Layamon's Second text is continued in another similar
phrase, to my gret ese, iii. 194. The of is much used; a
man may be of the Mod real, like the former he of his kin.
We know free (potens) of the guild ; this leads the way to
have avamiage of, ii. 77. The old phrase of twenty wyntres
age is now changed into / was twelf yere of age, ii. 167 ;
there is also of old (quondam), iL 216. The former of
(since) childhood is changed into of a chUde, ii. 261, which
comes into our Bible. In iii. 267 stands at regard of;
we now change the at into an in. In the phrase at after
souper, ii. 319, two prepositions are combined. We have
seen hi wai to in the * Cursor Mundi;' we now find hy
way of possibUitee, ii. 39. There is awaiting on (watching
II.] ' THE NEW ENGLISH. 129
for) ih^ rain, ii. 109.^ The phrase have pity is followed by
both the old of and the later on; have mercy on is in vi, 25,
Love, in this respect, follows mercy; we see amerotts on
Dorigen; hence the later dote on, be sweet on. The old notion
of hostility connected with on is plain in the peple rose upon
him, iii. 167. There is a union of the meanings of post and
propter in the upon, which stands in do execution upon your
ire, iii 253. The old upland (rus) is well known; Chaucer
expands the phrase, talking of a parson dwelling up on lond,
ii. 21. He often substitutes in for the older on, bb in this
wise, ii 398. In iii 70 stands he was bonde in a recognisance ;
and we hear of A dvocais lemed in the lawe, iii, 94, The ovi,
when added to Verbs, does not always answer to the Latin
ex, but for the first time expresses super, as in the line,
"Men may the old aut-renne, but not otU-rede** (ii. 73).
In our days an outrider is something most different from
the man who outrides you. There is the phrase out of dette.
The mingling of colours is expressed by betwixt; they
gloweden bytwixe yolw and reed (red). See 2134.
The Interjections are CocUs bones I (where the first word
is a corruption of our term for Devs) ; clum (our mum),u. 108;
ey benedidtef kepe, kepe (to entice a horse), ii. 122 ; 0 goode
God / ii 262 ; for Goddes sake I make an 0 (a call for silence),
ii. 76; good mmwe! ii 107; by the blood of Crist, that is
in Hailes, iii. 49; fyf(yr shame/ iii 182; Straw/ iii 228
(elsewhere it is straw for thy tale /) What, divel of helle I iii
237 ; By ov/r Lady (an oath that lasted 300 years), iii 241.
There are numbers of expletives in the * Eeve's Tale,* which
gives us a fine specimen of the Yorkshire brogue of 1390.
The parenthesis now begins to make its way in England ;
there is one of six words at the top of iii. 19.
The words akin to the Dutch and German, first found
in Chaucer, are romble, rimple (rumple), to houle, husch, kyke
(intueri), tvl), chippe, utter,^ to bumble, forpamper (pamper),
snort, stew (vivarium). The word gaUtothed is said to come
^ In Ulster, when a man is dying his friends say, " We are waiting
on him," that is, expecting his death.
^ This is here used like our vUering false coin ; to utter chaffare,
ii. 183.
VOL. I. K
I30 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
from the Dutch gai^ a hole. There is ingoiy from the Dutch
verb ingieten.
The Scandinavian words are box (alapa), rate (exprobrare),
scantness, gap, dairy, stalk (of a flower), frakne (freckle),^
rammish, line (tegere), gaze, strogle, calf (sura), dapple, blot
(macula), sluttish, lull, stale, ruggi (hirsutus). Chaucer seems
to have settled that we should use the Danish cross (crux)
and not the French form crofuche or croice.
The Celtic words are pie, bucket, cat (draw cut), arone
(vetula), drudge, bodkin.
The French words are many, though the time of their
great inroad was not now, but in the youth of Chaucer's
grandfather. Our poet disregards the Old French apro-
chier a, and makes his verb approch govern an accusative.
There is heronsew (young hermC), the French herauncd ; the
English word is still alive in Yorkshire; it is Spenser's
hernshaw, of which Shakespere has an odd corruption in
Hamlet We hear of precious (precise) folk, ii 295 ; this
new sense of the word seems to have arisen in France in
this Century. Bribe is used in our sense of the word, but
Piers had employed it differently. Chaucer uses prose, as
Brunetto Latini had done a hundred years earlier. He coins
the female form markisesse, Stomuk is used as a synonym
for heart or pity, ii. 210; and this sense lasted for 200
years. The French had an old word pulent (stinking);
and Chaucer uses the new form polecat. Office is used
for a "place of business," ii. 214 ; and offi^cer for a "man of
business," iii. 62. The word chere was changing its meaning
at London as well as in Lancashire ; in iii. 69 a man makes
feste and chere; hence our good cheer ; see also p. 68. In ii.
270 chere stands for cheerfulness. In the phrase do his
fantasie, the last word slides into the meaning of voluntas.
In iii. 172 d&main stands for dominium ; later it expressed
the soil under a man's dominium ; estate has run a parallel
course to dorrmn. We see a new Adjective estatelich (stately).
A phrase of Shoreham's is repeated ; accordant to his wordes
was his chere, iL 313. Chaucer's as touching this, iii. 105,
^ This is stiU called /racA;e?w in some shires ; hero we have the inter-
change of 71 and I.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 131
seems a compound between the old as to and the new French
touching. In ii. 86 stands the reuftUlest, passing aver of Emelie ;
here the Participle evidently represents prceter, and seems to
have been confounded with a Verbal Noun. In iii. 1 comes
Ipreise thy ivitj considering thin youthe; this Participle must
be the Dative Absolute, with m understood. The French
attendu que seems to have been imitated in out of mesure,
considered the power that^ etc., iii. 148; thus we have in
Chaucer both the Active and Passive Participle of consider,
and in a new idiom. Manning's became is slightly altered
in the following sentence; it mighte he no bet, and cause
why, there was no, etc., ii. 124. This cause why may still
be heard. The word dtkymistre (alchemist) has a curious
ending, iii. 236. We have lost the old form surveance, iii.
32, and have had to replace it by surveillance. The verb
remue is both transitive and intransitive in the one page,
iii. 1 7, like our modem form of it, remove.
French and English synonyms are combined in jpoure sely
OrisHdis and veray sothe ; the Sfuppose, which was to all but
drive out wene, is found alongside of it in ii. 191. The
title Dan was usually applied to a monk in England ; but
in ii. 112 Dan Gerveis is a smith; we hear also of Dan
Pharao, iii 189. To floyte stands for our "play the flute."
In ii. 21 bv/rdoun (burden) is connected with music; this
of late years our penny-a-liners have chosen to alter into
refrain. We hear of low spirites, ii. 41; something in
Barbour's way; also otmanie (mania), and hurrwu/rs fantastike ;
a sense used by Brunetto Latini when writing in French.
A man abyes somethi/ng cruelly, ii. 69 ; Barbour had some-
thing like this. The new rrmrnmr stands by the side of
the old grutching, ii. 1 79. There is up (upon) peine of losse,
ii. 76, imitating a more Teutonic phrase of Layamon's.
The word semi, entering into an English compound, is first
found in semi soun, ii. 110. Eichesse is used as a Plural,
iii. 361. There are words like motley, sessions, a cordial, a
chanterie, miscarry, squirrel, quart, statute, theatre, pencil, haber-
dasher, spaniel, pike (lucius), hochepot, raftes, jade, ashmce, a
horse's irais, to squire, quail, rrwsel (muzzle), bay (a horse),
modifie, to fownder, parish derk, intellect, plague, trUl (volvere),
132 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
C(?m, ia/iile (tally), gaudy^ peck (a measure), similitude, species,
curfew, testify vitaUler, dis (dice), abusion, jergon, diffinitioun,
Tnarket'place, plesant, magike, veal, omnipotent, bitov/r (bittern),
approver (informant), jvMee, frown, deity, mansion, jupartie
(jeopardy), giser (gizzard), velouette (velvet), sole (solus),
orisont (horizon), hemisperie, prdblerm, derrumstratif, felidtee,
deliberatioun, to accomplise, by rote, mitaine (mitten), polide,
franks, basilicok (basilisk), to envolupe (envelope), countour
(counting house), natti/rally,popet, gingerbred, impudence, super-
flvitee, inordinate, gentrie, artelrie, cosin germain, dampnahly,
joconde, suburbs, mortifye, conceit (thought), wel disposed
(sanus), humUitee, bold (of hay), dissolute. We hear of an
esy num, one of yov/r sort, a propre man, propre name, the straite
of Maroc, as like as possible, to abroche a tonne, cause a herte
wo, dye in greyn, genUes of honou/r, saufly sey, every comfort pos-
sible, have his acqumntance, his apertenauntes, hold the mene, a
pair of tonges. The gamblers' terms sis, dnk, treye, borrowed
from France, are in full use. The new verbs cese and pay
are driving out stint and gild, just as roll is fast elbowing
out wallow ; and pray is encroaching on bid. The phrase
by m^nes of was coming in. The word fume expresses ira ;
Littr6 gives no instance of this in France before the
Fifteenth Century. The word horwur shifts its accent in
the line —
** Ne see ye not this honourable knight ? " (ii. 304).
Labour does the same in iii 3. There are many Adjectives
ending in aUe, like sfuffrdble. The word cape (headland), ii.
13, seems to come from the Gascon traders; Littr^ gives
no earlier employer of it in Northern France than Eabelais.
We find in iL 326 wnhode his galoche; the first hint of our
galoshes. The verb plie (bend) is found in iL 279. In ii.
173 stands / told no store of it; we should say set no store
by it ; the noun takes the new sense of pretium. Entend to
a thing is in ii. 211 ; in other parts of England this became
atend ; but the former verb in this sense held its ground
for many years. Chaucer often yokes French words with
their English brethren, talking of seu/retee or sikemesse, robbe
and reve. About this time the language spoken at the
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 133
French Court was much studied in England, to the neglect
of the old French of 1280; thus we find in Chaucer the
later rmomSe as well as renown; and Gower has the new
helas instead of the old allaz. There are both hwmUitSe
and hvmhlesse. Obedient and obeisant stand in the same
page, iii. 317; repentant and repenting stand together in
iii. 278 ; also do penitence, as well as penance, iii. 320.
Chaucer sometimes leans to the Latin rather than the
French, writing egudl as well as egality, perfection as well as
parfii The verb appose (question) is found, whence comes
our pose ; Apposition day is kept in some schools. The
word acqmintance stands for friends, ii. 227. In ii. 300
we read —
** Passe-over is an ese, I say no more."
The first word of this was to become well known four genera-
tions later. Hvmanitee stands for kmdness in ii. 239. The
word conclusion in iii. 18 means pwrpose, like the Teutonic
erid ; Americans still conclude to do a thing, where English-
men resolve. We hear in iii. 20 of disese (trouble) leading
to death ; it is easy to see how the word got its graver
sense, after this time. In iii. 71 stands to make strangenesse
between, etc. ; here our estrangement is clearly foreshadowed.
The old pitez had slid in France during this Century into the
shade of meaning now expressed by their dommage ; (festoit
grans pitez que ; Chaucer imitates this in his i< is a gret pvtee
to, etc} So fond had we got of the ending in ish for a
verb that the French vaincre had now to imitate finir, and
become venquish in England ; there was a form vainquir in
this Century. The Eomance defend keeps its Latin sense,
and also its later French meaning. The * Chanones Ye-
mannes Tale ' abounds in the technical words of chemistry,
like amalgam, calcen, mercu/rie, etc. We read of something
that ne was but a just u/nce, iii. 237 ; we should now say,
" was but just an ounce." A knight stands in a lady's grace,
iii. 240 ; it would now be, "in her good graces." Manning
had talked of a ded cors ; Chaucer speaks of a living corps,
^ The old pietas (pUet) came to express miserieordia in France in the
Eleventh Century ; Brunetto Latini afterwards used pUiez for both piety
and pity.
134 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
ill. 39. He has a vast amount of French in his verse,
even without reckoning the technical words of certain
crafts. In iii. 160 one line has every weighty word
French —
*'Glorie and honour, regne, tresour, and rent."
So in ii. 142—
" Imprudent emperour of Rome, alas ! *'
In iii. 31 we have —
"For which she floured in vir^itee,
With all humilitee and abstinence,
With all attemperance and patience,
With mesure eke, of bering and array,
Discrete she was."
Chaucer's Friar, one of the hest sketches here, is always in-
terlarding his English with French ; his brethren's sermons,
a hundred years earlier, had sadly marred our English
tongue. P. 150 —
* * Chraiid mercy ^ dame !
0 Thomas, jeo vous die, Thomas, Thomas !
Now dame, quod he, jeo vous die saivz doute^
Chaucer has eighteen lines ending in the rime aille^ ii. 272 ;
an exercise of ingenuity. He makes mention often of
Chepe (Cheapside) ; he also touches on the bacon of Dun-
mow, ii. 174. He has various bywords, such as —
" Who so first cometh to the mill, first grint " (ii 179).
That is, " first come, first served."
** To maken vertue of necessite (ii. 91) ;
But I wot best, wher wringeth me my sho " (ii. 283).
We substituted pinch for wnrhg 200 years later. A
woman asks the Friar how he fares —
"Dame, quod he, right wel,
As he that is your servant every del " (ii. 222).
Hence comes the polite "your servant, Sir."
The attestation, as soth as God is kkig, is in ii. 275.
In ii. 282 stands —
"Your herte hongeth on a joly pin."
Hences comes our " to be on the merry pin."
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 135
In iii. 242 stands hd than never is late.
In iii. 285 many smal maken a greL
Chaucer, who first brought in the ten-syllabled riming
lines, has a dig at old-fashioned Alliterative English in iii.
257—
" I cannot geste, rom, ram, ruf, by my letter,
And, God wote, rime hold I but litel better."
His most ambitious attempt at Teutonic rime is in ii.
187—
" Whoso that bildeth his hous all of salwes,
And pricketh his blind hors over the falwes,
And suffereth his wif to go seken halwes,
Is worthy to be honged on the galwes."
As to the * Legend of Good Women ' (Chaucer Society,
part ii. 60), it is written in the new ten-syllable metre of
the Canterbury Tales, England's chosen measure. The
former Anton now becomes Antony (Antonius), We see
our usual contraction of the ed in loved, p. 110; here the
e is not sounded—
"That lovyd him bettre than hirself, I gesse."
The g is struck out ; tigel becomes tyle. Among the Sub-
stantives are half godys (demigods). Chivalry was now in-
fluencing our English speech ; the new womanhod, p. 92, is
coined to express womanly dignity ; our fathers, rather later,
talked of "the worship of womanhood." Another new
word lustynesse seems to express strength in p. 103. The
word m/enynge adds the sense of statuere to that of signijicare,
p. 76 j my menynge was to, etc. The word felowship here
means comitatus, a band of followers, p. 90. In p. 112
Lucretia bids her servants do her besynesse ; this seems to
mark the time when the new sense of negotium came into
the word ; the phrase may here mean {her had two senses)
either " to do the servants' diligence " or " to perform the
affairs of the mistress." There is the curious new com-
pound, your home comynge, p. 123. In p. 126 stands, it
was not thi doynge. In p. 127 ago, following the French
past, is made a substantive; the venym of so longe ago ;
it is the same with avM lang syne. In p. 108 a man
knows the arts of love wUhoute boke ; that is, by heart.
136 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Among the Adjectives are hoUmdes, The trew man is
opposed to thief, in p. 76. We see thike as hayle, p. 81 ;
Jason is called a graie gentUmany p. 106 j in the next line
likely is followed by an Infinitive, I think for the first time.
The old fremde (extraneus) was now going out in the South ;
for it is altered into strange in one of the Manuscripts, p. 92.
As to the Pronouns, we see the new phrase thanke my
lady here, p* 75 ; hitherto this title had been used only in
the Vocative ; the French madame was the original followed
here. We find the Dative; while breath lasteth 7W€, p. 121.
Among the new Verbs a,Tefinger,it is ovyrblaw (oyerhlo'wn),
lie in my power, do him honovre, have suspicion of, have com-
passion of The verb fire is applied in an abstract sense ;
hir heautefyred them, p. 91. The yeiih pvM is now used by
us for row ; this is first found in p. 129, oa^rs pidleth forth
the vessel. The verb choose once more is followed by an
Infinitive, p. 77, she ches to dye. The verb ship is used for
festinare, p. 80 ; the writer says he will skip to the effect
(upshot) j with us it is readers who skip. We have seen
hope to God ; we now have the new phrase wissh to God that,
etc., p. 84. The do, as we see, is here employed in new
phrases ; Medea does company to Jason (entertains him), p.
108; hence our "company manners."
As to the Adverbs, in p. 113 stands doune was the sonn-e,
a new way of expressing the sunset.
A new sense of tuith (famous for) appears in p. 68 ;
Cleopatre with all thy passioun, like Thebes with his old walls
in the 'Canterbury Tales.' The /or now follows an adjective,
too longefor me, p. 1 1 8 ; it had earlier followed a Passive verb.
The Scandinavian words are clift (scissura), mase (laby-
rinth), p. 120.
Among the Eomance words are halade, grapnel, tmour,
ceptre (sceptrum), to corvmp, hostess, to poss (push), narcotiks,
opies (opiates), floury (flowery). The word beauty now gets
the sense of deem, and is found in the Plural, hide ye your
beuteis, p. 68. The word person now takes the sense of
ptUchritudo ; he was (a man) ofpersone, p. 80. Dido is said
to be in hir devocyoun, p. 92; hence the later "at her
devotions." When the Argo is mentioned, p. 104, we hear
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 137
of pilot Tiphys, corrupted by later scribes into PhUotetes; this
jnlot, evidently a puzzling word, did not become common
in England until 1530. The word queyrU still keeps its
old sense of callidus when applied to the Labyrinth, p. 1 20.
The Northern forms used by Chaucer in this piece are
upriste (uprose), have at thee, p. 102, her trew love (lover),
rdkke, not roche.
In the same volume are contained a few of Chaucer's
poems of this date. In p. 165 stands do law (right), a new
sense of the word. In p. 148 the verb to lord is coined,
to express dominari. In p. 159 we see our common
jalousye he ha/n,ged/ There is the new noun scarcete. In
p. 150 is an instance of the two meanings of seize (1,
possess, endow, and 2, take) ; a fish is cesed with the hook.
I have already mentioned Cambridge ; I next turn to
Oxford, which had been lately roused by the preaching of
Wickliffe ; she was now glowing with a fiery heat unknown
to her since the days of the earlier Franciscans. The
questions at this time in debate had the healthiest effect
upon the English tongue, though they might jar upon
Eoman interests. Wickliffe, during his long residence in
the South, seems to have unlearned the old dialect he must
have spoken when a bairn on the banks of the Tees. His
first childish lessons in Scripture were most likely drawn
from the legends of the * Cursor Mundi.' He was now
bestowing a far greater blessing upon his countrymen, and
was stamping his impress upon England's religious dialect,
framed long before in the *Ancren Eiwle* and the 'Handlyug
Synne.'
Purvey, after referring to Bede and Alfred as trans-
lators of the Bible "into Saxon, that was English, either
comoun langage of this lond," writes thus : " Frenshe men,
Beemers, and Britons han the bible, and othere bokis of
devocioun and of exposicioun, translatid in here modir
langage ; whi shulden not English men have the same in
here modir langage, I can not wite, no but for falsenesse
and necgligence of clerkis, either for oure puple is not
worthi to have so greet grace and 3if te of God, in peyne of
here olde synnes. God for his merci amende these evele
138 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
causis, and make our puple to have and kunne and kepe
truli holi writ, to liif and deth !" ^ Purvey and his friends
stand out prominently among the writers who settled
England's religious dialect ; not many of the words used
in the Wickliffite version ha«re become obsolete within the
last 500 years. The holy torch was to be handed on to a
still greater scholar in 1525 ; for all that, Wickliffe is
remarkable as the one Englishman who in the last 1100
years has been able to mould Christian thought on the
Continent ; Cranmer and Wesley have had small influence
but on English-speaking men. .
Wickliffe had much help from Purvey and Hereford.
The latter of these, who translated much of the Old
Testament, strove hard to uphold the Southern dialect,
and among other things wrote daunster, syngster, after the
Old English way. But the other two translators leant to
the New Standard, the East Midland, which was making
steady inroads on the Southern speech. They write
daunseressSf dwelleresse, etc., following Eobert of Brunne,
who first led the way to French endings fastened to English
roots. They also write ing for the Active Participle, where
Hereford writes the old ende ; they do not follow him in
employing the Southern Imperative Plural
Among Wickliffe's phrases, now embodied in our Bible,
are these : verili, make hohf wot, yea, nay, sohrenesse, damesele,
depart (ire), raveyn, cmn/pasen the se and the lond, moche cum-
panye, grucche, man servant, ledd caytif (captive), comaund(mr,
tittle, oygnement, take a counsel, liche maner, make dene, go out
for to se, duke, gedre togidre, hleynes, sit at rmte, justify you,
stahlisch, trend offiringis, wildernesse, fvrst fruytis, to coveit, press
togidere, cubit, haply, seer, to spuyl, hotter, pupplican, peraven-
ture, sl/rett 'sate, set fast his face, sepulcre, oost (host), fro the
sum/fie goynge doun, anon, male and female, smyte, Mke a^ens
the pricke, travel (laborare), prudent, encrese, to mete (measure),
infirmytees, magnify, he of good coumfort, spuylis (spolia),
desolat, scrip, tabernacle, just man, suffice, tradidmns, enter in,
scribe, interpret, minister, proverhe, mageste, profit, sykemssis,
biwayle, reprovys (opprobria), to compas about, to poll, agonye,
^ 'Wickliffite Versions' (Forshall and Madden), p. 69.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 139
contimte, here mtness, to thringen (throng), flix of blood. His
JonaSf Bethcmye, Jerico, Pharisee, Galilee, etc., remain much
as he left them.
The great fault of Wickliffe is, that he sticks close to
the Latin idioms he was translating; his English there-
fore is but poor, if compared with that of the year 1000,
I give a specimen of his Latinisms from the 'Vulgate ;' some
of his renderings, as may be here seen, are downright
blunders —
Wickliffe, Vulgate,
Derknessis Tenebrse.
Weddingus Nuptise.
Nyl ye Nolite.
Synguler Singuli.
Sudarie Sudarium.
Cofyns Cophini.
Spectacle Spectaculum.
At us Apud nos.
Erthemovyngis Terrae motus.
May not have hatid Non potest odisse.
Doynge gracis Gratias agens.
It is seen to me Visum est mihi.
In alien thing In re alien^.
She is foundun Inventa est.^
There are also phrases like loovis of proposicmm, uttermore
(exterior), p. 115 ; evenyng was maad, whom seien 36 me to be?
my volatilis (fatlings) ben slayn, a noble man, , , Bardbas, p.
161 ; we sy^en sum oon for to caste out fendis, ^yve wis,
tomhe ether (vel) the hem, architridyn, Castel is used to Eng-
lish castellum (village) ; Judas is led by penaunce, not by re-
pentance, to mourn his crime ; sine liberis becomes tmthoute
fre children, p. 407. The Ablatives Absojute are rendered
most literally. It is clear that there was great room for
another version of Scripture, after WickliiFe's time. Still
we have followed him in some things, which I here set
out —
Wickliffe, Tyndale.
Son of perdicioun That lost chylde.
It is good us to be here Here is good beinge for us.
Entre thou in to the joye of thi Go in into thy master's joye.
lord
^ Mjrpaging comes from the volume containing the Gothic, Anglo-
Saxon, Wickline's, and T^ndale's Gospels.
I40 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Wiclcliffe. TyndaU.
I shoulde have resceyved with Shulde I have receayed with
usuris vauntage.
Thou saverist nat tho thingia Thou perceavest nott godly
thynges.
Wickliffe was himself a Northern man, but he had long
lived at Oxford j hence there is a curious mixture of two
dialects in his writings. There are the Northern saif, fro^
no huty gyltyyTmbist, bUokist, what manere man, bundel, fighting
man, birye, homly, sister, overpass, oft tymys, deme (putare),
postle, she ass, the which, tolbo]>e (tolbooth), loss, handmaiden,
hurtle, slau^tre, a ^ong oon, he hungred, tv/m wpsodomi. The
Past Participle is clipped, as fomdm, not yfov/nden. The
word wench is used in the honourable sense of the North ;
it is appHed to a rich man's child, p. 41, and to the
daughter of Herodias, p. 195. He is to he bUraied, p. 89,
recalls Orrmin's extension of the Passive Voice ; it is very
different from the old ys to syllenne. Take seems to drive
out nim. We see Hampole's curious austeme, p. 399 ; the
Verbal Nouns are in great force. In p. 123 stands swolo-
loynge; the second o is a mark of the North, like aro for
arwe (sagitta).
The Southern forms are children, britheren, moche, oo (unus),
olypi, axe, gon (ire), ey (ovum), beth, clepe, culver (columba),
morewynge (mane), tho (illi), to have be (fuisse). We find the
Southern thilke, and also the synonym the Uke, p. 241. The
to (dis) is sometimes prefixed. The heren (illorum), p. 1 7, is
a curious mixture of South and North ; T^cmre stands in p.
307, instead of the Northern yours. The old Imperative
fare ge is altered in p. 45 to goth ^e, a form never allowed
of old. The Participle in in^e is well established.
Among the Vowels the a encroaches on the e in the true
Northern fashion, as sarpent ; the old cemete is here seen both
as amte and emte (ant and emmet). This a replaces o, for
of feor becomes afer, our afar ; e supplants o in the form
rekevere for recover; ^ and there is the very contracted form
halpens, p. 355. The initial e is docked, as stablisk The
old Participle gewefan becomes woven. The e is struck out ;
owef becomes oof, our woof. There are forms like goist and
^ Hence the footman in Pickwick says, "take off the kiver."
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 141
doitlh; it may be that here the 0 and the % were both
sounded, thus preparing the way for our modem oi. A
new word may be formed by simply changing a vowel;
thus ^Tw?, poundj is an enclosure referring to land, and
Wickliffe's new pond refers to water. The of was both a
Preposition and an Adverb ; Wickliffe marks the difference
very clearly by writing the latter as off; to leeve off, p. 97.
The old shephirde is now written sheperde, with the h
dropped, p. 43. We have seen the Verbal Noun pungetung
much earlier ; we now see the verb punch. The d is struck
out of the old verb windwe, for this is sometimes written
mnewe, our winnow. The th is added, for the noun deope
becomes here depthe, imitating lengthe, Hampole's parlesi
is now pared down to pdsie. The older gredire is now
turned into grediren (gridiron). The French sc for s or c
often occurs, as in resceyve, which follows science, Latin
endings are often clipped ; we see Thadee (the Irish Thady\
Susanne, and Joone (Joanna), as in Manning.
Wickliffe, a true Northerner, is fond of Verbal Nouns,
such as outgopigis, Uldingis, dwellingis ; there are also forms
like the comyngis togidere of, the togidere hindingus, the fallyng
dofim of hetynge togidre of teeth, the rysing a^en fro deede men,
p. 409. Here the construction, trying to imitate the Latin,
is most clumsy, owing to the fact that few Prepositions
could now be prefixed to our home-bom roots. The loss
of her old compounding powers is the great shortcoming of
the New EnglisL' There is dttyng place, p. 121. We find
waking, p. 199, for the old wcecce (watch). The French ess,
as in Chaucer, is tacked on to English roots, as synneresse ;
Wickliffe felt himself obliged to English somehow the
Latin peccatrix. The English ness is employed to compound
pesibleness, p. 37, differing from peace and peacefulness ; also
pomes (poverty) ; we now give meanings, slightly varied, to
these seeming synonyms. There are new words like
gelding (eunuchus), nedleworhe, dweller, taris (zizania), roodhors
(roadster), seer, schiphreche ; in this last we have confounded
the English Ireche with the Scandinavian wr&:k, which meant
"something drifted ashore.'* He uses rm/n to coin new
words, such as domesman (judex), p. 21. He turns the old
142 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
English ci)> (surculus) into chii (catulus). One effect of
Latin influence was to alter the old way of reckoning time ;
Ae we8 twelf vmtre now becomes he was maad of twelve ^eerist
p. 283. Still, the mnters (anni) lasted for 200 years after
this tima Wickliffe is fond of the even prefixed to nouns,
as everirservaunt ; he has sUk in the sense of jprogenies (Isaiah
xlviii. 19) ; the liei^tus (hills), the ovicastinge (offscouring).
Among the Adjectives we see the French ending able,
as in Hampole, tacked on to an English root ; tmquenchable
is in p. 287. The form gladsum appears, replacing the Old
English adjective glmdlic; and fon (stultus) is seen as
formed, our fovvd, Tliere are new words like cle^i (clayey).
Chaucer's lawful is more Teutonic than Wickliffe's leefful,
p. 235, which seems to come from the French lei; the Old
English leufful had meant fidiLS. Older adjectival forms are
set aside in favour of wrongftd, or rather wrongftdly, p. 287.
In the same page we see a strengere thorn, I ; this form was
also used by Tyndale ; in the oldest English no Article had
been employed here. As to the Pronouns, there is an
awkward construction in p. 235, whos wyf of these schal sche
he ? and again in p. 371, whos asse of ^oure schal falle ? We
find the goyngus of hem, not " their goings." The old who-
soever is cut down to who evere, p. 45, like the older what
evere; in Purvey 's version of the Bible, about 1390, hou
ever stands for how so ever ; in the Prologue, p. 459, stands
3^ worschipen that that ^e witen ; here one that stands for id,
the other for quod ; in old times the first that would not
have appeared. The Definite Article, contrary to old
usage, is dropped in John Baptist ; this has been followed
by Tyndale. In the words, / ^elde the fourefold, p. 397,
Wickliffe goes nearer to the Gothic than to the Old Eng-
lish ; in the latter, hi stands before the Numeral.
Turning to the Verbs we observe the constant Northern
leaning to sJudl in preference to toUl; as (the weather),
shot he deer, though this is but a bare Future, p. 81 ; so
he shal seie to W5, p. 110. In p. 245 stands the curious
wharme ^e schvlen wolle ; here the last word is the verb
desire ; the old wUnian was to last but seventy years longer.
The Latin Participle in uriLS is strangely Englished ; the
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 143
world to comyngey p. 395 ; he that was to doynge this, p.
417 ; here we have the usual confusion of ynge with en^
the old Infinitive j in the South they wrote to mtiende.
The very un-English idiom, Erode dead (mortuo Herode)
is in p. 9. Chaucer's phrase gesse, so well known to
Americans, is much in favour ; the Old English ne, wene k
becomes nay, I gesse, p. 387 ; and this was to be altered
by Tyndale into / trowe rwt. The upstart put is always
encroaching upon set, do, and other hoary old verbs ; we
see put away. Words like endure had long been known ;
this French en is now prefixed to English roots, as to enfai
(make gross), p. 63 ; on the other hand, the old inly^ten
has not yet become our enlighten. There are the phrases
graven things (not images), keep hospitality, give sentence, do
fomycacioun, make suggestiou/n. Sometimes the verb, the
most important part of the sentence, is set first ; as gon
shut Gentiles ; opened shut he thi ^ates, Wickliffe coins the
word to undirpck for the Latin equivalent. Where he has
fer be it, Purvey, ten years later, writes God forhede ! which
we keep ; it had first appeared in the * Cursor Mundi.'
In Isaiah IxvL 15 we read of foure-horsid carres. The old
minnen (meminisse) is discarded, and the adjective minde
(memor) suggests to Wickliffe the verb minde, as we use it
now. The verb drench retains its old meaning mergere, and
takes the further meaning inebriare, Deuteronomy xxxii.
42, "I shal drenche myn arewis in blood." The word
poune (conterere), our pomd, stands in p. 1 1 3 ; it was known
before the Conquest. The phrase tu/rn the hous upsodown,
stands in p. 377. In p. 359 stands Mirk's 3^ neden thes
thingis; Orrmin would have inserted a to after the verb.
We see the verb tinUe, which, like its Dutch brother, seems
to be formed from the sound. The Old English mistrowen
stands side by side with the Scandinavian mistrosten.
There are many Latin words beginning with in; these
Wickliffe translates by English words, on which he bestows
a similar prefix ; thus invocare becomes indepe.
As to Adverbs we find the word hard is used as an
Adverb, p. 393 ; in p. 99 this becomes of hard. Hence
came our hardly (vix) seventy years later.
144 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
As to the Prepositions, hme mercy on and have mercy of
stand in the same verse, p. 95. Under is prefixed to a
foreign verb, undermine, p. 131 ; and there is also to over-
traveUe them ; the imder and over are two of the very few
prepositions with which we can now freely compound;
they differ much from for, of and with. Two prepositions
are coupled in kepe it v/rUo idthmUen ende, Exodus xii 24.
We see the interjection whist, Judges xviii. 19.
There are the Celtic words spigot, strumpet, and gogil-y^ed
(monoculus), p. 219. The new words, akin to the Dutch
and German, are grasp, tramp, trample, botch, cote (mergus),
pacche, schog (shock, agitare).
Among the Scandinavian words we see " a wellid thing
togidre ; " this is the source of our verb weld, from the
Swedish valla. There are also backe (vespertilio, our bat),
sker (scopulus, now sca/r), whirl, whirlwind, loosen ; this last
is from the Icelandic losna, not from the old losian.
Among the many French words are president, prophecy,
mysterie, regeneradoun, redempcioun, wnprofUahle, deny, compel,
fravd, enguvre, supplement, u/nchastity, sydir (cider), rneinial,
lattis, magistrate, determine {i.e, appoint), procede, contrite,
to glory, confoorme, exhortadoun, tributis, unstable, repidacunm,
defraud, wncorupt, liberty, offencioun, infirmyte, divide, constreyn,
suhplaunt, adjwre, pv/rsue, juhUee, basshemevi (ambush), congre-
gaciomh, besides many others that I have already noticed
as embodied in our Bible. There is the phrase into ienera-
daims of ieneracioims, often repeated. The noun forger now
acquires an evil sense, very different from Chaucer's, the
forgeres of errouris, Isaiah xlv. 16. In the Acts is found
we camen to Puteolos; in the same way Gower was soon
to write Delphos. The word malice is used of an act done
by God, Jonah iii 10. We find despisable, which is still
used in America; England has changed the s into c.
There is the right form circumdde ; not our present form,
which we have in slovenly sort derived from the Latin
Passive Participle. The word veniav/nce comes often here,
and was to drive out the Teutonic tvrcec. We see hi^er
poweris, where the last word bears the sense of Juvenal's
potestas or the later podesta. The barbarians of Melita
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 145
show hvmumyte or awrtesye ; in the same chapter stand the
synonyms refete or refraisch. The word duke is used for
leader. The old feoh (property) has now to make way for
substawryce, p. 377 ; and gost is yielding to spirit Tlie word
defavm (publish) is used in a good sense, p. 43. The seed
that fell on stony ground is called temporal, p. 65, as in
the *Ayenbitej' we have since 1380 had to invent tem-
porary to express this idea. In p. 79 we read of the parties
(parts) of Tyre. The verb joye stands in p. 309 ; a man
is let down by the sdattis (slates), p. 30 1{; this was the
earlier wattles of 1000, and the later tiling of 1525; the
Scotch still sound the c in sdattis. We English talked
about Easter in both of the years just named ; but WickliBfe
chooses to use the word Faske. We have the verb compari-
sotme, not compare, in p. 183. The form ympne (hymnus)
is used in p. 249. The form cotmceU appears both for con-
silium, p. 549, and for condo, p. 515. To travaUe is used
where we should put trouble, p. 329 ; the interchange be-
tween these two verbs was constant for the next two
Centuries. The word marchatint is used for hireling, p. 503 ;
and the former word was employed as a term of abuse by
Bonner, nearly 200 years later ; fermofwr stands for steward,
p. 381. We have both the verb cure and do the ewe. We
see dismytte instead of our dismiss, p. 553. In Judges xix.
10 a concubine appears as a secoundarie wyf; thus the
word second had not been fourscore years in English use,
before it gave birth to a compound, to express a new
idea.
The works of WickliiFe (Early English Text Society) may
now be considered. They are plainly written by a Northern
man ; hi weie of mercy stands in p. 59, like a phrase in the
'Cursor Mundi;' there is Barbour's of his ovm head; there is
the phrase dailes (sine judicio), p. 92, which reminds us of
Wickliffe's use of day in his Bible. We find the Northern
suppose that (si) ; umdon (perditus), corser (usurer) ; the verb
nsde still keeps its old sense cogere, soon to disappear ; the
Northern Participle pcc^ic? supplants the South ^*^A^. There
is the same admission of Southern forms, like hem, her, as
in the Bible ; Wickliffe's treatises were meant for the
VOL. I. L
146 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
whole of England, and he is the Father of our New English
prose.
As to Vowels, we see comend written for the usual com-
mand, p. 93; we were later to have both forms of the
Romance verb. The e gives way to ot, as doi]> (facit) ; the
i supplants o and e; there is Cicile, pariche (parish), diocise;
the i in the middle is struck out, for we find capteyn in p.
100 ; the u is inserted, as hesmn for besme, our besom.
As to Consonants, the g is struck out ; he aloeid stands
for the old alegged, p. 70 ;. the c is inserted, as sirede for the
old streite ; this imitation of the Latin paved the way for
skid a hundred years later. The h is clipped, as ostder for
hosteler^ p. 181 ; also Grosted, p. 61.
Among the Substantives are aim^s^ever. Boms renner,
dede hondis (mortmain, p. 131), bro]>el (nebulo), wynninge
(lucrum), wi]> hook or wi]> croky p. 250, cope of heaven. We
see the phrase hangyng, drawyng, quarterynge, the order of
the words that has come down to us. In p. 48 we see how
wUl came to stand for testamentum ; Jns testament is fistful wUle
of dede Frawnseis (the dead Francis). In p. 60 bisiness stands
first for industrial then for negotium; the senses of soUidtudo
must have been here the connecting link. In p. 94 truth
adds the sense of Veritas to that of fides, and becomes
Plural j treujpes of Goddis lawe ; in the same way my^ttis is
used for powers of the soul, p. 217. In p. 67 we have money
or money wor]> ; we should now make the third word a
Genitive. In p. 174 we read that drunkenness was
coloured by the priests with the name of good felaweschipe ;
this sense of the latter word lasted till Ascham's time. The
ending ness is much used; we see worldlynesse, p. 121, man-
lynesse, p. 174, a polite word for ira; formydnesse (stultitia).
The word monger was beginning to be connected with
crime, as lesyng-monger, p. 125. There are the phrases in
right of, wornbe joie (gluttony), ]>e dede doynge (action), ^even
fulbut conseil (give headstrong counsel), full butt, p. 213.
We hear of clo]>is of mornynge (sorrow), p. 123; we now
concisely use only the last word. In p. 252 we read of a
tey dogge ; this is more usually called bandog. We now
employ only the Plural clothes; in p. 351 we see clothe
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 147
(ves^is, not^flwmws). In p. 477 men strive as fenii^ (like
fiends), "file priest Sir John becomes Sir Jacke, p. 192;
this change is unusual. The word cfi'os (crux) seems to be
encroaching upon both rode and croicey words which it was
to supplant. There is Chaucer's new idiom repeated in p.
120 ; we read of Benetis lif & Thxmm of CanUrhwries ; here
the last three words are packed together as one Genitive.
Among the new Adjectives are fonnyd (fond), unlemed,
a fat benefice, hdse & my^tty, hei^e wynes (like our "high
feeding"); schepische still stands for simplex, p. 212. The
gi-ecU is now set before another adjective, grete fatte kors, p.
60; we see also grete foolis, p. 81 ; the old sv)il>e was now
dying out. The word fresh gets the new sense of hUaris, p.
123, like Scott's "fresh as May."
As to Pronouns, we find ]ns seynt or ]>is (that), p, 153.
In p. 105 stands make itfals as mjoche as ]>ei hmne. The a
or an, is put for quidam ; in a manere they crucify Christ,
p. 104. We had always used phrases like teo]>a/n dcel
(tenth part) ; we now light on something new in p. 66,
]>re fiftenjpeSf p. 66 ; henceforward we had no trouble in
expressing fractions.
Among the Verbs we find feed it fat, it comss to sixti
ma/rk, holde (keep) hous, kepe it to his otvne knotuynge, help him
to it, holdfor]> (keep on) servants, turn ny^t into day, to cracke
Latin, do ]>at is in hem to, etc., Chaucer's stond bi lawe, to do
treu]>e, heried in synne, WickHffe is fond of stop, as to stop
sin. The verbs trust and look now govern an infinitive, like
hope; mm tristen to flee, p. 82; loke to he festid, p. 249.
We are told in p. 96 that men eat their hevyd out of witt ;
this is the source of "eat his head off." In p. 100 God's
curse reruns^ m]> ]>is; hence the legal phrase, "covenants
that run with the land." We hear of clepid myradis, p.
469 ; we should now prefix a so. We have in the same
page no drede at the head of a sentence ; the forerunner of
no doubt ; here there is must be dropped. There is a com-
bined idiom of the Subjunctive in p. 116; (they) my^ten,
covden, and wolden teche. In p. 106 stands it is to drede
(timendum est), which we now put in the Passive ; but in
p. 222 comes stoppe (it) to be maad (from being made).
148 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
There is an imitation of the Latin Participle in p. 87, after
benefice resceyved (receiving benefit) ; in 1360 with leave taken
had appeared. Past Participles like come and gone had
taken is or are before them ; this is now extended to other
verbs ; (they) hen cropen in (crept in), p. 296. In p. 104
prelates are chokid vn^ tcdow of worldly goods j this accounts
for the future chock full.
As to Adverbs, the Latin undique is thus expressed in
p. 126 ; on alle sidis. We saw in 1160 how rather added
the meaning of jpotitts to that of citiits ; the same addition
is made in p. 240 in the case of sooner; God would sooner
hear the oppressed poor than the hypocritical rich. In
p. 128 we find curatis may almost gete no hok ; Ylqxq almost
and get should change places ; this wrong transposition
of words is a common fault in our day.
Among the Prepositions we remark to }pis ende (the old
to ]>am ]>cet), to live on poore TMn, he is mme to God (to God-
ward), p. 468 ; traitour to him (not his traitor). The for
comes between a Noun arid an Infinitive ; it is pride for a
man to make, etc., p. 82; here the sense of destination comes
in; as in 1280 (he was brought for her to see). Priests
savour of certain things, p. 97, a new idiom after this
verb. In p. 201 a prayer is of auctorite ; here no adjective
precedes the of as always before ; some things are rww^t
of hUeve (need not be believed), p. 482.
There is the Celtic word knack (trick), used also by
Chaucer.
The Eomance words are syngvler (applied to the Phari-
sees' religion), satrap, generaly, coyn, armies (heraldic), crier,
vessel (plate), jwrour, irreguler, suspend (priests), poyntis (of
faith), expresly, viser, vicious, annueler (a priest paid by the
year), jurisdiccion, crie out on them, temporalities, pension, usurer,
recreadon, pagyn (pageant), crocer (crosier), unable to, etc.,
sophistrie, apostata, obeische (obey), volym (volume), stress
beasts (distress for rent), to disgrate (disgrace), professouris
of law, to present clerks, the ordynary, evidence (ratio), morals,
specific, infidelity, discuss, canonyse, corier (currier), to perpetual,
horrour, to distemper, to limit to. There is the curious bab-
vyynrie, formed from baboon, p. 8. There is the new Lm-d
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 149
of compaynies (hosts), p. 68, the first time that we employed
this word in a military sense. Clerks used to get benefices
for comityng^ p. Q6 ; that is, for acting as accountants.
Not only a king, but a curate, had sugetis (subjects), p. 73.
A man is convycted in the law court, p. 75 ; we employ corir
vince in another way. We see deschaunt used of Church
music, p. 77 ; hence our descant. There is the phrase
save a man's body in p. 174; where the verb is used in
Chaucer's new sense. There is the verb dow, p. 103; to
endow was to come in Occleve's time. We see occupy
(ply business) in p. 104. There is aver {habere, property)
in p. 119; this word has had its influence on our later
be-haviour. The word ajppliynge is used as a synonym for
prayer in p. 134, a sense still in vogue. A priest, we
are told, may be a darn/pnyd fend (fiend), p. 153; also a
blynde bosard (buzzard), p. 157. In this last page we read
that the Old Testament is practised, carefully studied, as a
matter of business. In p. 162 glorious is used in a bad
sense, being applied to priests' habits. In p. 181 stands
potestat (dominus), soon to be altered into potentate. In p.
469 we hear of lordis & comyns; in p. 231 of comyn
wymmen (meretrices). The word patraun is applied in p.
285 to the founder of an Order; it is easy to see how
pattern arosa The word trental is curious, as a Church
word coming from the French, not from the Latin. There
is both despeyre and desperacion, A priest might get a
living by acting either as a kechen clerk or apenne clerk, p. 246 ;
they also acted as architects. The English for (Latin per)
is prefixed to French verbs, as forbar and forfend; the
latter usurped the French meaning of defend (vetare).
Testaments are proved in p. 277. In p. 302 sensible is
used for "perceptible by sense ;" we employ sensibly in this
way. We read oi pseudo-prophetis / also oipsevdoes, p. 308;
this influx of Greek is something new; there is autorise with
its Greek ending in p. 320. The word accident is con-
nected with the Eucharist, and is called ]>is newe word, p.
466. We read of the godis of fortwae, p. 473; hence "a
man of fortune."
We have, in p. 467, the proverb crounne and do]) maken
150 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
noprest ; hence the clergy are in our day sometimes spoken
of as the cloth There is also, clut/rUe schvM higyne at hemself,
p. 78. In p. 131 we hear that the clergy will not stop until
the whole land has passed into mortmain. The ciying
evil of impropriations is pointed out in p. 97; the lower
clergy were robbed by approprynge of parische chirchis ; in
these a poor ignorant vicar was set for little cost, p. 116;
men took orders to say masses for money. Even in these
early times Antinomian opinions were abroad; some, p. 351,
said, " late me synne ynowe, for God wole nevere lese J?at
he haj? dere bou3t."
The * Rolls of Parliament ' are a mine of our language,
beginning from the year 1386, when the London Mercers
sent up the first English petition in a style very like
Chaucer's ; see vol. iii. 225. But that poet's ^eldehalle is
now seen as Guyldehalle; thus the Severn combination of
u with i or y was established at London. We see a new
substantive in arrysers ayeins the pees ; Barbour's rising be-
came another word for rebellion. Tlie London tradesmen
appear as the craftes ; as if ars were to stand for artifex.
The Petition is directed against Nichol Brembre, Mayor of
London ; we see a very early English pun on his name
(bramble) ; the Mercers call the forsaid Brere or Brembre a
ragged stdject The Lords of the Council are addressed
collectively as yoture worthy Lordship; a slight change in
the use of this title was soon to come ; a favourite phrase,
used here and long afterwards, was he good Lords to hym.
There is the new Northern phrase noitghtmthstondyng the
same. We find it hath been out of mynde ; we should now
make time the middle word. A new use of by appears ;
wrongs done to them by longe tyms passed. The Northern
word for Journeying appears in London, travail en barfote ;
the two last words are curious.
John Trevisa in 1387 finished a long task, that of
turning into Southern English the huge Latin Chronicle,
compiled by Higden some few years earlier; thus much
of the world's history was thrown open to laymen. Trevisa
was Vicar of Berkeley in Gloucestershire, and wrote at
the request of the Lord of that village. His dialect is un-
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 151
mistakably Southern; he has many words and phrases
that appeared in the *Ancren Eiwle.' He has forms
peculiar to the Severn coimtry, but we see that the
Northern dialect is forcing its way into Gloucestershire ;
thus there are the forms afire^ a]>irsty i. 119, and stripe
(exuere), not drupe, i. 265 ; there are brittle and sighes; the
Verbal Nouns abound ; the sarne replaces ilk (idem) ;
there are also nor, ]>ey, ]>aire, ]>aym, unto. As to Vowels we
find initial a clipped, as in the Romance bate. The e is in-
serted, for wesle becomes wesel (weasel). The old Colonia
appears as Coleyn, ; there must have been the prior forms,
Colune, Coloin, Another famous German city is seen as
Mens, the future Mentz. The South-Eastem form ie re-
places 6^3 in die (tingere). The initial i is clipped; for
men lumine books, vii. 295 ; another version has lymne,
and we still use limn. What is now called Poitou appears
both as Peytowe and Peyto, the old confusion between 0 and
u (ou), showing how Cardinal Peto's name arose. The
name that Chaucer wrote Ixmys is here seen as Lewes, i.
285; much as Lord Macaulay wrote it; Hewbert is here
written for Hubert, and thus we pronounce' the French
due as dewh. The proper name Boece is written Boys (a
future surname) ; and poemata is translated by poysies, I
have already remarked on the change in oi. The t is used
instead of ]>, as nostrelle, iii. 1 1 ; here, moreover, there is a
transposition of letters. It is added to the French touffe
and becomes tuft. The d is inserted in iawndis, which
replaces Hampole's jaunis. The r is struck out ; we read
of the Charthous, vii. 305. The s is inserted, for craftesman
appears instead of Layamon's craftmon. The most re-
markable contraction is copweb for attercoppe web, vii. 343.
Orrmin's speldren becomes our spell (syllabicare), vii. 333.
The n is struck out, for bek (nutus) is formed from beknien ;
this letter is replaced by m; for there is Fomfreyt as well as
the old Pounfret, The w is struck out ; there trus (truce)
as well as the old truwes.
The new Substantives are bahwateres, evel-doer, tale-teller
(delator), gravestone, popehode (papacy), ttuyli^tynge, honysovkel,
forlond (foreland), coh crowynge, overlip, werk-kous (of an
152 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
abbey), corner^ glasier. The noun horlynge (from hurlen,
mere) is used in viii. 231, to translate turbo ; it may have
influenced hwly burly, Trevisa's leving (way of life) trans-
lates moreSy vii. 11, which is something new. In L 325
vemale is translated springynge tyme ; our old lemtm (ver)
was soon to be replaced by spring ; in vii. 461 Lenten tyme
bears its religious meaning. We see homo Englished by
grorm, not goms^ i. 359 ; the old brydguma was soon to
become bridegivom. In ii. 283 mention is made of beings
called half goddes. In viL 149 epitaph is explained by
imitynge on grave. In vii. 481 DanegUt becomes ]>e Danes
golde in some manuscripts. The ending ard, as I have else-
where remarked, was coming in; we hear of the Spaynardes,
a form which replaces the Spaynols of 1350. The Verbal
Noun, as in the Mandeville treatise, is further developed ;
it is ]>re dayes seillynge from Irlond, i. 325 ; collapsus is
Englished by ]>e fallynge togidres of etc., ii. 119. The noun
mil takes a new shade of meaning, have greet will (mind) to
goy vii. 377. The Latin form Bristollia, that had been in
use for 200 years, is written Brestowe^ ii. 103 ; the stow or
place of the' brig, Trevisa uses the noun likpot for the
finger next the thumb, vii. 73. In vii. 109, Crisiean is
written for the proper name Christina, Trevisa brings in
a new phrase for multum; a great deel of London, vii. 311 ;
he has also most deel for mostly.
Among the Adjectives we see mrnifvUy unfittingy schorl-
wilted y schort-bre]>ed ; nobUes is Englished by wor]>y meny vii.
101. We have faire wordes (promissa). The word utter
adds to its old meaning of exterior that of extremus, vi. 251.
Trevisa can give nothing neater for verisimile than it seme]>
like soo]>y vii. 105. The two iorms fleschdy sijidfleschy may
be seen in viii. 23. The word sely gets a meaning varying
from infelixy for it is used to English simpleXy viii. 91, where
a very foolish act is in question. In p. 155 sly is used in
its old sense sapiens; in p. 105 it is debased, being applied
to a cmming plot. In p. 279 prudentiores is Englished by
]>e rediest men ; our ready man has more to do with reed (con-
silium) than with gercedian (parare). The able is added to a
Teutonic word, as in Wickliffe ; we have untrowable.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 153
As to the Pronouns, the Reflexive io sit him down was a
good Old English idiom ^ the him now becomes himself;
men laughe hem sdve to dea]>, i. 305. The his is often used
to express the Genitive, as Harolde his procfwrynge. We
saw in 1280 the phrase to love justice of all things ; we
now see m/)st of eny ]>ingy i. 263. This any replaces a
in vii. 91 ; he lived like any anker (hermit) ; so wholly was
the old meaning of forma (primus) lost at this time, that
Trevisa writes formsst fadery i. 29.
Among the Verbs are ^ild up a thing, fall to (imiere),
put in ward, wosen out (ooze out), bid farewell (forsake), stall
(install) a bishop, beat him to ]>e deth, have indignacioun, make
inquisicioun, do bataille with, it com out dere inow (erupit in
clarum),/a^/ sUc, In ii. 195 something is said to be no
made tale ] a new sense of the verb. In vii. 27 a man made
it as ]>ey (though) he were not wroth ; in the next Century
the it was replaced by cotmtenance. We know our answer
expectation; in vii. 11 fields am^swer ]>e tiliers (cultoribus).
In vii. 99 Canuto secedit is Englished by hefil unto Canute;
fall away must have come from an imitation of Latin. We
see renew, ii. 301, the first instance, I think, of re being set
before a Teutonic root. In vii. 153 mmium apponere be-
comes put to his handes, a favourite phrase later. A man
is put yn (intrusus), speaking of the Papacy ; another is
i-sette downe (depositus). In iiL 297 is a phrase of the
* Gamelyn,' which probably was written not far off" : he up
with a staf and smoot ; there is leve his woodnesse, and also it
hadde be irleft of; in vii. 377 desiste is Englished by leve of
in one manuscript, by leve in another ; there is also breke of
]>e sege, putte it of (differre) used of a request. This of or off
was now becoming common. In vi. 333 stands bring her
with childe ; this sense of the verb lasted almost to our own
day, as in Pope's bring you acquainted. In viii. 217 stands
go a pUgrimage; the a here must represent on. In vii.
385 we read of blasynge clo]>es, raiment of a too conspicuous
pattern; here the verb gets a new sense. The Future
tense is employed in an unusual way, in ii. 235 ; siose
cubites, ]}at wil be nyne foot long ; before the Conquest vnll
in the sense of must could only be used in a question ; one
154 THE NEW ENGLISH, [OHAP.
French idiom is, je sfwppose qu'il aura (must have) 4U
frapp4.
Among the new Adverbs is unlawfuUiche, The old ckmey
in the sense of omnino, is altered into denliche, i. 341.
We see the phrase hard ifrore (frozen), L 325 ; also freschely
(just) born, vii. 133. The far is now prefixed to a Present
Participle, afer casting man (sapiens) appears in viii. 285.
Among the Prepositions we remark went am, hwrUynge, i.
173, where the an was doubtless mistaken for an Article.
There is to lite by ]>e halvendely too little by half ; also by
the space of ]>re dayes. The old (?)?, standing before a term
expressing quantity, is altered into to ; to ]>e novmbre of ttvo
hondredy i. 341. The m]> conveys the sense of our indudr
ing ; sixe schires td]> Comwayle, ii. 91. This preposition
usually implied agreement ; it is now used instead of 05
after same; of]>e same age wilp, il 259.
There are the Scandinavian scrap, squeak, rouschelynge
(strepitus), which Caxton a hundred years later altered
into rustlynge. The Danish sJdm supplies the word sky-
mom's (pirates), i. 261 ; men who skim the sea. The words
sprerMe and tmter are allied to the Dutch and German.
Among the Celtic words are kybe (chilblain); the gobolyn
of the Severn land is repeated here.
The French words are usfoal, capitel (letters), marl, giestes
(joists), ducherie (dukedom), empechement (accusation), aray
(of an army), form (bench), spiritualte (clergy), hors liter
(f eretrum), particuler (often used here), gruel, chanel, brigands
(latrones), to aliene, to copy, plegge, pulpit, duket (ducat), con-
spire, quote, precious stone, to resign up, lettres patent, determine
doutes, chase enemies; a new sense is given to florish;/we
hear of florischers of wordes, i. 7 ; a bishop floruit ; this is
turned into was in hisfloures, vii. 39. There is have the mays-
trie (mastery). We read of an esy man ; here the adjective
adds the sense of lenis to that of facilis. The word curiouste
is used for inquisitiveness in learning, vii. 69; the word
gracious is used to translate probus, vii. 35 ; ungracious is
used both for infaustus and sinister. The adjective Twble is
employed in a new sense, nobU bookes, viii. 21. In vi. 123
superiores is translated soveraynes, a word used all through the
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 155
next Century, like Shakespere's "my masters." In vi. 221
conclvdey already used by Piers Ploughman, gets the mean-
ing of pdare. In viii. 179 equivocatio is Englished by dovhel
entendement, here used by an angel ; our evil double erUendrey
which has not been naturalised after 200 years, was to
come later. In vii. 467 we see graimtdre^ and also fader
grauntsire (atavus); two languages are further used to
compound doiible chynned, i. 299 ; we have here also the
curious compound overpluse (surplus), much in use for
the next two Centuries. In viii. 201 we come upon helfray^
the herfray of 1360; the English hell here led the way to a
false analogy. Trevisa explains the strange word commedy^
i. 315, saying that it is "a song of gestes;" here the last
word must mean joci, as in Manning fourscore years earlier ;
but in viii. 299 gestour expresses tragoedus. There is the
Latin incubus, i. 419. We see in ethica turned into in
etykeSy viii. 241, our Plural form. In vi. 259 comence-
ment is used in its Academical sense. The verb itse is
employed for solere, just as in Barbour; new words and
phrases crop up almost at the same moment in far distant
shires. The Latin vndecenter is Englished by v/nsemyngliche,
viii. 117, an obvious imitation of the Participle form, for no
ing is needed. There are the two forms avoketes and advo-
ketes, showing the rising influence of the Latin ; advise was
soon to replace avis. The word gratum is translated ^/^yw^re
to; the adverb ^^esm^/y is also seen. In vii. 69 guadrivium
is Englished by carfouh ; this recalls the Carfax of Oxford.
A Latin word sometimes needed a long interpretation ; thus
invincibilis, vii. 103, becomes unable to be overcomen. In vii.
155 eledi is Englished by ]>e elites; this word has never
been thoroughly naturalised. There is Barbour's leeftenaunt,
where the French u has been mistaken for b, v ; hence the
/ appears. The word prejudice now expresses injuria, as
in law; tmjpoute prejudice of his chirchey vii. 263. Men
might now meove (move) a cause or a question. In Domes-
day Book all England is descrived (marked out) ; this sense
lingers in our Bible. In vii. 377 the Devil appears as ]>e
enemy. The word mto, vii. 193, is translated his ende and
passing for]> ; hence "the passing bell," and "the passing
156 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
of Arthur." In the middle of the English text stands
the technical in jporUificalihus ; Foxe is fond of the phrase.
Trevisa gives us a proverb from Seneca, vii. 5 : a cok is
most my^ty on his dongehUle ; 1 70 years earlier it had been
kene on his rmxenne. In another work of our author's he
puts aside the Old English ceorles worn (Arcturus), and tells
us that this star is comyrdy clejM in Englis Charlemaynes
wayne; a phrase that lasted to 1600 ; this is our Charles's
wain.^ The French romances must have been most popular
in England.
We now, in 1387, light once more upon an English
Will; these had been made in Latin and French for
the previous 300 years. Eobert Corn, citizen of Lon-
don, makes his bequests (* Fifty Earliest English Wills,'
Early English Text Society, p. 1) ; he speaks of his daughter
Genet, our Janet ; of the werkes (buildings) of a church ; the
Eomance word peuter occurs.
In the ballads of this time (* Political Poems,' Master of
the EoUs) we see the phrase fc/r wynt ne wederes, p. 216 ;
here weather bears the meaning of Latin tempestas, which
the word has had from the earliest times. The Scandinavian
odd, first found in Lancashire, has also come South, p. 268 ;
in the same page is the Lancashire noun blonder. We see
the French substantive galauntes, and hear of a covmier tenur,
p. 277.
The documents, printed in Rymer, belonging to the years
1385 and 1386, show that English was at last asserting its
right to appear in official papers by the side of Latin and
French. We have here phrases like in proper persons,
inhaUtans, goodes and catels. The word law appears as
lav^gh. There is the curious combination of nouns, no harm
doings. Chaucer's during is here durant, as in the original
French.
In the * Legends of the Holy Rood ' (Early English Text
Society), belonging to this time, we see the noun blok and
the verb loll, which are common to the Dutch.
In Gregory's Chronicle (Camden Society) we have, in
the account of the year 1387, the surname Bechamp, not
1 See the * Catholicon' (Early English Text Society), p. 59.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 157
Bewcharwp ; just as the Northern le supplanted the Southern
leow (lew).
The rules of a certain London Gild (Early English Text
Society) bear the date 1389; we see that our way of sound-
ing the English word for sepelire was now settled by the
Capital ; the Kentish form hery appears. There are the
new nouns hooJc-bynder and hatter. We see if nede he ; the
3^/ hit neod is of the * Ancren Riwle.' There is the phrase it
may he take ]>at; we should now say, taken for granted, p. 9.
We find at warning ; we still say " at a minute's warning."
There are some Lynne documents of the same date,
1389 ; the defrw(yr\e (pretiosus) was not understood at this
time, for it is written der worthi, p. 58.
Foxe has printed a famous sermon, preached at Paul's
Cross by E. Wimbeldon in 1388 (Cattley's edition, iii. 292).
We here see the speech understood by London church-
goers under Bichard 11. ; we may remark how their and
them have come down from the North, though hem is still
found ; at the same time we see the Southern thelke (iste),
heth (sunt), it was agoo (gone), 0 man (unus), yhore. The
former uttermost is cut down to utmost, p. 305. There is
Trevisa's limig (mores), and Chaucer's householder; also the
noun earthquaking. Among the Verbs are hring up (educare),
vxix on edge, as much as lyeth in thy power, p. 300. The old
letten and l&tan are now confused ; let (prevent) u/rongs to
hen done, and let him enter. The verb answer takes a new
shade of meaning; answer to God (as to your life), p. 295.
In the same page there is put to the law ; whence comes our
" put to school." There is the Adverb cursedly. Among
the Prepositions is hy the waie (obiter dictum), p. 298.
Among the Eomance words are advancement, theam^ (a
preacher's text), to return writs, to forfeit, prohahle doctors,
gentdness (mildness). Shoreham's acordant to now becomes
according to (secundum) ; this was to replace one sense of
after.
There is a sermon against Miracle plays, dating from
about 1390, in 'Reliquiae Antiquse,' ii. 42 ; here we see the
Genitive their and the Accusative hem. The e is inserted,
for the old hidous becomes hideous, p. 54. There is the
158 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
phrase japynge stiJcke, which paved the way for laughing
stock. In p. 44 stands have the greet mi/nde to do it ; mind
expresses voluntas/ we here substitute a for the. In p. 50
is the new phrase hard of bUeve, We see make a play
therof/ to layke enterludes had come earlier. The Participle
being had very seldom been used, since the old wesende had
been dropped ; we now have " it stands in beynge devout, p.
57 ; this Participle was henceforth to be used freely after
certain prepositions. The whereof stands for the Latin
opes ; to han wherof to spenden, p. 54. Among French words
stands synguler^ p. 47, opposed to a plurality, where we
should say single.
About 1390 certain parts of the Church ritual were
translated into English ; these may readily be recognised
as little altered in the Anglican Prayer Book of our day.
What follows is taken from the *York Manual' (Surtees
Society). The * Cambridge Manuscript,' which I transcribe,
is referred to in p. xiv. The parts of the ritual, done into
English about this time and later, were certain bits of the
Marriage service, the Great Curse, the Visitation of the
sick, and the Bidding prayer for all conditions of men.
This was nothing new ; in the * York Manual ' may be found
an English Bidding prayer, compiled before the Norman
Conquest.
In p. 24 the following address is made to the bridal
couple : —
"I charge you both and eyther be your selfe, as ye wyll
answer before God at the day of dome, that yf there be any
thynge done pryvely or openly betwene yourselfe, or that
ye knowe any lawfull lettyng why that ye may nat be
wedded togyder at thys tyme, say it nowe or we do any
more to this mater.
• • • • • •
" Here I take the N to my wedded wyf e to have and to
holde at bedde and at borde, for feyrer for layther, for
better for warse, in sekeness and in hele, tyl dethe us de-
parte, if holy kirk it will ordeyn, and thereto I plyght the
my trouthe.
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 1 59
" With this rynge I wedde the, and with this golde and
silver I honoure the, and with this gj^t I dowe thee."
I add a Southern version, of about 1400, from a Sarum
Missal; see p. 220 in the last part of the 'York Manual/
The woman has already promised to be hcyxjom to the man : —
" WiJ? this ring y the wedde, and this golde and sulver
y the 3eve, and wi]? my body y the worschipe, and wij? my
worldliche catel iche ]?e sese."
I add a few documents of this date from Blunt's Key
to the Prayer Book : —
" I bileve in god, fadir almygti, makere of hevene and
of erthe : and in iesu crist the sone of him, oure lord, oon
alone : which is concey ved of the hooli gost ; born of marie
maiden : suffride passioun undir pounce pilat : crucified,
deed, and biried : he went doun to hellis : the thridde day
he roos agen fro deede : he steig to hevenes : he sittith on
the right syde of god the fadir almygti : thenns he is to
come for to deme the quyke and deede. I beleve in the
hooli goost : feith of hooli chirche: communynge of seyntis :
forgy veness of synnes : agenrisyng of fleish, and everlastynge
lyf. So be it."
Preie we. For the pees.
" God of whom ben hooli desiris, rigt councels and iust
werkis : gyve to thi servantis pees that the world may not
geve, that in our hertis govun to thi commandementis, and
the drede of enemys putt awei, oure t3nnes be pesible thurgh
thi defendyng. Bi oure lord iesu crist, thi sone, that with
thee lyveth and regneth in the unitie of the hooli goost god,
bi all worldis of worldis. So be it."
" God, that taughtist the hertis of thi feithf ul servantis
bi the lightnynge of the hooli goost : graunte us to savore
rightful thingis in the same goost, and to be ioiful evermore
of his counfort. Bi crist our lorde. So be it."
"Almyghti god, everlastynge, that aloone doost many
wondres, schewe the spirit of heelful grace upon bisschopes
thi servantis, and upon alle the congregacion betake to hem :
and gheete in the dewe of thi blessinge that thei plese ever-
more to the in trouthe. Bi crist oure lord. So be it."
i6o THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
In these last prayers the form. Goddes horde is always oc-
curring for the altar. In the Prayers of the * York Manual'
the d is again inserted, as advocate. There is the new verb
to fader children on a man, p. 121 ; Chaucer's new fraunches
(liberty), and to present a church. In p. 123 there is a
Bidding prayer, something like that used at the Univer-
sities ; but the phrase we shall jpray is employed ; not ye.
There is an office for the Visitation of the sick, which
dates from about 1390, p. 110, towards the end of the
* York Manual;' this office has a Southern tinge. In p.
Ill the priest, when exhorting the dying man, uses the
common oath pardd^ and moreover quotes Gato ; there is
the new phrase / despeir of it.
The Church, brought face to face with LoUardy, was
now making full use of English as an instrument. Mr.
Maskell has printed a very long English Primer, dating
from about 1400.
The book of travels, attributed to Sir John Mandeville,
used always to be placed at the head of New English
prose; but from this place it has been deposed since
Colonel Yule lately showed in the * Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica ' that the book is nothing but a compilation from well-
known authors, made about 1390, with the addition of
later inventions and interpolations. Thus, the Pope is
placed at Rome a little before 1360 — a manifest blunder.
Manuscripts of this work (some of them have a Southern
tinge) abound in our libraries. I have used Halliwell's
edition. The Verbal Nouns are many, as in the North.
In p. 127 the Northern whare is used in a dependent sen-
tence; here an earlier Southern writer would have used
there, Orrmin's theirs has found its way to London, and
there is also hires (illorum) formed in the same way. The
Infinitive follows an Adverb, as in the * Cursor Mundi,'
it is tofer to travaylle to, p. 270. The en of the Infinitive is
often clipped. The Passive Voice, as in the * Ormulum,* is
making great strides, see pp. 2 and 286. The forasmuch
and al he it that of Western England have now reached
London ; such a word as formyour reminds us of the ending
used in the Severn country.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. i6i
We see both Maur and Mowr^ where we now write
Moor, The French royawme becomes rerm and rewme,
showing the double sound of au. If that combina-
tion here has the sound of the French ou, it has the
sound of the French d in hawme and pawme. The a
replaces «, as marveyle for merveillej p. 272. The e re-
places a, for biowleche stands for the former knawlage ; the
pecok of the Alexander is found, as well as poocoh But the
e is preferred to Hampole's o in mevdble and flete ; reed sup-
plants the old reod, p. 189. In p. 35 we read of the
BedoyneSj where the o and the y must be pronounced
separately, as before in Boys. The o replaces e, as in oldest^
p. 30 ; it replaces a, as felowe, p. 24. The u is preferred
to its rivals i and e in the Plural rushes; it replaces o
ia chiise (eligere), p. 221. The Kentish guod becomes
goude (bonus), p. 126. There are Severn forms like fuy7\
juyce, conduyt. Fovm (fawn) stands for the French faon
in p. 290.
As to the Consonants, the u was so often mistaken for
a Vf that the plenteums of Hampole is here found as plenty-
fous^ p. 187. On the other hand, the v is here taken for
an u; efete becomes ewte^ p. 61, our newt The c was re-
placing s even in Teutonic words; sinder becomes cyvdre
(cinder) in p. 101. The old Icece (hirudo) is seen as leche.
The gh is well established instead of h and 3 ; we find
sleigJUe and chough; it seems not to have been sounded
hard, for the slow of the *Havelok' is written slowghe (occidit),
p. 141. What had been before written we is now hour, p.
235. The t is struck out in the middle of cU do^ p. 132,
where the old Danish Infinitive is used as a Noun ; have
ado wUh. The th is added at the end ; hrede becomes our
hreadthej p. 41 ; this must have been an imitation of length.
The d is inserted, as had been the case with thunder ; air
(alnus) becomes eldre, p. 93. The I is inserted, for the old
specca (macula) gives birth to spekelede (speckled). The s
is coming into vogue ; it is added to form the Genitive of
lady ; it is added to the old sithen ; and sithens, on the road
to our since, is found in p. 299 ; the Preposition besides is
in p. 44. Middel is changed to myddes (midst) in p. 2.
VOL. I. 'M.
i62 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
The French form 8c appears ever in Teutonic words, as
5ci/Aes (tempora), p. 289. The n is changed into m; rwnr
doum is in p. 238 ; the n is thrown out, when Amyas, p
108, is written for Amiens. The Northern fashion of
writing x for s is seen once more ; we find both Emaus and
EmauXy also Jexabel.
Among the Substantives are many new proper names,
as yet httle known in England, such as Frestre John^
Cathay, Bussye, Prtisse, and CrakOy p. 130; Folayne, SUsie,
and Bulgarie, " that men clepen the lond of Bougiers," p.
6 ; the Barbaryenes dwell at Marrok ; the Janeweys
(Genoese) are in p. 23. There are new words like
Fadirhode, applied to the Pope, p. 315 ; seylle ^erde,
striplyng, a lad thin as a strip; lyver is formed from the
verb live, p. 139. The ending ness is employed to form
new words, as in Yorkshire; there is gretnesse, p. 297,
which drove out the old micelness (except in our phrase
" much of a muchness "). The old miich is supplanted by
Trevisa's phrase a gret del before a Comparative Adjective,
see pp. 51 and 284. We see squareness, roundness, simpleness.
There is the new Noun herberghage (harbouring), p. 97 ; a
Teutonic root with a French ending, like the old bondage.
We read that the Tartar soldiers gather in s,plomp, p. 252;
this seems to be the source of our clump, with the well-
known interchange of c and p. The phrase hoping to have
is changed into in hope to have, p. 280. In p. 277 goeres
and comsres are mentioned. In p. 278 a conduit renn£s
milk, a use of the Accusative something similar to that
used in the year 1098. The nobles are described as alle
the gode blood of his Beme, p. 154. We see hors back at
p. 58. The Verbal Noun syttinges is coined to express the
Latin sedes, p. 106. In p. 49 stands thei ben grettere cheep ;
this last word is a Substantive in the Dative, here meaning
bargain; it was 160 years before we began to use cheap as
an Adjective. It is remarkable how often our author throws
aside the old Genitive, and uses the periphrasis with of,
such as nekke of a colver ; we follow his example when we
write for the press, but not in speaking. We may safely
foretell that " the man's dog " will never be replaced by
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, - 163
" the dog of the man." In p. 273 stands Qie goynge down, of
the Sonne. We find here two fonns of speech that have
been embodied in our Bible ; most fairest (Most Highest), p.
279 ; and holy of halewes (Sancta Sanctorum), p. 85.
Heaven of heavens had been a good English phrase in the
earliest times ; and we still use heart of hearts. There is the
phrase an hool (whole) mone]>f p. 134. The Superlative
forme fader was so little understood that it was now altered
both into foremest fader, p. 303, and into formere fader, p. 2.
In p. 183 we hear of a worthi (bonus) vmny a new meaning
of the Adjective. Our author is fond of discarding the
old Comparative, and of using the periphrasis with more.
The Superlative is now sundered from the Genitive Plural
that should follow it; we see in p. 237 the grettest of
dignytee of the Prelates.
As to the Pronouns; in p. 122 as for the tym£ ("for
the present ") is found, where the seems to represent this.^
The indefinite it is repeated ; U came to the ende of nine
monethes, p. 27. In p. 3 stands the new phrase of this
age, a m^an that hathe whereof (opes) ; we now talk of the
wheretvUhal. In p. 287 we have the curious form suche an
on (one) ; the writer little knew that he was here using
the same word twice over. The ordinal Numeral takes
every prefixed, as in Hampole : every thrydde pa^ thai thei
gon, p. 174. We saw in the * Cursor Mundi ' ]>ar es rwb mend-
ing ]>e stat; the use of the na or no, standing for n^t, is
now extended; in p. 102 we find no gret ryvere. The
phrase no more did I stands in p. 221.
As to Verbs; the old Imperfect, following that, in a
dependent sentence, is sometimes altered into the Pluper-
fect; and this novelty has taken root; in p. 79 stands
sche wende that he had hen a gardener. The Infinitive
follows a verb of progress; nails growe to hen longe, p. 310.
This tense is governed by certain other phrases, as, are in
jmrpos for to visite, p. 4 ; to that entent to maken men heleve,
etc., p. 160. This Infinitive is replaced by that with the
Subjunctive ; as, to that ende and enient that his dethe myghte
hen knowen, p. 2; we now say, "in order that." In p. 191
1 This reminds us of the Scotch ** how are you the day ?"
i64 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
stands in case thai he had my werre. We saw in the
'Cursor MMxaii^ fall upon a gret (fletus); this gives birth
here to he felle preyeng to owre Lordy p. 87 ; where the on^
which should be the third word, is dropped, and the Verbal
Noun seems to be turned into a Present Participle. The
phrase "/a/Z a praying" lasted almost down to 1800. In
" they left heatvng of Pavl^" it is hard to say whether heating
is a Participle or a Noun ; these words in in^g are the hardest
puzzle in the English tongue. We have already seen, in
1 280, the phrase wUhont coming, an imitation of the French ;
this is carried further in p. 181 ; afke goynge be see, , , .
I have fotmden, etc. There are such phrases as fcUl in a
rage, lay sege, take the ayr, do reverence to, make hem to beleve,
fall sick, lost labowr, to bete down and tomhle walls (p. 95).
The verb sting had hitherto been used as freely as our
pierce ; it seems henceforth to be restricted, at least in its
physical sense, to animals that give wounds ; see p. 286.
The phrase crepynge bestes is used in p. 296 for our reptiles,
and something like the former stands in our Bible. A
noun gives birth to a new Participle in p. 137; men are
now swerded, now daggered. The old Strong Verb smk now
makes a Weak Perfect; thou sowkedest is in p. 30. The
Active Participle may stand, as in p. 59 of my Book, with-
out an accompanying Noun; we read in p. 191 he takethe
on, and another, and so forthe contynudle sewyng (following).
The Adverbial phrase in the last example (it dates
from Old English times) is repeated in p. 309 ; here 5,
here 6, and so forthe ; we often substitute on for the last
word. We find how used almost as a Eelative ; / schalle
devyse ^ow , , , the names how thei clepen hem, p. 53. The
old nu had always expressed quoniam; we see in p. 122
the origin of our nmu that; now aftre that I have told, . . .
/ wUle tumen, etc. ; we should here drop the after, Laya-
mon had made a distinction between as and so ; his order
of words is here reversed ; righte als the londes weren lost,
so schvMe thei ben wonnen, A wholly new way of expressing
the Latin nisi, replacing the old but, now starts up ; in p.
184 stands that may not be, upon lesse than wee mowe falle.
This, the future unless, is a literal version of the French ^
n.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 165
m(m& que ; a few years later, the wpon before the lesse was
to be dropped. The evere more sithenSy in p. 299, paves the
way for our ever since. The but had been used to English
quin after possum, in 1300; this usage is now extended
further in p. 60 ; that feld is not so well closed, but that men
may entren. The old overall (ubique) was beginning to
drop; in p. 46 the contree is strong on alle sides. In p.
309 men re^'oyssen hem hugely; this Adverb remained in
use for about 300 years, when it yielded to vastly.^ The
Superlative Adverb gladly est is in p. 195 ; and beste
belovede in p. 177. We have seen the Old English
adverbial sams swa; this now appears in a slightly dif-
ferent form ; they (fon in the sams vnaner as thefirste, p. 192.
Among the Prepositions at is used to express distance ;
toward the Est, at 160 paas, is Templvm. The Adverb
overthwa/rt is turned into a Preposition, p. 57 ; overthwart
the See, much as Cowper used it. Under is applied to
measure; undir the age of 16 ^ere, p. 278 ; here unthin had
been employed earlier. The confusion between of and on
is remarkable in p. 115; so much in lengthe, so much of
brede (breadth). We saw make gams of in 1290 ; we now
light on make cheep (bargain) of hem. A remarkable phrase
stands in p. 41, mthouten castynge of of hire clothes; this
castynge must be the Verbal Noun, not the Infinitive, as in
the * Tristrem.' Our modem off and of, the Adverb and the
Preposition, here stand side by side ; the old form of casting
would have been much better than this castynge of The
ab&ui now stands for juxta; dbouten Grece there ben many
Ues. A very early idiom is continued in the phrase
multiply by 360 sithes, p. 185; there is also for the m/ost
partye, p. 294.
The new words akin to the Dutch and German are
mosse (muscus), sclender, schokk (acervus),^ whippe, huske, chop
(secare), lodesterre. We hear, in p. 130, of carres that have
no wheeles, that thei depen sdeyes; this last is the Dutch
sledes (sledges).
^ Will Wimble, after conveying a lad to Eton, says that the youth
'* takes to his learning hugely."
^ This produces here a verb.
1 66 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
From the Scandinavian comes U^ ^eer (hlaupar), p. 77.
The Celtic dagger also appears.
As to French words; bestaylle, p. 284, is the parent of
the Scotch substantive bestial. Many adjectives are used
as substantives, such as necessarieSy tributaries. There are
phrases like gret norribre of folk ; gret (much) peple ; mth on
accord ; double sithes (times) more ; it is (so much) in kompas
aboute ; ordynance of werre /^ sue for a thing ; to companye
mth ; women refusen a man ; savynge here (their) reverence ;
a three-cornered city (Constantinople) ; make it to ben cryed.
There are the two forms, French and Latin, obeyssant
and obedient; since 1390 we have made a difference be-
tween oheysance and obedience. We have seen dam applied
to a hen, soon after 1300; it is now applied to a mare,
p. 302. We saw trail in 1303; we now light upon the
noun trayne, used of a fox burrowing a hole, p. 267. In
p. 236 avys seems to add the meaning of comUivm to that
of cogitatio; this is repeated in Gower. In p. 93 conseUle
stands for an assemibly ; it was long before we spelt council
differently from counsel. We see that part is encroaching
on deal; here (exercitus) gave way altogether to hoste.
The words of science (here spelt scyence) employed are
many; in p. 234 we find no less than four ending in the
Greek mancy, which reminds us of the frequent words
with this termination naturalised nearly 300 years later.
The word hostellere, p. 214, is applied to the landlord; in
the next Century it was to be somewhat degraded. The
French ending your (eur) is so much in favour, that form-
your, not former (Creator), is written. The author explains
streyt, p. 45, that is to seye narow ; in p. 266 he uses both
this French word and the Teutonic streghte. The word
estate means condition in p. 161 ; it means dignity in p. 218;
our quality partakes of these two meanings. Multiply be-
comes intransitive in p. 168. The noun march is used in
p. 171 of "a day's journey ; " in p. 6 one country marchethe
to another ; the Scotch would now say m^rch with ; have a
common boundary. The old mesd is now making way for
lepre. In p. 130 we are told that there is good land, but
^ Ordnance was not applied to guns until the next Century.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 167
it is 'pwe litUle ; here pure is used as an Adverb, like the
Teutonic clean. The vitaille of Manning now becomes
mtaylles, p. 130 ; we still keep the French sound of the
first syllable, but we write it victtmls in the Latin way.
We hear, p. 131, that in the country to the East of Russia,
every man has stewes in his house ; here the French estuve
(the Dutch stove) has been followed. French and English
words are united in surname, p. 112 ; and there is some-
thing similar in for partie (fore part), p. 107. The verb
entreat stands for tractare in p. 95, and keeps this sense in
our Bible ; in our time we use it in the later sense of pre-
cari. The foreign passing had been used in 1303 as a
synonym for beyond; this again appears in our author;
and he, moreover, employs this Participle both as an Ad-
jective and an Adverb ; for the passynge love that he hadde,
p. 89 ; men holden him righte passynge old. By the year
1525 we had substituted exceeding for passing in all these
senses. In p. 84 Julian is styled "a remgate" (renegade) ;
this has given birth to the strange form runagate in our
Prayer Book. The delitahle of Hampole becomes delect-
able, p. 155. In p. 71 we hear of the Chamelle, where
bones lie ; the form chamel came into English use before
carnal The author thinks that a strange French word in
p. 67 needs explanation, tribe, that is to seye, kynrede ; so in
p. 199 lymons, that is a manere of fruyt. The French form,
not the Old or New Italian, is followed in writing Gene
(Genoa), p. 54. The phrase in comparisoun to is substituted
for the old preposition fe, p. 219. In p. 45 we hear that
one place is the distance of five monsths jov/meyesfro another
place. The new tent, here used, was soon to drive out
the old teld. In p. 181 we learn that 60 minutes make a
degree. In p. 168 reysyn^es seems to stand for the French
raisins (grapes). In p. 14 the Emperour of Almayne is
mentioned; his true title was now and henceforward a
puzzle to Englishmen. In p. 4 we hear of temporel Lordes,
and elsewhere of Marguyses, Our author uses merveyl as a
Verb, p. 283. The word bill, well known in Parliament,
appears in p. 172. We see here the words deflour, ryzs
(rice), multitude, corrour (courier), tablett, oriloge, tyssewc
i68 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
(tissues), mj^scrvpcioun, eysemeiUy cotoun, equyiee^ vyaunde^
wpparayl, lax, congele, elecciov/n, devide, dimai, preM>siicacmm,
arnbassedour, cyUmr (ceiling), centre, visibly, superficialtee, egalle,
Antartyk, reconsyle, carre, hordwre, frankencens, graff, dlom,
oratories, censer, addidowns, hmeniacioun, habiiacunm, goidf,
JFlcan (volcano), oMendaTice, apotecary, sophisticate, moysture,
cyrcuit, finally, and the French word for mingere.
Among the letters printed in the * Becords of the Priory
of Coldingham ' (Surtees Society) we light upon what is, I
think, the first letter written in English ; this is due to
King Robert III of Scotland suddenly dropping his usual
correspondence in French on 22d April 1390 ; there are a
few other English letters of the same date.^ Our *^ he can
do no less " is foreshadowed in toe can nocht wytt qwat he
suid do lesse than mak hym obedience, p. 67. There is a
coupling of pronouns and substantives in ovrr toUle and ]>e
mevmys (hominum), p. 60, differing from the form in the
* Ancren Riwle/ We find among the verbs have in remem-
brance, putt (call) in qtiestioun, to hold harmeks, Ood have yhow
in Tcepynge, make hym demaundes, the said John ; this last is
an imitation of the French. The rnofh, Orrmin's mun stand-
ing for Mil, now expresses oportet, p. 67, as it had done in
Lancashire rather earlier. The Infinitive, preceded by ai
or to, follows have, a verb that here means trahere, not
possidere, as in llQO;we had (him) at spekyn wyth the bychop,
p. 67. Anient bears its old sense of de in p. 60, but in the
same page anemte yhowe takes the further sense of quod ad
te spedat. One of the oldest meanings of by is continued,
be ony thynk that we can wyt (for aught we know), p. 67.
Among the French words are the addresses. Reverent fadir
in Crist, richt honorabylle fadyr in Crist ; our principale (the
king). There is the French noun ferm (farm), used for a
piece of land, p. 65 ; the Old English feorme had been long
disused.
The beautiful Lancashire poem, called * The Pearl '
(Alliterative Poems, Early English Text Society), seems to
date from about 1390; it has certainly a far greater
^ This letter should be reprinted by those who edit collections of
English letters.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 169
number of French words than are to be found in the poems
of 1360, printed along with it. The old Adverb grovdinge
loses its final e, and thus, seeming to be a Participle, led the
way to a new verb 200 years later. The most remarkable
change in spelling is that defyle supplants both the
Teutonic fyle and the French defouler, a change that was
not to- become common until a century later ; we see imde-
fylde, p. 22. The old trone makes way for the classic
'prone, p. 34, a remarkable proof of the new influence now
at work. In the same page we read of a person's loke^
(looks), a new Plural phrase. The word knot gets a new
sense ; a kTwt of women, p. 24. In p. 27 we see the lamb's
name, hys fadere^ also ; here the noun name is not repeated
after the second Genitive. The Adjective scharpe is applied
to a shout in the same page; hence our "sharp cry."
We hear in p. 6 of a girl's fygure fyn ; the adjective came
into greater vogue throughout the next Century. Among
the Verbs are bete her wings, bend to a thing (incline myself).
There is the new phrase the sunne is doim, p. 1 7. We see
the Scandinavian bru/nt (ictus) clot {glehei)Jlake, rasch. Among
the French words are pyony (peony), syn^lerty (singularity),
qtiery, signet. There is in recede of, p. 3 ; here meaning
"in comparison with." We have the phrase ]>e mo ]>e
myryer, used of heaven by a redeemed spirit, p. 26.
To the same dialect belongs the Legend of St. Erken-
wald, printed by Horstmann in his * Altenglische Legenden,'
p. 266. The former eggetol becomes eggit tole (edged tool),
p. 267. A man is said to work sire{t (rect^), p. 272 ; a
new sense of the Adjective, which was brought South by a
man of the West Midland district 200 years later. Among
the Verbs is hvm, p. 272 ; also bde oute (abigere), bde down,
drop dede, sytte upon causes. The new Eomance words are
mdropol (applied to London, p. 2%^), to embelice, in ponti-
ficals, macer (mace -bearer), librarie, the providens (of God), a
deputate, dedyns (pervert), comavmd peace (where an Infinitive
is suppressed). In p. 272 limho is used — a curious leaning
to the Latin Ablative case ; out of limbo, the place on the
border of hell.
The poem on the 'Constitutions of Masonry' in England
170 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
(printed by Mr. Halliwell) may date from 1390 or there-
abouts. It seems to be a Salopian piece ; we see u(^
(quisque), elVm (else), hmnus (hence), resendlml (reasonable),
huyre, hure (hire), kette (secare) ; there is both mechul and
mekel. We see Myrc's word fell (sapiens) repeated. There
is the Northern gate (via), and the East Midland nim (ire) ;
the latter, not for the first time, travelled westward from
Derby.
The old eo becomes u ; we see duppe (profundus), and
luth; leofis altered into 7«/, p. 28, though it spoils the rime.
There is the old Severn peculiarity which prefixes i or
y to another vowel : ^eke (etiam) stands in p. 23, and ^ese
(otium), in p. 17; there is s^very. The d replaces ]> in dar
and Adelstorif who is credited with the foundation of thys
curyus craft of Masonry in England, after it had been in-
vented by Euclid in Egypt, p. 14. We see foturtethey p.
28, our fourteenth; here the older English form of the
Numeral has been kept There is a remarkable change in
p. 1 7, the on (unus) is written won, just as we sound it ;
a great difference is now made between an and one ; this
w before o was long peculiar to Salop and the neighbouring
shire. The old soc/o%r is altered into soheT^ p. 28, much as
we accent the word.
In p. 28 the Mason's craft is said to be fayr and fre,
A few years later the word free mason (superior, or master
builder) was to appear, preserving one of the senses of the
Old English free (potens, dominus), like free-done.
In p. 35 we have ms (man) schal rede, a very old form
lingering in Salop. In p. 25 stands to serven uchon othur ;
in 1340 a, the had come before the last word.
Among the Verbs we find pik teeth, thyn enyn (eyes)
water. In p. 15 victuals go (are sold) for so much ; a new
sense of the verb. The verb meddle, in p. 20, adds the
sense of sese immiscere to the old miscere. In church a man
is ordered to pille vppe thy herte to Crist, instead of the
more common pluck up ; hence, perhaps, " to pull a long
face." In p. 16 a man is honde (bound) to his lord ; hence,
" to bind a prentice." In p. 34 we learn that a church is
made to pray yn ; this is the true Old English construction,
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH. 1 7 1
though many would now prefer Orrmin's corruption, to he
'prayed in.
Our tuUh had expressed apvd in the 'Cursor Mundi;'
it is now applied to a prentice, who is uoUh a master, p.
22. We see at these prayers, p. 13, imitated from the
French L The between is used in a new sense, implying
combination ; two men are advised to amend something,
hytwynne ^ow hothe, p. 21.
There is the Scandinavian smogynge (smudging), and
snyft (sniff).
There is the French verb pradese. In p. 23 a mason
takes his pay, the first use of the verb as a noun ; in our
days a Queen's officer talks of his pay, a man of lower stamp
oi remwneratim. In p. 31 we have the English lawe and
the French lay (lei) in the next line. In p. 22 the mystery
of the craft is hinted at —
" The prevyt6 of the chamber telle he no mon,
Ny yn the logge whatsever they done ;
Whatsever thou heryst, or syste hem do,
Telle hyt no mon, whersever thou go.
The cownsel of halle, and 3eke of bowre,
Kepe hyt wel to gret honowre,
Lest hyt wolde tome thyself to blame,
And brynge the craft ynto gret schame.** ^
In p. 38 stands Bishop Wykeham's renowned watchword
in Midland English, not in the Southern form we know.
" Gode maneres maken a mon."
Many rules, bearing on nurture, are given in pp. 37-40. A
famous proverbial phrase, common in England about this
time, a phrase to remain alive until 1654, stands in p. 39 —
** Kepe the wel fro ' had y wyste, * "
that is, " had I known the consequences I would not have
done the deed." The prentice must abstain from making
this silly excuse.
Gower, after having written long pieces in French and
^ The great secret of Freemasonry seems not to have been invented
before 1600. There are few subjects about which more nonsense is
put forth by English writers than concerning Freemasonry ; every
three years or so a new work on the subject comes out.
172 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Latin, brought out his ' Confessio Amantis.' in English
verse, about 1393. His work is of a more Northern cast
than Chaucer's, and is therefore in some respects easier to
read. The poem is said to be due to Eichard II., who
called the poet into his barge, and asked him " to booke
some new thing." Gower has many words and phrases,
used by Chaucer a few years earlier, such as toomanishf
adieUy guerdon, porte, our home-coming, to fire, wait on him ;
licour becomes liquor.
As to Vowels, the a replaces e, as jargon and quarele for
Chaucer's jergon and querde (rixa) ; there is also the verb
rase (our race) for the old rcesen. The old heorcan (latrare)
makes its Perfect in bark,i. 221 ; whence comes our present
form. The former fela^schip is cut down to felaship, the
accent being thrown on the first vowel, ii 26. The a
replaces i, for aliche (similiter), not Uiche is found ; also
along on (per), the Uong of 1 270. The e replaces eo in swerve.
The French ei is slurred over in forfet, iii. 177. The
0 replaces ea, as in rover (pirata), i. 359 ; the Sallee rovers
were dreaded down to our own Century. The o gains
upon the e, as in reprove and rrwve ; therftis also reproef ;
on the other hand, rekever stands in iii. 346, with both
lest and loste for perdidit. Gower makes joy and Troy rime
to monaie, ii. 147, 188 ; he uses Gregois for what Orrmin
wrote Grickes. Trevisa's form Lewis is repeated ; our duty
is spelt both as deute and duety ; there is also hellevnng for
bellovnng. The French ou supplants the English e in flat-
rour ; a change often occurring in the next hundred years.
Among the Consonants we see the insertion of the b in
the old doute, ii. 21 ; Gower leant much to the new French
forms, and France had some years earlier begun to fall
back upon Latin, in the matter of spelling. Her great
light, Oresme, who died in 1382, had used double, effect,
congneu, dessoubz, for doute, effet, connu, dessus ; ^ our Edward
III. in his State Papers had employed traictier (tractare)
for the old trailer, and Juyl for the old Juinet (July) ; he
wrote also cognoissant, with the g inserted ; Marcz for Marz,
^ See these words in Litti'e ; I give but a few instances of this great
change.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 173
the month ; and forms like tiegne (tienne), Ac^Uaigney
orddgne^ with the needless g} So in this Century the
French altered fantosme. Manning's fantome^ into fawtasme.
This new love for classic forms was the first dawn of the
Renaissance, to the North of the Alps ; Petrarch's teaching
was bearing fruit The p is therefore by Gower often in-
serted, as in conceipty deceipL We have not followed
Chaucer's kerribed, though we stick to Gower's unkemt;
see iii 260. The c supplants s in fierce, which we still
keep. The c is inserted, in imitation of the Latin, in
pradique ; the French always wrote pratique. The g is in-
serted in restreiguy in imitation of the new French style ;
there are also ordeigriy pigne (pine) ; Ariadne appears as
Adriagney ii. 306. Our curious participle destraught is first
found in iii. 84, where a French word is forced to take a
Teutonic form ; geste is altered into jestey iii 307. The I is
inserted in the French sauvagey which has to imitate the
Latin and become salvage; also in ovltragey i. 345, following
the Latin; we now make a difference between an oyir6
dress and an ultra man ; our form realm also appears, sup-
planting roialme and reavme. The n is struck out, for
Barbour's on wry becomes avyry, i. 174. There is also the
Shakesperian a coldey iii. 35. The m is inserted, for stefn
(puppis) is written stempney L 312 ; we still ^ay, " from stem
to stem."
Among the new Substantives are workmanshipy topsail.
In ii. 41 a lady makes a technical change in a word by
taking in hand her werk of embroidery. Skie still means
nv^es as well as ccelum; see ii. 50. The Old English rdd
(iter), and the Dutch rede' (statio navium), are both ex-
pressed by our road ; the first word now adds to its old
meaning the sense of hostile intent^ ii. 56, where a knight
makes rodes into Tartary ; the Southern roady called by the
Scotch a raidy still remains in our Bible. The word inn
keeps one of its oldest meanings, domuSy in ii. 218 ; like our
lAncoMs Inn. We see also a very early meaning of
spellingey ii. 263, connected with the black art. In iii. 4
^ See Edward's State Papers in Rymer, for the years 1373-75. In
the * Plumpton Letters * (Camden Society) J5xicfe stands iorfait in 1406.
174 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
hrai'M takes the meaning of sapierUia. In iii. 257 a guest
claims to be cotisin of house, a new sense of the last word.
Two pages further on, a woman swooning is said to be
dede oppressed, oppressed by death ; hence our dead lame ;
we saw ded wo so early as 1270. In liL 278 weight gets
the meaning of importance; in iii. 287 lette signifies ^t^M^ra/w^.
In the phrase leave his herte there, the noun gets the new
sense of amz/r. In iiL 305 a lady is asked to ivrite her owne
horde; hence our "write a good hand." In iii. 87 we
find, not only the noun being, but also its Plural beinges,
Teutonic words continue to favour French endings, like
mordrice (murderess), sheperdess, michory. In ii. 34 the
Sun is called the "carte of Phebus." In iii 6 we see
Chaucer's word hovedaunce. The new expression ladyship
is freely used ; it here means " womanly dignity ; " ladyhede
is also used for the same ; in ii. 59 Aer ladyship is clearly
used for her worshipful person, a turn of phrase that had
just come in. So in ii. 19 a priest is addressed as your
faderhode, an imitation of the Latin. There are expressions
like brecJie of pees, make wa/rde and ivacche (true English
alliteration), mth bow m honde, it is a shame, an aventure
(case) of life and deth, upon the blind side. As to proper
names, Wickliffe's corruption is continued ; Delphos is used
as a nominative, ii. 163 ; a fault that lingered for
300 years in England ; ^ there are also the new forms
Ohio, Cateline, Pompey, Antioche, Tire, Ephesim. We hear of
the filbert tree, ii. 30, that it was called philliberd after
Phillis. The general name Jack, little known before 1340,
is now used for a man, as in ii. 393 ; a good felaw is Jacke ;
we still say, " every man Jack of them."
I'here are new Adjectives like Jiry, false-twnged, evil-
mouthed, odde or even, iii 138. The less is tacked on to
foreign roots, as vertuless ; in iii. 1 10 a man is lustles (invitus)
to iravaile; hence the lisUess that came up forty-five years
later. The old word for puerilis, the English knightly, is
now applied to rank, i. 184. The sdy is used in its com-
^ See on this point Bentley*8 Preface to his Dissertation on Phalaris's
letters ; he there compares the form Delphos to the Asson and Mile-
tum of Old English bibles, and to the well-known mumpsiTrms for
svmpsimus.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, i7S
mon sense, miser, i. 301 ; but in curious contradiction it
plainly means /e/ta? in i. 225 ; a sense which lasted forty-
five years longer in Norfolk ; this fact seems to prove Gower
to have had some connexion with East Anglia. There
are phrases like cjoU hlach, hrode day^ ready wit, pouer as Job,
siker as the crede, fast aslepe^ rightfidl Jieire, sing lich an awngeh
We have seen fair fall you / Gower gives us foule himfalle !
In iii. 263 we see long time er he was bore; here we now
drop the substantive. An adjective is sometimes sup-
planted by another phrase; thus in i. 366 stands a foule of
jpray (predatory).
Among the Pronouns, we see somwho, i. 15, formed
after the pattern of somwhat. The old idiom as who
saith is constantly coming. The which is employed as a
Masculine and Feminine Eelative, as in the North-West ;
the king which understood stands in i. 154 ; there is also she,
which. An as is tacked on to this Eelative, any word which
as I shulde holden, i. 298. There are the phrases an other
suche as, upon that, in alle haste, I be none of the wise, with all
his hole herte, one of all the best, ensamjples many one, se any
thinge of her, by alle wey (means). The word self is employed
after a Genitive, as person is now ; my ladies sdve, i. 228 ;
on the other hand thy persone is used for thy self in iii. 79.
The word one had been placed after a Positive a hundred
years earlier ; it now stands after a Superlative, as the wisest
one, iii. 314. A phrase of ours, ovm brother to, is fore-
shadowed in i. 307 ; there is a kind of wrath, whiche is to
cheste his owne brother. In iL 349 comes if I be min ovme
man (have the use of all my faculties). There is the
curious pleonasm / am that ilke same, i. 323. A man is
asked to say something in i. 322 ; he answers, and that I
can; here an Infinitive do is dropped, as we saw in 1350.
We see halfe in wrath, iii. 267. The use of most before
Adjectives had lately been revived ; Gower uses least in
the same way ; the lest worth of alle, iii. 260.
There are new Verbs, such as mistime, frend (befriend) ;
also new senses given to verbs, such as to cross sail, i. 81 ;
smite coin, overtome (turn over) books, fret him selven to nought,
spare him sdve, depe up (call a man in the morning), have it
176 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
(hear the news) by reveladon, ride on anker. Verbs change
their meanings ; thus the old werian (induere) gives rise to
the intransitive were otdy i. 16. In i. 262 the verbs ivrong
and righte are both made intransitive ; we still say, " the
ship righted." The old gader (coUigere) undergoes the
same change as in Barbour; see i. 308. In ii. 351 men
stele and pike, a phrase in our Catechism ; in ii 90 they
pike her vx/rdes. In L 53 we hear of a king who first upset
(set up) Thebes ; this sense had appeared in Lincolnshire \
the verb has with us gained an exactly opposite meaning
to this. There are phrases like lay him low, set eye (on a
thing), take lore (knowledge) of it, i. 303 ; make werre, take
pity of, keep his tim£, keep his holde, take travail (trouble) to
ride, piU himsdve forth (forward), lay aside, do the message,
do sacrifice, nrnke sacrifice, make a speche, make suit after
it, ii. 274 ; take the possession, kepe her chanibre, the brid is
fhwe, ii. 335 j have it in honde, go the pas (pace), ^eke it
out, take logginge, take his place (seat), kepe his tunge (word)
to speke pleine, have a fall, say plate (flat), cacdie who that
cacche might, give answere, cast anker, do the cure. In ii.
370 men hove nigh the weder; we say that they sail near
the wind. The it is set before seem^, as it semeth to me, iii.
9. This it followed by a Eelative is employed to add great
emphasis ; as, it was of her that they thoughten, iii. 1 8. The
Past Participle is followed by the Infinitive ; joies made to
last, iii. 242. The Noun and Past Participle are com-
pounded together in wind-drive (driven) ; this sort of
union we saw revived thirty years earlier. The Active
Participle is used like an Adjective, how hindring a peine
is, i. 310; something like this had appeared in 1220.
Trevisa had written "bring with child;" Gower has "be-
get with childe," iii. 50 ; here we now clip the be. The
verbs come and go are here used like Eeflexive Verbs ; he
comth him home, iii. 50 ; ^ goth him forth, iii. 53 ; much as
we say to come it and go it. The phrase see far is used in
iii. 251 of a man's mind. A foreign Noun is turned into
a Verb as, they ensampled hem, iii. 24 1 ; for they took example.
We say, "what must be, must be;" Gower put it more
elegantly, nede mote that- nede shall, iii. 309 ; five pages
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 177
later comes all that shall falle, falle shall. The old may
still keeps can at bay, as in U may nought he, iii. 330.
The Passive is developed in goddes hen heleved, ii. 152.
There are the new phrases, full growe, there ne here (here
nor there), whereas (in the sense of uibi), L 335; as certainly
as I shall die, as siJcerly as the life (as sure as life), iii. 74 ;
so fer (up to this time), ii. 33 ; on that other side (contra),
now and efte (again), als fer as he can here. The that is
dropped in i 263 ; for drede he shulde, etc. A chief warns
his men by and by (protenus), ii. 386. The as is constantly-
prefixed without any need, as in Chaucer, as Oierof he was
deceived, iii. 266. The adverb, as in Chaucer, is prefixed
to the verb ; auoay goth dish, dovm goth the bord, iii. 302.
The now is used as a Noun, ensamples of now, iii. 346.
The Preposition of is much developed ; we find of Mn,
of record, of his owne chois, of one accord, she was of the
cJmmhre (court), it is of none emprise (use), iii. 252. "We
further see, in i. 205, two persons so clothed, as to he of a
suit ; we may here remark the a used instead of one. The
to is also used in imitation of the French It/a, woman is
arrayed to the best, i. 101 ; here we should now add the
word advantage. There is privy to, in imitation of the
Latin conscivs, which sometimes governs a Dative. We
have seen turn into ; we now have grow into, i. 60. To
spend on a thing had come earlier ; we now see waste thy
wit upon it, i. 329. The old Hong on (per) is made by Gower
ahnge on, ii. 22 ; it thus became confused with the old
andlang, and is now all but gone, in polite speech, after
being supplanted hy owing to about 1720; there is some
difference between walking along a river, and a flood being
caused along of a river. The old cefter had always been set
before nouns to form compounds ; in ii. 32 we light on an
after-cast, the parent of our afterthought. The Old English
for and the French pour alike expressed quod attinet ad ;
we have here the new phrase for his partie (part), iii. 289.
There are the two variations, redy at his honde, and redy to
his honde, ii. 198, 296; the latter is in Chaucer. The
vjith supplants an earlier for in a favourite idiom of ours,
what wi]> hepe and what imjp croke. There is a new use of
VOL. I. N
178 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
hefore in iii. 335, where a ship sails io fore the wind. There
is the Interjection atoay the tirany t i. 263 ; this first word
is Frenchified into avoy^ iii. 312 ; Lydgate's avawrd was to
come later.
The Scandinavian words first used by Gower are hash
(the middle verb haka sik), baii (esca), doun (pluma), ga^.
The words akin to the Dutch and German are riff (reef
of a sail), raile (paxillus) ; also the verb moor. There is the
Celtic block and to pall.
Among the many French words are memorial, cowrteour
(courtier), regiment (imperium), usher (ostiarius), rosin, client,
a/rrivaile, ungevMesse, to trawnce (trounce), affiche, fixaiion,
genius, misrule, epitaph, entaUe (our intaglio), phisommy, in
effect, plover, mathemoHqtie, reptile, calms, rrwrgage, stolon
(stallion), she waj& prof essed as abbess, iii. 337.
In iii 340 culprits are atteird by the law ; but in this
instance there seems to have been a fair trial first ; the
technical use of attaint was to come sixty years later. The
Teutonic be is set before a French root in the verb befole,
1. 10, like Orrmin's bicache. The for is treated in the same
way; a man is forjudged wrongly in iii 192, like forfend,
Gower uses feverous, where we have feverish. The verb
fortune (fieri), which we have already seen, is repeated here.
A noun is formed from the verb await ; hate is ever upon
auxiit, L 311 ; we know our Scripture phrases lie in wait,
and lay wait for, A man's body is awaited (tended) by his
cooks, iii 22 ; here there is the change of meaning already
seen in Chaucer. We see the verb qua/rel with; here rixa
encroaches on querela. In i. 134 the verb address all but
gets the new meaning of vestire, and is used along with its
sister array ; a lady's attire is wel adressed in iii 255. The
word fairie is used for a personage and not for a realm, in
ii. 371 ; this sense was never borne by the word in France.
It is said to be honourable to a king, when all douhte his
justice, iii 189; the word has with us all but lost this
sense, timere, which it bore in France down to Moli^re's
time. In iii 200 estate shows its meaning of right of
possession; his estate of his regne. In iii 271 comes the
phrase he serves to tempt ; here the first verb means is on
n.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 179
d'viy, A storm sca/rses in iii 313 j hence our mobke himself
scarce. The modern form of magister is now extended to
shipping ; we hear of the maister of a ship, iii 336. There
are also French naval terms, such as cabcm and porte, our
porirholes ; see i. 197. Spices are said to be restauratife,
iii 30; a foreshadowing of our restaurants. The au is
much used to give the broad sound of the French a, as de-
cevav/rd, attendav/at ; Gower is fond of the French Active
Participle. He loves the latest Parisian ways ; for he has
a dieUy helaSy bienfait, covlpahle, JuU (July). There is a very
French idiom, he was arrived to, in iii. 202. The Teutonic
utterly appears as ovltrdy^ iii. 230. An earthquake is called
a terremotey a word of Grower's own coinage. The Greek
psevdo turns up in ii 190, for falsely ; as in Wickliffe. The
Greek z comes well forward, as in enth^onize ; our printers
would now substitute s. It is a great change when graunt-
damej i 90, replaces the Teutonic ealdmoder ; this last was to
linger for fifty years longer ; the French was making in-
roads even on the English hearth ; awat had come a hun-
dred years earlier. There is a change in counseil, for it may
now mean a lawyer; see iii. 155. The verb pass is em-
ployed in a new English sense ; pass the nighty i, 115. The
transitive verb plie is used for fleeter e^ i 274. In i. 130
traitors are discovered out; hence our found out. The old
cfwite is revived after a long sleep, and is spelt in the right
French fashion ; he werde quite atoay, ii 23. The French ^re
is used for exclusively in iii 38 ; of pv/re fear ; Chaucer had
often used purely for omnino. It is said of a child, iii. 77,
that masters entend to him ; an old French sense of the
word ; the use of this verb and of attend was most unsettled
for the next fourscore years. We see the new phrases
double as rmche as, iii. 103; and double mere than, ui.
214.
In the year 1393 we find an English will, made by
John of Croxton of York, who styles himself chaundeler, the
French ch now supplanting the old Latin hard c (* Testa-
menta Eboracensia,' Surtees Society, i 184). The old
Elaine now becomes Elyn, our Ellen; and Mold or Maid
appears as Maulde^ whence soon came Maud. English
l8o THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
trade surnames are making way ; we hear of Johan Gold-
smyth, with no tlie before the last word. There is another,
Alison Smalbane, a proper name derived not from the trade,
but from the body. We read of an Ankres and her
mayden; the last word was henceforward to be used for
ancUla. We hear for the first time of a dede, in the sense of
a legal document. Later on comes " if there be oght over; "
the last word, here an Adverb, is used for the first time as
a synonym for remaining ; this we owe to the form overplus.
Twice appears the phrase in lease be that, etc. ; the first
word seems to be confused with if. Among the new
French words stands coverlet; there is also the onder
derky formed like Layamon's underking. We read of a leg
(legacy).
There is another Will jof 1395 ('Earliest WHls,' Early
English Text Society), where we see parker, the man who
looked after the park ; whence comes an English surname.
The Romance words are materaSy baillif (to a landowner),
divine service, age of discredoun. The lady who makes the
will talks of myn harneys in connexion with her chariot, p. 5 ;
a new sense of the word. There is my secunde best bed,
p. 5, reminding us of the Northern Barbour.
In the Political Songs of thfe year 1395 (Master of the
Bolls, vol. i.), we see ducke substituted for the old doke, p.
330 ; to soupe sorrow comes in p. 337. In another piece of
1399, in voL i. 363, there is the phrase the bothom is ny
ou^t (out, that is, fallen), a new use of the adverb. In p.
364 stands he is ronnon (run) atoay, a new construction.
In the State Papers, printed by Eymer, we remark
among those of 26th October 1398 that the Latin item
stands at the head of paragraphs; there is also the ad-
verb particularly.
In the paper of 28th October 1398 we find a surplus of
goods, not overplus ; of purpose, where we now substitute
on ; at the lattast (latest).
In the paper of 6th November 1398 there are endenturs
madz, where the Passive Participle imitates the French and
becomes Plural; also pwrvait (provided) thai, a preference
of the French to the Latin.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, i8i
In the paper of 25th July 1400 mention is made of
i}ie>s presences, and of letters jpatentes.
We may now cast a glance at Gregory's Chronicle for the
years 1397, 1398 (Collection of a London Citizen, Camden
Society). The one year 1398 occupies as much space as
the previous twenty years ; hence we may perhaps con-
jecture that the Chronicle of this time is the work of a con-
temporary, copied out by Gregory himself some forty years
later. We see them as well as hem for illos ; thei had forty
years earlier replaced hi in London. We find Harry con-
stantly used for Henry or Herryy referring to the future
King Henry IV. The form indeu is preferred to endow y
we have also resydewe. The ending fid is now added to
douty and produces dowtfvMe (awful), used of a King. The
French words are procter (procurator), also written proctoure,
blanke chartours ; a Frevye Conselle is held by the Lords ;
enjorne (adjourn), procede ayenste. The title youre royalle
mageste is applied to Eichard II. ; there is humhyll (humilis).
We hear of Powlys Crosse, p. 98.
In the EoUs of Parliament for the year 1397 we find
RickhOrs report to the Crown, with the Duke of Glou-
cester's confession, p. 378. Eichard II. is spoken of as
his heygh Lordeschipp ; there is. the foreign word sedule
(schedule). In the year 1399 Chief Justice Thimyng, who
deals much in Eomance words, gives judgment upon certain
traitors, p. 451. He must have been a Northern man, as he
uses Tcyrk, mykely ]>of (quamvis), Ukon, ]>os same, that is atte (to)
saye. There is the new combination any state whatsoevere ;
the phrase opon whiche is often used to begin sentences.
The Past Participle Ablative Absolute (Lydgate was fond
of it) was now beginning to come in fast; tho herd (illis
auditis). The form hysydes (not the old Uside) appears for
the first time as a Preposition ; hysydes the Record, There
are many French words, as appet, cancel ; simplych is used
in our sense of the term. We hear of the hegh Comt of the
Parlermnt ; also of the King and all the States in this
present Farlement; this is the first hint of the Three Estates.
There is the phrase he was nevere partie to it. We find
another harangue of Thirnyng's in p. 424 ; he uses rewelers
i82 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
for regulars^ speaking of the clergy ; he talks of ha/rones and
ba/nerettes, and then of a lower class, bachUers and commons.
He uses the awful verb depose (it was rather new in Eng-
lish) when addressing the unhappy Eichard II. ; he has also
Gower's U is of record; the cession was agreed; here we should
add a to. In p. 423 we find Henry IV. 's well-known
challenge of the English crown ; he says that the rewme ims
in poyrd to he wndone for undoyng of the gode lawes ; here undo
bears both its old sense of solvere^ and its new sense, first
seen in the North, of perdere. So speedily did new words
and meanings make their way to London.
Many English vows of chastity are to be seen in ' Testa-
menta Eboracensia,' iii 316, and onward; in one of these,
of the date 1398, the Archbishop of York is called vx/rshep-
fvl fader in God.
Hallam gives us, in his ' Literature of Europe,' i. 54, the
first of English familiar letters ; it was written by Lady
Pelham to her husband in 1399 ; she calls him "my dear
Lord," and has " I recommend me to your high Lordship,"
a phrase which she repeats ; she speaks of the shires^ mean-
ing their inhabitants.
Dr. Murray's Dictionary affords a few new words of
this time, as in keneibowe, whence came aJcinibo ; the adverb
ably, and the botanical name a^niLs castas, the forerunner
of many such Latin terms.
In September 1399 the author of 'Piers Ploughman,' a
poet of nearly forty years' standing, wrote a leef o]>er tweyne
(as he says) against the fallen king, Eichard IL Alliter-
ative to the last, he called his new work Eichard the Redeles ;
much as an earlier English monarch had been branded as
the urwred-y (inops consilii). In one line, so low had the
king sunk, he is addressed with Jxw*, not ye, p. 473.^
The poet gives us our form borugh (borough) in p. 469,
applying the word to Bristow, where he wrote these lines ;
this is an advance on the buruh of 1170. He has both the
forms axe and aske in p. 486. He uses the new word h^b,
p. 477, as it would seem, fovjuvenis; hence our hobbledehoy.
^ This piece is printed along with Mr. Skeat's * Piers Ploughman *
(Early English Text Society).
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 183
There is a pun in p. 479 ; Richard marked the breasts of
his servants with Aer^is (cervi), his badge; the servants
oppressed and disgusted the common folk ; hence
** For one ])at 30 merkyd, 30 myssed ten schore
Of homelich hertis (corda)."
There is a further play on the verb meri, which means
attingere as well as signare.
We have already met with the Danish odd; it now
stands for supra ; " faults fourscore and odde,^^ p. 472. We
had long used the adjective dul ; we now, in p. 490, light
upon dvllisshe ; this Chaucerian ish we still add in careless
speech to old adjectives, like fairish^ baddish. The homely
no longer means famUiar, but something that makes no pre-
tension to elegance ; honest and simple as the dress worn by
Wisdom in p. 493 ; so also in p. 479.
Among the Verbs we find trauthe to telle, put in his
power ; also the Passive idiom (they), were hehote (promised)
hansdl. Some Prepositions are used as Adverbs ; thus, in
p. 474, mysscheffims up, like our " there is something up ; "
in p. 476 comes hervest is ynne.
Prepositions are employed, somewhat on the old lines,
in the quotation already given ; for one you hit, you missed
ten ; here the idea of exchange comes in. The from replaces
for or by (per) ; ffrom ymre wUlfvM iverkis, ^oure will was
chaungid; hence comes the later /rewi internal evidence, from
what I hear, etc. We see in p. 487 the phrase sese on her
sete; the French saisir governs the Accusative, and the
intruded on revives a very old English idiom, implying
hostility.
There are the Scandinavian verbs flush and strut
(tumere), the former is like our blush ; fflussh for anger, p.
484. In the same page we read of poor men's puiter;
this is the Swedish paltor (rags), whence comes paltry.
Among the French words are deabolik and beia, the
French beau. In p. 482 rasskayle is used of inferior deer ;
in the next page it is applied to common people ; a baser
meaning was to come later. In p. 492 stands the noun
devyse, referring to fashion ; we now keep devise for wills,
and write device for the first -named sense of the word.
1 84 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
The i^ had often been placed before Teutonic impersonal
verbs; this is now beginning to be prefixed to their French
brethren, as in Chaucer; \Jt greved him stands in p. 471.
We read of the renowned lawe of Lydfford in p. 49 1, some-
thing like Jeddart justice ; a poet 200 years later wrote —
" I oft have heard of Lydford law ;
How in the mom they hang and draw,
And sit in judgment after."
The Camden Society have printed a book under the
title of 'Apology for the Lollards.' About the year 1400
a Latin book of Wickliffe's was done into English by a
writer, who would seem to have been a Cheshire man.^
He has certain peculiarities common to him and the Salopian
author of the poem on Masonry; thus they both set w
before o, as won^ wold (vetus), and even the Romance
wordeyn (ordain) ; they set 3 before e as I'^erle^ ^eke, ^erd for
herd (p. 59) ; there is Myrc's ask 6arms*and need lore ; the
new form een (oculi) is common to both; also prestus
(priests) ; there is the Salopian haply and chepherd (pastor),
p. 67. But the dialect in this book is much more Northern
than that of Salop ; we see I is (sum), nor, stern (stella),
tan (captus) J>o/, dtrnn (super), anenst, farrery kirke, reif (spoli-
atio), I schal ordeyn, p. 1 2, where a promise is made ; tayste
(taste) ; hik (took), Uvd (blood). There is the Lancashire
word dreamreader and the Salopian witness (testari).
As to the Vowels, the Latin 0 is written for the old
French u in honoVy p. 3 ; the American way of printing
the word. The oi is sounded like the French ^ in denoy ;
in the ' Introduction,' p. xi., we see wools (our woes\ showing
how 0 and i, in a Teutonic word, as well as in Boice^ were
beginning to compound a new sound. There is polute in p.
53, and the more English sound polewt in p. 36 ; we see
also presewme.
As to the Consonants, de is clipped in true Northern
style ; the debate of p. 26 becomes bat (bate) in p. 29 ; we
now give to each form its special meaning. We also see
the loss of n in dinging (ictus) ; at p. 5 this is written
^ I wonder that the editor has not remarked upon the evident
fact that the work is a translation from the Latin.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 185
diging; hence our dig in the ribs. On the other hand the
old cwidan now becomes guekenm^ p. 50.
There is a love for Teutonic endings, as parisching for
the old parishen (parishioner), pomes (poverty), and fersness. '
The Verbal Nouns abound, as his forbeding to ivorschip hem,
p. 85 j form of using of lawe, p. 15 ; J>e putting upon of honds,
p. 33 ; J?t going for]> (proficiency), p. 33. In p. 22
Lincoln stands by itself, meaning the bishop of that see.
We see the new phrase latue lefwr (lawgiver). There is a
curious instance of the change of meaning in words (it had
already appeared in the neighbouring Lancashire) in p. xv. ;
vMte;s had been used as a Plural in the * Ancren Eiwle,'
standing for the Five Senses; in 1360 this word in the
Plural had begun to be used of the mind ; we now read that
clerks know of five wittes outward and other five wiUes invxird.
In our day the wits of the mind have left no room for the
wits (senses) of the body.
Among the Adjectives we meet with some used as an
ending ; drunJcunsum stands in p. 54 ; noisome was to arise
at York about this time, and I have often heard hindersom^
in Scotland. In p. 25 stands ivil vnllid, showing how self
willed was formed later. We have unrestful formed from
Wickliflfe's unreste (inquies). We see unslekahle used in p.
75. As in the ' Ayenbite,' there is a curious Comparative
like co7npendiosar, p. 75.
Among the Pronouns it may now refer backward to a
long sentence ; in p. 41 an offer is made to Christ in ten
words ; he fled it. The such also, probably translating the
Latin ita, has a backward reference in p. 25 ; to be cwsid
and haldun swUh, p. 25. In p. 17 a man is not to reste
hemsUf siker ; this Reflexive Dative imitates Layamon's sit
him still. The relative Which often stands as first word ;
this came from the Latin, here, as in the * Ayenbite,' it
came from the French. The translators from the French,
as a general rule, threw aside their pens, much about the
time that the translators from the Latin set to work;
English has been steeped in foreign idioms, unknown to
Orrmin and Layamon.
Among the Verbs we see the phrases put qtcestiouns, waaM
i86 THE NE W ENGLISH, [ohap.
(grown up) folh^ have place, ^ef ^ere (give ear), hald togidre,
do ]>eft, tak occasioun, lay to hert, beg his lifiod (living). The
verb heiter had meant prcevalere in 1250; it is now used
transitively, as we employ it, p. 19. In p. 24 men are
blaimn (maledicti) in Church ; perhaps this led, to our blow
up (vituperare). We saw in 1303 the Imperative, have
done (finish) ; this is carried a step further in p. 20 ; have
done cursing, where the last word is an Active Participle.
The transitive verb un'ong is formed from the noun in p.
64. We saw score (ratio); the verb formed from this,
meaning imputare, is in p. 85. The Active Participle is
here made a Superlative; bitandist (most biting), p. 105.
We have seen Chaucer's use of considering ; we now find
sdn^ \at man is not, etc., p. 21 ; this idiom, imitated from
the French vu que, etc., is much employed in the * Chester
Mysteries,' fifty years later ; this fact gives us a hint as to
where the * Lollard Apology ' was translated. There is
the phrase wo wey (in no wise). Layamon's 6)p€r ]>ene now
becomes o]>er toyse ]>an, p. 47. The old Northern English
negative, such as gesella o^per n6, is now altered ; benejicid or
not is in p. 52 ; wam scho erri\> a/nd wan not, p. 99. In p.
100 stands we are not so sUdr ]>at; where so takes Chauce:^s
new sense ; we still say, " I am not so sure of that." The
however is now first prefixed to an Adjective, as how ever
litU,
Among the Prepositions we find under ]>e autoritd, under
]>e peyn of.
There is but and if at the beginning of a sentence, p.
49 ; a Western form long afterwards repeated in our Bibles
(Matt. xxiv. 49).
In p. 103 we read of a consciens iren brondit ; this verb
brand is akin to a Dutch word.
The Latin idioms abound, especially that of the Accus-
ative and Infinitive ; so in p. 8 it is evident him not be ]>e
vicar; it is don ]>at (fit nt), for price ^evun, cruciar (cruciator)
of ]>e same sentence (opinion), at God (apud Deum), un)pa/nkful
(ingratus), unnoble, unknaw (nescire), unevenly (iniqu^), irir
call (invoco), ^eve peynis, at his instaunce. Sometimes
there is a downright mistake, as ]>e ordinaunce of ]>e good
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 187
memorie of Leoun (Leo of good memory), p. 39 ; wel ^e not
be mood (nolite fieri), p. 97. We find minys (minish),
effedualiy U distingutjp, pot/rU of de]>, absolute, scysm, jpotentat
(not potestat)y exort, assine, porrvpovs, novys, representadoun,
deepens tvi]>, endiice, ruyn, chefly, stigmay degrade, augur, to
calcule, aniversary, precell (excel), transcend, quysckin (cushion)
to favor, solempni^e matrimoyn, explane, materialy. We see
enpli^, p. 3 (employ), imply e, p. 63, ympli^e]>ly, p. 17 (im-
pliedly), impli^, p. 7 7 (implicate) ; this- is a good example
of the struggle in English between the Latin in and its
French corruption en. In p. 4 stands the phrase contrarily
directly. The word pit4 is no longer here used, as by former
English writers, for misericordia ; but it represents pietas ;
impius is translated unpitous. We see our version of
the French partager in p. 12, in part tahyng of ; a most
curious instance of the confusion between Teutonic and
Romance forms. A righteous man, following the Latin,
becomes a just man, p. 13. There are compounds, such
as dowble-tongid. Latin Plurals are Englished, such as
prices, merits, marblis. To convict, p. 39, means simply to
prove; we have greatly altered the verb's meaning. In
p. 50 we see conventidis, a word fifty years later applied
to Lollard meetings, and further on to those of other
Dissenters; in this passage it means meetings for plot-
ting crime. In pp. 95 and 96 the different sorts of
diviners are named, most of them ending in mancer,
as geoma/ncer. When we see langering (languishing), p.
93, we understand how readily a lingering disease came
in. In p. 52 we read of conduct (hired) prestis; the
two clergymen who perform service in Eton chapel are
still called conducts. The form temporal supplants the timsly
of the ' Ayenbite,' p. 108. In p. 70 we have ratify, and
also rate, the latter as a synonym for stable ; we now make
it a substantive. The Church laws, in p. 76, are divided
into incorporat and extravagant. The Latin provisiones are
translated batails, p. 76; hence come the battels at our
Universities. We have pagaynis formed at once from the
Latin, no longer the French paens or paynim^ In p. 100
the three different senses of the word religion are given —
i88 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
I. \e trow]} ]>at rewli]> us to serve God.
II. ]>e stcUe procedyng of J>is.
III. ]>€ personis ]>vs enclinid.
The Bomance of Ipomydon, dating perhaps from 1 400,
is to be found in Weber, ii. 281. It was evidently com-
piled not far to the South of Eutland ; we find noTy ncUy
and indede, all used by Manning ; also those, gainsay, Imsk,
till (ad), hers, wel faraiid. On the other hand, the Southern
forms are traceable ; we find the lines, in p. 285 —
'* Eyngs and dukes aymdhe hyr to seke,
And so dcme emperoures eke. "
There are besides, rmche, hisse, n'as, sith.
Among the Adjectives we see mydUU age, bare-handyd,
sekir to wyrme.
As to Pronouns, we see he ye he? In p. 286 stands she
will mm (no man) ; a terse idiom.
Among the Verbs we find myne herte ys sette upon
(it), pltLck dovm, take his sete. There is the phrase undo
my tente, p. 343 ; and also, undo (dissect) deer, p. 295.
Among the Adverbs is found a shortened version of
the upon lesse that of the Mandeville treatise ; in p. 339
nisi is Englished by lesse than. The as, not so, was now
representing one of the oldest functions of swa; as thou
arte kynde, . . . dbydel p. 322. In p. 55 not yit (pas en-
core) forms a whole sentence by itself, in answer to a
demand.
In p. 330 stands the phrase lordis were plenty. We
have seen that Manning clipped French words, as stress for
distress; in p. 303 of the present piece we find sporte for
desporte. There is quarter, applied to a year, p. 308 ; "my
greyhondes raune not this qv^rthre" The Spanish phrase
en un iris is translated in p. 295 ; they plucked down
deer all at a tryse (in a trice).
The poem on the Nun (* Early English Lives of Saints,'
Fumivall, 1862) may date from 1400 ; and may come from
Lincolnshire, as we may guess by the appearance of the
nouns myre and mud; there is the Northern momyng
(mane). There is the Reflexive me in I sportyd me, p.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 189
139. We see the new noun sdfe wylle; also in trewthe, a
new phrase, p. 143; few or none, p. 145. Among the
verbs are make my sute (request), have in reverence. There
is thanJce yow, p. 142, with the / dropped. In p. 147 50
hyt schulde seme is repeated. There is the adverb endlesly ;
the out is placed before a noun, as, an owte chamber , p. 1 45.
We see the Eomance adjective pore used in a compas-
sionate sense, pore daTne mekenes, p. 144. A well-known
by-word is alluded to in p. 147 —
** A fayre garlond of yve grene
Whycne hangeth at a taverne dore,
Hyt ys a false token, as I wene,
But yf there be wyne gode and sewer."
The poem on the ' Hunting of the Hare ' (Weber, iii.
279) may date from about 1400 ; it seems to belong to
Cheshire or thereabouts ; for we find won (unus), also twold,
hwon (boun). We see new forms of proper names ; Regi-
nald is seen as Raynall ; there is Gybon (Gilbert), Dykon,
and Sander (Alexander). There is the new noun whete-
harow. The verbs are pid up (a hare), lett slyppe (dogs),
a man bridles, after a blow, p. 288. The Interjections are
the sporting so ho / and hy, hy / There is the Celtic lack
(ferire), our lick, p. 285. There is the technical cours with
greyhounds, p. 280 ; we hear of a village constable, p. 287.
Some pieces in Hazlitt's ' Early Popular Poetry,' vol. i.,
seem to belong to 1400 ; they are Northern, as tylle enquere
(to inquire), p. 156; awheynte (acquaint), p. 184; so in
Scotland they write the proper name Cvltoguhey and pro-
nounce it Cultowhey. The noun will and verb fret are used
in Gower's sense. There is our word forthougkt (prudence
for the future), p. 192 ; the old word /(?reJ>owc, standing for
Providence, had died out. The ancient cries rvasseUe and
drynkeheU were still in use, see p. 189. The adjective Tnody
seems to change from the sense of superhis to that of tuotosus,
p. 185; it is coupled with envyous. The wife is e^orted
to honour and wwrchipe her husband, p. 181, as in our
Marriage service. She ought not to curse or blow her
children, but whip them, p. 191. She should not he of
Toany toordes, p. 183 ; and should be more for worschipe than
I90 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
for pride, p. 186 ; here some word like rmdy is dropped ;
lago tells his dupe, "I am for you ;" "now for our sport!"
We find the Danish gegdoUe (loose woman) ; much used
for the next 200 years. Among the new Eomance words
is the old abusive substantive file, written vyle, p. 188;
there is the old Northern bonery soon to be driven out by
debonaire.
Among the proverbs are "Many handys make light
werke," p. 188; also, "Leve childe lore behoveih," the
latter dating from 1260.
In the Third volume of Hazlitt*s work is the old poem
on the ' Smith and his Dame,' dating from about this time ;
it is Northern, as we see by the verb smore (not smother).
