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A MODERN CROP OF INDIAN CORN
And still later, when the Autumn
Changed the long, green leaves to yellow,
And the soft and juicy kernels
Grew like wampum hard and yellow,
Then the ripened ears he gathered,
Stripped the withered husks from off them, . . .
And made known unto the people
This new gift of the Great Spirit. — Longfellow
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FRYE-ATWOOD GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES
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NEW
GEOGRAPHY
BOOK TWO
BY
WALLACE W. ATWOOD
GINN AND COMPANY
BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON
ATLANTA • DALLAS - COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO
TTTTTTTTTTTTTTimT
PREFACE
15
In this series Book One has introduced the child to
the study of geography in a most delightful and most
effective way. After visiting homes in various parts of
the world an introductory study is made of the different
nations of the* earth. Book Two follows a wholly new
method of treatment, avoids repetition of matter pre-
sented in Book One, and guides the pupil to a much
fuller knowledge and understanding of geography.
Human geography is the keynote of the series. Em-
phasis is given to the study of those factors that have a
controlling influence upon the life and activities of people.
The " New Geography " becomes an applied science of
fundamental significance to all American citizens.
The natural regions of the world, differing as they do
in surface features, climate, and resources, have produced
widely different occupations and modes of life. They
serve, therefore, as the best units for study.
Regional geography is not a new idea ; it is the goal
toward which the best scientific thought and the best
pedagogy have long been progressing. The simplicity
and the logic of this approach has each year won new
supporters. The one thing lacking has been a textbook
constructed on this principle.
Regional maps. The natural regions of the United
States as shown in this book are the work of the
geographers of the Association of American Geographers
and of the United States Geological Survey. For the
other countries of the world the leading authorities of
several nations have been studied. The consistent use of
one simple color scheme on the maps enables the pupil
to gain most easily a picture of the different physical
settings in which the scenes of huin3,ix Hffe are enacted.
Other maps. A new "fiiid very u&efOT series of eco-
nomic and commercial \njaps .eltow; gi:a,pHically the
chief exports and im^0rt3;:Th&*ro'u'tes of inland trans-
portation are also clearly shown. From these maps the
essential facts of commercial geography can be readily
comprehended and easily remembered.
The relief and vegetation maps are also entirely new.
By a skUlful use of color they show the relief, drainage, and
distribution of vegetation. The series of colored rainfall
maps indicate effectively the periods of heavy or of light
rainfall that are of such great importance in agriculture.
Comparative map studies are introduced as a new
feature. With maps in the hands of each pupil, show-
ing the relief, drainage, vegetation, rainfall, and distri-
bution of population, the data are available for the
solution of many excellent problems.
Problem method. The understanding of the geographic
conditions in a natural region is the fundamental basis
for the discussion of problems relative to the life and
occupations of the people living in that region. Numer-
ous concrete problems and topics for discussion have been
formulated, and many practical exercises that may be
assigned for library or home study have been prepared.
Picture study. The illustrations are accompanied by
very full legends ; each view teaches some importa,nt
fact. A remarkable series of aeroplane drawings of the
great cities and their surroundings assists in a proper
emphasis on urban geography.
Mathematical geography. While all necessary infor-
mation has been given as needed, mathematical geog-
raphy in general has been postponed until the pupil has
become familiar with the details that should serve as
the basis for such world-wide or universal conceptions.
The United States — a world power. At the close of
the book the pupil is brought back to his own country.
Against the background of world conditions he now
examines our natural resources, the role they play in
our industrial life, and the care that should be taken
to conserve them. This leads to the treatment of our
inland and foreign commerce and the development of
our international relations and responsibilities.
Acknowledgments. In the preparation of this book
Mr. Frye, Mrs. Atwood, Mr. William T. Oliver, several
map experts, many government departments, many
railroads and chambers of commerce, the Pan American
Union, and members of the author's staff and that of
Ginn and Company have given most valuable assistance.
The proof sheets were criticized by Miss Nellie B. Allen
of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, by Mrs. Jane Perry Cook of
the Chicago Normal College, and by Mr. Grant E. Finch
of the Montana Normal School.
To all the author expresses his sincere thanks.
WALLACE W. ATWOOD
Harvard University
COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY WALLACE W. ATWOOD • ALL RIGHTS RESERVED • ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL
THE ATHEN^UM PRESS • GINN AND COMPANY • PROPRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A.
• ,-. 420.6
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CEOGRAPHY DEPT.
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CONTENTS
M
NORTH AMERICA
PAGE
The United States 1
Northern Division of the Appa-
lachian Highlands (New England) 5
Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain . . 14
Southern Division of the Appalachian
Highlands 26
Interior Highlands 38
Central Plains 39
Great Plains 53
Rocky Mountains 59
Western Plateaus 65
Pacific Mountains and Lowlands . 70 ^
Comparative Map Studies ... 82
Possessions of the United States 83
Alaska 83
Hawaiian Islands 87
Panama Canal Zone 88
Porto Rico 90
Virgin Islands 91
Philippine Islands 92
Guam 95
Samoan Islands 95
The Nation as a Whole ... 98
Canada 103
Appalachian Highlands .... 103
Laurentian Upland 104
Hudson Bay Lowland 105
Central Plains 105
Great Plains 106
Western Mountains and Plateaus . 108
Newfoundland and Labkadok . 110
Mexico Ill
Centkal America 114
West Indies 115
Trinidad 120
Bermud.\ Islands 120
The Continent of North America 121
Comparative Map Studies . . . 124
SOUTH AMERICA
Introduction 125
Natural Regions 127
Brazil 130
The Guianas 134
Venezuela 136
Colombia 138
PAGE
Ecuador 138
Peru 140
Bolivia 142
Chile 144
Argentina 148
Paraguay 152
Uruguay 154
Falkland Island.s 155
Colon Archipelago 155
Comparative Map Studies . . . 156
EUROPE
Introduction 157
Natural Regions 158
Coast Line 162
Influence of the Ice-Sheet.s . . 162
Climate 163
Natural Resources 163
British Isles . 164
Norway and Sweden 170
Denmark 174
Iceland 175
The Netherlands 175
Belgium 177
Luxemburg 179
France 180
Switzerland 187
Germany 189
Austria 193
Hungary 194
Czechoslovakia 195
Poland 196
Baltic States 197
Finland 197
Ru.ssia 198
Small Countries South of the
Caucasus 200
Ukraine 202
Rumania 202
Mediterranean Lan^s .... 203
Spain \ . . 204
Portugal 206
Italy 207
jugo.slavia 213
iii
PAGE
Albania 213
Bulgaria 214
Greece 214
Constantinople and the Turks . 215
Comparative Map Studies . . . 216
AFRICA
Introduction 217
Natural Regions 220
Climate 220
Vegetation and Animal Life . 221
Natural Resources 221
British Possessions 222
French Possessions 225
Other European Possessions . . 228
Independent Countries .... 229
Comparative Map Studies . . . 230
ASIA
Natural Regions 231
Climate 234
Countries op Southwestern Asia 235
Countries of West-Central Asia 239
Siberia 240
The Republic of China .... 242
Japan 246
Indo-China 249
The Malay States 251
India 252
Small Countries in the Himalaya
Mountains 254
East Indies 255
Comparative Map Studies . . . 256
AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND,
AND PACIBIC ISLANDS
Australia 257
New Zealand 263
Pacific Islands 264
Comparative Map Studies . . . 265
POLAR REGIONS
North Polar Region 266
South Polar Region 266
-426220
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
PAGE
World Geography 267
The Earth ix the Universe . . 276
THE UNITED STATES — A
WORLD POWER
ixtroduction 277
Natural Resources of the United
States 278
Soils 278
Forests 284
Mineral Resources 286
Water 295
Fisheries 297
Industries Dependent upon Im-
ported Raw Materials . 299
Inland Commerce 300
Foreign Commerce 302
Summary and Conclusion . . . 304
APPENDIX
Reference Books
i
Geographical Explorations . .
ii, iii
World Production Maps . . . .
iv, V
Great Trade Routes ....
vi, vii
Tables op Area and Population
viii
Index and Pronunciations . . .
xi
INDEX OF MAPS
Maps in Colors
Africa, Physical (showing Natural.
Regions) 218
Africa, Political and Economic . . 227
Africa, Rainfall and Population . . 230
Africa, Colored Relief and Vegetation 230
Alaska, Political and Economic . . 84
Asia, Physical (showing Natural
Regions) 232
Asia, The Near East, Political and
Economic 237
Asia, The Far East, Political and
Economic 247
Asia, Political and Economic . . 250
Asia, Rainfall and Population . . 256
Asia, Colored Relief and Vegetation 256
Australia, Physical (showing Natural
Regions) 258
Australia, Political and Economic . 260
Australia, Rainfall and Population . 265
Australia, Colored Relief and Vege-
tation 265
Canada, Political and Economic . . 107
Central America, Political and Eco-
nomic 118, 119
Europe, Physical (showing Natural
Regions) 161
Europe, North Sea Countries, Polit-
ical and Economic . . . . 171
Europe, Central, Political and Eco-
nomic 182, 183
Europe, Eastern, Political and Eco-
nomic 201
Europe, Mediterranean Sea Countries,
Political and Economic . . 208, 209
Europe, Rainfall and Population . 216
Europe, Colored Relief and Vegeta-
tion 216 ^
Hawaiian Islands, Political and Eco-
nomic 84
Mexico, Political and Economic . 118, 119
North America, Physical (showing
Natural Regions) 122
North America, Rainfall and Popu-
lation 124
North America, Colored Relief and
Vegetation 124 \/
Philippine Islands, Political and Eco-
nomic 93
Porto Rico, Political and Economic 118, 119
South America, Physical (showing
Natural Regions) 126
South America, Northern Section,
Political and Economic . . . 135
South America, Southern Section,
Political and Economic . . . 145
South America, Rainfall and Popu-
lation 156
South America, Colored Relief and /
Vegetation ....... 156 '
United States, Physical (showing
Natural Regions) 2, 3
United States, Sectional Maps, Polit-
ical and Economic
New England States .... 13
Southern States, Eastern Section . 23
Southern States, Western Section 25
Middle Atlantic States .... 35
Central States, Eastern Section . 45
Central States, Western Section . 55
Northwestern States .... 73
Southwestern States .... 76
United States, Rainfall and Popula-
tion 82
United States, Colored Relief and
Vegetation . 82 i.
PAGE
United States, Political (showing
Railroads) 96 97
West Indies, Political and Eco-
nomic ....... 118, 119
\Yorld Maps
Average Annual Rainfall of the
World 275
Ocean Currents and the Tempera-
ture of the Surface Water . . 275
Geographical Explorations
Appendix, Plate A
Great Trade Routes
Appendix, Plate B
Black-and-White Maps
North America
Extent of Continental Ice-Sheet
Panama Canal Zone ....
United States
Cattle-Producing Areas .
Coal Resources
Corn-Producing Areas .
Cotton-Producing Areas
Forest Areas
Gold and Silver Resources .
Iron and Copiier Resources
Lead and Zinc Resources .
Northeastern Industrial District
Oil and Gas Resources .
Sheep-Producing Areas .
Sugar-Producing Areas .
Territorial Expansion .
■\\^estward Movement of Population
Wheat-Producing Areas
World Maps
Cattle-Producing Regions .
Coal-Producing Regions
Cotton-Producing Regions .
Iron-Producing Regions
Silk-Producing Regions .
WheatrProducing Regions .
Wool-Producing Regions .
10
89
283
?87
278
282
284
293
289
292
21
288
283
279
99
98
279
iv
V
V
V
299
iv
iv
Aeroplane Drawings
Boston 9
Chicago 50
London 167
New York City 30
Paris 185
Philadelphia 32
Pittsburgh 33
Rio de Janeiro 133
San Francisco 79
. Washington 101
NEW GEOGRAPHY
NORTH AMERICA
THE UNITED STATES
During the last hundred years the United States
of Anaerica has become one of the busiest nations in
the world. In every state, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, and from the Canadian boundary to the Mexican
frontier, most of the people are very busily engaged
in some kind of work. Their occupations and many of
their customs depend chiefly upon the geographic con-
ditions in the regions where they live.
We are a hopeful and enthusiastic people. We look
forward to having better homes, more beautiful churches,
and better schools. We want the people in the country
to enjoy the advantages of good roads, mail service, the
telephone, and many other comforts, and we look for
better living and working conditions in the cities.
Every boy and every girl in this country has an
opportunity to rise to a position of great responsibility.
The schools are open to all, and everyone who is able
and willing to work hard may have the advantages
of the highest and best education. Each one will have
the responsibility of citizenship in a great nation.
To fulfill the responsibility of citizenship, to help the
home community, the state, and the nation, each one
of us should understand the geography of this country ;
and at this time, when the United States of America is
taking a larger and larger part in affairs of world-wide
importance, it is more necessary than ever before that
we know also the geography of other countries.
Variety in physical and human geography. Some
parts of the United States are warm and other parts
are cold ; some are well watered and forested, others
have a moderate rainfall and are grasslands ; and still
others are very dry. In some sections of the country
there are plains, in some parts there are plateaus, and
in other parts there are mountains. See map opposite
page 82. Vast areas of rich soils have led to farming,
and the extensive grasslands have invited many to
raise cattle, horses, and sheep. The wonderful supplies
of coal, oil, gas, and water-power, together with iron,
copper, lead, and zinc, have made possible a most re-
markable industrial development. People living on the
coast, where there are good harbors, have very natu-
rally become interested in commerce, and throughout
the land many are engaged in ti-ade and transportation.
Because the physical geography differs so widely in the
many sections, the human geography varies also.
Natural regions. For purposes of study, which should
lead to an understanding of geography, the United States
is divided into natural regions. See map on pages 2 and 3.
A natural region is a portion of the earth's surface
throughout which the geographic conditions which help
to determine life do not differ greatly. When a natural
region is very large, the climate in the distant parts
will differ, and this difference must be considered in
explaining the life of the region.
Grei t Bear 120° Lake
F Longitude 100° IWst (
W5r
O Giuu and Coaipaajr
NATURAL REGIONS
MAP STUDIES — NATURAL REGIONS OF THE
UNITED STATES (Pages 2, 3)
1. Where are the young, rugged mountains of the United
States ? the old, worn-down mountains ? 2. Name and locate
tlie three large regions of plains in the United States.
3. Tlie longest river in the world is on this map. Which
one is it? See tables in Appendix. 4. The greatest system of
fresh-water lakes in the world is on this map. Make a list of
18. The routes of migration westward were of great im-
portance in the settlement and development of this country.
Frequent reference will be made to them in the text. Trace
each one on the map. 19. What city has grown up where
many of the western routes left the Missouri River?
20. What was the easiest route through the Appalachian
Mountains? 21. Which of the western routes avoided most
of the mountains ? 22. Which of the western routes had the
least desert country ? See map opposite paxje 82.
23. Wiiat natural regions are crossed by the parallel of 40°
north latitude? 24. What two states are separated by that
parallel ? 25. In what natural region is (ireat Salt Lake ?
Yellowstone National Park? the Grand Canyon? Mount
Mitcliell ? Pikes Peak ? Mount Whitney ?
26. In what region does the Mississippi River rise ? the
Rio Grande? the Colorado River? the Tennessee River?
Fig. 1. This steam plow is turning over the rich soil in the Great Plains.
notice the gently rolling country and contrast it with the Rocky Mountains
region shown in Fig. 2. Are any states entirely within the Great Plains ?
What states are partly included in them ?
the lakes. 5. Wiiat is the Continental Divide? Where is it?
6. Can one go by water from Chicago or Duluth to Europe ?
Describe the route. 7. The waters from what lakes flow over
Niagara Falls ? See page 41, Fig. 74.
8. What nations sent explorers to this country ? See Appen-
dix,'Plate A. Where did they go? 9. What nation sent the
men who sailed down the Mississippi River ? Who found the
mouth of this river ?
10. Learn to locate each of the natural regions. After
studying the map, write the names of the regions in a list,
close the book, and see if you can tell where each region is
located.
11. Add to your list of the natural regions the general
elevation of each above sea level. 12. Which one of the
western plateaus has, in general, the higher elevation ?
13., Where' is the greatest delta on this map ?
14. Suppose the sea withdrew to the edge of the continen-
tal shelf, what states would be enlarged ? What state would
gain the most land? 15. What parts of the United States
have good harbors ? 16. Trace the southern limit of continental
glaciation (ice action) from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.
Through what states does it pass ?
17. North of that line the land in the United States, ex-
cept in tlie driftless area of Wisconsin and neighboring states;'
has been covered by glacial ice. South of that line in the high
mountains there were also glaciers. We must frequently refer
to this line, for the surface features, soils, streams, and lakes
north and south of it differ very greatly.
Fig. 2. Glacier National Park, in the Rocky Mountains of Montana, has been
set aside by our government as a vacation land for the people. It is a region
of rugged mountains with glacier-covered peaks and heavily wooded slopes.
In the valleys between the mountains are beautiful glacial lakes
27. In what region does the Humboldt River end ? 28. What
peak in Maine is in about the same latitude as j\Iont Blanc,
Switzerland ? See eastern margin of map.
29. What mountains in New York are about one degree
farther north than Mount Vesuvius, Italy ? 30. Are the New
England states and New York in the latitude of northern
Europe or southern Europe ?
31. Compare the latitude of Cape Henry with that of the
Strait of Gibraltar. 32. Compare the latitude of Fuji Moun-
tain, Japan, with that of the Grand Canyon in Arizona.
33. Are the Himalaya Mountains of northern India as far
north as the Sierra Nevada of California? 34. In general,
how does the_ latitude of China and the Japanese islands
compare with the latitude of the United States?
35. What Atlantic seaport is in abont the same longitude
as the Panama Canal? 3G. What is the difference in longi-
tude from Boston to San Francisco ? 37. About how far, in
miles, is it from Boston to San Francisco ? Use scale.
NEW ENGLAND
Fig. 3. This is Lake Sunapee in New Hampshire, one of the thousands
of beautiful lakes which are scattered among the hills and mountains of
New England. Notice its irregular shape, its islands and wooded shores,
and the cleared land surrounding the farmhouse at the right. In the distance
NORTHERN DIVISION OF THE APPALACHIAN
HIGHLANDS
beyond the lake you can see the rolling upland country of the old, worn-
down Appalachians. What do the people of this region do for a living ?
Can you explain why farming is difficult in this part of New England ?
Why are there so many lakes in New England ? Of what use are they ?
England states there are many areas of good soils, although
much of the land is too hilly or too stony for farming.
The rock formations (such as granite, marble, lime-
stone, sandstone, and slate) of which the hills and
mountains are made, and often the bowlders scattered
about on the surface, are used as building materials.
Much of the United States depends upon New England
for granite and marble. i
The seashore, the islands, the many beautiful lakes
cellent harbors on the New England coast, and offshore, (Fig. 3), and the mountains serve as summer resorts,
in the cold, shallow waters, fish have always been abun- They attract thousands of visitors each year, and in a
dant. Forests once covered most of this region, and country where so many people live and work in large
there are still extensive forests in the northern parts cities, such vacation grounds are a real natural resource
of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Recently the of ever-increasing value. Many of the lakes serve as
United States government has established a national reservoirs for city water supplies, others furnish ice, and
New England
In this portion of the United States, farming, lum-
bering, and fishing were formerly the chief occupations,
but now New England is a great manufacturing district.
There must be some good reason for such a change.
Natural resources. Use map on pmje 13. There are ex-
forest in the White Moun-
tains, and much of the land
in that part of New Hamp-
shire is being purchased by
the government and will be
reforested. Almost every
farm in New England has
a wood-lot which supplies
fuel for the home.
The broad, flat areas of
the Connecticut River Low-
land are the most extensive
farm lands in this region
(Fig. 4), but the lowlands
bordering Lake Champlain
in Vermont also have fertile
soils. In each of the New
Fig. 4. Much tobacco is grown in the southern part of the Connecticut
River lowland. The leaves are picked and hung on racks like this to wilt
in the sun. Then they are taken to the barns and dried. The Connecticut
valley tobacco is used chieSy for making wrappers for cigars
in many there are good
supplies of fish.
Another natural resource
of very great importance,
and one that helps to ex-
plain why New England has
become a manufacturing
district, is the water-power.
Most of the streams, large
and small, have falls or
rapids in their com'ses, and
in those places dams have
been constructed and mills
have been erected. Many
great plants have been built
to transform the water-
power into electric power.
NEW ENGLAND
Fig. 6. Dairy herds like this are a very common sight in New England.
In summer the cows graze over the grassy hillsides, but in winter they are
fed indoors. The great cities of New England demand large quantities of
milk and butter, and make dairying profitable for the farmer
Even the Connecticut River, the largest stream in New
England, is used to generate electricity. In several places
a small stream has been dammed to generate electricity
on a farm, so that the farmer may light his home and
run machines with the power generated by the little
stream that flows over his land.
Climate. The rainfall in this region is enough for
agriculture and for tree growth, and it is evenly dis-
tributed; that is, about the same amount falls each
month.
The amount that falls in a year in New England is
about 45 inches. See map on page 82. In any land
where the rainfall is over 80 inches a year, as in the
Amazon Basin, there is a very wet chmate. In places
where the rainfall is less than 20 inches, as in some of
our Western states, agriculture is unsafe without the help
of irrigation. In the great deserts of the world the rain-
fall is less than 10 inches a year, and in some, notably the
Atacama Desert of northern Chile, it is almost nothing.
Often during the winter "in New England there are
very heavy snows, and though they cause much extra
work and much inconvenience, they are a great pleasure
to all who enjoy the winter landscape. The trees to be
used for lumber are cut during the winter, and the logs
are drawn over the snow to the streams. "When spring
comes, the melting snows furnish water to the lakes and
streams. These waters carry the logs to the mills, and
there help to turn the wheels that generate power.
Moisture in the air is very helpful in the spinning of
cotton, and thus the climate of New England favors the
development of one of the most important of the textile
industries (Fig. 7).
The average summer temperature is about 70 degrees,
and during the winter the average temperatiu-e is about
30 degrees. Temperatures as low as 40 degrees below
zero are, however, not unknown to people in this part
of the country.
Such a climate, with large seasonal changes, forces the
people to look ahead and provide for the future. New
Englanders must build good, substantial houses, and, in
order that their homes may be warm during the winter
months, they must lay in supplies of fuel. Much of the
food raised in the summer, such as potatoes and other
vegetables, is put away for winter use, and during the
winter months enough ice is cut and stored away to last
for the next summer. In this way the climate tends to
make people vigorous.
Home work. 1. Find out how many inches of rain falls in your
home district each year. For what crops is it sufficient ? Com-
pare that amount with the amount that falls in New England each
year. 2. Read about the life in a logging camp in the Maine woods.
Note to Teacher. The home work planned in this book may
often serve as library or desk work in school. In many cases it may
be best to assign certain problems or exercises to Individual pupils or
to committees to report upon. Encourage oral reports in class.
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Fig. 6. This is one of the great manufacturing plants at Manchester, New
Hampshire. It is located on the Merrimack River at a point where a water-
fall occurs and provides power to run the machinery. This one mill turns
out over two hundred million yards of cotton and worsted cloth each year.
Water-power is a very valuable natural resource. Years ago it could be used
only to turn the mill wheels directly, but now the falling water is made
to generate electricity, and this hydroelectric power can be transmitted
over great cables for use in factories which are hundreds of miles away
NEW ENGLAND
Fig. 7. This is Fall River, Massachusetts, the largest cotton-manufacturing
city in the United States. The city has water-power, but not enough for the
industry ; most of the mills use steam power. Fall River has a safe, almost
landlocked, harbor, deep enough for large passenger vessels and freighters.
Advantages for manufacturing, — summary. The loca-
tion of New England on the Atlantic seaboard, its many
excellent harbors and its numerous rapid streams so
well supplied with falls, the moist air, an invigorating
climate, and a distribution of rainfall which supplies
streams and reservoirs with water throughout the year,
are factors which have made possible the rapid develop-
ment of manufacturing.
The construction of railroads and the improvement
in steamship service have greatly assisted the industrial
growth. Thousands of people have come to New England
to work in the mills and factories.
Settlements and occupations. The Pilgrims first landed
near the tip end of Cape Cod, where Provincetown is
located, but they soon sailed across the bay and estab-
lished their first settlement at Plymouth. Each of the
good harbors along the New England coast attracted
settlers, and the largest coast cities have developed near
the best harbors.
Some of the streams are navigable {see map, p. 13),
and at the head of navigation other settlements were
started, such as Augusta and Bangor in Maine.
The settlers who undertook farming needed trading
centers where they could sell their products and buy
their supplies, and towns soon began to appear in the
better agricultural parts of the region.
Little by little each of the seaports and each of the
settlements increased in size. Lumbering and shipbuild-
ing were undertaken, and many engaged in fishing. As
ships became available and there were fish and lumber to
use in trade, some commerce was undertaken ; and from
those early days to the present time the New England
people have become more and more interested in and
dependent upon commerce.
Locate Fall River on your map. How do the manufacturers get coal to make
steam for their mills ? Where does the raw cotton come from ? Where do
most of the manufactured cotton goods go ? Explain why New England is
one of the two great cotton-manufacturing centers of the United States
The mills demanded raw materials, and in response the
ships brought large quantities of cotton from the South-
ern states. Later, vessels brought cotton from Egypt to
be manufactured into cloth in New England. Wool was
first furnished from the sheep raised in the New England
pastures. To-day wool is brought to Boston from all
the leading sheep-raising countries of the world. The
srtiall mills were increased in size, until now the New
England mills are immense structures (Figs. 6, 8).
With the introduction of railroads more raw materials
were brought to this part of the country, food supplies
were imported from the great agricultural districts in
the interior of the United States, and the manufactured
articles of New England were sent west and south to
markets that increased rapidly in number and in size.
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Fig. 8. Here are the great woolen mills at Lawrence, Massachusetts, on
the Merrimack River. The Merrimack turns more factory wheels than any
other river in the world. What other cities along this river have impor-
tant water-power development? Where do the woolen manufacturers at
Lawrence get their raw wool ?
8
NEW ENGLAND
New Bedford, Fall River (Fig. 7), and
Providence are at the heads of bays.
The first two are important centers for
the manufacture of cotton goods, and
they depend largely upon ocean traffic,
but Providence is far inland and is
making more and more use of railroad
service. It is one of the leading cities
for the manufacture of silverware and
brassware. New Haven and Bridgeport
are busy manufacturing centers on the
coast of Connecticut. Hartford is an
important industrial city at the head of
navigation on the Connecticut River.
With the development of railroads
much of the trade between the coast
cities, which was formerly dependent
The manufacture of shoes, which began in a small way, upon shipping by water, is now carried on by rail. This
has become a very large industry. Hardware, cutlery, often saves a great deal of time.
watches, and many kinds of jewelry are made on a large Vermont has no seacoast, but its largest city, Burling-
scale. The lumbering and shipbuilding have continued, ton, has a good harbor on Lake Champlain. Burlington
but now many of the vessels are made of steel. Much has a large lumber trade.
of the wood of the forests is being made into pulp and A second group of cities in New England owe their loca-
used in the manufacture of paper. tion to water-power sites. See map on page 13. Begin-
In time the water-power proved insufficient, so coal ning again at the north, we find Lewiston and Auburn on
was brought, chiefly from Pennsylvania, in order tha^t opposite banks of the Androscoggin River, Avhere there
more mills and more factories could be built, and that is water-power. Near the mouth of the Saco are Bidde-
Fig. 9. This is a steamship and railroad terminal at Portland, Maine. In the center, along the
wharves, are the railroad tracks and the great storage warehouses. Can you explain the advantage
of such an arrangement as this ? Portland is the largest city in Maine, with an excellent harbor,
deep enough for the largest vessels. What are the chief exports and imports of Portland ?
all of them could run throughout the year.
Home work. On an outline map of the United States color in
the boundaries of the New England states ; print in the abbre-
viations of the state names ; add the names of the capitals and
chief seaports. Keep this map and add to it as the study of the
United States proceeds.
Location and growth of cities. Use map on pacje 13.
Those settlements that were so fortunate as to be located
on good harbors or on navigable rivers have become
important commercial centers. Beginning at the north
we find Bangor and Augusta. They have the advantage of
being seaports and also of being inland cities surrounded
by productive lands. Lumbering has helped to develop
these cities, for they are near the forests.
Portland has an excellent harbor and has become
one of the chief seaports of New England (Fig. 9).
Portsmouth is the leading seaport of New Hampshire.
Gloucester, on a very good harbor near Cape Ann, is an
important fishing port (Fig. 10).
Boston, the largest city in this group of states, and
the capital of Massachusetts, has one of the best harbors
in the United States. This seaport has the advantage
of being nearer the great European coast cities than
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, or any other Amer-
ican port farther south on the Atlantic coast (Fig. 11).
ford and Saco, another pair of cities on opposite sides of a
stream, where there is power available. Lowell, Lawrence
(Fig. 8), Nashua, Manchester, and Concord all depend
in part upon the Merrimack River for power (Fig. 6).
Holyoke is located where there are rapids in the
Detroit i^ib. Co.
Fig. 10. This is a codfish-drying yard at Gloucester, Massachusetts. A great
many of the people of the town are engaged in the fishing industry. Some
of them catch the fish, others cure and salt it, and still others buy and sell it.
Massachusetts salt cod is sent all over the world
NEW ENGLAND
9
Connecticut River,
and power was se-
cured by damming
the stream. This city
manufactures most of
the high-grade paper
made in the United
States. At Pawtucket,
Rhode Island, at Nor-
wich, in Connecticut,
and in numerous
other places in the
New England states,
water-power has been
developed for manu-
facturing purposes.
Often the water-
power is used to
generate electricity,
and that form of
energy is sent over
wires for miles and
miles, so that distant
cities are furnished
with electricity for
lighting, for use as
power in factories,
and for running the
trolley cars.
A third group of
j) Ginn ftnd Companj
Fig. H. This is an aeroplane drawing of Boston. Describe the country surrounding Boston. What rivers enter Boston
Harbor ? What are the good features of the harbor ? Boston imports more wool, hides, and skins than any other port in the
world. For what are they used ? Boston is the leading fish market of the United States. What does Boston export ? How
does Boston rank in size among the cities of the United States ? See tables in Appendix. What places of special historic
interest are shown in the drawing ? Lynn is best known for shoes, Waltham for watches, and Quincy for granite. Harvard
University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are in Cambridge. Wellesley College is located at the western
margin of the sketch, on the shore of a small lake
cities (and they are
chiefly inland cities) may easily be remembered by asso- Barre, Vermont, has wonderful quarries in great hills of
ciating with the name of the city the particular industry granite. Proctor and Rutland, in the same state, produce
which has been developed there on a large scale.
Starting in the north, Millinocket (Fig. 12) and Rum-
ford Falls, in Maine, are making paper from wood pulp.
"I Ur*ft{ Nottbcrn Pkpcr t'ompwi,
Fig. 12. The town of Millinocket, Maine, has grown up around the largest
paper mills in the world. At the left are the great piles of spruce wood
ready to be ground into pulp. In the center is the main oflSce building of
the plant. Explain the location of this industry here
large quantities of marble.
Brockton, Lynn, and Haverhill, in Massachusetts, manu-
facture more boots and shoes than any other three cities
in the United States.- Worcester is best known for its
iron and steel works. It has large wire mills and many
machine shops. Springfield is a prosperous city in the
Connecticut valley and is an important center for the
manufacture of cars, automobiles, and firearms.
Waterbury and Ansonia in Connecticut are best known
for their brass ware. South Manchester has made a spe-
cialty of manufacturing silk (Fig. 13). Willimantic is a
cotton-manufacturing city.
Woonsocket, in Rhode Island, has excellent water-power
and is an important center for woolen manufacture.
Home work. On an outline map place the imports and exports
of any city in which you are especially interested. The Chamber
of Commerce of that city will usually furnish you the necessary
information. As the study progresses this exercise could well be
repeated for several cities and certainly for the home town.
10
NEW ENGLAND
Explanation of New England Sceneey
Mountain-making. Long, long ago — undoubtedly
millions of years ago — the rocks in this part of the
continent were compressed. They were folded and forced
high into the air. That made mountains throughout
most if not all of New England.
Wearing down. Rains, winds, changes of temperature,
freezing of water in the cracks of rocks, helped to break
up the mountain
tops, as the rocks
are being broken
up on the top of
Mount Washing-
ton and all high
mountains to-day.
Little by little,
streams cut their
valleys deeper and
deeper, and took
the loose material
away to the sea.
A long period fol-
lowed, when the
land was being
worn down and
the high moun-
tainswere reduced
to low mountains
or to hills.
Ice invasion. While the streams were at work cuttinar
down the highlands a more remarkable thing happened.
A great ice-sheet formed on the land east of Hudson Bay
(Fig. 14). For years more snow fell each winter in that
region than melted in the following summer. Thus a
great snowbank was formed. In the bottom of that snow-
bank, as the snow was compressed, ice was formed, in
much the same way as ice is formed when you press
a snowball in your hands. In time the huge ice mass
began to move. As it advanced it gathered stones and
rocks and soil, so that when it came into New England
it was rock shod. As it moved southward it wore off
the hill-tops and broadened the valleys (Fig. 15).
This great ice-sheet covered even the highest moun-
tains in New England. On the top of Mount Washington
there are stones that the ice-sheet left there, and on the
top of Mount Monadnock, in southern New Hampshire,
the bare rock surfaces still show the scratches that
were made by the stones frozen into the base of the ice-
sheet when it passed over this summit. The glacier ad-
vanced until its southern margin was in the Atlantic Ocean
(Fig. 14). The islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket
were in part covered by the ice. On the southernmost
'■) Kcjstone Vievf Cu-
Fig. 13. This woman is sorting and weighing skeins
of raw silk in a silk mill at South Manchester,
Connecticut. Connecticut is the only New England
state which has developed an important silk-
manufacturing industry-
shores of Marthas Vineyard there are rocks that the glacier
carried from the mainland and left there when it melted.
About half of Long Island was covered by the ice-
sheet, and the belt of hills that extends from east to
west through the middle of the island is made of stones,
sands, and clays left by the ice (Fig. 39). That belt of
hills is a part of the deposit left by the glacier and
marks the southern limit of ice advance in that region.
Retreat of the ice. When the climate grew warmer, the
ice slowly melted away. All the stones that were in the
glacier were left on the ground. The streams that came
from the melting glacier washed some of the sands and
gravels southward, and in many places made great plains
of that loose material. This explains why New England
has so many bowlders, and why in some places the soil is
sandy and gravelly.
Waterfalls, rapids, and lakes. As the ice melted
farther to the northward the material which it left
blocked many of
the stream courses.
The rivers had to
find new ways to
the sea. In doing
this they some-
times had difficul-
ties. There was
hard rock to be
cut away. This
is the explanation
of the falls and
rapids. Streams
commonly have
falls or rapids
where they cross
hard rock. Other
streams were so
blocked by the de-
posits of glacial
material that the
waters could not
get out, and so hundreds of ponds and lakes came into
existence. Where such ponds and lakes have been
drained there are fertile meadow lands.
Note to Teacher. Each pupil should be encouraged to make a
collection of pictures and to prepare a portfolio or a scrapbook. Adver-
tising booklets, newspapers, and magazines will furnish an abundance
of material. As the study of geography proceeds, the pupils should
bring to class the pictures they have obtained of the country under
consideration, and thus additional illustrations, in which the pupils are
especially interested, will be available for each lesson.
Home work. 1. Arrange your own pictures of New England
in groups showing the scenery or occupations 2. Write at least
fifty words of description about each one.
Fig. 14. This map shows the extent to which
North America was covered by ice in the glacial
period. Where were the four great centers of
snow accumulation ? Which of these centers has
an ice-sheet to-day ?
NEW ENGLAND
11
Inlets and harbors. When the ice advanced through
the valleys to the coast, it deepened these valleys and
dug out great quantities of the earth. When it retreated,
there were deeper channels which helped to make the
large inlets where the best harbors are now located. The
retreat of the ice from Boston Harbor left hills of earth
that rise above the sea as islands, and these islands are
a natural protection for the harbor.
Sinking of the land. Another wonderful thing has
happened which has helped New England. The land near
the shore has been depressed, or lowered, and the sea
waters have advanced into the mouths of the rivers. For
this reason New England is said to have a " drowned
coast." The drowning and the ice action have made
the coast irregular and produced the good harbors.
') Uenrj U. P.fcbody
Fig. 15. This is Crawford Notcli in the White Mountains of New England.
Notice the gently rounded, forest-covered slopes, and contrast them with
the sharp, rugged peaks in Fig. 2 on page 4. The White Mountains are
part of the old, worn-down Appalachian Highlands, which form the highest
land in the eastern United States
The rock islands off the coast of Maine and New
Hampshire are due chiefly to the sinking of the land.
They are hill-tops, standing with only their heads out
of the water (Fig. 16). We shall find that the eleva-
tion of many lands above sea level has been changed ;
some of them have been depressed and others have been
uplifted.
Lafayette Park. A portion of Mount Desert Island
on the coast of Maine has been set aside as the Lafayette
National Park. This is the first national park east of
the Mississippi River.
Summary. Almost everything of natural origin in New
England has proved to be a real resource to man: the
harbors, the streams with their water-power, the forests,
the soils, and the underlying rocks. The moist climate,
Fig. 16. Bar Harbor is one of the many beautiful summer resorts on the
Maine coast. The islands which you can see in the view are just the tops
of hills which used to stand entirely above water. Because the coast has
sunk, Maine is said to have a "drowned shore line"
with enough rainfall for farming and for the lakes and
streams, has proved to be a natural resource. The moim-
tain scenery, the many lakes, and the seashore are true
natural resources. As a busy people we need play-
grounds, we need vacations, and these restful and beauti-
ful spots are now of great value to us.
The future. New England will always be an industrial,
or manufacturing, district. There are natural advantages
here which will continue to give this part of the country
the leadership in certain lines of manufacturing. The
forests, now in part held by the government, will be
more wisely cared for. The fishing interests should be
conserved. The great supplies of building stone will
last almost indefinitely. Market-gardening, dairying,
and poultry-farming may all be developed much more
extensively, and the planting and care of apple trees
should be promoted. With scientific care many of the
abandoned farms will again become productive.
m
:k
iiMi
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Fig. 17. The woolen mills at Winooski, Vermont, owe their location to the
falls of the Winooski River. More and more of the New England waterfalls
are being harnessed and made to produce power for industry. What are the
chief products of New England manufacture ?
12
NEW ENGLAND
Problems and review questions. 1. Where were the first settle-
ments of white people in this region ? 2. What natural advan-
tages led to the location of these settlements ? 3. What natural
advantages led to the more rapid growth of Boston ? 4. What
disadvantages did the early settlers find in this region ?
6. To what occupations did the forests lead ? the water-power ?
6. Where are there wood-pulp mills ? 7. For what is the pulp
used ? 8. Why was sheep-raising undertaken by many New Eng-
land people? 9. What factors led to the abandonment of New
England farms ?
10. What leading cities have been much benefited by a loca-
tion on the coast? 11. What cities have developed at the head
of navigation on certain of the rivers ? 12. What river in New
England has been most used in developing water-power ?
13. Why are the mouths of the New England rivers wide and
deep ? 14. What is the largest river in New England ? 15. What
are the chief manufactured products of New England ? 16. Why
has New England become a manufacturing region ?
17. Name a leading cotton-manufacturing center ; a woolen-
manufacturing center ; two cities where boots and shoes are made
in large numbers. 18. Could New England get along easily
without importing foods from other regions ? Why ?
19. What foods has New England in such quantities that some
may be exported? 20. Where does the fuel for New England
come from ? How is it sent ? 21. Why should there be so many
large bowlders in the fields ? 22. Why do we find scratched and
polished rock surfaces along the coast of Maine and on many
of the mountains ?
23. How much of New England was formerly covered by ice ?
24. Where did this ice come from ? 25. How was the ice formed ?
26. Why did the ice disappear ? 27. Why do the farmers build
stone walls about their fields in New England ? 28. How do the
attractive summer resorts along the coast and in the mountains
benefit New England ?
MAP STUDIES
Maine. The White Mountains that center in New Hamp-
shire extend northeastward into Maine, but do not reach quite
to the eastern border of the state. Note on the map the
curving brown line which runs from Saddleback Mountain
to a point near Houlton. North of this line the land bor-
dering the old, worn-down mountains is a plateau country.
South of this line the land is part of the Coastal Hilly Belt.
All of Maine is within the Appalachian Highlands, where
there is a pleasing variety in the surface features. Lakes and
streams are abundant. The irregular coast has numerous pic-
turesque inlets and islands. 1. Locate Mt. Katahdin and give
its elevation. 2. Name two navigable rivers ; three large lakes.
IJew Hampshire. The center of scenic interest in this state
is Mt. Washington, and the outlook from the summit is over
the Presidential Range and the beautiful lake district in the
bordering hilly country. The lowlands near the Connecticut
River and small areas among the hills of the Coastal Belt
furnish attractive opportunities for farming. The state is
fortunate in having large supplies of good building stone,
extensive forests, and an abundance of water-power.
Vermont. The Green Mountains extend from north to
south through this state. In the northwest are the fertile
agricultural lowlands that border Lake Champlain, and in the
southeast the farm lands of the Connecticut River Lowland.
The mountains are forested and furnish large quantities of
lumber. The granites and marbles of the mountains are used
as building and ornamental stones, and the valleys between
the ranges are used as farm lands. Water-power is available
in many places.
Massachusetts. This state is fortunate in having a great
variety in surface features and soils. The Connecticut River
Lowland is between two belts of old, worn-down mountains.
To the west are the Berkshire Hills. They represent the
southward extension of the Green Mountains. To the east
are the Central Highlands of Massachusetts. They are the
southward extension of the White IMountains. Farther east
is the Coastal Hilly Belt, and in the extreme southeast a little
of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Cape Cod, Nantucket, and
jMarthas Vineyard are in the Coastal Plain region and have
light, sandy soils. The hills and mountains contain building
stones, much of the land is suitable for farming, and nearly
every stream furnishes water-power.
Rhode Island. This is tlie only state entirely within the
Coastal Hilly Belt. The sinking of the land has allowed the
sea to advance inland and form Narragansett Bay. Here
there are good harbors and many islands and peninsulas that
furnish attractive sites for seaside homes and resorts.
Connecticut. Near the coast this state is hilly, and the hills
become higher to the north and northwest near the old, worn-
down mountauis. The Connecticut River Lowland crosses
from Hartford to New Haven, but the river leaves the Low-
land at Middletown and flows southeastward to Long Island
Sound. The manufacturing centers of this state are fortu-
nate in being near the great markets of the city of New York.
GENERAL QUESTIONS
1. Are the products of New England all used there, or are
some exported ? 2. What countries do New England manu-
facturers draw upon most for raw material ? 3. Why should
the New England farmers give so much attention to dairy-
ing, gardening, and poultry-raising ?
4. Where do the grains and meats come from that are ex-
ported from Boston and Portland ? 5. What conditions off-
shore make favorable fishing grounds ? 6. What are the
chief crops of the Connecticut River Lowland ? 7. Where
is maple sugar made in large quantities ?
8. Where is granite obtained ? Where is marble obtained ?
9. How may the irregular coast line of New England, which
has given such good harbors, be explained ?
10. What rivers in New England are navigable ? 11. To
what state do Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard belong?
12. What state in this group is without a seacoast?
13. What water route is there from Burlington, Vermont,
to the sea? 14. Is Boston or Buffalo farther from^ the
equator ? See western margin of map.
15. Compare the latitude of Providence with that of Cleve-
land, Ohio. 16. What city in France is in about the same lati-
tude as Bangor, Maine ? See eastern margin of map, 17. What
New England states border on the Canadian frontier ?
Note. For a study of New England cities see pages 8 and 9.
74"
B
73'
78'"
D Lone. TV yy—t E from 70^ Creen^wich
H
67'
17
NEW ENGLAND
STATES
ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL MAP
Scale of statute miles
<l>ee
Scale of kilometers
too
=S»'
■k State capitals
=3w Navisrable rivers
• Chief seaports
'¥ Large water power sites
Lowlands
Q
I Uplands and
I plateaus
I Old. worn-down
mountains
Military Camp
Camp Devens, D 6
--^St.,
■^Valleyaeld
Johns •(
.(*'
'W/
Fi
N
> 1 D
^dmundston
waska
t.K0it~'
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Ai ai/aah L.Q-
u
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oke
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14
ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN
Fig. 18. The Cape Cod Canal in Massachusetts was opened in 1914. It
connects Cape Cod Bay with Buzzards Bay, making a short, safe route from
Boston to Long Island Sound, in place of the long, dangerous trip around
the Cape. Here is a tugboat passing through a liftbridge over the canal.
lateroktian^ Film bcrucc, luo-
The canal is 8 miles long, 100 feet wide, and 25 feet deep, making it possible
for large vessels to pass through it. Its cost was twelve million dollars,
but already it has saved merchants and shippers many times that amount.
Locate the canal on the map on page 13. In what natural region is it?
ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN
To open the study of this natural region, examine
each of the pictures from Fig. 18 to Fig. 39, reading
the statements below the pictures. Make a list of all
the facts you discover in this way. What are the occu-
pations of the people ? Is the country rough or smooth ?
Is it wet or dry ? Are any rock ledges shown ? Are there
any great bowlders in the soil, as in New England ?
What are the principal crops? Make a list of the sea-
ports shown in the views. What parts of this area appear
to be the warmest? The maps and the text will sup-
plement what has been learned by studying the pictures.
Climate. The Coastal Plain extendi so far from north
to south that the cUmate at one end
differs greatly from that at the other
end. The temperature along the Gulf
coast is about 85 degrees in summer
and about 50 degrees in winter.
Farther north, along the Middle
Atlantic states and the southern
shores of New England, the summers
are warm, but the winter temperature
often falls below zero. Many of the
beaches of New Jersey, Long Island,
and eastward to the end of Cape Cod
are used as summer resorts, and many
of the beaches in the South, especially
in Florida, are winter resorts.
The Gulf Stream flows northward
along the Atlantic coast ; it brings
warm waters northward and keeps
Fig. 19. These are brave men of the United States
Coast Guard. They patrol the coast and go to the
rescue of ships in distress. This view shows one
of their large life-saving boats
the air near the coast, both over the sea and over the
land, somewhat warmer than it would otherwise be.
Along the east Gulf and Atlantic coast, within this
region, the rainfall varies from 40 to 60 inches a year.
That is enough for agriculture. West of the Mississippi
River the rainfall decreases from about 50 inches to 20
inches near the Rio Grande. At the Mexican frontier
agriculture is uncertain unless irrigation is practiced.
Storms often originate over the warm waters of the
tropics and start inland across the Gulf coast or north-
ward along the Atlantic coast. These storms commonly
bring rain to the coastal lowlands. Some of the storms
are dangerous to coastwise shipping, but the United
States Weather Bureau stations in
the West Indies and on the mainland
now send out warnings by wireless,
so that sea captains may know when
such storms are near and what way
they are traveling. The captain who
receives such warning may change
his course and thus avoid meeting
the storm.
Natural resources. The Atlantic
and Gulf Coastal Plain includes ex-
tensive areas of good farming land.
In many places the soils are light
and sandy. Such soils, when fertil-
ized, are suitable for the raising of
fruit and vegetables. In Long Island,
in New Jersey, and farther south
near each of the larger cities the
Undorwood & UBdexwood
ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN
15
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On the map on page 25
notice in what parts of
Louisiana and Texas nat-
ural oil, or petroleum, and
natm*al gas have been dis-
covered (Fig. 24), and in
what parts of Texas coal
is found. The coal in the
Coastal Plain region of Texas
is lignite, a soft, brown coal,
somewhat woody in ap-
pearance. The coal farther
north, in the Central Plains
portion of the state, is bi-
tuminous, the grade com-
monly known as " soft
coal," and very widely
used in manufacturing.
Louisiana and Texas also
have important sulphur beds, which provide the largest
source of supply in the country.
The navigable rivers and the harbors of the Coastal
Plain must also be counted among the chief natural re-
the lowlands are used for cultivating rice (Figs. 21, 22). sources of this region. Notice on the maps on pages 23
The great alluvial, or river-made, lands near the Missis- and 25 how many of the rivers of this region are navi-
sippi River and on the Mississippi delta are wonder- gable, and what seaports are located near their mouths,
fully fertile, and there large crops of sugar (Figs. 25, 26), Occupations. Agriculture is quite evidently the chief
rice, and cotton are raised. occupation in this region. Many farmers who formerly
Offshore, the shallow waters which cover the conti- thought that the Central Plains region was the best part
nental shelf abound in fish, many varieties of which are of the country to live in have migrated to the southern
used as food. The quiet waters of the drowned river plains, where it is not necessary to spend much for warm
mouths provide great quantities of oysters, and the clothing or for coal. The settlers may work out of doors
wann waters which surround the southern end of Florida most of the time, and such healthful work is becoming in-
contain large numbers of valuable sponges and turtles, creasingly attractive to large numbers of American people.
Coastal Plain soils are used
for market-gardening and
fruit-raising. In other parts
of the Coastal Plain the
lands are vised for genei-al
farming.
Deposits of phosphate
rock are available in several
localities (see inaj), p. 23),
and that rock, when pul-
verized, makes an excellent
fertilizer (Fig. 20).
A large part of the
Coastal Plain is still over-
grown with a pine forest.
This forest is one of the
most valuable of the nat-
ural resources, and fur-
nishes much of the lumber
used in the Southern states and even in the Northern
states for building purposes. There are also large cypress
groves in the Southern states, where lumber is obtained.
Near the coast, where the climate is warm enough,
Fig. 20. This is a phosphate-mining plant in Florida. The phosphate
rock is dug out of pits, loaded onto little cars, and carried to the crushers,
where it is ground up. The state of Florida produces half the world's
supply of phosphate rock. For what is it used ?
0 EcjatoM VUw Co.
Fig. 21. These men are cultivating a rice held on the Coastal Plain. Rice
is not a native grain of North America, but came originally from Asia. In
1694 the governor of South Carolina planted a little rice in his garden, and
it grew 80 well that the industry was started in this country
Fig. 22. After the rice is harvested it is threshed in a machine which
separates the kernels from the straw. This view shows the threshing
machine and the stack of straw in the background, and in the foreground the
bags of rice ready to be shipped. What states produce rice ?
16
ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN
Fig. 23. These negroes are picking cotton on a Southern plantation. As
yet no one has invented a successful machine for picking the cotton fiber
and seeds from the pod, so the work is done by hand. What are the chief
cotton-growing states ? In what two natural regions is the cotton grown ?
The greatest cotton-producing region in the world is
located in the Southern states, where the climate is warm
(Fig. 23). The large farms are called plantations. The
cotton crop requires the help of thousands of people.
In the fields there is the work of planting, cultivating,
and harvesting. The cotton fiber must be picked from
the bolls by hand and carried to the cotton gins, where
the lint cotton is separated from the seeds and baled.
It is then ready for market.
The seeds of the cotton are sold to the oil mills. In the
mills the seeds are first put through a process by which
all the short lint left on them by the gin is removed ;
this is called linters and is used for making mattresses
and guncotton, and for other purposes. The hulls are then
removed from the seed. The cottonseed hulls make ex-
cellent feed for cattle and are nearly as valuable for this
purpose as hay. The oil is then pressed out of the seed ;
cottonseed oil is used as a substitute for olive oil and
lard and for other purposes. The residue of the seed,
after the oil has been extracted, is called cottonseed-oil
cake ; this cake is ground into meal, and cottonseed
Fig. 24. The petroleum fields of the Gulf Coastal Plain are dotted with
derricks like these, each built over an oil well. The Gulf Field, as the oil
legion of Louisiana and Texas is called, was opened up about 1900, and
since then these two states have become very important producing centers
Fig. 25. Railroad lines run through the broad fields of sugar cane in
Louisiana, and as the cane is cut it is loaded onto the cars and taken to the
mills, where it is crushed and the juice extracted. Louisiana produces
eleven twelfths of the total sugar-cane crop of the country
meal is used for cattle feed and for fertilizer. It is ver}'
rich in nitrogen and is largely used in commercial
fertilizers for furnishing this element.
The Southern cotton plantations have a dangerous
enemy in the cotton-boll weevil, an insect which attacks
the cotton plant and destroys the fibers in the boll. The
United States government is making a great effort to
kill off these insects in the areas where they have estab-
lished themselves, and to prevent their causing further
damage by spreading to other cotton-growing districts.
More and more of the cotton grown in the Southern
states is now being manufactured into cloth in the South.
The cotton mills are operated by water-power, steam-
power, and hydroelectric power.
From the earliest days of colonization rosin and turpen-
tine have been obtained from pine resin. These products
are commonly called naval stores, because they were
used in preparing wooden ships for the water (Fig. 32).
In New Jersey the sands of the Coastal Plain are used
in the manufacture of glass, and the clays from the low-
lands have led to the establishment of the pottery business.
Since the discovery of petroleum, or natural oil, in
Louisiana and Texas these states have rapidly developed
a large oil business. Large quantities of the petroleum
obtained from the ground are piped to ports on the
coast and then shipped to industrial centers. A great
amount of sulphur is mined in these two states, and
Louisiana produces great quantities of salt.
ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN
17
History of settlement.
The Coastal Plain is espe-
cially interesting to us
from a historical stand-
point. Provincetown, pro-
tected by a curved sand
bar, or hook, at the tip end
of Cape Cod, has grown
up near where the Pil-
grims first landed in Amer-
ica before making their
settlement at Plymouth.
When settlers came to
Delaware Bay, to Chesa-
peake Bay, and to the
mouths of navigable riv-
ers farther south, they
moved upstream to the head of navigation. That was
at the inner margin of the Coastal Plain. See maps on
pages 23 and 35. At that line falls were encountered
in the rivers, and the ocean-going vessels had to stop.
Where falls were met in the James River, Richmond
was established. The colonists who moved up Chesa-
Fig. 26. This is a great sugar refinery in Louisiana. The raw sugar, which is the crystallized juice crushed from
the cane, is brought here to be purified. First it is melted, then filtered and cleared, and finally recrystallized into
the white sugar of commerce. Where does the raw sugar for this refinery come from ?
that were there. The line connecting these cities is called
the/aZZ line. It is the western boundary of the Atlantic
Coastal Plain, and it continues westward, forming the
northern boundary of the eastern part of the Gulf
Coastal Plain. See map on pages 2 and 3.
In the Southern states a number of early settlements
peake Bay located Baltimore at the inner margin of were made near the mouths of the larger rivers, and
the Coastal Plain. Those who attempted to go up the they became seaports, such as Wilmington (North Caro-
Schuylkill stopped at the falls in that river and founded
a settlement that has grown into the great city of Phila-
delphia. In trying to go up the Delaware River, falls
were encountered where Trenton is now located.
Columbia, in South Carolina, is at the head of naviga-
lina), Charleston, Savannah, Jacksonville, Mobile, and
New Orleans.
Several of the early Spanish and French explorers came
to the mouth of the Mississippi and went up that river
into the interior of the continent. See Appendix, Plate A.
tion, as are Augusta, Macon, and Columbus in Georgia, The names in the Mississippi Valley, such as New Orleans,
and Montgomery in Alabama. Many other cities have Baton Rouge, and St. Louis, suggest that the French
grown up along this inner margin because of the falls nation was interested in this part of North America.
O Ktjn
Fig. 27. The Coastal Plain sands of the shores
of sonthern Florida support a large growth of
coconut palms. This view shows the clusters
of coconuts growing around the trunk of the tree
Fig. 28. These men are harvesting Indian River pine-
apples. Pineapple-growing has recently become an
important industry in southern Florida. What con-
ditions make fruit-raising profitable in Florida ?
Fig. 29. Oranges are the most important of the
Florida fruits. Thousands of acres are covered
with thriving groves. Some of the groves contain
lime and grapefruit trees as well as orange trees
18
ATLANTIC AND GULF .COASTAL PLAIN
Fig. 30. Tampa, Florida, is situated on the margin of the Gulf Coastal
Plain at a point where a small river enters Tampa Bay. This view shows
the river and the flat land on which the city is built. The lower channel
of the river (at the right) has been deepened to allow large vessels to enter
The Atlantic portion of the Coastal Plain, as far south
as Florida, is a part of the original territory obtained from
Great Britain by the treaty of 1783, following the Ameri-
can Revolution. Florida was purchased from Spain in
1819. Louisiana and Arkansas are a part of the Louisiana
Territory purchased from France in 1803, and Texas was
annexed to the United States in 1845 (Fig. 191).
Until after the Revolutionary War almost all of the
white people in North America lived in southern New
England or on the Coastal Plain and Piedmont Belt
north of Georgia (Fig. 190). " Piedmont" means at the
foot of the mountain.
Origin of the plain. The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal
Plain was formerly under the ocean. At that time the
continental shelf (see map opposite page 82) was more
than twice as wide as it is to-day. Rivers from the lands
brought sands, gravels, and clays to the shore line, just
as they are bringing such materials to the seashore to-day.
The sands, gravels, and clays thus deposited offshore
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Fig. 31. This is a common sight along the shores of Delaware Bay. The
farmers bring their tomatoes to the wharves in wagons and trucks and
load them onto fiat scows bound for the canneries at Baltimore. Thousands
of tons of Coastal Plain tomatoes are canned every year at Baltimore
from the bay. Tampa is the chief port of export for the Florida phosphate.
The railroad tracks over which the phosphate is carried from the mines to
the storage elevators are at the right in this view. Where is this product
sent from Tampa ? What other products are exported from this Gulf port ?
built up a plain underneath the shallow ocean waters.
Later the land rose, the sea retreated, and the Coastal
Plain came into existence.
The surface soil was enriched by the decay of vege-
table matter, and in time this whole region became
clothed with plant life and with great forests. Most
of the materials
which make up
the Coastal Plain
are soft and loose.
Even a boy would
have difficulty in
finding a stone to
throw. Instead
of bowlder walls,
as in New Eng-
land, the early
inhabitants built
picturesque rail
fences. In place
of marbles, gran-
ites, sandstones,
limestones, and
other hard rocks
similar to those
that form the Ap-
palachian High- -'
lands, the materials of the Coastal Plain usually consist
of loose sands, gravels, marls, loams, and clays.
Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and the broad inlets,
farther south are estuaries, or drowned river mouths,,
due to a late sinking of the coast.
Sand reefs and sand dunes. Use maps on pages 23 ^
25, and 35. Along the shores of the Coastal Plain the:
waves have built sand reefs which inclose, or nearly in-
close, lagoons. These offshore reefs become natural break-
waters. There is one over 100 miles long on the coast,
of Texas ; and in the CaroUnas, Cape Lookout and Cape^
li'Dd«rwood A Underwood.
Fig. 32. Savannah, Georgia, is the largest market
in the country for naval stores. The wharves ar*
crowded with barrels of rosin, tar, and turpentine,.
ready for export. Where will they be sent ?
ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN
19
Hatteras are parts of sand reefs which project as great
points into the Atlantic Ocean. Along the New Jersey
and Long Island coasts there are also offshore reefs.
The sands washed up by the waves on these reefs are
commonly blown into sand dunes, so there is usually a
line of low hills bordering the coast.
When a sand reef is formed near the mouth of a river
or a harbor, the end of it is usually curved. At the open-
ing of New York harbor, Rockaway Beach on Long Island
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Fig. 33. This is a view in the business section of Houston, Texas. The
broad, well-surfaced street, wide sidewalks, and fine business blocks are
typical of the enterprising cities of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Locate Houston
on your map. What are its chief business activities, and why ?
and Sandy Hook on the New Jersey side are both curved
(Fig. 52). The tip end of Cape Cod was formed into a
curved reef, or hook, by the work of waves and shore
currents. This hook protects the harbor of Province-
town. All the land about Provincetown is sand. The
hills here are made of sand blown up by the winds.
Fig. 34. Galveston is built on the end of a sand bar and is open to the full
force of the waves from the Gulf. In 1900 the city was destroyed by
hurricane waves, and since then this great cement sea wall has been built
in order to prevent another such disaster
Coral islands. Along the shore of Florida, where the
sea waters are suflficiently warm, corals have grown and
made little islands and reefs. Corals grow in clear ocean
waters w^here the temperature does not fall below 68°
Fahrenheit and where the depth is not more than 120 feet.
We shall find that there are coral animals in the tropical
seas all around the earth where there are clear, shallow
waters.
Mississippi delta. At the mouth of the Mississippi
River is one of the largest deltas in the world. Each
year the river brings millions of tons of sediment to the
Gulf. If all the material brought in one year were placed
on a square mile, it would be nearly 270 feet high.
When the river water meets the still water of the
Gulf of Mexico, it loses its velocity and so is forced to
drop whatever it is carrying. • The deposits appear first
as bars opposite the mouth of the river, and the la^er
is forced to divide and form two mouths. This procesis
continues until there are several mouths.
Each distinct mouth is called a distributary. It takes
water away from the main stream and thus does a work
that is quite different from the work of a tributary.
ii^ l}ttna fMbiuhiai Co-
Fig. 35. New Orleans is located on a broad bend of the Mississippi River
about one hundred miles above its mouth. This view shows part of the
city and in the distance the low, flat land of the Mississippi delta across
which the river winds its way. Can you explain the origin of this delta ?
The river channel has been deepened so that the largest ocean steamers
can reach New Orleans, making it the most important seaport on the Gulf
of Mexico. Locate New Orleans on your map. What are its exports?
With what countries does it trade? What are some of its chief imports?
20
ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN
Fig. 36. Here is a view in a Mississippi pecan orchard. The nuts are
spread out in trays according to grades and sizes. Nut-raising is a growing
industry in our country, in which the South and the Far West lead. Nuts
are very nutritious, and their use as food is increasing rapidly
Future. The Coastal Plain is a large region with
enough rainfall for agriculture, and with such good soils
that it will surely become a more and more important
agricultural district. The presence of large supplies of
phosphate rock that may be used to fertilize the light
sandy soils is most fortunate. The trees should be cared
for by trained foresters, and thus the supply of timber
and pitch can be made permanent. More nut-bearing
trees and more fruits can be raised (Figs. 36, 37, 38).
More of the swamp lands should be drained.
The Mississippi River can be in part controlled and
forced to deposit more silts on its flood plain. Thus
wet lands are built up and made suitable for farming.
Men should learn how to control this river in such a
way as to prevent disastrous floods. In this way it would
be possible to save some of the rich soils that the river
is all the time carrying to the Gulf of Mexico.
The lowlands of Florida are being drained and made
available for agriculture. The seaside resorts are certain
to become more and more
popular as the cities of
this country become more
crowded. The Coastal
Plain will easily accom-
modate a much larger
population, and with in-
telligent, scientific care
the soils will yield greater
crops, and all who live
there may be prosperous.
The excellent harbors
of the Atlantic and Gulf
Coastal Plain encourage
foreign commerce. With
the ever-increasing trade
of the United States with
the countries of South
America, Central Amer-
ica, Mexico, and the
West Indies the states
of the Atlantic and Gulf
Coastal Plain are sure
to be greatly benefited.
Fig. 38. A single peanut vine, showing
the full-grown nuts and the little nodules
on the roots which extract nitrogen
from the air in the soil and store it up
for food for the vine. When the plant
decays, the nitrogen from the nodules
enriches the soil
Fig. 37. This is a field of Virginia peanut vines. The blossoms come out
near the base of the vine and are at once covered with earth. Thus the
peanuts develop underground but are attached to the branches of the vine,
not the roots. What are the uses of the peanut ?
Problems and review questions. 1. How may the absence of hard
rocks in the Coastal Plain be explained ? 2. What is the reason
for the great bays indenting this coast ? What is an estuary ?
3. How are deltas formed ? What proof is there that the Missis-
sippi Kiver made the delta at its mouth ?
4. What is the relationship of the continental shelf to the
Coastal Plain ? 5. How were the sand reefs bordering the coast
formed ? 6. Explain the presence of sand dunes on many of
these reefs. 7. Explain the formation of lakes in the Mississippi
River flood plain.
8. Why did the early settlers who came to this coast move in-
land rather than settle on the shore ? 9. Why did they stop and
build settlements at the inner margin of the Coastal Plain ?
10. Where were some of the early settlements ? 11. What is the
fall line ? j
12. Why is this part of the United States an agricultural dis- |
trict ? 13. What conditions found here are favorable for raising
cotton, rice, sugar cane, citrous fruits, tobacco ? 14. What indus-
tries have the southern forests developed ? 15. In what part of
Louisiana has oil been discovered ? 16. What European peoples
sent exploring parties to this portion of America ?
NORTHEASTERN INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT
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26
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
Fig. 40. These are the great steel works at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, where
iron is made into hard, strong steel. The making of steel is one of the most
important manufacturing industries in our country, for without steel very
little manufacturing, building, or transportation would be possible. Steel
SOUTHERN DIVISION OP THE APPALACHIAN
HIGHLANDS
We shall open the study of this region by examining
several maps.
MAP STUDIES
( Use map on pages S and 3 and refer also to maps on pages 13, S3, and 35)
1. This division of the Appalachian Highlands extends from
the Hudson River to central Alabama. How far is that ? Use
map scale. 2. What are the mountain and plateau subdivisions
of this region ?
3. Where is the Blue Ridge ? 4. Where are the Catskill
Mountains ? Of what plateau are they a part ? 5. How high
is Mount Mitchell, North Carolina ? Is Mount Washington,
New Hampshire, as high ? 6. North of Virginia, which way
does the drainage go from the Appalachian Mountains ?
7. Which way does it go from the southern part of the
Appalachian Mountains ? 8. What are the larger rivers in
the northern part ? in the southern part ? 9. What states are
within or partly within this division of the Appalachian High-
lands ? 10. What natural regions border the Appalachian
Highlands? ' ■
Home work. 1. Select any pictures you have of this part of
the country and bring them to school. 2. Write brief studies of
your pictures, like those under the views in this book.
An industrial region. This division of the Appalachian
Highlands is a great industrial region. It is one of the
busiest sections of the United States. It includes the
densely populated districts in New York, New Jersey,
and Pennsylvania, and extends southwestward to the in-
dustrial section of northern Alabama. Locomotives, steel
rails, steel vessels, warships, guns, and munitions are
manufactured here on a large scale (Fig. 40). The Dela-
ware valley has become the greatest shipbuilding district
is necessary for all kinds of machinery ; farmers must have implements
made partly of steel ; great buildings need strong steel frameworks ; loco-
motives and automobiles must have many steel parts. In what ways does
the manufacturer depend upon the miner, and the miner upon the farmer ?
in the world. Most of the steel trusses for the bridges
and the steel beams for the great skyscrapers are made
in this region, as well as all kinds of heavy hardware.
Mining and lumbering are very important occupations
in this part of the United States, and in places much of
the wood of the forests is made into pulp which is used
in making paper. Most of the cities are manufacturing
centers.
Natukal Resources
Sources of power and raw materials. There are large
supplies of coal, oil, gas, and water-power in this region.
These are sources of power, and man must have power
in all manufacturing pursuits.
Iron is found in the Appalachian Mountains and in
the Adirondacks, and great quantities are brought from
the Lake Superior district.
There are many seaports, many waterways, and a net-
work of railways (Figs. 42, 43). Raw materials are readily
brought to this region, and manufactured articles are
easily shipped to all parts of the world.
To understand the great development of the indus-
trial life in this region it will be necessary, as well as
interesting, to study certain of the natural resources
upon which it is dependent.
Coal is found in the ground, usually in great layers. If
mining men know that coal is to be found deep below the
surface, they sink a shaft (which is like a well) into the
ground until they reach the coal seam. Then the coal is
broken out and brought to the surface. Little by little
the men underground take out the coal under acres or
square miles of the land, while the surface of that land
is perhaps being used for agriculture (Fig. 41).
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
27
The coal resources in this
region, and farther west in
the great Mississippi Valley,
underlie thousands of square
miles. The United States
is wonderfully fortunate in
having svtch vast quantities
of coal.
Natural oil and gas. When
indications of oil or gas are
noticed, deep holes are bored
into the ground ; and if there
is oil or gas there, it will
come toward the surface
through pipes that are put
down as the boring proceeds.
Gas is commonly used as
fuel or for lighting purposes.
Natural oil, or petroleum,
furnishes a large number of
useful products. As it comes
from the ground it is usu-
ally a thick, dark-green substance
Coal
aJter
Fig. 41. The layers of sandstone, shale, limestone, coal, and fire clay shown
in this drawing were nearly horizontal when they were made, but they
were all upturned when the Appalachian Mountains were formed. The
rain and the rivers wore away some of the surface, and men discovered the
seams of coal. Then the men dug a deep hole, or shaft, and drove tunnels
that crossed the layers of coal. Now the miners can easily break out the
coal and let it drop into small cars that are taken to the shaft and lifted
to the surface. The fire clay is also mined. In coal fields away from the
mountains the layers of coal are usually horizontal
channels and are having a
difficult time to cut them
away. In such places falls
and rapids occur, and there
men construct dams and
put in power plants.
Sometimes the force of
the falling water is usedi
directly to turn mill wheels
and thus keep machinery
running. Often the falling
water turns wheels that
generate electricity. This
is changing or transforming
one kind of energy into
another. Such plants are
called hydroelectric plants.
The electricity is a very
convenient form of energy
and may be used for the
benefit of man in many
different ways.
When it is heated, Salt and gypsum are found at a number of places in
naphtha and gasoUne are driven off as vapors and may New York State (Fig. 72). The salt is far below the sur-
be condensed into liquids. Kerosene is another product.
Our common oils for machinery come from petroleum.
Vaseline is one of the products, and also paraffin, which
is used in making candles.
Water-power. In addition to the fuels as sources of
energy there is a remarkable amount of water-power in
this region. The map on page 21 shows where a num-
ber of the large water-power plants are located. The
waterfalls in the northern part of the district are due
to the changes in drainage, caused by the glaciers, just
as those in New England were caused (p. 10). South
of the land of glacial action (see map, p. 21) water-power
is developed where streams have hard rocks in their
face and is a great layer of rock. The gypsum is also a
layer of rock, but it is nearer the surface than the salt.
These deposits are a proof that there were formerly inland
seas in this part of North America. When the seas dried up
the salt and gypsum that had been in the water were left.
Map and picture studies. Use the maijs on pages 23 and 35.
1. Make a list of the resources that man gets from the ground in
the Southern Division of the Appalachian Highlands. 2. "Which
ones, when used, are gone forever ?
3. Which ones may be used more than once ? 4. Study Fig. 41.
6. Where is iron shown on these maps ? 6. What building stones
are shown ? There are other excellent building stones in this region.
Home work. 1. Find out how coal was made. 2. Find out how
coke and other valuable products can be obtained from coal.
%
^^^
ifld^
tTI
^^__ %
1
->.-
ta^^^
Sr^^
* "^^^'''^^i>^r^
isata^
:;;:
Fig. 42. Here is a section of one of the great railroads of the state of New
York, where six tracks run parallel to one another. Above each track is the
•ignal which tells the engineer whether to go ahead or to slow down. If it
is upright, the track is clear; if it is down, there is a train ahead
Fig. 43. The electric engine is fast coming into use on our modern railroads.
It makes traveling far cleaner and more comfortable and ia easier to run
than the steam engine. It carries no coal car and needs no stokers. How
will the increased use of hydroelectric power afiect railroading ?
28
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
Fig. 44. This little girl is feeding the chickens on Fig. 45. These little kids live on the same farm. Fig. 46. These are the fine, strong oxen which are
a government experiment farm in Maryland. Our Goats are not very common in the United States, used in the mountainous parts of the Southern
government runs many experiment stations in and the government is experimenting to see Appalachians for hauling logs in places where
order to discover the best farming methods whether goat-raising would pay the farmer railroads have not been built as yet
Soils. Soils are of the greatest importance to a com-
munity, and it is wise conservation to keep up their
fertility. For this purpose special nitrogen-fixing crops
(Fig. 38), such as clover and alfalfa, or soy beans and
peas, may be planted, and fertilizers may be used. The
continuous prosperity of our nation will depend more
upon the fertility of our soils than upon any other one
of our natural resources.
In the northern portion of this region (including most
of New York State), the northern part of New Jersey,
and a little of Pennsylvania the soils are of glacial origin.
See map on page 21. The glacial soils vary because they
are made of different kinds of rocks, which were ground
up, or pulverized, by the movement of the glacier ; some
are stony, some are heavy clays, others are sandy and
gravelly, but most of them are fertile soils.
South of the line of ice action the soils were made
during long periods of rock decay (Fig. 48). Those periods
were probably millions of years in length. Each time
that the rocks are heated by the sun and then cooled they
expand and contract and thus are weakened. Each time
that water freezes in the cracks of the rock it expands
and opens the cracks a little more, just as the formation
of ice may break a bottle or a pitcher. Each time that
a root gets into a crack and grows it helps to widen the
crack, and sometimes roots of trees break rocks. As
plants decay and as animals burrow through the loose
material the soil becomes finer and finer until a surface
loam is made.
Forests. See Figs. 49, 50, and 51. The soil in a forest
is loose and porous, and much of the rainfall easily sinks
into the ground. Thus there is less water to rush down
the hillsides and cause floods. The water which sinks into
the ground percolates through the soil and gradually finds
its way into the streams, thus preventing them from dry-
ing up. In the shade of the forest also the surface water
evaporates slowly. Thus droughts are prevented. In
portions of this region where the forests have been
removed from the mountain sides heavy rainfalls often
cause disastrous floods. At other times droughts occur
because the rain waters, instead of sinking into the
ground, have poured down the hillsides and been lost.
, ,• sflimwawgwifi
'•\i<T
Fig. 47. Dairying is very important in the Southern Appalachians. The
great round dairy bam in which this herd of cattle lives will hold four
hundred and fifty cows. In the center of the barn is a big silo, in which one
thousand tons of green feed can be stored for the cows to eat in winter
Fig. 48. This is a farming scene in a part of the Southern Appalachians
which is south of the glacial line. Notice the careful way in which the
soil has been plowed and left in clean, even furrows, ready for planting
the seed. How have the soils in this part of the region been made?
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
29
Fig. 49. In the mountains of South Carolina and Georgia the lack of snow
makes it impossible to haul the logs from the lumbering districts on sleds.
Instead they are often taken out over narrow-gauge railroad lines. In this
view the great logs are being loaded onto the cars by a steam crane
Fig. 50. Sometimes the logs are allowed to slide down a trough, or chute,
from the mountain side to the sawmill. This view shows the chute in the
background, almost hidden by steam, and the mill where the logs are
sawed into boards. What is the advantage of using the log chute ?
The roots of the trees help to bind the soils and keep Location and growth of cities. At the southeast margin
them on the mountain slopes. The presence of the forest, of the highlands are the fall-line cities, beginning, at the
therefore, is beneficial in ma"ny ways, in addition to sup- north, with New York and ending, at the south, with
plying lumber, wood pulp, and pitch.
To-day there are national forests in the southern por-
tions of the Appalachian Mountains. The government
has purchased thousands of acres, where trees will be
planted and cared for by trained foresters.
Climate. The prevailing winds throughout this belt
come from the southwest, and many of the storms that
pass over the country come from the
southwest and move northeastward.
Some storms come from the west
or northwest and then change and
move northeastward.
In the higher mountains the rain-
fall amounts to over 60 inches a
year, but in the lower portions of the
country the annual rainfall is from
40 to 50 inches. Heavier rainfall in
the higher mountains is due to the
fact that the winds coming to these
mountains must rise to such eleva-
tions that the water-vapor in the air
is cooled and forms tiny drops of
water that float in the air as clouds
until the drops become too large,
when they fall as rain. The rainfall
in this region is sufficient for all
agricultural uses and for domestic
and industrial purposes. The water-
power is chiefly dependent upon the
heavy rainfall in the mountains.
CvurtMj ut Um U. S- Forest bentofl
Fig. 51. These men are fighting a forest fire in the
Southern Appalachians. Fires of this kind are
usually started through carelessness, and they de-
stroy millions of dollars' worth of timber each year
Montgomery, Alabama. See majis on pages 23 and 35.
Each of these cities is located on navigable waters, and
most of them have the advantage of water-power.
Another group of important cities includes those located
within the Appalachian Highlands on large rivers ; such
cities as Harrisburg and Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and
V/heeling and Huntington in West Virginia.
A third group of leading cities
includes those that owe their loca-
tion to the presence of some partic-
ular natural resources. Birmingham,
Alabama, is near the iron and coal
of the southern Appalachian Moun-
tains, and Scranton and Wilkes-Barre,
in Pennsylvania, are in the midst of
the hard-coal field of that state.
Many of the cities of this natural
region owe their location to the
local development of prosperous
farming communities.
The business of a manufacturing
city may be divided into three parts :
(1) the gathering of raw materials;
(2) the manufacture of commodities ;
and (3) the distribution of the manu-
factured goods. To carry on its busi-
ness each industrial center demands
good transportation facilities to and
from the city, and some source of
power to turn the wheels of its mills.
30
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
The city of New York has the largest population of all
the cities in the world and outranks all others in export
and import trade. Its excellent harbor affords a port
for the largest vessels (Fig. 52). Raw materials may be
brought from all parts of the world to this center, and
In addition to its commercial advantages, New York is
but a short distance from a large supply of fuel. From
the Appalachian fields coal and oil are quickly and easily
brought to the city for use in the large factories.
The leading industries in New York are the manu-
manufactured goods may easily be shipped to all parts facture of clothing and machinery, printing and book-
of the world. This location on the seashore, therefore, making, meatrpacking, and the refining of sugar. New
\s one of the most desirable places in the United States York has become the leading financial center of the
for a city. In addition, New York has the advantage of world. There are many banks and insurance companies
with large capital, and most of the
great industrial houses of America
have offices in the city (Fig. 53).
The borough of Brooklyn devel-
oped as a large independent city
across the river from New York
City, but it has now become a
part of the metropolis. It is an
important center for the refining
of sugar "and the roasting and
grinding of coffee and spices.
Eastward from Brooklyn and
northward along the banks of the
Hudson River are chains of
suburban towns where Inany of
the people live who work each
day in the metropolis.
To the west, across the Hudson'
River, are Hoboken, Jersey City,
and Newark. These three cities
are in New Jersey, but they have
many of the same great geo-
graphic advantages that New
York City has.
In addition to the busy indus-
trial and commercial life of the
city. New York is one of the
leading educational and musica
centers of this country, and it is for-
tunate in having wonderful collec-
tions of natural history and of art.
© ijiCD and Companj
Fig. 52. This is an aeroplane drawing of New York City and its surroundings. The city originally occupied
only the island of Manhattan, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Trace the outline of the island in this
view. In the last twenty-five years the city has grown so fast that it has spread out over the surrounding
territory until it now includes nearly all the area shown in this view east of the Hudson River and all of
Staten Island. The mainland west of the Hudson is part of the state of New Jersey
being at the mouth of an important river. Northward
from New York is the busy highway of travel through
the valley of the Hudson, and equally important is the
valley of the Mohawk, leading westward from Albany.
By the Hudson-Mohawk route supplies of raw material
for manufacture, and great quantities of food, are brought
from the rich agricultural lands of the interior.
During the French and Indian War and the American
Revolution the valley of the Hudson was a center of
great struggle, for its possession by an enemy meant the
separation of the only two thickly- settled districts of
America and the isolation of New England (Fig. 39).
Picture study. Study Fig. 62 carefully. 1. What natural advan-
tages has New York as a port ? 2. Describe the kind of country
around the city. Using this aeroplane view, with Fig. 39 and the
map on page 35, answer the following questions : 3. To what
natural region do Staten Island and Long Island belong ? 4. In
what natural region are IVIanhattan Island, Jersey City, and
Newark located ? 5. In what state is Sandy Hook ? 6. Why should
there be sand bars near the entrance to New York harbor ? 7. Whal
great natural highway leads northward from New York ? 8. Whj
is most of the trade between New York and the West carried oiT
over this highway rather than over a direct route from New York
to Chicago ? 9. What industrial cities other than New York are
shown in Fig. 52 ? 10. Where do they get their raw materials ?
their fuel ?
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
31
Fig. S3. This view shows the lower end of Manhattan Island as it appears
from the west bank of the Hudson. This is the business and financial center
of New York City, and the office buildings are commonly known as sky-
scrapers, because they are so high. The waterfront here is lined with long
Yonkers is chiefly a city of residences for people who
are in business in the city of New York.
Albany, the capital of New York, is near the head of
tidewater on the Hudson (Fig. 54). To the west is the
Mohawk Valley, with the Erie and Barge canals ; to
the north is the Champlain Valley, leading to Canada ;
to the east is the best route to Boston ; and to the south
is the Hudson Valley route to New York. Albany is at
the crossing of great trade routes. See maj) on page 21.
Troy is located at the head of steamboat navigation on
the Hudson River and near the eastern end of the New
York Barge Canal. It is famous for the manufacture of
collars, cuffs, and shirts.
Schenectady, on the Mohawk, manufactures electrical
supplies and locomotives (Fig. 55).
Utica is another Mohawk River city ; it is one of the
leading knitting and cotton mill cities in the coimtry.
piers which jut out into the river. Between them are the deep-water docks,
which receive the largest ocean liners. How is the general shape of New
York favorable to shipping ? What are its principal exports ? With what
countries does New York trade chiefly ? What are some of its imports ?
Syracuse was located near certain salt springs which
have led to the development of a large industry. Railroad
trade-routes and waterways have led here to the growth
of manufacturing. Many automobiles and bicycles are
made in Syracuse.
Note. For other cities in New York State see page 34.
Philadelphia was founded by the famous Quaker,
William Penn. The name "Pennsylvania" means Penns
loootls, and "Philadelphia" means brotherly love. Here
is the famous Independence Hall (Fig. 58), where one
may see the old bell that first rang out the good news
that the Declaration of Independence had been signed.
The city is located on the Delaware River and is one
of the largest and best seaports of the United States.
Before the opening of. the Erie Canal it was the first city
of the country (Fig. 56). It now ranks third in size.
Fig. 54. Albany, the capital of New York, stands on the steep west bank
of the Hudson River, 160 miles from its mouth. Approaching the city from
the river, you can see the large public buildings on the hill, and below,
along the water-front, the docks, railroad stations, and river boats. Albany
y Felluwicrail Pliow Sfaop, AlbKDy
is an important railroad center. At the right in this view is the bridge
over which all trains from the east must pass to enter Albany. Locate
this cit_y on the map on pages 96 and 97. How many transportation routes
can you trace which pass through Albany or have their terminals there ?
32
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
Iron and coal are not far away, and
Philadelphia has become an industrial
center. More locomotives are made here
than in any other city. The chief
exports come from the great natural
resources of Pennsylvania. The wheat
and flour shipped from Philadelphia
come by rail from the fertile fields of
the interior of the continent.
Washington and the District of
Columbia are very near the falls of the
Potomac, but Washington was not
located for industrial or commercial
purposes. A more detailed description
of the capital city, its location and its
buildings, will be found on page 101.
Pittsburgh. The early routes of westward migration led
settlers to the headwaters of the Ohio Kiver in western
Pennsylvania. See map on pages 2 and 3. Here, at the
junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, the
city of Pittsburgh stands to-day (Fig. 57). In the year 1753
Fig. 65. This is a great locomotive-manufacturing plant at Schenectady, New York. Its buildings
cover acres of land. Schenectady is the center of the locomotive-manufacturing industry of New
York ; the state produces about one fourth of the locomotives of the country. What are the essential
materials for this industry ? Where do the locomotive manufacturers of Schenectady get them ?
George Washington, then a young man of twenty-one,
was sent to warn the French away from the Allegheny
valley. He reported that the point where the Mononga-
hela and Allegheny rivers came together was a very
favorable situation for a fort. Accordingly, in 1754,
the British began to
build a fort there,
but before it was
finished this was
seized by the French
and given the name
Fort Duquesne. The
following summer
Washington tried to
retake the fort. This
attempt resulted in
the beginning of the
French and Indian
War, which ended
in the withdrawal
of the French from
the territory and the
renaming of Fort
Duquesne after the
great English states-
man, William Pitt.
The water routes
made this site favor-
able for the location
and growth of a
large city. Excellent
sandstone for glass-
making is found in
the Ohio valley, and
Pittsburgh is famous
for its plate glass
in &ad Companj
Fig. 56. The beginning of the city of Philadelphia was made at the falls of the Schuylkill River, where it tumbles down
from the hilly country of the Appalachians to the level Coastal Plain. As the city gradually grew in size it came to occupy
all the land between the Schuylkill and the Delaware, and to-day the larger river is much the more important. Its channel
has been deepened so that large ocean vessels can reach Philadelphia, and twenty miles of wharves along the river front
make it possible for hundreds of ships to dock here at one time. For this reason, although Philadelphia is one hundred
miles up the river from the sea, it is really a seaport and has a large foreign trade. This aeroplane view shows parts of two
different natural regions. What are they ? How do they differ in appearance ? What are the chief exports of Philadelphia ?
Where do they come from ? Where are they sent ? What is imported in return ?
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
33
and glassware. Since
coal, iron, limestone,
oil, and gas were
available, Pittsburgh
became the leading
center in this coun-
try for the manu-
facture of iron and
steel. As the iron
and steel industries
expanded, more iron
was required than
it was possible to
secure in Pennsyl-
vania. By that time
the wonderful sup-
plies of iron in the
Lake Superior region
had been discovered,
and these ores are
now brought by boat
to points on Lake
Erie, and then by
rail to Pittsburgh
to supply its great
blast furnaces.
The city enjoyed
a most remarkable
development while
railroads were being built throughout the United States, is located on the Susquehannah River within the moun-
The iron and steel industries made possible the rapid tain area. Coal, iron, and steel are easily available, and
construction of railroads, and thus helped Pittsburgh therefore manufacturing has been undertaken.
G GinB wtd Compear
Fig. 57. Pittsburgh has grown up at the point where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers join to make the Ohio Rirer.
The first settlement was made on the little point of land between the two rivers. From that small beginning the city has
grown to the size which this view shows, spreading out over the tongue of land between the rivers and taking in the settle-
ments on the opposite banks. This aeroplane drawing shows the kind of country which you would see if you were to travel
through the Appalachian Plateau. Can you describe it ? Why was this spot a natural place for a city to grow up ? What
are the important resources of the region around Pittsburgh ? What are the chief industries of the city ? How does it rank
in population among the cities of the United States ? See tables in Appendix
to grow. Later the introduction of
steel skeletons for the great office
buildings, the use of steel in making
freight and passenger cars, and its
substitution for wood in a thousand
other ways brought a great amount
of business to this center of iron and
steel manufacture.
Scranton and Wilkes-Barre are in the
midst of the chief field of hard coal
in the United States. Iron and steel
are available, and with their supply
of coal these cities have become in-
dustrial centers. Reading is beauti-
fully located on the east bank of the
Schuylkill on the margin of the
Appalachian Mountain belt. It is a
busy manufacturing city, specializing
in cotton and woolen goods and boots
and shoes. Harrisburg, the capital,
Fig. 58. No building is dearer to the people of the
United States than Independence Hall in Phila-
delphia. Here the Declaration of Independence
was signed in 1776 and the United States Consti-
tution adopted in 1787
Baltimore is located on the inner
margin of the Coastal Plain. It is
within easy reach of fuel and of
the iron and steel manufactured in
Pennsylvania, and the making of
hardware is one of the important
industries in this city. Baltimore
receives large quantities of tobacco
for manufacture. To-day much of the
tobacco comes from the West Indies
and other tobacco-growing countries
in the tropics, as well as from the
states to the south and southwest.
Note. For a further study of cities in this
natural region see pages 22 and 34.
Rural occupations. In order to
learn what the people in the rural
parts of this region do for a living,
study Figs. 44-48.
34
MAP STUDIES
MAP STUDIES
([7se also map on page 31)
New York State is very fortunate in having a great variety
of surface features, soils, and natural resources. The water-
ways and water-power are exceedingly valuable.
1. Where is the chief fruit-producing district? 2. What
mineral resources are shown in New York? 3. What special
reason was there why the people of this state should develop
dairy farming and gardening ?
Buffalo is at one end of important trade routes from the
Great Lakes to the Atlantic, and New York and Boston are
at the other ends of those routes. Immense supplies of food
and raw materials for manufacture are brought to Buffalo.
Power is supplied from the coal, oil, and gas fields of the
states farther south and by wire from Niagara Falls. The
city has therefore become a manufacturing. center.
Rochester owes its start to the water-power at the falls of
the Genesee. Later the Erie Canal, the railroads, and recently
the Barge Canal, by furnishing good transportation facilities,
have helped to make it a prosperous manufacturing city.
Note. For other cities in New York State see pages 30 and 31.
Pennsylvania. 1. What natural regions extend into this
state ? 2. What sources of power are indicated on the map ?
3. In what part of the state are the oil and gas fields? 4. The
coal in the western part is soft, or bituminous; that in the
east is hard coal, or anthracite. 5. What are some of the im-
portant agricultural products ? 6. What navigable rivers are
available to the people of this state?
Agriculture is important, but fully twice as many people
in Pennsylvania are engaged in mining and manufacturmg
as in farming.
Note. For cities in Pennsylvania see pages 31, 32, and 33.
New Jersey. 1. What natural regions extend into this
state ? 2. What mineral resource is found in the mountain
belt? 3. What resource has led to the development of the
pottery industry ? 4. What source of power led to the location
and helped in the growth of Trenton ? of Paterson ?
Newark is the largest city in the state. It is a manufactur-
ing center specializing in patent leather, jewelry, paints, and
thread. There are many large copper smelters here. Jersey
City enjoys the advantage of New York harbor. It is a
busy manufacturing city. Paterson leads all American cities
in the manufacture of silk.
Trenton, the capital, is at the head of navigation on the
Delaware. It is a fall-line city and the center of the pottery
industry of New Jersey. Camden, opposite Philadelphia, is
an important shipbuilding center. Many who work in Phila-
delphia have their homes in Camden. Atlantic City is one
of the most attractive seaside resorts along the New Jersey
coast.
Delaware. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ?
2. What coal and iron fields are accessible to Wilmmgton ?
3. What advantages has this city in transportation routes ?
Wilmington is located where two small streams from the
upland hilly belt have rapids in their courses and furnish
water-power. It is a fall-line city and the most important in-
dustrial center in Delaware. Its population is about one half
of that of the state. 4. Locate on the map the canal which
connects Delaware and Chesapeake bays. 5. What fruit from
Delaware is best known ? 6. Dover, the capital, is centrally
located in a good agricultural region.
Maryland. 1. What natural regions extend across this
state ? See map on pages 2 and 3. 2. What sources of power
are there in the state? 3. What are the chief crops of
the lowland area? 4. What industries do the shallow salt
waters of Chesapeake Bay encourage ? 5. What is the chief
seaport of this state ? 6. Opposite the mouth of Chesapeake
Bay the imports and exports are shown. With what countries
is most of the trade carried on ?
Annapolis is beautifully located on the shores of Chesapeake
Bay. It is the capital and contains the United States Naval
Academy. Baltimore (see p. 33).
Virginia. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ?
The soil of the Coastal Plain is light and sandy, suitable for
raising fruits, vegetables, and peanuts. 2. What appears to
be the leadmg product of the Piedmont Belt in this state ?
3. What important mineral resource is found in the mountain
area? The majority of the people in Virginia are engaged
in agricultural pursuits. Along the coast and m Chesapeake
Bay oyster fisheries are very important.
Richmond, the capital, is a fall-line city. The water-power
available is used in numerous large manufacturing indus-
tries. Norfolk is fortunately situated near Hampton Roads.
It receives large supplies of coal from the highland region
and has become one of the chief coaling stations for vessels
on the Atlantic coast. Norfolk is one of the largest peanut
markets in the world.
West Virginia. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the
people of this state, and yet West Virginia is very well sup-
plied with mhieral resources and forests. 1. What sources of
fuel are available ? 2. What large navigable river is on the
northwest border of the state ?
Huntington is the largest city in the state. It is located on
the Ohio River and has the advantages of both railway and
water transportation. Charleston, the capital, is in the midst
of one of the greatest coal districts of the state and is sur-
rounded by rich oil and gas fields.
Wheeling is another large city in West Virginia on the
Ohio River. It is situated about 60 miles below Pittsburgh.
Large supplies of coal and iron are available, and this city,
like Pittsburgh, has become a great manufacturing center. In
addition to the iron and steel mills there are large glass works.
GENERAL QUESTIONS
1. Name three important seaports in this group of states.
2. What food supplies do the coast cities import in large quan-
tities ? 3. From what countries do the foods chiefly come ?
4. What raw materials are imported for manufacture ?
5. What city in Europe is in about the same latitude as
New York? 6. Is Chicago farther north than New York?
7. What city on the Mississippi River is in about the same
latitude as Washington, D. C. ?
B
Loneiluda C W—l 7^° from D Gr««iiipi'c* 76°
74^
46
1
MIDDLE ATLANTIC
STATES
ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL MAP
Scale of statute miles
Scale of kilometers
100 300
"ic State capitals
Navi^rablo rivers
I Lowlands
# Chief seaports
I , I Uplands and plateaus
QUE.
I I Central plains
:
] Old. wom-down
I mountains
Military Camps
(J) Madison Barracks. D 2 li Chandler Field. E 4
® Camp Upton. F 3 ® Langley Field. D 6
(5) Camp Dix. E 3 ® Plattsburg. F 1
® Camp Meade. D 4 ® Ft.Niagara. C 2
® Camp Lee. D 5 ® Ft.Myer. D 4
® Miti
MICH.
N T.
&^'^
i;w«'
Suidusky (
f
nd
*'"^°'Y9Ui«*town
I Marion
Cheste
SHEfc^P Wheeling
/
y^^oronto
/ A K
FISH
11 r A R I o
Dunit
Predoj
-■V-. Pottage
ir>?r ^"W^T^^
figwandaMT-gNj
;^[^Salamanca'
'Jarne.stcjwnf'&'' «.
Col
;m -I^OIean
Warifen A^^
ille
:I!sville°fl,
Jthaca
ins
ondaport
irning "
■ t „\U<iberty ^"'«°Viip vi
\ WeUsboro) , 'g'jTowai — , --, .j ■ ' . /,, ii
Oil Ci
ll-lButlettoATS .
r FallaJlL
,oK *^?'"'°" ) Blossburg j5*;Xl JtCarhofcalejjte|b|^„«"J|!3ea<-'
■~ uboi3_^* "ClIki'RT'l. *fa/i. /WVTAsfilei, , N^ton "figmt^'i^f^^''\gf^f-\
i^tawncy
K^:._f:arHKUf\'o„ Lancasiter>.?p5:^'',^furfin^*llH^'''"°-'
Beaver Fall»4Klttannil.B „
\|w]Brii!£tbn ,„di„»„ Tyrone
Er^n'linf"Rtssm«frH"i^a/bu.
Moundsvin*«|S^hS?jSjnionIowil-- rhamhersLn^' "^-^ /r-'^'"''' ? '\"'''?,i'hes^^ljj^'^^'*rt?tj, * /
1 Ga.li4min,,,„ Oi^«H?nnon. K , • , '/^y-W^^to^^^.^inltF^ "^ ^-^ '
/a., ..■diiS:- _. o* i W *r'* EllOns ,'/.#k .,^ ... ^.
RON. STEEL AND
v-oPPtn GOODS
^~' MEAT AND
GRAINS
40
,t iUi^erW^rA.
Kenov^i^!^VvO^
38
Richwood^
raviili
VAnin^^^^*'Charlles^
rrisonbi
3taflnt6n
Dosbafo** \
Front [ioy^J
• Warrciiton ■
LiUray j \
!• ShenandpaK^
Fredericksburg
Cape Ma
M'ilfocdQVQ^Henlopen !
peftgev»wn ^J^^
Kr^ K];,- .Stone
lit Ga), .V. ^<A«<
83' Savannah'B
80^ l-ongituJe C
B (.,
(Q (iitiii ami C'oinpiiiiy
36
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
the interior sea was forced to with-
draw, and a part of the uplifted land
was so compressed that the rocks were
folded and the Appalachian Mountains
were made. The Blue Ridge and Great
Smoky Mountains are parts of the
ancient land which bordered the in-
land sea. The ridges in New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, the Virginias, and south-
ward into Alabama are made of the
upturned edges of great layers of rock
formed in that ancient sea.
The next chapter in the history was
the wearing down of the land by rivers.
Each stream undertook the task of
cutting a valley and of carrying some
Explanation of the physical features. After studying of the land back to the sea. This work is still going on,
the life in this very busy section of the United States, and the rivers have made wonderfully interesting valleys.
where so many millions of people live, it is interesting The great notches in the Appalachian Highlands, such
Courteaj of tne M. Y. Ceutiia R. R.
Fig. 59. This is the Clinton Range in the Adirondack Mountains, one of the most beautiful spots
in the eastern United States. The Adirondacks are located in the northern part of the state of
New York. Their slopes and summits are covered with dense forests, and scattered among them
are beautiful lakes. Are these mountains young and rugged or old and worn down ?
to understand the great physical history of the region.
Over much of this part of the United States there
was formerly an inland sea. That sea stretched west-
ward from what is now the Piedmont Belt into the
present Mississippi Valley. At that time the Piedmont
Belt was a mountainous region. Rivers carried sands,
gravels, and clays into that inland sea. In shallow,
marshy places about the margin of the sea vegetable
matter accumulated which later was buried and made
into coal ; bog iron ores were made ; limestones were
formed which later were changed into marble ; and the
deposits of salt
and gypsum were
left after por-
tions of the sea
had evaporated.
During a long,
long period the
sands and clays,
the vegetable matr
ter, and the iron
accumulated on
the sea bottom.
These deposits
came to be thou-
sands and thou-
sands of feet in
depth. Then, by
means of a great
co.„«, ., u. s. o^:^ s^., crustal movement
Fig. 60. This is the famous Natural Bridge in in the outer part
Virginia. It has been carved out of limestone rock r j.i^ parth the
by the stream which flows under it. To-day the , , tj j
bridge is 200 feet above the stream land was uplifted.
as the Delaware Water Gap, the one near Harrisburg,
and the one at Harper's Ferry, were cut by the streams.
Courlesj of C. P. Berkej
Fig. 61. This is the big Croton Dam near Croton, New York. It is part of
the system of waterworks which supplies the great city of New York with
pure water from the hilly region along the Hudson River. Why is a good
water supply very important to a great city ?
Later the same great ice-sheet which invaded New
England also covered most of New York State, a part
of Pennsylvania, and the northern part of New Jersey
(Fig. 39). As in New England, the ice disarranged the
drainage and made many waterfalls (which now we
look upon as natural resources) and many lakes ; for in-
stance, those in the Adirondacks (Fig. 59), the Finger
Lakes of New York State, and the beautiful lakes of
northern New Jersey. When the ice melted away, a
new soil was left over the invaded country. Vegetation
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
87
began to grow on these new soils, and when men first
came to live here it was a forested or grass-covered region.
The time since the glacier melted away is estimated
at about twenty-five thousand years. During that time,
or what is called the postglacial period in North America,
relatively little has been done, for it is but a short period
in the history of this region. Man has caused the chief
changes in the landscape since the ice melted away.
Home work. 1. On your outline map of the United States,
color in the boundaries of the Middle Atlantic states ; print in the
names of the states ;
locate and name
the capital of each
state. 2. JIake a
list of at least fifty
useful articles made
of iron or steel.
^ Kcj.waa Viow Co.
Fig. 62. These are the middle falls of the Genesee
River at Portage, New York. The river drops
ninety feet here and offers an opportunity for
extensive water-power development
Future. There
is no doubt that
this region, with
its great abun-
dance of natural
resources, will
become increas-
ingly prosperous.
Its many cities
will grow larger,
greater manufacturing plants will be established, and
more railroads will be built. As yet but little of the
available water-power is used. The forests should be
guarded and their cutting and planting directed by
expert foresters, in order that they may become a
permanent source of lumber, pulp, tar, and turpentine.
We have neglected too long in America the care of
our trees. The coal, oil, and gas should not be wasted.
Fig. 63. Lumbering in the Adirondacks is made easy by the winter snows.
A great load of logs like this can be brought out of the woods on a sled,
which slips over the snow so easily that a single pair of horses can draw
it. Contrast this with Figs. 49 and 50
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the three main
subdivisions of the Appalachian Highlands southwest from the
Hudson River ? 2. Why should the central division be moun-
tainous ? 3. Why did this region not become princii)ally an
agricultural region ?
4. What led to the development of manufacturing ? 6. What
must man do to get natural oils and gases out of the ground ?
(J. Where are the chief sources of water-power in New York
State ? 7. How is salt secured from the mines at Syracuse, New
York?
8. Why should the Appalachian Mountains have heavier rain-
fall than the land on either side ? 9. What natural advantages has
New York City? AUmny ? Philadeli)hia? Harrisburg ? Pitts-
burgh ? Birmingham ? 10. What determined the location of the
cities on the southeast margin of this natural region ?
11. What influence did the Aj)palachian Highlands have upon
the distribution of settlements in North America before the
Revolutionary War ? 12. What were the chief lines of westward
migration followed by the pioneers through these highlands ?
Fig. 64. These large iron furnaces are located near Birmingham, Alabama.
A great iron and steel industry has grown up in this district, because the
mountains contain the three raw materials which are absolutely essential
to it, — coal, iron, and limestone. These furnaces are filled with layers of
coke (made from coal), iron ore, and limestone. A great blast of air is
pumped continually through the furnaces, making the coke burn fiercely.
This melts the iron out of the ore. The impurities combine with the lime-
stone, and the liquid metal is allowed to run off into little troughs. This
metal, when hardened, forms the pig iron of commerce. Where is the other
great iron and steel district in the southern division of the Appalachians ?
38
INTERIOR HIGHLANDS
Fig. 65. These men are sorting and packing apples in the famous Ozark fruit
region. The Ozark Plateau is especially well fitted for fruit-growing,
because it is almost never visited by destructive frosts. Can you explain
this ? Notice how the man at the left is finishing packing the barrel
INTERIOR HIGHLANDS
Physical features. Use maps on pages 25 and 55. In
southern Missouri, northern Arkansas, and eastern Okla-
homa are the Interior Highlands. They are a westward
continuation of the Appalachian Highlands. In the south
the Ouachita Mountains are like the Appalachian Moun-
tain ridges, made of the upturned edges of hard layers
of rock. The valley of the Arkansas River is just north
of these mountains, and still farther north come the
Boston Mountains. These mountains have been carved
out of a plateau by rivers which have cut their valleys
deep into the plateau surface. The St. Francis Moun-
tains in Missouri are composed of very ancient rocks like
those in the Great Smoky Mountains in North Carolina.
The rest of the region, north of the Boston Mountains, is
a low plateau more or less dissected by rivers. It is called
the Ozark Plateau (Fig. 65). See map opposite page 82.
West of the Ouachita Mountains, and rising above
the plains, are two small mountain areas, one known as
the Arbuckle Mountains and the other as the Wichita
Mountains. In many parts of the country they would
be called hills. They rise from 400 to 1500 feet above
the surrounding plains, but there are so few elevations
in that region that they are called mountains.
This region extends northward to the Missouri River
and northeastward to the Mississippi River. The White
and Arkansas rivers are the chief drainage lines in the
southern portion of the region.
Natural resources and occupations. This region is nota-
bly rich in lead and zinc. The mines occur chiefly in
southwestern Missouri and northern Arkansas (Fig. G6).
The Boston Mountains and the neighboring country to
the north are heavily forested, so that lumbering is one
of the principal occupations in northern Arkansas.
The Arkansas valley is a fertile farm land bordering
the Arkansas River, and many of the smaller valleys are
suitable for farming. The raising of fruit has become
an important occupation in northern Arkansas and
southern Missouri.
Cities. Jefferson City, the capital of Missouri, is located
at the northern margin of the Interior Highlands and
on the Missouri River. Springfield and Joplin in Missouri
are among the more important places, and Fayetteville,
Arkansas, where the state university is located, is in the
midst of a farming and fruit-raising district. Fort Smith,
Arkansas, is a manufacturing and trading center. Near
that city are coal, oil, and natural gas which may be
used for fuel.
Future. The future of this region depends chiefly upon
the further development of the mining of lead and zinc,
and upon agriculture and forestry. The Ouachita Moun-
tains are as yet but sparsely settled. They serve as a
grazing land, and perhaps, with the ever-increasing
demand for wool, more sheep will be raised there.
The large supplies of fuel near Fort Smith and farther
west in Oklahoma should encourage an expansion in
manufacturing.
Problems and review questions. 1. Name and locate the moun-
tain areas within this region. 2. What are the chief occupations
of the people ? 3. What further use might be made of the moun-
tainous portions ? 4. What large river flows through this region ?
What other navigable streams are available ? 5. What are the
chief natural resources ? 6. Why is there not a large population
in this region ? 7. Name the chief cities of this natural region.
5 Keystone View Co.
Fig. 66. This is a view of the zinc and lead mines near Joplin, Missouri.
At the left is the tall shaft house, which is built over the mine. At the
right, the building with the tall chimneys is the smelter, where the lead
and zinc are melted and separated from the sulphur in the ores
CENTRAL PLAINS
39
. s
^^^^pjgj
»_^* a::^ ^ . — ^ ^ _
Fig. 67. This is an aeroplane view of the beautiful falls of the Niagara
Kiver. On the left are the American Falls and on the right the Horseshoe,
or Canadian, Falls. Because they belong partly to the United States and
partly to Canada, the two governments have made a treaty regarding the
CENTRAL PLAINS
This is not only a remarkable farming district but it
is so fortunate in waterways, water-power, coal, oil, gas,
and many mineral resources that it has become a great
industrial district. It is one of the busiest regions in
the United States.
Location and extent. Use map on pages 2 and 3. The
Central Plains form part of each of the states of the
upper Mississippi Valley and extend eastward into New
York State. They extend westward from the Appala-
chian Highlands, and northward from the Coastal Plain
and Interior Highlands, to the margin of the Laurentian
Uplands. East of Lake Superior the boundary of the
Central Plains region is north of the United States.
Fig. 68. These men are Michigan grape-growers. They raise the sweet
Concord and Niagara grapes which are popular throughout the country as
table fruit. In what part of Michigan is this industry located ? In what
other parts of the eastern United States is grape-growing important?
Why are these areas near bodies of water?
Wide World Photo*
use of the water-power. If all the water flowing over the falls were used,
5,800,000 horse-power could be developed for use in manufacturing. But
this would destroy the beauty of the falls, so the two governments have
agreed never to use more than one fourth of the available water-power
In traveling westward we do not find a sudden change
in the type of country when passing from the Central
Plains to the Great Plains. We gradually leave a well-
watered region, where general farming is carried on and
where there are wood-lots and some forested areas, and
come into a country where there is little but broad
expanses of grasslands suitable for grazing.
Supplement this study of the map by a careful exam-
ination of Figs. 67-91, inclusive.
Climate. The prevailing winds in the Central Plains
are from the southwest, and the storms which bring the
daily weather changes move eastward over the area. In
the southern portion, where the Central Plains extend
into Texas, the weather is never very cold ; but far to
the northwest, in Minnesota and the Dakotas, the ther-
mometer falls to 30 and even 40 degrees below zero
during the winter.
Snows are heavy in the northern portion but light
in the southern parts. The rainfall, except at the very
western margin, is enough for agriculture, and much
of it comes during the growing season of the plants.
See rainfall map on jJage 82.
The Great Lakes modify the climate by cooling the air
that blows over them in summer and warming the air
that blows over them in the fall. That is because the
lands become heated more rapidly than the bodies of
water, and when fall comes they cool off more rapidly
than the water. Sometimes the heat that is given off
by the water prevents frosts on the lands near by. This
is especially true in the southern peninsula of Michigan,
and so that part of the state has become a fruit^raising
district (Fig. 68 and map, p. 45). The western part of
New York State and the northern part of Ohio are also
for this reason excellent fruit-producing districts.
40
CENTRAL PLAINS
addition of decayed vegetable and animal matter always
helps to make a good soil.
Oil and gas. The chief center for the refining of oil
near Chicago is Whiting, Indiana. When the oil flows
from the ground or is pumped out, it is commonly put
into reservoirs or tanks, or started directly through
large pipe lines to the centers where it is to be used.
Fig. 69. The blue grass of Kentucky makes an excellent quality of hay and
has given its name to the north central part of the state, which is known
as the Blue Grass Country. The men in this view are working the seed out
, , of the hay and putting it in bags for market
Natural Resources
Soils. First in importance are the soils. They are
fundamental to the prosperity of any people. This exten-
sive area is especially fortunate in having a large variety
of very fertile soils. Throughout the greater part of the
Fig. 70. The rich limestone soils of Kentucky have made it the leading
tobacco-producing state in the country. Much of the tobacco is grown under
covers of white cloth, as shown in this view. What are the other important
products of Kentucky ? How have the Kentucky soils been made ?
Oil is pumped through pipes from the Kansas oil fields..
northern portion most of the soils are of glacial origin, as far as Chicago, — a distance of nearly 600 miles. The
The great ice-sheets (Fig. 14) which invaded the United oil from southern Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio is sent in
States covered a large portion of the Central Plains, that way to the outskirts of Chicago. Part of the oil
See map on images 2 and 3. Each
time the ice came it brought Cana-
dian soils. It ground up, or pulver-
ized, the rocks as it moved southward,
and upon melting left everything
that it had picked up on its way.
In the driftless area of the upper
Mississippi Valley {see map, p. 45)
there are no glacial soils, and south
of the limit of ice action the Cen-
tral Plains are without glacial drift.
In those parts the soils have been
formed by the decay or breaking up
of the rock formations. Shale is
simply a hardened clay, and when
softened and broken up into small
particles it becomes a clay again. '
Limestones also make clay soils. The
rich soils of the Blue Grass Coun-
try of Kentucky came from the
decay of limestones (Figs. 69, 70).
When sandstones are broken up fine
enough, they make sandy soils. The
Underwood k Underwood
Fig. 71. In Minnesota the iron deposits are so near
the surface that mining consists simply in digging
out the ore from the sides of a great pit in the
earth and loading it onto cars which are run
directly into the pit
of Oklahoma is sent northward, and
part is sent southward for shipment
from Gulf ports. Much of the Texap.
oil is piped to the Gulf ports.
The natiural gases have long been
used as a source of fuel and light in
the districts where they are found.
When a hole is bored into the rocks,
where there is gas, the gas will come
out freely and must be captured and
stored for use. In some portions of
the country, where preparations have
not been made to save the gas, it has
all escaped. Sometimes the escaping
gas from wells has become lighted
and for many years has burned day
and night like a great torch. The
gas thus wasted could have brought
comforts and even wealth to thou-
sands of people.
Coal and iron. When coal and iron
are found near together, manufactur-
ing industries are almost certain to be
CENTRAL PLAINS
41
developed. This was the case in the Appalachian High-
lands, where Pittsbm-gh and Birmingham are located,
and in the chain of cities at the eastern margin of the
Appalachian Highlands.
The coal supply in this region is abundant. There
are thousands of square miles underlain with a good
grade of soft, or bituminous, coal. At each locality
Ik
Fig. 72. Along the water front at Buffalo you can see the big lake freighters
loading and unloading their cargoes. Hundreds of these freighters are in use
on the Great Lakes, running between the eastern and western ports. What
products do they carry going east? going west ? At what ports do they call?
where tests have been made, there is more than one
seam or layer of coal beneath the surface.
The iron used in the Central Plains comes from the
Laurentian Uplands just outside the region (Fig. 71).
The iron is shipped to Milwaukee, Chicago, South
Chicago, Gary, Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, Erie, and
Buffalo. Each one of these cities has been greatly bene-
fited by the supply of iron coming by water, and by the
nearness of the coal and oil fields.
C'ourCeBj of Dr. Johu M. Clarke
Fig. 73. This is a model of a salt-producing plant in New York. The salt is
found in a bed 100 feet thick and 2200 feet underground. Fresh water is forced
down the pipe beneath the derrick at the right and allowed to dissolve all
the salt it can. Then the brine is pumped up the pipe at the left into tanks,
where heat is used to evaporate the water. The unrefined salt which is left
is then cleaned and purified and finally put into barrels ready for market
Salt has been discovered far below the surface of the
ground at several places in New York and in the south-
ern part of Michigan. New York contains some of the
most valuable salt mines in the world, and Michigan
now produces thousands of tons of salt each year.
Waterways. The Great Lakes furnish the most re-
markable continuous route of inland waterways in the
world, and are the largest bodies of fresh water (Fig. 74).
In St. Marys River, which flows from Lake Superior to
Lake Huron, there are rapids ; and in the Niagara River
Copper is brought from the Lake Superior mining there are falls (Fig. 67). The rapids of the St. Marys
district to each of the large industrial cities on the
Great Lakes. Some of it is reshipped for use in the
more distant Eastern cities.
Lead and zinc. Much of the lead and zinc ores of the
Interior Highlands is shipped northward to the vicinity
River are avoided by the two Soo Canals, one on the
Canadian side and one on the American side ; and the
falls in the Niagara River (Fig. 67), that made all travel
by boat between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario impossible,
are avoided by the Welland Canal. See map on page 35.
By means of these canals a continuous waterway is pro-
of Chicago. In addition to that supply the Central Plains
have a lead-and-zinc-producing district which extends vided from Lake Superior to the St. Lawrence River
from southwestern Wisconsin
into northwestern Illinois.
Lead and zinc smelters are
located at La Salle and Peru,
Illiuois, where there is coal
that ia used in smelting the
ores. Chicago and the other
manufacturing cities of the
Central Plains are ready to buy
such useful metals as fast as ^^S- "^^^ This diagram shows the total depth of each of the Great Lakes and the height of its surface above
thp ^mpltintr nlants arp nhlo tr» *** level. Study the figure carefully. Which lake has the highest elevation above sea level? Between what
* " two lakes is there the greatest difference in elevation ? What is the deepest lake ? the second deepest ? Are
produce them. all t^e lake bottoms below sea level ? What river carries the lake waters to the ocean ?
42
CENTRAL PLAINS
Portions of the St. Lawrence River are so blocked by The Mississippi River has been dammed at Keokuk,
rock islands and rock ledges in the channel that canals Iowa (Fig. 75), and the electricity generated there is
have been built parallel to 'parts of the stream. With transmitted more than a hundred miles to be used for
the help of these canals
ocean-going vessels may go
directly from the mouth
of the St. Lawrence to the
westernmost lake ports.
In addition to being of
great value in commerce,
the Great Lakes provide
large supplies of fish and
furnish water to many of
the cities on their shores.
The lakes are a constant
source of pleasure to those
who live near them or have
opportunities to travel upon
them. Thousands of summer
homes border their shores.
The Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, and many of their
tributaries are navigable. See maps on jmges 45 and 55.
They form a wonderful system of inland waterways that
are now used a great deal but should be used more as
trade with Central and South America increases.
Water-power. To-day part of the water on the Amer-
ican side of Niagara Falls, and part on the Canadian
side, is taken off through great tubes, or tunnels, and
made to turn huge wheels. In the power plants these
wheels are connected with dynamos so that electrical
energy is generated. This energy is not only used near
at hand but is sold to consumers many miles away.
Some of the power is utilized to run factories and car
lines and to furnish light in neighboring cities and
towns. Niagara Falls are thus harnessed and made to
Fig. 75. This is the great dam across the Mississippi River at Keokuk,
Iowa. Over 300,000 horse-power is developed here, and of this 60,000 horse-
power goes to St. Louis over a transmission line 137 miles long. Why is it
wise to harness the rivers of the United States in this way ?
light and power.
Power is also obtaine'd
where the waters of the
Chicago Sanitary Canal are
discharged into the Des
Plaines River. By cutting
a deep canal the waters of
Lake Michigan have been
forced to flow southwest-
ward. The canal was cut
in order to carry the sew-
age from the Chicago dis-
trict into the Mississippi
drainage system.
In numerous other places
water-power has been em-
ployed on a smaller scale,
and many more streams can be so utilized.
Forests and their uses. When settlers came into the
region of the Central Plains, timber was abundant.
Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota were over-
grown with forests of soft woods. The southeastern por-
tion of the region had a very valuable forest of hard
woods. There still remains a great deal of timber, but
the rapid increase in population, with the conseqiient
demand for building material, has led to the destruction
of many of the forests. Farmers needed lumber for their
homes, barns, and fences, and the building of large cities
demanded great quantities of lumber; fm^niture had to
be made ; factories and packing-houses required boxes ;
wooden blocks were used in paving streets ; and wood
was needed in the making of railway and street cars.
accomplish a great amount of work for man (Fig. 67). To-day other materials are taking the place of wood.
Fig. 76. This is one of the great automobile-manufacturing plants at Detroit.
Its buildings cover 64 acres of ground, and it turns out $40,000,000 worth of
automobiles each year. Twelve thousand people get their living by working in
the difierent departments of this great factory. The first modern automobiles
were made in France, but the United States now manufactures and exports
more than any other country. Detroit is the center of the industry in this
country, and the automobiles and motor trucks manufactured here are sent
all over the world. Where are the raw materials for this industry obtained ?
CENTRAL PLAINS
43
Grand Rapids, Michigan, owes its development largely Limestones, which supply the lime needed in making
to the furnitm-e business. Chicago is a great lumber mortar, are almost everywhere available, and some of
market and also a furniture-manufacturing center, the limestones have just the right composition to be
Vessels from northern lake ports
bring huge loads of lumber to the
docks bordering the Chicago River.
The quantities of lumber which were
easily accessible to Detroit led people
in that city to manufacture all kinds
of vehicles. When the automobile
was invented, plants which had
formerly manufactured wagons and
carriages turned easily to the man-
ufacture of motor cars, and Detroit
has become the chief center of this
industry (Fig. 76). South Bend, In-
diana, was a center to which lumber,
as well as iron and steel, could con-
veniently be brought ; and the man-
ufacture of Avagons, carriages, and
plows has developed there on a large
scale (Fig. 77).
But all of this important work
could have been accomplished with-
out the destruction of the great forests if care had been
taken in the cutting of tlie trees. Mature and defective
trees might just as well have been cut and the others
allowed to grow. Scientific conservation of the forests
would have meant a permanent supply of excellent
lumber.
Building materials. Throughout most of the Central
Plains the glacial materials at the surface are valuable
in construction work. Sands and gravels have been
used for road material, for roof coverings, and more
recently in large quantities in concrete construction.
Glacial clays have been
made into common build-
ing brick. There are brick
plants which have been
turning out thousands of
bricks nearly every day for
years in order to supply the
demand due to the rapid
growth of the large cities.
The clays have also been
used to make tiles (Fig. 78)
and terra cotta. There are
clays other than those of
glacial origin, and there are
shales which can be crushed
and used as clays in the
manufacture of terra cotta.
,*
«
Jh^^^H^'i^ j^^ JjpBPJWriB
mm
mSwH^M
^ipiill
Wm
PVt^ffl|
hr%
1
K ^^MM^
liMl^^ -J^jM
■
liij^^
1, > -
■
^
fj^jF ° ^^£S|S^HHE9^. '
'■"
Fig. 77. This is a motor plow, one of the many
modern agricultural implements which are manu-
factured in the great cities of the Central Plains
for use on the farming lands
mlf?
^f
!
^^ WKk
^
Fig. 78. This is a great plant in Illinois for the manufacture of sewer pipes.
The pipes are molded from clay and then put into the kilns and baked until
they are very hard. The kilns are the circular buildings with white-domed
roofs. Where does the clay for this industry come from ?
used in making cement. The total
supply of limestones that can be used
in making cement is enormous. This
is of great importance since concrete
construction has become so common.
Limestones are also used in building
roads and in laying the foundations
of buildings.
At Bedford, Indiana, one of the
best building stones in America is
found. It is a limestone with a re-
markable uniformity of color and
texture, which makes it possible to
carve decorative features out of it.
The Bedford limestone is sent to
many parts of the United States.
In some places sandstone is ground
up into sand and used in manufactur-
ing glass and certain kinds of bricks.
The granites and marbles used in
the Central Plains must be shipped
in from other geographic regions.
Home work. If there is a brickyard near your home, find
out where the clay comes from and how it is made into bricks.
Summary of natural resources. This region is a leader
in both agricultural and industrial life. Of first impor-
tance are the level or gently rolling lands with their
rich soils and abundant summer rainfall. Then there
are the coal, oil, and gas which furnish heat and power.
Next come the waterways and available water-power, the
supplies of salt, lead, and zinc within the natural region,
and iron and copper from
just outside. Add to these
the forests, the various
building materials, and the
ease with which railroads
may be built, and it may
be truly said that no area
of equal size in the world is
so fortunate in amount and
variety of natural wealth.
Under these circvtmstances
it is not strange that so
many men have migrated
westward from the cities
of the East to make their
homes and their livelihood
in the Central Plains.
44
MAP STUDIES
MAP STUDIES
Kentucky. 1. What natural regions extend into this state?
2. What part of the state is the roughest ? 3. Wliat navigable
rivers are available? 4. The central and western portions
have excellent soils, and agriculture is the leading occupation
in Kentucky. What appears to be the leading agricultural
product of Kentucky ?
5. What mineral resources in this state are indicated on
the map ? 6. Locate Mammoth Cave. In this vicinity over
40 miles of wonderful underground passageways have been
explored (Fig. 91, p. 52).
Frankfort, the capital, is in the midst of the famous Blue
Grass Country, where there is a rich clay soil. Louisville, the
largest city, is at the Falls of the Ohio, where there is excel-
lent water-power, and it has become a manufacturing center.
Covington is an important industrial center opposite Cincinnati.
Ohio. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ?
The eastern portion is much rougher than the central and
western parts. 2. What part of Ohio has glacial soils ? See
map on pages 2 and 3.
3. What are the chief crops ? 4. What sources of fuel are
found iu the state ? 5. What navigable waters border the
state? G. Judging from the products, name the leading
occupations. 7. Describe the location of the capital.
Cleveland (Fig. 79). Toledo is on the highway of travel and
shipment east and west. It is fortunate in having an excellent
harbor with about 20 miles of docks. Dayton is a manufacturing
cent|F and is in the midst of a prosperous farming district.
Cincinnati has over 10 miles of water front and very good
railroad connections.
Indiana. 1. Describe the surface features of this state.
2. What navigable waters are available ? 3. What are the
chief farm products ? 4. What sources of fuel are there in
the state ?
Indianapolis, the capital, is an important railroad center and
is surrounded by most productive farming lands. An abun-
dance of raw material and coal is available, and therefore
manufacturing has been undertaken. Evansville is an important
railroad and industrial center on the Ohio River.
South Bend (see p. 43}. Fort Wayne is an important trading
and manufacturing city. Terre Haute is in the midst of a pros-
perous farming district and is a busy trading center. Gary is
the steel-manufacturing center of northern Indiana.
Illinois is entirely within the Central Plains and has a
rolling surface. It is a land of rich soils underlain with mineral
resources of very great value. 1. What are the chief agricul-
tural products ? 2. What other products come from the farms?
3. What are the sources of fuel and power? 4. What
navigable waters border or are within the state of Illinois?
5. What large cities are located on navigable waters ? 6. Why
is the central location of Springfield favorable for a capital city ?
Chicago is so situated that raw materials come by water and
by rail to supply the great factories of this city. What in-
dustries have the farm products developed in Chicago ? See
Figs. 88, 89, and 90.
Peoria is beautifully located on a high bluff bordering the
Illinois River near large grain-producing areas. East St. Louis
is an important railroad center and has also the advantage
of transportation by water. Trading and manufacturing are
actively carried on. Rockford is in an excellent farming district
and is also a manufacturing center.
Michigan. 1. What natural region extends throughout the
southern peninsula of Michigan ? 2. What natural regions
extend into the northern peninsula ? 3. What bodies of water
border these two great peninsulas? 4. Judging from the
products, describe the leading occupations of the people in
the different parts of this state. 5. What mineral resources
are indicated ? 6. Name and locate the capital
Detroit is the largest city in ^Michigan. See also page 43 and
Fig. 76.
Grand Rapids («ee p. 43}. Saginaw and Bay City are manufac-
turing centers on the Saginaw River. Flint is one of the leading
cities in the manufacture of automobiles. Kalamazoo is in a rich
farming land and is favored by excellent railway service.
Wisconsin. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ?
2. What is meant by the " driftless area" ? 3. What navigable
waters are directly available? 4. Wliat mineral resources
are shown on the map of Wisconsin? 5. What are the
leading farm products ? 6. Why should dairying be profit-
able here ?
Madison, the capital, is beautifully situated on the shores of
two small lakes. It is the educational center for the state and
contains many attractive public buildings. Milwaukee, the
largest city in the state, has the advantage of being on Lake
Michigan and near a very productive farming district. It is
a commercial and manufacturing center.
Superior is fortunately located at the head of Lake Superior
in the vicinity of iron, lumber, and grain. Racine and Kenosha
are important centers for the manufacture of automobiles and
various kinds of farm implements. Oshkosh is on the shore of
Lake Winnebago near a good farmmg district and has large
sash and door factories.
GEN"EEAL QUESTIONS
1. Name five natural advantages that the people have in
this part of the country. 2. Locate the so-called corn belt.
Why are swine raised m large numbers in this belt ? 3. What
state produces a large supply of beet sugar ?
4. Where are the tobacco-raising regions in these states?
5. To what places should you go to see the mining of copper,
iron, lead, zinc, or coal ? 6. What food supplies do the people
in this district get from the Great Lakes ?
7. The greatest harvester plant in the world is in Chicago.
Why is that a good location for this industry ? 8. Why has
Chicago become a great meat-packing center ? 9. What Atlan-
tic coast city is in about the same longitude as Cleveland ?
10, What large city in Canada is in about the same latitude
as Duluth? 11. Is Omaha or Chicago farther from the equa
tor ? 12. Where should you like to go for a summer vacation
within these states ? 13. Plan out a pleasure trip and describe
what you should expect to see.
Home ivork. Add the boundaries of these states to your map
of the United States. Print in the names of the states, the capitals,
and a few of the large cities.
B
=r^^
/fo,^
IN]
tfiiluthl
flSLE ROYAL
(7b Michigan)
i*
F
88°
80
>*— TSfashburn
R S.\U P J;,
^^ ft. above sea level ^ ^ MICHIPICOTEN
U ICCITCKH W , XANITOU '• J
f XS*^ PENUJSULi— ^fsws^fsw Pt. "'
Calum«K;.LairFium
»4pOSTLE ^on^ton'^,y<awBav
a-<A.„. .>i„„ ,<ffiviM^/»5&Pf. aux Bales fiSH
C^ooo
ntonajfon
CuS
rland'
Ban
(^ / 2 i ^1 ? O N . ,
•Grystil
Iron
2iV^ ^\''^'^¥ V^edford
•Budson
'aul
Menort
.randif ,■!}'
^JiBlack Rivcr-^ kel
TTomahs^wk
Merrill^
\^ "j-Antife
• Striding' ^
o
^J
TVhi:,
CENTRAL STATES
EASTERN SECTION
ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL MAP
Scale of statute miles
Whitefish Pt. ^
AASoo'
^re^L.Manistiqu^
fR«d <
/Peshtiffo*
hawano ^Cv '
'Bay
^t-Ignace^ ,.4»ois blanc^
(J Canip Grant, C 3
Worth Channel ^ camp.««at^^^
^"^^1^3 °6'^ Cawj Sherman. Fi
-46
T^^da^rop Zachary TayJftTpE 5 rp g
n&t Lakes Naval Tuning Sta..
ana>J 'p(.t5;itour DEAVEB^MackJhaw -^fi^^l^^ ^
Harbor Sprs^'"^/'' g+y'' -«f- ® Selfridge Field. F 3 '"1-^
A Chkrlevoix,<;dp^,J,e,\^T /~"4f .%,^ ^ ® Ch,n«t^Fiold, C 4
Mnee --^T-.f l J, "-f ^"'^^^^^^^ -^ ® Wllbn. ^k^^Fleia. E 5 .„^
J.. V _O^H/?ito. „ ..S Mi'^ ) ^Ba. ^ rr«. (io) Ft. Sheridan. .1>4 ^'r" '
14
Falls
INN. -^f
'and*JriSte^s PdSt^'>''"°5^„„ J^i^™^ S •# Vlr^ort ^^ Grayling
■, f'^J/aiilkKa.ii . T I \^' \'^ ®Ft.Shendan.^O^
^^ .Jl y^-^. .Kal>Uai,SaL ^ \ <?> ® Ft.Benj.Hirria,^;
* .^Travfae Cty J^^W^r-t^ . f «C /
___Tomah
lifaparta ^;^ausifcny
ris.
Menaahaw^pleton , '^\™, a^ ,. ^
: Au Sable
V»"" t.H<.lWAlon Eaalliwaa.^*'*-*" Sable >pi
Bii
n ^'Manitowoc
West ,JB ranch
B
•^
s
.Shelt
.Winner
wB«>n»=„)0 t.i_ I M -i — niD«n *'°l'''H"teu ^' iPentwater'
■°''<'' BarS^^verDalfT"" YSStriend ^
^ • Richlanl?^ B 9 V . fe a\« l- cV; J TP°rt Washington «, , .^y~ .■ i ._ ,__._,_.„ .^. „ -t- _ . -^
Vis^^ljIrVA^rf/^^^ C^Muskegon-r^^ BS.-MICH.ry O A L^^^.
iCudahy \-(<^"°^ HavAi rWi Vs_x*pi5t.John8 ^.N splint „, ^,
«Saeinai
k"! „,,» Barques
> /^Bad^ *\ FISH \
"-""•VassaP
' . .1 Stoijhton> •'>„.*.?,'. A" '«
„lIWBilt-— iLLflatteviilKMineraJ Joint V,.-^ Ft.Atklni
^a^l<»-l V.^^^^i''K'onK I /^neavniJl. '^'Burl.ngts,
1.
^buquel
IA\
jG?fiid RSpidst^ _-^^-^-
o Ch»rlotte |'»,Pontla9»
1. .JEaton Raoids Mt.C
acine^ p,s,, 'i"''"'"! Lansing^ aoQ)i '\ '•""''"^•
^" I-tS. Hastiggs" a.Ch»rlotte ?«,,Pontia9' " , .W
FftiTk^Dx^" ^ JEaton Rapids Mt.Clemei
eport •
.IL E Rockf
Belviden
■-*tWion C.tyKj South/ jTO?t»egOt 'T, Highland Pi
!U L .W-iWaukegan Havery* ,, °°kj<S?' .l*af^W„' aL - Det
"^Vk^ih. Sheridan 7KMn,„Toi^.^-^^- t^^^W I'l"^.''^.
Kalamazoo ^'3^,
lov
f%^
;a Cityt,
purling
'troitjiwiridsor , .
r^"™ f§ycamo"re-"'TElgl„l't^'"''r^"'' ^BenWn Hartor ■:i'f'nOr«i?''*.6tt" '^■^'l^'""'"'"/^ ^'^t^^^
Roc,
lifendoti
_ rinceton
*■■«* --jeneseo • ocVj,
sland Spring Valley ^y,^
■^Vi!|%^'Aredo' ' ~^£K'?«'aneel
,B N
O A
treator'
. O
■ Toluca
' 'Abingdon^ Pforia 3P">ria L.
^shnell sCanton y^eki
[CeokukVJ V^Ttl'.V y^^J^r'^ Gibson
Havai
n
^ 3'ontiac | ^7 O/J /.. ^Uensii^er ZX^"'^^"^ Yi^L%Jli
11 r bury
WatsekaT ||Moni
• '^^"ifYyettei$Ci^ '*pV^d4^,-.^iyS^i;o-l« i:?'-^"'^
Rushv
_Beardat^yn^
Uannibal J
oaiaiana •
W rl
MO
St.Chl
irg
JarksAiviUe' _
.ttsfielj RoodhouSi,'
Lincojf
Petersfr
-Jaji.^vil^ Jl^I^'-ankfort . E.ioH -r^""'
D R iyOscola pSSKlWdsville JMlV i =°" • Newcasf = SpVin5neld .
> I nlT.7"''™'' ."V'tJoseph ,-,.^vU^ ,„tet i. i »«'^<!S's*'^ij3y— iJ htT' »"^ — f^neatrt.
' .f'4°':i5 Norwalk >' Akron
^. --,.-. I '^^'W«.vn\>^l VanvgrT Findlay-,' Shelby ^ I Alliance. . g^j, '
ft, LoAnsDort ^^>*<l3h -JIuntingtoj . helphos SSucyr«S- /.Ashf^nd » .Canton
\ \ jE-^lTi -^i'-*'~V ^^"^^ ^"N I- /a i, Lima ■ vv • •/. Wooster Ma^siilon
• I Kento
Kenton Gallon*
iniitield
K. Liverpool M» .
•Dover./ WelUviUe-CT . Pkttsfeurgh
,»c» ,; '.New PWlaa«hia ♦,
tiSJarysp Bellefont|«iV S lp,£::^itiaffifwhBViiy- •»' ■
n^arys^-
£, il-t-^--;; . ./• r I l| »_j: i- ,Vy.*Ft.B,ent.Hi«frison ,.l
SprihgfieU ■*''^Mr N ParisilJnfl'anjPolisi-® •fcreenacid Kifhi
^-^ .SilUivnn}! ■ llnLilnton ^Greeneasbf(> ti..„i-r-- '
'aylorvil
ifden
, Pana *
ond 's-f
livanjl • lllClinton^iGrreeneaat/e Busi^i'iTe'!^"*''^^'"""! ,Da3^0l>t
Ch/rleston ,■"•—'•■ ' ' ^ ., > i • . n. ' J
tfattoinl <^ '^ 1k Ma»lin8vilJs;fA,''_ •VdlSWlbyvifle t_
, =ne.u,-j / AaUhalllfrer'fMaut^V.'' FraAliTl-- oj^^n^^^^
•litehfield/V' /p(Fi„Xh.L?Wi*r'"*'>'"»lif /*)• s^ TtColuribus^^'Ici-J
,S.a„,o„ %^ f^Rfeonll- ^^^^ Sl^o-^^^Tr'^i
Jre^nvill. .Kr.nH.iiJ .. rSl • ill .in(.rn J^D. _..'■' A,. *J^. AuWajp
Shelby'
88
geraeyville
Jj°"Gre^,Wne;;^l„dalii NeVtl
5- ffV»LdwarJIavi]l/<r V^i
'^ . Jirranite City /J><, , TOIney
oniaOTfcollinsvile/^ So'SS" -^ *
5t.U.u*%''.„ • I.Flora ,
'BeuJ^Se r fflf„ ijMtJCarm.
leV 9.1. -^^^ <^*
itonA Bedford '^ae,
,Bi4iicllvii«.* ^Ittijt i)Vy<3 ^Seyn
N.VcriVm VO»">Kt'
„,.,_.T_....,ij!«.' t.-'iH^ ijVVa ^Seymoof
arysville \ LDela>^
;ton
fc:. Liverpool.
/ Welldville'^
^;New Philade
yf Steubenviiy
■\
. Martins Efrry
nbust
Byesville Bameafille!
nesvHle ° f^i
wrColuknuus la-neVvUle
London |.\Lanea3<er jr^^iuX _^.
Co(lne^saie^-,.lJ,ia^etown <|^^^Xgto^ ^1^%o„>tel.> >/^
^ Wilmington,
1 C.H.I
I iGreenfiel'
rwuod
^po'rt
Salem
Sffollton }^^'a
Falmouth
Explanation
ir State capitaU
~iii Kavigable rivers
hitel^'-'^^ 'rrepct
-A^ltSPTta D-2 ."VVernon Oi JoflPmccton,, ..• . New AlbanrfWl) Shelbvvilld *
Ctttt
N^TiParkersburg
r jr^~'T\ o 1 L.
,f. tJafkson . - "•■'l^yfsf C
Jtownl/ Middleport/Vfc ^-^ .~G A S
G'^^S >...a«er GuUipolisCptfpieasant
rtsmoulj Q -ry^ YK
1 --'-.R
«*«9
aysvllte/Van'ceburg T'
Catlettaburglllaiilinsrtoi
%
fiysB
•French Lick , ,ur Nv- . -ti::- 1 v»"vbuui» ,
j-gTFy^efferaoli^.-.Ejf'renre. l'i&, FlemmKat>Hrg ,/ Ashland
'^'V. ... r'it/ irr 'Cynt^^ Catlettabu
^ Pari8/\ • Morehead
..■,»-,«L-i. Vr^oT^W °'''"''''''''>«Mt'liSirn« l^"i»"'
IliOwlanda
(Conatal plain)
I I Central plains
-ia^'ir~u77\L "MorufCTeld V*'<fe T 0,£^4 C CNlarrodsburg*. Xa/aster'v^.,.-
C.« a • S^*'e ^sJ»5rS'"'«-T^>§^"^'!'''*° L^anville. Aerej. "^^^^ 1 '* ;^Pik«ille
*-»P«JB Annk, ^"^ a u j-roviXn^*^ t^ M u L fe s Leb«non^.^^_^ Sta/ford L,'d ,.d>^ ,^^ "*.. •.,*
■''C^IHarion •T''.^^^
P^M} Earlington* ) - .-^^V«^^il
Gi
Mound
„'GreeDVl/l
'ammothCaue ^*' / London ^^ „yx-^'!>f^ ^"-^
Q
Uplands and
plateaus
Old, worn-down |
mountains
Newt
MadriJ
THaJJ.fc.1 • Princeton "™*'"""*l •mammoin liuue f 1 ""{•-—• ^j ^i^^^^v^ "•-'
dSSfi^^yvllie rBowlintCreeJ^V^I ' G\m^'^'^^!p^L^'H ^'^''>.*>V ^-i*Vk.
'."old 'A ^ ,T "." * C C .qtHsaeilvlll "J COR N.SS%an7ttrSlll^^
• M,..r?.m""'"""""i;.../,-Fnu,klin^ ^Ji^i Zn|buK'^V>^l^ .-^^L^T^'
aman Uurray
J£jlltor^
B Memphis '90'
S Ahtmi — ^
TEN
Wi UfainabufS ■y^■■.^^ ^^
Mobile*88 Longitude Dl¥€$t /rom 86° Greenu-icA E
fii^'"-^'
;orristown
r
WPt»»»-w«t«
F Atkinta"
N. C.
-■A ■■
Savannah* 6
t
O GiuD and Company
46
CENTRAL PLAINS
Fig. 79. This is the Superior-Detroit High Level Bridge, which spans the
Cuyahoga River at Cleveland. It is made of steel and concrete and is high
enough to allow the tallest smokestacks and masts of the Great Lakes vessels
to pass under it. Cleveland is one of the most important ports on the Great
Lakes and is also a great industrial city. Iron ore from the Lake Superior
district is sent down the lakes to Cleveland, and coal comes by rail from the
fields of the Appalachian region. What are Cleveland's chief industries ?
How does Cleveland rank in size among the cities of the United States ?
Problems and review questions. 1. What natural regions border
the Central Plains ? 2. How do the Great Lakes modify the
weather conditions near them ? 3. Which part of the Central
Plains has glacial soils ? 4. Where is the Blue Grass Country ?
5. In what ways is natural oil, or petroleum, transported ? 6. What
uses are made of natural gas ? 7. Does the mining of the coal in
the Central Plains interfere with the use of the surface for farm-
ing ? 8. If the coal were used at the mines to generate electricity,
what saving of work would that mean ? What other arguments
are there in favor of this plan ? What arguments are there against
this plan ? 9. How did there come to be great deposits of salt in
parts of this region ?
Settlement and Industrial Development
Early explorations. Plate A in the Appendix shows
the early routes of exploration into the interior of the
continent. Certain headwaters of the St. Lawrence and
Mississippi river systems are so near together that the
Fig. 80. This is a view in the business district of Buffalo, showing the broad
streets and handsome buildings. The city gets its electricity for light and
power from Niagara Falls, twenty miles away. Locate Buffalo on your map
and explain its commercial importance. What are its chief industries ?
early explorers carried their boats and outfits from one
river system into the other. In Wisconsin there is a short
portage from the Fox River (which flows northeastward
into Green Bay) to the Wisconsin River. The city of
Portage is located just where the early explorers crossed
from the St. Lawrence system into the Mississippi system.
See map on jMge 45. This was the route followed by
Marquette and Joliet in 1673, on their ti'ip from the
Great Lakes down the Wisconsin and Mississippi to the
mouth of the Arkansas. On their return they came up
the Illinois and portaged to Lake Michigan.
In 1682 La Salle, on his third trip into this region,
portaged from the south branch of the Chicago River to
the Des Plaines and thence went down the Illinois. See
Appendix, Plate A. On this trip he followed the Missis-
sippi River to its mouth, taking possession of the coun-
try in the name of France and calling it Louisiana in
honor of Louis XIV.
The explorers who went westward through the Appa-
lachian Mountains of Pennsylvania soon came to the
headwat^s of the Ohio River. See maj) on p)ages 2 and 3.
This river was used as a highway of travel duiing the
early days of migration into the Central Plains. Some
who came by way of the Mohawk valley to the shores
of Lake Erie turned southward into the Ohio and fol-
lowed it to the southwest.
Many from Pennsylvania and Virginia moved south-
ward between the long Appalachian Mountain ridges
and finally found in Cumberland Gap (see -niap on
pages 2 and 3, K 3) an easy route to the westward.
Some of these immigrants settled in the hilly country
of eastern Kentucky and eastern Tennessee, but many
of them pushed on beyond the Appalachian Plateau into
the Central Plains. In all cases the lakes and rivers
guided the early explorers.
CENTRAL PLAINS
47
Fig. 81. This is a view of the Duluth-Superior harbor as it appears from
Duluth. The narrow tongue of land in the center of the picture once ex-
tended entirely across the harbor. Two ship canals have been cut through
this tongue of land, one leading into the harbor of Duluth and the other
Migrations westward. At the close of the American
Revolution a great many people from New England and
the Middle Atlantic states went westward and settled
in the great agricultural lands of the Central Plains. In
those days land travel was chiefly by wagons or oxcarts.
As the number of people increased, larger and larger
settlements were made, and these grew into prosperous
farming communities. Owing to the building of railroads
many of the small towns have become cities. Columbus
(Ohio), Indianapolis (Indiana), Springfield (Illinois), and
Des Moines (Iowa) are examples of cities located in the
midst of prosperous farming districts.
Location and growth of cities. The location of cities
is greatly influenced by changes in the means of trans-
portation or, as we may call it, by breaks in transpor-
tation. When men who are traveUng by water find it
necessary to abandon their boats and go overland, they
must vmload their goods, usually stay overnight, and
purchase a new outfit. Such delays mean that people
begin to congregate where there are breaks in transpor-
tation. A little hotel is built, stores are opened to ac-
commodate the travelers, trading begins, and, as the
demands increase, more and more goods are brought
there to be sold. As the population increases, manufac-
turing may be undertaken, a railroad may be built to
this place, and soon a city has been established.
Lake ports. Many cities in the Central Plains region
have developed as lake or river porta where there are
advantages in transportation. See map between pages 95
and 98. Buffalo, Erie, Cleveland (Fig. 79),. Toledo, Detroit,
Milwaukee, and Chicago are the larger lake ports of the
Central Plains. Duluth and Superior are large lake ports
in an adjoining natural region.
Each one of the lake ports is located at a break in
transportation. To-day iron ore is brought by train to
Superior and Duluth and then transferred to lake vessels
Pbotognph ttj MuKcDiic, Duluth
into the harbor of Superior. These canals allow the largest lake vessels
to enter the harbor. Great quantities of ore and grain are brought to Duluth
and Superior by rail, loaded on the freighters, and sent east by the Great
Lakes. Explain the importance of Duluth and Superior as shipping centers
(Fig. 81). Wheat and lumber also come to these ports
and are transferred to vessels. Grains and manufactured
products from Chicago and farther west are loaded onto
vessels leaving that port (Fig. 88). Thovisands of auto-
mobiles are shipped by water from Detroit. Buffalo
receives large quantities of foods and raw materials from
the west, and reships much of it by canals or by rail to
cities farther east (Fig. 80).
Part of the iron ore brought to Sandusky, Cleveland,
Erie, and other Lake Erie ports is used in those cities,
but large quantities are transferred to freight cars and
sent on to Pittsburgh. On the return westward many
of the vessels take coal and manufactured goods for
deUvery to the upper lake ports. The railroads transfer
the products of the farms to the large cities on the
shores of the lakes and distribute throughout the country
the manufactured goods from the cities. The lake ports
are therefore very busy places, where great cargoes of raw
materials and manufactured goods are being exchanged.
11") C. J. Uibbud
Fig. 82. Minneapolis, located at the Falls of St. Anthony on the Mississippi
River, is the greatest flour-milling center in the world. Over 100,000,000
bushels of wheat are made into flour here every year. The city is also a
great lumber center. Can you explain the location of these industries ?
48
CENTRAL PLAINS
m
ti
«
itl^L, ^bT&m
. laft
' -vjijjljlll
W
^^_ !'
4
L._.:
'- "'''■ "_"^-,
Fig. 83. St. Louis is located on the right bank of the Mississippi River
just south of the points where the Missouri and the Illinois rivers enter the
main stream. The city, which has nearly twenty miles of river frontage, is a
very important river port and a very busy railroad center. At the right in
River ports. Cincinnatj, Louisville, St. Louis, Kansas City,
Omaha, St. Paul, and Minneapolis are the larger river ports
within this region. Minneapolis started as a lumber
town. Logs were sent downstream from the forests of
Minnesota. Later, when railroads had been built and
the great Northwest was open for settlement, large quan-
tities of wheat began to move eastward and flour mills
were erected at Minneapolis, until that city has become
the leading flour-milling center in the United States
(Fig. 82). St. Paul has also become an important manu-
facturing and railroad center and is a large lumber
market (Fig. 84).
this picture is one of the great bridges which connect St. Louis with the
east bank of the river. In the center are some of the large buildings of
the city. Locate St. Louis on your map. What are the advantages of its
location ? What are its chief industries, and why have they developed ?
coming to the city manufacturing has developed (Fig. 85).
Louisville and Cincinnati are the leading Ohio River ports
in this natural region.
Note. For additional study of cities see pages 44 and 54.
Farming. In the study of agriculture in this region
we shall begin at the south and work north and west.
In Kentucky, in the Blue Grass Country, there is a rich
clay soil, where more tobacco is raised than in any other
part of the United States (Fig. 70). This is also a good
district for general farming.
The famous corn belt stretches from east to west
St. Louis was a trading center in the early days of throughout the Central Plains, with a width of about
settlement, and since it was near the junction of the two hundred miles. In traveling through that portion
Missouri and the Mississippi, it was a natural outfitting of the country during the summer we can see thousands
point for travelers (Fig. 83)
The leading cities on the
Missouri River are located
where transportation west-
ward in the early days was
interrupted. The overland
routes of migration to the
Pacific coast started from
Kansas City. See map on
pages Sands. To-day there
are magnificent bridges
across the river, and travel
may go on without inter-
ruption. But the cities once
established have continued
to grow in population and
importance. Omaha is a
river city, but it owes its
growth chiefly to railroads
^•'■S-Tt _J
-^il..-aa^x..„
-V
5-E ■ -^^
Fig. 84. St. Paul, the capital of Minnesota, is situated across the Mississippi
River from Minneapolis, and the two are known as the "Twin Cities." They
form a very important railroad center, and four transcontinental railways
pass through them. Name the other chief railroad centers in the Central Plains
of acres of gently rolling
country where com is grow-
ing (Fig. 86). The com belt
is in the well-watered por-
tion of the Central Plains
and gradually comes to an
end in the west as the coun-
try becomes drier. At the
western end, in Kansas and
Nebraska, an occasional dry
season means the loss of a
corn crop.
Corn is a heavy product
to ship, and the farmers
have found that instead of
marketing com it is much
more profitable to feed it
to hogs and cattle and then
sell the stock when they are fattened (Fig. 87). This is
It was made the terminus
of the Union Pacific Railroad, which, with its connections, the reason why corn and swine appear so commonly
was the first transcontinental railway route. Omaha has side by side on the economic maps of the Central
become a great railroad center, and with raw materials Plains region (pp. 45, 55).
CENTRAL PLAINS
49
Fig. 85. This is a portion of the busy industrial district of Omaha. The
buildings in the picture include the car-shops of the Union Pacific Railroad
and a great plant for the smelting and refining of gold and silver ores. Be-
cause of its location Omaha has become a very important agricultural and
The farmers also raise horses, mules, and sheep. The
green cornstalks, if put into silos, make good winter
fodder for stock. Some of the fields are always reserved
for raising oats, barley, wheat, and vegetables. The
zone where most of the oats are raised is a little farther
industrial center. Seventeen railroads meet here. What do they bring to
Omaha ? What do they take away ? In the early days of westward migra-
tion Omaha was one of the points from which the pioneers set forth on their
journey westward. What trails did they follow ? See map on pages 2 and 3
Oklahoma, we pass into drier and drier regions, where
wheat can be raised more profitably than corn or oats.
The broad, level country in the valley of the Red
River in Canada and the United States has been called
the " Bread Basket of the World." It is a wonderful
wheatrproducing district, for the soils are very fertile.
The latest machines for planting and harvesting are
used on this land.
Near each of the large cities in the Central Plains dairy
farming, market gardening, and the raising of poultry
have been undertaken on a large scale. Many of the
dairy products from southeastern Wisconsin and north-
em Illinois are shipped to all parts of the United States.
Fig. 86. This farmer is standing beside his corn crop to show how tall it
has grown. Proper seed selection and soil preparation have produced an
abundance of large, well-filled ears. What states are included in the corn
belt ? What other crops are grown in this belt besides corn ?
north, running through northern Indiana, Illinois, and
Iowa. It begins before the corn belt ends. See maps on
pages 45 and 55.
The great wheat belt begins before the oat belt ends,
and wheat becomes a more and more important crop to
the northwest and west. Wheat-raising has an impor-
tant relationship to the climate. It needs from three
to four months of weather without frost in which to
grow and ripen. Wheat also needs rain in the early
part of its growth, but during the ripening period it
matures better if the climate is dry and there is plenty
of sunshine. To the northwest, in Minnesota and the
Dakotas, and to the west, in Nebraska, Kansas, and
Fig. 87. These little pigs are among the many thousands which are raised
in the corn belt. The rich corn is just what they need to make them fat, so
nearly every corn farmer also raises hogs. For this reason the corn belt is
the greatest hog-exporting region in the world
Wisconsin has more dairy cows than any other state except
New York and leads in the production of butter and cheese.
Home work. 1. Find out the meaning and value of rotation of
crops. 2. \Vhat is meant by winter wheat ? by spring wheat ?
50
CENTRAL PLAINS
Influence of farm life upon cities. With the produc-
tion of such great crops of grain, mills were estab-
lished in the chief centers of population, where these
products might be worked into the form of foods. With
the raising of swine, cattle, and sheep the meat-packing
business has developed. Chicago became the center for
fields and the quick harvesting of great crops. This led
to the invention of the most helpful farm implements
the world has ever known.
The first chilled-steel plow was made by a man who
settled on the banks of the little river where South
Bend is now located. That one tool has been wonder-
this business and still ranks first (Fig. 89), but now fully helpful to the entire country. The little blacksmith
Kansas City, Omaha, Fort Worth, East St. Louis, and shop has grown into immense foundiies and factories,
other cities have large meatrpacking establishments, where some of the best plows in the world are made
(Fig. 77). The great
reapers and binders,
mowing and thresh-
ing machines, gang-
plows, and gasoline-
motors have been per-
fected here in the
Central Plains.
To give farmers-
the comforts of run-
ning water in their
homes, dairy barns,
and pastures, wind-
mills were needed.
The light metal wind-
mills were perfected
to meet this demand.
They are wonderful
labor-saving devices
and encourage us to
make much more use-
of the wind. Some-
day many farmers-
may have windmills
to generate electric-
ity, which may be
held in storage bat-
teries and used as-
it is needed about
the farm buildings.
Every new home-
had to be furnished.
Fig. 88. This is an aeroplane drawing of Chicago. The low, flat land on which the city is built was once covered by the
waters of the lake. The curved margin of the upland southwest of Chicago marks the old shore line. Chicago has no
natural harbor, but by widening and deepening the mouth of the Chicago River and protecting it by breakwaters an excel-
lent harbor has been made. The river itself, which used to flow into the lake, has been transformed into a drainage
canal by which the waters of Lake Michigan flow into the Illinois River and finally into the Mississippi. How has the
location of Chicago favored its development ?
More and more food was needed within this region,
but the production of food has gone far beyond the
local needs, and the Central Plains now supply large
quantities of food to other parts of the United States
and to many foreign lands.
The farmers needed implements, and at South Bend
(Indiana), Chicago and Moline (Illinois), Racine (Wis-
consin), Davenport (Iowa), and many other cities great
plants have been established for the manufacture of
different kinds of farm equipment. Special machinery
was needed to make possible the planting of immense
New kitchen outfits were needed. Sewing machines,
washing machines, churns, wagons, carriages, pianos,
and automobiles were called for. The prosperous farm-
ing districts made large demands upon the cities for
manufactured articles.
Home work. 1. On an outline map show the routes by which
the early explorers and settlers came into the Central Plains.
See map on pages 2 and 8. 2. Add the boundaries of these-
states to your map of the United States. Print in names of
states, capitals, and a few large cities. 3. Select the five largest
cities and work out with the maps what must have been important
factors in determining the location of each city.
CENTRAL PLAINS
61
Mining. The coal mined in this region and the oil Physical Geography
and gas produced here supply heat for the homes and Land made in the sea. The Central Plains were
power for the ever-increasing number of railroads and formerly covered by an interior sea that spread north-
factories as well as for the steamships on the lakes
and rivers. The oil and gas produced in excess of the
local demand are sent to other parts of the country.
The demand for the lead, zinc, and salt has kept the
mines of Missouri, the upper Mississippi Valley, central
ward from the Gulf of Mexico and covered this part of
the United States. In that sea the sandstones and lime-
stones that underlie the region were made.
Uplifting of the land. The land was next uplifted,
and the sea was forced to retreat. Rains fell and rivers
New York, and southern Michigan busy producing these began their work of cutting up the land and taking the
valuable minerals. loose material back to the ocean.
Manufacturing. With the rapid development of agri- Coming of the ice. Next came the Ice Age, when the
culture and mining, the great increase in population, and great continental glaciers invaded the Central Plains. In
the construction of railroads, came
large demands for manufactm-ed
articles. We have mentioned the
call from the farmers for such arti-
cles. The city populations also
needed homes. They needed furni-
ture, clothing, food, books, maga-
zines, and papers, and were ready
to buy many luxuries. Industrial
life developed in response to this
ever-increasing demand. Now many
useful articles made in this region
are shipped to other parts of the
United States and to distant lands.
Problems and review questions. 1. What
were the routes of the early explorers into
the upper Mississippi Valley ? 2. What
are the chief navigable waterways in the
Central Plains ? 3. How have they been
improved by man ? 4. How may they be
made more serviceable to man ? 5. Where
are there great water-power plants in the
Central Plains ? 6. What uses have been
made of the wood from the forests ?
7. What building materials other than
wood are available ? 8. Why should cities be located at breaks
in transportation? 9. Why do farmers in the corn belt usually
raise swine ? 10. What are some of the modern improvements
enjoyed on the farms ? 11. How does the development of farming
influence life in the cities ? 12. How have the industries of the
cities influenced life on the farms ?
13. Why should the Central Plains of the United States be an
industrial as well as an agricultural district? What sources of
power are there ? What raw materials for manufacture are avail-
able ? What metals are mined in this region ? What very useful
metals are found in large quantities in an adjoining region and
easily brought to the industrial centers ? What means of trans-
portation are available ? Where are the customers ?
14. What agricultural advantages have these plains? Did
iBost of the soils originate in this region ? Is there enough
rainfall for agriculture without irrigating the lands ? Which
portion has the greater rainfall ? What means of transportation
are available for the modern farmer ?
Fig. 89. Chicago is the largest meat market in the world. The stockyards are located near the great
meat-packing plants. They contain thousands of pens to which the cattle, sheep, and hogs are taken
from the railroad cars and kept until they are purchased by one of the packing companies. From what
regions do these different kinds of live stock come to Chicago ? To what points is the meat sent ?
the eastern portion of the region it was a part of the
same great ice-sheet which covered the northeastern por-
tion of the United States and advanced into the Atlantic
Ocean. West of the Mississippi the ice came from an-
other center, which was west of Hudson Bay (Fig. 14).
Two great ice-sheets, therefore, moved southward from
Canadian territory into the upper Mississippi Valley.
They crossed the region of the Great Lakes and met
south of the driftless area of southwestern Wisconsin
and the adjoining states. The southern limit of ice
action and the driftless area are shown on the map on
pages 2 and 3.
Retreat of the ice. In time the climate became warmer
and the great ice-sheets melted away. They left a
mantle of clays, sands, gravels, and bowlders, much as
they did in other regions.
52
CENTRAL PLAINS
Fig. 90. This is a view of part of the lake front at Chicago, a little south
of the mouth of the Chicago River. A fine, broad boulevard follows the
lake shore, along which there are many hotels and tall office buildings.
Chicago is the second largest city in the United States, and although it is
a thousand miles from the ocean, it is one of the greatest ports in our
country. Using Fig. 88 and the maps on pages 45 and 55, answer the follow-
ing questions : What products are brought to Chicago by boat ? Where do
they come from ? What is the chief industry at South Chicago and Gary ?
The Great Lakes. Before the ice melted entirely away, The former outlets of the Great Lakes are now occu-
lt stood for a time over the valleys of the Mohawk and pied by small rivers, but the broad valleys which formerly
St. Lawrence rivers, and during that time the water from had large rivers when the lake waters drained through
the western Great Lakes flowed through other outlets
to the south. Lake Superior drained by way of the St.
Croix River into the Mississippi ; Lake Michigan drained
by way of the Illinois River into the Mississippi ; and
for a time the waters in the basin of Lake Erie drained
by way of the Maumee and Wabash rivers into the Ohio.
Later the waters from the Lake Erie basin joined those
of the Lake Huron basin and flowed westward across
Michigan, by a route which is now followed in part by
the Grand River, into the basin of Lake Michigan. Dur-
ing this time the water from the Great Lakes found its
way to the Gulf of Mexico.
When the ice melted farther back to the northward,
the valley of the Mohawk was uncovered and the drain-
age from the Great Lakes turned eastward, draining for
a time through the Mohawk valley into the Hudson.
Thus the Mohawk
valley once held a
mighty river, and
the lake waters en-
tered the sea near
the point where the
great city of New
York now stands.
When the ice
had melted still
farther northward,
and the valley of
the St. Lawrence
was uncovered, the
drainage from the Great Lakes chose that northern route
because it was the lowest route available. The Great
Lakes are drained by the St. Lawrence River to-day.
Fig. 91. In the southern parts of Indiana and Illinois, and in Kentucky, boys have found holes in the
ground through which they can descend into great underground rooms. In places they can crawl along
tunnels from one room to another. This is because the layers of rock are made of limestone, which the
underground waters easily dissolve away, leaving the great caves and tunnels. In some of the caves the
roofs and walls are covered with beautiful crystals made by the water. Sometimes, when only a small
portion of the roof of the cave is left, it forms a natural bridge like the one at the right in this figure
them are valuable for farm lands. They are very attrac-
tive routes for railroads and canals. From Chicago south-
westward in the ancient lake outlet there is an old canal
known as the Illinois and Michigan Canal, a new Sani-
tary Canal, and several railroads. In Ohio and Indiana,
canals and railroads follow the former outlets of Lake
Erie. The Mohawk valley is the route of the Erie and
New York barge canals and of trunk lines of railroads.
Home work. 1. From the tables at the end of the book make
a list of the chief lake ports in the order of population. Do the
same for the large river cities. 2. How many of the twenty-five
largest cities in the United States are in the Central Plains ?
3. Which is the second largest city in the United States ?
Future. Without any doubt agriculture will continue
to be the chief occupation within this Central Plains
region, manufacturing will be second, and mining third.
With these occu-
pations there has
come a great trans-
portation business.
Thousands of peo-
ple will always be
needed by the rail-
road and steam-
ship companies. An
increasing popula-
tion will continue
to demand a larger
and larger number
of traders, store-
keepers, and men and women connected with the office
work of large business interests. Thus it seems certain
that the region will increase in prosperity.
GREAT PLAINS
53
Fig. 92. The drainage basin of the Judith River in Montana is one of the
parts of the Great Plains where there is enough moisture to raise grain
without irrigation. This view of the basin was taken at harvest time and
shows the broad, level surface which is so well suited to the production
of grain. The harvesters are being drawn over the fields by a tractor,
which makes it possible to cut many acres in a very short time. The chief
crop here is wheat. Where is this wheat made into flour ? Where is it finally
used ? What other kinds of grain are raised in the Great Plains region ?
GREAT PLAINS
causing floods in the spring by melting the snow fields.
In winter there are fierce storm winds, which bring snow
The Great Plains region, east of the Rocky Moun- and sleet and are called blizzards. Tornadoes sometimes
tains, is an open, unforested grassland (Fig. 92). Here cross the plains during the summer. Such a storm travels
life has been affected by climate more than by any other with a great funnel-shaped cloud accompanied by terrific
geographic factor. winds which blow down houses, barns, fences, and bridges
Climate. When the rainfall in any region is below 20 and do a great deal of damage. Occasionally a house is
inches a year, the success of agriculture is uncertain unless turned around so that it faces in a new direction. A
the lands are irrigated. If the rain averages between 10
and 20 inches, grasses will flourish but the region will not
be forested. The prevailing winds are from the southwest,
and they give up most of their moisture on the seaward
roof may be taken off, and the furniture may be carried
away by the wind. In Texas cold winds, called northers,
sometimes come very suddenly and cause rapid changes
in the temperature. The abundance of sunshine in this
slopes of the high mountains before reaching this section region is favorable to agriculture, and with the help of
of the country. See map on page 82. Rain-bearing winds irrigation large crops are produced,
from the Gulf of Mexico bring some rainfall to the Texas Natural resources. The grasslands, which have made
end of the Great Plains, especially in summer. the grazing of stock possible, are the most important of
During the warm season the temperature on the plains the natural resources. The soils, especially in the broad
near the Canadian border commonly ranges from 70 river bottoms, are exceedingly fertile, and large crops of
to 90 degrees, and in the
cold season the thermome-
ters register 10, 20, and
even 40 degrees below zero.
At the Texas end of the
Great Plains the winter
temperature averages about
45 degrees and the summer
temperature averages about
k5 degrees. Thus the Great
Plains have what is called a
continental climate. There
are great extremes in tem-
])erature and moderate or
hght rainfall.
Occasionally very warm
winds cross the plains, dry-
ing up the grasses and
crops in summer, and even
Fig. 93. This is a field of full-grown kafir com. You can see by the meas-
ure at the right that it is six feet high. Kafir corn is a drought-resisting
plant, well suited to the dry conditions of the Great Plains. Can you name
other drought-resisting plants ?
wheat (Fig. 92), kafir corn
(Fig. 93), and alfalfa are
raised. In North Dakota
large quantities of flax are
grown. Irrigation is prac-
ticed in many of the valleys.
In Wyoming, Montana,
and North Dakota there are
extensive beds of lignite,
which is a low-grade coal.
Bituminous coal is found
near the base of the moun-
tains in Montana, Colorado,
and in New Mexico. There
are also oil fields in Wyo-
ming and Colorado, and it
is very likely that more
may be discovered in other
parts of this natural region-
54
MAP STUDIES
MAP STUDIES
The change from the Central Plains to the Great Plains
is very gradual. The land is higher in the west, the soils
are more sandy, and there is less rainfall. The changes iji
geographic conditions are such as to make the activities of the
people in one region quite different from those in the other.
Mimiesota. 1. What natural regions extend into this state?
See map on pages 2 and 3. 2. What part of the state is without
any glacial soil ? 3. Explain the numerous lakes. 4. What
navigable river rises in this state ? Find its source.
5. What is the chief mineral resource ? See Fig. 71.
6. What are the chief farm products ? 7. Name and locate
the capital. See page 48 and Fig. 84. 8. What is the largest
city in Minnesota ? See page 48 and Fig. 82.
Duluth (Fig. 81) is the gateway to and from the Great Lakes
and is second only to New York in the volume of tonnage
which it handles. It is the principal shippmg point of Amer-
ican iron ores, and one of the great grain markets of the world.
Iowa. 1. Is any part of this state outside of the Central
Plains ? 2. What portion of the state is without glacial soils?
3. What navigable rivers border Iowa? 4. Judging from the
products, name the leading occupation.
Des Moines, the capital and largest city, is near the coal
fields and has become a manufacturing center. It is one of
the leading cities in the insurance business in the United
States. Sioux City is the largest city in northwestern Iowa ; it is
an important railway center. Davenport is on a high bluff over-
looking the Mississippi River ; it is a manufacturing and trad-
ing center. Dubuque is also on the Mississippi River and is an
active manufacturing city. Cedar Rapids is in the midst of a
most productive farming district and is fortunate in having
water-power available. Meat-packing and the making of
cereal foods are its chief industries. Waterloo is noted for the
great variety in its manufacturing.
Missouri. 1. What mountains are in this state ? What
plateau ? What plains ? 2. What mineral resources are im-
portant ? 3. What navigable rivers are available ? 4. What are
the chief farm products ? 5. Describe the location of the capital.
St. Louis is the largest city in Missouri and ranks with the
leading cities of the nation in commerce and manufacturing
(Fig. 83 and page 48). Kansas City is located on the western
boundary of the state on the Missouri River, but owes its
development largely to the railways. It is in the midst of a
prosperous farming and stock-raising district. St. Joseph is
the metropolis of northwestern Missouri and is a very busy
trading and meat-packing center.
North Dakota. Most of this state is in the Great Plains
natural region. The eastern part is a fertile lake bottom ; the
central portion is mantled with glacial soils and is an excel-
lent farming land ; but the western part, where the rainfall is
light, is useful chiefly as a grazing country.
1. What are the chief occupations of the people ? 2. What
river that rises near the headwaters of the Minnesota flows
northward into Canada? 3. What are the chief farm prod-
ucts of North Dakota ? 4. What fuel is found in this state ?
5. Where is the population densest ? Why ? 6. Is irrigation
practiced in this state ?
Bismarck, the capital, is on the Missouri River in a district
where agriculture and dairying are taking the place of graz-
ing. Fargo sprang into existence with the coming of the rail-
road and owes its development to the fertility of the valley
of the Red River. Grand Forks was first a fur-trading post, but
the railroads have made it an important distributing point,
and the fertile soils of the Red River Valley have attracted
farmers into that part of the state.
South Dakota. 1. What natural regions extend into this
state ? 2. The Black Hills are a range of the Rocky Moun-
tains. What is the highest peak in this range ? 3. What
metals are found in the state ? 4. What must be the occupa-
tions in the different parts of South Dakota ?
Pierre, the capital, is one of the largest stock-shipping
points in the state. Sioux Falls has the advantages of water-
power from the Big Sioux River and excellent railroad con-
nections. This city has shared in the prosperity and growth of
the great northwest agricultural and grazing regions. Aberdeen
is another city that owes much to the western railroads and
to the development of farming.
Nebraska. 1. What natural regions extend into this state ?
2. What large river forms the eastern boundary ? 3. What
are the chief products of Nebraska ? 4. Judging from the
products, name the two chief occupations.
Lincoln, the capital, has been benefited by the many railroads
that enter the city. It is a manufacturing center and the seat
of the leading educational institution of the state. Omaha, the
metropolis of the state, is a leading manufacturing and meat-
producing center and an important stock market (Fig. 85).
Kansas. 1. What natural regions extend into Kansas?
2. What part of the state is most densely settled ? Why ?
3. What sources of fuel are available ? 4. What are the
chief farm products? 5. Judging from the products of this
state, name the chief occupations. 6. Name and locate the
capital.
Kansas City, Kansas, is opposite the city of the same name
in Missouri. It is the largest city in Kansas and is an impor-
tant meat-packing and trading center. Wichita has prospered
as the farming and stock-raising of Kansas have developed,
and it is near some of the great oil and gas fields of Kansas.
GENERAL QUESTIONS
1. Where does the 20-inch rainfall line cross these states ?
See map on page 82. 2. From what district do the great flour
mills at Minneapolis get their wheat ? 3. What are the chief
markets for the cattle raised in these states ?
4. What is the notable change in occupation between the
dry and wet parts ? 5. Does the corn belt extend into these
states ? 6. As you go to the northwest from the corn belt,
what do you find the farmers raising ?
7. What interesting sights should you expect to see if you
went ill a house-boat from St. Paul to St. Louis ? -Describe
such a journey taken in summer. 8. Compare the latitude
of Denver Avith that of Springfield, Illinois. 9. What large
Gulf port is in about the same longitude as Kansas City,
Kansas? 10. Which is farther from the north pole, Duluth
or Spokane ?
100
D Long. 98 West E from 96 Grten F wich 94'
88
90"
08'
Crosby' Portal
48
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CENTRAL STATES
WESTERN SECTION
ECONOMIC AND COMMERQAL MAP
Scale of statute miles
\ i Cald
OKLA.
I Eurekl^S* -, S
Fredonia , -„.,. . ,
Wid^eld C»u.;rryj.ale ^1^1^.
;t IndcMtndcnte Z. ColuSgus.
well -a. City ^;^j Coffeyvill*^
Scale of kilometers
&o 100 aoo 300
:^
"A* State capitals
=== Navig^able rivera
1 Up lands and
National irrigation projects ^ — -/
] Lowlands V
I (Coastal plain) L.
I Central plains V
I Great plains I
108 ■■
100
W Longitude E Wezl /rom96 Grttnwlch F •CaIveston94 '
\.l' .^'"^"'MirZme'i Vnjonvfille
-V i / •
O « Eureka Spr».
' plateaus
1 Old, worn-down
J muuntains
1 Yountr. ruifsred
J mountains
kV^^* 'il '1 J* MISS.
92
H
90
® Giiin and Company
56
GREAT PLAINS
away, and visiting became very com-
mon among the people. That extreme
hospitahty has continued to the present
day. The people welcome strangers and
are most cordial to everyone.
Passing of the open range. More and
more settlers came to the Great Plains ;
the raising of cattle and sheep grew to
be very profitable; the call of the grqat,
industrial centers farther east for meat,
wool, and leather steadily increased.
Railroads were constructed. Still more
settlers came, the land had to be divided
among the different ranchmen, and
fences were built. The days of the open
Early exploration. The early routes of migration west-, range have now nearly passed, but grazing remains the
ward from the Missouri River are shown on the map mostimportantindustry of the Great Plains (Figs. 94, 95).
(pp. 2, 3). Most of the outfitting was done where Kansas A modern. ranch. A well-equipped, modern ranch will
City is located. Many exploring parties sta;rted west- have headquarters in some valley. There the home and
ward by way of the Santa Fe trail, crossing the plains numerous barns, sheds, and corrals will be built. Near
^^^^^^^^^^^^BKl,
m
»..fe|feA;^r, ^_^^;_aa.jJa^^^^^ |i|||W|||||
Fig. 94. Millions of cattle graze over the Great Plains of Texas. This is a herd of fine-blooded
Herefords, an English breed of cattle which the ranchmen raise in great numbers because they can
fatten them quickly. To what great centers are these cattle sent when ready for market ? Why is
Texas a particularly favorable locality for cattle-raising ? Can you describe a Texas cowboy's life ?
to the southwest and going through New Mexico to
avoid climbing the Rocky Mountains. The Oregon trail
led through the valley of the North Platte, and the
California trail branched off from the Oregon trail at
the point where Ogden (Utah) is located, and crossed
the Great Basin region. The Lewis and Clark expedi-
tion of 1804-1806 followed the Missouri River far to
the northwest.
Ranch life. A few of the fur traders, trappers, and
miners who followed the trails westward decided to settle
in the Great Plains. They chose the valley bottoms for
their homes and began raising horses and cattle. The
the home there will be fields suitable for raising hay,
alfalfa, and possibly some grain.
The ranch must be supplied with modern harvesting
machinery and a large number of strong work horses
or a few motors. The saddle horses are used chiefly by
the men or boys who ride out to oversee the cattle or
to drive them to pasture or to some place for shipment.
The prosperous ranchmen of to-day all use automobiles
for going to town or for transporting supplies.
During the summer while the sheep and cattle are in
large fenced pastures, feeding on native grasses, the ranch-
man and his many helpers are engaged in the fields at
land belonged to the government, and there were no home. When fall comes the cattle and sheep are driven
fences. Those were the days when each man's cattle into the fields near the home, where for several v/eeks
mingled with those of his neighbors, and every season it they may graze and later, when the grass is gone or the
was necessary, with the help of cowboys, to round up ground is covered with snow, they may be fed conveniently,
the stock and brand all the calves. This was done before
the calves left their mothers ; and as the mothers had
all been branded' when they were young, the ownership
of the calves was known.
Later many undertook the raising of sheep. Sheep
are able to graze on lands where cattle would starve,
and cattle will not graze after sheep have been on the
range ; hence the necessity of separate ranges. The
sheep are always put on the poorer ranges.
For years and years all of the land was freely used
by all the people. The ranchmen all helped each other
and were most hospitable. They usually traveled on
horseback and stopped wherever night overtook them. Fig. 95. The men on horseback m this picture are cowboys who ride over
If they happened to be at another man's home, they the plains looking after the great herds of cattle. Back of them is a rope
went in and made themselves comfortable, whether the Z'V ^^'''' '"""^ ^'"\ '\f "T""' .f'' ^'''"" '"V'n'' "'^
' Sheridan, Wyoming. Locate Sheridan on the map on page 73. Describe
owner was at home or not. No one was ever turned the country and the climate there
GREAT PLAINS
57
Farming. The large rivers that rise
in the mountains where there is a
heavy rainfall with much snow furnish
water for irrigation, and thus farming
of a more general nature has been
undertaken near the main streams.
Large quantities of hay and grain are
raised to feed to the stock. Alfalfa
fields, when well irrigated, will yield
from two to four crops a year. Alfalfa
is a member of the clover family, and
it helps to enrich the soil by taking
nitrogen from the air. The practice Fig. 96. Xhe farms of the Great Plains are so large that much of the work must l,c aoue by
of dry farming is now adding to the machinery. This is a threshing outfit, which separates the kernels of grain from the stalks. The
, . . , . . . 1 . • engine which provides the power is at the left, while the threshing machine itself is at the right
production of grains in this region.
Along the eastern margin of the Great Plains some
wheat and corn are raised. Where there is corn there
are usually hogs, as in the Central Plains. See map on
j)cirje 55. Near the western margin, especially in Colo-
ranching district and has developed a large business in
coal and oil. Cheyenne is located at the base of the
mountains in Wyoming, at a break in transportation,
where, in the early days of settlement, many weary
rado, large crops of potatoes and sugar beets are raised, travelers stopped to rest and change their outfits before
Cities. At the western margin of the Great Plains, starting on over the mountains. Denver is located just
near the base of the Rocky Mountains, there are several east of the mountains (Fig. 99). Smelters, where the
large cities. In the north is Great Falls (Montana), where ores from the mountains could be treated, were early
there is excellent water-power, which is used to generate established at this city. Railroads have greatly helped
electricity. The electricity is used locally for light and the growth and prosperity of Denver as well as all other
power, and some is sent to Butte and Anaconda for use cities in the Great Plains.
in the mines and in the smelters. Many of the railroad
trains that cross the Rocky Mountains of Montana are
run by electricity generated at Great Falls.
Billings (Montana) is a noted sheep center and one of
the principal wool markets of the country. Sheridan
( Wyoming) is in the midst of an active and prosperous
l£) KejitcDa Vkw Co-
Fig. 97. Another farm machine is the hay-loader, which rakes up the hay
and loads it on the wagon. This saves all the labor of pitching it by hand.
The machine in this view is at work in an alfalfa field in the Great Plains.
How many other agricultural machines can you name ? Where are they
manufactured ? Where are the largest numbers of them used ?
From Colorado Springs the view of the mountains is
magnificent. This city is on the plain east of the foot-
hills and has become a popular resort. Pueblo is located
at one of the gateways into the Rocky Mountains. Here
great smelters have been built to take care of the ores
produced in the mountain region. Trinidad is situated
in the midst of a busy coal-mining section.
Throughout the middle portion of the Great Plains
the chief towns are on the lines of the railroads or in
the fertile valleys.
Explanation of the Great Plains. The underlying rocks
of this region were made chiefly in an inland sea that
once reached from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic
Ocean. Sea bottoms are usually nearly level; and when
the land rose and the sea retreated, a plain came into ex-
istence. In portions of western Texas one may travel for
miles and miles without seeing a single stream or a single
valley. The land looks like a vast sea bottom from which
the waters have been withdrawn. Streams crossing from
the western mountains eastward have brought vast quan-
tities of fine material which they have spread over the
surface of the plains. In northern Montana and in
parts of the Dakotas there are glacial soils. Instead of
being coarse, like the soils which the ice-sheet left in
New England, these glacial soils are fine, and especially
well suited for raising grain. See map on jjages 2 and 3.
58
GREAT PLAINS
Fig. 98. The Bad Lands of the Great Plains are cut up into all kinds of
strange shapes and forms. This particular area is appropriately called
Toadstool Park. Locate the Bad Lands on the map on page 55. Can you
explain the cause of these curious surface features ?
Bad Lands. In portions of the Great Plains, especially
in South Dakota, Wyoming, and Nebraska, are areas
that are called the Bad Lands. Here the rainfall is light,
and the soil and subsoil consist of soft clays and shales.
When rains do come they are usually in the form of
severe storms, and the water falls in great abundance
for a short period, as from a cloud-burst. The water cuts
the soft material into fantastic forms (Fig. 98) and car-
ries the soil away. The rough land is very bad to travel
over and therefore received its descriptive name. The
Bad Lands are wonderfully interesting places to visit,
however, and in the masses of clay are found the bones
of some of the largest animals that have ever lived in
the history of the world.
Black Hills. The Black Hills of South Dakota and
Wyoming {see map, pp. 2, 3) are an outl3dng range of
the Rocky Mountains. They were formed by the folding
and uplifting of the rocks. The rains and streams have
taken away the top of the great fold and uncovered the
core rocks, where gold, iron, tin, lead, and zinc have been
discovered (Fig. 100). Since the Black Hills rise above
the level of the Great Plains, they receive more rainfall
than the plains, and their slopes are forested. The dark
evergreen trees of the forest suggested the name for the
hills, which from a short distance look almost black.
Future. The irrigation works in the Great Plains are
sure to be extended and improved. Much more of the
land can be used for dry farming. In addition more and
more drought-resisting crops will be introduced, and in
these ways agriculture will increase in the region. The
coal deposits in Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas
will certainly be mined more extensively in the future.
The chief occupation of this region, however, will con-
tinue to be the raising of cattle and sheep. There is every
condition here to favor the future development of this
great industry on an even larger scale than at present.
Problems and review questions. 1. How is agricultural life
usually affected if the rainfall drops below 20 inches a year?
2. Why do the Great Plains have light rainfall ? 3. What storm,
winds are somewhat common in this region ? 4. Where are most
of the farms and homes located ?
5. Which routes through this region did the early pioneers to
the Far West follow ? 6. What do you understand by a general
round-up? 7. Explain the growth of the larger cities at the
western margin of the Great Plains.
8. What are the chief crops of these Plains ? 9. Where is
there a large area in the Great Plains with no valleys ? 10. Why
are the Bad Lands so rough ?
Home work. 1. Place on an outline map the large rivers that cross
the Great Plains. 2. Make a list of the ten largest cities of the
Great Plains and a similar list of the ten largest cities of the
Central Plains. Use Appendix tables. Compare the total popula-
tions in these two groups. 3. Make a list of the foods produced
in the Great Plains and compare them with those which are raised
in the Central Plains. 4. Read aloout Buffalo Bill's life in the West.
Fig. 99. Denver, the capital of Colorado, is located on the western edge of the
Great Plains, about fifteen miles from the front range of the Rocky Moun-
tains. In this picture you can see the snow-covered Rockies in the distance.
Study your maps and explain why Denver has become such an important city
Fig. 100. Lead, South Dakota, is an important mining center in the Black
Hills. The rugged mountains of this region are rich in gold, silver, lead,
copper, and iron ores, and Lead contains one of the largest gold mines of
the world. Explain the relation between the Black Hills and the Great Plains
ROCKY MOUNTAINS
59
Fig. 101. These men are preparing fora trip into the Rocky Mountains. After
they have strapped their baggage securely on the backs of the mules, they
will mount their horses and start off on the mountain trail, leading the mules.
What resources make it worth while for men to explore the mountains ?
ROCKY MOUNTAINS
Early explorations. Some of the men who went west-
ward to California along the trails of migration shown
on the map (pp. 2, 3) returned to the Rocky Mountains
and here discovered gold in the stream gravels. They
usually camped by a mountain stream, and one in the
party would take some of the gravel from the stream
bed, wash it, and test it for gold. In that way many of
the first mining camps of the West were located. Some
men picked up beautiful specimens of copper ore ; others
found pieces of lead and zinc ores among the loose
rocks in the canyons.
In the early days of settlement the mountain forests
had an abundance of large game, and trout were plenti-
ful in the streams. To one who loved the out of doors
the life among the mountains was delightful, and it
continues to be so to-day. There is still some game,
and the streams are kept stocked with fish.
Prospecting for ores. Men would spend weeks or even
months hunting for a gold dejwsit, and many of them
made wonderful discoveries. There are thousands of
old log cabins in the mountains that were formerly the
homes of prospectors. Whenever a rich discovery was
announced, hundreds of people would rush in. The first
mining was always placer mining, but later tunnels
were driven into the hills, shafts were sunk, and simple
mining machinery was installed (Fig. 103).
In those early days, when there were no railroads or
wagon roads, all of the mining equipment was brought
into the mountfiins on the backs of horses, mules or even
little burros. Mines were sometimes established high
up on a mountain, where it seemed as if no animal
lould go. To-day there are many mines to which all
tlie supplies are brought on the backs of animals that
come up narrow trails (Fig. 102), and in some places
the ores are sent down the mountains on pack animals.
Fig. 102. This procession of mules is off for the mines in the mountains,
each animal carrying two heavy planks bound to a packsaddle. The lumber
will be used in the mining operations. The mule, although small, is strong
and sure-footed and makes a very useful pack animal in the mountains
Coal, oil, gas, and marble. Near the mountains, espe-
cially in Wyoming, where there is an open, basin-like
area between the ranges, coal, oil, and gas have been
found. In Wyoming most of the coal is sub-bituminous ;
that is, coal of a grade not quite as good as bituminous.
Central Colorado is one of the very few places in the
United States, outside of eastern Pennsylvania, where
anthracite coal is mined. The Colorado mountains also
furnish large quantities of excellent marble.
Home work. 1. Get together your pictures of the Rocky
Mountains and of life in this region and bring tliem to school.
2. On your outline map of the United States color the national
parks in the Rocky Mountains. 3. Find out the value of an
ounce of gold, an ounce of silver, a pound of lead, a pound of
zinc. 4. Find out which of these metals is the heaviest.
Fig. 103. Ore deposits are discovered where the mineral veins reach the
surface of the earth. The prospectors first examine the vein carefully to
find out in what direction it runs in the ground ; they then " stake out a
claim," or mark the land they want to hold for mining; samples of the
vein are taken and analyzed ; if the value is sufficient, lumber and machinery
are brought in, a mill is constructed, homes are built, and the men begin to
sink a vertical shaft, like a well, and drive tunnels to one side or the other
until they strike the vein. The miners can then blast out the ore, load it
upon little cars which are pushed along the tunnels to the shaft, and hoist
it to the surface, where it is put through the mill
60
liOCKY MOUNTAINS
Ranch life. Some of the Western explorers were at- the mountains, above the timber line (Fig. 105). Here
tracted by the rich soils in the valleys and in the open a shepherd and his dogs will live all summer long with
parks between the mountain ranges. There, in the midst about two thousand sheep. Every few days the camp
of most beautiful scenery,
they chose to build their
homes. In those early days
most of the settlers became
ranchmen. Their cattle and
sheep could graze almost
anywhere. The ranchmen
would drive them into the
mountains during the sum-
mer, and in the winter feed
them in pastures near their
homes. During the summer
a ranchman would ride out
occasionally to see that his
stock was getting along well
and had plenty of salt, but
he would spend most of his
time in the fields near home,
raising hay and alfalfa, so that he
might be prepared to feed the stock
during the winter.
The Rocky Mountain region is not
yet densely settled, but the more de-
sirable farm lands have been taken
up. Large areas of the mountain
region are included in the national
parks or national forests. There is
some open range, where anyone who
chooses may pasture stock, but most
ranchmen now have a particular val-
ley for their cattle and a definite area
where their sheep may graze during
the summer. Those who do not own
grazing lands may pasture their stock
on an open range or get permits to
turn them into a national forest.
The assignment of grazing lands
in the national forests is made by
officers of the government, and each
ranchman pays a small fee for every
animal pastured. It costs the ranch-
man each year about 37 cents per
head for cattle and about 7 cents per
head for sheep.
Fig. 104. These men are branding a calf. It looks very cruel, but it really
does not hurt the animal much. While one man holds him, the other takes
a hot iron and singes off the hair in the form of the owner's mark, or brand.
Why is branding necessary in the West ?
Fig. 105. These sheep are grazing on one of the
open pastures high up in the San Juan Mountains.
What season of the year is it ? Can you explain
the absence of trees here ?
tender will bring him a sup-
ply of food and perhaps
help him to move his camp
to a fresh grazing field.
By September, when the
nights in the high moun-
tains become very cold and
when heavy snows are quite
likely to fall, the shepherds
begin to drive their flocks
into the foothills and later
out to the pastures where
they are to be fed and pro-
tected through the winter.
In the spring the shearing
is done. The warm coats
of the sheep are clipped,
and the wool is shipped to
market. Immediately after the shear-
ing comes the dipping (Fig. 106), and
after that the sheep, with their lambs,
return to the mountains. The sheep
must be branded each year, for the
brand is of paint. Even the lambs
are usually branded.
Orchards. Many of the mountain
valleys have proved to be good places
for raising fruit (Fig. 108). Large
quantities of apples, pears, peaches,
and plums are raised. Most of the
fruit must be shipped to city markets.
Some of it is canned.
Location and growth of cities.
Within the mountain area the loca-
tion of certain of the larger cities
has been determined by the discovery
of rich ores. Beginning in the north,
we find that the chief mining centers
include Coeur d'Alene in Idaho, Butte,
Helena, and Virginia City in Montana,
and Leadville, Cripple Creek, Ouray,
Telluride, and Silverton in Colorado.
Most of the smaller cities in the
mountains owe their location and
The sheep must be carefully guarded, so that bears, growth chiefly to the local development of ranches
wolves, coyotes, or mountain lions may not get them, or of orchards, but in every case the construction of
They must be kept in the pastures assigned to them, railroads has greatly benefited the cities.
and therefore a shepherd is left with each flock. Most note. For a special study of the cities in the northern and southern
of the sheep pastures are in huge open basins high in sections of the Rocky Mountains see pages 72 and 77.
ROCKY MOUNTAINS
61
Native vegetation. The lower
slopes of the mountains and the
lands between the ranges, called
either valleys or parks, are grasslands.
Next higher come the forests, and
above the timber line there is more
grass. The highest peaks, the very
steep places, and the areas of loose
rock are without coverings of vege-
tation. The trees of the forests are
chiefly pines, spruces, and hemlocks.
Among these great evergreen trees
there are some birch trees and little
frvoves of quaking aspen.
National forests. Many of the for-
ests in the Rocky Mountain region
are now under control of the govern-
ment. They belong to all the people
and are cared for by men trained in
forestry. Each forest is divided, and
a forest ranger is assigned to each
section. He rides over the trails,
watching for possible forest fires, and
sees that the ranchmen keep their
herds and flocks in the proper pas-
tures. It is his business to count the cattle and sheep
Fig. 106. At the dipping season the sheep are
pushed into a trough and forced to swim through
a solution which kills the ticks, little creatures
that live on the skin of the animal and spread
deadly disease
lumber business near the national
forests may purchase from the gov-
ernment such trees as the forester
marks for this purpose. Burned-over
districts are replanted by the Forest
Service.
The range riders often have their
homes in the beautiful canyons
among the mountains. Each man
keeps several excellent saddle horses.
In the morning a fresh horse is caught
and saddled, and the ranger starts
off for a day's ride over some of the
wonderful forest trails (Fig. 192). In
many places the trails are along the
very tops of the mountains. In
southern Colorado there is a trail
known as the Continental Divide
trail, which follows the great water-
shed for nearly a hundred miles (Fig.
109). As the ranger rides over it the
forests appear on either side below
him. He can see for miles and miles
and can easily detect the beginning
of a forest fire. In some places outr
look towers have been built for the rangers. There are
that enter the national forest each spring and to mark telephones connecting the ranger stations, so that the
the trees which may be cut for lumber. Each ranch-
man or settler is allowed by law a certain amount of
wood every year from the national forests. This is to
help him with his buildings and fences. If the ranch-
man wants more wood than his allowance, he may buy
men can quickly comrfiunicate the news of a fire or of
stray sheep or cattle.
When a forest ranger must be gone overnight or
possibly for two or three days, he usually puts a camp
bed, a supply of provisions, possibly his fishing rod, and
it from a national forest. Those who wish to go into the a few cooking utensils on the back of a small mule and
Fig. 107. This is Silverton, Colorado, on a winter evening. Silverton is a
typical ^ocky Mountain mining town, which has grown up because of the
rich deposits of gold, silver, lead, and zinc ores which have been found in
the surrounding mountains. Locate Silverton on your map
p. II. Truutnan, Cnnon Cuj, Cvlo.
Fig. 108. On cold nights the Colorado fruit-growers burn oil in their or-
chards. The cloud of smoke which rises from the flaming oil pots hangs
over the orchard like a blanket and prevents the heat of the earth from
escaping. In this way the fruit trees are protected from frost
62
ROCKY MOUNTAINS
Fig. 109. The trail over the Continental Divide in Colorado zigzags up
over the slopes and is so narrow that the horses must go in single file.
Trace the line of the Continental Divide on your map. At what points did
the early pioneers cross it ? See map on pages 2 and 3
starts off on a saddle horse, leading the pack animal.
With such an outfit he can travel and live independently,
for his hotel travels with him. His route may take him
through a beautiful canyon or high over the mountains.
He may follow a trail in the forest or be far above the
timber line, where the sheep are grazing. For his camp
he will select a place where there is good grass for his
saddle horse and pack mule and a supply of water and
firewood. The pack and the saddles are taken off, and
the animals are turned out to graze overnight. He may
catch a few mountain trout and then build a fire and
cook his evening meal. A few fir boughs, properly laid
down, make a good bed for him. Next morning after
breakfast he must pack up and start over new trails,
through deep canyons, or over high crest^lines, by beauti-
ful lakes and wonderful waterfalls. Such is the ranger's
life in summer. During the winter he supervises the
cutting of timber.
Home work. Make out as long a list as you can of the different
varieties of trees that grow in the forests of the United States.
CourtMj of Wiswall Brot. ftnd Deurer Tourist BureM
Fig. 111. In winter, when the snow is deep in the Rocky Mountains, it is
hard to keep the railroad tracks clear so that the trains may go through.
This view shows five engines pushing a railroad snowplow up grade. Why
is the snowfall so heavy in this region ?
Fig. 110. This is a distant view of the Rocky Mountain National Park. It
is in the heart of the Rockies in north central Colorado, and its peaks rise
to more than thirteen thousand feet. Locate this park on your map. How
many of our national parks aie in the Rocky Mountains ?
Water-power. When the rain falls in these high moun-
tains, it collects in little rivulets, which unite to make
mountain streams. These often descend through the
canyons as rushing torrents. The snows which fall
nearly every month in the year contribute water to the
streams, especially during the summer season. Where
the streams come to cliffs or precipices in their courses,
there are waterfalls. Near the mining camps, where
power is needed for running the drills, hoisting the ores,
running the mills, and lighting the mines, the water-
power is often utilized to generate electricity. The
power plant is usually located near a waterfall, and
the electricity is transmitted by wire over the tops
of mountains, if neces-
sary, to where the mines
are located. Most mining
towns are lighted by
electricity. At Shoshone,
Colorado, nearGlenwood
Springs, is one of the
very large power plants.
From this point electric-
ity is transmitted over
copper conductors, sup-
ported on steel towers, for
distances of more than
150 miles. Denver and
many of the cities and
mines in central Colo-
rado receive power from
the Shoshone plant.
A few of the railroads
in the Rocky Mountains
are now run by elec-
tricity, and some day all
of them may be oper-
ated by electric power.
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Fig. 112. High up on the slopes of the
mountains, where there is much snow
and only a little vegetation, live thou-
sands of wild Rocky Mountain sheep
ROCKY MOUNTAINS
63
Problems and review questions.
1. What tirst attracted men to
settle in tliis region ? 2. Describe
the life of a prospector. 3. What
are now the chief resources
within this region ? 4. Why
should stot'k-raising be profitable
among the mountains ? 5. Why
must the sheep be guarded ?
6. Where are their summer
feeding grounds ? 7. Why should
the government charge a board
bill for sheep and cattle that
graze in the national forests ?
8. What are the various duties
of a forest ranger? 9. What
sources of power are there in
this region ?
10. Why should the mountain
scenery be considered a valuable
natural resource to the American
people ? 11. What occupations
may attract more settlers to the
Eocky Mountain region ? 12. What has determined the location
of the larger cities in this region ? Give several examples.
13. How much rain falls in these mountains ? See map on
page 82. 14. How do seasonal changes in climate affect the life
of the stock-raiser? of the forest ranger?
PbotoKTKph by Hajnes
Fig. 113. These are a few of the thirty thousand elk which roam through
the Yellowstone National Park. Our government is making a great effort
to preserve the wild animal life of our forests and plains by enforcing
strict laws about hunting. Why is this wise ?
each mountain fold was
cut by streams and by
glaciers. The rock that was
in ,the center, or was the
core of the mountain range,
appears now in the peaks,
while the upturned rocks
in the foothills on either
gide are what is left of the
great layers that made the
top of the fold, or arch.
In some places in the
Rocky Mountains, when the
earth was being folded and
uplifted, volcanoes broke
out and built up mountains
of lava mixed with rock
fragments that were thrown
Mountain scenery.
into the air. Great sheets
of lava poured forth and covered hundreds of square
miles of the surrounding country.
National parks. In northern Montana at the east
margin of the mountain area is Glacier National Park.
This is a region of magnificent mountains, beautiful
No one can visit the Rocky Moun- lakes, many small glaciers, and with forests, shrubs,
tains without wondering how they were made, why
the rocks in some places stand straight up and in
otlier places are horizontal, why in some places they
are sandstones and hmestones and in other places
granites, marbles, or great thick layers of lava. The
entire region is a real wonderland of natural beauty.
grasses, and an alpine flora that add to the beauty of
almost every view (Figs. 114, 116).
Yellowstone National Park is chiefly in northwestern
Wyoming. It is a region where there were many active
volcanoes. Below the surface there are hot rocks which
heat the waters circulating through the cracks and
Fig. 115. Diagram of a mountain fold the top of
which has been cut away
Fig. 114. This is one of the ninety glaciers from
which Glacier National Park takes its name. They
are the small remnants of the great continental
ice-sheet which once spread over this area
The outer por-
tion of the earth,
in the region of
the Rocky Moun-
tains, was com-
pressed, and the
rocks were arched ,
or upfolded, as in
Fig. 115. Rain.s,
winds, frosts, and
glaciers all helped
to wear away the
tops of the folds.
Little by little
fissures, and the
waters come out of
the ground as hot
springs and gey-
sers (Fig. 119).
Rocky Moun-
tain National Park
is in the central
part of northern
Colorado. This is
a region of high
mountains, broad
valleys, and fine
forests (Fig. 110).
R. E. Matbla
Fig. 116. Glacier National Park also contains
many beautiful lakes. They occupy, parts of the
valley floors which were broadened and deepened
by the glaciers. This one is Lake Ellen Wilson
64
ROCKY MOUNTAINS
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Fig. 117. The Great Falls of the Yellowstone River are among the wonders Fig. 118. The beautiful hot-spring terraces in the Yellowstone National
of Yellowstone National Park. The water falls over a sheer precipice three Park have been built up by the white limy deposits from the cooling
hundred feet to the canyon below. How do these falls compare in height waters of the springs. These terraces are gorgeously colored with bands of
with those of Niagara ? Locate Yellowstone National Park on your map bright red and yellow, while the water in the pools is a deep blue-green
Ice age in the mountains. When the continental ice- Future. We have found the chief occupations in this
sheets formed in Canada and advanced into the north- region to be mining, grazing, farming, lumbering, and
em part of the United States, there were thousands of fruit-raising. More and more people are sm-e to settle
smaller glaciers in the Rocky Mountains. At that time here and go into one or another of these lines of work,
snows accumulated near the summits to such great There is a wonderful supply of water-power in the
depth that ice was formed, and the ice moved down the mountains, and relatively little of it is used. It is prob-
canyons, deepening each gorge and carrying away the able that some day all the people will have electricity
loose material. for lighting and heating their homes and for running
Many of these glaciers reached the foothills of the their sewing and washing machines and their saws for
ranges and some advanced for short distances over the cutting firewood. Electricity could be used for cooking
bordiering lower lands. The deposits of morainal material and for ironitig in the mountain homes. Perhaps this
indicate how far the glaciers extended over the lowlands, will come about sometime, when the rhountain com-
. In time the climate changed ; there
was less snowfall in the mountains ;
all of the glaciers became smaller
because of melting, and most of them
disappeared (Fig. 114).
The glaciated canyons have the
glacial drift, or moraines, in them ;
for when the ice melted, it left on
the bottom of the canyon all the
stones, sands, gravels, and clays that
it was carrying. In some places these
moraines blocked the drainage, and
lakes were formed . Sometimes the ice
gouged out the solid rock and made
basins where waters have accumu-
lated and formed lakes.
In places the main canyons were
deepened so much more than the
tributary valleys that the tributary
streams now fall from the side val-
leys into the main canyons, thus
making many beautiful waterfalls.
Pbotograpb by Uftjaes
Fig. 119. "Old Faithful," the most famous Yellow-
stone geyser, erupts regularly every sixty-five min-
utes, throwing a stream of hot water one hundred
and twenty feet into the air
munities plan to cooperate.
The forests will be a constant
source of lumber and will afford
pleasure to all who live in them or
visit them. The harmless varieties
of wild game should become more
abundant. Airships may be used to
patrol the forests. Each year thou-
sands of busy people will seek a
change from the active life of our
large cities in a vacation spent in this
region of magnificent scenery, good
fishing, and cool summer climate.
Problems and review questions. 1. Ex-
plain briefly the ways in which these high
mountains were made. 2. Are there any
glaciers in the Rocky Mountains to-day ?
3. What signs of ancient glaciers are there
in the mountains ? 4. Where did these
glaciers form ? 5. Why did they dis-
appear ? 6. By what natural forces are the
mountains worn down ? 7. What national
parks are within this region ?
WESTERN PLATEAUS
65
WESTERN PLATEAUS their ancestors settled long ago, when they feared the
These plateaus extend from north to south between attacks of hostile tribes. In many of the canyon walls
the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade and there are the rmns of ancient clifE-dwellings (Fig. 120).
Sierra Nevada on the west. The chief subdivisions are Those people made their homes where they could easily
the Columbia Plateau, the
Great Basin, and the Colo-
rado Plateau. See map on
pages 2 and 3.
A problem. Use map op-
posite page 82. Suppose we
think of a high plateau
country in the temperate
zone nearly surrounded by
mountains. Suppose there
are canyons more than a
mile deep in the plateau,
and mountain ranges rising
from 2000 to 5000 feet above
its general level. The region
has a very dry chmate with
Fig. 120. In the Mesa Verde National Parle in Colorado are the wonderful ruins
of the cliff-dwellers, a prehistoric people who made their homes under the over-
hanging cliffs of the great wooded mesa. This is the Cliff Palace, the largest
of the dwellings. It is 300 feet long and originally contained 200 rooms
fight off enemy tribes. The
cliff-dwellers irrigated the
lands in the canyons, raised
vegetables, and hunted wild
game.
White settlers. The white
people who have settled in
this plateau region have
been attracted by the rich
deposits of minerals in the
mountain ranges of the
desert or by the fertile soils.
The lands about the margin
of the desert are most easily
irrigated, and many of the
cities and towns are on the
less than 10 inches of rainfall annually over the greater edge of the desert, where great irrigation projects have
part, but with from 10 to 20 inches in certain portions, been developed. See maps on pages 73 and 76. The
What would primitive peoples do for a living in such white people often get their water from the neighboring
a region ? Where would they make their settlements ? mountains. Reservoirs are made, and the waters are
Would civilized people want to Uve there ? What occupa- piped for many miles to the settlements. The mining
tions would they find profitable ? Where would they build towns must of course be located near the place where
their homes ? What would they do for water ? This is the ores are discovered. This means that they are in
a large geographic problem, and it is a real problem or near the desert ranges.
for the people who are trying to make a living in the Rainfall. When a land is surrounded or nearly sur-
great plateau region of our Western states. rounded by mountains it is quite sure to be a semidesert.
Native tribes. Several tribes of Indians now live possibly a desert. The winds that cross our plateau states
on these plateaus. They make their settlements near come chiefly from the southwest. They take up an
the streams in order to .have drinking water and a abundance of moisture as they pass over the Pacific
chance to irrigate some of the land (Figs. 121, 123). Ocean, but as the air rises to cross the Coast Ranges and
In America some
of the tribes of
Indians practiced
irrigation before
the white men did.
These people raise
sheep and horses.
The Navajo Indi-
ans are good shep-
herds. They are
also expert weav-
ers and make
much of the wool
from their flocks
into blankets.
Some of the In-
dian tribes Uve on
mesa tops, where
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Fig. 121. liiia io a typical village of the Colorado Plateau. It is located in the dry valley, or "wash,"
as it is called, of one of the tributaries of the Colorado River. The little stream which flows at times
through the wash furnishes water for irrigating the fields. Notice the low, flat-roofed buildings and,
in the distance, the barren, level surface of the plateau
then the Cascade
Mountains or the
Sierra Nevada, the
moisture is forced
out and falls as
rain or snow on
the windward sides
of the mountain
ranges. When the
air descends into
the plateau region,
it becomes warm.
Warm air tends to
take up more mois-
ture; so the winds,
as they pass east-
ward across the
plateaus, tend to
66
WESTERN PLATEAUS
dry up the country rather than to give up their moisture.
Some of the local mountain ranges within this semidesert
region succeed in getting a little rain
from the winds. Trees and grasses
will grow on these mountains, while
the surrounding plateau surface will
have little but sagebrush, grease-
wood, cacti, and yucca (Fig. 122 and
map opposite page 82).
Changes in temperature. In all
arid regions the temperature varies
greatly between night and day.
When there is little or no moisture
in the air, the ground during the day
becomes very warm. In summer the
stones are so hot that it is uncomfortable to touch them.
Fig. 122. This is the beautiful choUa cactus, one
of the plants which grow on the dry Colorado
Plateau. The prickly spines which surround the
stem are characteristic of desert vegetation
been relied upon disappoints the travelers, and a " dry
camp" must be established. Here no one has any water
to drink or for use in washing. The
cook may have provided a keg or
bag of water to be used in cooking.
At such camps the horses are the
most unfortunate, but horses that
live in arid regions get along with-
out drinking as often as those that
live where there are streams. Those
who have attempted to cross the
desert portions of the plateaus with-
out guides and without water have
been most miserable. Many have
died from thirst. In some places
water could undoubtedly be secured by drilling deep
The air just above the ground also becomes very warm, holes into the ground, but that would be very expensive.
In the southern part of this
region the temperature rises
to 120 degrees Fahrenheit
during the summer days.
When night comes the heat
passes off through the air
very rapidly ; the stones
and earth become cold, and
the air above the ground
loses its heat. The tempera-
ture continues to fall until
sunrise of the next day, and
the hours just before the
Fig. 123. This is one of the Indian villages of the arid Southwest. The
houses are made of adobe, or bricks of sun-dried clay, and are grouped about
an open central square, or plaza. Why are the houses not made of wood ?
What do the people do for a living ?
Physical Features
The Columbia Plateau is
made of extensive flows of
lava. The lava poured out
of . the earth along great
cracks, or fissures, and
spread over the country.
One flow followed another
until the lava was over a
mile in depth. It filled up all
the low places and buried
hills and even mountains.
sun rises are the coldest of all the twenty-four hours. To-day the mountains that remain, of which the Blue
Water supply.
To provide drinking-water in the
drier parts of the
plateaus is one of
the most difficult
problems. Every
exploring expedi-
tion should plan
to have an Indian
guide who knows
the exact location
of the streams and
springs. The cus-
tomary plan is to
move from one
Mountains of Oregon are a good example, are nearly
buried in lava.
Later on, rivers
cut their valleys
through the lava,
and two of them,
the Columbia and
the Snake, have
made wonderful
canyons in the
plateau. In the
canyon walls of
the Snake River,
far below the
spring to anot her, present surface of
and the location the country, can
Fig. 124. This is a Hopi Indian house near the
Grand Canyon. It is built exactly as the ancestors
of the Hopis built their homes centuries ago, and
in it live a large number of Hopi families
of water deter-
mines the length
of a day's tramp.
Sometimes a
spring that has
be seen the out-
lines of the old
hills which were
buried by great
outflows of lava.
Fig. 125. This Hopi Indian girl is very skillful in
the art of basket-making. The weaving of beau-
tiful baskets and rugs, often wonderfully colored,
is an important industry among these Indians
WESTERN PLATEAUS
67
Great Basin. South of the Columbia Plateau, and in- magnificent scenic feature on the earth (Fig. 126). For
eluding most of Nevada and parts of Utah, Arizona, 250 miles the Colorado River has cut a gorge into the
and California, there is a region bounded by mountains plateau ; in one place this gorge is nearly 6000 feet deep.
where there is inland drainage ;
that is, the streams cannot flow
to the sea. The rains that fall
on the neighboring mountains
flow into the basin, where most
of the streams either dry up or
sink into the ground. A few
streams empty into lakes, some
of which have no outlets. The
best example of this kind of lake
is Great Salt Lake, where the
water contains nearly as much
salt as it can possibly hold in
solution. Each stream that flows
into the lake brings in some salt,
and as the water is lost from the
lake by evaporation the lake has
become more and more salty.
Dming the ice age, when the
climate was less dry, this lake was
a thousand feet deeper than it
is now and spread over much of
western Utah. At that time it
had an outlet to the Snake River
and was a fresh-water lake.
Between the mountain ranges
in this basin region there are
large quantities of sands and gravels and fine soils, which
streams have brought from the mountains and spread out
on the lower lands. The soils are excellent and, when
water is brought to them, wonderful crops are raised.
Death Valley is in the Great Basin. It is east of the
Sierra Nevada in southern California and is the lowest
land area in the United
States. The bottom of the
valley is from 250 to 280
feet below sea level.
Colorado Plateau. South-
east of the Great Basin, and
including parts of Utah,
Colorado, Arizona, and New
Mexico, is the Colorado
Plateau {see map, p. 76).
This is probably better
known and more remark-
able than any other plateau
in the world. Its fame is
due chiefly to the Grand
Canyon, which is the most
Fig. 126. If you could stand beside the Indian in this picture,
you would be looking out over the greatest gorge in the world,
^the Grand Canyon, which the Colorado River has carved in
the level plateau of Arizona. The opposite rim of the canyon
is twelve miles away, and the river itself is over a mile below
Fig. 127. This is one of the four great natural bridges in southeastern Utah,
which are the largest in the world. The people standing on top give an idea
of its great size. Compare this view with Fig. 60. How do you suppose this
bridge could have been made in so dry a region ?
If ten columns the size of the
Washington Monument were
placed one upon the other, rising
from the stream level, they would
not quite reach the elevation of
the rim of the canyon. If all of
Mt. Washington above sea level
could be placed in this gorge,
its summit would rise only a few
feet above the rim. From the
rim of the gorge the river at the
bottom of the canyon appears no
larger than a tiny brook.
In its most magnificent portion
the canyon is from 10 to 12 miles
wide, and yet in the clear, dry
air of the desert the farther wall
appears to be much less than a
mile away. The canyon is per-
haps most remarkable for its
coloring and for the great variety
in the rock formations. Each
layer of rock has some distinc-
tive shade. There are bands of
red, green, brown, and gray.
One layer, about 500 feet thick,
has a brilliant red color ; this
layer is so situated that it may be seen from any point
on the rim. Bordering the canyon on the south there
is a forest of yellow pines with beautiful open parks.
In the canyon itself the vegetation is chiefly that of a
desert, with sagebrush, a few cedars, and cacti.
Sitting on the rim of this great gorge, one sees the
colors change from hour
to hour with the change
in the sun's position or as
clouds shade one portion or
another. Sometimes clouds
form below the rim. Light-
ning is seen to flash through
the clouds, thunder is heard,
and rain falls in the canyon.
As the storm clears away,
the whole scene changes ;
the vegetation has been
freshened and the rocks
that have been moistened
during the rain have a
peculiar brilliancy of color.
68
WESTERN PLATEAUS
Fig. 128. This is Bingham, one of the important mining centers of Utah.
Notice the way in which the city has spread up the two valleys which meet
in the foreground of the view. In the background is the mountain of copper
ore which caused the development of the city
The waters of Great Salt Lake are pumped into fields
surrounded by dikes and then allowed to evaporate.
As the water is taken up into the air the salt is left on
the ground ; later it is plowed up and sent to a refinery,
where it is prepared for market.
Growth of mining centers. Bingham in Utah (Fig. 128),
Reno, Carson City, Virginia City, Tonopah, and Goldfield in
Nevada, and Jerome, Globe, Clifton, and Bisbee in Arizona
are among the many mining centers that have grown
up in this region. Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and
some other minerals are obtained.
Farming and fruit-raising with irrigation. Wonderful
changes have been made through irrigation. Large
areas of dusty sagebrush deserts have been transformed
into beautiful, green, and productive garden spots.
Just west of the Wasatch Mountains in Utah, in the
If one descends to the stream, as is possible at a few fertile valley of the Jordan River, there is a chain of
places by following carefully made trails, the water is
seen to be yellow. It is about the color of coffee with
cream in it. When a sample of the water is taken and
allowed to stand, a thick layer of yellow mud settles to
the bottom. This mud tells the story of the making of
this wonderful gorge. The canyon was carved and is still
being deepened by the stream which flows through it
and by the little streams that flow down the canyon
walls. This work has taken millions of years.
Home work. 1. Read about the cliff-dwellings in the Mesa Verde
National Park. 2. Read about the Navajo, the Aconia, and the
Hopi Indians. 3. Read a special description of the Grand Canyon
of the Colorado River.
Discovery of natural resources. See maps on pages 73
and 76. As white men came to know this part of the
western country, they discovered certain portions where,
with the help of irrigation, agriculture could be carried
on very successfully. They also discovered gold, copper,
silver, and iron. Borax has been found within this
region, and there are many places where salt is secured, the Wasatch Mountains in the midst of irrigated lands.
In Idaho, bordering the valley of the
Snake River, and in Washington, near
the Columbia River, there are sev-
eral large irrigation projects. Spokane
(Washington) (Fig. 129) has grown up
on the very margin of the Columbia
Plateau, at the edge of the mountain
belt. At Wenatchee in the Columbia val-
ley, in the Yakima and Boise valleys,
and in many other places there are
wonderful orchards (Fig. 132).
The national irrigation projects in
Fig. 129. The falls of the Spokane River provide valuable water-power for the city of Spokane and ^J^g plateau region are located near the
make possible its manufacturing industries. This view shows the lower falls as they rush over the . » ,, rpi . j
great dam. Above the dam is the power plant which transforms the water-power into electric power, margins OI tne area. lUe Waters USett
How many other cities can you name which have developed because of water-power ? COme from neighboring mountains.
Fig. 130. Salt Lake City was founded in 1847 in the desert just west of the
Wasatch Mountains. By irrigation from the mountain streams this desert
region was made fertile and productive. To-day the city is an important
railroad terminus and the business center of the irrigated farming country
which surrounds it. Locate Salt Lake City on your map
agricultural settlements where irrigation is practiced.
Ogden, Salt Lake City (Fig. 130), and Provo, three of the
largest cities in Utah, are located at the western base of
WESTERN PLATEAUS
69
Dry farming. In certain parts of the Columbia Plateau
where the soils are rich, but where there is not sufficient
water for irrigating the land, the settlers practice dry
farming. The soils are carefully cultivated so as to
make the surface material as fine as possible. That will
delay the evaporation of moisture.
In places great crops of wheat are raised where for-
merly nothing but sagebrush grew. The roots of the
Fig. 131. This sturdy pair of horses is hauling a load of baled hay to mar-
ket in central Washington. This part of the state receives a light rainfall,
but irrigation and dry farming have turned it into a good farming country.
What are the principal products of this area ?
wheat reach far down into the ground and there find
some moisture. With some crops the soil is cultivated
very frequently.
These methods are adding large areas to the lands
that may be used for producing foods.
Future. More of the waters coming from the moun-
tains will be utilized in irrigating the margin of the
western plateaus (Fig. 133). Then more people can be
accommodated there and more foods can be raised. The
water-power in certain of the mountain valleys near
the margin of the desert and in the canyons within the
desert makes possible the generation of electricity for
light and power in the cities and towns.
Mining in this region will certainly continue to
develop, and with the constant extension of railroads
more and more of the mountain ranges will become
easily accessible, and this will make it possible for
poorer grades of ore to be mined at a profit.
The dry farming in eastern Washington and Oregon
has not reached its limit. It will undoubtedly be in-
creased, thus adding to the- crop yield of the region.
Washington is the gateway to Alaska. With its ex-
cellent harbor and shipping facilities there is promise
of great development in the entire Puget Sound region.
Problems and review questions. 1. Why do more people live in
the southern portion of the plateaus than in the northern portion ?
2. What do the native people do there to make a living ?
Fig. 132. The city of Wenatchee, Washington, is situated on the banks of
the Columbia River. The broad, river-made plain is used as orchard land.
The rainfall is under twenty inches a year, which is much less than the
fruit trees need, and therefore all the orchards are irrigated
3. Why did the ancestors of these native people build their
homes in caves, on the tops of mesas, or on the cliffs of the can-
yons ? 4. Why is there so little rainfall in this region ? 5. How
does the dryness of the area affect the changes in temperature
from night to day ?
6. What is the coldest time in the twenty-four hours ? Why ?
7. What geographic factors influence the routes of travelers and
the location of camps in the desert? 8. How was the Columbia
Plateau made ? 9. What is meant by the Great Basin region ?
10. In which plateau is the Grand Canyon ?
11. What have you ever seen that is higher than the walls of
the Grand Canyon ? 12. How was the canyon made ? 13. To
what natural regions do the mountains of Arizona and the plateau
of southern New Mexico belong ? See map on page 122.
14. What great natural resources have white men discovered
in the plateau region ? 15. What factors have controlled the loca^
tion of the cities ? 16. What will help to make this part of the
country suitable for larger populations in the years to come ?
Fig. 133. The great Roosevelt Dam in Arizona was built by the government
to store up the waters of the Salt River for irrigation. The Salt River
Irrigation Project is one of the many undertaken by our government to
water the dry lands of the West and make them fit for farming
70
PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS
Fig. 134. This is Crater Lake, Oregon. It occupies the huge hole which was
left long ago when a great volcanic mountain collapsed into itself. This
mountain was one of a range of volcanoes which were built up by many out-
pourings of hot lava long before man came to live on the earth. The other
PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS
Coming of the pioneers. In studying the country west
of the Mississippi River we have several times referred
to the great rush to California when gold was discovered
there in 1848. The trails from the Central Plains west-
ward led the exploring parties through several natural
regions to this westernmost portion of the United States.
See map on jJdges 2 and 3. Some came in at the south,
where the climate was dry and warm, and some crossed
the Sierra Nevada and went directly to the mining
districts in the mountains. Others, who followed the
Oregon trail, came by the Columbia River through the
Cascade Mountains to the region where Portland is now
situated. The life in the mountainous portion of this
region developed most naturally from the discovery of
mineral wealth. In the lowland areas the occupations
were determined by the conditions of soil and climate.
mountains of the range did not collapse and to-day they are cold, rugged
peaks, covered with ice and snow (see Figs. 147, 150). The lava clifis which
form the rim of this lake are a thousand feet high, and rising out of its
clear, blue waters is a beautiful little volcanic cone called Wizard Island'
Placer mining. The first mines were in the sand and
gravel deposits of certain valleys of the Sierra Nevada.
Some of the gold is in the form of pebbles or nuggets,,
but more is in the form of grains as fine as sand. Some
of it is a gold dust. The stream deposits that contain
the gold must be washed in order to separate the gold
from the sand and gravel. This is done by running the
deposits through long boxes. The gold is heavier than
the sand and gravel and therefore sinks to the bottom
fcitM^^
iiiMi
wKSB^MKSBtk^'''^^^
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Fig. 185. These men are at work near Fresno, California, stacking alfalfa
hay with the help of a derrick. The dry summers of the central valley of
California are especially favorable to alfalfa-growing, and the farmers often
cut it three or four times a season. Explain the climate here
Fig. 136. There are no better dairy farms in the country than those in the
central vailey of California. The cows in this region have green feed the
year round, which is a great advantage to dairying. In what ways do
the conditions for dairying here difier from those of New England ?
of the boxes, where it is caught and held behind small
crossbars. This method is called placer mining.
Vein mining. The prospectors realized that the orig-
inal source of the gold which they found in the gravels
must be somewhere upstream, and they searched through
the mountains to find the mineral veins which carried
the gold. Many of the veins were discovered, and this
led to mining underground. Great shafts were sunk
and tunnels driven (Fig. 103). Some of the hills have
been honeycombed, and the miners now go thousands
of feet down into the earth for the ores.
PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS
71
Climate. The prevailing
west winds that come from
over the Pacific Ocean to
the northern portion of the
Pacific coast bring an abun-
dance of moisture, and the
rainfall is heaAry, reaching
100 inches a year on the
western slopes of the moun-
tains in Oregon and Wash-
ington. Farther south the
rainfall decreases, and in
southern California it is
often very light. During a
part of each year the winds
of southern California come
from over the land and
bring little or no rainfall to
the coastal region. They come from a very dry region.
The winds that come from over the Pacific Ocean have
the temperature of the air over the water, and as that
changes but little from summer to winter, there are
Fig. 137. This man is picking grapes in his vineyard in the valley of
California. These grapes will be dried to make raisins. Why is the
valley of California a favorable place for the cultivation of vineyards ?
Where are the other grape-raising centers of the United States ?
rich soils in the lowland
belts between the great
mountain ranges (Figs. 135,
136). In southern California
the soils are exceedingly
fertile, and with the help of
irrigation large crops are
raised. The lowlands as
they appear on the map do
not look extensive enough,
to be as important as they
are ; but in the valley of
California, shut away from
the Pacific Ocean by the
Coast Ranges, the climate
is just right for raising
grain and fruit. In the
north, barley, rice, apples,
pears, peaches, and grapes are the chief products
(Fig. 137). In southern California, plums, apricots,
oranges, lemons, olives, figs, walnuts, and almonds are
produced (Fig. 138). The abundant rainfall on the
not such great ranges in temperature along the coast as mountains furnishes sufficient water for irrigating the
there are farther inland.
In the lowland area the climate is never very cold.
The rainy season is during the winter, when the upper
air is colder ; thus, as the winds rise to cross the moun-
tain, they are more quickly chilled and forced to give
lowlands, and in the valley of California and in
the southern part of the state, irrigation is carried on
by the most modern methods.
Drying fruits. Since the rainfall is light, especially in
the southern portion, fruits may be dried out of doors.
up their moisture. In the high mountains the winters The long days of sunshine are just what is needed
are cold and there are heavy snowfalls. to dry plums and grapes into prunes and raisins.
Agriculture. In the early days the number of miners Few places in the world have a climate and soil so
increased rapidly and more food was needed. This led well suited to the raising and drying of fruits as the
many people to begin farming and fruit^raising on the central and southern portions of California. See Fig. 139.
Fig. 138. This picture shows one of the great groves of orange, lemon, and
grapefruit trees which are cultivated with the help of irrigation in southern
California. These are called citrous fruits. How does the climate of southern
California compare with that of the citrous-fruit area of Florida ?
Fig. 139. In the valley of California, during the rainless summer months,
acres of land are covered with trays of fruit drying in the sun. The trays
in this picture contain prunes. Peaches, pears, apricots, raisins, currants,
and berries are also dried in this way. Explain the climate here
72
MAP STUDIES
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74
PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS
Fig. 140. This is a typical scene in the Pacific Northwest. The square-
rigged sailing vessels are lying at anchor in the river, waiting to be loaded
with timber for foreign markets. To what ports will they sail ? What con-
ditions make the Pacific Northwest the finest lumber district in the world ?
Lumbering. The forests in Oregon and Washington
are the most luxuriant in the United States. They are
made up chiefly of fir, cedar, and spruce, and they have
made possible the production of large quantities of
lumber. In southwestern Oregon there are magnificent
forests of northern yellow pine (Fig. 142). Tacoma,
Seattle, and Portland are lumbering centers and send
lumber to the great cities of the Mississippi Valley. On
Puget Sound and on the Columbia River vessels from
almost all the countries of the world may be seen taking
on cargoes of lumber (Figs. 140, 141).
The mills built to take care of this business have such
remarkable machinery that huge logs
from six to eight feet in diameter
and fifty feet long are used. Such
logs enter the mill, are sawed into
great beams or into various sizes of
boards, and are made ready to ship
without having been touched by a
man's hand. In these forests large
quantities of spruce were cut to build
aeroplanes f or'use in the World War.
On the Coast Ranges west of the
Puget Sound Lowland and on the
mountains of California there are also
large supplies of timber. In California
the forests of red wood have furnished
excellent lumber for buildings, and
in that state are the largest trees in
the world (Fig. 143).
Salmon fishing. The cold streams
coming from the snow-fields and
glaciers in the Cascade Mountains
a,re used by salmon for spawning.
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The mature fish, leave the salt water
when they are ready to spawn, or
lay eggs, and start up one of the
streams. The Columbia River and
its tributaries and the small streams
that flow into Puget Sound are
favorite waters. The eggs are de-
posited far upstream, and there the
young salmon are hatched. They
remain in the fresh water until they
are a few inches long and then
descend to the ocean. The greater
part of their lives is spent in sea
water, but by a remarkable instinct
most of them return to spawn in
the same stream where they were
born (Fig. 145).
The Indians are skillful in catch-
ing salmon in these streams. Some-
times they spear them ; sometimes
they put traps near the banks of the
river. White men use great fish
wheels or stretch nets out into the
rivers (Fig. 146). If nets are stretched
completely across a stream, or if too
many nets are placed in a river and
kept there, the salmon in the stream
are soon killed off. The government
has made laws restricting the catch-
ing of salmon but providing certain
rights for all
Fig. 142. A northern
yellow pine in Oregon,
225 feet high
© Kejstone View Co.
Fig. 141. The logs which are cut in the great
evergreen forests of the Puget Sound country are
chained together in great rafts and floated down
the rivers to the coast
who engage in
this industry.
OIL Several oil fields have been dis-
covered in California {see map, p. 76),
and that state has become one of our
greatest producers of this very useful
fluid (Fig. 144).
Some of the oil comes from rocks
that extend beyond the shore under
the Pacific Ocean. This has led to a
very interesting development of oil
wells. Some of them are f-unk on the
land near the shore ; others are drilled
beyond the shore line, and in such
cases the derricks can be seen rising
out of the water. A pipe is put
down through the sea water deep
into the ground by which the oil
can be brought to the surface just
as well as if the pipe had been
driven down on shore.
J
PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS
75
CoaL Near Tacoma and at points near Coos Bay there
are a number of large coal mines. The coal is in upturned
and folded layers of rock, much as it is in the anthracite
coal field of eastern Pennsylvania. In this western region,
however, the coal has not been made so hard as that in
the East, but it is a good grade of bituminous coal.
Water-power. A
second very im-
portant soui'ce of
power in this region
is provided by the
niunerous waterfalls
and rapids which
are present in most
of the mountain
streams. In many
places hydroelec-
tric plants have
been put in and
all the large cities
have an abundance
of electricity.
Harbors.. A coast
bordered by young,
rugged mountains
is certain to be
without good har-
bors unless the land sinks and allows the sea waters to
enter the mouths of the rivers. Fortunately the land did
sink on our Pacific coast, and the salt waters came in
through the Golden Gate at San Francisco, at the mouth
of the Columbia River, and at Puget Sound. At each
of these places the mouth of a river is drowned and
bays or estuaries have been formed. This has given the
Pacific coast deep, sheltered waters suitable for harbors.
Fig. 143. These trees are the giant sequoias of
California. Some of them are from 25 to 35 feet
in diameter and several hundred feet in height.
Many are over two thousand years old
Fig. 144. One of the chief oil fields of California is located near Bakersfield,
at the southern end of the central valley. The California oil fields con-
tribute about one third of the total production of the country. Why is it
particularly fortunate that California has an abundant oil supply?
The Pacific coast states are all benefiting by com-
mercial relations with foreign countries. There is also
some coastwise trade and an active business with
Alaska. The opening of the Panama Canal has brought
these growing Pacific coast ports into closer relations
with all Atlantic ports.
Mountain scenery as a natural resource. The sight of
the beautiful mountain panoramas is refreshing to those
who must stay in the busy cities in the rush of commer-
cial and industrial life. Some enjoy their vacation out-
ings in the mountains, and many make long expeditions
through the canyons and climb to the lofty summits of
the range. Camping among the mountains is an inspira-
tion to study and to enjoy nature. Thousands of tour-
ists visit the national parks in this region every year,
and many go far into the wild parts of the mountains.
Fig. 145. This is a Chinook salmon jumping a waterfall. Thousands of salmon
run up the Pacific coast rivers every year, swimming against the current and
jumping the falls. When they reach the quiet headwater lakes they lay
their eggs and thsn drift back down the streams
Fig. 146. As the salmon run up the rivers they are caught in great numbers.
Here is a boatload of several thousand, the result of one^ day's fishing. These
salmon will be taken immediately to the near-by canneries and put up in tins
for export. Where will the canned salmon be sent ?
eJreqSuBqs.
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78
PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS
Fig. 147. This is part of the city of Seattle, and in the distance, sixty miles
away, is Mt. Rainier. Seattle is situated on Puget Sound, and the summit
of Mt. Rainier is 14,408 feet above sea level. Locate both on your map.
What makes Seattle an important city ?
Location and growth of cities. With the development
of mining, agriculture, lumbering, and fishing, and the
coming and going of people from foreign lands, a num-
ber of large cosmopolitan cities have grown up. The
chief seaports are shown on the maps (pp. 73, 76). They
have the advantages of being inland and on protected
waters. Many of the facts regarding the commerce
are shown on those maps. Seattle (Fig. 147) and Tacoma
have the advantage of the deep water of Puget Sound,
and are both lumber centers. Both are fortunate in
having a supply of coal near at hand. A canal at Seattle
connects the Sound with a fresh-water lake. Here vessels
are cleaned of barnacles, for the barnacles cannot live in
fresh water. Seattle is a great outfitting point for people
going to. Alaska and is the port most commonly reached
on the return from Alaska. Most of the supplies for that
territory pass through Seattle. At Bellingham (Washing-
ton) and at Astoria (Oregon) there are immense salmon
canneries.
Portland is beautifully situated on the Willamette
and Columbia rivers. These waters are navigable for
ocean-going vessels, and Portland is the seaport for
Oregon (Fig. 150).
San Francisco is
very favorably sit-
uated just within
the Golden Gate.
It is the commer-
cial center and the
financial metrop-
olis of the Pacific
coast (Fig. 151).
The four prin-
cipal fruit-growing
districts in the val-
ley of California
are near Stockton,
Sacramento, Fresno,
and San Jos^, but
there are several
other large fruit-
growing districts.
In the south, in
Fig. 148. The state capitol of California at
Sacramento is an exceptionally fine example
of the domed type of architecture most com-
monly used for our state and federal buildings
the lowland bordering the coast, are Los Angeles and
Pasadena. Pasadena is beautifully located near the base
of the mountains (Fig. 149). Los Angeles adjoins Pasa-
dena and extends by a narrow strip of land to the coast.
It is the leading city in southern California. These
cities are in the midst of a fruit-growing district. They
attract large numbers of visitors during the winter.
Fig. 149. Pasadena is located on lowlands that are composed of sands,
gravels, and silts washed out from the mountains by streams. It is an
exceptionally beautiful city. The streets are lined with a great variety of
tropical trees such as the eucalyptus and palm. The rainfall is light, so
^ Hear; U. Pcabodj
the gardens must be irrigated and all the trees and lawns watered frequently.
Because the city is situated between the mountains and the sea the climate
is always mild, with no extremes of heat or cold. Can you explain this ?
In this view notice the automobile road which zigzags up the mountain
PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS
79
Fig. 150. Mt. Hood, one of the old volcanic mountains of the Cascade Range,
towers like a giant above the surrounding ridges. It is 11,224 feet in
elevation. The city in the foreground is Portland, Oregon, the most im-
portant city in the state. How far away from Portland is Mt. Hood ?
Picture study. Use Fig. 151. 1. How should you describe the
land surface shown in this view ?
2. Has the shore line heen elevated or
depressed ? Give reasons for your an-
swer. 3. To what natural region does
this area belong ? See map on page 76.
4. San Fi-ancisco Bay is about fifty miles
long and ten miles wide. It is connected
with the Pacific Ocean only by the nar-
row strait of the Golden Gate. What
advantage is there in this ? 6. How is
the bay connected with the valley of
California ? See map on page 76. 6. In
what ways is the physical geography
of this area favorable to commercial
development ? 7. What are the chief
exports and imports of San Francisco ?
8. With what countries does San Fran-
cisco trade ?
National parks. The Pacific
Mountains and Lowlands contain
several of the most beautiful
national parks in the country.
Mt. Rainier National Park sur-
rounds the beautiful peak of the
same name, which is remark-
able for the twenty-eight glaciers
which descend its slopes (Fig. 156).
Crater Lake National Park con-
tains the most extraordinary crater
lake in the world (Fig. 134).
Yosemite National Park is an
area of deep valleys, lofty peaks,
and cascading waterfalls (Figs. 1 .52,
153, 154). These and the other na-
tional parks of the region appear
on the maps on pages 73 and 76.
Physical Featctres
Sierra Nevada. At the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada
there is a great crack, or fissure, in the earth. When
the mountains were last uplifted, a slipping took place
along that crack. The mountains undoubtedly rose very
slowly, perhaps a few inches at a time, but they rose to
elevations of from 10,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea.
Standing on Mt. Whitney (14,501 feet high) one may
look down a most wonderful mountain slope into the
basin region to the east or view to the north and west a
panorama of lofty peaks that extend to the westward
until they reach the valley of California.
When this huge mass of land was uplifted, the rivers,
supplied with plenty of water by the moist winds from
the Pacific Ocean, began their work of cutting it down
(Fig. 154). Immense canyons were carved out, and
during the Ice Age great glaciers formed in the high
mountains and helped to deepen the canyons (Fig. 152).
) Qinn knd Compkoj
Fig. 161. This aeroplane drawing of San Francisco and its surroundings shows the location of the city on
a hilly peninsula south of the Golden Gate. Before gold was discovered in California, San Francisco was
only a small town, but as the prospectors and miners poured into the state after 1849 it grew very rapidly
until to-day it is one of the leading seaports of the United States. How does San Francisco rank among
the cities of the United States ? See tables in Appendix
80
PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS
Fig. 152. Long ago Tenaya Canyon, in the Yosemite National Park, was
carved by a river. Then it was widened and deepened by a glacier. To-day
its floor is covered with a forest of evergreens. On the right is' the great
granite Half Dome, rising nearly a mile above the valley floor
Cascade Mountains. The Cascade Mountains, which
seem to be a continuation northward of the Sierra Nevada,
have been greatly uplifted by earth pressure, and here
also the streams and glaciers have been at work cutting
into the mountain mass, deepening the canyons, and
carrying the loose material to lower levels. There are
beautiful glacial lakes and superb waterfalls in these
mountains.
Volcanoes. In places in the Sierra Nevada, volcanoes
have broken forth. Shasta is a magnificent volcanic
cone. It is so high that the upper slopes are covered
with snow all the year round, and there are glaciers
on the summit. In the Cascade Range there are many
more volcanoes (Fig. 156). Lassen Peak was active in
1916 and 1917.
Coast^Ranges. The Coast Ranges are even younger
than the Cascades and
Sierra Nevada. They are
not so high as the Sierra
Nevada or Cascades, and
are still growing. They
have in them rock forma-
tions which have come up
out of the ocean since the
glacial period, and this is
an indication of extreme
youth in mountains. They
have also been dissected
by streams and by glaciers.
On their western edge the
waves are now actively at
work cutting away the
rocks, making sea cliffs,
sea caves, and rock islands.
The Pacific Ocean side of these ranges shows a series
of terraces like gigantic steps, rising to at least 1500
feet above the present sea level. These are benches
made by the waves when the land was lower. Each
time the land rose, a new bench, or terrace, was cut.
The terraces prove that the land was under the sea, and
the kinds of sea shells found on them show that they
have been but re-
cently uplifted.
Since the last up-
lifting of the coast
the lands have been
somewhat depressed,
which accounts for
the excellent har-
bors which were de-
scribed on page 75.
Earthquakes. The
young mountains in
this region are still
growing, and occa-
sionally, as in all
regions of young
mountains, the little
slippings along the
cracks and fissures
in the rocks cause
earthquakes. There
are certain cracks in
the Coast Ranges
where earthquakes have occurred since the white people
settled there. Volcanoes are also commonly located in
regions where the mountains are growing. .
Lowlands. The lowlands of the Pacific coast region
have received the wash
from the mountains on each
side. Sands, clays, and
gravels and some glacial
materials have been depos-
ited here, making rich soils
(Fig. 157).
Future. The natural re-
sources are varied and
abundant and will lead to
a greater prosperity. With
the development of the
nations in eastern Asia
and the steadily increasing
trade with Australia and
New Zealand our Pacific
coast states are sure to con-
tinue their rapid growth.
Fig. 153. These jagged peaks are the Three
Brothers in the Yosemite National Park. The
park, with its steep-walled canyons and
cascading waterfalls, is one of the nation's
beautiful playgrounds
Fig. 154. These are the four great waterfalls in Yosemite National Park.
From left to right they are Bridal Veil Falls, 620 feet ; Yosemite Falls
— upper, 1430 feet, lower, 320 feet ; Vernal Falls, 320 feet ; Nevada Falls,
594 feet. Of what value are these falls ?
PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS
81
About fifty years ago Japan began to use modern
industrial methods and has since developed rapidly in
that direction, until now it is a great world power.
China is just entering upon a period of internal develop-
ment. Many of the valuable natural resources of that
country have as yet been little used. The Chinese have
lived chiefly as an agricultural people. They have
great resources of coal, oil, and iron and many other
metals. Industrial life there is sure to develop on a large
scale, and that will lead to foreign commerce. China is
now building ships to meet the demand of a growing
trade, and commercial intercourse with the United
States is increasing rapidly.
Docking facilities on the Pacific coast must be
enlarged. The history there will be somewhat like the
history of the Atlantic seaports, where it has been
difficult to build enough wharves to meet the ever-
Fig. 155. This is the beautiful canyon of the Columbia River. The river rises
east of the Pacific Mountains and is the only one which cuts its way across
them to the ocean. Study the map on pages 2 and 3 and explain the impor-
tance of the Columbia in the westward expansion of the American people
increasing demand. With more foreign trade will come
the necessity of more extensive railroad service for
transporting imports and exports. A larger population
will be needed to care for this business and to supply
food for all who live in the region. Much of this
growth will certainly take place in the next half-century.
Problems and review questions. 1. What first led exploring
parties into the Pacific iMouiitaiiis ? 2. By what routes did the
early explorers reach California ? 3. What is meant by " placer
mininj,'"? 4. Tell briefly the story of a gold nugget from the
time it was in a mineral vein until it w.os found by a prospector.
5. What sources of ywwer are there within this region? 6. Where
(lid the soils on the lowlands come from? 7. Why is so much
fruit dried in California ?
8. Descrite briefly the life of the salmon. 9. What conditions
are favorable to the development of lumbering on a large scale
Fig. 156. This view of Mt. Rainier from Mirror Lake shows its rugged
slopes covered with ice and snow. It has more glaciers than any other
peak in the United States. Many of them are from four to six miles long,
and they extend in all directions from the summit to the base
in Oregon and Washington ? 10. Name the chief seaports in this
region. 11. What different mountain i-anges are included in this
region ?
12. What grains are raised in the valley of California?
13. What fruits are raised in California ? 14. What is the explana-
tion of the formation of Crater Lake ? 15. Where should you go
in this part of the United States to see a glacier ? 16. Explain the
presence of Puget Sound and San Francisco Bay on the Pacific
coast. 17. What signs are there that the mountains of this region
are still growing ?
18. What large city on the Willamette and Columbia rivers
may be called a seaport? 19. With what countries is most of
the trade from Seattle and Tacoma? 20. What are the chief
imports from China and Japan to this country ? 21. Explain the
presence of forests in the mountains of the Pacific coast states.
Fig. 187. Looking out over the gently rolling lowland of the Willamette
River it seems as if the valley were one great orchard. Rows of apple,
pear, prune, and peach trees alternate with acres of strawberry plants and
berry bushes. Why is the Willamette Valley so favorable for fruit-raising?
82
COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES
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POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES
83
Fig. 158. Some years ago the United States government introduced rein-
deer from Lapland into Alaska. Many of the Eskimos of Alaska have now
learned to care for reindeer as farmers care for cattle. The Eskimos in this
view live at Cape Prince of Wales. They have harnessed their reindeer to
sleds and are hauling reindeer meat to market at Nome. How many miles
is it from Cape Prince of Wales to Nome ? What will these Eskimos buy at
Nome in exchange for their meat? Why do the Eskimos keep reindeer
instead of cattle ? How many different uses of the reindeer can you name ?
low that the mercury freezes in the thermometers. In
the Far North in summer it is daylight throughout the
twenty-four hours. The sun is highest at noon, when it
is in the south, and lowest at midnight, when it is in
the north. During the winter the days in Alaska are
short, and in places the sun does not rise above the
horizon for many weeks.
Effects of climate. Many think that Alaska is so cold
a country that no one but Eskimos would want to live
there, and that the growing season is too short to raise
even vegetables. That is not so. To-day there is a popu-
lation of about 65,000 in this far northern territory.
Near each of the larger settlements there are vegetable
In southeastern Alaska there are large forests, wonder- gardens, and nearly every prospector has a little garden
ful waterfalls, and such beautiful scenery that thoiisands patch beside his cabin. Timothy hay and oats are raised
POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES
ALASKA
An investment. In 1867 we purchased Alaska from
Russia for 17,200,000. Many people thought we paid too
high a price. Since then we have taken from Alaska
over $150,000,000 worth of gold, more than 11,000,000
worth of silver, several million dollars' worth of copper,
and some tin. Billions of tons of hard and soft coal have
been discovered there. We are now taking 110,000,000
worth of fish from the Alaskan waters each year, most
of which are salmon.
of people take the boat trip to Alaska
just to see the mountains, the long
fiords, and the glaciers.
Home work. In Bancroft's " History of
the Pacific States," or elsewhere, read about
Bering's discovery of Alaska.
Climate. The winds from the Pacific
Ocean bring an abundance of mois-
ture to the coastal region of southern
Alaska. See map on page 124. They
blow over waters of the ocean that
have been warmed by the Japan cur-
rent, and they therefore keep the
Pacific coastal region from ever being
extremely cold.
During the summer season a tem-
perature of 95 degrees in the shade is
sometimes reached in the interior of
Alaska and even as far north as the
Fig. 159. This is a view of Chilkoot Pass during
the Klondike rush for gold. With their outfits on
their backs the gold-seekers formed a long line
here, pulling themselves up over the mountain
by means of a long wire cable
in a few places. Strawberries will
ripen. Cattle graze all winter long
on certain of the islands near the
Alaskan Peninsula, and there are
many Pacific coast harbors that are
free from ice all the year.
People. When the report was circu-
lated that gold had been discovered
in Alaska, miners and prospectors
from almost all parts of the world
rushed to this new country in the
hope of discovering a rich deposit of
gold-bearing gravels (Fig. 159). The
miners make up most of the popu-
lation to-day.
Along the Pacific coast there are
several Indian tribes. They are in-
dustrious and kindly. Many of them
work in the canneries, some in the
arctic circle, and some prefer to work at night rather than mines, and others in the forests, where lumbexing is
during the day, because it is cooler when the sun is low. carried on. In the interior of the country small Indian
The winter temperature in the interior is very low, — so settlements appear along the banks of the Yukon.
I Giiui and Coiiipauy
ALASKA
85
Fig. 160. These are the rugged coastal mountains along the Alaskan shore.
The sharp peak in the middle distance is Mt. St. Elias. Its summit is
18,000 feet above sea level. To the left of it is the great Malaspina Glacier,
which extends from the foot of the mountains to the sea
At Cape Prince of Wales, which is the nearest point
in North America to Asia, and from there northward
along the coast as far as Point Barrow, there are Eskimo
settlements (Figs. 158, 162).