We find our common that is a /ye, p. 210 ; where that refers
to a previous statement. There is the insertion of a noun
in what man of craft so ever, p. 219. We have the new
verb throtUy p. 211, formed from throai. The verb hold is
employed in two senses; / holde thee dead, p. 216; and
her legges wolde not holde (remain* on), p. 217. There is
the phrase to keep a man (maintain). There is the new
phrase there away, p. 202, for thereabouts ; in p. 209 amie
on is used where we should say anne along, A man en-
treats his wife, supposed to be dead, to say once, bo/ p,
216. The French words are excelerd, thy mayster (thy
superior in art), p. 207 (hence the Old Masters) ; the word
beldams is used for mother-in-law, the French belle m^re.
There is the new phrase give thee a poynt, that is, an advan-
tage, p. 219.
The * Hymns to the Virgin and Christ ' (Early English
Text Society) seem to date from about 1 400, if we con-
sider the large proportion of obsolete Teutonic. The old
English bid or bh (lividus) is now confounded with the
French blok or bleu (caeruleus) ; in p. 13 stands for beeting
was ]>i bodi blewe, a correct rime in this passage. Among
the Substantives are candelis eende ; m£ is lefte but skyn and
boon. In p. 53 we read of angels of priis ; and a little
later of mmiye a price taken by Lucifer ; we now distin-
guish between jpnce and|?me. The word harht had hitherto
been applied to men ; in p. 64 it seems to be applied to
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH. 19 1
women, for harlotrie is opposed to dmnesse ; the new sense
was not well established until a Century later, when
Tyndale wrote. In p. 71 young folk think that an old
man goes in her wek (gets in their way) ; this is a new
phrase. In p. 25 love makes men bo]>e big and holde;
hence our " look big." Among the Verbs are vmike fool of
him ; gates break up ; pit aside things ; have it in stoore for
them, p. 76 ; ]>e choice lies; fall away from. In p. 74 we
have he dodjp him Unde suget to me; hence "bind prentice."
The Infinitive Active had long been used with for, de-
noting purpose; appropriateness is now denoted by for
followed by to he ; course of kynde (nature) is for youjpe to he
imlde, p. 60. Two prepositions had been coupled 400
years earlier, as in "from beyond Jordan;" we now see
from an hi^e (on high), p. 45.
Among the French words are podcets, which men wore
long, p. 62. In p. 50 the accents of forfeit and qua^el are
thrown back to the first syllable. In p. 61 conscience is
scornfully told to preche to ]>e post; we still say, "I might
as well speak to a post." In p. 79 we light upon oolde
age, a curious combination of Teutonic and Romance ; either
eld or age had been used before. In p. 11 4 we read of some-
thing playnli printid in a hooJce ; this is a foretaste of the
art soon to be invented. In p. 126 a woman has favour
(beauty), the source of " well-favoured."
In p. 61 we read that at twenty years old it was proper
to goo to Oxenford or leme lawe; this age is rather more
advanced than accords with our generally received ideas, as
to Mediaeval studies.
About the year 1400 John Ardeme drew up a most
plain-spoken account of the cures effected by him ; it is in
* Reliquiae Antiquae,' i. 191. We here first light upon^c^
manger ; the rrumger was now coming in as a suffix. In p.
55 stands ruharhe; in p. 257 a woman serves the devil to pay ;
the verb here keeps its old sense of please ; this is perhaps
the leading idea in our phrase, " here's the devil to pay !"
(some mischief that will delight Satan).
We have the poems that go by the name of 'Jack
Upland' and his enemy *Daw Topias,' dating from 1401
192 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
or soon after. These show us the Wickliffites and the
Church party facing each other with deadly intent. The
works are printed in voL iL of ' Political Poems ' (Master
of the Eolls).
England was now forgetting how her old words ought
to be speltj for uvdernim (reprehendere) appears as wnder-
myn^ p. 84. In Wydyfan we see the foreign ending tacked
on to an English word, p. 92.
Among the nouns there are cardmaker, housing (furni-
ture), gurmeVy and sndnirawer, p. 98 ; the last is used by
Scott. There is the old turench (dolus), p. 48; and the
new wrynkd with the same meaning, p. 45 ; this is still in
our mouths. The heretical disputant is hailed as Jacke
h(yy, p. 62. There is the name TymothS. We have still a
phrase like the latter part of the following : / know mt an
A from the wynd mylne, ne a B from a holefoot^ p. 67.
Among the adjectives we notice a faite benefice^ sturdy
beggyng, and WickliflFe's blynde buserde.
Among the Verbs we find moike more ado, where the
last word, the Northern Infinitive at do, seems to be turned
into a Noun. In p. 86 stands bere hem hevy, where we
should now say, bear hard on them.
Among Prepositions the for continues one of its old
meanings in for this mater, p. 96 ; the forerunner of out for
the matter of that ; the word had meant caiisa in France in
the Twelfth Century.
We see a word akin to the German in the phrase to
sterch (staxch) faces, p. 60.
There are the Scandinavian tateris and tagges, applied to
dress, p. 69.
Among the French words are cvieller, forme (of a school),
half a doseyne, to sette to ferme. The Church, Lords, and
Commons are called the A states, p. 54 ; not States, as two
years earlier.
English was now making rapid strides; in 1402 we
come upon a letter written by the Prince of Wales to his
father Henry IV.^ He uses the Northern thaym (illos) and
/ trotoe, though he has the Southern Participle do (done).
1 This is set out in Earle's ' Philology of the English Tongue/ p. 73.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 193
Writing to the King he recommends himself to yonr good
wnd gradimx lordship ; and calk the King yowr hynessCy and
Sir. The old swi]>e (valde) had now made way for another
adverb ; we hear of right a tal meyny ; we now transpose
the first two words. The King's great ship was named the
Grace Dim, The most startling change is that the old
Plural oJ?ere (alii) is turned into others ; the true old form
is sometimes seen in our Bible ; we have never distorted
the Plural some in the same way. In the above change we
have a real specimen of King's English. Henry's language
is far nearer our own than is that of Pecock, fifty years
later.
Many of the * York Mysteries ' seem to have been written
about the year 1400 ; I have already referred to the earlier
ones at page 78 of this book. We here see some new
words repeated that have appeared in Barbour and the
* Apology for the Lollards.' A change may be remarked in
the sound of i or y, bringing it almost to the sound of
French ^ / hetwyne is made to rime with dene^ p. 9 ; chyned
stands for chained, p. 279 ; Hampole's contreve (controuver)
becomes contryve, p. 288 ; denay, p. 434, has not yet become
our deny. There are the distinct forms payn and pyne, p.
329. The b is added ; Urn becomes ly7rd>j p. 212. The h is
clipped; hosteler (iim-kQe^er) hecomes ostler^-p, 491; and the
word is explained in a rather later hand as meaning
inholder. The d is clipped in bune (vinctus), p. 262,
which is a rime; we see how easily boune (paratus) and
botmd (vinctus) might become confounded. The 3 is some-
times written for J? in later copies of the manuscript; hence
we see how you came often to supplant thou, pp. 177, 458.
The r is added, as hover for the old hove, p. 53 ; this verb
is not yet applied to birds. The r is docked, as chatt for
chatter, p. 320. We see the French bewe Sirs, p. 291 ; this
becomes bewshers, p. 254, a favourite Yorkshire form;
another instance of sh replacing s is the yerh jmssh (pousser);
this is connected with the English y erh pash, p. 481.
Among the Substantives is the new fortheraunce, with its
Eomance ending, p. 221. Two forms for senectus appear,
reminding us of the varying forms of the word in Old
VOL. I. o
194 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
English ; Elizabeth could not in dde consayve a childe for aldey
p. 99. The old cunde (natura) is coupled with another
noun, a very late instance ; Christ takes mankynde (human
nature), p. 175. There is the Vocative my man, addressed
to an inferior, as in our days, p. 213. Pilate is greeted
as yov/r lordshipp, p. 324, a new title of honour-; there is
also mi lorde ser Herowde, p. 128. The word wind
takes the new sense of breathing power, Barbour's aynd ;
a man after hard work says that ms toantis toynde, p. 355.
The Virgin is called the bdle of all bewtes, p. 487 ; the first
noun must come from the earlier phrase, to bear the bdl
(highest prize); this bdl, about 1700, was perhaps confused
with the feminine of beau. The Jews are not to be marked
with ]>at m£sse (plague), p. 77 ; this rimes with encresse, and
the later " get into a mess " may perhaps be derived from
this form of the old misse (defectus, injuria). The Northern
love of Verbal nouns is once more seen, when oure saffyng
stands for saltts, p. 115. As to Adjectives, the old word
rank was preserved in the North ; see p. 220 ; hence our
" a rank traitor." The old dcefte (conveniens) seems to take
the meaning of sapiens in p. 4 ; Satan prides himself on
being defte. We have seen Tre visa's unfitting ; the word
fit here takes the new meaning of congrwus ; I am fygured
full fytt, p. 3 ; our " fit as a fiddle " was to come much
later. The adjective even is opposed to odd, p. 465, as in
Gower. As to Pronouns, Pilate addresses his wife with
the courteous ye, p. 272 ; this was not the usage among the
lower orders. There is the emphatic the ilke selve and \>e
same, p. 296. The that is employed for the sake of em-
phasis; my vxyrthely wiffe, ]>at sche «5/ p. 271. A lady is
called ]>at faire one, p. 489 ; Shakespere was to be fond of
this. The word clock is dropped, as in Chaucer, when
reckoning time ; aftir tenne, p. 263.
Among the new Verbs is saunter; the un is prefixed, as
unmade; ]>ou onhanged harlott, p. 313; there is the new
to outcast, whence Coverdale was to form a Noun. There
are the new phrases, go wode (mad), cast lead (at sea), take
tent to, draw to ende, spUle sporte, p. 265 ; play fair, be
harde stedde, Jiedge the law, p. 439. We have seen thou may
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 195
as well, etc., in the year 1300; in p. 48 stands ]>ou were
als goode come dovme; and this idiom is repeated in p. 351 ;
we now drop the he before as, and say, I as good as, etc.
A pair are gone in edde (age), p. 57 ; hence our far gone.
The verb ken meant scire in the North, p. 116; in the
South it nearly always expressed docere. Language is laid
out, p. 230 ; we now confine this verb to money. We
use / am afraid, when softening down some evil; in p.
244 stands / amferde 36 monfaile. The verb balk becomes
transitive, meaning to put a balk (trabs) in a man's way ;
baike youre bidding, p. 255. The Participles sittand (decens)
and unsittand are found ; there was doubtless a confusion
with fitting and unfitting. The words / telle you stand at
the end of a sentence as an assurance, p. 288. The mean
takes, not an Infinitive, but an Accusative ; to mean malice,
p. 290. The verbs clap and chop both meant ferire; they
each* took the further sense oiponere; choppe ]>am in cheynes
stands in p. 293, and clap was to bear the same sense a
hundred years later. Herod wishes that his false God giffe
you goode nyght, p. 294 ; the first instance, I think, of this
greeting. The verb blow takes the new meaning spirare,
p. 297. A person is rowted (knocked about), p. 325 ; this
seems a confusion between hrutan and rouse ; hence comes
our rout up. The verb settle adds to its old meaning of
taking a seat that of descend, p. 328 ; it is here used of a
spear shaft ; our architects know too well what is meant
by a settlement. The verb were had hitherto been a Weak
Verb, with its Participle wered; this is now turned into
ux)rne, p. 331 ; a most unusual change, found afterwards
in Wyntoun.
There is the new Adverb dayly, p. 219, which is
Northern; also the answer, wde \>an (weU then), p. 328.
The so has a backward reference ; a man is told not to be
taynted ; he answers, why shvld I be soo? p. 328. As to
Prepositions, something is done vmder ]>er nese (nose), p. 463.
A person is laid on lenthe, p. 370 ; here we now substitute at;
the usual endelang was dying out. An old meaning of by
(secundum) is expressed in / bide ]>er'by (stand by my word),
p. 362. There is the Interjection tusschl p. 324, which
196 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
took a hundred years to reach London. Pilate, when
pleased, ciiq^ howel howe! p. 272, much as Caliban was to
cry ho/ ho/ when gloating over an evil deed. Herod
begins a sentence with saie / p. 297 ; it seems here to
stand for I say / The cry imssaUle is used, p. 268, simply
to make a noise. There is owte alias / and loo / Sir, behalde,
p. 82, the parent of lo and behold/ In p. 269 stands the
devdl have ]>e worde he wolde tell us / (devil a word) ; we saw
before sorrow occupying the place of devil. There is the
Scandinavian adverb skantely.
Among the Romance words are pagiaunt (pageant), cat-
terak (cataract), uncertain, unison, regent, mony-changer, certify,
purloin, construe, to fashion, to noise, patter, iransgressum, indig-
nacioun, recreacioun, reduce. Lucifer, when overthrown, cries
owe / dewes / (deuce), p. 4 ; the first time, I think, that this
cry has occurred for 120 years. There is commoder (fellow
mother), p. 49, whence the Scotch cummer ; this is an 'early
instance of co prefixed to a Teutonic word. In p. 129
dresse bears the meaning of vestire. In p. 197 rule is con-
nected with common life ; we mil be ruled aftir ]n rede, like
our "be ruled by me." In p. 222 store takes the sense of
merces ; merchants sell their store. Judas, in p. 225, is
called the purser (purse-bearer) ; the word was to bear its
naval sense a hundred years later. In p. 281 the chief
rulers are called the States ; this Northern phrase recurs in
Wyntoun. The verb tax gets the new sense of accusare, p.
316; and the verb clear seems to mean absolvere, "p. 332.
The verb save, as in Chaucer, means " pay careful attention
to;" in p. 360 it is used of the Jewish Sabbath. In p.
131 the French stable (stabilis) has ousted the Old English
sta]>el. In p. 201 a village still appears under its very old
Biblical name castell. The verb warrant is used without
an Infinitive ; / warande hym wakande (that he is waking),
p. 268. The some was a favourite ending for Adjectives
in the North ; newsome (noisome) stands in p. 277, and this
ousted the Southern noyous, TTiere is the new verb taint,
from linger e, p. 328. The word principall is used as a
Substantive, p. 378, as in the Scotch letter of 1390; it
was later to be connected with a college. Reference is
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 197
made to the dmjll and his dame, p. 300. Herod and Pilate
use many French words, such as hene^enew ; there is the
Vocative moimseniour, p. 293 ; also my seniour, p. 273.
The cry oyas/ for silence is made by the beadle, p. 285 ;
The aged Simeon is called a senyour, p. 435. These later
* Mysteries' are distinguished from those of 1360 by the
use of the new adverb doutles ; moreover, the stanza here is
more easy and flowing than in the earlier plays; it abounds
in good rimes, see pp. 229, 232, 263 ; I give a specimen of
the new Anapaestic style now coming in : —
** Now wightly late wende on our wayes,
Late us trusse us, no tyme is to tarie.
My lorde, will 3e listen our layes ?
Here this boy is, 3© bade us go bary " (p. 334).
Many of the trades, to whom these pageants are due, appear
for the first time in the list given at p. xix. ; we here see
the plasterers, cardemakeTS, arTmurers, irermumgers, turnours,
payntours. Some trades, which bore French names about
1400, were rather later Teutonized; thus the gaunters,
pessonerSy orfevers, sellers, and verrours, were to become the
glovers, fysshmongers, gold-heters, sadellers, and glasiers ; this
is a change contrary to the usual run of English custom.
A character new to our stage appears in Dame Percula
(Procula), Pilate's wife, p. 271. Her airs and graces, and
Pilate's doting love for his charming spouse, are most
amusing; it is curious to remark the wide interval that
separates this early sketch from Lady Teazle.
The * Towneley Mysteries ' (Camden Society) were com-
piled in Yorkshire, probably at Woodkirk, near Wakefield ;
some of them are but slightly altered from the *York
Mysteries.' The work may belong to the date at which
we have arrived ; the fashionable lady of the age is
described as " homyd like a kowe," p. 312 ; and this usage
came to England not long before the year 1400; it must
have taken a little time to find its way down to Yorkshire.
There is an attempt to engraft the Southern English
upon this Yorkshire piece; in pp. 124 and 141 there is
evidently an alteration of a into 0 in the rimes ; we also
sometimes find mych, sich, ich a. There is lifing as well as
198 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
liffand. We find strong Northern forms and words like ai
do, hand tame, wage (merces), travel, scalp, scald, I spyt (I
spat), lad, not lot; and Wickliffe's expletive I gess, p. 194.
The old Steven (pactum) is found here, and has lasted in
Yorkshire till our own day, though it vanished from the
South after 1400. The first hint of English hexameters is
found in p. 233 —
** Nomine vulgari Pownce Pilat, that may ye welle say,
Qui bene miUfari shuld calle me fownder of alle lay."
We may remark here that the last vowels in welle and
alle were not sounded in the North. The counterpart to
the well-known Italian saw, chi va piano va lontano, is found
in p. 195 —
" Alle soft may men go far."
Herod refers to the Pope ; and Cleophas when welcoming
our Lord to his board, swears " bi Sant Gyle." In p. 88
we hear of the fools of Gotham ; in p. 25 a man is to be
clad in Stafford blue. The whole piece is a good com-
mentary on the idioms found a hundred years earlier in the
* Cursor Mundi.'
As to Vowels, the a replaces e in marvel, tar, hart, share
(partiri) ; since 1 400 we have made a useful distinction
between share (partiri) and shear (tondere) ; the Old English
scer-an had expressed both meanings. We see Janet as
well as the usual Joan, The a is clipped in the usual
Northern way ; in p. 123 stands semled for assembled. The
yea or ie takes another form in p. 11 4, ay so ? this form
had appeared in Gloucestershire in 1300. There is much
contracting of vowels; executors are cut down to sectwres
in p. 326, and in p. 308 we have stand to fence (defence).
The 0 replaces what was sounded like the old %; we see
jio (fluere), and wmdo ; there is also felo for felawe. There
is hlynfold for the old hlindfellede, p. 200 ; here the verb
fold must have supplied a mistaken analogy. The oy, pro-
nounced like the old u, comes often, as shoyes, I doy, noy
(nunc) ; Yoylle (Yule) ; inoyte, p. 1 79, is pronounced much
as we sound "a moot point;" ploy, p. 9, is the Scotch
pleugh; on the other hand, the sound of u replaces that of
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 199
0 in howtedy p. 194, our hooted. The verb mdew stands in
p. 194; we have both this and endow^ proving how that
truly Old English sound m will make itself heard, even in
foreign words like vertew, p. 46 j the old Yorkshire unto
becomes untew, p. 33.
In Consonants there is the same Northern love of con-
traction; thus benedicUe is pared down to benste, p. 99.
The d replaces v, for the diveren (tremere) of 1200 now
becomes dedir, our dither^ p. 28. The th is thrown out in
dose (vestes), p. 46. The k is thrown out in ast (rogavi), p.
200. The old form ttuyc (tweak) is seen in p. 220, differing
from the Southern ttuitch ; both forms alike were found in
Norfolk in 1440. The g is softened when the French
Gaspar becomes Jaspar^ p. 123; and sawgeoure (miles),
something like our sodgei\ is seen in p. 310. The form
wawghes (fluctus), however, remains in p. 31. The n is
clipped at the end of a word, for hautain becomes hawty, p.
319; and damned becomes damyd, p. 211. There is the
curious Northern habit of sounding hw like hw ; we see
whake in p. 169, and whaynt in p. 175. Letters are trans-
posed, as in the * Cursor Mundi ;' drit becomes durty p. 194 ;
and thirl is seen as thrylle, p. 209.
Among the Substantives may be remarked a favourite
synonym for man and woman ; Sir, for Jdk nor for GUle
wUle I turne my face, p. 28. MowUe, our Molly, appears in
p. 88. It is curious that an n is often prefixed to shortened
names in English, as Ned, Nan, and Noll, for Edward, Anne,
and Oliver; we see Nelle in p. 313. The Southern Herry
becomes Harry in the North, p. 319. The Verbal Nouns
still increase in Yorkshire; in p. 10 stands God gifys the
alle thi lifyng ;, in the South liflode would have been used
for the last word. In the same page we find my wynnyngs.
In p. 220 comes the phrase slegthe (sleight) of hande. The
word monger was freely attached to other words, as guest
manger ; " crochet monger " is our last coinage of this sort,
I think, a word most appropriate to our age. A horse is
called Don and Donning irom its dun colour,^ pp. 18 and 8 ;
and in the latter page an ox is called Greyn home, a phrase
* This reminds us of Caxton's two forms, Biniin and Browning.
200 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
still in use, though applied to men. We see ram-shyty
p. 25, applied to a woman skittish as a ram. In p. 47
our property appears as owre thynges; cattle are here referred
to ; something like this had appeared in Barbour. In p.
124 we read that a star is to overcome kasar and kyng, a
very old phrase. The Sir is prefixed to other Nouns, even
to Plurals; in p. 127 stands Sir Kynges thre. Our mcmy
thanks, used without any Verb following, appears in p. 128
as mekylle thank. There is a favourite phrase in the North,
/ am wo for the/ p. 136. The distinction between the
English words for eras and mane was not fully established
in the North; in p. 172 to-rrwme is opposed to to-day.
Caiaphas, when in a rage, says, ^^ I am oute of my gate/' I
have heard a later version of this in the North, " I am put
off my beat." The new Noun toylle (toil) is used for labor
in p. 213, coming from tUian, tulien. The first hint of our
"up to the mark" is seen in p. 219 ; get it to the marke ;
to in the * Cursor Mundi ' had expressed the old o]>\>e (usque
ad). In the next page a request is made for something to
be done, whils thi hande is in. In p. 323 we hear of a
sorowful hande (turma), a new sense of the Substantive,
borrowed from the French ; in the next page hand keeps
its old sense of vinculum. The word rrumvpyns is used in
p. 89 for "what we have begged;" Lord Macaulay in his
History used mvmp for heg. The old wcerloga had been
the term for a fiend in the * Cursor Mundi,' and this sense
is still seen in p. 116 of the present work; but in p. 60
Moses is called by Pharaoh a warlow with his wand, follow-
ing the new Lancashire sense of the word ; hence arose
warlock. Fee still keeps its three meanings, which it had
borne from the earliest times ; in p. 28 it stands for pro-
perty, caialle and fe; in p. 56 it stands for the kindred
Latin v^oi^pecus; in p. 192 it stands for prcemium. There
are new substantives like helle weder, kynswonum, cokker
(cockfighter), paddok (toad). A French ending is tacked
on to an English root, as wrightry (carpenter's trade), p.
26. On the other hand, dom and ness are fastened to the
French caitif. We see the Scotch form carline ; the land
lejpar of Piers Ploughman (Scott's land louper) is repeated
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 201
in p. 144. Pilate begins his address to the Jews with
"Boys, I say!" p. 229. In p. 105 no dred is inserted in
a sentence like our "no fear of that."
Among the Adjectives we find tiny, spruce (the material
of a coffer, Prussian wood). The old expletive leaf turns up
in p. 143 ; nay leyfe, a very late instance. Fair was now
adding the meaning of cequus to that ofptUcher; trete hym with
farenes, p. 195. Strong shows its bad side, as skang tratoure
and thefe/ p. 149; this throws light upon a passage in
Chaucer.^ The sad has now fuUy acquired the sense of
tristis, at least in the North ; an enemy is to be sett bothe
sad and sore, p. 249. The word high, when prefixed to
time, gets a new sense ; it were right hie tyme, p. 36. The
phrase by my good grace is found in p. 234. The Plural
Adjective may stand without a substantive ; St. Peter, in
p. 281, addresses his fellows as my lefe deres. In p. 218
comes be ye secure (siker) we were lothe ; we should now say,
we toere lothe, you rrvay be sure.
Among the Pronouns the distinction between the thou
and the ye is well preserved; when Christ is tormented
before His death, three of the Jews address Him with thou as
an inferior ; the fourth, more spiteful, hails Him as a King,
and employs the respectful Sir and ye, p. 218. In p. 163
Mary talks to Joseph of youre son arid myne. In p. 21 1 we
find yond same cyte (that same). We see twyse as fast, p.
62. In p. 283 we have the Relative, I what was wont, etc.
Besides this, the what is used like the French qtioi in asking
for information; what, son? p. 39. The what (que) is used
in the old sense found in the 'Cursor Mundi* 100 years
earlier ; what these tveders are cold /
As to Verbs, the mmt is found much as we use it ; the
Scandinavian auxiliary mon appears in p. 97 ; it here still
bears a future sense. The strange form we must have biggid
stands in p. 309. In p. 54 stands to kepefro syn; here no
Accusative follows the verb, as would have been the case
earlier. To t^ry becomes intransitive in p. 130. In p. 192
^ When January finds himself tricked by May he calls her, "O
stronge lady store !" In the Gospels of 1000 Barabbas is called oenne
strangne 'Peofmarif Mat. xxvii. 16 ; so "a sturdy beggar."
202 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
the meaning of occujpare is seen in the verb tdke ; a certain
building toke more aray (work) ; to take rest is in p. 45. In
p. 194 we hear of broken words. We see in p. 201 tJiai
was welle gone to (done) j Orrmin's go to is well known. The
confusion between those very diflferent old verbs, me ]>ynca]>
and / ]>enc, is seen in p. 232 ; do what thou thynk gnd ; there
is also / thryst (sitio), p. 228 ; / lyst^ p. 245 j here the
rightful Dative makes way for the Nominative. We saw
hurst on laughter in the year 1303 ; the idiom is now carried
a step further in p. 328, sche braste owt on weping ; we now
drop the Preposition, and thus we seem to turn the Verbal
Noun into an Active Participle ; fall a weeping lasted almost
down to our own Century. We light upon phrases like
eai out of house and of harbar, p. 104 ; maJce shift, p. 105 j
it fell to my lot ; my foot slepys (is asleep) ; hau) the game
goes; the clok stroke twelf p. 115 j to do that is in me; know
him by sight ; I held my ground ; they have no fete to stande
(not a leg to stand on), p. 310 ; we have a craw to pulle, p.
15 ; take thee that (twice over), p. 17 ; set no store bi me, p.
22 ; if ye like; jpak up ; let them go han^ them, p. 142 ; nmo
how is it? somwhat is in hand ; I shall make you Tnen ; well
done ! what commys of dysing ? (dicing), p. 243 ; it goys a^ans
myn hurt ; I kepe this in sto^-e ; fon him (make fun of hiin),
p. 199 ; make or mar a man; keep the Sabbath; ha/ngyd be he
that ^arisl p. 188 j hold thi hand; booted and spurrd ;
strike a bargain; to come out vnth i<, p. 194; how it stands
with you; lead him a dance, p. 205 ; as trew as ye stand
there, p. 281 ; hold still there! give place ; cry and crow, p.
234. A man pipes (sets up his pipe), p. 103 ; a woman
is netyld (nettled), p. 309 ; there is forrarmned (pressus),
whence came our verb ram; to deffe (deafen), p. 314; to
gad, p. 11, perhaps from the old gcedeling ; to brane him,
p. 142 ; / vndder away, p. 21 ; the aged Symeon oralis to
k3rrk, p. 155, the cretU of the * Cursor Mundi ' being slightly
changed; to overset me, p. 197 ; to sovmd the water, p. 31 ;
there had been an Old English sundgyrd (sounding line) ;
the expletive I tryst stands in p. 195. There is a strange
phrase in the wenyande, p. 241 ; in the unlucky time when
the moon wanes ; hence the curse, " with a wanion." We
Ti.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 203
see how do they ? (like our how cFye do ?), p. 63, where don
(facere) supplants dii^ga/n (valere). The verb fare is used
in p. 276 both for ire and tractari. To eke (add to) his
days stands in p. 324 j we cannot now use this verb with-
out adding out. The old wissian (ducere) was evidently
dropping out; it is written wiahe in p. 121. He tootes
(scit) stands in p. 168, a great corruption of the old verb ;
just as some write he dares for he dare. In p. 126 comes
the blessing, Mahowne the save and see / the two verbs are
often coupled in our old ballads. There is a Latin con-
struction in p. 168, a madyn to here a cht/ld, that were ferly
(a wonder). In p. 129 comes this is sotlis, wytnes Isay ;
before the last word should stand something answering to
the Latin sit.
Among the Adverbs we find he gaf me none, no more vrUl
I, -p, 11; no rrwre (by itself), p. 149 ; so have ye lang sayde,
p. 151 (here sin or ago is dropped after lon^); as how? p.
197 j that is welle ; Iwylle lyg downe stright (applied to time,
hence straightway), p. 110; wp with the tymbre/ p. 221.
In p. 267 stands thefysMy instead of the old ]>eofliche. In
p. 174 stands mile he be there? (is that his intent?); we
now say, " a man is not all there " (is not fully master of
his wits). We see the new form lately, p. 102, which
answers to sero ; not to nuper, as we now' use it. As to
the sentence a pratty child, as sittes, we should now alter
it into as pretty a child as, etc.
Among the Prepositions we remark the curse, in the
middle of a sentence, with a mischance to him, in pp. 199
and 223. The at is dropped before this tyme of the nyght,
p. 106. The for (malgri) is prefixed to a whole sentence
in p. 21s, for as modee (proud) as he can loke; here the
accusative after a preposition is replaced by a whole
sentence. The old through makes way for by menys of, p.
82. In p. 200 comes ye are ever in oone taylle, a phrase of
Dogberry's long afterwards. In p. 121 stands on assay, our
on trial ; here the Ofti shows that some consequence is to
follow. In p. 296 stands / lefe it you by oone and oone (in-
dividually). The that is dropped after a preposition in
agane thou go, p. 326. The old prefix for still held its
204 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
ground in the North, and might be set before Eomance
words j in p. 98 stands the Participle fortaxed.
The Interjections are 0 ho/ p. 61 j /o, which comes
into our yo ^, p. 9 ; pif (pooh), p. 14 ; also, in the devUlys
name, in the same page; go to the devUle/ p. 10; Herod,
when told in p. 126 that Christ is to be king, cries
" Kyng / the dewUle / " A new idiom connected with oaths
appears; one of his soldiers (p. 150) cries, the devylle have
my saulle, hd, etc. ; the hut here must stand for quin after
a sentence like nan est dubium. We find out apon the ! p.
17 ; lew, lew, the call to animals, p. 33, which we now pro-
nounce like the French lou, lou 1 There is also mjom (mum),
p. 194. The 80 is used as an exclamation in the last line
of p. 220; ay, so? is in p. 114. There are the forms of
greeting, good Trwme and good day, without any verb.
The Scandinavian words are stag (p. 311), groin, fry
(semen), stump, dog, rok (colus), to nip, chappyd (fingers).
The new words akin to Dutch and German are nibble,
croon, prankyd (gowns), p. 312, stouke (of com), much used
in Scotland now.
There are the Celtic words docket, jagged.
The French words are many. Catalle is used for pectLS,
as in Barbour ; and this exclusive sense of the word was
to come South by 1525. A state stands for condition in p.
317 ; in p. 104 a man says that his belly is out of astate.
In p. 103 a person is said to pipe poore; the latter word
is sliding into the sense of malus, our poorly. The word
creature had a loftier sense in 1400 than now ; for St. Peter
speaks of his master as that good creature. In p. 11 travelle
is used for la^, not for iter. The provand (provender)
of horses is mentioned in p. 9. We know the term offices
in connexion with a house ; there were in the Ark (p. 23)
not only parlours, but houses of offyce for beasts. In p. 65
we read attend my wordys ; this sense comes from the
Latin rather than from the French. The old wait, which
had meant expectare, seems now to get Chaucer's new sense
oi servirem p. 194, where Caiaphas has knights on me to
wate. Our three substantives " waits," " waiters on Provi-
dence," and " waiters at dinner," preserve the three mean-
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 205
ings which this French verb bore in England about 1400.
Lay and law are both used in p. 189 ; ye he ataynt (caught)
is in the next page; and in p. 191 stands ajpeche him; we
know that some of our modern writers on History find it
hard to distinguish between an attainder and an impeachment.
In p. 195 stands vex, which now in the South means little
more than annoy ; in Scotland I have heard the term v&3xd
used to describe the feelings of a mother who had just
lost her son; we know the phrase "vex the Midianites."
In p. 203 we find that a judge " shews a man fair counte-
nance ;" hence arose our verb comitenxmce. The indefinite
it was used in Yorkshire as elsewhere ; a promise is made
in p. 210, followed by the words, / insure it; in p. 230
stands / warand you that, etc. The Yorkshire writer pays
more regard to his provincial garth than to the foreign
garden when he writes of sl ga/rthynere, p. 267. The foreign
cease is here plainly driving out the English verbs blyn and
stint; there is moreover uncessantly, p. 23. In p. 243 we
find by his meanes, a word that was coming in. We see
the verbs pant, mock, spite, martyr, pouch. There are the
musical terms well toned, treble, brefe, crochett; in p. 118 we
hear of the game of the tenys (tennis). There are phrases
like / am in dett to, -p, 7S ; I am passed play, p. 75, which
reminds us of the * Cursor Mundi ;' fwrrys {{uis) fine come
in p. 163. In p. 198 one judge tells another, ye ar irregvr-
lere. We find novels new, p. 1 60 (this seems tautology) ; to
peep,
I may remark, as curious, Cain's curses and revilings, pp.
8-17, and the comic talk of the Shepherds, p. 84, one of
the first long instances known of broad English farce. If
we read p. 142 we shall gain some idea of the origin
of the phrase "outheroding Herod;" it is King Cambyses'
vein with a vengeance.
Translations from French Eomances had prevailed in
England from 1280 to 1380; these are now replaced
by English Mysteries and ballads. About this time, 1400,
the earliest of the Eobin Hood ballads, that has come
down to us, seems to have been compiled ; country bards
were to go to work upon this long-lived theme for the
2o6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
next 300 years; much as King Alfred's saws had re-
mained engraven for ages upon the hearts of earlier genera-
tions.^ The ballad literature of England is one of her
greatest treasures. The oldest of these works, judging
from the obsolete words, is that of Kobin Hood and Guy
of Gisbome. This was made in the North country; we
find words like husk^ bov/n, farli (minis), feUle, gate (via),
and the phrase set store by, used in the * Towneley Mysteries/
The ballad seems to have been altered about the year
1600; this accounts for forms like I^le, Fm, itfs, reachles
on (reckless of), tow (twa) ; perhaps the two former stand
for the Northern I is; 1 suspect that awkward, applied to a
stroke, stands for an original awke (sinister). Some words
here found could hardly have been due to the old Maker
of 1400, such as pastime, wore (induit), stopp (stare); the
earliest Southern copy may have been made about 1600.
The old limde (tiha) is changed into lyne, riming with
thine; hence comes our lime. We see jprick used in the
Shakesperian sense of meta, as later in the ' Promptorium
Parvulorum.' There is a favourite phrase of ballad-makers,
two hotvres of a smnmer^s day. Among the Verbs we find
breake heads; oxA Barbour's d/raw near. The verb nick is
used, evidently connected with notch; he nicked him in
the face, Robin, it is said, when fighting, carm with an
awkward stroke ; hence our " come in with something."
The old beiter by far is now altered into far better, as in
Barbour.
I give a specimen of the fine old ballad, from a part
that has been but little altered —
** Fast Robin hee hyed him to Little John,
He thought to loose him hlive.
The sheriffe and all his companye
Fast after him can drive.
'' Stand ahacke, stand abacke, sayd Robin ;
Why draw you mee so neere ?
It was never the use in our countrye,
One's shrift another shold heere."
I may here remark that the Genitive one^s is most un-
common.
1 I have used the reprint of Ritson, published in 1823.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 207
The * KoUs of Parliament' for 1402 give us the names of
many of our trades for the first time, voL iii. 5 1 9 j such
as grocery skinner, lyndraper, sadter, wodmonger, Salter, peiderer,
fomder, cordwaner. It will be remarked that many of these
are of Eomance birth.
In the year 1411 we have a decision of the Archbishop
of Canterbury, p. 650. He mentions the Castle of Bever
(Bel voir), the seat of Lord the Koos ; the old hew (beau)
was now encroached upon by he, and this degradation of
ew went on throughout the Century. We light on the new
phrase after the fest last ^passed, A comtm man is distin-
guished from a high official ; there is the Adjective sinister.
In the 'Testamenta Eboracensia,' iii. 25 (Surtees
Society), we find the will of Sir William Heron drawn
up in 1404; he calls Durham The Bysshoprick, a phrase
long to last in the North ; no other English episcopal see
ever stood on Durham's level. We find su/rveour; also
joyntly or severally. In vol. iv. 42 we read of a window of
three lightes, a new technical phrase. Chaucer's sense of in
reappears, when men are hound in XL pound.
In other Wills of this time (Early English Text Society)
we see overseer, one who looks after the execution of the will,
p. 1 1 ; also pipe of wine ; the word worsted is now becoming
common, p. 19. We hear of a hras pot, p. 22 ; not brasen.
We know our polite phrase for death, " if anything should
happen ;" this appears in p. 13 ; yef outgh (ought) come to
Thomas, than, etc. The most startling change is in a will
of 1411, p. 19; (a sum) ys owynge to me. Here an in is
dropped before the Verbal noun ; which, therefore, most
deceptively, seems to be an Active Participle. I have no
doubt that Butler, when affirming that Reformation must
still he doing, never done, thought that this doing was a
Participle. All this comes from Layamon's unlucky sub-
stitution of inge for inde in the Active Participle. In the
Will there is the word kylderkyn, p. 17, from the Dutch
kindeken. Among the Romance words are ]>e utensyl (furni-
ture) of a house, p. 18, remaynder, the compam,ye of heaven,
p. 16. The word clerk in 1402 approaches to our common
sense of the word ; for in p. 11 the parish priest gets ten
2o8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [oHAp.
shillings, while the clerk of the Church and the sexton get
only twelve pence each. In p. 18 a Berkshire knight
talks of his store and cMil quick and dead ; here the word
may bear Barbour's sense. In p. 20 there are the forms,
English and French, lefvl and lawfvl; we have also the
pleonasm ]>e Courde (county) of Devonschire.
On examining * Gregory's Chronicle,' between the years
1400 and 1413, we see Wyndesore contracted into Wynsore^
p. 107. We hear of the game of hurlynge, p. 106, and of
Troye weight, p. 107. There is a remarkable new idiom
in the year 1403; brother and cousin are said to be
ayenste eche othyr ; this looks as if eche, instead of being
a Nominative, was an Accusative governed by the Pre-
position; before this time ecke would have preceded
ayenste. We saw something like this in Lancashire in
1360. The there had always stood before is or was ; the
usage is now extended; for in p. 106 stands th&re com
imbassetours.
In Rymer we see this endenture wUnesseth, and no
soimercy 19th June 1408.
In 'Ellis's Letters' (Second Series, vol. i.) we find
unruely, p. 4 ; to hogil %bs (delay), p. 15 ; hence our intransi-
tive boggle; his wey was clere, p. 22.
There is a poem of Occleve's, dating from 1402, to be
found in *Arber*s English Gamer,' iv. 54. We here see
Gower's form conceipt. The old bldber is cut down to blab.
There is the new noun crabbedness, formed from the Adjec-
tive. The word sUly takes once more Trevisa's new mean-
ing of stultvs, p. 57; a silly simple woman; clerks, who
hold a wrong opinion, are called silly in p. 64. Among
the verbs are blow upon (slander). There is the Scandi-
navian word slut, applied to a woman. Among the
Romance words are dumgeable, amiable^ dissimile; dow is
now changed into endow; we have seen indew. In p.
67 we find her impression (intent) ; we know the sense of
empress^. Some in our Century have objected to the word
talented; but in p. 66 we see entalented (willing) apj)lied to
courage.
A more famous poem of Occleve's, * De Regimine Prin-
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 209
cipum ' (Roxburgh Club), dates from 1412. He here tells
us much about his trials in the office of the Privy Seal ; he
uses many phrases seldom repeated before Barclay's time^ a
hundred years later, such as, every mem living^ well worthy^
nothing at aH, small or none ; there is also the Northern syn
(quoniam) and fdl in the Salopian sense of sapiens. The
Latin way of spelling encroaches on the French ; as douUles,
advoutry ; the word perilous may be sounded as a dissyllable,
whence the later parlous^ p. 80 ; the u supplants 0, as rumble
for Chaucer's romble. Among the Substantives are shepes
skyn (parchment), your myndes eye, Occleve contrasts the
kynges draught (a paper drawn up by Henry IV.) with
draughtes (moves at chess), p. 76 ; the poet knows the
former, but not the latter. We here see the source of our
game of draughts. We read of the king's impe (filius), p.
195; this word had hitherto expressed surculvs, and the
new sense was not thoroughly adopted before 1500. There
is a new substantive pulle, p. 188; men wrestle a pulle.
We see the new phrase my coigne worthe, p. 26 (my money's
worth). In p. 195 stands that is the wey to the canquermg of
hlisse ; "that is the way to do it." Barbour had already
employed way for method. In p. 150 we find tyme and tyme
(time after time), we now use this repetition only in the
Plural ; " he was years and years about it." Among the
new Adjectives are longe lyvedj depe rooted, welthy, unknyghtly.
The old brotherly is revived after a very long sleep ; the
lyke is used to compound from a Romance noun ; cerdelyke
(circular) stands in p. 184. The comparative bet (better)
stands for plus; twenty pound and bet, p. 16. We have
seen Chaucer's deadly sleeping ; we now hear of a dede slepe,
p. 40. As in Chaucer, the my is coupled with a noun,
something like the French madame ; " call Fortune my lady
changeable," p. 50. A favourite phrase of ours appears in
p. 109, U was no thyng like (it).
Among the Verbs are, I putte caas, halve it with you, bear
love to, pike a thanke (used of flatterers, p. 110), take apart
(character, office), have his cou/rse, have a f aire chawace of
take him to his winces. There is the provoking / tolde hym
so, p. 26, so often used by our kind friends after some
VOL. I. ^
2IO THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
mishap. The Active Participle is in great use, as 7m> wighJt
livyjig, p. 2 ; Ais lovyng te/ndknesse^ P- 27 ; whence the well-
known loving kindness. In p. 33 stands do he what he do
kan; this we have shortened. A new Optative idiom
appears, tix)lde I slayne were, p. 75 ; here I (ego) should he
the first word. In p. 19 stands take up a gise (fashion) ;
here the new sense of adopt comes into the Verb. In p.
53 stands thou shalle do wele; here the do represents dugan
(valere), not don (facere) ; this change we saw in Yorkshire
about this time. The verb slip is used in a new way, slippe
aside, p. 79. A new verb, bag (put in bags), appears in p.
153. The verb rest becomes transitive, God reste thy s&ule I
p. 76. A most curious idiom of time stands in p. 29,
twenty yere come Estren ; I suppose this is the Imperative
veniat. In p. 118 stands itferde sharp with you; hence the
later go hard with you; fare has been largely supplanted by go.
Among the Adverbs are yerly (yearly) ; Chaucer's not at
all comes very often. In p. 68 is also siker as I stonde here.
There is the concise why not? p, 175. The well is brought
forward, it was alle wele, p. 135 ; it is prefixed to worthy,
as wel worthy to be,-p, 115. Among the Prepositions are
of his owen free will, at longe rennyng (in the long run), he
was at Mr, In p. 168 stands for shame ! here the fie, which
should have come first, is dropped.
The new Scandinavian words are skittishe and to skocche
(lacerare).
Among the Eomance words are mortify, plurality, motive,
convertible, impotence, pampflet, moralise, affecdon, aged, a
pynchepeny (niggard), portrature (picture), sensibUitee (wis-
dom), fkdumn, myscreavml. We hear of the office of the Frivi
Bed, where Occleve dwells, p. 29. In p. 23 dueiee stands
for a payment of money due ; the adjective due stands for
debitus. There is the new phrase every place of his body. In
p. 56 men are allowed money for payment ; here the sense
of alou^er (allocare) once more supplants that of alouer
(allaudare). The verb use now expresses tractare; to use
her, p. 57. The noun cowple is applied to a man and wife ;
wedded couples, p. 57. The adjective tender expresses heed-
ful; I am tendir of your estate, p, 73 ; hence came a later
II. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 2 1 1
verb, much used in the next Century, to tender a thing (be
careful of it). We read of stuffe of intelligence, p. 76, im-
plying the equipment of a wise man ; hence " the sound
stuff in a book." In p. 106 stands jpolisshed speech; a new
sense of the verb. In p. 112 the verb chaufe is first used
of the mind, not of the body. In p. 134 Nature gave
favour of shappe and beautee to him; this favour we saw
before. In p. 140 li/ne stands for family. In p. 169
discover expresses revelare; hence persons on the stage
are discovered. In p. 196 stands beseech him of indulgence ;
here the noun is not used in its usual religious sense. In
p. 26 is the curious phrase my blewes (blue clothes) ; the
first instance of a Plural adjective without any substantive ;
hence the regiment known as The Blues. In p. 113 there
is a tale about a king's fool ; an early appearance in our
literature of this official. In p. 118 I do a thing in my
persone; personally was soon to appear as a new word for ipse.
There is the phrase to deface his face, p. 134 ; sm a writte
against him, p. 147, a new use of the verb ; rmike a mocioun to
him, p. 179. We see rapine ; our language henceforth could
boast three variations of the old Aryan letter-change for
one idea ; we had, from the very first, used our own Low
German reaf (reave or rove) ; we next, in 1 1 60, got the High
German rob, coming to us through the French ; we lastly, in
1412, adopted the Latin rap, as seen in this rapine. With
these varying forms we may compare tegument, thatch, deck.
In p. 1 04 we find " peples voice i^s Goddes voice, men
seyne."
Occleve tells us in p. 92 that Edward the Third used to
go about in disguise to hear what his people said of him ;
many a later ballad turned upon this circumstance. The
poet shows a spirit of humanity unusual in that age ; he
mourns over the struggle between France and England ;
he rebukes France for her bloody civil wars, saying at
the same time in p. 190, ^'I am an Englissheman and am
thy foo."
We have seen far out in thefdd in 1360 ; Dr. Murray's
Dictionary gives us the shortened a feld for abroad about
this time.
i
212 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
In the Coldingham papers of the year 1414 is the
phrase, al othir and sundry thynge, p. 86 ; and the legal verbs
are coupled, gif and grawnt, A law paper begins thus, he it
knawen till all mm, p. 86. We saw of age in 1280 ; the of
is still applied to time, for we have here, of tyme begane and
for to come ; this use of byegone is something new. Among
the French words is to distreyn tenants. To the year 1417
belongs a letter, written a treshorH & tres revererU Madame
la Countesse de Westmerland ; this begins with, Right honor-
able & worchefpful my Lady ; the first use, I think, of the
two last words as an English vocative singular, p. 89.
An Alliterative poem of some length was written in
1416 ; it is addressed to Henry V., then setting out on his
French campaign ; it may be found, under the title of * The
Crowned King,' at the end of Skeat's Edition of * Piers
Ploughman' (Early English Text Society). The word
mAnhode is used for virtus in p. 627 ; doTightynesse takes the
same meaning in p. 628 ; there is the new phrase his well
doyng, p. 626. There is worldly wise, highlich honoured.
The King is addressed with thou and also with ye. We see
y hight you (I assure you), p. 624. The French words are
marchall (dux), principaltee ; requyre takes the sense ofjvhere,
p. 626 ; hit dered is remarked of the weather in the same
paga
The York Pageants of 1416 are valuable as giving us,
for the first time, the names of a few trades, some Teutonic,
others Romance.^ We have the plummers, pulterers, joiners,
carvers, sawyers. The old vynter, which had lasted in this
form for 120 years in England, now becomes vintner ; just
as ]>reate]> became ])retne]> in 1300.
The English pieces in Rymer for this period begin with
the confession of the high-bom traitors, Cambridge and
York, in August 1416 ; we see that, theyre, theym, employed
for the Southern thilk, her, hem, though it was not till later
in the Century that these Northern forms wholly got the
mastery over their Southern rivals ; King Henry V. comes
before us, and we may now fairly begin to talk of King's
English. He writes an English State paper with his own
^ Marriott, * English Miracle Plays,' xviii.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 213
hand on 25th January 1417; he cleaves to n& (nee) and uses
Ima ought, thinking no douht that the last word should
English oportet. In a document of 2d February we read of the
Duke of Beyer (Bavaria), where the German sound of the
word is preferred to the French. A long State paper was
drawn up by Henry V. on 26th October 1418, when he was
besieging Eouen ; here there are as many Romance nouns,
verbs, and adverbs as there are Teutonic words of this
kind ; our State papers henceforth were always to be com-
piled in this style. There is a curious interchange be-
tween of and on in the mater is so great of itself We hear
of weyes and meanes, and persondl socours of the King ; this
word personal and also its adverb is in our day made to
do duty, as a fine word, for ipse and sutbs} In 1420 Henry
is addressed by his trusty Yorkshire deputy, Waterton, as
most dredde Lord; a new variation of dreadful. On 2 2d
May in that year, the conquering King announces his new
style (titles) in Latin, French, and English ; he uses the
IVench form espiritual.
Rjnner prints many English documents between the
years 1420 and 1422. It is curious to find the Earl of
Salisbury using the old word aghivere (ubique), which seldom
appeared afterwards : this is in a letter of 1421. The form
Boeme is used, not the Beeme of later days. Henry V. is
addressed as Your lordschip. Salisbury says in a despatch
that we misse no man of thrift (worth, value); "by my
thrift " was an oath of these times. We talk of a lump
sum ; in these papers we find a some in grete. There are
the new phrases, oon and the same personey all and ych of
us. The Passive Participle Absolute was making great
strides ; we have here thirty days accourdedfor a rrwrUh, where
we should say, counting thirty days, etc. Ambassadors are
directed to /a// ynn^ to ask something; this means, I sup-
pose, that they are to do it incidentally. There is the
Adverb lomigly. We see atte ferthest. The old idiom
"hold him for king" gives birth to the strange phrase,
1 It has come most absurdly to be used for private, Mr. Gladstone
wrote in the papers in 1878 about his making a personal and not a
public visit to Ireland. "Would he use impersonal for public f
214 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
used of the future Charles VII., heryng hymself for the
Dolphin ; like our givirig himself out for. The French coTir
cerning is used as a Preposition for the first time, I think ;
thynges concemyng th' exerdcCy p. 918; this was to supplant
the older touching. Among the French words we see
immediately, enemity, conversant, zeeL commissioners. Mention
is made oi MgaunL-th^t k, French foot^oldiers. The
new Queen is called Madam Katherine, the first instance, I
think, of this title being prefixed to a name ; our peasants
still use it as a title of honour, as. Madam Aubrey. The
Beyer of other state papers is now written Bauveir, in the
French way. In p. 162 we see both the new Christien and
the old Cristen,
Waterton, a true Yorkshireman, uses the noun wage^
not the Southern wages; at your wage. The word scutes
(crowns, the coin) is formed from the Latin, not from the
French. The Romance and Teutonic are coupled in necessaire
and behoveful. We see besaiel used for great^andfather ;
English pedigrees must have been drawn up in French
about this time. In p. 920 mention is made of places of
(the king's) obedient — that is, " obeying the King ;" we still
talk of the Latin obedience.
In a Norwich Guild, rehearsing Henry the Fifth's grant in
the East Anglian dialect in 1 41 8 (qwich, am, mikily xal), we see
felawes contracted into felas; ^^quichever they think best," a
continuation of Wickliffe's new phrase ; as is ^ bisy them to
hear ; there is the foreign progenitors.
In a ballad of 1420, made against Oldcastle ('Political
Songs,' ii. 244), doom seems to add the sense of poena to
that of judicium ; what dome wold ye hym devise ? sekte is
applied, not only to the Monkish Orders as of old, but to
the Lollard Dissenters.
Many new phrases of this time are to be found in Ellis's
' Original Letters.* Archbishop Chickeley uses the old form
whow for our how. We see the form Berne for Bohemia ; there
is also Duchelond (Germany); the German sound, not the
French, is used in Mayns and Trere^ showing how they pro-
nounced ai and ie. In August 1422 Henry the Fifth sends
home a long list of his ships and their masters ; among the
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 215
latter appear William Robynson and John Bull ; one of the
ships is called le lAtell John. Henry addresses his Council
as right trusty and welbeloved ; he piles his nouns together,
writing the sauf reUmrnyng hoom of the men. We have ever
owt of mende (mind), to express semper. We see the verbs,
make ^ow mre of ity put in feere.
There are French terms, such as the trewes expired, lege
(3 miles), annuity.
In the * Plumpton Letters ' of this time (Camden Society),
xlviii-l, we see rumage; sal is still used for shall in York-
shire ; there is keepe watch and ward, these are transposed
since Gower's time. A letter begins thus: To all rrmi
that, etc. . . , Henry Percy sends greeting ; ferme becomes
farme. We see the title Richard Fairfax, Sguier.
The Eolls of Parliament for this Century well repay
perusal ; it is easy to see the shire whence the petitions
come; Norfolk and Salop are very easy to distinguish.
The first English paper is dated in the year 1414, and may
be found in vol. iv. p. 57. We find the new Substantives,
land-holder and tounship ; there is the lately-coined phrase
tyme of mynde (memory). Mention is made of men of her
ovme clothyng, referring to some Canons; we should say
"men of their cloth." The Latin per is Englished, by
strengthe of it; we substitute on for by. The Adverb is
confused with the Adjective ; for ungodly, p. 68, evidently
stands for male. Among the verbs are, / trust to God, let to
farm, kepe the pese. Other foreign words are suytor, repele.
Turning to the year 1422 (p. 173), we find the two
forms receit and recept, a mark of the new Latin influence
(this we saw in Gower) at work in France and England;
we now write the strange p, but do not sound it. There is
the new phrase, for the tyme beyng. We hear of a suhsidie
of Tonage and Poundage, Justice of pees; wardes, mariages, etc.,
the clerc of the Counseill, enact.
In a petition from Ireland, 1423, we see the nor of 1290
replacing the old Southern n£ (p. 198), though the later
form's victory throughout all England was not achieved
until 150 years afterwards. The old Bristow gives place to
Bristoll, following the Latin form Bristollia, A great, Irish
2i6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
rebel, probably MacthomaSy appears as Thomassony p. 199;
Thompson is now a common name with us. Among the
Substantives, we see the Dutch hoggeshede{ox-hesLdy properly),
and the French Staple. Among the Adjectives appears Uak
rentCy in connection with the Irish enemy ; also Barbour's
phrase, he is like (likely) to lose it We have the origin of
" I put it to you," when men put bills unto the council ;
further, the Council sit on hUlSy p. 201. As to the Adverbs,
the Gloucestershire forasmuch comes into London use;
where that stands for our whereas, p. 198 ; and thereas is used
in the same way, p. 249. We hear of bringing silver in
massey p. 257 ; our penny-a-liners would alter this into en
masse. The Kernes of Ireland appear in p. 1 99. A Teutonic
ending is added to a French word, and we have napkin, p.
228 ; this stands in the middle of a long French inventory,
containing lawn,^ pece d'Aras, carpette, Worstede hloy (blue),
stuff de MeauXy autreclothy paille (pail), muskhally hracelety tissUy
a charger. In p. 198 we find hewe or cry ; we come across
the King's Sergeant, and the Maistre of the Mynte. There is
the verb endoce (the French form, not the Latin indorse) ;
the Commons are addressed, please it your discretionSy p. 249,
the first instance of an abstract noun being used as a title
of honour in the Plural. The Active Participle is coming
into vogue instead of the rightful Passive ; we seeprovydyng
thaty savyng (except) the peine; also, except that, p. 256 (here
it is prceter, not nisi). There is our Bible phrase, resoun
wolde he should, etc., where wolde stands for willed (jussit).
In p. 257 we hear of billon of silver (bullion); in p. 256
alay (alloy) stands in connexion with plate. The legal word
attachment appears.
In the year 1425 the old stamp of English is seen in
forms like whuch and beony p. 268. There is the shortened
form Ascension Eve, p. 267 ; new titles of honour come in,
such as, my lord of Derby, my lady of Gloster. We find forms
like "the king that last died;" "opon late days." Shake-
spere's ripe scholar is foreshadowed in p. 271, "matters ripely
felt," that is, ^Uhoroughly ; ^* this word of Barbour's was
^ Wedgwood here inclines to the Spanish lona (canvas) rather than
to the French linon.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 217
much in use throughout this Century ; fruit that is rvpe has
come to its full or thorough perfection. In p. 267 how so
that expresses guamvis. Among the verbs are, clepe (call)
UTvto minde ; utter the matter (this is also a phrase of Lyd-
gate's) ; give in articles ; I take you for, etc. ; keep hospitality.
In p. 289 stands the opening of a petition, shewyn and he-
seech your leges. The Latin is imitated in hit is thoght to the
king. In the verb emboldish (embolden), p. 292, a Teutonic
root takes both prefix and sufiix from the Komance. The
most curious phrase is in p. 298, the cause of his being here ;
it seems to me that this being is a Verbal Noun, though
M^tzner makes it a Gerundial Infinitive ; the question is a
hard one ; we must remember the ther is na mending the state
of the * Cursor Mundi/ As to Prepositions, the by, as
Layamon employed it, is used for solemn adjuration ;
promytting by the faith of his body and his word of Prince, p.
297; we should now substitute as for the last of The
French words are personely, notable, simplesse (ignorance),
letters tesmmgnals (testimonials), Master of Chancery, There
is a famous Peerage case, with English pleadings, p. 267 ;
we see the Court ruled that, demy sa'nk (half-blood), peedigree,
create an Earl, your Noblesses, to taille (entail) a name to
him. Rather later, many clerical terms come, such as parson-
age, vikerage, the rate, the dewes (dues), the encumbent. The
habit of putting non before our words is now beginning.
We have seen nonage ; nonrresidence stands in p. 90. The
old brucan (in the sense of frui) had almost gone out ; to
rejoice a title, and also to enjoie my place, stand close together
in p. 274; the former was rather later to lose the sense of
frui. There are the verbs resort, be of counsel with, abstene
them from, embesil. Return comes for the first time, I think ;
to retwrn names, p. 306 ; in France this word had been
transitive before it became intransitive.
In Gregory's Chronicle for these years we observe the
dropping of the n in an, against all reason ; a aungylle ap-
pears in p. 113; a French word for ordnance is written
artyrly, p. 126; the town of Meaux was still pronounced
Mewys, p. 142, a finer sound than the later Mo; the
French Cherbourg was sounded in English mouths as Chyr-
2i8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
horowe, p. 121. We ^q& jpromise to dwdlyng (dwellen) in p.
154; this shows how easily the Infinitive and the Verbal
Noun might get confounded. The old loppestre now be-
comes lopstere (our lobster). There are the new substantives,
strongholdy strenghtys (fortresses), a word kept in our Bible.
The new mode of warfare was making progress, for powder
and schotte are coupled together in p. 118 ; and the French
gens de trait is Englished hj folke of sdwtte, p. 165.
As to Adjectives, Chaucer's overest yields to the new ttp-
permostej p. 113. The old self makes way for the king's
otvne propyr person in the same page. Among the Verbs
there is a new construction, where the Past and Future are
combined; in londys gotyn or to he gotyn, p. 134. There is
the new Adverb, lyke tuyse, p. 133, where a preceding in has
been dropped. Among the Prepositions stands swear apon
honoivre, p. 119; we find also continue^ altercacyon, confyder-
atys, mommynge, datys (the fruit), crevys^ which we now call
Cray fish; minefose (minnows).
The King addresses his soldiers at Agincourt as Serys
(Sirs) and felomjs ; something like the Greek andres ; we
hear of 4 payre of galowys, p. 108. A foreign word is used
and explained; sedylle, id est, a hylle, p. 121 ; our schedule.
We find Scott's phrase, "to image something," p. 133.
The former French piirveit is thrown aside for the Latin
form; provided alleway that, etc., p. 152. The prefix re was
to gain ground in England all through this Century ; refor-
tify stands in p. 261. We see porpys (porpoise, the porcus-
pisds) ; we have taken this French form instead of our old
mere^mne; while oddly enough the French have exchanged
their old porcpeis for the Teutonic marsouin,^ There is the
puzzling word pram (prawn).
The siege of Kouen in 1418 was described in a long
poem by John Page, an eye-witness, writing after the sur-
render, p. 1 : * Collections of a London Citizen' (Camden
Society). Page was a Northern man, as we can tell by his
use of gain (prope), houn (paratus), marcyfull, manful, fray,
and thrill (not thirl). We see the sound i or y replacing
the old ea, as lykys (leeks), the former leac. The old calk-
^ See Wedgwood on this word.
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 219
irwp loses its h The fight between Teutonic and Eomance
forms was still lasting ; one manuscript of the poem has
newdtie, where another has novyltye; the form reward is
often used for regard. The starved French garrison, so it
is written, were hU bonys and bare skyn, p. 43. A curious
idiom connected with our Definite Article is first seen in p.
8 ; while he lived, he was the man ; that is, the very model
of a man ; we know our common " he's the fellow ! "
There are also a hundryd or two, and ttoo halfe hourys.
Among the Verbs are take grounde, put him unto grete caste,
end wp a sege (like dish wp), come of {evadere, our get off).
There is the curious verb to pyttefall ; also to owtefalle
(sally) ; an outfall was a word in use in the British army
down to 1715, as we see by Colonel Blackader's diary.
In p. 15 our men, when fighting the enemy, gaffe hem mete;
we should now say, "gave them their bellyful." Among
the French words are ordynawnce (cannon, it would seem, a
more restricted sense than in the Mandeville treatise),
turnepykys, p. 1 7 (some warlike engine). The French Char-
treuse appears as a howse of 'Charter e, p. 6. The veri> pyll
had hitherto been used for phmder ; it now means the peel-
ing of vegetables, p. 1 8. Men are smitten pytyfully in p.
3 ; there is the verb yssue out. We first hear of children's
pappe in p. 36 ; this is common to many Teutonic tongues.
In Halliweirs * Original I^etters of the Kings of Eng-
land* there are some written by Henry V. in 1419. He
employs conclude (followed by an Infinitive) for statute, just
as [the Americans use it now ; see p. 90. He uses Bar-
bour's man/rent when speaking of the Scotch forces. In p.
100 stands the to-us-ward of our Bible; a marriage is
betrothed ; there is the phrase, of your own good motion ; with
us rmve has long expressed proponere.
In the * Political Songs ' (Master of the KoUs), p. 123,
there is one on A^yngcorte felde, as the phrase began to run.
We see D^e, the old way of pronouncing Dieppe; we have
the first notice of the King's hy way, to be repeated in Lyd-
gate j there is also lordes of name. We read of two thousand
cotarmers (knights wearing coat armour).
In the Wills of this time (Early English Text Society)
220 THE NE W ENGLISH, [chap.
stand the new Compound Substantives, werynge clothes,
mylche kye; also doth of werk opposed to plain cloth, p. 56.
The son was coming into use in forming proper names;
we light upon Bogerysson of London, p. 41. We see the
form Jane, p. 50, in the year 1422 ; Joan had come earlier ;
Cecile stands for a woman's name in p. 56. A famous
Herefordshire family appears as Skydmore, p. 50 ; and in
the next Century it might be written Saudamore, We
have seen Powles, where church is omitted ; this is carried
a step further in p. 38, where Fishers and Bowdmss are
used, without house being added. The Old English studu
(postis) now gives birth to stud (ornament in dress), p.
46. Apeyre rakkes of yryne appear as kitchen furniture in
p. 56.
A testator talks of clove fote beasts in p. 23 ; in the same
way barefoot is much older than barefooted. We have seen that
Henry V. was a main agent in bringing their and them into
Southern use instead of the old her and hem ; John Broune,
of Henry's chamber, follows the fashion set by his master,
in p. 43. In p. 53 a Yorkshire knight talks of my lady
my rrwder, a phrase that we have shortened. The verb go
takes the new sense of reach ; a certain quantity of bread
is to be distributed, als fer als it wUl go, p. 40. The legal
habendum clause is done into English, "enfeof them in
rent, to have to hem ior evermore," p. 25.
There is the Scandinavian beawre (poculum), p. 45.
Among the new Romance words are dobelet, hoby (horse).
We hear, in p. 36, of godes and catallys (chattels); the
first instance, I think, of this combination in the Plural ;
it comes in a Salopian will. In a Bristol will, p. 45, we
see first halfe a dosyn off sponys, and then halfe a dosen
sponys. In p. 53 we find billes used in connexion with
tradesmen. In p. Qb stands a pece of silver ; we should
now say piece of plate. To express fresh bequests, the item
is brought into English where also had been formerly
written, p. 31.
The Rutland neighbourhood has had so much to do
with forming Standard English, that I call particular
attention to a Rutland will of 1424 (p. 55). The tes-
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 221
tator uses the right form Roteland ; but the editor of 1882
chooses to talk of Rutlandshire, We see the Northern
fonns, kyrke, fnykyl, ilk (quisque), kye, showing how much
the great poem of 1303 must have been altered by the
Southern transcriber. There is the Northern do well to him,
p. 57, afterwards repeated by Coverdale. The substantive
course is now made an Adjective ; two cors bordcloths, p.
56 ; things of common course paved the way for our coarse.
In the same page, a huge cup is bequeathed from heir to
heyr lome, whence came heirloom ; the old geloma had always
meant furniture. In p. 67 we see both grau/ntfader and
grau/ntmoder, I think for the first time; but the old ealdfader
lasted sixty years longer.
Many of Wickliffe*s works (Early English Text Society)
seem to me to be translations executed by his followers, and
to date from about forty years after his death. These works
may be found at pp. 327, 359, 408. There is an allusion
in p. 457 to the Pope, then living at Avignon, showing
the date of the Latin original. As tokens of late origin
we may remark the following: — Lydgate's toacche-man,
Pecock's movable and layman, ]>is late Pope, have as leve to be,
(would as soon be, etc.), p. 333 ; alle a mysse, p. 388, a
favourite Lollard pun on almesse (alms), eny langer / there
is also a new form like non-residence, and allow in the sense
of permittere. All these phrases seem to me to belong to
the Fifteenth Century. We talk of "light and leading;"
in p. 414 prelates give lore and leding to their people.
Among the Verbs are ^yve occasiotm, no good comes of it, set
to sale (a new noun), take degre in scole. The Passive voice
makes a further stride in the phrase, (it) ou^te to be taken
hede to. There is an extension of the old idiom with do,
saving repetition ; ]>e clergi ha]> robbid, and ^it do]>, ]>e chirche,
p. 392. The verb love is used much as we use like; he
lovyde hem to be riche, p. 440. The verb wed is used for
jungere; weddid m]> mannus lawe, our "wedded to an
opinion;" here Udars to has supplanted the old wi^p, p.
448. The word root is dropped after take; God's word
taki]> not m]> hem, p. 443 ; our medical men talk of
vaccination taking. The Infinitive now follows niqh ; ($»\NftJ^\
222 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
henfvl ny^ to synne a^eyne^ p. 339 ; in the phrase "he was
near doing it," the doing may perhaps be an Infinitive.
There is a change in Adverbs ; the litlvm and litlvm of
Piers Ploughman becomes hi lUil and litUj p. 456 ; in the
same page licly is made an Adverb for the first time ; this
is still used as a Positive in Scotland, though we of the
South can say only " most likely " (probably).
There is the word rack (praesepe) akin to the Dutch ;
have at racke and at manger y p. 436.
Among the Romance words are arbitrary^ to transsvhstanse,
ewpugn^ litergi (lethargy), yvel avised, ]>e mynor (in logic),
myschevous, predecessor^ progenitor^ glebe (of parsons), to induct^
plete (implead), to. distill waters, f alias (deceit), ages (ssecula),
heddis testeris. There is the phrase no doute (sine dubio).
The verb allow (allocare) bears the new sense of permittere ;
Christ alowid ]>e comonte her lifllodCy p. 387. The new word
aprove (laudare) stands in the next page. There is another
new phrase in p. 390 ; dispmce m]> hem of ]>at bond; we
have altered this into " dispense with that bond, as regards
them." In p. 454 presently stands for present (adstans).
A curate may have a clerk or a spenser to distribute alms,
p. 413. The evil of Church appropriations is denounced
in p. 419 ; cathedral chirchis, chapels of prinsis, and collegies
of studieSy all use this craft of appropring; vikeris are brought
in, p. 424, in the parson's stead. In p. 433 stand ]>e
housis of ]>e personage (Church endowment) ; hence comes
parsonage. We hear that God is lord general, p. 431 ; the
adjective is one of the few that we still place after the
substantive. Popes crie something as (true) belief, p. 334;
hence the future cry up something. The Lollards are
called Christ's secte, p. 334, in opposition to Popes,
Cardinals, Bishops, and Friars.
Foxe has set out an old Lollard treatise (Cattley's
edition, ii 728), which seems to me to date from about
1420. It was compiled (see p. 738) at some time when
heretics were allowed to abjure once, but were burnt for
any fresh offence. There are the new phrases, far gone from
and parsonage, found in the EoUs about this time. It is
written in the Southern dialect, very unlike that of London ;
II.] TIfE NEW ENGLISH. 223
and it may belong to the Severn country. We see yhelded
(built), p. 745 ; there is an allusion to the Welsh and
their long legs, p. 744 ; the verb fullen (baptizare) occurs
in p. 734, which survived in Gloucestershire for a hundred
years longer till Tyndale's time ; he printed this treatise,
before Foxe did. I think it is the most sound and
vigorous English prose that was composed in the fifty
years before Pecock. The ness was much used ; we have
naughtineSy cruelnes. There is the phrase nothing to the pur-
pose. The word matter means, as before, constraining came,
p. 732 ; here is much matter of sorowe. A priest is called a
secular nmn, p. 733, as opposed to a monk. In 1220 it
was allowed that religious men might mix with the world
for purposes of charity ('Ancren Riwle,' p. 10); but in 1420
the title, men of religion, is appropriated to those who shut
themselves up from the world; see p. 733. We see here
repeated Chaucer's change in the word quaint, p. 733 ;
it had meant in the previous century elegant, exquisite,
and this lasted till Shakespere; the Church prayers,
sung in Latin, were called quaint by the priest; but
as they were not understood by the common folk, they
seemed to be strange. In p. 733 we hear of quaint
prayers, following the first sense ; in 735 we hear that
these hen quaint orders of religion, that live an immoral life,
owing to the law of celibacy; here we have the second
sense.
There is a treatise on Hunting in * Reliquiae Antiquse,'
i. 149, which seems to belong to this time; it is the
translation of a French work a century older. The word
stag here translates cervus, p. 151, as in the 'Towneley
Mysteries.* In the same page we read of the nmle fox and
the female ; happily the old vixen is still alive. The season
of the fox, we are told in p. 154, begins at our Lady's
Nativity and lasts till the Annunciation. In p. 153 we
read of the lawe of venery ; this phrase led, I suppose, to
giving an animal law. In the next page we learn that the
technical word for a herd of roes is a bevy, the first appear-
ance of the French word. French Interjections swarm in
this treatise; they are to be used by the huntsman in
224 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
cheering on his dogs, as dcmoe amy, soho / oiez A Bemondy our
" hark to Beaumont ! "
In p. 205 there is a poem to London, perhaps by
Lydgate ; the great city is called an A per se, a phrase
answering to our A one; it is called in p. 206 t&ume
of tovmis patron; in the last word the sense of dominm
slides by degrees into that of exemplar, as remarked be-
fore. We hear in the same page of merchants of substavmoe
(property) and the top royall of a ship ; these are new
phrases.
The Legend of St Edith, or the Chronicle of Wilton
(Horstmann*s edition), was compiled in verse about 1420.
This Wiltshire production is the last of the markedly
Southern poems ; we here see hoe and he for ilia, ]yidke for
iste ; the Northern ]?ey, as in Trevisa, supplants the old hi;
there are the forms blessud (blessed), my^tus (mights). There
is the very old form kindam (regnum), from cyne ; also yche a
(quisque) ; blessed hear (more blessedly), p. 6 1 . The Teutonic
wis supplants the proper Eomance ending om, a& pytetois,
vertwys, etc. The great Southward march of Northern
words was still going on ; we here see wheihen (unde), arne
(sunt), gate (via), hoske (parare) ; the old wne (currere) has
made way for run. The language is much akin to that
of Trevisa in the adjoining shire ; particularly, he nadde n/o
gret wylle to, etc., p. 87. The '^eke (eke), p. 76, and the
won (unus) remind us of Salop.
The a replaces e, as frantyke, p. 53. The t is struck
out, as Hampshyre, p. 13; the final ]> is clipped, for Ede
stands for Edi]> all through. The final r is clipped, quarrer
becomes guarey, p. 82.
We see stall (seat in the choir), p. 69. A prelate is
ordered to hold his clappe (clack), p. 75. The new idiom
of the Double Genitive is coming in fast ; ]>e erle of JFyltones
wyf, p. 4. There is the phrase, blind as a betulle, p. 81 ;
also ]>e later hende (end), p. 50 ; a new phrase, appearing in
the South, just when Wyntoun was employing it in the
North. We see, what gode is hit forte be a kynge? p. 77.
The Reflexive Dative appears once more after rest ; rest ^ou
wylle (well), a greeting found in p. 11.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 225
Among the Verbs are hlow ou^t ]>0 ley^t, vryrche up (finish)
his toerk, p. 79. There is Barbour's new phrase, lede (vehere)
stones, p. 82, which still lingers in some shires. We saw
the Gloucester adjective mopish in 1300; men in distress
mq>e up and down, p. 81.
Among the Eomance words are flavour, particle, senmoHyte,
pasture a beast, a mute, conversant, migraine. The lesson
is read in church, p. 23 ; we hear that limbs have arga/ns,
p. 56 ; the word page is employed for a groom or horse-
tender, p. 74. In p. Ill disease keeps its old sense
of mxmm/odvm ; in p. 107 it takes the new sense of
rrwrbm. In p. 31 laudable is used where we should put
laudatory. The save is much used for prceter, as in a hundred
save one. In p. 86 the foreign plead becomes a Strong
verb ; he pladde (pleaded) ; this most unusual change, or
something like it, is still kept in Scotch law.
In p. Ill it is complained that no man wiU now be-
lieve in miracles ; the Lollards had long been at work.
To the same dialect belongs the Legend of St. Ethel-
dreda^ printed by Horstmann, * Altenglische Legenden,' p.
282. The u is still employed for eo; there is Layamon's
dure (earns), p. 299, which is not usual. A light went out, p.
305. The French word mater expresses pus, p. 293 ; and
the word lawnset (lancet) appears; a candle is set in a
scorise, p. 290. A well-known part of Ely Cathedral is
called \e lanterne of Englonde, p. 303. A curious corrup-
tion of a female Genitive is seen in the same page, Awdre
ys body (Awdrey's body).
A Poem on Cookery was written, most likely in Lanca-
shire, about the year 1420. We see both the forms e'^ren,
and egges, heo (ilia), and the West Midland Plural schyn
(shall), also am/kins. The e replaces iw, as bre for briw, p.
46 ; this is the barley bree of the North. The u is struds
out; welu4i (concha) hecomes welk The y replaces t* y there
is the Northern pyt (ponere) in p. 23 ; this is common in
Scotland. The I is struck out, as wynnot, the Scotch wirma,
for will not, p. 45.
Among the Substantives are hagese (haggis), otemele, stoh
fysshe. The dripping so well known to our cooks is seen
VOL. I. Q
226 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
^ ■ ^^^^^m^^^^m^mwm »■■■■■■ ■ ■ ■ ^^^^^^^^^^ ■■■■ ■ ■■ i i ■ ■ ■■ ■■■■■» II
here as droppyrhg^ p. 31 ; the grounds found in a vessel
appear as the groundyngus^ p. 46.
Among the Verbs we see hew smcUle, rost hrotme, gyf hit
a hoylyng ; the verb cremde (crumble) is formed from crumb.
Akin to the Dutch are piJcd, sod (gramen). The Scan-
dinavian words are stepe (infundere), offal.
The new French words, as might be expected, are many ;
such as tost (toast), some, grave (gravy), mince, clou (clove),
comfet, corauns (currants), la/rd, dressore (dresser), onyon, filet,
tartlot,porray (whence porridge), bray (terere), stuffe (stuffing).
In p. 5 stands the phrase " to serve flesh." There is gra^
pays (grampus), from the Spanish gran pez (big fish).
About this year, 1420, we may consider the poems of
Bang James I. of Scotland, who followed in the wake of
Chaucer and Gower, " superlative poets," as he calls them.^
To the Chaucerian influence are due the Southern forms,
y-lokin, thUke, moche, here to be found. We see Barbour's
convey and convoy, bowt for bolt ; in trundle a u replaces an
e ; there is Meg for Mag, The I replaces n in freckle for
Chaucer's frehae. The p replaces c in porpapyne (porcupine).
There is the substantive cadger; we find the phrase, a
warld of folk; also, hold thy grippis, p. 69, where the last
word follows in the wake of clutches. We hear of a chamber,
large rotvm and f aire; here the room (locus) begins to gain
a new meaning, which took long to reach the South. We
see the faire, p. 76, where woman is dropped ; the" true
Northern phrase werely (bellicus) appears. In p. 54 we
read, " the strait weye will I send him to," etc. ; this
phrase seems here to add the sense of time to that of
direction.
Among the verbs we have breke louse, mene well, give a
fall, sun-brynt. The verb fling gains a transitive sense and
expresses torquere. There is, take up a song ; that is, raise
it A man is fortired of thought ; it was Scotland that pre-
served the old verb tire. The verb iribring, which occurs
here, was in great vogue at Edinburgh.
There is the Interjection wow !
^ I have used Dr. Rogers' edition, lately published. I shall later
discuss one of the poems, wrongly assigned to James I.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 227
The Scandinavian words are elk, and to stand askeids
(askew), p. 66.
Among the Eomance words are casualtee (chance), resi-
dent, gvd fortune, the ravm bear, intelligence (scientia).
There is the Past Participle unquestionate, where a Latin
ending is used ; hence the later form affectionate ; further
on stands well fortunyt, where we now employ the ending
in ale. The phrase my joy, sounded like the French jou, is
applied to a woman, p. 80; hence the Scotch my joe; my
joy is a Yorkshire term of endearment in our days.
Andrew of Wyntoun, Prior of Lochleven, wrote his
riming Chronicle soon after 1420 (Laing's edition, 1872);
we here find many phrases not used since Barbour's time.
We see Layre, showing the old sound of the name of the
river Loire. The i is inserted in sdsim, much as we pro-
nounce it The b supplants / ; for the French frush, used
a few years earlier in England (ruere), becomes brush, ii.
493 ; whence our brush (pugna). The b is inserted in
nyrnbil. The 3 is dropped ; Layamon's forn aym now ap-
pears- as af omens, ii. 230, whence comes fornenst The
old agast (territus) is altered into aghast ; here the idea of
ghost must have come in. The ou ot oy replaces 0 ; doted
becomes doytyd (stultus), ii. 4. The w is often used for v,
leading to much confusion of sounds ; there is chewalry, and
also Mwrraw (Moravia), our Murray ; so schirraw (often
found here), written for schirraf (sheriflF), led the way to
shirra.
Among the Substantives are man of war (miles), spay-
man (wizard), Hieland men, an wnfrend ; the Old English
gloming (twilight) reappears. There is Neder Germany,
leading the way to the later Netherlands, Litill Brettayne
(Brittany); also Gret Brettane, ii. lira term loved by Scotch
writers, such as Barclay and Knox. Manning's verb upset
takes a new meaning ; for an upsete stands for rebellion or
revolution, something like the French bouleversemenl, ii. 297,
373. The word trade (trodden path) is in constant use,
meaning voyage ; hence the trade winds ; this word was not
common in England until ninety years later. There is the
phrase latere end (mors), ii. 100. The old form dyke has
228 THE NEW ENGUSH. [chap.
always expressed mwms in the North, ii. 454 ; a sense very
dififerent &om that of the diidh of the South. In iL 134
fa/re begins to be connected with money; fimr jpefrmysfor her
fa/re. The old i/rmewearde (viscera) is revived, after a long
sleep ; the inwwrd (of the kingdom), ii. 464 ; hence came
Tyndale's inward parts.
Among the new Adjectives are werdike (bellicosus), the
werdy of James I., writing about the same time; also
derhlyh Pope Joan is called a schrewe fyne, ii. 81 : this
adjective was now coming into vogue. There is a favour-
ite Scotch use of full in relationships ; ftdl brother to him,
iii 99 ; we hear of hard fighting, lie phrase mystyly is
often used for mystically ; hence we apply misty, mystify, to
the mind. There is a curious new phrase in ii. 471 : thai
trayst hyr all (hair best ; this is an advance on the former
do their best. In ii. 489 stands ane rrumtuortheFranche ttva;
here the Numeral follows the worthe.
There is a new phrase in ii. 332, send it in (hare hdpyng;
hence " come to my help," a curious use of the Possessive
Pronoun.
Among the new Verbs are, blok a matere; in iii. 37
comes bolt wp (rush up), a new sense of the verb. There
are the phrases, make answer, spare besynes (pains), fall vacant,
take sted (place), wdl horsyd, he was sete ha/rd (hard set), ii.
449, give him rotume, put to confusion, brek hus (loose ; also
in James I.), get upon a cov/rser. There is make owte his corns
(accomplish it), i. 61 ; hence "to make out a journey;" in
the same page comes io sayle the Se, In i 361 officials
take up children (seize on them) ; a new phrase, well known
to our police. In ii. 30 a maiden is kyrked ; the Southern
English form came later. In ii. 353 stands set his besynes
to have it ; hence, " make it his business to," etc., where
the noun still keeps its oldest sense of sollicitudo. In
ii. 472 we see he was set on it (resolved). The verb tyryd
(fatigatus) stands in ii. 356 ; this favourite Scotch verb
came South a hundred years later. There is the jingle
to wed a/nd bed ; also the Alliterative to gnyp a/nd gnaw, i.
295 ; in England the first letter of gnyp had been docked.
There is a curious confusion of the Strong and Weak verb
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 229
in meM rMltynwyd^ i. 244 ; melted was to appear in Cover-
dale. The rightful weryd (wore) appears in ii. 417 ; but
in ii. 328 something is vx/me owt, a startling novelty that
had appeared in Yorkshira
We see both scantly and scant for vix ; there is onward,
which took long to reach London.
The Scandinavian words are harsk (harsh), and hrode
(aculeus), whence comes our jprod. There is the Celtic lowch
(lacus), spate (flood), quhype (quip).
Among the Romance words are plesans (voluptas), mystih,
enter (sepelire), toU (dolus), i. 400 ; dissent from, usv/rp, a
gamysotun, infomty depitys, bachylere (in theology), insyngnys
(insignia), fortdys. The word cmtyqwyteys is used for " old
stories," i. 3. There is chawmbyr play (Hbido, i. 74),
whence comes the later phrase, charnhermg, which is in our
Bible. The verb examyne means to question; and eocamyna-
timme, i. 340, is first connected with school work; the
form eamn was still in the future. The word state, as
later in Barclay, stands for a man of position; we use
dignity much in the same way. We read about a lady
of fassovm fyne, i. 322 ; this refers to her form of body, her
figure. In i. 323 comes hyr folys fantasy (her fool's fancy);
this is a new use of the Genitive, afterwards repeated by
Barclay, just as we say "your fool's head." In i 351
comes dysperid owte tresore; hence our lay out The old
French form cruelty is laid aside for the later French
CTuawt4, which comes often; another token of the close
connexion between France and Scotland. Wyntoun often
uses pathement for pavement, a compound of Teutonic and
Eomance ; he has dergat (target), where an Old English
word takes a French sufi&x. The form pytd is still used, as
in 1300, for our piety, ii. 70 ; it also expresses misericordia.
There is the form corrump, afterwards to be replaced by
corrupt, coming from another part of the Latin verb. There
is revengeans, whence two distinct English words have been
formed. The verb trete bears two senses ; that of tractare,
ii 144, as in Barbour, and that of pactum inire, ii. 420.
The adjective roimd gets a new meaning, that of bluff;
make rownd answere, iii. 66. We have seen the gentles; we
230 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
now find the 7U)bles, There are two new and curious
Plurals, devotions and instructions (preces, jussa). In ii.
325 a querele in law is proponed; we still propound a will ;
the other form, propose, had been known for eighty years.
The word composytore, here standing for peacemaker, bears a
very different sense in our day. In ii. 322 a heart is
embalmed and laid in a cophyn of ivory ; the word was to
bear a new meaning later. In i. 20 supprys is used for
surprising a woman asleep ; in p. 11 7 for crushing in war ;
our suppress. We see a curious jumble of French and Latin
forms in dissymhetatyown, ii. 332. In ii. 341 a man is
mankyd (mutilatus) ; hence came mangle, forty years later.
Wyntoun is fond of theolog, Dryden's theologm. We hear
of the syngne of an inn, iii. 104. The word Amyrale is now
connected with the fleet, and loses its Mussulman sense.
There is the battle cry, A Muntagw for evyr mare 1 this a
may perhaps be an Interjection, 9a Al Kynge Herry ! in
* Wark worth's Chronicle,' fifty years later ; this soldier's cry
lasted till 1730 in England.^ We now see the first of the
laughable explanations of family names, legends that are
lively as ever in our own critical age. The great house
of Cumin, Wyntoun says, got its name from its ancestor
being a doorkeeper in the Palace, who was always crying
cam in! ii. 309. This is not more absurd than Sir B.
Burke's derivation of the Bulstrode family from a man
bestriding a bull. A few pages beyond his Cumin estplana-
tion, Wyntoun draws a distinction between the chief who
bids his men go on, and the chief who bids them come on.
The poem on Kynge Roberd of Cysille (*Hazlitt's Col-
lection,'^i. 270) seems to belong to Lincolnshire. There is
Manning's puddle; also gar, kyrke. There is the phrase
make noyse; also, he was a fole to every knave, p. 286;
here the to means, according to the knave's judgment ; one
of the oldest meanings of to was secundvm.
I now approach that mine of information on many
points, the * Paston Letters ' (Gairdner's edition). There
^ Rolandini (Muratori, *Scriptores,' viii. 188) gives an Italian
war-cry in 1227 ; Za Za Cavaler Ecelin I In the * Strafford Letters,'
lately published, A PuU&riey is shouted in the days of George II.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH: 231
are a few reaching over the interval between 1417 and
1426. On turning to the Vowels, there is more in this
respect to remark in the French words than in the English \
the verb aurai (habebo) is written aray ; on the other hand,
avec appears as auvec, showing the ancient broad sound of
the a. But aussi, pronounced of old as oussi, is now written
osy^ proving a change in French pronunciation. We see
u (aut), not ou. All this may be found in i. 23. As to
Consonants, we find nought standing for our not, written
so late as 1425 (p. 20). The proper name Wyllehy (Wil-
loughby) appears in p. 10, sounded much as we pronounce
it now. Among the Nouns there is the curious idiom, in
the kynges tyme Henry the Fyfte, p. 1 6. Barbour had written
stop the way ; we now have stop the noyse, p. 26 : a slight
change. TTiere is the first instance, I think, of the legal
use of where as for quoniamy in p. 16; hitherto where had
been used in this sense. Among the Prepositions appear
" send money on trust," p. 20 ; " condempnyd in ccc marcz,"
p. 21 ; fo his knowleche, p. 17 ; the preposition to is wholly
dropped in the trespas doon JFilHam, p. 17. As to Ro-
mance words, instead of the old phrase used with sur-
names, my maistre NevUle, the Pronoun is now dropped, as
Maister John Urry, p. 19, the origin of our mister. We
see this usage moreover in the French, p. 24 ; an English
letter is directed a mez meistres A, B , . . , et meistre Piers
Shelton, A French letter ends with Johannes Paston, le
tout vostre, p. 24 ; the French taught us the art of polite
letter- writing. We read of arUtratores, also arbitrores, in
the same page, 14; cov/rtezane (aimalis, p. 24). In p. 21
m,esv/re gains the new sense of consilium; hence comes
"measiu'es, not men." In p. 26 stands the adverb noy-
syngly; in York, noisomdy would have been used; we
have in our day two English sounds coming from one
French source, noisome and nuisance, something like ennui
and annoy. In p. 19 the word contreman seems to be used
ior fellow -provincial ; for in p. 30 Manning's phrase is re-
peated, in my crnitrey bat a myle fro the place where I was
horn. There are the phrases, tax damages, adnvM, endowed
(prseditus, p. 21), due and lawefull, p. 13. The Latin words
232 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
d cetera are tacked on to English writing, p. 1 3 ; they were
to draw great attention later, m connexion with an oath in
1640.
In 1426 an old blind monk, known as *Syr Jon Aud-
lay,' was compiling his poems, striking at Lollards and
worthless priests alike (Percy Society, 47). He lived on
the border land between tie Northern and Southern
dialects, as we can tell from a few lines in page 65 —
" And VII aves to our lady,
Fore 8ch£ is the wel of al pet^,
That heo wyl fore me pray. "
There is no doubt about the monk's Salopian dialect ; he
has both cherche and kerke in the one page, 74 ; also forms
such B&fouyre (ignis), seche (talis), ^esy, ^every, uche, won
(unus), als, makus (socii), thou gase (vadis), ch for sh. There
are words and senses of words already found in Salopian
writers, such as, homeli (rusticus), hegge ne horou; there is
an allusion to Piers Ploughman's Mede the maydyn in p. 38.
The scribe, to whom the blind bard dictated, has been
faulty as usual ; holdist is written for holdes, p. 20 ; vxful
begoon and Ahragus for tuo-bigon and Abraham^s, p. 31.
The 0 replaces a in wedloke. We see both engeyne and
enjoyn, pp. 47 and 48. The n is struck out, for (henford
becomes Oxford, p. 32; it is added, for we find holdoim
(olden) dais in p. 22. In p. 75 an original mom (mane)
has been altered by the writer into morwe, as we see by the
rime.
In p. 85 (this is from another poem) we see the rise of
the word skipping applied to the practice of many readers.
Careless priests are thus branded —
** Hi sunt qui Psalmos comimpunt nequiter almos :
Jangler cum jasper, lepar, galper quoque, draggar.
Momeler, forskypper, for-reyner, sic et overleper."
The draggar is the forerunner of our drawlers.
Among the Adjectives we find owe blessvd byscop, used
ironically, p. 39. The word lofty appears for the first time,
and is applied to the lineage of the child Henry VI., p.
viii. The bad meaning given to lewd is repeated ; the word
still means igna/rus, as of old, in p. 32 ; but in p. 3, curates
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 233
who break their vows of chastity, and priests that are
lefwyd (libidinosi) in their living, are assailed for the bad
example they set ; this change had appeared in another
Salopian piece.
Among the Pronouns we find mg, the old m(i% still in
use, though soon to drop \ do as thou woldus me dud he the,
p. 32. There is the phrase, what was (he) the worse ? p. 15 ;
fro tyme ^e ben, etc., p. 76 ; here a tJiat is dropped after the
noun.
Among the Verbs we find bakhyte a man, play thefole,
take (yrder (orders, p. 34), have the charche (charge) of. The
verb bluster is employed much like our blmder, p. 50.
We see wherefore cmd why, in p. 49, with the usual alli-
teration.
The French words are pause, aschdere (ashlar stone),
hogpoch (hotchpot), core favd, p. 26 ; favd was a common
name for a horse ; hence the corruption awrry favov/r. In
p. 23 stands a metaphor taken from chess ; after chec for
the roke, wa/refor the mate. In p. 45 dertdsjid derenes stand
Bide by side.
There is a most spirited description, in p. 16, of our*
gentle Sir John, the usual name for a priest down to the
Eeformation; hence came the Mass John of the Scotch
Presbyterians.
To this date we may assign the poem on Agincourt
(*Hazlitt's Collection,' ii. 93). Among the substantives are
gwnstones (cannon balls of iron), longe bote, great gwnne (can-
non) ; our soldiers fight under the rede crosse, Saynt Georges
stremers. Henry the Fifth was almost fit to be set among
]>e worthyes nyne, p. 94: a new phrase. He asks, in p. 105,
what tyme of the day ? (what hour is it ?) We see both the
forms, thou were and thou wast, p. 94. The king lay in a
town : a phrase not wholly replaced by staid until our own
Century ; ships lay at rode ; trumpets blow, an intransitive
sense ; men play their rivals at a game, p. 104, against be-
ing dropped. We see our a crosse for the first time, p.
96 ; it is here an adverb. There are some sea words bor-
rowed from Holland, hoise (hoist), deck (teg-ere), the first
letter differing from the true English iheck, our thatch, the
234 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Latin ieg. There is also the Scandinavian hvlvjark, one of
Lydgate's new words. There is the French word serpentine
(a warKke engine). We have a pun in p. 201 —
"The lordes of Rone (Rouen) togyther dyde rowne (whisper)."
English Poetry had now fairly made her way into
the Palaces of Kings, whence she had been banished
since Harold's time for 300 years. Chaucer had been the
servant of Edward III. ; Gower had been encouraged by
Kichard II.; Occleve had been the pensioner of Henry IV. ;
Page had sung the deeds of Henry V. ; Lydgate acted as
Laureate to the child Henry VI. The monk wrote a poem,
setting forth the Koyal titles, in the year 1426 ('Political
Songs,' vol. ii.) He turns Madame Katerine into my lady
KaterinCf p. 136, and has the new noun hudde, p. 140,
akin to the Dutch. We may here consider the mass of the
poems attributed to him.^ He came from Bury in East
Anglia, and we are therefore not surprised to find him
using the Active Participle in and, and such East Midland
forms as clad, give, fidsom. On the other hand, he imitates
• Chaucer in having the prefix to the Passive Participle, as
y-hahe. The adjective jpraty, gainsay, and the peculiarly
Northern idiom, a goodly one, p. 28, have now reached Lon-
don. He clips the a at the beginning of words, writing
venter for aventvre, and look bak (as in the 'Cursor') for
look aback, p. 256. The e replaces i in flettyng (fleeting),
p. 194. The old jpure is now written pewer, p. 108, just as
we sound it. Gower's falsehed now becomes falshood,
Orrmin's wakeman appears as wacheman, p. 175. We see
the be clipped in p. 147, where cause translates quia.
Wickliflfe's Danish word backe (vespertilio) is now written
batte, p. 170. The I replaces ry Chaucer's verb jompre
becomes jumbel. The / is inserted ; for the peoddare of
1220 now becomes pedeler, p. 30. The m becomes n,
as ant (formica). Chaucer's cokewold is now seen as
cokolde, p. 30.
Among the Substantives we find gloowerm, semewe (sea
mew). Mention is made of the Kyngs Bench, p. 103. Our
^ Percy Society, vol. ii.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 235
bumble bee is seen as hoyrribyl^ p. 218. We hear of the
hedspryng (well head) in p. 237.
The Old English earg had always borne the sense of
ignavus down to this time ; but in p. 47 we hear of arche
wives, and from the context this epithet must imply pride.
We hear of a fowlle shame^ stormi, and gerysshe (garish, per-
haps from Chaucer's gawren, gaze). In p. 194 sondryfold
is formed in imitation of manifold ; sundry can now ex-
press quidam as well as separatvs. In p. 147 we see un-
kovih add the meaning of odd to its old sense of unknoton.
Among the Verbs are, bend my stepps, thrust (ire), give
chase, break out, abide by the bargen, hound on, I am a fool to
telle, fre to syng, bolster, tou/rne (out) for the best, bere good face
(put a good face on it). Lydgate now has the Northern
I gat me out, p. 105. We h&ye upgrow in p. 246; very few
verbs beginning with up lasted beyond the year 1400,
though the "Scotch still use upbringing (education). The verb
bestow here means prcebere as well as collocare ; bestow alms.
There is a new construction of the Passive Infinitive after
scire; I have wyste men be caste, p. 224. In p. 133 a man
brekes his fast ; hence a new noun was to arise forty years
later. The new construction, thou ware over sayne (made a
mistake) stands in p. 189. The great change of 1411 is
repeated in p. 142; masse was seyeng ; we see in the EoUs
of Parliament for 1435 a dette was owyng hem.
The most remarkable of the Adverbs, which we owe to
Lydgate, is perhappous, which we now usually hear pro-
nounced as praps ; it took Centuries before this mongrel,
something like because, qovX^ drive out haply. In p. 104
stands as well as Icoode. The Preposition under is employed
in a new sense, marking something that falls short of a
given measure : thou scapst nat under ii pence, p. 107. There
is out ofjoynt in p. 245.
The Flemish traders in London are mentioned in p. 105,
who use their word copen (emere). It was from them per-
haps that Lydgate got his boueer, our boor, p. 192 ; for the
Old English ge-bwr seems to have died out hundreds of
years before this time. The form before us suggests that '
the first syllable of the German bau^r was pronounced like
236 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
the French mh in 1430. The Dutch holwerk (bulwark) is in
p. 237 ; and their verb prate is in p. 155 ; to Twd is akin
to a Bavarian word.
Among the French words are dyal, tapcery (tapestry),
weel favoured, chierfvl, fagot, cok-hoat, pint, vdym (vellum),
ca/riage (bearing), to ferret, pores, splene, skeyght-lasyd, sord,
blase (blazon), grocery, premynence. The adverb very (valde)
comes often; after Lydgate's time it drove out its Teu-
tonic rivals. In p. 52 we hear of a preciovs knave, just
as we still use the adjective. In p. 39 a man frusshes a
woman's mouth with his beard ; this French word, long
before known in England, may have helped to bring brush
into vogue ; the latter is a French word connected with
the German borste, Lydgate talks of the Rolls (the Court)
in p. 104; and in the next page he uses presently (forth-
with), the sense still borne by the word in Yorkshire. His
ba/rgeman is in our day often thrown aside for bargee; a
curious instance of a French ending ousting its English
brother. The French phrase, of necessUS, occurs in p. 141 ;
and apropos appears as eocaumple to pvrpoos, p. 146. The cry
amnmt stands in p. 166. In the same page, what Wick-
li£fe had called gdding, is written spado ; and there are the
gamester's synk and ske, showing the French sound of the
last In p. 170 we light on paterfamilias, and in p. 187
comes a natwraM fole ; the adjective, in some counties, still
expresses idiot; "a born natural." In p. 194 man is de-
scribed as deriving many hvmov/res from water ; hurrumr at
this time bore the sense of inclination in France. Lydgate
does not talk of lenten and harvest, the old-fashioned terms
for the seasons; he uses Ver and Avivmpne, In p. 212
respublica is translated by staat ; in the same page we read
of estaatys (the different orders of men). In p. 214 sacred
appears as an Adjective; in the year 1290 it was but a
Participle. Our enjoy himself appears in p. 218 as rfjoys
hymsylf; later in the Century the Pronoun was dropped
after the verb. The poet says he must acotmte for my
talent ; this is a new sense of the Noun in English ; Ham-
pole had used it for inclination ; the Parable of the Talents
must have had some influence here. In p. 242 Aurora is
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 237
made a dactyl ; England, as yet, had little horror of false
quantities.
One of Lydgate's poems, dedicated to the Earl of Salis-
bury who fell at Orleans, is a translation of De Guileville's
famous 'Pilgrimage' (published by Pickering in 1858).
The poet has a peculiar contraction, that of td'pe for to heljpe,
and such like ; this is repeated in his later works. Adjec-
tives are strung together, as, the noble hih hevenely place, p.
iil ; this greet large sea ; there is the phrase ryht (straight)
as any lyne, p. xii We see ley trappys, lose his weye, in p.
xlvi. Fortune lawes on the ryght syde (is favourable) ; we
still say, make you laugh on the wrong side. Among the
Bomance words are nerve, mendicant, passingly, disdain, op-
posite, v/nction, jack (coat of mail), collusion, immutable, commis-
sion, vrigmsitive, vmsv/re, duplicity, intermission, Lydgate,
dropping his East Anglian usage, imitates Chaucer in
forms like thMke and beth (sunt), also in prefixing y to the
Passive Participla
There are three pieces by Lydgate in 'EeliquisB An-
tiqusB,' i. 13, 79, 156 ; they may date from 1430. Here
we read of the lining (inside) of a bowl, p. 13; glassy is
applied to eyes ; lumpish. In p. 157 a boy is warned not
to pike his nose.
There is another piece of Lydgate's of this time in
* Religious and Love Poems ' (Early English Text Society),
p. 15. We see the new substantives crosebow and gossdyng.
There is the new phrase to scape with life. There are the
foreign words, bastylle, svmUitude, bagage (here meaning
prceda). We have the sentence, "odyous of olde been
comparisonis."
Lydgate compiled certain Legends in 1433 (Horstmann,
' Altenglische Legenden ') ; he here describes himself as old
and enfeebled in his powers, p. 416. He continues his
favourite practice of writing teschew for to eschew, etc. ; he
has jerarchy for hierarchy, p. 415. The n is struck out;
Orrmin's scorcnen (exurere) becomes skorch, p. 452. Lyd-
gate uses the two forms, Egdwyn and Ayllewyn, pp. 432,
431. He employs a Southern form, long obsolete, for the
sake of his metre; kneen (genua), p. 445. In the same
238 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
page he talks of Bwry tou/riy a pleonasm; burh (oppidum)
had but lately dropped out of use. He employs v/nto my
laste, p. 407, where breath is dropped. Among the Verbs
are^^ off (repellere), put in mynde, he seen (apparere), unpyke
locks, set at ese. The French en is prefixed to Teutonic
roots, as, to entiang, p. 401. Among the Prepositions are
at werre, go at liberie, be of f ewe wordys. The with is used in
a new sense ; a man is brave with Tidem (equally with), p.
395. The between represents community of action ; tween
wmd and vxiwe his barge almost brast, p. 401. The through
is prefixed to a verb, probably in imitation of the Latin
original, thurgh-perced, p. 448.
There is the verb rakk from the Dutch, p. 401 ; this
torture was first brought into England in this Century.
The Romance words are carecte (character), a memenio,
fwryous, emorn (heureux), predestynat, antiquity (old time),
philologie, a preservatiff, stage of dearepitus, p. 419 ; in gros,
transcend, thre tymes suinge (following), obstacle, spectacles
(glasses). The old anker is now written anachorite, p.
417. We hear both of God's purveyance and of His pro-
vydence, pp. 426, 421. There is the French verb glace
(slide), p. 436, which may have had some influence on our
glancing off. A man is riht gentilmanly, p. 399 ; Udal, a
hundred years later, was to write this gentlemanlike. The
King is addressed as your hyh excellence, p. 440. We read,
in p. 431, of the instrucdoun given to a messenger; we now
make this word Plural.
The heathen who harried England in the Ninth Cen-
tury are called Sarseynes, p. 403.
The adverb aslope is found about this time; I have
mislaid the reference.
': l^There are some pieces in the * Babees' Book ' (Early
English Text Society), which date from about 1430. Here
we find where-sere, p. 302, a great shortening of where so
ever ; in p. 12 stands toilose (toilsome) ; here the old til or
tul (laborare) bears its modem form. Among the Substan-
tives are kervyng -knife, smf (of a candle), the over crust.
The first hint of a nightgown is given in p. 315 ; and of
fotemen (servants) in p. 320 ; " these run by the bridles of
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 239
ladies sheen ; " not long before there is mention of hired
pages. In p. 316 appears the yymcm ussher, who sleeps
at his Lord's door ; the gromes (of the chamber) make the
beds. In p. 307 a man should let others have ]>e vxiy (take
the pas of him). In p. 12 the new adjective meddus (med-
dlesome) appears. The word spare is used in a new sense
in p. 325 ; a spare pece, something not in actual use. A
man must not be too stiryn^e^ or too pressing^ p. 12; here
the Participle is used like an adjective.
Among the Verbs are henge in honde (hang on hand),
broken meat. The lose is used without an Accusative in p.
305 ; a man shall never lose by kindness. The Passive
Voice is further developed in p. 307 ; sif ]>ou be profert
(proffered) to drink.
Among the French words are counting house^ p. 312
(room where money is checked), cmmturpynt (counterpane),
d&rk of the kitchen; assdes patentis, p. 318, (seals patent),
ferroure (farrier) ; sesov/rs are here used for snuffers. The
word enfaimt is used, as in France, for a boy, p. 303.
There is the new phrase apiece; foure pens a pece, p. 310.
In p. 11 a/rgue stands for wrangle. In p. 58 a man is
bidden not to be nyce in clothing ; here the adjective adds
the sense of fastidious^ new in 1360, to its old meanings
foolish and wanton.
As to rules of behaviour, men must not sup their
potage with grete sovmdynge ; they must not spit over or on
the board, or pick their teeth, or bear knife to mouth, or
lean on their elbows, or put meat into the salt cellar.
** Who so ever despise ))ls lessoun ryjt,
At borde to sitt he hase no iny?t " (p. 303).
In the same page boys learn certain prayers; among
others, how to bless themselves with Marke, Mathew,
Luke, and Jon; — the old rime is still alive in our day.
Accounts were kept in French, p. 317, where the forms
tavmi resceUy and tav/nt dispendu are enjoined. The adage
that three is no company is enforced in p. 307 :
** Be not )>e thryd felaw for wele ne wo ;
Thre oxen in plowgh may never wel drawe."
In the Wills of this time (Early English Text Society)
240 THE NEW ENGLISH. [ohap.
the e is struck out, for Chaucer's meremaidm becomes mer-
maidy p. 78 ; this refers to the house where Shakespere's club
long fdterwards met The form moemble is used in p. 127
for what some called meveable, others moveable, Cirencester
shrinks into Siscetre, p. 109. We have seen Cecile; we now
have our other form CmZy, p. 70. There is the proper
name John of Noh/s, p. 111. There are the substantives,
rodelofte, yonum of ike chambrey awre lady cha^ly p. 114;
in this last we see one of our few surviving Genitives that
does not end in s. The verb mUl, in connexion with
coinage, may have been known in 1434 ; a cloth is men-
tioned with mylyngiSy p. 101. The wise is now tacked on
to nouns to form adverbs; we see tresidwise in p. 102;
crosswise is well known.
Among the Eomance words are revenues^ sygne manuell,
flowrdelrice, prymmer, exquies (funeral rites), decesse (morior).
The old mobles now become mevdble godes, p. 76. The
word deinta is Englished by duetees (duties), p. 88, in the
Plural. In p. 95 we read of the mevable caMl of bestall in
a London will ; this shows how cattle was much later to
express pectts in the South, as well as in the NortL
Bequests are made first to priests, then to every secmdary
and derk of the church, p. 105. Our famous co is used for
the first time, I think, in a compound made by English-
men; coexecuUmr stands in p. 100; hence co-mate^ co-heir ^
etc. A Countess is particular in directing that two
Qreffons should bear up the scutcheon on her tomb, p. 117;
supporters were now coming in, but were not yet strictly
hereditary.
Among the * Wills and Inventories ' (Surtees Society),
vol. ii., are some belonging to 1427 and 1429; also some
letters of the same date, written by Salisbury, the King-
maker's father. He uses both the forms, yaw and yow (vos)
in one line, p. 70. The North still, as of old, loved coin-
ing Verbal Nouns ; we see his tuekomyng (the welcome given
him) ; my forthbryngyng (burial procession) ; there is hows
of alwmise, soon to be much shortened. Salisbury talks of
hymsdf m his own person^ an imitation of the Latin. Among
the Verbs are shew kyndriesse, teke partie (part) ; Orrmin's
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 241
mibyden (injussus) is repeated in the North, after a long
interval ; his love of the Passive voice reappears in Salis-
bury's thd are seen to. To hold for king was always good
English; this is now extended to Passive Participles;
Salisbury writes, have us for recomendid. The Earl has the
strange phrase, he vxis here a (on) Monday was a VII, nighty
where it seems to be dropped before was, p. 70. A New-
castle merchant, making his will in 1429, uses the
thoroughly Northern forms, ]>ose (ilia), tendes (decimse).
Salisbury writes, do me this ease as to len me yor chariott ;
here this seems to answer to tantum; and we see the
source of Cranmer^s " be so good as to," etc. ; the Earl is
fond of the old form len. A tale is told 7W<w at large;
there comes, at ovr last being with yow ; in p. 78 stands at
my weting (to my knowledge).
The French words are, terme of life, my goods, mohlez
and umnoblez (personal and real), enfeffed in landes to my me,
stuffe of myn howses of offices as panetre and buttre (pantry
and buttery, p. 75) ; we still talk of the offi^ces of a house.
In p. 70 stands save (safe) and suyrly; in p. 80 a man
gives cleerly and freely, a new sense of the first adverb.
There is the verb dispoyne ; Scotch law prefers dispone to
dispose. The old verb tent is written terider by Salisbury,
p. 70, and this form lasted long in England.
There is much to be learnt from the Northern Wills,
between 1426 and 1440, *Testamenta Eboracensia'
(Surtees Society). The first is that beginning, " I, dame
Jhon Gascoigne," i. p. 410, the lady of the renowned Chief-
Justice. The old pdwa (pavo) had been written poucoc
further to the South ; it is here pacok, p. 420 ; showing the
double sound of the old aw. The former caudron is now
seen as caldron, p. 419. There is the new noun salt solar,
and the new verbal phrases thanket he God I \ai havand Gode
before ]>er eghen, ii. 76. In ii. 20 stands rather or (citius
quam); in our day, we sometimes hear sooner nor.
Among the French words are, a party goune (hence party-
coloured) ; extend is driving out stretch, iL 20. The
Chief- Justice's wife prefixes dame to her Christian name ;
this legal title has lasted for more than 400 years.
VOL. I. ^
242 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
There is the Latin m primis at the beginning of a sen-
tence, ii. 20.
In the *Paston Letters,' from 1426 to 1440, we remark
the Norfolk use of x for s, as xal for sal (shall). In p. 30
stands / am ycmr man (servant), a phrase still existing.
There is the adjective tmgoddy (mains), p. 32; the word had
before been used as an adverb. In p. 40 we read that
our Lordes hytte (beat) the French, a new sense of the verb;
in iii. 417 comes the phrase to fde a man; where we
should now sofwnd him. There are the foreign words,
synister and taylles (tallies). A Lord is addressed in a
letter both as yowr reverens and yov/r lordesship, iii. 416;
the former of these phrases is in our time set apart for
the clergy.
There is a deed in the * Plumpton Letters,* p. li., bearing
date 1432. A representative of certain parties is called
their man; and we read of a rruin of counsell lea/med in the
law, showing how Gower arrived at his sense of caumd.
We see accious reall and personall.
In Gregory's Chronicle for these years we see Jane
used instead of the usual form Joan for Henry the Fourth's
Queen. We know that we pronounce the name St. John
as Sinjon; in p. 168 we find Syn Jorge. The three heads
of our Common Law are named in p. 160; the men who
presided over the Kyngys Benche, the Comyn Place, and the
Kyngys CheJcyr. Mention is made of the Downys ; the sea
is referred to, not the hills. In p. 167 we read of a pounde
weyght of golde, a new phrase for "gold that weighed a
pound." The old Adjective lewk becomes leuke warme, p.
166. The Verbs are, he hare ujppe his trayne, make a rrmke of
p. 178. An Adverb is made a Preposition, oM acrosse hys
II schylderis (shoulders), p. 166 ; this, probably due to the
French it travers, is in the year 1429. The Chronicler
loves to tell of good eating; we find here the French
words, custarde, gely, esteryge (ostrich). The word raysonys
is used in the English, not the French sense, and grayne is
used for com, p. 181. The word p-ef as appears in p. 166,
which lasted here without a rival, until some zealous Teuton
in our own day first printed forewords, a word used by our
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 243
forefathers for ^^ta. The Parliament was condvdyd (ended),
p. 182; in p. 176 comes the curious phrase, "to bcmysch a
man the town; " a double Accusative, " forbid him the town,"
had come earlier.
We find a long English paper of the year 1426 in the
*Kolls,* vol. iv. pp. 409-411. There is the new phrase,
Justices in the Qworum, In p. 410 we see the Northern es
beginning to supplant the Southern eth in the highest
quarters ; he coTnes is found in a Court document. In the
same volume we find besturr me, ftttith him (decet). A
well-known phrase of ours comes in p. 435 ; the siege of
Orleans was taken in hand, God knoweth by what advis. It
is in p. 433 that the title of the Squeers of English History-
is earned by Warwick, in his proposals anent the chastise-
ment of the future founder of Eton College. The French
words are agreeably (cheerfully), conclude pees. Cardinal
Beaufort is called the King's grete tmde, p. 438 ; the old
ems was soon to vanish altogether. It is curious how the
foreign words have intruded into our very hearths, as it
were.
In vol. V. p. 318 are the petitions for the year 1427.
We find a curious idiom, well Imown in our days, in p. 322,
he schidde have been and procfwred, etc. ; the been, I suppose,
stood for gone. In p. 327 the young King is/er goon (far
gone) in growth; we now limit this phrase to love and
liquor. In p. 326, instead of the old natheles, comes howe
were it that ; howbeit was soon to appear. We had always
coupled from and beyond ; we now have from over ]>e sea, p.
318. The French words are, denisdn, and ye agreed you
to, etc. ; the later jmi/rveyfor stands for the Latin provide
for, p. 318. There is a long discussion in 1427 by the
Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the title given to Duke
Himiphrey : " (we) devised unto you a name different from
o]?er counsaillers, nought ]?e name of Tutour, Lieutenant,
Govemour, nor of Kegent, . . . but J>e name of Protectour
and Defensour, J>e which emporteth a personell duetee of
entendance to ]7e actuell defense of ]7e land, as well ayenst
]?enemys utward, yf cas required, as ayenst Eebelles in-
ward, yf any were, ]?at God forbede," vol. iv. p. 326. Itl^^
244 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
year 1429 raise is spelt reze^ vol. iv. p. 343, showing how
z has encroached upon s, even in Teutonic words. We see
the substantives see cole, fredomys (liberties), clothemakyng ;
a sern (yam) chopper is coupled with a regratov/r, p. 349 ;
perhaps our jobber may have something to do with the
former word. Barbour's Scottismcm makes way for Scott-
yshman, p. 360; this was to be contracted still more.
There is the new Adjective weiable ; Hampole's new suffix
to Teutonic nouns was coming South. In p. 365 comes
the phrase, a vessel laden of c tonne tite and over ; the word
]>ihty the German dMe, is Englished by solidus in the
* Promptorium Parvulorum ; ' a ship is said to be tight, when
no water can get in; ivater-tight was to come in 1550. In
p. '360 stands oon ^ere with another. The Verbs are hryng
downe ]>e pis, take an auction against ; there is a wonderful
change of idiom in p. 343, thair resones beyng herd, the
Ablative Absolute ; here being stands before a Passive Par-
ticiple. Orrmin's forthwith appears in London, p. 343.
The French words are quinssisme and disme, grants made by
the Commons ; prefer a man to office ; things passe and be
agreed be the CounseUl, p. 343 ; to pass accomptes, to pass a
yeft be dede, to condescende unto hem; this old law term is
still used in Scotland ; to enter thair advys of recorde, p. 344 ;
to present an offence.
As to the years 1430 and 1432, we see that Gower's
doaire has now become dower ; the o'^ener of 1340 is now
seen as awener (owner). In p. 375 comes the female name
Joyous, our Joyce, We hear in p. 405 that wines are wele
drinking ; this is in truth a Verbal Noun, which looks Hke
a Participle ; the wines are in such a state that they give
pleasure when swallowed ; the idiom is something like that
of a debt is owing. In p. 376 a man is made party to some-
thing. In p. 385 we see howbeit that, found in Kymer's
documents about the same time. Instead of moreover
stands overe that, p. 369. The French words are, inter esse
(interest), your Boial Excdence, oratrice, gauge. The law
term, to joyn issue, appears in p. 376.
In the year 1433 we remark how the Standard English,
spoken in London, was more and more coming into vogue,
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 245
as the language of pubHc aflFairs ; the distant shires framed
their petitions more and more on the London model;
Parhament was enforcing unity in speech as well as in
politics. For instance, in the Salopian petition, p. 476,
there is little that is provincial, except uch (quisque) and 00
(unus). In p. 423 the ahask of 1303 becomes 5asA, whence
we got our hashfvl ; in p. 475 the old druncririan appears
as drowen (drown) ; the writer evidently thought that drow
was the root of his Infinitive. There are the new Substan-
tives Totim Clerk and nynesse; nearness vfdA to come fifty
years later. There is the new phrase hy likdihody not like-
lihed as in Chaucer; we have preferred hood to head.
Among the Verbs we find make offiis (offers), pit in writyng^
have relation to, here voice (have a voice, p. 479). We see
that the Northern sense of stUl (adhuc) has come down
to London from the North. A translation of the French
sfwr ousts the Old English for in things done upone her
accounte, p. 477. Much is dropped in the sentence a robe,
price Qcaf, in the same page; the English seemed to be
intent on saving their breath. We see, in p. 423, a sen-
tence begin with Memoranda ]>at, etc. There are the new
French words, extraordinarie, scrupUly to retaUe, assistants.
There are the phrases, dy£ allowance, to article a request, sue
to a man for, etc., truly and indifferently (just^) choose, save
him harmdes, the Statute in such case ordeyned. We see
ryn^fe a belle 3 peell, p. 478 ; the last word is properly apele ;
in the same page atteynte is used of a trifling fault ; the
verb was to bear a far more serious meaning in the bustling
times twenty years later.
Turning to the years 1435, 1436, 1437, we find the
new Suhst&ntive utterance ; French endings were now much
in vogue for Teutonic roots. The phrase "get her lyvyng,"
p. 491, has come down from the North; liflode was as yet
the common phrase in the South. We hear of the Speker,
of gavdkynde, of the mene Hans tovmes, p. 493 ; of a ship
of a c tonne portage, p. 501 ; we should now alter the last
word into burden. There is a fresh idiom in p. 498, the
trespas done by Richard takyng her ; Richard is not in the
Genitive, and therefore takyng may not perhaps be a Verbal
246 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Noun. We have seen hdng set before a Passive Participle ;
another step is made in p. 491, ^ C<mri heyng sitting. In
p. 486 stands sdsid as offrehold; one of the many needless
insertions of ds. In a Lancashire petition in p. 498 the
phrase and ]>en ]>ere is used in describing a crime ; our " then
and there ; " the Northern sho (ilia) is used here. The noun
rape is now used in our legal sense; it had hitherto meant
only kurry. The French words are, heynous^fee simple, keyes
(quays). We see enqaerre (inquiry) with inguisition in the
same page, 487 ; our tongue is very rich in having in many
cases both original Latin forms, and their offspring as cor-
rupted by the .Northern Gauls. In p. 490 the verb defait
expresses perdere, our wndo. In p. 497 stands attdnt of high
treason, the new serious sense of the verb. The French had
long before talked of manoeuvring a vine in the sense of the
Latin colere ; in p. 500 we find this verb under its Picard
form menuring, our manure. The old pass (superare) was
now being encroached upon by excede.
In the year 1439 we see the substantive hrode clothe;
ships he at rode (in the roads), p. 29 ; this is the Dutch
sense of the noun. In p. 16 yoman stands for a particular
class of the commons ; in p. 32 it is used for an archer in
the wars. We hear of the shire of Salop, p. 17. The
verbs are, pid v/p a petition, ley down plowes (like our put
down a carriage), bye at the first hand, p. 32. The Northern
phrase /a/Z« U) robbery is in p. 32. The former o lesse now
becomes yn lesse than, our mdess, p. 15. The French words
Bieifeoffes, the Corporation of Plymouth, the honwr of Tut-
bury, Vjsuell, omitte. In p. 5 comes the Latin form to be
deducte ; we have now the Infinitive form deduce as well.
We ^QQ finance in p. 22 with its old French sense of money
payment. In p. 32 stands the phrase to garbal spicery; it
here means to cleanse ; the Arabic alga/rbal and the Spanish
garbUlo express a sieve ; we sift out what is best for our
purpose, leaving the rest; and thus we garble facts. ^ There
is the old verb juperd in p. 33 ; our penny-a-liners now fling
aside the Classic English form and rejoice in the barbarous
jeopardize. We lately saw the French form tesmoign ; in
^ See the word in Wedgwood.
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 247
p. 33 we have the Latin letters testimoniall. The term
BaUlies was used in England as well as in Scotland ; see
p. 33.
A few words may be picked from Halliweirs *Koyal
Letters/ between 1425 and 1440. The Northern Iwrdain
has come down to London, p. 117; also Wickliffe's intran-
sitive galher. The Lollards, the first English Dissenters,
are called God^s traitors and ows ; in connexion with them
we hear of conventicles, p. 118, a phrase applied for ages
to Dissenters' assemblies both in England and Scotland ;
accomplice also appears. In p. 118 stands ye have great
came and matter to, etc. ; these words were sjmonyms in
the earliest French.
In the papers of Coldingham Priory, between 1429 and
1440, we remark the old name Cuthbert altered into Cttd-
hart, p. 109 ; hence comes Cvddie, A Scotchman writes
about the Jcirkmen (sacerdotes), our churchman. The Prior
of Durham is addressed as ^otur Lordschip in p. 109 ; in
another part of the same letter gvde lordsship is used for
favow. One letter is signed, he ^ors (by yours) in all thyng,
David Home of JVederlurn (p. 109). He translated the
French form and set the fashion to future English writers.
Among the Verbs are, oure chargyng (overcharging). The
Active Participle in yng is supplanting the old Northern
and in Durham. In p. 110 stands as to yowr fee to he
(such) / agree me ; the to he was afterwards to be altered
into heing, another instance of the confusion between the
Infinitive and the Verbal Noun. In p. 104 stands the
clause of reservation ; (something) all way oute taken, the
Ablative Absolute. A knight is addressed in p. 114 as
mrshipfull Sir,
On turning to Rymer*s documents, between 1429 and
1440, we see the river Loire under the forms Lyre and
Leyr, p. 724 ; a well-known province appears as Langdocke,
showing that the French had begun to clip the last vowels
of langue. Cardinal Beaufort wishes to have certain spefres
and howes at wages, p. 420 ; here the weapon stands for its
wielder. In p. 635 Henry VI. talks of the re-taking of a
truce ; this is an early instance of re being prefixed to an
248 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
English root; we see in French law documents re-eyant.
In p. 421 is the phrase for oo cause or other ; ih the next
page we hear of Hie thriddes or other gaines of werre, due to
the Crown, an early hint of our way of expressing fractions ;
the Numeral seems to be turned into a noun. Among the
verbs are, herpig date of this day, havyng regard to it, lay by a
thing (put on one side), yeve trouble (an early instance of
this noun ; it was usually travail), put umlir arest, answer for
(be responsible). The Passive voice comes forward, as
usual ; the kyng may be sent unto, p. 727. We see howbeit,
with no that following, ' p. 424; under conditions is in p.
420. The French words are Crudat (Crusade), Capitain-
ship, to estyme (value), proves (proofs), Doctour of lawe, popu-
lous, to convene and assemble (in a Scotch document). In p.
420 a cause is solicited ; hence our solicitors ; the word had
appeared in France in the foregoing Century, and soon
came to be used of law matters. In the same page stands
he is agreed to licence; in p. 421 ^« agreeth him to it; it took
some little time to settle these idioms. In p. 424 stands
they entenden the subversion, a meaning borne by the French
verb 200 years earlier ; further on we see, to entend tvith
the Cardinal (come to an understanding) — of these senses
the first alone survives in our mouths. In p. 426
comes he treted (induced) Mm to goo, he and his retenue
(here, by the way, the last he ought to be him) ; further
on stands entreat (tractare). In p. 727 we find pleine
refusing ; hence our plain dealing ; this sense has been lost
in France but kept in England. In the next page we
see ploMS enclaved; the wars with France were bringing
in many new words ; enclave is a word well known to
readers of newspapers, since Napoleon III. took to rectify-
ing boundaries.
In the Political Songs of this period (* Master of the
Rolls,' ii. 146-205) the chief point of interest is the long
poem on English trade, compiled in 1436 by some fore-
rimner of Gresham. The author has a high respect for
the late Eicharde of Whitingdone, calling him " the sonne
of marchaundy, that loodesterre and chefe chosen floure, p. 178.
The Old English mceddre (rubia) now appears as madder.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 249
The d rounds oflF a word at the end; the French ribcm
takes the form of ruband, p. 173; both ribbon and rib-
band are used in our day. The k in the middle is struck
out; market appears as mart, p. 179. A Komance ending
is fastened once more to a Teutonic root; hinderaunce
comes in p. 176. A Latin word is literally translated
by thinge publique, p. 178. There are the nouns, cheffe
staple, swerd of astate, sea keping. In p. 175 comes the
phrase XII pens in the paunde. Among the Adjectives we
remark mery Yngland for the first time, p. 156; this was
often repeated in the Eobin Hood ballads. Mention is
made of Highe Duch ; as gode as gone (lost), p. 187; this
last idiom is a little changed since the year 1280. In p.
193 stands I can say no bettere. The verb pulle takes the
sense of bibere, p. 169. In p. 176 the poet thus delivers him-
self, they wolde wypen owr nose with our ovme sieve ; this proverbe
is homely but true. The last clause is a foretaste of the
favourite apologetic phrase of our penny-a-liners, " according
to the vulgar adage ; " they probably think the author of
* Don Quixote ' the most underbred of writers. There is a
new adverb in p. 203, singly to sleep; perhaps our snugly
may have some connexion with this. Among the French
words are found bucram, polide (political interest), expensis,
peasemaker, for verry shame, rounde aboute enviroun, herchaunge
(speaking of traders). In p. 187 metal is fyned; the French
word was affiner. In the same page a post is spoken of in
the old sense of pUlar ; Ireland is here called a post under
England.
Here is a flaming outburst in praise of Henry V.
(p. 200); the poet most likely thought Teutonic words
vulgar, when so high a theme was in hand ; he may be
compared with Chaucer, when the latter writes of the
Virgin —
* * What had this kynge of hie magnificens,
Of grete corage, of wysdome and prudence,
Provision, forewitte, audacity,
Of fortitude, justice, agilit^,
Discrecioun, subtile avisifenesse,
Atemperaunce, noblesse, and worthynesse,
Science, proesce, devocion, equyt^.
Of moste estate his magnanimity ! "
2SO THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
This poem upon EngKsh trade leads us to consider next
the documents in use in the City of London about 1440,
such as the oath taken by apprentices and by newly-made
freemen. These may be f oimd in Blades' * Life of Caxton/
pp. 145, 146. Here we see shophMer {keep has since
encroached upon hold), lotte and sJcotte (transposed by us),
to have right and lawe; when an animal is given law, he
possesses a right to a certain privilege. We see the feliship,
not the Company, of the Mercers. There is the rising idiom,
rules made and to be made, the Past and the Future com-
bined ; also, here your parte ; hence the later hear a hand, do
yofwr part. The Romance words are, sec/rets (in the Plural,
which is new), to emplede men,.
An English version of the * Gesta Romanorum ' (Early
English Text Society) was made about the year 1440,
perhaps not far from Salop, for we see forms like mery, held,
(sedificare), thelke, p. 90 ; hirde, 106 ; huyr, p. 229 ; a phrase
of Piers Ploughman, first and fur\einmst, is repeated in p.
228. The most Southern forms are, i-he (the Past Participle
often keeps its prefix), lungen (lungs), hu)p, dupe, I not ; both
iuhet ^&nd iebet (gibbet); the Southern u comes even into
corUrudon and conduMon, This is the last long work with
strongly marked Southern forms. The Northern forms
are, thm rms, kytling, what kynne, ]>ou lies, even to the hone, steyne
(lapidare), troA/s (trace). The English translations of the
original were printed rather later, and went through about
twenty-five editions within 210 years. The treatise must have
been in the hands of all that aspired to be good preachers,
thanks to the theological moral appended to every tale ;
and I suspect that, through Tyndale, these Gesta have had
an influence upon the diction of our English Bible. Some
of the phrases here found are, similitude, transgression, have
indignacion, have his desire, hreak the ship, set in ward, sey on,
unmutahle, howds (pity), ensample, how that, to her-wa/rd, drew
nigh, hahe, ordeynfor a law, hole of his sickness, now (the Greek
otm), put trust in, anhungred, astonied. Sirs, In this work
cross and dog are employed, to the exclusion of the old rode
and hov/nd. The Teutonic words, now obsolete, are very
few, perhaps not more than sixty in the whole of the bulky
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 251
treatise. Thirty years later a lasting barrier was to be
set up against the further loss of old words.
As to letters, the a replaces e, as warmi/r (bellator).
What had hitherto been usually written schet (clausus) now
becomes our shut, p. 127.
Among the Substantives we see deth-bedde, stoner (lapi-
dary), lyme-pyt, A judge, about to sentence a man to death
in p. 102, calls him derefrend, A man calls a woman deer
love, p. 220. There is the phrase, hUlis and dalis, p. 134;
the first word used to formerly be dovms. The Old
English han- creed now becomes cockis crowe, p. 298. An
Emperor, angry with his brother, addresses him as ]>ou
soman! p. 318; in p. 311 carle is used, like the Soutliem
chorhy for a mere boor, opposed to a rich man. In p. 248
stands afaulepleye.
As to the Pronouns, there is what of that ? p. 255.
Among the Verbs stand come to soth (the truth) of this
Tnater, make lamentadon, make contynance as (quasi), rested
never till he had, etc., put a-bak fro, go to werke, take honov/rs,
p. 176 ; do a good tornefor ms, keep his bedde, begge mybrede.
We have come to (accedere), p. 5, with no noun following ;
hence our naval hove to. In p. 220 stands ]>ow makest hit so
straunge to m^; we should now say, m>ake stich a stranger of
me. In p. 319 we have sette up sayle ; set sail had come
earlier. An Impersonal verb governs the Accusative in p.
239 ; a man speaks of rain falling on his eyes, and says,
lete hit reyne hem, (them) oute of the hede. A noun is turned
into a verb; pes was felashipid among hem, p. 135. There
is the strange coupling of Teutonic and Eomance synonyms
in p. 81 ; dampnyd to the foulest deth ]>at I can deme. We
have seen verbs like order and suffer followed by a Passive
Infinitive; we now have, in p. 174:, he coveytith a mun to be
couplid to him; our verb U)ant, used in this sense, is now
very common. In p. 267 stands if it be come to this poynt;
hence our "it comes to this."
Among the Adverbs we find hielyplesid, go forth (forward)
and bahward, told how it was with (them), howe is]>is? The
old Adverb fna/nli, used in 1310, is thrown aside for nmn-
fvlli, p. 229. We see in ]>e end, the on ende of 1220 ; many
252 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
now find that this is a poor phrase by the side of evenlmdly.