Government. The people of Alaska elect delegates to
Congress and have almost- complete control of local
affairs. Since Alaska is a territory, the governor is
appointed by the president of the United States.
Problems and map studies. 1. What are the chief mineral re-
sources of Alaska? 2. Name three important products shipped
from Alaska to the United States. 3. What makes the coastal
region of Alaska so favorable to the salmon? 4. What are the
chief articles shipped to Alaska ?
6. Why are there not more people engaged in farming there ?
6. What are the chief cities of Alaska? 7. What is the most impor-
tant inland city ? 8. What city is the capital of Alaska? the metrop-
olis? See Fig. 163. 9. What is the largest river?
10. Name the northernmost cape. 11. Explain the fiords and
islands along the coast of Alaska. 12. What explanation can
you suggest for earthquakes?
13. Find the place where the
sealskins come from. Study
Fig. 164. 14. Who discovered
Alaska ? See Appendix, Plate A.
15. What bodies of water have
been named in honor of him ?
16. How much did we pay for
Alaska? 17. Why should it be
very warm in the valley of the
Yukon during summer ?
18. What ocean current helps
to keep the coast of Alaska
warm? 19. Explajn the heavy
snowfall on the coast ranges
where the glaciers are formed.
20. Why is there less rainfall
aft iiS^
N
Hfetam^^^^^j^ ~
^^^^'Bf
Fig. 162. This Eskimo is paddling his kyak, which he has made by covering
a framework of bones with skins tightly sewed together. He wears a sort
of raincoat, which, when tied down over the opening in the boat, makes it
water tight. In this rig he can ride the roughest waves with perfect safety
in the interior of Alaska than there is along the seacoast ?
21. Where do the Eskimos live ? 22. Of what value to the
Eskimos are the reindeer ? 23. How do people travel in the
Yukon valley in winter ? 24. Plan three sight-seeing trips in
Alaska and describe the things you would see on each one of them.
Fig. 161. Perry Island, one of the volcanic mountains of the Aleutian chain,
rose suddenly from the sea, and when it was first discovered, steam was escap-
ing from every crack and crevice. Later explosions blew it to pieces, and
to-day it cannot be seen. Locate the Aleutian Islands on your map
Natural Regions
The Pacific coastal region. Bordering the coast there
are magnificent high mountains. They are a continu-
ation northward of the mountains in our Pacific coast
states, and extend through British Columbia into Alaska
and then follow the coast through the Aleutian Islands.
These islands are the peaks of a mountain range which
extends nearly to Asia (Fig. 161).
The St. Elias Range, as seen from a vessel coasting
along the Alaskan shore, is one of the most magnificent
sights in the world (Fig. 160).
The Coast Ranges are young and growing mountains.
Earthquakes are common in this belt, and there are
many active volcanoes. There is one volcanic region
which has been appropriately called " the valley of ten
thousand smokes." This region has been set aside by
Congress as the Katmai National Monument.
This coastal region has a
number of excellent harbors,
and in the southeastern part
of Alaska there is a beauti-
ful inland passageway shel-
tered from the storms of.
the Pacific by a series of
large islands. Juneau, the
capital of Alaska, is situated
near the northern end of
this inland passage.
Mining is the chief oc-
cupation in southeastern
Alaska, although lumbering
and the canning of salmon are important. Whaling
stations have also been established here, and there are
salmon, halibut, herring, and a few cod fisheries, which
provide a living for many of the people.
88
PANAMA CANAL ZONE
Never before in the history of the world has man
attempted a task so large or so difficult as the construc-
tion of this canal. There were three chief difficulties:
(1) a range of hills which separates the two oceans ;
(2) great seasonal floods in the Chagres River ; (3) tropical
diseases. The line of hills has been pierced by the
Culebra Cut, which is 250 feet deep (Fig. 171). To con-
trol the Chagres River the Gatun Dam was constructed,
which has caused the formation of Gatun Lake, the
largest artificial lake in the world (Fig. 172). The
Fig. 169. This is a photograph of a model of Kilauea, the active crater on
the eastern slope of Mauna Loa. The circular pit in the foreground contains
a lake of boiling lava. Surrounding it is the great floor of hardened lava,
built up by many outpourings of hot liquid rock
PANAMA CANAL ZONE
Ever since 1513, when Balboa climbed to the top of a
hill on the Isthmus of Panama and looked off over the
Pacific Ocean, men have talked of a water route through
this narrow neck of land. France was the first country
to attempt the construction of such a canal, and in 1880
Ferdinand de Lesseps, the engineer who built the Suez
Canal, began the work. This project failed because those
in charge were unable to prevent the spread of tropical
diseases among the workmen.
In 1904 the United States acquired from the republic
of Panama a narrow zone through the Isthmus (Fig. 172).
Our purpose in securing this zone was to construct a canal
for large ships from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.
Pulliabers' Fhoto Ser
) PubUBbeni' Plioto Service, Inc.
Fig. 170. These are the Gatun Locks of the Panama Canal. They are three
great water steps by which ships are lifted from the level of the Caribbean
Sea to Gatun Lake. The locks are large enough for the largest vessels afloat.
At the left is one of the electric locomotives used for towing
Fig. 171. This great steamship is being towed through the Culebra
Cut. Across the canal is Gold Hill, which has caused the blocking of the
canal several times by slides from its slopes. The Culebra Cut was made
through the mountainous backbone of the Isthmus, and was a very hard
problem for the engineers who constructed the canal
problem of fighting tropical diseases was very difficult.
Forests and underbrush were cleared away, oil was spread
upon the waters of the marshes and swamps to prevent
mosquitoes from breeding, sanitary conditions were
greatly improved, and every care was taken to prevent
the spread of any contagious diseases which appeared
among the workmen.
About 260,000,000 cubic yards of material were
handled in the construction of the Panama Canal. That
amount of material would build a wall around the Dis-
trict of Columbia 60 feet thick and a little over 500 feet
high. If the material could be piled up around the earth
at the equator, it would make a solid wall six feet thick
and about nine feet high.
The level of Gatun Lake, through which the canal
route passes, is about 85 feet above the sea. That neces-
sitated a series of locks near each end of the canal. With
the help of electric motors at these locks a vessel may
now pass from one ocean to the other in about ten hours
(Fig. 170). The route of the canal through the lake is
marked by buoys that are brightly lighted at night.
Colon, the Atlantic terminal, is a supply station. Here
ships can obtain almost anything they need. Storage
bins for coal, machine shops, bakeries, and ice plants
have been established at this terminal.
PANAMA CANAL ZONE
89
The Pacific terminal of the
canal is Balboa. It is fitted up
as a repair station. With huge
machine shops and modem dry
docks, Balboa stands ready to
receive any ship that needs re-
pairing after its trip through the
canal.
By means of the canal the
Pacific*' coast ports of North
America and South America may
easily be reached from all Atlantic
seaports. The opening of the
Panama Canal shortened the
water route from New York to
San Francisco by 8000 miles and
made all of our island possessions
in the Pacific Ocean more valu-
able. The United States govern-
ment has fortified the canal, but
it is open for the Mse of vessels
of all nations.
The canal is also of great
advantage to the countries of
western Europe, shortening the
distance between their Atlantic
ports and the Pacific ports of
North and South America by
thousands of miles.
Home work. 1. Make a diagram
showing the length of the canal, the
height of Gatun Lake, the location
of the locks at each end, and the
location of Colon and of Panama.
2. Which end of the canal is farther
west ? 3. Find out how electric motors
help vessels through the canal.
CARJBBEAy SEA
Fig. 173. This is the city of Pananui, near
is that the Pacific end
i£) Ginn uid Comp&nj
Fig. 172. This is a view of the Panama Canal Zone, showing the mountainous country through which the
canal was cut. The Canal Zone (shown by the darker shading) is 10 miles wide and 50 miles long from
deep water at Colon to deep water in the Gulf of Panama. The narrowest width of the canal is 300 feet,
and its shallowest depth is 41 feet. The highest reach of its water surface, from the Gatun Locks to the
Pedro Miguel Locks, is 85 feet above sea level
Problems and review questions. 1. About
how long is the rananui Canal ? 2. How wide
is the Canal Zone? 3. How was the Gatun
Lake formed ?
4. Of what advantage is the lake ? 6. How
is the canal route through the lake marked ?
6. How high do vessels rise above sea level
in crossing the Isthmus?
7. How long does it take for vessels to
pass from ocean to ocean through the canal ?
8. What difficulties had to be overcome in
building the canal ?
9. What was done to prevent the spread-
ing of tropical diseases ? 10. What South.
American countries are most benefited by
the canal ? 11. How did the opening of
the canal increase the value of our Pacific
islands ? 12. What did it do for Europe ?
the Pacific end of the canal. Can you explain how it
is the eastern end of the canal ?
90
PORTO RICO
Fig. 174. This motor truck, loaded with Porto Rican sugar cane, is bound
for the sugar mill. The sugar used to be hauled to the mills in oxcarts in
Porto Rico and Cuba, but gradually motor trucks are taking their places.
Why are motor trucks better for this purpose ?
PORTO KICO
Porto Rico is in the torrid zone and is one of the four
largest islands of the West Indies. In many ways it is
a delightful place to live in, and certainly a most attrac-
tive island to visit. The central portion is mountainous,
and about the margin are the lowlands, which have
been divided into farms. Many of the lower slopes of
the mountains are cultivated.
About three fifths of the people are white and the
other two fifths are negroes or people with mixed blood
(Fig. 177). ,
Porto Rico is not quite as large as the state of Connec-
ticut ; it has a population of over a million. The island
was ceded to the United States by Spain in 1898. At
that time the great mass of the people were uneducated.
^
"maMm
Fig. 17S. Many of the broad, rich valleys of Porto Rico are used for raising
tobacco. Large areas of the tobacco fields are covered with white cheese-
cloth, which protects the plants from insects and the intense heat of the
sun. Scattered over the fields are the sheds where the tobacco is dried
There are many to-day who cannot read or write, but a
system of free public schools has been established, and
every effort is being made to have the children attend
school at least a part of each year.
Climate. The high temperature of this region is weak-
ening, especially to white people. They must learn to
work less vigorously than they would in the temperate
zone, and plan to have a great deal of help. On the
lowlands there is never frost or snow. The prevailing
winds are the northeast trades. As the moisture-laden
winds strike the mountains and rise, the rain falls on
the windward, or northeast, side. The leeward, or south-
west, side is dry, — a condition which we have discovered
in many places where winds pass over mountains and
descend. On the dry side of the island irrigation is
necessary to assure full and regular crops. The rainy
season is in summer, when the equatorial rainy belt
moves northward
with the appar-
ent movement of
the sun.
Products and
Occupations. The
chief product is
sugar, of which
the island exports
each year approx-
imately 500,000
tons. It consti-
tutes over 50 per
cent of all the
products exported
(Fig. 174). Cotton, coffee, tropical fruits, and tobacco are
among the other products (Fig. 175). Some of the fruits,
especially pineapples, are canned before they are shipped.
Great quantities of vegetables are raised on the lowlands of
Porto Rico. They ripen during the winter months and are
sent directly to the markets of the United States..
Although most of the people in Porto Rico are engaged
in agriculture, there is a little manufacturing. Cigars and
cigarettes are made. Large numbers of them are used
by the Porto Ricans, but a great many are exported.
In some ways the United States is fortunate in hav-
ing possessions in the tropics and in having commercial
relations with many other tropical countries, for from
those lands we secure products which we cannot raise in
abundance at home.
Railways. Since the United States took control of
Porto Rico, over 1000 miles of roads have been im-
proved, and about 300 miles of railway constructed. The
main line of travel is on the lowlands about the margin
of the island. See map between pages 117 and 120.
Uodeiwood A Uoderwood
Fig. 176. San Juan was a sleepy old Spanish town
until 1898, when Porto Rico became a United States
possession. Now it is a busy modern seaport. Can
you explain the change ?
THE VIRGIN ISLANDS
91
Cities. The two largest cities
are San Juan (Fig. 176) and Ponce.
San Juan, the capital, is on the
north side, and Ponce is on the
south side. They are now con-
nected by a railroad which runs
around the west end of the island.
Government. The governor of
Porto Kico is appointed by the
president of the United States,
but most of the local affairs are
entirely under the control of those
living on the island. The citizens
over twenty-one years of age, both
natives and Americans, who have
lived there for a year, have a
right to vote. The voters elect
most of their local officials and a commissioner to the
United States, who represents Porto Rico in Congress.
THE VIRGIN ISLANDS
The Virgin Islands, which the United States purchased
from Denmark, lie about 50 miles east of Porto Rico and
have a combined area of 142 square miles. Compare this
with the area of the smallest state in the Union and
with the area of Porto Rico.
These little islands are in the belt of the northeast
trades, where it is always warm. When the winds strike
the mountains, rain falls, so that the northeast sides, as
in the case of the
other islands in
the West Indies,
are well watered.
Most of the rain
comes in summer
and early fall.
The islands are
the tops of moun-
tains, but near
the coast there is
enough low land
for large crops of
sugar and cotton,
which are the two
leading products.
Trade is increas-
ing constantly be-
tween the islands
and the United
States. The pop-
ulation of these
© L. >\. Newman
Fig. 177. This is a typical negro family of Porto Rico.
Their little house is built of boards and thatched with
straw. Back of the house is the banana patch from which
they get most of their food
^^^r 4MW ^^^^ft^Vl
m
S^^S^ aJ^^^HHH^i^P^^w|^'- ■ Y
'i.»«'V«- BJI^^^^^g^^^ .'-ii^^a^^ ^B§ j-
islands is about 32,000. Of the
three islands, St. Thomas is the
most important commercially.
This is due to its advantageous
position. The island is located
directly on the sailing route be-
tween the ports of Europe and
the entrance to the Panama
Canal, and also on the Hne of
communication between North
and South America. Its one town,
Charlotte Amalie, is beautifully
located on the lower slopes of
three mountains, overlooking one
of the best harbors in the West
Indies, and it is the port from
which the agricultural products
of the surrounding islands are shipped to other parts
of the world (Figs. 178, 179).
St. Croix and St. John, the other two islands of the
group, have rich soils on which excellent crops of sugar,
cotton, coffee, tobacco, and tropical fruits are raised.
Fubluihcra' Pliotu ScTTiue, luo.
3 Publiaheri' Photo tSerrice, Idc.
Fig. 178. This is a street of steps in Charlotte
Amalie. The city is built on the slopes of three
mountains overlooking the harbor, and the steep
streets climb straight up the hillsides
Fig. 179. This is Charlotte Amalie, the port of St. Thomas, one of the three
Virgin Islands which the United States bought from Denmark in 1917 for
$25,000,000. Charlotte Amalie has a landlocked harbor large enough to shel-
ter 200 vessels. Why are the Virgin Islands valuable to the United States ?
Problems and review questions. 1. How did the United States
come into possession of Porto Eico ? of the Virgin Islands ?
2. Why should these islands have warm climates with plenty of
rainfall for agriculture on the northeast sides? 3. Why should
they be drier on the southwest sides ?
4. Should you expect the mountainous portions to be forested ?
See map on page 124. Ty. Why are the native Indians and the
negroes very useful on the islands ? 6. At what season of the
year should we find a visit to Porto Rico most enjoyable ?
7. What foods should you probably find in abundance through-
out the islands ? 8. Of what advantage i9 it to the United
States of America to have island possessions in the tropics ?
9. What are the chief articles that the people on these islands
wish to purchase from us ?
92
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
tl
i,-^!
& ' £ "
^^^fl
%K
.^ -^ 1
%
W ^.
., "si^m
>l fubliL- Wurks, ManiU
Fig. 180. These Filipino girls are grinding corn Fig. 181. Some of the people of the Philippines Fig. 182. This is one of the beautiful little horses
in a simple hand mill made of two stones. The live in tree houses like this. They climb up to for which the mountainous province of Abra, in
corn is ground while it is fresh, for the people of the house by a ladder which they pull up after northern Luzon, is famous. These horses are
the Philippines do not like it dried them for greater safety rather small but very sturdy and strong
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
The Philippines are the tops of mountains which rose
from the sea bottom until their summits were out of
water. In places the great folds in the earth broke open
and volcanoes came into existence. Along the cracks and
fissures in the mountain masses little slips take place
from time to time, causing earthquakes. These moun-
tains are therefore young and are still growing. Many
of them now rise from 8000 to 10,000 feet above sea level.
Between the larger ranges there are broad valleys suitr
able for agriculture. There are over 3000 islands in the
Climate. The climate in the Philippine Islands has a
greater influence upon the activities of the people than
any other geographical factor.
The islands are near the equator and are surrounded by
sea water. The temperature is never very low, but there
is a noticeable change from day to night. The nights
are commonly cool and the days are warm. During the
winter, except on the windward sides of the mountains,
there is little rain, but from June to September there is
a rainy season throughout the islands. Under such weak-
ening climatic conditions people do not become industri-
ous. White people from the temperate zone, who have
group. The largest, Luzon, is about the size of Kentucky, lived most active lives, soon stop working hard if they
live in such a tropical land. There
is an abundance of fruit for food,
and one needs but little clothing
and shelter. There is therefore no
necessity for hard work.
Native people. There are over
8,000,000 people living on the Phil-
ippine Islands. Among the native
people there are many groups, each
with a distinct language. Most of
them are peaceful and industrious
(Figs. 180, 183, 185, 186), but in
the mountains away from the sea-
coast there are yet many wild and
some savage tribes (Fig. 181).
Occupations. Gold, copper, and
silver have been found in the
mountains, and mining has been undertaken. Along the
coast there are fisheries, and farther inland there is some
cattle-raising. Lumbering is important in Mindanao.
The second largest is Mindanao.
Review questions and map studies.
1. Near what lands are the Philippine
Islands ? 2. Judging from the latitude
and position in the ocean, describe the
climate of these islands. 3. Judging from
the products, name the chief occupations
of the people. 4. What is the chief sear
port ? On which island is it located ?
5. What are the chief products ex-
ported from Manila ? 6. Do the imports
and exports suggest that this is a manu-
facturing country ? Why ? 7. What have
you seen that came from Manila ? 8. Why
does the temperature remain about the
same in summer and winter in these
islands ? 9. What foods do these islands
produce ? 10. Why do the natives of the
Pacific Islands work less than the people
of the United States? 11. Which is farther from the equator,
Guam or Manila ? 12. What part of the Philippine Islands is in
about the same latitude as Panama ? 13. What part of the Philip-
pine Islands is in about the same latitude as the City of Mexico ?
Courtea; uf Bureau of Agriculture, Manila
Fig. 183. Manila hemp is made from the sheathlike
layers of the trunk of the abaca tree. This man is
busy pulling ofi the layers, one by one. When he has
finished, most of the trunk will have been removed
B Fu^how 180°
122
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r'ANUU I.
TUTUILA I.
AMERICAN SAMOA ISLANDS
Scale, three times that of main map
rolslNA I. :«^^LOSENGA I.
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Ritidian Pt.
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Scale, three times thatof main map
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL MAP
Ml.M'OKC* Q.«j
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^Sibuyan Sea \ ■> j f
rifcfco 1
CATANDUANES
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Scale of statute miles
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Scale of kilometers
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Chief seaports
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I I Lowlands
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I GIdu and Coiiii>aii^
94
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
) Publuberi' Photo SerTioe, Ine.
Fig. 184. The mountain rice fields are cut out of the steep slopes, like great
steps one above another. Each field is protected by a high stone wall,
which keeps the soil from sliding down the mountain. The water is
brought to the fields by a system of irrigation ditches
The lowland plains have rich soils, for the streams
have brought fine material from the mountain slopes and
spread it out on the lower lands. Sugar, cotton, rice,
tobacco, and many kinds of fruit are raised, for the
most part on these lowland areas. In many places
irrigation is practiced, so that crops are not entirely singing and laughing after
destroyed during the dry season. The lower slopes of the long day in the field
the mountains are also used for agriculture (Fig. 184).
Rice culture. The cultivation of rice has several very
interesting stages. The fields have dikes about them, so
they may be flooded. When the rains begin to fall, these
dikes keep the water from running off, so the dry, hard
earth becomes a mud. In certain fields men are at work
plowing and harrowing the wet, muddy ground. In this
work the water buffalo, one of the
pull the seedlings, and the women and. older children
transplant them. Later the waters are drained off the
fields, and the grain begins to ripen.
By the first of November the harvesting of the earliest
crop begins. This is a period of great merriment, the
happiest time of the year. At three o'clock in the morn-
ing on harvest days lights are seen in every house. Long
before daybreak groups of
men, women, and children
start walking over the
dikes to the harvest fields.
Each one carries a flat-
bottomed basket, large or
small according to the size
of the worker. They work
on shares ; sometimes it
is a fifth of all that the
worker has cut, sometimes
a fourth or a third. Each
one makes a separate heap
of grain, and at the end
of the day the owner of
the field gives him his
share. Then the workers
tie up their bundles of
grain and start for home.
Fig. 185. This man is stripping abaca
sheaths by pulling them under a
sharp knife. After this the strips
will be dried in the sun
few animals that will work well
in mud, is very helpful. After
the plowing and harrowing, the
seeds are scattered broadcast.
In about three weeks, or at
the beginning of June, the seed-
lings are nearly a foot high and
are ready to be transplanted.
Everyone who is old enough to
work in the field must help, for
the transplanting must be done
quickly. Most of the men and
boys continue the plowing of
new fields, but a few help the
women and girls in the trans-
planting. The experienced men
Coiirtesj of Uir
Fig. 186. This Filipino farqily is threshing and winnowing
rice. The men separate the grain from the stalks by pounding
them on a stone. The women winnow the rice by tossing the
grain into the air. As It falls the wind blows the chafi away
Manila hemp is the best-known product of the Philip-
pines. The rich volcanic soils of the lower mountain
slopes, with the abundant rainfall, give just the right
conditions for the growth of the abaca tree, from which
the fiber comes (Figs. 183, 185). The Filipinos take excel-
lent care of their abaca trees. Each year they cut only
those which are full-grown. The long, white fibers are
bound in bundles and shipped
in large quantities from Manila
to Europe and the United States,
where they are made into strong
rope and twine. Some rope is
manufactured in the Philippines.
Foreign trade. Manila is the
chief seaport and the seat of gov-
ernment (Fig. 189). The popu-
lation of the city is over 200,000.
Large quantities of raw hemp,
sugar, and tobacco are shipped
from Manila to the United
States. Copra, the dried meat of
the coconut, from which coconut
oil is extracted, is also exported
in large quantities.
GUAM AND THE SAMOAN ISLANDS
95
Government.. Since 1898, when we paid Spain twenty
million dollars to give up all claim to these islands, the
government has been under the direction of the United
States. The native people, however, have been given
practically complete control of local affairs. They have
a legislature of their own and send two commissioners to
our national Congress. We are helping in every possible
way to educate the people and to train them to establish
and maintain a good goVernnu^nt.
Home work. Find out about how long it takes to go from San
Francisco to Manila.
GUAM
The island of Guam is only thirty-two miles long
and from four to ten miles wide. It was ceded to the
United States by Spain in 1898, after the close of the
Spanish War. It is now
used as a naval station,
ind the island is under
the control of the Navy
Department of the United
States.
Guam has a wireless
telegraph plant and cable
connections with all parts
of the world. The native
people raise rice, maize,
sweet potatoes, coffee, co-
coa, and sugar.
SAMOAN ISLANDS
i:.iuru-sy ol l(ur. au i.f Sni.'iioe. Manila
Fig. 187. After it has been threshed
and winnowed, the girls pound the
rice in a hollowed-out log of hard wood.
This pounding husks the rice grains
For years Great Britain,
Germany, and the United
States liave been interested
in the Samoan Islands and
have made various treaties regarding their rights in the
islands. At present the island of Tutuila and a number
of smaller islands near by are among our possessions.
These islands owe their importance to the fact that
they lie on the direct steamship route from San Francisco
to Sydney. They serve as naval bases and as coaling
stations for vessels.
The native people in the islands held by the United
States have control of most local affairs, but the presi-
dent of the United States apjxjints a governor, who holds
the highest office.
Tlie Samoan Islands are volcanic. Some of the vol-
canoes are no longer active, btit many of them erupt
from time to time, and earthquakes are common. For
the most part the islands are thickly wooded and the
soils are fertile.
These islands are so near the equator that the climate
Fig. 188. These carts, drawn by carabaos, are carrying the rice harvest to
market in Luzon. The roads here are good and are lined with coconut palms.
Rice is the largest single crop in the Philippines, but the people do not raise
all they need. From what country do they import it ?
is always warm, and they are in the midst of the Pacific
Ocean, where the temperature is about the same in summer
as in winter. At times they suffer from severe hurricanes.
The native }:)eople gather the coconuts that grow in
abundance on the islands and dry the coconut meat to
make copra. On most of the islands the natives pay
their taxes in copra, which is the only product that is
sufficiently abundant to export. In addition they raise
for their own use breadfruit, yams, and a great many
tropical fruits, such as pineapples, oranges, and bananas.
Fig. 189. Manila is located at the mouth of the Pasig River on the island
of Luzon. This view shows the river, which is deep enough for the smaller
steamers and lighters. The larger ships must either anchor in the open water
or come to docks in the new harbor formed by the breakwater beyond the city
PACIFIC TIME ZONE
MOUNTAIN TIME ZONE
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POLITICAL MAP
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Scale of statute miles
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98
THE NATION AS A WHOLE
THE NATION AS A WHOLE
After studying the different parts of the United States
and its possessions, we should consider the nation as a
whole and see how important a part the geographic con-
ditions have played in the settlement of the country and
in the development of industrial and commercial life.
Early settlements. The first permanent settlements
in the United States were on the Atlantic coast (Fig. 190).
In the days before there were any railroads the Appala-
chian Mountains held the people near the Atlantic sea-
board. The mountains were a liarrier that made travel
to the westward difficult. Moreover, going beyond the
mountains to live meant cut-
ting off all easy commvmica-
tion witli the settled portion
of this country and also with
England. Until manufactur-
ing plants were established in
America the colonists depended
upon the trade with England
for many of the things they
needed. Perhaps the presence
of Indians Avest of the moun-
tains influenced some people to
stay in the East. However, the
fact that they did stay together
led to the development of great
strength in tlie colonies which
united to make this nation.
15. What states include a part of the Rocky Mountains ?
16. What states include a portion of the great plateau between
the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade and Sierra Nevada
Mountains? 17. At what place in the United States do four
states come together ?
18. What states are crossed by the Colorado River ? 19. In
what state is Great Salt Lake ? 20. To what state should you
go to see the Grand Canyon of the Colorado? 21. What
mountain ranges border the great plateaus on the west?
22. What states border upon Mexico ?
2-3. Between what two states does the lower part of the
Columbia River flow ? 24. What large tributary does this
river receive from the southeast ? 25. Round the state in
which you live. 20.
Fig. 190. This map shows the distribution of population in the
United States in 1790, and the westward movement of the center of
population since that time. Near what cities was the population
densest in 1790 ? Trace the progress of the center westward. Near
what city was the center in 1870 ? in 1910 ?
MAP STUDIES — POLITIC AL MAP OF THE
UNITED STATES
Ree map hctwern pages 95 and 98. 1. What states border the
Atlantic Ocean ? 2. What states border the Gulf of Mexico ?
3. What states that do not border the Atlantic Ocean or the
Gulf of Mexico include a part of the Coastal Plain ? 4. What
state is north of Long Island ?
5. Of what state is Long Island a part ? 6. What two
states are separated by Delaware Bay? 7. Into what two states
does Chesapeake Bay enter ? 8. Between what two states is
the Savannah River?
9. Locate Mobile Bay. 10. In what state is the delta of the
Mississippi River? 11. What state is separated from IMexico
by tlie Rio Grande ? 12. What states border on Lake Erie ?
on Lake Michigan? on Lake Superior?
LS. The banks of a river are named "right" and "left"
as one would see them looking downstream. Name the states
on the west, or right, bank of the Mississippi River. Name
those on tlie l(;ft bank.
14. You have named the row of states on the right bank
of the Mississippi. Next to them on the west is a row whose
ea.stern jiarts are in the Central Plains and whose western parts
are in the Great Plains. Name these, beginning at the north.
Bound the United States. 27. What
states border on the Pacific
Ocean ? 28. What states border
on Canada? 29. Are the rail-
roads more numerous in the east-
ern or in tlie western half of the
United States ? Why ?
30. Lay out a route of travel
from Boston to Los Angeles
by way of New York, Albany,
Buffalo, Detroit, Chicago, St.
Paul, Glacier National Park,
Seattle, Portland, San Francisco.
What railroads should you use?
What states should you cross ?
31. Return from Los Angeles
to Chicago by a route that will
take you by a side trip to the
rim of the Grand Canyon and
through Denver. What is the
name of the railroad used and
the names of the states cros.sed? 32. Make a list of the chief
seaports ; the chief lake ports. Put the population opposite
each city name. See Appendix. 33. What are the ten largest
cities in the United States? Arrange them in the order of
population.
34. What is the difference in the standard time of New York
and Chicago? of New York and San Francisco? of Wash-
ington, D.C., and Denver, Colorado? 35. What large cities
in New England are in about the same latitude as Rome,
Italy ? 36. What part of our 'country is in about the same
latitude as Palestine, where Jerusalem is located ?
37. What large cities in the United States are in about the
same longitude as Bogota, the capital of Colombia? 38. Which
is farther west from Greenwich, — the capital of Texas or the
capital of Mexico ? 39. Com[)are the latitude of San Francisco
with that of Peking and also with that of Tokyo.
Home work. 1. On an outline map of the United States, print
in from memory the names of the states. If necessary, correct
your map and try it again. Learn to do this perfectly. 2. On the
same outline map, locate and print in from memory the names
of five important seaports, five large lake ports, and five large
river cities. 3. How many state capitals can you name and locate
correctly from memory ? Test yourself on an outline map.
THE NATION AS A WHOLE
99
Westward expansion. The westward expansion was
laijj;ely controlled by geography. The trails used by the
pioneers followed the easier
routes of travel. See map on
pages 2 and 3. On the north
the Great Lakes and on the
south the Gulf of Mexico
formed natural boundaries.
Later, by a series of pur-
chases and treaties (Fig. 191),
the wide stri^ of land stretch-
ing from the Atlantic to
the Pacific was acquired by
the United States. In time
Alaska, the Panama Canal
Zone, and various islands in
the Pacific and Atlantic oceans
came into our possession.
As pioneers pushed into
all parts of the territory
acqmred by the United States, trails were built and small
settlements were established. During the period of active
railroad construction, which fortunately came when this
country was being opened up, these settlements were
joined together by a great network of roads. To-day it is
relatively easy to reach almostany partof the United States.
Discovery of natural resources. With the expansion,
the increase in settlements, and the
construction of railroads, more and
more of the natural resources of this
vast country have been discovered
and utilized.
We are fortunate in having rich
soils, broad, level lands, and abun-
dant rainfall, so that sufficient food
may easily be raised. In this country
we have only begun to test our ability
to produce food. We have never had
a great famine, and it is hard for us
to believe that in some parts of the
world millions of people have died in
a single year for want of food.
Next in importance comes the great
group of resources which furnish man
with power, such as coal, oil, gas,
and streams. These sources of power
have increased the amount of work
man can do and have led to the
remarkable development in manu-
facturing which has taken place in the United States.
Fig. 191. This map shows the steps by which the United States has
expanded from the territory of the original thirteen states to its
present size. How many of our present states are included in the
original territory ? List the different additions in order of the dates
of their annexation
Fig. 192. This view shows the special cut, or
blaze, on the trees, by which the national forest
trails are marked. In what ways are the national
forests a benefit to our country ?
The forests are always of importance ; the fish, the
waterways, and the harbors have all been important in
the growth of the nation.
Conservation of natural re-
sources. Almost everyone in
the United States is interested
in developing or using great
natural resources. It has taken
millions of years for the de-
posits of coal, iron, gold, silver,
and other minerals to form,
and perhaps as long for the
accumulation of natural oil
and gas. It has taken a long,
long time for the formation
of the soils. Many of these re-
sources can be used but once
and can never be replaced.
Agriculture is dependent
upon the fertility of the soils
and upon rain or other water supply. Raw materials are
essential to our industrial and commercial development as
a nation. In this country we have come to know that
from this time on the mineral wealth must not be
wasted, the forests must be protected, the fertility of
the soils maintained, the water-power developed, and
many of the dry lands irrigated. Fish and game should
be allowed to increase in numbers.
The spreading of injurious animals
and insects should be prevented,
while other animals, and especially
the birds, should be protected. The
birds not only destroy large num-
bers of insects but add much to the
pleasure of the people.
These facts are sufficient to con-
vince one that the natural resources
must be conserved if this country is
to continue for all time to be an
attractive place for people to live in.
Our government is making a great
effort to conserve all valuable re-
sources. The Reclamation Service is
adding large areas to our agricultural
lands by irrigating the dry places and
by draining the wet parts ; the Forest
Service is engaged in maintaining the
national forests (Fig. 192); the Bureau
of Mines is teaching men how to ex-
tract the rich mineral ores from the earth most econom-
Then come the mineral resources, such as iron, cop- ically ; and the Department of Agriculture is helping
per, gold, silver, lead, and zinc. ' the fanner to raise larger and better crops.
100
THE NATION AS A WHOLE
Education. The American colonists had high ideals easy routes for transportation, and a number of large
of education and very early established schools and col- industrial and commercial lake ports have developed.
leges. A school was opened for each new settlement in
this country, and as prosperity came these schools were
improved. Thousands of high schools have been estab-
lished. An effort has been made to give each American
child and all those who have chosen to come to this
country from foreign lands a good education.
Most of the states now have a number of normal
schools and a university, and many of the states have
established agricultural colleges, either associated with
Fig. 193. Here is a great ocean liner lying at anchor off the coast of Japan. This is one of the large
ships which run across the Pacific Ocean, carrying freight and passengers between the western
ports of the United States and Canada and the eastern ports of Asia. What are some of the goods
carried on its westward trips ? on its eastward trips ?
the universities or as independent institutions. There
are also numerous special schools of medicine, dentistry,
pharmacy, mining, and engineering, so that everyone
who wishes may find a place to go for higher training
in the profession of his choice.
Geographic factors which affect the growth of the nation.
When a land is divided by mountain ranges into small
natural regions, many distinct nations are apt to be
developed. Here large natural regions and broad, level
stretches of fertile lands have led to the development
of a unified nation. The great railroad systems have
helped to bind the people together. The breadth of view
and the daring of the American people are in some
degree due to the extent of its territory, its broad, open
expanse of prairie lands, and its wonderful natural
resources.
The location of the United States on the shores of the
Atlantic is of great importance to the country. It makes
possible a close association with other progressive nations
of the world. On the north the Great Lakes provide
On the south direct access to lands in the tropics is
afforded by the Gulf of Mexico, which, with the Carib-
bean Sea, forms an American Mediterranean. Its waters
touch Central America, Mexico, the United States, and
the West Indies, and reach the northern shores of South
America. The United States now holds a prominent
place in the commerce which crosses the American
Mediterranean, and in the future it will undoubtedly
occupy a still more important position.
The Pacific coast gives us access to
the oriental countries, and leads us to
take a great and very direct interest in
the development of Asiatic nations
(Fig. 193). The addition of Alaska has
given us land which is rich in mineral
wealth and fish. It has a supply of coal
which will become of importance to
commerce on the Pacific. The islands
of Hawaii, Samoa, Guam, and the Phil-
ippines are all important stations in
the midst of the Pacific Ocean. They
form a chain joined by cables and by
the routes of travel followed by the
great steamships crossing the Pacific.
The Panama Canal is of immeasurable
commercial value, and our islands in
the West Indies give us additional land
in the tropics where certain food suppUes
may be produced.
The temperature in the United States
varies from summer to winter and in general stimulates
thought and develops energetic people. The seasonal
changes make life more interesting and force people to
look ahead and provide for the future. The weather
conditions are not so severe that progress is impossible,
and yet they are not so mild that everyone becomes lazy.
The climate of the United States has therefore been a
factor of fundamental importance in the development
of a strong, progressive nation.
All of these large geographic facts have been of im-
portance in the development of the nation and have led
not only to great internal strength and great wealth
but to an ever-increasing interest in the other nations of
the world.
Problems and review questions. 1. Where were the first English
settlements in the United States ? 2. Why did the Appalachian
Mountains serve as a barrier to migrations westward ? 3. Describe
the routes most commonly used in crossing the Appalachian
Mountains. See map on pages 2 and 3.
4. How did rivers affect the movements of pioneers ? 5. How
have' railroads helped in the settlement and industrial life of this
THE NATION AS A WHOLE
101
t*'
■^^-:
country ? 6. What natural resource is of the greatest importance
to the United States ? 7. Name the natural resources that furnish
power. 8. What metal is most useful to man ? Explain.
9. How may the fertility of soils be maintained ? 10. Why
should water power be used ? 11. How far do you know electrical
power to be transmitted ? 12. How may we conserve fuel re-
sources ? metals ? forests ? 13. What institutions for higher
education are maintained in your state ?
14. How have the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts proved
beneficial to the nation ? 15. Where may we expect our commerce
to increase greatly in the next fifty years ? 16. Why should a
variable climate with large seasonal change be favorable to a
progressive civilization ?
Government. The thirteen orig-
inal colonies became the first states
in the Union. For some time the
newly acquired territories were
large but thinly settled. As the
number of people increased, the
new territories acquired were di-
vided and local governments were
established. Each division was in
time admitted into the Union, until
there are now forty-eight states.
The national Congress is com-
posed of a Senate and a House
of Representatives. Each of the
forty-eight states elects two sena-
tors, but the number of repre-
sentatives elected by each state
varies with the population. At
present there are four hundred
and thirty-five members in the
House of Representatives in Con-
gress. The people in the terri-
torial possessions send delegates
to Congress.
structures. Large buildings have also been constructed
as headquarters for most of the departments.
Each foreign nation has a representative or a group
of representatives in Washington, and it is an everyday
experience to those living in the capital to meet people
from various parts of the world. The larger foreign
nations have buildings of their own in the city.
Recently a large building has been constructed in
Washington for the Pan American Union. The efforts
of all those associated with this organization are
C'dijif i.'.'i''
I rl ingtun-'
ndri
Fig. 194. This is an aeroplane drawing of Washington. The extent of the District of Columbia, which
corresponds with the city limits, is shown by the darker shading. To what states does the adjoining
land belong ? George Washington selected this site for the national capital in 1790 and made the first
plans for the city. Describe the capital and its surroundings from what you can see in this view
The President is elected by the citizens of the United directed toward bringing about a closer and better
States to serve for a term of four years. He appoints, relationship between the countries of North and South
subject to the approval of the Senate, the members of America.
his Cabinet, who take charge of the great departments The National Museum is a place of great historic and
of public affairs. At present the members of the Cabinet scientific interest, the Red Cross organization has a
include secretaries of State, the Treasury, War, the beautiful home in Washington (Fig. 196), and the head-
Navy, the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor, quarters of the National Geographic Society are here,
an Attorney-General, and a PostmasterrGeneral. Internal development. Wlien the thirteen colonies
Washington and the District of Columbia. The seat of came together to form a nation, they had a total popula-
govemment for the nation is the city of Washington, tion of about 1,000,000 people. To-day there are about
: situated on the banks of the Potomac River (Fig. 194). 100,000,000 people in the United States. We have had
Washington has become a most attractive city, of which a period of most prosperous internal development. The
' every citizen of the United States may well be proud, growth of cities, the construction of railroads, and the
It was established as a seat of government and is not establishment of all kinds of educational institutions
an industrial center. The chief business in Washington have been remarkable. The nation has grown strong
pertains to the conduct of national affairs. The Capitol and powerful. This was most wonderfully demonstrated
■ (Fig. 195) and the Congressional Library are magnificent in our participation in the great World War.
102
THE NATION AS A WHOLE
Fig. 195. The National Capitol at Washington is a very beautiful building made of white stone and
marble. The dome is surmounted by a statue of Liberty, representing the great ideal of the American
nation. In one of the wings is the chamber where the United States Senate meets, and in the other
is the Hall of Representatives. The Supreme Court has its room in the main building of the Capitol
Maritime expansion. To-day we are moving rapidly
to a more and more important position in the commerce
of the world. Our great factories need raw materials
from distant lands. They also need additional markets
where their ever-increasing number of products may be
sold. Other nations wish to carry on an exchange of
commodities with us. The United States, with the hun-
dreds of new vessels built during the World War and
the many which will be built each year in the American
shipyards, will certainly develop a large international
commerce.
The United States in world affairs. Each time that we
acquired a possession in the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean
we assumed the responsibility of governing or assisting
in the government of other people. This responsibility
has led our government officials to make a careful study
of the people living in the Hawaiian, Samoan, and
Philippine Islands. We have also the problem of under-
standing the people in the West Indies and the native
people of Alaska. In each of these countries the geo-
graphic conditions that affect the lives of the people
are different from those in the United States proper.
As the great industries of the United States have
developed, the manufacturers have needed more men and
more raw materials. Millions of people have come from
foreign lands to live in this country, and vast supplies
of materials are being imported. These factors have in-
creased our interest in the other countries of the world.
With our growth in international commerce and the
part which we found it necessary to take in the great
World War our interest in world affairs has increased.
It has become, therefore, more and
more important that each citizen of
the United States should know the
geography of foreign countries.
More men must be sent from the
United States to foreign lands to repre-
sent our business houses. We must
have diplomatic and consular represent-
atives in all parts of the world, and
the number in this service must be
increased. We are interested not only
in the welfare of the people within the
United States and our various posses-
sions ; we are interested in the welfare
of all peoples and must continue to do
our part to preserve peace in the world.
Individuals cannot live happily or lead
the most useful lives in a community
unless order is maintained there, and
the different nations cannot continue
their growth, and civilization cannot ad-
vance, unless peace and order are maintained in the world.
Problems and review questions. 1. Who is the highest public
official in your home town or city ? How was he elected ? For
how long ? 2. How is your state represented in Congress ? Who
are the senators ? Who is the representative from your district ?
3. Who are the members of the Cabinet ? 4. Where is the
District of Columbia ? 5. How does Washington differ from all
other large cities in America? 6. What places should you like to
visit in Washington ?
7. About how much larger is the population of the United
States now than it was at the time of the Revolutionary War?
8. Why should we be interested now in developing foreign
commerce ? 9. Why should we be interested now in helping to
maintain peace not only at home but throughout the world ?
Fig. 196. This building is the headquarters of the American Red Cross in
Washington. The Red Cross is an organization to which every boy and girl
in the United States should belong, for its chief object is to relieve the
suffering that follows great disasters in all parts of the world
CANADA
103
Fig. 197. St. John, the chief city of New Brunswick, has a deep, sheltered
harbor on the Bay of Fundy. The tides in the bay are very swift and strong,
and at St. John the tide rise is twenty-five feet. This view shows part of
the harbor at a time when the tide is high
CANADA
Our neighbor on the north, with land which extends
from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and north-
ward into the Arctic Ocean, is the Dominion of Canada.
It is part of the British Empire.
Most of the people in Canada are of British descent.
A large proportion of them live along the southern
border, near the United States.
The political divisions of Canada correspond to our
states, but they are called provinces. The three farthest
east are the Maritime Provinces.
Climate. Use map on page 124. Most of Canada has
sufficient rainfall for agriculture. The moisture-bearing
winds from the Pacific Ocean give up rain on the moun-
tains. There, on the coast ranges and Rocky Mountains,
dense forests flourish and glaciers are formed.
On the Great Plains east of the Rocky Mountains, and
in the Far North, there is little rainfall. In those parts
there are great extremes in temperature, but the dry air
and bright sunshine are bracing and healthful. The
whole interior of Canada has what is known as a con-
tinental climate, which means that there is a great
change in temperature from summer to winter and only
moderate rainfall.
The air becomes cold as it travels far to the north,
and it gives up most of its moisture before it reaches
the tundra area on the northern margin of the continent.
In that part of Canada the winters are so long and so
severe that very few people live there. Bee map oppo-
site page 124.
In the valleys of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers
cold winters are followed by warm and delightful sum-
mers. In the Maritime Provinces, which are nearly
surrounded by water, there is much less change in
Fig. 198. This is the same spot when the tiae is out, and the boats that
were afloat are now aground on the reddish-brown mud flat. Why is the
harbor of St. John never icebound in winter ? Why is it foggy in summer ?
Explain the great rise of the tide here
temperature from season to season than there is farther
inland. The climate of these provinces is therefore
much like that of New England.
APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS
Beginning at the east {see map, p. 122), the first
natural region is part of the Appalachian Highlands.
It includes most of the land to the southeast of the
St. Lawrence River, as well as the islands in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence. The mountains in this part are old
and worn down. They are rounded, smoothed, and
forested. The rest of the land is either plateau-like or
forms a part of the Coastal Hilly Belt which we studied
in connection with the New England region.
New Brunswick has a sunken coast with good harbors,
and those on the Bay of Fundy are always free from
ice (Figs. 197, 198). Fishing is the chief occupation of
the people. This province is partly covered with spruce
forests, and that has led to the grinding of wood into
pulp, which is also an important industry. Dairy-farming
and agriculture are spreading throughout the area
where the forests have been cleared away.
Prince Edward Island is a hilly land with an irregular
coast. The chief occupations of the people are fishing,
fruit-growing, and dairy-farming. Cheese and butter are
made for export, and the skimmed milk is given to pigs.
Nova Scotia. The irregular peninsula southeast of the
Bay of Fundy, together with Cape Breton Island, form
the province of Nova Scotia. There are many excellent
harbors along the coast, because the shore line is sunken
(Fig. 199). Halifax has the best harbor on the mainland,
and Sydney the best harbor on Cape Breton Island.
Bordering the Bay of Fundy are rich orchard lands and
many excellent farms. Apples are grown and exported
104
CANADA
in large quantities. Lumbering is carried on, and the
wood-pulp industry has been established ; and where the
forests have been cleared away, farming has been begun.
Fig. 199. This is the harbor of Yarmouth, one of the most prosperous towns
of Nova Scotia. It is situated on a small bay at the Southwestern end of
the peninsula and is the chief shipbuilding center of the province. The
lake country back of Yarmouth is much visited by tourists
Nova Scotia is fortunate in having a large supply of
coal. It produces each year about half of all the coal
mined in Canada. Iron is secured from Newfoundland,
and these two natural resources give promise of a great
commercial and industrial future for Nova Scotia. There
are foundries at Sydney, where the Newfoundland iron
ore is used in the manufacture of steel rails.
Home work. 1. On aii_ outline map of Canada locate and name
the chief seaports, the capital of the Dominion, and three impor-
tant inland cities. 2. Classify your pictures of Canada by natural
regions. 3. Read about Amundsen's and Stefansson's travels among
the islands of the Arctic Archipelago. 4. Read and report on the
government of Canada. 5. Read and report on the tides in the
Bay of Fundy. 6. Read about the building of the Canadian
Pacific Railway.
LAURENTIAN UPLAND
Northwest of the St. Lawrence River, north of the
Great Lakes, and extending far into the Arctic Ocean
is the Laurentian Upland. See map on page 122. This
vast area varies in elevation up to about 2000 feet above
the sea. At the extreme northern end of Labrador, in
the region east of Ungava Bay, mountains have been
reported which rise to a height of 6000 feet above sea
level. The far northern part of this natural region is
but little known.
The Laurentian Upland is a very old land. Indeed,
it is probably as old as any land in North America or
any other continent. The rocks have been exposed to
the weather, broken up, and formed into soils. Rivers
have worn down the lands, and the great continental
glaciers that formed in this region have assisted in the
work (Fig. 14). The Laurentian Upland extends into
three of the provinces of Canada — Quebec, Ontario,
and Manitoba — and into the Provisional Districts of
Keewatin, Mackenzie, and Franklin.
Throughout the region there are numerous lakes,
swamps, marshes, and ponds. Rivers usually connect
the small bodies of water, and thus canoe journeys may
be planned through most of this country ; in fact, that is
the usual method of travel in the country beyond the
railroad lines.
The province of Quebec has the advantage of a shore
line on each side of the St. Lawrence and on Hudson
Bay. The best soils are in the St. Lawrence Lowlands
and on the narrow terraces, or benches, which border the
St. Lawrence River. Most of the settlements are therefore
located near the river. The farms are principally on the
south bank. Each farm has a little frontage on the river
and extends back for some distance to the higher land.
In the region of the lower St. Lawrence the majority
of the people are of French descent and speak the French
language. In their homes, schools, churches, and town
organizations they live much as their forefathers did who
came to this coast from France hundreds of years ago.
Nearly all the streams draining from the uplands
toward the St. Lawrence have falls in their courses. In
this region there is a fall line such as we found along the
east margin of the Piedmont Belt in the United States.
The water-power along that line should lead to the
growth of manufacturing towns.
On the south side of the St. Lawrence there are
remarkable deposits of asbestos, which provide nearly
all the world's supply. This material is found in great
cracks in the rocks. It is sometimes called mineral wool.
Fig. 200. OuuJos, li iuoated on a bold headland overlooking the broad
St. Lawrence River. The Upper Town is partly walled and has an ancient
citadel. This view shows Dufierin Terrace and the Lower Town. Locate
Quebec on your map. It has been called the " Guardian of the Gateway to
Canada." Can you tell why ?
The city of Quebec is a wonderfully attractive place
with special historic interests. The city is built in part
on the heights above the St. Lawrence and in part on
the lowland bordering the river (Fig. 200). The city
CANADA
105
was founded as a fur-trading post, and the site was
chosen because it was an easy place to defend. The
estuary of the St. Lawrence ends at the city, but the
Fig. 201. Montreal occupies part of a low island at the junction of the
Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers. The Ottawa River opens up the forested
district to the north and west, and the lumbering there has led to the build-
ing of pulp mills at Montreal. What are the other industries of Montreal ?
tide runs for 90 miles farther upstream. Formerly
Quebec was the chief seaport of Canada, but the deep-
ening of the river has allowed ocean-going vessels to
continue upstream to Montreal.
Home voork. Find out all the uses you can for asbestos.
Montreal has a wonderful situation. It is a thousand
miles from the Atlantic and is on a great navigable
river which is the outlet of the Great Lakes. But for
one handicap it might rival the greatest Atlantic ports.
That handicap is ice, for from the middle of December
to near the end of April the river is frozen. The Ottawa
River encircles the city, and logs are drifted down
that river from the forested areas to the northwest.
Montreal is now the metropolis of
Canada, an important railway center,
and the terminus of many steamship
lines (Fig. 201). Large harvests of
wheat come to Montreal from the
West, in part by way of the Great
Lakes and in part by rail. Lumber and
wood pulp are made of the logs that
are sent down the Ottawa River. The
grain coming into the city has led to the
establishment of flour mills and brew-
eries. The route to the south through
Lake Champlain and the Hudson valley
to New York City is only 420 miles
long. Large trans- Atlantic vessels bring
European goods directly to Montreal
and take away the raw materials which
Canada sends to the Old World.
These geographic advantages explain why Montreal
has come to have a population of half a million people,
— a large number when we remember that the total popu-
lation of Canada is not much more than eight million.
HUDSON BAY LOWLAND
At the southern end of Hudson Bay there is a small
coastal plain. See map on parje 122. This is a land of
clay soils. It is forested now, and there is an abundance
of game in the forests. Some day the trees will be
cleared away and this lowland region will probably
become an agricultural district.
CENTRAL PLAINS
North of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie there is a small
portion of the Central Plains, a natural region which
we studied in connection with the United States. See
map on page 122.
This land is sometimes called the Lake Peninsula
because it is bordered on the south, east, and west by
lake waters. It is one of the most favored parts of
Canada. The soils are rich, and it was formerly a wheat-
producing area. Now that wheat is grown more cheaply
on the Great Plains of the West, dairy farming and the
raising of swine have become important.
Oil has been discovered in the rocks underlying
these plains, and this should lead to greater industrial
development.
The province of Ontario includes the Canadian exten-
sion of the Central Plains, a portion of the Hudson Bay
Lowland, and some of the Laurentian Upland. In the
Laurentian Upland silver, iron, copper, and nickel are
obtained. Near Sudbury, an important railway center,
are some of the richest nickel mines in the world.
Fig. 202. The harbor at Port Arthur on Thunder Bay in take Superior is lull ol lake freighters,
some west-bound for Duluth, and others east-bound for ports on the other Great Lakes. Port Arthur
and Fort William are receiving and shipping centers for the grain from the prairies. The building
of passenger vessels and grain carriers is an important industry at Port Arthur
106
CANADA
OO CO 4)
108
CANADA
Fig. 205. This is the railroad bridge over the North Saskatchewan River at Edmonton, the capital
of Alberta. Two transcontinental railroads pass through Edmonton, making it a very important
commercial center. Beyond the bridge you can see the city and the Provincial Parliament buildings.
The trappers from the north bring their furs to Edmonton for sale and exchange for supplies
Indians (Fig. 206). They collect furs,
hunt the caribou, and fish in the
rivers and lakes. There are no towns
in this part of Canada, but only
small trading posts. The white people
here are chiefly interested in secur-
ing furs.
Home work. 1. From the Appendix find
out what are the five largest cities of
Canada. 2. Locate these cities on an outline
map. 3. Learn to name and locate these
cities accurately from memory. 4. Find out
one important thing about each of these cities.
WESTERN MOUNTAINS AND PLATEAUS
which we studied in connection with North Dakota and
Minnesota. It has a deep, rich soil containing hardly
a stone. The mountain and plateau part of Canada is a region of
Manitoba includes a part of the Hudson Bay Low- wonderful scenic beauty, with high mountains, hundreds
land, some of the Laurentian Upland, and in the south of glaciers, beautiful mountain lakes (Fig. 208), and deep
a part of the Great Plains. canyons. A great part of this region is yet almost
Winnipeg is the third largest city in Canada. In the untouched by man.
early days it was a small fur-trading post, but the location British Columbia. Much of this province is heavily
was favorable to the growth of a large city. It is only
400 miles from Lake Superior, in the midst of a pros-
perous farming country and halfway between Montreal
and Vancouver. To-day it is the largest grain and fur
market in the British Empire. It contains one of the
largest grain elevators in Canada and is coming to be
a great manufacturing center.
Saskatchewan and Alberta. These provinces are for
the most part within the Great Plains. They include
with Manitoba the great wheat and oat-producing lands
of Canada. Regina is the chief city in Saskatchewan, and
Edmonton (Fig. 205) is the chief city in Alberta. The
transcontinental railroads
have made possible the
rapid settlement and devel-
opment of this part of
Canada.
Provisional districts of
Keewatin, Mackenzie, and
Franklin. Relatively little
is known of this part of
the country. It is a wilder-
ness. Exploring parties
have found their way be-
tween the northern islands
and passed from Baffin
Bay to Bering Strait. They
have found a few Eskimos
living on the Far-Northern
islands. Most of the peo-
ple on the mainland are
Fig. 206. This is a wandering Indian family of northern Canada. They
roam over the cold, treeless plains, living by fishing and by hunting caribou
and musk oxen. Why do they not raise crops ? Why are they constantly
moving about ? What is their tent made of ?
forested, and in the mountains mining has been under-
taken. The chief city of British Columbia is Vancouver,
which has an excellent harbor and is the western ter-
minus of the Canadian Pacific Railroad. Vessels start
northward from there along the coast for Alaska, and
others leave for Japan, China, Australia, and other
parts of the Pacific. See map on page 107.
Vancouver exports wheat from Alberta, and salmon
caught in the cold streams of British Columbia. Min-
erals from the mines of British Columbia and lumber
from the wonderful forests of giant Douglas fir are also
exported (Fig. 209). Opposite this seaport, on the island
of Vancouver, there are coal
mines which supply western
Canada. Many of the steam-
ships which cross the Pacific
secure their fuel from these
mines.
The island of Vancouver
has a delightful chmate with
but slight changes in tem-
perature. The mountain
scenery and the lakes and
forests add beauty to the
country. In the fertile
valleys are many comfort-
able homes. Victoria, at the
southern end of the island,
is the capital of British
Columbia and an important
Canadian port.
CANADA
109
Yukon. Those who go to the Yukon country usually
follow the coast route to Skagway, Alaska, and then
cross the mountains on a railway to the headwaters of
the Yukon River. The Yukon country is for the most
part mountainous. The famous Klondike Gold Field is
located on one of the tributaries of the Yukon River near
the city of Dawson. The climate in that part of Canada
is severe, with long, cold winters and short, cool summers.
Few people would ever go there if it were not for the
gold which is found in the stream gravels (Fig. 207). In
the mountains there are many mines, and we may expect
mining to be further developed in this province.
CONSKRVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Canada's great wealth lies in its natural resources, and
the future of the country depends chiefly upon the way
in which the re-
sources are used.
To safeguard
against waste of
natural resources
Canada created
a Commission of
Conservation in
1909, This com-
mission, like our
own in the United
States, is subdi-
vided into differ-
ent departments.
There are depart-
ments of land,
forest, mineral,
fuel, game, and
water-power conservation. It is the duty of the officers
of each department to make a study of the natural
resources for which that department is responsible.
For example, those who have charge of the conserva-
tion of minerals have not only made a business of dis-
covering what possibilities there are in Canada of greater
mineral development but have found out how the differ-
ent minerals can be most economically mined. Each of
the departments aims to make its services just as valu-
able to the nation as possible.
It often happens that the work of one department is
a help to another. Thus, when the committee on minerals
discovered rich deposits of phosphate in the Rocky
Mountain Parks, this discovery was of great value to
the department of agriculture because it provided a
source of fertilizer for the farmers.
The work done by the Commission of Conservation
will be of great help in the development of Canada.
Fig. 207. This man is a gold prospector. He is
sifting the river sands and gravels in his pan to
find out whether they contain enough gold to
make mining worth while
Fig. 208. These horsemen are riding along the shore of Lake Louise, one of
the most beautiful sheets of water in the Canadian Rockies. The lake is
more than a mile above sea level and is surrounded by high, snow-covered
mountains. What part of the United States is similar to this region ?
Problems and review questions. 1. Why do most of the people
in Canada live near the southern margin of the country ? 2. What
winds bring moisture to British Columbia ? 3. Why is it dry in
the Great Plains region ? 4. How does the Labrador Current
affect the climate of the east coast ? •
5. What section has the greatest annual range in temperature,
or difference between the hottest season and the coldest season ?
6. What is the general influence of the oceans on the temperature
of the lands near them ?
7. How does temperature change with latitude? with altitude?
8. What are the chief products of Nova Scotia ? 9. What condi-
tions made possible the steel industry at Sydney ? 10. What is
the chief occupation of the people of New Brunswick ?
11. What is the usual way to travel in the northern wilderness
of the Laurentian Upland ? 12. What use is being made of the
forests of the Laurentian Upland ? 13. In what part of Canada
is the French language commonly spoken ? 14. Why should
Montreal have become a larger city than Quebec ?
15. What is the capital of the Dominion of Canada ? 16. Where
are the prosperous farming districts of Canada? 17. Where are
the chief mining districts of Canada ? 18. What geographic con-
ditions favored the growth of Winnipeg ? Vancouver ? Dawson ?
Fig. 209. The western slopes of the mountains in British Columbia are
covered with great forests, and lumbering is very important. The rainfall
here is the heaviest in North America. Can you explain this fact ? See map
on page 124. Why are oxen used here for hauling the logs ?
110
NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR
industry of St. Johns. In the spring the fishing boats start for the Grand
Bank, which swarms with cod and other fish during the summer months.
In the late summer the fishermen return with their catch. The fish are then
carefully dried and prepared for export. To what countries are they sent ?
Home work. 1. About how far is it from St. Johns, Newfound-
land, to Liverpool ? Use Plate B in Appendix. 2. Compare that
distance with the distance from New York to Liverpool. 3. Find
out what fraction of an iceberg appears above the water. 4. Make
a drawing of an iceberg, in the proper proportion, showing how
much is above and how much is below the surface of the water.
Labrador is separated from Newfoundland by the
Strait of Belleisle, which, is 12 miles wide. Politically
ber of deep fiords, long peninsulas, and high chffs, and it is a part of Newfoundland, but local affairs are left
producing several excellent harbors. to those who live in Labrador.
' Most of the life in Newfoundland is near the coast. Both Labrador and Newfoundland have been covered
Fishing is the chief occupation. Offshore there is an area, by glacier ice, so the rock hills are rounded and smoothed
larger than the island itself, where the sea water is less off, and there are many glacial moraines and bowlders
than 600 feet deep. This forms the Grand Bank, which on the surface. There are long, deep fiords and rocky
Fig. 210. St. Johns, the capital of Newfoundland, is situated on one of the
finest harbors in America. The harbor is landlocked and deep, offering
anchorage to the largest ships even at low tide. It can be entered only by
way of a narrow channel guarded by high cliffs. Fishicp; is the chief
NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR
Newfoundland is about the size of Maine and New
Hampshire combined. It is the northeastern terminus
of the Appalachian Highlands. The western portion is
mountainous, and the rest of the island is hilly, with
small areas of level land in some of the valleys. The
eastern coast of Newfoundland has sunk, forming a num-
is one of the richest fishing grounds in the world.
In the interior, where there are forests, the manufac-
ture of paper from wood pulp has been undertaken.
Coal, iron, copper, gold, and nickel
have been discovered on the island,
and these deposits have been worked
to some extent.
The capital of Newfoundland is
St. Johns, on the east coast of the
island (Fig. 210).
Where the cold Labrador Current
passes Newfoundland and meets the
warm water of the Gulf Stream,
fogs are formed, which often make
travel in that part of the ocean very
dangerous. Great icebergs from the
arctic regions drift southward in
the Labrador Current and are often
seen by vessels passing from North
America to Europe. The icebergs
are frequently surrounded by dense
fogs, and the captains of the vessels
must use great care to avoid hitting them. Even large
ocean liners have been sunk by collisions with these
great masses of floating ice.
Fig. 211. Nine tenths of the people of Labrador
depend upon the fishing industry for their living.
These men are spreading out the cleaned and
salted codfish to dry on the wharf
headlands along the coast.
About 400 Eskimos make up most of the permanent
population. They live chiefly by fishing (Fig. 211); and
when there is a poor season, there is
danger of a famine. Missionaries
have introduced the reindeer as an
additional source of food and cloth-
ing for the people of this bleak
coast.
Problems and review questions. 1. AVhafc
is the political relationship of Labrador to
Newfoundland? 2. To what empire do
they both belong ? See map on page 107-
3. What is the chief occuijation of the
people in these countries ? 4. What min-
erals have been found in Newfoundland ?
5. Why should there commonly be a fog
around an iceberg ?
6. Why should there commonly be fogs
off the coast of Newfoundland even if there
are no icebergs there ? 7. Explain the long,
deep fiords on the coast of Newfoundland
and Labrador. 8. Why is the Grand Bank
an excellent fishing ground ? It is one of
the three greatest fishing grounds in the world. The other two
are the North Sea and the Japanese waters near Asia. 9. Why is
the Grand Bank a dangerous fishing ground ?
MEXICO
111
Fig. 212. This is the beautiful cathedral of the City of Mexico. It was
built by order of one of the kings of Spain, and although it was started in
1667, it was not completed for more than a century. Its two great towers,
200 feet in height, rise above all the buildings of the city
Fig. 213. The view southeastward from the cathedral towers is very beau-
tiful. The city, with its low, solid buildings of Spanish architecture,
spreads out over the flat-floored Plateau of Mexico. In the distance are the
snow-capped volcanic peaks of Iztaccihuatl and Popocatepetl
MEXICO
Mexico is a Spanish-American country with nearly
15,000,000 inhabitants. The white people, who make up
only a small part of the population, are chiefly of Span-
ish descent. Most of the inhabitants are native Indians
or people of mixed descent, resulting from the marriage
of the white people with the natives. Spanish is the
official language.
This is a country of great variety. In the plateau and
on the west coast it is very dry, and in the high moun-
tains and on the east coast it is very wet ; there are low
plains, high plateaus, and high mountains; there are
dense tropical forests, grassy plains, and sagebrush
deserts. Near sea level it is always very hot, at inter-
mediate elevations there are temperate climates, while
some of the mountain tops are always snow-covered.
Such geographic conditions present many opportunities
for the Mexican people and many interesting problems
for us.
Gulf Coastal Plain. See maps hetweenpages 117 and 120.
Bordering the Gulf of Mexico is a coastal plain which is
an extension of the Gulf Coastal Plain that we studied
in the United States. In Yucatan the plain widens and
takes in most of ^hat peninsula.
Eastern Sierra Madre. Rising abruptly from the western
margin of the Gulf Coastal Plain is the Eastern Sierra
Madre, a young and rugged mountain system which is a
continuation southward of our Rocky Mountains. These
mountain."} contain rich deposits of minerals. Their east-
em slopes are clothed with dense tropical vegetation.
Mexican Plateau. Traveling westward, we cross the
Mexican Plateau, a region of broad, flat areas and low
mountain I'anges. All but the southern portion of this
plateau is a semidesert, containing many extremely dry
places. In the north is a region of inland drainage like
that in our Great Basin region of the United States,
where the streams descending from the mountains sink
into the sandy soil or flow into salt lakes.
Western Sierra Madre and Sonoran Desert. Moving
still farther west, we come to the Western Sierra Madre,
which is also a young, rugged mountain system. These
mountains contain deposits of very valuable ores. On
the eastern slopes, toward which the moisture-laden
winds blow, they receive a heavy rainfall ; but the rain
clouds cannot pass over the summits, and on the western
side the land is dry. The Sonoran Desert consists of a
foothill belt and a narrow coastal plain bordering the
Gulf of California.
Lower California is a part of Mexico. It is a rugged
land made by the continuation southward of the Pacific
Coast Ranges of California. Most of it is a desert.
High volcanic peaks. A range of lofty, snow-clad,
volcanic peaks bounds the Plateau of Mexico on the
south. The three highest peaks of this range are Ori-
zaba, the Star Mountain ; Poix)catej)etl, or Smoking
Mountain', Iztaccihuatl, or WJiite Wmnan (Fig. 218).
Rainfall. Most of Mexico is in tlie belt of the north-
east trade winds. As those winds blow toward the equa-
tor they become warmer and warmer, and so tend to
take up moisture. In blowing over water surfaces they
may become very moist, but unless they are forced to rise
112
MEXICO
Fig. 214. These Mexican women are making the
beautiful drawn work for which their country is
famous. Where does their thread come from ?
Fig. 215. These men are water peddlers in the
City of Mexico. Notice the size of their water jars
and the curious way in which they are carried
Fig. 216. This ship is being loaded with mahog-
any logs at a Mexican port. Where will these
logs be sent, and what will they be used for ?
or some cold object intervenes, no rain will fall. Both Within a few hours one may pass by rail from sea-
ranges of the Sierra Madre force these winds to rise, and level, where the heat is very oppressive, up through the
so act as condensers ; rain falls abundantly on their wind- temperate zone and into the cold zone in the high moun-
ward slopes. The streams from the western mountains tains. The people of Mexico have the products of the
are used to irrigate portions of the dry plateau region.
The southern portions of Mexico receive rains in summer,
when the sun appears to come northward.
Zones of altitude. Because of the great differences in
elevation in Mexico, there are three distinct zones which
have special Spanish names. The tierra caliente, or hot
land, extends from sea level up to 3000 feet. The tem-
torrid, warm-temperate, and cool-temperate zones near
at hand.
Natural resources. Mexico is very rich in natural
resources. The mineral wealth consists of silver, gold,
copper, lead, and many other metals. Mexico is also fortu-
nate in having a large supply of petroleum and some ex-
cellent water-power sites (Fig. 217). The fertile lands
perature in this zone varies from 75 to 80 degrees, though in the lowlands and on portions of the plateau furnish
it sometimes rises to 100 or 105. The winters are warm,
but the summers are hot. The eastern coastal plain of
Mexico and a part of the adjoining mountain slope are in-
cluded in this zone. It is a land of rich foliage, beautiful
flowers, and many fruit trees. Along the coast are man-
foods, and the forests yield ebony, mahogany (Fig. 216),
and rubber. There are also extensive grazing lands.
Millions of dollars have been invested in the natural
resources of Mexico by people in the United States.
Occupations. Mining produces the greatest wealth of
grove swamps, and farther inland there are coconut palms, the country (Fig. 219), but agriculture is the occupation
mahogany trees, and rubber trees. In the forests there which most of the people must follow in order to earn a
are gorgeously colored birds and butterflies, monkeys, living (Fig. 218). The grasslands on the plateau support
and prowling beasts that make their homes in jungles, millions of cattle, sheep, horses, and goats. Leather has
The next zone, extending up to
5000 or 7000 feet, is called tierra
templada, or temperate land. Here
the thermometer will reach 60 or 70
degrees, the temperature many peo-
ple enjoy in their homes during the
winter. The Mexicans like to call
this the land of " perpetual spring."
This zone includes part of the moun-
tain slopes and some of the great
plateau. The third zone, called tierra
fria, or cold land, is still higher.
Evergreens and some deciduous trees
grow here. The high mountain tops
are very cold, and they rise above
the timber line.
5 Ee;st«n« View Co,
Fig. 217. The great Juanacatlan Falls of the
Santiago River are often called the "Niagara of
Mexico." Hydroelectric power is developed here
for manufacturing and for use at Guadalajara,
twenty miles away
long been one of the chief products
of this country, and the Mexicans
are experts at ornamenting the arti-
cles made from it.
The great mass of laboring people,
who are chiefly Indians and half-
breeds, are called peons. They work
for very small wages in the mines,
in the fields, and on the plains where
they care for stock. They are learn-
ing to work in some of the factories.
Home work. 1. On an outline map of
Mexico locate and name the chief natural
regions, the capital, and two seaports.
2. Read about the life of the peons. 3. What
Spanish explorers reached Mexico ?
MEXICO
113
Cities. Tampico and Vera Cruz have the best of the poor
harbors along the Gulf coast. The waters are shallow,
with offshore bars and reefs. Commerce with the United
States and Europe is carried on through these ports. See
map betiveen pages 117 and 120. Tampico has been helped
by the development of oil wells in Mexico. Vera Cruz
has been the leading port since the days of Cortez.
The City of Mexico, the capital of the republic, is situ-
ated at the southern end of the Mexican Plateau and is
nearly surrounded by high mountains (Figs. 212, 213).
Puebla is near the City of Mexico, and because of water-
power and a supply of raw materials it has become a
center for the manufacture of cotton. Guadalajara, San
Luis Potosi, and Monterey are important inland cities, and
Mazatlan is the chief seaport on the west coast.
In the center of a Mexican city is a plaza, or open
park, about which many of the most important build-
ings are placed. At one side is a cathedral; opposite
the cathedral may be a national or city bank and other
public buildings. The chief shops and places of amuse-
ment are built on the edge of the plaza whenever this
is possible, and the public markets are near by.
A city home is usually built around a patio, or central
garden, which the family enjoys in private. Instead of
Fig. 218. Here are the coffee-drying yards on a Mexican plantation. The
coffee beans are spread out to dry and are then raked up into piles ready
to be put into bags for shipment. What other products do the Mexican
planters and farmers grow ? What products are exported ?
More well-trained white people are needed to develop
the natural resources, and living and working con-
ditions for the laboring classes must be improved.
Higher standards of education should be estabUshed,
and arrangements should be made so that a larger
having a front yard, as many homes in the cities of the ^^^^er of Mexicans may own homes and ranch lands.
United States have, the houses m Spamsh cities are ^ ^^^^^^g ^„^ j^^^ government must be maintained,
built out to the sidewalks and have the yard hidden
from the street.
Government. The thirty-one states and territories in
Mexico are united to form a federal republic, with a
constitution modeled after that of the United States.
The states have a degree of local self-government, and
they unite in the election of a president and other
national officers, as we do. The great mass of poor,
ignorant, uneducated peons, however, make it difficult
to conduct public affairs satisfactorily. In a free country
it is important that all citizens become well educated.
Future. The remarkable wealth of natural resources
may bring pros-
perity to Mexico.
Mining should be
promoted and agri-
culture extended
by means of irri-
gation. Probably
Mexico will never
become an indus-
trial nation, be-
cause the people
show little abil-
ity in mechanical
arts or invention.
Fig. 219. This is a modern copper-smelting plant in Mexico. The rich copper ore is mined
near by and then brought to the smelting works, where the metal is separated from the rock.
The production of copper is a very important industry in Mexico and is carried on mostly by
American and European companies. In what parts of Mexico is copper found ? What other
metals does Mexico produce ?
Problems and review questions. 1. What European nation early
became interested in Mexico? 2. What is the official language
of Mexico ? 3. What natural regions in the United States extend
southward into Mexico ?
4. What are the prevailing winds of Mexico ? 6. Where is the
rainfall heavy ? Why ? 6. Why is the Mexican Plateau dry ?
7. Explain the Sonoran Desert. 8. What reasons are there for
thinking of the mountains as young? ,
9. Explain and descrite the zones in altitude. 10. What are
the chief natural resources of Mexico ? 11. Name the capital and
chief seaports. 12. Describe the plaza of a Mexican city and the
patio of a Mexican home.
13. Name the mountain ranges in Mexico. 14. Locate the
three highest moun-
tain peaks. Find the
elevation of these
peaks in the Appen-
dix. 15. Explain how
it is possible for the
people of IVIexico to
have both torrid-zone
and temperate-zone
products nearat hand. '
16. Account for the
lack of prosperity in
Mexico. 17. What
remedies can you
suggest for this lack
of prosperity ?
114
CENTRAL AMERICA
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Fig. 220. This is a view on a banana plantation in Costa Rica. The men
have cut the bunches of bananas from the trees and are loading them upon
the ponies' backs. The ponies will carry them to the freight cars in which
they will be sent to the place of export
CENTRAL AMERICA
Between Mexico and South America there are six small
republics, — Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, and Panama. Five of these countries extend
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, across the narrow neck
of land which is called Central America. Salvador, how-
ever, is entirely on the Pacific side.
Besides the six republics there is British Honduras,
the only European possession in this part of North
America. It is a small, mountainous country located
on the Gulf of Honduras, south of Yucatan.
The young, rugged mountains that border the Pacific
Ocean in North America continue through Central
America and South America. On the east, in Central
America, there is a very narrow coastal plain, but on
the west the mountains come to the seashore.
Climate. Central America lies between the tropic of
Cancer and the equator, and therefore the winters are
almost as hot as the summers. The heaviest rainfall
comes dvu-ing the summer, and more rain falls on the
east coast than on the west coast, because the prevailing
winds are the northeast trades. See map on j)(ige 124.
At Colon, on the east coast, there is a yearly rainfall of
127 inches, and at Greytown the rainfall is 259 inches a
0 PubUsbera' Photo SerTioe, Ino.
Fig. 221. These oxcarts are used a great deal in Costa Rica and other
Central American countries. Notice the heavy yokes on the oxen, the solid
wooden wheels, and the rude framework which supports the canopy. What
products do you suppose are hauled in these carts? What are the canopies for?
Fig. 222. The docks at Limon have steam conveyors which take the bananas
right from the cars to the holds of the vessels. The conveyor is an endless
chain of canvas pockets. Each pocket holds one bunch of bananas. To
what countries are the bananas of Costa Rica sent ?
year. Such abundant rainfall in a tropical region means
dense forests, where there are sure to be gorgeously col-
ored birds, many insects, and the germs of dangerous
diseases.
Central America, like Mexico, has three zones of alti-
tude, — tierra caliente (hot land), tierra templada (tem-
perate land), and tierra fria (cold land) (p. 112).
Products. On the lowlands and in the valleys among
the mountains immense quantities of bananas are raised
(Figs. 220, 222). Tobacco and coffee grow on the hill
slopes, and cattle, horses, and hogs are raised. In the
mountains gold and silver are mined (Fig. 225) ; these
are exported to Europe and the United States. The
forests are rich in mahogany.
People. The white people in these countries are of
Spanish descent, and the Spanish language is spoken
almost entirely. In addition to the native Indians there
are many negroes in these countries (Fig. 223). Many
people from the United States have become interested
in developing the coastal lowlands and have gone there
to live. In the interior the Spanish-American homes and
customs still prevail.
WEST INDIES
115
The trade of Central America is now largely with the
United States. The countries border the " American
Mediterranean," and their development is of immediate
interest to the people in North and South' America.
They produce many useful articles and foods which we
i cannot secure in our own country.
Such hot, moist lands are not adapted to very active
work. Nowhere in the world do we find much manu-
fiictui'ing in the tropics. The imports as shown on the
map between pages 117 and 120 indicate clearly that the
people send to the countries in the temperate zones for
cotton goods, machinery, and other articles made in fac-
tories. Wheat cannot be raised in Central America, and
wheat foods and flour must therefore be imported.
Problems and review questions. 1. Name the countries in
Central America. 2. Why is the heavier rainfall on the northeast
of the mountains ? 3. What foreign language should you find
mgst useful in traveling in the countries of Central America ?
4. What kinds of food are exported ? 5. What are the chief
imports ? 6. With what country is most of the trade ? 7. In what
I
Fig. 223. The natives of Guatemala build their houses by first putting up
a few columns made of rough stones plastered together, and then filling the
spaces between with thin sticks of wood. The high, pointed roofs are
thatched with straw. What do these people do for their living ?
j>art is the influence of the United States most clearly shown ?
8. To what part of Central America should you go to see the
S[)anish or Spanish-American type of home and life?
Home work. 1. Kead about volcanoes in a good reference book.
WEST INDIES
The West Indian Islands are arranged in a curve from
tlie peninsula of Yucatan eastward and then southward
to the northern coast of Venezuela. They are the tops
of a young and rugged chain of mountains. The water
about them is 20,000 feet deep in some places ; and if
the sea were withdrawn, there would be, in place of
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Fig. 224. Pineapples are grown very widely in the
western part of Cuba. One crop can be raised each
year, and each plant bears one apple. What other
fruits does Cuba raise ?
the islands, one
of the greatest
systems of moun-
tains to be found
in the world.
Bordering the
shores of Cuba
and Porto Rico,
and in places on
the other islands,
there are coastal
lowlands, but for
the most part the
West Indies are
distinctly moun-
tainous. Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and Porto Rico are called
the Greater Antilles, and the smaller islands which form
the eastern end of the curve are called the Lesser Antilles.
Near them are the Leeward Islands and the Windward
Islands. The Bahamas are a low group of coral islands
north of Cuba. See map between pages 117 and 120.
The West Indies form the northeastern margin of the
"American Mediterranean " and are convenient stopping
places for vessels passing from Europe or the United
States through the Panama Canal to Pacific coast ports.
The passageways between the islands are rapidly be-
coming great thoroughfares for modern traffic, and the
islands prove convenient coaling stations for the various
navies of the world.
Climate. Most of the West Indies lie between the
tropic of Cancer and the equator. The temperatures are
therefore hot during the summer and warm during the
winter. The latitude of these islands brings them into
the belt of the moisture-laden northeast trade winds.
\iiirrieftn Utilua
Fig. 225. These boys are sorting ore at the Rosario mine in Honduras. Thi»
mine is near the capital of Honduras, and has been worked continuously for
thirty years. It has produced millions of dollars' worth of gold and silver.
What are the other important products of Honduras besides its mineral ores ?
116
WEST INDIES
Fig. 326. This is a sugar-cane field in Cuba. The cane grows in single
stalks and when full grown it stands from eight to twelve feet high. As
soon as it ripens, the cane is cut by hand, stripped of its leaves, loaded upon
carts, and hauled to the sugar mills to be crushed
) Publishers' Pboco Service, lae.
Fig. 227. Here the cane is passing up a belt conveyor into the mill, where it
is crushed between great rollers to squeeze out the juice. Then the juice is
crystallized, and the raw sugar is ready for export. Cuba is the world's
largest exporter of sugar. What countries buy Cuba's sugar ?
The southwest, or leeward, sides of the ranges are much
drier than the northeast sides. Where there is abundant
rainfall, tropical vegetation grows luxuriantly, and such
fruits as pineapples, coconuts, and bananas are grown.
Products. On the lowlands bordering the coast there
are large sugar and tobacco plantations. Coffee is also
grown on these islands. The agricultural products are
exchanged for manufactured goods made in the United
States and Europe. See map hehoeen jyages 117 and 120.
The royal palm, which grows luxuriantly in the "West
Indies, is a valuable tree to the native people. It reaches
a height of from 60 to 80 feet and is covered with great
green leaves. A medicine is distilled from the roots, the
trunks are used as timber for building houses and furni-
ture, and the leaves are often used to thatch houses.
The stems of the leaves are made into baskets ; hats
and a certain kind of cloth are woven from the fibers
of the leaves. The seeds are excellent for fattening
hogs, and the bud found at the top of the tree is eaten
as a vegetable.
Kome work. Read about the uses of other kinds of palm trees.
Cuba is the largest of the West Indies, and is an in-
dependent republic. Through the center of the island
is a mountain range, and the plantations are near the
coasts. Habana, the capital and chief city, is located on
an excellent harbor (Fig. 228), and from that port ves-
sels leave for Europe and the United States (Fig. 230).
Santiago also has a good harbor. It is situated on the
south side of the island, near the eastern end. Iron has
been discovered near by, and this is shipped to the
United States.
The chief products of Cuba are sugar (Figs. 226, 227)
and tobacco. Nearly half of the cultivated land is planted
with sugar cane. More tobacco is raised in Cuba than
in any other of the West Indian islands. The tobacco
raised here is grown on the sheltered southern slopes of
the mountain ranges and is valued especially for its fine
flavor. Large numbers of cattle, horses, and mules are
also raised in Cuba. The forests contain valuable supplies
of mahogany and cedar. The cedar is used in the manu-
facture of cigar boxes, which are filled at Habana with
cigars made from the tobacco grown on the island.
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Fig. 228. This is part of the city of Habana as it looks from the Cabanas
fortress. The narrow strait in the foreground leads into the harbor. Habana
is the capital and chief port of Cuba. More merchandise enters and leaves
Habana than any port of the United States except New York. When Cuba
5 PubUshers' Photo Servlco, Ino.
was taken by the United States in 1899, Habana was a dirty, unhealthful
city, because the Spaniards had no care for sanitation. The Americans
cleaned the city thoroughly, and to-day it is a big modern port, with large,
fine buildings, good streets, and excellent docks. Locate Habana on your map
WEST INDIES
117
MAP STUDIES — MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND
THE WEST INDIES (Between Pages 117 and 120)
1. With what countries is the chief commerce of Mexico ?
2. Is Mexico noted for its industrial life or for its mining and
agricultural life ? 3. Wliat climate should we expect to find
in countries whose products include sugar, cotton, bananas,
coffee, and rubber?
4. What climatic factors prevent many of the Mexican
people from being ver}' industrious ? 5. What is the chief
kmd of cloth used by the Mexicans? 6. Why do they not
buy more woolen clothes ? 7. What are the chief mineral
resources of Mexico?
8. What kinds of fuel are found in Mexico ? 9. Name the
two most important seaports. 10. In what kind of region is
the capital of Mexico located, — mountain, plain, or plateau ?
11. Name and locate seven other important cities in the in-
terior of Mexico.
12. From what ports in Central America do great quanti-
ties of bananas come ? 13. What other food supplies come to
the United States from Central America? 14. What Euro-
pean nation possesses land in Central America? 15. What
) Publishers' Phow Service. Inc.
Fig. 229. Here is an oxcart such as many Cubans use on their farms. This
farmer raises sisal hemp, which you can see beyond the oxen. The sisal
looks like a century plant, and its fiber is used to make rope and twine.
It is a cheaper rival of Manila hemp
countries of Central America extend from the Gulf of Mexico
or the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean ? 16. What are the
chief food supplies that we receive from the West Indies?
17. What supplies go from these islands to Europe?
18. Do the people of the West Indies do most of their
own manufacturing, or do they import manufactured goods?
19. Which is the largest of tlie West Indies? 20. Which of
tliese islands belong to the United States ? 21. What other
countries have possessions among these islands?
22. What are the principal seaports of the West Indies?
23. What great ocean current passes betweenCuba and Florida?
24. Wliich side of the islands is the better watered? See map
on page 124. 2.5. What winds bring the rains ?
26. What large city in Pennsylvania is in about the same
longitude as the city of Panama ? 27. What large cities in
the United States are about as far west from Greenwich,
England, as the city of Guatemala? 28. Which is farther
from the equator, — San Juan in Porto Rico or Bombay in
India? 29. What capital city in South America is almost
directly south of New York?
Courtesj of Uia V^a AmeiicftQ tuioa
Fig. 230. Ships from all over the world come to Habana, and as many as
a thousand of them can anchor in the harbor at one time. The docks are
always crowded and busy. The carts in this picture are loaded with Cuban
products for export. Name some of these products
Jamaica is a British possession. Most of the natives
are negroes, but there are some English, some Chinese,
and some Hindus living on the island. The exports
are like those from many of the other tropical countries,
— bananas, coconuts, sugar, and coffee, — and here, as
in other tropical countries, cotton goods and flour must
be imported from the northern countries. Most of the
trade is now with the United States.
Bahamas. About twenty of the islands included in the
Bahama group are inhabited, but there are many more
that are uninhabited. In the waters near the islands
sponges and turtles are obtained. On the land pine-
apples, oranges, and large quantities of the sisal plant,
valuable for fiber, are raised. Some of the pineapples
are canned for export. Many of the native people are
skillful in weaving the sisal fiber and in making
tortoise-shell goods from the shells of the turtles.
£» PublLben' Pliun. Servlc*. Inc.
Fig. 231. This is the main street of Kingston, the capital of Jamaica. In the
distance is the broad, sheltered harbor. Kingston was destroyed by a terrible
earthquake in 1907, but it has been rebuilt and is a busy, prosperous city.
The new buildings are made of steel and concrete. Can you explain why ?
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Scale of statute miles
Scale of kilometers
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120
WEST INDIES
Publiabcra' Photo Service, Inc.
Fig. 232. This is a view of Port au Prince, the capital of the Republic of
Haiti. It is located at the head of a deep bay on the western side of the
island and is the chief port and commercial center of the republic. What
are its exports and imports ?
Haiti. The island of Haiti is divided into two negro
republics. The Dominican Republic, in the east, is a
Spanish-speaking country, with Santo Domingo as its
chief seaport ; the Republic of Haiti, in the west end of
the island, is a Fr^ch-speaking country; Port au Prince
is its chief city and port (Fig. 232). These countries
have suffered much from misgovernment. The principal
occupation of the people in these two republics is agri-
culture. Haiti raises coffee of excellent quality for export.
Other products are cacao, tobacco, and cotton, but none
of them are raised in large enough quantities to be
important commercially.
Home xoork. 1. Find out how sponges are obtained and prepared
for the market. 2. Find out what you can about the Gulf Stream.
TRINIDAD
This island is a British possession located just off the
coast of Venezuela. The moist, warm, tropical climate is
favorable to the growth of sugar, coconuts, and the cacao
tree. The seeds of the cacao tree are used in the prepara-
tion of cocoa and chocolate, and the oil in the seed is
called cocoa butter (Fig. 233).
Trinidad is, however, remarkable for a very unusual
lake. It is a lake of nearly solid asphalt. A crust
(0 Publiihera' Photo Seirice, Inc.
Fig. 233. Trinidad has many cacao plantations. These boys are plantation
bands at work husking cacao pods. They cut open the pods with their long,
sharp knives, and scrape out the seeds, which are allowed to ferment for a
while and are then dried in the sun. What other countries raise cacao ?
Fig. 234. These men are digging asphalt from the great pitch lake on the
island of Trinidad. The lake covers 90 acres and is at least 100 feet deep.
Its surface is covered with a crust of asphalt ; but when this is removed,
the liquid pitch oozes out. Of what use is asphalt ?
forms on the asphalt, which is broken up and shipped to
many countries of the world, where it is tised in paving
streets (Fig. 234).
BERMUDA ISLANDS
This group of low coral islands is located in the Atr
lantic Ocean, about 600 miles southeast from New York.
They are British possessions and are used as a naval
station. Corals grow here in the warm, shallow sea
water on a platform which is probably part of an
ancient volcano cut off a little below sea level by wave
action. The coral skeletons have been broken by the
waves and ground into sands, and at a time when the sea
water was lower, such coral sands were blown into dunes.
The soil of the Bermuda Islands is not very fertile,
but it is used for gardening the year round. Fresh vege-
tables from Bermuda are supplied to the United States
markets during the northern winter season.
These islands are a very attractive winter resort. On
days when the sea is calm one may go out in a glass-
bottomed boat and see the living corals. Their homes
appear like a fairyland, and swimming in and out among
the delicate coral forms there are hundreds of the bril-
liantly colored fish that also like to live in warm waters.
THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA
121
Problems and review questions. 1. If
the sea waters were withdrawn, what
would the West Indies appear to be ?
2. What is the origin of most of the
West Indies ? 3. How were the Bahama
Islands made ? 4. What winds bring
rain to these islands ? 5. What foods
do we secure from the West Indies ?
6. What uses ai-e made of the royal
palm ?
7. Which of the West Indies belong
to the United States ? 8. What Ian
guage is most commonly spoken in these
islands ? 9. What nations now have
possessions among them ? 10. For
what is the island of Trinidad most
famous ?
11. How far are the Bermuda Islands
from New York ? 12. To what country
do they belong ? 13. Of what value are
they to that country ? 14. Why is it
possible to raise vegetables the year
round in the Bermuda Islands ? 15. At
what season of the year should you
most enjoy visiting Bermuda? Why ?
Fig. 235. Telluride, Colorado, is typical of the many pros-
perous mining towns which have grown up in the young,
rugged mountains of western North America because of the
wealth of mineral ores which they contain. Can you describe
the life of the people here ?
THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA
Now that we have traveled into the various portions
of North America and studied the life in each nation,
factories and for making f umitm-e
and many other useful articles.
Alaska, British Columbia, our
western states, Mexico, and Cen-
tral America have all benefited
from the rich stores of gold, cop-
per, silver, lead, zinc, and many
other minerals near the western
margin of the continent (Fig. 235).
The water-power in many parts
of North America suggests great
possibilities for the future.
Farming and grazing lands. All
the lowlands except those in the
extreme northern latitudes are
agricultural lands (Fig. 236). A
nation in the temperate zone,
with a large, well- watered plain
where there are fertile soils, is
fortunate. Both Canada and the
United States have broad ex-
panses of such fertile lands.
Mexico and Central America are less fortunate.
Most of the nations in North America have excellent
pasture lands. The irrigation of semiarid lands is open-
ing up vast areas to settlement and making it possible
LnJsrwoud j( Lti'Ierwciod
we can make a more intelligent study of the continent for the people to raise larger and larger supplies of food.
Life in the Far North. The extreme northern parts of
North America are in the north frigid zone, and most
of the people who live there are Eskimos. Life is very
difficult in this cold region, where food is often scarce
(Fig. 237). These people must depend largely upon game
and fish for their food, but some of them are fortunate
and Mexico, through the great interior of the continent, now in having herds of reindeer, which furnish them
as a whole. This will be in some ways a summary.
Physical features. The map on page 122 shows the
arrangement of the natural regions. All of the old,
worn-down mountains are in the eastern section. In
the west there are young, rugged mountains and high
plateaus. Along the Atlantic coast in the United States
and on a portion of the Arctic coast, there are lowlands.
The Atlantic coast has been depressed. This has
raused islands, deep inlets, bays, and estuaries, and has
ixiven the coast many excellent harbors. North of San
Francisco the Pacific coast has been depressed, and
another series of inlets with harbors has been the result.
Natural resources. In the mountain regions and in
some of the neighboring plains and plateaus of the east-
1 rn part of North America are some of the large sup-
plies of coal, iron, oil, and gas. These resources, with
w ater-power, waterways, and railroads, have made possi-
l)le a gi-eat industrial development near the Atlantic sea-
l)oard. The iron and copper of the Lake Superior region
have played a very important part in the development
of industries in Canada and in the United States. The
coal, oil, gas, lead, and zinc of the Mississippi Valley
liave been immensely valuable. The forests have fur-
nished lumber, which was used for building houses and
with food. In addition the skins of the reindeer are used
by the Eskimos for clothing and for making their huts.
Fig. 236. These men are harvesting oats on one of the lowland plains of the
United States. Why is such a region particularly favorable to agriculture ?
What zone is the most fortunate location for such plains ? Why ? What
North American country has the greatest agricultural possibilities ?
Giiin and Company
THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA
123
Life in the Far South. A part of Mexico, all of Central
America, Panama, and most of the West Indies are in
the torrid zone. The climate here is very hot, except in
the mountainous regions. Food plants grow in abun-
dance, and the inhabitants can make
a living with little effort (Fig. 238).
As a result most of the native people
do not work hard, and the white
people who migrate to these lands
soon learn to take life very easily.
On the windward sides of these lands
the heat and moisture are so exces-
sive as to produce conditions un-
attractive to white people.
Life in the temperate zone. Most of
North America is in the temperate
zone, where the climate is variable.
The cold winters and warm summers
quicken the thoughts and actions of
the people. In this zone it is neces-
sary to provide warm homes and to
store up food for the winter season. This helps to make
the people industrious. The comforts of life are more
readily obtained than in the arctic countries, and yet
life is not so easy that the people become lazy. Work
must be done, but there is time for recreation and
pleasure. The beautiful lakes, the mountains, and the
seashore draw the people away from city homes during
their vacations.
Future. As yet much of North America is not densely
populated, though most parts have been explored. There
are places in the deserts, among the
high mountains, and far to the north
where white men have never been,
but such places will not be needed
until the other lands are much more
crowded. Forests may be cleared
from vast areas, and thus more agri-
cultural lands may be secured. Thou-
sands of acres may yet be brought
under inngation and made attractive
for settlement. More swamp lands
will be drained. With a greater
knowledge of soils and crops a much
larger protluction to the acre will be
secured. More mines will certainly
be opened, larger factories will be
Fig. 237. This Eskimo, wlio lives in the Far
North, is harpooning a seal. Notice his fur cloth-
ing. Contrast his everyday life with that of the
people shown in Fig. 238
Fig. 238. These are natives of the Far South,
where life is easy. They live out of doors most of
the time, and their clothing consists of simple
cotton garments
MAP STUDIES
I. Where are the young, rugged mountains of North
America? 2. What are the chief ranges of young, rugged
mountains? Make a list, beginning at the north. 3. What
are the names of the plateaus between
the western mountain ranges? Make a
hst of the great plateaus, beginning at
the north.' They have hills and moun-
tains rising above the general plateau
level, and in places there are very deep
canyons. See map opposite page 134.
4. Where are the old, worn-down
mountains of North America ? 5. Name
and locate the coastal plains of this
continent. 6. Jjfi what country is the
greater part of the Central Plahis region
located ? 7. Into what countries do the
Great Plains extend? 8. What country
in North America has the most extensive
lowlands ?
9. Why are there so many lakes in the
northern part of the continent? See
Fig. 14. 10. Explain the islands and the
irregular coast of British' Columbia and Alaska.
II. If you were approaching Greenland, what kind of
scenery should you expect to see? 12. What cape in- North
America is nearest to Asia? 13. What land connects North
and South America? 14. Along what part of the Atlantic
coast are there clear signs of sinking of the land ?
15. Where are the best harbors of North America? 16. Be-
ginnmg in Alaska and following around the continent, select
the five largest rivers in North America. Look in the Appen-
dix and see if you have chosen the right ones.
17. What is the longest tributary to the Mississippi River?
See tables in Appendix, 18. Where is
the north magnetic pole?
19. Where is life for the native people
very difficuh? Why? 20. Where is
life for the native people very easy?
Why? 21. Why do white people prefer
the temperate climates ? 22. How may
North America he made more suitable
for an increasing population ?
23. Where are the well-watered farm-
ing lands in North America? 24. Where
has farming been made possible by means
of irrigation ? 25. What cape near
Boston is in about the same longitude
as Cape Horn ? 20. What country in
North America is in about the same
latitude as the Sahara Desert ? Is any
part of that country a desert region ?
kiilt, seaports will be improved and commerce increased. See map opposite paqe 124. 27. What n,ountain peaks in the
Ihe continent offers white people unusual opportunities United States are about as far north of the equator as Mt.
for the advancement of civilization, and with good Vesuvius in Italy ? 28. What point in Alaska is about as
governments these nations should continue to grow in near the north pole as North Cape, Norway ? 29. Through
strength and prosperity. what countries in North America does the arctic circle pass ?
124
COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES
I I Under 10 inches
r~1 10 to 20 "
fTl 20 to 40 ••
40 to 80 '•
^H Over 80
y^/^ Prevailing coast winds
Lanqit\i^€ Wfni 100° /rom Oreftiwieh
Average annual rainfall in North America
COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES
1. What is the annual rainfall on tlie Atlantic and Gulf
Coastal Plain ? 2. Why should the Appalachian Mountains
be covered with forests, in contrast to many of the western
and southwestern mountains ?
3. What is the annual rainfall in the Central Plains ?
4. Why should there be so many rivers in the Central Plains ?
5. What occupations do the geographic conditions in the
Central Plains favor? 6. In going from Lake Michigan to
the Rocky Mountains, what large rivers must be crossed ?
7. Why do the plains become semiarid near the mountains ?
8. What places in the United States seem to be most favor-
able for crossing the mountain area to the Pacific coast ?
9. Which would take you through the drier districts, the
northern route or the southern route ?
10. Why is there so little rainfall in the Great Basin ?
11. Explain the presence of forests among the Rocky Moun-
tains of the United States. 12. What is the average rainfall
along the Pacific coast of British Columbia ? Why is it so
heavy ? The prevailing westerly winds bring moisture to
this coast.
13. When is the rainy season on the Pacific coast ? 14. Why
do the trees not extend to the northern edge of the continent ?
15. Explain the extent of the tundra. 16. Asiatic wolves
have been seen in Alaska. How do you suppose they reached
there? 17. Why are there not more extensive forests in
the interior of Alaska ? 18. Explain the presence of glaciers
Distribution of people in North America
© Ginn and Compsny
in Alaska. 19. Why is the route from Hudson Bay to Europe
open only a few months in the year ? 20. Where is the rain-
fall in Greenland the heaviest ? Why ?
21. Explain the dry condition of the Mexican Plateau.
22. Why should the forests of Central America and the
northern portion of South America be different from those
of our southern states ? 23. What winds bring rain to Central
America and to the West Indies ?
24. The relief and vegetation map represents summer con-
ditions. If a map had been made for the winter, what bodies
of water should have been shown as frozen ? About how far
south should a covering of snow have been shown?
25. Does any part of the United States remain green in
winter ? 26. In what parts do people live out of doors in
winter ? Where are the winter resorts in this continent ?
27. The rainfall is in general heaviest near the coasts.
Explain this.
28. What prevents the moisture-bearing winds from getting
into the northwestern interior ? 29. Which winds would com-
monly have moisture in them, those that start over the ocean
and move toward the land or those that start over the land
and move toward the ocean ? Why ?
30. What parts of North America are too dry for agricul-
ture without irrigation ? 31. Where is the growing season
too short to encourage agriculture ? 32. Why should certain
places have a dense population ? Give examples. 33. Why
should certain places have a sparse population ? Give ex-
amples. 34. Explain each of the areas of dense population.
NORTH
AMERICA
Scale of miles
too 40O , 600
Water less than 500 feet deep
Floating ice
Glacial ice
Tundra
Grasslands
Temperate forests
Tropical forests
Semideserts
'i Deserts and barren mountain
■^ slopes
Fig. 239. The great falls of the Iguassii Riyer, on the boundary between of these falls will be used for industry. When that time conies, Brazil and
Brazil and Argentina, are often called the Niagara of South America. They Argentina will have to make some international agreement about the use
are nearly two miles wide, and their height varies from 208 feet on the of the water, just as the United States and Canada have agreed about
Brazilian side to 176 feet on the Argentine side. Some day the water-power Niagara. Locate these falls on your map. Where does the Iguassu rise ?
SOUTH AMERICA
INTRODUCTION
South America to-day is a land of great opportunities. People. On Plate A in the Appendix find the part of
It is a land with varied resources, with many products South America where Columbus landed, the countries
which the world demands, without a dense population, that the Spanish explored, and where the Portuguese
and with much land awaiting settlement. There are first came to settle. Many of the native peoples of South
rich resources of gold, silver, copper, iron, and nitrate. America are uncivilized as yet, and very few have been
Some coal and oil have been discovered, and more will educated. There are many negroes, especially in the
probably be found. Most of the people there live near tropical countries. They were brought from Africa in
the seacoast, much as people did in North America one the early days of European colonization to work on
hundred and fifty years ago. the sugar plantations of Brazil. The white people are
In order that South America may be fully developed, descended from Europeans, — for the most part from
harbors must be improved, more railroads must be built the Portuguese who first settled Brazil and from the
into the interior, harmful insects must be killed off, Spanish who colonized the rest of South America. In
greater use must be made of the wonderful hard woods the last thirty years thousands of Italians and Germans
of the forests, and more people must go to live there as have emigrated to South America. There are many
miners, farmers, or stock-raisers. people of mixed blood in South America, for some Eirro-
The people of the United States and Europe are be- peaus married the native Indians in the early days of
coming more and more interested in South America, settlement, and in the tropical countries the negro blood
and many are studying Spanish and Portuguese, so that is mixed with the European and Indian. The white
they may understand and trade with the people there.
Trade routes. The eastern ports are about as near to
Europe as they are to New York ; but now that the
Panama Canal has been opened, the western ports are
quickly reached by steamer from our eastern cities.
Plans have been made for a great railroad to go from
the United States through Mexico, Central America,
and South American countries as far as Chile. It will
follow the high plateaus between the ranges of the
Andes. Certain sections of this road have been built.
Turn to Plate B in the Appendix and note the position
of South America, and see how the trade routes connect
South America with all other parts of the world.
people and those of mixed descent have charge of affairs,
and they are rapidly improving the social, political, and
industrial conditions in the different countries.
Governments. South America is a land of ten repub-
lics and three small colonies, British, Dutch, and French
Guiana. The form of government in each of the repub-
lics is somewhat like that of the United States.
Physical features. The natural regions of South
America are arranged like those in North America. See
map on paf/e 120. In the west there are bold, rugged
mountains that are very youthful. Between the moun-
tain ranges there are plateaus, although , they are not
so extensive as the great plateaus of western North
126
^""f, C f^ y^rSoi~ p /^\ i>XHiftude D West from 50° Greenwich E" gf^"„'g|"' 40°
80° Lona'Bitttde 70° West C from 60° GreenJiwich 50
) Giua and Compaay
NATURAL REGIONS
127
• ■a*«'^
■•^?.;>'r'/. ■ . ■ -^y 'Jf-.'^iSS^
CounMj of Um Pad Antri«fta Ubka
Fig. 240. The Strait of Magellan is bordered by high, snow-capped
mountains which descend 'abruptly into the sea, making some of the most
beautiful scenery in South America. The strait is very dangerous for
navigation, and many ships are wrecked here. How should you travel
from New York to Valparaiso?
America. In the east and northeast, just as in North
America, there are areas of old, worn-down mountains ;
and between the mountain regions, extending north and
south for the full length of the
continent, there are lowlands.
The west coast is bold and
rockv like the west coast of North
America. Far to the south the
coast ranges have sunk and now
form an archipelago and irregular
coast, just as the coastal ranges
of British Columbia and Alaska
have sunk and formed groups
of islands and wonderful inlets
(Fig. 240).
Climate. Most of South Amer-
ica is between the tropics of Can-
cer and Capricorn, where there
are hot winters as well as hot
summers. The most densely set-
6. Which continent has the more irregular coast line,
North America or South America? Which has more good
harbors ? 7. What is the general elevation of the plateau of
Bolivia? of the great lowland areas? of the Brazilian and
Guiana highlands ?
8. Between the high mountain ranges of Ecuador and Colom-
bia there are narrow, plateau-like areas too small to show on
the map. 9. Name five of the higher peaks of the Andes Range.
10. Name five of the larger rivers of South America. 11. Give
the names of the three great lowland areas.
12. In which country is the Pampa? 13. Locate on the
map the Iguas.su Fulls (Fig. 239). 14. Where is the highest
lake in the world which is navigable for commercial purposes ?
15. Locate two large deltas and one estuary. 16. Which coast
has the better harbors ?
17. What is the name of the land connecting South America
with North America ? 18. Trace the route of Magellan around
the southern end of this continent. See Appendix, Plate A.
19. Fix in your mind the name of the
southernmost cape in South America.
■•'■.-,^^^*5!!JS'»i
Natural Regions
Andes Mountains. The giant
ranges of the Andes are at the
western margin of the continent.
Many of the peaks rise to 14,000
feet above sea level, and a few to
more than 20,000 feet (Fig. 242).
The highest peaks are volcanoes,
and in the region of the vol-
canoes and throughout most of
the length of these young, rug-
ged mountains, earthquakes are
common (Fig. 243). Volcanoes
and earthquakes are signs of
tied portion, which is progressive and developing rapidly, youth in mountains, and they usually mean that the
is in the temperate zone. No part of the continent except mountains are still growing.
near the tops of the high mountains has a long period of Brazilian Highlands. The Brazilian Highlands are a
frosts. In the equatorial belt the rainfall is heavy, and great forested tableland, from 2000 to 5000 feet high.
Keystone View Co.
Fig. 241. This is the Laguna del Inca, one of the beautiful
lakes high up in the heart of the Andes, on the line of the
Trans-Andean Railway
it is also heavy where winds from over the oceans blow
against mountains or highlands. On the lee side of
mountains there are deserts or semideserts as in northern
Chile, in Peru, and in southern Argentina. See maps on
and opposite page 156.
MAP STUDIES
1. How have the rivers assisted in the exploration of this
continent? 2. Where are the young and rugged mountains
of South America? 3. Give the names and locations of the
old, wom-<lown mountains. 4. Why are the Brazilian High-
lands so different from the Andes?
5. Compare the general distribution of mountains and low-
lands in North and South America. Where are the old and
the young mountains in each continent? Where are the
lowlands of each continent?
The rivers of this region have carved wonderful gorges
Couri«8j o£ Waiit
Fig. 242. The peak of Aconcagua (22,812 feet), on the boundary line between
Argentina and Chile, is the highest mountain in the two Americas. The
Trans-Andean Railway, which crosses the great wall of the Andes not fat
from this point, was completed in 1910
128
NATURAL REGIONS
Lowlands. The great plains of South America are
the largest in the world. Long ago there was a sea
between the Andes on the west and the highlands on
the east. The rivers which flowed down from the moun-
tains into this interior sea carried fine materials, deposit-
ing them on the sea bottom until finally the sea was
filled up and transformed into a broad area of wonderful
lowland plains. Parts of the lowlands are to-day just
about at sea level, and during the rainy seasons the
rivers overflow and flood these areas.
The Orinoco Lowlands in the north are grasslands called
the llanos. Here thousands and thousands of cattle are
Fig. 243. Along the Andes in Ecuador are several snow-capped volcanic
peaks. This is Chimborazo, which rises nearly four miles above the level
of the Pacific Ocean, from which it can be plainly seen. Chimborazo has
not erupted within historic times, and its crater has entirely disappeared
and developed beautiful waterfalls. In some places the
land rises abruptly from the Atlantic coast, and in others
it is bordered by a narrow coastal plain.
The southeast trade winds bring an abundance of rain
to these highlands, and on their slopes there are forests
and large areas of mixed grasses, where horses, cattle,
and mules may graze. In some parts there are rich soils
that yield excellent crops.
Guiana Highlands. The Guiana Highlands are also old,
worn-down moimtains. There is one peak which rises
to over 11,000 feet, but most of the area is only from 3000
to 4000 feet above sea level. These highlands are also
forested, and, like the Brazilian Highlands, are similar
C«urteaj ot U. B. Koorbacb
Fig. 245. Along the Amazon, from its mouth to Iquitos, Peru, are little trad-
ing stations like this. Here the river steamships call on their way upstream
to deliver the manufactured goods which the natives need. On their way
back they stop again to pick up the products of the country for export
raised. During the rainy season much of this country is
under water; the people go about in boats, and their
cattle leave for the hills. The homes near the rivers must
to "the Lauren tian Upland and some parts of the Appa- be built on piles to prevent them from being flooded,
lachian Highlands of North America. There are deep The Amazon Lowlands form a vast, flat plain, most
canyons in the Guiana Highlands. The region is well of which is covered by the most luxm-iant tropical forest
watered and large areas are covered with grass. For in the world. The tree- tops and vines are so thick that
this reason it is used chiefly for the raising of cattle, it is dark, or twilight, in the depths of the forest even
when the sun is shining. The trees re-
main green throughout the year. Even
such trees as shed their leaves in the
fall in the temperate zone keep sending-
out fresh green leaves in this forest.
The constant warmth and moisture help
the trees to grow all the time.
Thousands of strange animals live in
this tropical forest, such as the jaguar,
alligator, anteater, and huge snakes.
The howling monkeys, that have a
leader called a chief howler, live here.
One sixth of all the kinds of birds
Fig. 244. Lake Titicaca, which forms part of the boundary between Peru and Bolivia, is the known in the WOrld have been found
highest body of water in the world which is navigated for commercial purposes. It is one hundred , ■, r nf thpm havp mnst
and forty miles long, and its surface is nearly two and a half miles above sea level. A line of '^^'^^i ^^^ many OI inem Have mobt
steamers runs between the railroad terminals at Puno and Guaqui at opposite ends of the lake brilliant plumage.
NATURAL REGIONS
129
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Fig. 246. Many of the natives of the Amazon Lowlands make a business of
gathering Brazil nuts, which grow on a very tall tropical tree. The men in
this view are washing the nuts and putting them into their boats, in
which they will take them to the nearest Amazon trading station
! U I ■ i,
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Fig. 247. When the river boat calls at the trading station, the Brazil-nut
traders put their crops aboard to be carried down to Belem. There the nuts
are reshipped to other countries. What other products do the Amazon River
boats bring out to Belem from the interior of the continent ?
The great butterfly collections in the museums have
been made largely in the Amazon forest. Insects are
innumerable, and eighteen hundred kinds of fish have
been found in the streams of the lowlands.
The northeast and southeast trades carry much mois-
ture inland from the Atlantic. As they rise to cross the
Andes they are cooled, and they are forced to give up their
moisture on the east side of the ranges. Over eighty
inches of rain falls there each year. The Amazon Low-
lands are near the equator, where there is always a heavy
rainfall and where the air is always very hot. Hot,
damp conditions cause dense tropical forests and make
it almost impossible for white people to live there.
When people go to live in this dense tropical forest,
they find plenty of fish and game to eat, but vegetable
foods are scarce (Fig. 248). A part of the forest must be
cleared away and a garden planted. Little wheat can
be raised here, but the natives make a flour from the
roots of the manioc plant.
Manioc bread is the com-
mon food of the natives in
Guiana and Brazil. The
roots of the manioc plant
are gathered when they are
one or two years old. They
are washed and grated, and
after the moisture is pressed
out, the flour is roasted, and
then it is retuly to be used.
Tapioca is made from this
same plant.
The Parana Lowlands are
farther south and mostly in
the temperate zone. Here
the rainfall is a little less,
Fig. 248. These Brazilian natives have jaat returned from a turtle hunt.
The sand banks of the Amazon and its tributaries are inhabited by great
numbers of turtles, which the natives catch and use for food. From the
eggs they make a butterlike substance which is very popular
and instead of great forests there are extensive grass-
lands, sometimes called savannas. See map opposite
page 156. The Pampa, or great grassland of Argentina,
is within this region. The lands of southern Brazil,
of Uruguay, Paraguay, and Argentina, in the temperate
zone, are best suited to white people.
Problems and review questions. 1. Why do so many people
from Europe and North America want to go to South America ?
2. Name two languages commonly spoken in South America.
3. What European nations have recently sent many settlers to
South America ?
4. Why do most of the people i:i South Amsrica live near the
coast ? See map on page 156. 5. Is it shorter from Rio de Janeiro
to London or to New York? See Aiyperulix, Piute B. 6. What is
the best route from New York to Valparaiso ? 7. Plan out a trip
to South America that you would like to take.
8. In what zone is most of South America located ? 9. In
what zone in South America is the population most progres-
sive ? 10. How many republics are there ? 11. What countries
are not independent ? To what
European nations do they be-
long ? See map on page 126.
12. On what part of South
America did Columbus land ?
13. Name and locate the chief
mountainous regions. 14. Name
and locate the three large low-
land regions. 15. Describe briefly
each of the above regions. Use
the map on page 126 and also
the map opposite jiage 156.
16. Explain the formation of
the islands on the Chilean coast.
17. Locate the Strait of Magellan,
Cape Horn, ahd Punta Arenas,
the southernmost city of the
world. 18. Cape Horn rises 1400
feet above the sea. Is it on the
mainland or on an island ?
130
BRAZIL
Courtesy of.U. B. Rootbaob
Fig. 249. These men are rubber gatherers of the Amazon Valley. Each day
they tap the wild rubber trees and collect the sap. On the rack in front of
them are the brownish-black balls of rubber which have been made by
thickening the sap and curing it over a smoky fire
BRAZIL
Extent. This is one of the largest countries in the
world. In an east-and-west direction it extends as far
as from New York City to San Francisco, and in a north-
and-south direction as far as from the arctic circle to
the Gulf of Mexico. It is larger than continental United
States and contains more than half of all South America.
It touches every other country on the continent except
Chile and Ecuador, and has 6000 miles of seacoast. On
For 250 miles upstream from the mouth this river is
50 miles wide, so that it looks like a broad bay
rather than a river. The main stream and the twenty-
nine large tributaries have 27,000 miles of navigable
waters, which is more than any other river system in
the world. The northeast trades, which blow with
greater force by day than by night, help the sailboats
up the Amazon. The boatmen travel upstream by day,
but when they want to come downstream they travel at
night, so that they will not have the strong wind against
them, and the current will take them along faster. During
the rainy season
the main stream
rises from 20 to
50 feet, over-
flows, and be-
comes a chain of
lakes. The trib-
utaries frequent-
ly overflow their
banks also and
flood the country
near them. This
is the reason why
so many of the
houses near the
rivers are built
the physical map (p. 126), we see that the Brazilian High- on piles.
lands, the Plateau of Central Brazil, and most of the vast
Amazon Lowlands are in this country.
Rivers. The Amazon River is the largest in the
world ; it is not the longest, for the Missouri-Mississippi
River is longer, but it contains more water than any
other river in the world. The amount of fresh water
brought to the mouth of this river is so great that for
more than 100 miles out to sea the water is fresh. The
Amazon is about 4000 miles long, which is 600 miles
more than the distance from New York to Liverpool.
I PubUabera' Pboto Serrioe, Ido.
Fig. 251. In addition to the wild rubber trees,
Brazil has many rubber plantations. This view
shows the way in which the plantation trees are
cut to make them bleed
Fig. 250. This is one of the great coffee plantations which cover the upland districts of Sao Paulo,
where the rich red earth and abundant rainfall provide perfect conditions for the coffee trees. The
plantations often cover thousands of acres. The trees bear clusters of berries which look like dark
red cherries. Inside each berry are two seeds, which are the coffee beans of commerce
Boats may go
up the Madeira,
the largest tribu-
tary, for nearly
500 miles to the lower end of the falls. There is a
railroad from the lower end to the upper end of the
series of falls and rapids, — a distance of about 200
miles, — and farther upstream one may again travel
by boat far into the interior of Bolivia.
People. If the Indians are counted, there are over
twenty million people in Brazil. The
Portuguese claimed this country by
right of discovery. When they came
to South America, they found many
native tribes of Indians. To-day most
of the Indian people live in the interior.
Many of them have house-boats and
live on the rivers part of the time, but
they also have small villages, where
they have cleared away the dense tropi-
cal forests. The population of this re-
public now includes many people from
nearly every European nation, as well
as some from Asia. Most of the white
t ^^D American Cnion
BRAZIL
131
people live in the larger cities
along the eastern coast or
in the farming country of
southern Brazil.
Resources. In the high-
lands gold, copper, lead,
iron, some coal and oil, and
a remarkable number of dia-
monds have been discovered .
The highlands have rich
soils and are well watered.
The Central Plateau is a
great grassland where cattle,
horses, and mules are raised.
The Amazon Lowlands are
overgrown with a tropical
forest where there are thou-
sands of rubber trees. There
are also mahogany, rose-
CoUTtesj of the PftQ American Uoioa
Fig. 252. These are the yards where the coffee seeds are spread out to dry
in the sun after being separated from the pulp of the berries. While drying
they are stirred frequently with wooden rakes. When thoroughly dried, the
seeds are peeled and the beans sorted, graded, and put into bags for shipment
crude rubber which the na-
tive Indian people brought
in from their little camps
in the forest (Figs. 249, 251).
On the southern slopes of
the Guiana Highlands and
on the grasslands south of
the tropical forests grazing
has become the principal
occupation of the people.
In the Brazilian High-
lands near Sao Paulo and Rio
de Janeiro there are wonder-
ful coffee-producing lands,
where four fifths of the
coffee produced in the world
is grown (Figs. 250, 252).
Until a railroad was con-
structed \ip the mountain
wood, ebony, and cacao trees, besides many trees which wall from Santos to Sao Paulo it was very difficult to
yield valuable drugs, and others which yield Brazil nuts get the coffee to the port. Now there is a remarkably
(Figs. 246, 247). The soils of the lowlands are very rich, well-built and well-equipped railroad that climbs 2500
Climate. Most of Brazil is in the lowlands of the feet in a short distance and connects the seaport with
torrid zone. That means high temperatures. We learned the great producing area. More coffee is carried over
on pages 128 and 129 that the rainfall is heavy in the that road than any other road in the world. There are a
Amazon basin and on the eastern slope of the Brazilian few other railroads that start from the coast and, after
Highlands. In the upper basin of the Sao Francisco reaching the highland surface, branch off in several
River, which is shut off from the Atlantic Ocean by directions into the interior.
highlands, there is an area of light rainfall. See map on
page 156. Here irrigation is necessary for agriculture.
South of the tropic of Capricorn the temperatures are
lower than near the equator, and there is less rainfall.
That is a country of excellent grasslands.
Occupations. What have the people who came to
settle in Brazil done with the great natural resources?
Along the lower Amazon River, and on cleared pafrts of
the lowlands near the eastern coast, they established
great plantations of sugar, rice, and tobacco. After a
Mining is becoming important in the Brazilian High-
lands, and some day that industry will be much more
developed. There are immense deposits of high-grade
iron ore in the old, worn-down mountains, which the
world is certain to need. Then more railroads will be
built into the mountains, and, as the mining increases,
it is likely that more ores will be discovered. Prosper-
ous mining camps will undoubtedly be established in
the highland area. The southern part of this region
also contains bituminous coal, but the quality is so
time they learned to go far up the rivers and gather the poor that at the present time it is not worth mining.
Fig. 253. This is Santos, the world's greatest center of coffee export. The
S3o Paulo coffee district is covered by a network of railroads which bring
the coffee to SSo Paulo, whence a single line takes it to Santos. Locate Santos
on the map on page 145. To what countries is the coffee sent ?
Fig. 254. Sao Salvador, the center of Portuguese rule in Brazil in colonial
days, was the leading Brazilian port as long as sugar was the chief export
of the country. Why is it no longer the leading port ? Notice the escalator
which connects the lower (old) city with the upper (new)
132
BRAZIL
Fig. 285. The Marine Depot at Rio stands on one of the many islands near
the entrance to the harbor. Here the harbor master has his headquarters
and can easily oversee the shipping which passes in and out. What are
the chief reasons for the commercial importance of Rio ?
Toward the south, near Paraguay, the land is low and
excellent for farming. Here the people raise a great
deal of yerha mate, which is used
in making a drink which is some-
what like tea.
Home work. In some good reference
book read about the life of the natives who
prepare the crude rubber for market.
Cities. Rio de Janeiro, the capital,
with over a million people, is the
largest city in Brazil and the second
largest in South America. Buenos
Aires is the largest. Rio is located on
the most beautiful harbor in the
world, where the largest vessels may
anchor safely (Figs. 257, 259). This is
a place where the land sank and let
the ocean waters come in. Over a
hundred little islands in the harbor
are hills or low mountains with only
Courte.'j uf the Pan American Vnl^n
Fig. 256. The port of Recife is protected by a
breakwater built on a reef which fringes the shore.
Without the breakwater ships could not anchor at
Recife safely. Explain why
sac Salvador, which used to be known as Bahia, is the
capital of the state of Bahia. Coffee, cacao, and cotton
are the most important products raised in Bahia, and
these products form the chief exports.
Recife, which is the capital of the state of Pemambuco,
is situated on the fertile coastal lowlands of Brazil.
Recife is one of the chief sugar centers in Brazil.
Both Sao Salvador and Recife are important seaports.