There is the unusual phrase in p. 12 used of a wronged
husband, his wife tooJce an o]>er wndir him. This may mean
"shielding herself under his reputation;" it can here
hardly mean "under his nose." We have in p. 74, lok ]>e
dore wpon him; with the usual hostile sense of this pre-
position. There is the new phrase, he thought to himself e, p.
112; this is very different from Wickliffe^s she saide with
pine Mr self the Gothic in sis (Mat. ix. 21). We know
the old French construction to be seised of; this is now
further extended ; / shall jpurveye me of another frende, p.
130. In p. 68 stands thou liest in thi hed ; we should here
use teeth ; the in here is instrumental, as " in Adam all
die." The French and Italians use per or jpar, coupled with
throat, for the in first quoted.
In p. 10 stands the old saw, of too evelis ]>e lasse evill is
to he chosyn, where evils replaces Chaucer's harms. The one
new Scandinavian word found here is scroggi (rough,
covered with bushes), p. 19, whence our scraggy ; it is
written scour gy in p. 20.
The French and Latin words are, p&r consequens, spedus,
governance, infect, credence, moralite (moral of fable), naturely,
cocautrice, pronosticadon, profetis (profits), corpulent, sugiestion.
In p. 2 a wizard is called a mysterman ; the term given by
American travellers to Indian sorcerers is mystery man. The
word bowelis, as in the Bible, is here in constant use for
misericordia. In p. 30 it is said that Christ has ordered each
man to keep the saboth day ; this is the first English instance,
I think, of the Hebrew word being applied to the Chris-
tian Simday. A man of low birth calls himself aporfelow,
p. 122. In p. 123 fantoMis, changing its meaning, expresses
" knicknacks." In p. 1 62 we have, pursue the law ayenst him ;
in the next page have goode lawe upon him ; in our " take
the law of him," the of must stand for on. In p. 215 save
youre Beverens is addressed to an Emperor. The French
per dieu comes into the text in p. 224 ; two pages further
on we have a very French idiom, 0 Lorde, that ther bu]>
Tnanye that, etc. ; our how many there be ; the French form
u/nnumberable is in p. 241. In p. 248 Sir is for the
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 253
first time addressed by a man to an animal ; a man thus
speaks to his lion, ^&y^ sir ! jeo vous pri, have i-do, sir / In p.
260 a man is communid (receives the communion). We see
such words as dUiciousites and dUectabilites. There is servitute,
a direct imitation of the Latin, p. 44 ; and statute (statua),
p. 27. The Old English ^end makes way for the Latin
expend in p. 53. In p. 105 we read of nedefidl necessariis.
In pp. 108 and 109 Jubiter and Jovem are alike used as the
Nominative. The French and Latin sometimes stand side
by side; as febUnesse and fragilitee, p. 241. In p. 43 an
Emperor is addressed as thm by an inferior ; we saw in
1415 something like this. The Englishman sometimes
does not trouble himself to translate his Latin text ; he
talks in p. 237 of kinge assireorvm; there is also congruli,
impet (impetus), and guadragesme.
In the year 1440 a Dominican, living at Lynne, wrote
an English and Latin dictionary, which he called the
Promptorium Parvulorum (Camden Society). He tells us in
his preface that he followed the Norfolk dialect alone, which
he had used from his childhood. He has all Chaucer's
hatred of inaccurate copyists ; he objects to interpolations
such as honde pro hande, nose pro iiese ; " let the transcriber
write hande vel hond, nese vel nose" Some of the friar's
terms are still current in his beloved shire, though not else-
where. Few old writers have been privileged to have such
a modern editor as our present author has enjoyed in Mr.
Albert Way.
There are certain peculiar words and forms that remind
us of the * Handlyng Synne,' compiled not far from Lynne,
1 30 years earlier. Such are davmtyn (f overe), many rmner
tuyse, mattoky eke name, nygun, solomn (maculare), sguyllare
(lavator), stresse, tysin, geinsay. The prut ! Manning's scorn-
ful interjection, reappears as ptrot or trut, p. 505.
As to the Vowels, a is sometimes clipped at the begin-
ning of a word ; atyre and tyre, arayment and rayment, are
alike found. We see the broad sound of the a in mageram,
which we now write marjoram; what we now call sap is
here written saappe. The a supplants i and y ; masch-in
and carlok stand for the old misc-an (miscere), and cyrlic
\
254 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
(eruca). The Old English osspe (populns tremula) is here
represented by both aspe and es'pe. The e is sometimes
dropped at the beginning, as cAefe (fisca) for e&che,U ; ^ also
in the middle, for the Perfect Participle acolede becomes
acolde (frigidus), to be afterwards used in King Lear;
Chaucer's dayes ie is now seen as daysy ; the man who looks
after warrens is here called a vximere, the source of a well-
known surname. The e seems to be added to words to
express a new shade of meaning; a man may be had (malus),
but a shilling is badde (invalidus) ; a church feest differs
from a worldly feeste; so lok and loJce express different
nouns ; beere (f eretrum) is distinguished (who forgets Can-
ning's squib onWhitbread?) from the various other meanings
expressed by here. We see demynge and dome, preef and
proof y smeke and smoke, all alike. The old wifd (curculio)
still lingers as mvU, but there is also the new form wevil,
our iveevU. The e replaces u, as emhirday for the vmbridei
of the * Ancren Kiwle.' A rewme (rheum) of the head is
also written reem ; the old bewpyr (pulcher pater) and the
new bqfyr appear ; throughout this Century e was encroach-
ing upon ew, and this accounts for our present way of
pronouncing Beauchamp and Bdvoir, The word hoy had
borne the sound of hi in 1300, but it is now written hey ;
the old adjective scheoh becomes here schey or skey, our shy.
The i in the middle is clipped, for helschyd stands for our
embellished. The French word for ox appears as hyffe, much
as we still pronounce it. The word lust, by a vowel-change,
takes two separate meanings; lust appears as voluptas, libido;
list as ddectatio, libitvm ; Gower's lustles changes into listles.
The eo is struck out ; the old hdle ^eoter (bell melter) is seen
as helle^tare ; hence comes Billiter Street. The o replaces
a; there are the two forms wpe and cape for the Latin capa;
there is ocmn as well as a/xrn, a false analogy. The o
replaces e in doljm and hrodin (fovere); in this last we have
still the two forms of the verb breed and brood ; the old
hemleac appears as himdok (cicuta). The o replaces i, for
trollyn is found as well as tryllin (volvere). The author keeps
^ Shakespere, in his 'Merry Wives of Windsor,' has a pun on the
old and new meanings of checU,
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 255
the Teutonic hloo (Kvidus), and the Eomance hlefwe (cserulens)
carefully distinct. The 0 is inserted, to mark off hxype,
(circulus) from hype (spes) ; it is struck out in Aerew, which
becomes heirn. The twofold sound of oy is here plainly
seen, as in hh and hey ; we have poyntynge (punctacio), and
poyntynge or peyntynge (pictura). The aveer (property) of
1390 appears here as havure, this oi being the connecting
link ; our behaviour was soon to appear. We know how
often V was written as u; we have here the forms reowryng
and remown written for recovering and removen ; the givegove
of 1220 appears here as gugaw^ our gewgaw. So the govd
(gafol) of 1230 is now seen as govl, devU as dewle; there
are both the forms chavUbon and chatUbon (jowl bone). The
Scotch use doos for colvmbce ; in this book columbar appears
as dov)ys hoole.
As to Consonants, the b is inserted, for cemyrie is seen
not only as eimeri, but as eim^e, our ember ; it is curious in
this book to see many words change, as it were, before our
eyes. We have here the form bedrabylyd, which we have
since turned into bedraggled; draggled is found in Gavin
Douglas ; in the present work we find drvhly (turbidus),
the Scotch drumly ; a good instance of the connexion be-
tween b and m. The form snipe appears instead of the old
srdUy which Lydgate had written snyghte. There is a very
late instance of the old hn at the beginning of a word :
hnoppe, our nap of a coat. Chaucer's chirk is here en-
croached upon by the new form chirp. The word nothak
(hacker of nuts) has not yet been softened into nuthatch,
and peske is formed from the foreign pesche (peach). There
is muschyl as well as muskyl ; we now drop the k when
sounding the word. Carle and chorle stand side by side ;
also ketil and chetU, pik and piche (pix). The Old English
sc sometimes holds its ground ; thus sceol appears as sculle,
and has not yet become shoal. The c is prefixed, for the
former rimpU (ruga) is found also as crympylle ; the c is in-
serted in the East Anglian way, as in squalter ; it replaces
h, as in guysper, guele, and other words. The k replaces p ;
we have the clak^e as well as the clappe of a mill ; this
change had appeared in the 'York Mysteries.' The k
256 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohAp.
replaces t ; we sea the French name hadot of a certain fish
turned into haddoL The old Eelative whylke keeps its
place beside the corrupt whyche ; the old ece (dolor) appears
both as a^he and ake (the former sound was favoured by
Kemble). The cA encroaches on c, the French s, in launch.
Gower's was (aqua) is seen as wasche ; our author well knew
the Wash. The h is docked, for hreol (alabrum) is cut
down to red ; owing to this h failing, our word for mugire
became confused with our terms for humiliare and flammare,
all alike being low. As to g, the old egg (ovum) had
hitherto been softened into ey or ei, almost without an ex-
ception, throughout England; but here we find the two
forms ey and eg. In this work we find the three forms,
agayne, a^eyne, and geyn, as in geynbyyng. It is to East
Anglia that England owes the preservation of the old hard
p' in so many words, as gate, give, gainsay. It was East
Anglia that kept drag (trahere) alive, while all other shires
leant to dray and draw ; even the French alayen (allay) is
in this book turned into Teutonic aleggyn. The wamish of
former English writers now appears as garnish. We see
gest (hospes) followed by geeste (romance) ; the g in the last
word may have been softened; the old gist (spuma) is
altered into '^eest ; lawere and lawyer are both found. The
gh is dropped ; there are both the forms trough and trou.
The d is doubled, as ruddi for rudiy it is inserted, for we have
here the two forms hegge and hedge ; the old los/imn (com-
modare) now becomes leendyn. The d at the beginning is
clipped, for we find the form spiteful, not despiteful. On the
other hand, affodylle has not yet the d prefixed to it. The
d replaces t, as clodde (gleba) for clotte ; it replaces ]>, as in
rodyr (rudder). We see dunch used as well as bunch (our
pnmch) for tundere ; while dunche and lonche are two forms
of the word for sonitus ; a curious instance of the inter-
change of consonants. In some shires a horse's kick is still
called a Ivm^e. The t replaces ]?, as tol-pyn ; it is added to
a word; the dari of 1280 now becomes claret; it is in-
serted, for Wicklijffe's swalien appears as swalterin, our
sv)elter. There are the two forms tkretU and thirti; the
latter must have come down from the North. The old
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 2Sy
loFita now becomes latthe, our lath; and the old cudde
(sepia) becomes cotvl^ our cuttle fish; it is odd that we have
to supplement this noun with fish. The I is added, as in
stoppell, hovel; it is inserted, as in wyndelas (windlass).
The / replaces r, as mellow for the Old English mearu
(mollis) ; lorel for Gower's lorer (laurus) ; it replaces s, for
Lydgate's primerol becomes prymerose. The n is prefixed,
as in Tieke name for eke nams; newte for the ewte of 1390,
the old efete (lacerta). On the other hand, napron was
to lose its first letter a hundred years later. The n is
struck out, for there is elle, our ell, as well as the old
dne; so we find halpworthe for halpeni worth, p. 492;
the w in this word was to vanish 170 years later.
The word incemer loses its first syllable and becomes
censere. The n at the beginning is clipped ; we see ovrni-
pere (umpire) as well as the true runompere. There is the
bird m/irtnet, where Shakespere later substituted I for n.
The n is inserted; the popegai of 1390 becomes popynjay ;
it is struck out, as in rose mmy (rose maryne) ; it makes
way for m, as mygreyme (megrim) from emigranea. The r
is added, as webbare (textor) for webbe. The r in the middle
is struck out, as prokecye (proxy) for procuracy ; we have
already seen foster. The s is added, as in tydyngys (rumor).
As to scratch, here first found, it is a compound of the two
forms scratten and cracchen. The w is inserted; the old
wermod becomes wyrmwode. We see, in p. 68, the first
instance of our replacing h by wh, whence come whole and
whore ; whole (calidus) is here set down for hot.
I will point out a curious instance of mistaken philo-
logy. The old mucgwgrt, our mugwort, was in some shires
written rrwdirwort ; an author, inditing a few years before
this time, thus explains what seemed to him to be an
English corruption, "Mogwort, al on as seyn some, mod-
irwort: lewed folk ]?at in manye wordes conne no ry3t
sownynge, but ofte shortyn wordys, and changyn lettrys
and silablys, ]?ey coruptyn )?e o into u and d into g, and
syncopyn i, smytyn awey i and r, and seyn mugwort." ^
Among the new Substantives are, chaffinch, chekinwede,
^ See the note in p. 347 of the * Promptorium.*
VOL. I. ^
258 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap,
crdU (creel), hdrysche^ p. 244, cranke (haustrum), crylcke
(spasmus), hvll (of ship), locker, sound (of a fish), sinke (latrina),
sta/ixhe, coite (quoit), teal, whyrlegyge, codlynge (gadus), whytynge
(piscis). The chuffe (rusticus), found here, has given birth to the
chuffy (clownish), still heard in Yorkshire. There are new
combinations, as almesshowse, barly come, barlymde, hondogge
(bandog, cards vinctus), hrasyere, hrydelime, brood arowe, chese-
kake, cokerelle (a Shakesperian word), cokkys combe, dullarde,
downe goynge, etynge howse, fly flappe, fate steppe, hange
marme, howskepare, hompype, huswyfery, kechyne knave,
kyngys fyschare, loksmythe, madnesse, mowsare, neverthryfte (a
wastour), owte caste (or refuse, WickliiBfe's outcastyng), pan^
kake, penne knyfe, rynge wyrme, roof tree, schavyngys, schoynge
home, silkwirm, suklynge, swerde man (swordsman), sunne
ryse, thundyr clappe, tol-pyn, upholder (the tradesman, who
was to become upholster forty years later), wagstert (wagtail),
imterpot, weyfarere, whyte led, whytlymynge, vryldefyyr ; Tre-
visa's twUyghting now becomes twylyghte. The old hengest
(equus) now gives birth to heyncemann, soon to become
henchman. The word neh had lost its former meaning
fades ; it here expresses nothing but rostrum ; it was soon
to give birth to the nib of a pen. The word wytche may
here translate either magus or maga ; but we find wisard
elsewhere. The old bysynesse keeps its Southern meaning
of diligenda : the further sense of negotium may be seen in
p. 30. The honourable sense of bonde (colonus) had van-
ished ; the word can now express nothing but servus ; lente
can now no longer English ver, as of old ; it is reserved to
translate guadragesima. We see^/m (mendacium), whence
our fib seems to come. Gower's corrdihede is now replaced
by comlinesse. There is a fashion of adding French endings
to Teutonic roots ; we find here hangement (suspencio) ; we
have seen certain words ending in ard. The ster was no
longer a peculiarly female ending ; browstar may now stand
for a man ; maltestere, appearing for the first time, is applied
to either man or woman, and it is the same with webstare ;
tapstare to women only; thakstare to men only. The ling
is added, for the old stoer becomes sterlynge, our starling.
We see the renowned proper name Gybonn used as a
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 259
synonym for Gilbert ; the form Bete is given as the English
for Beatrix ; the Betty of our days is supposed to express a
longer name, and may have been confused with Bessy, The
forms Kyrstyone and Crystyone are used as proper names,
with the transposition to be found in cers and cress. There
is the unusual word murche (nanus), whence Murchison must
come. Barbour's new Celtic word stabbe (vulnus) has
arrived at Lynn on its way to London ; there is also his
owtynge. The English telt is still found, as well as its foreign
supplanter tmt. There is here an attempt to derive blun-
derer from blunt worker ; in the same way cymhal appears as
chymme belle. The imitation of French compounds, first
seen in 1280, now produces lykdysshe (scurra); a hundred
years later this kind of coinage was to be in great favour.
We light upon the clumsy nouns, gaderynge togedur (col-
lectio), comynge-too (adventus), to-falle (appendicium) ; the
last is something like a lean-to. There are both the forms
byynge-a^en (redempcio), and the neater agayn-byer (redemp-
tor). We read in p. 358 of a, forthebryngar fro ^outhe to age
(nutricius) ; one of the last attempts at compounding with
forth. In this lexicon, when an liiglish word bears two or
more senses, it is carefully repeated, as bede or bedys (numer-
alia), and bede (oracio) ; different Latin words are given for
fela or felowe (socius), when reference is made to companion-
ship at meat, in travail, in office, in walking, in school, in
guilt. So as to the word kervare (carver), three senses are
given ; referring to meals, to a trade, and to the oldest sense
of all (obsolete in our day), the simple meaning of cutting
anything whatever. We see here lyvelode with its old
meaning victus^ and with its later meaning of 1340,
donativum. The word loome still keeps its old general
sense of instrumentum, which we have lost ; there is also its
new particular sense loome of webbarys crafte (telarium).
The word pley stands for ItiduSy then for spectaculum ; the
pley that endeth with sorrow is called tragedia, and the pley
that endeth with mirth is called comedia. Next we find
pleyfere, which was to be replaced by Tyndale's playfellow.
The old camp (pugna) can now express nothing higher than
a match at football ; camping land is still known iiv Ease^
26o THE NEW ENGLISH. [ohap.
Anglia. The verb rcedan (interpretari) and redan (legere)
are now confused ; and there is a third verb redyn formed
from the old hreod (anmdo). The verb fret had fifty years
earlier changed from edere to corrodere ; a pain may now be
called a fretting. We find not only hanging (suspencio) but
some new verbal nouns, the hangings of a hall, a church,
or a tent> each with its Latin synonym. The new word
bahche (our hatch) is formed from baking loaves. The word
comb expresses, not only favm, crista, and pecten, but also
strigUis, " of curraynge." The old frame no longer means
commodum, but expresses fabrica. It is curious to find lerare
or lemare Englishing both doctor and discipulus, a strange
confusion. The word pt^e may now be used of organs;
the substantive pd (tractus) is formed from the verb. The
word stone (calculus) now expresses a disease. We see
the old sailyard ; and ^erd is moreover used as a sjmonym
for a rope. There are both the old rvddok and the new
redbreste.
Among the new Adjectives are fit (congruus), irksum.
We have seen liicitis (luscious) ; we now have lush (laxus).
There is the old lothli and also the new lothsum. We saw
great-hearted in 1220; we now find lyght hertyd, lyghte
handydy grey heryd ; there is also yvd menynge, a synonym
for false. The oldest meaning of sdi appears for the last
time, I think ; for it is here translated by felix / the word's
history from first to last has been most curious. The
adjective onsyghty stands for invisiMis, very different from
the later unsightly. The old Scandinavian werre, the
Scotch toaur, had by this time died out of East Anglia ;
here nothing but werce stands for pejor. The old dceft had
meant mitis, but now deft is set down as hebes, the Scotch
daft ; the York folk had given an exactly opposite mean-
ing to deft, Wickliffe's lifii (vitalis) here takes the sense
of mvax, and is moreover spelt livdi. The word bold has
both a good and a bad sense ; audax and presumptuosus ; a
girl is by us still called "a bold thing." The old rufvl
bears two meanings ; full of pity, and full of pain. The
old dredefvMe means both timidus and terriMis, We find
fayre first in the sense of pulcher ; then as amcenus^ applied
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 261
to weather; then comes fayre sjpeka/r (orator); the meaning
ceguus is not here given to the word. The adjective drye
is applied to kine that give no milk. The word fresdie
means, not only recens, but redimUus, and is explained
"joly and galaunt," as in Wickliffe; in our day, a man in
his cups is said to be rather fresh. We read of myry weder
(hence comes an English surname) ; this sense of juawndus
long Ungered in the word, as in " it was never merry in
England since," etc. The phrase opun synnare is rendered
by jmplicarms, and is explained to be " one without shame."
One of the three meanings of scharpe here given is velox,
which explains our " look sharp." We read of smal wyne;
we now apply the adjective to beer. Many new substan-
tives are formed by adding nesse to adjectives ; we have
here hestylynesse, craftynesse (industria), coragyowsnesse, p.
422, feythefidnesse, fewenesse, kendlynesse, predowsnesse, sly-
nesse, synfulnesse, werdlynesse (mundialitas). Even Chaucer's
boimt^ becomes here bontyvamesse.
The old usage of Adverbs was now forgotten, for these
are lengthened out by a needless ly at the end, as asunderlyy
astrayly; we see onkrunvyngly for the first time. The
Salopian phrase of 1350, m ]>e mene while, now loses its
first two words. The author points out clearly that agayne
conveys the two very different meanings contra and retro.
We see the phrase owte, owt, described as an Interjection ;
while owt, applied to a candle, as in 1300, is translated
extindus, Sohowe (soho) is called a hunting cry.
As to the Verbs, the author repeats some of the com-
moner sort very often, coupling them with prepositions
or adverbs; thus we have been abowte, yn bysynes; been
aqweyntyd (noscor), and many others ; so goo wronge is but
one out of fifteen headings. It is plain that grow is en-
croa(;hing on wax; we have growe olde, growe yonge, and
others ; in fact, the grow now answers to the esco at the
end of Latin verbs, though we still find sowryn as well as
growe sowyr. The verb make is largely exemplified, as Tnake
dene, make drmikyn, make fat, make knowyn, maJce perfytte,
make pleyne, make redy ; make mery has both an Active and
a Middle sense. We see put awey (repudio), put forthe^ ^t
262 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
io geder. Many adjectives follow vxiXy as wax febyl^ vxix
fatte, etc. The verb wyind-yn has six diflferent meanings.
There is the verb chenk^ p. 75. There are several new
verbs formed from, nouns, as howl^ brain, chv/rch, gutt-on
(exentero), bacch-yn ^ {back, retrofacere, p. 240), husbond-yn,
moolde, netl-pn, pynn-in (intrudere), snare, howgh-in (hough),
from the old lioh (poples). The old suJcen seems to have
paved the way for a new verb sokyn (inf undere), our soak.
Some verbs have here more than one meaning ; thus dwell-
yn expresses the old manere, and the later habitare. The
old varpa had meant prqjkere ; it now means curvare, just
as we use warp. The verb pynryn drops its old meaning
crudare, and expresses languere. The old nym (capere) was
to seem to Palsgrave ninety years later to be "davjche
(Dutch) and nowe none Englysshe;" still it is here set
down, and also its derivative norriryn, " a man taken with
the palsy," our numb. Three diifferent meanings are set
down for lowr-yn. We see that arreptus might in 1 440 be
Englished by latchyd, fangyd, hynt, or caw^t ; of these the
last, the foreign word, is the only one that now keeps its
ground in Standard English. There is the old adverb
grovdynge or grovelyngys; but there is also a nominative
case grovdynge, translated by supinus ; so the word seems
to have been mistaken for an Active Participle, coming
from a supposed verb to grovd. We see schyllyn owte (shell
out), and ly-yn yn referring to childbed ; have beyng,^, 30 ;
goo to and begin a deed (aggredior) ; syttyn at mete ; most of
them Biblical phrases. There are many words beginning
with the privative on or un, such as onhurte (illsesus). The
verb play governs an Accusative, being the game played,
as pley-yn bvJc hyde. The old overlive had not yet made way
for outlive ; at least, we find ovyrlevare (superstes). There is
a curious new verb thowt-yn or saying thou to a man (tuo) ]
this verb became common about 1600 ; there is another verb
^eei-yn, or saying ye with worship. It will be remembered
that the sharp distinction between thou and ye was drawn
not far from Lynn in 1303, for the first time in England.
^ We may now hack a horse physically, or hack it pecuniarily ; the
verb here has two meanings exactly opposed.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 263
The new words akin to the Dutch and German are hlare
(blare), hyp^e (humulus), loytr-on (loiter), moder, the East
Anglian mawther ^ (puella), masd (serpedo) ; the Plural
maseles (meazles) also occurs about this time ; ^ bumm-in,^
dam (clammy), foppe, luk (luck), dapir (elegans), molle
(mole, replacing 77w/c?ewarp), rmggey nodilj pikU, pippe (pituita),
plasche, rabet (cuniculus), stripe (vibex), top (turbo). Our
frump, applied to an ugly woman, may come from the
Dutch frommel (ruga), which is here written frumpU. The
word daw is akin to a German word ; we here see cadaw
(monedula). The old German Ml (calamus) has a 1* in-
serted, which produces guylle.
The Scan(finavian words are hawlynge, p. 20, cms (our
cruise, cantharus), chyme (chum), dlte (glarea), to crasch,
damerin (clamber, meaning here reptare), flegge (acorus, our
flag),fligge (fledge), gav/at, legge (ledge), nesin (sternutare),
rumpe, roche (roach), scate (piscis), sqwyrtyl (sifons), step-in
(infundere), holke (bulk), hv/rre (lappa), pegge, spvdde, skrug,
mldr, typ (pirula), ]mM; in this last a h has been inserted
in the Icelandic \fi)L7nall. The Swedish fiaga has given us
OUT flaw; in this book we see the two forms whitflowe and
whitlowe ; this is still called whickflaw in some shires — ^that
is, a flaw that hurts the nail to the quick. We see the
source of Shakespere's " she had a tongue with a tang," a
word still known in Yorkshire ; the Icelandic tangi (aculeus)
is seen here as tonge, which must not be confused with our
word for forceps. One of the words for a beacon here is
firhome ; for this the Danes use haun ; Palsgrave was to
show us the word transposed as honne-fyre.
There are the Celtic words hug (larva), lung, hassock,
moppe, proppe, gagg-yn (suffbcare), coker-in (fovere), and also
whin from chwyn (weeds) ; the word here means ruscus, but
we now restrict it to furze ; there is the verb job (f odere).
Among the French words are but (meta), awburne,
babulle (bauble), batylment, bokeram, byscute, caryare (vector),
chine (spina), core, corn (of feet), cressaunt (lunula), dormowse,
^ This comes in the * Alchemist' and in * David Copperfield.'
^ The old mesel (leper) did not last much longer.
* Used in Tennyson's * Northern Farmer.'
264 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
honi (bunion), Imvm (placenta), cedyr (cider), cfrwni (cranny),
oork^ dram, rnityrfer-yUy entre (ingressus), feretUy frise (frieze),
Jlewe (flue), garbage, gyyste (joist), gra^^eles, fcmaile (fuel), goord
(cucumer), glacynge, which is our grazing (devolatus), a grate,
hale (halo), jwnalle, lint, manude, marmeset, novys, parch,
pentavmcere (penitentiary), pei'e (pier of a bridge), petycote
(worn by men at this time), platere, promptare, pump, purcy
(in wynd drawynge), queryster (chorister), quyver (pharetra),
rohows (rubbish), sawcyster (sausage), scanne, scren (screen),
spawn, spavin, sguerd, soket, sole (fish), spykenarde, stacyonere
(bibliopola), sukyr candy, tankard, tannAn, terrere (canis),
tysyk, tortuce (tortoise), trdis, trendwwre (a knife), vestrye.
There is the musical mynyn (soon to become mynym). The
union of Teutonic and French is seen in the following
combinations : aftyr parte, fome parte, aneys seede, contremann
(compatriota), dubbylman (lalsu.s),feynt hertyd, fowre comeryd,
jfryynge pann,pavynge stone, fery place, hydynge plaice, watrynge
place, peynfvMe (penalis). There are some Teutonic words
that take ard ior a suffix, such as dtdlard. There are the two
forms canel and chandle for canalis ; these we now carefully
distinguish. There is a curious attempt to Teutonise half
of a French word ; Manning's katu^, the Scottish causey, re-
appears, but there is also the new form caucewei. We are
reminded of the famous Norfolk partridges by the word
cov^ (covey), here first found. There is tempyr (tempera-
mentum), a sense the word had borne in France about the
year 1400. There is not only the Old Enghsh ?me (funicu-
lus), but also the French line (linea). There is a long
Latin description of the Seven Agys ; we find the Parti-
ciple o^yd and ag-yn (senescere). The adjective nice, which
was always changing its meaning from 1300 to 1800,
here takes the short-lived sense of iners ; vmtin bears its
old meaning of observare, though in other parts of England
it conveyed a different notion. The verbs cachyn and
chasyn here still bear the same meaning, abigere, though the
former, when employed as a Verbal Noun, may also mean
apprdiensio, its new sense in 1360. The YQrhpayyn means
solvere; in 1440 it can meaxi placare only when it is in the
Past Participle. In 1397 dovifvl had meant terribilis / it
II. 3 THE NEW ENGLISH, 265
now, changes its sense to dvhius. The word rewle here
means, not only government, but the normal instruments of
grammar, and the carpenter's tooL We see coller apphed to
hounds, to horses, to a man's garment, and to a livery badge.
The word sqwyar is explained by gentylmann, and by the
Latin words armiger, scutifer. We find sute meaning both
prosecutio and sequela ; we now use suit for the former, and
svMe for the latter. The word caucyon, following the old
French usage, is explained as wedde (pledge) j hence comes
the caution money at Oxford. The communyone is used as
a synonym for the Eucharist, I think, for the first time ;
a hundred years later, it was to drive out the old housel.
As to derey it may be applied to the weather (serenus) ; to
water (limpidus); to man's wit (perspicax). We see
hatyldoure, but this means only an instrument for washing
clothes. There is the term bace pleye, whence must come
prisoner's base ; this in Mirk had appeared as the game of
bares, Chaucer's broudvn now makes way for iribrowdynj
our embroider ; a struggle seems to be going on between
the French and Latin forms; we have endyte, entyrement
(funerale), and envye, but also indyte, yntyrement, and im/vie;
there are vmaevahle, insur-yn, and many such. The m is
certainly preferred to the en; but the on (the usual un)
abounds ; we see onm£vable, onable (inhabilis), onrepentav/nt,
and the curious ontdleable among many others. The Latin
abuti is translated by both dysuse and mysse-use; in our
time, the foreigner has sadly encroached upon the home-
bom prefix. We have dressure or dressynge boorde, which
we have turned into dresser. The word curfew had often
appeared in our French legal documents, but never in an
English book, I think, until we here see curfu. The Latin,
as corrupted by the Northern French peasants, is now
sometimes pushed aside by Latin brought straight from the
fountain-head ; we find both fassyone and factyone (forma),
both olyfaunt and defamde, Chaucer's noun refute is now
Latinised into refuge, Trevisa's en^ in is expanded into
entryn ynto a place ; we have both retumyn and tumyn a^ene
for reverti. The Latin rector is put down as equivalent to
persone, au/rate; the sense of the latter was to change a
266 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
hundred years later. There is muskyttey a small hawk,
which, like the falconet, was to furnish a term for weapons
of war. We have but two prepositions mentioned as
attached to the Infinitive pass ; one of these is pacyn over^
whence came Tyndale's passover. The adverb cowrsly is
formed from cours, p. 271 ; it here means "according to
Nature," or " as a matter of course ; " Bishop Pecock used
the word a few years later. The Persian schach or shah (rex),
coming through France, had before given rise to the word
cheeky when the king in chess is threatened ; we see in the
* Promptorium ' both chekkyn (scactifico) and chekyn (suffoco).
Mr. Satchell published in 1883 a treatise on Fishing
that seems to date from about 1440. The r is added to
a word ; the foreign mespUum, mesle, medletre, becomes our
medder (the tree), p. 8. We see heyghoge (hedgehog), hlake
thome, schoyt (shoot of a tree), grdyng (grayling) ; also the
technical rody angler y lynCy floote (float), flye ; the old mycdnes
appears as mochenes (size), p. 30 ; whence our rmich of a
muchness. There is the verb lond (land) applied to fish ;
and the new phrase ye may hap to takcy p. 22 ; not the old
it m^ay hap you tOy etc. There are the Celtic m>aggoty the
Dutch UisteTy and the Scandinavian chobe (chub). Among
the French words are signet (cygnet), vise (the tool), and
the noun sou^e ; a hawk is brought to the sov,ce (sudden
downfall), p. 3 ; hence the verb soiLse down <wi, of about
1570. This is the same word as sauce ; the idea is, plung-
ing something in pickle.
We may assign to 1440 or thereabouts the *Lytell
Geste of Kobyn Hood ;' it has some new words common to
it and the * Promptorium,' such as, swerdeman, buttes (metse) ;
there is also Audlay's nye of his kynne} The Monarch of
the story is Edward, called elsewhere awr kynge in the
usual loyal style of English ballads; the poet would
naturally throw his tale back seventy years or so, to the days
of the hero of Creasy, who went about in disguise. The
new phrase m^y England is repeated here.
^ The edition I have used is that of Ritson, reprinted in 1823. The
present poem has not so large a proportion of obsolete words as that
of * Guy of Gisbome.'
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 267
' 11 I I ■ ■ ■■ ■ .^ ■ ■ ■ ■■■■- - ■ ■ - ■ I p MM _ ■■■■■■■■ ^■■■■ II — ^—
The *Geste' is due to the North; the scene is laid
near Doncaster ; we see the words YoUy devilkins, win to it,
mosse (palus), smart (acer), to-mome, tyll (ad), harne; the
lodesman (dux) of Manning appears as ledesman. But the
poem must have been transcribed in the South, long before
it was printed about 1500 ; hence we find bdh, y-founde;
the a is sometimes altered into 0, and there are mistakes,
such as, se for fee (merces), myght for mote, hens for hethen
or hennes, none for nane, well for wde, Myth for blive, as we
see by the rimes. There is a Yorkshire phrase in p. 32,
" Gk)d is holde a ryghtwys man " (being) ; something like
this may still be heard at Almondsbury. The *Geste'
abounds in words that were soon to become obsolete in
England, like deme, hende, wedde (mortgage), halfendele, ms
longeth; dereworth (pretiosus) is misunderstood as before.
The transcriber knew nothing of the hine (famulus) of the
North, so writes it hynde, though it rimed to dine ; on the
other hand, we have turned linde (tilia) into line or lim^.
There are old constructions like, the trewest woman that ever
founde I me ; Rohyn bespoke hym to the knight. We hear of
a sorry homband — that is, a man who could not husband
his resources well ; the verb husband stands in the * Promp-
torium.' A promise is made to the distressed knight that
Ljrtyll Johan will stand him in a yefmmCs sted ; hence our
do yeommCs service. We find the old ballad phrases trystdl
tre, grene wood tre, Lyncolne grene. Among the Adjectives
are fat-heded, to be long (in doing something), fyne ale browne,
A knight complains (something like this appeared in 1360)
that his friends will not know him when he has lost his
goods : a very old instance of this phrase for cutting a man.
We see stand used by robbers in their technical sense of
the word when they stop travellers. There is have his
answer, make a release. Among the Adverbs stand whither
be ye away / as in Lancashire ; wystly, the first hint of our
wistfvMy, We see, among the Prepositions, wayte, up
chaunce, ye mowe mete (upon the chance that)j here up or
upon is prefixed to a noun denoting something future ; the
old hereupon had referred to the past. The old but, at the
beginning of a sentence, might still express nisi.
268 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Among the French words are a pore present (humble
gift), male hors (baggage horse), like our mailHXifi, The
old roiUe is here used as a verb, to rout up the countre, as
earlier in York.
Ni The ballad of Kobin Hood and the Potter' seems to
belong to the same time as the foregoing poem ; the piece
has been transcribed by an ignorant writer sixty years
later, who writes ey for t, as dreyffe^ mey : an early instance
of this change, which led the way to our present pro-
nunciation of drive and my. The poem must have been
compiled in the North, perhaps not far from Wentbridge,
which is named ; we find herkens (audite), thow seys, deyell
(diabolus), they schot aibowthe^ as in the * Cursor Mundi;' here
we should insert turn after the verb ; a to-hande (two-handed)
staffe, as in the ' Yorkshire Wills/ The copyist was puzzled
by the old he cu]>e of corteysey, and writes the verb cowed ;
the Old English cocer (pharetra) is written qaequer, a
hoarier form than that in the * Promptorium.' This copyist
must have put in the Southern hketh (videte). There is
the curious substitution of nor for than, which may still be
heard ; y had lever nar a hundred ponde that, etc. We see
God eylde het the, where the second word has lost a y at the
beginning.
In the * Morte Arthure ' (Early English Text Society),
dating from about 1440, we find doffe of thy clothes; here
there is the contraction of do off, and the of comes twice
over.
In Gregory's Chronicle of this time we remark Chaucer's
new word for courtiers, coming in p. 189, thoo aboute the
kynge. We hear of the Prevy Seall (an official).
About this time we find a few new words akin to the
German and Dutch, as sprotte (sprat), brick There are the
Scandinavian smatter (crepare), and chokeful (choke-full). ^
In the *Plumpton Papers,' between 1440 and 1460, a
few things may be remarked. The French joues is now
written jawe$, p. bd., still keeping the old sound. There
are the nouns karving knyves, p. xxxiv. ; a sight (number)
of people, the spring of the day, p. lix.; whence comes day-
^ See these words in Stratmann's Dictionary.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 269
s'j^ng ; the new howhdt is written how it he. There is the
verb rohle (errare), p. Iv.; it may be the parent of ramble.
We see the phrase to f aire f<mle with (fall foul of), p. Ivi.,
lie in waite tOy a future Biblical phrase. There is a literal
translation of the French in a law deed ; altoay forseene,
that if, etc., p. Ixxxv.
In the 'Testamenta Eboracensia,' vol. ii. (1440-1450),
the Maulde of former years now becomes Maude, p. 123.
In ii. 106 we have in one sentence both the old verb and
WickhflFe's new form ; a bequest is made to a priest to myn
my saide and minde me in his prayers. Among the new
Substantives are spovi and kyndenes, which may be d(me to
a man, p. 1 1 9. A testator gives so much to every yoman
in houshdldy and half as much to every grorm, p. 113; a
distinction of ranks. We read of longehowis, p. 113 ; men
take administracion, in the same page. Among the French
words is gua/rte potte. We hear of coral bedes and gete (jet)
bedes; chavmdder refers in p. 112 not to a man, but to
ahght; we have since found the form chandelier convenient
as a distinction. In p. 132 we read of silver with the louche
of Paris/ hence our tmchstone. In a chapman's inventory,
iii. 104, we see bonet used for a man's head -gear, while
women's caps are mentioned later. In ii. 254 we come
upon devyne service.
In the records of Coldingham Priory, vol. i. (1440-1450),
we see King James II. using the Northern form convoy, not
the Southern convey ; the former was first seen in Barbour ;
our tongue is all the richer for these two forms. The
Scotch turned the French parties into payrtiez, p. 120; a
curious instance of dialectic peculiarity. We see the forms
Home, Hvme, Howme, all referring to one Scotch house;
the dispute on this between the author of Douglas and the
Essapst on Miracles is well known. Gilbert is cut down
to Gib, p. 138 ; we know the French change of I into w ;
just so the Scotch used awssa for alsvxi, p. 140. There is
a startling change in p. 1 60 ; the old cude (potuit) is written
culde, from a false analogy with shvlde and widde. The n
is dropped; Wjrntoun's gamison becomes garyson, p. 149.
In p. 133 stands the phrase chaunge it for the bettre; here
270 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
some substantive is dropped after the last word. The noun
uvkouUmess is used in p. 138 for estrangement; gromid takes
a new meaning, the cavMz and grounde (causa), p. 160.
Among the verbs are gang throw wyth his maters, have in
derision, lede a process upon ; in Scotch law proofs are still
led. In p. 119 stands 7 can noght say yha ne nay. The
Southern " not long ago " appears in the North as nojt gan
lang sen, p. 132, a hint of the future avid lang syne. The
French and Latin words are surrendowr, lawe canon et cywell
(civil), a tak (lease), intirruicion of it, this instant monthe ofAprUl,
aparcyale Juge, to purport, prmdecessor; this last has unhappily
driven out Piers Ploughman's forgoere. The Scotch writers
had been fond of suppose; it now stands for if ; suppoze he
say it, p. 147. Our prefer (it was otherwise* in France) may
in our time bear the two senses of antepon^e and prorrwvere ;
they seem to be combined in prefer him before all men to the
priory, p. 116. A man near death is said to have diseese,
p. 121; the sense of incommodttm is giving way to that of
morbus. In p. 152 men have hasti expedidon.
In reading the * Paston Letters' (1440-1448) our hearts
are at once drawn to Margaret Mauteby, the lady who was
married to John Paston in 1440 ; she uses old East Anglian
forms, such as qhat, xal, dan (our than). Another Paston
has the old noun breke for breach, p. 72. There is the
form sard (gladius), p. 74, showing how w was dropped in
the new pronunciation of the word. Among the Sub-
stantives we see the surname Dowebegyng, iii. 424, which
was known all over the land in the days of the Crimean
war. A Viscount is addressed as your Hygnes, p. 73. We
see in an Inventory, iii. 418, the words fleshoke, pykforke
(pitchfork). A new sense of dole, that still lingers in
Norfolk, appears in p. 58 ; it here means a stone used to
mark oflF divisions in land. In p. 60 stands our common
the trouth is (that). Margaret Paston, in p. 69, describes
a man as schyttyl wyttyd; perhaps our skittish may come from
the same Swedish root skyttla (discurrere). Among the
verbs we remark geve hym a lyfte, p. 71. A man, in p. 69,
would have sold his goods, he had nowth rowth to qhom ; we
should now say, "he cared not to whom;" a new use of
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 271
the Relative. We see (out) of the Kyngs gode grase (favour),
p. 68. The head of the family is dutifully addressed by
his younger brother as Syr, and Margaret writes to her ryth
wyrchypfvl hwshond ; our post cards now give little space
for titles of honour. There is a French letter in p. 64
which shows the source of many of our English phrases ;
we there read pour cause que, nan obstant, faire difficultey, la
dicte isle, en tempz advenir ; there are the Latinised forms
of 1370, like escfipt and souhz. We may particularly re-
mark le non aage de, etc. ; in p. 60 we find non first pre-
fixed to a Teutonic word, yowr noun comyng hedir^ a phrase
written by a man learned in the law. We have hiffet (a
piece of furniture); in the same page, iii. 420, stands
lignum in le cartkows, a curious mixture of Latin, French,
and English, in one item of an Inventory. We see the
French participle enterlessant (interlacing), p. 65 ; this end-
ing in ant must have reminded the East Anglians of their
old Participial ending in and, which was not yet gone.
In the years 1447 and 1448 a long lawsuit was drag-
ging on between the Mayor and the Bishop of Exeter.
The former, John Shillingford by name, has left us a most
interesting series of letters to his townsfolk, describing the
progress of the suit ; these have lately been printed for the
Camden Society. We know that business from all parts
of the country came before the London lawyers; and
these, riding their circuits, must have appeared in the
shires as missionaries of the best style of English. Thus,
in the present instance, we see how the New Standard,
spoken at London for the last three generations, was mak-
ing its influence tell on the far West, the country which,
as Giraldus Cambrensis says, had most perfectly kept King
Alfred's forms of speech. In these * Letters * are found
the Northern forms tJieir, tham, that, nor, not, same, hyseke ;
while the native ham, the, and thike, p. 23 (usually thUke),
also appear. There are, moreover, the Southern 0 (unus),
bulls (bills), puple, we buth, it was ydo ; the Southern pre-
fix is kept even before a foreign participle, like y-reported ;
this was to last only thirty years longer, at least in writ-
ing, as a general rule. The old ^^9/ remains in Ithersay,
272 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
«
p. 35. The tyme of servyce doyng preserves a very old
English idiom, for here the Accusative is placed before the
Verbal Noun. The English sound of chif is already found,
when Chif Justice Fortescu is mentioned.
We get a hint as to the old sound of early in some
Southern shires, when we find yerly in p. 16; yeve stands
for give. The y is inserted in a word, as on the Severn ;
yncomyers stands in p. 112. The w is prefixed, as in
Salop ; we find wother (other), p. 117. The t is added in
jparchemente. Among Nouns we remark the curious phrase
my lorde is (lord*a) gode lordship, p. 15 ; where Lord Chan-
cellor Kempe is referred to. Certain proofs are committed
to the wysedomys of the Judges. In p. 49 a thing is done
with hardnys (difficulty) ; in the next page hardly stands
for laboriously. The Mayor talks of " owr comynge haste to
London" p. 54 ; here the in that should have come before
haste is dropped ; our post haste is well known ; something
like this had appeared in 1230. WickliflFe had already
written bac half; here in p. 86 we hear of the hak side of
a building. Free comyng and going stands in p. 100, where
we have to use entrance and eodt.
Among the Adjectives the old form lowlokest (lowliest)
is preserved in p. 132. In p. 7 the Mayor enters the
Chancellor's ynner chamber, a form peculiar to the South.
In p. 38 raw stands for novus ; we now often couple it
with soldiers. We hear of dredefvU arvd mysgovemed paple
in p. 112, a new sense of the adjective; hence comes our
"dreadful rogue." In p. 109 something is proved gode
and true.
As to the Pronouns, we see that the Chancellor Arch-
bishop, the first subject in the realm, uses the polite ye
when addressing the Mayor, p. 6. The use of the Northern
yows has reached Exeter; in p. 17 stands money of youris.
In p. 6Q comes they and alle theyris. The his is often
employed as the sign of the Genitive, as my lord of Excetre
is tenantis, p. 44. Another Northern usage is whas names
(quorum nomina), p. 118. The monm, p. 18, is used in
the South much as in Scotland now, where they say
" how are you the day ? " seeing no need to use on befor
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 273
a Dative case. There is a strange arrangement of the
Numeral in p. 115 : Kyng Harey is tyme the Thirdde; in p.
1 20 stands the iij^ Kyng Harry is tyme.
As to the new idioms of Verbs, what was the Dative
Absolute is now turned into the Nominative, even in the
South, he menyng (this), p. 13 ; in p. 30 Ae fe fele seems
to stand for he being to fete. In p. 92 there is a startling
change of idiom which did not become common until 300
years later ; heing is prefixed to a Past Participle ; wyn is
being y put to sale; this idiom is repeated in p. 100. We
know the disputes that have arisen about the confusion
of the Infinitive and the Verbal Noun ; in p. 32 the Infini-
tive mistrusten is altered by the. Mayor into mystrustyng.
There are new phrases like pd in answers, p. 2 ; abyde
(stand) apoun their e right, P- 21 ; make myche of this matter,
p. 30 ; ^ do gode (be of use), give over (cease), p. 46. There
is the first hint of hounds throwing off in p. 36, where the
phrase seems to stand for breaking loose.
In p. 7 to morun stand for eras. There is we were thurgh
(finished), p. 37 ; here the preposition becomes an Adverb.
As to Prepositions, there is Pecock's habit of coupling
them before the case governed, as by and to suche, p. 106 ;
yn and of the cite, p. 110. We find apon my sawle in p. 16.
The Yorkshire unto (p. 63) is now known in the South.
What we call in their turn was known of old as for theire
torne, p, 138.
There is the puzzling Interjection Alagge (alack) uttered
twice by the Lord Chancellor Archbishop in p. 18 ; it was
thus most honourably introduced into English speech.
The new French phrases are demene us, it is his part to, a
rule (given by the Chancellor), etc., to travers him. In p.
37 the Chancellor stands yn his astate near the fire ; that is,
in the robes of his dignity. In p. 56 comes to all enterUis.
There are words like symytery (cemetery), robUl (rubble,
rubbish), p. 89 ; nude, p. 132 ; to noyse, surmyse, yong peple,
misrule, retaiU, noysaunce (nuisance), precyncte, trial, compre-
^ In later times great has encroached on much; we should now
write **a great deal of." At the same time we say, ** make the most
of it." ^ '
VOL. I. 'Y^
274 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
mys^ to notise, Entrety and trete both stand for the same
thing, tradatus; it is the same with the verbs erUrete and
trete. We hear of my Mayster Badfoi^d (a renowned lawyer)
and my Maistresse his wyf, p. 61. The m^ayster is cut down
to our common form Mr, before a surname in p. 89. The
verb commaund in p. 61 expresses our commend; the latter
appears in p. 15; comander in Old French expressed both
. jiibeo and commsndo ; we have found it convenient to
separate the two meanings. There is a compounding of
Teutonic and French in the words comyscyoner, p. 139,
coronershipp, A French Participle appears, written both
joynaunt and junant, in p. 86 ; joyning is also found. In
the next page our abutting is seen with the first letter
clipped. Alliteration affects French as well as English
words; in p. 88 things are kept saf and sure. The
French ending adon is tacked on to a Teutonic root in p.
95, where we read of the stallacion of Bishop Leofrik. We
constantly hear of the mynysters of the Church, and of the
dose where they dwelt. An action may be reall, personal,
or myxte^ p. 139. We see both the old auctoritee and the new
authoritee, p. 139; in the same page charters may be
cancelyd. We hear of the justices of peas now heynge or (in)
tyme to comynge; in the last word the confusion between
the Infinitive and Verbal Noun reappears. In p. 88 sus-
pedous bears its Passive, not its Active, sense. In p. 19
we hear of a greet barre (number of lawyers). We find
the Under Tresorer mentioned in p. 7 ; a translation of the
French sous; in our day we talk of a sub-way. The
English thrall has the French preposition en prefixed in p.
98. The very (valde) has not yet reached Exeter from the
North East
About this time we meet with the adverb on dbrest
(abreast) and the verb abreathe horses ; the latter was to
lose its first syllable in the next Century. See Dr.
Murray's Dictionary.
In 1449 Pecock, Bishop of Chichester, brought out his
work, the * Repressor of overmuch blaming the Clergy '
(Master of the Eolls), written against the Lollards. Pecock
was the greatest English prose writer that flourished in this
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 275
Century ; he was fully conscious of his talents; for none of
our standard writers have ever betrayed so much self-con-
ceit. He is said to have written books in English for
twenty years together. He much insists upon " the doom
of natural resoun," which is depd moral lawe of Jdnde, He
is a forerunner of Hooker, not only in his matter, but in
his style ; Pecock forestalls the writers of 1600 in his long
sentences (some of seventy words), and in his use of the
parenthesis j see p. 86.
He is fond of Latin words, and often employs Latin
constructions, such as the Accusative coupled with the
Infinitive ; he has all Orrmin's love of the Passive Voice,
as weren to he blamed, p. 227. He frequently repeats a
foreign construction, such as, mth other therto H reson dewe
drcwmstauncis, p. 1 ; her projpre to hem houndis, p. 32 ; prech-
ing has his dew wisdi to he don exercise, p. 90 ; something
altogether new in English. He likes to couple Teutonic
and Eomance words, as leeve and licence, donaU/wris or
^evers, p. 412. He is fond of Manning's wolde God, and
often has the Northern corruption seen in thou tookist.
He has the Northern phrases to make a^ens it and the
utterist degree. He sticks to the Southern hem, thUke, and
clepe, and the Plural of the Present Tense, forms which
were now going out. He gives us a well-known proverb
anent familiarity ; overmyche homeliness with a thing gendrith
dispising, p. 184. Pecock illustrates our English fondness
for ew by turning the Latin subducere into stihdewe. We
see lomid (solutus), p. 517, just as we pronounce the word
He inserts the t>, and so talks of a thoru^ faar (thorough
fare), p. 621.
He has ways of his own in forming the endings of Sub-
stantives j thus he adds er to old words in his first page,
and gives us the overer, the netherer ; he uses a French end-
ing when writing overte (superiority), p. 299 ; also gold-
smythi (the trade), p. 60. He is the first, I think, to
employ hadnes, p. 106. He is fond of ing in the Plural,
writing holdingis (tenets), mMngis; he gives us our common
word feelingis, p. 87, using it for sentmtioe ; also suffirvngis,
failingis. We see the Plural aimsssis, p. 560. It was a
276 THE NEW ENGLISH. [ohap.
custom about this time to set un before old words very
freely; Pecock has tli& unhavyiig of thiSy p. 89 ; mcmy im-
hdpis (lets), p. 108. He employs Plural nouns in new
senses, as natwrdl hdpis; he makes a substantive of an
adverb, m othere wheris (places), p. 27. He has phrases
like itis in, bemgy p. 12 ; mis vmdirsUmdmg ; a rcUeler out of
textiSy p. 88 ; rriodir tv/nge; his dai laibowr; the lotting (allot-
ting) of cwnireeSy p. 198 ; a hrigge at his laste cast, p. 338 ;
here we now make ga^ the word at the end. • He coins a
new substantive in " Goddis forhode be it but that," etc. ;
this he often uses, dropping the be; see p. 537. He uses
schaft, p. 28, for the stem of a tree ; hence we employ it
for colvmna. He calls the Lollards owe Bible men^ and
doctour mongers ; the last part of the compound was creep-
ing into more extended use ; the heretics called themselves
knowwa m^n, p. 53. He has i^e si^t, leevis (in a book). He
has both clock and orologe in the same page, 118; but
avoids Lydgate's word dial, though describing the thing.
He tells us that the part is sometimes used for the whole,
giving as an illustration the Old English habit of employ-
ing the word winters for years, p. 161. Another old sense
of a word is seen in " foulis and their briddis " (pulli).
The Southern Genitive Plural appears once more in lewen
preestis (ludseorum). We see in p. 371 "whether he be
^73^ s<iuyer, gentilman ; " here a distinction seems to be
made between the two last words.
Among the Adjectives we see naught turned into an
adjective, p. 430 ; nau^t and badde ; we now add a y to it.
In p. 552 stands lordli Pecock is fond of the foreign able
as an ending for adjectives ; he has wnberoMe, seable, smelle-
able, doable, and many such ; this we first saw in Hampole
and WickliflFe. He sometimes tries the foreign ose or otbs ;
craftsmen appear as craftiose men, p. 450 ; there is also
costiose.
As to Pronouns, whiche stands for the kindred gualis
almost for the last time, p. 313, as well as for qui, quod ;
it is often used here as the Neuter Relative. In p. 99
comes the curious whatever (thing) whiche. In p. 171 we
have what is it to us that, etc. In p. 492 comes deedis whos
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 277
forhering is, etc. (reframing from which), a rare idiom.
Instead of whose, in p. 215 is found the iugem&ni of whom
ever hath seen, Pecock likes to couple two or three syno-
nyms ; thus he has oonli or aloone, p. 1 2. There is ech such
man, p. 243; eny oon person, p. 384; also the new repetitive
idiom tvdxe persoon and persoon, reirnne cmd rewme, p. 460 ;
eny man, preest or no preest, p. 295. He is always bringing
in two words of his own coining, euereUher and neverneither.
He Englishes multwm thus, bi a greet ded ; we now drop
the U, Instead of our "so much for that," he has the
short sharp sentence, thus miche there, p. 197.
Among the Verbs we remark would beginning to
encroach upon shovM (oportet) ; as if so, it wolde folewe
that, etc., p. 24; thou^ a man wolde denye, p. 186 ; still in
Pecock should sometimes keeps its old place. In p. 95 stands
thou^ Ood schvlde not and wolde not suffire ; we have now all
but dropped the should, except as a synonym for debere,
though we still say, "it should seem that." The shall, as
in Manning, is used for soleo ; thei han mouth and thei schulen
not speke, p. 163. In p. 112 we hear of a sermxm to he
prechid ; the alovi, which we should insert after the noun,
had not yet appeared in this sense. Two Infinitives Pass-
ive are strangely bracketed in, what ou^te he askid to he doon,
p. 517. In p. 351 stands bileeve (it) to he trewe. There
are phrases like horn into liif, renne thorny (a book), make
an assaut, make proof of, make a ^ifte, make no difference,
make omswer, prechingis rennen arere (into arrear), p. 90, c^
sewtis and servicis, lock it up, han no plaice in matters of
faith, have part and lott in, have access, a wed tried reveladoun,
hear office, die thingis considerid, hold residence, turn jewelis
into money, Pecock coins a verb in ooned (united) to God,
p. 41 ; also to unworship God, p. 64 ; later writers made
this distvorship; to strengthe it, p. 67, to he hodied (em-
bodied), p. 245. A curious Latin idiom is, it is wcUkid
ari^t, p. 75. The revenues are said to schrink (become
less), p. 347 ; in p. 374 a leg is said to loll (dangle) from
a stirrup ; Piers Ploughman had long before spoken of lazy
devotees as toilers. In p. 648 we hear of the hlasing
colour of dress ; something like our loud patterns. In p.
278 THE NEW ENGLISH. [ohap.
563 Lollards, speaking of the Eucharist, myscall U bi foule
names; the first hint of our calling names. In p. 102
stands ther cams inio my knowing^ that (came to my know-
ledge) ; in p. 246 ydolatrie came wp. In p. 377 stands he mat
avorthi (afford) to have ; here the old ifor^iein loses the sense
of perficerey and the idea of command of money comes in.
Among the Adverbs we see m,en comen rathir (sooner) or
latir, p. 94; o/ ^Ae newe (anew). In p. 19 stands Tnen
musten needis gratmte; we can now never use this old
adverb (nearly all its old strength is gone) except after
must; in p. 192 Pecock coins nedisli. There is a change
of meaning in " to speke wiiMeli" p. 72, referring to hyper-
bole ; we have piththeli. The that is dropped in y am sUdr
(that) thei vxMen^ p. 71. In p. 370 we have esUier^ and
in p. 268 the corrupt esier, which is here a comparative
adverb ; in p. 159 comes knele louder (lower). In p. 267
stands whanne and whUis he is present ; the coupling of
these is something new. Pecock is fond of imitating the
Latin quin ; not so myche lasse hit that, etc., p. 344 ; y can
not see hit that, etc., p. 433. In p. 350 stands so or so or
so it is writun, which is unusual. The notvnthstandin^ is
employed for qtuimvis, p. 355, and for tamsn, p. 402, no
that following in either instance. The as is still further
developed, for it stands before Passive as well as Active
Participles ; take it as for doon (done), to which Pecock adds
the explanation, or as thows it had he doon, p. 394.
Turning to Prepositions, he is fond of anentis ; he has
gift tmder trust, m large lengthe (at great length), p. 563.
He often prefixes iip to verbs. He objects to fore as a
prefix, for he has the before goyng conclusioun, p. 167 ; he is
guilty of the strange blunder, to Uforbar (prohibere) a thing,
p. 477, where the verb is the French bar, and where the
intensive for should be prefixed, as in the verb forpamper.
Pecock is fond of setting over (nimis) before Eomance
adjectives, as over contagiose, in p. 345 ; according to a
favourite idiom of his he has over and above it'; but he couples
more than two prepositions in his out, fro, and bi cm occasioim,
p. 327. He employs toward in a new sense; toward the
eende (of a book), p. 303. In p. 458 he has of liik state
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 279
vMhy a new idiom, where the preposition supplants as. We
see obiecciouns Uholdmg the bible, p. 85 ; this is the first hint
of our regarding used as a Preposition.
Among his Eomance words we see lay men, waastful,
poMis of lawe, vitvperacmm, neviralis, unsavory (sermon),
necessarUi, hahitmli, alloweoMi, usiudi, dbhorre, to cumpeny
with, a concordaunce (for the Bible), a reverevd persoan (man),
rehercd, assignees. We see how many long foreign adverbs
Pecock brought in. He has to dress iwrds to (address), p.
2; streyn a text, p. 58. We see the substantive choice (pur-
pose), p. 42. The Latin form is often preferred to the
French; we see the conversis (converts), p. 69; cartis or
chartovnis are coupled in p. 402. We find graceful in the
sense of gratus, p. 66 ; curiose in p. 245 is something
strange that cannot be understood, reminding us once
more of qmird. In p. 68 attend to is used in the French
sense (eospectare) ; in p. 85 it is used in our present sense
of the word (operam dare). In p. 135 we find waite to be
hoosUid ; here the first verb, bearing the sense of rrwrari,
governs an Infinite Passive. In p. 74 we read of sensitif
wit (referring to the five senses); in p. 519 we see in one
sentence, intoard sensityve wyttis amd outward sensUyve wyttis.
In p. 88 detect means to inform against ; the verb in this
sense comes often in Lollard trials seventy years after this
time. In p. 103 we see improve with the meaning reda/r-
guere; and in p. 120 comendyng gets the new sense of laus.
The adjective symple means stultus in p. 157; it means
honsstus in p. 272. In p. 183 something is doon in the
better forme (way) ; the last noun has in our day come into
great vogue. In p. 450 we read of badde maners (con-
duct); in p. 519 maner means custom. Pecock gives, in p.
484, the two meanings borne in his time by the word
religumn,, touching on the well-known passage in St. James.
He clings to the old way of forming the comparative of
Adjectives, even if they be Eomance, for he has evydenter
and perfiter ; there are also vertuosenes, quietnes, contrariose,
prestial (priestly), religiosite. He prefixes v/n to Romance
words, as vmfruytful, unusOd, p. 431. For mnea he has both
vyner, p. 389, and vyne gardein, p. 383. He makes qpinioun
28o THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
and Chwrch masculine, calling them he, pp. 96 and 334.
Pecock continues our old verb stie, but brings in ascend^
the stranger that was to supplant it. He has a favourite
phrase of ours, vrumye ^eeris in successiauriy p. 306. In p.
477 stands expropriat poverte, that is, a state of life that
forbids holding property.
The famous ballad of * Chevy Chase ' may date from
about 1450. Here we find the Northern Jamy ; also
driver and speamum. The word like is used in a new
sense (ut decet); Douglas marshals his host, lyk a cheffe
chef ten of pryde. We see meet him on man for on (man to
man). The half stands before a Passive Participle, as half
done.
The Stasyons of Jerusalem (Horstmann, ^ Altenglische
Legenden') may belong to 1450. We hear of Candy
(Crete), p. 356, and we find the word quaryntyne in p. 365;
it here means the place where Christ fasted forty days.
We read of the covere of conies, p. 361, a new form ; it was
usually covert. The traveller is struck by the fact that the
Latin clergy at Jerusalem wore long beards ; they were
barefooted friars, p. 359.
In the same volume, p. cxxL, may be found the word
herthstede, whence comes our fire place, in a document of this
age-
There are some poems in * Religious and Love Poems *
(Early English Text Society), pp. 62, 95, 215, which seem
to belong to 1450. The Southern Imperative, ending in
eth, comes often ; on the other hand, there is the Northern
in no hyns wise. We see weel at Mr ease, where the pro-
noun is something new. There are the new phrases better
saide thanne doon, I betake me to, etc. In p. 217 we hear of
a soukyng sore ; this shows us the source of Tyndale's soak-
ing consumption. Among the Eomance words we find
obstynate. We see the form defyled, p. 104 ; like the pre-
vious undefiled.
There are many pieces, dating from about 1460, scat-
tered through the * Eeliquise Antiquse.' In i. 91 stands
a curious mixture of English and Latin in hexameters, be-
gmning with an invective against fleas, flies, and friars—
II.] THE NE W ENGLISH, 281
'' Fratres Carmeli navigant in a bothe (boat) apud Eli,
• •••••
Omnes drencherunt, quia sterisman non habuerunt."
Something not unlike these lines has come down to the
schoolboys of our own day.
In i. 324 stands
*'Isgote eate yvy.
Mare eate ootys."
I well remember, about 1860, hearing in Devonshire
the line, rapidly pronounced, as a puzzle —
" Can a mare eat hay ? can a goat eat ivy % "
A favourite usage of schoolboys dates from 1450 or so;
we see in ii 163 —
*' He that stelys this booke
Shul be hanged on a hooke.
• ■ • *
Whane yee this boke have over-redde and seyne,
To Johan Shirley restore yee it ageine."
There are several other couplets of this kind given here.
The phrase " not at home " was used to troublesome visitors
in 1450 ; see i. 271. In L 2 is a poem on the miseries of
the sea. There is the sailor's cry, y how (yoho) ; we hear
of the bote svmyne and the stetuard, who is ordered to bring
a pot of here ; this beverage had hitherto been hardly men-
tioned at all. The passengers also partake of a saltyd tost,
the first appearance of this last word as a noun. The word
Tnaie is used, like fellow on land. The command is given,
vere the shete ; the verb is French ; the sheie for the first
time stands for velum.
In the Treatise on hawking the former Tomme is now
cut down to Tom, L 84. We see the new Substantives
dovecote, guicsand, nightcap, grub. In i. 25 comes 7 am your
mart,, addressed to a lady ; this noun we usually address
to a comrade. We hear of the ruff (roof) of the mouth,
i. 300. There is the Shakesperian eyas, used of a hawk,
L 294.
Among the Adjectives we find lyght of love, i. 28 ; a
woman is called chiri ripe (ripe as a cherry), i. 248.
282 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
Among the Verbs are /w5cfe (put up game), hMU.
There is gagvl^ used of the noise made by a goose ; hence
Bishop Montague's book, nearly two Centuries later, called
* A Gag for a Goose.' There are the phrases hive lovers
in handf drive the dust in his eye, keep (maintain) a wife, to
hold ahacke, set foot there, take payne. The proper technical
words for hawking are given in i. 293 ; a hawk eyrs
(the French aire means nidtts), but does not breed ; hence
came eyri^ ; so in p. 296 a hawk nivn& its prey, but does not
take it ; a covey is merked (marked), p. 297. When we
say, " I cannot help it," help means prevent ; we see the
source of this in p. 301 ; thai the hawke schal not dye thus a
man may help hit. The two forms lorn and lost occur in
one line, i. 60.
As to the Prepositions, in i. 261 stands rwwefor the fourth
poyrUe ; this for had hitherto been to.
There is the Scandinavian ^owTU^er, the fish.
Among the French words are salpetre, sausage, trinket,
vitriol, radish, decrese, rnoney maker. The word galant had
been so long in use that it gives birth to gdlantnesse, i. 75
(bravery of apparel) ; gallcmt and hrave later underwent the
same change of meaning. In i 77 nyse loses its old
meaning of stultus, and bears the exactly opposite sense of
discriminating judgment ; a meaning it may still bear. In
L 303 we have both the old triade and the new ireade ; it
here loses the sense of remedium and gains its present
meaning. We learn in i. 296 to speak of a covey of part-
ridges, and of a bevy of quails. In i. 28 is the common be
rewlyd by me. In the next page, Stafford bletve seems to
have been as famous as Lincoln green.
The Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry (Early
English Text Society) was compiled in French in 1372,
and was translated into English about fourscore years later.
It may be due to Salop ; we see the forms seing that, melke,
kesse, fere (ignis); there are the Northern nor, are, sen
(quoniam), eggis (ova), manered, as in * Piers Ploughman,'
and levde (libidinosus, p. 23), Myrc's sense. There are
many Southern forms, such as suster, beth, thUke, ydo, she nis
not, moche ; we find in one sentence the two old forms of
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 283
the Imperative, kamithe ym and heres therofy p. 83 ; there
are both thair and her (illorum) ; the Southern her follows
a Northern idiom and becomes heres (theirs), p. 53. The
English word for svMa had been pronounced in Southern
England like the French (nU or ioid; but in p. 67 it is
written all, just as we pronounce it, following the unusual
sound of WickliflFe*s dl. There is the very old form heriels
(sepulchrum) ; other parts of England had clipped the last
letter ; there is also sUhe (time), and the form wonder de-
vouty p. 8 ; this way of expressing the Superlative had been
peculiar to the Severn country for 250 years; there are,
moreover, the Severn transpositions nwe (novus) and renue ;
the old ^(ms has the usual Severn insertion piteousy p. 136.
The r is added, for the old splent becomes sfplinteTy p. 9.
Among the Substantives we see the form is used to
form the Genitive, both for female and Plural nouns;
mention is made of daughters, and then comes atte the
eldest ys houSy p. 9. We see hayte used in connexion with
fishing, p. 69. The modem use of our gossip is fully ex-
plained in p. 96, where one godsih passes on to another a
wondrous tale, " till all the centre spake therof." We
hear of a cutting of vynes, p. 8, used to form a bed ; hence
a well-known term in gardening.
JAmong the Adjectives we see brayne sik, p. 20 ; hate
langagSy p. 19. As in the * Promptorium ' the word fresh,
applied to dress, is used as a synonym for gay all through
the book ; so fresh and fair have been coupled ever since.
The adjective mannisshe is applied to ^'a woman that is
not humble and pitous,'' p. 136; this ish has often since
been used to express an evil shade of meaning, like bearish,
louiish.
The Nominative of the Pronoun replaces the rightful
Dative in she hadd ben beter to have been stUle, p. 32 ; the old
out of his mt becomes oute of hym 5e^ (beside himself), p. 6.
In p. 81 we see the phrase she had not (nought) to do there,
" no business there." There is a long expression for nemo
in p. 69 ; iw maner of man.
Among the verbs we see misanswer, put in the vxiy
of, bear record, axe (in marriage), how fde ye yov/re sdfX
284 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
When we see grapped^ p. 139, the Perfect of grip, there is
a kind of compromise between the Strong and Weak form.
There is the curious idiom (she) lost the king to he her
hushond, p. 19. One Severn idiom of this work, he made
as they (though), p. 77, has been brought into our Bible
by Tyndale. In p. 126 stands ne hadde it he that, etc.
(" had it not been that "), a common idiom in our days.
The former hihahhen now appears as hehave herself , p. 127 ;
there is the noun hehaving, soon to be supplanted by
another form of the word. In our day a person " has the
last word," the source of this is in p. 28 ; she let him have
the wordes (all the talk). In former times men let crie
festis ; in p. 1 10 the first verb is altered into madey following
French usage. In p. 11 men tuynde up water at a well ;
this expression was later transferred to watches and mer-
cantile affairs.
Among the Adverbs we find derkeling, p. 21, where the
old ling is applied to an Adjective, just as sideling and
hedlinge (headlong) had been already struck off. A woman
is not to answer her husband overthwartly (crossly, p. 28) ;
but across was now beginning to supplant the older athvxirt.
We have right so in p. 143, where we now say just so. In
p. 52 stands or ever were saide masse ; this curious or ever
came into the Bible later; it is like where ever a/re you coming ?
As to the Prepositions, we see marry him into (a
family), p. 18. The idiom at the least is carried a little
further; in p. 81 stands atte the hardest (our at the worst).
We saw in Salop, about 1220, have a dear hargain on (in)
ms ; we now find, in p. 33, we are deceived m you. In p.
166 comes not so /aire hi the seventhepart as, etc, we should
say, "not a seventh part so fair." A French idiom, first
adopted in the *Percival,' 15.0 years earlier, is continued;
here is a faire hody of a woman, p. 38 ; like our " he is a fine
figure of a man."
There is one Scandinavian verb, it hoted not (availed not),
p. 66 ; here no Accusative follows, as 130 years before.
This work, as might have been expected, abounds in
French phrases ; the writer often does not trouble himself
to translate, writing Sampson the fort, parent (kinsman).
n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 285
cffwrom^i verres (glasses), scorche (flay) ; the old form roidlme
is found. There are, besides, the verbs goormawnde^ puissant,
famissh, resuscU, to gage bataUe, disarm^ to he storied (rehearsed),
to endoctrine orphelyns, usance (mos), incontenent (statim),
custvmer (solitus). In p. 130 stands a plvmme tre jprwner ;
here we have the French added to the very old English
synonym. In p. 148 the Virgin calls herself the chaumbrere
(ancilla) of God ; but the word has a bad meaning in p. 30,
where evil women in France make themselves chmnibreres to
Englishmen ; hence comes the " chambering and wanton-
ness " of our Bible. In p. 128 a* Queen is attended by her
gentUle wmnan. In p. 149 the Virgin shows courtesy and
good nature on her visit to Elizabeth ; the latter phrase was
not to reappear till long afterwards. In p. 146 there
may be recoveraunce (regaining) of time, as well as of sick-
ness. In p. 137 men ought to he in charite togedre; in the
next page cha/ritahle is opposed to unforgiving. In p. 28
we hear of evdle langage (bad language). In p. 84 symple,
coupled with debonaire, expresses our easy-going / there is a
shade of difference between this and humble, one of the
old senses of simple. In p. 154 a lady is required (sought)
in marriage ; hence our " be in great request ; " the verb,
like desire, will express either rogare or jubere. In p. 106 we
hear of the faon (fawn) of a lion. There is the portentous
compound distoorship.^ In p. 90 a wicked woman is paied ;
we should say paid out. In p. 110 we read of excessive
vayne glorie ; this paved the way for Tyndale*s use of exced-
ing (vald^) instead of the old passing, Samson, in p. 93, is
led to the maister pUlour of the hall; Macaulay*s word
master-piece is in our time encroached upon by the penny-
a-liner's chef d'omvre.
The * Book of Curtesye ' (Early English Text Society),
composed by an old pupil of Lydgate's, may date from
about 1450; it abounds with Imperatives in eth, soon to
vanish altogether. The interchange between u and v is
plainly seen in dememre (demure), p. 10. The later French
^ I have lately seen a Magazine article, headed '*A Dishorned
Nation." Do these people suppose that the particle un has dropped
out of existence ?
286 THE NE W ENGLISH, [oh ap.
sound of cA is introduced in schirche (church), p. 10. The
wordftUsumnesse keeps its old meaning of copia in p. 40; but
in p. 26 fidsom means satur. There is ajpish, p. 48. A flog-
ging is called a berchdy fest, p. 30 ; the first hint of the
English tree of knowledge. We read of bhv/rUe langage, p.
46. An Adjective is intensified by prefixing a substantive ;
in p. 6 we hear that nails ought not to be geet (jet) bloke.
The pronoun he stands for one in "p. 6 ; this chUde is he that
is well taught. Among the Verbs are fecch a compace, pley
Jakke malapert (Tomfool), ye have you (behave you), p. 16.
The Romance words are pertinent, advertyse, to brace, cyrcum-
spectly, refprocheahle ; attendaunce stands for our attention, p.
12. We now talk of "quality and quantity;" in p. 14
we read, lette maner and mesure be youre guydes twey. There
is interru^te, one of the forms derived from the Latin Par-
ticiple, not from the French Infinitive.
The trainer of youth who wrote the ' Book of Gurtesye'
directs their attention to the old English poets ; Chaucer
has seldom been awarded higher praise than in p. 34 ; he
turned our ears into eyes; his language seemed to his
countrymen
*' * Not only the worde, but verrely the thing.* "
The * Chester Mysteries ' (edited by Mr. Wright for the
Shakespere Society) may have been compiled about 1450 ;
they have come down to us in a transcript made 140 years
later. We see, by the rimes, what the original must have
been in the following instances ; —
Original. Transcript,
In fere (simul) In freye, i. 126.
Repreved Reproved.
Breres Breyers.
Bame (puer) Baron.
Fere (procul) Farre.
Has Hath.
Dalte Dealed. .
Segh (vidi) Seinge, ii. 77.
In p. 174 we see swavne written for the old sfwoun. (our
swoon) ; a curious instance of the double sound of oy, which
must have led to the mistake. There are very old words
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 287
like heames (tubse) and thester (tenebrse), which seem to have
died out of the South by this time ; there is the Scandi-
navian hethen (hinc). On the other hand, we see Southern
forms, as irmerUe, 00 (unus), and sometimes seith (quoniam).
Much Latin is used for the stage directions ; some of these
Latin words seem to have been Englished much later ; in
i. 57 stands havinge restored, a new idiom which cannot
well have been set down in writing before 1520. We
also see common wele altered into common wdthy iL 82.
The seinge that (quoniam), which so often appears, carries
us back to the * Lollard Apology' in 1400. Cheshire is
not far from Piers Ploughman's country ; we see his word
pevishe/ his daffe (stultus) and ratoun now hecome dafte
and rotten. The old nagere (our auger) is still preserved,
i 107.
Among the new Substantives are bo&sprUte, whippecord,
Cain speaks of my dadde and mam; afterwards comes mame
cmd dadd; these forms are spread over many lands. In i.
52 gossip bears the meaning of the Latin comes, losing its
religious sense. The audience is addressed, i. 91, as Lordes
and Ladyes that bene presente (our " ladies and gentlemen ").
The old deal (pars) is now replaced by hit; my bodye
bumes every e hitte, ii. 184. The form gammon is written
for gam£ all through. In L 175 stands the phrase at yow
becJce,
Among the Adjectives is dvishe. In i. 229 stands the
new phrase thy omne (own) dere.
We find, i. 184, have thou one (a blow) ; here one has no
antecedent ; we still say, " that's one for his nob." In i
215 stands it is the vereye same; here very retains a trace
of ipse^ as we saw in Chaucer's writings.
As to the Verbs, we may remark the curious mixture of
Southern and Midland forms in the Plurals ; beasts that
creepethyftyne, or gone, L 22. In i. 55 you mon (must) hruywe
stands by itself ; the phrase is now common. There are
take a turns with (have a bout with) ; fiye out of his skynne,
i. 151 ; brew thin, ii. 82 ; loke up (search Out) a book (found
in the * Paston Letters ' about this time) ; slea them downe,
like the bwm down of the year 1300.
288 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
We have seen to my kmwledge ; we now have to my
deemyngej to yov/r likynge.
As to Interjections, Marye is an oath used by Noah, i.
54. There is a stage direction, i. 136, smge troly loly,
something like tra la la. In L 218 stands the curse, a ven-
gance on them; this prefixing the article is curious. We
see in iL 57 the Shakesperian anoriy Matster, arum/ equal to
our "coming, Sir."
The Scandinavian words are filly (equa) and the verb
tipple. In ii. 142 we read of skewed horses, the first hint
of our skewhall ; this seems to come from the Danish skvev
(obliquus), irregularly marked.
Ainong the French words we see baronete coupled with
barrones and burges. There is the phrase wageivarre, i. 173,
where the verb takes a new meaning ; also to catUk b, ship.
We often see Chaucer's / cofQ/ag&r thee in the sense of obsecro.
The Devil is spoken of as Ruffyne^ i. 1 7, which perhaps led
to our ruffian.
In the York wills, ranging between 1451 and 1458, we
remark in p. 175 that a yoman in the house is sharply dis-
tinguished from a grome and a hyen (hind); we read of
lytUl Nanne, a curious instance of n being prefixed. We
see the verb tuUl (in the sense of bequeath), ii. 149; in p. 192
stands the old to overlife me ; the over in compounds, when
referring to time, was thirty years later to be replaced by
out. There is the term resedenter (resident), used by Lord
Scrope, p. 191 ; this still lingers in Scotland. In p. 176
we hear of the jornenall (journal), which Constable, a York-
shire squire, bore always in his sleeve; these two pages
are full of Northern forms.
In the *Paston Letters,* between 1448 and 1460, we
mark the lingering traces of the Norfolk dialect, soon to
vanish from the correspondence of the educated. Sir John
Fastolf (the Shakesperian hero) talks in his will of Mikel
Yermuth, and has gove (datum), farthyst (not the proper
furthest); he also uses the Northern Imperative ^^sendis me
word,'* p. 94 ; having lived long in France, he writes moyen
for mea/n, p. 309, and ayle (avus), p. 362. Agnes Paston,
one of the old school, bom about 1400, often writes the
n.] ■ THE NEW ENGLISH. 289
Infinitive in m, and uses the rewli (rueful) of the Grenesis
and Exodus poem, p. 219. William Paston has a (he) t6k&
me, p. 302, much in the style of Robert of Brunne ; and a
Lincolnshire knight talks of women mylkand kine, p. 98.
On the other hand, we hear of " pillows of a lasser assyse "
(size), p. 478. The word assuage appears as squage, p. 160,
like the East Anglian squilk (talis) of the year 1280. The
forms syns and nor appear in Norfolk use in the year 1450;
see p. 179 ; the old chapitle has not been quite ousted by
chapter, p. 395. The Duke of York employs the Northern
form chUdre (liberi), while the Duke of Suflfolk has the
Southern axe (rogare). One of the most amusing things
in the * Letters ' is Friar Brackley's dog Latin, which is
sometimes worthy of Moli^re's quacks. See L 524.
As to the Vowels, a replaces e; we see harbyger, an
official sent on before his Lord, p. 525 ; initial a is clipped,
for we see larum. The city of Debylyn has not yet become
Dublin, p. 505. The y is prefixed in yelfate, p. 490 ; the
Scotch still say yill for ale. The a becomes i in Yimmis
(James), p. 514; whence our Jim, Warwick writes goud
for the old gode (bonus), p. 95 ; and the proper name Shvldam
stands in p. 191, one of the few words in which we still
keep the true old sound of u. We see in these letters
both the old Bewcham and the new Bemond. The Duke of
York turns the rihtwus of 1303 into rigMuous (Introduction,
Ixxx.), not far from our righteous. The old honur is much
altered, for we hear of " dishonneurs and losses," p. 259.
As to Consonants, h is inserted in debt, p. 370, an un-
lucky imitation of the Latin ; the same takes place with p,
for attempte stands in p. 457. There is a transposition of
letters in p. 172, where the King's taxes become ta^skys, a
word used in the 'Cursor Mundi.' In p. 93 "having
rewarde to" is written for "having regard to;" this may
also be seen in Pecock. The d is struck out in the middle;
for we see Wenstay (Wednesday), written by the learned
Botoner, p. 414. The w at the beginning of a word van-
ishes ; hede oman (mulier) is in p. 343 ; this is often heard
in our time. The letter z is constantly written for the old
3, our consonant y.
VOL. I. ^
290 THE NEW ENGLISH. ' [chap.
Among the new Substantives we find Jumd-gun, vxirehows,
hynsefolke, rydyngkoode^ fornoon^ forecastdl. The powerful
Suffolk uses the phrase /rom kynrede to kynrede, p. 122 ; here
we now substitute a Latin noun. Chaucer's brew-hcmse now
becomes browei'e, our brewery, p. 250. King Henry VI., in
p. 329, is said to threaten, / shal destrye them every moder
sone. In p. 462 a house is to be pulled down, every stone
arid stikke therof. In p. 512 stands (he) and ye bene greie
frendes ; here the grete replaces the former good. In p.
428 we hear of xxviii. sayle (naves) ; this sail is one of
the few English words that may be either Singular or
Plural. In p. 526 lyflod stands for a man's land, or, as we
should say, his estate.
Among the new Adjectives we remark hevedy, our heady,
p. 514 ; it was long before the old heafod (caput) parted
with its middle consonant. In p. 125 we read that Suffolk
was beheaded by oon of the lewdeste of the shippe ; here the
adjective takes the new meaning of v^is. In p. 224 tall is
used where we should now say firve ; on of the tallest younge
men; proper and tall go together in English ballads.
Botoner, in his own phrase, p. 369, writes blontly; that is,
" with little elegance."
King Henry the Fifth's change is imitated in a letter of
Parson Howes ; otJier, like our some, had usually been both
Singular and Plural ; but in p. 311 we find otherez, and in
p. 404 othyrs ; the older form still lingers in our Bible.
Among the Verbs may be remarked go lose (loose), peke.
a gwarell, hold fote wyth (keep step with), p. 189 ; he turned
pale colowr, p. 158; fysh the water, bear chargys, ley upp
money, thei wylle laboren all that in hem lyeth (Agnes Paston,
p. 423) ; breke the nmter to, breke aweye (effugere), left for
dede, they have as moche as they may do to kep them down, p.
541. Friar Brackley has the curious find no bonys (scruples)
in the maiere, p. 444 ; a Century later they substituted make
iorfmd. In p. 83 stands /aZ/ infelaschepe with, the source
of OUT fall in with, and the military /a/Z in. A most curious
phrase, where we have to search for a dropped Nominative,
stands in p. 361 ; Fastolf ys owyng for his reward ; that is,
" money is in owing to Fastolf ;" something like this phrase
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 291
of the year 1455 has already been seen in 1410. The
ruling idea is debetur, not debet. There is another curious
confusion of the Verbal Noun with the Active Participle in
p. 510, I am yn hUdyng of ft pore hous ; here the two pre-
positions are not needed ; the ungrammatical he a fighting
was to come two generations later. In p. 392 something
is in doyng ; here we should now, most incorrectly, drop
the in. In p. 360 a verb is dropped ; baronies were gotten
by Fastolf, and no charge to the King ; hence comes and no
blame to him. In p. 514 the verb brohe takes the new
meaning tolerare ; it had hitherto expressed only its kindred
form fruL In p. 535 certain persons are m/ide for evir ;
something like the make a rnan of him of 1320. Seamen
are ordered to stryke, p. 85 ; here the Accusative flag is
dropped.
As to the Prepositions, we find Thursday by thefarthyst,
iii. 425, where by replaces the older at. We have long ago
seen out of his wits, out of reason ; we now find he is owte of
charite with him, p. 393. The after is coupled with nouns,
so as to form one word ; an aftr m^ater, p. 540 ; fore had
long been used in this way. A new Preposition appears
in p. 85, / cam abord the Admirall. As to the new words
found here, the Dutch vier (quatuor) produced our ferhyn,
fourth-kin, since it holds the fourth of a barrel. The
same people seem to have given us warff (wharf).
Among the Eomance words stand a letter (bill) of ex-
schawnge, p. 78 ; romer (rumour), flagon, saltsaler, streytly
charge hem, to quyte us lyke men, joyn batayle, factors (agents),
a debentur, p. 364 ; to sort things, to scryble, good conducte,
an ante date, to audyt accompts, polUyk, a servaunt domysticall,
(counter) pane, curass, Morysch daunce, solicitour, trotter. In
p. 274 stands she laboured of hir child (Ilithyia) ; in p. 321
to labore the jury, like our " work the oracle. '^ In Norfolk
carry hay seems to have been the right phrase, p. 219 ;
some shires talk of leading it. In p. 427 a town is refreshed
(refurnished) with ordnance, a French phrase that comes
in Froissart ; hence " to refresh the memory." The French
verb Saumer gives us an instrument, here called a shjmer.
In p. 480 a piece of linen is said to be of a certain len^K^
292 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
cmintyng lerUhe and brede; the Participle is used like Chaucer's
considering. The legal verb demvr is used, not for moraH,
but for obstare, in p. 90. We see Teutonic endings iu
symplenesse, malissiousness ; and 'grievom is written gravewis
in p. 97, a curious imitation of the old rihiwis ; in p. 134
the weapon hrigantine is written bregandym, as if it had
something to do with Teutonic iron ; in p. 303 appears a
jantylmanly man, where man comes twice over. In p. 172
manage and housold are coupled. A sister of the Pastons
speaks of her husband as my m/iyster, p. 435, much as Mrs.
Thrale did ; a Norfolk Prior sends a letter to my Sovereyn,
John Faston, and subscribes himself your orator, p. 78. A
priest is called Doktor Grene, p. 350. In p. 380 we hear
of dvhhle intendementz ; this by no means implies the vicious
meaning conveyed by the French phrase that we have used
for the last 200 years. In iii. 428 very is used by Fastolf
in a new sense ; my very last mile ; it is like making the
adjective a Superlative. In p. 5 1 4 furrwus stands for iratus ;
the Y&rh fume took this sense in France during the Fifteenth
Century. Friar Brackley, in a sermon, uses audacUe,
affluens, and perfigU (perfect).
In * Gregory's Chronicle,' between 1450 and 1460, we
find mention of Beuley Abbey in Hampshire, the place now
written Beaulieu ; one of the few words that are left to
show the old sound of eau in both French and English.
Jack Cade's men are called ryffe raffe ; we hear of a laade-
lord in connexion with the tenancy of houses, p. 199 ; the
new phrase the aftyr none appears, p. 204. The verbs are
put to a rebuke, take (houses) for a terme, leve owte (things).
Two men fighting went togedyr by the neckys, p. 202 ; hence
our "set by the ears." In p. 191 stands haife besyde hyr
wytte; it was now long since beside had expressed extra.
The French words are his costys (costs) (in the Plural), p.
203; bacheler of devynite ; be Uowe (allowed) 2^' p. 199 ;
here the first syllable must have been mistaken for the
Past Participle's prefix ; the verb had expressed give credit
for a hundred years earlier.
In the * Rolls of Parliament,' between the years 1450
and 1460, we find an instance of the English habit of
IT.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 293
docking the final vowel of foreign names ; just aa we have
done with the names of Machiavelli and Titiano ; in p.
214 we read of Ambrose Spinull (Spinola) of Genoa. The
a replaces e, as gcuol^ not the old ged. At the bottom of p.
280 come the verbs imply and emploiey two forms of the
Latin implicate; both are here used in our sense of the
words; helpour stands for helper. We see Chaucer's markis
give way to Tnarquoys, p. 394, the oy being sounded like
the French e; our marquis is a compound of the two
forms. The former irUeresse now becomes inter est, p. 185 ;
the t being added. In p. 194 servants of the Crown, such
as porters, etc., are often styled yoraen ; we hear of the
derk of oure Grenedoth, p. 197, and the derk of our hanaper,
p. 317. In p. 182 comes the ill-omened sterre diambre.
In p. 285 the phrase their good Lordshippes is employed for
domini In p. 325 appear the sUkewymmen, a very old
London trade, as we are here told. In p. 204 stand gonne
powder and longebowes; here the adjective and substantive
are coupled, to make a sharp distinction from crossbow.
The late form mornyng (mane) is stamped with Royal
sanction, p. 282. In p. 300 we read of a crue of ccc men ;
soldiers, not sailors; this word is Scandinavian. In p. 225
comes the curious phrase a setter-forth of a shippe, like
Pecock's a roller out of texts; it is not often that the adverb
stands close to the noun that expresses the agent. In p.
184 we read of the parish of Much Billy ng; this word
for magnus is still sometimes found in towns of Southern
England, just as Mikd is still used in the North for the
same purpose. There is a curious idiom of pronouns in
p. 384, in whos handes so evere they be, A habit is now
coming in of setting un before Passive Participles; we
have here unspotted and unbrused, p. 280. We see the
phrases lie dormxint, pight tents, call to remembraunce, put to
silence. An Exeter petition to the King, p. 390, begins
with sheunth (ostendunt) your subjectis ; the word shewith is
still used to head petitions to Parliament We see our
common thenne and there for the first time, I think, at full
length in p. 282. Both the forms nor and ne are found in
p. 294 ; jbhe former was soon to triumph.
294 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Among the Romance words are diaboli^y cderite, pleni-
tude^ irrecuperable, getee (jetty), delibre (discuss), aniversarye,
barreer, defete a title, be at diettez (maintenance), p. 293.
In p. 280 we see one of our present senses of address;
they addressed thaim toward, etc. ; in the same page directly
expresses "in a straight line." In p. 309 an' Act extends ;
before this time it was stretched. In p. 389 we read of an
act of atteindre, in our sense of the word ; this very properly
belongs to the bloody year 1460. In p. 399 a Northern
petition uses catell for pecus ; but in the South caielles stood
for our chattels for some time after the year 1500.
In the * Letters ' belonging to this time, printed by Ellis,
the chief new phrase is, stand possessed of.
Many of the pieces printed in 'Hazlitt's Collection'
belong to 1460 or thereabouts; they were printed about
fifty years later. In vol. i. there are the pieces in pp. 4,
69, 111-152, 196. We see flater^, a great tenement -7nan
(rich in houses, p. 133), long-sided. In p. 135 stands thys
ys the schorte and longe ; we now transpose these adjectives.
Among the Verbs are follow the chase, sell up (chattels).
In p. 146 a man has no more goods, hU ryght as he in
stode (the clothes he stood in). A miser will not lend,
but (unless) he wyst why, p. 114; a common phrase now.
There is the Scandinavian frisky, which may also be
French. We have to be/re offys, pecys of silver, call him foul
(names). The word gracious is now applied to a sale of
goods, p. 149; it must mean pius. The word nics
(fastidious) was now getting the new sense of degani,
like the words dainty or exquisite ; that toas a neys seyte
(seat) is used ironically in p. 8. The word paramour,
which might mean virgo in 1290, gains its evil sense in
p. 199. In p. 205 stands the emphatic cer^en so^Ae / some-
thing like our certain sure.
In vol. ii. the pieces to be here considered are in pp.
2, 23, 138. The J> is struck out in Norweste wind. In
Substantives there is Barbour's tryst coupled with another
noun, try sty tre, p. 154. A juror becomes a swerer, p. 149;
this word was applied to those who took the oath to
William III., two Centuries later. A squire, when he
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 295
serves the King in hall, bears a vMie yea/rd ; hence the
white staff coveted by English ministers. We read of
falow deer. Men do not talk of Rhodes (the island), as in
W3mtoun's time, but of The Bodes, p. 31. We have Clym
for Clement
Among the new Verbs we see angle, fowl, A man,
when swearing, has to hold up his handy p. 56. There
is take the mesure of a man, p. 150. We see the old
mn your shone, p. 30 ; after this time it was spurs that
were won. A great change in the Perfect is seen in p. 30;
a man ware velvet ; this replaces the old wered ; we have
already seen the Northern worn. It is not often that a
Weak verb becomes Strong, as in this case. Men ring
bells bacward, p. 153, for an alarm; this phrase is seen in
a ballad of Scott's. In p. 42 comes it stode with hym full
harde ; we should now substitute went for stode. We see
the Scandinavian shdle (remus). Among the French words
are jennet, dulcimer, dulcet, howles (for playing), sykamoure.
In voL iii of * Hazlitt's Collection ' the pieces of this
time may be found in pp. 60 and 100. The initial a is
pared away; **this is long of thee" (per te), p. 79, used
afterwards by Scott. There is the Dutch word trick, p.
117. In p. 103 something is near, not the length of a
lande; here length stands for distance; in Scotland they
say, "I will come your length." In p. 113 further is
revived as an Adjective after long disuse, "the further
side of the hall ;" it is here more akin to far than to forth,
its old positive. Among the Verbs we see beat him both
blacke and blewe, beleeve me (in the middle of a sentence),
get him down (in fight), you knowe (at the end of a sentence) ;
a musician blows up ; hence our strike up. There is a most
curious change from transitive to intransitive in p. 109, a
dore will undoe. The swa (so) formerly expressed quoniam ;
this is continued in p. 109, "you should know your way
better, so oft as you come here." In p. 102 a man steals
more by a deale ; we should say a deal more ; here great is
dropped before deal. There is the Interjection hey howe,
p. 62, leading to our heigh hoi As to the Eomance words,
the word bomhe is seen in p. 68 ; a woman is afflicted
296 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap:
crepitu invito, and is told, tempre thy hombe; hence, I sus-
pect, comes 6^771.^ The nyce keeps its old sense lascivus, p.
107; and shows its new sense elegans, p. 117, where a
wench is proper and nyce ; just as young ladies now ask,
" Do I look nice ?"
There are two old Lollard treatises reprinted by Arber
as an appendix to Koy*s " Rede me and be not wroth ;"
they are in pp. 150 and 172. They belong to an age of
civil war; see p. 184; but were first printed in 1530.
There is the new syns, though sythen is oftener used ; both
tho and thos may be seen in p. 154. The ship is used to
form new nouns, as apostleship. Among the Verbs are bear
otU (support), break an entail; the deme bears here its
Northern sense (arbitrari). There is the phrase " the most
cruel enemy that might be," p. 178. We have a new
phrase, U is all one as he sayeth, p. 152, the old swa had
expressed qvmi ; in the same page stands say otherwyse than
it is. We see how abrode slid from lath to foriSy in p. 181 ;
God scattered the Jews abrode among the hethen. The
language used by Bede is said to have been Englishe.
There are the phrases compile, unequity, to ensue (sequi),
entromedle, barbarus, resign up ; mortefy (hand over in mort-
main) is a sense still known in Scotch law ; it comes from
the amorteyse, amortesy of p. 161 ; the long s being mistaken
foTOJif. These Lollard treatises of 1460 were pronounced
to be barbarous, when reprinted seventy years later ; see p.
170 ; a fact that shows how our tongue was changing.
In the 'Political Songs of 1468' (Master of the Rolls)
we remark that rejose bears the two meanings, gaudere and
frui, in one stanza, p. 254 ; the former meaning was to be
the lasting one. There are also the phrases forswear the
lond, in every quarter.
There are two ballads of this time in the * Archseologia,'
vol. xxix. There is the well-known expression, the good
shype, p. 326 ; also taklynge, a good stay, shrowthes (shrouds),
words well known to sailors. Further on, we see ragged
staf, curre dogges. We say, "three Rs running;" in p. 331
we see that the old expression was, thre arres togydre in a
^ Mr. Skeat, on the other hand, derives biim from bottom.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 297
swfo. There is the phrase as \e world gos^ p. 341. In p.
339 there is lay wayte to a thing ^ and also lie a-wayte to do
a thing.
In Halliwell's ' Original Letters of our Kings/ Edward
IV. uses foreigners to express "men who are not fellow-
citizens/' p. 128 ; something like this usage still prevails in
some parts of our country ; the sense belonged to forain in
French.
The *Book of Quinte Essence' (Early English Text
Society) is a translation from the Latin, about 1460, and
abounds in medical terma In p. 21 we see how our phrase
" a little rhubarb " arose ; there is first a lUU qtumtite of
ptUpa ; then, a litU of rvharhe. Among the foreign words
are Iwpis lasuly, grose mater, ]>e splene (which seems to imply
cholevy p. 18). A man at death's door is said to be almost
consumed in nature, p. 15 ; the first hint of consfwm/ption.
The old form of the verb fiche is now changed to fix. We
read of a brute beast, and the Latin equality comes instead of
the French egality.
Some poems, edited by Mr. Furnivall in the * Book of
Precedence ' (Early English Text Society), belong to this
date. We see the contraction Antyny for Antonius, p. 39.
There are roppys end, coke fyghtynge, callot (light woman),
p. 40, and the name Kate, There is our familiar who ys
that ? p. 40. In p. 53 stands call her by no vylons name ;
hence the later call him names. There are a few proverbs,
as —
** Syldon mossyth the stone
>at oftyn ys tomnyd and wende " (p. 39).
We have fayre wordes brake never bone, p. 45 ; here we now
change the adjective ; erly to ryse is fysyke fyns,
Capgrave's * Chronicle of England ' (Master of the Rolls
Series) seems to have been compiled about 1460. The
writer was born at Lynne, and we see some of his East
Anglian forms in levene (fulgur), dyke (fossa), bigge (sedifi-
care), tidyndis, who (quomodo) ; he has the hard g in give
and again, and he uses the Active Participle in and. But
he has Southern forms like i-sought, be (been), and 0 (one).
He follows Latin forms when he writes Lodewic (Louis),
298 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
and Bvkt Aurelianensis, p. 300 ; Arius, however, appears
as Arri/y p. 77. He has Manning's phrase, to avale a hood.
Capgrave is fond of casting out vowels in French words,
writing hanch and pwfhch for hcmish and punish. We may
trace in him the two sounds of oi, for he writes deystir for
cloister in p. 308, and Groyne for Corunna in p. 242. He
has the old form Beaumont and the new Beamount in one
page, 182. He has foster ioT forester^ like his East Anglian
brother Lydgate. The Suffolk habit, seen in 1230, of
changing th into d appears in erdeguave (earthquake), p. 80 ;
here also is the origin of our quaver, k changing into / and
V. Our navel is written nowU in p. 82 ; av must have been
mistaken for a% and au and ow were both sounded like the
French ou. The / was often mistaken for s {fitting to and
sitting to) ; in p. 194 enfess is written for enfeff.
Among the Substantives we find the old querns. In p.
130 stands our common " he had not a peny in the world.*'
In p. 365 rusticus is Englished by chorle, and in the next
page this becomes carle. The adjective fonned (stultus)
gives birth to fonnednesse, p. 151. We read of Grete
BretaynCy whiche is cleped Englond, in p. 359, the first time,
I think, that this grand title is used by an Englishman.
The renowned Percy of 1400 is called Herry HatsporCy p.
242. The old Burgeyn (Burgoin) is found, as well as the
newer Burgundy y coming from the Latin ; Burgenye, p. 219,
seems to be a compromise between them. There is not
only Almayn but Germainey p. Ill, showing the influence
of the Latin ; the Germanes appear in p. 106 ; Aeon stands
for AacheUy and Maydenhorow for Magdehurgy p. 118.
Among the Adjectives we hear of a fayre-spokyn man,
p. 81 ; a curious instance of the Passive Participle replac-
ing the Active ; it reminds us of the Old English heom
gesprecenum (illis loquentibus). Our common fayn to fle
is in p. 119.
Among the Verbs we remark phrases like take hors,
make difficulte, make oth, picche tentiSy to poll a man (tondere),
p. 234. The verb gore is formed from the gorwomvd of
1380. To waste is used intransitively in p. 104. Aeon-
vent is not built but takes place, in p. 153. In p. 187
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 299
men swear to do something, " comt hem lyf (yr come hem
dethJ' The three stages of punishment are (rather un-
usually) set out in their right order, when in p. 190 a man
is doomed "^0 drawyng, hanging^ and hedyngJ* The verb
chejfe adds the sense of our cheapen to its old meaning buy,
p. 180. Capgrave, in one of his earlier writings, uses the
phrase happed hym to be, etc., p. 365 ; in his latest book
comes Wyntoun's phrase he happed to mste, etc., p. 288 ; a
good example of the encroachment of the Nominative upon
the Dative, and of the journey Southward of Northern
forms.
We have often seen but (standing for ne but) used
before a Substantive ; we now see Daniel but ^ong led into
BaUlonie, p. 47. There is a new phrase not half msch (big)
inow, p. 132 ; and in p. 141 stands / had as lef be kUlid, as,
etc. ; this phrase, already used in the late Lollard tracts,
is the one phrase that still keeps alive the Old English
leof (cams).
Among the Preposijbions we remark the new phrase, a
man is hanged /or his laboure (pains), p. 278.
Among the French words are monstrous, code, antepope,
unmanerly, cass (quash), cariage in the sense of currus ; here
there must have been a confusion with caroche. There are
phrases like have a touch of, p. 1 ; graces (indulgences) were
bought in p. 244 ; this phrase lasted till StraflFord's time.
There is the curious compound semi-goddes, p. 50, like
Shakespere's demirdevil; this replaces Chaucer's half-gods.
In p. 190 the King, when judging a traitor, dispendd with
him of the peynes ; an idiom that we have now changed.
Gentil, as in Barbour, adds the meaning mitis to its old
sense nobilis, in p. 122. The Pope disguises himself, in p.
309, like a Malandryn ; hence perhaps our Merry Andrew,
with the usual change of I into r. A large sum becomes
a horiMl summe, p. 155 ; this is something like our present
use of awfuL To pv/rpose artiaules comes in p. 175 ; this
verb and propose had not yet been marked off from each
other. In p. 189 we find he cacchid or caute; a curious
instance of double forms. The form Wiclefist, p. 244,
coming from the Latin, is preferred as a party name.
300 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
In the Coldingham papers for 1461 we see hssez
(damna), p. 191. In p. 215 stands on way and odur ; we
should say, "one way or another." In p. 203 trewbUl
(trouble) stands for beUum ; something is grevotts costly in p.
215, and we now often use an adjective for an adverb, as
" awful hard."
In the York Wills for 1466 we come upon a draght oc,
ii. 285 ; in the same page a man talks of my sonnes Herre
Eure, Maister William Eure, and John Ewe ; the second son
enjoys the title of respect because he was a rector.
In the * Testamenta Eboracensia,' iii. 185, there is weiMy
(every week) ; daily had appeared sixty years earlier, both
coming from the North. There is do what hym pleases^ p.
197 ; showing that you in what you please is a Dative. A
well-known surname appears in John Dicconson, p. 204.
In the same page stands their burds (their boarding when
children).
The amusing tale of the Wright's Chaste Wife (Early
English Text Society) dates from about the time of
Edward IV.'s victory in 1461 ; the poet speaks
** Of roses whyte >at wyll not fade,
Whych floure all Ynglond doth glade,
Wyth trewloves medelyd in syght ;
Unto the whych floure i-wys
The love of God and of the Comenys
Subdued bene of ryght."
The old bridale loses its last letter and becomes brydally p.
3. The b is added, for the old momden becomes momhyll
(mumble), p. 19. The use of ye and thou in the piece is
happily marked ; the knight, who means to do the crafts-
man's wife the honour of seducing her, first jauntily
addresses her as thou; when she has trapped and half
starved him, he uses the more respectful ye, which his lady
also adopts. A poor woman is addressed as dam^ by her
betters ; she speaks of an absent personage as my lady,
p. 16.
In the * Plumpton Letters ' (Camden Society) of 1461
many of the Yorkshire forms may be remarked, such as
gar, ky, kirk, tJwf (quamvis), they deals, gif (si). The word
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 301
wXine^ found here, had lost its third consonant all through
Southern England. The old maistresse is seen as mistris^
p. 15 ; and the well-known name Foljambe is pronounced
as we sound it ; Fvlgiam stands in p. 21. The old holli
(omnino) is now written wholie, P* Hj the form that we
keep, at least in writing; just so home in Lancashire is
sounded huome. The old IVyrcestre now becomes Woster,
p. 17. In p. 27 the Earl of Northumberland, writing about
1471, turns liflode into livelyhed, our livelihood, using a
false analogy. King Edward IV. sends greeting in a letter
to certain of his subjects, p. Ixx. ; and forbids them to give
or shew ungodly language to Plumpton. We see the proper
title for a knight's wife in p. 15 ; my lady Ingolshorp, whose
ladyship is recovered of sicknes. In p. 2 the phrase a readie
man is used in describing a lawyer ; I suspect this comes
from rede (consilium). In p. Ixx. Edward IV. addresses
his lieges as all and every one of you. There is the phrase
he is riden to, p. 17, in imitation of he is gone ; also, U is for
her to refuse, p. 1 1 ; here meet should be the third word ;
m/mey in hand, p. 5. The Romance words are longanimity ,
have matters against him, what the matter was, p. 23 ; the non-
accomplishmerU of cry havok upon ; here the noun is said to
represent the old hafoc (accipiter).
There are some London documents, ranging between
1465 and 1468, in Blades' 'Life of Caxton,* pp. 149-151.
The verbs are underwritten, lay out money, open business
to ; hence our open the case (reveal it). There is a new use
of the preposition toward ; a certain sum towarde their costs.
Among the Romance words are direct a lettre to you, it is
not oure parte to do it. The word adventure or auntre had
been hitherto used of knights ; but England was now be-
coming a commercial country; hence merchants trading
beyond sea are here called aventerers and adventerers; a
century later the same man might be both warrior and
trader. We hear of custoses (custodes) of the Mercery, a
very English form.
In Gregory's * Chronicle ' (1460-1470) we see Lamheffe
written for Lambeth, p. 229. There is the trade of a lokyer,
whence comes a proper name. The Salopian coup together
302 THE NEW ENGLISH. . [chap.
of 1350 becomes here capt imih, p. 219. There is a curi-
ous conciseness of idiom in p. 223, '4t was not lost, and
nevyr hyt shalle,^* where be should be the last word. There
is the phrase, still common, to bery his lady ; that is, to lose
her by death, p. 233. In the same page is the scornful
interjection bawe / as in ' Piers Plowman.' We see to go
farre (in speaking), she was IX myle of (off, that is, distant),
p. 213 ; to show favyr, p. 238.
The French words are rayl (vituperare), p. 229 ; read
lessons (preach sermons), p. 230 ; ]>e prevelage wUl not serve
(avail). The chronicler tells us in p. 214 where the
strength of an English host has always lain ; in the fote men
ys alle the tryste (trust).
In the *Eolls of Parliament,* from 1461 to 1473, we
come upon the Welsh proper name Lloit, p. 596. The
former entrecourse becomes intercurse, vL 65 ; the Latin
gaining the day over the French. We see much clipping
of consonants when we read of the counties of Not^ and
Berl^, p. 547 ; in the same page, Lytherpoole stands for
our Liverpool ; our modern change is like the Russian
Feodor for Theodore. The old geol may now be written
jayle, p. 488, one of the few English words that still has
two lawful forms. The qu of the * Promptorium' makes
way for the Latin ch ; chorester stands in vi. 48 ; nothing
like this word in France is found till much later. In p.
18 we see to enjoy hndes, where the verb comes in that
was to drive out brucan in its old sense ; in the page before
stands to joye londes ; this last verb can now YaVl^^ gavdere
alone. The n is clipped in the sentence, imn not a (in)
weffke^ p. 506.
Among the Substantives we ^ndifyretonges^drepyn^panneSy
paknedle (the old batte nelde), underwoode. We see kervei'
(carver) used as a title of honour ; Edward IV. writes of a
squierfor ov/re body (hence came body gvAjt/rd), We read of
the hede of a hous, p. 518 ; gvm/ner stands for the keeper of
artillery in a castle, who has many men under him, p. 543.
There is the form handcrafty men and women^ p. 506 ; also
Tnan and woma/n dothmaker, p. 563 ; it was a pity that we
lost our female ending in en. The ness is employed in
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 303
forming fyms (fineness) and stoboumesse / we see both pah-
kou/r and pakkir in one page. We read of Thomas Broun,
of the shire of Rutland, vi 22. In p. 65 there is a grant
to the "Duchie Hanze, otherwise called Marchauntez of
Almayn." There is the adjective unmanly.
Among the Verbs we remark, to set outeward an armse,
vi. 4 ; take seyntwary, make hym sure (surely dead), p. 36 ;
he was put in the bylle, a phrase well known to all Etonians,
but it here refers to a bill of Attainder, p. 29. We see
repakke, p. 59.
Among the Adverbs the distinction between de jure and
de facto turns up in p. 20 ; Henry VI. late of dede and not
of right kyng.
Among the French phrases an address to Edward IV.
refers to heaute of personage, p. 463 ; this last word (one of
Monstrelet's) was also used by Pope with the same mean-
ing, in the 'Rape of the Lock.* We see journey men opposed
to householders, p. 506. We read of the III estates, lordes
spiritudl, lordes temporell, and commons, p. 622. In vol. vi.
4, exhibition stands for mmnteiiance ; this sense of the word,
which does not come from the French, still survives at the
Universities. In p. %6 stand lettres of Margue or reprisale ;
further on, we read Qi proprietaries and owners ; in our time
the Teutonic word has almost vanished before its Romance
synonym. In p. 35 we see another instance of coupling
words, weltuillers or benevolentes. In p. 479 stands the verb
unable, our disable. We have cardes for pleiyng, p. 507 ;
brushes, an infourmer, verger, ymposition (tax), in tymes passed.
In p. 545 we read of the countie of JVUtes^ very different
from the old name. In p. 635 comes the Kynges eschaunge,
the office whither they brought gold and silver. In vL 37
men have names of baptism^ swmon, and addition.
In the *Paston Letters,' from 1461 to 1473, we remark
the well-known Norfolk names of Jerningham, Townsend,
Gorney, Wodehouse, Wymondham (Wyndham), and Jenny.
Some of the old East Anglian forms are still used, such as
am, sal, qwan, levand, beseke, mekil; nor is ousting ne ; the new
thos (illi) is coming in, replacing th) and thei ; it is used
by the Earl of Oxford, ii. 421. A gentleman writes at
304 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
thefardest, iii. 27 ; this reminds us how East Anglia turned
burthen into burden two Centuries earlier. We find the
proverb, referring to an old rite now gone out, " A man
must sumtyme set a candel before the Devyle." Margaret
Paston quotes two other saws that date from 1260 at
least, "men cut large thongs of other mens lether," ii.
226 ; oftyn rape (haste) revnth, iii. 78.
The a is struck out ; fcmtsy is in p. 83, which becomes
fansey (fancy) in p. 243. The ay replaces a; we see
bayly in ii. 249, while baly comes in the same page;
this contraction of bailiff is now a common surname;
laydy stands in ii. 416. The e replaces a, as der
(audeo), meke (facio), Temse, hesty ; there is a distinction
made between persone and parson in ii. 307. The
e replaces eo in Lenard, iii. 99. The old Bewcham
gives way to Becham, ii. 224. The old form manoir
(manor) appears as manery ii. 306, and as maneur, p. 382.
The i OT y is added, as nowgty (malus), ii. 26 ; it replaces
e ; we see it hadde byn, ii. 5 1 ; toyke, hyr (here), prists, spyde
(speed), fyle (feel), agry (agree), beshyche (heseech),hyde (heed).
Many of these changes in pronunciation, foreshadowing our
present usage, are in the letters of Margery Paston and her
son Sir John ; the Northern innovations had now reached
Norfolk, and were to arrive at London 100 years later.
We see Smith turned into the genteel Smythe, iii. 431. The
sound of one o is dropped, when do on (induere) becomes
doon (our don), ii. 233 ; the change in doffhsid preceded this
by a century. In the pedigree of the Dukes of SuflFolk,
ii 210, their ..name is written both Pool and Pole, We
see exskem, rebeuc, meuve (move), both Dewk and Ihick
(dux), sewt (lis), indew ; it cannot be too often repeated
that ew, from first to last, unless it follows r, is the most
favoured and unchangeable of all English vowel sounds ;
it has often encroached upon u. In ii. 356 we see reawyll
(rule), showing the sound of the old an, which was like
the French ou. There is the form plesyer (voluptas) in iii.
6, which becomes plesur in iii. 30. The form guyde seems
to be well established. We see maryache (marriage), ii. 139,
showing how every vowel of the word was once sounded.
ir.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 305
As to Consonants, we see from the form mcmslauter,
ii. 378, how completely the sound of the old gh had died
out. The former jfloge is now written plowe, ii. 286, which
is often seen in our time. The hu (quomodo) is written
howghe, iii. 15 ; and hm becomes whyghe, iii. 94. We have
Jernemuth in ii. 97, and Vermouth in the foregoing page.
The p is inserted in Thompson, ii 46. The d is struck
out, for Kirkcudbright is written Kirkhowbre, ii. 46. The
name Hohart is spelt Hobard, ii. 368, whence comes Hvh-
bard. The d is replaced by th ; ther means audeo in ii.
195 ; perhaps this is a confusion with the now vanishing
verb ihar. The I is struck out, Alnwick is written Anne-
wyke, iii. 432 ; enemies becomes elmyse, ii. 309. The rt is
struck out in the middle of Fortesaae, which is written
Foskew, iiL 9, just as forester became foster, Margaret
Paston, iii. 78, talks about my navmte ; nv/ncle was to
come later in Shakespere's plays. An s, as well as other
letters, is struck out in the old Glowsestyr, ii. 357, which
appears as Glowsetyr (Gloster), ii. 358. The old form Ude
(insula) is once more seen in iii. 93.
Among the new Substantives stand hedermoder (hugger-
mugger, ii. 28), bald batt (ball -bat, ii 125), under shir eff,
pothok, choppe (ictus), pakthred, delyng (conduct, iii 4). We
see lyklyhod replacing Chaucer's liklihed ; the ship is added
to foreign words, as serchorship; a Romance ending is added
to a Teutonic root, as stoppage, ii 221. There are the
proper names Dawson, Fytte, Jakys Son; we see a sharp
jibe at yonge Wyseman, otherwise callyd Foole, iii 32. Our
noun work now often means incommodum; they make us
werke, iii. 92. In iii. 481 stands the phrase ma^n of the
world; we now put a slightly diflFerent meaning on the
phrase, which used to be opposed to religious life ; in the
same page comes man of livdode; we should now change
this last word into fortune. A sharp distinction is drawn
between lyfe and lyfflode, ii. 370. We read of wynfall wod
in ii. 176, the source of our windfall. The old reke, little
known to the South of Norfolk, is used for fumus ; seven of
the belle (clock) is in iii. 61, a future sea phrase. The
word ba(^ was now much used in compounds ; bak rekenyngges
VOL. I. "x.
3o6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
comes in ii 224. There is the new phrase a tvrUinge ofolde
hcmd, p. 285, which we now make more concise. The word
bawde, as in the ^ Promptorium,' is applied to a man, p. 299.
In p. 347 we see humys and hays (hums and haws) for the
first time.
Among the Adjectives are knavyssh, trew heriyd, prystly,
athanMesse offyce. There is lavishy which seems to be Teu-
tonic, not French. We hear of men that ben knawyng
in that behalf, ii 360 ; the same meaning is conveyed in
iii. 18 by a wytty felaw. To come stronke (strong), ii
375, means to come in great force; we say, ''came out
strong." The old mad means avidm; "they are madde
upon it," iii. 71. A younger brother addresses the elder
as rythe vx/rchypfwll hroder, ii. 258 ; also as Syr, Margaret
Paston is hailed by her husband as myn owne dere sovereyn
lady^ ii 235. Sir John Paston addresses his sire as my
ryth reverrend and worche/pfvMe fadyr, ii 244.
As to the Pronouns, we have he shuld he servid the same^
ii 48 ; by the same tokeriy ii. 134. There is the Eeflexive
Dative, I fere we, ii 82, which also appears in the * Coventry
Mysteries ' about the same time. There is a curious sub-
stitute for all men in iii. 52, you most of eny on man alyve ;
Pecock had employed a phrase something like this. In
iii 59 any he stands for any man; Shakespere writes of
the shes. One Paston declares in iii. 75, lam not the man I
was. Instead of some one we see the very early Whai-calle-
ye-hym, iii. 104. In iii 33 comes heffor Twdihey referring
to 6th January; we now usually confine this particular
numeral to August and grouse-shooting, except in Twelfth-
cake,
Among the Verbs we remark have a plowe going, they
myght not cheese (choose) but, take oat the patent, take a ferme
of him, shift for yov/rself, fall out (quarrel), do him a shrewd
twrne, kepe an howsolde, breke up howsold, the jv/ry foimd, etc.,
make a serche, make up a svm, make sport, make promes, I wyle
rubbe on, make him or mar him, it schal do no hurt, take my
part, take no thowth (thought), / took it upon my sowle that,
etc., m>aJce war upon, make a man partye (to), put her in re-
memberaums, put our tryst (trust) to, pyke it owt, gim her
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 307
warning, lead him a da/nee^ cast calves, se hym saffe, sett at
lyherte, set (them) at one, he is lodgyd at, etc. In ii. 26
stands she wost ner howe to do for mony ; here do means
rem agere, but we should now put what for the howe. In
ii 64 we have mak hym yonger than he is ; we should now
put (Ad after hym. In ii. 205 besiegers are said to sit
wppon us ; the phrase is in our day used for male tracta/re,
John Paston means to take assise against a man, iii 482 ;
hence our ''take the law of him.'' In ii 348 stands eete
yow owte at the dorys, our out of doors. In it 254 comes
hold wp yom mansMp (keep up your pluck). Up to this
time English knights had won their shoes; in iii 102 we
find wyrme yowr sporys. Margaret Paston, like Manning,
did not use the shall and imll as we do; in iii. 78 she
writes / toUl love (like) %wi to be a good man ; also, / wold he
sory (if, etc.). The Passive Voice is making strides ; I have
don as Iwolde he don for, ii. 375. There is a new use of the
Past Participle in ii. 288; "he took it, unhnoivyn to the
priowr;" this is very concise. In iii 47 a man is called the
best sfpohyn archer, like Capgrave's fair sjpoken. There is a
curious change of meaning in iii. 483, "he harped upon the
thought." To aoce (a couple) in chyrche appears in iii 46.
To crosse writing is in iii 47. In iii 57 stands he is evyr
chqppyng at me ; we should now say, " cutting at me." We
see Wyntoun's it is woryn ought, iii 73 ; the new Perfect
ware stands in p. 141, replacing wered. There is a curious
attempt at turning a French verb into a Strong verb, he
was scope (escaped), iii. 17.
Among the Adverbs appears the streyt weye of King
James I., ii 38, which here seems to refer to place, not to
time, like the French direct. In ii. 236 we have " in that
yere, or ther ahoutes,*' which is new. There are phrases
like / reke not thowe he did it (etiamsi), iii 87 ; he was en-
treated like ajentelm/in, ii. 205 ; u^ll owt off the weye, iii. 92;
he is thorow with him (wholly on his side), ii 299 ; here the
preposition is turned into an adverb. There is the curious
idiom, ye schall not he longe without a hyll, iii 47. In iii 100
stands, almost for the last time, the hoary old phrase, with
thys that (on condition that). The hut, in the sense of
3o8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
qainy is developed, ih&re ys biU few hut they know, etc., ii.
263 ; in this last we should now drop the they. In ii.
291 nyer (near) stands where our nearly (fer^) was to
be written a Century later. The as is used in a new
sense, if ther were c of hem, as (her is nan, yet have they no
tytUl, ii. 211 ; here the idea must be, "which is no true
fact."
As to Prepositions, the at is used, as in our at length,
in the sentence, at the longe wey (in the long run), Grodde
woll helpe, p. 351 ; there is also (they) were al words, p.
105. In iii. 481 comes, he profited us not to value of one
groat ; in Old English this would have been much more
concise, to one groat. In ii. 372 stands (they will die) to
the grettest rebuJce to you; hence comes to your shame. In
ii. 358 stands it was refvsyd by avise; here the last two
words express deliberately, advisedly. Shakespere's great
comic hero hopes that the Chief -Justice goes abroad by
advice. In iL 207 men are in fer of ther lyvys ; this of
expresses anent, and we still keep this unusual employment
of the preposition in this phrase. The idiom connected
with the old beswican is continued in / was de-seyvyd of
(certain) men, iL 246 ; hence our baulk of, cheat of. The
phrase in the name of had hitherto been confined to Scrip-
ture ; we now have / labored hem yn Yelverton^s name, iii.
445. Capgrave's phrase again appears, a man is to have
something for his labour, ii. 373; we should say, "for his
pains."
Among the words akin to the Dutch is blaver (our verb
blather) ; Edward IV. intends, in iii. 98, to be a styffeler
between his quarrelsome brothers; that is, to stifle their
dispute ; the word is Scandinavian, as also is queasy.
Among the new Romance words is the pane of a
window, from pagina; straggle seems akin to stray; and
mangle is from the Low Latin mangulare, foreshadowed
by Wjmtoun's mank We have ferror (farrier), ipedemye
(epidemic), agonye, gayle delyverye, jimtor (jointure), boke of
remsmbraunce, a splayyd hors, a comon carier, a lees (lease),
saffegard, incedentes, contermaund, decay, gualifyed vrUh, recom-
pense, suppena, it concerns him, insmreccion, enforsyd to, it is
ir.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 309
Ais ovm defaut (fault), irderlyne, asserteyn (certify), kasket,
p'ohatt, entyrpryce, fensyng (inclosure), sorepe (simip). In ii
4 and 29 we see the twofold meaning of bribery/ as before
remarked, it might express both robbery and corruption, A
new sense of dress is seen in iii 3 ; a young Paston, wounded
at Barnet Field, is dressid by a sejjon. In ii. 78 catell seems to
bear its Northern meaning oipecas. In iii. 436 we hear of
a stohke gonne (gun) tuUh III chambers ; a new sense of the
last word; in iii. 441 cvlverin appears in the Latin form
colubrina. We see a repetition, in ii 314, of Chaucer's
kepe it close; a little further on a man is called close (un-
blabbing). In iii. 35 a man can make his peace by no
mecme; in ii. 107 a man fond the meanys that something
should be done ; a new use of the noun. In iii. 27 your
quarters is used for "your neighbourhood." An abusive
name comes under the head of language, ii. 112; hence
our "bad language." In ii 360 the Queen is attendid
wurshepfully ; a new sense of the verb. In p. 358 young
Paston oflFers his servyse to a great Lady ; hence our phrase
"my service to you." He, when writing to his mother,
subscribes himself yov/r humbylest servaunt, iii 8. The
Duke of Norfolk is addressed as the right hyghe and myghty
Prince; my Lord the Dwke; your good Grace; your hygh-
nesse, iii. 75, 76 ; we afterwards read of my Lady of
Norffolkes grace, 157. The hostess of the Black Swan is
called Mestresse Elysabeth Hyggens by young Sir John
Paston, iii. 18. We should do little business now without
" a power of attorney ;" in ii. 68 a letter of attoumay made
in the strengest wise that ye can is asked for. There is the
phrase passe your credim (give your word), ii 369 ; we
still use pass in this sense. The form Geane, standing for
Genoa, is borrowed from France, ii. 293; so the French
Gavmt is preferred to the true Ghent in iii 79 ; these two
foreign forms are used by Sir John Paston, a Court-bred
youth. We see in ii. 300 I kannot fynde h/yr agreable that,
etc. ; the old form was, she is agreed that, etc. ; we still say,
I am agreeable (willing). In ii 145 a man h&thpiU excep-
don onto certain persons ; we should substitute take for put.
The noun fee begets a verb ; for we read of the King's feed
3IO THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohak
men, ii. 145 ; the verb councd is found in ii 360. The
word comfort may now refer to a man as well as a thing ;
he is a grete comfort to me, writes Margaret Fasten, ii 187.
In ii. 241 a matter is gydyt in a certain way; this sense
still lives in Scotland; as also doesjp/^e (lis), ii. 306. In
ii. 387 servants seek for new servysys ; this Plural is some-
thing new. In ii. 352 stands they wold not dampne ther
soules for tts, a new phrase. We see the source of our
" make a fortune," when the founder of the famous Pole
family is said to have been a Hull merchant grow (grown)
be fortwne of the werld^ ii. 210. In ii. 324 crusty old
Fastolf swears, fnevyd and passyoned in his souU; hence
comes our passionate. At elections for Parliament, men
geve ther voyses to candidates, iil 52 ; we still " have a
voice" in the matter. In iii 70 we read of standardise
that is, standard trees. In iiL 102 comes the sporting
phrase a brace a growndes (greyhounds). In iii 25 currants
appear as reysonys of Corons, In iii 33 a money grant is
expected from a convocation of the clergy.
In the book on English GUds (Early English Text
Society, p. 370) there is a Worcester document of the
year 1467. We see the Southern form brugge (pons) and
the Severn fuyre and huyde; there is both croys and crosse;
but the English of the piece, in general, resembles the Lon-
don standard. We see fredom of the burgesshippCj smale ale,
the Kynges pease. There are the Verbs maike feith (oath),
make out a capias, put aparte, set up a craft; there is a
curious Passive form in p. 400, this is done for serche to be
hadd. The form oftener replaces the old ofter, p. 378.
Among the French words are recordor (of the town), BaUlies
(both here and at Exeter, p. 331). In p. 407 a jomeyman
is distinguished from a craftsman. There are the verbs to
try a man, to rente grovrnd, commit to prison, to wage law (like
war), mefnfmd a person defectyf (guilty).
In Rymer's * State Papers' (1461-1473) we find Eerry
and Harry close together in p. 710 ; also the goeing downe
of the Sonne, p. 509 ; Keper of the Seal, p. 579 ; rightwis
(rightful) kmg, p. 714 ; give in complaints, p. 788 ; a question
ryses, p. 579; answer at their par ell, p. 523; to proport
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 311
(purport), p. 788. A diet is to be kept between England
and Scotland, p. 717.
But the most valuable Scottish work of this time is the
poem on Wallace by Henry the Minstrel or Blind Harry
(edited by Dr. Jamieson in 1869) ; it may date from 1470.
There is much here in common with Barbour, such as oi
for u, w for v ; the h struck out, as tmivr for timber ; flvng
used transitively ; sru/ppose used for si ; and the phrases on
ster, schoTf trysts get on fute. We know how Northern
England turned the a of the South into the sound of
French ^, so far back as 737. We now see madeym written
for madame, p. 209 ; the old rdd, the Southern rode, is
here seen as raid, and this has been the longer -lived of
the two forms. Manning's Scandinavian word squyler now
becomes scudler, p. 97, whence comes scullery ; the French
escouillon (dishclout) must have had some influence here.
The most remarkable clipping of Consonants is the turning
of Barbour's French discaimiour (scout) into shywriom, p.
55 ; hence " to scorn the country," which has nothing in
common with the Teutonic ^^scowr the floor." The con-
sonant at the end is often clipped in the true Scotch
fashion ; thus we hAYQjpow (pull), sel (self), hefaw (befall), aw
(all). The old French scarmish appears as scrymmage, p. 39.
Among the new Substantives are ourset (overset, de-
feat), schipburd (shipboard), mvdwall iverk, p. 337 ; we
see salis (sails) standing for na/ves, p. 225 ; we now,
however, make a difference, as to Singular and Plural,
between five sails of a ship and five sail out at sea ; sail
has here followed our construction of yoke and pair.
The Southron enemy are called Saxons, though Blind
Harry himself writes good Northern EnglisL We see the
old goym (guma, homo) in p. 194; but this is written
groyme, p. 123. A pirate, in p. 225, is called the Red
Reffayr ; the old reafere (spoliator) was soon to be confined
to the sea, at least in England, and to be supplanted by the
Dutch form rover. The expressive word unlaw, that had
long dropped out of Southern use, stands in p. 144. The
Romance et was tacked on to a Teutonic word ; we see
howlat in p. 286.
312 THE NEW ENGLISH. [ohap.
The new Adjectives are dewyllyk (devilish) ; this ending
is also added to Frenph words, as chyftayrdik. The word
awfvl is much employed by the Scotch of our days in the
sense of vaMh ; in p. 69 we read of ane awfvll hard assay.
There is a difference between a fish that is landed and a
landyt man (terrse dominus) ; the latter stands in p. 276.
The word awkward had been used as an Adverb by Ham-
pole ; it is turned into an Adjective in p. 74, as in one
of the earlier Robin Hood ballads of the North. The
same change befalls /oT^imrc? / in p. 249 it is turned into a
synonym for zeal<ms, and from it is compounded a new
SLdyerb, forthwartlye, p. 301.
Among the Verbs we find play a part, make a ster, make
(get) guyt o/, p. 146; besy him to, etc.; burd (board) him
(of a pirate) ; byd thi tym. There is the alliterative do or
de (die), p. 60 ; a favourite phrase of Scotchmen ever
since. The verb kerve, even so late as this, is used of
a soldier cutting his foe's neck. In p. 156 men maid tham
for the flycht ; hence our " make for a place." The verb
clap had hitherto meant pulsare ; but in p. 206 Wallace
dappyt harnes on his leg. In p. 227, when at sea, he bids
his steersman lay thaim langis the bourd (along the board) ; a
weU-known technical use of the verb. Instead of saying
"I bet my head," the phrase in p. 258 is my hed to wed;
perhaps it was owing to this phrase that the to, standing
here before the Infinitive, triumphed over for and against
in betting sentences. The to (Latin dis) is still prefixed to
some verbs in this poem. In p. 13 young Wallace treats
an Englishman to the thou; the indignant rejoinder is
made, " quham thowis thow, Scot 9 "
The old Adverb timliche is now altered into tymysly ;
hence came the Northern timeous, something like righteous
and torongous, where the ous stands for an Old English ids.
There are some peculiarly Scotch words, such as craig
(guttur), layff (reliquum), inch (insula), a corruption of the
Celtic innis.
The French words are fraudfvl, in frount, a natyff
Scottisman, There is excedandlye, which Tyndale was to
make so common. Wallace is called in p. 20 the Apers4
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 313
(A per se) of Scotland ; something like this had appeared in
Chaucer. In the same page we read of a sword's temper.