See Figs. 254 and 256 and the maj) on jMge 135.
Belem, sometimes called Para, is at the mouth of the
Amazon, about a degree and a half south of the equator.
It is an important rubber port.
From Belem large ocean vessels go up the Amazon to
Mandos. Although situated nearly a thousand miles in-
land, Manaos has become a thriving city with many
modern conveniences. The growth
of Manaos is due partly to its loca-
tion at the junction of the Negro
and Amazon rivers and partly to the
wonderful supply of rubber found in
the neighboring forests.
Home work. Read about the work on a
coffee plantation.
Summary. Without doubt you will
always remember Brazil for its rubber
and its coffee, but do not forget that
Brazil is a large country, that grazing,
farming, and mining are all very
important, and that lumbering has
great possibilities. A start has been
made in manufacturing. There are
cotton mills in Brazil, but they do
their tops out of water. The city of Rio de Janeiro is not produce nearly enough cloth to satisfy the needs of
built on narrow plains between the hills. In the older
part, which is the business district, the streets are narrow.
In the newer part there are wide avenues bordered by
rows of beautiful palms, feathery bamboos, and tree
ferns (Fig. 258). The homes in this part of the city
are modern, and many of them are set in gardens of
flowering tropical plants.
Santos is the port for Sao Paulo, the second largest city
in Brazil. Santos is one of the busiest places in South
America. Over 2000 vessels enter and leave the port
each year, and about 15,000,000 bags of coffee are shipped
annually (Fig. 253).
Sao Paulo is about 2000 feet above the sea and has a
delightful climate. The air is warm during the summer
days but cool at night. In winter there are sometimes
slight frosts. The climate seems to help to produce
vigorous men. There are excellent modern factories,
where electricity and the best of machinery are used.
the people, and so cotton cloth and cotton garments are
© E. M. Neinnmn
Fig. 257. The Bay of Botafogo is part of the harbor of Rio. The avenue
which encircles it was built on made land where there was formerly a man-
grove swamp which caused terrible epidemics of yellow fever in Rio.
Cleaning it out, draining, and filling have freed Rio from the fever
BRAZIL
133
It f •
i.ji
■^ J^
"IBS r .
Cuurte«j ol Um Put AtnehcAD Uoioa
Fig. 258. The Avenida Rio Branco is the finest street in Rio and is the
center of Brazilian art and culture. This view shows, on the left, the
mosaic sidewalk and the Municipal Theatre, and on the right the Conserva-
tory of Music, the National Library, and the Art Museum
imported into nearly every city. If someone should find
more coal or oil, or if the people should use more of the
water-power to make electricity, Brazil nught undertake
more manufacturing.
The waters from the Brazilian Highlands are carried
off by the Uruguay, Parana, and Sao Francisco rivers.
These streams have many falls which offer opportunities
for the development of water-power which should furnish
electricity for cities, factories, and railroads (Fig. 239).
Future. One of the future problems for this large
republic is the building of railroads into the interior.
This work has already been started, and in time it will
be possible to go by
rail from Rio de
Janeiro into any of
the states of Brazil.
The development
of railroads will in
turn soon lead to
the establishment of
cities and to the
spread of population
into the interior.
With the estab-
lishment of inland
cities another prob-
lem must be faced.
The tropical forests
are full of insect
pests and danger-
ous animals, which
must be killed be-
fore people can live
safely in this part
of Brazil. Finally,
through education and the use of scientific knowledge
the spread of tropical diseases must be prevented. When
these things are done, more people will wish to live here
and help to develop the wonderful natural resources.
Problems and review questions. 1. Compare the size of Brazil
witli that of the United States ; with the continent of South
America ; with the contineiit of Europe. 2. Name three large
tributaries of the Amazon River. Which tributary is the largest ?
3. In what country does the Amazon- rise ? 4. How should you go
from Belem, in Brazil, to Sucre in Bolivia ? 5. To what nation did
the early settlers of Brazil belong ? 6. In what part of the country
are they found to-day ? 7. Why have so many jieople from the
nations of Europe come to live in this republic? 8. Where do
most of these people live ? Why ? 9. What is the official language
of Brazil ? 10. How do you explain this ? 11. Name and locate
the capital and four other large cities. 12. What fact should
you associate with each city named ?
13. What are the chief products shipped from each seaport?
14. What should you remember about the Amazon Lowlands ?
15. Which city in Brazil is very near the equator ? 16. What is
the chief export from that city ? 17. What city on the Amazon
River can be reached by large ocean-going vessels ? 18. For what
is the Central Plateau of Brazil valuable ?
19. Why is it difficult to live or to travel in the tropical forest ?
20. What things will help the development of Brazil ? 21. What
country in South America does not border on Brazil ?
Home work. 1. On an outline map of South America color the
boundaries of each country. Print in the names of the countries.
2. Locate and name the capitals. 3. Locate and print in Belem,
Valparaiso, Callao, Guayaquil, Santos, Sao Paulo, Manaos, Rosario,
Sao Salvador, Recife, La Guaira, Santa Marta, Buenaventura,
Punta Arenas, Cdrdoba, Porto Alegre, La Plata, Villa Rica.
(^ <jinu and Cwb)>uij
Fig. 259. This is an aeroplane drawing of the country bordering the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Explain the irregularity of the
coast line here. Why is such a coast line favorable for Rio ? Describe the land surface on which Rio is built. What is the
vegetation here ? See map oppos'te page 156. Why has Rio become a more important port than Belem, Recife, or Sao Salvador?
What are its chief exports and imports ? With what countries does Brazil trade most ? Can you explain your answer ?
134
THE GUIANAS
5^ <J so
136
VENEZUELA
where it furnishes a pleasant contrast to the green of
the abundant foliage which almost surrounds it.
Dutch colony. On the lowlands bordering the coast
there are several low, parallel ridges which indicate old
shore lines. The sea has slowly withdrawn from the
Fig. 261. The docks at Georgetown are always busy. Workmen constantly
come and go, unloading the goods which the foreign ships have brought or
loading them with sugar, rice, and other products. British capital and
energy are making British Guiana more important every year
land and left a number of long marshes. In the marshy
region the people have built dikes, just as they did in
their home country, Holland, to keep out the sea. These
lands, when drained, have wonderfully rich soils, and
great crops of fruit are raised. Far back in the hills
there are mineral deposits. Gold has been found and
mined, but there is a shortage of labor, and raiboads
are greatly needed to help develop the natural resources.
Paramaribo is the chief city of Dutch Guiana and is
located on the coast (Fig. 262).
French colony. Most of the people of this colony live
on the coastal lowlands. In the south, in the highland
portion of the country, there is gold in the stream gravels,
VENEZUELA
The name "Venezuela" means Little Venice. The
country was so named because the houses in the low-
lands, like those of Venice, were built on piles. The
native people who live along the banks of the streams
have their houses built in that way so that they may
occupy them even during the rainy season, when the
river rises and overflows its banks.
In the southeast the country is hilly, and in the north
and northwest there is a portion of the great range of
the Andes.
The southern highlands are known to contain gold,
copper, iron, and coal, in addition to the large supply
of timber. Much of this part has not yet been explored,
as there are no convenient means for reaching the
region.
The climate. The northeast trades that bring so much
rain to the Guianas also bring an abundance of water
to Venezuela. The wet season lasts from about the
middle of April until September, and the rest of the
year is dry. During the dry season there are heavy
dews. The temperature is always warm in the lowlands
and usually cool in the mountains.
The easterly breeze is a great comfort to the people of
Venezuela who live near the coast. Every morning at
about four o'clock this breeze begins to come in from
the sea. Sometimes it is very strong. It sweeps away
the mists that hang over the swamp lands, dries out the
vegetation somewhat, and helps to purify the air. At
about eleven o'clock it suddenly dies away and there
is a very hot period. Almost everybody goes to sleep.
Even the leaves cease to move. Not a sound is heard,
unless some traveler from a northern country is here,
who has not yet learned to keep still during this part
of the day. At about two o'clock the birds are again
and some day placer mining, like that practiced in Cali-
fornia and Alaska, may become an important occupation, heard in the forest, and the leaves begin to rustle ; the
There is a great shortage of labor, and
travel is difficult. The French people
have tried the plan of sending to this
colony convicts who have long terms to
serve in prison, and have arranged to
have them work out of doors. There are
several thousand such men in French
Guiana now, but the amount of work
they do is not very great. Cayenne is
the capital of French Guiana.
Problems and review questions. 1. About
how large are these colonies ? 2. To whom do
they belong ? 3. What kind of climate have ^^ 262. Paramaribo is the capital and chief port of Dutch Guiana. Its spotless white buildings,
they ? 4. Is the climate favorable to white dean streets, and many canals remind one of Holland. The population, however, is made up largely
people ? 5. What are the chief occupations of negroes and laborers from the Dutch East Indies, who work on the sugar, rice, and cacao planta-
of the people ? 6. What have they to sell ? tions. This is because the hot, moist climate makes it very hard for white people to live here
VENEZUELA
137
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Fig. 263. The railroad between La Guaira and Caracas has to climb 3000 feet
from the port to the capital. The straight distance is only 8 miles, but the
railroad zigzags up the slopes of the mountain range, covering 23 miles.
A British company constructed this railroad and still owns it
breeze is starting, and it will continue to blow during
the rest of the afternoon, and even until sunset.
At La Guaira, the chief seaport, the air is moist and
very warna, but at Caracas, the capital, the climate is cool
and pleasant (Fig. 265). The temperature at Caracas
seldom rises above 85 degrees or falls below 60 degrees.
There is not a stove, nor a fireplace, nor a chimney in
the town. The cooking is done in out-of-door ovens.
Occupations. Most of the white people of Venezuela
live in the mountain area in the north (Figs. 263, 264).
This is because the hot, moist lowlands, like those in the
Guianas, are unattractive to white people. Between the
ranges in the north, in a broad, valley-like belt from
70 to 100 miles wide, coffee, cacao, and sugar are raised.
These products are exported in large quantities to the
United States and Europe.
The lowland valley of the Orinoco is an excellent
pasture land, on which great herds of cattle graze. The
cattle must often be driven long distances to reach points
on the river for shipment. Here they may wait for days
for a boat. Better shipping conditions are needed in
order to make the most of these pastures.
Large steamers go for 260 miles up the Orinoco, and
there, at the head of tidewater, is the city of Ciudad
Bolivar. In certain of the tributaries of the Orinoco vast
numbers of turtles live, and each year the natives collect
thousands of turtle eggs, from which they extract an
oil. The shells of the turtles are often used as dishes
in the houses of the natives.
Although the mountains contain coal, iron, copper,
.silver, gold, and other minerals, as yet there is little
mining. Some gold is produced and exported. Along
the coasts there are valuable pearl fisheries.
Future. Some day railroads will be built far into the
interior of Venezuela, and then it will be possible to
© I>ubliali«r8' Pbttlo SoiTk«. Inc.
Fig. 264. The railroad carries the passengers and express freight, but the
pack-train donkeys are used to carry the slow freight. Here is a group of
them, heavily laden, plodding along the road from La Guaira to Caracas,
a distance of 25 miles. Why are the donkeys used for this purpose?
bring the cattle and other products more quickly to
the seaports. Farming may also become important, and
thus this country may be much more prosperous. Some
think that Venezuela is more promising than any other
country of equal area in South America. As yet there
are too few white people in the country, and the Indians
and black people are lazy. This country is within such
easy reach by water from the United States that many
people in North America will probably take part in the
development of its natural resources.
Problems and review questions. 1. "What winds bring mois-
ture to Venezuela and to the Guianas ? 2. Could these winds
have helped Columbus to discover America and reach the mouth
of the Orinoco? 3. What kind of ships did he have? 4. Where
do most of the white people of Venezuela live ? 5. What do
they raise to sell ? 6. Of what value are the great Orinoco Low-
lands ? 7. What does this country need in order to develop its re-
sources ? 8. With what disadvantages must the people contend ?
S?^
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Fig. 265. This is tlie paUu, ui open court, of the capitol at Caracas. The
Capitol is a large building, divided by the patio into two parts. One part
is occupied by the president, and the other is used for the meetings and
business of the legislature
138
COLOMBIA
COLOMBIA
Colombia is fortunate in having an Atlantic and a
Pacific coast line. It is one of the countries that should
be greatly benefited by the opening of the Panama Canal.
Vaitntoodt Undenruud
Fig. 266. Colombia has very few railroads, and the Magdalena River is
the great commercial highway through the country. The flat-bottomed
boats which are used on the river burn wood for fuel and are propelled
by a great stern wheel. Whenever they need wood, they load it from one
of the many wood stations along the river
Vessels may now easily reach either shore or go from
Colombian ports directly to other Atlantic or Pacific ports.
Natural regions. On the coastal lowlands in the north
there are dense jungles. In places these have been cleared
for plantations of sugar cane and cacao. Farther south
along the western portion of the country are the moun-
tains and plateaus, where the climate is cool and delightr
ful. Nearly all the cities and towns are located in the
higher part, and most of the people live and work there.
The eastern slopes of the Andes and the great eastern
lowland area of Colombia are as yet little known.
To reach the plateau district among the mountains one
must sail up the Magdalena Eiver (Fig. 266). Rapids
prevent the boats from going more than 600 miles, so
after four or five days' travel one must change and go
by rail around the rapids, and then return to the river
in order to go farther into the interior.
Cities. A railroad climbs to the plateau where Bogota,
the capital of Colombia, is located. This city is between
8000 and 9000 feet above sea level, and, like many other
South American cities, is built in a fashion similar to
those of Spain. The houses stand on either side of the
narrow streets. They have no front yards, but are built
around private gardens, or patios, which are hidden from
the street. The walls of the houses are so thick that they
keep out the sun's heat, and most of the buildings are
only one story high.
Puerto Colombia (the port for Barranquilla) and Santa
Malta are the chief seaports on the Caribbean Sea, and
Buenaventura is the chief Pacific port.
Resources. Colombia is a land which produces coffee^
gold, silver, bananas, and hides. A great deal of platinim
is also mined for export ; in fact, Colombia produces more
platinum than any other country in the world (Fig. 267).
More emeralds are found in the mountains of Colombia
than in any other country.
The forests on the east slopes of the Andes contain
thousands of rubber trees and undoubtedly many other
valuable trees.
Future. The rich soils, the mineral resources (which
as yet have been little developed), and the forests, all
point to this country as another region where progress
will be rapid as soon as more railroads and more capital
are provided.
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief exports
from Colombia ? 2. In what part of the country do most of the
people live ? 3. Is this a warm or a cold country ? 4. What does
this country chiefly need in order to make possible greater develop-
ment ? 6. Where is the capital ? 6. How is the capital reached ?
7. How may the Panama Canal benefit Colombia ?
ECUADOR
Land of the equator. This is a small country on the
equator, famous for its panama hats, for its cacao, and
for the vegetable ivory from which most of our buttons
are made. It is a land of volcanoes and has almost
every variety of climate.
Natural regions. Ecuador is easily divided into three
parts: (1) the Pacific slope, where there is some flat
land and a coastal range of old, worn-down mountains ;
(2) the high mountains and plateaus ; and (3) the eastern
slope, where some of the headwaters of the Amazon rise.
The eastern slope passes into the great Amazon Low-
lands and is covered with a dense forest growth. The
Courtesy of the Pan American Union
Fig. 267. This is a new platinum-mining town near the Pacific coast of
Colombia. Here the platinum grains are washed out of the sands brought
down from the mountains by the rivers. What other mineral resources
has Colombia ? In what countries does Colombia find a market for its
mineral products ?
ECUADOR
139
western slope also has forests, and it is an excellent
grazing countrj' for cattle (Fig. 268).
Climate. If we were in Ecuador and at sea level, we
sliould find it very hot all the time and with enough
rain for agriculture. If we went up to an elevation of
one mile above sea level, the temperature and vegetation
would change as much as if we traveled 1500 miles north
or south. If we climbed to a height of two miles, the
change in temperature and vegetation would be about
the same as if we traveled 2500 miles north or south.
If we climbed from sea level to the tops of the highest
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Fig. 268. Here is one of the comfortable estancias, or ranch homes, in
the lowland region north of Guayaquil. The head of the family raises
cattle, and all, even the women and children, ride about the country on
horseback. Why can the products of every climate in the world be grown
somewhere in Ecuador ?
mountains in Ecuador, it would be somewhat like
traveling from the torrid to a frigid zone. The different
altitudes explain the variety in climate and vegetation.
Resources. On the Pacific Lowlands there are rich
soils, and wonderful crops of sugar and cacao beans are
raised. The toquilla plant grows here and fmniishes the
straw used in the manufacture of panama hats. Here
also grows the plant that yields the vegetable ivory
(Fig. 2tj9). The native people make great use of the
century plant. The broad leaves are used for paper and
for thatching huts. The sirup obtained from the leaves
is used in making soap. The fibers of the leaves and the
roots are woven into sandals and sacks, and the sharp
spines are used for needles. In the mountains there are
mineral resources yet to be developed.
Cities. Guayaquil is the only seaport of Ecuador.
The people in this city have recently learned a wonder-
ful lesson in sanitation from the work that was done in
the Panama Canal Zone. They have cleared away old
buildings, put in sewers, paved their streets, and exter-
minated many of the insect pests, thus making their
city much more healthful.
From Guayaquil there is a railroad into the plateau
district. At 9000 feet above sea level and almost at the
equator is Quito, the capital of Ecuador (Fig. 270).
Courtwj of ttie Pmn Ameiicui Untua
Fig. 269. The tagua palm, which grows abundantly in Ecuador, has nuts so
hard and white that they are commonly called ivory nuts. Ecuador exports
millions of pounds of them every year, to be made into buttons. This view
shows the great round burrs in which the nuts are inclosed
Future. Ecuador has been slow to develop its
resources. We may expect mining to be increased, rail-
roads to be constructed, the rubber trees in the forests
of the eastern slope to be tapped, and many more
plantations to be established in the narrow plateau belt
between the lofty ranges of the Andes. The climate,
especially on the lowlands, is not favorable to hard
work, and as yet there are too few white people in
Ecuador to make it progressive.
Problems and review questions. 1. State five interesting and
important facts about Ecuador. 2. How can you explain tlie
backwardness of the country ? 3. What is the capital ? 4. AYhat
is the one seaport ? 5. What portion of the country is most
attractive to white people ? 6. Explain the presence of gla-
ciers in Ecuador. 7. What are the chief exports ? the chief
imports ? 8. What is the meaning of the Spanish word ecuador ?
C'>uMe.y ul tt). fin Am.rlcwi Vw
Fig. 270. This is the main plaza, or square, in Quito, the capital of Ecuador.
Around it are grouped the public buildings, of typical South American archi-
tecture. Quito is nearer the equator than any other national capital, yet it
has a delightfully temperate climate. Can you explain this ?
140
PERU
£. M. Newmiin
Fig. 271. This is one of the plateau towns of southern Peru, situated on
the high, level land between the mountains. The land is used for raising
grain, and this view shows the mud walls, often five or six feet high, which
separate the fields. Can you explain the climate here ?
PERU
Much of our interest in Peru comes from the stories of
Spanish explorers, or from the history of the wonderful
Inca civilization. The Incas were the rulers of the native
Fig. 272. Paita has a fine sheltered harbor and is one of the ports at which
steamers from Panama call, on their way down the South American coast.
The houses of Paita are made of split bamboo, sometimes covered with
plaster. Why is this material used ? Locate Paita on your map
the Pacific Ocean. Such winds become warmer and collect
moisture instead of giving it up, so the long western
seacoast of Peru is a desert. The rainfall in a year is
usually less than five inches. In some places rain comes
only about once in seven years. See map opposite jjage 156.
Indian people who lived in the high plateau portions of Narrow strips of the coastal lowland are watered by
Peru and Bolivia when the Spaniards first visited these
countries (Figs. 274, 276).
When the Spaniards came to Peru, they found that
the Inca people had vast quantities of gold and silver
which were used to ornament their temples and public
buildings. This led the invaders, who had a great
advantage because of their firearms, to conquer the
Incas and take the treasures of gold and silver back to
Spain. For many years the Spanish people controlled
this country, but in 1821, at about the same time that
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia secured their
freedom, the Peruvians also obtained
independence and founded a republic.
The natural regions of Peru are
(1) a desert strip along the coast;
(2) a high plateau with lofty moun-
tain ranges, known to the natives
as the sierra (Fig. 271); and (3) the
eastern slope and lowland, known as
the montana. Peru is in the earth-
quake belt, and all the houses are built
low and very strong, so that they
may not be shaken down. When
young, rugged mountains grow, little
but sudden slips of a few inches, or at
most a few feet, take place along great
cracks, or fissures, in the earth, and
these movements shake the earth.
The dry coastal belt is on the lee-
ward side of the high mountains. After
.the southeast trades have crossed the
Andes, they begin their descent toward
Fig. 273. These are Indian workeii planting
sugar cane in one of the irrigated valleys of
the coastal region of Peru. How is the water
obtained for irrigation in this arid region ?
streams from the mountains, and near these streams
there are settlements where irrigation is practiced
(Fig. 273).
Cities in the coastal belt. Callao and MoUendo are the
chief seaports of Peru. See map on page 135. Callao is
the port for Lima, for the central portion of the coastal
belt, and for much of the plateau country. MoUendo
serves the southern portion of the Peruvian plateau
and the plateau of Bolivia. Both of these ports are
connected by rail with the high lands of the interior.
Paita (Fig. 272) is the city from which the petroleum
of northern Peru is exported.
Inland, but still on the Pacific
slope, is Lima, the capital of Peru ; it
is located on a river and has a good
supply of water. In colonial days
this city was the center of Spanish
authority in South America and was
the home of many wealthy and well-
educated people.
Arequipa, the second city of Peru,
is 6000 feet above sea level, and there-
fore has a cool climate. Like Lima,
it is situated on the banks of a small
mountain stream which provides
power for a number of cotton and flour
mills and a few chocolate factories.
They are smaller than the mills and
factories in the United States, but
have modern machinery. On Mount
Misti, near Arequipa, is located a
famous astronomical observatory.
PERU
141
The ascent to the plateau. The railroad that runs
from Lima to the plateau is one of the highest in the
world. When it reaches the great western range of the
Andes, it climbs to an elevation of 16,000 feet and then
passes through to the other side in a tunnel. Most
people cannot go quickly to such great altitudes without
becoming sick. The higher air is thinner than the air
near sea level, so each breath taken in has less oxygen
than a breath taken at a low altitude. To avoid sick-
ness and fainting, passengers are supplied with tanks of
pure oxygen, from which they breathe in the oxygen
through rubber tubes.
The mountain and plateau region. Most of the people
of Peru are in the high mountain and plateau region
(Fig. 271). There, where the Incas led their strange and
marvelous life, the Peruvians of to-day have made their
greatest progress. Mining has been developed on a large
scale in the plateau region. Copper, silver, tin, and gold
have been found, and there is coal near by. To-day
copper is the most
important of the min-
eral products of Peru
(Fig. 275). Cerro de Pasco,
at an elevation of over
14,000 feet, is one of the
greatest mining camps
in the world.
Cuzco was once a large
city. It is located in
one of the high valleys
in the plateau, and was
the chief city of the
Incas. They obtained
gold from the mines
and stream gravels of
the region, but there is
much less gold-mining
there now.
Grazing. In the pla-
teau region grazing is
next to mining in
importance. The chief
domestic animals are
the llamas and the alpacas, which wander about on
the plateau and on the mountain slopes to the east and
west. The owners of the flocks have great estates that
are called haciendas. The native people serve as herders
and laborers for the owners of the large estates.
The llama (Fig. 279) is really a species of camel, and
stands about 4 feet 6 or 8 inches high. The males are
trained to carry burdens. They will carry about
100 pounds, but if more is put on their- backs they
v.. M. Newmu
Fig. 274. This old water-carrier of Cuzco
ia a descendant of the great Indian race
which, under the Incas, controlled all
Peru before the Spanish conquest
Fig. 275. This is a great copper-smelting plant on the high plateau of
Peru. It is 14,000 feet above sea level and is reached by a railway from
the coast. Where is the copper sent from here ? What other metal ores are
found in Peru ? Why is copper the most important ?
will lie down, and no power on earth will move them
until the extra load is taken off. They travel from
10 to 12 miles a day. They must be allowed to feed
before night comes, because they will not graze when
it is dark. They always walk slowly, gazing on every
side and holding their long necks arched. The Indian
masters become very fond of them and treat them
kindly. Their hair is used to make cloth.
The llama is often spoken of as the most useful animal
in South America. It is to the native what the reindeer
is to the Eskimo, the camel to the inhabitants of great
deserts, and the yak to the people of the high plateau
of Tibet. The alpaca and the llama are both domesti-
cated forms of the wild guanaco. Here in South
America the guanaco lives in the high mountains and
among the foothills east of the southern Andes, and is
hunted as wild game, but the alpaca and llama Uve with
the people just as our sheep and cattle do. This is a
very surprising fact, for most of our domesticated animals
are descended from wild breeds that disappeared long ago.
The alpaca is smaller than the llama, standing a
little over 3 feet high. The fleece of the alpaca is white
or black, and it is beautiful, soft, and very long.
Another wool-bearing animal of Peru is the vicuna.
This animal, like the llama, alpaca, and guanaco, belongs
to the camel family. The vicuna runs wild at high alti-
tudes; in fact, it is not found below an elevation of
13,000 feet. In its habits the vicuna resembles the wild
guanaco. It is small and fleet-footed and lives in herds.
Because the vicuna lives so high up in the mountains, it
has not been domesticated, and for this reason the supply
of wool obtained from this animal is scanty.
Home work. 1. Look up the history of the Incas. 2. Read and
report about the llamas, alpacas, vicufias, and guanacos.
142
BOLIVIA
Fig. 276. This is part of an old Inca palace on Xiticaca Island. It was
built nearly a thousand years ago^by the first Inca. The huge stone blocks
were hewn and set without any machinery, and they fit so exactly that
it is hardly possible to get a knife blade between them
The eastern slope of the Andes. This region of Peru
consists of the lower slopes and foothills on the eastern
side of the Andes. Here the rainfall is very heavy, and
there is a dense tropical forest like that near the Amazon
River in Brazil. The forest is wonderfully rich- in rubber
and hard woods. Rubber is being exported from Iquitos,
which is nearly 3000 miles from the mouth of the Amazon
and at the head of navigation for ocean-going vessels.
Wild native people live in the forests, but the few whites
who live in eastern Peru stay near the towns which are
located on the banks of the rivers.
Future. Peru has been much more prosperous in the
past than it is to-day. In 1884, as the result of an un-
fortunate war, Peru lost to Chile the southern part of
her country, where there were rich deposits of nitrate.
In that transfer Peru lost the greatest source of her
prosperity. There remained, however, the rich metal
ores of the high plateau region, which have always been
mined extensively. Peru will undoubtedly continue to
be an important mining district. Grazing may be still
further developed, and the great forests of the eastern
slope should some day be of much greater value to the
people than they are to-day.
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the three natural
regions of Peru ? 2. What are the rainfall conditions in each
region ? See map on page 156. 3. Explain the scanty rainfall in
tlie coastal belt. 4. Where do most of the people live ? Why ?
What do they do ? 5. What are the chief products for export ?
6. What do the Peruvians import ? 7. From what countries do
the imports come ? 8. Why is Peru not a manufacturing country ?
9. Name the capital and chief seaports. 10. What route should
you follow from New York to Callao ? to Iquitos ? 11. How
should you travel from Lima to Rio de Janeiro ? 12. What kind
of business might take you to Cerro de Pasco ? 13. Why might
you like to visit Cuzco ? 14. Of what value is the llama to the
Peruvians ? 15. Of what value is the alpaca to the Peruvians ?
Fig. 277. These boys are poling their balsas on Lake Titicaca. The boats
are made of rush straw plaited and tied together, and are often fitted with
straw sails. Before the steamer line was established on the lake, all trans-
portation was by balsa. Why are the boats not made of wood ?
BOLIVIA
About half of Bolivia is a high plateau surrounded by
lofty mountains ; here Lake Titicaca is located (Figs. 244,
277). The other half of Bolivia is a lowland. See 77iap on
jjage 135. The plateau is between 12,000 and 13,000 feet
above sea level, and in elevation it is second only to the
great plateau of Tibet.
Bolivia is now one of the two countries in South
America without any coast line. The coastal portion of
Bolivia was taken by Chile after a war in which Chile
defeated Bolivia and Peru.
Life in the high plateau. In the mountains great
supplies of gold, silver, tin, and copper have been found.
Bolivia ranks second in the world in the production of
tin, the Straits Settlements, in the region of the Malay
Archipelago, being first (Fig. 278). See Appendix, Plate B.
Most of the tin from Bolivia is shipped by way of the
Panama Canal to New Jersey.
The people who live on the plateau use Mollendo in
Peru and Antofagasta in Chile for their seaports. These
Fig. 278. The dry, barren highlands of Bolivia are very rich iu minerals,
and mining is the principal industry. This is one of the tin-mining centers.
In late years tin has replaced silver as the chief export of Bolivia. How
is the ore taken to the coast ? To what countries is it exported ?
BOLIVIA
143
coast cities are connected by railroads with the largest
settlements ou the Bolivian Plateau.
In some parts of the high plateau there are small
farms where wheat, com, barley, and potatoes are raised.
Irrigation is usually necessary. Many of the people who
live on the plateau care for sheep, llamas, alpacas, and
I goats (Fig. 279).
There is very little wood on the plateau, either for
building material or for fuel. The houses are therefore
made of stone or mud. The people use out-of-door ovens,
where they burn brush, cacti, and moss. They plan to
bake once a week. If someone should discover coal in or
near Bolivia, it would be a great help to the people.
Eastern lowlands. The larger part of Bolivia lies to
the east of the crest of the Andes. This section of the
country is a great lowland area which merges with the
Amazon Lowlands in the north, and which extends
south to the plains of Paraguay and Argentina.
The northern part of this lowland area has developed
faster than the southern part. Here are forests of
rubber trees and many varieties of tropical hard woods.
Besides the forest lands there are great areas of rich
agricultural lands. Coffee and cacao are the chief prod-
ucts. This part of Bolivia has access to the Atlantic
Ocean by way of the Amazon River. By using the rail-
road which has been built around the Madeira Falls,
connection can be made with the Amazon, and thus
) E. M. .Nfwiaan
Fig. 280. This view of La Paz shows its location in a deep pocket between
the mountains. In the background is snow-capped Illimani, one of the
highest Andean peaks. Locate La Paz on your map. What is the climate
here ? Why is La Paz better suited to be the capital of Bolivia than Sucre ?
railroads must be built from the river port of Asunci6n
in Paraguay to points in eastern Bolivia, or, better still,
direct from Rosario or Buenos Aires in Argentina.
Cities. Potosi is one of the principal mining centers
for both silver and tin. The city is located so high that
the air there is always cool, or even cold. Oruro is an-
other mining city on the plateau and the terminus of
one of the railroads. Sucre is the legal capital of Bolivia,
but La Paz, which has a railroad connection and is an
important business center, is used as the seat of govem-
cargoes of rubber can be transported down the river ment. La Paz is the largest city of Bolivia and is two
to Belem. and one half miles above sea level (Fig. 280).
The southern part of Bolivia, a region of great rolling Future. The future of Bolivia is somewhat uncertain,
plains, has as yet no means of communication with the About half the population is Indian, and native Indians
outside world. Before much progress is possible here.
Fig. 279. Oraxing is important on the high pl&teaus of Bolivia and Peru. Here is a flock of young
alpacas and, in the center, one white llama. They are grazing on a treeless upland pasture 1S,000
feet above the sea. The alpacas are raised for their soft, thick wool, which is used to make the
finest woolen fabrics. The male llamas are beasts of burden in this part of South America
are the only people there who can work at high altitudes.
There is a scarcity of labor. The mines
might well be further developed, for
in mineral resources Bolivia is very
wealthy. The lack of a seaport is an-
other great disadvantage, and the lack
of railroads to the east is holding back
development.
Problems and review questions. 1. Divide
Bolivia into two natural regions. 2. Which of
these regions has most of the people to-day ?
3. What are the chief occupations ? 4. What
seaports Serve Bolivia ? 5. Name the largest
lake in South America. 6. Why should there
be little rainfall on the plateau?
7. With little rain falling on the plateau,
how do you account for the large lake there ?
8. What would help Bolivia most to increase
its po{)ulation and promote industries ?
9. Name the official capital of Bolivia.
10. Where are the government meetings
held ? 11. Name an important mining city
in Bolivia.
144
CHILE
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146
CHILE
Fig. 283. This is Taltal, one of the nitrate ports of Chile. The coast is
rugged, barren, and forbidding, and the nitrate export is the only reason
for the location of a city at this point. What are the other nitrate ports?
Why is there so large a demand for Chilean nitrate ?
east of the mountains in southern Argentina is dry. The
dry belt in South America crosses the mountains in cen-
tral Chile, passing from the west coast to the east. See
maps on and opposite page 156.
A remarkable resource. The most valuable natural
resource of Chile is found in the desert at the north.
It is a nitrate of soda which is used in almost all the
countries of the world to fertilize soils. This resource
has made Chile rich and famous. Railroads have been
built into the desert, and hundreds of men are at Avork
producing nitrate for market. Everything they use
must be brought in. All the building material for their
houses and the mining plants, all the food, and all the
water are brought from a distance. Sometimes the water
must be brought more than a hundred miles to supply
the men and horses and to use at the nitrate works.
The nitrate is found in the earth. Great lumps of this
mineral are dug out of the ground and placed in tanks
of hot water (Figs. 281, 282). The nitrate is dissolved,
and later the water, with the nitrate in it, is allowed
to cool, and the pure nitrate comes out. It looks a good
Courtesy (.f til'- i' !!■ Air t n. .ui Lulun
Fig. 285. This is a small seaport town south of
Valparaiso. The farmers of the surrounding agri-
cultural country bring their products into town
on the backs of sturdy little donkeys
& JLIftwiaMi
Fig. 284. The man at the plow is a Chilean farmer of the central valley.
He makes a good living on his little farm, and provides a comfortable home
for his wife and children. What products does he raise ? In what months
of the year are his planting and harvesting seasons ?
deal like coarse salt. It is then put into bags and sent
off to one of the seaports to be loaded on vessels and
taken to various parts of the world (Fig. 283).
Now that we understand that water will dissolve the
nitrate of soda, we can understand why the Chilean
people do not want it to rain in the Atacama Desejrt.
If rain fell abundantly, the water would sink into the
ground, dissolve this valuable mineral, and little by little
take it away . to
the ocean. It is
because of the
exceedingly dry
condition of the
soil that these de-
posits have been
left here.
Almost all the
world's supply of
nitrate is pro-
duced in the Ata-
cama Desert of
northern Chile.
The government
places a heavy
tax on all of the product that is sent out of the country.
Because of these export taxes the Chilean people have
very few other taxes to pay.
In addition to the great natural resource of nitrate of
soda the Chilean people have discovered large deposits of
copper ; they have also extensive forests and some rich
soils in the valley belt. Nitrate mining is, however, the
chief occupation.
Life in the central valley of Chile. The central valley
of Chile is from 600 to 700 miles long, and is very much
like the rich valley of California. Here the people have
made a good start at farming (Fig. 284). Many tropical
fruits and some sugar cane, cotton, and rice are raised,
and this valley is becoming famous for its vines and the
wines that are made from the grapes. Wheat and corn
are also raised here. The forests yield timber, and lumber
is an important product of export.
Cities. Santiago, the capital of Chile, is situated 1800
feet above sea level. It is a very attractive city with
a delightful climate, beautiful parks, and a rapidly
growing industrial life. In Santiago, as in other South
American cities, almost no chimneys are seen, but be-
cause of its high elevation more and more of the people
are having heating plants put into their homes.
There are no good harbors on the Chilean coast, but
at very great expense improvements are being made
offshore at Valparaiso, so that vessels may anchor and
unload cargoes into small boats (Fig. 287).
CHILE
147
The journey from Valparaiso to New York, a distance
of about 4600 miles by way of the Panama Canal, now
takes two weeks. The route is very near to a north-and-
south line. The distance fiom Valparaiso eastward across
the Andes to Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, is
900 miles. The journey was formerly a very difficult one,
and rather than cross the high mountains most travelers
went around Cape Horn or through the Strait of Magellan.
To-day there is a railroad connecting the two cities, with
excellent modern equipment for the passenger trains.
Punta Arenas, a Chilean port on the Strait of Magellan,
and the southernmost city in the world, ships wool, hides,
whale oil, and furs to Europe and the United States. It
is a coaling station, and has shops where repairs may be
made for steam
vessels.
Summary. The
present prosper-
ous condition of
Chile is largely
due to its one
great natural re-
source from the
Desert of Ata-
cama. This one
resource affords
employment for
a large number of
people in Chile.
Some of them
are engaged in
mining the ni-
trate, others in
preparing it for
market, and still
others serve as
carriers and take
provisions and water to the workers in the mines.
Chile is mining and exporting the nitrate at an ex-
travagant rate. Although it has been estimated that the
present supply is sufficient to last from thirty to one
hundred years longer, the day will come when the nitrate
deposits will be exhausted. Then Chile must depend
upon other resources for its prosperity.
Because Chile extends so far north and south, it is a
land of many and varied resources. In the Central Valley
farming has already been well established, and the value
of the agricultural products is increasing each year.
Many cattle, sheep, and goats graze on the fertile grass-
lands, and the people who are not engaged in tilling the
soil are occupied in stock-raising. One of the greatest
future resources of southern Chile lies in the rich forest
Fig. 286. This is the " Christ of the Andes," the
great statue erected on the boundary line between
Argentina and Chile as a pledge of everlasting
peace between the two nations
Courw.j i>f (Le Fat
Fig. 287. The harbor of Valparaiso is open to the north and west,
and heavy gales often make anchorage very dangerous. Therefore the
government is planning to build a great breakwater and to improve the
harbor in other ways. What are the exports and imports of Valparaiso ?
With what countries does Chile trade most ?
lands which have as yet been little used. The discovery
of coal and the presence of water-power may lead to the
development of manufacturing. If that happens, Chile
may become, like the New England region, an industrial
district, and her manufactured goods may be sold in
Argentina, a great agricultural country, or in Peru, a
great mining country.
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief occupa-
tions of the Chilean people ? 2. What is their chief seaport ?
their capital ? 3. Why is the northern part of the coast dry and
the southern part wet ? 4. Explain why the Chilean people do
not want it to rain in the Atacama Desert.
5. Why should they develop farming and manufacturing ?
6. What advantages has Chile for promoting manufacturing in-
dustries ? 7. Where could Chile expect to sell manufactured
gootls ? 8. Describe the routes of travel from Valparaiso to Buenos
Aires ; from Valparaiso to New York.
9. Why was Valparaiso so named? 10. Describe the process of
nitrate mining. 11. Why does Chile put a tax on all its nitrate
exports ? 12. What other mineral is found in Chile ? 13. What
effect has the Panama Canal had on the trade of this country ?
E^Sb^iEifikiAiiiiihiiEBHi
1 — ■ ', ,
Fig. 288. This is the main plaza of Santiago, laid out by the founder of
the city in 1S43. Santiago is situated in a beautiful valley where semi-
tropical plants and trees grow in great abundance. East of the city rises
the snow-capped wall of the Andes, separating Chile from Argentina
148
ARGENTINA
Courtegjr of Walter S. Toner
Fig. 289. The Argentine Pampa is a vast, unbroken expanse of level plain,
covered, except in the cultivated parts, with long, luxuriant prairie grass.
There are no trees, and one can travel a thousand miles without finding a
single natural variation of the monotonous flatness. The Pampa has long
been a great grazing area. This is a typical herd of Argentine cattle on thfr
Pampa. They are splendid specimens, and the breed is being constantly im-
proved by the importation of foreign stock. The Pampa is nearly as large as
England and France combined, yet it forms only about one fourth of Argentina
ARGENTINA
Argentina is the second largest country in South
America and has the largest population, about 8,000,000,
It is a vast, rich land which offers great opportunities.
Natural advantages. Turn to the maps on pages 145
and 156 and notice the natural advantages of Argentina.
(1) Most of the Parana Lowlands belong to Argentina.
(2) Over much of the country there is enough rainfall
for grazing and farming. If the rainfall were notably
heavy, there would be a dense forest ; if there were much
less rainfall, the lowland would be a semidesert like the
region farther south. (3) This country is in the temper-
ate zone, so it is not too cold or too warm for white
people. (4) There are good harbors in the estuary of the
Plata River and farther south at Bahia Blanca. (5) There
are great navigable rivers in the northern portion, and in
certain of the rivers there are opportunities for developing
water-power. (6) Gold, silver, copper, and iron have been
found in the plateau portion at the northwest. (7) The
levelness of the land surface makes railroad building easy.
Occupations and products. These great natural advan-
tages have given the country a wonderful start. Argen-
tina is one of the great producers of cattle, horses, and
sheep (Fig. 289). Wheat and corn are produced in great
quantities (Figs. 297, 299).
In the northern and northwestern parts of Argentina
there are forested areas which are being developed
more and more. Lumbering has become an important
industry. Many of the woods are extremely hard, and
one is known as quebracho, which means ax-breaker
(Fig. 290). The wood of the quebracho is so heavy that
it will not float. Besides being valuable for timber the
tree has been found to yield tannin, which is used in
making leather.
In the plateau region at the northwest the life is quite
different from that in the lowland region. There the
people are interested in mining. Formerly the ores were
sent on the backs of mules over the high mountains and
across the desert of Chile to the Pacific coast. Now there
is a railway into the district, by which most of the met-
als are taken to Rosario for shipment to other countries.
tuunes; o( Walter B. Tower
Courtesj of Walter S. Xowar
Fig. 290. These cars are loaded with logs of the quebracho tree, which grows
in northern Argentina. Quebracho is a very hard wood, useful for cabinet-
making, railroad ties, and paving blocks. The quebrachos are being cut so
fast that laws must soon be made to conserve the supply
Fig. 291. This is a little village in arid San Juan Province, where the
people earn their living by gathering the woody roots of drought-resisting
bushes, which they dig out of the ground. The sticks in the foreground
will be used to make charcoal or sold to the railroads for fuel
ARGENTINA
149
Near the mines many people are engaged in raising
Tegetables and fruits for the use of the mining popula-
tion. Peaches, figs, pears, grapes, and oranges are pro-
duced. Some wheat also is raised here, but not in such
large fields as in the lowlands.
El Gran Chaco. West of the Pai-aguay River and ex-
tending through a part of northern Argentina, across
western Paraguay, and into Bolivia there is a vast area
called El Gran Chaco, of which little is known. Indian
tribes live there, and a few of the rivers have been ex-
plored. Railroads have been planned to cross it. At the
western margin, where there are streams from the moun-
tains, some agriculture has been started. In places cattle
are raised (Fig. 293), and from the forests in the south
Courtesy of Walter 8. Tower
Fig. 292. This is a typical town ui iiuiiiivvestern Argentina, barricaded on
the west by the barren ridges of the Andes, and open on the east to the
great Argentine plain. The days are always sunny here, and irrigation is
needed for agriculture. Why is there little or no rain ?
fjuebracho wood and tannin are secured in large quanti-
t ies. The quebracho wood and tannin exported each year
are worth more than ten million dollars. Over 4000 men
are now engaged by one company in this business.
The Pampa. The greatest single natural resource of this
country is the extensive lowland area of rich soils called
the Pampa, west and southwest of Buenos Aires.
The term " pampa " comes from the Indian language,
and means any flat country, whether it is high or low,
dry or wet; but the term "the Pampa" seems most
appropriately applied to the great rich lowland coun-
try of Argentina, stretching from the Salado River
on the north to the Negro River on the south, and
from the Parana and Paraguay rivers to the base of
the Andes Mountains.
p The Pampa is one of the most remarkably flat places
in the woi'ld. The soils of which it is composed were
washed from the mountains into an interior sea by
rivers, and spread out eastward in the form of delta
deposits. Little by little the sea disappeared, leaving
the broad delta plains exposed as dry land.
The Pampa is the wonderful wheat land of South
America, and the land where millions of sheep and
cattle roam as they feed on the tall, waving grasses of
CwjrtMj of Walter 3. Tower
Fig. 293. These men are herdsmen of the Argentine Chaco. They wear
enormous stiffened leather guards to protect them from the dense under-
growth as they ride through the forests. How does the plain of the Chaco
differ from the plain of the Pampa? Do the Pampa herdsmen have to
wear leather guards ?
the fertile plains. There are railroads which run in
perfectly straight lines for miles and miles across the
Pampa. In many parts no bridges, no tunnels, no rock-
cutting or filling were necessary in constructing the rail-
roads. Over broad areas there are no hills or elevations
of any kind as far as the eye can reach (Figs. 289, 295).
The largest objects seen may be a few trees around
some ranchman's home, or possibly a windmill, which
is the common sign of one of the better homes in the
country. With these exceptions the horizon is unbroken.
CourtMj or WsJ(»r S. Tnwer
Fig. 294. The west central part of Argentina is a semidesert country,
similar to the desert of Arizona. The picture shows the rough, bowlder-
strewn ground, the scrubby bush growth, and the twisted locust tree. What
do you suppose the boy has in the tin can hung from his saddle ?
150
ARGENTINA
Courlesj of Waller B. Towor
Fig. 295. This great steam plow is breaking rich, new soil on a part of the
Pampa which has never been cultivated before. The levelness, the fertility
of the soil, and a sufG.cient rainfall make the Pampa a great agricultural
region. What are the important crops ?
Life on the Pampa. The Pampa is a land where every-
body learns to ride horseback. The ranchmen go on
horseback to visit the men who care for the great herds
of cattle or flocks of sheep, and the children soon learn
to ride the swiftest of horses.
The weather at times becomes very warm ; and if rain
fails to come, as it sometimes does, the farmers lose their
crops. This is especially true through the western portion
of the lowland ; here conditions are similar to those in
western Kansas, Nebraska, or Oklahoma, where there are
occasional dry seasons that make the farmers very un-
happy. In any country, people who have their farms
at the margin of the well-watered land and near poorly
watered land must count on losing a crop every few years
because of a dry season or because of drying winds.
Unfortunately there are portions of this lowland region
where the miserable little ticks, fleas, and mosquitoes are
so numerous that life is unendurable. Dragon flies, which
feed on mosquitoes, have been seen flying in. clouds from
10 to 12 feet thick, so that they even darken the sky.
There is another very serious pest which the farmers on
the Pampa dread, and that is the locust. As they pass
over the country they eat the com and wheat, and some-
times an entire crop is destroyed in twenty-four hours.
Such great migrations of the locust do not come every
year, and some day scientists will learn how to fight
them and perhaps how to exterminate them.
Life in southern Argentina. This part of Argentina
was formerly called Patagonia. It was really " no man's
land," but in 1881 the southern portion of the continent,
including Tierra del
Fuego, was divided be-
tween Chile and the
republic of Argentina.
Since then railroads
have been built and
many people have gone
there to live. The cli-
mate is dry in summer,
but by irrigating the
soils it is now possible
to raise vegetables and
fruits. Grazing is the
chief occupation.
The native Patagonian
people are large, strong
Indians, who still live in
a primitive way. They
are great hunters, and
as yet they do not use
firearms as white men
do. Instead, they have holas, which are made of two
or three small stones covered with skin and fastened
together by strings or rawhide. They become very skill-
ful in throwing these about the legs, neck, or body of an
animal and tripping it up. Even birds are sometimes
caught in this way just as they are rising from the
ground. The Indians kill great numbers of the guanacos
Louneay of Walter S. Tower
Fig. 296. This is a clump of the tall,
flowering grass which is known as "Pampa
grass," but which grows on the hills and
mountain slopes of Argentina
Fig. 297. These wagons are loaded with grain raised on the Pampa, and
are on their way to the nearest market or shipping point. Each wagon
is drawn by six horses, and some of the traces are attached to the hubs of
the wheels. Compare the size of the wheels with the horses. These
Courtesy of Waller S. Tower
high-wheeled carts are typical of all South America and are well adapted
for traveling over the muddy roads which are so common in the regions of
abundant rain. What different kinds of grain might these bags contain ?
During what month is wheat harvested in Argentina ? See Appendix, p. io-
ARGENTINA
151
for food, and use the skins for clothing and bedding.
They depend also upon the rhea, or South American
ostrich, for food. This bird has short wings and cannot
fly well. It counts on running away from its enemies.
Home work. 1. Place the chief seaports of South America on
your outline map. 2. Read about the Patagonian Indians in a
good reference book. 3. Rea<l atout Tierra del Fuego. See Appen-
dix, page i, for list of reference books.
Cities. Buenos Aires, the capital of the republic, is now
the largest city in South America (Fig. 298). About one
fifth of the entire population of Argentina live in this
city. Like Chicago, Buenos Aires is built on flat land, and
most of the streets cross at right angles. There are no
hills like those in Rio de Janeiro, and no beautiful islands;
and yet, like Chicago, the city has a great water front.
Again, like Chicago, Buenos Aires has the advantage
of a wonderful system of parks and playgrounds.
There are seventy-two parks in Buenos Aires, and
they are being improved and enlarged every year.
The harbor at
Buenos Aires was
not satisfactory,
and on account of
this fact a great
deal of dredging
has been done to
deepen the water.
A very excellent
system of stone
docks extends for
miles along the
waterfront. The
Plata River is a
shallow estuary
and not like a real river. The land sank and the sea
water came into the mouth of the river, just as it did
when Chesapeake Bay was made (Fig. 300).
British and German people have invested large amounts
of money in Buenos Aires and throughout Argentina.
Many of the storekeepers are foreigners ; some are
Spanish, others Portuguese, others Italian. Spanish is
the language most commonly spoken ; Buenos Aires
is, in fact, the lai'gest Spanish-speaking city in the
world, — larger than any city in Spain.
Rosario, the second largest city in Argentina, now has
a good harbor which has been deepened by dredging.
There are large stockyards and refrigerating plants
located in the city. Before the days of freezing meats
cattle were killed chiefly for the hides and tallow. Some
of the meat was salted, but most of it was thrown away.
Now the meats are frozen and sent to distant ports,
chiefly in western Europe. This has meant a great increase
. Amerieui Unioti
Fig. 298. The National Capitol at Buenos Aires
is not unlike our own Capitol at Washington in
general appearance, but is much more elaborately
decorated in the typical South American style
1^
•»
J
.-j^
■iMr**^
v^
'■
U^f^
'riTii^mi_^i ,_
>^-
^TIF^^^
■IMk' ^'^^Ts^MlHWte
»*"■
i
■
PMi
Counetj ot Wftlter 8. Towv
Fig. 299. These canvas-covered stacks contain more than two million
bushels of grain waiting to be shipped to Buenos Aires by rail. Why is
grain stacked in the open in Argentina instead of being stored in grain
elevators ? Where will it be sent from Buenos Aires ?
in profits for those engaged in raising cattle and sheep.
It has increased the value of the lands, caused railroads
to be built, and brought many more people to Argentina.
Farther south along the coast is Bahia Blanca, and
from there railroads extend to different parts of the coun-
try. That city has been growing very rapidly, and large
quantities of wool and wheat are shipped from there to
the United States and Europe every year.
Mendoza is one of the most important inland cities.
Here, by means of irrigation, the people have cultivated
large vineyards, and a great deal of wine is made. Now
that Mendoza has a railroad connection -with the Atlantic
and Pacific coasts, more of the products of this part of
the country are reaching the larger markets of South
America.
Cdrdoba is a thriving city on the western margin of
the richest wheat district in Argentina. It is also in the
midst of the flax-raising area and has a number of mills
where the oil is extracted from the flax seeds.
Tucumdn, another inland city, is the center of the
Argentine sugar-producing area and has sugar refineries.
Fig. 800. The docks at Buenos Aires are lined with elevators in which
grain is stored awaiting shipment. The harbor is man-made, and the port
one of the best equipped in the world, ranking second among the ports of
the two Americas. What is the first port ?
152
PARAGUAY
Summary. When thinking of Argentina, remember
that it is, first, a wonderful farming and grazing countrj^,
and that the raising of stock has led to meat-packing,
dairying, and the refrigerating of meat for export.
If we visited this country, we should see the farmers
using the same kind of implements and machines as are
used in the United States; and about their homes and
in the pastures we should see windmills that were shipped
from the United States. These are indications of the
large trade which we are building up with Argentina.
^1 Walter S. Tower
Fig. 301. In Buenos Aires tlie milkman drives his cows from house to house,
milking them for each customer. The little girl in the picture is waiting to
have her pitcher filled. The boy is the milkman's son. His duty is to hold
the calf, which insists on traveling with its mother
The notable contrast with the United States is that there
is very little industrial life in Argentina. The mechani-
cal arts have not been developed, and it is not likely that
Argentina will become a great industrial country. Fuel
is scarce and the people are not mechanics. Argentina
imports coal. There are flour mills, sugar mills, and some
weaving mills, but most of the machinery and manufac-
tured goods that are needed are brought to Argentina in
exchange for raw materials.
Argentina is undoubtedly destined to become a great
agricultural nation. More and more people will emi-
grate from the crowded industrial centers of Europe to
the farming lands of the Pampa. With the increase of
population, the extension of railroads, and the develop-
ment of more routes of communication with the markets
of Europe and North America, Argentina should become
one of the richest countries of the world.
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the great natural
ad vantages, of Argentina? 2. What are its chief disadvantages?
3. Make a list of the chief exports ; the chief imports. 4. What is
the largest city in South America ?
5. Why is there a great grassland in the Parana Lowlands and
a dense forest in the lowlands of the Amazon ? 6. Why is a por-
tion of Argentina a semidesert ? 7. From what country do the
people import their farming machinery ?
8. How did the improvements in refrigerating meats help Argen-
tina ? 9. What does the country need ? 10. What especially in-
teresting facts about Argentina have you learned from the pictures ?
PARAGUAY
Paraguay is a little larger than the state of Missouri,
and is one of the two countries in South America without
any seacoast. It is an extensive lowland country, a part
of the Parana Lowlands, where most of the land is
from 100 to 500 feet above sea level.
The Paraguay River divides this country into two
somewhat distinct parts. In the east there are forests,
and also large groves of orange trees and many banana
trees. The forest is broken here and there by open pas-
ture lands and fields of brilliant flowers. On the west is
the Chaco, a land of broad, open fields with here and
there quebracho forests. A few palms are scattered about
on the plains. In the western part of the country the
rivers wind about through such long channels that much
t- Paa Auieiic:.a Lii.^J
Fig. 302. The forest on both sides of the Paraguay River is rich in valuable
quebracho trees, and lumbering is extensively carried on. These lumbermen
are resting while they cook their mid-day meal. The quebracho logs are
carried down the river in boats, because they are too heavy to float
of the water is evaporated before the streams reach
the Paraguay River. It is a region of little rainfall,
but there is enough to nourish a tall grass that serves
for pasture.
The Parana and Paraguay rivers are navigable, and
shipments may be made down the river to Rosario,
Buenos Aires, and Montevideo. Boats can sail 1300 miles
on the Paraguay.
Occupations. The chief occupation is just what would
be expected in a grassland region without severely cold
weather. It is grazing. Lumbering is important and will
increase as the hard woods of the South American forests
are used more and more in building (Fig. 302). Many
people are interested in extracting tannin from the
quebracho tree, and many others are engaged in selling
the wood of that tree as lumber.
PARAGUAY
153
Paraguay tea is known in Spanish as yerha mate
(Fig. 304). It was here that the Indians introduced this
tea to the Spaniards. The native people and many
others in South America prefer the mate to coffee or
to the varieties of tea from Japan or Ceylon that are
so commonly used in North America and Europe. They
drink the mate through a little tube. The tea is held
in a cup made of a gourd, and it is the custom of the
people to take a little drink of tea every few hours. It
is a very common sight to see them stand around with
the gourds and the little tubes through which they draw
the tea up into their
mouths. This tea is
now being exported
to distant lands. It
is for sale in the
larger cities of the
United States.
Oranges are so
common in Paraguay
that a traveler can
get a dozen for a
cent. Almost every
Paraguayan will suck
the juice of twenty
or thirty oranges a
day. The trees grow
on the banks of the
rivers, in the gorges,
near the ranches, far
back in the forests,
— in fact, almost
everywhere in Para-
guay. Great carts drawn by three yokes of oxen, each
cart carrying about 5000 oranges, are used in bringing
the fruit to the banks of the river for shipment to
Buenos Aires and Montevideo. The oranges grow in such
abundance that it is impossible to use all of them.
Thousands are devoured by birds, monkeys, and other
animals, and yet each year tons and tons of oranges drop
to the ground and rot.
Insect pests. Paraguay is a land where the mosqui-
toes, fleas, and flies are terrible pests. Scientific methods
should be used to kill off these insects, so that life here
may be more bearable.
Cities. Asunci6n is the capital of Paraguay. It is
reached by boats that come up the river from Rosario
and Buenos Aires (Fig. 305).
Villa Rica, the second largest city in Paraguay, is situ-
ated on the one important railway in the state. It serves
as a collecting center for the agricultural products of
southern Paraguay,
Ojurteiji ol the Fko Adicmcsh CnioD
Fig. 303. This Paraguayan woman is at
work making the fine lace for which her
country is famous. Where does the thread
which she uses come from ?
Councaj ot Utt fui Amtrieaa Unltta
Fig. 304. These men are Paraguayan mat6 gatherers. The yerba mat6 Is
South American holly, which grows abundantly in Paraguay and southern
Brazil. Each day the gatherers pick the leaves and twigs of the mat6, bring-
ing it in on their shoulders to the camp, where it will be cured over a fire
Concepci6n is the third city of importance in Paraguay-
It is situated on the Paraguay River at the head of navi-
gation for large river vessels and is therefore a commercial
center of some importance.
Future. Paraguay will undoubtedly develop its rich
agricultural lands ; but before it can really become pros-
perous, more railways must be built and more white
people must come to live in the country.
Problems and review questions. 1. Name the two countries
of South America that are without coast lines. 2. How does
Paraguay carry on commerce ? 3. How would a traveler
reach the capital? 4. What two crops are most remarkable?
5. What product from Paraguay is important to the shoe
business ? 6. How may living conditions be improved in
Paraguay? 7. On what does its future progress depend?
Fig. 305. Asuncidn, the capital of Paraguay, stands at the head of naviga-
tion on the Parani River. Paraguay has no seacoast, and the ParanA is the
most important highway into the country. Asuncion is therefore an impor-
tant river port. What products of Paraguay are sent down the river to
Buenos Aires for export ?
154
URUGUAY
Courtesy o£ Walter S. Xowcr
Fig. 306. This is one of the modern steam threshing outfits in use in
Uruguay. Although nearly all the land of the republic is suited to agri-
culture, only about one twentieth of it is under cultivation to-day.
What conditions throughout the world will cause Uruguay to change
gradually from stock-raising to agriculture?
URUGUAY
This country is a great pasture land. Like much of
Argentina, Uruguay is fortunate in its surface features,
in the richness of its soils, and in its good harbor and
its one large navigable river. The prevailing coast winds
are from the southeast, and they bring in an abundance
of moisture, so that all of Uruguay is well watered. The
climate is mild and healthful. In January, which is
the warmest month, the average temperature is about
80° Fahrenheit, and in July, the coldest month of the
year, the temperature is commonly about 55°. The
lowest temperature that has been observed is not down
to the freezing point.
Everything that will grow in temperate or subtropical
climates will grow in Uruguay. The
grazing of sheep, cattle, and horses
is the chief occupation of the people
(Figs. 307, 308), but general farming is
becoming more and more important
(Fig. 306). Large quantities of grain
and fruit are raised.
Commerce. The grazing has led to
the establishment of certain industries
which grow naturally out of the raising
of stock. Meat-packing and the refrig-
erating of meat for shipment occupy
the time of a large number of people.
Great quantities of beef extract are
made for export.
Cities. Montevideo is a modern,
healthful city with a very pleasant
climate (Figs. 309, 310). The name
" Montevideo " comes from the hill, or
mount, which rises to a height of 505
feet and is the most prominent feature
about the city. It can be seen for 12 miles out to sea.
There is a lighthouse on the mount, and the revolving
light in the top can be seen for 25 miles. The city is
built on a point of land between the Atlantic and a
large bay.
The people of Uruguay all seem to. want to live in
Montevideo. The city now has about one third of the
entire population of the country. Farmers and ranchmen
either have city homes or look forward to having them.
Montevideo is the capital of Uruguay, and from its
harbor ships leave with their great cargoes of wool, beef,
and hides for ports in the United States and Europe.
The sea breezes pass through the city from one body of
water to the other. In the bay there is room for 500 ves-
sels. Opposite Montevideo the Plata estuary is 64 miles
wide, and at Buenos Aires, 210 miles farther upstream,
it is 34 miles wide. There are numerous shoals and sand
bars in the river, so that navigation is difficult.
Occasionally the pampero, or storm wind of the Pampa,
sweeps across this estuary of the Plata with great vio-
lence and whips the shallow water into a very rough
sea. At such times vessels are in great danger of being
driven upon sand bars and wrecked.
Future. For its size Uruguay is the most fortunate
country in South America. Its location, climate, soils,
surface features, and harbor promise a prosperous agri-
cultural life with an ever-increasing commerce.
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief occupa-
tions of the jjeople ? 2. Name and give the location of the capital.
3. What has Uruguay to export ? 4. How does the climate of
Uruguay aifect the occupations ? 5. What are the prevailing
coast winds ? 6. Why is navigation in the Plata River difficult ?
Courtesy of Walter S. Tower
Fig. 307. Most of Uruguay is rolling, grassy country dotted with scattered clumps of trees. The
soil, temperature, and rainfall are all favorable to agriculture, but at present more than four fifths
of the total area of Uruguay is devoted to grazing. Sheep-raising is the greatest industry, and
thousands of flocks like this one graze over the country
FALKLAND ISLANDS
155
FALKLAND ISLANDS
The Falkland Islands belong to the British. They
are in a very stonu}- part of the ocean; no trees grow
there, and all the wood which the people use in building
their homes or in shipbuilding must be imported. Peat
has been found and is used as fuel. Very httle agricul-
ture is carried on. A few vegetables are grown, but they
are poor in quality. Most of the food must be brought
in from other countries.
Sheep-raising is the chief industry, and in spite of the
stormy conditions the sheep thrive remarkably. Some
cattle are raised ; fish are abundant in the waters sur-
rounding the islands, but because of the heavy winds
and stormy weather very little fishing is done.
These islands
have long served
as a repair sta-
tion for sailing
vessels that have
found difficulty
in rounding Cape
Horn or in pass-
ing through the
Strait of Magel-
lan. Nowthatthe
Panama Canal is
open for traffic,
fewer vessels will
go this way.
Fig. 308. Cattle-raising is second only to sheep-
raising in Uruguay. These cattle are herded in a
typical corral, which is very roughly but strongly
made by using the crooked limbs of trees
COLON ARCHIPELAGO
(GALAPAGOS ISLANDS)
A group of ten islands, 600 miles west of Ecuador
and H")0 miles southwest of Panama, have appeared for
years on almost all maps as the Galapagos Islands. In
1892 they were officially renamed the Colon Archipelago
in honor of Columbus. These islands belong to Ecuador.
The Spanish word "galapagos" means turtles. When the
islands were discovered, there were no people living
there, but there were many giant turtles, some large
and strong enough to carry a man. Pirates are supposed
to have used these islands as a meeting place, and they
may have buried stolen treasure there.
PROBLEMS AND GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In wliat part of South America did Columbus land?
2. Where was the land of the Inca.s? 3. What languages
are most commonly spoken in South America ? 4. What is
the commonest form of government in South America?
5. What South American countries are colonies of European
nations ? To what nations do they belong ?
ir* ■
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Fig. 309. The docks at Montevideo are always busy, for Montevideo is the
great port of Uruguay and handles three fourths of the exports and imports
of the country. From what countries have the ships in the picture come ?
What have they brought to Montevideo ? What will they carry away ?
6. Where is the greatest coffee-producing area? 7. Where
are the best grazing lands ? 8. What countries produce large
quantities of fruit ? 9. In what country are oranges most
abundant? 10. What is the largest country? 11. Where is
the greatest rubber-producing area?
12. What country is famous for its tin? 13. What coun-
try is famous for its nitrate ? 14. What country is famous
for its Panama hats? 15. What improvements would be of
the greatest help to South America?
16. What country of South America may rival the United
States? 17. What country sends us wool? 18. What prod-
ucts do the people living on the lowland plains raise in such
abundance that they can export them?
19. What products from the great forests of South America
are shipped to other countries ? 20. What do the people get
from the mountains and sell to other people ? 21. What prod-
uct is raised on the slopes of the Brazilian Highlands and
shipped from Santos? Where is it sent? See map on page 145.
® E. M. Kvnua
Fig. 310. This is one of the plazas in Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay.
Montevideo is the only large city in the republic. Can you account for this ?
Locate Montevideo on your map. How should you travel from Montevideo
to Asuncion ? to S3o Paulo ? to Santiago ?
156
COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES
I tUnder 10 inches
10 to 20 •' ^5'
I I 20 to 40 •'
40 to 80 ••
^B Over 80
^ / Prevailing coast winds
90° longitude 75" IKf«f/.-om 60° Qreenwi'^h 45' 30^
y Uinn and Comitaiiy
Average annual rainfall in South America
COMPAKATIVE MAP STUDIES
I. Where is the great tropical forest of South America ?
How much raiu falls there each year ? Is it a good place
for white people to live in ? Why ? 2. Where is the rainfall
more than is favorable to agriculture ? W^hat winds bring
such heavy rains ?
3. Where is the rainfall about right in amount and seasonal
distribution for agriculture ? Do the people practice agricul-
ture in these parts ? 4. Where are the extensive grasslands
in South America ? How much rain do they receive ?
5. To which coast do the southeast trades come ? 6. To
what coast do the northeast trades come ? 7. To what coast
-do the prevailing westerly winds come ? 8. In what months
does the rainfall of southern Brazil come ? 9. What are the
summer months in southern Brazil ? 10. Where are the tem-
perate forests in South America?
II. How do you explain the very dry conditions on the west
coast from 5 to 35 degrees south latitude? 12. Why should
this dry belt cross the mountains at about 35 degrees south
latitude ? Why is it dry farther south on the east side ? This
explains why central and southern Chile luive heavy rainfall.
13. Why should it be very dry on the Bolivian Plateau?
14. What months are included in the rainy season in Chile ?
15. What portion of the Pacific coast of North America has
its rainy season during the winter months ? What months are
these? 16. What semiarid land in South America is crossed
by rivers that may be used for irrigating the soils?
CARIBB^I'^^ SB A A I-FrWARD IS.
^ »C.Hi>rn
90' Lon(,iiH<U 75' Wttt from gQ" QrettiwU
Distribution of people in South America
i) (jitin and Ct^mpany
17. Why should there be so heavy a rainfall just east
of the Andes near the headwaters of the Amazon River ?
18. Where is the rainfall heaviest in Central America and
Panama? 19. What winds must bring that rain?
20. Where do most of the people live, — near the coast or
inland? in mountains or in lowlands? near or far from rivers ?
Tell why they choose tliese places to live in. 21. Why do so
few people live in tlie Amazon Lowlands away from tlie
main river ? 22. Why do so few people live in western and
southern Argentina ?
23. Why are many of the western cities in the high plateaus?
24. What parts of South America are most densely populated ?
25. What geographic advantages attracted people to these
centers ? 26. Where is the population most likely to increase ?
Why ? 27. How do the people make a living who are in areas
of less than 10 inches of rainfall a year ? Give examples
from South America.
28. Which are the young, rugged mountains of South Amer-
ica ? 29. How do they differ in genei'al appearance from the
old, worn-down mountains? 30. What mountains in North
America do the Andes resemble ? 31. Where are the old,
worn-down mountains ? 32. What mountain areas in North
America do the Guiana and Brazilian Highlands resemble?
33. Name the great lowland areas. 34. Where is the widest
part of the belt of shallow water (continental shelf) around
South America ? 35. Are the Falkland Islands on the conti-
nental shelf ? 36. Where do the icebergs come from that float
about in the ocean south of this continent ?
O 'TInn and CAn'P""^
INTEODUCTION
The ancient castles suggest at once the historic inter-
est in almost every European scene. Europe has long
been occupied by civilized, progressive peoples, and its
civilization has had a profound influence upon almost all
the nations of the world. The choicest of the world's
music, much of its best literature, the finest works of
sculpture, and the greatest paintings have been produced
by Europeans.
The discovery of the power in steam, the invention of
the printing press, the discovery of the X-rays that have
made it possible to take pictures through clothing, wood,
and even through flesh, the invention of wireless teleg-
raphy, and many other valuable scientific discoveries
and inventions have been made by Europeans.
The explorers and settlers who first came to the new
world were Europeans (see Appendix, Plate A), and now
every nation in Europe is represented in the population
of the United States. From the earliest days of settle-
ment along our Atlantic coast we have maintained com-
mercial relations with the countries of Europe, and the
heaviest ocean traffic to-day is between the ports of
western Europe and those of our Atlantic coast states.
See Appendix, Plate B. The World War awakened and
renewed our interest in the people of all the countries
of the world, but especially in the people of Europe.
Here new countries were established, and in most of these
countries a republican form of government was organized.
The future development of the nations of Europe is of
very great interest and importance to us.
People. Europe was peopled for the most part by
members of the white race who are supposed to have
come from west central Asia. Some of them migrated
into the eastern Mediterranean region and then into
southern Europe. From these people the Italians and
Greeks have descended.
Other groups of the white race migrated north of the
Caspian Sea and moved westward into the great plains
of central Europe. The Celts, Teutons, and Slavs fol-
lowed this northern route. From these races came the
people who now make up the nations of central and
northwestern Europe.
The Finns and Laplanders are related to the yellow,
or Mongolian, race, which populated eastern Asia. The
Turks are descended from Mongolian invaders who
swept through western Asia in the thirteenth centvuy,
and later pushed into the Balkan Peninsula. They now
live in the area in and about Constantinople. The
Magyars of Hungary are also descendants of Mongolian
invaders, but of still earlier days.
Growth of nations. The subdivision of Europe into
many peninsiilas and highlands and into lowland areaa
surrounded by mountains, and the presence of islands
near the continent, have led to the growth of many
distinct nations. No other continent has so many
separate nations. People who are shut off by themselves
usually have their own language and customs and often
wish to be independent. Mountain peoples everywhere
in the world are great lovers of freedom.
157
158
NATURAL REGIONS
Natueal Regions
Europe may first be divided for purposes of study into
five large natural regions : (1) the Northwest Highlands,
(2) the Central Plains, (3) the Central Highlands, (4) the
Southern Mountains and Plateaus, and (5) the Southern
Plains. See map on page 161. Each of these regions
may be subdivided for the detailed study of any country.
Fig. 311. This is Ben Nevis, the highest mottntain in Scotland. The Scotch
word " ben " means mountain and is often used before the name of a peak,
just as the word " mount " is used in English. Locate Ben Nevis on your
map. To what natural region does it belong ? What is its height ?
Northwest Highlands. This is a coastal region where
fishermen hve, where many men become good seamen,
where great explorers have been brought up, where excel-
lent harbors have helped the growth of cities, where, in
places, coal and iron have led to an industrial life, and
where commerce has become very important. It is a
region of cool temperate climate, which makes the people
energetic. The peninsula of Brittany in France, most of
the British Isles, and most of the Scandinavian Penin-
sula are included in this natural region (Figs. 311, 312).
MAP STUDIES
Use map on page 161. 1. Find the name " Northwest High-
lands." 2. Are the mountains of this natural region young and
rugged or old and worn down ? 3. Through what large group
of islands do the Northwest Highlands extend ? AVhen more
of the continent stood above the sea, this highland belt was
a continuous mountain mass extending from the Upland of
Brittany to North Cape.
4. What is the general elevation of the highlands in Norway?
In the mythology of the Norse people this cold region, in
places almost inaccessible, was supposed to be peopled by
the frost giants, or Jotunns, and the name " Jotunnheim,"
which means home of the giants, is still used.
Use maps on page 216. 5. What winds bring rain to the
Northwest Highlands ? 6. How much rain falls in the dif-
erent parts of the highlands ? 7. In what part of this natural
region is the population densest ? Why ?
Central Plains. Turn to the map on page 161 for the
location and extent of the Central Plains, and to the map
opposite page 216 for the surface features and vegeta-
tion. This is the great food-producing area of Europe
(Fig. 314). It includes the larger lowlands of France, the
plain of southeastern England, almost all of the land in
the low countries bordering the North Sea, all of northern
Germany, most of Poland, and most of Russia. In the
densely settled parts it is divided into small farms that
are cultivated most thoroughly. Where the population is
sparse there are forests or great tracts of grazing lands.
The Central Plains extend so far from north to south,
and so far inland, that there are great differences in
climate within the region, and therefore great differ-
ences in the vegetation and in the occupations of the
people. In the tundra region of the Far North there are
mosses, lichens, low bushes, and dwarf trees ; some of
the trees are only a few inches high. The ground is
i-:-^^^?5Pv.
. - --- ^ I
Courtesy of Williams, Bi^
Fig. 312. The old, worn-down mountains along the coast of the Scandina-
vian Peninsula have sunk, allowing the sea waters to enter the valleys, and
making steep-walled fiords like the one in this view. Notice the location
of the little village on the narrow strip of lowland by the water
frozen except for a few months, and as water cannot
sink into the ground this land is marshy dining the
summer. Toward the north pole vegetation disappears.
The reindeer moss is the most valuable plant in the
tundra; it makes possible the life of the reindeer, the
animal which provides many people with milk for food
and skins for clothing. The reindeer is also used as a
draft animal in arctic regions.
South of the tundra there is an extensive evergreen
forest. The timber is used for masts, for building, and
for fuel. Most of the cutting is done in the winter, and
in the spring the logs are floated down the streams.
From the best logs lumber is made ; the poorer material
is used for matches or wood pulp. This forest extends
westward into the Scandinavian Peninsula.
NATURAL REGIONS
159
Fig. 313. This is a view in the Central Highlands near the boundary be-
tween Czechoslovakia and Germany. The mountains here are old and worn
down. The little towns and villages are located in the open valleys between
the mountains, where there is enough fertile soil for agriculture. What are
the chief natural resources of this region ?
In the grasslands south of the forests there are large
areas used for raising wheat, rye, oats, and barley.
Potatoes are grown everywhere except in the very cold-
est or driest places. The sugar beet is one of the most
important plants of the plains of central Europe ; peas,
beans, and other vegetables are raised in abundance.
In the lowlands of southern France the climate be-
comes mild like that of the other lowlands in the
Mediterranean region. Grapes are extensively cultivated
here, and many other kinds of fruit are raised.
In the drier portions of southeastern Europe, where
the winters are severe and the summers hot, stock-
raising is the chief occupation. Here the lands are
often called steppes, which means lowland
plains without trees. The people of the dry
steppes are tent-dwellers who move about
with their herds of cattle and flocks of sheep.
Near the Caspian Sea there is a semidesert
where very few plants can grow.
MAP STUDIES
1. Use map on page 161. On what bodies of
water do the Central Plains border ? 2. What
is the general elevation of these plains ? 3. What
old, worn-down mountains are on their north-
ciistem margin ?
4. What young, rugged mountains are on the
southern margin of these plains? 5. What hills
ri.se above these plains at a distance of about
200 kilometers northwest of Moscow? 6. What
highland region, with old, worn-down mountains,
is south of the western part of the Central Plains?
7. Use maps on page 216. What is the rainfall on the
western margin of the Central Plains ? in the central part ?
in the eastern part ? 8. Why does western Europe receive more
rain than eastern Europe ? 9. In what part of the Central
Plains of Europe is the population densest? Why?
Central Highlands. This part of Europe contains the
great iron and coal mines that made it possible for cen-
tral Europe to become an industrial district and for
Germany and Austria to continue the great World War
from 1914 to 1918. It is a region having large and
varied mineral resources, water-power, and many excel-
lent forests, and is therefore a region of very great im-
portance to the future industrial life of the nations of
Europe. This natural region extends into France, Bel-
gium, Luxemburg, southern Germany, Austria, and
western Czechoslovakia (Fig. 313).
MAP STUDIES
1. Use map between pages 181 and 184. Into what countries
do the Central Highlands extend ? Are the mountains young
and rugged or old and worn down ? Make a list of the chief
mountain ranges in this natural region. What mountains in
the United States do you think they resemble in general
appearance ? See also map opposite page 216.
2. What plateaus are included in these highlands ? 3. Be-
tween what mountains is the lowland plain of the middle
portion of the Rhine River? 4. Make a list of the chief
mineral resources found within this natural region.
5. Use maps on page 216. What is the rainfall in this
region ? 6. Where is the population densest in this region ?
Home work. Use figures on page 268. List the January and
July temperatures for Belgium, Poland, northern Russia, east
central Russia, and Ukraine. Where is the change in tempera-
ture from January to July the least? Where is it greatest? Ex-
plain. Study, in this connection, the ocean-current map on page 275,
Counei, of Um lulcruatujial Uutc
Fig. 314. The Central Plains of Russia produce great quantities of wheat and other grains.
This view shows an American harvesting machine at work cutting wheat in this region.
Although large numbers of the Russian people still cultivate the soil entirely by hand,
modern farm machinery is gradually being introduced, making possible a great increase
in the amount of food that can be raised
160
MAP STUDIES
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162
COAST LINE
Southern lowlands. In the valley of the Danube is
the Plain of Hungary. It is a bi^oad, river-made land
formed of the fine soil materials washed from the sur-
rounding mountains. This is one of the best farming
and grazing regions in the world (Fig. 316). Vast sup-
plies of food are produced on this plain.
South of the Alps and north of the Apennines in the
valley of the Po there is another river-made land. Here the
soils washed from the neighboring mountains have filled
in the head of the Adriatic Sea. This is a well-watered
land with rich soils. Most of it is under cultivation,
and it supports a
large population.
The narrow low-
lands on the coast
of Portugal, Spain,
Italy, and the coun-
tries in the Balkan
Peninsula are or-
chard lands, where
large supplies of
subtropical fruits,
such as oranges,
lemons, olives, and
figs, are raised.
MAP STUDIES
£xcliuiT« Newf Agencj, Ra«huiipton
Fig. 316. The great plain of the Danube and its tributaries is one of the richest agricultural regions
in Europe. This view of the river was taken on the frontier between Jugoslavia and Hungary. In
the distance the level plain extends as far as the eye can see. On the opposite bank is a herd of
the cattle which are raised extensively in this region
Use map ; between
pages 207 and 210.
1. What mountains
surround the Plain
of Hungary ? 2. Into what countries does this plain extend ?
3. What river drains tlie lowland of northern Italy ? 4. Where
do narrow coastal lowlands border the Mediterranean Sea ?
Coast Line
The North and Baltic seas and the Mediterranean and
commercial nafions. The peoples of western Europe
have led the world in seafaring occupations.
Home tvork. 1. On an outline map of Europe shade or color
the area that is more than five hundred miles from an ocean or
an arm of an ocean. 2. Find out what parts of the world are now
controlled by Europeans or descendants of Europeans. Shade or
color those parts on an outline map of the world.
Problems and review questions. 1. Why should the people in
America be especially interested in the people of Europe ? Give at
least five good reasons. 2. What nations of Europe are represented
in the population of your school district ? of your city or town ?
3. How does the size of Europe compare with that of Canada ?
of Asia? 4. How far
is Europe separated
from Africa at Gibral-
tar '/ Use scale on map
between jmges 207 and
210. 5. Why do irreg-
ular coast lines lead
men to become seamen
and explorers ?
6. To what race do
most of the people
of Europe belong ?
7. What people in
Europe belong to the
Mongolian, or yellow,
race ? 8. Why did so
many distinct nations
develop in this conti-
nent? Give examples.
9. Give a brief de-
scription of the five
large natural regions
of Europe.
Influence of the Ice-Sheets
In studying North America we learned of great ice-
sheets that formed in Canada. Europe also had great
ice-sheets during the same glacial period (Fig. 317 ).
They formed on the highlands of the Scandinavian
Black seas extend far into the continent of Europe. Peninsula and spread in all directions, advancing east-
These great irregularities of the coast line, as well as
the smaller irregularities, are of very great importance
to the life of the people.
No part of Europe except central and eastern Russia
is very far from the coast. The continent is landlocked
on one side, and still its coast line of about 50,000 miles
is longer than the coast lines of South America and
Africa combined, though South America is nearly twice
ward into central Russia, southward across the Baltic
Lowland and the plains of Germany to the margin of
the Central Highlands, and southwestward until they
invaded the British Isles.
In all the high mountains there were glaciers, and
those that remain to-day are but remnants of much
longer glaciers of the great ice age.
Over most of the land where the ice was there is a
and Africa three times as large as Europe. Europe is covering of glacial soils. The deposits left by the ice con-
fortunate in having many excellent harbors.
The inhabitants of the lands bordering the seas natu-
rally became skillful fishermen and sailors. They first
followed the sea as traders and explorers ; later they
made good colonists, and in time they developed great
tain bowlders and look much like the glacial deposits in
North America.
Thousands of small lakes in northwestern Europe and
in the high mountains of southern Europe are in valleys
blocked with glacial deposits.
CLIMATE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
163
■Climate Jj^ general the mountain areas receive more rain than
The sm-face waters of the eastern part of the North the lowlands. Far to the north the rainfall decreases, as
Atlantic Ocean are warmed by the Gulf Stream Drift it does in all countries in high latitudes, because the air
(see maj}, p. 275), and the winds that blow over those is too cold to carry much moisture,
waters help to warm the air over the lands of western Europe may therefore be divided into three climatic
Europe during the winter season. Except in the Far regions : (1) the west, with only slight changes in tem-
North the countries of western Europe do not have long perature and with rain during all seasons of the year ;
periods of frosts ; that is, there are no very long periods (2) the east, where the changes in temperature from
dming which the temperature falls below the freezing summer to winter are great and rain comes chiefly in
point of water. This is a great advantage to agriculture, the summer ; and (3) the Mediterranean region, with dry,
In eastern Germany and
in Poland there are over
two months of frosts, and
in eastern Russia there are
over four months of frosts
each year. In the bleak
tundra region bordering the
Arctic Ocean there are frosts
for more than six months,
and the temperature re-
mains continuously below
the freezing point for a great
part of that time.
In summer eastern Europe
has a period of between
two and four months when
the temperature each day
rises to over 70° F., while in
western Europe the winds
that come from the west
and have passed over the
Fig. 317. This map shows the extent to which the continental ice-sheets
spread over Europe. From what center did they come? Through what
countries does the line of the southern limit of glaciation pass ? What
European countries have never been covered by an ice-sheet ? What moun-
tains of Europe still contain glaciers ?
hot summers and mild and
somewhat rainy winters.
Natueal Resources
Europe is fortunate in its
mineral resources, in the ex-
tent and quality of its forests
{see map opposite page 216),
and in the rich soils of the
lowlands suitable for agricul-
ture. The waterways, the
water-power, the harbors,
and the fish of the shallow
seas are very valuable.
The beautiful scenery and
the places of historic and
artistic interest are of great
educational value, and they
bring thousands of tourists
to the different European
countries each year.
Atlantic Ocean tend to prevent such a long warm period. In each of the countries of Europe the occupations
The large seas that extend far into the continent help and the prosperity of the people have been determined
to keep the temperatures of western and southern Em"ope largely by the climate and natural resources of the
warmer in winter and cooler in summer than they would regions in which they live.
otherwise be. Changes in temperature are always less
marked in lands surrounded, or nearly surrounded, by
ocean waters.
Home work. Find out in how many months there are frosts
in your home region. "What part of Europe is similar to your
home region in this respect ?
In the Mediterranean lands, except in the high moun-
tains, the winters are without long periods of frosts, and
for over two months of the year the daily temperature
averages more than 70° F. In the extreme south of
Spain and Italy there are over four months when the
average daily temperature is 70° F. or more.
The winds from the Atlantic bring rain to the western
lands each month of the year. As they pass on eastward
they have less and less moisture to give up, so the rain-
fall decreases as we go from west to east across the
continent of Europe. See map on page 216.
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief occupa-
tions of the i)eople who live in the Northwest Highlands of
Europe ? 2. Why do the mountains of northwestern Europe differ
from those of southern Europe ?
3. How may the hills of England, Ireland, and Brittany be
explained ? 4. Where did the great continental ice-sheet of Europe
form ? 5. How did the ice change the surface of the country
that it invaded ?
6. What are the chief occupations of the people in the different
parts of the Central Plains, — (a) in the tundra district ? (h) in the
great forests ? (c) in the grassland areas ? (d) in the dry steppe
region ? 7. What part of Europe has the shortest period of frosts ?
Why ? 8. How do the inland seas affect the temperatures of the
neighboring lands of Europe ?
O.'In what natural regions of Europe are there large supplies
of coal and iron that have led to the growth of industries ? 10. Why
do great numliers of tourists visit Switzerland ? 11. How does
the life in the high mountains differ from that on the plains?
12. Where are the chief lowland plains of southern Euiope?
164
BRITISH ISLES
Court«8j of Joseph W. Wortheo
, Urown, ftnd Earl*
Fig. 318. This isthehomeof George Washington's Fig. 319. In England there are many beautiful Fig. 320. Many of the farmers of the lowland of
ancestors in England. The quaint old house was homes like this, which are often called manor England live in low, thatch-roofed cottages like
built several hundred years ago and stands in the houses. Such a house is usually the home of the this. Study the map on page 171 and name some
midst of a fertile farming country owner of the estate, or manor of the products which they raise
BRITISH ISLES
mouths, like those of the Thames and Mersey, are wide
and bordered by lowlands. They are called bays. In the
The British have become a great industrial and com- north, where the river mouths are narrow and bordered
mercial people. In the early days of active geographic by hills or mountains, they are called firths. The bays
exploration their mariners were among the most daring
and adventurous. They visited almost all the lands of
the earth, and to-day the British Empire is the largest
and most widespread in the world.
Physical features. The British Isles consist of Great
Britain and Ireland and nearly 5000 smaller islands
near by. They are often called the United Kingdom.
Great Britain includes England, Scotland, and Wales.
The total area of all of these islands is about 120,000
square miles, which is nearly twice as much as the area
of the New England states.
The shallow sea around the British Isles is nowhere
over 600 feet deep. If the sea bottom should rise
300 feet, the British Isles would be connected with
Europe. Formerly they were a part of the mainland,
but the western portion of
Europe sank, and the sea,
advancing over the lower
portions of the land, sepa-
rated the British Isles from
the rest of the continent.
There is now a plan to con-
nect England with France
by a tunnel under the Strait
of Dover. At the narrowest
place this strait is about
20 miles wide.
Coast. The shore lines of
the British Isles are very
irregular, owing to the sink-
ing of the land (Fig. 321).
The mouths of the rivers are
drowned. Some of the river
Fig. 321. This view on. the coast of southwestern England shows the
irregularity of the coast line. How do you explain this irregularity ? Of
what advantage is it to the nation ? Notice the level land at the head
of the little cove in the foreground, and on the upland. For what purposes
may these level stretches of land be used ?
and firths allow vessels to go far inland with raw
material, and have therefore become very valuable in
the industrial and commercial growth of Great Britain.
Some of the drowned river mouths have been bridged,
and in large cities like London tunnels have been made
under the rivers.
Highlands. Most of the British Isles are a part of
the Northwest Highlands. See map on page 161. In
northern Scotland there are low, picturesque mountains
and many beautiful lakes (Figs. 322, 323). In southern
Scotland, in Wales, in southwestern England, and in
Ireland the upland hilly districts are all that is left
of an old mountain region.
Lowlands. The lowland of England, which extends
from Birmingham to Liverpool, is a busy industrial dis-
trict and the most produc-
tive part of the country. In
central Ireland the lowland
area, which covers about a
third of the whole island,
is an agricultural land. The
lowland extending across
Scotland is located in a belt
where the land dropped
down, forming a deep valley.
This is an industrial district,
but there are many culti-
vated fields here. The south-
eastern lowland plain of
England is a part of the
Central Plains of Europe.
It is a grazing and agricul-
tural region.
BRITISH ISLES
165
Influence c-f the ice-sheet. The portion of the European
ice-sheet (Fig. 317) which moved south westward from
Scandinavia crossed the area where
the North Sea now is and invaded the
British Isles. In time the ice covered
almost all of these islands. When
later the climate became warmer, the
great ice-sheet melted away, but the
deposits of bowldera, the many lakes,
and the glacial markings on the rocks
remain as proofs that the ice was
once there.
Climate. There is some variation
in temperature in the various parts
of the British Isles because of the
differences in latitude and in eleva-
tion ; that is, in general it is colder
in the north and on the small islands
north of Scotland than it is in the
south of England and Ireland, and
colder in the highlands than in the
lowlands. The presence of the sea,
however, prevents any great extremes of temperature.
No part of this land at sea level has a temperature as
Fig. 322. This is a view of Loch Lomond, one of
the beautiful lakes in the Scottish Highlands. To
what type of mountains do these highlands be-
long ? About how high are they ?
Natural resources. The irregular coast line of the
British Isles affords many excellent harbors. The shallow
waters about the coast abound in fish,
and the British fisheries are now
among the richest in the world.
In the British Isles there are many
rivers which have been of great im-
portance in the industrial growth of
the islands. Large ocean vessels can
go fifty miles up the Thames to
London. The Clyde is also navigable,
and ocean vessels pass upstream as
far as Glasgow (Fig. 324). There are
many smaller streams throughout the
British Isles which, because the rain-
fall is heavy and much of the country
is hilly, furnish good water-power.
In the ground men have found
coal, iron, lead, copper, and tin. Coal
is the most important mineral prod-
uct ; and becavise of the nearness of
the coal to the ports, Great Britain
exports more coal than any other country. The tin has
been largely worked out. The finding of iron and coal
low as 32 degrees F. even during January, which is the close together {see map, j}- 171) has made possible the
development of mannfacturing in England, southern
Wales, and southern Scotland. Such big industries as
the shipbuilding of the Clyde have developed because of
the presence of coal and iron in the same locality.
Excellent building stones have been found, including
marble and slate. These building stones are next in
importance to coal and iron. In southeastern England
there is a formation of chalk which is used in making
cement. There are also excellent deposits of clay in
England, which have led to the manufacture of pottery.
Fig. 323. A broader view of Loch Lomond shows how beautiful the scenery is
in the Scottish Highlands. The lakes are surrounded by low, wooded moun-
tains and dotted with islands of different shapes and sizes. On account
of its beauty this region is visited every year by large numbers of tourists
coldest month of the year. The warmest part is around
London, and the temperature there during July is about
0 1 degrees F. The seas about the British Isles never freeze,
and the rivers seldom freeze. When snow comes, it remains
but a few days, except on the higher lands in the north.
The prevailing winds are from the southwest. They
bring an abundance of moisture, and fogs and mists are
very common. The rainfall is heaviest on the western
slopes of the higher lands. See map on page 316.
Fig. 324. The Firth of Clyde, near Glasgow, is lined with wharves where at
any time great ocean-going vessels may be seen loading and unloading their
cargoes and taking on coal and supplies. Locate Glasgow and the Firth of
Clyde on your map. Why has Glasgow become the leading port of Scotland ?
166
BRITISH ISLES
Fig. 325. The men in this picture are Scotch
fishermen whose home is on the northern shore
of the Firth of Forth. The old man is mending
one of their wicker fish-baskets
Fig. 326. These fishing boats are being towed out
to the'fishing banks from one of the Scottish ports
on the North Sea. What different kinds of fish
will be found in their catch ?
Fig. 327. This is the fish market on the wharf at
Aberdeen, where the fishermen bring their catch
to be sold. Why has Aberdeen become an impor-
tant center for the fish business ?
Occupations. The lowlands invited the early inhabitants and other raw materials began to be imported. More
of these islands to undertake farming. In many places the ships were built and more and more of the British people
land is still under cultivation. At
the present time more and more
of the agricultural land is being
used for manufacturing plants.
Fishing was also one of the
earliest occupations and has con-
tinued to grow in importance as
the population has increased.
Large quantities of cod, herring,
mackerel, and sole are brought
in by the fishermen (Figs. 325,
326, 327).
From the earliest days the
highlands and uplands have been
used for the grazing of cattle
and sheep, but for a time the
people sent the wool from their
Fig. 328. The Manchester Ship Canal connects the city of
Manchester with the mouth of the Mersey River. It is deep
enough to allow large ocean vessels to reach the city, making
Manchester an important port
entered commercial life. In time
the manufacturing industries
and commerce became the chief
occupations in the British Isles.
Home tvork. On an outline map of
the world, name and color the differ-
ent parts of the British Empire. See
pages 168 and 169. This will bring
- out clearly the interest which the
British people naturally have in all
parts of the world. British commerce
has been developed largely with the
British colonies. See Appendix, Plate B.
Cities. At the eastern base
of the Pennine Mountains are
Leeds and Bradford, where woolen
goods are manufactured. Water-
power was first used to run the
flocks over to Flanders, and the busy looms of Bruges mills, but now coal is brought from the neighboring coal
and Ghent manufactured most of the English wool, fields. Manchester, connected by canal with the sea, is also
During the time of religious
persecutions in northern Europe
many skillful weavers sought
safety across the Channel, and
weaving soon became a very
common occupation in England.
Large quantities of wool are now
produced in the British Isles and
manufactured in the home mills.
England supplies many other
countries with a high grade of
woolen cloth.
With the great increase in
population, and with the dis-
covery of coal and iron, the
manufacturing plants increased
in number and size, and cotton
Fig. 329. The landing stages at Liverpool are always busy'
and are often crowded with people. Liverpool is the leading
port of Great Britain for the trade with America. What are
its chief exports and imports ?
a manufacturing center (Fig. 328).
Cotton brought here in large
quantities from our Southern
states and from other parts of
the world is manufactured into
cloth. The dampness of the air
on the western side of the
Pennine Range is favorable to
this industry, for the cotton fiber
can be made into cloth more
easily if it is a little moist than
if it is dry.
Liverpool, the coast city nearest
to this remarkable manufactur-
ing district, is one of the greatest
ports in the world and does a
tremendous business (Fig. 329).
BRITISH ISLES
167
Sheffield is famous for its iron-and-steel industry. Coal
is near at hand, and when the industry first started there
was a supply of ii'on. This is now largely exhausted, but
iron is imported from other countries. Excellent grind-
stones are made near Sheffield; they are very important
in the manufacture of cutlery. Birmingham, centrally
located in England, is in another manufacturing dis-
trict. It has an abundance of coal, and its iron-and-steel
industries occupy the time of many thousands of people.
advantage, for the commerce with the countries of westr
ern Europe naturally comes to this port. The river is
lined for miles with docks, and yet there are not places
enough for the vessels that are in this port at one time.
It is commonly reported that London is the largest city
in the world, but that is not true unless the population
of a very large suburban district is taken into consider-
ation. The population of London proper is now a little
smaller than that of New York City. See Appendix.
Fig. 330. This is an aeroplane drawing of London and its surroundings.
The numbers show the location of the following places of interest:
1, Regent's Park ; 2, Kensington Gardens ; 3, Hyde Park; 4, Buckingham
Palace ; 6, British Uuseum ; 6, National Gallery ; 7, Trafalgar Square ;
London, the seat of the British government, is located
at the head of the estuary of the Thames. It is one of the
most interesting cities in the world (Figs. 330, 831, 833).
Its location was first determined by some high ground
on the banks of the Thames, where a bridge could be
built across the river. Modem London has grown up
around this bridge. The city is far inland and is sur-
rounded by plains. Easy means of transportation has
been one of the great natural advantages of its location,
and it has become a railroad and manufacturing center.
Its position on the eastern side of the islands is a natural
^C^ (linn xDii Cotnji^Dy
8, Charing Cross ; 9, Westminster Abbey ; 10, Houses of Parliament ;
11, St. Paul's Cathedral; 12, London Bridge; 13, Tower of London;
14, Victoria Park. At Harrow-on-the-Hill is a famous school for boys which
was founded fifty years before the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth
Picture study. Fig. 330 shows the city of London and its sur-
roundings. Study this figure carefully and answer the following
questions : 1. On what river is London situated ? 2. In what
direction is the river flowing ? 3. Describe the country around
London. 4. Notice the large number of railroads. Why is London
such an important railroad center ? 5. Find London Bridge. This
is near the spot where the first settlement of London was made.
6. Find the Greenwich Observatory. What meridian of longitude
passes through Greenwich? See mop on page 171. The Green-
wich Olservatory was built in 1675, and all English-si>eaking
people measure longitude by the number of degrees eiist or west
of it. 7. Find the location of the Houses of Parliament. This is
where the House of Lords and the House of Commons. meet.
168
BRITISH ISLES
Fig. 331. This is the Tower Bridge in London, so named because it spans
the Thames near the famous old Tower of London. Notice the way in
which the parts of the bridge are raised to allow the boats to pass through.
Name some of the raw materials which are brought to London by water.
From what places do they come ?
Aberdeen, in Scotland, is a university town. It is also
an important fishing port (Fig. 327) and the center of a
manufacturing district. There are important granite
quarries close by.
Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, is beautifully situ-
ated about a picturesque crag on the margin of the
Scottish lowlands, and its busy seaport, Leith, connects
this region with the North Sea and the European ports
(Fig. 332). It is best known for its advanced methods
in banking and insurance and for its excellent medical
school. A trip from Edinburgh to Glasgow takes one
through the lake region of Scotland. Glasgow is located on
the Clyde River,
in the lowlands
of Scotland, near
rich coal and iron
fields. It is in the
midst of one of
the greatest ship-
building regions
in the world. As
a commercial cen-
ter Glasgow ranks
first in Scotland
and second in the
United Kingdom.
Since the Clyde
has been deep-
ened Glasgow has
become a great
modern port, and
Fig. 333. This beautiful church is Westminster Jt is also an im-
Abbey in London. It was built more than seven _+ i. *■ f
hundred years ago and contains many monuments PO^tant center lOr
to famous men. Find its location in Fig. 330 railroad traffic.
Fig. 332. Princes Street is the principal thoroughfare in Edinburgh. In
the foreground of this view are the beautiful public gardens. Beyond the
gardens is the tall monument erected in honor of Sir Walter Scott, the great
Scottish writer. On the hill at the left is the castle which used to be the
home of the Scottish kings
Belfast, in northeastern Ireland, has developed a large
ship-building business. There is an abundance of labor
and excellent facihties for launching vessels at this port
(Fig. 336). Iron, steel, and coal are easily brought by
water from Great Britain. Belfast is also the center for
the manufacture of the wonderful Irish linens. Flax
thread is usually kept moist
during the process of spin-
ning and weaving, and the
climate of Belfast is most
favorable to this industry
(Fig. 335). Much of the flax
used in the manufacture of
the linen is grown in north-
em Ireland, but large quan-
tities are imported from
Belgium, Russia, and the
Baltic countries.
Dublin, the capital of Ire-
land, is near a deep bay
facing England. It is situ-
ated on the east margin of
the central plain of Ireland,
and the produce of this region is brought by way of
canals to Dublin for shipping. This city has also be-
come a center for the manufacture of silk and wool.
Cork, an important city on the south shore of Ireland,
is the port from which are shipped the cattle and dairy
products of southern Ireland.
The British Empire includes (in Europe) the United
Kingdom, Gibraltar, and Malta (Fig. 337) ; (in Asia)
India, Cyprus, Aden, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, Feder-
ated Malay States, Borneo, Hongkong, and a few other
small areas of lesser importance ; (southeast of Asia)
i)£ejsU)DO Tiflw Co.
Fig. 334. Blarney Castle is a pictur-
esque ruin near Cork in Ireland ; it is
visited by large numbers of tourists
BRITISH ISLES
169
Australia, Papua, New Zealand, Fiji, the Tonga Islands,
the Solomon Islands, and the Gilbert Islands ; (in Africa)
St. Helena, Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sieri-a Leone, Gambia,
Soraaliland, East Africa, Uganda, Nyasaland, Union of
South Africa, Rhodesia, Bechuaualand, Egypt, Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan, and other areas in Africa of lesser
importance; (in America) Canada, Newfoundland and
Labi-ador, British Honduras, British Guiana, Bermuda,
British West Indies, and the Falkland Islands. Since the
World War (1914-1918) the British people have control
and direction of affairs in most of the former colonies of
Germany.
The British colonies have been, and continue to be, of
very great value to the people living in the British Isles.
They have served as countries to which British people
could emigrate, and where British capital could be in-
vested. Foods and large quantities of raw material are
Fig. 335. The man in this picture is spreading out linen on a bleaching
green near Belfast. Here the linen will grow white as it lies on the grass
in the sun. Why is the Irish linen industry located in the neighborhood of
Belfast ? Where do the linen manufacturers get their flax ?
imported from the colonies, and manufactured goods are
sent in return. A serious defeat at sea would mean dis-
aster to England's industries, and possibly starvation to
her people.
The great merchant marine, the cables, wireless teleg-
raphy, and the habit of travel have helped to hold the
different parts of the empire together.
Government. The British government is a limited
monarchy. The king inherits his position, but his
power is limited. The executive power is in the hands
of a Cabinet headed by a Prime Minister. Parliament,
which controls most of the affairs of the nation, consists
of a House of Lords and a House of Commons. The
members of the House of Lords inherit their positions,
])ut the members of the House of Commons are elected
by the people.
Problems and review questions. 1. What great explorers came
to America from the I5ritish Isles ? 2. What countries are in-
cluded in Great Britain ? 3. What is meant by the United King-
dom ? 4. How wide is the strait between England and France ?
Fig. 336. This is a view in one of the shipbuilding yards at Belfast. The
hull of a great ocean liner has been completed and it is ready to be launched.
When the signal is given, it will slide off backward into the water. After
it is afloat the workmen will install the machinery and build all the upper
parts of the ship
6. What natural regions extend into these islands ? 6. What
is the highest mountain in Scotland ? See Fig. Sll. 7. Why should
there be heavy rainfall, with many mists and fogs, in these islands?
8. Why are the changes in temperature during the year less thaa
on the mainland ?
9. W^hy did manufacturing become so important in these islands ?
10. What have you seen that was manufactured in England ? in
Ireland ? 11. What natural advantages has London ? Liverpool ?
Sheffield? Belfast?
12. Of what value are the colonial possessions to the people
living in the British Isles ? 13. What advantages are there for
the colonies in belonging to the great British Empire ? 14. What
city is the capital of the British Empire ? 15. About how long does
it take to make the ocean voyage from New York to Liverpool ?
PubiiatMn' Pboto 8«nl«e, Ibo.
Fig. 337. This is the harbor at Malta. See map on page 161, H 8. Tho
large ship in this picture has stopped here to take on coal. It is on its way
from England to Sydney in Australia. Turn to Appendix, Plate B, and
trace its route. How long does this voyage take ? What products will this
ship bring back to England ?
170
NORWAY AND SWEDEN
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172
NORWAY AND SWEDEN
At Trondhjem during two
of the summer months the
nights are light. The sun
goes below the horizon about
midnight, butnotfar enough
to cause absolute darkness.
During two of the winter
months the days are dark,
for the sun is below the
horizon except for a short
time about noon.
Natural resources. 1. Turn to
the map opposite page 216 first.
Where is the tundra of Scan-
dinavia ? 2. Is there any other
part of Scandinavia without
forest ? 3. Turn to the maps on
pages 171 and 201. AVhere are
there iron deposits ? 4. What
Fig. 339. Here is a family of Laplanders whose home is in the northern
part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Notice the shape of their house. Of
what materials do you suppose it is made ? At the left are two reindeer.
What other people who keep herds of reindeer have you studied about ?
lowland area near the coast,
where there are a number of
settlements. The Swedish
people live chiefly in the
southern portion of their
country.
Occupations in Sweden. On
the Baltic Lowland of Swe-
den agriculture is carried on.
The chief crops are oats, rye,
barley, potatoes, and sugar
beets (Fig.- 340). A small
amount of wheat is raised.
Much of Sweden is good
pasture land, and a large
part of the population is
engaged in caring for the
cattle and in dairying.
Both of these occupations are increasing in importance.
Lumbering and the manufacture of woodenware and
kinds of fish are found in the shallow waters of the Baltic ?
5. Where in the vicinity of Norway are cod and herring found?
6. From a study of the two maps referred to, where should ' , • • , , • t, » n t
you expect to find the best agricultural lands? 7. Where is- 'P^P^^ ^^« '^^^^ ^" importance to agriculture. A Swede
water-power likely to be abundant ? 8. From a study of the ; named Lundstrom mvented friction matches, and the
maps make a list of the natural resources of the Scandinavian "^ manufacture of matches has become an immense indus-
Peninsula. 9. How may the beautiful scenery of Norway be made try in Sweden. Logs are imported from Finland and
a valuable natural resource ?
Distribution of people. In the Far North tribes of Lap-
landers wander about with their herds of reindeer or live
in small fishing villages. During the winter they often
travel southward into the forested region, and some-
times a few of them even reach Stockholm (Fig. 339).
The mountainous portion of the Scandinavian Penin-
sula is but thinly populated. Most of the Norwegian
people live in cities or villages near or at the heads of
the great fiords. In southeastern Norway there is a little
Russia to supply the need of wood in the match factories,
and thousands of tons of matches are exported each
year. Many of the Swedish people are engaged in the
herring fisheries of the Baltic Sea.
Large numbers of workmen are needed at the iron
mines. The iron ore is so valuable that a railroad has
been built across the Kiolen Range of the Northwest High-
lands to a point on the Norwegian coast where the harbor
is never ice-bound. Much of this ore is shipped to England
to be smelted, because of the lack of coal in Scandinavia.
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Fig. 340. These women are weeding a field of
sugar beets in the southern part of the Baltic
Lowland. What kind of soil is found here ? What
other crops are raised in this region ?
Fig. 341. The passenger and freight boats steam
far up the Norwegian fiords, stopping here and
there at the little fishing villages. Describe the
life of the people in these villages
Fig. 342. This Norwegian farmer has been cut-
ting hay in the mountain valley above his home.
The bundles of hay are fastened to a trolley and
allowed to slide down to the barn
NORWAY AND SWEDEN
173
Fig. 343. The city of Bergen has grown up at the head of a deep fiord which
forms an excellent harbor. Locate Bergen on the map on page 171. What
is its latitude ? How does its climate compare with that of the east coast
of North America in the same latitude ? What are the leading exports ?
Occupations in Norway. About 70 per cent of Norway
is barren, and about 20 per cent is forested ; therefore
the occupations of the people are chiefly connected with
the sea. Life along the fiords makes the people thor-
oughly familiar with the water. Everyone there knows
how to use a boat, and nearly every man knows how to
build one. Here shipbuilding is a very important industry.
At the heads of many of the fiords there are small
areas that are cultivated. Here vegetables and a little
grain and hay are raised. In the small lowland area in
the southeast there are good farms. High in the moun-
tain valleys some hay is made, for it is very important
to provide fodder for the cows (Fig. 342).
Many Norwegian fishermen go each year to the Arctic
Ocean to engage in seal and whale fishing, and others go
to the North Sea for cod and herring
or to the waters around the Lofoten
Islands to fish for cod. Norway has
furnished many excellent seamen,
and Norwegian ships are seen in
all ports of the world. The beauti-
ful coasts and wonderful mountain
scenery bring thousands of tovtrists
to Norway, and the care of these
people has become an important
occupation.
Cities. Nearly all the cities of the
Scandinavian Peninsula are along
tlie coast. Christiania. the capital of
tlie kingdom of Norway, is in the
most fertile part of that country, on
Christiania Fiord. Bergen, the next city in size, is an
important fish-curing center. Enormous quantities of
fish are shipped from this port (Fig. 343). In the north
Fig. 345. This is a view in a Swedish peasant's
home. The beds are built into the walls like
berths, and are hung with curtains. Notice the
fireplace and the old grandfather's clock
Fig. 344. Stockholm is an important port and shipbuilding center. This
is a view of the shipping district of the city. At the left is the railroad.
Along the water-front are the business buildings and warehouses. Why is
the location of Stockholm less ;f ortunate for a port than that of Bergen ?
are Hammerfest and Tromso. The chief interest of these
cities lies in the whale and seal fisheries.
Stockholm, the capital of the kingdom of Sweden, is
located on Lake Malar. It is built upon islands and
is sometimes called " The Venice of the North." It
has wide streets, large buildings, and many bridges
(Fig. 344). The palace of the king is on one of the
islands. Upsala, the former capital, is a university town.
Gdteborg, the chief port for exports, is connected with
Stockholm by canal and rail. Its harbor is rarely frozen,
while the Baltic ports are blocked with ice for three or
four months each year. Norrkoping, where there are
cotton, woolen, and flour mills, is the chief industrial
center of Sweden. Machinery is also manufactured at
Norrkoping. The port of Malmo is a busy railway center.
Problems and review questions. 1. What
part of Norway should you most like to
visit? 2. When should you prefer to go
there ? 3. What should you expect to see ?
4. Why has Norway not become a great
manufacturing country ? 6. Why is Swe-
den more of an agricultural country than
Norway ?
6. Why has Sweden a drier climate than
Norway ? 7. Why should the ports of
Sweden freeze, while those of Norway re-
main open throughout the winter? 8. What
industries have the Swedish people devel-
oped ? 9. Locate Lapland on the map on
page 201. What are the chief occupations
of the Laplanders ? 10. How is the rein-
deer valuable to the Laplanders ?
11. Why are there no large inland cities
on the Scandinavian Peninsula ? 12. What
is the capital of Norway ? of Sweden ? 13. Why have so many
Norwegians become seafaring people ? 14. What natural resource
of great importance in manufacturing is almost lacking in Sweden?
174
DENMARK
DENMARK
lacking. There are also large plants where engines and
The kingdom of Denmark comprises the peninsula of steel ships are built, and factories where gloves are made.
Jutland and a group of islands lying at the entrance to
the Baltic Sea. The islands, which are more thickly
settled than the mainland of Denmark, are close to the
most densely populated portions of Norway and Sweden,
and the people of the three countries have many interests
in common.
Physical features. Denmark is a lowland country.
See map on page 171. Most of the coast is sandy, and
bordering the shore the waters are very shallow and there
are lagoons shut in
by shifting sand
bars. There are,
therefore, no very
good harbors here.
The harbor at Co-
penhagen is the
only one that can
be entered by the
largest ocean-going
vessels. The sur-
face of the land
is a gently rolling
plain dotted with
marshes and ponds .
Almost every-
where the soils
consist of glacial
deposits left by
the melting of the
great European ice-
sheets (Fig. 317).
Fig. 346. This is a view of the harbor of Copenhagen. Study the location of Copenhagen on the
map on page 171, and notice how near it is to Malmo in Sweden. Trains from Stockholm are
ferried across the water between Malmo and Copenhagen. Why is the location of Copenhagen
favorable to commercial growth ? What things have the ships in this view brought to the city ?
What will they carry away ?
Climate. Cold, raw, misty winds bring an abundance
of moisture to Denmark, and there is sufficient rainfall
for agriculture and stock-raising.
Natural resources and occupations. Four fifths of Den-
mark is farm land, and about one half of this is being
used for pasture. Dairy-farming is the chief occupation
of the people. Cooperative creameries have been estab- explains why the Danish explorer, Eric the Red, who
Denmark has a large commercial fleet, and many of
the people are engaged in the shipping trade.
Copenhagen (trading haven), the capital and the only
large city of Denmark, is located on the narrow sound
which separates Denmark from Sweden. It commands
the important trade route from the Baltic to the North
Sea (Fig. 346).
Colonial possessions. Greenland and the Faroe Islands
are possessions of Denmark. The Faroe Islands supply
the home country
with wool and
mutton, as well as
with large quan-
tities of fish.
Greenland is an
ice-capped island.
The interior is a
vast plateau of ice,
9000 feet high in
some places. The
ice is probably
thousands of feet
thick, and moves
outward toward
the shore, where
in some places it
breaks off and
forms icebergs. It
is like the great
ice-sheets which
were formerly on
the North American continent and on northwestern
Europe. About the shore of Greenland there is a
fringe of old, worn-down mountains. Off the east coast
there is a cold current, making the climate so severe
that the east coast is not inhabited. On the west coast
there is a narrow belt of green tundra country, which
hshed by the farmers, and they are carried on most sys-
tematically. Large quantities of butter are exported.
The skim milk is used for fattening hogs, which are later
sent to cooperative packing-houses. The productive land
is Denmark's greatest resource, and farming will always
be of first importance to the country.
The fishing grounds near Denmark furnish an addi-
tional food supply and a profitable occupation for a
large number of men. A supply of clay, some of which
is of fine quality, is the only valuable mineral resource,
and it has led to the manufacture of pottery. The peat
of the marshes provides some fuel, but coal is entirely
discovered this land, gave it the name " Greenland."
The native people are Eskimos. They fish and hunt the
seal, walrus, and other fur-bearing animals. The largest
settlement is Julianehaab, which has a population of 2500.
Problems and review questions. 1. Describe briefly the physi-
cal features of Denmark. 2. Why are there not many good har-
bors ? 3. Where is the best harbor in Denmark ? 4. With what
countries do the Danish people naturally trade and have many
interests in common ? 5. Why should there be an abundance of
moisture in Denmark ? 6. Why has dairy farming become the
chief occupation of the people ? 7. What other occupations are
followed ? 8. What is the capital and largest city of Denmark ?
9. What colonial possessions has Denmark ?
THE NETHERLANDS
175
Fig. 347. Scattered along the shores of the fiords of Iceland are little fishing
Tillages like the one in this view. Nearly all the people of these villages
depend upon fishing for their living. Except for a few small vegetable
gardens they do no farming, but most of them own a little live-stock
ICELAND
Iceland was for a long time a colonial possession of
Denmark, but in 1919 the mother country granted inde-
pendence to the people of this island. It is a very large
mountainous island with a coast indented by fiords
except on the south side. It rises to an elevation of
6400 feet, and the greater part is covered with snow or
ice. In the southwest there is a very small lowland area
where the few inhabitants live. There are over one hun-
dred volcanoes on the island and many geysers and hot
springs. The country is too cold for agriculture, but
there are rich pastures where sheep, cattle, and ponies
are raised. Fishing also is an occupation followed by
many of the people (Fig. 347). Large quantities of down
are seciu-ed from the eider duck. The capital of Iceland
is Reykjavik, which is on the western side of the island.
Fig. 348. This is a typical scene on the polders of the Netherlands. In the
distance are the Dutch windmills. In the foreground are a few of the many
cattle which feed on the grasses of these fertile meadow lands. Find out
what the word "nether" means, and explain why this country is called
the Netherlands
THE NETHERLANDS
The Kingdom of the Netherlands is also known as
Holland. It is a small country, about the size of Massa-
chusetts and Connecticut combined, but commercially it
is ver}' important.
Physical features. The low, marshy lands are the delta
of the Rhine. Tidal currents coming from the north and
south along the west coast meet opposite the mouth of
the Rhine. The water here is therefore almost quiet,
allowing the sands and silts brought by the river to
settle and make a delta. Elsewhere about the shores of
the North Sea the tides rush into the mouths of the rivers
and then out again, clearing away the sands and silts. The
Rhine has the only large delta in this part of Europe.
Reclaiming the
land. A large part
of the Nether-
lands was of little
real value to man
until the Dutch
people constructed
strong dikes and
'sea walls which
keep the sea out.
They drained por-
tions of the wet
meadow land by
cutting drainage
canals that car-
ried the waters
to lower swamps
and to lagoons.
A number of the
meadows were in-
closed with dikes,
and by pumping the water out they made these meadows
fit to cultivate. Little by little Holland has been made
into a fertile country, three fourths of which is very
productive. Thousands of windmills are still used in
pumping the water from the low meadows, or polders
(Fig. 348), but electric pumps are rapidly replacing the
large, picturesque Dutch mills (Fig. 349).
Although the reclaiming of land from the marshes
and lagoons has steadily continued, more food-producing
land is needed. The privations which resulted from the
great World War have spurred the Dutch nation to renew
their efforts to drain a large part of the Zuider Zee. The
Zuider Zee is an inland body of water so nearly inclosed
that it looks like a lake. Plans are now being made for
work that will cover a period of thirty years and will
reclaim 400,000 acres of land for farming and grazing.
See map on 2)age 171.
C'ourteaj of Williamo, Browa, and £uU
Fig. 349. A nearer view of a Dutch windmill
shows how large these mills are. Compare the
size of the mill with the buildings beside it.
What use is made of these windmills ?
176
THE NETHERLANDS
Floods. At times the
storm waves have succeeded
iu breaking through the
line of dunes that border
the coast, and terrible floods
have resulted. In many
places, however, the sand
dunes, where they form a
sufficiently broad belt, serve
as natm-al dikes.
Natural resources and oc-
cupations. About two fifths
of Holland is pasture land,
and dairy farming* has very
naturally become the lead-
ing occupation (Fig. 348).
Butter and cheese are
among the chief exports.
Courtesy dI Jusepli W. Wfrttiea
Fig. 350. Along the shores of the Zuider Zee are little Dutch fishing
villages. The fishermen build their trim little houses along the water-front
and moor their boats close by. What kinds of fish do the Dutch fishermen
catch ? Why is the North Sea such an excellent fishing ground ?
and chocolate have become
important in the industrial
life of Holland. Great mills
for making woolen and cot-
ton goods and for manu-
facturing linen have been
established.
The lowlands contain ex-
cellent clays, and Dutch
pottery, especially delft-
ware, has become famous
throughout the civilized
world. The loose, rich soil
is excellent for raising
flower bulbs, which are ex-
ported in large quantities.
Fishing and shipbuilding
are also important occupa-
Excelleut breeds of cattle are raised, and large quantities tions of the people of Holland (Figs. 350, 353).
of cottonseed meal and corn are imported to feed the Colonial possessions. The Dutch early realized that
cattle. In this portion of Europe the climate is always they had no great natural resources in their country,
mild, and the pastures remain green throughout the year, and many of them followed the sea or became fishermen.
There are no coal or iron deposits in this country,* When the overland routes through Asia Minor to the
and yet, since Holland is so favorably situated in the Orient were closed on account of troubles with the Turks,
midst of the densest populations of Europe, manufac-
turing has become important. Windmills are used to
run the machinery in many of the factories and saw-
mills. Coal and iron are imported from England and
the Dutch traders undertook to go around Africa to
reach the lands where spices, sugar, and rice could be
obtained. They followed the routes of Portuguese ex-
plorers and established several colonies among the East
Belgium, and raw materials are brought in large quan- Indies. See Appendix, Plate A. These islands are now the
titles from the Rhine valley and from the Dutch East most valuable Dutch possessions, and four fifths of their
Indies. Sugar refining and the manufacture of cocoa trade is with the mother country. See map on page 2G0.
Courteaj o( WiUiams, Brown, and £arle
Ctiuriesj of Joseph W. WortLea
Fig. 351. This boy is a Dutch street merchant.
He harnesses his faithful dog to a little cart, loads
it with the baskets containing his wares, and goes
through the streets selling them
Fig. 352. These Dutchmen are wearing the pictur-
esque native costumes which are now seen only in
the small villages. In the cities the people wear
clothes very much like our own
Fig. 383. The boys and girls in this picture live
in a Dutch fishing village. Their fathers are all
fishermen. Notice their wooden shoes and tho
white caps worn by the little girls
BELGIUM
177
Fig. 354. Rotterdam is a city of many canals. The larger canals are deep
enough to allow the passage of the heavily laden ships from the Dutch East
Indies. What tropical products do these ships bring to Rotterdam ? To what
countries are these products exported ?
Fig. 355. Amsterdam is also a city of canals. The land on which it is
situated is so low and so water-soaked that all the houses are built on piles
to keep them from sinking. The canals divide the city into nearly a hun-
dred islands, all connected by bridges
BELGIUM
The Dutch also hold a few islands in the West Indies
and have a colony on the north coast of South America.
Through their efforts to own other lands they now Belgium has twenty times as many people per square
control an area sixty times as great as that of their mile as has the United States, and ii^ the most densely
home country. populated country in Europe. With England's busy
Cities. Rotterdam is the leading commercial city of mines and factories to the west, the industrial por-
Holland. Some manufacturing is done there, and the tions of Germany and northern France to the east and
excellence of the shipping facilities makes it one of the south, and commercial Holland to the north, Belgium is
busiest ports in Europe. A great part of the foreign in the heart of industrial Europe.
trade of Rotterdam consists in re-exporting the products Physical features. This country is smaller than either
which come from the East Indies, such as spices, sugar, Holland or Denmark. It contains about 11,700 square
coffee, and rubber. In addition to its
vast overeeas commerce it is the
natural. outlet for the valley of the
Rhine (Fig. 354).
Amsterdam, the village built on
the dike of the river Amstel, was for
three centuries a port of the Zuider
Zee and commanded much of the
commerce of the Baltic. Its harbor
began to fill with sand, and dredging
was found to be of no avail, so a
ship canal was cut to the North Sea.
The Zuider Zee lost its commercial
importance, and Amsterdam became
a North Sea port (Fig. 355). It is an
important banking and manufactur-
ing center and is particularly noted
for its diamond-cutting industry.
Between Rotterdam and Amsterdam
is The Hague, the capital of the king-
dom. Leiden has a large publishing
trade. Utrecht, the chief inland town,
is an important railroad junction.
Fig. 356. The city ball at Brussels faces the
market place. The part of the building which can
be seen in this view was completed nearly fifty
years before Columbus discovered America
miles, which is a little less than the
area of the state- of Maryland.
Along the coast there is a belt
of sand dunes, and offshore the
waters are shallow. The lowland
of Belgium is a part of the Cen-
tral Plains of Europe, which widens
southward into France and eastward
into Germany. It is an agricultural
land. The upland area in the south-
east is a part of the Central High-
lands. The elevations here reach to
about 2000 feet, and on the hills
there are pastures and forests.
Climate. The climate is much like
that of southern England, with cool
summers and mild winters. Since
the hills are on the eastern side, the
effect of the moist winds from the
ocean is felt throughout Belgium,
and the rainfall is greater than that
of Germany and the countries farther
east (m the continent.
178
BELGIUM
(E> Rejewae View Co.
Fig. 357. The rich pasture lands of Belgium have
made it possible for the people to raise the finest
draft horses in the world. What other kinds of
live-stock do the Belgians raise ?
) Underwood k Uoderwood
Fig. 358. These men are putting bundles of flax
to soak in the river Lys. This soaking process,
which is called retting, separates the flax fiber
from the softer parts of the stalk
Fig. 359. Belgian dogs are wonderfully intelli-
gent. This dog is his mistress's faithful helper,
drawing her cart through the streets every day as
she delivers milk to her customers
Natural resources. The soils of the lowlands and the Cities. Antwerp, near the mouth of the Scheldt, is the
timber and pastures of the uplands are valuable resources, great seaport of Belgium and is connected by railroads
Belgium is also fortunate in having a remarkable network and canal systems with all parts of the country (Figs.
of navigable streams connected by canals.
The coal located near the French border is the princi-
pal mineral resource. Farther east, iron and zinc have
been found. The local iron supply is nearly exhausted, and
iron is now imported for the modern industrial plants.
There are beds of excellent sands along the seacoast,
which have led to the growth of large glassworks.
361, 363). Brussels, the capital of the kingdom, located
in the central part, is a city of beautiful buildings and
modern streets (Figs. 356, 362). It has become the lead-
ing market for the laces and gloves made in Belgium.
Near the eastern margin of Belgium is the city of
Li^ge. It is the chief industrial center of Belgium.
The most important manufactured articles are firearms,
Occupations. The farms of Belgium, although usually cutlery, glass, and many kinds of machinery. Ghent is
small, are very carefully cultivated. The principal crops the center of the textile industries. Large quantities of
are grains, flax, hemp, fruit, and sugar beets. Sheep- cotton and woolen goods are manufactured here,
raising is a second important occupation of this country. Colonial possessions. Belgian Kongo, in central Africa,
More than half of the people are engaged in farming is a state of Belgium and a very valuable possession. It
or in the care of stock (Fig. 357). It
is impossible, however, to produce in
Belgium enough food for so large a
population, and large numbers of
people are engaged in commerce in
order to bring the necessary food
and raw materials into the country.
Coal-mining and the manufactur-
ing of cotton, wool, linen, iron,
steel, and glass occupy the time of
another very large portion of the
population.
Belgium produces much of the
world's best linen. Some of the flax
is grown at home, but much of it is
imported. The waters of the Scheldt
and the Lys have been found excel-
lent for retting and bleaching the
flax (Fig. 358), and the moist climate,
due to the westerly winds, is espe-
cially favorable for handling the flax
in the process of spinning.
Fig. 360. This is the tamous old belfry at Bruges,
in Belgium. It is older, even, than the City Hall
of Brussels. In the belfry are some beautiful
chimes which visitors always wish to hear
exports each year great quantities
of gold, copper, and other minerals,
as well as large supplies of crude
rubber, palm nuts, palm oil, and
ivory (p. 229).
Problems and review questions. 1. De-
scribe briefly the physical geography of
Holland. 2. Tell how the Dutch have re-
claimed for agriculture lands that were
covered by the sea. 3. How do the people
of Holland make use of the winds ? 4. Why
should dairy farming be so profitable in
the Netherlands ?
5. Explain how Holland has become
an important manufacturing country.
6. Where are the colonial possessions of
the Dutch people ? 7. What are the im-
portant seaports of Holland? 8. What is
the capital of Holland ?
9. Describe the physical features of
Belgium. 10. Why has Belgium become
an important industrial center ? What are
the chief manufactures ? 11. Name the
capital and the chief seaport of Belgium.
MAP STUDIES
179
LUXEMBURG
The duchy of Luxemburg is located in the Central
Highlands of Europe and just southeast from Belgium.
It is a small country of about 1700 square miles. Iron
ore is abundant, and this has led naturally to mining,
smelting, and some manufacturing. The hilltops are in
part forested, but in the valley bottoms and on the lower,
gentler slopes the lands are cultivated.
Luxemburg is the capital and chief city of the duchy.
i) ExcliuiTe ^ewB Ageaoj. Koebampton
Fig. 361. This is a view along the wharves at Antwerp. At the right is
the old castle of Antwerp, called the Steen. The mouth of the river Scheldt
has been deepened to admit large ocean vessels, making Antwerp one of
the chief ports of Europe. What are the exports and imports of Antwerp ?
MAP STUDIES
(^Use map between pages ISl and 184)
1. Prepare the following table, which shall have four col-
umns: In the first column place the names of the countries
entirely included within the area of this map ; in the second
column, opposite the names of the countries, write the names
of their chief seaports ; in the third column, opposite the
names of the chief seaports, place the name of the river on
which each por>-is located ; in the fourth column write the
name of the capital of each of the countries.
2. What seaport serves Paris ? 3. With what countries is
most of the trade of that port carried on ? 4. Judging from
tlie exports from Bordeaux, what should you think are the
leading occupations of the people in soutlieni France ?
6. In which country is a part of the land below sea level
and not covered by water? The dotted area northeast of
Amsterdam shows the land that the Dutch people are plan-
ning to reclaim from the Zuider Zee.
6. Judging from the products in the Netherlands, what
should you think are the chief occupations of the people in the
country districts ? 7. In what portion of Germany are the
coal and iron deposits ? 8. Where are the supplies of potash
in Germany? 9. What seaport serves Berlin best through-
out the year? 10. Describe the location of the Kiel Canal.
t Soma AijeDcj, KocLampton
Fig. 362. This is the Palais de Justice (Palace of Justice) in Brussels. It is
a very large modern building, in contrast to the many very old buildings
which the city contains. Judging from its name, what use do you think is
made of this great building ?
11. What inland water route could you follow from Rotter-
dam to Marseille ? 12. Describe an inland water route from
Havre to Bordeaux by way of Lyon. 13. Describe the inland
water route from Rotterdam to Vienna. If you went on down
the Danube, what capital cities should you pass ? To what sea
should you finally come ?
14. Describe an inland water route from Hamburg, through
Berlin, to Warsaw. 1 5. Judging from the products of Poland,
what must be the occupation of most of the people ? 16. In
what part of Poland is there a supply of coal? 17. What
geographic advantages has the location of Prague ? 18. What
resources are found in the mountains of Austria ?
19. Judging from the chief products of Hungary, what
should you think is the principal occupation of the people in
that country ? 20. What advantage can you see in the loca-
tion of a seaport as far inland as ocean vessels can go?
21. What seaports in Europe clearly illustrate this advantage ?
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Fig. 363. The Cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp is the largest and most
beautiful church in the Low Countries. It contains many beautiful paintings.
Among them are the original works of some of the greatest European
painters. For many years Antwerp has been the center of Belgian art
180
FRANCE
Fig. 364. This is a view of part of the harbor of Dunkirk on the northern point for the manufactured goods of this district. How should you describe
coast of France. Dunkirk has extensive wharves and docks and has become the surface of the land here ? Locate Dunkirk on the map on page 171.
the chief importing center for the raw materials that are needed for the In what natural region is it situated ? Explain how the geographical
industrial district of northern France. It is also the principal exporting location of Dunkirk has influenced its development as an industrial port
FRANCE
Physical features. Use map on page 161. There is no
natural division between Belgium and France ; it is a
purely political line. The lowland plain of Belgium con-
tinues southward, widening to include the Paris Basin,
and farther south widening again in the valley of the
Garonne.
The uplands of southeastern Belgium continue into
northern France and are connected by a narrow upland
belt with the Central Plateau of France.
The Upland of Brittany is a hilly region. It is an old,
worn-down mountain country. The Vosges Mountains
in eastern France are an old, worn-down range. Farther
east are the rich lowlands in the valley of the Rhine.
The part of these lowlands that is west of the Rhine
belongs to France. South of the valley of the Garonne
are the young and rugged Pyrenees Mountains that form
the boundary between France and Spain. In the south-
east beyond the valley of the Rhone are the Jura and Alps.
MAP STUDIES
1. Use map between pages 181 and 184. Locate the uplands
of Brittany. 2. Locate the lowland of the SaSne-Rhone valley.
3. Where are the Jura Mountains of France ?
4. The boundary line between France and Italy is along
the crest of what mountain range ? How high is Mt. Blanc ?
In what country is it located ? 5. The boundary line between
France and Spain is on the crest of what mountain range ?
6. Locate the Vosges Mountains and determine whether
or not they are forested. See map opposite page 216. These
mountains rise over 5000 feet above sea level, and yet they
are only the stumps of mountains which were formerly
lofty peaks.
7. Locate the Central Plateau of France. In this region
great volcanoes broke forth many years ago and built up
cones, some of which rise to elevations of 6000 feet above
the sea. Floods of lava have come from these volcanoes and
flowed out over the surrounding country.
8. What part of the lowland of the middle Rhine belongs
to France ? 9. What river systems have been connected by
canals? More than half of France is less than 600 feet in
elevation. This has made the building of roads, canals, and
railways relatively easy.
10. The sinking of western Europe, which also affected Eng-
land and Scandinavia, caused the drowning of the mouths of
the French rivers which flow into the English Channel and
the Bay of Biscay. Make a list of the large estuaries along
these shores. 11. What state in the United States is of
about the same size as France ?
Climate. The winds from the Atlantic Ocean bring
moisture and also help to prevent great extremes in
temperature in France. Since the higher lands are not
near the coast, the effect of the winds is felt far inland.
In no part of France except on the high mountain peaks
is there a long period of winter frost, and only in the
south, Avhicli has a Mediterranean climate, are the sum-
mers very hot.
The annual rainfall over most of France is about 30
inches, which is enough for agriculture. The heaviest
rainfall, about 70 inches, is received in the western part
of the Pyrenees. In the higher parts of the Central
Plateau and in the Vosges Mountains about 60 inches
of rain falls each year. Western and northern France
receive rain during each month, but in the area border-
ing the Mediterranean the summers are dry and the rain
comes during the winter.
MODERN FARMING IN THE FIELDS OF FRANCE
FRANCE
181
Underwood A Undenrooil
Fig. 365. This French f^lrmer and his boys have Fig. 366. This French woman of Brittany is busy
harvested their wheat and brought it in from the mending one of her husband's fishing nets. What
fields. One by one the bundles are put through the kinds of fish are caught in these nets ? What are
threshing machine, which is turned by hand other occupations of the people of Brittany ?
Fig. 367. Along the Brittany coast many acres
of tidal flats are used for raising oysters. The flats
are divided into square beds where the oysters are
planted and grown for the Paris market
Natural resources. France is a land of much variety
but without great wealth in mineral resources. There
are coal and iron fields in the north along the Belgian
border and in Lorraine, and France owns the coal mines
in the Sarre valley. See map on page 171. There is also
a good supply of coal and iron in the eastern part of the
Central Plateau near St. Etienne. These resources have
naturally encouraged manufacturing and have given
rise to important industrial centers. Water-power from
the Vosges, the Jura, and the Alps is of great value
in the industrial development. The soils are fertile,
and the broad lowland areas have helped to make
France an agricultural country.
The rivers have furnished an easy and cheap means
of transportation, and France's position, bordering on
three important seas, affords distinct advantages for
the development of foreign commerce.
Home work. 1. Find out all you can about the life of the
French peasants. 2. Ask some acquaintance who was a soldier
ill France to tell you of the country and of his experiences with
the French people.
Occupations. The mining and manufacturing in north-
ern France have led, to the growth of several industrial
centers. In Lille, Valenciennes, St. Quentin, and Amiens
woolen, cotton, and linen goods are manufactured.
Dunkirk is the French outlet for this industrial district
(Fig. 364). On the coast are the fishing towns of Calais
and Boulogne ; these towns are also stations for the
channel boats
In the vicinity of the Vosges, where there is water-
power and easy commimication with coal fields, the
manufacture of cotton has been promote^. Lorraine is
the leading cotton-manufacturing center of France.
Much of the cotton is brought from the United States
and carried far up the Seine and thence by canals to
the manufacturing towns.
1 Some of the cities located on the larger navigable
streams of the lowlands (notably Paris and Rouen) are
important manufacturing centers. Raw materials and
coal are easily brought to those cities.
The broad, open lowlands of the Paris Basin are used
for agriculture. Here it has been possible to raise a
large part of the wheat needed by the French people
(Fig. 365). Many other cereal crops and large quantities
of sugar beets and flax are also raised here.
Over half of the population of France is engaged in
agriculture. Those who do the farming commonly own
their farms but do not live on them. They live in small
villages and each morning walk out perhaps two or three
miles to work. They are a happy people, who enjoy their
work in the fields and also the social side of village life.
In the uplands of Brittany the soil conditions "are not
very favorable to agriculture. Dairy-farming, market-
gardening, and sheefhraising are commonly carried on.
Along the coast fishing is the usual occupation of tho
people (Figs. 8(5(), 3G7). In the highlands the quarrying
of granite, for use as building stone, is of importance.
The Central Plateau is far enough south so thai the
lower slopes can be used for the cultivation of i^rapes,
and the manufacture of wine is carried on ui re. The
high tracts of poorer land are used for tlie grazing of
cattle, sheep, and goats.
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184
FRANCE
Fig. 368. This is a thriving silk-manufacturing town southeast of Lyon.
It is situated on the western edge of the highlands. The long, low buildings
in the foreground are the silk mills. Why has this district become an im-
portant silk-manufacturing center ? Where does the raw silk come from ?
Near Limoges, on the western slope of the plateau, there
are excellent clays, which have led to the manufacture
of china. In the eastern part of the Central Plateau,
between the Loire and the Rhone, where coal and iron
have been found, there is an industrial center. The best
French steel is produced in the region of St. Etienne.
Large quantities of raw silk are easily brought from the
Rhone valley, and silk goods and ribbons are manufac-
tured here on a large scale. A little farther north, in
the valley of the Loire, is a center for the manufacture
of cotton and woolen goods.
The lowland of the Garonne valley is another agri-
cultural district where wheat and maize are raised. The
grapevine flourishes in this warmer climate, and great
quantities of wine are shipped from Bordeaux to various
parts of the world.
Southern France has the Mediterranean climate, and
here, in addition to the grape-
vine, the people cultivate the
olive, plum, walnut, and, in
some parts, orange and lemon
trees. The mulberry is raised
for the silkworm, and Lyon
has become one of the most
important centers in the
world for the manufacture of
silk goods (Fig. 368). Some
of the silk used at Lyon is
produced in the Rh8ne valley,
but the home supply is not
nearly enough. Great quanti-
ties of raw silk are imported
every year from Italy, China,
and Japan.
In the Alpine district the soils are poor, the fields are
very limited, and the climate is not suitable for growing
cereals ; but cattle, sheep, and goats are raised, and manu-
facturing has been undertaken. Water-power, which the
French call white coal, is abundant in this part of the
Fig. 370. The wharves at Marseille are always crowded with freight.
Some of the goods are imports which will be sent by train to different
parts of France. Others are exports ready to be loaded on ships for
various parts of the world. Name some of these goods
OooHMj of Juaepb W. Wunhi-ii
Fig. 369. The building with the two towers is the Cathedral of Notre Dame
in Paris. It is situated on the small island in the Seine where the first
settlement of Paris was made. Find its location in Fig. 371. The construc-
tion of this cathedral was begun over seven hundred years ago
country and has helped the cities near the high mountains
to develop into manufacturing centers of importance.
Principal rivers and cities. The navigable rivers of
the world have always been great highways of travel,
and most of the large cities of the world have developed
near those rivers. By far the greater nvmiber of the
large cities of France are located on the waterways.
Paris, the capital of the French republic, is a very
beautiful city, with broad boulevards and numerous
buildings of unusual interest (Figs. 369, 371). In its
great museums are many of the world's most precious
works of art. This city is located on the Seine and is
in the midst of a rich agri-
cultural country. It is also on
the highway of travel from
the Mediterranean countries
northward through the valley
of the Sa6ne-Rh8ne system
and down the valley of the
Seine. Paris is an important
railroad center and is also a
port for the smaller ocean-
going vessels.
Many different industries
were established here because
it was easy to bring in raw
material and to distribute
manufactured goods from
this center.
FRANCE
185
Picture study. Fig. 371. 1. On what river is Paris situated ?
2. How should you describe the country surrounding Paris ?
3. What river joins the Seine southeast of the city ? 4. What can
you tell about the Marne ? 6. Notice the ring of forts which sur-
rounds Paris. How many forts are there ? These forts, like the
wall, were built many years ago, when it was believed that every
great city should be strongly protected against attack. To-day they
have no military value. 6. Find the Bois de Boulogne. " Bois "
is the French word for forest. The Bois de Boulogne (Forest
of Boulogne) is a beautiful wooded park. Among the Parisians
it is a favorite spot for walking, driving, and horseback riding.
Bordeaux is another city at the head of an estuary. In
addition to being a port for the shipment of wine it is
an important manufacturing center.
Lyon has been referred to as a leading city in the
manufacture of silk ; it is one of the important cities
on the Rhone. At the mouth of this river is Marseille,
one of the largest ports on the Mediterranean. It is an
ancient city which has grown so rapidly of late years
that its harbor facilities have been greatly increased to
Fig. 371. This is an aeroplane drawing of Paris and its surroundings. The
numbers indicate the location of the following places of interest: 1, Hont-
martre ; 2, Arc de Triomphe ; 3, Avenue des Champs Elys^es ; 4, EiSel Tower;
6, Champ-de-Mars ; 6, Place de la Concorde; 7, Palais des Tuileries; 8, Louvre;
9, Palais du Luxembourg ; 10, Notre Dame ; 11, Jardindes Plantes; 12, Place
Rouen, below Paris on the river Seine, is a center for
cotton-manufacturing. The largest ocean steamers ascend
the river to this point. At the mouth of the estuary is
Havre, the " haven," or port, of Paris. Here there are
over eight miles of quays, and a flourishing trade is
carried on with the chief seaports of the world.
Along the Loire, which is the longest river in France,
Orleans, Tours, and Nantes are located. Nantes is at the
head of the estuary of the Loire and serves as a seaport.
Orleans and Tours are small manufacturing cities.
On the banks of the Garonne are Toulouse and Bor-
deaux. Toulouse is in the midst of good farming country.
It is connected by a canal with the Mediterranean Sea.
Gtan tod CompuiJ
de la Bastille. The first settlement of Paris was made on the island in the
Seine where the Cathedral of Notre Dame now stands. Notice the wall
which surrounds the city. It was built many years ago in the days when
cities were walled for safety against the attack of enemies. It is now being
torn down, and in the future its site will be marked only by a boulevard
accommodate the vessels which come there (Fig. 370).
Grenoble, the largest city in the French Alps, is an
industrial center and the market for the gloves manu-
factured in many of the neighboring villages.
East of Marseille, on the Mediterranean coast, is Toulon.
The coast beyond there is commonly known as the Riviera;
it is a region of great beauty, with a delightful winter
climate. The city of Nice is a noted health resort on the
Mediterranean coast (Fig. 373). At Grasse a large part
of all the flowep perfumery used in the world is made.
On the hillsides roses and other flowers are raised, and
the perfumery is made from the oil which is pressed
from the blossoms.
186
FRANCE
UuderwouU ii Underwood
Fig. 372. Strasbourg is the chief city of Alsace, one of the provinces lost
by France in a war with Germany many years ago, and restored to France
at the end of the World War in 1918. This view shows one of the public
squares in Strasbourg. In what lowland is the city located ?
Colonial possessions. Like most of the countries of
western Europe, France has sent expeditions to various
parts of the world and helped to colonize distant lands.
Her possessions now include Corsica, Algeria, Tunis,
and Morocco, a large part of the Sahara and the Sudan,
Upper Nigeria, and the country north of the Kongo, the
island of Madagascar, a part of Somaliland, the island of
Reunion in the Indian Ocean, five cities in India, French
Indo-China, and French Guiana. The islands of St. Pierre
and Miquelon off the shore of Newfoundland, a few
small islands in the West Indies, and a few in the Pacific
Ocean also belong to France. Several of the colonies
send representatives to the French parliament, and
Algeria is treated in many ways as a part of France.
The colonies furnish markets to which the manufac-
tured goods from the French factories can be sent, and
in return the French receive large quantities of raw
material and certain tropical foods which they cannot
raise in their own country.
Home work. 1. On an outline map of the world, color in the
colonial possessions of France. 2. Mark the chief lines of travel be-
tween these colonies and the home country. See Appendix, Plate B.
The Sarre Basin is a small area lying southeast of
Luxemburg and northeast of France in the valley of
the Sarre River. Although small in size, this area is
very important because of the rich beds of coal which it
contains. For many years before the World War this
basin with its valuable coal mines belonged to Germany.
France now owns the coal supply, but in 1934 a popular
vote is to be taken to decide whether the people wish
to become a part of France or to be under the political
control of Germany. Until that vote is taken the gov-
ernment of the Sarre Basin will be directed by a
commission appointed by the League cf Nations.
Problems and review questions. 1. What natural regions of
Europe extend into France ? 2. What advantage is it to the coun-
try to have the highlands and mountains in the east rather than
in the west ? 3. In what part of France are the chief coal fields ?
4. In what part is the water-power most abundant ?
5. On what seas does France border ? 6. Why should farming
be one of the chief occupations of the French people ? 7. In what
parts of France are the growing of grapes and the manufacture
of wine especially important ? 8. From what port is much of
the wine shipped ?
9. Of what advantage to France is a Mediterranean seaport ?
10. Name five large cities in France and explain the location and
growth of each. 11. Explain why so many of the larger cities are
on the rivers. 12. In which continent are most of the colonial pos-
sessions of France located ? 13. Of what value are they to France ?
iiroHii. luiij hftrle
Fig. 373. This is a view of the harbor of Nice on the Riviera coast of France.
Besides being a popular health resort Nice is also a port of some importance.
Here on the wharf are barrels of olive oil and wine ready to be shipped away.
Many people from northern Europe go to Nice each winter to enjoy the mild
cUmate and the clear blue skies, just as people from the cooler parts of the
United States like to spend their winters in the warmer parts of the coun-
try. Locate Nice on the map between pages 181 and 184. Can you explain
the mildness of the climate in the winter months on this Riviera coast ?
SWITZERLAND
187
SWITZERLAND
In the high mountains east of France and south of
Germany, among most beautiful surroundings, live the
Swiss, a strong, brave,
liberty-loving people.
Their land is with-
out large mineral re-
sources, without broad
fields for agriculture,
and without any coast
line; yet Switzerland
has become one of the
most prosperous of the
small nations. Because
of the wonderful moun-
tain scenery afforded
by the Alps, Switzer-
land is probably vis-
ited by more travelers
from foreign lands than
any other country in
the world.
Physical features.
Fig. 374. This is a view among the high summits of the Alps, where there is snow
throughout the entire year. Can you explain why the snow does not melt here in summer ?
Are the Alps old, worn-down mountains or young, rugged mountains ? What other moun-
tains of Europe are of the same type as the Alps ? What is the highest peak in the Alps ?
At the same time that the continental ice-sheet melted
away, the mountain glaciers became shorter. They left
sand, gravel, and bowlders strewn on the surface where
they had rested. Some
of this material blocked
the drainage and thus
formed beautiful lakes
high in the mountains
(Fig. 375). A number
of the rock basins
which were gouged out
by glaciers also contain
lakes. Almost all of
the soil of Switzerland
is of glacial origin.
Climate. Because of
the altitude of Switzer-
land there are heavy
rains and heavy snow-
falls and no very warm
weather. The slopes
that face to the south
are much warmer than those that face to the north. The
The Jura mountains extend into
the northwestern part of Switzerland, and in the south- summer climate attracts many visitors who are looking
east are the lofty peaks of the Alps. Between these two for a cool region, while the winter climate calls those who
mountain ranges there is a narrow plateau belt where enjoy the brisk, cold air and the skating, tobogganing,
there are many hills and many beautiful lakes (Fig. 375). and skiing.
The Alps rise to elevations of from 10,000 to 15,000 feet Natural resources and occupations. There is not much
above sea level. Among their summits snow remains agricultural land in Switzerland, but the small areas
throughout the year, and little
by little the snow-fields become
so thick that ice forms at the
bottom and moves down the
valleys as glaciers (Fig. 374).
These Alpine glaciers freeze about
the stones and loose material be-
neath them on the canyon floors,
and shod with such sharp tools
they deepen the canyons and
gouge out great basins as they
move forward. Stones and soil
rattle down the mountains and
come to rest on the top of the ice.
When northwestern Europe was
covered by a great ice-sheet, the
glaciers in Switzerland were much
longer than they now are. They
extended through the canyons
in the mountains to the plateau
country northwest of the Alps
and southward beyond Switzer-
land to the plain of northern Italy.
Fig. 375. Lake Geneva is one of the several beautiful lakes
which occupy the plateau between the Alps and the Jura
Mountains. This view was taken from the hill overlooking
Montreuz, a city located at the eastern end of the lake
that are suitable for agriculture
are cultivated intensively. The
steep, sunny hillsides are terraced
and used for raising grapes. Many
of the Swiss people have taken up
dairying, and each summer they
send their cattle, sheep, and goats
high into the mountains in order
to save the grass which grows in
the valleys for hay (Fig. 376).
The young boys of the family
often go with the stock to these
high pastures, called alps, and
remain there until fall, caring
for the animals and making the
butter and cheese (Fig. 379). The
flocks and herds are brought to
the lower lands for the ^\inter,
and the return to the home is
accompanied by great rejoicing.
It is a festival time, when friend-
ships are renewed after a long
period of separation.
188
SWITZERLAND
Di^oalil MuLouh, Loudaa
Fig. 376. This Swiss farmer is hauling home a
load of hay which he has cut in one of the moun-
tain valleys. The hay will be used to feed his
cattle during the winter months
Fig. 377. The Swiss wood-carvers are very skill-
ful. This man is carving little models of animals
from solid blocks of wood. Why have the Swiss
developed so many home industries ?
Fig. 378. Here is a Swiss peasant with his alpen-
horn. Years ago these great horns were blown to
sound the charge in battle, but now they are used
to call the cattle from the pastures
Besides the butter and cheese made from the milk of
the cows and goats the Swiss people produce large quan-
tities of condensed milk and manufacture milk chocolate
for export. The skins of the goats and kids are used in
the manufacture of gloves.
Coal is not found in Switzerland, but the forests yield
abundant fuel and also huge logs for timber and for
or trails. Hotels and resting places have been built high
among the mountains, and every arrangement is made
for the comfort of the traveler. Special guides are su}>
plied to those who wish to cross the glaciers or climb
the high peaks.
Government. The Swiss have a republican form of
government, and each of the twenty Swiss cantons,
building homes (Fig. 380). Most of the forests are na- which are political divisions somewhat like our states,
tional reserves, controlisd by the government as the sends representatives to the national congress. Switzer-
national forests in the United States are. The plentiful
supply of hard wo'^ds has led many of the people to take
up the art of wood-carving, for which they have ample
time during the cold winter months (Fig. 377).
Water-power is abundant, and Switzerland has long
been famous for the manufacture of small, light articles
which can be easily transported, such as jewelry, lace,
toys, watches, and clocks. The water-
power is now transformed into elec-
tricity and used in cotton and silk
mills.
The Swiss have undertaken another
remarkably profitable industry in
which they use electricity. They have
learned to take nitrogen from the
air and make a fertilizer which is
sold to the neighboring agricultural
peoples in large quantities. This was
very clever of the Swiss people, for
there is plenty of air, and plenty of
power, and plenty of limestone, which
is used in making this fertilizer.
Other people also make a fertilizer
in this way.
The caring for travelers gives occu-
pation to many of the inhabitants.
Where travel was at first very difficult
the Swiss have built excellent roads
Donald McLeisb, LomJon
Fig. 379. Here are some of the Swiss dairy cattle
grazing over an upland pasture. At what season
of the year do you think this picture was taken?
Why has dairying become an important Swiss
industry ?
land is one of the oldest republics in the world.
Cities. Bern, the capital, has a picturesque location
on a bluff, about the base of which flows the river Aar.
Its old fortifications have been transformed into prome-
nades, which command wonderful views of the snowy
Alps. Zurich is the largest city and an important rail-
road center, where connections are made for France,
Austria, and Germany, and by way of
the St. Gotthard tunnel for Italy. It
is also a center for the manxifacture
of cotton and silk and of textile and
electrical machinery. Basel is the
second largest Swiss city. Its ribbon
manufacture is important. Merchan-
dise from all parts of central and
northern Europe is brought here for
shipment over the St. Gotthard rail-
way to Italy and to the Balkan States.
Geneva, beautifully located at the
lower end of Lake Geneva and near
the point where the KhSne enters
France, is an educational and indus-
trial center. Jewelry and scientific in-
struments are manufactured here on
a large scale. Geneva has long been
famous for its watches and clocks.
Formerly these were made by hand,
but now they are made by machinery.
J
GERMANY
189
Waterways. Germany is
fortunate in having access to
the North and Baltic seas
and in having a remarkable
system of inland waterways.
The Rhine rises in the Alps,
flows through the fertile low-
land of its middle course and
the beautiful gorge in the
Central Highlands, and then
crosses the open lowlands of
western Germany.
The Weser, Elbe, and Oder
rise in the Central Highlands
and flow northward across
the lowland plain of Germany.
The first two flow into the
North Sea, but the Oder
reaches the Baltic. Each of
these three rivers has a broad
estuary, or drowned mouth, which has made it possible
for ocean-going vessels to go far inland. The cities of
Bremen, Hamburg (Fig. 381), and Stettin, at the heads
of these estuaries, while enjoying all the advantages
of inland positions, are thus important seaports.
There are 1500 miles of canals in Germany (see map
Europe, which is here often called the Plain of North between pages 181 and 184), and with the rivers they
Germany ; (2) a large portion of the Central Highlands, make a network of water routes that furnish a cheap
where there are many old, worn-down mountain ranges ; means of transportation throughout the lowland country.
(3) some of the rich Middle Rhine Plain ; and (4) a small From the Rhine a boat may pass by means of canals
portion of the northern slope of the Alps. The coast line into the Danube. From the Elbe it is possible for a
is low and sandy and offshore the waters are shallow, boat to pass to the Vistula, and then to the Black Sea.
Problems and review questions.
1. What t'ouutries border Switzer-
land ? 2. Name two rivers of com-
mercial imi)ortance that rise in the
Alps of Switzerland. 3. What dis-
advantages do the Swiss people
have to contend with ? 4. W^hat
is the local supply of fuel in this
country ?
6. Why should water-power be
so abundant in this country ?
6. Why have the Swiss people
engaged in manufacturing small,
light articles? 7. Tell something
of interest about each of the four
leading cities of Switzerland.
8. How do the many visitors
to Switzerland help the country ?
9. What advantages would there
be in visiting this country during
winter? during summer? 10. What
do you suppose the children of
Switzerland do for recreation?
^ Exclusife NewB Agcocj, Hoeti&mptoa
Fig. 380. The streams that tumble down the mountain sides in
Switzerland provide a large amount of water-power. The waterfall in
this view is being used to run a small sawmill, where the logs which
are cut on the mountain slopes are sawed into boards. For what other
purposes is the water-power used in Switzerland ?
Home tDork: 1. Head the story of William Tell. 2. Look up the
names and descriptions of the great tunnels through the Alps.
GERMANY
Natural regions. Germany includes parts of four natu-
ral regions : (1) a broad stretch of the Central Plains of
Fig. 381. This is a view along one of the canals in Hamburg, the second
city and chief port of Germany. Locate Hamburg on the map on page 171.
How has its location led to its development as a great commercial city ?
What landlocked nation of central Europe may use Hamburg as a seaport ?
Fig. 382. This is Humboldt's Harbor in Berlin. This harbor is part of the
extensive canal system which connects Berlin with the Oder and Elbe rivers.
Locate Berlin on the map between pages 181 and 184. In what natural region
is it situated ? How is its location advantageous for trade and transportation?
190
GERMANY
Fig. 383. This i8 a view of the Rhine near Bonn. Notice the terraced hillsides and the location
of the city on the narrow strip of low, flat land immediately bordering the river. The Rhine is
a very important commercial highway, and small vessels ascend the river as far as Strasbourg.
From Strasbourg the Rhone-Rhine Canal connects the Rhine with the Saone-Rhone waterway
to Marseille. Trace this water route between the mouths of the Rhine and the Rhone on the
map between pages 181 and 184
Internationalized waterways. In 1919, by the terms
of the peace treaty that closed the World War, certain
navigable rivers that could be used by several nations
were internationalized, or declared open and free for the
use of all nations on equal terms. This arrangement
Lowland plain. This is the most exten-
sive agricultural region of Germany. It is
covered with glacial material left by the
ice-sheet. These glacial deposits, especially
in eastern Germany, are in places very
sandy, but even in these light soils pota-
toes, sugar beets, and rye are important
crops. Germany has been the greatest pro-
ducer of sugar beets in the world. Along
the shores of the Baltic flax and hemp
are raised.
In the region bordering Denmark the
lowlands of Germany are favorable to the
grazing of cattle, and here dairy farming
is an important occupation. In the north-
east German lowlands large numbers of
sheep and goats are raised. In places the sands of the
lowlands are used in the manufacture of glass.
Central Highlands. These highlands consist of very
old rocks, which contain rich mineral deposits. It is
the resources found in the ground, such as coal, iron,
was made so as to give the countries in the interior of zinc, lead, copper, and potash, which have had the most
Europe an easy means of shipping goods by water and profound influence upon the development of Germany
engaging in foreign trade. Those people now have the during the last fifty years. The coal and iron ore are
right to use these rivers just as much as if they flowed usually found together ; this fact has helped the growth
entirely through their own lands. of great iron and steel manufactures.
The Rhine is internationalized as far as it is navigable. As the resources were discovered and men invented
and is a great highway of trade (Fig. 383). The Elbe is machinery western Germany rapidly became one of the
internationalized upstream to its junction with the Mol- leading industrial districts of the world (Fig. 385). The
dau River, on which Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia, manufacture of all forms of cutlery, hardware, and
is located. The Oder is internationalized to the mouth of machinery was actively promoted. Textile industries
the Oppa. In the south the Danube is internationalized expanded as machinery was invented, and now large
as far as Ulm. The peace treaty also requires that the quantities of raw cotton, wool, and silk are brought
Kiel Canal and its approaches shall be maintained free up the German rivers to the manufacturing centers.
and open to vessels of all nations at peace with Germany,
on equal terms (Fig. 384). At Hamburg and at Stettin
free zones have been established and leased to Czecho-
slovakia so that this inland state may have some of
the advantages of these seaports.
Climate. The rainfall throughout Germany is suffi-
cient for agriculture, but there is more rain in the west-
ern part than in the east. Because of their elevation the
higher lands in the south have about the same tempera-
ture as the lowlands in the north. North Sea ports are
open all the year, but the bays and inlets of the Baltic
and the estuaries of the rivers which flow into the Baltic
are frozen during a part of the winter. That is because the
Baltic Sea is shallower, less salty, and much more nearly
inclosed by land than the North Sea.
We may now consider the resources in each of the ^^2- 38*. The harbor at Kiel forms the e«.uia euuuu.c ,. lu. ...ei Canai,
, 1 ■ e r^ 1 iio!,.! which connects the Baltic and North seas. See map on page 171, J/l i. The
natural regions of Germany, and see what effect they ^^^j ^3 gj^y^ne miles long and is deep enough to allow the passage of
have had on the occupations of the people. good-sized ocean vessels. To what nations is it of the greatest use ?
GERMANY
191
Deposits of excellent clay have been found, which is used
in the manufacture of china and porcelain. Potash is also
obtained in the highland region. It is used in making
fertilizers, and thus has helped to promote agriculture.
The forests in the region of the Central Highlands
have long received scientific care. The supply of timber
has led to lumbering and the manufacture of paper,
woodenware, and toys. On the plateau north of the
Alps many excellent cattle are raised. Farming is also
a profitable occupation of the people here (Fig. 386).
Fig. 385. In spite of the fact that Germany has many great industrial cities
where manufacturing is carried on upon a large scale, many of the people
are still engaged in home industries. The members of the family in this
picture, who live on the edge of the Black Forest, earn their living by
making rug-beaters from rattan
The Danube, which rises in the Black Forest only a
few miles from the Rhine, flows through this highland
region, receiving several large tributaries from the south.
At the head of navigation on the Danube is the old
town of Ulm, where there is a beautiful cathedral and
many buildings of historic interest. Munich is located on
one of the tributaries of the Danube not far from the
north base of the magnificent Alpine Range. It is in the
midst of a forested region, where the lower slopes are
used as pasture lands. It is an important railway center.
The Rhine flows through the Central Highlands in, a
picturesque gorge, ^oblenz, a very busy river port and
manufacturing city, is located in this gorge at the point
where the Moselle joins the Rhine (Fig. 387). Cologne is
near the place where the Rhine leaves the gorge in the
highlands and enters the lowland plain of Germany.
Middle Rhine Plain. The Rhine receives its headwaters
from the melting snows of the Alps, and turning north-
ward from Basel flows into a fertile valley from 20 to
25 miles wide. To the west are the Vosges Mountains,
and to the east the Black Forest. This lowland portion
of the middle Rhine is a valley bordered by two great
JL
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wi /fltysts^^ i
^gJj^lWWinS
.i;wi^g^s.»ffl.aji- iF*i
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Fig. 386. These high-roofed houses are the homes of German farmers who
raise hops in the hop district southwest of the Bohmer Wald. The lower
stories are the living quarters of the families. The floors above are used for
drying the hops after they have been picked and brought in from the fields
cliffs. It was formed in the same way as the lowland
of Scotland, that is, by the sinking of the land between
the two bordering highlands. The part of this plain
that is east of the river belongs to Germany, and it is the
best agricultural land in the country. Cereals, hops, and
tobacco are the principal crops, but almost any crop
that can thrive in a temperate climate can be grown
here. The winters are cold, but the summers are hot
and the autumns are dry and warm. Fruit is grown,
and the simny southern slopes of the hills are terraced
for grapevines.
Freiburg, on the eastern margin of this plain, is situ-
ated at the mouth of one of the beautiful valleys of
the Black Forest. It is a university town with a beau-
tiful cathedral. Karlsruhe is a manufacturing center;
Fig. 387. This is a view on the lower course of the Moselle River, where it
flows through the region of the Central Highlands. This part of the Moselle
Valley is a famous grape-growing district. In the left foreground of thi*
view you can see some of the vineyards wlucb cover the hillsides
192
GERMANY
Frankfort-on-the-Main is an important trading and bank-
ing city on a tributary of the Rbine (Fig. 389) ; and Mainz
is a river port and manufacturing city.
North slope of the Alps. The Austro-German frontier
extending eastward from the beautiful lake of Constance
lies on the crest of the Bavarian Alps, and a small por-
tion of this rugged mountain region is therefore included
in Germany. The highest summit is nearly 10,000 feet
above the sea. The mountain slopes are heavily forested.
Several swift streams, tributary to the Danube, flow
across this area (Fig. 388).
Cities. In this country it will be most interesting to
follow each one of the large rivers and thus associate
the important cities with the main drainage lines of
the country.
If we start at the headwaters of the Oder and travel
downstream, the first large city w^e reach is Breslau.
Fig. 389. Frank£ort-on-the-Main is so called to distinguish it from another
German city of the same name, Frankfort-on-the-Oder. This view shows
the river Main with the buildings of the city in the distance. Locate the
two cities of Frankfort on your map. What is the chief importance of each ?
industries is the manufacture of the famous Dresden
china. Leipzig, on a tributary of the Elbe, is a center for
Not far from the margin of the highlands, it is near one printing and publishing, and Halle, a little below Leipzig,
of the important coal fields, and the manufacture of
cotton, woolen, and linen fabrics has been developed
here. Next is Frankfort-on-the-Oder, which is a sugar-
manufacturing city in the center of a great sugar-beet
district. At the head of the estuary is Stettin, also a
manufacturing center, where many of the largest ocean
liners have been built.
The Elbe rises in Czechoslovakia and flows northward
is an important university town. Magdeburg is another
sugar-manufacturing center. At the head of the estuary
of the Elbe is Hamburg, the leading port in northern
Europe (Fig. 381). Hamburg is connected by canals with
ports on the Baltic Sea. The Elbe is the most impor-
tant river of Germany, because it is the outlet for so
much of the interior country. Near its headwaters are
several of the mining regions on the northern margin
through a magnificent gorge in the old mountains bor- of the Central Highlands. The products from eastern
dering the Bohemian Plateau, and then passes out into Germany are brought by means of the canals from the
the Plain of North Germany. Dresden is located a little valley of the Oder westward to the Elbe,
downstream from the gorge. It is a beautiful city with Berlin, the capital of Germany, is located on a tribu-
art galleries and public gardens. Among its various tary of the Elbe. This is a city of imposing buildings,
broad streets and promenades, and
beautiful gardens. Many industries
have been established here, and manu-
factured products can be carried by
canals to the Oder and thence to
Stettin or down the Elbe to Hamburg.
The railroads of Germany, which are
owned by the government, radiate in
all directions from Berlin, and this
city has become the greatest railroad
center of the country (Fig. 382).
Along the upper course of the Weser
there are several industrial centers, but
the city of greatest importance on this
river is Bremen. This is another city
at the head of an estuary ; it has the
advantage of being within easy reach
of the sea and yet in the midst of an
Fig. 388, This is a modern castle in Germany, located in the beautiful mountain country on the agricultural district. It competes with
north side of the Alps. It is much like the old German castles which were built at a time when Hamhnrcr and the norts on the Rhine
the home of each wealthy nobleman was a strong fortress as well as a dwelling-place. There are v, j e n
many of these old castles in Germany, especially in the mountainous parts of the country tor the trade 01 westem LrCrmany.
ik
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1 m _;i^=,j,T«7^^^^pp -^
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"A
AUSTRIA
193
On the banks of the Rhine just beyond the upland
belt is Cologne, a city with the largest Gothic cathedral
in Europe. It is a port to which ocean steamers come,
making it one of the busiest places in western Germany.
Essen is on a tributary of the Rhine which rises in the
highlands and flows through coal and iron fields. Essen
has become an important center of the iron and steel
industry.
East Prussia is separated from the rest of Germany
by a narrow strip of land that belongs to Poland, but
the German people have the right to ship goods across
this Polish territory. Konigsberg is the capital and sear
port of East Prussia.
Government. Beforethe World War Lrermany was organ-
ized as an empire. At the end of the war the people over-
threw the imperial government and set up*a republican
form of government. The people now elect their own
representatives and control the affairs of the nation.
Problems and review questions. 1. What natural regions extend
into Germany ? 2. What is the best agricultural portion of this
country ? 3. Where are most of the mineral resources ? 4. Why
do the North Sea ports remain open and the Baltic ports remain
frozen during the winter ?
5. Why is there more rainfall in western than in eastern Germany ?
6. In what part of this country is the grapevine commonly grown ?
7. Where are the best forests of Germany ? 8. What natural
resources have led to manufacturing? 9. What are the leading
manufacturing cities of Germany ?
10. What rivers in Germany have large cities near their mouths?
11. What water routes connect Berlin with the sea? 12. What
rivers have been internationalized ? Why was this done ? 13. At
what seaports have the people of Czechoslovakia special rights ?
14. What part of Germany is entirely separated from the rest of
the country ? 15. What form of government has Germany to-day ?
■ i
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Fig. 390. This is a view in the Austrian Alps. In tlie foreground is one of
the great glaciers which wind their way down the valleys between the
Alpine peaks. These glaciers move very slowly, fed by the snow in the
mountains and always melting at their lower ends
Fig. 391. These are the government buildings at Vienna, where the laws of
the nation are made. Vienna is noted for the beauty of its buildings, streets,
and parks. Locate Vienna on your map. What advantages can you see in its
location ? What other national capitals are situated on the Danube River ?
AUSTRIA
Austria is a small country in central Europe without
any seacoast. It includes a portion of the Alps and
a portion of the Central Highlands northeast of the
Alps (Fig. 390).
On the lower slopes of the mountains there are forests,
and in the valley bottoms, especially in the Central
Highlands, there are fertile soils. The streams from the
high mountains furnish water-power, and there are mines
that supply iron, lead, copper, salt, and mercury.
Lumbering, grazing, and some agriculture are carried
on, and in the cities there are many industrial plants.
Vienna is the capital and chief city (Fig. 391). It is
beautifully located on the Danube River and is laid out
witii broad avenues that are planted with trees. Just
below the city the Alps and the Little Carpathians
come to the banks of the river and form a narrow
pass known as the Austrian Gate.
The museums in Vienna have wonderfully valuable
art and natural-history collections, and this city has long
been one of the leading musical centers of the world.
The Danube River is a natural highway of travel from
east to west, and the railroad routes from north to south,
connecting Berlin with the Italian and Balkan peninsulas,
cross the river where Vienna is located. The crossing
of these routes of travel and trade has led to the growth
of Vienna as an industrial and commercial center.
Problems and review questions. 1. What state in the United
States is about as large as Austria ? See Appendix. 2. What
natural regions extend into this country ? 3. What are the chief
natural resources of Austria? 4. What navigable river may be
used by the Austrian people in trading with other countries ?
5. What are the chief occupations of the i)eople ? 6. What are
the reasons for' the location and growth of Vienna ? 7. Where
is the Austrian Gate ? 8. Why is it so named ?
194
HUNGARY
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Fig. 392. Budapest, the capital of Hungary, is divided by the Danube River
into two cities, Buda and Pest. This view shows one of the bridges which
unite the two cities. Locate Budapest on the map between pages 181 and 184.
How should you describe its location ? What advantages for trade has it ?
HUNGARY
Physical features. Most of this country is included
in the lowland called the Plain of Hungary. This low-
land and the surrounding mountains form a basinlike
area within which the streams from the mountains have
spread out fine materials and in this way have built up
a very fertile land. Hungary is a country without a
coast line, but it has free use of the Danube River.
The Danube River crosses from the northwest to the
southeast. Just upstream from Budapest the mountain
ranges come close to the river, forming in the valley of
the Danube a narrow pass which is called the Hungarian
Gate. Farther downstream, where the Danube flows
through the Carpathian Mountains, is another narrow
place in the valley, which is known as the Iron Gate.
Fig. 393. These Hungarian farmers are harvesting hay on their farm in the
rich, fertile plain of the Danube. About how much rainfall does this plain
receive during the year ? See map on page 216. Why is it so favorable for
agriculture ? What are the chief products grown in this region ?
Climate. In the mountains that surround the Plain of
Hungary there is abundant rainfall, amounting in places
to 80 inches a year ; but in the lowland the rainfall is un-
certain, and there are often long periods of dry weather.
The rain of the lowland comes chiefly in May and June,
when the cereal crops, especially wheat, are getting a
good start. The latter part of the summer is dry, and
this is favorable to the ripening and harvesting of the
wheat. Since Hungary is far from the sea, there are
great changes in temperature. The summers are very
warm and the winters are very cold. During July the
range of temper-
ature is usually
between 65° F.
and 70° F., and
in January, *the
coldest month, it
is from 22° F. to
30° F.
Resources and
occupations. The
fertile soil of the
lowland of Hun-
gary is its chief
natural resource.
For this reason
agriculture has
become the chief
occupation of the
people (Fig. 393). Corn is the principal crop of the Plain
of Hungary, and large quantities of excellent wheat and
tobacco are grown. Swine are raised in large numbers,
and dairy-farming and the raising of poultry are also
important occupations of the people.
In the east and south there are extensive grasslands
that have encouraged many to raise cattle and sheep.
The forests about the base of the mountains have led
to lumbering.
Budapest is the capital of Hungary. Buda is located
on the high western bank of the Danube River, and
Pest is on the lowland bordering the stream on the east.
The two cities are joined by bridges (Figs. 392, 394).
Budapest is located at the margin of the great wheat-
producing district and has naturally become the center
for the shipment of grain and the manufacture of flour.
Problems and review questions. 1. AYhy should farming be the
chief occupation of the people of Hungary ? 2. Where did the
fine alluvial soils of the Plain of Hungary come from ? 3. Why
has the lowland a light rainfall ? 4. What is the chief crop of the
lowland ? 5. What other products are raised in the lowland ?
6. What can you tell about Budapest ? 7. What internationalized
river may be used for commerce by the people of Hungary?
8. Into what sea does it flow ?
Fig. 394. This is a view on the wharves at Buda-
pest. In the foreground is a Hungarian woman
selling vegetables. On the river are some of the
boats which carry passengers and freight up and
down the Danube
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
195
Fig. 395. This is one of the steel-manufacturing centers in Czechoslovakia.
This country is very fortunate in possessing large supplies of coal and iron,
and its importance as an industrial nation is sure to increase in the future.
Locate the coal and iron areas on the map between pages 181 and 184
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
This country contains about 50,000 square miles, and
is therefore about the size of the state of New York. It
is in central Europe and has no coast line. In the west
are the mountains and plateau of Bohemia, and in the
east is a portion of the Carpathian Mountains.
Climate. The mountains cause variety in the climate.
The temperature varies with the elevation. The distance
from the sea causes considerable change in temperature
from summer to winter. In the mountain areas the
Fig. 396. Briinn is the second largest city in Czechoslovakia. This view
shows a public square in Briinn on market day when the farmers of the
surrounding agricultural country bring their products to the city to sell them.
What agricultural products are grown in this part of Czechoslovakia ?
ground up and used in the manufacture of glass ; wood
pulp is made into paper; hides and skins are made
into leather ; and in the V?dJey of the Elbe, where there
is good water-power, cottoii^ woolen, and linen goods
are made.
Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia, is situated in
the most productive part of the country. It has become
one of the chief industrial and trading centers in central
Europe (Fig. 397). Prague is on a tributary of the Elbe
River. Czechoslovakia has free use of the Elbe, Oder,
rainfall is plentiful, giving rise to many good streams and Danube rivers, and harbor privileges in Hamburg,
that furnish water-power.
Resources and occupations. Forests cover much of the
mountain slopes, and the valley and plateau lands have
fertile soils suitable for farming and grazing. The Bohe-
mian district contains rich stores of coal and iron and
large supplies of high-grade clays that
are used in making porcelain. The Car-
pathian Mountains are also rich in min-
eral wealth. Iron, gold, and silver are
obtained from the mines in' this range.
The natural resources of this country
have led to lumbering and mining in
the mountains, to farming and grazing
in the areas of fertile soils, and to manu-
facturing in the cities. The supplies of
iron and coal are used in the making
of steel and in the manufacture of
machinery (Fig. 395). The clays near
Karlsbad have made possible the estab-
lishment of a porcelain industry that is
known throughout the civilized world.
Some of the sandstones of Bohemia are
Stettin, Trieste, and Fiume.
Briinn is a second industrial city. Its location and
growth are due to certain rich deposits of coal and
iron that have helped it to become a leading city in the
manufacture of agricultural and industrial machinery.
Fig. 397. This is a view of part of the city of Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia. Prague is
located on the Moldau River and is a busy industrial city. Its factories include paper mills,
machine works, sugar-refining plants, and breweries. Locate Prague on the map between pages
181 and 184. Why has Bohemia developed so many manufacturing industries ?
196
POLAND
Fig. 398. The free city of Danzig is located on the Baltic Sea at the mouth
of the Vistula River, and is the chief commercial port of the republic of
Poland. This is a view along the water front at Danzig. Locate Danzig on
your map. Why is this port the natural outlet for Poland ?
Pilsen, in the rich grain-growing section of Czechoslo-
vakia, is famous for the beer brewed from the barley
and hops which are raised chiefly for this purpose. Pilsen
is also well known for the manufacture of glassware.
This country is organized as a republic.
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief natural
resources of Czechoslovakia ? 2. How has each one of the natu-
ral resources influenced the occupations of the people ? 3. What
internationalized rivers may be used for transportation ? 4. What
ports are available ? 5. Name and give the location of the capi-
tal. 6. Name two other important cities and state the leading
industries of each one. 7. Will this country become chiefly
agricultural or manufacturing? Give reasons for your answer.
POLAND
This country, now organized as a republic, is located
between Germany and Russia and has access to the sea
through the free city of Danzig (Fig. 398). It is a low-
land area included within the Central Plains of Europe.
Much of the land is marshy, and there are a great many
lakes. The lakes and marshes are due to the work of the
PresB Ulustratin^ Service, Inc.
Fig. 399. This is the city hall at Warsaw. The city is located at the head
of navigation for steam vessels on the Vistula, and is also an important
railroad center. Locate Warsaw on your map. How far is Warsaw from
Danzig by water ? Why has Warsaw become an important commercial and
industrial center ?
) Fr«8s Illustrating Senice, Inc.
Fig. 400. Many years ago Poland was one of the most powerful kingdoms of
Europe. The country was much larger than it is now. This building, which
is still standing in Warsaw, was the palace of one of the kings who ruled
Poland more than two centuries ago. How is Poland governed to-day ?
continental ice-sheet that long ago invaded this region
(Fig. 317). Most of the soils here are of glacial origin.
The Memel, or Niemen, River, which forms a part
of the northeastern boundary of Poland, has been inter-
nationalized as far upstream as Grodno. This river is
navigable and is an important highway for the transpor-
tation of farm products. The Vistula is the largest and
most important river of Poland.
The rainfall is enough for agriculture, although it is
less than the amount received in western Germany.
Resources and occupations. The soils are the most
valuable of the natural resources of Poland. Most of the
people are farmers, and large crops of potatoes, rye, oats,
wheat, and sugar beets are raised. Poultry-raising and
dairy-farming are also important occupations. Many
are engaged in raising cattle, sheep, and horses.
There are excellent supplies of coal in southern Poland,
and there are mines that produce iron and others
\vtere lead and zinc are obtained. The mineral re-
sources, especially the good supply of fuel, have led
to manufacturing.
Cities. Warsaw, the capital of Poland, is on the west
bank of the Vistula, and in the midst of a broad, fertile
plain (Figs. 399, 400). There are coal fields in the vicinity
of Lodz, and both Warsaw and Lodz have become im-
portant manufacturing centers.
BALTIC STATES AND FINLAND
197
Krakow is the leading city in southern Poland. A few
miles from this city there are great underground caves
in salt. Some of the rooms are so large that they are
used for dance halls.
Problems and review questions. 1. In what natural region of
Europe is Poland located ? 2. What is the explanation of the
numerous swamps and lakes in this country ? 3. What free sea-
port may be used by the people of Poland ? Is that port open all
winter ? 4. What internationalized river is available ? 5. What is
the chief river of Poland ? 6. What are the leading occupations
of the people ? 7. Name and give the location of the capital.
Fig. 401. Libau, on the Baltic Sea, is the second largest port of the Baltic
States. Its harbor is free from ice in winter, which adds greatly to its
usefulness. This view shows part of the harbor of Libau. What products
have the Baltic States for export ? What do they need to import in return ?
BALTIC STATES
The small countries of Esthonia, Latvia, and Lithu-
ania are on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea south
of the Gulf of Finland. They are partly forested, and
timber-cutting is therefore one of the chief occupations
of the inhabitants. Some of the land is used for grazing,
and dairy-farming is carried on. Many of the people are
engaged in agriculture ; flax is one of the chief crops.
Riga, the capital of Latvia, is located near the mouth
of the Diina River and is the chief seaport for the Baltic
States (Fig. 402). The exports of Riga are flax, timber,
and dairy products. Coal is imported from England and
cotton from the United States. Reval, the leading city
of Esthonia, is also an important seaport. Vilna, in
Lithuania, is a growing industrial center.
FINLAND
Finland is a hilly country, and among the hills there
are thousands of lakes and marshes. It is an old, worn-
down land somewhat like New England, and like New
England it has been invaded by great ice-sheets. There
are stony soils, and on the surface are many bowlders.
The winters are long and the summers are short and
hot. The rainfall is about 10 inches a year in the north
and about 25 inches a year in the south.
Fig. 402. This picture shows the railroad bridge across the Diina River at
Riga, and in the distance the buildings of the city. Notice the log rafts
under the bridge. Nearly one third of the area of Latvia is forested, and
each year thousands of logs are floated down the rivers to the ports
Forests cover a large part of Finland, and they have
led to lumbering, to the making of paper, and to the
manufacture of woodenware. Quarrying is important,
and there is some mining of copper ; many of the people
are engaged in fishing and a few in farming. Most of
the people live in the southern part of the country,
near the Gulf of Finland or on the shore of the Gulf of
Bothnia (Fig. 403). Helsingfors is the capital and chief
seaport.
Finland is organized as a republic.
Problems and review questions. Where are the small Baltic
States located ? 2. What is the chief seaport of this group of
countries ? Is this port open all the year ? 3. What are the chief
occupations of the people in the Baltic States ? 4. Describe
briefly the physical features of Finland. 5. What disadvantages
must the people of this country contend with ? 6. What are the
principal resources and the resulting occupations in Finland ?
Fig. 403. This is one of the locks in the Saima Canal in Finland. The canal
connects Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland at Viborg, making it possible
for the people of the interior of the country to send their products easily
and cheaply to the coast. Locate Viborg and Lake Saima on your mao
198
RUSSIA
Fig. 404. This is a view of the Volga River as it winds across the level
plain of Russia. The Volga freezes over in winter and becomes very shallow
in summer, yet it is an important commercial highway. On the map on
page 201 trace the route by water from Astrakhan to Petrograd
RUSSIA
Lowlands. Most of Russia is in the vast lowland that
stretches from the Black Sea to the Arctic Ocean and from
the Ural Mountains to the Baltic Sea. Within this great
lowland there are a few hilly places, and about the margins
there are several mountain ranges. See map on page 201.
Mountains. The Ural Mountains and the Timan
Range, in the northeast, are old and worn down. They
are like the Northwest Highlands in being the stumps
of mountains that once were higher. On the southern
border of the lowland, between the Black and Caspian
seas, is the young and magnificent range of the Caucasus.
The lofty peaks of the Caucasus rise to even greater
heights than the summits of the Alps, and there are longer
glaciers in the Caucasus Mountains than in the Alps.
Area below sea level. See map on page 201. The
southeastern part of Russia, near the mouth of the Volga
and about the north end of the Caspian Sea, is below
sea level. It is a part of a former sea floor. The Caspian
was once part of a great inland sea which included the
Black and Mediterranean seas and extended northeast-
ward over the lowlands of western Siberia to the Arctic
Ocean. Later the lands rose and most of the waters of
the inland sea drained off into the ocean basins, leaving
the Caspian Sea without an outlet. Since that time the
Caspian Sea has been slowly drying up. As its waters
have evaporated, more and more of its sea bottom,
which is below sea level, has become dry land.
Lakes. The numerous lakes in the northern and
western portions of Russia are due to the continental
ice-sheet which formed on the Scandinavian Peninsula
and spread until it covered a large part, of Russia. The
deposits left by the ice have formed many basins Avhere
Fig. 405. This picture was taken on the banks of the Dvina River near
Archangel in the month of October. Notice the snow on the ground. The
harbor of Archangel is icebound from seven to nine months in the year.
Locate Archangel on the map on page 201. On what sea is it ?
rain waters have collected, and in many places streams
have been blocked so that lakes have been formed.
Rivers and canals. Several of the larger streams of
Russia are navigable and of very great value as trans-
portation routes. The Volga, the longest river in Europe,
flows into the Caspian Sea (Fig. 404). The Don and the
Dnieper reach the Black Sea, and the Dvina flows
northward to the White Sea. Since the land is low,
many canals have been made, connecting different river
systems, until now there are water routes from the Baltic
Sea to the Black Sea. See map on page 201. The water-
ways were developed before there were many railroads,
and yet they are still very important in commerce.
Coast line. Russia is unfortunate in not having more
good harbors. The ports in the Far North and on the
Gulf of Finland are frozen for a large part of each year
(Fig. 405). By means of the long, navigable rivers and
the railroads the Black Sea ports may be used, for they
are open throughout the year, but it is a long, indirect
route from the Black Sea to the great seaports of the
leading nations of the world.
Natural resources. Use map on page 201. Russia is
fortunate in having large areas of most excellent soils,
extensive forests, and great mineral wealth. Coal is
found in several places in the lowland and in the foot-
hills of the mountains. There are also rich supplies of
oil. One of the leading mining districts is in the Ural
Mountains, where platinum, gold, copper, and iron are
obtained. All these metals are very important in modern
industries. Over 90 per cent of the world's supply of
platinum comes from the Ural Mountains. Petroleum is
abundant around the shores of the Caspian Sea.
The fur-bearing animals of the forests and the fish
in the streams and seas are also valuable resources.
RUSSIA
199
Climate. Russia is so far inland and extends so far but agriculture is possible. Timber is cut and flax, rye,
from north to south that there are great extremes in barley, oats, and large quantities of potatoes are raised
temperature and great variety in the climate. The rain-
fall is greatest in the west and decreases to the east and
southeast until in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea there
is a large semidesert area.
In the Far North the ground never thaws for more
than a few inches below the surface. There are frosts for
six months of the year, and all the streams and harbors
are frozen over in winter. In the extreme south the
climate is very warm. For several months the tempera-
ture averages 70 degrees or over. This means that dur-
ing the warmest part of the day the temperature will
be much above 70 degrees. In the central part, and
especially near the eastern boundary of Russia, the
winters are cold, more like those in the northern part of
the country, and the summers are warm. Here the ex-
tremes in temperature during the year are the greatest.
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Fig. 406. The city of Petrograd was founded more than two hundred years ago
by a Russian emperor who wished to have a great Russian city on the Baltic
Sea. Locate Petrograd on your map. Why is the location of Moscow more
favorable for the capital of the nation ? What are the exports of Petrograd ?
Home work. 1. In the best reference book available read about
the peasant life in Russia. 2. Find out all you can about the
present government of Russia.
Occupations. The occupations of most of the Russian
people are directly dependent upon the climatic condi-
tions. In the tundra of the Far North, fishermen, hunters,
and reindeer herders live a wandering life. On the south-
em margin of the tundra belt there are low, stunted
trees ; farther south is the great evergreen forest. Here
timber is cut and wild animals are trapped for their furs.
South of the evergreen forest, where the climate is less
severe, is the forest of broad-leaved trees. Here frosts
are common for from two to four months of the year.
where the forest has been cleared away.
The famous black-soil belt of Russia, where immense
crops of wheat are raised, is south of the forested area.
Fig. 407. In the foreground of this view is the Moskva River, on which Moscow
is located, and in the backgroimd are some of the public buildings of the city.
At the left rise the towers of the old fortress which is known as the Kremlin.
Locate Moscow on your map and explain its commercial importance
Here the people appreciate the advantages of labor-
saving devices, and American harvesting machines have
been introduced.
The dry steppe country to the southeast is a grassland,
where the herding of cattle and sheep is the most profit-
able occupation. Near the shores of the Caspian Sea the
land is so dry that very little will grow there.
The mining of metals in the mountains, the discovery
of coal and oil, and the cutting of timber have led to the
development of manufacturing in several of the cities.
The raw materials from the farms and the wool and
hides that are supplied from the grazing districts have
also encouraged the manufacturing industries.
Cities. All the large cities of Russia are on the rivers or
on the coast. Petrograd, the former capital, is built largely
on piles in a swampy region at the mouth of the Neva
River. It is a city with magnificent buildings (Fig. 406).
Archangel, the oldest Russian port, is on the White Sea.
It is at the mouth of the northern Dvina (Fig. 405).
Moscow, the capital of Russia, is much more centrally
located than Petrograd. It is on one of the tributaries
of the Volga and in the midst of forests which have
furnished an abundance of fuel and building material.
The rivers have made it possible to bring to this center
raw materials, such as flax and grains from the agricul-
tural districts. Coal is obtained a little south of the city.
L-
200
MAP STUDIES
and Moscow has become a manufacturing center. Cotr
ton, linen, and woolen goods are made here. This city-
is also an important trading center and one from which
machinery is distributed to the great farming regions of
Russia (Fig. 407). Tula, a little south of Moscow, on a
At the eastern end of the Caucasus Mountains, on the
shores of the Caspian Sea, is Baku, in the midst of one
of the greatest oil-producing regions in the world. Much
of the oil is pumped through pipes up the valley of the
Kur to Batum on the Black Sea, and shipped from there
still smaller tributary stream in the Volga system, is in to various ports of Europe and to Egypt. Some of the
the midst of a coal field, and by importing iron this city Baku oil is used as fuel on boats in the Caspian Sea.
has developed industries like those in Sheffield, England.
At the junction of the Oka and the Volga is Nizhnii
Novgorod, a city built partly on a hill and partly on the
lowland bordering the stream. It is famous for its an-
nual fair, to which come merchants and traders from all
parts of Europe and Asia, and some from more distant
lands. Perm is located near the western base of the Ural
Mountains on a tributary of the Volga and is the center
of one of the great mining
districts of Russia. It is on
the railroad that starts from
Petrograd and joins the
transcontinental line across
Siberia.
Samara is a river port situ-
ated at a very sharp bend in
the Volga River, and from
here another railroad, which
starts at Riga and goes by
way of Moscow, crosses east-
ward and joins the great
Siberian road. Astrakhan, at
the mouth of the Volga, is
the chief port on the Caspian
Sea and the center of the
sturgeon fisheries (Fig. 408).
Fig. 408. These men are Caspian Sea fishermen. They have just brought
ashore two large sturgeon which they have caught. The sturgeon are valu-
able chiefly for their eggs, which are salted and packed in oil for export.
In this form they are known as caviar, a product which finds a large market
in Europe and the United States
Problems and review questions. 1. Explain the great difference
in temperature from north to south in Russia. 2. Explain the
difference in rainfall from east to west. 3. What portion of this
country has soils of glacial origin ? 4. What sources of fuel and
power are there in Russia ?
5. How does the climate affect the occupations of the people
in this country ? Give examples. 6. What is the occupation of
most of the people in Russia ? 7. In what ways have the rivers
of Russia proved to be of great value to the country ?
8. What large cities are located
on rivers ? 9. In what part of
Russia are there rich mineral
deposits ? 10. Where are the
small republics of Georgia, Azer-
baijan, and Erivan ? 11. What
disadvantages have the people
of Russia to contend with?
MAP STUDIES
1. What European coun-
tries are shown on this map ?
2. What navigable river flows
into the White Sea ? 3. What
navigable river flows mto the
Caspian Sea ? 4. Name three
large navigableriversthat flow
into the Black Sea. 5. What
is the chief river of Poland ?
6. Describe an inland water
route from the White Sea to
SMALL COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE CAUCASUS
The people living south of the Caucasus Mountains and
north of the highlands of Armenia speak many different
languages and have such different customs that they have
organized three small republics. These republics are
called Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Erivan. Georgia includes
part of the Black Sea coast, and Azerbaijan extends to the
Caspian Sea. The people of Erivan are Armenians, and
it is probable that they will join the Armenian republic.
Here the summers are warm and dry, but the winters
are cold and rainy. To the north are the magnificent
snow-covered peaks of the Caucasus that furnish an
abundance of water to the streams that flow southward
and then to the Black and Caspian seas. Cattle, sheep,
and goats are raised on the foothills of the mountains,
while cereals, cotton, and fruits are produced in large
quantities on the lowlands.
the Caspian Sea ; from Danzig to the capital of Ukraine.
7. What are the chief ports on the Baltic Sea? 8. Describe
the water route from Odessa to Athens.
9. What cities appear to be important railroad centers?
10. From this map locate the chief forest area. Refer to the
map opposite page 216 to see if you are correct. 11. Locate
areas where sugar beets are raised ; where wheat is produced ;
where flax is grown.
12. Where are the Russian mines that produce metals?
13. Has Ukraine a supply of oil? Where is it found?
14. Where does the oil that is shipped from Batum come
from ? 15. Where are the Russian supplies of coal and iron ?
16. What is the chief food fish in the Caspian Sea ?
17. If a canal were made from the Black Sea to the Caspian
Sea, which way would the water flow ? 18. Is New York or
Constantinople farther from the equator ?
19. Is Paris or the capital of Ukraine nearer the north
pole ? 20. Is London or the capital of Poland farther from
the equator? 21. What port in northern Russia is in about
the same latitude as the capital of Ittgland ?
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202
UKRAINE AND RUMANIA
EUMANIA
In the northwest Rumania is mountainous and in-
cludes the Plateau of Transylvania. In the east and
south there is a lowland plain which is an extension of
the Central Plains of Europe.
Most of the low country is a wonderfully fertile land,
and here agriculture is the chief occupation (Figs. 413,
414). The rainfall is light, and therefore wheat is the
Fig. 409. This is the Opera House at Kiev, the capital of Ukraine. Kiev is
a very old city and is the center of Ukrainian art, culture, and religion. To
the Ukrainians and their neighbors, the Russians, it is a holy city, and
thousands of pilgrims visit its churches each year
UKRAINE
This republic is east of Poland and north of the Black
Sea. It is a part of the Central Plains of Europe and
is the southwestward extension of the very fertile black-
soil belt of Russia.
The climate is continental ; that is, the rainfall is not
heavy and the range in temperature is great. The rain-
fall is enough for agriculture, however, and almost all
the people are engaged in farming. Immense crops of
wheat and other grains are raised, and large quantities
of grain are exported (Fig. 410).
^ Ezcliuir« Mews .Ageoc;, Kueiiamiiluu
Fig. 410. The people in this picture are Ukrainian peasants. The woman has
come across the fields from her house with water for her husband and son,
who are at work on their farm. Notice the rude yoke by which she carries
the water buckets. What products do these Ukrainian farmers raise ? Why
is Ukraine a rich agricultural country ?
leading product (Fig. 412). In the drier eastern parts of
the lowland, where there is an abundance of grass, cattle
and horses are raised.
The lower slopes of the mountains are forested, and
The people of Ukraine are able to raise large amounts near the eastern base of the Carpathians large quantities
of necessary foods. This makes it
possible for the population to in-
crease and for all industrious people
to be prosperous. There are excellent
supplies of coal and iron in this
country, and such resources will
undoubtedly lead to the further
development of manufacturing.
Manufactured goods ^j^je received
in exchange for the grains exported.
American agricultural machinery is
used, and many modem labor-saving
devices have been introduced.
Kiev, the capital, is located on the
Dnieper River and is an industrial
and commercial center (Fig. 409).
Sugar-refining is important here.
Odessa is the chief seaport, and large
quantities of wheat are shipped from
this port (Fig. 411).
Fig. 411. This view shows part of the harbor of
Odessa, the leading seaport and commercial center
of Ukraine. Locate Odessa on the map on page 201.
What are its chief exports ?
of oil are obtained. There are mineral
resources in the mountains that await
development. The plateau district is
suitable for raising sheep and cattle.
Bucharest ia the capital and chief,
trading center. It is a city with all
modern conveniences, and it has be-
come the home of the wealthy people
of Rumania, who control vast areas
of the farming districts. The great
mass of the people are peasants who
live in very simple homes and with-
out the comforts that come to in-
dustrious farmers in many other
countries.
Kronstadt is a manufacturing cen-
ter. Galatz is on the lower Danube
and is the outlet for most of the
products of Rumania. Ocean-going
vessels reach this port.
MEDITERRANEAN LANDS
203
IC) frna tilustratiiiK ^arvicc. Inc.
Fig. 412. At the harvest season the Rumanian farmers take their great
threshing machines into the fields, and as the wheat is cut the bundles are
put through the thresher to separate the grain from the straw. Why is
this part of the Danube Valley so favorable to the growth of wheat ?
• Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief natural
resources of Rumania ? 2. How have the resources influenced
the occupations ? 3. What country is southern and eastern
Rumania most like ? 4. What navigable river is available ?
5. Name the capital and chief port.
Home work. Find out the origin of the naine " Rumania."
MEDITERRANEAN LANDS
The cotmtries of Europe which we have not yet con-
sidered occupy three peninsulas extending southward
into the Mediterranean Sea. In the west is the Iberian
Peninsula, which is divided between Spain, Portugal,
and Andorra, the tiny republic which
is located high among the Pyrenees.
Italy occupies the long peninsula
with the curious boot^shaped out^
line. The eastern, or Balkan, penin-
sula is divided into Jugoslavia,
Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, and the
area about Constantinople.
These peninsulas of Europe are
mountainous regions and, with the
exception of the Plain of the Po,
have very limited lowlands. See
map between pmjes 207 and 210.
The temperature in the Mediter-
ranean lands is distinctly warmer
than in other parts of Europe. This
is due in part to the latitude and
in part to the high mountains that
keep off cold winds from the north.
The rainfall in this part of Europe
comes chiefly in winter. This needs
a special explanation. During the summer, when the
sun's rays are vertical north of the equator, the belt of
the northeast trade winds has moved so far northward
that it includes the peninsulas which extend into the
Mediterranean. These northeast trades come from over
the land and contain Kttle moisture. Furthermore, since
they are blowing toward the equator and getting warmer,
their tendency is to take up more moisture. The Medi-
terranean countries therefore have a dry summer, and
the skies are clear and blue.
When winter comes, the trade-wind belt migrates
southward, and the westerly winds, which bring moisture
from the Atlantic Ocean, prevail in these lands. Clouds
form and rain falls abundantly in most of the Mediter-
ranean countries during the winter. The rainfall is
heaviest on the windward sides of the mountains and
lightest in the plateau of central Spain, where the moun-
tains keep off the rain-bearing winds or force them to
give up their moisture before they reach the interior.
The peoples in the Mediterranean portion of Europe
have languages quite distinct from those used in the
countries farther north. The Spanish, Portuguese, and
Italian languages are related in origin to the Latin used
by the ancient Romans. The people who migrated into
Rumania were from Italy, and their language is much
like the Italian. The Greek language of to-day is directly
derived from that of the ancient Greeks, and the lan-
guages of the various Balkan states show a relationship
to the ancient Greek and Roman tongues, though the long
isolation of the people among the mountain valleys of this
peninsula has produced dialects which are quite distinct.
Fig. 413. This man is a Rumanian farmer. He is
pitching hay with a homemade wooden pitchfork.
What other countries share with Rumania the agri-
cultural advantages of the fertile Danube Valley?
(^ PrMB lltuflrftlinc Sntice, loo.
Fig: 4M. In Rumania, as in most of the other coun-
tries of Europe, the women work in the fields just as
the men do. These Rumanian peasant women are
starting out for their day's work of cutting wheat
204
SPAIN
SPAIN sheep and goats are raised. Here many of the sheep are
Surface features and climate. Most of Spain is in- merinos, which produce a very fine grade of wool. The
eluded in the Iberian Plateau, which is called the Meseta. southern portion of the Meseta is so dry and the soil is
About the margin
of this plateau
there are moun-
tain ranges that
obstruct the winds
and force them to
give up their mois-
ture. The annual
rainfall is about
100 inches in the
Cantabrian Moun-
tains and between
60 and 80 inches
in the Pyrenees.
The SieiTa Morena
and the Sierra Ne-
vada, because of
their elevation, re-
ceive a moderately
heavy rainfall, but
the central portion of the country, the Meseta, is one
of the driest parts of the continent of Europe.
Since the Meseta is so shut in by mountains, it has
a climate somewhat like that of a land in the interior
of a continent. The rainfall is light, and there are
extremes in temperature. At Madrid the average tern-
[) £icluaive News .Aeenc;, KoebAmpton
Fig. 416. This is the Puerto del Sol, the largest public square in IMadrid. Eight of the principal
streets meet in this square, making it the business center of the city. Locate Madrid on the map
between pages 207 and 210. In what natural region is the city situated ? Describe the climate here.
Is the location of Madrid a favorable one for the capital of the country ?
SO poor that little
but grazing is car-
ried on in this part
of Spain.
Great canyons
cross the central
part of the Meseta,
and they are such
effective obstruc-
tions to communi-
cation that the life
in the northern
portion of the pla-
teau is quite dis-
tinct from that in
the south.
In the valley of
the Guadalquivir
River is a fertile
lowland in which
large crops of tobacco, oranges, grapes, figs, cotton, and
sugar are raised by means of irrigation. Wine is pro-
duced in the vineyards and exported from Cadiz, the chief
seaport in the south of Spain. This rich lowland region
also produces excellent horses, bulls, and sheep.
In the Sierra Nevada there are valuable deposits of
perature is about 40° F. in the coldest month and about iron, copper, silver, lead, zinc, and quicksilver. These
75° F. in the hottest month. At the seaports of Spain the resources have led to mining, and Spain now produces
variation in temperature from the hottest to the coldest more lead and copper than any other European country,
month is very much less than it is in the Meseta. The lowlands bordering the Mediterranean coast have
Resources and occupations. In the
region of the Pyrenees and Canta--
brian Mountains there are magnifi-
cent forests of ash, beech, and cork
oak (Fig. 417), and the Cantabrian
Range contains rich deposits of coal
and iron. These resources have led
to lumbering and mining. The iron
ore is exported from harbors on the
Bay of Biscay to Wales. In the val-
leys between the mountains there
are dairy farms.
The northern portion of the Meseta
is suitable for the raising of cereals,
especially wheat, which ripens in a
dry climate. In places the streams
that come from the mountains are
used for irrigating the fields. In
the poorer grasslands of the plateau
Fig. 416. This is a very old bridge across the Tagus
River at Toledo. Locate Toledo on your map. This
is one of the oldest cities in Spain and was once
the capital of the kingdom
a climate much like that of southern
California, and these lands have been
carefully cultivated. Even the slopes
of the mountains are made useful by
terracing, and all kinds of Mediter-
ranean fruits are grown. Fresh and
dried fruits and wine are exported.
In this region bits of cork are used
in packing the fresh grapes. The
cork is very light and does not injure
the fruit.
The lowland of the Ebro River,
which is located just south of the
Pyrenees, has a poor soil which re-
(juires irrigation. This lowland is
shut off from the sea by a mountain
range, through which the Ebro
River flows in a deep gorge to the
Mediterranean Sea.
SPAIN
205
Cities. Madrid is the chief city of
the interior and is the capital of Spain.
Over half a million people live here,
but the city is unlike the large cities
of central and western Europe, be-
cause manufacturing is not an im-
portant occupation. The capital has
become the chief railroad center,
although it is difficult, on account
of the deep canyons, for railroads to
be constructed over the top of the
Meseta. Madrid has a magnificent
royal palace and a wonderful art
gallery. In many respects it is an ex-
ceedingly interesting and attractive
city, but the surrounding country is
an arid waste.
Seville is an industrial and com-
mercial center. Iron and coal are
supplied from the mines in the Sierra
Nevada, and many products .are brought from the
lowland of the Guadalquivir River. Large quantities
of tobacco are manufactured here.
Barcelona, second to Madrid in size, is the chief sea-
port of Spain. It is built on a narrow coastal plain but
has a good harbor (Fig. 418). Wool, cotton, and silk
are brought to the city to supply its large textile mills.
Valencia is beautifully situated in a garden region, where,
in addition to cotton, all kinds of Mediterranean fruits
are raised.
Possessions. The Balearic Islands in the Mediterra-
nean Sea belong to Spain. They have a very mild climate
and are attracting more and more tourists. The soils
Fig. 417. These Spanish workmen are cutting
sheets of cork oak bark into strips. This is one
of the steps in the process of making corks from
the bark of the cork oak tree
are fertile, and tropical fruits are
easily raised. The Canary Islands
{see map, p. 227) also belong to Spain.
In Africa Spain has possession of
two small areas, Rio de Oro on the
northwest coast and Rio Muni on the
Gulf of Guinea. In addition a few of
the islands in the Gulf of Guinea
belong to Spain.
It is interesting to note how few
foreign possessions remain to Spain,
the nation which once controlled vast
areas in the two Americas and sent
the first sailing vessel around the
world.
Gibraltar is a bold rock at the ex-
treme southern end of the Iberian
Peninsula, joined to the Sierra Nevada
by a sand bar which is neutral land.
The rock has been in British posses-
sion for more than two centuries and is one of the
strongest fortifications in the world (Fig. 419).
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief mountain
ranges of Spain? 2. Why is the climate of the central plateau
of Spain very dry? 3. What are the chief occupations of the
people who live on the plateau of Spain ? 4. Why has this not
become a manufacturing or industrial region ?
5. In what portions of this country have mineral deposits been
found ? 6. What two minerals has Spain in great abundance ?
7. Where is irrigation practiced ? 8. What fruits are raised here
in abundance ? 9. What place in Spain should you like most to
visit ? Why ? 10. Name the capital and two seaports.
Home work. Read about the cork oak tree. Find out all you can
about where it grows and how corks are made from its bark.
Fig. 418. This is a view of the busy water front at Barcelona. At the left
is the customhouse where the charges on exports and imports are collected.
Locate Barcelona on your map. What things do you think the ship in this
picture may have brought to Barcelona ? What products will it take away ?
Fig. 419. The rock of Gibraltar guards the entrance to the Mediterranean
Sea from the Atlantic Ocean. Because of its commanding position many
nations have tried to gain control of it. Since it has been in British posses-
sion the British people have kept the strait open for the vessels of all nations
206
PORTUGAL
Fig. 420. The city of Lisbon is well located on a group of hills which rise
above the north bank of the Tagus River. This view shows one of the
public squares of the capital. The broad mouth of the Tagus gives the city
an excellent harbor and has led to its development as an important port
PORTUGAL
This country is lower than most of Spain, and, since
it borders the Atlantic Ocean, it has more rainfall and
a milder climate than Spain. The fertile land is well
adapted to agriculture, and grapevines are cultivated on
a large scale. Many of the hillsides are used for pastures.
Natural regions. In the north the land is hilly near
the coast but rises inland to mountain ranges. Near
Oporto and extending southward there is a narrow
coastal lowland. This lowland is bordered on the east
by the western margin of the Iberian Plateau. There is
another lowland area about the mouth of the Tagus River.
North and south of this lowland area the mountains on
the western margin of the plateau come to the coast.
Oporto, the seaport and industrial center of northern
Portugal, is near the mouth of the Douro River, and the
wines manufactured in the Douro district, are shipped
from this city (Fig. 421). There are cotton and woolen
mills in the city, and it is also the home of many
fishermen. Farther south in Portugal are the wonderful
cork forests which have led to an industry of very great
importance. The United States imports millions of dol-
lars' worth of cork each year, mostly from Portugal.
Fig. 421. This man andJiis wife have a vineyard on the warm, sunny slopes
of the Douro River, wl^ere they raise grapes and make wine. They are
taking a cask of wine by ox-cart to Oporto, where they will sell it to a wine
merchant who buys the products of the Douro vineyards for export
D £xctusi*« >'e*a .\etncj, K«ebaiD[>tOD
Fig. 422. The men in this picture are threshing wheat in the fertile lowlands
of the Tagus River. The threshing machine is in the background. Notice
the nets with which the carts are fitted, to prevent the grain from falling
off. What other products do the farmers of the Tagus lowlands raise ?
Wheat, rice, olives, lemons, figs, and grapes are grown
on the lowlands in the vicinity of the Tagus River
(Fig. 422). In the hills bordering this lowland there are
copper deposits. Lisbon, located on the Tagus, twelve
miles above its mouth, is the industrial center of south-
ern Portugal and the capital of the republic (Fig. 420).
It contains iron works, woolen factories, an^ shipbuild-
ing yards. Sardine factories are common in "this part of
Portugal. Sardines form one of the chief sources of food,
and many of the children carry them about in baskets to
sell. The growth of Lisbon is due to its position on the
Tagus, its nearness to the cork forests, and the impor-
tance of the sardine factories.
Foreign possessions. The Portuguese were once ex-
plorers and visited many foreign shores. See Appendix,
Plate A. To-day Portugal has small colonies in Asia
and larger possessions in Africa {]>. 229) ; the Azores,
Madeira, and the Cape Verde Islands, off the west coast
of Africa, belong to Portugal.
Problems and review questions. 1. Why does Portugal have
a milder climate, with more rainfall, than Spain ? 2. How are the
hillsides in Portugal used ? 3. What is cork ? . 4. Why should
this country be a good region for raising grapes, lemons, figs, and
olives ? 5. What are the two chief cities of Portugal ? 6. Where
are the Portuguese colonial possessions ?
ITALY
207
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1
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VPB
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HH9RH
■ill rii^ '^ "' ■I'J^H
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M 1 - ^ a* HIM. 1 1 \
Jl
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l^^l
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Fig. 423. Lake Haggiore is one of the most beautiful sheets of water in Europe.
Locate this lake on your map. To what group of mountains do the peaks in
this picture belong ? Notice in the foreground the picturesque washing-cart
which the Italian women push into the water in order to do their washing
ITALY
Physical features and climate. The chief lowland of
Italy is in the valley of the Po. Here the rivers have
filled in the upper end of the Adriatic Sea with fine
materials from the bordering mountains and made a
broad, fertile plain. The summers are warm through-
out this lowland, but in the west, near Milan and Turin,
the winters are cold. The presence of the sea causes mild
winters in the vicinity of Venice and Padua. The rain-
fall near Milan is about 40 inches a
year and near Venice about 30 inches.
The south slope of the Alps belongs
to I taly . Here there are magnificent
peaks, great, deep canyons, and many
beautiful lakes (Fig. 423). The moun-
tains keep off the cold winds from
the north, and therefore the valleys
on thi! south slope of the Alps are
warmer than those on the north slope.
The Alps curve southward, and
at the point where they reach the
Mediterranean Sea the Apennine
Range begins. This range follows
the coast of the Gulf of Genoa and
then turns southward through the
central portion of the Italian Penin-
sula. Tliese mountains commonly
have elevations of from 5000 to
8000 feet above the sea. They are
not high enough, in the latitude
where they are located, to have an
extremely cold climate. Their eleva-
tion is .sufficient to cause the winds
Fig. 42S. This picture of Mt. Vesuvius was taken
when the volcano was in eruption. The dark cloud
which it sends forth is made up of steam, ashes,
and bits of lava
Fig. 424. The gardens of the Vatican Palace at Gome are very large and beau-
tiful. This palace is the residence of the Pope and takes its name from the
hill upon which it is built. In the background of this view rises the dome of
St. Peter's, the great Roman church which stands close by the Pope's palace
to give up moisture, and there is enough rainfall to
support forests. In the southern portion of Italy the
temperature seldom falls as low as the freezing point.
The narrow coastal lowlands on the east and west
of the Apennine Mountains never have very cold
weather, and during the summer the temperature is
usually 70° F. or higher.
Sardinia, Sicily, and a number of smaller islands in
the Mediterranean belong to Italy. Sardinia is for the
most part mountainous, but there is
a little lowland area in the south-
western part of the island, and in
the valley bottoms there are lands
that can be cultivated with the help
of irrigation.
Sicily is an extension of the Apen-
nine Range and was formerly con-
nected with the mainland. In the
narrow Strait of Messina, which
separates the island of Sicily from
the Italian Peninsula, there are
great cracks in the earth where the
lands often slip a little and thus
cause earthquakes.
Mt. Etna, which is an active vol-
cano, is in Sicily, and Mt. Vesuvius,
one of the most famous active volca-
noes in the world, is located near
the Bay of Naples (Fig. 425). The
earthquakes and volcanoes which are
common in this regic^n indicate that
the Apennine Mountains are young
and that they are still growing.
10° QueenstoWD 3 Longitude 5
Settled boundaries
Unsettled boundaries
•'"'J3 Sovereismty to be determined by popular vote
© (iinn and Company
mmi^;i
210
ITALY
MAP STUDIES
(C7se map between pages 207 and SIO")
1. What continents border the Mediterranean Sea ? 2. What
three large European peninsulas extend into the Mediterra-
nean Sea? 3. What is the Atlantic gateway into the Mediter-
ranean Sea called ? 4. About how wide is that gateway ?
5. Describe an imaginary journey from the Mediterranean
to the Hlack Sea. 6. How do vessels p<T«s from the Mediter-
ranean to the Red Sea ? Describe the landscape seen on that
journey. 7. Name four navigable rivers that flow into the
Mediterranean Sea; four that flow into the Black Sea.
8. Make a list of the countries that border on the Mediter-
ranean Sea^, of those that border on the Black Sea. 9. Make
a list of the chief seaports on the Mediterranean Sea. Oppo-
site each name place the name of the country in which that
seaport is located.
10. What are the chief seaports on the Black Sea? 11. Make
a list of the chief exports from the European cities on the
Mediterranean Sea. 12. Which of these exports suggest a
warm climate for southern Europe ? 13. What are the chief
exports from the Black Sea ports ?
14. What are the chief products shipped from African ports
on the Mediterranean Sea ? 15. What port, east of Athens,
ships large quantities of figs? 16. What important Atlantic
seaports are shown on this map ?
17. Where are the great cork -oak forests in Portugal ?
18. Where are the mining districts in Spain? the grazing
districts ? the chief fruit-raising districts ? 19. What are the
chief products of the lowlands in the valley of the Po?
20. Where in Italy are there vineyards ? marble quarries ?
21. What does the United States receive from Sicily ?
22. Judging from the products of Jugoslavia, Greece, Albania,
and Bnlgiiria, what should you think must be the chief
occupations of the people in those countries ?
, 23. What are the chief products of Palestine and Syria ?
24. Where are the date-producing regions near the Mediter-
ranean Sea? 25. Trace the meridian of 0° on this map.
26. Compare the latitude of New York with that of Rome.
Fig. 426. These Italian boys and girls are picking grapes in a vineyard on
the slopes of the Apennines, where the dry summers are especially favorable
to the ripening of the fruit. Why are such large areas in Italy devoted to
the cultivation of vineyards ? What other products do the Italians raise ?
Fig. 427. This is one of the quarries at Carrara from which the beautiful
Italian marble is obtained. Locate Carrara on the map between pages 181
and 184. In what natural region is it ? Italian marble has been used in the
construction of many of the finest buildings in the United States
Home work. 1. Find out all you can about the burial of the '
cities of llerculaneum and Ponipeii. 2. ]lead a full account of
Vesuvius in the best reference book available.
Resources and occupations. The soils, the forests, the
marbles in the mountains, and the fisheries about the
coast are the chief natural resources. Italy is a land
without great variety in mineral wealth. Sulphur is
obtained in Sicily. In the islands of Elba and Sardinia
there are iron mines. Some iron is obtained from the
Alps. The water-power furnished by the mountain
streams makes up somewhat for the lack of coal.
In the north, on the lower slopes of the Alps, olives,
grapes, mulberries, and figs are raised, and on some of
the higher slopes there are pastures for cattle, sheep,
and goats. The lakes in the mountain vallej's of tliis
part of Italy attract many tourists and many who seek
rest or health, and the care of such visitors furnishes
occupation to many people.
The Plain of tlie Po is the most important agricultural
and industrial region of Italy, and the most densely
settled district. The streams from the mountains furnish
water for irrigation. Wheat, rice, corn, and many other
crops are raised. The absence of coal and the cost of trans-
portation to other parts of Europe are disadvantages, and
yet this region has become an important industrial dis-
trict. Milan, Turin, and Venice are the principal cities.
In many places the forests have been cleared from
the slopes of the Apennine Range, and the hillsides have
been terraced for agriculture or planted wilh olive,
orange, or lemon trees. Many groves of chestnut trees
have been planted, and the nuts from these trees are
used as a food. Grapevines grow in such luxuriance in
ITALY
211
this part of the country that Italy has
become one of the leading countries
in the production of wine (Fig. 426).
Cattle, sheep, and goats are raised on
the higher pastures of the range. In the
Apennine Mountains, at Carrara and
Siena, there are immense quarries where
large quantities of beautiful marble are
obtained (Fig. 427).
On the lowland bordering the Adriatic
Sea hard wheat is raised. This wheat is
used in the manufacture of macaroni.
The wheat is shipped chiefly to Naples,
which is the center of the macaroni in-
dustry, and additional supplies are
imported from Russia and South Aus-
tralia. The Italians manufacture about
six million dollars' worth of macaroni each year, and
large quantities of it are shipped to the United States.
In the southern portion of Italy the forests have been
largely removed, the hillsides are barren, and the popu-
lation is sparse. Here there are a few fishing centers, and
many of the native people are engaged in hunting for
coral and tortoise shells, which they bring back to Naples
and Genoa to be manufactured into ornaments.
Fig. 428. St. Peter's Cathedral at Rome stands on the Vatican Hill, and close by, at the right
in this view, is the Vatican Palace. St. Peter's is a very old church, and like the Vatican Palace it
contains many beautiful paintings by Michelangelo, the great Italian artist. Locate Rome on your map.
Why is the population less than it was when the city was the capital of the Roman Empire?
make their homes in the villages near the coast and go
into the country each day to work on their farms.
Palermo is the principal city south of Naples. It is
the capital dl Sicily and is in the midst of a rich fruit-
growing district.
Rome is the capital of the kingdom of Italy. It is
located on low hills near the Tiber River and on the
inner margin of a small coastal plain. In the days of the
Sicily. The climate and surface features of Sicily are ancient Roman Empire this city had a population of at
much like those of southern Italy, and therefore the
crops resemble those of the mainland. Some wheat is
grown, the grapevine flourishes, and orange and lemon
trees are cultivated. The sulphur mines of Sicily are on
Mt. Etna, where a part of the sulphur gas, coming out
of the earth,
cooled quickly,
forming a solid.
Cities. Naples
the largest
IS
Fig. 429. This is a typical scene in the old quarter
of Genoa, where the streets are narrow and the houses
are set close together. What are the exports and
imports of Genoa ?
least a million, and the bordering lowland was all under
cultivation. Today the population is about 500,000.
The surrounding plains are almost deserted, for they are
unhealthful places where malaria is easily contracted.
In the city there are many beautiful residences and
several magnificent buildings. St. Peter's Cathedral, the
largest church in the world, and the Vatican, the home of
the Pope, are in Rome (Fig.428). Many of Michelangelo's
most beautiful paintings are in the Vatican.
Florence is an inland city in a district where large quan-
city in Italy, titles of silk are produced and manufactured. Mosaic
It is located work and the plaiting of straw are also important in-
dustries here. Some of the most valuable art treasures
in the world are in the museums of Florence. The
Italians are an artistic people and may^ justly be proud
of their work in architecture, painting, and sculpture.
Their museums are all great storehouses of art, and many
of their manufactured goods are distinctly artistic.
Milan and Turin are the industrial and trading centers
in the western portion of the northern lowland. They
are on the highways of travel east and west and north
and south. Large quantities of silk cloth are manufac-
tured in Milan.
Genoa, the chief seaport in northern Italy, is the outlet
for many of the products raised or manufactured in
the valley of the Po. It is the birthplace of Columbus.
near a fertile
lowland where
a very dense
population is
supported. The
climate is warm
in this lowland
area, and most
of the people
lead an agri-
cultural life.
Nearly all of
the inhabitants
of this region
212
ITALY
Fig. 430. This is a view in the harbor of Trieste. This city came into the possession of
Italy at the end of the World War in 1918, and is one of the most important ports on the
Adriatic Sea. Locate Trieste on the map between pages 207 and 210. Compare the east
and west shores of the Adriatic Sea. Why has Italy so few Adriatic ports ?
Venice, Trieste (Fig. 430), and Fiume (Fig. 431) are sea-
ports at the head of the Adriatic Sea. Venice is a city
built on more than one hundred islands. Centuries ago,
when barbarian hordes were invading Italy, a group of
people fled to these islands for safety. Later their sailors
proved to be so skillful and their business men so enter-
prising that much of the travel and commerce between
Europe and Asia went through Venice, which thus grew
to be a prosperous and wealthy city. There are over one
hundred canals in the city and over four hundred bridges.
The canals take the place of streets, and boats are used
instead of wagons or automobiles (Fig. 432).
Government. Italy is a limited, or constitutional, mon-
archy, and the ruler is a king. The people elect a large
number of the members of the parliament and are thus
directly represented in the government of the nation.
Fig. 431. Fiume is another busy seaport on the eastern side of the Adriatic
Sea. The city is under the control of Italy, but the port and the railroads
leading to it are governed in such a way as to make it possible for the people
of Jugoslavia to make use of it in their trade by sea with other nations
Foreign possessions. Eritrea, Italian Somali-
land, and Libia, which are in Africa, are pos-
sessions of Italy (p. 229). Italy also administers
the affairs of a small region on the northeast
coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
San Marino is the smallest and oldest repub-
lic in the world. It contains thirty-two square
miles and is located east of Florence near the
Adriatic Sea. See map betiveen pages SOT and
210, F 2.
The people of San Marino are engaged chiefly
in the cultivation of vineyards, the raising of
cattle, and the quarrying of stone.
Problems and review questions. 1. Where are the
lowlands of Italy ? 2. What mountains are there in
Italy ? 3. Name two active volcanoes in Italy. Where
are they located ? 4. In what part of Italy is irriga-
tion practiced ? 5. What large islands in the Mediter-
ranean Sea are a part of the kingdom of Italy ?
6. Is the rainfall heavier on the mountains or on the lowlands ?
Why ? 7. Why is it never very cold in Italy except in the
mountains ? 8. Why have most of the people of Italy become
farmers ? 9. What other occupations are followed ?
10. What mineral resources are there in Italy and the neigh-
boring Italian islands ? 11. What trees are commonly raised
in this country ?
W^hat tree furnishes
food for the silk-
worm ? 12. In what
product does Italy
lead the world ?
13. What food
manufactured from
wheat is shipped
in large quantities
from Naples to the
United States?
14. From what
countries is wheat
imported by Italy ?
16. What are some
of the other imports
of Italy? 16. What
fruits are raised in
Italy?
17. W^hat form
of government has
Italy? 18. Name
live Italian cities
and tell something
of interest about
each one.
19. What foreign possessions has Italy ? 20. How are the
hillsides in Italy used ? 21. What places in Italy are of special
historic interest ? Why ?
Home work. 1. Read a description of the Colosseum and one
of the Forum in Rome. 2. Read a description of the destruction
of Pompeii by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius.
, lirowD, anil Karle
Cyunesj ut Willia
Fig. 432. This is one of the canals or water streets
of Venice. At the left are some of the boats known
as gondolas, which are used by the Venetians in
going about the city
JUGOSLAVIA
213
JUGOSLAVIA
"Jugoslavia" means the home of the Southern Slavs.
These people speak several different dialects, but they have
many customs and interests in common. They are organ-
ized as a limited monarchy and have a king for a ruler.
The Dinaric Alps extend into Jugoslavia, and most of
the land is rough or even mountainous. In the valleys
there are some lands suitable for agriculture, and in such
places rye, oats, barley, and com are raised. The hill-
sides are used for planting the grapevine and for grow-
ing olive, lemon, orange, and mulberry trees. The oak
Fig. 433. This is one of the public ,parks in Belgrade, the capital of Jugo-
slavia. At the right are the buildings of the University of Belgrade. At the
junction of what two rivers is Belgrade situated ? What advantages for trade
can you see in its location ? What are the products of the surrounding country?
and beech also grow on these hills, and hogs are fattened
on the nuts that fall to the ground. On the higher slopes
of the mountains sheep, goats, and cattle are allowed to
graze. Some of the herdsmen take their flocks and herds
to the higher pastures in summer and bring them into
the valleys for the winter.
The forests have made lumbering possible. Coal, iron,
lead, silver, and gold have been discovered, but as yet
little mining is done.
Belgrade, located on the south bank of the Danube
River, is the capital and chief city (Fig. 433). Monastir
is the principal city in the southern part of Jugoslavia.
By means of the Danube River, trade may be carried
on very easily with the people of Austria, Hungary,
and Rumania. The valleys of the Morava and Vardar
rivers form the best north-and-south route of travel, and
a railroad follows this route. From Belgrade there are
railroad connections with Constantinople and northwest
to the Atlantic and North Sea countries. Trade with
the more distant parts of the world is carried on by
way of the Black and Mediterranean seas.
Fig. 434. These Jugoslav boys and girls are dressed in their national cos-
tumes for the celebration of a holiday. The official name of their country is
the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, from the three principal
groups of people which make up the nation. But since they are all Jugo-
slavs (Southern Slavs), their country is commonly called Jugoslavia
The land bordering the Adriatic Sea is mountainous.
Fiume is the largest city on this coast ; and although it
is not within the boundaries of Jugoslavia, the Jugoslavs
may make use of it in promoting their foreign commerce.
It gives them a good outlet to the Mediterranean Sea.
These people do very little manufacturing and there-
fore must exchange their fruits, grains, and the products
from their flocks and herds for manufactured goods.
ALBANIA
This is a small, mountainous country on the east coast
of the Adriatic Sea and south of Jugoslavia (Fig.. 435).
The mild climate leads to the cultivation of the fruits
that grow in the Mediterranean region, and to the rais-
ing of some grain. Durazzo is the capital.
Many of the people have cattle or sheep and spend
their time out on the hillsides with their flocks or herds.
Fig. 435. This is a view on the rocky coast of Albania. This country is so
mountainous that agriculture is possible only in the sheltered valleys be-
tween the hills. Are the mountains of Albania young and rugged or Old and
worn down ? What are the occupations of the people ?
214
BULGARIA AND GREECE
GREECE
This country extends so far south into the Mediterra-
nean Sea that the climate is always mild. During the
hot summer season much of the vegetation withers, and
irrigation is necessary to secure regular crops. On the
western side the evergreen trees of the Mediterranean
region grow, and olive, orange, lemon, fig, and mulberry
trees are grown. The grapevine grows luxuriantly in this
Fig. 436. Most of the large rose gardens of Bulgaria are located on the shel-
tered southern slopes of the Balkan Mountains. The women in this picture
are Bulgarian peasants at work picking the roses. What use is made of
these roses ? What are the chief agricultural products of Bulgaria ?
BULGARIA
The Balkan Mountains extend from east to west
through the central portion of Bulgaria. To the north
of the mountains the land is hilly but is used for raising
wheat and sugar beets. Much of the mountain country
is forested, and this has led many to engage in lumber-
ing. Cattle, sheep, and goats are allowed to graze on
the hillsides and in the mountains.
South of the Balkan Mountains the climate is very
mild, and large quantities of roses, grapes, and plums
are raised. The rose gardens are among the largest in
the world, and the blossoms are used in the production
of attar of roses (Fig. 436).
Sofia and Philippopolis are on the railroad from Vienna
to Constantinople. Sofia is the capital of the kingdom of
Bulgaria, but Philippopolis, on the Maritza River, is the
largest city and a busy industrial and commercial center.
Varna is the chief seaport. Large quantities of wheat
and other grains are shipped from Varna each year.
Fig. 437. This is a street scene in the city of Corfu, on the island of the same
name. The man at the right is a pottery merchant. He piles up his wares
in the street and sells them to the passers-by. Locate Corfu on the map
between pages 207 and 210. To what country does the island belong ?
) Pubiiahera* Photo Service, too.
Fig. 438. The flat-topped hill which rises above the modern city of Athens
is called the Acropolis and was the citadel, or fortress, of the ancient city.
This yiew of Athens was taken from the Acropolis. At the left you can see
the ruins of one of the beautiful old Greek temples
part of Greece. Small, seedless grapes are produced in
abundance, which, when dried, are known as currants.
The irregular, indented coast line and the many
islands of Greece favor free communication between the
peoples of this peninsula and those of the other coun-
tries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. The ancient
Greeks carried on a peaceful commerce, and by exchang-
ing products and ideas they developed into a nation of
unusually strong and cultured people. Later they were
conquered by the Romans, and their civilization had a
great influence upon the Roman customs.
Athens, the capital of the kingdom of Greece, is built
about the base of a tablelike hill (Fig. 438). It was the
center of the ancient Greek civilization. In the modem
part of Athens there are wide streets and buildings
much like those of other European capitals, but the city
is rich in the ruins of ancient temples. Piraeus, the port
for Athens, is the city through which most of the foreign
commerce of Greece is carried on. In the northern part
of the country is the important port of Saloniki, located
at the head of the gulf of the same name. Saloniki is
the southern terminus for the railroad which runs from
Vienna southward through Budapest and Belgrade to
the ^gean Sea (Fig. 439).
CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE TURKS
215
3 iUtutrktiDg ^errice. Inc.
Fig. 439. This is a view of the Greek city of Saloniki. The picture was taken
from an aeroplane. At the right you can see one of the wings of the aero-
plane, and far below is the water front of the city. The little white spots
at the left are boats in the harbor
CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE TURKS
Constantinople is a city located on the highway of travel
by land from Asia to Europe and on the water route from
the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea (Figs. 440, 441).
Large numbers of Turks live in this city and in the
territory immediately surrounding it. In addition to
the Turks, its inhabitants include many Greeks,
Armenians, and other foreigners.
For centuries Constantinople has been the capital of
the Turkish Empire, most of which is in Anatolia. In
this way the Turks have controlled the land on both
sides of the narrow straits which separate Europe from
Asia. By means of forts located along the shores they
have commanded the very important water route from
the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Since tlie
CnileiW'jod £ L'aderwoMl
Fig. 440. This is a view of Constantinople from the north. The city is very
old. It was founded by the Greeks six hundred and fifty years before the
birth of Christ. Later it was conquered by the Romans, and finally it fell
into the possession of the Turks
World War the Turks have been allowed to remain in
possession of Constantinople, but the Bosporus, the Sea
of Marmora, and the Dardanelles are no longer under
their control, and are open to the ships of all nations.
Problems and review questions. 1. What countries are included
in the Balkan Peninsula ? 2. Describe briefly the physical fea^
tures of these countries. 3. What are the chief natural resources
and to what occupations have they led? 4. What other natural
resources await development ?
6. What products have the people of these countries to export ?
6. Why are these countries not great manufacturing centers?
7. In what Balkan country are large quantities of roses raised ?
8. What city in Greece was the center of an ancient civilization ?
9. Name and locate the capital of each of the Balkan countries.
10. What people have possession of the city of Constantinople ?
11. Why should the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora, and the
Dnrdanolles be kept open for the use of ships of all nations?
ama, Brovn, toil Kula
Fig. 441. The harbor at Constantinople is a very busy place. Steamships
from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea may be seen loading and unload-
ing their cargoes. In the small boats are the boatmen who earn their living by
carrying passengers ashore. Constantinople is located at the meeting point
of two seas and two continents. What are the two seas ? the two continents ?
Why is such a location of great commercial importance ? From what Black
Sea ports may some of the ships in this view have come ? What nations
depend upon the use of the straits at Constantinople for their trade by sea ?
216
COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES
i
AFRICA
INTRODUCTION
Little by little the lands and the waters of the earth Furthermore, those who tried to reach the interior
have been explored. See Appendix, Plate A. The nations encountered many wild tribes of natives, and in portions
of Europe wanted more land
where their people could
go and settle. They needed
more raw materials for their
great factories, and new
markets for their manu-
factm-ed goods. Most of
Africa has now come into
the possession of European
powers.
Size and position. Africa
is the second largest conti-
nent in the world. See map
on page 275, It is about
5000 miles long and is three
times the size of Europe.
At the Strait of Gibraltar
Africa is separated from
Europe by just nine miles of water, and at the Strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb, or Gate of Tears, it is only 14 miles from
Asia. The connection with Asia at the Isthmus of Suez
was complete until the great Suez Canal was constructed
Fig. 442. This is a sunset view of the southwest tip of Africa near the
Cape of Good Hope. The cape was discovered in 1487 by the Portuguese
explorer, Diaz. He met such terrible gales here that he called it the
Stormy Cape, but later a Portuguese king gave it its present name
of the country they found
hot, damp, malarial condi-
tions. On the north the
Sahara is a barrier to travel,
and near the equator is a
tropical jungle, which is
one of the most difficult
places in the world to ex-
plore. The large animals
and the many injurious in-
sects of Africa have also
helped to make that con-
tinent the least attractive
to the traveler, and as long
as there was opportunity
for acquiring land in the
Americas, little was done to
colonize Africa.
People. In northern Africa the inhabitants are chiefly
descendants of Arabian people who migrated westward
from Asia, or of European people who crossed the Medi-
terranean Sea to settle in this continent. These northern
(Fig. 443). Up to that time European ships had to go people, with the exception of the Turks, belong to the
around the Cape of Good Hope to reach India (Fig. 442).
Exploration. The location of Africa was known long
before North or South America was discovered, but the
two western continents were explored and settled long
before much of Africa had been even seen by white men.
Africa is a diffi-
cult land to ex-
plore. The coast
line is regular and
there are few good
harbors. See map
opposite page 230.
Most of the rivers
have falls or rapids
near their mouths,
which make it dif-
ficult to get into
the country, for
explorers usually
enter a country
by the rivers.
^ I'ubhrtier*' Vli^i'i Hcrrice, Ind.
Fig. 443. The Suez Canal was cut through the isthmus between Asia and Africa to connect the
Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea. It was opened in 1869 and is ninety-eight miles long.
To what countries of the world is it of the greatest benefit ? See Appendix, Plate B
217
white race. The Turks are of Mongolian descent and
belong to the yellow race. The native people jof Abys-
sinia belong to the white race. They are large, strong,
liberty-loving people, who in their mountain country
have maintained their independence even to this day.
Nearly all the
negro people of
Africa live in the
equatorial region
or farther south.
The negroes are
the best laborers in
the tropical coun-
tries, for white
men are not able
to live and work
hard for many
years in the hot,
damp parts of the
earth. The negroes
should be trained
10° LongtEtude 20° Eaet F from 3()°Grem0twich 40°
10° Longi'Etude 20° East F from S0° Grem G wich 40°
© Ginn and Company
MAP STUDIES
219
in better ways of living and in modern methods of work.
They will become more and more important to the country
as greater development is
undertaken.
In the grasslands south
of the Sahara the native
people have passed beyond
the hunting stage in their
development and raise cat-
tle or cultivate the soil.
Those who have farms es-
tablish fixed homes, while
those who own cattle wan-
der about. The occupation
of a people often affects
their ways of living. In
this semiarid. region mem-
bers of the same race be-
come wanderers if they take
care of cattle, and become
settled if they have farms.
There still remain in Africa several tribes of native
people who are savages. They inhabit the forests and
live by hunting and fishing.
The Pygmies, who are true forest-dwellers, live in
the Kongo jungle. A full-grown man is about four feet
high. They are hunters, and because of their small
bodies can move about in the dense undergrowth,
hunting big game more easily than larger people could.
They barter the game for fruit raised by those who dwell
in the clearings. The Pygmies are related to the Bush-
men of South Africa, who are also great hunters. The
Zulus and Kafirs form by far the greater part of the
native population in the plateau region of South Africa.
In each of the
colonies of European
nations there are
many people from
the home country,
and the number of
white people of Euro-
pean descent along
the Mediterranean
coast and in South
Africa is constantly
increasing. A great
many French and
Italian people have
settled in North
Africa, but in South
Africa most of the
European people are
Dutch, British, or Portuguese. On the coast to the
north and east of Abyssinia the Italians have established
two colonies, and between
these colonies there is a
small British colony.
Home loork. Read about the
Pygmies, Bushmen, Hottentots,
report to the
and Zulus
class.
and
Fig. 444. These are the Victoria Falls in the Zambezi River. They are
twice as high as Niagara, and the amount of water pouring over them is
much greater. Some day these falls will be harnessed, and the electric power
from them will run railroads, factories, and mines hundreds of miles away
Fig. 44S. The Sahara Desert covers two million square miles in northern Africa. Over large
areas it is a sea of sand, piled by the wind into dunes which look like waves. The sandy
waste is broken in some places by green oases and in others by bare, rocky hills and moun-
tains. The desert is crossed only by the camel-train route*
MAP STUDIES
1. Where does Africa come
nearest to Asia? 2. What
is the name of the canal which
has been cut through that
isthmus ? 3. Select the three
largest rivers in Africa and
describe the country through
which each one flows. See
map opposite page 230.
4. From what highlands do
many of the headwaters of the
Nile come ? 6. Explain the lack of tributaries in the lower
course of the Nile. 6. What mountains are at the northwest
margin of the continent ?
7. What is the general elevation of the plateaus of South
Africa? How do they compare in elevation with the Sahara
Tableland ? 8. Locate one great delta in Africa. 9. What
large city is on this delta?
10. How does the amount of lowland in Africa compare
with that of other continents ? 11. Name the chief natural
regions. 12. Where are the highest mountains ? 13. Where
are the great lakes in Africa?
Problems and review questions. 1. What nations helped in the
early exploration of Africa? 2. What nations now have posses-
sions in Africa ? 3. Of what value are these colonies to European
nations ? 4. Why was it
difficult to explore the in-
terior of this continent ?
5. Who were the chief
explorers of the interior?
6. In what part of Africa
do most of the native
tribes of negroes live?
7. Where do most of the
white people live ?
Home work. 1. Look
up the lengths of the
Suez and Panama canals.
When was each one
opened ? 2. Read about
Stanley's travels in
Africa. 3. Read about
Livingstone's travels in
Africa. 4. Find out what
you can about the Cape-
to-Cairo Railway.
220
NATURAL REGIONS
The plateaus of South Africa have a general elevation
of from 3000 to 4000 feet. There are parts where the
elevation is as high as 5000 feet, and small mountain
ranges in the plateau region rise still higher. On the
western margin, and well shown on the map opposite
page 230, there is a bold escarpment, or cliff, bordering
the coast. To Europeans who intend to become per-
manent settlers in Africa these plateaus are more
attractive than almost any other part of the continent.
) Underwood k Underirood
Fig. 446. This is Kouinine, an old Saharan town of Algeria. The picture
is taken from an aeroplane. Beyond the town you can see the groups of
palm trees which have grown up in the hollows between the sand dunes.
Far in the distance stretches the sandy waste of the Sahara
Natural Regions
Coastal lowlands. Africa has very little lowland. The
lowland areas are near the coast, and most of them are
hot and unhealthful. See map on page 218.
The Sahara Tableland is nearly as large as Europe,
and it is the largest continuous desert in the world.
It varies from 600 to 3000 feet above the sea. It is much
lower in the west than in the east, and the Tibesti Moun-
tains in the central part of the tableland rise 8000 feet
above sea level. Much of it is a
vast, stony waste, but in portions
sand is abundant (Figs. 445, 446).
See map opposite page 280. In the
east the Nile crosses the desert, and
bordering the river there is a long,
fertile oasis. Where there are springs
or wells that furnish waters for irri-
gating the land there are other oases
in the desert.
Besides those people who live on
the oases in the desert there are many
who travel from one oasis to another
as traders. They are chiefly Arabs,
and they have several well-established
caravan routes (Figs. 447, 449).
The Atlas Mountains are much like
the mountains of southern Europe.
They are young and rugged. Some
of their peaks rise to a height of
over 14,000 feet. They are folded
mountains with parallel ranges, be-
Fig. 448. This is the volcanic peak of Mt. Kili-
manjaro. Locate this peak on your map. What
is its elevation ? Are the mountains in this region
young and rugged or old and worn-down ?
tween which there are rich valley lands where most of When the sun
the people in this part of the country make their homes, the northern summer, the equatorial rainy belt follows
Fig. 447. These Arab traders have pitched their tents on the edge of one
of the oases in the Sahara Desert. They will stay here long enough to d»
their trading with the inhabitants of the oasis, and then they will move
on to the nesct one. What do you think they buy and sell ?
The Abyssinian Highlands and the Southern Highlands.
The Abyssinian Highlands include a mountainous and
heavily forested region. Most of the
summits are from 5000 to 14,000 feet
high. A little farther south there
is a group of lofty volcanic peaks.
Kilimanjaro (Fig. 448) and Kenia are
in this group. To the north of Lake
Edward is Mt. Ruwenzori, one of
the highest peaks in Africa.
The Southern Highlands are com-
posed of several small ranges with
plateaulike areas between the ranges.
The Drakensberg is the most con-
spicuous range.
Climate
Most of Africa is too hot for
white people. It does not extend far
enough north or south of the equator
to have much land in the temperate
zones. The only relief from the con-
tinuous heat is found in the moun-
tains or in the higher plateaus,
appears to move northward during
Underwood II Uoderwood
NATURAL RESOURCES
221
Fig. 449. This caiavan of camels is starting on its journey across the desert.
The Arabs are very fond of their faithful camels and treat them kindly.
In the distance are the mountains of Algeria, which border the desert.
Where do you think this caravan is going, and why ?
the apparent movement of the sun, and the lands be-
tween the equator and the Sahara have a rainy season.
The prevaihng winds in the Sahara are the northeast
trades. As they come chiefly from land areas, they have
very little moisture, and as they blow toward the equator
they become warmer and tend to take up more moisture.
This is why there is such a great desert in northern Africa.
When the vertical rays of the sun strike farther south
and the sun appears to go south, the rainy belt moves in
The dense tropical forest in the Kongo basin has two
layers. From the thick undergrowth on the ground, con-
stituting the lower layer, the tall trees reach up for light
and air. They have few branches except near the top,
and there the branches are intertwined with growing
vines and other clinging plants, until a canopy is made
so dense that even when the sun is bright the interior
of the forest is dark. Many of the most brilliantly colored
birds and butterflies live in this upper story where the
sun shines, but in the lower story are the huge beasts
that wander about and prowl into the Sudan to prey
upon the grass-eating animals.
The Sudan district, extending east and west just
north of the tropical forest, is a savanna type of coun-
try. Cattle-raising and some farming are being under-
taken here. South of the tropical forest is another
savanna, and still farther south is another desert. See
maj) opposite parje 230.
Natural Resoceces
Use map on page 227. So vast a land as Africa must
of course have much in it which is of value to man.
Those portions that can be cultivated have been found
to contain rich soils. In the mountains gold, silver, lead,
tin, and copper have been discovered, and there is coal
that direction also, and the great Kongo basin, which gets and oil in several localities. Some of the water-power is
more or less heavy rain throughout the year, is abun-
dantly watered. Near the equator rain falls nearly every
day. Even the lands a little farther south receive heavy
rains. Still farther south, winds bring an abundance
of rain to the southeast coast, but leave the southern
interior and southwest coast dry. See map on page 230.
Vegetation and Animal Life
being used, but there are many other sites where water-
power may be developed. In the south (in the plateau
district) and along the west coast the most brilliant
diamonds in the world are obtained (Fig. 450).
The tropical forest, like that of South America, yields
rubber in great abundance. There are mahogany and
many other valuable trees in the forest, but the woods
are not as yet in common use, because it is difficult to
There is a great likeness between the plants found get them to market. The elephants of the jungle are
in northern Africa and those found in southern Europe, being killed rapidly by the native people for their ivory
The continents were formerly connected, and seeds were tusks which form a valuable export product (Fig. -151).
blown from one land to the other.
Oaks, olive trees, vines, figs, and
many of our common cereals are
found growing here. Farther south,
beyond the great desert barrier, are
the savanna lands and the tropical
forest, where the plant and animal
life is very different from that in
the north. See map opposite page 230.
Among the animals found on the
savannas are ostriches, elephants,
zebras, buffaloes, giraffes, antelopes,
and rhinoceroses. In the jungles
there are fierce beasts of prey, such
as the lion, panther, and hyena.
h'^
Fig. 460. Down in the Kimberley diamund mines
the natives load the diamond-bearing earth into
little cars. The cars are then hoisted to the sur-
face, where the gems are separated from the dirt
^ KejMona Vi«w Co.
Fig. 451. These ivory tusks are ready for export
from Mombasa. The elephants are hunted in the
African jungle, and their tusks brought out by
native porters. Each tusk weighs about 60 pounds
222
BRITISH POSSESSIONS
Courtesy of Eugene J. Hall
Fig. 452. Here are three water carriers of Cairo.
Over their backs are slung the heavy goatskins
filled with water which they peddle about the
streets of the city
Publuhen' Pholo Serrice, lac.
Fig. 453. Cairo is the chief center of Mohammedan
teaching. At the end of this old arched street
you can see the Mohammedan University, which
was founded in the year 988
Courte.y of tugenc J. Hall
Fig. 454. These people are climbing the Great
Pyramid near Cairo. This pyramid was built
more than 3000 years before Christ as a tomb for
a great Egyptian ruler
Copal, which is shipped from Banana, is a resin that
comes from certain of the trees of the forest and is
used in making varnishes.