The old rvumber is used in the Plural ; with nowmeris (turbse)
many ane, p. 164. Edward I. is said, in p. 311, to have
forced Salyshery oyss (use) upon the Scotch clergy, while he
burnt the Eoman books. The Virgin acted as convoyar to
Wallace, p. 168 ; this form of the verb has always had a
more exalted and protective sense than the other form,
corwey. In p. 206 Wallace croyssit him (crossed himself) ;
this is almost the last appearance in our island of the
French form of cruo-em, but we must except aroisade. In
p. 225 extasy stands for an agony of despair. In p. 224 we
hear of a gud gay vjynd ; this gay is still much used for vaJdh
in Scotland ; like the English a jolly good wind. In p. 227
we see God gyd our schip I gude guide us is still a favourite
Scotch cry of surprise. The word barge is used for a fine
sea-going ship. The poet, or his transcriber, can make
nothing of the French avou6 (advocate); so in p. 134 St.
Andrew is called the wowar of Scotland. In p. 238 tumr
greys is used for a winding-stair ; something like tumstyle.
In p. 17 a kinsman of the hero's is called the Squier
Wallace; we should now dock the. In p. 106 an English-
man, mockingly polite, greets Wallace thus —
**Dewgar, gud day, bone Senyhour, and gud mom I"
These French phrases are requited with a little Gaelic.
An intruding bishop has rents given him in commend, p.
256 ; this last word we now write comm&ndam.
The 'Coventry Mysteries' {Ludus CoventricB, by Mr.
HalliweU) are important, as they were compiled so
near to Shakespere's birthplace. They bear the date
1469, and show us the speech of the Warwickshire folk
about the time of his great-grandfather's birth ; they give
us also a foretaste of the dialogue in * Middlemarch.'
Being compiled upon the Great Sundering Line, they dis-
play a mixture of Northern and Southern forms. Thus
we have both mekyl and meche, chylder and chUderyn, tyl hym
and to hym, sin and sith, beteche and betake, the two Im-
peratives thinkys and lystenyth, the Present Participle ending
314 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
both in aiide and inge. There are the Northern tydandis,
am, tan (capere), tyth (cito) ; ken (scire), take tent to, go thy
gate, in no Jcynnys wyse, tende (decimus), hyrke. On the
other hand, we find the Southern her, hem, suche, toeren,
irbom, kusse, huschop, o (unus) ; the Infinitive in yn comes
often, especially in stage directions. We are reminded of
the ^ Blickling Homilies,' written about 500 years earlier,
by the e substituted f or i or «^ as in unJcende, fer (ignis),
and many other such; this is a mark of the shires
bordering on Salop, as is won (unus), p. 147. We see
some of Orrmin's phrases, as take on (proceed), p. 297 ; on
lofte (aloft), p. 325 ; forthmth, nor, howte (vituperare), p.
182; heyle (salutare), p. 293; eyn (oculi). There is the
Midland ive ha/n (habemus). We see stow (compescere), p.
217, sweling, come by (adipisci), p. 263, lesser; phrases
peculiar to the Western part of England, as we re-
marked before; also the qu (replacing hw) of the 'Havelok;'
the chyse, shrill, and round followed by an Accusative, forms
which had appeared in the ^Alexander.' There are some
phrases that give us a foretaste of Shakespere, wdl met,
hit the pvn, here a lythe (hie jacet), p. 319, where the a
represents he; and the unusual dolour, p. 327; there is
something like a well -.known proverb of his in p. 367,
trewthe dyd nevyr his maystir shame. The author seems to
have copied the first lines of the ' Harrowing of Hell,' the
play of 1 280, in p. 346. We see the long Latin stage direc-
tions in p. 149 and elsewhere. Alliteration is still popular ;
in p. 100 a promise is given to be true hothe terme, tyme, and
tyde. The usual homely diction of the plays is exchanged
for the finest and longest Eomance words, when a Prophet,
or an Angel, or even the Devil is speaking; see p. 240.
Latin words are often preferred to their French children.
As to Vowels, die (mori) is written day, p. 250, showing
the old sound of ie. It seems that there must have been
some difference of sound between ay and e ; for in p. 5 the
rimes mayde, afrayde, etc., are contrasted with the rimes
lede, dede, etc. The i is clipped at the beginning, for tys
stands for it is, p. 284, another Shakesperian token. The e
replaces i, as 'pehyd'ioT \\iQpiUd of 1 440 ; jpekyd schon, p. 241.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 315
As to the Consonants, the g is softened, for we have
wagmr (wager) instead of the old waumr^ p. 45. The
French attacker becomes takk (astringere), p. 319. The gh
is completely lost in the middle of a word, as syeng (sus-
piratio), p. 39. The initial di is clipped ; we have flayed,
not displayed, p. 242 ; hence a ^lay foot. We see w written
for V, as dowe for dove, p. 48. The x is constantly used for
5, as in Norfolk ; we see xal for sal, shall.
Turning to Substantives, we find the Proper Names
Kate, Sybyly (Sibby), also Symme Smalfeyth and Letyce
Lytylinist^, p. 131. In p. 241 we hear of a shert of feyn
Holond, A woman is called a stynkynge byche clowte, a
scolde, and a sloveyn. We see the old confusion between
Teutonic and Eomance, when in p. 297 Gethsemane is
called a ^erd (yard, garden). The Verbal Nouns continue,
whantynge stands for lack in p. 44. The Latin pedisseqm
seems to have suggested footmayd, p. 72 ; our footman pre-
serves a trace of this. We find abyde a qwyle, p. 73 ; these
last two words were later to be joined and made to appear
like an Adverb. The loss of the Genitive ending is re-
markable, when Christ is called Joseph and Maryes sons.
Among the Adjectives are bare-leggyd, a very different
form from the old hare-foot and bare-head. On the other
hand, the old sliper (lubricus) still stands, soon to be con-
founded with slideri. The word careful is used for tristis,
p. 53, when Abraham, about to slay Isaac, calls himself a
careful fadyr. The Americans talk of having a good time ;
in p. 319 we find his good days ocul be past.
As to Pronouns, we see brothers and sisters address
each other with the ye, not with the thou ; which is most
different from the French usage ; see p. 223. There is a
curious instance in p. 126 of Ae being applied to a man,
who has not been named, a token of close familiarity;
Elizabeth describes the Angel's promise to her, and goes
on, referring to her husband, and hym thought nay ; here
Zachariah has not as yet been mentioned.^ The which is
much employed as a Masculine Relative. The emphatic
^ In Scotland the goodwife will say, without any previous mention
of a name, " Ae'« awa to-day" the he referring to the goodman.
3i6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
ihai is now made to stand, as in Gower, at the head of the
sentence ; " hath any man condemned thee ?" " Thd hathe
ther nougU^^ (not), p. 222 ; here also we see the verb done
dropped after the hath, and any man is omitted. The old
manifold is strangely corrupted in the sentence, God thou
dost greve ma/ay a folde, p. 138. There are a few corrupt
Plural Genitives, not destined to live much longer, 7,ov/r
altheris (omnium) leche, p. 202, and ^our bothers (amborum)
stryffe, p. 28 ; there is also her tweyners (duorum) mstyng,
p. 125.
Among the Verbs we see the phrases take it or ellys lef
(leave), thin herte is sett to serve God, I fere me grettly, I
am aschamyd to, etc., whedyr (whither) they am bent (bound),
it wyl he longe or (ere) thou do thus, p. 207, as in the
'Paston Letters,' take him to grace, telle no talys. There
is / pdle 00 draught, p. 142, whence comes our "taking a
puUe at a tankard." We see make good face, p. 269 ; hence
our put a good face on it We have, in p. 136, do this, or I
Qcal make ^ow; here the Infinitive is dropped after make
you. The Verb slake may govern an Accusative or not ;
to slake hungyr, p. 208 ; sorwe doth slake, p. 229. The
prefix un is often set before the Verbs and Participles, as
uneten, v/nbegete, v/rUose. The verb crak is applied in a new
sense ; in p. 325 stands my lyppys gyn crake. The if that
^e plese in p. 363 shows the rise of one of our commonest
phrases. In p. 142 stands jmt at (to) repref, a future
Biblical phrase, the last word meaning dedecas.
Among the Adverbs we remark sum way, p. 40, the
parent of our somehow; here an in is dropped. The
happier sense of oiir sore comes out strongly in thei plese
God sore, p. 82. In p. 335 stands / se, I wote nevyr how,
where a verb is dropped after the last word. Tlie call
come away I is now commonly used in Scotland, where in
the South we say oome along ; in p. 132 the audience are
invited to the play by the phrase com away I this in
Chaucer's time had been come off. We know Bjrron's
far as the breeze can hear, where as is dropped before the
first word ; in p. 384 stands ys there ony renogat, fer as ye
knawe? We often use our sure as an Adverb; in p. 352
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 317
comes sekyr^ this is good. In p. 223 stands vxmndyrly s^ke
(sick) ; hence the old-fashioned adverb woundUy.
Among the Prepositions, of is supplanted hyfrom in dene
from synnSf p. 140 ; aliene from had come in seventy years
earlier, and had brought in a Komance construction. To
rede on a hook is in p. 103, one of the phrases that show
the close connexion between the old in and on.
There is the Interjection out, out (heu), p. 46, which
lasted long in England; and in p. 125 stands a/ my God !
to express surprise. We find the Celtic word prong, and
the Dutch sloven.
Among the many French phrases we see try out the
trewthe, expofumd it out ; past, present, and future, p. 70 ; it
vyyl he straunge if he leve. In p. 115 Gabriel is called Grod*s
masangere expresse; we have since dropped the first of
these two words. Latin is preferred to French, when
adultrye replaces the old avoutrie in p. 1 0 ; it is the same
with infaunie, p. 51, and regal. We see not only revere,
but also the verb reverens, p. 20. In pp. 63 and 132 lay
(lex) stands for "way of life;" in Oliver Twist the thieves
talk of " the kinchin lay." The term audyens is applied to
the spectators of the plays ; they are called sovereynes in
p. 79, Shakespere's my masters. The Teutonic er is added
to the old French parishen in p. 71 ; the rule for a priest's
expenditure is thus laid down —
** So xulde every curat in this werde wyde
3eve a part to his chauncel iwys,
A part to his parochoneres that to povert slyde,
The thryd part to kepe for hym and his. "
When we find a form like comfortadon, p. 116, and
moralysacyon, p. 244, we see how easily ruin became
ruination after this time. The word material appears as an
Adjective, p. 208. Our common "I am afraid that you
did it," referring to the Past, comes more than once. The
old pynne and the new pynnade, meaning the same, are
seen side by side in p. 208 ; Satan, tempting Christ, says —
** Up to this pynnacle now go we,
I xal the sett on the hy5est pynne."
3i8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
The Latin mora had been Englished in many ways ; it is
written ddacion in p. 248. The Latin seriaivm is turned
into seryatUy, p. 273. The former verb travail us becomes
trobd iiSf p. 294. We find dvibytacum, lyherary, irUelligence
(news, p. 125), anameryd (enamoured), metajphesyk, reynes
(renes), roberych (rubric), eaxuse me, ravenoits.
In 1469 Sir Thomas Mallory compiled from various
French books the History of King Arthur and his Knights;
this was printed by Oazton a few years later, and the work,
a pattern of sound Old English, has been reprinted again
and again, down to our own day.^ The compiler was a
Northern man, as we see by his prefixing for to Verbs, and
by his using what wUl wedo? i. 125; what is yowr wUl with mef
iii 51 ; gaynest (proximus), i. 270; gvoe hack (regredi), i.
192; in ilL 120 his everUk has been altered by Gazton
into everyeack In a chronicle, quoted in the Preface to the
Plumpton papers, p. xcvL, Sir William Malaty is mentioned
along with many other Yorkshire knights in 1485. There
are in this work more Teutonic words, now obsolete, than
would have been used by a Southern writer ; Caxton's own
early translations are far more modem in diction.
As to the Vowels, e is addedj; for Chaucer^s hoor becomes
hore, our hoary, i. 86. The old lei/n, the Participle of K^en
(jacere), is written lyen, p. i. ; the form lien remains in our
Prayer Book ; ie had always in the South been pronounced
like the French i. The d is inserted in ridge (dorsum).
Among the Nouns we see hough-bone (buckle bone), iii
32 ; in my days (time) ; hot as cmy stew, iii 2 ; short breathed,
better winded.
As to the Verbs, we see ride on Maying (a new Verbal
noun), do thy worst, went to the grownd (in Milton's sense),
to be nighted (benighted), rather differing from Manning's
use of the verb ; he will never make man (become a good
soldier), i. 234, wnholted, rum, wHd, set hand to. There is
the verb hem, iii. 16, when a -sound is made to arrest
attention. The to (dis) is sometimes prefixed to Verbs in
the good old way, as all toshiver, all to-hew ; but this all to
now began to be mistaken for omnino or vehemmter ; hence
' I have used Wright's edition, 1866.
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 319
we here see all to beaty all to scratchy all to besweaty iii. 51 ;
this corruption: is employed by Tyndale and More, and
lasted down to 1700. A man is said to be more Oum half
deady iii 327.
Among the French words stand labouring many a/a ha/rd
case, by no mrnm&r of meaneSy ii 2 ; place of tvorship (respect-
able house), bay mndoWy estrange hersdffrom, Mallory was
so literal that he translated the cry ava armes 1 by at a/rm^es I
i. 27. The word promise gets the new meaning of asswrey
iii. 216, as in our asseveration, "I promise you." In i.
109 a knight is described as full of good pa/rts; this is the
sense of the word that Lord Macaulay was so fond of. In
i 263 a lady makes cwrtesie to a man down to the ground ;
here the noun slides into the expression of an attitude.
There is in ii. 160 the proverb, "hard it is to take out of
the flesh that is bred in the bone."
The * Play of the Sacrament ' (edited for the Philological
Society) is interesting as the first English play that is not
based upon a Scriptural subject. It must have been com-
piled about 1470, and seems due to Norfolk; there are
some uncommon words found also in the ' Promptorium ; '
there is am (sunt), ylke (idem), a late instance of this
word, also the hard ^, as goven, not the usual yeven. The
ow supplants g ; for a famous German port is written Hamr
borowhe, p. 108. The 0 is replacing the sound of French
ou; for we have here sole (anima) and knoest (scis).
There is the new form ah, not a, p. 118.
Among the Substantives are player (of an interlude),
bone setter. There is boMero, some part of man's frame,
which has given rise to an English surname. There is the
new Verbal noun firvng, and the phrase a great msny of
JewySy p. 136; the of after the French word, was soon
to be dropped. The dom replaces French endings; as
dvkedom.
Among the new Verbs are wnlaugUy kepe his howrCy a new
sense of kepe.
There is the new nay tha/Hy used at the beginning of a
sentence; expressing not denial but acquiescence, p. 126.
The French words are banJc (of money), the adverb
320 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
■ ■ ■ t'
masterly, fruUion, punch (an awl), p. 114, the atuiience (the
spectators), represent a play, A man wishes for the delivevr
ance of an article to him, p. 116 ; we have since coined de-
livery to express the shade of meaning here denoted. A leech
says he saves lives with prattise, p. 126 ; hence a physician's
practice, A servant is directed to brushe intruders away, in
the same page ; Wyntoun had used this verh intransitively.
A master bids his servants tenderli to tende me tyUe (attend
to me), p. Ill; this adjective seems to have been confused
with the verb ; for to tender a thing (attend carefully to it)
is in constant use for the next Century. Occleve had
already had the phrase.
A second Version of the ' Gresta Eomanorum ' seems to
have been compiled about 1470; at least we see ware
for the old wered, p. 395, which is found in the *Paston
Letters * about that date.^ This text is far more Northern
than the Salopian text of 1440 ; we have Manning's go a
good pace, also kirke, arm, alse longe as, thou knowes, both
mskille and mych, lefte for bUefte (mansit), to-mome (eras).
In p. 48 Layamon's GornoUle becomes the Gonoryll so
well known to us. There is the new Substantive pokefvll.
The word stole still keeps its dignified meaning of sedes in
p. 418, not having come down to the sense of scdbellvm, as
in Norfolk.
Among the Adjectives we see moste myghtiest, p. 423.
In p. 405 we have both forms, rightful and rigUwise, used
for Justus,
We see, among the Verbs, drynke it up, a sperite walks, ye
han nought to do here. In p. 35 the Paston put out eyen is
substituted for the do out yen of the older Version.
Among the Adverbs we see why so? A request is
made in p. 410 ; the Southern answer / nille becomes that
shall I not.
As to the Prepositions, we have / mil make with the a
covenaunte of ten agaynes oon that, etc., p. 374 ; our sportsmen
have now wonderfully shortened this betting phrase.
As to French and Latin words, we find transite, used
^ This Version extends from p. 327 to p. 428, besides some earlier
parallel versions of the First text (Early English Text Society).
II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 321
both as a noun and as a verb. A moral lesson is drawn
from grammar in p. 416, and all the fallyngis or cases are
named. We hear of a woman weU enfourmyd^ p. 396 ; of
the Bialles, p. 408, whom Miss Burney calls " the Koyal-
ties." Ajurrour (juror) seems to have little differed from
an extordoner in this age ; see pp. 372 and 386. Children
are arrayed nysely (elegantly), p. 388 ; the new sense of
the word Our unstedefast was being supplanted by unstable^
soon to become a Biblical word. We see veckms, ruynome.
There is a pun in p. 417, turning upon eyre, which expresses
both Jueres and aer.
The *Eevelation of the Monk of Evesham' (Arber's
Keprints) seems to have been translated from the Latin
about 1470 ; it was printed about 1482 ; I suspect that it
was compiled not far from Tyndale's birthplace. We see
the new words and forms, behave, ware (induit), not wered;
thoes (illi) and dyke (fossa) have come down from the North,
while tJiA/lke appears only once. But the old Imperative
sechiih remains, and the Present Plural ends in en, as they
desiren; these forms were soon to drop. There are Salo-
pian forms and words Hke mekylle, hmrahvlle, seche (talis),
doers, hethir to ; there is the Worcestershire gyve (catena) ;
and Trevisa's Gloucestershire phrase, three nyghtis togedp-.
Both her and their stand for illm'um ; the South and North
meet in " a neybur of hems " (hers), p. 70. Many of the
new words and phrases I mention here were fifty years
later to be inserted by Tyndale, another son of the Severn
land, in our Version of the Bible. Among these is the
new sense of the verb worship.
As to Vowels, the i is replaced by 0, as hedlong. The
u is inserted in sepdcur, p. 93, much as we pronounce it
There is tedusnes, and also tedeusnes, p. 76. The old sceos
(calcei) becomes schewis. Among the Consonants we find d
changed into th, as hethur (hue) ; Tyndale was fond of this.
The J? is represented either by th or y ; yow is constantly
written for thov,, and this perhaps helped to supplant ye
and thou by you. The w is prefixed to vowels, as wolde
(senex) ; also to h, as whore (canus) ; it is struck out, for
home (quem) replaces whom. The r is added, for lesse
VOL. I. ^
322 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
becomes Usswr (minor), one of Tyndale's forms. There is
the new Adjective onspekoMe, Among the Pronouns we
remark that after, unlike other prepositions, is not prefixed
to one another, as the new usage of this age enjoined ; in p.
20 the phrase is one after a Twthyr, following the former
construction of all prepositions. There is the new phrase
any lenger (longer) ; " he knew not that it were any synne"
where any supplants a. The old me (man) has been dropped
since Audley's time; we see how myght a man sey, etc.,
p. 46.
Among the Verbs we see schynyd instead of shone, p.
108. In p. 77 we have both the old holpyn and the new
helpyd, A new phrase for the Future, a phrase now always
in our mouths, comes in p. 43 ; a sowle was goyng to he
Ir&iighte, instead of shvlde he hroughte ; this reminds us of
the Old English he gos]? rcedan. There are new phrases
like have amy suspycyon, dead and gone. The old Teutonic
rap (auferre) is confused with the Latin ; hence we see the
Participle rapt In p. 72 take stands for intelligere, as in
our "I take it." In p. 105 the saints toorship Christ; in
p. 87 Christ worships His servant, that is, " does honour to
him;" it was unlucky that one English verb should come
to express both adorare and colere. There is the medical
verb cup in p. 32.
Among the Adverbs there is fer and hrode, p. 68, where
we should make the last word ivide; in p. 103 stands an
evyn heyre with me (co-heir).
As to the Prepositions, we have m^iny of myne acquentans,
p. 41; cruel apone (them), p. 57; whence "hard upon
them." There is for a more wondyr, p. 22 ; here a preced-
ing what may he held is dropped.
We see the German noun hrack (bush), our brake, p. 40.
The Komance words are conteyne (restrain) him, ex-
pedyent, contrary wise, plead a cause, joi/n himself to, fugytyve.
The form state is set apart for conditio ; estate was needed
to express other ideas. In p. 63 a clerk is wise in his
own comeyte ; we now make a difference between this noun
and conception. The verb marvel was coming in fast, as we
see in this treatise. In p. 106 a man is so amazed that
1 1. ] THE NE IV ENGLISH. 323
he is absent to himself. In p. 93 a man is prevent by
mercy, to repent before death ; here the idea of forestalling
begins to come in. The very, standing for vald^, is in great
use.
About 1470 were compiled the *Babees' Book' (Early
English Text Society) and some other poems in the same
volume. The chief author here is John Kussell, some time
servant to the good Duke Humphrey. He uses the y pre-
fixed to the Past Participle, the ande which ends the
Present Participle, and tiche (quisque). He prefixes the
y, as in yerb (herba) ; we see the alliterative ryme or reson
in p. 199 ; the h is clipped ; hrcecan becomes reche (vomit).
Among the new Substantives are wrapper, slipper, runner
(strainer). In p. 1 babees is used for young lads, reminding
us of Baby Charles. In p. 195 Kussell uses in my dayes,
Mallory's phrase for olim. We see a new Adjective formed
by' adding som to an old one, as werysom, p. 168. There
is the new phrase any further, p. 161.
Among the Verbs are set abroche (a pipe), set on egge
(edge). In p. 3 the greeting prescribed is God spede, A
new idiom with the Imperative is often used, be tastynge,
p. 128 ; Coverdale was to be fond of this.
There is the Scandinavian substantive roughe (roe of
fish), p. 154, also squirt.
Among the French words are posset, junket, Muscadel,
sugar candy, basshe (modest, p. 161), cov/rtly, vycount. The
lees of some red wine are called coloure de rose, p. 125.
The expletive sans doute is used. We hear of these gromes
called wayters, who set out the table of Edward IV., p. 314,
Note. The word mess gains a new meaning in p. 188 ; it
does not mean food, but a party of men eating together.
In p. 8 report stands for a written document. We see to
brush clothes; the foreign word had also given birth to
the Participle wabrush^n. We read of the blod royal, one
of the few instances where we still make the Adjective the
last word.
The Middle class seem to have been making way about
this time, for in p. 187 it is stated that merchants and
rich artificers may sit at table with ladies and squirea.
324 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
No one under the rank of an Earl employed a taster as
a preservative against poison, p. 196. The Abbot of Tin-
tern is named in p. 192 as the poorest of all the Abbots,
he of Westminster being the highest ; in the same way, the
Prior of Dudley is opposed to the Prior of Canterbury.
In the * Chronicles of the White Rose ' (published in
1845) there are many documents of 1470 and 1471.
We see avani cut down to mw, p. 80, and discouriour
becomes scourer (scout), p. 75, as in the North. There
are the verbs set in array, it lies in his power, keep terms
with; this last reminds us of kepan half dale with, in 1210.
The verb get, following the example of come, takes an
Infinitive; he might get to have the overhand, p. 52. We
hear of " so able and so well picked men," p. 45. There
is an inversion in truth it is thai, p. 234. We see thie new
adverb hourly, p. 235 ; there is terseness in the phrase they
dispersed the soonest they could, p. 92. The Eomance words
are, the appointment is broken, abuse (fallere), hisfu/neral service,
tranquillity, to minister justice. In p. 57 we hear of comfort-
able (cheering) messages, where the able, as in the old de-
fensable, has an Active sense. In p. 233 we have put it
in ure (practice) ; hence came the verb inure twenty years
later; still more remarkable is put them in their uttermost
devoir to, p. 240 ; the change from the sense of debere to
that of conari is most strange ; a few years later Caxton
wrote indevor him to, etc.
In the * Political Songs' of the year 1471 (Master of
the Rolls) the Northern change, which substituted aro
(sagitta) for the Southern arwe, is making progress; in
p. 277 walomg stands for the Participle of the old walewen.
The old clo]>er is now written dothyer, p. 285. The form
Bewme, not Beeme (Bohemia), appears, p. 284 ; perhaps
this was an imitation of the German sound of the word.
The French words are penowry (penury), altratyd (altered).
Warkworth's Chronicle (Camden Society) seems to
belong to this time; the writer must have been an East
Angle from his use of gwiche (which) and tUl (ad). Some
documents of the time are added to the Chronicle. The
old on lesse becomes our common unless, p. 50. We know
11.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 325
the old idiom, a man of his; this is extended in p. 16, a
manne of the Erles. Among the Substantives we see once
more hande-gonnes, as distinguished from cannon ; Edward
IV. owed the recovery of his throne mainly to three
hundred of these light weapons, borne by Flemings, p. 13.
An adverb is made a noun ; for in p. 17 stands the fonmrde
(of the battle). The new thoos (illi) may be read in a State
paper, p. 46 ; it was soon to drive out the old tho. There
is halff so myche more^ p. 3, Jom of dohke, p. 16, not far
from our phrase. Among the Verbs are give knoleage to,
to loose gonnes at (our let off), lose it to the King, to turn out
(come forth), make out commaundements to, also commissions
to. We see the cry wherewith a favourite chief was hailed:
A / Kynge Herry, p. 14 ; this had come South since Wyn-
toun's time.
Among the Romance words we find the u&vrpit them in
devir to, etc. ; there is pety capitaine, resist, execute him, levy
war ; the word dyverse is used without any substantive, p.
27, like the Latin Plural quidam, a new sense of the word ;
dyverse of them were turned. The word inconvenience stands
for damnum, p. 37 ; debate is now used of a Parliamentary
contest, p. 60 ; York's change of the succession was
debatet. The Western shires are expressed by the west
countre, p. 17. An old French proverb comes in p. 27,
"a castelle that spekythe, and a womane that wille here,
thei wille be gotene bothe."
In * Halliwell's Original Letters of English Elings,' for
the year 1473, we see the new substantive breakfast, p.
138, stamped with the authority of Edward IV.; also
behaviour, p. 141, the ending of which seems to have been
suggested by the word haver or havour (opes), coming from
the French avoir. The word humanity stands here for
" polite learning."
In the 'State Papers,' voL vL, dating from 1473, we
see " letters sent in that byhalf,^* p. 1 ; a new phrase for
object. In p. 6 stands a minuit (minute) of a letter. In p. 8
we find the jpremissez (what has gone before).
London had been extending her sway over the shires
South of Trent for the last Century as regards language ;
326 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap. ii.
her influence can be measured by glancing at the Stafi'ord-
shire poem in Horstmann's * Altengliscbe Legenden/ p. 308,
supposed to have been compiled about 1460. Chaucer,
Wickliffe, and Henry the Fifth had not written in vain,
but something still remained to be done ; the old manu-
scripts were now to yield to a new invention.
CHAPTEE III.
CAXTON'S ENGLISH.
1474-1686.
Hitherto the New Standard English had been militant ; it
was now at last triumphant ; the many dialects, at least to
the South of Trent, very seldom reappear in writing after
1474. Caxton's press marks the beginning of a new
period ; it arrested the decay of old Teutonic words, and
gave stability to our spelling. The Reformation was to
bring Standard English home to all men; the Bible of
Tyndale and Coverdale, and the Prayer Book of the
reformed Anglican Church — books read every week in
every English parish — were to insure the triumph of the
East Midland English that had forced its way to London
and Oxford. The form, in which the world -renowned
English classics were soon to appear, now comes before us ;
it differs in some points widely from Pecock's works that
were compiled only a score of years earlier.
Caxton, a Kentish man, whose grandfather must have
been bom not long after the time that the Ayenbite of Inwit
was compiled, lived for three years in London ; and then
about 1441 betook himself to the Low Countries, where he
combined trade and authorship. We might have expected,
from his birth and breeding, that he would have held fast
to the old Southern forms and inflections, at least as
much as Bishop Pecock had done. But Caxton had
come under another influence. In 1469 he had begun
translating into English the * Recuyell of the Historyes of
Troye ;' in the previous year King Edward's sister had been
328 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
given to Charles the Bold. The new Duchess took
an interest in the work of her countryman, who had
sickened of his task after writing five or six quires. In
1471, "she commanded me," says Caxton, "to show the
said five or six quires to her said grace. And when she
had seen them, anon she found defaute in mine English,
which she commanded me to amend." She bade him (he
had a yearly fee from her) go on with his book ; and this
work, the first ever printed in our tongue, came out in
1474. It was "not written with pen and ink, as other
books are, to the end that every man may have them at
once." Wherein did the Duchess and the Printer differ
in their views of English ? In this, that the one came of
a Northern house, while the other had been bom and bred
in the South. ^ Owing to the new influence, in Caxton's
first work we see the loss of the old Southern inflexions of
the Verb ; and we find Orrmin's thm\ them, and tJuit (iste)
well established, instead of the Southern her, hem, and thilk,
beloved of Pecock. Caxton uses besiness for occupation, and
has the phrase to passe the tyme, whence a noun was to come,
thirty years later. When we weigh the works of Caxton,
who wrote under the eye of the Yorkist Princess, we
should bear in mind the English written by her father in
1452, not very unlike the State papers of Henry V.^ The
Midland speech was now carrying all before it. The Acts
of Parliament, passed under the last Plantagenet King,
were soon to be printed by the old servant of the House
of York.
Caxton says of himself, "I was born and lerned myn
englissh in Kent in the weeld, where I dowte not is
spoken as brode and rude englissh as is in ony pla<!e of
englond." ^ He got the * Recuyell ' printed at Bruges
^ See Mr. Blades's * Life of Caxton.' *The Recuyell,' and some of
Caxton's later works, are exposed to view in a case at the British
Museum.
^ See York's long State Paper in Gairdner's *Paston Letters '
Ixxvii.
3 I may remark that this weeld (the old toeald) was written wolde
(saltus) in other parts of England. As to broad, it had been degraded
from Chaucer's sense of planiis to incuUus ; hence our hr(xiid Yorkshire
applied to speech.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 329
by his friend Colard Mansion in 1474 ; another of his
works, the *Game of the Chesse/ was printed by the
same friend in the next year. In 1476 Caxton seems to
have set np a press of his own in Westminster, where he
worked till his death in 1491. Good reason has England
to be proud of this son of hers, who opens a new era in
her literature.
The * Game of the Chesse* (I use Axon's reprint in
1883) abounds in new French words, which did not take
root in England ; there are very few Teutonic words, now
obsolete, to be found there. Here we doubtless trace the
influence of Caxton's fair patroness. Colard Mansion, a
foreigner, had no type for the English \ ; hence ih usually
replaces it, and our loss of the old character is accounted
for. The letter y is sometimes used for it, as y^ (thou),
^ (that) ; hence we often see in our time y written for
the; this last may be seen in p. 133. Another token
of foreign influence is the Flemish gh before 6, as ghed
(hospes); ghost appears in later works. "^ The Northern
syn (quoniam) is preferred to the Southern ^hm^ p. 44.
We see mr (neque) an odd mixture of the old ne with the
North-Westem corruption nor,
Caxton is fond of striking out vowels ; he constantly
prints forms like thanswer for the answer^ a usage which
lasted for a hundred years ; captayn replaces Chaucer's
capitaine ; pawne (the chess piece) is written for Lydgate's
poun. The 0 replaces ow ; sorofid is written for sorweful.
The ch replaces t, as scracch; we see not reckless but
recheless, which comes into our Prayer Book. Caxton is
fond of the 0, writing Cezar, Among his new Substantives
are husband man, grauntsirs fader; this last was to be
altered by 1530. The forms heyghte and hyghnes stand in
one sentence, p. 159. The word rodde is used for a
carter's whip, p. 76. Caxton is fond of new Plurals ; thus
he talks of heetes (ardores), p. 103, applying the word to
the mind. The word forfex is now Englished by a pair of
sheres, p. 93. Among his Adjectives is the hye sea; men
may dress in whyte, p. 36. Among the Pronouns we
see thee needlessly inserted, as ne donate the (fear not), p.
330 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
21 ; we have already seen / fear me. The her^ now and
then, still stands for Ulorum ; there is the very Northern
phrase a frende of heeris (hers), p. 32. The nothmg is very
often used for noty the old nought ; no thynge so grete as,
nothinge lyke to U, Caxton's countryman Shoreham had
used nothing lovd. There is the new phrase in p. 67,
answer none otherwyse, where in is dropped. Caxton was
unahle to pass the Douhle Negative on to Tyndale, a
generation later. An English sentence may now consist of
two words ; in p. 87 the question is asked, who entendeih to,
etc. ? Then comes Certayrdy none ; this we must owe to
the French. We see the new phrase they ben worst of alle
other ; here the of expresses beyond ; or else the other is not
needed.
Among the Verhs we see sette in enprinte, gyve thankyngis,
kepe a promise. The verh break gets the new sense of
domare; his hors well broken, p. 43. In p. 59 certain advice
is given, which they toke ; in our phrase take advice, the
verb may mean either rogare or ampledL In p. 72 Csesar
is ready to do for his soldiers (act in their behalf) ; hence
landladies profess to do for their lodgers. The old deave
(findere) becomes intransitive in p. 152 ; it moreover begins
to take a Weak Perfect.
Among the Adverbs are a fore tyme, comerwyse ; this wise
was to be much used in compounding. The old adverb
derelier becomes more derely, p. 2 ; a change for the worse.
In p. 65 a man acts for nothynge that (non quia) he mys-
trusted/ this was soon to become not that he mistrusted,
where a for is dropped. In p. 90 stands the grettest synns
that is ; here a there is dropped before the verb.
As to Prepositions, there is a new idiom connected with
f(yr in p. 90 ; it is an evil thing for a man to have suspedon ;
laws hard for them to kepe, p. 54 ; here the for connects an
Infinitive with the Adjective. A covetous man is not good
for ony thynge, p. 109. In p. 121 money is holden and gaged
upon something; this is a new betting phrase, both as
regards the verb hold and the preposition.
Among the Eomance words are redoubted, to endodrine,
parole, dyent (at law), gawnUlet, barbaryns (barbarians), dis-
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 331
agreahle, depose (as witness), trowell, abandon, net (purus), to
confisc, clere seing, treangle, vaUliami. Caxton does not care
to alter the French fonns and words in the book which he
was Englishing, thus we see Seneque (Seneca), moyan (mean),
to estvdy, mysericorde, to enseygne (docere), esprised with hei',
fumee (smoke), tryste (msestus). He often restores to a French
word a sense that it had long lost in England, as defend
(vetare), caitif (captivus). New French forms replace older
ones, as renom6e, loyalty^ gardes (no longer wardeins), guarisshe
(not toa/rish, to heal). We see both the Latin tractate and
the French traytee^ meaning our treatise. We hear of
strange birds that men call wultres (vultures), p. 10. The
two Participles corrupt and corompid stand side by side
in p. 37 ; they are formed from diflFerent parts of the Latin
verb. The word pietovs is in constant use for pitying.
Caxton couples /roTkJ mthfree, p. 79; he also brought in
new Plurals, as vilanyes (scelera). He uses marchal for
smith, p. 85 ; this word must have been commoner in every-
day speech than in literature, to account for our frequent
surname Marshall. We hear of dyvyne pourveance, p. 113;
we now usually give to the substantive its Latin form. The
old estate makes way for another word ; men in good con-
dicion, p. 132 ; but it here refers to the mind, not the body.
We are told in p. 158 that the myles of Lombardy and
England are called in France leukes (leagues). The foreign
verb extend was now driving out the Teutonic reach. The
word succession now expresses proles, and is used of a king,
p. 170. We saw, about the year 1470, the new phrase
put them in dever to ; this is now altered by Caxton into
endevor them to, p. 3 ; and a further change was to come
thirty years later. Caxton is fond of using peple for
homines; a queen should spring of (from) honest peple, p.
27 ; we now often use my people for my family, A manoir
is used for castellvm, p. 30 ; hence our Worksop Manor,
referring to a house. Caxton's Southern birth is evident
when he writes tumerous for timorous, p. 32. In p. 50 we
see the new word botye (booty), and also its French form
butyn. There is a favourite phrase set it a part (aside), that
is, abolere. The verb close becomes intransitive, p. 90. The
332 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
barbarous compound scatvage (show-age) appears in p. 1 39 ;
it here means toll taken upon goods displayed for sale ;
hence shortly was to come scavengei\ The Latin mvlier is
derived from mollis aer in p. 123; this was repeated by
Shakespere.
The technical tenns of Chess appear in this book, such
as chesse borde, chesse meyney chesse men, a quadrante (square),
set the chesse, take his adversary, go from black to whyte, to
meve (ire, not movere), to cover (your men).
In the *Book of Curtesye,' printed about 1477, Caxton
follows a manuscript that makes a few alterations in the
text of 1450, upon which I have already remarked ; see p.
285 of my book. He preserves the old Imperative in eth.
He couples the verbs mocken and mowe in p. 49 ; the first
word was to be replaced by Shakespere's mop. The morowe
(mane) and thilke of the first text are here altered into mm--
enynge and these, pp. 6 and 43 ; arid (si) is turned into yf,
p. 9. A wonderful mistake is made in p. 47, where to goo
louse is altered into go to the galowis.
In 1481 Caxton translated the hystorye of Reynard the
Foxe from the Dutch ; this is the most valuable treatise
ever set in type by him, and it has been reprinted again
and again ; I have gone to the Percy Society for my text.
In this piece Caxton brought in many Dutch words, such
as the verbs rutsele, wentle, etc. He prints diere (fera) in
the Dutch way, not the English dere ; so also lupaerd and
ungheluch He says, " I have followed as nyghe as I can
my copie, which was in dutche, and translated into this
rude and symple Englyssh;" here Dutch is restricted to
Hollandish, I think for the first time. In this work, the
diction of which is most unlike the *Game of Chesse,'
Caxton shows his Southern birth by printing axe (rogare),
anhongryd, suiter, everiche, tryew, the old treow (verus), and
valdore as well Sisfaldore, p. 34. But the Northern words
and forms had come down in flocks, and were now em-
bodied in Standard English. Where replaces there (ubi) in
p. 121. Caxton has already (jam), halow (clamare), the
Perfect thou dalf-est, gete (ire), sware, upsodoun, she-ape, ramie
(cucurrit), cratch (scratch), have the overhand of, kyndenes
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 333
(benignitas), ill life^ ha/ue done. The Danish whatsomever
and such like forms are found. Caxton's great claim upon
us is that in many words he gave us back the old hard
East Anglian ^, which for the foregoing 300 years had
been commonly softened into y in words like gate, get, again /
he even writes galp instead of yelj). In p. 73 comes to day
by the morow ; Gualtier, the later editor of 1650, turned
this last word into morning. The Northern has begins to
replace the Southern hath, p. 31. The old Gloucestershire
kyen (vaccse) was made a Standard word by Caxton.
Nothing shows more plainly the influence of the Dano-
Anglian forms than that he should write ridge (dorsum),
the old hrycg ; here he prefers the Northern i to the usual
Southern u (rugge), or to his own Kentish e (regge).
We find many old proverbs here ; among others, a pot
may goo so longe to water, that at the last it cometh to-broken
hoom ; I am no byrde to be locked ne take by chaf.
As to Vowels, there are herke, hearke, and harkene, all
three ; we have seen the old estatlich ; the first vowel of
this is clipped in p. 48; jeopardy and manace become jepardye
and Tnenace. It was now settled that we should writepeyne,
not pine. The king is addressed as me lorde, p. 78. We
find our form bier (feretrum), p. 8, where the ie is new.
Caxton writes gylty and not the usual Southern gulty. The
old swelwen now becomes swolow, p. 83 ; the Northern bile
(pustula) here is seen as bule, which is also a Flemish word ;
this shows how our boU was once sounded. The 0 and u
still interchange, for both roms and ruym (p. 81) appear.
Caxton was fond of turning the old prefix bi into be, as bely
for the old bUeo^en (falsely accuse).
As to Consonants, he is fond of the gh ; he has sygh^ for
the old sike, used by Chaucer. The d is inserted in hedche,
p. 103, as before in the * Promptorium.' The z, an unusual
letter, replaces s in wezel, p. 157, which had been written
wesile in the * Promptorium.'
Turning to the Substantives we see the double forms
neve and nevm, Bruin and Browning. The racke (not long
known in England) is mentioned in p. 29, and this is spelt
ratte in p. 12 ; just as we have backe (vespertilio) in p. 109.
334 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
We see the common phrase a deel of hem in p. 18, where
great should follow the article. A man is said to be a
Friese (Frisian), p. 55. We hear of the bear's ridge (back),
p. 58 ; hirgh stands for burrow in p. 80. Quene is here
used as a synonym both for a Monarch and a wench ; the
old chorle stands for nothing higher than a clowriy p. 133,
and is opposed to Lord, p. 49. Reynard eats his bely-ftU,
p. 139. We find in this book good luck, brome (for sweeping),
sorenes. In p. 140 nyckers is used for fiends ; this Scandi-
navian word may have given birth to Butler's Old Nick.
There is shadde (our shed), which seems to come from our
word for umbra; there is the true old Kentish inwytte
(conscience), p. 93.
Among the Adjectives is shrewessh, p. 28. In p. 86 we
read of loos prelates ; that is, lege soluti, a new sense of the
adjective. We find rude and plompe beestis, p. 140; here
the plompe means rusticus; the sense ofpinguis was to come
later.
As to Pronouns, we may remark that the King, when
angry, uses thou to his subjects, pp. 38, 46 ; when in a
gracious mood, as in pp. 22, 23, he uses ye to each animal.
The Queen, when eager to know a secret, uses the flattering
ye to Eeynard, though he is at the moment a criminal on
his way to the gallows. The ram, p. 68, is addressed as
ye your self. We also find fyve of us, "p. 97 ; one who was
your better and wyser, p. 1 40, a very Old English form ; also,
that one, that other, p. 160. Caxton is fond of as who saith.
In p. 77 stands he sayd not a trewe worde ; here we should
substitute one for the a ; Caxton here had probably the old
Southern o in his mind.
On turning to Verbs we are struck by the frequent
repetition of the solemn should (answering to must), where
we use the lighter would. In p. 126 the old gecomen,
icomsn, becomes a-comen, just as it is now pronounced in the
West. In p. 160 stands " they wold not of his felawship ;"
here we should now set have nme for not. There are verbs
like bespatter (something like bispUten), Piers Ploughman's
galp (yelp), unsho, maw (the cry of a cat), dasel (dazzle) from
dase. There are phrases like it goth to my herte ; I goo in
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 335
drede ; saye ony good of hym ; smell sweet. We now often
hear the phrase not if I know it ; this may be found in p.
66 without the first word. In the same page may be seen
here ye; our insolent d*ye hear? In p. 85 stands sle2>e yowr
dyner ; we should now put off&fter the verb. The growl
is often used, but only as an Impersonal verb; the old
grillan in its Southern form ; hym myght growle that, etc., p.
108; our present use of the verb came about 1700. To
smeke is used as a synonym for flatter, p. 126; this may
have had its influence on our later smug. Layamon's
marke, found here in p. 134, is a weightier word than its
synonym see. Two phrases afterwards inserted in the Bible
appear, shrah (scratch) and come to passe, p. 151. Look abouie
yow is a synonym for "to be wary."
Among the Adverbs are heirtofore, p. 67 ; in p. 107
stands go to fore ; we now insert the before the last word,
and make it a noun. The fox, we are told, might better
(be) of and oti, p. 1 60 ; our on and off is now mostly applied to
love affairs. How wel stands in p. 49, where Skelton, a few
years later, wrote however well; and do so wel as to, etc.,
stands in p. 51 for our be so good as to. In p. 55 comes
XII yer agoon; Caxton thinks that the a is a separate word
and disjoins it from the goon; in the North this phrase
would have been replaced by sinnes. In p. 122 a bone
sticks thwart ; this is the old overthwart, our athwart. The
outright (omnino) of 1300 is clipped ; hear me all out.
Among the Prepositions we find hurt unto the death, I
know myself for one, p. 108; hence "I for one;" half fro
myself, p. 92 ; that is, out of my wits ; like our ^ he is from
home;" the fayrest of theyr age, p. 138. The Interjections
are Oho and Ach. .
Among the French words are to plaghe (plague), defux aas,
p. 62, clere hym, lycensyd in law, p. 84.^ Awreke and avenge
this is in p. 75 ; the old and new verbs stand side by side.
Place is now evidently ousting the old stede. We hear of
^ The Dutch, like the English, must resort to Latin in discussing
legal matters. The original of Caxton*s translation was in this place ;
Ich heh mil meesters van der audiencien qiiestien ende sentenden gheg-
heven, ende was gJielycenceert.
336
THE NEW ENGLISH.
[chap.
riche curates, p. 87 ; the epithet in our days seems strange,
until we remember what was the old term for parish priest
The verb bray is used for the noise of both a bear and a
bull. Vmmercyful is in p. 48 ; this is the same kind of
formation as ^Ifric's imdedinigendlice.
In 1482 Caxton printed Trevisa's Chronicle, which
was then all but a Century old. The variations in the
language show us the changes that had been at work, un>
checked by any counteracting influence ; the printing press
had been unknown in England until 1474. The letter 3
(for y) is clean gone, and ]> is hardly ever used for th / this
]) which was now vanishing is a sad loss. Henceforth the
language was to be much more stable ; a hundred years
later still Sir Philip Sidney would have altered but few
of Caxton's words. I give a specimen of the changes in
English —
Trevisa.
Caocton,
1387.
1482.
i-cleped
schulle]) fonge
ich
called.
shall resseyve.
to eche
encrece.
lore
to wone
doctryne.
dwelle.
byneme
to welk
teke away,
fade.
to hore
wexe hore (canus).
eyren
buxom
egges.
obedient.
hi3t
was named.
as me trowe})
steihe
as men suppose,
ascended.
heleful
helthful.
teeldis
tents.
lesue
pasture.
a3e
schenfiil
agayn.
shameful.
schrewednesse
ylle disposicioun.'
deel
3ede
part,
went.
swi>e good
nesche ..
right good*
soft.
chepinge
market.
Caxton brought out an edition of Chaucer's * House of
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 337
Fame* in 1483 ; we can thus mark further changes in our
speech. The printer replaces gost by his new Dutch ghosl.
The old Imperative hiveth (habete) makes way for hive ye^ do
(factum) becomes don, y-be appears as he; (it) nas hut, etc.,
as (it) vxis hut, ame (sunt) as ar, nyste I SiS I ne vyyst, wUnen
as vyylleth, hevenyssh as hevenly, graunt mercy as gramercy,
other as eyther, disesperat as desperate, disport as sporte,
mochU as grete, Chaucer had written Cataloigne amd Aragon;
Jbut in Caxton's time another part of the Peninsula had
taken the lead ; he therefore writes Castyle lyon (Leon)
and Aragon, p. 215. Even Thynne in 1532 often sticks
closer to the old text than Caxton does. The latter thus
speaks of Chaucer, "In alle hys werkys he excellyth in
myn oppynyon alle other wryters in our EnglyssL For
he wrytteth no voyde wordes, but alle hys mater is ful of
hye and quycke sentence. ... Of hym alle other have
borowed syth and taken in alle theyr wel sayeng and
wrytyng." Few poets, in modem times, have enjoyed
500 years of continuous honour.
In Caxton's edition of the * Book of the Knight of La
Tour Landry ' (Early English Text Society), given to the
world in 1483, there is the Southern form suster, the
Northern ash and the which, also some hody, p. 176, and
straw (stemere) to be afterwards used by Tyndale; the old
assay becomes essay, p. 170; both dommage and dammage
stand in p. 194. In p. 175 stands the pleonasm one onely
word. In p. 179 stands hetter men of theyr persones ; hence
the later "a tall man of his hands." In p. 194 we find
not above ten yere old ; here this preposition is first prefixed
to numerals. In p. 200 stands at all aventure (in any case) ;
this paved the way for our " at all events." French words
are brought in. from the original without the slightest
reason, as arrache, vergoynous ; there is custommed to doo
(solitus), p. 195.
Dr. Murray's Dictionary shows that Caxton prefixed
the a to the old knouleche (fateor) ; he has also amuse
(fallere), absolutely (certainly), and by accident.
In the *York Wills' for 1482 and 1483 we see a
thoroughly Northern substitution, when a Saville writes
VOL. I. ^
338 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
his own name as Sayvdly iiL 294. In p. 287 an executor,
speaking of a servant, calls hym to dccomptes / we now put
the last word in the Singular.
In Rjrmer's documents, from 1474 to 1477, we see the
form buye (emere) in a grant of Edward the Fourth's, p.
185 ; the word has at last all but taken its modem form.
In p. 175 we once more see the Present and Future coupled
in the nobles being and to be under him. This was also an
idiom of Caxton*s. The word Duchery, p. 826, occurring in
a Scotch document, is a compromise between duchy and
dukery ; the latter word is well known in Notts. We see
non, as before, prefixed to a Teutonic word ; in non-doing of
(it), p. 838. In p. 849 stands the expedition and setting
forth of the army ; here both the Eomance and the Teutonic
nouns convey a transitive sense, though we now use them
as neuters. There is a Scotch substitution of brmgage for
bringing in the year 1477. There is the new placquart
(placard).
In the * Rolls of Parliament,' 1474-1483, we see the
Old and New forms coupled in p. 166, where mention is
made of the village Iwame Cmrteney, otherwise Yewame
Comieney ; both Jcmyver and January appear. In p. 113
we read of the North/rithyng and Estrithyng of York \ this th
had not yet been corrupted into d in the East Anglian
fashion ; in the same way the old verb aforthe lingers in p.
156, followed by an Infinite. There is the surname Gibbes,
due to Gilbert ; and new nouns like oversight, neemesse, mys-
behavyngs ; the latter shows how readily the mis was pre-
fixed to a new word. In p. 188 various plays are
mentioned, among them are halfbowle, handyn and handowte;
these, like our skittles, were played in gardens. In p. 134
we read of 12 fathom; the word is unchanged in its Plural
form. The Commons are addressed as youre wisdomss, p.
182. In p. 221 we see that grilles was anything but equal
to a salmon. In p. 156 we learn that Englishmen were
getting fonder of playing cards than of archery ; a statute is
passed (like one of the Emperor Frederick the Second's),
compelling every ship to bring home bowstaves from
foreign parts. In p. 193 stands it is comen to his knowlage.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 339
The preposition (mt (we saw one instance in Chaucer) was
now beginning to encroach upon me/r in composition ; to
outleve him stands in p. 234, where the ov^ expresses super,
not ex. Among the Eomance words are sewers (of water), p.
210, demeane (domain), to quiet them, arable land. We saw
determine (statuere) in Trevisa; we now find in p. 241 we
he determined to, etc. In p. 210 we hear of the Priour and
his confreres ; the latter word is now a thing of beauty and
joy to our penny-a-liners. The old French form hordure
still stands, not having given way to border.
The *Paston Letters,' from 1474 to 1485, show many
changes at work. There is the East Anglian plot (of
ground), huswifery ; thos (illi) is much used for tho by the
upper class. The sound of the French ^ is making its way
to the South, for there are declair, gayt (I gat, got), p. 227 ;
in p. 254 stands Leystoft for Lowestoft, owing most likely to
the twofold sound of oi. The 0 replaces ow in horoed. In
p. 140 we have streyghtly charge theym ; here the Teutonic
gh is thrust into a IVench word. A Paston uses the very
Southern form " (it) ys do " (done) in p. 247 ; this do was
very near sharing the triumph of ago (agone). The most
curious use of consonants is that of psal for sal (shall), p.
221. The r is inserted, for the guavin of the 'Promp-
torium' now becomes qwaver, p. 174.
Among the new Substantives are shomaker, wardship, the
lete (let of an estate), your m^rchypp (mothership). In p.
109 a letter is directed to a knight, "lodgyd at the George
by Powlys WharfF;" here we see the titles of Saints clipped
in common usage. The word toweardnes before the Con-
quest had meant futurity ; this had died out, and the sub-
stantive, bearing another meaning, is coined anew from the
adjective toward; see p. 122. The word stok had expressed
progenies in WicklifFe; it stands for domus in p. 190, and
ioT pecus in p. 238. In p. 133 we hear of a grome of the
chamhyr. In p. 170 a young lady addresses her betrothed
as her Voluntyne, In p. 148 a new title comes up; Sir
John Paston talks of Mother Brown; in p. 171 reference is
made to my lady my rmder. It is hoped, in p. 163, that a
marriageable girl may come into Crysten menys handys ,•
340 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
here Crysten must stand for a man of worth. In p. 155
something is gotten hy stronge Mnd {yioXqxic^, In p. 162
the conquerors of Charles the Bold appear as the Swechys ;
Tyndale later called them Souchenars, We have already
seen your wisdoms; in p. 181 we have yowr wurshippys.
There is the new word grorvndage, p. 211, expressing the
right to what comes aground after a wreck at sea. The
old fere was now being replaced in composition by fellow ;
in p. 235 stands hedffelawe. In p. 244 there is not only
Chaucer's h'ue hous, but also the new hruewyf. We find Tvlly
for Cicero in p. 301, just as July had replaced Julius nearly
200 years earlier. We see the proper name WTiyte in
p. 211.
Among the Adjectives something is called in p. 239 tw^
goodely mther goddely ; the latter word starts once more to
life after a long sleep. In p. 144 we hear of a gravecloth
not worth IP, a phrase that we still keep, sometimes adding
to it halfpenny. The word onhappy is applied to a thing
without feeling in p. 121, much as miluchy. The word slak
is employed in a new sense in p. 166, slakke payeres. The
Past Participle of hreddan (liberare) had not often been
used hitherto ; she wold he redde of it, p. 295. We read of
a free horse in p. 200 ; this must mean generosus ; we now
talk of " a free goer."
Among the Pronouns we see on (one) weye or other, p.
153.
As to the Verbs, there is a most unusual coupling in p.
159, / wyll and shall he redy. The Imperative stands for
the Future in p. 211, lesse (lose) your ryht now and lesse it for
ever. We see do the hest I can, p. 143; lay to me (a charge),
let loose, it is well ment, hrynge it to effecte, I took (visited) him
in my wey, put in possessyon, make trohyll, fall in qiveyntaince
with, gete it into yowr handes, draw ought (up) a hylle, kepe
possession, doo as moche for yow. We have seen mean applied
to the signification of a word; it is now applied to the
reality denoted by the word, they wote what yt meneth to he
as a sauger, p. 135. The verb erase is still used both of
sea-sickness and of illness produced by bad diet in p. 161 ;
we now confine it to failure of brain. In p. 149 deele
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 341
stands for make, a bargain. In p. 188 yoiur mater is hlowyn
wyde, "made common talk;" hence character is blown upon.
Our slang use oisit upon is foreshadowed in p. 235 ; the King
intends to sitte uppon a criminal ; that is, in judgment In p.
231 stands ye may do meche with the Kyng ; here the do re-
presents the old dugan (valere), not don. The Infinitive is
dropped after have (jubeo), how ye wyll have me demeanyd, p.
159. The verb spring is made transitive in p. 130, iff (^it)
sprynge (produce) any sylver ; a new verb is coined in p.
162, where the Swiss berde the Duke of Burgoyne. We
see the Chaucerian / gesse used as an expletive in the
American way, p. 185. The Passive Voice is further de-
veloped, / am promysed to know, p. 228. The verb do is
even at this late date used for our makey do him come, p.
238. The phrase go to lawe, p. 245, means simply "begin
to study law."
As to Adverbs, dovm is employed in a new sense in p.
226, the wod (wood) is dovm; out is prefixed to nouns ; we
hear of the owt chargys, that is, extra charges, p. 126. In
p. 194 stands the soner the better. There is a new phrase
for tolerare in p. 199, used afterwards in the Bible, my
charges be gretter than I maye a weye with ; perhaps a verb
make is dropped before the a weye, representing some sense
like facere viam ; the whole construction is most curious.
Old Margaret Paston uses there in its old sense, ubi, in p.
284 ; she speaks of Redham, there as I was bwne.
Among the Prepositions we find be in hand with a man,
it is in the giftt of, etc., be m goode hope, be out of facyon ;
here the last word takes the sense of mode. Hitherto a man
had appeared before the Lords of the Council ; now a mater
is beffoor them, p. 153. A well-known law phrase is in p.
166, ye sholde have it with your wyffe to the lenger lyver of yow
bothe. In p. 219 stands, (she) is upon L yer of age; here
close is dropped after is. In p. 204 we see long of comyng
where the of must stand for an on. Instead of saying " she
has a sister," a lad writes in p. 241 ther be II systers of them ;
our " make a night of it " is something like this.
We see the proverbs, grettest clefrkys are nott alweye wysest
men, p. 153; U is but a sympill oke, that is cut dovm at the first
342 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
stroke^ p. 169. If a thing is very easy to be obtained, a
goose may get ity p. 163.
The well-known letter of young Master Paston from
Eton, anent love-making and Latin verse-making, stands in
p. 240 ; it was written in 1479.
There is the Dutch word waynescotte.
The Eomance words are Sfpedfy^ jplunge (as a frisky horse
does), relyffe (relief), rental^ weell-T/wnyed, prefyx, compleynaunty
senior (set after a proper name), ipse diodt, seyetyka (sciatica),
a gradwat (graduate), marye with yowe (filiam tibi dare, p.
\^^)^pylyon (on a horse), my quarter wagys, sertyfy, suppliant.
Dame Margaret Paston repeatedly addresses another lady as
Madam, p. 197 ; she talks of a somma of money and swwma
totalis, p. 135. There is the phrase have a horse with him at
lyvery, iii. 280. We see the two meanings that may be
borne by one verb in p. 14=1, ye shall Twt depart tyll dethe
depart yovh We read of good dysposyn (disposition), and of a
person being dysposyd to act, p. 201. In p. 148 stands ^Z^ose
it yow to sende, etc. ; we should now strike out the three
middle words. The young Etonian is the first Englishman,
I think, to use one of our commonest phrases, the French
translation of the Northern even; she is just weddyd, p. 241 ;
this refers to time, but Pecock's even so was to become just
so. The verb desire gets the new meaning oijuheo, p. 256.
In p. 300 we read of a boke in preente, which is something
new ; this refers to the first book ever printed in England,
There is a curious mixture of Latin and French forms in be
proveyd (purveyed) o/, p. 21 1. We see the verbs to meve and
to mocyon in one sentence, p. 158 ; another verb, coined from
a noun, is to laches (neglect), p. 216. The old no fors was
making way for a longer-lived phrase, taken up by Tyndale
rather later ; it Tnakyth no matyr how corse it be is in p. 237.
In the *Plumpton Letters' (1474-1485) we see the
sound of our common do in dow (facere), p. 42 ; the r is
cast out in Knasboro, p. 32; the old begotten is seen as gotten,
p. xciiL In p. 33 we read of a watche word, which here
means a caution. The Southern reve (gerefa) appears more
correctly in Yorksire as grave, p. 39 ; another form grieve is
still in being. I have remarked upon monger in com-
in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 343
position ; in p. 30 we hear of a supersedeas mounger. We
see the source of drive a bargain, when a man says of an
article, in p. 37, "I have cheaped (it) . . . and that is the
least that I can drive it to.''
Among the French words are moyte (half), to file (papers).
Orrmin's Pasch is still in Northern use for Easter. We
read o^ parson Tuly, p. 31, a familiar way of mentioning a
priest; Kobin becomes Rdbendt in p. 38.
There are some other Northern documents (1477-1485)
in Davies' *York Kecords.' We see the old gude, hryg
(pons), tochand, we gretys, eyn (vesper). Some of these
forms, evidently the work of a Yorkshire clerk, are con-
tained in a letter signed by the future Richard III., p. 147.
So fond were the Northern men of changing a into ^, that
we find here pairt, depairt, airins. The old sawel, where
the first syllable answers to the French ou, is now changed
into sail, p. 142 ; and this remains in Scotch use. There
is the proper name Nelson, p. 183; we read of wards
(of a city) and wapentaks. A pageant is called a syght, p.
162; the lokkes of a river are mentioned in p. 84. Men are
made toll free, p. 144; a new instance of compounding
with an adjective. In p. 178 news comes that Bucking-
ham is tumyd ayanst Richard III. ; bear the charges of, etc.,
is in p. 115; find things upon^ him is in p. 200. The
Romance words are almyfluent, jacket, javelin, usefullnes
(profit).
In the ' Testamenta Eboracensia,' iii., we see shaft for
sagitta, p. 253 ; beriall loses the sense of sepvlchrvm and
means sepultura, p. 244 ; there is the phrase woman of
livelod (property), p. 257 ; a man of wealth and rank is
yoman of the chambre to the] King, p. 294. There is the
phrase break ground, used literally. There is the compound
gardenshipp (of a child), p. 241.
We have the Statutes of an Exeter Guild ('English
Gilds,' Early English Text Society, p.f 304), drawn up in
the year 1480. The y is prefixed to Past Participles, as
y-occapied ; but it hardly ever appears after this time.
We see the Salopian won (unus), p. 323, and wothe, p.
316 ; the Northern whatsomever, p. 318 ; fang (recipere) is
344 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
found, which remains to our own day in Devonshire
mouths. There is a habit of prefixing y to vowels, as
yand for wnd ; soul (anima) is written sole, just as we pro-
nounce it, p. 318 ; in p. 314 are the two forms sower and
sewer (stitcher). There is a curious change of i into oy ;
the old spllan (Isedere) becomes sfpoyll, p. 321 ; the
Teutonic verb was thus confused with the French cor-
ruption of spoliare. The g and d are still confused, as
acordynd to, p. 336 ; a very late instance. There is the
new substantive forerrmn; one of the old senses of free
comes out in p. 316, free of the craft} Among the Verbs
is call him a mysname ; here we now dock the mys. As to
new French words, we read of the customers of a shop, p.
317 ; and quarter dayys.
In p. 413 of the same work we find a Bristol docu-
ment ; very few old turns of phrase remain, except tho,
beth, ycome, ^^ our alther (omnium) liege lord,^' p. 415.
In Gardner's * Letters of Richard III.* (Master of the
Rolls) there is a curious insertion of jps in anempst, p. 23,
the Scotch anent. In pp. 6 and 7 morne and mora are at
last distinguished and are employed in our sense of the
words. The form thoos (illi) was now rapidly driving out
the rightful tho ; the former is used by Richard III., p.
51. We see fore-horse, bear love towards, I here for certeyne,
havyng respecte to, frountures (frontiers). These are in
1483.
William of Worcester, known also as Botoner, penned
his observations upon English geography and history in
1480, paying particular heed to his native Bristol ; his
* Itinerarium ' was reprinted in 1778. What was Aldgate
in London had been corrupted into Oldgate at Bristol, p.
182. The ala of a Church is seen as yle in p. 79, and as
isle in p. 82 ; whence comes aisle; the confusion between
ala and insula is curious. We see Chedsey, p. 144, the
Chedzoy of Lord Macaulay. We read of Botrowse Castle,
^ Swift made a fair pun on the two meanings of free, liher and
potens ; Burnet had set down that one of his heroes was free of vices ;
upon which Swift remarked, " I suppose in the same sense that he was
free of a corporation."
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 345
near Tyntagel, p. 123; this is a corruption of Botreaux
(Botriouse); so the village of Wickham Breaux^ near Canter-
bury, is now pronounced Broo, William shows his Southern
breeding by talking of vethym instead of fathom. The d is
struck out ; there are both the forms St, Avdom and St,
Ewen (applied to one Bristol church), pp. 221 and 215.
Among the Substantives are seebord, ward (of a castle),
wUdfire, crossway. The word kenning is applied to a view
reaching over twenty-one miles out at sea, p. 110; hence
our '* within ken." The unusual word le slip is explained in
p. 218, anglkh a steyre. There is a nickname in p. 324 ; a
man who has no hands is called Thomas Stompys (stumps).
A famous town on the Dee, which had long lain waste,
appears as West-chestre, p. 263. The old firren mast now
appears as mmt de vyrre, p. 175. Names of places keep
their old forms more exactly than other words ; we see the
old Genitive Plural in Monken-hrygge and Houndenrlane ;
dyke (fossa) has not become ditch, p. 217.
There is the Celtic noun gull, for a bird, p. 111. Among
the Romance words are text-wryter, custom- hovs, cylyng
(ceiling), casement, reredes (reredos), a gar gyle, crosse-yle.
We see the ovyi^storye of a building in p. 82 ; this noun
coming from estorer (instaurare) is confused with historia,
for le ovyrhistorie stands in p. 78. We see panys of glass in
p. 93, which appear also as panellce, p. 82 ; we now dis-
tinguish between a pane and a panel (pannus), each mean-
ing a portion of something. In p. 117 we read of le
pleyn de Salysbery, In an heraldic description in p. 164
we light on tmg egle displayed de argent, the spread eagle
of later times ; it was heraldry, no doubt, that caused the
French eagle to drive out the English em; we see how
the verb display took root. In p. 169 we read of lez
shamlys (shambles), from the Latin scamnum, scamellvm.
Soon after 1240 the great trench or quay to the North of
Bristol had been dug; this in 1480 still retained its old
name le grawnt key, p. 255. Other traces of the Norman
Conquest and its results on the burgher class are seen ; in
p. 243 the place of justice is called anglice lez fourches sive
galowes; the Old Market stood on the East side of the
346 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
town, and this is also called le veyle market, p. 211. Our
author translates compassion by pietas, p. 271. We see
JUius naturalis in p. 340, a phrase which could not take
root in English for more than a Century. The parish
authorities Lre as heedless in those ^s as now^; the
South aisle of All Saints was built in this Century, when
the bones and freestone tomb of our author's uncle, who
died about 1420, were removed; see p. 171.
In Ellis* Letters for 1483 we see Collougne written in-
stead of the usual Coleyne, owing to the twofold sound of
oi» There are the phrases in myn opinion, charge upon their
lives. In p. 168 stands the rekenyng to begyne, etc.; here
being, which should be the third word, is dropped.
The 'Chronicles of the White Rose* were compiled
about 1483. How utterly lost the Old English grammar
was may be seen by the fact that the Commons begin
a petition with pleaseth (placeat) it your Grace, p. 272.
There is the phrase twenty persons of gentlemen, p. 114.
We learn that the three most Royal houses of Christendom
in 1483 were reckoned to be England, France, and Spain,
p. 276. A curious mixture of official language in this year
is seen in p. 279 ; a bill in English is read before Richard
III. ; then comes A ceste bille les Communs sont assentes ;
then the King's assent is set down in Latin, p. 279. The
Romance words in these Chronicles are profane (secular),
edition (publication); the policy of England is in p. 277
coupled with her laws and liberties, and must therefore
mean here political interest
In 1483 was compiled the * Catholicon Anglicum * (Early
English Text Society), an English-Latin dictionary ; it seems
to be due to the North -East of Yorkshire. Among the
Northern forms and phrases, now unknown in the South,
are hundreth (centum), lyke sange (ncenia ; who forgets Monk-
bams* lyhewake ?), neddyr (aspis), fee (pecus), seen in feehouse,
smallum (minutim), stag (pullus), gudsyre (avus), forgetyll
(obliviosus), girn (grin), tovme (both pagus and vUla), to
uppehepe (cumulare) ; tomorne, as it still does in Yorkshire,
stands for eras. The old kakel (used of a hen) is here seen
as kaykylle. The old haga (hedge) is unsoftened in hag-
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 347
wortm ; but hechsy belch (the old belk), drone, show Southern
forms creeping up to the North. In p. 190 we see a Latin
verse, an aid to memory in declining domus —
**Tolle me, mi, mus (mis ?) in variando dcmius."
This, in my schoolboy days, had become —
"ToUe met mif mUf miSj si declinare dormis vis."
The a replaces e, as in parcelle (parsley), harthe (focus).
The final e is sometimes not pronounced ; howe is written
for the old hu; the ea replaces ia, as tredkylle (treacle).
The y is added ; there is grainmry, here meaning the same
as gramere (grammar). The y supplants 0 ; nyke is written
for nokke (notch), as we saw in the 'Ballads.* We find
chine written for cham^ a Yorkshire usage seen before.
The old \>awen (degelare) is here written thowe, a very
different sound from what the verb now bears in the North ;
the old tawei^e (coriarius) becomes tewer, taking the favourite
English sound.
As to Consonants, we see the true old form horgh
(mutuum), and also the Southern corruption borowe (mutu-
ari) ; we find also bower (arcuarius), whence comes a surname.
The old g had long been softened in the Old English geolo
(flavus), but it is hard as ever in the Northern gulky seen
here, from the Scandinavian gulr (flavus). There is the
Scandinavian chafte, and also the English chavylle and
chawylle (maxilla), whence jowl was to come. The b is in-
serted; there is schambylle as well as schamylle (whence
shambles). The ^is added; for parchemin becomes parche-
ment. The n is struck out, spinder becomes spyder, p. 116.
The r is inserted, as in hoarse, long before; a swathe of
grass becomes a swarthe. The m is inserted, there are the
two forms apostem and imposteme (imposthume). A change
of meaning is shown by simply adding an s ; there is both
ghsse (adulari) and glose (glosare). The I is added, for
there are both the old pedder and the new pedUare; the
latter form had come much earlier.
Among the new Substantives are cade (ovis domestica),
dawe (monedula), rokett (rochet), sappelynge, wagstert (our
348 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
wagtaU). There are the compounds, ake apylle, arowhede,
banefyre (bonfire), bedtyme, blynde worme, fery rrum^fidylle stik,
fleschour (camifex, a Northern word), flesche schamylle (macel-
lum), hay coke (the last part of the compound is Scandi-
navian), hartstringey heddandey lynsy wolsye, litUnes, mure cok,
schepherde dog, snaybcUle (snowball), thonour bolte, toste yren.
The old bow may now be used for the arch of a building, as
the Netherbow at Edinburgh ; we also read of the bryge of
a nose. The word schafte may now be used of a pillar.
The word folowynge may now express sequela. There is a
new word merytotyr, the source of our "merry go round;"
in Yorkshire merritrotter is still used for a kind of swing.
What we now call a pore appears as a sv)et hole. The old
eldfadyr (avus) is made to express abavus in p. 428. Two
nouns are revived after a long sleep, scutelle (canistrum)
and newness. We see Huchon for Hugh.
There are many Teutonic Adjectives ending in able, as
hiteable, clenseable, eteable, liveable, untellable, with several
others. There is also ill farm, wyde opyn, wordy; an
epithet that will always stick to the luckless Alison. One
word out of all those compounded with the Teutonic sam
(semi) lived beyond the year 1400 ; it here takes the form
of sande blynde (luscus), and in this form it was used by
Shakespere. The open is made a substantive, as ]?e opyn
of\e hede (calvaria). In p. 426 anniculus is Englished by a
^ere olde.
Among the new Verbs we see miselle (mizzle) coming
from mist, whewe (fistulare). There are unbend, bryst up
(burst up), crakk nuttes, wax even (vesperare), stryke fire, to
lialfe, hold halyday, putt out strength, schute (as corn does).
The verb wirshipe adds to its old sense of colere that of
adorare, as in the Monk of Evesham. The verb cfross gets
the new sense of cancellare ; we say cross out. The verb
grave here means not only sculpere but also fodere ; this
last sense has vanished before the Southern dig. We see
scrud, with rub given for its synonym ; hence perhaps our
verb Scrooge, There is a curious instance of a French
ending tacked on to a Teutonic root, unwernyschit for
unwarned.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 349
The Adverb is placed before a Participle, as d&m
rynynge ; there is also hereaway (hac).
There is the Interjection schowe, p. 338.
The Scandinavian words are Jcylte (succingere), snap,
hytylle (titillare). There is the Celtic bannoL
Among the Romance words are arsenic, hrusket (brisket),
case (theca), congruUy, cowrhe (a curb), disfigure, halfe a
cerJcylle, to halfe tone, lavyr (lavacrum), legerdemayn, nowne,
obstynate, to order, ospray, pasnepe (parsnip), pynappylle,
scul^on, tendron (tendril), thre cornarde (triangulus). The
word dokke supplants the old horUoge, and drops the sense
of campana. There is pUle garleke (vellicare), whence came
a scornful term. We see the word hympsynger; we now
talk of psalmsingers. The Latin in may be seen encroach-
ing on the French en, as inquire, invyous. There is the
curious substantive mawnchepresande (a munch present),
equal to sicofanta ; this looks like a literal version of one
of Hesiod's Greek adjectives. The word pair is now used
with the Genitive both of tongs and pincers. The noun
robynett is employed for the redbreast. The old tretdbylle
(tractabilis) is still in use ; but in tracte (sistema, tractus)
the Latin, not the French form, is followed. We see both
the Substantive forms trayn and trayle. There is goffe
(godfather); this may have had its influence on gaffer;
also gome (comm^re), whence perhaps gammer. There is
sprynge (enervare) ; the Teutonic form is used for the
French espreindre, our sprain.
We have already seen the * Promptorium Parvulorum * of
1441 ; I now show, from later editions, dating from about
this time, 1485, what alterations had been made in our
tongue within little more than forty years. I have added
to the second column one form taken from Caxton —
1441. 1485.
gnastyn ffnachyn (gnash),
lawncent lawnset (lancet),
left hande left handid.
selwylly selwyllyd.
Ma fey! Maffeyth! (my faith ),
Make (Celtic) Magot (maggot).
Sewstare (sutrix) So ware.
Upholder (the tradesman) Upholster (Caxton).
\
350 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
I may call attention \xi'nwrwyn (mane) and Tnorwynstere,
old forms that lingered down to this time. The alteration
of Adjectives into Past Participles in the ahove list will be
remarked.
Of the *Digby Mysteries' (Shakespere Society) two
pieces may be set down to 1490 or thereabouts ; these are
*The Killing of the Children' and *Mary Magdalene.'
They seem to belong to East Anglia ; there are xal, arn, the
strait way of the * Paston Letters/ and Mgg (sedificare) ; also
Lydgate's precyows knave. The form defyle comes very
often. One of the greatest changes is, that wolde God
becomes tuold to God / p. 74 ; here the e being clearly pro-
nounced was mistaken for to ; Chaucer's / wish to God may
have had some influence here. The old fader and moder
now become faihyr and mother ; the h in dohter was still
sounded so clearly that it is written docctor in p. 88.
As to Substantives, in p. 123 stynt is employed for wages,
something like pittance. The word harlot is applied to
women in p. 1 4, I think, for the first time ; this usage was
established by Tyndale. Herod uses lang baynes (long
bones) as a term of abuse, p. 61. In p. 128 the Virgin is
called sokor fm' man and wyff, that is, for all mankind;
hence " all the world and his wife." We see what is your
wyll ? a word mth thee ; also the name Maryon. Among
the Adjectives are blabyr-lyppyd ; a woman is addressed as
my own dere, p. 75.
Among the Verbs is the Northern inbring. We find
give audience, shew sport, fall fiat to the ground, bring to
abaye (bay). There is the Northern wyll we walk ? p. 75.
The have is wonderfully clipped in had natt a (have) byn
ded, p. 88. A sailor is ordered to sett of from the land, p.
109; here the Accusative ship must be dropped, and we
gained a new term for proflciscL The old phrase go a
pilgrimage had long been in use ; this is extended in p. 127,
where a woman has gon ]>e stacyov/nes.
Among the Adverbs in p. 76 stands how Itremyll the how
had hitherto been coupled with an adjective or adverb. The
so I shall of 1320, beginning the answer to another man's
speech, is continued ; we see so am /in pp. 7 and 96. A
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 351
person is called and answers "here^ lord, here, p. 82, using
no verb. The like, in the sense of as, was coming in ; they
fight like develles, p. 9.
The Preposition is now placed after its case ; (children)
of two yeeres age and within, pp. 2 and 5 ; another manuscript
has the new tmder for within.
There is the cry hofl hof I p. 73, with which young
gallants began their speeches for the next eighty years ;
Skelton has huffa I huffa !
Among the French words are hewtefvl, elegant (written
Ue^ant in p. 73), redolent, apostylesse. In p. 61 the verb
opteyn gets the new sense of hold ground ; a sense still kept
by us. There is the curious phrase a soveryn (optimus)
serva/nt, p. 76. We have seen the phrase in ure; we now
have, p. 134, woman, inv/re (inured) in meJcenesse; thus a
new English verb is compounded. We find Mahneseyn
(Malmsey), p. 72 ; in the same page is the old clary and
the new form claret.
In Collier's * Dramatic Poetry,' vol. ii. p. 213, there is a
piece that may date from about 1490. The d is added,
roime (susurrare) becomes ronde in your ear, A man, almost
hanged, says, we had a nere rmrne, p. 215. The ecce sigmirn,
FalstafiTs future phrase, is set in the middle of the £nglish
text.
In the 'Paston Letters,' 1485-1500, Regmald is softened,
when Ser Reynold Bray, the well-known minister of Henry
VII., is mentioned in p. 332 ; hence the surname Reynolds,
The Earl of Surrey, the future conqueror of Flodden, turns
fader into the new fathiry p. 366.
As to the new Substantives, a rebel chief calls himself
Robyn Godfelaws brodyr, p. 362. A young Paston complains
of the price of horsflesche (equorum), p. 376. The old
idiom of the Double Genitive is carried a step further in
the same page ; we read of a hors of a persons (belonging
to a parson). A peculiarly East Anglian word stands in
p. 365, lobster (stoat) ; Gamett has discussed the word.
In p. 352 it is lamented that there is no grete lady to
meet the King ; an obvious translation from the French.
As to the Verbs, a town is dronkyn drye, p. 352, when the
352 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
King and his retinue visit it. A man is cfrcM in his
mynde, p. 391 ; the verb, hitherto a synonym of f r anger e,
was later to be restricted to this particular sense. We see
the Dutch hoy (navis).
Among the Romance words are MXet^ inestymahle, to
qwestyorij bede roUe,
A manuscript written about this time (referred to in the
Preface to * Gesta Romanorum/ p. xx.) gives us a new idiom
connected with few ; we see a fewe of the tales ; this differs
much from the old 6/nje (soli) fedwa worda (a few words).
In * Caxton's Life/ by Mr. Blades, we see the new word
Chirchwardeyn used in a document of 1491 (p. 162). The
old late (nuper) becomes lately in a book of 1493 (p.
362).
In * Gardner's Letters of Richard III. and Henry VII.,'
1485-1500 (Master of the Rolls), we see Bemares (Beau-
maris) in ii. 297, followed by Bewemares in the next page.
There is the contraction Chomley for Cholmondeley in ii. 283.
The Irish Cavanagh appears as Cavenoky ii. 304. In i. 109
hreche stands for inimicUia, A ship is called a man of warre^
ii 69. In a Scotch document we hear of peetis (peats)
and colisy ii. 332 ; the former word is said to come from
bet-any to mend the fire, like the jmrse of 1220 from bourse.
There is the skippar of a ship and the Northern form raid.
We see the Verbs to ren a cours and to onhelme ; there
is the phrase take him into favor, i 92 ; be of oone mynde,
ii 67.
We see balest (ballast), which, like many of our sea
terms, came from the Dutch.
The Romance words are signs manuelly &vyte (avoid),
baronessy of a sewerte, he was out of wages (pocket, ii. 317),
deputie lieutenant (of Ireland). The old jangle changes its
meaning, for we hear of the changelyng of bellis, i. 394.
We see the first hint of a new sense in a Verb, our resolved
mynde is, thaty etc., i. 110.
We have the Celtic kerne and galoglasseSy ii. 67.
In the * Rolls of Parliament' from 1485 to 1496 we re-
mark the change of Hobekin into Hopkyny p. 279 ; there are
both Bedlem and Bethleemy p. 372 ; we find Ippestuiche in p.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 353
512; while the rightful g still remains prefixed to the
word in p. 519. The new restfulness stands for guieSy p.
431. A Bristol petition in p. 391 complains of the paving
as holowid and pitted hy water; here the second verb is new.
In p, 288 stands the phrase upon youre honour. There is
the Dutch lygkter (navis). Among the Romance words are
disable (there is also the older verb unhable), the wayter-
shipp (an office), gentUman husher, raungership (of the forest).
In p. 276 stands to forejugge of honors (in an attainder) ;
this is one of the last instances where our /or, the Greek
para, is prefixed to a Romance word. In p. 386 February
supplants the old Feverer, In p. 450 we read of Viscount
Welles and Dame Cecilia his wife ; it seems that we had
not as yet coined Viscountess,
In the 'Acts of Parliament' (1488-1496) we see new
substantives like slaughter howze, brickleyer, clyncher, p. 586.
In p. 603 stands the curiously terse new phrase, the then
and nowe Duke. We here remark that syn has long been
encroaching upon sith in the South. As to the Romance
words, in p. 638 (it is the age of Cabot) we hear of the
Marchawntes Adventu/rers, a name still in Bristol use, with
but little alteration. Chaucer's verb compomie now under-
goes the usual English change and becomes componde ;
compose came later. There is also in leage (foedus), which
bears a sense something different from that of the old
liege ; the new word seems more akin to the Italian lega
than to the French ligue ; perhaps we may here trace the
influence of Papal envoys.
In the *Plumpton Letters,* 1485-1500, we see the old
form Everwick for York ; it is in a French document, p. ciii.
Our gamekeeper appears first as keeper of the game, p. 79.
In p. 124 stands (it) may be my making ; we should say,
" the making of me. " We have in p. 1 32 a dede of gift.
In p. c. we see how an Adjective can be made a Sub-
stantive ; certain closes are there called The Flates (flats).
There is the term weighty, p. 61, used by the Earl of
Northumberland, slain in 1489. In p. Ill men will have
something, be yt right or wrong. In p. 123 we read of a
widow, worth m. pounds. In p. 63 a Preposition is made
VOL. I. ^ ^
354 T'HE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
an adjective ; we hear of a thorow search ; it had been made
an adverb twenty years earlier.
Among the Verbs did was once more coming into use ;
he dyd 7/iffe is in p. 49. In p. 67 is stand good master unto,
etc.; hence comes stand treat. In p. 140 is take in good
parte.
There is a new use of to in p. 109, she hath not a cloth
to her backe ; here some word like fitted must be dropped ;
there was the Old English shapen to his likeness.
As to the Romance words we find the Latin strictly (not
the French straitly), p. 54 ; cornered (comrade), a myskidyd
(misguided) woman is opposed to a good woman, p. 77.
In p. c. Elizabeth and Isabell are used for the same proper
name ; this lasted for sixty years. I give a number of
phrases from a French document in p. ciil which wiU show
the influence of the law upon our speech, issiie, covenatmt, a
le valure de, a aver a eux, le remainder^ enfeffer in fee, sur
condition gue, le resideu, pourveu gue, son heire apparaunt, les
premises, accordant a, in due maner, perforce de guel, un Henry
Sotell, excepts terres, autres persons, re-eyaunt.
In Halliwell's * Original Letters of Kings,' Henry VII.
gives his Royal sanction to the use of get in the Northern
sense of ire ; get to the sea, p. 176. He is fond of sure ; to
he sure of his life, ye be su/re ye shall have, etc., p. 182.
In the 'Testamenta Eboracensia,* iv., we see chirch warden,
riding horse; heirlome (often occurring now) is slightly changed
from the heir to heir lome of 1424. A person talks of my
suiter Bygott, p. 152, where the surname comes instead of
the Christian name. There is have word of it. The Romance
words are casket, to be extreme, p. 50. A new word is
formed from the French gris ; a griselde stag, referring to
colour, p. 130.
In Davies* * York Records,' Richard III., six years after
his death, is called a crochebake ; he was said to have been
beried in a dike (ditch) like a dogge, p. 221. Farther to the
North dike now expresses agger, not fossa. In p. 256 stands
the phrase to drawe (up) apaupire (paper). In p. 224 stands
any tyme ye plese to call, where the it is dropped before plese.
In Rymer's documents for 1492 we see have 13 billes
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 355
(billmen) onfoote^ p. 479; hence our "set on foot." The
new and the old, according and after (secundum), are coupled
in p. 478. We hear of the Archduke, and of the Kingis
Gh'oce ; there are the words quietful and ]prolix. The old
namdy is supplanted by videlicet in p. 480.
Skelton, the first famous Southern poet since Lydgate,
wrote a poem in 1489 (Dyce's edition, vol. i.), in which
he talks of Lady Bes, the short for Elizabeth, p. 6 ; there
is also dovhle deling, p. 16, and wondersly, p. 17, leading the
way to our wondrously. In a poem written about this time,
to be found in Skelton, vol. iii., we see the strange com-
pound to preantedate, p. 357.
Pynson printed an edition of the * Promptorium Parvu-
lorum' in 1499, which shows further changes in our
tongue since the manuscripts of 1485 already referred to.
Original, Pynson*s Edition,
Fro fere Fro far.
Glacynge (devolatus) Glansyng.
Browdyoure Browderere (embroiderer).
Ontollerable Intollerably.
Schere Scherys (forfex).
Schetyn Shotyn (sagitto).
The n, it will be seen, is inserted in glansyng, our glancing,
Pynson prints y for the old ]>, which was now all but gone ;
the following note is written in one copy of his book : —
" all these y stande for th, acordinge as the Saxon carracte
was in this sort — J>, and so we pronounce all these wordes
at this day with th,*^ See * Promptorium Parvulorum,' p.
535. The older editions of this work employed swaggynge
or swdblynge for the stopping or drying up of blood ; Pyn-
son turns this into swabbyng, the Dutch word well known
to our sailors. In the edition of 1441 clothes were said
to teryn (vetero), a kindred form of the verb tarry ; in p.
522 we see that Pynson has mistakenly turned weryd or
teryd into worne or tome. We have above the true source
of the last word in wear and tear ; it must mean exhaustion.
In p. 493 stands tydy (probus), for which an edition of this
time gives the synonym theende, the old Present Participle
in ende of the verb the-on (vigere) ; it is curious that so old
1
356 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
a form should come down to 1500. There are the new
French words reefrm (of paper) and compostyn (stercoro),
which gave Shakespere a word for manure.
Some poems in the * Babees' Book ' (Early English Text
Society) seem to date from 1500; we here read of a
schoolmaster peppering (flogging) a boy, p. 404 ; the old
verb can or con gets a new sense, " to con a book," p. 25 ;
salt must be taken with a clean knife, p. 23 ; it is wrong
to speak or laugh with the mouth full ; the hand must be
held before the mouth when you spit ; the weighty line
comes in —
** Here and se, and sey thou jiought."
There are some pieces in the * Keliquiae Antiquae,' i. 43,
70, 116, 287 ; ii. 76, which may be set down to 1500 or
so. I give our earliest specimen of memoria technica ; it is
applied to the Kings of England, i. 288 —
" Wil. Con. Wil. Rufus, Hen. pri. Steph. Hen. que secundus,
Ri. Johan. Henricus. Edwaraus, tres, Ri. que secundus,
Henricus quartus, Hen. quin., Hen. quoque sextus,
Ed. quart, Ed. quintus, Ri. tercius, Septimus Henry."
The Creed is now called the byleve, i 43. Among the
Verbs, in i. 117 stands to b'eke upe the scale ; disintegrate will
soon be the genteel word to use here. In i. 45 a man
calling his guests to him cries, sirs, come awaye (along). In
i. 46 there is a new use of at^ wish them at the devil ; also of
for in i. 71, weep for company. In ii. 76 by, hy, lulleyl is
the song sung by a mother to her babe. In i. 47 a priest
is for the first time spoken of as this gentylman ; the noble
old word was afterwards to be shamefully abused by being
applied to all ranks.
There are two pieces in the 'Digby Mysteries' (New
Shakespere Society) that seem to belong to 1500 ; these are
the * Conversion of St. Paul ' and a * Morality of Wisdom.'
There are old forms such as heth (sunt) and wondyr toylde,
p. 160; but there are words like fwrom, not found before
Barclay. The new Substantives are a barowfuU, slugishness ;•
the Five Wits (senses) had long been known, and are men-
tioned in p. 144 j but in the next page we make acquaint-
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 357
ance with the Fim wyttys of the soul. We read of fyne
dothyng, p. 155. The phrase other than had long been used
to express difference ; in p. 49 Saul is another man than he
was.
Among the Verbs are hegrymlyd (begrimed), choppe and
chaunge (a favourite phrase of Tyndale's), take wyll for dede,
p. 147. In p. 167 we read of drawte notes in singing;
hence came the later drawl, much as draggle was formed.
In p. 30 a man is thought a knave; any one looking at
you would think ye were at the next dove hy ; hence our
" next door to a fool," where the at is dropped and the hy
is exchanged for to.
Among the Eomance words are suer of foot, stahyll grom,
Goddes provysyon (providence). In p. 30 hosteler changes to
the new meaning of "attendant on horses." In p. 161
enbrace takes the new sense of "follow after;" it is here
applied to guestes (inquests) ; sixty years later it was to be
applied to opinion. There are such Latin forms as amyhe
(friend) and desiderable (desirable). In p. 157 the phrase
la plu joly is put into the mouth of a debauched character
— a French phrase in the midst of English words.
There are many poems that seem to belong to the latter
half of Henry the Seventh's reign in * Hazlitt's Collection.'
The n is clipped, for Makmseyne becomes malmasyes (malm-
sey); the 5 is added, as afterwardys. The old trone is
exchanged for throne, iii. 19, showing Latin influence ;
the form exsteme, a few years later, shows a confusion be-
tween Latin and French. In the Notbrovme Mayde the 00
plesure of the edition of 1502 is altered into one plesure
in the edition of 1521 ; see ii 283.
Among the new Substantives is neverthryfte (neerdowell),
nypple, formed from n^h ; a spear is put in rest, i. 258;
there is tylte (tilt-yard), irircomynge (entrance), whence in-
come, A wight may be brainless as a Marshe hare, a favourite
phrase of Skelton's. A man addresses his parent as Lady
mother. There is hyll and date, pygges in a poke. In ii. 119
a body stands for homo. The word man is added to another
noun, as marchaunt man.
Among the new Adjectives are braynles, vmkind, a pretie
358 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
dmle^ iii. 122, where the adjective begins to get the sense
of magnus.
About this time the Accusative you is much used for
the proper Nominative ye. The use of the it is curious in
i. 220, ever they prayed, hut yt woulde not be; this it must
stand for their prayer.
Among the Verbs are keep open housholde, take theyr legges
(we put to after the verb), make provysyon, I can beleve, fall
to making shoes. A Noun is made a verb when a maji freers
well (plays the friar), iii. 125. Our run gets the new sense
of agere ; run his sword through, L 237. The verb shrink gets
the new sense of witMrawing ; he shranke behynde, i. 260. The
verb dtick becomes intransitive and need not refer to water ;
a friar dooks, iii. 125.
Among the new Adverbs is what than ? To come abrode
is opposed to stay at home, iii 124. There is the new
wonderosly instead of wondersly, ii. 117; wondrous was soon
to follow. A form of 1400 is repeated ; instead of rwt a
whit sorry we find in L 227 ^A^ devyll have the whyt that he
was sorye ; hence Eoye's devil a bit. The away comes after
another verb, dispute away money, iii. 120.
The old for is replaced by to in ten to one (ten times as
much), iii. 4.
Among the Romance words are repast, a quit rent, troub-
lous, to point to, tryumphaunt, valour (worth), gorgeous, pastime,
charitable, sumptuos, overte (open), employ, intoxicacyon, an olde
trotte (anus), as I am enfourmed. Lydgate's splene now
means ira, ii. 292. The word comfortable in the next page
means benignus ; Coverdale rather later calls Henry VIII.
" our most comfortable Noah." In iii 1 1 we see both the
old French frayle and the new Latin fragylyty. The Pre-
position according to comes often now. There is taunt, from
the French tanter, tancer. In ii. 126 the word aydes is
applied to men, like our aide de camp. There is pleate mercy
(ask for it), and the law term commence an action. A broad
distinction is drawn in iii. 153 between gentylnes and gal-
aimtyse (dandyism).
In iii. 160 we find the assertion that England is the
Virgin's dower.
in.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 359
About the year 1500 a Welsh bard made a phonetic
transcription of an English hymn to the Virgin ; he thus
becomes our guide as to the Salopian pronunciation of his
day.^ The changes here seen were to tell on London
speech about a hundred years later. It appears that in
Salop the % had got the sound of German d ; Christ, die, and
guide were pronounced as in our day. The ee and 00 were
sounded like the French i and ou, as see, queen, noon, soone.
The oi had taken its present sound, as assoUe ; at this time
the combination was sounded in three different ways by
English mouths. The owe was pronounced like 0, as bowe
(arcus), slowe. The word earth was sounded like yearth ; he
and nigh were pronounced as at present ; but the guttural
gh in the middle of the word, as a general rule, was heard
in Salop ; and the h in hmm was still marked in speaking.
The ih was now substituted for d in fader, nwder. The
words our, housel were pronounced somewhat in our way,
but not exactly so. The e at the end of words was already
clipped ; the e in tooke was not sounded.
In the Letters of the first Tudor Kings, printed by
Halliwell (1500-1613) we see the ending ness often used
in compounding new nouns, Sisfarness, extinctnes (extinction).
The Eomance words are brief (Papal letter), relation takes
the new sense of Jdnsman, p. 191 ; we hear of the contents
of a letter; impressment is mentioned in connexion with
the navy, p. 214, but it here means interference. In the
same sentence stands allowably; in p. 216 stands sjpecialities,
where we should now use particulars.
We find in a play, written about 1510 (Collier, 'Dra-
matic Poetry,* ii.), a doublet of a new make, p. 220 ; this
noun is something new, and had been before expressed by
the French fasoun. The French routier appears as rutter, p.
221 ; Tyndale was fond of this word for a soldier ; England
was now once more drawing on foreign nations for her terms
of soldier-craft.
Henry the Seventh in his will talks of a plot (sketch or
design) for his chapel ; this was rather later to be written
platform; in 1670 we were to talk of thB plot of a play.
1 Printed by the English Dialect Society in 1880.
36o THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Collier ('History of Dramatic Poetry/ i. 61) gives a
piece dating from about 1508, in which occur the words
chese mongers, chymney swepers, costerde mongers, here brewers,
muskel takers, purse cutters, wxmey batterers, players (gamesters),
a new sense of the word. In another piece, written not
long afterwards, p. 63, we j&nd hote houses (unconnected
with fruit). In p. 64 occurs the form varlet, the old French
form of valet; we also learn that cards consist of hertes,
dyamondes, trayfles, pyhes (spades). In p. 77 masculer is used
for masker ; the masque was becoming a favourite amuse-
ment.
In the * Testamenta Eboracensia,' iv., we see have it to
his otme use, p. 313. There is the Dutch noun clamp. We
see the cumbrous phrase my lady's grace of Norfolk ; a well
disposed prest (referring to the mind, not the body), p. 206.
Barclay's she wUl indevor to, where herself is dropped after
the verb, appears in the year 1506, p. 255.
There are some pieces of this time in the 'Eeliquise
Antiquse,' ii. 72, 115; i. 317. The word fane down to
this time may still mean vexUlum, p. 116; it was soon to
be supplanted by Palsgrave's flag ; fanes are placed on the
outsides of the quere ; the new preposition outside was
speedily to be coined. The supporters of the Royal arms,
soon to be sculptured all over the Chapel at Windsor, are
called " the King's beasts." In ii. 74 there is a new use of
go ; " how many straws go to a nest ? " the answer is, " none,
for lack of feet." There is another pun in the next page,
where all stands both for (minis and subula; the old Southern
variation of this, oul, was henceforth cast aside. At the
siege of Terouenne we hear of the lieutenant general, and
also of the capeteyn general, i. 317, Marlborough's futuire
title. In the next page mention is made of standing water.
In the * Babees' Book ' (Early English Text Society), p.
xcvi., we hear about this time of a lass in music ; three
pages later the word is written hais, just as we sound it
now.
In * English Gilds ' (Early English Text Society) we see
in the year 1504 the yrirside of the tabell, a new noun, soon
to become a preposition, p. 327,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 361
William Dunbar wrote at Edinburgh not long after the
year 1500 in Northern English.^ He was our best poet
in the long gap of 200 years between Chaucer and Spenser ;
indeed, he could hit off a picture with a few sharp touches
of his brush far better than the great Edmund.
The a replaces e, for the old henAt (paratus) becomes
handy ^ p. 37. We see the Northern ai used for a, as in the
lairdis of ladies, p. 137 ; Scotland has since then made a
sharp distinction between laird and lord. The 0 is inserted,
for the old hesme becomes hesom. The 0 replaces a, as Jock
fule, p. 146. We see the French word hurreau {carnifex^
probably sounded like their bourriou), p. 334; if so, the
words with which it here rimes, snaw, blaw, law, must have
had the sound of French ou. The ou replaces 0 ; the old
stoppa (poculum) appears as stoup, p. 94. The u replaces i,
as rumple (ruga) for the rimpil of the * Promptorium.* We
see spoil for ^ill, p. 239, as in Devonshire. There is a
wonderful contraction in phisnomt/, p. 317. In p. 330 we
have the two forms Ersche and Erische (Irish).
There is the old waw (fluctus) in p. 318; also duefixh
(nanus), p. 332. The s is expunged, Irastl (fragor) becomes
brattle ; sc is prefixed, for rumple becomes shmmple, p. 319,
reminding us of cracch and scratch. The t is dropped in
guhissil (whistle) and chop (jaw) ; this is the chafte of 1483.
The th is added, pourti becomes puirtith, p. 319. There is
gambol, the French gambade, p. 283. The well-known con-
traction of Auchirdech into Afflek is seen in p. 264.
The new Substantives are heather, pyh-thank, flaw, cadger.
The old makar expresses poeta here, though it seemed rather
old-fashioned to Sidney seventy years later. We see in p.
58 Chaucer's old use of freedom (nobilitas), a sense soon to
vanish. There is the old aiLcht (opes) and kynrick (regnum),
words that had long been dropped in the South ; curious
it is that Scotland should still preserve so many of England's
lost treasures. For instance, I am constantly hearing the
verb lippen (credere) used by Northern peasants ; but this
word is never met with in any Southern book after 1160.
In p. 320 a man is likened to ane gallow breed; the first
^ I have used Paterson's edition, 1860.
362 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
instance of hrted^ the noun. The new substantive drunkart
is coined in p. 210 ; it is strange that this word was not
struck off earlier, considering the habits of our island. The
Adjective odd is turned into a Substantive, p. 71 ; the
Virgin is to mak ofwr oddis (mala) evyne. The old knop now
expresses bvds of roses, as in Dutch.^ In p. 166 a bad
dancer is called a juffeller, one who shuffles through his
work ; the verb is Scandinavian. The noun elf is used as
a term of abuse, p. 330. The noun crack seems to be
slipping into its modem Scotch sense (loquela) in p. 239 ;
it stands here halfway between fragor and loquela ; a man
may spoil his good service by unseasonable cracks and arks.
The truly Scotch shipper (connected with a ship) appears
once more in p. 335 ; our shipper has now a very different
meaning. The old Cuthbert becomes Cvddy, p. 174; and
Alexander appears as Sandy^ p. 251 ; Englishmen, on the
other hand, dock the last half of the Greek word, and make
it Alkk The Arabian prophet Mahmn is used as a synonym
for the Devil in p. 96 ; and this usage appears also in Bums ;
we still read of the old Termigant in p. 339.
As to Adjectives, the ancient engellic is revived, after a
long sleep, as angel-like, p. 30. The ed, as we saw in
Yorkshire in 1250, is much used in forming adjectives, as
honeyed; there are also the Eomance evil-faced and wan-
visaged. The ending sum has always been a favourite with
the Scotch ; they preserved winsome and coined hindersome ;
we here see the wholly new ugsum, p. 65, and tiresome, p.
265 ; fensum (offensive), p. 127. There is the foreign able
used in unourcumahle (invincible), p. 268. In p. 222 we
see sorrowful and sad ; the latter word was soon to be used
for tristis by Tyndale as well as by Dunbar ; the first ink-
ling of the change had appeared in 1360. In p. 67 the
word trum seems to keep its meaning validus ; Christ comes
to suffer for mankind full trimily ; but in p. 165 a lady
dances trimly (eleganter) ; the idea of ornament was soon to
be attached to the verb trim ; our handsome has undergone
much the same change.
^ Burke remarked upon this Dutch phrase, as we read in Boswell's
Johnson. * In Yorkshire, a flower budding is said to be in knop.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 363
As to Pronouns, in p. 163 we now see the corruption
of Orrmin's Eeflexive Dative, Aim am (alone by himself) ;
instead of writing y(m alone^ in p. 153 Dunbar has solitar
walking yowr alone ; I remarked upon this in the year 1320.
In p. 222 there is a new phrase for men and women, " (hey will
say, baith he and she/* it had been used of beasts in 1290.
The Southern corruption of the Plural othere had now reached
the North; we find oderis letteris, p. IS, fra others, p. 89.
Among the Verbs are be tyit wp (hanged), clash, run down
a nrum, tak thy choice. In p. 137 ladies are graithU up gay;
the source of our get up, applied to dress. In p. 1 72 stands
the verb lichtly (parvi pendere), a most curious instance of
a verb formed from an adverb. In p. 334 we find to
back thee ; here a verb is formed from a noun. The old
erd had meant haMtare down to 1350 ; it now stands, p.
10, for sepelire, and gave rise to our unearth. In Laya-
mon's forriden the first syllable had stood for amie; in
Dunbar the same stands for the kindred Greek para ; we
hear of aforidden (for-ridden) mule, p. 285, like forsworn.
As to Adverbs, hard expresses something different from
vix or cito in hard beside him, p. 95, our hard by ; a man
swears braid, in the same page, like Caxton's use of the
adjective ; this braid must be the source of broad (coarse)
humour. In p. 166 a man dances Komelty-jomdty (higgledy-
piggledy) ; these riming words were now coming in fast
both in the North and South.
There is a new use of the Preposition under in p. 335,
the ship was under sail ; this may come from the Middle
German under wegen ; our under way was to appear later.
The new Interjection tut I is seen in p. 97 ; ba^e stands
for the cry of sheep in p. 323.
There is the Low German loon, queer, p. 324.
There are the Celtic words tartan, catherein (cateran),
coronach, pet (darling), tedder (tether), brat.
There are Southern forms which must be due to Dun-
bar's love for Chaucer ; we see y-bent, ago, forthy, tnumphr
ing. In strong contrast to these stand the curious words
long in Scotch use, such as wallidrag, limm^er, skirl, aitercap,
unddy (gallows).
364 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Among the Romance words are cummer (the York coTn-
mx)der)y lintel^ totum (the toy), lotmger, dregar (oyster dredger),
modern, artist, dine on creddens (credit, p. 141), ruffian, inmby
(an imp). The Scotch were fond of tack, from atache ; we
have abeady seen it used for a lease ; it now, p. 84, stands
for a n^ail. The word geste (jocus) gives birth to jestour, p.
Ill; and St. Clown, the patron of minstrels, appears in p. 1 28.
The word brigand loses its former honourable sense and is
made a term of abuse, as in France, p. 329. The old stuf
is employed for a physician's compounds, p. 1 67. If breakfast
arose in the London Court thirty years earlier, disjone, p. 204,
was its synonym at the Edinburgh Court ; Scott uses this
form. We hear of practicians in medicine, and of the facultie,
a word applied to poets, p. 250. The word sot, after a long
sleep, comes to life again in p. 336. A groom is still called
&hors marschael, p. 335 ; the last word seems to have been
peculiar to the North ; it occurs in the * York Mysteries.'
A man is addressed as damnit dog, p. 339, which is some-
thing new. There is the new construction, he pleases not
till hear, p. 234, where the first word should be in the
Dative ; the same change was going on in the South. In
p. 289 a hat is adorned richt bravelie; the v and u were, as
usual in the North, confused, whence comes the Scotch
brawly ; the meaning of fortis did not enter into the word
until much later. There is Achil (Achilles) pronounced
in the French way, p. 269, and Cordilleris (Franciscans)
appear in p. 142, a form not usual in our island. This
was the great age of discovery ; and Dunbar differs from
earlier English poets by talking about Calyecot (Calicut)
and the new-found Isle, p. 264 ; in p. 273 he takes a
blackamoor or am£, black for his subject ; my ladie with the
meikle lips. Like a true Scot he speaks of our island as
Britain, p. 316. He is the first writer who makes the
Thistle the emblem of Scotland, in 1503. He gives
us a most terse proverb that afterwards crops up in
'Waverley,' of young sands growis auld feinds, p. 44.
Dunbar had a wonderful command of rime ; see the poem
in p. 69 ; the flyting between him and Kennedy, p.
313, is an invaluable treasure house of fine old Northern
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 365
ribaldry.^ The Scot is fond of imitating Chaucer and
his enamellit terms celical ; the licht of all our English, sur-
moimting every tongue terrestriah Our island, Dunbar tells
us, was bare and desolate of rhetoric, until moral Gower
and Lydgate laureate came with their Tmllijluate mouths ;
see p. 39. The Scotch poet will use hardly any Teutonic
noun or verb at all, when, as in p. 267, he sings a great
hero, our indefident adjutm'y. We saw a mixture of Latin
and English in some lines in the * Towneley Mysteries/
Dunbar carries this further in his witty Testament of Mr.
Andro Kennedy, p. 143.
Contemporary with Dunbar was Bishop Gavin Douglas.
He turns hough (ramus) into heu) as a rime for hue ; the
stuve of 1390 now becomes our stove ; the old leye (novaUs)
is here written lea. The drabelin of the * Promptorium *
appears as draggled, with the usual change of consonants.
The Old English mycg is softened into midge, an uncommon
alteration of the hard g in Scotland. The Southern twinkle
and twitter are seen here as quinckle and whitter. There are
the peculiarly Scotch caller, eldritch y Orrmin's adjective trig
(fidus) is still kept alive. We hear of a window, a little on
jar (cherre); charwoman keeps the truer sound of the old
noun. There is the adverb owerhead (overhead). Among
the foreign words are dent de lion. Palsgrave's dandelion.
In the Rolls of Parliament for 1503 we see of his mere
mocion, p. 532, where the foreign adjective is new; the old
verb possede is still holding its own against possess.
In the Acts of Parliament of this time we see thefoes and
pikars (picking and stealing), reeddeere andfalowe, hlokhouse,
a hraye (fossa) ; the old form kempt still remains ; and catall
keeping its Southern sense still stands for our chattels.
In the 'Plumpton Letters,' from 1500 to 1513, there
are a few things worthy of remark. In p. 180 the
rightuous of 1453 changes into our righteous. In p. 169 the
^ A student of Old English literature comes across some funny
freaks on the part of editors. One of the funniest is in p. 219, where
Dunbar's editor, after printing a piece full ,of dashes (inadmissible
words) remarks, " the humour of the poem is certainly of an unrefined
character, nay, altogether coarse, though not, perhaps, indelicate."
What's the difference here ?
366 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
epithet learned is applied to comisel (a lawyer). In p. 164 a
man is made away with (killed), a most curious phrase, as
the tvUh is unneeded. In p. 180 a tenant asks his lord to
beare him out in certain business; hence also comes our
" help him out." There is the new compound with out, I lay
at outside, p. 180; this was soon to be used as a preposition.
Among the Romance words is the King's garde, p. cvii. In
p. ex. beast is used for ox, and this is still the technical term
among our farmers. We read, in p. 205, of a Prelate's
Ficker generall ; here we still put the adjective after the
substantive.
In Gardner's * Letters of Eichard III. and Henry VII.'
(1502-1509) we see lieufully written for lawfully, p. 282, a
proof that the old law (coming from laga) was sometimes
sounded like the French ou / there is also the old Southern
bruge (pons), p. 411 ; Branderibmg becomes Brandborow, p.
445. The usual Colaine is written Colone, p. 201. The b
is inserted, for the Gterman Fommern is seen as Fomherne,
p. 265 ; the v is struck out, I marled stands for / marvelled,
p. 257. The g replaces w, for vanguarde is written for the
old vantwarde, p. 208 ; the g, even at this date, is softened,
for we see ayenne (iterum) so late as the year 1503. There
is an old form in p. 265, "he wol leane (lend) to you."
The former crudat becomes cruciade in p. 154, not far from
our crusade. The t is struck out, for Luttich (Li6ge) is written
Luke, p. 201. In p. 208 we read of the Souchyvers
(Switzers); this voru was later mistaken for n, and Tyndale
talks of the Souchenars. The former issue is written yshu,
p. 446, showing our present pronunciation of the word.
Among the Substantives we find that the adjective
needy has given birth to nednyes, p. 228 ; there is also onto-
wardnes (a word of Wolsey's), p. 439 ; a bak doore, dry ft
(propositum), ryngledre, p. 238. We hear of the Grete
Turke, of the marchant Fokers (Fuggers), of the George, the
knightly ornament given to the Emperor Maximilian, of
hede officers. An idiom of Page's is carried further in p.
257, ef he be the mane (man) / thenke he be, A man
wishes for two monethis warnyng. We see the Dutch title of
honour, yonker.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 367
Among the Adjectives we see syklow (seger) in the year
1503, a very late instance of the old ending low or lew.
There is harde of credens, p. 235, the over many wordes, a
clobbed (club) fote, hii myndyd, Henry VIL has the honour
of reviving an old obsolete Adjective, when he writes of
noon outward (foreign) jprince, p. 450 ; he also writes about
these Lowe parties, p. 449 (the Low Countries).
Among the Verbs we find make offerture (overture), do
yow plesur, kepe you company, putte to libertie, gief their attend-
ance, take a copy of, make my abode. The verb stike is much
used for morari in these letters. In p. 208 step is used in-
transitively, I think for the first time ; there is also the new
noun a stop; Barbour had written make a stopping. We
see a new Scandinavian verb in p. 417, a barge well
rigged. In p. 442 Wolsey says that ambassadors ly
(morantur) in a certain place; a hundred years later
Wotton was to make his well-known pun on this phrase.
We see God willing used with a Future. In p. 172 a man
is myndid to do something ; the old verb mind was turned
into a Passive, following the construction of the French
avisd. The English Infinitive had for 200 years been used
where quvm must have stood in Latin ; this tense now ex-
presses the Latin si, I shall never utter hym, to be drawen
(si traherer) with wyld horsses, p. 234.
As to Adverbs, thorough became an Adverb in the
*Paston Letters ' about 1460 ; we now, in p. 194, see our
form thoi'ugMy, The Cheshire seyng that (quoniam) is used
by Warham and other good writers. In p. 414 we have
go streight afarehed; the germ of our adverb ahead.
We have already seen under used when a man is
hampered ; we now hear of men under sv/retie (in prison),
p. 284.
As to the Romance words, we have nothing of importance
(a favourite phrase of Wolsey's), impotent, to compound with,
to be revengyd of them, legacye (embassy), disannull, lakkey,
mine (mien), baggage, to advaunce (money), his traffykkes (the
Shakesperian word for tricks, as here), pass articles, chaunge
their myndes (purposes), money is curraunt,to esteme (appraise),
bankett (feast), obteyn it to be doon, orator (spokesman).
368 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
We see restitution, which we use as well as restoration. In
p. 415 minstrels doo their partes; the first time, I think,
that the noun is applied to music. Wolsey uses integyr for
entire, p. 443 ; we now confine the word to mathematics.
The Italians, about this time, address Henry VII. as sacra
regia majestas ; they helped to revive " Your Majesty " as
a title of honour. In p. 284 personaiges stands for
viri, James IV., in p. 341, speaks of a crew as including
masti/r, 2 factours, skippar, sterisman. In p. 169 " the king's
resolute mynde is to, etc.," this is a Latin form of the usual
resolved. In p. 195 stands ymr naturall son; here there is
no reference to bastardy; the English adjective was in
honourable use throughout this Century.
In Hazlitt's * Early Popular Poetry,' voL iii., there is
a piece that seems to belong to 1500. Here there is the
phrase nice gear, p. 122, the latter word, equivalent to stuff,
was to be worked hard all through the Century. In iv.
92 stands the adjective cranky (lascivus).
The letters of this time, printed by Ellis, are most
valuable. We see the change in Queen Margaret's style ;
when she first went to Scotland she wrote London English ;
in a little time she adopted the dialect of her new subjects.
Cardinal Bainbridge, when writing, shows himself to be a
true Northerner. We find that ships play up and down,
ii. 217 ; ie had the sound of ay, so the derivation of our
intransitive plie, ply, is accounted for ; ply, transitive, comes
from applico. We see the d added to n, as sermond, p. 182 ;
something like this may be seen lasting down to the year
1765. Meanwhile the n at the beginning is clipped,
nafegar, nauger becomes agore, our auger, Series iii., vol. i.
p. 148. The of is turned into a, as ten a clok, p. 214.
There are the new Substantives fernesse (distance), mayn
top, a row barge (rowing barge), the stocks (upon which a
galley is). We see lee wales, like gunwales ; walu was the
Old English for vihex. There is the phrase a day after the
fair, p. 211. The in is dropped before the Verbal Noun,
when a man is doing (is in activity), p. 216 ; we still say,
" to be up and doing." A great crack still stands for a
boast or a lie. James IV. talks of his queen as our fallow.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 369
An Adjective is followed by the Infinitive, / am howlde to
write ; we should substitute make for the second word.
Among the Numerals we see ttoke the money.
The Verbs give us many new phrases, such as come to
any good, have the choice, lay to his charge, we named him v/ato
the dignity, well trimmed (equipped), it weies mth me, soldiers
are fleshed to this enterprise, make tomys (of ships), m/ike sail,
speak a ship, we weyed (here anchor is dropped), to stop holes,
to fecch the Downs, run on ground, fill (them) (her belies full,
give us over (let us alone), sm^ke them out, break with him,
stand his brother. There is the new form veer, our sailor's
verb wear, vol. ii p. 213. In Series iii., vol. i. p. 155
mariners will not go to the trade, as one of the Howards
writes ; the last word must mean voyage, and is the source
of trade winds. It will be seen that there are many sea
terms coming in; we had already discovered the most
Northern part of America; in Series iii., vol. i. p. 161, we
read of the vyage to an newfounde land; ships are now
under captains.
Among the Adverbs we have, he did every thing like him,-
self; here the like seems to express similiter, not simUis,
In ii. 202 abrode stands for "out at sea;" the word was
changing its meaning from lath to foris ; in another place
go abrode means " out of his house." The lest is dropped
in the sentence, for fear they should destroy. We read that
a wryt is owt.
There is the phrase to my thinking, i. 88.
We see the Scandinavian leak. Among the Komance
words are, a good means (here the 5 is added), gay (good)
artillery, quarter of a mile, purser, the noise runs {bruit is also
found), equipage (of a ship), paquet, partily (partly). We
read of faicts of war ; we now make a difference between
facts and feats, the Latin word and its French corruption.
There is the curious new idiom to pass artillery the mountains,
p. 199, where pass is made transitive. Queen Katherine
writes, I am horrible besy. There is to continue sending, where
the foreign verb imitates the Old English ]>urhwu/nian in
governing an Active Participla In Series iii., vol. i. p.
14:8, provision seems to stand for victualling; something is
VOL. I. 2 b
370 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
to be sent hj post, to strait (starve) the army, be at issew, I
am of opinion, seture inough, if wynde serve.
Many of Skelton's poems (see Dyce's edition) date from
between 1500 and 1513. He has many words, both Teu-
tonic and Eomance, first seen in the * Promptorium/ a
fact which makes for those who assign his birthplace to
Norfolk. Such words are fop, scut, creak, pinch (play the
niggard), also Lydgate's jumble. Skelton has the Northern
theke (thatch), gar, mighty strong, dykes (fossae), syke (talis),
and the Participle flingande. He has Manning's peculiar
sense of toy ; to toye with him, p. 50 ; and such old words
as pykes (pickaxe), gueed (malum), spell (enuntiare), broke
(taxus). Ha often uses a lilting metre, as in his poem on
Flodden, p. 202.
Skelton speaks of Burdeou and Bordew ; examiners in
our own day are fond of giving this French city as a puzzle
for luckless spellers. Chaucer's bitour is now seen as bitter,
not far from our bittern. The w is struck out ; Chaucer's
]>reshwold becomes threshold, p. 126. The / is struck out ;
the sparrow Philip becomes Phip ; hence the name Phipps.
The very old form Sothray (Surrey) is found in p. 11 2.
The character 3 is in constant use.
Among the Substantives are wagtayle, pujfm, bumme,
swyllynge (hog's wash), syppet. There are also tmthryftiness,
spynnyng whele, syde sadell, dyschedowte, sea borde, rosebud,
A flirting woman is called a fys-gygge, p. 128; gigge had
been used in this sense in the ' Ancren Eiwle;' whvrlegig
was yet to come. We see our robyn redbrest in p. 74. There
is with bounses, p. 106; there was a verb bunsen (pulsare)
in the * Ancren Eiwle.' In p. 68 comes sowe stytchis of silk ;
here the second word is applied to working, which is some-
thing new. In p. 52 a payre of bones stands for dice,
Hampole's sense of way reappears, the wayes (demeanour)
that ye have, p. 48. A silly head becomes a nody polle, p.
142; hence Tom Noddy. In p. 73 comes, I played with
him tyttell tattyll ; in p. Ill stands
* * With a whym wham,
Knyt with a trym tram. "
Skelton is fond of these alliterations and vowel-changes.
III. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 37 1
We see pmyi for the cry of the lapwing, p. 74. We read
of an Egyptian, that is, a gipsy, p. 111. There are two
new Substantives opposed to each other in p. 140, the mite
syde and the insyde. In p. 148 stands the invitation to
kiss, bas me, buttyng, praty Cisf here the noun seems to
pave the way for the later baby hinting ; Cis is a great con-
traction of Cedle. The frame, which had meant fabrica in
the * Promptorium,* now expresses conditio, p. 150; our
"frame of mind;" ovi of f rams soon became a common
phrase. The word shanJc had not then the lowering idea
of our days ; it is applied to the limbs of Christ on the
cross, p. 168. Something is compared to a Marche harum
(hare), p. 177, riming to the Latin parum. In p. 177 gos-
peller means a priest that reads the Gospel, something like
the old sense of the word ; twenty years later it was to
be applied to Lollards. Skelton uses Northern words, such
as daw, which is in constant use ; there is also Daucock,
which may have led to Shakespere's bawcock, with the usual
change. The word cateran was now known at London ;
Skelton, in p. 205, talks of the Scottes and Irysh keteringes
that followed James IV. to Flodden. In the same page
he imitates the Lowland dialect when basely reviling the
dead Monarch, ^^Kynge Jamy, Jemmy, Jocky, my jo /^^
Among the new Adjectives are drowsy, mysprovd, ropy,
gorbellyd. From former Substantives and Verbs are derived
gawdy, fonny (stultus), dirty, crasy. We see our com-
mon he shall be nameles in p. 174. Skelton changes the
Old English scarfed into scu/rvy, applying the epithet to a
face, p. 109. We find /ayre ^/ay in p. 30. In p. 70 stands
my lytell prety sparowe ; here we now transpose the two
adjectives; in p. 117 we find my prety bonny, the first in-
stance of the use of this last word in the South, I think,
for 200 years. The adjective ranke is applied to flesh, p.
128. The Old English teart (acidus) is revived after a
sleep of Centuries.
Among the new Verbs is flybitten. There are the new
expressions have a favom to, stand in our light, come whan it
wyll, lay to pledge, cast a shepys ie (on a lady, p. 141), kepe
it in store, it is worne thredbare, ware the hawke, know asonder
372 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
(apart), 'play prankys. The old dash gets the new meaning
of miscere, p. 21 ; the new intransitive stop appears once
more, his nose is never stoppynge, p. 110; that is, always
running. In p. Ill stands the hard phrase symper the
cocket ; the last word may be the French coquette, Skelton
delights in alliteration ; he has, in p. 11 4, flip and flap^
where the first word is new ; also it wygges and it wagges
(hence, wiggle waggle). In p. 132 is the new phrase beknave
me; this be we may still prefix freely to verbs. In p. 148
is sche praiid you walke ; we should say, walk off.
As to the Adverbs, Orrmin's o loft now appears in the
form of alofte, p. 5 3 ; there is also aflote, Skelton is fond
of now and then ; he has the pleonasm o^er to mikell, p. 112.
Among the Prepositions we see to your face (coram te),
p. 46. The upon sometimes implies the direction of feel-
ing towards an object, as dote upon her, p. 84. The md of
is developed ; we see out of seson, out of frame (keeping),
very common in this Century.
Skelton abounds in new Interjections. We have gup,
addressed to a horse, p. 29, humlery home, a warning to
silence, p. 57, like the later mum ! Bo ! p. 58 ; /o ! is the
sound of disgust, p. 115; the Northern tut! p. 215. A
poem begins abruptly with ay, beshrew you/ p. 35. We
have something like Manning's phrases, such as tully valy,
strawe ! p. 35 ; this may be perhaps the old trotevale ; there
is also Manning's Lord, how he wolde pry / p. 65, There
is both the old wolde God ! p. 64, and the new wolde to God/
p. 48. A boastful man is called Syr Dalyrag, p. 145 ;
hence, perhaps, the verb ballyrag, still sometimes heard.
There is the proverb tyme wyll no man byde, i. 160.
There are the Scandinavian verbs lumber, simper, also
bungler ; a man is said to be in dumpy s. There is trowle
(trull) from the High German ; a man is called an ill patch,
which is Low German ; hence our crosspatck There is the
Celtic drab, used of a woman.
Among Romance words we see fusty, mangy, saucy, lyttera-
ture (scientia), sampler, bouget (purse, whence our budget),
tunable, pawne (a pledge), of (on) purpose to sow, p. 68, gawr
bone of bacon, capcymis, grose (vulgar), essendal. There is
HI.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 373
the expression, hit to the poynte to procede. The verb toitch
gets the new sense of irritare in p. 205 ; hence our touchy.
The word estate had hitherto meant jus possidendi ; it now
seems to get the new meaning of terra^ the thing possessed ;
bonde tencmt to his estate, p. 206. The out is prefixed to
Romance words, as an owtai'y, to outface; in the last in-
stance out, as usual at this time, supplants over. The old
quite (omnino), sparingly used hitherto, was now making
way ; she was quyte gone, p. 85. The word parote (Pierrot)
comes in, p. 145; the old word had been popingay. There
is has (osculari), whence comes our huss. Skelton has pang
(dolor) ; here the French poign is said to be confused with
the Celtic ^ron^. The first sense oipretejid is very plain in
p. 149, thow claimist thee jentyl. The seasons are mentioned
in p. 161, and the first is called the tyifne of vere. Skelton
may be called the father of English slang; still, when
writing a hymn to God, he thinks it needful to abound in
fine Eomance words; see p. 162; a purer taste was to
come in later in the Century.
There are some sermons by Fisher, Bishop of Rochester,
in 1509 (Early English Text Society) ; his words are
more aureate than those of Tyndale, some years later ; but
he keeps a few old phrases. We see both of the forms,
humyle and humble, brytel and bruckle, slipper and slyppery.
The d is added, for Chaucer's newefangel becomes new-
fangled, p. 156.
Among the new Substantives sireflow, p. 273, towardnes,
Fisher addresses his hearers as my lordes and maysters ; the
old word soverains had gone out. The word mind seems
to get the meaning of sententia ; to speak a mannes mynde,
p. 140. In p. 195 stands his essencyall beynge.
Among the Adjectives we find inwarde pyte, p. 96 ; this
had hitherto been an adverb. We are told that Henry
the Seventh was colde (in danger), our cool.
Among the Verbs we see make a blessyd ende, my bounden
duty.
Among the Adverbs are of a trouth, where the a has been
inserted since 1400; last (lastly), p. 255, ferre of (off), p.
273, the old offeor; a fresslie, p. 133.
374 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
The phrase extra corpis is translated outwarde from his
body J p. 64 ; men were feeling their way to use outside as a
preposition. There is it must he ahyden by, p. 221, where
the Passive is still further developed. J
Among the Romance words are basshefullj p. 253, ionke-
ryes (juilkettings), chefe ruler, grossenes, assuredly, easynes, of
her ovme charges. The French form egall is maintained ;
study enies, p. 301, is half French, half Latin. We hear of
galant apparayle, p. 203 ; this adjective, like bra/oe, was long
afterwards to add the meaning oifortis to that oijnUcher.
In p. 240 there is one of the first allusions in English to the
fearful morbus Gallicus, just imported from America ; Barclay
touches upon it about the same time. Fisher often uses
no double of,a&SL parenthesis ; no it follows the of The ed
is added to Romance words, for we see weyke spyryted, p.
253 ; a little lower down, spiiit is used for cou/rage.
Something maybe gathered from the *Gesta Romanorum,'
printed by Wynkyn de Worde, about 1510 (Early English
Text Society). We see the letter y written for the old J> in p.
438, yu foT]>u. In p. 441 freshe stands for sober; in our day
it is often used as a synonym for drunk. In p. 444 comes
thy right mynde. In p. 429 we still find the old verb over
renne, not the new outrun ; in the next page get stands for
ire. There are phrases like have hym at a vauntage, lay
(down) the lawe. In p. 432 comes unhwwynge to thee, fte
(did it) ; here the Active Participle seems to stand for the
Passive, as beholding to was often written later for beholden
to. In p. 429 wylfully still expresses voluntarih. There is
the new phrase a ryght in the tree, p. 432 (jus possidendi),
a usage which must come from the French or Latin. The
Romance words are radiant, specyous (pulcher). England
had long used plenteous ; we now see plentefull, p. 439 ;
this comes also in Barclay, about this time.
Foxe (Cattley 's edition) gives us a few documents, written
about the year 1510, in vol. iv. We see to turn a penny,
to storm., sit mum, a stump foot, merry and wise.
A Sarum Manual was printed at Rouen in 1510 (York
Manual, Surtees Society, p. 86, towards the end) ; I think,
by the old forms, that it must have been drawn up about
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 375
sixty years earlier. This is one more instance how religion
preserves old forms that have dropped out of common use ;
the character 3 for y is still often found here.
The * Candlemas Play,' inserted in Marriott's collection
of * Miracle Plays/ dates from 1512. Men were now be-
ginning to set do before the first Person of the Present
Tense, / do perceyve^ p. 202 ; it had long stood before the
Imperative.
In Brewer's * Letters of Henry VIII.,' i. Q^i^ we see the
famous word leaguer, from the German.
In the year 1511 we see hatmsmen or hanshmen (hench-
men), both forms ; this comes from the Northumberland
Household Book, quoted in the * Promptorium,' p. 233.
Few things in English literature are stranger than the fact
that a Scotch priest should come South, occupy a cure in
Devonshire, and then become a most voluminous writer in
a speech very unlike that of his childhood. Barclay tran-
slated the *Ship of Fools' in 1509 (I have used Jamiesou's
edition, 1874). He was the first of our poets who is
known to have dealt a sly hit to a brother bard (see his
reference to Skelton's sparrow) ; in this last tendency he
has had many followers. Barclay, I think, must have
carefully studied Occleve, some of whose peculiar phrases
he has revived. There can be littla doubt about our poet's
Northern birth when we see him use Wyntoun's his folys
hede, ii. 268, also phrases such as 0 that he cursed is (qu'il
est), wele and wo, to weray (maledicere) and ban, her good
man (maritus), vmleful, tan (taken), pierte (poverty), brether
(fratres), wombe (belly), his yll wyllers, an ill name, anenst,
womamkynde (mulieres), have a crow to pull. His printer
Pjmson no doubt struck out many other Northern phrases.
Barclay uses syns always, those (not tho), and still (semper) ;
the Double Negative comes very seldom. These changes
were probably established by Barclay in Court English, for
his book was widely read. Unlike Skelton, our poet has
very few Teutonic words that are now obsolete. The poem
before us evidently had its influence on Tyndale a dozen
years later.
Barclay uses a for e and au, as farvent, actour ; he uses
376 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
both dtny and denay ; iyen is written for ocvli ; lips
drivel, not draveL In ii. 4 we see both commend and
commaundy each in its modern sense. The royalme is
sounded like railms, L 216. The form endtie is written for
endow.
Among the Consonants the t is inserted, for there is the
form, turn laws up set downe, ii. 14 ; the ih is added, we
see the form commi welth ; in the * York Mysteries ' welth
had often supplanted the true wele. There is a curious
confusion between the Teutonic brothel (malus), and the
French bordel, L 82 ; the upshot is brothelhouse. The / in
the middle is struck out ; we see hawse (halse, hoist), and
cawme (calm); also of myd age, ii. 172. The i2 is called
"the dog's letter," L 182.
Among the Substantives we see ylnes (scelus), an ill (an
evil), afrende in courte, tmtcher, game (gambling), taleberer,
mayne sayle, rustynes, canykin (afterwards in lago's song).
The word wayes is often used, as in Skelton, to express
habits j another's wayes, i. 34. There is the phrase man,
woman, and child, to express universality. Barclay is fond
of using bush when speaking of a man's hair; he even
coins the verb to bmh, i. 63. He employs gate (our gait)
for incessm more than once ; it had hitherto meant only
via, Chaucer had used -market bet&re ; we now have a beter
of the street, i. 296 ; whence our beaten track. There is the
new Northern word dronkard, ii. 34. Our speere (spire) is
used ior pyramid, ii. 120. In ii. 45 fools care for nothing
but what from hande to mouth is brought ; a well-known
phrase. We have seen lords of name ; the name now takes
an article, get him a name, iL 101.
Among the Adjectives we find untrue (not veracious).
The word homely (simplex) is now applied to clothing, not
to a man, i. 40. A man is colde of langage, i. 105 ; hence,
a cold reception ; hitherto cold had been physical, not
moral. There are phrases like wors than ever, wax drye
(thirsty). There is the strange compound talcatyfe. The
Latin nimius seems to be Englished in thy to great pyte,
ii. 149.
Among the Pronouns what (qualis) is followed by an
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 377
Article for the first time, I think, 0 what a cyte I ii. 105 ;
which a company had appeared in 1300. We have one yll
is past, as bad may come, ii. 250; here another is dropped
before as. We read of folys nat a fewe; there is a very
Latin idiom in some ar that thynke.