Problems and review questions. 1. Why is Africa so warm ?
2. Where are the coolest places ? 3. Explain the little rainfall in
the Sahara. 4. What conditions produce dense tropical forests ?
5. In which other continent is there a large tropical forest?
6. Describe a tropical forest.
7. What use is made of the grasslands of Africa? 8. Why may
the Sahara be thought of as a barrier to both plants and animals ?
9. What are the chief natural resources of the mountain and plateau
portions ? 10. What useful products are obtained from the forests ?
Home work. 1. Find out how the native people collect and pre-
pare the crude rubber. Report to the class. 2. Bead about the way
the people live who work in the diamond mines near Kimberley
Publisbera' Photo Service. Ino.
Fig. 485. This is the great Nile Bridge at Cairo. It is a modern steel struc-
ture nearly a quarter of a mile long. Automobiles, carriages, trolley cars,
and bicycles are in common use in Cairo to-day, but many of the natives
still ride on camels, just as their ancestors did years ago
BRITISH POSSESSIONS
The British have control of about one third of the
continent of Africa. The Egyptian portion of the
Sudan, which is really the southern part of Egypt, has
been under British control since 1899, and now northern
Egypt is a British protectorate.
Southward, through the high plateau country west of
Abyssinia, British possessions continue through Uganda
to British East Africa, and thus to the shore of the
Indian Ocean. At the extreme south there is the group
of very progressive countries that have joined together
and formed the Union of South Africa. See map on
page 227. The British also have lands on the western
margin of Africa on the shore of the Gulf of Guinea.
These are Nigeria, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, and
Gambia. In addition, several small islands east of Africa
are British possessions.
Home work. On an outline map of Africa, shade or color the
British possessions. Add their names. Use map on page 227.
Egypt and Egyptian Sudan. Egypt will always be of
special interest because of its very early civilization, and
because of the frequent references to the land of the
Nile in Biblical writings. The early people who hved'in
the lower valley of the Nile had the advantage of rich
soils and a warm climate. They were shut off from
hostile tribes by desert barriers and the sea. In those
days invading tribes did not travel by water. Agri-
culture, education, and science were promoted by the
early Egyptians, and they bmlt the wonderful pyramids
BRITISH POSSESSIONS
223
(Fig. 454). Persian tribes later pushed westward and con-
quered Egypt, and the Arabians, Greeks, and Romans
each took a turn at invading this rich land of the Nile.
Tchday there are over 10,000,000 people living here.
Almost all of the nations of Europe, and especially those
of southern Europe, are represented. At the head of the
great delta of the Nile is Cairo, the largest city in Africa,
with a population of over 700,000 (Figs. 452, 453, 455).
Alexandria, with a population of over 400,000, is a com-
mercial center with many of the modern conveniences
of large cities.
The great cotton plantations that have made the Nile
country famous are on the delta and flood plain of the
one great river of Egypt. The Egyptian cotton has a
veiy long fiber and is used in the manufacture of our
best cotton goods.
Each year the Nile overflows its banks and waters
the broad, flat lands bordering the stream (Fig. 450).
' ^. M. »«wisut
Fig. 456. This is a view on the delta of the Nile near Cairo. In the distance
are the pyramids. The ancient Egyptians worshiped the goddess of the
Nile as the giver of all good things. Can you explain why the Nile was so
important to them that it became the center of their religion ?
forests near the coast produce rubber. Farther inland,
on the plateau, the climate is more agreeable, and grains,
From these flood waters fine silts settle upon the land, cotton, coffee, and a large variety of crops are raised by
and thus a layer of new soil is added. The flooding of native laborei-s under European supervision. The rail-
the Nile is due to the very heavy rains that fall in Abys- road from Mombasa to Port Florence, on Lake Victoria,
sinia during the northern summer. These rains furnish has greatly helped the development of this possession.
the headwaters of the Nile
with an abundance of water.
The flood usually comes in July.
Farther south in the Sudan
district, cotton is raised, and
ostrich feathers, dates, and
rubber are brought into the
chief city, Khartum, for ship-
ment. This is one of the cities
of Africa from which the great
supplies of gum arabic and
ivory are exported.
Home work. 1. Look up the sub-
ject of irrigatioa in Egypt. 2. Find
out what gum arabic is used for.
3. Find out all you can about the
pyramids of Egypt.
Somaliland. This little pro-
tectorate on the Gulf of Aden
is a pasture land. It is a low-
land, and there is little rain-
fall, so the people are obliged
to move a])Out in order to take
proper care of their stock.
In British East Africa the
coastal lowland is a hot, wet,
nnhealthful place. Only natives
<Hn work in that part. They
raise rice, sugar, sweet potatoes,
and other crops. The dense
1Q Ulaa UMt Cwag^oj
Fig. 457. This drawing shows the troughlike valley of the Nile and
the great fan-shaped delta at its mouth. This valley is the most
densely populated part of Africa. Why do so many people live here ?
Contrast their life with that of the desert people to the east and west
Southern possessions. The
British possessions in South
Africa include a large part of
the interior from Lake Tan-
ganyika to the Cape of Good
Hope and all the land south
of Portuguese East Africa
(Mozambique) and south of the
Southwest Africa Protectorate.
Most of this territory is within
the high plateaus of South
Africa or in the Southern High-
lands. See map on page 218.
In the north, in what is
known as Rhodesia, the plateau
is an extensive grassland which
is used for the grazing of cattle,
sheep, and goats. Farther south,
in the protectorate of Bechuana-
land, much of the interior of
Africa is included in the semi-
desert of Kalahari, where the
rainfall is so light that little
vegetation can grow. Here the
population is very sparse.
The rains that do come to
this region come in the sum-
mer months of November,
December, and January. Then
the grasses and flowers spring
224
BRITISH POSSESSIONS
The Southern Highlands and the southeast coastal
belts receive an abundance of rain, for the southeast
trade winds that blow over the Indian Ocean reach this
region and are forced to give up moisture.
Along the coast sugar cane, bananas, pineapples, and
rice are raised. On the higher lands tea and coffee are
grown, and in places among the mountains and on
Fig. 468. This is Cape Town, the capital of the Union of South Africa.
In the background the rugged cliffs of Table mountain rise more than 3000
feet above the city. When the white clouds drift over its summit, the people
say it has its tablecloth on. The harbor is off to the left
up so suddenly that the whole landscape is changed as
if by magic. After the rainy season is passed, the grasses
dry and the landscape appears gray. The dried grass be-
comes a standing hay, and much of it about the margin
of the desert is eaten by cattle, sheep, or goats.
In the southern part of the plateau, at elevations of
4000 feet or over, the summer temperature is seldom
over 90° F. in the shade, while the nights are always cool
throughout the year. During the winter months of May, the neighboring plateau where irrigation is practiced
June, and July the nights are frosty and the days are general farming and dairying are carried on.
Fig. 489. The native Kafirs of South Africa live in beehive-shaped houses.
They are low and are built of thin poles interwoven with grass. This view
shows two of these houses. The one without a roof is not a house but a
corral for the cattle which belong to the family
warm and clear.
Here four provinces, the Transvaal, Natal, Orange Free
State, and Cape of Good Hope, have been joined together,
and they now form the Union of South Africa. The gov-
ernment of this Union is similar to that of Canada,
and the people have about
as much freedom and inde--
pendence as in a repubhc.
This portion of South
Africa is well suited to
white people, and it is the
part where great mineral
wealth has been discovered.
Here the settlers are pro-
gressive. Railways, trolley
lines, automobiles, tele-
phones, telegraphs, elec-
trical appliances, and all
modem conveniences have
been introduced. We may
expect a more rapid devel-
opment in this part of
Africa than in any other
portion of the continent.
Fig. 460. Inside the Kafir house you can see the stout poles which support
the roof, and the round fireplace with its three-legged kettle for cooking
the family meals. At the back are the sleeping mats, the dishes, and the
pumpkins which the Kafirs raise and eat in great numbers
The pastures of the Southern Highlands are used for
raising cattle, sheep, goats, and ostriches.
Johannesburg, which is in the Transvaal, is a modem
city located on the plateau in the midst of the richest
gold-producing area of the world (Figs. 461, 462).
Kimberley, a little farther
south, is famous for the
wonderfully clear and beau-
tiful diamonds that are
found near there. Copper,
tin, and coal are also found
near these mining centers.
Cape Town (Fig. 458), the
capital of South Africa, is
a seaport and is the south-
ern terminus of the railroad
which, when completed,
will extend through to
Cairo. Port Elizabeth is the
leading seaport of South
Africa (Fig. 463).
The Cape-to-Cairo Railroad
will be nearly 7000 miles
long. Now that the Union
FRENCH POSSESSIONS
225
of South Africa administers the affairs of the former
German colony of East Africa, this great railroad may
soon be completed. The British people now control a
strip of land that extends from the Mediterranean Sea
to the Cape of Good Hope.
Gulf of Guinea possessions. Each of these possessions,
even if it is very small, like Gambia (4500 square miles).
Fig. 461. Johannesburg is in the gold district of South Africa. Thirty years
ago it was little more than a huddle of tumbledown miners' huts. To-day
it is a prosperous city with broad streets and beautiful buildings. Locate
Johannesburg on your map. What is the cause of its rapid growth ?
Fig. 462. This is one of the plants for the refining of gold at Johannesburg.
The ore, which is mined from the underground layers, or "reefs," is brought
to the surface, sorted, crushed, and finally reduced to pure gold. Where is
the gold sent from Johannesburg ? What are its usea ?
FRENCH POSSESSIONS
The French control about as much territory in Africa
as the British, if we include the island of Madagascar,
but a large portion of the French possessions is in the
Sahara.
Morocco. The French protectorate over Morocco was
established in 1912. The Sultan, who formerly had
supreme power, must now follow the advice of a French
Resident General in all matters. The climate of most of
is of real value to the British people. The ports are
open to vessels from all nations, but very naturally the
trade with England is greater than that with any other Morocco is delightful, and certainly the best in northern
coimtry. Africa. Cool breezes come in from the Atlantic, and the
These lands are inhabited chiefly by negroes. The nmn- snow-capped summits of the Atlas Mountains keep off
ber of white people is very small, but they hold the im- the hot winds of the Sahara (Fig. 464).
portant positions and have general control over the colonies. The interior portions of this countiy are as yet
There are excellent forests here. Palm oil and fiber, unfit for foreign travelers. Neither life nor property is
rubber, ivory, and some coffee
are exported. Gold Coast
was so named because of the
gold that was found there.
Problems and review questions.
1. Where are the chief British
possessions in Africa ? 2. Of
■what value are such lands to the
British people ? 3. Where do
most of the white people live in
these possessions ? 4. Where is
the best cotton raised in Africa?
5. Explain the floods of the Nile
in .July.
6. Do the British control lands
all the way from Cape Town to
Cairo ? 7. How would railroads
lii'lp in the development of the
A f riean countries ? 8. What
mineral and what gem is South
Africa especially noted for ?
Fig. 463. Port Elizabeth is smaller than Cape Town, but is the chief port of
the Union of South Africa. It has no real harbor, and this view shows the
long wharves which run out into the open water, with the derricks for loading
and unloading vessels. Can you explain the importance of Port Elizabeth ?
safe here. Where the French
have full control there has
been a marked improve-
ment, especially in means
of travel. Good roads have
been made, so that motor
cars can go quickly far into
the interior. There are also
a few modern conveniences,
such as the telephone and
the telegraph.
Many parts of the country
have rich soil suitable for
agriculture, but as yet the
methods in use are primitive.
Vine-growing is promising;
cotton has been introduced ;
fish are abundant along the
coast ; and in the moimtains
226
MAP STUDIES
many metals, such as copper, iron, lead, gold, and silver,
have been found. The Moors, who live in Morocco, are
a remnant of the race that once conquered Spain.
Algeria is divided into
three somewhat distinct
parts. In the north' is the
narrow coastal belt, where
the soils are fertile and
where European farmers
are engaged in raising the
vine, • cereals, olives, and
oranges.
In the interior, the land
is high and mountainous ;
it is used chiefly by the
native people for raising
cereals and for pasturing
cattle during the summer.
Farther south is the
desert region. Here there
are oases, where the date
palms and other trees bear
fruit in summer and where
the native people pasture their herds of cattle during
the winter. Great fortunes are made in the dates from
these oases (Fig. 467).
The extreme desert conditions in the south of Algeria
limit European colonization more effectively than any
other barrier.
The climate and vegetation of Algeria are like those
of southern Europe, but they are a little more nearly
tropical. The rainfall on the northern slopes of the
Atlas Mountains is
about 25 inches a
year, and on the
southern slopes it
is about 20 inches.
On the border of
the desert the an-
nual rainfall varies
from: 7 to 15 inches.
Algeria suffers on
account of the lack
of any large rivers
and from a long,
dry summer season.
Extensive irrigation
works have been un-
dertaken, and many
deep wells have been drilled
MAP STUDIES
1. Make a list of the chief seaports of Africa. Opposite
the name of each port place the name of the country in
which it is located. 2. Why
Fig. 464. Tangier, the chief seaport of Morocco, is located on a sheltered
semicircular bay at the Atlantic end of the Strait of Gibraltar. It is a
very old city, and at different times has belonged to Portugal, Spain, and
England. To-day it is the principal outlet for the products of Morocco
are there so few large cities
in the interior of Africa?
3. What is there on this map
that helps you to determine
the climate of northern Africa?
4. What part of Africa is
best supplied with railroads?
What explanation can you
offer for this condition ? De-
scribe in detail the route of
the Cape-to-Cairo Railroad.
6. Make a table with three
columns: in one write a list
of the chief foods exported
from Africa ; in another, the
chief raw materials used in
manufacture ; and in the third,
the chief mineral exports. For
the exports from northern
Africa see the map between
pages 207 and 210.
7. What animal products are shipped from Africa ? What
vegetable products ? 8. Name ten products that are shipped
to the United States. 9. Are the chief imports into Africa
• foods or manufactured articles? Why? 10. To what island
near Africa should you send for cloves ?
11. To what part of Africa should you go if you wished
to visit a diamond mine ? a gold mine ? a coffee plantation ?
a rubber plantation ? a cotton plantation ? a date grove ?
12. Name four large navigable rivers in this continent.
13. In which of these rivers is navigation interrupted by falls,
rapids, or cataracts ?
14. What large city
in the United States
is in about the same
latitude as Cairo ?
See western margin of
map. 15. Through
what countries does
the equator pass ?
16. What countries
in Africa are wholly
or in part in west
longitude? 17. Judg-
ing from this map,
what parts of this
continent should you
think are densely set-
tled ? What parts
are sparsely settled?
r
m 1
1
^
1
) PubliaherB' Photo SerT
Fig. 465. Algiers is the capital of Algeria, the most important French possession in Africa.
The city is located on the west side of the Bay of Algiers. The harbor works have cost the
French a great deal of money. This view shows the large number of wharves which have been
built in order that many ships may load and unload at the same time
At the southern base of the Why ? 18. Make a list of the European nations that have
Atlas Mountains there are large supplies of water, which African possessions. Opposite the name of each one of these
can be obtained by drilling deep holes into the rocks, nations place the names of their African possessions.
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YCHELLCS la
(^ (JiiiTi Biid Coiiipttriy
228
OTHER EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS
Tunis is the name of a country and of a city. The
city is connected by a canal with the sea. The people
in this colony are chiefly Arabs, but
there are many settlers who have
come across the Mediterranean from
the countries of southern Europe.
The Europeans are the agriculturists,
and they raise wheat, barley, oats,
and fruits. Many of the grapes are
used for making, wine. The native
people do some weaving. They make
carpets and are skillful in embroider-
ing leather goods. There are cork
factories in Tunis, and the cork forests
might well be further developed.
Jibuti, ivory and hides are exported. These products
are brought to Jibuti by rail from Abyssinia.
Madagascar. In 1896 the entire
island of Madagascar was placed
under French control. The popula-,
tion consists of natives of France, "
a few other European people, some
Chinese and Malay people, and
many native Africans. Agriculture is
the chief occupation in Madagascar.
Much rice is grown in the moist low-
lands, and cattle are raised in great
numbers on the uplands.
Home work. 1. On your outline map of
Africa, shade or color the French posses-
sions. 2. Find out what different tropi-
cal products are obtained from the various kinds of palm trees
Fig. 466. This is a native Arab family of the
Algerian Sahara. They are traveling, and all
their possessions are loaded on the backs of the
two little burros. Can you describe their life ?
French West Africa and the Sahara. Most of French
West Africa is a part of the Sahara.. On the southern
margin of the desert there are grasslands where cattle are
being raised. In parts of French West Africa there are
modern improvements, such as good roads, railways,
telephones, and telegraphs, and a telegraph line is nearly
completed across the great desert from Timbuktu to and a few white people.
Algeria. The Ivory Coast and Dahomey on the Gulf of Those parts that are near the equator produce coco-
Guinea are also French possessions. Rubber and palm oil nuts, coffee, rubber, ivory, and palm oil. In the grass-
Problems and review questions. 1. Name
the French possessions in Africa. 2. How
do the French improve conditions in their
colonies ? 3. "Why are large portions of
the French colonies unattractive to white
people ? 4. What products are shipped from the P'rench colonies ?
5. What colony has a good supply of cork that should be developed?
OTHER EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS
Former German Possessions. Togo, Kamerun,
Southwest Africa Protectorate, and Tanganyika Territory.
These colonies are inhabited by millions of native negroes
are the chief products.
French Equatorial
Africa. The name
" French Kongo" was
formerly given to this
country. It is so near
the equator that the
climate is exceedingly
hot and damp.. It is
estimated that there
are 9,000,000 negroes
in this colony, and
many of the tribes
are only half civi-
lized. The southern
portion is densely
forested, and to the
north, on the margin
', bR
^^^^^^^^^^^^^■^^^Hl^ZjtS ^^ ^ j^ 3'l^^^^^^^Hl^T
rill
w
1
1
-^ *'"^"^"""^* . ^ssi^s^.
of the forest, is
Fig. 467. The people who live in the green oases along the northern edge of the Sahara
Desert raise the finest dates in the world. In this view they are packing the dates in
boxes for shipment. Can you explain the presence of these oasis gardens in the midst of
the dry, sandy desert ?
grassland, or savanna.
Somaliland. On the east coast of Africa, bordering At the present time officers from the French or British
the Strait of Bal>el-Mandeb, is French Somaliland. colonies in Africa are administering affairs in these
Some coffee is raised here, and from its only port, areas which were former German possessions.
land belts north and
south of the great
tropical forests, sheep,
cattle, and goats are
raised. Many beauti-
ful diamonds have
been obtained from
the sands of the west
coast, and the miners
believe they have
located the old vol-
cano where these dia-
monds were formed.
These colonies have
been but little devel-
oped. There are only
a few miles of railway,
and the telegraph and
telephone are just be-
ginning to be used.
INDEPENDENT COUNTRIES
229
Portuguese Possessions. Angola. Because of its
location on the plateau, from 3000 to 4000 feet above
sea level, Angola has a pleasant climate. It is the largest
of the Portuguese colonial possessions, and contains rich
plantations of rubber trees, coco palms, and coffee. The
trade is largely with Portugal, and in exchange for their
native products the inhabitants import textiles. There
are several hundred miles of railroads here, and tele-
graphs and tele])hones are also in use.
Mozambique (Portuguese East Africa). About half of
Mozambique is a low coastal plain, and the southeast
trades coming to this region bring an
abundance of moisture. Sugar and
coconuts are raised, and in the moun-
tains gold and coal are mined. The
trade is chiefly with Europe and India.
The Portuguese also hold Portu-
guese Guinea, the Madeira and Cape
Verde Islands, and several other
small islands near Africa.
Review questions. 1. Name the Poitu-
guese colonies. 2. What one is most suit-
able for white people ? 3. What products
do the A!igola colonists send to Portugal ?
4. What are the chief imports of Angola ?
It.\lian Possessions. Libia. Much
of the interior of this land is a desert,
and so the population is confined
chiefly to the coastal region. Olives,
lemons, and fruits are raised, and
esparto grass is grown. Esparto grass
is used to make ropes, baskets, shoes,
paper, and cloth. Caravan routes from
the Sudan lead to Tripoli. Large
quantities of ostrich feathers from the Sudan, and dates
from the desert oases, are brought to Tripoli for shipment.
Eritrea and Somaliland are both populated chiefly by
negroes, who make their living by agriculture or the
care of stock.
Review questions. 1. Where are the Italian colonies in Africa ?
1'. Wliat jjnxlucts are sliipjjed from these colonies? 3. What is
'liH chief Italian seajwrt in northern Africa? 4. What products
;ich Tripoli from the Sudan ?
Belgian Possession. Belgian Kongo. This is the
land of the jungles and dense tropical forests described
on page 221. There are at least 7,000,000 natives and
about 5000 Europeans in this colony.
Ships can go 100 miles from the coast up the Kongo
River. At this ix)int is the little village of Matadi. For
the next 200 miles there are rapids, and a railroad has
been built along the side of the river. At the upstream
end of the belt of rapids is Leopoldville, and from there
1^^ Lutleniouit A CDdfroutMl
Fig. 468. This engine is used on the railroad
which crosses the equator near Stanley Falls in
Belgian Kongo. What kind of fuel is burned in
this engine ? Why has the railroad been built
in this particular place ? See map on page 227
for 1600 miles the Kongo River is navigable. This brings
the traveler to Stanley Falls, named in honor of the
great English explorer. Study the map on page 227
for products.
Spanish Possessions. Just south of the Strait of
Gibraltar is a small area which was once a part of
Morocco, but which has been left by treaty to the con-
trol of the Spanish people. A little farther south, on
the west coast, is Rio de Oro. This is a land with some
rich soils. It consists chiefly of a coastal plain, but the
rainfall is not sufficient to make it a good agricultural
country. The Canary Islands belong
to Spain, and the governor of the
islands has charge of the colony on
the mainland. East of the Gulf of
Guinea there is a small country
known as Rio Muni. This and a
number of little islands in the Gulf
of Guinea are under Spanish rule.
Review questions. 1. Where is the Bel-
gian colony in Africa ? 2. What people
live there ? 3. What are the products of
the tropical forest ? 4. How far may boats
go up the Kongo ? 6. Where are the chief
Spanish possessions in or near Africa ?
INDEPENDENT COUNTRIES
Liberia. The Republic of Liberia
was established in 1847 by people in
the United States as a land for freed
American slaves. The constitution
and form of government are modeled
after those of the United States of
America, and the flag of Liberia is
quite similar to ours. The flag has red and white stripes,
and in the blue field where we now have forty-eight
stars Liberia has one large star. The people of Liberia
all belong to the black race. Part of the country is
populated by the free, or American, Liberians and the
remainder by the original native tribes.
The natural resources of this little republic are almost
wholly undeveloi^'d. Coffee, cactvo, and cotton are pro-
duced in small quantities. Gold, iron, tin, and copper
have been mined a little. There are no railroads in Liberia,
and with the exception of ox-carts there is no means of
tmnsportation. Monrovia is the capital and chief seaport.
Abyssinia is the other independent country in Africa.
It is organized as an empire. Most of the people are
farmers or are engaged in raising cattle, sheep, or goats.
The chief exports are hides, coffee, and ivory. Cotton
goods form the chief import. Jibuti, in French Somali-
land, serves as the port for Abyssinia.
230
COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES
I 1 Under 10 inche3 ^Wropjcof
Sa 10 to 20 ■• Y''''"'"'
^H 40 to 80 "
H[| Over 80 ■■
yy Coast Winds in
'^^ ^ Northern Sununec
,''*'' Coast Winds in
O O
f 30
Northern Winter 5' Longitude 2o'''^Ea»t from 36' Greenwich 5o''
\ 1 Under 2 persons per Bq.[nlle
r~n 2to2S
m2Stol26
■■l25to2S0 "
|H|Over2S0 ■■
io:_
r^rl^°r„1kp*'^rt Eliz.l/eth
C.of Good Hope^AguHjj 7
S° Longitude 20" East from 35° Greenwich 50'
Average annual rainfall in Africa
10 tiuui tad Compaaj
Distribution of people in Africa
© UiDn uid t'cmpaaj
COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES
I. From a study of the three maps before you, describe the
country through" which the equator passes in Africa. 2. De-
scribe the geographic features of the Sahara. Are there any
mountains in tills desert ? Are there any permanent streams ?
If so, how can that be explained ? What is meant by " wet-
weather" streams? How can there be wet-weather streams
in a desert?
3. Where do people live in this desert ? 4. What is meant
by an oasis ? 5. How can an oasis be explained ? 6. Can you
locate any oases on the population map ? 7. How are routes
of travel laid out across the desert?
8. How do the Atlas Mountains influence the amount of
rain that falls on the northwestern coast of Africa? 9. How
much is the rainfall there ? 10. How does the amount of rain
on the north coast of Africa affect the distribution of popula-
tion in that part of the continent ?
II. Notice that there is very little continental shelf about
Africa. This means that the great continent of Africa is
almost all above water. North America and Europe are in
part under the water and have wide continental shelves.
12. The number of square miles in each of the continents
is shown in the Appendix. Which continent is larger than
Africa? Which continents are smaller than Africa? See
maiy on page 275.
13. Name four large rivers in Africa and, from a stud)- of
these maps, describe the country through which each flows.
14. What is the most striking difference between the coast
line of Africa and that of Europe? What disadvantages are
there in a coast line like that of Africa ? 15. How do the
mountains of Madagascar affect the distribution of rainfall on
that island? 16. What winds bring the rain to Madagascar?
17. What is the annual rainfall in the region where the great
African lakes are located ?
18. Explain the location of the tropical forests. 19. What
is the annual rainfall in these forests ? 20. What products
should you expect to find in the great tropical forests?
21. What are the best routes of travel iir those forests ?
22. What is the annual rainfall in the grasslands north
and south of the tropical forests ? 23. P^rom these maps what
should you think the chief occupations of people m these
belts must be ? 24. Why has the coastal region north of the
Gulf of Guinea a tropical forest ?
25. Explain the presence of forests in the Abyssinian High-
lands. 26. What great valley in South America has a tropical
forest like that in the Kongo Basin ? 27. Why is there so
little rainfall in southwestern Africa and on the west coast
of South Africa ?
28. In what parts of Africa do most of the people live ?
29. How in general is the distribution of population in Africa
related to the distribution of rainfall? 30. How can you
explain the dense population in the valley of the Nile ?
31. What winds come to the southeastern coasts ? 32. What
portions of Africa will prove most attractive to permanent
white settlers? Why?
Q Qinn aod Company
Fig. 469. This is a view in the Himalayas, the highest mountains in the
world. Notice the steep slopes and the sharp, snow-covered peaks. In the
center and foreground of this view is a great glacier which is winding its
way down the valley between the high mountain slopes. The black bands
in the glacial ice are composed of rock material which the ice has ground ofi
the mountain sides and is carrying along with it. Locate the Himalayas
on your map. Are they young and rugged mountains or old and worn-
down mountains ? Why are their summits always covered with snow ?
ASIA
Asia is the largest of the continents. It is a land of there is not sufficient rainfall to support forests, but just
very ancient civilizations ; Mesopotamia and the plains about enough for grasses ; this has led very naturally
of India and China were inhabited by civilized races long to the grazing of cattle and sheep as one of the chief
before the beginning of the great migrations of white occupations of the people. Dry farming and irrigation
people from Asial into Europe.
In southwestern Asia, around the eastern end of the
Mediterranean Sea, there were highly civilized nations
of white people fi-ora three to four thousand years be-
fore the birth of Christ. Palestine, Syria, and most of
the places referred to in the Bible are in this part of the
continent.
To-day more than half the people of the world live
in Asia. The lowlands of China, Manchuria, and India
are all densely populated. In the eastern part of China,
in an area less than half the size of the United States,
are practiced.
The Lowland of Turan is the southward extension of
the Siberian Plains. It is a desert and semidesert region
between the Caspian Sea and the lofty mountains of
the Pamir. Here many of the people wander about
with their cattle and sheep. Some of them make beau-
tiful rugs and carpets, which they carry to the bazaars
in the large cities and sell. Near the rivers the lands
are irrigated, and many different crops are raised.
The East Siberian Uplands are from 1000 to 2000 feet
above sea level. This is an old land with rich soils and a
there are nearly 300,000,000 people ; in the valley of the dense forest, called by the Russians the taiga. The climate
Ganges and on the coastal lowlands of India there are is so severe in winter that few people live here. Many
about 300,000,000. wild animals with heavy fur coats inhabit the forest
India, China, and Japan have recently adopted many and are sought by hunters,
of the ways of European or Western civilization. Rail- The central mountains of Asia are a continuation east-
roads are being built, mines are being opened, modern ward of the high mountains of southern Europe. Most
buildings are being erected, and new governments are of the ranges are young and rugged. They include the
being established. The industries of these countries are
developing rapidly, and the United States, as well as
the nations of Europe, is interested in establishing and
maintaining commercial relations with these countries.
Natural Regions
The Siberian Plains are a continuation eastward of
the wonderful farm lands of European Russia. See map
on page 2S2. Tliese Asiatic lands have rich soils, but
here the climate is rather dry. In much of this area
highest mountains in the world (Fig. 409). Far to the
northeast the ranges are lower. They are old and have
been worn down much like the Ural Mountains and the
Appalachian and Brazilian highlands.
The Great Khingan Mountains, just west of the
plains of China and Manchuria, are chiefly of volcanic
origin. The East China Highlands are old, worn-down
mountains rising only from 2000 to 4000 feet above sea
level. Many of their slopes are forested, and in the valleys
of that portion of China there is a dense population.
281
2 ^--^^vJ. {_
JO gmnow° y JO smnow »-<
MAP STUDIES
233
* S^
234
CLIMATE
Climate
Because Asia extends so far from north to south,
because it is so very large, and because it has such high
mountains, there is great variety in the climate. The
tip end of the Malay Peninsula is very near the equator,
and at the extreme north the lands are within the
arctic circle.
When these cold winter winds leave the central part
of the continent and blow eastward over the plains of
Manch\iria and China, the temperature falls in those
countries. This is the reason why such places as Peking
have very cold weather during the winter.
Rainfall. Use the map on page 256. The inflowing
monsoon winds of the summer season bring most of the
Temperature. The southern part of the continent has rain to Asia. When they reach the coast they begin to
warm weather throughout the year. In the interior rise ; the air and the moisture in the air become colder,
the changes in temperature from winter to summer are clouds form, and soon the rain begins to fall. The
greater than they are in any other place in the world, lowlands bordering the coast are thus well watered, and
In the Siberian Uplands the tem-
perature often falls to 70° F. below
zero in winter and rises to 80° above
zero in summer. Most of the land
north of the Himalaya Mountains
has a temperature below 32° F. in
January. Only those lands to the
south and east, near the coasts, are
free from frosts during the coldest
months of the year. When summer
comes, all but the high regions and
the lands far to the north are warm.
The Iran and Arabian plateaus are
the hottest portions of Asia, because,
in addition to being in the south, their
climates are very dry. If there were
more moisture, more of the sun's heat
would be used up in evaporating the
moisture, and the temperature would
not be so high.
Monsoons. There is a remarkable
seasonal change in the winds about
Asia, which can be very clearly un-
derstood. In summer the great land mass becomes very
warm, and the warm air over it expands and begins to
rise. The colder air over the oceans to the north, east,
and south is heavier, and therefore it settles and flows
in over Asia. The colder inflowing air forces itself under
the warmer air and helps to make the warm air rise.
The inflowing winds coming from the oceans bring the
rains which fall on the mountain slopes.
During the winter the land becomes very cold. The
air over the land becomes even colder than that over the
oceans, so the movements of the air are reversed. See map
on page 256. The cold, heavier air over the land area settles
and flows outward or seaward. Such winds, coming from
the interior of the continent, cannot have much moisture.
Winds that blow toward the land in summer and from
the land in winter are called continental monsoons, and
these winds have a great influence over the living con-
ditions in Asia.
UndetwooU 4 Underwood
Fig. 471. The bare, rocky peninsula of Sinai is
one of the driest parts of western Asia. This
view shows the monastery of the Mount Sinai
Monks. Can you explain the climate here ?
as the air continues to flow inland
the seaward slopes of the mountain
ranges receive an abundance of rain
and snow.
The heavy rains on the mountain
slopes explain the large rivers which
make it possible, where it is neces-
sary, to irrigate the rich soils of the
lowland plains and thus raise food for
the millions of people who live there.
Just over the tops of the moun-
tains, in the interior of Asia, are the
desert regions. When the monsoon
winds descend the leeward sides of the
mountains and cross the plateaus of
Tibet, East Turkestan, or Mongolia,
they have little moisture, and there-
fore those lands are arid.
Iran and Arabia do not get strong
monsoon winds from the ocean. They
are exceedingly dry.
Western Turkestan is a semidesert,
because moisture-bearing winds can-
not reach it. The tundra portion of Asia has little rain
or snow, because the air in very high latitudes is always
cold and cannot have much moisture.
While the deserts of Asia are among the driest places
known, no other place in the world receives so much
rain as the southern slopes of the Himalaya Mountains.
Equatorial rainy belt. All the way around the world,
near the equator, there is an equatorial rainy belt. Dur-
ing the year the rainy belt moves northward and south-
ward, following the vertical rays of the sun. It goes
north during the northern summer and south during the
southern summer. In its belt the air rises and carries
with it moisture that commonly forms clouds and then
falls as rain. This is the belt where rain usually falls
every afternoon. Ceylon, a part of the Malay Peninsula,
and many of the East Indian islands have two rainy
seasons, because the equatorial rainy belt passes over
them twice each year.
COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN ASIA
235
Problems and review questions. 1. Why should there be such
very different climates in the different parts of Asia ? 2. What
parts of Asia are the hottest ? 3. Where is there the greatest dif-
ference between the summer and winter temperatures ? 4. What
are the monsoons ? Explain them.
5. In what part of Asia is the rainfall heaviest ? 6. What dis-
advantages are there in having a very heavy rainfall ? 7. Why
are the high plateaus of Asia dry ? 8. Explain the coming of
two rainy seasons in one place in a year.
COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN ASIA
One of the most interesting parts of Asia is the por-
tion between India and the iEgean Sea. It includes
much rugged, inaccessible mountain country, the two
extensive desert plateaus of Iran and Arabia, the semi-
desert plateau of Anatolia, and the rich lowland area of
the Tigris and Euphrates valleys.
Three or four thousand years before Christ several
great nations flom-ished in this part of Asia. They were
composed almost entirely of people of the white race,
and their civilizations have contributed a great deal to
the nations which later grew up about the Mediterra-
nean shores. In this part of the world the Jewish nation
passed through its eventful history (Fig. 473).
In the thirteenth century Mongolian invaders from the
northeast, of whom the Ottoman Turks are the present
representatives, swept over these lands and almost oblit-
erated the civilizations which they found. They adopted
the worship of Mohammed, which had originated in
Arabia, and during their rule Mohammedanism became
the accepted religion in most of southwestern Asia.
Since the Mongol invasion the Jews have had no coun-
try of their own, and the Armenians, who have held to
the Christian re-
ligion, have been
crowded into a
mountain region
and subjected to
cruel persecution.
The countries
of western Asia
made very little
progress under
the weak govern-
ment of Turkey.
Great irrigation
works were aban-
doned, few rail-
roads were built,
^ i«i„.««i . Li»i.™.«i and many of the
Fig. 472. The wharves at Smyrna are crowded inhabitants emi-
with camels loaded down with figs and grain for i A t t-V,
export. Where will these products be sent ? What g^^tCQ tO Otner
things do the foreign ships bring to Smyrna ? COUntneS.
Fig. 473. Jerusalem, the center of the Jewish nation in Biblical times,
is now a typical oriental city of flat-roofed, whitewashed houses, with a
mixed population of Jews and Mohammedans. At the left in this view is
the dome of the Mohammedan Mosque of Omar, and in the distance is the
Mount of Olives
Under Turkish administration little was done to in-
troduce modern methods in agricultural or industrial life.
During the World War Turkey was overcome by the
forces of the Alhes, and several distinct and independent
nations have been established here.
Turkey retains control of the western part of the pen-
insula between the Black and Mediterranean seas. Most
of this country is very rugged. Along the coasts there
are a few narrow lowland belts, and here the summers
are hot and the winters warm. On the higher lands of
the interior, where the Plateau of Anatolia is located,
the winters are cold, but the summers are hot and drv.
Some portions of the plateau are dotted with tall
cypresses and umbrella pines, but most of this region
is treeless. Where streams come from the mountains,
irrigation is practiced and agriculture is carried on, but
in most primitive ways. The soils are rich, and the
chief products are tobacco, cereals, cotton, figs, and
many varieties of fruit. The cotton industry is increas-
ing. The climate is favorable to mulberry trees, and
many people raise silkworms.
Sheep and cattle are raised among the mountains. The
Angora goats which live on the plateau supply the hair
for mohair cloth. Many beautiful shawls and rugs are
woven in Anatolia. On the coastal lowlands large quan-
tities of figs and other Mediterranean fruits are raised.
Smyrna is the chief ceaport (Fig. 472).
The narrow straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles
were under the control of Turkey before the World War.
They are now governed in such a way as to provide for
the free passage of the ships of all nations.
236
COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN ASIA
Armenia. This part of Asia is characterized by gloomy
mountains and fertile valleys. It is very hot in summer
and extremely cold in winter.
Fully two million people live in this country. Their
chief occupations are the care of sheep and goats, the
cultivation of grapes, and
the raising of maize, cot-
ton, and tobacco. It is not
a country of great possibili-
ties, but with a strong and
just government the people
may live happily in the val-
leys between the mountain
ranges.
Most of the inhabitants
are Armenians, but there
are also many Turks living
here, and Kurdish shepherds
make their homes in some
of the mountain
ranges.
There are few roads, and
therefore travel is not easy,
and it is difficult to main-
tain a good government.
Erzerum is the leading
city of Armenia.
Syria and Palestine . Syria
is a tableland bordering the
Mediterranean Sea and slop-
ing gently eastward into the
Syrian Desert. The south-
ern portion of this table-
land is called Palestine or
the Holy Land (Fig. 47i).
Near the coast the people
raise olives, oranges, lemons,
and grapes. They also pro-
duce large quantities of
silk, most of which is sent
to France. Farther inland
there is some agriculture,
but the farming methods are
very old-fashioned. Large
numbers of the people in these lands are shepherds.
Most of the people in Syria are Arabians, and in
Palestine the inhabitants are Arabians and Jews.
Mesopotamia, or the land between the rivers, was once
the "Garden of the World." It was the site of the rich
and powerful Babylonian Empire, but for hundreds of
years this fertile land was almost abandoned. Ruins
now mark the sites of the ancient cities of Nineveh
and Babylon.
PALESTINE
Scale of miles
0 10 20 30
© flinn and Company
Fig. 474. Relief drawing of Palestine. Locate the great trough in Palestine.
What river and what seas are in this trough ? Compare the elevation
of the surface of the Dead Sea with that of the Mediterranean. Describe
the location of Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Damascus. What are the chief
occupations of the people on the western plains ? on the heights of Judea ?
Bagdad, familiar to us in the Arabian Nights, lies on
both sides of the Tigris River, which is crossed by a
bridge of boats. It has a population of about 200,000.
This country has need of a strong government and men
with capital and energy to construct and maintain irri-
gation works. The waters
of the Tigris and Euphrates
could reclaim the lands of
Mesopotamia, and a large
population could be sup-
ported here. Great Britain
now administers the affairs
of this country.
MAP STUDIES
1. Make a list of the coun-
tries that border on tlie east-
ern end of the Mediterranean
Sea ; on the Black Sea ; on the
Caspian Sea ; on the Persian
Gulf; on the Red Sea. 2. Why
are there so few navigable
rivers in this part of the
world ?
3. Where do the larger riv-
ers shown on this map get
their water? Give at least
two examples. 4. What be-
comes of some of the rivers
that flow from the mountains
into the deserts ?
5. Judging from the loca-
tion of the cities, do most of
the people live near the coast
or inland ? How should you
explain the distribution of set-
tlements ? 6. Why are there
so few railroads in this part
of the world ?
7. How do people travel in
these lands where there are
no railroads and no navigable
rivers? 8. How should you
explain the location of settle-
ments at the base of moun-
tain ranges ? 9. Judging from
the products and natural resources, what should you think
are the chief occupations of the people in these countries ?
10. What products from these countries reach the I'nited
States? 11. Should you expect manufacturing to become a
leading industry in these countries? Why? 12. Locate
the Holy Land on this map.
Home work. 1. Locate on an outline map Smyrna, Damascus,
Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Mount Ararat, Bagdad, the Dead Sea, tlie
river Jordan, the Suez Canal, and the Bosporus.
A ts" B
SO'tPetroirad C 36°
D 40° . Archangel E 45 Long. T East 60 from 6 Green 66 wick H
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THE NEAR EAST^ToJS^h^'"* ""<>
ECONOMIC AND COMMCItl lAL MAP ^^ V^is- ^'^'^F
Scale of (tatuta miles
0 fto too aoQ ^, aoo
Scale of kiU
0 ftO too 900 900 J
Oil li II II
Dear rl ot
A h k a f
Shuj.-m, pB^
Wrttk
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* Capital cities
DAI ti
• Chief aeaporti
Principal railroads . — i— ' .' Navisrable rivers
1 Uplands > ^O
^^^ ^» « — .V. _,..., land plateaus
^'■'■'/,y/,^^ Land below sea level
I I Lowlands
"ICld. worn-dow
-J mountains
"TTo »Lourcnco/,
^^ Marq uea v
Yountr, rugged mountains
■ ■ .hi. ,«..
iJ Zanzibar • 40 /.
.FarUk
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SOKOTBA I.
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K ■ /rem 46 Greenwich F Tananarivo 60"
N
IS
IS"
s«"
H Mauritius 60
Settled boundaries
Unsettled boundaries
^^ Sovcreisnty to be determined by popular vote
G Qinn And Company
238
COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN ASIA
Fig. 475. This is a street scene in Yanbo, one of the coast towns of Hejaz.
Of what materials are the buildings made ? Why are they not built of
wood ? Notice the camels in the background. Of what use are the camels
to the Arabians ? What other animals do they raise ?
Problems and review questions. 1. For what reasons are the
lands in western Asia especially interesting ? 2. What are the
chief occupations of the people ? 3. Why is this a good region for
raising silkworms ? 4. Why are there no large cities ? 5. Why is
there little manufacturing ? 6. What are the chief disadvantages
of these lands?
7. What do these countries most need to attract more settlers ?
8. Describe the great, deep valley of the Holy Land. 9. What
religions were founded in this part of the world ? 10. Where did
the Mongolian invaders who belonged to the yellow race come
from ? 11. How were the rich soils of Mesopotamia formed ?
12. How could the lowlands of Mesopotamia be again reclaimed
for agriculture and made to support a large population ?
Arabia is a country without a strong or well-organized
central government. Most of the people have their
homes in the cities or towns in the small and somewhat
independent states about the margin of the country
(Fig. 475). Those living in the vast desert interior
usually follow a nomadic, or wandering, life (Fig. 476).
Where springs or wells occur in the desert, there are oases,
and in each oasis date palms are grown. The wandering
Arabs drive their sheep, cattle, goats, and donkeys from
one pasture to another. They ride beautiful horses,
which are famous for their speed.
Thousands of the Arabian people make annual visits,
or pilgrimages, to Mekka and Medina. Mekka was the
birthplace of Mohammed, the founder of their religion.
Every Mohammedan wishes to visit Mekka at least once
during his lifetime. There is now a railway from Da-
mascus to Medina to help these pilgrims on their journey.
In the extreme south of Arabia the mountain slopes
have been terraced, and large crops of coffee are raised,
which are exported from Mokha. Sea fogs help out the
scanty rainfall of this coastal belt.
Fig. 476. These wandering Arabs have pitched their tent just outside the
walls of an old fort in one of the desert oases. Can you describe the life
of these people ? How does it differ from that of the Arabs in the villages
and towns ? How do these people earn their living ?
Hejaz. The people of this country are Arabians.
In 1916 they threw off the Turkish yoke and established
a kingdom. A national flag was then adopted and a
national army formed. Hejaz includes the cities of
Mekka and Medina, and is the most progressive of the
independent Arabian countries.
Aden and Oman. The British have a small possession
at the southwest corner of the Arabian peninsula, called
Aden, which they use as a coaling station. Oman, at
the southeast comer, is a small independent state bor-
dering on the Persian Gulf. It has become known
for its pearl fisheries. Some of the largest and most
beautiful pearls in the world are found in the waters
of the Persian Gulf. Maskat is the seaport of Oman.
Persia occupies the western part of the Plateau of Iran
and the mountain ranges to the north and south. Most
of the plateau is so dry that few people can live there.
Grazing is the chief occupation, and the shepherds must
wander about to find pasture for their sheep and goats.
Many of the mountains are of limestone, into which
the rain water sinks easily and flows underground.
Wherever an underground river, which may have started
in the mountains, comes to the surface, there is a spring,
and that means an oasis. In desert places the people
can sometimes secure water by digging deep wells. To
convey the water long distances without loss by evapora-
tion under the hot sun, they have dug underground
channels called kanats, into which the water is turned
when it is drawn up from the wells. These channels
may be traced many miles by the mounds of earth
thrown up in excavating them.
Trees that need dry air for their tops and water at
their roots grow to perfection in parts of Persia. The
COUNTRIES OF WEST-CENTRAL ASIA
239
date palm is an excellent example ; it seems to flourish
in a scorching sun if its roots are wet. Its fruit is
spoiled by a single shower. The Persian apricot and
mulberry are regarded as the finest in the world. Since
good mulberry leaves can be raised, the Persian people
have developed a flourishing silk industry. Persian rugs
and tapestries are famous. Many of the Persian rugs
are named after the places where they are made.
Teheran is the capital and lies at the southern base
of the Elburz Mountains, in sight of their snow-capped
summits (Fig. 477).
Afghanistan. In the northeastern corner of the great
desert plateau of Iran, and extending into and a little
beyond the rugged Hindu Kush Mountains, is Afghan-
istan. Early each summer, when the snows melt in the
mountains, the streams bring rich alluvial soils to the
lower lands. Near the rivers there are irrigated fields
and a few small settlements, but the inhabitants can
do little more than raise enough food to live on. Some
cattle, sheep, and goats are raised.
Kabul is the capital and is located on the Kabul
River, which flows to the Indus. This valley is part of
the overland route to India, but in its lower course it is
impassable, and travelers must go through a very narrow
notch in the mountains, known as Khyber Pass.
Problems and review questions. 1. What makes it diflBcult to
live in Arabia, Persia, and Afghanistan ? 2. Why do so many
people want to visit Mekka? 3. What is Mokha famous for?
4. What articles from Persia are found in American homes ?
5. What do most of the people on the Plateau of Iran do for a
living ? 6. Locate from memory Mekka, Medina, Mokha, Teheran,
Aden, and Maskat.
Home work. 1. Read a sketch of the life of Mohammed.
2. Find out some reasons why the camel can live on the desert.
COUNTRIES OF WEST-CENTRAL ASIA
The central part of western Asia contains a number
of small states which were part of the Russian Empire
before the World War. They occupy the semidesert
lowland of Turan. Here the streams from the moun-
tains flow to inland seas. They never reach the ocean.
Transcaspia is north of Persia and east of the Caspian
Sea. It is a very dry district, where the wandering life
of shepherds is about all that is possible. It is a thinly
settled province.
Bokhara is a prosperous state which has long been
somewhat independent. It is famovis among Americans
and Europeans for the beautiful Bokhara rugs which
are woven there. It also produces large quantities of
corn, fruit, silk, tobacco, and cotton.
The city of Bokhara is a center of Mohammedan
learning, containing over one hundred colleges and no
less than three hundred and sixty mosques.
Khiva is a small state, west of Bokhara, where cotton
and silk are produced in large quantities, and where
beautiful rugs are made.
Western Turkestan extends northward from Bokhara
to the southwestern boundary of Siberia. It is a land
of broad, dry steppes, crossed here and there by rivers.
Along the rivers are narrow strips of irrigated lands where
the water brings many crops to perfection, gives rise to
settlements, promotes trade, and leads to the growth of
wealth. Tashkend is the capital of Western Turkestan.
Samarkand is a second important city. In the bazaars
of these cities the merchants sell the goods brought
by camels over the long caravan routes, as well as the
carpets, rugs, and skins brought in by the steppe-
dwellers, and the products from the irrigated farm lands.
Fig. 477. The government gate at Teheran is a very fine example of Persian Fig. 478. This is a formal Persian dinner party. The guests are seated on
architecture. Its decoration shows the same beauty of design which is found beautiful oriental rugs, and the dishes are set on mats of Persian tapestry,
in the Persian rugs. Locate Teheran on your map. Why is the Persian capi- The servants stand in the background, ready to attend to their masters'
tal less important commercially than Tabriz, the chief city of the country ? needs. All the men wear close-fitting caps, according to the Persian custom
240
SIBERIA
SIBERIA
The completion of the railway from European Russia
to Vladivostok marked the beginning of modern Siberia
(Fig. 480). This great railway is between 5000 and 6000
miles long. It crosses a land of great opportunities.
For convenience in study Siberia may be thought of
in four divisions :
(1) the tundra far to
the north ; (2) the
taiga, or great for-
ests, just south of
the tundra; (3) the
steppes, or grassy
plains, in the west ;
and (4) the high-
lands in the south.
Tundra. In the
tundra belt in Asia,
just as in the belts
of similar latitude
in Europe and North
America, there are
two seasons, — a
Fig. 479. This is a picture of Nizhnii Kolymsk, one of the little villages of the Siberian tundra.
The photograph was taken at noon on a winter day. Can you explain why it is so dark in the
middle of the day ? Study the extent of the Siberian tundra on the map opposite page 256. How
much rainfall does this region receive ? What are the occupations of the people ?
work in the forest. Here the wolf, bear, silver fox, sable,,
and squirrel live ; and since it is a very cold country^
these animals have heavy coats and yield many of the-
best furs in the world's fur market.
Along the southern margin near the railway there-
are small clearings, and as the population increases, the
forest will prove to-
be a valuable source
of timber, and the
cleared land will
undoubtedly prove
good for farming^
(Fig. 482).
Steppes. Large
areas of the Sibe-
rian grasslands, or
steppes, are good
agricultural lands.
In the district cen-
tering about Omsk
there are extensive
wheat fields, where
modern American
long, dark winter, when temperatures fall many degrees harvesting machinery is being used (Fig. 483). Much of
below zero, and a short summer, with almost unbroken
daylight (Fig. 479). The frozen ground thaws out in
the spring after the snow has disappeared, but the melt-
ing extends less than two feet below the surface.
The tundra is overgrown with mosses, lichens, and
many dwarf plants. Red berries are abundant on the
low bushes, and brilliant Alpine flowers bloom there.
the grassland serves as a pasture for dairy cattle, and the
rich cream produced is used for making butter. This
is the most flourishing of Siberian industries, and ship-
ments of butter are made to points as far away as England.
The drier parts of the steppes are suitable for grazing
sheep and goats.
Highlands. In the southern part of Siberia there are
There are also swarms of mosquitoes, and many birds young, rugged mountains, and in the east a series of old.
that fly far to the north.
The native people of northern
Siberia have domesticated the rein-
deer, and they live partly upon rein-
deer milk. For food they gather
berries, catch fish in the rivers, and
kill some of the game birds. These
people are wanderers, and as they
move southward on the approach of
winter they take many of the rein-
deer with them.
Taiga. Stretching east and west
across Asia south of the tundra belt
is one of the greatest forests in the
world. For the most part it is a dark,
cold wilderness about 4000 miles long
and from 1000 to 2000 miles wide.
A few native huts are scattered along
the stream courses, and in winter
there are hunters and trappers at
Fig. 480. This view shows a group of Chinese
coolies at work on the eastern end of the Siberian
I^ailroad. Trace the route of this railroad on your
map. Explain its importance
worn-down mountain ranges. See map
' on page ^32. The mountains contain
rich stores of minerals that have not
yet been worked, and they furnish
pasture for stock during the summer
season. The eastern and northeast-
ern portions are heavily forested.
The forests include many varieties
of fir, oak, pine, and spruce which
have a high commercial value.
Rivers. In Siberia there are three
very long rivers which rise in the
central mountains, where the melt-
ing of the snows furnishes water, and
flow northward to the Arctic Ocean.
To the west is the Ob ; next, to the
east, is the Yenisei ; and farther east
is the Lena. Their mouths are north
of the arctic circle, and during the
winter their lower courses freeze.
SIBERIA
241
As summer advances, the snows
anelt in the high mountains to the
south before the ice has left the
mouths of the rivers. The waters
come down the valleys until they
reach the ice ; there ponds are formed,
and as the waters rise vast areas
are flooded. During that time travel
east and west by land becomes almost
impossible in northern Siberia.
These great rivers are used as
highways of travel in summer and
winter. During the summer, when
the streams are all open, it is pos-
sible to go east or west across
northern Siberia in boats, using the
tributaries and certain canals. In
winter the tx-avelers use sledges.
The Amur is a large and impor-
tant river highway in the east, and
forms the boundary between Siberia
and Manchuria.
Cities. The four most important cities in Siberia along
the route of the Siberian Railroad are Omsk, Tomsk,
Irkutsk, and Vladivostok. The ending sk on a name
means that the city or town is on a river of similar
Fig. 481. The Russian Cathedral at Omsk is the
center of the religious life of the city. Locate
Omsk on your map. Why is it important com-
mercially ? What are the products of the country
surrounding Omsk ?
Irkutsk is the chief city in the
Yenisei Basin and one of the largest
cities in Siberia. The smelting of
gold ores has become an imjx)rtant
industry here.
Vladivostok, the eastern terminus
of the Siberian Railroad, is a very
important city. It has an excellent
harbor and is protected by a fortress.
There are flour mills, factories where
machinery is made, and plants where
bricks are manufactured. The city
has a large export and import trade,
although the harbor is icebound for
three months of the year.
Future. The future of Siberia lies
in developing its wealth of natural
resources. There are rich beds of
coal and iron, deposits of gold, and
extensive tracts of forests that have
as yet been untouched. Before these
products can be given to the world,
more people must go to live in Siberia, and means of
transportation must be improved.
Problems and review questions. 1. Describe briefly the physical
features of Siberia. 2. Where do most of the people live ?
3. What are the leading occupations ? 4. What resources as yet
remain undeveloped ? 5. What are the four leading cities ?
6. Why is Siberia a land of great opportunities ? 7. What does
it need, to hasten settlement and development ? 8. Name three
large rivers of Siberia. 9. What use is made of the mountain
streams when they have become rivers in the lowlands ? 10. What
products has Siberia for export ?
Home work. 1. Read an account of a railroad journey across
Siberia, 2. Find out about the building of the Siberian Kailroad.
Fig. 482. This is a view in one of the many small villages which are found
along the southern edge of the taiga. The wooden houses in these villages
are nearly all alike. The sledge is the common means of transportation
in the winter. Can you describe the life of the people here ?
name. Thus Omsk is situated on the Om River, Tomsk
on the Tom River, and Irkutsk on the Irkut River.
Omsk is in the center of a wheat-producing district
and good grazing country. Very naturally, it has be-
come an important center for dairy products, and the
farmers bring their butter and cheese here to be sold.
Omsk is also a junction for the east-and-west traffic on
the railroad and the north-and-south traffic on the river
(Fig. 481). Tomsk is in a gold-mining district. It has
a university and many other excellent institutions.
Fig. 483. This man is a progressive Siberian farmer of the southern steppes.
He has purchased an American mowing machine, and by harnessing his pair
of camels to it he can cut his grain in a much shorter time than he could
when he mowed by hand. What kinds of grain does he raise ?
242
CHINA
Fig. 484. Shanghai is the largest port of China and a city of a million
people. This view shows Soochow Creek at Shanghai, with public build-
ings and factories in the distance. What things are being made in these
factories ? What are the exports and imports of Shanghai ?
Fig. 485. This is the government technical institute at Shanghai. It is
a modern school of the best kind, where the young Chinese students are
trained to be scientists and engineers. Many of the teachers in this school
have received part of their education in the United States
THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA
China is entering the industrial and commercial life
of the world, and with its large population, which gives
China is one of the countries that the world will watch it wonderful man-power, it is destined to play a very
with the greatest interest during the next fifty years, important part in the affairs of the world.
The people belong to the yellow race ; they are patient,
careful, and very industrious ; they have been very slow
and unwilling to change their customs, but wonderful
changes are now taking place in the country. It is a
land shut in on the west by high mountains and deserts,
which have prevented easy intercourse with other people
by land. It is bordered on the east by the Pacific Ocean,
which until recent times has been a barrier to travel.
Thus the Chinese people have been
isolated and have developed a civi-
lization quite different from that of
the Europeans, who could easily
mingle with other peoples.
In many ways their early civili-
zation was remarkable. Its records
go back more than two thousand
years before Christ was born. They
invented paper, gunpowder, and the
art of printing, and learned to make
and use silk. They were keeping
historical records before civiliza-
tion had begun in Europe. Now the
Chinese are beginning to open up
their great stores of coal and iron.
Railways and steamships have been
built, modern schools and universi-
ties have been established (Fig. 485),
and the larger cities begin to look
like the cities of western Europe
and North America (Fig. 484).
Fig. 486. The great Chinese Wall is 1600 miles long
and was built two hundred years before Christ to
defend the empire against invaders. Trace this great
wall on your map. Does it form the northern boundary
of China to-day ?
Home work. 1. Compare the size of China with that of the
United States. Which is the larger ? 2. Look up the lengths of
the three longest rivers of China. Where do they rank in a list
of the ten longest rivers of the world ?
Climate. The lowlands on the east receive rains from
the southeast monsoon winds dui-ing the northern sum-
mer. See map on page 256. The summer monsoons are
warm, and so help to increase the temperature of China
during the growing season. When
winter arrives, the winds are fitojn
the northwest, or interior of the con-
tinent, where it is very cold in win-
ter. These winds bring cold weather,
especially to Manchuria and the
northern part of the Plain of China.
The high mountains to the west
have heavy snowfalls, and the
melting snows provide water for
the rivers. The plateau portions of
China are so shut in by mountains
that they receive very little rain-
fall, and they are all deserts or
seraideserts.
Rivers. The Yangtze is the long-
est river in China (Fig. 490). After
leaving the mountains, where it
flows through a deep canyon, it
crosses the broad lowland plain to
the East China Sea. " Yangtze "
is the Chinese word meaning tea.
CHINA
243
The Hwang, or Tellmo, river is
80 named from the great amount
of yellow mud that it carries. It
has been called "China's Sorrow";
for when it overflows, thousands of
people are drowned and vast areas of
crops are destroyed. In 1887 a great
flood occurred and a million people
were drowned. The Amur is another
very long river. The rivers of China
brought the fine materials from the
mountains and made the lowlands.
For nearly four thousand years
the rivers were the chief highways
of travel in China. Even to-day
there are but few railroads for so
large and so densely populated a
country, and the rivers therefore
continue to be of great importance
in the domestic, or inland, commerce
of the nation (Fig. 490).
Natural resources. The rich soils of the lowlands are
UDd.rwood k Underwood
Fig. 487. At this point an opening has been made in
the ancient wall around Peking, to allow the railroad
to enter the city. China has more than 6000 miles of
railroads. Why are they necessary to China's progress?
Occupations. Where there are so
many people the great problem is
to raise enough food, and therefore
most of the Chinese are farmers
or gardeners. The farms are very
small indeed, commonly but three
or four acres. Millions are engaged
in raising rice (Fig. 489) ; many
work on sugar plantations ; others
raise wheat, tobacco, or hemp ; the
gathering of tea employs many
hands, and likewise the care of
gardens. Rice, wheat, the large and
small millet, and the soya bean are
so important to the life of the
Chinese that they are sacred plants
and no one may injure them. Millet
is a coarser grain than wheat and not
as nourishing. Chinese people raise
a great many hogs, for those animals
eat coarse food, which is cheap.
While agriculture remains the most important of all
China's greatest natural resource, and it is the industry occupations in China, in the last few years there has
of the people and their care of the soils that has made been a notable increase in manufacturing, and we may
it possible for so many people to live in the country for look forward to a great industrial development in the
centuries. In the south valuable forests cover parts of cities of northern China.
the mountain area. Unfortunately, large areas of China
have been stripped of their forests. In those areas much
of the soil has been washed away, floods have occurred,
and the lands are of little use. Along the seacoast there
are several good harbors.
Cities. Peking is a very ancient city. It was the cap-
ital of the Kingjlom of China for three thousand years ;
for over eight hundred years it served as the capital of
the Chinese Empire ; and now it is the capital of the
Republic of China. The history of this city reflects the
China has large supplies of coal and iron. Coal seams history of the nation through a long period of time,
40 feet thick have been reported. Natural oil, or petro- during which the people have secured more and more
leum, has been found, and deposits of gold, silver, and freedom. About the city there is a wall sixty feet in
many other minerals have been located. Mining is certain height. The gates in that wall were formerly locked
to develop very rapidly in China during the next few years, at night, as was the custom in other walled cities of
i „ . - - The mule litter is often used for travel
In China, where good roads are very rare. The
passenger sits cross-legged under the canopy, and
tbe little mules trot safely over the narrowest paths
Fig. 489. This man is plowing his rice fields with
a rude wooden plow drawn by a water buffalo.
The fields are flooded during the planting season,
because rice grows best if planted under water
Fig. 490. These boats are Chinese freight junks
sailing down the Yangtze River to Shanghai. What
products are they carrying ? Why are the Chinese
rivers of such great importance to the country?
244
CHINA
Kiaochow is a seaport on the east coast of China and
was formerly a German possession. Japan now holds
that port and a large part of the neighboring Shantung
peninsula, but the Japanese have promised to return
that territory to China.
Manchuria is a large province in the northern part of
China. It is a part of the Republic of China but has a
large degree of independence. The western part of the
country is dry, and little but grass grows there. The
Fig. 491. The broad, steep-walled harbor of Hongkong is one of the best in
the world. It is a British naval base and a great commercial center. What
do you think is the business of the different boats in the harbor ? Why is
Hongkong a very valuable British possession ?
Asia and Europe. The wall about Peking has now been
broken, and a modern railroad comes into the city
(Fig. 487). _
Tientsin is the port of Peking and the outlet of a large
part of Manchuria. It is also the northern terminus of the
Grand Canal. Hankow is the great tea market of China.
Shanghai, the port of the Yangtze River, is an important
commercial city (Fig. 484). The increase in foreign trade
at Shanghai has been due largely to the British. Canton,
located on the delta of the Si River, is the chief sea-
£. M. Newman
Fig. 492. These stone elephants guard the avenue leading to the tombs of
the kings at Nanking. The stones on their backs have been tossed there by
passers-by to find out whether their wishes would come true. If the ston»
stays on the elephant's back, it is a sign of good luck
eastern portion is well watered and suitable for agri-
culture ; it has become very prosperous. In the high-
port of southern China. It is the largest city in China lands rich deposits of gold, copper, and lead have been
and an important manufacturing center (Fig. 493). found. Many Chinese farmers live in Manchuria, where
The island of Hongkong (Fig. 491) is a possession of they raise millet, wheat, and beans. Mukden is the capital.
the British nation.
Victoria is the cap-
ital. This little
island is located
at the mouth of
the Si River and
is about 90 miles
south of the city
of Canton. The
British people who
live here have
established mills
for cotton spin-
ning and sugar
refining, and ship-
building and re-
pairing are also
carried on. The
Chinese silk and
tea trade is con-
trolled to a great
extent by Hong-
kong merchants.
£. H. Neinuui
Fig. 493. The Si River at Canton is crowded with boats of all kinds. Many of the junks serve as
homes for the poorer Chinese families, especially those whose daily work is connected with the river
in some way. When the children play on the decks, they are tied with long ropes, and each has a
strange sort of life-preserver strapped to his back. If he falls overboard, the life-preserver keeps
his head above water until someone pulls him out by the rope
Mongolia. West
of Manchuria is a
vast territory, not
very well defined,
which is known
as Mongolia. It
is chiefly a desert
country, because it
is surrounded by
high mountains.
There are oases at
the foot of the
mountains, where
springs are located
or where streams
from the moun-
tains make it pos-
sible to irrigate
the land. Many
of the people raise
sheep and horses,
which they must
drive from place
CHINA
245
to place to find good pasturage. Urga, the largest town,
is the holy city of the northern Buddhists.
Mongolia has been quite independent in its govern-
ment, and many Russians came into this territory to help
develop its resources. Recently, however, Mongolia has
asked for a closer association with the government of
China proper, and the request has been granted.
Sinkiang. Just east of the Pamir is a dry region known
as Eastern Turkestan or Chinese Turkestan. This land
and some adjoining districts form the Chinese province
of Sinkiang. This province is so shut in by mountains
that rain-bringing winds do not reach it. For the same
reason it is difficult for people to reach this land. The
little towns are near the base of the mountains, where
oases are found and water is available. Kashgar and
Yarkand are two walled cities, each located in an oasis.
Fig. 494. This woman is tishing with her trained water birds, called cormo-
rants. At her command they dive, catch the fish, and fly back with them
to the boat. About each cormorant's neck is a ring or piece of string to keep
him from swallowing the fish. Why are fish so important to the Chinese ?
Tibet is a large, semi-independent province of China.
It includes the highest plateau in the world. Tibet is
completely surrounded by high mountains, and on the
south are the magnificent Himalayas (Fig. 4G9). Lassa,
the capital, is a picturesque city with many beautiful
temples. The temples are gilded and the roofs of the
buildings are very commonly red. Lassa is the center of
the Buddhist religion and is considered a sacred city.
There is a short, dry summer and a long, cold winter
in this plateau country, and therefore little use can be
made of the rich soils. The people raise yaks, sheep, and
goats. The yak is as important to these people as the
reindeer is to the people of the tundra, or the camel to
the people of the desert. It has a thick, woolly coat, and
the hide is used in various ways, sometimes for clothing,
sometimes for making tents or utensils. The people use
the milk of the yak and have trained these animals to
be beasts of burden. The yak is one of the few animals
that can work as beasts of burden at great heights.
Fig. 495. The sacred Temple of Heaven near Peking is a beautiful triple-
roofed tower standing on the highest of three marble terraces. Once a year
the emperor used to go to the temple to make a sacrifice to heaven. Since
China has become a republic the president stiU observes this custom
Home work. 1. Read Sven Hedin's description of his travels
in Turkestan and Tibet. Get one of his books from some library.
2. Look up Peking in some good reference book and learn about
the Forbidden City.
Problems and review questions. 1. Why should the people of
the United States be interested in China ? 2. What trade have we
now with China ? 3. What have you seen that surely came from
China ? 4. What have you eaten that may have come from China ?
5. What have you worn or seen other people wear that probably
came from China? 6. From what American seaports are vessels
sent to China ? 7. What are the chief seaports of China ? 8. What
is the capital of the Republic of China ? 9. What is the largest
city ? 10. What is the British port on the east coast of China ?
11. What are the
chief natural re-
sources of China?
12. What prevents
the Chinese from
migrating into the
less crowded parts
of their country ?
13. What is the
chief food of the
poorer people of
China? 14. Kama
three large rivers
of China.
15. What river
is called " China's
Sorrow " ? Why ?
16. What are the
occupations of the
people in the high
mountains and pla^
teaus of western
China? 17. What
does China need
most at present?
£. U. Newmu
Fig. 496. These Chinese children spend part of
each day in school. After school they cannot play
until they have collected wood enough for the
family to burn the next day for cooking and boil-
ing water for their tea
246
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248
JAPAN
) H. C. White Co.
Fig. 600. These Japanese laborers are setting out
young rice shoots in even rows in the mud and water
of an irrigated field. Here the rice will grow until
it is ready to harvest
Climate. The
spring and au-
tumn are the
most desirable
seasons to make
a trip through
Japan. June is
the wet month,
and July, Au-
gust, and the
first weeks of
September are
very hot in the
lowland areas.
In general the
climate of the
islands is mild
throughout the
year. This is
because Japan is surrounded by a great ocean, and
weather changes are not so extreme or so sudden as
in the interior of great land areas.
Occupations. The population of Japan is very dense,
and in order to provide food for the people the soil is
cultivated in a most intensive way. Even the mountain
slopes are terraced, and walls are built to prevent the
earth from sliding. The Japanese produce many varieties
of rice, which is the chief food for most of the people
(Figs. 500, 501). The tea from Japan is famous (Fig. 502).
Indigo, cotton, hemp, flax, and tobacco are also raised.
Very. few animals are kept on the islands, because ani-
mals use large quantities of food. There are abundant
fish in the shallow waters around the islands, and fish
is one of the chief foods of the
Japanese people.
Mulberry trees are grown to pro-
vide food for the silkworms. Japan
supplies about 30 per cent of the
total amount of silk raised in the
world, and more than half of all
that we receive in the United States
(Figs. 497, 498, 499).
The manufacture of paper, matr
ting, pottery, metal goods, and
straw braids has long been carried
on in Japan. The spinning indus-
try is rapidly becoming H^pre and
more important. Silk is manufac-
tured around Tokyo, and large cot-
ton mills are located at Osaka.
The raw cotton is imported mostly
from India and the United States.
Cities. Tokyo is the capital of the empire, with a
population of over 2,000,000 (Fig. 504). It is one of the
foremost cities in the Orient. It has electric cars, modern
stores, and excellent train service. The beautiful imperial
palace, the home of the emperor of Japan, is in Tokyo.
The imperial university is also located in this city, and
there are numerous parks, temples, and shrines here.
Fig. fiOl. The Japanese thresh rice by drawing it
through wooden rakes. The rice grains drop into the
baskets, leaving the straw in good condition for thatch-
ing roofs and making hats, baskets, sandals, and mata
Q) K. M. Newman
Fig. 602. The tea pickers in Japan are mostly women and girls, who
work on the hillsides plucking the tender green leaves from the bushes.
After they are picked, the leaves are wilted over a fire, rolled to squeeze
out the sap, dried, sorted, and packed for export. Why is tea grown on
the hillsides in Japan ?
Yokohama is the port of Tokyo (Fig. 503) and has an
excellent harbor with protected waters. It is the first port
reached by trans-Pacific liners from America. In the
harbor of Yokohama the traveler will see vessels from
America, China, Australia, India, and Europe. Osaka
is the largest commercial center and
one of the most progressive indus-
trial centers. Its population is over
1,000,000. The harbor at Osaka is
poor, and most of the trade of this
city is carried on through the neigh-
boring port of Kobe, which has an
excellent harbor. Nagasaki is an in-
dustrial center and a very old port,
where vessels commonly stop to get
a supply of coal. Kyoto, the former
capital of Japan, is an important
manufacturing city and one of the
chief railway centers.
There are three densely populated
areas : the first near Tokyo and
Yokohama, the second in the vicin-
ity of Kobe and Osaka, and the third
near Nagasaki. See map on page 256.
JAPAN
249
Chosen (Korea). This part of
the Japanese empire is chiefly
an agricultural land, but the
methods of cultivating the soil
are backward and primitive.
Rice, wheat, beans, tobacco, and
cotton are the more impoi-tant
crops. In the mountains gold
mining is carried on, and copper,
iron, and coal are known to be
abundant. The means of com-
munication are poor, and this
condition is delaying industrial
development. Keijo (Seoul) is the
largest city and Fusan, on the
southern coast, is the chief port.
The Koreans belong to the
Mongolian race but form a
nationality distinct from that
of the Japanese or Chinese.
Formosa was ceded to Japan by China in 1895. There
are dense forests on this island, and some of the forest
tribes are still uncivilized. Camphor is the chief prod-
uct, and nearly all the camphor in the world comes from
this island. On the lowlands bordering the coast the
inhabitants raise large crops of rice and sugar cane.
Uiul«rwou<] & Uoderwowl
Fig. 503. This is a street scene in Yokohama. Notice the curious
signs over the shops and the jinrikishas which the Japanese
use for riding about the city. What is the population of
Yokohama ? Can you explain its commercial importance ?
as years go on it is likely that
a larger and larger proportion
of the Japanese people will be
engaged in industiial work.
Problems and review questions.
1. Why do Japanese young men come
to our universities for an education ?
2. What are the chief occupations of
the Japanese ? 3. What does Japan
most need ? 4. What industries have
the Japanese undertaken ? 5. Name
three important cities. 6. What winds
bring rain to Japan ? 7. What land
on the continent of Asia does Japan
possess ? 8. Where does the emperor
live ? 9. What cities are leading in-
dustrial centers ?
INDO-CHINA
, i.. AL tiemo&a
Fig. 504. Many of the streets in the i ■ a ol Tokyo have a very
modern appearance. The ofSce buildings, stores, electric-car lines, and
telegraph poles are not unlike those of an American city. Locate Tokyo
on your map. How does its population compare with that of the largest
cities in the United States ?
Future. There is every reason to believe that Japan
is destined to become one of the world's great industrial The only settle-
nations. The Japanese people have already proved them- ments are near
selves very skillful in the industrial arts, and the
amount of manufacturing increases every year. Power
is provided by the coal fields, the natural oil, and the
many streams, some of which are already harnessed to
produce hydroelectric energy. Agriculture will always yield bamboo and
be important in such a densely populated country, but other woods.
Indo-China comprises a group
of small countries between the
South China Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The countries
on the east are under the protection of France. Siam is
an independent kingdom, and Burma is a part of India
and so under British rule.
French Indo-China. In the northern part of French
Indo-China there are several mountain chains, and the
rivers which flow southward bring rich soils to the low-
lands. In the mountains the rainfall is heavy because of
the monsoon winds of the summer months. Most of the
people live on the lowlands, where many of them are
engaged in raising rice, fruit, cotton, and sugar. These
are just the prod-
ucts that would
be expected on a
warm, moist low-
land. Coffee and
tea are the chief
products raised on
the higher lands.
Some fishing is
carried on in the
lakes and streams
of the deltas and
along the coasts.
the rivers. These
villages are shut
in by dense tropi-
cal forests which
© tQ.i«rw<Md « Uodtrwood
Fig. 605. A Korean house is built by weaving a
latticework of grass ropes between wooden posts
and beams, and building against it a wall of stones
held together by mud plaster
g*6UQ3lJ0^^N
oj.Buioa s
MAP STUDIES
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252
INDIA
4^ I'ubliahera' Photo Serrice, Inc.
Fig. 507. These are Hindu pilgrims at the ghats, or bathing places, of
Benares. Many of them have come from distant parts of India, for Benares
is theii holy city, and every good Hindu must bathe at least once in the
sacred waters of the Ganges to wash away his sins
INDIA
The Indian Empire includes the great peninsula of
India and those adjacent lands which are directly or in-
directly under British control. Burma on the east, Balu-
chistan on the west, and the small state of Sikhim in
a pass to Tibet are thus parts of India.
People. There are many British people in India. Most
of them are government officials or soldiers, but some
are tradesmen. The king of Great Britain and Ireland
has the title of " Emperor of India," and he appoints a
governor-general, or viceroy, of India, who usually serves
for a term of five years.
About 70 per cent of the inhabitants of India are
Hindus (Fig. 50 7), who belong to the white race and follow
in their religious beliefs the teaching of Brahma. This
religion teaches the doctrine of caste, or class distinctions.
Some are born in a high caste, others in a low caste or in
some intermediate caste. Those who are members of one
caste cannot associate with members of another caste, or
class. This doctrine is quite opposed to our belief that
all men are born free and equal. Brahmanism has helped
also to keep many superstitions alive among the people.
Tropical jungles. In the great jungles of India there
yet remain many tigers, leopards, bears, and elephants.
There are poisonous snakes here, too, and thousands of
people and millions of animals die each year from snake
bites. The cobra, one of the most dangerous snakes in
the world, is a sacred animal. The native people, because
of their religion, would not kill an animal, but they like
to have other people kill this snake. The cow and the
monkey are also sacred animals in India.
There are numerous insects in this hot, moist land, and
they carry disease just as they do in all tropical regions.
Climate. When the monsoon winds of the summer
season strike the high Himalaya Mountains, they cause
heavy rains. Forty inches of rain falling in one day has
been recorded at one place on the southern slopes of the
mountains. The rainfall during a year on the southern
slopes of the Himalaya Mountains measures from 400 to
500 inches, and in very wet years it has been known to
reach 600 inches. Such heavy rains mean that in places
all of the soil is washed from the mountain slopes, leav-
ing them so bare that nothing can grow there. The
soils washed from the Himalayas are spread out over
the lowlands of northern India.
The heavy rains on the mountain slopes explain the
large rivers which make it possible to irrigate the rich
soils of the plains and thus raise food for the millions
of people who live there. During the summer season
rains fall on the higher parts of the Plateau of India.
Before the people of India learned to store the water
and to irrigate the lands, terrible famines often occurred.
Famines are not so bad now, because of the reservoirs
and because more railroads have been built and help
can be sent to the people.
The part of India which lies south of the Himalayas
is never very cold, because its latitude is low and it is
sheltered from the cold north winds by the mountains.
It is never so hot, however, as the plateaus of Iran and
Arabia, because of the sea breezes which always help to
moderate a climate. Above 7000 feet the climate in
India is suitable for Europeans and Americans.
Natural regions. The natural divisions of India are
very clearly defined. In the north are the bold and
rugged slopes of the Himalaya Mountains. These are the
highest mountains in the world, and they rise abruptly
Fig. 508. The oxcart is a common sight in the streets of Bombay, where
the humped oxen are used very generally as draft animals because of their
great strength. Notice the modern public buildings in the background of
this view. How does Bombay rank in size among the cities of India 7
INDIA
253
from the broad lowland plain of
northern India. This fertile and
very densely populated lowland plain
extends fi'om the base of the Hima-
laya Mountains southward to the
Plateau of India, spreading out eastr
ward to the mountains of Burma
and westward to the highlands of
Baluchistan.
The three great rivers of India —
the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and
the Indus — rise in the Plateau of
Tibet and, after leaving the Hima-
laya Mountains, cross this lowland
plain to the sea.
In the portion of the plain made by
the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers
the climate is sufficiently moist to
permit agriculture, but irrigation is
practiced to supplement the rainfall.
(jy PuhljjlirM' Pt.oto btniet, lac.
Fig. 509. This man is at work at his bench carving
an elephant out of ivory. The people of India have
been famous always for their delicate carving and
exquisite metal work
The seaward portion of the Plain of the Indus is dry,
and as great quantities of food cannot be raised there,
this district is not so densely populated as the Plain (Fig. 509), and others who do beautiful work in embroid-
of the Ganges, ery and in making fine silk and cotton cloth. Excellent
articles. Next in importance is the
pasturing of stock. Forestry also
furnishes employment to a great
number of men. Nearly two hun-
dred and twenty-five million people
engage in agriculture, stock-raising,
or forestry. That is more than twice
the number of people living in the
United States.
In plowing and cultivating the
soil the water buffalo and humped
cattle are generally used. Elephants
do the heavy work, much as horses
do in some countries. Horses are
used for riding, and cattle are used
almost entirely as draft animals or
as beasts of burden. The buffalo is
the common draft animal in the
very wet places, but the camel is
used in the very dry places.
There are many people in India who have learned the
decorative arts. There are those who do carving in ivory
fuLliBliCt*' PbuUi Serii«e, laa>
The vast Pla-
teau of India, or
the Dekkan, as
it is often called,
forms the greater
part of the pen-
insula of India.
In some parts of
this plateau the
surface is flat, but
Fig. 510. These elephants, which belong to the
sacred temple at Kandy, Ceylon, are having their
afternoon bath. The elephants in India are trained
by the natives to do many kinds of hard work
Natural resources. The rich soils
washed from the highlands by the rivers and spread
out to make the lowlands are the most valuable of the
natural resources of India.
Coal, gold, and petroleum are the three most impor-
tant mineral resources. There are, however, many other
minerals in this country. The forests of India are also
very valuable.
Occupations. The cultivation of the soil is of first
importance and occupies the time of most of the people.
The raising of large quantities of sugar, rice, tea, wheat,
and cotton makes it possible for so many people to live
here. Jute fiber made from the jute plant is used in man-
ufacturing burlap, twine, paper, and many other useful
carpets are also made in India. The cotton and jute
mills employ half a million people. Most of the arts
have been conducted in a very primitive way, but to-day
machinery is being introduced.
Cities. Calcutta is the largest city and the most im-
portant seaport (Fig. 511). Until 1911 it was the capital
of India, but Delhi is now the capital (Fig. 512). Bombay-
is a very busy cotton-manufacturing center (Fig. 508).
The cotton comes from the lowland northwest of the
Dekkan. Madras, which is located on the eastern side of
in many places the peninsula, serves as the port for southeastern India.
it is broken by
rugged ridges of
bare rock.
that have been
C«urte«j of Wiillaou. Bruwu it Eiitt*
Fig. 511. This is one of the beautiful parks in Calcutta. In the background
is the temple, built in the elaborate style which is characteristic of the
native Indian architecture. Calcutta was formerly the capital of India and
is noted for its fine buildings. What is the present capital of India?
254
INDIA
D Pubtishers' Photo 15«rTioe, Inc.
Fig. 512. This is a street in Delhi, the capital of India. In the background
are the domes and minarets of the famous Jama Masjid Mosque, said to be
the oldest mosque in the world. In summer the residence of the government
is moved from Delhi to Simla. Can you explain why ?
Burma. Burma is a land of narrow valleys and heavily
forested mountains, with, a population of about twelve
million people. Far back in the mountains there are un-
civilized tribes and wild beasts like those in the forests
and jungles of other parts of India. Teak, rubber, and
rice, but chiefly rice, are the leading products of Burma,
and rice is the chief export. The lowlands are hot and
moist, and near the coast the rainfall is from 100 to 200
inches a year. See map on page 256.
Baluchistan. The plateau portion of western India is
a part of the Plateau of Iran ; it is a stony desert, frozen
in winter and very hot in summer. There are a few
oases near the base of the mountains, and each oasis is
marked by palm ti'ees. Where the land is well watered,
excellent crops are raised. Large quantities of dates are
produced and packed for shipment.
Sheep and goats are cared for by the native people,
who drive them from place to place in search of grass.
Both Burma and Baluchistan have prospered under Brit-
ish rule. Railroads have been built, irrigation works
improved, and disease and famine checked, and the
populations have increased.
Ceylon. The island of Ceylon has a small lowland
in the north where the climate is tropical, and rice,
rubber, cacao, and coconut palms are raised. The cen-
tral and southern parts of the island are occupied by
a mountainous plateau. On the southwestern slopes of
the plateau are great tea plantations. The abundant
rainfall on these slopes is so favorable to the growth of
the tea that the leaves can be gathered every two weeks.
The plateau is also rich in minerals and precious stones.
The chief mineral is graphite, and Ceylon is the leading
graphite-producing country of the world. Colombo is the
principal city of Ceylon (Fig. 514).
Problems and review questions. 1. In what part of India do
most of the people live ? 2. What are the chief foods ? 3. What
are the chief products for export ? 4. When is the rainy season ?
Why does it occur then ? 5. Why are there very heavy rains on
the south slopes of the Himalaya Mountains ?
6. In what part of India is it best for Europeans or Americans
to live ? 7. What are the chief occupations of the people in India ?
8. Why are there famines in India? 9. How could they be
avoided ? 10. Name the capital and the leading seaports.
11. Why is it never very cold in southern India ? 12. What
have you ever seen that came from India ?
Home work. 1. Read " Kim," by Rudyard Kipling. 2. Find
out how sago grows ; how the native people prepare it ; how we
use it in the United States.
SMALL COUNTRIES IN THE HIMALAYA
MOUNTAINS
Nepal is an independent kingdom in the Himalaya
Mountains, 500 miles long and 150 miles wide. The
inhabitants are a very busy people. They raise cattle,
wheat, rice, tobacco, and spices. They export some of
these products and take in exchange sheep, goats, sugar,
oils, and manufactured goods.
Bhutan is another independent state among the
Himalaya Mountains which is closed to Europeans. It
has wonderful mountain peaks and glaciers and a great
variety of vegetation.
It is very interesting to find in the highest moun-
tains of the world small groups of people who would
rather be independent than to belong to a large and
powerful nation.
Home work. Find other examples of liberty-loving people
who have established independent nations in mountain countries.
Courtea/ of Wiliiftma, Diijwu, & Eulo
Fig. 513. This is the market place at Quetta in Baluchistan. Quetta is a
strongly fortified British military station and is connected with the port of
Karachi by a railroad. Locate Quetta on your map. What things should
you expect to find on sale in the bazaars of the market place ?
EAST INDIES
255
EAST INDIES
Most of the islands southeast of the Malay Peninsula
and north of Australia belong to the Dutch people.
See map on page 250.
The islands are mountainous, and most of the moun-
tains are of volcanic origin. The forests yield rubber
and spices, and are the homes of very primitive tribes.
On the narrow lowlands, where it is always warm, the
people are more civilized ; in many places they grow
the sago palms from which they get a large proportion
of their food. People who live on islands naturally be-
come traders. They are good boatmen, and they love to
migrate from place to place. It has not been uncommon
for them to add piracy to their occupations.
The island of Java is the most advanced in the group.
The soil is very fertile, and every tropical and temperate
crop can be grown on the island if land high enough
above sea level is selected. Coffee and cinchona are the
most important products, but spices, sugar, rubber, and
cotton are cultivated.
The capital of Java is Batavia (Fig. 515).
It is always hot and moist in this part of the world,
and Europeans do not enjoy the climate. A few, how-
ever, must Uve here to direct the native laborers.
Review questions. 1. What European nations hold possessions
in the East Indies ? 2. Describe the physical form, or relief, of
the islands. 3. Describe and explain the climate. 4. What are the
chief occupations ? 6. What are the chief exports ?
Home work. 1- Make a list of the common domesticated animals
of Asia, and indicate what each one is valuable for. 2. Bring
your pictui'es of Asia to school and plan a picture exhibit.
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Fig. 614. This is the passeogei landing and customhouse at Colombo.
Beyond is the harbor, which is protected by three great breakwaters. The
southwest one breaks the force of the waves in the southwest monsoon
Mason. In what months is this ? What are Ceylon's exports ? Where are
most of them sent ? What are its imports ?
Fig. 515. This is a canal in Batavia, the capital of Java. Batavia is the
great trading center for the Dutch East Indies. Its canals are full of little
boats laden with the products of the other islands, waiting to be exported.
What are some of these products ?
GENERAL REVIEW FOR ASIA
1. What is the most nourishing cereal grown on the steppes ?
2. What conditions are favorable for raising rice? 3. Where
is the taiya ? 4. What palm thrives in rainless regions but
needs water at its roots ? 5. What part of Asia lias conditions
favorable for raising grapes, olives, and figs ?
6. Rice, wheat, the large and the small millet, and the soya
bean are the five sacred plants in what country ? 7. In what
country are cows, monkeys, and the cobra sacred ? 8. On the
leaves of what tree are silkworms fed? 9. What country
produces most of the silk sent to the United States ?
10. What is the most important animal on the tundras?
on the richer 8t«ppes? on the poor steppes? in the high
mountains ? in the desert ? on the high Plateau of Tibet ?
11. What animal can bear extreme cold ? What one can bear
extreme height ? What one can bear extreme drought ?
12. What animals can best bear intense heat? 13. What
are the two chief occupations of the people of Asia? 14. Ex-
plain the oases in the deserts. 15. Name and locate five impor-
tant seaports. 16. Why are there so few large interior cities?
17. What countries have good industrial prospects ?
18. What parts of Asia will remain unsettled? Why?
19. What winds are most helpful to agriculture in Asia?
Why? 20. Where do the greatest extremes in temperature
occur ? Why ? 21. Where are the highest mountams in the
world ? 22. Where is the " Roof of the W^orld " ?
23. Name and locate five long rivers in Asia. 24. In what
country is there coal and iron in abundance and plenty of
cheap labor ? 25. In what countries of Asia are beautiful rugs
made ? 2G. What European nations have large possessions in
Asia? 27. What country owns mo.st of the East Indies?
28. Where is nomadic life common? 29. Where are the
chief settlements in Siberia? 30. Wliat are the chief prod-
ucts that the United States imports from Asia ? 31. From
what part of Asia does most of the world's tin come ?
32. What will be of the greatest help to Asiatic countries
in their industrial and commercial development? 33. From
what American ports do vessels start for Asia ?
256
COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES
AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND PACIFIC ISLANDS
AUSTRALIA
The Victorian Highlands extend in an east-and-west
direction near the southern end of the East AustraUan
Australia, the smallest of the continents, is part of the Highlands, and just south of the Victorian Highlands is
British Empire and a land from which we receive large
quantities of wool, hides, skins, and copper. It is the
only continent, except uninhabited Antarctica, which is
entirely within the southern hemisphere. Study each of
the pictures from Fig. 516 to Fig. 520.
People. Most of those who have gone to live in
Australia are English-speaking people, and they have
discouraged the importation of negroes from Africa and
of laborers from
India and China.
More help is needed
in order to develop
the great natural
resources of the
country, but the
white inhabitants
prefer to develop
them less rapidly
and to keep the
country for those
who use the same
language and have
similar ideals of
social, industrial,
and political life.
In central and
western Australia
there are many tribes of native people who live in most
primitive ways. Their relation to the native peoples of
New Zealand, of the islands of the Pacific, of Asia, and of
Africa is not known, but they are usually classed with the
black race.
Natural Regions
Australia is easily divided into a few distinct natural
regions. See map on page 2.58.
Fig. 616. Australia raises more sheep than any other country in the world. This view shows a group
of the famous merino rams which are pastured there. The thoroughbred merinos have the longest,
finest, and heaviest fleece of any breed of sheep. Such rams as these yield from thirty to forty
pounds of fine wool each. Why does Australia lead the world in the production of wool ?
the broad, rich Valley of Victoria.
The Great Plains, with a general elevation of from
500 to 1000 feet above sea level, occupy a central posi-
tion in the eastern half of the continent. Fine materials
have been washed from the higher lands and spread out
on these plains, so that now there is a rich alluvial soil
in this region.
When white people first came to Australia, they found
a scanty growth of
poor grass on the
plains; but most
of this land has
been planted with
European seed , and
now a great part
of the Great Plains
region is an excel-
lent pasture land
(Fig. 516). Over
this region graze
flocks of merino
sheep, which yield
the finest wool in
the world. Much of
this fine wool is
used in the mills
of England and
America. Dairy farming is being rapidly developed in
the southern portion of these plains (Fig. 517).
The plains have a native plant, the saltbush, that is
very valuable in stock-raising. The plant contains so
much salt that the animals eat it for their salt supply.
This bush is being introduced into the United States in
the dry sheep-raising lands of the Southwest.
In the northern portion of the plains it is possible to
The East Australian Highlands are made up of a series get water by drilling deep wells. Several wells reach
of low mountain ranges that are heavily forested. The as far as 5000 feet below the surface, and the waters
Great Dividing Range, the New England Range, and the secured are used for irrigating the lands. In the southern
Blue Mountains are included within this highland region.
The mineral resources and the water-power of this
region encourage mining and manufactviring, and have
led to the great industrial development of New South
"Wales, Queensland, and Victoria.
Most of the white people of Australia live in this por-
portion of the plains, which is shut off from the south-
east rain-bringing winds by the highlands, ii-rigation is
necessary.
The South Australian Highlands are low mountains
from 1000 to 2000 feet high. They are old and worn
down, and contain, considerable quantities of gold, silver.
tion of the continent, and it is rapidly becoming more lead, and copper. One of the country's chief seaports,
and more densely populated. See map on page 265. Adelaide, is on the southern margin of this region.
267
o
TdoH pooo ,-
JO BdBQ ^ ^
AUSTRALIA
259
•-I % .BUITT N
UMOX a<3B0 •
AUSTRALIA
261
262
AUSTRALIA
Fig. 521. These Maori girls do not need stoves to cook their food. They
live on North Island, New Zealand, where there are geysers, hot springs,
and boiling pools. At any time they can put their pots and kettles over
the steaming cracks and cook all they wish
New Guinea. A portion of New Guinea belongs to the
Commonwealth of Australia. See map on page 260. Like
most of the islands between Australia and Asia, it is
mountainous, and the mountains are young and rugged.
The interior of New Guinea has not been explored on
foot, but very recently airplanes have been used to assist
in the examination and mapping of the island.
Since New Guinea is so near the equator, the climate
is very hot and the rainfall is heavy. The narrow low-
lands near the coast, and also the mountain slopes up
to a height of 6000 feet, are covered with forests. On
the slopes above the forests there are grasslands.
The island is rich in minerals, but as yet little mining
has been done. Plantations of sugar cane and rubber
trees have been introduced, and the vanilla bean is
also raised. Such industries are under the direction
of Europeans, but labor is scarce and it is difficult to
get work done.
The western half of New Guinea belongs to the Dutch,
and the northern part of the eastern half was formerly
a German possession. It is now under British control.
The native people of the island, who make up most
of the population, are Papuans.
Tasmania is also part of the Commonwealth of Aus-
tralia. This island is the southern continuation of the
eastern highlands. It is mountainous, and in the moun-
tains there are rich deposits of coal, tin, silver, and
other minerals. Sheep-raising is the chief industry of
the uplands. In the fertile valleys fruit is raised, and
Tasmanian apples are famous for their flavor.
Cities. Sydney, the oldest town in Australia, is the capi-
tal of New South Wales and its chief seaport (Fig. 520).
It has an excellent harbor and the supplies of coal and
iron close by have greatly increased its importance.
Melbourne is the capital of Victoria and one of the
principal seaports. This city has become an important
manufacturing and railroad center. The country about
Melbom-ne produces the finest merino wool in the world.
Melbourne is the city from which the great butter
exports of Australia are sent to New York.
Brisbane is the capital and chief port of Queensland.
It is 25 miles from the coast at the head of navigation
on a small river. This city is near certain of the great
supplies of coal and gold; railroads on the north and
south connect it with other important centers.
Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is nearer Europe
than the other eastern capitals and has a large export
and import trade.
Perth is the capital of Western Australia and the port
of export for the gold of the state.
Government. The Commonwealth of Australia con-
sists of six states : New South Wales, Victoria, Queens-
land, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania.
British New Guinea is called the Territory of Papua.
In the Commonwealth there is a Federal Parliament
consisting of a Governor-Genefal, who represents the
king, a Senate, and a House of Representatives. Each
of the states elects six senators for terms of six years.
The number of representatives depends, as in the
United States, upon the population in each state. They
are chosen for three years. Equal suffrage prevails in
Australia.
Problems and review questions. 1. Name the four chief natural
regions of Australia. 2. What mountains in North America do
you think may be like the eastern and southern highlands ?
3. Where did the rich soils of the Great Plains come from ?
4. Why is most of Australia warm throughout the year?
5. What breed of sheep furnishes the finest grade of wool?
6. Of what value is the saltbush ? 7. Why is it dangerous to
cross a great desert ? 8. Of what empire is Australia a part ?
Fig. 522. Here is a group of native Maori men in front of one of their
curious carved houses. They are dressed for a war dance. Fifty years ago
the Maoris were cannibals, but since the. coming of the English to New
Zealand they have become civilized citizens of the British Empire
NEW ZEALAND
263
NEW ZEALAND
New Zealand consists of North Island, South Island,
and Stewart Island. Together with a number of the
smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, they form a Brit-
ish possession known as the Dominion of New Zealand.
Most of the inhabitants are English-speaking people.
Physical features. The islands are mountainous, with
small lowland areas in a few places near the coast. In
North Island many of the mountains are active or ex-
tinct volcanoes, and in that region there are geysers
and hot springs like those in Iceland and Yellowstone
National Park (Fig. 521). In South Island are the
beautiful Southern Alps, which rise to a height of over
12,000 feet. There the scenery is magnificent. There
are waterfalls and swift mountain streams with rapids.
On the western coast are long, winding fiords as beau-
tiful and remarkable as many of the fiords of Norway ;
these fiords were once filled with glaciers.
Climate. Since the mountains are so high and these
islands are in the belt of the prevailing westerly winds, the brown-skinned people (Fig. 522), came to New Zealand
Fig. 524. Auckland is one of the leading seaports of New Zealand. Like
Sydney it has an excellent harbor, and the largest ships can anchor at its
wharves. With what countries does New Zealand chiefly trade ? Can you
find any points of likeness between New Zealand and the British Isles ?
rains fall chiefly on the western slope. When the winds
descend on the east, they tend to dry up the country,
though not enough to make it a desert. This is another
case of a mountain range with a wet windward slope
and a dry leeward side. At the weather station of New
Zealand which reports the least rainfall there is usually
about 23 inches in the year, while in the mountain areas
the rainfall amounts to as much as 200 inches during
some years.
in great canoes. They probably came from other islands
in the Pacific Ocean, and finding no other inhabitants
they decided to stay. Many of the natives have now be-
come civilized and are well educated. They are allowed
a representative in the government.
Pasture lands. New Zealand is a pasture land. When
you look at the map (p. 260), notice that some product
from the sheep is being exported from each of the large
seaports. The sheep have no natural enemies on these
Except in the high mountains the temperature in islands, and it is not necessary to have the flocks watched
New Zealand is mild and without great changes from
summer to winter.
Native people. Hundreds of years ago a group of
people, known as the Maoris, who were tall, handsome,
Fig. 523. New Zealand is especially well fitted for the raising of cereals, and there is not one
variety which will not grow in some part of the islands. This is a harvest scene on South
Island. New Zealand cannot compete with Canada, the United States, Argentina, or Russia in
supplying the European grain market. Can you explain why ?
day and night, as in our western mountains, where there
are bears, mountain lions, and coyotes.
The eastern side of the islands was overgrown by
coarse, wiry native grasses, but little by little the British
people who have settled there have
plowed up the land and sown the seeds
of better grasses.
^ Cities. The chief cities are Auckland
■J/^^M and Wellington, which have the best
^^H harbors. Auckland is the largest city
" (Fig. 524), but Wellington is the seat
of government. Both are u{>to-date
cities with all modem conveniences.
Christchurch, on South Island, is the
third city in size.
The outlook. Gold, coal, and some
silver have been found in the moun-
tains, but as yet mining is not much
developed. Some day, when there
are more people living in New Zea-
land, manufacturing industries will
264
PACIFIC ISLANDS
Fig. 526. North of Australia, in the tropical seas, are hundreds of volcanic
islands. This is Gunong Api, which means "fire mountain." It is an
active volcano, rising straight out of the sea as an almost perfect cone.
During the last three centuries Api has erupted many times, causing
terrible destruction
undoubtedly be developed . Most of the people live near the
coast, and with their available water-power, and with good
supplies of coal, timber, wool, and hides, electrical plants
and such industries as shipbuilding and the manufacture
of woolen and leather goods may easily be developed.
PACIFIC ISLANDS
We have considered the Aleutian, Hawaiian, Japa-
nese, and Philippine Islands, the Dutch East Indies, New
Zealand, and many other islands in the Pacific, and still
there are hundreds of islands in this ocean that we have
not mentioned. Most of them are the forested tops of
volcanic peaks (Fig. 525). Many are surrounded by fring-
ing or barrier reefs built by corals (Fig. 526), and some
have been made entirely by corals. A fringing reef is
built at the coast line, but a barrier reef is far enough
out to sea to leave a lagoon between the mainland and
the coral reef. See map opjyosite page 265. Some of the
islands that are made entirely of coral are circular in
form, and in the center of the cii'cle there is a lagoon of
shallow water. Such coral islands are called atolls.
The volcanic islands have the richer soils, and sugar
and tropical fruits are raised there. The coconut palm
is abundant on these islands and is very widespread, for
the coconut, when washed into the sea, will float for a
long time and may drift to some distant island and
there start a new tree.
Most of the natives of these islands belong to the
brown race. They are good fishermen and clever sailors.
Of late years many Chinese and Japanese have gone to
the small islands of the Pacific to work on plantations.
Great Britain, France, Japan, and the United States
are the countries chiefly interested in these islands.
Problems and review questions. 1. Of what nation is New
Zealand a part ? 2. What prevailing winds come to these islands ?
3. In what part of New Zealand is the rainfall greatest ? 4. In
what part of New Zealand is the rainfall least ? 6. What is the
chief occupation of the people ? 6. What are the chief exports ?
7. How far is New Zealand from Australia ?
8. What three countries in the world have geysers ? 9. Ex-
plain the presence of glaciers in New Zealand. 10. What resources
in these islands encourage settlers to go there ? 11. Why is
New Zealand a good country in which to raise sheep ? 12. What
industry may be develoi^ed ?
13. Name the two largest cities of New Zealand. 14. What is
the explanation of many of the small islands in the Pacific Ocean ?
15. Why are coconut palms abundant on these islands ? 16. Of what
value are the island possessions to the great nations of the world ?
Fig. 626. This island is the top of an old volcanic peak. It is partly
forested, but here and there the bare volcanic rock stands out in steep cliSs.
The slopes of the volcano have been cut away by the waves, leaving the
top resting on a platform covered by shallow water. The steep sides of
the volcano drop abruptly to the depths of the ocean. On the outer rim of
the platform the corals have built a fringing reef, which is broken only
in one place (at the left). This is the only passage by which ships may
enter the lagoon and reach the small village which is on the inner island
COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES
265
PW;uitai)ti bj DuualJ MaoMUl^i
l1 Hisn^rj
Counesj til i,<i
Fig. 527. This is a picture of the MacMillan exploring party on the ice near
Etah, Greenland. Locate Etah on the map on the opposite page. Trace Mac-
Millan's route of exploration. Can you describe the type of country which
he found in crossing Ellesmere Island ? Why did he travel by dog team ?
Fig. S28. This picture shows Amundsen, the discoverer of the south pole,
on the ice in Ross Sea. When did Amundsen reach the south pole ? How
long was that after Peary discovered the north pole ? If explorers were
planning to visit Ross Sea, from what port would they probably sail?
POLAR REGIONS
NORTH POLAR REGION
At the north pole there is a shallow ocean, and the
water becomes so cold that in winter it is frozen over.
Salt water does not freeze at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, but
there the temperature of the ocean waters falls to 30 or
even to 29 degrees and then freezes.
During the summer the ice is broken into great cakes
that float about, and when these floating masses strike
against each other, the ice is crushed and piled up in ridges
ten, twenty, and even fifty feet high (Fig. 527).
MAP STUDIES
1. Through what countries does the arctic circle pass?
2. What ocean is witliin that circle ? 3. Name four of the
larger islands in the north polar region. 4. Name a large river
that empties into the Arctic Ocean and there forms a delta.
5. Through what body of water may a vessel pass from the
Pacific Ocean to the Arctic Ocean ? 6. This map represents
summer conditions. How diiferent should a winter map
appear? 7. In what countries bordering the Arctic Ocean
are there tundras ?
8. About how far is it in miles from the arctic circle to the
north pole ? 9. How far is it from the north shore of Grant
Land to the north pole? 10. When and by whom was the
north pole first reached? 11. Name five men who have led
exploring expeditions into the arctic zone.
12. What explorer left Norway, followed the north coast
of Russia and Siberia, and from New Siberia started north-
ward but failed to reach the pole? 13. What explorer left
Norway and followed the north coast of Russia and Siberia and
then passed through Bering Strait into the Pacific Ocean ?
14. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world
is shown. It is an eskimo settlement. Give its latitude.
SOUTH POLAR REGION
At the south pole there is a continent larger than
Australia and. nearly as large as South America. Most
of this great land mass is covered with ice, as the north-
em part of North America and the northwestern part of
Europe were during the Glacial Period.
The Antarctic ice-sheet moves slowly toward the sea,
and there large blocks of ice break off and float away.
The north pole is at sea level, but at the south pole
the elevation is 10,500 feet above the sea.
MAP STUDIES
1. Compare the scale of this map with that of the north
polar region. 2. About how far is it in miles from the antartic
circle to the south pole? 3. What other continent comes
nearest to Antarctica?
4. How far is it in miles from Cape Horn to Graham Land ?
5. How far is it from Cape Horn to the south pole ? 6. What
ocean surrounds Antarctica ? 7. What is the greatest diameter
of the ice-sheet which covers this southern continent ?
8. If one edge of that ice-sheet were placed in New York
City, how far west would that mass of ice extend ? 9. Who
located the south magnetic pole in 1912 ? He found it in a
different place from where it was in 1909. Both the north
and south magnetic poles change position from time to time.
10. What two famous explorers reached the south pole?
11. This map represents summer conditions. How different
should a winter map appear ? 12. There are no people living
on the continent of Antarctica.
13. The southernmost city in the world is shown. Give its
name and latitude. How much farther is it from the south
pole than Etah is from the north pole? 14. Contrast the
conditions at the north and south poles.
266
Water less than Floating ice Glacial ice Tundra Grasslands Temperate forests Semideserts Deserts and barren
500 feet deep mountain slopes
©Giliti Hiid i. otulwiiy
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
"We have studied all the great continents of the world, native people living in Mexico and Peru who gained some
and this has required some study of each of the oceans, knowledge of both North and South America. Among the
Little by little our information re-
garding the earth has increased.
The time has come for us to consider
some larger questions. We may now
see how widely geographic conditions
have influenced the life and occupa-
tions of the people.
The most interesting way to ap-
proach the study of the earth as a
whole is through the history of the
ideas which people have had regard-
ing the earth.
Early ideas of the world. The peo-
ples who developed the remarkable
civilizations about the shores of the
eastern Mediterranean long before
the birth of Christ knew little about distant lands. Many
thought the earth was flat, and that if one traveled far
enough he would find a great flowing stream called the
Fig. 529. The early Hindus represented the earth
as a hemisphere upheld by four elephants standing
on the back of an immense tortoise. The tortoise
was said to be floating on the surface of a univer-
sal sea, and the elephants were symbolical of
the four winds
Pacific islands the more adventurous
tribes found theu' way from one group
of islands to another. The nations of
western Europe sent out expeditions
which were remarkably successful,
and the people from those nations
have come to control most of the
lands in the temperate zones, except
that portion which is in eastern Asia.
The journeys of Marco Polo in Asia,
and of the Arabs who followed the
shores of the Indian Ocean, aroused a
new interest in geography ; and when
the caravan routes to the East were
closed by the Turks (p. 17G), and
European merchants were deprived
of the goods brought overland, the desire for a new
route to India became intense. In 1492 Columbus made
his famous voyage, in the belief that India could be
ocean. They believed the ocean encircled the earth, and reached by sailing westward from Spain. When Colum-
that if one went beyond its edge he would fall off.
small inset maps on Plate A in Appendix.
The celebrated Greeks Homer, Herod-
otus, and Aristotle, and, later, Ptolemy
the Egyptian, became very much inter-
ested in the shape and size of the earth.
The astronomers of those early times
reasoned, quite correctly, that since the
North Star appears to rise when one
travels northward, and to fall if one goes
to the south, the earth must have a curved
surface. A degree of latitude was measured
on the earth's surface. Ptolemy, who
believed that the earth was spherical, fig-
ured out what he thouglit its size must be.
Most people were unwilling, however, to
believe that the earth was round, and
hundreds of years passed before its true
shape was known.
Early geographic explorations. The de-
sire to open up trade with people in
other lands led to many exploring expe-
ditions. In the Far East were the Chinese
and Japanese, whose explorers pushed
westward into Asia and, eastward along
the islands in the north Pacific toward
America. There were very intelligent
See bus set sail,
Fig. 630. This is Marco Polo's map
of the earth. Notice that the east
(Oriens) is at the top of the map and
the west (Occidens) is at the bottom.
Notice also that Europe, Asia, and
Africa (the known world of Marco
Polo's time) are represented as form-
ing one continent in the northern
hemisphere, and that the southern
hemisphere was supposed to contain
another world (alter orbis) or (seu)
Antichtonia. The name"Antichtonia"
comes from two Greek words meaning
an opposite world
267
few people believed that the earth was
round, and, indeed, this belief did not
become general until Magellan had made
his voyage around the earth.
It should be remembered that several
hundred years before Columbus was bom,
Eric the Red, a daring Norseman, had
sailed westward to Iceland, and later had
reached Greenland and points on the
continent of North America. The rest of
the world, however, knew nothing of his
voyages until centuries later, and the
discoveries of the Norseman therefore
had little influence on later exploration.
Home work. Eead an account of Marco Polo's
journey through central Asia.
Later explorations. After Columbus's
voyage, further discoveries followed fast.
The Portuguese, Spanish, English, and
French all sent out expeditions. The main
outHnes of the continents soon came to be
known, and the settlement of the Western
Hemisphere progressed rapidly. In the
middle and latter part of the last century
Stanley and Livingstone undertook the
exploration of the interior of Africa,
268
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
which, being unknown, was so long called the Dark Early explanation of days and nights. When it was
Continent, and Nordenskjold sailed from the Atlantic to believed that the earth was flat, some explanation had
the Pacific Ocean along the north coast of Europe and to be given for the sun's rising and setting each da3^
Asia. Later Nansen followed the Nordenskjold route as Among the ancient Roman myths is the story of Phoebus
Apollo, who each morning brought the
golden chariot of the sun around to
the east, and carefully guided his fiery
steeds across the skies during the day.
There are many other myths or legends
to explain the coming of the day.
Problems and review questions. 1. Have you
ever noticed anything that made you believe
that the earth's surface is curved ? 2. What
objection is there to believing that it is
flat ? 3. Why did men start o£E on exploring
expeditions ?
4. Who were some of the early explorers ?
Where did they go ? 5. What nations were
especially active in exploring the distant
parts of the world ? 6. About how long is
the diameter of the earth ? 7. What is the
circumference at the equator ?
8. What means have we in this country
for determining the direction north on a
clear night ? What means may be used
during the day ? 9. How would the position
of the North Star appear to change if one traveled from the
equator to the north pole ? 10. What seems to be the simplest
explanation of the rising and setting of the sun each day?
11. What is the highest temperature shown on the maps,
Figs. 531 and 532 ? What is that temperature in Fahrenheit and
in centigrade degrees ?
12. What is the lowest temperature shown on these maps ?
What is it in Fahrenheit and in centigrade degrees ? 12. If the
degree marks were erased from your thermometer, how could you
fix and mark accurately the freezing and boiling points again ?
Kg. 631. The heavy lines with figures near them connect places where the average temperatures
are the same in January. Where are the hottest places ? Is the belt where the temperature is
80° F. or above mostly north or south of the equator ? Why ? Why do the temperature lines curve
northward west of Europe and west of South America ? See also ocean map on page 275
far as New Siberia and then turned northward and tried to
reach the north pole, but failed. More recently the remark-
able journeys of Peary, Amundsen, and Scott in the polar
regions have been made. See maps opposite page 2GG.
Shape and size of the earth. We now know that the
diameter of the earth is nearly 8000 miles and that
the circumference at the equator is about 25,000 miles.
The way a ship disappears below the horizon at sea
proves that the earth has a curved surface, and the
shadow of the earth on the moon is
always part of a circle and proves that
the earth must be spherical.
The earth is not a perfect sphere,
for in the polar regions the surface
is somewhat flattened. The distance
through the earth from pole to pole
is 27 miles less than it is through the
earth at the equator.
Directions. Early explorers knew that
they could determine the directions at
night, in the northern hemisphere, by
an observation of the North Star. Dur-
ing the day they could tell what direc-
tion was north by the shadow of the
sun at noon. Later they learned to use
the compass. Sea captains and all ex-
plorers and surveyors must understand
the reading of a compass perfectly.
' 110' 160' 180' lliO' 111)* 12(1' 11)0' 80' 00' 40° au° 0' 20' <0° 60' 80° 100' 120' 110*
120° 140° 160' 180° 160* 140* 120' 100* SO' 60° 40'
0° 20° 40° 60° SO' 100° 120° 140°
Fig. 532. The temperature lines on this map and on the map in Fig. S31 are called isotherms. This
map gives the average July temperatures. Where are the hottest places ? Is the belt where the
temperature is 80° F. or over mostly north or south of the equator ? Why has this belt shifted from
where it was in January ? Why have the centers of greatest heat shifted ?
WOULD GEOGKAIMIY
269
"§,
70'
-10
-n.78
A^
158'
50°
14
0°
Rotation of the earth. We how know that the earth is
round and is turning on its axis, and so we have a very
different explanation of days and nights. Hundreds of
years passed before anyone proved that the earth turned
on its axis. The fact that the earth moves at all has
been one of the hardest things for men to believe. Noth-
ing seems so natural as to think that the earth stands
still and that other heavenly bodies do the moving.
Galileo, who was a wonderful scientist, dropjjed weights
from near the top of the leaning tower of Pisa in Italy.
He knew that if the earth stood still, the object dropped
would follow the plumb line directly toward the center
of the earth. He found, however, after
many experiments, that the objects he
dropped struck the earth east of the point
where the plumb line met the earth.
This proved not only that the earth was
rotating, but that it rotated from west to
east, for it could not have happened unless
the top of the building had moved forward,
or eastward, faster than its base, just as
the rim end of a spoke in a moving wheel
moves faster than the hub end. The weight,
while falling, had kept its forward motion
as a person does in stepping from a mov-
I I Revolution and inclined axis. Much later
came the discovery that while the earth
is rotating on its axis every twenty-four
hours, it is going on a long journey around
the sun (Fig. 538). This takes a year to
accomplish. It was also discovered that
the axis of the earth, the imaginary line
on which it rotates, is not vertical but is
tipped 23i degrees to the plane of its orbit (Fig. 539). The
orbit of the earth is its path around the sun (Fig. 538).
The amount of inclination of the axis is shown by the
fact that on one day of the year, June 21, the rays
of the sun go 23| degrees beyond the north pole and
fall 23^ degrees short of the south pole. The positions
of the arctic and antarctic circles are thus fixed. At that
time the vertical rays of the sun strike 23| degrees north
of the equator (Fig. 538). This fixes the position of the
tropic of Cancer. On December 21, when the north pole
is turned away from the sun, the vertical rays strike
23^ degrees south of the equator. This fixes the posi-
tion of the tropic of Capricorn. At that time the i-ays
of the sun go 23 J degrees beyond the south pole and
fall 23 i degrees short of reaching the north pole.
Home work. Make a series of diagrams showing where the rays
of the sun strike the earth vertically on June 21, December 21,
September 21, and March 21.
SOUTH POLC
Fig. 534. Xbe circles drawn on a globe parallel
to the equator are called parallels. All the-
places on any one parallel are the same dis-
tance from the equator, or in the same latitud»
Fig. 533. What
are the freez-
ing and boiling
points on the
centigrade and
Fahrenheit ther-
mometers ?
Latitude and longitude. Lines are drawn parallel to
the equator on globes and on maps representing the
earth, to show the „.„^
? NORTH POLt
degrees of latitude,
or distance north and
south of the equator
(Fig. 534). Distance
east or west on the
earth is called longi-
tude, and a number
of half circles drawn
from pole to pole and
called meridians are
used in measuring
it (Fig. 535).
English-speaking
people usually begin
to count degrees of
longitude from the
meridian that passes
through Greenwich, England. Greenwich is just out-
side of London and is the site of a famous observatory
(Fig. 330). If we call the meridian that passes through
Greenwich the prime meridian, and number it 0, we
can count 180 degrees east or west of Greenwich. See:
Aiypendix, Plate A.
Longitude and time. Each place on the earth in mak-
ing one rotation passes through 3G0 degrees of longitude.
Since we make one rotation in twenty-four hours, we
pass through 15 degrees of longitude in one hour.
When the meridian on which we live passes under the
sun, it is noon for us, and for people living 15 degrees
west of us it is 11 a.m. One hour later their meridian
will pass under the sun, and it will then be noon for them
and 1 P.M. for us. Each 15 degrees of longitude betweerk
places on the earth means one hour's difference in time.
The people east of
us see the sun before
we do ; therefore their
time is later than ours.
The time in the eastr
em part of the United
States is always sev-
eral hours later than
that in the western
part. When the armis-
tice which stopped the
figliting in the great
World War went into Fig. 535. ah places on any of the north-
effect at 11 a.m. VjV and-south lines have midday at the same
T-t • . . •. 1 time. These lines are therefore called
Pans time. It was only „^y^„,_ ^^^^^ „,,„, „,y^^^ ,^„ ^ati-
6 A.M. in W ashington. tude and longitude are measured in degrees.
270
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
l:'iiutugr&pli bj Donald MkuMiilaa
Courtesj of tlie Aui
a ul >uturat Uisturj
Fig. 536. This is an unusual photograph of the midnight sun, taken near
Etah, Greenland, in the month of July. The photographer exposed the
plate every twenty minutes from 11 p.m. to 1.20 a.m., thus showing the
path of the sun in the arctic region during the season when it is above
the horizon night and day. Which view of the sun shows true north?
Problems and review questions. 1. Do you believe that the earth
turns on its axis ? Why ? How long does it take to make one ro-
tation ? 2. Why, at a given moment, is it later at Washington, D. C,
than at San Francisco ?
3. About how much difference in time is there between Paris
and the city of Washington ? 4. How do we know that the earth
rotates from west to east on its axis ? 5. How long does it take
the earth to revolve about the sun ?
Zones of latitude. Between the tropic of Cancer and
the tropic of Capricorn is the torrid zone, extending
23 1 degrees north and south of the equator. North and
south of that zone are the temperate zones, and around
the poles are the north and south frigid zones.
Seasons and length of day and night. If the axis of
the earth were upright, there would always be twelve
hours of day and twelve hours of night everywhere on
the earth except at the poles, where the sun would
always appear at the horizon. Since the axis of the
earth is inclined and the north pole is turned slightly
toward the sun during a part of the year and away
from it during another part (Fig. 538), the day and
night are not of equal length in any place except at
the equator. During the northern summer, when the
sun's rays strike vertically north of the equator, the
days are longer than the nights in the northern hemi-
sphere. At that time the southern hemisphere is having
winter, with short days and long nights. When winter
comes to the northern hemisphere, the nights are longer
than the days, while in the southern hemisphere the
people are having summer, with long days and short
nights (Fig. 538).
On the arctic circle there is a short period of each
summer when the sun stays above the horizon for twenty-
four hours. Those who live still nearer the north pole
may see the sun above the horizon day and night for
weeks or even months, and at the pole itself the sun
stays above the horizon for six months. The same gen-
eral facts hold for the region about the south pole dur-
ing the southern summer. When winter comes within
the arctic or antarctic circle, the days become shorter and
shorter, and for a time the sun does not rise above the
horizon. When the nights are long in one polar region,
they are short in the other. The winter seasons in the
frigid zones are so long and so severe that living condi-
tions become very difficult.
Throughout the torrid zone the day and night do not
differ much in length, and at the equator the day and
night are always equal in length. This is because just
half of the equator is in darkness all the time. The tem-
perature in the torrid zone does not change much from
season to season, and the hot, moist climate of that
zone is weakening to all people.
In the temperate zones a few hours mark the differ-
ence between the length of the winter day and the length
of the summer day. As the days in the north temperate
zone become shorter those of the south temperate zone
become longer. The changes in seasonal temperature
are not so marked as they are in the Far North or in the
Far South, but there is sufficient change to give great
variety to the climate. That variety has been very bene-
ficial in the development of civilized people ; it has led
them to build good homes and to store up food, clothing,
and fuel for the winter. They have found it necessary
to look ahead and provide for the cold season.
Angle of the sun's rays. The higher the sun is above
the horizon, the more nearly vertical are the rays of heat
and light. Oblique rays of heat must pass through more
atmosphere, which takes out some heat, and they also
spread over more surface than vertical rays (Fig. 537).
Since a bundle of
vertical rays warms
a smaller area of
the earth than an
equal bundle of ob-
lique rays, it warms
that area more.
This is one reason
why the summer,
when the sun's rays
are nearly vertical Fig. 637. Two equal bundles of the snn'E rays
overhead is much ^'^ ^^^^ shown striking different parts of the
, , , . earth's surface. As many rays strike over the \
warmer than tne ,jjjg g ^g ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ where win the tem-
winter season. perature be the higher, over A or over B ? Why?
272
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
Problems and review questions. 1 Between what circles is the
torrid zone ? 2. What circles limit the temperate zones ? 3. Where
are the frigid zones ? 4. Why are the days longer in summer
than in winter at points north or south of the equator ? 5. Where
are the day and night always equal in length ?
6. Describe the different seasons in the north polar region.
7. Why is it warm at sea level in the tropics throughout tlie
year ? 8. What difference have you observed in the temperature
when the sun is high above the horizon and when it is low ?
9. Durnig what month at your home is the sun highest at noon ?
During what month is it lowest ?
Home work. 1. IMake a diagram with the axis of the earth
upright. 2. How would that position affect the length of day and
night ? 3. Where would the rays of the sun strike the earth verti-
cally all the time ? How would such a
position of the axis affect the seasons ?