Among the Verbs stand the tyme hath ben when, etc.,
shoot wyde, keep silence, let a word slip, gyve his mynde to
it, kepe a solem cmmtenaunce, ete him out of hous, lye open
to him, kest an anker, ships breke, the pryse doth aryse (rise),
he takys all things like as they come. The must is used in
a new sense, that of cwpere ; they must have mxmy (houses),
ii. 98. The Infinitive, as of old, replaces when with the
Subjunctive, what mean ye thus to tere, etc., ii. 131 ; it is a
madness to hope, etc., ii 173; there is also have the brayne
to comprehend, ii. 139, like the old grace to serve thee. The
verb call now gets the sense of cestimare ; I call you as bad
as robburs, i. 118. The verb deck had hitherto meant
tegere ; it now perhaps slides into ornare ; to overdeck with
a hood, i. 168; the second meaning was soon to be well
developed in other poems of Barclay's, a few years later.
The verb giggle is used of men, i. 63. In i. 232 the way
is greatly wome ; this verb had hitherto been used of
clothes. In ii 25 stands he is in honde with Grece (busy
about it). The verb brew is applied to wine, ii. 222 ; a
trick of the perfidus caupo. There is the pleonasm, they dare
be bold to, etc.
Among the Adverbs are laugh out lowde. The no, as in
Chaucer, is put in the middle of a sentence, no beste, no,
nat the bere, etc., ii 304 ; this was to be used by Tyndale.
The old by and by had meant protenus ; it is now often
used to express an interval between two actions, as in ii.
24 and 109. This change bears witness to the common
love of delay ; the similar change in presently was to come
later. The use of abroad is much extended; it is often
coupled with "all through the world;" JRome spred abrode
Mr fame, ii. 105, men are abrode in the sea, ii 220.
As to the Prepositions, we remark talys tolde by (contra)
Mardocheus, ii 217; Tyndale followed this new meaning
of by, which has not been long-lived. In ii 252 men
378 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
provide for myshap ; here the for also gets the meaning of
contra. The to, following the Gothic, stands after grow ;
grow to a tree, i. 47. There is the new phrase their house
burns owre (over) theyr head, i. 125. The of, followed by-
no noun, becomes an adverb; leve of, i. 91. Gower had
written away the tyranny ! Barclay inserts a wHih after the
first word, i. 40.
There is the seaman's cry to shyp ! i. 3, with no verb.
The Celtic verbs are ^55 and qmx ; this last, from the
Gaelic cfoach (poculum), must have been brought by Barclay
to the South ; thirty years later it became quaff.
Among the Romance words are fruteles, rural, purser,
quarter mayster (two ship officers), wastful, incline ears, de-
cline from, enormity, satyre (a poem), to outgorge, operacion,
desist, a sage (sapiens), pyllage, to be active, insolence, patroness,
correct (for the press), a mind is abstract There are many
words, new in the South, afterwards adopted by Tyndale,
such asfolysshenes, vagabund,incredyble, destitute, lyberall,render,
submyt him to, diceytful, be of none effect, also the Lancashire
vesture. The word transpose is employed to express wresting
of the law, i. 67. We see excheters used for officials, il 78 ;
from them came cheaters fifty years later. The word fassion
now means bodUy adornment, i. 290 ; fassions are mentioned
in connexion with garments. The word statelynes often means
silly pride. Wrath is called a passyon, i. 184; Lydgate's
bagage (praeda) now means simply trash, i. 221. There are
here two senses of conceit ; we read of new conceytis (ladies'
ornaments), i. 289, and their own conceyt (vanity), i. 290 ;
Tyndale's favourite sense of the word. There is the word
promoter used for a lawyer, ii. 50; fifty years later it was de-
graded to mean an informer. The word surety means safety,
ii. 251, as put in surety. The word offer takes a new sense,
polliceri, ii. 283. The word edit means simply give out, i.
6. The old put him in dever to is seen ; but there is also
the new coined endever to, which comes often. The law is
said to be diffuse, ii. 226. The noun ju^er, not jv{/e, is
used of one who in common life passes judgment on others,
i. 154. There is not only vice, but vydonsnes. We see
furour, furiousnes, and furyosite. The word inconvenience.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 379
■'"' ' ■■■■■ y m^ ■■ m^^^^^ ■ ^^^^^^^m^^^ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ i , , , ,
in the sense of damnum^ is always coming. A man enjoyed
hym (gavisus est) in the city he was building, i. 90 ; the
enjoy and rejom had long been running a parallel course.
The foreign ending ist was coming in; we read of a
planetyst, ii. 19; our poet thinks astronomy a juggle. The
French had a phrase cheveux primes^ delicate hair ; a pryme^
i. 250, means a paramour; our adjective prim has now a
very different sense ; but we still talk of a prime cut. We
read of a hotyll nose, i. 288. We see the Latin encroaching
on the French ; in ii. 43 stands Tnake purveaunce of corn ;
in p. 44 comes provyde sustenaunce ; in p. 46 provysion,
whereby he might feed them; here the word provision
has all but got its modem sense of food.^ Still, provide
has not lost the sense of foresee. But we find fcUygate
where we now use the French form. There is uUraunce,
the later outran^, not to be confused with the earlier
utterance. We had long used pcLst midnight; we now
find past shame, ii. 55. Barclay is fond of after one rate
(manner); not quite like our "at a great rate." A man
is a great corporate body, ii. 82 ; a sort of pleonasm. The
carle and vyllayne are coupled in a harmless sense, ii. 97.
The word place was much used for domus ; we see a ferme
plaxx, ii. 98. There is a curious confusion between the
Substantive and Adjective in ii. 100, an almost infynyte
of folys. There are the phrases hestely dronken, ii. 177, joyn
hande to hande, maners of the table, in one instant. We
see exposytour ; we have now expomider and exponent as
well, all from different parts of the old verb. The rascaUle
of 1400 was losing its harmless sense; rascold is used for
nebulo, ii. 307. Barclay is very fond of volage, which he
found in the French book he was translating. The verb
jest is formed from geste (historia) ; it was to be a favourite
verb of Tyndale's.
Barclay has many old proverbs and maxims for the
first time ; some have been a little altered since his day.
We find—
■^ Here the joke in * Punch ' comes in. Lawyer — What were the
E revisions of the will ? Client — Provisions ! that's just it ! We
avo not got even bread and cheese.
38o THE NE W ENGLISH, [chap.
** Take ye in gode worth the swetnes with the sour (i. 39).
When the stede is stolyn, to shyt the stable dore (i. 76).
Lerne not to be a fole ; that cometh by it selfe (i. 178).
Nothing is worse than a churle made a state (nobleman) (ii. 8).
It is an olde sayd sawe,
Lyke to lyke will drawe (ii. 35).
One yll tume requyreth another (ii. 38).
Be besy about your hay while Phebus is shining (ii. 45).
Pryde will have a fall (ii. 169).
One myshap fortuneth never alone" (ii. 251).
We hear much about the England of Barclay*s day.
Beggar's tricks were then much as they are now, i. 303.
It was shocking that monks and' priests danced, i. 294.
A man is said to be a fool, who prefers the bagpipe to
harp or lute; an odd sentiment for a Scot, i. 256. Some
kept their bonnets on when Christ was consecrated on the
altar ; the Paynims in their temples were more devout, i.
223. A foretaste of the riotous Mohawks of 1710 is
given in i. 299. England's sins were punished with
diseases, " both uncouthe and cruel ; " the new-come mor-
hm Gallicus is referred to, i. 39. Not only Aristotle but
also Plato is recommended; a sign of the times, i. 147.
Barclay wishes the English lion to join with the Scotch
unicorn against the Turk, ii. 209 ; the dreaded enemy
worshipped idols, a very old mistake. This countryman
of Lord Bute's writes, we Brytons^ ii 16; he calls Henry
VII. " the rede Rose redolent," ii. 16; that king's sober-
ness in dress is held up as an example, i. 39 ; Henry VIII.
also is mentioned. We hear that fools feast and drink on
Sunday; the Scotch poet calls that day the Sabbot, ii. 176.
He speaks of the newe fonde londe, ii. 25, and hints at
America, though not by name, ii. 26. The names Denys,
Mawrys, and Fatryke are given as Irish names, ii. 308.
Barclay, on the question of blasphemy, differs from Car-
dinal Newman ; the latter, in one of his works, argues
that the nations of Southern Europe show themselves more
pious than the Englishman by their oaths ; most irreverent
and filthy these oaths are, as every traveller knows. But
Barclay thus rebukes the heavenly-minded blasphemer of
his day —
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 381
' ' And than these houndes can suche excusys fynde,
As to theyr soules without dout ar damnable,
Saynge it is gode to have the masse in mynde,
And the name of God, and His sayntis honourable.
O erytykes, 0 houndes abhomynable,
That is a thynge whiche God almyghty lothys,
To take His name in thy foule mouth by othys " (ii. 133).
Some of Barclay's other poems, such as his ' Eclogues/
may be found in the Percy Society Collection, vol. xxii. The
e is often sounded at the end of words ; but y is sometimes
substituted, as Jeny for Jwm. We read of an arrant thief ^
where a supplants e. Pecock's avoT]>i now becomes aforde,
p. 69. The new Substantives are bedfellow (not the old
hedfere\ Jacke with the bush (a hairy youth in office), p. xlv.
There is the new phrase a back reckoning, A man |is
addressed as my mate/ We find the plural silkes. The
word rotum is used for a place at Court.
The old Adjective pert degenerates in p. liii., meaning
no more than saucy ; it must have been confused with
malapert
The it is employed in a new construction, often seen in
Heywood ; for this Pronoun is prefixed to a Verbal noun,
where the Infinitive would be used in Latin, it is yll stel-
yng from a thefe, p. 36 ; this turn of phrase recalls Barclay's
native land.
Among the Verbs we see clap (in prison), cleve like
bim-es. There is the advice, ^are a corner of thy belly, p.
xlii. ; hence Goldsmith's " we'll all keep a comer." We
see they are setled (are at ease), a new sense of this verb.
As we saw before, the Dutch verb deck now gets the sense
of ornare. The verb smyrk has degenerated from its old
honourable sense; see p. 26.
There is the Adverb earlier, p. 33, and by startes.
There is the borrowed term of abuse, abbey lowne or
limnier of a monke, p. xxxvi. ; limnier is now represented by
the Scotch limmer. There is the Celtic lag ; they remmn
last for lag, p. xii. Among the new Eomance words are
pictti/re, brutal, formal (in dress), the rest (reliqui). We find
the French phrase, a bone viage; a favourite wish all
through this Century. There is the phrase courting, p.
382 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
xvi. ; this means here "frequenting the Court" There
are the new phrases lei* it pass, grate (rub), goodly anointed
(equipped), also to apply business, our ply, Gower's des-
traugld is now changed to distract ; thy tvit is distract, p.
XXX. ; the Latin forms were beginning to encroach. The
verb surmise now means fingere. The verb depart gets the
new sense of nwri, p. li The word sect had hitherto been
connected with religion ; it now means simply genus ; men
of this sect, p. liL ; hence comes our noun set, as "a set of
fellows." There is the new phrase from post unto pUler
tossed, p. Ivii. ; post at this time might mean columna, as in
the ' Ayenbite.' Beale (Bell) appears as a woman's name.
Barclay was always fond of adding the ness to foreign roots,
as quietness.
There is the old saying, they rohhe St Peter to cloth St,
Paul, p. xvii. ; the early occurrence of this phrase shows
that the derivation of it, as usually given, is wrong.
There is a treatise on Carving, printed by Wynkyn de
Worde, dating from 1514; this is contained in the *Babees'
Book.' Here we find a peculiar verb for each bird or beast
that is carved, thus you wynge a partridge, but thye a wood-
cock, p. 265 j bread must be squared (proportioned), p.
269 ; to square a man in our day means to "adjust him to
your purpose." Our Scriptural sense of rebuke comes out
very plain in p. 286 ; it is no rebuke (opprobrium) to a
knight to entertain a King's groom.
In Halliwell's * Letters of the Kings of England,' from
1513 to 1525, we see the substantive the Englishery, In
p. 280 Henry VIII. says that certain things may stand
msetly well for a shift ; here the last word is like turn in " it
will serve your turn." There is the Adjective towardly,
where the last syllable is something new. Two Genitive
Pronouns are coupled in your and their return, p. 278.
There are the verbs come in (submit), take such order that,
etc. We read that an army scaled (dispersed) ; perhaps
this is the phrase of some Northern secretary of Henry's,
p. 283. Among the Komance words are harkebuss (spelt
with the h). There isfacilely employed for easily, p. 284 ;
a fine phrase, for which Foxe, many years afterwards,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 383
laughed at Wolsey. In p. 246 the foreign d%8 is prefeiTed
to our homeborn mis in distrust.
In Ellis' * Letters/ from 1513 to 1525, we see the Scotch
laird written lard; there is also the Scotch Sinkler for *S'i^.
Clair. Warham, following the new usage, writes father^
Series iii., vol. i. p. 241. A well-known change is illustrated
when Madrill replaces Madrid. We see the hetterer, where
there is one syllable too much. The Salopian won (unus)
is now adopted in London. I may remark on the long
despatch sent from Toledo in 1525 by Sampson and
Tunstall (Series iii., vol. ii. p. 20) ; the former writes in the
Southern dialect ; the latter, who, being a Northern man,
has evidently taken pains to learn good English, writes
much as we do.
There are the new Substantives lance knight, UacJcsviith.
We hear of the Fopis Holines ; Wolsey, when but a bishop,
is styled your Grace ; in a letter from Newcastle occurs the
phrase a man of Chwrche (clericus) ; holy had hitherto come
before Churche. In Series iii., vol. i. p. 190, John Eight-
wise appears, who compiled the * Propria quae maribus' and
* As in prsesenti,* works well known to the youth of my
generation, though now obsolete. We see at good length
(for a long while) ; fires, not bonfires, are kindled for the
victory of Pavia. We have the Plural logings, I think for
the first time. There is the phrase they are in lust, p. 169 ;
here the noun changes from voluntas to salics, and deter-
mines the prevailing sense in our modern Itisty. In make
husines (Series iii., vol. ii. p. 32) the noun adds the sense of
turbatio to the old negotium ; an actor on the stage talks of
his business (stir). We read of the drafte of a proclamation.
There is the phrase two thousand crowns and odde, p. 318,
where the Adjective gets the new meaning of amplius.
Dunbar*s new form tryme (pulcher) appears in the South.
Leo X., we are told, looked losty (sanus) just before his
death. A matter is said to be freshe in memory. Our usual
legal epithet appears, his learned cowitsail. There is a
curious late instance of the Teutonic Adjective agreeing
with the Substantive in number, svmlz horsis, p. 206.
Further on we have be so good to gyve; then the as is
384 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
inserted, he so gratiose as to remember. There are phrases
like to the best of my power, the deaneries be nothing like to that
value ; this last is Warham's. In it is not the wey to lede
him; the word right is dropped before the noun ; we saw a
hundred years earlier he was the man.
As to the Pronouns, we find the prefixed to no, followed
by an Adjective, to the no little perell. There is ony wey
(in any direction).
As to the Verbs, a new idiom for the Future Participle
is struck oflf; about, prefixed to the Infinitive, had hither-
to expressed intense earnestness; it seems now to be
softened into the bare Future, he is abowt to ship goods
(Series ii., vol. ii. p. 295). There are phrases like she was
brought to bed of a child, make report of hirmelf, geve notise,put
me in his wylle (testament), briiig to pass, take harte, he is
forth comyng, take breath, wrest the matter, he thought it best to,
etc., not reckoning that, etc., as matters stood, have a good
mynde to serve. The old noun doke gives birth to a verb, to
clooke perjwrie. There is the phrase to saye the truthe. The
old overrwn, (beat in running) was now being replaced by
Chaucer's outrun ; the former verb is here used in another
sense, overrun the country.
Among the new Adverbs are at the soneste (soonest), far
behindhand, the tyme is ferr spent, from 20 pounds upwards.
The neither, followed by another neither, as in our Bible,
may be found in p. 110. There is the Northern form
whensomever.
Among the Prepositions stand upon suspicion, nigh upon
a thousand, where some such word as bordering is under-
stood. The for had always expressed quod spectat ad ; we
now see she is merry for a woman being in her case, p. 145.
Warham has behyther the sea and beyond, showing how be
was always used to form new Prepositions.
Henry VIII., when surprised, cries hy the masse (Series
iii., vol. i. p. 196) ; this was to become a common oath all
through the Century. There is the Dutch dock (for ships)
and the Scandinavian haulsers.
Among the new Eomance words are familiar with,
Maister Secretary, the Popis Nuntio, the Master of the Cere-
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 385
rrwnyes (at Kome), scrutiny (at the Pope's election), the
particulars, hroUery, occwrrantes, money matters, successes, agent,
dandijyrat (a coin), join with them, he in good train, tenable,
a lege (league) distant, enterveue, to state something, of no
importance, to couch a letter, to pen things, a sure man, peces of
ordinance, a precedent, I assure you, they (soldiers) have served,
my bill (note of hand), blanks, to sport (joke), to interteign
(guests), predslye, in the same predicament (plight), devyse
(heraldic), suer I am that, etc., thair superiors, successyvely, to
intimate (proclaim), repeat, by faire meanes, move to teris,
doagier (dowager). We see the phrase their powers (vires) ;
then comes the potmris (states) of Italye, The raskells stand
for the commons, p. 192 ; hence Knox was not foulmouthed
when he spoke of the rascal multitude forty years later. A
rascall, p. 301, is a camp follower, distinguished from a
soldier. We see diffidence in the sense of mistrust ; Bunyan
couples the word (employing it as unbelief) with despair.
In p. 177 stands give him good lessons (warnings); we still
say, "a good lesson for you." We read of six couple,
where the foreign word is both Singular and Plural, like
yoke and swine. In p. 328 a certain Order, is called The
Religion ; the word was to bear a very different sense in
France forty years later. There is a curious idiom in this,
the lordes were attempted to be won. We have the phrase to
remembre (reward) labors with promotion ; hence the "remem-
ber the coachman " of our boyhood. The old every other
line now becomes every second line. We have an attempt at
Latin forms in fructfvll, forfect, and appoinct ; there is also
streictnes; we may talk both of the strait gate and of a
strict master, the French and the Latin. Warham says of
the Kentish taxpayers that they band and promise; the first
verb is formed from the noun. The Ciira is well known in
Spain ; the English ambassadors at Madrid speak of him
as the curate, a word which down to this time could well
express the Spanish title.
In Bishop Fisher's sermon against Luther, in 1521
(Early English Text Society), he uses the old Salopian
phrase fell wyttes, p. 341 ; fell, like sharp and shrewd, seems
to hover between crudelis and acer ; Lady Naime has he's a
VOL. I. 2 c
1
386 THE NE W ENGLISH, [chap.
fdl clever lad. The new verb sJdaunt (slant) is formed from
the old adverb, p. 323. We hear that Luther calls the
Pope's abetters papistas ; this is perhaps the first appear-
ance of the word in England.
In the * State Papers/ from 1513 to 1525, we find
Wolsey often using the phrase " he has more strings to his
bow." Norfolk writes, vol. iv. p. 85, " now the iron is
bote, it is tyme to stryke."
As to Vowels, a was more and more sliding into the
sound of French ^; we see prepaire, mis; the French
Eou^en is written Boone (otherwise called here Rowayn),
iv. 413. A well-known German city is called Mayaunce,
not Mentz, The Scotch family Ker is written Carre, a form
afterwards preferred by Sir Walter in his poetry. The
terwin (fatigare) of the * Promptorium ' now appears as tire.
The French seem still in some cases to have sounded their
eau like iou, for Bewren is here written for the foreign
Beaurain, vi. 66 ; on the other hand, Beaugency appears as
Bogeansye, vi. 62. Their au seems at Paris to have been
now sliding from ou to o ; the well-known Lautrec appears
in English correspondence both as Lowtreke and Lottryke,
vi. 58, 94.
As to Consonants, the p is inserted in Tompson ; the of
is cut down to a, as 8 a clok ; the v is struck out in Caun-
dishe (Cavendish). The t is added, the old margine be-
comes mergent, iv. 12. Even at this date we find Surrey
writing Meurus for Melrose, iv. 29. The n replaces r, for
the old herberger becomes arhinger, ii. 115 ; heriot and har-
binger are the only two words that still keep any trace of
the old here (exercitus). The Scotch Angus is constantly
written Anguish about this time.
Among the Substantives we remark ki^ (keep of a
castle), the hreke of the day. There are phrases like gonne
shotte ; ladde and lasse are coupled. The word crew is still
used of soldiers, not of sailors. We read of Swycelande and
the Swysschirs, being compounds of French and German
forms, also of the Lowe Cvm,treyes, the Indias (Spanish
America), and the syster of Portingale (the King). Wolsey
talks of Henry as the Kinges Highnes, but calls Charles His
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 387
Majestye^ vi. 268. We see main recovering some of the
Adjectival force that had belonged to it before the Con-
quest; there is his mayne (chief) power, vi 115. We have
the forms nordikelihode, now is the tyme to, etc., / have noo
Imsynes to do therein (it is no affair of mine). The old
future phrase upon the point had been followed by the
Infinitive ; it now takes a Verbal Noun, upon the pointe of
departing, iv. 320.
Among the Adjectives sad still expresses gravis; there
is deadly fead (feud), also doo my best, iv. 37, where a sub-
stantive is dropped.
Among the Pronouns we see all and singular.
As to the Verbs, we are struck by Wolsey's phrase, /
wil he lothe to, etc., vi 332 ; Ipswich seems to have
followed Manning in his unusual use of the shall and will.
Both should and would make way for a new rival in we
coude be content that, etc., ii. 89. There is a great innova-
tion borrowed from the French in iv. 7 ; in 1523 Surrey
writes he having broken; this new Participle is used two
years later by King Henry ; it must have been of use in
Englishing the Greek Aorist Participle ; the study of
Greek had now just begun in England. There is the
curious the moone being waned ; Surrey uses the phrase, at
that time 330 years old, he shall maye spare (poterit par-
cere) almost for the last time. There are phrases like
make difficulte, run a ship agrounde, take a fanlasye to, keep his
residence, give the chace unto, reckon to have it, make approches
and batry (in a siege), g&oe you fair wordis, set a good face as
(if) / unll goo, shew his visage. Wolsey is fond of making
ripe a verb, in the sense of docere; he often uses the
Northern scale (to separate). A merchant in our days
would shudder if he found his clerk making a book ; but
this phrase is used, iv. 66, for casting up accounts. In vi.
50 stands / wolde not wysche itt to a dogge; here to be given
is dropped before the preposition. The old verb worth
(fieri) had all but departed; we see the new he tomed
Frenche, vi. 64. There is a curious Present Participle in
iv. 32, / shall be doing / but perhaps in is dropped before
the last word.
388 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Among the Adverbs twndem is Englished by at length,
vi. 197. The Double Negative is all but laid aside in
these State Papers. Wolsey writes, in vi. 225, first, . . .
secondely, and so on to sixthly ; he knew nothing of firstly ;
the ly added to Numerals is new. We find so prefixed to
a Verbal Noun, hys so doynge shall be, etc., i. 83.
As to Prepositions, tree upon tree had long been known ;
where the upon has the meaning of the Latin post ; we now
.see slepe apon the matter, i 3. The new idiom connected
with /or once more appears in iv. 280, he is man of great
substance for these partes; the old translation of for, guod
^ectat ad, is present here.
Among the Komance words are in the lieu and place of.
Vice Admyral, pasport, in no case, mutenary (mutiny), pre-
vent (forestall), something like this appeared in 1470; a
gratuite (pleasure), to marshe (march), munytion (ammunition),
sense (meaning), he frank and open, a postscripta (Wolsey's
word), he is obliged unto us, take her congie of him, pkUfarm,
rampaire, fawsbraye, chek accompts, apply (lean) to. Latin is
sometimes preferred to the French form; thus there is
Pace's recuse for the usual refuse (recusant was to come rather
later) ; traduction stands for delivery, Wolsey often writes
suMainly, with the Latin subitus in his head ; he is fond of
doulce (dulcis). He writes pickande for the French piquant ;
this may be a leaning to the old East Midland Active Par-
ticiple ; the Teutonic and Latin forms of the old Aryan
word are confused. We see to tot and marcke (names in a
bill), i. 115; a curious verb to be derived from totus.
Queen Margaret talks of a brak (brig) which came from
brigantine, iv. 262. Kildare opposes the word humanities
to crueltie ; the former had before this time expressed
merely courtesy. In vi. 317 we hear of an expresse curror ;
the adjective was later turned into a substantive. In p.
370 stands what people (a set) of Consaillours he hathe. The
word prise now gains the new meaning of navis capta, iv.
89. The word diseas is applied to so slight a thing as a
cold, iv. 236. We see simulate, to which Lord Macaulay
preferred the later verb sham. The word half had long
been used before adverbs ; we now have ryde a quarter so
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 389
farre^ vi. 88. We hear of capitaine Bayard, vi. 192; I
think the first instance of this noun as a title in English.
A lawyer at Kome appears as Maister Doctor Hanibal
(Annibaldi), foreshadowing Dogberry's Master Gentleman
Conrad. Wolsey uses catail in the Northern, not in the
Southern, sense of the word; with him it is pecus, vi. 173 ;
the old haveour (substance) appears once more, p. 185 ; basse
is often coupled with low; Wolsey uses both the verbs
depeche and dispach. In vi. 613 we have to stay (delay) a
thing, Wolsey now and then uses except for nisi.
In Halliweirs 'Eoyal Letters' (1513-1525) we may
study the words of King Henry VIIL He talks of free
willSy in the Plural, p. 233; also of the Englishery and
Irishery, p. 253, the former referring to the Pale. The
Verb is dropped in no more to you at this time, p. 235 ; there
is we can do no less, but, eta, set in good train, a city holds
against enemies, p. 279 ; we should say holds out. The verb
gi'ow is followed by to, as well as into ; Henry tells his sister,
you be grown to much wealth, p. 275. About this time the
rightful Nominative ye was much set aside in favour of you.
Among the Eomance words are furniture (also famishment),
certificate (warning), exmMtant, affiance, offers, exploit, commina-
tions, affectionate. Henry deputes a Bishop to be resident
"as our orator" at Rome, p. 235 ; we have now made this
resident a substantive. He talks of the renovdling of
authority, p. 243 ; perhaps this led the way to our form
renewal. The word personage is often used as implying
something nobler than person. The old conclude makes
way for "we have resolved and determined that," etc., p.
284; in p. 245 we read of well-determined (disposed)
persons ; we now talk of a determined man ; Henry speaks
of himself as being determinate resolved, p. 246. He writes
of his having received instructions from a Deputy, p. 248 ;
we should now apply this word to the orders of a Superior
alone. Irish soldiers are said to be extreme in demanding
wages; their land is to be reduced to civility, p. 253.
Mrs. Wood, in her 'Letters of Illustrious Ladies,' has
printed many letters of the two sisters of Henry VIIL,
ranging from 1513 to 1525. Queen Margaret has by
390 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
this time become unmistakably Scotch in her speech ;
she uses the preposition fore-against (the old forcm ongean),
p. 167, and contacts this into foments, p. 257. She mis-
places her shalls and mils; she uses while as itsqtie ad,
whiles for cUiqtuindo, suppose for si; she discards lie old
liflod for living, and writes foregather, unfriends, aye (sem-
per). In p. 248 she talks of the westland Lords, where
an Englishman would have written West country.
Among the Substantives are stop (hindrance), small pox ;
Queen Mary complains of suffering from the disease called
the mother (globus hystericus), a word found also in Dutch ;
this afterwards occurs in Shakespere; in the year 1280
himodered had been used for agitatus ; " I am moithered "
stailds in ' Silas Marner.' Queen Margaret constantly uses
stead for service, as " do him stead," which is uncommon ;
hence came the later stand in stead. She often uses way
and ways for mil, policy, interest, or faction, as in p. 266,
"get them at his way," " if I go his way;" she employs way
in two senses in one sentence, p. 278, "by any ways I
would they left the governor's ways." Hence our " get his
own way." Lady Oxford thanks Wolsey for his gracious
goodness, p. 334 ; the Substantive was coming in once
more ; she promises her good will to a dependent, who asks
for an office, p. 335.
Among the Adjectives are motherly, winning ; the last
is applied to Queen Mary of France, p. 174. There is the
Scotch form cumbersome (molestus), just as we now hear
hindersome in the North ; cumbrous was set apart for
another shade of meaning. We see well-minded, p. 324,
with the Past Participle ending ; this minded was begin-
ning to be much used in composition about this time. In
p. 287 alike is used like the old all one; "it is alike to
both, where," etc. In p. 168 lifelike, applied to young
James V. by his mother, keeps its old meaning, vivax.
In p. 201 Queen Mary says that she must be short with
young Brandon ; that is, in announcing her projects.
Among the Verbs we see pvi to the froof, strike mxmey,
he mils me evil. The Passive voice is developed, / am
(evil) done to stands in p. 228. The verb get is used like
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 391
hcuve^ since it is followed by a Passive Participle \ I get no
good donSy p. 269. Queen Margaret often talks of being
answered (satisfied) as to the money due to her ; we say
that a thing answers our expectations. She complains, in
p. 230, that her husband took up her revenues ; this phrase
for approjpriating lingers in our " taking up room." In p.
326 she uses forward as a transitive verb, and starts the
new verb overlook (negligere). She talks of nmning bene-
fices to sundry persons, p. 301 ; we now nominate persons
to benefices.
Among the Prepositions we remark upon the word of a
prince, p. 190. The old being on life (not alive) is used by
Queen Catherine in p. 260. There is to the best of his
power, to the uttermost; Queen Margaret says that she is
allowed to enter to her children ; hence our stage direction,
enter to him the Duke, We have already seen m^ake for a
purpose; men now go for favour ; we should in our day
place in before for.
Among the Komance words are comforts (pleasures) in
the Plural, consternation, justify (make good), quarterly (the
Adverb), memorial (scriptum), redound to, A letter is sent
by the post, p. 163, that is, the rider. In p. 315 a letter
is despatched without direction to any person. We talk of
Her Majesty's Opposition ; so Queen Margaret writes in
p. 169 about my party adversary. The word trouble is much
softened, meaning little more than petere; I shall trouble
you for money, as Queen Margaret writes, p. 221. The
word sort is used for sense in p. 316 ; a letter, in contrary
sort, is sent ; in some sort is a well-known phrase. Queen
Margaret complains in p. 328 of being not well disposed ;
the word here refers to the body, not the mind ; when the
word is coupled with ill, it must, in our day, refer to the
mind alone, which is curious. She often uses sober where
we should employ moderate. The title Sire is used by
Queen Mary when addressing her brother ; Queen Cathe-
rine is addressed as right excellent, right high and mighty
princess, Margaret writes, pray your Grace to pardon me,
dropping the /, p. 327 ; she probably confused this phrase
with please your Grace, which comes in the next page ; the
392 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
first quotation gives the clue to prithee. She writes in the
middle of a sentence, wnd most suspicion of all ; this is short
for " most cause for suspicion." Wolsey uses the participle
incholeredj thus giving a Greek form to the French coUre
(ira), a form which we retain, p. 197. There are the
phrases you fail to him, and failing that; Margaret uses
the verb disassent, p. 300, the first hint of our dissent She
talks of being at mal aise (ill) ; and her sister uses dote as
well as the old dower.
In the documents quoted by Foxe, ranging between
1513 and 1525 (Cattley's Edition, iv.), we remark that one
heretic is accused of saying that Luther had more learning
in his little finger than all the doctors in England in their
whole bodies, p. 179 ; in p. 237 comes the saw, "it is good
to be merry and wise." The Christian name Allan is
written Allen, p. 195 ; and there is the surname Sirmndes,
p. 191, coming from Simon, Sim^und, like serm/m, sermonde.
There is the new substantive a stump foot. We see business
with its new sense of turmoil ; make all this business, iv.
226. The heretics (it is our last glimpse of the old
Lollards) called themselves known men or just-fast-men, p.
218, also good fellows, p. 243.^
Among the Adjectives are to sit mum, ripe in Scripture.
Among the Verbs we see turn a penny, to storm, " ye be
cast away and undone/' p. 192, whence a new noun was
soon to be coined ; the verb in this sense was often used
about this time. The verb fret is used, not of the mind as
formerly, but of the skin, in describing poor Hunne's death.
A man m/ikes good cheer (has a jolly time), p. 192; this
differs from the earlier "she made me good cheer." Li
the next page a horse is besweat and hemired ; we were to
become very fond of prefixing this be to verbs ; so General
Butler wrote of the New Orleans ladies as " bejewelled and
becrinolined." A child is at nurse, p. 183, suggested by
the Latin apud. The word Maister had long been prefixed
to surnames; in p. 239 we hear of Maistress Cotismore; we
now contract the word into Missus, A criminal is examined
before a bishop ; heretics are detected (informed against) to
1 There were heretics at Faenza, known as the honi homineSj in 1240.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 393
the bishop's office^ p. 223 ; this last word is well known in
connexion with the Holy Ofl&ce. The Northern kirkmen^
applied to the clergy, becomes churchmen in the South,
iv. 224.
Many of Skelton's poems belong to the time between
1513 and 1525. We see the proverbs, all is fysshe that
cometh to net, nedes must he rin that the devyll dryvith. He
has puns on the words raisin, seal, and others ; he is fond
of prefixing the French m. Like Dunbar, he has an
unbounded admiration for Chaucer, Gower, and Lydgate,
and plainly puts them all upon one level ; see ii. 185. He
has the old words and forms, sum dele, eysell, helas, wanhope, to
grame, to wed (pledge), to fang. He mimics the Northern
dialect in his ge heme (gae hame), addressed to a Scot, ii. 280.
Skelton, unlike the author of the * Candlemas Play,'
makes a difference between the French blew (cseruleus) and
the Teutonic hlo (lividus). Like Macaulay, he uses Lewes
for the French Louis, He turns the rrumge of Piers Plough-
man into monche, our munch. He turns v into /, for the
old snuven (anhelare) becomes snuf. The old d is replaced
by g, heder moder becomes hugger mugger. The ch is re-
placed by j, the old cea/rcian (stridere) appears in oui of
joynt ye jar, ii. 334 ; the last word was much favoured by
Hey wood. The th is added, for there are the two forms
commune well and commune wdth, Barclay's new form.
As to new Substantives, we have mamockes (fragmenta),
a jackenapes, shyttel cocke, a webbe of lylse imdse, ii. 281 ; this
last is a pun on the Cardinal's name. There is a yonkerkyn,
i. 233, from the Dutch. Skelton still uses the term
Lollardy, i. 241, of which he was no lover ; the Lollard was
soon to be replaced by the Gospeller. There are the
phrases Jacke shall have Gyl, ii. 1 6, sober sadnesse (gravitas),
Pers Pykthanke, a term of abuse, ii. 60. Wolsey is called
a gracelesse elfe, ii. 314, showing a change in the meaning
of the Substantive; he is also sv^h a Bedlem^, ii. 297, a
new use of the such. We see an ende of an old song. When
we come across the form negarshyp we understand why the
Irish call a niggard " an ould nagur." There is the new
phrase he is at suche tahynge, ii. 308 ; we should say, " in
394 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
such a taking." The old vMid (sciens), in the guise of a
wetewold, is now first used in its evil sense, ii. 178.^ In
the same page is another term of abuse, a nougkty pack,
which perhaps here refers to a man; baggage was later
applied to women.
The new Adjectives are upstart, pynk iyde. We see cock
sure, ii. 286. The word praiy gets the new meaning of
fortis; quyte you like praty men, ii. 33. In touch you on the
quyke, ii 76, a substantive is dropped after the adjective.
The wonder had long stood before adjectives, as wonder-
blithe ; it is now prefixed to a substantive, ye be wonders
men, ii. 7 ; a slight transposition of this gave birth to the
new wondrous. There is our phrase, trewe as the gospell, ii.
321 ; here Manning had used so]> as the first word.
The impersonal it is much used after Verbs, as to fote it.
We see not a whit, ii 219, expressing the Old English
nawiht (naught).
Among the new Verbs is mysname (vituperare). There
are the phrases blowen with the flye of heresy, also fly blowen
opinions, i. 234, chop logyk, take your pleasure, thou be hanged/
ii. 86, kepe the wolfe from the dore, know what ys a clocke, ii.
132, ^6 knew what was what, ii. 313, have a smncke of (resem-
blance to), play didil diddil, ii. 203, / did what I coude, it
erMth me, to cast a fole, do us a shrewd twrn. We see the
phrase to pop forth saws, i. 238 ; at p. 235 poppyng means
babbling ; our pop stiQ implies noise, as pop-gun. The verb
Mother, our blather, answers to the Latin blaterare, ii. 49.
The old fall on prechynge (so it once was written) loses its
preposition in ii. 101, and thus the Verbal Noun is made
to look like a Participle. The Northern scalp has at last
made its way to London. There is the new compound
rayne-beten, ii 104.
As to Adverbs, the so is employed as an asseveration, as
in Tyndale, / can do mastryes, so I can, ii. 56.
There is write at lengthe, ii. 185, where some adjective
such SLS full seems to be dropped after at; we also have to
prate after this rate, ii. 165; we should now substitute at,
^ Skeat says that the evil word comes from woodwale (a bird), like
cuckold from cuckoo.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 395
Among the Interjections is hoho ! a cry of derision.
There are also the Shakesperian howm^ the Yorkshire
iushe ; hem^ Syr, ii. 1 2 (Shallow's hem, boys /), by our lakyn
(ladykin), alarum ! out karowe / ii. 1 1 2. We have the cry
of birds, jug jug, chuk chuk St. Mary of Egypt supplied
the oath by Mary Gipcy, ii. 235 (Marry gup). The Devil's
name is often brought into Skelton's comedy ; there is also
what, a very vengeaunce, who is that? ii. 100. In ii. 180
stands to blow a bararag (a noise), whence ballyrag.
There are the Scandinavian nouns blurre, trash, and the
verb whysk, also go gingerly.
Among the Komance words are conveyance (thieving), ii.
26, tenter hokys, a budge furre (lamb's wool), mynyon, bybyll
darke, musty, trotters (sheep's feet), carbuckyls (warts) ; the
grapeys of 1430 becomes graundepose, leading up to our
grampus. There is the phrase grese my hands with gold.
The Northern form catell is used for bestia, ii. 54 ; may-
stresse now means arnica as well as domina, ii. 73. The
verb intrete adds the sense of precari to that of tractare, ii.
75. To trusse a packe expresses abire, ii. 84; hence our
" send him packing," "pack off." In ii. 93 Adversity says
that she is Goddys preposytour ; she remarks as to careless
lords, I prynt them with a pen ; the prepostors at Eton may
still be viewed, marking down the names of culprits at the
master's behest. We have seen passing strange used for
nearly 200 years ; the participle is now changed, and we
find so excedynge farre, ii. 110 ; this form was adopted by
Tyndale. In il 1 47 polytykes^expresses state craft, a most
curious use of the Plural. Terence is called a comicar, ii.
1 85 ; the Teutonic ending er must perforce assert itself.
Wolsey is called an epycure, ii. 274. Skelton used the old
fors, where Tyndale employed the later matter/ make no
great fors, ii 330.
In vol. XX. of the Percy Society may be found the two
versions of the old Song of the Lady Bessy (the Queen of
Henry VII.) The second of them may date from about
1520, when the great events of 1485 were becoming some-
what legendary ; the first of the versions is more modem
still. The poet must have been a Cheshire or Lancashire
396 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
man ; he uses whome for home^ p. 76 ; there is the old faze
(caesaries), which was now not known to the South of
Lichfield. A man in disgrace comes tmder a clowde, p. 79 ;
we now first hear of read coates, Lord Stanley's soldiers, p.
74 ; a well-known word in Cromwell's day, 130 years later.
We here see that Lancashire is included in "the West
country." There is the new phrase lyke a man wUl I die,
p. 77. Among the verbs are where standeth the wynde ? p.
70. We talk of backing a horse ; we here find to hack (re-
pellere) enemies, p. 45. In the same page men give white
hoods ; that is, bear for their cognisance ; this is a favourite
phrase of the Century, and is used by Mrs. Thrale about
1790. Men are ready in an houres warnyng ; here we
substitute at. There is assuredlye, used also by Fisher.
Many poems in Hazlitt's Collection (vols. ii. and iv.)
seem to date from 1520. There are the very old forms
tho (tunc), go on live (alive), iv. 221, and moldeis still used
for terra, p. 191, swayne for servus, p. 204. But there is the
great contraction werte for were it, p. 208.
Among the Substantives there is toy (antic). An admir-
ing woman calls a stalwart youth a whypper, p. 94 ; in our
day she would use whopper or whacker.
Among the Adjectives is the old qitever (impiger) of
1220, first seen in the ' Ancren Kiwle.' The byrchen rod is
mentioned in iv. 218. There are the new forms faced and
tonged, p. 88.
As to Pronouns, a man brings his wife to this, p. 225 ;.
later in the Century pass would have been added.
Among the Verbs are show his mind to, here the breche
(in wedlock), nothing commes amysse, tell where to tourne me,
keep house, beare a rule, have in store for, set up his shop, play
the devell, let flee at him (with no Accusative, p. 209). The
be was prefixed to form Verbs all through this Century ;
begyft them stands in p. 196. The verb sway had been
Transitive hitherto ; it now becomes intransitive, being
used of a body hanging, p. 94. The verb take now gets
the new sense oiferire; take him on the cheek, p. 181. The
old trim (firmare) is used ironically, a wife threatens to
trim her husband, p. 209.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 397
We see the new ones for all, iv. 91, soon to be used by
Tyndale.
There is the proverb selfe doe, self have, p. 194, imply-
ing that a man creates his own fate.
There is loh, akin to the German, used of a clown, p.
205 ; it was afterwards used by Shakespere.
Among the Romance words is twn a penny ; there is
the phrase double quycke, p. 85, whence comes a verb much
used in our army. In p. 95 a man dying Umrm his heels
up ; we here substitute toes for heels. There is the noun
checkemate, p. 88 ; here a pun is intended, for there is a hit
at a husband.
One of the Coventry Mysteries, the * Assumption,' p.
383, diflfering in style from the rest, is attributed by the
editor to a hand of Henry the Eighth's time. We may
consider it as dating from about the year 1520 ; the play
cannot well be later, for it abounds in old forms and words,
soon to vanish for ever, from the South. Such are heth,
let se, hende, to nyhyn (accedere), qwyche (quod), into (usque
ad), hrether, kend (genus), fer (ignis), postel (apostolus), tare
(docere), tho (tunc), ble (color), in fere, gramly (graviter),
flvm Jordan ; out, harrow / belave (manere), berde (mulier),
queme (placere), clepe, to spelle of me, Sovereins (domini),
injoye (gaudere). The piece cannot well be earlier than
1520, for we find Roye's new phrase /y on you / also, it is
like you to do it, p. 394. There is curyng for covering, p.
392 ; ^ replaces ^, as glaberis (garruli), p. 396; the two
forms vxich and wake (we are on the Great Sundering Line
for the last time) are coupled in p. 388, as in the year
1220 ; mayde is still applied to a man, as mayde John, p.
389, like Drayton's maiden knight; there is sneveler used
in scorn, p. 396. In p. 385 senster, which was to last all
through this Century, is applied to the Virgin, and seems
to be a compound of sempstress and spinster. In p. 400 she
and the angels address their risen Lord with the you. In
p. 396 stands what noyse is alle this?
Among the Verbs we see Skelton's phrase flyes blowe
hem, p. 384. We have seen "considering thy youth;"
we now find a new Participial phrase in p. 387 ; my name
398 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
18 grei, treidy you telland, like our " speaking roughly," for
"to speak roughly.'* The tvill is used in the Northern
sense (oportet) in p. 395 ; / am aferd there wylle he sum-
thyng amys. The at is prefixed to Numerals to express
age; at fourten yer, p. 383. There is the Dutch word
ogyl ; my heart begins to ogyl and guake, p. 395 ; we have
now restored the verb to its proper sense, showing con-
nexion with the eye, eage^ ooge. The new Eomance words
are exjnre (mori), demon, terestrial ; the Virgin speaks of
h&r-sympil sowle, p. 388. The old system is still in vogue
of identical words riming, if they express different ideas ;
for in p. 388 hende (prope) rimes with hende (mansuetus).
A 'Northern Mystery,* printed in 'Keliquise Antiquae,'
ii. 124, perhaps a Yorkshire composition, seems to belong
to this time ; it has some new words in common with
Skeltonand Coverdale; for inBta,TLce,wonderoslye is something
new ; also gross and far hence. The e is inserted mpitemis,
as before in hidom. The Northern habit of turning a
into 6, which dates from the year 680, is seen in p.
142, where alas becomes ales/ the old joyful is sounded
joefuly p. 158; the quickly of the South becomes whiklye,
p. 134. We see sho (ilia), a very late instance. The
verb start is sliding into profidsd ; St. John, when leaving,
says, now farwell, for a starte. There is a curious un-
grammatical change in an Auxiliary verb ; in p. 1 26 a man
is asked, was ye present? the ye and thou are here con-
founded; the was wa& used in this way down to 1831.^
The use of hut (quin) is continued, was ther none othere
meyn hut ]>ou must die? this idiom is used by Tyndale.
In p. 141 comes run in loss, like the former run in dette.
In p. 156 stands she myndes (recordatur) his ohedience; the
verb used in this sense has by this time, 1520, become
purely Northern, though it had appeared in the * Ayenbite ;'
there is also gar (facere). There are the Eomance words
dolorous, to entone. The word speculation stands for spectae-
ulum in p. 151 ; it has been since much debased. The
word progress is used for peregrinatio in p. 133; this was
^ In the Encjuiry into the Bristol Riots of 1831 the Counsel often
begins his questions with "Was you," etc.
III. ] THE NE W ENGLISH. 399
the sense in which Queen Elizabeth used it. So thoroughly
adopted had gramercy been, that it stands for gratitude in
p. 133. We see exmini used as a stage direction. There
is what myn ha/rte is hevy/ this old French idiom reminds us
of the * Cursor Mundi.'
In another piece of this time, i. 239, we light on the
new verb cuddle, coming from m]>lic (familiaris), also on
the shopman's cry, maysters, what do you lack ?
Some plays in * Dodsley's Collection * (Hazlitt's edition)
belong to 1520 or so; these are The Four Elements,
Calisto, Everyman, Hickscorner, the Pardoner and Friar.
The initial a is clipped, for we see peach (appeach)
men of treason, p. 157; Peachum was to come 200 years
later. The a stands for he, as quotha. The n is prefixed,
as Nell; we have seen Nan before. The old lobi seems
to give birth to lubber, A certain weapon is now called
a hanger. The word girl seems from this time to mean
nothing but puslla, dropping its masculine meaning. Men
are called lusty bloods, p. . 43, a new sense of the sub-
stantive, coming from Holland. The word pin is used
for crus/ run on my pins, p. 181. There is a phrase
often used in this Century, it is a world to see how, etc.,
p. 35. Among the Adjectives are prick-eared cur, p. 87 ;
also a peevish prick-eared song, p. 48 ; an epithet afterwards
often applied to the Puritans. We see / have f&id scorn of
thee, p. 55 ; the phrase afterwards used by Elizabeth con-
cerning Parma ; a girl is called bouncing Bess,
Among the Verbs is the frequent expletive / say, also
cross out this, set him fast by the heels, I have been ahout your
business, p. 56 ; we have already seen / have been and pro-
cfwred.
There is the Prepositional compound their upbringing,
and in the same page, 91, bringers up of youth; a great
falling oflf. We see the phrase at a pinch. Among the
Interjections is by Jis/ In p. 74 stands now mvm, now
hem, expressing first silence, then utterance ; we know the
Shakesperian hem, boys /
Among the Eomance words are cerdre, zenith, the Rase,
where men are drowned. We hear of sack (the wine) ;
400 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
there is the verb f'mk ; and convey , the genteel word for
thieving. The sans begins to be much used ; we here have
5^715 peer.
In Hazlitt, iv. 105, the * Schole House of Women' must
date from about 1520 ; we see prattle, p. 129 (soon to be
used by Latimer), formed from prate. The French saunce
is once more used, saunce remedy, p. 139.
In Almondbury Church, Yorkshire, there is a long in-
scription of 1522 carved in oak. Here we see pray the,
our prithee, with no / preceding. See the * Almondbury
Glossary' (English Dialect Society).
In the same year (Collier's * Dramatic Poetry,' i. 91) we
hear of rrwrys pykes, of a vysor, and of the Lord of Mysrvle,
Antony is cut down to Tonny, p. 91.
We must now consider the Romaunt of the Rose.^ My
view of this poem is that about the year 1520 some
Northern bard of great genius steeped himself in the
Chaucer * Tales,' printed not long before, that he, moreover,
studied manuscripts of Piers Ploughman, and perhaps
Hampole, and that he then translated the renowned French
poem. So cunningly did he imitate the old style, so skil-
fully did he do his work, that he has deceived all mankind
for the last 350 years. Mr. Skeat having discussed the
poem in his Chaucer's * Prioresses Tale,' p. Ixxxiii., I need
not waste time in proving that the translator was a
Northern man ; he talks of shearing com, p. 129 ; and also
of condise (conduits), p. 43, still a Scotch phrase. There
are here certain words and changes in meaning that did
not appear until 1500, or later, such as solein (in the new
sense of morose), hnop (in the new sense of hud), nm down
his fame, to foot (saltare), valour (in the new sense of worth),
friend in Court, poorly, win a name, feed eyes on him, take a
nap, set it an end, no woman alive, well favoured. We see the
^ I diifer from Mr. Skeat, who attributes the Komaunt to Chaucer's
age. I wish that the question could be well thrashed out, and that
some new Bentley would try his hand upon this English counterpart
to the Letters of Phalaris. I am quite willing to allow that the word
test, used by me, may now and then fail. I haye here employed the
Aldine edition of Chaucer (Pickering) ; the Romaunt is in vol. iv. ;
the other Chaucer forgeries, which I notice, may be found here.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 401
beginning of a corruption widely prevalent in this Century,
the to (dis) had ceased to be used in composition by
Northern bards since 1480, though this practice, in the old
correct sense, lingered on in the South until 1530; our
present poet knows nothing of the true force of the to
following all^ but he sets down thy hloud shall all to quake,
p. 76 ; a corruption of Mallory^s that would have astonished
any Southern writer between Chaucer and Tyndale. In
the Romaunt we find wonder sly (mir^), p. 88, a form that
did not appear till 1490. The following are poor attempts
to imitate Old English : — of one and other (of diflFerent people),
p. 61, I wondred me (miratus sum), p. 23, her seemed (visa
est), p. 7, for pure wood (furor), p. 9, doen, not don (facere),
p. 29, durst trespace to her, p. 31, I marvaile thee asking this,
p. 62, it is goe (gone), p. l^,fore (Jar en, that is, travelled), p.
81, my unease, p. 78, without half en dole (without halving
it), p. 71. There is the peculiar Salopian loteby (paramour),
which I suspect came to the poet through Piers Plough-
man, much as youthede (juventus) came to him through the
Prick of Conscience; this last form he imitated in his
fairehede, semlyhede. The old ealdien had meant senescere,
and is so used by Wickliflfe ; the word had gone out ; our
translator found it in some old manuscript, and in his
bungling way makes it transitive ; time eldeth kinges, p. 12.
This translation is much later than the Fourteenth Century;
the proof is that in any poem of Chaucer's time the
Teutonic words now obsolete are to the whole as one to
twenty-five, counting only the nouns, verbs, and adverbs ;
in the present poem the proportion of obsolete Teutonic is
far less than this ; the French words also are beyond the
proportion used by Chaucer in descriptive poetry.
I may point out the use of Gibhe for a cat's name, p.
186 ; this was to become Shakesperian. In p. 175 stands
the folk of Mr leading (whom she led), a new idiom of Verbal
Nouns. The Accusative you is often used for the
rightful ye; this is one of the changes fully developed in
the Sixteenth Century. There is the new he can daunten,
he, p. 27 ; this repetition is seen later ; we should put
another can before the last he. The Genitive whose refers
VOL. I. 1\i
\
402 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
to ointment, p. 57, through whose vertue, etc. Thorns are
sharp, mo than ynowe, p. 55, a new phrase. There is a new-
use of on in p. 154, lose her lore on me; here some word
like bestowing must be understood before the on. Folk is
on the daunce, p. 30 ; hence the later on the spree, etc.
There is the new verb spear ; boots come on or off, -p, 68 ;
garments are y-wrought (worked) with flowers. In p. 133
men take her counsaile, speaking of a woman ; here the
verb expresses seqai ; it may sometimes mean rogare, A
most curious use of the Infinitive stands in p. 188, thm'e is
nought, but yeeld thee; we should insert for it after the
nought, and put to before the last verb. There is an odd
mixture of the Strong and Weak forms in / wext (crevi),
p. 21. The verb open becomes intransitive ; the gate opened,
p. 126. There is a form of speech soon to be repeated
by Latimer —
" For all yede out at one ear
That in that other she did lere " (p. 154).
Among new Komance phrases are castles in Spaine, p. 77,
persaunt (piercing) eyen, p. S4:,Jlouret, There is a new way
of measuring —
' * About it was founded square
An hundred fadome on every side" (p. 124).
We should say shortly, " a hundred fathom square."
So popular was Chaucer that more imitations of his
style were brought out about this time. The first of these
is the ' Court of Love' (Aldine Edition, Pickering, vol. vi.);
this most smooth and musical poem seems to be due to a
Northern man ; there are the phrases / would be wo
(maestus), p. 131, take root, yon same, p. 169, thril, as well
as thirl, p. 175. As to date, many words are later than
Chaucer, as aged, to rmck, and pretty, in the sense of for-
mosus ; primrose, desk, and redbreast ; something is shapen
hauthorn wise, p. 173 ; every /air (mulier), p. 141, take up a
song, p. 174, a world of honour (much honour), p. 130, bay
window, hou/rely, and timorous. There is Barclay's courtly ;
Skelton's a prety man, pang, and roUn redbreast ; Roy's to
lene to love, p. 160; Coverdale's cleanliness. The at is pre-
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 403
fixed to Numerals to express age, as in the * Coventry
Mystery' of 1520; at eighteene yere of age, p. 131. We
see a w dropped in the middle of cokold ; there is
May day, dating from 1523, and key connected with
music, p. 174 ; this last appears about 1530. We see high
honour and overbold. Among the Verbs are / was put to
mine oth, give her free the reine, renne (on) with ymir ttmg,
better borne (natus). There is a very late form, heile to
thee / p. 152 ; I doubt if one such example of this Preposi-
tion inserted can be found before 1500 ; the old form was
heil be you (vobis). There is a new use of mthin ; within
(at) a word she came, p. 169 ; our within call shows a trace
of this. Some of the Eomance words seem to be very late
comers ; we have entituled, ornate, actuell, religiousity, appetite,
musician, linnet, to tourn leaves, deserve to hww. There is
unto my judgement (sententia), p. 155 ; I think this sense of
the word does not appear until 1500. The most modern
phrase of all is in p. 152, a figge for all her chastity / I
doubt if another instance of this can be found before 1560.
There are some passages in this poem worthy of Chaucer
himself; see particularly the four stanzas, p. 169, that
deal with the Vaunter boasting of his success with women.
There is one place, p. 165, which sets before us monks and
friars bewailing their hard lot of celibacy ; they look with
wistful eyes " unto these women, courtly, fresh, and shene."
This is the Kenaissance all over.
The * Flower and theLeaf ' is another imitation of Chaucer,
compiled about 1520. This also is by a Northern bard;
we see as I would wene, p. 252. The very (vald^) found
only once, I think, before 1400, is now in constant use,
and there is the rime ware for wered, p. 252 ; a change
that was not made until 1450. There is hencheman, p.
252 ; the word first appears in the ^Promptorium -/ and
the ch did not come into it until 1511. There isferre off,
p. 250 (the old of feor), not found before Bishop Fisher;
such like, not found before Tyndale ; light grene, not found
before Palsgrave ; as it would seem, p. 251, not found before
Joye. In p. 257 clothes are wringing wet (wet so as
to need wringing), a most curious use of the Verbal noun ;
404 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
I think no subsequent example of this appears until 1570.
There is a blundering imitation of the Old in the following
words : to avise hem (spectare), a totally wrong meaning,
p. 250 ; ladies are to-hrent, p. 255 ; a new coinage proving
that the poet, cojning from the North, knew not the force
of to (dis) in composition. There is another odd phrase
in p. 246, o/ an height by and by. A sentence of Udal's
appears in p. 256, they fC ode o threed drie on them. There
is the curious compound heavenly figured, p. 249.
The poem called * Chaucer's Dream ' is also due to the
North, as we see by the words kirke and fortravailed in p.
216 ; the latter has been altered into fare travailed. There
are many phrases and forms that date from after 1500,
such as what a paine, p. 185, bagage (in the sense of impedi-
menta), p. 223, all the rest (reliqui), p. 238, / couth con-
sent to, p. 239, make provision for, p. 221, wondrous, p.
233, under sail, p. 211, krww what was what, p. 216.
There is an absurd imitation of antiquity in the form
kneene (genua), p. 186, which Chaucer never used (but
there is an instance of this in Lydgate), so tunn is used
for venire, p. 185 ; a sense the old verb never bore. In
p. 232 stands in lesse than an houre. A man may be unlde
of countenance, p. 243. In p. 202 we have of one thyng ye
may be sure. There is the new backward and forward, p.
211. Among the Eomance words are dislodge, ray, in
plaine English, In p. 205 conguest takes the new sense of
conquered land. The verb pray in p. 218, following Ud,
takes the meaning of invitare, pray him to the feast. There
is the new phrase appoint a day with heir, p. 224.
In 1523 Fitzherbert brought out a book on Husbandry
(English Dialect Society). It is a Northern piece ; such
words as flit, kye, ill (bad), hoyst (cough), shearer (reaper),
hinder end, he is wo, and Dunbar's tedir, are found. The Old
English suht (morbus) still lingers on here as soughte, p. 54.
Some think that the author belonged to the well-known
Derbyshire family ; he certainly dwells upon the poore hous-
bande of the Peeke, p. 43. He replaces h by c, as hucbone
(hucklebone) for Mallory's hoh bone. He inserts a second
m to distinguish between dame and the damme (mater) of
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 405
animals. He strikes out the w ; the old wose becomes oyse,
our ooze, p. 71.
Among the new Substantives are plough tally belly band,
grader, hunger-rot, bloud-yren (lancet), dewlappe. May day,
aftermath, string halt, a quickset, hart of oke, underwood,
sadeldoth, linseed, a ruff (in apparel). There is the com-
pound cley-ground. Among the weeds named in p. 29 are
haudoddes; this may be Shakespere's hor-docks{see Mr. Skeat's
note on this, p. xxx.) We read of the tethe of a rake, p.
33, the radel-marke of sheep, p. 60. The word hog is
transferred from porcus to ovis ; share -hogges, p. 50, are
yearling sheep that have been once shorn. The word sales-
man, very different from seller, is connected with sales of
wood, p. 86. In p. 97 female hempe is distinguished from
churle hempe ; this last is a late survival ; a ceorl-catt was
the old phrase for a Tom cat. The word prame is used in
two senses in p. 104 ; men play great game (high stakes), at
a game ; the former sense comes into " What's your game V*
(purpose).
Among the Adjectives the ending in ed is much used ;
we see lose -skinned, broken -mnded, an yren gray. A be-
ginner in farming is called a yon^e husbande ; this is now
an English surname ; we read of styffe ground, men shere
cleans, p. 29. The Northern tyred is now on its way to the
South, p. 25 ; it is found in Palsgrave. There is a terse
new phrase in p. 77, "these will double his rent or nyghe
it ; " here the it must represent doMe his rent.
Among the Verbs we see, to rear cattle, run riot, p. 101.
The toould is used instead of our mu^t or should ; drones
vx)lde be killed, p. 76, plough-gear wolde be made of dry
wood, p. 1 2 ; this reminds us of the Northern will I light
the fire ? The Old English idiom, answering to the Latin
supine (dictu turpe) is continued with new Adjectives ;
calves are able (fit) to kyll, p. 61. But this is changed in
p. 22, where sciendum est appears as it is to be knowen; a
new Passive idiom soon to be used by Coverdale. The
verb spring becomes transitive, a tree will sprynge roots, p.
83. The verb beat gets the new meaning of fatigare ; horses
are sore beate (conquered by weariness), and therefore unable
4o6 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
to draw, p. 26. The verb mak^^ as usual, is used without
any equivalent to the Latin Accusative se following ; there
are three men, and a potycarye to make the fourthe, p. 74.
The new verb twyrle is formed from the old ]>v)yril, a churn-
staff, p. 61 ; here ]> is replaced by t The old nock (notch)
gives birth to the verb nick ; these are like top and tip. There
is another new verb slaue, whence our nautical slue round ;
it here means both fleeter e and coder e. We see a curious
omission of the Verb in p. 19; sowing is spoken of, and
then comes the question, But howe to sowe ?
In p. 65 the at, answering to the old on, for the first
time follows an Adjective ; women ought to be good at a
' longe journeye ; Matzner here quotes the Scandinavian
gcetinn at ge/i (cautious in disposition). We Moderns
look after our servants ; in p. 92 they must be well looked
uppon.
There is the Scandinavian verb ted, used of hay.
Among the Eomance words are champyon cownirey
(champaign), lodger, pastern, glawnders, hrouse (browze),
bustard. It is curious to see how entirely Eomance the
old terms of English sport were ; horses have a syre and
damme, not a father or mother, p. 61 ; there is a disease
called the affreyd, when a horse has been overridden,
reminding us of the Italian fretta (haste), p. 70. In p. 72
acloyde is a hurt given by a nail to a horse ; here the
French clou is very plain. Oxen may be laboured, p. 65,
our worked. The new phrase to survey land had come in ;
our author wrote the *Book of Surveying' in 1523. In
p. 77 the housbande stands for agricola ; the farmer is
something inferior, being only a lease-holder or a tmawnt at
wyll, p. 83. He rolls his ground, p. 25, and plashes his
hedges, p. 78, our pleach. His heed servaunte is also called
a bayly (bailiff), p. 92 ; this term is further applied to the
sheriff's ofiicer, p. 101. If a man has true servants he
hath a great treasure, p. 92 ; this term we still apply to
domestics. In p. 47 the verb mend becomes intransitive,
I think for the first time. In p. 84 the verb peruse means
simply to go through ; we now limit its meaning. In p. 42
grosse sale stands for our wholesale. In p. 56 we read of
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 407
reasonable meate ; that is, a modeirate quantity of meat ; the
Scotch used soher in this sense. A French sentence comes
in p. 73, where meu^ our viefvi)^ is written, showing the old
French pronunciation of the verb; in the same page
stands caveat emptm\ applied to horse-dealing.
The author gives us some English hexameters, p. 93; the
first that we have with no Latin admixture; they end
with —
* * Make mery, synge and thou can ; take hede to thy
gere, that thou lose none."
He tells us how to mend a road, and shows how badly
this was done about London, p. 81. When a beast died
of murrain, it was a custom to set his head upon a pole by
the wayside to give warning of the fact, p. 53. In p. 91
the farmer is advised to have a payre of tables (tablets),
and to write down anything that is amiss as he goes his
rounds ; if he cannot write, let him nycke the def antes upon
a stycke.
Lord Berners' translation of Froissart may be looked on
as a new landmark in our tongue. Those who filled up
the gap between Caxton and the learned nobleman, men
like Hawes, Skelton, and Barclay, have few worshippers
now but antiquaries. But the Englished Froissart, given
to the world in 1523, heads a long roll of noble works,
that have followed each other, it may be said, without a
break for 360 years. Since 1523 there is not an instance
of twenty years passing over England without the appear-
ance of some book which she has taken to her heart and
will not willingly let die. No literature in the world has
ever been blessed with so continuous a spell of glory.
Two of her great men, whose works are inscribed on the
aforesaid roll, would, by most foreign critics, be reckoned
among the five foremost intellects of the world ; a large
proportion forsooth to be claimed by one nation. The
chief thing to remark in the nobleman^s work is the new
phrase "they had ben a fyghtyng," quoted in Dr.
Murray's * Dictionary,' p. 3 ; here the a is not wanted,
but the Verbal Noun and Participle are confused as usual,
Hence Shakespere's lie a bleeding.
4o8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
The New Testament was printed in English at Worms,
in 1525, by William Tyndale of Gloucestershire. Wickliffe
had made his translation from the Vulgate, and his work
is sadly marred by Latin idioms most strange to English
ears ; Tyndale, being a ripe Greek and Hebrew scholar,
went right to the fountain-head.^ His New Testament
has become the Standard of our tongue; the first ten
verses of the Fourth Gospel are a good sample of his
manly Teutonic pith. It is amusing to think how differ-
ently one of our penny-a-liners would handle the passage ;
he would deem that so lofty a subject could be fairly ex-
pressed in none but the finest Eomance words to be found
in Johnson or Gibbon.^ Most happily, our authorised
version of the Scriptures was built upon the translation
which Tyndale had almost completed before his martyrdom.
When we read our Bibles we are in truth taken back far
beyond the days of Bacon and Andrewes to the time of
Wolsey and More.
Tyndale shows his Southern dialect in his love of the
ea form (so often seen in the * Ancren Eiwle ') ; he writes
trea^paSj procead, fearce, swearde, dealt He writes yerly
(early), yer (ere), and yerhes. He has honde, londe, siister,
ayenst, foryeven, axe (rogare), anhimgred, athyrst, bryd (avis),
holpen, horen (natus), tho (illi), hrent^ goodman^ other (aut),
them sylfe^ whether (uter). He is fond of the old to (dis),
but sometimes uses Mallory's corruption, as all to-revyled,
Mark xii. 4. Abiihelech's skull, that a stone all to-brake,
remains to prove Tyndale*s Southern birth ; this to-brake
{di-fregit) is the one verb of his compounded with to that
was spared by the Eevisers of 1 6 1 1. Some old idioms, pre-
served in the South, are inserted, as " take that thine is,"
"they that," "them that." Tyndale, I think, must have
^ Mr. Demaus has lately written his life. Tyndale in prison wrote
a letter, still extant, beseeching his Flemish gaolers to let him have
his Hebrew books— the ruling passion strong in death. Of all our
great writers, he is the one about whom most mistakes have been
made by later inquirers.
2 A scribe in the Daily Telegraphy 14th July 1873, speaks thus, in a
leader on the Duke of Edinburgh, * * He ranks next in geniture to the
heir of our throne." ffoc/onte derivata clades, etc.
rii.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 409
had Wickliffe's version before him ; see, in particular, Matt
xxi. 15. Our spelling was rapidly taking its present form;
sometimes we have altered but one vowel in a verse of
Tyndale's, as Luke x. 16.
Among his old phrases, expunged by later Eevisers,
are iho (illi), wene (putare), smjle (solve), uneih (vix),
gobbet^ lyvelod (used of the land sold by Ananias), stoiie-
graver, worm (serpens), utter him (expose him), mthout naye
(denial), spylt (perditi), it fortuned that (often repeated),
advoutrie, unpossible, his duty (his due), he pyght (pitched),
mockyng-stokef I had lever go, be aknowen of, leful (lawful),
arede, withoutforth (extr^), unghostly, jangeling, manquellar,
manerly, pill (rob), the rysinge agayne, to desease him, to appose,
an heepe of teachers, goostly mynded, wedlock breaker, workfelow,
plv^k him (the eye) out, draw him (the sword) out, raught
(reached), fammisshment, huswyfly, harberous (hospitable), the
same silfe thynges, angle (hamus), seat (throne), a right
Israelite, a grece (stairs), norsfelow (applied to Manaen in
Acts xiii.), handfast (betroth), herbroulesse (without harbour),
longe agon, took (offered) him a peny, in daunger to (liable to),
brain-pan, hored (foedus), break up a house (of a thief), ye can
skyll of it, nmke nothyng ado, have in pryce (honour), endevre
(force) ourselves to, boldlyer, unthryftes, take shipping, whyther-
sumever, come awaye (along), ungoodly (male), brybery (rapina),
eny other where, thus farre fatihe, lavnng, incommer, flawe
(flatus), / have sytten, take a (at) worth,
I give some phrases in which Tyndale has been preferred
to Wickliffe—
JFickliffe. Tyndale.
Heathens Gentyls.
seerd rod.
Satanas Satan,
a wakyng a watche.
to sclaundre to offend,
sclaundris evill occasions,
libel devorcement.
foiindement found acion.
richessis Mammon,
to meke to humble,
eddris vipers,
he was norischid he was noursed.
soure dow3 leven.
4IO
THE NEW ENGLISH.
[chap.
WickUffe,
halwe
it was don
bitake
in the laste thingis
axe him
worship
turn upsodoon
dom
his knowen
wordis
a si5t of anngels
walow a stoon
thre mesuris ech
unrestfulnesse
his witnessing
a manere (manor)
make ready
abide it
evene to God
it spedith
churche
into mynde of
elde
3elde to thee
stater
purpur
the wrytyng above
to hie hymself
lesewis
TyndaU.
sanctify.
hit chaunced that.
delyver.
att pojn^t of deeth.
questen with him.
honoure.
pervert.
judgment.
hys acqnayntaonce.
communicacions.
visions of angels.
roll a stone.
thre fyrkjns a pace.
importunite.
his testimony.
a possession.
provide.
wayte for it.
equall with God.
it is expedient.
eongregacion.
for a memoriall of.
olde age.
recompence thee.
a pece of twelve pens.
purple.
the superscripcion.
to exalt hym silfe.
pasture.
As to the Vowels, the verb jpZat^ becomes 'plai ; thus
a often replaces ^, as star^ ham^ partly vxirpe, popular (poplar,
for Wickliffe's popder) ; it replaces an old ce, as ate, drave,
spate (conspuit). Sometimes the a gets the sound of French
^, for we find prepayre. The e replaces o, for patefrne (ex-
emplar) is written for the old patrone (1 Chron. xxix. 18) ;
it is inserted in warely, the old wcerlice ; it is sounded broadly
in lovess (loaves) ; it is clipped in blest (blessed). We see
the form broyded (braided) corrupted many years later into
broidered ; there are forms like appier, biest, and pryeTy where
the ie or ye still kept the sound of French S. On the other
hand we see bryar (Heb. vi.), a great change, for this may
have been pronounced like lyar, as two syllables. The i or
y was encroaching on the Southern u, for we have h/sse, by
(emere), bylde ; we find both byn and ben (our been). The
0 replaces y, as to blyndfold for the blyndefylde of 1440.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 411
Tyndale is fond of the oa for <?, as mmre. He is fond of w
or ow, as in romne^fluddes^ hloude^ shute (shoot), shuJce (shook),
astunied, lowse, rowky hruse, broul (broil) ; like More and the
King, he writes awne (proprius) ; he has straw for our verb
strew, pronouncing it in the same way. He has sow both
for seminare and stiere. The former riUwuSy rightuous, now
becomes righteous, but we still sometimes find here the older
rightewes, Tyndale uses his old Gloucestershire form in
shueSf rueleTy drue, slue; the ew encroaches, in the true
English fashion, on the French sound ou ; for we find
tewch Kn^ slewthful The u is clipped; the old ])iccetu
appears as thykette.
As to the Consonants, g is used for gest (hospes), as well
as for geste (historia) ; this latter occurs in Tyndale's tracts.
The word wawes (fluctus) is sometimes written waves, a
striking instance of a change in pronunciation owing to
spelling. The v is struck out, for there is the phrase, " ye
worshippe ye wot neare what." The d replaces th in
hirden and swaddle ; we see the curious combination
hydther (hither) ; there is also hytherto. The t is added ;
we find both graff and grafi; the n is often lost, as in
afote, astray, they were hyd. The r is added, as caterpillar
for the old catyrpel; it is inserted in hrydgrom, hindei^rrwst ;
and the I appears in covlde (potuit), as it had long before
in Scotland. The w is prefixed, as in won, wotJier, whole
(calidus), whoole (totas). Wickliffe's 00/ becomes wolfe (woof),
Lev. xiii. 52. Tyndale is fond of the letter z.
Among the Substantives we see gripinges (diseases),
yockfelowe, tmbeliever, firstling, forsUn, birthright, failing, fote
stole, menstealer, callynge (vocation), thankes gevinge, the utter
side (outside), longe clothynge, weakling, whoremonger, of scouring,
cole panne, erthquake, shyre toune, shewe bread, stonegraver, ship-
urracke, snoffers (of a candle), a castawaye, foreknowledge,
warfare, stumbling block The word reech, in the account of
St. Paul's shipwreck, has been since made creek. The
Verbal Nouns, coming down from the North, are so preva-
lent that sainges translates verba; there is " have our beinge."
In Heb. xii., speaking against him has been since turned into
contradiction. Tyndale changes the old roore (tumultus) into
412 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
wproure ; Coverdale has the same new word. Tyndale has
love^ which the Eevisers of 1611 have unluckily altered into
charity. Unlike Shakespere, he applies harlot to none but
women, thus altering the old usage. He writes welth for
welfare, and com/men welth instead of the old common wele ;
he is always using helth for salvation; work out your own
salvation appears as perforiiie your orvne health; the sub-
sequent change was an improvement. The forms marowe
and mornynge are carefully distinguished in Luke xxiv. 1.
Tyndale is fond of the words churl, man of war, loving kind-
ness ; he employs Barclay's new term dronkard, and other
innovations of that fashionable author. Instead of pass-
over, which he employs in his own treatises, Tyndale uses ester
lamhe (Matt. xxvi. 17), one of the tokens of his abode in
Germany. We may credit him with coining the word
atonement ; this he uses in 2 Cor. v., putting a few verses
later that ye he atone (at one) with God ; the new noun has
been altered into reconciliation. In Exod. xxix. 33 this new
word atonement is employed for an expiatory offering, and
this is the sense in which we now use the word ; it was
copied from Tyndale by Coverdale in this particular verse.
In Heb. viii. 1 pith (medulla) is used with reference to
words ; it has since been replaced by sum. In 2 Cor. iv.
8 the words " we are not without shyft " have been altered
into not distressed. In the second verse of this Chapter
cloJces of urihonestie has been since turned into " the hidden
things of dishonesty." In Col. iii. 1 5 men are called in one
body, a new sense of the noun. In 1 Cor. iv. 1 7 St. Paul
is made to talk of his ways, Queen Margaret's new sense of
the word. In the third verse of this chapter, man's daye
has since been altered into man's judgment, the former word
thus explaining the days man (judex) to be found in Cover-
dale's version of Job ; these were new senses of the word
in English. There is blackemore often written for Ethiopian;
the e in the former word is still sounded, a rare thing with
final e in English. Tyndale's softens, which is to be known
unto all men, has been altered into moderation. We here
first find bv^sy body ; cursed speakynge, p. 166, has been altered
into blasphemy, Tyndale is fond of striking oJfF new nouns,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 413
by adding ness to an old word ; crafi and filih thus give
birth to craftiTiess and fiUhiness ; there is also chUdeshneSy
hlessedneSy and the Eomance synglenes, ferventfies, gloriousnes,
piternes (purity), and many such. The ship is employed to
form apostleship. The old mannis sone is now thrown aside
for the sone of man. There is the idiom for my sake and the
gospelles (Mark x. 29). We read of John the Baptiser,
There is yeres (anni) instead of the old ^eer, the Plural that
lasted down to 1400 ; on the other hand, Tyndale talks of
five yooke and ten pounde. He writes Mary Jacohi for
"Mary the mother of James" (Mark xvi. 1), an unusual
addiction to the Vulgate. He has ryse from deeth, where,
for the last word, we substitute the dead. He has bucking
time (Gen. xxxi. 10), which has been altered into a long
periphrasis. His phrase young men has somehow been
altered into servants.
Among the Adjectives we find like mynded, unholy, goode
for nothynge, fatfleshed, inwarde parties, beggarly, stiffenecked,
two-edged. There is the expression the cool of the day, where
an Adjective stands for a Substantive , we see also with her
young. The word up ryghte is disjoined, and is used in a
physical rather than a moral sense (Lev. xxvi. 13). The
hye mynded is used in a bad sense ; we later English have
raised it to the level of magnanimus ; this goes against our
usual practice of debasing words ; Tyndale is fond of com-
pounding with this mynded. He also adds less, as botom-
lesse. The word manifold, expressing ingens, is coupled
with a Singular Noun (Eph. iii. 10). The lively is often
used in the graver sense of the word. The word fearful is
used in one sense (Heb. x. 27), in another sense four verses
farther on. The ysh is added, as in blackish, reddish, St.
Paul says his speech is whomly, our homely ; this has been
altered into contemptible, Orrmin's oferrhannd now becomes
the upper hande ; Coverdale uses both these forms, and has
also superiority, Tyndale has the curious idiom, "loaves
were lawful to eat " (Matt. xii. 4). He writes " Hosanna
in the hyest," where Wickliffe had added the word things
to the Adjective. An idiom of Layamon's is continued in
Deut. iv. 40, where something is given thee thy life longe
414 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
(for thy life) ; hence comes livelong, Tyndale is fond of
foful for immundus^ and of is comly for decet The word
rash changes its meaning from acer to temerarius ; do nothing
rassMy. The word sad (gravis) was now used for tristis in
the South, though Tyndale has the old sense of the word
in his treatises. In 1 Cor. ii. 13 cunning is applied to the
words of the Holy Ghost The old as good as crops up once
more ; the aged Abraham is called '^ as good as dead."
Among the Pronouns we see the two forms that have
come down from the North, it is I, and it shall he oures.
The old in her middis of 1400 is replaced by in the myddes
of you (Acts ii. 22). The former ic hit eom is changed
into I am he; and Wickliffe's tho it ben that appears as they
are they whyck The Latin pronoun hie is turned by Tyn-
dale into he here (this here man), John xxi. 21. Tliere is
a very Latin idiom of Tyndale's in 1 Cor. viii, 5, "there
be that are called goddes." The that is used in the new
sense; the question is asked, "are ye able to drink ?^* the
answer is made, that we are. The old mysUf is altered into
myne avme sUfe. The one following an Adjective is now
made Plural ; we see lytle wonnes. The another may follow
one, but not each; one another's members (Eom. xii.); there
is also the phrase see ether other ; the ether is elsewhere
used for uterque. The old twyfealdlicor is changed into
two folde more (Matt, xxiii. 15). Tyndale is fond of pre-
fixing a to Numerals, as they were about a five thousand, an
eight dayes. He has from whence, where the first word is
not wanted. The where, coupled with a Preposition, is
much used as a Eelative, as whereunto, whereof, etc. ; an
idiom dating from 1160. Tyndale is fond of the Relative
idiom, a man which ; which he called them he justified ; and
the first clause in the Paternoster. The wh)se wyfe of them
shall she be is curious, coming down from Wickliffe ; there
is also whose shewes of his fete I . , . lose (Acts xiii.), whom do
men saye that I ami Tyndale has a peculiar way of trans-
lating qmlis spiritiLS, using what maner sjprete. The new
as rrmny as replaces Wickliffe's hou manye evere. We see
swcA like, where the like really comes twice over, as in the
Gothic svJoUikata goMk. The much is sometimes replaced
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, ^ 415
by Trevisa's a greate deale ; still we see moche goodes.
There is a curious token of the popularity of the old
English ballads; in them the line often occurs by Him
that died on tree ; in the first chapters of the Acts Tjmdale
twice uses the phrase hanged on tree, dropping the Definite
Article.
Among the new Verbs we see eye, wede out, undergird.
There is cutt (secavit) instead of Wickliffe's kitted. There
is both leivgh and lawght (risit). There is the intransitive
hanged, which is dropped in our time. Tyndale well
renders an expression that had been bungled by all
former translators, what have we to do with thee? He
sometimes uses are (sunt) instead of the be of former
times ; still he has be ye come out ? The can is encroaching
on the old may (possum). The schul not mowe of Tyndale's
youth is now altered into shall nott be able. In Heb. xii.
20, Tyndale*s must have bene stoned seems preferable to the
shall be stoned of the Eevisers. Our author often substi-
tutes will for Wickliffe's shall ; in one verse we have yf we
shall saye from heven, he wyll saye, etc. There is the old
form they had (would have) repented; on the other hand,
the old wcere (esset) sometimes becomes shulde be. The do
and did are often prefixed to verbs, especially on solemn
occasions. We see the Fast Participle Nominative eny
man beynge circmrwised, etc. (1 Cor. vii.) ; this had formerly
been confined to the Ablative Absolute. This Past Par-
ticiple is used without any noun preceding; abstain from
strangled; some instances of this were altered by the
Eevisers. In Acts xxi. the dores were shut to ; a form of
1180; a gate is shett uppe in the parable of the Ten
Virgins ; we shut up a house, Tyndale is fond of adding
up to verbs, as stay thee up. He leaves a thing undone
(infectum), where former writers did not employ the last
word (Matt, xxiii. 23) ; so, in let me go the last word is a
novelty ; it is the same with hear tell. We have seen tliey
are come ; we now have they are crept in ( Jude). The new
phrase they were pined awaye appears instead of the old
f orpine ; this for was being dropped in the South ; there
is also the intransitive pine away. The former emboldish
i
4i6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
makes way for holdm ; Tyndale's krmjo before is not so neat
as the Eevisers* did foreknow. We see kowe longe is it agoo
replacing the old hou moche of tyme is it He employs the
weighty 7'end (scindo) where former authors employed slit
and kit (cut). He produces a fine effect by altering the
construction of a sentence, as hated shall ye he, silver have I
none. The phrase get thee hence comes often ; but they got
themselves to Pilate (Matt, xxvii. 62) is unusual. The old
delve is supplanted by dig. There are the phrases ca^t in
his tethe, the day wears away, pit on raiment (not do on),
make a shewe of them (like Barbour). Tyndale is fond of
the verbs wag, kill, wax, hale. The verb hurt changes its
sense, being applied to the mind, like offend (Mark xiv. 29).
There are both lay a wayte, and lie in wayte. We see the
new phrases fynde fawte with, puff wp, break to shevers, bid
him God sfpede, hing us on our way, make light of it, mxike
spede to, set at ease, there goeth a sayinge, wele stricken in age,
Tnarke (ecce) (Luke L 36), go a warfare, he blesses himself, do
folly, brede doutes, set himself to seek, take a courage, eares ytche,
call to remembrance (mind), have in honour, shew him a plea-
sure, have knowledge of, go beyond his broth&i' (get the better
of). ■ In 1 Cor. iv. 6 we have preferred Coverdale's to be
puffed up to Tyndale*s intransitive swell; this last, im-
plying importance, seems to be the parent of a modern
slang noun. In Luke vi. 33 Tyndale is inferior to all
translators, both before and after him, " yf ye do for them
which do for you." He adopts the new idiom, putting the
needless a into she laye a dyinge, as if the last word was a
Verbal Noun ; and there are other instances of this fault.
We see an unusual idiom in Mark xi. 14, never m/xn eate
fruie of thee (the fig-tree) ; we hardly ever employ this
Imperative, standing singly, except in a blessing or a
curse, though in *Quentin Durward' stands "some one
give him another weapon." We see the old Subjunctive
in till thou have payed. There are new compounds with
Participles, such as moth-eaten; overflowen is written for
the rightful overflowed, Peter, at the Transfiguration,
says, here is good beinge for us.
As to Adverbs, we see again supplanting the old eft and
in.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 417
eftsoone; there is the pleonasm turn hack again. The old
feorran or afer^ as in Fisher, has of added, as afarre off;
there is also a good waye off. Where we should use if only,
Tyndale places and hM wer hut (Mark vi. 56). In not that
eny man hath sene (an advance upon Caxton's phrase) the
second word expresses quia ; it is curious that the Gothic
here should be ni ]>atei. The word shortly is often used for
mox. We saw often tymes in 1303 ; we now find thyne often
diseases, Tyndale uses to the utmost, thus wise, derely, coupled
with heloved. In 2 Cor. vii. 9 he uses godly first as an
adverb (now altered), then as an adjective; he has also
the awkward holyly. The but appears in a curious new
phrase, following a negative (Judges xiv. 3), " is ther6 not
a woman . . . but that thou must go," etc. ; this diflfers
from Wickliffe, and Coverdale strikes out that. The yea
had stood in the middle of a sentence ; Tyndale places it
at the beginning, as ye and they hynde hevy hurthens. A
sentence begins with not so, in token of denial. - The
neither sometimes comes twice over, as in Matt. xii. 32,
where Wickliffe had nether . . . ne (nor). The on is much
used as an Adverb, especially in have on a wedding garment.
The Greek otm is translated by nmo; we see this fore-
shadowed by the Gothic nu in Luke xx. 33. Orrmin^s
all reddy comes very often. The old over in composition is
quite supplanted by the upper of 1300, as the upper
captayne. There are the Adverbs mightily, altogedder horne
in synne, hut rather, fall flat, far spent, once for all, by all
means, and Fisher's afressh.
Among the Prepositions we remark the new oute a dores,
which comes often ; in Matt. v. 1 3 we see that this a repre-
sents an at, not an of; oute at the dores. The is at her liherty
replaces is free. This at is still used in its old friendly
sense; come at hym (Luke viii. 19). There is the old-
fashioned have to her hushande an infdell. The Northern
unto is much employed for ad. There is the ^^hras^ join
hard to. There is the pleonasm a good waye off from them
(Matt viii. 30). This of appears both as an adverb and a
preposition in shake of the duste of youre fete. Tyndale has
the new idiom, sick of a fever ; he substitutes the of for the
VOL. I. 2 E
4i8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
old/tw in r^oyse of that shepe (Matt, xviii. 13) ; so, zecU of
thine house. We see a new idiom in of weak were made strong.
Wiekliffe's avenge me of myne adversary and reluke the world
off synne are both preserved. Tyndale delights in complain
on (of) a man. He likes upon (about) a thousand; we
should prefix close. The because of is used for oh. He is
fond of a as a contraction for (m^ as in fcdl a lusting and
lyers awayte (in wait). He has very weak translations in
go after me, Saian ; weep on it (Luke xix. 41), rich in (towards)
God (Luke xii. 21); these he must have borrowed from
Wickliffe. He has how in (at) the name of Jesus, vMhstode
him in the face. The hy is sometimes dropped, they retoumed
another way. The old on the way is altered into hy the um/e
(Mark viii 27); this hy has added to its old sense de,
Barclay's new meaning contra^ which was to be in common
use for a century, " I know nought hy my silfe " (1 Cor,
iv. 4). The with all is used to express the instrument,
often standing at the end of a sentence (Matt. xvi. 26).
The with keeps its old sense of versiis, as have padence with
me. The Pharisee in the parable prays with hym silfe.
The beyond had hitherto been connected with space ; we now
have heyonde their power (2 Cor. viii. 3). The old sense of
extra in beside comes out in put her besyde her pvrpos (Mark
vi. 26). The old ongen (Wickliffe's a^^ens) used to stand
for opposite to, but Tyndale prefixes over, as over ayenst the
temple. He wrote strayne out a gnat ; the out has since
been changed into at.
As to Interjections, Wickliffe's lo is sometimes altered
into behold; the God forbid/ of the old Wickliffe version
is preserved. The what / could ye not watch f is something
new; the first word was once srva or so. There is the
tush/ brought from the North.
Among the Eomance words we see the old passing
(vald^) exchanged for exceedynge, as exceedynge urroth. The
word avoyd is applied to Satan by Christ in Matt. iv. 10.
The phrase no doute is often inserted in a sentence. The
old riches is used as a Singular Noun in Eev. xviii. 17.
We see u/n/possihle, tmcredible ; but, on the other hand, inex-
cusable. The French and Latin seem to struggle together
TIT.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 419
in 8e/deT and separate, dissemhle and dissimulacwn, perfait and
perfect ; we see auctorite, sanctes, suttelte / in 2 Cor. viii we
have both equalnes and equalite, Tyndale uses except for nisi;
the " unless ye have believed in vain " has been foisted in by
later Itevisers. They have also changed his verite into truth.
On the other hand, he uses grudge for the Latin queri,
though he sometimes has murmur. We hear of the priest's
duty (due). Tyndale unluckily changed aferde into the
French afrayed, and substituted natural for the old kindly.
He has unit for it, presydent (judex), in the audience (hear-
ing) of the people, continually, distribute, have compassion on,
to guestion with, to passe over (omittere), enter in, di^osed to,
count the cost, thy hUl, in respect of, charitably (loymglj), parlour,
discorage, remit, peaceably. The verb departe is sometimes
used for separare, Tyndale's old namely has since been al-
tered into especially. He constantly uses to improve for rebuke;
he is very fond of counterfait, once writing be ye counterfeters
of God. Christ asks the Pharisees to asoyle Him a question
(Matt xxi. 24). The verb vex is employed as it still is in
Scotland for torment. There is a new sense of dress, as
applied to vineyards. In wyse in you/re aume consaytes we
see what has led to the present debased meaning of the
substantive. The verb geste is used for jocari ; we have
already seen the noun geste (jocus) in 1303. He is fond
of because, translating u^ hjbe cause that (John v. 23). He
decided that trouble, not travail, was to English twrbare ;
travail was set apart for another use. He has troubbelous,
loynes, of necessitie (not nedes), I certifie you, men of activity,
trounce (vexare). Cain is called a renegate (now made
vagabond) -, here the form of a French word suggested an
analogy with the Teutonic run and gate (via) ; we now talk
of mnauxiys. The word domage (damnum) appears in its
French dress. There is a new noun from fry; Tamar is
said to cook frytters for Amnon; Wickliffe here used
soupynges. Instead of the old rwyom the York noysome
is used. The old leopard here appears (also in Coverdale)
as catt of the mountayne (Rev. xiii.); hence the American
calamount, Wickliffe's sue (go after) is turned into ensue ;
peace is to be ensued. Our vile is used in its Latin sense
420 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
(humilis) when applied to our bodies ; the word has been
since degraded. The verb regards means (Bstimare; this
meaning is, in our day, retained in the noun alone. The
noun quarrell bears its true sense of querela in Col. iii. 13;
we now make a diflFerence between queruhus and quarrel-
some ; in Scotland the phrase quarrel a man (culpare) still
prevails. The Romance and Teutonic combine in merir-
pleaser, Tnercy-seat, and eye service. We still describe a circle,
but we cannot describe (mark out) land, as in the book of
Joshua. The word tutor was long used in Scotland for
guardian; the word governor, down to Pope's time, ex-
pressed the man entrusted with the care of a youth ; we
hear of tutors and governers in GaL iv. Tyndale wrote of
" eating and drinking damnacion ; " this last word, now so
terrible, might, in his day, bear the mild sense of a tem-
poral judgment ; it is one of his phrases that the greatest
Conservative would like to see altered. Tyndale some-
times writes cherubyns with the needless s at the end. It
is said to Moses, " Aaron shall be thy prophet ; " the last
word here means forspeakerf " thy champion in speaking."
. In 2 Chron. xxiv. a colleccion is made for the Tabernacle.
In the next Chapter men conspyre against a King ; in Latin
a different word was used for this idea.
As to Latin words, Tyndale uses tetrarcha, stellio, lacert,
taxus ; a centurion becomes a pety captayne and an under-
captayne. There is a love of using the Accusative of
classic proper names, as DamascoUy MUeton, Troada. We
have Candy for Crete, CvM for Cilicia ; Wickliffe's Siriej
Pounce, and Pasch become Stria, Poncius, and passover; a
town near Rome is called Apiphorum / Tyndale uses con-
gregatimi to translate ecclesia, for which he was rebuked
by More. Wickliffe's drcumdde is turned into circumcise ;
the Infinitive yields to the Past Participle form. Tyndale
has holocaustes instead of Wickliffe's brend offringis. The
word minister is sometimes used for servus. He is fond of
enform for docere, the Jews enform Festus against Paul; hence
comes our common informer. His translate (carry away) is
a very favourite word with him. There is laude (laus), in
conclusion, instantly (strenue), senimirs (elders), post (nuntius),
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 421
chef est (maximus), momefatary, terrestrial, unserchable, finally^
varaventure, conclude (resolve), entreat (tractare), circumspedy
unfeignedly, devilish, vend, to joy, allegory, apt to teache. He
is fond of the verb faint, and of imrmdiaMy ; he brought in
the compound term judgement seate instead of the old dom-
stol. The well-known full of grace is applied to the Virgin
by Tyndale; this was afterwards altered into highly
favoured. The Northern sense of cattle (pecus) is at last
established in the South by Tyndale. The thieves on the
cross are said to check (twit) Christ (Mark xv. 32). There
is the old form parte taker, used for participator, besides the
other form partaker ; in Gal. v. parte takynges has been
later replaced by heresies. The old y^rh jeoperd appears, which
we have now m&de jeopardise. The ness is often added to
Komance roots, as gentleness, cherfulness, unguielmss, hunible-
nes, variahlenes. There is both habUity and ableness. The
old Adjectival ish is still applied to proper names, as
Babylonish. Tjoidale's singleness has been often altered
into simplicity, and his similitude has become figure.
There is a word akin to the Dutch ; stripe (plaga). We
read of the staves of a poem, this comes from the Scandi-
navian verb stava ; a stave is one of the component parts
of a cask, put in separately. The verb gush also comes
from Scandinavia; in our day we apply it to mawkish
sentimentalists, and it is therefore, of course, always com-
ing before the public.
Tyndale, though hunted out of his own land, was
always a sound and wise patriot ; his political tracts are as
well worth studying as his religious books. He uplifted
his voice against the folly of England's meddling in foreign
wars, at the time when Zwingli was giving the like whole-
some rede to the Switzers. Tyndale's works fill two goodly
volumes, yet these contain only about twelve Teutonic
words that have become obsolete since his time ; a strong
proof of the influence his translation of the Bible has had
upon England in keeping her steady to her old speech.
As to the proportion of Latin words in his writings, of his
nouns, verbs, and adverbs, three out of four are Teutonic,
and in this pure style he is rivalled by his great enemy.
422 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
the Chancellor.^ Never were two English writers better
matched in fight than More and Tyndale; loud was the
wrangling over the Eeformer's rendering of the Greek
Scriptural words chiris^ ecdesia, presbyteros, latria, metanoia.
All Greek scholars must see what an advantage Tyndale
had over Wicklifife, when we read an absurd version of
Wicklifife's in the parable of the son, who at first refused
to work in his father's vineyard, but afterwards " stirid by
penaunce " went.^ The men that loved not the Beforma-
tion had a rooted mistrust of Tyndale's Bible. Long after
the Martyr's death Bishop Gardiner, in 1542, brought for-
ward a list of 102 Latin words (so he called them), which
ought to be retained in any English version ''for the
majesty of the matter in them contained." Among these
majestic words were olacausta (sic), simtUacrum, panis, pec-
catoTy zizania, hostia, and others of the like kind* It was
a happy thing that the Bishop was forbidden to meddle in
the business; and this Protestants and philologers alike
must thankfully acknowledge. But the old hovsel, which,
in the English mind, was linked with the Eoman idea of
the Eucharist, was cast aside when the Eeformation
triumphed. Tyndale kept his eye upon each succeeding
edition of Erasmus' Greek Testament, and thus made
his own English version more perfect. I now quote a
passage from his * Obedience of a Christian Man,' put
forth in 1527 ; this will show the scholarship of
^ King Alfred (I refer to his Histories) and Tyndale are alike in
this, that three-fourths of their " weighty words " are Teutonic, such
as can be now understood ; but as to the other fourth, Alfred's Teu-
tonic has been replaced by the French and Latin that Tyndale was
driven to use, owing to the heedlessness of the Thirteenth Centuiy.
2 A corrupt religion will corrupt its technical terms. One of the
most curious instances of the degradation of a word is St. Jerome's
pomitentiaf an act of the mind, which he uses of God Himself ; this
word in Italy (penitenza) now means no more than some bodily act of
atonement for sin. This is as great a drop as when we find virttis and
virtu expressing widely different things ; the one suits Camillus, the
other Cellini. Coverdale, who translated the New Testament ten
years after Tyndale had done it, sometimes turns metanoia into
penance, one of the many faults of his version. Words, like coins,
get worn away by the wear and tear of ages.
* Anderson's * Annals of the English Bible,' ii. 151.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 423
" Ille Dei vates sacer, Esdras ille Britannus,
Fida manus sacri fidaque mens codicis." ^
** Saint Jerom translated the Bible into his mother tongue : why
may not we also? They will say it cannot be translated into our
tongue, it is so rude. It is not so rude as they are false liars. For
the Greek tongue agreeth more with the English than with the Latin.
And the properties of the Hebrew tongue agreeth * a thousand times
more with tne English than with the Latin. The manner of speaking
is both one ; so that in a thousand places thou needest not but to
translate it into the English, word for word ; when thou must seek a
compass in the Latin, and yet shall have much work to translate it
weU-favouredly, so that it have the same grace and sweetness, sense
and pure understanding with it in the Latin, and as it hath in the
Hebrew. A thousand parts better may it be translated into the
English than into the Latin."
Tyndale's treatises have a few old forms that have
been dropped since his day, such as parishens, crome
(crammed), arope (crept), claifrib^ lopen. Like Trevisa, the
priest of Berkeley near the Severn, Tyndale has the
unusual forms cobweb and inner (interior). Many of his
phrases come from the *Gesta Romanorum,* the great
manual of preachers. He has the proverb claw me, claw
theey ii. 206 ; bald as a coot, ii. 224. One of his most in-
teresting pages is i. 304. After quoting look ere thou leap,
he gives a string of proverbs bearing hard on the clergy ;
the whole shows how Lollardy had been at work for scores
of years in England, even down to 1520. Tyndale thus
delivers himself.
When a thing speedeth not well, we borrow speech, and
say, " the bishop hath blessed it ; " because that nothing
speedeth well that they meddle withal. If the porridge be
burnt too, or the meat over -roasted, we say, " the bishop
hath put his foot in the pot,'' or " the bishop hath played
the cook ; " because the bishops burn whom they lust, and
whosoever displeaseth them. " He is a pontifical fellow,"
that is, proud and stately. " He is popish," that is, super-
stitious and faithless. "It is a pastime for a prelate."
^ So called by Johnston, Professor at St. Andrews in 1593. Ander-
son's * Annals of the English Bible,* ii. 486. I wish that the Parker
Society had published Tyndale's works in his own spelling.
2 Here we have the old Southern form of the Plural of the Verb ; it
is not often found after Tyndale's day.
424 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
" It is a pleasure for a pope.'* " He would be free, and yet
will not have his head shaven." " He would that no man
should smite him, and yet hath not the Pope's mark." And
of him that is betrayed, and wotteth not how, we say, " he
hath been at shrift." "She is master parson's sister's
daughter ; " " He is the bishop's sister's son ; " " He hath
a cardinal to his uncle ; " " She is a spiritual whore ; " " It
is the gentlewoman of the parsonage." " He gave me a
Kyri^ deyson " (nothing but fair words). And of her that
answereth her husband six words for one, we say,. " She is
a sister of the Charterhouse ; " as who should say, " She
thinketh that she is not bound to keep silence; their
silence shall be a satisfaction for her." And of him that
will not be saved by Christ's merits, but by the works of
his own imagination, we say, " It is a holy-work-man."
Thus borrow we, and feign new speech in every tongue.
After reading such a page, we understand how the
English agent abroad came to address thus Cromwell : " You
wrot that (Tyndale's) answer was unclerkly done, and so
seme all his works to eloquent men, because he usethe to
write a symple stile, nothing sekyng any vaine praise and
commendation" (* Ellis' Letters,' series iii., vol. ii. p. 207).
No wonder that Tyndale's Bible has rooted himself in
England's heart.
A churl used to be called ironically Thomas Curteis
(courteous), ii. 182 ; hence we see how the last syllable of
the surname, pretty common now, ought to be spelt, in the
good old French way. In i. 299 stands "we know not
whether they be good or bad, or whether they be fish or
flesh ; " to this Hej^v^ood was soon to add something. In
i* 321 comes a reference to Robin Goodfellow's nightly
achievements in a household ; Tyndale is fond of alluding to
the popularity of the Robin Hood ballads. Priests used
to say, " Do as we bid you, and not as we do," ii. 127 ; this
has since been heard in the mouths of . certain Protestant
clerks. In ii. 3 2 0 the mumpsimuses of divinity are mentioned ;
the joke referred to is well known. We can put our finger,
I think, upon the very last juggling ceremony invented by
Roman priestcraft before the great Overthrow in England ;
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 425
the morbus GallicuSj a new arrival, is plainly referred to in
the following hit at the clergy, " if God punish the world
with an evil pock, they immediately paint a block and call
it Job, to heal the disease instead of warning the people to
mend their living," ii. 105 (Last Part). If this bears on
the New, the passage now to be cited bears on the Old ;
Wolsey is assailed for turning against Charles V., and
def3dng "the majesty of so mighty an Emperor, whose
authority both Christ and all His Apostles obeyed," ii. 322 ;
Tyndale, as we see, was one of the last outsiders who
showed any reverence for the Holy Roman Empire. In
his travels he had remarked the Wends, " inclosed in the
midst of the land, of a strange tongue which no Dutchmen
(Germans) understand ; " these uncouth tribes he connects
with the Vandals, and thinks that they quartered them-
selves upon the Germans in Carolingian days, ii. 268.
But he is not so apt to trip, as a general rule, in his history,
much of which he took from Platina ; Englishmen hitherto
had known very little beyond their own chronicles; but
Tyndale, compiling from this Italian writer, now gave them
some notion of Papal history. He is guilty, I fear, of
the sin of taking the Great Karl for a Frenchman. He
is fond of a pun, either Latin or English. He turns the
fropoloffical sense of the Schoolmen into chopological ; works of
supererogation become with him superarrogantia ; he says in
ii. 37, "that every man is 2i, person (parson, priest) for him-
self, to defend Christ's doctrine in his own person^ He
talks of the Pope as " their unchaste (I would say their oum
chaste) father," ii. 123; here we see how both u and ow
were still sounded like the French ou, De Lyra is brought
up against him ; he answers that De Lyra ddirat More
had spoken of the Church ceremonies as "holy strange
(out of the common) gestures ; " Tyndale answers, " for the
holiness I will not swear, but the strangeness I dare well
avow," ii. 85 (Last Part) ; this forestalls Fox's well-known
remark about " a pious fraud."
As to Vowels, the a supplants e in the title of Sir
Harry Gilford, i. 395 ; this Harry is to this day continued
in a few families, as the Vanes. When Tyndale has to write
426 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
the German Hans he calls it Haunce, i. 406, just as Maudlin
stood for the French Madeleine. The old ie still expressed
the French i, as in the Passive Participle lien. He uses
both history and story for historia; the latter form dates
from 1280.
As to Consonants, his West country v, replacing /,
appears in visenomy (facies). In i. 311 we see in one
sentence, gest (factum), and jest (ludere) ; elsewhere gest is
used for historia^ as i. 80. The German town of Marburg,
where Tyndale had some of his works printed, is some-
times Anglicised into Marlborough, i. 129. The t is added
to the old were (eras), as thou wert, i. 501. The I is struck
out. Manning's melkslope becomes milksop. The n is
struck out, Leominster appears as Lemster. The great
fighting Pope of T3mdale's time has his name Anglicised,
as Jvly.
Among the new Substantives are knavery, hdly-love, the
weigh home; there are some of Skelton's new words, as
bungle, cock of hay, etc. Tyndale is fond of Verbal nouns,
as a dazing, mumming, Ushoping (confirmation), his trying
(trial), their justifying (justification). The old swima (ver-
tigo) appears as swimming. The word living is used both
for Tnaintenance and uxiy of life, ii. 6, 41. The ness is often
tacked on to Teutonic words ; there is saltness, evilness, and
Fisher's towardness. Tyndale often uses the suffix head
instead of hood, as undowhead. There is the curious word
miss woman (meretrix), i. 70 ; in p. 334 this becomes a mis-
liver ; in the next Century Pepys talked of the Earl
of Oxford's miss; since the time of Congreve and his
Miss Prue we have applied the noun to virtuous young
ladies. In i. 201 we find landlord (squire) opposed to
tenant ; the former is exhorted not to " take in commons."
His wife is called landlady, iL 69. The auricular confession
appears as ear shrift. In i. 276 we see Tyndale's greatest
mistake in philology ; he had heard his countrymen in
the West talk of a priest as a volower or fvlwer, the Old
English word for baptizer ; he gives the curious reason,
" because the priest saith Volo, say ye." He had coined
the word atonement for his translation of the Bible ; in i.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 427
287 he speaks of an intercessor as an ai-one-maker ; in ii.
154 atonement stands not only for reconciliation but for ex-
jnation ; for mahing-at'One is there used as a synonym for
satisfaction, and it bears this last sense in Coverdale's Ver-
sion. In i. 310 cross is used for affliction. He loves shew
as a synonym for appearance and spectacle. He explains
shewbread, i. 419, "because it was always in the sight of
the Lord." In ii 219 we read " what a stroke hath Satan
among us ! ^ in the previous sentence stands " the devil
hath a great srving among us ; " in i. 530 " the sect (of
heretics) goeth now in her full swing." This last word
seems here to bear the sense of vibrare, not ferire. Another
word for ictus appears in ii 8 ; "at the first chop" The
mts stand in Tyndale for the intellect, for the senses, and
also for whims; see ii. 93. The word Ivst is so far from
expressing libido alone, that in ii. 168 we read that "it is
a lust (pleasure) to behold God's countenance." Tyndale
has also the old substantive unlust, soon to vanish. Man-
ning had used toy for dalliance in 1303 ; Tyndale uses the
word much like children's play, ii 11 (Last Part).^ The
word thing was in high honour ; the Virgin had often been
called "that sweet thing," and Tyndale speaks of Christ
as a thing soft and gentle, ii. 120 (Last Part). We cannot
now apply this substantive to a person, unless in a patronis-
ing way. In ii. 177 (Last Part) welcome is turned into a
Substantive. He has the phrase lam^s of true believers, ii.
10, "like a jewel of a man;" Koy has the same idiom.
In ii. 265 we read of a dotehead; Harvey's jolthead most
likely came from this, just as diurno became giorno. All
through this Century new words formed like the spilbred
of 1280 (not bread-spiller) were coming in; Tyndale talks
of a pich-quarrel. The word fellow is a favourite one with
Tj^dale ; he has fellow mmiber with, i. 202, fellow with
Paul, i 288. The ol^fere (socius) was now going out in
the South ; Tyndale talks not of a play fere, but of a play-
fellow, ii. 302. Speaking of the Maid of Kent, he says,
" she was at home in heavenly pleasures ;" the Yorkshire
^ Tyndale's Second Volume has been divided into two parts, as to
paging.
1
428 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
phrase for dcgumnted, ii. 92 (Last Part). In ii. 261 (Last
Part) stands we fed it (their trickery) at our finger's end ; in
the next sentence stands hod we bid half an eye. There
was a male English saint named Witta ; he was at this time
mistaken for a lady, owing to the last letter of his name,
and every one was expected to offer a huge cheese once
a year to St. White, ii. 216. We still read of Burgaine
(Burgundy).
Among the Adjectives are headstrong, foxy, quick rdtted,
high-climbing, scot free, elderly (coined to replace the old
ealdlic), tender eared, beetle-blind. We find small single beer,
i. xxiv., Bedlam mad, stark mad, the main sea, thick as hail,
ashamed of himself. The word popish begins to be used in
our sense, but it has an older meaning, a man was said to
be popish, when he was superstitious and faithless, i. 304.
The word good expresses liben^ in " the boy's will was good,
to have given a blow," il 79 (Last Part), like our "have a
good mind to ;" Tyndale remarks on the varying meanings
of the word. In i. 462 men are blinded a good (omnino),
hence oiir " gone for good." The word homely seems to
mean degrading, for it is applied to the last act of Noah's
life ; in ii. 293 the word bears its old sense, familiar. An
allegory may be "a handsome (aptus) thing to beguile with,"
i. 428. We light upon high learning ; in our time a man
is deeply read. How an adjective can be degraded in later
times we see in ii. 168, where Godlooketh not sour, but
merrily ; a hymn of much later date talks of " awful mirth."
The word vdlftd keeps its old sense of sponte in ii. 173. An
Emperor who gave in to the Pope is called a soft man, ii.
258. The King of Bohemia, ranged among the three
Spiritual and the three Temporal Electors, is called the odd
man, ii. 270. The aged hero of the Tenterden steeple
story, told by More, is called a silly poor man, ii. 78 (Last
Part) ; here the silly may mean either infelix or stultus. We
see Pecock's unseeable once more. The adverb further is
turned into an adjective in i. 203, further authority. We
find shamefullest, a form that was not to take root. There
is the Comparative more stronger, like Most Highest There
are both earthy and earthish, two wholly new Adjectives, as
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 429
well as the old erthen. Tyndale is fond of churlish ; he has
Priapishf and talks of the Romish bishop, ii. 196 ; here the
ish is used in a degrading sense (very different from Orrmin's
Bomanish), and the honourable ending an is thrown aside.
The old sdfwUli is here replaced by self -minded, ii. 159 (Last
Part), and this was to make way for selfish, many years later.
Among the Pronouns we remark the wits of us (our wits)
which comes more than once. The Genitive whose is
applied to abstract things ; in i. 304 Tyndale talks of a
proverb, whose sense is, etc.; he is fond of as who shovM
say. He often talks of the which; Day, who printed his
writings forty years later, here strikes out the ; see ii. 134.^
Tyndale sometimes, like his enemy More, uses the old form
of 1180, " the tone, the tother." In ii. 4 stands " it is one
thing to, etc. j it is another thing to, etc." Instead of not
one he has ne/ver a one, i 323 ; in the Mandeville treatise
an would have been written for a. The terseness of old
proverbs is seen in no penny, no pardon ! ii. 156. We have
all in all, and a favourite phrase of Tyndale's, demls and all,
ii. 11, instead of "including the devils ;" this he got from
Chaucer.
Among the Verbs we see the new play bo-peep, make an
ensample of, when it cometh unto the point, hid the devil take their
souls, catch hold, give room, run at riot, set by the ears, sink or
swim, cost him his life, tell tales out of school, bear with him, have
the better, pick a purse, set at variance, have vxyrd of it, the river is
broke in, meet him half way (not mid way), it is of a set malice,
go to pot, put him to his proofs, hold hard against him, go
(beat) about the bush, swap (hit) him in the face. There are
new verbs, such as patch, beggar, buz, Chaucer's Auxiliary
Verb have been begins at last to make way, as he had been a
roving, ii. 57, instead of he had roved ; More writes needed
to have been burned, ii. 97 (Last Part). The should is some-
times used as of old, where we put would, should God let
his church err? ii. 120; but the would is encroaching, as
^ The weakest part of Tyndale's composition is his neglect of the
close union that should exist between the Antecedent and the Rela-
tive ; thus, " they set up the Talmud to destroy the sense of the Scrip-
ture ; unto which (Talmud) they give faith." This fault comes now
and then in his Version of the Bible.
430 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
' ilm fruit woM come^ that no man should ^n, ii. 172 (Last
Part). The Northetn use of would (for solitus est) appears,
he would stir them up with mercy, i. 451. There is a new
mode of repetition, with an alternative, in ii. 62 (Last
Part) ; ihey wUl say, we may do both. May or not may, I see,
etc. The durst (we have in our time all but lost the form)
is being replaced by the corrupt dared; he dared say, ii.
207 (Last Part). The Passive Infinitive is coming for-
ward ; he received them to he sons, he prophesied it to he over-
throvm (should be overthrown), ii. 160. In ii 145 (Last
Part) the seeing stands for they that see. The Accusative is
suppressed in lend unto men (money), ii. 293. Verbs
become intransitive, as vessels that rend, i. 53 ; they become
transitive, as to storm them (vexare procell4), i. 135. A
brewer is said to run out what he has in brewing, ii. 225.
The verb oversee in Tyndale has two meanings; oversight
bears the meaning of superintendence in p. 408, of neglect
in p. 468 ; overlook in our day bears the same double sense ;
a man glancing down from above may keep his eyes on
an object, or he may heedlessly miss it by looking heyond
it to something else. The verb long is used of the desire
of a woman with child, i. 246. We saw in the Fifteenth
Century that brook (frui) had gained the sense of tolerare ;
in i. 281 we see the bodily organ that probably conferred
this new sense on the Verb, ru) stomach can brook (this
food). Tyndale (a great mistake on his part) insists on
putting a very solemn meaning on worship (honour), " by
worshipping, whether it be in the Old Testament or New,
understand the bowing of a man's self upon the ground,"
i. 420. But the good old sense of the word is kept in our
Marriage Service, "with my body I thee worship ;" indeed,
Tyndale himself says, ii. 56 (Last Part), that worshipping
and honouring are one. The words roh and rove are used
as synonyms, ii. 57. In ii. 96 men, on making an agree-
ment, smite ha/nds ; hence our "strike a bargain," and
"shake hands on it;" in ii. 215, 220, this token is called
clapping of hands. We have already seen, stifle a quarrel ;
in ii. 270 ivy ckoaks and stifles a tree. In ii. 308 a man
^^made imagery to hear upon him;" we should now substi-
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 431
tute bring for the first verb ; the lear gets the new sense
of work. In ii. 313 the priests propose to trim Queen
Katherine; that is, "settle her j^airs;" here we have
more of the old than of the new sense of the verb. A
verb stands before both an Accusative and a Dative, wfiat
fruit they have lost her, ii. 343. The American played out is
first found, I think, in ii. 35 (Last Part), "play out his
lusts ; " there is also hire out to husbandmen. In ii. 46
(Last Part) we see their shot anchor, our "sheet anchor,"
the implement that is shot out of the vessel ; this shows
the old connexion between e and 0, as preve and p'ove. We
may remember the old to-tusen (di-vellere) of 1280; we
light upon it again in ii. 151 (Last Part), he towseth and
mowseth Tyndale ; hence comes the dog Towzer, More uses
the old verb hovsel, but Tyndale seems to shrink from this,
as giving too Eoman a doctrine of the Eucharist. He
has, welly I will not stick uuith him, ii. 199 (Last Part) ; we
are not far from stickle. The verb flit is now used of
thought. In it stands with the collects, ii. 117 (Last Part),
we have the key to our phrase " it stands to reason," with
being altered into to, TTiere is came so far forth to say, ii.
38 (Last Part), which we alter into " went so far as to
say," like Barbour's sa hey as to, etc. In i. 329 stands
hold the heretics unto the wall ; the first hint of the place
whither the weakest go. The Latin quid juvat is Englished
by what helpeth it? i, 226, In ii. 1 10 a tempest is overblown,
a new Passive form ; hence our intransitive blow over. The
old forceorfan had now quite gone out, and was replaced by
cut up,n, 129 ; there is seek up, like our hwrd up. The will
expresses the kindred volo in " if they wUl so have it," ii.
161. Tyndale is coni^cious of his purely English idioms;
thus he writes that the grandsons of Charlemagne fell
together (as we say) by the ears, ii. 266. The verb is dropped
in no thanks unto (them), ii. 48 (Last Part) ; here the noun
is made Plural.
Among the Adverbs we remark that the lever (potius),
written by Tjmdale, was altered by Day the printer into
rather about forty years later. The old shrewdly still means
m/iU; see ii 223, shrewdly paid. We see "a body that is
432 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
neither — nother " (neutnun), ii. 342 ; Pecock had a phrase
like this. A proper name may be made an Adverb, as
Judasly. The wise^ added to Nouns, is used to form adverbs,
as " a house made tentwise" i. 419, like the Norfolk crosswise,
Tyndale has a complex phrase in ii. 34 (Last Part), " our
almost no faith at all." An Adverb is turned into an Adjec-
tive; "chastity is a seldom gift,"i. 2 30, something like the often
times of 1303 ; this use of seldom is still alive in Yorkshire.
A new idiom stands in ii. 192, "how far are they off from
good scholars;" here we should set being before the good ; a
further step is made in ii. 1 38 (Last Part), " so far off from
having the laws." We have seen elles where ; we now find
one where or another, i. 233. The again is used, as in the St.
Katharine Legend of 1220, to strengthen a verb; "they
make poor women howl again^^ ii. 12; here a hint of
echo must come in; Tyndale uses this phrase, perhaps
peculiar to the West, more than once. The forth was not
yet replaced altogether by on, "he goeth forth and
describeth," ii. 34. The flat is used intensively, as "the
Sun \^fiat South^' ii. 163 ; Cromwell talked diflat Popery a
hundred years later. There are phrases like fore-epistle
(former), / see not bat that, etc., tvjice so dear, fair and softly,
for ever and a day longer.
Among the Prepositions we remark wish him to hell,
within a little (almost), for example,^ Meat may be over
roasted, i. 304, a continuation of overdo. The without is
still used for extra, its oldest sense, as " without the host."
The in, uncorrupted, still stands before the Verbal Noun,
as "he was in taking" (being taken), i. 464. The of is
sometimes seen confused with on ; it hangeth of the truth,
ii. 60 (Last Part).
Among the Romance words are phrase, puppet, character,
(signum), an abject, the passover, jot, effeminate, a preservative,
marmalade, comfits, actmd, rruimelvke, pastor, serve his tarn,
calk (calculate), in good case, one ace less, inveigh against, to
same, to buiter, confusedly, a pUl, The porray of the * Liber
Curse Cocorum' is now confused with pottage, and is written
^ The French use their par exemple much as we cry, / say, on all
occasions.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 433
'porridge. There is the mixture of Latin and Teutonic in
intermingle^ fore front, touchstone. The verb train, a form
long known, is making way, as traU had done 200 years
earlier; we see, train souls to hell, a phrase of More's, i.
lii. ; the sense of docere was later to prevail over that of
trahere. A woman with child longed to eat flesh on a
Friday, and was overcome by \lqv passion, L 246 ; here the
last word partakes both of the old sense paii and the new
sense ardere. In i. 337 wait vpon is used in its old sense,
observe attentively. In ii. 80 "the whole matter of true
prayer " is used, where our penny-a-liners would now use
raison dHUre for matter ; this last word was driving out the
older force in the phrase no force. In ii. 115 curiosity is
used as a synonym for nevmess; the former word seems
almost to gain its present meaning; what is new is curious.
So high a sense had attorney in those days that the word
is coupled with advocate and mediator, ii 166. The word
sect is applied to the Moslem, in ii 259. Tyndale uses
convey in Skelton's new sense, to be repeated by Shake-
spere ; also the prevent (forestall) of the Monk of Evesham.
The word mart is used for the staple of English goods
abroad, which Wolsey wished to transfer from Antwerp
to Calais, ii. 319. The word rascal is applied to a common
priest, to distinguish him from his superiors, ii. 306. The
word appointment is used for promise, ii. 75 ; and this ap-
pointment may be either kept or broken. In ii 52 (Last
Part) piece stands for mulier ; in 1290 it had stood for
hmw. In ii 76 (Last Fait) porter no longer means ostiarius,
but stands for portitor. In ii 121 (Last Part) the verb
canvass means examin^re, and refers to the past; in p. 169
to the future. In ii 170 (Last Part) respect means simply
glancing at a fact ; four pages later we see the old in respect
of; there is also in comparison of,i. 435 ; the three words
respect, regard, and consideration have risen in the world, and
now imply honour. The word master is used in a new
sense in crafts-Tnaster (master of their trade), ii. 173 (Last
Part). In i. 274 sort stands for homo, much as we say,
"he is a bad lot." The word manners is used for condmt,
as in the Acts ; see i. 303 ; Wykeham's motto is well
VOL. I. 2 F
1
434 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
known. In i. 115 circumstance stands, where we should
now use context The word merchant may be used for trick-
ster, i. 294; and this lasted for some years; make merchandise
of, m the Epistles, implies trickiness. In i. 137 dispense
vjith you stands for grant you a dispensation ; the Pope can
dispense with a marriage, ii 323'; dispense with, as we now
commonly use it, means the Latin auferre, Tyndale laughs
at the barbarous Latin of the schools,, as quiddity, hcecceity ;
he spells phantasy in the Greek way, departing from former
usage ; he uses both the old frailty and the later comer,
fragility, A curious phrase, borrowed from the Monk of
Evesham, occurs in "his wits are rapt,^* i. 314. We hear
of a new disease, a soaking consumption, i. 341. Tyndale
appropriates the words sire and dam to animals, i. 414; in
the same page courtesy (humanity) must be shown to beasts ;
humanity had been earlier used for courtesy ; the former is
a word that has risen. He has to diet him, it is escaped me,
of his own accord, jest him out of countenance, A noun is
repeated, strife between person and person (man and man),
ii. 26. He is fond of secondarily and partial. We see
popery, I think, for the first time, in ii. 85. The verb war-
rant governs an Infinitive, I warrant him sing mass, ii. 123.
He speaks of translating a word in a particular way, for a
consideration (a certain reason), i. 227; in our days the
term refers to money. We now use the phrase have the
grace to very carelessly ; in i. 447 More implies that God's
grace is here referred to. Tyndale has the substantive
pains-taking, perhaps suggested by part-taking. The verb
use undergoes a change, he shall use himself unto us,\, 411 ;
we still say, " get used to us." There is according as, where
the last word bears its old sense quod, i. 404. The ness is
added to Romance words, as mercifulness (differing from
mercy), and singleness (simpHcity); on the other hand, we
see pronity ; humbleness is coupled with humility in ii.
273. We come upon play a part, the rdle of our genteeler
penny-a-liners; Barbour had written do his part. An
idolater is called a serve-image, ii. 62 (Last Part), this style
of compound was soon to come very much into vogue.
The words akin to the Dutch and German are snaffle,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 435
jefrkin (from the Dutch jurk^ a frock), aloof. There is the
Scandinavian to cham bread, ii. 163 (Last Part); hence came
to champ and to jam. More has jabber, from the Icelandic
gabba ; Tyndale has gibberish, formed from gibber or jabber.
The Yorkshireman, Coverdale, shares with Tyndale in
the credit of giving the Bible to England in her own
tongue. As to the part due to each translator, the great
book called Matthew's Bible was put forth in 1537 by
Eogers, Queen Mary's first victim in days to come. For
this he used the New Testament and Pentateuch, already
printed by Tyndale ; the manuscript translations, left by
Tyndale, coming down to the end of 2 Chronicles;
Rogers then took the remaining books of the Old Testa-
ment and the Apocrypha from the Version already printed
by Coverdale in 1535. This Matthew's Bible of 1537
became the Bishop's Bible of 1568, and this again was the
groundwork of the Authorised Version in 1611.^ I have
gone over the Second Book of Chronicles in Matthew's
Version, to detect phrases that are Tyndale's, and not
Coverdale's ; I there find but and if, have indignadon against,
apointment (pactum), tender-hearted, to meke, all that passeth
(qui praetereunt). The Book of Ezra is plainly by another
hand. Our Prayer Book Version of the Psalms is that
portion of Coverdale's work which has been least altered ;
it is a charming specimen of sound English.
Coverdale has inserted many words and forms that
prove his Northern birth. Such are porte (gate), to youl,
scalp, wrongeous, wel is thee, wo is me, beseke, galowe, thv/nder-
bolt, rygge bone (backbone), moss (palus), stythie, rock (colus),
lurk, take root, ivaged soldiers, forby, the yonside (further side),
folkes (homines), what tyme (quum), aha/ fensed, mard>y, martr-
ful, to gloom, ryven downe, axe at me, he leape (loup), seven
years are out (over), fore-elder, manswear (perjure), lap in
(cingere), the dede doing, olde canckerde carle, make ready gear
to flit, fray, by-post, hyrd (pastor), overmnner, skmkmge
(skulking) place, have foughten, a mightie sore felde, set a
watch, put a stone, to ban (maledicere), have in derision, bandes
^ I recommend all interested in these matters to read Dr. Eadie on
the English Bible ; it is all but impossible to catch him tripping.
436
THE NEW ENGLISH.
[chap.
(vincula), hyp (dance). Many of the above appeared in
Northern writers before the year 1300. There is the old
umhdJhvnke^ a very late instance of vmihe (amphi). He com-
bines Northern and Southern forms in chUder^s children, of
which he is fond. He uses dyke in its Northern sense
muruSy not fossa, (Isaiah xxix. 3). He cannot manage his
shall and imll, writing how ml we escape ? now and then ;
we will (shall) get no gmrrel. The Northern sound of a
appears in words like taist, fayd. There is the phrase
" loke thorow the fyngers upon " (wink at), the phrase so
often used in Scotch State Papers about 1570; see Lev.
XX. 4. Tyndale uses hig (bugbear) ; for this Coverdale
has hogardy as we see by his compound fray bogard (scare-
crow). A man is called a wyne supper ; so Edie Ochiltree
talks of the hale-suppers of Fife. There is soch one, where
the Mandeville treatise had such a one. The distinguishing
mark between the two translators is the word namely;
Tyndale always uses it in its Old English sense (now
obsolete), prcecipub; Coverdale employs it in its Scandi-
navian sense (now adopted by us), videlicet He employs
Palsgrave's new form upsyde downe. We are able to con-
trast the Southern and Northern translators : —
Tyndale.
Mouth (of dove)
Gogil eyed
Breakynge of day
Ephod
Wyllyng offerings
Basket
Bakemeat
Issue of blood
Scapegoat
Hoorehed
Peace offerings
Purple
Lyers awayte
Wyne hervest
Charmar's ocke
Felowes
Nevewes
Arose
Thought to have slain
Waye
Cease
Coverdale.
Nebb.
Gleyed.
Break of day.
Overbody coat.
Free will offerings.
Maunde.
Baken meat.
Blood-issue.
Fre goat.
Gray head.
Health offerings.
Rose coloured.
Hinder watch.
Aftergatherijig.
Witch oke.
Playfeeres.
Nevies.
Gat him up.
Thought to slay.
Strete.
Leave off.
in.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 437
TyTvdaU, Coverdale.
Bring (it) me Reach (it) me.
Javelyng Javelin.
Beyond thee Yonderward.
Scrable Stacker.
Dress meat Dight meat.
Parched com Furmenty.
Lie walowed Rolled (in blood).
Smother Smoor.
Wyndyng stayre Turngrese.
Elisa Eliseus.
Gasped Nesed.
Sick unto death Dead sick.
Paterne Patron (exemplar).
Left buildynge of Left off from building.
Enhabiters Indwellers.
Of wodd Treen.
Dryed up and hored Mouldy.
Secret Inmost.
Giltlesse Ungilty.
Taskemaster Workmaster.
Middes Middest (midst).
Among Coverdale's obsolete words and forms, expunged
by later Kevisers, I may mention have (laudare), headlynges,
flahre (volitare), coarse (corpus), hyll (securis), overthwarte,
chaft and chaw (jaw), wyvish (foemineus), what is worth
(become) of therriy neeres (kidneys), bewepe, woode (insanus),
an unlust, sparre (claudere), boysteom, rown (whisper), fyle
(poUuere), Greke londe, unshamefast, fr erode (extraneus),
querne, tharmes (ilia), he shope, to fet (fetch), to corage him,
were (war), ought (owed) therrhy wawes, everychone, symnels,
fitches (vetches), arowd (fiddle), strike a battle, harle (trahere),
to vmhalowe (profane), wapened man, an (on) hye, wynebery
(uva), wel gusted (tasted), barded horses, embassitour, to undis-
ease, he keste (cast). He has the rather rusty / trow, handye
worke, the folke, clean gone, after (secundum) our sins, conyes,
molten, wherewithal, rebuke (opprobrium), dayes man, seer,
cribbe, nesinge, rybaudes, rumghtie (worthless), hosen, fear,
(terrere), do almes, woe worth the day,lesyng (lying), embassage,
haply, pate, weldoynge, my lovers (amici), reprofe (opprobrium),
kynswoman, well liking, the Most Hyest, have evil will at, he
taketh me the tymbre (in Petruchio's sense), wash you, lay me
down, make inquisicion, pill (spoliare), set by (sestimare),
lerne (docere), make mowes at, knap, tell her towers, suck
438 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
avantage^ think scorn, do well unto, lay to thme hand, stick tdth
the sword, the commons (populus). He probably borrowed
cat of the mountain from Tyndale's New Testament.
As to Vowels, Coverdale keeps the fonn ae, as in aegle
(eagle) ; this had scarcely ever occurred after Layamon's
time. He sometimes prints saythsayer for soythsayer ; this
is a good example of the confusion wrought by the double
sound of oy, French ou and French S. The i in the middle
is sometimes dropped, as perlous, haply. The u replaces i,
as stubborn for stiburn, Coverdale uses the form rightuous,
employed by the father of Edward IV. ; he has sometimes
ynew for enow. We saw the Devonshire spoyll for the old
spUl (perdere) j this is written spoyle early in Psalm Ixxiii. ;
the meaning here is not spoliare.
As to Consonants, the b is inserted in cucurriber, coming
from cucumeris ; it is replaced by p, as prod. The g or h
is dropped in the middle, as hyest. We see the proper
name Hester now altered into Esther. The d is struck
out, for we find hynmost. The old shalm becomes shawm,
much as the French col became con. The word cracking
(of thorns) has not yet become crackling, where the I is
usefully inserted to mark a difference. The m is inserted,
Chaucer^s ne]>ereste becomes nethermost, and midleste becomes
middelmost, Coverdale has a strange fancy for coupling s
and z, writing wyszdom and many such. He has Hampole's
frosen, not frozen, Tyndale's noun fassion is altered into
fashion. The curious form gardinge appears for garden.
Among Coverdale's new Substantives are shepe hake,
washpot, dore keper, head band, footpath, hammerman, heaven-
gaser, bacslyder, laughinge stocke, shewtoken, creping things,
dead burier, mete rodde, water broke, helthe offering (peace
offering), /or^cas^, drove, weapon bearer,^ It will be remarked
that many of the foregoing words are compounds. Cover-
dale is fond of adding ness to an adjective, and thus com-
pounding a new noun by the side of an older one ; thus
from 7velth he makes welthyness ; in this way he strikes off
evell favov/redn^se, plenteousnesse, fearfulnesse, wytherdnesse,
^ This last is a fresh coinage, as the old woepenmann must have
been thousands of years before this time.
in.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 439
mightynessey clenlynessey blood gyltinesse, worthynesse; he even
uses hyeness of a tree. There is the phrase " bring thee by
shijppe fulles" in Deut. xxviii. 68. We see a Northern
tendency to prefix prepositions to nouns; thus we find
dotondtting, uprising, fore elder, indweller, outcrier, out-giving,
upstanding, though we still find the awkward nouns the
coming in, the going out; he has moreover the noun stil-
sitting. He has for my brethren and companyons sokes, drop-
ping the Genitive sign in the first noun. He is fond of body
for homo, which is still in Scotch use. He has fatherland, a
word that cropped up in England every now and then, and
was speedily dropped. The substantive shyne (splendor)
reappears after long disuse ; the later form was to be sheen.
He has baye tre, where the tre added is the continuation of a
favourite Old ihglish construction. There is the thoroughly
Northern sUmk (shock of corn) in Judges xv. 5. He uses
whistles for what was afterwards changed into water pipes
in the Prayer Book version of the Psalms ; he also be-
comes a wonder, not a monster, unto many. The Plural
heathen is in use. Coverdale in the Psalms couples bugges
by night with the arrow that flyeth by day ; the first-men-
tioned noun does not mean insects, but hobgoblins. He
is fond of kinredes (generations), at deathes dm-e, at his wits
end, worship (honour), your bely full, brech (girdle); he writes
na end of treasure (Nahum ii. 9). He loves Verbal Nouns,
like clothing ; Agur asks for a necessary living ; in Baruch
ii. justification appears as rigtuousmakynge. The word/o/e,
not fotf oik, stands for infaniry, "We see Chaucer's romble
now applied to wheels. In Eccl. vi. plague no longer refers
to a disease, but to an evil ; this last word has in part re-
placed it. The word girl, which twice only appears in our
Bible, was substituted long afterwards for Coverdale's
damsel. One of our common phrases seems to have been
suggested by a question in Ecclus. xiii., " how agree the
ketell and the pott together?" In Eccl. ix. 7 we have,
" a quyck dogg is better then a deed lion."
Among the new Adjectives we see bloudthu/rsty, gray
headed, wrothful, darkish, heathenish, mmldy, weak braned. The
ending ovs had already appeared, fastened on to Teutonic
440 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
roots, as rightiwus (rihtwis) ; Coverdale further has the new
wonderaus and rrmrthuroiLS. He uses true of heart, a stoned
horse, weak as water. The adjective is sometimes made a
substantive, as the worthies (mighty) in David^s lament for
Saul; fat also is in the like case. The substantive is
sometimes dropped after the Adjective, as from everlasting.
Coverdale's wUfvl at last expresses the meaning we attach
to the word, but stout stands for swperJms ; doughty appears
as the epithet fittest for warriors, as long before in certain
Northern writers. In Nahum ii. 3 stands he rmketh him
forwarde ; we here seem to see the old Adverb become an
Adjective, as before in Scotland. In Ezekiel xxvii. we read
of iron redy made, a new phrase. Coverdale writes both of a
fleshly felowe and of a,fleszshy herte; the two forms of the
Adjective are curious, and both had appeared before.
As to Pronouns, we remark / was he that, etc., other soch
(such). In Lev. xxv. 5 stands what groweth of it self; these
last two words paved the way for the new Genitive it,
supplanting the rightful his before 1600 ; this soon led to
Ben Jonson's its. Many object to it is me, but in Proverbs
viii. 4 Coverdale wrote, it is you whom I call In Ecclus.
xiii. a man has supte thee cleane up ; here thee stands for thy
goods. The it is used in the old Lidefinite way ; the Macca-
bees, when fighting, hyde styfly at it (2 Mac. xv.) We re-
member I am one the fairest of 1303 ; this construction is
now altered, for we see in IV. Esdras, chap, v., the one only
people ; here only is used as a Superlative, much as we say,
" the one perfect song ; " the one when coupled with only seems
a pleonasm. In the Psalms Coverdale wrote, one depe calleth
another ; this has been much improved by the later Revisers,
who put deep calleth unto deep ; here is the true English
terseness. In Isaiah xi. yongones is written one word, much
as we use young *uns. The none is now coupled with a
possessive Pronoun ; a house is none of his (Job xviii. 15).
Coverdale is fond of no body and every body.
As to the Verbs, there are phrases like u/ish him good, to
winter, happen on a thing, the work went forward (on), to blast
corn, set me a chair, get up (surgere), go mourning, day breaks,
lay it waist, make mockes at, kill them down, cast up their noses
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 441
wpm, me (Ezekiel viiL n),fede thefyre^ come to lights lie hid,
slip in, make dene ryddaunce of, kepe thy tuord, bid them
welcome, get their mil of, shake hands. We see " the waters
plumped together;" hence our "going plump into a thing."
Coverdale has an odd compound of the two forms wcere and
toast (eras) ; he writes thou werst (Ezekiel xxviii.) He con-
fuses two different English verbs when he writes me think.
In 1 Kings ii. 23 Solomon threatens thus, " Adonias shall
have spoken this agaynst his lyfe ;" here the verb bears
both a past and a future sense. The Infinitive is often set
first, as punish will I. In connexion with it a new idiom
appears, "he shall never want one, to sit," etc., "the last
to fetch him." In Malachi i. 10 stands "what is he that
wil do so moch as to shut," etc. j here our terse English
speech in later years struck out the first Infinitive, and also
the to prefixed to the second. He brings did into ques-
tions, as did not I wepe ? (Job xxx.) There is a new usage
of the Active Participle in 2 Maccabees x., " two dayes
were they destroy enge (it);" I suspect that this should be
"they spent in destroying." Coverdale is fond of the
idiom, "be giving of thanks," "be doing good," "my herte
is dyting of a good matter ;" in some of these he confuses
the Participle with the Verbal Noun, like Chaucer's passing
over of Emily. He is fond of setting tm before a Past Parti-
ciple, as untrodden, unloked for. There is the new Participle
melted by the side of the old molten ; also the Perfect cleved
(hsBsit), not clave ; Tyndale's holpen becomes helped. We see
the form drye shod; a Northern phrase. In 1 Sam. vi. 12 we
read of the Hearing (lowing) of oxen; we now use this
verb of trumpets only. We see miss used in two senses :
David was missed, and 19 men missed (abfuerunt). There
is a new sense connected with spend, "the day is spent"
Chariots not only roll, but welter ; a man may also welter a
stone. There is the phrase to turn (ire) into a house.
When Jonah was about to be thrown overboard, the sea
wrought (was stormy). In Micah ii. 9 we read, " the women
have ye shot out from their houses;" the verb here has
since been altered into cast ; we now shoot, in this sense,
nothing but rubbish. The military phrase fall out is used
442 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
for sally (Judith xiv.); to fall oid in common life suggests
a sally of ill-temper. In Ecclus. xxx. we are exhorted to hit
(strike) a child, by way of chastisement ; hitherto the word
had been coupled with a mark. There is the phrase, set to
pledge^ which reminds us of Catullus ruefully punning on
the word opponere. In Nehemiah vii. 5 we see " God gave
me in my hert j" the verb has since been altered into^^y
we still say, " my heart misgave me." For mingere Tyndale
used the French word still in our Bibles ; Coverdale has a
literal translation of facere aquam. In Ezekiel xxiii. 40
set forth thyself means, not proponere^ but ornare ; it has since
been altered into deck ; we should now substitute off for the
forth. In the Song of the Three Children magnify him has
now replaced the earlier set him up, which Coverdale uses
all through the poem ; our sei up (conceited) is well known.
We hear of winds overbearing a ship (Ezekiel xxvii.) ; we
have since coined an adjective from this new verb. There
is the Imperative tuake up, so often in the mouths of our
drivers. In Isaiah xviii. 4 we hear of a myslinge shower, a
purely Northern word, being a form of mist.
Among the Adverbs we see hard at hand, go straight for-
ward. The old Adverb has lost its rightful e at the end
in evell gotten goods. The out is much used as an Adverb,
tell it out, live out his days. In treat him rugKly the sense
of durus is added to that of hirsutus. Coverdale is fond of
prefixing prepositions to nouns, as thy out and ingoynge,
over pole (upper pool), forecourt. In Ezekiel xxxii. doume,
by itself, is employed as a word of command ; there is also
dovme with it/ In Joel ii. 22 stands, as in Orrmin, be not
ye af rayed nether ; an idiom to be continued by Shakespere.
Coverdale sometimes uses yes, which was afterwards altered
into yea.
Among the Prepositions the upon is used in its old
hostile sense, "see his desire upon his enemies." In
Solomon's Song, iii. 2, stands " I will go about the city ;
upon the market," etc. ; hence our " go upon Change ;"
there is also "lend upon usury." In the Psalms is the
curious phrase "go on in wikedness;" of old, the on and
in had been two forms of one word. The old Icelandic
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 443
idiom, seen in the * Cursor Mundi/ reappears, " to seke unto
thee;" there is also Boy's new phrase, "lean unto counsels;"
"have a zele unto the lawe." There is the new idiom
" when he was at the strongest " (Daniel viii. 8) ; at the
soonest had but just appeared. In 1 Mac. vii. the people
"pass over that day;" here the over means per, as we
"read over a paper." In Lev. xi. 46 stands "the law
over the beestes " (de bestiis) ; Tyndale here has of, I have
seen in late writers the phrase "what is over you ?" (what
is the matter concerning you?) The over is prefixed to
adjectives, as overgredy.
As to Interjections, Coverdale is fond of the optative
0 that, etc. In Job xxxi. 30 Oh no/ stands at the begin-
ning of a sentence ; the first instance, I think, of this now
common phrase. There is also no, no I and if no, at the
beginning of a fresh sentence. The scornful there / theire I
of the Psalms is well known. In Proverbs xxx. 15 some-
thing " saieth never hoo " {ho !) ; this last arresting cry, used
by Chaucer, has since been altered into " it is enough ;" this
ho (satis) lasted down to 1630, being used by Mabbe. In
Jeremiah li. 14 men cry alarum, alarum/ this has been
changed into " lift up a shout."
Among his Eomance phrases Coverdale has felicity, dis-
dainedly (disdainfully), joly array, wyne bebber (this is not
Tyndale's word), temerarums, dyspoynt (disappoint), dis-
favour, mine encrease, Tmckage, disquietnesse, salette (armour),
party coloured, presterly (sacerdotal), to beutify, my delicates,
batel ram, faynedly, unpaciency, innocency, dishonesty (oppro-
brium), natyves, buckle together (congredi), adherentes, pledges,
(hostages), chwrchrobber, winegardener (vindemiator), spryn-
gald (juvenis). The word presumptuous is used in the old
sense of wilful ; it has since acquired a new shade of mean-
ing. The old triacle still bears the sense of remedium. The
verb discover is used for uncover ; this sense still survives
on the stage, where actors are discovered (revealed). The
verb comfort often means strengthen; comfortable, when
applied to the Lord's name, is used in an unusual sense.
Coverdale is very fond of employing stomach for cor ; as " a
high stomach;" what Prometheus did to our stomach is
444 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
well known to readers of Horace. As to the uses of matter,
we see it was a matter of life, whether his matters (negotia)
vxmld endure. The old give no force for comes in, but has
smce been altered into the single word scorn. The villain
is used only for a man of low degrea Job wishes to be
sued with a lyhdl ; this has been altered into "write a
book j" in Scotch law, an indictment is still called a libel
The mys is still used where we now employ dis, as mys-
content, mysordre. In EccL ix. 16 we read of a symple
man^s wisdom; Coverdale here uses the adjective in its
Northern sense of humUis, pauper ; the sentence must have
seemed a contradiction in terms to the Revisers of 1611,
who therefore changed the adjective into poor. The word
honett is used of the head-gear of both men and women ;
for the former, tire of ihine head has been substituted in
Ezekiel xxiv. 17. We have already seen peals connected
with bells ; we now read of peales of warre, coupled with
trumpets; this has been changed into the alarm of war (Jer.
iv. 19); we know Shakespere's stage direction, alarums,
Coverdale literally translates the Latin cequus, talking of
equal (lawful) and right. The word evidence is used in its
Northern sense of legal document, and this still remains in
Jer. xxxii. We hear of the rascall people (now altered into
the poor of the people), Jer. xxxix. In Jer. li. 22 lacheler
(now young Tnan) is opposed to muiden ; elsewhere honest
womxin is opposed to meretrix ; dishonesty is used for dis-
horumr. In Ezekiel xvi. 30 stands " thou precious whore,"
just as we talk of a precious rogue; the word has been
altered into imperious ; Lydgate had this use of the adjec-
tive. The word ungracious is often used, as it is still in the
North. There is the East Anglian phrase " to labor with
child " (parturio) ; this, coming in the Liturgy, was in our
day ludicrously applied by a poor German governess to
women of her own craft. In Ecclus. x. we hear that pride
is the origenall (principium) of all sin. The word nurtour is
sometimes employed for good-breeding, especially as regards
the table; Tyndale has not this old sense of the word;
well-nourtured in Ecclus. xxL exactly answers to our well-
bred. The verb m^artyr stands for cruciare in 2 Mac. ix. ;
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 445
the noun in Italian bears this sense. We saw in Tyndale
that atonement stood for both agreement and expiation ; the
latter sense seems to be borne by reconcyle, at the end of 2
Mac. xii. In Coverdale's armlett we see an instance of
the Eomance let being fastened to a Teutonic root.
There is a compounding of Teutonic and Eomance in
noone day, suerteshi^e. Verbs coming from the Latin were
not yet quite settled in form; we see the Infinitives
corruppe, correcke, suspeclc ; we insist on using the Past
Participle form of these. The former tuunder, used as an
Adverb, seems to have led to marvelous pale. The ramping
found here, borrowed from Chaucer, perhaps was the
parent of romping. The verbs consume and convert are
sometimes used intransitively. The verb tarry now governs
an accusative, " tarry his leisure." Like Fisher, Coverdale
is fond of added ed to spirit, thus making an adjective, as
mske spreted. The Lord is said to have planted our fathers
in ; this is the first hint, I think, of plantations, the old
word for colonies. A change found in the 'York Mys-
teries' is repeated; Babylon is called the lewtie of the
Caldees' honour ; here the first noun means decus, not pul-
chritudo as of old ; when we speak of a woman as a beauty,
we mean that she is decus sexus. The verb occupy is much
used, of trade ; Solomon's virtuous woman occupieth wool.
In Isaiah i. stands " I hate (it) from my very heart ;" this
seems to stand for inmost, and is rather unusual. We hear
of ravishing (ravening) beasts. In the account of the death
of Judas Maccabaeus, he is persecuted (pursued). The old
form take travail (trouble) is often used. The bones seen
by Ezekiel, chap, xxxvii., are called "a marvelous greate
sorte " (army) ; as we now use sort, it answers to genus
rather than multitudo ; we still keep in the Psalms "ye
shall be slain, all the sort of you " (lot of you). The word
company is used in a military sense.
The Plural Seraphins is used; there are the proper
names Palestina, Fhilistia; in 1 Mac. xv. we come upon
Lucius, the Mayre of Eome. In Isaiah xxvii. 2, Muscatel
has since been altered into red wine. In the English text
occur the words lamia, taxas. We hear not only of Caldees,
446 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
but of Caldeish (language) j the last-named hoary form was
not to survive.
Among the words akin to the Dutch and Gennan are
knap (snap). There is the Scandinavian verb scravl, which
originally meant rattle; also stale (urina), slavering (saliva),
and wherry man.
As to Coverdale's Preface to his Bible, he uses comon
tvelthes for res jmblicce, instead of the old comon weales ; this
had been done by Skelton. He employs tuyde from the
purpose. It is important, we are told, to tye the Pope
sJwrter; hence came our " cut him short." Scripture setteth
every thyng in frame (in good shape) ; this is something like
the later ship shape. The Pope is called a counterfayte
Christian; Tyndale had used this adjective in a harmless
sensQ. Coverdale, in these very ticklish times, is careful
to speak of England's crown as imperiall. He thus ad-
dresses King Henry, "there hath ben of olde antiquite
(and is yet unto this daye) a lovyng ceremonye used in
your realme of Englonde, that whan your graces subiectes
reade your letters, or begynne to talke or comen of your
hyghnes, they move theyr bonettes for a signe and token of
reverence unto your grace, as to their most soveraigne
lorde and heade under God, which thyng no man useth
to do to eny bysshoppe." Coverdale tells us that he uses
in his Version penance as well as repentance, and declares,
misguided man, that there is no greater difference between
the two terms than between four pence and a groat.
His friend Grafton uses snub as a Noun.
William Roy was a runaway Franciscan friar, of not
the best character, who aided Tyndale in translating the
New Testament abroad, and who afterwards arrived at
Strasburg in 1526. Two years later he brought out his
famous Satire against Cardinal Wolsey, called *Rede me and
be not wrothe ' (Arbor's Reprint). Roy seems to have been
a Northern man by his use of ban (maledicere), lurdain,
and kye (vaccse). The y is put for the French ^, as fryre,
p. 37 ; the accent is still thrown on the last syllable of
barayne (barren), p. 52. The old noun hwceg here survives
as whyg, and the more modern form whey, dating from
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 447
1240, stands alongside; whyg and whey^ p. 100. Wolsey is
called Carnall, a pun on Cardinal^ p. 39 j this joke thirty
years later often did duty against Pole, who was not so
open to a satirist as Wolsey was. Like the d in Cardinal,
the n is struck out; coverd stands for convent, p. 82,
whence Covent Garden.
Roy is fond of making new nouns by adding nes, as
heneficialnes, unhappines, sluggishnes, lordlynes, nohlenes. The
title yovA^e ladyshippe was now beginning to come in ; it is
in p. 85 (as also her nohlenes in p. 84) ; here the flattering
friar and the dame, " not very wise," are most happily hit
off, quite in Chaucer's style. In p. 93 we read of a lorde
of hludde ; here high is dropped after of. The noun lorcher
is coined from lurk, p. 98 ; Palsgrave employs it for gour-
mand; it was then used of a man, in our day of a dog.
A bishop is mentioned as a goode Greke in carde playing, p.
117; the abusive phrase has lasted long. Chaucer had
talked of a bever hat ; this is now cut down to hever, p. 47.
We see hed of state (state-bed) ; when Wolsey destroyed
abbeys, he plucked down the costly leades ; a new Plural,
p. 113. The Annas of the Gospel becomes Anne, for the
rime, p. 118 ; this was the Christian name of the famous
French Constable, Roy's contemporary.
As to the Adjectives, we see the origin of make Hack
white in p. 51, where Wolsey can, it is said, make regulars
of seculars, makynge as he lyste blacke of whyte (priests).
We find whyst (tacitus), p. 65 ; the adjective in Chaucer's
time had been hust.
There is the phrase hear ynough and to moche, p. 90.
Mention is made of men being proclaimed heretics, p. 113;
the terse answer is, why more we than (he 1).
Among the Verbs we see the very old forms, thmi myght
(potes), p. 37, thou spake (locutus es), p. 104. There is
cotha (quoth he), p. 70, lett this pass, make no difficulte, make
marchandyse of, hyt the nayle upon the heed, it is to be fearyd
lest, etc. There is a well-known Scotch phrase, the upset
price; this is in p. 139.
Roy has the new topsy tervy (top side turf way), p. 51.
Barclay's change in the sense of by and by is repeated in p. 66.
448 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Among the Prepositions are he in (of) tw use^ have a wife
upon my hande, lean unto tyranny.
As to Interjections, the former devU have the bit that
becomes the devil of the whit that (devil a bit), p. 65. Roy's
of seems here to stand for have. There is the cry och at
the beginning of a sentence, p. 59, and the eager way, nay,
p. 61.
The Scandinavian words here seen are the substantive
sloutche and bladder (bag).
Among the Eomance words are papisticaly QTesy, gratis,
momchawnce (a game at cards), p. 60, service in plate, p. 93, fe
improperate (benefices), monJcery, reprehensible, tv/rmoil, copy
holder, capacity, incomparable, encroach. Roy was one of the
first to use popisshe, p. 116. The word seniour seems to be
employed for dominus in pp. 67 and 83. In p. 43 we
find guestionist (schoolman), a curious compound of Latin
and Greek
There are the phrases my ladys charriber, foles paradyse.
The verb despatch takes the new sense of occidere, p. 146 ;
surmise slides from acaasare to putare, hydgBite^s perhapis
is here revived. The first hint of our bill of exchange is in
p. 87 ; friars entrust their money to other men and spend
it by the wryttynge of a bill. The old wonder great is ex-
changed for marvelous great, p. 145. In p. 112 saints array
shrewdly their enemies ; trim was now used much like
array, both alike meaning ornare. When we see fead in
p. 133 there is a struggle between the old French /^a^ and
the Latin fact. There is the noun conjectwre, which also
appears here as a verb, a curious formation.
Roy was one of the last English writers who, addressing
the common folk in a ballad, employed shoals of Romance
words ; Wyatt and Surrey were soon to show us a better
way.
John Rastell printed a jest book in 1526, called * The
Hundred Merry Tales ' (reprinted by Dr. Oesterley in 1866
as Shakespere's * Jest Book '). Here we find a delight in
puns and in mimicry of the speech of Provincials. In p. 2
dout is first used in the sense of dubitare, and then in that
of extinguere; dout the candell, ]\xst as don and doff were now
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 449
coming into fashion.^ In p. 55 there is a joke on the two-
fold meaning of male; a Welshman when hunting is ordered
not to spare a male (he-stag) ; he forthwith robs a traveller
of his male (trunk). The Welsh speech is a standing joke
throughout; in p. 150 we have hy cottes hlut and her (his)
nayle, if her (he) he notj etc. ; elsewhere it is cottys pluL
There is a good story anent the Welsh love of toasted
cheese. The Northern dialect is hit off in p. 158 ; hy goodys
hyens (bones), / is al hart (heart), hy goddes sale (soul).
There is the new Substantive nmltman. In p. 146 man
is opposed to master ; instead of saying, " there is no one
here," the taverner avers "here is nother mayster nor
man." In p. 49 both horse and horsy s are used to express
the Plural egui ; Shakespere also has both these forms.
There is a remarkable ellipse in p. 93, "a song worth
twenty of it " (the Paternoster) ; here some such word as
copies should follow the Numeral.
As to the Adjectives, we find a mad felow, in the
Shakesperian sense ; also wete to the skyn. One curious
idiom of Superlatives appears in p. 104, "he was not the
best dark " (a good clerk).
As to Pronouns, in p. 129 we see the old usage of 1303
continued; the wife addresses the husband with ye; he
addresses her with the more familiar thou; they use syr
and dame in their speeches to each other, though the
husband was but an artificer. In p. 151 stands all sodenlyy
the forerunner of our all of a sudden.
There is the new Verbal phrase fall at wordys. There
is a new sense of cast in p. 83 ; a man, against whom the
verdict is given, is cast, perhaps cast away. There is the
proverb, " they stumble at a straw and lepe over a blok,"
p. 29 ; this has been since supplanted by the gnat and the
camel.
The curious Yorkshire usage of employing hut after an
oath is revived ; hy god hut I wyll, p. 45 ; in p. 44 yet is
used in the same way, answering to for all that.
As to Prepositions, in p. 37 a man leaps into a ditch
^ Perhaps the slang cUmse the glim partly comes from this dovt,
as in Greek we have both tasso and taUo.
VOL. I. 2 G
450 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
ofWfT the head ; a very contracted expression, since we have
here no mention of water. There is the curious " find hym
at Oxford to scole," p. 119. In p. 93 a man "fasts bread
and water ;" here an on is dropped. The old fall in talking
is now clipped ; we light upon fall a laughyng, p. 2, and
this lasted for more than two Centuries ; the last word was
doubtless mistaken for a Participle, as we see by Skelton's
to fall preaching.
There are the Scandinavian phrases wall eye and dog
chepe ; dog in Swedish means valdb. There is the Dutch
bmkin.
Among the Komance words are stage play, permanent,
cyrcuie (of a judge), principal (of a college), intelligence
(understanding). We have in p. 17 the first English
laugh at the use of fine language; a scholar, fond of
eloquent English and carious termis, puzzles a cobbler by
talking of suhpedytals, not shoes; he also employs semy
cercles; Rabelais carried this joke much further. In p. 62
a child answers a hard demand at all adventures (hazards)
in the Plural ; the forerunner of at all events. We see deute-
full (obligatory), p. 140 ; a new formation. In p. 77 com-
pany is used much as we employ society ; the good that
should precede the noun is dropped. The adverb precisely
stands for imperiously in p. 114; so Shakespere, in Hamlet,
uses absolute for precise. The old maugre now becomes
spyte of, p. 45. In p. 74 Sir is lengthened into Sirra.
In 1527 arrived the first English letter ever sent hither
from America, so far as we know; it may be found in
Eden's Book on America, p. xiv. (Arber's Reprint); it
was written by Rut, the master of the English ship, from
Newfoundland. He uses harbor in a new sense (portus),
and talks of foul weather ; sailors run in their course at sea.
Mention is made of Portugal barkes (naves) ; the new sea
phrase is used, "to come into 53 degrees." In another
letter of this time, quoted in p. xvi., we read of cardes, that
is, charts of the voyage.
In the * Supplication for the Beggars ' (Arber's Reprint),
which Fish brought out in 1529, we remark the new word
v?hirlpool, also bloudsupper^ a favourite word of Coverdale's.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 451
The Turk gds grounde of Christendom, p. 5 ; we should
now say, "gain ground on." The Komance words are
profligate, out of joynt, to people. In p. 8 we read of priests'
sovereigne ladies; this explains Skelton's mistress, used for
arnica. In p. 4 comes the verb assite ; this was a few years
later to be cut down to cite. We now transfer as well as trans-
late, a most useful distinction; but in 1529 the latter of these
Latin forms seems to have done double duty ; see p. 6.
Some pieces in Hazlitt's * Collection' (vols. iiL and iv.)
seem to belong to 1530 ; the old hydene appears for the last
time, I think, in iii. 178 ; the old aw^er (aut) still appears
as other, iv. 112. The hi is clipped, for hitwen becomes
twen, p. 173 ; the d is added, a man was bounde toward
the altar; this is the old boun (paratus), p. 172 ; there was
doubtless a confusion with bound (vinctus). The old doppa
gives birth to dobchick (dabchick), iii. 171. In p. 124
stands gib (felis). The old hallowes still stands for saints,
p. 117, and the allusion here to pilgrimages helps to fix
the date of this poem. Wickliffe's knack (dolus) now stands
for our knicknack, p. 152; toy has imdergone a change
somewhat similar. A woman in p. 174 steals short endes
and rrwny, hence our odds and ends, Dunbar's adjective
trim came South very soon, for it is in p. 153 ; the other
adjective trick (trig), soon to be coupled with trim, is in p.
109. The future Shakesperian most unkindest stands in p.
114. The all had been lately developed, it is all your fawt
stands in p. 158. In iii. 169 something is done for good
and all. In iv. 107 we have ttoise so muche, where Cover-
dale was soon to alter the so into our as.
Among the Verbs stand have the last word, I am matched
(married), breke her mynde to him. We see keep him short ;
Coverdale's tie him short, to lay vice, iv. 106; hence our
" lay a ghost."
Skelton's jingles were coming into vogue ; a woman gets
a man to smick and smack, p. 110; bones make clitter clatter,
p. 123; Uble bable, p. 130.
Among the Komance words is assimilate^ The word
base in p. 110 seems to mean ugly ; it is applied to a baby.
The en was in great vogue ; in p. 137 entvM stands for the
452 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
old odwii, our twit. In iii. 40 we are told that loyaleth is
a good quality in a Prince ; we now usually apply the
word to a subject. The word gallant is made an Adjective
in p. 176, and is applied to dress; brave had already been
used in the same sense. In iii. 171 the verb sovse bears
the meaning of mergere ; see p. 266 of my book
John Palsgrave, a native of London, and a graduate of
Paris, brought .out his ' L'jficlaircissement de la langue
Francoyse'in 1530; this invaluable dictionary he dedi-
cated to Henry VIII., having bpen tutor in French to the
King's sister Mary; the author obtained from the King a
grant of copyright for seven years. He has such old
words as gong (privy), paddock (rana) ; and such old forms
^ as croise (crux), rande of befe. The verbs carpe, depe, stye,
and threpe, are here set down as farre Northern words ; also
the Komance fray (quarrel) with. Certain words as hente
(capio) are named as then going out ; sperre (claudo) and
spere (rogo) are Northern, and not in common use ; the
syns and sythe are both used in one sentence, p. 471. The
nomme (capio) is nowe none Englysshe ; gumie (placeo) is out
of use. There are very old forms m^, 2\1 -,10 do make a
castell, or to lette make it. The for is still often prefixed to
verbs, as fordreynt ; the form formast fyngar had not yet
become Udall's forefinger. There is Tyndale's new word
mysse woman. Palsgrave makes an odd mistake or two ;
thus in p. 285 he says that to lorne a thing is not used,
but we borrow I forlore of the Doutche tonge. The to (dis)
in to-breke was now about to disappear ; its true force was
becoming unknown to the new generation ; for all to fyle
a gown (inquinare) stands in p. 236 ; all to sowce in the
myar stands in p. 368 ; this mistake of Mallory's is seen
in some of the later Keformers, and even after 1700.
As to the Vowels, the old initial ce is struck out ; cetmtan
becomes twite (cast in the tethe), p. 308 ; to twhyte (re-
prouche) is called a Northern term in p. 396. The a is
clipped, atire becomes tyre. There is both the old berke
and the new barke (latrare) ; both commende and commaunde
appear in p. 192 for recommend. The e replaces u; Lyd-
gate, who is in this work often quoted as an English classic,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 453
appears as the Monk oiBerye, p. 226. The e is inserted ;
hower (hora) stands in p. 452. The ie final is clipped;
grundesvmlie becomes grounde sail (groundsel). The i or y
supplants Of as upsyde downe for upsodoun, p. 230 ; here
there was a false analogy ; there is also to lylle (loll) out
the tonge. There are both enquiere and enquyre in p. 22G.
The two forms bylde and buylde stand close together, p.
163. There is both the old form of the verb keele (re-
frigerare) and the verb cool, which we adopt. The titmose
of 1440 now becomes tytmome. The verbs toyle and till
appear, each with its different sense, in p. 391 ; the South-
ern and Northern heirs of the old tylian. The ennoye is
used for the French enuye, p. 225. The two forms lery
and bury (sepelire) both appear. The French endouer
appears both as endowe and endewe, p. 224. The ou re-
places i ; penthouse of a house ; but afterwards comes pentys
over a stall.
The p is added to m, as to champ ; we see both hivich
and punchy forms of one verb. The old sound is still un-
softened in thacke (tegere), but atche (dolor) replaces ake;
Kemble the actor was laughed at for pronouncing ache as
Palsgrave did. There are both the forms eye and egge for
ovum ; gaTie and yane (oscitare) ; our author first gives
Lydgate's /ory^^, and then his own forget, ]^. 242. The ^
is softened; there are both rygge and ridge, referring to
land ; it is struck out in flemme (phlegm) ; here spyttell is
given in explanation. Palsgrave says that we do not
sound h in honest, honour, and a few other words. The d
is added in / drownde (drown), p. 221 ; there are both
ledder and lethers. The t is added, as talant (talon) ; there
are both to graffe and to graft ; the t is inserted, as heyghten
for the old verb he^en. The th is added ; there is come to
my full grouthe, p. 202, which last word replaces the old
grovmes. The m replaces b, as somersault ; in French, sober-
savlt. The 71 is prefixed; the ekenams of 1303 becomes
nyckename. The I is added ; spekke becomes specde, bidaggen
becomes daggyll ; in this way a new verb is formed from nose,
to nosyll (nuzzle); it seems to have been confounded with
nursle (train), and was used in this latter sense throughout
454 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
this Century. The r is inserted, 2>&frutrer^ the French /rwyc-
iiefrs ; it is added, as stutter, the old stuite ; it replaces w, as
periuyncle ior pinewincle ; it replaces/, as Aaw^e kercher, which
is used for wiping the nose, p. 410. The sh replaces sc, as
" what Cometh our shotte to?" the French escot, p. 192. The
sh replaces st ; there are both the old gnast and the new
gnasshe ; this last form had been used five years earlier by
Tyndale. The robows of 1440 now becomes robrisshe
(rubbish). The old French pikeis is corrupted by a false
analogy into picke axe. We see convendblement Englished
by syttyngly, p. 445, not fittingly.
Among the Substantives we find ccdver of samon, caste of
haukes, cMldes ratle, a cuttyng of a vyne, dogge fysshe, ducke-
lyng, drepyng (of meat, not the Lancashire droping\ drivelar,
gagge (for mouth), gonne poudre, gose berry, hertys ease (the
flower), hedge hogge, kynges yvell, Lady daye, mole (talpa),
nedyll of a compas, nosegay, oulde mayde, peperquerne, quave-
myre (quagmire), sawe dust, schyp owner, schoppe kepar (not
shop holder), scrytche houle, a smutche, hote-house (a stew),
sU^e (of oig2Ji'&)^ towne house, dacke clacke of a mill, bombyll
bee, syde wynde (opposed to a full wynde), brome (for sweep-
ing), tacklyng, daye breake, by heresay {par ouyr dire). Pals-
grave remarks that " in maner all oure abstractis ende
in nesse,'' unless they come from the French. He has
curlydnesse (of hair) and proudnesse. The foreign ending
let is very seldom tacked on to a Teutonic word ; we here
find driblet. What we now call a doll appears as a babe.
The words schrewe, baud, and harlotte may apply to either
man or woman. The word depe is used in a new way,
the depe of wynter, p. 231. The word drabbe here means
nothing worse than slutte. The word lome means a frame ;
its old force is therefore narrowed. One craftsman appears
as ropar (rope-maker) ; this gave name to a well-known
family. The old word shed is now applied to ground, schedde
of an hylle (tertre). Palsgrave explains besynesse by labour,
and then refers to besynesse of occupation (negotium). His
dogge has two meanings : I, a beest, chien ; 2, a mis-
chevous curre, dogue. The playe of sadde matters is in French
moralitd, while playe, an enterlude, is in French /arc^. Cover-
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 455
dale's daysman (arbiter), still in our Bible, here first appears;
it recalls the old legal dieim dicere. We see gadde bee, a
flye (our gadfly). A gospellar is one that sings the gospel;
this word was soon to get a new meaning. There is a new
construction of man ; I am wxin good ynough to, etc. ; here
we now drop the adjective. When a woman is to be
delivered, she says, / am nere my tyme. The word tuorld is
more used ; he wyste nat in the worlde what to do, p. 175;
here we transpose a little ] it is a dangerous worlde now a
dayes, p. 243 ; this translates danger eux temps. There is /
shall tell him mme of my mynde, p. 184 ; my foote is aslepe,
exactly the same as in French, p. 269 ; as long as the breth is
in my body, p. 453. The word handsome now first means
pulcher, for hansomnesse is in French advenantet4. The word
nappe has lost its old exalted sense, and here means only a
lytdl slepe. The old bicker (pugna) is degraded ; byckerynge
is here equivalent only to skrymysshe, the French escarmuche;
we know the later form skrimmage. The old tuit had been
a synonym for wisdom ; but it now stands for ingeniositS,
among other things ; its lighter shade of meaning was soon
to be developed. The noun spring, in p. 161, gets a new
meaning, " something that may be bent or bowed." The
word gear means no more than the French chose in p. 239.
The word water may stand for sudor ; a horse is all on a
water, p. 245 ; we should say, lather. The old mf in com-
pounds is replaced by woman ; the former mf-freond had
long vanished ; we now see many forms like worrmn preest,
Tfie French fretillon is Englished by (a) hoppe upon my
thombe. Tyndale's new atonement here appears as onement
(reconciliation). The French fossette is translated a pytte
in ones cheke ; the verb pit had already appeared. We have
seen Caxton's barbarous compound sceawage, the show of
goods for sale ; the officer, who took toll upon this, had also
to see to the cleaning of the streets ; hence he was called
scavager ; he appears in Palsgrave as scavenger,^ One
of the names for English slang was a pedlar^s frenche, p.
368. The phrase every whyt is thought very English,
p. 450; the French expressed the last word by gov4te ;
1 Skeat gives this derivation.
456 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
nemer a whyt the nerer in p. 469 is rendered by depas wag
gvayn.
Among the new Adjectives are clammy, darkesome, hylly,
noppy (of ale), in French, vigoreux; broken backed^ dainty
mmbthed, lyght heeded, ]>e lyflong daye, p. 453. The word
light is used in two different senses, lyght grene and lyght
horse. An adverb is made an adjective ; as a downeryght
strooke, p. 377. The old awkward still appears as an adverb
in to rynge aukewarde (when enemies are coming), like Scott's
" the bells are rung backward.'* But this adverb is now
made an adjective, meaning lefte handed, and also expressing
the French perverse. It further gives birth to the new
adverb awkewardly (frowardly), p. 439. The ish, as in
Chaucer, is added to old adjectives of colour, thus expressing
a new shade of meaning, as blackysshe, blewishe, and many
others; there is seeysshe (marin), the Old English scelic.
The word daper of 1440 here changes its old sense ; it now
Englishes mignon. The word homsly means not only
familiar, but saucy (free and easy). The word fine is used
of very small work. The word fond changes from stultus to
amans (cynics say that this is no great step) ; / waxe fonde
upon a woman is translated hy je m^ervamoure, p. 218 ; the
verb dote had already followed the same course. The old
elvysshe is removed from Fairyland, and here expresses maZ
traictable, p. 403. The rough is now used of speech ; speak
roughly, p. 242. The word bmy has gained an evil sense ;
a busy felowe Englishes ung entremetteux, p. 331. The word
pretty now expresses parvus ; a preaty whyle ago, ung peu de
temps passd, p. 453; this great whyle is the English for de
long temps, p. 455. An adjective is made a substantive, as
the white of the eye or of an Qgg, Sometimes the substan-
tive is dropped, as draw in blacke and white, a French phrase ;
to be longe ab&uie it, p. 237. A fashion is revived of pre-
fixing a substantive to an adjective, like the old blodrread ;
we now find love sycke, brimmefuL The adjective stedye once
more appears, after a sleep of 300 years, p. 234 ; it is
applied to something that does not move, as a wall. We
see an alliterative phrase in they keep the day hye and holy
(haultement), p. 257. We find earable grou/nd, p. 279,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 457
bespeaking a welcome for the kindred arahU that had
already appeared. There are the phrases a tall mom of his
handeSf as mery as a cricket, as longe as large. The vif ou
mort is Englished by alyve or deed, p. 437 ; so completely
had on lif become an adjective. An adjective is placed
before a verb, as to roughe heawe timber. Two adjectives
are coupled, as lyght grene. An adjective follows a verb,
as hacke them small. Our more will still translate major ;
the more fole is he, p. 452; we have also the fewer the better
fare, p. 472.
As to Pronouns, in p. 300 stands and I were as you, I
wolde, etc. {si festoye que de votes) ; here we now drop the as.
We see sche devyll and many such compounds. The it has
a backward reference, as / wyll pass or I wyll dye for it, p.
317. In p. 444 one with another is translated hy pesle mesle.
The all is developed ; the by lykelyhode of 1430 becomes by
all lykelyhode, p. 439. The word years is dropped after a
Numeral, as if she be ones fourty, she will, etc., p. 396 ; here
the French inserts ans. So completely had the all and
some (omnes et unus) dropped, that Palsgrave blunderingly
translates it by tout entierement, p. 448. We find the new
every body, a lytell to moche, lytell lesse, fewe ynoughe, you may
come tyme ynoughe, p. 375 ; here an in is dropped. There
is the new idiom a greai many peces, p. 217 ; here the of is
dropped before the last word ; the Teutonic many and the
Eomance main^ are confused; in p. 463 stands a great
meyny of them. There is a curious new phrase, / wUl offer
my offering the first thing I do, p. 308. The quod sciam is
Englished in / never did it, that I wotte of, p. 394.
Among the new Verbs are to dog, bear him out (je suporte),
blober, blow (after running), break out (as one that waxeth
scabby), dasshe out of countenxince, dygge my horse with spores,
do him servyce, harten a man, go to borde in a place, fall awaye
(wax lean),/a/Z in love with, be in amours with, p. 253, synge
out (chanter a playne voyx), to fynger (like a thief), fyer a
gonne, a ship grounds, hold at a baye (a la boy), kepe resydence,
take him up (reprove), lie at anker, locke up a thing, make my-
sdfe a straunger (je me aliene), the law byndeth you, weather
is over caste, pop into water, cast a shoo, stake (in play), stedye a
458 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
tiling^ stridden deer, take herte a gresse {en pance, sudden
courage), take into favour, take hym to his legges ; take on, as in
sorrow; take ]>e wynde of a man (get wind of), also mnd a roan,
take the vx/rde out of one^s mouth, to takyll a ship, thynke scorne
to (je ne daigne), toppe a tre, unlerne, my tethe waters to see,
etc. (a French phrase), to whytelyme a wall, pypyng hole (tout
chault), worme etyn, weather beaten, tonge tyed ; halfe slepyng,
halfe wakyng. Palsgrave is fond of shall where we put
ML We see both the forms lye in chylde bedde, and
the clipped lye in. There is the expressive trowe mother
(putative) ; I mome is used for " wear mourning." A child
is marred, not spoiled. Wood, when burning, crakes ; cracMe
had not yet come. The foreign en is much used before
Teutonic words ; enbusye myself, embolden, engrave (used of
a goldsmith). The Northern verbs stabbe and tire (fatigare)
have now come to London, also bonfire. The verb drone is
now set apart for the noise of a bagpipe. Men had long
baited their horses; they themselves baited in 1630, when
they ate at an inn. There is the famous bring him aguaynted
i^i^A, used by Pope. The^e importune is Englished by call
upon a man that I have a sute to; hence our visits became calls.
The verb cross was used in different senses ; to crosse legges,
and also cross over the waye, A verb has evidently been formed
from sun; for set a sonnyng appears for au soleil, p. 357.
The verb cut, like carve, is used for executing very fine work,
p. 203. A candle may be either put out or done out, p. 218.
The verb scatter, like skale, becomes intransitive ; men
scatter (go out of order). The verb fret still takes an Ac-
cusative, as freat himself away ; but the new construction
also appears, frete nat for a trifle, p. 242 ; there is further
the other Old English verb fret (ornare). In the same way
there is the new kepe close as well as the old kepe you close,
with the same meaning. There is both the intransitive geve
over (cedere), and the transitive geve a man over. We saw
laugh himself to death 140 years earlier; we now have
overshote my selfe (je me advise mal), and overslepe my selfe.
A strong fellow is said to be well sefte or set up. A man
is said to starve (die), and to starve for cold ; there is also
the transitive I starve (famish) a man, p. 373. The verb
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 459
tryp^e now becomes transitive. The verb sU/ppe, is used
technically in a game ; I will stoppe on your side, p. 375 ;
hence our longstop at cricket. The verb stryke Englishes
js lache ; it is here, p. 377, applied to letting down a crane ;
our strike sail had been used centuries earlier; stryke mi
ground is here applied to a ship. The verb tanne becomes
intransitive ; it here means he sun-burnt. Palsgrave says
of thrill (je penetre), that it is old and little used in his
time ; we have happily revived it, though we apply it to
the soul, not to material objects. The afford of Barclay
now seems to get the sense of the Latin dare or something
like it ; " Iforde an article " Englishes je vends ; the un-
doubted sense of dare comes forty years later. The verb
gag (sufFocare) now takes its more modern sense ; it is
also made a noun. There is a new sense of gather, where
we now say pull '; I gather myself e to gyther, for some feat
of strength, p. 245. The verb gesse keeps its old sense of
calculating in shooting, like ayme; but it is also translated
by the French deviner, showing a new sense, p. 245. Two
senses of drag are given in p. 219 ; I dragge for fish, and
I dragge (come behind). There is fydell with your handes,
p. 236, a new sense of the verb. There are two senses of
walk in walke the stretes, and walke a horse. The verb leare
Englishes regarder de tongue veue, and is applied to a dog
behind a door, p. 279. The verb snoffe (anhelare) takes
a new sense ; not only a horse, but a stubborn boy is said
to snoffe; Foxe was fond of this latter sense, expressing
anger. The old want (carere) now means egere, and perhaps
desiderare; I wante a gowne Englishes fay mestier de, etc., p.
400; a few years later the sense of desiderare is clear enough.
The old warp becomes intransitive; hordes warpe, p. 401.
The verb worship, as is said expressly, is used of honour paid
both to God and to man. Palsgrave translates pour tout
potaige by whan all is doone and sayd ; this he calls a phrasys,
p. 427 ; we transpose his two participles. The old go is
still used for amhulare; I can neyther go nor stande, p. 469 ;
we still say of a horse, something in this sense, " he can go
well." The old verb hack has a new variation, hucke, p. 265,
(mangle, wrangle) ; hence came our haggle. There is a new
46o THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
phrase, formed from former nouns, he hummeth and haethy p.
265. The Northern kytlynge appears, used for our kitten ;
it also gives birth to the verb kyttell (kitten), p. 273. The
verb pat gives birth to paddijU (in mire). The verb r^fte is
formed from the noun ; boards ryfte (gape asunder). Two
other verbs are due to whinCj p. 407 ; a child whympers, a
horse whynyes. The phrase it came to the joynyng Englishes
ce vint a, etc., p. 267 ; many French phrases were translated
literally into our tongue. We find kepe house, and also kepe
open house ; this last, it seems, was used only of a Prince,
p. 272. We see an is struck out in the proverb better plye
than breake, p. 319; here, in French, U vault begins the
sentence. We see also the Imperative, best do, best have, p.
439. Palsgrave says that English has no way of expressing
the verbes inchoatyves of the Latin except by putting wax
or begin before adjectives; he gives some pages of these; see
p. 402 ; I could wish that we had more verbs, such as
redden and sicken. Both the Participles, waoi^n and waxed,
are given, p. 404. Coverdale's confusion of the Participle
and Verbal Noun appears here; be doyng of something
stands in p. 425. The French par estudier is Englished
thus, by studyeng, p. 439.
Among the Adverbs are darkdyng, runM a heed (ahead),
slopewise, wheraboutes? no where at al, a syde wyse (a cos-
ti^re), halfe waye (en my chemyn), selfwylledly, shortly (in
the sense of mox), ever syns, for ever and a daye (a grant
jamays), agayne and agayne (encore et derechief ), no where
els, nay truely, whether I wyll or nat. We see stand a
strydlyng (with legs abroad), hence a new verb was to be
coined later. We also see the adverb sydelyng (de coust6),
which gave birth to the verb sidle long afterwards ; grovel
is another instance of a verb mistakenly formed from an
adverb. There is the Shakesperian anon, anon (tout
mayntenant). An unusual adverbial form appears in fully
fedde. In p. 441 stands happely luckely (par bon eur) ; in
Arber's * English Gamer,' iv. 641, CromwelFs redcoats ask
if they are to fall on in order, or happy-go-lucky. In p.
445 stands so so, to English tellement quellement, je me
parte. There was an odd fashion, very common later in
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 461
the Century, of repeating U)o (nimis) ; in p. 452 stands to
to moche (par trop). In p. 461 we see it is so, which is
here called a very strong aflSrmative ; hence the favourite
American thafs so. The come away ! is translated by viens
avarUy viste f this might also be Englished by come ait ones !
p. 461 ; it is our later oome along I Palsgrave remarks on
the legal use of whereas^ p. 472. The hut is developed; /
wyll folmjoe tyll to morow but Iwyllfynde her^ p. 239, it shall go
harde but, etc., p. 236, but now (a prime), p. 423. Palsgrave
says that is my lorde uppe? is a peculiar English phrase,
p. 417. He has as well as well m/iy be, remarking that the
French do not repeat the well a second time, p. 438 ; there
is also as sone as mjaye be, p. 420. His far from rrwlcyng an
ende is a translation of bien loyng de, p. 457. TYndale
here had inserted an off after the far.
Among the Prepositions we see hande to hande, under a
locke and keye, over heed and eares, at unwares, at tymes,
bytwene whyles, up the hyll and dovme the dale (amont et
aval), p. 436, cheke by cheke (joe a joe), in play. The out,
as of old, is prefixed to nouns, as an out place, explained as
"a corner out of the waye." In p. 230 men do a thing
upon a full stomacke ; here the idea expressed by the Latin
post seems to encroach on the idea connected with super}
There is a new phrase in p. 231, fall behynde ]>e hande (in
debt) j a few years later ]>e was dropped. Our favourite
betting phrase appears in p. 357, twenty to one he is ondone;
see p. 358 of my book. Palsgrave says that to and unto
are used indifferently, but the latter is Northern, p. 436.
The old idiom with of, first seen in Layamon, is extended ;
it is a fayre syght of a woman when she is well tyred (dressed),
p. 391. The of h dropped in is the money weyght? p. 400,
(de poyx). The old now a dayes is expanded into nowe at
these dayes, p. 401 ; a great mistake. We do a thing
against the grain ; Palsgrave did it agaynst ]>e heare (hair),
which he explains by frowardly ; the phrase lasted till
Shakespere's time. The old at ones had meant simul ; in p.
461 it means statim,
^ Sydney Smith was told to walk upon a full stomach ; he at once
asked, " upon whose ?"
462 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Among the Interjections are houische ! mom / ye suerly !
God blesse you/ God be thanked/ If a man sneezed, his
neighbours cried, Christ helpe / the French synonym for this
was much longer, p. 460. Palsgrave compares par la mort
bieu/ (naorbleu) to the English by cockes body/ in either
case the name of the Deity was disguised, p. 460. He
gives many French curses without English equivalents,
p. 461.
Among the words akin to the German and Dutch are
lynke (torch), waynscoty rabbity to gulp, drone (sonare), her,
to quiver, snarre (snarl), lymp (boiteux). A yonker is the
French ung rustre (an uncouth rustic), p. 322. There is
the verb dandyll, the daunt of 1303, used by Robert of
Brunne.
The Scandinavian Tf ords are fillip, flag (vexillum), smutch,
stale (urina), dug, cuffe (ferire), tip, as a cart tips over,
symper (our simmer), rowse himself ; that is, stretch himself
before action. There is " fall in a dumpe,^^ p. 222, which
as yet means only to muse. There is hugge (shrink in bed
for cold). The swagge of 1303 is here used of a fat man's
belly ; hence the swag-bellied Hollander, and also the later
swagger. To look aswhasshe (lorgner) is a token of pride,
p. 284; hence comes the later swashbuckler. There is jump;
that is, leap with both feet held together, p. 269.
The Celtic words are cub and agog.
Among the Romance words are dandelyon, cabestain
(capstan), cordiall medicyne, coveryng for a book, flagon, gaber-
dyne, gauger of wyne, grayne to dye with, heed pece, leaver
(the engine), meson sayle (mizen, in French mysayne),
pacguet, pensy floure, pyppen, plomet, porkepyn, rascall refuse
beest, redysshe (an herb), rollar or rammer of husbandrie,
rounde daunce, sorrel (of a horse), spynnage, surge of sea,
toyll (used in hunting), costive, impi^ennable, massy, perspectyfe
(beholding with the eye), scrupulouse, to calke (a ship), to
cyfer, consommate (make a full end of), dis-apoynte, disarme,
blottyng paper, bastylment (battlement), to engrosse writing,
entune an organ, to equate, to extorcyon a thing, face him downe,
farce, fryske (une frisque), tryfle with my hands, /i^rce him
to, etc., afrycasse, gestyll {]o&i\e), payster (pester), grapple, to
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 463
ayr clothes, io brush clothes, launsyng yron, levell a gonne,
muffle^ to panell a quest, to pece a thing, to pomell, potche eggs,
to prompte (a schoolboy), to prostytute, retreve (as a hound), to
rule paper with a ruler, letter of marke, to somme an account,
to sorte things, mayster of ship {pilote in French), pair of
virgynals (espinettes), ventylate matters abroad, unmarry,
whoop (je huppe), modes, tenses, in partyculer, poorely (mal^),
sommaryly. Palsgrave uses bachelar for nat maryed, and
syngle man for the French bachelier. He has the old bace
playe for jeu aux barres, our prisoner's base. Like Tyndale,
he uses cattell in the Northern sense of betaih The word
fasyon expresses the French mode, and also taille and facon.
We see grauntfather^s father stand for aieul, and grantfather
yrantsyre for grant aieul or atave ; a little lower comes great
grauntfather. There is man nourse, something like the later
man midwife. The word portlynesse expresses the French
magnificence. The French cordon translates Seynt Audries
lace ; whence came tawdry in later times. The syse of a
man's body is rendered by the French corpulence. Their
piratte might be Englished by a venturer on the see; this
last phrase a little later was to stand for a merchant. The
word precyse, taken from France, here means scrupulously
cyrcumspecte ; men may be utterly precyse in speaking, p.
466. The word rampysshe (ramponneux) may be applied
to a beast or a wench ; it is in our time rampageous. Pals-
grave says that nothing in French or English can go
beyond millions. The noun courrant appears as an English
word, and is used in connexion with a gutter, p. 156. The
verb bray is still used of deer, or any other beast. The
verb cable (very unlike our use of it) means " store a ship
with cables." There is the oath, God confounde me / Eoy
had used the verb conjecture ; Palsgrave has, / conjected as
moche. We find cry haroll alarmne, in French, harol alarme.
We see deduce used in connexion with argument, deducte in
connexion with arithmetic ; the Infinitive and Participle of
the Latin verb contribute each one form of the word. The
verb meurs is Englished by parte my lyfe ; our present form
depart this life was to come a few years later. There is
deprive a man ; here of his office is dropped. We see desyre
464 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
to dinner ; this verb, like bid, meant both jubere and jprecari.
The old verb spillan is now found in the form of dispoU
(our spoil) ; this Englishes the French gaster ; the other
and rightful sense of the English word desrober is given
afterwards. The form differ is written where we put defer.
The word solen (sullen) has no worse meaning here than
pencif. We have first provisyon of meate (vivres) ; then
provision of any other thyng (pourvoyance). We see / am
out of temper, referring to body, not mind ; afterwards, /
temper my sdfe, referring to abstinence from anger, p. 387 ;
to distemper refers to the body, meaning brin^g out of frame.
The word passyon stands for ira, p. 388. A horse covers a
mare ; and a man is un^covered when he doflfs his hat, p. 398.
The fadresse is Englished by dyred a letter to. The word
pece, as also in French, expresses cannon, p. 308. There
are the two words nicenesse and nicetS; nycely will express
both coyement and coyntement, p. 443. Tlie English coy is
as much as strange or nyse (fastidious). The word Ivssyous
may be applied to meat ; it here implies an unpleasant
sweetness. The word patron may mean either a helper or
an example. The word ghsse will now express colour j the
glosse of satyn, p. 211; in French, lustre. The curious
French synonym ung gallant is given for our marchawrd, p.
200. Two French verbs are given for the English doute ;
douter and craindre. The verb endyte bears three meanings
in p. 225 ; end^jte of trespasse ; also, to penne something, and
to compose. Our esteme here means nothing more than to
appraise, p. 229. The verb expleyt (explicitare) bears the
true old French sense of achieve ; in our day, when we ex-
ploit a thing, we achieve profit from it ; Palsgrave's exployt
bears a new sense, to be found in Comines; to work
so hard, p. 230. The French payssant is Englished by
one of the countraye, p. 265 ; hence our countryman (rusti-
cus). We had long known trifles; we now see a tryflyng
mater, p. 281. The phrase strayne courteysie implies here
an exaggeration of politeness, 05 one doth that is nyce. Pals-
grave remarks that there is no French idiom answering to
our take peper in ]>e nose, whence comes peppery. We hear
of a mynsynge pace, p. 437 (le pas menu) ; here the verb
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 465
mince gets a new sense. Two substantives are coupled in
a dutie dette. The word tLsher (ostiarius) gets a new sense,
that of the hussher of a school ; Palsgrave perhaps derived
it from hiish. There are the two forms of one verb, distylle
and stylle. The de is clipped, when defens toy is Englished
hy fende thy selfe, p. 234; we now insert a for after the
verb. The origin of our pikestaff is very plain, when we
read of a staffe well pyked with yron, p. 316. We have heard
of the game of faro ; in p. 233 stands I fare (play at dice,
at a game so named). The word dandyprat, so common in
this Century, is French, meaning a coin, p. 198. A trywrwph
in p. 237 is said to be something like a tournament. The
word manner gets its Shakesperian sense, "to the manner
bom," I fynde one toith the maner (trouver sur le faict\ p.
236 ; also, take him vMh the maner (sur lefaict), like a thief,
p. 385. The French en is much used at the beginning of
words ; there are both enspyre and inspyre. We know a
woma.n*s front ; je effronte is given in p. 243 for to fronte up,
as a woman does her hair ; effrontery was as yet uncoined ;
in the next page a woman's bonnet is mentioned. The verb
geste (jocari) appears in p. 245 ; it also bears the meaning
of rayle upon, our later rally ; here rail loses its old harsh
sense. The ending fy for verbs was coming in ; but Pals-
grave remarks that the verb rubyfye had not been admitted
into common speech ; the verb surmount, according to him,
is a late comer ; Lydgate*s Yevhfiche is by this time obsolete.
There is the curious / saynte (I become a saint), leading to
Pope's "sinner it or saint it." Either a man or a horse
may trotte aboute, p. 394. There is a new sense of the verb
vse ; " use bad words to a man," p. 400. We see reiayle
contrasted with what men sdl hde, p. 440. There is the
new phrase hate rne like poyson, p. 259 ; also, stand upon his
promocyon (sur le point de), p. 263 ; hence the later on sale,
on the mend. The old gilofre becomes gylowfloure, p. 364,
from a false analogy. A seal may be called an antique, p.
323, following the French. We hear of the nobylyte (nobles)
of the realm. The crowche in Crowchemesse day preserves
the old sound of the vowel in aruc-em, p. 425. The French
a haulte voyx is Englished by in a Pylates voyce, p. 442,
VOL. I. 2 H
466 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
showing the popularity of the old Mysteries. The French
md mayscm becomes my poore house, p. 420. The old quyte
(omnino) was coming in again, p. 378. There is the new
phrase in the very myddes ofy p. 431 ; also, at the very begin-
ning (au fin commencement) ; also, very fewe. This very
comes ofteiifjiLst sometimes ; in p. 461 jvste is set down as
an affirmative. The French Singular par ce moyen is
Englished by hy this meanes, p. 440 ; and en nvlle manihre
thus, by no maner of meanes, p. 439. From the Italian
comes monkey (monicchio, monna). There is the cork (of a
bottle) from the Spanish.
Palsgrave, in the beginning of his book, mourns that
the Latin tongue is so ill pronounced in England, and
thinks that this comes from Latin and French being taught
jointly. He himself has advoultry, the curious compound
of the two languages, p. 218. He distinguishes the Picard
and Walloon from the French of Paris. In p. 160 he con-
trasts certain olde Romant words, out of use in his day, with
the modem French. He tells us that Lydgate's obsolete
words are mostly French, p. 242. When treating of the
noun standard he mentions St. Cuthbert's banner as in
England most nearly answering to the Oriflamme. He
gives us the proverb, tvx) wyttes be farre better than one, p.
269 j also, thm lokest after deed rnens shoes, p. 307 ; a day
afore ]>e fayre is given as an adage applicable to one that
Cometh too late, p. 419 ; Heywood slightly changed this a
few years later.
Mr. Furnivall has printed *Jyl of Brentford's Testament,'
dating from about 1530. There is the name Jyllian; score
here means the reckoning, p. 14; the word toyes suggests
the idea of amusement in p. 9 ; the word qualm, p. 15,
losing its old serious meaning of mors, stands for no more
than a pain or stitch. We see whypstoke, a word of abuse,
whence came Shakespere*s whipster. In p. 19 stands a
hedge Curat In this Century, and indeed till 1710, woodcok
was much used for stvltus ; we see as wyse as a woodcok, with
as moche wit as a calf There is a curious ellipse in p. 1 4,
a rrmjde that rruirryeih, not caryng whom. The verb swyll
takes a new meaning, that of bibere, p. 7. In p. 14 stands
III. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 467
fnake a stay. There is the Scandinavian jomp, p. 1 4 (exactly),
which has influenced Shakespere. Among the Eomance
words are strangury, dyamlum ; we hear of the passyng bd,
p. 13. There is presuppose and the common ^ ye please,
p. 15. In p. 9 stands the saw, the poore mare shall have his
man agayn ; this is transposed in Shakespere ; I have met
with the later version of this in Scotch letters about 1780.
The poem of * Christis Kirk on the Green ' (printed by
Dr. Eogers among the works of James I.) seems to me not
to date from before 1530 ; there is here the word younker,
which did not come in long before that year, and loun
is not much earlier. There are Jok and Lowry; a man
dancing is called Lightfute, The old Northern nais (pudi-
bundus) of 1320 reappears as nyss, applied to girls. There
is the phrase to nowt powis (knock heads), used later by
Davie Deans. We see the Scandinavian word byre, answer-
ing to the Old English hir or bower ; it is noticed by the
Yorkshireman Levins forty years later.
In a piece of 1533, referred to in Collier*s * Dramatic
Poetry,' 1879, vol. ii., we find in p. 300 the phrase her
dieng day.
There are some plays of Hey wood (Percy Society,' vol.
XX.) which belong to 1533. In p. xliii. we see the form ie
used for aye (semper) ; this was to be cut down to i later
in the Century. There is sguib, derived from the Icelandic
svipa, to flash or dart; mttiness, a nody (stultus), a jar
(rixa), which here means a difference between two words,
p. 17. A person is missing, p. xxi., which must stand for
in missing, like in owing. The verb glance at gets the new
meaning of hinting or touching upon, p. 12. There is
m^ake an appointment. We have seen Barbour's on ]>aim /
we now have at him / p. 49. In p. xlv. stands for his life
(he) daryth not, etc. ; this is as absurd a change as to write
he cans for potest. There are the Romance dose weather,
overjoyed, an incident, undowtydly, payrriaster. A man may
be carried away by his will. There is our common of corse,
p. 28, I think, for the first time. P. 1 7 is a most curious
page, which ought to be bracketed with Barrow's famous
definition of wit. I give some of the lines of the dialogue —
468 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
** Why, what dyfferens between wyst and wytJty f *
• • • • •
As much sometyme as between wysdom and folly.
• • • • •
Men can in no wise be wise without wytt
• • • • •
No ! and men may have gret wjrtt and wisdom nought,
"Wytt is the wurker of all perseyvyng,
And indiflferent to good or yll wurking.
• • • • •
Wysdom ys in good part taken alweys."
The man who broaches this evidently new distmction is
called some young schoolman and fresh comonar ; the theory
is called &jar. The whole passage is most curious, show-
ing that wit is no longer, as of old, to stand for sapientia
and nothing else.
In 1532 glimpses of the future English horse-race
begin to appear. As we learn from Mr. Hore's * History
of Newmarket,' i. 61, the King's horses are rwn in that
year; the boys that run them have caps made by the
mylanner, a man most unlike the modem milliner. In
1540 a prize is given by the authorities at Chester to the
man who runs best on horseback ; see p. 65, where the
rules of the course are set out.
Sir Thomas Elyot brought out his book, called *The
Govemour,' in 1531 ; I have used the reprint by Eliot in
1834. The r is added ; Hampole's verb low now becomes
lower, p. 24. Among the Substantives we see a long
summer's day, p. 23, forwardness (activity), the head of a
discoiursa Elyot speaks in p. 42 of sharpness of wit, called
in Latin acumen. The word wit expresses sapiens, not mens,
pp. 59 and 162 ; the man, not the thing ; a great change.
The word understanding undergoes a change, for it is used of
the intention common to two parties in a bargain, p. 181.
The term good fellowship was applied to soften the harsher
term gluttony, p. 87. The word Gospel is used for verus ;
we hear in p. 266 that -^sop did not write Gospels, The
word play is used of the method used by a gamester, p. 86 ;
a man's play is suspected. The old handgun becomes simply
gun in p. 93, as if it was a cannon. Elyot describes the
football of his day as nothing but beastly fury and extreme
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 469
violence, p. 92 ; this complaint is repeated fifty years later.
Among the Adjectives is doggish. The word tall takes the
new sense of jprocerus, p. 220. The pronoun is used in a
new construction, where a Participle seems to be dropped,
" Moses aided the multitude, and they most unstable,' p. 137.
There is the phrase / nothing doubt, showing the connexion
between noht (nihil) and not, p. 245.
Among the Verbs are to game, unteach, rouse game, keep
time (in dancing), something to work on, p. 77, man a ship,
it is to be wished, throw a rider, moulder, grind colours, raise
the siege. The verb fling, still intransitive, is used of horses,
p. 9. The verb sprengen was doubtless confused with
springen; for to spring birds stands in p. 56. The verb
mote, our moot, becomes transitive, to mote a case, p. 36.
Gower had talked of things wearing out ; in p. 43 members
of the body wear more hard. With us dogs yap ; in p. 55
they yawn, meaning the same. The old gdyfan (permittere)
now becomes confused with Ic^fan (relinquere) ; leave them
no time stands in p. 77. The verb forbear is followed by
an InGjiitiYG, forbear to speak, p. 83. The old Adverbial
wander, as in wunder strong, is now replaced; wonderful
elegantly stands in p. 224. The by is dropped after a
Comparative, he was not the richer one halpenny, p. 231, like
the old a hundredfold more.
Among the Romance words are inferiors, declamation,
elocution, retain a \2iwyQV, pleadings, exordium, civilian (lawyer),
grumble, battle axe, to vaunt (vault), qualify, reduce, intensely,
roundes (dances), altercation, unities, with effect, maniac, mania,
adult, adolescence, cou/ntermand, good people (men), definition,
frugality, insignia, in a rage, tract of time (mora), tirmrosity,
valiance (valiantness), scale walls, goal, consolidate, intimation,
enterlace, vegetative, exquisite (of torments), sophisms, obstinacy,
to forage. We have rejected Elyot's verbs erogate and radi-
cate. He adverts to a strange sense of the word commoner
in p. 2 ; this is applied to burghers who are neither alder-
men nor sheriflfs. There are two different senses of engine
in pp. 25 and 179, machine and subtUty ; it was confused
with gin. The word property gets a further meaning, that
of our propriety, p. 41; we are happy here in having both
470 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
the Latin form and its French corruption to express two
distinct ideas. The old tuUyr (guardian) now gets the usual
sense of the word in our day, a director of study, p. 44.
In p. 80 affectum stands for partiaUty; while in p. 136,
what we call the affections of the mind, appear as the
affectes ; but in p. 222 obstinacy is called an affection. The
verb commit gets a new technical sense, a judge commits
to prison, p. 124. In p. 137 the Adjective individual is
opposed to pMiCy much as personal was to be used seventy
years later. In p. 147 we hear that with hounteousness
(liberality) bounty is diminished; the latter noun seems
here to be at last connected with almsgiving. In p. 264
the four Gospels are one context of an history ; the word is
not yet used in our sense, the circumstance of old. A ma,n
of honour in p. 269 means only a man held in honour for
his rank or richea There is the phrase to despatch matters.
The word rythm appears in p. 41, connected with metre
and harmony j this was later to encroach on the Teutonic
rims.
There are many definitions in Elyot ; projit is our weal,
p. 2 j a thema is the head of a declamationy p. 36. He
usurps the word maturity ^ p. 73, to express the mean be-
tween sluggishness and haste. He says that providence^ p.
76, is so noble a thing that it is attributed to God as well
as to Kings ; industry had not been used in English so long
as providence^ and the former in 1531 meant "speedy in-
vention," p. 76. The word modesty (moderation) had not
been known in English until very lately, p. 83 j discretion
was the name improperly given to this virtue. A mild
man was wrongly said to be "of a great modesty;" man-
suetudCy according to Elyot, would here have been the right
term to use, p. 84 ; wise men are exhorted to receive the
new word. The quality humanity , p. 133 (it now means
something higher than courtesy), is said to be made up of
benevolence, beneficence, and liberality. The second of
these qualities can be taken only in a good sense; the
third may mean sheer prodigality. The vice ingratitude
was commonly called unkindness, p. 156. In p. 185 the
word faith is applied to our confidence in God ; trtist to our
III. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 47 1
confidence in our fellow-men, and this becomes credence in
contracts ; a servant or subject shows fdelUy^ or the new
revived French term loyalty to his sovereign or master ; I
may here remark that sovereign is now no longer applied
to the master of a servant ; and the term loyaly as used by
Barclay (the old lei is no longer found in the South), seems
to have been a new importation from France. Elyot speaks
of repulse in p. 216, which the vulgar call "putting back
from promotion." The word magnanimity had just been
brought in, p. 218; but some opponents of change, we
hear, were content with nothing out of their accustomed
mumpsimus. The names of sobriety and frugality were
strange to all but Latin scholars, p. 245 ; s6bret6 had
certainly been used in Kent all but 200 years earlier. In
p. 252 sapience is called a more elegant word than wisdom.
In p. 258 intelligence, we are told, is used for an elegant
word, especially in messages between princes ; Elyot is not
satisfied with understa/nding when he wishes to express
intelledus. The Latin calumnia was Englished by detraction,
p. 271. In p. 274 a broad line is drawn between cornisd
and consultation, Elyot uses the new French verb fatigue
as weU as Barclay's Latin fatigate. There is a curious
survival of an old French adverbial phrase in par amoms,
p. 249 ; it had long been known in England. Nowhere
more clearly than in Elyot's work is seen the vast influence
that Latin and Greek were to have upon English ; Henry
VIII. (Preface, xxiv.) admired the book, and rejoiced in
this augmentation of our language ; the best thoughts of
Aristotle were now brought within the reach of all.
Elyot, in p. 84, declares that England had hitherto lagged
behind France, Italy, and Germany, in the matter of trans-
lations from Greek and Latin. He says, in p. 73, that
some words, lately come out of Italy and France, had been
made denizens in England.
He tells us, in p. 55, that the hunting of the fox with
running hound is not to be compared with other sports,
being much inferior ; it is used in deep winter, when other
game is unseasonable. There was an alarming waste of
poultry, which were used up in feeding hawks, p. h^. He
472 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
gives the saying, " he that sweareth deep, sweareth like a
lord," p. 87 ; the phrase long' afterwards was "drunk as
a lord." The oath by the Mass had become so simple a
thing that the nobles had abandoned it to the common
folk, p. 196.
Elyot (Preface, x.) was the author of a work called
*the lyttle Pasquill;' the first instance, I think, of the
Eoman Pasquino appearing in England.
George Joy brought out an Apology to Tyndale in
1535 (Arber's Keprint), the apology being a sharp invec-
tive. Here we see magry (maugre), to cyte (quote) ; it is
the old asciie; the forms jnstle (epistola) and soiUis (animsB)
are still in constant use. The foreign Defuisch is written
Dewche, showing the old German sound of the word, lliere
is vysard, p. 44, with a new letter at the end. Among the
Substantives are fore leader^ p. 18; we see why the fore
horse is called a leader. The classics appear as the tongues,
p. 11 ; here the old tung imitates a French form. The
noun eriseer is coined (one who sees into), p. 20. We hear
of swimming with a corke, p. 23. The adjective sleyght
(parvus) has now made its way to London from the North.
There is the phrase / said so (as) muche (all this), p. viii.
Among the Verbs videtur appears in a new guise ; he
wolde seme to JlUte, p. 47 ; this differs from the it sholde
seme that of 1400. There are the phrases put his name
thereto, col it agein into his hande (withdraw it from circula-
tion), sette a boke (in print, p. 20), mnk at it, steke to^it
(hsBrere). There is the curt Passive Participle admitted
that, etc., yet, p. 14. We see the new verb, to englisshe a
word, p. 9.
The Dutch coin staver appears in p. 22. Among the
Komance words are cavilladon, derive, absurdities, yronious
(ironical), places (passages of his writing), concordances, table
(at the end of a book), prints (editions of a book), to exagger,
exasperate, impinge (impute), refrigery, accidence (grammar).
What we call crotchetty disposition was known in 1535 as
curiositie, p. x We see text, note, glose, scholia, all in p. 23;
elsewhere a text is used for a verse of Scripture. The
Latin gavdium is Englished by the gavdye (joy) in p. 18 ;
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 473
hence the gavdy day at our Universities. The word tomh^
is used for tnck^ p. 25 ; these two nouns ran a parallel
course. There is the strange phrase Im comm sends, p. 36.
There is the new word antithesis, p. 17, which is so new
that it is explained by English words. The two rival
scholars debated fiercely the meaning of resurrectio, p. 10.
Many of the Letters on the Suppression of the Monasteries
(Camden Society) were written between 1528 and 1537.
We may remark the Northern phrases of the well-known
Dr. Layton ; he has vara (very), anemjpsce (anent) ; he is
one of the last to use other for the Latin aut He continues
the delicacy first observable in England about 1300; for
he turns into Latin his account of certain filthy vices of
the monks, when writing to Cromwell, p. 97. This great
minister himself, though a Surrey man, writes aige, not
age ; the Northern pronunciation was pushing its way to
London. We see the verb aleyne (our aliene), p. 86. The
ow (French ou) was getting the sound of 0, for a well-known
Bishop often writes his name Barlo, The Abbey of Bewley,
near Oxford, was still known as Royallyefu^ P- 73 ; here the
oy bears the sound of French ou ; but Vale Royal is still
written Valerayall, p. 245. The great Duns Scotus becomes
Dunce in p. 71; the Abbey of Jervaux is written Jarvaxe,
p. 164 ; X might still bear the sound of s.
Among the new Substantives are idler, wonderment,
monkery ; we read of sheytes of paper, at dethes doore, the
trade (cursus) of worldly things, p. 104, fine growndes
(pastures), p. 158. We see the old form AllsowUen College
at Oxford, p. 70 ; such a Southern form could never have
lasted at Cambridge till this time. In the work before us
the phrase New Learning is used for the ideas opposed to
Koman doctrine, not for the ideas of Erasmus ; this usage
began about 1532, and lasted long; see pp. 14 and 216.
Among the Adjectives there is the old form costlow
(costly). In p. 129 an adjective is made a substantive,
dyvers worshyppfulles. We see at utermoste, p. 72, referring
to time, where we should say, at the outside.
Among the Verbs are wede out brethren, she bestyrrede Mr
stumjns. The verb rove takes the sense of errare, p. 108 ;
474 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Gower's rover (pirata) had already appeared. There is the
curious idiom, on Sondaye was senyghte I delivered^ etc., p.
90 ; here the was is soon to disappear.
Among the Adverbs, are learning goes forwardes (goes on),
p. 73, an old phrase. An abbot talks of coming wpwardes,
p. 245 ; that is, up to London. An abbey is said to be
behynde hande (in debt), p. 155 ; Palsgrave's the before the
noun is here struck out.
As to Prepositions, they are often dropped altogether,
as v/nworthye a cure, p. 103, to trust men, p. 156, ryde
downe one syde (of Yorkshire), and cum wp the other, p. 156 ;
here a through must be dropped after downe and up. Some-
times it is the noun that is dropped after a preposition, as
two thousand sheep or very nere, p. 151 (very near that
number). We see hys name is to it, p. 10, keys to the dore,
p. 67, indebted in great somm^es, p. 105. The of, not off, is
used to express distance in within ten miles of U, p. 157.
Among the Eomance words are undecised (undecided),
sertyfycat, sinisterly, disafeded (unwilling, p. 33), porter's
lodge, stipend, guadrani court (quadrangle), filial, decerU (be-
coming), interestes, donor. The old verb ensue becomes in-
transitive in p. 32, just as we use it The verb attempt
(make trial of) is applied to a person, p. 53 ; we now use
it only of things. The word desperate is used as a term of
abuse, p. 76 ; a desperate knave. Something unpleasant is
called a tragedie, p. 76. A former possessor is called a quorir
dam, p. 93 ; we hear of the seniors of a convent ; other
Latin phrases are alter ego, ex tempore, A man does a thing
exteryally and really, p. 161; the last adverb, a novelty,
means " in outward act," as we see by the context The
word comynes (commons) is used of fields in p. 151. The
title of honour, the kinges majesty, was now beginning to
supplant the former, the king's highness; see p. 141.
In 'Ellis' Letters,' between 1525 and 1537, we remark
how strongly the e was sounded in Alain (Archbishop
Allen), reaport ; there is also Padway (Padua). The a
trespasses on other letters ; there is Larans for Laurence,
showing one sound of the old au, and the origin of the
Irish Larry, so diflferent from the Scotch Lowry ; there is
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 475
tihe verb oM for Layamon's 'Men ; here perhaps there was
a confusion with the French. The initial a is clipped; we
read of a merchant ventrer, not adventurer. The e is
dropped, when Chanslar is written for chancellor. We see
Beauty written for Beaulieu, much as its last syllable is
sounded now; there is the name Feyto, borne by the future
Cardinal, a name coming from Feytow, Foitou. There is
Tunstall's foloyth (sequitur), showing how the 0 and the
y were disjoined. We see pleseture, something like our
present sound of the word. Anne Boleyn is styled Marcus
Pembroke, a contraction of Chaucer's markisesse.
As to Consonants, Cromwell often writes Gipsrmch,
where we now clip the first letter ; there are both sawer
and savryer. There are the two forms Milnar and MUler,
referring to one man. The r is struck out, for there
are rubysshe and Bamacastetl ; Barnard Castle is still pro-
nounced something like this by the natives. The w in
Cromwell's name is struck out, as Cromell; the Irish still
talk of the curse of Crummel. The old surely is now spelt
slwwrly by Queen Mary, Henry's sister, much as we now
sound the word, though the old form sowr comes directly
afterwards.
Among the new Substantives is draye (plaustrum).
We hear of red dere, fowle (chicken), ^uild foule. There
are the phrases my wind was shorty gone over the waiter,
(mare), a good dische (cibus), his ma/ner of going (going on),
bord wagis, Eastell, More's brother-in-law, talks of the
trade of my living (printing and pleading) ; this trade was
beginning to supplant the old craft. A man says that he
has paid litel lak of 5, etc ; we should now substitute short
for laJc. A man talks of compounding many waters; hence
our "strong waters." The use of things in our "state of
things " is curious ; we here see the condicion of tJie things ther.
Among the Adjectives we see the expression, "the
thickest of the theves," " a rawe sort of religious persons,"
in this last instance the adjective is transferred from
things to men. Pole, being a favourite with foreigners, is
called " their wyte God ; " in Ireland they still talk of
" their white-headed boy."
476 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
As to Pronouns, we see the phrase / have yours, where a
letter of is suppressed. One letter ends, your owne to the
most of his power and dayely orator. The it is repeated in
hitt was never mery in Ingland since, etc. One of the Irish
Butlers writes, " he is his right hand, and who but he;" a
curious new phrase (Series ii., vol. ii. p. 48).
Among the Verbs we find bind him prentis, strike it out,
begin the world again, go from my promise, make no dowt but,
believe the best of him, see no necessitee, why, etc., put into print,
make ruffding (trouble), put his hand to it (sign it), put it in
their heads, she wUl sit upon my skyrtes. The Earl of Oxford,
when fox-hunting in 1533, let his friends see game (sport).
Series iil, vol. i p. 339. There is the phrase the mme shame
to him, where is is dropped. The well-known Father
Forrest, being ungrammatical, is said to " brdce Master
Precyens (Priscian's) hede." The verb bend expresses eager-
ness ; " they were bent to die.**
Among the Adverbs we see oldly (of old), / am not so
sur but, etc. ; here the so expresses valdh, as in Chaucer ;
shure (instead of surely). There is the phrase ask how nere
I had done, where nere stands for nearly, as in 1280. We
have a new phrase for " being a knave ; " like the false knave
that I was, where like is not wanted. Complaint is made
of a haughty Dean, who enters into my ground lyke an
hemprotvr (emperor).
Among the Prepositions are found "ride in poste to ; "
here we now drop in.
We see the Bomance porsuits, evict, label, ineptione
(folly), comyssary, post horses, p»y day, accidents (evil occur-
rences), rapts (raptures), he is fyxed to have it, have course
(coursing of greyhounds), dowagier, the scope (aim), plede
gyltye, engenious, utensUes, to abuse them selvys (peccare), it
succedeth well with him. We read of blake rent (mail) in
connexion with Ireland; jugemerd stands for wisdom. The
verbs inaulke and corobor are borrowed from the Latin ; to
these we now add ate. Cromwell's son, a lad about thir-
teen, is called Maister Gregory ; the first time that this
title is applied to a boy as we use it now. Men are in
trouble ; that is, harassed. We have a cluster of strange
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 477
words in Series iii., vol. ii p. 242, rnrnke, catt^ rnunkkeyy
cambryk, and -three potts of erthe payntid callyd Porseland
(porcelain). The word placard, as in Flanders, is used for
government orders. Both minds are satisfied, and arguments
are satisfied ; that is, answered. About this time the lesser
Monasteries were being dissolved ; we therefore light
upon the words ruinxms, deface, suppress, hill of sale ; Legh
is called a director (visitor) of Monasteries. An apparatus
for a sham monastic miracle is called a m/mage. Young
Cromwell takes lessons in the naturdl and true Tcynde of
pronuntiacion (of English).
Many documents are printed by Foxe, ranging from
1525 to 1537. Among the Substantives we rem&rkforlom
hope (milites). The suffix ling is used in a scornful sense ;
as Twrldling, blindling ; fledgeling was to come later. We
see the Verbal Noun grazing ; also Audlay's old phrase, the
livings of parsons, iv. 611, though the old form liflode is
still found. We have at the first blvsh ; me, for lack of, a
better.
Among the verbs we see Skelton's snap (here put for
snatch, v. 78). There is rip up injuries, bolster up, put two
(reasons) together, keep a good tongue in his head. The
Chancellor applies the jingle wedded and bedded to Queen
Katherine and her first husband.
We see the phrase stand unto it, where unto supplants
the old by.
Bonner repeats the proverb of 1400 ; Good wine needeth
no tavern-bush to utter it, v. 78.
Among the Romance words are assuredness, requisites,
trumpery, in all events, conduct (sapientia); the Emperor's
party are called the Imperials. Frith talks of surging seas
and their bdr. More uses the verb pule. In iv. 697
Tunstall uses the noun tryal for endeavour ; a sense hardly
ever found in this Century ; our try was gaining the sense
of conari, besides that of eamninare; the connecting link
between the two senses seems to be " try your hand on,"
etc. We read of a budget of books ; the word had formerly
meant only a purse. Bayfield, who was a priest, talks of
reading a common lecture in a church ; that is, preaching a
478 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
sermoa Sadler writes of ballads and infamous libds ; this
last noun was beginning to gain an evil meaning. We see
tract; but it here means rrwra. We have seen the
Northern verb tent formed from tendo ; we have now the
new meaning tend (incKne). Wolsey (writing in his
Master's name) sends a depeach to his agents at Rome, a
model of bad EngUsh, iv. 601 ; among his words are re-
integrate^ excogitate^ jadurey catitete,facUy,trtdinateyj9oUicitationSy
presidie, pmtlanim; he talks of men sure to the King's
devotion, a new sense of the last word. Foxe says he will
make his readers some pastime, in beholding the glorious
style of this vain-glorious Cardinal; our gross terms are
too low for the high Prelate. Foxe translates the Cardinal's
new-fangled accede by cotm, indue by not due, demore by tarry.
When Foxe comes to impesse, he says, "Search here thy
dictionaries, good reader ! for this eloquence passeth my
intelligence." Wolsey's first sentence in this despatch is,
I think, the longest sentence (out of a law deed) ever
written in EngUsL
In Wood's 'Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies,'
vol. ii., we see the curious form Salopshire, p. 167. A blast
stands for "slander," p. 55. A letter is signed "by the
rude^< of your seWant," p. 23; this phrase is stiU used
in connexion with writing. A lady complains that she is in
a taking, p. 90, where we should use predicament; the old
phrase is used by Cranmer about this time. The address
yow ladyship is now in constant use; also good Tnadam,
addressed to an aunt by marriage, p. 90. A lady signs a
letter, by yours ever assured, p. 228 ; there is in p. 120 you
be mu^h his friend, A girl overgrows her apparel, a new
verb, p. 217. Instead of farewell, we see fare you well,
where the Pronoun is not wanted, p. 51. ITiere is / dare
be bovmd for her (I'll be bound), p. 81 ; go high, in bidding,
p. 166; m time coming, p. 288. A man sticks (to be dis-
charged), p. 108 ; hence our stickle. As to the Prepositions,
we see "within one mile of me;" " she was out of apparel;"
" to the best of my power."
As to the Romance words, the old praise, meaning
cestimare, now becomes appraise, p. 164. The word resign,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 479
no Accusative following, was brought into fashion by the
dissolution of the Monasteries, p. 153. Anne Boleyn
writes in behalf of a York monk, one domjpTie John Eldmer,
p. 191 ; the old monk's title dan or don seems to have
paved the way for the Scotch dominie. The title Mistress
Bridget is used of a little giri, a Lord's daughter, p. 213.
There was much disputing as to whether the Lady Mary
should have the rather new title of Princess, We hear of
a case being proved against a person, p. 34, meaning
" charge of misconduct." A man, who wants a priest, is
provided, p. 58 ; I have heard in Scotland people, with
their plates full, say, "I am provided." There are the
words convalescent, sl moderate sennon, p. 187, middle aged,
rosewater, a lord^s creation robes, p. 104, a sm^U remain (not
yet the Plural remains), p. 108, two changes (of raiment),
p. 313, a pUl, given to the Lady Mary, p. 245. There
is my Lord Privy Seal ; esquire for the body to the King,
In Cranmer's * Eemains and Letters ' (Parker Society) of
this time, he calls himself a poor wretch, when writing to the
King, p. 237. There is free school, yofwr good lady, new
lernyd men (Protestants), p. 302 ; the old skilled,'^, 264, no
longer means segregatus, as in 1440, but callidus, as in our
time. An official takes depositions, p. 253 ; I am beholding
to is written instead of beholden to, p. 237. Cranmer, when
ambassador in Germany, talks of the boors (peasants), re-
viving Lydgate's borrowed phrase. Among the Eomance
words are gratuity (favour, a word that comes often),
monstral (monstrance), preclude, relinquish, enjcmvy (praise),
the Plural vkms chorals, prosecute an enterprise.
In Todd's *Life,' p. 171, Cranmer gives the first hint
of the change taking place in the word cwrate, about 1637;
it may here mean an assistant appointed to the cure, not
merely a parish priest. In p. 204 Cranmer talks of a suspicums
letter ; that is, containing ground for suspicion.
In Latimer's * Eemains ' (Parker Society) of this time,
we see how common was the phrase New Learning, p. 318,
applied to Protestantism, not to the ideas of Erasmus.
There is mine outward man (corpus), p. 331 ; and the old
^pinner (aranea). Latimer speaks of a small bull of the
48o THE NEW ENGLISH. [ohap.
Pope's he has found as a bidlock. He first, I think, used
the term mother^ts, p. 338, meaning the knowledge we
have from Mother Nature. He talks of the small of his
back, p. 386. He uses the phrases take chalk for cheese,
lay a train and trap before me, p. 324, lose my paMence ; the
verb clog stands in p. 372, which perhaps comes from the
idea of being daubed with day, A man is too cocket with
his promotion, p. 380 ; this is a halfway step between the
verb cokerin (fovere) of 1440 and our cocky. Latimer says
that Henry VHI., on being asked as to certain benefices
being conferred on certain priests, answered no more than
give'em, give 'em, p. 376. The preacher is fond of the form
alonely ; a certain divine is (stands) alone in handling
Scripture, p. 389. Barclay's new phrase, what a man!
now leads to what a great fool am 1/ p. 385. Among the
Eomance words we see " have your quiettis est " (quittance
or pardon), p. 309, inhibit a preacher, in very deed, remiss,
fiction (deceit). What we call a tour was in Latimer's day
a. progress; a very obscure man may go a progress, p. 365.
Some of the triumphal shows in Henry the Eighth's time
may be seen described in Arber's * English Garner,' vol. ii.
The old poesy is made posy in p. 49 ; it here refers to
rimes, not to flowers, a much later sense. The old fane
(vexillum) changes its first letter and becomes vane (on a
turret), p. 49. We find gunshot, cupbearer. The sundry
still bears its old sense of separatus in p. 58. There
is Switzer, p. 37, very difi*erent from Tyndale's form
Souchenar,
In Halliwell's 'Letters of the English Kings' of this
time, Henry VIII. talks of a man keeping a woman, an
evident importation from France, p. 316 ; he puts pen to a
book, p. 355. Among his Eomance phrases are incestuous,
vote it to us, crown Imperial (of England), ladies of honour
(rank), others of your sort, in such sort that, silence them, justness,
A Yorkshireman, Sir Francis Bygod, who was soon to
die a traitor's death, wrote a small book against impropria-
tions in 1535 ; in this he, like a true subject of the burly
Tudor, reviles the Pope, attacks monastic abuses, and is
loud in praise of the Mass. He declares that his doctrine
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 481
is 7W n&we lernynge ; the Grospel must go forward in his right
trade ; this word still bears its Northern sense of mrsus,
as in Wyntoun. Bygod has "your fathers were wyse,
both tagge and rag ;^^ that is, one and all. Abbey lovies or
lubbers were to become proverbial; the former noun is
new. Monks have sure stakes to stand with; the verb
stake had already been used by Palsgrave. Among the
verbs we see put out of the waye, stand at yowr negativey come
short home of it ; here we drop the noun. We see vycarage^
parson's mancion (the Scotch rrumse), to object. There is a
pun on monster and rrwnastery ; Bygod addresses my mmsters
impropriated or improper maisters, and talks of a Sir John
Lackelatin, He tells us of a common phrase in his day,
" such a prioress is parson here."
A few things to be remarked may be found in the
documents of this time in the * History of the Earls of
Kildare.' We see the name O'Brien written 0 Brene^
showing that the ie must have once been sounded like
French i, p. 179. Gerald Fitzgerald might be written
Garret Fiz Garret, p. 200. What was called a moustache
forty years later appears here as an upper berde, p. 98. A
person is spoken -of as a rebel's rigM hand, p. 196; we
should now add man. There is the phrase, in p. 193, kepe
him so under, that, etc. We hear of the Provust Marshall,
p. 156. One sign of Latin influence is that traitor is
written traditour, p. 146. We have a curious list (p. 327)
drawn up in 1526 of the books possessed by the Earl of
Kildare ; these are Latin, French, English, and Irish.
» Some pieces in * Dodsley's Plays ' (Hazlitt's Edition)
belong to this time ; see pp. 70 and 401. Here is the con-
traction wertnot for were it not, p. 75 ; this kind of shortening
was to go on throughout the Century. The ]> (it is most
unusual) replaces d; for we find thumper from the
old dump, just as faith replaced the French feid. There
are the new substantives a wanton, a loser, Thersites says
that he is sick of his mother, a new phrase. There is they
give me the wall, p. 401, the battle shall bepight, p. 404, the
first hint of a pitched battle. In p. 423 stands it is too too,
the pastime; a phrase revived in our day. We have the new
VOL. I. 2 1
482 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Adverb amain, and the Interjection ho,ho/ the howe, howe^
of 1400. There is sillabub, from the Scandinavian swell
bmk (swell-belly). Among the Eomance phrases are bevy
of maidens, a word no longer applied to animals; this
is a sure ca/rd, this piece of work, p. 363 ; the word slave is
revived in England, after a long sleep.
In 1538 Bale wrote a tragedy, in seven acts, called
* God's Promises;' it may be found in Marriott's * Miracle
Plays,' p. 223. There are the old forms up so downe and
trone, not throne, p. 246. We see sty eke unto a thing.
There are wynde pypes and humayne, our human, p. 245.
In Collier's * Dramatic Poetry,' vol. ii., there is a piece
written about 1640; here we see kokscome, which was
worn by a fool, p. 258 ; there is the verb twydle, which
seems to be connected with tunrl.
In the * Letters on the Suppression of the Monasteries '
(Camden Society) are many that range between 1537 and
1640. There is the old form Glowsetur, p. 196, and our
new Gloscetur, p. 193. Another town appears as Leycettour,
An Abbess contracts halfpenny woiih into halporthe, p. 231.
A famous Herefordshire house appears as both Skidmore
Skud Scvdamore, Among the Substantives is hege row; the
word mynch (monacha) is still used in the South, p. 228,
as in Layamon's time. The new phrase, the halff blodd,
appears in p. 286. The words day and law seem to have
been used without distinction about this time ; a man is
given three years' c?ay to do something, p. 277. The word
pretty is used ironically in p. 198; some monkish crimes
are called praty besynes. Chancellor Audley talks of
good and goodly air. There are the new phrases fmd the
menys to, etc., p. 205, mak his hand (make a purse for him-
self), p. 234. A man draws up a calculation so ner as I
can knowe, p. 210; hence was to come "a near guess."
The Eomance words are implementes (furniture), transpose
(translate a see), renterowle, trynket, burglary, sayntly, incongrue
(unfit), the rates, inveigle, haul treason. The old gilofre ap-
pears as gdofer flower, p. 172. The phrase the relygyon is
employed for monk's profession, almost for the last time,
in p. 197. The word improve is used in our sense, p. 257.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 483
The phrase sireyn himself is applied to Edward VI. not
long after his birth, p. 246. The word comyt (committee)
appears in p. 239.
In Tunstairs famous sermon on the Supremacy in 1639,
the preacher shows his Northern origin by the form chylder
(pueri). We see the new form ye^ ye^ not yea, yea; this
paved the way for the spread of the form aye (yes) ;^ there
is also race (cursus), ialtered from the old rces; this word here
used in its modem sense seems due to the North. There
Are the forms the most hardest of all, from one place to another
moche lyke (the first place). We see the new phrase have
Twught to saye for hym selfe. The old English Negative,
rejected by Tyndale, is continued j iw miserie never was, nor
none can be. Men swear at everye worde, a new use of the
at The French words are problem, superioritie, compov/nder
of strife. Tunstall divides the Ten Commandments in the
Protestant, not in the Eoman fashion, which is curious.
Tyndale's repent^ you is also preferred to the old do pen-
ance. The well-known future Cardinal appears as Kaynolde
Pole.
Nicholas Udall in 1542 translated the * Apophthegms
of Erasmus;' I have used the reprint by Mr. Koberts in
1877. Our author abounds in Northern phrases and forms;
many of his new words appear afterwards in Foxe. He
is fond of ea, as feacte and to treact ; the old pietee (pity)
is still retained. The e is suppressed, as battree, battring.
The oy replaces 0, a&joyly (hilaris), p. 153 ; this must have
been an attempt at deriving jolly from joy. The French is
imitated when vs is needlessly added to a word, as doggue,
pangue ; of this our tongue is a survival; there is also
publiqm / eguall (equal) is a compromise between Latin and
French. The t becomes th, as aucthour for auctor. The h
is inserted, from a false analogy, in livelehood (opes), p. 358 ;
we saw livelyhed in 1470 standing for the old liflode. The
b is struck out ; Skelton's gambon becomes gammounde, p.
100. The r is struck out ; the old torple becomes topple, p.
165 ; the r is added, as mndor (fenestra), p. 134. The n
^ In Northam Church, near Biddeford, I read an inscription of
1593 on one of the pillars ; this has yeU for aisle.
484 THE NEW ENGLISH. [ohap.
is struck out; riapTon makes way for aperen string, p. 118.
The I is added j huh lone becomes hucclehone, p. 185.
Among the new Substantives are livelinesses mongrelj
catesy haver (possessor), blockehed, slepinesSy sugar lofe, handy
gripes (handgrips, p. 209), day time, ynkehorne termes (fine
language), a hanging matter^ fore fynger, beggerliness, hob-
goblin, harier, buckhound, brewage, Suycerlaride, p. 307.
There are phrases like a fovl shame, not a rag to hang
about him, be at thine elbow, rrum of feme vxrrdes, the botome
of his harte, a peck of troubles. The word tuitte in p. xxiii.
stands for something that provokes laughter; Hey wood
had already shown the new meaning taken by the term.
The word toy had already meant a trifle or a folly ; it
now stands for a play on words, p. 115; and in p. xxiv.
it expresses joke. The word weight is used morally as well
as physically ; a good speaker gives weighte to his sayings,
p. xix. The word sleight, lowered in meaning, is used of a
juggler's tricks, p. 31 ; we are not far from sleight of hand.
The word way stands for knack or trick; in p. 185 a man has
the waie to take profit of his enemies ; in p. 225 grooms
have not the waies to handle a horse. The best of the dice,
in casting, was called the cock, p. 186 ; hence " cock of the
school" Dunbar's odds are much developed here; too far
odds (too great inequality) is a favourite phrase; oddes is used
as a synonym for difference in p. 282, as in our " what's the
odds ] " The word shift implies " power of usefulness " in
p. 119 ; a woman is of small shift, whence came the later
shiftless. The word hom^ is used in a new sense; "pay
horns a debt," p. 120, "pay a man home a jest," p. 245 ;
hence the later strike horns. The word match means simply
a comparison that may be made, p. 252 ; in p. 370 a match
means " a brace of equals." The verb reach gives birth to
a substantive bearing the same meaning ; we see above our
reach, p. 11. We have seen at the next doore by in 1500;
we now have, in p. 41, be nexte doore by a thing, or neocte
cousin to a thing; we now say, "next door to." There
are new diminutives ; Udall has not only hillock, but
rottocke, a little rod, p. 174; the Northern bittock is well
known. The Greek paidion is Englished by another
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 485
diminutive, sonneJdn, p. 233. Scott makes the English
clowns threaten Madge Wildfire with a whisterpoojp ; here in
p. 11 2 we light upon whistersnefet (ictus). The word good-
man had become so common that it was used in addressing
a person, like master or Sir ; as goodman cock ! p. 124. We
see cockescomb used for a fool, p. 118. There is Gollepixie
(fairy), p. 125 ; the last half of the word is still used in
Devonshire. The noun renneway appears in p. 135, formed
probably on the model of runagate, Udall is fond of
phrases like a dog's life^ dog weary (dog tired), dog hole.
He uses girl for meretriz in p. 154 ; the word made its way
very slowly in the South. We talk of a fooVs cap ; Udall
of z,fooles hoody p. 250. There is an imitation of sound in
play toodle loodlCy referring to a bagpipe, p. 250. The sub-
stantive goodlinesse (very dififerent from goodness) is now
formed from the adjective, p. 254. The ship is often added
to nouns to express an office, as constableshipy consulship,
CsBsar, when staking all, resolves to be m/in or mouse (make
or mar), p. 298. The old merUy still used in poetry, makes
way for blackhyrdj p. 318. Verres is said to play swepestake,
p. 359 (swept oflF all) ; we apply the word to a thing, not
to a man. Eocks may be of a steep dot/mfall, p. 151 ; the
word was to take our sense a few years later. The word
Germans begins to supplant Alm/mis or Dutchmsn,
Among the Adjectives axe ferthermosty p. 127, sguinteyed^
hokishy far seeing^ snappish. The word dry is applied to witty
jokes, p. X. ; a man rained on has never a drie thred about
him, p. 111. The seZy continues to express stultas; it is
applied to a man of no wit, a sheep's head, p. 122 ; what
we call " a poor creature " is in p. 126 a sely creature. The
shrewd now takes a new sense ; it was a shrewd likelihood,
p. 168; hence our shrewd guess; here the adjective rises
from malus to acutus, something higher, an unusual process
in English. The sound is connected with sleep, slepe soimdelyy
p. 234. Orrmin's chary (maestus) now takes the sense of
parens, p. 248, as we still use it The vfoidi fine now means
cl&vefy pp. 326 and 37 1. The affix some is used in compound-
ing, as troublesome ; also the ishy as brutish ; also the like, as
feUowlikCy giantlike. We see flat as a cakcy p. 250 ; we sub-
486 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
stitute pancake. There axe the phrases come home as vnse as
he went, p. 20, be a dedde man, p. 43, as much as his life is
woorthe, p. 87, in open court. There is a curious instance of
the substantive being dropped after the adjective in give as
good as he brought, p. 139, give hym as good againe, p. 19.
The word cheap is rapidly becoming an adjective, it is cheape
inough, p. 19. The old on lif (alive) now gives birth to a
new adjective, a live dog, p. 286. Tlie snattid of 1440 now
gives birth to snatnosed, p. 260 ; Mr. Snatt was one of the
divines who, in the next Century, absolved Fenwick on
the scaffold.
As to the Pronouns, the Dative me is used most freely
here, as also in Ascham ; he chopped me it in sender, p. 258,
he flounced (ruit) me into the flood, p. 207 ; here the me
refers to the narrator. Udall is fond of using his to
express the Genitive, as Ffato his pillows, p. 82. The a is
used for an (one), as drink all at a draught, p. 33. The one
(aliquis) is freely used ; make one have an appetite, p. 131 ;
the Genitive of this appears, come to ones handes, p. 223.
There is a new phrase for nescio quid in p. 151 ; some great
thing, whatsoever it was. There is the pleonasm, the verie
self same, p. 38. The all is added to round off a sentence,
the best of them all, p. 29. There is the phrase I have half a
guess (I rather think), p. 123. We see a new synonym for
multum, better by a great waie, p. 149. There is the new
phrase be myne owne maister, p. 322 ; this had been earlier
man, not master. The Numeral is used much like a noun,
a sixe at dice, p. 186 j we talk now of flvers and tenners,
making the Numeral an unmistakable noun.
Among the Verbs are to gossip, to twang, flag, streighten,
ear up (plough up), unfleshed. There are the phrases keep
foote vnth (keep up with), p. 8, much good do it him / stand
(consist) with reason, set spurs to, swing in a halter, take
his heels, take him to his heels, picked men, make his dinner,
ring in his ears, like a drouned rat, fight the field (battle),
put him to a galop, stand for office, beat it into him, make
the most of, make the best of, hope the best, call a counsil,
take a walk, have a fling at him, stricken in love. The verb
be, as we saw before, had acquired the sense of go; it is
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 487
followed by the Infinitive, Ae hod hem to see it, -p. 151.
There is a change in drovm in p. 65 ; -^gina drowned the
beauty of Athens ; Udall notes this as a peculiar English
phrase ; we now say that one colour kills another. The
verb bait (lacessere) had been applied to animals ; it is now
used of men, p. 120, reviled by their enemies. The word
cut now means ire as well as secare; ships cut between
Scylla and Charybdis, p. 133; the verb, used in this
sense {mt along) is still reckoned slang after 340 years,
though we may write a short cut The verb make gets the
sense of voder e ; he made upon them, p. 296 ; Patten uses
this a few years later. The verb take is used much in the
same way; take after the Prince, p. 296, se gerere. The
verb wed is not confined to marriage ; wedded to his faction,
p. 311. A man is done with age, p. 364 ; this reminds us
of Virgil's made confecta. The Past Pai'ticiple wont (solitus)
had long been known ; we now see worded, which is used
as an adjective, p. 33. We cry, go it, to boys when fight-
ing; Udall uses go to on b, similar occasion, p. 27. A man
is made blank (discomfited), p. 67 ; we say, look blank,
Udall has in p. 87 " whoso hath stepped forth and sette
in foote to take," etc. ; hence comes our rather different
set on foot a plan ; the sette in in the first sentence seems to
mQdi^n proferre, A man setles him selfe to dwell, p. 130;
hence our settler. The old adjective rakel (promptus), from
a mistaken analogy, gives birth to the phrase to rake hell,
p. 130. There is the Shakesperian go hang thyself, p. 145.
In p. 192 a person stards to be sold ; hence our stand to win,
A man is worthy thirty kings set together, p. 269 ; we now
substitute put for set. The verb trade had become so
common within the last few years that we see untraded
(unpractised), p. 194. In p. 230 stands she may do much
with him; here the verb seems to mean valere (dugan)
rather than facere. There is go so far that, etc., p. 259 ;
we should substitute as to for that, Caesar, blushing,
shows a red pair of cheeks, p. 278; hence show a clean pair
of heels. The torture of the brakes seems to be hinted at
in the verb enbrake (hamper), p. 286. The people are not
hushed but whished, p. 381; the Northern whist/ had
488 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
influence here. There is the Participle hungresterved, p.
319 ; in time the hunger was here to be dropped. In p.
336 one orator takes up (interrupts) another; hence in
class a clever boy takes up a dull boy. In p. 364 men
bear off (ward oflF) a blow with a buckler ; hence our carry
off an awkward situation. There is a new idiom in p.
373, he escaped being delivered into his hands ; here a from
should be the third word.
Udall likes to form Adverbs by adding ly to a Present
Participle, as quippingly, nippingly; gentlemanJike and lesu/rly
are also used as Adverbs, though soldiarlikCf p. 53, is an
Adjective. . In p. xxiii. stands ever now and then ; we now
make the first word every. There are the new as though,
not so moche as (not even), turn the tale in and out (inside
out), p. 263. We see a new use of ever in p. 108; a
mad rekening as ever I heard. There are new phrases for
onrnino; every inche of him, p. 213; a city is destroyed,
bothe sticke and stone, p. 215.
Among the Prepositions we see out of all comparison, put
him in trust vMh matters, out of padence. The through is
made the last word; whole nightes through, p. 367. The
for had followed an adjective and thus introduced the
Infinitive ; it now need not follow an adjective ; for us to
be offended appear eth like, etc., p. v. ; formerly this would
have been thai we shoud be offended, etc.
We see ka kal p. 342, the noise of the crow; and foh,
Skelton's/o/ is an expression of disgust, in p. 356.
We have here the Scandinavian log, flash, skragge (a lean
fellow), p. 301, to flounce, to scud.
The Dutch minneken gave rise to minx, p. 143, here used
of a lady's lapdog.
Among the Komance words are to pouther, poinaumi
(poignant), a president (precedent), induction (in reasoning),
recorders (instruments), storehous, indewment (endowment),
practike (practical), coungre (conger eel), gra/nd, cross-bars,
collision, position (assertion), to border on, tropic, gudgeon,
urbanitie, stratagem, to license to him, forceably, the collections
of Plutarch, awaals, to cloy. There are the phrases in
open face of the world, with what face, vein of merrynes, to
ui.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 489
sochepass, use his discretion^ piece ofplatey good stuff {of a book),
out of conceipt toith, truss up (string up, hang), mere chance,
piece of werke (a great Isihom), propound riddles, pay doun, for
this present (time), natural philosopher, the veraiest foole, pro-
perly called. Some French phrases appear ; as 0 Moun sire
Capitain / sus/ pot of vnne (bribe), p. 195, graund seigniours
(lords) ; gourmanders appears in p. 86, where we now clip
the Teutonic ending. The Latin phrases are zona torrida,
floreni (flourishing), a modicum; vice versa appears as arsie
versee, and this phrase may still be heard at Almondsbury
in Yorkshire. Udall is fond of Latin forms like feaci,
traictise, conceipt, and such like. Greek words often appear
here in their own character ; this is one of the first fruits
of the Eeformation; we, of course, see apophthegm. He
carefully defines metropolis as an Archbishop's see, p. 131.
He brings in idees (ideas), referring to Plato's well-known
theory about them, p. 138. Before this time beauty had
taken the sense of decus; grace now does the same in p.
X3d. The French poupde (baby, doll) is here used of young
dogs. The verb train now gets the sense of educare, p.
xxvi. The vfovdi point is now applied to a joke, p. 151 ; it
means a counter in a game at dice, p. 186. The new ad-
jective neat is coupled with dean in p. 62 ; in p. 32 it
means daintily dressed ; it afterwards ran side by side with
nict. The adjective pleasant is here constantly used for
sayings that are witty. The word miser, meaning wretch,
appears in p. 76; twenty years later it was to take its
present meaning. The word valour still keeps its old
meaning of worth. The vror^ justly means exactly, p. 133 ;
in p. 159 the sun W^^just over a place, a Northern phrase.
In p. 133 a Christian body means a human form; it is
applied to the monster Scylla; hence we often ctdl men
Christians. The Eoman prcenomen is called Christian name
in English, p. 339. The adjective base gets a new shade
of meaning in p. 155 ; a bastard is basse born. A full ex-
planation is given of cophin, p. 159, as the receptacle of the
carcases of noble persons. The word civilitee stands for
mildness or humanity in p. 186, also for courtesy, p. 254.
Danae is set afloat in a trounJce of wood, p. 189 ; hence our
490 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
trunh The word vUe is used of a very abject nation, p.
208. The word duty means jproper reverential aMiivde ; do
her dutie unto Alexander, p. 232. A bombastic orator rolls
(exults) in painted terms, p. 243 ; hence our " roll in
wealth," and the later rollick. The word bountie (goodness)
is now used as a synonym for generosity in giving, p. 241,^as
in Elyot ; there is also bountifulnesse. We see party constantly
employed for homo/ in p. 325 stands please all parties.
Athens is called in p. 246 the only poste to lean to; the
old sense of pillar was here soon to make way for that of
stronghold. In p. 255 briber still keeps its sense of latro.
In p. 269 memory takes the new meaning of "power of
recollecting." In the same page we hear of letters directorie
or letters of addresse ; that is, they contained both the name
of the receiver and the message conveyed ; we now make
directory a substantive. Men give their devocion (contribu-
tion) towards a religious object in p. 325 ; hence our
" devote money to." A lady is called a riche marriage^ p.
355; we should here substitute good match. In p. 371
affectation of eloquence is used for study of eloquence;
affectation, as we now use it, implies something studied
and not natural. The phrase allude to (refer to) is often
used ; it had already appeared in More. Tales are made
dmble dedde by evil handling, p. xxi. ; that is, they fall
flat; hence our **dead failure." A Eomance substantive
is turned into an adjective by simply adding ed; merie
conceipted, p. xxvL In p. 339 Cicero never did on harness
(bore arms), for the matter (his defeat of Catiline) ; hence
our common for the matter of that. Palsgrave had used
provision of meat; Udall makes provision a synonym for
vitailles, p. 94. In p. 27 Socrates is advised to use his
tenm commaundementes (ten fingers) in a brawl. The verb
counter, still used in the prize ring, is applied to combatants
in p. 46. A man does a feat trickely, p. 121 ; hence the
later adjective tricksy. There is the Shakesperian chartered
or privileged, p. 285. In p. 113 we hear of a fellow of the
Goddes abandoned, our " abandoned wretch ;" the Scotch say
of a man acting foolishly, " he was so left to himself that,"
etc. The noun pelfir (spolium) now gives birth to the verb
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 491
to ^idf (pilfer), p. 117. We see body politike in p. 172;
one of the few instances in which we still put the adjective
after the substantive. The word blank is made a substan-
tive, p. 186, and is applied to dice. A soldier Mils himself
among .the sick, p. 214; in our day an actor wishes to be
well UUed, The word square is now made a substantive ;
mt of square (the old frame), -p, 347; hence "act on the
square."
Udall uses the Northern words brethred (a brotherhood),
sprite, oulet, chary, to whish (hush), bonny; there is race,
in Tunstall's new sense ; there is Orrmin's trig, also trim as
a trencher, p. 276 ; gay is often used for fine, as a gaie
example, p. 205, gaily well broken, very Northern phrases.
There are the proverbs, the more hast the vmrst spede/ a
thing well begon is more than halfe doen ; both in p. 41. In
p. 372 stands the famous saw —
" That same man, that renneth awaie,
Male again fight, another dale."
In p. 193 a man makes his friends believe the moon to be
made of a green cheese. In p. 118 is the English phrase,
as wise as a gooce. It is possible to set the cart before the
horses, p. 359. Our saw about a grandmother and eggs
was of old, teach our dame to spinne, p. 380. A man would
have an oar in each man's boat, p. 203; our "finger in
the pie." We talk of the wrong end of the stick; in
p. 340 men have the worse end of the staff in a quarrel.
The Greek parrhesiastes is Englished by Thom trouth,
p. 202 ; this phrase is often met with in UdalFs Cen-
tury.
He wrote his play of *Kalph Eoister Bolster' (see
Arber's Eeprint) about 1550 ; it was probably meant to
be acted by his Eton boys ; the first play that deals with
English everyday life, standing halfway between the Inter-
ludes of 1500 and the Comedies of 1590. Some of
UdalFs peculiar phrases recur in this piece. The u
replaces e, as the verb justle (jostle) for the earlier gestle,
p. 48. The Latin suere is expressed by both sow, p. 19,
and by sew, p. 22. The old metal, when applied to the
492 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
1
dispositions of mankind, becomes mdth, p. 34. Caxton's
ghe&t becomes gueast, p. 11, something like our spelling
now; Bishop Guest's name, about ten years later, was
spelt most variably. The r is struck out ; we see
Margerie, Mage, and Madge, all for one person, pp. 19 and
20. Your mastership becomes your maship, p. 16, like the
later you/r La'ship. Among the new Substantives stand
Hoddydodie, p. 11, harebraine, drudgerie, a wag, my sweete
heart, loutishnesse, potgunne, p. 73 ; hence we take pot shots ;
a later variation is popgurL A man is hailed as my heart
of gold, p. 26. A girl ramps abroad like a Tom hoy, p. 37.
A message comes by toorde of mouth, p. 40. There is the
curious form hnightess, p. 78. Among the Adjectives
stand in the hotte haste, p. 12; a lady of property is worth
a thousand pound, p. 16. A mistress, when sternly re-
proving a servant, addresses her as pretie mayde, p. 37.
There is a play upon musical terms in p. 44, " Hast thou
a flat answer % " then follows, " Nay, a sharp answer." A
man puts his friend into a genteel attitude, and then says,
" So, that is somewhat like " (our something like) ; I suppose
the proper thing is dropped after like. In p. 20 stands sit
downe like a good girle. The you, which had long been
encroaching on the ye, is now found as a Vocative ; you
great calf el p. 37.
Among the Verbs are runne m/id, renne on patins (said
of the tongue), keepe within doores, play the man, A verb
is struck out in best open i/, p. 31. Something of the same
kind may be remarked in p. 42, y« a woman, and your
letter unredde? There is a new sense of m^ike in what
m^aketh he here ? p. 23, which seems to come from the
French. The verb have gets a new meaning, accipere ; no
woman wHl have him (for husband), p. 44. The word no
stands by itself as an exclamation of surprise, p. 38. A
man is farre in with a new love, p. 33 ; here we should
put on for the in; it may stand for far in love with. We
see up to the harde eares in love, p. 12. There is to it
again I p. 78, with no verb ; we find also the stem com-
mand in at dores, p. 40, with no verb. In the phrase yes,
for twentie pounde, p. 47, the assurance " I will warrant
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 493
it " is dropped j our betting sentences were to be very
terse.
Among the Interjections are kocksnovmes I law / p. 28,
hdgh how I (a sigh), hoigh dagh (hey day), whough / ihrum-
pledum thrum (of a gittem), dubbe a dubbe (of a drum).
The phrase chip chow, cherry chow, may be heard in English
choruses in our day ; we see in p. 36 —
" With chip and cherie,
Heigh derie derie."
The last word was often to reappear.
Among the Romance words are foolyng, paragon, brute
(applied to a man), insurance (engagement, p. 70), plaine
(sheer) force, procedyngs. The word humour is now applied
to the mind, as well as to the body ; the roysting sort feed
the humour of the vainglorious, p. 10. The adjective brave
is connected with clothes, and means fine, p. 35 ; this had
appeared in Dunbar. A girl ramps like a Tom boy, p. 37 ;
we make it romp. The verb promise means here desponsare y
a lady says, / am promised, p. 42. The word courtesy is
now made a verb, p. 26 ; men are ordered to curtsie.
There is the phrase plie my business, p. 30. A forward
fellow is addressed as Sir sauce, p. 48. There are puns on
the word stomach in p. 71 j the master uses it to express
his courage ; the man uses it to jeer at his master's appetite.
The hero of the play gets his name Roister Doister from the
French rustre ; we hear of the roysting sort in p. 10 ; our
verb royster was to follow later. We see the stage Latin
exeant omnes. Actus, Sccena, etc.; in our days the stage
borrows more from French than from Latin. One of the
stage characters, Merrygreek, shows the origin of our grig.
When an ignorant man or woman is brought on the stage
in this Century, the Somersetshire dialect is usually put
into his mouth j this lasted for the next fifty years, down
to Shakespere's Edgar. In p. 23 Margery Mumblecrust
employs God yelde you, chad, ichotte, chwas ; here the ch ex-
presses ich (I) ; further on comes zembletee (semblance).
A more Northern phrase appears in / mun be married,
p. 87
494 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Some very old forms are found in this play ; as God
you save and see 1 bask (bush), me lust (placet mihi), tw? force
(no matter). The soldier's cry, Saint George to boroiv / p. 74,
long preserved in the South the sense of surety, which
came into the last word ; the Scotch courts still talk of
law borows. The Infinitive in ing reappears once more, I
think for the last time, in p. 39 ; he hath somewhat to
dooing (facere) ; this rimes with the Participle wooing,
Andrew Boorde was a traveller and physician, who
wrote some books in 1542 or thereabouts (Early English
Text Society, Extra Series). He is very fond of new
words formed from the Latin, and is thus a forerunner of
the Euphuists. His opinion of his own tongue is this :
" The speche of Englande is a base speche to other noble
speches, as Italion, Castylion, and Frenche; howbeit the
speche of Englande of late dayes is amended," p. 122. The
style of More, Tyndale, and Coverdale must have seemed
poor stuff indeed to our travelled physician's eyes. He
leans, however, to old fashions in the matter of the Double
Negative. He gives us two well-known saws, "the white
(gray) mare is the better horse," p. 68, and " when the
drynke is in, the wytte is out^" p. 94. The Italians, he
affirms, used to say of England, bona terra, mala gent, p. 118;
a future Shakesperian saw applied to Kent. Borde was
the second writer who gave specimens of the peculiari-
ties of our English dialects ; he treats of the Cornish, with
their Tre, Poll, Pen, the iche cham (ego sum), dycke (thick),
and the old afyngred (anhungred), p. 122 ; he gives us the
Lowland Scotch gewd, blewd (good, blood), ken ye (Englished
by do you, know?), I es (ego sum), p. 138. The Irish sor
(sir) is marked in p. 134. All things change; in p. 194
Borde says that in Toulouse regneth treue iustyce <& equitie ;
this was not the experience of the Galas family two Centu-
ries later. The Germans had not yet lost the sounds of
their old w and ei, for wayne is their word for vinum, p.
161. The Italians said kela and kesta, not guella and
guesta, just as their gui had long become chi, p. 179.
As to Vowels, i continues to express something like the
French t, for Bayonne is written Bion several times. Borde
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 495
makes a distinction between Scotch lordes and lardes (lairds)
in p. 59. The French seem at this time to have pronounced
the old Pictavia as Puttyors, p. 191 ; this oi, once sounded
like ^, had now got the ou sound ; and the ie in the last
syllable was no longer sounded like ^, but each vowel
must have been pronounced. As to the Consonants, the
m is exchanged for n ; the old pinpel appears as pyTrvple.
Among the Substantives we see r^shank (applied to
the Irish), the Scotch placke, instep, hay ricke, chilblain.
In p. 235 air is said to be fryske (a Scandinavian form),
not fresh; in p. 117 a change - loving man is called a
fryskeTy whence comes frisky. In p. 124 rekenyng is used
of the money due to mine host. Provisions are called
good cheere, Borde talks of dwelling at elbowe-rome, p.
233 ; he writes of a man's doublet and a woman's waste
cote (waistcoat), p. 97. The Five Wittes are mentioned
in p. 93, though sences is given here as a synonym.
We hear of the keper of a lunatic, p. 298. Beer in p.
256 is said to have lately come to England. We read
of the Nether lond, p. 155, which is here said to extend
to Mayence ; it is otherwise called Base Almayne,
Among the Adjectives is lyght-fyngered. We hear of
naughty (bad) English, of clowtyd crayme; there is the
phrase rest in a hole skin, p. 169.
Borde is fond of you as the Nominative; in p. 138 he
contrasts this new fashion with the Scotch ye. In p. 219,
when advice is given to a possible traveller setting out,
it is said he must do so and so ; this he is suddenly turned
into you; "you must make your bargain;" our use of
this you is very common.
As to Verbs, there are the phrases set cocke on the hoqpe,
p. 117, keep touch, cutte down (from the gibbet), p. 206.
The verb grow takes an Accusative, as grow grapes. A
traveller makes his banke with some merchant, p. 219.
Among the Eomance words are modern, musherom. In
p. 226 Borde talks of your recuperatyng or recovering your
health ; all through this Century the Latin was coming in
by the side of the French synonyms, hitherto employed in
England. The French pastenaque liad already given birth
496 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
to Palsgrave's pasneppe and Elyot's parsneppe ; this is here
written ^ers?ig^.^ We read of hose gold, p. 153 ; the word
was changing from infefrior to turpis. The usual title of
physicians is seen in p. 226, mayster doctor Buttes ; there is
also Doctor Boorde, p. 143. We read of aqua vike, an
Irish drink. In p. 214 we light upon the Sophy of
Persia.
There is the Scandinavian rovdge (rug). We find here
the Celtic pilchard and the verb guaf, said to come from
the Celtic coach (poculum); Palsgrave had already written
qmmght in the Perfect.
There is an account of Lord Hertford's raid into Scot-
land in 1544 (Arber's 'Gariand,' i 115). Here the
Yorkshire nout (boves) appear as note, the Scotch noUy p.
126. Among the verbs are give an alarm and the weather
broke up. There is the Danish word fog (mist), p. 122.
Hertford himself is called the Lord Lieutenant ; cannon are
dismounted; two verbs that come most appropriately into
this piece are sack and ruinate,
Eoger Ascham, bom in North Yorkshire, was one of the
early Protestants who were bred at Cambridge. He wrote
his famous work * Toxophilus ' (I have used Arber's Eeprint)
in the year 1544. Says the sound patriot, " I have written
this Englishe matter in the Englishe tongue, for Englishe
men." He resolves to speak as the common people do, to
think as wise men do ; also to keep clear of strange Latin,
French, and Italian words. Ascham's Northern birth is
attested by the words comhersome, stoure (pugna), ilnesse
(pravitas), laste (permanence) freke (vir), ware (coUocare),
braye (collis) ; the Northern flee^ not the Southern fly, ex-
presses volare; Page's turnpike is repeated, p. 88. As to
his Vowels and Consonants, a bow-maker appears as bower
in p. 110, and as bowyer in p. 114. The old w makes way
for b ; the verb wedde becomes bet (so Will becomes Bill) ;
to laye and bet with a man is in p. 1 9.^ The I and r inter-
change ; we hear of the citie of Argier, p. 82.
^ Skeat's Dictionary.
2 Some say that bet comes from the French abet ; the latter verb is
hardly ever found in England before Ascham's time.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 497
Among the new Substantives are inkeper, TurJdsknesse
(barbarism), cutte (vulnus), bent (inclination of a bow), head
of ale, a lowse (impulse), a wether man (weather wise). In
p. 48 auctumnus is called faule of the leafe; this has been
passed on from Yorkshire to Ameiic^ip Men are called
true herteSy p. 78. There is the phrase both man and boye
(omnes), p. 1 00 ; we use it in a rather different sense. Certain
arrow heads are called by merry fellows bobtayles, p. 126 ;
others are called svxdowe tayles, p. 135. The noun wrentche^
in p. 49, ceases to express dolus, and takes our sense of
the word. The old maich gets the new meaning of certa-
men, and is applied to archery, p. 91. There is the new
phrase in good sadnesse (earnest), p. 102. In p. 56 oaths
are heaped upon oaths, one in another's necke ; a new phrase.
In p. 98 a man asks to be taught archery by a trade or waye,
so as to succeed ; the derivation of trade from tread is very
plain here. Dr. Murray gives bencher and barrester as words
of this date.
Among the new Adjectives are dankish, bygge h*esfedy
sadle backed (called a shooter's word, p. 129), hie rigged,
unhansum, workable. An old Adjective of Orrmin's is revived
in tricke and trimme, p. 28. There is the phrase weake as
water, p. 28. The adjective jpi-ety is applied to good
poetry, p. 52. The noughty (malus) is in constant use. The
word rank gets the new sense of copious, p. 93. In p. 128
fenny is opposed to uplandish ; the latter word here seems
to change its old sense, and to mean hilly. The word
plompe, meaning rotundus, is applied to the head of an
arrow, p. 137. There is dompysshe, p. 28, used of the
mind ; we apply dumpy to the body.
The Nominative ye replaces you in p. 54, to set ye one
(unum tibi dare). There is the phrase the onelye causes, p.
89 j here only is coupled with a Plural. The old Northern
whatkin war becomes, in p. 69, what kynde of war ; Ascham
brought this North Western idiom to the South; he has
also al kyndes of, for the old alkin.
Among the Verbs are know where to have him, cocker him
up, owe ill v}yll to, put to nurse, bear your halfe, p. 55 (go
halves with you), come in their walke (way), work him woe,
VOL. I. "i^;^
498 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
cut short, let drive at him, you wUl have it so, shoot straight, fit
your low, string it, it wUl gyve (fail), make poste haste, take
ame. There is the new verb crust; snow is crusted after a
frost, p. 157. Udairs corruption to rake hell is repeated
in p. 33. Men play with laws; that is, trifle with
them, p. 97. Another verb for this is derived from
pedler's wares ; men piddd about their bows, p. 1 1 7. A
book may nmne awaye vMh a man, p. 25 ; a new metaphor.
A man's finger hurteth, p. 109 ; here the verb becomes in-
transitive. There is the Passive phrase, it was heard tell
on, p. 100. I have heard it disputed whether oarsmen
should say, hackwatering or hacking water; Ascham has, in
p. 89, marking at one, yet let driving at another (not letting
drive). He is sure that the Turk shMe not onelye not over-
come us, but, etc.; a most awkward turn of phrase, p. 81.
There is a new Superlative Adverb, to rise erliest, p. 27.
In p. 101 a man shoots wyde and far of the marke ; this is
one of the few instances, where we now prefer the old of
to the later off. We see down the mnd, and for at time.
There is the phrase shoot under hand, p. 126. "Diings stand
hy contraries, p. 45. There is the Old English one amonges
twenty, p. 48 ; not our later " one in twenty," which is more
like the Gothic.
There is the Dutch yerb foist, which is used much as
the new Celtic verb cog, for cheating ; see both in p. 54.
There is moreover the Celtic creased (wrinkled), p. 138.
Among the Eomance words are minikin, galiard (a
dance), paragraph, enemyes hy nature, aptness, well seasoned
(of wood), soft spirited, how case, hrasell (the wood), to
peece a shaft, to course (run) over, pliable, to vault, enjoy a
woman, Ascham coins the phrase scholar or unscholar, p.
38. He speaks of God and his high providence, p. 81 ; the
last word was now coming into fashion. Palsgrave's *
arUique appears in p. 147; in p. 47 it takes the form of
anticke; to daunce anticke ; we perform antics; the idea
must be something out of modem fashion, and therefore
uncouth; in Foxe, twenty years later, the word means
trick. Ascham says that " artillarie now a dayes is taken
for two thinges ; gunnes and bowes," p. 65 ; Jonathan's
III.] . THE NEW ENGLISH, 499
artillery in the Bible is well known to us. In p. 67 the
morispike is coupled with spear ; pike, the soldier's weapon,
was soon to appear. In p. 96 we leam that of ferice is
made an art; the noun fence (defence), taking a new
meaning, is here opposed to shooting. We hear of virgin
wax, p. 109; a new sense of the word. In p. Ill the
verb save is connected with money. A side wind tryeth
an archer much, p. 156 ; here the try slips into the sense
of incommodum ferre ; it is rather different from Tyndale's
sense, that of severely testing. There is the new phrase
he in companye mth, p. 86. The old in taper wise becomes
taper fashion, p. 126.
Ascham gives us the well-known Scotch byword, that
every English archer beareth under his girdle twenty-four
Scottes, p. 84. He alters, as he himself says, the proverb
anent cooks, " God sendeth us good f ethers, but the devil
noughtie fletchers," p. 132. He was the first, I think,
to bring Thucydides to English notice, for he tells the
well-known tale of the arrow at Sphacteria, p. 75. He
asserts that Wales was in old time given up to barbarism
(More enlarges on the Welsh thieves of his day) ; " but
nowe, thanked be God and noble Englande, there is no
country more civil," p. 85. Scotland, it is hinted, had
better imitate Wales and unite with England. The Cantab
refers to the proverbial barrenness of Newmarket Heath,
p. 97. He describes how he was brought up, with many
other children, in the house of Sir Humfrey Wingfelde,
who would bring bows and arrows down from London, and
see his young friends shoot ; the knight coupled the book
and the bow, as the foundation of youth, p. 140. Chaucer
is called "oure Englyshe Homer," p. 54 ; and his verses
on dice-playing and swearing are quoted with much ap-
proval. Ascham, learned man as he was, fastened on the
old Northern ballad metres to translate Homer; see the
specimen in p. 66.
Hey wood brought out his Proverbs in 1546 ; this work
was printed ten times in the author's Century, and has
been lately reprinted by Mr. Sharman, whose edition I
follow. There is the great contraction hir Ladie ! (by our
500 THE NEW ENGLISH, [ohap.
Lady), p. 105. The 'Handlynge Synne' had used the
phrase daunt (dandle) a child ; the t now is changed into a
sound like s; dance a woman on his lap, p. 170. There
are the new substantives Jwny Tnoone (connected with
marriage), a meale mouth^ (adulator), a flebergebet, a flea-
biting. There is flimflam (a trifle), formed in Skelton's
fashion. We hear of a band for a hat, p. 90. A wife
complains that her goods are wasted on " a sort of dogs
and sawte bitches," p. 158; the last word here takes the
sense of meretrix, I think, for the first time ; the name Gil
bears the same meaning in p. 122. The word girle is op-
posed to boy in p. 50 ; the former noun was getting a new
sense in this reign. The old rood (crux) was now vanishing ;
but it appears in the common oath, p. 108. The word
coockqueane is used of a woman in p. 131 ; Shakespere
and Addison use it of a man who busies himself in
woman's affairs. Heywood employs jar in his new sense
of rixa, as he had done in his former works.
Among the Adjectives SiTefatfed, a loose or od end, a
h'eachneck fall. A new sense is given to thick ; thicke of
hearing, p. 153. A picture is painted, not lifelike, but
lively, p. 2Q, There is the bad grammar, sometimes
followed by Shakespere, who have we there? p. 52. We
light on the scornful a visage, such as it was, p. 88. Among
the Verbs are, your nose drops, a ship draws water, ride at
anker. We see the new Adverbial phrase /ar on, p. 164,
where the way is dropped after on. We find proceed upon
(this), grow upon her fansie, p. 38, where the idea must
be "take rooted hold upon." Wit is in the wane, p. 140 ;
here we now put on for in. There is the cry taunt tivet I
(tantivy), addressed to a woman, p. 149; it answers to
hollo!