Winds of the world. Often, in
our study of the different coun-
tries of the world, we have re-
ferred to the prevailing westerly
winds in both northern and south-
ern hemispheres, and we have
referred to the northeast and
southeast trades. These great
wind belts extend around the
earth (Fig. 539). Where the air is
greatly heated, as in the equato-
rial region (Fig. 539), it expands
and rises. In that region there
are few winds, and it is therefore
known as the belt of equatorial
calms. When air rises slowly, we
are not conscious of any motion.
The air on either side of the
equator in the trade-wind belts
moves in toward the equatorial calm belt and then begins
to rise, helping to force the air in the calm belt upward.
The other two calm belts, one about 30 degrees north
of the equator and the other about 30 degrees south of
the equator, where the air descends (Fig. 539), are known
as the horse latitudes. From these belts of calms the
trade winds start toward the equator, and the westerlies
start toward the poles.
Monsoons. In connection with the study of Asia,
Australia, and some of the islands of the Pacific, special
mention was made of monsoon winds, and on page 234
they were explained.
Land and sea breezes. About the shores of all the con-
tinents and islands there are land and sea breezes. Dur-
ing the day, when the land becomes warm, the colder
air over the water flows inland, making what is known
as a sea breeze. At night, when the air over the land
known as a land breeze. In each case the colder and
thus heavier air moves in under the warmer and
lighter air and forces the warmer air to rise.
Uses of the winds. The winds are of very great im-
portance to man. They are carriers of rain ; they help
to equalize the temperature of places near the shore ;
they hasten evaporation and dry the land after a rain.
Wind power is now utilized to some extent, and it may
be used more fully when new devices are invented for
storing up the energy as electricity. The winds have
a most beneficial effect in purifying the air, and have
always been of the greatest significance in navigation.
Problems and review questions.
1. Where are the calm belts ? ^Vhat
are they called ? 2. What winds blow
from the horse latitudes toward the
equator ? 3. In what parts of the
world do the prevailing winds come
from the west ? See Fig. 539. 4. Ex-
plain land and sea breezes. 5. How
do the winds help in commerce ? 6. In
what other ways are the winds helpful
to the activities of man ?
Ocean currents. The prevailing
winds of the world set the sur-
face waters of the seas in motion.
The trade winds on either side
of the equator blow the waters
on the surface toward the equa-
tor and in a westward direction.
See maji on page 275.
In the Atlantic Ocean the
equatorial stream flowing westr
ward reaches Cape St. Roque
and divides. The northern part flows through the Carib-
bean Sea, and some of it follows the shore of the Gulf of
Mexico. The surface water that leaves the Gulf through
the Florida Strait and starts northeastward is called the
Gulf Stream. As it crosses the north Atlantic Ocean,
helped along by the prevailing westerly winds, it spreads
out, moves more slowly, and is called the Gulf Stream
Drift. When this current approaches Europe, its waters
divide ; some flow to the northeast by Scandinavia, and
some turn southward and rejoin the equatorial current.
The part of the Equatorial Current that flows south
from Cape St. Roque is known as the Brazil Current.
When it reaches the belt of the westerlies in the south-
em hemisphere, it turns eastward, but a part of the water
circles northward along the west coast of Africa as the
Benguela Current and joins the equatorial current again.
In both the north and south Atlantic, therefore, there are
cools more rapidly than the air over the sea, the wind great circling masses of water called eddies. In one the
is reversed. It moves from the land to the sea and is motion is clockwise and in the other counterclockwise.
Fig. 839. Which way does the air move in the belt of equa-
torial calms ? in the calms of the horse latitudes ? Does
the upper air over the trade winds move toward the poles or
the equator ? Those upper air currents are called antitrades
WOULD GEOGRAPHY
273
"Waters that flow from the equator toward the poles
are warm currents, because they carry warm waters
iucO regions where the water is cold. The waters that
flow from the polar regions toward the equator are
cold currents. When the Gulf Stream flows northward
into the arctic regions, it must return by such ways as it
can find. Some comes back as the Greenland Current, some
as the Labrador Cvurent, and some through Bering Strait.
In the Pacific Ocean there is an Equatorial Current
which flows westward and divides when it reaches the
islands between Asia and Australia. The part which
taras north we call the Japan Current, or the Kuro
Siwo. It crosses the Pacific to the northeast with the
prevailing westerlies, and
divides when it reaches
North America. The south-
em part follows the coast
of California and is known
as the California Current.
The northern part is known
as the Alaska Current.
The'portion of the Pacific
Equatorial Current which
turns southward and flows
between New Zealand and
Australia is known as the
East Australian Current.
When it reaches the belt
of the westerlies, it turns
eastward, and these winds
help it along. As this
current approaches South
America part of it turns northward and is known as
the Peru Current, which in time joins the Equatorial
Current and thus completes the South Pacific eddy.
During the days of sailing vessels the ocean currents
were of very great importance in commerce. The cap-
tains chose to travel with the currents, and thus had the
advantage of moving with the winds and the water.
The traders in the north Atlantic during the early
colonial days would start out from New England with
their cargoes and sail for England. From there they
would coast southward by France, Spain, Portugal, and
the Canary Islands, stopping perhaps in Africa, and on
their return westward they would head for the islands
of the West Indies. There they might exchange some
of their cargoes and secure additional articles for trade
with the Atlantic coast colonies when they returned.
The great ocean currents will always remain of some
commercial importance, although they do not affect the
movements of the great steamships as much as they do
the movements of sailing vessels.
Fig. 540. This picture was taken from the top of Mt. Washington and
shows the appearance of the cloud-banks which often surround this and
other mountain peaks. Can you explain why clouds gather about the slopes
of mountains in this way ?
The greatest importance of the currents is their effect
upon climate. We have frequently noted that the winds
from over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream make the
climate of western Europe much milder than that in
the same latitude on the western shores of the Atlantic
Ocean. The Alaska Current, which comes from the
Japan stream, always carries warmer waters to the coast,
and the air from over those waters blows inland and thus
keeps the climate warmer than it would otherwise be.
Owing to the cold current on the west coast of South
America the air near the coast of Peru is cool, although
Peru is in the equatorial region. The Labrador current
chills the water and air along the northeast coast of
North America. Sea bath-
ing northeast from New
Hampshire is not enjoyed
by many, because the water
is cold ; but the cold waters
abound in fish.
Rainfall of the world.
Even Aristotle and Plato,
the great philosophers of
ancient Greece, believed
that the waters of the sea
must be connected in some
way with the waters of the
land. They noticed that the
rivers were constantly flow-
ing toward the sea, and they
thought there must be some
return from the sea to the
rivers. They believed that
the waters of the sea came back through the ground,
rising in great cracks, or fissures, through the earth.
In that process the sea waters were supposed to have
lost their salt.
Centuries passed before the true process was understood.
As we now know, the waters from the seas are evapo-
rated. They pass up into the air as an invisible vapor.
This vapor cools and condenses. If the temperature
where the vajior condenses is below 32° F., tiny particles
of ice form, which may fall as snow. If the vapor con-
denses at a temperature above 32°, it forms tiny globules
of water, and when they fall we have rain. Thus the
cycle between the waters of the sea and the waters of
the land is completed by the moisture passing through
the air instead of through the ground.
Over and over again we have studied rainfall condi-
tions. They have a controlling influence upon life in all
parts of the world. When we j^ut all the facts together
and look at the rainfall chart of the world, certain facts
stand out very sharply. First, the heaviest rainfall is
274
MAP STUDIES
near the equator. This is where it is always hot, where
the air is rising and taking much moisture with it.
In the hot belt, where there is abundance of rainfall, the
great tropical forests are found. Vegetable growth is so
dense that we think of those regions as countries of plants
rather than as countries for men to live in. The largest
tropical forests are in the valley of the Amazon and the
valley of the Kongo, but the East Indies also have exten-
sive tropical forests. See maps opposite pages 156 and 230.
To the north and south of the belt of heavy equatorial
rains are belts of lesser rainfall, where there are grass-
lands. In South America, north of the Amazon jungle,
are the grasslands of the Orinoco, and south of it are the
grasslands of the Parana. In Africa, north of the tropi-
cal forest of the Kongo, are the grasslands of the Sudan,
and south of the Kongo basin are the grasslands of the
southern plateaus. In Australia the great central plain
is a grassland, and in Asia the lowlands of India and
Siam are in part grass-covered.
The next most striking general fact is that the. wind-
ward side of all high mountains has heavy rainfall.
Prove this by an example from North America; from
South America ; from Europe ; from Asia. Now look at
the distribution of the great deserts of the world. Many
of them are on the leeward side of a mountain range.
The great desert belt which stretches through northern
Africa, across Arabia and Persia, and into central Asia
is a land which moistm-e-bearing winds do not reach.
In the far northern country within the arctic circle
the amount of rainfall is light. That is because the air,
being chilled in its northward journey, gives up its mois-
ture before it gets so far north. The temperature is so
low, and there is so little moisture, that the growth of
vegetation is stunted. Mosses, grasses, shrubs, and trees
a few inches high make up the vegetation of the tundra
country. See map opposite page 2G6.
The temperate zones are the most favored. They have
variety in temperature from summer to winter, variety
in vegetation from place to place, and variety in rain-
fall, so that almost all kinds of crops can be raised and
nearly all occupations can be followed. There are deserts
in the temperate zones, but most of the land in these
zones is well watered.
The civilized nations of the world have come to occupy
the lands of the temperate zones. They seem to have
chosen those lands, but it is also true that the climatic
conditions in the temperate zones favor the advancement
of civilization.
The geography of a country, including climate, phys-
ical features, and natural resources, determines the
activities of the people, and in part the degree of
civilization which they may attain.
MAP STUDIES
Rainfall of the world. On the map on the opposite page,
showing the distribution of rainfall, the continents are repre-
sented in their correct relative sizes. 1. Which is the largest?
Which is the second largest? Which is the smallest? See
Appendix, page viii.
2. Where are the most extensive desert lands of the world?
Give the names of these deserts. 3. Are the tundras of the
world, as shown on the various relief maps in this book, in
wet or in dry regions ? 4. Is the rainfall heavier near or far
from the equator?
5. Where there is very heavy rainfall at a distance from the
equator, what special explanation is there ? 6. In general, is
the rainfall heavier near the margins of the continent or in
the interior? Give examples. 7. In general, is the rainfall
heavier in mountainous regions than in lowland regions?
Give examples.
8. Which continents have the larger areas of heavy rainfall ?
9. Are those places of very heavy rainfall densely populated ?
10. What is the general average amount of rainfall in the re-
gions of the world that are most densely populated ? 11. Select
three or four places where grazing is an important occupation.
What is the usual amount of rainfall there ?
Oceans. The map on the opposite page, showing the ocean
currents, is drawn so that the oceans appear in the correct
relative sizes. 1. Which ocean is clearly the largest ? 2. Esti-
mate how many times larger the Pacific Ocean is than the
Atlantic. See Appendix, page v.
3. Which way do most of the surface waters move in the
equatorial regions of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans? 4. What
winds cause these currents ? 5. Compare the surface circulation
in the north Atlantic Ocean with that in the south Atlantic.
6. Which motion is clockwise? Which one is counterclock-
wise ? 7. Is the general circulation in the north and south Pacific
like that in the north and south Atlantic ? 8. The monsoon
winds in the northern part of the Indian Ocean change the
direction of the surface currents from season to season.
9. Compare the temperature of the surface waters on the
east and west sides of South America in the latitude of Buenos
Aires. Why is it warmer on one side than on the other in the
same latitude ?
10. Compare the surface temperatures of the water near
Newfoundland and in the same latitude on the w^est coast of
Europe. Why is there a difference ? 11. In what part of the
north Atlantic west of Europe is the temperature about the
same as it is at the surface near Newfoundland?
12. What is the name of the cold current that comes south-
ward along the northeastern coast of North America, and
reaches to the New England states ? 13. What current affects
the climate of Alaska and British Columbia ? 14. Where are
the surface temperatures of the sea the greatest ?
15. How warm is it in those places ? 16. How does that
temperature compare with the temperature of the water which
you would use for a warm bath ? 17. What is the temperature
of the water near Cape Horn ? 18. What is the temperature
of the water near the southern tip of Africa? 19. How caa
the difference in these temperatures be explained ?
ti««»dt't iBMrrvfUd UaaalagnfUc Fioj— (ton
UiiiD uiii Compftoj
Average annual rainfall of the world
Owii»'> lalwiiyml aoa.ti9iT*iitia FiojMtM*
<Q) Uian Md Caayuj
Ocean currents and the temperature of the surface waters
276
THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE
THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE
We have learned that the earth is a spherical body
floating in space. It is not a perfect sphere, for it is
flattened at the poles, and the diameters that pass
through the earth at the equator are not all equal.
We know that it rotates on an inclined axis each day
and revolves about the sun each year.
The moon travels with the earth in its annual journey
about the sun, and once each month the moon goes
around the earth. There can be no life on the moon,
The fixed stars. Beyond the solar system, far, far off
in space, are the fixed stars. They are suns shining by
their own light, as our sun does. The millions and
millions of stars that we see on a clear night are so
far away that it takes years for their light to reach us,
although light travels 186,000 miles per second. If you
look at the North Star to-night, remember when you see
it that the light which enters your eye started from the
star forty years ago.
Shooting stars. Sometimes a fragment of a distant
star flying through space comes into our atmosphere.
for it is without an atmosphere and without water By friction in the air it becomes white-hot, and then we
(Fig. 541). Its light is all reflected from the sun's rays, see it and call it a shooting star. Most of the shooting
and the temperature at the surface is
very low.
Eclipses. When the moon is between
the earth and the sun, and the shadow
of the moon strikes the earth in the part
where we live, we have an eclipse of the
sun ; that is, we cannot see the sun, be-
cause the moon is in the way. When the
earth is between the sun and the moon,
and the shadow of the earth falls on the
moon, there is an eclipse of the moon.
The planets. There are eight planets,
and they revolve about the sun. Named
in order from the sun, they are Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. To those living
upon the earth the seven other planets
appear as stars. Because of their move-
ments about the sun they do not always
appear in the same part of the heavens.
They are wanderers. Mercury is small and difficult to
see, for it rises and sets near the time when the sun
Fig. 541. The five-day moon as it looks
through the telescope
stars burn to dust, but a few fragments
reach the earth and are picked up and
exhibited in museums. Such fragments
of stars are called meteorites.
Natural sciences. The study of geog-
raphy leads to an interest in many
sciences. Physics deals with the great
physical forces of nature ; chemistry
deals with the changes that take place in
matter; zoology takes up the study of
animals ; botany leads to a knowledge
and understanding of plants ; geology
deals with the history of the earth ; but
the science that can stretch our imagi-
nation most is astronomy. This treats
of all the bodies in the universe, of the
immense distances between heavenly
bodies, of whirling nebulse, of comets
with their fiery tails millions of miles
long, of shooting stars, and of many
other wonderful and inspiring phenomena of natiu'e.
One of the most remarkable things is that all these
does. Venus is a beautiful star and appears either just heavenly bodies are controlled by definite laws. The
before. sunrise, in the east, as a morning star, or just appearance of the planets as morning or evening stars,
after sunset, in the west, as an evening star. Mars is the eclipses, the return of comets, may be figured out
redder than most of the stars. There is a snow-field
about the polar region of Mars, and this snow-field
grows larger in the winter season and smaller in the
summer season. Jupiter is a very brilliant star with
several moons. Saturn appears as a star, but if looked at
through a telescope it is found to be quite unlike the other
planets in having two brilliant rings and several moons.
The solar system. The sun, the planets with their
moons, and a number of smaller bodies that we can-
not see, in the space between Mars and Jupiter, make
up the solar system. This great system is floating in
space. The sun is at the center, and all the other mem-
bers of the system move about the sun and receive heat
and light from it.
and predicted hundreds of years ahead of their coming.
All the great natural sciences lead us to realize
that the forces and laws of nature are far beyond the
powers of -man to control. We may look forward to dis-
covering more and more of these laws, and, through our
knowledge and will, to improving the living conditions
on this earth. The study of the sciences leads us, how-
ever, to recognize that there is a power in the universe
much greater than that in human beings.
Home work. 1. Make a diagram o" .^constellation Ursa Major,
or Great Dipper, and show how those stars lielp one to locate the
North Star. Find the Great Dipper in the northern sky and locate
the North Star. 2. Make two diagrams to show how eclipses of
the sun and moon occur.
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THE UNITED STATES -A WORLD POWER
A STUDY IN ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
We have now studied all the countries of the world.
The people are nearly everywhere engaged in producing
and distributing food and in providing shelter, fuel,
clothing, and other comforts. Most people, however,
find some time for recreation.
Certain countries are densely populated. Some have
acquired great wealth and become world powers. In a
very short period in the history of the nations the
United States has become one of the leading powers in
the world. Millions of people have migrated from the
Old World to the New World. Why have they done so ?
travel and the transportation of goods on land and water
have been made easy, and travel and the transportation
of small articles in the air are becoming more common.
The submarine cables, the telephones, the telegraphs,
and the equipment for wireless telegraphy have made
it possible to communicate quickly with almost any
part of the world.
We have not discovered any way to modify the
climate, and yet men have learned how to live in comfort
under various climatic conditions. Homes are warmed
artificially, and they may also be cooled artificially. We
Will people continue to leave the Eastern Hemisphere and change the weight of our clothing from season to season.
come to live in the Western Hemisphere ? Most of om:
foreign commerce is now with the people of western
Europe. Will that continue to be true ? It is important
for every American citizen to know why this country is
so attractive to settlers and how the United States
Clothes may be dried regardless of the weather. Hot-
houses are built, where vegetables may be raised at all
seasons. Rivers are diverted to water desert lands.
The scientific study of the air has led to the predic-
tion of weather conditions. This is of very great value to
becamp a wealthy and powerful nation. It is important man. Tlie foretelling of frosts, floods, and storms, and espe-
that we appreciate the leading position we have come to
hold in the world, and the responsibilities that now lie
before us.
In our earlier study of the United States we learned
that the life and occupations of the people in each of
the natural regions depended chiefly upon the climate,
])hysical features, and natural resources in that part of
the country. We cannot greatly modify the physical
features, but the remarkable work of engineers has made
it possible to overcome many difficulties that physical
features once presented. Great rivers are bridged, canals
are made, tunnels are driven beneath rivers and throu_!:;h
mountains, wet lands are drained, dry lands are watered,
cially storms at sea, is a wonderful step forward in the
conservation of life and property. Men will continue to
invent ways of overcoming some of the disadvantages
that come with the changes in the weather from day
to day and with the changes in the climate from season
to season.
In the development of our natural resources there are
almost limitless possibilities. Here the activities of men
are of very great importance, and therefore the more we
know about the natural resources the better it will be
for us and for the nation. The industrial and commercial
prosperity of the United States depends largely upon
the proper use and conservation of these resources.
277
278
NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES
NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES
SOILS
The most valuable of all the natural resources in this
country are the soils. They form a layer, or mantle, of
loose material that covers most of the land surface.
When an excavation is made in this loose material, we
usually find that the upper part, which contains decayed
vegetable matter, has a darker color than that below.
That upper, darker part is the soil, and the more com-
pact material just below is the subsoil. In many excava-.
tions men have gone below the subsoil and come to the
solid rock of the earth.
Cultivated land in the United States. The amount of
cultivated land in this country has been rapidly increas-
ing until now there are nearly 320,000,000 acres that
yield crops (Fig. 542). In almost any part of the United
States where there is good soil and sufficient rainfall,
farming may be profitable. In many other places where
the soils are fertile but where the rainfall is very light,
irrigation is practiced and excellent crops are obtained.
We have under cultivation 3.5 acres for each person
in the country, while most European countries have from
1 to 1.5 acres of cultivated lands for each of their inhabit-
ants. In the United Kingdom the land yielding crops
amounts to less than half an acre for each person. The
only countries where more acres per person are culti-
vated than in the United States are the sparsely settled
countries such as Argentina and Canada.
The table in the next column indicates the percentage
of land that is cultivated in those states where the amount
is over 25 per cent of the total area of the state. Iowa
now stands at the
head of the list.
More than 80 per
cent of the whole
area of this state
is under cultiva-
tion. Nearly all
the states in the
upper portion of
the valley of the
Mississippi rank
high, while those
states that are
in mountainous
or dry regions of
the west are so
far down in the
list that they do
not appear in
this table.
U. 8. D«pt. of Agriculture
Fig. 543. Each dot on this map represents 5000 acres which are devoted to
the raising of com. Notice that most of the corn is grown where the summer
rainfall (June, July, and August) amounts to more than eight inches, and
where the average summer temperature is over 66° F. What are the chief
corn-producing states ?
PER CENT or IMPROVED LAND
State Per Cent
Iowa 82.9
Illinois 78.2
Ohio 73.7
Indiana 73.4
Kansas 57.1
Delaware 56.7
Missouri 55.9
Kentucky 55.8
Maryland 52.5
Nebraska 49.6
New York 48.7
North Dakota 45.5
Pennsylvania 44.2
Tennessee 40.8
Oklahoma 39.5
IN TOTAL LAND AREA (1910)
State Per Cent
Virginia 38.3
Minnesota 38.0
New Jersey 37.5
West Virginia 35.&
Michigan 34.ft
Wisconsin 33.7
Georgia 32.7
South Dakota 32.2
Connecticut 32.0
South Carolina .... 31.2
Mississippi 30.4
Alabama 29.5
North Carolina .... 28.3
Vermont 28.0
Rhode Island 26.1
V. S. D«pt. of Agriculture
Fig. 542. There are 1,903,000,000 acres of land in
the United States. This diagram shows how the
land is being used. Notice that about one fourth
of the land is improved. This means that it is cul-
tivated. Much of the forest and woodland can be
improved and used to produce farm crops
This country's very great extent of cultivated land
with a good yield per acre assures Americans a large
food supply. The United States produces more food per
person than any other country with a large population.
This is one of the most important facts in explaining
the comfort and well-being of the people in this country
and the immigration of people to the United States.
More food is produced in the United States than is
needed by the population, and that makes it possible to
ship large quantities to foreign countries.
Our leading food crops. Com is our largest crop, and we
use most of the corn we produce. Of the 2,700,000,000
bushels produced, on the average, each year from 1910 to
1914 only 41,000,000 bushels were exported. During that
same period we produced, on the average, 1,100,000,000
bushels of oats, and exported each year only 10,000,000
bushels. We should remember, however, that corn and
oats are largely fed to live stock, and that we export
large quantities of meat each year (Fig. 543).
SOILS
279
"Wheat is one of the most important food crops in
the world, and we produce so much wheat that we can
export over 100,000,000 bushels a year. The United
States is one of six countries that have a larger amount
of wheat than they need (Fig. 544). The others are
Russia, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and India. In
Russia and India the people do not use as much wheat
per person as in other large wheat-producing countries.
The chief countries that import large quantities of
wheat are the United Kingdom, Germany, Belgium,
Italy, France, and the Netherlands. A large part of the
wheat exported from the United States goes to the
United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Belgium.
The United Kingdom is our largest customer for food
crops, and the Netherlands is second ; but much of the
food shipped to the Netherlands is reshipped to other
countries in continental Europe.
Large quantities of fruit and vegetables are now being
raised in the United States. Near each of the cities
there are areas devoted to intensive truck, or garden,
farming, and throughout the country almost every farmer
has a vegetable garden. More and more land is being
used for orchards.
Our chief food imports. As a nation we use each year
more coffee, sugar, and rice than we produce. These
are brought from other countries. We depend also upon
foreign countries for tea, olive oil, cocoa, and bananas.
The people of the United States could easily produce
more rice, more sugar, and more olive oil, for the geo-
graphic conditions in southern California, in the Southern
states, and in our island possessions are favorable to their
production, and the crops are usually increased each year.
We shall without any doubt always depend upon foreign
countries for most of our coffee, tea, cocoa, and bananas.
\, XSORGHUM CANE
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U. S- Dapt. of Acnvulturs
Fig. S44. E^ch dot on this map represents the production of 100,000 bushels
of wheat. What states are evidently the chief producers of wheat? Very little
wheat is raised in the southeastern states that border on the Gulf of Mexico
or the Atlantic Ocean, for the climate there is too moist. Why is so little
-wheat raised in New Mexico ? Arizona ? Nevada ? Wyoming ? New England?
L. S. Depl. of Agncullurt
Fig. 545. Each dot on this map represents 1000 acres of land which are
devoted to sugar crops. Notice that there are three distinct belts of sugar
crops: in the southeast, especially on the delta of the Mississippi River,
sugar cane is raised ; farther north and west sorghum cane is grown ; and
still farther north and west are the fields of sugar beets
A small amount of coffee is raised in Porto Rico and
Hawaii, but three fourths of our coffee is imported from
Brazil, and most of the remainder from other countries
in South America or Central America. In the United
States we use, on the average, 9.4 pounds of coffee per
person each year. That is a tremendous amount of coffee
and represents a very large import business.
Most of the tea used in the United States comes from
Japan and China. We use, on the average, about one
pound per person each year.
A high grade of olive oil is now being produced in
this country, but we still import large quantities from
both Italy and France.
We produce in this country, on the average, 7.4 pounds
of rice per person, but we use 9.6 pounds. That means
a large import trade. Japan and China furnish nearly
all the rice we need to import. The production of rice
on the low lands of our Southern states might well be
increased.
As a people we consume a very large amount of
sugar. The amount produced in the States, in Hawaii,
and in Porto Rico is not enough to satisfy the demand,
and large quantities are therefore imported, chiefly from
Cuba. We might, however, greatly increase our produc-
tion of beet sugar in the United States (Fig. 545).
We receive most of our cocoa from the West Indies
and South America, and the bulk of our supply of
bananas comes from Central America and the West
Indies.
From this summary of food imports it may be seen
that the United States depends upon foreign countries
for very few articles of fopd that are of real importance,
and that most of those are supplied by countries in the
Western Hemisphere.
280
SOILS
Fig. 547. This man is testing the soil to find out how much moisture it con-
tains. In this way he can judge what crops can best be grown on the land,
and whether irrigation or dry farming will be necessary. Can you explain
what dry farming is ? Of what value is it ? ■,
\
in the West that could be irrigated if necessary. That is
about double the present amount of irrigated land. It
should be noted, however, that there are more lands all
ready to be irrigated in several of the national irrigation
projects than people are willing to buy at present prices
(Fig. 548).
4. Use of stony lands. Many of the stony pastures and
hilly regions may in time be used for raising crops. These
are located chiefly in the well-watered Eastern states and
include some of the so-called abandoned farms of New
England. Much of this land is suitable for orchards.
5. Dry farming. Methods of dry farming may be
farms of 160 acres each, it would provide 1,250,000 such improved, and more semidesert land can then be profit-
farms. That would be an addition of about 20 per cent ably used in this way (Fig. 547).
to the number of farms now in the United States. 6. More intensive cultivation. By practicing more in-
2. More land to he drained. The Department of Agri- tensive cultivation, by using greater quantities of ferti-
culture has made the estimate that there are at least lizers, and by taking advantage of scientific discoveries,
Fig. 646. This is a deep-tillage machine for use on land that must be plowed
especially deep. The use of agricultural machinery, in place of hand labor,
is one of the means by which the production of food crops in our country
may be increased. What other ways can you suggest ?
Can we increase the production of food crops ? This
will be the important question in the United States as
the population increases. Most of the better farming
land is now in use, but there are several possibilities
before us.
1. More land to he cleared. There are some forested
areas, some woodlands, and some cut-over areas that are
suitable for cultivation and could best be used as farm
lands. The United States Department of Agriculture
has estimated that there are about 200,000,000 acres of
such lands that could be used for raising food crops
after they are cleared. If this land were divided into
60,000,000 acres of swamps and other wet lands that
can be drained and made suitable for the production of
food crops. These lands could all be cultivated, and they
might be divided into 160-acre farms and thus make
375,000 more farms in the United
States. These lands are located largely
in the great flood plain of the Missis-
sippi River and in the flood plains of
other rivers, chiefly in the Gulf Coastal
Plain. There are also wet lands and
peat bogs in the Northeastern states
and in those states near the Great
Lakes that were invaded by the con-
tinental ice-sheets.
3. More land to he irrigated. There
are probal)ly 30,000,000 acres of land
Fig. 548. This dreary-looking desert region can
be transformed into good farming land if it is
properly irrigated. Describe the changes that
would come to such a region through irrigation
the production of food crops per acre can be increased.
This means a better use of the better lands. Many of
our farmers have been very successful in increasing the
production per acre on their lands, but the average
yield per acre in the United States is
below that in several of the older
countries. For example, while we pro-
duce on the average a little more than
15 bushels of wheat per acre, Belgium
produces nearly 40 bushels per acre,
and in fact nearly all the countries
of western Europe produce more per
acre than we do. There are great
possibilities in increasing the produc-
tion per acre of the leading food crops
of the United States (Fig. 546).
SOILS
281
Problems and review questions. '?i'K«»«^a»i% ?'*«?!>«'*' pp-*r~
1. How does the amount of
cultivated land in the United
States compare with that in
other large countries ? 2. Why
is the cultivation of the soil
so important to the welfare of
a nation ?
3. What are our chief food
crops? 4. Which of the food
crops are so large that we have
some of the raw material to
export ? 5. What nation is our
largest customer for foods ?
6. What are the chief foods
imported by the United States ?
From what countries do most
of them come ?
7. Which of the foods imported in large quantities come from
the Eastern Hemisphere ? 8. How may the amount of land avail-
able for farms be increased ? 9. How may the production of food
crops per acre be increased ?
Home work. 1. What kinds of soil are there in the vicinity
of your home ? How thick are they ? Have they been fertilized ?
If so, how ? 2. What are the chief products from the soils in the
vicinity of your home city or town ?
Conservation of soils. Plants receive much of their
nourishment from the soils, and the animal life of the
world depends upon the plant life. It takes but a
moment's thought to make us realize that we are abso-
lutely dependent upon the soils from which most of our
food and all of the raw materials for our clothes come
directly or indirectly. Human beings could not live on this
earth if there were no soils here, and the prosperity of a
nation usually depends chiefly upon the extent and quality
of its soils. Therefore the preservation of the soils and the
Fig. 649. The low flood plains along the rivers are among the richest agri-
cultural lands in our country. They are flat, extremely fertile, and easily
cultivated. Such lands must be protected against the spring floods which
wash the seeds out of the ground and make it necessary for the farmers to
plant their fields a second time
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ To preserve the soils we
must see, in the first place,
that they are not washed
away (Fig. 549). The rivers
are very active, and each
year they gather up millions
of tons of the very best of
soil-making material and
carry it to the ocean or to
the lakes. In some places
in our country, where
the forest or other native
vegetation has been re-
moved from steep slopes
and the land cultivated,
the soils have been washed away in from ten to fifteen
years. That is a great mistake. China has ruined
thousands of acres of good land in that way, and we
should not be guilty of such foolishness. Slopes that
are too steep to hold their soils when cultivated should
be left forested or should be used as pasture land.
In plowing lands that are not level or nearly so, care
should be taken not to have the furrows run with the
slope. When they run with the slope, rain water col-
lects and flows in the furrows, increasing in amount
and speed until streams form which carry away the soil.
On lands that have even a gentle slope, that is, from 5
to 15 degrees, contour plowing should be practiced. In
contour plowing the furrows follow around or along the
hillsides. Each furrow is at a definite level. Such fur-
rows do not make runways for the rain water, and the
soils are not washed away. In addition to saving the
soils, contour plowing forces more of the rain water
maintaining of their fertility are the most important of to sink into the ground, and that water is absorbed by
the problems of conservation that are before this nation, the plants and helps to produce larger or better crops.
Fig. 5S0. Among the mechanical inventions of recent years none has been
more useful to the farmer than the motor tractor. This tractor is driven by
an automobile engine and is used to draw the different farm machines over
the fields, thus doing the work which formerly was always done by horses
Fig. 561. This man is spreading lime on his farm land before planting.
Lime is an important fertilizing substance. By mixing it with such soils
as need it the farmer can increase the amount of crops which his land will
yield per acre. What would happen if farmers never fertilized their land ?
282
SOILS
WS0^i^""W^
Fig. 552. Here is a Kentucky hemp field after the harvest season. The hemp
is stacked up to allow the straw to decay enough so that the fiber can be
separated easily. This process is called retting. Hemp-growing in the
United States is not important as compared with the European industry
Slopes that are steeper than 20 degrees should ordi-
narily be used for forests or some tree culture. Orchards
may be planted on such hillsides. If a field is not used,
it should have some protective covering, such as clover
or soy beans, to help hold the soil and to enrich it.
To maintain the fertility of the soils we must follow
the advice of intelligent, experienced farmers, of trained
students of agriculture, and of other scientists who have
made special studies of this problem.
The air, water, and soil contain in abundance most of
the food elements needed by plants. There are, however,
three elements — nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus
— that plants use up very rapidly ; and if we wish to
use the lands continuously in farming, we must assist
in returning these elements to the soil (Fig. 551).
Nitrogen. Certain plants such as the grains, cotton,
and tobacco take large quantities of nitrogen compounds
from the soil. After such crops have been raised, other
plants that help to restore nitrogen to the soil should be
planted. A group of plants that include clover, alfalfa,
peas, and beans have little nodules on their roots, where
bacteria live. The bacteria take nitrogen from the air
and combine it with other elements to make compounds
called nitrates. The nitrates are stored in the roots,
stalks, and fruits of those plants. The farmer who
"plows under" such a crop will therefore enrich his
soil with nitrogen.
By choosing wisely and changing the crop on a field
each year, the fertility of the soil may be maintained or
even improved. The practice of changing the crop on
a given field each year is called the rotation of crops.
Repeating the same crop on a given field year after
year will result in poorer crops and in injury to the soil.
By using electricity nitrogen may be taken from the
air and combined with other substances, such as lime-
stone, to make fertilizers. This is now being done.
Certain nitrate deposits in Chile are imported and used
to fertilize worn-out soils, and manures are also used ou
the fields so as to return nitrogen compounds to the soil.
3 INCHES ANNUAL
PRECIPITATION
Fig. 653. Many boys in Ohio and southwestern Pennsylvania have learned
to take care of sheep. This district, with its good pasture lands, has
become famous for its pure, high-bred stock. See map, Fig. 556
D. S. Dept. of Agricuttut*
Fig. 554. Each dot on this map represents 5000 acres of land where cotton
is raised. Very little is grown where there are less than 200 days without
frost or less than 23 inches of rainfall each year. The places where the dots
are thickest have very rich soils. The shaded areas in California and Arizona
are places where the especially fine Egyptian variety of cotton is being raised
Potassium is another important element in the food of
plants that we must help to keep in the soils. Potas-
sium salts are sometimes imported for use as fertilizers.
Kelp, which grows in large quantities on the surface of
the Pacific Ocean west of North America, has been used
to produce potassium compounds, and some deposits of
potassium salts have been discovered in the western
part of our country.
Phosphorus is the third food element of plants that is
important for us to assist in returning to the soils.
Phosphate rock has been found in large quantities in
Florida, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Wyoming,
and Idaho. More phosphate rock is quarried in Florida
each year than in any other state. The rock is ground
up and used in the manufacture of a very good fertilizer.
Phosphorus compounds are made from the bones of
animals and other by-products from the great slaughter-
houses. Those compounds are returned to the farmers
as fertilizers.
Manures also contain phosphorus compounds and are
therefore doubly valuable as fertilizers. They contain
both nitrogen and phosphorus compounds.
SOILS
283
V. B. Depi. o( A^rtcultur*
Fig. 555. Each dot on this map represents 5000 cattle. In what states are
the largest numbers raised ? Explain the clear spaces in northern Uaine,
northeastern New York, southern Florida, southern Nevada, southeastern
California, and western Arizona. Why is cattle-raising more general in the
eastern half of the United States than in the western half ?
U. S- Dtpt. of Arrleulttm
Fig. 556. Each dot on this map represents 10,000 full-grown sheep. Most
of the sheep in the United States are in the Rocky Mountains and the semi-
arid or mountainous parts of the states on the Pacific coast. The hilly pas-
ture lands of Ohio and the neighboring parts of Pennsylvania and West
Virginia are also used for sheep-raising (Fig. 553)
Other uses of the land aside from the production of portions of Iowa and Illinois, in New York State, in
food crops. The crops of cotton, flax, and hemp are also eastern Pennsylvania, and in the New England states,
of great importance to the people of the United States. About half of the cheese factories in the United States
The cotton is used for making cloth, and the cotton seeds are in Wisconsin, and over one fourth are in New Yox-k
yield an oil that is being used more and more as a food. State. Dairy farming is most prosperous in regions with
It is taking the place of olive oil in many ways, and it rich pastures near large markets (Fig. 557).
is used in making soap. After the oil has been ex- Hogs are produced chiefly in the corn belt, although
tracted, the rest of the seed is used as a food for cattle they are common throughout the more thickly settled,
or sometimes as a fertilizer (Fig. 554).
Flax is used in making linen, and the seed furnishes
linseed oil, which is used in the making of paints, oil-
cloths, and other useful things. The chief use of hemp
is in the manufacture of rope (Fig. 552).
Live stock could not be raised if it were not for the
grasses and grains that are supported by the soils.
Horses, mules, cattle, sheep,
and goats are needed in
large numbers. Many of the
lands that are semiarid or
have soils too poor to be
cultivated are used for graz-
ing. Among the mountains
there are excellent pasture
lands for sheep and cattle
(Figs. 555, 556).
Dairy cattle are raised
very generally throughout
the country to supply local
needs. Near each of the
larger cities there are many
dairy farms. Creameries are
very common in the south-
em parts of Minnesota and
Wisconsin, in the northern
Fig. 657. These are dairy cows. They are tended with great care, so that
they may produce rich, pure milk. After the morning milking'they are
turned into a good pasture to graze. Toward evening they are driven into
a barn, where they are milked ; then they are turned out for the night
well-watered portions of the United States east of the
Great Plains.
Poultry-farming is also an important industry, and
near each of the large cities the poultry farms are
numerous and cover considerable areas of land.
Problems and review questions. 1. Why is it of the greatest
importance to the nation to maintain the fertility of the soils ?
2. How do the plants secure
their food ? 3. What food ele-
ments needed by the plants
should we help to keep in the
soil?
4. What kinds of fertilizers
do you know of ? 6. What
plants help to restore nitrogen
to the soils ? 6. What is meant
by rotation of crops ? 7. Aside
from the production of food
crops, what uses are made of
the land ? 8. What industries
are directly dependent upon the
raisingof cotton, flax, and hemp?
9. What industries depend
directly upon the raising of
animals? 10. What arguments
can you now give in supjwrt of
the statement that the soils
are the most important of the
natural resources of the nation ?
284
FORESTS
FORESTS
Original extent. The original forests of the United
States were among the most valuable in the world.
They covered a large area and contained a great variety
of useful trees (Fig. 558).
and those who are engaged in building houses have not
always been careful to use up the small pieces of lumber.
The old-fashioned way of tapping certain pine trees
to get the sap, or resin, from which turpentine is made,
usually killed the trees within five years. If modern
Destruction of our forests. Nearly half of the more methods are used, the trees will live much longer and
valuable timber in this country has been cut. We have
been a most extravagant people in the use of wood. It is
estimated that on the average we now use per person ten
times as much wood as the people in France and about
twenty times as much as the people in Great Britain.
even more resin will be secured.
Forest fires have been one of the chief causes of loss.
Some of the fires have been unavoidable, such as those
caused by lightning, but many have been due to careless-
ness. It is of the greatest importance that campers should
In the early days of settlement in the eastern half of not leave fires burning. Everyone who visits our forests
the country the forests were often considered objection- should take care not to cause a forest fire, and should
able. It took a great deal of hard work to clear the fields volunteer, if possible, to help put out such a fire.
forcultivation. Manytimes
there was no market for
the wood, and great piles
of logs were burned. With
the rapid increase in our
population came a very
large demand for lumber.
More wood was used as
fuel than in any other way ;
but millions of homes were
built, great factories were
constructed, and fences,
barns, furniture, and thou-
sands of useful articles were
made of wood. Of late
years large quantities of
wood are being used in the
manufacture of paper.
In some places where the
forests have been destroyed
© Amerivaii Ueographjoal Sflcietj of New York
Fig. 558. This map shows the forest areas of the United States. Originally
the forests were almost unbroken from the Atlantic coast to the eastern margin
of the Great Plains. To-day much of this great area has been cleared. Where
are the evergreen forests ? Where are the hardwood forests ? Why are there
80 few trees in the Great Plains and the Western Plateaus ?
Lumbering districts. The
forests in New England
were the first center of the
lumbering business ; later
Michigan became the lead-
ing producing region ; and
as settlement pushed west-
ward Wisconsin and Minne-
sota each had a turn at first
place. When the Northern
forests had been largely
used, those in the Southern
states were turned to, and
then the forests of the
Northwest. To-day Wash-
ington produces more lum-
ber than any other state,
and Oregon ranks third.
Each one of the states
bordering upon the Gulf
the soils have been washed away, and that has increased of Mexico is a large producer of lumber. Mississippi
the danger of river floods. The forests bind the soils,
and the soils help to retain the rain-water in the ground,
or allow it to flow away slowly and evenly. If our
forests had not been removed, the flow of many of the
streams in this country would be more uniform, and that
would make the streams more valuable in developing
water-power.
Waste in the use of wood. While we have used wood
freely and for the most part for excellent purposes, we
have been guilty of wasting large quantities of very
valuable timber. Many times, when the trees were cut
during the winter and heavy snows were on the ground,
high stumps were left. Thousands of trees that have
been blown down have been left in the forest, and many
undersized trees have been taken for lumber. Each tree
should be allowed to mature and thus gain its full size
before it is cut down. Men in sawmills and in factories
stands fourth of all states in production (Fig. 559).
A permanent supply of lumber. It is of real impor-
tance to us to have, here at home, a permanent supply
of lumber that will meet our needs. Most of the Euro-
pean countries import wood. Russia, Sweden, Norway,
Czechoslovakia, and Austria are the only countries in
Europe with wood to spare. Those countries are cutting
more each year than can be grown ; their surplus will
therefore become less, and undoubtedly it will all be
needed in Europe. The countries of Africa, South
America, Central America, and Mexico have little but
tropical woods, which are more difficult to work than the
softer woods of the temperate zone. Canada is now
selling some lumber to us, but it cannot help very
much. China, Australia, and India now have less lum-
ber than they need. Siberia has the one large unexplored
and almost untouched temperate forest in the world.
FORESTS
285
BILLIONS OF BOARD FEET
2 3
1 Washinston
2 Louisiana
8 Oregon
4 Hiasiasippi
5 Arkansas -
8 Texaa
T California
8 Wisconsin
9 Alabama
10 North Carolina
11 Uinnesota
12 Florida
13 Michigan
14 Virgfinia
U Idaho
16 West Virginia
17 Maine
18 Tennessee
19 South Carolina
20 Pennsylvania
21 Geortria
22 New Hampshire
23 Kentucky
24 Montana
25 New York
26 Missouri
27 Indiana
28 Ohio
29 Oklahoma
80 Massachusetts
31 Vermont
All other states (17)
Fig. 859. This table shows the order of importance of the states in the pro-
duction of lumber. A board foot of lumber is a piece of wood 12 inches square
and not over 1 inch thick. How does your state rank in lumber production ?
If its name does not appear, explain why its production is so small
There are, however, several ways by which we may
help to provide a good permanent supply of lumber in
this country.
1. So far as possible we must stop the various wastes
already mentioned.
2. Burned-over areas should be reforested.
3. Many areas where the forests have been cut off
have soils too poor to cultivate. Such areas should be
reforested.
4. Many forests are not fully stocked with trees. In
such places more trees should be planted. No soil is too
poor and no slope too steep for trees if
they can get hold with their roots and
receive enough moisture throughout
the year. Experiments have shown
that a mixed forest will produce more
cubic feet of wood per acre per year
than a forest of only one variety of tree.
Some trees are very eager for the sun,
and others do fairly well in partly
shaded places. This is illustrated in
the natural forests of Washington and
Oregon. There the great Douglas fir is
the tall tree, and with it are the much
lower hemlock and red cedar. By study
and experiment we must learn how
to secure the maximum production
of wood per acre, just as we strive
to secure the maximum production of
wheat per acre.
5. The life of much of the timber that we use may be
extended by dipping it into creosote. That is a tarry
liquid which will fill the pores of th^wood and prevent
water or insects from entering and causing decay. Posts,
railroad ties, paving blocks, shingles, and the wooden
piles of wharves and bridges, when properly treated with
creosote, last many years longer than they otherwise
could.
6. "We must keep up a constant battle with the insects
that injure and may kill the trees.
7. In many cases substitutes for wood may be used.
This is being done on a large scale. Natural stones,
bricks, concrete, terra cotta, tiles, and steel are now
commonly used in building. Steel cars are taking the
places of wooden ones, and steel furnishings in offices
and libraries are in use. These substitutes for wood
also offer a great advantage in reducing the losses by
fire. That helps in the conservation of resources.
The public and private forests all need to be carefully
guarded, and men must be trained for this work. Scien-
tific forestry must be promoted. It is a profession that
offers great opportunities to young men.
Problems and review questions. 1^ What portions of the United
States were originally forested? 2. Why were there no forests
in the other parts ? 3. How have the forest trees been used ?
4. How have the timber resources been wasted ? 6. Where are
the chief lumber-producing regions to-day?
6. How may we plan to have a sufficient permanent supply
of lumber in this country ? 7. Why is it very important that we
maintain forests in the United States ? 8. State some of the
problems that scientific forestry may solve.
Home work. 1. Find out the retail price of one thousand feet
of pine lumber. 2. What kinds of trees grow in your home
region ? 3. How are wood substitutes used in your home city ?
0
1
BILLIONS OF BOARD FEET
3 <
5 6
-
1 Yellow pine {
2 Douglas fir
8 White pine
4 Oak
6 Hemlock
6 Western yellow pine
7 Spruce
8 Maple
9 Gum
10 Cypress
11 Redwood
12 Chestnut
13 Birch
14 Larch
15 Beech
16 Yellow poplar
17 Cedar
18 Tupelo
19 White flr
20 Basswood
21 Elm
22 Cottonwood
23 Ash
24 Sugar pine
it Hickory
26 Walnut
All others
.-;
-
^^^^^^^*
■
■
■
U. 8. ForMt 8«rT)c«
Fig. 560. This table shows the order of importance of the different kinds of wood in the lumber
production of the United States. Which of these kinds of trees are hard woods ? Which are soft
woods ? Which of the two, hard woods or soft woods, furnish the larger part of our lumber supply ?
Great quantities of soft wood are used to make wood pulp for the paper-manufacturing industry
286
MINERAL RESOURCES
Pres-i Illustrating Serrice, Ino.
Fig. S61. These two miners are using an electric coal-mining machine. This
machine makes a deep cut under the layers of coal, which loosens them
from the mass beneath. Then a small charge of powder is set off, causing
the coal to fall. By using this machine two men can do the work of twelve
MINERAL RESOURCES
Fuels
The chief natural fuels other than wood are coal, oil,
and gas. These resources are stored in the ground.
They were millions of years in forming, and when used
they are gone forever.
The origin of coal. Coal is made of vegetable matter.
Wherever we find a layer of coal to-day, we may imagine
there was once a swamp forest. There vegetable mate-
rial accumulated for thousands of years. The water of
the swamp kept the air from reaching the plant mate-
rial and thus prevented decay. Later that region sank
and the sea came in and flooded the area.
Sands, gravels, and clays were washed into that sea
and in settling to the bottom buried the vegetable
matter. More and more sediments were deposited until
the vegetable matter was under a great weight. In
many places the cover was hundreds of feet thick, and
in some places it was thousands of feet thick. In time,
by compression and by the loss of water and gases, the
vegetable matter was changed into coal. All stages in
this process are known, and samples that illustrate each
stage have been found, from the peat in the bog to the
coal as it is mined. Exhibits of these materials have
been placed in the large museums.
In some regions, where mountains have been made by
the folding of rocks, layers of soft coal have been so com-
pressed that they were changed into hard coal. This is
the explanation of the anthracite in the Appalachian
Mountains of northeastern Pennsylvania.
The supply of coal. The United States is the richest
of all the nations in the world in coal. There is more
coal in this country than in all of Europe. China is
probably our nearest rival in coal supply. We are
Pregs IlIuBtrKtinit Senice. Ino.
Fig. 562. The next step in the mining process is to load the coal on the little
cars which are run along the galleries and hoisted to the surface. On the
car the miner hangs a metal check bearing his number. When the car reaches
the surface, the coal is weighed and the amount is credited to the miner
fortunate not only in the immense supply but in the
widespread distribution of the coal beds (Fig. 563).
The anthracite of northeastern Pennsylvania is not
surpassed by any coal in the world, and the great Appa-
lachian soft-coal field, which stretches from northern
Pennsylvania to northern Alabama, contains the finest
bituminous coal lands in the world.
The eastern interior coal field of Illinois, Indiana,
and Keritucky is second only to the Appalachian field
in the quality of its soft coal. This field is of very great
importance to industrial and commercial development
in the Mississippi Valley states.
Coal beds underlie much of Iowa and extend southward
through Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma and into Arkan-
sas. Texas and the Dakotas contain extensive beds of coal
that are coming more and more into use. The Rocky
Mountains states contain a large supply of coal, and a
portion of the coal in Colorado is of anthracite grade.
The western plateau states and the Pacific coast states
are not well supplied with coal, but the discovery of oil
in southern California has, for the present at least, fur-
nished the western part of our country with an abun-
dance of fuel. The chief coal fields in the Pacific coast
states are near Tacoma. There large quantities of coal
are mined each year, and Tacoma has become an im-
portant coaling station for vessels. Many of the coal
fields in the western half of the country are owned by
the government. They may be leased by individuals,
or companies, that wish to develop them.
Alaska contains several coal fields. There are large
supplies of anthracite and bituminous coals and vast
areas underlain with a low grade of coal called lignite.
Some day Alaskan coal will be shipped to the western
states and used in steamers on the Pacific Ocean.
MINERAL RESOURCES
287
5. Substitutes for coal may be used. Oil, gas, and
water-power are the best substitutes we now have.
6. Each person who uses coal can be careful and thus
avoid waste. It is estimated that if each pei"son in the
United States who used coal should save one shovelful
of coal out of ten, about 50,000,000 tons could be saved
each year.
Problems and review questions. 1. What are the three leading
mineiul fuels ? 2. Explain briefly how coal is made. 3. Why are
some coals made harder than others ? 4. Where are the best coal
fields in the United States ? 5. Which of all the nations in the
world has the most coal ?
6. Describe some of the things that would happen if we were
suddenly prevented from using coal. 7. What are the best sub-
stitutes for coal ? 8. How may our supply of coal be conserved ?
9. Why should the coal be
The use of coal. To-day most of our locomotives and
most of the vessels at sea are coal-driven. In almost all
of our factories coal is used to generate steam. Our
modern travel, manufacturing, and transportation of
goods would be paralyzed if we could not use coal.
Many of our cities and homes would be dark at night,
and when winter came there would certainly be great
suffering in the world if we were suddenly deprived
of coal.
The people of the United States use more coal than
any other people in the world. It is estimated that we
now consume, on the average, over five tons per person
each year. The rate at which the amount used has in-
creased is amazing ; and unless that rate is lowered, our
vast supplies of coal will
not last but a few hun-
dred years. But that rate
must not go on increasing
so rapidly. By properly
conserving our coal it may
be made to last for thou-
sands of years.
In spite of the immense
production of coal in the
United States, relatively
little is exported. Canada
buys more coal from us
than any other country.
Small quantities of coal
are sold to Cuba and other
islands of the West Indies
and to Mexico. Coal is
shipped from Norfolk, Virginia, to Tampico for use on
the Mexican railroads and at the Mexican mines.
The conservation of coal. There are various ways in
which we can make our supply of coal last longer.
1. Prevent loss in mining. It was estimated that in
the days before we appreciated the importance of con-
serving coal as much was wasted as was used each year.
That was a tremendous and a disgraceful loss, but it is gases went on deep in the earth and where the pressure
being corrected. was great and the temperature higher than near the
2. Make little bricks, called briquettes, of coal dust, surface. These changes must have taken a very long
Tar may be used to bind the very fine coal and coal time, probably millions of years. More oil and gas may
dust together. be fonning to-day, but we are using up these valuable
3. Save by-products. In making coke it is possible resources many times faster than they are being formed,
by modem methods to save the gases that are driven They are resources that can be used but once.
off from the coal and to secure ammonia used in certain The natural oils and gases are commonly found to-
fertilizers, tar from which dyes are made, and hundreds gether in the ground, and with them there is often some
of other useful products. salt water. The gas is the lightest and is nearest the
4. Improve methods of burning coal so as to secure surface of the earth ; tlien comes the oil ; and below the
more heat from it. This calls for the invention of new oil is the salt water. When a well is driven, gas corn-
kinds of engines, new furnaces, and new stoves. monly comes off first, then oil, and later the salt water.
Fine ruling » Known coal fields
Coarae rnling- Doubtful coal fields
i'-'--'-'-:'-'':^ L._=Coel under deep cover
Court«j of eilubeth F. Fltb«r
Fig. S63. This map shows the location of the coal beds in the United States.
What states have large supplies of coal ? What states have no coal ? How
does the coal in the Rocky Mountains differ from the coal in the Appalachian
Highlands ? The coal under deep cover is buried too far in the earth to be
mined with profit
conserved ?
Home voork. Find out from
what fields most of the coal
used in your home town comes.
Natural oils and gases.
The origin of the natural
oils and gases in the ground
is somewhat of a mystery.
We do not know just how
they were made, but most
scientists agree that they
must have come from the
vegetable or animal matter
that was buried in rocks.
It is certain that large
numbers of plants and ani-
mals were buried while the
sediments that make the sandstones, shales, and other
rocks were being deposited in lakes or inland seas. It is
certain that the plants and the bodies of animals con-
tain the elements necessary to form our natural oils and
gases. It is difficult, however, to discover just how the
change took place.
We are certain that the process of making the oils and
288
MINERAL RESOURCES
Distribution of oils and gases. The map shown in
Fig. 564 gives the location of the chief fields where the
natural oils and gases are obtained. The first discoveries
were made in western Pennsylvania. That field extends
southward into West Virginia and northward into New
Conservation of oil. As in the use of wood and coal,
we have been very extravagant in the use of natural oil.
Those engaged in producing the oil have been guilty
of wasting large quantities by letting it run away or
allowing free evaporation from open storage tanks. This
York. The Ohio-Indiana field has been a great producer should be corrected (Fig. 565).
riiJ-^ —
fS^--i.-^--J
— Pipe lines
— Projected pipe lines
^ Oil and eas fields
of these valuable fuels, and Kentucky and southern
Illinois have also yielded large quantities of oil and gas.
Louisiana has rich supplies of these fuels, California has
produced and is producing large quantities, and the late
development in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas has been
marvelous. Successful oil wells are located in Wyoming
and Colorado, and additional discoveries are reported
every few years from many different parts of the country.
A remarkable experience
in this country has been
the discovery of new fields
as fast as the old fields
were nearing exhaustion.
It stands to reason that
this cannot go on forever,
and therefore we must
face the problem of con-
serving our supplies of
oils and gases.
Uses of oil. Natural oil,
or petroleum in a crude
state (that is, just as it
comes from the ground),
is used as a fuel. In some
portions of the country
where coal is not abundant
oil-burning locomotives are used. Many ocean liners
and ships of war are equipped with oil-burning engines.
Most of our lubricating oils come from petroleum.
They are absolutely essential in the running of ma-
chinery, and therefore our' manufacturing industries
are dependent upon this natural resource.
Kerosene is obtained from petroleum, and it is com-
monly used throughout the world for light. American
kerosene is shipped to almost every country. It reaches
Greenland and New Zealand and goes far into the in-
terior of China, to places where few, if any, white men
have ever gone. It is distributed more widely than any
other product from America.
Gasoline, which is now used to drive automobiles,
motor trucks, motor boats, submarines, and aeroplanes,
is obtained from natural oil.
Naphtha, benzine, paraffin, and vaseline are among the
many other iiseful by-products obtained from petroleum.
A large part of the paraffin that is obtained from
petroleum is used in the manufacture of common candles.
Courteaj of £liK»beth F. Fuber
Fig. S64. This map shows the location of the oil and gas fields in the United
States. What natural regions produce the largest quantities of oil and gas ?
Notice the pipe lines. Along these lines pipes are laid underground through
which the oil is sent from the fields to the places where it is used or refined
The lighter oils can be taken from the crude petroleum
before it is used as a fuel. That will save very valuable
products. Where water-power is abundant, electricity
could be generated and used in many ways instead of oil.
Individuals can always be careful not to waste oil, gaso-
line, or any of the products that come from petroleum.
Use and conservation of gas. Natural gas is the best
of all the fuels. It is used near the producing fields
in western Pennsylvania,
southern Ohio, Indiana,
Kansas, Texas, and Illinois.
Many people use it for
cooking and for lighting
and heating their homes.
Although natural gas is
so valuable a fuel and so
limited in amount, no other
natural resource has been
so recklessly wasted by the
American people. In many
cases, when wells were
driven for oil, large quan-
tities of gas came pouring
out into the air, and no
effort was made to prevent
this or to save the gas.
Sometimes the gas was lighted and burned for years as
great torches. This was a most inexcusable waste. These
great torches burned day and night, and it seems strange
that they did not awaken the American people to the
wisdom of conservation. It has been stated by one state
officer in this country that the amount of natural gas lost
in his state during twenty years was equivalent to
throwing away forty-five tons of coal every minute.
At best the supply of natural gas will not last many
years. It is nearly exhausted in many of the fields now,
and every means should be taken to conserve what is left.
Problems and review questions. 1. What is probably the origin
of the natural oils and gases ? 2. Where are the chief oil and.
gas fields in the United States ? 3. What products that come from
petroleum have you seen ? What are they used for ?
4. In what ways is petroleum transported from the wells to
the refineries ? 5. How may the supply of natural oil be con-
served ? 6. Of all the natural fuels, which is the best? Why?
7. How are natural gases lost or wasted ?
Home work. 1. Find out how a deep oil well is made. 2. What
oil field is nearest your home ?
MINERAL RESOURCES
289
Fig. 565. This view shows a number of petroleum-storage tanks. They are
located in a field not far from the wells where the oil is produced. One of
the tanks has been struck by lightning, and the oil is burning. This is one
of the ways in which petroleum is wasted
Ikon
Iron is the most important of all our metal resources.
It is not the highestrpriced metal, but because of its
abundance and great usefulness it ranks first in im-
portance. There is a little iron in most soils, in most
rocks, and in most of the waters that flow through the
ground. In many places near the surface of the earth
there are large deposits of iron, and where that iron can
be mined at a profit it is called iron ore (Fig. 566).
Distribution of iron ore in the United States. In this
country the region that produces by far the greatest
amount of iron ore each year is near Lake Superior.
There the ore is of high grade and can be mined very
easily. The surface covering of glacial soils and subsoils
is removed, and the ore is then taken out by steam
shovels, just as great excavations are made. This rich
ore is loaded on lake steamers that take it to the leading
industrial centers on the Great Lakes (Figs. 567, 568).
Much of it is taken to Chicago, Gary, Detroit, Cleveland,
Erie, and Buffalo. Large quantities are reshipped from
Lake Erie ports to the Pittsburgh district and to points
farther east.
It is cheaper to ship the ore to the coal than to send
the coal to the place where the ore is mined, for it
takes nearly two tons of coal to make a ton of iron.
Furthermore, the manufacturing centers that are near
the coal fields are leading markets for the iron when it
has been made.
The Appalachian iron fields are next to the Lake Supe-
rior district in importance. There the iron on-.s have been
found in several lociJities from northern Pennsylvania
to northern Alabama. The iron and steel industries
were first established in Pittsburgh, and as the better
ores in that district were exhausted Lake Superior ores
were imported. The Pittsburgh district is still the leader
in the production of iron and steel, but the cities on the
Great Lakes have been rapidly increasing their produc-
tion of these articles. At Gary in northern Ilidiana the
United States Steel Corporation has constructed the
largest steel plant in the world.
In the Birmingham district of northern Alabama
iron ore, coal, and limestone are by good fortune found
close together. The coal and limestone are both used in
making iron. Here there are no heavy transportation ex-
penses, and the Birmingham region is becoming a strong
rival of the region about Pittsburgh. It is the center of
the iron and steel industries of the South, and it is
certain -to increase in importance as manufacturing is
promoted in the Southern states.
Iron ore is mined in the Adirondack Mountains of
New York and in a few places in the western part of
tlie United States (Fig. 566).
Importation of iron ore. Although we have great
stores of iron ore in this country, we import large quan-
tities of iron ore each year. The mixing of certain ores
has been found to produce qualities in steel that are
suitable for special purposes. Foreign ores are now being
brought to our eastern ports, and especially to Baltimore
and Philadelphia. Most of the imported iron ore comes
from Cuba, and some comes from Newfoundland, Sweden,
Spain, and the island of Elba. We are expecting iron
ores from Chile, for Americans have recently purchased
ore properties in that country. The Brazilian Highlands
contain remarkably rich deposits of iron. American capi-
tal has been invested in these deposits, and some day iron
ore may be shipped from Brazil to the United States.
Fig. 566. This map shows the distribution of the chief deposits of iron and
copper in the United States. Where are most of the iron deposits ? Where are
most of the copper deposits ? The dot on the south shore of Lake Superior
and the one in Tennessee represent very important supplies of copper
290
MINERAL RESOURCES
Fig. 567. The boat in this view is a Great Lakes freighter which has come from Lake Superior to
Cleveland loaded with iron ore. It has anchored at one of the railroad wharves, where the ore is
being unloaded and transferred to freight cars by means of a number of powerful unloaders oper-
ated by electricity. In what cities may this iron ore be used ?
Iron in world trade. The United States and Great
Britain are the two leading nations in the iron and
steel industries. They now produce more than half of
the world's supply of iron. France, Germany, Belgium,
and Russia come next in importance.
In addition to the iron ore these industries require
many laborers, much capital, good transportation facil-
ities, and a large market. Deposits of iron are widely
distributed throughout the world {see Appendix., jj. v),
but only a few countries can yet develop the iron
and steel industries on a large scale.
Rails, bridges, girders and pipes, plows, mowers,
reapers, farm tractors, windmills, and hundreds of other
American articles made wholly or in part of iron or steel
are in use in the most distant countries of the world.
American rails are used on the railroad to the African
lakes in Uganda ; they are also used in Manchuria, in
Japan, and on the roads that cross the Andes Mountains
in South America. The trade in iron is world-wide.
The better grades of iron ore will be used first, and
then the vast supplies of lower-grade deposits of iron
will be needed. The amount of iron in the world is
very great, and as yet but a small fraction of the total
supply has been used.
Conservation of iron. The problem of conserving iron
is quite different from that of conserving coal, oil, or
gas. Iron may beused several times, but coal, oil, and
gas can be used but once. The iron-mining companies
realize the value of the ore, and therefore are not likely
to waste it in mining. The conserving of our iron will
be chiefly accomplished by saving that which has been
produced. Our chief problem is to prevent the rusting
of iron or steel. This may be done by using paint or a
coating of zinc or tin. Iron coated with zinc we call
galvanized iron, and iron coated with tin is called tin
plate. Sometimes expensive pieces of iron are covered
with enamel or coated with lacquers
or japans. The steel frames of large
city buildings are protected with stone,
brick, or terra cotta.
Problems and review questions. 1. Where
are the chief iron-mining regions in the United
States ? 2. Name five important industrial
centers where iron and steel are made. 3. Why
do we import iron ores ? 4. Where do our
imported iron ores come from ? 5. What
nations lead in the iron and steel industries ?
6. Why do not small nations develop the
iron and steel industries ? 7. What are some
of the American iron and steel products that
are sent to distant parts of the world ? 8. How
does the problem of conserving iron differ
from that of conserving coal ?
1. Find out why limestone and eoal are placed in
2. Find out all you
Home work.
the furnace with the iron ore in making iron.
can about what actually takes place when iron rusts
Copper
Our chief supplies of copper come from Arizona,
Montana, Michigan, Utah, and Nevada. Arizona and
Montana produce more than half of the copper mined
in the world each year, and the total production of
copper in the United States and Alaska is far beyond
that produced by any other nation (Fig. 566).
In the Michigan mines, which are located on the
south shore of Lake Superior, the ore is in the form of
pure metallic copper. This is very uncommon, for copper
is usually found with other minerals.
The mines in the u.pper peninsula of Michigan were
for a long time the greatest producers of copper in the
Fig. 668. ihis IS a view in the hold ot a freighter which is being loaded,
with iron ore. Notice the two great buckets which have just opened and
dropped their contents into the ship. These buckets are part of the machin- -
ery for loading and unloading which you can see at a distance in Fig. 567.'
MINERAL RESOURCES
291
Fig. 669. This large copper and zinc smelter is located at Great Falls,
Montana. At the left is the Missouri River, which has just come from the
Rocky Mountains and has started on its long journey across the plains to
join the Mississippi. The water-power at the falls is utilized to generate
world. Some of these mines are a mile deep, and the
copper is not yet exhausted. After a while the mines at
Butte, Montana, surpassed the Michigan mines in the
production of copper, and then the mines in Arizona
took first place. There are rich supplies of copper in
Alaska, and several million dollars' worth of copper has
already been sent from Alaska to the Western states.
In the Rocky Mountain and Plateau states the copper
is commonly found with silver, lead, and zinc, and
sometimes with gold. Many of the copper ores contain
sulphur. When the different metals occur together or
the ore contains other elements, such as sulphur, it is
necessary to use heat and to invent mechanical and
sometimes chemical ways for securing the pure metals.
Many ores are first roasted to drive off impurities. Then
they are put into great furnaces and melted, and the
metals are drawn off and allowed to cool in small molds.
Some ores are crushed to a powder and then washed to
separate the hghter and useless rock material from the
metals before they are roasted and sent to the furnaces
Fig. 570. This is a view in the manufacturing plant of a great electric com-
pany at Schenectady, New York. There are many other such electrical plants
in different parts of our country, where all kinds of machinery for generat-
ing and transmitting electricity are made. The use of copper wire in trans-
mitting electricity has made possible the widespread use of electric power
electricity that is used in many parts of this great plant. To this smelter
are brought train-loads of ores that have been mined in the mountains. Some
of these ores are crushed and washed, and some must be roasted. The large
chimney located on the hilltop is connected with the main part of the plant
to be melted. The sulphur gas driven off from the
copper ores is used in making sulphuric acid (Fig. 569).
Finally, when the different metals have been separated
and pure metallic copper has been secured, it is shipped
to industrial centers in this countiy or in foreign lands.
Uses of copper. Copper ranks next to iron in usefulness
to man. It makes possible our electric lights, telephone,
telegraph, electric engines, and electric-car lines, and the
distribution of electricity from the power plants (Fig. 570).
Copper is used in the manufacture of boilers, lamps, and
many other useful articles for the home. Brass is made
by combining copper with zinc, and a kind of bronze
is made by combining copper and tin.
Importation of copper ore. Although we mine more
copper in this country each year than is mined in any
other country, we import large quantities of copper ore.
The imported ore comes chiefly from Labrador, New-
foundland, Spain, Italy, Peru, Cuba, and Canada. It is
brought to this country largely because of the coal avail-
able, which is used in extracting the metal from the ore.
The cost of importing the ore is usually rather small,
for many of the vessels returning from those countries
find it difficult to secure full cargoes, and therefore give
a low rate on the copper ore.
Conservation of copper. This metal is so valuable that
few if any people need to be told to save it. The miners
are careful of the ore, and those who purchase the pure
metal try to prevent any waste. The amount of copper
in the world is limited, and the production cannot, there-
fore, continue on the same basis indefinitely. It is per-
fectly reasonable to expect that the amount produced in
the world each year will decrease. Our chief duty is to
prevent the destruction of the copper already produced.
It can be used over and over again. The world will not
need to go on producing such large quantities as it now
produces if the copper already in use is kept in use.
New methods of mining, new methods of extracting
the metals from the ores to make profitable the use
of lower-grade ores, and the discovery of more copper
ore may help out the supply of copper for the future.
292
MINERAL RESOURCES
Fig. 571. This map shows the distribution of the chief deposits of lead and
zinc in the United States. What states in the Rocky Mountain region con-
tain important deposits of lead or zinc ? What minerals are found in
southwestern South Dakota ? See Figs. 566 and 575
Problems and review questions. 1. What states produce large
quantities of copper? 2. In what state is pure metallic copper
found in large qiiantities in the ground ? 3. Which one of our
distant possessions contains, and furnishes each year, large sup-
plies of copper ? 4. Where do we rank with the other nations of
the world in the production of this metal ? 5. Name all the
ways you can in which copper is used. 6. Why is copper ore im-
ported into the United States ? 7. From what countries does it
come ? 8. Discuss the problem of the conservation of copper.
9. Where may we expect new discoveries of copper ore to be made
in the United States ? See Fig. 566.
Lead and Zinc
Lead and zinc are also very useful and therefore very
valuable metals. They are found deep in the earth in
mineral veins and very commonly occur together. In
places these minerals form beautiful crystal linings to
small cavities in the rocks. In other places they fill
cracks, or fissures. Sometimes the fissure becomes so
narrow and the supply of ore so small that the miners
barely get enough, to pay them for their work. Then,
as they dig on thn|ugh the rocks, the crack, or fissure,
in which the ores are found may become larger, and the
miners may find, deep under the ground, large supplies
of these valuable minerals.
The ores of lead and zinc usually contain sulphur, and
that makes it necessary to roast them so as to drive off
the sulphur. The sulphur gas is captured and used in
making sulphuric acid.
Lead and zinc deposits have been discovered in many
of the states. Missouri, Idaho, Utah, and Colorado pro-
duce large quantities of lead, and Missoviri, Montana,
New Jersey, and Colorado (in the order given) lead in
the production of zinc. Missouri produces much more
lead and zinc than any other state. Southwestern Mis-
souri, northwestern Arkansas, and northeastern Okla-
homa form one of the chief producing areas in this
country. There is another lead and zinc mining district
in southwestern Wisconsin and northwestern Illinois
(Fig. 571).
In the Rocky Mountain states the lead and zinc occur
with ores of copper, silver, and gold.
Uses and conservation of lead. More than half the
lead produced in the United States is used in the manu-
facture of paint. It is an excellent substance to have in
paint, but satisfactory substitutes should be found, and
lead should be used in ways that permit it to be used
over and over again (Fig. 572). Lead pipes are some-
times used in our plumbing, but iron pipes are now
more common. Type metal contains some lead, but the
type may be remelted and the metal used again.
Uses and conservation of zinc. This metal is most
commonly used to galvanize iron. The zinc covering
prevents the air and moisture from reaching the iron
and causing it to rust. In this way zinc is helping in
the great problems of conservation. It is helping to
preserve a more valuable metal. Zinc, as was mentioned
under copper, is used in making brass, and sheets of zinc
are often placed beneath or behind stoves as a protection
against fire. Zinc is also used in making paint.
The conservation of lead and zinc will depend chiefly
upon preventing loss in mining, improving methods of
extracting the metals from the ores, preventing waste,
and finding substitutes. Additional supplies of the ores
may from time to time be discovered.
Problems and review questions. 1. Where are the chief supplies
of lead and zinc ore in the United States ? 2. What articles have
you seen that were made of lead ? of zinc ? 3. Wliat ways can
you suggest for conserving the present supplies of lead and zinc ?
Fig. 572. The men in this picture are workers in a mill where lead paints
are manufactured. This is the room where the materials of which the paint
is made are ground and mixed. Why is it wasteful to use lead in paint-
making ? What could be done to prevent this waste?
MINERAL RESOURCES
29S;
Plioto berttc«, Ino.
Fig. 573. Years ago, when men first discovered that gold could be washed
from the stream gravels in our Western states, they invented clumsy wooden
machinery to help them in their work. This view shows one of these early
machines, which was operated very simply by the turning of a wooden handle
Gold and Silver
The ores of gold and silver are usually found together.
They are commonly associated in the ground with lead,
zinc, and copper. Gold and silver are called precious
metals. They are very valuable, chiefly because of their
beauty.
Most of the gold produced in the United States comes
from the mountain, or plateau, states in the western
part of the country. California, Colorado, and Nevada
each produce large quantities of gold. South Dakota
also ranks high in the production of gold. The gold
mines in South Dakota are in the Black Hills, which
are a part of the Rocky Mountains (Fig. 575).
Since 1900 Alaska has been producing large quanti-
ties of gold each year. Much of this gold is obtained
from stream gravels, just as it was in the early days of
most of the gold-mining
camps (Figs. 573, 574).
At Nome, Alaska, millions
of dollars' worth of gold
have been taken from the
sands and gravels of the
present beach and from old
beach lines that the miners
have found several miles
inland.
The United States does
not lead the world in the
production of gold. South
Africa has first place, and
United States is second.
Montana, Utah, Idaho,
Nevada, and Arizona lead
in the production of silver,
Fig. 575. This map shows the distribution of the chief deposits of gold and
silver in the Cnited States. In which of the natural regions of the United
States are most of these deposits located ? What states are known to con-
tain gold ? What states contain silver ? In what hills are the gold and
silver deposits of South Dakota ?
Fig. 574. To-day placer mining (the name given to the method of obtaining
gold or other ores by washing them from stream gravels) is carried on by
means of dredges operated by electricity. The dredge in this view is dig-
ging out the gold-bearing gravels from the bottom of a river in California
the first place being held by one or another of these
states each year. The United States produces much more
silver than any other nation. Mexico ranks second,
Canada is third, and then comes Peru. The four nations
that lead in the production of silver are in the Western
Hemisphere. The fifth place is held by Japan.
Uses of gold. The chief use of gold is in making
coins, but large quantities are used in the manufacture
of jewelry and ornaments. Gold is a soft metal, and
often a small amount of copper is mixed with it when
they are both in a molten condition. The copper adds
hardness, and the combined metals last much longer
than would the gold alone.
Uses of silver. Silver was formerly very important
in making coins, but now it is much less used for that
purpose. Tableware, jewelry, and many utensils are
made of silver.
Conservation of gold and
silver. The conservation of
these precious metals can
best be accomplished by pre-
venting waste in mining,
by improving methods of
extracting the metals from
the ores, and by using the
metals over and over.
There are good chances
that other discoveries of
valuable ores may be made
and that scientists may in-
vent cheaper ways of treat-
ing the ores, so that in the
future poorer ores may be
mined at a profit.
294
MINERAL RESOURCES
Building Materials other thak Wood ^ost of the granite used in this country (Fig. 577) ; the
In addition to the very valuable metals found in the next largest supply comes from the southern division of
ground, man has discovered other substances that are the Appalachian Highlands in Maryland, North Carolina,
and Georgia. Texas also furnishes
granite.
Granite contains many beautiful
crystals of different shapes and colors.
These crystals formed when the
rock was cooling from a molten
condition below the surface of the
earth. Later, when the covering was
worn away, the granite was left at
the surface where man could make
of it.
perhaps equally useful.
Sands and gravels are so widely
distributed in the United States that
almost every community has a local
supply. These materials are com-
monly used together in building
roads and in making concrete. Sand
is used in making plaster and in the
manufacture of glass, bricks, sand-
paper, and special roofing papers.
When sand is blown by the winds
against wood or stone, it cuts the
surfaces wherever it hits. When
men wish to remove paint from iron
or steel structures, sand is sometimes
blown against the metal surfaces by
compressed air, making an artificial
sand blast which will cut off the paint.
A sand blast is also used in making
ground glass, and sands are placed in
large artificial water filters. It takes
but a few minutes of thought to realize
that these materials are very valuable.
Clays and certain soft rocks that can be crushed to
clays are also widely distributed in this country. Almost
every community has some clay available. The clays
have made possible the manufacture of tile, terra cotta,
Fig. 676. This view shows a great cement block
being lowered into place as a part of the founda-
tion for a wharf. Cement is one of the most
widely used building materials to-day
use
Slate is quarried chiefly in Maine,
Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Maryland, Georgia, and Virginia.
Some slate is produced in Minnesota,
California, and Arkansas. It is a
very useful stone. We may know it
best as a roofing material, but it is
used for billiard-table tops, school
blackboards, school slates, slate pen-
cils, wash tubs, and many other things.
Marble is another very useful stone.
It is used chiefly for ornamental pur-
poses. Vermont produces more marble than any other
state, and yet large quantities of marble are quarried
in Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, Georgia, and
Tennessee. Colorado has a large supply of marble, and
Publishers' Photo Service. Inc.
pottery, washbowls, sinks, doorknobs, many different Texas and California produce some marble each year,
kinds of bricks, and hundreds of other useful articles. The conservation of building materials. The formation
Limestone occurs in almost every
state in the Union. It is a building
stone, a source of lime, and, when
crushed, an excellent material to use
in concrete construction. Certain
limestones are used in making cement
(Fig. 576).
Home work. 1. Find out how concrete
is made. 2. What uses are made of concrete
near your home ? 3. Find out how lime is
obtained from limestone.
Sandstones are used in building,
and some varieties are crushed and
used in making glass. Certain kinds
of bricks are made largely of sand
obtained by crushing sandstone.
Granite that is suitable for build-
ing purposes and as ornamental stone
is found chiefly in the Appalachian
Highlands. New England furnishes
Fig. 677. This is one of the quarries which have
given New Hampshire its name of "The Granite
State." What natural region furnishes most of the
supply of granite in the United States ?
of our building stones and of clays,
sands, and gravels has taken millions
of years. There appears to be an
abundance of these materials in the
United States, and yet it is in the
true spirit of conservation to prevent
their waste or destruction. When
stones have been cut and trimmed,
when clays have been made into
useful articles, and when sand and
gravels have been assorted and
made available for man's use, they
represent a certain investment of
human energy. We should remem-
ber that it is important to conserve
not only raw materials but manu-
factured articles, and the structures
that men have erected should be con-
stantly kept in repair in order to
preserve their usefulness.
WATER
295
Problems and review questions. 1. Name at least five natural
resources that are found in the ground and are not metals. 2. In
what ways are sands used ? 3. What industries are dependent
upon clays ?
4. What building materials other than wood may be used in
regions where there are no firm, hard stones that can be quarried ?
5. What stones are most commonly used for ornamental and
monumental purposes ? 6. What are some of the most common
uses of cement?
Home work. 1. Make a list of the kinds of articles in your
home that are made of clay. 2. What building stones are used
in your home region ? Where do they come from ?
WATER
Water as a natural resource suggests at once the
water supply for our cities and towns ; the ground
waters that nourish plants and enter the common wells
in the country ; streams that furnish power and streams
that may be used for irrigating lands ; navigable rivers,
harbors, lakes, and ice.
Water is absolutely necessary to life. One who has
never visited a dry region may find difficulty in realizing
the importance of water. In arid climates the plants
may be separated five, ten, fifteen feet, or more, and yet
be crowded. They are as near together as the ground
water makes it possible for them to live. Few if any
animals can live in such a region.
The trails in a desert or even a semiarid region may
be found coming together, and one might expect that he
was approaching a settlement, but the trails lead to a
water hole or to a spring. That little water hole or
spring becomes the stopping place for every wild animal
and every man that travels that way across the desert.
The wandering people of the desert meet at such water-
ing places and often camp there overnight. In regions
where water is abundant we fail to realize what a real
luxury it is to those who live where it is scarce (Fig. 578).
Fig. 678. This is a view in the southwestern part of the United States,
where there is so little rainfall that the country is a desert. Notice the
rippled sand dunes which the wind has piled up. Is there any way in
which such a region may be made suitable for the habitation of men?
Fig. 579. The building in the foreground of this view is an electric-power
plant in California. The water from the stream is brought to a point on
the valley bluff and then allowed to run back to the river through the plant.
As it rushes through the building its great force is used to make electricity
Water-power was early used in the establishment of
industries in this country. In those days the mills were
placed near the water-power sites, and the water-power
was used directly to turn the mill wheels. This was
especially true in New England. Then there came a
demand for power at a distance from the water-power
sites, and the steam engine, with cheap coal, was used.
Now, with the modern methods of generating and trans-
mitting electricity, the water-power sites have again
become very valuable (Fig. 579). Those streams that
have falls or rapids in their courses and have a constant
or nearly constant flow throughout the year are most
serviceable in developing water-power.
The uniform distribution of rainfall helps to make the
flow of streams uniform. Lakes, swamps, and marshes
serve as reservoirs and control the supply of water to
certain streams. The Niagara River, with four of the
Great Lakes for reservoirs, has a remarkably even flow
of water throughout the year. If those falls are ever
completely utilized, they should develop from 5,000,000
to 7,000,000 horse-power day and night. Many of the
small lakes in this country serve as natural reservoirs
for power-producing streams. Several states have planned
artificial reservoii-s to help solve the problem of a uniform
flow in the streams that are used for power.
Glaciers and snow fields serve as good reservoirs for
streams. In the Pacific-coast states, where the rain
comes in the winter, the melting of the glaciers and
snowfields supplies the streams in the summer. In
those states the streams descend through the mountain
canyons with many falls and rapids in their courses,
and offer wonderful opportunities for the development
of water-power.
296
WATER
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Fig. 880. This is one of the boats which carry passengers and freight on
the Ohio River. These river boats are built in such a way that they may
be used in shallow water and thus can go far up the streams. How far is
the Ohio River navigable ? Name six navigable rivers in the United States
All the states in the Rocky Mountain region have an
abundance of water-power. There electricity, generated
at water-power plants, is furnished to private homes,
to cities and towns for light and power, to street rail-
ways, and even to one of the great transcontinental
railroads. In many places the mines are lighted with
electricity, and the mills where the ores are crushed
are run by electricity.
Streams may be dammed in numerous places and
on their way to the sea may be used over and over
again to generate power. In the western part of the
country many streams that are used in several places to
generate power are then diverted to irrigate dry lands.
Where the Mississippi River is dammed at Keokuk,
Iowa, the power plant can develop 300,000 horse-power.
Many of the tributaries of the Mississippi River have
hydroelectric (water-electric) plants located along their
courses. Hydroelectric plants have now been built in a
great number of the states.
The possibilities of utilizing the waters in our lakes
and streams in developing water-power are very great.
The tides may some day be used on a large scale to
develop power.
The navigable rivers in this country directed the
migrations of settlers in the early days. They were
the chief highways of travel before railroads were
constructed, and to-day they are an important factor
in inland commerce. The Mississippi River and its
tributaries have about 14,000 miles of navigable waters
(Fig. 580).
Canals have been constructed, and the rivers and har-
bors have been improved. The Barge Canal of New York
cost over one hundred million dollars. It connects
Buffalo with Troy and has several branches (Fig. 581).
The amount of raw material and of manufactured
goods to be transferred increases each year. The rail-
roads have more work than they can do promptly, and
the Great Lakes and navigable streams should be used
to help solve the problems of transportation in the
United States (Fig. 582).
Conservation of water resources. In arid or semiarid
regions the conservation of the water is simply the sav-
ing of the water. When a field is being irrigated, care
should be taken not to use too much water. Overirriga-
tion is a mistake ; the land becomes swampy and may
be ruined. Each farmer should take no more water from
the streams or canals than his fields need. What is left
in the stream or canal when it passes one farm may
then be used by someone living farther downstream or
farther along the route of the irrigation canal.
The canals should be made as nearly as possible water-
tight. Otherwise the water for irrigation will seep
through the walls or banks of the canal and be lost,
or perhaps wash away the canal embankment.
In the regions where there is an abundance of water
the problem of conservation is largely how to make the
most or best use of the water. The individual homes
and the villages, towns, and cities must all be supplied
with water for domestic purposes. The great industrial
plants, the fire departments, and the street-cleaning
departments need large supplies of water.
Where power can be developed from falling water it
is true conservation to use that power. That means the
saving of coal, oil, gas, or wood. Unless we use the
water-power, we lose it. In this case the best conser-
vation means the most complete use of a natural resource.
Photograph bj Gordon P. Gleaaoo
Fig. 581. One of the most important inland waterways in the United States
is the Barge Canal across the state of New York. This view shows one of the
locks in the canal. What lake and what river are connected by this canal ?
What cities are at its eastern and western ends ?
FISHERIES
297
Fig. 582. Many of the passenger vessels in use on the Great Lakes are as
large as ocean liners. This one runs between Buffalo and Cleveland. The
Great Lakes form a wonderful waterway linking the agricultural West
with the industrial Eaat. What are the chief ports on the Great Lakes ?
In Europe water-power is often spoken of as " white
coal," and in many places it has nearly taken the place
of black coal. We may look forward to a greater and
greater use of the water-power in the United States for
generating electricity.
Problems and review questions. 1. What is the source of the
■water that falls on the land ? 2. Some of the rainwater runs off
in streams and some sinks into the ground. What becomes of the
rest ? 3. What are the chief uses of water ? 4. In what ways is
water-power used ?
5. How are lakes helpful in the development of water-power ?
6. What parts of this country are especially fortunate in oppor-
tunities for developing water-power ? 7. Why should our inland
navigable waterways be improved ? 8. Of what value are lakes
except as they serve as reservoirs? 9. Discuss the problem of
the conservation of our water resources.
Home toork, 1. What is the source of drinking water in your
home region ? 2. Find out what an artesian well is. 3. Is electricity
furnished to farming districts in this country ? Where ?
FISHERIES
The best fishing region near the United States is off
the Atlantic coast from Cape Hatteras to Newfound-
land. There the waters are shallow and cool. The
Labrador current brings the cold water southward
along our northeastern coast and helps to make that
one of the three best fishing regions in the world. The
shallow waters northwest of Europe and those northeast
of Asia are the other two regions.
The cod, haddock, halibut, mackerel, and herring are
caught in our northeastern fishing region. The cod is
the most valuable of all our fish supplies. A large
amount is sold to be eaten fresh, but a much larger
quantity is salted. There are many factories in New
England, especially in Massachusetts, where cod are
cleaned, split, dried, and salted. Mackerel are eaten
fresh, and great quantities are salted or canned. The
larger herring are smoked or salted, and the smaller
ones are canned and sold as sardines.
South of Cape Hatteras there is little fishing, for the
Gulf Stream warms the waters near our Atlantic coast,
and the fish that are most in demand as food are not
found in warm waters.
On the Pacific coast from San Francisco northward to
the Yukon River in Alaska are the greatest salmon fish-
eries in the world. During the season when the salmon
are running upstream to spawn, or deposit eggs, milUons
of them are caught each year in the nets, or seines, that
are placed in the rivers for this purpose. Many of the
fish are shipped to be eaten fresh, but at each of the
fishing stations the greater part of the catch is packed
in cans. This is a very busy time at the great fishing
stations. Each day great barges of fish are brought
from the rivers to the canneries. The fish are carefully
cleaned, packed into cans, and cooked. Later each can
is inspected several times, and those that are not per-
fectly air tight are discarded.
The value of the salmon caught in the Alaskan
waters each year is nearly as much as the value of the
gold produced each year in that territory (Fig. 583).
The canned salmon shipped from the United States to
other countries is more valuable than any other of our
fish exports. In 1916 the salmon exported from the
United States brought $15,000,000.
The Great Lakes supply whitefish, lake salmon, lake
trout, bass, and perch (Fig. 584). Many of the ponds and
lakes of this country are well stocked with fish, and among
the mountains the swift, cold streams abound in trout.
Oysters, crabs, clams, and lobsters are really not
fish, but they add to the supply of sea food. They are
called shellfish because of their hard, limy, outer shells.
Fig. 583. These men are Alaskan salmon fishermen. They are unloading
their day's catch of salmon, which will be taken to the cannery close by
and put up in tins for export. What foreign countries buy large quantities
of American salmon ? Why is it necessary to have laws to regulate the
fishing in American waters ?
298
FISHERIES
In the shallow waters that are not very cold, such as Conservation of our fish supplies. Several steps have
exist from Cape Cod southward to Galveston, and in a been taken to conserve our supply of fish. Laws have
few places on the Pacific coast, oysters live and may be been passed that make it illegal to take fish under cer-
raised in abundance. When
packed in ice the fresh
oysters may be shipped far
into the interior of the
country, but each year large
quantities are canned for
shipment. Chesapeake Bay,
Delaware Bay, and Long
Island Sound are important
centers of the oyster busi-
ness (Fig. 585).
Clams bury themselves
in the mud near the shore
and must be dug up at low
tide. Lobsters and crabs are
caught in traps. The traps
are weighted so that they
remain on the bottom. Bait
is placed in each trap, and as the lobsters crawl about
searching for food many of them find their way into the
traps. The lobsters live only in cold waters, and the best
lobster fisheries in this country are on the coast of Maine.
Cralis live in cold or warm waters and may be caught off
the coast from Maine to Texas.
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Fig. 584. Many of the people who live along the shores of the lake in
western Michigan are engaged in the fishing industry. These men are show-
ing some of the largest fish in their day's catch. Behind them, on the big
reels, are their nets. What kinds of fish are caught in the Great Lakes ?
tain sizes from the lakes or
streams. When tmdersized
fish are caught, it is the duty
of the fishermen to throw
them back into the water. A
similar law has been passed
to prevent the taking of
small lobsters from the sea.
There are very strict regu-
lations controlling the catch-
ing of salmon. Nets cannot
be placed all the way across
a stream, and cannot be kept
in the streams continuously
from week to week. Each
day or each week the nets
must be raised or opened
for a certain length of time,
so that some of the fish that are trying to swim upstream
to spawn may succeed. Otherwise no salmon eggs would
be deposited, and the supply of this very valuable fish
would be exhausted in a few years.
The stocking of the streams, lakes, and ponds with
young fish is now being carried on by the national
The whale and seal are not fish, and yet we may government and by many of the state governments,
speak properly of whale fisheries and seal fisheries. In Millions of fish eggs are hatched out, and the young
the waters off the Alaskan coast, especially far north in fish are then shipped to streams and lakes where there
Bering Strait and the Arctic Ocean, whales are captured, has been so much fishing as to make this restocking
and the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea are the center of necessary.
the chief seal fisheries in the world. Seals come to those In certain of the western states it is illegal to sell moun-
islands each year. The young seals are born there, tain trout unless they are raised in a privately owned pond.
and they live on the land until they are large enough This law was passed so that fishermen out for sport would
to swim. Seals are protected by the United States not take more than they wanted to eat while in camp,
government, but each year a certain
number of males are killed for their
skins by a company that pays a
license fee for that privilege. For
years our government could not con-
trol the killing of the seals beyond
three miles from the islands, and
many mothers were shot at sea
while out for fish to feed to their
young. That meant the death of the
young seals also. Now, by a treaty
between the United States, Canada,
and Japan, the killing of the seals
at sea is regulated.
Near the southern end of Florida
sponges and large turtles are secured.
) Kejstone Vii
Fig. 585. This is a mound of oyster shells. The
oystermen put the old shells back into the water
so that the young oysters may attach themselves
to them during their growth
Problems and review questions. 1. What
habits of sea fish help to make it possible
for men to catch large numbers of them ?
2. How many different methods of catching
fish do you know about ? 3. Where are the
three best fishing regions in the world?
4. Why are the fish abundant in these re-
gions? 5. Where are the following taken in
large numbers : cod, salmon, oysters, lob-
sters, and seals ? 6. What means have been
employed to maintain a good supply of fish
and other useful animals in the sea ? 7. Of
what use are the various animals in the sea ?
Home work. 1. What are some of the
regulations in your state regarding fishing ?
2. Why are licenses required in some states ?
3. Read " The Story of a Salmon," by David
Starr Jordan in " Science Sketches."
INDUSTRIES DEPENDENT UPON IMPORTED RAW MATERIALS
299
INDUSTRIES DEPENDENT UPON IMPORTED
RAW MATERIALS
It is a striking fact that few American industries are
absolutely dependent upon i-aw materials from foreign
lands. To be sure, large quantities of raw materials are
imported, and many manufactured articles are brought
from other countries to the United States. Much of this
imported material, especially articles of clothing and
ornaments, are imported to please the fancy of Ameri-
can purchasers. Large quantities of wool and great
cargoes of hides and skins are purchased from foreign
people and brought to this country to supplement oiu*
local supply. We could, however, greatly increase our
local supply of wool, hides, and skins if that were neces-
sary. The two great industries that must have raw
materials from foreign lands are silk manufactming
and the manufacture of rubber goods.
Silk manufacturing. The United States leads the
world in the manufacture of silk. The raw material is
produced chiefly in Japan, China, Italy, and France.
The mulberry tree is grown in those countries, and the
leaves are fed to the silkworms. In each of those coun-
tries there is an abimdance of cheap labor, and therefore
the raw silk is produced at a lower cost than would be
possible in this country (Fig. 586).
The cost of transporting the raw silk to the United
States is very small, and the conditions for manufactur- of silk. In the coal-mining towns of Pennsylvania, es-
ing here are much better than they are in the lands pecially Scranton and Wilkes-Barre, where the men are
where the silkworms are raised. employed in the mines, silk mills have been estab-
Paterson, New Jersey, is one of the leading centers lished. Pennsylvania now leads in the amount of silk
Fig. 587. The manufacture of automobile tires in the United States is
increasing every year, and thousands of men are employed in this industry.
In addition to the rubber, the making of tires requires large quantities of
strong cotton cloth and certain chemical supplies. Which one of these
materials is often obtained from foreign countries ?
In a silk mill there is very little heavy work, and there-
fore a great many women and girls are employed.
New York and Philadelphia are also important centers
of the silk industry.
At Allentown, Pennsylvania, large numbers of men
are employed in cement works, and that leaves a num-
ber of women available for helping in the manufacture
of the silk industry in this country. In that city the
iron works employ the men, but that leaves many of
the wives and daughters free to work in the silk mills.
Oht«f ■Ilk-manitfMTturing
e«at«n
^Chi«f riMita* of axport
8ILKn>B0DUCINa BEGIONS OP THE- WORLD
Fig. 586. Is most of the world's silk produced in thickly or thinly settled countries ? in
cold or warm regions ? Why is so much of the raw silk sent to distant lands to be
manufactured ? Notice that South America, Africa, and Australia neither produce nor
manufacture silk. Why are the chief American centers of silk manufacture in the
eastern part of the United States rather than in the western part ?
manufactured each year.
Silk fibers are now being produced artificially in France,
Germany, Switzerland, England, and the United States.
It is a wonderful invention. Chemists have dis-
covered a way to make a jellylike substance
from cotton or even from sawdust which, when
forced by compressed air through tiny holes
in a glass plate, forms very delicate fibers.
These fibers are so fine that from ten to twenty
must be twisted together to form a single
thread.
The manufacture of rubber goods. The United
States leads the world in the production of
rubber goods and yet must import the neces-
sary crude rubber from distant lands.
The chief producing areas for crude rubber
are Brazil and West Africa, including the
Kongo Basin. In those regions the two largest
tropical forests in the world are located. In
the East Indian islands, in Mexico, and in
Central America there are also tropical forests,
300
INLAND COMMERCE
and crude rubber is pro-
duced in those regions also.
It is made from a milky-
juice obtained from certain
tropical trees.
For many 'years crude
rubber was used only to
make erasers. In 1823
Macintosh invented a way
to mix sulphur with rub-
ber, and the product which
he obtained was used in the
manufacture of waterproof
clothing, boots, and shoes.
In 1842 Goodyear improved
those inventions, and since
then there has been a rapid
increase in the rubber-
manufacturing industry in
this country and in the
countries of western Europe.
Since the invention of rubber tires for bicycles, car-
riages, and automobiles the demand for more rubber
has been enormous. Rubber tubing is used in all civi-
lized lands, and large quantities of rubber are used to
cover electric wires and in the manufacture of many
useful articles.
The increased demand for rubber has led to the devel-
opment of great rubber plantations. It has led also to
the invention by chemists of certain substitutes for
rubber which are coming more and more into use.
It is estimated that the rubber industry in this coun-
try requires each year an amount of crude rubber about
equal to one pound for every man, woman, and child in
the United States.
The manufacture of rubber boots and shoes is centered
in southern New England. New England factories also
produce rubber tires, but the manufacture of rubber
D Pubtiahera' Photo Scrrioe, Inc.
Fig. 588. This is a view in a hemp mill in the United States where strong
ropes and cords are made. In the foreground is the raw hemp. Although
the United States produces some hemp, it is not enough to supply the rope
factories, and a large amount must be imported. From what countries is
hemp obtained ?
tires is now a very large
business, which is carried on
in many different centers.
Akron, Ohio, is one of the
very important producing
centers (Fig. 587).
Problems and review questions.
1. What large industries in the
United States are absolutely
dependent upon raw materials
from foreign lands ? 2. Are they
the only industries for which
raw materials are imported into
the United States ? 3. How is
raw silk produced ?
4. From what countries do we
import large quantities of raw
silk? 5. Why does it not cost
much to produce raw silk in those
countries ? 6. Where are some of
the leading centers for the manu-
facture of silk in this country ?
Why were the silk factories
located in those cities ? 7. What parts of the world are the chief
producers of crude rubber ? 8. Why should the United States
take the lead in the manufacture of rubber goods ? 9. What Ohio
city is especially well known for the production of rubber goods ?
10. What inventions have helped develop the rubber industry ?
Home work. 1. Make a list of all the articles you know of
in which there is rubber. 2. Of what is satin made ?
INLAND COMMERCE
With the increase in population and with the spread-
ing of the people from the Atlantic to the Pacific there
came the necessity for inland commerce. The settlers in
the interior and Far West wished to exchange foodstuffs
and precious metals for articles manufactured in the East
or imported from abroad. The farms of the Central
Plains and the ranches of the Great Plains increased in
number and size, and their total output of grains,
cattle, sheep, horses, mules, and hogs became enormous.
Fig. 589. These lake freighters are being loaded with grain at Superior,
Wisconsin. They anchor close to the great elevator, and the grain runs
down through pipes directly into their holds. These vessels will carry the
grain to the eastern lake ports. Of what will their return cargoes consist ?
Trace the route of these freighters on the map between pages 95 and 98
Fig. 590. This train, drawn by an electric locomotive, is crossing the Conti-
nental Divide on the boundary between Montana and Idaho. This is one
of the railroads which climb the Rocky Mountains, making it possible to
travel without change from the Pacific-coast states to the Central Plains.
Trace the route of this railroad on the map between pages 95 and 98
INLAND COMMERCE
301
Fig. 591. This view shows a muddy, unimproved road over which trans-
portation is slow and costly. As the inland commerce of the United States
has increased, all the states have taken measures to improve the roads in
order that products may be transported quickly and easily. Contrast this
road with the one in Fig. 592
Fig. 692. The road in this view has been improved. Its surface is now
hard and smooth, and wagons and motor trucks may pass over it with
speed and safety. The two traction engines are drawing cars of road-
building materials. Of what advantage is it to the nation to have good
roads in place of bad roads ?
Waterways. At first the waterways were the chief Our neglect may in time be corrected. In the early days
routes for the transportation of freight and the chief
routes of travel. The rivers of the Mississippi system
directed the movements of people and of goods in the
interior of the country. The Great Lakes became im-
portant routes of transportation, and since the opening
of the canals between Lakes Superior and Huron the
traffic on these lakes has been very heavy. More tons
of freight now pass from Lake Superior to ports on
the other Great Lakes than are handled at New York,
London, and Liverpool put together, and that is in spite
of the fact that the canals at the Sault St. Marie are
frozen for a period of three or four months each year.
The Great Lakes will
continue to be an impor-
tant route for the shipment
of copper, iron, and grain
eastward, and of coal west-
ward (Fig. 589). Large
quantities of lumber are
now being carried on the
lake steamers, and that will
continue to be so for some
years to come.
River transportation has
not been promoted or devel-
oped in this country as it
might have been. The coun-
tries in the Central Plain of
Europe make a much greater
use of their rivers as high-
ways than we do of our
rivers in the interior plains.
3 frou IlluftntlDf SnrTlc*. Inc-
Fig. 593. Motor trucks now play a very important part in the inland com-
merce of the United States. The trucks in this view are lined up in front
of a great freight terminal in New York City, waiting to be loaded with
goods for delivery. Of what value are motor trucks to inland commerce ?
of settlement the movement of goods and of people was
chiefly along east-and-west lines. Our foreign trade was,
and continues to be, chiefly with the countries of western
Europe. See Ajjjjendix, Plate B. It was very natural,
therefore, that for a time the rivers flowing toward the
Gulf of Mexico should be largely neglected.
Now the trade of the United States with South Amer-
ica and with all the countries bordering the great Amer-
ican Mediterranean is rapidly increasing. The American
Mediterranean includes the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf
of Mexico. It lies between North and South America.
The opening of the Panama Canal has made the countries
of western South America
and those to the west of the
Pacific Ocean more easily
accessible from the eastern
part of our country. This
should lead also to a greater
use of our inland water-
ways in the Mississippi
River system, so that manu-
factured goods from the in-
terior of our country can go
by way of New Orleans,
rather than by way of New
York, to Central America
and South America. This
use of the rivers should
relieve the railroads of a
great burden of work and
reduce the cost of trans-
porting certain articles.
302
FOREIGN COMMERCE
Fig. 694. To-day all the large cities of the United States are important railroad centers.
Each city has at least one and often several great railroad stations, and a network of
tracks over which passenger and freight trains are arriving and leaving at all hours.
This view shows the new railroad station at Detroit. Name ten great railroad centers in
this country. See map between pages 95 and 98
Railroads. The development of our rich interior and
Western states came just at the time when the American
locomotive was being perfected and during the era of
great railroad construction. It would be very difficult
to say what stage in the settlement and development of
our vast territory we should have reached by this time We have been sending bulky cargoes of cotton, wheat,
FOREIGN COMMERCE
Our foreign trade began in a very simple
way. The planters in Virginia and neigh-
boring colonies shipped their tobacco directly
from their wharves to England and received
in trade manufactured goods. For some time
the colonists in this country looked to the
mother country for manufactured articles.
The settlers in New England had an abun-
dance of timber from which to build ships,
and they had a surplus of lumber and fish.
These natural resources led to the opening of
foreign trade. Vessels left the New England
ports with cargoes of lumber for England and
fish for Spain. They traded their cargoes for
manufactured goods and started for the coast
of Africa. There they took on cargoes of
slaves and sailed westward for the West
Indies. Some of the slaves were left on the
islands of the West Indies in exchange for
sugar and molasses that were brought to
New England and there made into rum.
The sailing vessels took advantage of the ocean cur-
rents and of the prevailing winds on that circuit. When
the steamboat was invented, the traffic east and west
across the north Atlantic increased rapidly, until to-day
it is the route of heaviest ocean traffic in the world.
if no railroads had been constructed. These roads have
made it possible to transport the products of the farms
and ranches quickly, to send ores from the Western mines
to smelters, to bring to markets in the Mississippi Valley
the sheep and cattle from the mountain and plateau
regions, and to ship westward the manufactured goods
from the eastern and central industrial districts. Great
railroads bind together the northern and southern por-
tions of our country, giving to the people living in each
portion the advantage of using products raised or pro-
duced in the other.
The railroads have bound the country together. They
have made it convenient for business men to travel from
one part of the country to another and meet those with
whom they are trading. The railroads have invited
people to travel for pleasure and thus see and appre-
ciate the value of the different parts of our country.
They have made it possible for representatives to come
easily from the most distant parts of the country and
take part in the government of the nation at Wash-
ington. The United States is a large country, but the
American systems of railroads have removed the diffi-
culties that great distances presented and have enabled us
to develop as a strong and united people (Figs. 590, 594).
corn, meat, lumber, and copper over this route to Europe.
We have been receiving less bulky shipments of manu-
factured articles and, in addition, thousands and thou-
sands of emigrants from Em-ope.
We have produced more food than we needed and
have taken in exchange products from European factories.
) PresB Illustrating SerTice, Inc.
Fig. 595. The newest means of transportation in the United States is the
aeroplane. The plane in this picture is a government machine which is
used for carrying mail. At present aeroplanes are not used very generally
for freight or passenger service, but it is believed that in the future they
will be serviceable for this purpose
FOREIGN COMMERCE
303
Fig. 596. Enormous quantities of raw materials from foreign countries
arrive at our seaports every week. Piled up in the foreground of this view
are logs from a species of hardwood tree which grows in the West Indies.
These logs will be sent to a factory where they will be used in the manu-
facture of furniture
Since 1850 there has been a remarkable change in the
foreign trade of the United States. In 1850 about 62 per
cent of our exports were raw, or crude, materials, to be
used in manufacturing, and about 17 per cent were
manufactured products. In 1916 about 12 per cent were
raw materials, and about 62 per cent were manufactured
articles.
Ovur imports in 1850 were about 6 per cent raw mate-
rials and 70 per cent maniifactured articles ; and in 1916
about 43 per cent of our imports were raw materials for
our factories, and about 30 per cent were manufactvu'ed
products.
This change has a very important meaning. We are
not a land to which the crowded nations of Europe may
always look for foods and crude materials for manu-
facture, and we are not a country where the European
nations can always expect to unload their surplus of
manufactured articles.
We shall need the food we produce,
and more; and we shall manufacture
all or most of the articles that we need.
Our demands from foreign lands are
therefore going to be certain foods
and various other raw materials which,
for different reasons, we cannot pro-
duce in this country or which we can
secure more economically from foreign
countries in exchange for our exports
(Figs. 596, 597).
We shall want to import coffee,
sugar, cacao, rice, spices, and bananas ;
and we shall want silk, rubber, Manila hemp, jute, and
a few other fibers. Palm oil and other products from
tropical forests will be imported also. We shall probably
continue to import large quantities of wool and great
numbers of hides and skins.
All this means that in the future we shall look more
to the countries in the tropics, and to sparsely settled
countries such as those in South America, for trade relar
tions. We shall have manufactured goods in excess of
our needs, to send to the new agricultural countries
of South America. The trade may then be expected to
increase more rapidly along north-and-south lines than
along the east-and-west routes across the Atlantic.
We may also look forward with confidence to a great
increase in the trade across the Pacific Ocean. The
people of eastern Asia and of Australia, New. Zealand,
the Philippines, the Hawaiian Islands, and certain of the
smaller islands of the Pacific are sure to want some of
the wonderfully useful articles invented and manufac-
tured in the United States; and in exchange they will
send raw materials, foods, and many articles from their
factories that we enjoy having in our homes.
Problems and review questions. 1. How, in general, does the
westward-moving freight differ from that moving eastward in
this country? 2. What inland waterways are now much used?
3. What ones oiler great opportunities for future development
and usefulness ?
4. What reasons are there for expecting the Mississippi River
system to come into gi'eater use in the transfer of freight? 5. In
what ways have the railroads helped in the development of the
United States ?
6. With what countries is most of our foreign ti-ade now ? How
may this be explained ? 7. How has our foreign trade changed
in the last seventy years ? Why ? 8. Why do we now expect to
increase our trade with South American countries and countries
across the Pacific ? 9. What kinds of articles shall we probably
always want to import ? From what countries can we get them ?
Home work. 1. What parts of this country and what foreign lands
are represented by the food used in your home ? 2. What articles
have you seen that were manufactured in a foreign country?
Fig. 597. This ship is in dock at Charleston, South Carolina. It has come from the west coast of
South America by way of the Panama Canal. On its way north it stopped at Limon, Costa Rica.
What products has it brought to Charleston ? Now it is being loaded for a trip to Europe. What
will its cargo be ? What things will it bring back from Europe ?
304 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
SUMMAEY AND CONCLUSION A remarkable development of industries and com-
The first colonists who settled on the Atlantic coast merce followed. We needed more raw material. Certain
of North America came from the countries of western manufacturing plants required material grown only in
Europe. Most of them were English, although there the tropics. Foreign commerce became more and more
were many Dutch, some French, some Swedes, and important, and foreign travel became more and more
some Spanish. common. In time, and in a most natural way, we came
They came for greater freedom. Some wanted greater to have a real interest in almost all parts of the world,
religious freedom; others wanted greater opportunities We should appreciate but not boast of the fact that
to develop estates of their own ; many wanted greater we are now the wealthiest nation in the world. That
political freedom. great wealth has brought with it a great responsibility.
These people were fortunate in settling in a land in We must help other people and do more good in the
the north temperate zone, with a climate that was suit- world than any other nation. Our great natural resources
able for active lives. The temperature was not too cold have made it possible for us to become the leading manu-
or too warm for men to work in ; the rainfall was not facturing nation. We must now supply manufactured
too little or too much, but just about right for agricul- goods to distant lands and especially to people in newly
ture ; the changes from day to day and from month to settled parts of the earth and in parts where coal and iron
month gave variety to the weather and kept the set- are scarce. Our farming implements and our machinery
tiers active and energetic. The change from summer should go to other lands to help other people to gain
to winter compelled the settlers to use foresight. They prosperity in the development of their resources,
found it necessary to look ahead and provide food, The people came to this new country with a willing-
clothing, shelter, and fuel. ness to work hard, to put up with some difficult condi-
The Appalachian Highlands helped for some time to tions, and to work together so that a new country might
keep these early settlers near the Atlantic coast. Here be established, with greater freedom for the inhabitants,
they had many interests in common and soon developed Many of those who came to the New World were people
a strong and independent nation. with enthusiasm and with high ideals and great powers
As time passed, these people found that they were in of imagination. They saw here the possibilities of devel-
a country of vast natural resources. The fishing grounds, oping a great nation of free people. The descendants of
the harbors, the soils, and the timber and other building those people have grown up in an atmosphere of free-
materials encouraged the colonists to establish perma- dom. A great system of public schools has been devel-
nent homes and to engage in foreign commerce. oped, and in those schools all children have learned the
Little by little the settlers pushed farther and farther history of the founding of this nation, the ideals of the
west. After crossing the Appalachian Mountains they early colonists, and about the people who have been
followed the navigable rivers or the shores of the Great the leaders from time to time as the nation has grown.
Lakes. The rich farm lands of the great interior of this In time we came into possession of foreign lands. We
country were largely brought under cultivation. In time assumed new responsibilities in caring for those lands
the farming and grazing lands between the Missouri and in governing, or helping to govern, other people.
River and the Rocky Mountains were settled. Many In the World War of 1914-1918 we took an important
prospectors went far west and explored the mountain part in order that peace might be made secure in this
and plateau regions until all the land in the United world and that other peoples might enjoy freedom.
States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, came to bo known. We now have a great responsibility, with other nations,
Discoveries of coal, oil, and gas, and of iron, copper, — to help maintain peace and freedom in the world. To
gold, silver, lead, zinc, and numerous other minerals meet these responsibilities we must maintain order and
were made, and as a result mining and manufacturing prosperity in this country. We must conserve the great
have been developed on a large scale. natm-al resources and work together in the friendliest
The wonderful prosperity of those living in this country spirit to produce food and the raw materials used in the
led millions of other people to come here. Immigrants making of clothing and in the building of houses. We
came from nearly every country in the world. Each of must, however, do much more than merely support life ;
the larger nations of Europe is represented in the popu- we must aim to promote the higher and better education
lation of the United States. Most of the nations of Asia of all people, to promote the fine arts of music, painting,
also are represented. Negroes from Africa were brought and sculpture, and in every way possible to make tlie
here, and natives from many of the islands of the Pacific social conditions in the community where we live, and
Ocean have found their way to this country. in the whole world, more pleasant.
REFERENCE BOOKS
The names of the following publishing houses are abbreviated as below :
Amerioan B<M>k Company, New York (A. B.C.) ; American Geographical Society,
New York (Am. G. S.) ; D. Appleton and Company, New York (Appleton) ; Asia
Publishing Company, New York (Asia) : .\dam and Charles Black, London (A.&C.
Black) ; The Century Company, New York (Cent.) ; Do<id, Mead and Company,
New York (I)odd) ; E. P. Dutton and Company, New York (Dutton) ; Educational
Publishing Company, Boston (Ed. Pub.) ; A. Flanagan Company, C^hioago (Flana-
gan) ; (linn and Company, Boston (Ginn) ; Harjier and Brothers, New York
(Harpers) ; D. C. Heath & Co., Boston (Heath) ; Henry Holt and Company, New
York (Holt) ; HougliUm Mifflin Company, Boston (H. M.) ; Orange Judd Com-
pany, New York (Judd) ; J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia (Lip.) ; Long-
mans, Green & Co., New York (Longmans) ; The Macmillan Company, New York
(Mac.) : National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. (N. G. S.) ; Oxford Uni-
versity Pres-s, London, England (Oxford) ; Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and
Company, London (Kegan Paul) ; Rand McNally & Company, Chicago (Rand) ;
Fleming H. Revell Company, New York (Revell) ; Royal Geographical Society,
London (R.G.S.); Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Edinburgh (R.S.G.S.);
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York (Scrib.) ; Silver, Burdett & Company, New
York (Burdett) ; Frederick .\. Stokes Company, New York (Stokes).
Standard Books of Reference. * Brigham, A. P., Commercial Geography
(Ginn) ; Chisholm, G. G., Handbook of Commercial Gieography (Long-
man.s) ; Curk, A. L., Commercial Geography — An Intermediate Text-
Book (A.&C. Black) ; Encyclopaedia Britannica (Cambridge University
Press); * Grkgoky, Keller, and Bishop, Physical and Commercial
Geography (Ginn) ; Herbertson, F. L. D., The Clarendon Geography
(The Clarendon Press, Oxford) ; McFarlane, J., Economic Geography
(Mac); Mill, II. R., The International Geography (Ai>pleton) ; Salis-
bury, K. D., Physiography (Holt) ; Salisbury, Barrows, and Tower,
Modern Geography (Holt); Semple, E. C, Influences of Geographic
Environment (Holt); Smith, R. J., Industrial and Commercial Geog-
rapliy (Holt); Staneord, E., Compendium of Geography — North Amer-
ica, Central and South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Au.stralia (Edward
Stanford, London) ; The Statesman's Year Book, an annual (Mac).
Standard Atlases and Charts. Bartholomew, J.G., An Atlas of Eco-
nomic (ieography (Oxford); The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia,
Vol. X, Atlas (Cent.) ; (ieography of the World's Agriculture (Dept. of
Agriculture); Siiepherw, W. R., Historical Atlas (Holt); United
States Geological Survey Maps (Address : The Director, United States
Geological Survey, Washington, D. C); Vidal-Lablache, P., Atlas
G6n6ral (.\. Colin).
Standard Magazines. Aula — Journal of the American Asiatic
Assuciation (.\sia) ; (ieoi/raphicalJimrnal (R. G. S.) ; Geof/raphical Review
(Am.G. S.); Journal of Geograpk;) (Am. G. S.); National Geographic
Ma</a:infi (N. G. S.) ; Sriitli.ih Geographic Magazine (R. S. G. S.).
Government Publications. Department of Agriculture: (1) Yearbook
of the Department of Agriculture; (2^ Daily Weather Map, Washington,
D. C, Edition (Address : The Editor in Chief, Divi.sion of Publications,
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C). Bureau of the Census :
(1) Reports and bulletins of the census (Address: The Director, Bureau
of the Census, WasWngton, D. C.) ; (2) United States Geological Survey
bulletins and maps (.\ddre.ss: The Director, United States Geological
Survey, Washington, D. C).
North America. Brioiiam, A. P., Geographic Influences in American
History ((iinn); • Carpenter, F. G., (Jeograjihical Readers — North
America (A. B.C.); •Herbertson, F.D. and A. J., Descriptive (Jeog-
raphies — North America (A. & C. Black) ; • Rocheleai', W. F., The
(ieography of Commerce and Industry (Ed. Pub.); Skmplk, E. C,
American History and its Geographic Conditions (H.M.)
The United States. • Allen, N. B., (Jeographical and Industrial
Studies — United .States ((Jinn); • Dondlinokk, P. T., The Book of
* Book! starred are suitable for the UM of the pnpil.
Wheat (Judd); * Fairbanks, H. W., The Western United States
(Heath) ; * Fisher, E. F., Resources and Industries of the United States
(Ginn) ; Gannett, H., United Statics (in Stanford's Compendium) ;
McMuRRY, C. A., Tyjie Studies from the Geography of the United
States (Mac); Shaler, N. S., The Story of Our Continent ((iinn);
Smith, R. J., The Story of Iron and Steel (Appleton); Tower, W. 8.,
The Story of Oil (Appleton) ; Van Hise, C. R., Resources of the United
States and their Con.servation (Mac).
Possessions of The United States. Bkooks, A. II., Geography of
Alaska (Professional PajX'r 4i5, United States Geological Survey);
* George, M. M., Little Journeys to Alaska and Canada (Flanagan);
* George, M.M., Little Journeys to Hawaii ar.d the Philippines (Flan-
agan) ; • (ireater America (Perry Mason Company) ; * Knapp, A., The
World and its People — Book XI, The Story of the Philippines
(Burdett); IMacC'lintock, S., The Philippines (A. B.C.).
Other (k>untries of North America. • Bishop, F., Panama, Past and
Present (Cent.) ; The Canada Year Book, an annual ; Enock, C. R,
Mexico (Scrib.) ; Koebel, W. H., Central America (Scrib.).
South America. *Allen, N.B., South America (Ginn); Bowman, I.,
South America (Rand); Bryce, J., South America (Mac); Bi'Ley,
E. C, Brazil (Appleton) ; * Carpenter, F. G., South America (A. B. C.) ;
Enock, C. R., Ecuador (Scrib.) ; Enoik, C. R., Peru (Scrib.) ; • Her-
bertson, F. D. and A. J., Central and South America (A. & C. Black) ;
Koebel, W. II., Paraguay (Scrib.) ; Koebel, AV. II., Uruguay (Scrib.) ;
Mart/nez and Lewandowski, The Argentine in the Twentieth Cen-
tury (Scrib.); Scott Elliott, G. F., Chile (Scrib.).
Europe. * Allen, N.B.,The New Eurojie (Ginn); *CARPENTER,F.(i.,
Euroj)e (A.B.C.); *Ciiamberlain, J. F., The Continents and their Peo-
ple— Euroj* (Mac.) ; • Herbertson, F. D. and A. J., Eurojie (A. & C.
Black) ; Lyde, L. W., Tlie Continent of Eiiroj* (Mac.) ; Mackini>er,
II. J., Britain and the British Seas (Appleton) ; Partsch, J., Central
Euroi)e (Appleton).
Africa. * Carpenter, F. G., Africa (A. B.C.); • Dr Chaii.h-, P.,
Adventures in tlie Great Forest of Equatorial Africa (Scrib.) ; • Her-
bertson, F. D. and A. J., Africa (A. & C. Bhu'k).
Asia. * Allen, N. B., Asia (Ginn); •Carpenter, F. (i., Asia
(A. B.C.); * Chamberlain, J. F., Asia (Mac); •Finnemore, J., Homes
of Many Lands — India (A. &C. Black); • Herbertson, F. D. and A. J.,
Asia (A. & C. Black) ; Hogarth, D. (}., The Nearer East (Appleton) ;
HoLDiCH, T., India (Appleton); •Hi-ntington, E., Asia (Rand);
Little, A., The Far Ea.st (Appleton); 'Lyde, L. W., A Geography
of Asia (Mac;.); • Redway, J. W., All Aniund Asia (Sorib.).
Australia. • Carpenter, F. G., Au.stralia, Our Colonies and Islands
of the Sea (A. B. C.) ; • Fox, F., Australia (A. & C. Black) ; • Gilson,
J. C, Wealth of tlie World's Waste Places and Oceania (Scrib.) ;
•Herbertson, F. D. and A. J., .\ustralia and Oceania (A. & C. Black);
•Kellogg, E. M., The World and its People — Book VIII, Australia
and the Islaiuls of the Sea (Burdett).
Polar Regions. •Horton, The Frozen North (Heath); •Hutton,
S. K., Among tlie Eskimos of Labrador (Lip.); MacMillan, D. B., Four
Years in the Whitt^ North (Harpers); Peary, R. E., The North Pole
(Stokes); • Rasml'ssen, K.,The People of the Polar North (Kegan Paul);
•ScHWATKA, F., The Children of the Cold (Ed. Pub.); StekAnsson,
v.. My Life with the Eskimo (Mac).
World (jCOgraphy. • Herbertson, F. D. and A. J., Man and his AVork
(A. & C. Black); Herbertson, F. D. and A. J., World (ieography (The
Clarendon Press, Oxford) ; * Lyde, L. W., Man and his Markets (Mac).
A 160°
C Loni. 120° WeM D from 100° G^en E
>r^
60
N T A B
C T I C .