Among the Eomance phrases are a foile (trip), to anker,
repine, tit for tat (tant pour tant), jeblet of a goose, to be quite
of her, clmnge places, in (at) any rate. We read of hackfoey
men, who let out horses, p. 71 ; hackney coaches were to
come fourscore years later. In p. 84 the receiver is con-
^ We still sound the last e in this ineale ; a rare thing in modern
English.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 501
nected with the thief. Palsgrave had written take herte
a gresse / here in p. 149 stands she taUh hart of grace;
perhaps this may come from animals growing hearty on
grass. The word beadrole in p. 132 drops its connexion
with prayer (bede), and means simply a catalogue. In p.
151 a person decays (becomes poor); a new sense of the
verb. In p. 140 we hear of a man of fande fine and neate;
both these adjectives here seem to take the new sense of
fastidious ; our " fine lady " and " natty dress " retain this
shade of meaning.
Heywood gives us many a well-known proverb for the
first time ; as —
" The tide tarieth no man.
Faste binde, faste finde.
Betwene two stools my taile goes to the ground.
Wedding is destiny (our marriages are made in lieaven).
He laughth that winth.
No man ought to look a given horse in the mouth.
As I would needes brewe, so must I needes drink.
Reckoners without their host must reckon twice.
Two heads are better than one (Palsgrave's vryttes).
All is well that endes well.
The still sow eats up all the draflfe.
All is not gold that glisters (Chaucer's glareth).
Ill weede growth fast.
Beggars should be no choosers.
Somewhat is better than nothing.
It is evill waking of a sleeping dogge (see Chaucer, p. 116 of my
book).
The rolling stone never gatherth mosse.
A man may well bring a horse to the water, but he cannot make
him drink.
Better children weep than old men.
Rome was not built in one day.
A dog hath a day.
Better is the half a lofe than no bread.
Nought venter, nought have.
Ka mee, ka thee ; one good turn asketh another.
Evil gotten goods never proveth well
That shalbe, shalbe.
New brome swepth cleene.
All thing is the woorse for the wearing.
There is no foole to the old foole.
Love me little, love me long.
Thought is free.
A woman hath nine lives like a cat.
Chaunge is no robbry.
502 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Tread a woorme on the tayle and it most tnm again.
Too much of one thing is not good.
Even reckoning maketh long frendes.
Small pitchers have wde ears.
The weaker goeth to tne pot.^
Might overcomth right.
No fire without some smoke.
One swallow maketh not summer.
A cat may look upon a king.
Leape out of the frying pan into the fyre.
Ill gotten, ill spent.
Half wamd, half armd.
He that hath an ill name is half hanged.
It is better to be an old man's derling than a young man's werling.
Few words to the wise suffise to be spoken.
I know on which side my bread is buttred.
Sooth bourd is no bourd.^
" ' Who is so deafe or so blinde, as ia he
That wilfully will neither hear nor see ? '
To mend as sowre ale mendeth in summer.'
He knew which way the winde blew.
Some man may steal a horse better than some other may stand and
look upon.
Love me, love my dog.*
When theeves fall out, true men come to their good.
What is a workman without his tooles ?
When I give you an inch you take an ell.
Will yee both eat your cake and have your cake ?
He can have no more of the foxe but the skin.'
Every man for himself and God for us all.
Enough is as good as a feast.
An yU wynd that blowth no man good."'
There are some phrases and proverbs here, afterwards
repeated or glanced at by Shakespere, as —
" Happy man, happy dole (Winter's Tale).^
Litle pot soone hot (Shrew).
It is deere collup that is cut out of th* owne flesh (Henry VI. ), A.
Where nought is to wed with, wise men flee the clog (Winter's
Tale).
^ The Editor, mawkish being, calls this **a vulgar and objectionable
saying." It is a most obvious truth in this wicked world oi ours.
* Used by the Provost of Dumfries in ' Redgauntlet.'
^ Used bv Davie Gellatley in * Waverley.'
* The Editor remarks that St. Bernard mentions this proverb ; of
all saints, he is the right man to refer to dogs.
* Here we now substitute caJt ioxfox.
' I take this last from another work of Heywood's, quoted in
Tusser's book (English Dialect Society), p. 245.
^ Happy man be his dole lasted tUl Smollett's time.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 503
Moe maydes but Malkin (Coriolanus).
Einde will creepe where it may not go (Verona).
The cat would eat flesh and would not wet her feet (Macbeth).
^While the grasse groweth the horse starveth (Hamlet).
Hunger pearceth stone wall (Coriolanus).
Cold as kay (key) (Richard III. ).
Three may keep counsayle if two be away (Andronicus).
To runne out of God's blessing into the warm Sunne (Lear).
Much water goeth by the mill that the miller knoweth not of
(Andronicus).
A poore cooke that may not lick his own fingers (Romeo)."
There are many phrases that are still in our mouths,
as —
" A rod made for his own taile.
The fat is in the fire.
To beate the bush.
More frayd than hurt.
Let the world wa&;ge and take mine ease in mine inne.
Hold their noses to grinstone.
Cut my cote after my cloth.
For good luck cast an old shoe after him.
To tell tales out of schoole.
To hold with the hare and run with the hound.
Nether fish nor flesh nor good red herring.
She had scene far in a milstone.^
She lookth as butter will not melt in her mouth.
Have a flea in the ear.
Here is the dore, and there is the way.
To help a dogge over a stile.
The moonshine in the watter.
A hair of the dog that bit us (of drinking).
The birds were flowne (referring to men).
Her eares might well glow, for all the towne talked of her.
Hot as a toste.
Jacke out of office.
A peny for your thought !
You cannot see the wood for the trees.
You might have gone further and fared worse.
To harpe upon a string.
The gray mare is the better horse (Borde's wMU mare).
We twayne are one too many.
To laugh in my sleeve.
To have him on the hip.
Rub him on the gall.
Drive him to the wall.
Farther than the wall he cannt go.
It is sooner sayd than done.
Have his hands full.
^ We have altered this into milestone.
S04 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Show a fayre payre of heeles.
Put by thy purse.
We draw both in one line (pull together).
Take the bridle in the teeth.
He had not one peny to bUsse him.
He must lend you eares.
Like as the divell lookt over Lincolne.
Take the wrong sow by th' eare (Henry VIII. *s saw).
A tale of a tubbe.
Beg from dur to dur.
Few know and fewer care.
Hit the nail on the head."
. The phrase " Scarborough warning" (the blow before the
word), a phrase well known in this Century, is found in p.
76. In p. 69 stands " cast water in Terns," like our " carry-
coals to Newcastle." Barclay's proverb is slightly altered ;
it becomes " when the Sunne shineth, make hay." Many of
Hending's proverbs are repeated by Hey wood; but the old/er
from e^Bj fer from herte is now altered into " out of sight,
out of minde." One byword is found here, that probably
arose in the Thirteenth Century, when English was a thing
of naught ; " Jacke would be a gentleman if he could speak
French," p. 61. We see "hew not too hie, lest the chips
fall in thine eye," p. 141 ; something like this appeared
in 1307. A man tells his wife, p. 141, that her tales show
"long haire and short wit;" this is also an ungallant
Livonian saw anent women ; it may be seen in Lady
Eastlake's * Livonian Tales.' The origin of our " bone of
contention " is very plain in p. 98 ; " the divell hath cast
a bone, to set strife between you." There is a pun in p.
154, " not to my profit a prophet was L" Here is a bit of
etymology, p. 143 —
** First wooing for woing, banna for banning,
The banes for my bane, then this thus scanning,
Marrying, marring. And what married I than ?
A woman. As who say, woe to the man."
Another rime comes in p. 147 —
** Margerie good cow gave a good meale,
But then she cast it down again with her heele."
We see the Southern phrase hab or nab, whence came
Shakespere's hob, nob; after this time the ne never came
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 505
into any other phrase of this kind, I think, except mil
he, nill he. The morals of the clergy are glanced at in p.
45, where a woman is said to be " tender as a Parson's
lemman."
In the Early Writings and the Catechism of Becon
(Parker Society) we see the J> struck out, for Chaucer's ]>wUel
makes way for the verb whittle, Early Writings, p. 3 6 2. There
are coalpit, law-maker, shaveling, sheepmmger ; a fool is called
an ass-head ; carles and churls, coupled together, are opposed
to gentlemen. We have seen to trick it in 1450; we now
find the substantive with its Dutch sense of lineament; a
trick (fashion) of apparel stands in p. 204. Becon is fond
of coining adjectives with like, in the Old English way ;
thus he has Nero-like, jay-like, good-fellow-like (jovial) ; tliis
good, fellow, as a mild phrase for debauchee, lasted nearly 200
years. The word Aw/" had long been set apart as appropriate
to gallants; a proud priest is called huff-7Wsed,'EB.T\y Writings,
p. 201. Latimer is said to have used free speech (audax).
In p. 43 the verb carp changes its meaning from log[ai to
ohjurgare ; here the Latin carpere must have had some
influence. In Cat. 415 the verb crack seems to be used in
the modern Scotch sense for logui, though a spice of jactare
still hangs about the word. Men row in the same haven,
not boat ; they do not dream of doing a thing. There are
two new phrases ; men hunt, hawk, and what not, p. 254 ;
they dispend hundreds, p. 255 ; here pounds are under-
stood. There is the Scandinavian verb /are.
Among Becon's Romance words are stupor, votary (man
under vows) ; the word sycophant stands for calumniator, as
in Foxe, p. 43 ; the first hint of the press-gang stands in
p. 235, when men are pressed for the wars. The verb saly
appears, being here used for saltare, p. 373. The Teutonic
and Romance are compounded in a purgatory -raker, A
man of pronounced opinions is called plain as a packstaff,
p. 276 ; a hundred years later this was made pikestaff. The
holy King of France appears as Saint Lodowicke, p. 390 ;
hence his worship cannot have taken root in liigland.
Our modern communism is hinted at, when men make a
commu/nion, yea, a confusion of all things, Cat. 601. The
So6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
word duncer is coined from Duns ; we clip the last
letter.
Becon borrows the word hlood-sowper from Coverdale's
version. He bestows the title of Pater Patrice upon Henry
Vni. ; it was given to a better man a hundred years later.
New and strict ideas on the Sabbath, so early as 1540,
were coming in ; see pp. 38 and 362. In the former page
occurs a parenthesis of about 100 words in the middle of
a sentence. Becon would return a ready answer to the
question, what is an Archdeacon % see Cat. 586.
In the letters of this time contained in * Ellis' Collec-
tion,' 1538-50, we see the great contraction vyUer for
victualler ; the s is prefixed, as Layton's verb squench ; we
sometimes hear sqaeleh in our time; in the same way, squeeze
was formed from the old cwysan. The t rounds ofT a word,
as varmerU, The k replaces <, as haskeness (huskiness) from
host (tussis). We see snap shares (chance profits), the lad-
ing ; we hear of the not (non) doing of a thing. The word
house stands for its inhabitants ; call up the house. Among
the Adjectives is close handed and the Superlative dronkynest.
We know the phrase " the Queen's rebels ;" we now have
for whoos resistance (resistance against whom). Among the
Verbs are run in ruyne^ take up money, make it over, call in a
patent The Lady Elizabeth writes that colours may give ;
I suppose ground must be dropped. The Passive Infinitive
may govern a verb ; to he rejected were to my dishonow ; it
may follow for, as, dedicate for service to be done.
Among the Romance words are revestre (vestry), residen-
sarie, domestiques, charter party, a cane, unctuous goom (gum),
maistre d^hostel, engener (engineer), grome porter. Men are
said to be close (secret) ; Latimer talks of a cyvyll and
honest man ; here the adjective changes its old meaning.
We hear of a stispecious book ; the adjective in our day
has both an Active and a Passive meaning. In 1548
we read of a coronell of Germans ; this is the Spanish
variation, still employed by us in pronouncing ; it refers to
the oflScer who heads the column. We see Mr. Gladstone's
famous phrase with hag and haggage; also for that present
(nunc) ; here we substitute the for that. There is the new
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 507
iak£. a stay among them ; a few years later this became stay
among them. There is to he busy hrosshing clothes ; here an
in is dropped before the Verbal Noun. We see charge the
jury, the exchange is up, to pass over things, to torn over the
leaf,franke caryage (without cost), hence ** to frank a man."
We hear of the town of Camerik (Cambrai), whence
came the article camhric, already mentioned. There is
a strange phrase in Series ii., vol. ii p. 176, " Dr. Crome's
canting, recanting, decanting, or rather double canting ; '*
this word canting was soon to be applied to thieves' patter.
In Series iii., vol. iii. p. 167, Lay ton reviles a man as " a
monk of Cant " (Kent).
In the documents of this time preserved by Foxe (vols.
V. and vi.) we see the proper name Boyse, v. 610, from
Boece, Boethius. The former mutenary is now cut down
to mutiny; on the other hand, Palsgrave's catour becomes
caterer, vi. 199.
Among the new Substantives are shriek, inkling, white
meat In p. 190 twopence is claimed of every poll ; we
should say, " twopence a head." There is a new sense of
the Dutch trick in p. 409, that of dolus; it is applied to
the monks' doings. We find the compound a farewell-supper ;
a man is in a wrong box ; Lord Eussell cuts Uoodshedding
down to bloodshed, vi. 284. Bradford uses home in UdalFs
new sense, vii. 281 ; you hit me home; he is the first, I
think, to use hairbreadth and worldliness.
Among the Adjectives Gardiner changes the tikel of
1470 into ticklish, vi. 30 ; he talks of the Upper House (of
Parliament). His victim Barnes calls Henry VIII. a whole
King (a despot), v. 436, one that had more power than his
father and grandfather, thanks to the Gospellers. The
like is used in compounding new adjectives, as order-like
(orderly). Bradford uses the new phrase come (here) and
welcome, vii. 285 ; here a he must be dropped before the
last word.
There is a new Kelative phrase, if he be the man I take
him for ; this comes in Bonner's long and amusing letter
from abroad against Gardiner in 1538. Anything neglected
is said to lie post alone, viii. 33 (solitary as a post).
5o8 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Among the new Verbs are fly the realm, to mad (madding
crowd), call to account, turn (over) my books, put them by
(aside), put up your pipes (Bonner to Hooper, like our shut
up), a flying report, go up to his examination, overcrow them,
settled in error, come unto a retractatian (hence, come into a
plan), slip the anchor-hold. The transition in the verb irnnt
from egere to cupere is very plain in v. 155 ; among other
uses of it stands, he asked what I wanted. ' We have seen
run his sword through him ; the noun is now dropped ;
Bonner writes, run me through, p.'f 156. Men are put up
(accused) by the authorities, p. 445 ; in our time they
would be pulled up or had up.
Among the Adverbs is over and besides ; Bonner com-
plains that Hooper, like an ass, had turned the Bishop's
words, " the same that was hanged," into " the same as was
hanged," p. 752 ; men were now becoming nice about
their phrases.
We hear that Bonner's common oath was, before God I
V. 410; it is Chaucerian. The by is much developed in
compounding, as a bye thing, bye matters, bye talk ; we find it
convenient to have by-work to English the parergon of
Thucydides.
There is the Scandinavian glum, coupled with silence by
Gardiner in vi. 36. There is the Celtic quirk, connected
with law.
Among the Eomance words are accent, magnitude, epi-
toms, local, publish books, to all intents, sophister, doctress,
paraphrase, palliate, unduly, impertinent (not relevant), educe,
defence (at law), papistry, orders (commands), misconstrue,
civilian, ingrate, a close prisoner, to term it, plain English,
iteration, relevant, mockery, extenuate,lucubration. TheEeforma-
tion, it will be seen by the above list, brought in many
new Greek and Latin words ; Lambert says he will not
aS^rm pro or contra, v. 219. The old mislike makes way for
dislike, v. 211. In p. 258 chattels, not the old catals, are
coupled with goods in a Eoyal injunction. A man writing
in 1544 speaks of the Pope-catholic clergy, viii 32. In v.
245 Lambert uses the verb reprove for " hold as bad " and
improve for "refute." The word varlet, in Bonner's mouth,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 509
comes to mean fiebulo^ p. 764. The new meaning of curate
appears in p. 446. In p. 754 a v[i2iXi prof esses the law ; the
verb had hitherto been confined to religion. The new
phrase ^ac^tse with a person, p. 776, appears ; it bears a bad
sense. The noun pleasure is made a transitive verb by the
Lady Mary in vi. 20 ; a new synonym for to favour ; it
means more than please, Gardiner uses platform for scheme
or policy in its present American sense, p. 25 ; he does not
here connect it with its old sense of material building ; he
speaks of the Gospellers as our new schoolmen, p. 33.
Prince Edward is able to construe and^arse, p. 351 ; that
is, tell the ^ar^s of speech. Gardiner uses policy in p. 37
for two different things, sapientia and consilium. He opposes
the word profane to holy, speaking of everyday life, p. 63.
Ridley, when on the Eucharist, talks of annihilation of
bread, p. 313. The phrase I pass not was often now used
for our " take my stand on ;" see p. 315. A man, whose
arrangements have been made useless by a change of pur-
pose in his enemy, professes himself sore disappointed,
p. 401.
Lambert, in 1538, compares something futile to the
moon shining in the water, v. 216; hence our all rrunm-
shine. There is the phrase every vat (vessel) shall stand on
his OTJon bottom, p. 533 ; Bunyan changed the vat into tub
when using this proverb. Gardiner cares not to talk, as
(though) butter would not melt in his mouth, vi. 37. Ridley
tells an objector, you would move a saint, p. 331. The
word amiss was always a favourite with English punsters ;
in V. 447 a Gospeller says that the mass was called miss
beyond sea, for that all is amiss in it. Gardiner declares
that using the term The Lord for Deus is a token of heresy,
V. 507. One idea of King Edward's rebels was, that they
were not bound to obey laws made before he was twenty-
one, V. 773. In vi. 51 Gardiner (here, at least, a sad blun-
derer) speaks of the King as one of the three Estates of
the realm. The Bishop, though some call him a Papist,
refuses to play the pope-holy, as the old term was ; it evi-
dently meant "a sanctimonious prig," as is here hinted.
He approves of religion being set forth in Greek and
5IO THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Latin, which are well fixed; "but as for the English
tongue, itself hath not continued in one form of under-
standing 200 years; ... it shall hardly contain re-
ligion long when it cannot last itself," vi. 37. Gardiner
coiild not foresee the stability that Tyndale and Cranmer
were to give to this fleeting- English which now seemed
unworthy to be the handmaid of religion. We hear
something of verse-making at Winchester, vi 223 ; Bishop
Gardiner, about 1538, caused the schoolmaster of the
College to make verses on the King^s supremacy as
against the Pope; these were learnt by the boys, who
then made verses of their own on the same theme. Gar-
diner uses vMU in its Northern sense of %8q}ie. ad^ vi. 42.
He distinguishes between a letter of German fashion of the
Chancery hand and a letter of the Secretary hand, vi. 27 ;
in the same page he tells us that an honest Englishman
will put oflF his cap on seeing the King's seal. Somerset
excuses the Government for not interfering with the pro-
fane rimes of the Gospellers, saying that Pasquil at Kome
has always been tolerated by the Popes, even when their
tyranny was most extreme and when they themselves were
his butt, VL 35.
There are many poems in Hazlitt's Collection, vols. iii.
and iv., ranging between 1537 and 1550. The om; replaces
Oy 2^ prowl ; in iii. 312 the two forms hetch and catch stand
in one line. The t is struck out, as popery for popetry ; it is
added, as hoist for the old hoise ; it replaces ]?, as tyght for the
thiht (solidus) of 1440, vyynd and water tyght, A rustic con-
tracts gentleman into gemman, iv. 10, and uses zoner for sooner;
also yche am for ego sum. The r is inserted ; the old braided
hair becomes broadered^ iii. 238, the broidered of our Bibles ;
the Teutonic braid and the French broder were confused.
The Vocative rriaster parson becomes mas parson in a rustic's
mouth ; hence the Scotch m/iss John, Among the Sub-
stantives are dribbler, callet, jacke daw ; this Jack was now
prefixed to many nouns, as a Jack lout, iii. 229 ; we see a
Jvdas kisse, p. 235. There is the new phrase have (make)
a better showe, iii. 239. A chief is described as formost of the
rynge, p. 290 ; hence ringleader had already been coined. A
III.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 511
sot is always crying fyll the pot^ Jonef p. 310 ; this was
the usual name for a poor woman, and it lasted for 200
years ; we know Shakespere's greasy Joan. A man has a
knacke to say things (of saying things), iv. 9. Matters are
on a hubhle shubble (huffle scuffle), iii. 312. A peasant
speaks of the priestly power as a gahws gay gifte, iv. 13;
this gallvs is still a slang term for rnagnus. We see crust
and crum coupled in p. 44. Among the Adjectives we
remark housy (ebrius), from an English word of 1280. The
old maidenlike reappears after a very long sleep ; there is
also Christianlike.
Among the Verbs are I knowe whates a clocke, iii. 281,
heat (cudgel) his brayne, take in (recipere). In iv. 5 stands
the old expletive, so mut I thee (so may I thrive !), the last
appearance, I think, of the Old EngHsh theon. There is
masse me no messinges to a priest, p. 15, like Lord Derby^s
knee me no knees. Thieves lyft a man from his good, p. 40 ;
this is the Gothic hlifan, the Greek klep, meaning the same ;
hence comes our shc^lifter. The word tease keeps its old
violent meaning (lacerare) in p. 63, where wolves tease
sheep ; in Yorkshire the machine for tearing wool is still
called a teaser. When we put a thing away, we lay it in
some cupboard or safe place ; this sense of the adverb
appears in iii. 138, lay money away. Bishop Gardiner is
called, in p. 263, so so a preacher; our so so still means
mediocre. People are fetched by the whole dosens, p. 264 ;
something comes by fyttes, p. 295 ; in old times the Singu-
lar, not the Plural, would have been used after the dis-
tributive preposition. Caxton had staked upon a thing ;
we here see to borow (money) on garments^ iv. 59. There is
a curious omission of against in the phrase homing (which
is) wynd and water tyght, p. 52. We see the source of
the future tirra lirra in iii. 321; a tirlary typpe ; the tirlary
is here made to jingle with whirlary. A. man says he often
does a miracle, iv. 13; the answer is, the devell ye do! a
new phrase. A horse is addressed with ree who ! this last
must be a corruption oi ho! (stop), p. 16, something like
our wo-h> ! In the same page stands God spede us and the
plough!
512 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap:
There are the Dutch words ruffle (brag) and trick up
(ornare). There is the Celtic gull (decipere) and roger
(soon to become rogue), iv. 44.
The Romance words are conscionable (conscientious), iii.
228, to poche (rob), iv. 41, serving man, carion crow, trinket,
cassoc, farthingale. An impudent fellow is called Jack sauce,
iii. 242 ; and his father addresses him with the scornful
Sir, p. 231. Two lines in p. 281 refer to the sea —
"The compas may stand awrye,
But the carde wyll not lye."
This card (our chart) comes into the later speak by the card.
In the parable. Dives is opposed to Pauper, p. 286 ; the
last word is often in our mouths now. A woman is
exhorted to wear sober apparel, p. 239 ; she answers that
her clothes are not drunk. In pp. 290 and 295 the word
pluresye (perhaps in joke) stands for plethora; Shakespere
and others imitated this. Men abuse their tongues against
holiness, p. 256 ; we here see how the verb began to mean
vituperare, A rustic calls the mass vengeance holy, iv. 11, a
new phrasa The Adverb cherly is used to encourage a
horse onward, p. 1 6 ; Orlando was to encourage Adam in
the same way. In p. 35 we hear of gaudy chere ; hence
the gaudy days at the Universities, Men are asked what
country men they be, p. 42 ; this refers to their shires. Per-
sons may be defended, but meadows are defenced in p. 53 ;
we now clip the de in this sense ; defend had led to the
noun defence, and this latter to another verb defence. The
noun Popistant is coined, iii 262 ; perhaps an imitation of
Protestant.
The popular poet of 1550 in iii. 278 wishes that mer-
chants would stick to the sea and not buy up the lands of
the gentry ; this new practice had come up within the last
eighty years. In iv. 64 it is hinted that drunkenness had
hitherto been confined to Duche folke or Flemynges, but it is
now rooting itself among the English. A new noun, God-
terer, is coined to express a swearer, p. 61. There is the
proverb, grete boost and small roost (roast), p. 66. I give a
specimen of the earliest thieves' slang we have, from p. 69 —
in. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 5 13
"With bousy cove maimed nace
Tear the patryng cove in the darkman cace
Docked the dell for a coper meke
His watch shall feng a prounces nobchete
Cyarum by salmon and thou shalt pek my jere
In thy gan for my watch it is nace gere
For the bene bouse my watch hath a coyn. "
The foreign style of speaking English is first imitated in
pp. 46 and 47 ; a quack says —
** Me non spek Englys by my fayt ;
My servaunt spek you what me sayt.
• •••••
Dys infant rumpre ung grand postum,
By got, he ala mort tuk under thum."
The dog Latin in iii. 320 is not so good as Moli^re's —
** This alum finum
Is bonus than vinum
Ego volo quare
Cum tu drinkare.
• • •
Juro, per Deum,
Hoc est lifum meum
Quia drinkum stalum
Non facere malum. "
Hall, in his Chronicle, uses the Scandinavian verb haffall
(disgrace) ; he explains it as a word of great reproach
among the Scotch ; see Skeat's Dictionary.
In the * Life of Sir Peter Carew * (Maclean) we see deck
(of ship), mtting, wynge of an army. Wallop, in 1543, talks
of cutting between an army and home, p. 124, Appendix.
A sunken ship is to be wayed upp^ p. 129. There is
the phrase he aforeTw/nds with him, p. 139. Among the
Romance words are pyke (the weapon), mortaires (mor-
tars), to bombast a doublet with cotton, an avauntcawrreur ;
mountes of earth were to become mounds a few years later ;
most of these words occur in Wallop's letters in 1543.
There are, besides, cordage, the patrone (master) of a ship ;
enemies assemble in great troupes, p. 136; we stand in
doubtful tearrnes with France, p. 142.
In 1548 William Turner put forth his book on the
Names of Herbes, printed by the English Dialect Society.
VOL. I. 2 L
514 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
He had travelled much abroad, and throws light on foreign
pronunciation. He tells us that the poticaries clipped the
first a in asparagus, P- 17 ; sparrow grass came later. He
says that the two forms mallowe and mallo are both in use,
p. 50 j the English for querms may be either ohe or eke, p.
66 ; and hrasska may be either cole or keele (kale), p. 20. He
goes back to the true old morhery, not mvlhet'ry, p. 9. Both
the forms aresse and kerse are in use, p. 55. The old
affodU is written daffodil, p. 1 0 ; this is said to come from
the French fleur d'affodil. Turner insists on writing wad
(woad) " and not ode, as some corrupters of the English
tonge do nikename it," p. 40 ; we remember how Woden
became Odin. The German ei must have been sounded
like French t at this time ; Turner writes Rhene and eich
(oak), of course giving the English sound to these letters ;
he writes the German aagen for oculi, p. 84 ; tusent for mille,
p. 24 ; still the form haume {dkrhor) appears. The Germans
seem still to have sounded their w as we do. Turner has
the new substantives hmkwheate, kydney beane, twopeny grasse;
Jack was becoming such a common prefix that in p. 89 a
plant appears as Jacke of the hedge. The old nighteshade,
after a sleep of many centuries, reappears in p. 89. In p.
77 mthvs stands for ajmd nos, "in our speech;" this is a
development of the idiom of 1470, an holy prophet with God
(in the sight of God). Among the Eomance words are
carol, larche, raspes (raspberry) ; there is blew-bottel for cyanus ;
the word archichoke, p. 23, comes straight from the Italian,
the ar being the Arabic al (the). Turner says that in
England we have two forms for one plant, cynkfoly or fyve
fyngred grasse, p. 66. He always tries to Teutonise new
words; thus he thinks swallovmrt should be used for the
strange plant called schwalbenwurt by the Duche men, p. 1 7 ;
he wishes the German durchwassz to be called thoroumax in
English, p. 85. When he gives mangolt as the Duche for
English bete, p. 19, he little foresaw the future mangelwurzel.
Instead of errata at the end of his book he gives fautes
escaped in the pintyng, a pretty long list.
Latimer's * Sermons and Eemains ' of this time (Parker
Society) retain some old forms, as a gainer (readier) way ;
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 515
there are both rmmqueller and manUller (homicide). The a
is prefixed in aweary (fessus) ; it is clipped in pose (appose) ;
Chaucer's hochejpot becomes hotchpotch. There are the Sub-
stantives, a put 0^, income, hanger on, a standing (thieves*
station), a laughing matter, tussock, gu/n-maJcer, Latimer coins
shavery, something like slavery, to express the robbery of
the Church; * Sermons,' p. 100. We seem to see the
origin of our duffer in p. 121, " there stood by him a dvbher,
one Doctor Dubber," an ignorant priest. Latimer uses
mingle-mangle, a word for pigs' food used in " my country "
(Leicestershire). He employs a glimmering for " a slight
recollection," p. 174. A man may be a firebrand, A
curate's wages, nine or ten pounds, may be earned by some
three-halpenny priest; * Kemains,' p. 29. The word stock seems
to be used for property, not merely for cattle, in p. 112.
Among the Adjectives is white-livered, quick (in the sense
of quick-tempered) ; * Sermons,' p. 207. As to the Pronouns,
we see tJiey were none of his to give, p. 158 ; no man is any
thing near v/nto mine age, p. 251 ; usurers take forty in the
hundred, p. 279, a new commercial phrase. Shakespere
talks of "your but ;" Latimer of St. Paul's nots and nons ;
* Kemains,' p. 18.
Among the new Verbs are overhear, brazen it, lamb, and
the phrases, blow men to ashes (with ordnance), raise rents,
keep touch (agreement) with, an article {^farfetched (brought
from a distance), do more hurt than good, Latimer uses to
prittle-prattle prayers, and also to pittle-pattle, whence comes
our pit-a-pat. We have seen strike in the sense of vadere ;
we now find chop in (cut in). The verb is dropped in no
doubt of that.
As to Prepositions, we see the Northern expletive, mth
a wanniaunt, * Sermons,' p. 119, soon to be altered into vnth
a vengeance. There is the new phrase, leave them at adven-
ture (to chance), p. 120.
There are the Scandinavian shelf (at sea) and trudge.
There is the Celtic perk (wax proud).
Among the Romance words are imposture, Anabaptistical,
king's minority, cursorily, brutality (brutishness), suspend
judgment, valuer, salad, propriety (peculiarity), phantastical
5i6 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
(unreal), to fantasy (putare), derJdy, In the well-known
'Sermon on the Card' we see the technical deal, suity
hearty turn up your trump, which is also seen as triumphy
p. 16. The word dame is used as the counterpart of
master, hence a dame's school. Men make a dividend
(division) of spoil, p. 31. The mock is employed in com-
pounds like our sAam, mock- gospeller ; of this kind of
words mock auction still survives. The word satisfactory
(expiatory) appears, used in a very diflferent sense from
ours. The famous word pasquyl appears f^r satire, as
before in Elyot. Latimer, when removed from his see,
became a quondam ; he also speaks of gmndamship, p. 154.
We see satrapa and a caveat. The old even in composition
was falling away, for we see cxhhelper ; this co had appeared
in commoder. The new sense of civU appears ; an honest
dvU woman, p. 180. Where we say, "thanks to my
trouble," the old phrase was gramercy labour, p. 213. We
hear of new 5p*n7s (homines), p. 229, hence our "choice
spirits ;" ghost and soul had long been used in this sense.
Men are made of certain metal, p. 393 ; this spelling was
later to be changed. A man who cheats another thinks
himself a wise merchant, p. 401 ; the word might bear a
bad meaning about this time. We hear oi fooleries, p. 426,
and moreover of follies, in the Plural. John the Baptist is
called a clergyman; * Remains,' p. 82 ; the first instance, I
think, of this word. The huge farthingales worn by
women are called round-abouts, p. 108. Latimer says, "the
Devil shall go for my money" (he is the one for me);
* Sermons,' p. 77.
As to old customs, noblemen are complained of by
many, because they lie in bed till eight in the morning ;
* Sermons,' p. 255. A certain rich man, when dying, utters
nothing but the oath, Wounds and sides/ p. 277. Latimer
protested against burials within the City, and wished that
Curates might be appointed to the gaols. On St. Stephen's
day it was usual to bleed horses; 'Remains,' p. 100.
Latimer confesses that he has been too apt to use the oath,
yea, by St, Mary I p. 79 ; most men in his day contented
themselves with Mary I He was once much blamed by a
III. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 5 1 7
Bishop for speaking of the LordHs Supper ^ a new term, not
often used by the Doctors ; ' Sermons,' p. 121. He tells us
that many punningly spoke of the new Homilies as homelies
(simple stuff), p. 121 ; the people would sometimes talk so as
to prevent these documents from being heard in Church.
He remarks on Abiathar's conspiracy, " it is marvel if any
mischief be in hand, if a priest be not at some end of it "
(the bottom of it); 'Sermons,' p. 114. He speaks of
bribery and its returns ; " giffe-gaffe was a good fellow," p.
140; Scott has something of the kind. Latimer has
various proverbs, to be found in Heywood.
Leland's remarks on his journey through England were
given to the King in 1546, and were soon afterwards
edited by Bale. The Antiquary had a licence in 1533 to
search all the Convent Libraries. He is here said by his
editor to have been learned in both Brittyshe, Saxonyshe^
and Walshe ; he might • well call himself Antiqmrms. No
Englishman probably professed to understand Old English
for 300 years before Leland ; one of the fruits of the
Keformation was to breed men like him, Parker, and Foxe.
A man may be an unprofitable dod, a new term of abuse.
The sh was coming in ; Gower's was (aqua) becomes wash
There is the new adverb lernedlye, which is an unusual
formation. We hear of dogged doynges of Anabaptists
(brutish or mad). The verb tmh seems to imitate order or
command, taking an Accusative and Infinitive ; / wyshe all
to consydre. The of now follows careful ; carefvl of good
learning. The very old sense of for (quod attinet ad) is
carried a step further ; lernM for hys tyme. We hear of
the prymative Church, to harlaryse, stacyoner. We see
monstntoTise buyldinges (ingentia) ; this sense lingers in our
monstrous fme. There is laysy (lazy), from the Old French
lasche (laxus). The Universities are said to be not all
clere in destroying old manuscripts; that is, "free from
blame." Leland uses the word Bomanisty with a new sense
widely apart from that of Bom/an or Bomancer. He applies
fanatycal to the Anabaptists, calling them chymney prechers
and henche bablers.
Bale seems to have written his play of * Kynge Johan
5i8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
(Camden Society) about the year 1550; he set the ex-
ample of not observing the unities of time or place, as
many years elapse between the scenes, and these shift
from England to Italy ; he first brought secular history
upon our stage. He has some old forms, as ha(^ (vesper-
tUio), TfiAsel (leper), slypper (lubricus), the moste (maximus)
knave. In p. 80 stands a wassail song, the six lines all
ending in ayle, something in Chaucer's style. The old
vxme (mos) now takes a / at the end, as wont, p. 27 ; we
hear of the Pope's crosse keys, p. 32 ; there is the old
alliteration kyng and heyser, p. 5. Among the Verbs are
slip aside, hear them grudge, set a good face upon it, cast over
your country (our throw over), p. 87. In p. 62 stands our
idiomatic go abowi thy hesynes (get you gone). The source
of our verb smg is very plain in p. 78, where a man pro-
poses to svjynhe a draught ; a few years later sprig was to
be substituted for sprenge. One of our short sharp phrases
appears in p. 51 ; John cites the Gospel; the answer is,
"Tush, gospell or no, ye must make," etc. In p. 66 comes
downe on yowr marry hones I Among the Komance words
are unplesant, dewtyfvl; also nx) mater to yow, pyed monk,
discharge his oath (in the sense of fungi). The Dominicans
are called Jacohytes (not Jacobins), p. 18; I have seen
this form in Latin verses of the Thirteenth Century.
A man is told that he loses no ceremony, p. 35 ; hence our
"stand on ceremony." A person, greeting another, says,
yowr servant, with no verb, p. 44. A whole French line is
inserted in the English text, p. 26 ; there is also sance pere
(peerless), hone vyage, per dee. In p. 73 stands the proverb
lyke Lorde, lyke chaplayne ; we say, "like master, like man."
Bale elsewhere uses the Scandinavian ya56^*.
William Patten wrote an account of the Duke of
Somerset's march into Scotland in 1548; this may be
found in Arber's * English Garner,' iii. 51. The u replaces
0, as gut (canalis) ; there is a well-known Gut near Oxford.
The h is struck out, as Carnal for Camphell, The d is
inserted, as Dandy for Daniel, p. 91. The I replaces r, as
to duddle (our diddle, decipere) for the old dydrian, p. 129.
Among the new Substantives are inroad, loophole, onset.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 519
There are the old forms All hallowentide (elsewhere written
Allhallontyd), gadling ; former represents our forefather^ p.
59. There are the phrases handful of men, he at odds (far
apart), Irood geese, race (fuga). There is the terse field or no
field, p. 63. Young Edward VI. is said to be of great hope,
p. 66 ; that is, he does not hope himself, but begets hope in
others ; he thus stands at the head of our young hopefuls.
In p. 71 we read of Tauthrie laces in a list of superstitious
trumpery ; these were sold at St. Awdry's fair at Ely ; we
now make them tawdry. The old handgun here becomes
simply a gun, p. 140. A nobleman is spoken of in his
absence as his Lordship, p. 142. Among the Adjectives we
remark within the full sight of, breast high, cJwicest men, oaten
cake. The Pronoun appears in a new way, nm himself to
death, p. 123^; there is fight it out, p. 109. We have seen
at each other ; there is now at one another, p. 133.
Among the Verbs are puff (in walking), blow with powder
(here we add up), a rising hill (hence rising ground), give
ground, keep on (march onward). A man when astonished
blesses him, p. 64; hence our bless rml when we are sur-
prised. The verb pack gets a new meaning in p. 104,
we were packing (departing). There had always been an
old phrase "slay at war;" in p. 91 we see "chase them at
the spear point." In p. 103 men play/(?r a stake.
There is the Scandinavian tit (equus), p. 92 ; it means
something very small.
We see here the number of French words brought in
by the soldier's trade, such as demi-lance, pensioner, pioneer.
Provost Marshal, battery, covert (for soldiers), tenable, trumpet
(trumpeter), to plant ordnance, field piece, fore rank, a flank
(in flank), to flank, culverin, order of march. There is, more-
over, the Spanish camisado, p. 89 ; Spain had now replaced
France as the head of the military world. In p. 91 charge
expresses ruere, to charge at a man in a skirmish. Chaucer's
pellet (from a cannon) now gives way to bullet, p. 118.
The place occupied by a general is called his post, p. 111.
Certain knights in the van are called Sergeants ; this word
was henceforth to be military as well as legal, p. 120 ; we
also hear in the same page of the GentUrruin Harbinger
520 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
(Quartermaster- General). The guns are called missive
engines, p. 121 ; we now make this adjective Passive, not
Active; Lord Macaulay has been blamed for calling a
musket a missile weapon. We see the phrases graiify,
deponent, good literature (scholarship), diary, common sense,
proffer battle, suitably, vent (opening), to calendar, infest them,
with present mind, the dovhle of it, relerd, punies (juniors), my
notes. An epigram shows neatness, p. 6 1 ; inhuman is used
for uncourteous, p. 66 ; the nobles in the army are called
the dignity, as we say the quality, p. 73 ; profane authors are
opposed to Scriptural writers, p. 80. The words brave,
bravery, are used much as brag, pp. 98 and 114 ; hence our
brave it out. The word villain is opposed to gentleman,
p. 125, a late instance. The new verb endeavour now be-
comes a noun, do mine endeavour, p. 56. In p. 57 demerits
stand for services. A fort is made defensible, p. 5 9 ; this
adjective now becomes Passive in its meaning, not Active
as of old. Somerset has a chariot of his own, sumptuous
for cost, and easy for carriage, p. 93 ; this is a very early
instance of the vehicle in England. We hear of both a
retire and a retreat. The word plot is now applied to works
of the mind ; "the plot of my prologue," p. 75.
We light upon the proverb, say truth and shame the devil,
p. 61.
The word Briton, as usual, is used by an Englishman,
whenever Scots are to be won over. There is no diflPerence
in language between the two countries, p. 64. Edward
VI. is called aright Briton, both bred and born, p. 67.
" Coeamus in unum,
Simus et unanimes per secula cuncta Britanni " (p. 61),
a wish that seems likely to be granted. It is remarked
that the Scots call a hill a bray, p. 62 ; loon and tyke were
their favourite words of abuse, p. 114. The Fire Cross
and its use are described at length in p. 63 ; it is never
employed but in urgent need. The Scots speak of horse-
men as prickers, p. 63 ; to prick in this sense dates from
1280. The Gael of the North are called Irish, p. 63.
The Northern dialect is set down by the Englishman in
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 521
p. 75 ; Huntley is made to say, " in gude faith, I wade (the
marriage) sud gae furth, and (I) hand weil with (it)." Scots
are allowed to gae their gate^ p. 84. Patten in p. 86 notes
the Scotch custom of speaking of a nobleman's son and heir
as the Master. It is remarked that the Scotch use sober for
parvus, as a soler company y p. 101. They had kept the
word inland, long dropped in the South ; the Mand men
were the best in their army, p. 111. The diflference be-
tween the Scotch lord and laird is explained in p. 125 ;
the latter answers to the English esquire.
In the Church Homilies, put forth by Edward VI. in
1549, the word goose stands for stultus. In the beginning
of the Homily against Contention, we learn that a Gospeller
used to be reviled as a new-broached brother ; here the last
word is equivalent to Puritan, much as Strafford used
it of Hampden. The verb broach is now applied to some-
thing else besides a cask. Trevisa had already used same
with; we now see one body with, made one with Christ
There are the new Verbs embody and besot. There is the
parenthesis, as I rm/y so speak (ut ita dicam). Tyndale's
phrase so far off from having it is now. altered into so far
from rejoicing (Obedience, No. 2).
The time, when England broke away from the Italian
yoke, falls in precisely with the time when the diction of
her bards was greatly changed for the better. Langland,
true genius though he might be, was wrong in employing
so vast a number of French words in his work ; the Passus
Decimus-Quartus of his Vision has one French word for
two English, counting the nouns, verbs, and adverbs alone.
Chaucer penning a hymn to the Virgin is most diflFerent
from Chaucer laughing over the pranks of naughty lads at
the Universities ; in the former case he heaps up his French
words to a wondrous extent. The same tendency may be
seen in Lydgate, Hawes, Dunbar, and their brethren ; the
worst sinners in this respect being monks and writers of
Church legends. To prove my point, I give a stanza from
a poem composed by the Abbot of Gloucester in 1524 ; we
may almost call it the last dying strains, somewhat prosaic
in truth, of the Old Creed: —
522 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
XXI.
** Where is and shall be etemall
Joy, incomparable myrth without heaviness,
Love with Charity and grace Celestiall,
Lasting interminable, lacking no goodness.
In that Citty virtue shall never cease,
And felicity no Soule shall misse,
Magnifying the name of the Kinge of Blisse."
XXII.
'' This compendious Extract compiled was new,
A thousand yeere 5 hundred fower and twenty
From the birthe of our Saviour Christ Jesue,
By the Reverend Father of worthy memory,
WUlm Malveme, Abbot of this Monastery,
Whome God preserve in long Ufe and prosperity.
And after death him graunt Etemall Felicity." ^
But about the time that Tyndale was giving the English
Bible to his countrymen in their own tongue, and that Crom-
well was hammering the monks, a new soul seems to have
been breathed into English poetry. Surrey and Wyat
stand at the head of the new school, and show themselves
Teutons of the right breed ; they clearly had no silly love
for lumbering Latinised stuff. The true path, pointed out
by them, was soon to be followed in this Sixteenth Century
by Buckhurst, Gascoigne, Sidney, and by two men greater
still. Even Southwell, who died in the Pope's behalf,
cleaves fast to the new Teutonic diction of his brother
bards. The Keformation has been called an uprising of
Teutonism against Latinism ; nowhere does this come out
clearer than in English poetry.
But this Sixteenth Century had a widely different effect
on our Prose. Latin was the great link between our own
Reformers and those of other lands ; and the temptation was
strong to bring into vogue Latin terms for the new ideas
in religion that were taking root in our island. Theology
was the great subject of the age ; and King Henry VIII.
remarked to his Parliament in 1545 : "I am very sorry to
know and hear how unreverently that most precious jewel,
' Hearne's * Robert of Gloucester,' ii. 584. The old spelling has
been partly changed.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 523
the Word of God, is disputed, rimed, sung, and jangled in
every ale house and tavern, contrary to the true meaning
and doctrine of the same.'' Besides this intense thirst after
religious discussion, our fathers later on in the Century saw
for the first time the authors of Greece and Kome clad in
an English dress; and the sailors who bore the English
flag round the world were always printing wondrous tales
of their wanderings; Plymouth, as well as Oxford, was
making her influence felt. Our land, therefore, owned at
the end of the Sixteenth Century thousands of new terms,
which would have seemed strange to Hawes and Eoy ; a
fair store of words was being made ready for Shakespere,
whose genius would not bear cramping. The people, for
whom he was to write, had a strong taste for theology, for
the classics, and for sea roving ; each of these tastes brought
in shoals of new words.
It is to the ripe and mellow wisdom of Cranmer (1550)
that we owe the^ English Prayer Book almost as it now stands.
It is his best monument ; he had no vulgar wish to sweep
away what was old, unless the sacrifice were called for by
the cause of Truth. We have seen that some of the Book's
formularies date from Wickliffe's day ; others, such as the
Bidding prayer, betoken a wish to yoke together the
Teutonic and the Komance in pairs, like aclmowledge and
confess, humble and lowly, goodness and mercy, assemble and
m^et, pray and beseech?- Even so the Law talks of yielding
and paying. In the Collects, the proportion of French to
English is much the same as in Chaucer's prose earlier,
and as Addison was to write later. Lord Macaulay long
ago contrasted our English prayers, compiled when our
language was full of sap and vigour, with the older Latin
forms translated by Cranmer, the work of an age of third-
rate Latinity. Yet the Archbishop's work was held cheap by
some of his flock. The stalwart peasantry of our Western
shires, the men who rose against his system, called this
new Prayer Book nothing but " a Christmas game."
^ Compare the prayers of Cranmer's compilation with those now
and then put forth by authority in our own time. The art of compil-
ing prayers seems to be lost.
524 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
It is well known how great an influence Luther and
Calvin have had upon their respective tongues; in like
manner, one effect of the Reformation was to keep
England steady to her old speech. As we have always
had the voices of Tyndale and Cranmer ringing in our ears
week after week for the last three Centuries, we have lost
but few words since the time of these worthies ; the most
remarkable of our losses are holUd^ daysman^ to ear, sUverling,
and meteyard, found in parts of Scripture not much read.
Heame, writing 170 years later, mourned over the substi-
tution of modern words for rede (consilium) and hehigJd
(promisit), both used by Sternhold in his version of the
Psalms, made in the days of Edward VI. " Strange altera-
tions," says the Antiquary, " all for the worse."
Thomas Lever (Arber's Reprint) was one of the most
renowned Protestant preachers about 1550 ; he came from
Lancashire, and uses the Northern hrasie for hwrst, p. 35.
He writes yearthe for terra ; he uses cotinger for cottager, just
as the n came into messager ; he tells us that country folk
spoke of the new Homilies as the humbles, p. 65. In p. 82
we hear of cattle being given into a stocks, for the relief of
the poor ; hence come our joint stock companies. There
are the phrases greedy gut and tunne belyed, p. 119. There
is a new sense of over in p. 142; take a ferme over their
heades. We see the word vailes, p. 82, which seems to
mean here cammoda, coming from avail ; it was later em-
ployed for gifts to servants.
In Mr. Fumivall's ' Jyl of Brentford's Testament ' there
are some pieces dating from about 1550. The needless w
appears in wholsome, p. 23. In p. 23 stands fight with
toothe and nayle, a new phrase ; the Devil's secretary bears
the name of Blooddyhone, p. 28 ; whom we now couple with
raw head. Thieves are mentioned in connexion with Shoters
Hyll, p. 25. A girl may be ordered to sit on the pillar of
repentance, p. 40 ; in Scotland it is a stool. In p. 41 we
see over again coupled, I think for the first time ; the over
meaning per ; in do it over, as we see, the Preposition is
placed after the case. In p. 25 girls go to a dancing
school to learn facions ; the first instance, I think, of this
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 525
Plural. There are Satannkall and intoxicate. We have
seen pray thee thirty years earlier ; this is now shortened ;
pray do U, p. 41.
Crowley's * Epigrams' (Early English Text Society, Extra
Series) date from this time. A beare fyght takes place
in Paryse garden every Sunday; the substantive first
mentioned is in our day used of men, not animals. The
verb pitch takes a new meaning, that of torqiiere. There is
the Shakesperian oath, by cocke and by pye, p. 19. The
word libertine, as we see by the context, means much the
same as democrat, p. 112.
We may glance at the Scotch Catechism, set forth by
Archbishop Hamilton in 1551 (republished in 1882).
There is an evident attempt to move with the times ; the
Pope's namfe is kept in the background, and priests' mis-
behaviour is freely admitted. The duties of the Sunday
are enforced, such as rest from labour, sermons, almsdeeds,
instruction of bairns and servants; dancing, dicing, "and
specially carreling and wanton synging in the kirk," are
forbidden. The Archbishop is far more Sabbatarian than
Luther was. We hear that Saturday, like Friday in our
own time, was regarded with superstition; on that day
craftsmen, sailors, and travellers would begin no work or
enterprise (fol. 23). There appear certain old phrases, which
had been lost in the South, such as file (inquinare), tvjin
(separare), and others. The Scotch form suppose for si is
in full vigour. We see coacJcU and Ackes, where the t is
dropped, as in Coverdale's Bible. The Scotch had already
turned manrede into manrent ; we now often have hetrent
(hatred). There is Pottinga/reis for apothecaries; to the
former word we owe the proper name Pottinger. The b is
cast out, as in chamyrland (chamberlain) ; clothes becomes
clayis (claes), losing the th. When we here see stolen often
written stomn, we remember how col and bel became cou
and bew in France. When plesand (jucundus) is written,
there is an attempt to supplant the French ending by that
of the Northern English Participle. The w is still written
for V, as cowatous.
There are the new Substantives cottar and tyredness
526 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
(fatigue). A word, constantly now in the mouths of Scotch
peasants, appears ; hrtvA is maid of rtwny piMUis of come
(fol. 142); "a wee puckle straw" is often to be heard in
our days. The sum is used in forming new Adjectives ; we
here find lesum (lawful) and langsum ; the French le in the
North was always favoured, as in the case of leal. The
form manly is used for Christ's human nature. The sklike
{swa-liolic) is employed for talis ; sidike ane lufe (fol. 40).
We see the verb eke used, differing from English use, to
translate addere.
The Celtic word dan is used as a synonym for genealogy
(foL 100).
Among the Bomance words are hlake mmllis (the Irish
hlah rent), singlar (peculiar), huirmaister (whorem aster), docu-
ment (proof) ; these two last appear in the Anglican Homilies
ten years later.
We have already considered the earlier version of the
* Song of Lady Bessy ' (Percy Society, vol. xx.) ; the later
version seems to belong to this time ; there is the word
slave, which was now coming into use. The piece seems to
have been written in Lancashire or some Northern county,
for a Princess is spoken of as a proper wench, p. 11. The
I is clipped ; we hear more than once of a gent (gentleman);
I can well remember Albert Smith's treatise upon this
being. We see keep an appointment
There are two plays of about 1550 in Dodsley's Collec-
tion (Hazlitt, voL ii.). Lusty Juventus and the Disobedient
Child. In p. 273 breech is used, no longer for a garment,
but for the hinder part of the person. There is the
Shakesperian m>ome, meaning stultus. In p. 277 stands
young Lively and Lusty, which is something new. In p. 271
stands when all is said amd done, differing from the old
version of this. There is the Scandinavian word hang.
We see in service time, where divine ought to follow the
Preposition. There is the new phrase face out the matter,
Hutchinson (Parker Society) was one of the Eeformers,
who published about 1550. In some verses by Dean Bill,
prefixed to the volume, p. 10, we see the very old word
ceghwcer (ubique), long preserved in the North, in the form
III.] THE NE W ENGLISH, 527
of each where, Hutchinson seems to have come from the
North, for he uses harm (puer) and corse (mutare), which
last word puzzles the modem editor, p. 321.
The old yea^ written ie^ was now making way for aye^
which is often repeated in p. 336. There are the new
Substantives pkUock, seacoal ; the former is rather different
from Occleve's wwpvoka coffer. There is the old Northern God!s
man in p. 253, where we should say mmi of God; our lady's
man is a later formation. In p. 286 we read of children
following the wild stoing of youth. Men attack some-
thing tooth and nail, p. 213; toothroche is also revived
after a long sleep. There is the Shakesperian it was a
m^rry world, before, etc., p. 8. The word Dutch is now
used for Hollander ; in p. 17 a distinction is made at last
between Dutch and the Almaines' tongue ; the former has
God, the latter Gott, There is the new form all-knowing
coined, p. 193, just as eal-crceftig had been struck off hun-
dreds of years earlier. We hear of the broad seal of Eng-
land, p. 251. The old Idndly \}qb,t^ its rightful meaning of
naturalis in our Litany j but in p. 322 we read of David's
kindly table ; here the word seems to take the new sense
of benignus, as kind had done 250 years earlier. In p. 39
iron at Elisha's bidding hoves above water ; the verb had
meant manere ; Minot, who was a Northern man, had
used it in connexion with water, as Hutchinson does. The
verb gather is used for intdligere in p. 325 ; "gather from
a text that," etc. Heretics may rack a Scriptural word,
p. 131, to prove their own figments.
Among the Komance words are colligener (member of a
college), which comes often, a common table (for eating),
p. 203, bowser (bursar), losing an r in the middle like^a%
and sexton; also expiation, peasant, A plaintiff tries his
suit,* p. 327 ; we transfer the verb to the judge. A knave
is to be set forth in his colours, p. 335 ; hence "in his true
colours." The word trinity loses its theological sense in
p. 81 ; a trinity of suns, St. Paul's friend is called Captain
Lysias, p. 329. Hutchinson shows us how the knowledge
of Greek was making rapid strides; he uses the word
bribe-taker, p. 318, which compound, I suspect, he took from
528 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Demosthenes; a vain repetition becomes tautologia, p. 122.
Unlike Luther, he calls Aristotle " the noble and worthy
philosopher," p. 170. He has a devout belief in the
Sibyls, p. 177. He disagrees with Zuinglius, thinking the
Eucharist something more than a bare and naked meta-
phor, p. 260. He often inserts Greek characters and
words into his English text ; Protestant divines were
now leaving Latimer far behind, who avowed that he knew
no Greek
In the documents of this time, set forth in Tytler's
Edward VI., we see the old sound of oy still existing,
since there is a pun in i. 210, where London is called
Troy tmtrue. There are the Substantives a runabout, ikkle-
ness, heart-himing, doings and sayings ; heat takes the sense
of ira, i. 170. A pirate sends ashore his mate, i. 271, the
first instance, I think, of this word being applied to a ship's
officer. The Pope is called His Holoumess, ii. 81. The
adjective warm is employed for iratus, L 67 ; and lubberly
appears. In ii. 44 a man keeps his own counsel ; here the
use of own is something peculiar ; counsel in this phrase
bears to this day its old sense of a secret In this page
the old Double Negative may be seen in full force, em-
ployed by Lord Arundel. The most remarkable change
in the Verbs is the new Past Participle ; this letter, having
been written, hath, etc. ; the increasing study of Greek
would bring these new forms of speech into vogue. The
Northern egg (incitare) is now coming South,,! 298. The
Active verb mind (curare) now takes an Infinitive ; he
seemeth not to mind to leave it (care about leaving it), i. 297.
There are the new phrases take exercise, take his oath, pd out
of countenance, cut off a tale.
Among the Komance words are certainty, decipher, tem-
porize, broil (rixa), billet (epistola), redproque (reciprocal),
pigue (rixa), brush (for the hair), virago, proveable, finances.
Many new military terms appear ; enseigns of footmen and
horsemen, i. »53 ; the new French form, Colonel ; a man has
soldiers in regiment, ii. 182, where a new sense of the word
begins to come in. We hear of the Great Turk, who is
also called Le Grand Seignor ; also of his Bassa (Pasha) ;
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 529
the Turkish fleet is called an armata, ii. 252. In the same
page the old Genoways become Genoeses, like Milton's
Chineses. The word trorwperie is used for deceit, ii. 93, as
before in Caxton ; attend bears its French sense of expectare,
ii. 93. The word pinnace is used as an equivalent for galley,
i. 284. A man wishes for a few lines from his friend,
i. 345. Young Phihp II. is said to continue in a Spanish
gravity, i 303 ; this would earlier have been expressed by
sadness. Paget boasts that he never loved extremes, i. 24 ;
here the adjective is made a substantive.
There is the saying, " I would not be in some of their
coats for five marks!" i. 171. King Edward takes the
French envoys to hunt in Hyde Park, i. 288.
In HalliwelFs * Letters of the Kings,' vol. ii., Edward
VI. uses the new phrase run a match, p. 53. He has
praiseworthy, an odd compound, gendarmery, and the new
hatchment
In Wood's * Letters of Illustrious Ladies,' vol. ii., a
Scotch lady talks of a hawnking, p. 195 (whence comes bawn);
it seems to be distinguished from a castle ; the old form was
barmeken. We hear of lords and their ladies (wives), p. 39.
A wife addresses her husband in a letter as. Good mine own;
a Duchess writes patronisingly to a Minister as, my good Cecil,
p. 248. A will stands; a reprover shakes a person up,
p. 54 ; rruike clear with him (clear off his accounts), p. 49 ;
lay a corpse forth (out) ; a room falls void ; have (get the)
best of him, p. 134. Among the Komance words are un-^
natural, conserve of damascenes (damsons), to feast men, depart
this world. Florence appears as a woman's name, p. 89.
Elizabeth signs herself Cor Rotto at the end of a letter,
p. 280 ; the study of Italian was coming in. The word
Christian is used in a new and restricted sense in p. 240 ;
it is applied to certain men who are sure to do justice.
The old Plural form heirs males appears in the year 1539.
In p. 237 stands " it argue th your non-receipt of my letters;"
here the substantive replaces the usual construction with
the verb, a change that has done much harm in English
since 1740.
There is the proverb, a good tv/m quickly done is twice
VOL. I. 2 m
530 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
done^ p. 249 ; Elizabeth quotes, or rather misquotes, a saw
of 1260, also known in Iceland; when hale is lowest, boot is
nearest, p. 280.
About this time appear the words aborigines, accoutre-
ments; the word achievement has been used down to our
day for escutcheon; but this is seen in Hall's Chronicle
as hacheinenie, a curious instance of the loss of v. These
items I take from Dr. Murray's Dictionary.
In Burgon's * Life of Gresham' we see a substituted for
he in Mrs. Quickly 's style ; a can speak, p. 108. We read
of a frame of tymbre, sUk stockings ; a cargo is conveyed in
one bottom (ship), p. 472 ; a man is open-mouthed. We
read of Turkey carpets, a Bursse (Exchange), Spanish rials
(reals), an Agentshipe (Gresham's own post), the interest
money ; Gresham addresses the Council as your honnors, p.
98. He talks of the rate of interest after thirteen upon the
hundred, p. 132; he then uses the new style, sixteen per
cento, p. 92. English commerce was now beginning to
make its mark in the world.
In Coverdale's * Memorials' of this time we see that his
predecessor at Exeter was known as Veyzy ; the name
was also written Voyzy ; these two forms are in our day
carefully distinguished. We find the new adjective lucky
used as a synonym ior prosperous, p. 238. We have long
before seen thus much; we now find this moch of it, p. 199.
Coverdale speaks of the popular burdens of songs in his
day, hey n/my nony and hey troly loly, p. 248. Among
Eomance words in this work are exactly, ratablie, p. 107 ;
commit to memory, subtract Psalm-singing is called a godly
sport in p. 104. The sufiix ling is fastened to a Eomance
word in the scornful tenderlin^g, p. 259. We see Latenyst,
p. 197 ; but a scholar in Hellenic lore was always a Grecian
The name Protestant appears in English in 1542, but it
refers as yet to the Germans only, p. 256 ; the form Austria
has not yet replaced the old Ostericke, Latin words were
coming into English ; we see et cetera at the end of a
sentence, p. 258.
Kalph Robinson brought out his translation of More's
* Utopia' in 1551 (Arber's Reprint); the translator dedicated
III. ] THE NE W ENGLISH. 53 1
it to Cecil, an old schoolfellow of his. He is fond of the
ie for the sound of French ^, writing hryed for breed, and
many other such; the owmpere of 1440 appears as urn/pier^
p. 22, leading to our form umpire. I may here remark that
of late, owing to the favourite game of lawn tennis, we have
turned this noun umpire into a verb. The old en is making
way for in; there is intricate^ p. 128. The t is added to
round off a word ; dolt comes from dol (stultus). Among
the Substantives kyel (keel) is revived after a very long
sleep. We have seen aslope and slopewise ; we at last light
upon the noun slope, p. 78. There is the phrase, the good
wyfe of the home, p. 123, which seems strange at London.
There is the new scolefellow, p. 1 6. We hear that " monsters
are no newes" which is a novel phrase. Among the Adjec-
tives are yonge bladed (grass), a smcd eater, Orrmin's smikerr
appears as smugge, p. 26, and is used in our scornful way ;
it is here coupled with smx)oth Land had long been stony;
but in p. 1 1 5 insensibility is called stonishe, a good example
of the use of the scornful isk Tyndale's a great many is
altered in p. 65 ; thies good many yeares. The old substan-
tive cheap is now made a regular adjective ; to bie them verie
chepe, p. 42 ; sumwhat cheper, p. 49 ; this Comparative is
something new. There is a curious repetition of the old
dn (unus) in p. 68, the one and onlye waye ; in p. 161 Pride
is called one only beast. In p. 70 the Utopians make strange
devices theire owne (learn them). The nothing like appears
in a new guise; nothing to be compared with them, p. 133.
Among the Verbs are to hooke in the kynge, stand him in
much money, p. 87. The digge in p. 102 is used as in the
* Apology for the Lollards' 150 years earlier; digge their
mothers under the sides. The old be you sure is altered in
p. 146 into you maye be suer that, etc. Our in and among
have often been confused from the earliest times; in p. 26
men play the critic amonge their cuppes ; hence the later in
his cups. The Latin proprius governs the Dative ; hence
peculiar to you English, p. 40.
There is the wQuhjlout from the T)w.\xAi fluyten (to jeer) ;
this came from the French, and further from the Low Latin ;
in this curious pedigree flaius (breath) is the parent.
532 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Among the Romance words are longUyde, latitude^ retain^-
our (servant), monopolie, gallymalfreye (mixture), dktionayrey
chaumber pot, inddentlye (incidentally). The word pier
in p. 34 seems to mean columna, which is new; pieres
of realmes. In p. 128 the word gross is coupled with
plain (simple), and is applied to the interpretation of
laws. In one place in p. 135 basse is used as a synonym
for the common people ; in another place it is applied to
bribery, and is a synonym for cowardly ; here a change is at
work. Slaves may be got for gramercye (gratis), p. 121.
Jokes may be out of place, p. 52. In p. 98 stands the
phrase, "this trade of traffique or marchaundise ; " here
the trade keeps its old sense of cursm, and traffique gets its
present sense. In p. 144 men are entered (trained) in
religion. We here see the very old forms awnter, hedlonges,
the over (upper) end.
To this date belongs the word barton (fann-yard); see
Dr. Murray.
Cavendish wrote his life of Cardinal Wolsey about
1555 ; I have here used Singer's edition. The ie is
added to a word, as Cotmtie Clermont (a nobleman), p. 88 ;
hence Shakespere talks of the County Paris. There are
the new substantives drum^ tUtyard ; we hear of the m£at
of an orange, the vxilks in a garden, of fine linen Holland
cloth. In p. 202 stands lady masker, the first time, I
think, that lady, in compounds with another noun, sup-
plants the former Old English wife. Wolsey, in p. 255,
says that he has nothing but the clothes on his back. The
words rrwrrow and rrwming, both alike here meaning the
Latin mane, may be seen in one sentence, p. 387. As to
Adjectives, in p. 84 we find vrye (parvus), the Scotch wee ;
this puzzling word is quoted from More's writings. In p.
141 stands the dead time of the night ; the time was to be
dropped some years later. The word like takes a the
before it; / never saw the like, p. 201. We have a full
gallop ; twenty years or more. There is the Numeral no
one day (not a day), p. 286. Among the Verbs is the in-
transitive waffet, p. 251 ; boats waffet (sail or row), p. 251 ;
this was soon to become waft, with a change of meaning.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 533
There are the phrases sit on thorns, sell our lives dearly,
broken English, he fired (fired up), take until next day, he is
yielded, his eyes were set in his head (when near death). We
had long used be in brewing ; the Verbal noun, as usual,
leads to the verb brew becoming intransitive ; matters brew,
p. 203. The verb call here gets the sense of awake ; call
him early, p. 324. In p. 381 stands the angry, what hive
you to do to ask, etc. ; this to do (ado) was soon to give place
to the synonym business^ what business have you, etc. Wol-
sey fears, in p. 392, that God will leave us in our own hands;
the Scotch say, he was so left to himself. Among the
Adverbs are on/ standing by itself, p. 106. As to Pre-
positions, there is have a jewel of him, p. 332 ; we should
say in him ; the with is now followed by a Past Participle,
he never went with any part of divine service unsaid, p. 105.
Among the Eomance words are confections, difficile,
pier (of harbour), havresack, chess board, fife, a mutual
brother, p. 333 ; hence our " mutual friend," so long
objected to. The word compasses is used for stratagems,
p. 78. The verb entertain in p. 165 expresses, not hospi-
tality, but agreeable converse ; it is applied to the meeting
of the French king and Wolsey on horseback. A man
plants himself near the king, p. 295 ; the verb had been
making way within the last few years, being used of some-
thing besides trees and flowers. In p. 249 something is
parcel gilt; in the next page parcel stands for package.
In p. 299 Wolsey's servants are called his family ; hence
our family prayers. In p. 305 slander is used for the
kindred scandal. In p. 347 Wolsey speaks with a faint
voice, a new sense of the Adjective. The phrase be in
trouble is used of a man imprisoned, p. 382 ; the noun here
gets a very harsh sense. Cavendish borrows from his old
master the adjective dtUce, seen in p. 177. Ladies' dress
is cut by tailors, p. 201. We hear of every several Uni-
versity, p. 205. There is the new directly, which followed
the course of the English straight; it seems as yet to be
used of place, not of time. In p. 248 stands grograine,
whence came, centuries later, the word grog. A chair is
based in a certain spot, p. 281. In p. 307 we hear of
534 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
livery dothes ; in p. 313 of liveries. Wolsey's servants,
when asked to go to York, refuse to leave their native
country; that is, Southern England, p. 307. A stag is
coursed, p. 325. Wolsey lies barefaced in his coffin, p. 395 ;
we now give a bad moral meaning to the word.
The Cardinal takes a nobleman's servants by the hands,
whether gentlemen or yeomen, p. 362. Henry VIII. uses
to Cavendish an oft-quoted speech, p. 399, " three may keep
counsel, if two be away ; if I thought that my cap knew
my counsel, I would cast it into the fire." We hear that
Henry VII., for his great wisdom, was known in every
Christian region as "the second Solomon," pp. 78 and
216.
In Machyn's Diary (Camden Society), from 1550 to
1563, we see the word raw (crudus) pronounced much in
the old way, for it is written rowe, p. 304 ; but pryche
(prsedicare) shows that preach was losing its old sound.
We find St. Olave's written Saynt Towllys, p. 21 ; hence
the tailors of Tooley street. Abergavenny is cut down to
Borgane, p. 45. The h in aliU (alight) is still sounded, for
it is often written alyht There is the phrase low water
marke, p. 213. We see Botland-shyre, p. 43; a sad cor-
ruption, too common in our day. A very old English
Genitive idiom is kept in My Lord Dahirs of the North
doythur (daughter), p. 29. In our time we talk of articles
going off (being sold) ; something like this is found in p.
241, cheese went away for so much. Among the Eomance
words are obsequies, bdlet (billet of wood), hurly burly (the
Lancashire hourU), marchand ventorer, change a blow or two.
The old wait (watchman) now appears as a musician, p. 45 ;
he had always sounded an alarm with some instrument.
Bacon may be messelle (measly), p. 248. We read of an
Englishman who was marchand of Muskovea in 1557, p.
166; Turkey rmrchants C2kmQ \2i,\jQv, The substantive sukett
appears for dainty, p. 237 ; hence perhaps the sock so dear
to Etonians. We hear of Hyde park corner, p. 55. The
change of religion is marked in p. 249 ; in a London
church a certain man was parson, and ys menyster. In
the year 1561 a criminal is given to the barber surgeons
in.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 535
to be a notheme (anatomy) at their hall, p. 252 ; science
was making great strides.
Kichard Eden, the foremost pioneer of English researches
in geography, translated many foreign works between 1553
and 1555; I have used Arber's Keprint. The author
flourished at the moment when England was sending forth
her own sons, both North and West, to make discoveries,
and was no longer depending on foreigners like Cabot.
Many a strange word, brought from America, is here made
an English citizen. The books on America, compiled by
Peter Martyr and Oviedo, were now first translated into
English, as also were certain works on Russia. Columbus
and Magellan were at last made known to the English
public ; our own Chancellor and Drake were now in full
vigour. As to Vowels, the e is sometimes added ; thus the
old war (cautus) becomes ware, p. 386, our wary ; we see
humane (mansuetus), p. 186, bearing a very diflferent sense
from human. The usual interchange of I and d is seen
when Cadiz is written Cales in English. The^ replaces//
Coverdale's chaft now gives birth to chappes (fauces), p. 231 ;
the other form chops had appeared in Dunbar ; the chappes
in p. 16, from the Dutch happen, express another meaning,
sdsswra. The final d is clipped ; Barbour's shold appears
as shole, our shoal. The c replaces h; the old hoh gives
birth to the Plural houx, our hocks, p. 292 ; it is here
coupled with pasterns. The old crevis now simulates an.
English ending, and becomes crevyssh, p. 329, our crayfish.
Among the new Substantives are mairdand, brode swoord,
swoordeplayefT, blvdsucker, puff (mushroom), looking glass, man-
hunter, woodpeck (woodpecker, p. 224), swoord fyshe, pack
horse. Certain words bear new meanings, as the bed of a
river, a neck of land ; beads are no longer connected with
religion, but are given to savages, p. 251. The word dog
now expresses masculus ; a dog tiger, p. 144. The word
play now stands for hilaritas ; an animal is full oi play, p.
171. The word /aTi^ expresses the Latin dens ; fanges or
dogge teeth, p. 220. We hear of mariners' sloppes, p. 327 ;
this old word for vestes seems henceforth to have been
restricted to seamen. The very old byght (sinus) is revived
536 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
in p. 380. We read of a hoom/nwck (hillock), p. 381 ; this
seems to come from hump. There is the Verbal noun
swepynges (things swept), p. 157. The man is added to
another Substantive; fyssher m^n are found in p. 189.
The North stars are called charles wayne, p. 310. Job had
already been connected with the morbus Gallicus as a kind
of patron Saint ; in p. 260 this plague is called the disease
of saint Job. The Definite Article is inserted before the
Verbal noun; sometliing is toorth the h^uryng^ p. 173. A
phrase of Ascham's appears; the you is employed where
man would have stood in Middle English ; here you may get
water, p. 381. Among the Verbs are a well meaning man,
mouths uxiter, break open a chest, set our course east ; this course
seems to be dropped in currents set to tJte eastvxird, p. 382 ;
and also in to bear southwest, p. 379. Sailors reckon them-
selves to be in a certain spot, p. 381 ; hence their later
reckonings. The verh flirt is seen for the first time, I think,
in p. 23 ; nostrils /ir/ upward There is the Scandinavian
verb whiz, already used by Surrey, and the Celtic slabby
(miry), p. 321, which must have had its influence on our
sloppy.
As to the Eomance terms, Eden thinks it well to prefix
the interpretation of certain uncommon words in a table,
p. 45 ; among these are colonic (an habitacion), paralleles,
equinoctial (the Line), continente, here opposed to island;
colonies are planted in p. 345. Peter Martyr made known
many American words, such as canilal, canoa, maizium
(maize), furacan (hurricane), botata (potato), p. 131, cocas
(cocoa). Southern Asia gave us raia (rajah, p. 258) ; we
now read of indigo and opium. From Tartary came h&rdas
(hordes, turbce), p. 291 ; Northern Europe gave us werst,
mors (walrus), reen, p. 301, whence came reindeer ; this had
been known to the English in earlier days as hran. The
Old German vnsunt had produced the Latin bison ; this now
appears in England as bisom and bisont, pp. 292 and 305.
We hear of Ginoia or Guinea, " which we call Gynne," p.
385 ; the Moors appear as negros, p. 384. We see iegot
(gigot), insinuate, mortal enemy, to divine (guess), firm land,
to perboyl, radical, bombasine, proo (prora), the confines, chestnut.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 537
sugar ca'ne, fusion, mineral, picke of TenerifFe, p. 380, trunk
of elephant^ carat, huffe, whence came buffalo a hundred
years later. The laundre of 1530 becomes laundress. There
is the new phrase the state of thynges, p. 114. Soldiers are
placed SiS pertisens about the GeneraFs person, p. 116 ; this
word means a halberd; its later change of meaning and
confusion with party is easy to be traced. The word
quadn-ant had hitherto in England meant quadrangle ; but
henceforth, thanks to Peter Martyr and his translator, it
stood for the instrument used at sea, p. 157, There is the
strange Passive Participle sytuate, p. 187. Horses are not
disembarked, but unbarked, p. 194. We have seen a General
Captain, the last word is now dropped ; and in p. 252 we
read of a General, The verb muster seems to mean colligere,
not ostendere as of old, p. 317. A man is abused with
opprobrious words, p. 375 ; here the verb begins to slide
into the new sense of vituperare ; he is vilely used in p.
377. Sailors touch at a port, p. 379 ; a new employment
of the verb. In p. 295 the varying Italian and English
forms of one old Aryan word stand side by side ; the axes
(axis) or axceltree of the worlde. A whirlwind was called by
the Greeks a tiphon, as we are told in p. 81 ; but our later
typhoon is a Chinese word ; the coincidence is rather strange.
The drinking glasses "of Venice woorke" were highly
esteemed in the East, p. 257.
I may remark the following old words and forms still
lingering on, woodwale (woodpecker), slead (sledge), newy
(nepos), olifant, to harborow. We have Luxiburne for Lisboa,
Lisbon, p. 378 ; here x expresses 5 in England almost for
the last time.
Eden, in a later letter of 1561, p. xli., uses the French
verb trawl, speaking of the fisheries ; he here draws a wide
distinction between Astrologers and Astronomers; the latter
had come to the front, owing to the long voyages now
undertaken.
There are many documents of the years 1554 and 1555
in Tytler's Edward VI., vol. ii The French chateau is still
pronounced shatewe by the English, p. 448 ; and the Pope
of the time appears as July, p. 480. We had long talked
538 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
of fair words, wher^ the adjective means facUis or lenis ; a
man wishes in p. 469 to pass /air through a country; hence
a fair passage. Fatigue lays men up ; Charles V. shows
himself at a feast ; a youth is asked how he has his health,
A man, when wanted, must not be out of the way, p. 452.
The former wait for leads to stay for a wind, p. 410 ; there
is much to his regret in p. 458. The Romance words are,
the constitution of his body, p. 456; an authority iov news,
p. 464 ; be neut&r in a dispute. A mother sends her most
natural blessing to her son, p. 473. Charles V. praises
douceur in Governors, and the English envoy leaves the
word untranslated, p. 465.
In 1557 Udall's victim, Tusser, brought out his * Hun-
dred good points of husbandry ' (English Dialect Society)
in flowing anapaests ; a most popular work. He turns pelf
into a verb by adding r, a^s pilfre, p. 224. The old Janiver
and the new January are found in one stanza, p. 228. We
see July with the accent on the first syllable, p. 231. There
are the new substantives shed, sterveling, and dalop (dollop) ;
day stands for victoria; get the daye, p. 232. In p. 220
there is the continuation of an old idiom, my serving you did
cause, etc.; here the second word must be a Verbal noun.
Among the Verbs are ring pigs, stub out thorns, get before-
hand (in work). There is the Dutch verb dable, p. 224,
(make wet and dirty); Shakespere's "dabbled in blood."
Among the Romance words are tumbrel, compound with him,
and the curious raskabilia (rogues). The old word Paske
(Easter) appears in p. 228. There is the proverb in p.
233—
*' A bushel of Marche dust, worth raunsomes of gold."
In p. 234 are twelve long lines, containing words all be-
ginning with t or th —
"Thinges thriftie that teacheth thee thriving to thrive."
England had not yet bidden farewell to her old and beloved
Alliteration. About this time allow took the new sense of
permit, and the old alphin of the chessboard was replaced
by the bishop. See Dr. Murray's Dictionary.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 539
In 1558 Knox brought out at Geneva his unlucky book
against the monstruous regiment of Women (Arber's Re-
print). Some English friend must have corrected the
manuscript for the press, for the language here is most
unlike the Reformer's usual broad Scotch ; certain letters
of his have been added to the treatise. The an still
expresses the French ow, for Friavl stands for Friuli, p. 1 4.
Like a true Scot, Knox talks of the Be of greate Brittanny,
p. 3. The Queen's title kings on her birth, p. 59 ; I sus-
pect that this old Northern form of hang had some influ-
ence on the later verb hinge. Knox lays his accompt as to
what his book may cost him, p. 8. We have seen upon
honour ; men are now charged upon their allegeance, p. 42.
We see corporal punishment, explain himself, the questixm is, if,
etc. The Baptist was beheaded for the liberty of his tonge,
p. 7 ; hence our take liberties. In p. 8 politiJce means sapiens,
in p. 43 it means civilis. The word journey expresses
pugna, p. 42. Knox applies the word monster in p. 50 to
a woman ruling over men, this being something unnatural ;
in p. 45 Mary Tudor is called a cruell monstre. He applies
the word ba^e to English martyrs who were not of noble
blood, p. 52. ^He follows Pope Clement VII. in branding
the odious nation of Spaniards as Jews, p. 46.
I now begin Foxe's Book of Martyrs (Cattley's edition) ;
it has had much influence on our speech. The e re-
places a, as kennel for the old canal, i. 273 ; it replaces 0,
di& sheet-anchor for Tyndale's shot -anchor, vi. 387; the
very unusual ce reappears, as ^Imer (Bishop Aylmer),
viii. 679. The i replaces oe, as he bid (jussit); also
e, as in the proper name Allin (Allen). Both lust
and list are found for voluptas. The 0 replaces e, as
landloper for the old landleper. The oi for u is still
found, as croysies (crusaders), iii. 53 ; also oi for i, as spoil
blood (fundere), v. 299 ; the ou stands for i; they uxmld
him to (do it), viii. 81. The ou replaces 0 ; the osel (merula)
of 1430 now becomes ofmel. We hear of Fetow (Peto), the
Bishop elect, viii. 636.
As to Consonants, we find pick used for pitch (torquere),
viiL 629 ; also the two forms Goodridk and Goodrich for the
540 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
name of the Bishop of Ely. The k is added to a word ;
the old chine becomes clm^ (of door). The k is prefixed ;
the old wandrethe (turbatio) becomes quwndary, Bradford,
a Lancashire man, uses both snag and snatchy vii. 232. A
man is not egged, but edged, ii. 542. There is the Welsh
Aparryy leading to Parry » We see the name MUdnmn, lead-
ing to Milman; the d is further struck out in gossopry
(gossipred). The t is added, for rampire becomes rampart
The n is struck out; sprenge (sarmentum) becomes sprig,
viii. 694. The I replaces r, as huddle for the old verb
hoder. The r is added, for the old verb braid becomes
hroider, ii. 160; this we saw a few years earlier. The s
is prefixed; the old cwysan becomes squeeze, iv. 115 ; here
the French es or ex had influence. The s is inserted in
gallowses, vL 649.
Among the new Substantives are bunch of keys, deed-doer,
nunnishness, the Pope's man (his candidate), a Cambridge man
(student), a Scripture man, at armi length, glut (turba, ii. 796),
a hurry, book-maker (writer), gun stones (cannon balls),
fatherliness, dog-days, Bluebeard, God^s ape (imitator), breathing
time, seat (of saddle), Jewishness, stamps (types), molehill,
foreman (of jury), tovmdweller, the bench (m%istrates), rush
(impetus), slander by, wolfishness, outthruster, brickbat, wine-
drawer, a man of great reading, fopperies (folhes), coed hole,
sideman (churchwarden), slaughter -slave, walking-staff, time
out of mind, padlock, twopence-halfpenny, carfs tail, at the first
chop, at the first dash (impetus), fire side, a downhill, stake-
fellow, milkmaid, wonderment, self-murder, brand of infamy,
our printing days (when printing is used), a deal more strictly,
it was his doing, a doctrine of no ancient standing, goodwife
Fisher, goodman Austen, the glance of a stroke, Allhalloweven,
a great piece of mxmey in my way (for my profit), seek all
holes and corners, in his full caps, driven from house and
home, Dunbar's down has now made its way to London,
iv. 365. The form depth had long been in use ; but Ridley,
wishing to express the cunning of Satan, revives the old
deepness, vii. 422. The word heap is no longer confined to
something concrete, heaps of joy, viii 627. The word ring
leader is used in a good sense, i. 259. The word shoal may
HI.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 541
now be used of men as well as of fish, i. 272. The word
boatswam is still employed for a common sailor, ii. 247.
The word sweepstake is used in the Neuter Gender, as
equivalent to havoc, iii. 362. The word nap still bears its
old exalted sense, for taking a nap is used of sleeping with
Christ, viii. 172. The word odds gets a new meaning, that
of disparity/, ii. 771. The word imp had hitherto been em-
ployed most honourably, and is applied to Edward VI. in
vi. 350 ; but in iv. 76 we see young imps of this impious
generation; and in v. 640 imp of Satan. Foxe wishes that
More had kept himself in his own shop (profession), iv.
652; hence our "talk shop." We find packing in con-
nexion with a jury, iv. 204. We hear of barids employed
in Wishart's dress, and connected with his shirt, v. 626.
The word shroud seems to lose the old sense of vestis, and to
be connected with burial, vii. 548 ; it was worn by Latimer
at the stake. Foxe, like former writers, speaks of swearers
as tearers of God, viii. 641. He coins hand-book from manual,
ii. 29 ; but this had been coined once before, prior to the
Conquest. The old tunmon is revived as townsman; and
the old lore reappears in the South after a long sleep. He
is fond of the suffix ling, as popeling, Bonnerling, The word
jill is used as an abusive epithet, applied to the Lady
Elizabeth, and giving rise to a long dispute, viii. 623.
We know " Jack in ofl&ce ;" Foxe talks of John out of office,
p. 663. A writing is said to have neither head nor foot
(tail), V. 479. Bradford, in the year 1555, seems to have
first used the favourite pun of hitesheey for Ushop, viL 248.
We hear of the toll-booth (prison) at Cambridge, viii. 285.
The name Dennis may be borne by a woman, p. 640. The
descriptive word spinster is now used after a proper name,
as Eose Allin, spinster, viii. 306. On the other hand, uoidcm
is used as a prefix. Widow Swaine, p. 699. We see the
Suffolk name Dowsing, p. 424, a name terrible to the
lovers of architecture ninety years later. Other feelings
are called up by the name Thom/isin it Wood, p. 377.
There is the odd phrase in p. 627 (her hopes) all came to a
castle-coms-dovm ; we have already seen castles in Spain.
The word jug is seen, p. 42 ; Mr. Skeat derives it from
542* THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Judith, a pet name for a pitcher. A new word, hastier,
seems to have been coined in Queen Mary's time ; Foxe
explains it as one who makes and hastens the fire for the
martyrs, p. 426. Cranmer falls in a stand, p. 42 ; hence
our " come to a stand." We find Agvies Glascock written
Mistress A, Glascock to suit a rime, p. 195 ; it is the earliest
instance, I think, of one letter doing duty for an English
Christian name. We have seen the franchise of London ;
Foxe writes of ^q freedom of Ayr, p. 443; speaking of a
district. In p. 465 a man asks further day ; this word
and law seem to be synonyms in more than one instance.
A tradesman talks of this Ull of my hand, p. 473 ; hence
our note of hand. We see the original of coping stone in
p. 514, a man wears a coping tank (head covering); this
comes from the old cop.
Among the Adjectives are a sparing man, a mighty rage,
cockish (our cocky), in free prison, beetle -headed, chuff-
headed (hence our chuck-headed), brazen-faced, quick with
child. Foxe is fond of coining new adjectives by adding
liJce to a substantive, as truthlike. Gospel-like, hosteler-like,
doctorly, sightly. He is the first, I think, to use stingy
(parens), i. 269. The old trus still means honestus ; get a
penny truly, viii. 498. We see hithei' treated like further
and made an Adjective, the hither bank, p. 568. The word
untidy is used of ground that produces weeds, iv. 121 ; it
is also applied to arguments (slovenly), viii. 234. The
sweet is prefixed to Saints' names, by sweet St, Peter, ii. 527.
There is a curious Superlative, the pickedst (choicest) things,
i. 332. A substantive is prefixed to an Adjective where a
Preposition is understood, as knee-deep, ii. 177. The white
appears once more for favourite; the Pope's otvn white son, ii.
190. Orrmin's old sheepish now gets the new sense of
siultus, iv. 51. What we call a lame excuse appears as a
blind excuse, iv. 613. In the same page we read of a good
debt (likely to be discharged). The word better stands for
more; we desire no better, i. 308. In vii. 316 we must take
earthly things for no better than they be. A mother, when
bearing a child, may have a good time, vi. 710. The word
manly stands for humanus, v. 372. Barbour's like (likely)
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 543
has now come South ; lilce enough (probable) stands in p.
489 ; Bradford says that a man had like to have been slaiUy
viL 161. The homely becomes further degraded, and stands
for crudelis, vi. 695. A woman looks bleak (pallida), viii.
221 ; persecutors look black in the mouth, p. 617. Some-
thing cost a hundred pounds thick (a solid sum), p. 260.
We hear of fine (good) writers ; a fine fellow. The adjec-
tive is now employed as a kind of parenthesis, " unto whom,
good m^n, he submitted," vi. 657. Cranmer is said to be
the very middle man of all the martyrs, viiL 90 ; half being
burnt before, half after him. A parish in Essex is called
in one and the same page, 142, Much Burstead and Great
Burstead ; Essex certainly belongs to the South. There
is the old Northern phrase whole as a fish, p. 673.
As to Pronouns, there is something new in / have dis-
covered mine, yours, and EnglaruTs enemies, viii. 675. The
my is now dropped before a title of honour ; we see Lady
Bartlet, viii. 581. Foxe well marks the contrast between
the mild Bishop of Chichester and the savage Story when
they are examining a martyr 3 the first addresses him with
you, the latter with thou, viii. 341. The rightful Dative,
well was him, is changed ; well was he that could, etc., iv. 581.
The it or they may be dropped, words as plain as can be, viii.
587. The it has a backward reference; a man, frightened
in his sleep, thinks that he shall never recover it, ii. 533.
This it may be substituted for there; what tongue is it that
she knoweth not ? viii. 602. The what is used for aliquid,
one of its oldest senses; wot you what, says Henry VIIL, in
V. 690; hence Shakespere's "I tell you what." The old
mch like makes way for su^ch kind of things, iv. 619. There
is the phrase to all their comforts (to the comfort of them all),
viii. 620. The Latin omnia mea is imitated in my all, i. 287.
The alt has a backward reference, do it for none of them all,
viii. 460 ; men suffer all because they would not stoop, iv.
106. We see / can say none otherwise, and also no otherwise,
in viiL 360. Gardiner seemed nobody in Scripture know-
ledge, p. 587 ; a new phrase. A king in ii. 283 claims to
be his own Tnan (act for himself). It is their own fault stands
in viii. 125. A monarch is ready enough and too much to
544 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
gratify the clergy, iii. 228. Men are all in a taUy viiL 42,
Dogberry's future phrase ; here the a is clearly used for
one. There is the new phrase any one diocese^ viii. 344.
The Numerals appear in Plural forms ; men are killed by
two and threes^ ii. 574. There is the curious idiom /(W your
two sakes, viii. 186. The phrase a twelvemonth had long
been known ; we now find one twelvepence, p. 473. Brad-
ford says that half a suspicion was in him ; that is, he half
suspected, vii. 259. Gardiner makes a half turn to the
Gospel, p. 587. The every whit is sometimes changed; he
lost the money every groat, viiL 473.
Among the Verbs are give check to, fall in with (meet),
make up to him, put in practice, fall out (accidere), break the
neck of disturbance, let fall (drop), cut up m>eat, take sides, lay
a train (dolus), go against him (displease), hold out, talk over
the mutter, smell a rat, ii. 466, a spread eagle, come what
would, a book came out, take up the mutter, cut his comb, keep
in with them, go (agree) with the Pope, make short work with,
fly in my face, keep him in play, lead by the nose, go to print
(press), stand in force, things hang together' (concur), it came
unto him to speak, give my guess, I take it to signify, make
battle, feed his wars, go the right way to work, miscall (vitu-
perare), the beaten way, not know which way to turn him,
have words with (a conference), quicken (look alive), unsay,
play fast or loose with, turn head to tail (alter his opinions),
cut out words\(m a parchment), come in question, send it pack-
ing, unhouse, warn him out of his house, fetch (bring) it about,
let the mutter sleep, have (know) Latin, if it wei'e to do again,
fall to it (begin the attack), give cause, tire him out, take
to his legs (Palsgrave had here inserted him), take exceptions
against, keep a stir, come forward (get on in life), fish for
things, to lord it, break the ice, to fleece, keep order, unbishoped
(deprived of see), stand to their tackle, he will have the last
word, look big, I can tell you, vii. 667; I will be hanged if,
etc., mur your own murket, call him opprobrious names (here
we drop the Adjective), take a note of it, make the best of it,
be put to it (compelled), tied to timet take depositiom, give out
(proclaim), msddle or make, eat your words, skim over it, take
in m^n (decipere, viii. 536), make an escape, untaken, take
HI. ] THE NE W ENGLISH. 54S
ihdr names, blow hot and cold, take place (succeed), to do U
ims death, make his appearance, what do you make of it, have
a good opinion of, follow the camp, make a lane (passage), go
to the worst (bad, viiL 662). 'Diere is a new Verb tinkle,
formed from the sound. A new form of the old gird
(ferire) appears in jerk, i. 208, retaining as yet the same
meaning. The old pvlten (trudere) is now found with a
slightly altered sense and form ; pelt with stones, ii. 452. In
iii. 367 we hear of the fetching (dolosus) practice of Prelates ;
the meaning of the word is rather altered in the slang of our
day. The old scrape gives birth to a new verb scramble, v.
459. The sloor (csenum) of the ' Promptorium ' gives birth
to slorry (foedare), viii. 172 ; hence our slur. The old verb
Heardian (trifle) seemed to have vanished ; but in p. 485
Bonner flirts a martyr under the chin with a stick. In
i. 341 Rome takes head above other churches; hence our
to make head, or take rank. The phrase blow up (evertere)
is used without reference to gunpowder ; a storm blows up
houses and trees, ii. 376. We had long used fall out
(certare); to this, in iii. 416, is opposed fall in with
(agree) ; so soldiers are ordered to fall in ; that is, keep a
uniform line. The verb miss takes a new sense ; a man
misses (leaves out) certain words, viii. 493. The verb cross
is used first for adversari ; to cross men, vi. 608 ; also for
transire; cross the sea, viii. 713. Henry the Eighth's verb
scale gains a fresh meaning ; skin scales off, viii. 328. There
is a new use of shut up, a favourite phrase in our day ; /
have shut up your lips with your own book, viii. 216. The
verb toll (trahere) is now first used in connexion with bells,
vii. 439. The verb come is used without implying any
physical motion; he came to understand that, etc., viii. 327 ;
" arrive at the knowledge." We have seen fetch a compass;
we have now fetch a leap, vii. 604 ; Bunyan's Apollyon
" fetches a blow." There is the vile compound disclothe.
A penitent keeps his measures at the Conftteor, viii. 206 ;
that is, "goes through the customary duty;" our "keep
no measure with" suggests transgressing all custom. A
priest shows up (elevates) the Host, p. 214; our use of the
verb is very diff'erent. The verb leave off had hitherto
VOL. I. 2 N
546 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
governed a Participle; we now see leave off shoes, iL 351.
A martyr is asked to come into one church with the Bishops,
vi. 597 ; hence " come into the scheme.'* Bradford speaks
of worthiness, and then adds, Worthiness, quoth I? (do I
sayl), vii 265. The verb / lay is dropped in betting
sentences ; twenty pounds, it is a man, viii. 539. Foxe mis-
takes the old wolde nolde, and writes vnl^d she, niVd she, p.
556. When a man offers to take his death upon a certain
thing, p. 611, we see how take a bet arose. The get you
had hitherto been followed by an Adverb ; we now see get
you gone, viiL 595. Foxe is fond of the phrase have him
by the back; hence the later "have him on the hip.'* In
viii. 622 there is a plot to take the Queen out of the way
(kill her) ; this is the later take off; the Irish conspirators
of 1882 used the more polite rem^ove. Queen Mary yields life
to natv/re, p. 624 (pays the debt of nature). Some people,
beggared and ruined, are left to the tuide world in their
clothes, viii 630. The old Future is very plain in the
phrase camdles you get none, vii 667. The old shall gives
way to must, in you must understand that, etc., iv. 593.
Ridley employs would in the Northern sense ; / think that
he would not say so (cannot have said so), vi. 487. There
is a curious instance of the development of the Passive
voice in viii. 318, no testaments durst be h'ought; also, in
p. 601, men were deprived of their lands, /or him to be in-
ducted, A Participial phrase may be greatly enlarged ; a-
not-enough-drcumcised heart, vi. 635. A noun is prefixed to
the Past Participle, as stall fed, vii. 232. We have seen
that niman once meant vadere as well as capere ; a man now
takes down a lane when flying, viii. 337. The bear governs
a Passive Infinitive, bear to be admonished, y, 135. There
is the cry stop I stop / viii. 320. We find a new use of the
Accusative after the Verb in to live the Gospel, yii, 197.
The was is dropped before need; more ado than needed, viii.
6. The word tumble now becomes transitive, tumble my
bed, V. 424. We have seen Barbour's put him to sea; the
Accusative is now dropped; put from the shore, vii 369.
The verb whip takes a new meaning ; whip on my clothes,
viii. 336, There is a curious phrase in vii. 147, a man
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 547
shifU himself with a clean shirt ; here two diflFerent mean-
ings of the verb seem to be mixed together. The phrase
look for adds the meaning of qucerere to that of eaypectare,
viii. 6. The verb yelp is now confused with the old galpen
of 1360, and means clamare, viii. 89 ; it ceases to bear its
old sense gloriari. The old spruten (puUulare), used of
trees, is now applied to blood, and the letters are trans-
posed; blood spirts out, viii. 578. An unlearned assistant
sets a priest, p. 610 ; that is, haffles or puts him end ; this
new sense is still known in the hunting field. The verb want
certainly expresses desiderare in p. 688 ; hereunto we want
indifferent using (fair treatment).
As to Adverbs, Foxe compounds them in the old English
way by adding like or ly to a noun ; as school-like (scholas-
tic^), i. 49, hishoplikey Christiardy^ fioMy ; the ly is added to
Past Participles, as groimdedly instructed, iv. 384. No-
thing plainer marks the change in the use of cheap, than
that the Adverb cheaply should be found, iv. 445. There
is the negative nay sure, viii. 355, which may still be
heard. There is a new use of however ; it is found in the
middle of a sentence by itself, and stands for tamen, v. 369.'
Foxe uses while in the Northern sense of until in vi. 717.
The well is used for naturally ; displeased, as he might full
well (be), ii. 161. The together is added after nouns;
Chaucer and Gower were great friends together, iv. 249.
Latimer runs as fast as his old bones would carry him,
vi. 534. There is out of heart; a beard is ow, vi. 718 ; see
the game out, p. 6 1 5 ; the wind is up, p. 379. A person speaks
thick, vi. 700. Bonner offers a man fair, vii. 356. We
say that a man is good all round ; the phrase used by
Foxe is on every side a man, vii. 97. Ridley uses forth
much in its old sense, equivalent to fa/r (procul) ; forth of
the Church is no salvation, vii. 412. A woman, being
asked her age, answers, foiiy and upwards, viii. 537.
There is efver anon, p. 550 ; we insert and between these
words.
The old overthwart makes way for the Scotch athwart ;
athwart the face, ii. 189. The use of under, in the
sense of less than, is extended ; a prelate never rides
548 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
unier fifteen hundred horse, ii. 311. Gardiner plays wnder
the hoard, v. 526; we 8Si,j,fair and above board/ above the
board stands in vi. 703. There is at no hand (by no means),
viii. 612, which leads to our " at first hand." We see
the phrases, by halves, a king at arms (herald), out of use, to
my knowledge; the in is used to compound, as the verb
imhox, ii. 715. Something happens, and is followed by
another circumstance, upon the neck of this, ii 435 ; this
neck had appeared in Ascham. There is upon a svdden,
V. 264, meaning, I suppose, o/i or m a sudden time.
Oranmer, seeing King Edward's learning, declares that
he never thought that to have been in him, v. 700.
The over supplants for in compounding, as overwatch
himself, vl 57. The old endlang is altered ; certain chests
are set on end, p. 283. A man does not come up with
a fugitive, but com^ in mth him, p. 337. The toward is
coupled with Numerals and is used of time ; a person is
well toward (on to) a hundred (years), p. 553. A curious
instance of a Preposition being dropped is, shoot the bridge,
p. 609 ; here through disappears.
Bonner's oath, by my troth, is objected to by one of the
martyrs, vii. 355 ; the Bishop -also swears, by All-hallows,
viii. 407. Mocking laughter is represented by h/agh,
hough, 352.
The words akin to or derived from the Dutch and
German sijae fv/rlough, jeer, buoy.
The Scandinavian words are paltry, to bilge (of a ship),
pad (bundle), billow, Bonner calls a man " a stout boyly
heretic;" this may be Indly, coming from bullra (clamare).
Among the Romance words are manage, bad economy,
give mate to, initiate into, public home (church), schoolfellow,
carry pick-back, i. 30, ulcer, unique, i. 261, impoverish, pre-
ordain, to stomach, reiterate, to unpope, to unpriest, to dispriest,
press him to pay, story-book, concertation, encroach (seize upon),
aggravate (oppress), cream (chrism), appeal him up, landing
place, sequel^ harpy, feastful day (festival), expunge (root out),
eocasperate, expostulate, debase, revolt, repulse, evacuate (quash),
belabour, monied man, principal (of money), innovate, escort,
larum bell, disfavourer, preposterous, to articulate matters, bail
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 549
a manj spite him, figment^ foreface (preface), a smnmary,
labowed story, exhilarate, copartner, copse, plausible, a taste
of it, cases incident (happening), atheist, explode (hiss),
halbert, oblique, declare himself, muleteer, lunacy, interlard,
push on, instinctions (instincts), to foU, bastardize, escape
dear, paradox, to import (mean), impressions (printed copies),
rejoinder, jutty (jetty, pier), appendix, to school him, uncivil
(churlish), a private man, it is no great matter (of conse-
quence), mummery, old stager, to frequent, collation (com-
parison), hyperbolical, discommend, offensive, practical, porket
(pig), unnatural, to pinion, solicitous, pass the pike, pass
through the pikes, lineaments, main post, coat-card (court card),
refradorious, grand master, retire (convey), challenge (claim)
kindred, scarf, a composition, beagle, piinted papers, well
affected, disaUe, resolve a doubt, relent, try his patience, the
push of the pike (assault), leave unprovided, proterve, fad-
rwrous, to undress, an exercise (a prayer), he was placed
schoolmaster, one quarterns stipend, an innocent (idiot), to
pump, it is no manners to, etc., peephole, gentlefolks, heroical,
personable (handsome), oui of countenance, turncoat, for old
acqv/iintance sake, recover himself , passage boat, gentletvoman-
waiter (lady in waiting), sergeant at arms, communicants, un-
gentlerrmnly, chamber of presence, passionate, laws penal, field-
piece (cannon), re-enter. The word dictate means to "set up
for master," i. 200. The verb point, ii. 373, gets the new
meaning of placing stops in a sentence. The word stress, as
distinguished from distress, is now confined to the weather,
ii. 316. The old ride in post is now shortened into to post.
There is the new phrase, offer contumely (oflfer an insult),
ii. 276. The word /ace now expresses impudence; have the
face to write, ii. 476. The word manure changes and takes
its- modem sense of stercus; horse^manure, iv. 533. Tyndale
had talked of canvassing (examining) a man ; Foxe writes
of canvassing voters, iv. 601. He has Ascham's word antics,
V. 4, meaning apparently curiously carved bosses ; he adds
to this sense (it had already appeared in Hall), the new
sense of freaks, iv. 665 ; for he speaks of More's antics as
a writer. The verb ply adds the sense of occupare to its
old meaning fledere, v. 24. There is a new sense of
550 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
ordinary in, p. 115 ; a gentleman keeps a good ordinary at
his table ; that is, welcomes every one. The old courtezan
now takes the sense of meretrix, p. 137. Gardiner was
an organ of Satan, p. 258 ; a new sense of the word.
Cromwell was touched when he read the Scriptures,
p. 365. Henry VIII. says that his nature (disposition) is
always to pardon, p. 691. A man may now be pledged,
when you drink to him, p. 493. The verb prejudice
takes a new meaning, vL 550, which we express by
pre -judge. In p. 613 state is opposed to church.
Memories are present (good), p. 664 j this after-
wards led to presence of mind. The verb pretend now
means proponere ; pretend an oath against a rrum, vii. 159.
Barclay had used promoter for a lawyer ; Foxe constantly
uses the word to signify an informer^ and this last word is
also employed. Latimer was hindered from his duty-doing^
viL 455 ; hence a parson takes duty. The word posy, the
oldi poesy, is often used of prose mottoes, as in pp. 517 and
549. Scurrilous Protestants used to call the Host round
Robin, p. 523 ; we apply the phrase to petitions. Gardiner
casts a platform to build his popery upon, p. 592; this
we saw a few years earlier. A certain martyr has an evil
mess of handling, p. 719 ; this may have influenced
our " get into a mess." The word glorious takes the bad
meaning of boastful. So evil a sense had varlet taken
during its forty years of existence in our land that Cran-
mer is praised for never using the word to the meanest
of his servants, viii. 19. The word royalties gets a new
meaning, that of revenues, p. 20. There is a curious
instance of the twofold sense oi pitiful, p. 67; Cranmer says
that Queen Mary's pitiful ears will hear pitiful complaints.
We are told in p. 289 that inhumanity is a far gentler term
than cruelty ; this we have certainly changed. The term
imbecility is applied to the natural weakness of women, p. 326.
The word check is transferred from the chess board to
common life ; a man hung has a great check with the halter,
p. 396. Priests ^05^ fast when saying the mass, p. 476. The
word sensible gets the meaning of sapiens (Bonner), p. 477.
The verb broU is used as something worse than bum, p. 492.
III. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 55 1
The word descry is used for informing against, p. 523 ; some-
thing like ■ discover. The adjective insolent loses its old
meaning and stands for insulting^ p. 531. The word fcumlty
begins to take a Plural sense ; you and all the faculty (turba)
of you, p. 564. The adjective plain is opposed to adorned,
p. b^b] it is here used of beads; we apply it to women.
Ladies flourish in their bravery (fine clothes), p. 604; we still
talk of flourishing ahout Foxe brings in many Latin and
Greek words without alteration, as oppivhrium, bona fide,
pam^acea, halcyon, proviso, de facto, a fortiori, a priori, cry
peccavi, ii. 719, verbatim, parenthesis, interim, a non sequitur,
chimera, ipso facto, apoplexia, ex officio, symptomata, exterior, in
fine. He writes in Greek characters apotheosis; see also
vii. 62 L The baptim of Tyndale's day is now laid aside
for baptism, and his ear shrift now becomes auricular cmi-
fession. The old ABC and the new alphabet are both used,
vii. 209, 226. The word race, coming from various sources,
was already well- known; Foxe uses the word in the sense
of genus, a new French sense, p. 269. We have seen Parson
Tvlly ; we now find Justice Gaudy, p. 118. Foxe often
employs party for homo. He is very fond of using sycophant
for calumniator ; he has the neuter decorum, much as we
use it. A fat man is called a grand paunch, v. 459 ; some-
thing like slow belly, Ridley, at his death, gives away his
dial (watch), vii. 549. The verb profess (promise) now
governs the Infinitive; profess to visit Palestine, ii. 278;
there is pi'ofess the Gospel, viii. 473. Bonner, on being
reproved for swearing, answers with much truth, / am no
saint, vii. 355. Even the Roman champion, Harpsfield,
talks of the Sabbath (Sunday), p. 651. Law and equity
are combined, as if in contrast, p. 693. We had long
had forget himself; in iv. 616 stands remember himself.
The verb double is now used for decipere, iv. 609. Foxe
compounds suitlike to, iv. 601, which was to become
suitable a few years later. We see promptness, which was
later to be turned into promptitude. We hear of the Vice in
a play, a byword for folly, vii. 544. We find popular used
for the adjective commonplace, iii. 373, referring to the
events in a chronicle. In p, 377 moderator is used for con-
552 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
troller ; hence the office in the Scotch Kirk. The dose is
used for the Cathedral clergy, iv. 126. A cook refuses to
execute a lord's command, with pardon me, viii. 612. In
viii. 102 the word freemason is still used of a trade; there
was no idea of any secret society connected with the word
until the next Century. The word malignant is sometimes
applied to the enemies of God ; this use of the term was
to be in great vogue ninety years later. The phrase bihble-
babble had come in earlier ; it is once used to a martyr who
wishes to quote the Bihle, viii. 340. The word circmnstance
is used for a roundabout way of stating a case, p. 168.
Foxe says that priestlike garments were called habits, p. 267.
The word court is now made a verb ; to court preferment
(desire it), p. 271; in courting a lady the sense afterwards
became stronger. A master now talks of his pupil, p. 271 ;
rather earlier it had been his scholar. The Latin cassare
(discharge) leads to cashing a soldier, p. 288 ; here he
leaves the camp with his wages ; the German cashier was
to come later. Men do something, every man in his turn,
a new phrase, p. 268 ; this had been formerly /(9r his turn.
The verb^^^Z now becomes intransitive ; skin peels off, p. 328.
A sum of money appears as 2k piece of money, p. 473 ; in p. 560
we hear of a piece of providence, like our piece of good
luck. Eden's new word canibal, derived from Carib, stands
in viii. 482 ; it is here applied to Bonner. There is the
Italian verb, tosolfa, ii. 279 ; the oiAplcetsa of the year 1000
appears here SiS piazza. We see Monsieur le Pope, who is also
called a caliph, ii. 2 9 4. Foxe talks of the Swiss ^a^es orcarUons,
iv. 335. There is Sultan, Mussulnmn (wrongly stated to
be a Turkish priest), iv. 86. Both Termagant and Mahound
are used for a Mussulman, iii. 359. Foxe uses Romish
Catholic, also Catholic, iii. 350, the Pope^s sect, Romxmist, iv.
473, papist; he calls certain doctors "great Eabbins."
He speaks of the black guard of the Dominies (black friars),
iv. 169; the phrase is also found in Grafton's Chronicle.
He talks with scorn of psalmrsaying friars, viii. 84 ; hence
our psalmsinging. The word gentility is used for heathenism
in L 309. Bonner wishes to-reclaim two men to his faction
and fashion, vi. 730 ; a curious instance of the old Latin
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 553
word and its French corruption side by side. The origin
of our cmte blanche appears when Richard II. sends out
blank charts^ iii 219. Foxe complains of something being
blanch stuffs i. 278; hence our "sad stuflf." Certain men
are cousins-germans removed, ii. 93, which leads to a well-
known phrase of ours. Edward L is called a fierce young
gentleman, ii. 551. Latimer's arguments are exhibited up,
vi. 501 j hence our boys show up verses. The word infidel
stands for Pagan, vii. 168. The word Christian is employed
for a pious m/an ; Cobham is called the Christian knight,
iii. 322 ; religion is used for Protestantism, viii. 41, a
well-known French usage. Foxe brings back quarrel to
its old sense querela in viii. 7, where the mild Cranmer
quarrels with his friends for promoting him. The word
desperate is much used; the desperates stand in iv. 620.
Queen Mary's expected babe is called this young master, vii.
125. The word master is used as of old in fresh com-
pounds, as master -cowl (chief cowl), ii. 52. The word
train is now connected with gunpowder, iv. 59. Latimer
uses politic and civil as meaning the same, vii. 416. Foxe,
following his countryman Manning, uses the rare word
enamoured, viii. 72.
Among old English words and forms used by Foxe are
fore-elders, spill a body (perdere, i. 261), overlive him, as ye
ween, to housel, his evU willers, wdl-willers, soul health, Everik
(York, ii. 255), to forslack, spar (claudere), lin (cessare),
namely (prsecipu^), to wreak them of, witch (warlock), make
(conjux), morrow-mass, loadsman (dux), to gainstand, wanhope,
ruth, have no nay (denial), middle-earth, brim (ferus). Use
(perdere), otherwhile, market-stead, inchmeal, spur (rogare),
dere (Isedere, iv. 200), rode (coins), the five Wits (senses), to
kemp, dizard (stultus), some deal (somewhat), glaver (blan-
diri), braid (impetus), he can (scit) grammar, a youngling, be
crazed (ill). There is the old idiom the prcetor's daughter
of that city, iv. 81 ; also ride or go (walk). Among old
words and forms, non-Teutonic, we find titiviller (mischief-
maker), spouse-breach, take travail, goods and cattle (chattels),
rascal (common) soldier, scmrier (scout), achates, a stroy-good
(destroyer of property), it forceth not (it matters), augrim
554 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
(arithmetic), / am well apaid, a many (turba). The word
knour (nodus), still in Northern use, is employed by a Lan-
cashire man, vii. 68. His countryman Bradford uses
husUe, the Northern hisk (parare), vii. 203 ; also weal
(divitiae). The Kentish office of hors -holder appears ; the
word is still in use. A Devonshire woman is called a
TMLzed creature, viii. 499 ; the term is not obsolete. The
word harhorous had so slipped out of use that Foxe has to
explain it, viii. 20. A very favourite metre, about 1560,
was the one afterwards used by Lord Macaulay in his
* Virginia;' there is a long specimen in vii. 356; this
metre dates from the Twelfth Century. The poet here
uses ydad, doubtless in imitation of Chaucer. Thomas
Aquinas appears as Thomas of Watring, i. 107. Foxe
draws a broad distinction between Briton and Englishman,
L 258, and tells us that the Saxons spoke English, p. 347.
He derives lurdane from Lord Dane, ii. 76. He tells us
that the Dutch tongue was spoken at Ostend, viiL 664.
His use of the word boor (agrestis, ii. 452) is a memorial of
his sojourn in what he calls DutcMand, as also is his
horror of the Turks. His idea of king craft is peculiar ;
for the many rebellions crushed by Edward VI. are
reckoned among the boy's glories, viii. 627. A gentle-
man's son, in those days, might be sent to London as an
apprentice, viii. 473. The dialogue in viii. 322 shows
how humble a chaplain had to be to his patron. Foxe
declares that Elizabeth had a marvellous meek stomach, p.
604 ; she altered rather later. The Tudor arms in churches
are referred to in viii. 56, "down with the arms of
Christ, and up with a lion and a dog ! " The word
LoUardy was still in use in 1557, viii 261. Foxe complains
that the Popes hold Kome from its lawful Emperor, a con-
tinual treason, iii. 380. English pronunciation of Latin at
this time could not have differed much from that used in
Germany; see viii. 575. Foxe has a full belief in Prester
John, iv. 91, whom he quarters in Africa. The Italians,
it is remarked, do not lightly praise those who are not
their countrymen, viii 604 ; Milton confirms this. We
have a fine example of Spanish courtesy, where Philip
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 555
■ ' - -
makes the Lady Elizabeth such an obeisance that his
knee touched the ground, p. 623. Foxe couples ^/ayers with
printers and preachers as God's bulwark against the Pope,
vi. 57. One pious martyr is specially let out of prison to
play in the Coventry pageant, in Mary's time, viii. 170.
Bonner, threatening to have a man hanged, says that he
will make twelve godfathers to go upon him, vii. 409 ; the
phrase was later applied to Shy lock. Bonner refuses the
title of master to a heretic, Master Green, p. 740. We see
some of the earliest germs of Puritanism in p. 70, where a
martyr talks of PauVs church (so called) and of Chrisfs day
(Easter day) ; our Ladffs chapel is also objected to, viii.
586 ; Tyndale had not gone so far as this. A heretic
might be known by his use of the phrases, JA^ Lord, we
praise God, the living God, the Lord he praised, viii. 341.
Old Testament names came in ; one of the heretics has
his child christened Josue, p. 434. A bishop, with them,
became a sv/perintendent, p. 540. Foxe gives us the pro-
verbs, to stop two gaps with one lush (kill two birds with one
stone), iv. 199 ; man purposeth one thing, and God disposeth
another, p. 608; neither time nm tide is to he delayed, viii. 608.
There is the phrase, is the wind in that corner ? viii. 205 ;
Gardiner, threatening to rack a man, says, " I will make
thee a foot longer," p. 584. A heretic makes the pun
that she will not swim in the see of Eome, p. 391. St.
Nicholas' clerks (thieves) are mentioned in p. 579. Foxe
is the first English writer, I think, who added notes to his
text.
In Arber's * English Gamer,' i., iv., and v., may be
found certain narratives, among others those of Under-
hill's imprisonment and Hawkins' voyages, pieces ranging
between 1558 and 1570. We see the on once more cut
down to a, as astern and ashore. We hear of Scio and Leg-
horn/ the last is a curious change from lAvorno. There
are the new Substantives house-room, the leeward, the wind-
wards, sowndings. The word firework stands for a warlike
engine, used to defend Calais, iv. 198. The word mound
(defence) is revived after a long sleep, iv. 198; it may
afterwards have been confused with mount The word
556 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
breach is used in connexion with walls. A man is said to
be 2l plague to others, p. 119. We hear of the main (main-
land) of Cuba, p. 120; hence the later Spanish Main, The
word bed is connected with oysters, p. 132. There is the
phrase in ten fathom ivater, p. 121. The word untruth takes
the sense of msndacivm, i. 42. Silver is called white mrniey,
p. 55. There is the new Adjective westerly, which is
confined to winds. We have the phrase if the worst fall,
iv. 91. There is the verb trade, i. 51. We see moiike the
approach, show lights, spring a mast, turn their tails, make
much way (speed), as God would have it, fill water (fill casks
with water), lose the sight of. We see the new sense of cut
repeated in the year 1558, men cfid (run) over the ground,
iv. 190. A mark had hitherto been overshot; sailors
now overshoot a harbour, v. 113. The word make gets the
sense oi putare ; we made it to he Jamaica, p. 118. We
have seen never so mv^h; we now find tarry ever so little
longer, p. 235. There is the verb rrwor, and also brac/dsh,
derived from the Dutch. There is the verb tack about,
from the Celtic tack (nail, rope). Among the Komance
words are top- gallant, tragedies (cruelties), ojff&n skirmish
(battle), reinforce, officer (of ship), to double the Cape,
poop, pompion (pumpkin), breeze, to double along (tack),
a complice, volley, in all respects. We hear of the carotins
(carlini) of Naples, L 55. A new feature in England
is the number of Spanish words, such as morion, cask,
tornado, turtle (the reptile), disembogue, flamingo. Some
Indian words have been changed since Eden wrote, as
canoe, maize, potato, v. 104; there is also hammock. The
description, but not the name, of tobacco appears in p. 130.
One tribe of Africans is called the Samboses, p. 95, whence
comes Sambo, There is shark, said to come from the
Greek karcharos ; the old pesen makes way for the new
Plural peas, p. 246. The French ^^ig-i^er, confused with an
English verb, gives us, to pink a jerkin, p. 96. A cunning
knave professes to tell fortunes, iv. 98 ; a new sense of the
word. Hawkins uses reasonable weather for reasonably
good weather, p. 215. He manures (manoeuvres) a ship,
p. 225. Certain London merchants form a Company for
TIT.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 557
the Guinea trade ; we read of " Garrard and Company,"
pp. 231 and 232.
In 1659 certain lawyers are called the vMer harr ; see
Dr. Murray's Dictionary.
Many of Becon's works (Parker Society) date from
about 1560. In his 'Prayers' we see the old Femd
(Petronilla) changed into Famel, p. 267 ; pretty Pamel
appears there as a nickname for a priest's mistress ; she is
called Petronilla in p. 265 ; the name had represented a
bad character, 200 years earlier. Another nickname is
Good-wife Pintpot, -p. 276. There is massmonger ; and we see
a token of Becon's flight into Germany, when we find sin-
flood (the Deluge) in p. 400. In p. 269 the mass is called
both pedlary and pelting (paltry) ; the last word was to be
used by Shakespere. There is the new phrase she-saint, p.
265. Keeping silence in p. 276 appears as play mum'
hvdget (most Shakesperian) ; perlegere is Englished by run
over. We remember Mr. Gladstone's famous hands off !
addressed to the Austrian Emperor in 1880; hand off I
say the Papists, p. 268, when insisting on putting the
Eucharist into the mouths of the faithful. There is address
himself to ; to degenerate. The term Calvinist appears for the
first time in England, I think, in p. 401. The old husel
is corrupted into hvshel, and is called a Popish word in p.
380. Becon tells us that in some parts the faithful laity
would cry to the priest at the Elevation, " hold up, Sir
John, heave it a little higher ! " p. 270. There is a most
lively description of the blessing that Purgatory was to the
priests in p. 277. Becon mentions "an old proverb used
among us " (it was long afterwards to be rimed by Defoe),
" wheresoever God buildeth his church, there the devil also
buildeth his chapel," p. 400. The word flitt&i'nrwuses (bats)
is a record of Becon's cure in Kent, p. 378.
Bishop Jewel (Parker Society), about 1560, mentions
cuts and girds as weapons of controversy, p. 99 ; he has
also the word scarecrow, p. 352. There is the phrase ai
random, I think for the first time, in p. 528. Mention is
made of the Jannizers ; a title here given to the Pope's
champions.
558 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Bishop Pilkington's * Sermons ' (Parker Society) date
from about 1560. He writes J^w/Zeii (probably pronounced
with an accent on the last syllable) for Boulogne, much as
Colayn was written for Cologne. Among the new Sub-
stantives are gamester^ p. 663, also lip-hhour, a tosspot
The word foundation is replaced by gr&wnd-work, p. 495.
Hildebrand, we are told, might be called a hdl -brand.
Among the Verbs are, fetch a high note, rack the rent, take
him napping, p. 437. Men stand on figures (attach import-
ance to), p. 379 ; hence " stand on his dignity." Physicians
may^^ up their pipes (give up business), p. 601. Certain
miracles would make a horse to laugh, p. 587 ; hence our
horse laugh. Among the words brought back from Pilking-
ton's exile in Germany are burghmaster, p. 259 ; a dodkin of
money, p. 607, from the Dutch duyt (doit). There is the
favourite pun bite-sheep for bishop ; and this he derives from
the Dutch name, p. 495. There is the famous swasMmcMer,
p. 151 ; the swash is Scandinavian, (ferire). Among the
Romance words are carpet gentleman, to part companies (go
asunder), time-server, to cozen (French cousiTier), frizzle hair,
a Christian man. The word Protestant was supplanting
Grospeller in 1562 ; see p. 416. Pilkington enlarges on the
old glories of England's archers ; he gives a common byword,
used of bad bowmen, "he shooteth like a Scot," p. 428.
The Bishop shows us that the workmen of his time were
as prone to scamping work as they are now ; the labour-
ing man at noon must have his sleeping time, p. 447 ; here
a scene is described much like the opening chapter in
* Adam Bede.' It was a common proverb to speak of an
idle man as an abbey lubber, a long lewd lither loiterer, p.
610. Pilkington was not strong in our history ; he says
that the Saxons drove out the Englishmen (Britons), p.
188. He remarks that the Northumbrians down to his
own day have always recited the Paternoster, the Creed,
and the Ten Commandments in English metre, never in
Latin, p. 500. His own Northern forms are brether (fratres),
duddles (duds).
In Collier's * History of Dramatic Poetry,' vol. ii., there
are some pieces given that date from about 1560. There
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 559
is a tendency to contract and cast out letters ; thus heide
(our h^lV) stands for A« vM^ p. 376 ; there is whatsere
(whatsoever), p. 381 ; tza (it is a), p. 374^ We hear of the
rectum (insurrection), p. 368. The n is inserted in flincher,
p. 374 ; and in the lengthner (one who lengthens), p. 380.
We hear of a maister's mate (ship's officer), p. 293 ; there
is the name SiLsan SweetlipSy p. 377. The old Adverb
groveling (gruflinge) is made an Active Participle in p. 404,
paving the way for groveL There is to set a joint (broken),
p. 9. A bell goes ding dong, p. 376. There is the Scandi-
navian verb flant, used of flags, p. 293. Among the
Eomance words are bayse (laurels), jigge (dance), to moyl,
country dance. There is triump (a game at cards) and
dewsace, p. 231. We hear of dise of vauntage, p. 376 ;
hence "to take advantage of a man." We hear of a
miser's wealth, p. 374 ; here the Latin word is first con-
nected with money.
In 1561 came out Sackwille's well-known play, our first
tragedy, and our first specimen of blank verse on the stage.
Many years earlier, Surrey had used this metre in a poem.
Our earliest sea-song appeared about 1570 ; it may be seen
in p. 293.
In the * Babees' Book ' (Early English Text Society) are
many pieces dating from about 1560. A ship has its staies, p.
243. A boy should be courteous &nd free of cappe, p. 341 ;
to cap had not yet been coined. The new use of handker-
chiefs led Englishmen to blow the nose, p. 79 ; in p. 77 we
see that to drink manerly was one thing, to quaff another.
There is the new verb hrable (brawl) in p. 92. The old
smak (gustare) gets confused with the Dutch smak (fragor)
in p. 344 ; a boy must not smack his lips.
Among the Eomance words are shirt collar, conceites after
dinner (our dessert), p. 68, to inable yourself to nurture
(aptare), p. 74. The French coy takes the Teutonic ish and
becomes coyish, meaning reserved, p. 94.
Hey wood's * Epigrams ' were printed in 1562; I have
used the modem reprint. Here we see the contractions
thers (there is), lets (let us), tys (it is). He (I will). The b is
struck out; we see t^wcomt^ (uncombed), p. 182, the old un-
56o THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
Icmvpi, There is the very old guttural heJcd (highest), p. 1 70 ;
occurring in the old proverb here set out, whm hale is hekst,
boote is next ; to this I have lately referred. There are the
two forms seen in the * Promptorium,' ake and ache (dolor),
pp. 131 and 111 ; in. the latter page mlie is used as a pun
on the letter H. The w is inserted ; the cry who^ addressed
to a cart horse, replaces the old h> (stop), p. 162 ; the new
word must have been sounded as hao^ which was later to
become our wo^ or wo ho / The Passive Participle of the old
(dayen (alloy) is written dUmde, p. 178, and is rimed with
p'<mde ; the oi^ it cannot • be too often repeated, bore two
very different sounds, both in France and England. The
y replaces o ; we see ynions (onions), p. 206, which may
still be heard. !
We find the new Substantive byrdery a man who goes a
birding ; the word burde still keeps its old sense of pullm,
p. 210. There is rennet, p. 118, derived from rrm, which
meant coagulate in the * Promptorium.' There is instep, p.
164, most likely from in smd stoop (bend). We hear of the
wind's eie, p. 114. The word fare comes to mean the
passenger conveyed, p. 206. The word row is applied to
a line of houses, as Paternoster row, p. 209. There is the
proper name Dauson, p. 113. The word why is made a
substantive ; whal is the why? (reason), p. 96 ; we know the
wherefore and the why. We see dym syghted and the forcible
starke staryng blinde, p. 113.
In p. 90 7W whit and nought stand side by side. There
is a curious idiom of the Accusative in p. 92 ; the question
is asked, " am I Maccabseus or Iscariot ? " the answer is —
"Whom it please your mastership, him let it be."
As to the Verbs, creak is now used of a door, p. 99,
shoes may stretche, p. 110, a clock goes, p. 213; there is
take his arm, hang on his arm, a man stands to his tacklyng,
p. 214, as in Foxe. There is the strong affirmative wel
fare ale, I saie, p. 90. There is the Shakesperian take
thine ease in thine inns, p. 132.
We see the new Adverbs fyrstly, lastly, and neerely (touch
him neerely), p. 177. There is the command back! (go
III. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 561
/
back), p. 119. The ihmgh and the if had always been
closely connected, as we see by the Latin etiamsi; in p.
145 stands / care not, though (if) / do.
As to Prepositions, the to had already supplanted the
for in connexion with numbers ; we now have the betting
sentence, a thomande to one, he shall die, p. 179 ; it follows
the verb change, as a nettle changes to a rose, p. 103 ; it is
repeated in one short sentence, as go to olde fooles to scoole,
p. 155.
There is the Scandinavian /ec?^^.
Among the Eomance words are out of place (unfitting),
turn his tippet, a man is covered (puts on his hat), p. 156.
A new phrase of 1530 is toyed with in p. 140 —
*' Thou takest hart of grasse, wyfe, not hart of grace.
Cum grasse, cUm grace, syr, we grase both in one place."
We hear that cups may dysgyse a man, p. 184; hence
disguised in liguor.
There are the proverbs —
" Ii every man mende one, all shall be mended.
Lyttle sayde, soone amended."
The later Homilies of the Keformed English Church
were put forth in 1562. Some old phrases are here
retained, such as nice (in the sense of lasciims), soul health,
miscreant (unbeliever), almsman (a word of Layamon's for
almsgiver). The word doles stands for limites. In Homily
ix. stands (he) is in rehearsing the prayer; here we see
repeated the confusion of two idioms, that of the Participle
and the Verbal Noun. In Homily ii. one edition tran-
slates alii by other, the old othere; the edition of 1563
corrupts this into others. The two meanings of sUly are
both in vogue ; Judith is called a silly woman (poor, feeble),
and elsewhere sUly is coupled with foolish. There is
pith of the argument (a* new sense of the word), spokesman;
this last word is curious, being formed from the Perfect,
not from the Present ; the s also is inserted. We see at
the length, with the inserted, standing for our in the end.
There is the new Verb to cap; and Sunday is called a
standing (fixed) day for certain purposes ; standing water
VOL. I. 2 o
562 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
had appeared earlier. In Sermon ii. Councils are holden^
not held; the latter Participle was soon to replace the true
old form, though we still use holden on solemn occasions.
We see high fed horses ; here the Adjective is used for the
Adverb. The but (quin) comes into a new idiom in Sermon
ii., " images were not so fast set up, hut (he) pulled them
down."
We see the noun gibe, which is Scandinavian, in
Sermon x.
Among the Eomance words is tmiform. In Sermon ii.
there is a philological discussion as to the difference between
images and idols; in Scripture it is said, though not in
common English speech, these mean the same ; the Pope's
party seem to have held images to be Christian, and idols
to be pagan.
We see our common phrase, "he is no man's foe but
his own." When men sneezed the usual cry was, " God
help and St. John ! " Sermon ii. The system of finger-
posts seems to have been in vogue, " we use in cross-ways
to set up a wooden or stone cross, to admonish the
travelling man which way he must turn ; " Sermon xi.
Eebels of this time bore a banner with a plough painted
on it, and underneath, God speed the plough] Sermon xxi.
In Sermon viii. we are told to keep " the Christian sabbath-
day, which is the Sunday;" some transgressors travel on^
Sunday without need, others, worse than the former, are
"prancing in their pri^de, pranking and pricking, pointing
and painting themselves." ^ Constantine and other Chris-
tians built churches, where people might go to keep holy
their sabbath-day. One of the misdeeds of rebels is that
they profane this day.
Stow has given us certain memoranda, dating from
1561 tol567, when they end (* Three Fifteenth Century
Chronicles,' Camden Society). The word pluck is here
made a substantive, get a plucke at him, p. 121 ; there is
byrd bolt, blynd ally, brode awake, where the brode keeps one
of its old meanings, aperius, A merchant braky (broke,
became bankrupt), p. 127. The Passive Infinitive follows
^ A fine alliterative sentence.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 563
limie; no ycetobe sene, p. 1 31. The Old and the New stand
side by side in p. 130, all to blevme and shatterd in pecis, p.
130; there is the phrase fall from rwghe words to hlowes,
p. 138 ; the last Dutch word, so common with us, had been
very seldom used before this time. In p. 123 stands y^ weke
ending y 23 0/ July ; here an on is dropped after the Parti-
ciple. The word Puritans occurs in 1667, and is applied
to certain Anabaptists, p. 143.
Several plays, ranging between 1560 and 1570, may be
found in Dodsley's * Collection' (Hazlitt's Edition). In
* New Custom,' vol. iii, there is full in the face, plain dealing.
In *Appius and Virginia,' vol. iv., the metre is most
easy ; that of the Prologue is the same that Lord Macaulay
used when handling the same subject. There is the con-
traction ^'^e«ce, p. 118 ; churl and carl are used in the same
line as terms of reproach, p. 149. There are the new Sub-
stantives Maypole and drwmble (a sleepy head) ; this last may
have had its influence on the future humdrum. In p. 112
ladies are called sparks, in all honour ; the word was later
to be applied to the other sex. In p. 122 stands the word
thwick thwack ; here a w has been inserted in the old thack
(ferire). In p. 120 vixen (she fox) is used of a woman. In
p. 1 1 8 stands " as stout as a stockfish ; " hence it is that
Shallow fights with one Simon Stockfish. The phrase my
dear comes often ; it was to be a favourite one of Sidney's.
In p. 152 stands I proffer you fair, where the adjective
seems to become a substantive. In p. 138 is have with ye
to Jericho, imitated from the have at you of 1360. In p.
151 stands hap that hap may. There is the renowned by
Jove/ p. 124 ; a fig for it/ p, 135 ; body of rm/ ^, 121.
There is the Dutch verb hu&tle, and the Scandinavian ^aunt
(travel). Among the Komance words are haphazard, the
name of a character. We saw vengeance holy a few years
earlier ; in p. 150 we have run with a vengeance. In p. 125
stands 0 passing piece, said of a lady ; hence was to come
masterpiece. In the same page Apelles made a piece
(picture) ; hence sea piece, A man who is uncivil is said
never to have learned his manners in Siville ; this pun is
in p. 151. There is the proverb, "if hap the sky fall, we
1
564 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
may hap to have larks," p. 124. The old hrm file (polluere)
is much used m this play.
In * Jack Jugler/ vol. ii., we have the substantive elder-
shipj and the adjectives toothsome^ light-fingered, tricksy. The
it is used much in the sense of yonder, a,s U is a spiteful girl,
p. 117. We see sit stewing, set a good face on it, play you a
prank A woman is said to simper, to bridle, to swim to and
fro, p. 117; the first of these verbs is Scandinavian; the
swim here first gets a meaning something like ambulare.
From box (alapa) is coined a transitive verb. There is smell
strong, in the sense of olere. The Dutch dollen (to sport)
produces doll {arnica), p. 169; hence Doll Tearsheet. In
p. 223 we hear of puss, our cat ; this word may come
either from the Celtic, the Dutch, or the Scandinavian.
Among the Komance words are play the truand (here used
of children), to lacquey. The pity-craving poor is applied
by the speaker to himself; to get poor me, p. 116. The
new oath was coming in, a damned knave, p. 178.
* Gammer Gurton's Needle,' probably due to Bishop Still,
was written in 1566, with a good swinging metre; it is in
Dodsley, iii. 172. Among the Substantives are a pin*s head,
dodge (dolus), p. 193, tUhepig, a look-oath, the swUl tub.
There is fine gentlermm ; a certain man is called a two legged
fox. Among the Verbs are to slop up milk (bibere), p. 193 ;
like our slangy " mop up sherry ; " dodge (decipere), p. 254.
There is a foretaste of a common phrase, thou rose n/ot on, thy
right side (got up the wrong side of the bed), p. 193. A
new Interrogative idiom crops up in p. 181, " ye have made
a fair day*s work, have you not ? " The new Scandinavian
jib (velum) is in p. 211 ; set the jib forward. Among the
Romance words are gaffer, gammer (here it means mistress ;
we may remember the York commoder), trump (a game at
cards, p. 199), lose a trump, p. 174, to pass sport {go heyond
a joke), p. 202. The dame is prefixed to a poor woman's
surname, as Dam£ Chat, Old English words are put into
the mouths of peasants, as sickerly, swyth, and tite (protenus).
The Western dialect appears, as ch*am,ich cham, vilthy (filthy);
in p. 240 stands the Shakesperian God eild you I
The * Trial of Treasure ' dates from about the same
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 565
time as the foregoing piece. The a is added at the end of
a verse to lengthen it out ; / do delight-a stands in p.
290, riming vnth. plight-a ; this was to become very com-
mon. A lady is called mousey p. 293. We see lash out
(kick), p. 298, tune my pipes, A French line comes in p.
277 ; there is also a specimen of Flemish.
The play * Like will to Like ' dates from about the same
time. Here we see hmve of dubs^ sUpjack, snip-snap. The
too, so favoured in this Century, reappears ; is not this too
bad? p. 317. We see run a race. There is bottle-nosed, to
scan, pledge them all carouse, p. 339. The adverb nicely
(properly) is used much as it is now, p. 331.
In Dodsley, iv., we find the play of * Damon and Pithias *
of the date of 1567 ; many of Foxe*s new words are found
here. We see thsit joy is made to rime with away, p. 100.
There is the contraction fis. Wickliffe's word barnacle
now appears in the Plural, meaning spectacles, p. 81. In
p. 72 a man may seem a great bug (big wig) ; I believe this
is still an American sense of the word. There is seat (situ-
ation), p. 35 ; it is here situs, not sedes. A servant is ad-
dressed as my boy, p. 28. There is share and share alike, p.
83. Among the Adjectives are seasick, log headed (wooden
headed), deep in merchant's books ; a new phrase. The
word good now means validus ; " try who is the better man
of us," p. 67 ; this must come from have the better. In p.
17. stands " I was somebody'^ (a great man) ; the nobody hdA
already been applied to Gardiner. In p. 16a courtier says,
** I can help one;^^ we should set number after the Infinitive.
So unusual was the old all and sum that a clown in p. 70 is
made to say, " I have wit enough, whole and sum,"
Among the Verbs are give him the slip, a knot may slip,
he has bees in his head, there is somewhat in the wind, make
things worse, to look high (seem proud), make an impression,
stretch one point. In p. 40 stands to pouch up money (for
his own use) ; in our time, a liberal friend pouches school-
boys. The verb breathe now becomes transitive, to breathe
ourselves, p. 69. There is the new phrase if I speak, hang
me/ p. 41 ; this we should now transpose. The new
Interrogative have I not ? crops up after an affirmation in
566 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
p. 60. Skelton's iomk cm, the quick is now altered into
tov^h to the quick, p. 11. The at is used to translate the
French au; take me at my word, p. 56 ; "prendre au mot."
The curse a plague take him! stands in p. 102.
There is sconce (caput) from the Dutch ; also the Celtic
plod and coil (stir) in keep a coU, p. 24.
Among the Eomance words are, to incense him against,
catch him into a trip, p. 23 ; hence " catch him tripping."
We see he has a wooden face; in p. 74 a servant speaks
French to astonish a friend, and calls him petit Zawne
(zany or sawny) ; an Italian word. Foxe's favourite word
sycophant (informer) is here much coupled with parasite,
showing a change of meaning. We see presently taking
our shade of meaning in p. 90 ; for here it is not protenus,
since there is an interval of time ; the foreign word shared
the fate of our by and by. In p. 33 we have a pun, your
course is very coarse ; our translation of cv/rsus and the Adjec-
tival form of the word. There are the old forms meve and
lese (move and lose).
In *Dodsley,' vol iv., may be found the play of * Cam-
by ses.' There is the contraction whafs that? p. 219.
Gower's of kin now becomes aMn to, p. 226. The initial «(;
is struck out, as ich ould (I would), p. 220 ; we often hear
/ ood now. The z for s is here much used by rustics.
The old curst (crabbed) has its letters transposed and be-
comes crusty (p. 184). In p. 177 three ruffians appear as
Huff, Ruff, and Snuff; in p. 223 we come upon a box on
the ear. The one (Number one) appears once more in its
new meaning, it is wisdom to save one, p. 187. A rustic
makes a retort not obsolete even now, and thou calVst me
knave, thou art another, p. 220; here su>ch ought to be the
last word ; we may remark the contraction calFst. There
is hark in your ear, make a match (marriage) with tm. The
Infinitive had been used much like an Interjection in 1290;
I to leve ]>e ]ms/ this is slightly altered in p. 1S5, thou a
soldiei' and loose thy weapon / here to be should follow thou ;
this led to Shakespere's what I a young knave, and beg 1
something like this we have seen in UdalFs play. In p.
236 we light upon the dance called hey diddle diddle;
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 567
this rimes here with fiddle. There is hlack pudding. The
old ?nanqiteUer now becomes executiovrman, often repeated.
The o\di pom goes back to its Latin form ; my pulses heat
is in p. 218. A rustic uses the strange form lum vay (by
my fay), p. 219.
The * Marriage of Wit and Science/ in vol. ii., dates
from 1570. The a replaces 0, as sprat for sprot The
new Substantives are crackbrain (whence our cracky), this
spindleshanks, a Jack sprat. In p. 362 Darby* s bands may
mean shackles; hence the darbies. There is the Shake-
sperian phrase, th£- top of the desire. The word fan is now
used in the sense best known to ladies. There is the
new begone I and she takes on her like a queen, p. 350 ; here
some word like state should follow the verb. In p. 362
stands speak, off or on 1 (shall we remain or go ?) ; here the
verb shall we be is dropped. A country lout says, hey tisty
tmt, p. 376 ; I well remember the nursery phrase tisty tosty,
cowslip ball. There is the new turn of phrase, it is a good
fault.
In the Letters in Ellis' Collection, from 1553 to 1576,
we see the i encroaching on e; Elizabeth writes from the
very first indide (indeed), bin (been), and other words of
the same kind ; the form gentill (used by Sadler) appears
again, whence our genteel, diflfering from gentle ; there is
shoed (monstravit), where 0 replaces the sound of u. Mary
Queen of Scots writes quin, hesti, gud, for queen, hasty,
good / doubtless the Northern Stuarts did much to bring in
the new Northern pronunciation which took root in Lon-
don after 1600; Kaleigh, speaking his broad Devon at
Court, must have been thought very provincial (Aubrey's
* Lives '). Among the Substantives is bigness, the cock of a
pistol ; room adds the meaning of camera to its old sense,
spatium. There is the Verb blast slanders of her
(hence "a blasted character"). The verb make gets the
new sense of evenire; he will make a rare prince. The to
is developed, say to the corUrary, to their likeing. Among the
Eomance words are cabinet, joynt of motion, demy God, pro-
prietary (owner), skeptik (used by Buchanan). Sandys
unfolds a peece of his mynde. Gresham writes of th^ interest
568 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
of \2 per cent by the year. The room where Eizzio died
was about 12 footes square, a new way of measuring. A
new phrase replaces devU ; what a mischeefe meaneth he, vol.
iv. p. 8. The word practise is used of lawyers as well as of
physicians, a lawyer of great practise. The old hid is sup-
planted by a French word, invite to snipper. We hear of
committees (men entrusted). The adjective rare appears,
with the meaning of eximius, a rare prince,
Burgon*s *Life of Gresham' gives us many letters,
ranging from 1554 to 1571. The great merchant is fond
of ie and ye, writing lAeth and Lye for Leith and Lee.
The old acumba (tow) becomes oJcym (oakum). The t is
prefixed ; Cecil's daughter Anne is called Tannikin, i. 227 ;
much as Edward afterwards became Ted, The w is struck
out; we read of the bishop of Norrige, i. 479. It is pre-
fixed ; an Irish earl appears as Wormonde, ii. 155. The s
is prefixed ; Sprague is the capital of Bohemia, ii. 8 ; in
this way Spruce had already been formed.
Among the Substantives is waftage (conveyance by sea),
i. 197; Gresham uses t(;a/nn a sense different from that
employed by Cavendish a year or two earlier. We see fit
of ague, mainmast, mills for powder, drinking penny, begging
letter, the Qmen's stamp, A horse is twelve handfulls high,
i. 346 ; we now strike out the full, A boa7'd appears,
meaning the persons sitting at table, ii. 162; hence we
now call companies boards. There are the new words fire-
lock, freebooter. There are the phrases as good luck was,
between man and man, A person wishes to go for health
to the Spa, ii. 93.
Among the Adjectives handsome seems to get the new
sense of largus, ii. 42 ; it is used of a man that has behaved
hospitably ; hence our handsome offer. There is best heddyd
(clever), smooth-tongued, my last (here letter is suppressed),
i. 398, nothing short of death, p. 322. Gresham is, I think,
the last great Englishman who took much pleasure in the
Double Negative.
Among the Verbs we see an old Southern form in con-
stant use, they lyeth (jacent). A town holds out, a sight is
ux)rth to go 100 myles to see it, i. 255, give him to
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 569
understand, take the wynde of us, make a start, make despatch,
run in danger, it is given out that, bosomrcreeping Italians, The
verb hail is used in a new way ; hayl a ship, ii. 42. The
m^ake gets the meaning of perji^re; make six miles, p. 70. A
man is markyd, p. 168 ; this verb had hitherto been used
of animals in the chase. Money lies dead (useless), p. 421 ;
hence a dead loss.
Among the Adverbs this may be remarked; a lady
when unwell is described as yll at ease, ii. 443 ; this ill,
made an adjective, was almost to drive out the old sick,
except in America.
Among the Prepositions are, at all eventes (adventures),
i. 234, of force (perforce). In ii. 200 certain men are
Protestants for their lives (earnest) ; hence our " run for your
life." Another new use oifor stands in p. 19, to depart for
Deventor.
There is the German dallor (dollar), i. 334. In ii. 284
mention is made of ded boards ; this sense of the noun
comes from the Dutch. We see the verb carouse (gar aus),
a cup thoroughly emptied. The word excise, ii. 245,
reverses the usual order of things, for it comes to us
through the Dutch from the French ; it is another form of
assise.
As to Gresham's Romance words, what strikes us most
is the number of our technical mercantile terms, first
found in bis letters. Such are dytto,\hill of credit, hill of
exchange, hill of lading, the chiffer (cypher), to assewre (insure)
goods, a power for money. More's hancke-roupt appears here
as hanke-rowte. The L. S. D. , representing the Italian liri, soldi,
denari, may be found in i. 432. We see the Italian verb ^s-
tanado, i, 269, mentioned by Gresham, living at Antwerp ;
this was due to the town's Southern masters. An English
knight talks of his coche (coach) in 1556; see i. 483. Gun-
powder is sent over in poncheones, p. 318. A lottery is estab-
lished in London in 1568 (ii. 338). The Protestant places of
worship in Flanders are called tempells, p. 154. There are
phrases like repose trust in, time serves, remember me to her,
chargeable (expensive), system, aswe ship, charge pistols (a new
noun), colourable bargains, waiting woman. The word stay
570 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
(morari) is in constant use. A duke iwrnies himself to a
house, ii. 184; this verb was encroaching on the Teutonic JM,
The artists of that age appear as picture makers^ p. 467.
The word mynyster gets a new sense, that of legatus, i. 399.
The Prince of Orange is called his excellentcie, ii. 206 ; he
has Gresham to dine and gives him verie gi'eat intertainmenty
p. 160; hence the last word might easily come to mean
coena. In p. 196 stands Ansians (ancients, companies) of
footmen; a new sense of the word, which was soon to be
transferred to their commander. A knight bequeaths his
celestial globe and a case of compases, p. 459.
Calf hill, a Shropshire man, in 1565 wrote an answer to
MartiaU's * Treatise of the Cross' (Parker Society). He
prefixes a to a word, as aweary, p. 289 ; he adds n to a
word, as to lessen i^, p. 331 ; this can hardly be the old
Infinitive form. Among his Substantives we see loadstone,
birth sin. The old stikelinde (steadfastly) of the Hali
Meidenhad (perhaps a Salopian piece) gives birth to stickler
(champion), p. 8. In p. 118 we see poor souls (miseri
homines). In p. 176 the old sink (latrina) is used in a
moral sense; a palace becomes a sink of sectaries. Trevisa's
popehode (papacy) hecoraes popedom, p. 323. In p. 236 old
mother Maukin (Malkin, Mary) is used as a synonym for a
fool ; it is just possible that this may have had some in-
fluence on our future mawkish (foolishly precise). Among
the Adjectives are Uockish, a sore point; there is the
Comparative foolisher ; Lydgate's kingli is turned into
kinglike, p. 6. We read of a live man, p. 387, Udall's
new adjective. There are, moreover, the new adjectives
/<m^ lived, sole lived (celibate), heiter lived. Our author
begins in page 1 with a pun on cross, his subject ; he
makes it an adjective, as overthwart had been made earlier ;
cross and overthwart proofs, p. 72; in p. 113 we have cross
luck (ill fortune) ; here the word begins to bear our sense
froward. The one is made much more emphatic than in the
old dn hund scipa; Calais was lost in one three days,
p. 114.
There are the Verbs unbody (leave the body), unwonted.
There are the phrases leave (prowess) to others, not so sound as
HI.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 571
it hid hem to he wished (could be wished), p. 71, t(?e are given
to understand, that, p. 364 ; a hone for you to pick on, p. 277;
hence our " a bone to pick with you." There is a most
terse new idiom in p. 371, when a question has to be
answered ; what would he have done ? Damned them to the
Devil; but long before this time we have seen the curt
phrase well answered^ at the beginning of a sentence. We
light on the phrase it is too absurd, p. 375 ; too had ap-
peared about this same time.
Among the Romance words are paradox, interreign,
impertinent, to disgrace him, instinct, hyperbole, quid pro quo,
Tom fool, p. 226, pleadable, wnconscionahle, p. 177, comma,
nonsuit, porkling, expostulate, votary (nun). The word
humanity had long been used both for courtesy and kind-
ness; Calfhill, following Tyndale, uses courtesy in the
graver sense of kindness in p. 22; an Emperor, refrain-
ing from slaughter, shows comtesy. The word humour
stands for fancy in p. 208. A canker (cancer) is in a
woman's breast, p. 329. In p. 54 we hear of a theolo-
gian's common place (usual argument) ; we now often make
the phrase an Adjective. In p. 81 a physician's prescrip-
tion is called a hill. The verb squat, p. 179, keeps its old
sense of comprimere, soon to be changed The adjective
temporal stands where we happily substitute another form, •
temporary, p. 245. The words chrism and chrisom are dis-
tinguished in p. 224 ; the latter meaning a white garment,
used at baptism. Authors should be reconciled in p. 251 ;
that is, their writings should be made to agree. A man
is posted to do a future action when his qu£w (cue) comes,
p. 209. The verb track stands in p. 198; trace and track
have no common derivation, but they both come to us
through France, the former from the Low Latin, the latter
from the German. In p. 331 egregious is used in a bad
sense as usual in English, play the varlet egregiously. The
word sot belonged to the South and West ; it is used in
its old sense of stultus, p. 273, and was to take a new sense
twenty years later. The word personal, hitherto rare,
appears in p. 288 ; examples, taken from the conduct of
good men, may possibly be only personal, and not prompted
572 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
by God. The verb muster keeps its old sense, the Cross
musters (shows) /air, p. 352. The verb urge takes the new-
sense of press upon us; ye urge a mirade, p. 329. The
phrase turn over the leaf had already appeared ; we now
have turn over histories, p. 93. The word sense had of late
years come in, expressing sapientia; we therefore find
senseless, p. 103. The same distinction is drawn between
worship and adore as between colere and odor are, p. 373.
Martiall had been an usher at Winchester ; Calfhill treats
him as a scholar in an amusing dialogue in p. 201 ; one
sentence is dovm with him ; give me the rod here. Martiall
uses the term lurde (heavy), p. 361 ; the other says he
knows not what is meant. Our author is fond of puns ;
in his first page he plays upon the words cross, humanity,
and martial. In p. 158 reason may bear the sense of raisin,
as Falstaflf afterwards employed the word. I suspect that
Calfhill attempts a pun in p. 186, where he speaks of the
members of the Second Council of Nice (which established
image-worship) as "the Nice masters;" nice might still
bear its old sense stultus. Puritanism crops up in p. 363 ;
it is superstitious to call our churches by the names of
Saints, as St. Peter's church. There is the phrase " find
a pin's head in a cartload of hay," p. 173 ; " have a quarrel
to Rowland, and fight with Oliver," p. 374. We light
upon a most truthful proverb in p. 113, hustum Anglorum
Gallia, Oallorum Italia ; this takes a range of history from
Edward III. to the first Duke of Guise. The New Indians
are mentioned in p. 338.
Our Salopian author has Ood wot, land leaper, to astart
(start up). The word sere (particular), used in p. 279,
would alone show that he came from the Northern part of
England ; this word the Editor derives from the Latin !
Like others of his Century, Calfhill sometimes mistakes the
old to (dis), coining all to hecrossed and such like, though he
used all to pulled (dilaceratus) in the right way, p. 92.
Ascham wrote his 'Schoolmaster' about 1565 ; I have
used Upton's edition of 1711. Among the Substantives
are cockpit, hedge piiest Oldness, p. 204, is revived after a
long sleep ; eld had been thrown aside. The term thing is
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 573
degraded, and is scornfully applied to a man, p. 42 ; it
might earlier have been used of Christ or the Virgin. In
p. 55 Elyot's term a goodfellow (glutton) is used to express our
rake ; an instance of the degradation of a word ; this sense
lasted till 1730. In p. 52 hroad cloths are opposed to rags.
In p. 87 we hear of makers of love. In p. 92 the Greek
akme is Englished by the highest pitch ; a. new substantive.
Ascham had already brought in cut (vulnus); in p. 194
he talks of the short cut of a private letter ; here the words
seem to mean "paltry course." Among the Adjectives
are a hot head, an odd man (peculiarly able, p. 112).
Precepts may be cold (chilling), p. 163, very diflferent from
Barclay's sense of the word. The old sterling had been
applied only to money ; Ascham makes a method of study,
sterling^ p. 106. In p. 136 ill humour is used of the body,
not the mind. A great innovation is found in p. 11, your
great beaters, speaking of harsh schoolmasters; the your,
here not needed at all, was employed henceforward, much
as Shakespere used it, as your Englishman.
' Among the Verbs are patch it up, ill brought up (ill bred),
to breed up youth, rap out oaths, a spent old man, p. 196;
Ascham in his Yorkshire home had once doubtless used
forspent. Chaucer's old word tvdnne (separare) had so
thoroughly gone out that Ascham uses untunne for the
same idea, p. 72 ; a word newly formed from the old twin-
an. He has he mislikes it, p. 100, instead of the old it mis-
likes me. There is the new adverb outlandisMike, p. 204.
The far is now used before a Superlative, as far best of all,
p. 135; here we should place the before the adjective.
Palsgrave had done things "against the hair;" Ascham
will not force wits against the wood (grain), p. 15.
Among the Eomance words are point out a thing, butcherly,
and Foxe's new word decorum. There is the Greek syntaxis,
epitome ; akme and atheoi appear in the Greek character ;
Ascham mourns that the last word should be known in
England, p. 83. The adjective brave is used as a synonym
for warlike in p. 43 ; it was in the North that the word
had first implied courage. In the next page we hear of a
desperate hat (a desperadoes head gear). We read of places
574 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
(passages) of Herodotus, p. 115. Something is done, in
p. 57, according to the square and rule of wisdom ; hence
" act on the square," " go by rule." In p. 83 men jpass for
no doctors; here the verb means io care, very diflPerent
from its later sense. The Participle staid is now used much
like an adjective ; a man may be of staid jvdgmenty p. 160.
Ascham is well known for his horror of Italian debauchery
and atheism, brought home by young English travellers.
He says that there is more comely plate in one city of
England than there is in the four proudest cities of Italy,
Eome included, p. 191. It is a sign of the times that
young girls get married against their parents' will, p. 39.
He gives a list of pastimes proper for young gentlemen in
p. 58 ; among these is, to shoot surely in (with) gun; this
seems to be a new accomplishment. He tells us that his
old college of St. John's at Cambridge owed much to the
benefactions of Northern gentlemen, who were persuaded
thereto by worthy Dr. Medcalfe; this Master must have been
to St John's in 1530 as great a blessing as Dr. Jenkins was
to Balliol in 1850. Ascham objects to the English practice
of using rimes in poetry ; time and custom, it seems, drew
our bards towards the barbarous Goths, not to the Greeks,
p. 184. He praises Surrey for avoiding rime when Eng-
lishing Virgil. Our tongue, being chiefly made up of
monosyllables, is, according to Ascham, best suited for
Iambics. Some make the worthy wit Chaucer a God in
verse, p. 187 ; Chaucer's ablest imitator was already alive
when Ascham was writing.
John Awdeley printed his * Fratemitye of Vacabondes '
(Early English Text Society, Extra Series) in 1561, which
was reprinted four years later. The roger of 1540 now
appears as rage (rogue), p. 5 ; Barclay's excheater appears as
cheatour ; it means no longer an official, but a genteel
swindler at cards, p. 7. An Abraham man is one who
shams madness and nameth himselfe poore Tom, p. 3. The
thieves' women are called doxies, p. 4 ; this word is now
best known by the famous pun on Orthodoxy. The word
chete stands for res ; a tooth is a crashing chete ; in our day
men say, " that's the chat." An idle runagate boy is called a
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 575
Kitchin Co\ p. 5 ; I suppose the later kinchin cove. We
hear of a,jpriggar (fur), p. 4. In p. 15 comes esen dropper
(eavesdropper), who stands under the window to hear
secrets ; this is one of the twenty-five Orders of knaves.
In p. 4 a man gets a share or snap unto himself; hence comes
to go snacks, with the usual interchange of c and p. In p.
8 we hear of a stock of money for trading purposes. In
p. 6 a back lane is mentioned ; a designing man is referred
to, and he is afterwards spoken of as this child, p. 6. The
term quire stands for career ; this word may have had some
influence in making queer so common ; " be in Queer Street."
There is the new phrase to cry halfe part (halves), commaimd
him (have his services), both in p. 10; to black his sJwes, p. 15.
There is the phrase a tittivell knave, p. 1 ^ ; TutivUlus was
the name of a rogue in the * Towneley Mysteries/ One of
the profession, pretending to be a simple countryman, takes
care to use the ich am (I am), p. 8.
A still larger work was devoted to thieves and their
language by Thomas Harman in 1567; this became the
standard book on the subject for scores of years. It is
reprinted along with Awdeley's work. The w is struck
out; we see Alhollenday, p. 51, whence some churches are
called Allhollands, The d is clipped, as vagdbon, p. 27.
There is the great contraction Shropshyre, p. 51. The n is
prefixed in Ned, p. 79. The form m^ke (conjux), used in
an early edition, is changed to mate in the edition of 1573,
p. 41. The old exclamation aye is printed i in pp. 65 and 92,
which shows that the i was losing its French sound. There
are the new Substantives rahblement, out house, his leavings,
harelyp, Harman coaxed his friends the beggars, and thus,
as he says, attained to the typ (secret), p. 20 ; here we have
one of the many words belonging to peddelars Frenche or
Canting, p. 23 ; a language that had been known, according
to Harman, for little more than thirty years ; we still hear
of racing tips. In p. 34 canting stands for begging ; in p.
82 togcTimn stands for a coat, whence comes toggery. Several
of these words have lasted to our day, such as bowsing ken
(tippling house), cofe (man), gyger (door). A woman of
loose conduct is called a Marian, p. 62 ; Maid Marion was
576 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
a well-known ballad heroine. In p. 46 men fall from
wofdes to hlowes ; for blows men would have substituted
striking rather earlier. We hear of markes on clothes, p.
33; a new sense of the word. In thieves' dialect cranke
means the falling sickness, p. 51 ; and glymmar means fire,
p. 61 ; in our time glim stands for candle. In p. 83 Pil-
kington's Northern word dudes (vestes) is set down as
pedlar's French ; so also is drawers, p. 83, a word used by
thieves for the hosen of common English ; this Plural term
drawers has since become a most respectable word. Among
the Adjectives the foreign squainums is altered into squay-
mysh, p. 55. We see small money (whence our small change),
naked as ever he was borne, p. 56, odde endes (odds and ends),
in the ded of the night. The word strong stands for ntimerous ;
" they go strong as three or four in a company," p. 33. The
good is prefixed to another adjective ; a good longe daye, p.
37. Theflexen (flaxen) is applied to a beard, p. 55. There
is the new phrase wyth all celeryty, p. 54 ; where all stands
for maodmus. An adverb replaces an adjective after the
verb look ; loke wUdly, p. 40 ; hence Shakespere's you look
angerly ; I have bene madly handlyd stands in p. 64 ; hence
the madly used Malvolio,
Among the Verbs are set up house, sit out the company ;
there is the sudden hdde (stop) in the middle of a sentence,
p. 39. There is a new construction of do in p. 41, "they
made me swear," says one ; what, dyd they ? is the answer.
In p. 86 tryne on tJie chates is explained as "hang on the
gallows." Scott in * Woodstock ' has " trine to the nubbing
cheat," where trine is used in its old Lancashire sense of
gradi. In p. 31 a man aflBrms something, meaning notUnge
lesse ; here the two last words stand for rum. There are
some new uses oifor; trust men for their vitales, p. 33 (give
them credit as regards their victuals) ; also foi* his life he
could not pluck it, p. 40. The for is added, as it were,
inseparably, to the Participle urdooked; I had it unloked for,
p. 35.
Among the Eomance words are paulmistrie, their credit
(in trade), an impression (in printing), mullion, quarter staffe,
condign punishment, conserves, undecent. In p. 22 the pre-
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, S71
misses stand for habitation^ a new sense of the word; good
natur (kindness) is revived, p. 42. In p. 23 men go to
gipsies to know their fortunes, p. 23. In p. 50 declination
stands for refusal ; the Scotch still talk of declinature. In
p. 52 paynefidl means amarus, not laboriosus, as of old. In
p. 54 cage is used as a prison for men. The verb temper is
developed ; temper with me, p. 70 ; Foxe has the same
expression, writing about this time ; the form tamper, which
makes a useful distinction, came a few years later. In p.
28 we still see my cost and travdl (trouble). There is the
phrase heholde the coaste about them cleare, p. 30 ; this has
nothing to do with the sea. The robber's technical verb
delyver is in p. 30 ; rather later it was to be coupled with
stand. We have already heard of the freedom and the
franchise of towns ; we now have the lyberties of London, p.
51. Harman says that he was once in commission of the
peace, p. 60 ; this word commission was afterwards to be
greatly extended. There is the phrase I have bene attemted
(of robbers), p. 66.
The author says, deluded man, that the gipsies have
been banished and their memory extinguished, p. 23. An
oath, which was slowly coming into fashion, is set out at
great length in p. 66, "I pray God I bee dampned both
body and soule, yf," etc.; this is put into the mouth of a
cranke ; Harman deals with the knave just as a Mendicity
officer would do in our own day. About a hundred Irish
men and women had been burnt out by the Earl of Des-
mond, and wandered about England to beg; they went
round with counterfeit licenses, and if straitly examined
pretended that they could speak no English, pp. 44 and 82.
Grindal, when Bishop of London about 1563 (Parker
Society), has the new phrase country gentleman, p. 257 ; he
talks of the players* bills, p. 269 ; he has none of Foxe's
tolerance for these gentry, who are now said to profane
God's words by their impure mouths.
J. Partridge printed a riming Legend of Plasidas in
1566 (Horstmann's * Altenglische Legenden,' p. 474); it
is most curious that there should have been any demand
for such literature after the Reformation. The proper
VOL. I. 2 P
578 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
name Trayan is made a trisyllable, p. 487, as is also ram/pier^
p. 485 ; the old sounds of ai and ie were now altering ;
the r is inserted, for hoystrous appears in p. 479. We hear
of pikemen and of the wings of an army. The verb fetch
takes a new sense ; we see fetching frischoes (frisks), p. 479 ;
this meaning of allicere has come down to our own day.
Soldiers keep aray (their ranks), p. 485. Among the
Eomance words are confusedly, massive, troupe (of horsemen),
file (line). The word fatal, applied to a man, means fate-
doomed, p. 482. The verb discrie had meant descrihere in
1520; it now means videre, p. 485.
About this time Sir Thomas Smith tells us that the
vowel i was pronounced like eye and aye ; the change, first
seen in the North, was now established at London. See
Ellis, * Early English Pronunciation ' (Early English Text
Society, Extra Series), i. 112.
In the * Life of Sir Peter Carew ' we see the old form
thandes (the hands), written by Sir Henry Sidney in 1570,
much in Caxton's style, p. 242. The old name Piers now
becomes Feiree, p. 238. There is the famous West Country
surname Prediaux, probably pronounced like the French
Prediouse ; the sound is much altered in our days. The old
form beseke is still found ; also yeven (given) in a letter of
Elizabeth's, p. 189. The substantive gerdlermbn is twice
cut down to gent, pp. 156 and 173 ; I have remarked on this
before. A lawyer is called Sir Peter's man ; that is, agent,
p. 273. A well-known Welsh harbour opposite Dublin
appears as The holy hedd, p. 251. There are the verbs lay
him op by the helys, matters go on leisurely. The Eomance
words are dowlas, dyaper, cesse (tax), posytt (a deposit),
martyall lawe, incownter, orderly, ill usage. From this last
came the verb ill use ; here, and also in ill treat, we place
the adverb before the verb, a curious construction.
About this time the form ascue (our askew) replaced the
older askoye (Dr. Murray).
Levins, a Yorkshireman, brought out his Dictionary
(' Manipulus Vocabulorum,' Early English Text Society) in
1570. Many of our old words are still found here, as
eame (uncle), ocker (usury), tite (quickly). UdalFs verb flag
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 579
now becomes fag (deficere) ; fag md was to come fifty years
later. There are many Adjectives in ish, as hayishy newish,
hoggish. The un is often prefixed to Romance words, as
unbeautifvl. The first hint of our blind man's buff is seen
in hodeman blind (a play), p. 135. The curse ^ wenyant
is translated in malam crucem, Wickliffe's verb wel (con-
flare) still remains without a c^ at the end, p. 55. The verb
wriggle seems to give birth to rigge (lascivire), p. 1 19 ; hence
our to run rigs. There is the Celtic mug ; the Scandinavian
hyre (cow house); the Dutch moppe (movere labia); hence the
later rrwp and mow. The Latin lippus is expressed not only
by sandhlinde, but hj porehlinde, p. 135; the pu/r blind of 1 300
had slightly changed its meaning, owing to some confusion
with the verb pore. The word fitchew is revived. We
see serly (imperiosus), p. 99, which must come from sire; it
was soon to become surly ; serwish, with the same meaning,
stands in p. 145. In p. 38 men battle commons; the terms
are still well known at Oxford. There is the bird wigion. .
A ballad, printed in 1570, may be seen in Tarlton's
* Jests* (Halliwell), p. 126. The patriarch Noe becomes
Noy, p. 129, riming with destroy ; here the old sound of oy
was becoming more like that of our modem oy. A river
flows with such a hed (impetus), p. 1 27, a new sense of the
word ; hence Gascoign makes head ; Milton's fears get head.
In p. 129 stands no way but to be lost, where is (est) is
dropped; this foreshadows no way but this, in Othello.
There is the Dutch adjective frolick (laetus). We see the
curious word misdeformed, p. 126 ; where either the mis or
the de should have been dropped. In p. 128 the weather
changes, Tarlton, though no Puritan, talks about the Sahoth
day, p. 129.
William Lambarde wrote his * Perambulation of Kent *
in 1570, publishing it six years later; this is the first of
our County Histories. We see ai take the place of e, as in
the transitive quail (comprimere), p. 369 ; the i supplants e,
as guire of a church, p. 343 ; the ie replaces e, as crosier, p.
223. The old trace and the new track are used as synonyms,
pp. 325 and 326. The old hauty becomes haughty, p. 471 ;
here a French word adopts a Teutonic form. We hear of
58o THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
Caesax's colonds, p. 256 ; this had earlier been written
coroneL
Among the new Substantives are wear (vestitus), warder,
sweep (of a river), Uocke (impedimentum), in the nicke (of a
battle), p. 422. There are the phrases vjUI ivorship ; also
wUfidl worshipper, mill for paper, bone of dissmtion. There is
foure foote of water ; in measuring, we do not use feet, but
make foot Plural, as "six foot high." St. Thomas of
England is called a new found Oodlyng, p. 394. A retired
residence is called a withdrawing house, p. 464 ; paving the
way for drawing room. There is the Adjective brassie
(impudent). We see two third partes, p. 267 ; this use of
fractions had hitherto been rare.
Among the new Verbs is underprop. There are the
phrases call into question, storms blow over, take issue, keep the
saddle, take occasion by the forhead (our forelock), p. 417,
leave no stone untaken up. The old verb jog is now applied
.to a horse in motion, p. 206. The verb setUe is used of
earth that sinks downwards, p. 326 ; hence architects
dread a settlement. Piers break the swiftness of a stream,
p. 344 ; this sense, obstare, is new. The verb shrowd adds
the sense of celare to its old meaning vestire, p. 427. The
verb wind up is employed for finire in p. 433. We see
both the old overlive a man and the later otUlie a man.
Men have enough to do to save themselves, p. 370 ; a most
curious instance of the Double Infinitive ; but here to do
must stand for ado (labor). Men do not fire guns (see
Palsgrave), but give fire to them, p. 390.
Among the Prepositions are slay to the last man, for pities
sake, the castle was in his eie (thoughts), p. 337, they were
of dutie bound to bring, etc.
We see baw waw (bow wow), p. 233, when reference is
made to Erasmus comparing the English tongue, abound-
ing in monosyllables, to a dog's bark.
There is the Scandinavian beach, p. 134 ; also the Celtic
rill.
Among the Romance words are antiquary, tenant right,
the remains, exploits, to single (out), to prise up (raise), preach-
ment, dbjv/re the realm, change his note, consist of, cwrtaU,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 581
increment^ to embattle, tunnel, plausible, continue it, moiety,
Lambarde prints a word in Greek letters now and then ;
he further has typography, orgia, etymon, pa/renthesis, and
compounds the monstrous Frotohaitowr, p. 284, applied to
St. Thomas ; this is as bad as mohocracy. The old guerister
now makes way for choriste, p. 261, showing the regard paid
to Greek forms. The word w£morie replaces mind, recollection
within memoire, p. 5. The verb train is now applied not only
to children but to soldiers, trained companies, p. 65 ; hence the
later trainbands. The word butcherie is used for ccedes, p. 123.
The noun flov/rish is used of a fantastic signet, something
like a knot, p. 365. The noun/ron^is used of a building,
p. 367 ; in the same page Lambarde talks of the last sccene
of his life, a word borrowed from the stage. The word
l&vell stands for planities, p. 397 ; we know the Bedford
Level. The word poesie now comes to mean a motto under
a coat of arms, p. 450. The verb manure is used iovcolere,
p. 499. The word relatives stands for consanguinei, p. 505.
The word patriotes, a new term, is applied in p. 222 to
King Henry's fruiterer, who planted in England the sweet
cherry, the temperate pippin, and the golden renate. A
man becomes of the monkes devotion, p. 286 (acts at their
bidding). There is the mongrel compound note woorthie, p.
399. The foreign Leuga (league) is remarked as appearing
in the I/rwy, a tract- of land round Tunbridge, p. 383 ; this
name dates from Norman times.
We find that many things happen betweene the Cup and the
Lippe, p. 422.
Lambarde uses Bryttish for Welsh, p. 257. Like Foxe,
he sets out some Old English documents, also some Old
French papers ; Leland, Parker, and Foxe had been insti-
gating England to search out her antiquities. Kent had
lost her old pre-eminence of 1340 as the main stronghold
of Old English forms ; Lambarde affirms that the counties
near London said borne (natus), where they of the West
Country used yborne. He says that his Kentish country-
men still spoke of a partition of land as a shifting, the Old
English for dvdsio. He points out the peculiarity to be
seen among the Cheshire gentry in 1570 j Thomas a Bruer-
582 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
i(m was there used for Thomas Bruerton, and such like.
Lambarde makes the very natural mistake that wyr\d and
way were borrowed from the Latin ventus and via, p. 376.
He derives hodide, the triumph over the Danes, from hoker
(derisio), p. 125. He bewails the cutting-down of English
words, such as Eovesham and kynning (rex) ; hence English
for the most part had been reduced to monosyllables, a cir-
cumstance which gave rise to much complaint about this time.
He uses hoome for rimis, p. 260 ; it had not been commonly
employed in Southern England for centuries, except in pro-
per names. He distinguishes between wolde (a bare hill) and
wealde (a low woody region), p. 367 ; the last form had
appeared in Caxton. He is inclined to derive ferme (farm),
not from the Latin firma, but from the English feormian, pp.
193 and 194. He is particular in writing on live (vivus) in p.
258. He says that pastures in many parts were still
called leseweSf p. 393. He revives the old word ordale
(ordeal), p. 278. He makes the mistake that manred (the
word was not yet extinct) meant the office of leading men,
p. 453. The word barow (hillock) seems to have been
peculiar to the West Country, p. 392, and is here con-
nected with hyrgan (sepelire) ; it is in truth the old heorg.
The Western men, thanks to a legend wrongly applied by
Polydore Virgil to St. Thomas and Kent, used to merrily
mock " our men of Kent " with being bom tailed j foreign
nations applied the legend to the whole of England, much
to Lambarde's disgust, p. 358.
In 1570 Googe Englished a Latin poem by Naogeorgus;
this may be found at the end of Stubbes' * Anatomy '
(New Shakespere Society). The verb hawl, hitherto used
of dogs, is now used of men, p. 337. In p. 331 girls are
wringing wet, a phrase that we have seen before. In p. 327
palls have loLbels ; this must mean lappel, the flap of a coat.
In 1573 Tusser brought out a second poem, *Five
hundreth pointes of good Husbandrie,' of which no fewer
than fourteen editions were printed within two genera-
tions. The author, who has a wonderful command of rune,
shows marks of his long sojourn in East Anglia, when he
uses moether (puella), afterwards to reappear in * David
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 583
Copperfield ; ' there is the old Anglian hard k in thach&r^ our
thatcher ; lacched (captus) is turned into lagged, p. 86. The
vowels are often dropped, as ist (is it), p. 14, reasncMey
p. 20, damsen (Damascene), p. 76, vittles, p. 98 ; an adese
becomes a nads (adze), p. 36. The old the tone (here fol-
lowed by the tother) is contracted into tone, p. 145. The a
replaces e, as tamper, p. 37. There is slipprie,^, 147, where
a later edition keeps the old form slipper. The old nea;t
becomes nettle, our naMy, p. 159 ; and Jane becomes Ginnie,
p. 181. There is the old ^Ul and the later spoil (perdere)
in pp. 60 and 63. The old u is retained in a hwn'ow of
rabbits, p. 86 ; the 0 was set apart for a borough of men ;
another form of the old word. The u replaces i, as furzes
forfirse, p. 119. The old cminie for cony still remains in
p. 86 ; hence perhaps hurmy. There are the forms snag
dragon and ^ dr^m in two different editions, p. 96.
The form troffe appears for the old trough, p. 36. The two
forms waggon and u}aine occur in one line, p. 35 ; the former
comes from Holland. The d replaces t ; the French hoUe
becomes hod, p. 37. The I is added; the old verb turick
becomes wrigle, p. 109. The old love of Alliteration
comes out in the noun roperipe, p. 133, "a youth ripe for
the gallows."
Among the new Substantives are fishdaie, sawpit, a. currie
comhe, brick dust, drover, mouser, walke of sheepe, bore pig,
breeder (an ewe), mowle catcher, seede cake, harvest home,
hailoft, wake day (village feast), spoone meat, sweete William,
p. 96, hollownes, audible, laier, riddance. The old Gillet
(Gilot) once more appears, p. 43. The old Jankin re-
mains in p. 24, coupled with the female Jenikin; there
is Kit (Cluristopher) in p. 32 ; Tusser's wife, as we see in
his will, bore the name of Amye, The old daffodil becomes
daffadondUly in p. 95.^ We know the old form to God
ward; this seems to have given birth to the phrase to
Lincolneshire way, p. 103; "towards Lincolnshire." We
^ I remember that a famous couplet in the Odyssey, much praised
by Mr. Gladstone, used to be popularly translated at Eton —
" He spake, and the shade of swift-footed Achilles
Stalked through the meadow of daffydowndillies."
584 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
have seen how in the North m(m stood for a heing ; in p.
28 stands hdhm is the man ; we should say, i}\£, (right) tlmk^.
In p. 43 we hear of Rew Mdkeskift ; we still keep this com-
pound noun ; the rogue referred to has a hUmse (red-faced
wife) ; hence our blowzy, blown upon by the wind- We read
of larid out of hart, p. 49 ; something that impoverishes is
called a peeler, p. 84. A man is advised in p. 17 to hridle
mid otes fantasie ; here is the first mention of the crop cul-
tivated by most English youths, high and low. In p. 108
we read of magget the py; our magpie. In p. 125 barley
lies in ill pickle. In p. 137 knacker stands for a harness
maker. UdalPs coxcomhe (stultus) now acquires the further
sense of conceit ; for he is said to be puffed up with pride,
p. 147. In p. 65 the old harvest still stands for Auctumnus.
The old word camp (pugna) was in East Anglia set apart
for footbaU, as is plain in Lydgate and the 'Promptorium;'
Tusser refers to it in p. 60 ; and this local word, I believe,
is stiU alive. Servants take a smUch (of food) before work,
p. 168; this is our snack Dunbar's word hrat has now
reached East Anglia, p. 172. In p. 176 we read of ofcorne ;
that is, corn left to servants; hence our off day (spare day).
We have seen runagate ; in p. 42 runabout is made an
Adjective ; runabout prowlers. The comparative worser is
coined, p. 143. In p. 104 two synonyms are found in
one stanza ; the old best cheape and the new cheapest. There
is the phrase full South, p. 100. The Southern 0 thing
(one thing) is brought in to rime with nothing, p. 184.
Among the Verbs are outlast, take of (on) trust, hit
the time, the weather holds dear. Money is said to burn
the bottom of the purse, p. 19. So obsolete had the
good old tudn (separare) become, that the verb tujin is
now used for beaming tunns, p. 81. The verb eat is
employed in a new rustic sense; we are advised to
eat etch with hog (turn in hogs to eat it). We overtake
work; Tusser overcame it, p. 118. The word lasche
(ligula) had appeared in the * Promptorium ;' a farmer may
be left in the lash, p. 144; a few years later lurch was to
be substituted. The verb lug had hitherto meant vellere ;
in p. 177 it changes to trahere; to lug in wood. The verb
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 585.
io twif allow land appears in p. 110; a verb compounded
with ^mhad not appeared for Centuries. In p. 206 stands
the phrase say what I wovld, do what I could. In p. 41
stands the best to be got ; here able should follow the ad-
jective. In p. 17 we see ^^laie to keepe from miserie ;^^ here
some word like plan or scheme should be the second word.
In p. 100 land lies South; here towards seems to be
dropped.
Udall's/(?A becomes /(m^A (faugh) in p. 191. There is
the Scandinavian goel (flavus), not the kindred English
yellow, p. 98. There is nibble, akin to a Low German
word. There is the Celtic verb squat, in our sense, p. 43.
There is the Celtic barth (shelter), p. 146; cattle must
have warm barth (berth).
Among the Romance words are prime grass, compos (ster-
cus), turkey, sirop, the form artichok, hobbard de hoy (a youth
between fourteen and twenty-one, p. 138), tallie (a score),
a pink, abuses, that arise from enclosing, p. 146 ; this last is
a technical word and is not followed by a Noun. There is
sampire, p. 94, the herbe the saint Pierre, Timber is seasoned,
p. 38 j something may serve at a push, p. 79 ; as sure as
thy creede, p. 170. There is the Shakesperian by line and
by leavell, p. 101. The word cote is used for a sheep's vh)oI,
p. 118. In the same stanza a pun occurs; ungentleness
must not be done when shearing . sheep, lest gentils
(maggots) afflict the animal. The noun dispatch stands for
haste, p. 174, and we hear that it hath no fellow. In p.
100 a house is turned up (omatur) ; our articles of dress
are often turned up with something neat
Tusser has many proverbs, such as —
** A foole and his monie be soone at debate.
Christmas comes but once a yeere.
Who goeth a borrowing goeth a sorrowing.
To dog in the manger some liken I could.
March dust to be sold worth ransome of gold.
Such maister, such man.
Though home be but homely, home hath no fellow.
Both beare and forebeare.*'
In p. 126 an old saw of 1300 is repeated —
** Tis merie in hall when beards wag all."
^S6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
We may now consider Gascoign's poems, which range
between 1562 and 1577; most of them were composed
within five years of the latter date ; they may be read in
Chalmer's * English Poets/ vol. ii. The author, our best
bard between Surrey and Spenser, was one of the brother-
hood of tuneful warriors, and could thus claim fellowship
with ^schylus and Camoens. His description of the great
fight at Lepanto, couched in long rolling lines, would have
rejoiced the heart of Scott ; Gascoign must have discussed
tUs glorious theme with his Spanish enemies in Holland,
when he was made prisoner. He seems to have been bom
in Westmorland, and uses the Northern words hrai^ sakdes
(innocent), mucky rock (distaflf), grde (cry), fearli (wondrous);
he has sample, not ensample; there is the Lancashire to
sway the sword.
The u replaces e; Levins' serly becomes surly, p. 477.
The word roy (king) rimes with joy, p. 631. Among
Gascoign's new Substantives are fireworks (Turkish engines
at Lepanto), p. 495, low water markes, cutthroat, star-
conner, overthrow. He is the first English poet, I think,
who discusses the gun, which he calls sl firelock ]mce ; he
speaks of the lock, breech, and bore/ see p. 542. He con-
tracts Bartholomew into Batt, p. 513; he makes call a
noun,' p. 524. He talks of a blocke to make hats on, p.
534. He writes much of the blase of beauty, which often
scorched him. He uses swain in its old sense of farm
servant, p. 544 ; at the same time he is the first, I think,
to apply the word to a lady's lover, p. 530.
Among Gascoign's! Adjectives are blink eyed, empti
handed; he applies stale to a jest ; a man's English is weak,
p. 497; the o]A feeble was formerly used to express ^an;^^.
There is the old confusion between many and main6; vMh
a many mo, p. 503, where a is not needed.
Among his Pronouns are poor I, I poor soul ; he has the
very French idiom, / am no peacock, /, p. 533 ; he talks of
these rimes of mine,*
Among his Verbs are bedeck, mellow (of these two he is
very fond), dust. He has lay himself wide open, break up
house (establishment), beat about the bush, a madding mood.
III. ] THJk NE W ENGLISH. 587
sbojp your nose, broken 8leq>, call a conference, maJce head, hold
them play (here we insert in), the day peeps, strike her dead,
where the wind sits, break my bank, a gun shoots straight, it
came to the pinch. There is the new idiom to like of a thing,
p. 503 ; other verbs were soon to imitate this. We hear
of braunfalne arms, p. 506, which must have suggested our
later chapf alien. In p. 518 stands make a happy hand
(stroke of luck) ; hence a good hand at cards. In p. 538
the wind took our sail ; here the old sense of ocGwpare re-
appears. A man gaJthers flesh, p. 541 ; we say that \sidputs it
on. The poet advises beauty to shut vp thy shop, p. 570 ; I
suppose shop is dropped in our common cry, shut up 1 A
soldier may be set on shelf, our verb shelved, p. 522. The
phrase to do thee right (justice) is inserted in the middle of
a sentence, p. 541. The old Passive Participle holden is
altered into held, p. 539 ; Harlem hath helde out.
Among the Adverbs we remark the new phrase, as brave
as brave may be, p. 496 ; here the Adjective is repeated.
The Dutch words used by this champion of the great
Prince of Orange are many. We have padde (our footpad),
bulke (in the sense of truncus, p. 490). Gascoign talks of
our edell bloettz (lusty gallants), p. 537; hence blood (heros)
had appeared fifty years earlier in England Like Gaxton,
he restricts Dutchmen to the men of Holland He puts
Dutch words into his verse, when the pilot speaks, p. 537.
There is the Scandinavian dimpled and the endearing
Celtic noun^^a^ (pet) addressed to a lady, p. 485.
Among the Komance words are grappling hook, to slice,
bv/mhaste (stuffing of dress), ^//i^ of youth, pUes (the ailment),
bulbeef, models (to represent towns). The new military
words are many, as soldado, mustachyos tu/mde the Turky
waye, p. 537, Lieate/nant General, sound a m^arch, relieve
watch (guard), fanteries (infantry), bandoliers (soldiers),
petronel, a piece (small gun), the recule (recoil). Ladies are
addressed as m£z dames in the middle of an English sen-
tence, p. 493. We have the Italian gondola and Magnifico,
which last rimes with fico in p. 533. A well-known
Italian phrase of Ascham's is translated, demls incarnate,
p. 534. Gascoign is fond of the Spanish interjection ay
588 ^THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
mdl Shakespere's future ah me/ There is metamorphosis/ the
word horizon is made a dactyl, p. 630. The verb souse, saiice,
is used for to wet; souse in a shower, p. 488. The word^?ost«
expresses flowers in p. 532, because these were chosen to
set forth some motto (poesy). The verb part is used, some-
thing like pass ; her parting breath, p. 545. There is the
phrase, / protest, p. 538, which was to be so common in
Goldsmith's Century, like our / declare. A letter of the
alphabet appears as chtible {/, p. 534. Gascoign uses the
foul term, derived from Bulgaria, as an abusive pun on the
Dutch burghers, p. 522; this he must have introduced once
more from France, just as it had been already brought over
in 1340, without leaving any trace afterwards. French
still ruled at cards ; we read of sequences all in sute, p. 497.
Gascoign tells us that people went to Bath for the
waters, p. 506. He gives us the old «aw, every bullet hath
a lighting place, p. 518. His experience of our soldiers is
much that of Wellington when retreating from Burgos —
" And God he knowes, the English souldiour's gut
Must have his fill of victualles once a day,
Or else he will but homely eame his pay " (p. 523).
In p. 532 we hear of what is now called an album, in which
Gascoign wrote. He uses the Shakesperian alderlievest, p.
536 ; and a few lines further on he puts en bon gr6 into the
middle of his verse. He often uses Dan (Dominus) in
Chaucer's way, and he imitates him further when writing
Past Participles like y-wrapte ; he talks of " rumbling rime
in raffe and ruffe," p. 544, another obvious imitation.
Down to 1590 Chaucer was the one Englishman who
reigned in the hearts of all our bards.
Gascoign stands at the head of our English Satirists ;
his * Steele Glass,' printed in 1576, is a masterly poem in
smooth blank verse (I here use Arber's Reprint). He
delights in monosyllables; "the most auncient English
wordes are of one sillable, so that the more monasyllables
that you use the truer Englishman you shall seeme, and
the lesse you shall smell of the Inkehorne," p. 35. He
asks in p. 77 —
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 589
" That Grammer grudge not at our English tong,
Bycause it stands by Monosyllaba,
And cannot be declined as others are."
He is fond of the Old English Alliteration ; see p. 71.
He makes courtier three syllables, p. 71, which is some-
thing new. We see lie for / tuUl, p. 1 9. The p becomes
Jc ; we have the verb peek as well as peq). He has the new
substantive sayler (nauta), p. 79, now one of our com-
monest words ; and he mentions their ** blaspheming
oaths ;" he has also a teUer of money, p. 80, and the
Northern horsecorser. He has Tom Tyttimouse (tomtit), p. 87.
The Gods judging aloft are called the heavenly henche, p. 109.
Arithmetic embraces evens and odds, p. 77; the former word
is now first made a substantive. Among the Adjectives are
shifUeSj mornefvl, sisterlike. We hear of a lively red (colour),
p. 71. An official may have a hlinde side, p. 69. Gas-
coign says alas, the worse my lucke t p. 50; this we now cut
down into worse luck I Among the Verbs are cornfed, take
(it) 05 we find it, bathed with tears, make hones (scruple) to,
etc. A man may be cast at hede (disgraced), p. 56; hence a
dog is called to hed, A man was cast (away) and condemned
fifty years earlier ; we now hear of olde cast robes, p. 80.
Elyot had roused game ; we now have rowsing verses, p. 46.
The verb overreach takes our sense of cheat in p. 77. The
verb stalk had hitherto expressed stealthy creeping ; it now
expresses a majestic walk ; they go stately stalking on, p. 82.
There is the Scandinavian gloa^, p. 96. Among the
Bomance words are superfinesse, p. 37, consent (concert of
music), country squire^ pultesse (poultice). May flower, A
verse tqbj passe the musters (pass muster), p. 35. There is
the phrase strange tale to tell, p. 68; an imitation of sooth to
say. A gem was set ofi* by leaves (feuilles) of meaner
ware ; hence Gascoign talks of a foyle of contraries, p. 54.
The foreign cento por cerdo, referring to interest, comes in
p. 7 1. There are the Greek emphasis, idioma ; monopoly and
monark are pronounced in our way, pp. 70 and 74. Gas-
coign calls the metre, used by " our Mayster and Father
Chaucer" in merry tales, tiding rime; but he says that
rythme roycdl is fittest for a grave discourse; this must
590 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
mean his own blank verse. Here is a distinction between
Teutonic rimt and Greek rhythm that Englishmen should
always have in mind. Our poet, like his brother of 1303,
talks of Sir Simony, p. 72 ; he has a long allusion to Piers
Ploughman, p. 78 ; he still uses carve in the old way, where
we should say cui (secare), pp. 64 and 105. He tells us
that truth is truth, p. 103 ; and that apes' rewards are
'* A peece of breade and therwithal a bobbe " (p. 80).
Our " monkey's allowance " is slightly different.
The Letters of Gabriel Harvey have been published by
the Camden Society; they were written in 1573 and 1579.
The a takes the sound of French i, as bare (ursus) ; we also
see faither written for farther, p. 50. The i stands for eye
and line for lain. We see stove for the old stuve. The former
serli takes our form smli; it here denotes haughtiness
towards inferiors, p. 4. The j replaces d, for dote head
becomes joultehedd (jolthead), p. 126. There is a wonder-
ful contraction in p. 90, your godhwyes (God be with ye),
answering to the French plural adieux ; the w was to be
struck out later. Among the new Substantives is rise
(ascent), p. 69 ; also dnm show, lullaby. Besides godbtvyes we
hear of a pottle of howdy es (how do ye do), p. 90. It is
proposed to have aflynge at Petrarch (attempt to study him),
p. 134; hence our "have a shy at," when proposing to
read an author. The word man takes its University sense,
a Fembrok Hall man, p. 54. Harvey writes Milord as one
word, much as the French do. Something is done by
snatches, p. 178 ; a new phrase. We see it will be meat arid
drink to him, seavenaclocke dinners, for love or for money, we
agree like kattes and dogges. There is the new Adjective
waspish. We see a step in the great change which was
to replace the old sick by Ul — a change against which the
Americans still fight ; / have been il cU ease, and am yet U,
p. 168. Something comes next to hands, p. 153; here the
next is a new insertion in an old phrase.
Among the Verbs we remark the very old Perfect
form sae (vidit), p. 115 ; this form had not been far from
triumphing over our saw. There are the phrases bungle up
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 591
a hook, a meeting breaks up, it goith a hegginge (is in no
request), p. 67. The new verb blurt is formed from
blare (mugire), to blurt out jests, p. 9. Men put up things,
p. 48 ; we now insert udth before the last word ; in
1630 we were to pocket affronts. A book is run over,
p. 51 ; hence the later run my eye over it. Men know
where the shoe pincheth, p. 85 ; this verb is substituted for
Chaucer's wringetK A hat blows off, p. 144 ; a curious
instance of the transitive becoming intransitive. We stumble
on .persons (meet them), p. 158. There is the new
phrase so much the rather, p. 170. We see the noun hussa
(clamor), p. 115, which is German; this did not become
common for three generations. We find daggUtayld, p. 125 ;
the first two syllables are Scandinavian, from dagg (dew) ;
we now insert an r into the word from a mistaken analogy.
Among the Eomance words are sociable, vagary, comical,
acumen, and the adjective schollarlye. A man commences
master at the University, p. 2 ; a new phrase, like
turn Protestant. The word cruel is prefixed to another
adjective, a cruel cold night, p. 12. We see goodnatvM,
p. 59 ; this was an adjective on which Englishmen
prided themselves much about 1660. The participle
charming changes its sense and becomes an adjective, a
charminge creature, p. 93 ; this is used by a woman writing
to a man. The Participle conceitid is used in our sense,
and the usual prefix self is dropped, p. 98. The word
crockchet (crotchet) takes the new sense of odd fancy, p.
100. A skape is committed in p. 122; it would now
be called an escapade ; in the same page the word school
is made a transitive verb. There are the phrases for
very shams, leave in the lurch ; the last word refers to an
old French game. Something is written in great Bomane
letters, p. 99. We hear of a plaudite, p. 129; a curious
instance of a Latin imperative being made an English
noun ; our plaudit. The Spanish appears in bravadoe terms,
p. 92. We see periudg, p. 103; this came from peruyk,
the Dutch form of the French perruque,
John Hooker, the uncle of the great theologian, was a
renowned Devonshire antiquary, who has left much behind
592 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
him, both printed and in manuscript His ^Life of Sir
Peter Carew ' has been published by Mr. Maclean ; it was
written after 1575. The d is clipped; a ship does not
Ifidd^ but lieds^ p. 33. The word lot is used in our slangy-
way, a lot of wasps, p. 49 ; there is Ug-honed, We have
seen the Irish who but he ; Hooker, who at one time lived
in Ireland, uses U was who could first landf p. 35. We
see stand his fmnd, blow a gale, drums strike up, p. 108
(this has been extended to other instruments). Among
the Romance words are marines (these make up one-seventh
of the ship's crew, p. 33), calyvers (soldiers, bearing that
weapon). The word bravery is applied to men showing off,
not their dress, but their courage (bravado) ; see pp. 24 and
31. The chief magistrate of a town is called its sovereign,
p. 105. We see consider him liberally (a new phrase for
appraising and rewarding services), sovmd the dead sov/nd (our
march), scour the sea, from the old discourriour. There is
the proverb, the mme cooks the worse potage, p. 33.
In Arber's * English Gamer * there are many pieces dating
from between 1576 and 1585; among them is the first
English Treatise on Dogs. The is is much contracted, as
my hodi/s beautiful, iii. 227. The ow replaces oil, a very old
usage, as beadrow, p. 246. Among the new Substantives
stand setter, turnspit, man-eaier. It is remarked that hwnde
in German, dog in English, is the universal word ; but in
the latter country hound is a particular and special word ;
all this distinction cannot date from much earlier than
1450. A well-known name appears as Joh/nes. We see
vxiggon used for a lady's coach, iii 248. The word gore
(clotted blood) is revived after a long sleep. There is the
new Adjective burd&rums ; the old uplandish still expresses
rurcd ; we see the old former feet (fore feet). A Pronoun
is employed in a new way, some of ours (our company), i.
135 ; this is still used of a regiment. Among the Verbs
are ride the circuit, get hose, stand upon his gvurd, intrap,
settle myself to mmry, v. 293, make an escape. There is a
strange compound of the Strong and Weak Participle,
ladened, iL 151. The old Participle holden becomes held, v.
304, as we saw in Gascoign. Women keep pet dogs, to
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 593
shirk idleness, iii. 247; Mr. Skeat wishes to derive this word
from sharks an animal that prowls and slinks from view.
The old omr all (ubique) is now transposed ; certain dogs
are rough all over, iii. 261 ; in ii. 69 stands all the whole
and great world over ; it is not often that we set the Pre-
position last.
There are the Celtic nouns penguin, bump. The word
sconse (fortress) comes through the Dutch ; train oU comes
from the Dutch traan (lacryma), which is applied to drops of
boiling blubber. Among the Romance words are naviga-
tion, specialities^ sea soldiers (marines), omni-gatharums (men
collected anyhow, ii. 63), master key, a proviso, trail the pike,
(serve in war), day-labourer, trifle away time, a foU (used in
fencing), hoitse of correction, inhuman (cruel). The word
scope had meant aim, someliiing like its Italian sense,
about 1630; it now means power; "give free scope to
man to utter," i. 472. The line stands for the Equator,
p. 133. The English writer of a political treatise in
1576 forestalls the course of events by talking about this
British monarchy, ii. 69. The word puppy is used for a
lady's toy dog, a Maltese; the word is a connecting link
between toy and dog, iii. 247. The verb trace is used for
tattoo, V. 261. The word General is used where we should
employ Admiral, p. 262. We hear of double double beer, ii.
144 ; Doctor " Double Ale " had come earlier, and " Double
X" was to come later; it is not often that we repeat
an adjective for the sake of emphasis, as, "a bad, bad
man." In ii. 151 to vent fish is used in the sense of
evaouare ; it comes from the French fendre (cleave) ; but it
is here confused with vendre (sell). Shakespere uses the
word in the former sense (* Tempest,' ii. 2). We hear of
the neatness of a man's Latin, iii. 229 ; this old word for
elegantia still survives in our phrase "a neat speech."
Among the strange words that were now pouring into
England are Kaffirs of Ethiopia, musketa (mosquito), cochineal;
Eden's coaus, furican, here become cocoas, hurica/rw. The
Ragusye (from the Adriatic town), seen in ii. 67, was soon
to become the Argosy, Manchester cottons are specially
mentioned as one of our exports, ii. 166. The Scotch
VOL. I. 2 Q
594 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
still used the old Teutonic r<ui\A for a hunting dog, while
the English employed the French word hnMht for a bitch
of this breed, iii. 237.
In Ellis' Letters of this time we see a very old
Southern form so late as 1577 ; there was nothing ado
(ido), our cfo7i«, Series iL, voL iii p. 56. A feast in a new
hall is called a hrwu warming. In p. 72 London is worse
by such a sum ; we should insert off after the adjective.
In p. 87 a man comes dropping into a chamber. Among
the Eomance words are deifi/y the Post letters. In p. 55
stands fie is on the mending hande (on the mend). There
is the curious phrase, to saphecundit me; b, compound verb
formed like vouchsafe.
Harrison, a Londoner who held a living in Essex, fiu*-
nished a * Description of England ' to Holinshed's Chronicle,
printed in 1577 (New Shakespere Society). Here the a
supplants e, as crafish (crawfish); the e supplants ou, as
hitter (bittern) for biUmr ; the e is struck out, as eft for
eveie. The b supplants p, as lobstar for lopster. There is
the transposition jicA;/e iorficoly i. 168 ; the k is softened, as
in notch for nockcy i, 227 ; the g is used as well as y; the
substantive cledgie appears by the side of daie, the old ckeg,
iii. 139. We see Brougham in the North written Browham,
The d replaces th^ as fa/rding. The n is struck out in the
proper name Ferith, the tpwn. There are such old forms
as brickie (brittle), Southerie (Surrey), raise (impetus), former
part (fore part), uplandish (rural).
Among the Substantives are svnsh swash (mixture), flocke-
bedy fineness, halfe crowns, upshot, ii. 28 ; cockhorse (a toy),
ha/rdware, blacke lead, tillage. In i. 257 we read of the
cutters of plans of towns ; hence comes woodcut. The word
body stands for nave ; the bodie of the church, p. 32. In p.
304 rabbet is opposed to cony, as young to old. In ii. 26
we have six different names for a red deer at six different
stages ; here the stagon or stag comes before the great stag.
The common people still talked of an erne or a gripe, not of
an eagle, p. 30. We hear of so many head of cattle, i. 344.
A treatise takes up room, p. ix. We hear of the yeeld of
fields, iii. 133, a new sense of the old gild. The word
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 595
hog has at length come down from the North. Harrison
lays stress on greatnesse of hone; Shakespere has some-
thing like this. In i. 162 men take nuntions after dinner;
this word, coming from noon (noon-shenche), was after-
wards confused with luncheon. The old Somerset now be-
comes Summersetshire, In p. 206 a Welshman is called
a David (Taffy). The word hnmt (impetus) now seems to
mean stress; the chief hrunts of sermcey iii. 150. In p. 352
Bath is said to stand in a hottome (vallis) ; this sense still
survives in the names of places, as Bullock's Bottom. There
is the noun of measurement, hv/ndred weight, ii. 4, which is
always used in the singular. The word home seems to
stand for patria, p. 1 3 ; the Orchades are opposed to some
place nearer home. The word woodman staiids for venator,
p. 26. Certain goods are adulterated by crafty Jacket, p.
56 ; hence Jack of all trades. Chaucer's helovs now becomes
hellowses ; we also hear of Dianaes, a new Plural.
Among the Adjectives are hurtftU, seafaring. Our "toy
dogs " are seen as toiesh curs, p. 49. We read of headie ale,
i. 295, a new sense of the adjective.
Among the Verbs are rise up to honour (here we drop
the up), prick a sheriff, shoe leather holds out water, poison
works, home made articles, home-horn, eat up the country,
eat down grass, roads cross each other. The verb run is
applied in a new sense j a range of hills runs in a certain
direction. The verb engra^ve is used of portraits, p. 356.
The verb have now implies affirmation; a learned man
would have a certain Eoman road to cross a river, iii. 145.
The word purpose is now first followed by an Infinitive ;
furniture is brought of purpose to he hidden, i. 253. Certain
records are not to he had, p. 311 ; here I siip^ose possihle is
understood ; easy to he had occurs elsewhere. Cheese eateth
mellow, ii. 8 ; here the steps must be, is in eating, is eating,
eateth.
There is a new idiom of Pronouns ; anie matter whatso-
ever, i. 101 ; here it he is dropped at the end. In iii. 139
ov^hts (a new Plural) stand for any things; in our day
oughts are confined to arithmetic. The old Adverb over all
(ubique) stands in i. 143; at this moment it was giving
596 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
way to the transposition oU over. In ii. 10 stands he wrote
over (the sea) fcr it. There is the very old Adverbial by
drapmeales, p. 68. The old at the least way yields to ai least-
wise, L 303 ; whence the future leastways. The at is dropped
in he will be home again, p, 293. There is a new use of to
in the phrase to this effed (bearing this meaning), iii. 141.
We had long used about London, expressing neighbourhood ;
Harrison has ahoui tis (our neighbourhood), il 56.
We see pettis fogger of the law, i, 206 ; this strange word
is the Dutch focker, a monopolist. There is the Scandi-
navian verb palter, p. 209, to change or shuffle.
Among the Romance words are verstft/, seisure, stover,
extant, limpd, the shingles, jlask (for powder), pard, a fooles
cap, soda, bulb, screw, mailed, able (skilful), an egtimat. We
find riwre^, iii. 160, our later rimlet ; there is ayrini (cur-
rant), i 131. Harrison writes sufficKtiilie lUterall, i. 151,
where the first word means valdi ; this iong word is still
in use. Our old phrase the gentles makoa way for the genf/rie,
p. 354. We see mansion house, p. 337, which is here
applied to dwellings in a street There is the word bodger
(a dealer), p. 302, which had been written badger for the
last eighty years; butter badgers are still in being; the
word comes from bladier, an engrosser of com. There is
much about the constitution of our bodies, iii. 151 ; the long
word is made Plural in p. 165, In i. 9 platform stands
for an engraved sketch in a topographical work. A topic
is passed over to others, p. 355. We light upon Belgie (the
later Belgium), and Danske (Denmark), iL 31.
Harrison talks of his synchroni or time fellows (contena-
poraries), iii 131. He gives the derivation oi saffron from
the Arabic mahafarari, it 52 ; the growers of this in England
were called orokers, from croais.
He tells us much about the English Church in his day ;
he describes the Prophesies just introduced, which appear
to have been clerical meetings, with laymen as listeners,
i. 1 7. There seems to have been no intoning in Cathedrals,
p. 30 ; the stained glass was allowed to remain in most
churches, as the replacing it with white glass would be
costly, p. 31. A little tabernacle of wainscot (the reading
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 597
desk) was provided for the minister in the body of the
church. Harrison declares that the English Bishops were
the most learned in Europe, p. 64 ; this was allowed by
many of the Papal party, p. 111. All the clergy appointed
since 1663 knew Latin, an improvement on the old state
of things. Peter Martyr had expressed his astonishment
at the vast endowments of the English Universities, p. 71 ;
Oxford excelled in fine colleges ; Cambridge in uniformity
of building and good government, p. 73; the tutorial
system is referred to, p. 78.- Harrison disliked medical
men going to study in immoral Italy, p. 81 ; he calls Dr.
Turner the father of English physic, p. 352. A Lieutenant
was set in time of necessity over every shire, p. 99.. Our
author bemoans the high prices, ever rising, in spite of
England^s increased traffic, p. 131 ; wheat bread was a
luxury for the rich only. There was just as much work
scamped in his day as in ours, p. 136. Men took two
meals only, dinner and supper, p. 162 ; each class had its
own hour for eating. The Halifax guillotine is described
in p. 227. Three things had changed within living
memory ; chimneys, bedding, and plate had been multiplied
to a great extent, p. 239. Henry VIII. had been his own
architect, and had wonderfully improved the English style
of building, p. 267. Every one of our villages could turn
out at least three or four soldiers, p. 280 ; the nobles kept
great armouries. Foreigners allowed that English ships
were the best in the world for strength and speed, p. 288.
One of the Queen's ships was named the Bread nought^ a
name still in use, p. 289. Parks and warrens aboimded,
p. 303 ; the fallow deer were kept in by oak palings ; these
enclosures were hurtful to tillage and checked population.
It was an almost unheard-of thing to sell game, p. 305.
Harrison longed to see Sunday markets put down, p. 344.
The common folk spoke of the Boman coins dug up, by the
names of dwarfs money, fairy groats, Jews' money, and other
foolish titles, p. 360. All mints, except the Tower, were
suppressed in Harrison's day. There was much roguery
in. horse-dealing, ii 4. English brawn was held a rare
treat in foreign parts; an odd story is told in p. 10 of
598 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap. ^
certain Jews in Spain being seduced to eat it, taking it to
be fisL The plenty of English households is contrasted
with the meagre fare of foreigners, p. 14. The fox and
badger were preserved by the gentry for sporty p. 24 ;
beavers lingered in the Teifie river alone, p. 25. Harrison
gives us certain useful rimes —
"Thirtie dales hath November,
Aprill, Jane, and September,
Twentie and eight hath Febuarie alone.
And all the rest thirtie and one.
But in the leape you must ad one" (p. 97).
Some rimes, little diflfering from these, have come down to
our day. The soil had been of late years wonderfully
improved by the farmers ; Wales in particular had made
rapid strides, and her common folk no longer lived by
thieving, iii. 131. Cardigan was the best pasture ground
in the realm, p. 132.
Stanyhurst was a native of Dublin, who wrote the
* Description of Ireland,' published in Holinshed's * Chron-
icle,* in 1577; to the same pen is due the 'History of
Ireland in the time of Henry VIIL' Our chronicler re-
marks, p. 2, that the English used dyle (the Scotch d^iC)
for dM, He inserts w^ forming twatler from tattler ; hence
our twaddler. He adds / to the old gdbbe and shove, form-
ing gabble and shuffle. He has quakemire instead of Pals-
grave's guavemire. As to Substantives, he has a self -liking,
ma/n of straw, shuffle board, throw (at dice), pot revels (hence
pothouse), bondslave, carpet knight, markeman (soldier). In p.
114 stands he was hail fellow well met. The word hotspur
is used as a substantive in p. 178. The word hagler here
means a wanderer ; our present sense of the word comes
from Palsgrave's verb huck ; higler was to come later. The
old gudlov/r still stands for kUler, and buxomness for courtesy.
The word crue, losing its honourable meaning, expresses no
more than turba, and is used of robbers, p. 13. The
author foreshadows our in the nick of time, using the nick
of his purpose; Lambarde had used nick of battle. So
many shot (marksmen) are levied in p. 1 1 1 ; we still talk of
a good shot. In p. 13 we read of a set race of horses ; one
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 599
of the first instances, I think, of a horse race under that
name.^ We find tagge and rag, cutte and long tayle, p. 1 3 ;
for the two last we now substitute hobtaU, There are the
phrases his room is better than his company, birds of one
feather. Among the Adjectives are broad pronunciation,
barebrich brats, be as good as his word, A man is said to be
in talk short and sweet, p. 19.
Among the Verbs are fether his nest, I am led to believe,
sharpe set (hard driven), make a sour face at, give his word
(promise), to dish, a far reaching man. There is the Shake-
sperian he mil bear no coles in qmrd, p. 1 1 3. The verb g^on^el
is coined from Joy's supposed Participle groveling, which was,
in truth, the adverb gruflinge, grovelinge (supinus), p. 29. The
verbs slink and sneak, the old snican, reappear in books
after a slumber of centuries. In p. 108 stands book up
complaints; this verb had not appeared since 1220. There
is the curse, be hanged, p. 154. The author, like Shakespere,
is fond of prefixing be to verbs.
There is the Dutch verb snip, the Celtic shamrock and
bard; this last had been already mentioned by Scotch
authors.
Among the Komance words are defalk (secare) to iterate,
mounterbanck, ironical, to eternize, suitably, to rate (fix), mis-
date, favltfynder, shock (in battle), parlee (in war), a mandor
turn, the cream of experience. Cicero's father is called tJie
olde gentleman, p. 4 ; a phrase long afterwards seriously
applied by Ockley to the renowned Caliph Omar. We are
told that the men of Fingall, great husbandmen, are nick-
named collonnes, from the Latin colonus, to which the
clipped word clown answers, as Stanyhurst thinks, p. 3.
A man is called a clownish curmudgeon, p. 103. We hear of
a knave in grain, p. 1 3. The kernes are called the Devil's
black garde, p. 28. A baneret differs from a baronet, p. 24 ;
the latter was known in Ireland. The noun suit, coined
from svs, now itself becomes a verb ; suit her with it, refer-
ring to clothes. A man, famous for cavilling sophistry, is
^ Queen Elizabeth had gone to see the races at Croydon in 1574 ;
see Hore's * History of Newmarket,' i. 84. In 1585 we read of a
standiTige there, soon to become a stand.
6oo THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
called a Bum, There is the phrase U> hachaey a horse, p.
10 ; also cry them acquitatmce (quits), p. 14.
We are told that the old Chaucer English was pre-
served at Wexford and in Fingall ; they here still talked of
attercop (aranea) and leache (medicus). Some Irish words
are remarked upon as like Latin, as scUle (salt); the ex-
planation of this was to lie hidden for the two next Cen-
turies. The English good morrow was one of the foreign
phrases borrowed by the Irish ; Stanyhurst says that it
means " God give you a good morning ! " p. 3. The Irish
had no word for knave, p. 4. They placed / before he, as
/ and he ; the courtesy of English, it is remarked, is clean
contrary, p. 28, (ego et rex mens),
Stanyhurst brought out his translation of VirgiFs first
four ^neids in 1582, employing English hexameters
(Arber*s Eeprint). This Dublin poet has been called, not
a well of English undefiled, but the common sewer of the
language ; he burlesques Virgil most amusingly but unin-
tentionally. A few other poems of his are here added.
Our author, who is peculiar in his spelling, clips his
Vowels, as ttoard (toward), thart (thou art), toasd (was it).
He sometimes inserts them, as monsterus, p. 50 ; he is
fond of ie for i, as liefe ; he replaces o by ow, sls lowbye, p.
92 ; also ow by oa, changing the sound, as floane (flown).
He is fond of repeating words with a change of vowel; we
have pit pat, yolp yalp, swish swash. The he is clipped in
twixt (inter), p. 92. The ph replaces the true English / in
pheere (socius), p. 20. The p replaces c, as sept (gens) for
sect ; this word for dan was to be much used in Ireland.
The c is inserted in fruictles, imitating the Latin ; the g
appears in gniMe, perhaps to connect it with gnxiw, p. 3.
ITie t is clipped in craven for the old cravant, p. 95 ; the d
is inserted in viadge and adge ; it is replaced by I in quillity
for quiddity. The laddebord of 1360 becomes larboard. The
I is added to form the verb fondle. The old crash seems to
give birth to clash, p. 51 ; it is here used of armour. The
z replaces 5 in the verb raze in the same page. There are
variations of the position of letters, as pusiaunt (puissant),
spirted (spruted), argosye (Ragusa). In p. 33 thee godes
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 6oi
(the goddess) forms a dactyl ; a curious way of sounding
the definite Article; in p. 78 godesesse (Divse) is made
an anapaest.
Among the new Substantives are haulfmoone, mopsy
(darling), hilltop, sea rowme, dogstar, slag, hvdwinck (decep-
tion), eyebal. We see recknings, in the Plural, from Eden's
maritime verb reckon, p. 30. Dido is called an unhappy
being, p. 42 ; Gower had used this Verbal noun. The
word tools represents arma, p. 63. The word spirt, p. 85,
stands for breve spatium, which is something new ; it had
hitherto meant leap or start. We see freak, p. 114 ; there
was an Old English /ncia/fc (saltare). In p. 136 stands ^ye
boat ; this word, used of the swift vessels of pirates, gave
birth to the Spanish filibuster. The word play takes its
secondary sense oi garribling, p. 153 ; in the same page we
hear of losing the mayne (main stake). In p. 3 we read of
such cheate poetes ; we have seen chete stand for res in
Awdeley ; the phrase must mean ^ poets of such a sort"
Stanyhurst is fond of compound nouns, such as stormr-
bringer, a hope-lost (desperate ruffian), makebate, byrth soyl,
graveporer (old man ready to be buried); Scylla is called a
toreck-make. Our author had elsewhere connected race
with horses; he now has racebrood, p. 93. The starved
Achsemenides appears as a shrimp, a leane rake, a skrag, p.
89 ; Ascanius is a slip, a word hitherto applied to plants,
p. 97. Eustics are called hoblobs, p. 99. A swaggering
warrior is a cutter, p. 143; hence one of Cowley's plays
was to take its name. In p. 154 we read of every Tom
Tyler (common fellow), like our Smith or Jones. Young
pigs are hoglings in p. 83, hogrels in p. 96. Among the
Adjectives are thick-leaved, swallo-like, mutterus, thunderus,
matchless, brasse-bold, thickskyn, flashy. Our author is fond
of compounding adjectives in us (ous). The word haggard,
said to be derived from hag, and to be confused with the
French hagard (wild), is appHed to a storm in p. 29, and
must here mean rigidus, as it does in Lyly. The old godlic
had appeared as godly for the last Century ; but godlyke is
once more coined in p. 37 to express the hero's beauty.
The word cutting is used as an Adjective (mordax) and ap-
6o2 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
plied to destiny, p. 111. The word ^arin^ (audax) appears
for the first time, I think, p. 143. The serpents embrace
Laocoon with vAg vmg circuled hooping, p. 50 ; hence the
later wiggle vxiggle, Anchises addresses his mates as my
deere fdoes^ p. 88. We have a foretaste of Milton in p.
142; booxom deboynar usage is applied to a lovely paragon.
In p. 48 u^eas, mentioning Sinon, calls him my yooncker,
" the youth of whom I talk ; " this is something like
Ascham's new use of your.
Among the Verbs are nid: (cut short, p. 22), seortost, top
(overtop) a man, to shower, draw a covert, thunder out oatJ^,
to wanton, to hammer (out) words, keep rank. We see firid a
horse nest, p. 14 ; here we now change the animal's gender.
The en and he are often prefixed to verbs, as enshore and
bedaub ; this Shakespere was to imitate. The winds under
the charge of ^olus rov)ze forward or back, p. 19 ; this is
the Old English hreosan (mere) ; hence may come the word
rooge (scuffle), still in use at Eton. The word doom is used
as a verb, p. 14 ; the old form was dem-an. The verb hem
means ardare ; frost hems a river, p. 135 ; hence the later
hem in. The word^tr^ keeps its transitive sense in p. 84 ;
but in p. 31 bees/ir< (flutter about). In p. 40 we hear of
a speaMng forgery ; this word for lifelike we still apply to a
picture. A man bellows, p. 44 ; hitherto the word had
been used of animals only ; the Cyclops brays and bells, p.
92. The Trojans croud to their leader, p. 70 ; here the
verb becomes intransitive ; the verb choke does the same, p.
97. Dido is sweltred in anger, p. 115 ; and the Trojans are
besweltred with the seas, p. 34 ; here the word becomes
transitive. The verb huff (bluster) appears in p. 132,
coming from the Interjection huffal Juno is to Cfot of
(stop) al quarrels, p. 27; hence our cut off a retreat. The
verb sail imitates come; they are sayled, p. 49. The verb
anear (approach) is coined ; hence our corns anigh me. An
Imperative is dropped in p. 66 ; now, no lingring I The curi-
ous Participle holpt stands in p. 52, a mixture of holpen and
helpt; there is also yrented (laceratus), p. 89. The verb
betake (committere) is utterly mistaken ; it stands for
capere in p. 52. Rocks are drumming with floods, p. 87;
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 603
this seems to be a Participle, but it must stand for m
drmaming.
There is the new Adverb Timyndye, p. 56 ; smaddye is
coined in p. 40 to express Dido's kisses, smacklye bdxisse
thee.
The for is used in a betting sentence ; my life for an
Jmnlfpenye (it is so), p. 44.
Among the Interjections are hullelo / said to be squeaked
by the Nymphs, p. 100; also ogh, p. 116 ; taratantara ex-
presses the trumpet's sound, p. 53. In p. 99 stands loa,
behold ye / an ancestor of our lo and behold /
The Scandinavian words are rustle, tipsy; their baldare
(strepitus) appears in p. 108, which may have had its
influence on balderdash.
The words akin to Dutch and German are fluke (of an
anchor), pipkin, to ravel, to skew ; dorp stands for a cottage
in p. 31.
The Celtic words are spunk for fires, to hauk (in the
throat), to cotton (agree), p. 19. There is the ill-omened
cossherye, p. 40. In p. 89 we see pouke bug / the latter
syllable is an English corruption of the former, the Welsh
and Irish puca.
Among the Eomance words are peak meale (pell mell), to
ferret, to tower, to troup, plaguy, authoress (the old auctorice),
peremptory, a directory, taskwork, pallet, ful sized, omen, a catche
(advantage, p. 97), contrye seat, disordered, gaily slave,vUlainmLS.
There are the more learned words epitheton, emphatical, pro-
sodia. We see the Italian complemento, p. 10 ; it was soon to
lose the last letter; there is the Spsunshbourradio. Pedigree is
written petU degree, p. 14 ; one of the many wild guesses at
the source of this word ; men drink a bon viage to their
friends, p. 81 ; sanglier appears. A lady is called a brave
Broumnetta (brunette), p. 141. The word pandar is used in
its evil sense, p. 139. Anchises addresses his juniors as
you lusty e juventus, p. 64 ; there was an old play so named.
The word brace had hitherto been used of animals ; in p. 23
we read of a brace of rocks. The Latin cttrrus appears as
coach and wagon, p. 33 ; bellatrix is Englished by baratresse,
p. 34. Calchas is gayned (won over), and an answer is
1
604 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
coyned, p. 46. An error may be grossBy p. 82. Virgil's
Fama is called a hagage, p. 101, the French hagasse. The
seas ring with cheering clamorous hoysswyUy p. 109 ; here the
Participle is on its way to a new sense. Tears gutter in p.
Ill ; this we now apply to a candle only. In p. 129 we
hear of men of state ; tiiese were soon to become statesmen.
A rock is deep dented^ p. 28 ; here an old Teutonic word
is confused with the Latin dens. The two forms r^eal
(repel) and repulse may be seen in p. 58.
Stanyhurst uses such old words as sib (cognatus), hagd
(tumens), frith in frithcops, p. 32, guernstoan, gadling, take
(committere, p. 29), agryse, tkrep^flochneal, namely (praecipue).
There are old forms like habil (able), take the travayle (trouble,
p. 118), ircorapasedy ne (nee). VirgiFs words are Englished
by such terms as karne (miles), coystrd^ Bocardo (prison),
Tyburn^ Skarboro warning, Bedlam, limbo ; larbas calls Dido
a coy tib ; Eneas' son is a cockney dandiprat hopthvmb / the
hero is a tarbreeche quystroime ; Priam is ducked in his son*s
blood.
Stanyhurst says that it is wrong to write sound for
sown, p. 1 1 ; he pronounced orator, auditor, magistrate, graund-
mother, as we do ; according to him, our present pronuncia-
tion of imperative, cosmographie, and orthography is wrong.
He remarks on the curious fact that the long word perem-
torie is accented on the first syllable, p. 13. He has a pun
in p. 103—
"Not to the sky maynely, but neere sea meanelye she flickretli.'*
He attempts the Pentameter, with very poor success, in p.
127. He was the first, I think, to write English Sapphics,
p. 131.
Stephen Gosson in 1579 brought out his * School of
Abuse' (Arber's Reprint), directed against the Theatres,
which had sprung up in London about five years earKer.
He writes lets for let us, and adds / to Palsgrave's verb sruir ;
the old srw/rl (illaqueare) had long been extinct. He has the
Substantives head maister, boorder (lodger), hangebye (hanger
on, p. 40), quackesalver (one who cackles about his salves) ;
Wycherley was to use only the first syllable of the word.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, ^ 605
The flats and sharps in music appear in p. 28 ; also streines
(cantus) in p. 68. The author talks of a rough cast, where
the adjective takes a new meaning, not exact, p. 24; we
read of a/ree horse, p. 68 ; oxirfree goer. There is slovenly
(obscaenus), p. 40. A fashion was now coming in of pre-
fixing an adjective to self; your sweete selves, p. 58. Among
the Verbs are bring to (on) the stage, gwns go off, chavlk out
the way, run a uxwlgathering, ke&p his fingers in ure (practice) ;
we now drop the we. In p. 64 stands ward a blow; here
the verb no longer means custodire, as it did a dozen years
earlier. The author lets out invective, p. 5 ; here we now
suppress the noun. Liberty gives us head, p. 24 ; we now
give a horse his head ; the head here may mean impetus, as
in Tarleton. A ship of old was manned/ now ladies are
manned (escorted) home, p; 35 ; I have lately seen the
phrase to beau you about Men sit rente free, p. 36 ; sit had
meant habitare in Old English, and land-sittend had been a
term for a tenant.
Among the Eomance words are theatre, to discifer, shorte
commons, cochman, bowling allye, arrrmir of proof e, poynts of
warre sounded. We know our kennel of a street, which
here appears as chanell (canalis). Certain women are called
hackneies, p. ^Q ] a foretaste of our garrison hacks. In the
same page stuffe seems to slide into the meaning of nonsense ;
what stuffe is this ? Foxe had talked of blan;ch stuff.
Some of Gosson's lines, pp. 76-78, are written in a
smooth flowing metre that Pope would have approved.
Our author has the well-known saws —
" Great cry and little wool (anent hog-shearing) (p. 28).
Every John and his Joan (p. 35).
It is not good jesting with edge toles " (p. 57).
John Lyly brought out his 'Euphues' in 1579 and
1580; it was at first the delight of all England; it then
became a laughing-stock ; and in our own day it has regained
somewhat of its old popularity ; I have used Arber's Re-
print. The good Teutonic diction is in startling contrast
to Scott's caricature of the work.
We see the mistake of Syren for Siren in p. 39 ; even
6o6 THE NEW ENGLISH, Ichap.
Thackeray, a classical scholar who should have known
better, repeats this in his writings. What Lambarde calls
the weM now appears as the vyylde of Kent, p. 268. The
old verb gUm changes its sound and becomes gloe^ p. 286.
The V, replaces % in rumple^ p. 443. The old gcU-toothed
becomes gagge toothed, p. 116. The n is clipped, for limn
(pingere) appears as /imm, p. 449.
Among the new Substantives are Jmenes (formed from
fine)y chUnessey foreleg, pot-herh, stoppe (pause) ; we see cocke
of the game, p. 106, whence, perhaps, comes the cock of a
school, a short cut (passage), p. 198, shrouding sheete,
whence must have come Foxe's restricted use of shrowd,
the white (mark at shooting), a sweete tooth in his head, p.
308, 7U)t the bredth of a haire, fludes of teares, be in thy
(good) bookes. The old drench (potus) is now restricted to
the cure of a horse's ailments, p. 203. The old sea term
a kerming is cut down to a ken in p. 250 ; on the other
hand, within fov/re houres sayling (sail) of stands in the same
page. A lady may utter scriches, p. 303. The word byte
is used in the angler's sense, p. 392. We see other newes
is none, p. 470, where the Singular verb follows the Plural
noun. There is wittall (wittol), p. 132, which is said to
come from the bird wood wale, like cuckold from cuckoo;
see Skeat. We hear of the withers of a horse, p. 249,
the part which the beast sets against (with) his load ; there
is the German widerrist, meaning the same. We read
much of unt in this book ; wit delights, wisdom instructs,
p. 407; the Italians prefer a sharp wit to sound wisdom,
p. 389 ; wit and wantonness seem to run in couples, pp.
280 and 286.
There are the new Adjectives chUl, p. 420, watchfvll,
(averse to sleep), p. 142. We see thy sweete sake, as busie as
a bee, too mylde a worde, hasUl eyes, go slipshad. Adjectives
are applied in new senses, as a slippery pranke, a broad jest,
adle braines, a forward season. The word giddy, p. 448,
takes the new sense of dizzy. The word foul now begins
to be applied to play, foule gamesters, p. 289. Lyly is fond
of using pretty.
The my, as before, is coupled with the Vocative; my
I
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 607
good Camilla, p. 366. A letter is subscribed thine ever in
the same page; also thine to commaunde, p. 383. There is
hwl more of this, with no verb, p. 390 ; the construction is
changed in wjore I cannot promise, p. 302. Lyly employs
the phrase nearest way, but he has also the old next way,
p. 288.
Among the Verbs are match (marry) low, a m>ade mar-
riage, play false, pin a man to her sleeve (tie to her apron
strings), give a sigh, more afraide than hurte, a hooked nose, he
was left poore (by his father), rub my memorie, piU me out of
conceipt, make afvllpoynt (stop), to fit dose, know the length
of his foot, take measure of it, take him vp short, wish him
farther off, no worse than I wish him, think well of, there is no
harm done, uuring him on the withers, get the starte, put in Mr
spoke into the wheele, lay salt on a hird^s taUe. In p. 35 we
remark the close connexion between suck and soak, soake
his pursse, A new form for expressing oportet is often re-
peated here; I am to thanke you, p. 40; in p. 393 thou
wast to have stands for " thou must have had." The Past
stands for the present ; might I be so bold as to, etc., p. 252.
The two forms of the Future are contrasted in p. 283 ;
mt mil not (live without a husband), vertue shall not.
The two forms melten and melted. Participles, stand in one
line, p. 183. In p. 287 s^ was going stands for cc^t
vadere. In this Century the old prefix for was being sup-
planted by over ; ovenoorn stands in p. 44. A man may
lose himself in a labyrinth, p. 462 ; a new phrase. In
p. 58 a broken bone is set together; we now drop the
last word. The verb hoard had been asleep since the
days of the *Ayenbite;' Lyly, who was a Kentish man,
revives the word in a bad sense, he that hoordeth, p. 192;
in p. 435 he opposes " treasurers for others " to " horders
for themselves." A lady commeth in Mr sUkes, p. 193 ; we
should insert out after the verb. In p. 246 men picke thy
minde out of thy hands ; that is, guess thy fancies from
thy gestures ; hence comes our pick his brains. Manning's
he nyghetede becomes he was benighted, p. 251. We hear
of the shadowings (colours) invented by painters, p. 352;
hence came shades of colour ; the verb shaddow stands for
6o8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
'ginger e^ p. 255, our shadow forth. Men s^e wit, p. 269;
hence to see a joke. A lady says that to make love is a phrase
that belonged to her lover's shop board, since he meant to
make an art or occupation of love, p. 290. The verb dare
adds the meaning of provoco to that of audeo, and now first
appears in the Passive voice ; he cannot suffer to be dared by
any, p. 316. The physician's phrase strike a vein appears
in p. 329 ; here it refers to the body, later it was used
of minerals ; hence, strike He, A man hoords a lady when
talking, p. 332 ; a future Shakesperian phrase. There is
our indefinitive phrase fruit, grape, and I know not what, p.
366. In p. 430 stands have an eye to the mayne; here
Nash was soon to add chance. There is a new shade of
meaning in understand, p. 419; in certain pictures there
was more tmderstoode than painted; something was per-
ceptible to the mind, not to the eye. People are out-
tripped in a race, p. 419; hence the future corrupt word
outstrip ten years later.
Among the Prepositions stands you are deceived in me.
We saw think to himself in the year 1440 ; we now have
smile to himself, blush to myself; the to supplants TldalPs
old by, in the next doore to a creple, p. 131. There is too
many by one, p. 271 ; elsewhere there is Hejnvood's one too
many, p. 50. In p. 246 stands presume of the courtesies ;
this of was later to become on, the usual interchange.
Countries had earlier marched to each other; Kent now
marches upon the sea (is bordered by it), p. 247.
We see the Scandinavian crabbe (apple), also the word
pat ; hit a thing pat, p. 296 ; this is the English pat (ferire)
confused with the Dutch |?as (aptus); the latter comes from
the French se passer ; see Skeat.
Among the Romance words are relish, laity, injurious,
table talke, toproyne (prune), mockerie, liniaments, paper floures,
incomparable, touchwood, consist in, byas, prorrwnterie, respect
him, have his recou/rse to, a cane (for striking), p. Zd>\, petro-
leum, caUsh (cabbage). What we call a bad debt is a
desperate debt in p. 273. The word pipe now means vox ;
strayn his olde pype, p. 278 ; strains of music had only just
appeared in !^glish. The word courtesy, when used of
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 609
ladies, was being debased to the meaning of wantonness,
pp. 286 and 299 ; women may be compliant in an evil sense.
We learn that England is the picture of comelyness, p. 312,
a new sense of the word. The word profession stands for
a learned man's occupation, p. 436. We hear of a good
constitution of hodye, p. 329 ; the two last words were soon
to be dropped. A great distinction is drawn in p. 353
between courting ladies and loving them. A man consters
a lesson to a lady, and she listens to his construction, p. 362.
The word piety means natural aflfection in p. 103 ; it is
sundered ivompity, its rival form, in p. 338. In p. 105
carde stands for a medical prescription. Instruments are
touched (sounded), p. 473. The word jest seems to imply
immodesty in p. 474, just as in the New Testament jest-
ing is said to be not convenient. We learn that braverie
in its earliest sense is something far below beauty, p. 35.
We call certain events "a bitter pill ;" the first use of pill
in this sense appears in p. 468. The word sot (stultus)
had long been dropped ; it crops up again in this sense in
p. 46, and takes the new meaning of ebrius in p. 38 j there
is also the new sottish (stolidus), p. 40. A silent man is
called a cipher, p. 46. A person is contracted (in marriage),
p. 470. We hear of a crew of gentlewomen, p. 51 ; the
word bears its most honourable sense at the moment it was
about to be debased. The word gallant expresses formosu-s
in p. 51. The word conceipt seems by the previous sen-
tence to mean self-respect in p. 51 ; a lady can dash a man
out of conceipt, p. 51. We read of a straight (strait)
accompte, p. 181 ; but also of strictnesse of life, p. 188. The
word coy seems to settle down into its sense of modest
dignity in p. 299. The word precise occurs often ; it is
applied to holiness and to manners ; this quality is inferior
to modesty, p. 407 ; if a girl is witty without being wanton,
she is thought precise, p. 280. The word reliqiies loses its
old religious meaning, and may stand for the scraps of a
feast, p. 234. Men now convey money by deed, p. 234.
A good complection, p. 405, refers to the body, and not as
before to the mind. An old sense of train appears in p.
392 ; birds are trayned (allured) ; perhaps this had some
VOL. I. 2 R
6io THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
influence on the later phrase draw in. In p. 371 misires is
applied to a girl, not to a matron. A lady is sick of the
salens (sullens), p. 285 ; something like "a fit of the blues."
The vocative Gentleman is often used at the beginning of a
sentence. A child calls its mother Mamma, p. 129. A
lady is of greai perfection in body, p. 185 ; hence the later
" she is perfection." We hear of a Madams of the court,
p. 220. Hampole's old vei'dite appears as verdect, p. 438.
There is the phrase I am provided (furnished), p. 136 ; it is
here used of an orator, ready with his matter ; but I have
heard this phrase in the North when a guest has enough on
his plate. We see quarellom, p. 145, where Shakespere was
soon to alter the ending. The source of fowling piece is in
p. 456 ; peeces to fowle. We see sympathia in p. 46, which
becomes simpathy in p. 48 ; there is the Plural axiomes, p.
100; type (pattern), diapason.
Lyly has some well-known saws, as faini hart neither
winneth castell nor lady, p. 364, the weakest must still to the
wall, p. 53, the spaniel, the more he is beaten, the fovder he is,
p. 109, youth mil have his course, p. 124, mariages are made
in heaven, p. 471, comparisons seeme odious, p. 68, the greatest
wonder lasteth but nine daies, p. 205. In p. 215 stands as
lyJce as one pease is to another. There is the Old English
alUteration, wooe Mr, win Mr, and weare Mr, p. 307. Lyly,
in his balanced sentences, is a forerunner of Dr. John-
son. He abounds in puns, as on the verb undo, p. 471,
on sunne and sonne, p. 281, on the verb straw, p. 399, on
m^te, p. 66. Ther^ was an old saw, p. 439, "all countries
stande in neede of Britaine, and Britaine of none." God, it
seems, looked upon England as a new Israel, His chosen
and peculiar people, p. 451 ; this passage I commend to
our eagle-eyed Anglo-Israelites. The great sin of England
was, not drink, but variableness of fashions, p. 437. Lyly
names Padua and Wittenberge as the chief Universities of
Italy and Germany, p. 140; he was at both Oxford and
Cambridge, preferring the former for its stately colleges,
the latter for its sumptuous houses (in the town), p. 436.
He says that English ladies do not resemble their Italian
sisters, who begin their morning at midnoon, and make
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 6ii
their evening at midnight, p. 442. There is in one page,
451, both the old title, the Ladie Mariey and the new title,
the Privhces Marie, The Lord Mayor of London is thought
to fare better than any at table, p. 437. Lyly has old
words Hke wem, spil (perdere), forslow (negligere), hob nab,
triacle (remedium). He has the following phrases that had
only just appeared in English, main (at dice), clownish^ waxe
haile fellow (familiar), sharp $et, overreach (decipere), to park,
cry quittance, manne (comitari), haggarde (rigidus), p. 114.
Sir Philip Sidney's 'Sonnets' belong to 1581 or there-
abouts (see Arber's * English Garner,' i. 467). The poet
foUdws the fashion of the age by prefixing he to verbs, as
beclovd, bedim. He has the new phrase of his day, a shield
of proof y and the verb hackney. The new Substantives are
horsemanship, lambkin ; there is selfness, p. 533, meaning
" devotion to a man's own interests ; " this is not very far
from the future selfishness. There is the sea phrase, a lee
shore, p. 552. As to the Adjectives, the ending ish is making
way, as boyish, tigerish; there is also dovelike. We see the old
for}pmest revived as foremosty p. 574. The thorough had been
made an adjective a hundred years earlier ; we now find
thoroughesty p. 531. The old ]>ryfete is revived in three-foot
stool, ii. 179. Sidney is fond of prefixing an Adjective to
a Pronoun, as foolish I, poor me, lovely she; there is also
your sUly self, p. 544, a new phrase of the time. Another
novelty is you tyrant you/ p. 567. Among the Verbs are
life-giving, unfelt, hell-driven, give the lie to. Lines are dashed
(blotted out), p. 528; in our time they are dasJied off, a
curious change of meaning. The word beg loses its piteous
sense, mendicare ; I beg no subject, p. 517, shows the milder
shade of meaning petere. Transitive verbs become intran-
sitive, as toss and fry. There is a very old form of the
Strong Perfect, thou flew, p. 565 j but the verb should end
in e. As to Adverbs, Sidney revived ekey which had been
dropped for nearly 200 years. The adverb is governed by
a preposition, as ere now. We have seen far more ; we now
find far too long, p. 531. Bells are rung out, ii. 193. There
is the new man at arms, where at supplants of, p. 523.
Wickliffe had prefixed in to many Teutonic words, copying
1
6i2 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
the Latin ; Sidney has infdt^ p. 533 (what is felt within a
man's breast). There is the old welaway (wa la wa), where
Shakespere was soon to alter the last syllable. We see
the Scandinavian verb purl. Among the Eomance words
are lustre, eagle-eyed, Sidney, like other writers of this time,
uses merely for omnino, p. 575. The Participle abstracted is
applied to the mind, p. 516. We see that a full point ended
a sentence, p. 530. There ia the substantive cavstic, p.
513.
In another work Sidney uses the phrase another-gaines
husband; this must be the Northern anotherkins, Lyly,
rather later, talks of another-gates marriage. In the next
Century, Howell was to write anotJwigets and another-guess,
Sidney, moreover, uses affectation in our sense of the word,
implying hollow assumption; he has also artist. About
this time the French law term prepense seems to have been
Englished, for we see malice forethought ; the Old English
adjective fw'e]>ond had been long dropped. The word al-
mighty was the only old Adjective compounded with all
that time had spared ; but new compounds, such as all-
merdfuly now begin to be formed on the old model. The
verb accompany is now connected with music. For this last
paragraph, see the words in Dr. Murray's Dictionary.
About this time the oo was pronounced much as we
sound it now; au was pronounced in the German way;
see Ellis on Pronunciation.
Bamaby Riche brought out his * Farewell to Militarie
Profession' in 1581 (Shakespere Society). The i replaces
e, as hippes, coupled with haws, p. 28. Gresham's dallor
becomes doler, p. 217. The sound of o was encroaching on
that of u; we see bloes (ictus) in p. 151. The u replaces o,
as benummed, p. 181. The printer was puzzled by the new
foreign word mvstachio, and prints it mvschato, p. 200.
There is the new Substantive belrynger. The word horne-
pipe means no longer a song, but a dance, p. 5. A father
uses the scornful term houswife to his daughter, p. 200;
this was to become hussy one generation later. The name
Joan bore a contemptuous sense that was to last for
nearly 200 years ; a badly dressed girl is called Jone of the
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 613
countrey, p. 222. As to Adjectives, narrow is applied to an
escape, p. 32. We read that traffic has become dead, p.
1 1 ; a new sense of the word. The word dry is connected
with nursing; to drie nurse a child, p. 185. A leader
wishes to know what is in 2^ soldier ; here the word stuff
must be dropped after the pronoun. Among the Verbs
stand tread a measure, line a purse, his heart bleeds, play her
part, play the truant, thrust his nose out of joynte (disappoint
him), p. 81, a woman flies out (in rage), come to an anker,
money goes a greate waie, take the benefit of, know not what to
make of it. The new overhale appears twice, meaning vin-
cere ; our overhaul is rather different ; see pp. 3 and 203.
A visitor calls in, p. 12 ; the first hint of morning ca^ls, A
man lays unto a woman (presses her), p. 56 ; hence our later
lay into him, A navigator takes the height (altitude) of the
sun, p. 72. Clocks were now set, as we see by clocke setter,
p. 79. The strange verb lumpe is used as a synonym for
lour and frown, p. 221 ; hence Mrs. Pipchin's phrase "she
may lump it" (sulk over it). The Infinitive, expressing
surprise, is now placed first in the sentence ; to thinke that
I should crave/ p. 64. The Celtic ^^a^e (pet) appears once
more, applied ironically to a woman, in pp. 63 and 172 ;
Scott's countr3nnen apply the word to a man, as when
Ratcliffe recognises Sir George Staunton in the Tolbooth.
Among the Romance phrases are commit to memory, repose
trust in, a good round sum, p. 115, carnation. Some fashions
are said to be a la mode de Fraunce ; the first words were to
be made an English phrase seventy years later. There is
the old gentle (noble), p. 35, and the new gentill (courteous),
p. 34 ; this latter form had been early known in England,
had died out, and was now once more brought over from
France. There is the French feat, which is also represented
by the Latin /oc/ (achievement), p. 48. The word sot here
bears its old meaning stultus, p. 49, though elsewhere it was
now taking the sense of ebrius. The verb stay means " make
his abode," p. 52, a new shade of meaning. A man wears
a lady's colours, p. 139. In the same page stands m^e nice
than wise, an idiom most unlike the Greek ; the nice here
means elegant ; Cowper used it as fastidious when he em-
6 14 THE NE W ENGLISH [ohap.
ployed the proverb. A fashion was coming in of com-
pounding new verbs with fy; ndify (make neat) stands in
p. 142. A man, imitating his wife, is said to run mad for
companie, p. 155, a new phrase. The word pvfession, which
had lately taken a new sense, is applied to the trade of
harlots, p. 169. The word companion is employed in scorn
for fellow, p. 172, B, Shakesperian usage. The word coyne
is used for pecunia, p. 196, as in modern slang. The Italian
seraglio expresses the Turk's harem, p. 118.
Stubbes brought out his * Anatomy of the Abuses in
England ' in 1583 (New Shakespere Society). In worheday,
p. 49, he restores the Southern e, which in some parts of
England had been lost; hence the later workaday world.
The u replaces a ; Skelton's has (osculum) becomes buss, p.
165. The I is inserted; Palsgrave's verb hug becomes
huggle, p. 97, with the new meaning ampledi. The old
quavemire becomes quagmire, p. 115. The z replaces s, as
pezant (agrestis), p. 40. There are the new Substantives
eye witness, ginge^'lyiiess, gaming howse, huf-cap (ale). Kioters
are called wilde-heds, p. 147, like the later hot-heads. The
word brand gets the new sense of signum, p. 142, and was
to give birth to a new verb. The word pussie is now used
of a woman, p. 97. In p. 190 we see fe> the last gaspe, and
also another form, to the last cast. Stubbes makes wakesses
the Plural of wake, p. 152, which reminds us of the later
beastesses. Among the Adjectives is hellish ; a bark at sea
may be crasie, p. 51. There is the phrase and which is more,
p. xi., when facts are to be emphasised ; here we put wJiat
for which. Among the Verbs are strike terror into, the day
liath bene when, etc., set pen to paper, men are put in ti'ust.
The affirmation I dare be bouml follows a sentence in p. 53;
here we substitute will for dare. Men are mizzeled with
wine, p. 87 (drawn into a mist) ; hence the later muzzy.
In p. xi. stands upon the other side (hand), to express contra.
The of is used in a new and strange way in p. 70 ; unheard
of pride ; here the of does not govern the following noun.
This word of was now coming in after verbs of tolerance ;
you allowe of it, p. 153. Something is done in a cloud, p.
186 ; here we substitute under.
III. ] THE NE W ENGLISH, 615
Among the Komance words are exploit, to innoble, intricate,
proclivity, to button, Martialist, devilrie, squash, slash, maxim,
ingenious, to pat, to plume, to inaugur, p. 75, condign, iterate,
temporizer, hobby horse, caper, subscribe to (assent), remise
(remiss). We see, moreover, the Greek catalogue, basis,
agonized, myriad. There is the phrase a reasonable large
shurte, p. 61, where the adjective stands for an adverb.
Women are called that gentle sex, p. 63 ; they wear bugles as
an ornament, p. 67. There is the curious adjective direfull,
p. 70, where the Teutonic ending is not wanted. In p. 98
miscreant is used, no longer for a misbeliever, but for a
wicked man. Lyly's new sense of ebrius comes into the
verb assot, p. 110. The word schole begins to extend its
meaning ; scholes of dauncing were set up about this time,
p. 154. Music is used in publique assemblies, p. 170; here
the last word, which was to be very popular about 1700,
becomes social in its meaning. A rich man is maisteft^ed
(called master) at every word, p. 122. A cruel man is
called a tyger, p. 127. In one and the same page, 158,
nicenes expresses lascivia, nicitie expresses elegantia. There
is the phrase the Pope of Boome, p. 161; chorus, in the
same page, makes its Plural chorusses. The verb range is
made transitive ; range the cuntrey, -p. 171.
England was evidently increasing in wealth in 1583 ;
Stubbes complains that men, base by birth and mean by
estate, dress as gorgeously as their betters, p. 34. In his
father's time a dish or two of good meat had been thought
ample for the dinner of a man of great worship ; the old
generation ate little but cold meats, hard to digest, p. 103.
Prices had risen fivefold within the last twenty years, p.
119. Every tinker and swineherd now expected to enjoy
the prefix of muster, p. 122. Stubbes protests against wakes
and dancing, refuting the Scriptural arguments sometimes
brought forward in favour of the latter practice ; women
ought to dance with women, men with men, p. 161. Some,
horrible to relate, choose their wives by dancing, p. 163;
a practice not yet extinct in England. He allows cards
and dice in moderation, " after some oppression of studie,"
p. 174. Like Tyndale, he protested against cruelty to
6i6 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
animals ; even the poor bear ought not to be abused ; love
God, love His creatures, p. 178. Hunting is not altogether
condemned ; but some give their whole lives to it ; it is
too bad to break down hedges and trample corn, p. 182.
Football is a bloody and murthering practice ; a long list
of fractures, commonly resulting from the game, is given,
p. 184. Early marriages seem to have been usual ; Stubbes
married his wife when she was fifteen, p. 197.
In Part ii. of the * Anatomy ' the a replaces ^, for lather
appears, from the old lelprian (ungere), p. 50. The word
income bears the sense of " entrance fee,'' p. 29. There is
the new word starre gaiser ; in the last word the old a was
getting the sound of ai. We see the adjective hollowe harted,
p. 7. There is a new use of that in p. 81 ; it stands before a
Plural verb, something like so; are there m laws ? yes, that
there are. The old verb blend had lingered only in the
North ; it is revived by Stubbes, p. 25, when he talks of
the adulteration of wines. We see the noun penall lawes,
and the verb to liqum' (moisten), p. 37 ; its American mean-
ing is rather different. The word musty loses its old sense
of moist, is confused with the French mmsi (mouldy), and
gets its Shakesperian sense in p. 47. Certain divines
gallop the service over, p. 74. The foreign suffix appears
in Brownist, p. 74. Stubbes was the first Englishman, I
think, who spent much ink in attacking the follies of
Astrology, p. 66 ; his work was carried on in after years
by Ben Jonson and Congreve.
Fulke brought out his * Defence of the English transla-
tion of the Bible' in 1583 (Parker Society); this was
written against Martin, a Roman Catholic. Among the
new Substantives are hoohwriter, headship, co-worker, a jump.
In p. 198 John at Nokes is used for any person. The
phrase " it is a hell to live thus " is given as an English
metaphor, p. 318. We read of men's sayings and doings,
p. 450. A man who cannot see well is told that his eyes
are not matches, p. 452 ; a new phrase. There is the new
Adjective watery ; flat is used in a new sense ; flM Phar-
isaism, aflat lie; we hear of a broad difference, p. 403,
where the old sense manifestus comes in. Something is
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 617
heii&r English, when translation is in question, p. 470. There
is the phrase a whole hundred of examples, p. 304, where the
Numeral is made a noun. Among the Verbs we see heg the
principle (question), call in hooks ; a man never feels alms-
giving (is the worse for it), p. 447. There is the curious
Perfect he molted (melted), p. 213, a compounding of the
Strong and the Weak. As to Prepositions, Jews are
reverend, even to superstitiony p. 590 ; here some such
participle as reaching must be understood before the pre-
position. Certain friars are at daggers drawing, as we say,
p. 35. The word so expresses in that case, p. 575 ; "we
must not use Scripture in a certain way, so shall the Jews
laugh us to scorn."
Among the Romance words are linguist, extenuate, ele-
gancy, complement (filling up), putative, servile, propriety,
improper, circumlocution, traduce, mixture, discredit. Some-
thing is done after a sort (a kind of way), p. 436 ; a great
ellipse. The word Hebrician, like the old Grecian, is coined
to express a certain department of scholarship, p. 122.
We hear of a forced translation, no question (doubt) hit,
etc., a fault is gross, a professed enemy, proper names, as
plain as he can speak. The new form purity appears in p.
476 ; Tyndale's pureness has twice been altered into this
purity by the later Revisers. There is the Greek iota,
solecism, typical, obelisk, asterisk, etymologist; our ellipse ap-
pears as eclipsis, p. 159 ; much Greek is quoted in the book.
*The noun rule takes the new sense of imperium, p. 487 ;
" establish the Pope's rule ; '* this is the old regiment and
the later regime of our newspapers. A shelf over a fire-
place projects like a hood or mantle ; hence, in p. 208,
Fulke talks of the mantel-tree of a chimney ; and hence the
later mantle piece. He brackets vulgar and popular speech,
answering to our "common parlance," p. 255. The word
delicate expresses fastidious,ip. 256 ; it has run a course parallel
to nice. The word profane is applied by Martin to Protestant
translators of the Bible, pp. 464 and 483 ; he means that
they degrade holy things in base fashion ; hitherto the word
had borne a harmless sense. The word context, p. 561,
begins to replace the old circumstance, which is also foimd
6 1 8 THE NE W ENGLISH, [chap.
in this work, expressing the same idea. A certain transla-
tion is called dissolute, p. 386, our free or loose. In the
same page famous takes the new sense of mgensj " the famous
place of Augustine is a famous corruption of papists ; "
Shakespere has something like this. The verb disgrace takes
the new meaning of degrade or lower, p. 452 ; we now usually
apply the verb to men, not to things, as here. Martin
declares that the very name of ministers is odious, because
they are so wicked and unlearned, p. 198 ; and this Fulke
partly admits. The Lutherans are called our pie-fellows,
p. 204. Fulke says that the word schisms would not be
understood in England ; divisions, or some such word, must
be used, p. 219. He derives the Northern word Jcyrke from
the Greek, p. 231. Martin is scornfully called "prince of
the Critici," p. 381 ; critic was not yet naturalised. Fulke
says that carcase is a word of scorn, p. 83, that confide is a
French phrase, not equal to be of good comfort, p. 90; the
Papal party had rather speak French than English, talking
of ancients and sages, not of elders and wise men, p. 90, of chiefs
not of head, p. 1 1 2. He is hard on the French-English terms of
his enemy, p. 250. There are the well-known wrangles over
priest (presbyter), p. 109, gratid plena, p. 149, repentance,
p. 155. The word image is understood by all Englishmen ;
not so the word idol, p. 179 ; the latter is always taken in
an evil sense, pp. 181 and 196. The common folk under-
stood shrift much better than confession, p. 458 ; acknowledge is
more usual in English than confess, p. 459. Martin objects-
to yokefellow, p. 475, declaring that it implied marriage ; he
asks why the word adoration is shunned, p. 542. He calls
ballad a very profane term, to translate canticum canticorum,
p. 571. He complains of the abusive term mussing priests,
p. 276 ; he declares that there is a difference between jiist
and righteous; this Fulke denies, p. 337, though he allows
that the latter is the more familiar English word. Martin
says that histoi'ical or special are heretical terms newly
devised and applied to faith, p. 423. Fulke, who cannot
have read Wickliffe, declares that the Komish term evange-
lize (preach) is a new word, not understood of mere English
esLTS, p. 549. His strong point, to which he often returns,
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 619
is the number of Latin words wantonly brought into the
Romish Testament ; " your affected novelties of terms, such
as neither English nor Christian ears ever heard in the
English tongue ; scandal, prepice, neophyte, depositum, gratis,
parasceve, paraclete, exinanite, repropitiate, and a hundred such
like inkhorn terms." Why not talk of gazophilace and the
encenes ? " These, and such other, be wonders of words,
that wise men can give no good reason why they should be
used."
It was a happy thing that England stuck to her own
version of the Bible, and would have none of the Douai
article. Fancy such words as exinanite and repropitiate being
read out in our parish churches !
" Di meliora piis erroremque hostibus ilium ! "
There is a piece of Queen Elizabeth's time, * Reliquiae
Antiquse,* i. 249 ; here a man swears by Jis that his wife
thinkes to were the goodman^s hretche. In ii. 122 we hear of
a lyther lad scampant, the source of our noun scamp, coming
from the French s'escamper (fugere), or perhaps from the
Italian scampare.
In Collier's * Dramatic Poetry,' vol. ii. p. 198, we see strike
a pegge (blow) into him with a club ; hence our " to peg at
him."
About 1585 Puttenham was writing his 'Art of English
Poesy ' ( Arber's Reprint), which was published, without the
author's name, in 1589. Two forms of one Old English
word may be seen in one sentence, p. 215, to till it is a
toyle, Tyndale had written of the main sea ; this is now
shortened into mayne, p. 219; flouds of eloquence is mentioned
as an admissible phrase, p. 263. Charles V. spoke of the
English Channel as the broad ditch, p. 277. The noun tug
had been formed from the verb; in that day it meant
harness, in our time a steamer ; see p. 281. The Plural
loves stands for the French amours, p. 276. There is the
Vocative fair one, p. 245, the old Yorkshire phrase of
which Shakespere is so fond. We hear of a girl's young
man in p. 66. Ladies scamble after nuts, p. 66 ; Foxe had
already inserted the r in this word. The phrase take to task
620 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
seeiDS to be used for vincere in p. 253 ; it refers to contests
in wrestling. A father keeps in play his children, p. 286,
by riding a hobby horse. Men speak corededly ; here an
Adverb is built upon the Past Participle, p. 263. There
is the short no doubt of that, p. 201. A person is commanded
away (ordered oflp), p. 277. Ynthe freelier and deerer, p. 306,
we see first the old and then the new form of the Adverb.
There is the Celtic cokes (coax), p. 36.
Among the Romance words are buffon, buffonry, apyramis,
pedestally to retranch, fatallitie, stuffed (figure), h'ovme paper,
to inforce, to renforce, pleasantery, proseman (speaker in prose,
p. 202), imprecation, affected, recapitulation, sententiovs, remorse,
granditie (grandeur), things of consequence, turn tayle, change
his countenance. We see dilemma, p. 230. The epithet
delicate may now be applied either to a poet or an ear, pp.
33 and 94. The word close now means ^m5,p, 225. The
adjective brave takes the sense oi fortis, p. 228. The word
impertinent may bear the sense of frivolus ; vain and im-
pertinent speeches are coupled in p. 272, implying sharp
retm'ts ; these a man delivers from him (self) ; a new mean-
ing of the verb. Something may be undecent, also indecent,
p. 283 ; decencie in p. 269 is said to be a scholastical term
for our own Saxon English seemelynesse and comdynesse.
In p. 287 Alexander fights liberally (like a gentleman) ;
the Teutonic /re« might mean the same. The word surly
bears its oldest sense, lordly, in p. 299 ; a man should be
solemn and surly with his equals. The old portraiture is
cut down to pouHrayt, p. 110. Queen Elizabeth is said to
be sans peere, p. 112; the sans that Shakespere loved. Our
author prefers Maior domo to the French and English
equivalents, p. 158; he dislikes audacious, egregious, and
compatible. He says that pelf is too low a word to be
applied to a Prince's treasures ; he afiirms that it means
the shreds of tailors and skinners. In p. 277 Germany
appears as "the Empire." The headgear of the Moslem
is called a tolibant, p. 291 (Turkish tvlbend) ; this was soon
to be altered into turban ; there is also Sultan,
Puttenham's work shows the growing interest in the
history of English Literature, which he declares (how unlike
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 621
Borde !) to be equal to the FreDch or Italian, p. 73; he
traces it from Chaucer to Sidney, declaring that Queen
Elizabeth surmounts all other poets ! Some of her lines,
rather Alliterative, are given in p. 255. He protests against
the Latin words that had supplanted their French offspring,
as innumerable for innombrahle, p. 1 30. Standard English is
said to be that spoken within sixty miles of London ;
" herein we are ruled by the English dictionaries ;" although
what is spoken to the North of Trent is " the purer English
Saxon," p. 157. He is always protesting against fine lan-
guage, and against French words like roy (king) or egar
(wander) being thrust into English verse for the sake of a
rime. He discusses the use of pauses, comma, colon, periode, p.
89. He treats of , the stanza, Alexandrine, circumflex, anagram,
(enigma, onomatopeia (sic), sarcasmus, periphrasis, clymax,pleon-
asmus, analogic, barbarisme. He remarks that the Dutch and
French cannot sound the English th,^. 257. It is affirmed
that English ambassadors stand alone in speaking foreign
languages when at foreign Courts, whence odd mistakes
sometimes arise, p. 277. The English and Germans shake
hands; the French, Spaniards, and Italians embrace over
the shoulder, or under the arms, or at the very knees, p.
292. Puttenham insists much upon decency ; he prints etc.
(et cetera) for a certain broad word used by a French
Princess, p. 274 ; he avoids printing some uncleanly English
rimes, p. 275. In p. 290 he prints a word from which we
now shrink, but he will not print a certain other word
much of the same kind, using a periphrasis ; all this is in
one sentence.
Before closing this Chapter, it is well to revert once
more to the greatest English masterpiece of the Century.
It is well known that those who revised the English Bible
in 1611 were bidden to keep as near as they could to the
old versions, such as Tyndale's : this behest is one of the
few good things that we owe to our Northern Solomon, the
great inventor of kingcraft The diction of the Bible seemed
most archaic in the mouths of the Puritans in 1642, as
their foes tell us ; this could hardly have been the case had
the version been a work of Bacon's time. The Book's in-
622 THE NEW ENGLISH. [chap.
fluence upon all English-speaking men has been most
astounding ; the Koran alone can boast an equal share of
reverence, spread far and wide. Of the English Bible^s
6000 words, only 260 are not in common use now; and
almost all of these last are readily understood.^ Every
good English writer has drawn freely upon the great Ver-
sion; we know the skill with which Lord Macaulay and
others interweave its homely, pithy diction with their prose.
Even men who have left the English Church acknowledge
that Rome herself cannot conjure away the old spell laid
upon their minds by Tyndale's Bible. This book it is that
affords the first lessons lisped by the English child at its
mother's knee ; this book it is that prompts the last words
faltered by the English graybeard on his deathbed. In
this book we have found our strongest breakwater against
the tides of silly novelties, ever threatening to swamp our
speech. Tyndale stands in a far nearer relation to us than
Dante stands in to the Italians.
English literature is so closely intertwined with English
history and English religion that we are driven to ask,
what would have been the future of our tongue, had the
Reformation, the great event of this Sixteenth Century,
been trampled down in our island ? Our national character
is nearer akin to that of Spain than to that of France ; I
fear, therefore, that had Rome won the day in England,
our religion would have smacked more of Philip II. than
of Cardinal Richelieu, more of grim bloody Ultramontanism
than of the other and milder form of Romanism. We
know how Cervantes felt himself shackled by the awful,
overbearing Inquisition ; English writers would have fared
no better, but would have dragged on tlieir lives in ever-
lasting fear of spies, gaolers, racks, and stakes. Could
Shakespere have breathed in such an air ? Hardly so.
Could Milton ? Most assuredly not Our mother tongue,
thought unworthy to become the handmaid of religion,
would have sunk (exinanited) into a Romance jargon, with
^ I take from Marsh my statistics as to the words of the Bible. The
French have no need to go so far back as the Constable Bourbon's
time for the standard of their tongue.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 623
few Teutonic words in it but pronouns, conjunctions, and
such like.
Many Orders of the Eoman Church have brought their
influence to bear upon our speech. In the Seventh Century,
the Benedictines gave us our first batch of Latin ware, the
technical words employed by Western Christianity.^ In
the Thirteenth Century, the Franciscans, as I think, wrought
great havock among our old words, and brought into vogue
hundreds of French terms. In the Sixteenth Century, the
Jesuits and their friends strove hard to set up a religious
machinery of their own among us ; happy was it for Eng-
land that she turned away from their merchandise, so hated
of old Fulke. These luckless followers of the Pope, as time
wore on, found their English style as much disliked as
their politics or their creed ; glad were they in the days of
James 11. when so great a master as Dryden came to their
help in controversy.^ Such evil words as probabilism and
infallibUist were never to become common in English
mouths.
The Reformation, among its other blessings, bound
together those old foes England and Scotland by ties
undreamt of in the days of Wolsey ; it wrought a further
change in the North country^s speech. Tyndale's great
work was smuggled from abroad into Scotland, as well as
into England. A Scotch heretic on his trial in 1539, re-
ferred to his Testament, which he kept ready at hand ; the
accuser shouted, " Behold, Sirs, he has the book of heresy
in his sleeve, that makes all the din and play in our
Kirk!"^ Tyndale, as I before showed, wrought for the
good of England in more ways than one. John Knox was
soundly rated by the other side for Anglicising, not only
in religion and politics, but also in his speech. Soon after
1600, Aytoun and Drummond wrote in the London dia-
^ There are but two or three Latin words in our tongue, brought
hither before Augustine's time.
2 * * Hout, Monkbarns, dinna set your wit against a bairn ! " says
Edie Ochiltree. This sentence might be applied to Stillingfleet, when
we consider the men pitted against him. Dryden says that it waS the
great Anglican divines who taught him how to write English.
3 Anderson's 'Annals of the English Bible,' ii. 501.
624 THE NEW ENGLISH, [chap.
lect ; Scotland, as she would have said herself, had to " dree
her weird." The false Southron was fast getting the upper
hand by a new kind of warfare ; the Lowland peasantry,
among whom schools began to thrive, read the truths of
religion enshrined in a dialect that would have jarred on
the ears of John Bellenden or Gawain Douglas. To this
day the Scotch minister in his sermons keeps as near as he
can to the speech of Westminster and Oxford ; though his
flock, when in the field or at the hearth, cleave fast to their
good old Northern tongue.^
Thus the New Standard English, convoyed by the Re-
formation, made its way to the far North, and also into
the Protestant settlements in Ireland ; it soon afterwards
crossed the Atlantic in the Pilgrim Fathers' ship. Tyn-
dale's great work, beloved by all forms alike of English
Protestantism, will for ever be a bond of fellowship be-
tween the ninety millions of the Angel cyn, whether they
live on the Thames, the Potomac, the Kuruman, or the
Murrumbidgee. Our tongue is like the Turk, who will
bear no brothers near his throne ; Irish and Welsh are
dying out, as Cornish did long ago.
The great prose writers of the Sixteenth Century did
much for the cause of sound English. Cheke, though
writing some years after Tyndale's death, had a hankering
after Fifteenth Century words, and strove to keep alive
againrising and againblrth. His pupil Ascham made head
against the foreign rubbish, which "did make all thinges
darke and hard." Wilson in 1550 branded the "strange
ynkehorne terms" of his day. One part of his criticism
may be most earnestly recommended to the fine writers of
our own time. " Some seke so farre for outlandishe Eng-
lishe, that thei forgette altogether their mothers' language.
... He that commeth lately out of France, will talke
Frenche-English, and never blush at the matter. The un-
learned or f oolishe phantasticall that smelles but of learnyng
will so Latin their toungues that the simple cannot but
wonder at their talke and thinke surely thei speake by some
1 In like manner, Luther's speech is used in the pnlpit among the
Low Germans of the Baltic.
III.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 625
revelacion. I know them that thinke Khetorique to stand
whollie upon darke woordes, and he that can catche an
ynke home terme by the taile, hym thei coumpt to be a
fine Englishman and a good Khetorician." In spite of all
these drawbacks, Mulcaster wrote thus in 1583: "The
English tung cannot prove fairer than it is at this day." He
was a rash soothsayer, and little knew what was to be the
literary history of the next thirty years. A new period
was to begin.
END OF VOL. I.
Printed ^ R. & R. Clark, Edifiburgh.
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