ANTAACTIC CtnCLE
O C E
A N
.?^^S.TtEfaRA D£L FUEGU
Cape Horn/
\
./
V--'"
THE WORLD
MAP SHOWING
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATIONS
Mercator's Projection
Scales alone the Equator
°f° "^ Statute miles
soo 1000 laoo
-SS°° Nautical miles
?y Kilometers
A 160°
140°
120°
100°
80° i^W F l*"*"' 60° Z™™ G Green. 40°
20°
Plate A
®Ginn and Comiiany
IV
APPENDIX
el bourn ey
WHEAT- PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD
With dates of harrest.and export routes
HEIGHTS OF PEINCIPAL MOUNTAINS
NORTH AMERICA
Most of the wheat of the world is grown in temperate climates where the rainfall is not
more than 30 inches. What countries seem to be of world importance in the production
of wheat ? What countries seem to produce more wheat than they need ? During what
months is wheat harvested in the different parts of the world ?
CATTLE-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD
With routes of exporting beef
The three countries that lead in the production of cattle are India, the United States, and
Argentina. Although India ranks first in number, the cattle in that country are used very
little for meat or milk but mostly as beasts of burden. Which of the cattle-raising coun-
tries are exporters of beef to other parts of the world ?
Name
Mt. McKinley
Mt. Logan .
Mt. Orizaba .
Mt. St. Elias
Mt. Popocatepetl .
Mt. Iztaccihuatl
Mt. Whitney . .
Mt. Kainier (Tacoma
Longs Peak .
Mt. Shasta .
Pikes Peak .
Mt. Holy Cross
Lassen Peak
Mt. Washington
Mt. Marcy . .
Location
Alaska .
Canada .
Mexico .
Canada .
Mexico .
Mexico .
California
Washington
Colorado
California
Colorado
Colorado
Oregon .
New Hampshire
New York . .
Mt. Aconcagua .
Mt. lUimani
Mt. Chimborazo
Mt. Cotopaxi .
Mt. Misti . . .
Mt. Tolima . .
Mt. Itatiaya . .
Mt. Roraima .
Mt. Elbruz
Mt. Blanc
Monte Rosa
Mt. Etna .
Ben Nevis
Mt. Vesuvius
Mt. Everest . .
Mt. Kanchanjanga
Mt. Dapsang
Mt. Demavend
Mt. Ararat .
Mt. Hermon .
Mt. Sinai . .
SOUTH AMERICA
. Argentina
. Bolivia .
. Ecuador .
. Ecuador .
. Peru . .
. Colombia
. Brazil
. Venezuela
EUROPE
Transcaucasia
France .
Italy . .
Sicily .
Scotland
Italy . .
ASIA
India . . .
India . .
Tibet . .
Persia . .
Transcaucasia
Palestine
Sinai Pen .
Height
IK Feet
20,300
19,540
18,242
18,000
17,782
17,343
14,501
14,408
14,255
14,162
14,110
13,978
10,465
6,293
5,844
22,812
21,188
20,702
19,498
19,200
18,432
8,898
8,635
18,525
15,780
15,215
10,742
4,406
4,260
29,003
28,146
26,477
18,603
16,925
9,052
8,593
WOOL-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD
With dates of clippins^and export routes
JROPIC 0F_
-•"^O; K-Jff Sy d ney
We)fington
The three countries that lead in the production of wool are Australia, Argentina, and the
United States. What countries are the chief exporters of wool ? Where is the wool used ?
Compare the months in which sheep are clipped in the northern hemisphere with the months
of clipping in the southern hemisphere. At what season are sheep clipped all over the world ?
Mt. Kilimanjaro
Mt. Kenia . .
Mt. Tenerife
Mt. Miltsin . .
AFRICA
. East Africa
. East Africa
. Canary Islands
. Morocco . . .
AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA
Mauna Loa Hawaiian Islands
Mt. Kosciusko .... Australia . . .
Kilauea Hawaiian Islands
19,718
18,373
12,172
11,400
13,675
7,328
4,039
PEINCIPAL RIVERS
NORTH AMERICA
Length Basin Area in
Name in Miles ' Square Miles'
Missouri-Mississippi . 4,200 1,250,000
Mackenzie .... 2,400 440,000
Yukon 2,050 440,000
St. Lawrence ... 2,000 350,000
> Estimated
APPENDIX
NORTH AMERICA (Continued)
Name
Nelson . •
Rio Grande
Columbia .
Lenutii
IN Miles
Basin Akea in
Square Miles
1,800 355,000
1,800 180,000
1,400 250,000
Colorado 1,100.
SOUTH AMERICA
Amazon 4,000 . . .
ParaniS-Plata . . . . 2,300. . .
Sao Francisco . . . 1,680.
Orinoco 1,500. . .
250,000
2,500,000
1,250,000
190,000
300,000
EUROPE
Volga, 2,300 500,000
Danube 2,000 300,000
bniejier 1,230 175,000
Rhine 960 65,000
Dvina 700.
Elbe 550.
Sa6nerUh6ne . . . 550.
Seine 497.
Thames 215.
ASIA
Yangtze 3,300.
Hwang 2,700.
Lena 2,550.
Ob 2,500.
Brahmaputra' . . . 2,000.
Indus 2,000.
Ganges ..... 1,800 .
Amur 1,500.
140,000
42,000
33,000
23,000
6,000
500,000
540,000
600,000
920,000
425,000
320,000
450,000
600,000
AFRICA
Nile 4,000 1,400,000
Niger 3,500 600,000
Kongo 3,300 1,500,000
Zambezi 1,800 440,000
NATIONAL PARKS — UNITED STATES
National Parks
Hot Springs, 1832 .
Yellowstone, 1872 .
Sequoia, 1890 . .
Yosemite, 1890 . .
General Grant, 1890
Mt. Rainier, 1899 .
Crater Lake, 1902
Wind Cave, 1903 .
Piatt, 1904 . . .
Sullys Hill, 1904 .
Mesa Verde, 1900 .
Glacier, 1910 . .
Rocky Mountain, 1015
Hawaii, 1916 . .
Lassen Volcanic, 1910
Mt. McKinley, 1917
Grand Canyon, 1910
Lafayette, 1919 .
Location
Middle Arkansas . . .
Northwestern Wyoming
Middle eastern California
Middle eastern California
Middle eastern California
West central Washington
Southwest<;rn Oregon .
South Dakota . . .
Southern Oklahoma .
North Dakota . . .
Southwestern Colorado
Northwestern Montana
North middle Colorado
Hawaiian Islands . .
Northern California .
South central Alaska .
North central Arizona
Maine coast ....
Square Miles
n
3,348
252
1,125
4
324
249
17
77
1,.')34
398
118
124
2,200
058
8
AREA OF OCEANS
Pacific .
Atlantic .
Indian .
Square Miles
65,688,000
38,640,000
25,500,000
Antarctic
Arctic .
Square Miles
9,000,000
. 4,636,000
COTTON-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD
With dates of pickinK.and export routes
The United States produces about three fifths of the world's cotten. India and Egypt are
also important cotton-raising countries. Egypt produces an especially fine quality of long-
fibered cotton. The United Kingdom imports more cotton thaff any other country. During
what months is most of the cotton-picking done ? What countries are exporters of cotton ?
What are the chief ports of coUoiV^xport ?
COAL-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD
Is there any continent without some coal ? What continent seems to have the largest
supply of coal ? What one seems to have the least coal ? The United States and Great
Britain are the two leading coal-producing countries of the world. The amount of coal
used per person is larger in the United States than in any other country
IRON-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD
Iron is a very widely distributed mineral resource. Is there any continent where iron has
not been discovered ? The production of iron in the United States is greater than in any
other country in the world. The iron deposits in southern Brazil are very great, but as
yet they have not been extensively mined. What countries produce both iron and coal ?
I
A 160° B
100° Lona E t'Mde 80° West F from 60° Green G wich 40° H
THE WORLD
MAP SHOWING
GREAT TRADE ROUTES
Mercator'8 Projection
P BO
V^ t^ ^M:
Scales alons the Equator
600 lOOO 1600
' Nautical mil«
0 600 lOOO 20OO 3000
Kilometeij
A 160°
120°
100° Long E ilude 80° West F from 60° Green G tuich 40°
20°
K 20
Plate B
0° Long H itude 80° Ea$t 0 from 100° Green P wieh 120'
) Ginn and Coinpuiiy
VUl
APPENDIX
THE UNITED STATES
Area in Popplatton
NAMES OF Square Estimateu,
S'lATEs Miles 1919
Alabama 51,998 2,426,602
Arizona 113,950 280,280
Arkansas 53,335 1,819,587
California 158,297 3,209,792
Colorado 103,948 1,040,842
Connecticut .... 4,965 1,307,103
Delaware 2,370 218,722
District of Columbia . 70 ' 379,886
Florida . . . . . . 58,666 . 961,569
Georgia . ■. . . . . 59,265 2,975,394
Idaho . . . . . . 83,888 478,356
Illinois 56,665 6,400,473
Indiana 36,354 2,872,842
Iowa ....... 56,147 2,224,771
Kansas , . ' . . . . 82,158 1,890,520
Kentucky 40,598 2,423,001
Louisiana 48,500 1,912,603
Maine 33,040 , 787,042
Maryland 12,327 1,395,405
Massachusetts . . . 8,200 3,889,007
Michigan 57,980 3,173,089
Minnesota 84,682 2,378,128
Mississippi 46,865 2,026,361
Missouri. ..... 69,420 3,467,401
Montana .... . 140,997 499,810
Nebraska 77,520 1,309,027
Nevada 110,090 118,745
New Hampshire ... 9,341 448,274
New Jersey .... 8,224 3,140,547
New Mexico . . . - . 122,034 450,381
New York 49,204 10,833,795
North Carolina . . . 52,420 2,497,008
North Dakota .... 70,837 817,554
Ohio • . 41,040 5,335,.543
Oklahoma 70,057 2,405,402
Oregon 90,099 914,493
Pennsylvania .... 45,120 8,936,091
Rhode Island .... 1,248 648,964
South Carolina . . . 30,989 1,678,664
South Dakota .... 77,615 753,897
Tennessee 42,022 2,337,879
Texas 265,896 4,687,136
Utah 84,990 463,431
Vermont 9,504 307,439
Virginia 42,627 2,255,036
Washington .... 69,127 1,723,757
West Virginia . . . 24,170 1,465,729
Wisconsin 50,060 2,580,800
Wyoming 97,914 195,791
PRINCIPAL COUNTEIES
AND COLONIES
NORTH AMERICA 10,050,000 143,000,000
VEAB AREA POPl'LATIO.N
1918 Bahama Islands . 4,404 59,928*
1917 Bermuda I-slands . 19 21,029
1917 British Honduras . 8,598 42,732*
1918 Canada . . 3,729,065 8,593,000*
1917 Co.sta Rica . . . 23,000* 454,995*
1916 Cuba 44,215 2,627,530
1913 Dominican Republic 18,045* 708,000*
1911 Greenland . . . 40,740 13,449
1915 Guatemala . . . 48,290* 2,003,579*
• Estimated,
YEAR
1912
1910
1911
1912
1917
1917
1917
1917
1919
Haiti (republic)
Honduras
Jamaica .
Mexico
Newfoundland
Nicaragua
Panama
Salvador .
United States I
South America
1918
1915
1917
1917
1917
1912
1918
1915
1911
1917
1908
1917
1917
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil .
British Guiana
Chile . . .
Colombia .
Dutch Guiana
Ecuador .
French Guiana
Paraguay .
Peru ...
Uruguay .
Venezuela
AREA
10,204*
44,275*
4,431
707,198
42,734
49,2005
32,380
7,225
„,026,789i
7,S00,000
1,153,119
. 514,155
3,290,564*
. 89,480
. 289,829
. 440,840*
. 40,000
. 110,000*
. 32,000*
. 165,000*
. 722,461
. 72,153
. 398,594*
POPULATION
2,500,000*
613,758*
831,383
15,501,684*
252,464
800,000*
. 401,554*
1,287,722*
100,871,294*1
59,000,000
8,284,200*
2,889,970*
27,473,579*
313,999*
3,870,002
5,071,101
92,284
2,000,000*
49,009
1,000,000*
4,500,000*
1,407,247*
2,250^000
EUROPE
3,900,000 470,000,000
1918
1919
1919
1917
1919
1910
1011
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
1919
1917
1911
1919
1919
1919
1919
1910
1917
1910
1919
1911
1919
1919
1911
1916
1917
1915
1913
1919
1911
Albania .
Austria
Belgium .
Bulgaria .
Czechoslovali
Denmark .
England .
Esthonia .
Finland
France
Germany .
Greece
Hungary .
Iceland
Ireland
Italy . .
Jugoslavia
Latvia .
Lithuania
Luxemburg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal .
Rumania .
Russia .
Scotland .
Spain .
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey(in E
Ukraine
Wales .
. 10,900
. 30,000*
. 11,755
. 47,750*
. 50,000*
. 17,000*
. 50,874
. 17,500*
. 125,689
. 212,659
. 175,000*
. 51,000*
. 46,000*
. 39,709
. 32,586
. 124,000*
. 100,000*
. 24,700*
. 46,000*
. . 998 '
. 13,196
. 124,642
. 135,367*
. 35,490
. 110,000*
1,300,000*
. 30,405
. 194,783
. 173,035
. 15,976
urope) 10,882
300,000*
7,466
Alaska ....
Guam ....
Hawaii ....
Panama Canal Zone
Philippine Islands
Porto Rico .
Samoa ....
Virgin Islands .
900,000*
6,500,000*
7,593,864
5,517,700*
13,000,000*
3,000,000*
34,045,290
1,750,000*
3,300,000*
41,470,272*
50,000,000*
7,000,000*
11,000,000*
92,000*
4,390,219
38,000,000*
13,000,000*
2,000,000*
0,000,000*
259,891
0,724,003
2,391,782
36,234,727*
5,957,985
15,000,000*
05,000,000*
4,700,904
20,747,893*
5,800,847*
3,880,500*
1,891,000
35,000,000*
2,025,202
> Exclusive of outlying possessions.
AREA POPULATION
ASIA 16,000,000
YEAK AKEA
1911 Aden ... 75
1919 Afghanistan . 250,000*
1913 Arabia . . . 1,200,000*
1919 Armenia . . 80,000*
1911 Baluchistan. . 134,038
1918 Bhutan '. . . 20,000*
1918 Bokhara . . . 83,000
1917 Ceylon . ;. . 25,481
1914 China ... . 3,913,500
1917 Chosen (Korea) 84,738
1917 Dutch E. Indies 735,000
1919 Hejaz ., . ' , . 96,500*
1917 India . . . 1,802,629
1914 Indo-China . . 256,000
1917 Japan ... 148,756
1917 Java (also under
Dutch E; Indies) 50,557
1918 Khiva
1913 Mesopotamia
1918 Nepal . . .
1919 Oman . . .
1913 Palestine .
1918 Persia . .
1918 Siam . . .
1915 Siberia .
24,000
. 143,250
. 54,000
. 82,000*
. 10,000*
. 628,000
. 195,000
.4,831,882
690,884
210
. 6,449
442
115,026
. 3,435
77
132
64,912
14,142
219,580
23,295
8,925,812
1,231,880
7X>M)
26,051
1918 Syria .... 37,000*
1915 Transcaspia . 235,120
1916 Turkey (in Asia) 699,342
AFRICA 12,170,000
1918 Abyssinia . . 350,000
1912 Algeria . . . '343,500
1914 Angola . . . 484,800
1910 Belgian Kongo 909,654
1918 Br. East Africa 246,822
1917 Egypt . . . 350,000
1915 Fr. Equat. Africa 609,000*
1917 Fr. West Africa
1,745,000*
1913 Former German
Possessions . 931,210
1918 Liberia . . . 40,000*
1911 Libia .... 400,000*
1917 Madagascar . 228,000
1918 Morocco . . . 231,500*
1918 Mozambique . 428,132 .
1918 Nigeria . . . 336,000*
1918 Rhodesia . . 440,000
1918 Somaliland (I tal.) 139,430
1917 Sudan (Br.) . 1,014,400*
1913 Tunis . . . 50,000*
1911 Union of South
Africa . . . 473,075
AUSTRALIA AND NEW
ZEALAND 3,000,000
1918 New Guinea (Br.) 157,786
1918 NewSouth Wales 309,432
1918 New Zealand . 103,581
1918 Northern Territory
523,620
1918 Queensland . .
1918 South Australia
1918 Tasmania . .
1918 Victoria . . .
670,500
380,070
20,215
87,884
1918 Western Australia 975,920
860,000,000'
POPULATION
46,165
6,000,000
3,500,000*
3,000,000*
834,703
250,000*
1,250,000
4,632,400*
325,000,000
16,913,224
47,000,000*
. -800,000*
315,156,000
16,990,229 .
56,550^348*
34,157,383*
640,000*
2,000,000
5,000,000
500,000*-
500,000*
9,500,000*-
8,827,000*
10,377,901
1,000,000*
552,500
19,382,000
130,000,000
8,000,000
5,563,828
4,119,000
15,500,000
2,807,000*-
12,710,120*-
9,000,000*-
12,206,889
11,404,023
2,000,000*
523,176
3,545,264*
6,000,000*
3,011,600*
17,500,000*
1,689,065*
450,000*
3,400,000*
1,953,000*
5,973,394
5,000,000
451,274
1,897,084*
1,106,677*
5,043*
705,588*
439,275*
202,842*
1,416,982*
311,121*
ANTARCTICA
5,000,000
APPENDIX
IX
CITIES AKD TOWNS OF THE UNITED STATES HAVING A POPULATION OF OVER 25,000 IN 1917
Akron, O. . . .
Alameda, Calif. .
Albany, N.Y. . .
AUentown, Pa.
Altoona, Pa. . .
Amsterdam, N.Y.
Asheville, N.C. .
Atlanta, Ga. . .
Atlantic City, N.J.
Auburn, N.Y. . .
Augusta, Ga. . .
Aurora, 111. . .
Austin, Tex. . .
Baltimore, Md.
Bangor, Me. . .
Battle Creek, Mich.
Bay City, Mich. .
Bayonne, N.J.
Beaumont, Tex. .
Bellingham, Wash.
Berkeley, Calif. .
Binghamton, N.Y.
Birmingham, Ala.
Blooming^n, 111.
Boise, Ida. . . .
Boston, Mass. . .
Bridgeport, Conn.
Brockton, Mass. .
Brookline, Mass. .
Buffalo, N.Y. . .
Burlington, la.
Butler, Pa. . . .
Butte, Mont. . .
Cambridge, Mass.
Camden, N.J.
Canton, O. . . .
Cedar Rapids, la.
Central Falls, R.I.
Charleston, S. C. .
Charleston, W.Va.
Charlotte, N.C. .
Chattanooga, Tenn.
Chelsea, Mass.
Chester, Pa. . .
Chicago, 111. . .
Chicopee, Mass. .
Cincinnati, O. . .
Cleveland, O. . .
Clinton, la. . .
Cohoes, N.Y. . .
Colorado Springs,
Columbia, S. C.
Columbus, Ga.
Columbus, O. .
Council Bluffs, la.
Covington, Ky.
Cranston, R.I.
Cumberland, Md.
Dallas, Tex. .
Danville, 111. .
Davenjxjrt, la.
Dayton, O. . .
Decatur, 111.
Denver, Colo. .
Deg Moines, la.
Detroit, Mich.
Dubuque, la. .
Duluth, Minn.
Colo,
93,604 Durham, N.C. .
28,433 East Chicago, Ind.
106,032 Easton, Pa. . .
65,109 East Orange, N.J.
59,712 East St. Louis, 111.
38,043 Elgin, 111. . . .
23,650 Elizabeth, N.J. .
196,144 Elmira, N.Y. . .
59,515 El Paso, Tex. . .
37,823 Erie, Pa. ...
50,642 Evanston, 111. . .
34,795 Evansville, Ind. .
35,612 Everett, Mass. . . .
594,637 Everett, Wash. .
26,958 Fall River, Mass.
30,159 Fitchburg, Mass. .
48,390 Flint, Mich. . .
72,204 Fort Smith, Ark. .
28,851 Fort Wayne, Ind.
34,362 Fort Worth, Tex.
60,427 Fresno, Calif. . .
54,804 Galveston, Tex. .
189,716 Gary, Ind. . . .
27,402 Grand Rapids, Mich
35,951 Green Bay, Wis. .
767,813 Hagerstown, Md.
124,724 Hamilton, O. . .
69,152 Hammond, Ind. .
33,520 Harrisburg, Pa. .
475,781 Hartford, Conn. .
25,144 Haverhill, Mass. .
28,077 Hazelton, Pa. . .
44,057 Highland Park, Mich
114,293 Hoboken, N.J. .
108,117 Holyoke, Mass. .
62,500 Houston, Tex.
38,033 Huntington, W.Va.
26,101 Indianapolis, Ind.
61,041 Jackson, Mich.
31,060 Jackson, Miss.
40,759 Jacksonville, Fla.
61,575 Jamestown, N.Y.
48,405 Jersey City, N.J.
41,857 Johnstown, Pa. .
2,547,201 Joliet, 111.' . . .
29,950 Joplin, Mo. . . .
414,248 Kalamazoo, Mich.
692,259 Kansas City, Kans.
27,678 Kansas City, Mo.
25,292 Kenosha, Wis. .
38,905 Kingston, N.Y. .
35,165 Knoxville, Tenn. .
20,300 La Cros.se, Wi.s. .
220,135 Lancaster, Pa. . .
31,8.38 Lansing, Mich. .
69,623 Lawrence, Mass. .
26,773 Lewiston, Me. . .
26,686 Lexington, Ky. .
129,738 Lima, O. . . .
32,969 Lincoln, Nebr. .
49,618 Little Rock, Ark.
128,939 Long Beach, Calif.
41,483 Lorain, O. . . .
268,439 Los Angeles, Calif.
104,052 Louisville, Ky. .
619,648 Lowell, Mass. . .
40,096 Lynchburg, Va. .
97,077 Lynn, Mass. . .
26,160 McKeesport, Pa. .
30,286 Macon, Ga. . . .
30,854 Madison, Wis.
43,701 Maiden, Mass.
77,312 Manchester, N. H.
28,562 Medford, Mass. .
88,830 Memphis, Tenn. .
38,272 Meriden, Conn. .
69,149 Milwaukee, AVis. .
76,592 Minneapolis, Minn.
29,304 Mobile, Ala. . .
76,981 Moline, 111. . . .
40,160 Montclair, N.J. .
37.205 Montgomery, Ala.
129,828 Mount Vernon, N.Y
42,419 Muncie, Ind. . .
57,386 Muskegon, Mich.
29,390 Muskogee, Okla. .
78,014 Nashua, N. H. . .
109,597 Nashville, Tenn.
36,314 Newark, N.J. . .
42,650 Newark, O. . .
56.000 New Bedford, Mass,
132,861 New Britain, Conn.
30,017 New Brunswick, N.
26,125 Newburg, N.Y. .
41,338 Newcastle, Pa.
27,016 New Haven, Conn.
73,276 New Orleans, La.
112,831 Newport, Ky. . .
49,180 Newport, R.L
28,981 New Rochelle, N.Y.
33,859 Newton, Mass.
78,324 New York, N.Y. .
66,503 Niagara Falls, N.Y.
116,878 Norfolk, Va. . .
47,680 Norristown, Pa. .
283,622 Norwalk, Conn. .
35,990 Oakland, Calif. .
31,104 Oak Park, 111.
79,065 Ogden, Utah . .
37,431 Oklahoma City, Okla
312,557 Omaha, Nebr.
70,473 Orange, N.J. . .
38,549 Oshkosh, Wis. .
33,400 Paducah, Ky. . .
50,408 Pasadena, Calif. .
102,090 Passaic, N. J. . .
305,810 Paterson, N.J.
32,833 Pawtucket, R.I. .
20,910 Pensacola, Fla. .
59,112 Peoria, 111. . . .
31,8.33 Perth Amboy, N.J.
51,437 Petersburg, Va. .
44,499 Philadelphia, Pa. .
102,923 Pittsburgh, Pa. .
28.001 Pittsfield, Mass. .
41,997 Portland,. Me. . .
37,145 Portland, Oreg. .
46,957 Portsmouth, O. .
58,716 Portsmouth, Va. .
29,163 Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
38.206 Providence, R.L .
535,485 Pueblo, Colo. . .
240,808 Quincy, 111. . .
114,306 Quincy, Mass. . .
33,497 Racine, Wi.s. . .
104,534 Reading, Pa. . .
48,299 Richmond, Va. .
46,099 Roanoke, Va. . .
31,315 Roche.ster, N.Y. .
52,243 Rockford, 111. . .
79,607 Rock Island, 111. .
26,681 Sacramento, Calif.
151,877 Saginaw, Mich. .
29,431 St. Joseph, Mo. .
445,008 St. Louis, Mo. . .
373,448 St Paul, Minn. .
59,201 Salem, Mass. . .
27,970 Salt Lake City, Utah
27,087 San Antonio, Tex.
44,039 San Diego, Calif. .
37,991 San Francisco, Calif.
25,653 San Jose, Calif. .
27,434 Savannah, Ga. . .
47,173 Schenectady, N.Y.
27,541 Scranton, Pa. . .
118,130 Seattle, Wash. .
418,789 Sheboygan, Wis. .
30,317 Shenandoah, Pa. .
121,022 Shreveport, La. .
55,385 Sioux City, la.
25,855 Somerville, Mass.
29,893 South Bend, Ind.
41,915 Spokane, Wash. .
152,275 Springfield, 111. .
377,010 Springfield, Mass.
32,133 Springfield, Mo. .
30,585 Springfield, O. .
39,192 Stamford, Conn. .
44,345 Steubenville, O. .
5,737,492 Stockton, Calif. .
38,400 Superior, Wis. . .
91,148 Syracuse, N.Y. .
31,969 Tacoma, Wash. .
27,332 Tampa, Fla. . .
206,405 Taunton, Mass. .
27,810 Terre Haute, Ind.
32,343 Toledo, O. . . .
97,588 Topeka, Kans.
177,777 Trenton, N.J. . .
33,630 Troy, N.Y. . . .
36,549 Tulsa, Okla. . .
25,178 Union, N.J. . .
49,020 Utica, N.Y. . .
74,478 Waco, Tex. . .
140,512 Walla Walla, Wash.
60,000 Waltham, Mass. .
26,802 Washington, D.C.
72,184 Waterbury, Conn.
42,016 Waterloo, la. . .
25,817 Watertown, N.Y.
1,735,514 West Hoboken, N.J.
586,196 Wheeling, W.Va.
39,678 Wichita, Kans. .
64,720 Wilkes-Barre, Pa.
308,399 Williamsport, Pa.
29,356 Wilmington, Del.
40,693 Wilmington, N.C.
30,786 Winston-Salem, N.C.
259,895 Woonsocket, R.I.
56,084 Worcester, Mass. .
36,832 Yonkers, N.Y. . .
39,022 York, Pa. . . .
47,405 Youngstown, O. .
111,607 Zanesville, O. . .
158,702
40,282
264,714
56,739
29,452
68,984
56,469
80,498
768,630
252,405
49,.346
121,623
128,215
56,412
471,023
39,810
69,250
103,774
149,.541
366,445
28,907
29,753
37,064
58,568
88,618
70,967
157,656
62,623
108,668
41,109
52,296
31,810
28,259
36,209
47,167
158,559
117,446
56,251
30,610
67,361
202,010
49,538
113,974
78,094
32,507
25,370
89,272
34,015
26,067
31,011
369,282
89,201
36,987
30,404
44,386
43,657
73,597
78,334
34,123
93,369
30,400
33,136
45,365
100,106
103,066
52,770
112,282
31,320
APPENDIX
POPULATION OF PRINCIPAL FOREIGN CITIES
NORTH AMERICA
British America
Montreal
Toronto
Winnipeg
Hamilton
Quebec
Ottawa
Vancouver
St. John
Calgary
Edmonton
Halifax
Victoria
Central America
Guatemala
San Salvador
Leon
Panama
Mexico
Mexico City
Guadalajara
Year
1917
1916
1916
1916
1917
1916
1918
1916
1916
1916
1911
1918
1910
1917
1917
1915
1910
1910
West Indies
Habana 1916
Port au Prince 1914
Camagiiey 1910
Santiago 1916
Kingston 1911
San Juan 1910
POPfLATIOK
700,000*
463,705*
163,000
104,491*
103,000*
100,561*
99,000*
60,000*
56,514
53,846
46,619*
45,000*
90,000*
65,148
62,509
60,028
471,006
119,468
360,517
100,000
93,057
63,041
57,379
48,716
SOUTH AMERICA
Argentina
Buenos Aires 1918 1,637,155*
Rosario 1914 222,592
Cdrdoba 1914 104,894
Bolivia
La Paz 1915
Sucre 1915
Brazil
Rio de Janeiro 1913
Sao Paulo 1913
Sao Salvador
(Bahia) 1913
Belem (Pard) 1913
Recife (Per-
nambuco) 1913
ChUe
Santiago 1916
Valparaiso 1916
Colombia
Bogotd 1912
Barranquilla 1912
Ecuador
Guayaquil
Quito
Guiana
Georgetown
Paramaribo
Cayenne
Paraguay
Asunci6n
A
1915
1915
1917
1918
1911
100,097*
29,686*
975,818*
450,000*
348,130*
275,167*
216,484*
397,550
201,507
139,237
48,907
105,000*
70,000*
54,434*
37,051
13,527
Peru
Lima
Arequipa
Callao
Uruguay
Montevideo
Venezuela
Caracas
Valencia
Maracaibo
Year Population
1913 143,500
1913 37,500
1913 36,000
1918 378,993
1915 86,880*
1915 54,387*
1915 48,500*
EUROPE
Austria
Vienna 1914
Gratz 1914
Balkan States
Constantinople 1916
Athens 1915
Saloniki 1915
Sofia 1910
1917 120,000
• Estimated
Baltic States
Riga
Vilna
Reval
Belgium
Brussels
Antwerp
Liege
Ghent
British Isles
Loudon
Glasgow
Birmingham
Liverpool
Manchester
Sheffield
Leeds
Dublin
Belfast
Bristol
Edinburgh
Bradford
Cardiff
Czechoslovakia
Prague
Brunn
Denmark
Copenhagen
Finland
Helsingfors
France
Paris
Marseille
Lyon
Bordeaux
Lille
Nantes
Havre
Germany
Berlin
Hamburg
Munich
Leipzig
Dresden
Cologne
1913
1913
1013
1912
1912
1912
1912
1017
1918
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1918
1917
1917
1914
1914
1010
1915
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1916
1912
1912
1910
1910
1910
2,149,800
156,000*
1,000,000*
170,000
157,889*
102,812
569,100
204,290
137,600
663,647
312,884
170,634
167,477
4,026,901*
1,111,428*
870,211*
716,140*
660,143*
469,293*
417,051*
399,000*
393,000*
334,814*
333,883*
266,338*
169,440*
541,500*
131,800*
500,390
176,521
2,888,110
550,619
523,796
261,678
217,807
170,535
136,159
1,779,107
986,804
606,014
589,850
548,308
516,527
Hungary
Budapest
Italy
Naples
Milan
Rome
Turin
Palermo
Genoa
Trieste
Florence
Venice
Fiume
Jugoslavia
Belgrade
Zagreb
Year Population
1910 880,371
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1914
1915
1915
1910
1911
1910
Netherlands
Amsterdam 1917
Rotterdam 1917
The Hague 1917
Norway and Sweden
Stockholm 1918
Christiania 1918
Goteborg 19l8
Bergen 1918
Poland
Warsaw 1918
Lodz 1918
Lemberg 1914
Krakow 1918
Portugal
Lisbon 1911
Oporto 1911
Rumania
Bucharest
Russia
Petrograd 1915
Moscow 1919
Spain
Madrid 1917
Barcelona 1917
Valencia 1917
Switzerland
Zurich 1918
Geneva 1918
Bern 1918
Ukraine
697,917*
663,059*
590,960*
451,994*
345,891*
300,139*
246,500*
242,147*
168,038*
49,806
90,890
79,038
640,993
500,221
344,636
413,163*
259,445*
196,994*
90,733*
704,054
393,526
212,000*
151,886
435,359
194,009
1917 308,987
2,318,643
1,121,000*
648,760*
■ 621,419*
245,871*
213,900*
139,500*
105,000*
Odessa
1912
631,040
Kiev
1913
610,190
Free City
Danzig
1910
ASIA
170,337*
Central Asia
Tashkend
1913
272,300
Bokhara
1917
75,000*
Khiva
1917
4,500*
China
Hankow
Peking
Shanghai
Canton
Tientsin
Dutch East Indies
Year
Batavia 1917
Surabaya 1915
French Indo-China
Hanoi 1915
Saigon 1915
India
Calcutta 1911
Bombay 1911
Madras 1911
Hyderabad 1911
Rangoon 1911
Lucknow 1911
Delhi 1911
Japan
Tokyo 1916
Osaka 1916
Kyoto 1916
Kobe 1916
Yokohama 1916
Keijo (Seoul) 1917
Philippine Islands
Manila 1914
Siam
Bangkok 1918
Siberia
Omsk 1913
Irkutsk 1913
Tomsk 1913
Uralsk 1913
Southwest Asia
Smyrna ' 1918
Teheran 1918
Aleppo 1918
Damascus 1918
Bagdad 1918
Jerusalem 1918
Erzerum 1918
Mekka 1918
Medina 1918
Straits Settlements
Singapore 1911
AFRICA
Cairo 1917
Alexandria 1917
Johannesburg 1911
Tunis
Algiers
Fez
Port Said
Tripoli
Cape Town
Tananarivo
Tangier
Freetown
Kimberley
Monrovia
1915
1912
1912
1917
1911
1911
1911
1916
1911
1911
1916
Population
231,463
157,202
150,000
100,000
1,222,313
979,445
518,660
500,623
293,316
259,798
232,837
2,244,796
1,460,218
539,153
498,317
428,663
302,686
266,943
541,000*
135,800
129,700
116,664
47,880
375,000*
350,000*
250,000*
250,000*
225,000*
85,000*
80,000*
80,000*
40,000*
311,985
790,939
444,617
237,104
182,000
172,397
100,000
91,090
73,000
67,159
63,115
46,000
34,090
29,525
6,000*
AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1,321,284
1,000,000*
1,000,000
900,000
800,000
Sydney
Melbourne
Adelaide
Brisbane
Auckland
1917
1917
1917
1917
1916
777,300*
708,240*
225,317*
173,504*
133,712
Wellington 1916 92,235
Ker: ale, ftt, c4re, senate, ask, arm, final, all; eve, tad, her, Svent, recent; ice, 111, admiral; 5ld, on, for, 6bey, anchor; use, Op, fur, ftnite, awful; food, fSSt;
eh as in chop ; g cm in go ; ng as in sing ; n as in ink ; th tis in thin ; til as in the ; n as in banyan ; oi as iti oil ; ow as in cow ; N nearly like ng in sing (French nasal) ;
K like German ch ; ii tw in German griiu ; ^ as in nature.
Note. Map references are given thus : (171, F 3). The number in italic type, 171, = the map page ; F 3 = the letter and number on the margins of the map. The
F refers to the area iMstween two meridians of longitude, and the 3 refers to the area between two parallels of latitude. The letter and the figure are to be used as
guides in locating each place. The most important pages are indicated by heavy type. The abbreviation App. = Appendix.
Abaca, a-bS^kS', 94
Aberdeen, Scotland, Sb-gr-den', 168,
{171, F3)
Aberdeen, S.D., 64, {55, D3)
Abyssinia, Sb-Is-slu'I-^, 220, (i'-'7, G 4)
Abyssinian Highlands, 220, {218, G 3)
Adelaide, ad'e-lad, 257, 262, {260, D5)
Aden, a'dgn, 238, {350, C 7)
Adirondack Mts., Sd-i-rSu'dgk, 36,
(35, E 1)
Adriatic Sea, a-<lr*-ank, 162, {161,
H7)
JEge&n Sea, ^-je'an, {161, K 8)
Afghanistan, af-gSn-Is-tan', 239, {350,
E5)
Africa, af'ri-ka, 217, {21S, 227, 230)
Belgian possessions, 229
British possessions, 222
Climate, 220
Former German possessions, 228
French possessions, 225
Independent countries, 229
Italian jwssessions, 229
Natural regions, 220
Natural re-sources, 221
People, 217
Population, App., viii, i, (230)
Portuguese possessions, 229
Rainfall, (330)
Spanish possessions, 229
Vegetation and animal life, 221
Akron, Sk'r^jn, 300, (45, G 4)
Alabama, al-a-ba'm^, 22, (23)
Alaska, a-lSs'ka, 83, (84)
Alaska Range, (122, C4)
Albania, al-ba'nl-g, 213, {208-209,
H2)
Albany, 61'ba-nT, 31, (35, F 2)
Alberta, ai-Wr'ta, 108, (107)
Albuquerque, Sl-bft-kOr'k*, 77, (76,
K4)
Aleutian Islands, ^-lO'sb^n, 85, {122,
D3)
Aleutian Range, (122, D 4)
Alexandria, aWgs-an'drl-a, 223, {327,
Fl)
AlfaUa, ai-fal'fi}, 57, 70
Algeria, ai-j6'rl-a, 226, (227, D 1)
Allegheny River, aiVga-nl, 32, {2-3,
L2)
Allentown, 299, (5.5, E 3)
Alpaca, ai-pak'9, 141, 143
Alps, 160, 187, 207, (161, G 6)
Alsace, ai-.sa.s', 186, (IS2-1SS, K4)
Altai Mts., al-t!', {232, G 4)
Amazon Lowlands, ara'g-zdn, 128,
(126)
Amazon River, l.SO, {126, D3)
Amiens, S-ml-as', 181, (182-183, H4)
Amsterdam, am'st^r-dam, 177, {171,
K5)
Amur River, S-m<56r', 241, 243, {232,
M4)
Anaconda, an-a-k6n'da, 57, (73, H 2)
Anatolia, an-3-tO'II-a, 2.3.5, (337, C 3)
Anatolia, Plateau of, 233 (232, B 5)
Andes Mts., an'dgz, 127, (126, B 4)
Andorra, Sn-dOr'ra, 203, (208-209,
D2)
Angola, Sn-gona, 229, (227, E 6)
Animal life
Africa, 221
India, 252
South America, 128, 141
Annapolis, 3-nap'ft-lIs, 34, (55, D 4)
Ansonia, Sn-sO'nl-a, 9, (13, B 7)
Antarctic Ocean, an-tark'tlk, App., v,
(opp. 266)
Antarctica, (opp. 266)
Antofagasta, an-tO-fa-gas'tjt, 142,
(145, B 5)
Antwerp, ant'wgrp, 178, {171, K6)
Apennine Mts., Sp'gn-nin, 160, 207,
(161, II 7)
Appalachian Highlands, ap-pj-la'-
chl-an
Canada, 103, {122)
United SUtes, (2-3, 122)
Northern Division, 5, (IS)
Southern Division, 26, (33, 35)
Appalachian Mts., 36, (2-3, KS; 21)
Appalachian Plateau, (2-3)
Arabia, a-ra'bl-a, 238, (250, C 6)
Arabian Plateau, 233, {232, C 6)
Arabs, 236, 238
Aral Sea, ar'al, (232, D 4)
Arbuckle Mts., ar-buck-'l, 38, {3-3,
G4)
Archangel, ark-an'j61, 199, (301, H 2)
Arctic Coa.stal Plain, 86, (133, B 4)
Arctic Ocean, ark'tlk, App., v, (opp.
266)
Arequipa, arri-ke'pS, 140, (135, B 4)
Argentina, ar-j6n-t6'na, 148, (145)
Argentina, Plateau of western, {126,
C7)
Arizona, ilr-I-zO'na, 77, (76)
Arkansas, ar'kan-sa, 24, (25)
Arkansas River, 38^ (3-3, G 3)
Armenia, ar-m6'nl-a, 200, 236, {250,
Bo)
Armenians, 215, 235
Asbestos, as-bSs't^s, 104
Asia, a'sha, 231, {232, 237, 247, 250,
256)
Climate, 234
Countries, 235
Natural regions, 231
Population, App., viii, x, (256)
Rainfall, (356)
Asphalt, as'falt, 120
Astoria, as-tC'rl-ji, 78, (73, C 2)
Astrakhan, as-trd-kan', 200, {201,
J 5)
Asuncion, a-soon-syOn' 153, {145,
D5)
Atacama Desert, a-ta-ka'mS, 144, 146,
(136, C 5)
Athens, ath'finz, 214, {208-209, H 3)
Atlanta, at-lan't^, 22, (23, E 3)
Atlantic City, 34, (35, E 4)
Atlantic Coa.stal Plain, 14, {2-3)
Atlantic Ocean, 272, App., v, {275)
Atlas Mts. 220, (218, C 1)
Auburn, a'bflrn, 8, (IS, E 4)
Auckland, ak'land, 263, (260, H 5)
Augusta, Ga., a-gfeTta, 22, {23, G 3)
Augusta, Me., 8, (IS, F 4)
Austin, ss'tin, 24, (25, F 4)
Au.stralia, a.s-tra'II-a, 257, {358, 260,
265)
Natural regions, 257, (258)
Population, App., viii, x, {265)
Rainfall, (365)
Austria, as'trl-^, 193, (182-183, N 5)
Azerbaijan, a^zgr-bl-jan', 200, {201,
J 6)
Bad Lands, 68
Baffin Bay, bafln, {122, B 13)
Bagdad, bag-dad', 236, (250, C 6)
Bahama Islands, b^-ha'ma, 115,
(122, G 12)
Bahia, see Sao Salvador
Bahia Blanca, ba-e'a blan'ka, 151,
(145, C 6)
Baikal, Lake, bl-kal', (332, J 3)
Baku, bii-kGJ)', 200, (301, J 6)
Balboa, bal-bo'a, 89, (llS-119, J 6)
Balearic Islands, bal-e-arak, 205,
(308-209. D 3)
Balkan Mts., bal-kan', 214, (161, K 7)
Balkan Peninsula, 203, (161, K 7)
Baltic Lowland, bal'tlk, 170, {161,
J 3)
Baltic Sea, 172, 190, (161,3 4)
Baltic States, 197, (201, D3)
Baltimore, bartl-mpr, 33, {35, D 4)
Baluchistan, ba-lo6-chIs-tan', 254,
(250, E 6)
Banana, Africa, bSrna'na, 222, {227,
E5)
Banana.s, 114
Bangkok, ban-k(5k', 251, (250, J 7)
Bangor, ban'g6r, 8, (13, G 4)
Barcelona, bar-s«-10'na, 205, {208-
209, D 2)
Barge Canal, 31, (21)
Barka, Plateau of, barlca, (218, F 1)
BarraiKiuilla, bar-ran-kel'ya, 138,
(135, B 1)
Barre, bar'*, 9, (13, C 4)
Ba.sel, ba'zgl, 188, (208-309, E 1)
Batavia, ba-ta'vl-a, 255, (360, A 2)
Batum, ba-t«6m' 200, (337, E 2)
Bay City, 44, (45, F 3)
Bay of Fundy, fun'dl, 103, (107,
H6)
Bechuanaland, b€k-u-an'a-land, 223,
(337, F 7)
Bedford, Ind., bgd'fgrd, 43, (45, D 5)
Belem, b4-16x', 132, (135, E 3)
Belfast, Ireland, b61-fast', 168, {171,
E4)
Belgian Kongo, k6n'g5, 178, 229,
(227, F 5)
Belgium, bgl'ji-um, 177, {171, K 6)
Belgrade, bgl-grad', 213, {308-209,
H2)
Bellingham, bfillng-ham, 78, (73,
CI)
Bergen, bgr'ggn, 173, (171, K 1)
Bering Sea, be'ring, 86, (133, D 2)
Berkeley, bgrk'll, 77, (76, B3)
Beriin, bflr-lln', 192, (183-183, N 2);
(U. S. city, bflr'lln)
Bermuda Islands, bgr-mtt'da, 120,
(133, F 13)
Bern, bgrn, 188, {208-209, E 1)
Bhutan, bo6-tau', 254, (350, H 6)
Biddeford, bld'e-fQrd, 8, (13, E 5)
Billings, bll'Ingz, 57, (73, K 3)
Bingham, Mng'am, 68, (76, G 1)
Birmingham, Ala., bflr'ming 5m, 22,
29, (,'3, D3)
Birmingham, Eng., 167, {171, G 5)
Bisbee, biz'b*, 68, (76, H 6)
Bismarck, biz'mark, 54, (55, C 2)
Black Forest, 191, (IGl, G 6)
Black Hills, 58, (^5, F 2)
Black race, see People
Black Sea, 198, (161, M 7)
Blue Mts., Oregon, 66, (2-3, C 1)
Blue Ridge Mts., 36, (23, F 2)
Bogota, b6-g6-ta', 138, (ISS, B 2)
Bohemia, Plateau of, b6-he'ml-a,
195, (161, H 6)
Boise, boi-za', 72, {73, F 4)
Bokhara, b6-Ka'ra, 239, (250, E 5)
Bolivia, b6-llv'l-a, 142, (135)
Bolivia, Plateau'of, (136, C4)
Bombay, b6m-ba', 253, (250, F 7)
Bordeaux, b6r-d0', 185, {182-183,
F6)
Bosporus, b6s'pft-rys, 215, (161, L 7)
Boston, bSs'tun, 8, 9, (13, D 6)
Boston Mts., 38, (3-3, H3)
Boulogne, bo6-l6n'y (Fr.), 181, (182-
183, G^); (Eng. pron., bob-lOn')
Bradford, Eng., brad'fSrd, 166, (171,
G6)
Brahmaputra River, bra-m^j-poo'trj,
253, (332, H 6)
Brazil, brg-zll', 130, (135)
Brazilian Highlands, 127, (136)
Bremen, brfim'gn or bra'mgn, 189,
192, (171, M 5)
Breslau, br6s'low, 192, (183-183,
P3)
Bridgeport, brIj'pOrt, 8, (13, B 7)
Brisbane, bris'ban, 262, (360, F 4)
British Columbia, k6-lum'bl-a, 108,
(107, B 4)
British East Africa, 223, (227, G 4)
British Empire, 164, 168
British Guiana, g6-a'na, 134, (135)
BritLsh Isles, 164, (161)
Brittany, Upland of, (161, E 6)
Brockton, brOk'tun, 9, (13, D 6)
Brooklyn, br56k'lln, 30, (35, F 3)
Brunn, brun, 195, (183-183, P 4)
Brussels, brus'sglz, 178, (171, K 6)
Bucharest,boo-ka-r6st',202,(^0«-^09,
J 2)
Budapest, boo'da-p&t, 194, (182-183,
R5) " _
Buenaventura, bwa-na-v6n-too'ra,
138, (135, B 2)
Buenos Aires, bwa'nOs i-ras, 151,
(145, D 6)
Buffalo, 34, (35, C 2)
Building materials, 43, 211, 294
Bulgaria, bool-ga'ri-a, 214, (308-209,
H2)
Burlington, bflr'llng-ten, 8, (13, B 4)
Burma, bflr'ma, 249, 254, (250, H 6)
Butte, but, 72, (73, H 2)
Cacao, k^-ka'O or ka-ka'6, 120
Cadiz, ka'dieth (Span.), 204, (208-209,
B3); (Eng. pron., ka'diz)
Cairo. Egypt, kl'rO, 223, (327, G 1);
(U. S. city, ka'rO)
Calais, France, kai-ft', 181, (182-183,
G3); (U. S. city, kails)
Calcutta, kal-kiit'ta, 253, (350, G 6)
California, kal-I-f6r'nI-8, 77, (76)
Callao, kal-ya A, 140, (135, B 4)
Cambridge, kam'brlj, 9, (13, D 6)
Camden, kani'dgn, 34, (35, E 4)
Camphor, 249
Canada, kan'9-da, 103, (107)
Canal.s, .see canal names
Canary Islands, ka-nS'rl, 205, 229,
(218, B 2)
Cancer, tropic of, 269
Cantabrian Mts., kan-taTjiI-jn, 204,
(161. D 7)
Canton, China, kan-t6n', 244, (250,
K6); (U. S. city, kan'tQn)
Xll
INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS
Cape Breton Island, brgt'Qn, 103,
{12S, E 13)
Cape Cod, 19, {2-3, M 2)
Cape Cod Canal, 14, (13, E 7)
Cape of Good Hope, 224, (218, E 8)
Cape Hatteras, hSt'gr-as, 19, (2-3,
L3)
Cape Lookout, 18, (2-3, L 4)
Cape Prince of Wales, walz, 85, (84,
El)
Cape Town, 224, (227, E 8)
Cape Verde Islands, v6rd, 229, (218,
A3)
Capricorn, tropic of, 269
Caracas, ka^ra'kas, 137, (135, C 1)
Caribbean Sea, k3,r-lb-be'an, (122,
H12)
Carpathian Mts., kar-pa'thl-an, 160,
196, (161, K 6)
Carrara, kar-ra'ra, 211, (182-183,
M6)
Carson City, kar'sun, 68, (76, D 2)
Cascade Mts., kfc-kad', 80, (2-S, B 2)
Caspian Sea, kas'pl-an, 198, (161,
P7)
Catskill Mts., kStsrkil, (2-3, M 2)
Cattle, 56, 60, 137, 148, 283, App., v
Caucasus Mts., ka'ka-siis, 160, 198,
(161, 0 7)
Cayenne, ka-y6n', 136, (135, D 2)
Cedar Rapids, 54, (55, H 4)
Central America, 114, (118-119)
Central Brazil, Plateau of, (126, D 4)
Central Plains
Canada, 105, (107, F 5)
Europe, 158, (i6i)
United States, 39, (2-3, H 2)
Central States (Eastern), 44, (45)
Central States (Western), 54, (55)
Cerro de Pasco, sSr'ro da pas'ko, 141,
(135, B 4)
Ceylon, se-lon', 254, (250, G 8)
Chaco, cha'ko, 149, 152
Chagres River, cha'grgs, 88, 89
Charleston, S. C, charlz'tun, 22, (23,
H3)
Charleston, West Va., 34, (35, B 4)
Charlotte, shar'lot, 22, (23, G 2)
Charlotte Amalie, shar-16t'a-ma'l^-g,
91, (118-119, E 6)
Chattanooga, chat-t5-n6o'ga, 22, (23,
E2)
Chesapeake Bay, ch6s'a-p6k, 18,
(2-3, L 3)
Cheyenne, shl-6n', 57, (73, M 5)
Chicago, she ka'go, 43, 44, 50, (45,
D4)
Chile, che'la, 144, (145)
China, 242, (250)
China, Plain of, (232, K 5)
Chosen, cho-sSn', 246, 249, (250., L 5)
Christchurch, krist'chfirch, 263, (260,
H6)
Christiania, krls-te-a'n6-a, 173, (201,
B3)
Cincinnati, sIn-sI-natOf, 44, 48, (45,
E5)
Ciudad Bolivar, svoo-thath'b6-l5'var,
137, (135, C 2)
Cleveland, klev'land, 46, 47, (45, Gi)
Clifton, Ariz,, 68", (76, J 5)
Climate, see under different countries
Clyde River, klid, 165, 168, (171, E 4)
Coal, 15, 26, 27, 40, 7-5, 83, 165, 181,
243, 286, App., v
Coast Ranges
Alaska, 85, (122)
South America, (126, A 3)
United States, 80, (2-3, B 3)
Coastal Hilly Belt, (122, E 12)
Coconuts, kS'k6-niits, 95, 264
Coeur d'Alene, kfirda-lan', 60, (73,
Coffee, 131, 238, 255, 279
Cologne, ko-lon', 191, 193, (182-183,
K3)
Colombia, k5-16m'b6-a, 138, (135,
B2)
Colombo, k6-l6m'bo, 254, (250, F 8)
Colon, k5-10n', 88, (118-119, J 6)
Colon Archipelago, ar-kl-p6ra-g5,
155, (135, A 4)
Colorado, kol-o-ra'do, 77, (76, K 2)
Colorado Canyon, 67, (2-3, D 3)
Colorado Plateau, 67, (2-3, D 3)
Colorado River, 67, (2-3, D 3)
Colorado Springs, 57, (76, L 2)
Columbia, S. C, kS-liim'bl-a, 17, 22,
(23, G 3)
Columbia Plateau, 66, (2-3, C 1)
Columbia River, 66, 81, (2-3, B 1)
Columbus, Ga., ko-liim'bus, 22, (23,
E3)
Commerce, 300, 302, App., Plate B ;
see also under different countries
Concepci6n, k6n-s6p-sy5n', 153, (145,
D5)
Concord, N. H., kon'kord, 8, (13, D5)
Connecticut, kon-ngtl-kiit, 12, (13,
C7)
Connecticut River, 6, (2-3, M 2)
Connecticut River Lowland, 5, (2-3,
M2)
Constantinople, kSn-stSn-tl-nS'pl,
215, (201, E 6)
Continental Divide. 61, (2-3)
Continental Shelf, 18, (122, F 12)
Copenhagen, ko-pgn-ha'ggn, 174,
(i7i, 0 4)
Copper, 41, 141, 204, 290
Copra, kop'ra, 94, 95
Corals, 19, 120, 261, 264
Cdrdoba, k6r'dD-va, 151, (145, C 6)
Cordova, Alaska, k6r'd6-va, 86, (84,
J 2)
Cork, 206, 228
Cork, Ireland, 168, (171. C 6)
Corn, 48, 278
Costa Rica, kos'ta re'ka, 114, (118-
119, H 5)
Cotton, 16, 91, 223, 282, App., v
Cotton manufacture, 7, 16, 166, 181,
246, 253
Covington, kiivlng-ton, 44, (45, E 5)
Crater Lake, Nat. Park, kra'tgr, 70,
79, App., V, (73, C 4)
Cripple Creek, 60, (76, L 2)
Cuba, ku'ba, 116, (118-119, H 3)
Culebra Cut, koo-la'bra, 88, 89
Cuzco, koos'ko, 141, (135, B 4)
Czechoslovakia, chgk-6-sl6-va'kI-a,
195, (182-183, O 4)
Dahomey. da-h6'ma, 228 (227, D 4)
Dairy-farming, 6, 28,49, 70, 174, 176,
187, 257
Dallas, dSl'as, 24, (25, F 3)
Damascus, da-mas'kiis, 236, (250, B 5)
Danube River, dan'ub, 162, 194, 213,
(161, L 7)
Danzig, dan'tsiK, 196, (182-183, R 1)
Dardanelles, dar-da-nSlz', 215, (161,
L7)
Davenport, dSv'gn-port, 54, (55, H 5)
Dawson, dS'sun, 86, 109, (107, A 3)
Dayton, 44, (45, E 5)
Dead Sea, 236, (237, D 4)
Death Valley, 67, (2-3, C 3)
Dekkau, dgk'an, 233, 253, (232, F 7)
Delaware, d61'a-war, 34, (35, E 4)
Delaware Bay," 18, (2-3, L3)
Delaware River, 32, (2-3, L 2)
Delhi, del'*, 253, (250, F 6)
Delta, 77, (76, J 2)
Denmark, 174, (i7i, M 4)
Denver, 57, 58, (76, L 2)
Desert Plateaus (Asia), 233
Deserts, see desert names
Des Moines, de moin', 54, (55, G 5)
Detroit, de-tro"it', 43, 44, (45, F 3)
Diamonds, 177, 221, 224, 228
Dinarie Alps, dl-nSrlk, 213, (161, J 7)
District of Columbia, 101, (35, D 4)
Dnieper River, nS'pgr, 198, (161, M 6)
Dominican Republic, d6-minl-kan,
120, (118-119, K 4)
Don River, 198, (161, 0 6)
Dover, Delaware, d6'vgr, 34, (35, E4)
Dresden, drgz'dgn, 192, (182-183,
N3)
Drowned River Mouths, 11, 18, 164
Dry Farming, 69, 280
Dublin, diib'lin, 168, (171, D 5)
Dubuque, doo-buk', 54, (55, H 4)
Duluth, do6-l66th', 47, 64, (56, G 2)
Dunkirk, dun'kark, 181, (182-183,
H3)
Durazzo, doo-rat'so, 213, (208-209,
G2)
Dutch East Indies, (260, A 2) ; see
East Indies
Dutch Guiana, ge-a'na, 136, (135, D2)
Dvina River, dve-na', 198, (201, H 2)
Earth
In the universe, 276
Revolution, 269
Rotation, 269
Shape, 268
Size, 268
Earthquakes, 80, 92, 127, 140, 207
East Afpca, see Tanganyika Terr.
East Anistralian Highlands, 267,
(258, E 3)
East China Highlands, (232, J 6)
East Indies, in'dgz, 176, 256
East Prussia, priish'a, 193, (183-
183, S 1)
East St. Louis, -lools or -l6o% 44,
(45, B 6)
East Siberian Uplands, si-bs'ri-an,
(232, H 2)
East Turkestan Plateau, toor-kg-stan',
233, (232, G 4)
Ebro River, e'bro, 204, (208-209, C 2)
Eclipses, 276
Ecuador, 6k-wa-d5r', 138, (135, B 3)
Edinburgh, gd'jn-bur-o, 168, (171,
F4)
Edmonton, gd'mun-tun, 108, (107,
C4)
Egypt, g'jipt, 222, (227, F 2)
Elbe River, gl'bg, 189, 192, (161, H 6)
Elbruz, Mt., gl-brooz', App.,iv., (161,
0 7)
Elburz Mts., 61-boorz', (232, D 5)
Endicott Range, Alaska, 86, (84, G 1)
Erie, e'ri, 47, (35, B 2)
Erie, Lake, 41, 52, (35, B 2)
Erie Canal, 31
Eritrea, a-r*-trg'a, 212, 229, (227,
G3)
Erivan, gr-e-van', 200, (201, H 6)
Erzerum, *rz-r6om', 236, (237, E 3)
Eskimo, gs'ki-mo, 83, 85, 110, 121,
174
Essen, gs'gn, 193, (182-183, K 3)
Essequibo Falls, gs-i-ke'bo, 134
Esthonia, gs-tho'ni-a, 197, (201, D 3)
Estuaries, gs'tu-i-riz, 18
Etna, Mt., gt'"na, 207, (161, H 8)
Euphrates River, ii-f ra'tgz, 236, (232,
B5)
Europe, u'rup, 157, (161, 171, 182-
183, 201, 208-209, 216)
Climate, 163
Growth of nations, 157
Ice-sheet, 162
Natural regions, 168
Natural resources, 163
People, 157
Population, App., viii, x, (216)
Rainfall, (216)
Evansville, gv'anz-vll, 44, (45, D 5)
Exploration, 267
Africa, 217, 267
Polar, (122, opp. 266)
United States, 46, 56, (2-3)
World, App., Plate A
Falkland Islands, f ftk'land, 155, (126,
D8)
Fall line, 17, (^-3, K 4)
Fall-line cities, 29, (23, 35)
Fall River, 7, 8, (13, D 7)
Fairbanks, 86, (84, J 2)
Fargo, far'go, 54, (55, E 2)
Faroe Islands, far'o or fa'ro, 174,
(161, D 3)
Fayetteville, -vU, 38, (25, G 1)
Finland, fin'land, 197 (201, E 2)
Finland, Upland of, (161, L 3)
Finns, 167
Fiords, 170, 173, 263
Firths, 164
Fish, 8, 15, 74, 85, 110, 165, 206, 297
Fitchburg, fich'bflrg, (13, D 6)
Fiurae, fyoo'ma, 212, 213, (208-209,
Fl)
Flax, 168, 178
Flint, 44, (45, F 3)
Florence, 211, (208-209, F 2)
Florida, flora-da, 22, (23, F 5)
Forests, 15, 28, "42, 74, 128, 284
Formosa, f or-m5'sa, 249, (250, L 6)
Fort Smith, 24, 38, (25, G 2)
Fort Wayne, -wan, 44, (45, E 4)
Fort Worth, 24, (25, F 3)
France, 180, (182-183)
Frankfort, f rSnk'furt, 44, (45, E 6)
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 192, (182-
183, L 3)
Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 192, (182-
183, O 2)
Franklin, District of, 108, (107, D 2)
Freiburg, frl'boorK, 191, (182-183,
K5)
French Equatorial Africa, 228, (227,
E6)
French Guiana, g^-a'na, 136, (135,
D2)
French Indo-China, In'dO-chJ'n^,
249, (250, J 7)
French Kongo, see French Equato-
rial Africa
French West Africa, 228, (227, C 3)
Fresno, frgs'no, 78, (76, D 3)
Frigid zone, 270
Fruit, 38, 39, 71, 153, 204, 214
Fuji, Mt., foo'je, 246, (232, M 5)
Fusan, f oo-san', 249, (250, L 5)
Galapagos Islands, ga-15p'a-gos, see
Colon Archipelago
Galatz, ga'lats, 202, (208-209, J 1)
Galveston, gai'ves-ton, 24, (25, G 5)
Gambia, gam'bi-a, 226, (227, B 3)
Ganges, Plain of the, gan'jez, (232,
G6)
Ganges River, 253, (232, G 6)
Gary, ga'rl, 44, (45, D 4)
Gas, 27, 40, 287
Gatun Lake, ga-toon', 88, 89
Georgetown, 134, (135, D 2)
Georgia, Europe, 200, (201, H 6)
Georgia, U. S., 22, (23, F3)
General Grant Nat. Park, App., v,
(76, D 3)
Geneva, jg-ne'va, 188, (208-209,
E 1)
Genoa, jgn'g-a, 211, (208-209, E 2)
Germany, 189, (182-183)
Geysers, gi'sgrs, 63, 64, 263
Ghent, ggnt, 178, (171, 3 6)
Gibraltar, ji-bral'tar, 205, (208-209,
B 3)
Glacier Nat. Park, gla'shgrorglasl-gr,
4, 63, App., V, (2-3, D 1)
Glaciers, 10, 64, 163, 187
Glasgow, gias'gS, 168, (171, E 4)
Glass, 16, 32, 178, 196
Globe, 68, (76, H 5)
Gloucester, glSs'tgr, 8, (13, E 0)
Gobi, Desert of, gS'be, (232, 3 4)
Gold, 59, 70, 83, 224. 225, 269, 293
Gold Coast, 225, (227, C 4)
Golden Gate, 79, (2-3, B 3)
Goldfield, 68, (76, E 3)
Goteborg, ya-tg-bor'y', 173, (201,
B3)
Grand Bank, 110, (122, E 14)
Grand Canyon, 67
INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS
xiu
Grand Canyon Nat. Park, App., v,
{S-3, D 3)
Grand Forks, 54, (5S, E 2)
Grand Junction, 77, (76, J 2)
Grand Kapids, 43, (45, E 3)
Grapes, 71, 184, 191, 211, 214
Grasse, gras, 185, US3-183, K 7)
Great Barrier Keef, 261, (258, E3)
Great Basin, 67, (3-S, C 3)
Great Britain, 164, (171)
Great Falls, Mont., 57, (73, J 2)
Great Khingan Mts., klu-gan', 231,
(23 S, K 5)
Great Lakes, 39, 41, 42, 62, (122,
Ell)
Great Plains
Australia, 257, {258, D4)
Canada, 106, (123, D 8)
United States, 53, (2-3)
Great Salt Lake, 67, (2-3, D 2)
Great Smoky Mts., 36, {23, F 2)
Greater Antilles, an-tll'6z, 115, (118-
119, H 3)
Greece, 214, (208-209, H 3)
Greeks, 157, 215
Greenland, 174, (107, 132, B 15)
Greenwich, grgnlj, 269, (171, H 6)
Grenoble, grg-nO'b'l, 185, (182-183,
J 6)
Greytown, 114, (118-119, H 5)
Guadalajara, gwa-tlia-la-ha'ra, 113,
(118-119, D 3)
Guam, gwam, 95, (93, G 2)
Guatemala, gwa-ta-mala, 114, (118-
119, F 4)
Guayaquil, gwl-a-k6l', 139, (135, A 3)
Guiana Highlands, gS-il'na, -128,
(126, C 2)
Guianas, the, g6-a'nas, 134, (135,'D'i,)
Gulf CoasUl Plain, 14, 111, (2-3)
Gulf of Aden, a'dgn, (232, C 7)
Gulf of Guinea, gln'6, 225, (218, "D^)
Gulf of Mexico, 100, (122, G 10)
Gulf of St. Lawrence, (122, E 13)
Gulf Stream, 14, 110, 272 ■
Gypeum, jlp'stjm, 27
Hague, the, hag, 177, (171, K 5)
Haiti, ha'tl, 120, (118-119, K 4)
Halifax, hSl'e-faks, 103, (107, H 5)
Halle, hal'S, 192, (182-183, N 3)
Hamburg, hain'bflrg, 189, 192, (182-
183, M 2)
Hammerfest, ham'5r-f«st, 173, (201,
Dl)
Hankow, hin-kO', 244, (250, K 5)
Harrisburg, -bflrg, 29, 33, (35, D 3)
Hartford, 8, (13, C 7)
Harz Mts., hSrts, (161, H 5)
Haverhill, ha'vgr-B, 9, (13, D 6)
Havre, ha'vSr, 185, (182-183, G4)
Hawaii Nat. Park, ha- wl'e, 87, App. , v
Hawaiian Islands, 87, (84)
Hejaz, hgj-iiz', 238, (250, B 6)
Helena, hgl'g-ng, 60, 72, (73, H 2)
Helsingfors, hSl-sIng-f^rs', 197, (201,
D2)
Hemp, 94
Hides, see Cattle
Highlands
Abyssinian, 220, (218, G 3)
Appalachian, 5, 26, 103, (122, F 11)
Brazilian, 127, (126, E 5)
Central (Europe), 159, (161, F 6)
East Australian, 257, (258, E 3)
East China, (232, J 6)
Guiana, 128, (126, C 2)
Interior (U. S.), 38, (122, F 10)
Northwest (Europe), 158, (161)
Scottish, (161, D4)
South Australian, 257, (258, D 5)
Southern (Africa), 220, (218, F 8)
Victorian, 257, (258, E 5)
Hilo, hfi'lO, 87, (84, F 4)
Himalaya Mts., hl-ma'l^-yj, 231, 252,
(232, G 6)
Hindu Kush Mts., hlu'doo koosb,
(232, E 5)
Hindus, hin'duos, 252
Hoboken, hCbO-kgn, 30, (35, E 3)
Hogs, see Swine
Holland, hdl'and, see Netherlands
Holyoke, hOl'yCk,^, (13, C 6)
Honduras, li6n-doo'r^s, 114, (118-
119, G 5)
Hongkong, h6ng-k6ng', 244, (250,
K6)
Honolulu, h5-n6-lGo'loo, 87, (84, D2)
Hoi-se latitudes, 272
Hot Springs Nat. Park, App., v
Houston, hus'ten, 19, 24, (25, G 5)
Hudson Bay, Iidd's^n, 105, (122,
Dll)
Hudson Bay Lowland, 105, (122,
DIO)
Hudson River, 30, 31, (2-3, M 2)
Hungary, hun'ga-rl, 194, (182-183,
R5)
Hungary, Plain of, 162, (161, J 6)
Huntington, W. Va., 29, 34, (35, A 4)
Huron, Lake, hu'r^n, 41, 52, (45, F 2)
Hwang River, liwang, 243, (232, K 6)
Iberian Peninsula, I-be'rg-jn, 203,
(161, D 7)
Iberian Plateau, 204, (161, D 7)
Icebergs, 110, 174
Iceland, 175, (161, B 2)
Ice-sheet
Europe, 163, 165, 170
North America, 10, 51, 64
Idaho, I'da-hO, 72, (73, G 3)
Iguassii Falls, e-gwa-s66', 125, (126,
D5)
Illinois, Il-ll-noi' or -noiz', 44, (45,
C4)
Illinois River, 52, (2-3, H 3)
India, In'dl-a, 252, (250, G 6)
India, Plateau of, (232, F 6)
Indian Ocean, App., v, (275)
Indiana, In-dl-5n'a, 44, (45, D 5)
Indianapolis, In-dl-an-Sp'Q-lIs, 44,
(45, D 5)
Indians, 65, 83, 112, 130, 143, 150
Indo-China, Tn'd6, 249, (250, J 7)
Indus, Plain of the, In'dQs, (232, F 5)
Indus River, 253, (232, E 6)
Interior Highlands, 38. (122, F 10)
Iowa, I'O-wa, 54, (55, G 4)
Iquitos, *-k6't0s, 142, (135, B 3)
Iran, Plateau of, e-ran', 233,
D5)
Irkutsk, Ir-kootsk', 241, (250, J 3)
Iron, 26, 33, 40, 172, 181, 289, App., v
Iron and steel manufactures, 26, 32,
50, 167, 184
Irrigation, 68, 04, 280, (55, 76)
Italian Sonialiland, s^-ma'Ie-land,
229, (227, H 4)
Italians, 157
Italy, It'8-ll, 207, (208-209, F 2)
Ivory Coast, 228, (218, C 4)
Iztaccibuatl, Mt., Ss-tak-seliwat'l,
111, (118-119, E4)
Jacksonville, -vll, 22, (23, G 4)
Jamaica, j^-m&'kg, 115, {118-119,
J 4)
James River, (2-3, L 3)
Japan, Ja-pSn', 246, (250)
Japan current, 83, 273, (275)
Japanese, 246
Java, ja'va, 255, (260, A 2)
Jefferson City, 38, (55, G 6)
Jerome, 68, (76, G 4)
Jersey City, 30, 34, (35, E 3)
Jerusalem, jJ-roo's^-lSm, 285, {250,
B5)
Jews, 235
Jibuti, je-bo6-t«', 228, (227, H 3)
Johannesburg, y6-han'6s-burg, 224,
(227, F 7)
Joplin, jOp'iln, 38, (55, F 7)
Jordan River. jOr'd^n, 236
Jugoslavia, yQ-gO-siS'vI-a, 213, (208-
209, G 2)
Julianehaab, y66l6-an-hab, 174, (107,
K3)
Juneau, ja'nO, 85, (84, M 3)
Jura Mts., jtt'ra, 180, {161, G 6)
Jute, 253
Kabul, ka'bool, 239, (250, E 5)
Kafir corn, kaf'Sr, 53
Kalahari Desert, ka^la-ha'rl, 223,
(218, F 7)
Kalamazoo, kai-j-m^-zdo', 44, (45,
F ^^
Kalgoorlie, kSl-goorlT, 259, (260, C 5)
Kamerun, ka-mS-roon', 228, (227,
E4)
Kansas, kan'zas, 54, (55, D 6)
Kansas City, Kans., 54, (55, F 6)
Kansas City, Mo., 48, 54, (55, F 6)
Karakoram, ka^ra-k6'ram, (232, F 5)
Karlsruhe, karls'roo-S," 191, (182-
183, L 4)
Kashgar, kiish-gar', 245, (250, F 5)
Keewatin, District of, ki^-wa'tln, 108,
(107, E 3)
Keijo, kay-j5, 249, (250, L 5)
Kenia, Mt., ka-n6'a, 220, (218, G 5)
Kenosha, k*-n5'shij, 44, (45, D 3)
Kentucky, 44, (45, E 6)
Keokuk, ke'6-kuk, 42, (55, H 5)
Khartum, kar-toora', 223, (227, G 3)
Khiva, ke'va, 239, (250, D 4)
Kiaochow, kyou'chO, 244, (250, L 5)
Kiel Canal, kel, 190, (182-183, L 1)
Kiev, ke'ygf, 202, (201, F 4)
Kilauea, kS-low-a'a, 87, 88, (84, F 4)
Kilimanjaro, Mt., kIl-6-man-ja'rO,
220, (218, G 5)
Kimberley, kim'bgr-ll, 224. (227, F 7)
Klondike, klon'dik. 109, (107, A 3)
Knoxville, noks'vll, 22, (23, F 2)
Kobe, k0'b6, 248, (247, L 6)
Koblenz, kO'blgnts, 191, (182-183,
K3)
Kongo Basin, kSn'gO, 221, (218, F4)
Kongo River, 229, (218, E 5)
Kdnigsberg, kft'niKS-berK, 193, (182-
183, S 1)
Korea, lio-rg'a, see Chosen
Krakow, kra'ko, 197, (182-183, R 3)
Kronstadt, krOn'stiit, 202, (201, E 5)
Kuenlun Mts., kw6n-l66n', (232, G 5)
Kurdistan, koor-dl-stan', (237, E 3)
Kyoto, ke-O'tO, 248, (250, M 5)
Labrador, ISb-ra-dfir', 110, (707, H 4)
Labrador Current, 110, 273, (275)
Lafayette Nat. Park, la-fa-6t', 11,
App., V
La Guaira, la gwl'ra, 137, (135, C 1)
Lakes, 10, 36, 198
Baikal, (232, J 3)
Champlain, 8, (13, B 4)
Crater, 70, 79, App., v, (75, C 4)
Erie, 41, 52, (35, B 2)
Gatun, 88, 89
Great Salt, 67, (2-3, D 2)
Huron, 41, 52, (45, F 2)
Michigan, 41, 52, (45, D 3)
Ontario, 41, (35, D 2)
Superior, 41, 52, (45, D 1)
La Paz, la pas', 143, (135, C 4)
Laplanders, 157, 172
Laramie, ISr'a-me, 72, (73, M 5)
La Salle, 111., Ij sSl', 41, (45, C 4)
Lassa, las'a, 245, (250, H 6)
Lassen Peak, las'gn, 80, (2-3, B 2)
Las.sen Volcanic Nat. Park, App., v
Latitude, 269
Latvia, lat'vl-a, 197, (201, D 3)
Laurentian Upland, Ift-rSn'shl-gn or
shan, 104, (122, D 10)
Lawrence, Mass., lO'rgns, 8, (13, D 6)
Lead, 38, 41, 204, 292
Leadville, 16d'vll, 00, (76, K 2)
Leeds, Ifidz, 106, (171, G 5)
Leeward Islands, 16'wSrd, 115, (ii^-
119, M 4)
Leiden, ll'dgn, 177
Leipzig, lip'zlk, 192, (182-183, N 3)
Leith, 16th, 168, (171, F4)
Lena River, I6'na, 240, (232, J 3)
Leopoldville, l6'B-p0ld-vIl, 229, (227,
E5)
Lesser Antilles, 115, (118-119, L5)
Lewiston, lu'Is-tun, 8, (13, E 4)
Liberia, ll-b6'rl-a, 229, (227, C 4)
Libia, llbTi-a, 229, (227, E 2)
Li6ge, l6-azh', 178, (171, K6)
Lille, 161, 181, (182-183, H 3)
Lima, Peru, le'ma, 140, (135, B 4);
(U. S. city, ll'ma)
Limoges, l6-m0zh', 184, (182-183,
G6)
Lincoln, lln'kun, 54, (55, E 5)
Linen manufacture, 168, 178
Lisbon, llz'bgn, 206, (208-209, B 3)
Lithuania, lIth-ft-a'nI-a,197,(^0i,D3)
Little Rock, 24, (25, H 2)
Livei-pool, llv'gr-pool, 166, (i7i,F5)
Llama, la'ma, 141, 143
Llano Estacado, la'nO 6s-ta-ka'd6,
(2-3, F 4)
Llanos, 128
Lodz, 16dz, 196, (201, C 4)
Loire River, Iwar, 185, (161, F 6)
London, 167, (171, G6)
Long Island, 30, (35, F 3)
Longitude, 269
Lorraine, 16-ran', 181, (182-183, K 4)
Los Angeles, l<5s-an'g61-6s, 78, (76,
Louisiana, loo-6-ze-an'g, 18, 24, (25,
114)
Louisville, looTs-vIl or looT-vH, 44, 48,
(45, E 5)
Lowell, lO'gi, 8, (13, D 6)
Lower California, 111, (122, G8)
Lowlands
Amazon, 128, (126) j
Baltic, 170, (161, J 3)
Hudson Bay, 105, (122, D 11)
Manchurian, (232, L 4)
Orinoco, 128, (126, B 2)
Parana, 129, (126)
Siam, (232, J 7)
Southern and Eastern (Asia), 233
Turan, 231, (232, D4)
Lumber, see Forests
Luxemburg, lQks'6m-bflrg, 179,
(182-183, K4)
Luzon, loo-zOn', 92, (93, C 2)
Lynn, lln, 9, (13, E 6)
Lyon, l6-6n', 185, (182-183, 3 6)
Mackenzie, District of, ma-kSn'zI,
108, (107, C 3)
Mackenzie River, 100, (107, B 3)
Macon, ma'kyn, 22, (23, F 3)
Madagascar, mad-g-gas'kar, 228,
(227, H 7)
Madeira Island, m^-de'ra, 229, (227,
Bl)
Madeira River, 130, (126, C 3)
Madison, madl-sun, 44, (45, C 3)
Madras, ma-dras''i 253, (250, G 7)
Madrid, Spain, ma-drld', 205, (208-
209, C 2); (U."S. city, mSd'rid)
Magdeburg, niag-de-lxJorK, 192,(i*;?-
183, M 2)
Maine, 12, {13, F 4)
Mainz, mints, 192, (182-183,1^ A)
Malakka Str., m^-lak'^, 261, (232,
J 8)
Malay States, m^-la', 251, (250, J 8)
Malm5, nialm'Q, 173, (171, 0 4)
Malta, mortg, 168, (208-209, F 3)
Manios, nia-na'6s, 132, (135, D 3)
Manchester, Eng., man'chgs-tgr,
166, (171, F 5)
Manchester, N. H., 6, 8, (13, D 6)
Manchuria, man-cli6o'rg-9, 244, (250,
L4)
Manchurian Lowlands, (232, L 4)
Manila, ma-nll'a, 94, (93, C 3)
Manitoba, man-i-tO'ba, 108, (i07, E4)
Maritime Provinces, mSrl-tlm, lOS
XIV
INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS
Marmora, Sea of, mar'niQ-ra, 215,
(161, L 7)
Marseille, mar-sal', 185, (1S2-183,
J 7)
Marthas Vineyard, mar'thaz, 10,
(2-S, M 2)
Maryland, 34, {35, D 4)
Maskat, mSs-kat', 238, (250, B 6)
Massachusetts, m3s-a-chu'sgts, 12,
(13, C 6)
Matadi, ma-tii'de, 229, (227, E 5)
Mauna Kea, mow'na ka'a, 87, (84,
F4)
Mauna Loa, l5a', 87, (S4, F 4)
Mazatlan, raa-sa-tlan', 113, (118-
119, C 3)
Meat-packiiiK, 30, 50, 152, 154
Medina, m4-de'na, 238, (250, B 6)
Mediterranean Lands, m6d-i-tgr-ra'-
ne-an, 203, (207-210)
Mediterranean Sea, 185, 203, (161)
Mekka, mgk'a, 238, (250, C «)
Melbourne, mgl'burn, 262, (260, E 5)
Memel River, ma'mgl, 196, (182-183,
Tl)
Memphis, mgm'fis, 22, (23, B 2)
Mendoza, m6n-do'sa, 151, (145, C 6)
Meridian, m^-ridl-an, 22, (23, C 3)
Meridians, 269
Merrimack River, m6rl-mak, 8, (13,
D5)
Mesa Verde Nat. Park, ma'sa vfir'dg,
65, App., V, (2-3, E 3)
Meseta, m6-sa't5, 204
Mesopotamia, ra6s-6-p6-ta'mi-a, 236,
(250, C 5)
Mexican Plateau, m6ks'I-kSn, 111,
(122, G 9)
Mexico, m6ks'I-k5, 111, (118-119)
Mexico City, 113, (118-119, E 4)
Michigan, mish'i-gan, 44, (45, D 1)
Michigan, Lake, 41, 52, (45, D 3)
Middle Atlantic States, 34, (35)
Milan, mTl'an or ml-lan', 211, (208-
209, E 1)
Millinocket, mil-I-n6k'6t, 9, (13, G 3)
Milwaukee, mll-wa'ke, 44, 47, (45,
D3)
Mindanao, m6n-da-na'0, 92, (93, D 7)
Minerals and mining, 59, 70, 131,
141, 146, 204, 286
Minneapolis, min-g-ap'g-lis, 47, 48,
(55, G 3)
Minnesota, min-e-so'ta, 54, (55, F 3)
Mississippi, mls-Is-Ipl, 22, (23, C 3)
Mississippi Delta, 19, (25, K 5)
Mississippi River, 42, 296, (2-3, H 4)
Mississippi Valley, 17, 39, 51
Missoula, ml-z66'la, 72, (73, H 2)
Missouri, mls-oo'rl, 54, (55, G 6)
Missouri River, 42, 130, (2-3, G 2)
Misti, Mt., mSs'te, 140, (12G, B 4)
Mitchell, Mt., (2-3, K3)
Mobile, m6-bel', 22, (23, C 4)
Mohawk River, mo'hak, 31, (2-3,
M2)
Mohawk Valley, 30, 52
Mokha, mO'ka, 238, (250, C 7)
MoUendo, mOl-yen'dQ, 140, 142,
(135, B 4)
Monaco, mon'a-ko, (208-209, E 2)
Monastir, mSn-as-ter', 213, (208-209,
H2)
Mongolia, m6n-go-lI-a, 244, (250)
Mongolia, Plateau of, 233, (232,
K4)
Mongolian race, 157, 249
Monongahela River, mo-n6n-ga-h6'la,
32, 33, (2-S, L 3)
Monrovia, m6n-r5'vl-a, 229, (227, B 4)
Monsoons, mon-.soons', 234, 272
Montana, mon-ta'na, 72, (73, K 2)
Mont Blanc, mos Won', or mont
blank, App., iv, (161. G 6)
Monterey, mon-tg-ra', 113. (118-119.
D2)
Montevideo, m5n-t$-vId-^'5, 154,
(145, D 6)
Montgomery, mQnt-gum'er-I, 22, (23,
D3)
Montreal, mSnt-rg-al', 105, (107, G 5)
Montrose, mon-trOz', 77, (76, K 2)
Moon, 276
Moraine, m6-ran', 10, 170
Morocco, m6-r6k'o, 225, (227, C 1)
Moscow, mos'ko, 199, (201, G 3)
Mount McKinley Nat. Park, App., v,
(122, C 4)
Mount Rainier Nat.Park, 79, App., V,
(73, D 2)
Mountains, 10, 63, 75, App., iv ; see
also mountain names
Mozambique, mo-zam-bek, 229, (227,
G7)
Mukden, m«ik-d6n', 244, (250, L 4)
Munich, mii'nik, 191, (182-183, M 4)
Muskogee, mus-ko'gd, 24, (25, G 2)
Nagasaki, na'ga-.sa'ke, 248, (250, L 5)
Nantes, nants, 185, (182-183, F 5)
Nantucket, nan-tuk'et, 10, (13, E 7)
Naples, na'plz, 211, (208-209, F 2)
Nashua, nash u-a, 8, (13, D 6)
Na.shville, nash'vil, 22, (23, D 1)
Natal, na-tal', 224, (227, G 7)
National forests, 5, 29, 61
National parks, 63, 79, App., v, (73,
76) ; see also under national park
names
Natural gas, 27, 40, 287
Natural regions
Africa, 220, (218)
Asia, 231, 240, 246, 252, (232)
Australia, 257, (258)
Europe, 158, (161)
North America, 1-81, 85, 103, 111,
121, (122)
South America, 127, (126)
United States, 1, 5, 14, 26, 38, 39,
53, 59, 65, 70, (2-3)
Natural resources
Africa, 221
Asia, 243, 246, 253
Au.stralia, 257
Europe, 103 ; see also under differ-
ent countries
North America, 121 ; see also under
United States
South America, 125 ; see also under
different countries
United State.s, 1, 99, 100, 278 ; see
also under different natural
regions
Nebraska, ng-bras'ka, 54, (55, D 5)
Negroes, 114, 217, 225, 228
Nepal, na-pal', 254, (250, G 6)
Netherlands, ngth'gr-lantlz, 176, (171,
K6)
Nevada, ng-va'da, 77, (76, E 2)
Newark, iia'ark,"30, 34, (35, E 3)
New Bedford, bfid'ferd, 8, (13, E 7)
New Brunswick, brunz'wlk, 103,
(107, II 5)
New England States, 12, (IS)
Newfoundland, nu'fund-land, 110,
(107, J 5)
New Guinea, gin'e, 262, (260, E 2)
New Hampshire, hamp'shir, 12, (13,
D5)
New Haven, ha'v'n, 8, (13, C 7)
New Jersey, j5r'zi, 34, (35, E 4)
New Mexico, 77, (76, K 4)
New Orleans, 6r'lg-anz, 19, (25, J 5)
New South WaleSj^walz, 257, 261,
(260, E 5)
New York, State of, 34, (35, D 2)
New York City, 30, (35, F 3)
New Zealand, ze'land, 263, (260,
H6)
Niagara Falls, nl-Sg'a-ra, 39, 41, 42,
(3.5, C 2)
Niagara River, 41, (35, C 2)
Nicaragua, ne-ka-ra'gwa, 114, (118-
119, G 5)
Nice, ngs, 185, (182-183, K 7)
Nickel, 105
Niemen River, ne'ragn, 196, (161,
K5)
Niger River, ni'jer, (218, D 3)
Nigeria, ni-je'ri-a, 222, (227, D 4)
Nile River, nil, 223, (218, G 2)
Nitrate, ni'trat, 144, 146, 147
Nizhnii Novgorod, nyizh'ny^ nOv'go-
rot, 200, (201, H 3)
Norfolk, nor'fpk, 34, (35, D 5)
Norrkoping, n6r'chu-ping, 173, (201,
C3)
North America, 1, 121, (122)
Climate, see under United States
Life, 121, 123
Natural regions, 121, (122)
Natural resources, 121 ; see also
under United States
Population, App., viii. (124)
Rainfall, (124)
North Carolina, 22, (23, H 2)
North Dakota, da-ko'ta, 54, (55, C 2)
North Island, 263, (260, H 5)
North Pole, 266
North Sea, 189, (161, F 4)
Northwestern States, 72, (73)
Norway, nor'wa, 170, (201, A 2)
Norwich, nor'wTch, 9, (13, C 7)
Nova Scotia, nO'va sk5'shl-a, 103,
(107, H 5) "
Oahu, 0-a'ho6, 87, (84, C 2)
Oakland, Ok'land, 77, (76, B 3)
Oases, 6-a'sez, 220, 254
Ob River, 5b, 240, (232, E 2)
Ocean currents, 272, (275)
Oceans, App., v ; see also under ocean
names
Oder River, O'dgr, 189, (161, 3 5)
Odessa, 0-d6s'sa, 202, (201, F 5)
Ogden, og'dgn, 68, 77, (76, H 1)
Ohio, 6-hi'o, 44, (45, F 4)
Ohio River, 42, (2-3, J 3)
Oil, see Petroleum
Oklahoma, 6k-la-h5'ma, 24, (25, F 2)
Oklahoma City, 24, (2~5, F 2)
Omaha, O'ma-hiv, 48, 54, (5,5, E 5)
Oman, O-maii', 238, (250, D 6)
Omsk, omsk, 241, (250, F 3)
Ontario, 6n-ta'rI-o, 105, (107, F 5)
Ontario, Lake, 41, (35, D 2)
Oporto, 6-p6r't<5o, 206, (208-209, B 2)
Orange Free State, 224, (227, F 7)
Oregon, or'g-gon, 72, (73, D 4)
Orinoco Lowiand.s, 128, (126, B 2)
Orinoco River, 5-rI-no'ko, 137, (126,
C 2)
Orizaba, Mt., 6-r6-tha'ba, 111, (118-
119, E 4)
Orleans, 6r-la-6Ns', 185, (182-183,
G5)
Oruro, 6-roo'r6, 143, (135, C 4)
Osaka, o-za'ka, 248, (250, M 5)
Oshkosh, osh'kosh, 44, (45, C 2)
Ottawa, 6t'ta-wa, 106, (107, G 5)
Ouachita Mts., wdshl-ta, 38, (2-3,
H4)
Ouray, oo-ra', 60, (76, K 2)
Ozark Plateau, O'zark, 38, (2-3,
H3)
Pacific Islands, pa-slflk, 264, (260)
Pacific Mts. and Lowlands, 70
See Cascade Mts.
Coa.st Ranges (U. S.)
Puget Trough
Sierra Nevada (U.S.)
Valley of California
Pacific Ocean, 273, App., v (275)
Paita, pi'ta, 140, (135, A 3)
Palermo, pa-ler'mo, 211, (208-209,
Palestine, pal'es-tin, 236, (237, D 4)
Pamir, pa-mer', 231, (232, F 5)
Pampa, pam'pa, 149, (126, C 6)
Panama, pan-a-ma', 114, (118-119,
H6)
Panama Canal, 88, 89, (118-119, J 6)
Panama Canal Zone, 88
Paper manufacturing, 9, 172, 197,
248
Papua, pa'poo-a, see New Guinea
Para, pa^ra', see Belem
Paraguay, par-ra^gwl', 152, (145,
D5)
Paraguay River, 162, (126, D 5)
Paramaribo, par-a-mar'I-bo, 136,
(135, D 2)
Parana Lowlands, pa-ra-na', 129,
(126)
Parana River, 162, (126, D 6)
Paris, par'Is, 184, 185, (182-183, H 4)
Paris Basin, 180, 181, (161, F 6)
Pasadena, pSs-a-de'na, 78, (76, D 4)
Patagonia, pat^a-go'nl-a, 150, (126,
C7)
Paterson, N.J., pat'gr-spn, 299, (35,
E3)
Pawtucket, pa-tuk'gt, 9, (13, D 7)
Peking, pe-king', 243, (250, K 4)
Pennine Mts., p6n'mn, 166, (161,
E5)
Pennsylvania, p6n-sll-va'nl-a, 84, (35,
D3)
People
Africa, 217, 219, 228, (230)
Asia, 231, 235, 252, (256)
Australia, 257, 263. (265)
Black race, 114, 125, 217, 225, 228
Brown race, 264
Europe, 157, 172, 187, 203, (216)
North America, 65, 83, 114, (82,
124)
Philippine Islands, 92
South America, 125, 130, 144, 150,
(156)
West Indies, 90, 117
White race, 157, 231, 235, 252
Yellow race, 157, 217, 246 ; see also
wvder race names
Peoria, pe-o'ri-a, 44, (45, C 4)
Perm, perm, 200, (201, L 3)
Pernanibuco, p6r-nam-bod'ko, see
Recife
Persia, pfir'sha, 238, (250, D 5)
Persian Gulf, 238, (232, D 6)
Perth, pgrth, 201, 262, (260, B 5)
Peru, pe-roo', 140, (135, B 4)
Peru, Plateau of, (126, B 4)
Petrograd, pyfifrp-grat, 199, (201,
F3)
Petroleum, po-tro'le-um, 16, 27, 40,
74, 200, 287
Philadelphia, fll-a-d61'fi-a, 17, 31, 32,
299, (35, E 4)
Philippine Islands, fll'Ip-in, 92, (93}
Philippopolis, fil-ip-6p'6-lls, 214,
(208-209, H 2)
Phoenix, fe'niks, 77, (76, G 5)
Piedmont Belt, pgd'mont, 18, 21, 36,
(2-3)
Pierre, per, 54, (55, C 3)
Pilsen, pil'zen, 196, (182-183, N 4)
Pineapples, 87, 90
Piraius, pi-re'us, 214, (208-209, H 3)
Pittsburgh, pfts'bfirg, 29, 32, 33, (35,
C3)
Placer mining, plSs'gr, 70
Plains
Arctic Coastal, 86, (122, B 4)
Atlantic Coastal, 14, (2-3, K 4)
Central (Europe), 158, (161)
Central (North America), 39, 105,
(2-3, H 2, 122, E 10)
China, (232, K 5)
Ganges, (232, G 6)
Great (Australia), 257, (258, D 4)
Great (North America), 53, 106,
(2-3, 122)
Gulf Coastal, 14, 111, (2-3, G 4)
Hungary, 162, 194, (161, J 6)
Indus, 233, (232, F 5)
Nullarbor (Australia), (258, C 5)
Po, 207, (161, G 6)
Siberian, 231, (232, E 2)
Southern (Europe), 162
Planets, 276
INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS
XV
Plata River, plft'ta, 161, 154, {126, D«)
Anatolia, 235, {233, B 5)
Arabia, 233, {3S3, C 6)
Barka, {SIS, F 1)
Boliemia, {J61, H 6)
Bolivia, 142, {l;i6, C 4)
Central (Brazil), 131, {1^6, D 4)
Central (Europe), 158, {161, F 6)
Colorado, 67, {2-3, D 3)
Columbia, 66, {S-3, C 1)
East Turkestan, 233, {232, G 4)
Iberian, 204, {161, D 7)
India, 233, {232, F 6)
Iran, 233, {2S2, D 5)
Mexican, 111, {122, G 9)
Mongolia, 233, {232, K 4)
Northern Interior (Canada), {122,
C6)
Ozark, 38, {2-3, H 3)
Peru, 141, {126, B 4)
South African, 220, {21S, E 6)
Tibet, 233, 245, {232, G 5)
Transylvania, {161, K 6)
Western (Argentina), {126, C 7)
Western (Australia), 259, {2oS)
Yukon, 86, {122, C i)
Platiniun, piat-I-num, 138, 198
Piatt Nat. Park, plst, App., v
Plymouth, pllm'uth, 7, {13, E 7)
Po, Plain of the, 210, {161, G 6)
Po Kiver, 207. {161, G 7)
Pocatello, p6-ka-t61'o, 72, {73, H 4)
Point Barrow, b5r'6, 86, {122, B 4)
Poland, 196, {201, C 4)
Polar Kegioas, 266
Ponce, pOn'sa, 91, {IIS-IID, C 6)
Popocatepetl, Mt., p6-p6-kat-a-pa'tl,
111, {118-119, E4)
Population, App., viii-x ; see eilso
under different countries
Portage, pOr'tAj, 46, {43, C 3)
Port au Prince, p5rt-0-prI:is', 120.
{119, K 4)
Portland, Me., pOrt'l^nd, 8, (73, E 5)
Portland, Oregon, 78, {73, C 3)
Porto Kico, p«r'tO rg'kO, 90, (118-
119, L4)
Portsmouth, pOrtn'mOth, 8, {IS, E 5)
Portugal, pOr'tQ-g^l, 206, (20S-209,
B8)
Portuguese Guinea, pOr'tQ-gfiz, 220,
{227, B 8)
Potomac Kiver, pO-tiS'mgk, 82, 101,
(i-5, L3)
Potosi, p6-t0-8l', 143, {ISS, C 4)
Pottery, p6t'Sr-I, 16, 166, 176
Prague, prig, 195, {182-133, OZ)
Precioiuj stones, 254
Emeralds, 138
Diamonds, 131, 221, 228
Prince Edward Island, 103, {107,
H5)
Proctor, prak't«r, 9, {IS, B 5)
Providence, pr6v1-«len8, 8, {13, D 7)
Provincetown, prdvlns-towii, 17, {IS,
E6)
Provo. prO'vO, 68, {76, H 1)
Puebla, pweb'lS, 113, {11S-119,'E4)
Pueblo, pweb'lO, 57, (76, L 2)
Puerto Colombia, pwgr'tO, 138, {135,
Bl)
Puget Sound, pO'jgt, 74, '{73, C 2)
Puget Trough, {2-3, B 1)
Punta Arenas, poon'ta a-r3'nas, 147,
{145, B 8)
Pyrenees Mts., plr'g-nSz, 160, 180,
{161, E 7)
Quebec, kwe-b«k', 104, {107, G 4)
Quebec, City of, 104, {107, G 5)
Quebracho, kft-bra'chft, 148
Queensland, 262, {260, E 4)
Quito, ke'tO, 139, {135, B 3)
Racine, r^-sSn', 44, {45, D 3)
Rainfall, 6, 29, 53, 65, 273, {275);
see also under different countries
Rainier, Mt., ra-nfir', 78, 81, {2-3,
Bl)
Rapids, 10
Rea<ling, rgdlng, 33, (5.5, E 3)
Recife, rft-sefa, 132, {135, F 3)
Red River, 106, {122, E 10)
Regina, r*-jl'na, 108, {107, D 4)
Reindeer, 83, f58, 240
Reno, re'nO, 68, 77, (76, D 2)
Reval, ra'val, 197, {201, D 3)
Reykjavik, ra'ky^-vgk, 175, {107,
M3)
Rhine River, rin, 175, 189, 191, {161,
G5)
Rhode Island, rOd, 12, {13, Dl)
Rhodesia, ro-de'zhl-a ; -zl-a, 223,
{227, F 6)
Rice, 15, 94, 24.3, 248, 279
Richmond, rich'mijnd, 17, 34, {35,
D5)
Riga, re'ga, 197, {201,J0 3)
Rio Grande, {2-3, G 5)
Rio de Janeiro, ja^ua'rO, 132, 133,
{145, E 5)
Rio Muni, re'O moo'ng, 205, {227,
E4)
Rio de Oro, reo da O'rO, 229, {227,
B2)
Rivers, App., iv-v
Allegheny, 32, {33, C 3)
Amazon, 130, {126, D 3)
Amur, 241, 243, {232, M 4)
Androscoggin, 8, {13, E 4)
Arkansas, 38, {25, J 2)
Brahmaputra, 253, {232, H 6)
Chagre.s, 88, 89
Clyde, 165. 168, {171, E 4)
Colorado, 67, {76, H 3)
Columbia, 66, 81, {73. E 3)
Connecticut, 6, {13, C 6)
Danube, 162, 194, 213, {161, L 7)
Delaware, 32, {So, E 3)
Dnieper, 198, (IGl, M 6)
Don, 198, {161. O 6)
Dvina, 108, {161, 0 3)
Ebro, 204, {20S-209, C 2)
Elbe, 189, 192, {UU, H 6)
Euphrates, 236, {232, B 5)
Ganges, 2.'>3, {232, G 6)
Hudson, 30, 31, {35, F 3)
Hwang, 243, (232, K 5)
Illinois, 52, (43, B 4)
Indus, 253, (232, E 0)
James, 17, (33, C 5)
Jordan, 236, (208-209, L 4)
Kongo, 229, (218, E 5)
Lena, 240, (232, J 3)
Loire, 185, (161, F6)
Mackenzie, 106, (107, B 3)
Madeira, 130, (126, C 3)
Meniel (Niemen), 196, (161, K 5)
Merrimack, 8, (IS, D 5)
Missis.sippi, 42, 130, 296, (2-3, H 4)
Missouri, 42, 130, (2-S, G 2)
Mohawk, 81, (35, E 2)
Monongahela, 32, 33, (35, B 4)
Niagara, 41, (35, C 2)
Niemen, 196, (161, K 5)
Niger, (218, D 3)
Nile, 223, (218, G 2)
Ob, 240, (232, E 2)
Oder, 189, (161, J 5)
Ohio, 42, (2-3, J 3)
Orinoco, 137, (126, C 2)
Plata, 151, 154, (i^6, D6)
Po, 207, (161, G 7)
Potomac, 82, 101, (35, D 4)
Red, 106, (122, E 10)
Rhine, 175, 189, 191, (161, G 5)
Rio Grande, (2-3, G 5)
St. Lawrence, 52, 104, (107, H 6)
St. Marys, 41, (4.5, E 1)
SSo Francisco, 131, 133, (126, E4)
Seine, 184, (161, F 6)
81, 244, (232, J 6)
Snake, 66, (73, E 2)
Susquehanna, 33, (35, D 3)
Thames, 166, (171, G 6)
Tigris, 236, (232, C 5)
Uruguay, (126, D6)
VLstula, 196, (161, J 6)
Volga, 198, (161, P 5)
Weser, 189, (161, G 6)
White, 38, (25, J 2)
Yangtze, 242, (232, J 6)
Yenisei, 240, (232, H 3)
Yukon, 80, 109, (84, G 2)
Zambezi, 219, (218, G 6)
Rivers, navigable, 15, 17, 42, 130,
184, 296 ; ."tee also economic maps
Rochester, r6oh'es-t§r, 34, (33, D 2)
Rockford, 44, (45, C 3)
Rock Springs, 72, (73, K 5)
Rocky Mountain Nat. Park, 63,
App., v
Rocky Mts., 59, (^-5, 122)
Rome, 211, (208-209, F 2)
Rosario, rO-sa're-O, 151, (145, C 6)
Rotterdam, rot'er-dam, 177, (171,
K6)
Rouen, rod'ox', 185, (182-183, G 4) '
Rubber, 131, 221, 299
Rubber manufacture, 300
Rumania, roo-ma'ni-a, 202, (208-209,
HI)
Rumford Falls, rfim'f frd, 9, (13, E 4)
Rus-sia, riish'a, 198, (201)
Rutland, riit'land, 9, (13, C 5)
Ruwenzori, Mt., roo-w6n-zO'r4, 220,
(218, F 4)
Saco, sales, 8, (13, E 5)
Sacramento, sak-rg-mfin'tO, 78, (76,
C2)
Saginaw, sag^-na, 44, (43, F 3)
Sahara Desert, sa-ha'ra, 220, (218,
C2)
Saint Croix Island, sitnt kroi', 91,
(118-119, M 4)
Saint Elias, Mt., sant ^-U'gs, 85,
(122, C 6)
Saint Etienne, saN-ta-tyCn', 184,
(182-183, J 6)
Saint Francis Mountains, sftnt fran'-
sls, 38, (2-3, 113)
Saint John, New lirunswick, 108,
(107, H 5)
Saint John Island, 91, (118-119, F 6)
Saint Johns, Newfoundland, 110,
(107, J 5)
Saint Joseph, 64, (35, F 6)
Saint Lawrence River, 52, 104, (107,
H5)
Saint Louis, loiils, or l6o% 48, 54,
(■55, H 6)
Saint Marys River, 41, (43, E 1)
Saint Michael, s4nt mrkgl, 86, (84,
F2)
Saint Paul, 48, (55, G3)
Saint Quentin, san kax-tax', 181,
(182-183, H4)
Saint Thomas Island, 91, (118-119,
M4)
Salem, sa'lgm, 9, (13, E6)
Salmon, 74, 75, 297
Salt, 27, 41, 68, 197
Salt Lake City, 68, (76, H 1)
Salvador, sal-va-dOr', 114, (118-119,
G5)
Samara, sa-ma'ra, 200, (201, K 4)
Samarkand, sam-Ar-kant', 239, (230,
E5)
Samoan Islands, sfi-mO'an, 95, (93,
El)
San Antonio, san an-tO'nI-6, 24, (25,
E6)
San Francisco, san fran-sls'ko, 77,
78, 79, (76, B3)
San Jose, ht-nS,', 78, (76, C 3)
San Juan, hOo-an', 91, (118-1 19. Dli)
San Luis Potosi, san liio-es' p6-t6-s6',
113, (118-119, D3)
San Marino, ma-r«'n6, 212, (208-
209, F 2)
Sante Marta, m&r'tS, 138, (135,
Bl)
Santiago, Chile, san-te-a'g6, 146,
(145, B 6)
Santiago, Cuba, 116, (118-119, 3 \)
Santo Domingo, san'to dd-mbi'gO,
120, (118-119, L4)
Santos, sSn'toosh, 132, (145, E 5)
Sao Francisco River, 131, 133, (126,
E4)
Sao Paulo, soujj pou'loo, 132, (146,
E6)
Sao Salvador, sal-va-dOr', 132, (1S5,
F4)
Sardinia, sar-dlnl-a, 207, (208-209,
E2)
Sarre Basin, sar, 186, (182-183, K4)
Saskatchewan, sa.s-kach'g-wan, 108,
(107, D 4)
Savanna,^S5-van'a, 129, 221
Savannah, Georgia, 18, 22, (23, G3)
Sayan Mountains, sa-yan', (232, H 3)
Scandinavian Peninsula, skan-dl-
na'vl-an, 170, (161, H 8)
Schenectady, skg-ufik'ta-de, 31, (S5,
F2)
Scottish Highlands, (161, D 4)
Scranton, skran't^n, 29, 33, (35, E 3)
Seas
Adriatic, 162, (161, H 7)
^ean, 235, (161, K 8)
Aral, (2S2, D 4)
Baltic, 172, 190, (/6/, J4)
Bering, 80, (122, C 2)
Black, 198, (161, M 7)
Caribbean, (122, H 12)'
Caspian, 198, (161, P 7)
Dead, 236, (232, B 5)
Marmora, 215, (161, L 7)
Mediterranean, 185, 203, (161)
North, 189, (161, F 4)
Red, (232, B 6)
AVhite, 199, (161, N2)
Seasons, 270
Seattle, se-at"l, 78, (75, C 2)
Seine, san, 184, (161, F6)
Seoul, sa-ool, (250, L5); «ee also
Keijo
Sequoia National Park, s^-kwoi'9,
App., V
Seville, s6v'Il or sS-vIl', 205, (208-209,
B3)
Seward, sQ'ard, 86, (84, 3 2)
Shanghai, shang-ha'I, 244, (250, L 6)
Shasta, Mt., sluls'ta, 80, (2-S, B 2)
Sheep, 56, 60, 154, 166, 204, 257, 263,
283, App., iv
Sheffield, shef'feld, 167, (171 , G 5)
Sheridan, shfirl-d^n, 57, (73, L 8)
Shipbuilding, 26, 165, 168, 173
Shoe manufacturing, 8, 9, 33
Si River, s€, 244, (232, 3 6)
Siam, sl-am', 249, 2151, (250, 3 7)
Siani, Lowlands of, (232, 3 7)
Siberia, sl-be'rl-^, 240, (250)
Siberian Plains, (232, E 2)
Sicily, slsa-tt, 207, 211, (208-209,V S)
Siena, syg'na, 211, (208-209, F2)
Sierra Leone, sl-6r'a \t-6'ui, 222,
(227, B 4)
Sierra Madre, s€-6r'9 ma'dra
Eastern, 111, (122, G 9)
Southern, (122, H 10)
Western, 111, (122, F8)
Sierra Nevada, Spain, 160, 204, (161,
E8)
Sierra Nevada, U. S., 79, (2-S, B 8)
Sikhim, sikim, 252
Silk, 184, 239, 248
Silk manufacture, 184, 185, 211, 244,
248, 299
Silver, 83, 141, 293
Silverton, sH'ver-t^n, 60, (76, K 8)
Singapore, sln'g^-pOr', 251, (250, 3 8)
Sinkiang, sin-kyiing', 245, (247, B 4)
Sioux City, soo, 54, (.55, E 4)
Sioux Falls, 64, (55, E 4)
Sisal hemp, s^-sSI' or sis'gl, 117
Skagway, skag'wft, 109, (84, L 8)
Smyrna, smflr'ng, 286, {S50, A 6)
XVI
INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS
Snake River, 66, (B-S, C 1)
Sofia, so-f6'a, 214, {208-209, H 2)
Soils, 28, 40, 57, 278
Solar system, 276
Somaliland, s6-ma'l^-land
British, 223, (227, H 4)
French, 228, (227, H 3)
Italian, 229, (227, H 4)
Sonoran Desert, s6-nC'ran, 111, i
F8)
Soo Canals, 41, (45, E 1)
South Africa, Union of, 222, 224,
(227, F 8)
SouthAfricanPlateaus,220,(ai5,E6)
South America, 125, (126, 135, 146,
156)
Animals, 128
Climate, 127
Government, 125
Natural regions, 127, (126)
Natural resources, 125
Physical features, 125
Population, (156)
Rainfall, (156)
South Australia, 262, (260, D 4)
South Australian Highlands, 257,
(258, D 5)
South Bend, 43, (45, D 4)
South Carolina, 22, (2S, G 3)
South Dakota, 54, (55, C 3)
Southern Mountains and Plateaus
(Europe), 160
Southern states (eastern), 22, (23)
Southern states, (western), 24, (25)
South Island, 263, (260, G 6)
South Manchester, 9, (13, C 7)
South Pole, 266, (opp. 266)
Southwest Africa, 228, (227, E 6)
Southwestern states, 77, (76)
Spain, 204, (208-209, C 2)
Spanish Guinea, see Rio Muni
Spanish possessions, 205, 229
Spokane, spO-kSn', 68, (73, F 2)
Springfield, 111., 47, (45, C 5)
Springfield, Mass., 9, (13, C 6)
Springfield, Mo., 38, (55, G 7)
Stanley Falls, 229, (218, F 5)
Stanovoi Mts., sta-n5-voi', (332, "blZ)
Stars, 276
Steel, see Iron
Steppes, steps, 159, 190, 240
Stettin, sht6-ten', 189, 192, (182-183,
0 2)
Stewart Island, stu'grt, 263, (260, G 6)
Stockholm, stok'holm, 173, (201, C 3)
Stockton, stok'tun, 78, (76, C 3)
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, bab-61-
man'dgb or b5b-€l-man'd6b, 217,
(232, C 7)
Strait of Belleisle, b61-Il', 110, (107,
J 4)
Straitof Gibraltar, 205,217, (i6i,D8)
Strait of Magellan, ma-j61'an, 127,
(126, C 8)
Strait of Messina, m6s-s6'na, 207,
(161, J 8)
Straits Settlements, 251, (250, J 8)
Strasbourg, strSz'bfirg, 186, (132-
183, K 4)
Sucre, soo'krg, 143, (135, C 4)
Sudan, soo-dan', 221, (S18, C 3)
Sudbury, Ont., sfid'bgr-I, 105, (107,
F5)
Suez Canal, s6o-6z', 217, (218, G 1)
Sugar, 15, 90, 116, 132, 190, 279
Sully Hills Nat. Park, App., v
Sulphur, 15, 211
Sun, 270
Superior, 44, 47, (45, A 1)
Superior, Lake, 41, 52, (45, D 1)
Susquehanna River, sQs-kwg-hSn'a,
33, (35, D 3)
Sweden, swe'dgn, 170, (201)
Swine, 48, 49, 243, 283
Switzerland, swit'zgr-l^nd, 187,
(182-183, K 5)
Sydney, Australia, sid'nl, 262, (260,
F5)
Sydney, Canada, 103, 104, (107, H 5)
Syracuse, sir'a-kQs, 31, (35, D 2)
Syria, sir't-a, 286, (250, B 5)
Tacoma, ta^ko'mii, 78, (73, C 2)
Taiga, ti'ga, 231, 240
Tampa, tSm'pa, 18, 22, (23, F6)
Tampico, tam-p6'k5, 113, (118-119,
■ E3)
Tanganyika Territory, tan-gan-ye'-
ka, 228, (227, G 5)
Tangier, tSn-jer', 226, (227, C 1)
Tashkend, tash-kgnt', 239, (250, E 4)
Tasmania, taz-ma'nl-a,262, (260, E 6)
Taurus Mts., ta'riis, \232, B 5)
Tea, 243, 248, 254, 279
Teheran, te-h'riin', 239, (250, D 5)
Telluride, t61'4-rid, 60, 121, (76, K 8)
Temperate zone, 270
Temperature, 66, 272, 274, (275)
Tennessee, t6n-nes-se', 22, (23, D 2)
Terre Haute, tfir-g hot', 44, (45, D 5)
Texas, tfik'sas, 24, (35, E 4)
Thames River, t6mz, 165, (171, G 6)
Tibesti Mts., tl-b6s't*, 220, (318, E 2)
Tibet, ti-b6t' or tlb'6t, 245, (250, G 5)
Tibet, Plateau of, 233, 245, (232, G 5)
Tien Shan Mts., te-iin' shan, (232, F 4)
Tientsin, te-6n'tsen, 244, (250, K 5)
Tierra del Fuego, te-6r'ra d61 f wa'go,
150, (145, C 8)
Tigris River, ti'grls, 236, (232, C 5)
Timan Range, tg-man', 198, (i6i, P2)
Tin, 142, 251
Titicaca Lake, tit-6-ka'ka, 128, 142,
(126, C 4)
Tobacco, 5, 48, 90, 116, 205
Togo, tO'gO, 228, (227, D 4)
Tokyo, t5'k6-o, 248, (250, M 5)
Toledo, Ohio, to-l6'd5, 44, 47, (45,F4)
Toledo, Spain, to-la'tho, 204, (208-
209, C 3)
Tomsk, tomsk, 241, (250, G3)
Tonopah, to'no-pa, 68, (76, E 2)
Tornadoes, tor-na'doz, 53
Toronto, to-r6n't5, 106, (107, G 5)
Torrid zone, 270
Toulon, too 'Ion, 185, (182-183, J 7)
Toulouse, too-looz', 185, (182-183,
G7)
Tours, toor, 185, (183-183, G 5)
Trade winds, 259, 272
Transcaspia, trSns-kas'pi-a, 239,
(250, D 4)
Transportation, 300
Canal, 31, 41, 89, 189, 198
Internationalized waterways, 190,
196, 215
Lake, 41, 47, 100
Ocean, 102, 157, App., Plate B
Railroad, 48, 90, 99, 125, 302
River, 42, 167, 181, 189, 193, 198
Transvaal, trans-val', 224, (227,
F7)
Transylvania, Plateau of, trSn'sIl-
va'nl-a, (161, K 6)
Trebizond, tr6b'I-z6nd, (250, B 4)
Trenton, trgn'tun, 17, (35, E 3)
Trieste, tr^-6st' or tre-6st'a, 212,
(308-209, F 1)
Trinidad, Colorado, trin-i-dM', 57,
(76, L 3)
Trinidad Island, 120, (126, C 1)
Tripoli, trip'o-li, 229, (227, E 1)
Tromso, troms'a, 173, (301, C 1)
Trondhjem, tron'ygm, 172, (301, B 2)
Tropics, 269
Troy, troi, 31, (35, F 2)
Tsaidam Basin, tsi'dam, (332, H 5)
Tucumdn, too'koo-man', 151, (145,
C5)
Tula, too'la, 200, (201, G 4)
Tulsa, tul'sa, 24, (25, G 1)
Tundra, toSn'dr^, 86, 103, 158, 199,
240
Tunis, tu'nis, 228, (327, D 1)
Turin, tQ'rIn, 211, (208-209, E 1)
Turan, Lowland of, 231, (232, D 4)
Turkestan, toor-kfi-stan'
Eastern or Chinese, 245, (350, G 4)
Western, 239, (250, E 4)
Turkey, 235, (250, A 6)
Turks, 157, 215, 217, 235
Tutuila, too-too-e'la, 95, App., viii,
(93, E 1)
Ukraine, uTcrSn, 202, (201, E 5)
Ulm, oolm, 191, (182-183, M 4)
United Kingdom, 164, (171)
United States, 1-82, 98, 277, (3-3,
96-97)
Climate, see under each natural
region
Commerce, 300, 302
Early settlements, 46, 47, 98
Education, 100
Government, 101
Natural regions, 1-81, (2-3)
Natural regfurces, 1, 99, 278 ; see
also under difierent natural re-
gions
Population, 98, App., viii, (82)
Possessions, 83, 102
Railroads, 102, (96-97)
Rainfall, 6, 29, 53, 65, (S3)
Westward expansion, 56, 59, 99,
(2-3)
Uplands
Brittany, 180, (161, E 6)
East Siberian, 231, (232, H 2)
Finland, (161, L 3)
Laurentian, 104, (123, D 10)
Upsala, up-sa'la, 173, (301, C 3)
Ural Mts., u'ral, 198, (161, S 3)
Urga, Oor'ga, 245, (250, J 4)
Uruguay, 6o-roo-gwi', 154, (145, D 6)
Uruguay River, (126, D 6)
Utah, u'ta or u'tjv, 77, (76, H 2)
Utica, fi'tl-ka, 31, (35, E 2)
Utrecht, u'trgkt, 177, (171, K 5)
Valdai Hills, val'dl, (161, M 4)
Valencia, va-16n'shi-a, 205, (208-209,
C3) "
Valenciennes, va-laN-sygn', 181,
(182-183, H 3)
Valley of California, 71, (3-3, B 3)
Valley of Chile, central, 140, (7^6,B 6)
Valparaiso, val-parri'so, 144, 146,
(145, B 6)
Vancouver, van-koo'ver, 108, (107,
B5)
Vancouver Island, 108, (107, B 5)
Varna, var'na, 214, (308-209, J 2)
Venezuela, vSn-g-zw6'la, 136, (135,
C2)
Venice, vgnls, 212, (308-309, F 1)
Vera Cruz, va'ra kroos', 113, (IIS-
119, E 4)
Vermont, vgr-m6nt', 12, (13, C 5)
Vesuvius, Mt., v6-su'vl-us, 207, (161,
H7)
Vicksburg, vlksOjflrg, 22, (33, B 3)
Victoria, Australia, vik-to'ri-a, 262,
(360, E 5)
Victoria, Canada, 108, (107, B 5)
Victoria, Hongkong, 244, (350, K 6)
Victoria Falls, Africa, 219, (318,
F6)
Victoria, Valley of, 257, (258, E 5)
Victorian Highlands, 257, (258, E 5)
Vicuna, vi-koon'ya, 141
Vienna, ve-6n'a, 193, (182-183, P 4)
Villa Rica, vel'ya rg'ka, 153, (145, X) 5)
Vilna, v^l'na, 197, (301, E 4)
Virginia, ver-jlnl-a, 34, (35, C 5)
Virginia City, Montana, 60, (73, 3 Z)
Virginia City, Nevada, 68, (76, D 2)
Virgin Islands, 91, (118-119, M 4)
Vistula River, vis'tu-la, 196, (161,3b)
Vladivostok, vla-dg-vos-tok', 241,
(350, M 4)
Volcanoes, v61-k5'n0z, 80, 85, 87, 95,
127, 207
Volga River, vol'ga, 198, (161, P 5)
Vosges Mts., vozh, 180, (101, G 6)
Waco, wa'ke, 24, (25, F 4)
Warsaw, war'sa, 196, (201, D 4)
Wasatch Mte., wa'sSch, 68, (3-3, D2)
Washington, wosh'Ing-t^n, 32, 101,
(35, D 4)
Washington, Mt., 10, 12, App., iv,
(73, D 4)
Washington, state of, 72, (73, E 2)
Water, 295
AVaterbury, w6'tgr-bgr-I, 9, (13, B 7)
AVaterfalls, 10, 39, 64, 68, 80, 125,
134, 219
Waterloo, Iowa, wa-t§r-l66', 54, (55,
G4)
Water-power, 5, 8, 21, 27, 42, 62,
112, 189, 295
Waterways, see Transportation
Welland Canal, wgl'and, 41, (35, C 2)
Wellington, wgl'Ing-tjjn, 263, (360,
H6)
Wenatchee, w^-nSch'*, 68, (73, D 2)
Weser River, va'zgr, 189, (161, G 5)
Westerly winds, 71, 272
Western Australia, 262, (260, B 4)
Western plateaus
Australia, 259, (358)
Canada, 108, (133)
United States, 66, (2-3)
West Indies, In'dgz, 115, (118-119)
West Virginia, 34, (35, B 4)
Wheat, 49, 106, 149, 194, 199, 211,
279, App., iv
Wheeling, West Va., hwgHng, 29,
34, (35, B 3)
Whiting, hwitlng, 40, (45, D 4)
Whitney, Mt., hwit'nT, 79, (2-3, CZ)
Wichita, wich'I-tiv, 54, (.55, E 7)
Wichita Mts., 38, (2-3, G 4)
Wilkes-Barre, wllks' bSr-I, 29, 33,
(35, E 3)
Willimantic, wll-l-man'tik, 9, (13,
C7)
Wilmington, Del., wIl'mTng-tpn, 34,
(35, E 4)
Wilmington, N. C, 22, (23, 3 2)
Wind Cave Nat. Park, App., v ■
Winds, 272
Windward Islands, wind'wgrd, 115,
(118-119, M 5)
Wine, 184, 204, 211 ; see also under
Grapes
Winnipeg, wlnl-pgg, 108, (107, E 4)
Winnipeg, Lake, 106, (107, E 4)
Wisconsin, wis-kon'sin, 44, (45, C 2)
Wool, see Sheep
Wool manufacture, 7, 9, 166, 176
AVoonsocket, woon-sok'gt, 9, (13, D 7)
Worcester, woos'ter, 9, (13, D 6)
Wyoming, wl-5'mlng, 72, (73, L 4)
Yangtze River, ySng'tzg, 242, (232,
J 6)
Yarkand, yar-kand', 245, (250, F 5)
Yellow race, see People
Yellowstone Nat. Park, 63, 64, App.,
V, (2-3, D 2)
Yenisei, ygn-g-sa'e, 240, (333, H 3)
Yokohama, yo-ko-ha'ma, 248, (250,
M5)
Yonkers, yonk'ers, 31, (35, F 3)
Yosemite Nat. Park, yS'sfim'I-te, 79,
80, App., V, (3-3, C 3)
Yucatan Peninsula, yoo-ka-tan', 111,
(132, G 11)
Yukon, yoo'kon, 109, (107, A 3)
Yukon Delta, (122, C 3)
Yukon Plateau, 86, (133, C 4)
Yukon River, 86, 109, (122, C 4)
Zambezi River, zam-ba'zg, 219, (21S,
G6)
Zinc, 38, 41, 292
Zones of altitude, 112, 114
Zones of latitude, 270
Zuider Zee, zoi'dgr za', 175, (171, K 5)
Zungarian Basin, zoon'ga-rl-an, (232,
G4)
Zurich, tsu'rik, 188, (208-209, El)
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